j:*>y;i'i*; ',wj.
i.MM,?^"^^^'^^ BRANCH.
VNiVmUY OF CALIFORNIA
UBRARY, '
^S ANGELES. CAUF.
Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2007 with funding from
IVIicrosoft Corporation
http://www.archive.org/details/casesopinionsoni02cobbiala
CASES AND OPINIONS
ox
INTERN AT JON AL L AW.
CASES AND OlMMONS
OX
INTERNATIONAL LAW
ANIJ A'ARIOIIS POINTS OF ENCJLISII LAW
CONNECTED TJ lEREAVrTII.
COLLECTJ-;!) ANIi DKiKSTED l-'liOM
EXGLrsiI AM) lORKKJX IJKPOirrs,
oil KTAL IKKTMIATS. AM)
OrilKR SOIRCKS.
WITH
NOTES CONTAIXINi; THE VIEWS OE THE TEXT-WRITEES
ON THE TOPICS EEFERREH TO, SUrPEEMEXTAKY
CxVSES, TREATIES, AND STATUTES.
PART II. A> All.
PART III. NEl IRALIT^ .
T?Y
ITTT C01^>LETT, 3LA., D.C.L. (Oxox.)^
OF TlIK rXlVERSlTV OF ^^Y1)^•];Y. ,\]:W ^Orxil WALKS.
L(JX1)()N :
ST K \ K N S AND 11 A V N K S.
l:;. in:Ll. VAJ;i), TI'AIl'I.l': V,\\l.
( V )
PIIEFAOK.
The publication of tlio iH'osciit volume has been greatly dclayi^d
owing to the uncertainty that prevailed with respect to the ratili-
cation bv Great Britain of the Declaration of London and the
International Prize Court Convention. For if it had been found
practicable, having regard to the larger national interests involved,
to accept those Conventions and to effect the necessary changes
in the domestic law, one of the results would certainly have been
to free the law on many of the topics included in this volume, of
much of its present complexity and uncertainty. Cut inasnnich
as there appeared to be no })rospect of an immediate settlement
of this C[uestion. and in view. too. of the probability that the
rules embodied in the Declaration of London will in any case
have to be taken count of in the naval wars of the future (a\ it
Avas thought advisable to proceed to ])ublication without further
delay, even at the cost of pj'esenliug tiie subject-matter, at many
l)oints, in a form far less concise and in terms less conclusive
than might otherwise have been possil)le.
The sy sterna t ic notes a\ hi eh. with llic Ivxeiirsiis. j)i'act ieally ff)i'm
a connected treatise, after the example of Volume 1. —have neces-
sarily been retained in tho present \"ohimc. These, as has already
Iteen })ointed out, A\'(>re rendei'ed iieec»ar\' by certain fundamciilal
changes - necessitat iiig. iiulecd. a conipletc I'evisioii of man\' of
the previous concejitions that had takm placid in the internal ional
svstem in the period iinnu'diatolv prreeiling the publication of
the first volume, whieli were at 1 he t inie vit\ inailr(|Uat rl \' rcllrct .hI
in the current text -b(,)ok>. oi- the ciliiions then axailaliic This
method of ti'eat nii'iit iuxoKcd, no doul)!. a departniT fruin tho
;.M A- to till' fi'a-nii- t'm- tlii~ \i''\v, -I'.' '■ ',■ . pp. '-IS."). :;s7.
vi Preface.
original purpose and scope of the work; but it Avas tliought,
nevertheless, to be admissible as a temporary expedient designed
to meet an exceptional situation.
It is in relation to matters dealt witli in llie present \ olume
that con\ention has made its o-reatest inroad on the customary
law. The effect of this has been to displace or weaken the
authority of many of the earlier cases, and to render it neeessary
or desirable to replace these often by cases and contro\ ersies which
have not been the subject of judicial or, indeed, of an\" definitive
settlement. Xevertheless, e^"en >uch cases possess a certain value,
either as showing- the trend of modern practice, or as revealing
new situations or problems and -suggesting- -or at any rate
eliciting a careful consideration of -the principles appropriate to
their solution.
The ^ubject of Maritime International i^aw Jia> l)eeii dealt with
in some detail. A translation of the text of such of tlie Hague
Conventions as touch on subjects dealt with in the present volume,
as well as of the Declaration of London, has beeii included in the
Apj^endix; where, too, will be found a Table of Ratifications
and Adhesions, which carries the>e d(A\ n to the lat(;<t practicable
date.
The authors thanks are due to Mr. J . d . (j)uinn, 15. A.. J^L.B.,
of the Parliamentary Library, Sydney, for his friendly ^ervices
in reading the proofs and preparing an Index.
I'.C.
-' lIu,i.i;i!i:iiMK." J[oi:ai;t, Tasmania.
.Jr',r.ui,u. 1913.
( vii )
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PART li.- WAR.
THE COMMENCEMENT OF WAR.
(i Till-: UUJ-STIOX OF ['RlOll NOTICE OR BErLARATION.
CONTROVERSY BETWEEN RUSSIA AND JArAN, 1904 .
Apri:xDED Note ..........
TAOE
1
6
;ii Till-: DATE AS FRO.U irillt'H THE LEGAL EFFECTS OF
M'AU ir/LL ATTACH.
THE "ELI/ A ANN"
Ari'EXDED Note ......
Gexekal Notks :
Tliu Relation or State of War
The Place of War iu tlie Iiiteruatioual S\ sifni
The Laws of War .....
AVar in irs Relation to Individuals :
'i The traditional View
ii The newer View ....
Tile C'liiiimenoenient of War :
i; The Question of Authorization
ii) The Question of Prior Notice :
(1) LTnder the Customary Law
(2) The Effect of the Hague Convi-ntion
10
II
12
14
1")
IG
17
THE ENEMY CHAEACTEE OF PERSONS.
(i; XATIOXAIATY.
SPARENHCRiill /. BANNATVXi; .
Appexdet) .Vote .....
ii^ FdMI'll
THE ■•HARMONY" ....
Appexdei) Note .....
( Iexekal Notes :
Enriny (Jliararti r . . .
■■ Naticn dit V '" and ■" DumieilL' " wv
\\'!iv •• D.iii'.lril.- "' is preferable .
>i l^nciuv C'haraetei-
2t;
29
Vlll
'inlile 1)1 Ci)itte)it-\
ENEMY TEEIUTORY.
PAGB
THK "(rERASmO" 30
Al'PhXDED ISOTK ........... 'M
Gekkral Xotks :
Enemy Territury .......... ;34
Tin-: EEEEC'T <)E WAR ON TREATIES.
THE SOCIETY FOR THE PROPAGATION OF THE GOSPEL r. NEW
HAVEN 35
Ai'P];xDED Note ............ '58
THE CASE OF THE RUSSO- DUTCH LOAN, 1854 38
Appended Note ............ 40
Gexekal Notes :
The Etter-t ,.f A\'ur ,,n Treatie.< :
(i) Opii.ion 40
(ii; Pnietice 41
TI'C Rule nf Abrojjration. and its Exceptions . . . . .42
Tlie Elieet of War on tlic Finanoial Eugasrements uf States . . 44
THE EEFECT OF AVAR ON LAW— FORAIS OF WAR-LAW.
MARAIS r. THE G. O. COMMANDING THE LINES OF COMMUNI-
CATION AND THE A.-G. OF CAPE COLONY . . . 4.i
Ai'Pended Note . ........... 47
Ctexepal Notes :
The Effect of War <hi tlie Legal Rights and Relations of Individuals . 49
Kinds of Law applied in A^'ar ........ 49
Martial Law in the Home Territory ....... .)0
M;irtial Law as applied by an Invader ...... oO
TIk' Lau> and Custiims of War ........ ol
ENEMY PERSONS AND PROPERTY FOUND WITHIN THE
TERIMTORY^ OF A P.ELLIGERENT AFTER THE OT^T-
BREAK OF WAR.
RROWN V. TIfE UNITED STATES
.Vi'PExiiED Note ....
WOLFF . OXHOLM ....
Appended Note .....
Gexe].al Notes :
Enemy Pr>r.<(in> found within tlie Terr:
i) Tlie Right of Withdrawal
ii' The Riu-ht to Remain .
I'nemy Pi-o]iei-ty :
i Puhlie I'j'oliel-t\-
(ii Private l'i'..]urty of Immedi.-i:
I'iii, l'ri\ate i'ropeity of other kin
torv of a Tk'lliijX'rent
e Use in W,
Is .
,',2
.5S
.')9
60
(■)()
61
Table of Contents. ix
THE EFFECT OF WAli ON CO^[I\ri:KClAE IIELATIONS.
'i) EXIST I Xa TRJXS.KTIOXS.
(1) SuSi'KNSIOX.
I'AGB
JANSON V. DRIEFONTEIN CONSOLIDATED MINES, LTD. . . 02
Appended Note ........... (io
(2) Abrogation.
(a) Ati in ^L'd of Kneituj.
FURTADO ' . ROGERS 07
Appended Note ........... 68
\>\ As litrr///i//j/>- of S!(spcn.'<iu/t.
G-RISWOLD V. WADDINGTON 69
Ai'PKNDED Note ........... 70
c) A.s invoUiii;/ llcdVuifjs icitli thr Knrnnj.
ESrOSITO c. BOWDEN 72
Appended Note ........... 74
(ii; SUBSmVEXT TUAXSACTIOXs : TRAJJlXG WIT] I THE KXEMY.
THE " HOOP" 74
Appended Note ............ 76
(iii) KXCEl'TEl) IRAXSACTIOXS.
(1) Between Enemies not divided by the Line oi \V.\k.
KERSHAW r. KELSEY 7«
Appended Note ........... 80
(2) Licen,sed Tkade.
rSPARICHA r. NOBLE 80
Appended Note . . . , . . . . . . .81
o I'lUSONEKs' C'ONTKACT<.
ANTOINE /. MORSHEA]) S2
Appended Note ........... S3
1 T-iANSOJt L'OXT];ArT>.
RICORD c. I^ETTENHAM S3
Appended Note ........... S4
Genkrai. Note.s :
The Ettect of War (jii CdUiiuiTi iiil Ijit.i-inuiM- ..... So
Til,' Ettcct (.f Art. 2:! li nf tlic 1 l;muf i;.-ul:tri..u~ . . . S.')
r).'br,s S6
Nt"ir()tia])lc In.'-truiiniit^ ......... >i7
< 'i.iitract- lit' AtfrviLrhtnitui ..... S7
Table of' Contents.
THE KFFECT OF WAR ON CO^IMKECIAL EELATK )XS— co«/f/.
(texkeai. Notes vuiiI'wiihI.
Contracts uf lusuraiioe .....
Couti'uct.s of Agency ......
Contracts of Partner.--hip .....
Interests in Commercial Cdrporatinns anil Companies
Effect of War on Suits by Alien Enemies .
Tradini;- throug-li the medium of tlie X(_'Utral Flau'
PAGE
88
88
S'J
89
90
90
EXCURSUS I. — The Conduct of Wai: i;y Laxd, with Special Rei kk:
TO Recent Conventions.
The Crowth of a Law of Land Warfare ....
Tlie Sources of Existinir Rules ......
The Effect and Value tif the Haii'ue ReL;-ulati(jn~
The Doctrine of •■ INrilit^iry Xeeessity '" ....
The Qualification- of RoUigerents '
Rroliihited Methods of Wa'^i-fare :
(i Generally ........
(ii Prohibited Weapons ......
iii Bombardment and Diva>tation ....
Spies and their Treatment .......
Non-hostile Intercourse between Belliirerents :
i. General Character and Ci.uditious
ii Flags of Truce, I'assports .....
iii; Suspensions of Anns, Truces and Armi-ti(.-is
iv Capitidati^ns and Surrenders ....
Ido-tag.s
The Trti-atment of the Wounded and Sick :
(iy I'uder the Customary Law .....
ii Tile Geneva Convention, ISGJ.aud the Suj'pleriK ntarv Cc
1.SG8
(iii_ The Geneva Convention i.jf IHOG ....
Prisoners of "War ........
Military Anth(jrity over Hostile Territory ;
Tlie JJistinction between "Occupied"' and ••Nnii-Occuj'cd " ' T^
Non-Occupied Territory ......
Occupied Territory : The Scop'C of Occupation
The Legal Effects of Occupation ....
1 The Right to Govern ......
•-' The Control nf the Inhabitant- ....
'■') The Use of the Resfmrces of the Countr\ :
a) The Seizure of Property .....
b The Collection of Ta.xes .....
c The Le\y of Contributions and Requisitions .
^ ligations of the Laws and Customs of War and their Renied\
War Crimes .........
!)S
98
99
'.ty
l(M)
100
100
lol
lol
!ii2
lUo
lO-i
lUS
]oS
loy
loo
110
111
i i 1
I \-i
! 1-1
1^X(T'RSUS II. — The < 'onduct of Wak y,\ Sea. with Sj'ecial Kefeeence
TO Recent ('onventions.
Tiic S..-i.pi- III Maritime Warfare .......
Tiic J)cvi lupniciiT of ,a I.iiw uf .Maritiiui- W.arfarc ....
The S.iuive- uf the l-:xi-tiiiL:- i.aw
I !i iiiihardnieiir livN:i\-al I'orci-: ( 'ciitvibutien-, Re(|ui>ition-. and I'illa
i;,,,,„_]j,.,.,.ir_']--:,K,. ]-!;,^-.
The Use' .if Sul. marine :\Iii,e- a:id Tiirped. 11-
The Ai)pli<.-ation of the Primiple- uf tin- CJeneva Convention to N.aval War
. 114
\ 1 0
. 1 ] .1
1 1 7
. IH)
110
I- 121
Table of Contents. xi
NAVAL FOKCES: (iUALlFIKD CliUISEES— CONVEKSION
OF :mekciiant vessels.
PAGK
CONTROVERSY BETWEEN OREAT BRITAIN ANJ) RUSSIA
WITH RESPECT TO THE " I'ETERBURG " AND THE
" smolp:nsk " VIA
ArPEXD?:D NoTK . . . . . . . . . . .127
Ghxkeai, Noths :
(Qualified Belligerents in Maritiiiio War 127
lu'LTular Naval Forces . . . . . . . . . . 12S
l'rivateor8 1L>S
The Enlistment of Privately Owned Vessels ..... 12'.)
The Hayuc Convention relative to the Conversion of Merchant Shijos
into Warships . . . . . . . . . . . l^il
THE LIGHT OF MARITIME CAPTUEE.
THE '• THALIA " 132
Afpexdkd Notk . . . . . . . . . . .134
Gknkral Notes :
Tlie Capture of Private Property at Sea . . . . . .134
The Suggested Exemption of Private Pn.jprrty at Sea from Capture :
(i) Opinion and Practice . . . . . . . .13")
(ii) The Question of its Desirability, from an International
Standpoint . . . . . . . . . 13G
'iii) The Policy and Attitude of Great Britain .... 13S
THE ENEMY C1L\LA(TEL OF VESSI':LS.
THE "VROW ELIZABETH'' 140
Appended Note . . . . . . . . . . . .141
General Notes :
What are Enemy V'essels . . . . . . . . .142
T]L\NSFELS To THE NEUTLAL FLACx.
THE •• ARIEL" 144
Ai'Im:niii;d NnTE . ........... 147
ENEMY (;oOi)S.
a CKXKILI I.I.Y.
THE •■SAN JOsi: INDIANO" 14'.»
ii, runi'F.iriY i:Mi:.ii;hi:ji ix ./ ri:i ri i.K'; i:ii tuahe.
THE -ANNA CATHARINA •' l.')3
iii Tin: I'xsoi.ii I'liDhn !■: nv son. niiw/j) IX /.'XK.v)'
y/-:!:i:/Tn/:y.
THE •• I'lKLNLX •• 1,3.-,
Ai I'K.vi'Ki. Note . .......... ]'iG
xii Tahle of Contents.
ENEMY GOiM)^— continued.
(iv) GOODS PASSJXO IlETWEEX XKUTRALS AM) F.XEMLEs.
PAGE
THE "SALLY" 157
AprKNDED NoTK . . . . . . . . . . . .1-58
(v) TRAXSFERS MADE IN TRAXSITl'.
THE '• VROW MARGAKETHA" 158
Appkndeb NoTK . . . . . . . . . . . .159
OUTSTANDING INTERESTS IN ENEMY VESSELS
OE (lOODS.
THE '-TOBAGO" 160
Appended Note . . . . . . . . . . .161
Genep.al Notes :
Tho Enemy Character of Goods Generally . . . . . .162
Tlie Effect of Art. 58 of the Declaration of London on other Tests
api^lied under tho British Practice ....... 162
Transfers in {ransitu .......... 1615
The Lien of an Unpaid Vendor ........ 16:>
RESTEICTIONS ON J^IAEITIME CAPTUEE.
(i) .STATUS OE EXEMY MEIUJJIAXT VESSELS OX OrTIlREAK
OE II 'Alt.
THE " BUENA VENTURA " 164
Appended Note . . . . . . . . . . . .166
General Notes :
The I'osition of Enemy Merchant Vessels on the Outbreak of War :
(i; Lender tho Customary Law . . . . . . .166
(ii; The lla.u-ue Convention. No. (i of l'.)(i7 167
(iij EXCEPTLOXS TO MAR/TLME I' A ITU RE.
\V) Coastal Eihiiing Boats and Vessels engaged in Sciiontiltc ^Iissiqns.
THE '-PAQUETE iLVBANA" AND THE '• LOLA •' .... 16'.»
Api'];ni>ed Note . . , . . . . . . . . .169
'2) Caiitkl Siiii'S.
THE •' DAIE.JIE" 170
(.'j; Hospital Siiii'S.
THE '-AliYOL" 171
Ai'i'i';.\Di-.i) NoTi; . . . . . . . . . . . .172
( ;i':NEKAr. Notes :
]'jxceptii)ns to thr liiii'ht cif Maritiirie Ca])ture ..... 172
Tlie Crews <if iMieiiiy jNIrrcliant Slii]is captured liy a BelliiriTeiit . . 173
Postal Correspondence . . . . . . . .171
Table of Contents.
Xlll
OAPTTIKE AND IT8 INCIDENTS.
;i) WHAT COXSTITUTI-.S A I'Al.lIi CAPTUJii:.
I[IK '■ KDWARl) AND MARY"
Ari'ic.vDED NoTi-: ...........
liij 77//; J)UTY OF ItlUXCIM! IX rol! AIUVDICATIOX AXI)
I TS QCALIFICA TlOXS.
rilK 'FELICITY"
Ari'KNDED Note ...........
;iii: Till-: rf.sl'oxsuu litiks of (■Ai"r()ii:s.
THE "OSTSEE"
Appended Note. ....
General Notes :
Wlio may iiuike Captiiros
Powers ill relation to Capture
Vi.sit and Search ....
Courses open to Captor :
(i) Sending' in for Adjudication
(ii) J)estruction .
(iii) Ransom
Tlie Liabilities of I'aptcirs .
•AGE
17o
i7r.
177
ISO
180
1S3
184
KS4
LSI
IS.)
18(i
187
187
Couits
THE NATUKE AND FUNCTIONS OF PKIZE COUE
L'lIE "FOX"
AlTENDKD NoTl-; ....
trENEUAL Notes :
The Nature and Finicfiuns of I'ri
Tlieir Status in International Law
Lhe Local Situation of tlie Court.
Tlie liocal Situation of the J'l'ize .
i;e-]'on.-iliility for Docree .
Tlie International L'rize Court :
AV'hy needed ....
The IlaiTue Conventi(.in '"relativ
International Prize Court " ....
The Jurisdiction of the International Prize Court
Hy whom I'roceedinu's may be instituted .
V; pile Law to be ap]>liid .....
(vi) Tlu' Constitution of tlie Court ....
vii Procedure .......
TS.
I';
(li)
iv)
to the Establishment
188
189
IIU
192
192
102
19o
194
)f an
194
19.5
19(3
196
197
19S
rKIZK AND r.OOTY.
i IITLF VFIMAL'ILY IX SFAFF.
vnv. ••ELsi:i5K ■■
Ari'iCMH-;!) NoTi
ii hi ii.siM ::_\ r i,f fifi.f of orioixai. oux
an.I)i:i;s]:n- >■. .m.\i;ii:n"
Fl!.
202
204
XIV
Table of Contents.
PiaZE AND BOOTY— 60?^ /m;/^r/.
iii) TITLE BY TRAXSFFJi <>lt T]!AXS}riSS!()X FROM CATTOR.
THE "F-LAD (3YEX-'
Appended Xotk ..........
PAGE
. 207
■ iv TITLE IX UFLATIOX TO XEUTRAL STATFS.
THE CASE OF THE 'EiriLY ST. ITEKRE "
Ai'PEXDED Note ......
Gexekal Xote.s :
Prize auil Booty, generally ....
The Title to " Booty " " .
The Title to -Prize" :
(i, Under tlie Earlier Law .
'ii The Modern Practice
207
209
iO'.i
no
210
211
EECArTT,^i;E AND SALVAGE
i AS REOARIiS JIRFTISH VllORERTY.
THE -'CEYLON"
Appended Note
. 212
. 214
ii AS, RFOARDs THE VROF'ERTY OF AX ALLY OR CO-F.ELLl'iERFXT.
THE '-SANTA CliUZ "
Ai'PENDED Note
. 2ir,
. 217
(iii, AS RFOARIiS XEl'TRAL LRORFLtTY
THE -'CARLOTTA" .
Appended Note
Oeneeaj. Notk.s :
Till- ];iLrht.- (jt Ki<'aptor^ .
Exi^tiiiu" Variation> of I'ractii;
Salva-i- ....
21!
'J'liE TKIAriX.VriO.V OF WAK.
Till-: MAKINO OF THE I'FACF OF l'Oi;Ts:\r' )rTH.
Api'End);I) Noti; ... ...
( Ieneuai, Xoi i:.s :
J fuw \\';ii- may T> S'lniuate
Tic- M:ikil;,-.,V I'.a-- .
Alllli' l'it\- tn Mllkc
I '-III': St ij)ul:ili'jij.- ......
Til. I.I lmI I'lti.it- i.f 1 'fr.-tit.- . f i'.-aii-
The l^i. -•■;.. II iif Iinli-iii'.it.- ....
Tdhlc of ( '(niti'nl-H.
XV
HOSTILE ACTS DONE TX KiXOEANCE OF PEACE.
THE "JOHN"
Appexdkd Notk ...........
Genkral Xoxks ...........
ITo.-^tile Acts done in lu'Udrancc of Poa(;c .....
I'AGE
. 2 -J 'J
. -n-i
THE LEGAL EFFECTS OF rOX(iL'i:ST AND ANNEXATION.
(i) AS liFAiARDs rHu I'KirrV AM) O II i.k; ATIOSS.
THE REPORT OF THE TR.VNSVAAL CONCIESSIONS C0:\I:MISSI0N. T.'A
ArpKNDKii Note . . . . . . . . . . .210
(ii) AS i;i:(;ai;I)s ri-nsoxs.
THE CASE OF COUNT PLATEN-HALLEMFNI ) .
Ai'PKxoKD Note .......
Gexek.vl Noti:3 :
Titlu by ConquL'.-t ......
Succession in Casi's of Ci>ni|iii'>t ....
Qualifications .......
The Ettect of Conquest on l'i-ivat<j Riii'lits luul Paws
212
213
211
240
24G
248
POSTLIMINIUM.
THE CASE OF THE ELECTOR OF HESSE-CASSEL
Appended Note .......
Gener.\l Notes :
Postliuiiuiuin in International Law
i Its Operation on Property
(ii) Its Operation on Territory and Sovi.'reiirnty
'!; xVfter Occupation ....
(2'i After Temporary or Pariial Cou(pust
248
252
200
2.1.1
CLAHIS LASKH OX WAP.
(i) /;}■ i;i:sii)i:\T x kciha i.s.
cL.vm iiY A:\rEi;i(AN rksidexts foi; po.sses sustained
hl'rin(t the bombarij:\[ext of Valparaiso, isi,.; . . -j.^ti
AppE.\m;D Note ............ 257
GILES ;■. THE REPU15LIC OF FPAN'CE 25S
ArpKXDEi) Note ........... 259
ii'; ,/v i;K<iAi;i)s Till-: rndi'Kirrv or ynx-itr.si dkxt xeutrals
111 i: i: 1 1, III' nv AXr, Ai:Y.
THE SiXIvlN'ii OK lUMlTSH VK
Ai'i'i;,\:iKi« NoTi'. . . . .
V.X THE GER.MANS, ISTO
2tJU
2(;i
xvi Table of Contends.
CLAIMS BASED ON V^KR—contimml.
(iii TILE QUESTIOX OF Till-: USE ./.NT) DESTKUCTIOX OF
TFL EG R. I P/r ( A P.L ES.
PAGE
THE CLAm OF THE BRITISH EASTERN EXTENSION TELE-
GRAPH COMPANY AGAINST THE UNITED STATES
GOVERNMENT, 1899 i>62
Appended Note ............ 263
iv) COMFEXSATIOX TO XEUTIIALS EX CrRATI.V.
THE PROCEEDINGS OF T[IE SOFTH AFRICAN DEPORTATION
COMMISSION 264
Appended Note 266
General Notes :
The I'ositiciii of Neutrals in relation to a Belligerent Invader . . 266
The I'osition of Neutrals in relation to the Territorial Power . . 267
The Property of Nim-Rt'sident Neutrals ; the Right of Angary . . 268
The Case of Land and Submarine Telegraphs ..... 269
NATIONAL INDEMNITY FOR AVAR LOSSES.
THE WAR LOSSES COMPENSATION COMMISSIONS OF THE CAPE
C0L(3NY
Appended Note .........
Genekal Notes :
National Compensation for War Losses ....
Relief of Iidiabitants of Conquered Territory
270
TAKT III.— XKUT1,>ALLTY.
THE RELATION OF NEUTRALITY.
CONTROVEIiSY liETVVEEN RUSSIA AND JAPAN AVITH RESPIXT
TO THE NEFTRAJ>ITY OF KOREA IN 1901 .... 271
Appi;nded Note ............ 278
(j^ENi':i!AL Notes :
Tlif llflation (if Neutrality 280
. 2,S()
. 281
< Jradatiiiiis and Kinds of Neutrality
'I'lie l;i-lits of Neutral States
The Duties .if Ni'utral States
The Riu-hts and Liabilities (,f Neutl'i
Conventions relating to Neutrality
2s ;
2S4
Till-: comme.\oemi:nt of nI':i'ti>vvlha-
THE CAsi: Gi' Tin: -^ icowsiiiNi; "
.\ri'i;ND' I) N(jTr. ..........
( iiM' i.Ai, .NoTi;s :
'I'he (^le-llon of .Votiec to NiMitraL
Table of Contents.
XVII
NEUTEAL TEKRITORY.
(i) ITS JNI'IOI.AIULITY.
THE "TWEE GEBROEDKR"
AiTENDED Note .
PAGE
. 288
. 290
(ii) Dl'TIKS J.\(IJ)/:yT TllKRKTO.
THE CASE OF THE "GENERAL ARMSTRONG"
Apj'ended Note ........
292
29 i
(iii; s/:i.F-Ri:/)liKSS WITKHI-: XKVTRAI, IIOSVITAJ.ITY IS
A I! US El).
THE CASE OF " RYESIIITELNI " 29.-)
Appended Note . . . . . . . . . . . .297
Gexeeal Notes :
The Inviolability (if Neutral Territory ...... 298
The Hayue Conventions :
(i) No. 5 of 1907 299
(ii) No. 13 of 1907 300
DUTIES OF NEUTRAL STATES.
(i) AI'.STEXTIOX.
CONTROVERSY BETWEEN DENMARK AND SWEDEN, 1788 . . 3(i :
.Vppexded Note . . . . . . . . . . .302
THE CASE OF TPfE SWEDISH WARSHIPS, 1825 303
Appended Note . ........... "04
Gener.vi, Notes :
Acts which a Neutral State must itself abstain from doini;' . . 30*>
'ii; rniA'i-.xriox.
(1 The Enlistment or Men and I.ssui: oi' Comjiissions in Neuiiial Teeritoky.
CONTROVE1!SY WITH RESPECT TO THi: ACTION OF :\I. GENET.
1798
Ai'PENDED Note ......
Geniokal Notes :
The Enlistment of I-'orces in Neutral Tei'riturv
(2) The Is.sue froii Nettthal Tei;i:itoi;v of Host
riiE TEi!C]:i];.v affair
.\ppj;nded Note ......
( iKNKPAi. Ni'ri:s :
Hostile Ivxpediliiins
Tlie PassaLTe <>t' Ti'iinpr- oxii' Neutral Territory
A^vhun iu Nmrral Tei'iitoi'\
II, i: Expeditions.
306
:',os
310
311
31-1
I .1.1.
xviii Table of Contents.
DUTIES OF NEUTRAL f^TKTlL^— continued.
''■]) Thk Usk of Xei'tral Tkeiutoky as a Base of Operations.
PAGE
CONTROVERSY BETWEEN FRANCE AND JAPAN WITI[ RESPECT
TO THE USi: OF FRENCH PORTS AND WATERS BY THE
RUSSIAN FLEET 31')
Apj'Exded Note . . . . . . . . . .317
General Notes :
Till' Yi^o of Neutral Territory as a Base of Operations :
i) In Land Warfare 318
iiy In Sea Warfare 319
'4) Tjie Construction and Eqi^ipment of Vessels of War in Neutral
Territory.
THE GENEVA ARBITRATION AND AWARD 3:^0
Appjcndeu Note . ........... 333
General Notes :
Tlie Construction or Fitting- Out of Vessels of Wai' in Neutral
Territory :
'i) The Earlier Law ......... -iVo
(ii The Formation uf a New Usaire ...... 313
iii The Exi.-tirig- Law ........ 311
Presumptions attaehintr to JJifferont Classes of Vessels . . . 34.>
The Augmentation of Force of Belliirerent War.-^hips . . . . 34G
The Duty of Neuti-als as regards the Enforcement of these Restrictions . :i 17
The Etl'.'.-t of the 1,-sue of a Commission to a Vessel Illegallv Fitteil
Out " . . 317
THE teeat:\iext of bellig]-:rent wausiiips in
NEl'TPtAL POKTS.
i, Til I-: nri.E or 'nn:sTY-y(>i'ii nouns lyTEUVAL.
THE CASE OF THE -'TCSCARORA" AND THE "NASHVILLE" . 31.s
Ap]']:ni)j:ij Note ............ :i4'.J
'ii; THE JU'LE OE 'EWESTY-EOE E JlOUIiS .SEAY—l STJ-RXM EXE.
THE CASE OF THE -MANDJUR"" :,.-,o
Aj'I>eni)ED Note . ........... o.')l
'iii) I'llE SEEI'LV OE COAL .i.\h EROllSJOXS.
Tij]: cAsi: (>!■■ THf; •• tei;i;k" :i.vj
A I'i'ICNDEIi XoiE. ........... '-'E'-l
iv '/■///•; rjl'/.sTlOX OE /A.EAJES.
THE CASE OF THE " L1:NA'- ;j.-,)
A ! i'KNiiKi) NoTi-; ........... :;,',)
V A\ VL I .!/ JX XEEEl;. 1 1. EOl: 7' v.
■j-IlK CAS!, OV THK ■■ ASKOLD "' AND •■ i HiO/nVol '' . . . :;,-,.-,
A!'i'ENi)i;ij .N'oTi; ........... :i.'j7
Tabic of Contents.
XIX
THE TREATMENT OE P,EELIGERENT WAR8HIPS IN
[\\) Till-: UKCKVTIOX OF I'IH/I.-S IXTO XKUTRAL rORTS.
THE CASK OF THE '-TUSCALOOSA" ....
AiTEXDKD Not]'; ........
(tp;nki;al Notks :
The Admission of Eelliu-ereiit Warships into Xeutral Port,-
Limitation on Numbers ....
Diinition of Stay .....
Time and Order of Dtiiarture
Supplies of Coal and Provisiou.s .
The Execution of Repairs ....
The Keceptinn of Prizes in Neutral Ports
Penalty for Iufrin''-oment of Neutral Reu'ulatious
TAGK
. 358
. :}.59
:5G0
:560
;iGl
362
302
3G3
363
>,CA
L0AN8 TO AND VOLUNTARY SUBSORIPTIONS IN AID
OE 15EELI(IER1-:NTS.
AN OPINION OF THE LAW OFFICERS OF THE CROWN, 1823
Appended Note ..........
Genei.'al Notes :
Loans hy Neutral Indi\-iduals to Itelligerent States
CHfts and Voluntai'v Ctintributious ......
365
366
367
368
NATIONAL NEUTJL\LITY LAWS.
i ';i!i-:at nni'r.iix.
RK(;. V. .1 A:\rEsoN and others
A: rj.NDJCD Note ....
. 369
. 371
(ii) iiri: r XI TED statls.
THE UNll El) STATES /■. (,>riNCY 37:)
AiJi.xDEjj Note ............ 377
I iKXi;i;.vj. NoTi;s :
'I'hc lirlarii.'ii of r],.- Nmioiial to tlie liit'-niatioiial Law of N. utr:iiily . oSO
I'Jxaniplo-^ .it For' iLi'ii Neuirality I.a\\> ...... 3SI
i;i:s'i'];Ai\Ts on nklttl-vl TirvDi; -A('(iriES('ENC'E.
riiK •• iiEiT-;x'"
Ai'i'i-;.\iii':ii Note ........
' I i;n!-i:al Noi );s :
■fho I till y .'f .\r |llio-'-.l."o .....
!o >ir,'iint> oi! Ni-inral Ti ;uli' :
i riiilor rlif ( 'i.-t. iiriiy L i\v
ii A.S HI' i:iitii d I'V ( ■' ;ll\ illl ■' tl .
iii Til' .Vutli'.rity "f I he ])' i-laraMni -t' I.o.idoii
I, ■>
3S2
3.S3
3N-i
XX
Tahle of Contents.
THE CAEEIAGE OF NEUTEAL GOODS IN ENEMY SHIPS.
PAGE
THE '-FORTUNA'' 387
APPE^■DED Note 388
THE CAEEIAGE OF ENEMY GOODS IN NEUTEAL SHIPS.
DARBY r. THE BRIG " ERSTERN " 390
Appended Note . . . . . . . . . . . .391
General Notes :
The Carria<re of Neutral Goods in Euemy Ships, and Enemy Goods in
Neutral Ships :
_(i) The Earlier Usage 391
(ii) The Declaration of Paris ........ 393
Questions that may arise under the existing Law .... 393
BLOCKADE.
^i GdVEUXlXG PRIXCIPLES.
THE "FRANCISKA"'
Appended Note .
394
40'.*
(ii) BRF.ACJl OF BLOCKAIi E.
THE '-FREDERICK MOLKE "
Appended Note .
4(11'
41(1
iii) LIAlllLJTY OF CARGO IX CASKS OF llJJKFv'AJiF
THE '-rANAGHIA RHOMB A "
Append]:ii NoTi-; ........
General Notes :
The Law nf I'lmkade under the Declaration cif LoiuL
The Si-ope of lUnckade
Essentials to the Validity of ]->lockade
The Declaration of Blockade
Notifications Required
Proof or 1 'resumption of Notice .
The Local Limits of Captur*-
The ])octrine of Continuous Voyages in relation to Blockadi
Tlie Liahilitv of the Car-o . " ."
412
414
414
4 1 .')
41.">
41',)
410
417
lls
41','
111*
CONTRA?. AND OF WAD.
fi) CKXFRALLY.
THE "PETElillOI-F"
Appendici) Note .
4iil
422
Table of ContenlH.
XXI
CONTEABANI) OF ^X\l~ contimwd.
(ii) COXDITIOXAI. OR otcASlOX.i L CO XT R A BAM).
rHE " JONGE MARGARETHA ■'
Api'ended Notk ..........
PAGE
. -l-JG
(iiii M«'l-:ssiTy OF IIOSTILE IH'.STl XATIOX.
THE "IMINA" .
ArPENDp:D Note .
4 J 7
4'2.S
iv; fKXALTY FOR CARRIAGE OF (OXTRABAXlJ.
THE " NEUTRALITET
Appended Note .
430
431
(vi COXFLICT OF CSACE AS REGARDS, lOXTR AV.AXU.
CONTROVERSY TN l'.»04 BETWEEN Rl'SSIA, AND GREAT
BRITAIN AND THE UNITED STATES 432
Appended Noti-; ............ 436
Gexer.^x Notes :
Coutrabaud iiiidei' the Custuinarv Law ...... 438
The Declaration of Londou : its Treatment of Coutraband in General . 139
(i) Absolute Contraband :
(1 Objects 440
(2j Destination and Pronf ....... 441
(ii) Conditional Contraband :
(1) Objects 441
(2) Destiuatiou and Prdof 442
(iii; Non-Contraband ......... 443
The Limits of Capture 144
The Questidu of Notice ......... 444
The Penalty for Carrying- Contral)and ...... 445
The Seizure of Contraband ......... 445
Th(> E.xport of Contraband ......... 446
UNNIIUTRAI. SERVICE.
!ij 77//; CARRIAGE OF XAVAL OR MILITARY VERSOXS.
THE '-OHOZEMBO"
Appended Note .
447
449
THE TJtAysMISSloX OF I XTEL I.I',EX<: F.
1) Despatches.
TllK •■ AIWLAXTA"
.Vpi'KXDED Note .
4.)0
4.')1
XXll
Table of Contents.
UNNEUTRAL ^Y.V^\lQ^^c(mthmed.
(2) Messages and Signals.
THE CASE OF THE " HAIMUN "
Appended Xote ....
PAGE
. 4.51
. \-yl
ili ENLISTMKXT IX THE KXF.MY SEItVir]-;.
THE CASE OF THE " QUAXa-NAIVr " 4-53
Appended Note ............ 454
THE SEIZUEE OE ENEMY PEESONS ON NEUTEAL
VESSELS.
THE CASE OF THE " TREXT " 45.5
Appended Note . . . . . . . . . . .456
Geneeal Notes :
Unneutral and Hostile Service . . . . . . . .456
(i) Unneutral Ser\'ice ......... 457
(ii) Hostile Service ......... 45b
The Seizure on Neutral Vessels of I'ersons belonging- to the Eneniy
Forces ............ 45s
Questions arising in connection with the Use of Wireles.- Telegraphy . 45y
THE CAEEYING ON BY NEUTEALS OE A 'J']L\I)E
CLOSED TO THEM IN ULACi:.
THE "IMIMANUEL" 460
Appended Note ........... 462
Gf-Nkiial Notes :
The Ritrlit of Neutml- t^ Entraye in a Trade clnsed t<. rh..iii in I'ear,- . 464
THE DOCTJHNE OE CONTINT'OUS VOYAdES.
(i^ AS AlTl.lEI) TO VnOllUilTEI) THAI)!:.
THE '• WILLIAM" ....
Ai'Pj:nd};d Note .....
'11 AS AVELII.l) I'D l',llEA(
THE ■■ >rRING]^.OK
Ai'Pe.vditj Note .
iii, ./A AI'l'I.IEh 7o (
THE ■ PETER 11 OFF '"
Apj'Ended Note .
// <)E l;L'icKAIiI.
iSTL'A l!A\h
466
4 67
46'.t
471
472
472
Table of Couteuls. xxiii
THE DOCTRINE OF CONTINUOUS YOY A.{}\i^-coHtinm:d.
PAGE
CONTROVERSY BETWEEN (rREAT BRITAIN AND OERMANY
WITH RESPECT TO THE '■ BUNDESRATH " AND OTHEt;
VESSELS 473
Appended Note . . . . . . . . . . . 47o
Genekal Notes :
Tlie Doctrine of Coutiimoiis \'oyayes as applied to —
(i) Prohibited Trade JTfi
(ii) Blockade . . . . . . . . . .477
iiii) Contraband .......... 477
VISIT AND SEARCH— CONVOY.
THE "MARIA" 478
Appended Note ............ 4S()
Gkneeal Notes :
The Riy-ht of Visit and Search 4,s;3
Tlu' Right of Convoy 484
Compensation for Wrongful Si>izure . . . . . . .485
The Di'struction of Neutral Prizes :
(i) Under the Customary Law .... . . 48.')
'ii Under the Declaration of London ...... 48(5
Tlie Destruction of Contraband Cargo ...... 487
( XXV )
LLST OF ^i^IIF. FRIXCrPAL WORKS REFKRRED
i^o, o™fr than reports and
OFFICIAL DOCUMENTS.
'■ Amoricim and Eii<i'lish Encyclopiediii of Law " ('ind ed.).
Ansox. Sir W. R. : '• Law and Custom of the Constitution "' (1907 and IIMIS .
A)itii((iirc dr I' I)istitnt ih- Itro'it l)iti'rnatio»(il.
AsAKAWA, K. : " Th<" l\usso-, Japanese Conflict — its Causes and Issues "' llt04).
Atiiekley- Jones, L. A. : " Commerce in War" (1907).
Barclay, T. : •• I'rublcms of International TjaAV and Diplomacy " (1907/.
''The Turco-Italian War" (1907).
Baty, Th. : •' International Law in South Africa " (1900).
" International Law" (1909).
Beak, (r. B. : ■' The Aftermath of War" (1906).
Beenakd, M. : '■ British Neutrality during the American Civil War " (1S70 .
Bextwich, N. : " The Declaration of London" (1911).
Blackstone : '-Commentaries" -Ith ed.).
Bluxtschli. J. C. : "Das Moderne Volkerrecht der Civilisirten Staateri " (1878).
BoKinvELL, P.: '• The Law of War " (1908).
BiiooM, H. : •• Constitutional Law" (188-5).
Calvo, C. : '-Le Droit International" (1887).
Coke, E. : '• Commentary upon Littleton."
CowEX, T. : " Russo-Japanese War."
Dalloz, V. A. D. : " Jurisprudence Geuerale."
Dicey, A. V. : " Contlict of Laws," 2nd ed. (1908).
"Law (if the Ci)n>Tituti(in," 7th ed. (1908).
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Halleck : '• Internatiiinal Law," Ensjfli^li edition by Sir Sherston Baker (189.'!).
Hefftee, a. W. : " Das I'lumpaische Volkerrecht der Geireuwart " (ISSlji.
IlEEsnEY, A. S. : " The International Law and Diplomacy of the Russo-Japanese
War" (1906;.
lIioGixs, A. r. : '■ The Ha^ue Peace C(jnferences and other International
Conferenet's " ( I'JU'.i).
IFiSTOEirrs. " Letters on some Questions of International Law " (180:! .
IloLi.Axn, T\ E. : " The Elements of .lurisprudence "" (1910'.
" Laws of War on Land " a9(iS).
'• I^etters upon War and Neutrality."
'• Manual of Naval Prize Law."
•• Studies in International Law " (1898 .
xxvi List of Author ities.
HuJiEE, '• Die Staaten-Sucees.siou ■' (1898).
HiBXEE, Maktkx Von : " De la Saisie des Batiinents Noiitvcs " (1778;
" Internati(mal Law Situatious of the I'. S. Naval College for 1904."
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JourndJ (if thr Societij of Comparafiie Liijlshdiaii (New Series .
Kent, J. : " Commentaries oii American Law " (187''!)-
Latifi, a. : " Effects of War on I'roperty " '1909;.
Laweenck, T. J. : "Essays on some dispiited (^uestimis of Modern Litei-natii>nal
Law" (188.-")).
' ' Prim^iples of International Law" '1990).
■ " War and Neutrality in the Far East " (1901;.
LiXDLEY, W. B. : " Company Law " (190'2).
Manning, W. O. : " Commentaries uu the Law of Nations " ( l87-'(, .
" Manual of Military Law " (War Office, 1907).
Maetens, Baron Cii. de : " Causes Celeljres du Droit des (lens " (I8oS— 1861, .
Maueice : " Hostilities Avithout Declaration of War " (188:i .
Meklix : " Rejiertoire L'niversel de Jurisprudence " (1828,,.
MooEE, J. B. : " Extradition " (1891).
''History and Digest of luternatiDnal Arbitrations" (1895).
'• A Digest of International Law " (1900^.
Nys, E. : " Le Droit International " (1904—1906).
" Official History of the Russo-Japanese War," 2nd ed. (1909:.
OprExiiKiM:, L. : "A Tn.'atise on International Law " (1912).
Oetolax, .]. L. E. : " Regies Internationales et Diplomatie de la Mer "' (ISGl i.
Phillimoke, Sir R. : " Commentaries upon International Law " '1SS9 .
PniLLiPsox, C. : " Effect of War on Contracts " (1909,.
■' Studies in Int(.'rnational Law " (1889^.
PiSTOYE et DuvEEDY ; " Traito des Prises Maritiraes " (1S59 .
Rousseau, .1. J. : " Du Contrat Social."
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Smitu, E. E., and Sibley'. N. W. : "International Law as interpnted diii'iug- tin-
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TAKAUASiii. S. : " International Law applied to the Russo-Japanese Wai- " 1908 .
TAYi.oii, H. ; " Treatise on International Law" (1901).
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;:;rd ed. fl884 .
Twiss, Sir T. : " Tlie Law of Nations," 2 vols., 2ud ed. (1884 — 1887;.
Vatti;l : '' Le^ Droit des Gens."
WE.STLAKE, J. : " Intel-national Law," Part I., Peace (1904) ; Part II.. War 1907 .
WiiAiiTON, E. : " Digest of the International Law of the L'niti.'d Stat(.'S " ilS87 .
WllEATON, H. : "International Law." Editi(jn In J5ovd, A. C. (1889;. Ivlition
by Dana, R. II. 1800;.
Williams, Sii- ]■]. Y . : " Law of Executors and Administrators" (Oth ed.).
WooLSEY. 'V. D. : " lntr(jduction to the Study of International Law "" (1S8S .
Xoli:. — In oasis where only one work of an author is referred to tlie work i.-
usually cited by the name of the author only. Xuiubei-s refei- to pages unless
otherwise indicated.
xxvu
TABLE OF CASES.
Friui ipdl ciisci are in italic!^
•' Abdy/'" Tlu'. :jo, 77
" Actooji." Tlic, 180, 18-2, 219, 48U
•' Adoais.'' Tlie, 414
" Adula,'' The, 34, 408
African (iokl Hecovcrv ('". '•. I Lav,
248
"Alabama," The. 290, 30S. 321, 332,
337, 358, 359, 371
Albaii, il.31.S., 180
Alcinous V. Nl<j:rcn, 80, 90
'• Alexander," The, 414
Alexander '■. The Duke (if \\'elling'tou.
201
' AUantoii," The, 437
Viiiory 0. Alclireg'or, 25
■ Amv Warwick," Tlic, 12
Lndei-sen v. Marten, 176; 185, 202
' Angelique," The, 24
' Ain;i." Tlie, 24, 161
' Anna,'" The, 186
■ AiDt" ('(iflKirinn." The,
•Anne." The, 291, 294
' Ann Creen," The, 160,
Vnthon r. Fisher, 84
■ Antonia Johanna," 'I'la
bitonic V. Morshratl, 66. 82
Ajilirodite." Tlie, 438
Arabia," The, 435, 437
Archer," The, 338
Ard(na," Tlie, 125
Vrcthusa, II. M.S., 175
Aro:(>," The, 1(>5
Artrun," The, 174, 276
Ariadne." The. 141
Jrirl." Thr. 14 1. 1 15.
Ar>inl." Tl,r. 171
Asasliiwf)." The, 295
Ash-old." 'Pl,r. 297, ■.V^:^
.tliflftnh'.'' Thr. ;!S9. 450.
\tt(irnev-< iiMiei'al '■. Sillein.
371
■ Aurora," 4'lie. 1 12. Xi^t
Vustin Priai's S.S. Co. -■. Str.icU.
• A:'stran„r Th, . 1 12
I Iti. 141
183
;;2i.
32 >s.
3S1
21, 153
158
388
22. 25
Case of. 176,
l].\GLEU(M.i:, A'.'- j/('r/c. 21
l')ain V. Speedwell, 233
••' lialtica,"' The, 147
•' Ban Eigh," The, 345
J3anda ^V Kirwee 15ootv
201
••Barbara,-" The, 215
IJarclav ''. llussell, 55
Barrick r. Duba, 90
Ba.s r. Tingy, 12
J5atten r. The Queen, 147
•' Battle," Tiie, 161
■' Bavan," The, 452
"■ Bciiver," Tlie, 214
Behrens o. llucker, 21, 463
••' ]5elviderc," The, 161
]5ell r. Keid, 24
•'Benedict," The, 147
" Benito Estengei
Bentzen /■. Boyl
■' l^cnnuda," Th
'' i^ernoii," The,
••Betsey," The. 182, 183, 193, 400,
404, 407, 410
■• llobi'ick,"" Till
•• r.ollctta." Th
•• li()li\ia,"" Thv
P.oulton r. Dobree. 90
J!<>/(.-.:<i)/,al-rr. K.r i>i'rfc. (ili. S6. 89
Bowden Bros. /■. lin]>erial. >lv:c, Insur
ance Co., 26
•' Boyne," The, 402
Brandon '•. Curling-. ()8
— r. Xesbitt. 68. 88, 90
■' Bremen I'lui^-ge," Tlie, 392
i>r(nvster r. Kitchell. (i7
Bria-?s /•. r.S.. 89
Hruir,, V. Thr r.Tilrd Sli.f.s. 52. 5
Bruce, Ti, rr. 214
iirymer /■. Atkins. 463
■■- ]!,te,/'r Vr„l, ',<'.■■ Th, . 161. 1(56
■•' nn})f!rs,-(/lh." Tin . 174. 173. 17!
liurtoii r. PiiikiTtoii, :')75
r."
The, 15
. 147
•. 41
,) ■;
, l.)t)
9, 471,
472
18-
I. 183,
193.
131
31.
33
375,
376
XXVlll
Tahle of Cases.
The, 389
Xicholsoii,
■' Calcuas/' The, 435, 438, 442
■' Cajje of Good Hope," The, 177
■• ('arlos F. looses,'" Tlie, 141, 158, 161,
162
■• Curhtttdr Thr, 218
•' Carolina,'" The, 449, 454
•• Caroline," The, 294, 451, 455, 456
Carson r. Dunham, 89
" Carthage.'" The, 478
Castriijue /■. Inirie, 193
■' Catharina i^lizabeth,'
Cesena Sulphur Co. r.
•' Ceylon,'" The. 212
" Charlotta." The, 412
" Charlotte.'" The, 423
■'Charlotte Cai'oline,"" The, 215
■' Christine,'" The, 410, 411
■' Ciianning JJct.sey,'" The. 182
Cluivasse, E,'- jinrfr. ,-(■ (Ji-azebrook.
383
" Chcsa])eak(>.'' The, 291
•' Cheshire."' The. 141
Chieago. .Ve. Rv. Co. /■. MeCUinn. 248
•'•' Chiekaniauga.'"" The. 336, 338
■' Christopher,"" Tlie. 207
" Cireassian."" The, 34, 406. 408, 410
" Citto." The. 26
" Clarence,"" 'i'lie. 338
Clarke /■. Mdi'ev. 80. 90
•' Colunihia." The. (07, 410
'' Connnereen,"" The. 424, 42()
Connuodore Ste\vart"s Case, 201
•' Conrad," The. 358
i:. Waples, 89
Cook /•. Si.rigg. 235. 24], 246
Cornu V. Blaekburno, 84
•' Cosmopolite." Tiie. 207
of, 242
"Countess of Laudei'dale.'" The. 193
Crawford '•. The William Tenn. 83
Cruiser, 11. M., 394
■' Curlew," The, 184
•' Cygnet,'" Tlie, 392
•' Czarevitch.'" 'i'lic. 357
•' Dfifjle." '11, r. 170
••'Danckehaar Africa."" The. 33
■' Danous.'" Tlie. 2 I
Thirlni V. •/■/,, />',;v F.rsir,-,,. 390. 4(;5
•' Dart and the I lapj.v ( 'uii|.le." 'j'hc.
32
•• DashiuLT Wave."" Thr, 11) (
Daubuz '■. Mnrshead, S3. S7
Dauntless. 11 . M . . 113
De Beers Coii-dJidati'H Minc^ /■. Howe,
26
Dc Walil r. j'.raiin.'. S7
Dc Wiirz /■. Hendricks. 367
•• Der Mohr,'" The. 186, 187
■■ Der Hingende Jacob.'" The. 431
Dewino- r. rerdicardics, 61
■• Diana."" The. 25. 353. 357. 388
•• Diligentia,"" The, 176, 204, 291
Doe d. Auchmutv '•. ^Lulcaster, 244
r. Oliver, 193
- d. Thomas /■. .\cklam, 244
•• Doelwyck,"" The, 233, 288, 476
])t)le /•. .Merchants .Mutual .Marine
Insurance Co., 10
Donaldson r. Thompson. 31
■■ Dordrecht," The, 177
■' Dos llermanos,'" Th(>, 25
•'Droe Cebroeders," The, 151
Du Eelloi.x v. Waterpark. 87
•• Eagle," The, 467
■' Edward," The, 424
•• Eihrard and Manir Thr. 175, 215
•• Kkaterinoslav." Tlie. 8. 134
••' Elba," The, 275
Klrcior ni II ef<»('-('>issel. Case. o<, 248
■• Eliza," The, 184
•• EU-a Aar,r The. 8, 291. 468
l^dphinstonc r . TJedreechund. 47
•' l':i Kayo." The. 177
•• i':isabe," The, 480
■• EUehe." Tlie, 199, 480
■■ ]<]manuel.'" '^Phe. 463
■' Emihi Sf. Pierre:' The. 207
" Endraught.'" The. 21
■' ]%ndvmi()n.'" The. 178. I7ii
■• E.rJrr,,." Thr. 390, 393
Ex,H,s;f,, V. Bou-flrn, 66. 72. 87. SS. 89
•' ICsscx."" The, 467
■' i:xchange," The. 414
■■ i'lxjiericnce," The. 209
l''\n;r\\'s Devis(>e and Hunter's
Lessee, 89
■' Falcon,'" The, 193
•■ Kama.'" The, 31. 32. 227
•' I'anny." The. 389
■■ Eelie';/!/." TJ>e. 177. 178. 179. 180,
186. 48()
••' Fled Oiie,,." I'he. 205. 207
T'lcniinfr /■. I'aLi'c. 31
l-'liiidr '■. Scott. 81
- '■. \\'at(M-s. 87
■■ Florida."" Tlic. 201. 297. 321. :',?3,
334. 337
■• lM)ltiiia."" Tin-. 33
I'orte. II.. M.S.. 127
■■ Fnri', ,,,,." Tl,r. :;87. 388. ?>svl. 112
■■' F<,, ." Thr. ISS. 190
■'I'raii Anna I biuwina."' The. (70
■• J'ranei'<.'" Tlir. l.')S
Table of Caseis.
XXIX
" F.aHclsku," The. 3!»1. 4(1,5, lOG, 407,
408, 418
" Fmu llsabe," The, 38, 404
•■ Frederick .l/rV/.v." 77/r, K)0, 407.
409, 410, 411, 42S»
" Frooport," The, 4(57
" Freundscliaft." Tlu-. 'll, 25. 141
" Friciiclsliip.'' Tlic, 499
" i^^ultoii,"" The, 346
I'urtadu v. lio'ierx, GB, (J7. 84. 88
"(rACii:." The, 220
" (iauutlct,"" Tlie. 374
tleijtel /■. Smith, 40(3
"(Jeiieral," The, 174, 474
" Ge,ieral Armxtyouqr The. 292, 293.
29.3
" Jlaniilton." Tlie. 147, 411
Geneva ArhUrattnn ,i„<! A,ror>l, 320
"George," Tlie, 291
"Geoi-o-ia." The, 147, 33.). 33K
"Cieorgiana." Tlie. 214
" Gera><ii)io." Tlie. 2.5. 30. 5(), 403
Gideon r. Henfiold. 308
Gilex V. The EciiiiJ/lie of Frenec. 2.58,
259
" Good Christian, ■■ The, 4(53
Go.ss r. Withers. 207
" Gran Tara," Tiie, 192
"Gray .laeket." The. 25
Grisirold V. lJ'ef/,/ie//fn„. 6(1. (i9. 89
" (Trotius," The. 170
"■ Gro-nro;." The. 297. 355
" CuiUainne Tell." The. 177
•• Haahkt," Tiie, 427
•' iraaso," The. 214
Ilao-cdorn /■. l!ell. 31. 32
■■' //fn>e"e." The. 451. 453. 159
] lainan r. K inu'sttiii. 87
Ifainiiton '■. .l^at;in. 57
•■' Hampton.'' The. KU
llanu'cr '■. Abbott. 55. 58. 87
llareourt r. Gaillavd. 215
'■ I larnKinie." Tin'. 1 77
•• lhir,un.,,i." The. 21. 22. 21. 2(;
•' llattcr.'is." The. 333
ilentlitichl '■. ("hilton, 190
•• llrle,..-- The. 382. 3S1
- ll.Mirick and Maria." The. 207. 39:
1112
•' liciirv." 'i'lie, 215
•■ llerci'lics." The. 17ii
■• lliM-niaii." The. 151
■' llcrzn-," Til,.. 171
■• llip<atm-," Thr. isi;
•' ilirani." Tlir. 1 12
Iludsnn y. ( Mlr^tii'l-. WV-, . 2li7
'■ lluhhih." The. 1S2
Huntress,'" The, 219
•' llurtige llane." The, 412
lloare r. Alh'n, 87
Jlobbs e. lienning. 345, 473
■' liolt'nung," The^ 407, 408
Ilolnian r. Johnson. 345
''Hoop," Tlie. m, 73, 74, 84, 85, 8(i, 90
"Hope," The, 81. 412
" Ida,'" The, 161
" Ikhona/" The, 480
•' luniiuinieJ." The. 142, 155. 460, 463.
464
" luiliia," The, 410, 427, 428, 429, 431
" Iniliau Chief The, 24, 25
" Industrie," The, 141, 142, 453
" International,'' The. 374
■' Invineible,'' The, 207
" Jtata," The. 312^ 379
" James Cook,'' The. 414
"Jan Fred(M-iek," The, 100
Jaesoii V. Driel'oeleui (' oiisol'nl at<il
G,,hl Mnies. 10. 15. 24, 26, 62, 80.
88, 89, 90
"Johanna k]mili(\" Tlie, bri. 166. LSI
" Tholen." The, 463
"John." The. 176, 182, 183, 228. 229.
230, 231, 232
Johjison r. Ak-Intosh, 248
" Jonge ivlassina,'' The. 25. 151
'• ^ M(ir<iftr,'th<i." Tlie, 421. 425.
426. 435
" retroiudia." The. 408
" Pieter.'' The. 77. 412. 468. 472
•' Tobias." The. 431
" Jose])li." 'I'lie, 77
" Josephine," The. 158
•'Julia.'' The. 142
•' Kascafi.'' The. 295
•• Kearsage.'' The. 290. 333
i\enii-ett r. Chambers. 3()6. 3(57
Kensington r. Inglis. 81
Kershinr V. Kilsri/. 65, 66. 78. 8i)
■• K'ierliu-hett." The. 207
••' Knio-lit Commander." 'I'he. 437. iMi
■■ iCorietz." The. 275. 276
••' ICotie.'' Thi'. 172
■• Kn,rshn"t." The. 2S5. 286. 28S. (.", i
" L'A( III-.- Tlir. 21 1
l/|-:spieode. I I.. M.S.. 28(1
La .\mistad Dr i;ur>. 29 1
■' La r.ellin..." The. 177
" l.a Clorinde," Tli-. 177
" La Lsj)eranza." The. 176
XXX
Talk of Cases.
■• VAX. Flora,"' The. -i2S
'' La Ciloirc," The, 171
" La Melanie,'"' Tlie, 177
■■ La Purissima C onception." The, 480
■^ La Itosine,'" The, 171, 18i
■ La \ irofinie,'" Tlie, 25
Labuan, Case of. 261
■• Lafayette," Tlie. 313
Lamar v. Micou. 89
Le Bret r. J'apillon. 90
■• L, nar The. 3.V1. 3.55
■' Lesnik.'" Tlie, 173
■' Leucade,"" The, 180, -131. 485
Lightfoot r. Teiniant, 345
Lindo V. lioduev. 201
•• Lisette,'" The," 33. 411
• Lola." The. 169
- Lone." The, 209
Lothian v. Ilendersun. 193
■• Louisa," The. 221
■' Ludwicr." Tlie, 389. 394
•• Luna,"' Tlie. 182
■' Maddisox.-' Tiie. 451
■' ^ladonna del Burso,'" The, 186
■• delle (iraeie." Tlie. 77
Maisonnaire r. Kcatin"-. 85. 424, 42t)
:Malaoea.'" The. 125. 126. 127
INlaiiehuria."" The. 134
Mn„,iln,-:- The. 297. 350. 351. 361
.Manilla." The. 31. 32
Manouha." The. 459
Maro-.s V. 77-/' CO. coi,i nvnvUnq tin'
lu,r. nf ,-.,„.,,>",''Cflf:o,,. a,,,) iJ,,--
J..-'J. oi Co/.r Cclorm. E.c -,,nHr
Mnmls. 45
■• Maru-arct." The 429
■ Mo,['ir Thr. ls(i. J,s7. 190. 4(>8.
47S. 479
'■. Hall, s,3
■• Mariaiina."' The 146. 161
.Martin's Ca-e. 259
■'Marv." The. 205
•■•-^-- Lord." Tlie. 190, 201. 209. 219
■' Ma-li(ina,-" The. 65. 77. 46S
■•" Mnlrhlr.s.'- Th' . 46S
Mnttliews -■. .MoStcii, 7(1. 85
McCuiniell r. 11, .(tor. 21
Mc-iiuiKild"- Ca-c. 259
.M.•^'i■iL:•h '•. Th.' r.S.. Ml. 9(1
Men--"- Cii-'. 259
■ .M.-ni.ir." Til.'. Is2. 1-:;. 231. 232,
ISO
■ .M. ri-iii'iii-."' Tin . Ids. i 1 :',
• M.rcary."' Tin-. IHT
Millfi' /■.' Till' Ke-niutioii. 207
Mil!i-aii. /:.'■ „",/', 4S
■ MiniTVM." The. 1 17
M ilcjicll '■. 1 larniMiiv. 267
MoYunoatlt, The, 402
•• Montara," The, 142, loo
-Montgomery v. U.S., 89
•' Mukden." Tlie, 276
Murray '■. Tlie Charming Betsy, 24
•' X.vDA.iDA." The, 166
•' Xanev.'" The. 406, 429, 482
•■' Xaniwa,-"" The, 285, 286
" yashyiUc;' The. 336, 338, 348
" Xayade," The, 10, 77
Xaylor c. Taylor, 396
Xeely r, Ilenkel, 33
■■' ^vesotie on Zeevart," Tlie. 33
'■ Xej)tunus," The, 78. 82,' 4(»5. 408,
410, 423, 431
••'Xereide." The. 3s9, 392. 4S3
" yeutralitct," Thr. 410. 430. 131
•' Xew Orleans," The, 406
Xew York Life Insurance Co. v.
Davis, 88
Xew York Life Insurance Co. v.
Statiiern, 71, 88
Xigel G.M. Co. v. lioade. 25, 88
"Xitrrctia." The. 161. 449
•' Xm-dstern." The. 177
•' Xorwaerts."" The. 389. 394
- Xovik."" The. 357
•■' OcKAX.'" The, 25. 412. 472
Oddv -r. Bovill. 207
Otrden >■. Lolliott. 55
■' Oleo-.'- The. 355
" Or,'y,<le l;o>lr;'i"Psr Thr. 40l<
O'.Mealy r. WiLon. 23. 24. 73
0/,;,,'"i]' ni ihr [jl.r (I Ij I r I ,■ s Or i h r
rr',,r„ ■1S23). 365
■' Orrzrn^h,,:- Thr. 117. 419. 455. 456
■' Oster l;i<>pr." Thr. 431
•■■• On/.sv, ;■ 'I'hr. IM). 1S7. 1911. \?,\
•' Ofto and Olaf." The. 411
"Packi'.t m; Bim'.oa." The. l-'is
•' I'alme." The 141
•= ]'.,,.aqh;,, Hhnn.hnr Th'. \V1. !14
■' Taiiama." Tin'. 166. 16!'
•'rascal," The. 275
■' ]'„,,.irh' llri,r,,,,r TJ.,'. ii;!i, 17:^
Te.-ic.'. ,,f l',n-f<in,Mith. Thr Mnkin- uf
the. 221
■• 1'e;ic. „■!:.•• The Is",
■■ I'elro.- Thr, 1 il. Kili
■• I'iM-hi S.S.."' The 125
•■ I'rtrrliii!-/' T!i.-. 121, 12(;. 1:J7, 2::!
■■ I', ir,l,..ii r Th, . 1'.>I1, IL'I, I'M. 171.
172, 173
■■ I'll, I nix." Thr, i.-,i, 155, k;:^
■• l',,lk:',"' Th,', 1S5. 2(17
'J^dldc of Cases.
XXXI
J'ullv." The. 2U.3, 407, 4t)«
roiimiia,'" The, 193
'orteiidic riaiius, Tli(\ 4()t
Portland." The, 25. J 51
rostilioii." The, 24
'otts /■. IScll. 6(). 73, 77. SS
i'l'iiiius," 'riu', 142
I'liiK'cssa.'" The. 155
I'riiici'ss Aiaric," Tlio. 4Ht)
i'riiiz llciiu-icli," Tlic, J25, 174
Procrross:." Tlie, 215
Pr()toct(H-," TIr". 346
'utOLrnat"s Heirs r. IMcxieo. 267
(l"j,„,i-
Thc. 453
•■ i;\]'iii."' The. 76. 147. 451
■• Rebecca," The. 454
•• Peheckali." TJie. 176. 184
•' i;cc()verv.- Tlie. 190
•■' lieliance." The, 221
l-iesj-. r. DiuUey and Stepheu-s, 96
^ V. Jdiiipsdv (nul OHirrs. 369
r. Keyii. 191)
r. SaiuloNal and Others. 375
■• Hendslioro'." The. 155
•' l!(\-i)liitinM." The, 176. iHl
■' lieti'ii)nti(in." Tlie. 336. 33S
Rex /■. I lensey. 08
Richardson >■. Tlie .Mai-ine Insurance
Co.. 3.S3
•• Richmond," The. 423. 429
ir,rr,,;7 v. DrUi'nhci „i . 83
■• Ivinixeiide .laeob,'" The, 424
■• Rinu" Tlie. 131
■■ Rolla." The. 395. 400. 405
Rnnuilus, S.S., 202
■' PuKsia," The. 276
Rdval Exclianire Assurance Co., Tlic,
3s 1
Rii>si,i and Jajian, ('onti-oversv bc-
t\ve( II {'1904). 1
Rus<(i- Dutch Loan. The, 38
Ruys '■. The I^oyal lOxchano-e Assur-
aTiec Corporation. 384. 476
i;>irsl,;/,],,;. Casr nf. 295, 296, 297
Sr. ,Ir\N ll.\l'Tisr\ and La I'ui'i-^sima
C.iiiccptinii. 480
- Kilda." The, |S6
■ <"■■•■'/,'" Thr. 157
■ Ma-cc." 'i'h,.. I 17
■ Salvador," The. 2ss. :;71
■ San .iarinto." 'I'lic, 1") 1 . 155
./'..^/ /,../;,/„,'.■■ Ti,, . 26, 1 1!),
157, 15s. ICii
■ loan Vi'j-Miaii.-i'Pu," '!''i(\ ] ,s2
• SaiiM.ni." Tlic, 219
" Saiifi Anna." The 31 , 32
■■ S,u,h( r, //,;,'■ 77/r. 215
■■ Santissiina I'l-inidad," 'I'he, 193. 378,
383
" Sarah Christina," The, 427
■' Schooner Sopliie,'" The. 228. 233
•' Scotsman," The, 438
•' Sea Nympli,'' Th(>, 482, 483
•• Lion," The, 81
" Seciis ('■eschwistern," The, 147
Semines r . Hartford Insurance Co..
71. 88
Seton r. Low. 383, 384
Seymour '■. Ikiiley. 90
'•. The i^ondon and i'rovincial
.Marine Insurance Association, 473
•■ Shr„n,uln,ihr Tin. 320, 326. ' 334,
338, 342
Ship l{ose r. The I iiitcd States. 481
•• Ships taken at (ienoa,"' The;, 201
s;,.i.-;,,,i ni n,;i;>:h j'r^^r/s j^ the
(:r,n,n,.s „l Dnrh:},- ' I870j. 260
•• Sii' William Peel." The, 193. 291
■■ Si<tan." Tlie. 477
Small r . Lum])kin, 89
'■ Smi,lr„^h:- Thr,Vl\. 126. 127. 174,
234
Si.r'irlil !,,,■ lUc '}',(i,,fuifil'ii-n, Oi Hie
f;„si,eJ V. Whrrlrr. 22. 26, 35
■■• Sou-lasie," The, 14 7
Soulard /■, l.S,. 236. 218
S,,nrr„h>(,-;il, v. I'„i ir,>„l i/ ,,e . 19. 21
■' S]iarkler." The, 177
■' S])es and Irene," The, 410
" Sprhuihol-r The. 193. 469. 47(1. 171.
472, 475
" Staadt "I'hnbden," The, 431
••' Star," The, 220
■' Stativa," Tlie. 219
■' Steplien Hart." The. 471, 472
■'•' Stert." The. 412, 472
Strothei- r. Luca<. 248
•• Succors." The, 10. 400
'■ Sune'ari," Tic 275, 270
•• Suiitri'." The. ;;3(i, 33s
•' Susan," The, 451
■■ Susanna ," T!ie. ] !•:]
Sutton /■. Sutton. 3s
Swedish \\ai'-hip<. Is25. The Ca~e nf.
3 1 13
•• Swinehei'd," The. 233. 231
■• T\^ -M \." The. 13s
■• T.aeunv," The, :i3s
Talbnt, 'IL.M.S,, 230, 275
■■ Tallaha>-ee.- The, ;>3(;, IJ.^s
Terecira \tlair. The. :-;il)
• /■' ,-/■.■■ Thr, :\:yi. :;,■,:]
■■ T.-iit..ni,a," The, 1 il, 7 1. ss
■ r /..-:;,: r Thr. ]:vi. \:]-\. 209
•• Thea." The, ISO
•• Theti..-- 'n,,.. -i:)?,
XXXll
Table of Cases.
Tlioiupst)!! '■. I'owles, 367
■' Thomyris." Tlic, 468
■• Three Friends. " The. 215, 378
Tih)nk() /■. The Attoriiev-iieneral of
Natal, 47, 48. 49
" Tohu'inr Thr. 1(U)
" Trende Sostre." Tiie, 33. 429
" Trent:' The. 454. 455
Triquet r. Bath, 190
" Tusealoos,,-- The. 333. 338. 358. 359
"Tuscarora." The. 348
"Ticce d' eh, '>>■'! rr." The. 288. 290
'•Two Friends." The. 201. 214. 217.
219. 221
L.«.
'•In
Vs.e
. (iuilleni, 25
Grossmaver, 89
Tlie Meteor, 379
MeBae. 241
Pellv. 10. 287. 288
Perelieman, 229. 236. 248
deuieil. 375
Kepentiirnv. 229, 244
Kice. 34"
Smith, 241
Trumbull. 379
ia." The. 214
•/," V. yohle. 66. 80. 88
i"s Case. 48
■• \'ariau-."' Tlie. 275. 276
'• Venus." The. 21. 24. 25. 76. 7
•• X'icksburo'."' Tlu'. 275. 27(i
" VUiUaeno:' The. 25. 142
Villa.seque's Case. 33
\'ille de Varso\ ie. 177
'• \'riendsc]iai)."' The, 21
" Vrow Anna Catharina."" The
156. 290. 388
171
V)-o,r Elizabeth.'' The, 140
Johanna,"' 187
Judith.'' Tile, 397, 400, 403.
407. 411. 418
Maeddrefhn." The. 158. 163
Wadkku v. E. 1. Co., 248
" Walsingliam Paeket." Tlie. 190, 214
lV((r L'lssc) Ce,„ij,eii^fitie),, Ciienmi-"
•s/o,,,- iif the Ciifie Colordi. 270
■■ War Onskau." The, 219
Ware '•. Jones. 89
V. ilvlton, 58
' Warre.'-'The. 146
' Washincrton.'" The. 186
' Welvaart." The, 463
Van Pillaw." 411
Wells /■. Williams.' 66. 80, 86, 90
Vest ]le,ul Cerdi-nl (rohl M;,rr„q Co.
V. l{e.r. 240. 246
Wiborcr r. U.S.. 312. 313
•• Wilhelmsbera-."" The. 186
•'Wiin.nnr The. 186. 464. 466 _
Willison '■. Patterson. 66, 77. 87
Wolff e. Oxholm. 55. 5t;
YANiiis/.i; Insurance Association '
The Indemnity .Marine .Mutun
Assurance Co.. 449
■' Vonu-e Tliomas," The. 462
••■ ^'osemite." The. 406
^'risarri '•. dement. 3(56. 3t)7
•' Za( ![i:.\iAX."" The. Is2
Zaeualtijxin Claims. Tin
■' Zamtehuir. " Tlii\ 355
CASES AND OPINIONS
ox
TXTEENATTONAL LAW
PAirr I!.— AVAR.
iIIE COMMKXCKMEXT OF ]VAI{—
i in;: orKsriox or pimoij Xivnci-: on
!)!:( LAR \Ti()X.
CONTROVEESY BETWEEIT SuSSIA AWD JAPAN, !904.
K. A. :;;;■-,;, '>']■<■ ■l'\-^''-L\\>.\ :r >■', nil' ■■• : U> Tai;- - .,:■■: I m:--; 'l;t;)i;i;
Circu.iiS unices leading to ConU::vers7.^ Fov >o\nr liiae prior
to .)ui\-. {'■'''■'<. :'h'- jKui-y iKir-ii "l \y i-ii---!,: JJi ih' F;;r Ivist luul
bi'i'i! r.'L'ia'^'d [r- -)a[;:'!> ;!■- iiMJiii',;! i^) )i:'r >"i-urjl.v ;;iid vital
int('r.>i-. Al!"i;i(l\- i'l '.^'.^■'). !iii<-;:i. w'w'n ili- >;ij)jm;;1 t'T Cicnnaii;-
anJ l-'r,: :i'- ■. lia^l i iitc:-'/:-!' i l" itr.\-,-ii; di!' ,■, v^k,., h]' Po^i
Artluir ■• Ja-M]!. a- icAj' i:a i I \ ji!'i'jai-iA li\- tii" Ti'; a'x' o\'
S\\w: > '- ■' •: wliii-l ill h-M-- ii,i--i:' i;.'r.-iar lia.! a(-,ai''.^! a mi-
wil! In- f.v;v:i a: ri,,-. A' ■ ■-■ ^' , ■ / •■ Ajii-i!. liia!, pn. J:;i, I i:).
2 Cases and Opinions on International Laiv.
called lease both of Port Arthur and Talien-\van {h\ In 1900
she had also established herself in the Chinese province of Man-
churia, from which, notwithstanding repeated promises, she re-
fused to witlidraw; whilst more recently, she had attempted to
acquire a foothold in Korea, and now threatened to dominate the
northern parts of that country. For these reasons, the rela-
tions betAveen the two Powers at the date mentioned were
seriously strained. In July, 1903, Japan, with the object of
relieving this tension, opened negotiations with Russia on the sub-
ject of the situation in ]\Ianchuria and Korea. On the 12th August
Japan accordingly submitted certain proposals, Avhich involved in
substance a mutual engagement to respect the independence and
territorial integrity both of China and Korea; the maintenance
of the principle of equal opportunity for the commerce and in-
dustry of all nations; and, subject thereto, a reciprocal recognition
of Japan's preponderating interests in Korea, and of Russia's
special interests in railway enterprises in Manchuria. On
the 3rd October Russia submitted counter-proposals, which, in
effect, limited the proposed engagement to Korea, and even then
subject to certain new conditions, as that no part of that territory
should be used for strategical purposes, and that a neutral zone
should be established; whilst she further required that Japan
should recognize ]\lanchuria and its littoral as altogether outside
her special sphere. Thereafter various other proposals and
counter-proposals passed between tlie parties, although without
any agreement being reached, and with such delay on tlie part of
Russia as to create some doubt as to Avliether nw arrangement was
real]>' (h^sircd liy licr. On tlic loth January Japan made a
fourth and final proposal, in which she oft'ered to recognize .^lan-
churia and its littoral as outside her sphere of i]iteri\st. provided
that Russia would undertake to respect the territorial inl(>grity of
China and Manchuria, to recognize all treaty rights in Manchuria,
and to treat Korea and its littoral as outside h.er sphere of interest;
rejecting, liowever, tlie Russian pro])Osal< as to tlie non-use of
Korean territor\' for strati'ii-ical purposes and the e-tablishmeiit of a
neutral zone. Inasmuch as this represented the extreme limit to
( l>^ Sec vol. i. 110.
Commencement of War — Prior Notice or Declaration. 3
which Japan was prepared to go in the matter of concession, a
prompt reply was asked for; bnt in spite of r(^peated efforts on the
part of Al. Kurino, the Japanese Minister at St. Petersburg-, no
reply was in fact receivixl until the 7th February (<•?).
In the jncaniinic. and whilst these negotiations Wt're proceed-
ing, both parties pressed on with their military and naval prepara-
tions. Russia, in particular, dispatched a naval sf|uadron to the
East under Admiral Wirenius — passed some 40,000 troops into
Manchuria — and made preparations for sending 200,000 more.
She also disj)atclied troops to the Korean frontier, and placed her
forces on the Yalu on a Avar footing; whilst either on or before
the 2nd February her troops are said to have crossed the Yalu,
and to liave entered Korea (d). The Russian lleet also apj)ears to
have sailed from Port Arthur on the 3rd February, and to have
cruised off the Japanese coast. On the 1st February, more-
over, the Pussian authorities at Vladivostock appear to have
warned the Japanese commercial agent there that, inasmuch as
a state of siege might at any time be proclaimed, he should prepare
his countrymen for withdrawal (e) .
On the 5th February the Japanese (Government, irritated by
these delays and occurrences, determined to abandon any further
negotiations, and also to sever its diplomatic relations Avith l?ussia.
On the Gtli February, at 2 p.m., this determination A^•as communi-
cated by tlie Japanese Foreign Oillce to the Iiussian Minister at
Tokio. On tlie same day, at4 p.m.. M. Kui'ino. at St. Petersburg,
handed two jiotes to tlic Pussian Foreign Minister, Count I./ams-
dorff. Tn one of these M. Kurino annoiinctMl that his Oo\'i'riiment
proposed to abandon further negotiations; and that it would
inimediatelA' consider what means of sel I'-dereiico might l)e lUMHled,
[!■) Tliis reply a])jirars to have Ix'cii i-liaru'C a])[}oar> to lia\e l)(,>eii un-
di.^patclii'd on the -Mli t'ehriiai-y, hut dimuled, t^lic delay Iia\iiii;- ])robably
was not 7'ei'cived hy ilaroii iio^en. the ncciirred at Port Arthur ajid not at
Russian .Miuistei- at Tokio. until the Tokio: <w I'.ordwell, Ki:] <■( .wv/. A
7th. Ir wiiuhl nut ill aii\- ea-^' ha\i' I !-a n-latinn oL' all these do'unients will
pi-ev(iited tlie war. it \\a~. hn\v*-\ri-, lie found in A.-akawa. ;;(lo - :5oit.
fiubsi-cpienily eharu-ed a-'ainst the ('>> See, the T^n'r.s-, •2iith .Wareh,
Ja])ane-c (ojvemnneni thai tin' lattri' l'.M)(; the Otlicial lli-tory. 1st ed.
had nialiriou-ly delayed the (lcli\-ri-y pi. i. T^ alllnuiL;'!: this pa-^a'^'e is
of this de^pati'h, in ni-die- that it nnu'ht nmitt^'d i'roni the "Jnil I'd.
justify its rupture of di |iliiinat if I'.la- i- ■ Tak'ahashi, 12.
tions (ui till' i;-round id' dela\-. This
4 (Jases and (fjiinions on fnterndlionaJ Laiv.
re<erviiiii- its x\'-2\\t Ici take " such indfijcudcnt action a>- it might
eoiisicU'i' bt'st to L'on>olidatL' and defend its menaced position, as
Avell as to protect Japan's vested riphts and legitimate in-
terest- " / . Jn thr other he annoiUKX'd a d(>hnite severance of
diplomatic relations c/ . The ru])ture of diplomatic jv-lations
with Ku-^ia was not itied by Japan to f)t!ier Powrrs oji the 8th
February. The Jajianesi.' Alinister (juittcd St. I^•tl■l■^bll!■g on
til'' lOtb h'i'ljruary. leaving Jajjanese interest> in charge of the
l']iited Statev andnissador: A\hilst 'he iin>>ian Minister (jiiitted
d'okio oil til" 11th February. Icavimz' Tius-ian interests in charge
el' the Fi'cuch and)as:-ador.
AF'anw'hile. on the juorniag of the Gtli J'\'liriiar\ , the Japanese
fleet, actinij' under orders preA'ioiisly received, quitted Sasebo in
compa.ny \\\{\\ a nuiidjer of tran.-port> containing troops; onc^
divisiori of the iiet.'t. under Admiral 'xAvja), proceeding to Port
Arthur, vs hilst th(; other, under Pear--.Vdmiral Uriu. proceeded
Avitli t.ii' Iransporl.- to the coi^t of Korea 7/,. On the snme da}^
the '" i-^l^at ■riiio-hi\'.' a ve--el bch)iJL!in::' to the lius-ian ^'oluntrM■r
fli'Ot V .and t!i" '■Mukd-n."-i \c>Md bcluiiu-ine- lo the i'la^t China
liailwa' (.'o.. \\v'-:v c,..pi!ircd by Jajiaiic^c crui^eiv. On the
0th. F-bn:ai'y. shd-tiy after midniirht. an attack va- ncid-' on the
]iii--iaM vc^M-l-.. j\ine- :n the out"!- hai'iionr ;it ]'e;'t Artlnr;
whiht. en l!n: follev me- (V.w . \\v jdacc itx-lf w,.s i,r,nib;ird' d by
Admiia: T(je!:/s >|U.MJroii. r)n th- ^t!i J:'(.Fru,!ry ih- !(i!--!;n
e-iin-li:.;!" 'M\(jiict>: ' encountered th^ s:'(ju;- o! Admu'a! UriuA
>':uad:e , o!;' Ohen!u!o(). in For'';!, and iii^J on them. subM-,;; nl i \'
t;d:ei V fM-j-i^ hi (FeneilpM ilerlieui' /,■ . Oji iji" --in-; ;; f. •■■U' -'.u
tie- d>:0;tnL--e beeuj. I,, di-i-inb.i.k tre..^.,- in ForcaJj territ:*; \'.
"\\ iti! ihc-i- acf-; and r/'ciiri'.'iici.-. the war. c~ a w:\y (h' idclo. Viiwx
bi -;:•!, t^r ].;i\e c( ;iiinn"nced . I'ut (Hi the ICth Fi'bru;i''\- ■■ de-
(dariitien ef vie,-, i;, the shape el' -a invi, 'laiiiut ien adib' ':-- d to
i '.'■ mn Tf\; ;-
k:i\\^:!. :; i .! '■'}[ I.
! <! '\'\.i- c|n-l (.It llii-
;is ;b nu:\r.- ,,[ j.m-mIiIc
V.'Ii-'. !!' ■•.. '■'. I'V. ill -dM"
1
in .\--a- (liir:n iii:i. Thi- i-- -o .-tatcd i:-. rJio
j;!i--i'ii; (Ji!i,-',i: Ml s.. ..,j, ,-. aiid d^;cs
:'-i':,,.-ii; . ac; aiij.iar tc iia'."c 1hi'!i di-niiTl liy
■ a.clicii. .tajKiii.
;■ caali- ' /• 'i'. C'iW'M. 1 ! u~-m-,I ,i iia iii'-c W ar.
ili'i.l !,\- I ,,■■ : .I'''. Tiiat 111 : ICI \'a ! ■ Iin; ■
Tc (■.^):M l.ai., ilc.-li-. \] . Aiiiaau < :: -
j,M.-.,n a !„,;.._ 0,a- C. lajaarc ,A
(liplijinati'j rulatiuiH v.'ould b',: cd' Avjvi
■ : ' ){]i'-[:u i ! i-t'iry. llad id. [ii . i. ii
(/ , !,'',■. Ii. 1,0.
(\)mmenccmi'nl of War — Prior Xoficr or Declnration. -■)
Japanese >;iil)jeels, was issued l)y Japan; ^vlli!st on tlie same
day a similar deelaration, in tli(i form oT a protdamation addressed
to I-iussiau subjects, was issued l)y Ivussia. Neirlier of tliese pro-
clauiatious, it "will 1)e ol)S(M'\e(K eonsi it ii1:ed a deidai'at ion in the
sense of a nolii'e addressed to Hk^ otluM' l)idliii'erent ; and each
songlif. to justify the action of the issuiiio- Power and to impeach
that of its ad\ersary ,/ . Xeverl iieless, their eJTect A\as sjjeediiy
circulated, and serxcd at. once to warn Jieuti'al States of the out-
break of host i lit ies, and to hring under 1 luar notice the content ions
of the re^[)(M•ti\e ])arties.
The Controversy. Tin^ action of Japan in thus commencing
liostilitics. and her action m regard ti) Korea, were iiow made the
subject of w formal indictment on the ])art of Russia; and in the
contro\ersy which ensued each ])art\" souu'iit to just if \' its action
at the bar of internatioiud opinion. \\\ a manifesto issued on
the l(Sth February, 11)04, tlussia accused .Japan of ]ci\dng sud-
denly broken off negotiatujus for the pur[)ose of achie\ing ""a
slight suec(s.-. inilu^ longdesii'cd war b\ a rrea<'heroii< at tack ' m) .
To this charge Japan rej)lied on the 'I'IimX Fi'bruary. alleijino-. in
effect, that R u^-ia had, throng! lout tln' w hole ecairse of the JC'gotia-
tions. shnv. II that she \\as hei'self intent on war; that siie had
bc'eii u'uilt \ cif wanton dehi\ s; and iliat she had ni ilazeil these didays
for t h(,' pui'pn-i' of st reiigthfMii mi' I'.er military and na\al [losuion;
a ijuantity of e\ idenee being a(hluced in jiroof of these state-
ments. ilenc(> it, was contended that the ho;-tile measures
adopted \)\ Japan v\i're in elfect only measnres of' s,^| ('-,],. paice.
It was j'urthei' pointi'd out tiiat as early as the ;>th Feln'uarv,
Japan had intimated to IiU--ia tJial s!ie ivserxrd her rie-ht to takc'
such inde[iei'.(hait aeiidu as mieiii \>-- n'cc>-;!i-y :n def.a!:e ^f h(>r
menaced petition an intimaiion wlich e'rarly co\i-i'ed the pos-
sd)1(^ adoption of hostife ncasiu'es. j-hnally. it was contended
that. accoi'diuL:' I'l the then u-ai^-e of n;!i!on>, a prioi- dindaration
of war A\as li\- no means an ind i.-jieiivabf' condition to llie opemnir
i '■ I The text nf liiiih il('r!:!rai inii-' ;;is. A iiiiivc (Irtaiii'd arcusati.jii wa-;
•will lir i'uinul in ■|"al;al!aNhi, <i ' ' x'/.; (iiiMi-luMl ou tiic '.^dih {''rnniarv in the
^rr aJMi .\<aka\va. ol.") :ils. ntv,-:.'' M , ss, ,,>,. r : <rc y,;;.'. •J'Jild
.,- ' Se,' ■fakaiia-lii. s. a'lil A^akawa. t'eliriiarv. lini|.
6 Cases and Ojiiiiions on International Lmv.
of hostilities {n). This reply was made public through tlie press
on the 3rd March fo".
Although this (.oiitruversy is nut cue that admitted of any judicial
or definitive settlement, it serves, perhaps lor that very rciison, to
illustrate generally the position occupied by the la^\- of war in the
international system. Some part of the controversy, it "svill be seen,
turned on the question of the justice or injustice of the Avar; but
with this question international law does not, so far, concern it^ielf ,
merely taking- notice of the existence of a state of war as the basis
of a new set of relations which Avill then arise both as Ijetu'een the
bellig-erent States themselves, and between each of them and neutral
States. More particularly, it serves to illustrate tiie conditions
under Avliich hostilities might be commenced under tlie cus-
tomary law: the date a-^ from Avhich the leu'al etfects of war will
accrue; and. linally, the question of the neutrality of territory belong-
ing to a third Power, the control of wluch Avas one of tiie objects of
the Avar, although the last of these questions is left over for later
consideration {p) .
The question Avhother Japan Avas justified in opening' hostilities in
the circumstances described, Avithout a prior declaration of war, must
be judged, of course, by the customary law of nations, and not by
the ]jresent couA'cntional rules i/y,-. The views of the text writers
on this subject dilfer greatly. Some insist on tlie necessity of a
prior declaration, or, at any rcitc, of specific notice directly addressed
by an intending belligerent to his foe; others, Avhilst requiring prior
notice, yet regard a proclamation or manifesto — not necessarily
addressed to the enemy State — as sufficient; whilst others again
regard botli declaration and notice as unnecessary, treating tliose
usually issued in practice as intended for the information ratlier of
suljjects or neutrals than of the enemy (r;. International jjractice
on tlie subject has also \'aried. Down to the sixtnentli century it
appears to liaAX.' been usual to notify an intended A\ar by letters of
defiance and later by heralds: but tliis practice naturally fell into
disuse. As the result of an exhaustiA'C inquiry, it has boiMi found
that from 1700 to 1870 there are only 10 instances in whicli Avar
Avas ])receded by a formal declaration; AS'hilst tliei'e are no less than
107 instances in Avliicb il Avas commenced with<iUl deelnration (6").
In the lat-er Avar> of tli.e nineteenth century, indeed. A\e notice a
tendetic}' to levert to the earlier Y)ractice of issuinu' a formal declara-
(n) Takaliarlii. 10— ]2: A.-^akawa, I lauiic ( 'oiivciirioii. Xo. ;J of 1907. are
351— 354. not. declaratory of tlie custcjniary law,
(o) Asakawa. 351. hut merely lay dowu a comcnienb
(yj) 'J'lic facts and i.-siic< in rclatimi jH'aetice for future ohscrxaiic.
to tlic question of tlc' violation of (r) Hall. 370- 37S.
Korean neutralitc ai-c discus^^ed at (f^) .Maurice, i lostilities without De-
ji. 27t i-t seq. elaration of \\'ar (ISSo), 4: T/ip yinr-
(qj 'I'lio rule- now embodied in the lt-i-,,ij, Cf,,t ,i,-^i . I v. (i7«J. .\i)ril. 1904.
( 'ommencement of War — Prior Notice or Declarallon. 7
(ion prior to tlio coniineuceineut of hostilities (/;. But in 1904 llio
newer practice had certainly not reached a stage at which it could he
said to have become oldigalory or to have dis[)laced Avhat iiad been
the predominant practice of States for nearly three centuries \ uj.
Hence we nuu' take it that under the customary law, as it obtained
in 190-1, there was no obligation on an intending belligerent to issue
a formal deularation or notice to his foe before commencing h(jstili-
ties; and that Japan therefore broke no law in connnencing liostilities
in the circumstances previously described. At tlie same time, the rule
that Avai' may legitimately be begun ■without ])rior declaration or
notice, does not iniply that either party Avoidd be justified in ttiking-
the other unawares. ' An attack." says Professor Westlake, "'which
nothing had fore>Jm<lowed, would be infamous, and third Powers
would ]irobably join in resenting and opposing it ' (x^. Hence even
under the cuslnmary Jaw — which on this jioint still remains in force —
no attack may lawfully be made unless friendly relations have been
terminate<l in suliicient time, and under such circumstances, as to
guard against all reasonable danger of surjn'ise i // 1. But ev(m so,
it would still api)car that the charge of surprise and treachery made
against Japan was unfounded; for the reason that the war arose
only aftor the failure of a long series of negotiations, that both
parties had for some time past been liurrying on their preparations,
and that both must liave regarde<l an outbreak of war as prob-
able, if not inevitable. On the Gth February, moreover, the
Japanese Government, in severing diplomatic relations with Russia,
had expre<sly reserved its right "to take such independent action as
it mio'ht con-ider best to consolidate and defend its menaced j^osi-
lion"; and this \\arning had l)eeu given some two days bi^'ore the
attack on Port Arthur, which, although not the staTting-])oint of the
war, coiisiii iited the chi(M' factor in the Pussian charge of treachery
and surprise.
"With resp('ct to th(^ actual date at Avliich ihe war inay lie said to
have commiMiced. a state of war will arise citliiM' u])oii a formal
declaration of war, whether unilateral or bilateral; or by some act
of force d(.)ni' bv one ])arl\' against the other willi iiiieni of war;
or bv some aci of force <h)ne b\- one parly. e\on wilhoiit such intent,
if tli(> other elecf-s to treat it as n (.'.ause of wari;i. The ([uestioir
of war or ui i war is at bnliom a <|ii(\stiou of fact., and if proved to
(<) Si) till' l-'raiiii_)-(IcniKiu \\<\v of of tlic Ijolli^^-croiit <. liostilities really
1870 and the liiisso-'i'urkish war of heij'au soiui' time before.
1877 were cacli ]ii'eiH>(le(l l)y a formal ( -' i l'"or ;i i'i'\ icw both of ])raetiee
declaration. altlionL;'li in tlie latter ca-c and o|iinioiL on this ])oint prior to
the Russians appeal' to ha\c rrosscd Hl(l7, sec ILall, 37U ct si-q.; and as to
the t'ridh licfoi-c fhe declaration was tlie i>siie of manifestoes loosely spoken
issued; wliiUt the Spanish-American of a-^ (Icclaratioiis of war. ihit! . 377,
war of IS;)s, and the Soiilli Afia'can and Taylor. I.")!); and as to notice of
war of ISOIt. were each preieded by an ncutraN. p. 28", iair".
ultimatum whieh had the etfeet iif a ( .'• > Westlake. ii. 2:>.
ooitditional dcilaration . lint in the ( v/ Ifer-^l-.ey. (iS.
Chino-Jajiane-e war. IS'.M. althouuh a T; , See ji. 10. :,,i,-i'.
declaration, (if war was issued bv each
8 Cases and Opinions on Infernalional Lav:.
I'xist in fact, thou tlio stale or relation of war Avill ai'i<<> witk all its
albonclant coiisoquonces, no matter what irrojjulai'ity or (h^fanlt on
eith<>r side may liave attended its commonceraent ya i . A])plyinu- t]i(\s(!
primaples io tin; case in hand, it seems rlcar tJiat the mere severance
of diplomatic rclntions hy Japan on the (ith February did not in itself
amount to war. for tlic r;'a-nn that such a ])rococ(ling is frorpiem ly
ix'sorted to in limes nl' tension or ^-ravi; misuudcrstandino- without
intent of war. a!ihoii,o-]i such, a practice is or(>atly to lie deprofaled. (7>t.
Xor a<;'aiji <lid tlic mor(> sailing- of the .JapaiH.'se ileol fr(.>m fejasobo on
ttio morninu' ol' the Gth Fohrnary couslirute Avari*"', even though
t hcr(* \va- ii(,\v a ch>ar iuteiii Kj open hosiilitio-, for ill.' reason tiiat a
war dn jacli) can only arise out. of smec direct, act of lorcc apoliod h}'
one ])arty to the otliei'. llciico the actual C(»mmcnct'i!ient of the
war would aj)pcar to (hite from tfu^ caj)tnre fiy tlie Ja])anese of the
l-JmN'rl^o-'-l'ir, wiiicJi occurr<>(l somewJiiit Jater on tlu^ same da\'i//i.
ft thi-! ]j;' so, t'len It is fronr this nioinent tliat Uie new r;'lation.s in-
aii^'urated h\- -war iiiu-t lie deemed to have accrued.
(ii) Till] DAT I'] AS FliOM WIlKdl Till' l.iXl.VL
EFFKCTS OF W All WILL .\TTA(;H .\S n!:T\VKKN
bellk;khk:^ts.
THE "ELIZA ANN."
i 1 ;•!]:!: 1 !)(kU. 2 11.]
Case, j Slioiily ])o£ore th(> oulhi'eak of war between t ; ;• ai ib'itaiu
and tho Uiiiti'd States, in iSbi, the '" VM/:,i .\ im " aii.! \\\n (;{,ja'r
\cssels uii>ier the .Viiiericau llaii' w-re seizc'i Uy ]\],' I'rilisb .in
Haiioe ISay, iimhT an oi'der for the d, ten! ion of Vn; 'rican [ii'o-
])ei'fy which h;id been issued in anticipation of t!ie \\ai\ and wore
sent in for ad pid icat ion . On the case c()iuini>- on for Icaiiiif^- a
chiiin for tJc' I'.deasi' ol' t.lu* \('>s;'U and thidr c.!r'.rei'S v,a- neuh' l)v
direction of thi' Swedish Minister, on thi' u'i'onn(N liiai ilaiioo
l>:i\' Wii-- Swedish 1 ri'i'itoi'X ; tliat Sweth'ii w;i- at ;h- time
I": I hill. :;7'S. (r) Ahlidim-li it was .,. ircatrd in
i '' > As t(» a pi-iipo-a! ht its ■.•mi- ilu' .la|ianc-^(' I'rizc ("nnrM: sim. 'i'aka-
ti-actiial al)f)iilli.ii, <rc l!ai-'-lay. i'roli- lia^lii, ,")!)!.
Icm-i ol" Inf. Law and I )i jiioniacv. aS, (//) Takalia-lii. '2-. I'M
J S I .
iSnn))U'uccmcnt oj War — lAujal l\ll'ecf.s of War. !)
iii'iifral: and llial llic raptin'r Avas 1 liciTrorc iiixalid. In lln' result
this claim was I'cicctcd, and both sliips and cai'uoi's -wfTc c.ow-
di'innctl. on th(> i^round thai a, stato ot; "war, witli all its attcn(hint
(•ons(M|U('n('i's, h'U'ally existed at tlic tinn' between (ii'eat; Bi'iiain
and Sweden.
Ju.dgment. Sir \\'. Scott, in liis judenient —after ai-cordiiiir
t!ie t'uHest reco^-nit ion to th(> v\\\v that acts oi* vioieiiee by either
belliii'erenf ^\'it,hln neutral teri'itory were forbidden unless l)y per-
mission of and subject to the i'esponsi[)ility of the territorial
I'ower jiroceecbHl to deal with, the (|Ue>!ion wlu'tlier Sweden was
at the timt: to be rea'ar(h'd as neutral. As to this, lie pointed out
that th(> ei)ndu( t ol' .Sweden^ towards (ii'cat I'ritain liad fvir some
time ])asr h(>en of an unt'riendty character; that slie had excluded
British vhips from Ikm; ports, and had adopted a course of policy
imjMisei! on her by Franc(\ tin* eneni\ of (ii'eat Ibdtaiii, and that
(ireat Ib'ilain had then occupied Ilanoe. whereu[)on Sweilen had
issuiMl a declaration of war. I)ut inasmuch as this declaratioJi A\"as
uni];;t(M'al only. U had Ixmmi contended on the ]iart of tlie claimant
that no ^tate of wai' existed at t.li" time between tlie two countries.
Jt .--cemed. howcNcr, perfectly cleai' that, it ^\as not; a ii \' the less a
state of war '>u that a'/count . For wai' mie-ht cxi^t e\cn without
a declaration on eitlua.' side; as had. iiithced. bc(^n ianl d.owii by
the text wr!ter> on the hr.v of nations. .\ declaration of war by
one country was not a mere challene-e to be acceptiMJ or j'lfusc^d
at pleasure I)y the other. ()n the contrai'\'. it >er\ ed to --liow the
existence' of actual ho-tilitiis on one sidi' ,il lea^-t; and bciice put
the other party al>o into a stati' of \\ai'. i'\en tliouu'li lie miglit
think jiropei to ast on the defeiisi\e only. I'he lrcal\" li\' 'wliicli
tlie v>ar wa-- concluded ;d>o v'learly showed the cxi^teiiei' of an
antei'cdeni siate of war. \\hale\(r the re;i<(,)iis for lie Jiostile
declai'atioii on the j);irl of l!ie Swe(!i>li ( M)\"ernment . and whetlier
due to I'ear (^\ j-'ranci- or -oine other eimse. the broad t'acl wa^ that
"war exist(Ml .
in till >e-oiid place, ii del iiol a[ip!':ir tliat the plaee oJ',;iplure
w as wit idn Sw cd cdi I eri'il oj'\ . U)V I laiioe w ;is at the lime 'n,,,-,.,!^
palion b\- the Ib'il ish force-, and tJiat ]io.-.-~e>~>iiin wa- ,i co-til,.
lo Cases and Opinions on International Laiv.
possession and had not been disturbed. The claim therefore failed
both ill respect of the neutrality of S^\•eden and the neutrality of
the place of capture.
The main cjuestioJi here \va>s wlielhor, al the time of the capture,
Sweden could be said to be at war with Great Britain and the
ordinary incidents of war to attacli, having- regard to the fact that
the deckiration of war was unilateral only. A similar question
was raised at the Hague Cunferejice of 1907, but appears to have
been left unanswered (« i. ii\. the case of the Eliza Ann. it was
hel<l that a declaration uf war. even tliuugh unilateral, sutiiced
to establish a state of war between the parties, \\ix\i all its attendaiit
consequences, including the right of capturing enemy pro[)erty within
the territorial "wat^^-rs of either belligerent ; 6 '. And the reasoning'
adopted shows this to be eqiudly applicable in a case where the
war originates, not in a declaration, but in some act of force done
by one party with intent of war, even though by the niuiucipal
la-w of either State some particular authority alone may liave power
to declare war beforehand; for, at ])ottoni, war is a C[uestion of fact,
and once it exists in fact then all its legal incidents will attach,
irre.spective of the legality of its commenccuiettt ( c i. Xor is this
rule affected, in its results, attd as between the belligerents them-
selves. })\ the provisions of the Plague Cojiventioti. X*.). •":! of 1907 ( ///.
(_)n the i,tliei' Jiand. the mere imudnence of wai' \\\\\ not produce
this re>uli. Sn. in Jan-^nii v. Dricfonfeii/ f'onsoJiddted (iohl Mines
{'19112, A. ('. 484 I. it was pointed out that "no amouDt cif .--trained
relation-- "" could be said to c^tabli-li a state of war sci a-; to aifect
the >ubiei-t- of either ciiuntry in their conunercial or other transac-
tions: foi' the reason that the law recogiiized a state of peace and
a state of war. l)u; knew nothing of an intei-mediate .-tate whicli
wa< aieither the (Uic nor the other c . Xe\erthele-s. the mei'e
imminence of wai' will justify some precautioji or deIa^' on the ])art
of subject- iif either of ilie Powers aiiected. and may thu> indireitlv
aflect tJKMi' riimmer(ial a'clatiou.-. So, in the ca-e of the Tcntonia
nH70. L^ H. 4 P. C. 17] ,. a Pin<sian ve>-^el under an Eno-|i<]i charter
liad rei<'i\(M| older- to jjioceed with her cai'go to Dunlvirlc. in I-'iance:
Oil arri\ina' oil tlial ]iori on the l(;th Jidy. 1870. tlie ]na<tei' rec(n'\ed
infoinial ii ni that ^\ar had liiMkeu nut liet\\e(m Fram-e ami ]^ru<<ia,
alihonL:!! in fart A\ai \\a- nn! (jeclaicil until the P.tth .fid\; he there-
("^ I'cair.' 1 liiTi^-iii-. l^U.K "ioS). As to the liicaiiiiiL;' uf the cx-
• I:) .Scr al~ii I'Jr I'i'i\r fn^,. ^ |il'cs>ii>n •• foiM'iLTU State at" wai' with
]}lack. at (;ns>: and. a^ tu nutic- Im ■'">' frii-iidly State'" cniiraiiicd in rln;
<uliic.-tv Thr s'//,<vvs(i l),)(l- at i:;:; I'nrcioai I^nli-tnicnt Act. IsTa, s. 1.
,c. Sec /;„/,. V. M,,.i,:,,.u. ,,,• -■'■^■•— /'./'/-W. X. isiW. II.
I><s,n-"n''' (■■'. I.")! AFaiiic. n;.'): Scott. ^ '' /"''"■]>■ IS.
•iTo : and 7'/'' Ac/c/, ,[ c, |;,,l,. :,, , ,,j At ]>, 193 rf .ycy.
Coniinenceineut of War— Legal Effects of IVar. 11
upon piucoedod lu Dover lor enquiry, by wJiich time war iiad
uclually broken out. In these eircuniatances it was held by the
Piivv (Council that, although the sliip could in fact have entored
Dunkirk as ret^uired b}' the charterer on tlie IGth July, yet the
taking- of a reasonable time for enquiry was legitimate; and that,
inasmuch as the subsetpuMLt outbreak of war Jiad relieved the owners
of the ship from the obligations of the charter iji this regard, the
consignees of the cargit wore not entitled to damages for non-delivery
at Duidvirk.
Uem:kal ^,'otes. — The Relation ur State of War. — International
war is a contest, carried on by armed force, either between States,
or between a State and some counnunity or body \\hich is treated
as a, Suuc for ihe ])urpose of the conduct of hostilities. International
war ditlcrs from other kinds of war in that it has the ell'ect of setting-
up a new relation in law both a^ between the belligerents themselves
and as between each of them and other States. As between the
belligerents, the state oL' war, although a departure from norjiial
relation<. is. nevertheless, a state of regulated violence; in which
the condiKjt of hostilities is governed by certain principles and rules,
which rest in part on custom and in part on convention, and which
are sanctioned in the last resort by the action of interiiational society,
howe\er uncertain that may be in its operation (ry). As between
the belligerents and neutral States, the new relation is also governed
- and here, perhaps, more eil'ectualiy by principles and rules which
have a similar basis and an added sanction. But cases of purely civil
strife, or lujstilities carrietl (ju against lilibusters or pirates, or contests
with the liarbarous (jr semi-barbarous comiminities not possessing
the requisite-^ of statehood ( /n, estaldish no sucli rehition. and do
not srrii-tly involve an aj)plicatioiL oL' the rules that goverji inter-
national war; e\en though humanity or regard t'ur international
opiiuon. oi- the fear of retaliation nia\' diciale their observance (n.
In cax'- ol' civil war, indeed, where the circumstances are such as
to ailc'ct the interests uf other States in a majiner similar t(j inlor-
naliona! war. and wher<' the war i^ waLi'od oji either side bv a commu-
nity or biidv liaving an oi'^aiiized g()\'eniiu(Mit capable of carr\ing
on war accunling h) e^labllslied nde<. a iccon-nition of belligerenev
is, as wo have seen, usually ;iccor(hMl ( /; i . A.nd the assumption bv
a State, iiL its re]n'essi{in ol.' ariucd icbcllion. of rights as against
other State- and t heii- subject-, whii-h strict ly belong onlv to a state of
war, will ]ia\e a siniihir ellect i/i, in .-uch ca-(^< the war \',il] rank
('/I Sir iiil. i. II. and. :i- to licHir'ci'ciil jiowcm's t'\crci<i'<l
(/', ////'/. IS. ill civil \v:i!\ Wlicatdii ( Dan.i . 374. ii.
(i) As to their application in ( ascs i /■) Si'c \o\. i. (Jii,
of '■ iii-iurrcctioii," ■• rolicllioii.'' and (/) .\s t-o tlie a.-.sinu])tioii of u riii^ht
"civil wai-.'' un<lcr tin^ I nitcd State- by tiic If^iritiuiatc Lrovcrnmcnt to clo.so
.-y-t^ni. -c ■ Moore, hiu-e-t. \ii. l-Vl: port- witliiu its territory, which are
ri f'a><es and Oplniom (jr International Laiv.
I'll]' exK'iiial ]iiii])i)-c,^ a^ a wai' lict uccii Slate--; fNcii \\\t>ws\\ \x-<
iiicidoiil- ill ollici' icspcit- may i-nminiio {m he i'<'ii-iila.lil'' iiv the
iloiiK'-' in law. ^n. rliniiiL:' lli<' .A iii'MJca ii livil wwv. l)i'liiL:fi<-JH jiu'iils
A\ei*' cxcni-^'ii lioili \)\ the ('iiiu>:l, States ( Jm ('innicnt . ami al'ior
it- i('iM,;_.|iii i, ,|i 1>\ ilia.l <il' tJK' ( 'uii lc<li'ia<\ . (i\('i' til'' Milii"i-i> and
jiiHpcil \ oj' (iilici; State-, ai-i' jid inu' In ilic a'-i-e |)U' [ I'uj"- nf Wixv:
wliil-i llic I'm! iiicr a!-M li-rati'd ijic nicinl.er- ul' ijie ariin' I inii-<,'s (;i'
llie ( 'iiiilci|erai-y a- (|iialiiic;i lii'llinci'cii!,- ; alt liMi|i_;h it J"!ii>('(| to
ii'('')L;ni/<-. imdc)' tlic diiiiic-iic law. ciilic)' ijif. cxj-teiKC c,'' ihc ( 'oii-
I'eiN'rale ( Mixcriiiiieiit or ji- linal di-a pjicara iic;' yo \ . Wj'li llie
(.ihjcct- <,\ wai', ^\ licl 111')- JuiiiumI iate <i!- ulicrini'. j nV'niai i< 'iia I law
(h\v< jii't (■Mii((Mit jt-c||': iiMT line- ii jjiiw I'fi iJi;-iii/,(' aiiv di-t i nii ion
lj('tw(';ai dili"i'eiit funii- ni' warw/l. A. war iiiax. Iim\\,'\<t. he
" liiiiit;-!." Mi- |Miali/('d a- jeL^ai'd.- tli'^_' area <>{_' ]io-! ililie-. alliajuiili
tlijs <'')ii iad\' ai'i-i' j'naii ]iolic\- m- aLiaccnicni and iini a- a. niatKa-
01' Ji.'Liul o'liiii^ai ion . ^-o. jn ilio d"in co- 1 laliaii wai- m' i'.HI. Italy
ori^'iiia II \ d(M-|:iiod hc!' iii"Milioii tioi 1f» land Hoops in an\ i»a)1 fit'
l]n' Oitoiiian <'inpii'' oxcop! Tiipoljiana and ( 'xiiMiaJia an.i io i-on-
iina o\"n Jicr naxal opciaiion- lo iln' |iioi<'(t ion of ilio e v pcdjtioii
and oT llic Italian ■•Ma-t- and infai'-; -; o , ; a ll lioii'_;-li ihi- -'at'Tiient
of inK'H I joii wa-not. in tin' re-idl. \v|ioll\- adli<'i'cd to;,..
llic I'hifi' i)f W'df ill /he I iili'i'iiiil ininl Sfisj,- III . l-ic! \\-f.(.ti Sta'''-. a.-
])(.'t we<'Ji J]idi\JduaN. >oiii(^' :-anct if,>n. orlicr ihaii Jiioj'al. i- i-Oijuiicrl
I'or ill" i-"pri'--ioii oT wi' iii^'doi ii'j-. In lioth oa-c- -m-li a -ain-tjon
wa- o!-!L:i na Ih' lound in -Ldl'-r.' Ira.--, ^\■|licll \va- in (dl'^c! a Imi-iu of
wai'. (.'i'iior piiliMc oi' jiiixato. \\\ tin' jia-.-iiiLi' ''t pii\aio ■.'.ai'. \\i'
notii-o. liriiadK". a .-laLi'C ol' unn "■iiliitod .-;d r-icdi-o-- ; a -lai^-(- ai wJii'-h
-idi'-red I-"-- \\a- -ulip'ftid <'iilior m ji- inci^piion ,,)■ cvor-ii'ion to
(;(.'rtain cn-ionia ry I'o-t jt-i ioi;,- ; and linallw a -la'je al -.vhif;]!
it wa-. -a.\i' in m-vv ov|.(,|,i jf,|,;i | i-a^"-^. ropja'-o | I,\- a -\"-!"iii (>\
judicial jc'i I'o-.-. iindi.T wlii'-li ,i rcniodx' lia< lo he -o'li'^lil at
llif 'land- of ilie ('oiii-l.-. w!io-" dcci'oc- ai'i,' (ai I'l ifcd !)\' lln'
(■\<'(-!il i\'i' a 111 lioiil \- I (y I . .\- I'C'jard- piiMic war. !iow'('\"r. iiiicr-
ri'iilh- ja l;i)-iiif iiiMMi|i;it!Oi:. v.itlioiit ' ) jiik'hIic: in . ii. Tii.
r.--,,i'ii--c v, M.vka.lc. -.M. Tnylor. \')'A: '., Sr.. KiotIiiv. Tl,.- 'i';:'. -Italiai)
;;li'l. (.11 ri,- Ollijc;-! -<'l|iT.: ! I v . Opi.cii- Wit, !(i). li. 'I'lir .\ lliai; i:, . . .-r,.; na-
li'Siij. ii. 'll. '-MX. iinr t' i!''!i( (I. a|!|i;ii'i'iii !y i ■! \ ii-oa- i/f an
' ,,' . .-.•■■ '/'A' ./,/-'/ ,'/•,■,•'■;'■/■ 'J ai.--i'(!n,.,.r i,<a\v<M.i| ,\ n-t;i,-( ;,i:,| italy;
SpriiLMic. I-!:;; Si-(,tt-. (i_'. n.j: 'I'avlnr. S::|i,nica. and .\1 aci-dnnia . a.- '■rai'of
-1.1!»; and Wiaaton -liana,. s,\\ n.. loaildr in t!,r nall<a::-: ■ nr| ;In-
.']7-t. a. .\d;;tir i-i,;i,t. fur tin' i-"a--n that
';, , l-iarli'T ui-iOT, ,l:-::w a di-'ira-- liinopian- ^vonld !iavr Im-.: ... !a-vly
tiriii l,('t \\-ci']i jinliiir. |iri\;it''. and .a !! cr-t rd .
ini.\-<-.d war. .and l.itv.aM.n [.'■la'-a aiai ,■ .\ - t !ir wa r pi-oicrd. i . i !:.■ -'■ot..■
j ni [.r-.-f.-.i -A-;,-: ...-• 'r;.\-i.,i'. laL' ,- / ,w-7. .• of ..|. coition- A\-;i-. nxtcnd.'d. hi .\pril,
Wdicaaa; 'Dana . :;7:;' -'.■-. . l''.,ran IM:;. f'a- iiotan-'c. rale-- '.• 'wen
example cf v.'ha! voi- f. na.a'-i'ly termed 'rnrKi-ii \<"V:-~ in the Lr\,an; >•. .-re eiiT.
•■ (|iia!i'icd ■■ war. -c,. /;,-., -,■. ''!",, njii • ( ai.'i i!ic f>,i't- (,f lli" I Jarda iici ;. ■- !,i,in-
i.'all.;;? anri \i.,Mc. !liu,--t. vii. i Tjli : i.ardMl. w!aN< in .May li,- idaiid •>■'.
and en ^t.c -nlijc't L^-cnciMdv. ilall. (ia l;iir,d. . wa- r.rriijdfd .
c/ .w^.; \\c-tlakc. ii. 1 ,i ..,,,,: and -/ l.awrciir.,., f\-av-. 1^
Coiinnenvonvnt oj' War — Lrijal E [Ice I a af War. i;j
jiatii'iial MicirU' lias only I'caduMi llic mmuikI hT these stau'c-. Inter-
jiatiiiiml law lias, as we li;i\"e seen i r;. no iiiai-liinerv. imiIht jtidii'ial
(ir adiiiinist faU\ e, lor eeiiipeilia^- Slaie^ al \ariaaee lo .■^iiinnit llieir
<li-pu!e- ii 1 ;i rl)il rai 1(111 I .V I. Ill' e\ en tor L;i\inii' e Heel Id awards where
arhil rai iiii! ha- lieen re-oried to. IJence war is slill iicaii'il n-
an indi-jieie-aliJe I'acter jii inU'rnut i(jnal lii'e, and as a perini-^iiile
lorin o! mternaiii nia I aetiuii. Wy iniernaiii.uia I ai;-reenient, indeed,
i' )ia- i're.'i aneni|)ted lioth to Jniiii iiii/'' ilie (icasimis lor re-
sdHiniz- 111 w<ir and In hiiinanize its naMlnils. i'.ni that inti'inationa I
law .-till KMiiains a ]as hclii ac I'lici-s. as in (;r(jlins' time, nmy Ix' seen
ii'oni llie hut tliat no li'-> than H\'e mil n;' the -ix ( '(jn\-enli()n-
J'ramed iiw the iirsi, ilaii'ii" ( 'i nilerenee. and im les- than twelve
(Kit dl' the ima'teeiL Iranied l.iy tJie seeund Ifaune ('onioreuee are
inteialej \i- rei^nlale war or the nu'Viied- nt' eomliiet iie.r it. And
e\en lhnn'j.li ^ve i[i,xy lielie\e thai tlie ein ninslanccs prr>\ ioii-h
described I / - may ,-er\e le iin|iose seme addaidiial re-Daini u;i wars
in the liiliiri\ it is nianit'est t_liat lor a I'lnp; tini(^ to eiane military
elUeiein \' mast cojitinne to lie the main i-oialition. oi' natiriaal .secu-
rity and a "haiaiiee ol' powi'r the lies] Liiiaranlee ol' tJie i^cneral
[leace. InternationaL law <.loev jioi e\e!i a1lem[)t. evcopt in a ^'erx'
Li'CJLeral Ava\', to dcKaanine at w Inil siaL;e a Siaie nniw ha\i- i-e'-oiir>e
to war, im! leaves i' to (vndL State lo delermine tJii- lor iise!!': and.
onre tlie leia'iLiu oL' war i- e.-taldi-lied. it triMN ea'-h ]ie!li^-er(Mit as
iiaxam:' e'|i.ial riu'Iiis. j rre-p(>r;i\e- oi' the cau-e or iuitiiition of the
war. \ e\ ert he!e-.s. a siaiiC jias liorii reaelie L al wliiidi ii i- al lempled
to inipii-r cerlaiii che^-i^-- on liasiii'^- recoiii-e !o war. a- well a- ]'e-
.•araiiits i_>\. the methods .,i' c nidnct i iiu' it. -i !l lio:i_h 1 he-i_' dil''e-.- 'j;reatl\
in their rehuivo valire. The i'l.irmer con-I-r in p'H'l o!" ilie :'o]-inal
inide;-ia kiM'.'- and ph-di^'e- emliodied in the !-"iiiai .Aci <i:' ihe ■!ti'_;'iie
( '' ii> tcri'Mi-" df \'.H)T ] ,: : ; and. in jiari o; I'aeih'iie- :mi' i he j»e,if-etii|
ad jn-liai;-)!; "i' inlei'iiai ioiial di-paie- a llVn-dcd li\' llie I'ea'-e t'()ii\-(Mi-
tion >ir i'.;ii7 I, ri. whii'h are no"; u''iaali\- <-\iended 1m^ ]Kiriitailar
trealie- // . J !■ is ini!' lli.il i]i<--e re-i rici ions n, ,,...,..... I'nr ilie mo--l
lid . ,: eel- -siiKM ion i iia ii i
wlih-h m;iv
' in ii L J a I Ml''r:!a! nina I
coinii.'! and the pu--i! e iit \' i<\ inanaoi: isa ia:ai aiaad ai- ion. ;ind lh.il
tlie\ ail' ja'iaii di-ri'Li'.irde [ jn pia'-M.';'. iaii. a- airaui-i tlii.-. it is
at !e;i~; a iiri'-sait aihanla'''- ■ ihii! the iia in- iVir a^enini;- reeoiirso
to war -hMii! I lie iea ddv avail
iormaiiy icknowle h ■- i : ' whii i
pre\ 'I iii-!\' <ni iini'^ni le i , ; -ip
W"iiii-i: ,' \\ [ '.' < li' ail \ !ii;i'_;'ii il n h
■ I:-' I i'i;i:ra! ee! io n-e iliem
aliaa as t ia' I'e-nlt oi^ e:UI-:'-
li\ o|' iia' |,, --,'-. ,nid ri>i<s
,iii- oa ih-:^ woild aa larLi'O.
H. I't :!ii::'iKiii.ai.il (!iti'iTia;.'c<. wilhnai
ai i!ii' ]■:■•]■ '\\ liaa:- i li" I'.'-iaaat inn. :i- hia'.Moi'ia-i'. ut' ' nn'.- -
i. ",;a I ; i;:< nf '■ u;it i(iii:i! Iidnnin' " nr "'vi;-!!
l'». iiii ' rc-i - " : .<;■!■ \-nl . i . :',s. '\"i]r rc-
,-r:-ir!i,,a^ iiaM.wr^i hy \\. ('.. \,i. :; ,,;
T'''7. I'.'l'iiia' r.-itiii'!' ni i''-a:';ii;:: ~ ea
!::!l\' i".- I 0':i( i'-- tiinl ih:' I'diulm t nt \v:ii .
aria; rati.ni :ill l.ai.N ( ■. i S; c vui. i. Id.
J4 Cases and Opinions on International Laiv.
and tlic consequent odium tliat attaches to a disturbance of tiie
])eace — that recourse to them will become more truly obligatory as
time proceeds. The restrictions imposed by custom or convention
oil tlie methods of conducting war will be considered hereafter (6).
The Law of War. — An ideal code of war would need, amongst other
things — (1) to define the just causes of war; (2) to affix penalties for
unjust war; and (3) to regulate the inception, the conduct, and the
termination of Avar, as well as its effect on the legal relations both of
belligerents and neutrals. (1) With respect to the first of these
subjects, international law docs not even attempt to define the just
causes of war(c). Some writers indeed purport io set forth the
grounds on which war may justly be entered on (d) ; but such attempts
have no direct value (e), both because the alleged causes of Avar are
frecpiently not real causes (/), and also because the real causes of Avar
are commoidy either too complex to be brought Avithin the range, or tno
overAvhelming to be brought under the control of legal rules ((7).
Nevertheless, the Hague Convention, No. 3 of 1907 (h), requires
that a declaration of Avar shall embody a statement of reasons
for the Avar(i); Avith Die object no doubt, of bi'inging both
national and international opinioji to bear on intending belli-
gerents in restx-aint of unjust Avars TA';. ('2) As to the af-
fixing of penalties for unjust Avar, ijitornalional law, apart from
its inability to define or decide c|uestions of justice or injustice in
regard to Avar, has, as Ave haA^e seen, no machinery for this purpose (I),
i :]) But, so far as relates to tho actual conduct of A\ar. rlio Jiiles of
iiiternatioiial law are now l)0tli comprehensive and fairly uniform.
An botAseen the belligorent.s themselves, if prescrilies rules as fo t)ie
opening of hostilities, the qualifications of combata.nt.s, tjie means and
instruments of Avar, the treatment of prisoners, the care of the sick
and the Avounded, the right and duties incident to military occupation,
and tiic tertnination of Avar. And, if avc ta]<p into account recent
f//) Sco ]i. !)1. '■////■'/; and on tlic siili- J'owoi' from conipfrtinLr ]iri'[iai-atiiiiis
joet .L,^(;uci'afly, I fall, pt. i. c 3, ancf tliat woul(f ensui'c its overthrow.
Wostfala', ii. ^> '•/ ^"/. (,'/} Itall, (11 : ()j)i.('n!icini. ii. 7 1
(c) Kxcopt. of course, in so far as ct .swy.
tliis may Ijc invofvcd in tfie onuncia- (//) ly/f/vi. -\). IS.
tion of internatioiiaf riy'hts and duties. (;) Tu tlie ease of a eonditionaf de-
(d) See ^J'ayfor. 151: Jfallecic, i. ofaratioii it appears to l)e assumed tliat
489; W'oolsey, LSI. tho conditions theinsefves v.-ilf adc-
(c) AftliouL;'fi, if there v\-er(! any (piatoly reveaf tlie reasons for tfie war.
general atrreenient. they iiiiq-fit perliajjs (A;) ^J'iie report, liowever, recoi^'nizcs
pos.sess an indireet \alue. as aidincr in tliat tlie re.'if reasons Avilt often not be
tlic formation of national and inter- i;'i\-en ; but ap])arently re'_':ards tlic
national opinion, and. in this way. obliu'ation of nialcinLC a foi'nrd .';tatc-
imposinir some internal and external inent of rr^asons. espeeiallv where kucIi
cheek on Avars that did not conform to reasons ai-e ill-ffmiided or out of pro-
tlieir rules. ])urtion to i\\c irra\ilv of the war, as
("/) ^\al■s a[)[)arenrly o(fensi\(: are fik'ely to opei-atc in r('.;traint of hasty
sometimes nie:i>ni-r'- n{ sc! f-])]-()rrc- action: see Par!. Papers. .Mise. No. i.
tion: a-' -whei-e one I'cwim- is i'oi-ecd to l!!OK. p. \'2\ : I'eai-ee lliu'inn-', •_'(!!.
<trik(; in oi'der to pi'cvent a iiostile fV) S'/pya.y. l.'j.
Commencement of War — Lcijdl KJJ'ccls of War. 15
Conveutioiis (^ni), tlio same observation applies to the relations that
arise between the bellig'erents on the one hand and nontral States
and tlieir subjects on tlie other (_n).
^Val• in Us rekitio)i to Individuals : (^i.) Tlic Iradilionul Vicu\ —
The extent to which war may alfect individnals wiio arc identified
with cither belligerent really depends on usage and convention, and
jiot on legal theory. Nevertheless, before passing- from the
theoretical asj^ects of the law of ^var, we need to advert
brielly to certain theories that have been formulated Avith respect
to the position of the individual in a war between iStatcs.
One of these, Avhich may be said to represent tlie traditional view,
tinds its best expression ( o) in an opinion of \^attel, Avhich was
recently quoted -with approval in Jansofi v. Driefontein Consolidated
Mines (1902, A. C. at 493): " Quand le condueteur de Vetat, le souve-
rain, dfclare hi, fjuern' a loi autre souverain, on entend- que la nation
entiere declare la guej-re a line autre tmtlon. Car le souverain . . .
agit an nom de la societe entiere, et les nations nont ajjaire, les
tines aux autres, qu'en corps dans leur qualitc de natiois. Ces deux
nations sont done ennemies ; et tons les sujets de I'une sont ennemis de
tons les sujets de Vaiitre" (p'). The same view is also reflected in the
American decisions (q). This theory, whilst recognizing tliat war is
primarily a relation between State and State, yet recognizes also that
in this, as in other external relations, the individual is necessarily
identified with his State, alike in interest and responsibility; and,
hence, that Avhcn-war breaks out between two States, the consequences
of that relation arc not confined to their Governments or armed forces,
but extend also to their individual members; with the result that the
subjects of each become tlie enemies of tlie other, even tliough the
consequences of such enmity have now been relieved of mucli of their
former severity (r). This view also accords A\it]i the existing ])raeticc
in war; under wjiich all poi'-^niis resident in Iiellig'<'reiU teniioi'y are
subject not only to the ris]<;s iucidoiit to iiiilitai'v (ipei'ai ioii'< ( .v), but
also to CMiit riliul ions, re((ui^ii inns, and culkvl iv(> penalties ( /). as
A\ell a-^ th(^ suspension of tin'ii' ordinary rjo-hts liy niilitai'v law.
and the (■a])tiii<' oC ihoir ))roperty on llie sea i ^/). .X()r is it in
any Avay incon-isiejil with t ho>e miiigaiions in the conduct- of
Avar, under Avhich individuals, as combatants, are spared all unneces-
sary suffering, and, as non-combatants, are s])ared both in person and
property so far as the exigoucios of war -will ]')ermit, or Avith the
(//;) Including the J.)cclaration of the jias^aice in ijuestion is eerreetly
l.onden. U'iveii.
(a) hiirii. y. -^Sl . (>/) See Tlir Urn'iln K>^tv)i.'ji'r ttTtJ
((J) 'that is. iF we link.' due alhiw- \ . S. TiilS: Snift, (i'Jl).
auee for tlie cliaim-es tliat liave since ( ,■) ll:i!l, (il; hut see als(i Wtv<t-
takeu jiiaec in \\w imirejitiou of so\e- lak-c, ii. ?,S.
i-eiLTnty: as to whiih, see noI. i. ,"><•, ^.v) As in the case of hojnhardiieaif ,
7s. ' ;,//■,■'/, p. 'lit.
',,;,-) Sc(« /),■.-:' '/'X (;.u^. iii. <•. ."), (/) /,,//,/. p. 110 ,/ ,w,/.
v< 7(1; and 71 !.. .! . 1\. !;. at Sti'i.whrri' ( ^0 Inini. pn. 1!). ;■)(). |.">2.
l»i
Cases and Opinions on International Law.
pussibl'' vxloasioiL ui' tlio.^o mitigations in the I'utuie; I'or such alle-
viation- aiH> ivally change-^ in tiie incidents of the relation and not
in the rolaviun itself.
lii.) Ihr iicircr lit'/r.-— Another theory of war in it- rohiti!_)n to
tlie indnidual -was propounded Ly iious.seau in hi.s Cuiiiraf Social.
Here it is said^-"Lr^ (jticrre i/'cst clone point uiic reUititjn d'homme
a liomii'i\ ///'.lis Idle reliiiioii d'chit a elut, dcin-s UkiiwIIc les fi<A/'tiei(lic/'-^
//(' ■-'•ii't i'/t/ic/}iis (i)i'(ieci(le/if('ilei/ie}if. iioii puii/f (d/z/i/ic iiui/niies. iii
>/>i //<r i--:iin/ie eiti/jie/ts. //mis ccu/n/ie sold'jfs : /loii pui)!' i-(i//i:iir
//tc//il}/-c-- d<' Id imt/'ie, niais G')/n///e ses deje/iscu/'s" i ,r ■ . Thi> theory
Ava- (.iriu;Jiiall}' put forward only as a pliilosophical j)rinei[il;'; and
ju'ohaMv Avithout any appreciation ai the deductions noAvsnuo-ht to lie
(ieiiveil fi'oni it. It "was. however. >ubse([ueidly adojited in alino-t,
identical terms Ly the French I'ourtsi//) as a le<>-al doctrine: and has.
in till- 'liaracler. sinci> 'oeen Axidely accejUed Ijy a g-reat numlicr of
J:^aropeau writers, by whom indeed il is often put forward as a funda-
mental ])rinciple of intertiational law: altJicmuii for the most part
rej<'iao([ by Enti'lish and American jitrists ( .: i. Its eliecr, if aj)[)lied
in pi';e'ti>'c. woidd be to .-ever the indi\idual from his State in all that
])eitaii..- tn war. <'xcej)i in sn far as iie is eni';;it;e I in ifs ser\'ice or en-
rolled iu its hglitijiQ' forces: or. on a broader (■on>lruclion. except in so
f;ir a- lie '-oniriliutes to the ])rosectitioii of the war (d i. It ^vould debar
hi;n. •■■n ili;' one hairl. fnan t-akiuL:' any active ])art therein, whether
di! :'!■•, ,,:■ i;idir<'(-t. unbei' pain of being treated a< a i-riminal; and
w-udd <\\."in]it Jiim, i.ni tlie oliie)', from its injurious eib'ct.<, -wlieiher
a- reLiaid- per.-ou or ]>iMpei1y, Siu'li a (toi-triuc i-. however. oj)i_'U i"
j^iaxe (ibjocilun i /,m . whvthei' Ave rec;'ard it a- pni purling to -tate the
law a- ii i-. ur a- it should b(\ A- u .si:i:ei';!;-)i; o;' tire (vvis'ia-U' liiw-
it i- a.ii ■ iLioihi'L iie-in-i- t'Aiit ■with, cnri'eni luactic,-; un.Jer wh:^-!: the
indrvidiuil i-. on tin* on<' hand, seriou-ly ar;c-;el ai n!;n!\' jioiiil-
aiiko ii! io--ii;'ct of ])e;'-uu and ]iro[)er;\' b\- \\\r operations a.iid in-
i-idciO- ' 1 '\\Vl\ . whil-t he i-. on thi' <ith(U'. oiitidod U"' ni;'i':'i\' to
render iiM!ir:'ci a!<L but. lUKler cci'ta in <-i,rcum-ein' e-. /\'eu ti '.j]<e an
aetiv' p:!vf icl re-i-taiice tri the em^ntv i c i . Xor is ii evtoi ('i'<i!'.able
'];;; ;!;■ i-'^'- -h-'uld 'unf^irni lu this tiieory: \nv by r^di"\-iii:: tiie
inib\'idn.al froiir the re-]")on-iiulities and iacid.eiils of Ava,r. sa\''"' in
e vci'],i i, M>:i| '-ii-o--. it AN'iiuld redtr-e Avar to the le\"ol of a due] betv.oen
•|)rof"--'.ei:d_ -e] liors. and thus j-olax one of ir- tno-f. (.'h^'^-'wo det-'U'-
re!i:-w''; Avbil-t in ecadiniii'.r re>-istanco to tlie ni-o-nu/el fiArco- of
a Sia.li^ ':'' tai.rni - 'liuu-lx' imperil the national inde]i<Mideni"-e ef the
noii-i!;: 'i;a:'v State- ic". Xor can the amO'i' iration that ha- a:-'iiallv
I /■ •■ I 'I ',"1 ,s<,r.v,'. i. c. -1: iiidi'.aduitl iin'iu'io'-s. i- an ;ili~t ractiun
aad fi'i- a i-M!in;;i>iii . se.' nuvfl-vvcil. 17. tu Avliii-li fiir,^' cim.iki; Im- a;<|i!!iil.
on the e-;i-ioii o i' {lie cpr^iiii;;^.; (a; P|,|. lii,, -.jio'itanc' lU- ri-iau' ic' aii 1 1; liia",\asi'
(''■. - ■■ . .■",■■.■•■. ia I'Mil. pracMl'ir |.();.iihoa(ia iii ;< ri'nry iH't
{■:) 1 h.ll. \<-. ■ I y '/. ..:TU|ii( (!.
la.) iia!;. (.1. (.■i ll(,ilaa(l. War an Laa 1. J2.
( /. ; /xpai-',- rrun\ i!ii' In^aral nlijci-- (e) Ih'.U. G7.
tion that the State. ;i.< di^tiIlct frani it<
(Joni))iencc)nent of \\a?' — •Legal Effects of War. 17
taken placo in (he ^iisa;4e.s of war b(; altributed to iJiis tJieorj-, for
that aiiKjlioration really l)e^aii hol'ore it \va< toriiuilated, and lias
since extended ccpially to coaibatants and non-coniljatants (/).
Tlie Cojinncncenicnt of War : (i.j The Que.^tlon of AuthorizuHon.
— With respect to the due authorization of war, all that international
law is concerned with is that war should bo initiat/ed by some authority
representino' the State, in order that the fact may be duly ascertained
and binding- on the nation resorting- to it. In municipal law the rig-ht
to declare Avar is commonly vested in some particidar aiithoi'ity i ry i :
but the want of formal declaration hy the pre-cribod anthoritv will
not preclude the existence of a -stiite of war if liostilities with intent
of A\ar have been actually entered on by either ])arty. The recpure-
nients of the Hague Convention, Xo. 3 of 1907, with resp<'ct to formal
notice will, however, for the most part, obviate any doubts that mig-ht
otherwise arise on this point in the future.
(ii.) Tlie Qi(e-stion of Prior }\otiee: (a) Under the Customarii Law.
- In view oi the fact that the conventional law does not cover all
possible contingencies in I'elation to the conunencemcnt of war, the
rules of the customary law have not altog-cther lost their appli-
cation. Our previous survej' of the practice of States on this subject
pug-g-ests the follo-\\'ing- conclusions: (Ij that under the customary law
no formal declaration, nv specific notice conld be r(\u-ar<led as in-
dis])ensable to the opening- of hostilities, although it was usual
for belligerents either before that occurrence or shortiv afterwards to
i.'^sue a proclamation announcing' the fa'-t of war and sometimes giviiig-
i-ca^ons for it (/n ; l)ut (2) that whi'ther a formal declaration was
issued or not, and whether it wa^ issued licfcre oi' after the connncnce-
ment of war, no Stat' w,i- justified in opening liodilities against
another St-ah' uiile— friendly relation^ had l).'On sevci-iMl at smdi time
and uinlcr -in-h circunHtancc- a-^ to gu;ird against an\' reasonable
dang-er of ^urpri^cin. The former of iliose rules has now been
superseded, as between the great body of civilized States, liy tlie
])rovi-ions of tlie llaii'iie ('oiu'ent ion. Xo. .') of 1007: but the second
>lill ]-eiiiains operaiive.
(l)"i Tlie Llj'ecf of the ITujne ('onreiil/ons. The Conventioir '■ re-
latini;- tn tin* pacific s(>ttlemcnt of inloiJiational dis])utes,'' Xo. 1
of 1907. pL^lges i^f.; signatories g-onerallv to the adoption or accept-
aiict^ of variou- methcids of amical)lc setflfMiienl . suidi as arbitration,
if) Siicli mitiu-.'itictis art' rcitlly ('rowii. altliouLrh a<'tu:illy in the Calii-
attril)iilal)li' to .-i \-ai-icry of cau-i's. of net: iiiHln- the I'liilcd States Coiistitu-
wliich the i-lii"f lia\i' hccn the rci|uir(' - tinii. in ('(inL:'iH><s; iiiidcr the l-'reiieh
luents of discipline, the '_;-eiieral . soften- ( 'oast it uf ion, in x\w l'i-esi<tent with the
iiiir of inannei-s. and tlio (h'velopnii'ni jireviows assent of the two C'lianihers :
of a keener -entinient of hn;iianit\ alike and under the (Jermaii Constitution,
in national and int.'rnat ioiial life. On in the l-anjjeroi- with the con.sent of
tlie snlijeet li'enei-allv. see I tall. (!o '/ tin- ISinidesratli, e.\eept in ea.ses of
sr,/.: Westlake, ii. IJ'^ -•/ .~^,,,.: ()pi)en- attack,
lieini, ii. (>() ft .ii-//. ( /' ) -Vs to notice to neutrals, see
w/l So. uialer tiie liriti-li Con^tilu- p. 2ST. inira.
ti:iuthis i'ii;dit i- vested forniallv in the { ' ) ■•<"/>r". ]i. 7.
C.I.L. ^:
18 Cases and Opinions on International Laiv.
iiiediation, and good oilicos, before having- recourse to war. The
nature and ellect of these methods have already been discussed f A' i.
A more specitic obligation is iiow imposed by the Convention '' re-
lating- to ttie opeiung of hostilities,'" No. 3 of 1907. This Convention
I 1 I recognizes that as between the contracting- Powers hostilities
(lught Jiot to commence without previous and explicit notice, in the
fm-ni of either a declaration of war. stating the groimii-- on which it
is based, or an ultimatum, containing- a conditional <lecl;U'ation of
war (An. 1 >: and \'1\ provides that the existenc(> (jf a -tale of war
should also be notilied to neutral Powers without delay, and shall not
take eilect in regard to them until after the receipt of a notification,
whicli mav. however, lie given l)y telegraj)h, although neutral Powers
canimt plead the aljsence of notiheation in a case where it is estab-
lished beyoml (jue^tion that they were in fact aAvare of the state of
war ('Art. 2i. The former provision applies only to ca-^e^ of uar
between Powers tliat are parties to the Convention; but the latter
applies wlieif either of the belligerents and any neutral Power are
parties tlun-eto (An. ;!). Art, 1. it will he observed, whilst rcijuii-ing'
an abxilule or conditional declarati(ni. does nijt interpo<i' any interval
between the declaration and the commencement of hostilities (/i.
Ina-nmch as therf^ is nothing in the actual terms of the Convention
to prevent the declaration and attack from being- delivered simul-
lant>()u^ly. it w(.)uld seem that on this point the Convention must be
i-ead subject to the earlier rule, which forbids treachery and sur-
)iri-e I y/n. Art. 1* mcr(dy converts a re(juirenient previou^lv resting
on courtov and convenience into a legal obligation ('». i. The main
\aluc of tlio ( 'onvention lies in the fact that it will serve, in cases
where it api)lie< and is observed, to mark clearly the fact and date
of the outbreak of war. and especially tlie date as from which neutral
dutie< and lial)ilities will be deemed to accrufv .At the same time,
the signatorie< do not pledge theiu'-elves ab.-ohitoiv in refrain from
hostilities without a prior dechu-ation. Imt merelv reioa'nizc that
a- between tliem hostilities " ou Li-lit imt to coinmence " without pre-
\-i(iu< and unecjuivocal warnin'j- ' o '. The <ibj(M-t, no d)ubi. was to
exclude ca'-es in which it niiglit lie iioc(\-;saiy to ii<e instant force in
Mi-(iei- to i-epel -onie hostile preparatidii la- iiioviMiient, nccuirinu' either
a! a place where communication with the war-declarine- autlmritv
Will lid Ik- diliiciilt . or nn<l<n- circuni'^tancP'^ whei-e the other jiartv wmld
i)bvion-!\- |ia\"(^ no caii<e for ('oiii])laint on the t;round of siii'pri^c ( y* ■ .
l'!oth in tlii^ aiiil in aiiv other ca<e where acis of forc<' are resorted
to with inf(Mii of war. but w-illiout declaration. ;i <t,it(> of war will
cii-ue. aiHJ the ii<iial inci(hmts of war will attach in the same wav
(/■) Arts. .'! S: ,-cc viil. i. ]jJ). 31, Corfia-cjicc : I'carco 11 i.L'-u'iii.:;, 2(J 1 .
359. Ill tho Tiii-i'o~lt((liaii war of 1911 {in) S,i ,,rn , ^^, . \~ ,
im rittoinpt aiij-i'iir^ to have l)c<!u mafic, (/,) ] yij rn . \^. 2s7-S.
citlic!- by Italy or liy other Po\v(m-s. to (o) In tiie I'.'nu-lish official traiis-
comply with oi- lake a(l\:iiitau-e of lation, liowfvor, this is rcndored '- must
iiifse |iro\ isions. not ('i)iiinioiice."
i/) .\ (lehiy of tweiity-fuiir hones (/ . W'e-tlaJ^e. ii. 21, 2(;7.
was projKj.-ed but not aci-ei)tL'il liy the
Enemu Character of Persons — Nationality. 19
as under tlio earlier customary law {q). -Nor do the provisions of the
C'onveution apply where acts of force in the nature of reprisals or
pacific blockade are resorted to, whether as methods of constraint
short of war, or as measures of international police (rj; alihou^ili if
the State sought to be coerced should elect t-o treat such acts as a cause
of war, it would seem to be incumbent on it to issue a declaration of
war (s). The Convention applies to all cases of war between States,
whether sovereign or semi-sovereign, as well as to the accession of
a new belligerent; but not, of course, to cases of civil war, which do
not come within the range of international rules until there has been
a recognition of belligerency (^t). The Conventioji w-as signed by
Al States, and has so far l)ocn ratified or adhered to by 17 Stiites.,
including Cacat Britain and a majority of the greater Powers (?n.
Its requiremonts, so far as they extend, will probabh' be observed
in future wars between civilized States. But tlieir ineffectiveness
as a safeguard against precipitancy in the making of war in a
case where either Power is intent on hostilities, is illustrated
by the events that attended the opening of the Turco-Italian Avar
of I'Jll. On this occasion the Italian Government, after making
xunc show of <'omplaint as regards grievances alleged to hav<'
lieon .-^ullered at the hands of Turkey, despatched on the 26tli Sep-
tember by cipher telegram an ultimatum to the Turkish Goverjimeut.
with 24 hours' grace from the date of presentation. This was pre-
seuted at Constantinople on the monuug of the 28th Septemb(n'. .\
reply was immediately despatched by the Ottoman Government, but
was pronoujicod to be unsatisfactory. h\ the result a declaration
of war Avas issued by Italy on the 29th Se])tember. and delivered to
the Ottoman Government on the same day; Avliilst a notification of
the existence of a state of war was simultaneou-^ly issued to otlier
Powers (;r). Uespite the limits ini])osed l»y custom and convention,
ilie opening of lio^filiiie- still apjXMi-s to be iiiaiiih- a que-tion of
^t liiteow.
THE KXKMY CHAR ACT Eh' OF PEh'SOSS
i XATTOX.VLTTY.
SPARENBURGH r. BANNATYNE.
i7!!7: 1 !!()-. \ I". \C)Z:\
Case. I During war bfiwccii tii'cal Ibilain and Holland, the
piaintill. wlio was a iiatixr ol! Oldi'iibui'uh ui ( ioniiaii\', had been
■ '/ ■. >■■'/,,>■. |,. 1(1, HIDll.
■ / ' SrC mA. i. :! 1.') r/ sr>l. I ) S.' i,,-:l . J). 11.
.- ) This is ill Di-dor to fix the dntc '' S' ,■ 'i'alili'. Ap]). xiv.
;!l which a stal-i' 1)1' war will lie (icriii.d ■'.■■'• I 1 i'<tilitirs cDiiniKMircd at once
to ha\o arisiui. l^'or a i'lilh-i' (I i>ciis>ioii S-c I!:! relay. The Turco-1 talian W'ai-.
of this suhicct. sec an artich' liv i'rof. 1:1 -/ ,vr-/-.' and tor tlic text nl' thi'
\\c<ilakc. 't.. (I. \\. x.w. Vll'. April. Iccl^iratioiis. lOy et scq.
c2
20 Cases and Opinions on International Law.
captured by the British, whilst serving as a sailor in a Dutch
frigate, and sent to St. Helena. At that place he was by order
of the governor put on board the "Caledonia,"' a British merchant
vessel then in want of hands, and served as a sailor on board her
during the voyage to England. On arrival in England he was
handed over to the commissary of prisoners and held as a prisoner
of wai\ He subsequently brought an action foi' wages due to
him in respect of his service on the "Caledonia."' To this it was
objected that he was an alien enemy and (/ould not sue whilst in
confinement on a contract entered into as a prisoner of war. It
was held, however, that, inasmuch as tin' plaintiff was a natural
born suljject of a State in amity with (rreat Britain, and as his
character as enemy was founded only on a service which had since
come to an end, he was not to be regarded as an alien enemy, and
that lie could sue on a contract entered into by him, even though
he WHS still held as a prisoner of war.
Judgment. _ In his judgment, Eyre, C.J., pointed out that the
plaintiff was bv hirth and natural allegiance a neutral; but that,
having been captured whilst serving on board a public vessel of
the enemy, he must be considered an alien enemy quoad such
liostilit}'. ^Vs soon, however, as such a jjcrson became free from
the enemv service tlie character of enem\' would be pureed. If.
then, the Crown had not tIiou£rht lit to hold the plaintiff as pri-
soner of war, he would have been conside-rcd not as an enemy
but as the suf)jeet of a State in amity with this erjuntrv. The
difhculty arose from tlic fa't of his havijii^- been detained as a
pj'isoner of war. But he was so (fetaiiied, not in con-eijucnce of
having the jjernianent cliaraeLur of i.'ueiny. but as liavinir join(.'d
ill an aet of lio-lilit\-. The former eliaraefer arose fidin the faei
of a per^Oii \)r\\\'j ill alleiriaiiee to thi' State at war with us; and
the allee-iaiiee IjeiiiLr jicrmanent. tin' eharaetcr was ]iernia iient . A
iC'Utral iiiiL'"lit ii;d ■'•(! Iji' an eiu'my with respect to what lie was
ddiiiL'' under a lo-al or teinporar\" aljen-iani'' tc) a i'nwef at war
witli 11-, hut wlc'M tliiii a llcuiaic'e deti'rmiiicd the enem\' chaj'acter
ah-(j detertniiied . In the pi-e.-cnt ease', tlie iommis>i(jii unde'r wliieli
the jdaintiff. lii-iiiL!' a (iennaii. ai'ted. was put an end to ])\ the
capture of the frie-ali' on whieli he \\as: and his temiiorary
Enemy Character of Pcrsonx -JSafiimalitij. 21
character of alien enemy ceased and determined with the authority
under which he acted.
Au alien enemy, in English law, meajus, generally, an alien who
bolong>s to a country which is at war with Great Brit-ain. In
dealing- with this cjucstion, however, the judgment in Sparenburgh
V. Banriatyne draws a distinction between a permanent enemy char-
acter and a temporary or adventitious one. The former is stated to
depend on allegiance; this being the form in which Englisli law
expresses its conception of nationality (a j. According to this prin-
ciple, every person in allegiance to the enemy State is deemed pri)i/d
facie to have an enemy character: whilst everyone in allegiance to a
neutral State is deemed primd facie io have a neutral character.
From this it would seem that the English law, in determining enemy
character, starts equally with the continental systems from the stand-
})oint of nationality (&), And although for many purposes "nation-
ality '' as a test of enemy character in war has, as Ave shall see, now-
been displaced by "domicile," there are still cases in which it remains
operative. So, if on the outhreak of war it were found necessary for
military reasons to expel alien enemies from British territory — a
measure still permissible, although now unlikely to be resorted to -
the test of nationality would still be applied; whilst it would al^^o
a]:)ply, under the municipal law, to cases where a British subject,
even though domiciled elsewhere, was found in arms against his
native country (c). .And this primary test of enemy or neutral char-
acter, although liable to be suspended by other tests, i.s always liable
to revert wlien the latter cea--e to apjdy. A temporary or adventitidiis
enemy fharacter, on tlie other hand, will attach to persons who arc
bound to th(! enemy State by some ]');irticnlar IkukI of assorqation,
whetlier local or pcr-onai. Tliis will iiifliido il) p<M'soii^ u ho are
fcmiid in ilu^ niililarv oi' iiaxal service <ii' tin; cikmiiv ( '/ ) : ' :.^ i jiersoiis
who ai'c found -orviiig on hoai'd I'vcn private \('>s(>|s of the (Miemv,
subject now. liowovei'. to th(> a ihnial ions pi'o\ idcd by the Magiie
( 'oii\'('nlion. Xo. 11 oi' l!Ml7(^'): ' .'i i pci^nns who are ciio-aa'cd in
the eiHMiiv na\igat ion. oi' idcntiticd with ihc enemy \)\ the grant
of exceptional trading privilege^ i 0 ; and li persons who ai'C dorai-
cile<l or ro-ide and carrv on trad(> in the miemy t e la'i t cnw i ry ). And
similar primdples are i'(M'Ogni/ed 1)\- the .\m(M'i''an ('oiirts: altlioiiodi
with som(^ occasi(Mial divergenc-e a- i'e<_;ar<l^ their ap]dicat ion i // i.
(//) Sec vol. i. oO, 17'2. The Iio^tili' rlKiractcr will nl.-^d affect
(h) As U\ (lill'ereiiees in flic (a-itei'ia with lialiility other vessels lieloniriiig
(if nationality, sec ibid. IT'J. t<i the >aine person that have no
I. l■^ Jiiul. iss. iiaiional rharacter impressr-d on
(d) Sp'iyriiiiurgh v. Uannniynr thciii : >ci' '/'/" T, •;,,,./,<,•/;//,., (4 C ]lob.
Cw/;)r'?). at 1(17 ).
fr) Inira. p. 27. i '/ ) /'/"• Ihi r ,,i,,,ui (rl C . IJol) . ;3l'2 1 :
(/i Tlr i:,,,lr>nnih, \ C. Roll. 22): '■///;•'/. p. 22.
Thr ..' !;-r Cnlliar-r,'/' ('4 C. Koh. 107); (/-^ See T!,< r,'„iix fS Craii.-li. 2:);! ; :
n, I, , ■■'>..- V. A'"r/,-,v- (\ \V. 151. .'5]3). Thr S'oripti/ for thr. Pi-nparjafinn of
22 Cases and Opinions on International Law.
Some of these g-rouuds of enemy character or couuection. including
domicile, which is the most important. Avill be considered in connec-
tion with tlie case next following (/). whilst others Avill come again
under review in connection with the subject of enemy property I'fcK
(ii: DOMICILE.
THE "HARMONY."
[1800: 2 C. Rob. 322.]
Case._ 111 this case the Cjucstion was as to the liability of certain
property which had been captured at sea during- the war between
Great Britain and France: and this again turned on the hostile
or non-hostile character of the owner. From the evidence it
appeared that the owner, Alurra}', was a partnei' in a house of
trade in Xew ^'ork. and that he had gone to Frarice in 1794 as
super-cargo of a vessel on behalf of his linn, there to dispose of
the cargo. Xotwithstanding the special character of this original
purpose, he continued to rt^side in France, sa\'i> for a brief visit
to America in 1700— 6, acting on behalf of his firm in the receiv-
ing and disposino- of cargoes; and. although at the time of the
first heai'ins Vr. his residence in France had not lasted for a year,
yet the ( evidence of letters and documents all went to sho\\- an
intention to form a permanent residence there. This was
sirengtb.ened by the fact that he had thereafter continued to
reside tliere until the date of the present proceedings. On these
facts it was held that ]\Iurray had acquired a French domicile,
and hence an enemy character for the purposes of the war: and
that the property was therefore liable to condemnation.
Judgment.] Sir W. Scott, in his judgmetit, obserM'd that the
fpiestion of domicih' Mas one of considerable dihicultx : di'pend-
ing on a gr<>al variety of circumstances luirdly (•a])ablc of Ix'ing
defined b\- aii\ e-ciicral precise rule>. Of the ^e^\ priicijde:^ that
il,p Gospel V. Hlirrlrr ^2 Trail. lOo; ; ( /,• j lufya. \>. 152.
I'l e Frienflsi-Jiiiff (\\\]v'nt,. \i)'y): Tin- (<>) Tlie cliiiin in the present ca.se
J.,iU)nl(i ■JnJ,f',iiiri (I ^^'ll(■at. 1.59); mid bad Ijocu resoi'ved for further proof in
ease-^ referred to in Scott, tiOl, n. res])eet of ^Furrav's interest.
(0 I„fya. p. 23.
IjUt'in// VJiaractcr oj' I'cr-som — Doniirilv. 2-i
coiilf! \)r laid down gciHM'ally. oik^ was that time coiistitutod tlv
^'laiid iiigrediiMit in (b^tcrniinin^' domicili'. In inosi casos it wa>
(onclusivc. It was not unfi'cijnt'ntly said that if a [)ei'son came
to a country only for a special purpose, that sliould not fix a
doniicih'. But that statement must not he taken without some
(jualification. or without some,' re<^ard to the time which such a
pur])Ose miglit occupy. For. if the purpose was of a kind that
might or did actually detain the person for a gj'cat huigth of
time, tlien a general residence miglit grow u|)on the sjjecial ])ur-
posc. After such a long residence the j)lea of an original special
purpose could not avail; and it nnist he inferred tliat other pui-
posi'S had intruded on the original design, and had thus impressed
on the party the character of the country in which he resided.
Tf a man came into a belligerent country atoi' hefore the beginning
of a war, it Avas only reasonable not to bind iiim too soon to an
acquired character: but if he contiiun'd to resnle dui'ing a good
part of the war, and coiitribut(\l by paynu'ut of taxes and other
means to the strength of that country, t!ien lie could not be allowed
to plead liis s))ecial purpose against the rights of hostilit}'. Theie
nmst b(> a time which would stop sui'h a plea, even tliough it could
not be lix(Hl <i priori . The (piestion of domicile, m fact, must be
considered in relation both to time and occupation, with a great
pi'ejionderance on the article of time.
For certain ]iiirpo-(>s. siu-h a^ ilie deleriuiiiatioii of the lia-
hility oi property tn iiiaritiiiie ca[)tiire in so far a^ tliis turns ou
the onotny cliaracler of tlie owner, tlie onforeoineiit of the nde.s
])roliiluliii^' ti'a<le with th(^ (Mieiuy. and the exchisien of alien
eiiemie> from rii^'hts of suit, the I^)iitisli and .Viiiorican T'onrts
have loiiii' since a(hipte(l the ie-t nf diimicile i /^ ). The nature an<.l
e(inse([u<Mices of <l<)inicile in geiK'ial ha\e ah'cady been described (/■).
I'lie <loniicile Inne cont(Mnplatod i-. Iniwever. ahiiost invariably a
domicile for (•onimercial pnrpo-o^. for tltc reason that it is commonly
only in ca-es of traile that, the <jiie-tinu of the liahility of ])roperty to
maritime capture ari-e^. Sucli a d(imicil<' i^ therefdix' fre(pi(>ntl\
styled a "commercial domicile.'" Tlii> denote^ a settled lesiilencc in
a particular country I'oi' the purpo-i'- cif ii;a(l(\ li\- virtue of which a
(h) As to how tlii< ciuiio to iinadc is well inai'lvcd in ()'Mr'ihj \. lt'ii<"n
the car-licr priiici |il(\ see 'I'wiss. ii. 2i)S ^1 Cainp. 4S'2y
I'f .V'//. lu lam-lis|i law tin' traiisitioii (, ) Sec \(il. i. lids r' >/y.
24 Cases a)iil Opinions on Intf.rnational Laiv.
pcMsoji. cvoii tlunm-li a subjocl di" s(nue oilier State, is deemed to he
60 far ideutili^'d with the Stale iu whicli he resides aud trades as to
sliare its national character, whether as helligeieiit or neutral, ia time
of war. At the same time, similar consei|uonces will attach to the
ordinary "civil domicile" in casGS whore the facts arc such as to
admit of their application (^rfj.
The moi-e important applications of the principle of domicile,
iu this connection, ai'e shortly as follows: [i.) All [)t'rsons domiciletl
in the oiiemy counti'y are, for the purposes above mentioned, treated
as having an enemy character so long' as such domicile continues, and
this even though they may liy nationality be neutrals or even British
subjects. As regards neutrals, if a neutral, after the commence-
ment of the Avar, continues to reside iji the enemy country for the
purposes of trade, lie is considered as adhering tn the enemy, and
as di.scpialiliod from claiming- as a neutral u^i. A.s regards British
subjects, the same ride is apjdied. with the result that such persons,
if they continue resident in the enemy country after the outbreak of
war I / I. will be treated as hostile as far as i'(>lates to their trade. Hence
their shi])-- and property on the seas will be lialde to ca]iture, whilst
they t hem-delves will be incapa!)le of suing in the national Courts
during the war: although they will not otherwise forfeit their jiational
character, or incur any further penalty, unle-^s tiiev oiig-age in
actual ho-tililit^s against tlieir own country (//). (ii.) Conversely,
all |)erson-^ domiciled in neiiiral. or British, or allied territorv are
reo-arded a< having a neutral or friendly character, as the case may
be. so long as such domicile coutiuucs i/n. So. evtvn eni'uiv subjects,
if domiciletl in a neufi'al country, will be free from the disabilities of
the enemy character so far a-; concern-; ])roperty conneeteil with their
domicile: \\hil-t Brili-h >ubjecis, if similarly resident, will bo freo to
engage iu trade with the (mumuv in -o far as this is open to neu-
1rah(?^). .\\\([ the sam(> ruh^ will apply where (Miemy std)jects are
domicil<'(l in Ib'iti-h terrilorv. if t hey are allowed b) remain; nlthoiio-li
iu such <-a<e. liki^ all other per-<nns ddiuiciled th<u'c. Ihev will he
debarred whil>t -^uch domicile continuo- frnm eiiu'aginu- in trade with
rhidi- nativi' cMuniry ( /,- > . Whore a ])(M'-on belongs to one of tliose
(d) As to liow far there is any sub- ( /) I'lilcss hy li'^cncf^ ot tiio ("nnvn.
Htantial distinction between tliesc (//) O'Mmlii \. ]]",ls,,,, (| Cainij.
forms of domicile, see vol. i. 208 pf !«■_>): }[r('fr,,',}rIJ v. II r, ■/,,,■ ( :^ V,o<.
■wv/. T!ic t(>rm-- ^/;;,,/;r;/,. ,/.. ,./;',./•/■",■' ,^ I>. H;!); /.;.r^;. Jlmjhin.lr (IS Ves.
or -'war doiiiicile.'' wliicli is used by .■)'i(n : Tlic J'miix (S ('ran''h. '.^-VJV
~ome wi'itci-s. such as Nys. Dro'l In- (j,-^ i],.i] ,- ^ /'ri// ' ] M \ S
/,■,■„'//''.,,"'. iii. !.')!. and Wcstlaki
r-Jih: '/A, _l„,,r/;,/,'r C4 C. iv'ob. Ap])
]nt. Law. ii. -id. is pi'Dhably mori- |;, \:]1 r. The Umionx (t ('. jjol). 2;)5
a].propriatr>. ,,.i; y/,,. I>„s/ii;„,, (llav \ Marioft]
{,') The .lir" Spink. . S ; <(•(> :ih(i 245).
T/.r II,,,.. n,.,, el ('. i;,,i,. :;2-2l and , ;) /;,,// ,-. I!, 1,1 (I \[. \ S
ri,,- I,.'!'.,,,, i-h;,-i c, c. i^,l). 12 . in 721;- ri, u,,,,,,,,.. (t (\ t;,,!,. 2.-);). id:
Thi An," the rnlc w.as :ippli-(l tn the ]l,,,,,,,i v. I'i.,- (' I,,, n„,,,,, ll,'!s,, (2
case of a person tradinu' in the enemy ('i-.incli. at T'O i
country whn also acti'd as eonsnl foi- a ^ /^ , ,/«,,,sv/;, v lhi,'i,)ul eh, Crn-
neutral (onnlry. A^^ to 1 lie posit ion of .„/,,/-,//./ t/;/,r,s' ( 1 9()'> \ C IStV
.■onsuls. see vol. i. :U?,. ^'
Enernn (Ui<ir(icti'r af l*f}'s<>)is — Domicile. 25
ooiiiinunitics pipvimislv doscribod as " extra-teiritorial,' his domi-
cile will he that of ilu> Statx} uiidcr who-o jurisdiction he has placed
]uiii-»'ll' ( /). (iii.j lUit an 'eiienn character' which is based on
doiiiii-ih' is recog'iii/cd as bciii^- inerelv j)rovisioiial and tJMiiporarv,
and may thercl'ore be avoiihjd by proof oL' al)aiidonment. 11', there-
i'or(\ on the ()utl)reak ol' war a jxTson r('~^i(k'iit in the emnny countr_y.
wIkmIkm' \)\ ori<^'in a ih/iti^h '<id)jcct or neutral, takes in U'ood faith
active -tnps lo ti'au^ler b.imsell' to anot her couni rv, lie will divest him-
self of the (Miemv charactfM" ( /// ) . In such cases. how(!v<>r, the onus (d'
proof will be on the party all(>o-in^- the chanu'e \ii>: althou^'h >U('li an
abandonment will be nioiv readilv infciaed when tin; <'hani;'(> is fi'oin
an ac(piii'ed d(nniiil(> to a domicile of orip-in than where the case
iv n>ver<ed I o e Ihit where a jiersoii is ar once a aalional of and
<loniicileil in the en<Mn\- !-onntr\-. it wonbl ap])('ar that wluni war has
bioken out. lie will not l)e able lo dives! himself of an (niemy character
as rep'ards his tra<le bv mipa'alinp to another coiintr\- ; /j i .
W'hei'c a per-on i-^ <lomiciied in a ni.Mitral conntrv, but. ha> a
house of trade or an inten^st in a house of trade in the enemy
eounti'v. he will aNo lie deemed to have an enemv character;
altliouu'h in thi< ca<i^ only as reo-ar<ls such property as may be con-
nectetL with the enemy house, his other property beinp- deemed to
have a neutral character (g). On the other hand, wdiere a persoji, Mho
is domiciled in the enemy country, has a house of trade or an interest
in a house of trade in a neutral C(juutry. liis interest will he treated
as enemy proporty. on the prounxl that an enemy domicile imparts a
<i-en(n'al enemy charaetor which will alh>ct all his jiropei'fy (mil)arked
in trade(;-l. If. in such eases, the property taken belongs to a
]>artnership, it will be presumed to be divided proportionately
(7) See vol. i. 249: Wtieaton .luiorij v. McGreqar (1.5 Johnson, 24 ;
' Dium), 418. Sc,)tt.'.")t;n : :is well a^ liy rlie I'aiclish
(]ccisi(m>: cf. A/'/-/ c' . .1/. Cn. v.
{)),) Till' v;,iibi,,tin (I ('. !{ol). I): ll,„nlr (lilOI. -1 K'.' 15. S19).
The iy,„;u, (;■;('. liol). (id); The Ormy, f^^, j,^^, /.,,,,.,„,; /, <■ |^„|,_ io2)
(.) ('. Roh. 90): Thr Ce.-'is-inio (11 " ^
Moo. P. C. SS): r. X. V. C//.-;/'. ,/; ni '") ^<''^' '^'l" /""''"";' *"/'■'-'■ ^3(^ ]?ole
i!n\v. 47). In tlio case of Thr I'r,,>'s 1'-): and as to jM'oof of abandonment,
(S ('rancli, 2^^). indeed, it was lield vol. i. 211.
','>■. ^'''^ Supreme Court of tin- ^^,, ,_„ r;,,,;,,;,, , ;, (■. h„i,. 98,.
' .'"*'^'^ ^':'*"~ !'l''f •'"• !"'"P'''-bv and />c.. //,,-„;r,«-..v (2 Wheat. 7G).
id an Amei'ican citizen who was done'-
'■ilcd in the enemy cinmtfy wa< lialde {'/'> 'h'lr .Jminc Khissryn (.5 ('. Koh.
tu eaiiture and eonderuna tion. even «'' ^51)2): Tlir I'o.-I h,,)>l (H ('. Roh. ar.
tliou-li it had he.ai ^'lipped h.d'ere Ci): Thr Fr;r,i.1srhntl (4 Wll(>at.
the deel.iratinii of war: althoui:li Mar- I"'')-
shall, C'..l., dissented t'rijni this view, { ,■ ) ll:r Antun'm . I vh" ,1 ,,a t^WWwwX .
holdimr that a citizen in such a ease l.')9~). Wlieaton, contra-tinn- thi.s with
must be presumed to intend to with- the previous rule, rcijavds tiie distine-
driuv. and should thend'ore he allowed tion as unreasonable; but Dana justi-
a re:i^(niabb^ time to do ~ii. The l;itter hes it. retrardinn: each as independ'^nt
vi<'\v apjiears to i)e c(jnlirmed i)y the of the other: see \\'heaton M)aiin).
oli-cr\ .itions nnide in '/7c Cirmi 11'.). and n. l()l.
J<irl,,l r.-) Wall, at :i70,. and in
26 Cases and Opinions on International Laiv.
between the pai-tuers, and the share attributable to the partner who
has enemy cliaracter will be liable to condemnation it).
With respect to corporations, tlie domicile of a corporation is the
})lace Avliich is considered bv law to be tlie centre of its aliairs, irre-
spective of the nationality or residence of its members. In the case
of a trading- corporation, this is understood to be its principal place
of business; the place, that is. at wliich it has its central office and
chief manao-ement {u). This centre of administration and control
will g-enerally. althoug-h not necessarily, be the place at Avhicli the
corporatittn is incorporated or registered: but it will often not be
identical Avitli the place at which its industrial operations are carried
on (a"V
Generaj. Xotes. — Enemy Characler.-l'ndev the earlier system,
on the outlireak of war between two Sovereig-ns, all tliose in allegiance
to one became ''enemies" of those in allegiance to the other. Xor
Avas theie originally any distinction of (h'gree recognized in the
attiibtxtioii of eneiiiy character. But with the recnonitiiui of tlie
distinctir)!! between condjatants and uoti-eumbatants. and with the
lapse of th(> notion of personal hostility between those who are legally
enemie.-. an "enemx- character '" came to attacli to ditl'orent classes of
))ersons in dil}er(nt <lei;'ree-. and with diff'rent cO!isecpi;>nie-. At the
]:)resent tiiiiC' ( i. • an ""enemy character " in the sen^e <if '"active " en-
mitv attaches to all ])ersons. whether subjects or not, who are (>nro]le<l
in the ai'ni(>d forces of the enemv , or who otherwise assist him in the
conduct of hostilities; snch jxM'sons being subj<>ct to all those forms of
violence peimitted in war. as well as to such commercial and civil
di-alnlitie^ a^ may attach to the "enemy cliaiaeter " either generally
or in an\' partictilar sy-tcm. As re^iards neuti'.ds. however, it is now
])rovid(Nl in ellect by the Hague Convention. Xo. o of 1907, Art. 17,
that ])ei-on- so enii-ag<'d shall not liy reason of their Ijeing neutrals
be lreat<^d more se\ereK- than A\<iuld be the sulijecis oi' the other !)elli-
gerent'//!. ^ii.) Next, an "■(meinv characier." in a moi'c limited but
still in an active sense- may f)e said to attach to all ])er>ons. whethei
,^id)j<M-t- oi' not. who are foniid in the eini)lo\-!nent el' il'.o .nienn Stale;
>u<-!i |iet--(Mis beinii' lialil(> to;irre-t anrl det(Mition as w<dl es to the ''ivil
(/) 7'/.r Cfto ,o C. Hoi). oHj; Tlf for siieli ]iurposf'.-; as li;il)iUty to local
llii , ,,1(1,111 ('2 ('. [{(ill. .'>'2'J,: Till SiCi, taxation oi- the jui'isdii rkm of tlic
Jus, I)ur,,i,i,, i-l r;all. 'iCS'), Courts: Tlir Crs.,,,, S„',,l,„,- r,.. ..■ .
(,') SiM Diccv. ContlirT of Laws. Mchohan ( L. R. 1 l^x. I). 128): Dc
2nfl 0(1. KK) '/ .-Vy..- .hi,, SI,,, X. Ih-'ir- I'rrrs (',riisi,r,il'if,,l M:,,,s- v. Ihnrc
icilr-.-,, r,,„s,.!;,f„t,,l ]/:,,,.< (WUVI. (I'lOi;. .\. C. -t.'lO ) : r,-.,r,lr,, l!,;.s. V.
A. <■. -IS!, at .)lll ) ; •/'//'■ .<.<,:■;, ■!,/ tin- ]„ilii^,i':l. .V. I ,, s „ ruiii-r Cn. (2
fhr l',;,i,.u,r,i;,.,, i,i 1 1, r (';,,<.,irl v. V. S. W" . St. l^ 2.37 K
/r//f'.'/^,- I 2 (oill. le.')). r.v) Crcat liritaiii lia-. lio\\i\cr
I,/-) loit coi'iMii-atioii-. alt!io!i<rli si<riiod this Coincntioii uikUt roscrva-
doiiiicilcd ill niic country, arc nt'ti'ti timi of tlii- Ai'ticlc a< wi'll a-^ of .Vi't.^.
deemed to lie resident in some ctliei- Ki and IS.
cdimtrv. where the\ earrv on hn-^ine--.
Ene.)n;i ('lnn'uctt'r of L^ersons — Do)uicUe. 27
di'-iibilitics iiicidcul Id iliatcJiuiactor, altJiougli uul oilierwisc oxp(j.sed
lu \ioloiu<'. it i<. lii)\v('v<M', ])i()vi(lLHl !)}• the Ha<i'U(' (.'ouvcinion,
No. a of 1IH)7, Art . 18, that t ho iciHluriiig' hy a uoutral to a b<'lliooicnl
ut' services in \\w matter of |)(»li(i' and civil adniiuistratioJi shall not
liave the ellect of coulerriut^' an enemy character in tJie (seji.se just
described (J) ; and, further, tliat the furjushing- of supplies or loans
by a. neutral lo one bellio'erenl shall not have that effect, provided
that the neutral does not live in and that the supplies do not pro-
ceed from the ten'iiory belonging- to or occupied by the other
l.ielligerent (rt I. In the same category also, we may class seamen
wlio are founti on enemy merchant vessels; such persons, even
though neutral- b\ nationality, havinu' foi'incrly been liable to arrest
and detention dining tlu^ war by rea<()n of their litness for use on
Ijoai'd warsluj)s or transports of the enemy; ahhough this is now
.-ubject to the allexiations provided by the Hague Conventi(jn, No. 11
of 1907. Arts. .') — 8(6). (iii.) Finall}', an "■enemy character,' in
a merely ])assive sense, is attributc<i to all persons who are deemed to
l)e identified -as by jiationality according to one view, or by domicile
according- to another with the enemy State, for the purposes of the
Avar; such ])ersons being subject during- the continuanc;* of tlie why
to certain civil or commercial disabilities, which vary. ]H)wever, in
dilfer(>nt systems; and their pi-opcrtv on the sea being also liable to
maritime caj)tur(> unle>s protected by the neutral flag. But in the
determination of 'enemy character in this last sense. ther<> is a
marked difference between tlie principles followtnl fiy dil1er(>nt States
or g-rou[).- of States; some adopting- for this purpose the criterion
of nationality, whilst others adopt that of dcnnicile, although not in
either case to the exclusion of certain minor or subordinate tests.
Before proc(HNling to con-ider this, however, it is d<.>sivab](> to notice
that all |);'r-ons residing or coming within the sphei'e of bellig'erent
operation- are >u'oj(>ct to the ordinary inci<lents of war. in so far as
the-;' aflect noii-cond)atant-. At the ilau-ue ('onference, ltM)7, it wais
indeed propos(Ml to conf(M' sj)ecial privileges on ])ersons of ncnitral
nationalitx who mig-ht find thennelve- in this posiii(-)ii. by exem))tino'
them from requi-itions for services luiAinu' a direct i)eariag on the
war. as well as fiom conti-ibutious. and from th<> desti-uction of their
])]'opert\ -a\i' in ca-e of n(>iessit\ and <iii i-ondit ii m of ind(Mniuty;
bnt in the result no au-reement on the subjin-t was ai'rixed ati("'.
Nor in anv ca-e would the grant of sui-h e\<Muntions simmu jusi in-
desiiable. The Final .Vet. indefvl. endiodies a r(en that the [^)\\('r^
.-hould reu'ulat" b\- spivial trt>ati<^- the position, a- n^gards military
chai'u-es. (if foieiu'iiei'- i'e<ideiit within iheii' teii-i|oiies ; althoui;li
without niucli pi'o-])eci of an\' u^MuM'al coinplianc<'.
.\al/'i/Hil/h/ II lid I )i, mil ill' ii.s- 'I'csfs nl l-]n('ni>i f ' li'D'iirl cr . In
thi- connei-iioii we in'Oil au'ain to I'ecall that national ehai-ai-ier
I'c,-,
(:
: 'V\,u
.( i>.a.-
; ■■ an -n
■t i VP I'l
ii"iny " ;
('>) Sco
Art. IS ('a)
-co
Arts.
IS (1
) : and
IT (1
)). and
{/>) Src
p. 17;3-(. /,//,
p. -2
!!'.». '■/'
''■"■
(>-) See
L:in~. s.').
[1. -J(i(i. ','/,'/
28 Cafics <tnd (Jpinioiis on Infer national Laio.
orio-inally (l(^|)<'ii(led on allouiajicc, aii<i that an outbreak of war
belwoou twri Sov<n'eii^-ii~; scrvod to ostablish a relation of lo^-al
if not pcisonal onmitv l)Gt\veen all who rospeeiively ow(h1 allegianc<i
to tluMu. Siibs<!(|uently two chaiigx3s appear to have taken place.
One of these, which lias already been referred to, was the recognition
of varying- degr(ies in tlte attribution of the enemy character, and a
mitigalion of its consoquenees in its minor forms (V/). The other
was thai ' allogianc(^ " ceased to 1)(> iho sole or even tlie main test of
(Miemy character in war. an<l c.ime to be leplaCL'd hv ''domicile:'" t]ii<
change being al trihnhibh' to tin' gradual strcnglliening of tlic iei'ri-
tririal princi])lc. and the increasing recogidtiou (if irad(> and cdmmei'cc
as source^ of strength in war. For some rime, at, any rate, llie
new prijiciple ap])ears to have been vei'v gojierally accepted ( c).
But at the beginning of the I9th century, and under the in-
lluenct! of theories inspired by the Fren<;h llovoiution, yet another
cliange took phice. This originated in France, whore tlte C'onscil,
des Prises, in 1801, formally discarded the test of domicile for that
of nationality; holding that a person must be deemed to retain the
character of tlu> State of which he Avas a national, irrespective of his
place of residence, unless and until such national character had been
lost or renounced (/j. The principle thus enunciated by the Fri-nch
C'ourts ap|)ears to have been subsecpiently followed and adopted in
most other European countrifvs (7) ; with the result that Continonbil
0])inion and ])raclice rcvei'ted, although in an altered form and freed
now from tlu; old trammels of allegiance, to the personal as distinct
from the local to^t of (momy conni>ction. Meauwliilo th(> ciuirfs of
Great Ih'itain and iho b'nited States were engaged in elaborating tlu^
doctrine of (h)micilc: to which te-<t both these Slates Jiave ever sine
conliTiued to adhere. So then^ arose a notabU> divergence alike of
view and of y)ractice as to the tiaie criterion of enemy character. On
the one hand. Great Britain and the Fnited Slates, aid mori^ recently
tjapan f/n, a<lopt '"domicile" as the main test of enemy c]iarac1(>i'
in war: with the result thatpensons domiciled in the enemy country are
deemed to have a hostile character, and persons domicilo'l elsewhei'(> a
nf)n-hosiile character, irrosp(^clive in either ca<e of what their nation-
ality mav be. On the other hand, most Kuropean ( i) and other States
ado])t " nationaJity " as the main test of enemy character in war: witli
the result tliat sidijin-t^ of the enemy State retain the enemy character
Avhercvei' t]ie\ mav re-ide, whilst th<> subjei'ts of neuti'al States retain
their neutral cliaracier even tliough (Unnicilcd in the eufuny terri-
txjry (A:). At the sam<! time neither of tlic-e principles is exclusively
followed ())■ c()ii<istently applied by eitlier group of Stat/cs. On the
one hand. Oi'(Mt Ihdain and llu! United State--. whiUl u'eiieralh-
(r/) Si//j,-/i, |). '2(1. g-oods: see i'arl. Pajinrs .Misc. Xo. .k
r^) Src .\vs, /,^' JJi-o;/ h.l.'nuifuiiifd. WW.), 117, 118.
iii. I;")! el srti. (/,) Takuhnslii, 778.
{/) 11, Ul. ir)2- -15:]. (/) Otiici- tiiiui Spain and irollaiid.
{[I) \\\\\ Spain and lloiland still ( /■ ) Sec Nys, /.c Droil Inlcrnntiondl,
follow the princi(dc of domicile; in iii. 151 rt si'if.
detcrn'iining tlic question of enemy
EneDUj (Jhdfdclc)' of l*ef-son>< — Domicile. 29
acc<'j)ting- tho lo-^t of (loiiiicilc, aiu ucvortlicless forced to revert tx>
thai of iialioiiality in (■a<cs where iloiuicile would (deai'ly he inaj)-
plicahlc (7). On the othei' hand, the States which oi'dinarily adluMC
to W\v (est of natiouaiiiy arc forced, when they couic to deal with the
incidents of Avar on land, to recognize liahility as depending- on resi-
dence or donucile. The proposal which was made at the Hague
(,'onference of J1M)7 to confer a special status on neutrals residing in
Itelligorent teriitory, rejiresejits an attempt to carry the Euro])eaji
the(_)ry to its logical conclusion; but the proposal was, as we have
s(H>n, ultiiuately roit>ct(Hl ( >n. Xor was it found possihle to r<'ac]i
any agrecniont on tliis subject on the occasion of the Xaval Confer-
ence of 1",H)(S !). The Declaration of London, Art. 57, indeed, pro-
vi(k's tliat tiie neutral or enemy cliaractcr of a vessel sliall be deter-
nuned liy the Hag she is entitled vo ily. and to that extern mitigates
the ])res(Md uncertainty i^o). But with respect to goods, Art. .hS
merely providi^s that tlu^ neutral or entuny charactei' of goods found
on i)oar<l an enem\' ves.^e! shall he determined bv the neutral oi' enemv
character of the owner: thus leaving open the question as to how that
chai'aetei' is to l)e determined (]j). Hence the coidlict between the
rival ))rin('iples of nationality and donucile is likelv to continue
until settled by some new Convention or bv the International Prize
Court.
T17?// "Domicile" ix prefer<ihle.' Some contrast has already been
drawn between tlieso competing principles in the domain of civil
status (7/). Here we are concerned with them oidy as tests of
■'enemy charactiM'"" in war. and mainly for the purpos(>s of maritime
capture and restrictions on trade i7'). Hi this I'egard one needs to
remeirdxM' that on(» of the chief aims of A\ai' is (o weaken tJu' enemy's
rt^sources. hy cri])]ding Jus trade and striking at its instrumentalities,
so far as this may consist with the rights of neutrals. From this
standpoint ''nationality"" as a test of enemy character is based
on what is no doubt a traditional but at the same time often an
illusorv bond of association (.sV In attributing an enemy character
to enemy nationals who reside and trade in neutral Stales, it strikes
really, not so mnch at the interests of the en(Muy. as at those of the
neutral Siale; whilst in (realini;- a> " noii-hnstile "" neulrads wlm
reside and carry on ti'ade in the enemv Sial(\ it ex(Mn]ils from the
opei'ations of war an insi iii menta lit \- which must in^cessarih'
lie a ])oient -ource uf strcn^'tli In owe hel liL;('r(Vil and of
misclu(^f lo the other. " Hi imi'ile."" on lh<' nlhci' hainl. a- a test
(if »Miem\- character (>>v these pni'p">c-.. i'(>si< dn ^ solid IkisJs dt
actual identit\- nf inteic-t aiid minimi rai inn id the iMi(Mn\'s j'c-.din-ce-.
(!) S/'/im. [1. *J I . in war, imtioiKilit \', and fur otlici---.
(//) S>i, ,,■'/. ]i. 27. residence or (liniiicilc. ai'c :iliii(i<t uiii-
(n^ 7,/i,w,. p. It;!. vcl'-allv accepted: .w-/,,-/r.
(p) F'cai-cc iiie-o-itis. (iO L i'^) .\nil (inc. indeed . whi-'Ii i- alrcidv
(,/) Se(- vol. i. '210. Idsinir its hold, even a-^ a io<t of poHti-
(;-~i l!eeau<e for -onie pui-po-es. e\en eat status: see vol. i. 1S7 c/ .<(',/.
,50 Cai<:cs and Opinions on Internationdl Laiu.
It treats as ■(MUMuios" all persons who, even thono-h neutral in
point oi nationality, vet reside and carry on trade in llie enemy
State, tor the reason that such persons are subject io its control
and loiitiibnte to its resources: and this, moreover, in virtue of a
position which they have voluntarily assumed, and are at liberty
to renouncoi/). It refuses to treat as ''enemies" ])oi"sojis who,
even lhon<ih enemy naticmals, reside and carry on trade in a neutral
State, for the reason that they are subject to the control of and
identitied in interest with the neutral State rather than Avith the
enemvt?/). Even as regards liability to the incidents of land
warfare, the test of residence or donricilo is eminently reasonable;
for, even though it may be true that neutrals residing in the belli-
gerent State have no interest in the c|uarrel, yot the liability in such
cases is one which attaches rafione loci and not ratione persona,
whilst in voluntarily taking np their residence in the belligerent
country neutrals must be deeiried to have accepted all risks reason-
ably incident thereto ('.xV To apply any other test would in fact
l)e to discriminate nnfairlv aa*ainst resident nationals.
ENEMY TEBRITORY.
THE 'GERASIMO."
1 1857: 11 ^too. 1'. C. 88. |
Case.] During- the Crimean Avar, the " (iorasimo,'" a ship under
WaUachian colours, Avith a cargo of corn, belonging to OAAmcrs
resident at Galatz in ^Moldavia. Avas ca])tured by the British Avhcn
coming out of the Sulina mouth of tlie Danube, then in a state of
i)locka(lc. At the time of tlio sliipmcnt of tlie cargo the Eussians
bold possession of Moldavia and Walbichia; aitliougli such hokling
was Avith the avow(Ml intention of not changing tlu^ national
character or incorporatitig the country with Russia. In the Coiirl
of Admiralty a sentence of condemnation was pronounced on the
ground that the territory in (juestion Avas in possession of the
enemy, and that all persons I'esident and carrying on trade theri^
( /) Sic pp. 23. 2.), .vw//y/,/. Tills wduid (>') As to the alk'L;-c(l (lifKculty in
appear to ho a siittici(>iit answer to liic^ asci'rtaiiiini;' and applyintj domicile,
(ihjpctiou that tlic [)riiiciplr of di>nii- sec xol. i. ITS rf. tuq.; and as to 2^0-"
cilo is •'artificial" or "anomalous."' sihlo difiiculf ics that niav arise in the
Others stitrniatisc ii as " harharous," case where territory chaiiu'es iiand-
althouLrh it is diflicult Io see on what dnrinir war, p. 33, i.if/n.
Lcroniids the ri\al principle of nation- (,'•) See \ol. i. 20t.
ality can claim any special sanctity.
Eiiemii Tt'vritorjj. -W
must be rog'arded as eneiiiies with respect to sueli trade. Tho
owners of the cargo thereupon appeah'd to the Privy (Council;
\\ here it was hold, reversing' the decision of the Court beh)w, that
the national character of tho owners had not been changed by
the Russian occupation, and that restitution must therefore be
awarded with costs and damages against the captors.
Judgment.] In the judgment of the Privy CJouncil, which was
delivered by the lit. Hon. T. Pemberton Leigh, tlio iirst Cjuestion
doiilt with was. whether the owners of tlie cargo wore, in regard
to tliat claim, to be considered as alien enemies. As to this it
was laid down that the national character of a trader was deter-
mined for the pur})oscs of the trade by the national character of
the place where it was carried on. If war broke out, a foreign
merchant had a reasonable time allowed him for transferring him-
self and his property to another country. If he did not avail
himself of the opportunity, then he was to be treat(Kl, for the
purposes of the trade, as a subject of tho Power under whose
dominion he carried it on, and, of course, as an enemy of those
with whom that Power was at war. As to th(^ circunist;inces
necessary to convert a friendly or neutral tei'ritory into enemy
tei'ritory, it was not sullicient tliat th(^ territory in ([U(^stion should
he occupied by a hostile force and subjected during its occupation
to the control of a liostile Power, unh^ss it was either by cession
or conquest or some other means, ])crmanently or temjiorarily
incorporated 'with and made ])arl of the doniimons of the
in\ ader (<•/) .
I'lie rule that lh(> natioiKil character ot' a phice was not changed
by the fact that it was m the ])0ss(>ssi()ii and control of a liostile
L'orce had ])een ai't(^d on not oidy in prize ca-^es //■. l)ut also in
the courts of common law [e^r, and the distinction betwivni a hostile
oc(U])ation and possession cloth(xl with a. legal right by ci'ssioii
or ('onrpiest . or couHianed by la])se oL" time, had Ik^mi recognized
by Loi-d Stowell in the case of Tliv lloJIrlhi 1 Hdw. 17 1\ Thes.'
and other authorities seemed to establish the proposition that tlie
f./1 '/■/'<' Fin,,,: (,-, C. i;oi). :it ll.V). [r) !),,,,„/, Is,,,, V. Tl,nmi,s,)„ (i
lA) I'll,- M.'.inlii (\ VAw. 1); Tin- (';iiii|). \-l\V\ : lIi,i/,,li,,-„ v. L,'/! (1
^'i.ilii .1,1,111 > 1 luhv. ISO). Ai. \ S. t.)0').
32 CW.sy.S' and Opinions on Inteniational Law.
more possession of a territorv by an enemy's force did not of
itself necessaril}' convert the territory so occupied into hostile
territory or its inhabitants into enemies. In the prescmt case,
havinf;- regard to the circumstances under whie]) the occupation of
Moldavia by liussia had been undertaken, continued, and ulti-
mately broug-ht to an end, it seemed impossible to hold that
Moldavia exer became a part of the dominions or its inhabitants
subjects of Kussia; for, otherwise, at what period couhl foreigners
be said to have had notice of the change of dominion, or an oppor-
tunit}' of changing their domicile, as re(|uired by the decision m
tlie case of the Fama (supra). Xoi' had any act been done by
the British Government to change the national character of the
provinces in relation to Great Britain.
With respect to the question "whether the vessel had not been
guilty of a breach of blockade by coming out when the mouths of
the Danube ^vere in a state of notiiied blockade, it was laid down
in ell'ect, that: inasmuch as the object of the blockade as officially
^tated was to prevent tlie im})ort of provisions for the use of the
I'ussian forces, and inasnuich as Bussia on her part had for-
bidden theii" export, the export in tlie present case was really in
furtherance of the objects of the allies, and could not. having
regard to these circumstances and the terms of the notihcation, be
regarded as a breach of blockade^ or as involving the vessel in
liability to capture.
b'l'oiii thi-^ (locision, as well as from (MIku' autIioriti(>s rerci'i-<Hl
to ill the judgiiieul . lh<' view ol' I he Eii<4-li<h C'iiiii'l,< aj)|)ear>
to he ( I) Thai a leinjioraiy occupatiou of frioidly ur Jiritish teiri-
lory by au eiieiuy will iiol iHi])art an eiieniy character to the tenitory
iir ll^ iiihahitaiit.-. <o as to render the ])ro|)ert\- (jf tli(^ Jaltei'
liahh' 1(1 maritime rapiuiv or to expose them to thixo civil
ainl commciiial di-ii hi llii<'> thai attach to the eiKMiiv clia-
lacterir/) ' '2 < 'IMiat-. coii\or>cly. a temporary occupation of
ho-tile KMiitiiiy ])\ frieiully force- will not renioxc its iMiemv
cliai';icicr idr ilic-e pii i|io-e<. or rolie\e ii^ i ii ha hila ill ^ from ilieii-
(•oMse(jiHMit di-ahilitie< i c ). Nor. de-|)it<> sdiih' coiiliar\- authoiitw
doe< it a|)p<';ir thai an ociMipiit ion of enemy lenil(ir\' h\- J^ritish
forces would have any oilier ellect (/). X<nert lude-^s. so fii r as relate-
;r/) llir S,i,,hi A„Hii {\ Va\w. IS(I): (ex rcl. 'fhr Man',!!"; 1 Va\\\ . 1).
!l,n,r,l,,,,. V. lU'U (1 :\I. .t t^. .);')(»). (/) Hut sec Thr A,n,n C, I i,,, ,i ,,n
(r) Tin- bail uiul Ihinin, Cv/'lc { \ (\ R'Ak M)l ) : T li c F ol I UIO {\ \)in\>.
Enonij Terrilor/j. ;33
to i'U.nia<^c of ciMitrabaiHl and trading- with llie oiKMiiy, it would
.■st'Ciu tliat the fad of an (Micmy poi't foi- wlii(di the ^-ood-, in (|U('.<| i(;i]
wci'O (h'stincMl ha\in^' been mean while occii[)i('d l)\ IJiilisli fuices
will have tlu; olVect of avoidinii,- the olfence; for tlu! nsa^oM thai in
eilJier t'ase it. is essential to <4'uilt that the i^'ood-. slioujil lie lakeii
whilst on a destination for tho enemy's use ( r/;. .Vnil tiie >aiue rule
would probably be ap])liod in eases of blockade (// ). Ihit ^liere
territory has boon contpiered and doiiiiitoly appropiiaKid, then both
the soil and its inhabitants will be dcenietl, for all piiiposes, to ax:-
(jiiir(> tlie national charauter of the comjuering' or annexing State [i].
In so far a-^ these rules iniplj- that the pernianeid national character
of a place and its inhabitants caunot be altered hy inilitai'v occn-
])ation, or by anything short of delinitive con(|U(>st oi' cession, thev
are (|iiito in accord with established ])rinciples (/.'), and ai'e ecpiallv re-
cog'idzed by the courts of othei' counti'ies i /). Ihit in so far as thev
fail to I'ecogiiize that even a tein])orary occupation and control of
home oi' friendly territory by an (mhmuv will wai'raiit its being-
treated a> hostile for commercial as \\(A\ as belligerent 2)urposcs. they
iLo not ai)pear to be in kee]ung with the piactical exigencies of Avar.
Nor are tlu\v in accoi'd with the Am<M'ican <leci<ion-; mi this sul)ject.
The exigencies of wai' re(piire tliat all teriitoi'y which is under the
actual control of the enemy sliould hi', sid) jected to tin* same I'estrictions
as regards trade as enemy tei'ritory ])ro[)er, and with tlu^ same con-
se([ueiices as regards individuals engaging in such trade; nrit because
llu' latter ]ia\-e Itecome personally hostile, but becausi^ l)v tlieii-
ti'ade tlH>v cont rill lit!' io the strcngtli and r(\soiirces <if the eiUMUv i })i • .
Ihuice the American ('oiirls. whose decisions on this subj(M't are
cited wirli apjiroval in the Enuli^h tcx: -book-< ( ;/). whilst fully
I'ecogiii/iii;.;' thai ac(|iii--it ions mad(^ diiriiiL" the \\ar aic not lo be
coii<ld(M'ed as piMiuanent uiih'-s coiiliniiei by treafx (r/), \vt adojji
tlu> viev. ;ha' when either lioiiie or fiieiidly teiiilory ha^ j)a-^.-ed into
the occupation and control of the eiiem\ . it mu-t lie ii'eaied a^ enenn-
t(M'ritoi'A'. in the t(>chnical seiis(» of the law^ oj' war. for commfM'cial
as well as for b(dliu(M'ent inirpo-e-. Sn. iu Ilrnhi'ii v. r>n//Ic t!l
Craiicii. I'.tl •. il was held liy the rniti'd Sial(>. -<iip!c!iie ('oiii't that
the Island of Santa Truz. which helonu-t^d to Denmark hut liad
l")tM: and T/,r ]h,,,,-h-rli,inr Ai rim (7) Sec II. \\. VI ,■/ x,.y.,- and
(i C. |;,,I). 107 I : a!tli()uu-li f1i'> last |ip. 1(17. 2.'):). iri,-,'.
ajijicars i-cally to turn en the ruhdliat (/) S(m\ in tlic t'l'cnch cDiiri-,
\\lirn a \cs>cl sails on a voyau'C in a l' fl/'i^ninr's ('iis'\ wlicrc it \\'a- li"ld
)i,M-! i.iilar rliarai'tiT >lii' caimot clianu'c tliat a crinic roniiuitlcd by a l'"rciicli-
ihar i-hai'ai'tcr duriii-- llic xoyau-c; vi . man in Iria'iloi-y liclonii-inii- lo Spain.
T h<' Srnol'"- r,, y.tr. ■,!,■! (cil. t r. iv'ol). liul ;il t ln' time ocai pic. I li\-tlv' |-'i-:ir'li
111). roi'c<'<, was a crime commirrcd on I'mi--
(v) 77/e I'l-iii'li' S'is/rr ill ('. K'ol). ciu'ii tciTitoi-y: Ortolan, i. :;24 ; and in
:illl, n V T/ir I'llni (.") (', Rob. •.2.")i); tl:;- Ampi'i'-an courts. ^ reh/ y. !lr,,L.i
i.i,:,, |,. :i.K n. (vl. (ISd C. S. 1(H»).
(A) /'/.c I.',., II, , i; C. l!ob. :!s7i; ( ./■ ) 1 lall. .ill:!,
but a-- to the Ainm-iean (b'cidons ( ,, , Hall. .Vl'J.
on thi- point, si-e p. :;i. ;,',■". ( '/ i Tayhir. (iOl.
; ; Tl.r lln/rlh' 1 1 Mdw. 171 .
t'.I.I.. D
34 Cases and Ojjinious on International Law,
during- war betwocn that country and Great .Britain been occupied
by the latter, must be regarded as British and lience as enemy
territory lor all the purposes of the war then j)roceediiig- between
Gi'eat Britain and the United States; and that the produce of estates
owned there, even by a person resident in a neutral country, must,
if still I'Cinaining in the hands of the owners of the soil, bo treated
as (MKMiiv |)inpcri\- and a^ lia))l(» to caplure on tlio s(;a Ity the United
Stale- \ in . If an enemy occupalicju <_)f national or fiiendly territory
eoiders a ho'^tile characier, it Avould seem to follow that a Jiati(jnal or
friendly o('(aij)a.tion of (uieiiu- leniiory iiuist free it from its enem\'
cliaractci'. Ntnei'theless it was liehl in the case of lite C ircitS'-ikm
[2 Wall, l.'!-")) thai the capture and oc('iipat ioji by the United States
foi'ccs of the cll\- and port of Xew Oi'leans. which they jiad previoush-
hold nndei' blockade, did not ha\e the eifect of snspending its enemy
characier or of terminatijig the blockade; and hence that a British
vessel which had entered the port after the occupation Avas still liable
to condemnation (g). This decision, however, afterwards became
the subject of a claim before the British and American Claims Com-
nussion, which made awards in faA-our of the claimants to the extent
of .S22r),000 (r).
Gkxkkai. Xofivs.-- Kiu'iiin ll'rrilor/j . — T]]ii ([uesfion of what con-
stitutes entMny territory is imjwrtant. first, as determining the
range of military and naval operations, and the legality of hostile
captnres, in so far at least as these are forbidden Avithin neutral
territory aud waters. For this purpo.so enemy territory Avill
include — (1) territory owmed by the enemy State, inclnding all
toi'ritorial waters and attendant areas, as ascertained by the prin-
ciples and methods prnviousl\- rcdVn-ed Io(n); (2) territory leased
oi' held in usufruct by the enemy State, or included within the limit.s
<t\' its colonial jirotectorates ( /); {'.',) territory occu])ied and nd-
minislored bv the enemv State, either permanently or for an in-
d('tinit<' ]ierif)<1. even though the nominal sovereigidy may rcunain in
(p) See Scott, 598; and Wlieatoii by the United States' forces, so as to
(Dana), 121, ii. 'I'iie same rule lias exempt sucli goods from duties j>ayable
al-o Ix'on a|i])li('d in the Custoiiis coses; thereon as coming' from a fon^ign
as in r S. v. /li/r ([ Wiicat. 21(5; country.
Scott, ()'t5). whore it was held iliat an (,/) The r(>ason assigned was that
.\mci'ican port then (occupied ]>y the (lie sun'oniidi nu- distrii-ts still remained
l'>ritisii was to l)c, rc^-ardeil as ISritisli huslih^ and tlic occupation sul)jcct to
tci-rifory for ("ii<toins purposes, and t he vieissit udes of war.
hence rl'iat u'oods iniiH))'ted during tliat (, ) See Moore, int. .\rl). iv. 3!)11 ;
time were not liahle to Anu'i-iean duty Ijall. .')0i) : Si-:itt, ,S'_',S. n. Xcverflie-
iifter cv.KiKition. I'.ut in Flm-'nij v. |,,ss the deei-i(ui was approved and
I'.nje (<) II, ,w. (i(i:!: Seott. i;.")!*) this r„|l,,w,.d in Thr .i,!„hi (17G I'. S.
was held not to apply to l;-ooi|s im- :i(;i ) ; see //,^v/. p. tOH.
poi'ted into the I nited States from (,,) See v(d. i. 10;5 et. spq.
.Mexiean teri'itory, then in oeciii)ation , o //y(V^_ no.
Effect of War on Treaties ami other Engagements. 85
sorae oilior power (^/<); (4) territory held by the enemy State jointly
with any other Power, provided the actual control and exorcise of
authority are vested in the f orn^er (.t) ; and, tinally, (5j territory
which, alilioug-h otherwise friendly, ha.s been iempox'arily occupied
by, and is ujider the present control of, the enemy {xj). In the
second place, both in the British and other systems which adopt
tlie criterion of domicile as a test of enemy character in war, the
(piestion of what constitutes enemy territory is, as wo have seen,
important as determining' the commercial disabilities of persons
domiciled there and the liability of their property to maritime cap-
ture. The nature of the rides applied in this connection have already
been ^ufUcientlv indicated {z\.
THE EFFECT OF WAR OX TREATIES AM) OTHER
EyOAGEMENTS OF THE BELLIGEREyTS.
THE SOCIETY FOR THE PROPAGATION OF THE GOSPEL IN
FOREIGN PARTS r. THE TOWN OF NEW HAVEN AND
WHEELER.
[182.3; 8 Wheat. iCA.]
Case. The plaintiff Society was a British corporation, estab-
lished by royal charter in 1702 for promoting- certain religious
objects. In 17GI the Governor of Xcw Hampshire Jiad granted
to the inhabitants of that province a certain tract of land, which
was to bo iiicor|)oi'at(Hl into a town und(>i' the name of New
lla\en. and to be dLxided into sixty-ciglit sliarcs. of which one
\\a^ granted to the plaintlfl' Society. I'hn tract in ((ucstion was
subsequently divided amongst tlio gi'antees, and a portion assigned
to the vSociety. In 1701, after the .Vmerican Revolution, the
Legislature of the State of Vermont passed an .Vet pui'porting to
confiscate these and other lands granted to the Socu?ly, in favour
of the townships in wbicli they were respecti^'ely situated, and
{ /') Si'i' \ul. i. •">•). 11'). til- I'licniy i< in he l•l■^■;^ I'drd a^ lia\iiii;-
(.r) //,;,/..■).); Mall, .')().') -VKi ; and, a Im^-til,. dc^t i iiat ion : src I )c!dara t inn
un till' siihjt'i't u'l'iH'i-ally. ()|.[)cn- of LdikIoii. Art-. :!(). ;!.■); and |>. Ill,
'iciin . ii . S.") »•/ yi ./. -' ■ // ".
i '/ ■ S(i. too. confrahaiid (li'slini'd I'm' t:) S,//,,,,, p, :!:}.
irivitMi-y o\('n toniiiurai'liy <i!cii)iii'd liy
I) 2
36 Case-s and Opinions on International Latv.
further authorizing the seh^'ctmen of each township to recover
such huids and to lease them for school purposes. In 1800. by
virtue of this law, the selectmen of Xew Haven executed a per-
petu:iL lease of a part of the Society's lands to the defendant
Wheeler, who thereupon entered on the lands and tliereafter held
possession of them: the Society- having- a])parently made no
attempt to assert its title until the connnencenient of the present
proceedings.
I)y Art. () of the treaty of peacc^ made in 1783 botAveen Great
Jji'itain and the United States, it was pi'ovided, in effect, that no
conhscation should be made or prosecution eommenced against
any person for having taken part in tlie war, and that no person
should on that account suffer any loss or damag(; in person, liberty
or pro})er1y. By Art. 9 of another treaty made in 1794 between
the same parties, it was furtJier ])rovided that Briti-h subjects
who held lands in the United States should eontinur' to hold the
same according to the nature of iheir resj^fctive estates and titles:
and tlial with I'cspei't to such lands and all legal remedif'S incident
thereto neither the>' nor their lieii's or assigns should be i-egarded
as aliejisV/,, . 1ji 1812, however, war again In'oke out between
the partii;s to these treaties; the war having been tf'rminated b}'
the T]-eaty of Grli(,'nt in 1814. The present suit was an action
of cjectnirnt bi'ought by the Society against Wdieelcr in res])i'<'l
of the lands leased to him. Il was oi'iginallv brouuhl in the
\'ermfjnt Cii'cuit ('ourt: but the jude■(^•< of that C(juil beini;-
dixidefl in opinion, the question was cei'tilied. \\\ the form
oi' a -pecial \ei'diet (■jnbodyinu the fa-ts abo\e mentioned, to
the Snjji'eiiK.' (.Uiurt foi' it< opini(jn. .Vt the heai'iiiLi it was
contended inhr aliu^ oji brlialf of tln' def(Midajit>. ^1 that the
Society, beimi' a foi'e.ign coi'|)Oi'ation, wa^^ incapable of Iiohling
land 111 \ernioiit. and that it^ riahts were not iheridore protected
by lh(; treatie- (d' 178-'j and 1 7!) U ''Ij that, evi'ii U they were
'-f) prf)1eet('(|. the eJlVct of the subsequent way of \X\:l between
(•reat Ih'itain and the United States \\as to ])u!: an end to lh(j>e
jfi'atiev iiiid all I'leJil^ den\'ed 1 herennder. exeepl jii so J'ar as llie\
were pi'eser\cd liy the suhseipicnl 1ri'at\" of peaec. which in the
i") 'V\\\< |)ro\i-i()ii IjciriLT r('(-i|))-(ic:i] .
Effect of War on Treaties and other tJnijarjemcnt.s. 'M
present ease contained no such reservation. Tlic Court, liowcver,
by a majority, hold that these objections could not be sustained,
and tliat on the special verdict judg-ment must be entered for
the plaiiitifi' Society.
Judgment.] The opinion of the Court was delivered by Wash-
ington, .1. In elicct, it was hehl (1) that the capacity of ])i'ivat('
persons being- British subjects, or of corporations created by th((
British Crown, to hold lands or other property in the United
States, was not alfetited by the lievolution; (2) that the terms of
Art. 6 of the Treaty of 1783, which were unqualilied and which
purported to protect the rights of all persons on either side from
forfeiture or conhscation by reason of any part which they might
have taken in the Avar, extended to protect property of corpora-
tions tK(ually with that of natural persons; (3) tliat llie title of
tin; Society as thus protected, and as contirnied by the Art. 9 of
tlii^ Treaty of 1794, could not be forl'eited by any intermediate
Act of tlie L(\oislature of Veimout or other procecxling for defect
of alienage; and (4) that even if such treaties had been terminated,
as was alleged, by the subsequent war of 1812, and even if the
rights tliercninder had not been revived by the Treaty of 1814,
tbis would not divest rights of property which had been already
ac((uir(.Hl under them, any more than the repeal of a municipal
law would allect I'lghts that IkkJ ah'cady \ csted during its ex-
istence Xor was the ( 'ourl inclined to admit the docti'ine wdiich
had been ui'ged at the bar tlinl ti'catii's hccnnic extinguished
//9NO filch' by war as hi'tweiMi ihe parties ihei'eto, unless they were;
expressly or ini])hedly re\i\ed on the return of peae(>. \\ hate\"er
miglii. be tlu' latitude of docti'ine laid down by writers on tlie
law oJ' iiiitions, dealing with the siib|ect in general terms, it was
(dear that that doctriin' was not iini\ci'sallv true. There migJit.
l)e tri'aties of such a niitun'. as to their ol)|i'ct and import, taiat.
w;ir would put an I'lid to thcni. Ibil wImmm' treatii's eoiit eiiiplated
a [x'rnianeiil arra na'eineiit of t erritorni I or national rights -or
wt'i'e iiicanl to providi' I'or the i'\i'iit oi' war it would l)e au'ain>t.
every |irinciple of just int,i'r[)retat ion t(j hold them t'xt inmiisiied
t)\ war. 1 r such weri' the law. tluMi tln^ 4'n\it\' oL' 1783. which Jiad
fixed the limits of the United States and acknowledii'ed their
;i8 Cases and Ojihmns on International Law.
indepoiulfiice. would he <iOue; and tln' straggle for both would
have to l)c hvv:\u\ again. The (Jcjurt was therefore of ojdniou, that
treaties stipulating for pi.'i'niauent rights and general arrange-
ments, and ]irofrssing to aim at perpetuit}', or to deal with the
case of wai' as well as of peaec. did not cease on the occurrence of
war. but wi're at most oidy suspended whilst it lasted; and that
sucli ti-eaties, uidess they were waived by the parties, or unless
ne^^' and repugnant stij)ulations were made, revixed in their opera-
tion at the I'eturn of pt'aee.
Directlv. this ca-«' d(>cides that, ivoni tlio point of view of
the Aineii'-au C'uurts. private rights which iiave been acquired
or eniilinned by treaty will not be divested by subse([nenL war
between the parties. lucidentally, it also embodies a judicial
declaratieii of tin? ])riuciple that treaties stipulating for permanent
riglits. or pur])oi-tim:- to be perpetual, or contemplating a state of war,
do not cea-e on the occui'rence of war, but are at most suspended
\\liihi it la-ts. and reviv<' on the restoration of peace in default of
I intrary aLirei'inent . And with ihi- (•ouclu<i<j!] l)oiii ijie docirine of
the KiiL;'li~^h ('ourts [b) and the present inteiniatiojial practice may be
said to a;^!<.M.'. Subject to tliese recoginzed exceptions, Jiowever, the
predominant Aiiglo-Amcniean view appears to be that treaties ]jre-
vion~lv >ubsi-ting between the Ijelligerents are put an mi<l to by war
unlo-- <'xpr<'-^ly revived (o. The question wlietJuu' a tieaty or stipu-
lation \\a- inti'iided to -et up a ''])ermanent state of ilnm;-^ " must be
jud^'e<l in the liu-ht of the t<;rms of the treat\- (U' stipulation, and the
circuin.-Utncov of cacli particular ea>e. The contiover-y already de-
scribed, which arose between Great Britain and the L'nited States
aft<'i- the war of 1812 as to wlictlier certain couf^essions made to tlie
lattei' ujidei' the previous treat}- of 17So had or had not been aljrogated
bv ihc war. will serve to illu.->trate tlie a])])lication of this principle (d).
THE CASE OF THE RUSSO-DUTCH LOAN, 1854,
Is.')!: l':iHi:unciit;MV hclcitc-. :',ni -.'i-ic^. \'(]|. (*.\\X\. lUOt;.
Case. In l-^^l \. (>rc;ii Ibitmn. in I'oiiviilriat ion of boiiiL; billowed
to !'i-t;iii' rcrt:iin Dutcli colonics ami depcndcncii'^ A\hicli ^ji,.
had acipiiicij ihirinij ih- \\;ii\ iiinh 'ri i lok to p;i\ m nioic|\' uf
ih) >.,!/,.„ V. >,iih,,. (I l;. ,v .M. ritic. rhciv ciicd: Wc^tlakc, li. :iJ ;
(JO;i;. W l.artoii, ii. i:; ,1 .v'v.. M.Mirc
('V ■/■/. l-,n., Ii..„i,r !) ('. |;,,lj. Diirc^t. V. :M-1 rl ,r,,.
(j^jj; J'liill. iii. 7!»t // -"'/.. aii'l autlio {,!) Sec; vol. i. i5;j at scj .
Ef)ect of War on Trv<(tlt's und other EnniKjcuiciils. '-W)
a ccrtalu loan which had hceii iiiaih' hy Ilolhiiid to liusbia
dufiii^' the war. \\\ u ( 'uii\ cnl ion ui \\w 10th May. 1(SI-"),
L'nil)odyini;' the (itiiis of this ai'i'anu'cincnt . it was atiTood
between the contracting parties ^^/. that the payments on the
part oi' (ireal Iji'ilain should cease and deterniiue it' tlie jjosses-
sion and sovereiii-nty ot" the IJi'l^'ic pro\inci's shouhl iit any time
pass or 1)0 severed Itoiii the (h)minion of the Kini>' (,£ the' Xetlier-
lauds; but tliat the ohiisi'al ion (d' pa\ineiit should not he int«r-
rupted by the outbi'eak of war between aii\ of the three contraet-
in£i- parties. On the subsiMjueni separation oi I'eleium from
Holland in I80I, tJreal; Britain, c(jncei\in<i' that even thougii
released by tbe letter oi' the Convention siu; was still bound in
equity to adhere to the engaa'cmeiit, concluded on the lOth
November, 18-jI, a new Conxentiou with Russia, whereby after
reciting' that the object of the earlier C'onvention was, on the one
hand, to atToi'd (u'eat Ib'ilain a e'uai'antee that liussia would on
all questions concerning I>elgium identify her policy wjth what
(ircat Britain tloemed best foi' the inainteiiaiici' of the balanc(,' of
power in Euro])e: and. on the dtlier, to seciu'c to Russia the pay-
ment by (ireat I'l'itaiii of a jioi't ion ^^'i hei' debt to Holland Great
Britain, engaged, >ubj(;ct to the e(in>eiit of the l-iritish Rarhament,
to continue the paynn'iits stipulated in tic ( :cuiV(Mit ion until the
debt had been full\ liipiidated ,
The issue as raised in Parliament. On the ouilu'cak of war
bc^tween Cu'cat Rritain and Ru>>ia m ISol. a motion was made
in Parliament to llie ehect that (ireat Ib'itain should renouni'i?
her obliaation to make an\ funher pavinent-. on the gi'ound that
Bussia had xiolati'd the lieina'a! ai'ianiivimiil s of the ( Oniji'ess of
Vienna. The motion was. howexer. rejeeti'd upiiii the gi'ound.
a mono- others, thai '■(ii-eal Rritain beiiiL: a1 wai' with i\'u>sia A\as
bound 1)\' a rei;ard to hei' national honour lo Im' more than e\ er
jealous of alTordiiiL;' the >ii-ht.-l -round for tlc' accu>ati(Ui that
she ^\ishl■d to repuiliate dehi^ ju-tl\ eontraited with the L'owi^r
which \\a-- foi- t he 1 1 me Im'I le^ h-r eiiiin \ // . 1 n con^eipieiiee of
(u) (h-oat i'.ritaiii. Ii^.ilaii<i. ami i ■• ) 'twi", ii . II '_'.
lussia .
4(1 ('((.sp.-; and Op{)iiou'< on fnfernational Lnnj.
tlii>. till' iiitiTc:-t on till' loan \\a> paiil tJirouohont the wax to tlic
aL-'i'iit- of till' Hu^>ian ( mj\ ri-nnn'iit .
'I"li<_' <'arliri' ( 'un\*'iinoii. it will bi> solmi. convaiiKid an express
>tij)ulalion lliat jtei 1 oi niaiice sliould not ho iiiK'i riipted by Avai'.
It, i< iiMW nni\'<n--all\- rci-fjo'ui/cd that the oUioations of treaties
whiih ciiIkm- conieiiiplat'' or are <;x])i'(!s<ly (hK'lare:! to lio luiattected
hv war aic not impaired thei'ehy. The second (.'ou\ejitioi), how-
excr. coutaincd no sU'-!i slipulalioii ; and tlie irici<loiJt may thei'O-
I'liic he ■~ai<l. Iiavin:: n.'Liard both to tne conclu-ion arrive i at and
till' u'liiHiid- Oil wliii-h it \vas bas<'!l. to sanction the view, whicli
is now al-ii liciHMallv ac'opted. that the outbreak of Avar will not of
it.-cit !ri di-;-liai';i'<' or <'.\tin2ni>h debt,- oi- other fijiaiicial obliii'atioirs
pr('\ioii-l\ -ub-i.-tiiii;- <'it ln,'r lj<'nveen the bclli^ei'ont State- thein-ehes
or bciwocn on<' of ihfMii and th(> subjects of th;! otlier. This j-ests iii
]iai1 on the fact that -ucli eiio-a^enient- an.' contracterl on the faitJ"!
'<i the national honoiii': but in part al~o on an apprc'ciation of tlu'
fad thai but fur the ('xi-t<'nc<' fif such an iindorsiandin^' the jiro-
curiiiL;- oi' lo;ui-. <'-i»<'(;i;dl\- froni in;livifluaN or corporations, would
be at nni-" niMi-(' diihculi aii'l more costlv(c/i, [n the c,i>(! of loairs
by indi\i lual-, this principle is now ])robalily fidly reeoo-ui/ed;
laii a- ieL:ar.l- liiiancial oblie-ation- snbsistino' between the hostile
State- I liein«dvc'^. it- preciso limits are. as we sliall s(-o. not so well
a.-c..i-iaiiM,'<l iV I .
(-lA.ri; \r .\oi I.-- 'I'hr l-'.i\,'( I t,i W ,:r un 1 1 1 nl'ics : li. Opii/io}/. -
< )n tli<' ipie-ti-iii ot' the elb'ct of wai' on trcati<'- pi'oviou^lv ,-ubsisting
between the bel li li'oic n t - theic i- muih di\er-iiv of opiniun. Some
wiiK'i- <i|iine that Mi'h ticatU's arc onl\" su-pended b\" war. unless
tlie\ arc I'rom tJKMr \'ciw nature or torin- cunt ine-cnt on peaMM/';.
'•iliei- (ipine iliai all treatic- are abroL;-at<' 1 bv wai. -ubject.
b'lwcver. lo I'criain <'.\ci'pt ion-, the ran^^-' of which vaiac- with
dificr'n' w liter- '//' . ()tliei-;, a'jain. draw a distinction lietwccui
tieatic- piop^M. -u'h a- tn-aties of commerce, extradition, anij alli-
iincr, whirh aie -aid lo be aboi'^ated b\' wai' and not to re\ ivi- mi the
le-tMi.i! lull .,f p<M. e ..\. ppi bv c \ | u ( ■- - s t i p u I a t i o n . a It d w li a 1 ate railed
■ trail- :lorv con\ cut ii in-, -iich as |.|.<-;iiin.- of lerritorv. sett leinent.s
"I li. Ill lai.i !v. and 'jr ini- '.f -law i I iidc- i// i . which are ji at 'jeu .rallv
aflectod b\ wai. allhi.ii-h liable, uf ioiii><'. to be di-phe-ed l)\ some
'■ , f'!:' II,.' .■•iii-i-;|iii'!i' •- ii( ' hi- v. ;m-
ni;iy ri'ii'li'r |ii'rt'iirni;nii'c iin [ici--iiilr. ci;-
tin- ilil,; in:iv li" i;i m.'i !c(| liv trr':nv
.■I- till- ri'-iill iif th- \\;ir.
.// Hall. i:;.'.
.■ /i 'I'aylnr. IHI.
I '/ 1 i'li'ill. iii. 7!i.'i < / .w'/.
' /• , Tlii'-f lifiiiL'- i-caHy ill t!ic aarnrf;
if (ii-pu-itioiis : ■^(•c \iil. i.'.'i'It).
I'jjlccl iif War (III Treaties (iml oilier I'liniin/eiiieut-s. 41
new di>iMi.siii(in iiusdr mi ilic ciiiuilusioii ol' poaci'ii). liiUHMlli lliis
<livcru'<'iic(' of ()|iiniiiii. Iiduon rr, t livrc is a ct'itaiii I'h'iiicuf of commou
ug-rc'Oinciit , in <(i far a-^ mjiiic kiii<ls nf tioalitvs are universally i-ccdo--
jii/«'(l, (Mtlit'r li\ way uf lulc or ('\ce|ition. a< survi viiiu' tin' war, \\]iil>t
dtlior kind- auain an' <'i|iiall\ rcco^^'ni/vd as licinu- alunj^'alcd liy
Avar ly").
(^ii.i I'raeliii^ \\"\\\\ ii'~|m'ci in ihr |»raclicc uf Si.ni'-. ii was at
une lime ii-iial un llu' (Mil Incalv nf war I'nr cadi li<'lliu-('i'<Mil ti ii[ak<^
a piildic priulaiiiat ion llial all ircalx' <ili|iL;at imis IicIwimml flir parlies
were al an eiuh/,"'. Tlii- prai'tice lia- Imii^- since cea>c<i; lait il is
[iriihaMy rc-pim^ihlc in -nnic ilci^rcc fiU' lie prcvalcnl view iliat llie
elfecl of war i- to alirouatc all lri':i1ies wlii(ili are not in tlie nature
of di-])()'^itions. ilcncc in recxMif tiiuc> it lias heeii flie usual altliou<i-h
iioi invariable practice for Slate- that lia\<; licen ai war to assume
thai treaiios liaM' iiccii aliro^'atcd. and on ilic le-toralion of i)OacO tu
rc\i\-c expi'<^-s|\ all trealic- wliii-li have not lo>! iheir a])|illcal i<in
and which the pailie> d(>-ire lo niaiiitain. Such an a--iiiiipt ion. at
any rate, a[)pear> to have prompted the arranucnienl- that A\erc-
iiia(h' hy the 'frivUv ol' i'ari-. iSoti. on the clo-e of ihc ('riiiieaii wai'.
A^ain, on the clo~e of the war of IS-V.i. all prior treaties were imii-
tirnied hy the Trealx of Ziirieh a- li<Mweeii Austria and S:trdiiiia;
altlioue-h ]n)ta- hetwecn Aii-lria ami l''raiice. At t he c|o-e i^f tlie war
ni ISlKi.all prior trealie- weie r,'\i\e I a- li-iwcen Aii-lria and Itah ;
and also, in so far a< tlie\' renciiiiel applieaMc under the aliereij con-
ditions, Ix'twcen Aii-tria and Piii-sia. At iIh> c|o~e of the Fraiico-
I'rii-sian war in lS7i. lrealie> ol' coininer<-<'. iia\i^at ion, cvtradition,
an<l c(!rtaiii con\ cut ion- relatinu' lo <-opy ri^hi and I'ailways were
expre<s|\ i onliriiie;! . alllioiiwji no iiieiiliini wa> nnde of othei'
tr(>at ies ( / 1. \\ tln^ i-lo-(> of the Spa n i-h- A iiieriean war. no provi-ioii
with re-pect to treaties appear- to lia\e Ween niad<^ hv the Trcatv of
Pari-. ISIIS (///-; hut li\ the -iih-cpieni 'rrcalv nt' Madri,l. !'.»()_>,
Art. :i!>. it wa- proxidcd lh;it all treaiie- ncide hdween the parties
])rior lo till' TreatN of Pari- -leiuld he aliroi^aieil. with tli<' c\((>ptioii
of a treat \- of I s;; I > // '. A ft-r t lie lijnckMdc .if t Ic \'ene/iielan port<
hv (ireat Pritain in P.hi^. ii \\a- aiiierd li\ a piotoioj ot the l;5th Feh-
riiaiw. PMi;;. thai iici -iiiiieji a- it iinLilii I'C contendej thai a stal(> of
war IkuI c\i-led an I thai all ireatie-. ha I o-cn ahroual :■ I . it -hould
lie rci'orded li\" an e\,-|i:i iilI'' nf ici|c~ ihai a eeriiin lreat\- ot jS.'M-,
whieli ii wa- de-lred lo eoniiiiiie, -u'eild h<' renewed and con-
lirniedio). Tla' Treau nf |N iii.-niMiil li. P.hi,",. whieh put an end to
the liii--o-.la pa ne-i' \\;ii. loiilain- ii-i c\pre-- proxi-i-iii on ihe siih-
jeet, hevond a re:-iial licit ll;e prmr !re;ii\ i.t' <■- mi niei'c > and navi-'a-
tioii liail heeii aiiiiiillel li\ ilie \\;ii, and a -1 i pii la I ion that pendinu'
the coiiclii-ion nl a new 1 1 ea i \ the -iihjeci- ^^i each |iari\ should
*;, I hill. :i7!i ./ w,,.; WiMMturi
i'l);iii,i . '^yi. II.: Ny-. 'ie ■')•; "if.
(/i \\(--ilakr, ii. :V1. II.
(/■; IMiill. iii. 7ii:; 7(M.
(/) Ihill, :!si) , / ., ./.
1 vM r,. >v !••. S. I", vol. xe. :;S2.
/'I i;.'l:itin- t.i the scttliaiirnt .if
■rCiiii i-l:iim< ii.'lwccn the twn i-ouii-
■i.-; -I- v.. \ I". S. I', vol. M^. sic.
n S.r vol. i. :)ii. 31!.
42 6W.S7\v (ind (J/h'/n'ohs oh International Law.
W- tiv;it<'<l liv Jlu> Other ;i< favourably a^ tJio.se of tlu; most favoured
nation ( /, j.
llic /iilc (>l .Ihi ijii'tltini and its ('.cccplioii^-. Jlasini: icuard to
thi- (ti\(ML:'oiii»' of n|iiiii(iii and I ho ah<eiice of conijdoto iinilVirinity
in prai'tiro. it i- ]irol)al)lv safer to assume it to be the ;;eneral rule,
that troatio- ))U'\ n .usl\- sul).si-ting between tlte belligerents are abro-
■SdWii h\ war; and In leave it to tlie parties to revive tliem either
r.\[n(--l\ nr iin|ilicdl\ nn the restnraiion nf peace if they think lit.
Anil I hi- cMniJu-itMi i- :-iiilirnied not only by the crnnmo]i ])iai'tiie. l)ut
aN(. b\ the cMnsid^M-atiim that it woidd otherwise nften be <lillicidt.,
ill \ic\\ (if the chiiiiue- wiouii'ht i)v the war in the eireiim-tanees and
relation-- ol' the |):irti:'s. to determine preeiscdy how far ])iior treaties
retained their appbeabiliiy . This rule is. however, siibjeet to a g-reat
\ariet\ nf <',\(eiii mn-. In <lealint:- with the-e it will be conN-eniciit to
<li>liimui-h between ticaties to whirh the lndli^'ereiits nnl\- are parties
and treaiie- to which nthsM Pnwcr- are ])artie-. ^ ii Among-st,
treaties t)\ the fni iner kind. W(> mav exenijit frnin the ])riniary jule
nf abinMaiinii the inljnwing ela->e-: lai TreMtie- whidi exjiressly
ennwmjilate a -tate n[ \vari(/i. nr which are expre-sly saved from
beiii'^;- affected b\- warirc ibi Treatie- wluch ereati' or detine
riiihi.- /// rcu/ : such a- treaties ce Liim' t(>rritory. detininti' l)Oun-
dari<'-. cicatinn -pr\itudes oi' rei-nnnizing internat iniial status.
Thi- exioptinii re-t< on the fa'-t that sin-h treaties supply in
intri national t ra n-ai-i ii iii> the place nf dispiwitinn- (jr settle-
ment- in pii\ate lii.'>: and that (jnce such I'iuht- Inne Ikmmi created
or iecn;^aii/ed the\ then depend nnt ini ireatA but nn the ci'enei-al
law. e\en thonL;li the t reat \ Jiiay remain a- a sinirce nr re^'ord
of title (.SI. Ihit this \\ill not apply tn ligjit- uhi'h clearlv
appear, either frmn the terms of the trtnity or the circumstances of
ih" ca-<'. In be in the nature of m(>rely fi'mpnrary concessions i / i .
.\!nien\er, e\('n the iichts that aciaiie under dispositixe treaties Jiiav
be -ir-])ended as tn their (exercise durinu' the war. or displaced liv
nllier arranc<Mnent- mad(> in cnn-ei|Uenc(> nf i*^. althi'iu'_;h tliev \\-ill
nihcrwi-e r<'\i\e autniiial ic all v i // i . fc ) d"reati(>s which, abhniicji
n"' in the na'uie i,\ di-pn-it inns, are nevertheless intended b\- the
pai'i<>- in -m lip -nine pennaneiit relatinii ni' arr.inceinent ; such a-
tie;iiie- 1 (':ji I la I i II'.;- the ac(pii-it inn nf nationality, ov mulualh' con-
cedinu' tn -ulijeci- lit' eiiher jiarty the privilege of holding lands
wiijiin the 'enitnr\- of th(> otluM'. The nperatioii of such treaties
\rt. 1:
il,-i-l,i. 77ti.
., .s,;.-!, ;,, il,,. tn-ey .a' 17'M l,.>
twcii in-'-it la'il.iiii .iml t!ic i'liitci
St.a'--. w liidi poiv idcil :c.''.niet tin ,-c
ijiict rut iun nr runti-rnt iwn uf |iri\at(
(Iclits .■uiil cci-t.-iiii iitlii'i- kiiul< ef prii
['Ci't \- ill 1 1|.. ('\ cut ' if W.I r.
I .■ ' Siicl, :e t \\i' ^t i [iiil:i; ion cni!
t:iinc(l in the treaty nt' 1 S 1 ,') lutwcrn
lii'cit liritaiii and l>'ie<i:i. wliicli pre-
\iili'(| that till' |iaynirrit nt iritcfc^t on
the l'ii--o^| )iitcli doaii -!ioiiI(! liut be
ail'cctcil li\- wai': .■•''//;■". |i. :;it.
(> ' Scr vol. i. :i-JH: jlall. ;58'J.
( / ; Sec vol. i. 1:5:5. l.-)!).
( ") Scr. ilall. •■]H-1.
tlD'ect of War on Trcalies and oilier Kwjaijenicnlx. \\\
again may he suspeudcd Vw ilie occiiirciict' «j1' wm- (x); but for
iJie rest, they will rutaiii llioir valiility, and their operation will
revive ou llio rcsiuxatiun oi peaco without express renewal unless
positively rescind^'d ( //j. lUit whor<' war is resorted to as a means
of conrpellijig- the tuliihiieut of a treaty, and especially where it
arises out of a tUspute as to the meaning- of a treaty, it would seem
that tJie treaty mii<l be deemed to have been annulled by the war,
unless revived by expr(>ss stipulation (^). (2^ Willi respect to
treaties to which ()th(M' L'dwcix than the ijelligerenhs are ])arties.
these will not, in geneiab be alleeted by the outbreak of war between
particular signatoiies, but \\\\\ continue binding as reg-ards other
Powers, and will revive even as bi^tween the belligerents themselves
when the war comes to an end. Si> the g-reat law-making- treaties,
previously referred to ( a i, remain unalfected by war between the par-
ties (6). And even where such treaties are subject to denunciation,
it is frequently stipidated that they shall remain obligatory for a
year from the time at which the notice of denunciation is g-iven:
which would ordinarily serve to prevent them fi'om being denounced
in anticipation of warici. The groat intcrnatiunal settlements (c/)
are also unallec'ted by war between particular sigiiatorie~~: and even
if the war should arise over some matter coJitained in the treaty'
it would seem- -in so far as the matter can be said to bo governed
by leg-al rules — that no now arrano-emont can strictly be made without
the consent of the r)tlun- signatories, although this is frequenth'
disregarded in practice le). Xevertheless, where a treaty of this
character imposes obligations of an active kind, it is recog-niztHl that
the discharge of such ()l)ligatinns may be temporarily suspended
by the existence of a state of war between the jiarties oi- some of
them; both bv rea-on <if the iiupo-^ifiillty <if united action, aiid of
the fai-t that an ai-tive fuUilmeul of the treaty oblig-atioii- might
be incf)ir<istent wifli the I'lvpiirements of self-preservation as re-
^j- } As wlicrc the i:nnii>-i[)al Jaw --"inn. p. Jo.
or jjoliey [)rei'lu(lc> ciioiiiy subjects (,) Sec tlic (Icncvn ( 'i)ii\ ciitiim,
from availinu'- tlieiusclvcs uf <\w\\ JlKlti. .Vrt. 3o.
riii'iits dui-iiiu' rhc ciuitiiiuaiu-i' cf war. kjI ) Sec vol. i. 11.
til the 'rurco-ltaliaii war cf 1 Hi 1 , (C, On thi' i-onelu-iuii cf the Ivusso-
Ttii-kev issued a iioti iicat ii >ii that: Turkish war in ISTS the re-settleiiient
Italiaii suhjeets wouhl im h)iiL;-er he of the \arii)U> issues under earlier
entitled to the henetit of ih'- cajiiiula- <ei t li'iiienf of ISoii wa- suhniitted to
tions. which, in the eii'euni<t aiiees and the ('cn^ress cf Uerliti, which was
iiavinLT rcii-avd to the <u-p''n~ii ui of attendi'il hy all the parties to the
I'Onsidar fuiiet ioiw. appeal'- to ha\c I'l-ealycf I'aris, IS.V;. I t.aly takiuir the
been warrantable, at any rate, ihii'inir phice uf Sai'diiua: >ee \(il. i. I'i. I'oit
the ecntinuanei' cf the \-.ai'. the .anncxatiun of Mo-nia and lleiv.e-
(y) .Vlthouu'h even in -in-li ea-e- the i.ni\ina by .\u-ti'ia, in I'.tllS -ee vol. i.
prei'aution of exiii-c-- rrne->\al i- >oni,' -,;, n ^md. moi'i' re cut Iw the \ii-tnal
time- adopted . ai)roi,''at i(Ui uf the Ali;'ciMra- ('on\en-
U! Ilall,:is:!. tionof i'.KKi see vol. i. 1 1 o aithouirh
( '/ ) See \ol. !. 11'. in e.ai-h ease with nit war. were
(/;) .Many of t he enn\ ent ion- framed ..tlfi-ted without refei-cncc to the par-
i)V the llauaie ( 'onfereiier of i',»07 arc .j,... ,,, ,|,,, u,-iw-i,ial -otflrnhMiT.
intendcKl to ap^ily to a -tate of war;
44 (asrs tiiid (f/ii/iioiis on Inh'i'uaUonal Law.
oaid- llic P(>\v(;i< iiivolvol in llic wai'. Sin-h. lor oxaiiiplc, Avould buve
hvvn ill.' po^itii r Fiaiirc. in 1870. ii< rog-ards tlio <i'uarantoe of the
iiitcuiitv ol' till' ()t Ionian Empire t<> wJiicli she was a i)aHy undor
the TiV'aU <i|' I'aii-. liS.")!). 'ri'<'at i<'s, moreover, which aro I'roJii
theii' \('rv naliire (h'^cndent on a iMjiitinuance of friendly relation.^.
siK-h a- trealie- of commeice. are ji(;ce-.<aiily abrogated 1)}' war so
l;ii- a< the aetual helli:;-ei'eji1.- ai'e coneerned. even tliough other
l'ouer< ma\- he parties thereto. What lias heeii said with respect
lo iicatie- generally may al-o he taken to apply to jjai'liciilar stinu-
latioii^ .-oiitained ii'i a treatx': foi' the >ame tioaty may contain stipn-
lalion- -Mine <>\ which are and -oiiie ot which ar'c not ahi'ouated 1)V
war I / I.
77/r' EWcrt (,i ll'o- oil. the Fiiiiiiicifif' l-^ii(/<ifj('ii/ei/l-s o/ Slates.- Such
<'iiL;aL;enHMii- nia\- exi-t eitlu'r with other States, or with individuals
or corporation^. ' On this suliject the following concdii^ions appear to
he wairaiitalile in principle, as well as fi'om the standpoint of modeiu
jiiactice -(J fai' a< that exlend^:- -('1 ) ^^'llere money ha< heen lent to a
Slate on the faith of its puhli<; ci'edit. the fact tliat the loan or any
|,-jit theicot ha- heen siili-crihed oi' i> held hy iiationaN of a State
hciw(M'n w hich and the dehtor State wai' hir< broken out will not jn-tify
<'illiei' a repudiation of the debt or a sequestration of i)i'inci])al or In-
tel est. That |)ii\ate Inteicsis in piihlic debts are exemjil Irom icpri-als '
and -eijiie-liation. lM)th in peace and war, may probahly he taken to
ha\e heen e-1a.lili-lied a< one of the results of the crnitroversy -which
took place helwcen Cieat Britain and Prii-sla In ]7"j-'i with respect to
the Sile-ian loanyr/i. whilst It has abo heen alfiiined 1)\- particular
treatje- //i. and I- now still furthei- <t i-(..'iigthened b\- i he desije
of Slate- ii. maintain their credit in the jiioney nuirhets of the
world w'c ,\t aii\- rale, the pi'aclicti on the siibjed is A-ii'tiuilly
iiiiiiioken. |-]\eii the Southeiii ( 'on fe<leracy In bSOJ. in decre<diic;'
ihe -e(pic-i lal ion i,f the propeiMy of alien eneniie-. exc<,'pied
■■ puhlic -lock- and -eciii'it ie-." i l! ) In the ca-e where a
Si;iie (,i ^ronp of Siiite- cuaraiilce a puhlic loan made hy Indi-
%idiiab lo -i.me olhei .Siaie. the liahililx ol' llie iiuarantoi's to i\\i'.
'.I (<:• tli( -iil)jci-t ui'cpci'ully. -cc -li,-ili in event of war he .-ei] ne<t i-:ire(l
Ihill. :;7^ .' -'/.; W c-(!,ikc, 'ii, 'i!> (,r eenfi-eatcd : it lieiriL'- (ler-!ii nd
-' "'/.." I .:i\vrcni-c. :ii)S :• .,,/.: ainl iinju-t aii<l ilii|)()]i(ie lliat deljts aiid
'i'avler. Itic r' , ,/ . enii-airenicnt s cimf ract I'd and made hy
' '/ ><'•■ \cl. i. :','.]'). Tlic a-jiei-t of i ndi\i(hia t-i liavinir cinilidcnce in caeji
-iich enL'a'.''cniciit ~ a- deht< ef h'ln'iiir etlier and in their re-|ie"ti\e ltoxci-ii-
\\a- -|icri;ill\- dv.i't un in ihc llriti-h inent~ <li(ndd c\er h^i- i|c-:t r'eyed or- ini-
:-tat.-nnnl ct' the ,-:,-c ,nid net uiih paired en aecennt. el' n.aticnal ditl'er-
•/cn.-ral apj.iM' al. I'lice-;: m'c Art. 1(1.
/. . \- hy tli- t-.M:\- cf IT'.il. made ; ; | ndi-i' ex i-t i nu^ condit hn;-. mere-
hetw-en I ; i-.-:it la-it ijn. and the Iniled . ,ver. f he same end i ~ at ta i ned ewi irj- to
<t;i'e-. uhieli jircide- that n'itiier ili,. fnet that the .-eriifitie, is-iicd for
till' deht- due freni individual- ef ^n.'h deht- are n-^ually ef ;i nee-otiahje
.,ne nali:pn to tin individual- ot' eharaeter, an<l can thu- he- t ra n^rerred
i.nother. nor dia.e-. no Moni'-- which to ncnti'al<. ai;'ain-f whom the plea of
tiny mav lia\e in the puhlic fund-, enemy cha raetcr would he unav.ailahle ;
..;■ in the puhlic or private hank^. /c//v/. p. ST.
FoDHs of War-Latv. 45
principal crcditoi'-- wnuld. in \'u'\\ ol' Llie rsaiuo coiisidci'uliou.s, not bo
ailceied l)y tlu' oiiil)r<Mk ol war Ijciwoon tlio doblor Suifc and ouo or
nidfc of tlic j^iiaiaiilnr v^talc^; an<l the saiiH' would ap])ly to any lia-
bilily that nuLi'lit In' iiKaiiTcd towai'd^ 1 ho ^-uaraiilors hy tiic debtor
State it.selt, allhniiL;h in this case siibjcM't to tlic ])os>siblo (pialiiica-
tiens suii'si'ested lu'h)\v. \',\) In the case. n(it ]i<j\v tso common, wbero
one Slate advance^ in(ni<'\' diiiHjtly 1)\' wav dl' lean to another State,
tliero would usually he an expics.-, stipulation a^'ainst any annidment
of tlie ohliuatidii l)\ wai\ hut e\(Mi in dei'ault ol' this tin' trend ot
modern practice i/i appear,^ to s;incti(ai the vi(>\v that such aji
en<2:a<i'ement should he respected. It is. howevei'. <'i)nteiided h\- seme
that the deliior State. e\(Mi wliil>t i-cspcct i n^- the enu'au'ement idti-
mately, Avould he jusiilied in suspending- payment ef int(n'est. or prin-
cipal to the enemy dniinu' the ceniinuance of the wiwiiii): hut this
conclusion, althoiiu'li j'listilied hv the analoo-ous suspension of |)iiva,te
debts under {\\o .\n^'!e-.\meiican ruhvs i /m. is not borne out l)y
modern exam])les so far as these a\ail (7). In any ol' these ( ases
it is, of course, coiiceivahle that the (hdttor State nii^ht he ])re-
vented by the iinancial sti'ain iiiqx^scd h\- the wai' from I'tdlilliuii-
its enp,"ajj,'0menis; hut the default m such a case would rest on <iilferent
fi'i'ouncls and ho <i'o\ei'n(Ml li\ dilfeicnt priricipies i o i.
TBE EFFKCTS OF 11. 1// OS L.WV : FO/.M/.S OF
ir.i//-/..iir.
MARAIS V. THE GENERAL OFFICER COMMANDING THE
LINES OF COMMUNICATION, AND THE ATTORNEY-
GENERAL OF CAPE COLONY ; /:' purtf D. F. MARAIS.
I I., i;. \w-i. \. c. Kill, i
Case.' [ii .\uLiiist. !!•()!. dnrim: the way hciv.ccn (iival IJritain
and the lat-' Soiilli Afri an IJcpiihlii . ,\l;ii'ais. a liritish suhji'ct.
resident in (';ipi' <'ohiii\. \\;is iin'cstiMJ tliciv h\- order of tic
iiiijilarx ;iiit lioril io-. on ;i chiiru'i' of lia\iiii.;' \ioIatcil c^rtniii r-
o-ulatioiis which Inel h.^.n made in |iiii'-u:i ii' c of ;i proc|;i !n:it ion
(/, A< m rhc I'.i-iti-h |.) <'(l,'iit <if {,„) S,'c I'liill. iii, 7!is : Laiiti. iM .
IS.Vt. MM. |). :!S, N,, ,,,-,. -^-. !'">. S|.;iili 1,.) I.im. pp. (W;. Sti.
in ISils coniiinHMl to p;iv iimic-y- dii.- ( 'ci <>ii the siil.j.-rt -iMierally. .s.v-
hy Inr tu the lliitrd Sratr.; sec i;unl- Hall. l:;7: i'hill.ui. I L") . / - 7 . .• and
well. 1-27. -fay lor. 1 fi. :)12.
](i Ck-u'-s ami (f/jiitions mi International Laiv.
of niiirtial law ]1n■\i()U^l^ issurd. H(> was thereupon rt^moved to
aiiotlii'i' (li-ti'iit ill till' samr (olmiN. and iherraftcr di'taiiird in
(■u>t(id\ . Ni'itlirr the district in which he Mas arn\-<tc(l. nor that
III wliicli 1:( wa^ ri'ni()\i'd. wi'rc. at the lime, tlic scene of active
milifarx npcrat ions; l)iit both were -within the area of the ])ro-
chunati(Tii of iiiai'tial law in jnirsuance of wdiieh the reo'ulations
in (|Ucvii<ii; jiiuiiiirt'd tn have hi'cn made. By this proidaination.
which wa> i-.-iied iiii ihc \>x Maw IDOI n . it Iiad l)een aniujuneed
that all person'^ residino- in Ca|)e ('(jlonA, avIio. in di-tricts wliere
nia]-tial law prevailed, were found actively in arras against the
King-, or incited otlnu's to take up arms, or actively aided
tile enemy, or committed acts endangering- the safety of His
Majestys forces or subjects, would on arrest be tried by a military
(ourt, and on conviction be liable to certain penalties; and,
further, that any pei>on reasonably suspected of any such offence
would Ite liable to be arrested without wai'rant, and to bo sent out
(if the district, or to be dealt with l)y a military Court. On the
blh September. Alarais, who was still in custody, presented a
[ictition for release to tlie Suprenii' (.'ourt of Cape Colony, on the
c-i'dund that his arrest and detention were illofral. This petition
v^as refused on the 2'round liiat martial law had beeii ]Droclaimed:
tiiat tlie ('(iiirt: could not impure into the necessity' of the pro-
chimation; and that inasmuch as the prisoner was i]i the custody
<i|' an ojliccr act inn- under military authority, the Court could not
exercise jurisdiction so lonir as martial law continued in force.
Miirai-^ then. upon appiiid \n the I'ri\y ( Ouncil for lea\e to ajTpea! :
I'Mt ill the i-..-uh tlii< application was also ri'fused.
Judcjment. In tlic pidu'uient of the .ludicial (/ommittei'. which
^■•1- delivered b\- hoi'd iralslnir\-. L.C.. it was pointed out tliat it
\'a- an iiiii|Ui-t idiiablc i^dc that wdiere war was biMnfj wau'cd the
'1^:' <'"iirt- had no juri-dict ion to deal wdtli mililarx' action, and
thai when aci>- f.f war wei-e i,, (pievtif,n tlic militai'X" tribunals
ah. lie Were conipet.aij. ^\'llen wai' was raii-iii"-. moivoxer. .ads
d"ne li\' the riiih'tar\- aulhoritie-, weiv not justiciable h\- ijie
■"dinarv tnhiinaU. (If ihi' varion> croiinds uru'cd on helialf of
C'O .MtliciiL'li c|.c-ratli!- retrospLMaholy fiauii tlip 2'.'n(l Ajiril.
Forms of War-Law
47
the potitioiioi'. tlir only om- wliidi \\:i> suscrpf il)l(' of ;ii-^'uriient
was tlmt: wliidi allci^vd ilmi. iiiaMiiiirli iis the civil Coui'ts wore
still open l.lic I'vialil IsIh-.I I'liJo a-> to the i,"\oliisi\ c aiit.lioi'ily of
martial law did not a|ipl\ . l)iit in tlu' [jri'soiit case (here was
sLiiiieioiit oxidi'iicc llial wai' was in I'act rau-ini^. Martial law had
been ])r()claiiiicd hotli in tli<' disti'ict. in wliidi Mai'ais had i)eon
arrested, and in thai to which he had hccii removed. With resijeet
to the existence oi' a stall' ol' war and the conseijUeiit leo-ality of
martial law, the ['act that the ci\il (Oiirts wei'e sitting- for some
purp()se^ was nof coiidusni' that war was not I'au'iiiii'. Jt had been
pre\i()usly (h'cided in l-]l jilii nshnn \ . r>i'ilrrrrl//r//il 1 Kiiap[). -516),
that a muiiici})al ('eurt had no jiiri'^d id ion to adjiidieate on a
seizure of pro[)erty made in tune of wai'. And no douht ever
existed that when war actually pre\ailed. the orrlinary COurts
had no jurisdiction o\cr the action of the militai'y authorities.
Cases of dilliculty niieht arise as to whether thei'e was a state of
war or not; hut when the fact of war was estahlished there was
a universal consensus of opinion that: the civil ( 'ourts had no
jurisdiction over inilitarx action.
The decision in .!/(// //iv' ca-e. a h lloll^■|| sii ict ly on a poiul ot Kiiedish
law. vet s(>rv(\- 1o illiisiiatc the etlcci< ol' wai' ji'enci'allv on llio ordi-
iiai'v law and on the ni'diiiaiw le^-al riu'lits of individuals. AvheiluT
bellig-erents or neutrals. In tini(> ot wai' and when a conutry is in-
vaded or tlireateiied wiih invasion Ky tlie eneniy. vm^vv (iox-crnnietit
liiids ii necessarv to as-iinie cei'tain exceptional pi_)wcrs lioth over
[leisons and propeiu. whiih are not e\erci-eahl(> in a state <>(
p(Mce. Under the I'niti-li s\^)(mii this rc-nlt is attained hv a
■ proclamation of martial law ir-i. The jiideiiHMit in MarniH
case decides in ciieri i I i ili;ti when a state of war ai-tiiallv
prevail^, the opeiatioii (if lie ordinarx law will he deenicil to
1)(^ suspended hy martial law in all that I'elatos to the war: (2) tliat
{.■) Sco ,\rainial of Miliiarx' Law ticatioii of the existcm-e of sucti a sta tc.
vWar Oilicc, IDUT), t .1. A.- a of t hi iil:-< and of (lu^ fact tliat tlir rxc-
iiiatriM- of coii-ritutioiial riu'hi. tlic rutixc intend-; to iiax'c roroursc (o
IrL^'alitv of niai'tial law i\'"-- not cxt I'aordinary lucasiu-cs to supprc-s it :
tiiiai on the proi'hini;i! ion. Km. f In'-o hoiiiL;' eilhc;- >iirh in^'a^urc ^ a-< a ro
,111 tlic I'xi-tcnco (if a -ta-c oi' \\\w pi'iani t tcii liy th(> coininon law as
or insurrection, which i-cii(|cc> >ucli .a licini,- nccc--ai-y to the inaiir cna n^'.' of
procccdiiiL,'' nccc--arv f"r tic puMic crdif. or inca-ni'cs not w.arrantcd in
defence: sec T;/,,,.I:.', \ . '!'}:■ Ml. -(:<)>. >trict law hut for which it is pr(,p(K.'d
',i X'lt-it ( n»07, A. ('. '.•:;. nil). The i,, ohtain a parliain.aitary indc:anitv.
jiroelamatioii is. in itself, oidy a noti-
4,^ CasfH cuul Oj>inio)i>> on International Laiv,
U'-i- (Imio l)\- llir luiliiaiv aiuhmit !<■.- in tlio exercise of jnartial law
will tliciru)iiiii (■(M--(' til he jii-!iciaM(' by the ordinary civil Courts;
ami I .'1 > that iindi'r the i']u^li<h >y>;eiu the test of llie leg-ality of
iiiaitial law and of pidceeilin^s I iKMciiiider is nut whether the civil
('iiurt> aic -till -iitiim' hut wlieihcr a ■^tate of war exists or not(/^^.
Incidciualh . tin' ca-c al-o de!-ide< that when once a state of war
f\i<t-. iiiaiiial law iua\ he exercised even in places outside the
raicjc *>\ aiti\<' Iim^i ilitio : a iuiic|ii-ii)ii ju-tified by modern con-
ditiiiii-. whifli \('r\ nl'teii .I'liuirc the adnjition of |U'otective or
|iiniiii\i' iiK'a-iiii'^ ;ii jilaci'.- di-taiit from the si-ene of acnial hos-
tilities ('). No)- ha\c the cixil ('ourts any jiiri-dii'tion to j'e\iew
the iudu'iiiciit- of (Hiirt- -ittiiie' in the e.\ei'ci<e oi' jnartial lawif);
ili(M<' lii'iiit: no analoL;\ lictweeii (he |)i'oi-eedine> (jI' iiiilitar\' ('ourts
sitting nndei- the Arin\ A't and those of ('ouits -ittine in the
e\eiiiv|. u\ martial autlioiitx. which do not reall\- adndnister law((/).
Fifun thi- it will he <een how lari;'e|y. even iindef the liritish
-\<tem. the iiUciAciiTion of a stale of war '-erx'cs to exehid(> the
a]i).liiat ion of the uidinarx- law. the jurisflictioii of the rirdinarv
cnnrt-. and the lec. i'_;iut ion of oi'dinaiy rie-]]tv. And the same con-
-e,|nen(e>. e\en tlioueh j-(.'aehed by other mean-, will alsfi Ik; found
111 attach nnder other -ysleins. I'luler the liiitish sv<tem. JCcoursc to
martial law i- sometime-, alllioiieji larelv. -auctioned beforehand
b\ -tainte<//i. In default oi' this, it is usnal. both in view of some
nnceiiainl\ m the law and al-o foi' the jjinpose <if ))!-e\'eiiti]io- \'exa-
lioiiv >iiit- thai nuLi'lil otiierwi-e be hroueht ( /'). to ])a>- sub-ef|nentlv
an Act Tit lnc|emidt\. indemnif \ine- all pei-on< for acts lione horin
ti<li' in the suppression of lio-tiliiie> or f i u' the [)ublic (lefen(-e. and
conlirmiiiL^- >enteiices ])assed bv the ndlitarv 1 ribiinals i /.•).
So far we have touched only on the application of martial law
in the home State and by the territorial Power. J]ut a martial law-.
aliliouLi'h of a >omewliat diflerent character. maA" also he applied,
in lime (if wai'. in (he teiaitoiw of the enem\- State and h\- a bellf-
L;eieiii iiix.idei-. Thi- re>embl(>- the former in so lar a- ii ha- the
efiec; n|' - n - pe i id i n u' the ordinary law and ordinar\' h'^al ri::ht>.
ill .ill thai relate^ to the war; but (lifters from it in so far a- it
di'pend- w holly on the will ot' t lie i n\ader. sid» ject oid\- to siicli Jimita- '
tidii- a- ma\- be impii-eil b\- I'lisiom or convention and rei^aid foi
; ii' e)'n;it ioii;i ! , ipiiiiiiii .
TIk'Ic i- ;tU,, A I'uiiliei' di-tinc'ion between each of the-f> kimU
■ '/ I 'Mi:e -nli-litiitiiiL.'- ;i tc-t M-|lii-li ( ,/ 7';,%,,,/v, \- . 7'/,, \ll,-(;,.^ ,,,
\- ■.■A <<]\'-'' i.'M-ii.-.il .-iiiil .■!■■'•. .rt:iiiial)ir \nhil (H)()7. A. (\ <t:j, lOI;.
fu:- eiM- t!i;il i- ;i rtitii'iiil lUi'l nut ;ilw;tv.-^ i /, ) Si'c liv wav nl' ex a, mi pic. \:', < Ico.
ca-y Mt' a- . -laihaichi. " I ! I . c . 1 I 7 :' :5 \ 'l W ill. I\ . ,■. \.
■> I'-al lia- \ui>r\,':ni ^•Miirr- IimM ( / i .\ ikI >oiiict iiiic- a Nu f, ,r the pur-
Ktiaa wi .,■; '-.r ■ /. - ,,.n'r l/.'-Cy, ,, 't pose i,f ].ru\i(l i iil;' c'dii pi-n-a t inn to
^^all. -1 : s.-Mii. i;,;i\.u.: ;iall..-k. ii. iiniorciit piT-nn- in rr-.pi.i-t of daiiiaL'-c
111, n. .•an-c,l l,v iu-tiliaMc act-.
'•'• ' -•,. /;,,„,„■.■ '■■•' 'li'Ul. \. ( . ./■, Sncji .\ct- w.Tc pa--c-| in i lie
III,. ''ape Colr.nv ill l!)(lil and IdUi^: aid in
Xatal in 1900, I'JOl. and I'JOS.
Forms of War- Lair. 49
of "martial law" and what may bo called ' military law;" moaning
thereby that special body ot ful(>s which each State provides for the
g-overnanee of its armed forces (7 1. But ''military law" lias no
international signiticance. e.\ce[)t in so far as, between tlie nigna-
tories of the Hague Conveiition. No. 4 of 1907. it is required to
conform to the reaidatious annexed to that Convention fw).
General Xotes. — TJie Effect of War un the Legal Rights and
Relatioyis of Imlixlduals. — The outbreak of war ailects not only the
legal relations of Slates. Ijut in S(jme measure also the legal rights
and relations of individuals, it^s more important ett'ects, in this
connection, arc as follows: — i 1) It suspends, in all that pertains to
the conduct of hostilities and subject to the limitations imposed by
custom and convention, the operatiiju of tlie ordinary law ami the
applieancy of rights thereunder, in favour of certain forms of war
law. (2) It was formerly held to confer, and ahliough tiow I'ostricted
by policy and usage it still confers in cas(> of necessity, a right on
the part of a belligeroui to expel from territory Ijelonging to or
occupied by him both enemy subjects and others whose presence lie
may deem inimical to his safely ui). (o) It was formerly held
to confer, and, within tlu:' limits described hereafter, it still confers,
on each belligerent a riuht to setjuestrate or conliscate certain kinds
of enemy property found within his territory. I'd ) It confers a
right of capture over enemy ])roperty found on the sea and not
prot-eeted by the neutral llau': and aho ov<m' neutral jn'operty cm-
barked in undertakings whirh a belliLi'dcnt i< entitled, to r<^strain.
(.3") Finally, it is commo!d\- attended, nliliouuh to a degree which
varies greatly in diU'ei'cnt systems, liy a prohibition of commercia]
intercour.se l)etweeiL the .-ubj(M-ts of the respective Ijelligerent^:
which again involves oith<M' a suspension ur an abroLi'ation of existinu'
obligations, as well as an interdict itm ot sulisetpient dealings so
long as the war continu<>s. Some of these cimseipiciices liave boon
already touched on; otliers will be cousi(loi'e<l hereafter. For the
moment we are onlv conc(M'iiod with the cUects of war in suspcndiiisi-,
at certair^ ])oints, the oidiiiai'y tfM'iitorial law in favour of ctu'lain
forms of what, in <lefauh of a mor<< appropriate term, we may call
war law.
Kinds of Tmiv ajiplicil in War. — The conduct of war between two
OY more States, and the exce))tional con<litions to which it gives rise,
necessarily invol\-(^ some diMaiiiifnuent of the ordinary hnw In the
first ])lac<\ the mombei'-- of tlie armed foi'c<\s on either si<le ar«> sub-
j(^ct to their own militai\' law ; alilcMiu-h this applies also in time of
(7) Roe ^fanual of .^^ilitarv [.aw. I and. a- rcLrard-; sea warfare. ]I. C.
ef .vev.; ami THonJco v. Tff il'f. -',.,>. Xo. 10 of litOT. Art. 2U.
of Sutnl (,1907, A. r. 0:5. Itil). (c. S.'c i-p. til). -JG."), luim.
[,„'^ See 11. t\.Xo. 1 of 1H07. Art. 1 :
C.T.L. !■:
.j(i ('((se-s mid OiHui'nis oil riifeni'ittonul Law,
|i(Mie. aii'l ha- im iiitcnialiMii.tl lHMiin<:' c.xrcpl that already
iiMtirt-d oi. In \\w -frMriil iilacc, the exi-eiicio.- ot Avar eommorily
!f'|iiir*_' ail a-Miuij)iiwii .if cxccj)! iona! ]ii.)\\er>. jiot warranted in time
m1' iii'itr '. Mv*'r iH.th the |ir'r-on< and propeHv of private individuals
that ai'.' tiHin 1 within it- ran'^'i'. even thouL;-li -tieli persons are un-
cnnu.'.-ti'il with tlir armed t-in-e- nu eitliej' side. And this may arise
I'ithc!' in the honi" ieniii>ry. as between tlie territorial Power and
lli'i^" <nlij«'(t tM its jurisdiction; in' in tlie territory ot an in-
vadi' i S;ate. as hiMwcen thi' in\ader and persons resident <n- frmnd
thi i.'in. i-"inall\. ih<'re air the hiw- and ii-au'es of war. now larg-ely
I'.rliti'i i)\- ( 'm|i\ ,'n!i"n. which lei^nlatc tlie eotiduet of -war between
till' jiarti"-. and which i;npn-e eoiiilitions and restrictions to wliicli
iHith iiKMtial law and military law are re'piired to conform.
M'irli'd Lii"- ill the ILoii/c Jerrliorij. — }vlartial law,, despite the
name, i- \\n\ -trictly a form < d" law, l.iut an extra-legal state or con-
diti'in. nnd<'i- wliicli the ordinar}- law and ordinary rig-hts arc replaced,
-ci far a- }jublio defence nr necessity ma}' lequire, by the action of
till' juilitarv m- -diu" utlaM' siimmaiy anth'irity. P)Ut in order to
iin|io-c ,-ome liiidt wii tlii.-. it i> ii^ual to iiitimate iti inoif or \q<?,
u'cninal tcrnrs the nalnre of the rules or discijjline that will lie en-
fiiii c.| : whiht in <n'.|;'r to ensurf that it .shall be applied with .sufficient
h'lib<'iati<in and re^^iilarity. it- admiiustration is usually deputed
iM I cmi't- whirJi aic .-tylcd ('niirts Martial: altlioiiCi'h the.-e Onirts are
in fact con-lit utcd by nuliiaiy Dliicers. jtroceed bv snmmarv methods,
and dn tint -trictly i;i 1 1 within the cateu'orv of reu'ular courts. Such
'I cMii liiion iif thinu'- i- cmiimiiidy inaugurated in Euro])ean countrie.s
by th.' piDclaiiiation ol' "a -late of .-le'^^e"; wJiilst nndei' tin.- Briti.-h
and .\ni<ric;iii -v-tciiis it is u-ually e<tabli,-hed by a jn-oclamation
"f iiiaitial law. the cfic,';- of which Inno alrearlv been described.
.Maiiial law in thi- a-pcct i- m;diil\- a matter of nmidcipal concern,
iilcaiL^h it ha- a '••■iiaiii int frnai inna I b^'ariiiL;' in sfi fai- as it tnav
.iticct the -ubjects 111' Mthcr State- who c-umij witiiin its ranu'C i /y ).
.I/'// /'■'// Linr lis n/,/,!!/'! hi/ ml I jii-'iijcr. — Wdien the tenitorv of
<ii" b"lli'jci''iii, i-; in\"a'l('l iiv tlie oihci". diC' territoia'al ]:i\v Axilj not
-!' --ii!-f ap|>l\- a< bet ■-a;.,.,! tl,,; invaders anii tlie inhabiiaiil.- of rhe
ii-'ii'i- in\adc(|; whilst c\-en a- between the latter its c,|)(>)-aiion
"dl iM a •jiiMt exteni be .-ti-peiiiled owing- to the fact of invasion.
In die^'. eiii iDii-iaii' es it, is the praftii-c for tlie invader, lioth witli
■ ■ \'i'-" I" hi- 'CAii ,-atei\- and the sin-c<'.-< of ]i\< operation- aii-l with
;!i" libje^ t ol' 'jii;i! liie^' a-aiii-l 'hat coiidiiion of jawdessn"-- wldcli
;ei:.h' iah;e\:i-- aii-". 1m | e'-e|,i i m and enloi'ce martial law. Tins.
'o;ii!e' th- h:w- pHwi: ,ii^|\- iN-ci'JIk. b ji;ic. of eoiir-e. no ultimate basis
in mnni'-ip.d I;mv; lor neitboi' dnrine- noi- afiei' the A\-ar could ativ-
!hin_'- d"ne dieioiinde;' !,<■ maile. a< bet ,.,;,., .,1 ,l|p iii\-a'iei- and the
-Mbje.;- Ml ihe lerrii'.rial I'cv.er. ihe Mdijcrt ,,| an appeal to the civil
'ur;- eiiher .if ih- invadin'.;- 'ir the inAj |e.l State. llenc(-. martial
■ ■ >"■ !•■ !■'■ ■"!"'■■ ^r) S"c p. 2i;7. /,.//" .-al-o IfoHand,
War ei! I.aiiii. ]t\ ,t .ov/.
Forms of W<ir-Laiv. 5]
law, ill tliis bonso, has boon (iescriljed a* being " ueitlier more nor less
'liaii tlie will oi' ilie general wlio cuniniaiids the army" (q); the mere
presence of an iuvadiiig army amounting- to notice that it will be
brought into force. iSeverthele.ss, a commander who enforces martial
knv ought, so far as possible, to lay down distinctly the regulations
under and limits Avithiu which it will be carried out; whilst all
punishments indicted thereunder ought to be inflicted oidy after
enquiry and senlonco by a, militar}- court. vSuch regulations
must in their details nocessaiily depend largely on local con-
ditions and needs, and especially on whether the territory in
(jue^tion is under actual occupation or not. But in any case they must
not conflict with the la^\■s and usages of war, as ascertained by custom
and convention. Sul.tject to the.se conditions, martial law of this
kind will apply ecpially to all ])ersous f(nind within its range, irre-
spective of their nationality f . 5). The exercise of such martial
authority will come to an end on the termination of hostilities (t).
The Laws and Customs of War. — The laws and customs of war
comprise a body of rules originating in custom, but now for the
most part embodied in international coti vent ions ( u). Those purport
to regulate the conduct of war both by laud and sea. As regards land
warfare, they prescribe the (pudilicatiotis of belliu'erents, regulate the
methods of conducting hostilities, pn^^cribe rules as to the treatment
of prisoners of war and the sick antl wounded, regulate the seizure
of property and the treatment pf tlie civil population, deline the rights
and re'^ponsibilities incident to military occupation, and regulate
also the non-hostile relations of tlie belligerents. As regards sea
warfare, tliev cover much the same ground, having regard to the
ditfcrent conditions iiivolved: altliMugli in this ivase Avith much
greater attention to the riglii.- atui duties of neuti-als. Eorh those
branches of the laws of war will Qi<nw under coitsideratiou Jiere-
after (x).
(q) Tliis was sakl Ijv tiic Duke of ri'latiou to tin"' iiivaJt^r. vol. i, 204, and
Wcllintiftoii in the House of Lord-: -^^tr". p. itiCi.
-'•:> Tlaiisard, 3rd sfi'i,.,;, cxv. SSi); if) On the sid)ipet iroiKM'allv, see
..■ited Kollaiid, War or Land, 14. 1 loHaiid. War on 1 Jmd. 14-d(i. "
(,-•■) I'uit as to the dijiloina.ric ai^-iMits ■' /,•'■,■/•. p. !>.3.
of neutral Powers. s(M- vmI. i. .'!i)S : nnd .:■ > ."^oc Lxeur-us. I. and II.
■IS to the 2)osition ed' neutra.l -aliji'iTs m
E 2
52 Cases and Opinions on International Laiv.
EXEMY FEBSOXS AXD PROPERTY FOEXD WITHIN
THE TERRITORY OF A BELLIGERENT AFTER
THE OVTBREAK OF WAR.
BROWN r. THE UNITED STATES.
[]tsl4: S Craiich. 110: Scott, 486.]
Case.] This was u suit relating to a cargo of timber belonging
to British subjects, which had been originally shipped on board
an American vessel for transport from the United States to
England. The departure of the vessel was tirst delayed by an
embargo, and next by tlie outbreak of war between Great Britain
and the United States [a\ Thereafter the timber was un-
loaded and deposited in a navigable creek (b] under the custody
of tile ovviier of the vessel. Subsequently tlie agents of the owners
of thf timber purported to sell it to the plaintiff, who Avas an
.Vmericau citizen; but proceedings were taken by the United
Stati.'S authorities, at the instance of the owners of the vessel, to
]jrocurL' its condemnation as enemy property found Avithin the
jurisdiction of the United States after the commencement of
hostilities, and hence as liable to condemnation as prize of vcar.
hi tlie District Court condemnation was refused: on appeal to the
rireuii Court this judgnjeut was reversed; whilst on appeal to the
.■^r.pri'jii!' Court it was held that the property was not in the cii'-
eumsianees liable t(.) couliseation. and a decree of restitution was
according]} made.
Judgment. In tin' judgment of the Court ,V- . M-Jiieh \\as de-
liver'i'. liy M;ir-liall. ( .d ., the material (jUestion Mas stated to bi
\\hetlii'r lie imilii'i'. e\ci! a-suminti' that the' property in it had
not. bi-iii eliaiiL'''d liv til'' .-all' to the plaintilT. could be considered
us |irize (A war. TIcti' l)eini;' notliing either in the circumstanc's
(u) I II .fiMK', Isl'J. (ci From wliicli. however, a uiiiiu-
' '■' ) S" :i- 1" ''uii-titut' ii ill law riry of the Court. iiK-ludiiiL;' Story. .) .
cueiiiy [ii'M[ii-i'iy t'umiil on htnd. disiented.
FAiemy Persons and Propcrt/j ivithin the Jurisdiction. 53
of the case or in the local situation of the timber to distinguish
this from any other British property found on land after tlie
commencement of hostilities, the f[uestion would be treated as
governed by the same general rule.
With respect to the power to seize such property, it was con-
ceded that war gave to the Sovereign full right to take the persons,
and to confiscate the property of the enemy, wherever found.
The mitigations of this rigid rule which the humane policy of
modern times had introducetl in ])ractice might affect the exercise
of this right but could not impair the right itself (rZ"" . Hence,
if the sovereign authority chose to bring that rule into operation,
then the judicial department must give effect to it; but until that
will was so expressed the Courts had no ])0wer to condemn. The
C|uestions to be decided, then, were: (1) Could enemy property
found on land at the commencement of hostilities be seized and
condemned as a necessary consequence of a declaration of war?
(2) If not, was there, in the present case, any legislative Act that
authorized such seizure and condemnation?
With respect to the effect of a declaration of war, the now
universal practice of forbearing to seize debts and credits and
the recognition of their revival on the restoration of peace seemed
to show that war did not in itself woi'k a (•onliscation, but mr'rely
conferred a right of confiscal ion. 1j( 'tween debts contracted on
the faith of the tei-ritorial law and pi'opcrty acquired in trade on
the faith o£ the same law thci'i' did not aj)pear to be any rational
distinction. Sucli niit iuat ioii> in ]n'actic(\ however, tlid not affect
the essential (juestion, whctjicr lli(.' declaration of war itself caused
enemy property within tin- jui'isdiction to vest in the Sovereign
without more: or wlicthiu' it niendy a-ave a right of confiscation,
the exercise of which dcpcndrd on some further manifestation of
the national -will. After a rt'\ie\v of the principal ^\Titers on the
jus hcJli. tlie Court cann' to the conclusion that tlie modern rule
was that tanu'ihlc jirtipiTtx bchjiiu'ini;' to an enemy and found in
the country at the eoiimn'iiecmenl of war oui^'lit not to be iniine-
diately confiscated. Alnm-i every roimucrcial treaty, moreover,
contained st i]iulat ions i'nr tlc' rii^-Jit to ^\■ith<ll•aw such property.
,/^ l-',ir a rriririMU "i' rhi- ^ratoiin-iit and po^itiidi. -co Moore. !)isj:o-t,
vii. :313.
54 Cases and Ojnnions on International Laiv.
Till- ;i]i|)e;n'(.'d to lie iiirompat il)lr whh. \\\o idea that war in itself
veiled surli prujirrty in the belligerent government. Hence, it
might be considered as the opinion oi" all who had written on the
JH.< bdll that, ahlujugh A\ar gavt> a right to eonfiscate, it did not
in itself o[)erate as a eonhsiation of the property of an enem}-.
Proceeding then to consider the matter from the point of view
of the ronstitiuion of the United States, it was pointed out that
in expounding that Constitution a construction ought not lightly
to be admit ti'd, whieh would give to ^lie outbreak of Avar an eft'ect
in till' United States which it woukl not have elsewhere, or which
would fetter the Ciovernment in appl}'ing to the enemy the same
ruh' that In- ap])lied to citizens of thi" United States. Both the
prox'isions of the Constitution and other hiws bearing on the sub-
ject appeareel to be in conformity with the general rule iiroA'ioush'
indicated. The (piestion of confiscation, then, was one to be de-
termined by legislative department, which could modify the law
ai will, rather than by tlie executive and the judiciarv. which had
to follow tlie law as it was; and in the jjresent case there was no
Act v.-hich -went to show that Congress had. in fact, directed the
conhseatioi! of enemy ])roperty found A\dlhin the jurisdiction at
the commencement of tlu' war.
iJireetiy. tlii- ca-e de(-i:le< uo more tfian that enemy propcrtv
l()U!)d uii laud within the Liiiied Staie> alter the uutljreak ot
wai' caiiiiui be iM.iuileiuiied witlnait a legislative enactment aiuho-
vv/awj: -\u\\ eDiifi-eaiiMii ; and that tiie mere act of the Li'o-i>-
latui'e in (b'cLiriug wai' i< not >\\r\\ an anthoritv ( t'K fnci-
dejiiaUy, no ileulil. it wa< ruled (C thai, acrordiug to the law of
nation- a- iutei pieled by the Cain, the mithieak of war l)et\\een
two Sia'e-. aitliiMi^'li ii dne^ nut of \\<-A\ work a coniiscatiou. vet
eeiiiVi- oil ihe so\<>reiL;n autliority in <'aeh State a rio-In to take
liie person,- and to eoiili-iaie the proiierly of its ojieniies found
v.ithm i'- inii-tici ion. e\cn thouu'li the hnniaiie [xjliev of muderu
time- nia\ mi; iu'.i ii> \\^>^ exeiwd-e of thi- riu'ht in pi'aeure; and
I l' / ihat if thi' -■o\*Mei--n ainhoiity clioo.-i'- to exercise this riii'ht ami
t'l <li!'''i-t conii-i-.ii ion. lh-';i the juilicial <h'part inenl i\ill liave no
eption Ihh to >j\\,- r!i.'i-i to it. 'l^he x'cond jii'o],o<i;ion is in it^olf
um|ue-1 ion.i iU'. wheilnT ;!> a -latemenl ef American or ]-h:--hsli law.
and wonM piol ,a I >1\- lio|,i im,. in other -y-tem-; ahhouL;-h the lea'alitv
(r) :Si.r Mouvv, l)i-r-t. \ii. liNs; Ijul :il-.,, Wl.!.:it(.i! (Dar,:!,. :!^7. n. Lid.
Enent/j Persons and L*r(>iterh) vjilltiit flic Jurisdiction. ■').')
ni siirli a proceeding iiiiiiht, no dimlii. in a case where tlie I'acts
a.lniitieil 111 this, h^ (jui'.-i iuiH" I in the cinirt-' n|' dther c<iinil ries ( /' i
The lirst and mure iinpDiMani nt' ihese jirijpo^itidir- althun^^'h l>e-
(piently challtMi^-ed ami ahlimiuh ii nm>t he a(huilte(l ihat the
practice uf exemption has L;iii\\u in .--t ren;j,'ih >ince the lime at which
the jiidu'inen; was <leli\<'re I is siiH Itelieved to hold ^'ood a.s a formal
.siatemcni nf the exisiinu- law 17). As regards ])ers(ins. hdwever, tlm
rig'ht ol seizinsj,- and detniiunu' enemv [lersuns JoiuhI within the jui'is-
dicliou, ahli<iii;^'h still exeiciscalilc in the last r<!sori and as a mulTer
of tecliiucal ri<4'ht, i-. a> we shall see. iiox^- c(nitrolled in its exei'eise —
at any rate as re^'ard.- persons havinsj,- no military >>y other status
specially conuectinii' them with the war hy a hmf^' cunrse of
usag'(\ wdiich seme wiitei> cnuceive ti.i hav(> hecome ohliii-alni'v.
but wliich. in any case, cuuhl not he violated without entailinu'
enusiderahle o])pr(il)rium. As icnards jii'uperi w aji'ain. the ri-i'ht of
eonliscation. althoui;'h m^t wlmlly ahandi med. Inis hecome-— as indeed
it was proniiunced t(i have hecomi' in the later decision oi the Sup)rcme
Ciiiirt in II(ii/;/('r \. Ahlmll Hi Wall. '}'-'>'2 ) > li < -" a naked and ini-
piilitic J'iu'lit Condemned hy the (mi lightened conscience and judp'-
inent of modern times"'; as a ri^-ht. in fact, which does imi ensue
from ilu> mere fact of war. and which wouhl not now he I'osorted to
except as "'an rdlerior measure of iiovinaue.ent "" ex])re.s.sl\- directed
l)v the sovereig'n authority and <lesiu'ned to meet some exce])tionai
situation (J.).
The Kn<idish law on this sid) ject appears in the main — and not-
withstandin<i' some coniiict of aiuhority and some special enactm(mt>
in favour of foreit^-n merchants 1 y ' — to ag-reo •with the view adopted
livthe A.merican ('ouris.and to he suhjcit {o tli(> same limitations as
rei;'ards its practical exerri-e i /,■ 1; nl'liMUi^h the cxiMci-e of anv dis-
ercuionarv power in the matter would iind(M' the liriti-h -\s;(Mn
rest with the down niiie--. I'ai'lia inein other\\i>e pro\ided'/c
^^'ilh res]H'ct to dehi-. leiwcxtM'. ii wa-. a- we >hal! s,.,\ hold iti
n'o//F \. OjIioIii! M') M. ^v S. <):2 I lh:il the conli-c;it ion of ihes,. 1)\- a
forei2-n Co)\ernment wa- contraix" to tiit^ law <>\ nations ;/, 1 ; fr.iiii
which it is to he inferred ih.at .-leh a pro.T(^dii!L;' \'.oidd ho eipi:ill\
illee-al if r(^so!'t(^d to hv the Ilriti.-h ( ii i\-,'V|iiiiimii . I'eil, vnlijofi to
this (wceptiim. and where not wai\cd hy treaty, the rie'ht rem;iiii>
as a formal rig'ht. al!hom:'h it would not now he resoiK^d to s;i\-e ie
(/) .\s indocd dcciu-rc.l ia '^''''-'J v. :;s ii ^ 7. .■ liiul as to ))riipcrty. //'■
(i.j.oiiii n; >r. x- s. i•2^; u. -v;.
("/ //■/■'/.
(y) At any rate as inf la'pri'ti'd liy
rlir Aiv.iTicaii am! ia-itidi ('•i\iv\<: n-
(11 (itlicr (•(iuiitrie<. -I'c ]'. 1)'.^. '■ '/■'' .
(/-> .\< applied. Ii(.w,'v,'!-. ii! this
ca^c to d,-l)t-^.
(/) .V< where I'l-^iirred tn l.y v.av nl'
rcjii'i^al.
(/) Src Pliill. iii. l:;ii -■' ^' •;■
(7 : .\< te pei-~,.ii-;. -■■' !l.'llai:(l.
Letters upnu W'a- and Xc'.rrality .
'/"'/ V. /,';',v.s-, //C"! \",... .tun. 12 1 i. eoMi-
ne'atiiiL;- nn Ihj,!,,; v. l'nir,i,(l [\\'\ . \\
~-ly\ • : Steplicn. Ceni. ii. l'_'.
^ ■ •/■/. J.,/,,,.., ,■ /;,..;';.• 1 Spink-
:fl7 : liut -ee al>n Ida.fk-iiuie. '( 'em
i'. r. 'Jli. wlii'rr tIic rii^'iir i)t' -■■i/.i;:'t' a
iT'L^'aoN ])i'e|irTty iv linuted 1e <^v»m\-
I'l'nuLj-ia iiiti" til.' territni'\- aftei- \\\,
\\':w ai;d witlauir -^at''- r.aiduet: a lu
W e-tiab'. ii. ! 1. n. ".
50 Cases and Opinions on International Latv.
.xrcinioiial ra-r^ in. Iji t!ii< I'lrni the British-American view
will lint. a< we >liall <ee. lie louiid tn diiior greatly in ite practical
re-ults irnm the ji.niiinally luure liheral view adupted hy Euro]]ean
juri>t.«(o): private property eiijuyiiig under both systems a virtual
immuaitv from (■ijntiS(/ation.
WOLFF r. OXHOLM.
[ISIT: f, ,.M. c^: S. 92.]
Case. The jilamtiff was a tiaturalizrd British subject, resident
and earryin£r on business in England in partnership Avith others.
The defendatit, a Danish subject resident in Denmark, was. in
I^IHI. indebted to tlie former in the sum of 'i.lOl^ ~s. 'jd.
A >uir to recover tiic debt Avas afterwards instituted in Denmark;
the proceedings being conducti'd in the name of an assignee of
ll*»' ph.iiiitiiL and the did'endant also instituting a cross suit. In
1S07, wliilst these suits were pcitdine-. war broke out between
(irt'ut Britain and Denmark. In August. 1807, an ordinance
wa> i-sucd \^\ the Danish (Government, by whieh all ships,
goods. mone\' and money's worlli. of or IxTongimi to Enolisli
stibieets. Were .--eipie-trated ; whilst in Soptember. 1^07. all
per-on- were reipiired to transmit an account of the delits
due to Britisji >ubjects. of wliatsoe\er nature, and to ].iay
tlie wliole of such amouuts intr) tlie Danish ti'easury. under ])ain
cd' lieing [iroi-ei'drd aiiamst. in ( om|ilianee wjtii the ordinance,
th'' defendant L;a\e noliee {>[_ thr debt riwed by him to tic plaintjit,
and ultimati'l\- ]»aid over the amouul to tlie I)ani>h trea-nry a
and ol»tainfd a I'ei-eipt: wliereuji(»n tln' ^mt di^peudinu' b(_'t\\'een
tli' jilaintihs a>-iL''ii'i' and the did'endant was ipiashed. In T"^14,
tie' did'enijant . biiiiL!' then in fjiLiland. was iirrested and lield to
bail ill a -Hit iirouL!'iit in tie: (.'ourt of K'lne- s lieiieji to reeriver
till' dfbt . In ih- r>-ult. it wa- lidd that tin' jd'o-ei d inn> in l)rn-
mailc nndi 1- lie- i i|il i na iii-r in ijiC'-tion eoii-tilut eil no iblVnee to
the a-tion.
' ., . >>■(■ I'l'^ ^^ ,■,:.;„„ 11 Mun. f" ) AltlKiiiirh this wa- not till 1S12,
J'. ('. ar Hii : aii'l ilall. i:)! -loo. and Then at a rate nf cxchanire iimcli
I, 'I". |i. C,'J. hchiw that furreiit at the tiiuc uf {lav-
IllCIlt .
Enemy Pcrsonn and Vropcrti) ivithin the Jurisdiction. 07
Judgment. In tlic judu-incnf, which was dclivored by Lord
Klli'iihorouuh, (J..j., it was poiiilcd out that thf Danish ordinance
.-tood sint>lc and ah)nc; and that it was not suj)))oi-tcd by any pre-
cedent nor ad()]>ttHl as an example in any other State. The ordi-
nance itself did not appear to have been followed up by any
measure of compulsion; and although the Commissioner had notice
of the debt as early as 1.S07 the money was not paid until 181 '2.
On a review of the older authorities it appeared that the right of
conliscating- debts contended for on the authority of Vattel was
not recognized by Grotius and was altogether impugned by
Puil'endorf and other writers; that such confiscation was not
general at any time; and that no instance of it, except the
ordinance in cpiestion, was to be found for more than a century.
Lnder tliese circumstances, the judgmi/nt of the (,'ourt would be
pregnant of mischiid' to future times if it did not declare that
the ordinance and jjayment under it furnished no defence to the
present action, either in themselves or by aid of the ])roceedings
in the Danish ('ourt. The parties went to that Court expecting
justice under the (wistim;' law. and were not bound by the (juash-
ing of their suit in consequence of a subsiMpieiit ordinance, which
was not conformable \o tiie usau'c of nations, and which neither
the}" nor the present Court wei'e bound to regard.
Tlii< decision re-t- lirnailK tui the p-i-nuud that the conii^calioii
liv the l)aiii>h C!i>v<'niineiii nl' ilelils (lii(> t<> bJiatish sulijects ^vas
a vinlatieii ot' the law of naliun^; and that the ])i'nce('dings
fuund(Ml thereon in the Daih-li ('mirts weie nut. t liei'etufc. Mnding
in the cdurt-; ef nther Stale- </h. The (leeisiun il^elt' lias 1)(>e!i
the suliject <it' nuidi itintliri ni' ii|iiniun. ()n the (in<' hand,
it is coniniended iind appiuvetl a- lieinsj,' ninre strictly in liarniMuy
with existinu' ii-au'e than tlie (h'^i-idn in Unnrii \ , 'I'lw I' iiUcil Stiitrs
(S ('ranch. llOrii; and the wi-li expre-^-ed thai the Courts niav,
il' occa^itju serve-, -re their wav tn applv ii< principle tn tani;-ii'le
a- well a- to intanuaMe piMpcn\ '/■. On the ntlitM' Jiaiul. it is said
that the judu'iiient i- lia-e.l nii statements that are hi-ti irical ly
(/<) See also JlamiJhr,: v. ]:,,(,.,, {'l dcl)t. Imt docs not afTeer tlio debt itself,
Martin's X. C"aroliii(> Kep. 80: Scott. which may. when (■irounistaiiccs allow,
481 I. whei'c the view is taken that the he still sned for and enforced in for-
lerrislativc exoneration of a dclif..r in eiu'n enurts.
such a case only has th>' ctFcrt of , , '• S ., ,,r,i . ^^ . rvl.
destrovinir the local remedy for the \'l\ W'estlake, ii. Jf .
o.s Cast'fs (Did (Jjuiiimiii on Intrrnntionul Law.
L'liunt'uLi.s I /i; that tlir (•uuc-lu-iuiis deduced from the writing- ot
liie |»uliliii-i- tire jiut, in iu'-V. warruntahle: and that the high autlio-
ritv 111 Simx and ihe Lnit^'d r>tat('- (JuLiri< was ignored; in view
oi' uliirli i'" i- ui.iiifd that \i the ea.-e were to present itself
befiiiv a liiulitT {■null the <leri-inn wouM lie reversed. It i<
further -uii-c.-ied ihat it wa> \sr(jng to penalize a foreigner for
uticxiiiL;' ilii' law (li lii< (iwn cjuntry: and rJiat in such a ease the
deliNji' Mii-'hi tn l.u' jvu'arded as disdiar-'ed. -c' lonu' as the amuunt
diH' \\a< aciiially paid, and wa- paid undei' eom])ulsion and without
intent Id piejudiic the (jrieinal ireditdr i r/ 1. The decision i-. no
tlnid't. a! \arianio with the deei-i.)i;> nf the American Courrs. wliieh
re'i,eiii/(. an uhimaie rie-ju ijf (■dnti-ca' ion as regards all forms of
eneniv jii.ipeiix- fnund wilhin the jurisdiction, even though thev
reuaid ilie exerci-e' nf such a ri^-ht as imjjolitic i /^ i. If, moreover.
the KnL:'li-h law .~!ill rei(ignizes an ultimate riglit of confiscation
a- u'Liard- ]i:np(Miy iha' i< tangiMe - / >. it i- di'licult to see on what
greiijid <if pi-inci]i!e delits or intane-ilde ]n'opert}' should I^e ex-
ce]ited /,■!. Xe\-e!; lieje-- til'' deci-inii initi! levoi'-ed nui<t l)e taken
t" re]ire-eni the nde that. -i_i far. olitains in En^dish law: whilst its
e.\i<tenee www. if the oc-asion sJKmld arise, aflcird the Ensrli-h Courts
an ci]iportuiuty of extending iiL law to other forms of jirivat-e
property ijf an innocent character that immunity from eonfiseatifin
which ihev virtually enjoy in practice.
('F.xKitAf. S(rn.<-.-- Kiu'i/i'/ I'erso}i^ found vithin the Terrifonj of
n lU'lliiirri'iit : li.i 77/c lUrjht of With^lravnl. -Ix was one of the
f .ii-e.jiieii/e-; of the earlier view of the relation of war. tljai
the .-iilijeri> of one hellie-orent wlio were found within the territrirv
of the otlier. on or after the outhre.'tk of w.ar. were li.ahle to seizure
>'ii:d deieniidii and tlieir ]iiopei'!y to c-oidiscation , Tliis was fji-si te-
1.1 \ed ill ilie la-e nf f. iiciM-|| jneicjia n t >. who. sometimes liv ti-eatv and
sfiiiietinie- li\- iiiiinieipal law 1)iil sulijecf to coirditions of rer-iprofit w
v.ere aljoucd to w itJKJi'a w thern-fdves antl tlieir propertv within a
l;i\eri 'ime after the comiiieiiceiiienT of ho-rilitie-. Xext . the .-'-opf-
f'f -i."-h ireaiie- appear- to ]ia^-e ])ecn enjari-cl -^o as \n in. -hide
' ' 1': -' t";M' :'- tin' |);iiii-!! ()v'\\- x\\i- f'\'ci!t ef wiir. r)r t!if' rontrnrv v'u-v:
ii^i'if" \\-;i-- -;:i<l M, !>.■ v,-irlii)Ut jircT- tiiat the a;-f lui-itioi! et" s\i.-}i intra'c-ts
'i'-nt: -^•■- il:i!l. |:;i, n. iiai-t \>r d-^'incil ta he siihjrr.f to Til"
'" I'l.il!. ;ii. ^."l.■! .' ..,,:, ri~l-;s iiii|i|ic!l li\- t!if <r'Mi.r l;i\vs of war.
'''■ ' >■■■ "'■■-■ -. //'/".-.,. f.) ])all. it -■..,,,- r-lr.;,:- tliat til- -Mil." Vn\>-
I'-''' : II''. '■ ' ■■ . ;■'.'■..." c, W;.||. iiiii-t l.c aiiii!i."(l filially 1.1 proiMTtv of
■'■'-'- ■ a laiiL'il.li' or of ;in i ataii'j'il.li- kind:
' " >■ -■ . :•• ■"'■">. -'c Wli(.ar.Mi ' Uaii.a . tlOl. n. 1 .''o . At
' I' ■ ^^■il'■tlH■■• v.-.' ;i.|..pt til- -^ i(.\v that tin- sun.' lime tiic ex r,.i .; i^ ,i, . ii|. ,-!,■:.:
!'"''~;'''" :''-eat::.:- -:.■!; ar- ■; ..-rt y in a 1 1 Ii-hil-'Ii it inav !..•. | .)•■ il,;i |,i\- ,■, .tl.-.'tcd
tuo-M'_'n .■.iiiii! rn- (].. -, i.n an iinplicil tralv tli.' \i'.\v of inr.'iaiat ion:: ! n-a^"-
ii!i<i.a--rarali.,- fi,af Oii- r.r.p.r-v -l.all rinaviir a! tli.' tiin.'at wlii.ai tiaif.''
Enemij Persons awl Projiertf/ vjllliin the Jurisdiclion. oD
otluM' eiiLMuy >iiljj<Mi-. l''iii;ill\. lici'c, a- in (jtlicr ca-c-, a j)ra(;lict'
orii;iiiatiii^' in lioaiii.'- iii.uli' 1 km w (.'(,■ ii [lartifulai- SialL'> ^radiiallv
g-avo rise lo an iulcrnat innal u.-a^c. wliicli in time ht'canic an ijlili-
g-at(ji;v (/u-tiiin. Sui'li a cu-tdui, al an\ rat<'. appears lo Jiave t'-^tali-
lisht'd itx'lf ill tlir cinii'^o of the iStli conlnry i //m. By virtnc ut
this cai.stLini tlic >ulijrit- di unc liclliuercnt iuiind within tlii' lerrilnry
ol' tlie utlier on the ouihrcak ul war were allowed to dojtaft I'reoly
^\itllin a period reasonaldy .-nllirieiil t'oi' the arrangement ot' tlndr
ati'airs aii<l conipal ildc with piddic ,-al'etv; sid)jecl. however, to an
oxe(>j)iion in the ca-e of pi'r-on-' whose deiiMUion nuuht 1)0 a matter
of political or iiuiiiar\- nere--i; \- ( // i. And this riuht of withdra\v;d
ma\- still he taken ai[\antaue (if in those ea'-es where the Jatev and
the iiioie lil.'iai jirai-ti-e ol' allowing enemy suhjei-ts to rinuaiti is
iiol uhservi>d. But ii will itoi extend lo eneniv persons who outstay
the period limited foi' withdrawal, oi' who voluntarily enter the
territoi'}' afterwards i r> i. Tin- oidv modern instauci' <if the \iola-
tiou of this eusKuu o;-currtNl in ISO.'!, whiui British subjects t'ound
in Franc(> were arrested au'l some ol' them detained until 1<S] 4 liv
order of Xapolcon: hut this pronvdiuu' was res(u-iod to rather as a
mea-ure of reprisal for an alle_:ed wronu'fu! .-ei/.ur.' of i-"r<'n:di
niorehant vesstds. and was even then u-(Mierally reprohated i /y >.
['n.) The Hl'ihl to UciiKiin. Ali'eady in the J8th ceidury, however,
wc Jiotiei' the growth of a more lilieral pi'aciii-e und(e' which enem\
subjects were som"time^ allowed to remain during i;ood behaviour.
Tlris was at tirst pr(jbably j'alh;u' ioler.ded than Ciiiieeded. althriueh
on some occasions oflii-ialU aut Innizeil i </ ) ; \\hil>t. later, wc lind
such a- riu'ht occa^iouall v coiil'err<vl bv treaty i/'i or (>\en bv juuni-
(dpal lawi.s-i. In tin' increa^/d intercourse of mi'dern life ;ind
comnuM'c<> the newer u-aac wa-- found to be cniiducix'e to the intere--t>
of both parties; with tic r ■-ult that it i- now ofKm follnwed irre-
s])eeti\"e of ti'i'aiw .\l the -ame lime. lia\inL;' rcLiard to the wnyiiii;
practice of Stale- in leccm wai- / . it cannnl. so i.w. be said to have
(-/') Ahliouy:li treat
tiuiicd, "probahly t'cr the sake of fli'av.
greater security, er suiiiei iiiit>< witii a ( ,/
view to an eiilaru-eiucii* cf tlic I'iLrlit. ( •/
(;/) As to |iei'>o!is helcim'iim' ti> tlic
armed forces of the enemy, -ce i-eply
of the Atturney-* MMicral tn a :iiic~ri<ui
a<keil in the I ioiis' of ( 'cmmMiw eii th
liii'- t.- have lict'ii ordered tn with
yh.r. Kit : \Ve<thdve. ii. 42.
{ •/ A- ill the iitlicial (leehiratii)ii~
iiiadi liy tlie ilriti-h ( Jon eriimeiil a-
earlv a<' 1 7')il and 17(i2. on the out-
lii'cii. III' war with I'rance and Sjiaiii.
i'e~[.eet i \i Iv ; referred to ill 4"ayhi!'.
'2.jth fehriiarv. IHiMt: ciOmI l!..!l:ind. !ii2. ami Wc;! l.do'. ii . 11.
Letters on War and Xeui ''a iily. p. HI;
l\\<n i lalb :;S(;. S )iiic wri'-r-. such a<
Calxo. exr-nd llii- e\r.,.;,i j. ,a e, in^
diviJua.ls returning;- fur military -er-
vic'' ill their own ennniry: .-''i' !>,'"■'
I,,/, ,,,,•/;,,,,,•/. ii. :;: ; alt!i.iau4i th"
P.riti<h practice would iicf appear to
sanct inn this.
( " A.--inr,iiiL:'. t hat i-. ; !i e ni'Ui v
. A - liy a treaty nf 1 7!i.i, ma'!'
l.'U wccn ( ;r"ar Itritaiii and the I "niO'd
Sl,at"~.
.\< hv an .\et of v ■iciL-|a-- of
17!(s.
'/i Fn the war of Isoi. !;u--ian
<ul)ii'c!- were allowed to remain both
in (ireat itritain and Idv.ncc [n the
war oi ls7i;. ilerman -ide'crt^ were
60 Cases and Opinions on International Lavj.
\>vro\\\v oliliti'atoi'y : ^vliil-t in any ea<e it is subject to qualification
wheiv the expuls^ion of enemy subjects, "vvliether as individuals or
a^ a class, is deemed necessary from the standpoint of public policy
>^v juilitary necessity, ^^']le^e enemy subjects are allowed to remain,
it A\(>uld seem to follow that they are free from those civil disabili-
ties wliicli commonly attach to alien enemies under the municipal
]a\vi»,i; althouo-li they are subject to such regulations, including
i<'i:-i>tration, as may be prescribed in that behalf, and to the same
ri'^irictinus as repards tradinu' with the enemy as may attach to other
r«'>idenl- " r •.
Eneimj Vroiicrtii .- il. ^ Puhlic Propr)i[/. — Property belonging to
tlic enemy State, wliich a lielligerent find> within his jurisdiction at
or after the (iutbro;ik nf war. and which i- not protected by some
spei;ial iinniunitv > .r '. i- lialjh* to seizure. So jniblic vessels, arms,
munition.- of war and supplies, railway plant and the like, together
A\ith money and realizable securities, belonging to the enemy wState,
inaA- bo lawfully >eized. Land is rarely the subject of ownership by
a foreii;-n Siat<'. save perhaps for diplomatic and consular residences
A\liiili would in any case lie exempt: but if land were so owned, then
it A\ould aho a])pear to be eiptally lialde to ap])ropriation i/y •.
ii.' I'r'rrate f^ropi'rf;/ (jj Iininedkite Use in War. — Property
liclono-iao' to enemy .-ubjects Avhicli is of a kind likely to be of
immediate use in war, and which is fcnind within tlie jurisdiction
at oi- after the outbreak of hostilities, is also liable to seizure;
altliougli, on tlie analogy of the rules now governing the ti-eatment
cit' .-iinihir prriperty in hostile territory, it seems tliat the seizure
M-juld tiow be subject to an oblio-ation of restitution or indemnitv
on the icturn r,f peace i~i. This right would also extend to
at first allowed to remain in Franco East, althouo'h allowed to remain in
.so lony as tliey furnished no uround otlier parts; but lius.sian .sul)jeets were
for (■oiapluiiit, ahliouL'-li fur new ad- allowed to remain in Jaj)an on condi-
nn-ion.- ex])rcss j.erini~Mun was re- tioii of reudstration.
(jiiirfd: wliil.-t.suijseriuentlv, all enemy („) Althoutrh this is not altogether
Mil.jer-t^ were required to withdraw idear in Ens-lish law: see p. 90. 7// /,y'.
11-' Hi the d.|,artiiirnt of ijie .Seine. (-,■) See p. 24, ^"/,>-rf ; and. on the
tin- liro.cidin- hem- ju^tith'd l.y jnili- subject irenerallv. Hall. 387 /f .wy.,
lary i,..M..Mty. hi ls<)7. Turkey, and Westlake, ii! 41 f)" s^^/.
en the <iullii-c;ik nf war witii (Iri'ece,
d'--i-r<Ml ill.' .•xpnMnn i.i all Creek
(.'•) Such as deljts due bv oin' State
,,i,;,,, „ ;,i , -.i • ' ' '/ 1 ^ t(i the other, see //. 44. v/',^.- and
ut)|c.''t- i'('-i(|.-iii wiihin till' Ortonian ,, ,/ • . ' ,,,
<i'n,irii.,:,^. in the S,,;,!,i^h-Anirri- ;'- to other ease< ot imnninu v. ,>. 11 1 ,
ean war of Is'.is. Spanish ~;ibierts were '"'''"•
e\pn-"ly am lir.irize<l to remain in the * ."' ^''C l.atiti. 20: and as t" the
I lilted "State-. altlioiiLdi adniuni-hed i|Uestion of debt-. ;/."/. 24: althdu-'h
that they v.'ei'ij the' ubje(;t of -:i-ijieion. '''''^' '''-''t "f a ppn >pria tion \\-()nl(j not.
In the South Afrii-an wai- id ls!ti), if 's <-nneeived. apply wliei-e a belli-
niaiiy lirifi-h ^ubjei-ts ^\-ere expelled eerent was merely in niilitai'y neeu-
from the tenatMrie- ,,( tln' tw-. repub- Jiation; a- tn whi(di. -ee Hall. 41.) >f
lie-. In till' l;ii--ii-.lapane-.- war of "'/■■ •""' I'liill. iii. M7.
I'.iOl. .lapane-e -ubjeet- were expelled , : , See ||. \[. .V^ : and Latiti. 11
irDiii the i;u--iaii j.roMiiee- nf ih,,. l-'ar </ ..,,/.
Enemy Persons ami Proper tij 2i;iUiin the Jurisdiction. 61
cutMuy iiKU'clian; vessels wliuse i<)iistnictii)ii indicated that llipy were
intondrd to lio (•ouv<'i-t.i'(l iuiu slii|)s (jf warim.
(iii.) Prii'dtc I'miirrtji of Othc-r K inds. T\n' iroatiiicul of other
kind.s of euoiny property that may 1)0 finiud in a like siluati(jii has
been tho .suhjoet of ditferenl usa;^-e8 at diil'ereut times, and is still
the suhjtHt of a marke(l dilforenee of opinion. Looking, first, to
the practice of Stau'> one may probably say that down to the IGth
century all private ])roperty of whatever kind having' an enemy
character ajid found by a belligerent within his own territory was
subject to confiscation. After this, however, we notice a gradual
relaxation of the earlier practice, dictated, no doubt, by a perception
of common interest. As regards land, seijuostration was gradually
substituted for cnntiseation; Avliilst as regards moveable proper! v.
the practice of confiscation was greatly mitigate<l, first, by the be-
stowal on enemy subjeets, cither by treaty or municipal law, of a
right of withdrawal, which was invariably cou[)led with a right to
remove or dispose of their property, and ne.\t, by the formation of
a u.sage to that eli'ect, apart from treaty. Xeverthcless, down to the
end of tlie 18th century iustaa.'Cs of the cnnliscation <<( move-
able ])roperty, occur in a variety nf ca-e^ not covered bv ir.'at v i /> ■ .
But as the more liberal practice of allnwing enemy subjects to lemain
during good belwnionr grew in stren^-th, this jiecessarily ca)'ried
an imnnniitv froni interference wiili iheii' propertv (in tln^ ])art <it'
.■-uch as remained: whilst a like immunity could scarcely be refused
to non-residents, wbo weic le>s a source of danger than resideni
enemies (Cj. So ultimat<dy all private property, not beinu' of a
uo.xious kind, came to enjoy a virtual imumnily from coniiscatiiui ;
and tliis whethei' it cou-i-ied uf laud. or iinnds. or propei'tv of an in-
corporeal nature, suc-h as debts aiul credits; althougli enemy merchant
vessels found in a bellic-erent port at the outbr(\dv of war r<Mn,iiiu'd
liable to .soizuro unlil the middle of ihe I'.Hli century \ d •. Suliject t^ i
this exception, 'we find as fidui ib<' commencement of tlK,' liMli century,
onlv two instances of contiscation. ()[ie of these occurred in 1807,
when the Danish Go\i'rnment i-su(^d the ordinances already referred
to. sef|uestratiiig and ultimately conliscatiuL;- the jiroperty of Ihitisli
subjects found in Denmai'k; a prot'i-edina'. however, which was really
a measure of reprisal I'r" . The oiIhm' orcuia-ed in 18(;i. -when the
Southern ( 'onfe(bM'ac\ i<-ued a di>erei^ conliseai inu' all projjertv oi
whatsoeviU' nature. <'xccpi puMi'- -Mck- and s(>eurilies. h(dd by alien
enenuivs since the 1st \ra\. l>iol ('. P>ut ihis, au'aiu, was an e\-
(•eptio]ial m<\i>ure. r(>-oitel lo li\' ;i I'elwl (imernuuMit by A\-a\" i>l
rtMalialiou au'ain-l lli'' p.iicni Si.ii.'; whil-i a piMji,i-iMl (>\-tiMi<ioi;
of it, which wiiuhl lia\'' alfc^-icd foreiL;-n inrer(>-i<. was the subject
(m Sec If. C, \.i. li .>:' l'"'". ;"-t. ."). (., s, ,),,-". p. .')(i.
, .. II 11 ,.,.. \\ ,1,.' . ;; i> ' 'I A-, to tfic I'tt'cct ot tlii< in iniini-
(/,) Src I fall. I.... : \\ '■-' I'Oni'. u. 1-.. • I I ,, . ;, /■ /■
.. , , cipaf !;n\ . -cc />, tr,,,./ v. Perdue, yhr>
(c) Sec \\,-Ma.v. n. 1-. ,„; ^ ^_ [,,.. Scott ,' .3:21 , .
(j-J 6W-s-('-v (Hill Ojiiuioiis on IitternaUonal Laiv.
Ih.iIi ..t jin)!o>t ;ui(l -oiit'ial cuiuleiiuialio]] i^^y). Pussino', next, to
i.'ual ilinTv- \\i. iioii.'v a iiiarkiMl ilivfM'o-.'iKH' .it (^jiiiiion. Aecun'ding:
• I <i!i(' \u'\\ . I hero i- alri'a'ly an nMi^•atu^v i;ii-toiii ot exouiptiou.
"I'hi- i- tlio \ii'\\ roiuiiimily a;l<tj)teil liv nio-i Kui'f.poan writers. But
'hi- i-Miicjii-ioii iiiii-r pTMhahiy he lulo'ii. in ilie ijuarters innw which
n prncccd-. a- liei'iL;' iiii[)licitly siil.)jc''-t tu .siicli qualiiication.s as
i!iav lie iiiiiiu-cd iiy military Jiei-e.-siTy i /n : or. in any caso, a.s being
-liiijtM.-r 'm .-iwh ^ualilicaiifjiis a^ may lie imposed by the re<(uire-
iii.'iit,- Mt pulilii: .-aft'ty nv the laws ui re})ri<alin. Aceoi'dino- to
the Mther \icA\, A\ar. ahliunaTi it <l(i('s not of itself work a conhscation
of projieity in this -iiua'iiin. yet confers on the sovereign authority
a riii-ht to .Ic-ri- > it- <:Mnli-cati()n if tlii- slioidd be found necessary,
'riii- tuav b(.' said to ri.'orr'-ent o'cuprajly tlie AnL;-h.)-Ameriean view,
I'Mili a- a jnatier of muidci))al Liw and as an ijiterprotation of inter-
iiaii'inal law ■/,-*. In pra'iice. liowever. Ijoth systems recoo-nize the
• ■\<'m]ition nf ];irivate j^rupcrty as a ])olicy that ouglit to lie followed
-ave in ('xi/cju ional ca-e-. The difference in effect, then, between
■!i<><:^ two view< doe- not; appear to be very great. One roeoenizes
' .vmption a- <jblio'at(irv. save in ea-es of neeessitv or enier^-encv;
ih'' other rc<<iM-iiiz^.> a teclmical riglit <'if -eiziirc but subjf'Ct to a
_<'ni^]'al jx'ili'-y of exem]ition. In rlieir pra<:tical apjilicatinn eacli
'AMiild prnlialily sanc-tinn the confi^catimi of ]n'ivate ])i'op('rtv in
■ •\< (■pTinnal cir'-um-tanc^'-. sucli a- p)id>lir- iiece-sitv. or bv wav of
•tei-al; whii-t MiiT-i'h' ~\\'-\{ ca-c-. I'a.'li rr'CMO'iii;/,.< it- imiiiitnitA^ / i .
TlIK EFFECT OF ^VAR OS COMMEBCIAL
FEEATIOXS.
i) EX!STIX(; THAXSACTIOXS.
1 Slsim:\<iox.
JANSON V. DRIEFONTEIN CONSOLIDATED MINES, LTD.
' H'n2: A. ('. 484.]
Case. Till' r. -]i(ni:li'iit - on aji]>ral, wlio were tlif> orii^-iiiai piain-
till-. wi-ii' a iiiiiiin-- '"M'lipaiis- jn<orporati/(l iunler the l;iw- of tin-
'' ' If ''V.-i- pi'o]n,-(-(i, (.11 tlic iipinion ( /, I S(c p. ',i;;. :,-,ii-ii.
■:\ ;.M' Altui-iii'V-l ;ciic,-;il of till; Cojl- (,■; Sec Latifi. -V.) rt bt q .
y-'l'! ■';:■■• '■- '■■■;■■'!<! ■^'■\~ '■' pmp.a-ty {!■; S.- pp. .11. 55. ^. '■„■,. ,• ;,,i,l as
■ ' '"^'■--■■' '" ■'!' p'--"'i- <!-:;i!-ii. <l ill ,,, fii,. ,.x,-rpti.,ii,-il i-aM- (A (Iclit. in
•i,i- N(.r;ii(!-i, .St:;tc~. 'I'lii-- would iiave linL'-li-li law. ;.. 57.
aW'-'U-A li," p-nj .Tty oi- Hriti-li -u!,- , .' , o,, t!.o' .^nlij,-' v:"v.vv:x\\\- . <.-n
'"■•-••""I !'■'' '" - pr--i ■-t ..!i ti... part | ,' a 1 1 . 4:U ,/ s, .j .] Wc-t !.■) !;:■. i". "!j7
■I -h" !;riti-ii Cov, •,•„,„,.,,!: -..,- i'ar]. and ii. .'js r' s,,,.; and Laliii, .39 r'l.
i'ai^'T-. 1-tiJ. X..1. Ixil. \. \. Nu. \. .,,,
1"- ;ii.d Hall. !oL :,. 'l.
Tht' KtJ'i'cl iif War on ('(imvuTcinl llda/ioyis. iV^
South A IVic'iii i>r|)ul)li>', ami lia\ iiii;- a head oliirc then'. lait liav-
inu' also a Lomloii ollicc, \\liil>t iiio>t of the sliardioldia's wito
residci:! out^idi^ ilic [\>>j)iil)| ic Tin- r()iiij)aii\- hail, in Aui^ust,
180!). iiisurrd wiih ihc a|>)irllaiit and otlicr uiidn'w I'ilci's a parcel
of ii'ohl duriiii: it- li'an-it tVoiii tin' mini' m-ar JohaDiu'sljui'i,'- to
tho Liiitcd l\inn-d()iii; the la'sks iiisiiri'd airainst. iiicliidiiiii\ inffr
alia, "arrests, res! rn ints. and (h'tainiiieiils of all kinu's, ]")rinces,
and [)eoph.'s."' On tli;> '2\n\ Octulxa', ISI)!». the li'old in (juestioii
was seized during: its li'aiisit i)y the ( ioxrrnnicnt of ilic South
Afi'ican Kepuldie. It wa^ admitted that at the time of the seizure
war ^\•a^ inuninent ; ami that on the 11th October war in fact
broke out between (ireat. JJidtain and the lu^public. Subise-
(juently, but bef(>ri^ the war had come to an eud, tlie company
commePiCed an action on the polic^x-; tiu^ defendant ha\"ini:r au'reed
not to set uj) the ])le;! oi' alien enemy, whicli would otherwise
have debarred the conijiaiiy tVom -nine- m a Ih'itish Courl during"
the war a). The action ^\■as orieinally bi'oueait before Matliew, J.
llHjO. 2 Q. B. ;].']!) . wiio heM that the defendant was lial)le: and
this decision was allirmed by the Court of Appeal (1901. 2 Iv. B.
nO' . On aj>peal to the Ilou.-e oi' Lords, it was held that inasmuch
as the insurance ha_d been eft'eei.'d and the loss incurred before
tln^ actual outbreak oL" war. the I'espondents were entillcil to
!;eeo\'er: and this, e\-en thouu-h the loss wa> incurred by a seizure
made in contemplation of war. and in order to use the e-ol,! in
-upport of the war.
Judgments. I dude-ncnt- A\ere delnered l)y Lord Ilalsbury,
L.C.. Lord Macnaehien. L<.rd Davev. and Lord Lin.llev.
Lord Ilalsbury. L.C, in liis ludeineiit. lield, in effect, tliat.
inasmuch as the poliey in (pie-tion was eniered into and the lo>s
nicurred befon^ the aetual outbreak of war, it co'alil not lie reirarded
:is contrary to publie poji.y a-> delined b\' preei'dinn- cavr<. e\en
tlioue-h war was imminent, at tin' lime. Tlie Courts wei'e jiot ;it.
Iilicri\' to in\"ent new ie^ch of public policy. I'jic prineijij,' on
wliich commeivial i;it ei-, e.ur>i' mu-r cea-e on w-.ir oiil\- appliiMJ
w'lere the h-ads ,^\' the i', -p. ■, 't i ve States had a. tuall\- ei'-:ited a
-tate of war. If ^\"ar eii-ii,'i|. -iiih a < ont ract was .- appended owijiir
('/) A- to till- loiralitv of this, sec >.. ,;:,, ,,i,-<i.
G4 Cases and Opinions on International Laiv.
to the fact that au alien enemy could not sue thereon during the
^va^ in the C'ourts of either country; but the rights under it were
unatlertecL and when the war was over the remedy in the Coiu'ts
of either country was restored. The earlier writers on inter-
national hiw used to contend that a public declaration of war
was essential: but this was not the existing view\ At the same
time it wa^ essential that the hostility should be the act of the
nation which made the war. Xo amount of "strained relations'"
would affect the subjects of either country in their commercial
relations or other transactions. Trading with the " King"s
enemies'' was, of course, illegal; and so was an undertaking by
contract to indemnify " the King's enemies " against loss inflicted
b}' the King's forces; but the words "King's enemies" were an
essential element in the proposition, and to substitute the words
" aliens who might become the King's enemies " would be to intro-
duce an altogether new principle. ^Moreover, even if it -were now
competent to a Court to consider the question whether a contract
such as the present was contrary to public policy, it would seem
that the answer should be in the negative. To hold that such
contracts were affected by the mere imminence of war would be
to proscril)e a test, which would be at once diificult iji its apjilica-
tion and extremely harmful in its consequences on the free com-
mercial intercourse between nations.
Lord Davey, in his judgment, said that three rules had been
estaldished under the common law. The tirst was that the King'b
>ubjects could not trade with au alien enemy without the Kinu'V
licence. h\i'ry contract niad(:> in \'iolation of this principle ^\■a^
\oid. and li'tjoils whi(h ^\•ere the subject of such a contract weri
liable to conliscation. The second was a corollary of the tirst. but
risti'd on (li>linct grounds of ])ul)lic ])olicy. It w^as that no action
conld bi' ii!;iintainf(l aii-ainst tiie insurer of enemy's goods or ships
aiiiiin>t- caiituiv by llie l]riti>h (iovernnient. One of the mo^t
elii''t ii;il iii-t iiinii'iils of' war \\as llie ci'i]»pling of the enemy's
cniiiiiii III : and In ]na-!iiii >ii( h an insurance would be to relie\'e
lie i'n>'ni\ of ]ii> I0--1-. and would, therefoi'e, be delrimental to
tie- inliTi-l- of ihi' iu-iiriT > own counti'y. This princijde applied
eM'U wliei-e the in>urancr \\a> niaiJe jirioi' to the commencement
of hostilities and was tli-avfurr leiial in it- inception; and whetlin
yV/i" Elh'cl of Wkv on Comiiu'i-ridl Ikcldllons OO
the person claiiiiiiiu' on llir policx was a iiiMiti'al oi' a l>i'ilisli
subji'ct, so lonj^- as tlic insurance was on heliali' of an alien enemy.
The third laile was llial it' a loss had taken phiee Ixd'ore the coiu-
iueiu'(>nieiit oL' hostilities, the I'ij^ht of action on a |)olie\- of in-
surance -was suspcMided dnrine' the continuance ot wai', hut re\ivod
on the restoration oi" peace. In the present case, this third ruh'
would iuivt- constitute([ a dei'enct^ to the prescMit action; hut it
had been wai\-ed h\ ae-reenient. lie had some (hiuht as to whether
it was competent to tlic^ })arties to take this course, t'oi' llu^ reason
that tlie objection J)} was based on consi(h.M'at ions of pul)lic policy,
and the Courts would therid'ore be bound to take notice of the
company s inability to sue. iUit pieace ha\'inu' now lieen estab-
lished. In- did not desii'c to make this point a ^-round oi" jud^'inent..
As regards each, of these rules, howexcr. the time wIkmi the rule
came into operation was the actual commencenieut of hostilities.
The attempt to extend l.heir operation to a case ^\here war had
not occurred, but was merely imminent, aj)peared to In; wholly
unsupported by authoril\'. Such an extension would tend to inter-
ference with lawful contracts and commercial pursuits. Xor could
the Courts well decide a (piestion as t.o whether war was immiiKmt
or not.
Dii'Cctly, this cas(> merely deciiie- ilial the leu'al elieci> of wiw on
conniiercial relations will accrue m|||\ ,is iVoiii the time wIhmi the wai
actually conuneuce-. lint hevund l!ii>. ilie iud;..;'nienls rc^-^late aufl
allirin, with all tli(^ autlioiii v ll),il allaclie-- 1m the (|(>ci>iiiiis ot ;i ('oiu-i
of final ap[)ea!,tli(^ y<Mieral I'ule oi' lMll-i!Uel■rn||l^^(' : and. mure (v--pe-
ciallv. its ellects on c(jntiacis or oiIkm' i ra n-a'-! ions snlisi^iino- heiwinni
SCibji.'cts of lli(> res|)(M/ti\e l)elh'i;'er(Mi!> a1 llie lime ol' the outiin>ak of
war [(■'). The rule of non-iulei rimr-e came uiidc^r ( oiisidci'ai ion in t he
same war in the ca^e of I'lic Mushoiiii i P) ('apt- Times [,. J}. t.")Oi.
wher{\ anionu'st other thiiiu-. it \\a- laid down that one of the imme-
(iiaie con--eniieuce- of the ouiKriMk of jio-tililies was the iiitei'dicliou
(d' all f-ommeicial inlercoiir-e lieiweeu tlii> -uliieci- of iJic Sia.le<
ai war witlioii! the li'-eii-e of liieir re-pei-iuc l;o\ (n'iimeiil<. aici thai
this prohihil ion applied |;i all per-nn-, domii-il(>d wiihin the hejli-
U(>reiit State-. In other w-nd-. all i-ummercial inlei'.-oiir-e witlmul
licence hei v.cim per -Mir- ' :li\ ided !i\ l he line of w-;ir" ih '\< prohilnted .
ib) Tluit rlic ](hiintill: w;i< an alien iiid-'m.ait (if l.tml landlcy; ..-'/,,■,
eiHMiiy. jc -'•■
■' ' 'i'iial i- •• il!iniii-i!c<l in tli.-
(r) '\'\\r Iru'lll piio'li'ip ui' rn"\u,r.\- ( ■, , in i I I'l" < nf til'- rc- 1 1( 'i 't i V(> iii'lli-
tions and the (jnc-tioii oi trade dnnif- -•-■reni-": id'. l\r,-si,,,,r y. K r\, .1 ;liiil
cite are also toirduAl en in the M,-!... .")r,l . and •■,''■,■,,. p. sO.
(M.I.. 1-
tw; Cr^s7'6• and Opinions on hiternational Laiu.
'I'll!' iiiMic iinporiaiit apiilicutiijiis of this rule iji Eng-lish law are
-lini'tlv th('->(>: ( i. I Ciiiilracls di' oilier f raiisaetions duly entered into
liclnic ilic war between pei'sons who, whatever their nationality,
are (livi(h'(l li\- llie hne of wai', are, in <)-eneral, merely suspended
during- tlic wai'. a- reg-ard* tlie rii^'ht to performanee and the rig-ht
of siiii. Ne\crilielc--s. e\-eii such 1 raiisactions will 1h' ahrog-ated
I 1 ) il ilic\ oiiiii'e lo llii' aid of the <Miei)iy '^m: or {'2) if they eaiuiot
be carrie,! diit witlmut in vohiiifz' suiue dealing' with the enemy i /) ;
or ".'1' if iIm'\- are in their nalure ineapafile of .siisp(Misioii i /y >.
(ii. 1 ()ii ilie Dthoi' liand. t raii-^a<-i ions which ar(! entered intn after the
i-oinnieiiciMiieni ol' tlie war. and betu(>(-n persons divided l)y the line
(if wai' whether in tlie natiii'e of trading- ventures pro](er(/), or
iiiiiiiact- (if aii\ iither kind f A: i -are in g'oneral illegal and void;
w hiUt the >anie iin alidity will attaeli to contracts which, even though
net made with alien enemies, are yet in furtherance of such illegal
trade oi' intercourse (/ ). But the rule proliibiting coniuiercial inter-
(■onrs(> will not ai)])ly wliere the transaction in question is entered
into between ])ersoiis who. although otherwise enemies, are not in
fact di\ide(l hv tlie line of \\-A.v(m). Xor does it apply to transac-
tions which are s|)ecially ])ri\ileged or excepted; such as licensed
tiade and (Muitracts incidental thereto f?/). or contracts for neces-
>aiies entered intij by Ih'itish subjects held a-s ])risoners by the
enemy ( o ).
With re-pect to existing transactions and relations, the primary
rule -which a]i|iiies lo all cases not excluded on some Sjjocial
'ground I // I - is that thev are <irsp(Mided during- the war both as to
iheir lei:a! efjects and. in strict law. as to all rights of suit thereon,
but i(,'\i\(' (in the ic-t oiat ion of ])eacc. So in Ex jiartc J>(ji(ss)nfiJcer
i]-'! \"e.s. 71 I. w-here an ap])licat ion v.as made on l)ehaif of certain
fereii;')! ci<'(|ii (US of an I'hielish banki'iipt to be admitted to ]irove
ai^ainst the estate- -a claim })re\i()nsly denied to them, en the g-round
1 lial they were alien enemi(>s the claim was allowed bv Lord Krskine.
b.' '.. en the gi'oiind that althoniiJi a creditor who was an ali(M] (Miemv
■ ■'iiild iioi snc aft<M- the luitlu'eak' of A\ar or during- its continuance.
\('i if iIh' conirai-t out of whi( h the debt aroso had been made before
the w.iv as was tlune the ca-e the right, to sue would !e\i\(' (.n the
I'-inrn of pea-c; I'roin which it followed that any dividenrl to which
tiio-e crediloi- w('i(> (MUitleil coidd not be confiscated or di\!d(Hl
annncj-t the otber crc(| ii oi~. but must be kept in hand foi- \]io bei;efit
( i| the claimant- a iter 1 he re^torat ion of j)eace.
■ ■ /■'■/.'-'/.. ^. //.',"■''•- ':.',". p. -2(1;. (/) Po/is V. Jlr/l (;,rir,>. p. 77).
'■ '_) E^rn.-.h, X. r.n.r.l. ,^ ^ ;„//,-. („,) WrIL, y. // ' ,7/,V/;,/ X {r,,tr,i,
V- ''-)■ p. SO): Krr>^/,'nr y. KrUrl, {l.iim,
'/ C,'. .'-../.M. //■.-/-/;,,,//..,. Cj.fy,!, p. 7S). ' ~ ■
e. »l!i). („) I'sj,,,,;,/,,, V. y,,bh. (r.ifra,
. Th. II, .^.y ;„o... p_. 7 1 ,. p. SDi. ■ ■
• '' "'•''' ^- /''■'■■'"—' ^u,i,.i. (,,) .!„/,.;„r V. Mo,sI,eail (i).h-'i,
!•• 77 ). ,,. s-J ,.
The Fjjfccl of \V(ir on Commercial Relations. iu
[2) AuRoc; ATiox.
(ii) .Is' in Aid of E)iemy.
FURTADO r. ROGERS.
i Jsoi:: ;] Hos. \ r. i9i. |
Case.] In 1792 an insurance was cil'ected by the plaintiff with
the defendant, as represent iny an English company, on a French
vessel, the " Petronelli,' on a voyage from Bayonno to Martinique.
In 1793 war broke out between (u-eal I»ritain and France, in the
course of which ^Martinique, \\ith all the shipping in its ports,
including the "' Petronelli,"' was ca[)tured by the British, and the
vessel condemned as enemy pi'operty. A ftei" the conclusion of the
war the plaintiff brought an act ion to recover the amount of the
insurance on the vessel. In the result, it was held tliat such a
contract was at common law abrogated by war, on the ground that
it involved an indemnity to an enemy owner for the capture of his
property by the State of the insurer, wJiich was inconsistent witii
the very objects of th(^ war.
Judgment.] In the judgmejit uf tin; Court of Common Pleas,
which was deli\'ered l)y Lor<.l Alvnnlew (..[., it was [)ointed out
that it was ]iot conqx'tctit to a subject to enter into a contract.
to do anything A\'hicli. would be del laineiital to the' interests of his
country; and such a, conli'ael mus therefore as nnieli prohibited
as if it liad been exprt'ssly forbiddiML by Act of Parliament. It
was admitted that if a man coiitractid to do a thinu' ^\]uch avus
afterwards })rohibited by Act of Parliament, he was not l)ound
b}- his contract [n) . Cn the same pi'ineiph'. wJiere liostilit ii's broke
out between the C'ouiilrx- ef the iii-,iiri'i' and that of the as>uri'd.
the former was foi'biddiai to fullil his eonti'act. With respect
to the (>x]M'diriicv of >ui h iii^iii a ih'-^. ii wa- oiil\ iieiT>-arv to la'te
a single Hue from lix iiki r>hoi'k. who .-aid: "Inis/iuin prrirtilji in
<,■ si(-<cii)crr (jiiid e.s7 nliiijii (jiiniii inrinn < nmn/i rda ni(ir>ti/n<!
(,:) i;,,.r.i.,- V. K[i,l..J' (1 Salk. 198^
68 Cases anil Opunons on International Law.
f.roniovrrc :" ami a part of a passage from Valiii, who. referring to
the previous Kng'lish practice of permit ting- such insurauees. said
that "the eoiibetpieiiee Avas that oiie part of the nation restored to
us hy the effect of insuraiiee Avhat tJie other took from us by the
riij-hts of war." Hence, the Court \\as of opinion tliat the insui--
auec of enemy })roperty was iUegal at common Liw: and. if this
M'crL- so. then the fact of the contract hioving been entered into
}»ri()r to the war wouhl be of no a\aih for the reason that it was
eijually injurious to the interests of the country. If such a con-
tratt A\ere upheld, a foreigner might, prior to the war, insure
ai;-;iin:-l all risks of the war. And even though the indemnity
might onl}' be paid after the war. yet the enemy would be little
injured liy captui'cs for which he was sure, at some time or otlier.
to be repaid by the underwriter. Such contracts were therefore
illegal for the same reason that commercial intercourse Avitli the
enemy was illegal, because they were inconsistent with the very
objects of A\ar. Hence, if a British subject insured against
captures, the law would infer an exception as regards IBritish
captures: wlul>t. if he e'xpressly insured against such captures,
the contract would l)e void ah hi'tHd.
I'rier lu ihi- d(.'(-i>ii Jii, suine doubt had existed as to wltothoi
ail iii-ui'aiice ol' eiHMiiy j)roperiy wa-; not valid. ])rovi(led it liad
hceii eiiiercd iiitd jinur lo the outbreak of war. lUil any such
doubt. \v;i.- vet at rost liy the iu'e<eiu decision, wliich makes it eleai'
that .-in-li in-uraiices. wheiH'vor entered into, are void as contrarv
lo jailiHi' |i(.)licy I /^ i. Aiiil the >anie jninciple would apply to other
coni ra<'t.~ or 1 ran-acunn.s thai tend to the assistance or the aid ol'
the meuiv, w h<MH'\<'r and with whomsoever entered iiitoi.ei. l!v
!7 A- Is \iii, ,-. 12-'1. nll^■l>(l^•<'r. e\on tlie jiurchuse ol' enemy stock by a
l!riti-!i -iiliji'ci is ma h' a ml^dt'iueanoiir ( c/ 1 .
ih) Sim ;iU,j I;,-!' r'l^'ii \. ('i'i-/(,,q |n'a ct i I 'cs With rcspcct to iiisiiraiicr.
i! !:;.-!. !iii ; /;/'.,-/... v. S.sf,;i! ( i; I'liillipMui, i-:tlrfrof WaiMiii CiiitraL-r,^,
T. i;. ■!■■):. 7s .1 .■.,;,.
(' ■ /;,,■'■". \-. \, •.'■,;/; :"..,/^„v,,, ,■ ,,/; cT. /,'. V. //,,..-,■■/([ Uuir. (■,{■!.
and. a- t'l (|:tVia-«i;; \i''V. -.iimI \ar\'inL;- II-jO).
'Llic Effect of W<ir on Comuicrcidl Itclatiom. G9
(b) ,4s' Incapable of Suspension.
GRISWOLD r. WADDINGTON.
[1618; IG Jolinson's Eep. 438; Scott, 504.]
Case.] Prior to the oulbrcak of war between (o'eat Britain and
the United States, in 181 '2, a comniercial partnershij) liad sub-
sisted between Josbua Waddiii^ion, an Anu^rican eitizen residing
in New York, and Henry \\ addini^toii, a British subject residinj^'
in J.ondon. .During- the war cei'lain business Iransaetions occurred
between .Joshua Waddinulon and X. L. iS: (i. (Jj-iswold. .\.fler
the war proceeding's wtM'e taken by the latter to recover a baLance
of account aUeu'cd to be due to them in res])ect of these trans-
actions, for which it was sought to make llem-y Waddington, the
English partner, liable. In tht^ Court below judgment passed
for the defendant: and on ap))eal to the Court of fh'rors, this
judgment was alHrmed on the ground that 1 lie partnership between
Joshua and Henry WaddingtoJi had l)e(>]i rlissolved by war.
Judgment.] In giving judgment, Kent, Cb., [jointed out that
1 he (h^ehirat u)n of war oi' itself worked a dissolution of all commei'-
'■ial partnershi])s existing at thi' time between British subjects and
America]! cili/ens: and I'urther thai b\- (hMb'nii' \\ itb (uther [larty
no third per>on e(Mikl aeipiire a Icj^al I'luht against, i he other, for
the I'ea-^on that one alien I'uenix' could not. in that caj)acity, make
a [trivato contract liindim: upon the other. Tlie le;irned judge
■-tate(L m ei'l ect , that sui'h a concbisioii a|)peareil to be an inevitable
ri>sult (if the iie\\ i-elati(iii- civatcil 1)\ wai'. jukI a necessary con-
vc(|Ui'ncc of tl)e rnle which |in»h i l)il cd tnidi' ov coiniinmication
with an enemw 'fhc viaic (,[' \\;\r. m fiici, creeled disabilities,
re>t I'lct i(i]is. and (lnlie>, which wm' altoijcthci' inconsistent witlr
till' colli iniiaiicc 111' >Mcli ;i I'l'liit ion . To allow an alien ciieniy to
iiind a ho-~tile parliicj- l'\ hi- loiilract-. when the latter could exer-
ci>c no control o\cr ihem. would he altoeeiher iiniust, and when
the bu-iiiesv of t he part iiershi |] w a> thus [Hit an I'lid to, the partner-
-hip it-el r cea-ed. Ila\ine- reuard. more jiart icularly . to tlit^
nature ami oltject- of commci'cial [)artnerships, it was contrary
to all the ruh'- 1)\' whu-h they were ii'overne.tb that thev diould
7(» Cases and Oinnlons on International Late.
continue alter the partie> had been interdicted from all com-
munication Avith each other, and placed in a state of absolute
ho>tility to each other, foi' there could no longer be that unity of
interest or that la^\i■ul common aim wliicli was essential to part-
nership. The commerce carried on by one partner must, in a
maritime Avar, necessarily contribute to the resources and eliorts
of his country: and, in such cii-cumstauces, to allow the other
partjiei- to draA\ a revenue from operations subversive of his own
country'.- intere>ts, would result in a complete confounding of
the obligations arising from the law of partnersliip and the law
of war. Xur could the partnership be abridged during the war
to business that was harmless, without destroying it. Ec^ually
Ktth' couhl it be deemed to continue in a Cjuiesccnt state during
the A\ar. on the term> oi" each partner not sharing in the profits
made b}^ the carj'vina on of a commerce tliat Avai^ hostile to his
country: for that mii.;ht inean that one might be called on to share
in los.ses witliout sharing in profits, which would bo incompatible
witli partnership. Each partner was, indeed, entitled to contract
and bind the firm: but. as against this, eacli was also entitled to
check and control such action on the part of the other. But if
a partnership were allowed to continue in war as between hostile
associates this control would be gone. Moreover, each partner
beini;- di-ablfd by the war from dischariiing his duty, or a part
(jf hi- (bity. it woidd >eem that such a disability, whether under
t.he civil oi' the Eni;-li>h law. had the effect of dissolving the
relation . .\ s regards notice in the present case the declaration of
war A\as in itself the most authentic and monitor}- notice, and no
(jther A\as rcijuired. Tlie partnership, moreover, having been once
dissolved by the war, could no longer be the foundation of an;\-
vighl oi' uction, e.\ce|i1 as to matters arising before the war.
'I'hc ""iiirari <A ])iirtiicr,-liip lielougs to that cla.-s of contracts
wlii'li arc .iliiM'jaiM,! 1,\ war. The rea.-oii for this i> that, wliere
the paitic- aic (|i\elr(l |,v iIh; line of ^var and all cnmmcivial iiiKM'-
(■um-'> Im.i\\.'<mi ihcjii |(!'Miiil,ifefl. neither tlie rights nor the duties
i'l'-ident to ii .an l.<' pr. ,|ii.i ! v rxcrci-ed or di<charo-ed: wliiNt it can
not uyll 1/e -ii-pemled. i,\\iim' t,j the iuipo-^ilTlit \- of taiviiiL;- up
the loiiit fiu.-iu'^-- aft,ei' ijio war at the ])]-ecise point at which it
wa- at^and'uii'd. N'r\ .'ri li-jo^-. h, M,iil]ictr.-< v. ^USiea (^01 U. S. 1)
the Suiireine (^jiin of the bnit^MJ Stale-, whil-t fiillv recoeuiziuii' the
llw I'jfiecl of War on ('inninrrcidl llelalion-s.
71
^'Oucral clloi't ot' war on coiniiu'rcial iiiluicniirx', held thai iua-^iiiii'-li
u^ such iiiten-oiir><' was |i(,'nui>sililc willi llic con-oiit ol' the s(>\ oixuliji
aullioiily, and iiia-miicli as in thai pari iciihir war a ])roci><! date tor
ihc ccssaiioii oL' iulcn-oiii'.-o had Imhml lixcd hv tliu .sovcrci^^u aiitiio-
I'ily, the i)artiiorshi]) then in (piostion could luit Ijc doijiiicd to June
htH'u di>solvi'<l pi'iiu' to that. (laic, and was t horef'oi'i' siihsistinu' at
th(^ tiiuc of th(? transact i(ju which fornieJ the >sul)j<^ct-inatt('r ol.' tlio
suit. Evou wlien a |)ailn:'rshi)) is dissfjUcd h\- war, it woidd sCL'in
that, on the return (jL' ])eace, an aliiui ])artner may reco\'er tJie vahie
ot' his sliare in the paJt nership as at the date at wiiich it \vas
dissolved (a).
Tlie same ])riu(iple is e(juaily a])piicablo to other contracts
and rchitions that wmdd invoixc a coiitinuanee of commercial inter-
course or cori'espondenco l)et\\ei'n persons domiciled in th(> countries
of the respective belligerents, [a Xcir Yorlr Life Insurance Co. v.
Statliein i 'J.') I . S. 24; Scott, .li^i, the premiums on a |)olicy of life
insurance had Ixmmi didy paid ujitil the uuilireakof the ci\"il war: 1iut
in con>e<pieuce of that <'\i'nt and ol' the parties heinu' di\ide<l hy the
line i)i war. tin' |)remiuiu <lue in Deceudiei', iSlil. was jiot paid;
whilst the a^>ured died in lSii2. in the CoiuM hidow it was ]iid<l that
the contra<-t. w;i^ meiely suspended 1)\- war. ( )n appeal to the Supi'eme
(ourt it wa- Indd thai the dextrine of suspension did not ;L]»ply to
e.\<>cutor\ contract in which time was material; that in cimiracts of
insurance a strict adln'reiicc to the sti[)ulaied times of |)aymeiit must
he re;^-ar<led as mat<.'rial. for the rea-ou that the liu-in<>s< of lil'o iiL-ur-
anc(^ wa- founded on the Jaw of averaL;i'<. whi(di conld not he in-
terfered with without dtM'anuinu' the s'M-iii'ity of t h(^ !)U-ine--s; and
tliat the ])olicy therefore came to an end on the lir-t defaidt . At
the same time it was ludd that, inasmuch as failur(> to ])ay was duo
to the outljroak of wai' and not to an\ I'ault of ih(> assured, the
representatives of the latter A\«M'e eiitiileil to recover the e(putalde
value of llu' poli(;vi7;i; ju.-t a< in a contiact for the sah^ ot' projicrry
to be "jKiid for l)y in-talniiMit.<. the contract would lie at)roL;aied by
war, althoUL;-h after tin' war the vendor would be held accountable
to tlie purcha-er foj- aii\- pavment- previouslv madeuo. On the
otlnu- hand, in Scuiuics v. ][<irtliir<i I iisiinhin: Cn. i I ;i Wall. l.'xSi,
it was hehl that whei'o a poiic\- had been entei'(x| into aid a lo-s
incurr(Ml prior to the war. an action tliereon iniuhl he maintained
after the war. not w it h-ta ndiuL;' a c'urlilion that -nch action mu-t be
brouu'hl within a .-tipulaiC'l tine, -o hui'^' a^ a cimplianci' with thi<
condition wa- jucxcntc 1 li\ ilc w.ivil'. And -imilar rule.- would
probahK- lie followed li\ the l-',n-li-h ( 'oiin- ■ ,".
(,■! 'l'|,i>. 111! ilic .-:i!ii" iii-iiici|ilc :i> iiiicc cnieycd wliiL-t the [johey was in
that a|i|ilic(l Id cenli'aci- o! inMnMiicc; c\i~Icncc.
.>^ci' '■///,", ami l.aiiti. ."i:). • '■ > Si-ott,.)ll.
(//) 'i'hi< hciim- the aiiiiiuiit of |>i-c- iVi Sc. )tt. .')l(i. ri.
iniuius |)rcvi(ni<ly jiaiil. -iilijrrt te a (. i See i'hUlipson. i^ttVet of War on
deductitin tor the \ahic ,,l' the iii-iir- ( 'out raet-. p. HO c^ .se^.
72 taxes ami ( )/)iiii<)H-s nn Lth rittilmual Lair.
p) .In ] iir<,lr',)i(j l)roVtn<j>^ ir'il], lh(_> Enemy.
ESPOSITO /. BOWDEN.
|lSo7: -27 L. .1. (J. 1!. 1 7 : 7 E. .t J5. 7(j3.]
Case. Ill IS-V). ])i'io]' to the oul break (jf war hct wccii (u'eat
liiitaiu ami l^u>-ia. a cliartci'-party had been entered into l)etween
till- plainlilf. who was a Xea])olitan sh.'powni'r, and the defendant,
who \\a> a Firiti-h merchant, whereliv it' was ai^Teed that the
|ilaintiir's \e>-el should proceed to Odessa and there load a caro-Q
of A\heai. to 1)1' ]ir(j\iiled l»y tlie defendant, on certain terms as to
freisiht and denmi'raei.'. (Jn the outl)reak of war ])etween Great
ih'ilain and I{u->ia. the defendant nd'n^ed to ])erforni liis agree-
ment. In an acti(;n sub>ei|nent 1 y broueht by the jdaintiff for
bi'raih (d' ai;ri'emenl. the di'feiidant pleaded that he was a l>riti>l:
sLibjf'ct : tliat aftei' the makine- of the charter-party, but before
till' >hip had arrixed at Ode-sa and Iji'fore rhe defendant had
]iro\ided a I'arij'o. war was dechti'ed l)y Gi'C'at Britain against
Hu-.-ia; thai Odi'>-a wa^ a hostile jiort: and that it becamt.' iiri-
p()--i])le foi' the deri'iidant to fullil the ciiai'ter-party without deal-
\\\'j: with the (^)u<'cii - eiiciiii.'s. of whieii the plainliff had due
notici-. Thi' plaint ilT. in his I'eplx. I'elied on the fact that the
.-hip wa- iifiiiral: that Ode->a \\a> not under blockade: and that
b\- eertam Ordei's in ( Ouneil the Ci'own had ])ernjitle(l neuti'al
\e-.M i- ifi cai'rx" lioods and m^r' haiidiM' to whonisoe\er l)elon£;ina-
iiilc) the l!riti-h dominion^, and I'l'ilish sul)i<'cts to tra(h' with all
)'la'-i-,. iini und-i- bld'kade. In th- ('(jurt bi low judt^iiicnt was
'-iven ii: fax eui" of the phi int ilT: biu on apji^al this judo'inent- was
r'A'-r-^d lU till' ij-ruuiid that the lonl rai't was n-srinded b\' tin.'
d' <hii at i'jH (if w ai-. and that tin- Oi'di'r- in (.'ouneil could not rexive
It wh''|| (,!|rc ili--i,|\ cij .
Judrjment. I n i Ic |iid- iiphi uf the JlxclcMpi.T ( hambcr. whitli
wa- dc|i\, r,.i| li\ W'ilb -. .1 . it w;,- point i^l out that iiiasmm-h as the
preHimc,! ,,|,j..,t (.r wai' ua- to ciipph' the enemy's comnici'ee. the
declaiat Kill ,,f WAV ini|ioil((| a pioli ibii ion of commercial inter-
'■"iir-,e and eon-.-p, ,11,1, .,,,,. wit], tic ijihabitant- of tic enemv
I'lir I'jffccl of \V(ir on i^o)u)}ierv'uil llclationH. 73
I'ountrv. niid tiiat Midi intercourse, except hy liceiye of the ( towji.
was illegal. In spite oi' some pi'evious (loul)ls on the subjei't, the
case of PolU V. PuW S 'f. \{ . -VIS and the e|v;U <ase of The
Hoop J C. Hoh. !!)(; liati h'nally estjildished this i'ule. 'Ches.^
cases had further estal)lishi'd that il was illeo-;il for a, siiljject, in
tune of \\ar and without licence, to hriuu' from the eiiemy s port
e\eu in a neutral ship uoods purchased in tlie enemy's country
;ifter the comnieiicemeiit oi' hostilities, excn thoue-h not ap})earing'
to have lieen ])iirchased from an enemy. In fact, any trading- with
the inhahitants of an enemy country was trading with the enemy.
The force of a de('laration of war was e(pii\alent to an .Vet of
l*arlianient as I'eoai'ds pi'dhihit ion of intercourse with tlio enemy,
except by tht^ licence of the (,'rown. 'fhis \\as founded on the
j)is hrlli which J^ord Coke ,('o. Litt. II, h Iiad stated to be a
part, of the law of England.
With respect to the content if)n that the defendant might have
jirocured a cargo from othe]' pers(»iis than the (Queens enemies,
apart from the fact that all ])i'rsoiis inhabit inu' an enemy's country
A\ ere pr'nud jarlf enemies, and that e\t'n Ih'itish subjects if they
remained and traded in the count r\- aftci' the outbreak of war
w ouhl become (>nenues a . it would be altouether ineijuitablc to
com|)el till' charterei' to seek out at liis pei'il m an enemy s country
jicrsons A\h() had ac(|Uircd the "oods befoi'i' the war under circum-
stances winch entit led t Ik'Hi to ri'inox e such u'oods from 1 be i-iiemv s
country witluuit a liceiici'. Moreoxcr. it had been ex]n'i_'S>l\ Indd
\\\ I'oil :•■. \ . lli'U Slip, ibat u'odils j)uivbasei| m 1 In' enem\" s c(iuntr\'
-nice the war, e\eii tiioULih iiol from I'lieinio. rould not without,
licence be lawfullx >liippi'd e\ cii in a in'iiti'al \('>si'l. Xoi- could
till' earu'o in siiib a ca-i' lia\e bcru pni dn bo.-n'd willioiit some
dealing wilii tie' eiiem\ , Willi rr-pect to the rimteiition tbat the
.barterer should baxi' pi'nx nbd a c;ii':.M] brfdre the war. apart fi'din
tbi_' fad that he wa- und'T i.u dbliL;-atidn td do tlii<. IJn' same
dilhcultv wiMiid ari-e ;i> ii'iiai'iU dealini.'' \\ith the eiii'inw e\ eii in
the jKissiui,'- nf the cari.'d ihrdui;h the Customs and obtaining a
f lU^slan ]ierniit .
In a i'a>e wle'ii' llie larrvinij- out of the contract invoked a
" 1 ';M/-."',/ V. '/■■'-,, 1 I ■.iinp. trt^K
74 C'a-si's ((uJ (Jj)i)ilons on International Lazv.
dfaling- \vitli the t'tiemv . the charterer could maintain no action
against the s^hipowner; and the s^hipowner ought not. therefore,
to !»('■ cut it led to sue th(^ cliai-tcrcr. Just as the pLaintiff would
ha\'i' lifcu ;ihMil\cil IVoui goiiii^' td ()(h'ssa it' war had In'oken out
betAvcfii Ku>-ia and his t'uuutry. so the defendant was absolved
from pru\idiiig a cai'go on war breaking out between Russia and
Cireat Britain. Xor could the contract in such a case be deemed
to be merely suspentled by a war the entl of which could nor be
foreseen. The more convenii'nt course was to regard both parties
a< absohfd. and as beinu' at libertA' to make ]iew arranacments.
Th(_' i-ontraci in ilii- ease, it will be observed, was iiot between.
encniie-. Imi lietuccu a Britisji subject and a jieutral : but.
ina-nnich a> ii could not l»e tullilled without violating the ride
oi iciu-intciiour-e. and could not conveniimtly to either partv be
su.-jicmled. it wa-- held to l>e alirrjo'atod. The judgmeiu also serves
to illn-tiate the uature and scope of the rule of non-intercourse,
t'cnindinu' thi- rule on the jn-i bril/. which itself constitutes ])art of
the coinniiiii law. and trcatiiii;' it a- a rule of international, rather
than dl' inuid'-i|ial. lawi^n. It wa- also hold that the ap[)licatio)i of
the lule in thi- |iarliciilar ca^e wa'- not ali'ected lu- the Orders in
Council I c I.
ii STBS W^l'KXT TRAX:S ACTIONS: TiiADING WITH
THi-: KXl-i^IY.
THE •HOOP."
llTiti): 1 C. Jtob. 19(J: Tiulor. L. C. in Vlercautilc Law, 921.]
Case. Diifin-- war between (ireat ixritain and Holland, tht
"lIo(,ip. a neutral \'e--el. shippixl at liotterdam a cargo of mer-
chaiidi>c (111 acc(juiit (jf c-ertain British subjects, and thereafter pro-
ceeded on a \oyai:e ncnninall}- to Ijcrgen. but reall\- to a British
{JC'it. it; tht coiu'se of tlcc \'oyai:-e she was captured by a British
cruiser, ami it was ^oin^'ht to cojidenni the cargo as being the jiro-
perty of Bnli-J! -ubject- eu-ai;ed in trade with the eiu."my. This
wa> re-i^tc,| ou tic gr(;und that th(_' claimants, who had ju'eviously
' ■'.; .-^c.' al-.j /■■/,, -i,^, ,,.,.:,, ,\ 1', c. ^,., ,v„ •„. ,,. 72; ;„/,„. ,,. <u
17!).
'Jlie l'\Ot'cl of War on (Jominercial llebitions. 75
been engaged in an exlonsi\(' trade with Holland, had, after tlie
irruption of the French into Holland, but before the present war
witii Holland itself, obtained sj)ecial Orders '\\\ Council permitting
them to continue tiieir trade; whilst, after the preseiit war, they
had been informed by the Commissioners of Customs at Glasgow
that no further Orders were necessary. In vioAV of this, they had
caused the goods to be s]iij)ped at Rotterdam on their account;
documenting tliem ostensibly for Bergen in order to avoid the
enemy's cruisers. Under these circumstances it was urged that
their claim was entitled to great indulgence. Despite these facts,
however, a decree of condemnation was ])ron(junced.
Judgment. Sir W. Scott, in giving judgmcut, stated that by a
general rule in the maritime jurisprudence in this country all
trading witli the public enemy, save l)y permission of the Sovereign,
was forbidden. And this was not a principle peculiar to the law
of this country, but was pronounced by Bynkershoek, notwith-
standing some occasional and particular relaxations, to be a
universal principle of hn\ ; and it did in fact appear to be a
principle followed in most of the countries of Europe. In this
country the Sovereigji alone had the power of relaxing it by per-
mitting such commercial intercourse. There might be occasions
on which such an intercourM' would Ix^ hiuhly expedient: but it was
for the State alone, and not for indixiduais. to determine this. Xo
principle ought to be held more saci-ed than tliat such intercourse
could not subsist on any other footijig than the dii'ect |)ermission
of the SViili,'. Otherwise great ])ublie incon\ eiiience might ensue;
whilst thei'c was but little incouveuieiice in reipiii'iug merchants,
in such a situation, to carry on trade if necessary under the con-
trol of tlic (joverjiment. 'there \\a>. moreox or, another princijVle
of a le>s public natun.'. but ei|Ually li'enei'al in its reception,
A\liich fori.tad tlii> >oi'i oi' comnumication as fundamentally
inconsistent with tin' rejatn)n between two countries at war.
That wa- thi- total inabilit\-. on the i)art of subjects of owi;
countr\" to sustain an\ ct)ntrait b\- wa\" of appeal to the tri-
bunals of the other. In the law (jf almost ex'ery count I'v the
character of alien encnix" (-arric'd with it a, di>ability to sue.
or to -n-tain a i.rrsojia s/nnih' in judh-lo. The jieculiai- law
70 Cusr.-i ami OiiiuimiH on Inlcraational Law.
of oui- own couulrv applied this ])rinci])!p with grfut rigour;
and it \\a- r.pialh r.-ccix I'd in u\w (jwii Coui'ts of the law
111' nation-. IJnt a ^tatl' of lhinii> in \\hieh conti'act:s could
no! li(.> I'lifoi-ccd conld not hi' a state- of legal eoinmerce.
I'pon the-i' and >iinihii- ^;i'onnds. it liad become an ostablishcd
ndr of the Court that trading with the enemy, except, under
the roval licence, subjected th(; ])roperty irnolved to conliscaticjii .
After an e\hau>ti\e rc\-ie\\ of llie authf)rities tlie leaiaied judge
pi'ocei'ded to >how. that this rub' had al«o l)een unifornjl\- follov.ed
m the Couil of Adiniralt\- and sustained in the ('ouids of A}j])eal:
that \\ iiad l)ei'n i'ieidl\' (■nforced m the ccjiist ruction of
r(daxation> evi'H when eranted by or un(bjr the authority of
statute: and that it had been enforcr'<l not merely against Britisli
snbjr'Ct- liut also aeain-t the >idjj(_'cts of States that were our
alli''S in -wai'. on the sti]>[)o<iti')n that it ^\'as founded on a uni\rTsal
pi'lnciplc wiiich States allied in wai' had a riu'ht to apply mutually
to each other- sul)ii'ct>. In oi'der to take a. ease out of the jailo
tiui'!' mu>t be |co-al di>iinctions and not merely con.-iderations
of indul'j(.'nce; and ina-muidi a- there did not a[)|)ear to be any
-Me!i ili-i iiiction- ill \\v pre-cni lase the claim for restitution must
be i-fii^.d.
The iiilf (it linii-iiiiercoin-e i< Jiere again ])r(.'-ented a- a coinnioji
)i)iiici])|e (iT iiiariiinie law, jii-tiiied alike ow grounds of reason and
liv coiiniinii pj-actiec. and cul'orceable iiueiaiationally w/y Both
nni]ci- ilie Kn^^li-li and the Anieiacaii law. all ti'adi)ie' between px')'-
,-ons ji'-pci-iix clx" ic-idciii in ihc national and in eiieiny teriat'iry is
torhiiMen iualei' pain oT lunli-cat ion. wliicli will allect not onl\- lliO
!ier,(|~ iinl a bo ilic \i.--c| tjiat eai-rie- liieiii it it lielon^'s Oi -nhjects
o! I Lli/cn-,
Aii'l ilii- I- a|iplie,| iiDt nici(_.l\ to tradiuL;' j)r(iperly so calleib tait
t" id! trallji- lieiwci'ii the liiJine and the enemy i-onni rv > /y i . So
iiijidls I- ilii- lujc inierp! I't!' I lliat dnrinii' the ^paiii-li-.Vnieiicaii
^^a|■. ISOS. ;i .jueMion ain-e as to tlie |i>^:alit\- of tlie ile<])a1ch
"! -'ieniili'- paper- aial jonriial- liv .VnieVii-a n -ocii'iir- lu .Spunish
c'nie-.p. ai'lcnc- : ahlcin-li in the rc-nll it wa- ofiirially intinialeii that
llicif- \\;i- no I >li JIM 1 1. ,11 t'l a continnam-e of the pracin-e. ]iio-
\c|c(i nil I nlMi mat I'm wa- innii-hed wliii-h wa- ]ikel\" tw 1 i n-o
iji w ar ' r .
A- le'jiiiil- niei ihandi-e. all Liuoiis pas.-iii'j- diicith' lietween silb-
jcit- ainl emniiic- will l,c iimli-i-ahjc; ami tin'-, wliethei' tliev are
" \- li''t\\-"iai iillic- ill \\;ir. ■/■/,,■ T',,". iS rrani-li. 'l-')'.', , .
'■ . /'-■ /.'-,.-'/ ^(■l;.l,^ll. l.",.-) : and "i Mcnrc l))u<-t, \ii, 21:].
The Eji'ect oj War on Comincycial Rtdations. 77
coiuinii' I'loin or [)i(jeo('(liiig' lu tlie oneiny id)\ and, in the latter ca.se,
whether the ho-^tile (le.sliiialiou is iiniuodiate ur ultimate (^e). Jiut
the rule will udI applv when tiie trading' is carried on in tlie inlcu'est
of the national lorcesi/i. Xur will it apply where there has Ijeen
a gxniuiue traii-^t'er t(j a neutral owner, even though the properl}'
ultiniatel} comes Iidiu oi' is proceeding to, an enemy (7). Xor,
(inally, will it a[)ply l(] a nu're wish (jr intention to trade, in a ca.se
where the illegality (it the destination is changed by circumstances
of the war ( // 1.
As )'egards ships, under the same lule. an^' vessel Ix'longing to
subjects will he lialil(\ if aftei' notice of the war she sails from, or to.
or even touches at. an encMuy port ( 'n . Hut a ves.s(d carrying cargo to
a neutral jtoi't will not he liable merel\- because the cargij or sonn;
part of it is intended by the shippers, and without the cognizance
of those res[)oiisible foi' the vessel, to i)e sent on to the enem\
conntiy (7 1.
Apart from trading' ventuie^. moreover, all conti'acts or oth(>r
transactions entered into aftei' the war lietween j)Crsons res]:)ectiv(dv
resid(Mit in l^riiish and (Mnuny territoiy ai'e tn'ated as illegal and
voi<l. So. in !1 iUi^nii \ . J'dlfc-^oH diid olhcr-^ (~ Taunt. 4."!',' )- whei'e.
during war between Cn-eat P>i'itain and France, a Freiich citi/en
hail drawn on the defendants, who wci'c Brdish subjects, certain
bills of exchange, which were endorsed to the plaintilf. a British
subj<Hd resi'dent in France, and sid).sc(piently accepted by the defcn-
daiLfs- it was hcl<l that no aciiou would lie on the bills, cvmi ihouuh
lir(.)ught after tin.' r(^sioi'aiion of peace.
A sindlar invalidity A\ill attacli to contracts and transaction-
which. <n-en thouuh not them-elvc-- entered into with alien enenncs.
are vet incidtuila! to oi' in furlhcrancc of ,^ucli illegal Ir.idiiiL;' or inter-
(■ourse. So. in I'otis \. Rrll iS T. H. .')bS.. it was Jndd that a polic\
of insurance ('ii1(M'<hI into Immwcmi Brili-h .-.ubj<>cts. in I'eiatiou hi
goods \(, be broU-li' from the enemy country on belialf of tlm assured,
wa-- illegal and void as beiiiL;' in fuitiierance ol' ti'ude ^\ith the iMieniv;
and this vyvu thouuh tic lo-- alleu'i'd umlcr the policy arose from
enemy caj)ture.
The I'uh' au-ain-t irailiuL:' wiih the encm\ is also applied to sub-
je(-(s ol' an all\' in war. on the u-rouiuj that there is an implicnl olili-
U'ati(.)n iu'-nnibeiil on each paitx noi to do or allow il- subjeci-
(,/, 7'/.,- l'<,,>'s ,S Ci-ioirli. i^.v;,. (S ('ranch, t.)!): Alaiiiml (if \a\:.l
ir] liven tliiiim-|i tlicy may lie I'ri/.c Law. .\rl<. W -17.
slii|i'ic(l in tic tir-r instaii-c tn a ncii- ( / . In T.hr Mn^l,,,,',' ; lil Cap.' Timi-
tral perl: <i'c 7'/'c ./..,:;/ /'.-'■/■ il L. U. 150 ). the vessel was rclca^.^d on
('. Kiih. at s:; , ; anil ■''''' J/'W- i ! Ci the LTenixl that the [ire^uin ption of a n
Cape Times L. W . CJai. ahiioin^-h tlic intention to trade with the eneni\-.
U-oods in thi^ ca-e appcai- to ha\e hen ai-i<im: frem the fact of the <liip
iilrculv llaliie n~ eneie\- property. carrying: cneiny i^'oods con-iLi-ncd to
{i)'Thr Mn,l,,,.r'' ''■''. 0'-''''c (J hehiL'-ea i'.ay 'hut d,>~tiried for tlio
C. !!ul). Ill-') I. enemy count I'y. had heen ri'hntted h\
(f/) /,'/,". p. i.lO. (he conduct of those respansibie loi
(/,, y;,,, .//,/,,/ >.-) C. Ih.li. -'JA >. the ve-scl.
78 Cases and Opinions on International Laiv.
to ilo anvtliino' injurious to \\w coinnioii cause (7.;); nor would a
dispciisatiou l>v tlic allied (iovoruniont. even in favour of its own
■>ulij('cis. Ih> riM'oo-ni/.oil as a proroction apiinst British capture, unless
ronsiMitcd to Kv (\\v^\ Hiitaiu or unless the trading- was of a kind that
would not prejiidici^ tli(^ couunou operations (J i.
At the same time tin' I'-ritish rule against trading- with the enemy
is. as we shall see. alleviated in practice (1) by the fact that the
Sovereio-n lias a right to mitigate the strict consequences of war
in this respect hy Orders in Council, which would be operative as
an instruction to th(> naval forces and so binding- on the Prize
Courts (;;?V. and (2) 1)y the recognition of a rig-ht to trade
through Iho niediuni of neutrals so long as there is a genuine transfer
'o the latter (n).
iii) EXCEPTED TEANSACTIONS.
;1; Bj:twi-j:x Exemti-.s xot Divided by the Lixe of War.
KERSHAW f. KELSEY.
[1868: 100 Mass. 561.]
Case.' Iri .186-i, during the American civil war, the plaintiff,
\\!io ^\as a citizen of and resident in .Mississippi, leased to tlic
d'd'endaut. ^vlio was a citizen of ]\Iassacliusetts although at the
time residcjit in Mississippi, a cotton plantation situated in the
lalter Slate, on certain terms and conditions, including the pur-
chase by the defeiidaid", of certain corn then on tlie plantation. Tho
dcfeiidaut Aveiit into possession of the land, had tho bonelit of tlie
''orn, and [laid tin.' lirst iiistalmi^it of rent. He also ]ilaiited and
-owcij ihr laiid. l)iil was >ubs(<ipieiitly driven out by r(d)(d soldiers,
aid (lid noi thereaftoi' except for a short interval returti to tlie
phi !it;i1 ion, but ])roeee(l('<l to Massachusetts. The plaintiff thero-
n[ioii tool: (hari;-o of tho jilantation, and raised a crop of cotton
lh''ri'(.n. whnh he subsLMiueiil 1 \' delivered lo tlie defimdant s son
111 Mi->is<ippi, by vlioin it was foi'MardtMl lo ihe did'eiidant.
After tho war the plaiiililT sued for the rent and tlie value oi' the
(/•j '/■/.. \,,,i,',lr : 1 C. i;,,l,. -J,-,] ), ,,r War on Contracts, (i.) -/ >Y>,y.
i/) ■/ /"■ \i I./",,"- i; C. Ilnl,. ll):S). („; Sr(- ]). <)(). n,ir„: aiul as to liH-
(//(,. .\-iri(l.((l i.va< it'iic (liM'iiiu- the i-ont iiKMital view of the (loctriiio of
-•v:m- witii l,'n--ia, in 1 sa I ; -■■(■ -"/y,v, noii-intercourso, j). 80, iiiir".
11. ~rl: '..!,>■. [). Ill : I'liillip-nii. V.\\,'rl
The Effect of War on Commercial Relations. 79
corn. Tlif (IcrciKluiit |)l(';ulc(-l that the transaction, luiviiii^' been
made dui-inL'' the cixil war and hctwcoii ])urson.s standing- in a.
hostile I'rlation to rai'h othci'. was illeo-al and void, both on the
principh's ot." jntcriiat ional hiw and nn(h'i' an Act and prochiina-
rion that forbad all iiitcrconrsc \\ith the .States in rebellion. It
was held, however, by the Snprenie Court of Alassaehusetts that
neither the lease nor the sale contravened either t,he law of nations
or the })ublie Acts of the I'nited States (lo\"ernrnent; and that
the })laintirr was thei'et'ore erititled to i-eco\er.
Jixdgment. ' In di'lixerino- judiiinent, (rra\-, J., stated as the
result of an (exhaustive re\ iew of the |)rinci[)al authorities, both
Erjt;iish and American, that- the law of nations, as judicially
declared, no doubt proliiljiled all intei'cour>e Ijelwe-'U citizens of
the two belliu'crents ^^■hiell was inconsistent with the st;ite of war
hetween the two count ri(">; including- e\-ery kind of trading
or commereial dealing, whether by ti'ansniission of money
or goods or ordiM's foi- \\w deli\'M'v of (>itlie!', between the two
countries, directly or indirectly, or ihrouu'h the int.er\ ention of
third persons or partnerships, or by contracts in any form involv-
ing' such transmission, or by jnsur;inces upon trade with or by the
enemy. But the ]jrohibition had not bi^ai carried beyond this,
at an}- rate by judicial decision; and beyond this, therefore, the
Court was not disposed to go. especially at a time when the
tendenc'y of the law ot; nations a\;!s to I'xempl individuals as far
:is jiossible from tle^ eoii<ei|Ucnies ot war. The ti'adim;- or trans-
mi^-^ion Avhich wii-- pi'oliilnli'd b\- intei'imi ional law was one
l)L■t^\"een the two count nes ;ii war. An alien enem\ r^^iding' in
the L'nit(Hl States niiclil conliiet or sue hke a citizen. More(jver,
when a creditor, allliouu'h a subject of tlie enemy, ri'inained in the
countr-\^ of the debtoi" or had an agent- thei'e throughout the war.
[)avnient to such ciedilor or au'cnt would not be illegal, inasmuch
as it was not made to an enciii\ wilhin t he contemj)lation of either
intei'iiatiomd or niun iii[>;i I law. Noi- \\;i< il an\' olijivtion tli.it
\\\(' aii'eiit niii.;li1 remit tli" nione\" to the cncmw for in that ea-e
the oltence wDiilil bi' hi-. The <ame ri-asoirs ap])licd to an aL:a'ec-
nieiit made in the ciicinx teiiatorx to pa\" money thei'e out of I'linds
■iccruinc; there. in the present i-a-e the f.-ase was madi' williin
8(» Cases (Hid (Jpinh)ns <>n InU'rnationul Law.
till' rcljc! trrriturv wiici'r luitli partio wm' at the tiiiic. Xor was
tliLTf aii\ aui-fciHciit I'di' the traiisnii>si()n (;f' nioiu'v or goods, or
Tor (■(iiuiiiuniratioii acr()>> the line dividing the belligerents. The
suhseiiui'iit fui'wardiiiii' of the edttoii hy lln' dclV'iidaut's son might
ha\f hrri! unlawful: hut that eould not affei-t the validity of the
ai^rccuinit- i ontaincd \\\ the Irase.
Ill ilii- ca-c tlii' Aiuerieaii ( 'oiuT. whilst aihrmiug geiiei'ally
ihe rtilr (if iiiiii-iuli'!'C',iir><v held ir to ho inapplicable as rogarvls
p.'iMiii- wliM iliuiiL;h eu('iiiie> in point of nationality or alleLiianee
wTp i<>-i(|oiii ill the tenitoiy of the -anic holligereur. and as regards
tian-:i(,tii_iii- lieLiinniiiL;' aii'l enlinu- there. "An alien cneniy." it
\\a- ,-aid. " residiiiii' in tlii> country may contract and sue like a
rili/rn " 1 ^/ . And with tlii- \ iew the English law appears, in the
main, to aiiree. So in W'vUs \- . W'/Il/rims (1 Ld. liayin. 282) in an
a'tioii on a hoiid - in Avhich thi^ defendant ])loaded that the
plaiiiiiri \\a> an alien en"iny wlio had come to England -sine -salvo
rDiniiK-l II. and tlio ])laintiiV re[)lied tliat at the time of the
makim;' ol' the houd lie wa-- and still reniaincHl in J-hm'iand by i\\v
lii iMi-e and protei-tion i.if the ( rowii — it was held that an alien enemy
who \\as here in protection <-oul(i sue on his lioiid or contract, although
an I'lii'inx- aliidinu' in his o\'.ii countiv could not. And. in spite of
-oiiic auiliiiiitv tn till' coiitrary 1 /> I. it would seem that the ])lea of
alien cii('iii\ could iioi imw he <iu u]» ai^ainst suhjecr^ of a hostile
State who. even withoiii cxpie-- license, cnutinued to reside and to
carry on busine-s in bJritish territory (c).
'1 . i^i(i,\->i;i) Ti;adf, .
USPARICHA V. NOBLE.
I LSI I ; t:] Ivi-t, :332. |
Case. Dnriii"- war Iict\\(>cii (ircat Ih'iiain on tlio one hand and
I'h'aiicc and Sp:iiii Mil ill,,, iithci'. tjic plaintiff, a Spaniard doniiciliMl
in (n'ai !h-i!:!i;!. ohi lined a licu.,. [rn\\[ \\\v ( 'rowit to .-liip -ooil:-
in a ic"in:d \c-..M'l ti, ccrt:ii!i p<iri> of Spain. The vessel wa>
'"' ■'\- '" t'l-lit^ cf ~uit. M-r at-M ;,i;,,|| ,.,,|.|,,v i-cM(liim- with-mt tircns(
'"''"'■/-' N. .!/.-/.-/ ' \\\ .t.l.n-. ii',1 , ;aHl ciiiilil net >u,. (luriii- the war.
.1/. /■'-;//. V. r. s. ,11 Wall, -lyj,: ,r, s,.,. ,/,.,,. V. //,■/.'■',,,/,.;;; r„„-
S'-"tt. .'i)."). 11. .,,■;,/„•/,. / .1/;,,,. : li)02. A. ('. at .30.') ;
''■ >'J' -' \ ■ \ "'' ■ ' ' \ v.. -nil „.ov/. [,. 00.
■. 1'.. 'Jl 1 ^. '.vIh-O' it wa- ln'id that an
T/ie Effcrf of JIv/y o// CohUiwrflal Iu'Ik lions. SI
(•a]itiii-c(l 1)\' the French and condeiiiiicd . 'Flic |)res<'nl action was
on a polity of iiisiiiaiicc. the \ali(lit\ oi' whicli tinned on the
Icg'ality of ihe traih;. In the result; it was lield thai the (iHect of
the lieen>e \va> to h'uali/e (he tra(h'. and that, the ])oliey was
therel'oi'i izood, and t hat judgment nnist pass foi' the plaint ill.
Judgment. Lord MMenhorough. in <>i\ ini^' judiiineut, laid
clown that theloi^'al result oi' the liee.nse was that the eoinnKTce niusf.
bo regarded as legalized for all purposes jiec<'ssary to its due and
eflectual prcjsi'cution, i'or the honeiit either ol' the party iiiniseH'
or of his t'Orresi)()ndents abroad. e\('n thouirh residinsj' in the
eneni\' s country. The ('I'own cnuld in its discretion (>X(Mnp( an\'
person and any branch ol' coinnierce fi'oni the disabilit i(\-^ and
liabilities arising out of a state ol' wai'; and its license for such a
})urpose ouglit to receive the most liberal construction. For the
purposes of the licon.se, the person licensed ought to be regarded as
an adopted l^ritish subject, and the trade as a Bi'itish ti'ade.
A. licen.-e in its \vi<l(\st s<Mi'-e is a |)<Miuit grained i)\- a helligereut
State either to its own subjects. <ir to eiieiiiy siilijects. or to neutrals,
authorizing the doijig of sonietliiiig- otlier\vis(^ interdicted by war.
The type of license most familiar (o tlie Courts is a license to trade;
although such licenses are now le.>< fre([iien( than formerh'. A
license to tiade ina\' he either geiuM'al oi' special. A geiiiU'al license
is oni^ j>sue<l to all subject- or even to all |)ersoiis. authorizing-
a trade with a particular place oi' in particular articl(\s: whilsi
a special lic<'us(> i-. (uie is^-ued to indi\idiials Inr a parliciilar
vovag'c. ol' I'lir the iniporlal n ui or exportation ol' jiarticular
good>i//'. The olij<M-i u|' li(en-e- i> to relieve the commeri-e
of the -'Slaie. either general 1_\ or lu regard to ])articular com-
modities, from the restiaiuls otherwise impo-sed by the Avar (el.
A general license can only W i-sued by the supreme authority; but
a special licens(i uia\- be issiie<l (uther by the supreme authority, or
bv a ]ia\al or military otlictM- act inu' within tla^ limits of his particular
command 1(7 1. A liciMi>e. if duly i-sued, and if its terms are com-
]died with, serve< to leu'ali/e all transactions necessary t-o the due
prosecution of the trade wliieli i- lic<Mised, and also to relieve the
])erson or ]n'r-oiis in wliii-<' ia\<air it is granted from the disabilities
that woulii otherwi-*' altarli under the la\\< of the is.-^uiiig State (('i.
(Ii) 'I'lioe trniis ai'C, liowcvn-, used i '/ ) (In rlii' (|Urstii)ii ut authority,
in (liftcrcnt >(Mi<cs liv ilili'i'rriit writers: -re '/'/,r //o/,, (1 Dod. 2L!d i : '/'/,'• Sea
>fc 11a!!. .i.'iO; .\foori'. Hi-v^t. vii. !.!,,„ ( . > Wall. (il'.O).
§1141: Ilalleck. ii. :U1. c ) N"/""- 'uit «■,■ al^) l{ , ...: ,.,ji.,.
(r) lU),'lt V. Srott (■') Tauut. GTl!. V. /,,y/;,v (^ S Ivist. 'iToK
C . T . I. . G
^2 l\i^i's Kini Opinion^: on Inlerndiinunl Lav:.
A license i.<.siuMl hy one bellig-erent does not, of course, bind the
otlier; and niav even confer on tlie liolder in relation to the latter an
eneniv chanu-ter lliat would not otherwise attach to him. The grant
of licvnsi's li\- one <ii' tw<i en-bellig-erents is subject to the consent of
the oilH'r. (ir at i\\\\ rate. \o the oonditi(:»n that the trade licensed shall
not interfere with the coniiiiMn nperatituL-- ( I'i. Licenses to tratle were
ext<'n.--ivel\ i-siicil bv to'cat Britain during the Xapoleonic wars,
and a nmsideiable body of ca.-e law grew up in respect of them ((7);
but >iK-li lir.Mi^'s are no bmi^er ii-ual except a- incident to particular
niilitaix- nr naval o[ii'ration-, and the law in relation to them is no
loiii:er >u iniporlanr as it once \vas(/ij.
^3^ Pkisoxers' Contk.\cts.
ANTOINE r. MORSHEAD.
[1815; 6 Taunt. 237.]
Case. This wa.s an action on certain bilbs of exchange which
had been drawn on the defendant by his father, wdio was a British
subject dclaincd as a prisoner in France during the w'ar between
that couiil ry and Great Britain. The bills Averc made payable
to other Briti-^h subjects, likewise detained as prisoners in France;
but liad been iiidr)r--ed b\' theiu to tlio plaintitf, who was a banker
at Vi'rdiiii and a French subject : and had tinally been accepted
by the defendant. A_ verdict liavinsr been found for tiie plaintiff,
a rule ni>'i was moved for on behalf of the defendant, on the
ground that the Cf)iitract had been made during war with an alien
eiK'inw ami \v;i- thiavfcjre not inerel\' suspended by tlie war but
altoL'C'thcr void, in the result, however, it was held that the
action was maintainable.
Judgment. (o'bbs, ('..[.. in izivinir jtiduinent, pointed out that
thf' |.r(_'-i'!i1 ca.-i' was not one of a bill of exiiiance ckawn in favour
of an alii'M oikmhw but of a bill of cxchatiae drawn by one subject
in l'a\oiii (if iiiK.; h. r. ;iiid on ;i ^ubioit le-iih-nl in (ireat Britain, the
(', '/■/" \.,.'",^s n c. Un',. -Hi:; . in n.ill.Tk-. il. :)ii a .u'/.
I ij I 'I'll'' iiini'i' iiii jM.rl lilt "f ll]i'~'' '■ I'lir nn rx^Tiqilo of a liccn'^e to
riri- ii'tiil i;i l!,i!!. .Wi ■ • ../.. ;.:!il iiii'vi' .'i ]i|il ii'ai i'Hi i^) tho ciieiny '!ov-
'l\'ivliir. .'ill: :ii!il ari' ■_i\.ii at liMi^'lh ' I'liiiii'iit . ~i'c Atiioro. I )iir<'.-t. vii. '255.
The Fjfi'cl of Will- on Cominoreinl Rclah'ons. ^■\
t^vo L'ornior being detaiiu'd a,< prisoners in France. Ln the circum-
stances he thouuhl tlial; the ili'awer niighl legally draw such a bill
a-s being necessary for his subsistence. .Vi'ler the bill had been
di-a\vn the payee had no doul)t indorsed it 1o the plaintill, who
was an alien enemy. |]ul how was (he original drawee to avail
himself of the bill exeept hy nugotiating it, and to whom could he
negotiate it e\'ce[)t to the iidiabitants of the country in which ho
was? The geucial principles dcducible From the ca.ses cited for
the defendants with re.^jxM'i to contracts with alien enenries were
not altogether apjtlicahle to the [)i'esent case. H(>nce he was of
opinion that the indcn'-eincnt to the ])laintiir conveyed to him a,
legal title, on which the Iving iniiiht haxe sued in time of war,
and on which — this not having been done — the plaintiff could sue
now that peace had been proclaimed (a).
Although the original contract in tliis case was made between
Britisli subjects, yet the iiulorsenieiit to the [daintill:' and the sub-
sequent acceptance by the <lei'endant involved a dcahng during war
between enemic-^. The (l<'(/i--iou must, tlicret'ore. lie tak<>n to rest on
the sj)ecial necessities of ])risouers ol: ^var; and to be intended to
provide a means wliereby alien (nieniies may supply prisoners' want.s,
with an assurance of l:ieiiiL;' alile to sue on tlnu'r contracfs after th '
return of peace. It has. in I'aci. heeii treated, in American cases i]i
which it has been cited, ;l-^ ha\iiii:- this character : and as establish-
ing an exception to the u-ciieial inle oi' noii-iiitcn-course (7; ). Pri-
soners of war deiaiiKHl in i-jie-jaiid ai'C [\\<n at liliertv to sue in
the English courts on cotilraets ot ser\ic<> entered into h\- them
diirine- the war ( c i.
'1^ liWSMM Cox-f!! \( rs.
RICORD r. BETTENHAM.
j ITti.") : ;; Iiiirr. 17:? t. j
Case.^ In 17(1'-. dniimi' w.w between (oval Ihitain and France,
{\\G Ene-li"'h sliip ''S\iiMi." of wlilch the did'endant was master,
(„) Sec al.-(i li'i''hi-: \. l/-/v''."'/ , :; W;i,-Ii. ("'ire, ('i)urr. tSl; Scott, at
(b) (',,l:rj,.r^l V. Th. /r;/'.-.C,. V. r;: I'" M • • ,' • ■ I V. lU'l' '.'1 1 1 OS . >^ ]'. 23G).
, . o
,S4 Ca^(\'< (did O/'/N/'o/ix on Inieiiidllonal L(ui\
^\a,■- captured by a French in'ivatecr. hut released on the defendant
irivinu a rausoui hill i'or 800 pislole.s to the jjhantiff. the com-
luiindcf of the privateer, and ]eavin<>- Joseph Bell, the mate of the
ship, as hostage. Bell subsequently died in })riso]i, and the iireeent
action was thereii[)on broupht on the ransom bill. On behalf of
the defendant it was contended that there was no pnH-edent for
such an action : that the contract was void as havino' been made
^\ ith an alien enemy : and that, inasmuch as the i-ansom bill was
not aji independent contract, tlu' hosta<re alone Avas entitled to sue
thereon. Tht^^e objections A\ere. liowever, overruled, and judg-
mcnt i;i\(Mi for the ])laintili. The (^'rounds of the judu'ment are^
not btated m the rej)ort : but. presumably, it })roceeded on the
ii'round that such contracts were usually held valid amongst other
nation,-, and that the hostage wa.s merelv loft as collateral .soenritv.
The deci^iijii in this case seonis to accord with the practice followed
ill most otluM' syst-ems of municipal law that rocogni/;e ransom eon-
iracis(rt). It was ako followed hy the Englisli Coui't-^ in Cornu.
\. r>hirl-l)iniic^ I 2 Dong'. (M-li. where it was held that neitiior the
death ef tlie liosla<i(\ nor the cajitni'e of the original raptor —
ahlioni.;h without an appr(tpriation of the ransom bill (7;V - put an end
lo the c'uiti'aet. In Aiilhon v. Fisher (2 Doug. ()4i). n. ). indeed, it
\\a- held thai an ahen enemy could not sue in person even on a
lau-oui <-(ui(i'a<-t : tlu^ |)n)|)ei' cours(> heing to conmience a suit in the
fiist- iu^taiice a^-ainst the shi]) and. goods, or failing this against
ihe mallei- in the name of i1h^ hostage (c). But this view is now
Licnerallv' repinliai^'d. on the uround tliat if the contract is lawful it
niu-i he held lo suspiMid the character of eiHMny quoad liocid).
i^xilji the oiauiiii"^' of raiixun co.uti'acts hv ca])tors. and the (Mit.<'rinu'
iiO'i ian>iuii cMntiacls hy vessels ca]itni'ed. are <iften forbidden l)\-
iiiuiiici|ia I lawiri. I nder the Ih'ilish svsteni the practice of giving
ran-'ini <iintiacts is now i'eti-ulai<>d bv the Xaval Prize Act, 1(S()4.
Tlii- i'iiipo\\or> the ( 'I'ow n in Council, as it. may deem <>xpedient.
I'ither til prnhiliit nr to allnw. (Mth<M' whollv or in certain cas(vs or
-uhject to riiMililiuiis. ilio eHteriiiu' into contracts for the I'airsoni of
>hip> <ir u(Hj(l> lielniiL:'in<4' tu P>ritish sidijects taken as ])rize bv tlie
eiieiny; and pla<-<vv all surli contracts under the e.\-clusi\'e jurisdic-
tii'ui "I ill" ('iiuil <i|' A<lnn)'alt V I f I . Xor is n Pia'lish ciptor at
(") S.I iil^M |i. IsT, .,■'■/.'. (//■■ Sc<- Wlic'iUdii 'Diiiia). .")()(). n. :
(A. Tlii- lia\iriLr Ih.h inm-ra led . Kent, ('i)lii. i. s. !().").
1.-. \ -ihiilar ii|iiiiiiiii \\:i- rx nrr^^i 'i I (' .Sec ilail. t-^."). Ii.
Ii_\ Sir \\ . .S,v,tt in III.- .-.iM. iif 7/. (/ Si'c -. 1.3, the |a-i;visioii.s of
//""/' i 1 <'. iiiili. at '201 I. Sec alsd wiiicli arc reproducoci in flic Xaval
fu.t.jdu V. I!. ,,,,■„ C, H. ,V I'. Ifli). t'ri/.e i5ill<if 1911.
The Effect of War on Coiiunercial Itelatlons. 8-'»
libcily to graul ransom to an enemy vessel, except in cases similarly
allowed by Order in Council (_(/). In Maisuiniaire v. Keating {2 Gall.
325) the pi'actico of ransom was ext-ended by the United States Couri.s
to the case of a mnitral vessel which had been captured by one belli-
gerent on the ground of carrying contraband to the other bm released
on giving a rausoiu bill; Storv, .1., lioldiug that inasumch as tin.'
cargo would probablj' have boon liable to condomnafioii the c)i-dinary
rules of ransom must b<> deemed to apply.
(■km;i;\i. Xoii'.s. The Eiject of Wdf on ('oiiniterciul I nlerconrse.
- There is si ill nuich divergtmce alike of opinion and practicf^
as to the (Mlect of war on commercial intercourse heiwi'en sub-
jects (if I he r('s|)('cliv(> belligerents. .Vccording to one \ iew
which is commonly, although not universally, accept^xl by
European publicists and followed by European Governments — th<!
ruk' that, war in il<elf involves a prohibition of commercial inter-
cour.sc no longer (jbtains, having lapsed with the right of confisca-
tion; although if is recognized that the sover(ngn authority may
iut})0.-^<> such restrictions tlnu'eon as may l)e re(piired by political
or military necessity ill). According to another view which is com-
monly, alllKtugh again not univer'-ally, accepted l)v English and
American writers, and which i^, as \v(> have seen, also followed by tho
English and American ('ourts ( /) the iide that war in its(df involves
a general prohibition of inteicoursf^ as IjetwecMi persons residing in
the territories of the res])ccti\'c bcllig(Mciil< still obtain^, both a^
a ride of numicipal and iiitiU'iiat ioiial law ' /'); altliiaigli il i.- Iiere too
recogni/«Hl thai the rnic is ■^ni)ject to relaxation l)v ilif s()V(M'eign
authoritA'. 'riiis \ imv rests on the gronnd< that sncli pei'sons are still
to be rei^'arded a< onennes iDr the uxMierai purposes of the war; thai
to allov, a coulmnance oi' mmmercial inl.erconrse would lend lo
strenu'then the <Miemv s rest)urci's. and to sii))))ly him with infnfma-
tion : and, linalh, t hat the fact of an enemy per«jn ha\inL;' in i^zciieral
no iH'rvoi/a .shnhl/ hi jndicio excludes altou'Cther a stale of le^'al
commerc(> ( /,• i.
The. (Question of Hie Eded of the Hiu/ue li'i-fiulolioie^. liHlT.^ 15y
An. 2.') ill) of the llau'ue Iieu'ulai iiuis ii is foi'l)idil<Mi to lielliL^'ei'cnt.s
"to d(>clar<> extiiiii'uished. sus|)en<i(vl. nr uiHMifMrc(MliIe in a t-ourt ol'
law. the rio|ii> ur i'IliIiI^ '>t a(/Moii of ihe natiunals uf ihe advers<'
(.") Si-c 20 .V :!(» \'iiM. r. l()<i. <. II; //.,.-. \. \/rS/,,. ( Ol I'. S. 7' jirac-
,M:inualol' \a\al I'l'iz" Law. Ai't. '21'.). riiaMy l>riiii:'< the AnuM'ica'; xifwiiitn
I // I l';\(Mi hi-rr, li(i\vi'\ cr. opiniDii line with riic l'an-i)|)iMi! vii'w sof
v.iri''-: <uinc writer- lh>I(liii-- that, al- Lcfdwcll. 'iO'J : hin in <jiitc of some
thoiiu'li the fiuht dl' ariiiin i- lint ex pri'>-i()ii> cniitaiiicd ia rhc JiuIl;'!!! 'nt .
siis|icralc(|. any liciirlit (haaved fieiii it- u-ciaa-a! t(Mi()in- does no; apiicir f>
the jiidmiiciil i- dcr.aa-!'d imril the ho;ii-thi- uuT : -co p. 70, > ,-,v'.
coiicliisioii ol' jicacc: see I'hil Ii n-on. ij, s,,^>,',i. pp. 7l. 7(i.
J-:it^^(-et of Wat- on Contfirt-. .V, ,i , /• i y/w //,.„,, 1 C. K'ol, I Oii ; :
t''/.. 7:' ■/ .v,.,/. altlioMLi'h if the laLi'ht of intiM-roui'-.e
(;) It" ha- hi'on saii'Li'i'-i I'd that rho were coni-odcd . the rie-lit ol' -ait wa-inid
dcri-ion ill TIio .\llll'l-icail ei-r .it' }l'.l- doulitlc-- follow.
86 ('((-"sc^ (Did U/iiiiioit-s oil liilernational Lav.
parry.' By some this is iuau'pretecl t<j nu'uu that each I )0 Iliac rent
is ill gciioral proliibitod from suspending- or abrogatiug. by reason
^i the war. any rig-hi^ or rig-lits ol' action of subjects of the other.
Such a construction would, if it could be sustaintKl, go far to
annul, as between States tliat have ratified the Convention, the
present Anglo-Auierit'an doctrine as to tlie elfect of war on private
right.s and ol (ligations; although it would still be open tn a belli-
gerent to prohibit subseijueiu dealings. But the clear intention,
of thi< provision is. it is ccniccived. jueri'ly to prohibit a belli-
gtnvnt cdinnuuKler. in flie e.\erci-e oi his military authorit}' over
t4_'rritory subject to martial law, from susjiending oi' al)rogating'
rights ()Y lights of action on the ])art of .ubj'ects c>f the other belli-
g-erent. ov otherwi-v intiM'fering A\"ith i)urely civil relations (7). That
this is so appears to be >ulliciently imlieaicd by the fact that the
article form.- ]»art of a ('(invention which ])ur|)orl-- to deal only Avith
the conduct of hnul war. and to e.vcludc maritinii' relations, to which
such Contracts ar(> for 1h(> most part incident: tliat it does not even
a]»pear in the main bo(l\' of the ("onvention but only in the annexed
legulations; that among'st these it appears only at ilie end of an
article <lealinu' with ])roliil)ilGd inethods of conducting hostilities;
and liiialh-. that it makes no exception of transactions that enure to
the ai<l of the enemy, as it inevitafily woidd if it were int^'uded to
l)e of general application. Xor <'an il be su])po-ed lliat so revolu-
tionary a change woul<l 1ia\'e been aci-epied wiihont ]»i-otest or reser-
vation on the part nf State- who-e (>stabli>hed dnctiine- wine tn tluit
extent abi't.iLi'ated I ?/H. On this a-sumption we may IJierefnre pro-
ceed to con.-idcr the elfi'ci of the rule ot non-inIer<Mair-(\ umh'r the
Anglo-AnKuii-an doctrine, on souk^ of tlio more important meri-aidile
relatioir< and tran-actions -ulwisiin<.v hetw<>en person^ iHa ided bv
the line of war.
/)c'/>/.s'.- l)e])t- alr<\i(ly subsi.^ijno- between individuals divided by
the line of war are su-|)(Mi<led ilui'ine- the war. both a- !'(>t;'ards the
rig-ht of action of the cre<litor i //) and the dutv of ])a\-nieni on the
part of tlie <leitini-. \\\\ -ucli ]iavm('nt woidil indeed Ik^ ille<^'al if
it involve'] a tran-mi-siun nf money t'l the <Mieinv cnuntr\"ifye X(n"
will anv intere.-t. e\en Ihough otherwisi^ pa\abli\ be dn<^ to the
i-reditnr in I'e-piM-t of the period (■o\-(M'e<[ bv the war: fur the ri'ason
that inlcre-t i- pavable "for the fiu'iieaiance ol' inone\ ,' whereas in
time <'f war pa\iiienl cannot be exacted, and there is tliei'efcD'o no
ti.iidiea I a nee. I'.Mt thi- will net ap]d\' where tlu'debt i< ]iaAa IJ,^ at a
fixed date ,i- i- u-nal in ca>e- \\ heic tlied<dit i<secnted bA inort <_;'ao-e
( ') I'l'.ii'c-c I I i'jLiiii-. 'l^\'-\ i> ^'./. of cxistiiii,'' opiiurt unities el' olitaiiiing
( //( ; ll()l!aiitl. War on \.au\. II. i-clior in rc.-j)cct ef private claim-.
■{"he l;i'ili-li \icu aj-licar-^ In l.c ( ,/ ' Th' lion/, 1 C. |,',,i). 1 IKI , ;
tliat the ,-ttcri of thi- |.oiMM,.ii i- Wills \. ]l';ii;.i,ns ^\ 1,(1. Kayiu. 2.S2)'.
merely to turbid a cuininaiKler in llic i ^ i /■'.'■ imrli l'in,iss,,(iil:, r {[?> \v>.
field from attemiitin^- to tcrroi'i/.c the 71); Kirslmir \. Kiisru y\m\ .\Ia<s.
inliahitant- of enemy teri'itory by de- ,')(>! ; Scott. auC) : .
])ri\iii'_:' or t biralcni n^:- to di,-j)i'i\e tlicin
i'lii' l\lj\vt of War ())i Comniercial Relatloti-s. 87
(ji- ()tii(M- iMiia (»!' scciii'ily tni' in .siicli a case interest is duo not lV>x'
l'uil)Oaiaii((> liiit. hy \ iiliic of the (jiigiual agieenient; although, evoii
ill this ('a>(\ if lh<' aui(M>(l ilaK' for payment of the principal should
be reacihed (hiring ilie war no further interest will Ijc (\.\ig{jj). Sub-
ject to tlio-c I'esorval ion<, tlie right of the; creditor to recover both
principal and int(M<'^t will ieviv<; on the return of peace (g). Nor,
if the debtor i-> su(mI, will it be oj)en to him to set up any
plea of limitation, as )<>gards the period covered by the war; for
the )'ea.--ou thai <liiriiiu- that period the right of action is deemed to
hav(> biMMi iu abeyaiL((> i y i . iJebts contracted during the continu-
ance of war are, of ci!ur><'. irrecoverable (s), save in the case of
tran.^a(.■tion- specially e\cept<;d uu(hM' t lie jus helliit).
^efjotidhlc 1 list nunc II Is. Negotialile in-<truineiits, and. in par-
ticular, bills of (wchange and ])roinissoi'y notes, are governed by
similar princi])les, subject onlv to such (pialitications as flow from
their negotiable chaiactor. If nia<li' before tin' Avar, and between
persons domiciled in ilu' conntide-^ of the j'e-<])ect ive belligerents, they
are. iu the han<l< of an alien <MUMuy. incapable of being- sued on
dni'ing the war. but will revive on th<> inslorai ion of peace; although
no iut(n'(\<t wiMd<l appiMr 1o Ih^ rocoverablc in r(.'speet of the period
covered bv the wariv/'. But if iraiisferixMl to a neutral, tluM'e would
ap])ear to Ik> nothing to |)rev<MU the latt(>r from suing and recovering'
thereon, (^ven dui-inu' tli(> war. in his own uamo \ x ^ . If mad(> during'
the war \\\o\- ar(\ a< we ha\i> <een. illeo-al in tluMr inception and in-
capable of legal (MlVct. even if 1 ransferi'<>(| to a neutral or British
subject (//'. sa\'<' in. ca-<i>< <peciallv <'xcepted under the jns hcUl\:\.
(Jo)ifi(icfs of AUrcighl )iieiil . A I'oniract of aH reight luent made
prior to th(> war. between piM'^on-- who sidxeipicnt ly coiiu> to occupv
a hostile reiati(ni to each other, will, if executory, be abrou'ated by
war(('t; wliiNl even if e\(>i-uled in part oi' whoh^ ii will b(> sus-
pendeil. a- to it< fni'llier le^al ellect-. <liiianL!' th<' \\:\:v(l)). Even
(/y) Sec /^' l\rli,,,..- \. \\'.:ir,',„,yk ( i subject i;-cncr:i 1 1 v , Meorc. Djo-cst,
Dowl. \ l!v. itj); lhi",r \. Alhii el vii. 'I'yl: Aiiicricau and f^iiu-iish J'ai-
Dall. lO'J):" hut M.r al<o an article en . yrl, ipa'dia of Law. xvi. lOOit.
'■Intercast on |)elit-< dui'inu- Wai',' liv .>' ,','■;'/;,..,, ,, \. /',///, x,,,. (7 Tatnit.
('. W . (.re-orv. I.. <,). I'. x\\. -Jili. l:i!ti.
.lulv. l!'(i>i. ' . / , s,i ,,,■,,. pp. fid. 7s , I s,',i.
[\ /A',,,-',. \. h';. ''/-/'. :; Canip. i", /- • /!,//,.:,■ v. // ' '/-v//-'//' ('l
l.)(l. l.VJ): /•/.,.'/' \. U'"i,,^ ^ i.'> Howl. \ Hv. 1(1): //<.'/;-c v. AJlen
I'.a^t. -im^. -1 Dail. Kl-J: Scott, IDS).
:,■; //-,,-.,, \. .!':!'■. r ,ii Wall. ,..■ //■..'■,,/; \. .!/o,>/ ..' (i Taunt.
■Vl'J ; Scott. .")ail . 'I'lii> would iHiw 'V-Vl).
pn,l, al.lv lie follow, ■<! in t;n-li^li law: , ,/ !r://,\n, ^. /'„'/. s..„ ,7 Taunt.
see //-' ■/;. 'A,,- X. ir„f. ,,.:,/.■ > ',.,.' , i:;!),.
wliei-c a delit i neui-fcil in ||S, was ,-, S'-c pp . (iti. 7S. >.',/, //.
iieUj to l,e lVr.,V,TaMo in IS-Jl", al- y „ '■ l-:.::,..:i.. X. r,...r,ir,. ,7 V. . K I?.
tlioiii:-li wjtlioui inti'i-i.~i : liut see 7c,:! ,.
er/;,/,v/ a dii'tuni in hr\l,>/'\. I',,,i,i,,r , /, ) Mxrepl pi'ohalily as to ctt'cet.^
^l H. ,V V. 17s., .•Mid Ammju, <'on- wldrh in\iil\e no \iolation ot the ruio
trar|<. !!•'' 'd. :> 1 I : and. on tic of iion-int ercouise : surh as tlit^ en-
88
Ca-ie-s (did (Jpinlons on Intcrantiowil Lav.-.
if not luade between per.<(ni> who subsequently beroiuc oueiiiies,
it. will be abropited l)y war, \\ it involves oitlier the ■^liipoujier iu
an oblig-atioji toCari y lii.s \essel to an enemy port i c r. or the charterer
iu illeg-al interc-oui'se with the enemies of his countiy i c/ 1. Such
contracts, if nuule diiriny the war. between persons occupying a
hostile ri'latiou to each <jtliei'. are illegal and void.
('oitlrorts (jf liisaiaiice. In general, conuact> of in-urunce. of
\Nhate\ei' kind, if made liefoie war, and the hjss on which accrued
before war. will merely lie -a.-pended in their legal eilect- Ijy the
outbreak of war between the Slates of the iir^uier and ihe assured,
and can lie -ued on after the return of ])eace i ei. But an insurance,
e\en ihouuh maile j)riiir iu the war. will Jiot be deemed to avail
against lo--e- mi-urred by the ihiusii capture (if ejiemy propertvi/*.
.V cciJitrai-1 iif iu>uiance entered into during the war wiih an abeii
enemv. oi in relaliou lo enemy [iroperty. will ah(j Ijc invalid ( ,r/i,
excejit when ii jelaies to a trade carried (Ui Ijy licejise of the
('rowjii//'. 'ir !o projiertv which, although >ituated in the enemy
c(ju]i1iy. bclMjio'- lo a British subject in- corporation i /' '. A con-
tract of iu-niance. e\'(Mi wIhmi made ber\\(>en Ihitish >uliject<. A\ill
lie invalid if tnade iji furthciance of trade ^vitli the etjemyiA').
(.'(jn tract- "\ life and fire in-uraiice. in mi far as they iij\fdvc }icriodical
]ia\nieiit-. which cannot -trictK' b<' ma<le betwoe]] ].iei-oij- divided
by war. wMuld probabh' lie treated a- annulled bv war: altliouc;h
subject piobably to a right on tlie j)art of th(> a--uie.[ t.i le-
cover th<' eipdtable \aluc of the pnlicv a- f i om the rime cjf
abrcigat i< '11 I / 1. Thi- dillicult\' mi^ht. howfAcr. Ik." ui't ii\er ])\ a
stipulation pr(i\iding for the apjiointment iu the iounir\" '>f tlic^
a-sure<l of an a^ent \nv the pni'pii-e morel\- 'if recrM\-ine but j]or cif
I ran-initti iiL:' w • the pieiniuni- diiiiiiL:' the wuv^rn.
('i)iiti'iirfs i,i AtjCi'iij. A '-nntraj-t ui' aL;enc\' alre;i(l\- >uli-istijiu'
botwecn iiei'-oii- wli<i afterwards bee ane en<Miiie<. and c m fcrrini;' a
t'urccinciit lit' ;i li>'il 0\'ci' i';i1'l;\j
dcli\'ci'crl at a iii'Uti-al iMiia, or even
dcli\-('i-i'(l aT an iMiciii\- |i(ji-t uiifli'T
li-Mi--: /...,..<-;'.. N. /;,;,-v/, ,, , 7 I-;. ,v
i;. :i.;j,.
'■ . 'I'l.c ■/■- ,./,„.;., - I., i;. I I', c.
171 ; Fci- it' tiid-i' wa- kii<)\vlc(lL;-c of
tliC WAV tiic c::i'iii j,t i<)ii I'Diifci-i'cd liv
\r! ^ 1 .if ii... II. I ., \,,. i; ,,f i;i(i7.
WijiiM iiiit a)i|ily, M i ii-i-.i\ IT. c\-cii if
a'-i- ■-- w i'l-i. ;..'l-iii i! ti-.l !i\- ■■\[i- <.iicni y
aii'l tinTc wi-rc iiij ri-k ci ciinfi-iaticii.
if lia< ti) li'' la.iiii aiii.'ia.il lliat tlic )-i-k
ti) tiic pai'tii.-. i- iiiit till- -ali- ri.a-<i|i
U)V \]\'' i-iili-.
./; /. ,,...- .. V. /;.,.../. ,. 7 !■;. .V II.
7c,:; , .
' ■ ) ././,., \-. /.',.' /'.,,/' .,. r,,,,..,/;-
' ') /'.///./r/o V. //.,v'.- ■■; H. \ V.
i " . /;,.',../,.,, V. y. -',..'■ li T. \i.
'/. , I ', J, „,;,/.„ V. \, ,:,:■■ : ]:] Kast,
I .' I 'riji<, alrliOUli'h <ir,.i(l,.(i i,v \;r/r-l
<: . I/. I'". \ . Ihxuh , imii. -i K. 'jJ.
'Slil), i. (|iii'-tioniililc in ]ii-ini-i[i]c. and
liiiL:'lit be r(>\(.i--cd liv :; ('(lurf of
.Vppcal.
./a /'".".< \. /;-/'/ (s T. i;. .vi.S).
Sh,!i,r,„ ,:!):j I '. .'S. l)| ; .s,.,,,tt. .512);
ia', aUii >.„.„.<> V. //.'/■'..,■./ /,,,.,ava..-«
r... ]■.', \\:A\. l.-)S i.
nl ', \\'llil-|| WOlllll I'l'lJiliT III., ^tinil-
laticn illcL'-al.
■ . i .\'. )■. /.;/.■ I,...,r'n'-r Co, V.
h'-ris .0.1 r. S. t25 I.
Tin; Fjlj'cct of War on Commercial llelatlom. <S1>
ueneral authorit\- on the ageut to buy and sell aiul ciitor iato other
traiisaclioiis on boJialt of the principal will, like a partnership, be
abrogated by \var(o). But a limited agency, it" created before th(i
war. and it' it does not inv'olve any continuance of intercourse or tlie
1 lansniission of inoiiev or pi'operly ihii'ing' tlio war, niiplit. it seems,
lie lawfully continued (';>).
Conlnictfi of I'artiier><hlp. -A contract of partnership already sub-
sisting- betw<H'n persons who afterwards become enemies, is, as we
have seen, abrogaled by war; on the ground that the disabilities
;ind r(\strictions created bv war are inconsistent Avith a due exer-
cise of the rights ov a proper discharge of the duties incident to
partnershij), and that, the relation is one which from its very
nature is inculpable of suspension (/j-j; although such abrogati(m
would })r()bably lie subject, to a right of the alien partner on the
l(H'niination of the war to recover the equitable value of his share
i\\ the time of dissoluti(ui t'r i.
Interests in ( 'on/ihercial <'orpor(dlo}is (uid (Jomjyanies. — A. corpo-
ration is itself a juristic person, and as such takes its character
in war, as fiiiMidiv or hostil<\ in general from its domicile (.S),
ii'res|)<M-ti\(^ of the nationality of its <li)'ectors or shareholders (H.
Xovei'theless war may produce important etl'ects on the legal posi-
tion of enemy persons having interests in such associatioJis. in
Ivnglish and A.merii'aa law, indeed, this question does not appear
to b<^ (•over(Ml l)v an\' direct autlioi-itv ( // i. Hut on })]'inci])le ami
analogy it would s(>em ( \) that eiKMiiy directors would ipso facto
vacate their seals, although retaining otherwise such rights as belong-
to ejieniv shareholders; (i^) that (Mieiiiv shareholders would retain
their -hares as property, although both theii' right io reccuve divi-
dends and proliabh' thei)' obligation lo pa\- calls would be suspended
during thf* wari.ii. both reviving'. liowe\er, on the return of ])eac(>;
aial I ;! ) that enein\' debenture leaders woidd r(Maiu their security,
whatever its form, althousih ihe liiihi to icroivf^ int<M'e'-t iheroon
(o) /'. S. V. (/,'oss,iun/^r (i) Willi. W'frr \. .h)„rs ( (i L Ala. 2SS ) : Jloiif-
7-2; Scort. .Ul. u.). ;/o,„r'r,/ v. /'. ,V. (1.3 Wall. 395);
(/>) Sii'oU V. I.>',iii,l:ni els Crattaii. I'./njii^ v. /'. .s'. (11:3 I". S. :]4G).
s:52: Scurt. .);5S). f.^ i .^'-v""- 1'- -'>•
(<l) (;,is,r,,l,l \. \\',nl,i;,,nlu:, ( H; (.'i .l<n.>«,,> \. Dr'iri, .,,!,;,, Coyisot!-
• idlms. t:5S). <'it(Ml in l-:>i,n.:i'., V. /;-.'- '!"'"' M'""'s (J90-2. .\. C. at .501).
'/''/' (27 I,. .1. Q. I'., ar 22i. ("' I'l't' -cc /:'.■■ /'"''''■ nn".s.-i),i,;7-r,-
{ ,■ ) Sii,,,,:, |). 71. .\-< tn the cilVct ( 1 •> \ ('<. , 1 1111. 71): and ( ,' ,-:s,r,,li/ \.
of war 1)11 ciipyi-i-lit. -IT Opininn- W ml.l : ,,<i h,,. , v,/^,,,, . alliioiiu-h tin'
of V. S. Att.~(''.cn.. Mil. wii. 2iis : d itfiTcnci--. hciwccn pari ncr-lii p- and
on Lj-iiai'diaiislii p. /,'/;..•/■ \. Mir,,i' n .rpi .rat ions rmder tlic ri'asoniim' in
(in r.S.2lS): on siiccc<si(Mi, ti'sfatc t li.' hi-t ca-c la i--<'ly inaiiplii-aiili-. i-'or
and iiit i-stati'. I'ln ,■ i:',r\ /',,■;■,•..' \, ,-i fiilli'i- cxaiiii nation of •■thi' prolilom
llniiirr'x l.rsKri' i7 ('raiicli. (127 i : on of foi-i-iLi'ii i n\ I'-t iiicnt < in t imc of war.''
the sail- and convcyanci- of land. ''./,/- -.h- \\. \. ( 'iiadwirlc. I.. (}. \{ . .\.\. !fl7.
,■,"! V. ;/'../,/. x iin; \ . S. 27!l ■ : on (.!■■; .\ltlioi]o-li the l;iitci- i-oia-ln-ioii
■jnortiraii-i-s, Corsn,, \. In, J,,',,/ (121 is <Joulitfiil .-ind miirlit lie h<dd to d.--
l .S. 121): and on<ali-^o!' pio--on iltv, pend on rli(> clnirai-tiM- of the Ini-iness.
!M) Cases (Did Opliuons on rnfcrinitioiKd Laiv.
<\v ^\\i-\\ ]iiui <)i the priin'ipal ii> iiiii;-ht accrue diie fliiJ'iii<^' the war,
uuuhi l)»' sii^pcinh'il i // 1, holli i'o\iviim-. howcvei", on the rcsfui'ation
i'JU.'ct o/ U V// o-ii Suits lijj Alien KjU'Nues.- -Jt foUous almost neces-
tarilv t'rMiii ihc ride ol' uim-iiLk'rc<Mir,<f that au action cannot in
o'cneral he niaiuiaiueil of contiuuccl by or (;ii behali' of an alien
eiKMiiN' 'd-. Nni'. even in siiit.^ (Icpendiiiti' hct \\<,'eii otJier pei'soiis. will
the ( oiirt- -iiiictioii any c (iiiiniinicat ion with the eiK'uiy count ry i /> i.
l)ut ,-u<-h a ili-il)ility will n<n attach to jiorsoiis ol' enemy nat ioiialit \'
who citntiiiiic i<'-i(|<Mit in l)i;iti>h K'l-ritoi'y with the license of the
( 'I'ow II I c ,. A- to whether it wdiihl apply t(j enemy persons who
coiitiniie<[ >n io i-e-i<le without license, there a])|)ea)'s to Ix; some
coiiflii-1 of aiii linriM' :(^/ I. Hut if on the oiithi'eak o!' \\ar enemy
Mihjci-i- wild ]iia\ Ix' resident in (ri'eat Puitain ai-e e\pres<l\ uiitlio-
]'i/.c(l ir> ((iiiiiiiiie their rc-^iihMc c -o I0112 a< tlic\- pe'aceahh- demean
thcm<rl\('>. or e\(Mi if .-iich re.-~i<lence i^ inij)li<;(tly aiithoii/.e<l hy
tiieii' not Lein^i' (udei-eil to leave, it would seem tlial the u-^iial con-
seipience- (,\ licenscfl r(>sidenr(! will attach (V_M. It would seem also
thiit au ali<Mi enemy <'nnt iiiuinc^- to I'C-idc in the country, whether with,
(n- withoiii lic:'ii>e. mny he sued if 1. lu anv case, mor^eovei', such
li'jhl- o! aolioii will i-evixc on the retiiiii fd' peace'/'/'.
'i I iiii iii'i Hn'diiiili Ijic iiii'dudif i)j lite A(uilr'il f'l-ng.- ddie rule of
U'^ji-intvi cijiir-c iipjH^ar- I'rom the reasoiiijiy- on which it is founded
to 'oiitciiipLiti' -iiictiv u c()]nplote c<;<saiion of aU trade relations,
whether diroi;i or indii<,'ct, between .-Ldjject- of the respective belli-
^cioni-. lint in modern limes its strin^'eucy has been Lrreatly re-
laxed ill pr.-ic! ic:'. ijolli by the <'.\eiiipt icm oT eiieiii\- i^oods of
an inicH-ciii kind found in neutral ship^i//'; and b\" llic nilicial
rci- ,l: ml e 111 in rcocnt \\ar> nf the lee'alit\' ol' -in-h ,1 iradc when
cuiiicd (in diioiieji the nieliiim ot tie' neutral llae; the lorniei-,
alihoi|e|i a Ih )'_;i.| lii.p <|i tliM-<Mit in it- t-'iioiir. haxiiie' piuiiabh iacili-
taie-l the latter. Sm. in IS.'il. li\- an ()rd<'r in (■iaiiiei| of
\ it i;i)',iL:ii it tlir iiiti'i'c-t wi')-i- i',\;iiiiiiiat ion of \vitnc-~e-: ,~cr /,'./, /r,V;^
r(|,r.-iit.'<l l,y colli, oii< pavahle to \. /),,/,., .KiC. |!. l')^)..
l)c,-o.-r Ol- il,.' |,rii:i-i|,;il l.v ,'iiiy iii-tni- (r. ll'r//.~ v, 11'://:,',,, s \ \aI.
lu'ait lii'jot ia!j|i- li\- lai-toiM, t iic iiiiioiiiit Ji.ixan. lisj,.
foaid I,. n-;ili/.i-('l liv a--i'jai iiiiait To o', Si-c ./^^.w,,, \- , /y, ,. o,,, /,,; . (',,,,-
ri. a:i,.l-: .,,, . ,.. -' f . ..„/:,/„/,,/ .'/:,.,■ .\Wrl. \. C. at ."iUa;;
- n. f,. -iil.jr-i -. iii-o:i;v. -<■'■ !/,:,.,,, ^. \ :,,.,., ■] ]., .\ \\, ■2\7;
W i-ll:,|.:, . ii. Ho l.iiiilli'x . CoiMiran- -' 1 I.. ■) . 'h I '■ . He: ami /;-,,/.'/,,„ v.
i.:o',. 1,0. .a. i. .-.:;: l.,ilj;i.'ol : I'liiiiip />',',,,,- . -l Can. p. l(i:; .
M.n. JiiC: r,.iiy, I nt«aai;itioi,,il Law in i' Sn-. in tlic I". S. ('oiirl-. l'l',,-ke
S. Afii-:. '.'l': i.. l^ 1;. \\. Mm. v. !/",,,/: 10 .lohio. C.!) ., wlirrc it was
w, s,.,. ;/■/, //,,„,, I c. |;,,i,. |.h; . I, .a, I tli;,i :, ]i,-,n-.i. woiil.l !„■ ini|,li<.rl
l;,n,,,J..,. N. .\, .-/.;/' 1 ti ■]•. 1;. 1^:;, : /./• from ro-idiar- ; Sr,i,.,,.,, ■. . /,V,,/,o/
/,'/■.' \-. /'■//,■//.,,' I I fai-I. an:: : ; and (Ki ill. 'J-si: Srot t , .") r"i. n.
a- e, o- 1 \i-i.tioi,al <;,■.■ of ./.■ -.,- ' ' I/' /"' '>/- v. / . ,V. ! | Wall.
V. ///.. I,,,.: • ',, r,,,,,.,,,/;,/ ,./, ,/ M .,.,.. ■:.')!! ,.
1 I". .J. \. e. 1-1 , |,. ,,.-,. ..,,,,.^ I,, s., ,,,.,. |,. nil.
.S:i.!: II- a roniiie--io!i lor llii' 1/.. I,. I,.'. Plo IT-', o'.l.'l.
The (\)UAlart of War on Land. 91
the l.'itli A})ril. all vessels luidor tiic ueutnil Hug' woro pcr-
mitfe<l to iunxn'l goods. t(t wliouisocvcr belonging-, into any port
or })ku(^ ill the Hritish doiuinions ; and to export g-oods, not
lj<'i ng contraband, troiii any pin't or place in the British dominions
to iinv port or plact> in the enemy territory not under blockade;
whilst l>ritish suljjects were also permitted to trade freely, although
only in neutral vessels, with the like ])laces(/). l.i\ 18G0 a similar
conct\ssion was made by (!reat [Britain and France during' the war
with China. lii ISIIS. again, during the Sjiaiiish-American war —
althouf^h under the instructions issued by the United States Govern-
ment (7i; ) the clearance ot American vessels in any case, and of foreign
vessels carrying' coal or contraband, for Spanish ports was for-
bidden it a])pears to ha\<' been 0[)cn to neutral vessels to carry
American or other cai'uoe^, not Ijeing contraband or coal, to Spanish
l)ort.-. And this twainple will jjrobably be followe<l in the wars of
the future. Hut where goods pass between enemies, it is necessary,
in order to as'oid a violation of the rule of non-intercourse -except
of course where this has been expressly relaxed that there should
have been a genuine transt'er to the neutral (/i.
EXCURSrS 1. THE CONDUCT OF W.\ll BY LAND,
WUlTi SrECTAL HEFEliEX("E TO ICECEXT COX-
VEX TIOXS.
'i'lil'. (iKOWni Ol- A EaW OI' EaM) \\'aK1'-\HK.
The rule- which goxcii! ihe conduct ot war on land, although now
based for the mo.-~t [»art on convention, had, .like most other branches
of the law. their origin in cu^t(nii. Sumc purt of this customary
(/j I'hill. iii. I'-O: Ihillcck, ii. inir neutral in'i)j)ri'ty it woukl not
314; 1 Sj)iiilvs. Apj). -3. l)c liable to ctJiuiciiiiiatiou wiiatcxer
l/y J<Mic(l on ihc:27tli .Vpril, ISilS. it> (lc<tiiiati(in ; but that if it still
\l) In .March, IS.)l. I.Di'd Clarcii- remained enemy projuTty. imtwith-
(lon — ill answer to a (]ue.stii,)n lU'cpo-cd -landing- tliat it was sliipped from
by inereliants intercste<l in the Kussian a neutral port ... it woukl 1)0 coii-
trado. as to whether ivus^ian ])r()(Iuec demned. wluitever its destination;
brougiit over the frontier and -hipped whilst if it wore tSritisli [)roperty or
thence by JSritisli or neutral vessels shipped at I'.ritish risk, if would bo
would be" subject to seizure and con- ondenuied should it prove to bo really
fiseation-— after statin^' that the ques- enL;-au'ed in trade with the enemy: TJic
tion turned not on the place of oriu'in i'mus, 'J.jtli Mar(di, IS.Vi, iSiU the
or mode tjf con\'evuui'e, but en the elfcci of the Order in Council of the
trtie ownership of ai\d interest in the loth .\prii. IS.")!, was to allow trade
property, went on to s.ay that il with the eniMiiy -u huii.;' as it was ear-
suidi pr(rpert\' were -liippcit at ncu- ried (ui thrmiLidL the medium of tho
ti'al ri-k '"■ at'ti'r luoiiiL;' be. -cue /"...e neutral llau'.
[)2 t'//ises (UkI (Jpinions on hiternatioaal Law.
olouieiit (laics liai-k in a lime anterior lo iiitoi'iiational law; Imt
the main pan nl ii apjteai^ to have developed Jaier. as a fijii>ei|uenfe
of tlie institutiiiu ol' standinu- arniies and tlie jj,-ro\vTli <ii' a l)ody
of nulitaiv u^au(> and tiadilioii. For a long- time the iidc> of hind
warfare were inarkcdh int'cridi. Ixith in point of certainly and autho-
ritv. to tho-c which Lioverned the cundnct of war hy >eaw/i. But
durinu' ihc I'.Mh I'entury the law of land wartai'e attained certain
jiotal)le iniinii\enient-. ImiiIi 'if f<irin and sii!i<tain-c. which left it
for the moment in a jio-itiijii of superiority. It- impro\cment in
form w"a-~ j)rolialil\ t\\\v to the ])i'ogi'e>s of military oroaid/ation and
di-cipliiu\ whiih indmi'd the military i^lw■ers to define itnd codify
their national jn^actice hy the t-siie of iiianiiah of iiistrnetnm for the
n-e of iheii' armies in the li(dd/>i. l!< improxement in -^nhstance
^\■a- due in part lo the iei|iiii'ement-^ of (liscijdine. and in jjarr to a
(le-ire t" niiliL;ale vm fai- a- po-siMe the rie-our- of war. e>peciallv
a- reuaril> tlnni- iniideiice on individiiai-. Theie wa-~. however, still
so gi'pat a di\'<M'u(Mice alike in interest and practice Iietween dillerent
States Ol- Miuiip> di' State-, a- lo make it <'\i(hMit that nidloimity of
rule eoiild onl\' lie -ecurel li\ i-nnnnrxi international action. At first
only -peiial Inanche.- or tupic- a\ (M'e dealt with in thi- wa\'. So, in
1S(;4, the (ienexa ( '(.niference produced a ( 'oii\ention, wdncli defined
and -\>!emat iz<'d the law- of land warfaic in rtdation to the Treat-
Juent of tl]<' W(iun<led and -ick, and wlii(di sjieedilA' ac(pured an almost.
uiu\<'i-al anlhoritv ci. Thi- was -oon at'tei- followed ii\' the J)e-
cjaraiion oi St. Pet<'r-liuri;\ l.^ns. which im])o.-e<l -oine limitation on
the in-tiuments of war'/), 'j'he suci-e-- of tin'-e limited .-omjiacrs
pointed the wa\- to -om<' wider au'reement with r(\-])C(t to i he con-
dnci of war in general to a g<'neral codification in fact >,\ ihe laws
<if war oil land. 'I'lii- iirojeci wa- ai lir-t onl\- a -nhjeci |oi ])rivate
or jiiri-tic i|i-cii--ion ck Imt laiei', and e-peciall\- under ilic influ-
ence of ihc exent- of the F ra ico-i oM-iiia ii war of IN?'!, ii lif,aiiie al.-o
the <uliject of diplomatic endeaxoiir. wiili the ic-iilt liial in |S74 an
i nieinaiiona I < 'mifeience on the -nhject wa.- liel.i at ih'ii--cj-. This
( 'iiiifcieiice. whii-li wa- aitendeil \)\ foin'teen of the leadim: >tates,
diew lip a d<'c|ai aiic))!. known a- Hie Deidaiation of Iiiussel.s,
enilioiix in::- -oiiie tliiit\--i\ artiides purjioriinir to declare i]ie laws
and cii-ioiii- of war on land. Tlii- Declaration alihoiigii lot indee<l
act ua ll\- adopted hvllie Powei--/'), I cr t he ( '( ui feienco liiia II x hfoko
up on a ipic~iion on wlm-h it >\as foiiml impo--ilde to ti-ach anv
acrciMn'Mi' (j • ne\ ert liejc-- e.xerted a profound influence "n -ulise-
'pieiii piacii.-c. and al-o veiled a< a lia-i< and model for -idi-er|nent
code- h ",a- not until I s'.i'.i. |i(jwe\er. that tic jii-t Ila-ue ( 'onfor-
.■, /. '.y. ,,. I1.C
' /' ' .Sllri; 1 l;-I I'llcTinli- W
Ii i--t liy tlic I iiiti'il Sr.it'- 111 1 si;:; ! rc-
i-o|i'ii ill !s!l- . ;iiii| ^;fOT\v;ir(U I)V
itlic;- I'cw IT-: ,-, ,■
i,:ui<i. :i . ' ..7.
■^ I /, '. . e. m:;
c, / o,. . ,,. Ml.
II. ill;, I, ,i. W
•I \- to ihr voirk (l.H|.' ijy tfic
i--iic(l lii-ritntc of I iitcriiiit ioiia I l,;iw in tin's
•cl|]|..,-tinli. -(■,. Dlirijw.-ll. ! iMI , / ,,/ ,/.
'■ It \\;i-- -iL:iic(|. l,ii' <'\:\\ :\< a
rc-ol-n nf tIic |i!-,lc|.C(|ll|---.
' ,', 'I'hc <|Uc-t ieii lit tI|.- ic--alit\- nt
:) lew ... „///.v-<' in (M-cnpi.'d t'-rritorv.
The Coitducl of War on Land. D.'i
tMicc .-net i'chIocI ill riaiiiiii;^' uu acceptable code, in tlie ('oiivoution
'■relatiii<: to tlie l^aws and (distuiiis ol' \\'ar on Land,"" No. 2 of 1890;
the actual iule> lieiii^' cuutaiiicd in Reoulations annexed thereto. At
tli<' x'ciukL ilatiiie ( 'ont'eionce a jiew Coiix'eiition '" relatinji' to tli(!
l>a\vs aiiil Cii.^^loiUN (if War ou Laud," No. 4 of 1SJ07, with (<iiuiJar
Kegulatiiiii- annexed, was adoi)ted; levisinji' aud re])lacing' a.s be-
tween tiie >i<iiiat('iics the Coiiventiou aud Ke<iulation.s of 1899. Thi.s
Couveniiiiu may luobably be saitl. so far as relates to the topics with
■which it. deals, and subji'cl to the reservatiojis made by particulai'
isiuualoric^. to cdiistitute an authoritative stateuient of the e.\i.stiiig'
law. li i> not. however, entirely couiprelieihsive, and requires to be
supplcuKMited at many j)oints b\' refereiico either to other inter-
uatioJial .\ct-^ oj' to the earlier custornary lawt/i. Tlie a<loptioii by
couuuoJi agriH'uuMit of uidfoiiu jules regulating th<> conduct of war
]ia^. in addilidu to utlier advantages, the merit of bringing liome
to men's niin<^ls tho fact that war is it.self a subject for leg'al regula-
tion, and not, as was thought in the past, a condition of entire law-
lessness I Ic).
'Vwv. Soui:( i:s oi- Existinc liur.ES.
The existing law theiefore coni])riscs two main factor.s — the
conventional or written law. and the customary or unwritten
law. I i I The conventional law include- the following- inter-
national Acts: (1) The Ccmvention "'concerning the laws ajid
customs of war on land." Xo. 4 (jf 1907. which in itself eon-
sist.s only of nine articU's. hut which has annexed to it a bodv
tif reguhilious. hereafter referred to as the Hague Regulations, which
])res(Mii tlu^ ruU's of war iu a f(nni suitable for conmumication to
st)ldier> and others not versed in diplomacy. These llogidations
deal with the (|ualitie,ition of belligerents, the treatment of prisoneis
of war. the melliod> of injuring the enemy, non-hostile relations,
and nulitarv authoi'ity over hostile territ(n'v i ? i . (2) The (Conven-
tion "■ re>|)ecting the riiiiits and duties of neutral powers an<l ])er>ons
in war on land. Xo. ."> of 1907. which, however, ojdv touelu^s on tlu'
action Ox belligerent- at certain ]joinis i^>/i ). (o) The Cieneva Con-
venti(ni of ]90(). which deals with the treatment of the woiindcMl
and sick, as reuard- arnii(>- in the held, replacinu' as between it-
signatories th<' earlier ('on\'enlion <if lS(i4(^?'. (4i The Declara-
(.') Sec 11. C, -No. 4 of 1907. Aft. 2; catidiis. sec Tahlc, App. xiv.
and p. !!}. ;,,////. (»') Sec Arts. 1^4, 19. This Coii-
(/■) .\iul this even thuuu'li the tact xcntion was siirned by forty-two
of ^s•ar may imolvc a sii<iicii-ion of I'owcrs. It has not so far been rati-
tlic tcrritnrial law in matter- rclatiiiL:- tied by (Ireat Britain. As to othrr
til the (.■ciidiict of hostilitic-: sec p. lit, ratiKcations. sec Table. .Vpp. xiv.
s,!/,,!!. ( '• ) This t'onventii)!! ha.s been rati-
(/) Thi- ( 'on\('iition \\a< sii^iied by titnl by twenty-two States, includinu-
fortv-one States, alihmiirh in soni<' (!reat Britain (altlioutrli under re-
cases with reser\ation>. and has now nervation of Arts. 23, 27, 28, relatinfj
been ratiiied bv C-rcat liritain and to the civil use of the Geneva Cross ; a.s
the Vnitcd States. As to other ratiti- to which. howe\er, see now 1 ,.*; 2
lU ('^(srs (ind Opinions on Inlcrnational Lmv.
lion ol St. Pet.<'i'.>l)urg-, 18(;8, which forbids the use of explosive
hiiIl«M> iiiuler 400 o-ramincs (p), but which is now virtually incor-
porated in the liauuo Kognlations ^j; i. (5) The Hague Declaration,
^^'o. 1' (if I81>;», which prohibits the use of asphyxiating gases (5).
(^ti) The Hague Declaration, Xo. ;} of 1899, which prohibits the use
of expanding bullets (^/- ). i?) The Declaration 'prohibiting
the disehaige of projectiles from balloons,'' which was originally
framed by tlie Hague Conference of 1899, and subsequently
renew(Hl l)y that of 1907 for a period extending to the meeting
of the next Conference; although the abstentions are so numerous
as to reinU'r tJiis Declaration of little or no present value {s).
All these agreements, with the exception of the last, purport to be
binding on the Towers tliat accept tliem Avithout limit of time; but
they are all. witli the exception of the Declaration of St. Petersburg,
bnlijrct to denunciation, after notice; altlnnigh tlio denunciation is
only tu allcct tin' jiutifying Power, and will then only be operative
after the lapse of one year from the date at which notice is given {{).
They apply, moreover, only as between the contracting parties, and
then oidy if all the lielligerents are parties to the Convention {u).
In the various Acts that go to make up this conventional part of
tlie law, tliere are, as we shall see, many omi.ssions as well as other
defect-s of form and substance (x) : but, as time proceeds, it is
probable that many of the-^e will be corrected or remedied bv new
legislation or the action of Courts.
liii Next th('r(> is the customary cu' unwritten law. tlie rules of
which have to Ik^ sdu^-ht in those sources, and subje(-t to th'^e tests,
which lia\(' alr('a<ly been doscrilied ( // ). This law still a])pli('s both
in ca-cs whicli are not i-overed l)y the i-oinentioiial law. and whore
that law or any jiarticular ])rovi>ion is not a])plicable as between the
parties to flic war-:':). A\'ith re>})ecr to the fcirmer class of ca-es (^r?),
it is ('\])!r-sly (leclar<'d bv the Hague Convention. Xo. 4 of 1907,
that '■ ixijudations and bclliii'erents remain uiidei' the jrrotection and
rule of ilio prin(i[ilo- of the law of ^lations. as thev result fiom u>ages
i 'in. \ . I-. '20. .".ikI [i. 10."). n. I // ).;,;/,-./ ) liy twoiiry-se\ en l'o\vcr>. iiifliidin<r
mil ihi' I'niti'il Stati-; liur :i cnii^ider- <;rr:it I'.ritain. the L'liited States, and
:dili' iiuinliiT nf Statix still rcinain Austria- 11 uiiirarv. l)ut not liy (lor-
iiiidii- the larliiT ( 'nii \ riit iiwi uF Isiil. many. J'^ranoo. Italy, .lajia'n, and
_("' 'I'lii- li:i- lii'cii arccptcd hy I'u-sia. It lias siiiei' liccn ratiiit'i] by
niiicticn State-. iiii-!ii<liiiu'- (a-cat <'o-eat Hritain. As to otlior ratifiea-
ISritaiii: altiiou'j-ii the i iitcfiiational tinns. see '.rahlc. Ajip. xi v.
statu- (if sonic uf l!io orii^-itial sio-na- •!< <<■<■ liv wav of cxaiiipic Xm. i
torics lias ^i,,,.,. uiidcf-'onc a chant;-c. of ]l)()7. \rt S
(,.• Sc 11. 1;, -; ,. . ^ ,.) //,;,/. Art. -1.
, <"■ li'i^ wa- -,^a,c,l .0- a.-..4rd to , ,■ , Sco p. !).k :„,,■„: and as to
by t\vctity--ix I'ouaa-. i iirjudiii- ( I rcat dpfr.-t, ,,1' d rafti n-. Holland. War on
Oriiaiii tut not ;!;:■ I nii.'d States. Land. 1.
(/•) 'I'hi- \va- ori-anaHv d-jai.'r| ,,r { ,/ \ .S,,,. vol. i. (i.
acrcptcd i,y t'Arnty -ix I'owcrs. I,nt it .-. |--,,,- a li-t oV r,..,.rva f ions see
ha- n-t lii-.'n r ;tiii. d -iilnT o\ ( ;r,.;it Tat.h'. .\no. xiv.
'■'■i' 'i" '■'■ '!"■ ' '^i'-l ^o,t..^. ,„, And c-p.viallv in relation to
' ' ^"'' '■"'■ '■■ -it I ill- '-^a- -iLOicd the ap.,|irati'.n -f II. \[ . | ..iid ''
Tfic (^o)i(Inct of Wur on Land. 95
establislnMl b(!t\veen cixili/.od juilions, llic laws of liiiiiiaiiiiy, and the
requinnnent^ of tlio public conscience" ib). Nor is it to bo assumed
that tlio nioie absence of specific prohibition as rogtirds any par-
ticular practice is to be taken as legalizing- it(c). From this it
will be seen that the earlier customary rules on this subject are
far from having lost their applicability; although it is probable that
in this, ;is in other departments, the conventional or written law
will tend to become more and more predominant, and will ultimat^^ly
become the only recognized standard of belligerent action.
Tin; i"]i-]i.c:'r ax]^ Value of tiik Hagi'e Hkcilaiions.
Willi respcci to the Hague Regulations, which now constitute the
most important factor in the written law of war. the signatory Powers
undertake to issue instructions to tluMr land forces 'in conformity
therewith " (^^/ 1 ; wliilst the duty of compensation is expressly
admitted in cas<>s of violation (e). In this, as in otlter Conventions,
some of the rules laid down are ambiguous or indefinite, whilst others
are subject to (pialifications that appear to rob them of most of their
efficacy. But in the present condition of things, and as regards some
of the rules in question, this was ])robal)ly the price that had to be
paid for apparent uniformity: whilst as regards others, some quali-
fication was probably necessary if they were to stand the strain of
actual war. Des])ite these inqx-rfecrions, the rules, as a whole, repre-
sent a distinct advance on anything that has ])receded them, and
will })robably serve at onoe to render more uniform the practice of
war, and in some measuie also t-o mitigate still further its hardships
as regards individuals (/').
Tin; l)ocTj;[L\K oi- '' ^Mii.itajiy Xj-xi:ss['I'y."'
The binding force both oi these and oilier rules is. however.
>eriouslv iiupngncMl i)\- the iloiVrim^ of " niilij<irv necessit \- ' (r/i,
which is put f(»i'ward bv (lei'ni.in writers and (ilfieiallv countenanced
iji) Sec f'r('ainl)lc to .11. C. Mo. J (1 ) with military necessity ill the sense
of 1907. in which that is understood to sanc-
{e) Sucli a declaration was expressly tion trenerally the destruction of life
made by Great ]>ritain witli respect to and limb and pro]icrty, so far as the
Xo. 8 of 1907, but ajipears to a[)j)Iy objects of war may recjuiro, and in
generally. so far as may be lawful according: to
(f!) See Tf. v.. Xo. ■} of 1907. the laws and usaurcs of war: see In-
Art. 1: and al>o Ccneva t ou\ ciii ion. stnictions for the Government of
190(), Art. 'is. t'. S. Armies in the l^ield: Arts. 14,
(V'l S(-e II. ('., Xo. 4 of 1907, 1 •■> ; cited .Moore, Digest, vii. 178: or
Art. ;; : and. on the <(ucst ion of respoii- (_) with tho-c e\|)rc« re~orvaf ions, as
sibilitv. p. !]:>. r,)ir". rcu-ards acts othi'rwisc ]irohil)itcd,
(/) A< the ex|iericniT of the Kn^^o- \\\\\r\i x\v fr:'<]iicn(ly made Imrh by
.lapanesc wai- of lOiil-."). alt hoim-h (he llairue Retaliations and otlicr ( 'on-
undcr the earlier ((nncntion, has vciitions, \^itli the ohjiH-t of providing
.-hown: see r.ordwe!!, 1 7i!. '-VVl . foi' ca>cs of i)ractit'al nece--;itv.
(ij) This i.s not to be ■•onfound"d
9t; Cuscb- and Oj>inmis on Internafiondl Lav.
Iiy tli<' lirniiaii Ciovoi'uuieut . In oliect this doctrine appears to l>e
tlial. allliiuiiili the r(vu<iiii/e(l hi ws and customs ol' war must ordiuarilv
1k' respected, yet. iu exet>ptioual cases, and where their observance
would en(hini>(>r lh<> safety of the army or the attainment of the fihject
of the \v;ir. the limitations which tliey imjxise on iiostih' license may
he dis)(>oar(le(l I /( '. This view purports to rest on the paramount
principle of self-preservation, and (jn futility of r(>([uirin<>- ohedienc*^
to ruh's that are iiuonsistent therewitli. Hut althouuh self-])i'e-
servatioii is a fact which lias, no doubt, to be reckoned a\ ith in esti-
mating' th<^ effect of all le<>-al rules (j\. and althouo'li in some system^
it is for this i-eason formally recoo-nized as a o-round of non-liabiliiy.
yet: this is Ly no ineans uiu\er.sal (A"), ^-^nd even where it i.s .>o recog-
nized, its srope is usually delin«ML and its exercise linnted by safe-
guards wliirh the nunii(i])al law pi'escril)es and which the munici])al
('(nirts (an give i'lfect to. The tloctrine of military necessity, on the
ot her hand. i'educ(>s th(> existing restraints on hostil(> liccmse -which are
the pioduct of centuries of ellort — to tlie level of mere discretionary-
observances. <lependent on the view of the local situation entertained
bv the officer in command; whilst it .serves to relax the sanctions of
the laws of war, already too slender, at a time Avhen the temptation
to (!isre<i'ard them is greatest (/ 1 . But the doctrine is not gonerally
received outside Germany i7/t >: and would, if acted on. form a ju.st
ground for re})risals by any belligei'ent who might l)e injuriousl\-
affef'te<l by it. as Avell as for protest oi' inter\-ention on the part of
• itliei' S!;ir('- if the circumstances warranted this(;?i.
I'm: (^[ Ai.itK A'lioxs ot r)i;i.i,i(;i.i^ KMs.
In deff'riMK-e both to humanity and convenience a distindion lias
lonu' licoii draw II bet w<H.'n combatant^s and noii-com1>a1anis. or between
<'iiemic> who arc actividy belligereni and those who are not. The
fiu'nier ]iia\ euga<i'e in hostilities, and are in tuiii <'xp(r-('d to \io|en(-e
or injury so long' as hostilities coiitiiiue: laii on surrender or capture
tlie\ arc entitled to houfiurable treatnieut as prisoncu's of war. and
incur no liability be\-ond detention ( o '. The latter are ex(Mii])ted
SI) far as po>-~ible fi'om direct injury or violiuice. l)id will torfeit this
imniuiHty and al'^o bei'Ouu^ sul)ject to special jienalties if thev
enii'a'je Mi lio-tilities without haxinu' the reipii-ite (pialiiirat ion-,.
Tlie 'ju;dit\ of lawful b(dli'_;'erent- attaches to all niendiers of the
(/'/ 'I'lii- tiiKl~ c.xprcs.^ion in tlic tlie rcii.-ioiis on wliirfi the doctrine is
maxim K i c ,js,iiU.,,, ,irhi ,-,,,■ Ki'iajs- founde(b sec Wcsflakc, ii. 115 et scq.
r'-cht. ^ (,„) it is rcprohatc.l l.y l':iic.'Iisli aiul
(') .'s(>c vol. i. ]i, lt;i. American writers, and not <renerally
(,/■; It^ i"" II"' recoi,''nized. for accepted even liy tlio<c et t'rance and
in-tani'c. under tlie |■all,'•li^'ll law as a Italy: .see (Jpju'nheini. ii. 79.
]e<,'al (jronnd of non-lialiility, aithiiui,di ( // ) On the snliject i;'eiicrallv, sec
often acccj. red in niit iL'ation of jiiuusii- W'estlakc, ii. 11;) r/ .•<>',/.: Ih'iUand.
ment: (-(■<■ A'''/, v. IhuU , ,i ,, ,,,l str,,]i, -..s War on Land. 12 c/ .s-v^. ' and ()])nen-
(14 Q. i;. 1). 27:'.). heini. ii. St.
^') for ;i critical cKaniination of {i,\ JJall. oly cl
"'!■
The Conduct of War on Land. 97
reg-uliiv army: to iiieinljei's of the niilitia and of v^oliiutocr cori)s
formino- part of the i'0<^ulai- army; and als(j to other persons wlio
are attatluui to the army even in a non-combatant capacity!/;).
But persons who merely follow an army without being- attached to
it, can, if captured, only claim to be treated as prisoners of war on
j)roduction of an ollicial authorization (//). The ((uestion of belli-
gerent ([ualitications commonly arises in relation to the employmejit
of irregular or guerilla forces; the levy en masse of the civil ])opula-
tion; and the iLse of c<)loured troops. With I'espect to iri'egular
forces, tlie Hague llegulations now provide that the quality of lawful
belligerents shall attach to members of militia and volunteer corps,
even thouo-h they may not form ])art of the regulai' army, ])rovided
tliat they are under the command of a responsible olHcer, that they
possess some distinctive mark recogmizable at a distance, that the}
carry arms openly, and that they observe the laws and custonrs oi'
war (;•). This involves the existence of an authority and an organiza-
tion sufficient to guard against hostilities being carried on by irrespon-
sible or intermittent condjatants, but not necessarily an authority and
an organization that proceed from the central Government (.s). Xor
need the distinctive mark consist of a reguhir ujiiform; although it
must be a dress-mark clearly distinguishable, and one tliai Cdunoi
be assumed or dropped at will, such as a mere badge or cap (7). With
respect to levies oi masse., it. is now providcvd that wliere the popu-
lation of a territ<>ry that h;is not been <.)ccupied spontaneously take
up arms to resist an inva<ler. wdthout having had time to organize
themselves in accordanc<^ with the above-mentioned ])rovisions. they
shall be regarded as bel!ig(n'(Mits so long as they carry arms openly.
and respect the laws and. customs of war(?n. In so far as thesi'
provisions do not a])ply. the t^arlier customai'v law ( x' » v.'ill be deemed
to be applicable (//). Hence i-isings in occupied territory are still left
to the oi)eration of th(> earlier law. undes' which they are usually
treated as penal (~i. With ix^spect to coioure<l troops, tliere is no
reason whv such troops shouhl not be employcfl -~o lonu' as they are
])roi)erh- disciidined and eonuiiauded by civilized officers (Vn: l)ul
the use of undiscip]in(\l or savau'e troops wouhl l)e impro])ei'. except
|)erlia])S against savagt^ iov<'h).
(p) il. ]^ 1. K-'-) .Vs to which, .SCO Hall, .317 -■'
(71 The word used i.s " '-it! ilicar(> ": '''''''/•
11. J{. 3. 1.3. <■'') f '/"•"• P- ''t- , , ,
,,^yj ]j , iz) liiin.'. \). IJd; I'.ordwidl. -.'33.
, ('/ ) So tlu' I'^roiich einplovcHl Turcos
(,v. Thus Icaviii- tiie raiMn- nt such j,j jj^^. Fraiico-Ocnnan war, 1S70:
fdi-.'cs „pon t-o lo.-al iniiiativc pro- ,vhilst Ihf I'liitcd Statos enroll(>d a
vidrd the ahovc (■o!iditi.)iis arc roiii- noi^'rr) ro2-imont in the S;.;uiis]i- Ameri-
plied with: sec Hurdwrll. L:3i: Mail. ,.an war. 1S!)S. (Ircat ISritaiu. liow-
>13.
T. refrained t'roiii (anployin^- I
ndiaii
{I') Hall, r)l.-,. troops ill the South. African war, 1000.
(u\ II. \l. -2. </,' Taylor. 47 1.
C.I.L, H
US
('list's mil/ (Jjiiniiiiis ml J utrriialjoiial Lniv.
'i) Ctiiinilni . li i.- hf.'w I'lilK- !■ ■(•(ii^iii/ed thu* the ri<i-lit of Lolli-
lC'N'!!!- I'l ;i(1mji1 iiu'aii> nl' iiijuiini'; tin/ <'iiO!iiy is iiol luiliuiiicd ( cj.
licncc ;i \;ii;i-iv ul' I'f.-t lict jDii^ aio iiii])i).-od liotli (jii the motlioils ujkI
in>; !iniii'!!t- oi' \va!-. Sf). il is piohinilod t'> use poisi^u: to kill or
woiiml ncailionmsly I (/ 1 : t(j rciuse quarter or declare that no
'i!iai-l('i' will he ;^-iven: or to sei/e or destroy ])rivate property of the
'•in'iijv unl<-> iiiijif'i'a; i\'elv re(piired hy the necessities <jf wurie.j.
N'fii' iiiav line l)<Mliu-f'r!'m conijxd the nationals of the other to take
I ni in aii\- iipfi'ation- ni war directed at;-aiiist tlieir (jwu coiuitry,
( ■,<'ii ih'iii^h i!i''\' nia\- !ia\''' liecii in iii- ser\ice prior to the ^var'/j.
The oiiipliiyaiiMit of iir-vs (.1' war and other methods neces-ai'y to
/'/i,ii:i iniMMiia' i'lii ah'ni' liic e;i(Miiy i- rci'o^-idzed as ])erinissilde i 7).
.\1 th" -aiac time it i- ioiliidd''!! 1m make an iiupi-opei" ir^e of — a flag
of trncc, the national lla<j;' of ihf onciiiy. inih'taiA- omhlcins oi' siLi'n.s
"hat have a spe'-ih'*.- iii>'.oiini;'. tlif encmx- uinfoiin ' /n. and the di^-
linctive badcz''''-^ of tin' denexa f 'onvention ('/ 1.
I ii ; Vroli'ih'ilcd W oa pon^. — It is forbidden, in (renei'al. \u cnipioy
■ii'iii-, in'ojeciiles. or material cahulated to cause sujjerlluou-^ in-
i'ir\- I /,■ 1; and. in jjarii'-ulai'. to u-e ijrojectiles of a wei^'lit below 400
_rannn('S which are cithei- e,\plosi\-e or char^-cd with i'ulininatinfj
'iT iidlanunaldc sub.-tances 1 (). It is als<j forbidflen. a> belwe<Mi Ijelli-
_'er<'iii- tliai ai'c parties to tlie llaL;'ue I)<M-laratioiis. to n.-c pi'i.i joctiles
'he -ojo olijci 1 of Avliich IS ihe dii'iu.-ion of as])liy.\iatinii- or ileloterioiis
•_a-o> ' /// ) ; or bullets wliicji rxjjand or flatten ea-ily in the human
boilv. such as bidleis A\iih a hard oin'elope Jiot entiielv r-rj\-eriijo- the
< oi'c nr ]jierf(Ml A\i!h inci-!ons 1 y/ 1 ; or finally, to dischara'C ])ro jeftiles
;in'l explo-i\e,-, froin balioon-. oi' Ijy other new metho is of a idmilar
i:aiure ( 0).
ir , II. I!. 22. njipcirn^iii!, ii. Kit -/ srif,
' '/ . 'r.'ii- v.-f)i]l(i iivli;!" .■i--a— iiiii- ih) \\ uiiy iMtc (iiiriiiL;' .•it;:i'-k,
•^ijii or tin; orfcr of a rfward ioi- f-a|i- imlos.- fare i< ral;(>ii tn make ~n<-\\
■ n-o ■• (Icarl or ali^■|■."■ ]'-"or iiistaiices alteration.s .:u< will L-'uarci ai:aiii.-t i\c-
\ 'lii- in l!i<' I'lMH-M' of wars witii lui- ccplion: sch- Iloilaiid. War on i.aud,
:-.iliz.-<i raia-, Hr. ilonami, Letters on !.'). As to an allcLred us,- l)v thr'
vai- .-iii'l \.'ii1rali!y. Wl. '; u^- iaii-' of ("hin--... coMum,. in' 1001
', H. !■'. 2.;. [n. idcntally. tlif -■,.,■ !loll;,n,|. Lmor^ on War and
aaic i'i-iiiat;r,n f.nljid- a li-i li-or^Mit Xriui'alit v. .aO.
o -:;-jM-nd. or .-xl in-ui .J: , ,,-: dcrjan- ,;; H.'l;. 2:} li).
■/"■■''■•"■'■'yl'i" ji' ■- ■■'^'"•' "' !:'^\ I'rivatr , ' , -ri,,;, i^ ,,}■ , ].;,,, j ,,,;,,;i,,^. ,..,,],,,,.
■''-'■■'''■- "'' ■"■lion: a^ m \v1j;c1i. -ce -,, aLi'ii-'-axaU' r!ic Mitlrri nu'-.s of in-
". '^•'). ";-■". ::hi| V'-AV'- I li-j--iiH. 2'i.'5, dividnaN tliaii to re<lacf the jiipnlifr^
' i S ■• M. 1;. 2:;. I 1. and V2: a.:d. of til*' <'Ii"iriy.
■^ '-" '!''■ inr/T|a-co,;ion of tli<'.-(; (/, So.- Ij" !-;. -l?,',-,. ;n,rl th.- \)c-
•■'i'-l'--. I'rarcr iii-'L-in-. 200 '/ ■II.. (daration id' St. l'ct<T--hiir". iSOs
, nd llollanrl. War on l.i.-nd, 11 V/ (,„^ ;|, |,.. X,,. a „,■ i^,,,,^
"/■ (;; ) il. 1).. Xo. •■) of JSOO.
■'"; !1- I''- -I- ''" '!:'■ -nl.j-.-t of (o, \\, I).. Xo. i .0' 1007- altljoa'di
: ,.-(■< and d.-c<at, -<■" Hall. W.).', ;
The Conduct of War on Land. 99
liii) Bombard )ne)it and Devastation. — By the Hague Rog'ulations,
u bellig-ei'ent is noAv forbidden to bombard or attack, by any means
whatsoever, undefended towns, villages, habitations, or buildings (p);
a proliibition which would appear to cover the case of bombard-
ment by jirojectilos from l)alloons, irrespective of the Declaration
previously mentioned. Before a place is bombarded, moreover,
waining must bo given to the local authorities, except in the case
of an assault u/). In sieges and bombardments every precaution
must be taken to spare so far as ])ossible buildings devoted to religion,
ai't. science and charity, historic monuments, hospitals and places
where the sick and wounded are collected, so long as they are not
used for miliiary ])urposes; such places being indicated by special
\ isil)h^ signs notilied to the assailants fr). Pillage is, in all cases,
!'or])iddon (.s-). The legality of devastation appears to be left — save
for tlie prohibition of the destruction of private property except wliere
leciuired by military necessity (t) — to the operation of tlie earlier law,
under wvhich it may only be resorted to in cases wliere it is either "a
necessary concomitant of ordinary military action" or required for
I lie [iui'})oses of solf-preservation ( //). When general devastation is
resoLied to, provision shovdd so far as possible be made for the
safety and maintenance of the population affected (x).
Spies and their Treatment.
.\ spy is one who. acting clandestinely or under false pretences,
iibtains or seeks to obtain information within the zone of operations
of a belligerent, with the intention of comnmnicating it to the enemy.
!!ut soldiers who penetrate the lines of an enemy without rlisguise; or
-oldiers or civilians liearing despaiclu's who carry out their mission
ipenlv: or baUoonists engaged in the d(di\-erv ot despatches or in
maintaining conununii-ations, <'anni)t lawfidly l)e treated as sjiies (/y).
!l is (piite legitimate to enqtloy spies; but a s])y. if caught, is liable,
althougli onlv after being tried. In th(> ])unishmiMil of (l(Vlth(^).
The ollence will. how(M'(n'. be ])urged if he suife<Mls iu rejoining his
•)wn ai'iny. even tlinugh \w may \)C captui'cd afterwai'ds i ^/ ). With
^pies \\o mav class, as bcviiig lialtle lo the ])uiiisliment of death, persons
.M!ii-aL;e(l in lu^gotiating bc!rayals. or (l(vs(M'ti(ins to the enemy ( /;) .
■ ■criuaiiy. l''i':uic(\ Italy, Ilussia, and and. on th(> (jiu'stion of conciMitration
!;■.!. an. an; ]un. parti(\s to this l)c- u-inci-.tlly. Mooi'c. l)iL>-ost, vii. § l]-2().
•laratiDii. i'71 ii. M. ■2'.K Nor can l)alio()ni-;rs
( ,, , |[. 1;. 25. "'■ ^iviators !>(> troiited as S])i('s, consis-
ts,,' ii. 1;. -In. tcntiy witli 1:1ns rci^ulation, \\lu-n en-
(, I 11. i;. 27. pau'cd ()])enly in scouting-; so(! Ojipen-
'X , II. i;. 2S, t7. hcini, ii. 1!»7.
(/ I il. H. 2:; (-). (rMI. H. 30.
('" Hall. r,?,\ rf xrq. ^ (" ) 11. R. 31.
( .'■ ) As io th(> ns(> of con"on+ra:ion ( ^' . .\-^ to tlu^ ca-;o of .Major Andre,
riinips in the South African war, and -^c(> I'hill. iii. 172: and. on the suhji'ct.
/.Olios of refuse in the war in ilie ^-cnerally. Hall, ;')o-'> c/ .wvy. .■ (Ijijx-n-
I'liilipidnes, s<H' ISordwc!!, 1 -i 1 , l.V»: hcini. ii'. Hfii ,■/ v,,y.
h2
100 Casps- raid O/n'uions on Intprnational La?v.
X(JN-HosTILE iNJKRfOURSK BET\VEP:N BeLLIOKREXTS .
(^i) (ienerul CJiaracler and Coiidltioits. — Tlie cunducl ol war under
modoiTi conditions almost necessarily involves some occasi(jn for inter-
course of a non-hostile character between the belligerents. The form.-
and methods of intercourse include: suspensions of arms, truces,
armistices, capitulations, surrenders, and other military C(jnvention;s:
as well as the arrang-ement of cartels, the use of flags of truce, and
the granting of pa.^sport-s, safe conducts, safeguards, and licenses ( c).
All .such agreement.s. and the relations to which they give rise, are
regarded as being uberrimue fidei; whilst some are also the subject
of special rules, based either on custom or convention (^d).
ii ) Fl'tfjs of Truce, I'(tssports.--X. flag of truc'e is used when one
be]liL''<-'rcin dc-ires lo enter into communicatiijn with the other: the
proper symbol being a white ilag. The other party is not bound to
receiv*' tiic bearei' in all circumstances, as where this would interfere
witli lii- operations or reveal his positi(ni, although in such a case
ii i- usual to announce the refusal by signal ( e). But if once rec'eived.
lioih ibe bearer and lii-^ attendants are inviolable: although they are
.-ubjeci. h) all jieco.--sai'v ineasures of precaution, and are liable to
f()i'i(,'ii their pi-ivilege if the}' abuse their position ''/). A ])assport i>
a w'liticii pei'iiii^sion. i--ued usually by or under the authorifv of tlie
bellij^i'icnl (j(jvcrniiient. empowering an enemy ■subject to ])ass into oi-
tlirnuti-h the bellia'erent lines or territory!//;. A safe conduct i- a
like pci nii--i(ni, issued eitlier by the bellie-erent (iovernmcni or b\ a
ciniiiiiaiidini;' oUici'i-. autlioi'izing the 2)a>.-i))g either of a ]>ersoii oi' ot
projK'i'ty into some ))laco otherwise ]irohibited (li ).
iii I >^iis[,('n.-<i()iix (if .Ini}-^. Triicex tn/J Aniiisttcc--^ < i<. A ^u.-pcn-
~ion of aims i- a cessation oi ho<tilitie< for a <hoi1 ])ei'iod or tem])o-
iai\" j)uipo-e, as for a parlev or for l.iuryiiiii' the dead. It ma\ be
enteifd into beiwci-n any oh'icers having separate coiuiiiaiid^. aiaj
applie- oiil\ a> between their own tidop<i/,'j. .\, truce or armi-tico
i- a ^~u-pell-:ioll of bo-tilitie< for a loiig<'i' time or more u'eneial i)m'-
po-c'/). Ji nla^ be "itbei' '1 i geiiei'ab in the s(>n>e of apphini: li.
all tie; foii-e- of ilie be| 1 io-ci'ents. in whieh case it can ouh be juade
by tlic -o\ci fj^ii authority, exercised either directlv oi spcf-ialh
deietrat/'d ' /// ) : oi' ' i^ i lo'cal. in ihe sense of ajrjihinti' iin]\- to force-
within some paitii-ulai' ioialitv. in which case it can Ije ina.de ]j\- the
ir . S(ji]i(; ol tli<-c icl.it.' .-pccnlly (/,, 11,'illcc-k, ii. '.il'.'j -. Hall, r,;^!).
N) iaii(i, ;uiil Dtin-)-- t-i li'ith hind .-iihI (;, ruder tlir llriti-h a:id Amcr',-
~c;i warfao'. cin jirarticc [lo di^tin'-rion is rlrawi.
( '/ A- I'j ffii^c-. r:i |,ioi l.'t I'lli- and hftwrcn thc-c.
annisii.M-, M-c 11. i;. :',-J 11; ,'iiid. ( /• ; llallci-k. ii. ;i II ; jjall. .110
,,11 iln- -ulijf.'t -ciMTallv. Hail. ■.■!,-. ii. (/; llall.jrk, ii. ;j I I ,./ ..,-/..• Jlali
:;i(i :;:!i. .-mi.! Mali. :,:',-,' ' .~r.,. 510, oi.y
(,■, [Jail.'.-k, ii. :;:;!. ('//') .^iicli antli(;ritv not hci)]-
( /, II. 1;. ■.'>■!. :;i. iinidi.sJ.
(V Ilail.ck. ii. -.Vr-'r. Ilai,. .V;!i.
The Conduct of War on IaukL 101
fhiet" otHcer locally in (juiiiiuuud, although .subject to ratilicutiou by
■-uperioi' authority, uud tcruiinable on duo notice of a refusal (w).
An armistice mu«t be duly notified both to tlie proper authorities, and
10 the troops themselves; and all hostilities luust cease as from the
time of notification, unless some other time has been agreed on(o).
Tlie terms of an armistice, with respect to the continuance of works
<ir fortitications and the question of rcvictualling, ought to be speci-
lically agreed upon: but in default of express agreement, certain
conditions are implied by usage (p). Any serious violation of the
armistice by one party will justify the other in denouncing it, or even
in recommencing hostilities without notice (cy); but an unauthorized
violation by individuals will only justify a demand for reparation,
and, if wittingly committed, a demand for the ])uiiishment of the guilty
parlies i^/). If no special time is agreed on for the duration of the
armistice, either party may terminate it by notice (5-).
iv ) CapitukitloHS and Surrenders.- -A. capitulation is an agree-
iiicnr foi' the surrender of an entire army, a bodj- of troojDS, or a
fi)rtress, ujion conditions. Such conditions will necessarily vary ac-
cording to the relative position of the parties; but they must accord
wilJi the rule-- ot military lionour; and when once settled they must
lie sci'upiiliiiisly oliserved on either side (^t). Such an agreement niay
be entered into by any officer having a separate command; but, if
it contains sti])idations of an unusual character, exceeding the autho-
rit}- nf the nflicer in question — as where tlie victor concedes t^rms
more favourable than a surrender ''wdth the honours of war," or
where tlie van(|uished ('ommander agrees that his troops shall not
sO've au'aiii against the same enemy 1 y;V- then the capitulation will
need to l)e ratiticd either by llie s(i\-(M('ign authority or by the com-
mander-in-chief. an<l will be r(n(i(able it such ratification is re-
fused (,/). it is an iin])li<Ml condition that the capitulating force
shall nut (l(^<troy anv wmks. arm<, stores, or ammunition in their
])ri<s('>siMn. after the coucluvio)] df the agreement 1//). A surrender
during an engagemeiu is souuMinies indicated by a white flag; but
the most ollVctivc t(ikon. whetlun' with or without the exhibition of a
white llai;-. consists in the actunl l;i\ ino- down of arms ( :") .
Unsfaijcx. W ua-~ foiinerly tin* jiractice to take hostages as a
niean'< of securinu' the due t'ultilinent of compacts of war: but this
practice ha^ imw been c-(Mi(Mallv aba iidoiied. Hostages, however.
[,,) II. 1^ Ti : ilallcck. ii. :512; (.,-) I laU. -US— .')4!1. As to tho <_'api-
lall. 511 .•jI,-). iiilatiou (if VA Ariscli, see JlalL -548,
'o'^ II. W. :SS. and Hall.'ck. i. I'Ts : and. as to the
(;/) II. i;. oi). .\- to iiii|.lir(l ciiii- caiiitulatioii of \'crsailles, /■/;,>/. ii. ;319,
litioM^. .(c llallcrk. ii. :il I; Hall. n. "J.
ill ,f sri/. (i/'-i Holland, ^^"ar on Land. .")().
i Y ; 1!. I\. 10. l^;-) As to (/harnTS arising: out of
( ,■ ) 11. i;. 11 ; Mall. ."it"). a failure to ap{iro('iat<> this durinix the
(^,<; ) !1. K. :;(i. South Africa]] wai% see Baty, tnt-er-
I / ) II. K. :;,"). nationiii Law ij] South .Vfrica. 79
{[<) ilolla]Kl. Wai' on L;!ii(l. .'id. cf ^a/.
I(i2 Cases and (Jpoilons on International Laiv.
are >till taken to t'li.-urc the prompt payment of contributions and
reijui^iiiiins: or as a uuaiamee again&t in.-iirreetion ur uilier unlawful
at-l- in <_H:<-upied teriitury i a). Hut their u,-e to cijver a reueat. or as
a proteutiijn a!i-ain.<t leii'itimat^' hostilities, i-. in principle at any
rate, illegal, llosiages niay not in any case be put to death, atid
should be treated as [ui-uner-^ of war: allliLiUgh usually siibje';ted to
a more rigorous continenient ( /j^.
T[!E Ti{]:AT.Mi;M Ol' Till:: W'OUNDKD .VXD SiCK.
i ■ ( iidcr the ( ' iistijii'iirn Lair, — Lijug pri<ji" to the birih of inter-
national law. it came i<j be recognized that enemies disabled by
wt.iund- (jr sirkness ought not to be killed or illtreate<i ic). A further
advunee was made when the duly of nunistering to the needs of the
Avouiidel (.-anie to be tindertaken by religiotis bodies d ) . But it was
long' lief(jie thi- came to be re(;oc;'nized as a duty incumljejit on the
belliu'ereni- themselves. The .Swedes, tinder Luistavus Adolphus.
were pri'lmbly ihe hr.-t to recognize sindi an obligation, but it was
not uniii the l-Sth centur}- that its rei-ognition beianie general. Tliis
gradual t ran-frjnnation 'A what was oriL;dnally onl}' a ilictate of
humaniiv into a ]io-itive duty was due to the g'-rowth <jf humane
seniiiiH'ni. whiidi reprijbated generally the liarsher practii-es of war
thai had i liaraeterized lln' earlier jjeriod, even thotigdi they were ocea-
si'Ujallv r*'vi\'ed >' } . Bin here, as in rither branches of international
law. ilif tran-iliou wa- etter'ted laru-ely by the aid of treaties and
convfiitiMii- - / I. J']veii when the duly lame to be rei-ogidzod. how-
e\'ei-. tln'ic wa- at hrst iin atfeipiate organization for givini;- eliect to
iti^'. The 'niL:-in of ihe ])re-cnt system is piobablv traceable to
the humane im])ids*_'.- and etlorts of a number oi philanthropic
indi\idii;d- > it i au'l liijdi(_'> ' i k As the result of these ellort- a semi-
ollifdal ( 'oiiferem e wa- Indd at (Geneva in ISO;], which after i-areful
eoij-iilci.itiun I'eiMiiu.ii'udp.i that in all 'iiuntries rher<_' >]ioid'l be
e-iabli-lied :i n<'v,- ori^-anization. coniijri-in^- committoe- of sui-C'iur
fur 'lie -ii-k and A\oundel; and that all ambulaic^'s. lios]iital-. and
(''■ i Sic [., llu. ;,.//■. iii/.ation wa.s prohahly aiforded hy the
(A I Oil rlif suhjcct L'''':iiTallv. sop im])ri)veiiients of sysreni wrouirlit by
llall, 111. 1711: ( )|jp nlwini, ii. :U7 < • the Sanitary ( 'oiiiini.^^ioiL-; a])])<'iinted
.w , . . \\ . -rl;tk'\ ii. 10:;; and I iordwcll. by Oreat Jiritain durinir the C'-iinean
30.). war. and by the I'uited Staler durinir
!!"''- ■'■',,, r.,,.,,,i: ;,-•/,,..■ the Civil war.
althnii'j-h Thi~ wa.- f ri"|\i('iii I V disre- ( )• Sii'li as M. [Jiinanl. of (Irneva.
trard'-d in [irai'ti^-i'. th'' authij!- of Lr Siii<i-''>{i r d> .nV>/-
'' 'I'l.i- v.-i- tie' jiriinaiv obj.'ct ,,t' i,, ■:,,-,' wlu'di I'ecounred tlie ^uti'cr-
the Order lif tie' Teut'iiiii- K'niLdil-. intrs of the wounded after that batth'.
A- in til' r,r. aj'i I,,' ' c' i;.- i'ala- and i< ])r<jbalily one (jf thr few iiook.-i
tinat.e in 1»'.7! and lii^ti. tliat h:.'. e in'lie-ne.'d lie' -■••e;;! world
f ■• t r.i'twi'.-n l.')--l :i!'d i--ill. '-.one- nei\'i'n,i'nr'- .M . Arnault, in ''"ran'-e.
.3lM) military .'on\ -'Ht ion- aj.i....'ir to and l)r. I'a l.i -.-ian'i. in lta]\-: -ee
have been i'oni'lii(h-il, prN'.idinLT feu- llni'dwi'li. s!.
th«' -le-ioiir or j,r',t"''tiM;i nf th.' -i,'k i-': Sui'ii a- tie' ''cneva So'i"lv of
and wounded in war. I'ubl:.' Itilitv. urah i- the [.re^id.'uicv
("> 'l'i;e Hr-t ex:iin[il" of -u"h xr'sn- of .M . .Movnier.
Till' Conduct (if Will- on Laml. Kjii
rnoniliors oi'tho stall', together with thoii' assistants, sliuuld he iieuiral-
i/<'(l. suhject Uj the use ut sumo (jumiiiuu Hay or ha<l^e to ii<^ intci-
iiai idiiallv aii'reed on. The lii'si (ji these j-eu(annien(hitioiis hore I'niii
in tlie estahlislinienl .^omi at'leiuai'ds in dilierenl (-(Hinliies oi a
larye juiinber oi' \'ohiniary Aid socir'ties, ha\inL;' tui' theii' ohjecl ihi-
rehei <.)t the \\(jun<ied and sick in lime (jT war; whilst the st'iMuid re-
suhed iji the sununoiuny, tltroiiyh tlie luodiuiu oi' the Swiss (dj\erji-
nieni, ei the C'unj^ress whicli t'ranic(L tiio Geneva Convenlimi of 18') i.
I iij The- (iioievn (/uiivvntlon, 1>S<)4, and the Supplcmcnlary Con-
vention. lS()iS. -The Ueneva Conxejition ol' I8f;4. is notew(}rth\
both a> a tiilmte to tiie luunane spirit oi' the an-e that pro<iueed ii.
and as constitiitinu' the lirst ste[) towards the co(iilicati:ai of the
law lit land warl'are. 'idie primaples which it embodied. attJiong-Ii
ntju levi-ed an<l anu'nde<l. still cdnstitute th(> t'oundation of the
exi>tini;- law. Ihiellv and in ell'ecr — it iinj)os(Ml on i_((dli.'i';'i'(>ii;s a
po->iti\e diilv ot providing' all iiecessarv means i'or the pnitection and
sticciiiir (if the wounded and sick. These, whatever their taitionalitv,
were rcMpiired to bo collected and cartMl tor, and, on their recovei\
ami it until toi' t'urlli(>r servii-e. to l)e sent back to their (jwn cOuntr\ .
All hospitals and ambulances, as well as all per.sons emplo\ed in the
service ot the wounded ami sick, wore nou'tralized and pi'otected,
subjec: to their being- designated either by a distinctive Hag or
badge, as the case luight be, bearing the devieo ot a red cross on a
white g'round: this having been clnjsen not as a religitjus emblem
bui by way of compliment to Switzeidand i /r ). (AM'tain }iri\ilcg<'<
and inmmnities were also coid'orred (ni sudi ot the local itdiabitant-
as nught ail'ord succour and slndter lo tln^ wounde<l or sii k. I'lu.-
('onvention. although oriuinally adopted only by sixteen Powers,
was sub-e(|uentl\' lU'ccnled to by nc^aily ail ci\ili/ed Siaie-. aird i- si ill
in force a^ regards such ot the signaioiie- as ha\'e not acceded to il,,'
subse([uenl (.'(invention of liUiii. 'VAiv Conxcniion was, however,
marked b\' certain impe!'f(>ciion<. in so far as tlie terms in whi(h
ii v.as o\[)rt>ssed were in simu' r(>>pects iecxacl or amliiuaiou.-; whil-t
ii ma<le ici jU'ovisiun for naval war. In ISiiS. ;i fi'e-li ('onfennice
\\a^ ludd al (duKMa. with thi^ I'e-^ult that anoihiM' ('omeniion \\as
flamed, supjihaiient iiiiz' and i'evi--iiiL;' thai of ISO!, and exiending
il- ]iidii(dple.> to naval A\ar: Ijul thi- ( '(jiuention. although not wiiliout
il- iidluence on stib-eipuait ]naclice. was nevei' formally adiipi(>d.
Meanwhili\ with the laps(> of tiiiH\ lh(> eaidier Convenlioii wa-
found to ha\'e grown out of harmony \\ilh exi-ting tnilitarv ari'anL:'''-
meui- and condiiions. The whol(> subj(>ct came again under eon-
-ider.ition al 1 he llaLi'ue ( 'ontmumci' of ISi)'.'. with the re>ult thai a
i.t'w roiivention "lor tlu' adapialion of the ]»i'in(dples oi' tln^ CoMiex.i
( 'iin\ (Mition to maidlime wai'." Xo. •"> of IS'.i'.t. \\a- drawn up; whii-i
a ui-li was al<o (^xpr(^<<(^l thai a sp,i'cial ( 'oid'ertMice siionld be Mim-
ncined bv iIh' Swi-s (oi\iM-umen1 fur re\i-ii;g ihe ( 'on\ (Uit ion oj' 1SS4
with re-pe(d to land war. T!n> priij(>ct ^j^ rtwi^i'in was in I'ucl acct.nn-
('■ 1 .s,.- ( ; . c. I'.iim;, .\ri. 1 -1.
104 Cases and Opinions on Intcniational Lmv.
|ili>Jii'd iiv a I '(I life 10 11 CO liokl at c;euc\a in IDOd, which wa.s attended
h\ >nin(i thin y-se\('n States, and which prochicod the Geneva L"on-
veniion of llMMi. Finally, in IIHJT. tlie Convenlioti framed liy the iirst
Mau-iio C'onferent-e with respect to niaritimo war. \va- "oplaced by
the corresponding- Convetition. Xo. 10 of 1907.
iii I TItc (iciH'va (onvcnHo)) of I'JOG. — The more important pro-
\i-ion> of th(> Cleneva Convention of 190G may be grouped as follows:
( li The wounded and sick on cither .side are to be respected and
carc'l liir bv the belligerent in wliose power tlie\" ac'tually are;
ahiiniigh tlie duty is ini])0hed on a bellio-erent who is compelled to
aliaiidiin his woundevl of making-, so far as possible, due provision for
their ne<'d- fnna Iiis own stall' and erpiijiment i I). Xevertiieless, each
b('niL;-<'reni i< entitled, unless it has l:)ecn otlierwise agreed, to Injld
any Wdiindod or sick belonging to the enemy who may he in liis
power, a- jnisoners <jf wdVij/i). (2) A belligerent remaining in
possession of the liattlefield nuist take step.s to protect tlio wounded
and dead against maltreatment and pillage: and mtist. so far as
possible, examine and identify the dead prior to burial i )i). Each
belligerent i-- rec[uired to notify to the other the names and subse-
(pieiit fli-posal or fate c)f the wounded and sick left in his hands, and
to rcniirn the private property of those who may die To), lo) The
assistance of the local inhabitants may be invoked for the sttccour and
nur-ina' of the wounded, and special immunities niav be o-ranted
to tli()>e who respoiivl i ]/). i 4 ) Both '" mobile medical units " ^ (jj and
'■ fixed e-tablisliment.s '" i r) are to be respected and protected, subject
to their not lieinu' used for injury to the enemy i s-). i'.5 i All p«u'.-ons
exclusively (iigagod in the care of the wounded and siidc. iiudiiding
doc'ons and chaplains, are t-o be res])ected and })rotected ( /). Persons
so (MiL;'a':.:-ed cannot, if taken, be held as prisoners of war; althouL;-h
they mav b<> reipiii'i^d to discharge their functions so lono- as mav
be necessary, receiving, if members of the rec'ular staff, the ]iav irsnal
in ilic iaj)tor-" armv; but thereafter tliev must be .sent ba( ]<. tOG'ether
Avitli their |><M'-(iiial ]Uoperty. to their own armv or couiiti'\- ( //).
Meiiili(Ms f<\ \'oluntai'\ Aid societies auihoii/cd to aii In- their
( ■' i\ ernnieiii . and wlei-c names have been notified to tln^ o'jior liolli-
geient. arc placiMl on a >imilar footinu-. altliough the\' too arc suhjoct to
iiiiliiarv law ',/'). Xeutial .-ocieties assisting eithei- bclliu-oront must
('y Art. 1. if they falf into tlio liands of the
(y,i' Art. 2. cnoiny. may ho appropriatod, hut may
' '■ ' Art. 3. not ironcrally he (livi'rti'(] tn nthcV
{o Apt. t. uses; thr ^,>'" o' ,■:>/ of Ur],\ h<i>)>itaLs
(/' \i't. ■"). may alsu he tciiipucarily iisfnl for the
' '; TIm'-i' i'lr-lafl" ;ill OTU';! ii izati^>ns siimc purpose; whilst tlio >»■///>■><■/ of
-uch as iii'ld hi'-pitaU. whii'h foUow \-olunta.ry aid .-iii-ictics is .sul)joct fo
rh.' truup< int., the fii'hl: src IhiHand. rcipu<itinn: >i'p Arts. ]} - 1 fi ; and as
\\'ar oil i.aiid. 30. to tho tr(\atiiiont of convoys uf ovacua-
; ,• . 'rh>'.^(. inclnd-' ;iil •_'-rn.a-;d Iv.-- tir)n. Art. 17.
pir.:ils, wlif'tlirT aftuallv ni(j\al)lo or ;/- Art, !'.
not. stationed on the line, la' caiiniii!;!- (". Art-;. 12. i:"!.
•ati(ai- or at a lia~r>. ( .■- ) Art. 10.
c- .\it-. 0. 7. s. h'ixirl i,i)-;,ifals.
The Conduct of War on Land. lOo
lie aulliiiii/eil 1)ijI1i hy that Itelliyorcjit and by tiicii' own (Itjvernment;
and tlioir iianics iiuisl. 'dc notiiiod to the other l)ollig-crcnt i//). ( (i ) i-5y
wav of (•()iii])liiiieiit to Swit/.erhmd the d{ni((,' (jf a red cross on a white
i:riiuiid is retained as tlie (Mul)ieiu and distinctive sig-u of the medical
or husj)ital s('r\ic(' (^i. 'I'his mark is to be woiii, as a badge, b}' those
employed in that ser\ic(>. and also to be hoist(Hl, as a Hag, over all it.s
('-<tal>lish]iicnts under ((jnditions prescribed by the Convention (a) ;
wiiilst it is forbidden to employ that particular device, cither in jieaco
or war, for any other purpose ih). The signatory Powers undertake to
i<sue the necessary instructions to their military forces witii respect
to the requircnnents of the Convention; and to 1)ring- them to the
l\ni>\vh'dg(> (it' the civil ])opulation ( c ). They further undertake to
adopt all necessary measures for preventing either pillage or the mal-
trcatment (jf the wounded or sick, and for punishing' the improper
11-1- of Ihe Ked Cross flag and armlet by persons not entitled to its
protection (cZ). The Conference also put on record a desire that
(liihu'ence^ arising as to tin' interpretation of the ( 'onvention siiould,
if i-a--es and cii'cunisiaiH/es jicrinitted, be sulnnitted to the Permanent
( 'ourl ( c ). This ( 'onvention, it will be seen, marks a distinct advance,
iioth in foi'in and substance, cm the earlier Convention of 1804.
it ])rovides fur the policing of tiie batth'field, the identification of the
dead, and the recogniti(m of N'oluntary Aid societies; whilst it is
afsd, in its i(>rhnical parts, more in iiai'inonv with modern militarv
'■ondirions i /).
Pk]S')X1:KS Ot \\ AK.
I luk'r the llau'iu' Regulations })rison('rs of war ari^ to be regarded
a-^ j)ris{.)n(M's of tlu." Stale ;//i: th<'y niir-i be hnmanely troat(^l; and
are ai libo'tv lo retain all their personal beloiiuine-s, with the exce]i-
tion of arms, hoi'ses and militai'y papei'si/n. Every prisoner is
(yj Art. 11. the ])a<sinL;- thercot'.
(~) Arts. IS, li). 1'iii'kcy, Iimv- w, Art. -Jti.
i.'ver, ])ruj)oses to cDiuiiiin' tlic use ,■! . Ai'ts. 27. "JS.
of ttio tied Crescent, whilst unJiT- v ' ,i ^ci- the tinal protoi'ol nf the l.'un-
takinur to I'esjii'et the iuviuhiliili ty of \ciitioii: Imr (ii'cat l'>i-itaiii and .lapan
tiie Ixeil Cross. tli<l not .accept this: see an article by
K'l) Arts. -JO -l-l. Prof. Ilolhmd, F "vl niiihtly Uerhiv,
'!•) Ai't. •io. 'I'lie <lc^irc was to ]iri>- AuliusI, l!M)7.
\Mil its use for einnincrcial jiurpixes (/» it lia,- already l)ecn ratiiied l)y
i> a label or ti'adc niai'!<. (Jreat twcnty-on(> Stales, including- all the
!'>ritain. whilst a|i|ir(.)\ i ul.' the prin- irre.if I'owers. with the exception of
•iple. siirncd the ( "onx cntiim under f'rance; whilst it would apjiear. by
rc-ei'\al.iiin of this |iro\ i-inn. as well as \-irtue of Art. '1\ of the l\eu''ulat ion.s
if -uch provisions t>i Arts. "27 an<l 2S aKiic\e(l to the Conviiition, NH. t of
IS roipnre the siiriiatories to g-jvc |!l()7, to be biudintr on all the siLTiia-
• ■fiert to it untler the niucicipal law. t-orics of that Con\eiition, irrcs])ective
\i M'T'theless, by 1 ,v 2 li(i). \'. e. 2i), of it.s specilic adoption, althouirh this
the future use of the eiubleui of the is not univ<Tsally adnutfed; see
Ked Cross <in a white uroand i> for- liolland. War on Land, 27: and. irein'-
iiidden: savluL' tlie riu'li; of jirojirie- rally, llordwelb 181 cf ^f^l-
:ors who I'cL'istcrcd In lore the Act to (y; Aiul luit of the captor,
luitinue its use foi- foui- yars from (//) II. E. -4.
lot) ('((s('s <ui(l Oj)hiioiis oil Inh'niitlumal L
lift'
buuiul. if (luostioiu'd, lo (locluro lus true aamo and rank ( i). Tli.'v
art' to In' iulcnicd in a town. f(.)rtros.s, cajup or otlier ])laco; bui, umsi,
1101 lie ii!ii>ri-(UH^d. cxoopt in ^o I'ar and (ov so loii^^' as n''C(^^siiy r.'-
(jiiin'> ' /,■ ■. They must !)(> luaiiiiaiucd lyv lli;' CH.)VOrnnu;ul oi ttic
(■alitor, and. in dctauit of special a^'reeiuout between ilie belligerents.
vw the >ani,' I'D.itiny;'. as rei^-ards lund. ([uartcrs, and clothing, a- tlie
eapt(.ii"s (j\\n I'lirccs i / 1. In gcMiei'al tliev may be rtupiired to ^voriv,
but theii' iud<.> musi ikji be exce-^sive, or c;)nnectLMl with the o])era-
tion^ o!' the war. Tlicy may also b^' aiit-iiorized t^ work tor ]>id)lic
bodie-. pri\ale pei'.xin^. <ir {)\i their own account, receiving pay
accurdiim- to a scale indicati'd gcnc'rally by the regulations; in wliiidi
ca-e their earnings jirt^ to be applio(.l [') i!U|,)roviiig their position,
\\liil~i any lialaiicc. atKvr deducting the cost of tlieir maintenance,
will be payable to them on their release (//n. Officers are to receive
[)a\^ at the rat(>s in l'oi'c(> in llu." captor's army, this amount being repay-
able bv theii' own tiovernment ( ;n. All jirisonei's ot' war are subject
\(} llie miliiurv laws in i'((rc:' in the captor's Siaie. I''(n' insul^ordina-
tion. ie\-()|i. oi' c :in-<piracy I o ) they ai'C liable to pnuishment of such
.^everil\- as may be iiec:'Ssary : but. toi' attempts to escape. onl\- to
di.^ci])linary treatment; ^vllilst a prisoner who succeeds in escapine:
i< not liable to piinishmiMit if captured anew i /n. Thev iiia\- be
relea-ed on ])arole if the laws of their own country sanction fhi^.
Such release cannot be forced on a prisoner; but if accepted both he
aiul hi-^ Cb)\<Mumeid are bound t.o a .scrupulous observance of the
engaeeiiient ; and, on default, the former will, if rt;taken, forfeit all
right t(j be treated as a ])risoner of war and may also be tried befcn^e
the military ('ourts(c/). Wdien |){U'sons who follow an ai'inv without
belonging to it, such as newspa|Hn' correspojuleiits. sutlers, and con-
tractors, are captured. th(\\" are. if detained at all, ent it led to b(> treat (m|
a- prisoners of wai'. subj(>ct to their jxissessing u certificate from
the military autliorit i(!s of the army which thev were acconipan\-
ingi/''. A biirean of information is t-o be instituted l)v each of
the bcllitrercnts. and also in any neutral conntry wiiei'(> bellie'crent.
force- may be interned, for the purpos(! ol' alfordiug information as
to ilie (li-pii-al and I'ate of ])ri^oneis of wai'. I'his bureau i- also
re(piired lo <")llect all ol)j<'cts of personal u.se, money. l(>li<'rs. etc
found Oil ihc battlefield-^ oi' left by i)risoners who ha\e di(!d oi' been
relea-e<| or cxchanu'cd, and to forwai'd them lo those inter(\-;ted i .s ) .
.Ml po->ibb' facilities are to be li-iven t-i) duly <'OUsl it nt(^! I'elief
.vociclicsand 1 heir aLi'cnts. snb ject to certain prescrib(>(l condii ions i / ' .
(') il. i;. i». (i>) [l. R. 8.
(/■) II. 1!. ••). (,p li. i;. 10. 11, i'_'.
(/ II. !>. 7. (,■) 11. K. \:\.
('"I II. i;. ii_. (■■ 1 11. K. 1-1. A.-; ro the workiii-
( 'i ' II- I'- 17. of tilis luirc^in, under the cui'respoiHl-
(o, \^ ti. eiTtiiiii evi.ciif io;i; liy tiic jno- ( '..n vent ion of lSi)!t, (jurinu- the
r>riti~li rnilit.M-y .eil liorit ie. ,,,i' lln's ].' n.<M.-.l :i |,:ini-;e war. -.'e Tak.-iha-lii.
•/ sr,,
froiiiid (liirinir the lioer war. -.ee lli
l;ni(i. l,ctter< on War ami Neutrality. {/) ||, jj.
(It; i;^'
The Condiivl of War on Loud.
10<
The ordinary cliaro;x\s on loiters or purcols intondod for ])ri>((ii(M-j
arc 1o I),' \\ai\'i'd t // ) . I'risoiuM'.s ai'c Id oiijux' c )Ui|)lrt<' lilx'rix" ol'
worsliip. provided tlie\ iili.s;'rve the re^'idat inns for orih'r and pohce
issned hy the niihtaiy authority i ,/; i. Aft^er tlie eoaciusion of jx-ace
the repatriation of prisonei's must he carric^d out as spe(>dil\- as po---
sible^//); sa\(> as re<2,'aiHls tiiose who are detaine(l for (h'l>ts, coiumon
law erinies, and -as soiik^ contend oheiices a^'ainst discipline (.? i.
Tlie exchang'e of prisoners as hotwecMi fiie helli<>'(n'eiils is usually
reg'ulated by cai'tels ( c/ ) ; c(jnnnissari(^s h(Mng' appointed on eitlier si(h'
(u supervise their execution ( /;).
Mii.T'rAi{v At 'I'lioiu'i ^ ()\i;H llos-rii,]', Ti;ni{i'r()in .
"fh' liisl'nictii))) hcl /!-<'(')l " <Jcr-i( j, ,'('(! " mid " Xon-Oicii pied "
Tcnilur//. -The i'iij:-hts and duties of a ixdh'ueient invader over the
lu)siile territorv and its inliahiiauls vary j^'roatlv according' t(_» his
position. Mere invasion without occupation confers on hiiu only
rights over jxm'sous and proj)erty v.ithin his reach. Ihit if the in-
vasion is followed by occu])ation. he then acipures a t(M'i'itorial status
which— even though only teinpoi'ar\- and ])rovisio)ial in character -
confers on liim an additional pow(n' and authorit\' togethei' with
c(Mlain incidental duties; these lights and (luti(>s being the subject of
sp(>cial I'ules. which ai'e now embodied in the Iiagu(> Reg-ulations ( c i.
Finallw if the occu|)ation is followed l)y coiKpuvsl and annexation,
then th(> in\'adei- will beci)nie in\'ested witli the I'ights of so\(>reigntv
and dondnion; this being, however, a subject which Ijelong's to a
ditfereid doparlintnit (d' the lav,- of war id).
S(iii-()(Cii i>l('(l T end I (ir I/. -I'lio inhabitants of Ih" invaded terri-
torv, if noii-cnmbatants. ought not to be molested, and should be
])rote< l<'d aii'ainst spolintion and rapine. l^'amilv honour. th<' livivs
of individuals and ])i'ivat(^ proptM'ty. as w(dl as religious conviction.-,
and libertv of worship must be respecKvl ( d. I'illag'e is f(n'-
niallv interdicted I / 1. Xor can nationals be compcdled to take
part in operations of war direcu^d au'aiiist their owir counti'vi^';
or to fui'iush iid'orinat ion as to the arin\- of ihidr own couiitr\- or its
{») 11. R. It).
(.r) II. K. IS.
('/) 11. H. L'O: altiiouirh rlii^ wDiild
iidt aj)])ly l^o |iri<(i:ii'r^ wliu had l)i'-
comc <ul(iiN-r- of liic captoi' Start- i)y
aiiucxat iciii.
(- ) WCstlakc. ii. (ST. In ISTl Ct-
many claimed and cxi'rriM'il tin- riL.'lit
lit (li'tainini: |)ri<i)nt'i-< cnnx id I'd iil'
(li-( i |ili na i-y ottVnri'S unlil tln'y li;cl
fiilli!lr(l their scnt(>nrt's; hut nn
mere disciplinary ott'enccs. with the
t-crniiiiatii)ii (if the war. As to war
criiiH^s, sec ]i. I ] t, iiii ,-ii .
(" ; llallcck. ii. ;52(i: iyiini. p. ITD.
( h < As to rlie usutil t(>niKs of e\-
chan^-c ;in<l as to controver.sics that
have arist'u in rehitiou thereto, siv
Hall, 4()S.
(' ! Sec S.M-t, III, Arfs. 12- .")ii;
alrliuuu-h this sectiKii really iiichul^'S
siinie r(^L;ailatiotis tiial apply cipiallx t'l
the concUrsioii of the Ivusso-Japanese " iion-ocoupicxl '" t-erriturv.
war no such (daiiii appears to litivi
heen made. tn [iriiiciple it would
M'cm that thi> ri^dit of detention comes
to ail emi. at any rat^i^ as rotrards
('/) ^^ov^ ].. 2:
(r) II. K. -u;.
(/) II. K. 17.
{[/) If. R. 2o. ])ar. 2.
108 Cki-'ses and Opinions on International Laiv.
means of dct'ouco (^/?). For the rest, however, the inhabitauts of the
invaded territory will be subject to all risks incident to the conduct
of hosiililies. Tlie seizure of property by the invader, whether as
tlie properly of the (Mieuiy State, or as being required for military
u>e. is subject to similar rules to those which apply in the case of
' (ic-cupi<'d ' territoi'v [i).
OrcujiU'd Terrltnrn : The Scope of Occuiiufhii. L'nder the Hague
Krgulations territory will be deemed to be '"occupied"' only when
it is actually placed under the authority of the invader; and the con-
seipuuices of occupation will only apply where such authority is
establisluMl aud can he exorcised (^i,-;. This serves to make it clear
tliat '■ ncciipaiioii." if it is io carry the rights which attach to it under
the law of war, must bo supported by a forco sufficient to maintain
tlie authorit\- of the occu])ant (?; ; and that it will terminate at rlie
point at which that force ceases to be eU'ective. Hence, a belligerent
cannot claim to <>.\iM'clse the rights of an occupant merely by pro-
claiming territory to be in occupation; nor can he extend the limits
of a genuine oc(!ui)ation l)y claiming to be in "constructive occupa-
tion of a<ljoiiiing territory where his autlun'ity is not iu fact etfec-
tivei;/n. ActN doix; oiit-sldc these liiuii-s. <>\(mi though otherwise
within tln^ compelence of a belligerent, may be annulled on his with-
drawal { )/ }; whilst, iu so far as ihcy are incapable of l)eing annulled,
they w(juld ail'ord a gootl ground for a. claim foi' compensation, which,
having regard to the terms of the Hague ('onvention. would not
appear to be alFi'cled by the conclu,sion of peac<Moi.
Tlie legal efjeels of ()cci(piil'K)it .- 'I'hcn^ has Ixmmi much variation
of tlicorv and practice, as regards th(> elfects of militarv occu])ation on
tlic riglits aud duties of the occu[)ant i /;). Hut if is now gencu'allv re-
cognized as confei-ring on the occupant only a tempoiaiv ur ])ro\isional
status, which has the eHect of suspending the authoritv of the h>giti-
mat(> (_Io\(Maiment within tlie s])hei'e of occupation, and of inv(>sting
the oceu])ant with c('r1ain powers and responsibilities, which rest in
part on military necessity and in part on tli(^ abeyance for the time
being of all other autiioritv ( ^). These are shortly: (1) a rii;-ht,
which is however attend(Ml by a correlaliy<^ duty, to ))rovide for the
iiii\ c 111 n lent of the bM'ritoiv in <pies1ion ; (2) i\ right to exercise control
ovei' the inhabitants; and i .'! ) a right to iifili/c the resources of the
f // ) II. 1.'. II. I M'i-ri;.iiiy, Iviis.-^i.i. (h .\s to tlic ;iiial<)L;y nf liliickadc,
.\\istria, [liinL!'ary. anil .lapaii siLTiicd sec p. 10(i. 'mii-n,
under rcsci-vat ion of this .\i'ticlc: sim^ ( ;,/ ) Hall, ITS.
(Icliand. W;n- on Land. ,V;, ,\< to tlic ,^,^ ^^ ,,, f,,,, ,.,,uinlni.Mit ..f acts
-.•ncral .-niir... ,,t <l isr,,ssi,,n ,,n ihcsc ,^,„„, j„ ,.^,.,„, ,,,• ,,„. ,.j„.||,^ ,,,• ,,,,,,|,_
Ai-tiidi'S, and as to ••nni|iids()i'y "'inploy- tiancv, ^I'o ;,//,,. p '',"),)
mcTit as LOiidixs. <('(i I'cai-ci- I I icro-in.s, ' ' , , ,
■'i;.') it "I'f/ *"-* wIhtc taxes had hecn rol-
'"<,; 'i'he 'o.^lrirtion^attachia- to fl,(. l'-'-te(l oufshh' the limits .d' aetual
more stable position I.eintr neeessarilv "e.-npaney. S.^e II. C.. No. 1 of MM)?,
implied as reirard- the h..s sfahle. " ^ '■' • •!•
(/■, S<.- II. \l. \-l: and as to the ear- ' /" I'''"- "':>• "'•'■ ''i^'-
liei- lu^tomaiy law, Mall, 47fi. (7; Hall. It;:}: Latifi. ]:].
The Conduct of War on Land. 109
countrv so far as military uoods may roqijir(>. and suljjcM'f to the
conditions and limitations nuMitionod holowir).
( 1 I 'ihc ri(jh/ to ;/()Vcr)i. The aulhority of the legitimate (tovern-
miMit parses temporarily inio the hands of the oaaipant. The laltx^r,
however, is expressly forbidden to exact any oath of allei>ianee from
the })opulation of the occupied territory (s). He is also required
to take all steps in his power to establish and ensure so far us pos-
sible i)ublic order and safety, whilst respecting-, unless absolutely
prevented, (he laws already in force (^). In effect, this means that
in all matteis ad'eeting' the safety of the army of occupation and the
.-.U(C(>ss of its operations, the territorial law is Hable to bo replaced
b\- marlial law. in the sense and subject to the conditions previously
des(iibe([ i ^/ ) : although in other matters the territorial law, and es])c-
cially lliat part of it which affects the civil relations of the inhabitants
lo each other, oughl not to be interfered with(.r). In the matter
ot judicature, also, a belligerent in occupation may, so far as mili-
tary needs r(>([uire. r(q)laco the ordinary courts by military eoui-ts
and procedure; but in other respects he should allow the fijriner to
continue their functions, and may not even require tliem to exercise
their functions in his namei//). In the matter of administration,
suprenn> control neeessaril}- p;i.ss(^s to the occu})ant. althoiio-h he is
required to conduct it, so far as possible, on the same lines as before,
and when practicable through the agency of such of the local officials
a-- are willing to remain. From such ofhcials the occupant may
(>xact a limited oath of obedience, as, for example, not to use thase
powers to his detriment; but he cannot require them to exercise their
powers in his name, or re(piire tluMU to do acts that conflict with their
duty to their own country i^i.
(2) The control of the iiihahitantH. -Although the o(-ciq)ation of
enemy territory confers on the occtq)ant a right of stipreme control,
this, resting as it does on avo\v(Hl force, does not carry any duty of
obedience on the part of the inhabitants except such as may be
dictated bv prudenc^M (/ 1. In the excn-cise of this power the occu-
pant (iommonly treats all a,cts of hostility against himself as ]nrnis]i-
abb'. Act.-^ already forbid<len t.o non-combatant.s by the laws ol'
war. such as the killina' or woundine- of his soldi(n's. the destructiou
ot roads, bridges, teleu-raphs, tlie wn^cking of trains, and the burn-
(/) Iiiif'i. ]i. llo. draw of their own afcord or are sus
(.v) II. Iv. 45. pended by tlie oei-u[)ant. As to the
(D II. Jy. 43. different olasse.s ot otHeials and theii-
('/) Suiirii. ]>. .")!. oblitratious in tliis res|)eet, .see I'lOrd-
(.'■) Tlii-^ is ]in)l)al)I\' tiic iiieanini:- well. odT r/ ,v/'7 .
(if II. Iv. 'J))(Ii). previously nl'i'ri'i'd {r\ Some writers, iedet^d, assert a
tii: see p. S-k s.ifirn. letj^al (tuty of ohedieiiee on tiie ])art
( '/ i As to a disjiute (Hi this sul)i"''t of the iiiJialiitaiits. a.pa rt from t hi> fni'c-
and an appropriat-<> method of sulnt inn. which compels this : whilst (i h'l-s limit
Mc llall. t71 : and Oppcnheim. ii. I'll. thi< t-o such acts of the oecnpant as
i;i for this rcasd;:. tiic hiudiei- ai-e <iirectcd tn the mainteii;nic<' of
piilifical ofHci.aU and railway and trie- j)ul)lic order: <!■<■ r.Di-dweil, oOO.
c-raph ofHeial< aliii.wt invarial)Iy with-
110 Cases and Opinions on International Lav).
in^- of sokliors' .st.<.)res ijr (|U;u't.LU's, are iiivdriably prohibited under
till' iieiialiy \ii death. Other act-, such as spviiiy ua the occupant,
iiii.-leadirm' his irooi)s, or ;u;-ivin^' iutorniation to the enemy, even
ili'-u^-h uoi lorliidden hy the hiws ol war, are made simihirly puni.sh-
aiil". Tlie iidial.iiianu- ot districts in wluch .sucli oU'ence-; are eom-
iui;!.('d, juoreovcr, may be held collectively responsible; although
ihi- is now sidij^'Ct to the restriction imposed by the Hau-ue Regula-
tions, which provide, in eiieet, that no general penalty, pecuniary
or other\vise. shall l)e iidlicted on the population at large for act.s
Mono by individuals, exi-ej)t on actual or presimiptive exidenee of
knOAvh'dii'e or c jnnivance i 6 s . The use of hostages on trains, in
wrdcr to prev(uii traiu-w recking- by the iidiabitanrs of occu])ie 1 terri-
tory, i- in [)rineiple permi»iiile. althotigli generally reprobated and
!itil<' iikel}' to prove elhcacious in practice ici. But if the inhabi-
tants rise in insurrection. Avhether in laro-e or small Ijodies, they
> annoi. claim t-o Ije treated as legitimate combatants ('(Zi: although
ihi- would not apply to a case where the occupation was in fact
-liown to be inelfective ( c ). All arms and Jiumitions of war are
KMjitired lo be delivered up; and the mere possession of arms is
mad<-' an offence. LeaviuL;- the territory to join the forces of the
c]ien:iy may als(; be forbidden, and is often punished, although im-
]ii'0].M.'rly. by vicarious ])enalties. Troops may be ([tiartered on the
local iidiabitant,s. The services of the latter may also be reipii-
-itioned (/ 1; although it is forbidden, as Avell in occupied as in non-
wfcupiinl territory, to compel them to take part in operations, or to
ui\-(^ information, against their own country (g^.
' ■'! I llie n^e of the resources of the country: (a) The seizure af
..rDfi'-riji. — Immovable property belonging to the enemy State, in-
■liidiiig {jublic buildings, forests, and agricultural undertakings, mav
lio taken jxjssession of; althouQ'h the occupant, in such a case, will
illy be dcfuned to acpiire a usufruct, and must administer the pro-
pfrty aceordiuL'' to the rules of u.snirurf ih '. Cash, funds and realiz-
'bh' s<>curities ( ?■) belon^'ine- to the State rnay also be seized and
ippropriated, too-ctlier Avith de]:)6ts of arms, means of transport,
-U)r'.'> Ami suj)plies, and such other property as may be of ti<o for
'' Such, at Ic'jvt. i< ciiiicciN-cd to hf not to impair it- sul)?t;uir-r. ; coe 11. R.
■'"'■ Miti'ii' (,i' II. !;,, .',(1. for the ai'tiial .35: aiul .Just. Iii>tituti's. ii. 4.
•■ ri!;-; ''f \yliirli .,.;• App. ii. Sec ai-O '', /V,'<,/,-.v r.r i ■/;/,/■ ^. would ap-
^' •■■! i:!!;i- ii. !*•). jifar to irichide only dohts which
'' iSur -(■(■ r.ordw;'!!. :;fi.'): and a< roipiiro for their exaction jio more
■o tiicir u-c ill the I'raii'-o-i ;crnia;i than the jiroduetion of the instrument
var and in tiiC South .Xtfican war, of indehtedness ; for the occu]>ant lias,
'''■'/ •'!• I'll. so far. no riLi-ht l>y virtue of .succession,
i 'I A- 'hey would ii; iioii-occupied a nd h(uice TH ) riirlu to do a 11 V aet wliich
■err-He-y; ~ec II. I;. 2. is personal to the ei-edi'toi- State,
-^ ■ \vlr rr' the r i - i 1 1 - !^..ul's iu \evertliele>s ..ome writer- rei^-ard tlie
he expuMoii of the invader. teiuu as inrludine- all dehts <,w;ne- U)
' f '■'"'. p. M-J. the inva(h'<l State hy persons under
'•' ■-■";■'■"- p. 10, -s. the control of tie- occupant : --ee W'e.st-
'"c;l i-. in c,ci: ,1 liianier a^ hdo'. :i . I (i;{ : Latifi.25: iiorrl well. 3:24.
77/6' (Jnuducl of War on [jawL 111
Jiiililai'\' n|i(M'alioii^ I A" ' . But projx'rtv l>i'l(iii<^-iiiu' ti» loc.il Ixidics. or
to iii^lii uiioiis (l(_'itiCiilo;l tu ri'li^iioii, sciiMujij, urt, chiiriiy, or cdiica-
tiou, even iiioiiu,li ull iiiuilf'ly ve.sk,'d in tho State, iulisL bo ii'o.m.'d a.s
!)ii\at(> property : whilst tlio .seizure, destruction, or iuleutioual in-
jury of historical nioiiuiuont.s or works of art or science, is (jxpressiy
f()rl)id(J(-n I / 1. As rcu'ards piivute [)roporl\', all t'ornis ot ])iila^'v' are
rdrnially p'rohilijicd i /// i ; and it is •exj)resslv provided tiiat pri\ate
property .shall not lio couliscatcd ( « ). This apparent innnunity is,
!ii)wev<'r. suhject to ctinsi<_lera1)le (pialificat ir)u. Ijand and liuildinus
'leloniiini:- t(i private own(>rs may he temporarily used hy an in\'afler
iwr purposes rt^piired liy miliiury neco.s.sity. And, apart i'roui cases
-uverned hy maritime law i o), an invader may also seize arms,
ammuniiiun. and all oiher kinds of war material, even tlioufrh hfdonii'-
in:^- !.ii piivaie persons, as w(dl as any appliances for the transport of
per-ons or u't»o<ls hy land or .sea or air (, p ) . But if any such pro-
periy i- seized, ii must, if still in esse, he restored on the restoration
(if peace: whilst in any case an indemnity must be paid in respect of
its use or eonsumptiun, althoug'h it is apparently left to the treaty
<)f ])eac(> t(j (!(>ternun(^ hy which ])arty the indemnity shall be
paid Uy e In addition in this, private property is subject to con-
tributions and riMpiisii inns, and to |)enalties imposed by military
authority, unchu' the i-inidi' ions described belewirj. The invader
may also seize and use neutral projterly t(Mnporarily found within
his jurisdiction: althiiuii'li >u!)iect t(i a duty of restitution, if that be
|)osvil)l(\ aft(M' the need toi' it has eeas(Ml. ;iud, in anv case, subject
to lh{> pavmont of a ])nip"r indemnii v ( .'-• c
(1)1 I'lw culh'c'hi) of /f/.rc-s'. - The llati'in.^ Regadations, whilst not
ex])re.-sly ciuif.'rriiiii' on thp ■)ceu])anl a right to collect taxes, wet
r!^couniz<' the practice of deiie^' so: and, on this assumption, prcjvide
thai if the occupant collects taxes, dues and tolls, ''imposed for the
heuiMit of the State" (/i, he shall f(dlow, so far as possible, the rules
nf assessment and incid.'m/o ])r(>yiously in force, and shall also defrav
the expenses of administration to tho same extent as the loii'itimatc
('Oxcrnmont was bound tndoi//).
K'l I'hr Icri/ nf e^n/frihu f i.'n/.'^ a'lUl rcijiil^itinns. — ( 'ontrilaitions are
payments in morrey, over and above the ordinary taxes, levied bv a
hellii^erent on the inhabitanis or (Mi localities within his control,
.■"'uch contributions may new bi> imposed only for tho needs of the
(C; II. R. 53. cot-dition^; prcseril)e(l hx {he pros-ait
{'•' .Viicl i<, indeed, made jKMiai ; articde: sec J5ordwell, 327.
![. i;. .V;. (V/i TI. R. 53.
I ,') II. W. 47. (/•) hit,-", p. 1T2.
'■■'■' II. R. )(!. :s) A.^ t-> the ca-e of railway stnck
' ■' .\< tn whirh. SIT [). 131. •I'lni. and sulmiariiic cables, see ji. "iiiS-i),
,." 'i'h,' cfrrct of tlii< apc",irs to U- niim. s.il, },,,,n. Aiiirarv.
■'lar sca-Lroin;,'- vessels, which ari' nrdi- (i) Thus hy iinjilie'ation "xeludin^-
-.arily the subject of niarititiie capture. his ricrht to levy rates imposed l)v local
lay al-o he seizefl liy hnid \'nvyr-i. if autliorities : se*-- IloHand. W iw on
- ).iiid within their reach, under the Land, 54: Wostlake, ii. 9t.
(") !1 R. 4S.
112 Cases and Opinions on Tnternafinnal Law.
aiim, ui' to iiioof the expenses of administration, and not for the
mere luiipusc of enriching- the invader ^x). They can only be levied
iiii<l<'r a written ord^T and on the responsibility of the Oommauder-
iii-Cliicf: tJK'y juust he levied, as far as possible, in accordance with
the iiih^s as of assessment and incidence previously in force; and for
e\eiy coiit ribntion a icuinpt must be given (^?/). The last condi-
tion, lunvev<'r. d(H>s not carry a rig-lit to indemnity, whether ag-ainst
the belligeicnt iuxadei' or the territorial Power; althoug-h reim-
biiis(Mn<Mil is fre(pienih' made by the latter with a vicAv to erpializing-
the biases of war. Re([uisitions are demands made on the inhal)itant^-
(,ir on localities, either for articles, such as food, clothing or instru-
m<Mils of lrans])ort: or for services, such as tlK)se required of labourer.s
and (bivers. or those involved in the working- of the railways, posts
and telegraphs (^). Requisitions may be made on the authority of
the ( 'onnnander in the locality occupied; but they can only be made
for articles or services needed by the army of occupation; and must
not be out of proportion to the resources of the country, or such as to
involve the inhabitants in an obligation to take part in "military"
operations against their own country (a). It is expressly provided
that sup])lies in kind must, so far as possible, be paid for in cash,
and that in default of this a receipt must be given and payment made
as soon as possible (b). This regulation, it will be seen, althoug-h it
expresses the desirability of paying for supplies in cash, does not
impose any s])ecific obligation to do so. It is. however, generalh
politic on the part of the belligerent to pay for supplies in cash,
because it produces a more ready compliance with requisitions:
whilst he can generally indemnify himself for the payment by levving
a contribution on the district at large. If this is not done, then the
(picstion of payjnent ought strictly to be arranged for by the treatv
of ])ea(C. Demands for contributions, and also for requisitions of an\
magnitud(\ are usually addressed to the local authorities. Avho are
required to apportion the levy amongst the inhabitants, and to .ser
that the demand is complicHl with. Compliance is sometimes enforced.
hitfr (11/(1. b\- the takino- of hostao-es (c).
\'i(j],.\rj(i.\s oi Tiii-. [..vws .v.xj) Crsio.Ms oi- \\'.vi{ .\x!) rwv.w:
Ri;mi:dy.
The law-- 111' war ma \ be violated either b\- a l)ellig<M'ent (Govern-
ment, as where hosiililies are cfimmenced withoul due notice, oi' sonn-
^■ ) II. h' . lit. \< til \\\i' iiii-pai'- duos not apjicai- to rxclinlc lal)oiir on
iim" u,-c ot' tlii.< riulit liy thr (mtiikuln riKuis. hrid^rrs. and I'ailways, v\vi\
ill ilic \\ar uf Is7i). -II' ri;iri!-,'.rl;. itC. iliouf,''li it may rcl.atc to inilitar}
("I 11. i;. .■>l. operations: sc 'Wcstlakc ii . 101.
(■ , .\ltlion-h oiilv in M, lar a- this (!,) 11. R. .V2.
i- n-piiml t'cr niilitary piir|io-^c^. [<\ Scop. Id I -2, .v. /,./■' .and , on fin-
f") Sit II. i;. .V2. wiiiih i- \vo!-d-d Milijrct i^Tncfa 1 1 V . Wr-tiakc. ii. S."] / ,•
!<•<< strictly than II. 1!. H rcla1i\i' to -■''/■: ( •piiciilicini. ii. Is:; /■! .svv.
pri-oniT-" lalioiir i.w^^,,v/, |i. Kk;,. and
The Condurl of War on Land. ll.'i
unliiwful iuoiIkkI of warfare, such as ])riva1ooriii(j;', is resorted to: or
hy a belligerent coiniiiaiKler or the forces uikIch" Jiis contrc/l, as wlierc
([uartci' is i-efiiseil, oi' forbidden weapons aie employed; or 1)\- indi-
viduals, either without oliicial sauetion, or in cireunistances where
no oihcial sanction will sidlicc to exempt the individual wron<;'-docr,
as where parole is broken or assassination attempte<l. By the Jlag'tio
Convention, jS'o. 4 of L'.)()7. Art. o, it is provided that a ixdiio-orent
who violates the rej^ulations shall, if the case demand. I)e lialde to
make (!om])ensation; antl also that each belligerent shall be respcjn-
sible for all acts conuuitteil by persons forming ])art of armed
forces ((/). liul these pro\isions, although \alual)le as attesting the
obligatory chai'actci' of th(^ I'cuulatioiis. provi(l(> no maidnncM'v wh(M'(d)v
the obligation may be gi\en elfect to. As regards violations l)v a
belligerent tiovei'iimeni, a remedy may in certain circumstances be
found in a resort to reprisals ( <?); but in a case where rej)risals would
not iil'p',^ ^'1' iivail. rcdief can only be sought in protest and bv
upjieal to the judgment of civilized States (/). The (dhcacy of
such an appeal, as a deterrent, is even now i]ot inconsidei'able.
and will ])robably gi'ow in strength as time proce(!ds, botli on ac-
count of the increasing fear of neutral disfavour, and for the reason
that in so far as tlu" I'ules of war are now embodied in convention
all signattu'ics have a conuiion interest in ensuring their observance.
As regartis violations by a belligerent commander or the f(jrccs
under his control, protest may be mad{> either to the commander
himself, or to the belligerent Ciovernment; whilst in default of satis-
faction, and in extreme cas(\s. recourse may bo had to reprisals ( ryV
These consist in acts of retnJiation — not necessarily similar in clia-
ractei' to the acts c()niplainod of- -whi(,-h ai'e e.vercised eitlnu' au'ainst
persons otherwise innoccnl. as where ])risoners of war ar(^ put to
death: or agaiirst ])ro])<M'iy. as where villages or lioirsos are destro\-ed
on account of olfences comndited in or near them. Ihit reprisals can
in general oid\- be authori/.e<l by the ( 'ommand<'r-in-(dii(>f : and shotdd
onh' be i'esorto<l to afiei' cai-(>ful in(pdry iido and on (dear ])i'ool' of the
violations coniplained of. and in cases Avhej'C no (Mhei' rc^lress is oli-
lainablo: whilst, they ouudit not in any cas(> to exc(M'd in scnerilv the
acts c(uni)lained of(//>. .\s reu'ai'ds violations by iiidi\idua Is. these
oiio-lit to be punislu^l b\' iIh^ bcl lio'ortuit to whose foi'c(>s ih(> oHendei's
b(donu'. (Mlhei' of his dwn nioiion. oi' on complaint and pi'oof b\' the
I'lher belligerent (/ ); whiUl if the onendiu's. not havine- Ixmmi alr<'ad\
punished, are subscquiMit ly captured and can 1)0 identified, tlnn' m;i\
(rl I j"lie^(> [)i'Ovi.><iiiiis xsoiild ;ii)[)('ar war in 1904, altliougli in tliat ("cr
in principle ti) he rijiially a jiplii-ahlc t(i pnihahly unfnundcd: see p. .y .-•■,,■.
hi-i-ichcs lit' III her ( 'nini'iitiiiii- iM'lntiiiL;- (,'■/) .Vs to the jiossihh' puiii^hinent
to the cdndnrr nt' war: see llolhind, ot' the conunander hiinselt' i 1' '-a pt iii' il .
War on I. and. I!t. .-ee Oppenheini. ii. olll.
(.^ As in the ease ^^\y•vr niie helli- (Ai' lloHaiid. War on Land, i; 1 :
irerent has reronrse to ineL:-iriniate Westlake. ii. 1 t '2 : < )pnenhei in . ii. :!ii.'i.
iiletliods of warfare. [i) See 11. C, Xo. ' 1 ..| i!Ml7, Xi't,^.
;' Sin-ii as that made hy liu-sja ], :j ; also C (. I'Mlii, Ar'. 'JS.
nil the outlu'eak of the llusst)-.)apanese
C.I.L. I
114 ('(($(>; ami (tjiinion^ on I at er national Laii.\
tio i)unis]iod by tlio lioUigerent aggrieved. In the matter of punish-
iiieiit. llie facT of -siuli illeg-al acts having been done by official orders
will not in general suffice to exempt individuals who are shoAvn to
have been implicated therein; unless, indeed, the act was collective
and it> illeg-ality not sufficiently obvious to be capable of being
appreciated by individual soldiers (A').
War Crimes.
The term '' war crimes " is commonly applied to acts done by
individual- or bodies of individuals, which, whether legitimate or
iKit a- aci< of war. will expose those who do them, if captured,
K) puni<hniejit. as distinct from mere detention. These include
( 1) acts of war committed by unauthorized persons, as where uon-
(xinibatant- ejigage in hostilities or the inhabitants of occupied terri-
tory ri>e iji insurrection ; i 2j acts forbidden by the laws of war,
whether committed by combatants or non-combatants, such as assas-
sination, marauding, and treachery in cases where the laws of war
imply good faith: and loi acts not forbidden by the laws of war,
but made penal Ijy reason of the menace which they involve, such
as espionage, attempts to induce desertion or betrayal, and the in-
tentional misguiding of troops (7). AMien punishment, other than
capital, has been inflicted for such offences, it Avould seem that it
i- strii'tly not vacated by the restoration of peace O/M.
KXCLKSUS ll.-THE COXDUCT OF WAE BY SEA.
WITH SPECIAL EEEEKEXCE TO KECEXT CON-
VEXTIOXS.
TiJi: ScopF. OF Maritime Wahi-are.
Till' coiKlu'-t (if wai- bv sou includes iint (iid\' tJioso lueasuros of
"liciHc and (li'lciKc which are cniniiiun to war both by land and sea:
lull al-n ilie x'i/ii 1 (.' a in I a] )pru])riat ii Mi of oneuiv morchain vessels, and
1.1 sca-iiMiiie i^iiud.- bidonii-'iiiu' t(_> the enemy anil nol protected l)y the
neuiral llaL;; a- \\(dl as il)(> vi-it,aiid search of neuli'al merchant vessels
a I id 1 lieir '-ai v'le-. a lid ilie aji])r(ii)ria!ioii of suidi nl' tliem as inay jirove
t( . lir (.ii^a'j"d ill ail < \\ hit h a b(dlic'erent is entitled t,i I'estrain . HiMice.
I I: \~ ill i-;i--<'~ (if illcLMl lioinbard- tlii- kind. :in<l also — altlduu'li in this
iiKiit c.r il"vast:iti(iii; >(■(■ llnllaiid. ca^r iinjin)|irr]y ntFcric('< i (inniiirt('<i
War nil Liiiid. till. by tlio iiilialiirimrs aL'aiii^T an arinv m
(/. ilall. 110: 'i'aylwr. .V;.') : Oppcu- nc(aijiatiiin. On tlic suliji-cr af ■■ war
Iii'iin. ii. :30!i. 'I'iic Kaaii '"war trfasun." sec Oppcnlicini. ii. 31-i;
trca-'iii '" alt!iii!iL'-li in -trirtnc~> tlicro Westlakc, ii. 9(1.
i-aniiia lie tri"i-uM a- Kct wi 'I'li cnfmics ' „, ( Ijiiicniiciin. ii. 'JTn.
- -i.i .-oinetinie~ ti-cd to cover acts of
Ihe Conduct of War hij Sea. 115
although the conduct of war by land and sea is governed in some
respects by similar rules (a), yet the latter possesses certain distinc-
tive features, which are attributable, in part, to the different condi-
tions under which it is waged; in part, to the retention of the right
of capturing private property; and in part also to the fact that neutral
interests are here more largely and directly involved than in war
on land. These form the subject of special rules, which may be said
to constitute the maritime portion of the law of war.
The Di-velofmkxt of a L.v\\ oi- Maritime W.vrfare.
The development of a law of maritime warfare resembles, in its
general outline, that of the law of war on land. But there are also
certain notable differences. In the first place, the emergence of
detinite customs regulating belligerent action on the sea began much
earlier: for the germ of these customs is to be found in those bodies
of maritime usage which — long before the rise of international law
and in deference to the influence and cosmopoHlan connections of the
merchant class— established themselves in difl'erent parts of Europe,
and wore even recognized as having the force of law, as then under-
stood, irrespective of national boundaries (7j). In the second place,
the customs of maritime war, although Ihcy did not escajDe the atten-
tion or the influence of the text writers, were developed more largely
than any other branch of international law by the action of the Courts,
and especially by the Prize Courts which were established at a com-
paratively early period in different countries for the purpose of de-
ciding on the validity of maritime captures. Finallj-, in the various
customs relating to maritime war, and especially in those that touch
on the relations of belligerents to neutrals, we notice an even greater
divergence in the practice of States or gi'oups of States than in those
affecting land warfare: for which reason the task of establishing
uniform rules by way of cimvention was attended by greater diffi-
culty; and liad. indeed. ])rior to the Dcchiintion of London, achieved
a smaller nieasure of succ(>ss (>V It will, liowever. be convenient, at
the present stage, to exclude from our consideration those parts of the
law of maritime war which are especially <'oncerned with the relations
of belligerents and neutrals, as 1)eing more appropriate to the sul.)ject
of neutrality.
The Sources ov the Fxts'itno Law.
The I'ules o-nveniing the comluct of wai' bv sea also cmnju'i'se
a \vi'iMeu and an unwritten ohMucnt . The former consists of lulos
imw^ iMubodied in various intoi'natinnal Conventions and Ueelarations,
whil-t the latter consists of rules that still rest on custom and mari-
" ] h,i,-<i. ]i. 11(5. 39 ''f sri/.
! f< I .Vs to thes(> early iiiai'itinH> [r) On tlic suhject trciR'rallv, soo
.■ndi-r>, st'o Maunintr, 15 ef si/j.; 'I'aylnr. \\'estlaki\ ii. 120 f'f Sfv/. '
i2
116 rVy-sr-s- and Opinions on Jnteniational Loir.
time tradition. There are, however, some rules derived from each
of these sources whicli apply equally to warfare on sea and laud. So,
the Derlaiation of Si. Pet(Mshurg. 18G8 (d). and the Hague Declara-
tions (o. are applicald<' to both kinds of warfare. Again, there
arc ruk's- such as those jjrohibitijig as.sassinati<ui. poi<oiiiiig and
the refusal of ipiarter. and those regulating- the ti-eatin(;nt of
])ris(iiicis of war- which hav<' now l)een reduced to writing as regards
war on land hut which siill aj)ply in their customary form to warfare
hv sea(/'). With resjiect to the Avritten element, this comprises the
following interualioiial Acts and Conventions: -(Ij The Declaration
of Paris, liS.Ki. which, although maiidy concerned with the relations
between iHdligei'cnts and neutrals ( g ). yet affects also the rcdation-
of the ijelligerents themselves, in s(j far as it deals with tlie
sulijecl of privateering (7? ). (2) Tlie Hague Convention 're-
lative \<) the status of enemy mei'chant ships at tlie out-
break of hostilities." Xo. 0 of 1007. which e.vempl.s from capture,
iinfler certain conditifuis. enemy vessels in or on their way to
the [)ort- of a lj<,'lli<>'<'reiil oti the outbreak of warui. {:'>) The
Haiiiie Convention ' ix'lative to the conversion of mei'chant shijjs into
wai'-hips," Xo. 7 of 11)07 i A'). (4) The Hague Convention ''relative
to t Ik' laying of autfunat ic submaiine contact mines.'' X'o. 8 of 1007 ( /).
{')) The Hague Con\-ention " respecting bonibardmeiii by na\al f(;i'ces
in time rif war."" N'c 0 of 1007 0/?V ''') i The Hague Con\-entioii 'for
the ;id;iptalion of the principles of the (JeiK.'Vii ( 'on\entioii to mari-
time war. Xo. 10 of 1007(;/). with whieh wc ma\' gi'oup a minoi
I 'I ) Si'.i/i-'i, J). !)'!. tied hy GIrcat Britain: see Tabic
(f) So far a.-s tlicy apply at all; see Ajiji. xiv.
].. !M. riiK (>i), (,■). (s). s:, ,,,•«. (i-) This has ])oeii sio-nod bv all
ii) 'J'lic coiivcntioiial rules \vhich r|,,; Powers rei)re<ciiic(l. with tli'c e.\-
iiow L'-evfiTi the trcatiiiciit of pii^diKT-^ eeption of the r'nitcd States, China.
of war, altlioiiirh not strictly applicable f,jjj three minor Powers; and lias now
to tlcxc captured on the j^ci. at any boon ratihed by 'Ireat Hritain: sec
rctc until tbcy arc lamlcd. would Table. App. .^iv.
!'■'"';■''''>■ '"■ <''':''''V<1 throughout, in f^j ^ j],;, ],.„ ,,^.„„ ,i..„o<l, althoutrh
-" *="' ■'•' *'"■ •H"''"'"" ii'lniittr..!. ij^ ^,^„,^, ,..,^^,^ ^^.j,|, n-crvation^. bv
(<lj ii] so far a- it deals with all the j'owcrs rcpresentr'<l. with the
bl')cka(le and the iiuuiunity of niuitral exception of IJu^-ie., Spain, ]"ortu<i:al,
- 'orl-; in eiiei(i\- -!ii|)< and of enemy Sweden, China, and two luinor Powei's ;
■}',iA~ in neiiiral diip-. and has now bi'cn ratified, althouu'li
''/() This l)eelaration has now been with I'cservations. by (Ireat Dritain:
aci'opted by all niaiirinic Powers cd' >^'^' 'I'ablc, App. xiv.
any iin [lortaiue, with tlie exci'ption of ( ni } 1'his has also berui siLrncd bv
'be f riited SlaO'-. v.hiNi tlie liiited all the Powers represented with tie'
State-: in t!ieei\il wai-oT ISCI and in exception of China. Spain. aiKl Xiea-
till' Sp.'inidi-.\ lueiican war ot' 1S!)S ra^^^ua. altlioucrh in siuuc eases with
c'Uifoi'iued t o it piitiri j,|e, : -ee jj. :j!i;5. reservations: and has uov/ been rat ifi( d
'"I'll. \)\ (Ireat Britain: see Table, .\pp.xi\.
li) This ha-, been siiMied by all the ( ,i ) This has l,|.on si^r,,,.,! |,y all
t'ower- represented at the ( 'oriference, the Powers rciircMuited. with the ex -
with the ex,e[, lion i.f the liiiied ci'ption of Xicarairua: but bv Creat
St.ites, China, and Xiearao-ua. althouLdi Pritain under rc-iu'vat imi of".\rts. (1
by C.enuany and iius-iia under ci'rlain ami li I , and subject aUo to a rc-
rc.ervatioie-; and ha-^ now bi'cn rati- scrvation with re'soect to the inter-
The Conduct of War hjj Sea. 117
(Jonvcmiou "relaiing- 1o liospital sliips," ooucludod at tlio Hague in
1904, excuiptiiig liospitnl yliips iu tiiiio of "war from certain port
charo-es(o). (7) The Hag'iio (loiiventioii "relative to certain restric-
tions on the (>x(M(ise of tlie right of cajjiiire in maritime war," No. 11 of
liH)7(/;). Tliero are also other C'oiiventions, such as that "relative
to the establishiuent of an International I'rize Court," No. 12 of
l'J()7, and that " respecting neutral right.s and duties in maritime
war." No. \^^ of 1!H)7, wl)icli, although (ujneorned for the most
part with the relations of belligerents and neutrals, j'et touch
eitluM' at certain ])oints oi' indirectly on tlie relations bctweeti
the belligerents themselves. The rules embodied in these
Oni vent ions constitute a body of written iaw whicli may now
be taken to be authoritative, except perliaps as against a few
P(iw(>rs that have either refused to adopt them or Itave adopted them
under reservation of particular provisions (//). (ii) As regards the
■ unwritten element," there remain, desjnte these Conventions, a large
number of topics — some of them of the first importance, such as the
question of enemy character for the purposes of maritime capture,
an<l the (juestion of the place at which merchant sliips may be con-
verted in({) warshi])S — which are still left to the operation of the
<usiiiniary law. Indeed, prior to 1907. it may be said that, save for
th(> Declaration of Paris, the relations ])etween belligerents and
neutral< as regards the conduct of war by sea were g:overned almost
win illy l)y custom (V); although it was precisely in matters belonging-
to this branch of laAv (^"^ that the practice of States was most diver-
u'cnt. This, liowever, has. as we sliall -^ee hereafter, now been
rectified in some measure by the Declaration of London, 1909 (t),
m -o
far as thai mav avail
1>()M];aki)Mi;n'J' i;v Xavai. Forc r.s: Cox iRiiiUJioNS, Hkquisition.'^,
A.N'I) Pri.LACE.
i iidci' the custduiai'v law. iIkm-c was nunh divergence of ojiinion as
t(i whotlier a IxMligcriMit , in naval war, might bombard tmdefended
rfia-i towns, (ir exact cont ribul i<iiis and i'e([ni'^if imis under threat of
liiimbardiiicnt. .lurisiic opinion in g<Mi(M';)l incliii(>d to the view that
biimliardment in such (■as(>s could (uily be lawfully .resorte<l to for the
jnir|)o-e of destroying maleiial likely to be of us(^ in war, or f'or the
|ii'ft:irioii (if Art. 12, aix.l iiof s(i tar ('liin:i. .Moiit<Mii\!j:ro, Xic^arau'iia, and
ratiticil: liy China uiidor res(>i'\ati(in IJiissia: and has now bt'cu ratified by
of Art. 21: and liy 'I'urkcy and i'ci'sia Crcat llritain: sec 'talilc. App. xiv.
unWi'i- nscrvatidn oi a rii^lit to u^(! \ ,j j [h'nl.
\\\'' U'l'd ('rc^cciit, and the Lii>n and [ r ) Alrhiuiii'h (iftcn dcidari'd or
Him! Sun, n'S]iect ivcly, in lien of the nioditii'd liy jiarticnlar troatiis.
Kid < rM~<: -cp Taldc. .\pp. xi\ . !>' Snrh a^ iiio('l<ad('. ccmti-a'iand,
s>ci' p. 12 t. n. ' ''I. iiii,''. thi' docti'ino of the i-ontiiumas \iiyai,'e,
i /- 'rids ( 'oincnt ion has licpii <iirn<'(l coiivoy. unni'utrai scrvict'. and the
!iy all the Powers n^pi-esentvd at the destruction of neutral ]iiuzes.
("i.ui fere lice wit.ii the excfjjiicn of i / i /,-/'/./. t). 'isi'i-T.
118 Ca^es amJ Ojn'nions on Internatmial Lcm\
[)urposo of on to icing rcqui«ition.s iu kind iiecessar}- for the hostile
licet; and lliat cont libulion.s could only be exacted after a place had
i)een invested or occu^jied by a force actually lauded (^u). But naval
opinion and practice were for the most [)art opposed to thevse limita-
tions ( r). It was in view of this diverg-eneo, and in pursuance of a
wish to that ell'ect recorded by the Conference of 1899, that the
matter was biought up for consideration before the Hague Confer-
ence of 1907; with tlie result that an agreement on the sid)ject Avas
ultimately leached and end»odicd in the Convention '' respecting bom-
bardment by naval forces iu time of war,'" No. 9 of 1907. In effect,
this Convonfion prohibits generally the bombardment bv^ na\al forces
of '■ un(hden<kMl "" ports, towns, villages, dwellings or buildings;
and alsd provides that a place shall not be treated as "defended"
solely l)ecause automatic submarine ciontact nunes are anchored off
the ]iarl)our (,r i. Xevertheless, even in the case of undefended places,
bond)ai'dment may be resorted to for the purpose of <lestroying
militaiy works, niililary or naval establishments, war material,
workslK)|)S (M' plant capabl<> of hostile use. or ships of war in harbour
df the hjcal authorities after due notice fail to destroy them; Avhilst
if ro(|idred by military necessity such a bond)ardinent may even be
v'SDi'tcd tn without notice^: altlidugh in cither ca^c the ri^st of
the town must be spared so far as possible (>-). The bombard-
ment of undefended ]daces is also allowed if, after formal demand,
the local authorities fail to comph' with requisitions for ].)rovisions
oi' supi)lies Tieeded for inuncdiate nse l)y the naval force before the
l)lac<'. Such rc(piisitions must be in proportion to tlu^ I'esources
of the place: ih(>y can onK' bo made in the name of the com-
mander of the force; and they must be paid for so far as possildo in
cash, or failing this, their recei])t must be acknowle<lg<Ml (^ i. Eut
the bomljar<lment of -undefended jdaces for the non-])ayment of money
contiibutioirs is altogether forbhlden i /;"). In all l)ombardments by
naval forces, moroovoi'. sto])s must be taken to sp;tr<' as far as
jiossiblo i)nildings dovote<l to ])ublic worship, art. sci{Mic<> oi' charitable
)mr])osos. histori(-' monunxMds. hospitals aii<l places whore the sick or
wounded are collocttNl. so long as they ai'O not l)eing used at the time
for mililai'v pni'posos: such jilaces being indicated by a distinctive
marh as piTv^ci'ilxvl b\tho Convoidion (c). I'nloss military (>xig(Micies
r(!ndor ii impossililo. n(itic(^ (if an im])onding bondiardment must also
(", Sec flic rulc< forinuiiiti'd in 189(] ever, ohjcctod to on tlie irroiirid that
li\- tlic fn-litntc 1)1' I iitcrrKitional l^aw ; such mines nre really more formidable
[lall, IM(i. II. 'J. than ijiins and also more danu'erous to
{r\ So far al !ca-t as cv id"iii'od hy Tiavitratioii ; and has. theretor(\ not
naval ma iiiriivrc< in peace; liiit see '»'<'" accepted hy threat Ih'ita'^n.
rmilin the I'. S. \aval War Code of Fra nee, ( I erniaiiy . ati<l .la pan .
190(1. which adopt, in tlic main Ihe ^.., ^,,^ . Sce.\,,p. ^ii..;w...
i-ulc-; lonniilalid hv the I n~tit iitc. On ,
(':) Arl. :5.
(h) Art. 1.
(x\ Sec Art. 1. This was. how- (''^ Art. 5.
the -ulijci't iielic!-aii\-. -ee ( ) | , pen hei m .
ii. -liW rl sr,i. ' ('>) Art
The Conduct of War h/j Sea. 119
be given to the inhabitants; (fZ); whilst the g-ivin"' over of a place to
pillage even when taken by assault is in any case forbidden Te).
Ruses— Deceit — False Flags.
The enij)loyinont of ruses and other methods for deceiving the
enemy is allowed to the same extent, and subject to similar limita-
tions, as in land warfare (^^/h This excludes ail forms of treachery:
all false statements in matters where the word of a commander is
int'Cnded to be acted on without om^uiry; and also the use of signs
and end)lems to which a particular meaning attaches for any other
purpose than that for wliich they st.and. The use of a false flag is
permissible, although occasionally forbidden by municipal regula-
tion; but in any case it is subject to the condition that a vessel must
show her ti'ue Hag before proceeding to attacki//).
Till-; Use ov SumiARixi-; Mi.\i:s axd Tori'edoes.
The (_lilfer(Mil kinds of mines now used in naval war are: —
(^1) Alines laid or anchored at sea, but tired by an electric current
controlled from the shore; (2) Mines anchored at sea, which explode
automatically on conuug into contact with a passing ves-<el: and
(3) Floating mines, which similarly explode by contact but are
not anchored. Of these kinds of mines, the first, being uiidei'
control, present no danger to peaceful sliip[)ing: but the sei-nml .ire
not only a source of danger in situ, but are apt. to break loose and to
assume the character of unanchored (•(ml act mines; whilst the la^i
are the most dangerous of all. inasmuch as, l)eino- at the min'cy of
wind and tide, they may be carried anywhere and l)ring disiister at
any time on innocent vessels. The .serious ilanger to neutral siiipping
following on the use of both the latter kinds of submarine mines wa^
grimly attested by the experiences of the Riisso-.Jajianese war of
1904 i7n. .:Vt the Hague Conference of f',MI7, an atKMupt was there-
fore made to impose, bv common au'recMiient. ('(U'tain restrictions
U[)tni the use of such instruments by belligcMenis. In the n^sult.
an<l after prolonged discussion, an aii-ie<Mneiil , altlioiigh only of a
))rovisional character ( /.), was reached, which is now embodietl in the
Convention ''relative to the laying of automatic submarine contact
mines." No. (S of 1907. Bv this Convention it" is forbidihui to lay
('/) Art. 6. IxKit^ and tlii> tike, liad l)i'cn lo-^t owiiii;-
( ""i Art. 7. On tlic subject t;-ene- to tlirse mines, and tliat from five to six
i-aUy. -ee W'estlake, ii. .'51.) if si-q.: Iniiidrcil nrrsons (MiLrau'cd in ])cacet'nl
I'carce 1 liti-^-ins. :5o'J .-/ sr,/. |)iir<nirs had so perislnnl : see TiMi'd'
''' Supr'i. p. I)S. iiiL:L;in<. 3-2it : iiarclay. I'roldcms. -55*
I'/) See Opprnlieim. ii. -IWl: Hal- rt s,-//.
lock, i. .')i>7. .■)()!»; and as to tic- i!>-iri-li i/) See l'i-(\\iid)le to ConviMition :
jirartice. Manual of \a\al Prize Law. '■until such tinm as it nciy he possihh^
6'2. to 1'<)!-iuulaf<' rule-^ whirh <hall I'nsnr'
( /) ) At the TraL;Mir> Conrerencc it ^vas to tic interest-- i n\'ol\ixl all thcL'uaraii-
stnited hy the Chinese dele^-ato that a tee- dc-ii-alde."
vast luuuher ot coastinu' vessels, iishiiiir
[•20 Cases and Opinions on International Lavj.
unaiieliored cuutac-t mines unless so eonstriKiod as to l)ecojne liai'ui-
h'ss within one hoiu' al'ler control over lluMn has ceased; to hiy
aiichdfed coiitacl mines that do not become harndess on g'etting
ioo<e: and, linallv, ti) use t(n'[)e<loes that do not become harnde.s.s after
mt-sinu' their mark i A'). It is also forbidden to lay contact nunes
oir the coasts and ])orts of the enemy, with the sole object of inter-
ceplin.u- commercial navio-ation ( /). Wdien anchored contact mines
are used every [)ossible ])recaution must be taken for the security
of peaceful navi<^-at ion. J3ellig'erents are required to do their utmost
to I'ender sucii nrijies harndess within a limited time; and, if they
shoidd cease to be under observation, to notify the danger /ones, as
soon as military exioencies ])ermit, alike to mariners and to
Stales ( y// '. X<'utral Powers which lay contact mines olf their coast
are --ubiect to tlu^ same conditions; whilst in this ease notice must be
o-iviM! in advance ( ;ii. At the close of tlie war all such nunes are
re<(uired to be removed in so far as ])ossiblc, each Power removing-
its own urines; whilst where contact mines have been laid by one
bellig-erent olf the coast of the other their positioji must bo iiotiiied
by the former to the latter (o). Nevertheless, Powers not as yet
])0ssessing- perfected mimss of the description contcm])lated by the
{.'onvention. are exeni])ted from these provisions, and are merely
re([uir(Hl to co)iyert the materiel of their nnnes as soon as j)ossible,
so as to bring it into conformity with the above-mentioned re(pnre-
ments ( yy ) . I'lie ('onv(uilion is to remain in force for seven years fry i,
and thereafter unless denounced in the manner ])rescribcd f ;•).
I'he (|U(^^tion of the em])loyment of contact mines is to be reopeiu>d
betv\(HM! the conti'acf ing Powers six uKjiiths before th(> ('lose of
th<^ l^eriod (irst nauKMl. unless the matter shall have been ])r(>viously
dealt with by the third Peace Conference (-s). (!reat ih'itain has,
howevei'. only ra,tifi<Ml the (.'onvention undei' I'eserve of a (hndaration
that tlu.' fact of its not ])rohibiting j)articular ])roce(>diiig's must not
1)0 tak<Mi to debar liei' from contesting their legitimacy (/ ). This
Convention is altogethei' unsatisfactoi'\'; both as inade(|uat(d v saf(^-
guarding n(Mitral iiitei'ests. and as thcM'eby -ami in the (>\(uit of
disaster inci'easing the I'isks of wai'. Even such re^ti'icl iims as it
doe-; impose ai'(> great l\' weaken(Ml bv \\w saxdug (dau^(^ in favour of
Po\\ci-< not possessing the n{M'(!ssa.i'y equipment (;/). Ancliored
contact min(»^ juay still l)e laid by a belligerent^ on Jus own
watcis toi' seif-def<>nce, or in the watei's of the eiuuny for
attack, ni' e\<Mi on the high S(!as^ jo the gi'eat endang'cn'uient of
nciitial shipping'. And although it is foi'bid<len to lay tluvse within
the \\aici'> of ail enemy ■'with the soh; oliject of interc(^pt inu' com-
(/') Art. 1. {,i) Vvinw tlio sl.\tictli day after
(/) Ai'l. ■_'. ll)(- first (lc|uisit of ratiiications.
(n,) Art. :',. (r) Art. 11.
!") Art. t. (,.) Art. iL'. ,\s to sio'na(ni-ics and
'"i \y\ ■ •). ]'at ifica<ii)ii. sec Tahlc. \y\i. .\iv.
An. i;
No limit of (iiiic Ijcintr sjiccilicd : ( /) II, i<!.
(") Sec II. (//).
The Conduct of War hj Sea. 121
iiicicial juivioation, ' it, will always he open to a bolligoreiit to alleg'O
a niilitaiy object, which it, will ho fliflictilt or iiupo.s.sihlo to di.s-
])i'ove (^.r). The requirement liiat where iiiine.s cease 1o he under
observation the clanger zones must be notified is also rendered illu-
xny by the qualilicati(ni '' a-s soon as military exigencies permit."
The British declaration, moreover, serves largely to relegate the
(|uestion of the legality ot the use of mines to the domain of the
customary law. More we have nothing to guide us except general
j)rinciple and analogy. The use of floating contact mines anywhere
except perhaps during aji engagement and on strict condition of
llioir becoming harmless within a lindted time — would appear to
he wholly indefejisible (^y). The ii.so of anchored mines on the high
sea. would appear to constitute an infringement of the principle of
1 h(^ freedom of the sea and the general right to security of navigation.
It is true that belligerents are entitled to carry on their operations
on the high sea, and that neutrals must accept all consequent risks
whilst such operations are proceeding; but this involves only a transi-
loiy daiigiu', which is generally a])parent and av(jidal)le {'_?/?/).
Finally, the use of anchored contact mines, even in belligerent
watfu's- nil hough conunonly approved — wotdd appear — save for the
[)urpo^o< of defence and on condition of efHcicnt notice of exclusion —
ti 1 be an infringement of the right of innocent passage or access ( //[/?/').
Xeilher belligfu'eiit right nor belligerent need can justify the de-
struction of neutral vessels and crews engaged in lawful trafhc;
whilst, e\-en as to those engaged in utdawfid traiiic, belligerent right
cannot extend to the substitution of instant destruction for the ordi-
nary penaltv of ca])tur(> and condemnation after or suljject to judicial
decree ( ,: i.
Till'; Ari'LiCATioN of tiih Prixcjplks of tjii-: Gexi;va
C()X\ KNTIOX TO N.WAT. WaK.
The tr<!atment of the wounded, sick, or shipwroclvcd, in Jiaval war,
i> now I'egidated !>v th;- ("onvention "for the a(l:i])tal ion of tli(^ prin-
'■i])les of the G(Mi(n'a (.'ou\-eiuion to maritime' wnr." Xo. 10 of litOT,
which revises the corresponding Convention of 1899, in the light
■)( th(> chanu'es (dlecied by the Geneva Convenlion of 190(> relative
to land war, and replaces it as between the sio-natories (V/ i. Its
! ,'• ' Tlii-^ Art. also nppi'ai's to coii!!- i:- On \\\v sul)ioct t;-(>iiorallv. s(V'
Ti'iianre llic iist^ (if miii(>s in cases of Wcstl.ikc, ii. S'l'I — o'2() : Poarco Iliu'-
■" >trar('i;'ic " ahiioiii;-li not "' coiniiici'- ;:'iii-. ol!S -'Z ,v<y/. ,• Hc^'ularioiis ado[)to(l
'■ial "■ -i)loi'iv;i(lc : :,'/,/'. p. ',{)'■]. \;y liistitiite of 1 ntci'iir.rional F.aw,
> /' '^ On the analoii'v nl' th(> ]ioisoninu' i91(). ///i'/. o-l-i.
'it' >\clls. 'their eoiiipI(<fe ju'oliibition (/' j Se{> Art. 2.5. As to siy-natnres,
I'oinnI nuieli support at the ConreivMiee, ratitieations, ami reser\ations. see
and formed part (d' thi> J!riti-li and 'I'ahle, App. xiv., 'mini. Turicev and
I . S. proposals; t'i'aree Uiii-ti-ins. o2!>. Persia si^-n undor restnwation of
332. a riu'iit to use th(> tvod C'roseent and
(////) Pan lay. I'rohh'ins, (JO. l.ion aJid !\ed Sun. resjxH'tively. in
\ii;nij Ihi'L ()]. lieu of the l{ed Oi'oss; and Great
rj2 Cases and Opinions on International Laiv.
more imporlaut provisions may 1)6 conveniently grouped as follow-:
( 1 ) All sailors, soldiers, and others oiiieially attached to fleets nr
armies aie when sick or wounded 1o l)e respected and cared for by
the captors i/v: \\hilst aft-er aa eng-a<^-ement a belligerent is re-
quired t'l fidtil the same duties as in war on land(C). Subject ti.^
thi>. wouiidt'il. sick, and slupwrecked persons who may be capturoil
become [iri-ouors of war: and the surrender of those found on board
hospital shi])> b^diinoinii- to the other belligerent may also Ije de-
mandeilif/'. Thereafter thoy may either be detained as prisoner.-
of war. 'II' >oiit to a neutral country, or even to their own country
cm iiiiulitioii (if uui sorviug again during the wariV). If left at a
neutral port with the cou-^ent of the authorities they must be interned
and tended b}' tlie neutral CJovernment, although at the cost of their
own Stall',/ . ( i' I With respect to iKjspital ships- -three kinds of
vessel- arc re'ULiiii/eil ■ a ) military lio>pital ships, these being vessel<
fitted out fur that purpose by the belligerent States; ( b ) jirivate
hospital ship.-, the.-e boin"' vessels litted out l)y private individuals
or olticially recoa'uized relief societies Ijclonyinu' to either helli-
gereuit : and ici neutral hospital ships, these being ves.sels that have
been fitted out by private individuals or officially recognized societies
lieloiiLi'ini:' to n<Hitral countries, but placed iinder the control of one
belliu'erent with the assent of their own Government i r/ 1. Sidjject
to certain cimditii >ns ])reseribed by the (Convention — which inckule
a notilication of their intended use to the other bellia-erent. their
non-ii-e for nulitary purposes, the u-e of a colour designation varv-
in2' with the kind of \essi'l. and the use of the pre-cribed flag's i/^i -
all such vessel- are exempt from capture and attack; and are. even
when tlie pi'opcity of the Stat:>. free fruni the re.-Trictiuns attaehiniz
to ]iublic belligerent ve.-sels in neutral port-. On the other hand,
ih'^y ai-e rerpiifod to afford relief without distinction of nationalitv:
they mu<t not be used for military ]nirpose- under ]iain rif forfeitijii;-
tlicir ]u-ivileL;'e-: tbey mii-^i not ham])er <uther of the cmibatants:
and iIh'v are al-n ^id^jecf to s(Mi'ch and in-pection bv. ami in the
order- and control of. tlie o))posiiT'_;' bclli^-erent. and mav in case ol'
crave ne='d e\cn be , jetained '/ > . '•') i With re-])eet to tli'> ^ick and
wouudod ou board encmv warshi])s — when an enu'aii-enient I'CCiirs all
the -ick' ward- are to be respected and spared a- far a- po.--ible. so
lone a- not u-cd I'or hostile ])urpo<e<. But v.dien a ve-sel hi- been
captured, it- hospital acconuimdation and erpiiynnent mav be a])pro-
Jlritaiii iukIit i'c~ci-\c of Ai'ts. (1 aiul (7) Arts. 1 — 3, ri.
2J ; althuit-h. ill f;c-f. Ilif I'uturo use (h) XW liospitril .<!iij.s arc to be
fif tlii- .-lalili'iii \vA- lici'ii fdihiddcn. painted wliitr iniHtai'v ho<].ital sliips
witli a .-avii!--, 1imvo'\.t. in favunr of lia viii<.j- a l-o a liorizoiita I lia iid uf o-i'ecii.
existiii-- i-iLflii- t'oi- fdiir yrars, by L \ :^ and iio?i-inilita I'v a -iiiiilar liand of
r;.r,. W ,■. -.'11 • .,.,. j,. ill.-,. I, :'■,...,/,,,•,,.. vn\: wl)il-t all 'nmst fly the ( rpneva
'■''') .\rt. 11. flaL'. to^-ctlici' with tli.'ir' national flaff.
r-o .\i-i-. Ih, 17: and p. KH. ./,,,-.. or if nnUral. then al-o the fla? of th--
i'f) Art. I'i. l>clli<.;ri-cnt uiidci" wlio-^o control thc^■
('■) Art. M. art: <,m. .\rt^. ;]. .").
r/j .\rt. 1.-). ii) Arts. 1, S.
The Conduct of War Inj >Sea. 123
priated by the captor. l)ul mu.st not be diverted to otlior uses, save
in ease of luilitary necessity, and even then oidy after due pro-
vision has been nuub' for the sick and wounded found therein (A- i.
The nieinl)ers of the religious, medical, or hospital stall of a captured
ship are inviolable and cannot be made prisoners of war. They
may be retjuircd to continue the discharge of their duties so long-
as may be iiecessar}-, receiving in that ca.se the same pay as if
they belonged to the captor's forces; but thereafter they must be
allowed to leave, taking with them such articles and instruments as
belong to them(Z). (4) With respect to the right of neutrals to
render fortuitous aid to ^vound(Kl, sick, or shipwrecked combatants —
belligerents may appeal to neutral merchant vessels, yachts, or boats
to receive the sick and wounded; and such ve.s.sels as comply, as well
as others who rccoive them, shall enjoy special protection and may
be granted certain immunities, in no case, moreijver, is a neutral
vessel to incur any liability by reason merely of having such persons
on board ( )n >. At the same time, the right of a belligerent warship
to re([uire the surrender of sick and wounded belonging to the enemy
is express]}' extended to those fcniiid on board neutral vessels, other
than public vessels (wi. Gr(>at Britain, however, signed the Con-
vention under reservati(ni of a declaration that this article is to be
understood as applying ''oidy to the case of coml)atants rescued
during or after a naval engagement in which they have taken
part '('o I. When w(Kinde(l. sick, or shipwrecked jxmsous are re-
ceived on board a neutral war shi]). although their surrender
cannot be demanded, every pr(>caution nuist be used to prevfuat such
persons from taking any further part in tlie operations of war(/;).
in tlie ease of combined naval and military o])eratioiis the CYniven-
tion applies only to forc(>s on .<hi|)bnard < (j '. The signatories under-
take to issue instructions to thcii- naval forces in confornuty with
these provisions ('/•). and to pi'ev<Mii the unautliorized use of the
distinctive marks ])rescrilied for \ essids i ,■? i. By a Convention '' re-
(k) Arts. 7. 8. have Ijooii rescued after a naval en-
(l) Arts. 10, 11. gaij-ement in wliicli tliov have taken
( »/) Arts. 9, 12. ])art." The conteiitioii \>ut forward.
(>>) .'Vrt. 12. that the niere recept ion l)y a neu-
(") Pari. I'apei-s. :\ii<c, X<i. (i : IOCS . tral \r<<cl of the enemy sielv or
14S : Pearec Ili!i-t,'ins. oSi). 'the wninuled wouhl. apai't freni Coiiven-
British r.ovcrninent doubted whetlier rion. rendi'r the vessid liable to con-
under tlie existinir law sik^i a demand demnati<jn for imneutral =ervice.
'■iiuld l)e made even of a neutral appeal'-^ tn be uuwaiTantalile.
[)ri\ate vos^id : but althou^-h there is { j,) Art. 18: and ji. 27(1. i/it,-^'.
HI) settled usairc on the subject, the { ,/ ) Art. 22.
I'uh' embodied in the Com ciitiori is {/■) Art. 2l).
eniu'eet in ])riiieiple, at any rate so far is') S(>e .Vrt. 21. .Althoucrh (ireat
as i-elates to enemy persons re-^eued IJritain si-jfiied uiuiei- i-e<er\ation of
.il'tei- an ene:as-ement : see W'estlalce, tliLs Article, yet by the Si'cond Peace
ii. 27s. Hy the Seeond Peace Con- Conference (Convention< i ISill. s. 3. it
fe!ee<-e (Conventions^ 15111. s. 4. it was proposed to prohibir the painting-
■,\a< nrojiosed to authorize and :-e(piire of vessels to resemble hospital ships
the delivery up by a British vessel of and the use of the Cneva thiir.
such persons, "•' being- combatants, who
124 Ca>!es and Opinions on International Laiu.
latinp' to }in-pii;il ships'' i]i;ul<' in 1904. all hospital ship.s complying
\\i\\\ tli(> pro>cribed Cwiidilion- ( / 1 arc cxeinpt-ed in time of war, and
in tlic pints of tlio (ontractinp: parties, from all dues and taxes levied
'ju >hips for the benefit of the State (wj.
^A \AL FOR( ES : Qf A LIFIED CRUISERS—
royVERSIoy of MERCHANT TFSSELS.
CONTROVERSY BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN AND RUSSIA
WITH RESPECT TO THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE
■PETERBURG" AND THE "SMOLENSK."
■I:»(i4; I'arliaiiH'iiturv Di'hate^, 4th ser.. vol. 138, 1433, 147't: Smith and
Sil)lcy. 40 r/ sr,j.; Tn<- Turn's. .July. Scptojiiber, 1904.]
Circumstances leading to Controversy. j In .Jtil\, 1904, dtiving
the iiti-.so-Japanc>e Avur, the "" Peterhuro' and ihc " Smolensk,"
two vossels belon2:iiig' to the Rtissian Volunteer FL/'t. passrdi'rom
the Black Sea tlirongh the Bo.>phorus atid Dardamdle.- Lnio tlie
Mediterranean, and thence throui^h the Suez ('arjal into tin' lied
Sea. Bfjtii ve-so]s cari'icd the mercantile llajj-. and declared them-
selves a.s merchant vessels, alike oii pa-^sino' throuuh th(; Straits
and throuofh the Canal. The ships of the V<dunreer Fl<M_'t b^dong
to a patriotic a.-sociation a . which is siipjiort^'d maiiil\- b\- public
suljscriptioiis, bul which re( rivis also a ^ub-id\' from the (Juvi'm-
nient on certain conditions, and which his for its objrct tlc' pro-
vidinir of an auxiliary ileet for naval ser\deL' in time (d' ^^■ar. In
time of pi-aer the-vf' vosels carrv the mereaiitile llae. and ari; at
liberty to enean(; in mercantile trailie, althnuijh fur tic miw; part
enipleyi'd 111 tin- public -crvicc hy. \)\\i the I'aptam and orie ollicer
') Ofiirinaliy rii'i-c of iln' < 'dii'.i'ii- ^jicrial l(':;-islat imi wduld In' iMMjuii-ed to
riun rit" IsiJ'C liiit now. Iiy i la plii-atinn, L;'i\'i' cifrcr in it- pi', ,\-i -ion- ; .-ci->
tho-i' of till' (■(jri'i-^poiidini,'- ( 'jin t-nt ion I'ran-e 1 1 iiriii n-. •!'i- • ' -'■/.
"f MHiT. i '/ ! (>i'iiriiial!y toiani'd in ls77. when
•- ) Thi- ' 'on\faition lia- i:o\v hccn war with •'■rear Hritain appeared to
adojited liy f wiaiJ y-ii\c Stated : imt ho iiiiniiiionr.
*'r'-:it i'>i-itain. ahhonirh t'a\-onrahIy ( /, ■ A- iii the lyan-poi't of e(,n-
di-po-e(i. wa- not a party to the ('on- \i.-is, ,-ohlier<. and e-ood- hetweoii
f<Ten.'e. and lia- not -o far arce,l,.(| to jhe I'dae]-; s,-, port- and the i;u--ia7i
rhe ron\ention. oxsiiiLr tij the faet that j,i;.-c--ion- in ttie |-'ar !ai-t.
Qualified Cruisers. 125
of each vessel aru (•umnii.^Hioiied by tliu Stale, whilst the crews
are subject to Jiaval training and under naval discij)line. In time
of war these vessels are at the disposal of the Government, and
Oil entering the naval servit'C a-ssunie the naval Hag c) . By various
treaties and conventions •^d) the passage of the Straits is inter-
dicted to vessels of war, and this prohibition has been declared to
be part of the [)ublic law of Europe :Cy. By an agreement of
1891, made between Russia and Turkey, it was also stipulated
that vessels belonging to the Volunteer Fleet, if allowed to pass
the Strain, should not carry arms or munitions of war. On the
occa^^ioii in question, both the "' Peterburg" and the '" Smolensk,"
although sailing under the mercantile Hag, carried, in fact, both
an armament, munitions of war, and crews sufficient to enable
them to engage in hostilities. Soon after leaving Suez both vessels
mounted their guns, lunsted the Russian naval ensign, and there-
after proceeded to (>\ercise b:'lliu-erent rights over Jieuti-al com-
merce. ^\mongst others the (German steamship '' Prinz Heinrich "'
was stopped in the Red Sea by the " Smolensk ' and a number
of her mail bags taken from her '/ . On the 13th July the British
steanjshij) "Malacca" was seized by the "Peterburg" on the
ground of carrying contraband : although the alleged contraband
consisted, in fact, of arms and ammunition belonging to the
British (government and destined foi' flie dockyards at Plono-
Kong and Singapore. .V ])rize cre\\' \\as then jnit on board and
the 1-iussian naval flag hoist(Hl although the prizi.' was still in law
a I'ritish vessel -and the \'essel hers(df ^enf to Port Said when'
her passenu'ers and crew were dis(>mbarked. After this
she proceeded undcn- the eliai'^-i' of a pi'ize mastei' throuu-h
tlic Canal: it Ijeina- understood that she was to be taken to
Libau for ad judical ion. The ""Smolensk ' also seized the Britisli
sti'amship " Ardova." hound IVom Xew ^ ork to Manila and
da{)an. having on board a (piantit\" of irunpowder consigned b\
th^' Pnited Siati-> Way Di'pirl ineiit to tln' lMiilippiie'>. Thi.-
ve-sel was also sent to Siii>/. with a prize crew on I)oard and uihI'T
('■) Irirn, p. 130. ('■) ^L'O vol. i. 119.
I. 'h Till' ConvcMitioi: (it !.(i[i(li)n. (/) 'I'he^c wen' afrerwards j)ut uii
1^11: the TriMty <.r I'ari^ ami STait- Ixiard the I'.ritMi S.S. ••I'pr-ia" -.\vA
( ■Miivriirinii. ls.")ti; -ii'.l tin' 'i'lTiiiv (it tlius forwardcd to their destination.
London. 1S71.
\-2() ('((scs and Opinions on International Lato.
the Rus.>^iaii iiaval llaL'' ; althouL'h she was soon aflorwarcls re-
Ica.'-ed. Otlier Briti.sh vessels wei'e subjceted to similar treatment.
Controversy and Settlement. \ When these i'aet.s beearne
known tiie British Government addres.'^ed a protest to the Russian
liovernment, ehallenging- the legality of these proceedings. The
Ijritish contention was, in elfeet. that no "" ship of war could issue
from the Black Sea ; that if vessels belonging to the Volunteer
Fli'ct issui'd thei'ciVom it necessarily followed thai after ]>assing the
Straits as merely mercantile vessels they had no right afterwards
t(; assume the character (jf cruisers or to interfere with neutral corn-
iiii;rce: whilst if the}" claimed belligerent rights as shi]_)s of war
then they had no laght under European public law to issue from
the Black Sea or to pass the Straits; and hencr' that in either
case such vessels were in the position of "unqualiiied cruisers,"
with the result that all captures made by them were invalid [(J). It
was fui'ther pointed out thnt the ammunition seized on Ijoard the
""Malacca ' was the property of the British (rovernment and
intended iw the British-China Squadron, and was con1;.ained in
cases clearly marked with the Government mark. In the result
a compromise was arrived at, under which it was ag-reed that the
"' Malacca" should be taken to Algiei's and there released after a
L'o]-mal examination, and an assurance from the British Consul that
the cargo alleged to be contraband was the propei'tv of the British
(Government and that the rest of the cargo was also innocent.
Tliese formalities were g(jne through on the 27th July ; and on
the 28th the "Malacca" was restored to her owjiers, and there-
after allowed to proceed on her original voyage. It was further
•agre(Ml that the " Pe1/!rburg " and the '"Smolensk" should no
longci' act as cruisci's, and that any vessels cap1,ured bv them
-heiild lie relented. Tjic Russian ( '(nei'nmeiit. ho\\i'\ci', aAoidr'd
■ tuy ;idmi.-sioi! ui tlie o'enf;i-iil piunci])le that vessels of t he V(>]init/>er
i^'lcet thnt had p;issed thi'ough the Sti'ait.s as " pi'i\a1.e \'essels "
\\er(! le;^ally d ixpin] iticd from acting as "'ships of w;ir. ' It
:ii 1 etrij'led. in FmcI, to coxci' il> retrcMl from an uiiti'n;il)|i' p(^-ition
li\ alJi'^im.'^ tli;if the "' Pd cibm-L'- " a.nrl the "" Snio]cn-k '' had re-
{'j) .See tlic statciJH'iits ?n,i(l<> hy Lor.ts and Mr. Dalfiiur in tin- Jloiiso
'.ord J.;iiisdcnviic in the ilniKi' of of f 'imiinciis, nn tlic 'JStli .1 iily .
129
refj-ular
(^eived special comiiiissioiis the Un'n\ ol: which had ah'oady ox|]iGm
and, as regards the "'Malacca," that in view ol' the ollicial sta'""'
mont oi' the British Cloveriuiicnt a special inspection had beei.
arrang(Hl in conseijueiice of which the vessel had been released (Ji).
Some delay occurred in conmuuiicating this decision to the com-
manders of the vessels concerned, and it was not until the
<)th Se]»tember that the ollicial revocation of their commissions
was delivered to the " Snu)lensk " and '' Pcterburo- '" off the coast
oi Zanzibar by 11.M.S. "Forte."' Moreover, although British
commerce was not afterwards interfered with by them it appears
rhat both the ''Peterburg" and the "Smolensk" were subs<i-
(|U(>ntly recommissioned, although under other names, and in this
character accompanied the Kussian fleet on its final voyage to
the East.
'I'hc main issue iu this coiUi'oviU'sy was \vlu>tli(M' {\w I'derhunj
and Smolensk were qualified to act as Ixdligerent cruisers. As
til this, it seems that they would have satisiied the existing-
ve(piireuicnts but for two facts, one of which was that these
ves.sols had assumed tlu; character of warships on the high seas —
although the law on this puiut still remains unsettled (?') — wliiLst the
other was tliat these vessels had both passed tlie Straits connecting
the Black Sea and the Mcdilerraneaii as merchant vessels. These
Straits occupy, as we have seen, a special position and are subject
to special regulations forming part of the public law of Europe, by
virtue of which their passage, save in certain exceptional eases not
material to the present issue, is interdicted to ships of Avar (_/'). To
allow vessels to pass them under the merchant flag, and then to
assume the character and belligerent rights of warships, Avotild have
licen, in effect, to luillify these internatiotial engagements (Ic).
Ge.xkk.vl Notes. — (^wilijird Ik'llij/erciits in Maritime War. — In
-ea warfare it is the ves-(>l rathcu' thaiL the individual that constitutes
tiie ([uaiifving unit: aiuL in view lU' the exien-iv*^ ri^'hts of inter-
ter(\nco wiih neutral cimuuci'ci^ which the conduct of war bv sea
'■oiii'cis on either iK^lliu'eicnl . tln^ question of (ptalilicat ion is one of
'■on^ideral)l(^ ini])oi'tanc(' to luuitrat-. In gtUKM'al. and suhjiM't to
ilic (^xphmations i'uini-hed hiM'eafUu', it may be said that the (jualitv
of lawful l)(dliu-ei'<Mi1-, willi lln' consoi|U(MU ria-hl to caia'v on hos-
' In Si'o 77/. ■ Tn„rs. :]r(l Au-. 1901. {i) Seo vol. i. 119.
/) I,.i,". J). \V.--1. {/:') Ibid. 3124.
1 2f;
., a.s('-s and (Jjilnion-s on Internudunal Law.
and 111 exercise other bolliyeieat powers, will attach to all
tlie ]z^.\^ owiR'il and comiui.ssioiied tor that purpose by eitiier of the
Icc-'Uite- a' wai- and luniiiiiii- jjuri ot it.> reg'ul^ir naval I'orce.s; and
linihcr III all ve>-el- uliii-lL. eveu though jujt owned by the State,
aif })iil)licly conmii-sidncd b\' it and incorporated into its service,
in ^ikIi a way as i(j bi'ing them under its immediate and exclusive
control and tn rendei' ii avowedl}' responsible for their action i/j.
\'('--cl.^ which <l'i not rdinply with this coiidition are Jiot strictly
(pialiticd oclliLicicnt- and are not iherei'ore entitled to exercise belli-
gci-cnt ))ii\\ci>; ah linii^h- bk*' other private vessels, they may en-
gai:e in hostilities in xdf-defence and may capture an assailant if
tli('\ can ^ iin .
I'eniin iK'iil and S/fhsHl,',ii >/ Xiical Foifcs. in point of fact-
aitlniu^'h the fact i> not yet suilicieritly taken account of in
h'ual theoi'y the na\al f(nces <)( nearly every State comprise
two clashes of ^-essels: — (1) hgliting vessels ( vaisHeaux de
coniJiiit). snch a< battleships, cruisers, torpedo boats, destroyers,
and -ubmarine>: and (2) auxiliar\- ve-sols { i-ais.seau.r a>i./:iliaire>; i.
.-ucli as tians])orts. colliers, repairim^' ships and de~-pat'-h boats i/m.
llr.th clause. < lank as public vessels, aiifl are in war sLdjje''t to such
disabilities as attacli 1o vessels having the [)ublic clniracter ( o c
''J'lie foruHM' are also entitled in time of war to take bellig-erent
adioi! ajid lo exer(i-e Ijel liferent powers of any lawfnl kind;
whilst e\'<'n the latter may exercis<' those priwers if duly commi.--
siiiiiod for that purjtosc. although their (Mpiipment and usual eni])lo\-
menr ordinarily preclude this. [i ui|| also lie open to a State, either
bcff.re or during- tlie war. to acfpiire vessob from pri\ate (jwners
and to incbid*' tln'-<' in its reu'ular naval forces. eniplo\ino- them
as fi^ditiii'^- f)]- auxiliary \"es-els. acf-r.i'diii!^- to ilndr charactci'; although
snch a ]iriir ('(■ ling oin^-ht to be ntlicially announced. whil>t, in stiicr-
iK'-s. i' 'Aoidd >eem that the coinmi-sii,ii r-an only b<' i-sucd within tlio
national teiiiiorv or territoiw under national CMiitrol (//c (Ivei- and
abrive thi-. it will ])e open lo either belligerent to eidisf in jiis >er-
\icc'. teinjioraril V. volunteer and other ve>sel-. and to cnnt'oi- on them
a bclliii-ei ent character -o lune' a- certain condition-, dc'-cribi'd liore-
a fier ( 7 '. a re conijilied with.
Priffitrrfs. Pri\ateei'-~ were vessol- beloneing t(j pri\ato owner-
<'.!!ich In time of war wu'e furiii-lu'd with a coniini-sion fi-din tln^
Siat<v Icii'iwii ;i- letter- ol' marf|in' ' ?• >. eni])ii\\<'rinL;' them tn r-arr\' on
war aL;'ain-l the enem\. and tu cipture enemy vir-sels and oiMpertw
/, A- te till' riiiiilii idii- 'C' •■em- fitia \v;i- pi'dposcd 1)V !.ui-(l lic:i v :U t he
;.ri:!];i!. till-. iiimI ,li-.Mi,liM,.. .,■.. ;,,. l:il, ilnunic ( ■eiiiVroicr.' I,m llic ]',rei.o-;;il
),'',''.■ :i!l Iciii'j li t|p-c ;iii- i'i-;ii!\- iiM- \v.'i- ,~uli--"i|iic[ii ly v.it lid I'awn : -ce
],l\ii\ ill !lp- ;■'!!!'! i::ii'iit:il ■■ ii;:l i t ic, I'carcc 11 ii;'Li-i ii-^. ;j HI r '..,,/ .
ali-i'icly !!iciit ii'ri''il . ( i, , A- rcj-ards the u-i- ej' neuli'al
' ,/■ ' Sci' Hal!, .VJ 1 ; Ta-.-ler. .!'.'7: jierrs, -r^e p. :j(ii), ;,,/,-,/.
Wh-arei: Dana , la.^: Me- ' / A -,.;; ' | ,^, |;,,i ..,. ,,. |:;a^ ;,.',w.
C. Heh. 7-J I : and p. IM. ■,-//". ( ,_, , Sc p. 12!*. .■,'/,./.
I ;/ : 'I'lic i-cco:^-iiiriMii e:' thi- iUmIiic- (/■) Si.'L' \()1. i. ;3.3*K
Qualified Cruisers. 129
The ciuploymont of suuli vessels preceded the formation of regular
navies, hut coutiuuiMl long- afterwards; the distinction between them
and tiie re^'ular naval forces becoming, however, more marked as
naval (_)rgajii/.ation progressed. The system <jf privateering liad.
indeed, some advantages; the chief of these being that it afforded a
ready and effective weapon of offence to States not possessing a large
navy. Such vessels Avei'c, mor(>i)ver. subject to various restrictions (s);
whilst the issue of letters of marfpie to neutrals was sometimes for-
f)idden either by treaty or l»y municipal law(^). Xevertheless, the
.system was at bottom a vicious one; as involving the carrying on of
war at piivate cost and for private gain, by agents who Averc un-
amenable to j)roper control —to the great disadvantage of neutral
trade (^;n. At any rate, the practice came to be generally r(>-
jiiobated: and. in 18.54, on the outlu'eak of the Crimean war, both
Great Britain and France announced their intention of not issu-
ing letters of marque to private cnvners. On the termination
of that war, the Declaration of Paris, 185(5, amongst other things,
declared that 'privateering is and remains abolished " (ccj. This
Declaration, although originally made only between the parties to
the Treaty of Paris, was subse(|uently adopted by nearly all mari-
time States, with the exception of the United States (y), Spain and
Mexico. The United States, moreover, in the civil war of 18G1.
and both the United States and Spain (,;) in the war of 1898, con-
formed to its principles: whilst both S[)ai)i and Mexico have now
formally accepted it. Xor is the practice, in its former character.
likely to be revived (,a).
The Enlistment of Privateli/ Oioteil Vessels. — Althouu'h privateer-
ing was declared to be abolished by the Declaration of Paris and was
indf^ed in its original form generally al)and()ned, States, in their
do<ire to add to naval resource's, soon l)co-an to revert to tlie practice
of enlisting in their siM'vice ve-s(ds bidonging to private^ owners.
So. in 1S7IJ. on the outbreak of the Fi'aiico-German war. Prussia
issued an invitation to ]:)rivate owihm's to fit out vessels for the
purpose of attacking French warsliips ( /> i. on the terms that the
(.O So. (uider tlio Ih'itisfi practice, turiim- ])ri\atc ])roj)prty dflirr tliaii
bonds coiKlirioiuMl on irood l)i'liaviniir contraf);'.ii(t : sec Afoorc, I)iii'c<t.
wi-l'c exacted fi'oiu llieir owner-: rlie v^ 12"21.
M'sx'fs tlieni<elves were iiiatfe lialile to U) t'>veu tfiou^-ji tfie fatter rc-
itispeetion and control of pul)lic ves- served the riirlu to issue letters of
sels; and tliey were reiiuired to lirini.' niar(|ue.
ill alf ])ri/.es tor adjudii'atioii. (") On tiio suliject eenerallv. see
I/. See vol. i. -iST; and ^\'llal■ton, 'f'ayfor. (38 pt srq..- and Wiv-tla'ke. ii.
iii. 49.'). l.''i-
i i/ 1 {''or a summary of tlic merits ( // ) 'J'his linntation was conse(|ucnf
and defei-ts of tiie system, -ce Wool- (ui the jirojiosal oriL;-inally niaih' i)y
sev. Int. Law, ss. 127. 12S. Cermany that pri\ale jiroj'.erty ^Imuld
'(.>■') Art. 1. '"' exempt from captui'c. alrli'ouu'h on
( v^ 'l'li(> l'nitc<l State- refu-ed fo the faifurc of f'"raiii'e to respond this
acrode to it. except on condition of ])ropo-af was withdrawn.
the atiandiuiment of tfic I'i-hr of cap-
C.I.I.. K
130 ('i(se-s aiii( Oj/in/o/is on lulcrnntiounl Law.
'iliicis. and crows .-lioiild Ik; pmNided \)\ tho uwnors. but sliould
ln' t»'iii|Miraiilv iii(iii|>()iat(Ml in the na\y and und(M' naval dis-
■ iplini'; '.liat ili»' vc->('l> ilu'ni>olvo- .-IkiuM lly the naval liai;; and that
rln' iiwnrr.- >li(iuld rrecivo cMnijxMi.-aiion fur i!h> iis<' ut llioir vessels
and an indiMnnily in ilu' event ot tlu'ir fcipturc <i]' dosi ruction, as Avell
a> lariic [ucniiunis t(ir llie destruciion ot enemy vossols. France pro-
le-te'd au'ain-t this as an intraetion <:)f tlio Declaralieni of Paris, and
,i)i|icalei| t" the Iiiiti-h (.ioverinnent ; hut the latter was advised by
it> Law ( )llic;'rs that there was a sul)stantial distinction between the
cWunian jirdpiL-al-; and the svstem abolished bv tlie Declaration of
I'arj-, and fur thi- reasdiL declined to take any action in the matter.
That there wa- a -ubstaiitial distinction of nbjoet in the scheme as
' 'riu'inalh' prnpnsi'd canunt f)e denied; but if the essential features
')f iirivatecrini;- are thi' (Muph.iyment of private ves-els manned by
private crew.- to attack and capture ene.ny ve--sels at their own risk
and I'Xjieir-e and for priv.ite u'ain. it seems doubtful wiiether the
mere tricking' out of a ])rivato vessel ^itlr the ])u]ilic llac^-. and a
dci lararioii that the ci'(>\v< art^ to lie deemed iiicorjxirated in the navv
and subject to naval <liscipline, top-ether with the suljstitution of
iireminnrs for prize UKuiey. constitute any real disliiK.-tion. The
Kus-ian Volunteer Fleet. ()\\ the other hand. was. as we have seen,
loiined under the ausjdces of a ])atriotic association and was intended
priniarih- to su}»idemeiit the national forces; whilst its \-e-sels had
oven in tiuK' of ])eace in some sort a ])ul)lic cjiaractcr. as Ixdiiii- under
the i-oimnand of I'epadar naval ofhcers and tlieir ci'ews subject to naval
traiinuir and di<ci])liiie - in view of which it would seiMii that these
\(>-sc]- uw bcini;- duly commissioned i c) ^vere entitled to be rep'arded
a< fjiialilicd cruisei-. More recentiv a new method of I'c . litinii' the
rt'u'idar na\"vcniH' into voo-uo amonp>t maritime Po\mms; iIi(> practice
lieini;- to o-rant subsidies to tlie t;-i~cat naviu'ation comjiaines, in return
foi' which fa-t vessel--, coir-tructed o'enerally on })laiis jirevioiisly
ippioved by the Crovernment. were ])laced at it> disprisal for service
cither as ciui-ers or 1ians])orts in time of ^\ar(c/). .'^ucli arrano-e-
aieiit- are perfei'tlv legitimate; and— even under the r-iistomarv law
:ind de-pite its incfutitudc in detail -ucli \i'--cls woidd be entitled
in war to the chai'actei' nt' ipiabljeil be! lii^-erem -, pi'nxided llie\ \\[^\-o
taken o\er and ei immi^-idned b\- the Stale, and their opei'atjons cou-
dieied. iu taet a- well a- in name, uiidei' it- dii'ct euiitrol .ind on it-
; I'-poii-ibi jii \ . DuriiiL;- the Spani-h-A uhm icaii war. in iMls;. Spain
'' r Altlieil^'-ll it is Still ,-1 (|lICStioil Slilj-idy. te talii- onC!' ci>i't;iili \r^<cls
'.'.•lict l;.-r till- riiimn!-~i<iii iiiu-t not he tei- !in\:il ii-c in tin )' war. -ucli
.--iii'd wirliiii tlie StaO' 'ei-ritery. \, ..<,.]< hi^jn^;- ei-diiiarilv manned in
' '/ Sncji a rranLrcnicnt<. altliouL.''Ii jiiu't li\- .-aileis lnd'MiLi'iiiL:' t i V\<- na\-al
'hey \\\x\ L'l'i'ally in detail. lia\"e lierii i-esi'i'\e: wldUta la r-c nnin I jei' .if , ,i jn-i'
niado t)V j-'ranri'. (liTHiany, Italy, .and \(.s~cl< waae held at it- di-jneal wltii-
fhc I'nile<l State-. The Uriti-h eat snleidy: Imt \\\v<,- .a la-a n-a.ments
•■ ie\ei-i;nient a!-ii, ill l^-^7. i-enidnded ha \ e -i i a -i ■ 1 km ai I'ej i m |ni-lifd . wir !i the
: r!'anL'"'aiient - w ir li -e\-c'':i I i,i' t hi. •_■■[■' a! exaa'piiim c a' that made with fjie
-'eane-hij) cnmiianie- under whieh it (hinafd ( ' ;.
: :al 1 he ri'jdit . in '■' n-iderat i^ in ni' a
(^tiulijicd Cruisers. 131
announced the ri)iinatii)ii of a ser\ ice vt auxiliary cruisers ''under
naval law," wliicli. alone, would not have sufliced io confer on tho
vesels in quesiiou the character oi' lawful bollig-erents. The United
States organized and used a similar service; but in this ca.sG the vessels
were taken over by the C o)\'ei'iiment, manned in part by naval officers
and men, and plactMl under the entire control of tho senior naval
oliicer(eJ. Somewhat dilferent is the case where a belligerent State
hires vessels belonging to ])rivate owners for merely temporary service
as transports, colliers or otlierwisiv Hcu'e the (piestion of belligerent
character will not generally arise; although such vessels, whether
iielonging to subject.s or neutrals, will possess an enemy character
as regards the other belligerent, and will on that ground be liable to
(•a])turc or destruction ( /).
The Hague Conueiitiuji. relative to the Conversion of Merchant
>hip-< into Warships. — l>ut although the legalitv' of the enlistment
'jf private vessels and their conversion into ships of war was recog-
iiize<L there was, so far, no authoritative or uniform rule as to the
precise conditions that were recpiired. The matter cajne under con-
sideration at ihc Ila^'ur C'onfer<!nce of 1907. wilh the residt that the
present Convention, Xo. 7 of 19U7, " r(dalive to th(> conveision of mer-
'•liant shi])s into warships" was ad(jpl(Hl. \^\ this Convention it is
))rovided in eirect (^1) that no vessel can acipiiro the status of a ship of
war or the rights and duties a])pertaiiiing to that character unless she
is placed under the direct authority and immediate c(nitr(d and re-
spoiisibility of the Power whose Hag she lliesi/y,); rl) that such a
vesscd nuist <-arry all tlie (Wtei'uai mai'ks that distinguish war-
--hi[)s bel( g'ing to her nationality (h ); < o i that the commarKhu' nuist
he in ti..3 service of the State, duly connni.ssioiK.'d. and his name
notilied on the ollicial navy lisii/.i: (4) that the ci'ow must be
svdtject to naval disci]din(' I A' I : (.V) that tlie \essel must comply with
the laws and customs of war ( /); and, Huallw i i!) lliat tli(> conversion
must be )iublich' notifi(^d as soon as possibliM //n. This ( 'onvention,
-0 far as it '^ni'^, has t]i(> merit of rc])lacing the sdHK.what vague and
uncertain rul(>s of th(^ cnsiomai'\' law on ihi> sulij(>i-t. by rides tliat are
lolinite and authoiitat ixc At the same i imc it leaves s(,ni(. important
prol>lems unsolved. It mak(^-. I'dI' instance, no pro\'isioii as to the
pla((^ of con\(Msion : this bcinu' a i|iiestiiiii c)ii which it Avas found
impossible. (Mther at th(^ llai:iie t 'onfe)'enc(» oi' at tlie Xa\al
('iinf(Mence of Ji'DS-',) i /n. to aiiixe at aii\' au'reeiiient . On ])rin-
<•) See .^rnore. l)iu-e>r, vii. '•>\1\ tlic (/) Art. ') .
]:'i', ;S1» i'(.<l. IJep. 'kV-\): i!a!-clay. i m \ Ai-t. H. 'fhis C'envcntioii has
I'mlilciiis, '-'(It. ii--ii ".ii;;i.'u i.v (ircat liriiain. Init
/) ],ii,-o. [I. t.5S. iiiit by tlie fiiit.'d States: see Table.
'/I Art. 1. M'l'- '^•^•- '"''f-
'/'I Art. 1. ' ) .\- to the u-eiieral edin'-^e (if
! (■ 1 Art. 3. ili-cu-MDii nil this sul)ieet and the
/• ! Art. t. v:n-iini- -iiliitidiis nlfered. see J'l-arec
1 liL:-i;-iii<, 317 ct c.-y.
k2
132 Cases und Opinions on International Laiv.
eiple it would seem that such a conversiou, involving as it does the
setting- forth of an organized instrument of war i^o ), can only be law-
fully math'" in territory l.)elonging to or occupied by the commissioning
State or an ally yp i. To effect it in neutral territory would constitute
at once an infringement of neutral sovereignty, and. if accpiiesced in
by the neutral, a violation of neutral duty((/). To effect it on the
high seas would appear to infringe the right, alike of neutral Govern-
ments and of neutral traders, to know beforehand how they stand in
the matter of belligerent interference with their trade (r) and
throuuh what agent.^ and instruments such interference will
be exercised — a condition insalficiently fulfilled by Art. 6. which
merely ])rovide- that oilicial notification shall be made " as soon
as ]iossii)l(' " i.s'i. If, moreover, a vessel can be converted on the high
seas, it would seem to follow, in default of express restriction (t).
that she may equally be rc-con\'orted there; witli the result that a
vessel iniglit change her character at will, claiming at one time the
privileges of a warshii). and at another time, and especially in the use
of neutral ])()rts, tho>e of a private vessel. Hence conversion on the
higli seas, if taken in conjunction with the incidental right of re-con-
verj-ioii. wuuld ap]jear to be not only a cause of offence to neutrals
but also an infringement of the rule of the jus bell/ which forbids
intermittent b(dliL;'erency i 'M — and to warrant all conse(juent jienal-
ties (,/'!.
THE in (HIT of marittme r aptire.
THE 'THALIA."
[1905: 'r.nkali.T=hi. liiti'i'iiational Law applied to tlu' Hus<(i-.faj)aiic>c War. Bt'S.^
Case.^ Ill 1904, after the outbreak of tiie Ru^.-o-JajiaiK.'se A\ar.
the steaiiishi]) " Thalia.'' the ])roperty of a Russian coinpanv', A\a.-
(o) Jnf,a. J,. :]4.3. admi^^ihlc -i!n<lor wlii.-li a prizr taken
(j>) liii'IuiliiiL' eirlici- p()rt< or terri- on the liitrli seas mio-lit there Ite een-
torial waters: src vol. i. KC). verted iiiti. a ([ualitied eiaiiser. by
(q) I, 'I, -a. p. l^ds. ])hieiiiir hei' uiid<'r the e"niiiiarid id' ii
(r) I "J, -a. p. till. (■f)iniuissi(Mied offiecr of the cajitor
(v.) Wdiii-h niiLdit .mm-iii- \>\\vs after \-....<|.| ; <,.,. j, :-]-,s. ;,,o-'/. Imt ;(ls,) 77,,-.
the \rs-el in <pi('>tinii had rnminiiiei'd t ; rn,-ii"i ,,:i (1 i)iid-:. ;!<)7 1
hclli-eruiit opcraiinii-; mc. I,y way of i^ 'tiie Convention lieinir silent on
examph'. ]i. 127. sn^,,-". At the same the stdijefd.
time, the riLdit (d" convrr^ion on the (t/') i^iijna. ji. 97.
hiirh -I'll iTcrlvcs soinc' >up|)orf fi-oni a (.,-) ]/,;,!. ]]!: and. on thesuhiiMi
jiraetirc. .-anctiniu'd iindi'r tlic ciirlicr o'cnerally. Pcaree JliLTirins, iVl rf ,w,,
eii^toniarv law- althuu'j'h no loniri'r
Maritime Capture. 133
seized as prize at Hakodate, in .Japan, by au oliicer of a .Japanese
Avarship. At the time of lier seizure the "'Thalia" was under-
o'oing repairs in a doekyard hek)nuing- to a private company,
and had in fact h(^eii phiced in (h'\- (h)ck on land. In the
(,'ourt below the \es.<cl was condemned <jn the ground that she
did not lose her character a-s maritime property by being tem-
porarily on land, antl tliat as the maritime property of the enemy
she was subject to captui'c. On a.])peal to the Higher Prize Court,
it was contended, micr alia, 'I that the capture was not war-
ranted b}' the Japanese ''rules governing captures at sea," Avhich
made no provision for capture on land ; (2) that by the Regu-
lations annexed to the Hague Convention. Xo. 2 of 189!), to which
Japan was a party, private property on land wa.s not in general
sul)ject to seizure or confiscation(cy\ and that, even though provision
was there made for the seizure of private propertv, including ships
and ve>sels not subject to maritime law, tor military purposes (&),
yet this was not the purpose of the present seizure; (-3) that
th'.^ capture was also contrary to the general rules of international
law. for the reason that the seizure was not made within those
limits Avithin which the law recoiiiiized a right oi' maritime cap-
ture: V that the claim to treat the vessel as "' maritime property "
wa^ the less admissible in \'ii'w ol' thr fact that she was at the time
inrapable of naAia'ation and lackiiii;' iii all the cssentiids of mari-
time e4uip})iont: and -V that the riiidit of maritime capture, being
an exception to the gcnenil fide and also opposed to modern
tendencie^^ ought to be conlincd rio-idl\' within the narrowest
limit- of admitted usau'e. In the result, however, the api)eal
was dismissed and the decree of condemnation conlirmed.
Judgment. ' In the judiiincnl of the Higher Court it was held
that there was nothing- in tic .Jaj)ancse "rules governinu' cap-
tures at sea " to negative tic validit\' of tlu.' capture in (jUestion.
The Hacjui^ l{('gulatinii> had exclusive ivfen-iiee to war on land
and Were iiia|i[)liea Ide to tic |ire>ent ea-i'. Xor was the cajiture
opposed to the ii'enei'al rules oE inteiaiat ional law, for the reason
that the j>lacine- of a. \i's-i'l in do(d<; or on land adjoining' was
onh- a means of le-torinu Icr olUeiene\- as an in-ti'ument of navi-
('/) Ai-t>. 23, 10. ('>• Art. 3:5.
134 Casps and Opinions on International Laii:.
gation. Horict.' tlif vessel in (jucstioii must be cleeined to retain
her eharaeter as " maritime pruperry ' of the enemy, as to which
a right ol' capture was still recognized. Xor would lu'r lack of
feca-going capaeit\' and of the nei'cssary in>truments of na\'ia'ation
at the time of eapture, e\en if this had been established in fact,
in any wa\- afleet this liability. It \va> also held thai the fact of
a vessel ha\ini;' l)een carried to the place of capture on l.H)ard
another \essel. as '■car<i(^ did not confer an^' immunitv ./■ .
Thi.- cas<.» decides that au enemy ves-^el. temporarily on laud
tor tile purpose of repairs. l)ut retaiuino- otherwise her o-pueral
character a- an instrument of naviu'atiou. remains >uhjeet tn the
riiihi of maritime eajiture. Incidentally it was also ruled that this
liehi \\a-> still to be regai'ded as a sul)sistin(i- and normal institution
of the law of nation-. It is curious to notice that, in the case of the
i'J:ut('iiit()sJ'i c < d ••. it was conteufled on hehalf of the claimants that
the riii'lit of maritime capture, as reu'ards pi'ivate [iroperty of the
enemy that wa< neitliei- contraband nor I'crpiired for nulitary ])ur-
po-e,-. wa- oppo-ed to the UKue enlit;'htene(l opinion n\\ \]n< suliject.
and tliat it believed the ('(jni't in that ca-e to u-ive etfec-t to these
moie ad\anced piinciple-. In aid of this contention referenee was
made to the ' i-iile- a- to maritime capture adopted in 1.S82 !iv the
In-iitme of Tmeinational Law. ^\hicll declaied [)rivate pmpertx- on
.-ea to lie invi<ilaMe. suhjcM't to a Condition of reciprocitw e\cH|)t iji
ea-e- oi coutialiand or lucach of hlockade ( t' ). This eniitenlion was.
liowevei-. naturally rejected li\' the Conrt. rm the 2'ronnd- that the
rule in ijue-tion wa- -> i far rmP rhe expres-ion of a pirn;-, wish,
and thai the rinht nf maritime ca])ture wa- in it-olf rea-oiialde and
wai ranted l)\- cniient iiractice ( /) .
(ii;\Ki;\i. Sn\K>. - Till' ('apt'O'c <jf Priritfc ['rrif/rrfi/ ut Sr<i . ()n<.
ol' the main di Ifeis'iice- lietween latrd and -ea waifare is thai in sea
\\aifarc prix'ale propn'tx >lill remain- liaMe to capture. \inl thi>
a]i|ilic-. Iinih Im »;iii'|||\- \-(.^<«>1-. a lid tn all s(\i-li^)rne a-ou.ls of iiu>
encii,\ thai aii' icii pi'Mtect >il liv the neutral Uau'. It furniprlv ex-
t<'nded. accMiiliiiL: '" 'li' practice of .me :^'ri)iip nf .Sta'(\-. to enem\
i:'Mi<|- liiunil Mil neutral -hips; and. aci'nr.li le,;' t.i the practice fol-
lowed l.v an iih. 1 '_:rou|i. t i neutral Lzu'd- fomi<l mi enemv -hip.-,
nnle-- jn'iiie<-ic,| 1,\ tiv:it\: Imt -iich c-en.U. ni.i l.cin.;- cmii r:i 1 ,aiid.
(>') ,<<■<■ ;,No /■/■- M. '.,,;,..,■ , '|'ak:e Vi't-. t, ."j. h. s. III. 1 .') . -J:!. :il!.j ;j2
ha-lii. .'>!Hi. ,,t the i;, ,i' , ,nr,,i : :.,',',,_ a. ,;■,_
'/; T^.kafw-hi. .",^J. (' Scf ':,!-(,/■•'. Ac/,, •;,,/■, '|'ak:: icxlii,
(•/ S[.cci;il Mtcl'cnrc \\':i^ !i,;c|c \.^ ;Vsl).
Marlfinic (jijifiDW. 130
arc now exempted from captiiro botli l)y the Dechiratiijii of l\a'i-
au'l by common usa^-eTr/i.
The saggesti'd Exehi},li()H of Private Properfi/ at Sea from
Capture: (i) Opinhnt a)i(/ Practice. ~-T\\i2 riu'lit of captiirinii' lln'
[)i'ivato piHipei'i}' of aii cih.miin- fouiul oii the .sea i-< uiKjuestiouahh'
under the existinj^' hiw. and is iMii\cr>aily a(hnitted in practic(> except
where ([ualilicd hy trcai\ i/n. At the same time the practice i-
reg'ardcd with a ccrtaiii amount of disapproval, wliich has found ex-
pression not only in the writing's of the jurist-s, Ijut also in the ollicial
and interaatioiial action of [)articidar Stales. With respect to the
former, the <i'reat mass of Km-opeau opinion has hitherto heeji arrayed
against the ])racticc. althoueh tins is not now so nearly unanimmi-
as fcu'merly I / 1 . The Institute of 1 iiternal ional Law has al^o on
several occasions pronounced in fa\"our of the in\ i<daliility of j)rivate
l)roperty I /r ). Knelish and American o[)inion on the subject is
divide<l(/'. ^^^ith respect to ollicial action, the Cicjvornmeni of the
United States as eai'ly as 18li3 ])roposed the e-oiieral adopti<.)n of
the ])rinciple of the inuuuiuty of private pr(j])orty to C^reat Britain.
France and Russia, althoue'h without success; whilst in \S')\\ it made
the e'oneral rocoe'iiition of this principle a condition precedent of it-
own acceptance of the rule for the abolition of jjrivateering eiidiodieil
in the Declaration of Paris ( rn). The same Government also adopted
the ]irinciple of immunity in various trinities entort'd into with othei'
State- I /M; althouo'h in default of ti'caty the right of captuie
A\ould still be taken advantau'c of. The principle of exemption wa-
reci|)roeally acted tipon ImmIi by .Vustria and Prussia, and also by
Austria and Ital\'. during the wars (jf ISlif). It was ])roclaime'l
b\- (.bu'inanv in 1S7(). bui wa- subs;>(|uentlv witlidrawn on the
lailure of France to respoiidirn. Italw in IK!)."). incr);'p( .r.ite i
it inbi her maritime code, subject to tlu^ c-onlition of r(>ciprociiy .
A ])r(_)posal to declare private |vrop(niy on tlie si>a (>xempt from
cajtture ,-ave in cas<\s of iMudraband or attempted violation of
I'v; I'ho ricrlit of captun' alsr) ex- al tiMii])ti'(l l)rf\c-li of lil()o'catl(>. as a
tiMxls to noutral pi'uprrly. wlii'tlicr ilcsn-alit' [iriiici])!!' ; and, in ISS'J. as
ships or LToods. 0ii2'aL;'i'<i in ai'ts wliic.ii a snt.-rar.tivc pai't of its l'ri/lr,i).-,,f
a lu'lliu-fi-i'nt is cntirlcd to I'cstrain: l,. 1 1 ,-,." i io,,'fi drs ^, ,-:■-■,.■< ynnr'trmi-'- .
hut this, of ccjursc, rests on other ('i Ainonui'st taiu'lish wiaOTs who
UTiiunds and wiU eoiin' under emi- are oppo-ed to the praetiee are .Mill,
siihi'afion h(M-eafter. .Maine. Hall, and l.awi'enee. On the
(//) Hall. 111. It \va- also as~unied
•r u-i'nerallv. see [Jail. V?>
as a neee..-sarv oa-is of di-ea-ion at Westlake. ii. 130 : Lawrence. 41 !
the Naval ( 'oii fiM-enee nf U)i)S-i). W heaton Dana), 4.51. n. : and Tayhe
; /■ ) See Opjienhein}. ii.
,\!n(ini;'st l-',uroi)ean wi'iuu's wh
)<il : and. fei- w sluTt iii-toi'v uf
and praidii'O. Latiti, IIS <) s,-<i.
,^ , - . I 1 M , ., ('"I .Moore. Dii^-est. vii. S lUls,
oppi. sed to the praetiee are I >r Martiei-. . s
,,V , ,■ I, 'v, 1 /. 1. .' i As 111 hs.) and ISi's witn
i; untsehh. Ilt'itter. and ( al^'. n • i • i ^ - 1 • i i .
rru>-ia. .and m ISi 1 with 1 taiv.
(/•) In is;.-), it i.ut forward the m- ,„, H-ivin- prehahlv hren' mad-
violalaliry nt privaf property uiMhu' „„i^. ^^.[^1, ., ,.j,,^^. ^^, f,, ..',.;„,. the irini
the enemy tla-. and it^ iininuiiUy Iron. ,,f- ^1,,, Pf^,,,^,], ( ;,,vernnienf .
cuiituro, save in I'a-e- nt eentrahand nr
136 Cases ami Opinions on Into national Law.
blockade was sahmitt^^d to ilio Hague ("onferonce of 1899 by
the United Stato>. l)ut the L'oalcrenee did not consider the dis-
cussion of this ([iK'stion to be within its competence . altlioug'h
it put on record a wish that .such proposal should be referred for
consideration t-D a subsecpient Conference yji. At the Hague Con-
ference of l',t()7, accordingly, a similar proposal was brought forward
bv the I'uiied Stall's delegates and led to an extended discussion i 7 );
but no agreement wa^ reached, although the wish was ex2:>re<sed that
the adoption of I'cu-ulation- rehitive to naval war should form a part
of ihe piML;r;iinnu> of 'he next Conference, and that in any case the
Po\\oi> -hoidd a|i|il\ as far a^ ])o<sible to war l)y .^ea the principles
of ilic ( oil veil tion relat ive to the laws and cusioms of war on hind 1 r).
ii I 77/r (/uesti'ij' of /V.s ile-^irahtll/>/, (ruin an nifern'itkmd slund-
I'lnil. Ill view i)\ the efforts that are being- made to secure the
exeiii]iiioi; from captui'e of ])rivate property on the sea. it may lie of
a(l\ iiiilau-e to glance briefly at the leading argumeiit> which are
addic-cd on either sid(\ and this both from an intei'national
standpoint and from the standpoint of Ih-itish policy. From
the former standpoint, on behalf of the proposed immunity, it
is mi:-ed: (1 1 That the present [jractice of subjecting- private
property t<j cajjture is an infraction of the jjrinciple that ''war
i- a relation of State to State,"' which is here assumed to ho a
fundamental principle of the law (jf waris;. '2i That the present
juactice i>, in any ('ase, opposed to the humanitarian s])irit of movlern
time.-, which seeks to exempt the individual so far as possil>le from
the Jiicid<'nt> of war'/', t .'i 1 Thai it is illoL^-ical and unjust that
piivatc property >]iould be exempt from conHscation on land 1 ?/ 1 and
yet lie siilijcct to capture at sen. (4) That the practice of awarding-
the proci^ed- oi ])ri/e to the captors, even though this is subject to the
control of the (ymrt-. imparts to war the taint of being still carried
on I'or ])i'ivate gain, and ministers to private greed, (o 1 That the
ca]iture of private piopciTy on the sea is — in view liotli of tlie facilities
now afionh'd by land irafiic and the recognized immunity of enemv
:^oiid- ill iieiitial ship- -hiriiel\- ineffective as an instrument of war,
and i- lh>'i('foi(^ uppn-ed to the tiiie interests of the belligerents
them-el\c-. ina-much as it tends t(,i thi'Ow their carrying trade into
the hand- of neutral- I ,n. On lh(^ oilier hand, in favour of the
reieiitiuii 1,1' the exi-tiiiL;' practice, it is ure'od: 1' 1 1 That ])ri\;ite jiro-
p<'it\- i- -ei/ed not a- bciie.;- the property of individuals Imt as part
of the c,,imiieiv(> nf ijie Suite from which the latter <leri\-es lar^elv
/' ) ^cc /■,/,/. Xd. ,"). 1,1' the i-"iiial |>rn]i()-inu- to abiilisli j>rizo nioiifv. .'^co
Art, ls'.t!». J'carce Uiiriiiiis, Sn rt .wy.
' '/ A- to the v,-iI'i(Hl-. nil,.-!- pi'o- (,•) Scr /',/-,/, Xo. 4, nf the J-'iliaf
|"'-:il- tlirii iiiailc. iiirliidiiio <,n(. l)y .\ct. f()07: ami I'carcc Jiiiririiis, 78
J'.razil t'wr a--iin)iatiii-- tli^ -ri/m-c ut' ct srij.
private |iri)|MTty liy -ea to sci/nre ' .^ i Sninn. y. Kl.
■iiidiT the rule- (,t lam! war: anotficr 7) N'//,/v/. j). <»_'.
i'V l;.-l-iuiii. ~uli-titat!;i-' ..i'.|i;,...tration ( -' . Ii. \\. -l(i.
''"I- i-iipiarr: and aiiMtli-:- 'nv i-'raii'-c. ,'.,-, On tliis pdiiit <(■.' i.a wr.aicc,
II.').
Maritime Capture. 137
lis resource-^ t'ni- war. wlictln'i' in iiioiicy oi- -lii[)s or men; and that
in lliis cliaiaricr its ra|iliir<' Jias pioN^'d in llic pa.sl and is lik(dy
Id |»niv(> in the I'ntnn' a niosi. cllVctiv*^ iuslrunient of \vai;(//(,
lioth l)\' dcranninti' llic <;oufS(' oL tho cMUMnv's trade, liy int-oii'crin*^-
witli his snj)pli('s, ospcciallv of foodstiill's and raw juatcrial ( ~j, l>y
icstricliny th<' disjxtsal of Ids [)ro(hict\s, and by dinuuisluii^' hi.s
]-('sonr<-<'s ill ships and nuMiir/)- ( l2 i That tlic arguincnt souji'lit
1(1 l»e iouiided on tho analogy of land war is alttjg-ethor mi.s leading,
for the reason that private property ou land is not only subject to
the risks involved in military operations, but is also liable to seizure
fill' ndlitary purposes in tli<' form of contributions and r^'quisitions (h }.
These incidents, it is said, are r<'ally far more oppressive to the indi-
vidual than the seizure of property ou the sea, which is rigidly
controlled l)y the action of the courts, and g-reatly mitigat^id in
<'lfect by the ])ractice of insurance; l)eing at bottom pro])abIy the
must humane of all tlie o])eratiiins of war I'ci. T^Vi That in a maritime
Slate, at any ral(\ the exemption of ])rivate [)ropertv from (-ipture
would tend to set up a di-^tinctioii l)etween the military an.d the
( onimercial (daises, which would not; only brt'ak in on the sense <.)f
national unity, but would, by rtdieving- the latter class in a larg-e
m(^asure from the ])ressui'e of war. also relax one of its existing' deter-
rents. (4) That the j)ro|)osed dianu-e. if it is to be a reality and ]iot
a pret(uici\ would ne:'d lo be accompanied by a simultaneous abolition
of the right (.)f connnercial blockade w/i; for the reason that, in a
^var in which comiufU'cial inteicst^ wci'e largelv involved, the tempta-
tion to stj'iko at an enemy thr(C,io'h Jus trade W(juld induce a ])Owerfnl
belligereni who was debaiacd from ca])turing enemy ])roperty as
-uch. to seek io attain the sauu^ ol)ject by a system of commercial
])lockades. which, if <>\ien<i\ cly resorted to. wnnld probably prove
more oppressive to conunei'cial interests than the iiresent prac-
tice ('ri. Xor. in this conneciion. iv ii pos^ibh^ to di-reii'ard that
doctriiu^ oi military iiec(^-vii \-. wliicli Poweis like (rermany Iceep in
i-cserve as a m(\^ns of ob\ iatine- the conse(piences of rules that stand
in the wav of militai'\' ^ncce--iri. and which \\'oidd w;irrant
tjie seizuie or dostruilion of eneni\ meichanlmen whenever in
the opinion of a commandei' militarx iiei-e-^^itx miulit roipiire
tlii^iV'- ^^'ith r(>sp('ct to the ])o<^iiile eHeci of tli<> existing ])ractico
(V! In tli(^ caso. that i<. i>t' ^ra^cs hciiiL:' '" cxciiiitt," undor the cxistiiiij
haxiiiL'" a (■(insi(l<'i-al)lc ti'aih'; in other jiracticc. All that has been done is to
.■ase-:. it \V()>il(l nut he s,p cttCct i\ e. hut -u1i<titiite eriraiiized and systematic
td that extent the cviN enm |ila i neil of -eizurc foi' chaotic seizure and phin-
would lie eoi'i-e<iioii(li!iL;'ly diniinished. iler: see ISarelay. I'rohlenis. (iT.
-:i So fai-. that i-. a~ the t::el" i <■ • 'i'hi- a-]iect of tin' (]ue-;tion is
eai-fied on in the nati(nial ^hip-. well <tated hv 1 )ana : seen, (/i) . f:// /,,■'/ .
:'■' See W'heaton [lana^. I"!, ' '1 ) l„t,y'^p. 403.
c. LIS. '!"his eonelusion i- al-o hoi'tii' ' r) lieeause it Avould then affect all
out liy ti;e opinion of icnal ex|terts. tralHc. whether on neutral or on
-i!''h as Admiral .Mahan. national shi])S.
/n Sii/j,-". )). 11(1. It i< imt. as 't) N"//,-'7, p. 95.
we have >^e,>n, alto-ether aeeurate to i /' ) See V;e>tiako. ii. 1-32: P. S. Q.
-peak of pri\atc jirnperty on land as xx. t)0(i, JJee. l'JO.5.
l-"38 Ca^C8 and Opinions on International Laiv.
in (.'ausing- a transfer of the trade and shipping- of either l^olligerent
to neutrals, it iniglil perhai»s lie urged tliat this, if true, shouhl
of il-clf opciate as a dctencnt to war. alt hough it is doubtful in fact
whfihr!' -uch a transfer woidd t.ike plac ^ ■ h<. At the .same time it is
adiiiiitcd \i\ iiiaiix \\h<i othorwi-r favour the rctentlMU (jf tlie pre-ejit
practirc. that it niii^ht he cMiixcnioit Iv ain<'nd(.'d: a~ hy aholisliiug' the
liuilii ti' pri/e iimiK'v , and. perhaps, al.-u. hv a more ('(p.iilablo ap})0r-
tii.uiment nf tlio ln-se- sustaiiKMl t^y ])rivate owners hy means of a
.-y>ti'iii of natiiinal in-uiancf of national indemnity (/ 1. At the
Hague (nnfeicnee of \'.)i)~ . it \va- pr(j]iosed. among'<t other thing's, to
.-uh-titute seipie-tiation t'nr (■a])tiii'( — the ju'opeity or its sak- price
heinu' returned to tli(.' owner i\\\ tin; c'incliMioii of the Avar -
ahhoii,L:li tlii- pioj)i,-al was ultimately w ithdiawn i /,' i. i)Ut whether
>o i|ualilie(j or not the right of captui'iiiL' ]tri\-atc pro])erty at sea is
.-caicch liktdy to !_)(■ di-i-aiHed in tlie near future; althougli a? time
[noi-e(.'iN it iua\' c(jncei\ ahl\' cfjiue to he reg'ai'ded rather as an e.xcej)-
tional than a noiiiial ineasiu-e of wart/).
I iii 1 'Jin jjijliri/ iiml at((lii(l(' oj (rrcnt lirUn'in on flii-i 'juexllon.' -
It i- sometimes as-umed Ijy f(jreigji writer.- that Gieal jjritain stands
almo-t aloii*,' in her opposition l'> the |)roposed exemjttion of j)ri\-aM'
propei-;\' (111 die sea from capture. That l\n< is far fr.iin b(dne- the
ca-e may fie gathereil frdiu the fact that on the occasir^n of a vote
being taken on tlii- '|ue-ti<ui at the Hatiue ronference of 11)07 no le>-
than (■le\eii (jther State-, includiiig' France. Jvu-sia. and dajian. voted
uLi'ainst tin- pi opu-ed e.xemp; ion ' ///;. Still it cannot be denied that the
attit u(|e 111' ( ;re;ii Mi i tain ha> >o far been antaL;<n]istic; ;ind also that the
pro]»o-(.'d exempt irui cannot well be canicl into effed without her
a.->ent. The i|ue-tioii then aii-e> wjiethei- -uch an altitude i- ju-tiliei|
fiom the point of \iew of the natiiuial policy and welfare. (hi
ihi- (|U"-tioii. aL;ai)i. there is much diverL;'ence nf opinion. ()n
the oil'' hand it i- -aid that, even if there werf no moi-al I'Ca- ui !'o]-
the chaii'ji'. it woidil be. al anv laie. piditic on the jiaiM of (ireat
Ihitain tn aicupi it b\ rea-ou of ili the dependence oi the Ldiited
KiiiLidom (111 f(irei'_:n ,-ourc ■- both for the fd id of its pfipulation and
tlie jiiat;Tial for ii- maiuifact ui'inu' indu-t lies ; i2i the mag-nitude
of the ihiti-h -ea-b(irne traih". and the dan^ei' "f its tran-fer to
< /■ \\ \\(jiil(l 111 (iit'iciilt t I iiccciii- Food and l!aw .Matoid in Tiiiic of
fdi-li ill tlic ca-c of a tra(l(.' ot any W'a;- ai-o rc|i(ii-tcd in fa\ un r nf a <v.-U-]ii
ina'.;aiitiidi wirlioiit a I;ii-l;'c ino-ca-i' of national indcni iiiu' : -<■;■ Rejioi't.
(jf nciiii'iil tiinn;iL''c : \\diil-t the trans- i'ai-1. l'a|ici'-. !!Mi."). d'lic arLMiiucnr-
fiT of i ( liiL^(-rcnt vc-...';- e, th.' nciitral foi- and ai^'ain-t tlii- ]ir(i|iM^:d \\-illi tlic
llai- a'!'!' ;iic (Hitlii-i-ai; (if u'al' W'add coiKd ii.-i( in- of the ( '( i|n ni i <-i- 'ii a ri .
li(' iiiii.r'i'.cl jcii'ilc in la\';: -c' WC-; !,ikc, .-iiiiin'ai-i/.cd ii; l'>;: rid;i \-. i'l-'iiil. ■ni -. '.102
ii. i:;i. >■' s.,,.
\ |:rM|.'..;il in r;i\',ii:- . , t' tli.' (/ p.'ai'c I N--'j-in-, .so. SI.
aholit inn (if |irizc iiioni-y ;i nd tlicadnji- '/> ,n////,«, |,|i. ').'), 02.
lion (>f a -y-u-ni (if natinniil indemnity ' ,/- i 'I'wciit v-onc Stale- voted f'li
\va- iicnle iiy till- fi-eneli (le|ej:ite ;it ;iiid ele\eii aL.^■lin-t the e.xi'iii [ition ;
tiie I laL^n- ( ■(infei-eiice (if I!i(l7: wliil-t one ah-t.iined {,-,,n\ \(irinL.'-: wliiUf tin-
in the I'nited Kiirj-ihmi in 1 (lO.'i the I'e[il'e-ent:it i \-e- of eh'\e|i were ll a
ilcival '''in]nn--i"n <'n tie- .sn|iiiiy n; jn'e-ent.
Maritune Capture. l.'j!»
neutrals if exposed to the risk of capture in time of war; and
u'] ) the pussihlc oiuhurrassiuouts to wliicli a generally unfriendly nou-
fralitv, induL'cd l»y a <4(Mieral disa[)j)r(jval of the practice upheld bv
Crreal Hrit^iiu. would ('x[)o>e her in time of waf. Un the other hand,
il is urj^vd. and with even i^-reater force, (!) that for Great Britain,
as a non-uiilitai V Power. t-i> relirupusli the [)resent ri<>-ht would be to
relincjuish her chief ami in some cases sole means of brini^iin^' ])rr--
sure to bear oji an enemy i ii\. and would incviuibly diminish ijoth he'
iiUernational c(nise(|ueiice and her power to ward oh a^'<i'ressioii :
fy2) that even tbouiili the oiitf)reak of war would t<uKl to raise the pric
of f(>(jd and raw material by eidiaiicinu' th(> cost of carriai^e and the
rates of insurance', yet so loii;^- as (Ircnit Briuiin niaiutaiiLcd her naval
.superiority tluM-e \\(Tuld be no danii-er of a stoppa<i'e or even of a
shorta^'e of such supplies i o). whilst, without a .strong' navy, no formal
declaration of the immunity of private |)ro[)ertv from ca])tiire A\ould
ensure her safety in this respect { p): ( '•)) that any considerable transfei'
of her .slii[)ping- and sea-i)orne ti'ade to iieutials in time of war i<.
under existing conditions highly improbai)le ( r/ ): and ('4) that in the
event of war an unfriendly neutrality on tlH> [)art of certain European
Powei's would in any cas(> have to be faced, and this result, having;'
its foimdation really in other soui'ces. woidd not be avoided
or appreciably h'ssened by a surrender of the right vX ca])turing
private ])roperty(n. Hence it is thought that t^rivit Britain i-
fidly jii>liHed. n(.»t mercdy by rofei'enci' to those general c'»nsider;i-
tions previously <lescribi'd ( .s- 1. but also l)y ref(M'ence to her vital
interests, in adhering to the present rule. At the same time, her
attitude towards the proposed change is far from being one of un-
qualiHed hostility. Slu> recognizes, as fully as anv (.ither Power,
the d(>sii'ability of limitinu' tlu^ incidence of war on individiuils. and
also of mitigating as far as jiossible its injurious ellects as reii'ards
ni'utrals, and has alrcadx u'iven evidence of this in her ])i'0])osal
that the I'ight of ca.i)turinu- contraband should hi- altogether aban-
doned i/i. Bid she aUo reco:^nizes that if tlu^ pro[iosed chaui^-c i-
{)!] Tlie ])0\V('r. tli.it is. which iicr luit Ih" torTlicoiuiiiL;' : ;iii(l impracticaljlo
])reseiit naval sujioriority. (■(uipk'd \\ith in law as rcLraixU vessels, for the
the possession of ports an<l eoaliiii;- reason that these eonld not he lei^-ally
stations in all parts of ihe world, fransfern>d on oi' aftei' the oiithn-ak
eonfiM's on hei'. of sts-ikiiiL:' at tiie iii(>r- ef war: .v^/zv/. ji. l:;s n. L).
eantile marine- of an enemy and / ) ( )n this a-spect of rlie sub jeet. see
annihilatinu- his earryinu' trade. ii.,i|_ ns; Westlake. ii. 129 'rt sc/.;
(") 'l'lii>; :i' iiii.v rate, was the ion- WCsrlake. Chapters on 1 nternatitmal
(Insion ari'ixcd .at hy the li<iyal ('nm- \ /,\:\ , -Jl,') ,/ sin.,- i.awrenc-. [\ \ ,1
mi~-ion of litO.K s,.e lirpert. par. 1 IS; ,.,.,^..- [.atiti. eh. o: j'.arelav. I'roblen!^.
als(, Latiti. i;30 ,i s.,,. ,^,:. ,,/ ^,,.. ,,,„| ,-,,,, ., .,,,;r,,f j v,. draft
(/" in the fare, thai i^.yo. ;!■■ ;.re- ri-eatv emluMl vin- thi' exem priuii. ;',.-'.
sent leu-ality of eomniercial l)l(!el;ade 17(i.'
on the one hand, and the (ieianan i s' / \-\~
doetrine of militarv necessity on the ' "^ ' '/['[''' I'- ' ' ■
(itliei-: siiiiid. p. loT. " ''' 'I'his at the il.iLi'iie fonferenee
(y) .\s lieino- impi'aetiealdr in fact "*^' '■'""• see I'earei' lliu-'ins, 1; ;„-,.,•.
as reo-ards -ood-. for tlie i-eas,.n that !'• '•'•' 'i'"! !>• l ■■
the I'eiiuisiti' neutral tonnau'e would
14<» Cases and Opinions on Inter naiional Laiu.
to lie a reality it must <^o t'artlier. and must include an abandonment
iMi merely of the rig'ht of eapturino- privat-o property but also of
lerlaiii other forms of belliiierent acliun {in, which neither Great
I'.ritain herself nor otlier maritime Powers are as yet prepared to
concede. If in the future, however, some arrang-enient were found
practicable for limiting armaments and lessening generally the risk
of war, then Great Britain would probably be prepared to make this
concession {x).
TILE E.XKMY ( IIAN.KTKR OF VESSELS.
THE -VROW ELIZABETH."
I 1SU3: .5 C. Hob. -2.]
Case._ During war between Groat Britain and Holland, the
■' \'row Elizabeth.' a ve-.-cl .-■ailing under the Dutch ilau' ;ind pass,
was cajiturixl by the British and sent in for adjudication. Con-
demnation wa> rc-isted on beh;ilf of a Cierniaii nierciiaiit resident
at Bj'enien. who clainied the vessel a< lii< propert\': alleo-iug tliat
she had been (jnly noiuinally transferreil to a Dutch nio'chaut and
placed under the Dutch ilau' lor the ])urpo>e of enablini;- In^r to
trad-' in that character between Holland and the Diiteh colonic-.
'J'lii.- ])rocceding was admitted to have l.ieen a fraud on the Dutch
naviiration law-s : l)ut it ■\\a> r-ont ended that the (/ourt A\a> in no
wav concerned to enforce tlicse law>. and that so lone' a- an actual
neutral owncr.-hi]) could lie shown the \es-el wa- exempt from
beliicrerenl cajiture. In the re-ult it a\ as held tint tic I'lb'ct of
sailing undi'r an eneiu\'s llag and pa.-s was conclusive as aeain-t
the \e-se! ; althoue-h not conclusive against the claim of the -anie
ownei' for an uncli^"ided share of the car2"0.
Judgment. Sir W. Scott, in hi> jiide-iiient . pointed out that
tlio weielii ol' e\ideiicL' went to show that the ve>.-rl was !■ "ilh a
i)iitch -hip. But. ipiite apart from tiii.-. it wa.- an e>iabli>hi;d
riije that a \-e-.-r'| .-ailiuLi' under tiie ciiloui'S a.nd pa— of a nation
\\a- to bi' eoii.-id(_'! I'd a.- clothed with the iiiliniial iliaraet.-i' of
t!:e co!Mitr\ who-e llai;' .-lie boi'e. With e-ood^ ii mi^^lit, b.' dthci'-
\\i-", b-o .-hip.- !)ad alwa\s been h.'M to the eharaeic]' with whieji
"( .^ir ]>. l:;:. -/.,". JilllT. Pari. l'a|,rr^. .Mi.-,'. X.,. 1
■- >'■!■ I Il-tril'-t'nl,- f. }].•■ Mi'iti-ll I'MISi: I'.Ml-ri" I I JL'-u-iii-. (Ill) ,/ ,s,v^.
J>>'l<.-i.Mtf- at tli<' llaL;ui' L'udIi i-.;ni-c nt
Enemy Vessels. 141
they were so invested, to the exclusion of any claim or interest
which jx'rsons livin*^' in neutral countries iniofht actually have
in them (a) .
Tlie fact of a vessel .-iailing- under the enemy flag is deemed
to ailnrd coiichisivc jjioof of her enemy character, even though
it may he sliowii that she belougs in wliole or part to a neutral.
This rule rests on the ground tliat the use of that ilag places
the \'ess('| nndei' tla^ j)rotection and control of the enemy
Government, and makes hei' ameiial)le to its laws and liable to
nv^uisition in case of need. Inasmuch as the flag, moreover, must
be presumed to have been used for the owner's advantage, he cannot
be allowed to repudiate it in circumstances where it enures to his
disadvantage. For these reasons the use of the enemy flag is held
to aft'ect the whole vessel with a hostile character and to bind all
interests therein (?/). So. in 1898. in the case of The Pedro (175
U. S. 3.34). it was hehl by the Uiuted States Supreme Court that a
vessel flying the Spanish fla^- and owned by a Spanish corporation
was liable to condemnatiini. notwithstanding that the legal or ecjuit-
able ownership of the entire stock was in British subjects and the
vessel herself insured with l^ritisli underwriters.
In the principal case, indeed, it was suggested that this rule might
admit of relaxation: although the examples given are of a very
exceptional character ( r-). In 187U. it was relaxed by tlie Freucli
Courts in the case of TJic I'ahnc dl). where a vessel belonging to
a Swiss ^Missionary Society but carrying the German flag, was
cajitured by the French, but released in consideration of the fact
that Switzerland had no maritime flag of her own. Such a vessel
would now be exempt from capture under the Hague Convention.
Xo. n of 1907 (e^. as being engaged on a religious mission, but not.
it would seem, on the ground actually taken in the case of The
Palme (i). The use of tlie eiunny flag will not, however, affect with
a hostile character goods found on board which are otherwise innocent
and shown to belong to iieutial owncus: although all goods found on
eneniv vessels are )n'esumod to have an enemv chai-acter unless the
contrary is ])roved ( r/'y
Under the law as hitherto administeied by the British an<l
American Pi'iz(> Court-, althou'^'li the u--c of the enemy fla"- i.s con-
clusive au'aiu<t the \('s<el. \('1 tlie us(> of the neuti'al flao-. oven
("\ Tt \v:is admitted in the judLT- tft: '/'/- .i r:'irl,,,' (-1 Wheat. 14:3-^
lucnt tliat then' iiiiu-Jit he exeeptioiis '/'///■ I' ,U',i<l >^flnii t (4 Wdieat. 10.5)
to tlii< ruh-: hut the<,' only touch the Thr (■],<>]. lyr (:] WaU. •231!.
ease ot" vessels whiidi. in \-ery exeep- ,'V>) Sii/n-n. n. ( ri) .
tional eireuin-tanee<. wii-i' .-iljowcd hy (V/ , I),, Ho:: 1S72). iii. 91.
theii- Clovernment to plare :hiMn-e!ve< { r , Art. \.
nruh'i- a t'oreit^-n fhiir for a jiartieuhir ('1 Latifi. SO.
])ur|
,n See Thr ('„rh,s F. R,,.,'s /'ly
(//! See 77.r I i.di'sty'r (1 Siiiid<<. I.S. (i.i.") ; Seutt. tj;37).
14'2 Cuf^es (did O^'i/NOiis on Liternational Laiv.
wlipro a v(^-<('l is li>M-ally entitled to llv it. is not conchisivo in
her I'aviini'. This arises t'roni tlie fact that iindor the Ano-lo-
Ameiican dditrinc lli(> primarv tost of Imstilo i-onnoction as regards
Miaiitinie ra])tiiiv is iniind in the ilijnncile of ihc owner T/n. Hcnec,
if a ves-id. e\en thou^'h llxino- tlio neutral ilati'. is found to l.)e really
Mwiied. either in whole '<v part, bv a person domieilod and carry-
in<i- on trade in the (Mieniy (•onntrvi/). liis interest therein is
ileeiued to lie routiseahle. as beino- in fact the ])roi)erty of an
• ■neniv i />■ i. This is liased on the o-round that, otlierwi.sc. it would be
iipen to ]i(M'soirs domiialiMl and tradinii- in the enemy country to carry
on tli(^ entMuv trade without risk l)y ree-isterino- their vessels ( /) under
the neutial fla^'i^/n. A v(\ssel is also deemed to acquire an enemy
.■haracter. even tliou<:'h Jlyino' the neutral ilae-, if s]ie is virtuallv incor-
jiorateil in tlie enemy navip'ation or trade (n): or if. whether owned by
Mdijeits or neuti'als. slie is found to be eno-ao-ed in a trade carried on
under the enemy's license lo). But these rules, in so far as they go
lichind the tlao' the vessel is entitled to fly. will, as we shall see,
leijuire to be revised if the Declaiation of London should become
"|ierative I y> I. Finallv. whatever the flag, or whatever the domicile
'if lier <iwner. a vessel is deemed to liave an enemy character if she
lias been chartfu-ed liv or placed under the exclusive control of the
"uemv rTov(M'nnient : ahiiono-h this really rests on the u'round of
iinneutral -er-vice { qy
(rKNKKAi, XoTEs. — lT7/<-/f (ve Enemi/ }'i'Sscl-<^ — The Cjuestion of tht>
•nemv ••haractei' of vessels is impiirtant. m^t oidv as determininu'
he liabilin- and actual treatment of the vessel itself, but al-o as
Miectiiic- rlie liabilitv <.if the caro-o; for th(> reason that if the vrv->el
- ho-tile. then. a])arr from the risks to carc-o involved in the jxis-
~il)|e ilestiuction of the vessel herself i /■). all i;-0(jds on Ijciard will
ic pre-umed to be enem\- jiropertv and liable to condemnation
'/') s,.,,,". i>. ■!?,. (.«) Th,> J,,r]„sir;<^ (Sj.ink^. at 14).
! .' I A< a-iTi-raincd liy rcfcrcnfe to (.n The ]' itpj,, „tu, (1 ('. \\o\). 1) ;
■lie ~li:ii'< ]i:i]>ci's. ur ciiijiiii'v from tlie Tin- I ,ii ,ii" ."H ! 2 C. iJuh. ISiii.
1(1 tu to aiMiuaintcd i o ) Sco Th, J,'!','/ (S ('i-aiirh. ! Si "', :
cuiiJiiH'i-cial (loiui- 7'/,, .III,-'/,-" (s Craiii'li. '2o:', i : ■/'/"■
: >c'' MaiiiKil <;f //;,'.■/,/ fS Crancli. t41.: Afaiiual .,f
Art-. 1!). -Jil. r.l. Naval I'riz.' l.:tw. ^. 1 <) : ami. fov a
I'f a jiai-r inriTc-r rcccnr cxaiiiiilr. 77,< .!/<,;. /'•/.■, Taka-
■\:l< i- i-i-.i\\-/.<-(\ ritln'i- liy -ale uf rlic haslii. ft-]'].
-liai'" tu the ni'iitral i-u-c i\v iii'i'-, or hv ( ,, ) /,.{,". \i. Ito.
•lie -ale cf the wliule \ 1 aiid the (71 Thr ./,/,-/,«/;,/. Taka!:a-lii. ()2.') :
i]ilirc]iriatiiiii cf the he-tile intei-e<t: and p. laS. :,,i,',i.
r/' l-,„""~ 'Si.inl;-. IS; l.atifi. Si. I ,■: Withun; tho<e sa re-nai-P that
•■^aeh State ha-.inu- il- iwii fiile- attaeii l,y edineiit iim in the ea-e of
i< tM the eoiiditiuiK under wliieh a t!ie de-t riietion of neutral prize.^: see
■.e--.-l Hiav he |-,.o-i^t, .!■,,, I ;|^ ., national p. \>.i\. i,.i,ii.
Iia-Te
'■. who is 1,011
^viril
tlie name am
lie ,
11 the owne
Xaval
1 Prize Paw.
In the ea-e
Knaniii Vc^^eU. 143
iiiiloss |ii'()\<^(l lo 1)(' iKMiiial i.sj: wlici'cu- it' the ncsscI i.s .KMitrul. then
• '\oii riKMUV o-ood^ iiMi Ix'iiiL;' i(iiiti'jil);i]i<l will i;-i) J'i'imm/). With
r('>])or'l ti) what arc eiuMiiy vessels, altliiHi<^'li thcio was. as wo have
■~ ■en, iiiiich (livei'^-eiiex' li<'t\veeii the Atig'lo-Aiuericaii and (Jonti-
liontal \ie\\s as t(i llie true criterion of en(Hny chai'Uftor i //^, yet,
■ ill eitlHM' view, it was I'ecou-iiizivl that a vessel liyiiie- the enciiiy
llaii' was laul'ul prize. Ily the Declaration of J.,on(l(jn, lit'.)!*, it i.s now
jiroN'ided thai, sniijt'ct to the pi'ovisiijiis i'es])(>ciin^' t ransfers i ,x),
die eiiein\' or neutral character ol' a vessel shall he deterinined by
ilie llau' slu^ is entitled to ll\ : ineanine' therehv the ilau' under
which. whetluH' she is actiiall\- Ihiny it or not, the vessel is entitled
to >ail, accordin<^' to the municipal law wdiieli g'overn.s that rig'lit(;yj.
This rule, in elTect. aiiirins ociierally the test of the flag, Avhilst leaving-
it op(Mi to the cai)tor to disprove the rigdit to its use. AtthesaiiK'
t iine. its (dlect will he to siipeisedcv as l)ctween the ])arties to the Decla-
ralion. tlu> practii/(> under which, in dotorinining; the enemy character
ol' ship-, regard might also he had lo other grounds of hostile associa-
tion, ^iich as the doiuieil(> of an owiUM' or part owner (z). The right to
tlv a pait icnlar ilau' will depf^id on the municipal law of the State of the
llag'((/). Under the British system nonehut \es-els owii(>d hv Eritish
-nlijcM'ts, or hy corpcnations or coinpauios estahlishod under British
law and liavinu' their ])tincipal place of husiness in the British domi-
jiions, can own a Britisji ship or any interest therein, or ily the
national flagi//): whilst the .\m<'rican rules on this subject are even
more stringent i c i. But in souk^ systems part ownorshij) b}' a national,
or (weii registration irrespective of wdiat may be the nationality
nf the owner or crew, will entitle a v<>s.,(d, to llv the national flag-(7Z).
neuc(\ althouu-h the rule (mil)odi(Ml in the nedaration is simple and
easy of application, it fails at some points t(j secure that substantial
ju-tice which is ensured under the more compl(>x rules of the British
lud American Courts (<?).
fs) The effort l)phip: to throw tlin of liabihty: sec Arts. 45. 46; and
iMirden of proof on tlie neutral owner, j). 4.5(3. i,'f,-".
in order to entitle him to restitution: (f) See vol. i. 274.
:.ec the J^eclaration of London. Art. 59. i !>) Ihhl.
CO The Declaration ot Paris. .\rt. :3. (n See Moore. !)i-est. ii. 1(J03 ct
(,r) Arts. .").). -iti: ]i. 14^. ''-■/-". ( '/ ) See vol. i . 274.
iy) Ai-t. 57: and i;ci«u.-t a;nicxcd '-o A< l,y rnahlinu- n person domi-
ro iteelarafion. I'carec II i'_;-L;'tii-^. li!l->. ciled in the enemy country to carry on
(r) Altlimiu-h the (|ue-tiiiii id lia- il- trade in vc-.-cl< (nvned' hy jiiin. i)ut
liilitv of neutral v(^<^els ciiL:-::e-inu- in rei:istered and sailinir under the tlair
:; trade chxed to thi'ni in time of uf s(une luMitral country whose laws
peaex" is ex])re-;-ly left open, see may he suifieieiitly elastic to admit
Art. 57. and p. K)5. '■,■'■/",• wliil-t of this. >o Ioiil' nnly as r(><ristration
Mtineuti-al scr\iee. as di-iiiied l>v the \\-as cheered before the war.
i lei'laration, will also remain a L'rmind
144 Cases and Opinions on International Laiv.
TBAXSFEIIS TO THE .\EUTBAL FLAG.
THE -ARIEL.-
[LS.)7; 11 Moo. r. C. 119. J
Case. On tin- \'S\\\. Oftolier. 1804, duriniz' tlie war hetweeii Great
Britain and Hu>.<ia. tlu' "Ariel," a ve.-sel ll\-ing' the Dani?h ilag.
wa- .-fixed at J)rlfa.-t and proceeded aii'ain.st in the Court oi'
Admiralty a.s beintr the jjropurty of one Soren.-^cn, Avho wa.-- allegvd
to be a llu>.sian and therefore an enemy .->ubject. It appeared that
the ""Ariel was originally built and owned by one Hagedorn.
a merchant resident at Libau. in Kus.sia : and that earl}' in 1804,
when wai' between Great Britain and Russia wa.^ imminent, one
Eckhoff, the admini.-.trator of Hagedorn's e.-tatc, had cnipowen'd
Sorun.-en, tli(i Danish Consul at Libau, to sell the "' -Vricl to his
son, on certain terms. ^V sale on these terms was ac(:ordini2'l\'
an'ani;e(l at Hand.)urg-. and on tlic l8th March a bill of saL' and
transfer of the ship to Sorcnsen, junior, was exrcutedby Eckhoil;
tin; purcha>e-money beino- lO.OOO roubles, of wliii'h one-third wa.-
paid in cash, whil.-^t the balance was to be paid in two I'lpial
instalnients at three and .--ix months rt■s|)ecti^"ely. In June. 1804.
Sorensen. junior, his father having;- died and Kckliotf de.-irinii
si.^curity. irave to the latt'^r two ar'cci»tanccs for the unpaid in>t.il-
ments. At the time of transfer the "' Ariel A\as lyina- at Libau.
liut subscfpiently she made vai'ious vo^"ali■es to Ireland. EuLiland.
and .\ni(a-ica. The evidence went to -howtliat ^<)rensi'n. althnui:!!
born in l{u>.-ia, \va.- at thi' tiim' of the tran>ftjr carryiuii' on l)U:~i-
m-.-.- as :i merchant and shipowner in Denmark, and that he had
fui-ther l)een admitted to eiti/.en-~hip thia'e as a IjureJier of Altona.
In til" Craiii of Admiralty, it ^\'a- lield that althoueh tin; ehiiiuanl
had e^tubli>lied hi.-> claim to the Danisli chaiacter. .-ind ilthom^h
th" r-ale appeaivd to lia\'e been evnuine. \-et iiia>iiiU"li a.- tin' >ell.M
had i-et;iiiied ;in iiitere-i ill ilie \-e,-..-(d. the tran-IV'r cmild not In-
r.-M;i]'(jr-d ;e- e. in i p h -t i ■ ; Miid lliat on tlii> ljtoiiikI bulli .-hip and
friiLi'l!! niii-t 111- c(iiid.-Miii( d ;i.- eipaiix pi'Mpert \ . Hut mh ■ipj).;!] to
tic Bi-i\"\- ( 'ouncil. ilii-. <b:',ree A\-a.- I'eA er.-ed and r-.-t it u! ion ei-mtr-d.
aji'i'inijh without eo-t.- or d;MinL:e>. on the erouiid >tated in th-
i)i(L' iiant .
Tranxferx to the Neutral Flmj.
\V:
Judgment. In the judii-inciit of the Privy Councii, which
\\it> ch'Ii\ei-('(l hy the Ht . lion. Sir. John Patto.son, the lirst (jiics-
lion (■()ii>i(icr(Ml was that ul' the national (■hai'a(t('i' of I he chi iinant.
A< to this it was hnhl, not withstandinij- coi'tain circiunstanccs of
>ii>|)icion, that ihr a|i|ic'lhi.iit hail I'liilx- c-ta hlishcil his rhiiin to
the Danish character. 'The next, and important (jucstion was
whether the appi^lhint was the owner and soh' owner of the
"Aru'K at the tune of capture. This (h'jicnded on two points:
(P Had there hceii a u-oniiiiie and ahsohito sah' oi the ''.Ariel
h\' \\\v former j-ius^ian (jwners to the chaimant without colhision
or Jiaud'r and "J Did any intercut u\\ the ship I'emain in tho
seller at tho time oi' capture ?
On the ipiestion of the sali'. lh<' ('ourt. after a careful examina-
tion (d' the facts, came to the conclusion that it was not only clear
thai the sale had heen made in contemplation of war. hul that the
iiussian slu])owners at Lihau. i'eelinf)' that the Avar A\'as at hand,
had determined to sell iheir \-essels at o'l'eatly reduced prices to
neutrals, rather than keep \\\v\\\ uin:'m])loyed in ilu.ssian ports.
There was thertd'or(- ahiinda.nt proof that the sale was mad<' /?>i'^>?/-
iK'iilc hello. Xex'ert he'e-s. if ih.' sale was ahsolule and hnna '/i(h',
\\\vrc was no rule of international law. at any rat'.; a.-; interpreted
in this country, which made it illeLi'al. e\cn ihoii^-ji made either
'niDii'nnnfc or even fi<l</r<l///r hrUn. Tiie "'Ariel. nioreoxer,
wa> in port at the t inu' of sale, and therefore tiie ciis:>> as to
the ille^'alilv ol' sale- of \-e->eLs /// I rioi^/l n did not appl\ . W'as
th" >alc. then, ahsoliite and hnt/fi liilcf 1 iidouhl edl \ . hiith thw
time at which tho sale to;)k place, the fait that the claimant had
madehim-elf a neutral foi' the expre.--s |)Ui'po-e (d' huxini;- this aiu,'
othei' ships, and his inahilit\" to pa\' tho whole ])rice, all tiMidetl to
tlirow sus]:)icion on it and made it inciimhent on the Court to look
(do-ely into the hisfoi'\ of tic tran.-aetion . .\nd if ihere had heen
facts leadin": to a well-founded e()n:'lusion that the slii]) wa- to Ix^
n^tnred t(i tln' s'ller in the e\i'nt of no war hi'eakme- out or in the
e\('iif of a sjieedx pi'.ice; o!' thai i lie ship was lo 1)r emploveij l)\-
the claimant under the dire^tidu and foi' tlie heneht of the m>I1 •v.
th 1' the ('oiirt would ha\'e hreii hound to hold the >;i|r collu-ix".'
and \()ul. and to c()nde!!;ii the .-hin 'i.- eiiemv pi'operl \ . !)ii1 on
e.! .1 . 1,
146 Cases and Opinions on International Latv.
ivview of the circu instances it did not appear tliat there was any
I'vidence leading- to either of the>e conclusions. Part of the pur-
chase-moncv had hern paid in cash and the postponement of
th(.' rcniaininu' ])ayincnts was suiHcicnlly accounted for : security
had subsc(|ncn1 1\' hern ^'iven in the sliaj)e of ceilain aeceptances,
and a pnni-n that the earning'.- of the vessel shouhl he a})plied in
di>chari;v of thest,' Iiad hecn dulv caridcd out, with the result that
onl\- a -mall sum n'UiaiuL'd (hn' at thi' time of capture. After the
-ale the ves-el had pa-sed under the -ole control of tlie ]jurcha-er,
and had not cDnt Jiiued (•xrlu-ively in 1 lie Jiiis-ian 1 rade. F(jr thest'
reasons it had been held in the Court below that the sale wa^
bond fide, in the senses that it was real and intended to pass
the ])i'operty in the ship, without any engagement to restore it
under an^" eireumstanee-. and without fraud or collusion. .\nil
in this opinion the Judicial (.'ommittee fully concurred.
-As to the second (juestion- -^\■hether any intere.-t in the shij)
remained in the s(dler. b\" rea-on of the btlauc.' of the purchase-
mono\' I'einainins' unpaid, if; appeared on a review of the cases
tliat thi- faet aloiii/ did not create a lien on the freiirht and ship
in fa\()ur of the sellei". <o as to render the ship when in the pos-
>i'-si(iii iif a neutral nwuer hal)le to seizure by a bL'lligerent («' .
In till' jire-eut easi.'. lio\\e\er, there wa-also an eni^aacment to pay
<iut of earnine-s : and this, it \va- said, created an intei'esi in and
a lien on the freiglit. and through t h" freieiit on the ship. Ihit
e\eu if the vendor had a lien on the frei<i-ht. it wouhi not loUow
that hi; had a lien on 1 h(3 ship, for these intere>t> Wi'i'e (piit.' dis-
tinct h . XfM'. indi.'cd. even i i' it could have bi'en shown tha'.
there wa- a lien either on freiuht or shi[), would it have followed
that sueh a lii.ai would rendi;r tin.' vessel, when in the pos-e-sidu of
a neutral owner, liable to cajitui'i^ Surli lien.-, wheiliei' in i':i\dui'
el a ii'Mitial on an oMiemx- >. shiji. (U' in fa\ our of an enem\ on a
neiiUuh- .-hip, wcvr e,|Uallv t o be disreirarded in a Court of I'laze.
In elTcct the whi.je ca-i' ivsolwd it.self into a question of /,">)ia
tides: and that lia\inu- l)een r<t aldished the Conit J'elt 1)ound to
eoni-hnb- that the "Aiai'l ' \va- the bond fide [)ropia't\- of the
( laimant- alon,-. and that no in1ere-t I'eiiiained in the sell i-.
TranHferH to the Neutral Flag. 147
Afcording txj t.lie prariico liithci'to followed Ijy the Rrilish Prizo
( ouits the transfer of an eiieniy shi]) ( c] to a neutral is not invalidated
merely l)y the i'a't (hat it was made in oonlemplation of or even durin<^
war, so long as the transaction was g-enuin(^ and complete and attested
by approi)riate evidence ( (^7). But such a transfer would be invalid
(i) if it occurred wliilst \\\c ship was in a blockaded port (e); or (2 ) if
it was maile whiUt llic vessel w;us in transitu, unless possession was
actually taken by the purchaser before capture (/); or (;5) if the
vendor is shown to have retained any interest in the vessel or
there was any ai!,'r(;cnieut io re<;onvey her at the end of the war (7).
If, however, the transfer was otherwise genuine, the mere taking of
a lien on shi[) or fr(Mglit for a ])art of the purchase-money,
will not in itself ailect its validify ('/;). Ihit the onus of proving
that the transfer was genuine will lie on the claimant, and if there
ai'C circumstances of susj)icion which are not removefl by him — as
where there is no docuinentarv evidence of th(^ assignment on
board, or the ship remains under enemy control — then it will be
disrco-arded and the shi]) liabU; to condemnaiif)n as enemy pro-
perty (i). And with ilii-^ Amciicau practice will ijo found in the main
to agree (7i"). -P)ut in neithin' systcMu will the transfer of a ■ship
of war by a belligerent to a niMitral during the war be regarded as
valid, even though this tuolc plac(^ in a neuti'al i)Ort and after the
vessel had been dismantled ( /). And this, it is conceived, would now
a])))lv to anv vessol that had b(>en converted into a warshi]^ (?;n, even
tliough subsecjuentlv recoi'i\'erted ( ?? ). In some jiarticnlars, however,
the British and Amei'ican prai'tice will need to be I'evised in the light
of the provisions now made on this sub](v>t by the Declaration of
T-ondon, in so fai' as th(>s(> may l)ecome operativ<> (o>.
(.ii:\F.i!Ai. No'iKs, 'rrniixjer of Mrrclnrr/t \' ess, 'Is iron flic
llclJifjcroit In a XciihnI l-'huj. In \iew of ihi^ I'isks of capture,
((■) Otriier tliuu u .ship ot war. iii'iti^li clelc<i:ates at the Xaval t'ori-
(V) The BrilJicd (11 Moo. J'. C. ferciico (i'aVi. Papers, V.VM, 3Lisc.
Ill): Tlir Bt'vrrJirf (S|)iiik-s. 31 1): No 4), heroaftor rofcrrod to as the
/Vv Hfr/,:,] (Sj)inks, SO). Britisli M (■inoranciiiin.
{<) The General Rauullon (G C. (Jn Th. S„ll,j Meg,',- (3 Wall. 4.51:
|;,,|,. (;-2^)_ Siott, (I'ii). n.); Tlie ISex^la EKterr/e,-
yi) V.wQn thouo-h in a port <liort of (17(i I . S. TidS ; Scott, (i'JM.
ilic'oriu-inal destination: -e The JSel- C'l Th,' M:,:r,-,;, m; ('. J!,,!,. SOi;) :
(;,■■: isepye). Th.- (irnrf/ie. (7 Wall. Wl ; Scott.
1(1) The Se,-Iis C; ,::cine',sl, I'll (} ('. •>-!!. n . ) : .Mooi'e. Inl. Al'b. i \- . o!t-)7.
i;(,l',. 100). ' "O As undd- 11. ('.. .\o. 7 o;'
(/ : T'ee ./,•;-' (.e,,e,:). li'l'-.
(': r.e!!,„ V. '/'Ac (le,,-,, \\ Moo. :,•! Sec p. l:;j. .'',,,;,■.■ and o:i rh-
i'. ( . •_'71;: ■/'/.' S,,,/'"s:, (S|.iniv<. sulijct u-encraliy. Hall, -JO.') : Wcst-
l;:-!)-. and. u-encnilly. the Memo, -an- \i\ke. \] . Wl , ' s,,/ .
diiin ]irepared I'or the u><- of the i,,) I,, ire. p. Its.
l2
14S Cafft'S and Opinions on [nternational Law.
the enliauoed rates of insurance, and the pos-iblc loss of employment,
belligerent shipowners on the prosi)eit of war often seek to safeguard
thrii' interests by transferiing their ve-<eLs lo neutrals. In some cases
such tran-rtM> ai'e genuine; but in oiIhu' ca-es the owners, having re-
gaid io the luwcr pri. c- (jbtainabic when wai- is aclual m; iniininenL.
seek In (obtain tlie pi'Otection of the neutral ilag by ti'aii>t'er-- which
arc merely lujminal and collu.-ive. The temptatiim to fraud, indeed,
i.- ^M urcat that some Slates refuse to recogni2:e any transfer.s made
after the (outbreak ol' war: whilst the j)r;ictice of other States
\"aiic-(/M. ilencc the subject of transfers to the neutral Hag was in-
cluded in the ])iogianniic of the Xa\ai Cfuiferencc, and after di.-cussion
an agieement wa- reai-hed. which is now embodied in tin.' Declaratiuii
of London. I'.iO'.t. Art<. ")-J. ')<;. The I'ules as tlieie laid down are. as
a refer<Mico tn the K'xt will show(r/i. sinnowhal com[)licaied. but
-liortl\- llicii' ellcct is a-- bdlciw-: -i i . i As a general ride the
tran.-fcr of an eneniv vessel to the neutral ilae-. whethei- made
before or aftei' the outbreak (tf war. will be valid, unless shown
to have been made in orde)' to evade the con<e(pienees of tlie
^vai". but if it was made liefore tlui wai- the onus of proxing it
to be in\aliii will lie (ui the captor, whilst il' it was made after
the wai- the omi- ol' proving its validity will lie on tlie neutral,
lii.) In aid ol' the a[iplication of \\\\< ^-enei'al rule a numbej' of
>ub^ifliai\" i'ide< and presumptions are laid down: ifi As regards
iran-fer- tnade before the war- (a) if the tiaiistei' wa< made more
ilian .'JO day- liefore the war. then theifi will be an aloobite ])re>um])-
lioi! in fawoiii' of it- validity if it wa- uncniidit ioiial. complete, in
confoiiiut\' with the law- of the re-])ectivo countries, and no control
or shaie in the prolits wa- r(,'-er\ed to tlie \-endrii'. ibi Ji\- implica-
tion it appears thai excn if the ti'an>i'er wa- made le-~. tiian
:;o da\- beiDii' the war. it will >tlll be \'alid if ihe abo\"e-menf ioneo'
coii'lit ion- wcif '-oiiipli'-i wilh: altlcinoji \\\ ihi-. < a-c' it will be ojxmi
lo the ciipini to annul it b\ ]io-iti\-e proof that it wa- made f(jr the
|>urpo~e of (wadiiiL!' tln' i'on-e'|Uenee.s of tlie war. ( i- i In an\ ease.
iiioico\er. if ilie tiaii-fei' \va- made within lid da\< befine ilu' w.w and
ilic bill of <ale i- not on i)oai-d. there will be no pie-nm|)l ion in
favour of ii> validit\': altliou^di i' wiil -;ill be op<'n to \\\i- i-laimant-
to e-iabli-!! iis \alidii\" by prouf thai ih;' abo\ ('-m<'n' ione I cnndition-
\\ei',. (•(iii.plie 1 with, ill which ra-<' the \<'-se! will be reh^a-c j aiihoiio'h
wiih'Hit aM- '•i:n:i lo c ■mp, ■ n-a ' eai foi- aia'e-t .■md de 'inionire
/. fo.:ii r!ir in. nin|-:Mida ji:-:--"liO-| l'a(,ci-~ 'IIKIll;. Mi..-. \,,. .-,, j,|,. ;; ] .
r!:;.t f -.v ■■• ;,;m1 1;.;.-;., <f, ;,-.t ,•.-,■,,- '-■; \uy. xiii. ■•. .'i .
rii/c ):;; -l'i;-~ )<j h^uIimI- hi;!;-- iiii- (/) In ri|-(lc)- k, iniiaiw i,,.....,!-
CI (li:i<,r:il ainl Marf. Ii^a',,:-, il,. wai". t ra lefcjTCfl m ail'itlld' lla:^' to "■aiTV
ilcl!ai;<l. on th- u'aa.- I,,,,.,i. ,,. .,. ,,i/,.- t|i,. l,il| , .f ,-alc aiiicni-t ili.. .l,i|,-'.
-i.il 1 raii-f'T- V. itl, - ;; ,-.^ ; ! I , lan .-., j,a|iir- di.rin-- lin- twa nnaitl]- -iiii-
'"!'„- a- ri'.r I.ia'!' ill :i !,;.. i.a f u :..rt: .-.■(|i|rtit ta tin' traii-fcf. it i- yvn-
\\:\\-\ '.rial- .S:;ie-. !!'.•■ S'aia. fJlew \i(la(I tliat if a \c<-al is ti-aji<fiTr('fl
ih' hriti-f |.r.i. ii--. aio. ./,.-!. ill -u.MP- v.atliiii -ixty <lav- nf the war. tlicn tlic
■ •.a.-r- wit!, (|iiali;ii-.a-ioii- ■ -ic I'ai-I. fa-t nfli-.- i..ir lia\in--l!ir l,iii .if,,i|,.
Enemy Property. 149
('2 1 As iT-tiiirds transfers made after the war-laj Any sufli transffM-
will in 2'onoral l)e treatcjd as invalid unless the owner can show that
it was Tio1 made \\ifli a vicnv to evad(^ the ron^equcnces of the war ( f<).
(1>* It th(^ tianstei' was made wliilst ihe vessel was In tranfsUu ov
in a blockaded port, or if a ri^-ht of repurchase was reserved to the
vendor, oi' if the re(|iiireinents of tlie law of the flag- were not ful-
tilled, llien the pr(\smii|)t ion of invali<lity will l)e al)soluto and the
ve-^sel subject to eoudonination (t).
ESEMY (iOOns.
(i) GENERALLY.
THE "SAN JOSE INDIANO."
I 1814: 2 Call. 2ti,S, 311. |
Case. In ISlo, duriiiu' ^\al• hetAvecji Ch'uat Britain and lh(^
l.'uitcd States, the ''San Jcs/' Indiaiio, ' a .ship sailing under the
Portuguese flag and lia\ ing on board eara'o Ijeionging to various
owners, was captured b\' an American pri\'atecr, whilst on a voyugc
from Liverpool to \\\o do danciro. Li tiic present proceedings,.
\\hich Were by way of ap])caL from a decree of the District Court
oi Maijic lo the ( 'ircuit (Jourt of .Massachusetts, the more
important ipicstions were: 1 The liability (d' the .shi]). I'cstitu-
tiou of which was claiined a-- beiui;- a i^)l■t:.uguese Ncsse! and the
propert\' of ('osta iV Co.. of Lixerpooi. a h'rm se\'eral of whose
m(>nibei'> were alleu'ed to bi' (buiiicilcd in Ih'azil y; : ! 2 the
liabiiitx of certain goods whicii had been shipped b\' Dyson
liros.. of hivia'|)()ol. t(i Dxsoii liros. A' P'liinex, of h'lo (h'
Janeiro, re.-t itiit ion ot which wa.'^ chiinied as beini!' neutral
]iro])erl\'. at any rate a- rea'ards the .--liaiM' of Fiiin(\\". who
ijii ixiard >\\-a\\ i'imkIit iirr susiicit. and of the I I'an-actioiis in aci-iirdaiir-e wilii
liavc tli(^ cft'i'ct (if shil'tin:/ (!ic hiirdcii the ciiiHlii idiis |)i'c\iiiiisly indicated,
of pi-col'. a- regards tiic h'^ n '/'/ .■-■a::d ;') Scr^ i!riti<li .M I'lndranduin. !)9---
rciziilafii y (il tiu; t I'a n-acf ien. t i-oni riie KM); and IJipui't annexed t(i Declaru-
eaptdr to tlie iMMiri-al. li(in. I'earee IliL'.a'ins. fJIH) </ sn/.
[s) 'I'he eil'iM'i of tliis i> to throw {,/) 'i'hen a dependency of Portu-
nn till nwiier tlif liiirden or e^talilish- u'al. a netdral (•oniifry.
iilL' lioth the /,,,, '■'■/, s and rcu'iila I'iry
150 Cases and Opinions on IntcDiational Law.
was doinieik'd and cairicd on businesi? at llio,6}: and (3 the
liability of ctM'tain goods which liad been con.signed by
Dyson I5]'os.. of LivtTpool. to Dyson Bros, ^l' Finney, of J\io do
Janeiro, but whirh had been purchased by order and on account of
one Lizaur, a neutral inorchant carrying on business in Brazil, in
whom the property was con.sequently alleged to be vested (c).
In the result. ho\v(n'er. all these claims wer(^ rejected by the Court
for the reasons assigned in the judgment.
Judgment. Stoi-y. J ., after referring to the facts, proceeded to
di-al serial i))i with the various claims that had been made. With
respect to the ship which was alleged to belong to Costa & Co., it
appeared that t wo iiieuiber> of this linn were domiciled in fhigland
and two in Bi'azil : but the bill of sale showed the ship to l)elong
to the partners domiciled in Enudand. and hence the ship her.srlf.
e\en though under the Portuguese Hag. being really owned b\-
persons residing in England, must be condemned as lawful |.irize.
With respect to the claim of Dyson Bros, l^- Finney, of l^io. for
goods ship])ed to them b\- I])yson Bros., of Liverpool, it appeared
from the evidence that the honses at Ijiver])Ool and Bio n^ally
consisted of the same persons, although one of them was domiciled
atBio. .\sto tAvo-thirds of this])ortion. beinu- the interest of those
who Were domiciled in Eniiland. the rii^lit to coudeum \\as uu(pn_'s-
tionable // . As to the other third, being the interest of Binney
who was domiciled at Rio. it was claimed by the captors that this
shouhl also be condemned, as being the ])ro])erty of a person con-
nected with a house of trade in the enemy countrx' who had con-
tinued that connection after and durimr the war. As a o-eneral
rule the national character of a person foi' this |)urpose depend(^d
on his df)micile. But the property of a person might acquire a hostile
charaelei' altou'ethei' ii'i'esjtect ive o\' his I'osideiiee. eithiM' ihrouiih the
oriirin ()\' the pr()]iert\' nr the trallie in which it wa- ene'ao-ed ; as
whei'e such pi'epeifv was endiarked in a colonial oi' eoastina' or
anv ofhei' privilee-ed ti'ade of tlie enein\. or wa- th<> pi'odnce of
(A) 'these two firms virtu:il!y con- on aci'ount of 1 ,iz;uir. l)ut Dyson l^ros..
sist('<] oF flio saiiii- inii-tii's, nitliouirh of Li\ itihhiI. ikiI lui nn- willing- to trn^t
the I'.razilian l)usini'ss was carried on tlio t'oriiicr had ciinsiirni'cl tii'" ijoods
t)v l'"iiinfy, will) was ddiniciled at \{\o. to tlie firm of Dvson Hrus. .V: Finnov.
(c) Tlicso <;oo<.ls luul hMMi ordered (// ■ S'l^r,,, p. '2.').
Enci!))/ Pro J xr 1 1/. lol
;lll ("-ttllO owned III t he {'11(MI1\' count I'V e . riic prillClpli' :||)])c;i!'C(l
to 1)1' tli;it whore a pcrsoii \v;i.s cn^-ag'cd in iho ordinury oi' extra-
ordinary cornnKTco ol" an enemy's counU'X' on thi; same ['ootinu-
and with the same a.dvantau'es a.s native I'osidtait sul)jects, hus
pi'0[)i^rty so employed was I'e^'arded as inerjrporated into the com-
merce of that country, and was subject to conliscatioii, whate\-ei-
mie-ht. l)e his resi(h'nc(>. And this a.p})eared to he reasonahh';
for such trad(i h;id a direct ci'i'ect in adding' to th(.' resources and
revejiue of the enemy and in alhn'iatinij- the })ressui'e of: the war.
There was no reason, therefore, why one wlio <ai joyed the pro-
tection and henelits of the etuan}' s country sliouhl not. in I'cfer-
enee to such a trade, share its dangers and losses. It would be too
much to hold him entitled by mere neutral residence to carry on a
substantially ho.stile commerce and yet to have all the advantages
of the neutral character. The case before the Court came fully
within the range of this ))rinciple (/). Xor was its application
allectcHl by the fact tliat the shij)me]it in this case was from the
enemy country to the connected house in th(^ neutral country.
Hence the share of Mr. Finney, who was domicih'd in Brazil, must
follow the same fate as the other shares in this part of the cars'O.
With respect to the claim on behalf of J. laz'iur. the oidy ques-
tion Avas in whom the jjropeii \- vested during its transit. If it
vested in l.;izaur then it should be restored, but if in t he shipp<'rs
then it should be condemned. It was contended l:hat no interest
remained in the shippers <'Xcept a mere I'io'ht of stop]);ige in fra)/-
sit}i. Hut the doctrine of stoppaij-e h/ troitsiin ap])lied only in the
case of insolvency and pri'suppo>ed not onlx tliat propialy had
passed to the consio-nei^ but also that possession was in a third
party -and could not thirefore touch ;i ea^e where the a 'tual or
construct iv(^ po.ssession slill remained in the >lupper or his exclu-
sive agent. I'lie true rule \\-;is tli;it A\'liei-e a mei'chanl abroad in
pui'suance of oi'ders eith(>r sold his own i>-oods or pui'cha--ed a'oods
on his own criMlit. t liereby beconiiiii;- th(^ owner, no ]»ropertv would
vest in his eoi're^pondenl . until tlie fornier did some notnrious act
to di\'est hmiM'lf (if lii< lille. oi' els- parted wilh possession b\ an
(r'\ Tin I'h-rni, f .') C. I'oll. 'HV) : /'/,Vr/ ( :! C . i vol 1 . 4(i I : Tl,r .l,,,.(f KhlK-
Th" Hnr f.'rhror/l, rs (\ C. \\n\K -l-]-!' . sr,," i .') !'. IJoli. I^'I'J ) : '/■/ - Uorypmi
(i) Ixdrrciicc was iikkIc lo 77/ /V///*- (I ('. I'uii). 2-JS ) ; and other cases.
l',-j (Jdsis nni( Oimwnis mi I nh nod loncJ Lnc'.
actual ;ui(l uiii-oiulii ioiial di-iivcM'v for tiir u-c of >u:-Ii I'l.ji'i'opon-
cl^nt. Until then iIk- forniiT mu-t he iln'mcd to n'taiii thi'
rxi.'lu>ive |)i'o|M'i-tv as well as j)ossosioii. And tlii- wa.s not only
till' o-eneral law, l)ut the j)rize Iuav of the t-ounti-\-. Vm tlii-> reason
the claim of Lizaur must also bereiectod.
'This (Icci.sinii. altliou^uli inH lliat oi a (.'ouri of last ic-^ort, is nol*'-
\\iiiili\- l)otli as jd'ocecJini^' fi'oin a jikIl;'!' of tiic :lii'<1 authority in
ihi- hiainh ot law. and as (Mu1>o(lviiio- a conipciidious statement ot
the |uiiiri]ile> <i-ovennii<i' the liahilily of pi^operty. l)Oth in sliips
and Li'ooii^.. (ludei- tlie Aii^'lo-Americau practice: ahhouu'h die con-
clusion- arrive I ai will, on some ])oiiiis. now ikmmI to he revi-^ed in
det'ereiicf- to recent ( 'on\ cut ions, i J i In the jiist place-, it afHi'ins and
illn-trates the liahilitw under tliat ]:)raetice. ot \'e-'-eN which, even
tliouo'h undd- the ncnti'al lla<i\ liidonu' lo pcr-iui^^ dondciled in the
en(nu\ couiUrN": althou<ih on ihi- |)oini the d(HMsion inir>l now he read
in the li'.^lit of the pi'civi>ion- comaii!<'ii in the Declaration of London,
in -o t'ai- as that Declaration inav heconie opeiai i\ (m 7 i . (2) Xext. it
atliinis and illu-tiate- the Anii'lo- Am(Mi( an rule, that the liability" of
<iood> al-o depend^ ])riuiariiv on lh(> nential oi' enein\- charaetei' of the
owner a< a-cci'tained li\- hi- dondcile i /,' 1 : althon;^h thi^aiiain is now
ipialilicd li\ the proxi-ions of the Declai'alion of !'aii-(//) nnder
which the nent ral lla<i' co\"(U's cxcn eueinx i^i io(l<. wil h the exce])t ion of
coiUraliand of war. i ."> 1 At the same time it recognizes the cxistenc(\
uiidc!' the A nu'lo-.V uicruai! piactice. uf ca-c- in which an cnemv
cliaraclci' will he atlrihuled to p(M'<ons and their piop(u1\' tor tlu^ ]>ur-
po-c- (if niaiitiiiie capture, on otlau- i^-ronuil- ihaii donu'cilc (u- ic-i-
dcncc in the cikmun ccmntiy. Tlie-e conipii-c ca-c- ;< ' wlicic a
|ic! -on. c\ (Ml 1 111 lU^'h I'e-idiMit in a ntaU ral o lunl i\ . ha- an ; nt -i c-i in a
lion-c (if t rade in the cnenn' coiim 1 \ ' / '. winch, a- we has c -ccii, lia-
1 lic cIl'iM-t of in\ c-t i nu' him wil h an ei:em\ dia ract"i' a- 1 i'li'a: d- all pri ■-
iicit\- connecli'd with that in1eie-t 1///'; ih' wjieic a pcr-nu. c\cu
tliou'jh le-idcnt in a n(>utra! conn1r\ . caiaiiv- (Hi .-onie pii\ ilcL;'cd iradc
of ihc (aiiMn\-. whi'h a'_;'ain in\'e-t- him with an emaa-, i-liaiacOu'
as ri'U'i'd- pi'o|i<'rt\" connecieil with tlcU trade '/A; and 'Ci w|ipr<>
a pei-oii. c\iMi l!ioU'.ih re-id(Mi1 in a neu!i'al coumrv. own- an c-tate
in tlic cnmnx conntiw. which ha- llie elfcct of in\'c-iinir him
wi;li an ciK'inx cha I'ai'ter a- r(>L;':ird- thi> prdduce nf -n'-li "-laic -till
' n ) s,.(. \i't. .")7 ; mill a. 11:;. -•/■'■■ i-!i;int iiKa-cly lia- a rcsidi^iit aL;'(ait in
(li\ \rt. l2. Hi(> enemy enunti'v. tlie ■'-■eat in swdi
: /■ 1 >':,,■'■. |i. _':!. lii'inu'' mil.v an in-tiannent ('nr r'aejlira-
il 'I'lcil i-. if he ;c,aiii~ ii after tinLT lni-ine-~ i!i;it uri-'inat- in and
The w:".-: <ei Wlii'aliU! '. I laiia :. ll!l. i- propei'ly emme-led witfi the neiitrai
{,,1) S.'c p. -J."). •";/,•',. -ind ca-e^ e(;a;;try -c • Hall. liK.
till re cit'd. lint tin- will net apply ,i l,,i,,', p. l.Vl.
r 1 th'' -a-e wli'a'e a neati'al irna'-
I'menuj Properly. loJJ
reniainiiio; in his liinnNio). (4) Finally. lli(^ judu'iiuMit deals with
tlio Icsjs ti) he a))|)li('(l in ([(^U'ruiiiiiiiii' the ciiO!n\- cliarai-lor ol' pni-
poi'ly ciiii^iu'iicd li\- an ('n(Mn\- to a nciit lal ( /> ). 'I'licsc ca-os. in so
far as tlnn- iia\(^ iM»t already Ikm^ii dealt with, will he considei'cd in
the sections iinnicdiately rollnwiim'; allhonuli. as I'eii'ards all aliko.
it is nerossary to r(Mneinl)er that the question oT the liahilily of g-oods
by reason of their enemy cliaiactor can now only arise when (hey
ai'(^ found on eneniv ships a Jimilation wliieli jri'oatly naiTOws their
^ieopo.
(li^ PHOPKHTV KMBAHKEl) IX A PiUVILECJEl)
TRADE.
THE '■ ANNA CATHARINA."
I 1,S02; 4 ('. I{ob. 107.]
Case.; In 1801, dufinji- war b(4wceti (Jrcat Briruin on lliu (UU'
hand, and S})ain and Holland on t he oilier, the "' .\nna ( 'atharina, '
a Danish ve.ssel, was (■a])1ure(l by the British whilst on a \'o\a<:-e
from lianiburir to a Spanish i)ort, with, a earu'o of limui, wines
and eliee-e. The eai'UM) appeared to liaxc b 'en .shi[)pi'd under tin'
tolloAvinij- eireunistani'es: In ]7!)I) a eontraf4 was made IxM ween
the S])anish (T0\eniiiieii1 oJ' the ('araeas and one ilobin.-on, an
Aniericaii trader at ('urai.'oa, I'or the purchase b\- tlie latter of all
the toba(;eo in the ( iovcninii'iit warehouses :\t Porto ('aballo. La
(hiayra, and (iiiv;ina. pavnicnl t f) be made m lloui'. <\v\ u'oods,
and specie. Me.Ssi's. Soniaii' tV' ('o.. of iramburiz-, wert; entrusted
b\' Robinson with the carr\imi- out of this e(niti'a(4, Robinson
taking' one-thii'd cd' tlie prolii-. In the result the caru'o wa^- con-
(li'iiined on the t;-rouiid t hat , lia\ ini;' been shipjied under a contract
with the Spanish (Government , it \\as to be reiiarded as Spanish
\") Sec p. l.)(). '■-//,". Ir iii:iy. in- ;>. Hi.. '..',./. lint in the AiiLilo-
Uccd, be a (lucsrion. and one Inulily Anicricau decisions the cneniy (4iarae-
ini j)<)i'tant under \i-t. .)S cf the I )c- tc;- of li'udds apjiears ihnMiu-liout to
(dai'atioii of l,(nidiiii. whether in all ht ha-ed on the enemy eharaerer of
these eases the hostile (haraetcr is not the owner; a view winch if uidield
all attriliute ratlier of the [iropci't y woidd |e:i\e theni opci'ative under tliat
tiian of tile |icr<on : tmd. lhcrefoi'i\ e\- <ii-tion.
(duded liy \irt'ie of tliat -I'ction. in so ,/ , Ini/n, p. l.iS,
far as it may hecome o|)eraii\e: <ce
154 Cases and Opinions on International Laiv.
property : and also ou the ground tliat the nature of the contract,
involving as it did the grant of a monopoly by the Spanish
Government, wa^ such a.s to imprests on the persons carrying it
out the character of Spanish traders, and consequently to imbue
them with a hostile chara-cter.
Judgment. Sir \W Scott in \\\> judgment, after considering
the nature of the contract between llobinson and the Spanish
Government, held that although such a contract became illegaL
as involving a trade with the enemy, as from the time when
Curac'oa pa^^ed into the hands of the British and liobinson
became subject to British law m). yet the consequences of such
illegality would not affect the property in tlie hand> of Sontag k
Co.. on wliosL' belialf the claim was made. But on the (juestion as
to whether such pro])erty was not liable a.s enemy property, the
learned Judge, after reviewing rlie circumstance.'*, lieid that inas-
much as it was going in time of war to the port of a bcUia'crent,
under a contract to become the })ro])erty of the belli^crtrnt imme-
diately on arri\'al, the property mu>t be considered a> beiny in
the Spanish Go\ernment. and therefore as haviiis;- a bostile
character. ^Vs to the furthei- que.-tion whether the contract did
not lix on liobinson and tho.se claiming under him the character
of Spanish traders, he also held that a contract of that kind, giving
Robinson a monopoly of trading rights, taken in conjunction with
the fact tiiat he had a resident agent on Spanish territory for the
purpose of carrying out the undertaking, liad the effect of indjuing
him with a Spanish, and therefore a hostile character. As to
Messrs. Sontag cV: Co.. tliey had participated in the benelit of this
(•onti'act under arrano-enients made by liobinson. and tliex" nnist
theTcfore l)e deemed to take it subject to it.-^ h.'^'aj con.-equences.
among which was that of the liability of the cai'^-o to eondemna-
tion in the event of its cajjtui'e bv an enemy of Spain. The caro-o
wa- therefore londeiiined : a elaim for frei^-ht beino- refused on
account of some jii'i\"arn at ion in (he evidence.
<:< Curii(;()a Muniidcr.f! to tin- l^riti-li in ISiid; altliuuirli aftfrwanl- rr^tored t^:
Ilollan.l.
KneuLij Prupertij. ]o5
Tlie seizuio iu lliis case was, il will be «GCii, ell'ected on a neutral
vessel, which would not now be permissible it' it could be shown that
the vessel was in fact entitled to fly the neutral Hag. Subject to this
reservation, the ca^e serves to illustrate (Ij that the acquisition by
C! reat IJritaiu of what was j)reviously enemy territory will have the
eilect of suspending or abrogating all contracts subsisting between
persons there domiciled and peisons domiciled in the enemy country,
although this will not all'ect any property passing thereunder which
has already beconi«> vested in neutrals (t>j; (2) that goods consigned
to the enemy country under contract to become the property of persons
there domiciled are liable; to condemnation as enemy property (c);
and (3) that property, cncu though owned by a neutral, will be
deemed to have an enemy character if embarked in a trade which
is carried on by virtue ot some special privilege or monopoly granted
by the enemy Uovernment. According to the British practice,
moreover. \\w same chaiacter will attach to property embarked in
a trade which prioi- to tho wai' was coniinod to enemv subjects, or
which is undeitaken in relit't of tlie enemy from the pressure of the
war (fZ).
(iii) THE UNSOLD PRODUCE OF SOIL OWNED IN
ENEMY TERRITORY.
THE 'PHffiNIX.'
[l.SO;i: .) C. tiol). 20.]
Case. Uurmg- war between (ireat Britain and Holland, tlie
'' Phoenix " was captured wlieii on a voyage from Surinam to
Holland, and hrought in for adjudication. Th(^ cargo was claimed
on behalL' of })ersons then resident in Gerniany, as beinu' the
produce of estates owned 1)\' them in Surinam. Nevertheless, the
property was condeniiu'd as beinji' tlio produce (d' tiie soil of (>neiny
territory still reiuaiiiiiii;- in the hands of the owners of the soil.
Judgment. Sir William Scott, in gi\ing judgment, laid it
down a.s a (ixed iu'iiiei|ilc thai t.lu^ [xjssession of the soil iinpresM'd
(I,) Su/iyi. pp. :51. (id. I'riiir Jiiicf Cntlinrimi y■^ ('. l^^b.
(r) Inirri. ]). l.ys. l(il): I'lii' Monl,iy,i. Takaha-lii, Ooo :
(//) Soe I'Jn liiinKin.irl .'J C. K,,l,. n.ii'i. p. -ttWJ: anil. a< to the prrsniial
IS(i): 77/r AV'/.'/v/^o/v/ ( t ('. IIi.li. fJl ) : (lrri\ at ii'n of lliN diara-trr, ^ui.y,,,
Thr Prhuess'i (^2 C. li.il). t!t , : 77.- p. l.V^,. n. .,.).
],■,(; Cnxra ((jul ()jjinL<'HH on Inleriialiotial LdW.
upon rlif ()\\iicr the cliai'ader ol' \\\'- i-iumtiv. m) \-av as llic pruducr
of tliat iilaiitalioii was i-inicri'iuMl. ami whilst lliis was hi'iim- trans-
jxii'ti'd 1() aii\ ()l!ir|- (■()iiiitr\. \\liatc\(M' llir local rrsidrncr ol the
owiKi- inii^lil 1m'. ill l]io prt'X'iil L-asr i|ir cstulcs ill (|iicst i(jii wcrr
ac(jiiirr(i 1)\^ dcsciail . ami as such ihuv \\ on- t)\ no nivalis marked out
for aii\- ra\ourahlc di-t inct ion . IT lln-v had Ix'Cii a lal c ac(|ii isit ion.
ihci'e niiii'lil lia\ c hcon r(J0in for the .-uppositioii that, ihcy hud
been acipiircd whiLst, the place \va> und(!r l>ritish ronirol, and
that till' owner had hoi-ii induc(Ml l)\ t hat:. '■ircuin-tancr to Torni an
c-tablisliinenl tlici'o under the pr(jt:.ection of th" Ijriti>li (ioM'rn-
iiient. Bui lia\in(^- fallen b\' descent on the.-e jjoi-sons from their
ancestors in Holland, these pbuitation^ must be con.-id(.')'ed to carry
with them the di--advanta2'0.s as well as the advantages attaching-
to the Dutch chara(;t.er. Bein<i the pj'oduce of tJie claimant s
own plantations in the colonv of the onemy. the propert\- mu.st
fall iindi'i- the i^iaieral law. and must be pronounced subject to
condemnation.
Ciidci till' biili-h iiiid Anieriejin pracii((>. ihr ow nei oi' an
es(at(.' in the riieni\ iMjimt ry u; i is ici;'ai-d"d a- Iiavin2' an eiieiny
charai-lci- in ic-pcit ul' l!ie priidic-c n\ that ('.<iu;c ^( , loii'j,' a- ir
i(.'iiiaiii- in lii- liaicb. (.'xei; llioii!:;-|i li" ii!a\ he i-e-idrnt rbe-
ulieif-. d'lii- i< -oiiH'liiiic- ticated a- a .-pecial e.xceptiiai, Ijased
Mil I lie lait liiai tin- owicM-iiip ui land in t li-; (Mhmiiv CMunlrv idejili-
lies the C)Wiiei' tn that e.xieiil with the i iitere-t of t he cin'iii \ Stale i/yi:
hut in Ja<-t ii app^.'ai- lo be (jid\ a particular applic:atiMii of ihe
rule ,dread\- I'el'erred to. which treai.- 1 li(! (.•ariyiny (jii of any business
in the eiieiii\- terriiurv. iiadudiiiii' auricub lire, a.- coiiferrinu- an oncni}'
cliaracter a- rcjanU all pro|)erl\' (■oiiiiect(.>d ilicrewith unlil it has
pa-^ed into ntliei- liaiid-i'i. Tlii- dei-i-imi wa- lollowcd in the
Ann.uican dca-ion of />V'//':cy/ v. />o///e lO ('ranch. ]!ili. where it was
lndd that a imi'jm ol' -le^ar. 1 he prndncf' of i'-ta.fe.s in .Sania ('ruz.
bill owiu'd ii\ a. per-«.n re-ideiit in Denmark', w as liable 1m cipi ure and
criiHhaiiiiat iMii a- imkmiin pinpei'tA" diiriii'/ wai' lietw<.'en ( ■ real Ifrilain
a.nd the 1 nit I ,■>;,■];(.-, mu tlie Liaiaiiid ihal Santa ( 'lu/. must, since
it- .--<'i/urc l)\ (ileal llntajii, Ik' r("_;ai'dcd as cuk'hin tcn'ilMr\'. and
th<' -lie-;!!' :i- il|i' prii(| ii'-c Ml' I'liemx snil -till in llie hands (jf flje
MWiicr { (1 \ .
■"I ^■"/"■"- \'V- '■'>-■ ■''■'■
•I.) S".. ■/■/,,. /■,■,,,. /,., ,.. r„//.„,^
(.5 ('. I^ili. :U liiT 1 : IL'ill. VM ,
< , S,.r Wr-tl.'ikc. ii. i.VJ
l.VJ. s, ',,,,,.
,'.'■) S(<itr, .3!is.
Enein)/ Fropertf/. lo7
(iv^ (iOODS PASSING I5KTWKP:N NEUTRALS AND
EXEMIES.
THE "SALLY "(<')
I ITlJ;); o C. Ilol). 3011, n. J
Case.; In thi.-^ case the ((Ut«tioii was whotliei' a cargo of corn,
wliioh. had \)w\i sliipju'd in America for a French port and caj)-
tui'ed by tlie Britisli, duiinu' war between Great Britain and
France, was lialjle to condemnation as enemy pro[)ertv. Tho
corn had been ship])ed by an American iirm at Baltimore, osten-
sibly at tho risk and on account of another American Iirm ; but
was in fact consig-ned, by endorsement of the bill of lading:, to
an enemy ; the evidence tending to show that it was r(>ally in-
tended for the French Government. The cargo w^as condemned
by the Lords (commissioners of Apjx-al on the ground that in
the circumstances, and as jiroperty consigned by a neutral to a
hostile port to become the property of the enemy on arrival,
it must be regarded as enemy ])ro|)ertv.
Judgment. In the judgment it wa-< stated to be -x. rule of
tiie Prize (..''ourts. tliat pro})erty intended to be delivered in the
enemy's coantr\' and undi'i' a contract, to become the ])ropert\'
oi' the enemy immediatelv on arrival, wa-, if taken in hrni'iifti,
to bo considered as enem\- prop(;rl\'. AVhere sut^Ii a confric! wa-^
made in time of peace oi- without an\" co!item|)hitioii of war the
ruh> did Tiot appl\'. !)Ut \\\ a ca>e iike the present. \vh(^re the
form of the contract wa- L'r-uned directly for the jtui-po^e of
ol)viatini;- daiieer apprehciKhMl J'roiii approachini:' hostilities, the
rule would take eliecl . Aitlioiiuh 1)\- the hill ol' iadiiie- the pro-
pert^■ piirporti'd te he on acioMiit and at tic risk of an Aiiiei-i<'aii
iiK'rchant. the e\ideiic(^ v/eiit to show that it was reall\' int"ii(li>(l
i'or the Fn'iich ( ioxeni iiieiii . Assiimine' that it \\a- to bi^cMiic
the [)r()pert \' ol the eiioiiix on deuNerw I'aptur" would he coii-
{'I) Tlii- (■.■!-'■ (li'.iU witli [ii'uM^'i-ty i)niii(May consi^-iicd liy aiL i lu'iuy to
i-i)nsiiriir<l \)\ :i nii;!r:ii C) :ni I'ln'iiiy. :l uculral, see Thv S'i,i Jo-^c Indiano,
l''oi- an ('xa!ii[)li' ol' tli.' cD'n cr.-c I'aM' (if n. 1 t!i. Kvprn.
io8 C^/scs and Opinions on International Ldv:.
sidorcd a.s delivery : and a^s the captors, by the rights of war,
stood in the place of the enemy, they were entitk^d to have the good.-^
pa.'^^sini:' under such a coiitract condonnied as enemy pro])erty.
As a geiieial iiilc, where goods are consiuued by a merchant in one
country to a nioidiant in anotlier. the propei'iy in tlicni is deemed to
vest in the cou^iu'iice as from tlie time when vhey are delivered to the
master of the ship by which tliey are to be carried, the master being
treated as the agent of the consignee for this purpose. In time of
peace this presumption may be varied by agreement or custom of
trade. But in time of war — and wliere goods are consigned by a
neutral to an enemy — sucli an agreement or custom would not be
recognized by the Britisli and American Prize Courts, for the reason
that sucli an indulgence would inevitably be taken advantage of by
enemv consignees as a means of protecting the property from capture
during transit ' 7; K Xevertheless, in the converse case — where goods
are consigned by an enemy to a neutral, and these are taken on an
enemy vessel — they will, as we have seen, be presumed to be enemy
property, and will l)e hahle to r-ondomnation unle-s it i'^ shown that
the propertv in them ha< ah'i'ady become vesied in the neutral con-
signee, and that the consiii'iior retains no further interest therein (c).
In such a case, in fa^'t. the law imi)o-e< on the neutral r-onsignee the
burden of ])roviny' that the ])roperty in the eoods has become A'ested in
liim fully and finally, save only for the consia'nor's rio-ht of stop-
paf^'O //; tntjis-ifn in the event of the consignee's insolvency u7). Kor
does thi< iide ajjpear t<) Ije unreasonable, havino,- regard to the fact
that in the im-c of a sale whicli i:^ e-fimiine .-md eom])]ete such
jiroi'if i- alwax's at the disposal of tlie consignee (e).
(y TR.AXSFKHS MADK I\ THA^SlTV.
THE VROW MARGARETHA."
I 1799: 1 C. lloh. 33(;.]
Case.^ In this case it ;ip])i'ared that in I7!)4. before the ontlnT'ak
of wai' hetweii Greiit Ih'itaiii and Spain and ffoUainl. eeiiain
parc'ls (if l)ran<l\' liad hei n sliijijjed bv Spanish mcrcliants and
con-igned in Duteh ve>.-^i'I> tij a linn in Holland. During ', raiisi;
tlie-e bi'andies Wii'e t ra iisf i -lied to oiii' nei'kr\-[a\ rr, a inei'idianl
u, , 'n,. l-.'rl.i ,/,. /;;.;,,„, ,2 C ; '/ , Thr . !,,■.,■.,}•', ..^ ' i C. \{nu . i:-, ^ ■
i;-.!.. i:;:;,. ; y- .{,',"• lnij,uy:,.„ ,1 -fhr l-rn„rr, ,s Craiirli. ;;,-,l): and
''. liol-. HiTi. Thr <-,,,i,,s I . i;,..rs ilTT I . S. ti.").'> -
(r, 77-. S,,,, .1.,.; I„,r,.:,,,, :-2 Call. KiSc' Latifi. S.).
•JCs): pji. I,")!. !,").'). ^ii/,r'i.
FjHcmij Proprrt//. 15!>
of irainl)!!!'*:;-; biif hcforc tlicx ai'ri\i';i a! ihcir dcstliiatioti war
bfokc oiil, \\-it,h flu- I'csiilt thai tlii' xcsscU were ca])liir(Ml \)\ the
Bi'itisli and coiiilcimii'd . It was ikav souirht to condcinn the
brandii's, on tlu' <j-i'oiiiid thai haviiiii:- oik.m' been shippf^l as cTicmy
propoi'tx' thcii' cncniN cliaracliM' conld not bo divested b\' trauslVr
to a iKHitral <!urinu' h'atisit. But in the result r^sl itution wa.>
doereed, for the reasons g-iven in the judgment.
Judgment.] vSir W. Scott, in o-iving- judo-ment, observed that
although in time oi' peaee a transfer in frani^lta was perfectl}'
permissible, yet where a. stat(> of war existed or was imminent
the property in goods nmst Ix^ detMued to continue, until actual
delivery, in those parties in whom it was vested at tlui time of
the shipment. Tliis arose out of tlie conditions of war wliich
entitled a belligei'ont to seize upon the goods of his en(>my. If
such a rule did not e'xist; all goods sliipped in the enemy's countrx'
would be protected by transfers which it would be impossible
to detect. Ho therefore recognized it as a rule of the Court,
that pi'operty could not bo converted in trauxHa-. This rule,
however, became applicable only on the outbreak of wai', and
had no application to transactions that took place during time
of peace. In the present case the transfer in tranntv, having
occurred before the war and in time of peace, must bo adjudged
according to the ordinary rules of commerce, and there being
luithing to raise any suspicion as to its hona fldc^, the cni'i^'O
must be restored to the claimant.
h often liappen-^ that o-oimI-: are nor shi])])o<l to any named
'■onsi<^aiee. tlu! sliip])iiiL;- (luiiinienis beiii^ nieroly cjidorscd to
the order of tlie iii<>rcliaiU ulio sliips (lioni, oi- to tliat of
iIk; banker to wlinni he sel!< jii^ bills, willi the I'e^ult that the
ownership ol'leu chane-es durinu- tln^ voyau'o. In time of peace it
\< (]uit(^ conipetenl to an owner in sueli a ease to transf(U' his
interest. ev(Mi thonu'Ii ih<' u'(»eils are 'ni transitu. ImiI in time of
\vai\ ae(o)'(linu- to ih(> v\\\o of the Knu'lisji and A.ineriean Vv'r/o,
('ourt.'<. :^-oo,|s hejon-iim' to mi (Miein\-. onc(> sliipptMl. Avill retain their
(MUMUV chariii'ler nntil tlie\ r(\ii']i their d(\<t iiiat ion, iind .no ti'ansfer
of them to ;i iieutial will he (Mfedive. so a^ to (hU'eat tln^ riulit of
caplnre. nid<'s-> the i lan^l'eiee ha< aftnally taken ]Hwse-si()ii of (lieni.
/\< was riunarked in tla^ jiuluanent, if sikIi a rule did in)! exist, a!)
l()(i Cdses atul Opinions on. I nfcrnahOnal Law.
OJicniv <:-(io(l> wuuld Ik> proiccled \)\ traiisfois wliicli it would be
iin|)(i->ilil(' iM dcicci. Tiansfcrs of j^-oods in transliu made before
the \\ar ai(>. indeed, prijiid facie valid, but oven ^ucli (raiisfers will
1)0 iu\ali(lateil if thev can be t^howu to have been made in coutem-
plalion of war and with a view- of avoidinp- its consequences (o).
Xevei theli'--. if before capture a neutral consio-nor exercises a right
of -tMppai;-(' ill Iraiiyiiiu on the bankru])tcy of the enemy consio-nee —
a rio'lit ci.nferred both bv the English law and in mn^t other systems
- the re-tran-f<'r in law of the goods to the original owner will be
r(>coo-id/e(L nut withstanding that it occtirrod whilst the gnnds were
in transit i ?> i.
Oi'TsTAXDIM' IXTKRESTS IX EXKMY VESSELS
Oli GOODS.
THE "TOBAGO."
[18n4: 5 C. Rob. 21S.]
Case. This was a ease of claim to a captured French vesseh
made on behalf of a I]riti>h resident, a-< the holder of a bottomi'\-
bond on the vesstd t'xecnti^d in his fa^■ou^ by tlie ina>tci' of tii(^
ship before the comniencemeut of hostilities between (^reat Britain
and Fratice. The claitii wa.s. however, rojeeted on the o-i-ouiid
that the Court could not recofrnize lii?ns on an enemy vessel, (>ven
thotigh created bcd'ore tlie war. and ev(M! though ui favour of
neutrals or liritish subiect>.
Judgment. Sir AA' . Sc'Ott. in givmeyiuduiiuMit , ob-erved that
tic intee-rity of the tran-;(etion w^a.s not impeached. Tin' tpie.--
lion. howevei', wa< whether the Court could, consistently with
tic- ])rinci])h:'- of law tliat governed its ])ractico, afford relief.
A l.)Ottomi\' bond ei\cu in jicace to relievo a shij) in distress was
indeed reo-m-ded A\illi favour 1)\- the Court. But could tlie Court
rceo^; 111 /I ■ sueh bond-. II- til h> t o pro] ici'l\". on wliicli a claim for revfi-
tution cunlil 1m' roiiii(i,-(l in a Court of Ih'ize? Tiio total absc'uee
f.O ■/■/' ■/'"■ /■■'"''/■■■'■/■ <■'> r. IN.l.. -^fi.S. ■.][{,■■ and a> to the ridu ef
!-.: ■/■/■'■ .//•/. O'/v.,, (1 (;;,li. 'JTl; ^tnppao-,. /,, /,v,, ,.;/,, i„ t:n.j-li..li Inw.
■nir, (i-JO). r!i(> Sale of iUjdiU .Vet. 1S!);3. >s. il
. ''I 7'/'' >' /"■'■ /,-'/;",.., el Call. rt .vc'/.
E)ic)u!i Proper tf/.
161
of any precedcnit slujwed that tint had lujt hocn the practice oi"
the Court. A person adxancint;' in(jiiey on a bond oi this natun.'
acquired no ])ro[)<'rty m the vessel; he aequired the jiix In retn
l>ut no jas In re until after appropriation by judieial process.
Tlu! property thei'efore continued in the former owner. But if
there was no chan^■e of property there could be no chaniiv of
national chai'acter. Those lending- on such a security must take
it subject to the risks of war. It was claimed, indeed, that the
ca.])tor took thi' thing- cHin onere : and this was no doubt true
where the onus was immediately and visibly incund^ent on it.
But it Avas a very different thing- to claim the same consideration
for a mcu'c right of action residing- in a neutral. It was obA ious.
too, that claims of this character might be so framed that the
Court could not examine them with elfect, as being private con-
tracts between parties who had an interest in colluding. The
right of capture over enemy property, therefor,', operated \\ith-
out regard to secret liens possessed by third [)arties. Xor did thr
right of capture o])erate on such liens in ca^(;s A\'here the j)roperty
itself was protected from capture. If such a claim iis the present
were allowed, a ca))tor would be subject to the disadvantay-es oi'
ha-\ing- neutral liens set uj) to drd'c'it Ju- claims on hostile ])r(^-
pert\' whilst he could iic\'i>r entitle him-elf to an\' a'lvantao-i-
from hostile liens on neutral propei-ty. .\11 consideration of such
liens or incundjrances tnu>t tluM-cfnre be exdud-'d.
On ui'dUiKh both nf priucipli' ■.xnd coiivcnience. thr> ('(nii'ts. in ca<e-
nt iiiaritinie ca])tin-<\ reject all claiiii-^ fciiin<lefl mi liens ai'isiuu- out o:
biittijiiiry hdiid-. inoi't piLi'i'^. the supply ^l' iieces-nrie>. and bills of lad-
iuLi. ^^'1:(M\' -iirli lien-exi^l .i\ it ciieiiiy pnijiort \ in t'axnnrdt' ii(MHral>
<ii- Mil)j(u-ts tlu^v are o\ (M'liddoii liy ilie i Iniius of ilie (•nptoi-. \\ lio-c
l!i('\ exi-l ()\-i'r iKMitral pi-opcrly in l'a\<iiir ot' (Miemic-; they ciincii
be attaclied li\- lln^ ca ptoi- ' // > . And this principle is apulicd ii\
ihe I)i-iti-h and American ( 'nin'ts eipially to ships aad i;-(M)<Ni/>i,
Xcx'erthelc^s. the lien of an iinpaiil vendor is. a-< we have seen, recuL;--
(") Sii/n-ii. p. IK). i'.\cr|il!ini;il casi's in rchirion to (iiiT -
(/;) Tlu- irn„,,,f<),, 1.5 Wall. oT'J): hiy. I'hr i;,!r:,irrr (\ i),„l^. ;5:,:] , ; /•/,,
'/■//<• M,,,-;,:,,,,'! (IS C. I!()i). ■1\ : /'/"• ./'■"■' (Spinks. S): and for a ca-c d,.^
/'"///r (() ^^'all. l!)S ) : 'I'iic h!'! Spiiiks. cidi'd duriim' the iJiKso-.la pa iicsi' war
•2(i ) : Thr r„,/o,v /•■. /,'-,.. V J 77 I'. S. 7/,- X:,i,,i:,,, Takaha-hi. .).j-J.
(J.J.J ; Scott, (i.37): and as to ctM'taiii
C.T.J.. M
l<i-j C((.s('s ((III/ (Jpiniiiii-s (III InierniitKnial Law.
uized to the oxtout of supporting a re-truiisfer from an enemy con-
.<iL:iK'e tit a neutral cMn^iiiiior. in the event of the bankruptcy of the
former ( cj.
General Notes. — The Enemy Character of Goods generally. —
The question of the liability of g-oods, as liaving an enemy
character, can now only arise as to goods found in enemy
vessels ((/ 1. As regards such goods, the IJeclaration of London
niiw pro\ides that in the ab.sence of proof of their neutral
charat-ter they are presumed to be enemy property (CK Avhich
meiely give^ expression to the customary rule already referred
till/ 1. it is also comm(.)nly recognized that the enemy character
(jf g(Mid> dep(>nds on the enomy charact-er of the owner ir/). lint
thi>. as has already l)een pointed out, is determined according to
the practice of one group of Stat-es — inclmling Germany, Austria,
France. Italy, and Kussia (/ij — by the principle of nationality;
whilst, according to the practice of another group of States — iuclud-
im;- Great Britain, the I niied States. Japan, Holland, and Spain —
it is determined primarily by the principle of domicile (/i. At the
Naval Conference it was found impossible to reach any agreement
o)i this subject. Henci' the Declaration of Lnndon, .\rt. -58, mereh'
[irovides that the neutral or enemy character nf gdods found on board
an enemy vessel shall be determined by the neutral or eneni\'
character of the owner. This, it will 1)0 seen, makes no provision
a.- tu Imw the n<Mitral or enemy character of the owner -hal! 1k> deter-
mined: and llius lea\(>s the ([uestion between " iiationalitv '" and
■domirile" <ipen f<n' future settlement, either l)v eonventiou or bv
the Interjiational I'rize Coui't. Hut until then the Courts (jf Great
ISritaiii an<l tlie Lniied States will, even if the IJeclarati' ui of Lundon
shcaild be adopted, contiime to a})plv the test of domicile.
The eljccf of Art. eS on oilier fcsf.s applicil innJer fJie British
jiraitirc. — Tt v.ill lia\e been notiroi] that the Ih'itish and
American Courts reenMni/i'. in addition to domii-ile. oiluT lironuil^ of
liabili!\. s||(|i as th(> ])os-o--ion of a house of iraile or an auriiul-
iural e>t;it<' in th(.' (Miemy <'onntrv. or the eonduet of a jtrivileu'ed
trade; any of which will confer an enemy character as re^'ards
|iropt'i't\ connected thei'ewith. irr<'spective of Jln^ resiih^nco y\i tlK>
owner (/,■'. If tin' iJ(>elaration of London should be adopted, the
■ jiH-iion 'Aill n<'Ci'^-arilv ari>e as to how far llic^e ancillaiv lests of
'Mieni\- chaiacter are alb'ct(>(l hv Ai't . ."iS. As lo this it is conceived
thai the r<'al principle underlying the Ih'iti^h and .American dcH-i-
('■) S,'/,,,-. |.. Kill. (O^ Src p. I.-).'',, II. ,,], si,ij,-n.
('h l),-.-l:n-:iticii cf T'ari^. IR-'^r,, (/, ) >i,H-' i'arl. \';i]ht< 1 IH)«> -. "Mi?c.
Art. -1. Nn. .'). pp. 31. L>. 2t. K;. .)(i.
(r) Art, -VJ. r/) ///'■'/. l!7. .')(). .V2.
n- Sc 77.. r,,,j.,< r. /,'..,c,.s n77 (/.■) s, ,/,,". pp. i.V). i,-,(i.
I . .S. (;.■).')! ; am! p. 111. .-..'///v?.
Enemy Property. 163
^ions on this isubjcct i.s that ul' hostile a.ssociatiou; the exi.steiict;, that
is, of some bond— implying- protection and trade benefit on tlio one
liand, and subjection t-o the enemy control and contribution to his
resources (^) on the other — which serves to identify the person in
([uestiou with the enemy State, either fully, as in the case of domicile,
or quoad all propcu'ty connected with the source of hostile assoeia-
lioii, as in other cases. And it is tliis underlying- principle — of which
'■domicil<^ is really ouly au application (/») — which really lias to
bo contrasted with '' naliouality." If this be so, then it would seem
that none of these applioatioiLs of the Anglo-American doctrine
would strictly be allected by Art. iy%; for the reason that they are all
deductions from the common principle of hostile association, which,
under that doctrine, is deemed to confer upon the owner of the g-oods
a general or limited '" enemy character," as the case may be — within
the moaning of Art. ."iS. Hut if the test of "nationality" sliouid 1)0
ultimately ado])te(l, then, of course, tlie whole fabric on which the
Anglo-American doctrine is Iniilt up would fall to the ground.
Transfers in transitu. — With respect to these, the Declaration of
London now provides that enemy goods on board an enemy vessel
shall be deemed to retain their enemy character until they reach their
destination, notwithstanding any transfer effected after the outbreak
of hostilities and whilst the goods arv. being forwarded (w). This,
again, merely gives effect to the rule now generally recognized that
tlu> enemy cliaracter of goods cannot (U'dinarily ( o ) l,)e changed
during their transit; wliicli is itself based on the grounds set forth
in the judgment in The \'r()iv Marfinretiia ( p). But whereas, under
the British practice, transfers made before the war. even though
'prima facie valid, may be vitiated by proof that thev were made
in contemplation of war and with a \ie\v 10 ('vad<> its conse-
quences fr/), under the pr<.)visions of tin.' Declaration of London this
will no longer be the case, and to this extent the Britisli rule will
need to be revise<l if the l)e(daration should l)ecome operative.
The Lien of an ('npaid I'ry/'/or. —Not withstanding the rule that
transfers i)i. transitu will not in g(Mieral l)e valid if mad(» atter the
war, the Declaration of London pioxides. in ellect. that if prior
to the capture of goods coiisio-n(>d by a neutral to an enemy the
former exercises, on th(> bankruptev ol' tlH> latter, a recogni/ed legal
I'iu'hi to recover the <4'oods. tlicy will I'CLiain tlieii' neutral characteri rL
Tliis, whilst aiot oiher\\i>(^ impuaidnu- the rule that neutral liens
ov<M.' enemv goods niav lie disi'euardcd i s' 1. m' \\\o rule which forbids
transfers in trirn-'^ifu- at't(U' the war, yet re(T)gnizes the lien of an
1'' liiclndiiie taxntinii. wliothov ( o^ And sax'inu' the caso inontinnofl
iirdiiiarv or cxti'anrdinary. luduw.
{),!) Althiiim-li it ]\:\< liiMMi <nim-lir ro ly) S>i/,,-ti. p. I;i9.
■xtci'.d it by tlio iiso of tli(> term •■ roiu- (7) ■^'", >>■>/. j). IdO.
inci-ciat (l<iTnicilp ■": see vol. i. -JOt). ( ;• ) Si^c Art. (lO, ]iar. 2; and a,s
( ,M See Art. (iO, jiar. 1: Apn. xiii. to tlh' actual reriii- employed. App.
,■ ^\ \iii. c. ().
0 .v„,;,.„, p. i(;i.
M 2
164 Cases and Opinions on Iniernafional Law.
unpaid neutral vendor, in so far as to treat as valid the ro-transfer
to liiui which will take place upon the exercise of a right of
stoppag-e in trcui^itu on tlie bankruptcy of the oneniv consignee, so
long as this right is conf<n'red ))y the law which governs the contract
and has l)een exercised before actual capture. This agrees in the
main with tlie Anglo- American practice already descril)ed i f i.
RESTBICTIOXS OX MARITIME CAPTURE.
(i; STATUS OF EXEMY MERCHANT VESSELS OX
OUTBREAK OF WAR.
THE -BUENA VENTURA."
|LS99: 17.5 L'. S. 3S4.J
Case." On the 2-Jth April, 1898. the United States issued a
declaration of war against Spain, which, amongst other thing's,
recited thai a state of war had existed since the 21st April. On
the 22nd April the " Buena Ventura."' ;i Spanisli merchant ve.ssol.
was cajjtured b\" a United Stales erui.^er off the .imei'icati coast.
and sent in for adjudication. The '' Buena Ventura '" liad arriv(;d
from Cuba at an American port about the -jlst ]\Uirch: liad
left that port on the 19th A{)ril : and was at the time of Lit
capture proceeding' to another Amei-ican port foi' the purjto^c
of taking bunker coaL At the time of capture, those on board
her were unaware of tlie war. On the 2bth April. 189^. ilic
President isstied a proclamation providing, in etfeci - 1 that
Spanish merchant vessels in any ])orts or placi'> within the
United States should be allowed till the 21st Ma v. 1898.
inclusive, f(n' loading and departure, and shoidd. if irn't at
sea, bo permitted to continue tlieir voyae-e, if it appeared thai
their carcroes had bem taken on board wiihiii tln' time aliowi'd.
and subjeej id the condii ion of their ikjI liaxiiii;' on board
any ollierr in tln' iia\al oi' militar\- si'i'\'i''e oj' ihi' ejiemx' or con-
traband ^a] : and ''2 that any Spanish merehant ^■es^eI which,
prior to tlie 21st Ai)ril, had sailed from any foreiuti ])Oft for auA
('(J Or any ilr-jiatcli from or to tlic .Spaiii-li (.■overninent ; >ect. 4.
Restrictions on Maritime Capture. 165
port or place in the United States, should be permitted to enter,
discharge, and depart, and should, ii* met at .sea, be permitted to
continue her voyage to any port not blockaded {h). In the Dis-
trict Court a decree of condemnation was pronounced (C/ ; but
on appeal to the Supreme Court tliis decree was reversed, and
the vessel released.
Judgment.^ hi the judgment of the Suj)reme Court, which
was delivered by Peckliam, J. (tZ;, it was laid down that, in view
of the fact that enemy merchant vessels carrying on innocent com-
mrrcial enterprise either at the time or just before the time when
liostilities begau were according to the later practice of civilized
nations entitled to liberal treatment, the terms of the President's
])roclamation ought to receive the most extensive interpretation
of whicli they were caj)able '^e). The provision that "' Si)anish
merchant ^'essels in any ports or |)laces within the United States
shall be allowed until ]\Iay2Ist. ]8!)8, inclusive, for loading their
cargoes and de[)arting"' might be held to include (1) only vessels
in port on April 26th when the ])roclamati()n was issued ; or
(2 those in port on April 2ist, when war was declared by Con-
gress to have begun ; or (8) not only those then in [)ort. but also
any that had sailed therel'rom on or before May 21st, whether
before or after the commencemcnl of the war or the issuing of
the pi'oclamation. The Court prLd'cired to adopt the last interpre-
tation. Although the ])r()clajiia,tion did not in so many words
inchido vessels whicli bad saili'd fi'om the United States before
the commencenKMit of the war, such v(>ssels w<'re clearly within
its intention, nuclei" the libei'aj coii-^tiaiction which the Court felt
b(iiiii(i to iiavc it. To atlribiiic i o tin.' I'^xecutive an intention to
exem[)t ve.-sels wliich had sailed from United States ])ort-< aft<>r
April 21st and before Wwy 21sl,an(l 1(j rei'u.--e it to vessels which
bad -mailed l)el'or(> April 21st would be allogetlun' un justiliable.
Hence, in the pi'e>ent case, the vessel, althoue'h sh(> had actually
left a United States port mi A])ril IDtli, must lie released. In
view, however, of the fact that at the date oF s(Mzur(\ April 22nd,
(A" Serf. ;■). [d) i-'ullcr. ("..J., and (ii'ay and
, ■^ Till' \r~-c| \va< in fad oi'ileiT*! to .McKoniia, .I.T.. dis^cnrinLT.
heboid: tlie pr()ccrd<. li,,\vc\-r. l)(Mn<r (') 'I'h'' I'hnr.'ix (\ Spinlcs. .306)
dc'po-itt'd to al)idc the rc-iilt of a[i|)i'al. and Ihr. Avjo (Spinlis, .52;.
166 Cases and Opinions on International Laiv.
the proclamation liad not actually been issued, restitution would
be granted without dauuiges or cost* (/).
The terms of the ))ruclauiatiou issued by the President at
the comniencenieiit ol' the SjKuiish-Auiericau Avar of 1898. afford
an illustration of what is spoken of in the judgment as "the later
practice of civilized States" in its more liberal form. i^rielly
that practice was one under which enemy merchant vessels found
either in or on their way to the national ports, after the
commencement of hostilities, were, uinler certain conditions.
exempted from capture, and commonly allowed to return un-
molested to some port of their own country (7). In The Baeiia
Ventura the Supreme Court, as we ha\ 3 seen, prve to this practice,
as emlxxlied in the President's ])roclamatirin. the broadest j^ossible
interpretation. In the case of The PeJro (175 U. S. 354). however,
it was liuhl not to apply to a vessel trading from one port of the enemy
to anotlier. and carrying cargo exclusively for the enemy, even though
under contract to proceed ultimately to a United States port, hi The
Vaiun/hi (17(1 LI. S. 5.'55 ). it was held not to apply to a vessel which,
although othei'Avise within the protection of the ])roclamati<)n. was
carrying ati armament susceptible of use in war. and \\;is mm'eover
under cotitract to the enemy Government for use in war. In T]ie
yarJajda (^Takahasln. ()()4). it was held by Japanese ('ourts not to
apply where an etiemy \e'^sel had remained in port after the days of
grace had ex|hred. Tlii> })ractice has, as we shall see, now been
enibodie<l. althouo-h with some stints and deductioir-^, in tlio Hague
Convention. Xo. (! of IO07. But in eases not cmercil l)v the Con-
vention, vessels which enter an enemy port after the war will still
remain sid)je(.'t to the ordinary rule of maiitime capture ^ //").
CiRXKitAL Notes. — J/a^ Po.'^ltion of Eiieunj Merrhftnt Vc'^sels nn the
Outhrr-ril: of War: ( i) J'ailer the (' iisfomarii La/c- Enem\- mer-
chant ve>-els found in the national poi'ts after the commoTicement
of war remained liaMe to ca])ture liniu- after the practice of a])pro-
priaiin;^- enemv ]ii'(>])erty on land had be(Mi in o-mieral abandr)iied;
the ca|)ture in sufdt a ca-^e ranking as a maritime capture ('/'V Rut
altoiit tli<' iniildlo of the llMh century wi^ notice the rise of a now
usa'_;<', under wliich. in it< more liluu'al I'onn. en<^mv merchant ves-
sel-, whether in or on th(dr wa\' to the national |iortiS. were allowed
( /■) Tlio [)roc('0(ls of >alc wcvc. (;/) Inirn. |.. I(i7.
ordiTcd til ln" |>;ii(l (i\<T tu the claJiiiaiit (h)l'hr John,,,,,, l',,,,,!:,^ \ Siiink.^.
witliout ;niy di'ilui'tion t'di* i-.i-i< in the .317).
priicoodiiiL''-. •■iiid -iil)ji'.'-l i.iidy lu a dc- (/) .\.. t(i the iimu'c riu'ni'ou- |ii'a<-'ici-
dui'tiiiii i)f <'\-|M'M-;c- ]ii-i.|htIv iiicidriil o f >ei/,iii<r such \('--cl< in anticipation
to tlic cu-tcidy and prc-iTx atinn i>t' tlic ef war. -cr v(jl. i. ooS.
propoi'tv up to till' tinii' ct' salr.
IxesfrictioiiH on MarU'une Cap lure. 107
to (Jopart, or to outer and depart, as the case mig-hi be, witlun a
time iixed by proclaniution, and thcreal'tcr to return unmolested to
Some port of their own country, subject only to their being- unarmed
and not having- contraband on Itoard. This exception to the ordinary
rule of maritime capture wii.-^ Ijased on the g-round that both good
faith and mutual interest re(|uired that vessels carrying merchandise
to a country for the us<' of tiie inhabitants shouLl be protected ag-ainst
the surprises of war. This j)racticc began in 18.54, when, on the
outbreak of the Crimean war, Great Britain and France allowed
Ku.ssian mercliant vessels then in British or French ports six weeks
within wbich to load an<l depart, whilst vessels which had already
sailed for sucli ports were allowed to entor and discharg-c their
cargoes uiid to return unmolested to any port of their own country
not under blockade; Russia making similar concessions (y). A
policy similar in its general tenour, but varying greatly as regards
time and conditions, was followed in the subsequent wars. So. in
the Austro-Pru-sian war of 18(JG, Pru.ssia conceded to enemy vessels
a ])oriod of six weeks' grace. In the Franco-German war of 1870,
France gave one month's g'race to enemy vessels both in port or on
their way to ])oi't; whilst Ciermany })urj)ort'ed to grant complete
immuniiy from capture, although this was subsequently withdrawn.
In tlie Russo-Turkish war of 1877 llussia only granted t<j enenn
vessels which were then in port time to nnload and de[)art. In the
Spanish -American war of 1808. the l.'iuted States, as we have seen,
gave (uie month and exempted vessels on tlieir return vovagf?; but
Sj)ain gave only live days,an<l did not in terms prohibit ca])fui'e after
departure or provide for the entrance or discliarge of ve-sels that
had sailed for Spanish j)oris before the war (An. In the Russo-
Japanese war of 1901, Japan gave <even days to enemy vessels
already in ])ort, and allowed vessels that had sailed prior to the
iKh February to enter, unload and return, subject to tlie observance
of certain conditions; l>ut Russia gave only 48 hours, and did not
e.vempt vessels oir their return voyau'e. Tlan-e was thus an inchoat-e
usau'e of i'.xein])tion. altlnaigh it was noi eitlnu' suliiciently uiriform
or suliiciently long established Id rank as an obligatory cust()m.
I ii) Tlw Hague Cduveidioii. Xn. G o/ 1907. -The question was
considered at the Hague ('onference of 1907. and after jirolongMvl
discus.-ion an agreement was rcai h<^(L which is now embodied in the
("onxcntion " rehitivo to the status of <Mieniy niei'chanr shi])s at the
otilbreak of war."' l)Ut the teiaus of this Convention - re])resenting
as the\- do a couqiromise between the conflicting views of those wh'i
as-erted and those wlio denied the ol)ligatorv characl-er of the usao-c
that had recentiv arisen arc ambiguous and unsati>factoi-y. and
on some ])oint> h\ss lib<'ral than the practic(> prc\'iou-ly fnllnwi'd.
at any rate l)y some Stales. In ellect. the Convention provides as
r/) Tiii'lvcv. ;il-n. \vai\i'4 Ina- viirht (/•) As no cajjtnrcs \vori> made Ijy
of sci/.iiiu- llus-ian NCs-rN in Tui-ki-li Spain, tlic actiia 1 intent of the tiovorii-
iMiits. nicnt i- not (dear.
168 Cases and Opinions on International Laiv.
follo\v>: — (1) \\'lioi'o a incrcliant sliip lielMiijiiiip- to one bellio-oreut
is ill an oiiomy poit on the <>utl>re;ik nf way. i! is desiraMe tliat
it >1h)u1(1 lie allowed tn depart freely, either ininiediat-td}- or after
a sullicient tei'in ol o-race.and to prot-eed direct, after bein^' furnished
Avith a pa.ssport, to its port of destination or sucli other port as shall be
named for it. The .same proTision is to a})i)ly to a ship which left
its last ])ort of departure before the \var. and eur<'rs the enemy port
in ip'uoranee ol' hostilities (7 i . (2) \\'here such a sliij) is prevented
li\- ciix-uin.-tanee- of force iiidjeure from hvivinu' witliin tlie time
provi(h'd. it i- not to b(> eoiiliscuted, althouu'h it may be detx^iued
(bii'im:- the war without indemnity, or re([uisitione<l sul)jeet to indem-
iiit\' <///!. I ■') i Kn<'m\ niei'(diant slii|)s -which left their last })ort of
departui'e Itefore tlie war and ar(^ met with at sea whilst iynorant of
hn^iijities. are not to be conliscat(>d : but they may l)e detained
subject to an obH<.;-atic)n to re-tore tliem after the war without
iu<h'mnity. or they may fte requisitioned or even destroyed sub-
ject to indemnitv and to the rildio-ation of ])i'ovidinL;- for the
safet\- of the i)ersoiis ajid the preservation of the paj)ers on board.
lUit after touching at a national or neutral port, and thus acquiring-
kiKiwIedge of the war. such v(^ssels become sul^ject to the ordinary
law of war ( n). (4i Kiuuny cargo found on any such vessels may be
detained during th(> war without indemnity, or may 1)0 requisitioned
on i)ayment of indemnity, either in conjunction with the ship or
se])arately ( o ). ( ."> i The-e ]u-ovisions are tiot to a]q)ly to merchant
>hi|)s whose construction indicates that they are intended to be eon-
\erted into ships of wari//). It will be <co\i that Ai't. 1 states
merelv that '' it is desii-able "' that departure should be allowed, and
lol'ers to anv (kdav tlutt may in fact be '.i'ranted as a ''term of grace:"
from which it. seems that the excmpti(ui cannot be demanded as of
riojit. llen(;e it would siill ;i])])ear to lie oiicn to a beliiu'erent. as a
iiiatt<'r of l<'o-al I'iii'ht. either to detain or to lequire the immediate
dcpai'turt^ of enemv vessel^; altliniiLi'li und<M" ordinai'v circumstances
a I'co-ard for both nati'inal and neutral interests u/ i will jirobablv
cn-iire both perinissi,)u i,i leave and a reasonable ])ei'iod of o'race.
It i-. no <loulit. a distinct gain that such vessols ar(> exemjjted from
• •a]itiiic on the r(Murn vrivage. which was urit alwavs conceded
under the t>arli(M' pra'-tice; and aho that vess(ds which of nec<>s-
sit',' oversta\- thcii' time or which are met \\\{\\ at sea whilst
unaware of the war are ])rofected fioni conljscation. .\< re2'ar<ls
all -lich xiw^ols. hii\v(>\er. it is expres^lv proxided that en(Mn\- cari;-o
foiin<l on board ma\- be sc.pi(>st rated or reqiii^it ioned. (Mthei' with the
I'j Art. 1. tlic Cunfcroncc. in fact, except the
i "' ; -\i't. •!. I jiitcd States, ("liina. and Xicaracraa
''-; .\i't. '■'}. altlinuL''li liy Ceianany and Hus-ia
(<i\ \y\ . I. Tlii- a|i[ilir- t'l ;ill \i'~- witli re~ervaTion-. It ]ia.< also been
-■■N nicntiumd in Ar<-. I. 'J. and :', : |-atificd liy (li-eat lliatain. See Talile,
liut -re n . ' /■ i . -^PP- ^'^ •
' /i ' .\rt. •'). Tliis Convention has (71 Tliat i~. as reu'ards any neutral
now- hei-n si^nied hy t'orty-enc Powers lairL''^ on heard.
--hy all the Powers r<']ii-«-''.itc<l at
Restrictions on Maritime Capture. 16iJ
sliip or .separalcly {j ), iillli(nigli it cannot bo confi.sculcd. (Jonnaii}'
and Rll■^sia ha\e, indeed, made rosorvatioii.s witli icspoct to those
[)i(n isioiis which sidi.stitule secjiie.stratioji I'oi' coiifi.scatioii in tlio case
ul enemy vessels mel with at sea in ig'iioiancc oi' iiostilities. and enemy
caij^o on hoai-dixi; alleijinjj,' that tliey Ijoar hardly on States wliich, not
having- na\al stutiijns in diller<'nl parts of the world, might often find
it necessary to destroy snch prizes and would then liave to pay an in-
deniinty. In \ iew *){ tiiese re.servy.tion.s, German and lliissian vessels
will jiot, even as between the signatories, be entitled to the protection
accorded under tliese particular provisions. The exception set up
a> reuards merchant vessels ' whose construction indicates that they
arc inionded to l)c converted into ships of war," is somewhat am-
biguous [t)\ but in practice it would probably be applied, as in the
case of T]ie- Paminui in), to any vessels susceptible of armament
and capable of being used as commerce destroyers, including subsi-
dized liners and other vessels under contract to their own (Jovern-
tneiit for use in war (x).
(ii) EXEMPTIOXS FROM MAIUriME ('APTUHE:
(a^ COASTAL FISHING r,OATS AXJ) VESSELS
EXGAGEl) IX SGIEXTIFIC MLSSIOXS.
THE -PAaUETE HABANA' AND THE 'LOLA."
;s,M' vol. i.. 1. 1
In this cas(\ it will lie remembered, the I'nited States Supreme
(Ourt <leci<lo(| that, inde|)cndenl ly of treaty anil ajxirt from comity,
it was an established rule ol' inK.'rnational law that coastal lishing
boat-, together with tlieir iT(>\v>. cargoes and e> juipniein , even though
iicloui^iiiL;- to an enemy, .-lioiild be exempt from capture, so long as
ilie\- wi'ie unarmed and enL;'ai;<'d in the [)ursuit of tlieir peaceful
i-alliiiL;'. In the same ra-c iIk.' ])raeiice of exein[)lion. as regards
\(>--els (Mn[)love(J in geo^iaajtjiiia 1 or scieutilie d isc(_)\ery. and as
regards piopertv eoiinecled wiih the art-- and sciences, wa^ rec(_i£i'-
nizcd and a))proved.
', 1 AUliouij-li .\rt. f (liic^ nor .-iiiiii':!!- (/) Sec p. 12S, .s'//);v;.
'n carry a I'iij-ht of <!M| iii'>t ration as ( -/) S,/.,,-/'. ]). Kili.
ic'uarils M'ssrls incut ioiic<l in \ I't . 1. (.'■) On the sui)jcet i^eiierally, see
>-) .Vrts. :] and I. par. 2. l'<;an/c fJijrgi!L«, 300 et seq.
170 Cases and Opinions on International Laiv.
(b) C'AKTKL SHIPS.
THE -DAIFJIE."
[ISOO: 3 C. Hob. 139. J
Case. During- war between Crreat Britain and Holland, two
Dutch vessels A\erc eajjtured by the British, whilst on a vo^'agc
from the Texel to Flushing. Jiestitution A\"as claimed on th^
ground that tliey were proceeding to Flushing for the purpose
of taking on board some exchanged prisoners for conveyance
to Fngland, and A\'ere thus in the position of cartel ships.
In the circumstance.s of the ca.se. it was held that, although the
vessels did not strictly come within the limits of the protection
accorded to cartel ships, yet they ought to be rastored.
Judgment. _ Sir \\'. Scott, in his judgment, observed, in effect,
that the jiracticc of exempting cartel ships from capture,
although not ancient, Avas one that deserved favourable considera-
tion, on the same grounds as all other comincrcia belli. On
general principles such ships were protected both in carrying
prisoners and in returning from that service. In the present case.
however, the vessels were not at the time engaged in such service.
and it was strictly the employment and not the future intention
that carried protection. Xevertlieless. such protection might, he
thought, })i'()perly be extended to a case wher<' vessels had alread>"
entered on their functions by being put into a state of a-ctual
eciuipment for such employment. The evidence, moreover, went
to show tbat, notwithstanding considerable imprudence in the
proceeding.-- of these vessels, there was an honest intention to pro-
ceed to such em])loyment : and for that reason the ve.-sels would
be rc>toi'ed. althoue-h sii1)iect to the i)a\'ment of co.-ts.
Appendiu) Xoti:. Kiieiiiv vessels aeiiially engaged in cartel ser-
vice are exempt t'l'uiu captui'e. lioili wlien carrying' exchanged
]ii'i-oner>, when let iiiiii !!■_;■ t'mni -m h serviie. and as we may gather
treni the (|4M:i>i( rii in /'//e I )iiij j/c ^i'\oii when [)roceediug' to take'
lies h'ic lions on Manfiine Capture. 171
up siicli service, so long- as that ijitention is cloarl}- eslahlishod (// ).
But such vessels will I'ort'oit their privilege if tliev engage in mer-
canlih' Iraliic or otlunwise abuse tlieir position (~).
(c HOSPITAL SHIPS.
THE 'ARYOL."
[ 1905 ; Takaliaslii, International IjUw applied to tiie Russo-Japanese War, 620. j
Case. On tin outbreak of tlie 11 us.so- Japanese war the " Arvol.''
a steamship belong-iiig to tlie Pussiau Volunteer Fleet, was
chartered by the llu>sian Red Cross Society for use as a hospital
ship. Her intended use was oilieiallx' notified to the Japanese
Government, under the ternrs of the llagaie Convention of
1899 (« , and a re(piest for eonsi^quent e.xemption agreed to.
After being et|uipped for that purpose at Toulon, she was
attached to the second Pacilic .S({uadron, and proceeded with
that st^uadron on it.s voyage to the East. After the battle of
Tsushima she was captured h_\- a Ja[)anese cruiser, and sent in for
adjudication on the ground of having assisted in the warlike
operations of the enemy. At the trial it was |)roved that in the
course of her voy;igL' to the Ivist she had receiv<>d on board
prisoners ih). not being sick or wounded, for transport : that she
had taken on board and cari'ied material for military use : and
that she had also discharge(l I'cjr the llecv services which are usually
performed by a reconnoitrino- \-e-se] . On tlie>e grounds both v(^s>el
and cargo were condemned.
Judgment/ In tlie judo-mont of tlu,' Pi'c-ident and Councillors
of the Sascbo Prize Court it was li(^ld that a hospital ship could
only enjoy the privileiii' of inviolability when solely eno-ae>-ed m
the woj'k of relie\inir the sick and the wounded: and tliat. both
by the general law and t he ^i ijuilal inns of the Haoiic ( 'onvention,
she became liable to captui'c ii used f(.)r military piir])oses. In
the present case the '" Aryol. although lawfuUx" eijuijiped and
(VI l)Ut sec /." d'lnh-i' ('.") C. Hell. (a) Xow rei)laeed l)v N'o. 10 of
:.t i98). 101)7 : sec Art. 2.
( V) See 'I'lti' I'rjnis ( 1 ('. ijuh. H.')-') i ; (70 ^ 'l the .scn.sc. that i<. of persons
Lii Rofixc {2 C. l{ob. 372;. taken from neutral prizes.
\r2 Cases nad Opinions on International Laiv.
duly notilied a* a hospitul ship, had undoubtedly been guilty of
doino- acts in aid of the military operations of the enemy, and was
therefore subject to eonliscation ai cordino- to international law.
T\\\> decision is in accordanc'e with tln> stipuhitiwns of the Haiiue
CoiiveutiLUi, Xo. .■) of 18*.t'.t, Art. 4, uiidor AvJiicli tiie sig-natories agree
jioi In ciu[)loy hospital shi[)S for any military })urposo: a stipulation
wliiili iiereoaiilv im[>lies a forfeiture uf the exemption accorded
t(j siu-h vi^ssols l»y Art. 1 in the event of default (c-). Tlie deci.sion
is c-pocially jujiewortliy in treating the cai'riage of prisoners ((/)
a- a "niiliiaiv }iuip(i-t''" witliin the meaning of the Convention:
a conclu-ion (putc^ justiliahle in the conditions of modern naval war.
tlExr.HAi, Notes. K.r/('iillo)i.^ to the itight of Mnritiine Capture. —
Apart from the exemptions that attacli to eninuy merchant vessels nn.
the (luthreak df war. which have already iieeii c(ni>i.lere<l ■ ^'i. the chief
exi-eptidii^ ti> the m-dinary rigln of maiitime capture, re-ling either
on cu-inm nv CDUventicin. are the foll(>\ving': if; J-hiemy pro[)(>rty,
not lieing cninrahand. f( aind nn Ijoard neutral vessels. This i-- pro-
bahly the most wide-reaching of the existing exempiioir-. and rests,
a- we have >Qii\\. on the Declaration of Paris, I8")i)(/i. ^'1) Coastal
ti-hinu' ve>-els with their crews and apparel, as well a- small \ e--els
emp)l(iyed in local navigation, so long a-, in either case, they are
mil em})loyed for military purpose-. As regard- tishing vessels,
thi- exemption, although origimdly a matter of treaty or coniitx \f]),
mav [)rohahlv he sai<l to have ])('(_■( nue an ohligatory cn^loin hefoi'e
\\\v end of the hi'^t centurv(//i. and ha< now boon conlirmed and
extended liv the Jlague ( 'onvention. No. 11 of 1;M)7. Thi-. amongst
other things, piovidi's that Ncsscds ex(dusi\(dy em])loyed in coast
ti-lieries, a< well a^ small hoats emploved in local trade, shall lie
exempt frrim capture, to'^-etlier with their apparel and cargo; although
sindi exem])lion is to cea-e if they take any part in tlie war(/).
',(; 'I'lii' prdvi-ioii- ot' Nu. l()iit']!Ml7 rlic cumrai-tiiiii- I'liwcrs hind TJicni-
ao' t(i t!ic-:iiii<' ctfci-t : v"/',", pp. 122, sfh'c- not to take advantairc nt tlie
171. II. ("). hai'iiilcss appearance ol such \cs-cls
• ij ) y"/i,':. p. 171. II. (''/). f:i asi- them t'cr militai'v puipii-c^:
I') .>>■"/"■". p. I<i<i. -''I' Art. :!. In (h'fanll ' cf (ihs(>rv-
/' 1 Art. '2: >''/'/■". p. I.")2. ancc. it would <ci-ni tliat flic inmmnirv
I ,'/ I Hall. HI. ill L'-ciicral niiLdit he rcxokcd: -co
I ■/, I Sec ■/■/,.- J',n/„,/r //,■;,',.„, vol. Wotlake. ii. :5 1 1 1 . The Convention
i. I. has uow hcci' accepted. without
.1 Sec the <':i-c ot' 77" A'.c'.-, Taka- i'e>ci'\-atio!! . iiy foi'ty Srato<. including:
iia~hi. .')(!:). a ti^liiiiL:' \>-cl. roiiihnnc'd all rho uiTcat I'owits. with tlii' cxccji-
liy the .lapanc-c ('onrt- in liHI.). on tion of !;n-<ia : and has also iicen
till' LToiind that --he had hccn enu'ar;r(l ratitied hy < O'cat llritain: see Table,
in poliio duly. I!v the ( 'on\ i-ntion. M'P- xi\.. ','■',''.
Restrictions on Maritime Capture. \7.\
The distiuetioii between coast and deep sea fi>liing- vessels is well
LUidei stood in practice, and would prohahly he applied in the light
hoth of the hnild and habitual eniployineul ol' any vessel as to which
the ipiesiiuu arose (/ri. As reg'ard.s vessels eniploj'cd in local
trade, the exeniptioji is clearly intended only io apply to small vessels
which are on a parity with li.shing boats, and would not extend to
other vessels cji<^'aL;ed in local navig-ation (Z). (^.'i ) Vessels charged
with ndigious, scicntilic or philanthropic uussions. Tliis exception
was also foujuU'd on usage, which may be said to have become obli-
gatory ( //n, although now confirnred by the same Convention ( /#).
(4) ilospiial ships. These are now exempt from capture under the
]>rovi^ions of the Hague C'on\ent.ion '' for the adaptation of tht; ])rin-
ciples of the (Jeneva ( 'onvention to maritime war,'' Xo. 10 of l!»07.
although subject to the con<litiojis and linutations already referred to,
including- a condition that they shall not be used for military pur-
poses I 0 1. (•") I Cai'iel ships. These are ships employed in the trans-
port of exchanu'cd ])risnners. which are. frum the very nature of their
emj)loyment. treate<l as exempt from cipture l)Oih eando and re-
deiuido ( p) . ( (i) Finally, even if the vessel herself proves to be
lawful ])rize. it is usual. l)y the custom of the sea. to ti'eat as
(^xenipt from confiscation tlie personal ellect.s Ijotli of the master
and crew and of any i)ass<Mig'(>rs tliat mav h<> found on board iry).
An immunity from seizure is sometimes claimed for vessels which
have been compelled to put intM an enemv pnrt in <listress. or \\luch
ai'e disabled on the enemy c(_)ast: Inil such an imnmuity although
sometinu's conceded as of g-rac<> \ n and although approved by tlie
Institute of Intei'national Law so far as relates to vessels putting
into an enemy port in distres> (,v)— is cortaiidy not oblig-atorv. and i-
scarcely likely to become so ( /). Over and above these cases of com-
})lete imnmnitv there ar(^ also certain particular restrictioirs on the
ordinary right of captui'e in maritime war which claim some separate
mention.
T}}e ('reus of Enoni/ Mi'i-chanf Sliips Capfared hi/ a BeIIi(jere;/f .
— Seamen engaae*! in 'h.> nivigafion of enemy merchant vess(ds are.
as we liave seen, commoidy n^u'arded as having an enemy charactei'
irres]iecl ive of their nationality''/). Hence on th{> capture of the
vessel th(>v were form<M'ly liable to detention as j)risoners of war:
this being justili<Ml on tin' u'l'iHind of theii" litness foi' use on wai
ve=;sels and transpmls. The cap;ui-e of such per-ons js. ]ii)we\er.
now I'estricted and reu'ulated b\- rlie Ilan'ne ( 'onv(Miti<ui. Xo. 11 of
lltn7(',r'). This provide-, in etleci:- ili That when an enemv mer-
(■/•) Sec tho cii^c of '/'/"' f.rs,.:i-, ,,,i ■<.,,.,■<'. [I. 17(1.
Takalia-lii. o!)."). a ilcop <('a 1i<Iiin-- (<r W'cstlakc. ii. ]:];].
vc"cl. <'(iikI("!ioiciI !iy tlic .Iaiiaii''<c ( ,■ , I lallcrk. ii . 107.
I'l'izr CniirK ill MIOk' (s) Wr^rlakc. ii. ItO'
(7> Pcaivc Ili-o-iiw. (():; ri yrn. f/i ||all. |:;t;: { )[,p,.nhoini. ii. 23(i-
( „/ ) \\C-tlaki'. ii. |:;S; Op] .'^■■lii •ini. f - > <;',.,". p. 'J 1 .
ii. -l?,-!. (.'I Tlii- lias l)cc!i ratit^inl hy Or, ..at
i ,, \ Art, !. I'l'itaiii: -I'f Talili'. Aj'ji. xi',.
(„) S.,,.,''. p. 172.
174 fJases and Opinions on International Law.
eliant ship is captured by a belligereiit, such of its crew as are
nationals of a neutral State shall not be made prisoners of war,
and that the same rule shall also apply to the captain and oliieers,
being- neutrals, if they give a formal promise in writing- not to
>orve on an enemy ship during- the war(^//i; (2) That even where
the captain, olhcers, and members of the crew are nationals of the
en(>my State they shall not be made prisoners of war. provided they
undertake by f(n'mal promise in Avriting- not to eng-age whilst hos-
tilities la<t in anv service connected with the operations of war;
and (3) That the names of all persons entering- into such eng-^ige-
ments shall be notitied to the other belligerent, who is forbidden
knowingly to em]doy them during the war(^~). But these provi-
sicuis will nor apply to shi]is that take part in hostilities (a).
Postal Correspondence. --lender the customary law. mail ships,
\vhether enemy or neutral, were not exempt from the ordinary inci-
dents of war, except by virtue of special agreement (t»). A usage
in exemption of postal correspondence was, indeed, in course of
growth, although not sufficiently well-established to have become
obligatory (>). As between the signatories to the Hague Conven-
iion. Xn. 11. 1907, lnjwever, special provision is now made for the
protection of postal correspondence and. incidentally, the treatment
of mail ships. By this Conventioti it is jirovided that the ])ostal cor-
res2)ohdence of neutrals or belligerents, whether official or private,
whicli may be found on board a neutral or enemy vessel at sea, shall
be inviolable. If the ship is detained, then such correspondence
must bo forwarded to its destination by the captor with the least
possible delay: althoua-h this will not apply to correspondence which
is destined to or procoeding- from a blockaded portff?"). At the
>ame time, it is expressly provided that the inviolability of postal
.orrespnndenco shall not exem-|)t neutral mail shi]")S in other respects
rinm iIk' laws and customs of war: although they are not to be
-carclied. exce])t wlien absolutely necessary, and then onlv with as
much consideration and expedition as possible (V^). The result is
I ha! mail shijis. excej^t wliere expressly exemjited by treaty T/). still
lemaiu sidiject to the ordinary incirlents of war. If the mail ship is
,in enemy vessel, she may be taken as ]n-ize. although in such case the
po^t.nl corrospDndencc is inviolable f'7\ and must be forwarded by
' /' ' \''t- •^. (lo,-ii\Tl)lp tliat .«uoh ships sliould not
(~ 1 ■^'■t. 7. ]),. slo])p(>(l. In the rase of 77'" /';•;;;,-
("' -^'-t- S- //"■,'/"•/.. in l!)(ll. thr who],. iiKill was
__(/'; ■//" ■!'■;/",!. Takahn-hi, 573. <cizc(M.y 77. .s^o/,.,,./-. tlic mail l.a?s
•"■''• for .lajiai! hi'inL'- (■i>nti<cati'(l, and the
ir .\< to rlic ronr-^r. of u-a-c in iv>t <vin on after much dehiv: >ee
tlii.- iT-^pcct, M-c r.awrcni-r. War and ^| ]o.-,^ .w//'/7/.
Vfulraiitv. 1 Ml -/ .,,;. On the ' i r/] Xrt . \. '
:irrc~r of the 'iriaiian mail .-tcamers. (',,-) Art. ''
r.H,.,h.,rfi, and ^^ ,'w-../. i,, isim ( r, a< tVrwhi.-h. soo vol. i. -^s-:.
'"''"'• I'- '"•^'- tin. Crrnian CoviTn- , ,, < Savr in the case mentione<I
men! nienlv urired that it wa- liiL'^hlv •l,,i\-i.
Capture and Us Incidents. 175
the ca])tor to ite dcstinalidii. If llie mail ship is a neutral vessel, she
i>! subject to visit and search, altliouo'h searcli is not to be I'esortcd to
except Avhon aI)solu(ely u(>C(^ssary (7i), and niu:st in that case bo
carried out Avilh all possibh' consideration and promptness; whilst
if the facts should juslify her (h:'tention the postal currospondonce
must be sent on by tlic cai)tor.
f'APTUUE A XT) ITS fXCWENrS.
(i) WHAT COXSTITUTKS A VALID CAPTUEE.
THE •' EDWARD AND MARY."
i 1801 ; 3 (". Hob. 305.]
Case.] During- war between Great Britain and Franco, the
Ivhvard and Mary, a Hritisli merchant vessel, havinii' become
-c|)aratcd from her con\o}' durinu' a storm, was broug-ht up bv a
French privateer, and ordei'ed to lie to until tlio weather had mode-
rated. This order was complied with, but before the prize was
boarded by the captors, H.M.S. '" .Vrellinsa " came in sig-ht, and
thereupon gave chase to and ultimately captured the privateer.
ALvanwhile the "Edward a.nd Mary' made her escape and re-
gained her coju'ov. >Subse(|Uently, a cbiim to salvage, as on
recapture, was made by the "Arethusa.' The validity of this
elaim depended on whether thci'e had been an effective capture of
the " Edward and ]\Iiiry ' b^" the privateer. In the result the
elaim was alh^wcd on theiiround that, for the purposes of capture,
it was sulllcicnt if the jn'ize had passed under the actual control
of the enemy.
Judgment.": Sir W. Scott, in his judgment, after advertina' to
the facts, said that he could notagi'i'c with the (•ontention that thi>
was not a true capture. The siMiding of a })rize master on Ijoaiil
was ind(>cd a very Jialural overt act of possession, but it wa> not
by an^' means e.ssi'utial to i-ou'-til ub' a capture. As tln^ merrhant
vessel ^\ a.s eompellcd to lie to and obe\- the direction of th(> French
vessel and to await liei' further orders sht.^ was com|ilelely under
(/'O Tlie captor being left to judge of this.
17(; Cases and Opinions on Infernalional Laiv.
the doiniiiion of the enemy. There was no ability to resist and
nf) pro.-ijcct oT escape. Thei'C had bi'on niiuiy instancs of capture
\vhcr(j no one had been a<'tuall\' put on board the prize ; a< where
ship.- liad Iji'cn drixcn on shore or into port. But as there was a
doubt wlicthei' the \-e-s(;! had been " r(;takeji "' within the nie-an-
int;- oi the term a-i.'d in the Act of Parliament, -j-'v Geo. III. c. 06,
he would award sahaue as for a recapture, under the g'eneral
niercantih; law. .
A> between captor and prize, a capture will be deemed
coniplfic a- from the time wlirri ilie furmer takes effective pos-
so>>i()u with intent lo retain i'/ 1. Bii'. pos-^cssioii in sucii a case
nia\- li'' citlim' actual or con-i ruciive. What usually happens is that
the prize Jiiakes surrender or submission, as by striking- her
colour- ( /y I. wliercuj)ou actual po.-.session is taken by the captor, and
a p)-ize ijiasler. whether with oi- wiilnjut a prize crew, is put on
lioaid ( c). Hut this is not indispensable. And it a vessel lies at
the niei'cy oi the ca])tor ( dj, or if she obeys the directioas and orders
of tli(,' (.'aj^tor, thi> will b" reganled as a c^justnictive possession,
and the capture will be effectual (e i . The mere fact of ca])tnre
doe- not. indeed, liefore condenmatiou, vest the property in the
captor: but it eoufers on him, as ag-ainst all other persons, a I'iji-lit
of poss('Ssirni. and als'j imposes on him certain consefjuential duties
and liabiliti<'-. Tl]<' date of ca])tuie is iiii])ortant. for the reason
th;ii if eimdeiiination .-liould follow, iis clfeots will relate liaek to tliat
linH'ife Ijiu if the ca])i')r loses possession or abandons the jirize.
the]i elfcft of the oriu'inal cajjiiire will cease, and anyone who sui/-
scfpienily aC'pdrcs ])os,-o->ion will lie treated as sole captor ('/71.
An elfectixe ea])ture may he either "sepaiate" or "joint.'' althoiiol)
a- re;^-ards a joint cap;ui'<' tlif onus of jiroof will iilwa\"s lie on the
claimant-;//). A eaplui'e ina\" lie "joint" eitliei- a- iK'tweeji t wri
or mo.i'e naiinnal \C'ss(ds; or a- bet\\(sen j-irili-li and allied ves-r>]-^: 01
a- lielw(!''n land and na\'al fnree-. In ea<di ease. moieo\-e)'. a ejaim to
■ j'lint i-apMiie iiia\' lie e>la Id i-liei I li\- pidot' eitliei' <il' eo-operatioii
nr ol' a---! iciai ien I /■ I. A- liclwceii two oi' more ves-els. in oi'd<'i' to
e-taMi-li a claim te joint ca|ilure l)\- \ii'1ne <if eo-opciat ion. (lie
'", Stfictlv it i< only rlwii tliut the lio-tile will net liavc tlii- cfrcot: I. a
pi-<i|,(Tty 1..M-OII11--; ■• [irizi." I^'.s jirm i>~" (\ Ww^-ji. S."i).
il>! .\- te tii<- cliV.-t ,,f ;!ii-;. -(•(■ ri,f (■/, J,,r7,ysr,, v. Mi'rir,, riijOs.
i;,i,.ri:,j, : 1 c, i{r,l,. i^-jT;. A. c. :;:ii;,
(r, Sr..- 77.. /,v-o/'//;-/,- a; c. i;r,i,. (,,, y/,,. /);/;,,,■,,/;„ (\ Do.n. .ioi>-
l.'Jy. Ihlll. 1.1:! rl ..vy.
'/'i A- wlic,-.' tli<' la-cw li:i\f [..■(■n ( I. ; Srr Th,- J, J,,, f] Dod-:. ?,\VZ):
kilicij or liavc c-iaiiiil . iiinl, a- to rc-t i'i<-rion~. t\\'- Naval J'rizc
(■, , Sr,. ri,> llr, ,.,!,. i-i |)„(|-. ar .\rt. ISfil. <. ;jo.
:;f;-J 1 ; and. .a- e, ..iznrr. 'ev a-r-i'iiP'rit. ( '^ i 'I'lic lin,,,!,, /,,,,/ /rZ/z/w 11, ,,,/>,
11. . 0',v,/;„. , ;i ( ■,■;,, M-li. :!ii- . Ilui -ai.- ; I.. \\. \ A. Jv 1-:. In!) ; .Manual of
nii--ion to a for^c not Khmwii to ln' Xaval I'rizc Law. .\rt-. 'IWl. 'IW.',.
Capture and its Incidents. 277
claiuiaiil iiiiisi prove that he cillicr a<>i>lOil in or cont riljiitcd to llio
capture altlioiiuli in the casL' ol' warships this will he jiresiimed il'
tlie elaiiiiaiii was in sit^ht ol' both ca[)tor ami prize under circum-
stances calcidated to encouran'c the one and intimidate the oth(>r(/,);
wliiisi in <i!der to esiahiish a like claim by virlui; of association, it-
must lie vhowii that the claimant, even tlioiii:h not pi'csent. was
eiiL;-aa'ed in some joint ent-eri)rise or servic(> un<ler the same imine-
diate command - as where \essels are told oil to mainlain a idc^dvade,
or to cruis(> to^x'ther on some special nervice-aiid that the capture
was incidental thereto!/). As hetween liritish and allied ships ol'
war the same princi[iles are applied, at any rate in a cas(> where the
adjudication Tails to ili(> Ihiti-h ( ourts. Wdiere a j'lint capture ol
this ]<.ind has heen (dlected. the custody ot the prize will ordijuiriiy
Itelonj^' to ihe actual capltu'. oi-, it hotli ships were actual captors,
then to the seiuor commander ( //(); whilst the riu'lit ot adjudication
will tall to the Court ot the captoi' having' custotlv. with "power to
apporti(ni the proceeds (ju tlie irsual principles!/^). It a joint cap-
ture is pro\ed. th(^ shart> ot the claimants will in o-eneral bo det(M--
luined by the law ot th(^ (Jaii't ot adjudication. In Enu'lisli law.
unless other\\ise [)ro\ ided by statutt\ each vessel shar(!s in ])roportion
to its relative .strenu'th: whilst lh(> disti'ibution Ix^ween those on
board i.s <.lotormined by lloyal Pi'oclamat ion. As between land and
sea forces, iu order to establish a claim to joint capture it must b(^
sho"wu that the claimant eitluu- rendered material assistance tliat
contributed to the capture, or that the two forces wore associated
in some common ent.er[)rise ot which the ca[)turo formed a part to).
(ii) THE DUTY OF BlUXGIXG IX FOR ADJUDICA-
TION AXD ITS QUALIFICATIOXS.
THE 'FELICITY."
[l.Sli): 2 t)ods()ii. .V(hii. Ucp. 3Sl.|
Case.: Durinp' war bet^\'eell (ireat Ihdlaiu and the United
States, tlie " Felicit \',"" tin American \-essel, was captured l»y
(/.■) 77/." Spriyl-Jf',- (\ \)(A<. 3.)()): l.S-t. ;„/,v/, ari' somewhat .•stricter, and
L". Mrlii,,;,- {^'1 Dods. 122 I ; ^Manual ai'c uii'ccti'd rather to the reward ot
of Xaval t'rize Law, .Vrt. 2.).). persona! service than favorable situa-
(0 Thr .\o,-iIstr-r>i {\ ,\cloii. 128); tion. iu virtue of wliieh elaiuis based
Till- Uiiyii-io.-iii' (3 C. i\ob. ;]'lS): Tin' on tiie ruhM)f sit^'lit or mere a.ssociatioii
CrUill'nrntr 1' (il (lulw. () ) : /." JIi,,,i- are for th(> most part rejected: .see
ctte (2 J»ods. 9(1); ,\taiiual nt' Xaval /./ A'./yo (I Dods. 42); L" Clnr',,.'!.-
Prize t.aw. .\rt. 2.51. I'.ut \\\\> will (I Dods. 43()).
not api)lv to vessels uot haviiiu- a uiili- { /// i Manual of Xaval I'rize Law,
tarv character: 7'A'> T/////- of (;•„„? \vt<. -IM. 2(;0.
//o//,' {2 ('. IJnl). 27-t . 'I'h.' priueiiiles (.-i Xaval i'rize .Vrt. ISCl, .s. ?-,?,.
U-overnini:- the distributinu nf " priz:- I -/ ) T/,r Dn,-.! ,-,•,•], t 1 C , Koh. .'j.i i ;
bouutv." a.> to whicli see the Xaval L" HpU,,,.,' (2 l)od<. 31o).
I'rize" Act, IStM, .-^s. -12--tl. and p.
C . I . L . X
178 Ct(ses (Old Oj>iulons on International Lait).
11. M.S. " i-]iidyniioji ' ^v]lil^;t on a voyage from Cadiz to Boston.
Tlio vesj^e! \va> at the lime in a. loak>- state, and there Avas con-
siderable doul)t as to whether she could hi' brought to a British
])ort Avithoul' assistance. The " Eudymion/' ni()reo\er, having-
bren detached on s])ecial sm'vice with a view to eiigagang- an enemy
\"essel of superior force, could not afford to lessen her slrengtli by
puttini;' a prize crew on board. Ihaice il was determined to
destroy the prize, and the crew Inuing bt>en transhipped, both
\'essel and cargo were accordingly bunit. It subsi'cpiently a2)}teared
that the "Felicity"' was trading under a British license («), and
was therefore strictly excm2:>t from capture r but this fact was
concealed by the master until after the ship had been set on lire.
More than four years afterwards a suit for damages was instituted
by the owJKa>: against the captors, on the ground that the vessel
was exempt from capture, and that in any case it was the duty of
the captors to bring her in for adjudication, wdien the exemption
couhl have hetai made cl(>ar. It was held, however, that in the
circumstances of the case no res])onsibility altaclicd to the ca])tors.
Judgment.] Sir W. Scott, in delivering- judgment, })oiiited out
that in strictness a captor was bound, both by the hew of his own
country and by the general law of nations ,7>\ to bring in his
]ii-ize for adjudication ; this in order that it might be ascer-
tained ^^"he1ll^M■ it was really cmMuy pr{)])ei-ty, and in order that
mistakes might not be committed by captors in the eager pursuit
of gain, by which injuslice might be done to ncailrals and national
(juarrels provoked. In the present case both vessel and cargo were
eli-ai'ly American, idlegcd by the claimants themsrlvt's to be such,
and conse(|uently enemy ])ro[)orty at the time. This Ixdng- so, no
loss was incui'red by the })roperty iiot halving been brought in for
condcmnal i(ai. The ca])tors, m(a'eover, had fully iuslili('d them-
SL-Ives, accoi-ding to the law of their owji country, for ]iot havimi-
liroua-hl il in for adjudication, by showini;- that \\\v immediate
-ervice on whicli tln-y were emj-aued would ]iot p^a-init them to
pai't with any of tlii'ii- cn-w. In this collision of duti(>s uotliino-
was Icf'i but to destroy the ve-sd: for tliey could not. consistentlv
i"i ( I i-;iiii('(l liy till' i'.riti^li Miiiistci- an (IrdiM- in ('r)iiiii-il of ISl'J.
at tlir Cimrt iil' Spain in ]ini'~iiaiii(i nf i A j J!iit see wirn. p. Isii.
Capture and its Inci.dcntH. 179
with thi'ir duly to their own country, jx-rinit enemy propertx' to
sail awiiy unniolc.-^led. Where it was doubtful whether tlie ])ro-
perty was enemy property, and it was impossible io l)ring' it in,
then no such obliii'alion arose, and the safe and proper course was
to release the vessel. In fact, where the property was Jieutral,
ihe act of desl ruction could Jiot be justilicd by the gravest
iQiportanee of such a,n act to the public service of the ca|)tor"s
own State: and to the neutral it could l)e justiHed, under any
circumstances, only by a full restitution in value. These rules
were clear in principle and well established in practice.
In the ])resent case, however, it was contended that the hostile
character was disarmed by a license ; and there appeared to bo
Jio reasoii to dispute cither the existence or authority of the license,
which had indeed been granted under circumstances highly
favourable to the vessel, ajid wlilch still availed to })rotect ,her.
These facts created a claim of a very strong character ; and the
only question that could arise was whether the claim was so
brought forward as to affect the captor Avith responsibility. If
the lattej' knew of the license, cither through its production or
from oth(H' circum>tances which onu'lit to luiAe satislied him of its
existence, then he was liable for the whole lo.^s occasioni'd. But
if the licence was no! disclosed to Jiim by tliosf> whose duty it was
to inform him, and lie had iio .-ullicieni mc;iii> to inform himself,
then he was not a wrongdoer. Frcjiii the e\'idencc in the j)resent
case it a[)peared that there A\as no such kiio\\dedge, oither express
or implied, on the part of the ca])tor<. The probable explanation
a}>pearcd to be that the ""Felicitv" was in such condition that
those on f)oard her v,"ei'e only too glad to escape to the safety and
comfoi't of the "" I'hidwmio])'' : that the\' ^\•ere kindly treated
there aiul sent home in safety : but lh;it, ou ])eina' taken to task
by their owners for their desert iuu 'jf the >hip and cargo, they
trumped up this hisl()r\' of sj)o!iat ion. At any rr.te. they held out
the sl)i]» a> an un]iroi(M-ied >hip, ;in<l ihereb\- authoiized the captor
to deal with Inn- ar- with in eic'!ii\' \r>.-el until t:he d^'sti'Uct ion Avas
Ijcyond leiiK.'dx'. For the-c rca>oii- theeaptor must be ilischare-ed
from all n.'s])on>il)ilil w and tlieel aimant (Mjndemned in costs.
180 Cases and Opiuions on IntcruKtional Lav:.
Ill view of the eouceahuciil practised by those on board,
'l^he FeVtcitu was lield to bo in the position of an uiiprotocted enemy
vessel. In the jiulg'nient it is laid down, alike as a rule of
nuiuieipal and international hnw that a ca}itor must, iii g'oneral,
bring- or send his prize into a suitable port for adjudication. This
rule probably originated in the fact that States at one time coded
only part of tlie fruits of ])rize tu the captors. But it now obtains
]>rimarily in the interest of neutrals; although it serves at tfie same
time to t'li-ure a regidar and orderly procodnre in all cases. This
])riiuary dutv is. huwe\er. subject U) some tpialificatit)n, the scope
uf whirh — as we shall s(H' when we come to deal more ])articidarly
with the ([uestiou of the destruction of neutral ])rizes — varies greatly
in (liifereut systenrs. Under the British system an eneni}' prize
nuiy be (lestroved if the captor iinds i* impracticable or danu'erous
to send her in for adjuilicatio]i. sul>ject to the removal of the crew
liud the ship's papers; but if the vessel is neutral, or if there is any
doubt as to her nationality, the only safe cottrse is to release her. for
the rea>on that if she is destroveil i f) the ca[)l(ir will, on ])roof of
her noiUral character, lie lialde to make fidl indenniity in respect
l)0tli of ship and cargo (d). ^loreover, according to the British prac-
tice, even where an enemy ship is destroyed, innocent neutral cargo
on board must be paid for (e').
(iii THE EESPONSIBILITIES OF CAPTORS.
THE ''OSTSEE."
[185(5; 5 3foo. P. C. 150.]
Case. During- war hctweeu (Jri'at Britain and Eussia, the
'■Ostsee."' a neutral vessel, \\-as ca[)tured by II.^I.S. ""Alban"
and sent in for adj'udicatioii. on a charge of ha\"ing- ^•iolated the
blockade of Oron.-tadt. In the course of tin' ju-ocoedinu-s. how-
ever, it appeared that Cronstadt was not at the time in (piestion
under bhiekade. West itutiou of ship and eariio was accdrdiiigh"
decreed : tlie only other (piestion being as to a claim for daiuag'os
and costs against the captors. lu the Court below this was re-
fused : l)ut on ap[)eal to the Judicial Committee of the Privy
Council an award of cosl.s and damaii'es aii'ainst the captors was
made, for lie reason> given in the judgamait.
{r) Wliicli is, liowcvci-, cNidoiUtv T'riirlfu ('2 Ddds. 381); T/ir Lcu-
contciiiiihiiiMl as a pos-iliilif y in Lord cu.dc (S])iid;-;. at -2:31).
StoweH's jiidL'-mriit: n-'/-,'/,],. 17<(. {,•) Sec rlii' iJritisli Monioraiulum.
{fl) Th-^ .l'!-'o, ;2 Dod^. ts-); T/,' I'arl. J'apcrs Cl<JUl» ). :\Ii.sc. No. 4. p. 9.
Capture and its Inci'tents. 181
Judgment, j In Uiu judi^'inciit oi' tlic Judicial ('oniiuillcc,
which Ava.s delivered by the lit. Won. T. Ponibcrtoii Leigh, it was
])oiiited out that in cases oi' restitution, throe courses were open to
the (Jourt: (i) The claimants might, not\\itlist,anding restitution,
be Oi'dered to pay the costs and expenses of the captors, as where
the capture had been occasioJicd by the misconduct of the V(\sscl;
or ^.'2, iTsiilution niiufit be granted without costs or ex|)onses on
either side, as where a V(>ssel, with little or no fault on h(>r part,
was nevertheless involved in susjucion which entitled the captor
to seize her; or ,,o^ the captors might ho ordered to pa}' costs and
damages to the claimants, as where the \essel was not by any act,
of her own [a) open to an\' fair ground ol suspicion, in which
case the captor seized her at his peril. These princi])les were
recognized and acted on not only in English law, but by all the
chief maritime Powers.
.\ccording to the leading French, .VuK^rican, and English
authorities it ap[)eared that in order to oxiunpt a captor from
costs and damages in cases of restitution, there must have been
some circumstances connected with s!ii]) or cargo, affording
rcasonabli- ground tor the Ix-lief that one or both, or some part
of the cargo, wer(\ or might on furthei' (Miquiry provi' to be,
lav\"ful prize. What wa> reasonabh; cause could not l)e chained in
exact t'Tins. ihit niM'ther in the texts nor in lln^ cases reftn'rcd to
did it appear either that \exatious conduct must lie proved iii
order to subject captors to costs and dauiau'es ; or that honest
mistake, e\en thouu'h occasioned by the a'-l ol; their (I-o\"(?rnnienl,
would relieve them from their liability to maki^ good to the
neutral damage sustained 1)y their conduct ; although vexatious
co]iduct, if ])roved, \\ould be no doubt a ground for subjecting
them to ^indicti^e damau'es or other excejttiona.] treatment '6).
In the case oi' error occasioned by tin: proceeding's of their own
Government, the captors mu.--t l)e taki\n to act as the agents of
their .Slate, wiiicli wa-^ ultimately I'esponsibh^ for their action; but
it was not o])en eithei' to the St-tt(> or \o individuals to allr^u'i^en'or
as an excus(j for wroiiu'dniim'. And the la.w of nations on t'lc^se
points, as sliov;n l)y the de;-isions in the .Vmeriean and European
'/.') i-it^l"-"!' '^'^l""t:ary or iuvolaiitary. ( '/) TI'i T(ryoJ I'f'fr.^ C' f^"- 1'')''- !■'>)•
^^l•2 C((-s('s and Opiiiioiiii on liitcnKitioiml Law.
Coi;rt:^, appeared to eoiiionu to tlii< \iew (Cy . If there were ex-
cept iou.- to tlu> rule tliey a})})eared to exist only iii cu.sl'S where
the eaptor^ had been in\'olved in niee que.-^tions as to the construc-
tion oi' public docunieiils or the determination of unsettled points
of law. or in cases of (lis[)Ute between the belliiierents them-
selves. ^\ here the cajHors had acted in unavoidable ignoranc<.' ;^d';,
which wa'- not here in exidence.
Applying these principles to the facts of the case before the
Court, it appeared that ina-^much as Cronstadt was not blockaded
either when the ''Ostsee' entered, or when she took on In-r cargo,
or -when ^ho quitted the |)ort. she did not fall under any one of
the conditions which were required ^c to concur in order to justify
the sending of the ship in L'or adjudication : and that there was,
therefore, no rmtsoiiable ground for su.->picioji. Xor were there
any irregularities on the part of the Aesset of such a kind as to
exempt the captors from their consequent liabilitv" to co^ts and
damages (/). Xor was the case one in Avhieli tlie Court \\'ould be
justiiied in makinii' an order against the Co\ernmenl // . for the
reason that no blame appeared to be imputable to it ; although
it was of course 0[)en to tlio executixe authoritx' to urunt >ucli
relief voluntarily if it A\as thouu'ht c^xjiedient.
An apjx'al had. indeed, been matle to the Court to "Xercisi' its
disca'ction in favour of the captors. Ihit when once a ca^e has
been brought withiji a particular rule, it seemed ib.at such dis-
creti(>ji was at an end. Xor. ewn it the Court \\a> at Iib(a1\ to
relax settled rules on its own notions of justice and policx . \\ ;i< it
prepared to do >o iji tb.e proent ca^-e. The law to b- appliiul in
such cas(>s was not conhned to Urit ish captor> but ap|)lie(l to
tho.-c oi" all nation> ; and no c(ainti'y could be permilted to estab-
lish aiL exceptional j'ule in its own faxour or in laNdur ol an\'
partitailar <'la>.- of Jts own ,-ubjrcts. \\\ \\\v law oi ii;itinn> ioreioai
deca-io]i< were entitled to the same weight a< tliose (d' tlie countrv
(' j lif't'crciicc \\:is liiail'.' (o 'J'lic ((' ) J!y tlic iiist ruci iuiis issued tu tlie
CIic nil' I'lj li' l^'j {'1 t'lMinli. lij : Tin cu!miiaii(ici's cU' 11. M. .sliij)--.
Actio, I (Jl i)iiils. -Is ) : and '/'"/•' lii'l'Juli (J > \arious iiiinur |iuiiits arc also
(3 (.'. JIub. 'io.j;. dealt wiiii.
(jl) The I'.rt.,., \ (. l;,,l,. a:j): ,n) Ti' /.,.rl.,„.n „ (.-, C. Jiol).
T)ir Ly,i<' (Iv.iw. lao,: 77.' ./'./,,. , 'J 1 .V2 . : "I'i.r ,s,',, .!,■,,,, .\ r].,,,,, 'vt.'O (I
J)oii^. :!(;:J): Tl.r Mr,./.,, d (. i;,,!,. 1 ia--. -JC.:);.
J7'Jj.
Capture (DkI il.s InchientH. 183
in which the Prize Trihuiial sat. Aiuerieu hud ado[)ted almost
all her [M'inci[dos of })rizo law i'roiu the English Courts ; and in
tlie latter no authorities were cited with i^-rcater respect, in cases
to wliich they wore ai)[)licable, tha.n those of the distinguislu'd
jurists of France and America. WhatcAcr was held in J^higlandto
justify or excuse an ollicer of the British navy, would he held by
the ti'ibunalN ol" an\' otliei' courts to justify or excuse captors of
their own nation. By the usage ol. ail countries, captors liad a
great interest in increasing the nund)er of prizes. The tempta-
tion to send in ships for adjudication was sufficiently strong.
Where, therel'oi'e, a captor had, as in the })resent case, brought in
a vessel without any gi'ound for susjucion, and had no excuse to
offer except that he had done wrong untler a mistake, it was not
too much to sa\' that he must ma.ke good in temperate damages
the injur}" which lu^ had occasioned Ui . .
Tliis ease serves, geiuMally. to illu<trato bolh the respoii^iljilitics
of (■a[)l(.)rs and the [xjsitiun and fnucfions ol' Pi'ize (.'ourts ( <!).
Mure particuhuiy. it eiiiiiiciates soiue inip(n'taiit rules Avith re-
spect to the coiidilioiis under wiiick a suspecterl vessel may ho
sent ill fi.)r ad judical imi. and lh<> riu'ht to conipeusation iu cases
wliere a ca|)Iui'e is nul upheld l)y the Prize (_'ourt. On tJic latter
puini. the rule is laid down ihat where a l)(dh^'erent seizes a vessel
iniprnperh' and without reasonahh> cause. <n-(Mi though in honest
error (dther on his j)arl or imi that ot liis (.m)\ cniinent . the vessel not
licinu' open to snspicion ihrouuh any act ot her own. th(> captor will
be responsilde in (ianiau'cs. And this ruh_> is ih»w allirined in siU)-
siance 1>\" the Decdaration of [.( nidoii i /,• ) . Xor. tindei' the Ih'itish
piaciicc. is an\' ([uaHlical ion ol' this rub' admitted sa\'e in very ex-
ceptional ca<es(/i. In b.nuil^h law it is also pi'ovided 1)\' statute
thai on prooj' ot an\' oll'ence ha\inu' Keen connihtted l>y a ca[)tor,
whether au'ain-t the law ol' nations or Huinicipal law or any ree'u-
lat ion duly i-sned therenndei'. the prize may. e\ en thou eh condemned,
be ie-erved_ I'or the Crown in--t(\u! ol' enuring for the Ixnielit of the
V aptoi'-. ( ))i\.
{ r \ The ;i;ii(iinit i)f (■()-:!< 1111(1 (/■) Sec Art. (it; i, ■>,/'. p. 4s:).
(tnii:il.:-e< tuuild te lie illl" W,l< lliti- ( /' See. hv \vn\- (if example, Thr
m.-itely jiaid liy the llrili^h Ceverii- l;.ls,>/ (\ (''. {{oh. <i:! ; yV-e ./"A,:
iiieiit.' (12 I)(m1>. .'Joli): anil 77--' }f, ,,fi,,
l/i Althoiiu-li the lattcM' (|iie-tiell i< (1 ('. K'nli. 179).
n-er\e<l for after (■cn-iileratiun : i^,,,) Xa\al Prize Act. ISdl, s. 37.
;,'/,", p. lyo.
184 ('as€^ and Opinions on Inij'rnational Law.
IIexekai. Xotks. — Wlio mail inal:e Caplare-'i! — Captures on tlio
sea can lie nuule oiih" hv v('.<s(;ls (lul\- cniiiiiiissioued ior that jnirpo.se
I)}' tile' State: ami .-ucli comuiissifnis can now i^e issued only to \essel3
which are under tlie direct control and r(j-[)oiisil)ility of llie State,
and whicli al>o bear tiie outward niarivs altachin^i' to the ])uljlic
charactei' ( >/ ). Foi' a pi-ivato vess(d to attack o\en an enemy, without
a. conunis>ion, is reii'ai'ded In' sfjuie as piratical i o ) : ahjiouu'h cjthers
re^'ard it as lawful so far as an eneni\- is conceriied i p). l^oth estab-
lished ])]ini-i))lcs and existinu- analfiiiics i ^/ i sanc'tion the \i(>w that
such a procccilin^' would now cinistitu'e a. violalimi ol' the laws of war,
which wciulil expose th(i (jifenders to jiiinishincnt -injilar to that in-
ilictcd on uHipiahiied combatants in lainl warfare ( r i. it is. however,
always o}/cn to a pidvate \-esscd to I'csist attack and to captm-e her
assailant if she can (.si. in J-hiii'lish law it is also permi-siblo for
suljjec-ts, ex'cn without a eommi-siiju. to >"izc proj)ert\' Ijclonii'iiiU' to
an enemy finind in Ijiitish ports or hai'b'.aiis i / i : and sm-h -cizure.s
have frequenth- been made, althouu'h li'cni'ralh' cuily !;\" customs
<jtfic-ers i /; i. ihit in al! such ca^es, tho pi'o])ert\ >cizod will not enure
as pri/c. but Avill belcm^- to the Ci'own as a ^Iroif of Admu'aity ( .y; ).
.\nd the same I'idc a.])])lies M) ca))tui'('s mndc ciihcr fi'om thc' land or
Ijy a land force i, 71. X('\('i-thele>s, h non-c'cimmis.-iijncd cajjtor is
^uljjf'ct to tlie .same liabilities as a reu'idar captor (,i'i.
Foyers hi refjif/oti to Capture. — The connnissioned \esscls of a
beJlieereni a.re inve-t(.'<l with a rie-ht of c;iptuio as re^-ards all ojjeniy
vessels fouiui on the high sea or wdthin the t(ni'ito]'ial \\at('rs of cither
bclliiierent ; and ahij ^vith a riu'ht of vi~^it and soai'ch, within the same
limit-. o\ci' n;'ulral or national \-c-s.','l-. and a con.-eipicnt liiilit of
detention mi I'easijimble g'l'onmis of su.-picli;n. Knem\' wai'-hips are
always iPo snbj<,'ct of atla'k, but if ca|iiure:l ihe\- liecu.me ai i.mi-e the
] property <if the ( ,'rown and are nut t i-eateil a- prize ; iiur i- t iieii- capt ure
subjoc't to a'i judicut ion b\' the ('unHs. Provi^iim i^. h')\\."\ej'. mai.lo
bv statute foi' ('nalJlin^■ the (.'rown to i^i-aiit " pia'ze bmintx'" to the
oliicfM'S aiiil c)'<rw of any of II. M. ship- of war ,a- a,"e ai-riiall\- ])resont
at the t.ddne' oi- destiaiction of en(.'m\' wai'ships 1 // i. !-a!em\- ])ri\"atc
\('--e!,- may be atlcj-ked if thev iefii,-e 10 .-ni.imit al'lei' nun', e. And
the -aiiie applies to neutral x'essej- which <iI)<m' J-e-i-'a ncc \:, \l<\t
and s(.,ii-c]i. iiv ^ith(M'\\i-e tid'cibh- i)p])ose iJn' lawl'ul exeici-(> n\' belli-
'_;-erent i-ii^ht- ' /; ).
! is'l 'nil' ><'iiii-h. - In exerc-i-ij|M' l!ie im^-ht i»l' xisii and s(;arch,
(r) .S"/"". ]i. lol ; hut .-".■■ al<u .■."/"'■■. II. iu). and pj). W,. l^S.
II. (■-). '",'/-". (..) S.I,,,". \,. ll^S n. •„.;.
(■'. 1 Jpprnliciiii. ii. -I-IV,, it) Sec I'liill. iii. (iS.').
(,-, if'allcck. ii. :;(;;; aniioaa-h tliis (". Tl-'' .lnl,„,,,,,i /;„,,/:-. 'Spiiiks,
virv,- is .adiiiitl'dlv (ici'i'.ci ti-oai pi-ac- 1 1^ ; /.-• l:'..-',.r rl C. 1!,,!,. .\''l ; .
rice- ii'iw aiiandMii. d : '■''. WliraToii ' .■■ j Tli" Xa \-;i I I 'riz;- .\ct . 1 Mi I . ~ . :!<).
tOaaa „. -;./i. 'v) '/■/"• I; , :,, .-j,,, I, .J c. i;,,|,. a27,_
' ij , Tlio-e ]-rlati'.i' ta, \\\,- ,a 1 1. ill ■ ii iii i -. '','!>. I\ir:, .Spin!,-, ss ,
■ a' i.rivana.i-iii-. aial l!a' a i.a!'.ii-jf-- m' ^jTla- Xaval I'riz" Act . J 8ii t, s. J2.
land war: Hall. Wl',. i, ) l,.i,,i. ],. -IsO.
I . ) Till (-".0 'I- : St. wart, :;12, iVid;:
Capture and its Incidents. 185
[\iv visitiiip,- slii]) imisi lioist hci' eolour.s and noufy the otlior voSvScL
to briii!^- to, citliei' by liailiag' Jior or by liriiio- t\v(j blaiiJc g'un.s, and
liven, ir noeo^sary, a. shot across her b(Mvs(^r:'). An olfieer is ihon
svn\ on l.joai'd, wlio iu tlio iirst instance examines the ship's papers,
wliich li-onerally serve to dischjse the character of the vessel, carg-o
anrl \()yagc ( (/j; but. it nec(>ssary, tlic visiting oliicer Jnav Uicreafter
])rocoed to a search ot both vessel and carg-tt, and niay also make
(Mi([iiir\ of the master and crinv. Hoth ^■isitation and seai'ch must l)e
conducted iu ;i. manner as litth; vexatious as possible. It' it ap])ears
that the vessel is not liable to ;letentioii, she is allowed to ])roceed on
h(!i' voyage: the i'act ot \isitation Jiaxing Iirst been entered' in the log
l)ook. It, on the other hand, the vo<<(d proves to bo an enemy
A(>ss(d, oi' it. being neutral, there is probable cause for believing
that eitluM' vessel or cai'go (.)r both are liable to condemnation, then,
save in the exceptioniil case of ransom (ci. possession is taken by
the captor. This may be done eillun' by putting a ])rizc master and
crow on >)oard, or by recpiiring the \'0-sol to lower her Hag and to
steer according to orders. After taking ])ossession, the seizure of
the vessel as between captor and ])rize is com])lcte, and if condem-
nation i^hould ultimately follow, the divesting of tlio title of the
original owniu's will relate back to the seizure (f).
(.'uurses open to Captor: (i.) Sendhtfj in for Adjudication. —
After a ca])turo has been elfected, there are in the main, and apart
from certain. excc})tional ■|)iT:)ceedings now authorized l)v Conven-
tion (//). throe courses (jpen to the ca])t(n'. In general it is, as we
have soon, his duty to send the ])rize into a iiroper port for adjudi-
cation without uuroa^oivable delay (7«). For this pur))0se the ship's
]>a])ers nmst be secured iind verified, and all necossarv steps taken
to siMjui'o tlu^ safety of the cargo. Those on board nmst also be
Ireatcil with humanity, and Avitli such consideration as circumstances
pormil . Such of the ollicers and crew as may be irccossary as Avit-
nosscs should be sent with the vessel (m. Tin: ])ort tu which, the
prize is scuit shouhl be a port of the captor's owji or an allied
country, although under special circumstan(''(\s the Court Avill con-
(.lemn a ])riz(^ lying in a neutral port, and nlhuv it to be sold there (7j).
It shoidd als(.) bo the nearest port that is suitahle for the purpo.se,
liaviiig r(^g'ard. ])riuiarily. to the exiu'iMicios of the |ird)lic service,
and next to the interests of all parties concerned, includino- Jiorh
(c) -Afamiai cf Xaval Prize .Law, <i) ^v(- A.c'lr.-s.'n v. M/irlr,i MHOS,
Art.':200. .V. ('. :;:jl): aiuL on tin- suhjcct aaaic-
('/) 'this is tli(.' i)rarai('(^ Followed hy rally, liall, 'iTi. aaul .Maiuial of Xava.l
(ireat llritnin aiul most other raari- Pi'ize l.aw. cc. 1() and 17.
time l\)\\"(M's: hut some i'owers. such { (/ ) Si>e the 1 >(>clai'arioi) of t.ondoii,
as ( iermany .lad l)(aimark. re<[ui I'c the Arts, tt, 17: and ]>. 4S7-8. iiii/c
master of ihi- merehaut ve.-sel to ]>ro-- (/,) TJ,,- Pmrocl: , -t C. Roh. IS.")),
eeed with the <]ii[)'s |)a|)cr< (e.i Ijna.rd ') Ser' .\!annal of Xaval i'l'ize
tiie (a-ai-ci-: .<ee Hall. 7:)l n. :! : and, Law. .Vrts. l:\s;!- i^SS.
on the sul>j("(a- u'encrallv. Hail. 7:J0 ( /.■ ) T!,r I'nJJ:,/ -.Spink^. ."i7 . The
'■;' ^■■'/.,' and -(■ol. i. 27.1. cai'Li'o or any ]):!rt id' it, if nut in a
(r) /, /',/', p. Is7. cuTidition for keepini:'. may alsi) he
186 Cases and Opinions: on I nlirrnatinnul Lov.
the (iwiiers I /) and llu' cai)!!!!-- tlieiusolv(_'< i /// i. Prd^xjr provision
niusT al-M lie iiiado I'm- the iia\ ii^-aiii in of the prize ii\. ()n arrival
at thr ])urt of adjudicat ii m Aw must ln' delivcri'd li\' the ]jrize
master into the i-u-ln l\- nf ihe iuar-hal of the djurt. or lailiiii' liim.
the piiiicipai otlicer of ( 'ii-~toiir- ■ r; ). uhiKt thi' ship'- [lapers must
be handed iu tj i thf rc^'i-ti y of tlie ('nurt /- i. Tliercafter lh<.' eaptor
uur-t priicccd to adjinlii/at ii m with all lea.-' lualilc cxiMMlitii m, failing
whii-h a, moiution t(_i ])ioce<'d may i-suf auaiiist him i (^ •.
<ii.i Drstru't'oit. In e'U'tain cirrumstance.s. ho^vever, tlie captor
ma\' de-tru\- thi' p)ri/.e. Alx-i irsliiiu' t't the Driti-h jn'aetice. this, as
wo liav<.' .-cen. is ijul}' [)i'rmi>-il)le m the ci-e of eni'ni\' \'e-~td-; and
tlit'ii ojily if either the v<'--el herself is not in a lit (/iindition to he
sfut intii an\' piu't fur a^ljudieation. nr the capten; is unalde t'j spare
a pri/o rri'w to nu\ii:ate herir. In either iif the-e cases he may
d('.-tii)\ lier. afp'r renidviuL;' tie' crew, the -lii[i s papers. ,ind suili
of tho eaa-Li'ii a- may ho practicabh' : the-o liciii',;' th(_'n f'awarded.
together witiL [iro]ier atte-tation> df the shijis (diameter and the
rea-'jn- for her di.'slrueti'm. to the Prize C'lurt > . l!ut iln' r^.'-lric-
liiins im]iM-ed und«.'r the 15riti>h praoiioe are fjr frmn lioiii'j uru\er-
.-ally re<-Moiji/<>,p Jhc Idnted States. duriuLi' ihr wiuuf 1 8 lii. ad' ipie'd
the piilie\ i)f de-ti' >\ inu aU enem\" priz^'-. un! '-- thi-ro \\a- -'ime
rea-on iVu- exceptiunal trealmeni. A -imihii' |i'ih'c\ v/a- firllnwed
hv ihi' Siiudn'rn ( ' mfcdoraey diirin:^- ih:' Amoiiriu '-iNil war;
aldj'iiiuh in thi- ci-e with the excuse that there wi're H'l iiiiriMnal
p' rt- a\ailaMe f.ir da' rrcopii'm nf lii.'ir iirizo- / . And a like
polic\ wa- followed li\- liii--ia iu tlio wai- of P.m)|-.V, tie' d''-tiu(;-
ti'jn iu thi- ca-i' licin^' extonded \:\ neutial prizi'-. In tie' futuie.
JU' U'<'. iv:'r. the de-trne;i'in nf ru-'mx' \'i'--.'h. and e\-.'n nf n''uM'al
ve--el- williin \\\" iiermi--iiil:' lindt,-. i- lik'"l\- t-.' he l:irL;vl\- i^e-Mii'd
to h\- Stall'- lia\anL:' H" li'iim' p^ri- I'cadih" a\'ailahle i'\v \\v' n'ci.'pii'.n
of ]ii izi'-. e-|)eiiall\' w lien neni lal p-ai- aro rln-ril ic de'm i /' :. 'idio
i|Mi'-ti'in of the de-ii'urtiMU of iLi'Uti'al juizf-. oi'. in c'liain i-iri-em-
>tani-o-. of tht'i;- car',;.!, will ha doall with hi''ra!'i"r > ./ .
/.. hV.,'. .. 17.
i. ic'i : /■/. //•."■.,„^ . -i C. f;,,l,.
.-iilih i-xi'ii pi-iur ti> :i(l i'aihc^ui'iii :
:\[umial af .\nv;tl I'riz'' Law. .\vx. "2S!l
■) Tlli- ill \!i'W nf th'' jM)~~iii!!il V -11 .
(if ri'^tituri'iii. ( r 'I' h' !'■ /;.;.e/ >,-,,, . .
I,,., /■;- //";//.. 0,.-/,,, ., ,-,(■. I?,,!,. '.. .M-niu,-il ..f \;ivi,l I'riz.' i.aw.
1 l:; : 77- /,-.' • :> r . I;,,!,. :J7:J : 77- .\rr-. :iii:;. :;n|.
//''-/.;,.',/'.,- .; C. |;.,1,, ;a i^Ts.: i/ llali, l.V].
.Manual .a' \a\al I'ri/.- Law. .\ia.^. '. 'I'll" IL C. .\.,. 1 :; ..f l',al7,
■J7s. ■J7'-'. \s-|al-t in -■"■acra! I'Xi-! ini niu' i.ia'zf.-
' /, L'lia iitlaTwi-ia an<i if ci.ii- frnii! n'liti'al p-irt- -i'.' Ai't-. '_' 1. 'I'l ) .
(iciiiiia; i'pii -li'iufl ii'- r'';'i-'''L till- iii'\ "I't iii-li-~-. wiili till- iilii i-r iif ri'ii-
(-ajit'if. I--.I-II liaaijli till- -.-i/airi- \-.a- il'-riiiL:' i li--t i-m-; iwii j.--^ I la-'iiii-ina
wa rraiitaldi-. v.i!! In- |-.-- p' ni^i lil<- i'lV i-in |in\\iT^ in-iitrai Stal-'- in jM-riiiit
;iliv |i'-- atti-iinea'al. - :>> i;i- ihfaalt: )iri/i-< tn In- il.-pi .-i e-.| tia-i-.-. )i.-!iili!iL;
Jirr \l,,;., :;<', Loll, i-'i : 77-- .!/',;- aiflialii-aii-ii. ahiiM'-:^-!, -II li lii-.ii.i-Mi.n
i\ (7 i.'i.'i. :i!s . i- \vIio!l\- (Ii- -i-i-tiMiiar\- : -:-.■ .\!-t. i^:7
- ■, .\a\al I'n/..- A--t. ls(,|. -. !<;. [, S,-- 1.11. i>"). 1.7. .,■,-•.
('(i/)l(irr ((11(1 ils I iicidciiLs. 1(S7
(iii.i h'ditsoiK . In collie .systems it is also ()[)eii to a captor to
it'k'u.^o tlir j)i'iz(' on the tci'nis of runsoiu. Hitt iiiider tlio British
>\stein the li'iamiiiu' (if ritiisoiu is now pruhibited except in suck
ca-fs as may lie s|)i'citiei.l liy Older in Council ( //). Tlie procedure
to be I'uliowcd in ca-'es where ransom is permitted has already bceu
dL'>cribed t ; I. Wlien: j'an~-om has been granted, and the captor is
himsell' taken before he has deposited the ransom bill and the host^i<^'e,
the [ui/e will be exonerat^ed i r/ i .
2'ltc l.idhilit ic-^ of Cuitlnrs. The liritish piaetict.' with I'esjjeei to
die liabilities and res|ion<ibililie- of c:ipior.> is uinni<l;dcably s:.'vere;
allhoiiL;li often repre-enled b\- foi-ei^-u wriler> as beariuu' Jiarslily
OIL neutrals. A captor is reijuired t(.) exercise his bellig'crent
riu'hls with di-~ciet ion a> well as zeal, and lo observe the .strictest
propriety of coiiduct towaitk tho^e with whom he i-- ijronu'ht in
contact (/>). If he detain- a xc-sel without [)robable cause, la- will,
a- we ha\(' seen, be held responsible in damau'es and costs. ev(ni in
cases of iionesi mistake le-. Kven if there was probable (uuise f(jr
the (lett'ution. he may. in the e\'ent of resiirution Ixdni;' decreed, bo
nuuie liable loi' any loss ur damaue ai'isinu' from ]ns d(>faidt or that
of hi- .subor<l i nate- I ^/ . allliouL;h not for oihei' 1oss(\si^m. Jn each
case the liabilii\- i- that of the conunander of th(> \esse| ehecting-
the capture, aides- he acteil in the matter undei' the (jxpress direc-
tion of a superior wlio-e ordei's he was bound to eib(>v(/'i. E\'en
if the captured \es-)>l ,-hoidd be coudenuied as iawfid prize, the
captors iiia\' be depri\('d of all inteic-t therein if found u'lnltA' by
the Prize ("oni1 of an oliencc either au'ainst the Jaw of nations or
their own nmnicipal lawi/y*. I'dnallw certain acts, such as not
-endinu' in all pajKMs found on board a prize, taking;' mone\ or
elfects fi'om a piizc befoii' hei- condemnation, ill-usinu' persons
on board, breaking bidk on board with a \ iew to endH>zzlcment,
actini;' in cullusirni with the eiiemx. oi' unlawfnily agreeinu' to ransom
a prize, are made penal b\ -tatulei/n.
(//) Sec the Naval J'l'i/.c A<;, Isiii. (r) Ihr Mnhr ; : j C. Koh. VIS));
>. \:,: ami the Xaval I'riz- IHll ^A T hr M „ ,;„ nnd T hr V ,,,.>■ J ,,l,„„ „„ '(J,
11)10, .s, 1(1. ('. luili. :]-lS). wlicrr the iii-epciTy wa.s
(r ) Siijii". \). Si. stiil(>ii fi'Diii a warclioiisc in wliicli it
(>') iiallcck, ii. .VJl: Hall, liil >! liaW luni pi'eiHM'ly dcpo-itrd liy the
sr,,, capn.r.
(A) .Manila! di' Na\al i'li/.i' Law. i '' i .Manual nt' Na\al I'ri/.c L,a\v,
.\rts. 1:5. 1 1. An. ■!■]:.
(,., Th, (>si.. r ■^'■, ,,■"). ! " : Thr \a\al I'rizc Act, iSfit. s. :-!7-
( '/; .Mannal of \a\al I'ri/.c Law. { i, . Thr Xaw Di-ci pli iir Act. Isiid,
Art. 111. -s. .".s \-l.
iss Cases iUhl Opiaioiis on Liternnfional Law.
THE yATl'HE AM) FrycTIOy^s OF PRIZE COVETS.
THE "FOX."
I 1811; EchvanN. 311.]
Case. This ^va.s iho case of -an .Vniericaii vessel which had been
taken hy the British, "whilst on a voyage fuoni Boston to
Cherbouro'. On the part of the captors condenniatlon of both
ship and cai'iio was souu'ht, by virtue of certain Orders in Council.
Avhicli Iiad Ijeen issui^d by the J-]i-itish Ooverjinient. prohibitino-
intercourse with France a). On belialf of the owners it was
claimed that the Order.- in Council had lapsed owing to the revo-
cation ])y the enemy of the measures tipon which the^' were pro-
fessedly founded : and also that, even if they wer<^ still in
operation, l)oth vessel and cargo ought on grounds of ecjuity to
be exempted from their penal effect. I]i the result it Avas held
that the (Jrders in Council were still operative: and that inas-
much as tlie case came within tlicir ternjs both ship and cargo
nuist be condemned.
Judgment. Sir W. Scott, in the course of liis judgment, took
occasion to dt'al with the position occupied by Prize Courts in
international law. .As to this he observed that the ijuestion had
been raised as to what would l)e the duty of the Court if the
Orders i]i Council pro^ ed to l)e rejnionanl \o the law of nations.
In fact, these Orders were not in the circumstances. :tnd as
measure.^ of retaliation, to bi.^ so regarded. Xevertheh.-ss, and
to corrrct any possible mi.-a[)]U'e])ension. lie desired to state it
a.- thi' rule cd' the Court, that it Avas liound to adiuini.-ter tlio
!a^^' oi' nations t(j tlie sultji.'Cts of othi-r count rirs in tlie \-arious
re]ati(jn- in A^hicli the\- mioht l)ii |)laced towards this country
and it- (■o\ crninent . This was wliat other c()untri(~> Jiad a riglit
") i!y ;[ (l.'cir.' 1)1' lMi(). kiiDwii ,i.i till.' j!riti.-li ( ^overiunent. l)y Orders in
till' ll'-!-liii liciTcc. ai,il a fui-rlicr Cnuiiril. i-siiwl in ISO? ami Js(J9, de-
dici'fi' of is(i7. l^nnwii a< the Milan dared all ])lace,< situatetl citlier iu the
I Irci'ci'. \a|i(ilcuii had ch'chired all ti'rritory of .l-'i'aiicc or her allies or
r>riti.-li ('(il(.iii(.',< to !,i. ill a stare of Stares that had subnntted to her rule
liiurkadc. and had int'M'iliit'il all t(j l)e under tie' sanie re<tri(;tions as if
!ni"]-i-oui'~" \'.ith rlii'iii I'll t;.i' pai'r of lihjekaded, with all eoiisequent penal-
neutral States. JJv wav of rrtaliation, ties on intereourse.
Pri^c Courts. 181)
to doinaud i'or thoir siibjrct.'^, and to coinplaiii iL' tli('\' rotoixofl
it not. That law constituted the unwritten law ol' the Court:
and was eNidenced hy the decisions, and collected i'roni the common,
usage ol' chilized Stales. It was true tliat by the Constitution
the Ivini}; in Counc'il possessed certain legislative rights over the
Court, and hatl power to issue order.s and instructions •which it
was hound to obey. That constituted the wi-ilten law ol the
Court. The two [)r()posit ions, that the Ccnirt ^\•as bound to
administer the law ol nations, and that it was bound to enforce
the King's Order.s in Council, were not inconsistent with each
other, i'or the rc>ason that such orders and instructions were pre-
sumed to conform under the g-i\'en cir(M.imstances, and as expe-
rience' sho'wed g'enerall\' did coniorm, to the [)rinci[)les of the
unwritten law. They w ei'e either directory a[)plica,tions of tho.sc
principles or po.siti\e regulations consistent with them, but pre-
scribing their more particular a})plication. ^Vs to any possible
conflict, in the event of such directions and regulations contrii-
vening the law of nations, it would be indecorous to [)resume that
such an emergency Avould arise. With respect to the orders and
instructions then in question, these, as measures of retaliation,
appeared to be justiliable under the law of nations. They must,
moreover, bo regarded as still operative, on the g-round that the
measures of the Frencli Goverinnent on v\diich they were founded
were still unrevoked. Xor were there any circumstances in the
present case, arising out of the conduct of the British Govern-
ment, on which any equitable claim could be founded.
According to the view taken in the judgnionl. tiie Orders
in Council issued by llu> British (Joverninont (7; ) wore hold to
1)0 justiiied as nlt.Msure-^ i.ii retaliation. In principle, of criurso.
a wroiiu' (lone to niMitrals l)y one bolligorent ciunot jnstity the
conmiission of a similar wronii' liy tlio other; hut the reasoning-
appears tu 1)0 that it: jieutral States acquiesce in or tail to take active
Slops to redress an undue extension of ItcUigorent right on the part
of ouo of the States at wai'. which not only projudicos neutrals but
also places the other btdliLiX'rent at grave disadvantage, then the
latter has no alternative hut to resort to measures of retaliation (c').
(/y) X"/-,v... p. 188,11. ("). t'nited State's, whilst the British
((:■) As a matter of fact, tiiese Onh'rs fornu'd one of tlu> causes wliieh
lueasui'es wei-e tlie sul);ect ot aftiv(> led to tlie war of ISl'2: se<? Moori'
protest and oven retaliation by the IJi^^est. vii. 79S r( sc/.
l!»0 Cases and Opinions on International Laiv.
Tlit> pait of the jiiJyiiuMH. lio\vover. wliicli most (/oiiconis us here,
is that which rehiK's tu the interiiatiuual (/haiaeter and functions
of Court- (if Prize. Such Courts, it Avas said in eifoct, are, from the
very jiature of the questions Avith -whicli tliev deah bound to ad-
minister a eoiunion law of nations; and this Avitli a due re<:-ard to the
rights C)f alL irresjiective of nationality. And the same view has
been fi'tMjucntiy assei'tod in other cases. So. ie. TJic Maria (1 C. Eob.
at o-jtJ'. tlie same h-arned jud<i-e i-emarked that it was las duty, not to
didiver cicca-ional and shifting- opinions to .serve present purposes
of particular jiatioiud iiuere^t, but to administer Avith indifference
that justice which the hiw of nations liolds out Avithotit distinction
to independent States, wliether neutral or belligerent; and to make
no pretension on the part of one belligerent which would not be
conceded to the other in the like circumstances u/i. In The Fox,
the cjuostion of what the dtity of the Court would be, in the event of the
municipal law contravening the law of nations, is indeed dismissed,
on the assumption that sttch a conflict was not likely to occur. But
in English law .--tKdi Cottrts, even though they will always seek
to ptit stich a construction on tlie municipal law or regulations made
thereunder as will bring thom into harmony with the law of nations,
would, in the last resort, and notwithstanding some dicta to the con-
trary that are to be foitnd in the cases i e l tmdoubtedly Ijo bound by
the clearly expressed will of Parliament, as the sovereiy-n autlio-
rity if). And the same wotild also apply in other systems.
Great Britain, uidike some other maritime Powers, has no oliiidal
Code of Prize Law or Xaval War ('ode i c/ ^ The ]>rize system
depends in llie main on the Xaval Prize Act. lS(;4^/n. the Pidze
Courts Act. 1804 (/'. and various Ord(>rs in Council i-sued there-
under: whilst for the rest tlie law ap[)liod is judiciary law. winch
]iur]iorts to be based on and to conform to the law of natinn.s.
AViih res])ect to the coustitniion and juri-dictiou of Prize Courts,
the High Cotirt of Admiralty i A'l is ijivested with a general juris-
diction in cases of prize, which is exercisealde either in the first
instance or liy Avay of appeal from other Courts. As regards British
dominions and dependencies, it w'as formerly the practice, on the
outbreak of w-ar. to issue commissions to Courts of Vice-Admiralty
''/; Sir also 77" 7,Vv', /■/.,•,/'(! C. ]JoI). (li-]iutc, di>iiiod to Iiave an dtiicial
•341): 77"- 0>)s,r ([,. I,s2. s,!,,,-"^. autlicritv. aiul lias sinco liorn witli-
(, . Sec 'n.r Mar'.n \ C. |{ol). at (Irawo. 'altliou-li it lias ,<till an cvi-
:j.')ii ; 7/.' I'ny t i:(|\v. at lll^ : 77"- (l<Miriarv value A- to the need of such
l!<":r..„ (,i c. i;,,l,, at :]ls. .34*1.: a end,-.' ,.,.,• Holland, r.cttcrs on War
and. a- rci.'aMl- orln-i' Cnurt-. 7'/"/"'' and Xmtralitv. 'iit it s,-q.
V. y;."'/, c; iiuit. 117> ; n,,,f].j;,id 1 1. ■ 27 \ i^s Vi.-t. c. -j.',.
V. r/,;.'", ' I i;iiiT. ■juKi . ,; .",7 ,v ,vs \\:-r . c. :j<). Thoro arr-
<' S.-.' /,■,„. V. /{,>/,, ,\.. M. 2 al-o (,r!ici' -^tatntc^. sucli a< thr Xaval
i-;x. I), at l(;<i : and aKo 7'/" il-„/.:.,i/- |)i-,iti!inr Act. lS(i(;. and tIio Ad-
/•'■"' /''y;^'' ' - <■- I''"''- "" ■ ndrahy ConiT A-t. isi;]. which toucli
' '/ 'Idc .Manual nf \a\al Tri/.c (,n niaTt(M-< of ])rizi'.
haw. i-iicd in l^^s. alrlaiuLih jiuh- ( /• Xdw tin- J'. 1). and A. JJiv. of
lidii'd undfi- till' dii-i''-ii..u lit tlio Ad- tin- iJ i^'h ( '.uirt.
miralf V, v.a-. iii tju' /; - .,7, .-,,■//,
Prize Courts. 191
otaMisliod iliore, ciuthuii/.ijig' tlioiu to deal with iiiatlei'.s ul' prize.
JSiit >iicli (•(numissiuJis iiia\' jkmv Iju i.s.siied in time ol' peace, alllioug'li
tliev lake ellect only mi tlu.' issue ul' a proelaiiiatiou by the (Jrowu
v\i llie uiitljieak (li wari/i. Tliey may now ho issued oitlier to
\'ue-Adiuiralty t'ouils as oi old ( nt), or to Colonial Courts ol.' Adnu-
rahy i /; - : with a riu'lit of aj)peal in either case lo tin? lli<i'h (,ourt of
Admiralty. There is a further appeal troni the lli^-h Court itself
to the dinlieial Coninutt-ee of the Trivy C'lmncil; such appeal hoiiig-
as of right in cases of linal decree, and by leave of the C(nirt in other
ca<t>s(0). 'i'he High Court is onlpo^vel•ed to enforce any decrees
or orders eitlier of the lower Courts or of the Judicial Cuniinitteo in
prize cases; whilst tlie lower Courts are also rec^uired to enforce all
orders and decrees of the higher Courts {p). The procedure in
prize cases is regulated in part by the Naval Prize Act, 18G4 (g),
and in part by general orders and rules issued either under that
Act (/•; or the Prize (^'oiirts Act. 18!J4 [S).
Gexekal Xotes. — Tlic yulare and Fimctions of Prize Courts. —
All niaritime captures must now be adjudicated on by a competent
Court, and for this ])urpo<e Piize Courts are established in each
of the belligerent States. TJie functions of such Courts are, shortly,
lo cncpiire into cases of maritime ca[)ture, to decree condemnation
where the property cajitured ])i'o\es to l)e lawfid prize; to awai'd
restitution wliere it is not. witli such compensation as may appear
just: and incidentally to piotect. the interest oi all against rapine
and disorder. They ori-upy an important j)lace in the international
system, for the reason that \\n'y haye to ])a'^s upon the interests both
of belliuerents and iieulral-. and that the yalue of such interests is
often large, whilst, so far. there ha- been no a[)peal to any external
tribunal. The constituticnL of such Courts is solely a Cjuestion of
municipal la^v, and Aarios greatly in dilferent systems. In Great
P)ritain and tlio United States they are ahyays presided over by
judges having judicial ti'aining; luit in other countries they often
coni])rise or are <}\Q\\ compo-ed of ollicials. and are, indeed, some-
times rather in the natui'c of adinini-tratiyo than legal tribunals,
whiNt similar dilference- prexail with respect lo ])rocedure (i* ). It
i- now [)ropo<(Ml to -u|iplemeiit this orLi'aiuzation l)y the cstabli>sh-
ment of an Iniernaf ional Prize Court ^^(1.
I/') .57 \- ;)S WrX. r. :](!. >. -1. (>/) Sects. K; ,^l scq.
^■,l') Tlicx. Unuix liiipcfial Court-: (/i Sect. V-].
<cc the \'icc-A(liiiiralty ('uurt< Ads. |xi Sects, o. f.
iMio aiul 1S()7. lO As to the American ])rizo systom.
i;(^ These heiii:;- Cehmial ('ourts in- sei^ the AiniM-ican and l-;nu'lish Ya\-
vested \\\\\\ Aibniralty jurisiiict inn : cycl. uf Law, i. (ilill — (itiS : as tu the
-cc the Cohinial Courts nt' Admiralty .lapanesi^ system, Takaliashi. -VJS ; and
Act, ISIKI. s. ;). as to other systems, I'lnll. iii. t)-38
(ii) -11 ^ L's \\rx. c. -ir-,. .s. .5. -' ,v.Y.
i I,) ihui. ss. 1. 9. "I /.'/,". ].. lyt.
192 Cases and Opinions on Inlernaiional Laiu.
Tlicir SlutKs ill I i/frrinif/oiiiil /.r'?/-. — Sucli ('(iin-t-^ ai'O SLuncriuiGs
.-^aid tu ])o>si'ss an iutfrnat iuiial charactei'. And this is true to the
cxtenl that thov are oix'ii to all i>('i'-;)iis. \\]Latover tJioir uatii^uaiity,
Avho-o iutf'i\'->Us aiv h'^-ally at stake i.xi: that they are liouml to act
a- betueeu iiatimial- and iKni-jiatiniials with stri(;t iiii})ai'tialit v ; that
thev aic jU'e-mued tn administer rides that cnnt'onu to lh<> law of
iiatioir- ill -II I'ar as thi- i- a<ci'riaiiird : and that the State iu wluch
the\' .-it is iiiteriiationalK- iesji.»ii-ilile it they tail to do so. Never-
iheie.-s, siK-h Courts are at Itijttoui only national Courts, tor the
lea-iiu that thev are e-taiilisli(>d and re<i"idatetl i)y the sov("rei(.i'ii
authority ot the e^»uIltry in which they -it. and niu-t idtiniately take
their hiw trinii it, e\eii ihouu-h that law may iiot coiit'ui-m to tJie
law ot nation- i//). Nor i> this i;reatly atti'cK^l in practice hy the
tact that the State i< re,-|)(nisil)le tor their deci-ioiis. As l)et\\cen the
helli^erents tlieni-el\ (.'<. the ultimate lei^'al siuiction has already lieeii
r*v-orted to; whilst, a- hi'twecn hdliuerenis and neutral-, the la'-k
ot uidtorudtv and c:>rtainty in inti'rnaiional u-ati'c o-orccrallv I'cnder-
it dilficiilt to ])ro\-e an nni.';|iu\"ocul \\'i'ono-; and. althouLi'h 'Ic desir,'
to conciliate neutral opinion and the dani^er ot anta'_!oidziim- the
o■ro^vinL;' naval ])ower ot neutrals juay occasionally lead to sunie con-
c(--.-iou.-. yet these are in their nature political ratlun- than lef^'al.
Tlie e-talrlisliment ot an International Prize Court w^juld. however,
in. .-ome measure. an<l so tar a- its appellate jurisdiction c.xtend.s > c/ ■.
serve to rmnove this dillicuhy.
The I'jf"! Sifuaiioit of the Court. — It is now universfdl}- acreed
that a. Piize Court cannot be lawtuUy establi-hed by a bellig-ereiit
in neutral tcrrit(jry i /> o In })rin(dple. howe\er, it would seem that
such a ('luu't may ritihtly be established in the territory oi an ally
or co-l)ellii;'er<:'nt : or even that the Courts ot the latter inav them-
selves 1)0 resorted toiei. But a neutral Court is not at liberty to
exercise jurisdiction in matters ot ])rize. exce])t wdiere the ])riz<'.
bein2" within it- jurisdiction, is shown to liav(> been taken in viola-
tion ot the neutralit\' ot the territorial Priwer i tl). or when' the jtrize
wa.- abandoned l.>y the captor and is the sidjject ot a .-ah-ane claim
on the pai't (jt neutrals i e i.
Tin' hic-'il S'/liA'itioii of the J'r/:e. —With ]'esp(.ct to the local situa-
tion of tho prize it-<dt. accjrdini:- to the British and American jirac-
tice. it i- ciiiiip(_'i(_Mit to a Prize ( 'ourt to act on jiroperty 1\ ini;' widuii
neutral |i'>ri-. so Iduo- as it remains under the c mtrol ot ilic ca[)tor
(','•; As tc enemy interests, see pp. Art. 2: juid p. 195, i/rfi-c.
19.5, I'Jti, '.■j,'i. ' (h) Sec Jt. C, No. j:j of 1907.
{>i ) Alrliuiiah tliey will, ix'rliaijs. Art. 4.
even iiKirc tlian other C'mu-rs sC'ck To {/) AlrliouL;-li this would iu striet-
jiut such :i construction on niunii-i[i;d nc-s h:i\e the disadvatitaii'e of render-
rules as will hrinir them into con- in"' the captor State responsible fei-
fcirmity with the admitted usaire of the decisions of the Coiu'tvS of another
nations: see mA. i. 'I'l: and LTcne- I'ower: .-ee Taylor. 5H1.
rallv. Ojijienlieini. :i. 175, n.: ihjlland, id) Th<- (i rn'n l'i<r<' (7 Wheat. 471).
Studies, 19!t. (,■) Tl.f M,,,'i L<n'l to Dall. ISS).
{t,) Sci" II. C. Xo. 1-.^ (,f l!ni7.
Prize Courts. UJ^i
and is not in process of adjudication elsewhere (J); and tlio correct-
ness of this view appears to he impliedly alfiruied by the provisions
of the Hague Convention, No. 13 of 19U7 {tj). Moreover, when
jurisdiclion in a matter of prize Jias once attached it will (■oulinue
nolwitlistandiny that the prize property has been landed (h) or sold
b}- the captors (^'ij, or has been lost or destroyed (/cj.
Respoiisib'dlty for Decree. — It is conimonl}- recognized that the
decision of a competent Court on a question of prize is final and con-
clusive in law [I). It settles all questions of right or title as regards
the property taken, and precludes any further controversj' as to the
validity of the cajjture as l)ctween the origiiial o^\•ners and the captors
or those who claim under them, in whatever countiy the property may
afterwards be fonnd {jn). To hold otherwise would lead to endless
dis])utes and uncertainty in tlie matter of titles uz). Nevertheless,
the Stiite to which the Court belongs remains internationally rcispon-
sible for its decisions; and it will be open to neutral States, whose
interests or the interests of whose subjects arc affected, to question
their correctness, and to make such reclamation thereon as may
be thought fit(o). In the first instance, such claims are tisually
prosecuted diplomatically, but in the last resort they may be en-
forced by means of reprisals {p), or even by intervention (q). Such
claims, if apparently well founded, are often referred for decision
to a joint commission, or sonto other arbitral body. So, in 1794 a
joint, commission was appointed by Groat Britain a,nd the United
States to adjudicate on the alleged unlawful capture and condem-
nation of certain American vessels during tlie Eovolutionary war (r):
whilst in 1871 a similar commission was a]q)ointed for the purpose of
adjudicating on a number of claims arising out of the alleg-ed un-
lawful condemnation of Briti-h vessels by the American Prize Cotirts
during the Civil war(.v). I^ut sucli proceedings will not strictlv
affect any right or title acquired un<ler tlie deci-ion complained of.
(/) The Santissima Trlp.idad (1 v. Jniyie (I^. II. 4 II. L. at -13J:).
Wlicat. at 355); 'Die Pomona (1 Dods. (,/) See, in t]ng-fisfi law, Thr, Conn-
•25). Icsx of Lnudcrdafe (Jk C. \\o\i. 283j.
\q) -Vrt. '23. (o) Infra, ]). 232: and, as to cfaiiiis
(7; ) lli.'j]su)i V. Gur^tirr (4 Craneli, in respect of enemy pro])erty, ji. 1!)5.
293). (/') -Vs in tlie ea.se of tfio Siiesian
(/) T/if l-'nhon (6 I'. f^)l). 194). foan: sei" vol. i. 334.
(/■; Tlie Snsmiiia ((> (". l!ol). -IS); (7) As occurred in J879.whcn (ler-
and see also Ifalleelv, ii. 429 ef sv//. many intervened to secure the release
/) Save. <it" course, for such riirht of a (iernian vessel condenint'd by a
of ap])cal as may he alloweil by the I'eianian ('(Ciu't dui'iu'^'' war between
domestic law. Chile and Peru: see OppiMdieim. ii.
(»/) See IfalhH'k. ii. 407. and an- 507.
thorities there cited, n. 1. Hut in (/) Sec Taylor. 583.
I'.nirlish law the decision of a forciirn s) Sec T li c S iir'nuihid: Mooi-e. Int.
Prize Court may be examiiK'd innrdcr .\rl).. iv. 392S): Thr Sir ]\",l'',n,,. I'n-i
to sec if the fact's in proof of which tJK' wVy/'/. iv. 3t)35): and The I'.r-'sr,/
decision is adduced wero aitually so \ihi<J. iii, 2S3S). As to similar claims
found by th(> foreiurn Court: I>i>r \. made durintr the l!usso-.Iapane~(^ wai'.
or.rrr ('■> Sm. L. C. 034); Lnfhum v. see p. 437-8. infm.
Henderson (3 IS. .^ ]'. 545): Cn^im/ue
C.I.L. 0
194 Cdse-'s and (Jplnioiia mi InlcruaUoiiul Laiu.
The lniernatlo)ud Prize Court: (i.; Why needed? — Tlio present
system of dealing with cases of prize is open to various objections.
In the first place, it constitutes the State of the captor, in some sort,
a jud<;-e in its own cause; and although the British, American, and
French Cuurts have, on the whole, exhibited a commendable im-
partiality (7;, yet, in general, there is probably bound to be some
ieanitig in favour of the national interests, especially in countries
where the Court consists of or comprises administrative ofhcials (// j.
Xext. although such Courts purport to administer a law in con-
formity with the law of nations, they are, in fact, bound to take
tlioii" law, whatever it may lie. from the sovereign authority of
the vSiate in which they act ( a"). Finally, and apart from any positive
I'egulation. such Courts will necessarily follow the practice of their
own State in cases where the practice of nations conflicts. Long prior
to 11H)7 various proposals had been made for the formation of an
Intertiational Court (>j). In 1887 the Institute of International
Law included a project of this kind in its suggested code for the
regulation of maritime captures ( z). Pmt the-e projects, although
not •without their inlluence on international opinion, were not attended
by any immediate result. In 1907 the subject came under con-
sifleration at the Hague Conference (Vv): with the result that after
prolonged discussion and negotiation a draft project was agreed
on, which is now embodied in the Prize Court Convention, No. 12
of 1!)07. In view, howevci', of the great di\'er;^'ence of (ipini-ui
and jn'acticG which then prevailed on subjects with which the prrt-
po-ed Court would have to deal, many Sfate>. including (Jreat
P.ritain, were unwilling to accept the Convention until the law on
these subjects had been l^etter ascertained atid defined. This, indeed,
was the tnain object of the holding of the Xaval Conference of 1008-9,
which resulted in the framing of the Decjai'ation of London. Mean-
while the Prize T'ourt Convention, although originallv signed bv
some 38 States (h). incbiding all the Great Powers, has not. so far,
heen ratified by any. Xevei-theless it claitns some consideration, as
embodying a pi'oject whicli, in some form nr othei\ i- likelv at
nri di-iant time to be'-oiue a icality.
'ii.) The Jliifiue ( (inrciition " rehiHrc fi, flw F..<fahl/.sJimr)/f of
(in f liter/I'll ioti'iJ Prize Court.' This Conveniion ])rovi<le- for tlie
It; \< to till. liriti-li Courts, it has .-•; S,iy,,-". ]i]i. tOO. ] !)2
lii'f-n conijHitcd tl.at two out of I'vory (y) tjno of these dates haek as oarlv
five of Lord Stowell'^ dei'i-ions. num- as IT.lf). l-'ui- an areniint of these. seV'
lieriuL' ~oii!e l.Vl. wei-e L''i\'en in fa\our Oopi'tihciin. ii, .t.III ^/ siq,
of ui-iitrals. As to the hiw. -cr jip. ( :: ) IhUl.; iiariday, I'rohleins, 10.5.
IsT. I!i0. .w//,,v/. 'I"hi> attitude of the ( n ) Proposals 1,11 ' the suhfeet -were
Aiuericau fourth has been vry simi- siil;)niitted hoth hy drrat Mritain and
Lar. sa'O' piu-liap- durinfr a period of 'lerinanv: for an aec;iunt (jf tlie-e and
the eivil war. wlien they e\hil)ited — the mode in wliieli tliev \v(>re dealt
as has sinee ind'od heen admitted liy witli. -ee I'earec M iL'^iri n<. !.32 ft spf/.
one of their ind'/e~ an unmistak- (h Of tho-e. howi'ver. no le-^s than
al)le l)ia.s aL'ain-t Oreat Hi'itain: Rro ten sirr.,(.f] nnihr re-er\ation of .\rt.
Ifall. (iC.K. 1,5. whh-h d-a!- wi^h tlie eon^liturirui
Prhc Courts. 195
estiiblisliment of an lulernational Court, liaving- the cousUtutioii, and
exorcising- the jurisdictioji and functions, described below. The
Court is to hear appeals from national Prize Courts, although only
in the oa^;es i)rescribod; and is empowered U) order restitution and
10 assess damages and award compensation. But the Convention
will only apply, as of right, when all of tlie Powers at war are
[)arties thereto (ei. it is t.o come into ftu'ce six months after
being ratitied by a sullicient number of Powers to enable the
Court to be duly constituted ( (/-); and is to remain binding for
twelve years from the time of coming into force. It is, moreover,
to be deemed to be tacitly renewed as between tlie contracting-
Powers for successive ])eriods of six years, unless denounced on the
expiration of any of these periods, in wliich ease it will cease to bind
the Power that has denounced it but will otiierwise continue opera-
tive (^c). A demand for its revisi<jn may, however, be made by
any contracting Power two years before the expiry of any of the
pei'iods aforesaid (/). At the Naval Conference, with the object
of meeting the dilHculties experienced by certain Powers, such as
the United States, whose domestic constitution did not allow of an
appeal from their highest Courts to any exterjial tribunal, a protocol
was ag-reed on to the effect that such States nuglit ratify the Conven-
tion subject to a reservation substituting- a direct claim for com-
pensation for proceedings by way of ai>peal, so long as the rights
secured by the Convention were not thereby impaired; the result
being that in such cases tlie Iiiternatioual Court would, if it dis-
agreed with the decision of the national Court, award compensation,
although without technically overriilinu- the decision in questioner/).
(iii.) The Jurisdiction of the Iitfenuitioikd Pri^e Court. — Under
iho Convention, jurisdiction in matters of prize is to be exercised
in the first instance by the Prize Courts of the captor, the judgments
of wliii'h um<\ ])i' ])ublicly ])ron<>unced or ofhcially notified to the
parlies (/iV From these an a])])eal. or wliat i-< virtually an appeal,
mav be made to the International Prize Coui't in I'ortjiin cases set
foi'th in the ('onvention. Thos(» compri-e casivs (l) wIkmo tlie
judgment of the national (burt alfocts th(> ])rojierty of a neutral
Power or individual; and (2) wlieii^ the judu'UKMit aU'ecfs even enemv
[M'opertv. but r(dafes to ('a i caro-o fi}und on Ixiai'd a m^utral ship ( M,
nr ('li') an eueinv ship wliidi is alleu-ivl to have bi^en ca])tured in the
tei'ritoi'ial Avaiei'- of a neutral Power which has not ma<Ie the cap-
tur(~ the subj(Mi of a diiilomaiic claim i//'. alihoimdi the a])])eal in this
■r- Art. .">[. l'i-Mfci-,,1 tn the I^'izc Court Ctiiiv, ;
'/, Arts. ]."), 52 -0-1.
,r) Art. •")'); iis<tiiiiino'. that i-;. tliat
suflicictit adiicrci'.ts remain.
icti. \(.. 1-2 of 1!»()7.
■,/-i Art-^ 1. -2.
' '■ ) And wliich would, thorofoi'o,
I'dinarilv be |>rotoct(>d hv the ncu-
/•; Art. .37. tra! tla<r.'
',) 'rhi< i> dared tlie ITt'i Sept.. { /: ' See IT. <".. Xo. 13 of 19(li
I'.M": and now foiins an .addiricnal Ai't. ■') ; p. Iti:?. .v";/,y/.
196 Cases and Opinions on International Laiv.
case must be by the ueutral Power (0; or (^c) enemy property which
is alleged to have been captured in violation of some convention sub-
sisting between the belligerent Fow ers or some enactment of the State
of the captor. The appeal may be based on alleged error either in
fact or in law (?»K But Avhen the national Court has set aside a
capture, then an appeal to the International Court will only lie on
the question of damages (^;?); with the result that there is no appeal
to the International Court against a decree of restitution. The
contracting Powers bind themselves expressly to accept the decrees
of the International Court, and to carry them out with the least
possible delay (o).
(iv.) By whom Frocee-dings may be instituted^ — An appeal to
the International Court may be made either (1) by a neutral State,
if tlie judgment of the national Prize Court injuriously aii'ects either
its property or that of its nationals, or if the capture is alleged to
have been made in it^ territorial waters; or i^2 ) by a neutral indi-
vidtial. if such judgment injuriously ailects his property, subject,
however, to the right of his own State either to forbid the appeal or
to undertake it in his place; or (3) by an enemy individual,
if such judgment injuriously afl'ects his property, and if eitlier the
capture was made on a neutral vessel (p) or is alleged to have been
in violation of some convention or belligerent enactment as before
described {q), although if a violation of neutral waters is involved
only the neutral State can appeal (r) . The sam<> rights also attach
to suecess(,)rs in title if they have taken part in tlie proceedings
in the national Court (sj. Such an appeal may be made either
from the national Court of first instance, or, after one domestic
appeal, as the law of the captor may provide; whilst, if no decision
is given wdthin two years, then the case may be taken direct to
the International Court mthout any prior decision (f).
(v.) The Law to he applied. -The International Court, in cases
coming before it, is to apply, first, the provisions of any treaty
which may be in force between the parties relevant to the matter in
([uestion; next, such rules of international law as are generally }-e-
cognized and applicable to the matter in question; and. finallv, and
in default of any such 2'ccognized rule. '' the general principles
of justice and equity." Where the appeal is based on the violation
oi some enactment of the belligerent captor tlieu such enactment
is to be applied. The Court may disregard any failure to com]>lv
with rules of procedure pre-^cribed bv the law of tlie captor if it
regards thorn a'^ unjust or inequitable in theii' eflocts (n). If the
Court upholds a ca]iiure. the proceeds are thou distributable ac-
(/) The enoiiiy owner, a< such. (q) S//p,ri.
having no chiini to restitution. ( y\ .^j.^- j
(7n) Art. 3. ' '
(n) -Vrt. 8. ^■^' ■^^^- ^■
(n) Art. !). (0 Art. t5.
QiO Si!i>m. ].. 19.). (m) Art. 7.
Prize Courts. 197
<'or<liiig to llie law of the captor. If it iiuds tJie capture to Jiave
been invalid, then it decrees restitution and fixes the amount of
damages, if ajiy; whilst if the prize has been sold or destroyed, it
determines the amount of compensation to be paid to the owners {x).
The provision that, in default of a generally recognized rule, tlie
Court sliall apply '' t]u> o-<Mieral principles of justice and e([uity " pro-
bably moans that the judgx's composing the Court would apply the
})rinciples of the system with which they were most familiar (//); but
the Declaration of London, 1909, if it should be accepted, will serve
lai'gely to mitigate this defect.
(vi. ) The Conslitalloii of tlic L'ourt.-'Ylie Prize Court itself is to
consist of (ift<3eu judg<'s. ^A whom iiine will constitute a C[uorum(^J;
and all of whom arc re(piired to be skilled in international maritime
law and of high reputation {a). For the purpose of constituting
it, each of the signatory Powers is to appoint a judge and a deputy
judge (h). Both judges and deputy judges are to be appointed for
a period of six years; and. in case of death or resignation, a i\ev7
appointmcTit is to be made for a fresh period of six years (c). From
the l)ody of jmlgos so nominated the Court itself is to be constituted
on the following plan: The judges appointed by Grreat Britain,
the Fnit(Mi State-, France, Grermanv, Austria- Hungary. Italy, Russia
and Japan, making eight in all, arc to be permanent members of
the Court; whilst the remaining seven places are to be filled by
judu'es a[)pointod by the other signatory Powers sitting by rota,
according to a Table annexed to the Convention (d). the place of
an absent judge being always taken by his deputy ((?). The only
modification of this is that, if in time of war it should happen
that either of the belligciMmt~ ha^^ no jud^-e at the time entitled
to >it in the Court, tlien tlic belligerent in (question may claim to
have a judge of it< own appointed for the purpo-e of taking part
in nil ca^es arising out of the war, one of the judges ordinarily
entitled to sit being witli<ltawii i / 1. Xo [)erson can sit as judge
who has taken part in \hv ])rocoedings before the national Prize
Court (q']. Provision is also made for the appointment by a belli-
y-ei'eiit cajitor, or by a neiiiial State that may be involved in the
|)ro((M>diiigs. of a naval ollicer of hi^'b rank to act as assessor,
although without any voi((> in the decision T A). The judges are to
be paid out of a common fund, and n^ay not receive anv further
I.'-) Art. 8. iiiinumiries, .Vrt. 13.
(//; W'liicli. in view of tiic coiistitu- \ 'f ) Sec Art. 1."); and as to the
tidii of the Court, iiiiu'lit ])()«i!)ly v\\<o of .-my of tlic-^c^ t^owprs not being-
opcrati- to the pn'iudicc of rlii- A iii;li(- partic-; to rlic Convention. Ai't. 56.
Aiiii'i-iean rules and praetiee. (, , Art. 14.
'~' ', ' ■ ,„■ I') 'I'lii-; heinc: determined bv lot:
(n) Art. JO. ^ ,,,
,/-) Art. 10. •
r) Sec Art. I 1 : and. as to the ■ ." ) ■^^'^- ' '•
laid^ and pn>ccdeni'e. Art. 1 'J : and, as , /. ; Art. 18.
to the oath of otticc and pia\ ih'ircs and
198 Cases and Opinions on International Laiv.
renianeration from their own Government (^;. The Courl is to sii
at the Hague, and cannot in general sit elsewhere without the con-
sent of the belligereutvs (^fcj. The ministerial functions of the Court
are to be served by the Aclrainistraiive Council and the International
Bureau (^j. The Court i.< to decide what languages may be used,
but the otfieial language of the national Court from which the case
comes may always be used (//(-). The clau.ses dealing with the con-
stitution of the Court gave rise to great dissatisfaction on the part
of the smaller States; and in this matter Jio less than ten of l:he
signatories have made reservations. Provision has, however, been
made for a possible revival of the present constitution under certain
conditions I /^j. The ecpial treatment of all States outside the range
of the great Powers — notwithstanding uuicli disparity of position
as regards mercantile marine, naval forces, and sea-borne trade —
involves, no doubt, a certain inequaiit}- of consideration; but a.-
ag-aiiist this it must be borne in mind tliat every Stat-fi is sectired
representation wlien at war. and that tlie larg-e number of countries
from wJiich the judges are drawn serve> to ensure that all juristic
systems shall be duly represented ( o).
ivii.i Procedure. — The Convention makes provi->ion loi' the ap-
pointment of agent--^ and advocates \p): and fot the :-er\ii-e uf jiotices.
the procuring of evidejice and the execuiioji of ie(jiiests fi:)r this pur-
jjo.se. within the territory of any States that are parties in tlio ( 'onven-
lion(f/K It also embodies a code of procedure'./-;; and ini'idojdally
empowers the Court to make any further and neces-ary rides . s). and
to suggest modilications of the rules already embo<licd iti tlie Cunven-
tion(7). In dealing with cases before it. the C'jurt may take addi-
tional evideiice { u i. It.s proceedings mitst in o-eucial be ])ublii- ./■ i ; all
questions are to be decided by a majority of the judg-es pre.-ejit {>/):
whilst its judgments must be delivered in open Court, and must
state the reasons on which they are based iz). The C'ldo cdso makes
due provision with vespci;; to tlie awardiuQ- of costs taj. T!h' general
expenses of the Court are to be borne by the contrai'tiuo- PoM'ers in
proportion to their representation on the Court (7;).
C) Art. 20.
{'/'
.\rt. 27.
(I- J Art. 21.
(>■)
Part II
(I J Arts. 22. 23: and av'i
■ vol. 1. 35.
( .V )
.\rt. i[>.
(//'; An. 2t.
it,
.\rt. ."jn.
(,>) Art. .57.
(>n
Art. 3(i.
(/>) Sf-c i'farcc IliifL'ins
, 410: and
' •'" )
.\rt. 39.
for a ~liort ~urvry of tlie
merits and
(,'o
Art. 43.
deinci-it^ of till' pi-DpDsrd ('i
"irt. Sniitli.
(■- '
Art<. M
InriTiiatioiial Law. I]<)S ''
' .^'■'/.
(>')
Art. 4(;.
(,'/) Art-. 2."). 2ii.
('>)
Art. t7.
4.5.
Pri.'jc and liootji. l!)9
VmZE AND BOOTY.
(i) TITLE PRIMARILY JN STATE.
THE "ELSEBE."
[1804: 5 C. Kob. 173. J
Case. During- war between Crreat IJritain and Fraucc, in which
Sweden wa.s neutral, tlio '' El.seb(;," a SweJi.sh vessel, was, with
several other ve.s.sels, captured by the British whilst under the
convo}" of a Swcdisli warship, and wa.s subsoijucntly proceeded
against, together with her cargo, on the ground of r&sistance to
visit and search. Various questions arose in the coui'so of the
case(rt); but the main question was as to the nature of ''])rize"
and the respective rights of the Crown and captors therein. This
arose through the act of the Crown in releasing several of th"
vessel.^, including the " Elsebe, ' prior to adjudication and without
the consent of the captors. The Crown's right to do so Avas
questioned by the captors on the ground that an interest in the
vessels captured had already become ves1i>d in them at the time
of seizure, under the grant of prizi^: and that this could not be
displaced by any after act of the Crow"n. This question was
raised on a motion to proceed to adjudication, notwithstanding'
the release and discharge of the vessel by order of the Crown. In
till' result it was hidd that inasmuch as a captor"s i-iafit to ])rize
wa^ wholly derived from the Crown, it was quite ojicn to the
latlei' to order th(^ release of a captured M'ssrl prior to adjudica-
tion, and this without anv consent on the part of the captors.
Judgment. In delivering judgment, Sir W . Scott found that
the Crown had in fact released the vessel, and that this release
had been duly accepted b}' the owners. On the (picstion of I'iu'lit.
the learned Jud^-e ol)served that it was admitted that the rlaim oi'
the captors rested wholly on the Order in Council, the Prorhima-
(") I'^spc'cially as to tln' liability of a grant or prize by the frown did
eariro owned 1)\' neutrals, as m whii-h not. in the ciiTunistanees. ext<'nd to
it was eontendiHl that neiiti'al iiit('i'rvt< neutral propertv. both of whieli cou-
■W(M'e iU(t aifeetcd by reason of the tentiuns were ultimately nverruled by
re-i<tanee i)f the eon\o\- : and aUo tiiat the Cuurt.
•Joo Cases and Opinions on International Law.
tion. and the Prize Act : and it was not denied that, indopen-
dontly of those instrument?, the whole subjCL-t-niatter was in the
hands of the Crown, as well in point of interest as of autliority.
Prize was, in fact, altoii'ether a creature of the Crown. 2\o one
had or could have any interest save throug-h the Crown, to whom
belonged at once tlic power of making war and })eace. all acquisi-
tions tliat might be made durinir war. and the disposal of such
acquisitions. Avhicli might in itself be of the utmost importance
for the purposes of war and peace. This was not a peculiar
doctrine of the British Constitution, but was universally re-
ceived as a necessary principle of public jurisprudence. Its object
was that the Po\\eL' having authority to decide on peace or war
might use it in the most beneficial manner for the purposes of
both. In view of this it must be regarded as a general presump-
tion that no Government meant to divest itself of this attribute
of sovereignty, unless it did so by clear and unequivocal expres-
sion. In English law, moreover, a grant from the Crown was
presumed to pass no more than was clearly expressed. Applyimr
these principles to the case before the Court, he found that neither
by the Order in Council, nor by the Proclamation, nor by the
Prize Act, ^^'as any interest conferred on the captors which dero-
gated in any way from the primary right of the Crown ; that
the only right conj'crred on captors was, in fact, a right to seize
and bring in certain property : that their interest in the prize
vested only after condemnation : and that prior to such time tiie
Crown could dispose of the property therein a> it miirht tliink lit.
In practice, moreover, such a right had boen exercisi'd by the
('I'OAvn. without b(>ing questioned, in a large nun^ibcr of instances.
It Avas also a frequent practice in articles of |:)oace to stipulate
for the restitution of all property captured at't.er tlie dates fixed
for the cessation of hostilities in dill'erent latitudes; tliis bcinir a
stij)ulation which tlie Crown Avould be j>o\verless to give eft'ect
to without some such ]Tower as that now contended for. Xor
did the exercise of such a power involve any injustice to the
captors in the matter of costs and damaires. for the reason that
the accei)tanco of a, I'olease by the owners of the ca])tui-ed pro-
perty operated as a, waiver of any ricrhts in this I'espect wliich
the\" mii!'ht otherwiM' have.
Prize and Booty. 201
Teclinically, and for tlie purposes of Admiralty jurisdiction in
Knglisii law, " prize "" oxtontb lo all property, whelher in ships,
<ioods, or otluH' articles, captured jure belli on the -sea or iji foreig-n
port^ or harbours ; or captured on land by naval forces acting-
either alone or jointly with land forces : or captured in the
I'iver.-, ports or harbours of the captor's counlry; a.s well as money
ix3ceive(l by way of ransom (6). " i^ooty," on the other hand, con-
sists of property captured on land otherwise than by naval forces (o.
'\\'ith respect to 'prize," under the British system all such pro-
l>i'rty vests in the Crown, as representing the StatJe, the captor having-
no title to or interest therein except such as may be conferred by
the Crown ((/). At the same time, it is usual, by lloyal proclama-
tion issued at the commencement of a war, to award to captors the
pr(jceeds of all ''prize" taken, subject to an adjudication of the
Cmirt: the mode of distribution being regulated by another pro-
clamation (t"). Armed vessels of the enem}- do not, however, con-
stitute '"prize," and arc not subject to adjudication; although the
Naval I'rizo Act, 18t)4, makes provision for an award of "'prize
bounty" for the ca])tiiro or destruction of such vessels (/). The
same Act al'-o provides for the award of ' ])rize salvage " in respect
of Ihitisli vessels previously tLiken by the enemy and subsequently
recaptured {[p. The same princi})le, so far as relates to the vesting
of prize pro})erty in the State, also obtains under the law of the
I'nited States (h).
With respect lo booi\' of war, in Knglish law the title to booty
eijuallv A\ith prize vc-^ts primarily in the Crown (^); whilst, like
prize, it is usually <^listributed amongst the forces engaged, a practice
now contomplatod and sanctioned by statute (/i;). By 3 & 4 Vict,
c. 05, moreover, the Court of Admiralty is empowered to exercise
jurisdiction in all questions of booty of war or it.s distribution that
may be referred to it by the Crown, and is required to jjroceed
therein as in cases of prize (7).
i^ii) S(H' T/ir Th:o Ti-'Cii'Is (1 C. American Prize svstem ycncriiliy, Ihil-
!!ol>.' 27] j: Lmdn v. Jlr,<h,p)/ (^2 leek, ii. :i(i7.
Doui;-. til:]. II. j: Tin' S/n;>'< lukrn al (/) .tlr.m „,irr v. 7"//,- J),'k,' .,f
(.■,u,on (1 ('. ]^)b. 3S.S). U'rl'lrufihrii (2 ]{u-:s. .'c My. 3."i").
(c) In so far, of course, as such (/•; Sec tlie .\riny Prizo^Mouey Act,
[)roj)erty is lc<xally susceptible of ]S:!2, as amended in certain particulars
approjii'iatiiHi: sn/jrii. ]>. (iO. by 29 X 30 \'ict. c. 47, and aLso 57 >.*c
.'/) See the Xaval Prize Act. ISGt, 5,S \'ict. c. .39.
■;. oo. {!) This does not mean that the.
>■) See .Manual (if Xaval Prize -^anie pi-inci|iles of dist ribut inn are
Law, p. 1 (2. iiece-<:irily to be followed, alfliouuh
/■) S<. 42 14, and ji. 181, .s////,v'. the rules aj)jilied are in fact larirely
(t/) Ss. (0, 41. ba<ixl on those of jirize: see the case
' /( ) See Conimod'irr Sfcjrnyf'R r'n^r of Th' Dinnjf ri,id Kirirpp Bool)/
;I ('.('.43; Scott. 910;: and,a«tothe ( L. R. l A. kF.. 109).
202 Case.'i and Opinions on International Law.
(ii) DIVESTMENT OF TITLE OF ORIGINAL OWNER
ANDERSEN r. MARTEN.
[1908; A. C. 334.]
Case. Thi.s was an action on a policy of in.surance underwritten
Ijy the defendant, by wiiicli certain interests in the S.S. ''Romu-
lus," a German vessel, belonging to the plaintitl, were insured for
twelve months as from the 12th January, 1905 '^a). The ri.sks
insured against included only loss by the perils of the sea, and did
not cover loss by capture. During the contiimanee of the policy,
the "Romulus" sailed with a cargo of coal for Vladivostock. a
naval port and base of operations in the war then proceeding
between Russia and Japan : coal having at tln' time also been
proclaimed as contraband of war. In order to avoid the Japanese
cruisers the vessel took a northern course, and sustained such
injury by contact with the ice that tlio master found it necessary
to make for Hakodate, a Japanese port. On the 26th February,
when a short distance from Hakodate, the "'Romulu-s'" was seized
by a Japanese cruiser, on the ground of carrying contraband, and
ordered to proceed to Yokosuka under the charge of a Japanese
olfieer. On her voyage to Yokosuka, she sustained further injurx
by the perils of the sea : and on the 27th February- she was run
ashore and became a total loss. On the 16th May, 190o, aft^'i-
her loss, the Japanese Prize Court condemned both >hip and cargo,
on the ground that slii.' had bci'ii eniplo}'ed in transporting f:on-
ti'aband of war liy fraud; it Ijeing also found that her paper.-
had been falsified. In the circumstances the plaintiff cfaimcd
to recover as for a total loss by the perils of the sea-. In aid
(if tlii- it \\'as contended that tin' ship Ijcing a nenli'al vessel.
the plaintiff, as owner, did not by the mere fact of seizure on the
26th Fcbrnai-y lose citlier property or possession in the vessel,
for the irason thut tlie Pi'ize Court, even thonnii eoiidcnniinf^
the cai'go. might lawertlieless liave released tiie vessel: that the
plaintiff must tlna'efore Ije deemed to ha\'e retained his interest
(a) The insurance was oxjiressod to jiartics should be detorniined as though
1)1' on disljurscmeiits. hut at the trial tlie poliey had Ijeon on the ship,
it was aL'reed that the rit^'hts of the
Tide to Prise. 2(»;i
until divested by an actual adjudication: and that such interest liad
in fact been lost by the perils of the sea witliin the meaning- of the
policy. On behalf of the defendant, it was contended that there hud
been an actual decree of condemnation which vested the prize in tlie
raptor; that, av'cordiny to the principles follo^ved by the English
Courts, this related back to the original seizure; and that tlie
vessel ^vas therefore lost by capture, Avhich was expressl}' excepted
from tlie risks insured against; tlu; loss b\' the perils of the seas
having occurred alter the capture and whilst the V(>ssel was in
the hands of the ea[)tor. In the result, it was held b}' the Idouse
of Lortls. aiUrining tlic decision oi' the Court of ^Vppeal, that
there was in fact a total loss hy ca})ture. and that the owner
could not recover on the police.
Judgm.ent.^ In delivering judgment. Lord Loreburn, L.C..
after referring to the facts and to the arguments adduced on
belialf ot; the plaint ill, pointed out that eneni\' vessels did in some
respects stand on a ditlerent footing from neuti'al vessels und;'r
the laws of prize. Carriage of contraband to a belligerent poi't
did not itself impart an enemy character to a neutral ship.
Such a vessel could not lawfully bo destroyed [h/. nor could her
crew be treated as prisoners of war. The canuage of contraband
was not unlawful in the same ^^ense as aiding an enemy in an ex]je-
dition. It was an adventure which the (jllendod belligerent might,
if he could, visit with capture and condemnation by a Court of
Prize. Hence it appeared to be true that in the j)rosent case the
property of the "Jiomulus did not pass wholly from the owner
on the 26th February. The owner still had a chance of recover-
ing tlie ship, and still had an interest therein which he could have
insured, although he no longer retained possession. Hut the samr'
might also be said to apply in some measure to enemy A'esscls for
tic reason that even tlc'se mii^-ht, under som(> circumstances, be
released bv the Prize Coui't . The real (ju^'stion was whether
there wa> a total loss by capture. As to t.his it. apj^eared that
there was a total lass by capt.ure on the "iGth Februai-\ . the day
on which the ''Pomulu--'' was lawfully seized, as sIioavu bv the
( '■/ i 'I'liat i<. aiconliiiLT I i tli-' ilurtrinc of tlic ISritUli I'ri/.c ('oiirts; hut <ef>
ji. 48."), infra.
204 Cases and Opinions on International Law.
subsequent condemnation. There was on that day a total loss
which, as things were then seen, might afterwards be reduced if
in the end the vessel Avas released. According to the view con-
tended for by the plaintiff, if the vessel had been insured against
capture under a time policy which expired prior to condemnation,
the liability of the underwriters would have been made to depend
on the degree of expedition shown by a Court of Prize in adjudi-
cating on the case, or even upon the taking of proceedings by
way of appeal, a conclusion which was manifestly erroneous. The
true view ap})cared to be Iruit there was a total loss by capture on
the 26th February, although its lawfulness was not authorita-
tively determined till the 16th !May. That, at any rate, appeared
to be the law of England on this subject.
In the (_'a<e of neutral property taken a^ prize, mirwithstanding
that the captor acquires iuuuecLiate po^.-^ossion, the title of the
owner will not be regarded as completely divested iiidess and
until a decree of condemnation has been passcl. although in that
event the divestment of title will date bade to the original
seizure. In the case of the ])ruporty of sul;)jects or allies taken as
prize, as for illegal trading', tlio same ])rincip]e woidd apply. In
tlie case of enemy property, it is commoidy laid down that as between
captor and owner the divestment r^f title is complete as from the
date of the original seizure (c): but in view of the fact that tlie
captor is liere, too, legally bound to proceed to adjutlication (//)
and tluit the result of -ucli adjudication may c-nncoivably be in
favour of the owner, it would -eom that the -aiuc principle now
applies to enemy property. If tin-; be so. then we liave a uniform
rule with respect i-o title and its .divestment, as between tlie captor
and the original owner, whether enemy or neutral (e).
In the case Avhere a captor loses possession of Iiis pidze before
condemnation, cither by abandonment, or by recapture or rescue,
tlien liis inchoate right comes t-o an en<l. As re<.i'ards abandoji-
ment. if tliis is voluntary an<l intentionab tliere can clearlv
be no farther claim on hi< part, and the riodit of the oriirinal owner
will tlier<'U])()n revert, subject to anv claim of salvage or new cap-
ture (/). In priiicipl<> it would ap]'»ear that the <aine rule should
apply where tlie abandonment of the ])rize by ihe ca])t<ir was in-
voluntary, for the reason that his title is merely ])osse<soi'v. and
dependent on the reieniion of control, eitlier actual or consti'uc-
tive {(]'). In cases of rc<i-ue. and now also on I'ccaptui'e. the riudit
(c) Hall. 451-2. r) s„ ,,,<'. p. 17(i.
(d^ And rlii.< even thniiLdi the pro- (/) T]',- IiU'i'jrufn, (\ Dod-^. 4(11).
])f'rtv tnav havp liccn l(j~t or d"^rrr)vr'd : ( n\ S'lutn, p. 17(;. ]\\\\ in Thr
-■'rr>'. p.' 103. " M''r>j I'nr'l '.3 Dall. 1 S8 : Scott. H.32)
Title to Prizo. 205
<iL' the ori<rinal owner will revert, althoug'h subject, to any lawful
claim oi' «alvago {Jii). But it', after recapture, the prize should be
taken aiLow by the eueiuy. then the title will vest in the lasL captor,
to the exclusion of any claim on the part of the orig'inal (:uiptor(i).
(lii; TITLK BY TRANSFER OR TRANSMISSION
FROM CAPTOR.
THE "FLAD OYEN."
[1799; 1 C. llob. 135. J
Case. Duriiif;' war l)('tw('(Mi (ii'cat Britain and France, the-
" Flad Oven." a Britisli sliip, was taken by a French privateer,
and carried into the port of Bergen, in Norway. She then under-
went "a sort of proces.s," which terminated in a scntcnct) of con-
demnation being pronounced by the French Consul. Under this
sentence she was asserted to have be(Mi ultimatel}' transferred to
the claimant, avIio bought her at a sale by public auction, it
appeared that the purchase)' stootl in the ca[)acity of general agent
in that place for the French Government, aoid in that capacity
acted also as vendor. On the sul)se(pient capture of the V(\^scL
by the British, an application was made by th«original Briti.-<h
owner for restitution, on the ground that there had been no regular
sentence of condemnation by a competent Prize Court and, conse-
quently, no legal transfer of tlie vessel from the original owmer to
the neutral purcliasei'. In th" re>ult, t!ie vessel was restored to hei'
fo]-mer owner, subject to the payment of salvage to the re-
cap tors.
Judgment.] Sir W. Scott, in gi\-ing judgment, remarked
that it had been fre(piently stated that the requirement of w
sentence of condcnniation as e.-sential to the transfer of the pro-
})ert\' in pri/f was a docli'inr peculiar to En<>-]ish law. and thai
the American ('uiirts tooic a (lillrrcut the validity (if hellifrcrent eaptuiTs:
view, an<i a\v;ini(><l the ]iroerc(l< of rhc se(^ also I'lic Mu,;/ {2 W'heatnii, ]2oi.
jiri/.e, after dciucriiiir salvaiT''. to thi> A) Sec )i. 1'14. /;./,v/.
oritriiial ea|it-or<, on the crromid riiat (-i Sec '/'/"■ I'oihi ,4 C. Rol). 217.
a lU'Utral Court could nut [las- upon n. \ : and, on the sui>|ect a-i'nci-allv.
L'luU. iii. (338.
■J06 Cases and Opinions on International Law.
according to the practice of some nations twcntv-four hours' pos-
session, or according to the practice of others the bringing of the
prize injra pra^sidia, was enouglr to convert tlie prize. But it
really appeared that according to the general practice of nations a
sentence of condemnation was at present necessary to transfer the
property in prize, and that a neutral ])urchaser, if he bought a
prize during the war, must look to such a sentence as one of the title
deeds of the ship. He doubted, indeed, if there were any instance
in which a person who had purchased a prize ve.ssel from a belli-
gerent had thought himself secure in inaking that purchase
merely because the ship had been in ^-ho enemy's possession for
twenty-four hours or had been carried infra prcesidia. The
contrary had been more generally held ; and the instrument of
condemnation was one of those documents almost universally
produced b}- a neutral purchaser. It was also necessary to show
that the vessel had been subjected to adjudication in a proper
judicial form. It was the first time that an attempt liad b^en
made to imj)Ose upon the Court for that purpose th.o sentence, not
of a tribunal existing in the belligerent country, but of a person
pretending to exercise authority in a neutral country. A sentence
of condemnation could not bo deemed sufficient unless it con-
formed to the usage and practice of nations. It would not he
enough to show on mere theory that a Prize Tribunal might sit
in a neutral country, without at the same time showing that such
a proceeding was sanctioned by the common practice of nations.
This, in itself, was sufficient to conclude the matter. But apart
from usage, and looking merely to general principles, it did not
appear that such a sentence could be sustained, for the reason
that prize proceedin2"> were always in rem, and this presumed that
thi' body and substance of the thing wa>s in the country that
exei'elscd jurisdiction in the matter (a). It was true that in-
stances had been adduced in which Briti.--h Courts under special
circumstances had ])ronounced on prizes lyino- in certain foreitrn
poi'ts. But even if such proceedings were reorular they would not
sn]iport the ])resent sentence. whicl:i emannt'd from a person
having no authr^rit \- ovri' nnv 1)ut the sib jeets of his own country.
(a) Tliat of the bollifrorcnt raptor.
Tiflc to Prize. 207
,111(1 iietina" in a lU'Utnil country Avhich had no (■oyni/aiicc of
matters of prize. For these reasons the ship \v;is ordered 1o be
lestored to tlie British owners upon payment of the u>ual salvage
This case dec-ides that a captor luis no title which Jic can
\alidl\ [)ass to a ])ui(lia-<er uide.ss tlie prize has been duly con-
demned by a com|)<Ment Prize ('ourti/;); and, further, that a
sent<?iice passed ])y a ("ouif irre^idarly constituted and sitting
in a neutral country will not be re^^-arded as a valid condemnation.
And this i'ul(> is a rule not only of the Court of Admiralty but
also of the ("ourts of (.'onunon Law(c). In The Kierlighett
' '.\ ('. I'ob. 0(!), however, it was held, in circumstances similar to
those of 'Hie Flad Oijen, that the oiiginal owner, although entitled
to restitution, was nevertheless accountable to a bond fide neutral
purchaser fni' the fair value of improvements, in excess of ordinary
repairs, which had been made by tlie latter subsequent to his pur-
chase. By the llae'ue Convention, Xo. 1.'5 of 1907, Art. 4. it i.s
now provided that a T'rize Court cannot be set up by a belligerent
in neutral territory or on a vess(d in neutral waters (d). But a
sent-ence of condemnation will l)e e-ood it' jiassed in the courts of
a co-belligerent or an ally(ri. And, notwithstanding the doubts
expres.scd on tins point in The Find 0]ien. it appears, according to
the British and American practice, a sentence of condenination
passed by the Courts of the cajitor's country will be good, and will
found a good title, even tliouii'h, at the time of the proceeding, the
prize was lying in a neutral jiort ('/). .Vnd the correctness of thi.-^
view, intornationally, ap]iears to be l)ni'ne out by the provisions of
the Hague Convention, Xo. 13 of 1907, Art. 2oiq).
fiv) TITLE TX KEL.VTIOX TO XEUTI?AL ST.VTES.
THE CASE OF THE "EMILY ST. PIERRE."
I1M<)2; >rof)ro. l-]\ri-.'iilit ion, i., .)!)*): Wliciton fOaiia), 47.).]
Case. J)nring the American v\\i\ war, the "'Emily St.
Pierre." a British vessol, was seized by a United States cruiser
for an allcii-ed breticli of the blockade of Charleston, and sent in
{!,) Sec aNo M;ilr-r v. 77-" //-.vc/-/- ( / . Sec Thr ll<-.,,n'l- nr,.l Mn,--^" -1
'/o,. el Dall. 1: Scurt. m itO I , : and <'. Koh. i:}): 77//- /'-//■'/{ Spink-;. .')7 :
77/'- Cns,,>.-i„il',tr r.\ ('. Ix'nii. :;:!:i,. the Manual of \aval i'rizc \.:\\\. Art.
,c) O'-'.v.s V. W'lll.rrs ■•! Ilurr. (liCJ,. 'JTT ; and, in the Aiiicriean I'nurt-,
7) l,ii,-(f. p. ;5(ll, IhnUn.i V. Ciirxiirr (4 C'ranfh. -293 1;
(e\ ()<!du V. ];,.r:il CJ I-;a:~t. 17;}): and 77'-^ 1 „rl,.,-\l,h' (2 Call, at 39.
The r/.yistool.')- ^2 ('. Kn!i. at 21(),i. "j) Inira, p. 3(;3.
208 Cases and Opinions on International Lavj.
for adjudication. The English crew were removed from the vessel
with the exception of the master, the cook, and a steward; and
an American ])rize crew of two olUcers and thirteen men put on
board. During tlie \oyage the master and cook rose against the
Amei'ican prjzc crew, disarmed and secured them, and, with the
aid of some of the prize crew wlio were willing to assist in the
navigation rather than to remain in coniinement, managed to take
the vessel to Liverpool, where she was restored to her former
owners. The United States CTO\"ernment thereupon applied to the
British Government for a restoration of the vessel, but this was
refused.
Controversy.] On the part of the United States it wa-
claimed, in effect, that the rescue of a neutral vessel which had
been lawfully captured was a violation of the law of nations;
and that this was in itself, and apart from any alleged violation
of blockade, a sufficient ground of condemnation, as a breach
of the neutral's duty to submit to adjudication in the Court of
the captor. Uarl Husseil, in refusing the application, pointed
out that rescue was not a violation of any niuiiicijjal law of
England, and, as the vessel was not in the custody of the Bi'itish
CWjv(,'rnment, the latter had ]io autlioritx' lutliei' to seize oi' to
proceed against her. The olleuce. in fact, was solely oni' aiiainst
the laws of war made tor the bcneiit of the captoi's. and cdnld
only Ije given ell'eet to in the captors o^\■n Courts. Hence'. e\-e]i
if thr' rescue was a ground for condemnation, a decree' eould (jnly
Ije made l)y the I'l'ize Court of tlie belligerent. If a neiiti'al
subject rescued his \'e>sel by foree h(.' took the ri^k of the captors
right: of i'orcc' as reco^'uized bv the law of nations, but jirjthiuii
nioi'e. Tlie Courts and ('(ne'i-nment of a iH'Utral eounti'\
could not decide that the title to the vessel had jiass^d )<,
the cajtloi^ uiilil there had been a condemnatjon by tln' W'v/.i
C(jui-ts of the captor. All lliat the\- could ih) ^\-a- 1e resteu'c
to the caplcji' that t i]u]:orary ])Ossess()i'\- I'iiiht which he had
bet^\■een ca|itiii'e and eotidemiiatio]! . Uut suih ]:ns<c<so]'\' riii'lit
\\a> one of frace. mIiicIi oii1\- the ca])lors ( oa ei'nnient eould
u^si'i't. eitbci' by condeninat ion oi' othei- peiialt\ on the ])ro-
jM-rtx': although, even iu this ease, the rescuer iucui'red no
Title to Prize. 209
jxTsoiial |Mmislniioiit. It was no more inoLiin])cnt on a iioutral
('overnnient to cnl'orco such belligerent possessory rights against
their own (citizens, than it was to [)uuish wiohition- of foreign
hiw. or breaehes oi' foreign r(~venue systems, or hreaehes oi' a
J'orcign hh)eka(h'. In the I'esult the eontro\'ersy Avas put an end to
by the disecn'ei'y that in a previous e'is(^ ^^.« — where an Aniei'iean
\e>se! had b^'en reseuinl i'roni Britisli captors a siniihir cbiiin had
been made by the British Government and refused by the United
State< Cio\ernnuMit on tlie same grounds as those now \)xxt forward
bv Ear! Russell ;?;\
It may now [)rohably b(^ taken as settled, that if a neutral vessel is
captured by a Ixdligereut, and, before condemnation, either escapes
or is rescued, and readies h(M' own or any other neutral coujitry, the
neutral (h)vernnicnt is not <Mlher hound or eiitiiled to intervene with
a view to her restoi-at ion . Nor could any such claim l)e made Ijefore
a nemral Court: for. if based on capture, it would fail l)y reason of
the fact that neutral ('onus liav(! no jurisdiction ov(U' belligerentt
captures as such, whilst, if ha^od on own(U'shi[), it would fail l)y
reason of the fact that a cajitor ac([uires no definitive title prior
to condemnation (V-).
Gexkral Xotes. — Prize and Boot//, generally. — In general,
'■ prize " iiLcludes all pro))erty taken at sea, or as sea-l_)orue pro-
perty (d }. whether it consists of vessels or good^, and whether it
belongs to enemies or to neutrals, so long as, in the latter case, it
has acrpured a hostile character by reason of its employment or
the acts of its owners. "Booty." on the other handU'i, consists of
property seized on land by a belligerent force, merely as being
the projierty of tlie enemy. But, under the oxistiuLi' laws and customs
of wai". private ])ro])erty is formally declai'(vl to be exempt from eon-
li^catioii and Jiinst ingeniu'al he !'es|)(M-ted if). llenc(^ " boot\' " is now
(") 'that of 7'/ir Ex jh','n:iic(\ scc csr-a|)(> came to an end: W'hurtoii.
Whcatoii (Dana). -tTo. i)iLC<f. iii. 179.
(A' Sec al^o the case oi' 'I'Ik' fjim- : '' ) A lthoiii;-h. on the hl-t j>oint, S(H>
(:] Op. V . S., A. G. 377)— an Ameri- Thr Mnr,i For<l (3 Dall. 188: Scott.
ca;i \(-.<e! captiired hv rhc iM-ench hut 'i-Vi ) : and ]>. 204 n. (if). si>j,,-,f.
re-eued hv her crew niaor vo con- ('/) See 77,r Tl,ni;,i. p. J32, .v/',/,v/.
deiniiatioii-- \v!icn> a siiii'ilar (daica wa^ !') Wdnhdi only conceiais us here
made hv the l^'cneh ( iovc'rnment hut hy way of contrast to j)rizc and in
refused' hv the liiited State- on thi' rciat ion to fhe (picstion of tirK\
same u'l-ounils a< those taken hy l^arl '/) 11. W. Hi. 17. Save, of cuurse,
l^cs(dl. as well as on t!ic li-'-ound thai in so far as it may l)e i'ei|uii-(M! for
if a ve-s(d escaped fi'om her captors riii|itary pni'po.-e>: >',//'/. pp. HI.
and teiaiiinated Ihm' voya::'e in safety ]-)7. n. •/-).
hci- lialiiiiyv to condemnation J'or the
e.T.i., P
•^i<) Cases (ind Opinions on International Law.
practically coiiHuod to pidpcrty beldiigino- to tho cueiiiy State, such
a.s State troasure or luat-.'rial of war. ancl to certain other form^ of
property sin-li a< arms, Ji(jrses, and military pajters taken on the
held of battle (//I.
The Tiilc hj " I>()(jt>/. —ill tlieiiry. it would x-oni that tlie apj)ro-
priation of iMu'm\' property, whether nn land or .-e.i. diu-ht to be
L;<»\"erj)t'ti bv >imilar jiriiKapJc-. .\ii<l. in fact, th" appropriation of
b(.ith ■■ priz(_' and "houiv was nuce aoverir'd by rlie -imple rule
of elfecli\"e seizure, as tested by their ha\ino- been briiu^'ht to a })lac(^
i.if >afet\'. But boolv. a- we haxe >een, ftdi under uiiliiary leg illation,
and with the ehanu'es in military methods and orii'anizaiion became
Mf cDiniJaraiively little importance. In so far, however, as the qnes-
tion <jf title may still arise, it would appear to be f>-overned by
the nriL:-inal rule <,)f elfective seizure; althoug-h the ultimate dis-
[lo.-ition (if the pr.jperty wil! of cour-e lie subjecd to the regulations,
civil or military, of the State to whiidi the i-a|)tor or th(> i.-apfuring
forre Itelono's I <■ I. The history of jndze was alt02'ether diilerent.
and claims a more detailed examination.
'J'Jie Title to "I'lize.' (^i. ) Under the Karlier Latr. -The cpies-
tion of title to property .seized a> "prize" may arise either as be-
tween the original owner and the ea[)teir: oi' as l.ietween th" caj^tor
and his .'^tate; or. hnallv, a< Ijetween the oriu'iiial owner and those
idaimim:- by traii-fin' or traii>nii-<i(m from the captor. Under the
earlier iaw little was settled except that the title t(.» prize depended
on eriecti\-e seizure: and even here the te<ts ajjpliod diitered at
diriereiil tim<'- and in the practice of dilferent State- or groups of
."^tates. A'-eor<ling to one \-iew. wjiidi date- Ijack to tiie CoDsoIrito
del Mure, the a^ipropriate te-t wa- whetlan' the ])rii]ierfv had been
(■airied "inirn prnsid in " or to "a pla((> of safctv -o -ci/ure that
tlif owner could have no immediate pro.-pei't of reeo\eiinL;' it: which
was generally taken to mean tlie proteetiou of a fleet or fortres- or
harbour, either of the captor's State or of an allv. But according
to anoth(M' view, which was more arbitrary in it- eharacter but
frcfpieirtlv followed in tin' marine ordinance of Kui-opeaiL States.
die apprijpriate le-t wa- ^\hether tlie ca]itor had j-omaiiied in cp.iiet
]io--e-.;-ion of the j-iro|u.Mt v for twentv-foiu' hours i/,-:. Hence, if.
acioidiuL:- to ruie jn'acrice. the eaptor tiiok hi< j)rize iiiir(i yirrr<<id'a.
or if. ai'cordiiiL;' to the other, he held it for iwenty-foiir hours, he
was dt'tnned to have aiipiired a firm title which would pa-< to a jrur-
chaser on -;d('. oi' \f, m )■(> -apt ir if it '\\-a- rc-tak'Mi. ()i' ihe-f ie.;t.- the
former wa- not onh- the eu'liei- in point ot' time. ])ut al-o fended to
privloiiiiiHite ill the later pei'iod ; an<l may even now b<' said to apph'
(hi I'repcrty rit any odior cliaractcr. .-ee IJ. J{. -1. 14. and p. lOtj, iiuy.rn.
-ui-h a< ijioiicy and valiial.lcs. founfl i/'; .\s to tin' taiLi'li-li law on this
on cDinliatant- nni~t ln' kept and I'c- ,<nl)tcft, ■-(■(■ p. i^dl. >,/y,,-,/.
tiirnrd to llic owiici-- or t I'an-inittcd < /■ ^ l'"or a -l;cti-li of flu'SO jirin-
to tlnai- i-cpri-Maitativi.< hy tl]c Jlurcau: elides, see Hail, 14!f -7 ^rq.
Title to Prize. 211
<jxrept ill su laias ilisphiuod 1)\- later iisag-c or by positive' ro(j,'ulaliori(7).
Alcaiiwiiih'. willi llio u'rowth of trcule and (^oiuiiKn'ce, it Jiad hecoiiHi
ilic })iaiti((' tor iiiariliiiic States, wiieu at war. to rcMjuiro captors
to >iiliiiiil their pri/t's and claiuis t(t the adjudication (d' i*rize Courts,
wliicli wt'ie esial)li>li(jd for thai piirpoise in tJioir rcsiiecaivo
(.'(luiit lii'.- (/// I. This was [)r(il)alily dc.sjijnod at once io viiujicatc the
rio-hts n\ I he Slate ilselt, whicli was ui that time wont to c-laini a
share in the prize,-, taken i^/;; to ensure an orderly procedure; and
more espeeially to prevent international complications in cases where
iieutra; inUH'ests were ijxNohcd. But th(> iieT'essity I'or adjudicalion
appears lo have heen at lir>t only a matter between the ca[ilor and
his Stato: and in the case oi' enemy property it does nut seem to have
been oriyinallv a nect'ssary factor in the captors title. With respect
to neutral property, liowever, the greater uncertainty attaching- to
captors" claims led, comparatively early, to the rcc[uirement of a
decree of condemnation as a necessarv coiiditi(tii of title. And this,
again — taken in conjunction with the fact that under the system
which then obtained the propiU't}' uf enenues was (jften mixed up
with tliat of neutrals I 0 I- -ulliiuately led t<j an c>xtensioii of the same
condition to enemy |)roperty: with the resnlt that, in 1799, Sir
W . Sc<jit was abl<' to decl.ire that according to tir,' general jiraciicO'
of nations cond(>iiiiiation was essential to the transfer of property
in pri/o.
tii.i The MixJcni Prarf/cf. 'burning now to the modern prac-
tice, we tiiKJ the gdverning' rule >till to b(\ that the riu'ht of the
State take> pr(!ce<l(Mice o\'er that of the actual capt(n', who is deemed
to be merely its au'ent . It i>. liowexcr. >iill u>ual for the State to
cetje its interest in prop(M-ty taken from private owneis to tin* actual
(•a]itoi>: althoii<^-|i thi- ])raetice is. as we ha\e si-pn. beo-iimino- j,, ])q
\iew<'d with some <li<fa\oiir a- iu\'ol\iiio' iIk. cuiKbict of '.\ar for
private' g'ain. and its c(jni[»h't,(> abandonment has been pro])o>ed (/)).
At tlie same time, the rc>ijuircment of condemnation is ivtw almost
universal: and applies n<if merely to ve.-sols and Li'oods that
are brought in. but also t.o such as niav have bc;'n lost or
de>tr(iyed })rior to ad judieation ( (y i. Xijr. de-pile the earlier rule
of elfeetive sei/ure. doe- it apjx'ar that tlnu'e is jiow an\- interest
ac(piired ])iior to coiideninat ion. wlnMher on the ])ai't ot the (raptor
<;ir his Siat<\ b(>yoiid a mere pos<p<sory inleresr, which is liable to
(/) A< to its a|)|)lic.ition to huory, .") //'/,v^ p. 3(r2.
soe ]). 2 10. .^i'/j,-f': and ;h tn lt< con- . // ) N"/-,''. pj,. |:}(; „. . ,/)_ jgg ,^,-,(j
tinucil :i[>]ilic:il)iliry in ri-riaiii ca-^cs n. 'i; I'(>arci' 1 1 iu-L.'ins. SO r/ scq. In
nf inaiatirne iTca])tiii'(\ <(m' p. 2'-!l). llic 1 niti'd States Imth prize nioiiev
i-.'irii. and hounty were alxili^licd hv an Act
[„') .Vs to till' oiaLi'in aii<i history of (\<wj:vt'« ii.-i-M'd in lsi*i): sit Mooro,
of l^rizo an<i .\(hiiiralty jiiri-diot ion. I'iL^c^t. vii. (i.).).
-co ()p])cnliciin. ii. 2:')S ,'/ "'/. .' \\f<t~ (-/' And. Iiy tln^ 1 )crla ration of
lake. ii. \-l-l ri s,,/. I.omlon. aNo to coiitrahand volunrarilv
1//! r.nth iti |-amdaii(i and l-'i-anco snrr-ondn-cd or tal;on fi-oni a neutral
tliis contiiniod down to tli«- niiddlo of \t-so1 ili:ir is liio--i'lf nor lialdc to
tlie (ML'-liltTiitli ci-ntury: -co Hall, d.'^t ruction : <(.(• Arts. tt. -l ! : and
t.")2 and n. let ttt, >,ii ra.
p 2
212 Cases and Opinions on International Latv.
bo forfeited hx loss of possession. If the vessel is rescued and
reaches a neutral port, neither the captor nor his State has, as we
have seen, any claim either as against the neutral Government or
before the neutral Courts (/•). If. again, the captor should transfer
the prize ])rior to condemiiatiou then the trairsforee will acquire no
valid tilh? to it as against ihe original owner [s\. If it is recaptured,
tl'.cn bv municipal law the property in the priz(^ ccnnmonlv reverts
to the original owner, althoug-h .subject in this case to the payment
of salvage (/). Nevertheless, as against an ally in \\ar who followed
the earlier rule that rule uiiii'ht still he applied, at any rate under
the English law(2/').
BECAFTLBE AND SALVAGE.
(i) AS KEGARDS BEITISH PROPERTY.
THE "CEYLON."
1 1811: 1 Dods. 105. I
Case. J Daring war betAvecn Grreat Britain and France, the
" Ceylon," a British ves.sel, engaged in the East Indian trade,
was captured by tlie French. She was thereupon rehtted, and
having taken on board sonu' .additional arniann>nt and a French
crew, she was sent to the Isle of Franco, wliere she took part in
the defence of that place against the British. She was subse-
C[uently dismantled and iittcd out as a prison shij) : and was, in
that character. reca])turcd wlien the Isle of France was ultimately
takim by tlie British. Th(> original owner thereiipoji instituted
a suit for the restitution of the vessel on ])a,yiiient oi salvafre.
By the Prize .Vet then in force ^«; it ^^■as provided, in elfect, that
lirifisli vessels ]'eca]itured from thi^ enemy should be restored, on
]!aymeiit of salvau'c, t^xcept where a AO-sel had biM'ti "set forth
for war." On behalf (d' the claimants, it was <'(nitiMided that the
'■re\lon had not been "set forth for war: ' and also that thcM'o
had bi'cn tio "recapture" williin the meaning;' of the Act. for the
()■) Si'jir'i. [1. '20!) : ;iii(l. ii'^ to the re\Trt even at'tiT coiKloinnat ion unlo.s.s
case of ahaiKiuiuiicnt. |i. 2i)l. the vessel lias l)(>en fitted out as ai).
Ih) Sii/i.-rr. |). 2(17: K'eiit. ('niii. i. armed \-essel : i,il,i'. p. 211.
102: jlalleek. ii. ;3(;7: Scott. !lll). (/') Intm. ]>. 220.
(/) I ndei- tlie tiiiLi'li^h system it will (") 1.') (u'u. 111. e. 72.
Rpcuptuvd and iSdiuicje. 21-'^
reason tlial rcciiplun' ;i|)|)li('tl only to a rctakiiiu' hy iiaxal t'orcos
and not to ont,- olToctcd, as in tlio present ease, hy the (oiijijiiit
0|nTali()ii (if hind and sea forces. In the I'esult hoth these eonten-
tions wcro rejected, for tlio reasons given in the jndp-ment , and the
ve->sel eondenined as prize to th(> roeaptors.
Judgment. Sir \\' . Scott, in gi\in^- judi;inent, hold that in
oidci' \v. cuine within thi' excejjtion set U[) hy the statute, it was
not ncce-sary to show that a vessel liad hiMMi formally commis-
sioned (ir sent out of port on an errand of w\\\ but only that sh^
had l)e(>i: I'liiplox I'd in the puhlic niilitai'y >er\ ice oi' the iMiemy by
pei'sons lia\i!ii^' the re(pii>ite aulhoi'it\ . In the circumstances he
eon.ld not douf)t fliat the ''(V^ylon"' \vn- sullici(Mitlv "set forth
for war," oi' in othei- words " used as a ship of war '" to satisfy th(i
Act, and that she wa> so used b\' coinpeti'U.t authority. As to
whether there was a " I'cca])! un> " ^\ithin the meanino' of the Act,
the A-ct \\ a - di'awn witl; tlio iiitention oj' expres-iuo' the sense
and mi-aninL;' of the law of nation^ as it tlien (^\i>t(Hl. \\ merely
mentioned ships and ho. its a> Ikmiiu' the usual mode oi' i'eca])iur(>
by :-ea, and vra,-- not ini ended to exclude ot'ier niodcs of captur<\
But. exi'P if the case did Moi f a 1 i wiiiMii the .\ct. it imisl not h(^
forgotten that !)\- the i-irlic-t i;iw of l^urop(> a prnlii'-H') 'nijrd
prrcsUIh! was a suflicicnf comcrsion of tiir> oropia'ty. and tlie.t bv
a later h.nv a po-so-sion of 1 v, cnf \ -four liours wa- -ullicient io
divest the forniei' owncr<. so lliat a^'cordinu' to the ancient law
of this country, which ^\as in u'lison ^\ith the ancient law of
Europe, there w a a total obi iteraf icdi id' the rii^'uts of former
owiii'Ts 7) . It wasti'iie- tiial tin's nib' had siiici^ berai I'ec'eded IVoni
as the commerce of the countrx' incniased: -uid that an ordinance
of 16 19 iiad. in ca,-c- of tin* i-ecaptiir'' ol the pro]iert\' of British
sul.)je(;t>. direeted a re-i it.ni ion on -alvae'e ; IIk^ same rule lnuno-
eontiiiued afterward- whiai lie ei.untr'. b,.i'iiiie still more eoni-
niercial. lent liie earlier riit^ ■till olijiiiied and r'ontro^led the
pr()\u>ion.- of the .--lai ii1e where the prize l;ad lv> mi Httc'd out as
\h^ iu'ferriH'c is liiadc In tlif \'i<rsinn l)y cfVoofivc po^so-sioii -w.-is
CV-;i.w. ■■■'./ ./, / I.''. ■,■-'. Ai'i-, -JST. as oi'i<:-iiinlly"fi'lli)w<Hl alilc^ in Srotlaml,
oxpiai iir',1 ny '■rutiii- ;!':(! I!;, rtcy I'a.' ; l-'raiii'-'. ami iroMi I'lng'teid.
and to Mio fact that tlii> laili^ nt' (.'oii-
214 Cuses and Ophiion^ on International Latv.
a vessel of v.ar. lir'Uff. if tin' cu-^e did not; fall ^\ithin the Aot(c^,
till' ( 'ourt would roirai'd it a< (•oiniuLi' uiidfr tlif old I'ulo of the
law of natioii<. by which thi' i-itzhls of the ownor wore eoinpletcly
divf'stcd. In the ])ro>('iit ca.-i'. however, thcri- was no necessity
for resort to this, und the \cssi'l \\onl(l he eendfiniU'd to the
reea])lors under the I^rizc Aft itself.
A.ltli(jn<ili this deei>iijn \va- <ri\'eii uuder a stiitiitc --iiiee i^e-
j)cali'<l. a. siiiiiliir pruvi-iou i- coiitaiuel in the Xava! I*riz<' .Act,
]S(;j. This [)rin'ide< in oil(,'('t that wlifre any ship or ji-oods
lirlon^in^' lo British sulijeft-, atter hcinp- taken by the (jnoniy, are
r('tak(ni Liv an\" of 11. M. .-lii))^ ot \\ai-. the sana? shall hi' restored
by (hjcrce ot' the Prize Court to the owner, on pajanent as salvage
ot oja'-piizhth of thr>ii' value, a< ascertained by the Court or agTeed
upon l>v th<' ]jariio- witJi the approval ot the CJourt: with ])ow(,'r to
the Court lo inci'eii--e tjie saKaiic in circunist-jinces of sjjecial
diflicully or dan;^-.")' up to onc-tourth ol' the vahie; Ijut sidiject
to tlic piovi-o that it tiu' -hi]) wa< u<ed b\ tlio oiieirn" as a
ship of war the piovi^ioii tor I'c-tii ut imi '^liall not apph'. and the
siup >hall he trcateii as or<Jiuarv pi-iz<M c/y Jn order to bring' a
\essel within tlio -';ope <jl tie- pi-o\'i-o. it i- iiol ni^0f'ssar\- to
show that ,-hf^ wa- toviirilly ci ininiis-injied as a ve^-d ot wai'i'ej.
]iut oiih- thiit -h<' wa< <'in]>loyofl h\' f-onipet^'Mit authoritv i]i the naval
s('i-\ic<' ol the cin'niN ; / i. .Anoijicr rxcfpiion lo llio ruh' of ii.'-;l il ution
e.xists where the I'Cfajjturcd \('--('l. Ix'ing Iji'itish. is tound to have
been <'n2'ai;('d in an uuLiuful ti;ide j)rioi' to her capluic ( (j i. \oi' will
that rule a])]»lv. in favour ol' tin' oii^^-ina! captoi'. wherf an oiiemv
vessel has Ix'en captured, and then ict,ik-en. and siih^coucnth i-fcap-
tuicd by the liriti-h i i >.
With ji'-])(M;t lo .-alvag-e, this i- a rcwai'd j)a\able to a capioi' iu
rasf'- where restitution is or.n nu,'fl f // e It nia\" be claiin(,'d either
by i-oni!iiis-ioiie<| or non-eoniinis-^ioned ves<<ds(?). or even by the
crew ol tlie capturo'l \'e~>el itself 1///1. 'fo eijiitle a reeajitor to
sal\a,'je, th(;)e inii-t ha\e Ijeen an actual or cijiistrucf i ve oriu'inal
cajitiiii'. au'l II -uli-f'pH'iit reco\f'rv of the pioj)ertv from the enemy,
not n<'Cf--;i li! \- ill the sen^c ol' ;i forcihle retakdiej'. hut in the sense
ot 11 lerniiiciiioii ol' tin,' ho--tih' (■n\\\rf)\ tliiou^'h ihe ai'tiim of the
reca ptor ' /< ' . Ihe ckjim nj' sdvaL;e \\\\\ lie extiiiL;ui-hed if the
( r t 'Diat i<, a- rcL;-ii!'(ls tin- (|Ui'~tio!i Law. .\rU. 2G1 'Jfi!!.
of ri'c;i lit 111'^. ("/•' A- to it- u-ciii'i-a I cha rrK't-f r.
(d) S-. 10. 11 . .^.'c |,. -lH). :,,i,„.
id) I.Wrr.i •VA\y. IS,-, . (/, 77-, l-,n,,u, ',-, c. l;,,s. ns).
a- Thr (;r,,.'/.n,,„ \ ]),A<. •.y.)i ,. ( „. ^ Ti,. r.r,, /,..,,,/. m c J!ob.
(;i) '11. 1. //•-//,.;„ 7/,-',,, I'n.lr.i f-1 C. -.^71 : /'/.'' Ilrur,, (W C. |;,,l,. 292).
K')t). 77). i/'y W'luM-f j)i'()|icia \' i- o'covLTcd
f;. yA, ll.nsr 1 (. ie.l,. ^m;. ; witl.r.nt hoin- artuahy - r.aakcn "
aiiH. u-eniTaily. .Maimai of \;i\;i! \'v\/.> wiliiiii tlii' liicaiiini:- ot t!ii' Vy'v/j- .\ct,
lieaiplnrc (inn iSatvane. 215
vessel is ca])turo([ iiiiow uiui coudciuncd by the enemy, altliough it
will i'evi\c if (lie prize; is ultiuiately lolcused and restored to licr
orif^inal owner (o). It ^\il[ al<<) l)i' foit'oited by proof of iiiisconduct
on the part of the recaptms ( /> ). Propcitv retaken from ])irates is
in Eng-lisli law prhitd jacie condcimiablc to the Crown as droits of
Admiralty, Imt if any part can !«' shown to have belong-ed to private
owners the ( 'onrt mav direct r(\stitiitinii on [)ayiii(Mit of a sah'age
of one-eig'hth (q).
(ii) AS liKCiAHDS THE PHOPEHTY OF AX AELY
Oil CO-IJELLIGEREXTS.
THE 'SANTA CRUZ."
[1798: 1 C. Rob. 50.]
Case. .Diiriui;- wwv b(>t\\o'.'ii Groat Briluiii and E^'aiice. Portugal
being' the ally of tlio former, certain ve-.sels bcloiii^'ing to Portu-
gue.se .subjects wore caidurcd by the French, but subseipicntly
reca})tured by th(^ P)ritish : in oaifi (■■iso after remiiiniim- in the
pos.session of the iMunny for more than twent:y-four hours. One
of these ncssoIs was retaken in .Vtiuust. 17!)() ; another in the
interval between December, 179(), ami AJuy. 1 7!)7 ; whilst the
rest were retaken after the hitt(n' date. A chiini for restitution
was made b\' the owtiers ; but this was ri'sisted b\- the ro('aptor.s
on the u'round that in an:ilogous cases the' Portimiu'se ('otu'ts had
condemned P)ritish vi\ssels. .\s to this it a|)pe;ired tinit in
I)eccnd)er. I7!)(). an ordinance had bt;en issued by Portugal
declarini!' all ve>sids re(;a|)tured after pos-e-sion b\' the enem\- for
t^^■enty-four hours to be lawfid prize; but tiiat in May. I7!I7.
another ordmam/e had been i>sued dire:'lim;- re-titution in such
cases. >nbject 1() the usual sal\ai;e. in the I'i'stilt the ('ourt. actinir
on till' rule of rei'ijn'ocit ^'. condemned the \-e-si'l captured ])rioi'
,<til\ai:-(> may lie awarded undci' the dccri-cd for the I'ccapturc of a vessel
L;'ciiri'al mar: tiiiii' law: sit 1' nr I'.J .rn i-,: \\-|iirli \va< accidcntalh' di'st i'dvimI
"/,'/ .1/"/ V ( :j ( . lu)!). :)().') I : I'hi' I'.r,- aftiT aj)jiraisfim'iir: scj' Thr I'ln-cr
g,;ss ( IMw. -21(1;: and I'/.r n.,.r>/ F,-:r,.,ls s^X C. i;„|i. -iiiS).
(i;<iw. Iir.^ ^. wliiM-f a i-i'imivlia^i' fi'i.m ( ^/i ■fhr l'.,i,h,<in ( :] ('. i;,,',,. 171).
tlm (Mii'iiiy was treated as a sal\aL;'e (y) Sit 1 :i \- 11 \'ier. e. 'Jii : au<i
serx'iee. as td ilie praeliiH' \\i nthei- (.■imiiti'ie.s
(r,i '/■/,, • f!,,i,-!<ill.- (■,.',•■''>,.. (1 on x'wi- Mihjeer of i^eeaplure and
]Jods. i!i-i'. .•Sai\ai:'.' \\\\< e\ eu liern saixau'.-. p. '110. i).i,''.
216 Ca^c8 and Opinions on International L
aiv
to December, J TOG, on the around that the Jaw of Portuo-al in
the like (.'ase wouhl ha\e suhjccted an Eng-Ush \essel to condemna-
tion; a simihir sentence was prononnced, for ihe like reason,
with rc-pect to the vessel retaken l^etMi'en Dcci'inber, 171)6. and
May. 17!)7 : hnt all vessels retaken alter tin- date of thi' decree
of 1797 were re-tored, suhjec't to tlje jiayment of .-ahao-»' at the
same rate as that allowed b^' PortuL;ne>(^ law a .
Judgment. v^ir \\". :Scott, in his judgnii'nt, ob>cr\cd that in
consequence of the conilictin^' practice of States on thi- sul)ie;;t
there ap}H\)red to be no rule th'it (.'ould claim the authority
of a o-cneral hiAv. With rcsjx'Ct to the divc-tment of tic title
of the orio'inal owjier. it niipht be that tlie te-t should be that of
immediate possession bv the cajjtor, or twenty-four iiours pos-
session, or the brinii'inii- of the ])rop("rt\' infra [ircp^ifji'i, or the
passing' of a sentence of eondemnation . But. althous^-h in [irin-
ciple nations concurred in ri'tp^iirin^' a S'Cure ])o.--:: s-iou. t'.ie ])roof
of thi- recpiired in ]n'aetice was altoii'etlier di-nirdaMt. h ndcr
thi.' cin-um-tanf'cs. for Oh'i.'at Britain to la\" it down that a brin<2-
ino- htjra e/Y':'>7'f//'y- - alti]0UL:h tliis A\^a'- iu'ol);ibly th^' true rule -
was in all ca-''- ne,':'ss;ii'\' to di\"c'>t tlie riiilit oi:' thi.' eriLianal pro-
prietor, iiiiii'lit \\(ji"k inju-lice to British .-ubjccN. to wIiodi a
dilt'iu-ent ride mi^'ht be ajipli^d b\' (jtlicr State-, hi >ui h --■ircuiu-
i^tancc'S the j^rojier ])roi'rudinL;' wa- to appl\', \\\ the iir-t instance.
the rule of tlic country to ^\hich the reca])turi'd jiropcal \ ii^JdiiLi'i'd.
E\T'n if there wa^ no jto-dtive rule, tlea.'!' A\'a< li'airrillv ji u^aL!'e
of the Coui't- of AduiiraUx' : but it th'it did ucjt exi-t. tluui it
would be jiece-sarA' to applA' on(''> own rule. AA'itli rc-pci't to the
laAv of l-]]m'land on tlii^ subji'Ct. it appeared that liiat law.
having" adc^p't^d a most lil)ei'al rulc> of rest ituiu'o-u a- j'eii'ard^ the
recayitiired ])r(ipi'vf\- of it- own suljj'i'i't-. <.''a\r' tic biu ■;ii uf tliat
rub' to aUie- until it ajiiti'iri'd tliat tla.'\' a -ted tiiwiu'd- Jh'iti>h
pro])i'rt\' oil a lc<< libsa'al ])rinci]ilc; and tliat in >u<-]i cMSr it
treated tlean aeeordino' to tlieir oavu mi'a-urc oi' iu-iic!'. Idiis
pr!iji'i]'ii' oi' ri'iiprneit V "was not b^- any m:-an- prT'idiar to cases
of r('ca])lur', but wa_- f'unid lo bc' oi)f'i'ativr> in otlna- ca-^-s oi
{".) 'X\i\< boinf;' one-ri'j'litli t'.' pulilic vc--cls mid oiio-lifili to ])^i^■;^t^'f■rs.
Recaplure (Did SnUuKjt
21'
iiiani iinr law, and in this rr>prct was (•\('ii ^auctioned l)\-
Maijiia ('liai'la(6 . Ww (lUcslioii was, ihcii, wiiclh'r Pjiiut;al
had a|)[)licil a dillrri'iit ladc. uinh'i' siiudar (■irciiiii>taiic(s, lo
l^'it i'-.h propcii \ . Al'tcr a cai'i'l'id rcxicw o! the i'\ idnicc on
tlii> point , the ioarncd jud^'c canic to ihc conclii.^ion thai the hiw
of l'oi'!ni;-al f^tahlishcd t \\('nt,y-t'oni' houi's' possossioii l)\- tho,
f'tKMiix- a- a h'u'il di\i's1niont ol' the |)ropi'i't\ id' ili" on^jinal
()\\ nri' ; ihat it ajjpliod the sainc I'uh' to the propt.'rt y of allies ;
and that" this i'iih> had 1)0(mi act.od on in practice. Ilaxinu' iTO'ard
lo tlii>. ]ii> had no hcsiiation in pi'onoinn-ine' the h'r-t two cases
lo he suhpH't to conliscat ion. Hii! as ree-arils the othor cases of
rpca])1iii'e, iiiasnuich as, in Ma\', 17!)7, Portiie-al had ado])tc(l a.
more lilici'al rnh'. under wliich i'i^:'a])lured pi'opi^rty wa- i"\siored,
althoim'h. -ui)|ect to a h.iuiiei' calc of salxaee. it woiild iiol ho
ric-ht t(j rel'ii-e to Port:.uuai(>se suhje;'ts the hen:'lit oL' thi> allei'a-
tion : and restitution would t hen^i'oi'e he decreed, siil)jcct to
sahiiu'c lit the I'ale e-tahli-hed i)\- the law of Portuiial.
Tlii- (■a>e -ci\e- lo illiisii'ate die p;ai-iice of the !lrili-li (_'oiniS
Willi re^port lo the re.■^litlll ion ol' \'es-t>ls or o-(iii;[v l)cloiie'iu_>> -[(i die
sidijee',- <il' an ally ijr eo-liolii_>i en; N\!;irli Jiave liccii captured hv
an eiieiiix' hiii rei-apiurcd \\\ the i hi' isii i r ).
A ^(.iiiicw liai d i lie rent (pH>>i ion ar^Lseiu the (.-a-o of llie 7''co h'r'wiida
• 1 ('. r?iilc i'7J c 111 that c;i-e '.iicai nrilain IjeiiiM' at war w idi
Fraice and tli(> I nitei] SiaU>s iuMii'^- aNo !ii\ii!\ed in ^/c /V/e/o lio--
tilitie- \\\\\\ ilie ,-anie roiintiy alilnaiuh iiui ;;s tlie all\' ol Ciiea.t
niL'ain an American -hi]) heel lieeii ^-apMired li\' ilie theneli. and
<iil)-e( iiicii! I \ recapitnred \^\ lier ciew. sunn' o!' \\;liiiui wore IJrilish
siilijc'i^. and 'hioiiLiiil mie a ln';li--ii porj.. Sal\ML;'e in i-e-pect of
the i'ri-aptiire \\a- diereiipuii (dainic 1 iiy die icLiti-di seamen. 'i'o
lid- ii \\;i- iiioeeted that die ('(Hill had im inri-die! imi over an
Amerinin \"i'--e| wldtai Iim'I iicen re;-a jCnrc: I I,-,- her ewu eri_'w. In
the re-Ill! Ill' the claim ef -alvae-e w,,- a!l(e;.ei|: ii liciii"' Indd tha.l
ina-miii'li a- ii was im pai't oi tli(> u'cneral i\\\\\ oi -eanieii to cli'oct
a re<:-Mi' the rei-ajiim-- were imr t^ 1 im-iijeird mend\" in l]i(> lieau;
of Amcrii-an -:;!ineii: ilai! e\(Mi it all ihe crew iiad Ik'cu .\aiicricaii
llieie W'.iiM i!a\-e iiccn iin iili!e'-driu lo ti'c (c\(^rA-c nl' siicli a. jiiri--
'"lii-! ieii. I ' IV 1 lie i'casi ai 1 lia ' -a l\ ai:(> w m< a o n(>-i ien of ]u^ ijcnivi'in ■' '/ 1 :
.'''1 \~ in th:' t r.MMiii'nr nl' nii'iny Via. -JTI- -.wA. a- rn tli.' Aim ri^'.-i ii
jHT-iili- aii'l |ii-u|!.Tly i'l.iiiid in t'lr | ,;\-i(a"icc, p. 'I'li), /,,/,•".
cimniry I'li ilir ma eri-iic i'F w;ii': ■ '/ ' 'tlic lannmir of -alwiac. in rli'-
A'.iaiiii I 'liana. \rl. II. I'anh ni' im-it i\ c jiroxasii.ii li.a.aa' (leOT-
'.1 Sra ''.lannal 1 1 i' .\a\'a! I'ri/j' Lava minalili^ en the prinriiili' uf '/a"/,-'''/;,'
218 Cases and Opinions on International Law.
and, finally, that whore, as in the present ease, the interests of British
subjects were concerned and o-(iods subject to the salvor's lien were
found witliin tli{> eountr\ of tlie Ctuirt. <ucli a jurisdiction un-
doubtedly existed.
(iii AS RIXiAHDS XEITHAL PROPEHTV.
THE ' CAKLOTTA."
[1803: 5 (". Rob. 54.]
Case. In 18U3, during \\'ar between France and Great Britain,
ill which Spain was neutral, the ■'('arlotla, ' a Spanish shij), ^\'as
captured by the French whilst on a voyage from Alonte \'id(H) to
London : but -was sub.se(|ucntly recaptured by tlie British. .A
claim to salvau'c A\as preferred, but this was resisted l)y tlie owners
on the ground that no salvage could be claimed on a rceapturo
of neutral property, save in circumstances which did not exist
in the present case. In the result the claim for sal\agc was
rejected.
Judgment., Sir AV. Scott, in gi^'ing judii'ment. stated that
the tendency was against subjecting neutral |iro])orty recaplui't^d
from the enemy to salvage. .Vt the same time, if in a ])articular
case any fact could be established or edict appealed to showing
that the pro])0rty in question would have been e\[)o.--('d to con-
demnation, he woidd hold that to be a sufHcient gi'ound for
awarding' salvage. The rule that salvage could in no case be
claimed on a reca])ture of niaitral pro])(n'ty was oih' subject to
exce[)t iiais. Ihit as. in the |)re-ciit cnsc tliei'c did not ;i|ipriir to
])e aii\' ijrouiid-(jn which it could besu]»posi'd ilcil inaili'-il Spanish
pi'opi'rty would lia\e bi-c]! condiMiiiied. lie could not pi'oiiounciv
sal\ aii'i to lie dui'.
X(Milral j)V())K'rly is injt in u'eueral exposed to coiKMunuatioii .
llem-e it' smli properiv is caplui'cd l)y <jue helligerent and
I'elaki.Mi liy tlic ojIkm'. iIh' lalter ouu'lil tn ]-esI.a-e il lo the
neutral owner willioui pa\ iui'ii' of salvai^c. mi the a->uinplion
that ill" ('ourt- ol' tic laoinr wduM nol lia\c coiiijeiiiiicd it. and
lle.capture and Sdlvntjc. 219
lliat Jio moiit()ii()ii< scivicc was llicreturo i'oii(len'<i (7> ). Xovorthc-
k'-s, if iliL' iael«s show ihal tin' ( '(jiil'Is ol' the caplor would iu fact
lia\o cuiukMum'd tlic prupLMty whctlici' iu aciMjidaucc with aduiitlcj
j)iiu(:i])lo> I r). or e\(Mi umh'r pd^itixe I'eu'uhilinus not in ai-conhuii-e
\\\\\\ tlic o-eiiei'ul usag'c ( (/ ) tlieu sal\a^'0 will he dcci'ccil { c \ .
Iu \\iv cnuvi'i'^r case, wIhm;o a unutral (,'ourt i.s asked In award
v--al\au'e iu iH'>])ocl of propculy caplui'od by a Ixdiiuoreul . hut rescued
h\ iicuti'als after loss oi' ahaud(.)uuu'ul hy the captm-. it a|ij)ears-
that iuasuiuch as ,sal\Mu-e is a uiatter of the jiifi r/eutiiiin (f), the
Court is entitled to uiake au award so long- as the [)roperty actually
lie> within its jurisiliction ( // ) .
t ' F,\i:i; \i, X()ii:s. Tlic 1,'ii/h/sol I'eidptorx. - A,s regards property
retaken on tlu^ sea, wliich alon<> coueerus us hero, the respective
riuht- (.)!' the original ownej- and I'ceaptor were origiuallv governed
liy that general maritime law which is refeiTcd to by Lord Stowell
in \ii< juilii'meiit in the Cct/lou i li ). L'uder this the prize was deemed
to heloni;- to the reeapior if the captor had previ(»iis|y ac(juired a
title to it; whilst if h(> had not then it re\-erted to the
orig'inal owuei' /arc jh)-4liniiin/ . The (pu'stion of whether tlie
eapior luul ae(juir(Ml a title in sueh a ease origiuall}' de-
])ended. aecoi'ding' to on<> ])raetiee. on whetluM; he had carried
the prize iiifiri iir<( s'nl'ui : or. according to anothej'. on whether
he had held pos-,ession of it for 24 hour.^in. Hut the growth of
coniuituci* and the -f reugt luMUUg of the mercantile iufei'e-t. added
to th(^ fact that thi> r<MMptor- iu such cases weri> 'iiMieralh' fellow
snlijeci- of the oidLi'inal owihm'-. gradualK' led to the a(h)pJiou of
a niMv prartice. I!v thi- the transfer of tlie property to the captor
h\' clhM-iual -ei/uie wa- iL;-in)rel as between the recaptor and the
oriLiinal owmn-. ami the ]irop:'rl\' lestored to the latter: <u!i]'ei-t. how-
e\ei'. iu al' ea-e- to the pa\in<>nt of a suiiabh^ reward to tlie former,
ddii^ (hange of ^y-tem was eliected in J'hiiidand b\ an oi'dinauce of
l(ii!l(7,-i. and wa- ^oonc!' or later followtNl liv most oth<M' maritime
State-, with ih" lesnlt that the practi<M> o|' le^iiiuiion on r(M'a]iture
( '. ) St'c Tin' ll'iir Otiskiii, {•! V. .nTDiiiid tor hclic/iim' t!i;it tiic pro-
lint. '-'!)!!;; and .\t'neiiil n\ \a\al [ici'ty would in faft lia\(' tccii coii-
]'n'/.(> I. aw. AiT. 270. in tin' carUrr (loiiiiicd. r\v\i thoiiu'li ini justly,
jiri'iod. indeed, rliei-e a I'e tr.a-es r.\ a i . \ 7'/." //■„•,■ (),:sI.-,,„ ( 2 ' ( ' . ttol).
jii'e! en>ion to a]i])ro!ii-ial e all ship- and 'i!*!) i : Tin- .h-'m,, f'.dw. '2.")l).
goo(U taken out .if the hands of the ; / s '_,,,-/. p. l'17.
eiieiny: hut in the laiei' perio<l :i neire , y '/■/,,■ /■,/■,, /■',;, ,,,/.^ \ ('. \loh.
fpiitalili' p]-aetiee came to pi'e\,iil: -.'71': /'/ ■ J/'OV /■'-/'/ C! Hall. iSS);
see y/i, N/' '.,'.'. Wdieaion ( Dan.a . I'liC and. a< to the (election of tirle in >ueli
(ei A- «lie!'e the \"s-ei wa- ean-y- ca-es. p. 2nl. .-./',,,".
[wj: eiuUrahand. or invohcd iii le-eaeh /- ) N-'/'/v/. ]>. lMo.
ol l.luekade: -ee T /, r //•',,/,,-. '; ( '. /) S„,,,.,. p. '_' I U .
tv'oli. 1(11^: y/w .NV,-.sM,„ i; ( . !;.,',. /■) S.",,,". p. L'l:,. 'the Deteli had
■1 H) ,. adopted it even ea;'l!"l : -e,. if:il'. -ISS.
('/) So loni;- a- there \va< rea-miaMe
220 discs awl Opiiiioiis on International Law.
lit'canio ii'OiKM'ul. P)ut there Ava-. and still is, a gTeaf lack of luii-
foniiity in the vai'iou< municipal svstonis as regurds the precise
conditions ot' restitution i /;. In su lur, moreover, as the numicipal
rale of restiiniiou dr)es noi apply, rct-onrse will still he iiad to the
earlier law i m).
Existlun Vnrinfi()}is of Pnicfice. — Tho Ijrilish [)ractiec, as we have
seen, is lo restore ihe ships and <^-iiods ot subjects recaptured from
an en<Mny on ])ayjnent of a -alva^'c of one-eig'hth, which may, how-
ever, iurh'r the -tatiile, 1)C increased to one-foui'ih in circumstances
of special danu'er or ditliculty u/) : and this whether the recapture
w;is ellected before or after cnndemnation, so long only as the prize,
being a vessel, was not employed in the naval service of the eneju}- (o).
The -anic rule of re-tituti(ui oir recapture is applied to tlie property
of an allv. uide-s it a|)poars that a less lilieral rule is apj")lied lo
British i)r()])erty. in whicJi case recourse is had tv the i)rinciple of
lecijjroeity ( jy ). Xeutral jjrojierty. on reca})ture. is restored on the
pre--umpiion thut the oueniy would not liave condemned it: but tliis
pre>-um])ii(.)n may lie i(d;u;ied, and in sucii a i^ise restitution ^\ill
only be made on pa^'ment of salvage i q). 'idie jiractice of ihe
United Staie> is to i'e--tore the ships and property of citizens dv
inhabitants which ]la^"e been iecaptui'e<l from ihe cnemv. subject to
tire pa\'nieiii (if ^-alvage. liut >-uch res'ituiion will onlv he made when
the recajMui'o has lioen oilected before criiidemnation, in A\hich case it
is made irrespcci i\ (> of any u<e lo A'/liicli tlie vessel may ha^•e lieeu
put by ihe enemy (/■); whilst if ell'eote<l after condemijation tlieii
the [iidpiU'ty will, a- under the earlier law. belonu' to the ca])tor ( x ),
If the pmpertv rsMMptured helonii's lo -ul)jects of a friendly State,
the practice i^ lo re-ioie it so buig a^ it was iHMakeu liefore con-
demnalion, bui subject to a ct;iidi;ion of letiprocin-, and on tiie same
term- a< lo -alvagc a< would have bieeu a})])lied lo tin' property
of I'eiiod States ciri/iMr< in -imilar c-ii'dim-taiice-^. or. in d.efault of
aiiv rule or usa^-e on the subject, then on iiaAinent of sut-h salvau'e
as wiiuld be due und.'r .Vmeiicau law i/i.
Siih-'iffi'. The term '-al\aL;<'. in it- mai'iiime conm'c^ou. denotes
eillii'i- the ,-ervi("-(^ of .--a', inu' a thine- a,i lisk ;it sea, or. mrn'O nsuallv,
the I'cward for dninii' <o. In ea.-li siMi-e -al\'a'.:'e m,i\ lie eitlier
('] 1 ci\il. a- whei'e a vessid oi' her i-aiuM oi' ilie lives (,;' {Jidso on
bonrd h-i\'e iieen s;i\-(^(l fi'Min luss or de-truetion b\- ihe piu'iN of i]ie
/; /,'',". j,';;-^i';l ill l.seO, and now enibodicd in
,v' ) >■■.',". p. lii'J. ;ill Act 01' ISi;;; m;c liry. Stat.
. :■■ ) It- iiKiv .".Nil lio cxti'iidrd liy the ;^ -lii-'i^.
t'ouiT :M':irt fri.iii .^lauiic: -"c T/ic (.v,. 7/.. V/' / ,'■', Wdicat . 7.S).
0'>'/, i; C. II. ,\). 27:;,. (/; Sect. :; of .\i t oi' ISO'), ^uj'.-".
,-; .\-; I" irJiiT i'\f;'jir!(in-, sec !-'i,;' ac acceuiir nt' ;iii> law- of c,;h''r
eiiunri'ie- witii i-c-iiC'T til rrca.ptuiN.' or
-alvae-c. M'c Wlie:'toi) iJina'), -16(i. n,:
and AtIhtIi'V .liiiies, ('numicrcc in
I an iniT(-'as(> Wai'. c. i\. : and. nn llie -uli'i'cf ^-e'lc-
ria-d vc~~id. raliv. ii.ali. isS . / sr,,.
~. ori-iiaillv
],. -It. .-,.-■
/.; >'■■,.. '■•
\-. -Hi.
'/ 1 '~^''">"
. n. 1^ 1 S.
W-! .Vlr'a.u
i-li .u!.,;r
of -.il vaLi'i ' i r
T!li.^ llV .\rt
a -I'd .;.
- Of Coi
Tlir Termhidiion (if War. 221
t^oa: (If (2) jiiililarv. as wIuto oiiliCM' vcs<el or o'ofxls are rescued
from ail (Miomy in tini(> of war or t'r(jiu pirates at any tinio. Mili-
tary -alvaa'c. with which alone we are Jiere concerned, is reallv a
part of the hiw of |)rize. and is often known as jti'ize sal\'a,ti'e i u j.
Like oth<'r ri^-ht< incidiMif. to recajjtui'O, it was once governed by
o-cncral inariiiine custoni. but ii is now ^'ox-orncd for the most part
b\ positive i'e<i-nlations adopted by each municipal system. Xevcr-
th(dess, salva^'e is. in some sort, still a matt(>r of the yV-s fjciifiiAm:
and the C'oiuds of one country may. if the [)ropcrty saved is found
-witlun theii' jurisdiction, adjudi(\Ue thereon, even tiiou^'li the salvors
are -nbjcet- of other Slates; the amount in this case, as veil as
ill otluM' ca-es uot provi<led for l)y munici])al roo-ulatiou, being- deter-
mined b\- reference to the rule of quantum meruit (x) .
THE TEUMISATIOX OF WAR.
THE MAKING OF THE PEACE OF PORTSMOUTH, 1905.
[Ilcr-licy. Tlic 1 iiti'niat:(.)iial \j\\.\\ ami 1 Jiploiuai-y of the Itu-s i-.lapaia'-" Waiv.
;UI el srq.: Takalui^hi, 219, 774. |
Events leading to Peace.] The Peace Com eat ion of 1890,
amongst other things, Jev/hired it to be expedient that neutral
Powers should, if possible, olfer their good ofhees and medial ioii
to States at variance, and, further, that this miuht be dojic exen
dui-ing the cour>o of hostilities, and should not umler any circuni-
slances be regarded as unfriendly // . In June. 1 OOo, during the
progress of the Russo-Japanese ^vnv. the Prcsideiil of th" United
States, I'clying on these pro\'isions, a])]n'oaelied the belli^'erent
(m;\ I'rniueiils willi a re(iUest tlial the\' wnubh not only for their
ovn sakcs bnl in tho interest of tli(> vholc ei\ilizcd ^\•orld. open
neo-otial ion< for ])cace ; su2'<i'esl in<i' ;!t tlii~ same time a .meeting
(d' deleu'ates for this pur])ost\ and offm'iiiL; bis services, if rr--
(piired. in the nnttler of arramz'inii- projiminai'ies as to tin' linu'
and place of nieetinu-. Idie time wa> pi'opilious ; for Port Arthur
Icid fallen in the previous Januarw the lialtlo of AIukd(Mi had
') iSuth Tiiiliiary and civil siiUaui- inilitarv >aha^;'c; T/" Tn/, /■',;>,,■/.■■
iiia\' 111- awarded if both >er\ ir('< art (^ L ('. IJol). J71): x''//,r-/, j). '217.
r.-i'dri'cd: >(.< y/w- /.,,,-;.„ 1 Dnds. („) Sc(- Art. :}. Tlic.c provi-^idiis
:)17). arc rcprutluccd and even strcnu'tlicncd
1.'-; This applies cipiallv in eases in the enrrespDndini;' C'omeuti'iu of
o\' e'vil salva-e: T/.. /,', //- ■,-'•- 1 li)07. Art. :3,
Alilxii. A(hu. II. ;317: Scott. 'JoH). aiid
222 Cases and (Jpinions on International Law,
been fought in Alai'eli, and the Ilussiun tleet had been virtually
destroyed at the battle of Tsushima, thus leaving Japan, for the
time being, in a position of predoniinanee. A favoui'able reply
was received from each of the belligerents, and thereupon the
necessary arrangements were made for the holding of a Peace
Conference at Portsmouth, in the United States. The lirst meet-
ing was held on the 9th .Vugust, 190-j ; Hu.ssia being represented
by ]\1. AVitte and Baron Hosen, and Japan by Baron Komura and
M. Takahira. It Avas arranged that any language might be used;
that the protocols should be drawn up in English and French,
the French text being decisive ; and, finally, that the discussions
and proceedings should remain secret. The Japanese conditions
of peace were then presented to the Conference and discussed at
successive meetings. These conditions were originally twelve in
number, and included Aarious sti])ulations with respect to Kor^a
and Manchuria, the cession of Sfikhalin. Port Arthur, and
Dalny, the surrender of Russian warships thon interned in
neutral ports, the limitation of Pussian na\al lorce> jn \\\o Far
East, and j-eimbursemeiit for tlu- costs of the war h . Of
these demands, Russia, in the first instance, relused ^'vcn to con-
sider those relating to Sakhalin and the indemnity : whilst she
pronounced the proposed surrender of the inleriied slaps to be
contrary to international usasic, and the })ro])Osed limitation on
her nava,l force,^ in the East to be derogatory to lier dignity. In
the course of the discussions that ensued the two hitter claims
were abandoned. But Japan continued to jH'ess iier chiim for
the surrender of Sakhalin on the grounds of her formei- owner-
ship, her present possession, and the principle of u/i pos^kletlh- ;
whilst Russia objected on the ground of the essentiality of that
island for the duo protection of lier East:c'rn ])roAince>. .Vs the
result of a direct appt^al to the Czai', lio\\e\ n-, the Rii>siaii d<'l('-
gate.- rec'cdcd J'rom llirs |jo>itioii to the extent of ex])i'es>ing' their
willinLnie-s to coir-^idci' the question of the suri'i-ndei- of the
southei'n part of Saklpilin V- . Ifiit this \\a>J';ir from satisfying
Japan; and at the time it a]j])eared that, both on the question of
( /> J I']>tiiiiatc(l tii(-ii ;it from ojii^ to (r-) I'lius siivinq- liussia's stratotric
two litiiidi'od inillioiiH stcrtiiitr. positirui l)y rctainiiiir tin' iHjrtlHTii
]jart.
TJic Termination of War. 223
Sakhalin and that of the indemnity, the nc<^otiatioiis i!or ])oa(jo
must fail. On the 28th ^iugust, however, Japan withdrew hci'
demand for an indemnity, and also agreed to acee|)t the proixx-^tKl
division of Sakhalin; and with the r(^moval of these obstacles
the terms of peace were arranged, and the treaty of peace signed
on the 5th SeptembcM'. In the meantime an armistice in general
terms was signed at Porttimouth on the 1st September. By this
it was provided that a zone of demarcation should be lixud between
the two ai'mies in Manchuria ; that no further naval bombard-
ments should be undertaken ; that no reinforcements .should be
despatched to the theatre of war ; that those already en rmite
should not be despatched to certain localities mentioned ; and
that further details should be left to be determined by the respec-
tive commanders of the opposing forces, in conformity with these
provisions ; but that maritime captures should not be suspended
during the armistice. This general armistice took effect as from
5th September. Meanwhile, an armistice more specific in its
terms was concluded for Manchuria, taking effect as from the
16th September. Finally, on the 14th October, 1905, the definitive
treaty w\as ratified by both parties.
The action of Japan in this matter was probably determined in
a great measure by domestic considerations; but, in some measure,
also, by a desire to defer to international opinion, by the influence
of the United States, and probably also by that of Great Brit.iiin,
wdth whom Japan had meanvvhile concluded an offensive and
defensive alliance (f7^ .
The Terms of the Treaty.] The more important provisions of
the treaty were, in eff'ect, as follows: — (1' Peaceful relations
l)elweeri the Powers and their subjects wvvv formally re-estab-
lished (c'. i2 Pussia recognized Japan's paramount interests —
(d) This was concluded ort the 12th of tho former treaty, but with the
Aiiu;ust, 1905. J>y Art. 8 tlie alliance omission of certain Articles, and fur-
was to endure for ten years certain, and ther [>rovidin^- that should eitlier
thereafter until dendunccd l)y either I'ower conclude a general treaty of
party 1)v twelve montlis' ])r(n'ious arbitration with a third Tower,
notice, hut suhject t(.> a proviso that if notliinp: in the agreement should en-
either party w(.'i-e cun-aLred in war at tail any obligation to go to war witli
tJie dat^' fixed ft)i- its expiration, the the latter; thus clearinir the way for
alliance should continue until ]i<'ac(^ tlie <_reneral treaty of arl)itration
was concludcil. On the 1 oih .1 uly , l!)il, iietween tireat Britain and tlie t'nit<_'d
this was i-(^placC(l by a \u:\\ agree- .States,
tnent, following generally on the lines {,/■) Art. 1.
224 Cases (Did () /tin ions on Internalional fjuw.
political, military, and ccoiioinica! -in Korea, and cny-ag-ed to
respect the same / . (o The (ontracting parties mutually
engaged to exaeuiite .Manchuria, exce])t the leased territor\- of
tlie Lia(j-tung jirninsula. within the times and under the con-
ditions preserihcd hy the treaty, suA'ing, ho^vever. the right of
both to maintain a limited number oi' guards suflicient fo]' the pro-
tection of their res])ecti\e raih\ays; and also to restore the Chinese
administration in the parts so e\acuated, Russia abjuring all
territorial or other achiintages which might derogate fi'om Chinese
so\ereignty or the princi])ie of e(|Ual 0})portunity {g . . 4) Russia,
Avith the asseiit of China, transferred to Japan the lease of Port
.Arthur, Ta-lien-\\an, and all attendant territory {li\ together with
all works thereon ; all projjrietary rights of Russian subjects
being respected (/ . (o Russia, witli die consent of China, trans-
ferred to Japan tlie railroad from Chang-chun to Port Arthur 7,',
with all rigiits ap])urieiiant thereto (/ . Jj; B;)th ])artics engaged
to exploit their raih\a^s in Mancliuria for commercial and not
strategic pur])Oses (?^; . and to conchide as soon as i)Ossible a
con\ention reeulating t!ie connecting ser\"ices (// . 7 Russia
ceded to Japan in perpetuity that portion of tlie island of Sakhalin
lying south of the oOth deg. X. lat., the exact boundar}' to be
detei'miuf'd by a delimitation Cciuunission to be ap])ointed there-
after ; each party also en^'aging not to erect fortilit'ations or to
impede the free navigation of tlu; Strtiits of La Perouse and
Tartar} (o . (8 Russian snbje(-ts within th.e teiadtory ceth'd to
Japan were to be at liberty oither to sell their |)ro])ert\' and with-
draw, or to remain, with fuU protection, on sul>niittiii!:- to th(>
JapancM Imavs and jurisdicti(jn /> . !)) Russia engaevd jo con-
cede to Japanese subjects concurrent ria'hts of lisher\' ahaii)- th--
coasts of fJu>sian ])osses-ions in the Japan, Okhot'-k, and i)eh.riiiu-
Sea> (f . 10 I'he prior treaty of commei'ee and na\igation
having l)eon annulled by the war, the confractine- parties au'reed,
jjendine- the (.'onclusion of a new treat v. to a(h)pt reci|)rocally
(/) Art. 2. (j,i) This, li(:)\vc'\Pi-, did not ajipiy
(a) Art. '■'>. and sub-Art. 1. to railways witliin the U'usrd tcrritury
(/-; See vol. i. 110. transtVri-i'd to .ra]>an.
(i) Art. 5. („) .\v\^. 7. S.
r/-) 'I'he ^oiitlicrii !.r:i!!.-i, of the {o) .\v\. 9. and suh-.Xrt. 2.
ti'ans-.Manchnrian line. (/;) Arf. 10.
(/; .\rt (i. (7 .Vrt. 11: <cc \o!. i. 111. liid.
The 'Tcr))iui(.([l<))i of War.
225
till' iii()<t l'a\'()urr(l nation treat iiiuiit (r^ . (11) All pri-oiu-rs of
^\■a^ \\('re to hv. inutually rc-torcd, raeli l»iU't\' a])])ointiiii^- a spi'cial
coimuissioner i'or the |)ur[)ose oi' arrang'in<4' and takiuu' J('li\x'r\'
of the pi'isoiiei'.-; vemitleil by tlu* other. Each ])aily was also to
r(Mider to the other a stalenieiit of ex|)eiiditiire incurred on the
pi'isoners bi-hali'; Rus>ia eniiaeino- to pay to .Ja[)aii an\ balance
that niielit b(,' due (.s . (12; The tr(>aty' was si<4'uod in duplicate in
bf)th. Ene'lish and I'^reiich, it beino' proxdcled that the latter lext
should pre\ail in ca^i^ of discrepancies.
Thi- Ti'caly may Ix' reuai'ded as an extra- judicial settleiueut of
lh(^ ueiurdversy wliicli ;^ave rise to the -war, as well as of that,
which arM-(^ out of tlie (ipeuinu' of iid^tilit i(^< i / ) ; whilst it is also
notewi)ith\ a-^ invel\iiiii- a new territoiial settlement (if some inter-
natiieial im[)ortaiice i ^/ ). Tlie proceedinj^-s that attended it sei'vo
both to illustrate the foi'msand methods usually followed in airang-iuo-
a treat\' of peace hetweeu Powers pre\iously at war — in relation, that,
!■<, to th(> i)peniu<^' of ueu'otiatiiuis. the arranu'cmeiU oT i^-eucral and
s[ieeial arnu-tice-- < j' i. and tiie sid)se.pieiit conduct of ihe iieu'o'ia.-
tion-; and also to indicate, g-enerally, what matters, other than the
settlement of the niain issues of the eontrovei'sy and the formal re-
e-~taIjlishm(Mit of j)eaceful relations, have connnonly to be provided
for -mattiM's, that is, .--uch a- the didimitation (jf ceded territory and
the safeu'uardiu<a- of the in.terests of the ceding- Power an.d ils subjects
therein, the revival of treaties, the C(nitiiuiance of conunerciid and
other relations depending' cm treaties annndled l»y the war, the
repati'iation of [)risoners, and the (lefra\'al of the cost of their
maintenanc'C.
(ii:M:i;\!. Xotf.s. — //o."' War imni 'TcDi/huifc. ---The llnvo possible
■\\a\'< ill which wai' may cnuie to an end are:— (1) l!y a definite
(■e~-aiio:i <'i' hostilities on eiilier side; ill) li\" tlie conipiest anri
coui]i{,'te ai)-oi'ptioii of one lielli_;'er'MU Si;;ii' ]iv the otjier: ami
Cu l.v ih
UK-lu-i.ou o| a treat V o| |ie:ii
he termination ot
O' Ip- ■
mn'c ci'->:itii
li'>siiliuc- 1- now rare, attiK.iuuh not nn-
(/ ) Ait. !_: sm: vol. i. .'joO. :ih'ca(ly rclVi'i'iHl to. t'lo iii(lc])oiidei!CL'
' ■■< ) \v\. \-'i. 'i'lic!! t'lillnw- til'' u~',::il ot' l\cr(':i \\;i- virtually cxi iiiii'iiioicd.
i)ri.v;-i"i'< \'.i;li rcsprci tn r.ii i''.':U icii : in .'vi:-ii<r. liUi), J\orc;i v\-:n loniKillv
~cc Art. I !. aieicxcd hy .ianau.
'/; >■',.,". |i. ."). ,•' ) .Vltimiio-li .^iich arini-tic(\~ arc
( -' .'-^ !■ \iii. i. II. \- m K'cii'i, iit'trr. a''raiiu'c(l hcf'M'c tlic T"riii- 'if
if wili ii" ! '■'ii.-in'ni'i-f;! ;'i,i; ')\- a Omii- tiic ib'tiiiii i< c treaty arc ih' -■(ai--c(' ,
vcutioa -;■ ;;:,, i7i-;i \,,v-,.:,c;m'. i!.i).3.
C.I.L. O
226 Cases and Ojmiions on International Laiv.
Iciiown oven in iiiodcni liuies. In tluj war Ix'Twcmmi Spain and her
Ainericaii colonics, for instance, active Jiostilities wei-c g-vadually
d!0])ped, and (anie j)iactically U> an end a1)ont ] <S2.'3. alt liong'li peaceful
relations -wei'c not t'onnallv restored, at an\- rate as !'e<z'ards some of
tlj(> (-(donics involved, until 1840. \\ Juit j)ciiod of suspension is
nccc>sary t»j justify the ])resiinipti<jn of llie restoration of ])cace will,
of course, depend on the actual (■ii'ciunstaiices ( //j. I-Siit such a oon-
ditioi! of thinti's is einbai'rassino- t<j neutrals, and also leaves the
r(dations of the l)(dli<i-crents thenmelves uudet-cirinined, althoug'h in
.-ucli a case the princi])lc of nil possidetis \v(ndd probably be held
to apply { .z K Such a situation, however, is not om; that is lik(dy t(j
lecur, at any rate; in a war betAveen States of any iriagnitude. AVhere
Avar is terminated by the conrpiest and absorption of one State by the
othei', there is, of course, no scope for any formal treaty of peace;
but the close of the war is commonly marked by some formal pro-
clamation or ajjnouncement on the ])art of the conqueror, or hv
soine formal act of surrender on behalf of the inhabitants (a). So,
in th<; South African war, the annexatioji of tlie Orang'C Free State
was j)i'oclaimed on the 24th ^lay, 1900, and that of tlie South African
Rc])nblic on the 1st Septendjei', 1900; but these announcements were
really premature, and the actual termination of the war must be
i-eferrecl to the agreement of surrender mad(i at Vereeniging on the
•'>lst May, J902. Oi-dinarily. hmvevei'. the terminati(jn of a war is
marked bv the formal conclusion of a treatv of |)eace. which is
lhcreu])Oi! notified both to the subjects oi' the belli<i'(>rcnt< and the
wo]kl at large.
7'lu' Mnh'/f/fj of the Trcdlij of J'efice. — The part plaved by good
ollices and mediatioJi in the opeiung of negotiations for peace, and the
incidental ))i'ocedure. have already been touched on(/>). The fact
iliat iK'goi iat ions i'oi' j)r'ace have b(>en eid-ere(l on do^'s not. however,
ill it-elf su.-|)eiid bo-t ilit i<'s; although such a su<])eii-)oii j.- usually
piovided for by armistice, Avhich is itself g-overned by the laws and
usages of ^\iir{c). The treaty of peace is sometimes jneceded by
" j)reliminarie< of peace,'' which are int'Cnded not uK^i'elv to suspend
but to l)ring botli hostilities and othei' incidents of the -tatc of war
to a close, at an earlier moment than the aiaaie^-ement of a deiinitive
ticiil\ weuld allc)w. T'liey enibody, in fact, llie e-scid,ial conditions
aLii'e<'il on. aaid. although intended to b(^ j-eplaced and r-;ij)able of
bi'iiii;' mo'lificd b\' the definitive tieaty, they are i'<'gar(led a,s binding-
a> from the dat<' <>[ their signature (c/). Sometime-. Jiowever. either
\>v tlie pi(diiiii]iarie- of peac<! oi \>y the delinili\<! tr<'atv, a future
dale j- lixcd f<ir the termination of hostilities, (/i' <'ven different
date- for flirierciil localities; tlu' effect of Avliich will be considered
lierea ft; 1' I r I. TIk' actual terms of peace de|iend. of course, on the
lelalixe jio-ilioii ol' the parties. Xe\-ertlieles- the el]e( t of a Avar <jf
>/ ) .MiKJic. IJiLj-i'-t. vii. '■'/■',('<: 'I'aylor. // ) N"/"". p. -- i .
(id.-)'. ■ (r) S,i,,,n. 1,. 10(1.
(-, V,\\\ -<■(■ I'liill. iii. 772. (>/' Hall. r,r,r). n.
lo .Mc'.r'', l)i--(-r. \ii. '■VM . '•) l,ii,", u. XVl.
The Tcvudnation of lVm\ 227
any inai^iiitiule oji the iuteiosts ut' other States is now so cousidcrable,
that both th(> fonohi'-iou of poacc and the terms agreed on are ofton
infliMMiced groatly l)y the pressure of intoiiiational opinion, ol" wliich
the Treaty oi' PortsnioutJi may be said to alb>rd an example!/).
Antlior'itiJ to nuiliC- In order to b(! binding, a treaty of peace
nuist, like any other international act, Inive been made or ratified by
some authority competent to make it under th(> donu'stic constitution —
of the ])rovisions of which in this regard the orln-r contracting party
will 1)0 [iresunied to have notice (r/). The terms of a treaty of
j)eace otherwise duly concbided be1\\(MMi the belligerents may,
moreover, conceivabh' be impugned by other States as incompatible
with their legitimate interests, or as aifecting matters that have
})reviously been the subject of international settlement. It was on
this ground that the terjns of the Treaty of San Stefano, which was
concluded in 1878 between Russia and Turkey, were revised by the
Congress of Berlin (/i). On this ground, too. it wcjuld seem that
the assumption of a new status on the part of Bulgaria in 1908,
and the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Austro-Hungary,
which immediatelj followed fe), ought strictly to have been sub-
mittx^d for a])])roval to the signatories of the Treaty of Berlin,
1878 (/i'). But terms likely to give umbrage to other Powers are
often (Mubodied in secret articles of agreement.
['.^iial Sfi.jnilatioii'S. — In addition to the f<n'nial establislunent of
peaceful lelations as between the States provi(ju>ly at war, and a[)art
from such, special terms as jnay be necessary or a])pro])riatc, a treaty
of peace usually ])i'Ovides for the innuediat(> or ultimate evacuation
of territory n<it intended to be ceded; for the actual transfer of
territory agreed to be ceded and not already in occupation of the
proposal transferee ( /); for the delimitation of l>oundari(^s and the
protection of the interests of subjects of the ceding Static for the
repati'iation of ])risoners and the payment of any balance that may be
due in respect of their jnaintenance; for the renewal or repkicement
of treaties abrogated by war; and .sonu.finH>s also for the granting
of an anniestv (';//) and the ])aynienf of a ^^al' indemnity i y/ ).
The Lcf/iil Efierh uj n Trrali/ of Pc'irr. Tli(> main ell'ect of a
ti-eat\- of |)eac<^ i-< to re-e<tablish both as betw<>en tli(> States concerned
and tlioir i^esjiecl iv(^ suhjei'ts those normal relations which obtain
amongst, members of tin' sii,.j(>ty nf nations. ,Vs h<Mu(M'n the States
prcviouslv at war, hostilities and all acts inci.lcntal thereto necessarily
{ f^ Si'/),-". ]). 22:]. tirltisji < ;o\'(M'!iiii(Mir to ])r()curc tlio
{ r/ j See \-(.)l. i. -iW) <l ■•<rii.: suliniissiiiii uf tlicsc (jUL'srions to a
aliliu'iLili the [!i>\vcr tn ;i!;i!o' jic;i'-c is l-;nrn|)i'aii ( '(in i'ci'rncc aiipiars tD liavo
nor alw.iv^ ^■c<^c(l in tlic same auilio- Ihmmi tliwartc*! liy tin- action of Clcr-
I'itv a- liic juiw.'i' In inaki' war: many.
^'ijii". p. 17. '' ■\- to tile no!'('s;itv for thi<, s<-c
(7'^ Sec vol. i. VI: Oitpcnlicini, ii. T />>• r ",,>:' [:^ C . Woh. WK)) .
329. ' ■ •'"') T„i.". p. 22S.
(D Sec \oi. i. .yy 11.-). /') i.'f,". 1). 229.
^Ic) An atioinnt on tli" part of the »
0 -2
228 Caae^ and Opiniom on International Laiv.
come to an end, inilitary or martial law ceases to apply (o), and the
inhabitants are reuutted to their rig-hts under the territorial la\v(2>):
prisoners of war are released; and both di])louiatic intercourse
between the State-^ and coniuiercial inttsrcour.se between their sub-
jects are resumed. All prior enyag-enients, moreover, whether on
tliu }iari o! the State- themselves or of their subject.^, which were
merely suspended by \\ar, toyetlier witJi all conscjuent remedies,
aie revived. The treaty serves to mark the moment from -whicli these
resuhs eiisue. As reg'ards matters occurrini;' before the war, tlie
tr.'uty i- presumed U) ])ut an end to all pretentions I'ounded on
ai-t-- <ir defauhs that <i'ave rise to tiie war, and tn mer^-e all consequent
riiihts and (obligations in the new rights and i)bligati<ms set up by
the treaty. As regards acts done during or in r(dation to the war,
e\en though irregidarly, such acts cannot, excej)t l.iy express reser-
\ation or >ubse(jLU3nt agreetneid, be made the grouu'l of any public
or ])ri\"ate demand or proceeding as between [).irties who were pre-
\iously hostile \(i). This will tiot, indeed, preclude a State from ])ro^
(■ceding against such of its own subjects as may have comjjj'onnsed
themselves b}- dealings with the enemy: but an ajunesty clause is
sometimes inserted which will cover even th(>>e ads, ahhoitLih it Avill
not affect actions arising out of private contracts or criminal prose-
cutions for acts lia\'ing Jio relation to the war('r). "\^'i(ll respect to
territor\-, if no j)r(;vision is made for its cession or evacuation, the
rights of the parties are deemed to be go\eriied \)\ tlie principle
of utl possidetis, in virtue of which each retains sucJi territory as
is undei' his control at the time of the termination of iho war (s).
And the same ])rinciple applies cipially to jno\eabJe pio]iert\- in the
possessi(m of either Ijelligerent. On the otJier han<l, wliere a return
to the -stalus quo ante Ijcttuiii is stiptdated for, all ])roperty formerly
belonc'ing to one parly bid. at the lime in the ])0ss(,"<.-if)n of tin; other
nmst ije i-estorerl, althongh'this will ])e sulj ject to any changes wrought
bv the war and to anv acts lawfully doiH^ during' its conlimiance ( /).
^Vith resj)e(;l to the pi'cjpierty of sulijects of one licljigcicul that
may tf found in the Icrrtloiy id' the otluM'. the right lo fnll enjoy-
ment of till-- if. indci'd. it has b(-(Mi the sidijiM-l of I'e-lriction or
scinic-,! i'atioii duriie.;' ihc war — will )'everl without, express stipula-
tion- on the re-loration of peace. Ihil this wdl ii(,i apply to pro-
]ie!lv which ha- ali'cadx been conliscated. in ca-e- wlcre coiili.-catioti
is jicriin-<ilile: nen- will il appiv to maritime ijinjiei'ly \vhi(di has
("; !^xcc|)l \\-ii(-i-(: );ar'r of llic tcri'i- (,■; A- tu tiic (lci"iitiou n', i)ri.-i)ucr.~
tory i-ciiinliis liiulcv ucciipal icn. ;!- Iiy (if war, ,<r'c p. JOT. .V//,/'. ,\s l•^•^■a^(l^
\',av 111' -rcuiilv i'la' tlic ])ayiiioiit 'jI' act< done after tlic war and in iu'iio-
an iiidriiiiai \-. rai;i'(' o!' jx-acc, ci- tii" ca,--' ot; 77ir
(,, . tialJc'ck. li, IS7. ./"/,,/, ;,,f,>'. -,. -I-IU.
('r, , Sec 7/..'- .''^■/.o',„r S'r,,!,:^ re. C. (.■■) Sec i^ill. ,');") 1 ; Oppi-nli/aii, ii.
t'li;'). 1^1^,. whci-c tlii-- j.r:i; ■iidc wa^ ')'!l. Hut for a (-nnti'ary \ icw aci'oi'd-
cxtciidcd ro ilii' '•,■!-'■ ol' a ii<-i;; i'al fill". iii:r to \\-|iic!i Icrrifnry iio1 -])('i-i rically
aiiiuii'id liiidcr aa ii-n-.i ala r <■ m- a-siL:'iicd i.-; dccim d to rrvo't to tlic
(l"in!;al ion. on tin- LToand lli.C ! !io ^hii,i^ -//"i n,,!, I, ,11 :',,,. :-.■(; 'I'aylor.
(;i!!--:t;on wa- ultiaiatilv on^ Ic'tv 'I'li W:-,: ai;d I'idl!. i;i. 7S I .
tiic l:rllii/.Ti-;,N. and li'ad !ic !i -ct at '' ^^< ■■ I^iiili. iii. S;i I ./ .<,y.
iV'-t \)\- li:' coiirla-ion o!' pea-- ■.
Ilostih' Acts done hi Ignorance of Peace . 22;)
altoady !)C(mi (;;i])iiirc(I, as to wliich a docroo of condoiniialioii may
l)o jii'onoinicod even al'tei' tlio war, althoiiy-Ji tlii> riglil is occu-
si((iiall\- \\ai\('d i n). \\ li<.'r«> pan ol' lla^ lorrilory ol' one hellig'croiit
i- iidi'd to llu' oihor, tlio TiL^'lits of llu! iidiabitaiit.s aro usually safo-
L;-ii;Md >d In' ('.\|)r(^ss stipulation; bid ov(mi williout this by g'onoral
u-a'_;i>. to wliifh municipal law commoidy coiirorms, their pro])rietury
aiiil ptMsoiia! rio-ht'S ai'o u.sually respected i ,./j. This will Jiot., Iiow-
e\e!\ pri'chide the Jiow Soverci;j,'ii J'lom eiit'orciiig' rights of forfeiture
whicli wiiidd lia\e availed Ins ])i'cdecossor in title in the like circnni-
staiic(^s ( // ). The leu'al conse(pionces of cession, in other j'espects,
liaxe alicady been described uj.
7'Ac (^hit'slioii. of Iiidoiiiiif I/.- -The exaction oi" a, monetary indem-
nity, in aiiditioii b) (he cession of territory or other advantages,
ha- become a not infre((uent condition of t<n'ms of peace in cases
where the i-sn<' of Uie struggle leaves the dominant party iu a
position 1(1 exact this. So, in 1871, (jermany, in addition to the
ce--ion of Alsace and Lorraine, exacted from Franco ati indemnity
of -"). 00(1. (100. ()()() francs (^/). In some* modern wars, however, the
suc((\ssfnl belligerent has shown greater magna nimit}-. So, in 1848,
the I idted States took no war indcnmily from Mexico, and even
juade -ome j)aymeiit for territory ceded by the latter under pros-
snie of tli(^ w.w'h). In 18<»8. aLi'aiii. the Uiiited States exacted no
war in(hMnnit\ fr(H)i Spain. and oven paid to the latter aniiidemnity
in respect to the <:'ession of the Philippine islands; laii- no indemidtv
was paid in icspoct oi' Porto RieO', wliilst Cid)a was jiot allowed to
assuiiK' lial)ility for any ))arf of the .Spanish del)t(V-). (rrea;
Britain in li)01^- although this ^vas a c;ise of coinpiost — not only
]iaid foi' all re(piisiti(His mad(^ hy tlu^ Pxkm; forc(>s, hut contributed
a -uju of o. 000. 000/. towards other Poer losses (if), ^^'here an indom
nit\" is (^\-acled, a part of I'.io terribiry of tlio debtor St.ne is some-
linies retaiiu^d in oc(Mip;Uion as socuritv for pnvnient.
HOSTIIJ': ACTS DOSE IS (GSOHASCE OF I'EACK.
TEE "JOHN."
I tSlS: -1 i)o(l>.,ii, ;];J.i; Js,j;J: jId-iu-, int. Arb. iv., :37;):]. j
Case.; iS\- the ircatx of peace conclu(h'(l at vilient ou the 24lh
Doecnbner, 1814, beiweeii (ircnl Briiaiii atid llie I.'niied vStates,
■ ') T^v.- ]). -j;;;], ;,./,''. 7(^').()'to,o(io fr.s.
(.-■•) (,' . ."i. \. J'i,-,-li, ■■,'",• (7 Pc-'Ji's, ''■.') \('w .Mcxii-o and Ca iifi)rnir; wcri'
Ji). ceded to thi- b!iit(>d States on ])aviiicnt
'71 r. .v. V. /,'.,/,,'/;;/ „. 7 (.■) \\:\\\. l)y t!ic larrci- of s?!.). 00(1. 000. aiid the
-Jl); liut x'c p. -iW. n. ('/), ','!,■". a>siiiii|)tioii ot certain debts due by the
;;) ^^ii' vol. i. 71. JMexican (lox-ei'iunent to American
'• I 111 aiMitic'i 1i) i>r"\-ioM- c\a'-- citizens.
tio!L> truiii localities and iiidi\ i(h;als. (c,i Sci'\-i)l. i. 7o.
■whicli luive been c^tiniatcd .at ( '/) /,■/', v/. p. 273.
2'4i) Cas^s and Opinions on International Law.
it was sti]:»ulal(Ml tluit iinincdiatcly after the ratification of the
trcaly V/ ordri's shouhl ho sr^nt out to the forces on either side
to cease from further hostilities; and. furtlier, that all ''vessels
and effects'' ca|)tured hy cither party after the times si)ecified
by the treaty, ranoing from 12 to 120 days, accordini;- to the
locality of the capture, sliould l)e restored h . The "' John.'"
an American ve-sel. was captured h\ H..M.S. "Talbot ' within
the twelve day zoiie. and after the expire" of the ]ieriod agreed
on: both captor and jn'ize being- in ionorance of the fact that
])eaee had been concluded. The vessel was, liowe\'er. soon after-
wards lost, whilst under the control of the captor, by the perils
of the sea. Some time afterwards a monition wa.- issued V- at
the instance of the owners of the ^•es^el. requirinii- the raptor
to proc/'cd to adjudif-ation: the object being to make the com-
mandf'i- of tlie "'Talbot " ])ersonally res])onsible for the h)ss. It
Avas, however, held by the Court tliat in the circuiristanee- of tln'
case the captor could not be held personalb' lial)le.
Judgment.' Sir W. Scott, in giving judeinent, i)ointed out
that the ca-e for the comjjlainants rested on two e-round:^: first,
on the general richt of restitution on a cajjture made out of
due time and place : and. secondl\-. on an allee-i'd mismanaofe-
ment of the ship whilst undei' tfie captor's control. On tlie latter
point, however, he was of opinion that due care had binai shown.
The question then remained ^\'llet]ler the ori^'irial jxjs.'-ession of
the capto]' wa< such a possession a^ would exempt him from
lialn'lit^- for consecpiences not due to his ])ersonal default. With
I'espect to this, in the present case, the ignorance was not one of
law Ijut of fact, and als') of a fact depeivlcnt on transactions of
State of vvhieh the ca])tor could not ]')ossibly be aware until it
was communicated to him. Hence the jiossession of the captor
in the pre-eiit easf' imist be treated as a hona fulr pfisse.«-.ion. with
the result tliat any misfortune occurrine' to the thine" Mhij.vt in
custod^■ must lie deemed to fall on tlir^ ownei\ For tlii.- reason
he vva~ of opinion that tlie c'i|)tor \\a- not pia-.-onaliy iin-werabla
in thc' wa\' of cnmpen-alion for tie' les- -u^tained. Thi- did not,
(^') Tlii< tOMk pl.-ir- oi! rii" ITrli ( /> i Art. 2.
I-Vl.., ]s],5. 'rj Sc<- |,. isr;. ..,'/„</.
Iloslilc Act-s (lone In h/norance of Peace. '>'-\\
however, exclude a liability elsewhere ; allhoLi<>h whether sueli a
liabiHt\- lay on the Govern ineiit was a question that did not then
require to ])e diMeriniued .
The Finding of the Joint Commission.] Acting-, no doubt,
on Lord Stowcll's suggc^stiou that a liability might conceivably
attach i'lsi'\\]icre. the United States CIo\'ernmcnt subse(juently
made a claim for indcmnitx' on bi>liali' oi the owners of the
x'essel at;aiii^t the British Government; and this, with other
claim-. A\as. 1)\- a ( 'onvciition oi' the 8th F(d)ruary, ISo-'j, referred
to a Joint ( 'oinmission. In the I'csult the Commission re])orted
in fa\our of an indiMimitw which was accordinp'ly paid to the
owner-^ el' the vessel.
In u'ivinu' his ch-cision the United Statt\s Commissioner, with
whose lindinu' the iiritish Commissioner agreed V/ , stated, in
effect, that the decisions of the British Prize Courts both in the
case of the '"John" and in that of the ''^lentor' went to
show that MherL' there was a want of due diligenc:' in ad\ertis-
ing- till cessation of hostilitii's the injured party was clearly
entitled to indenmilication. As it was sometimes dillicult to
determine what constituted due diligence under the circumstances,
it wa- usual to a:~sii>'u lixed periods for the cessation of hostilities
according to the situation and distanee of })iaces. The (juestion
then wa- whether, in the present case, the assignment of such
])eriods under the Treaty of 1814 was not designed to establisli
th(.^ time- so lixed on as the periods that -were to l)i' reu'arded as
" reasonaljle ' for t]i(> ])ur[)Ose of "notice." From the lani^'uago
of Art. "-2 cy, and as it eould Jiot^ bo su])|)osed that the parties
de>I<iiie(i to append It) 1 hoe periods a further indelinite time for
giving notice, he conchidej that the-(> times A\oi'e agi'ced on aa
equi\aleut to notice, and that thereafter the obliii-ation to ceaso
from ho.-iilities was iui[)erati\ e. After this, even thouu'h colli-
sions miiilit Occui- without \\ilfid wrone'. yet any loss su-taiued
mu-t Ije full\' met . The jiarties thein>el\"es had sti[)ulated that
in -ueh a case ""all \e-sels and effects"" .... "'-Iiould be
re.-tored. This luc'ant not niei'el\- that I'estitution sliould l)e
('/I Sa\c <in ihc (|Ui'>ti<iii el' in- umpire and ulriiiiatcly alli>\\-cd.
tcrc-t. whii'h was referred t^ llic (e) S"ji,a. p. 230.
232 Cases and Opinions on International Law.
made of the thing- itself if practieabk' ; but that if owino- to
want of iiotiee a capture was eflcctetl, th(^ ]'i\>titution of whieli
became impractieabk', a due eipiixahMit should be rendered in
damages. The position had been taken uj) that howexer this
might be, txreat Britain, in tlie present case, was reli<'\-rd from'
this obligation by reason of the \essel having been lost l)_v the
act of Ciod. But such a plea could not be set up on btdialf of
one who was wrongfully in pos?essioii / . In wliate\er way the
'■John might have been lost, the fact i'(Mn:iined ibal she was
take]) without right to the place at A\'hich she wa> lost : and, inas-
much as the vessel herself could not now bt.^ restored, it followed
that sucli conqxmsation should be made as the natui-e of I lie case
admitted of (^).
Sir W. Scott in his judo-nunit merely decided that iiia-^iiiiicli
as the ca])t()r had atled in iinavdidahle iiiaieraiice hi-- pos-
session was a bona iidc possos^ion. a)!il 'hat he mnld not
therefore he held ])ersoiiaMv ]iahh> for a lo.^s miattiMided l)y
ucgdigence: the (juotimi of ihc liahihty .>[ the (.m,\ eiuiii.'Mt h.:-i!io'
left open. AlthouLfh in such cases ilie decree '>f a coiiipciciit
i-c.uui I It ) is judicially <(»iiciu>ive ( /). yei, if the .fe-idt ui the ikvi-iou
appears lo iiivolvc a denial of jusiico or the iiifi'aci ioii vi some
admitted piincij)le, or if — as occnn-ed in the case ot 7'//e ■/(,'](, i - it fails
to touch the real issue, then it will i»e epen to the State tn whah the
injured paitv belongs to -prosecute the claim di|)l(.niatira!i\ . Tlds
was accordingly done in the case before as, with tht^ re-oih that
the (pie-iion was, althnugJi long ai'tcrw.irds, i'eferr<'d to a ( '(Hiiinission.
This decided (1) that where certain titues are sperilied I'dv the c<'ssa-
tion of hostiliiies, ,sucli times will f)e presumed tn be tho-c witidu
whicl) each fewer can reasonably ji'ive iiotice to its coiimiandcrs uf
the t-eruiination of the war: and {'2) rhat if tin- i- iiui <|(iiie. then
all ca]Uiires elfected after such times will he ri^ii'ardod as Iteiiig at
tlu^ risk of the Ciovcuamieiit of the eaptoi-. and. in I he eveat (if loss
iiowi'ver occurring, as iii\-olviieL:' an ohiiu'atiou of iiideiiinitw As
reu'ard- tla^ personal iri'esp.dii^ihilii v of tiie captor. liMW(>\er. it- needs
to lie noticed tlue in the ca-e of 'J'h'' Mri/lor ill', ivili. 17!'' -where
an Amerii'aii ve-s<d had been destroyed hy a I!ri;i<!i captor, in ! 7So,
in iuiioraiice- of the re-t>.n'atioii of ])eaco- [hv ('oiii't imdiai^l to tlie
(/■■) Xdf. indi'i'il. hy \-irliie uf his r/, /,',„>. wliicii ai'ii~c out nt ilu> war
fiwn dct'aiilr. wliirh w;',< tin' ijucstina hcrwi'i-n rlic I nitnl Stati'^ .iiid
dcait ^vitll liy Lord Sfowcli. hut hy .\lc\ici): .M(i(in\ hit. Ai'h. i\. :!7(>S.
vii-T\ic (if liic (li'l'aulr nf hi- leu-ci-n- (A; iSciiii:' ;i (ouia (if la-a I'c-oi'f,
}iieiir, a-; held l)y the ('(niiinis-ioii. or (•\-cn a ('ourt i a fci-ioi' thereto if
{ /■/ ) for aiiiither exaiiieh' of this the (h'crcc is not appealed iVmii.
tyjie of eaM', -ee T/,, /„,■,'■.;/:,.,'„ (/) s,,,,,,,. p. J^:^.
ILmi'de AcIh done in hjuoraiu-c of Peace. .I'.^'i
\'w\\- that a ra])1i)i' in -iicli a caso iiiii^'ht Ik> inado lia,blo in dainagos,
a 1*1 Ik muh if lie act(>:l in iu'iioranco !io oug'ljt to ho indoniniiiod by
hi-- (lu n (.Mivornnicnt {f ).
! t' nu -pccial ixM'idil is fi\otl tor tlio vOf^s^ation oi hostilities, then
all |iri)|)(nt \' caiitui'od al'tiM' tho conclnsion ot' pcacC! must ho rcstorod
when thai I'act is dnlv ostahlishod i / ). .Moi'(M)\(M'. oven if a spocial
|)<'i|(m1 i- li\(>d. all ho-^t ilit i(vs and captnr'vs shoid<l ceaso when onc(^
tho fact ol' |)(>aco hccunics kiiown: althoiiu-h a naval or military
(■oiiinian<hM' is noi l)()iin(| to acco])( sn^h notice ex( cpl J'l'oni his oavii
( 'o\('rnin(>n1 . So. in the i"is(> of 'I'lw Sifi iiclu'nl ( iin — "where a ilritish
\"('--ol had heen captniod hv a i''rench |)ri\at<'ei' within tlie fivo
inunths lixed hy tlio TreatN' of AniiiMis U)r fho (-(vssation of Jio-tilit-ios
l)et\\(>eii (ireat I^i'itain and Franco in the Indian s(\-is. hut after
notice of the peace had i)een recei\"(>d hy the pi'i/e. and also
iiy the cajMor liinisolf altlioup'li not from an oflieial source —
iJie A-o-sel Avas condomnod on the ^-rounds tiiat the eaptnre was otfeeted
at a time antoi'ior to that fixed iVir rosiitn'ion liy tlio treaty (•;?),
and that the- captoi" had not as yet that autliontic and snflicient kiiow-
lodLz'eof tlH> co-sation of hostillti(>s ■\\]iich he was hound to rerpdro (o).
\\duM'0 a pi'ize lui'^ hoen taken (hirini;- the wa.i-. hnt reca))tn!"(H[ after
the cessation of hosrilitios aud in ignorance of the ])caco. i]io prize
oiiu'lit .-trictl\ lo be restored to tlio captor, even thoiiu'li not previ<jusly
<'0iidomued; lOr the reason that e\"Oii ;he pn-ses-inv riu'lits of a ca]itor
cannot be infi'inue 1 after tlio ces-atioii uf hostilii ies ( y, ). Some States,
howe\er. iKiw incline to th(> practice of j'esjoriuLi- all pi'opiM'ty whicli
has beoi! ttikeu as j)!'iz(> but .not actuallx' condei'inoil at the time
wJuni peace is concbided. So. in the cas(> (.»f Tfir [)ncl'r;/',\ referr"d
to hereafier I fy ), ijio Llaliaii Court-. altho!ii:li tiu'v found the vessel
m i:-nilt. refrained from pi'ononncimr a decr(^e of coiulemuation, on
tile u'rouiid that peace had meanwliile lieeu established.
UiAKi; \i, Xoj-i:s. -JloMlile Acts liniw in J ■liKjiancr of Peace. — AAdieu
■ ! war is KuaniiuiUNl liy treaty of jieaco. all a'ts ol' iio>tiliiv are ]uo-
hibited as from the date of il> siu'iiatni'e. iinl<--~s .-.ome <.)ilier time is ex-
pre-^-ly agreed oin/'); and liiis e\eii thoni^'h the .ieaty iis(df niav b(>
^nb iect til !at ilica!i(ai. Wlieio. a-- si miPiina.^ ha]) pens. lio-iih> acts are
doll" in iu'iiora n.(^ ol' the termination nf '\ar. ih"\' inn-i -o far as
])o-silili" be undone and compensation alloided b\- the b(dliu'erent in
i/,-) AlrliuuLi'h ii was holcb in tlic ;,,) Ri^ally the j)rchniuiary articlos
i-ii'i';.',n-ia.i"-i'- III ill ci-r ami lia. i,:: wliirh ]irci-c<Ic(l the (l^Hlliti^'0 treaty.
ii-ar.i m till fa:a thai rh- Mimc-hM, ,„, s,„, |.|,:ip j;;^ 77,, ,., ^,,^_ . .f^^^^i^
\\a- i>-Ui'i| ai:'aiiisr t'le adino'al i.t the ,, -cj j ;,,/,■,,•
>faliell .-nine >i\ti:'!! Vea !'< ■iflci; tile , ^ ' ,,, .,, ... _ , , ... ,
, ,, i • • •. /'! ^ee I'lu . m. t^:l: and ,r
-ei/in-e. aiul lliat :\ i)re\-ii)ns suit ^, / ^. ,. . ,, ,, , , ,
aL'aiu-t tiie i-i niuiiaiKliM' Had 1) '.■n tlis- ,,., y
iai>-e(l '.viihiMit ha\'iiiLr hen a|i))eah'(l ' "" • ■ ." •
;'ri.ci tha; tl.n' jiri>c.Tfiir:---: iihk* faih '/ '' '•■'.''"■ ji- ti^'-
•l //'-,. V. S,,. ,■',>:;/ ,2 Dall. ID). ,-■ T/ , T/'/':. ,1 l'i~mv- e; ')„-
:.■■ ' };.,'■,.. lU ... ,in:,' , /;/. /',-;..r, -.er.lv, lis),
xiii. 1^:]: Mai!. .V)h.
234 Cases and Opinions on International Law.
default. So territory occupied or places taken or captures made there-
after must be restored; prisoners taken must be released; and con-
tributions and rccjuisitions exacted, even though by way of arrears,
nmst be repaid. When hustilitios extend to distant regions, "with
which comnuinication may be ditlicult, it was formerly the practice
to fix on some future date, or even dill'erent dates for dilferent regions,
at which hostilities should be brought to a close: but owing to modern
facilities of communication, such cases are scarcely likely to occur
in the future {^s). In such a case, however, if ho.stilities should occur
or a capture be made after the time or times agreed on. the State to
which the aggressor or captor belongs will be responsible to (he extent
of an adequate indemnity. Moreover, if. e^en before the expiry of the
periotl or periods aa-reed on, authentic notice reaches a naval or mili-
tary commander, it i- now commonly agreed, in spite of some previous
divergence of opinion, that he ought to abstain from further acts
of war. This, lio\\ever, is subject to the reservation that he is not
bound to accept such notice unless it comes to him directly or in-
directly through his own Government; a reservation which some-
tinie.-5 operates harsldy \t). but which is at bottDUi not unreasonable,
having regard to the serious conse(|uences tiiat might attend the
sus[)ension of warlike 0})erations on information that was erroneous
or intontionalh' deceptive \u\.
THE LF.GAL EFFECTS OF COyoi'EsT AM)
AXXEXATIOA.
(i) AS HEGAEDS rEOrEETY A XD OBLIG^ATIOXS.
THE REPORT OF THE TRANSVAAL CONCESSIONS
COMMISSION.
I Pvirlianientary Papers. 11)01. Soiitii Africa. C'd. V:2o. \
The Appointment of the Commission. lu Auiiu>t. 1900. the
Briti.-h Ciovertnnoiit, believing the war with the South .\frieau
Eeptiblic to be neariiig it> end, began to eon>ider the (pi^'.-tioii of
Its I'espoji.-ibilit ies as tlte sucee--sor of the liopuli! ic lu llie (Vcnt
oi' annexation. Already, on the lOtli March. lltOO. a notiheation
had liec'i; i-sucil 1)\- the \liii\i ( 'oiuiiii.-sioiier to llie elfoet tliat the
Briti-li ( io\'i'rnnieiit woidd not recognize a.- \'alid aii\^ alienation
of proprrt \\ whether (if land-, railway.-, niiiie,- or iiiiniiio- riijhts,
(s) lUil >t'i' the ca.-cs of tin- .-"/n-". \i. '2'io.
Smo'/rnsl: and l'clr,-h,>,-;i . f" ,,,■'• , \a) Hali. .')•")(!; I'hil!. lii. 777 ri
p. 1:^7. i'vii.
(/ ! .V- ill tiic rase of 7/.' s,r:,,.li.,,l.
The Legtd EjJ'ech of Conquesl. 2''35
made bv the Tran.svaal Government after the date of the pro-
clamation ; and this notilication was re^jeatcd in September, 1901 .
Ill Au<>-usl, 1900, a C'ommission {a) was also appointed to eiK^iiire
into and report on the various concessions which had been g-ranted
by the Transvaal CJovernment : Ihe settlement of this rpiestion
l)eing' one in wliieh both British subjects and foreigners were
largely interested. On the Lst .Sei)teinlx'r, 1900, a proclamation
\\as issued annexing thr territory- ol' the Republic ; a proceed-
ing' which, although in thi> circumstances premature, was never-
theless validated by the ultimate issue of th(> war. On the
8th September a special notilication was issued, to the effect tbat
all concessions g-ranted by the Transvaal Government would be
considered on their merits ; but that the British Go\-ernment
] cserved its right either to refuse recognition to or to modify such
concessions as might prove to have been beyond the power of the
Transvaal Government having regard to any agreement or con-
\'ention with Great Britain, or to bave been granted without
legal authoritv or contrary to law, or the conditions of which had
not been duly complied with, or w^bicb might appear to conflict
witb the public interest. The Commissioners appointed subse-
{p.iently proceeded to South Africa, and after due encpiiry into
the various matters referred to them, issued their rejiort on the
19th April, 1901.
The Report: (i^ StdteDwnt of frinclplo^. Tlie lieport com-
mences with a statement of })rinciples, which the ('ommissioners
regarded ii> applicable to the ])robleni before th(>m in the circum-
stances of tlie annexation, and wliicli are to tht; followina' elfect:
(V "It is clcai' that a State which lias annexed iinother State is
not legail\' bound by any contract^ made hy tlie State wliicli has
ceased to exist, and that no ('(jiirt of \\i\\ has jurisdiction to
enforce >utli (■ontracts if the annexinij' Stite refuses to recognize
tb.i'm 7> . l)nt the niodciai u-auc oJ' nations has tended in the
dii'cction of the ackiiow h'duineiii of such contracts. .\ fter
annexation, it lia> been saul. the people cliange their alh^uaance.
(") The CoiuinissioiR'rs coiKi-tcd of (h) CaoJ: v. Sin-i//'/ (1S99. A. C.
^Mr. A. 31. A^lniicn-. Mv. \l. K . I.ovc- oil).
day. and the Jlun. .V. Lvtri'ltuii.
2-'ld Cased and Upiaions on International Laiv.
but their relations to eaeh other ■ind their riglit.s of property
remain undisturbed /• : and jn-operty inchides rights AA'hich lie
in contraet d .... Conce.<.sion.s of tlie nature of those Avhieh
are the subjeet of enquiry ].)resent examples of mixed publie
and private rights : they probably eontinue to exist after annexa-
tion until abrogated by the annexing- State e ; and, as a matter of
practice in modern times, Avhere treaties ha\'e been made on the
cession of territory rhev hav(> often been mamtaint'd by agree-
ment (/ , . In considering Avliat the attitude of the conqueror should
be towards such concessions, v.e wore unable to perceive any sound
distinctio]! between a case where a fc>ta*:e acquire.^ ])art of another
State by cession and a ca,se where it acquires the whole by annexa-
tion. The opinion that in general private riyht- should be
respected by the conqueror, although illustrated and sup])orted
by jurists by analoodes drawji from the Eoman laAv of in-
heritance, is based on the princi})le, A\hich is one of ethics rath<'r
than law. that the area of war and sufferini.;' should be. -■o far as
possible, narrowly conhned, and that non-combatant'- should not,
where it is avoidable, be disturbed in tlieir bu.--iness. And this
principle i- at least as a])plicable to a casi^ wliere all as where
some of the provinces of a .State are annexed. ' 2 " riiougli
we doubt whether the dutie-^ of an annexinu' State towards those
claimino- under concessions or contracts <2'r;inted or made b-r the
annexed State have l)cen defined with su( h j)rerision in authori-
t<ative statement, or acted u]ion with suidi unifermitA" in civilized
])ractice. as to warrant their beini)' termi-d rules of iiitei'iiational
law. Ave are convinced that the be-t luodern opinion favours tho
view that as a general rule the obligations oi the annexed State
towardr- jirivate jtersons should be ri'SjXM'tiMl . .Maiiife-tlv the
irein\ral lade must b(> sultject to (jualilieat ion> -a^ \\va\ an insolvent
Stat:" coiild iK.it h\' ae'ei'e>sion ^\'hich pra^luailv lift \n a >ol\'ent
State ]io other cour.-e than to annex it. cnn\ert it> woi'thle-^s into
valu.alile oliliiiiition- : that an aimexin'.;- State would be jnstitied
i c) I', s. V. I'l , rh,',,,"i> (7 I'l't. (,/) /.'.,'/.. i'ru~<ia ami Xetlierlancl'^,
51).' tSKi: J'(^ai'e of Ziii'i.'li. ls,39: l-'ranoe
< ,7) S,,.ih>,-'! V. /'. N. ( t I'et. 511): and Sardinia, isiio; l\-ir(. of \ienna.
<.';!i\(i. 217S; a!id llallck. ii. 1H4. iMll: Cr-.-ion of \'.>iict!a. IS(i(l; (ier-
(') Iiidior. S(-'rh.,-,-S,:, r, .':^:o,i. 1 to : many and l-'ranco. Is71; ( ^ roar J]riTain
Aiarten^, .\o"rc"'i Jitnc :i . and tierniaiiv. Isyo.
l.lir Leijiil ElJtctH of Coiujuc-sl. 2:37
in refusing to rccoaiiizc rjbli<)'atioii.s incurred by the annexed Sl-ite
for the immediate [iiirposes ol' war au'ainst ilseli'; and lliiit ])i'(j-
baldy no Slate woidd acknowledge prixate rights thc^ existence
of which caused or contributed to cause the war which ri;.-ultcd
in annexation."' [^y "' Suljject to tliese r(.'ser\ ations, IL.M.
Ciovernmcnt, in dealing with the concessions in (question, will
|)i()liabl\' he willing to ado[)t the principle, wdiich, in the case of
the annexation of irtno\'ta' b\- Prussia — the niodeiai case most
nearly corrc>])ondini; \\ ith that under consideration — was p)ro-
claimed by the con(pierors in the following terms: 'We will
protect every one in the j)ossession and enjoyment of his duly
aci|Uii'rd I'ii^hts [^(f). (4 I ■"The acceptance of this principle
elearl\' rond(a'< it neccs>ar\' that the annexinu' Clovernment should
in eacli case examine wlietlua- tiie rights wliich it is aski'd to
recoi^nize \\\\\\\ in fact, been duly acquired, ft is an obvious
eorollar\' that thi' i'iL;ht> in (piestion nn\<\ be \'!l!d. not onh- b\'
reason of due acHjuisition in thi; lirst instance, but by reason of
their condition- lanini;- been subseijuentiy duly performed.'
(■J ■"Applying these jtrinciples more in detail to the case of
the concessions with which \\(> have had to deal, we ha\'e come to
the conclusion that tlie cancellation of a concession nKi\' be pro-
perlv advised when — 'ji ; the grant of the concessiou v/as not
Within the loi^'a! [>owers of the late Go\ernment; or ,b~ ^^"as in
breach of a treat \' with tlie annexini;' .State : or (c' when the
person seeking' to maintain the conce-^sion accjuired it unlawfuU}'
ov h\ fraud : or yl ha- failed to fullil its e-sential conditions
^\■itll0Ut hnvful excu>e ; ( ancellatKai or modilication in the.-e cases
beinsi' justiliable witiiout con![)rnsation. in the absence of special
circumstances." G "'We I'urthia' third; that the new C'o\crnaient
i.- justiiir-d in cancel I iuir oi' iiii)di i'\';i!U' a c()nc('ssn)n when the-
maintenance oi' the coic'c-sion i- inj'n.'adu- to the puldic intia'est.''
\~ " f n the last ease, h(j\\e\-ta', tiie quL'stion oL' comjiensation
aia<(\s. (In the (puj-liou nt comjuaisat inn the Commissioner,-,
\\dii!.-r not d'cmimj' lie amoiinl- pa\'ab|r to I.)e witliin tlie scodc of
tiieir euipiirw -ubmit :i I hat in (■■ise> wiiei'e a coiU'e--iMii \va-
eaiKM-llcd or modilied a- beiji^'. in tiie xa'ew ;)f the new Cio\'cri!-
( '/ !'o\-:i'i L'i'ii---i:ui i'ati'iit. Crtl O.-tuJjiT, [siiii.
238 Cases and (Jpinions on International Laiv.
incnt. injurious to tln' public interest, I'egaixl sliould he paid to
the question whether the grantee at the time of the grant knew
or ought reasonably to have known that it was precarious, more
especially as being closely related to large and chanijing public
interests ; .^b^ that in assessing compensation the \ahie of the
interest should be taken as it was before the war, the grantee
not being entitled to Ijeneht by any appreciation in value derived
from the superior credit and stability of the imw CJovernment ;
(c; but that due consideration ought properly to be shown in
cases where a new or hazardous enterprise has been pioneere(^l into
stabilit}" in an unsettled and undeveloped country."
(ii^. Assets passing on annexation . — The Report also comprises
a schedule of assets belonging to the Transvaal Government, and
arising out of concessions, shares in companies, and claims to par-
ticipate in profits, which were assumed to devolve on the new
Government.
'iii,^ Conclusions ivith respect to particular conce-^sions. — The
iieport further deals with some twent\-live cojicessions. coming
unfh;'r the category of ,1; raih\'ays and t]'am\\ays not jiurely
municipal : 2^ inanufacturinu' and trading eoner>si(in>: and
i-y concessions of rights of a municipal cliaraeter. As to some
of these the Commissioners recommended a full ri'coi^nii i(jn of the
concession : as to others, a UKKliiic-ation L-itiier on term> .-ul;-
gested or to be arranircd; and as to others, ;i!j-ain. ;i complete or
partial cancellation either without compensation, or witli com-
pensation only of pai'ticular interest-^, or an expro])ri;ition on u
reasonable basis. The following will serve as exa!n|)les of the
mode- of treatment accorded: —
(]': The Netherlands South African Railway. Tjji- ^\'as
■,i eoner--ioii f,A\"ned 1)\" a eom])any ineor})0)'a1 1'd m [Ioll:iii(|. under
whieii i!m' eoiiipaii\- ciijox'ed what wa>. in ellei-1. ;in '•X'^lusive
I'iliht to cDi:-! I'liel and woi'k all main lim^ in thi' Traii-\aMl.
The eaneenatioii of tiic (•(jiiccssion A\ai> I'l'conineaidi'd un thi:
j-rounds a that tlii' eonipaiiw throui^h its local ]ii;iiiaui-r and
ollicia'.-. and witli \]i'- npjiroAal of tlie Dutch hoai'il of dirci-tors.
had ai;ti\'el\' id'.-nliiied it.-(,-lf with thi. Boer cause during! the
The Le/fiil Effects of Cowjned. 231)
■\var, aiul had coniniitt(^d acts of ag-grcssion ag-ainst tho British
which were warranted neither hy the tiM'ms of its concession,
the character oi* its unch'rtaking, nor hy its h)cal suhjection
to the aiithoi'ity of tln^ Transvaal (iovei'iiment (/? j: and (hj tliat
the ui'ant oi' a Avi(h>-reaching niono])o]y of this character was
iii]'urion> to the puhlic interest, and especially so when the
grant was to a foreign cor]i oration .^i). In the 0])inion of the
Commission, the shareholders, who were ultimately ri'S[)0iisil)le
for the action of the directors and officials, were not entitled to
compensation on forfeiture except as a matter of grace ; hut the
dehenture holders, who were neither responsible for nor privy to
the acts complained of and Avhose interests had been guaranteed
by the Transvaal Government, were thought to be entitled to a
recognition of their rights, although with some allowance for
the impi'ovement of tlieir security in consecpience of tlie new
regime. In the result this concession \\ as cancelled. At the same
time the British CTOvernment assumed the entire lialjilitv a.s
regards the debentures; whilst it also a<>'reed — notwithstanding the
rcicommendations of the Commission — to pay a full indemnity (A")
to shareholders who had ac-ijuircd theii' interests prior to the
outbreak of war, excluding- onl\' shares thai Ix'longed to the
Transvaal Covernment and to the managers ov agents of the
company iVj.
(2) The Prsetoria-Pietersburg Railway. — This was a line held
and worked under a concession vested in an Eni;lish company;
the Transvaal Government owning three-iil'tlis of its shares, but
being also guarantor of tb.e debenture iuti'rest and of a limited
(70 tts iiKuiULrcr lind, it was said, lunitral vossels '.•iiii-a<rinf;- in tlic enemy
acted as o-ui(l(- and counsellor of the service: see ]>. 45(1. i.iirn.
enemy ( ■ovurnuicnt in connection nith {h) .Amountinu' to io.)/. per .-lian.'.
the war; it liad laeilitated the einjihjy- \: ) As :i matter of fact. neari\- .■;ll
mcnt of the members of its staff in flie shares, with the exception of some
])urely military operations asxainst the •")((() out of 14.000. appear to have been
jiritish: it had made arms and .ammu- nriid !or: the 5.713 shares of tlie Re-
nition foi- thi^ (Government; it had public iia\ine- fonnd their wav int<>
destrdveil bi'ide-cs in Jiritish territory; m-uti-al hands. i'"or a criticism of the
and it had furtluM' souu'lit to disu'uisc rcjjort of the ( "omin.ission and tlit>
its action l)y induciiiL;' the ( loviu'ninent action of the liritish ( io\'eiaimen<'. sei^
to exercise a pretended coercion over i'rarcj.-iy, I'l-oblcms. 49 r/ \- y. ,• ,-il-
it : see I'epori, '1'^. 'Js, :!ll. :J5. thouL'^h it is (>onecivod that such action
(O Tiie forfeiture was also ju-ti- was really ju^titieil. both in principle
tied on the analoi^'v of the forfeiture of and bv \irtm"' of aiialoL!'ons j>ractice;
o,/,v,,',>. 2J1-12.
24<) Cases and 0/iiniou.s on International Lav:.
di^■idond on tlic ^;luirL'S issued to tlio public. Tin.' concL'Ssiou wa^
reported to ha\'e been hn\'i'uliy acquired and hono-tly carried out.
Although the line had been u>ed for the purpo.se.-^ of the- wwv. this
■\vai^ the act and A\'ithin the rii^'ht of the Tran.-\'aal Go\'ernnient.
In till re-ull. tiie liritish Go\"erninent, havinu' taken })0.<ses-ion of
the .shares oriiiinally .'-ubseribed by the Trans^•aal Cnjvernnient,
undi'V an order of the Courts, recognized the concession and
assumed all the lia1)ilities oi' the- prior CJoNernnient under its
guarantee.
•3 The Dynamite Concession. — In l89e the manuiacturc and
sale of explosi\"es in the Transvaal Mas declared to Ije a Go^^■rn-
nient monopoly, but -wdlh power to the Go\ernnieut to tran-ier
its rights to other persons. The monopoly ^vas at tiie time in-
Icndei! to be and "was in fact assigned to a gi'antee. ■mkI ulti-
mate! v became vested in tlir Transvaal Dvnamite (.V)mpj_n\-.
which, wa-- it.self eontro'.led hy a Gerui in cunibination . .V- to
tliis the ( (imiuission foun.l in (fleet tliat the ( 'om]lan^' iiai] a iolae'd
the conditions of its coniract. wldch was iiseli' in breach of the
regulations made I)}' the I'aad; and that, altliough the breach of
conditions had been condoned by the Go\'ei'nment and Leo-isla-
ture. \'ci this ri.'sulr had beru aehtevcd by ecjrrupr jiractifi iiiid
briber^ . On tliis ground, as v;(dl as on tlie ground tlial sue])
a monopoly was opposed to the public intere.-t. the ^Vommissiuu
recommended the Briti-li GoA'eaainient to reins ' to reeoLinizi' tiic
conce-viuu. which A\"as acc'ordins^'l \' canciffMi
I)i'-)!ii(_' ivs shrirti'Oinino--, tli" Ilepoi'l oi thi- ( 'oimni^sion, and
llie ai-;i'ii! takoii hv tjie Jlritisli (.ioxernnieni ihe)CMii. v.iii proliai.iK'
con-iinite an inioniational ])reee lent oT some iinpijriaure on the
(pio-iion of tlic ]aL;'l!ls and iiadihlie- incident to cmiiiin^-t aiid annexa-
tion. In lllO \\ C'^l Until CridniL ihihl Miitmn (n. \. !(■ r I PlO,").
2 K. f;. ^i'al I. it was hold, as w(> lia\'e seem, that ilie i cinoiicijjiM- State.
in sucli I'a-e-, incline L no liaiiihty tor the olili;_;-a; jiue- ui its pi'e-
dec<.'s>o: , liic a--unp,)ii(in of siicii (jl.iliLi'ation.- liidiiL:' entirelv a
matn.;r m;' .U.-i-i ct ion : that there v/as ici ib'<!ini-t i. in in this le-
l:-ai([ lie!\\-<.'en olibaa'ion.- contra''!ei| in iln> mdinai'x- conrsO ol
adiniiii-ti atioii and ■ ^liii'^aUi 'n- in-ni'i('(! .-pe^calh- for t!ie wai' '//•■' :
aiK.l lliat in any c.i-e sui-ii i liciLi'at ii ms were irot of a Icind wliici:
ini) Sfj'j vol. i. IG.
The L('(j(d Ejects of Con(iucs1. 241
ii. inuiiici])al Court could give eilect to ( n). Tlio Keport. whilst
pui'pofliiig to accept the judicial view, ji<!vert]i(;le.s.s (piulifies thi.s.
Ill eilect, \)\ the adnu,s.si(ju tliat "the luoderu usage (j! jiaiiwiis tends
in llic direction of the acknowledg-uuuit of such contracts "( o;, and
that "the best modern opinion favours the view tliat as a general
juli' the oldigatious of the annexed Slate towards ])rivate individuals
should he respect-ed;"" basing this, lujwever, on j)olitical or etlncal
rather than on legal g'roun<ls ( ])). On the whole this bears out
the \i('\v pr<>viou-lv suggevste( 1 . that there is a doctrine of succes-siou
which is briiadly accepted in practice, although tlio rules which govern
its niure particular applications are still in course of growtli. The
Ke|)nit. it will be seen, also allirms the view that in tJie matter of
succession there exists " no sound disiinction l)et\\een the cases where
a State ac(piires p:irt of another State bv ce-sion and where it acquires
the whole by annexation:" a statement true at most points, although
needing some (jualilication [ q). Equally im])ortant is the recogjution
—by way of exception trt the general rule -that a conquering State is
not lial)le for oldigations contracted l)y its ]iredceessor for the pur-
])oses of the war: a distinction denied by the English Courts (r),
but now generally accepted ( -s).
For the rest, the statemeid of the (,'ommissioiiers is directed more
l)articularly to the f(uestion of "concessions." Those are contractual
rio'ld.s of a special kind, involving the grant l)y public authority to
individuals or corporations of some riu'ht or privih'ge not otherwise
exercis«>able: such as a right to ccmsiruct works, railwavs or tram-
wavs. or to establish undertakings for the suppiv of gas. water or
electricitv. or to carry on some s])Ocial iiKlustry under conditions ]iot
available to the ])ublic. The ])i'inci])h>s laid down with respect to the
treatment of these rights in cases of comincst ov cession will, from
ihrir r(>a-oiiable character. probjb]\- command a general assent (fi.
The forfeiture of the conc(>ssion of the Xetherlands South .Afidcan
Railway Ci.i. in itself also constitutes a jirecedent of no little im-
])ortance. The use of the line and Jiiaierial of the couqKiny. on
the re([uirement of the territorial Power and in aid of its operations
durinu' the war. would have rendered all jnoperty so employed liable
to seizure oi' desti'uction: l)ut it would not. in itself. hav(> constitided
:i u'round for the subse(|ncnt foi'fcitur*' nl' the conc<>ssioii . In the case
ill ipio.-tioii. howe\er. the company, not withsian<ling its iicutial
character, had ])ursu(^d -rhrouu-li its local ohlcials and with tlie
( ,/ ) S(M' also fool- V. Sj,ri'jtj (1S9!». ]iart. due to the fact that in the case
A. ('. 'u'l ■. tilt for a eriticisiii of of coinjili'to al)s()r])tioii, thcr(> is no
tiii< \ic\v. SIM' W'c-thilcc. i. SI fl SI',/.- (itlicr hn(]y on wlicm certain kimb of
and fcr a jmlirial rccOL^-ni tion of tln^ ohliL'at inn-, such a< tlic u'cnoi-al <l''ht.
riaht of suiTt'ssion. T. .V. v. M,h'"r can (h'volvc. Sec also Hall. 99 : Wot-
( L. ii,. S l^i. (i<)i: and ('. S. v. Sn.itli laki-. i. 77.
(1 liiiLdie-^ Ii. :!47: Scott. Sit>. -■) A- incident to trem'ral denial of
,,) S,i,n-". ]>. "J:]-"). a succession: si'c vol. i. KJ.
{/,) S,i/,,". p. i'M\. (■■') Si>e W'estlakc, i. 7S.
0/1 See vol. i. 7-1. 7-1. Su--h dif- : / ) N-/.,". j.. -I-ll .
fei'cne(>s a~ do exist are. iuv the most
C.T.L. K
242 Cases und Opinions on International Laiv.
a,->ont of tlie <lirc(.-tors. l)_v wIkjso act.s tlie company was bound — a
policy of active a<-^ociaTioii Avith the cause of the enemy and. active
hostility to the British, ^'oino- far beyond the rec|uirements inci-
dent to itv- Ljcal ,-ubjecti(jn to the authority of the Transvaal Govern-
ment 1,7/). Tliis virtually constituted such an identification of the
company with the enemy cause for the purposes of the war as to
justify, on the analop-y of unneutral service (x). the forfeiture of the
undertakinp- ('//). althouo-h this was in fact only partially enforced ( r >.
(ii) AS REGARDS PERSONS.
THE CASE OF COUNT PLATEN-HALLEMUND.
[lSi;(i: Forsyth, Cases and Opinions, 33-j : Ilalleck, InU'rnation;il Law, ii., 47*).]
Case.] Count Platen-Halleniund v/as Prime Minister of
Hanover in 1866, at the time of the outbro'tk of the war between
Austria and Prus.-ia, in which Hanover sided ^vitli tlio former. In
the course of the war, the Hanoverian ariiiv A\-a.< forced to
capitulate and the Kino- put to flitrht. whil>t Hanover it-elf was
ultimately annexed by Prussia : the annexation haAinfr been con-
iirmed by the Treaty of Praij-ao, 1S66. Prior to the annexation
Cotmt Platen-Hallemund had Ld't Hano^rr in the suite of the
King, and ultimately took up his abode in Vienna. \\'hilst there
he was summoned to apj^ear before the Sujn'ernc Court of Judi-
cature at Berlin on a eharo-e of hio-li trea-on, alleii-i'd to \\[\\q been
eomitiitted by him as a "" Prussian subject.' althoni^^h after lie had
in fact ceased to reside in Hanover. Pj\" tiic law (if Pi'u.->ia. onlv
a Prussian suljject c'ln Ije jirosecuted befere a l^'us>ian Court
for an act of hiii-Ii treason committed abroad : and thi' iuris-
dietirj]! of the (_'ourt ther-forc- deponded on \\h tlifi" ln' had becorjii'
•I i^iMi->iaii subject by \irtue of th." annexation of Haimver b\-
Piu->ia. .\t ihe trial Count Platen-Halli'immd did not ajipear
I :'.') .\s U> wliicli. see \o\. i. 203. dr'scritri]. (I'v-ir i'.ritaii!. ninroovi';-
.'■; I,'i,'\ ]>. 4")(). sif^ned under le^crvaricin nf Ai'ts.
{■>/) 'I'lii- loiiclusion would also ap- 1*J — Is. Uur >cr. er,,/,^. liandav.
pear to he ln.i-ne out Ijv the jirovisjon.s I'rulilcnis. p. 4!i.
of JI._ ('.. X(i. .-) of '1907. Arts. ^ 17, Cr: Hv ran-'rllino. the eM„ees.inn.
is. Xei' \\euld the pre\i-o eeiitained liut \\-ith eeiii',eii-atiMii to <liaro-
in Ai't. J 7 ap|"ai- to protiet frf)ni liolder<: s,.|.' ji. 235). n. '/i. .-"ina.
<.-X)i:ti-cation pi'tip' rty in the situation
The Lc(jid Ejj'cch of Conquest. 243
111 person, but took excei)tion by his counsel to the jurisdiotion of
the Court, and cited in support of this plea the opinions of two
eminent German jurists, Professor Zachariii; of (rritting-en and
l^rofessor Xeuniann of Vienna, to -whom the question had been
submitted. This plea was, however, overruled, with the result
that the accused was convicted and sentenced in his absence to
iifteeii years' penal servitude.
Opinion. ' In eilcct, the opinion of Professors Zachari;e and
Xeuniann was that the mere fact of conquest and annexation
ditl not of itselt create the relation of Sovereign and subject
between the conqueror and the conquered; and that to create
such a relation there must be cither an exj)ress or tacit sub-
mission. At the same time it was pointed out that "tacit
submission"' would include remaining within the sphere of the
power of the new dominion and fullilling the duties of a sub-
ject. Subject to this proviso, it must be left entirely to tlio
choice of the subjects of the subdued State whether tlicy would
acknowledge the new sovereign Power or not. Consequently they
Were at liberty to emigi'ate it' they eliose ; ])ut if they re-
mained, then they tacitly declared that tliey entered the new State,
and hence became subjects thei'cof .
The opinion ^-iven in tliis ca^o appeal's to embody a correct
-latemeut m1' fht^ existiiii;' law. The doctrine ot' an absolute
arul unceiiiliiioiial ti'ansi'er ot' aUegiaiice by the Jiiei'e fact of
'■on(pi(>st nil lonu'C!' ohiaiiis. and the express di- iinpHed consent
'if rlie -^ulijecT uia\' ii"\v lie i-e^-a I'llei I a^ e<-enrial to the ei(\uion <jf
the new ti(^ ot' pcfsoiial alleii-iance ( */ ). In 18(19 even the Germau
'.iovennnent appears \n ha\e^ icioLiiii/ed ihi- in the ca^e of certain
H'T-vons. tormerix citi/iMis of Fi ankl'ort. who after rhe annexation of
That (•it\" liy Pni--ia ha'l withfJiMwn ami f)(^conie naturalized iu
Swiizerlaii'l. hut had <nli-e(|nent l\' iclui'iioil To l-'iaii]<forT. In These
'■ir(iinistan<-e<. the Cio\einnient instead of holdinu' Them \n Tlie alle-
Liianic aiiii ooiiLianon oi' milit.uy service whi'Ii. jieeoi'dinu' To :]e>
jireredini;' doiri'iii(\ wdiild ]ia\(> lesidled fi'oni annexatio]). and from
whiidi iiai nrali/at ioii ejsouliere Avithoiii its I'onsont (/;) wnuld not
have exempteil them (■ont(Mit<vl its(df Avith nierelv (vxpelline- tliom
t'roiu it> nn-ritory 1 cM, And tlu^ same priniij)l<^ — despite soim'
■'pinion to the mntiai'v ap[iears to be d(>(|iicil)le from The Knadi-h
.'t') IWiT -00 llalK 567, n. C'-) Soe JIall. :^37 : W'estlako, i. 70.
^^; Soo vol. i. l',)o.
244 Cases and Opmions on International Law.
aud American decisions on tins subject ((i). The principle is,
moreover, ecj^ually applicable in the case where only part of a State
is conquered and annexed. But in such a case it is usual, by the
treaty of cession, to reserve to the nationals of the conrpierod territory
either a riglit to elect for their former nationality, subject to
\vithdra-\val, but with a right to retain or dispose of their pro-
perty le): or, more often, a right to elect for their former nationality,
without \\ithdrawal, on complj-ing with certain conditions ^f). With
respect to the classes of persons to wlioui this riglit, wliatover it;?
scope, will be available, the ])ractice appears to vary. Under some
treaties, the right of election is determined by nationality of origin:
under others, by residence or domicile: whilst under others, again,
it is extended both to nationals and domiciled inhabitants (',g). The
status l)Oth of the territory annexed and of such of its inhabitants as
do not withdraw or otherwise elect for tlieir former nationality, will
depend entirely on the municipal law of the conqueror, subject to
the considerations mentioned hereafter (7?). But the status of the
subject-s of neutral States Avho may be domiciled or resident in that
territory will not be affected, except, of course, in so far as the
temjjorary and local obedience which they owe to the territorial
Power will now be rendered to a new authority.
Gkxekai. Xotes. — Title by Conquest ( i). — In order tliat a State
may acc[uire a legal title to territory which it has con(]uered, it is
(d) See Doe d. Thomas v. AcMavi (/) So, on the cession of ^Mexican
(2 B. uV C. 779); Doc d. Auchmuty territory to the United States in 1848
V. Jilulcastcr (5 B. l^: C. 771); In re by the Treaty of Guadalupc-Iiidaliro,
Jsniri' (1 L. J. X. S. Ex. 153); Mexican subjei-ts e<tabli>lied in the
Ilalleok. ii. 474: but. coiitra. Half. ceded territory were allowed to retain
5(55. In C. S. V. I!ci/' niif/ny (5 tiieir national cliaracter without with-
Vrall. 211). indeed, it wa-; held that drawal on declarin<i- tliat intention
on the eon([uest and anuexati-in of within one yi'ar. A;:-ain. on the estal)-
a couiitry, inhabitant.s wlio leave lislunent of Cuban indrpcndence. by
and adhere to their former Sovereign the Treaty of Paris, IS'JS. Spaniards
forfeit the riij'ht to protection both resident in (Juba wt'rc allowed to
a.s regards themselves and their pro- retain the Spanish character -s\-ithout
perty^ unless protected by treaty ; and withdrawal, but on retristration. B>y
that if it is provided by treaty the Treaty of Portsmouth. 1905. Bus-
that thev may sell their ])roperty sian subjects, resident in territory
within a' certain time and under ceded to Japan, were alli)wcd either to
certain conditions, then a failure to sell tlicir landed ])i'Oj)erry and with-
coiuftly with these cdnditions will work draw, or to i-emaiu with full ]irotection
a forfeiture: althouu-h, in fact, the on submitrin<jr U> the .Japanese laws
forfeiture in this case appears to have and jnrisdiction : s-'/^/v/. p. 224.
been based on the non-fulfilment of {g) Sec Hall. 5f)7. n.: and \\'est-
conditiiuis attaehint,^ under the orig-i- lake, i. 72.
nal grant. '/') See ji. 248. hnrri: Ilalleck, ii.
{p.) Such a riirlit wa.s conceded by 480, 482.
the Treaty of hrankfort. 1871. to the 0') As to a pro])osal made in 1890
natives and inhabitants of Alsace and to abolish title by conquest under the
Ivorraine. on the ces-sion of those public law of America, sec ^loore.
provinces to to'ianany. Digest, vii. 315.
Title hi) Conquest. 245
/leoessary that there should be either a '" cession," express or implied,
un the part of the dispossessed State; or else a "completed conquest '
in ihe sense described below. Where conquest all'ects only part of
tJie territory of a State, the title of the conqueror is almost invarialily
conlirmed by a treaty of peace. This ma}- operate either expressly
and by way of cession; or impliedly and by virtue of tlie principle of
atl pussldetls {k); the title resting- in either case on treaty rather
tfian on conquest. But where the conquest afl'ects the whole of the
territory of a State, and involves consequently an extinction of the
former Power, then for want of some ceding- authority the title
will depend on conquest alone. For this it is necessary tliat
I here should be '' firm q)ossession " on the part of the conqueror,
coupled with "intention" and "ability" to hold the terri-
tory so a(Mpiired. In such a case "firm possession" will be shown
by the otfoctiveness of the conqueror's military occu])ation and con-
trol. An "'intention to retain" will usually be manifested by some
formal proclamation or notice of annexation. But such a procla-
mation cannot rightly be made unless and until the conquest has
been completed. If made prematurely it may indeed be validated
by the ultimate issue of the war; but, even so, it will not justify
the coiKpieror in treating authorized resistance as treasoii (^). The
i<sue of such a proclamation, moreover, may be important as mark-
ing' the fact that the actual title to the territory is now in dispute,
and that any future grants or concessions must be deemed to abide
the issue of the war (ni). " Ability to retain " will be shown by the
conqdete establishment of the authority of the conqueror, as indicated
either by some formal agreement of surrender (n), or, at any rate,
by tlie cessation of substantial resistance. It needs to be noticed,
however, that even though the resistance of the local forces and in-
luibitant-^ may have been (luelled. the title of the conqueror mil
nut bo regarded as complete, or the concpiost as definitive, if the
war is continued by a tliird Power in alliance with the subjug*ated
State; or even, it would sofMu. if it is carried on bv a Power not in
alliance with the latter, so long as the displacement of the conqueror
continues to be one of the objects of the warto"). The rei-ognition
of the tith> of the con([uer()r l)y other States will depend on much
the same considerations (//) : although in this case some interval of
time nui'-t necessarilv bo conceded in order tu enable neutral Goveru-
nieiits to weigh the facts of the new -^ilnation and to judge of its
]iroliable permanence (rf).
/■) S,i/i,-". ]). '2'2S. failed iiiu>t bo resT-ardcd as invalid,
(/) As i< allou'cd to liuvc hocn done unless eonfiriuod by treaty.
1)V Italy in tlio recent annexatidn of (;;) Sueli as the compact of
'ri-i],<.li. In an •• uci-iipicd " di-trii't, Vcrccniu-iiiL;-. 19((2: see p. 2'26. .«"//,«.
id" I'luirsc. s[)(iiiraii('(iii> I'i-iiiu-- or tin- tr/) As to tlic case of Genoa in 1815,
atirhtirizcd resistance inav lie fi'c;ited and the (l!<]Mite to which it iravi' rise,
as penal: .w/""- P- J"'"- ^<"t-' 'hiH. IHt rf s-eq.
, ,„ I See II<i,-r:.,trt v. (;,r,lh:r,l (12 ( /) ) .See vol. i. fiS.
Wheat. .")2:!i. whert^ it was held th.at ( y) On the sidiject irenerally. sea
all M-rtmts of contested territory made Ilalleck, ii. KIT, t71.
durinu- the \Yar l>y tin; party that
246 Cases and Opinions on International Laiv.
Succession in Cases of Conquest. — The question of succession in
general has already been discussed (r). It remains only to con-
sider it Avitli special reference to conquest. If, as has been sug-
gested, a doctrine of succession as between States is already broadly
recognized even though the rules governing its particular appli-
cation are still unsettled (,s). it would seem that conquest affords one
of its most appropriate instances. The legal consequences of con-
(juest, touching as they do both on internal and external relations,
must, if they are to be orderly and intelligible, rest ultimately on
some basis of principle, and the choice here appears to lie between
two alternatives. One of these is to regard the rights of a conqueror
as resting solely on force, as in the ordinary conduct of war. This
is the view which is, no doubt, reilected in the English decisions (f).
Xevertheless, it is at bottom unsatisfactory, both as involving a
compilete dislocation of the ordered life of the community, and as
failing to recognize the necessary association of obligations with
benefits as regards the position assumed by the conqueror. Xor is
it in harmony Avith modern opinion or recent practice (u). The
other is to regard the rights and liabilities of a conqueror as governed
broadly by the principle of succession (x"\, although with some Cjuali-
fications incident to the particular situation. This has the inerit of
securing, in legal theory, at any rate, a continuation of the ordered
life of the community, save in matters essential to the security
of the conqueror (,?/): of recognizing that obligations pass with
rights: and of rec[uiring the conqueror to assume them, at any
rate to the extent of assets which he has received!,:). This view
is also more in harmony with the trend of modern usage ir/).
From the point of view, tlien, both of principle and ])raftice. so
far as the latter extends, it would seem that the right.s and lia-
bilities of a conqueror are referable broadly to the jiriiicijile of
succession. If this be so. the concjuest and annexation by one
State of the whole or part of the territory of anotlu'r will carry
generally those rights and liabilities. Avhether as regards ])ersons,
property, or engagements, which have been pi'evi(iu>ly indicated as
attending a '' full '' or a " ])artial " succession, as the case may be (h ) .
Xevertheless. in the case of conquest, the a|)])lieation of this prin-
ciple is. on its passive side, at any rate, subject to certain qualifica-
tions, although these are bv no means well defined.
Qualificafions'.— In the first ]dace. it would seem that the con-
(r) iSpo \ol. i. 71 f^f yp'/. (y) See the Prussi.Tii nreeedent ro-
(.■;) Ihld. 72. ferred to. ]>. 237. .v;^/;,Y'.'
(/) See Il'rsf Hcirl Crntritl (r. J/. ( z) For instances in wliicli this
Co. v. Itcx (1905, 2 K. 15. 391) and prinei])Ie has been asserted inter-
Too/- V. ^]ir'ni(j (1S99. .\. ('. 372. but nationally, see a elaini by the I'nited
see also .)7S) ; and viil. i. IS. 71. States against Chile in 1 SS3. ^^'haI■ten.
(w) See vol. i. 72. Dig. i. 34S : and the clnim^ of the
(a-) Eased no doubt on tlie aiialoiry Boer deiierals, Pa.rl. ra])ei'<. 1901 ((M.
of eivil sueeessioii. as reeoo-ui/cd not tifiol. ]). 3. and MI02 i ( 'd . 1329).]). 7.
>nlv in (•asc< of hrii-<hip but al>o in (<■/") Si^e vol. i. 71
easp>
II I ( I .^ I ^ V ' 1 1 I ■ I 1 ^ i 1 i I ' I / I I I . » I - ' r 111 \ " I I ' ■ ^ •> \i V . 1 . II
:)f baidvfujitey and forfeiture. (7^) lh',d. 72 el .vry.
Title bi) Cowfiesl. 247
qucring- State is not bound to recognize or discharge oblig-ations
ot' tlie preceding Government, wliich were incurred for the immediate
[iiaposes of the war; for the reason tluit a State cannot, in the circum-
stances, be expected to assume — and hence to facilitate tlie making of
oliligations entered into with a view to its own injury oi' over-
tlu'owic). I^ut llie precise scope of this qualification is far from
cltnir. It would clearly cover loans of money, and obligations for
war material, contracted after the outbreak of war. In strictness,
it would also appear to extend to obligiitions or quasi obligations
iiKinrcd by the displaced Governmont, during- the Avar, in respect
of the lew of m<)ii(>v or supplies, or othoi' subjects of indemnity
under tlH> domestic law(,^/); but, in cases of ccssi(ui, obligations of
till- kind are often expressly assiiuKMl by agreement ( r' i. whilst, in
the case wheie the whole of a State is annexed, tlu^y ar(> often assnmed
a- a nuitt(n- of grace (/). In ttie secfuid |)lace. it is probable that
a conijuei'ing State woidd not now acknowledge private rights or
obligati(Mis that had caus(^d or contributed to the war; f(n' the I'eason
that th(>s(> iiuist lie d(MMueil to have been put in issuer bv the war
and the issue to have beiui decided against the pai1v that fail<>d (g\.
Xor. finally, is it likely that a solvent State would now fool bouiul
ti> assume to the full thi> oldigations of an ins(dvent State whi(-h
it had annexed. In such a case it would seem that, both in ecpiity
and under the law of succession in its doveloperl foi'in. the lia-
biiitv fit the couiiueror is limited by the matei'ial a-sets ;ictually
ici-eived by him : tlie<(^ Ixung estimated, gejiei'ally. by the
ji!"i re\enue-])roducing capacity of the t(>rritory ac(juirefl. (~in a
fiiir ba^is of taxation and expenditure!'//). Great liritain.
huwev(u-. in 1902. virtually took over the whole of the debt<
ol' the coiKjuerefl States, including a deficit of the South
.African Republic amounting to some i'l ..lOO.oOil. Suliject tn
tlicse (purlifications. the annexing State will be bound by all
tl'.e oldia-ations of the preceding (lovernment. whether incurr(>(|
(c) For an aiuiloirous case, see vdl. i. vidcd a sum of C3, 000, 000 for tlie
7(1: and, as to tlie refusal to allow luii'pose of iiidenuiifyinu- tlie iiiliahi-
( ,iha to take over delits contracted tants for losses sustained in war. in-
fie- the inaintcnance of the Spanish cludinn' all re:[uisitions for wliiidi notes
rnl(\ ///'■'/. 7:]. "^'r r(M-eipts had been triven hv the
(il) .\s i-ee-anls contrihut ions and authority of the preeedinir Govern-
re.,uisitions i.ro|.er, it seems that, in nuMit: whilst further jiayments were
the foianei- ease, a moral ohliuation. made in respect of jiroperty which had
and. in the latter, a lee-al ol)d-ation- - I'cen e<imniandeere<l or de-troyed :
at ;:iiv rat(^ as rcLi'ards supjiiies in kind -'ce p]). -li?,. 'ItX. ,,,!,■".
V il'l devolve <in the annexim;- Stai.^. C" ) As in the case of a treaty which
-> As on the ee-don of Londoardv I'''' ^",^\\''"' :_!'''' V- --^- •-■"/""■■ :i'i<l
in iS.V.i. and \'eiietiu in ISliii: althouixh Hall. oH?>. .")57.
the Italian Cniirt- appear to have i'.-
(7;) See Westlake, i. 77, wIku'c this
..■arded them as devolvin- on the lirineijih" is fully develoi)cd : and as
Italian Government irn>s[,eetiv<- of to cases where the territory annexed
ti'eatv so(- \\'cstlakc. i. 7(L '"^ endowerl with doinestii^ autonomy,
{fj So. on the conelu-ion of the ^■ol . i. 7-')_. and OpiidiUis of t ' . S. .\rt.-
South Afi-iean w.ir, (Ireat Britain pro- •■en. xxii. 585 ,;" v, ,y.
"248 Ca-'it'S and Oinnions on InternaUoual Law.
in the course of administration or as incident to its business
undertakings: but it will not be bound by ubliyaiions arising- out
of tort, or by those which were mereh- personal to the former Sove-
reign, or by treaties or political obligations other than such as were
locally connected with the territory annexed (^ij. It will, on the
other hand, be entitled to all the public property of the conquered
State, even though situated in foreign C(juntries, such as monies
loflged wiiJi t'oieigu l)anks. or ships lying in foreign ports; but not
to ]irr)])i'rty i)er<(jjial to tiie former Sovereign, ttnle^s legally for-
feited and duly converted to the puldic us(m/,';.
Tl\('. Kifect of CoiKitU'st Oil Private Rights and Lairs.- W'itli re-
sjK'ct til private rights, conquest and annexation are now generally
undcrstDod not to alfect either private rigiit-^ or private property,
to wjiomsoever belonging, in the con(p',ei'ed territory i /j : although
the [)roperty of those who continue in active hostility niay ot' course
be <lealt with as the law may warrant, ^^'itll rosjiect to the clfect
of roiKpH'-t on tlic local laws and insiituti<ins. although the political
system, or such part of it as is inconsistent with the [)ublie interest
or policy of the annexing State, may be changed, yet laws regulating
private rights and relations are presumed to be unaffected by the
fact of conquest, except in so far as tliey will now depend on a new
authority, by which of course they may be changed iit tlie ordinary
course of legislation i />/ 1. And even though a now judicial system
may be established, this will not in general be allowed to alfect
jtidgments. decrees, or sontenr-os ])revioiisly given or passed (n).
Over and above these ctistomary restrictions, moreover, there is also a
moral obligation inciunbent on the conquering State to administer
the c<nu[uered territory, in so far as this may r-onsist with it.s own
safely, in such a manner as to mitigate tlio sullerings an<l re-tere
the })rosperity of its inhaliitants, and to distriljtite so far as pos-ible
over the jKqnilaliMn at lari^e the burden of losses that have fallen on
individuals.
POSTLIMLXirM.
THE CASE OF THE ELECTOR OF HESSE-CASSEL.
[1814— 1S31: Pliill. iii., 841— S.51 : Ilallcck. ii., 4!)(1— 49iJ. ]
Case. During thi' M"ar between Franco and Prussia, in .1800.
Hesse-Cassel, althouu'h professedly neutral, was iii\a(ied and
'('; See vol. i. 7-5. t^ee U. S. v. Prre],r,y,(iy, i~ Pet. at
il-j See p. 2.");3, ;,-/,v/.- ni!(l Wfinrrr STj; SouJ'ird v. V. S. (i Pet. 511);
V. /■:. J. Co. (7 .Iiir. X. S. :].')()}. The S/,-n/J,rr \. Luf-a.'i (12 Pet. 410; ;
effeet of eon(|ue~t on alle';;-iaiice Jjas Join. so;, \. M rj y,fr,sl, fS Wheat. -543;.
alreadv hecn considered: st;c vol. i. ( ,,)) Thr (Jliifi-if/a. ,\-r. Ri/. Cn. v.
70: and |.. 2(3. s,,,.,;,. Mrf!i;,r,t (114 T'. S. 542).
h In the Pnitcd Srati'< tlii< has {,t') 'I'lie .1iyicfi,i l/o!,! lUnrryyij
befn enunciated a- a judirial dixtidiic: Cn. v. Ilmj 0004, A. C. 43(S;.
Postliminium. 249
occupied by Fi'ench troo{)s, and the Elector expelled. P)-ior to
his expulsion the Prince had held in the territory of which he
was Sovereign extensive domains as his hereditary propert\-, and
had also h'n1 out Jarg-e sums on mortgage both in his own and
other (icrnian States. Hcs.sc-Cass(d remained for about a yar
undei- tjie immediate government of Napoleon; but was thei'e-
after virtually {a) incorporated into the newly-formed kingdom
<d' Westphalia, of which Jerome Bonapart:o was recognized a<s
K'ing by the treaties of Tilsit and Schonbrun. On such incorpo-
lation it was agreed between Jerome and Napoleon that half of
the private domains of the Prince should be retained by XapolcHjn
for his own purposes : and, as regards debts due either to the
Pi'ince or province, that such of these as were due from persons
resident within the territory of Westphalia should be payable
to Jerome, whilst such of them as were due from persons resident
outside, should be payable to Xapoleon, as the original successor
in title to the Electoi'. L nder this arrang-ement \anons parts of
ihi' Ehx'tor's hereditary domains were alienated, and taken over
by purchasers on the faith of the new title. The payment to
Jerome of debts owing by pi'rsons within the kingdom was
enforced ; whilst Napolecm also succeeded in obtaining payment
from debtors who resided in other States, although, often, only by
remitting a part of the debt a.Jid giving a release for the whole.
In the latter class of cases. ho\\'e\er, the dilliculty presented itself
that where a mortgage had bei.'n ollicially recorded it could only
be validly discharged by i'ntr\- duly made with the consent of
the actual creditor. Of this kind was a debt dui' from (.'ount
von Hahn, the ownei' ol! large estates in the duchy of Alecklen-
burp;, who had borrowed money from the Elector on the security
of certain mortgages which were dnl\- recorded in tlu^ pro]»i'r
ollice at Alccklenbui'g. \t the instance of Xapoleon, and in order
to enal)lc the paymeJit of this debt to him, the Duke of Aleeklcn-
biii'g, in 1810. issued a rescript whi('h. after reciting the
aci|uisitio* b\' Xapoleon ol' the so\-ei'eignty of fiesse-Oassel and
imidentall\' of a right to the debts due to that sovereic-nt^',
directed the local Court to record as extina-uished any mortg-agiAS
•7) That is. witli tlio exception of rertaiii districts.
250 Case^ and Opinions on Internaiional Lmv.
in favour of the Elector Hesse-Cassel for which a discharge sliouki
be given by Xapoleon or his representative. RclA-ing on rhi>.
Count von Hahn paid over to Xajiolcon a ])art of the debt due to
the Ek^ctor of Hessu-Cassel and received a release' for the whol ■.
whereupon the mortgage was entered a.s discharu'ed 'h .
In 1813 the Elector of Hesse-C'assel was restored to his
dominion^ ; his title being coniirnied and guaranteed by variou>
treaties. Upon his restoration he claimed to be restored j/irc
postliminii to all his former rights, and refused altogether to
recognize the validit}' of transactions entered into by the inter-
m edi a t e Gov ernmen ts .
With respect to the alienation of hi^ domains, he claimed,
in efk'Ct. that by \irtue of the jii^ pnsfJUnlnii he had on his
resto]'ation been remitted to liis original position, with the
result that all his prior rights reverted notwithstanding aii\-
dispositions purporting to have been made b}" the transient coji-
queror. The purchasers of these lands wei'e accordingly'
d('pi'i\ed of possession, often by force: wliilst the local Courts
\\ ere prohibited from taking cognizance of tlie inatter. The ousted
proprietors, indeed, appealed to the Congri ss of Vienna, and
tiiereaftcr to the Diet of the Germanic Confed'Oration,. but without
r^.^sult. Xevertheless. juridical opinion was in gen-ral op])Osed
to tlie action of the Elector: for the reason that even in its appli-
cation to private relations the jus postJimimi did not rxlend to
[)roperty which had been meanwhile transferi'ed to a third ])art\ .
A\'hilst in it< application to pul)lic jvlation> it wa- not deemed to
extend to a case ^\'heJ■e the oc upaliou of an inxader had been con-
victed into concjuest. and wliere tlie title of th<' conqueror had
bi'en corifirmed by treaty or by the acquiescence of the inhabit-
ants and b\' tliL' recognition of foreign Powers c .
With respect to the debts, it appears t(j lia\-e b 'en held by the
Couiis. even in flesse-Casscl itself, that thos • sul»jects of the Kini!
of Wi'>t])halia Mil') had jiaid iheir did)ts eithir to him oi' to his ex-
chcfjUi']' and had n-eeixed due iliscliargi'S could imt be allied on to
])av sueh deht> ane\\\ Thi' (jUi'stion. howevei'. el' tlic validity of
thi' relea-e <i■i^ en to Cnuiit \ on Ilahn. \\\\o ^\a> not a Wi'st})halian
I'h) AltliouL'"li the entry \va< accoin- spefial eii'cuinsfancos.
jKiiiied l)y a inimito scttiuu'- forth tlio (^) See Pliill. iii. 7S(i, SIS. S-50.
Postluninhun. 251
subject, gave ri.sc in tlio events that happened t(j a hjng judicial
controversy. After tlie Count'.-> death his alTairs were I'ouud to b''
embarrassed aiul his I'state was assigned I'or the Itendit of lii>
creditors. .Vniongst tliese was the Elector of ilesso-Casscl, wh(j
put in a claim for the amount of his original advance, on the
ground t hat the payment to Napoleon was in\ alid and the diseharge
ol the mortgage tliercL'ore illegal. This (|Uestion was referred b,\'
the Alccklenburg Court to various German universities, which at
that time were often resorted to as judicial tribunals in matters
whore the interests; of two or more States or their subjects were
coneerned. The lirst ol' thesi- tribunals deeicbnl. in eli'eet. that tlie
Elector was entitled to recover only such portion of the debt as
had not been actually paid to Xapoleon //■ . Both pai'tics being
dissatislied, an appeal was thereupon taken by consent to a second
tribunal, wdiich, in substance, eonlirmed the judgment of the first .
From this decision, again, an a[)peal was taken, with th(^ sanction
of the Alecklenburg Court, to a third tribunal, which decided, in
effect, that all debts for which discharges had been given in full
by Xapoleon were \alidly and effectually cancelled, and tins
whether the whole sum had bcM-n i)aid or not ; and that the debtors
could not therefore be compelled to pay a second time.
The Grounds of the Decision. In the judgment last gixcn the
real question was stated to be— whether Xapoleon had or had Jiot
become the actual creditor of the lle-se-Cassid funds, as succe>sor
in title by virtue of coiUjUest to the |)rior Sovereiun. As to this, a
broad distinction was drawn betu'cen tlie act> of a Iransieiit con-
(jiieror in military occupation and aets done after the concpieror
had subjugatetl the country and had been accepted as its ruler.
In the former case his riii'ht,-- de])ended on occu])at i(ai ; in the latt^a-
hi> acts became the public acis of the State. .\;ipole(jn"s title
^^•a^ of the latter kind. Xor did it matter that these funds were
the private [iro[)erty (jf the former Soverein'u. Th(.' Elector had
remained an acti\e enemy of the Go\'ernment established by
XapoJeon, and b\' the law> of all countries the proj)ei't\ of .-uch
a [ier>:on was sul)ject to eonliscation e . Xapoleon had berii the
('') S„„,„. p. ■2\\K (r) S.-,.,,.'. p. ■1\-^.
2o2 Cases and Opinions on International Laiv.
original conqueror and had merely transmitted some part of his
right? to Jerome, reserving, however, expressly the rights in ques-
tion. The doctrine that the Elector, by reason of his having
retained the in-truments containing the acknowledgments of the
debtors, must be deemed to have retained constructive posses-
sion of the debts, was rejected as untenable. D<,'aling generally
with the question whether the restoration of peaco- would not
work a restitutio in integrum with respect to those who had been
dispossessed by the war, it was hold that even if this wore so. a
re^loii'd owner was bound to take tiie |)ro[)ei"ty as he found it and
could not claim to have replaced wlia^. was 2'one. In the circum-
stances of tlie case, moreover, it was impossil)le to consider the
return of the Elector as a continuation of his former Grovern-
ment, fo]' the reason that ho had not remained constantly in arms
against Xapoloon, and had been ti-eated as politieally extinct by
the treatie> of Tilsit and Schonl.)run. wiiilst the new CT(A"i_'rnment
on it- iiart had been reeoii-nizod b^' foreii^n Powers.
Tliis case serves at onee to enipiia.-ize that di-iiiie'tiou between
a tenqjorary and a completed conquest, which Ims alioady been
discussed (/k and also to illustrate the appHcatiou in iiiieniational
law of the doctrine of [inslJi mi itinm. I'his. for oiu' prt'sent pur-
pose, we mav take to l>e u lou'ul iufereiioc b\' wliieli territorv
taken by the enemy is presunicl to lie restore<l loe-crher with all
rio'hts appurtenant theiet'i- lo its oriainal owneisliip if retaken
before a (.-ompleto tiile ha- been aef^niied hy the eniKiueir)]- ;'// 1. In
the judenient fijially eiven it wa- hel<l in eftoer I'l i that liaxinu- re-
gard to the eessation of resistance, ;ind nioie ospei-ially to the rocdgjd-
tion of the conqueror's o-overiimeiU by treaty and l)y fm'eigii Powers,
the conquest by Xapoleon must lie deemed to ha\e keen definitixe and
lii- title complete: and (2) that iji view of this the jus jJoHlumn.li,
^vitll ii> eoii-orpuuit riu'ht to resi/tutio in i//feqru///.. did not a])plv
on the KU'cTor'- suli<ei|i]eiit re.-to]'at ion, [><'iukine- t<i the condition
of aflaiis in Kiiio|io at ilie lime, it may jiei-haj,- he qiiuhted whether
Xap<ileon'> eoiKjiio-t of lfe<so-(;as-el eould striitly l.,f' reo-arded as
complete I'or some con-ideialile tim<' after the oiiejnal <idi]ue-ation:
for the rea-on at oin-e ilial the resistaneo to .\a|iolei)n wa- eiDitinued
hv (MCiit [jritain (7/ ). and that the Power.s wlio-e roeoi;'niiion was
relie*! on in tli<' iuil'^i-ment were tiot free aLieni-. Xe\-err]ii>-
le--. by IS]:; the oriiiinal title may fairly he I'OLiardod as
ha\'ine' hf^en perrecieq h\ lap.-e of time and ae(|nie-eenee ; with the
■ /■ s, <,,,-,'. |,. 107. ''/ /,'i,". |.. L'.v;.
' /' / >'"/// ". ]). 21"). Willi 11. " .
Postliminium. 25-3
lo.-ult that what had previously Ijecn done, even ihouuli prematurely
under a claim oi' cunque.st, bocauie validated {l). And iii \ i(;w of this,
llic decision arrived at was pr(jl)aljly justilied in its if-^idl. e\en
thouyii not by some ol' the reasons on which it professes lo rest.
it will be noticed that the property appropriated by the iiojiapartes
was the private properly ol' the Elector. This is explained Ijy the
fact that at the time in question the distinction between the Sove-
reign in his personal and politic capacity was jiut so clearly drawn
as jiow: with the result that property inhering- in the Sovereig-n
was treated for the most part as the property of the State (Ic).
At the present time property belonging- to a Sovereign in his
peisonal capacity would be treated as e.xempt from conhseation;
althougli if a displaced Sovereign were to continue in active hostility
after tJie compiest had been completed, it would of course be open
to tlie succeeding- Government to conhseate it for treason, if this
was warranted by the domestic law(?).
LrENEKAL Notes. — Postliminium in liitenuiUonal I miv. -The jus
fostlhtiinu was a doctrine of Iloman law under which persons,
and, in some circumstances, things, captured by an enemv were,
on returning to the territory to which they had previously belonged,
deemed to revei't to their oi'iginal status or owjiership, on the hction
of no capture having occuri'ed ( ni). This doctrine was su])sequently
imported into international law by the text writers: becoming, in
its new applicatioJL, a legal inference by which persons, pro-
]terty. and, more especially, territory, captured by an enemy, were
presumed to revert to their former condition on tlie withdrawal of
the enemy's control. The doctrine, although it still retains some
of its earlier applications (»•), has now greatly diminished in im-
port^mce: l)ut it is nevertheless noteworthy as having provided a
mode of thought l)y wliich siime of the earlier rtdes of the jus
belli were gradually modified in their ellects and idtimately replaced
bv I'ules more suitable to modern conditi<jns. Owing, indeed, to
the early ado])tion and somewhat indiscrinunating application of
the Iioman law of orrirpnt/n. it was a fiiiidauuMital ride of tliG earlier
jus heJJi that all objects taken in wai- Ix^camc the prop(n1v of the
captor as soon as he had acquired, a lirm possession of them: thi.-
])eing a rule which a])))lied ecpially to lioisons. property, and terri-
tory. As reo'ards persons wlm iindci' tlu^ Roman la-w had been the
(■hicf oliject of the jus jtOsfUuniii/ tli(^ need for having recourse to
that doctrine was early dis])ensed with hy the substitution of
the ])ractic<' of detention or rairsoni for slavery: whilst tlic-
i'(>co\<>rv (if personal frei^iloni that now ensues on escape \'>
{;) ihiU. .)<;:3. vol. i. -)(). 7s.
(/■■ 1'lii< \v;i< ])r.il):il>ly tlic true (/' S,>f,,v/. ]>. '2 IS.
l;-i-iiiiih1 (if cunfiscatiiiii. dcspiic tlic ( /,, lii-rirutc- nf .lu-tiiiinii. i. I'.:
rcrci'ciicc ]na(li> in th(> iii(lu-iiirnt tn ." : I'liill. iii. til,').
:ii-ti\<' ciimify as a ju^tilicaticii : sec (,,: J tail. -1S2 : p. 2.35. //?//■('.
'254 Cases and Opinions on International Law.
neutral territory i o i is more correctly based ou tJie rights of
neutral soxereignty. But even as reg-ards property and territory
the consequences of the earlier rule of capture proved highly incon-
venient, as vestin<^- absolutely in the captor a title to things that
-till remained subject to the chances of war. \\\ such cases the
eilect of the doctrine of postlimiuiion- Avas. shortly, to convert the
captor's title from an absolute into a provisional one. and thus to
impose certain jiecessary restrictions on the captor's action.
[i.) Its Operation- on Property. — {I) As regards moveable pro-
perty taken on land, although some writers treat this as exempt from
the jus [jostlhtiinli by reason of the difficulty of identification, it
appears to have been commoidy held that such property, if it could
Ije identified, reverted to its former owner if re<-aptured speedily,
ur, as was usually laid down, -witlnn twenty-four hours ( [,). Under
the present system, however, such property is. as we have seen,
exempt from seizure, unless it has a military character or is required
for military needs or is the property of the enemy State ((]). (2') As
regards property taken at sea. this, although formerly subject to
lus po-^tlh)hn/( in the event of recapture, is now go\"erned for the
mo-^t part by the numicipal law of salvage, which has no present
connection with that doctrine ir). '3) As regards immoveable pro-
perty, this, whether belonging to the State or to private persons,
was. if seized by a belligerent in occupation, formerh- suliject to
the jus posfliminii. and reverted to its original ownership on his
expulsion or withdraAval before his title had been perfected by con-
quest (s). So. on the termination of the Franco-German war in
1871 —when cert<ain persons, who had entered into contracts with the
German Government for felling a stipulated quantity of timber in
the State forest^; of certain districts in France then in German occu-
pation, and who had paid for this rio-ht in advance, claimeil tliat.
ina-much as the German Government was within its ris'lit in letting
these contracts (f). tliov ouQ-ht to be allowed to ronqdete rhem not-
\\-ith standi 112' the terminafiou of the German occujiation — the claim
was rejected by the French Government on the ground that when
the German occupation came to an end. the rio-hts of the former
OAvner revert("<l. Avith the result thai all ria'hts rlorivod from or
tlirriua-h the ocr-upant Avero put an end to. And this vioAv appears
to have lieen aor-opted even bA- the German Government as a correct
ex]ii>sitinu of tlie law ' //V The jus fjosfjinivi') niav still, jierhaps.
( '/') A^ to exception* In case of systems notwithstaiidinsr the aeqnisi-
i.ri-iiiicrs (Ictiinc'I on lielliirereiit Avar- tion by the caiitor of a eompfete title.
ships, see vol. i. pp. 2.59, 264. wl'.icli under tlie earfier sysrem would
Sic I Inllci-l^'. ii. .V t : hut also have extina'ni-lied tlie /-/.s- pos-tJhp.ijiii.
I'liill, ili. (Iir,. is-\ S„i„-a. p. 2-10,
./I >■/'/'/•". pp. 110, 210, (' .\ltl)o\iL;-li tlii> was, ]ier]ia]is,
:,) l-'di' altlciiiLrli 'ill i'" ■;ipruri' the doiili*"fi;!. and would net he pcrnii<-
riL'lit- of the turincr (iwnfi- rcniinonly sihh' nnw ui'dei' 11. \\. 5-).
revert, yet thi- i<. on the one jiand, (" See Hall. tSo '/ ^rq.: Oppen-
suhjeet te) the payment "f -al\-at;-<', heini, ii, 3-12.
•vl.'Nt. i/ii the iitlier. it a\ail-; in mi,st
PostUmuiiiua. 255
be said lo apply where pruperty belonging' to individual.-' is seized
tjr occupied by an enemy; although the need of it is now not very
apparent, as the only purposes for which it can be taken are Iw
themselves provisional and temporary. But in the case ot immove-
able property belongijig to the State the jus postlimlnil has now
been replaced by positive regulation, under which the rights of
tlie l)elligercnt occupant are expressly limited to those of a usu-
fructuary yx).
(ii.; Its Operatio)i on. Tenitory and Sovereignty : (i) After
Occuijat/on.— According to the earlier view, the seizure and occu-
pation by one belligerent of territory belonging to the other was
deemed to work a complete — or, at a later time, a partial —
-substitution of sovereignty (?/). But here, again, the anomaly of
attributing sovereigiity and title to a possession manifestly con-
tingent on the hazards of war was relieved by the doctrine of post-
l.iniiuiui/i : which, by predicating a restitution of the original sove-
reignty and title in the event of the withdrawal or expulsion of the
;jccu])ant, made the lat tor's title merely provisional and defeasible.
This view, whilst consistent with the exercise of all necessary autho-
rity over occupied territory, yet excluded any attempt at alienation
or permaneirt change of system until tlie occupation had been con-
verted into concj^uest (0). And this, in its turn, appears to have
pa\-ed tlie way for tlie modern rule under "which military occupation is
deemed to confer only a possessory or provisional interest; tlie rights
and duties of the occupant meanwhile resting on the broad ground
of military necessity icn. But. even on tliis view, the result's of a with-
drawal of control arc still those derived from the doctrine of post-
Jlmiulum. So, when the occupation comes to an end, the authority of
the legitimate government will be restored; the operation of the terri-
torial law and the jurisdiction of the Courts, in so far as previously
>uspended, will revive; whilst private rights and relations, in so far
as they were previously affected, will be renewed. Acts done bv
the occupant in excess of his rights, such as changes in the political
system or pretended alienations of pro])erty not subject to appro-
priation, will be wholly annulled; but acts done by him within his
rights under the jus belli, such as the loxy of contril)utions and
requisitions and the alienation of property sul\ject to appropriation,
will liold good in so far as they have taken effect; whilst acts done
m the ordinary course of civil or judicial administration, such as
tlie collei'lion of taxes or the infliction of punisliment for civil ofTenc(>s.
will be bindiniz" on the restoi-ed Cb)\ (H'nment. unless revoked in due
i-ourso of law ( 7>).
(2) After tempontrij or partial Coihjuesf. — It may hap]3en. Iio-a -
'_n-ei'. tliat a lielliQ-creiit avIio intends a ci)ii(|uest and puriiorls }o
{:r) II. R..15: y. Mi).supr^'. (") Hall. tClS.
(If) Hall. -UiH rt s,-,-/. (L) \^ Lv appeal. On tlio subj'-'ct
(~) r.onhvcll. II. -5.3. o-eiicrally. sec TTall, 483 rf srq.; Op-
jienluMiii. ii. 33!) ''' ypq.
256 Cases and Opinions on International Laiv.
establish his sovereignty over tlie territory appropriated, is, after
ail interval, displaced by the former Sovereign. Strictly, in such
a case the operation of the jus posfUminii will depend on
wlietlier there was or was not, according to the tests previously indi-
cated, a cuinpleted conquest (c). If there was, then, on the subse-
quent displacement of the conqueror, the jus postliminu will not
ap])ly: the ri^-lits of the [larties. both on c<jnquest and reconquest.
being strictly dclerminable by the rules of succe.ssion u/). But if
there was not a completed conquest, then the jus postlornui) with its
attendant cmisequences I'e; would in strictness apply. Xevertheless.
even in this case — and especially if there was any apparent basis
for tlie claim of sovereignty put forward by the intoi'inediate govern-
ment -tlie preferable view would seem to be that all right* acquired
under its dispositions and in good faitli ought to be respected; for
the reason that in such circumstances private persons are often not
competent te judge of the true character of political changes (/).
CLAIMS BASED OX WAIC
(i BY PvE.SIDEXT .VEUTR.VLS.
CLAIM BY AMERICAN RESIDENTS FOR LOSSES SUSTAINED
DURING THE BOMBARDMENT OF VALPARAISO, 1866.
1 LS6G : Official Opinions of Atr(jrncy.s-Goncral of the Cnitcd States, xii.. 21:
Moore. Digest, vi.. 940. J
Case.' On the olst Alarcli, 1860, during war bctwo(.'ii Spain and
Chile, the city of Valparaiso was bombarded l>y tlic Spani>h licit.
In the conflagration that ensued a laro'c amount of property bi-
lont^ino- to Anicrif-au citizens who wei'e domiciled thci'c for com-
mercial pur])0ses was di'Stroyed. The o\\nci> sub-cipicnl ly
sought tlie aid of their ( rovcriimciit for the [lurposc of obt'iiiiiiiL:
an indemnity for their losses, either from Spain or (Jliilc Tb^
I'nitcd States (io\<'rnmc>nt, liowe\er. actim^' on the opinion of tiic
Attornc\-(iencra]. declined to intcr\"enc.
Opinion.' In bis oi)iiiioii, the .\t tornc\ -( irncr;] | 'n stated, iii
effect, that lU) sudieiciit sji-ound foi' intei\ mt ion a- aLiiiiii-l ■■itln'i
(' ) S>//i,-". ]). 21.'). 82!): and. on tlie .-uliiect i^encrally.
(,/) Si//,rr/. ]). 21(1. Hall, isl '/ -"/..■ llallci-k. ii. .'jDO ," -
(/I Siiju". |i. 'l-'i-'>. >("'/..' and I'liiU. iii. Sl2 '/ .-.■/.
(/; See JJcfiter, .-. IT-i: I'liill. iii. i", -Mr. Henry Stanbery.
Claims based on War. 257
Government had been made out. With respoot to Spain, the bom-
l)ardment liad occurred in the course of a war then ])roceeding-
between that country and (Jhih>; and, although it was und(_'i' the
(urcumstances a measure of extreme severity, it couhl not b»! said
to be contrary to the kiws of war; nor was it unattended with the
preliminary warning to non-combatants usual in such cases; nor
did it appear that in the carrying out of the bonibiirdment there
had been any discrimination against foreigners or their property.
With respect to Chile, again, it did not appear that the Chilian
authorities had done or onritted anj^ act of which United kStates
citizens domiciled there had a right to coni})lain; or that the
measure of protection which those authorities ■\\cre bound by public
law to extend to American citizens and their property had been
withheld. No defence against the bombardment had been made
for the reason that it must have proved fruitless, as Valparaiso was
then unfortified (6 . Xor had any discrimination been made by
the local authorities between their own citizens and foreigners
domiciled there; and all alike had shared in the common disaster.
The rule of international law was well established that a foreigner
who resides in the country of a belligerent can claim no indi'ninity
for loss of property occasioned by legitimate acts of Avar ic) .
This opinion, it will bo seen, touches bi)th on the (piestioa of tlie
fiability of the belligerent invader and on iJiat of the territorial Power.
\\'itli respect to tlio former, tlie governing rule is tliat Jieuii'als
resident in an invaded country are, togetlier witli tli(nr property,
subj(.'ct to tlie same rislvs and liabilities as resident nationals; for
tlie reason that by associating- tlietnsclves pei/niancjilly witli ;]ie
countrv, or Ijy failing to ([uit it on the onthieak of war. th(>y must he
(hM^iiKvl to a''CC])t all risks wliicli are reasniiahly iiicidcuU to that asso-
ciation u/). Xoi'. iud(HMl, lias tliis rul(\ in its iuor(> ohvious applica-
iKuis, ever been scriouslv controverted i « i. To hold otherwise
(h) Tlic l)Oiuliardnient of " iinde- t'nited States, see Wliarton, ii. 588
t'eiidcd " ])()rts and towns by luival ct scq. ; in both of which, proixM'ty
f()i'cc< i-; now forbidden by the J I. ('., b(>l()nu-iim' to resident foreiy-ners was
X(i. it of 11107; see p. ItT, .^"iira: d(\-^troyed witliout an^- admission of
niid, a< til the (>arlicr law. Wharton, liahility on the ])art of either bclli-
DIlt. ii. .)!)(i. e-ei-eiit,' ih:a. .)S(i.
\r) Kefcreiice is also made to the (r/) See vol. i. 201.
hombai'dment of Copeiihae-cn liy (Jrcat ie) Vov other instances of its appli-
Uritain. see vol. i. Kli: and to the i-ation, see Wharton. Diu'cst, i. .jSo,
lionihardincnt of Co'cytown hy the 5S(i.
C.r.L. S
258 Cases aiiil Op/'nions on International Laiv.
would be to eoul'or on neutrals extra-territorial privileges (/) .
Hence tlie State to which they belong- will have no ground of coin-
l)laint, unless tlu-y are unfairly discriminated against, or unless the
acts in (jucstion were nut warranted by the laws of war. Their
position in relation to the territorial Power is described in the case
next folio wino-.
GILES r. THE REPUBLIC OF FRANCE.
|1S8(J; Moore, Jnt. .Vrl). iv., 3703.]
Case.: In 1870, during- the siege of Paris by the (icrnnins, a
factor}' situated at Pantin, between the w-alls and outer fortili-
cations of the city, and belonging to an American citizen, was
destroyed together with its equipment and contents. Subse-
(juently a claim for indemnity on behalf of the ow ner was made
by the United States against the French Government. This claim
was, Avith various others, referred for determination to a Commis-
sion appointed unchn- a Convention made in Januar\-, 1880. From
the evidence given before the Commission it appeared tliat the
proper!}' in (jUcstio]! had in the first instance been damaged and
portions of it taken by French soldiers and marauders. Subse-
(luently to this an order was issued b}- Creneral Trochu for the
evacuation of the zone millloire within wliich th(> factor}- was
situated; and two days later the factory appears to lune been
destroyed. On belialf of the French (iovernmcJit it was con-
tended, tliat, oven if the facts wcro as aUcgcd, the a ts complained
of were the unauthorized acts of soldiers and marauders; that the
order of (General Trochu did not direct tJie destruction of the
works, but merel}' the abandonnuMit of buildings within the zoiii>;
and that theii' subst^picnt destruction, wfiethor b}- the Frencli as
a, mililar}- precaution or b}' the Cerman arm}' in its attack on
Paris, did not, impose any liabilil}' on the French (m)\ iM-nmenl.
In the rcsidt. the claim was disallowed by a ma joia't}- of the Com-
mission; all hough tin,' Utiitcd States Commissionei' dissented on
the ground that com})ensation should ha\e been awai^hnl for such
(/) As to an. attcini)t made at tho for them a ])i-ivilei,>-e(l ])iisition, see
Jl:it;-ue Conference of 1907 to secure p. 27, stip,-a; i'earce 1 lii^'-yiiis, .S5, 293.
Claims based on War. 259
injur}', amounting in fact to the wrecking of the factor}-, as was
shown to have been caused bv French soldiers.
The rules which govern the relation of resident neutrals to iho
territorial l'ow(>r in time of war are merely a branch of those geueial
rules relative to domiciled aliens which have already been de-
scribed (a). As regards injuries sustained by them through war,
neither they nor their Government will have any ground of
complaint against the tei-ritorial Power, unless the injury in ques-
tion was due t« or attended by some unfair discrimination against
theni as n(Hitrals, or unless that measure of protection which Govern-
ments are bound to ext/ond to their subjects, whether citizens or not,
was unreasonably withheld (6). In the case, indeed, where neutral
property has been seized or destroyed by order of the territorial
Power or its officers, neutrals, in common with citizens, will com-
monly have a remedy by municipal law(c). But for losses inci-
dent to the operations of war, or for acts done whicli were warranted
by the laws and customs of war (d) they will have no claim, as of
right, for reparation or indemnity (rZc/). Nor will a belligerent
Government be responsible to neutrals for the acts of inarauders, or
even for the unauthorized acts of its own soldiers, in a case where these
acts were attributable t/O the state of war then prevailing (e). Claims
for war losses, if made, are usually referred for determination to com-
missioners ap]iointed by the respective Governments. So, by a Con-
vention of 1871 made between Great Britain and the United States,
a Coumiission was appointed for the purpose of dealing' with claims
for war losses sustained by subjects or citizens of tlu^ respective
j)arties during th<> civil war(7); whilst by a Convention of 1880 a
similar Commission was constituted for dealing with claims b\-
citizens of Franc(^ and the TTuited States fr/).
(a) See vol. i. 204. leeted in ^loore. Int. .\''h. iv. c. (>.).
(A) Siij,,-(i. ]i. -l-u . Some of the eases adjudicated on are
(^) Sep, In- wav of exanijde, ^Foore, n<jtieed elsewliere, -ee |)]). 2'29. 2.)S,
Int. Arb. iv. 3().S.5. s><,,rn. In .I/,/,7;„'x Cisr (.Mdoi-e,
('/) Or. even hy tlie tei'ritovi.il law :j()79) an award of daiuau'es was
in cases wlici'c im in(ieinnity is jiro- made fdi- the (l(\st ruction of a
\ idcd fur. .-uhjccr to the coiiditiiins iSrirish vessel in the course of wai',
<„o-u-csrc(l in viil. i. |>. 2(l.-). hut hy mistake. In M i- DovdhTA Cnt^,'
[ih! ) As til com pcnsation /'.r <i rn t'u'i . {ihid. odSo) a similar award was
see p|i. 2(il, 2«W1. made tor the di'st laiction of liritisli
(,''■ Sec .Moore, Int. Aih. iv. ;;()7I iirop(>rty hy the Initcd States forces.
' .' sv/y. within the h'nes of federal occU]K:iie\-.
( / Althoui'-h ll'.is Coiivcnfion Of tii(> cases decided hy the l''rcncl)-
eo\ered also helliu'crent claims arisinu' American ( 'oniniission. O'/'/ x' CiiKr and
out of previous wars. Mf,^ii'x Cisr (.Moore. odSi)) are hot!)
(.'/) 'r]ies(> and other cases are c(d- noteworthy in the present connection.
260 Cases and Opinions on International Lav).
(ii) AS EEGAEDS THE PBOPEETY OF XOX-IiESI-
DENT NEUTRALS— THE RIGHT OF ANGARY.
THE SINKING OF BRITISH VESSELS BY THE GERMANS
AT DUCLAIR, 1870.
[Pari. Papers, 1871, vol. Ixxi. ; Annual Register, 1870. 110. J
Facts.] During the Franco-Prussian war, the German General
commanding at Rouen was desirous of blocking the passage
of the Seine, in order to prevent the French gunboats from
ascending the river and interfering with the German opera-
tions. \\'ith this object he proposed to sink some six British
vessels then lying in the Seine, near Duclair. In th<' first instance
he attempted to come to an agreement with the masters, under
which the latter were, after unloading their cargoes, to sink their
vessels on receiving payment of their value. This oft'er was, how-
ever, refused; whei'eupon the German commander, affeeting to treat
this as a viokition of neutrality, ordered the ves.-^els to be sunk
by firing on them, this having been done in some cases before
the vessels had been finally abandoned by their cre\\s.
The German Justification.] In the explanations subsec|uently
furnished to the British Government, this procoedinu- was jus-
tified by Count Bismarck on the ground that the measure, however
exceptional in its nature, did not overstep the bounds of inter-
national usage in war. ... A pressing danuer was at hand,
and every other means of averting it was wanting. The c^t.se
was therefore one of necassity, which, even in time of peace, would
render the employment or destruction of foioigji ])roj)oi ty admis-
sible, on condition of indemnity. This right — kno-\\n as the jus
angaricE — was well recogjiized in ])ractiee. mikI \\as in tliis
character admitted hy Englisli writers a . In it- re])iy the
Britisl) Goverjiment virtually admitted tlie e(irr('('t]iess of this
contention; and — without taking exception, as it might fairly have
done, to the methods employed — merely ro(piired the pa}-ment of
a proper indemnity. This was ultimately paid, and included the
(") Ilf'fereiK-c i< made to Philliiii(jr(\ iii. 51.
Claims based on War, 261
value of the ships, and 25 per cent, in addition, the seizure
being treated in the light of a forced sale: the high(,\st value
of the caxgoes at the time of capture, les.s port duos and charges
for unloading which had not then been paid; certain costs
that had been incurred for protests and counter certilicates;
and interest on the sums so ascertained at the rate of
o per cent, till payment. The cost of transmitting the crcAvs
to theii' homes was also paid. But the British Government
refused to put forward a claim on behalf of the masters and sea-
men for loss of employment and effects.
Property belonging to neutrals, which is only temporarily or
accidentally within a belligeieut State, is not associated with it to
the same extent as that of resident neutrals, and is not, in general,
subject to the ordinary incidents of war(£>). Nevertheless — under
a recognized custom of war, commgnly referred to as the jus
angaria', ibb) — even such property may be used or destroyed by a
belligerent, provided it can be shown that such a proceeding was
required by the necessities of war. and subject to the payment of a
proper indemnity. In the same war the Germans, under the same
plea of justification, seized and used a large quantity of rolling
stock belonging to Swiss and .lustrian railways (ej. The seizure of
railway material belonging to neutrals is, however, now regulated
by Convention (rZ). The right in question also extends to the deten-
tion of neutral ships found within the belligerent jurisdiction where
this is required for military i(M'<ons. So, during the American civil
war. the Labuan, a Bi-itish merchant vessel, was detained by the
United States authorities in <irder to prevent the divulgence of
important infcuniation with r(>spect to a military expedition then
about, to be dispatched; an iiideiniiity for t.h(> detention having subse-
(|uently been paid(e).
(//) Kxrcpt tlie risks arisint,' out of (c) Hall, 742.
the actual conduct of hostilities. ('/) li'jrn. p. -ifiO.
.///,, T.ut sec /■,//;■'/, p. 2()S. ((■; See :\loore, Int. Arb. iv. 3791.
262 Cases and Opinions on International Lanj.
(iii THE QUESTION' OF THE USE .VXD DESTRUCTION
OF TELECiRAPH CABLES.
THE CLAIM OF THE BRITISH EASTERN EXTENSION
TELEGRAPH COMPANY AGAINST THE UNITED STATES
GOVERNMENT FOR DAMAGES AND LOSSES ARISING
OUT OF THE CUTTING OF ITS CABLE AT MANILLA
IN 1899.
[1900: The Official Opinions of thf Attornoys-rrcneral of the United .Stat<^~.
xxii.. pp. 315. H.5i. ]
Case._ In 1899, during war between the United State- and
Spain, and in the course of the naval operations in the Philipjnnes.
a submarine cable belonging to tlic claimant roujpMnx-. whifli con-
]ieeted Hong Kong ^\'ith the Philippine islands, was «;ut by the
officer in command of the United States for^i'S within the
territorial waters of the enem>-. A claim for indcninit\- wa.s
subsequently preferred against the Uniti'd States (Tox^rnment;
but in the result this wa.< refused, in accordance with the opinion
given below.
Opinion. The opinion of the United State- Attorney-
Ceneral(a^ was. in effect, as follows: After referrino- to an
opinion previously given by English coun.>el favourable to the
validity of a demand for indemnity to the extent of the amount
expended on the repair of the cable, the Attorney-Central
observed that, in the light of such opinion, he under.-tood that
the claim was limited to the amount there refe-rr.'d to : that it
A\as not deni(.'d that the cable was cut as a neei'>sary mea>ui'e of
war; and that it was not pret(mded that the int<_'rruj[)tion of traffic
in the eir( unistanecs exi^tino' at Manilla e'avc risi' to an\^ claim
for indemnity. The governinfr rule ajtpeared to 1)0 that the pi'o-
pert \- of lU'UtraU peniianeiit 1\' situated within the territor\' of the
enemy was, from it- situation aloni.', liable to damaoi' ['rum the
lawful operations of war. wliieli this cuttine- wa- (•()nced''d to liavc-
been, and tliat no eum|)ensation wa> du^' theM'id'or. It was
{'A) Mr. Juhn W. GriL'-"--.
Claims based on War. 203
said, however, that this rule liad never boon appli<3d to cables:
that the whole utility of a cable over many miles was as much
destroyed by cutting it in territorial waters as by cutting- it on
the high seas, wiiioh last, it was said, would undoubtedly entitle
the t)wnors to compensation; and, further, that the object of thi'
United States .Vdmiral was not merely to prevent the use oC the
cable by the enemy but also to use it himselt'. But in tact the rulr
abovi! referred to took no account of the character ot the pro-
perty, but only of its location ; and no account of any motives
either of the owner or of the niilitiiry authorities whose action
was in question. Xor was the application of this ruh> all'ected
by the sui)posed extension of the injury bi'vond territorial watx^rs,
for the injury was in fact local and repairable : although, even
if it were otherwise, it did not appear that this '\\ould alter the
rights of the belligerents (Jy . To say that the American Admiral
desired to use the cable himself was merely to attribute to him a
motive in addition to one which justilied his act — which would not
ill an\- way diminish his right to cut it. Xor, seeing that he did
not use it, could it give rise to any different rule as to compensa-
tion. Upon the law of this case, therefore, there appeared to be
no (T-i-ound for the claim to indemnit\- [c\
Ai'PKXDKi) XoTK. — Holli this au*t >iiuilai' claims were rejected on
the ground that tlu> cutiiii<^' of a cable wiiliiu the territorial waters
of an (Mieiny was a lawful act of war. and that a neutral by placing
Ills ])roperlv in that sii nation nuist he deenied to lake tlie risks of
war and of all lawful aci- inciilental thereto i r/i. Xor was the appli-
cation of this rule held to be an'ect(><l hy any suppnscd or real exlen-
.-imi (if the injury heyond the liinit of ttu'ritorial waters. The general
rule> i^ovi'mi ng the use and destruction of br)tli land and submarine
teleii'raphs will ho considered in a suhse([n(>nt section ict.
(i>) Siicli, at any rate, appears to in tiic a^reonicnt hotwecii (I real:
he tin? ctt'oct of tlio latter part of the j>rirain and the L'nited States tor the
opinion at p. 317. settlement of various pecuniary claims
('•) A claim for compensation was outstandinu' between t!ie two (JoNcrii-
.<iil)se(|uently suhmitted to Conjri'css, ments.
hut at tlie end of 1911 no dctcrmina- (</> Su/irf. p. 'i-JT.
tion iiad been reacjicd : altiiouurh ti;.' (-■) l.ii,-,,. p.2tl<t.
luatter mav conecivablv bi- dealt with
'2i'A Cases dud Oi>'niio)is on later national Law.
(iv) COAIPEXSATIOX TO XEUTEALS EX GBATIA.
THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN
DEPORTATION COMMISSION.
[1901; J5ritish and I'^jreisn Stato Papers, vol. xfiv.. ()4o ; The Tihics
Xewspajier. lOth May. 1901. '•/ s^q.]
Circumstances leading to Appointment. In 11)00. duriiip- the
South African Avar, the Britisli military authorities werr greatly
emharrassed by the presence in the territory then under occupation
of a number of aliens of doubtful character, whose loss of employ-
ment and antagonism to the British pro\'cd a source of much dis-
order and no little (hanger. After the discoxery at Johannesburg
of a plot having for its object the murder of British oliieers, a con-
siderable number of persons of foreign nationality, whose Consuls
could not vouch for their conduct and res2:)ectability. were sum-
marily arrested both at Johannesf)urg and otlier places, and tliere-
after deported. Those persons were sent back on British trans-
ports: whilst on their arrival in the United Kingdom they Avere
met by agents of the Britisli Go\ ernment, who pro\ided thrm Avith
the means of reaching their eAvn eountrie-, and at the same time
informed them tliat all claims made in resix'Ct of their treatment
must be made thi'ougli their respective Croxcrnments. In the
result, claims, amounting- in tlic aggregate to about i'l."250.000,
Avere preferred by various PoAvers on b 'half of their respective
subjects.
The Appointment and Proceedings of the Commission.' In
April, 1901, the British llovernnient appointed a Commission to
inquire into and report on cLaims for rnnij)ensation made bv
friendly PoAvers on behalf of their subjects by reason of their
trcatmeiit 1)a- the British military authorities in South .Africa.
Tht' ( fjinniission met on the 1st ^lay, 1001, and continued its
inquiry ti until late in the same year: but owinr;- to the fact of
an amicabh' arraneemi.nt having been meanwhile n-ached. it did
not issue any linal re[)ort. Xevcrtheless. in the course of its pro-
(aj SiihjccT. liowcvcr, to ono lengthy adjournment.
Claims based on War, 205
ccodings, \vhich were attended by representatives both of the
J^ritisli and other Governments, the Commission gave certain
I'ulings and adopted certain conclusions on ({uestions of principle,
which a})pear to have served largely as the basis of the sf.'ttiement
subsc(|Uentl\' arrived at. Of these the more important are the
following: - I At the outset it was assumed as a guiding priu-
cipl( , that a general commanding an army in the field has an
absolute right during the continuance of hostilities to remove or
expel from any place within the theatre of the war all persons
whose continued presence is considered by him to be dangerous, pre-
judicial, or inconvenient; tliis being regarded only as a particular
application under circumstances of special emergency of the right
possessed by every State to exp(d aliens Avhose presence may be
considered inimical to its safety {h). For this reason the Commis-
sion also assumed that its jDroper function in the enquiry com-
mitted to it, was mertdy to ascertain whether this power of
expulsion had in any case been attended by the infliction of
unnecessary hardship (c\\ (2) It was consequently ruled that,
for the purposes of the enquiry, no one was to be regarded as
having a '" legal " claim. At the same tinn- the Commission stated
that it Avas prepared to deal with any case in which it was proved
that the claimant had been deported without reasonable cause, as
b(M'ng on the footing of a legal (daim : and, further, that even
the reasonableness of the deport atdon would not necessarily debar a
claimant from compensation wliere it was shown that h(> had suffered
uiineeessary hardshi]) //). (^J' The scope of the eutpiiry was held
to be confined to direci damages, all claims for indirect or conse-
ipieiitial damages being I'ejectcd r . 4 All claims on th(,' part: of
foreigners who had been admitted as burghers of the liepublios
A\-ere tlisallowed, notwithstanding tJie contention put forward by
(Germany that a man might becouK* a burgher and yet retain his
(iei'inan national cliai'acter / . 0) The claims of neuti'als \\\\o
liad engaged in host ilit ies au'ainst the I'ritish, whethei' pcrsonalh',
Ml' as incideut to their employment, wei'c also disallowed {g) .
[b) See vol. i. 203. (7) Ibid., loth May; 24th Jiilv;
(r) The TimP!^. lOth, lith ^\n\. :30th July.
(d • IbUL. toth :Mav. ' ('/) Ibid., 31st July; 27th Aiiirn^t.
[r) Ibid.. 13tli AiiL'u<r.
266 Cases and Opiniom on International Law.
Settlement.] On this basis the Commission proceeded to iti-
\ estigate and adjudicate on a hxrge number of chiims, until, in
October, an}' further exercise of its functions was rendered un-
necessary by the settlement previously referred to(/i). By thi^
a lump sum was agreed to be paid to each of the Powers concerned
in respect of the claims of its nationals, and was accepted by them
in f uU discharge thereof {i) ; the distribution as between individual
claimants being left to the discretion of the Power to which they
belonged. The total number of claimants was 1,*)31; whilst tlu
amount paid under the settlement was £106,9-j0 (y .
In general there is, as we have seen, uo legal liabihty incumbent
on a belligerent to compensate neutrals residing in enemy territory
for injury or damage arising out of military operations or other acts
warranted by the laws of war. Hence the action of Cireat i^ritain in
this case constitutes a precedent of some ini|)ortance; for, altliongli
the award of compensation was expressed to be " of grace.'' yet it was
accompanied by an admission that loss or injury might be a just
subject for compensation if the action that gave rise to it, even
though warrantable in law, proved to have been unreasonable
as regards any particular individual alfected or to have been
att-ended by s[)ccial hardship (/i;). The rulings of the Commission
were accepted by the representatives of the British Government,
and do not appear to have been challenged, exce[)t on certain minor
[•oints (J), \>y tlie representatives of other Powers.
Gk.nekai, Xori-'.s. The Posi/loi/ nf yeiitrals in rcltition io a
Belligerent hirculer.- At tlie Ha,L''n(> Confcreiicc w^ I!t07 it was pro-
])i)se(i by Germany ( ///) that Jicutral aliens resideiU in belligerent
t<'rrit()i'v, and no! taking part in the war. slionid l)e ex(>mpt from
i(!(piisiti()ns for services hearing directly im llie war(;/): and that
neutral ])r()perty should also he c\em[)t from contributions, and
its seizui'c or (b^stfuct ion "i)roliil)ited except in case of necessity
and on condition of indemnity. lint this proposal to coJib^r S]iecial
])rivile^-es on neutrals in onomy t-erritory was resisKnl bv Great
(//) Sec [I. 'li'>\. s,:jj,-ii. ill iiostilitios. ('s]ii'cially tlic (^nijUoyeo.';
(/) .lv\cc|)t :is to :i few tli;it were of tlic Nctiicrliiiuls and Sinitli .Vt'ricaii
specially rcsiTvcd. Railway, by various Pow(M-s.
(j) The Tir/>r-s. 15th Xovoiuhor. ( «' ) With the support of .Switzor-
(/,•) //;id.. -iitth Octohcr. land and the liiitcd States.
(7) .\.s on the (|uesti(iii of the ( // ) l*]\cepl sanitary serviees iui-
claims of naturalized persons, hy (ler- peratively reipiired.
many; and of tho.se who had eiiyaacd
Clams based on War. 267
liiitiiiu and other Poucr.s (o), and was ulliniatc'ly abandoned (/;).
Hence, for tlie present at any rate, neutJal.s .so situated siiare tlie
liabilities of nationals both in respect of person and propert} . This
being so, a boUig-erent invader is not responsible for injury or los.>
accruing- to neutrals from acts done by him in the course of his war-
like operations, unless such acts were not in fact warranted bv th(>
laws and customs of war, or unless in the exercise of them he
unjustly discriminated against the neutral ((/). Nor is a bellig-erenl
respunsiblc for the unauthorized acts of private soldiers or mere
marauders (/■). Nevertheless, in practice, claims by or on behalf
of neutrals for injury or damage alleged to have been sustained in
the course of warlike operations are not infrequently made: such
ciaiuis ])eiiig usually referred for enquiry or deterndnation to Com-
missions, wluch have in some cases, although rarely, made awards
in fa\our of the claimants (.s'). In the South African war Great
Britain, as we have seen, went further, and paid compensation to
iK'utrals in respect of acts which were strictly warranted by the laws
of war, ])rovided it could be shown that the action taken was un-
reasonable or attended by special hardship to the individual. But
it still remains to bo ^qqw how far this precechmt will be followed by
other Powers in a like situation.
The Posiiiou of Neutrals in relation to the Territorial Power. —
Claims by or on behalf of neutrals against the territorial Power may
rclat(> to loss or injury sustained either (1) through that Power's own
l)(dlig(U'ent action, or (2) through the belligerent action of an in-
vading or insurrectionary force. In the first case, the interuatir)nal
r('si)onsibility of the territorial Power will be governed by the same
rules as those of a belligerent invader (^). Beyond this, of course,
a civil liability may attach under the teriitorial law as regards
])roperty wluch, whether belonging to subjects ov neutrals, has been
taken or deliberately destroyed by the nnlitary authorities for the
])ur[)oses of the war(»). Strictly, claims of the latter kind ought to
be pursued before the civil Courts; but in practice these, too, are
often referred — although generally oidy in conjunction with other
claims — for enquiry or determination to Conimis'^ioners appointed bv
the respective Governments (.-r) . In th(^ second cas(\ the territorial
(o) Such as France, liussia, and destruction of property within the
Japan. teri-itory of tlie insurrectionary States:
(//) \\'itli tlio exception of certain see Moore. Int. Arb. iv. 8i)85.
Ai-ticles, wiiicii merely define tlie lia- {/) Supi-n: and. as to a <'laiin hv
hilitics of lunitrals in other r(^s])ects: neutrals to ])articipate in coinpen-
si " 'niirri. p. 'iSt. and. u'cnerally. sntion for war losses n'ranted Ijy iiic
J'r:ir:-e llio-L:-ins. 8.5. 293. and sii/irn, ti'rritorial Power to its own sul)-
Pi'- -T. oO. jccts. s(-(' a ease arising- out of the
I'/' >'"/"■". P- -''^- JJelgaan devolution. 1S30. ridVrred to
(,i S,!/,,-/!, J). 2.)(J. by J)aty, Int. Law, 97.
(.-i See Moore, Int. Arb. i\ . e. (i.) ; (m) See, under the law of the United
Wharton. Dig-, ii. §g 22.3. 228. In States, .l/Z^V^f^^ v. .//^//■//M>,.y (1 3 How.
the claims arising- out of the .Vnierican 115).
(•i\il war ciinipcnsation was only (.r) See the ease of I' I'ff,/ ,,ii('s Heirs
awarded in three eases for the v. Mexico (Moore, Int. Arb. i\-. 3718),
268 Cases and Opinions on International Law.
Power -will not in g-eneral be responsible, either by municipal or inter-
national law, for injury or loss directly caused by an invader, or
even for injury or loss arising from disorders caused by the inva-
sion, unless it can be shown either that it failed to adopt such reason-
able measures of protection as it was bound by public law to extend to
citizens and residents; or that in the adoption of such measures it
unfairl}' discriminated against neutrals iy ). Nor will the territorial
Power be responsible for loss or injury stistained by the action of
insurgents against its authority, if the insurgents were recognized as
belligerent, or if. in default of this, the insurrection assumed such
dimensions as t(^ have passed beyond the control of civil autho-
rities and to re(juiro belligerent n:ieasures for its suppression i^r);
although lliere ;ir(.' instance^ in which compensation, even in such
cases, has been made us of grace (a).
Tlip Properti/ of }\ on -Resident SeatruU : the Ui'jht of Anqanj. —
A belligerent has also a right to use or destroy neutral |)roperty
which is only temporarily or accidentally within his territory or
control, stibject in this case, however, to proof of niilitar\- necessity,
and to the payment of a proper indemnity. This rigitt (ui the part of
a belligerent is sometimes described as a right of angary (/;>. This
wa^ originally a royal prerogative ( cj. under whidi Eiirr)p<'an sove-
reigns claimed a right of imju'essing vessels, whether domestic or
foreign, f(iund within their waters (d), for the piirp<js<3S of trans-
port in time of war. That such a claim was far if(jiu bciiiu' unusual
mav be gathered from the fact that its exorcise was lrei[uentlv
guarded against by treaty, and that siu-li treaties coniinue down to
the I8th century. It is still rei-ognized by some ui-it(us; although
in this form it is practically oljsoh'tf and scarcely likely to lie re-
vived (fM. The right of a belligei-<Mit to use (U' destroy neutral
propertv t^unporarily within his power — althouc;'h sorn<.'iiiiies known
b\' the same nanie--really rests not oji any r(.iyal oi' oiiicial
prei'ogative but (ui military ijecessity; and may take effect on
au\' kind of property so lon^' as it is within liclliu-erent terri-
tory and under the belligerents control. Its application to noMitral
vessels and the usual terms of iudeiniiity have alreach- l)een
described (/ 1. Its a[)])lication to railway material is now regulated
which was referred to a Commission C'onununist insurrection in 1871,
a])j)oint('(i uiiflcr a Conxcntinn made altliou<i'h U7ider no ol)liL''ation to do
in 18G.S between tlic t'nired States so.
and ]\Ie.\i'-o. A iminl)er of eases of {b) ()v 'Iroil rrn ,,i/iiy'ic ,
this kind wei-e at-~o (h'cidcd t)y tlie i^-) Itself (leri\i'd fi-om tiie /"v
liritish and .\nierican ('hiinis Com- (mij/iri"' of i'dman law. undci- wliieli
mission. refi'iTi'd to p. 'JoS. ^"/"". j)i'Ovincial ( ii)\ ei'n((rs (.■xci'ri^ed a ri<rht
(■//) .s'/'/,/v/. p. 2')7. of iiii|ire~siiiu' means of ti'ansjiort.
(;■; See .Moci'e. Int. \v\). i. ()S4 ; (d) Oi', aeeordinir to -oine. even on
Wharton. Diir. ii.'i 'I'l'.', : and. a< to tlie the \\\<j:\\ seas, altlioimli this was pro-
general principles u-oNci'niiiu' tlie ]ia- l)al)l\' always iiTciriilai-.
bility of the territorial I'owit in the (r) See 'Taylor, TO'J : Hall. 711, n.
ea-e of irijuiie~ injiieted on foreio-nej-s, (l\ Sec p. L'fiO. x-'y,,v' ,■ and on the
^(,1. i. 21) f. subject (d' anii'ary in i;-eneral. Ilall,
ill) So the l-'reneli Ooxernment ga\e 711; W'c^tlake, ii. 117; ()ppeid]eiin_.
eonipcjisation to the \ie;ini< (jf the ii. 147.
Claims based on War. 269
by the lia^-uc Coiivoiiticjii, N(j. ") of 1907, wliicJi piovidcs (1 i that
railway material hcloiig'ing- txj neutral Slates or indiviihials shall not
be seized by a l)ellioerent except in the case of and to the extent
required by absolute necessity, and shall in such case be seal back as
soon as possible; (2) that a neutral Power shall have a corresjjonding
right to retain and use railway material coming' from the territory of
that belligerent; and i'i) that compensation shall be paid on either
side in proportion to the material taken and the duration of its
use (g).
The cdsc of Land and Submarine Telegraphs. — (1) With respect
to laud telegraphs each belligt^ront is entitled, within his own terri-
tory, to exercise such control over these, even though owned by neu-
trals, as may be warranted by the local law, or by the necessities <jf
wariJi). So. in tinu' of war, it is usual for each of the bellig-erent
Governments to assume control over all lines communicating- directly
with th<; enemy territory, and to exercise a censorship over all mes-
sages (i) except such as pass between ncuitral States and their repre-
sentatives. This course was followed by the United States in the
Spanish -American war of 1898; an<l also by Great Britain in the
South .Vfrican war of 1899, althoiig'h with some r<daxations towards
the end of the war. Nor will any claim to comi)ensation arise in
r(\s[)<^ct of such int(U'ference. unless this is given by the nuznicipal law.
A bollig(-rent in occupation of enemy territory is also entitled to take
poss{>s.siou of all telegraphs and telephones; although if owned bv
private persons, Avhetlier neutrals or nationals, they must be restored,
and compensation arranged for on the conclusion of peace (A;).
('2) With respect to submarine cables, the land connections of these
are, in time of war, subject to the same rig-hts of user and control,
whether on the part of the tei'ritorial Power or a belligerent invader,
as land teleg-raphs. As regards those parts that lie outside territorial
waters, the ])rotection of submarine cables is in general ])rovided for bv
th(> Submarine Teleg-raph Convention of 1884 (7); but this Convention
expressly declares that its stipulations "shall not in any way affect
llie lib(u'ty of action of belligerents " r^^i. The Hague Regulations
also prohiltii a belligerent from seizing or destroving' cables con-
necting occupied territory w-ith neutral teri'itorv, exce])t in the case
of absolute necessity and then sid)jecl to an oldigation of restoration
;:iiid indemnity (?? ). Beyond this there avo no settled rules. The
Institute of International Law. ind<'ed. in 1902, adopted a series of
(f/) Soo .\rt. 19. (/) Cyfilicr luessafi'es being g-eno-
(A) .Vs hctwccn tlio iii('iii!)ci-< of rally foi'liiddcii.
till' 'l"<'lei!Ta|)li liiioii (>(H- vol. i, l-']), (/■) Sec II. R. r)o.
certain jxjwcrs of user and suspension (Vi 'I'liis is given eifect to in J-'.iiir-
ari" ex])i'essly recogniz(>d by the St. lisli law by the Submarine Tel(>gra]ili
Petersburg ('on\-ention,l(S7.i : and these .\ct of ISS,). as modified by 50 \'iet.
ap](car to apply in war as well as in e. 3.
])eace (^rc Art! 8). and to (>xtend to ( ,// i See .\rt. 15.
all forms of telo<>'raj)hie eomtnuniea- ( /< ' II. I'. 54.
tion within the local jurisdiction.
270 Cases ami Opinions on Inteiimtional Laio.
resolutions on the subject (oi. which appear to commancl a g-eneral
approval, except perhaps iu one particular (/?). \\\ the lig'ht of these
and the somewliat limited practice of reient times, the following con-
(dusions apjiear to be warrantable: — ( \) When a cable mutes neutral
territories it cannot be cut or otherwise interfered with. This is
universally a( knowledged, and has so far been res])ected in practice,
i '1 1 Where a cable unites two parts of the territory of one belligerent,
the other l)elligerent may cut it, either on the high sea or in any
other place except neutral waters. So. in th(> S])anisli-Ameriean war
of 18',t8 the American conunanders cut various cables connecting
dilb'rent parts of ('idia wyi. {',\\ \\diere a calile unites the territories
of the two Ijtdlig-erents, each is entitled to cut it anywhere except in
neutral A\aters. .So. during the Riisso-Turkish war of 1877, the cable
i-oiinectini:' C"oiLstantino])le with Odessa Avas cut by the Turks. But in
the Spanish- American war, cable communication between Havana
and Ke}- West -was allowed to contintie subject to military censorship
at either end. (4) When the cable unites the territory of one belli-
uerent with that of a neutral State, the other bellig-erent may cut it
only in the territorial waters of the former: althoug-li. according to the
rules proposed by the Institute, it may also be cut on the hig'h sea,
provided the ])lace at which it is cut lies within the limits of an estab-
lished blockade I /■ I. In the Spanish-American war the American
commanders cut, in the enemy waters, all the cables uniting the
enemy and neutral countries which they were unable to control;
including- that between Hongkong and Manilla, and that between
Cuba and Jamaica, nearly all of these l)eing the property of neutrals;
and this, as we have seen, without any admission of liability ( .s).
The question of belligerent rights in this connection is so important
tliat it will probably come under consideration at the next Hague
Conference.
XATIOyAL IXDEMNITY FOR ITII? LOSSES.
THE WAR LOSSES COMPENSATION COMMISSIONS OF THE
CAPE COLONY.
MMM) — loot: (■:![)(■ of Cood [[ope. VotO'^ aiifl ProcoodiiiL'-s of ['.■irliaiiicnt, 1!)04,
\[.p. [.. iv.; 1!)().^, App. [.. i.; liM)6. Ai)p. 1.. ii.: li)07. Aiuirx.. ii.]
The Appointment of the Commissioners. Jii Jul}". li'OiJ. a
Coiunussion wa> apfioiiitcd by tlie Go\cniini'iit of Cape Colony
:o: ^cc ./;;//. ^7, V I ,^sl . ,].■ ,l,-(nf (7) Soo .\rooi-o, Dii^-cst, ij llTt.i.
',■'.. xi\. 3ol : llollaiid. Laws (jf \\'ar, ( /• i iiiit on this (jucstion tlicrc still
■V- : Oppi'iilii'iiii. ii. -1~\. is much <li vcrirciicr (jf opinion: see
// , 'i'hat rehitiiiL'- to thi' intriiiL'- of Wcsthikc. ii. 'JSl; !.. (I. \\. xv. 145.
'•aMes conncctiiiir neutral and Ix'llii.'-e- ( > Sec ]>. '2(13. s'l/u-'i: and. on tlie
ront tei-vitoi-v on the liiirh -cas within suhject ircnerally, W'estlake. ii. 2S0 :
the limits of an estahli-iicd hlockadi'-. I'hillij)son, Studies in International
a,- to --vhi'-li see 71. ( r) . Law. .)() r' s/',j.
Ndtlonal Itvlemnit/j I'or \V((r Losses. 271
to make enquiry and report on the diiinag'O and losses alleo-cd to
havr been sustained by the inlial)itants of certain districts in tlio
Colony in consecjuence of the events of the war. Various instruc-
tions were issued I'roin time to time, both with i'es]j(H;t to the scope
of the en{|uiry and the methods to be followed ■ a . riie sco[)a
of tlie eiKjuiry, as ultimately ascertained, was limited to direct
losses or damijge sustained by the action ot' the enemy or rebels,
or b\- the military operations of H..M. forces within the colony,
or 1)}' the administration of martial law there, or by the lawless
action oL' the nati\cs. The work of the lirst Commission was
subseijUently carried on and completed by another Commission,
appointed under the ^^"ar Losses Compensation En(|uiry Act,
1901. The funds jiecessary for defraying- the awards of com-
pensation made by th('S(> Commissions Avere provided in part by
loans raised under the authority of statute H-)'). and in part by a
subvention granted by the Imperial GrOA-ernment ^c' .
The Awards made. In all some 17.00U casas, involvino- claims
to the amount of Jiearly i'G.-">00,()00, were dealt with, of which
claims to the extent of i'2, 400,000 were allowed by Commis-
sioners. Although the proceedings of these Commissions do not
disclose any ruling's tliat touch on matters of ])rinciple, yet the
lad of such compensation having been granted constitutes a
precedent which, if taken in conjunction with other proceedinii's
of a like nature, mav be said to posS(>ss a certain international
significance {d) . It is also noteworthy (1 that under the awards
only direct losses were made the subject of compensation : but
(2''' that, subject to this, all clniins by jiei'sons who were bond
fide residents of the colony were cousidei'cd 'V'" . A.monast other
thin£r>. the Commission found it. necessary to direct attention to
the gross exas'geration oJ' losses, as a faetoi- that had to be o'uai'ded
aijainst in such en(|uiries (j '. ^'his it endeavouiTMl to check in some
(" ' Tliiit is. as to mcrliods of valua- {rJ) //,/,v/. pp. 272, 27.'5 d sr,,.
riou in tlic i-uni' oI' l)iiil(liim->, fences, { r) See lv('|)orf, .31st .lannary. ini)-"),
LiTowinir ri'ops, stock-in-trade, inipli.'- s. 10 (190.5, App. 1. i. 2).
nieiits and furniture. ( ' ) Spe Ivcport, iStli .March, lOot,
{/>) The War Losses Compensation s. | !) ( \\}i\^ . .\p]>. I. iv. 17;: ■• evi>ry
J.oan .Vets of lilOO anil l'.H)2. class and race sceni with one accord to
; '■ i This contribution amounted to ha\e determined to make ;i Inm'e ]>rotit
'I.jOO.uoo out of coiiiiiensittion."'
272 Ckiscs and Opinions on International Lavj.
incasure by recommending criminal proceedings in cases ^vllere
mala fidei^ was clearly proved (ry).
These proceedings, although they touch strictly only on a question
of national policy, are noteworthy for the reason that they point,
when consideied in tlie light of other examples, to the incipient
growth of a new usage — tittribntable to the stupendous waste and
destruction caused by modern war and the consequent need for dis-
tributing its losses over the whole population (h) — wliich, if it should
develop, will not only revive, although in a new form, the earlier
principle of solidarity, but should also add largely to the existing
deterrents as res^ards war between States.
(ri'.xERAi. KoTES. — National Conipoisation for War Losses. — The
direct losses which a war of any magnitude waged under modern
conditions entails upon individuals are very great, whilst the indirect
losses are likely to be even more considerable. The former are
attributable in part to the destruction caused l)y the actual opera-
tions of war, which, as w(> have seen, extend to private as well
as public property ij) and for which no compensation is provided:
and in part to the levy of contributions, requisitions and the billet-
ing of troop<, which are only the subject of a partial and provisional
indemnity I /v). So. it has been estimated that the direct los.ses en-
tailed on the French in 1870, in a war wliich lasted only six months,
aj)art from the indemnity of 5,000 million of francs, amounted to
some 1,500 millions of francs, of which probably more than half
fell on individuals. It is to meet lessees such as these, and for the
purpose of ensuring their distribution over the populaliou at large
and ailordinti' relief to in<lividual sutferers, that a pulicy of national
indemnity has been advocated i7 i. The (|uesrIon of the adaption of
>uc]i a policy is primarily, of course, a Jiational ipiestion. .\t the
same tim<' it is a (juestioii often touched on liy writers on internaiiniial
\ii\\ (tit): whilst it has also a certain international bearing, in so
(f/) Sc(» t^ejiort. fitli -May. H)07, s. 13 whilst, as rcsrards rfvuiisitions. the obli-
(H)()7. Ann. II. ii. o). i^-ation of ultimate ])ayini'nt even for
{ /' ) /,'//■". As to a proposed national sn])plics in kind is, as we iiavc ,s(>('n.
indemnity for maritime cajitures. sc'e Nairue and indeterminate: x"///".
]i. 1))S. n. ('"i. .^'//'/V/.- and iJarclay. [>. II '2.
rroiileiu-, 200. ' (/) Altlioni;-!! if tii(> experience of
(/) Such as l)uil<linL;-s and tiieir the South AfiMran ( "oniniissjon is to l)e
eiiui jiniciit. stores, erojis. li\-e stoelc. r(di(xl on. only a prop^irtion of the
iniplemi'nts. -t:j'k-iii-t i-adr, machinery. suiferers are likely to ohtain an ath--
and raiK\a\s and llu'ir material. (piate indemnity. e\cn tliouu'h some
( /,■ ) 10\-en un(h'r the 11. IJ, .") I , .)2. claims m.iy b(> wantonly exaL;Lreratc<l ;
the receij>ts which a helliu-criTit is sre \'. ,v I', of I'arl.. Cape of Cood
reijuinnl to Lci\'e for cont laliutions llope. lOOfi. App. 1. ii.
carrv no obliyatiou uf indcninitv: (//i ) \< by IJrotius and N'attel.
National Imleiiinit/j for War Losses. 273
far as if g-eiiorally adopted it luig-lit iullueneo iu .s(jiuc luoa.siirc the
• ouduct of war and perhaps add to the existing- doteri'ejits (//;. Tiie
policy of indeiiuiifying' citizens for losses sustained by invasion
appears to have been first adopted by the French during- the Kevolu-
tionary wars; althougli owing- to lack of funds it was very inij)er-
foctly carried intoellect. In 1815 a similar policy was adopted b} the
l^overnnient of the restored nionarcliy; some 1-10 millions of francs
having been appropriated to the relief of private losses sustained
during- the preceding- war. In 1871, ag-ain, the French oS'^ational
Assend)ly voted lUO millions of francs, and somewhat later another
120 nullions, l)y way of compensation for war losses; extending-
the beiielit-s of these grants not merely to citizens but also to friendly
aliens resident in France. Germany also gave compensation to her
own subjects who had suH'ered losses on German soil; but the rig-ht
t-o share in this Avas only extended to resident neutrals on condition
of a pronuse of reciprocal treatment. Finally, in 1904, the Cape
Governmejd, as we have seen, applied some £2,400,000 in relief of
war losses sustained by bond fide residents in the Colony, wdiether
nationals or neutrals; whilst the Home Government also provided
a fund of £2,000,000 in relief of the losses sustained by British
subjects, friendly foreigners, and natives, residing witliin the con-
(piered territories (o).
Relief of Lihahitants of Cojiquered Territory. — The conquest and
annexation of t-erritory do not of cour.se involve any leg-al obligation
on the part of the conqueror to answer for losses incurred by it,<
inhabitants by reason of tlic war; and this is the ])osition commonly
taken up fp). In view, however, of the fact that the inhabitant-^
in such a case lose all chance of redress at the hands of the Govern-
ment that has been displaced, and also as a measure of conciliation,
such relief has been occasionally alforded. So. in 1872, Germany
granf-ed conqx^nsation to its new subjects in Alsace and Lorraine,
iu res]M.'('t of losses sustained by individuals throuu'h bomliard-
uK'nts. although it denied this to domiciled aliens (r/i. At the
close of the South African war in 1902, Gi-eat Britain estviblisluYl
no less than three separate funds in relief of the various classes
of person^ who had suH'ered war losses in the t«rritor\- annexed.
Tliesc inidud(\l i H A sun^ of £3.01)0,000, as stipulated'by Art. 10
id' the Terms of Surrender (>). for the puriiose of C()m])ensatiug- ex-
burgliers of tlie late Rejnddics who had sustained Avar losses and
whoso cii'cumstances justified assistance. ('2) A sum of £2,000,000
for tlie relief both o\' resideiU: British subjects, and of others
who, Avhether of British extraction or not. had not taken up arms
against the British and had sidlered consef|uent loss(>s ('.s ). i :]) A
(h) Til so far. that is, as every in- (//) .\s Ijy Cenuany in lH(i4 in rela-
(!i\i(lual wnuUl hoeome, to an e^'en tion to SeliU\s\vi<4--llolsteiii.
i;-i'catcr extent than now, a ]iai-tieipant (7) IUnnt.<(hli. § ()l)2.
ill it< losses. I/') 'I'lic Coiivfiitioii of \'(M'eeniL;-iiia',
{,,) fyi-frc 31st :\rav, 190-2.
(.s) Shprn.
C.T.L. T
274 Cases and Opinions on International Law.
niilitarv compensatiou fund, -which was int.ended for the relief of
a class desio'nat-ed as "'protected burg'liers,"' including; either ex-
hurohcrs who had been hostile but a\1io had surrendered on the faith
of >^pecitic pronuses that their property should be protected, or ex-
buro-hcrs who Jiad rendered active assistance to the British (7 1.
These fund< were administered through the agency of various local
('ommissions assisted by the resident inagislrates. under the super-
vision of a central Judicial Commission. The British Government,
moreover, not only redeemed all receipts for requisitions levied by
the Britisli military authorities: but it received as evidence of war
losses suUered l)v the persons to whom they were originally given,
all receipts given by the enemy Government or under its authority,
as Avell as certain notes issued by the South African Republican.
<ubject only to proof of such receipts and notes having been duly
i.-^sued in return for valuable consideration. In addition to this,
loans were made to the inhabitants of the con(piered territor}-. which
were free of interest for two years and tliereafter rejiayable bv
-mall in-^talmonts extending over a period ni years with interest at
■■) per cent. (■x). But such action, whether jiraised for its o'onerositv
or blamed for it- lavi^hness. is scarcely likely t-o constitute a pre-
'.■odent for future imitation.
PART III.— XEUTKALITY.
TEE BELATWX OF yEUTBAUTY.
CONTROVERSY BETWEEN RUSSIA AND JAPAN WITH
RESPECT TO THE NEUTRALITY OF KOREA IN 1904.
Tlif DlKcial l!i>tnry of the lvus-.)-.Iaji;iiu>i' W'av ! H)n!i i. j,i. i.. ]<r \ 2nd cds. :
A. >. llrvslii'v. The liiteriiatiuiial I.aw of liiplomai'v <>( the l{u.-.so-
• lapaiicM^ War: K. A-akawa. The J!n>.<()-.la])ane-^r Conllict: It-; Causes ami
Is-ues: 8. Takahaslii. International Law apj)lied to tlie iUisso-Japane<e
War.)
Circumstances leading to Controversy. I'lom m ver\ oarh
linic the c(jntrol of Korea Itad been in disj)iite ix'tweeu ('liiuii and
' ' I Iliir I'hiiiii- of liiiiite:! eoni])anies f'a]irr>. S. A. HiiliK tlie 7'i.-,,,.-< ]U<-
or hu-Lfe firnx. chiiiii-; a^-ainsr the dis- toryofthe War in S. A., vi. ]3: lleak,
idaeed ( lovci'niiient for hi-s of sahiry, Tlie Afterniatli of W,"ar. L>:JS, 280.' "
■hiinis for his-e- whil-t on (■oinniand(.i, ( // , ( ndc;- Law \o. 1 of 1 <)()()
.nnd chiiiii-; hy ]-rl)i'|<. \vcr<' ixrhuhd. ( ,/• T],\< wa,- <t i jiiihitr.I lor in tlie
f)ii the Mihj.ct u-eiierally. -ee I'arl. terin< of ^ui'reiider; l)ut that it was
The Relation of Xeutnditij. 275
Ja|)an. By the Tr(>atv of Sliinioiioseki. 1890, China abandoiicd
her claim to suzerainty and recognized " the full and cornpleto
independence and autonomy " of Korea ; although, in fact, this
merely paved the uay for a more effective domination on the
part of Japan. Meanwhile, as early as I880, a new rivalry over
Korea had sprung- up between Japan and llussia. Notwithstand-
ing some attempts at arrangement in 181)0 and 1898 («;, this
rivalry increased in intensity as time proceeded, with the result
that in 1903 a XQvy serious situation had developed, whicli was
still further accentuated by the dispute over Manchuria (& . As
regards Korea, each party, whilst professing a desire to maintain
its integrity, really wished to absorb or control it for strategic
and economic purposes (c). With a view to arriving at an under-
standing, in July, 1903, Japan, as \\c have seen (<"Z\ opened
negotiations with Ilussia, but these nogotiiitions after continuing
for some time were linally abandoned, with the result that on the
6th February, 1904, war broke out between the parties (e). It is
material to notice that in these negotiations the position of Korea
was one of the main subjects of controversy; and also that Hussia
had, even before the outbreak of war, massed troops on the Korean
frontier, and is said even to have jjassed them into Korean
territory {j\ .
On the 8th February, 1904, the Russian cruiser " Korietz,"
after an encounter with the scouts of Admiral Uriu's
scjiiadi'on, took refuge in the Korean harbour of Chemulpo;
whore there were also lying two other liussian vessels, the
"Variag" and '' Sungari," as well as certain neutral warshij)s,
belonging respectively to Great Britain. France, Italy, and the
United States (ry). On the 9tli Fcbmarx- llie Japanese .Vdniiral
communicated with the coniniandors of the neutral warships,
not a SO]-) to the ciiciny may ho course ol' oxxMit.s.
u:arlu'i-('(l fi'oiu the I'art that it foniu'd (,J\ S,'i,rii. p. 2.
part ot a schoinc (if rcpat I'ial idii and ( r ,i i 1(,>1 ilitii-s were actually ooiii-
i.'iinip''n--atioii whicli had hccn ]ii-i'- luonccd on flic (ith l'\'hruarv. whilst
pared -nine niontlis licl'orc: sec JJcak. formal declarations of war were issued
'I'Im Aficrmath of War. :; 1 . .m tin' 10th: >i,i.,rn, p. \,
,./, See llershey. lo '/ v<v/. (/) Sec OHicial History (1st ed. i,
/, >'.'/.,'/. p. -l. I't. i. Vl\ althoue-h this statement is
.1 As til Russian di'siii'ns. see Her- not repeated in the 2n(l (h! .
>hcy. Ml; whilst thos(> of .la|.au arc [ii'TIu Tnllxil. Tin- /'„>..„/, Tl.r
suiiiciently indicated by the suhsecpicn* /■./'/>". and Thr ]'irL:<biirg .
t2
276 Cases and Opinions on International Law.
advising them that unless the Russian vessels quitted that port
he would find himself obliged to attack them there, and inviting
the neutral commanders to place their vessels out of reach of
possible hostilities. Thereupon the commanders of the British,
French, and Italian vessels sent a ■\\Titten protest to Admiral Lriu,
de<?laring Chemulpo to be a neutral port and as such exempt from
hostilities, in view of which it was claimed that any attack on vessels
lying there would be a violation of international law. In the re-
sult, the " Korietz " and " Variag"' put out to sea: but after a short
engagement, in which they were worsted, they were compelled
once more to seek refuge in Chemulpo harbour, where they were
set on fire and sunk by their crews in order to prevent their falling
into the hands of the Japanese (7i): the crews being received on
board the British, French, and Italian vessels (i). The recep-
tion of these cre^\■s by neutral warships threatened to open up a
new controversy, but in the result no demand for their surrender
was made by Japan [k'y. and after being retained for some time
under controL'Z), they were, with the acquiescence of the Japanese
CTOvernment, t-aken to Shanghai and there released on giving their
parole to take no further part in the war, ofiicial lists of those
rescued by each of the warships being furnished to the Japanese
authorities (m).
On the 8th February, Japan also began to disembark troops
on Korean territory. Her warships also captured various Eussian
merchant vessels in Korean waters, including the "'Alukden.
the " Ilossia," and the '" Argun " (^^: .
On the same date, also, an agreement appears to have been
concluded between Japan and Korea — exacted no doubt under
pressure — by which Japan, whilst undertakinc- " to guarantee the
independence and integrity of Korea and to protect her again-l
the aggi'essions of a third Power or internal disturbances. ' virtu-
{Jt) TJic Sihir/nri ajijioar:^ to have pt. i. 42, IS.
been <'aptured: I'akalia-hi. Tfil. (/.•) Takaluislii. 4(j-): hut see also
(0 The eaj)tain of '!'}(<■ Vv:kshar<i llershey, 7() : and Oppenheiiii. ii. 421.
professed his williiirrness t-o assist with (/) I'robahly in defercnee to 1[. (_'..
the Avounded, but refused to reeeive Xo. 2 of 1S99, Art. .57: but see now
the otfieers and men on board his ship .^"/;/v/, y. 123.
without an order from his tJovern- ( ;«) Takaha^lii. 4().).
ment: see Talvahashi. MS'i: and jrenc- OO Takaliashi. 794: Cowen, tin
rally, the OUicia! lU>tory (2nd ed.j. Russo-Japanese War, IIG, 128.
The Relation of Neuiralitij. 211
ally assumed the control both of her Clovoniuieut and territory;
a change of situation which necessarily led to the withdrawal of
the Russian Minister (o).
The Controversy. J In view of these occurrences, Russia on the
■■22nd February addressed a circular Xoto to the Powers, through
her representatives abroad, in which she protested against Japan's
action in r(dation to Korea, as constituting a violation of the
customary law of nations. More particularly, it was charged -
; 1 That before the opening of hostilities Japan had landed Iku'
troops in Korea, then an independent State which had declared
its intention of maintaining a strict neutrality. (2) That three
days prior to the declaration of war Japan had made a sudden
attack on two liussian warships in the Korean port of Chemulpo;
their commanders having been kept in ignorance of the rupture
liy the action of Japan in stopping Russian messages over the
Danisb cable and destroying the telegraphic communication of
the Korean C Government, ^^j) That Japan had captured certain
Russia] 1 merchant vessels before the opening of hostilities and
Avhilst lying in neutral waters. (4) That Japan had announced
to the Emperor of Korea tliat that country would henceforth be
administered and, if need be, occupied by Japan. ;-j^, And,
liiially. that Japan had forcibly compelled the Russian Minister
accredited to Korea, as an inde})endent State, to c^uit Korean
territory. In view of such an illegal assumption of power by
Japan, it was announced that Russia would henceforth regard all
onici's and de^IaratioMs issued in the name of the Korean C'Overn-
mtMit as invalid jj).
The Japanese reply to these charges was issued on the 2nd
Mari-h, and was to the foUowing effect: — (1; With respect to the
landing of troops in Korea, it was contended tluit this liad taken
plac.' (>id\ lifter a state of Mar existed dn /^/r/'o, even though before
ilie formal declaration: that the maintenance of the inteirrity of
Koi'eii \\as oiii' of the objects of tlie war: that Russia h(,'rself had
|ii'i'\ i()usl\' \ iolated the sovei'i'ignty of K'orea b\- sending lier troops
into Korean territory ry : and. linali\, that the landiiii^' of
", S(_'(j Asakawa. 3<)7 ',' ^ry.,- Smith ( y> ) Takaliashi, 9; Asakawa, 355.
i.'^ SiMcy, l22, II. 2. ; '/ I Sec p. i!7."). ii. (/;. ■^■'j/i-u.
278 Cases and Opinions on International Laiu.
Japanese troops had been made with the consent of the Korean
Government. i^2 \\'itii I'espect to the charges ineideiit to the
attack on the Kussian warships at Chemulpo. Japan ch'uied that
she iiad stopped any messages or interfered in any way with the
telegraphic communication. For the rest, a state of wai' existed at
the time, and, in view of Korea's consent to the landing' of troops.
Chemulpo had ceased to be a neutral port, at any rate, as between
the belligerents. (3' With respect to the seizure of Russian mer-
chant vessels in Korean waters, the legality of such captures was
a cpiestion to be decided by the Prize Courts of the captors
country :r. ^4 \\'ith res])e(t to th.' alleged overthrow of the
independence of Korea, this chargi' was declai'iMl to be wliolly
devoid of foundation, ^-j With respect to tlie alleged expulsion
of the Russian Minister from Korea, it \\as stated that that olhcial
had withdra^wii of his own free will, although an escort of Japanese
soldiers had been furnished for his protection \^s).
Althougli this controversy. like the lar^-er dispute of whioh it
formed a ])art \t). was jiot of a character To a(hiut of judicial serrle-
uienl. it sofves nevertheless to illustrate certain esscutial features
of the relation of neutrality, as well as a variety of Dther point.s of
som<' international ini[)ortance I ?/). (1) The main issue was whether
the action of .Ja])an in regard to Korea constituted a \inl;iti(ui of the
recognized rules of intoi'uational law. As to this it is <-lear tliat
if Korea did at the time occupy the position of a neulial State, then
the action of -Japan was at once a violation of Korean ueutralitv:
and a ])i'0cccdin^' wluch. if accpdesced in by Kdvea. wmuM have
ailorded Russia a casus belli against the lattei'. l>ut e\-en if thic;
were so. i: does not a[)])ear that the action of^dajiau. in forcing the
hand of Kor<>a — unh'ss indeed she had ])r<'viously pled^-ed lierself
to r<>sp<M-t Ivoreaii iieutrality — would ha\'e coasiitiued an otfence in
internal icnial law. or ha\'e alforded any can.-e of complaint ir> dther
l'owei'> I r>; for. so far. it cannot be said that there is (u'tln'r a right.
or cNcn a (lut\- on tlu^ part of any State to remain Jieuli'al i .r i. but
oidy thai while n<MUrality i> reco^-nized oi' pi'ofe-sed its incident-iJ
(r) 'to which I'ussia sul)si<(]U('iif ly ( ' '> >"///". p. .>.
replied rhut sci/.iirc hct'orc a drchira- { -') Smh as rlic xaliditv e1' aizrcc-
tioii of war was iikm-c piracy, and not mciits cxtoircd hy jircssin'e; the j)ro-
defen.sible hy the c>lahlishiiiciir of jirii'Ty of tlii' iiitci'\ on; ion of tlie
J'rize Courts: Asakawa. ;5li'2. neutral c()ni?iian(h'rs : ami the treat-
(s) Takaliashi, I '_' r/ .-,,,-. Xdtwith- r.icnt ol' hciliu'crciit cnuihatants rescued
standiiiir this (lischiinier, IJ u>sia. on t he liy neutrals.
i'2th -\rarcli. r(.'iterated her pi'evious (r, lint sre p. ■2~U. i,,i,".
charires: Asakawa. :!()(J. [.r'l I,,i,n_ p. -isii.
The Relation of Neutral it>/. 279
oMii^-ations on either side luu.st be duly observed. The (|uo>tioii of
uhethei' thai rehitiou exi.sts or not is ut l)Ottoiu w. ([uestitni of fact.
Ill \\\o ease uiukn' considiu'atiou it seems clear tlial ivorea did Jiot
occupy tlie position of a neutral State in the ordijiary sense of the
tei'Hi; for the reason that she was not really indepr-iideut . anil thai,
the (■()nii-ni of Ikm; territoiy was one of the main obj('ct.-^ (jI the war i yi
— a. fad which liiissia had already recognized b}' j)lacin^' her forces
on the iv(n'<>an frontier on a war footing- and passing' troo[)S into
K(jrean K'rrifory ( ~ ). Aloremer, it appears |o l)o clear that what-
e\er may lia\(' Ixmmi the original intentions of th(> K'oreaii (io\ernnieii1.,
Japan desiring to avoid the role of either conqueror or nnlitary
ociaipanl, aiuL with a view to legalizing lier subsequent proceedings
- iiad ]lll'viou.■^ly forced cm Ivorea. in the guiso of a g'uaraniee ia). an
arrangement under which the former virtually assumed control botli
of the t<Miitory and government of the latter, and had thus identified
K'orca with herself in all that related to the war. After this all cj^ues-
tion ol' I he neutrality of Korean territory was necessarily at an
end I /-I c The Hussiaii aniKjunceuient that she did not regard Korea
a- a belligHM'enl l>ut as a neutral Slate acting under pressure and
deprived of the ]iower of free action, was probably designed to
seiiii(.' her own freedom of action, as regards treaties and concessions,
in the e\ent of her ultimate success (^cV (2) The controv(M'sy ne.xt
siigu'csts a (piestion a< to the legality of an agreement sueli as that
of the Sth February, which was no doid)t forced on Korea liy militaiy
and ])olitical pressure. Such an agreement, however, is. as we
ha\c -e<'n, not invalidated merely by duress fc?); and, even if Ave
accept th<' (pialilication which is sometimes attached, that such agree-
nieni-- in or<ler to be valid must not be in subversion of the entire
ind<'peiidencc- of the S^tate(c). the au-i'CM'inent in ((uestion does not
on it- l'ac<' bear this charact(>r. even thouu-li in the e\'eiits that ensued
it may have luul this r(>sult ( f ). ('.'») Willi respect to the ])rotest of tln^
iMMitrai c(^minanders at CluMmilpi). this appears to have beiui altic-
U-elhcr inn\'ari'aiitab}e. It WiC^ fi)nn<le<l. as we have seen, upon a
ciiinplet*' iiii<a])proheiision as to the actual ])nsition i\( K'orea. More-
<i\<T. oviMi if K(,)rea ha<l occn|)ied the position of a neutral State,
a xioliiiioi; of h<'r ierrilmw wnidd imt hav(> alfurdi^il any cause of
complaint to other neutral Powers, unh'ss it either inqx'rilled their
Npoi-iel iiit<Mes|s or involv(Ml a violation <;)f some inlernational com-
jiaci. or was attended bv some act of L;ros> inhumanity. Nor. again,
are tin' meielv local au'ciits of a Stat(\ in such a case, j'ustilied
ill inici vcninc', uiil(\s< the livc< dv prnpertx' of their natiouah arc
1 hroa tolled, w liich was not the case at ( dHMUulpo w/ i ; it beinu' ot hci'-
IV' W'liicli was. as has hecu said. .r;i]iaii l)y a |)r(;i;-lainatii)ii of tiic 30tli
"a war fur l\cr(>a. and in ICni-ca, if Aniriisr. 1910.
net v.iih i\ni'ca'": I .awi'cncc. War and { r") S/'/,,'". p. L'77 : i Ici'sIk^v. 7o.
Ncnrralifv. 'JS'J. ( ./ ) Sci> vol. i. :]1<).
(,v) llii; -<■,. p. 27."). s„,,,-'r. (r) S<.c Ihill. ■■]]'.).
(") 'i'liis was the ai;-n'cnic?ii uf the (/: S,i^,,'>/. n. : /<) .
Sih l"ch.. I'Mil. .V", ,,■-/. p. ■!'{■,. [ID Notice of the inte-.ded attack
(b) Korea was. in fact, annexed l)y and onjicrtiinity of withdrawal lia\inu'-
2S0 Cases and Opinions on International Law.
wise thoiv duty merely to refer the matter for tletermination to
tlioir own Government (7i ). i 4 ) With re.-pect to tlie action of the
neutral warships, in reueivin*:- on hoard the crews of the Russian
warships after the latter liad been (^lestroyed, althoug-h the rig-lit of
rescue ^vas perliaps doubtful at the lime, yet both the reception and
the after treatment of these erews a[)pear to have Ijecn in aeeord-
anee with the rides now embodied in the Hague Convention, No. 10
of 19U7, Art. 13 ii).
Gi;.\i:i{Ai. XoTES. — The Relation of ycutrdl/ti/. — A "' neutral State "
is one wluch iji a war between other States sides with neither party.
Ln the lirst instance, inteinational law contemplates as between States
(inly a relation of peace or war. 13ut ijuce war exists between two
or more States, theji an ancillary relation — that of tieutralitv —
aiist's l.ietween each of the belligerents and other States that take
no part in tlie war. In virtue of this a neutral State is. on the
one liand, bound to abstain from all interference in the war and
to act impartially towards each of the bolligorents: whilst it is. on
the other hand, exempted from the dir(>ct eliects of wari'/i. And
this applies also to "neutral individuals'": wlio. according- to one
view, are identified with the '' nationals " of States that arc them-
selves neutral, whilst, according to another, they are ich_>ntified, at
any rate for mrjst of the ])urposes of the war. with ])ersojis i-esident
an<l domiciled in such States (k). It is not unusual for States that
take no ])art in the w-ar to issue a declaration of neutrality: l)ut. even
without this every Power will be presumed lo lie neutral unless it
clearly manifests a contrary intention. There is. however, so
far. neither a duty nor even a right on tlte })art cif anv jiartietdar
State to remain neutral. On the one han<l. any State is at. libertv
in a war between its neighbours to take ])art in tlie striio-g-le
if it chooses: oji the other, either belligerent is ei|ual]y at bibertv
to treat as hostile a State that would otherwise be tieutral; the
making of war being so far ordy a (juestion of policy and justice,
winch each State must decide for itself, subject to the sanction of
international o])inion. Hence we must exclude fi-om what is after-
wards sai<l as to ''neutral territory.'' such territory as is the object
of r-onte]ition or the scene of the actual warfare, ihit once the
relation <if nettfrality is established and recou-nized. then tlie rights
and duti<'s incident thereto must be ribserved '7 ).
< i ni<l(itir)ii-< (111(1 Kinds of Xpiifral'li/. A (H-t init inn \\a< forimu'lv
already lieon <:i\i'n: ^ ■',/,". [i. 27-): Ai't. Ifi, wluch drfiiios ;i neutral in-
l.awiTiicc. \\ ;[]■ and Ni'iit I'ality in tlif di\idual a< "" a national"' <it' sucli :i
l'"ar l-]a~t. To —SI). State: but Tlreat Mritain lias sitrncd
( // ) ///,>/. T.") (' fi'-q. under reservation riF this Artl'de; and,
{ ', ) S,'i,r". ji. 1'_'3. as to the Anijflo-Anierie.m doctrine.
('/') So lontr. that i-. a- its neutrality ]i. '27 '/ •'•vv/.. sii/irii.
stands. ' (J) See \\'estlake. ii. 1 f, I rl ..pq . :
: /■ See the If. ('., X,. .-) ,,f 1907. Opiienheiin, ii. 31(5 // nrq.
TIlc Relation of Xeutralitij. 281
drawn, and even lecog'iii/ed in practice, between difl'erent giades anil
kinds oi neutrality. So, neutrality was treat/Cd as l)oin;4- either
"strici ' or " imperfect ' ; and ii' '' iniperlect," then as hcing either
' impartial," where ecpial privileges were conceded to both belli-
gerents; or "' (jualified/ a^ where a neuiral State was bound by
><)me antecetlent eng-ageuient to furnish troops or ships, or to aHow
a passage over its territcny [ni), to one of the bellig-erent.s yu). ibit
under the prosoni sjsteui, the neutral relation, in so far at least
a^ its <jl)ligations are defined (o), is insusceptible of any legal quali-
lii-ation. As regards what was called "impartial" neutrality, no
pri\il(>ge inconsistent with strict neutrality can now be granted
til one belligerent under guise of being equally available to the
(it her, whilst discretionary privileges must be equally granted to
lU' withheld from both. As regards "qualified" neutrality, no
iiid or ])rivilege inconsistent with neutrality can now be granted
to either belligerent by virtue of any anterior engagement. It is
no doubt ti'ue that owing to the lack of precision in the rules deter-
mining n<'utral dutv. it wa< formerly possilde to observe a neutrality
which, although not in tlagrant violation of admitted usage, was
neverthele-s ■ fa\ourable '' to one of the belligerents {p): and further
that such a favouraljln neutrality was sometimes stipulated for by
treaty. Ihit in principle, and now also by reaso]! of the better defini-
tion of neutral duties ((yi. such a position would be altogether inde-
fensible. Hence such terms as "favourable," or "" Ijenevolent," or
"armed " neutrality now |)0-<ess no legal significance. At the same
time, the relation of neutralitv is still quite com))atible with an
attitude of ])olitical svnipathy towar<ls one of the parties to the war,
so long a~; the obligations incid(Mit t(j neutrality are duly observed in
regard to both i)artie< ( /■ ). "Permanent " neutrality is, as we have
seen, a <tatus atiachinu- to territory, and has no connection with the
subject with A\hich we are hero concerned (s). The relation of
neutrality involves certain rights iuid corresponding duties on the
juirt of both belligerents and neutrals. These it will lie convenient
to tnvit umler the heads of (1 i the I'iu'lits <if jieutral States; (12) the
duties of neutral States; an<l i.')) the I'iglits and liabilities of neutral
tra(h\ which, although sii'ictlv include<l under the dutv of acqui-
e-c<>nc(> and its limits (.v.^' i. really need to be considered apart.
li.i 'iJie I,'i;il)/s of Xcutrul S/t!frs.--T\\o existence of rights
s)iOcially ict'erable to neutrality i-> sometimes deiue*! on the ground
that .-ui-h I'ights ei|ually obtain in time of peace. But even if this
hi' <o. the rio'hts in <|n<\stirin assume in lim(> of war a charact<?r, and
ar<' attended by incidents, -o distinct, as to claim som(^ indencndent
! ,/() l''iir an in.-;tanoc of this, see (7) .Vs hy the It. C. Xo. lo of
v.il. i. Hi. ]!»(I7: :,>t,;,.'' p. 2S1.
I/') Sre 02)poiih('iiii. ii. 327. (>■) On the sulijeet frenerally, see
i'^') See J). 2S2. ;,'/■/•'/. Wcstlake. ii. 173; Whcaton (Dana),
('//) See ]). 302. ','/;■'/,■ and Oppen- .)l(i. .)17: I'liill. iii. 22^ pt ■■ir-g.
Jirini. ii. 3.")(;. (.s) See vol. i. 53, 1.30.
(.v.v) /,,//«, p. 2S3.
282 Cases and Opiiiions on International Latv.
consideration {t). From this standpoint, then, tlie rights of a neutral
State are brielly these: — ( 1; Ever}- such State is entitled to have the
integrity of it.^ territory and territorial waters res])eeled by each tif
the helligereiHs, both as regards the actual conduct of hostilities.
the making of captures, and the j)reparatioii of acts of war; and
also to prevent or nullify, so far as possible, all acts done in viola-
tion there()f. The vindication of this right, in a (•as<> where it ha>
been violated by one belligerent to the preju<lice <if the other, is
treated also as a duty to the latter \a\. . :> i A neutral State is al.-o
entitled to exact compliance by each (jf the bi'lligerent.s with sucii
niuniciiial regulations as it may make for the purpose of ensuring
the observance of its neutralitv and the performance of its inter-
national nbligations. e\'en. though these may involve restrictions that
would n(_)t be permissible in time of p"acei.r). Such regulations,
although framed with reference to a common standard, vary
greatly in ditferent States; but in any case their enforcement, if
applietl I'lpially \o both [larties. cannot be considered as hostile or
unfriendly I //). (8) A neutral State is also entitled to maintain and
continue its di[)lomatic intercourse with other Slates, including;' the
parties to the war i c i; and to rec^uire that the commercial intercourse
of it.- sul)jects shall \H)\ b)e restricted excejM at ■■crtain points
warranted by custom or convention I'r/ ).
(ii.) The Dutie-'' of yeutrtd StoJ ('■•<. --Amoiv^st the duties of tieutral
States there is. Hrst. the general duty of inqjartiality. This av.i.-
probably the startino--p(»int of the whole of the pirosent scheme of
neutral duties; but as a subsisting obligation it mu-t now prol)ably
be interpret<vl as meaninu' that all })Ower> cxercisoable by tjie
neutral in ixdatiou to the lielliu'crents. wlicther obligatory or dis-
cretionary i/>i. must be applied without discrindnation or pre-
ference lyi. Subject to this controlling piimaple. the duties of
a neutral State mav be couvenientlv grouped a- follows i J"); -
(t) So. a \"i(ilatioii of iiciUral tiTvi- (/n Sec |). oS4. '■,'//".■ and on the
tory in time of war carric-i n(jt only a sulijcct iz'cncrally. OpixMilirini. ii. o7S
riiilit l)ur a duly to c\ai-t reparation; /-f >'/■</.. ■ i.awrenre. Principles. 499 ri
the iTL;Milatiiiii> (le-iu'iietl to sat'eu'uard .^.v ./• ■' '!"'' vloi'. (iST.
a .Stat( "s ni'Uti'ality are. nioi'i'o'.er. i // ) As in the east' of the admission
fi-anied with sp(>cial reference to war of [)ri/:c< to neutral jiorts.
and eai-i-y ])Ower> and renn'dies n<jt { c- \ Ser' II. ('., .\o. .) of !iti)7.
otherwise availahh': whilst the oi'di- Art. *J.
nai-y i'iL;'ht< of States in time of ]>eaee ( fJ '\ The ela^sitieatioii followed is
are >ulii(ri to tnanv rest rid iuiis on that siiL;-L''i'sted by I'rofes.sor Holland,
the outl.i'cak nf \\ai-: sce\-ol. i. -HV.). who ehis-fs neutral duties as heiirir
{'') Ji'iiu, pp. •_'!*!. ;J00. those of alistentioii. pre\-eiition. and
(x) See \-ol. i. 'liV.]. aequie^ecnee : -ec " Ncuti'al Duties in
fy; S.-( li. ('.. \(i. i:! of 1907. Maritime War as illustrated by
.\rt. 'id; '/'',". p. ;!0t. rei-ent exeiits." |iulilislied in the ]iro-
{z) Sa\e for such momentary inter- eeedin^.'-s of the r.i'ifish .Veadeiny.
ru])tion as mav he imidt-nt to some 19(1") 19(l(): aho Ilollan:!. .hirispne-
jiiirtieiilar tnilitary oprratioii. or re- deiicc. :;9.). .\s to a piMpo-rd revision
(piiri'd liv temporarv inilitai-\' le'i-r^- of the law of neutrality, hoth in form
sitv: see vol. i. IjtlS. and sui)-ta!;ee, see llarehiv. I'ro'ilein.-..
e . X i i .
The liclation of Neutrality. 28;i
(^ i I Tlicic are certain acts whitli a iicutrul Slate must iuselt' abstain
t'ruiii doinu' 80, a neiiti'al State must not furnish eithei' lielli^icrcnt
with tron])s, sliips. munitions of war, money, (jr inde'ed with anvthinji'
thai may ai<l him in the war: nor may it now <^')'ant j)ass;io(' to his
troi»[»s o\er ii> territory \e). And tliis dut\' w iii attach not nn'rely
in relation to the ])ul)lic acts of tiie Stat<.' it.self but also in ichition
to the act.s of it-s ollicials and j[)ublic servant.s ( jj. 1 12 ) Next
ther<> are certain acts which a neutral State is bound to ])reveut(r7)
othfu |)<'r.>ons, whether neutial or belligerent, from doing- within
its territory or jurisdiction. So. it i.s bound to ])revent the enlist -
nreni of men or the issue of commissions on behalf of either bolli-
geicnt, the conducr of hostilities, the eil'ociing of captures, the use
ui it- tiM'rit()r\- for tlie preparation of acts of war or as a ba.se of
oj»eratmji.-5. and tlu' despatch therefrom of vessels litt.ed for war if
int<Mid('d fiu' tlie service of either belligerejit. The rules and
metiiod- adopted for eir^uring- the due observance of this obligation
in <Mi'h parlicidar sysnuu form the subj<.'ct of the national law of
neutrality I /m. \\\\ Finally, a neutral State is bound by u duty of
aci|nie>((Mice. as rei^ards certain acts done by either boliigeriuit which
in\<.i[v<' an interfereiu-(> with n(Mitral persons or neutral prop(n'ly that,
\\oul<l no' be pei'uiissible in time of peace, so lojig as these ai'e con-
fined wilhii! the linuls pi'esiaibcd Ia' (aistom and con\'ention. Some
aspect-- of this dut\' ha\(> ali'eadA' been tijuihed on; but its most
important aspeet is that which relates to bellioci'ent int erferenci-
with n<Mitral commerc(» on the sea. This ])artic(dar branch of the law
of neulialiiy ho\\ev(>r. although i)i'esented under tlu^ i;'uise r^f a duty
of acipiie.-i-ence on tin' part of the neutral State itself (/). really
appear> to in\iil\'e a direct lelation between the iielligerent an<l
n<Mitial iiidi\ idiKils I /,• ). and thus to constitute in ellect a se[iarate
.-ubdi\'ision.
(iii. I I'hr Iliilits loul Lidh'dil ).(•■-< of ycnfnil Trcnlc. -Thin branch
of neiitiality has its <_)ri^-jii iu the acknowledged right of each
belliu'erent in maritime war to e.xercise a rii:ht of \i-itatioiL and search
o\(M' neutral \('-sels. to (h^tain >\\r\\ of them as ma\' be reasoiudd\'
susp(.'cied of carrying- c()ntraband, intending to \io!ate blockade, or
eiiLiaiiiniz' in act- of hostile oi- uuiuMitral service, and to confiscate
the properly involved on 'proof of deli mpieney . Tliis rij^-ht is
coiiiinonl\ liased on the \ iew that siieh acts dei'ou'ale fi'om tlH> right
wliie'.i <'ai li belliu-ei-ent lias lo caiiy on hi- milltar\ op<uations with-
1' lint ;i- tn weuiHlcd. -re p. ol!. (/' In or(l(>r. of coui-sc, to lirinii' ir
/,'',". iiUo rirnt'oi-niity wifli TJic arccptfil
/) Src, i)y way 01 cxaiiipic. the \i('\v tiiat iiiti'i'iiatioiial lav. i< cxclii-
Kiii'_:'< licLiailat ion- and A(lniii-alt v In- -i\('ly a \n\v \<rt\\rvn State-,
-trni-iion>. Ai't. ISt;. ( /,■ ) .Vnd is in fart .-o tieatrd in .-ome'
'/ ' So far. at any rati'. a< din' dili- recent i-ci,odatioic< : sec, hv wav af
u-enri- ,ii- the viirihint exercise of the eNain[)h'. If. t'.. \o. •') of 1(107, .\i'f-.
means at its disposal will sutlice to l(i. 17 : and t he 1 )e<dafation of l.ondoii,
prevent them: -I'e |). :1HI-1, >,,',". .\rt-. -17. tit.
(/ 1 See pp, :]7I. :]s(i. ;,'',",
284 Cases and Opinions on International Lavj.
out obstruction to himself or assistance to liis enemy on the part of
neutrals. And such was no doubt its original basis and scope;
although it now appears to have a wider range, and, in some parti-
culars at any rate, to represent a compromise between the conflicting
interests of belligerents and neutrals which has been reached without
regard to the original principle (/). But however this may be, it is
cb'ai' thai under the present practice the neutral State, saving its
duty of acquiescence in lawful restraints and it.s right of interven-
tion if these limits are exceeded, has, for the rest, neither duty nor
obligation in the matter; the responsibility and risk of such acts
resting solely with the neutral individual, and their restraint and
punishment ( yd ) solely with the belli.u-erent .State. It is sometimes
coiiten<le<l, iiKb.'od, that in ]n'ini'i])le i /n an obligation of ]n'ohibiting
thfse acts on the part of its subjects and others witliin it.s territory
ought to be ini]Kjs('d on tlie neutral State itself . oi: but as this w(juld
increase largely tlie res]:)onsibilities of jicutral Siuto>. would fetter
trade Ijy cojistant irujuisition, and would }irobablv h;ad to much
fi'ii'tion between tlie n(M.itrals and bfdli2'<'i-eiits. tIm.' jn-osciit ]n-ar-tice
is probal.)ly tnore convenient lyv).
( oitri'iitioii-s rel/iiiri'i to yeutraliti/. — The law of neutrality, like
the law of war, of which it strictly forms a part, is based in part
on custrmi and in ])art on convention (>/). ^^'ith respect to the con-
ventional part, some of the Hague Conventions, although primarily
oj)Orative as between States at war, yet contain provisions that may
incidentally affect neutral interests Tr;: whilst others ]>urport to
a])ply both to belligerents and neutrals ('s). These have already
been referred to(7j. Tliere are, howev<'r, other f 'onv<'ntion- which
are specially concerned with neutrality. The-e coui]iiise: ('f ) The
Plague Convention ''respecting tlie Rights and Duiio.s of Xetitral
Powers and Persons in War on Land,'' Xo. ■') <>( 1007, whioli treats
of tlie ri^'lits and duties of neutral Powei'S. the internment of belli-
gerent troo])s, the care of the wounded in neutral terriiorv. the
status of neutral persons, and the impressment nf railway mat-erial
in land warfare ( mi. (2) The blague Convention 'respecting the
Piiihts and Duties of Xeutral Powers in Maritime War,'' No. 13 of
]!i(»7, which deals -with a large number of (questions previouslv un-
s<'tth'd in i(!lation to the rights and duties of Jieutrals and belligerents
in miiritiuK' warl'are. and wdiich mav, indeed, be said to constitut-e
'/; ,\ltlii)iiL;'li tlic oi'iL:'iii;il principli', (p) Sec llall. 7.) '-/ -vy. ,■ hut sr-e
ir-i'lf \v;i- [iroliahly tlir oiitcotnc of also \\'c>t laki-. ii. J(;S: and Oppeu-
(;<.iii|.foiiii~i': ;,'//",' [1. .'5S I : lla!!. (;27 \u-i\i). W .:]>;?, r/ ..,-,/ .
ri srij,: Wf<flakf;. ii. Kil. dj > ■"< " in-" . p. 1).'].
I rri ) Altlioiiirh only in tlio limited ( /•; Siicli arc tin- C'on\-ciitioiis Xos.
>rii^r. n't'ci-1-cd tM lif"rcaft<;r. p. .38.5, 4, 7, S, and 9 ut' 1 '.til7 .
inJY'i. (s) Siirli arc rlii' ( 'cii\-cntion.s Xos.
I ,, I In (H-dcr. tliat i>. to make rhc 11 and 12 of ]i)(l7.
relation ininiediati'l y one hftwei'ii </) S"/,,". p. 'X^ ii r-nj.
Stati' and State di } 'V\\\< lia< hcen si^rncd by forty-
ii-i) l''or pi-ojf-i'tfd I'eM-iiJations on t\\'o rcjwcrs, imt hy ( o-eat J'ritain
this -nlijeit. -er llai-clay, I'roldein^. niuier rc^n-vatioii of .\rt<. KJ, 1 7, and
16:3. ]S. Si'e 'ral)l<.\ -\pp. xiv. >,ij,-ii.
The (Commencement of Neulralihj. 28-3
t.lu' l)e<4-iiiiiiii<^- of a code (jf neutrality (x). ( . 'i i Tiio Declaration of
L(jiHiiiii. I'JOlt, which is (lirecteil mainly \u a s(>| t Icinciil . so far as
was tVnincl practicable, of the ri<i-]it.s and liahilities of neutral trade;
iiicludin<^' the ^SLlbject.s ot blockade, contraband, unneutral .service.
the desti'uction of neutral prizes, transfers to the neutral hag, the
ri<iht of convov. and compensation for unlawful seizure. Tliis De-
< laration, although siyjied by all the States represented at the Xaval
Conference, has not, indeed, so far been ratiiied or accepted by Great
T)iitain. At the same time, even if it shoidd remain unratilicd, it.
is likely, in view both of the uncertainty of the customary law on
these subjects, and of the intrinsic reasonableness of the rules which
it. embodies save on certain points referred to hereafter — to set
the standard (jf international action iu the future. If, moreover.
it slioidd idiinialely be ado])ted by a majority of the leading- mari-
time Powers, ii will pi'obaldy have to Ix^ accepted in practice even
by Poweis tliat <lo not I'alify it. for tiie reason that bellig-eronts \\\\(\
act under it in the futiii'o will do so under a claim of common
a]>probalion which it will be diliicidt for neutrals to gainsay: whilst,
with the growth of naval power on all sides, it is probable that;
neutrals would combine a^'aiiisl a bellig{n-(>nt who sought to enf()r<'(.'
I'iuhts seriouslv at \arianc(> witli it.
TKE COMMENCEMENT OF NEVTEALITY.
THE CASE OF THE "KOWSHING."
[Holland: "Studies iu I iitei'iiatioual Law,'' l'2f). ]
Case._j In July. 1894, the relations between China and Japan
were greatly strained: and in view of the possibh^ outbreak of
hostilities, wliicli in fact occurred soon afterwards, Chimi bea'aii
to despatch troops and military material to Ivorca, which w"as at
otice the cause and likcl\" to be the thi\atre of the war. ,Vinongst
till' transports employed for this purpose was the " Ivowshing,'" a
ih'itisli vessel hiretl by the Chinese Ciovcn'ninent. On the 20tli
.J uly, the " Kow'.sliing,'" whilst thus mgaii-ed in carrying troops and
material of war, was met; in Korean waters bv the "'Xaniwa,'" a
cruiser belonging to the Japanese sijuadron. then en^'aged in the
]Mirsiiit of certain diiiiese \ cssels l)y which that S(|iiadr(ni had
been previously attai'ked. On the apj)earance of the '' Ivowshint;-."
(.'•) Tills lias hccu siu'iicil hy thirty- under reservation of Arts. 19 and '23:
nine L'owers. luit nut hy the I niied <(.|. 1'ahh'. A]!]!, xiv. iniyn.
ISlutes, and bv C. reat Britain onlv
2SG Cases and Opinions on International Laiu.
t\\o ■' Xaniwa '' sii^nallod the latter to lay to, and a Japanese
olliccr wa^^ thcreuiKJii sent on board. On the discovery of the
nature of the service on which the " Kowshiny' ' was engaged,
<he was ordered to follow the '" Xaniwa ' to a Japanese port.
The captain and olHcci's, who were Briti.sh, were willing to
comply; hut the Chinese troops on hoard refused to allow tliis,
threatening to shoot the officers if any attempt were made to take
the vessel to Japan. After some further ])arle\ino- the "' Xaniwa "'
signalled to those on hoard the "' Ivowsliing ' to (juit the vess(.'l
at once; and soon after opened lire on her and sank hei'. Most
of the hAiropcans on board Avere rescued by the "" Xaniwa.' whilst
of the Chinese some were rescued by a French gunljoat. and others
succeeded in reaching the shore of some neighbouring islands.
On the 1st August Avar between China and .Japan was formally
declared. The sinking of the '' Ivowsliing " provoked much resent-
ment in the UnitiKl Ivinii'dom: tlie action of Jajnan being
denounced by some as a violation of international law foi' which
it behoved the British ('Overnment to exact both reparation and
apology. It Avas in the course of tlie discussion that ensued that
Professor Holland gave expression to the following opinion, which
appears to have influenced, or, at any rate, to have coincided
with, the view of the transaction ultimately taken by the Briti:-h
(rovernment.
Opinion. This opinion was, in effect, as follows: -In the lirst
jilace. a state of war between China and Japan exi'-ti'd at the time.
It being- common knowledge that wai' miu'ht legally commence with
a lio-tile act on one side without prior declaration ^ if], it foUov^'cd
that in t;he present case. Avhether hostilities had [n'eviously occurred
on the luainland or Jiot, the acts of the Ja{)an(jse commander in
boai'ding the '" Ivowsliing ' and tlireatening hcj' A\iiJi violence in
ca-" of disol>edi(_'iice to his orders. Avere acts of A\ar. fn the
-I'ceud ])lacc. t hf' " IvoAvsJiiiig ' had notice of the existenc(_' of a
wai-. at any rate from the moment Avhen >he I'cc aved the orders
of tlie Japane-e coiiiniander. Ilent'C. before the hrst lor])edo A\as
iiivd. she A\a^, and Vww that she Ava>. a iieiiiral ship enii'au-ed in
tlie transport sej\iei' of a bell iL''creiit. Her liabiiit ii's, as such
' V, 'riii< wii-'. of iiair.-c. Ix/forc tliflf, ('.. \o. ;j (,f l!)(i7.
Tlie Gomniencenienl of Xen trail tij. 287
>hip. were Mvofokl: — (1 As an isolated \esscl, she was liabli^
tO 1)1' st()j)p(Hl, visited, and taken in for adjudicaiion b\' a .Jajjauese
Pi'ize Coui't: whilst if, as Avas the fact, it was inipossibh' to |)nt
a Jaj^anese ])i'ize erew on board her, then th(^ Japanese coinnmnder
was within his rights in using any amount of force necessary to
"oni|:)el her to obey his orders. (2) As one of a licet of trans])0rts
engaged in carrying reinforcements to the (.'hinese troops on the
mainland she was cloarl\- part of a hostile expedition, or one that
might be treated as hostile, which the Japanese ^^'ere entitled, by
the use of all ni'cdi'ul force, to prevent from reaching its destina-
tion. The force actually employed did not ap|)ear to have been
in excess of what might laAvfully be used, either for the arrest
of an enemy's neutral transport, or for barring- the progress of
a hostile expedition. The rescued officers having also been set at
liberty, it did not appt'ar that there had been any violation of
neutral rights, in respect of whi<'h either ajjology or compensation
could be demanded.
Altlioiigli the obligations and ]ial)iliiies incident to neutrality will
not ordinarily accrue until notice of the war lias been received, vet
ii tli(> nationals of one State onu-au-(^ iu the military or naval service
.')f an intending belligerent they will l)e liable to be treated as
eiiciuies. and tlunr vessels so engaged Avill be liable to capture and
attack by the other belligerent, as from the time when war de facto
ensues, and this even though the war may commence in some act
of force directed against them or their vessels (a).
('KNKHAL XoTKs. -77?c (/i(('-vfio)t of ^sdticc fo jSeutniU. — In view
• i\ tilt' <i'eueral rule alreadv referred to that lujticxi of the war is a
necessary condition of neutral liability, it was tlic practice, even
licfoi'e the Hague (.'onventiou. for belligerents, either on or imme-
' I lately aft<u' the outbreak of war, to issue a manifesto, which served
at oiH/e to alfect neutrals with notice and lo fix the date as from
■.\liicli their liabilities woidd conuneneo, noti(.'e to the State beiuu'
ill this r;i^i' notice to its suhject.s. This ])ractice, it has been saiil,
\\a- as olibgatory as an act of court(.'sy C(udd well be ( 6 i . BiU
") In iMiL'-lisli i.iw, liowcviM-, sncli actual or constructive notice cf the
let-, if (lone liv ISririsli suhjects, would conmKMU'eincnt of hostilities: see U. >'.
not eon>titute an ofrcnec' under rh(^ v. iV//y { \V. X. (1899) 11).
iMirei-'U t;nli-tinent Act, ISTO, s. 4, ( /^) llall, 570.
unless undertaken or continuixi after
2SS Ca6-e6- and Opinions on International Lavj.
oven it' no rfucli notice were issued, a neutral State and its sub-
jects were <leenied to be bound, if it could be shown that there was
knowledge of the war (diioide, or if its existence was a matter of
eonmion notoriety ic). The matter is, however, now governed by
the I]agu<> (. i.ijivention. No. 3 of 1907 i'd). With respect to neutrals
thi- (onvemiini jirovides that the existence of a state of war ought
to be notiiied to neutral Powers without delay, and shall not take
elleci in regard to them until after the recei])t of a Jiotihcation.
altliougli thi^ may lie given by telegraph; subject, nevertheless, to
th<' proviso that aljseiice of notification shall not avail if it can be
pro\ed beyond question that the neutral was awaic of the existence
of a state of war iej. This rule is to apply as b<'t\veon a bellio-erent
and any neutral States tliat are parties to the Convention (/j. To
this extent the Conventi(jn turns what was Ijofoi-e a ref|uiroment of
comity into a legal obligation, although without r<daxing the earlier
liability in cases of actual knowledge ( g). Xor would it affect the
lialjilit}- of vessels engaged, like the Koic-shhtfj, in tlio service of an
intending belligerent. In the case of a civil war, the liabilities of
neutrals as such will commence as from the time wlieii a status of
belligerency in its international sense (/i) is established (i). I'rior
to this, and in a case where the struggle is between a recognized
State and a community or body in insurrection against it. theie is
strictly no state of war, and no relation of neutrality with its atten-
dant duties and liabilities; even though other States may be bound
— as by a duty incident also to the relation of jx'ace — not to allow
aid to ])0. afforded by their subjects to ]X'l)<ds agaijist a frifiidly
Power, and even though this may l)e enforced under rhe national
jieutralitv law (k).
y Err r . i /. r e b rjtoby.
(\, ITS IXVIOLABrLirV.
THE 'TWEE GEBROEDER. ■
I 1800: 3 C. i;oh. 102. |
Case., During wai- between (Jreat Bi'itain and Ilolbnifl foui'
Dutch slii|)s were captui'cfl Ijy the Pu'itish in the W^estei'n Kenis
((■) Sec \\'i':-tlako, ii. 27. 28: and by neutrals, or if the letritimat-e
t!,c case ei' '/'/" linrl ,i,il: tlicrc cited. f Irnernineiit u-sunies to adoj)! luea.siires
(il J S^iirii. [I. Is. afrcctiiii;- iiciitraN wliicji arc <udv jxt-
(r) \x\ . 2. inissihle in iiiti'mational war: see
ij) .\rt. .",. V- 11. .-'/"•"•
(q) Snju-ii. |i. 2S7. (!•) Ill l^n^Hisli law, si'i; 77,^- Sal-
(7,1 Sec vcl. i. 00. ra,lj,r (\... !!. ?, \' . ('. 2IS;; T. ,S'. v.
a, This. a.'~ ha< heen already jiointe^l I'rih/ (\\ . \. ISO!) 11: and. on the
(juf. will ari>e if either the liciliL'-crcni-y (|uestifin L'^encrally, I tail. .'5 f . n . : Wet^t-
(if a I'cliel ( loxfTniiKMit is rccoirni/.c*! lake. ii. 2S: 0|ijjciihcini . ii. .'jfi.).
Neutral Terr i lor >j. 289
by hoats si'iit out from H.M. ship '" ]j" Es])i('g'l<', ' wliicli \\-ms llicu
lyiii;^' in (lie Maslcni I''i'iiis, o(T the coast of Prussia. A claim foi-
rcslilulio!! was made hy the C'ousul for Prussia hy direction of his
.Miui--tei', oil the g-rouiid that the capture had been made within
th:' limits of Prussian territory. It appeared that the place where
tlc' \\arshi|) was lyini;' was, at: the most, three miles from East:
Fi'iesland, and Avas, in fact, at h)w tide iuimediatel \- conno^'ted
A\itli the hind, and therefore to he considered as [jart of it. Pnder
these circumstances it was ludd that: inasmuch as "L P.^piegdc' ''
was lyine' within limits in mIhcIi all hostih' o])eratioiis were by
the law ol' nations forbidden to be exercised, and inasmuch as the
ca[)tui'e. althouii'h clTectcd l)y boats outsidi> those limits, must be
deemed to iiax'e oriiiinated with the shi]) in her then situation, a
decret- oL' ri>stitution must be made. At tlie same time, in view of
the fact that the situation was suilicieiit ly dubious to relieve the
ca.plors of any intentional violation ol' neutral riii'hts, costs and
damau'es against them were refused.
Judgment. I Sir W. Scott, in giving judgment, after referring
to tln^ situation of the vessel, laid down that no use of neutral
territorj- for the purposes of war was to bo permitted. That did
not indeed apply to remoter uses, such as the procuring of [)rovi-
sions thei'cfrom, which the law of Jiations universally tolerated;
but no proximate acts of war were in any manner to l)e allowed
to originate there. And that a ship should stat ion herself in such
territory and send out her boats on hostile enterprises, was an act
of hostility much too imniediat(> to b(^ ))erinitted. For supposing-
even that a direct hostile use were r(Hpur(Hl in order to bring a
case within the prohibition of the law of nations, could it be said
that thi> \cry act of ^ending' out boats to efl'ect a ca,[)ture was not
in it-elL' a directly hostile ad. not indeed complete, bnt. iiever-
thi'le-s clothed with all the charact.eri-t ic> of hostilit\? If such
an act c(ndd he (hd'eiided it. might well be said that a ship l}'irig
in a neutral station inii^lit lire on a ve-^sel lyinu' outsidi'. iUit no
one could deny that such an act. would be an hostile act
immediately commenced within iicuti'al territory. And l)etweeii
hriiii;' cannon >!iot and x'lidiiiL;- (Hit armed boats there wa> no
substantia! dillereiice. In i'a''li ca'^e the act of hostiIit\- took its
2!M) tV/.st'-s- (ind Ojmuons on litlarnnh'onal Lnu).
(.•oninii.'nr'('iii('iit: from nnitnil tfi'ritorv . It was not only dirrct
lioslilitio that \\k:w so forbidden, but anythint^- ininicdiately con-
ucL'ti'd with hostilities. So even prisonei's or booty could not be
carried into ncuti'a! territory theru to l)e detained, because such
an at-t \\'as an iniincdiatc (■out inuation of hostility. l-]\i'ry ij'overn-
nient ^^■as justihed in interjiosinii' in such a cas(.': for if the respect
due to neutral territory' Avas \iolatx'd by (juc party it would soon
l)ro\'()kc similar ti'catmcnt from tin' (jtlu'r. with the result that
what \\"as neutral u'round \\ould soon become the theatre of war.
Thi.- ca-e sci'xos to illustrate uot niej'ely the e-(>ii(.i'al innnniiity
of iieutial tenitoiy from ac-tnal hostilities and the UTOimds on
whick it ie<ts. Ijut. also that such t/orritory nuist, Jiot be u.-^ed
by eitliOJ' bellie-^jrem even as a .start.iiifi--point for any ))roxi-
niaie ac; of war. Xcutral territmy. for this ]iiirpo.-e. incluflos tJie
littoial .-ca to the extent of three miles from the nearest land, as
well a- all other watci'^ tliat are regarded a^ " teiiiturial b\' the
law (jf uatiou-'/n. Jn 18<i4, indeed, when tlie I'nitcd States ^var-
.-jn]i Kenisinn' lay oil Uherhoury wiih tJie ol)Ject of ong-aii'ing' the
(Jouf(?dera1e crui-or Alnbanui on her Cjuitting that [)ort, tlie French
Ciovernment e.\})re--ed it.s unwilling'ness to ])ermii an ono-ao-erneut
at >uch a distance from the coast as would place the shore within
reacii of the eun- (jf the bellii;-ereiit> : but the Unitod States (iovern-
ineiit replied that ii did not admit any right on tlie part of France
to interfere at a di-laucc exceeding three mile- i /ye And altlioug]].
in view of the increased range of moflern gun-, it is commouly
agaeed that thi.- limit needs to be extended, yet this eau only be
given effect to by international agreement (c i. In the Anna i •') C.
Ivolt. ;j73). it wa- held that the limit of the rnareinal <e,i for this
]iui])Ose wa- to be reckoned from any occu[)ial)lc soiliV/, ), so long-
as -uch ^oil constituted a. natural aj)peuilagc to tjje land. Xor will
the faet of a pii/e ha\iiig been clia-ed from tlie hiii'li sea- into ];euti'al
watei'-iC) justify a capture tlK're: the iimiiuiiity of neutral te)ritor\-
from hostilitie> being subject to no excejuion -a\'e I'oi- tlie ]nir[)0<es of
self-defeiK-e yf i. But in the Tmer Gchrf/cdrr ( ;] ('. HiAi. :',:\i'>). it wa-
held that the ai-t ot' a war vessel in merely pa.--iiie- throug-h neutral
wateis. even thoucih animo rqpirtuli. wa- not a \-iolation of neutral
tn) .S,.,. vol. i. 1.11. \-V.). 143; and (r) \< to tlio rulf of -hot pur-
]'l]ill. iii. .Vi;'). -iiir." .<(■(■ vol. 1. I(i0.
i I, , .Moore, lilt. Arl). ii. 1118. ('■ And :iL'-:iin-t attack alr-'ady
{(■, See vol. i. [I, 1 IM. K''-;ui: , ■ f . m,1. j. p. IH-J; l,j|(-. for a
< d I l-Acu l!;nii--l). a- in that ca.^c, pe^-^iMc (•xtfiiMoji of this. >('t' '...ira.
it took tiif ffjrin of certain niiiiilial)iti;<l [■. -'-tS. Sc a 1 -o 'I'h, I', -,,,,■ J,,,,,,
i-lcr- that Jiad l.ccn formed hy the r „//,,, ,■■„,' (':> C. l!ol,. I,, : \\drai-..n
drift at the moutli of a i-:\cr. liana, 'r2'2 n .wy.,- |'!;iil. iii. ."diT.
Xruh'ul Terrilnrii. 291
'(■nilMi\. ('!■ ill it-.'lt' li;ili|i' Id ;ilt'<'<t tlii' \;ili(lit\ nf aii\ --ii h^ci jucnt,
■.•it I )t inc.
WJirrc ,1 ciiiilufc ha- 'occii inailo in violation of neutral tcrrifoi'N',
'he (I ji'oi'".-- Slate \\a-~ Ixmnd. ('\(mi iiiidfi' IIm^ cusf oniai'\' law, on
[lion!' lif <ui h violalinii ami im claim Ky ilic nciiti-ul Si^ilv, lo iiiakcy
K'-^liiiition cnhor liy adini ni^l I'utivr act or t lii'dii^i'li its ( oiiHs. So,
ill l.Si)!. when the I'lorUbi. an aniied ve-<el of tlic Southern Con-
tederac\ , \\a- sidzed hy a I'liiied States warship in Brazilian watei's,
ihe I iiitcd Stiilo.- LioM'rnnieiit, on the cojuplaini ot Jjrazil and jhjI-
wirh.-tandini^' that it nd'used to roeog-nize the Florida as liuving'
helligeient riglits — admitted the iJleg-ality of the seizure, and under-
took til >et the captured crew at liberty and to punisli those
responsilile foi' the ag-gression ; altliougdi the restoration of the sliip
herself was ])re\ented owing- to her loss by collision, (/ij. A similar
duty of restitution will devolve on the Courts of the captor's State if,
in the cour.se of adjudication, it is [iroved that the jtrize was eaptured
witliin the teiritorial Avaters of a neutral State. Under the British
and AnHuican practice restitution in such a case will onlv be deereed
cither on the complaint of the neiiti'al Stale itself (/). oi' ijii a dis-
a\OA\al (if the ca[iliiie by the captor's Stale i/,-); U)v the reason that
o\eu a capliii'c in neutral waters i,s not deemed to be illeg-al as
licluccn cncmie-i/i. Ihit this jimiialinn will nut apph where the
[iiizc iJIcLially iai<en was neutral; in which ease the violation of
iicntial li'irilnrv iHa\' be set u[) and dauiaues claimed, irrespoetive
'if ;, ;i \ r, inipla ill! on 1 he part of | he State Mdiose teriiti.iry A\as \-iolated.
S(j. in I he ca-(^ of the S/r Will /mil feci { ■'> Wall. ."> ] 7 i -where it
.ippcaicd iha! a Ihilish \essid hail bei-n laptiircd diiriuL;' the eivil
war li\ a I iiilcd Stale- crui-er in .\Ie.\ican waters -restitmiiui v>as
mailc b\ the bnitcil States Court without any (daim on the [)ari of
Mexico; an<! althnuu-li <'osts and damages w lux' refused l»v ihe Court,
\<M a! a latci stau'C damages wer(^ awarded by a Joint ( Dmmission
to whiiii the ipie-tion had lieen referred > yyn.
Ill ihe ca-<' where im restimiidii is made by the State or (.'ourts of
rhe i-aplo)', till' injni'cd beliii^-eient has. as we shall see. certain
ai'ciiiai i\ (■ remedi<'s auainsi the neutral S\,-d\v t m . .As belwe':'n rho
paiiic- Id tilt !bu:'iie ( (III \eiit it III. Xo. i ;; (if 11)07. iiMre(i\-ei'. au
iibliLia i iwii to libciatc iidih prize and cr-w. mi tlie demand of the
neutial I'ewcr. i- now spei-i ji.-aHy impo.-ed (in the State of the
^ajUi.c' I () I.
I /' i S,.i> Whcardu '!>ai!,-i;. -iLlS ; iMinplaiiit (it cither the cwiicr or his
.iimI al-'i the la-e- (it '/'/"■ OVv,,,'/. ' Mi\-eriiiiicnr.
ITli.;. mmI y/-r rAev,.,„,/v. lMi:i. ■/,:J. J: T,:,, i,.„,^ :] WUmt. 13.5).
:>2-2. :>-2i\. i/. Se,' '/■/-, • l)',r,,ic,.;;,i ,i Deds.
I. .\lih(iii-h a claim made liv a c'H : / /'" AV-'.:" Ann (1 Dod-. 2 11);
e,m,-al will .-ullice. \\ he is .-pociallv 77;e .C. i-^' (_o Wlicat. 43.) ) : '!!■'-: Fh.<,-)<] a
,i!itlairi;:ed. I'liU niidei- 1 he l'\)rcie-il MOl V. S. 37): Scott, HSS ct scq.;
l-aili-fiuenr .\et. 1S7(). -. 11. a pri/.c .'oid I lall. (1 1 7, ii.
lakcii iiv a ve~-el ilhu-ally titled out ' "- .M'idi-c. int. Arli. iv. 3;t35.
ai I'.riri-h t.T!'itiii'v iiKc- lie re<t(irid (in ( // ■ /,'/". p. -2!).').
{.oj Sec .\rt. 3. |). 3U(.), l.'ini.
u2
292 Cases and Opinions on International Lau'.
(ii) DUTIES ixcrDr:xT thereto.
THE CASE OF THE " GENERAL ARMSTRONG."
[1851; Moore. Int. Arb. ii. 1071: Ortolan. i)ij)i(iiiiatic' df la .Mcr. ii. 300.]
Case." Oil the 26tli September. 1814. duriiiii' war l)ct\vL'en (ireat
Eritain and the L'nited States, the "' Lrrin'ral .\.riii>tron2^," an
.\meriean i)rivat('er under the conmiaiid of Oaj^r. Reid. "was
lyinir in the Portuo'uese harbour of Fayah in the .\zores. On
the evening of that day a small British squad I'nn under Oom-
modort' Lloyd aUo put into that j)ort. On tlv night of
the 26th eertain boats from the Ihdtish sipiadron apin'oaehed
the "General Armstrong"; "wher.aiptm tho>e on board the
latter, after hailing the boats and summoning them to haul off,
immediately iired u]:)on tliem. -with the resuU that \\\'o mini were
killed and several -wounded. It was alleged 1>^- thr eaptoin of the
jjrivateer that these boats were " well manned and apparently as
\\'ell armed ""; but this was denied by the British eommander, who
eharced the privateer Avitli an unprovoketl attack and vioh^tion of
the neutrality of the port. It was not until after this engagement
that an}' ajipeal for proteetion on behalf of the privateer was
made to the loeal authorities. The lattm" thereupon eommunicated
with the British commander, and protested against any resumption
of hostilities in a neutral port. Ei rejdy tliey wvvo informed
that inasinuidi as tiie " lu'iieral Armstronii- " had bri'ii the first to
violatr- thi^ neutrality of the ])ort. a single small A'essel would be
told oh to take her, l)ut that if hostilities were encountered from
tho castle, then tlic whole squadi'on would treat the town as hostile.
Accordingly, on the followino- day. a small bi-i^- Ix'lono-jnir to
the Eniilisli sijuadron took u]) he;- jiosition near the "(General
Arm^troni:-."' and attacked her: with tlie result that the latter v/as
ultimately abandoned and destroyed b\- In-r crew, wlio suc'ecoded
in escaping to the shore V/\ The Enitf'd State-; (iovernment sub-
(r-r) Duriiur tlio ciiLT.'iLrf'iiir'nt. tho wouiidod : sor IIa!li"k. i. 5()3. n. Tlii'
f-rew of till' pri vat<'(>r are -rated to defiMicc of tIh' ]>ri^"at':'('r was also aided
have fii-ed laiiirridu'r'. in<!\iilin_'' iiaiK h\ her eountryinen from tiie shore
and knife hladi-. iiitlii-ti iil'' f xciu- who fired on rhi' a-sailants from the
ciatinu' toiTui'!' on rho-e wim \\-ei'e ])roterrioii of tlie adj'iiniuy roeks.
Xeufral Terrihr//. 29;{
se((UiMitl\ iiiiidc a cliuiii lor conijx'iisat ion ua'aiiist Porluiral foi'
Iti'rach of duty m allo\\iii<i' tli(> "(General Anns! ronn- ' to bo
caplui'ci! in neutral tcrritorx': l)ut this ^vas resisted hy I'ortug-al
on tlie u'l'ound tliat the .Vini'i'iean \'(^ssel liad herself enu-a^ed in
l)(dlii:-erent 0|)(>rations. At'tei' much eoi'respondeiiee tlie all'aii' was,
in I Sol. suhniitted to tln^ arhiti'ation of the President of the
Fi'eneh iiepuhlic, who, in the result, found ai^'ainst the claim.
The Award. 'i'he award of the ai'bitrator, after reeitin<)- the
facts, and adverting' more especially to tlu^ doubts which t>xisted
as to whether the boats lirst lii'cd on by the "(ieneral Armsti'ono- '
were |iro\ided with ai'ins or ammunition, pi'occeds as follows;
'■ ( "onsiderim;' that the report of the (Jovi^'nor of Fayal jn'ovcs
that the Amei'ieau eaptain did not apply to the Portuguese
( !o\ ('I'ument for protection until l)lood had l)e(Ui shed . . . that
th{^ (Governor ailirms that it was onlv then that he was informed
of what \\a~ pa»iiig . . . that he se\'eral limes interi)Osed with
ConimodMre Llo\'d with a \ie^\ to obtain a cessation of liostilities
. . . that tlu> \\'eakness of the e'ari'isoii . . . and guns . . .
rendei'ed all ai'iued intorxentiou on his ])art impossible: . . .
considering in this state of things tliat Capt.. iieid, not having
ap]ilied in tlu^ bt>o'inning for tlie intervention of thc' neutral
Sovereic'U. and havine- had recourse to arms foi' the [)urpose of
rejudline- an unjust agn'ression of ^\hich he claimed to bei7>; the
object, thus failed to resj^ect the nmitrality of the territory
of the foreign So\'creign, and released that So^'erei<^■n from the
obliLj'ation to affoi'd him pr(Mecfion by an^' other means than that
of 0 pneiljc intei'viMition : . . . from which it follov,s that tlu^
(ro\-ernment nf Ilei' Most Faithful .Majest\' cannot be held I'e-
^ponsible t'or till' I'esulfs (->]' a collision, which took plaie in ('on-
tem|it of hei' rie-jits of soMM'(UO'ntv and in \'iolation of tla^
|ieutralit\' of bei' territoi'y and without tln^ local ollicer ....
ba\inu' been rcMuestcd \\\ pi'onei' time ... to c'l'ant aid and pi'o-
te(l ion . . . ; therefore, wc ha\i> dccidi>d and we declare thai the
claim ]n'c>entcd b\ the (io\ crnment of I he I nited States airainst
Her Mo>t Faithful Maif<t\- has ]io foundation, and that no in-
i^b) Tl'.o word used is pfctcidalt.
2!)4 Cases and (}f)iitions ftu International Laiv.
(lemiiitv is clue by Portugal in conseiiueiice of tiie loss of the
American brio-, the privateer 'General Arni-trong.' '
T]ii> ease i> conjinuiily Ufaiua a.- >iLjipurliuu the >-ujiolii.-iijn that
ir a belli(i'ereul who i> aitaekeil in neniral \\a;ei- I'JiMt-- \\j ^let'eud
liiui.-t-lf. ill-lead of ti'ustinu' ti.i neutral prdtcnioti. lie will fre.'' the
neutral Siati' I'l'Oin any further I'ojK.ui-ilulity '''. .Vinl this is no
cluui)r true. S(j long- as il i.^ uiidei>tou(i that, tJiere \va> a i;enuiue
eh'ction ijii the part of tJi > bellii;er'_'n;. in cireiiiii-uuK-es where an
appeal \o\' lu.-il proter-t ion \va> both pM-sihlo an<l ;iOt ui:tnifestly
u-ele--. Bnt neither tlie lai-t> nor fvcii the rcrin- <>\ tiie award, not-
A\ ith>taiidiiii! >oni<' ainbi_i;niTie> uf ex) v<'->i()ii. appear to warrant
tlie i-onclnsiini that the taere enL'aiiiu'-:' in liij-'ilitii's in s^h-defeiice,
111 odier i.'ir'-uni-^tai!r-('<. will p;i uliicc ihi.- i';--iih. \\'hoi'e. iudfe'l, a
li..lli:_;-o]oii'' hiin-elf r-oinnicni-*'-: h'l^riiin'f- in uoiiiral Abater-, it is
elear that lie will fi)i'feit all r-iaiiu t'l u-.'utjal ]>ri acit i^ rii ir pu-sible
indeniuiix . ISur iK'iiher prin<;i])le nur anafii^y -,iii''1;mu tht.' \'ie\\'
iha' the men' v/ai'iiiie^' Oil L>f a li'i-iih' aUai-k. iiiidci iri-uni-i.-uir-es
wlierr- ail ap])f'al loi' h:<'-al ])roi"."ri(ei wa-^ eitlaM' iiii]iM->ild' '>i' un-
likelv to lie elfe<-tual. -wijuM dejnave a !> 'Iliocieiir r-irher '<\ \n> rieht
to inMjtectiijn. if that >ul i-(M|ueiii 1\ Ijef-aine a \'a ilalilc-. jr <;f his riu'hl
\\) iiiJeiiai.y. if .([.■li |:ru'i'-iiia wri'i' impr' iprrjy -Ai^lihi'ld ' ,/ > ,
Ti'. li<'i\\a>\<^y, t]ie ]-iropr>rty of ojic li*'!iio"roiii . av),,) -Aa- iiiinself
not 'in j'au!'. ha- lic^'u i-aiitnrer) li_\- rh" either in A-i<il;t!i':.n -it' ^i^urral
toriaini'v. and no re-titui i<ai lia- lie^n uiadf l)\' the Sta.!," ni- (iiairt.-
of till' capt'ir I /' '. then a. 'luty (ji' re-tit urioii. '^v. f;o]inL;- thi-. a dntA"
(if -eekine 'u in '-ei'tain cireuni -ranee- even of niakinrr reparation,
wilb urii'ler thr' eu-tomarA" law. devolve <m the neutral .St^ite it-elf.
Thi- in;iv rake one of -everal frirms: ( 1 i If the ]>roiieriy in i|uesrion
i- -nbs'^'(in'utl\' lirone-lit widiin tlie nentrai juri-lii:-uen. ilien the
iM'e.n-a! State MiiLilit 'ill ])i'i>i;)f nf tJie del i in pieir -A' fi caii-e re-titution
to ke inarje eitliei' aiiinini-ii'-ii ivelv. lU' t]irr)ir,ili it- ! ''"eir's ' f - : the
latter. altlioiiLi'li not (U-iiinarilv (Minipetent iri de.-ide ,,.i rh" valiiHtA-
of Melii^-oicjil capture-. ha\iie_; in -u'-h ,i e-.-c j uri.-il iel ii in to
([f.,-.].,,.. r"-i i: u; ieiie aklenejli U"' ;<i award 'lani:iL:-e- in_ \".,r W'add
the neutral j ui i-'lici irni in -in^li a ea-e ke rin-teij ler ;hr. p^-r uf the
])ro! nut r- ha viie_!' Iiecn ci nrl'-mee'l liv the ( 'ruiri- nf tin"' caul or. or even
liv il- ha\in'j- iM--e,| iiii.i die hairl- 'if a 1 ra ii-l'frci' ! // i : akleiie^h it
("; ILall. li'iU. :aiL:'iiiciit;e icn uf force, but the .same
(rl, Scf. 7'/.- C^.r,''-.,. aiiil >.';,;■'/. priiiciplr would " / ,/e.v-; applv to
vol. i. lii:]: and 7'//" .i,./e? (3 ^^dl'Jat. a ca]itui-c made in neutral territory.
at -! 17 ; Si;otr. (i^-,. Tiic Id S. dcci-ious en this >uhjcet are
f'''i S •/,,,■, I, p. -JCl. sunaaarizcd in \\dic;irr)ri rtiana'. n.
('d s ■•■ p. ■_'-!'. -',.,",- and fd.iili. •l-;:^.
iii. -V) 1 . ('/■, '! he tran-tVi' iu ■•i\\r\\ a ca-p not
(,/) Sec /,/,■ _l,,;i^ta,! (]■■ i;,i,s ' ."> l)ein:;- liindiiuT on the ni'utral: see
Wheat. :JS.5;. ddic violation of new- WcMiale. ii. lltH: Hall, f.lc; Put .-ee
trafitv in thi- case wa- an iUciral al-u Wheatnn (l.)ana:. <. '/-W . \\. a).
Neutral Territorij. 205
would he <jtlici\vi.-<<j if the vessel illeyall}- cujjtured iuid previoiislj
Ijeen cuiiiiiiis-idiied as a public vessel \i). (^2; 11 the property iiL
(piesiioii i- not l>r<)iii^ht within the neutral jurisdiction, then under
tin: cusioniaiy law, at any I'atc, th<^ neutral St-abe whose 'iM'jilory has
ht'cn Niohued will lie ImhiikI, al the instance of the a^'g-rieveii Ix'lli-
gcriMil. 1(1 |»refer a claim f(ir redre-s ag-ainst the State of the captor;
and. failinu' i'edre>s l)\ di[)l<jnial ic nu'ans, to prosecute the chain
li\ >U(h ulterior nieihnds as may reasonably lie expected from a
Slale in ii-, po-ii ii m i /,■ i. \'.\\ Finally -and <'speciallv if there was
;i hrearh nf duiy nn the pari of the neuti'al State in providing' jiro-
K'liiun wln'ii ajip<'ah'(| tu it \'.ill he incumhcnt on it to alford coni-
]M'nsaiiMn \n \\\o in jiired hclliu'erenl \l). .At the same time the ohliga-
tioii a-- rcLiaiils jirotect ion is not. it is ci)nceived, an absolute one,
bio is limiicil to an Inniest use of sui-h unvuis as were tlnui available
fiii' the purpD-c of axoidino- vln^ iniurx complained of(^/?). IJut as
hiMwcen State- that ate parties to th(> llai^aie ('onvention, Xo. lo of
]',Mi7. ilic-e oliliuatiou- ;n'e. a> we shall sec. in some degree
modified i n\ .
ill TIIK (,)rKSTi()X OF SFLF-Ia'FDIJFSS \A'IiFRE
XFF'I'HAL IIOSI'FIW UTV F- .\ia'Si:i).
THE CASE OF - RYESIIITELNI.""
jJ!li»t: 'I'akalia.dii. V-Vi \ Smith and Si',);i>y. llli.;
The Seizure. Ojl t!c' lOl!) of .\uuii-r, lilDl, durinu' the Husso-
.' ;i]);: i!i'--c WAV. the Iiiissiau iIc-^troNcr '■ Ii \cshii clni.' Iiavino-
c-iaitii] ivuvA Fori .Vrlhiir and bidiur piastic;! 1)\ the enemy,
took nduue iu liie ('liine-c' perl of Chefi.o. which w a- oul>id(.' the
ri u'ioii id' the \\;ir // . On the I Itli .\u_;ii-t. the d;i[)anese
di-!ro\cr> ".V-a-liiwo and "Kiisumi lia\ iiiii' di-l■o^■(•l•ed this
i;ii-!. ;il-o Miiorrd Ohifoi,. Oil ill; lolJovNiim' (la\. iinilirii;' tliat
no .-Icp.- had ijei'U t:il:cii lo di.-iiriiil |i' ino '" li \'o-lii!"h!i,' a
tFipa!i'-e ouiccr and e.-,-(;]'! wailed ou ihc Fir-saui comiuander and
ol'l'i i-oii iiiiii ilii' a hrToai i\ e of eiliiei- (jini 1 ini.;' (.'Ind'oo oi' surrcn-
\~ ii. wliirli rl'. v(i|. i. 'Jiiii. (/; Tliis was tlic hasis of the chiini
■i^-:\\ ■iiiii '',',■./. i>. .'Jiy. iikrIi' hy tlic I itircd States airainst
(/■) Sue llall. (U.K A minor I'.wviT. I'c:'l ii'_;-ai in the caM' of /'//-■ C!,, ,',■"!
that i-. wouhi .-carccly hi' c\|>cctrd . i, /// ^Z/'';,,;/ ; s.ii,,-,i. p. -iWl.
to pni-crutc th.' claiiii hy I'orr.' (,r arms ( ,r ) ^v 11. ('.. \o. i:) of ]!)l)7,
au-alii-l a m.ijiir I'liwer,' icaltT ]iai:i of Ai'ts. o. S. -J,'): and \\h"-tlalc>, ii. 'JOo.
indcmni I'viiiL;' tin' iiijni-i'd pai'ty. \ ,• ^ Sc:' ]i. ;!(i(i. and n. '/>. '','';-.'.
c\ii'[)l in a ra-o wIi.ti' ih^ri' liad hacn (") //'/'/■■/. p. '-MMi.
Minn- [Mi-i;i\(' hi'i'arh. of (h:ty.
21)6 Cases (Did Opinions (ni Inlr.rnational Laiv.
dering to the Japanese. The Russian eoniniaiider refused to
accept either alternative, and, whilst the discussion was proceed-
ing, ordered his men to destrox' the engines and to lir'? the
magazine, with the result that an explosion took place which
damaged the fore part of tlie vessel and cau.-ed sonic casualties
amongst the Japanese h . Ho-tilities then ensued, in the course
of which the " Eyeshitelni ' was cai^tured by tlie Japanese
destroyers and towed out: of port. Accordiua' to the [Russian
oiiicial report, the "' Ilyeshitelni " had lowered her flag and been
dismantled before she was attacked by tlie Japanc'Sc; the action
of the Kussian commander being i'ttributed to the tact that
he was defenceless and desired to destroy his \essel in ordcn' to
prevent her from falling into tlie hands of t!ie laiemy. .\ Chinese
report, made before the attack, states tl:at tbe Ru-sian commander
had agreed to disable his engines and to disarm the vissi'l: but
it dofs not state tfiat this had liccn actually don;', v.hil^t the
fact of tho magazine ha'\ing exploded in the roui'-e of her .-^ 'izure
serves, at any rate, to -!iox\' that the rimmunition li.id iiot l)e(ui
removed from the ve-sel at tlie time of e,tt ick.
The Justificatory Memoranduna issued by the Japanese
Government. A prote.-t aii'ainst tlie .-cizure was >ub~c(|Uently
made b\' Russia throuudi the Fre'inai Mini.-rer at I'okxo : but
thi- Japan refused to receive on tlie oa'ound tliat. as between
States already at war, sucli a prote-t was iiujatur\'. Cliina I'so
made a pi'otest to the- Japanese Go\ (aaiment- aiid d aiiandi'd tlie
restitution of the cajitured \'essel: this demand bi^'ng also re--
fused. But ill vii.'\v of the gravity of th^ oc(ai!'i'fii;'r> .[aj'an dr;'w
up and circulated a nifmorandum justifvi;]^' iier a' ; ion. Tliis xx'as,
in effect, as follows: The position ocruj)icil l)\- (J'liiia in relation
to the war was reall\' anomalous. Th(> -war \\as l)('ino- waged
in part, at an\' rati\ in and about territorv li'dnn.iiim:' to China.
Ja]>an liaij, indeed, en,n'ai!(.ah in the inteie-^t ot fiireiiin mtercoui'se,
In ]'es[)cct the iKMitu'a I it\" of China outsid',; the ai'tna! re:_:a"on of the
war. but (jul\" on (/ondition that Ru>sia did the same. Such
ttai'itory had aecordinirlx' become condit ionall\' !ieutral : but a
failure on the part of Rii-sia to comply' witli this condition, and
{//) Itf is nUo said to liavo incized tlic .]a])aiie,-o oitii-or aiul jiiiiipod over-
board, (.arrviiii;' the latter witli lain.
Xnifrnl Trnltoi-f/.
•2'i7
the Ofciipat ioii t)i' iHO as a,ii asylum 1)\' the Russian IVji-ccs of aiiv
l)lai-c witliiii it, had the rH'cct ol! imlli I'y iii^' tiii> iiciit imIiI \ . 'I'iii-
very tact uL' the "' H \ I'.-hitchii ' takiiia' slielter Iroiii attack in
('hi'L'iio const it iitinl a breach of the ncutr;ility of (.'hina a> c.-t^ih-
li>hcii h\- the a^a'eeinent ol' the hclliijci'cnt.-- ; and Japan \\a>
thi'rel'oi'c ju-'tilicd in I'eu'ai'ding that phicc as h(dliuci'ent ijWjd'l
!('>(■. iiiiv was, inorcoxci'. only one of a nunihcr of instances
in which Russia had \ioh(t cd ( 'hine-e ncutiahty c'. .lapancouhl
not cotiM'Ut that Ru>sian wai'sliips shouhl, a.> the result ol' licr
hi'i ach ol' I'linaLicincnt , Hnd in the h.arhours ol' (Jhina a I'el'up'c I'roin
ea[>tuic and de-t laict ion . The'' Ryi^hiteini."' inoreoxei', was fully
armed and manned when \isited 1)y the Japanese. The ease jiad do
an;dou'\ to thai of the ' Floiada d , for tlu' reason that Urazils
ncutraiitx was uni;ondinonal and complete and the j)ort of Ijahia
far I'roni tln' ,-eat ol' war. The "" Ryeshitelin ' wa> also the iirst
to coiiimeiici^ hii-1 i lit !e-. ; and the ca-c therefore resi'nd)!ed rather
tlnit of (he "(ienei'al Armstrong'."' I'A'perienee had shown tlnit
( hina would take no adetpnite steps to enforce her neulralitv
!a\\>; and it the "' Ryeshiteiid," then other and larger Russiau
war-hips miuiit well ha\e .-ought shelter in Chofoo and hav(:>
issued ih(.Mice to attfU'k Ja|)an .
• I:;] an. n will I'C .-ecu. i)a-e.- hci' deleiico mainly on die
.•niii,"!e luM ihai ( hine-e tcrriinj'x. e\-(Mi oni-ide die ;e:;iM]i ,.t
dii' ^\ai. \\a- i>iil\ cdiiditii iiial ly icuD'al, and dia! die (MUrv of die
////■■.•// ;/,',,; ii;;,, ('licfeii coii-iiueel ;n ,i!ic(> a hreach of ciie'ae'emeiit
1)\ 1; n--da a ad a n-e 1 if t !iai poll To i- mi lit a \\ i lUi'po-e-. whirli e, nl j]ii(>(i
it- neiii 1 a !il \ . I '.nl in faet ( 'hina was w liol i \- nein I'al. >a\ e \uv die fact
lliat tiie iM'!iiL;ei (Me,- were iii^fiiinu' in and aiioiu a pro\iiii-o deir had
be(ai lilriiiMl fimii lier; widl-l rln.' contention that the entiw (U a
fiiuitix'' \i'--(>l iiiM) ( 'hefoo cun-tiliiled a iiiiliiar\ use of that [ilact'
whii-li niirnlied n- luait ra lit\'. is on tlie nice oi' it niitenaMe i /■ i .
('hefo,. w,i- re.illx oiit-ide llie I'l'-'iiai ol' ijie war and in die -;inie
[looiion ,1- an--, other inMiiral port. Xor. haxiaL:' i'ce'ai'd to l]i(> pro-
reeil inu'- el' ijie .iapane-e coniiiaindcM'. can it lie ^aid thai tlie //'/e-
sliitiliii wa~. ihe au''_;a'e--oi'. lleiie(i tlie -ei/nri' ,if that ve--(d wa- an
imdonhted \iMl:>tioii ol' ('hiiie-e iieiilraliix. ISiit the contention that
. I 'I'ilr r.rilllli-lillirlit of a vmVu)- .'JOO. '■;'/,■".
£ri.i|i!iii' -ration liy ItlK-ia at ( 'licfoo, , ' ; V//,,./, p. :Jil|.
ur.il till' ra-i'- n!' 7/-, .i/.',,-.'/ ■,-, 7'/';' ,- ■ < Mi the <iU(.'-ricn ' Cl rile u-c ut
.!>.'■'. ''L a.ml 7'/,. '■/.■■c.-.v.; arc aUc r(>- iciiral trrril.u-y a-^ an a-ylain. <cc
t'cn^.'i! to: a- to w'lirh, -it ],ji. -.^tMi. :.■■',-.'. p. O.jT.
298 Cases and (Jpinions on Infermdional Law.
China was either unable or unwilling- to fuliil her neutral duties and
that hy her default she exposed .Ia[)an to serious dangei-. 0])ens tip a
new and impoi-tant rpiestimi — wliich may need to lie dealt with in the
future — as to whetlier such a vi(dation of neuti'al territfjrv is under
any circunistances leg-ally adniissiMi'. Bv curicnt u-a^-e. indeed, the
only exception that is adnutt.ed to the usual inununity nf jieutral
territory occurs in the cas(' of self-defence against attack (/>. Xever-
theless. in the case where a neutral Power ha-< by its pei-sistcnl
infractions of neutrality shown i'stdf unable nv i.nn\illing to dis-
charg-e its neutral oldigatious and whei-e the injur\' tlireaimod ^)y
some inuucdiate breach is g-rave and not otlicruisc remediabl':'. it is
conceived that an act of self-redress on the part of the belligerent
whose intcie-ts are impugned, similar in its characier to that wliich
occurred in the ca-e of the TtjiesliiieJui, would be legalh' admissible.
ix- an alternati\e to war and on the analogy of tlirisc method- of self-
rcdrcss falling slioit (jf war — C'fton virtuallv mca-ui-e- <>\ jmlico —
wldcli ha\e already been described i ^ >. Vic^-cii in this bi^-lit. and
a-suming- the Jii/eshitdiu not to ha\'e l)eon disarmed, the ai tiou of
Japan wa- not per]iap> without some measure of ju-titi'-at iriii even
thoue-li exceedinii' the liiidr- of arlmittod usao-c ! // i.
Uj;m-:i!.\j. S(av<.- Tin J i/ciolfhiii/jj ot Sculicl i'c rvj/o/?/. - -Sove-
reignly o\<_'r neulial lei-riiury is at once a >iiu]vl' of i-i:^'Jii and
of dut\ . On tile one hand, a neutral State i^ entitled in ha\e
its territory respected, and exempt from being made either the scene
of hostilities or the starting-point of any proximate act of war-
On the other hand, it is bound to rnaiiitain tlie neutrality
of its territory, both a^ reg-ards its own a'-tion and th'' act.s
of all within its jurisdiction, so far as this can be done b\' the
exerci-e of reasonable diligence. More particularly is it hrnuid
(1 I to inevc'nt the occurrence of hostilities or ca[)tures within its
teiadtorv or territorial wat"er>; i2) to prevent tlie enlistment or
recruiiing of men or the is-ue of belligerent commissions within
it- territory: (.':!) to ])reveut tlie ])re|)aration thereon of any hostile
exjiediriou directed auaiii.-t ei'lier boliio-erent: ;4i to pre\'eiit.. ^^"ithin
the same limit-, the coustruciion or outfit of ve.-.-el- iniend"d fc)r the
servic*' of eiiiicM' bellia'erent. or tlie augmentaiioii 'A' t'ljvrr of ve.-.-els
alread^■ in sin-h service'; (M i to ])i'eve;it the us:' .if it-; :<'i-i'i;,iry by
eith.er l:el!i;j;;j-("'-ni a- a b.a.-e of liost il" ojicrat ions. ,,y on cij a- an a.-yjum
from at tack e-xcopt cm condii lou of i iiternment ;/,'i: and ' >'< < in pi'eveut
ill'' pa--a'j'c n\ iroo-]i- o',' eiile'i- lM'iliL;-('i'"nl ai-ro-.- it- ii'i'i'iii 'i'\-. -ave
in --0 iar a- tin'.- is now sanciione.l by ( 'oii\"<'nt ion a- ii'-'ar<l- ih' si<-k
an<'l th'.' \>oimided'7c The nalur'' and extcni oi' iht-c dutie-. as
in S ',,,■<■. |.. -21)1. (l-i Sec II. ('.. No. :, ..i 1907.
^r,') Sic vi'I. i. :!I). \rr-. 11 1 :] ; imhI :•- r'_:':ii''U -I'^i \v:o'-
('/,'} <•',- \\i-i!;il;c. ii. 2111: i,Mt. l';0-i'. ;,-',-'. ;,. :]MK
crri.lra. Lawn-ar.-. \\";ir a:rl \r-T;-,^ ( i \ !1. C. X". •") -jf I'.mi;. Art
lirv. 2!i-i. 1 t.
A'eulral Ten- i lor//. 21)9
r('::;ii-(Js the coiidui-t of )ii><t ililies ov the making' ol" captures witliiu
iKMiiral tori'itoi'w have already Ikmmi iiidical<'(l, wliilst llic utlior
a--|'<'c|- n\ iH'iilial diil\- ill lliis coiiiiccudii will lie d(;a,lt witli iim'-
al'ti'r. Ilciuic |ia--iiiL;' t i tlicsc. Ikjwcnci'. it will be iiccessai'v to
jiLiiici' iiiivlix ai iM'i-iaiii |ir(i\isiMii-< cMiitaiiicd in two ol' i he lia^iie
( I iii\ (Mil iuii--. Ii\ wliii-li ihc cailici' law on llii>- .siihj'cci lia.-> iimi
(i<'liiiod and Miiij)l(Mii{Miied .
'/'/((' J/ti(j(((' ('u)/rc/ul(iiiv : {i.) Ao. ■'> of I'JOT. Tlu' CVjuvcii-
tiou ■' I'c-pcciiiit;- iK'Utral L'owors and pei'sons iu land warfare,"
wliilst not att(Mn[)tiii;:i' to dual with this matter comprehensively, yot
d<'e!ai<'s or lecDrds some ol' the more iuqKjrtajit rij^-hfs and obliga-
tion- I'oiiiuN'icd with neutral terrirory. It ailirms in o-encral the
l>riiici|>l(' that the t-orritory ol a neutral Power i^ inviolable (mj.
it «'X!!r<v->lv loi'bi<l.s a. belli<i'erenl to move troo[)s. or convoys, whether
of Miinuri(_)ii< ol war or supplies, across tin; territory of a neutral
Power t n). It lorbids the erection by a hellig-erent, within the terri-
tor\- ol a. neutral Power, of any wirele-s telo<iTa].)hy skition, or any
apparatri- intended to verv<} as a means ol communication with bclli-
pe-en; I'orees n]i land or sea. or the use of any installation of this kind
e-ra.lili-heil tlu'r<' l)\ the iielliu'erent before the war for ])urely mili-
taiy pmpo-es and not previously 0])en for tlu' service of jniblie
messaLi-es I o ). It lorliids the formation of bodies of combafcmtvS, or
the opening- of recruiting- offices, in the interest of either belligerent,
on neutral territory!/)). It further im])0ses on the neutral Power
the dui\' ol prohibiting all such acts, in so far as they are done
within it- territ'U'v and juri- diet ion ( r/ 1 . Put a neutral Power will
not ineiii' an\ re-jion-ibiliiy b-v- reason of persons crossing- its frontier
sinL:lv lor the purpo-e ol enteriiLU- the sei'vieo of either of the belli-
eei.Mii- ( r t. Xor is ii liound to pr<went the export from or transit
tit I'l. II lull it- lerritoi'N . on iiehall ol eitlier beUl^'erent . ol arms or
mnnivLop.- ol' \\;,v. oi- other article- of use to a lle(M" or arm\'(.sy).
Nmi- i- ir l.iouiid ti> pre\-ent tlu^ belliLi'ereut I'roni u-iuL;' teleu-ra])h or
tel<>phon«> cable-, or wirele-s teleu'raphx' ap'pa.raius, belonging- either
1" ilc neiiMal Slate nr le pri\".'ite owner- . /^ I : a ll lioiiL;'|i i|' it
imiK.i-e- any i-esi liri iMn> n'v i cmh ^d.-, tlndf ii-e. it will be hound
to :ipp|\- tlie-e to bufh belliii'eienis im'part tally. an<l to see that, a like
diii \- i- (ib-c! \ ed b\ pri \ iite ( iw ner- '/''. A neii! I'a I Pow er nni \' a Hew
liiLiitivc- lo lake refuu'e in it- un'riioi'w subjec! ti i the condition of
iiiii'niniei;i and oihc'r condili'in- more part ieiilarl \" d<"-crib('d here-
all MI7 ■. Ii iiia\ al-o aulliori/e tlx' i)a-saL;<> ov<'r its torrilor\' of
til*' Wounded Ol' -il■!^ iKdi'iiu'iiiL;' to (dther Ixdliu'erent arm\'. on con-
(,:■>) Art. 1. (/)) Art. 4.
{«■) Art. •!. (7) Art-. .">.
in) Art. '.]. Diii-iiiir tlic llnsso- (,■) .Xi't. (>.
J.ip.nio-o war. liu,--i;i c-tnMi^licd sncli i s^ Art. 7.
a .-iatioii at C'liol'eo ni Chinese tci'ri- { f ) Art. S.
tt)ry. ai'd tiiercliv kept ii;i ciiiiiiuiiiiica- (' ':A Art. 9.
tie;! with iho hoicii'cil fiii-rcs in pDrt ('.>■> S-^ 11. C. Xo. o of 1907,
Aroiur: 1 ,a\\rc!ii'c. War and Xiai- .\r!-. 11 - i .'] : and p. .'jll. ''/•''/•■'.
tralilv. •21s.
3if0 Cases and Opinions on International Law.
ditiou that the trains carrviui:' them shall carry iieiilier personnel
nor material ol war, and subjoct to the adoption of such measures
of safety and control as may be jieeessary for that purpose i//j; the
provisions of the Geneva Convention being- also applicable to sick
and wounded interned there (':i. The fact of a neutral State re-
]>ellina-. oven by force, attack- on its neutrality is not to be regarded
as a hostile ac; un. Other chapters uf the same Convention deal
with tlio duty of iut:M'nment a- regards belligerent troops taking'
refuge in neutral territiirv, the treatment of the wounded who may
be carried there, and the rights of bellig-erents aiid neutrals as
reg'ards the seizure of railway material owned by one ])arty and found
A\ithiii ihe terriiory ()f th(> other i/;).
I ii. ) Xo. !■■) of ]9i)7.--Tlie Convention " :es[)ecting ilie rights and
duties of neuiral Powers in maritime war'' also embodies a number
of provisions relating to the integrity of neutral territory and the
incidental rights and duties of neutral States. Ecpially in maritime
as in land warfare each of tlie bellig-erents is declared to be bound
to re--peci tlie sovereign rights of neutral Po\vers. and to abstain
iji neutial territory or waters from any ac-t wliich would if kno^v-
ing'lv ].)ernntfed l)y anv Power constitute a violation of its neu-
trality i r:-). Any acl of ho-tility. including capture or search,
committcfl iyv a l)elligerent warshi]) in neutral waters is declared
to be a violation of neiUrality and is sirietly forl)idden ( r/ ). When
a ship has \y?o\\ ca])ture.'l in neutral waters, the neutral State must,
if the prize is still Avithin its jurisdiction, employ sucli means as
it ha-^ at its disposal to release the prize wiih its olficers and crew,
antl lo intern the prize crewiyi. If. on the otlior hand, the prize
does not Come within ihe neutral jurisdiction, then the captor's
Governmeuit must on the demand of the neutral Power liberate
Ijoth tjie priz<' and crewi/j. At the -anie time, no duty uf making'
sueh a demand i> now impose'! on the neutral State i 7': apparentiv
for the rea-cm that as between partii-s to th'^ Prize Court ( '(unention
a r-laim foi re-titution i-ould at the iu-tance of tlie nfMiira! Sta.te be
bi'oiiLiht bef'jre tin- International I'laze Court, bv wliifli the l.jgaliiv
of the capture wiudd then be detei'inined and i^estitution and
damages awarded if it p-.-oved to havi' been iinlawf id i // 1. llence
.1- iKiwi'en. Sia'i's iha' ar(> parlies to that ( ■(Uivoiit ion. it will now
i iC r)p<Mi to a neuii'al Siat" \\ho>e t<M'idtor\' ha^ in en violated-— in a
•a- ■ A\Iii>rr the prize iileiialh' Ciiptured i- not liberateil b-,- tli." i':)pt'"M''s
Stale- eiduM to make a di))lMma:ic (dedia airl thereafter 10 })roceed
(y) Art. U. U) Art. 1.
(~j Art. l.'j. i^>l) Art. 2.
'.(I.) Art. 10. (- 1 \v^ . ■?,.
'• . S.-,- i,j,. :;i;->, ,w,/,,,/, :;i l. ;,,/,,/. , /) Art. ?,.
["ill-- (.' iri\""ii; ici^ Ii i< ini H -ii;'!i(':i by \ ,j \ Tiiis \va> | ) lopusoJ Ijv (!ro:it
r'l.r' y-rwii si,,t(.-; (.rcat liiii ail! -iij'n('(l lii-itaiii. Iiut aot ado|ited: .scu fearcc
e li'ialrr r(.-.,'i-\ati,ii. .f .'w;-. l(i. 17. Iliu---iiis. Uil ,-l >r,j.
and t,s. liat \vA-~ not m. far ratiti'd it: ; A ;- J I. C. Xo. 12 of 1907, Arts.
Neutral Territory. 301
as uiuler tin earlifM- law, or else to a | (peal direct 1\- to the liitor national
Pi'i/<' ('oiirt. in tlu> evoiit of that (.'oiirt l)eiii<^- esta biislu'il ( / ). Wwi
\\ \\\i' iKMitral State is ii(.)t a party to that ( 'ouveiit ion, then it> i-iiihts
and oMiualions will continnc to Ix' <i-()\<Maied hy the rnles |)re\ioiislv
de-i-iilK'd I A' I. A hcniiiercnt is t'oi'hiddcn to e.stahlish a. Prize Court
in iK'utra! t<>rritory. or on a ves-^cl lyina- iu neutral waters (/). A.
lie!liu<'renl is also t'oi'liidden to us(,> iKuitral poi'ts and \vat<'i's as a hase
ot' o|KMations apiinst the cnoniy; and, in ])articiilar, to erect there
any wireless telei^-raph}- station or other apparatus intended to servo
a> a means of conununication with the holli^^-ei'Ouf forces on land or
sea(';?n. I!ut tli(^ neutrality of a State is exjjressly declared not to
he atleited hy the mere passage throiiG'h its territorial waters of
warslii]i> or prizes helono-ing' to a bellip-erent ( )i ). Nor, indeed, under
the ucMieral law, would a neutral State be warrani(Hl in forhiddino-
the pa>sau'e of warships (hrouii'h its littoral seas or thronch strait.s
con^liiutini: a channel of conunuincation heiween parts of the open
sea I 0 1. The (.'on\ention expressly reco<i'niz(\s that a neutral State
may allow hellig-orent warships to oni]doy its licensed pdlotsr;;):
althouo'h in jirincl])le it would seem that this should be restricted to
the na\iL;ation of its teri'itoi'ial v\-aters (V/ ). All restrictions or pro-
hil)iiii>ns imixised b^v a neutral State must be applied im])artially,
subjec;. nevoi't heless. to the riuhl of a neutral Stat(> to exclude froiu
ils por;- an<l \\aters pai'licidai' \essels that ha\e \iolated its ueuti'alitv
oi' i<'fus<>d t(i conform to its rules (>■). The exercise by a neutral.
Siai<^ o! it> I'iu'hts un(l(M' the ("onvention is not to 1)0 rc^'arded as an
unfrieiidi\- act by either be]li^'t>rent .( .s,'. Other provisi(jns relate to
the su|i])ly oj- export of insti'uments of war (7). the fittiiip- out or
armi]in- ii; nenti'al territoiw of ships intended for the service of either
bellic'iMtmr ( ;/ ). an<l esp(Maally the treatment of bellio-cront warships
and prizes in neutral |)orts(.r'i — all of which will come unch'r
considei at ion lieieaft<'r in connection with oilier aspects of neii-
tridity ( // ).
(/) Sec il. C. Xo. |-.> of 1907. {]->) Alt. II.
Ai-!. ;j (1)); Mild y. iii.). .■''/..■-. (-y i I'carcc Jlia'C'ins. 469.
(/■) S. ,:,,;,. ]). -JOI. ' (/■) Art. 9.
{/) AiT. 4: s,,,.,-.'. ,,. V.vl. (^' Art. 'l^^.
{;,>') \i'r. .j: :iikI /,;/,■/. ]i. |.")9 : \\w\ d '• Art<. (i. 7.
sec also Xo. 5 of J907, Art. o. C^ ' Ai't. >S.
i.) An. 10. I'urkrv. Iimv.t\ cr. ( •'' ' Art. \?,,i.^cri.
-i-ic'il the f 'invention -'ui.jcrr to a ('■" ''''i'-" ( 'onvciitioii ha< heeii
.-p.M-ial n-.Tvalinn. a< rc-ards this sjo-ncd hy thirry-nine States; Great
.\i-ri.t. ill rel-tii.n to the D:! nhinelle^ I'ritaiii sm-iie<l it, althoun-h under re-
,.,,,,! p, ..ohori!-: see Pear^'c 1 1 i"-"iii-. sorvatioii of Arts. 19 and 23, but has
iiot. Ko far, ratified it; see Table.
I(is.
i. ItO. Apj.. xi^
■M)'2 (J<i^i'>i iind (>iiiaionH on hiteiiiatioyinl Law.
1)1 TIES OF m-:l:iral states.-
ABSTK.\TI().\.
CONTROVERSY BETWEEN DENMARK AND SWEDEN, 1788.
llJe -Martens, Causos fj'lehres. iii.. 478: Animal IJcrrister. 1788. 292.1
Case. In 1768, during war between S^seden and Iiu>,sia, Den-
mark, aeting- in pnrsuanee of certain prior treatii'S, and more
particularly a treaty of 1781, furnished ixus;>ia wiili troops and
ship.s in aid of her military operitions against Swi.'den. Coneur-
rentl}", on the 2-jrd September, 1788, Denmark made a d^'claration
to the effect that notwithstanding ^ueh aid <\v' -till fon-idcred
herself to be at peace with Sweden : th^it such p.'ai;e -would not
bo interrupted by the defeat of the Danisli auxiliaries: and that
under these eireumstances it was concei\ed tliat Swed.'n ■\\()uld
have no cause of complaint so lon^' as the troojo iind >hij)S sup-
plied did not exceed the nundjor stipuh.ited Ijy tr"at\'. To this
Sweden, on the (Jth October. 1788, made a countfc dcr-laration to
the eftV-ct tliat the doctrine p>ut forward l)y Di'iiiinrk coukl n(;t bo
reconciled with the law of nations or the rielit> of So\-ereieiis ;
and that the SAVf'dish Government a(-cordinel\- I'liternl its j.trotest
against su(fi action: although in order to ])revi'iit an eiliision of
blood l)etween the subjects of the two kimi(b,)rii-. and liaving
regard to efforts then being made to i'e>tore pivace. that
(.government Avould in the circumstances rest sati.-lied ^ith the
declaration of the DaiiisJi Government tliat it bad ncj hostile views
against S\\'edeji. In the result, liowever. nnd on t!ie threatened
intervention of other Pf)\\'er-, Denmai'k lir>t oi(lei(Ml n< r force> to
\\itlidraA\ from Swedi-h territoi'\: and later, in .Jiil\. 17M<.aur."d
with the con>ent of lius>ia to abstain from an\- fun ber ;ict ion a .
•Die du!\' (>\ neii!;;il Si.-itr- id ;ili-taiii I'l-em iiiiiii-li iiiL;- inilii-urv
aitl lu eiili<'i' pai-iy in the wai' wniiM .--eai \>i iie ;in :iii-i;|.^ni ■ a' ihe
Iieii1i-al relatjoi; >m Mli\-inii> .hkI o->eiitial a- Id a-hiiit et' iim - | ualili'a -
ti'iii. Ne\-eialie|"--. it \\a> t'ur a fai^^- n'nie -iilijei-' to ;i riirinii^
( fi ) AhlioiiL'-Ii tlii- \v,';s tIic liiaiii Wovov-y. as to wliicli sim. W'cstlal;!',
i~suo Ix'twecii the ]iartie<. otlicr (|ucs- ii. 177.
tions aro>e in tlie roursi' uf t)ii' ceri-
Dulie>i of Xi'ulral Slntcs. oOo
•*'\(('|it inn, rccuo'iii/cd alike hy juristic (ipinioii niid in jirai-tiie. un(l<'r
■,\lii(ii ihc liiiui-liin^' ot in)M|>- and iiiililaiy aid to one iicllio-ei'^-ul
\\a^ ircaK'd as |)('iiins>iM('. so loiio- as llu' nciilial was hound tlici'clo
\>\ n-oa!\' made pi'ior to and independently (jf tlie wiw. And lids
view is still ludd li\' some \\"fit<'i'.s ( 6 ) : Imf since the Swedish protest
Lii !7SS. which de(dare(l the reii(h'i'inL:' ol' nulilaiy aid hy a neunal
to a l)elli^•erenI. e\(Mi thonii-h stipulated I'or h_\- prior ti'ealy. to he a
violation ot' the law ol' nations, it has Ikm^u ahandoned in pra'-ticc.
The action of Austiin in 18()-i — in authorizing- the raising within lior
territerv of I'orees in aid of the A.rciiduke Maximilian after hi.s
ucceptaine of tlie crown of Mexieo — is sometimes cited as an excep-
tion to llie otlierwise uniform observance of this rule; although it
realh- a))pears to have been rather in the nature of an alliance or
intervention tlian a breach of neutrality lei. At any rale, under the
law as it now ohtains. the furinshing of military aid. in any .shape
or foian. bv a neutral o'overnment to either iiollig-ercnt is wholly
forbidden rr/).
THE CASE OF THE SWEDISH WARSHIPS, 1825.
[De Marions, Causes Colohros, v. 229.]
Case. In 18"-2o. during the war belwccii Spain and licr American
colonii's, Sweden, •\vishinu' to reduce her na\'y, olfcred to dispose of
six (d! her warships to the Spanisli (io\-eniiiieiit, which did not,
howi'\er. ai'cept the oiler. Subsc(|Ueiitly three of the vessels in
'piestiou were sold to local Hierchant>, who in their turn resold
thcni to an Enji'lish lirni. Before the ^'es,-ols had be;'n desj.tatclied.
it was asc(.'rtaiiicd tliat they had b^'cn purchased on belialf of the
.Mexican ( Mnerniuciii. iheii in revoh aii iin-t >|iaiii. The Spanish
>c(retar\' of Lf^o-ition thi'i'eupoti comph iic'd of th(^ transaction,
and dciuandod tieit thi' sale should be re-cindcd. The Swedish
liovernnient, although orie-inallv in( lined to uj)hold the tran-ac-
iion as beine- within it.s leeal riu-ht. ne\-erthole.ss issued instructions
to th" ollicers ap[)ointed to take the \-essels to bhie-land to await
t'lifthi'T orders. Fn (■onseqiience of this ilelay the purchasers
afqiear, on their part, to ha\"e deinaiided a re-cis-ion, in which tie-
[J' • (it. (I ii;ill. .VMC Ahtxiiiiiliau in lii> iii\-a<ioii: .-^ec
I'- It w;\- jiri)i,>tr.,l MU-ain-; !iy tlic Wliai'tcii. \>\j:. iii..'i.31.
1 nit.;! Siatc<. I,,,!h a< a Kit,;i"1i of ['h. .Sci- II. C.. X,,. i ;! nf !!M)7.
iii'ulraliry ami a-^ an allianrc with Art. (i : and. en the >uiiicir u-cn"i'alK-.
J lali, -"]s'.) : ( )iinrii!iciiii, ii. :]^'.\ .
3U4 Cases and (Jpinions on International Laiv.
Swedish Government aeqaieseed, with the re>Ldt that the proposed
sale was tinally abandoned.
Sweden, it will he oh^erved, had sold the vessels bona jide and iu
igaioiaiiee of their iu(iiiiate destination; and her sulise(juent action
in the matter, with its implicit lecuo-jiitiiui oi tinj correctness of the
Spanish conienrion. ma}' |)i'obalily oe said to mai-k the startinu--pc»int
of the existino- inle. I'his. as now emlMidied in ihc Hati'ir' ( on-
veiition. .X() J-> of 11)07. fui'hids a Jieiiiral Puner. whether directiv
or in<iirecllv. oi .-uj)j)ly a helliii'erent wiih war>hij)s. amnuinition.
or otlier war material u/ i. Lnder the customar\- law. however, the
])iecis(' sci.ipe of this rule wa- not so well ascertaiiujd. In Octoitei-.
1(S7U. the United States Ordnance Deparimeiit. acting ujider a ])rior
resolution of Congress, sold l.iy ]jublic auction a great quantity of
sur])lus war materiaL of w hich a large proportion i /; i was pureha.sed
liy Franco, tlien at war with (Germany, and paid for through the
French consul. It having beeji alleged tliat tins constituted a breach
of neutral duty, the matter was referred for encpury ri.> a eonnnittee
of the Senate, which reported in elfeet that the sale in (piestion
involved no violation of the neutral oljligation. for the reason that
the immediate juirchasers were not the ao-onts. or were at \\n\ rate
not known fiy the Uidted States Govei'nment to be the aycnts. of the
French Government. It was added, inoi'eover. that, eveji if the\
had been such agents and if the fact had been known, it would
still have heen lawful for the L'ldted State> (oivcnoiicnt . in i)iii-
suance of a naiimial ])olic}- ado])ted ])ri(jr to tlie commencement of
hostilitie-. to sell war material either to them or e\en t<j the belli-
gerejit sovereigns directly, so long as this was done in j)nr.-uit oi' it-
own interest, and Avithout intent to influence the sti'ifcir-o Despite
this opiinon. however, it woidd seem even under the cM.stomar\- law.
that if; during war betvNen States, a neutral Go\eriiment sells war-
ships or war materia!, a strong imjdication will arise ha\ing reu'ard
to the fact that sucli objects are not ordinai'ily reipured foi' privat(^
]iurposes — (jf a destination to the iisc of oiu^ or otluo' of tlie Ixdli-
geients: and that such a disposition will thei-efore cnn-litute a l.'icacli
of neutral duty toward- one belliLi-erent . if the shijis oi' jiialerial in
(pi.e-tion come into the hands of the othei'. unle-- the lUMitia! Coi\-ei'n-
ment can show tliat all reasonable precautions \\(M(> taken \n pi-event
tlii-ieci. I']\-eii whc-i-e sucli a pio'chase has been ell<'i-ted l)(>fori>
the outlneal-; of hostilities, it will he ineunilieni on tin' liioui'al
(Government to refuse delivery during t]i(> coni inu.nice of the
war. It was in d(,'ference to these rule- thai the lJriti>h
Clovernment. durine- the Aiiiorican r-ivil -wai'. stopped the sale
of its surplus warshi])s. in view oi' ilie pos.-ihilii \- ot iheii-
purchase by one of the lielligerents. actiim- lhrr)ugh the medium
(n) See Art. 6: and p. 30.5, i,)i,-ri. ('■) Sec V/liartcn. Diu". iii. :,]■> ,i
(h) IncludinGT .some 378,000 muskets seq.
and 55 cannon. {cc) .\s to tlie effect of the 11. ('..
X' . !:] of 1907. «.e ;„ov,. ;,. 30.3.
Dulies of Neutral Stdles 805
of pi'ivato ;i<i-oiits ( (/ ). Apiiu. duriuj^- the Rii.s.s(;-.Jaj)aii('>(; uur. the
Ai'^('ntiiH> (iovcriiiiicnt i< staled to liave broken oil' iiegc^tialifjiis for
the sale tjf certain of its war vessels on discovering- that (jne of the
negcjfiators, although [)urporting- to be acliug on behalf of Tuikey,
ua.s really acting in th(> int<irest of one of the belligereutfi (e).
During- the saiiic war, however, several vessels belonging- t(j the
North (iiM-inan LIo\d ('(». and the Haniburg--Aniericaii Co., some of
which were under eng-agonicnt to the German Government for service
in wai-. were sold to JIussia, ajid thereafter converted into armed
crui>«Ts. The h'gality of the sale Avas upheld by the German Govern-
ment a- a pur(dy commercial transaction, and Japan does not appeaj-
to have ma<h,' any protest (/;. Nevertheless, it would seem that
the sale to a belligerent of vessels which, even thoug'h belonging-
to private- owners, an^ under engagement t(j the .Stat<.' for sorvic<'
in war and whii-h cannot be disposed of without its consent, really
constitutes a violation of the rule; for the reason that th(^ neutral
GovernuHMit. in giving its assent, virtually bectjmes a partv to the
sale. an<l lauice to the supply to one of the belligeients (jf an instru-
m<\ntality of war (/y).
C!i:m:r.\i. Notes.- Acts irliich a ^,'etitral State must itself al)stai)h
from (loin/j.- Apart from obligations specially coiniected with neu-
tral territory, which have already beeji considered (/n, tlie moi-e
pronuni'ul duties <if a neutral State, in its public- action, are thesi^:-
(li It must not give armed assistance to either belligerent, a du1\-
which is, as we have seen. Jiow insusceptible of (qualification ('/' ).
f2) It musi ikM -as the llai^-iie Convention. Xo. 1 :; of 1907.
now e.xpt-essly pro\i<les- itself supply eithei' lu'llig-ei-ent , in an^
maTiuer. and wlielhei <lii'ei'tly or indirecilv. with wai-ships, aiii-
nuuiition. oi- war nialeiial of any kiiid'/,-i; which would ap])eai-
to ha\<' the etfect of makinu- the <iblio-ation an absubite one.
in^K'ad of mei'eix conditional on due prei-aut ion^ bciim- taken.
as undei the customai-y law'/t. It is not. howcNei'. under anv
obliaat inn to pi-e\eiii .-nch suppliers Ikuul;- furnisjied bv its sub-
ject-. Oi- "111 pi'e\eiit the export of transit on behalf of either
iK'lliuierent 111' ;u-iii-. nmniiious df war. oi' in u'oiieral of anvthine-
which <-Midd lie of u~.> to an army or (leet "i//n. Nor is it bound
"to forbid Ml- r(\-iiict the emplo\ni(Mit on behalf of li(dliu-erents <><.'
tclec'rapli oi- i(>l<'plion<> cable~. or wirele-s teleu'raphv apparatus,
whether li<'|oncing to it nv to com])anies or pi'ivate indi\iduals " < // ) ,
I ;! ) l-'inally. it mu.-t not lend money to, or promotx^ or guaran)e(» an\-
{,/) I'nrl. Papers asl^). N. A. (0 •'^'"/"•'^'. P- 303.
Xu. 2. KM 10."). (/■) .\rt. ti.
(/■) 'l';ikali;i<lii, ISO. (/) Si'. ,>■>'. p. :30l.
(/) 'I'alvaliaMii, ISS. ( „, ) |j. ('., .\o. ] ;5 „r |i)(l7. Art. 7'
('/) Sc il, ('.. Xo. i:; of 1907. II. C. No. .5 of 1007. Art. 7.
Art. 0: luit sec aPo Oppi'iihoiin, ii. ( ,, - //,;,/. .\,-t. S: hut. a< u> v^-
311. strictioiis, .-;(>e .-"^u-r/. p. -.'OO
J,) S. ,),,■':. p. 2!)S.
f.r.L. X
;i06 Cases and Ojiuiions on Intpvaatwnal Laiv.
loan oil bolialf uf, either party to the Mar. lloiiee. as early as 1789,
the United Slates Goverinnent, in sending' a mission to tlic French
iioiiuldie with a vitMv fo the settlement of certain differences then
-•nb.sisting l>etA\<'en tlie nvo t.iovernment-s, iii--triieted it.s envoys that
ill view of the \var then ])re\ailinti' betucen Great Britain and Francs'
no treaty \\a> to b<> purchased by lomi of money or otherwise, on
th'.i Li'n.iund tliat -u.-h a loan would viohxlc the iK'iitrality of Ihe Unite<l
Stall'- I //I. 1^-ut ihoi(> i-~. as w<! sliall see, no obli<ialion to prevent
>uf'li hian- b(Mn<^' made bv neutral individuals, so lon^- as they are
inado ]mndy a- (■(niimercial transa<-tions (r/ ).
The I>)(f>/ of Imj/iirfUditi/. — Xeiitralily. a-< re;^-ard-^ the jjublic
action of a State. als(j involves a duty of strict impartiality. This
covers o-enorally the cipial treatment of botli parties; and consi.'^ts
iiKiiv panicularly. as reirards ri^idits aiul restrictions that are dis-
cretionary i /• ). in alfordinc- no ri'_;-ht to one ])arty that i- denied to
the other, and in impo-inii- no re-triction on one that is not imposed
<in the other. And in >nch ea-es the n«Mitra1 State is enuallv bound
III -ee that a like impartiality i-^ observed by its subjects ('5).
PREVEXTIOX.
\ THK i:\LlSTMi:\T OF MlvX. A XI) Till': ISSFK OF
FOMMISSIOXS WITH IX XFFTIFAL TFlJlUT()in\
CONTROVERSY WITH RESPECT TO THE ACTION OF
M. GENET. THE FRENCH MINISTER TO THE UNITED
STATES. 1798.
.\!i:ci'ifaii State ['apcr- ( [•'(n-ciL'':i R •hirioiis ,1. \o!. i. !7, ]l(i. Ms. ]'•>{): Wharton.
lJi:i'e>t, iii. -Vt'; '■/ s-.w;..- .Mo'-rc. I )i--c<t. vii. SSO, RSf). ]
Circumstances leading to Controversy. .Suon after the out-
break of war liotwecii Groat Britain and France in 1793 the
(])) Soe Amorii-an State L\ipcrs, ii. irivinir it< :i-<riit tlic tiovorrimont
'2nl ; and. Mil tli<' suhjiTt li-c/icrally, makes it-i^lf in oli'oct a jiai'ty to tlic
ilall. .VM): Opiii'iiliciiii, ii. t:]0 : tran-ai-tinn : -cr Wr^tlakc. ii.' 177.
U'l'stlakc. 11. 177. (r) Sueli as tlie riijlit to employ
7; I. '!,■". p. :!()7. ,\lr!iiaiLdi in a liceiistMl pilots ur to (li'j)oslt ])rizes iii
"a>(' wlii'i-f the cuns^iit of a (iovcni- Ticutra! ports; s,.,. |j. (' _ \,)_ ];] ,|f
merit is rcipiircd in orrli'r to Icfralize JiM)7, Arts. '.\ . 11. T.) ,
til" rai-inLT ol'- -oi- pcitiaj).- i'\cn tlic (■•<) A- Ui the irn [i.iiM ial cnforrcmcnt
!-i;!ilii- ili'a !i iiLz'-- i:i--l'>ai!- niadc liy its of r"-rriri idn- on 1 ho export oi- transit
-ul'ici't-. t'l forri'j-n StiUi'S. it would of war niat'M-ial and the use of tele-
■ I'l'Mi that ,-ueii ei»ii-.i'iit cannot strii-fly i/rajiliii' ajiparatiis, if iin[ii)srd. scf
'u- L'ivn t'. a loan rai-cd on hidial'f II. •'.. X.. ."i of l!i()7. Arts. 7 -9. and
■if a lieIli--iM'ent willionl in\nlvin-- rlic No. \'.', id' r.l(l7. Art. !l.
iciitral State, for the rea-on that in
Dulit'i^ of jSeutrdl Stales. 307
President of the United States i.ssuoda i)r()(;Jiin)ation of neutrality,
which, amongst other thiii;^'S, prohibited United States eitizens
from aiding- or abettim,'- hastilities that were then i)roce(.'dinu'
between the beliii^erejits. Notwith.standini:;' tliis proehimation,
M. Genrt, the Ffonch Minister accredited to the United States,
on aiTivinu' at ( 'harhiston, })roceeded to issue commissions to
United Stales citizens : to autiiorize the litting- out jjrivateers,
which weie manned almost entirely by American residents : and
al-^o to establish prize courts in United States territory. The
Ih'itish Ministia* (heveu[)on complained to the I'nitetl States
( ■o\'ernmeiit: exprcssinu' his persuasion that th<> latter would
rep-ni'd such proceiHlin<i's on the ]>art ot^ a foreiiiai State as a
viohition of \\< jieutraJity, and demaudini;- the restitution of all
ve>sels which had been ca|)tui-e(] h\' privateers sailiuij: under
M. (ienet's commissions and hroui^lit int(,) the Lnited States ports.
In dindinu' with thi< demand, that Government was emhari'assed
both b\- the fact tliat there existed at the time no log-islation in
restraint oL' such proceedings, the |)owers of the executive rest-
iniT solelv on the common law as supplemented by the hiw of
nations; and by the fact that nuder a treaty made Avith
France in 1778, during- the War of Independence, France claimed
the right oL" fitting out vessels and deposit in<>- prizes in the ports
of tlie United States. Despite these difhcultics the Government
expresst-d its disap[)roval of the practices complained of (a , and
promisi^d the ih'itish Alinister that in futui'o steps would be taken
to prevent them. In |)ur-uance of this undertakinu- it informed
the I'rench (Jovernnient that recruiting- in United States territory
\\'a^ torbiddeni /> ; and not died M. Genet that ''the i^-ranlina' of
Miilitar\- eonimissions A\ithin the United Suites 1>\- any other
antiioritx" tiian their own ' wa< an in ri-inii-ement of their
s(jve!'eignt \ ,/• : whilst it also took I lie iieee-sary -t eps i'or I'c-tor-
in^- all pri/e- round within the Uniti'd States jurisdiction, which
bail bi en taken b\- ve-si-ls lUeLrally eomniissioned or recruiletl.
.• Sa\(' rli:it , us rricarcL- :; cijiniilaijii. wirli nioi-i^ rdniinoiT'ial ti-aii>;action«.
,,i' tlio sail- i)f arms and war mat. 'rial , /y . i:;t!i .May, 179-].
l)v Aiiicriian cirizons tu l-'roncii nironts, ( ,• ) ,-,t|i .luno, 1793. Tliis commu-
ii' toolv- nil ttio iKisitiiin tiiafc its citizens nii^ation was t'oriiially addi-i'^scil to the
wri-i' Fi'iM' to rnaki' and vnid <ii''li arti- !". S. .Miiiisicr in |''i'aui|.. bm a coi'V
.•|>'s and that it (Mjuld not iiitcrtV:--' \s-as sent to M. tfeuet.
•)
308 Cases and Opinions on International Laiv.
This led to a remoiiBtxance on the part of the French Minister, who
claimed, under the treaty of 1778, a right of arming and enlisting
men in United States ports : but tliis interpretation of the treaty
was denied by the United States Government, and the recall of
M. Genet was soon afterwards demanded, in a communication
made on the 16th August. 1793, through its Minister in Paris,
the United States Government further declared that '' the right
of raising troops, being one of the rights of sovereignty, and con-
sequently appertaining exclusively to the nation itself, no foreign
Power or person can levy men without its consent ; and that if
the United States have the right to refuse permission to arm vessels
and raise men within their ports and territories, they are bound
by the laws of neutrality to exercise it."' Acting on this view the
Government i.ssued instructions forbidding the furnishing of any
ec|uipment of a nature solely adapted for war, and also forbidding
the enlistment within its territory of inhabitants of the United
States {d) ■
This ejuiiicialioii of neutral duty probably went lartiier than
the usa<i-e of Stat'(^\s at tluit time re([uired. Xevertlieles.^. if taken
in conjunction with the aeliou that followed, it jnay be said
to mark the starting-point of the existing rules on the subject,
of illegal enlistment and armament in neutral territory: just
as at a later time (he Alabama dispute and the incidents to
wliicli it gave rise may be said to have laid the foundation of the
existing rules with respect to illes'al shipbuildintr. Indirectly, also.
it led to tlie passing of the United States Xeutrality Act, 1794,
wlncli in it- turn became the foundation of the neutrality legisla-
tion which now obtains in both the United States and Great Britiun.
The immediate cause of the Neutrality Act of 1794, however, lay
in the discoverv, through the action of the Courts, that the existimr
law as regards the enforcement of the duties to which the Govern-
ment stood committed was inadequate. In the case of Gideon
IfenfieJd HVliart. St. Tr. 49\ the defendant, who was a United Stato<
(•itizen. bad enlisted on one of the privateers illeiz-ally fitted out li\-
M. Genet and had ibeieafter taken part in tlie cajjlure of a
Uritisli vessol : Ua' 1lii< he was subscjuentlv indicted at the instance
of the Goveiaiment. but was, under the law as it then oljtairied and
hence under the only rnlino- open to tlie Court, actjuified. This a*--
fjuittal was treated by the Ureneh Minister and his friends as entail-
ing on tlie Government the obloquy of having attempted to enforce
measures whirdi the law did not warrant. In consequence of this the
(d) Sec Whoatoii (Dana). 21.5, n., at p. 439.
Duties of Neutral States. 30!)
President appoulcd to (Jong-ress I'or special logi.slation on the sub-
ject. This led to the passing- of the first Neutrality Act of 1701,
w iiich, after remaining- in force for a considerable time, was replaced
by the Neutrality Act of 1818 (e). This example was not without,
its eil'ect on Great Britain, where there luul pieviously been no true
or adequate neutrality laws (/); ajid led soon afterwards to the pass-
ing- of the Foi'cig-n Enlistment Act of 1819, which was in its turn,
although at a much later date, replaced by the Foreign Eidistment
Act of 1870. This legislation has, as we ishall see, exerted a marked
influence both on international usage and convention ( g).
Generai, Notes. — The Enlistment of Forces in JSeutral Territory.
--The duty of a neutral State to jjrohibit the levy of men within
lis lerritorj- for the service of either belligerent, came, as we have
•^vvii, to be fully recognized, even under the customary law (/i).
Ill affirmance of this, the Hague Convention, No. 5 of 1907, now
e.\|)r<'--<lv declares that corps of combatants must not be formed,
nor recruiting offices opened on the territory of a neutral Power, in
the intcre-t of the belligerents (i), and that it is the duty of a
n<utral P(jwer to prohibit this (^/c). A neutral Power will not,
ho\\e\er. incui- responsibility merely by reason of persons cross-
ing- the fi'onticr sing-ly in order to enter tlie service of a iDclli-
gneiit ( /) ; but it would be expected to prohibit or take precautions
again,-t any such movement on the part of a considerable body of
it- sufi j(>cts ' /;m. ft is sometimes laid down tiiat a belligei-ent war-
ship may lawfully ship in a neutral port a sufficient number of
men to enable her to navig-ate safely to a ])ort of her own country (?2.);
but ah hough she may take stoi-es or fu"l for this purpose, it would
seem thai any addition to her crew from neutral sources must now
lie i<'Liai<h'(l as illegal (o).
<r) liiirii. p. 377. (/) Art. 6; altliough even tliis is
■ i) liih". p. 371, n. ('). si)iii(>tiinc^ t'oi-hiddcn l)y municipal
[11' Irii-ii. p. 313-4; and (Ui tlic law.
•-iilijcci Li-ciicrally. Taylftr, I) 13. (it I, fill) ()it) Tliis both by inijjiieation of
ft si'i/. Art. (i. and under the customary law:
ih] S,:,,n>. p. 3()S: Tavhir, Ii(i7 '/ sec Taylor, r)69.
..;,. ' li') Sec Hall. .193.
ii) Art. 4. O) Sec II. ('.. No. 13 of 1»()7.
>/.■( Art. ."). Art. IS.
310 Cases and Opinions on International Law.
(ii) THE ISSUE Fh'OM XEUTRAL TEKHITORY OF
HOSTILE EXPKDITIOXS.
THE TERCEIRA AFFAIR.
[1830: Hansard. X. S. xxiii. 737. xxiv. \1{\: Phillimor". iii. ■2S7.;
Facts. Ill 1827. Don Tedi-o. the then Kiriir of rortugal. having
I'lected for the einnvn of BraziL foi'niall\' renounced \\\v throne
iif Portuiial in favour of hi^f dausilitur Donna ]\laria. and ap-
pointee! hi^ brother. Don MiiZ'UeL to the otUee ot lieii-rnt . In
18"2S. Don Miguel caused himself to be jiroelairni'd K'ing.
^\'ith till' result that the country fell into a stati' oi' ci\'il
wai'. Ill the struG'gle th.:it ensued. Great Britain, iiotwith>t.anding
that her intervention v/a.-- recjuested both b^' BraziJ and h\ the
adherent.- of Doima Maria, maintained a .strict nL'Utra.litv 'a .
Subt^equently a hirge immber of PortuL!uese refu<:;''i'>. mrKst of
them military men. arrived in En^'hmd, and ihi_'reu])on l)'>o-an to
provide ships and to collect and orL''aniz(' men. a> for the piurpose
of a military exj'jedition. The Briti-h ('0\'ernment. suspei-ting
that tliis movement was directed against the Governmcrit nf Por-
tugal with the c02'niz;ince of that of Bi'aziL and rooarding this
iis a violation of its neutralitw '■sa\q notice in thi' Ih'azilian
Ministei' that the settinii- fortli of sucli an expidition v/ould not
be pjermitted ; l)ut in rl_']d^" an assur-iin-i.' \\a> nn-en 'd that liolh
ships and troops were alK)ut to procr-ed to BraziL In \iew of
this assurance, four vc'-sels, having on bf)ard b-V2 nlHci r~ and men
under the command of Greneral Saldanha. I ait unarmed and appa-
rentl;\" de-tined for Brazil, were allowed to le-n-e Plvmouth.
Sub.-eijucntly it came to the kno^\']edi^e u\ the British C!ov<'rnment
that tile exj^edition wa- in fact destined for Trrceira 7/ : that
arms, which had been sent on from a!iiit!i"r pnn . were aw aitinii it at
f)r near Tercoira : and that its real ()l)ji'-t was to aftem])t from
thence a recoiiiine--t of PurtUL;aI in the iut'Mot r)f Dnniii Maria.
Thereupon a -mall na\al forec undei' ('aotain W'alpole v.m.- dcs-
(n) An iiitiT\'('iition. iiuifcd. oc- was brouii'lit tii an end iiv rhe Portu-
eurrcd nwiiiir to ciTia' ii aii.i'i-:- '■:! irufsc ( iovi'i'iiiiiriit iiialcinu' amends.
t!riti-li and t'i'iMr'li >:il>;(/. r-. la.t thi- ( h ': A I'ei'tULMn'M^ [)os~cssion which
liad remained loval to J>oii!ia !Maria,
DhIIp.s of Npulnd Slater. 311
patchod to Terccira, with in-^tructioiiB in pro\ent tlic oxpfdition
from laiidiji<^, and to use all necessary force I'or thiit pui'i)osc.
Till' expedition under (General Saldanha was not, in fact, omt-
taken until it had arrived in Portucuese watei's: but iu the re>uh.
and after some display of forc(! by the British eommaudcr V' . it
was prevented from discnd^arkiu^", find thereafter, and noMsith-
standiiif^- the protests of its leaders, escorted back to JMiroiX'.
Proceedings in Parliament. 1"he lei^ality of the-e proceed-
ine-s wa.s subseipiently (piestioned in tlu; Iloir-is of ('omnions, on
the e-rounds ^1 that, the ex[)edition consisted of unarmed mer-
chantmen, unaccom})aiiied by any navai foi'Ce, and without arms
or munitions of war ; ^2' that the actual interception of tht?
landiuu' nt' the e'xpedition at Torceira constit ut(.'d a violation (_)f
the so\ereie']ity of a foreie-n State; and 3 that the subso(|Uent
coercion and exercise of control over it on the hio-h seas constituted
an a-<umption of jurisdiction which was n(uther warranted b\- the
nece-sity of the ca.sc nor sanctioned by the law of nations. In
tile I!(iii-e ol" Lords the lee-ality of tin; proceed mg was clialh'nii'ed
on simihir grounds; whilst its |)ro|)riety was ul'-o (pie^tiorn'd on
the u'reiind of its havinir been directed au'ainst: the unarmed sub-
ject.- of a .Sovci'eio-ii whosi' ri^'hts wer(^ favourably ree-ardi-rl bv
(Jreat Uritain. In vindication oJ' the action of the Briti'~h
(iovernment it wa.s cont(.^nded 1 that a warlike expedition had
in fact been Htted out on British t(a-ritor\' ; 'I that it had been
e(piipped and allo\VL>d to lea\(.' oidy under cover of a fraudulent
prifenee that it was destim^d I'oi' Brazil ; and '-l that Great
Bi'itain was therefore l)ouiid bv liei' duties a.-< a neutral to [n'event
it from disembarking, even in a harbour of the Queen (jf I'or-
tULiaJV dominiceiis. In l.lie re.-ult. th(> action of the Government
wa- ap[)i'o\ed b\- a inaiorit\' in l)oth Houses; althoue-h the rtso-
bitioi; mo\ed in thi' lIou--e of Common-- in so far a- it aiiirmed
the illi'Liiilitx of the methods actually employed- is eommonh'
i'e^-;iriJed a- a coi'recl •■xposilion of the law.
Tlie two (|iie~t inii- m is-iie in t!ii> ca-e were -' ! I wlicthei ilic
e\|i('(liiiMn ill ijiie-tiuii e(.ii<t initcd a "hesiije exjjcdit Jmii " .-iiiji
< r) ( )n(' -Ik it I 111 iy was li I'r.l. witli tlir I'l'-ul' lint one iiiriiiiici' nf i In' cxp'-dirion
\va- killi'd anil anetlici' \VMmiilc<i.
■312 Cd-ses and Opinions on International Law.
{\< a iHMitial SiatiM(/) was bound to |)rev<'nt: and (2) wliefher
(ireat Britain was justilicd in intorvening at tlio linio and under
tlio eii'cunistancos doso'ilx'd. W'itli re.spoct to tin' J'oi'inor (question,
it is clear that the ))r()ci>e(lin<i-s had all the characteristics of
a liostile expedition. Ships jiad been providc<l and men collected and
organized in neutral territory, and had subsecpientiy been despatched
therefrom, Avith the intention, there formed, of enoao-ing- in hostilities
against a friendly Government: and, although the expedition "was
unarmed at the time of starting, it appears that the r(>qui.site arms
were forwai'ded as merchandize from another port with a view to
their sub>e{[uent eni])loyment by the forces in cpiestion. But
apart from this, and even if tlie arms liad been provided locally
and aftor the landing of the ex])e(lition, it would ]ione the
less seem that the expedition was one which a neutral State
wa> ])ound to use all necessary diligence to prevent and detain.
^^'ith res]iect t(3 the s(M?ond C[uestion, however, it seems tlmt even if
rlie i'xpeditioji was an illeg'al one. the intervention as it actually
occurred was altogclher irreg-ular; and that the British Govern-
ment attempted to remedy the consequences of its previous lack of
caution In* proceedings, wdiich involved at one time an infringement
of the territorial rights of a foreign Sovereign and at anotlier an
illegal assumption of jurisdiction on the high seasfe).
Genkkal Xotes. — Hostile Expeditions. — A neutral State is bound
to j^rcvent the preparation within its territory or jurisdiction of
any military expinlition or enterprise directed against the territorvf
or Giovernment of a friendly Power. The essentials of such an
expedition would appear to be — a collection or combination of men,
organized on neutral territory, w-ith some immediate or ultimate
provisioii for their armament (/), undertaken wdtli a view to some
proximate act of war against a friiMidly Power (r/). And this will
be so even though the members of such a combination are not, on
lea\ij]g neutral ierrilory, sufficiently organized oi' e(|ui]i])(-d io be
able to engage in immediate hostilities (]l^. Xor will it inatter that
the cond)ination was elTected in small units, or at diilerent places in
the same t(U'ritoi'v. so long as it forms part of one sclieme and its
memb(M\s are (•a])al)h' of ])roximate combinat i<ui : although this mav,
(d) Vqt iiltliouiih tlicre was not forms part of tin- schciuo oriirinall}'
strictly an iiitoriiatioiial Avar, botli ])]aiin('cl there.
parties were rccou-nizcd as bcHi- (<i) Sec Taylor, (179: but sec also
ororont. I'.ernard. Xeufrality of Creat Britain
('•) A-^ to seizures lieyoiid territorial diiriiit,'' the Aiiieriean Civil \\'ar, 399,
waters — t'oi- hreaehes of inunici pal whei'i^ (lie cs.soiitials jifiven difV(>r some-
law, see vol. i. ](ii), and for breaches what fi'oni those suuriresled in the t-ext.
of neutrality, 'I'hr llnht, .Moor.'. Tut. {h^ See Wihorn v. V . S. (1G.3 I". S.
Aril. iii. 3f)()7. .and p. 379. i,'f',-'i. at Gr>'.]). althoue-h this deeision was
(/) The armament itself n(>ed not be strictly on a question of munieipal
on neutral ti-rritorw ■^o lonir a< it law.
Duties of Neutral States. 313
vi roui'so, I'lMidoi d4!tociioii and })rool' ol' dcliuquoiicy luore diflieult.
ISut. tlio (k>[)iniuio I'loiu neutral territory oi' individuals, oven thougli
in considerable numbers and on a Ijellig-erent destination, \vlio aio
w liolly uJior<4'anized and not acting- in combination witli eacli other,
will not constitute a lio.stile expedition. So, wlien in 1870, during
I he Franco-(!erman war, Uie L(if<ti/et(e, a French .steamer, left New
^Oik. having on Ixnird some 1,200 cojiscript.s I'or the J^'rench army
KigeilHM' wiih a large quantity ol rille.s and cartridges, the L'iiiled
Slates (ioveinmcnt rigiitl}^ refused to interlere; holding- that the
CMiiscript.s were not an org-anized force, and that the munitions of war
wcie merely contraband u'). In any case, moreover, having- regard
t<i tlio fact that the true character of such expeditions is usually dis-
guised or concealed until they have left neutral territory, tlie re-
sponsibility of the territorial Power would appear to be limited to
c;i-('s where it either was, or by the exercise of reasonable vig-ilance
might have IxM-ome. aware of the illegal use to which its territory
wa^ b<Mn<^- ])ut i/ri. For n<'ither in this, nor in any other case not
c<i\(Med by p()-<iti\e rule, can a neutral Stale justly be held respon-
sible \'ov acts doiH> within its territory wliich only become noxious
by i'(M-;(Mi of some sub.sc(piejit combination outside, imless there was
at the time suflicient evidence of the contemplated illeg-ality to put
the iHMiti'al (iovernmeiit on its guard and to justify its interven-
tion (7).
The l'ass(njc u) Troops over yeufral Terr itonj.-- Akin to this is
till' duly of a ninitral Slate to forbid the [)a<<age of troops belonging;
t(t eitlKM' bellig<'r(Mit through il-< territory. This rule, although only
g'raduallv <'<tal)lishod ( /// i. is Jiow fully rocognized, both under the
cusioniaiy law i » i. an<l by the Hague Convention, ,Xo. -3 of
1111)7 (0 1. So, ill 1870, during- tlie Franco-German war, Switzerland
denied passage through her territorv to bodies of Alsatian couscripts
for the French army, notwithstanding that they were without arms or
uniforms. During the same war Belg'ium. also, on the protest of
France and attt>r consulting Great Britain, refused to allow Gennany
eviMi to pa--- hei' wounded acr(KS'^ Belgian territory, on the ground
tli;it tlii-^ would have facilitated the ])a<sagc into France of efficient
troops by lh<> routes tliu-^ set free. In 1877, indeed, Koumania, during-
the Ru--o-'riii'kisli war. granted passage over her territorv to Russian
tioo])v. l)iit this wa-< really only a ]ir<dud(> to joining Russia in the
war. The grant of pa^<age b\' Boriugal in 1899. during- the South
.\fi'ic;in war. to lh<^ Ih'ilish colonial troops which had been landed
at I'eira and th<> ((ue^lion of il< leg-alilv ha\t> ali'ead\- been dis-
( / ) Sci- riidl. ()'I3 : ;in(l Vi'ihn,-'/ v, now tlio subject of special rules, as to
r. V. (Ki.) \' . S. (132). wliich see p! :Mt, n,h-a.
(/•) Oil the .siihjeet cfciierallv, sih^ (/) See irall. (SO t et srr/., and, now,
WC-rlake, ii. I!f2 r/ ..,,/..- and Taylor. 11. C. No. o of litOT. .Vrt. 5.
tiiS r/ xrq. The .\ineriean_ cases are ( ;;;) Taylor, 669; Hall, .591.
Kummarizod in ^Ntoorc, Disrest, vii. 00 Sul/ject to some occasional aher-
i^ 1299. The (piostion of the fittinir rations not purportnis: to rest on any
out and despatch of armed vessels is basis of riccht.
Co) Art. 2.
'M4 Cases and Opinions on International Laiv.
cussed (/_)') . The Hagnie Convention. No. 5 of 1907. now expressly
forbids bolligereut.s to move across the territory of a neutral Power
eitlier troops or oojivoy.--; whether of luiiuitiotrs of war or supplies!, (7 1;
but at the same ti]U(> declares that a neutral Stat'- may autliori/(^
the jiassago over its KU'ritory of the wounded or sick belougine- lu
either belligerent on ciuiditiori that the trains biang-ing them shall
carry neither combataius nor mat<u'ial of ^vari/-).
Asyhui' in Meutrd! Territory.- In relation to land warfare, the
(question of asylum luay arise eitlier as regards belligrerent forces
in the mass, or isolaied refiiuves, nr prisoners of war. ,Vs reii-ards
belligerent troops tJiai seek refug;' in lU'utral territory, under the
customary law the nentral State was under no obligatioti t-o receive
them, altlujugh it was at liberty to do so if it thought fit, on condi-
tion of disarming and interning- them in such a way as to jn-evont
thetn from udxinu' any further part in tlie war: tlu* conditions of
theii' recejttion being usually regulated by special Convention. So.
in 1871. when the remnant of General Bourl)aki"s army, comprising
some HkOOo men. sought refug-e from the enemy by passing- across
the Swiss frontier, they were allowed to remain on condition that
they should be disarmed and interned, and that the cost of their
maintenance should Ije defrayed by the French Government on the
conclusion of the warf.i-j. As regards individual refugees, under
the (■ustoinary law a neutral State was also bound to disarm
them and to adopt measures for preventing them from rejoining-
their own forces it): although in this case the diiiiculty of detection
was g-reater and the oblig-ation consequently not so uniformly
observed (u I. As regards [)risoners of war, under the customary
law tliese.. whether brought into neutral territory liy their captors
or reaching it aftfu- escape, were deemed in either ca-e to recover
their liberty; althotigh the territorial Power was bound to take
all reasonable precautions to prevent tliem from rejoining- their own
army (or). In certaiti partir-idars, however, the conditions on which
asvlum titay be granted are now defined by the Hague Convention.
Xo. ■') of 11M.)7. As regards fugitive troops, this T'onvetition provides
that the neutral State shall iiuern them if possible at a distaru-e
from 1I10 iheatie of war. kee])itig them in camps, or even in fortress(>>
or r)ther ])laces assigned for that ])ur]iose. with discretion, however.
10 \('i\\-o the officers at lilierty on gi\-ing their ])ai'ole Jiot to lea\'e
neulral terriiorv \\ithou! jXManission 1 // 1- In the absf>nc<' of special
Conventirin the neutral Power is requii'cd to sujiidy them with food,
clothing', and smdi r<dief as tho dictates of hnmanilv mav re(prii'e;
i/>) Si'c \fil. i. Ill: and on tlic siil)- ('liiifhant. ami tlir Swiss cninniander.
jcct ^'•(■iifrally. IFall, oOl ,•/ srq,: and (Irncral I Iitzdu' : -('<■ "rayler. 67'i :
Taylor, (i(i!). Olipcnlicini. ii. tl-i.
1^7) Art. -J. i-f) That i<. from iiciiti'al terrif'Ory.
(/) Art. It. (//'i Sec Oiipcnliciiii. ii. 113.
( k) I'liosc t'Tins lia\inrr been cm- f .-.■ Scr ()|i|iciilicim. ii. 41(1.
bodied in a r'oincntion made l)rtwi'on (y'] Art. 11.
tlip I'l'f-ncli commandor. 'Ii'n-i-;;!
Duller of Neutral Stales. ;}!;>
;(ll incidoiilal cxjioiulituri' boiii^- rciinbursed to it I»y (ho (iovoninioiit
lo wliich iIh'v Ik,'Imii^- (.)1i ihe iest.orii.ti(jii (if |)(!;uci^). A^ rv<_;-;ir(ls
|)ri.soii(M'> ul' uui' ulu) t!.sc;i])i' iiilu iioiilral Kn'rilury, tJu' .saiin' < On-
\oiitiuii provides that a iicMitral Power wliii/li receives tlieiii jiiiisi
leave llieiuat lil)en\'; hut it' it allows thoiii to I'emaiii in it.s len'ii<;rv
I hen it may prescrihe their plac<' ol' residence. An<l the same rule
I-- apj.tlied also to prisojiers ol war wlio are hrouyht into Jieutral
l<'ri'itorv hy a helli^'Oreut force wliicli itself tak<'s nd'ue-c there (^/j.
Wounded and sick helon^'-iuu' to one bollie-oreiit who ai'{> hroiie-ln
inio n(MiIral lerritory hy the other will cease to hf" prisoners
of war; hut they must he so g-ua rded hy tire neutral i^jwer as
to ensure their not taking any further j)art in tlK> war (/>»). A
-innlar duty Avill devolve on the neutral Power witli respect to
the >ick ur wounded of either army wdio may he committed to its
caiv(c). The provisions of tlic Ueneva Convention also apply to
,-ick i\\u\ wounded iutyrned in neutral territory (cZ). The question
of asylum in relation to sea warfare will he considered hereafter (e).
(iii THK rSK OF XHlTirVL TFHIIITOHV A> A
r>ASK OF OPKRATIOXS.
CONTROVERSY BETWEEN FRANCE AND JAPAN WITH
RESPECT TO THE USE OF FRENCH PORTS AND
WATERS BY THE RUSSIAN FLEET DURING THE
RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR.
[li'l'.'): ni'i'<liry. I ntcriKif iiiiiai haw aii<l r)i])li)iiiacv (if the l?ii,s<o-.ra[):iii"S(>
Way. tSS i(tS. i
Voyage of the Russian Fleet to the East. ()ii the Hhh OdolxT.
1904, the lirst division of the Ijallie Fh>et. coiiiprisino- a larg-e
force of l)attleshi[)S. cruisers, and auxiliary vessels, under tli'' coni-
niund of Aduiical Kojdi'-tx eiisky. sailed from Lilian for Vladi-
vostock. On the loth Fohi'iiarx . lOOO, this w-as i'ojjow-ed b> ;t
second di\ision. made ii}i of h'ss effective \cssi'js. under the
command of .\dmiral XehoL'^itoff a. Thi- iindertakin:..;', involv-
(z) .\rt. 1-2. [r) Scr |.. :5.)7, '////v/.
I"; .\rt. \o. ((') 'riic tdtal force iiicliulcd ciii-lu
(f>) Art. ft. hattloshiiis, three coast defeiice .--hijis.
( r) The tci'uis used are " the other and nine cruisers, toLrethcr witli Iios-
uriiiy": see Art. 11; but tiie .sense jiital >hi|is, rcpairiiiir shijw, 1 i^anspurts,
is conceived t<i lie as stated in the and otiicr auxiliaries, luivim;- (in board
text. some 18,000 men.
{'/) \vr. 1.1.
310 Cases and Opinions on International Laiv.
ing- as it did a sea journey of some 17,000 miles, with the risk of
incidental hostilities, and Tvithout the aid of any national port
for the procuring of supplies or for refitment or repaire,
rendered it necessary to rely for these purposes either on the
hospitality of neutral ports, or on vessels which accompanied
the lleet or were sent to meet it at various stopping places.
Admiral Rojdostvensky's fleet, after stopping at Cherbourg in
France, and Vigo in Spain, arrived at Tangier on the
1st Xovembor. There the fleet again divided; one division under
Admiral Foelkersahm proceeding to ^Madagascar by the Suez
Canal, and coaling at Algiers and Port Said : whilst the other, under
Admiral Rojdestvensky, proceeded by the ('ape of (Tood Hope,
coaling at Dakar in French West .Vfrica and at Swakopnmnd in
Cierman .South-West Africa. These di\"i>i()ns sulxcipiently re-
united : and thereafter the whole ile.'t I'einuinrd at Xossi-Be in
^Madagascar, for the ])urposes of drill and training, from the
5th of January to thi" 16th of March : anchored, indeed, outside
the three mile limit, but maintaining nevertheless close commu-
nication with the shore, and receiving from there supplies other
than coal [h/. a proceeding which gave rise to much dissatisfac-
tion on the part of .Japan. On the 12tli .\pril the lleet arrived
at Kamranh Bay in French Indo-China, wh(n'e it remained
for ten days, taking supplies of coal and provisions from colliers
and transports, althousrh coal is said also to have been obtained
from a de}>6t previously established by Russia near Saigon (c, .
In consequence, apparentl}". of the rcju'csentations which had
meanwhile been addressed to the Frencli Government by Japan,
the Russian fleet was required to leave Ivana'anh Bay on the
2"2n(l A])ril, but it a])})ears to have remained ofT the coast, a^id
even If) lia\'r taken up its station at Hon-hoye Bay. a deep-
water harbour aliout tifty miles north of Ivamranli Ba\", until
the 8tii of Ma\\ whiMi it was reinforced b\" the arrival of the
Sf'cond sfjuadron und^r .Vdmiral Xel)OL''atoff . .\fter this it pro-
ceeded on its voyage imtil, on the 27th Ma\'. 100-\ it was
encountered and almost completely destroyed 1)y I he .Ia])anese tli'ct
in the Straits of Tsushima.
' 7/ ) Tlii~ ^va- fnriiishfd bv i-olliors attacliod to tlio fli'f't or >oiir to mef't it.
I'c) Spo nor<lioy, 193.
Duties of Neuiral Slates. ;517
Controversy.^ Japan incanwiiile niado a rornial |)rol('>t to the
Froiicli Cloveriuiii'iit airuinst th(> use tliat liad been niadf <ji' Frcncli
teiTitory and waters, and the oon.soquont violation of French
neutrality, by the llussian ileet in the course of: its voviig-c, to tbi
East. Alorc particuh.irly, complaint was made of (1 the treat-
ment aocorded to the lleot in the matter of the coal supplies;
(2^ the fact that it had been allowed at various places to effect
repairs : (3 ' the use of French waters for strategical purposes,
such a.s the junctions of the fleets : and, more especially -Z^) the
use of French territory and waters as a base of operations.
The Japanese protest concluded by pointing- out that although
Japan did not ignoi'e the com]Jexity of questions of maritime
neutrality or France's j)rodilection for her own particular rulet,
she nevertheless considered that the aid given to .Vdmiral Rojdest-
vensky had, owing to defective surveillance, greatly assisted his
mission as well as his advent into the Chinese seas. France in
repl\' contended in efl'ect — (F that the Russian Fleet had never used
the pn-ivilcge of coaling at French port<, except at -Vlgiers, where
a small sup[)ly wa-s taken by two torpedo boats ; (2~' that the
repairs allowed to be made at Cherbourg and Alajunga in Mada-
gascar were not in excess of what international practice allowed;
(•] ' that the junctions of the various Russian s(|uadrons had not
been effected in French waters; and (4^' that French territory and
waters had not been allowed to be used as a base of operations.
foi- the rca-^on that there had becii no continuous use. It was
further pointed out that it was Admiral Togo's choice of a Held
of battle that had led to the Russian stay in French waters.
and that if Admiral Togo had decided to meet the Russian flf^et
in the Red Sea. Japan A\-ould ha\e pi-olit(}d by thi^same advantages
as the Russians had enjoyed; whilst Japan herself had previously
made a similar use of neutral water> botli in tlie Philippines and
the Dutch Indies.
The limits witliiu which a maritime liellii^'<M-eiit may use iH'uiial
IKirl.-- and waters fur siip])lie> and repairs will !)(> cdinidoi-cd in (f'tail
hei'cal'ier. At this point it will lu> suflicicnt to notice thai e\eii
a ii<e that woidd l><^ othei'wis<^ pci'mis^ilih' will ln'com(> ille'_;al
it' it is sn constant or ])i'(.)lon2'ed or oc(-iirs under siirh cirmm-
^tanccs. as to iiidi<at(^ that \\w belii^vrciil. is roalh' irsino- t]ie
'J18 C((ses and (Jpinion^ on International Latv.
lUHitral tcrritorv as a " lia.so of <iporatio.u.s "" a,i;'ainst lii- I'oe. Apply-
iiiti' tlii- |)iamijtl(> to the jjroi-tM'dinii's oY tlic Ku'-simi HiM'ts. one caiiiKjt
tail to |)ei'cei\e tliat, altliougli some other iieutirtl pons were re-
.-orted to. there was throug-liout a deliberate s(>|ectioii <)!' port>: in
French teri'itor\-: and that there was a proh)iig<Hl use of some ports
as well as a repeated us(; of tiiherent port.s of ihe same State. More-
over, even thoiio-h the training- of the crews, the shipping of Kupplies,
and ihe jiini'iion of the s(jaadrons. may have taJv<'n place outside the
three-mik' limit, there can 1»e little doubt that these operations
were gr<*atl\- facilitatctl b\- the cdiimiunicat ion-- that wei'c liiaiutained
witli and through Ficnch teriatoi'v: whilst it is ])robable that some
sn|)plies of coal, at an\ rate, were iriegularly o))tained (e). Without
such a use of French territory, in fact, it is unlil':<'ly that the
Russian ileet would ha\c leached F.astern waters even in that limited
state of ]»reparation and ef|uipment -which it had attiiined prior to
rho batth^ of Tsushima. The exact limits of neutral duty in tliis
I'Mjinectidu were not, indeed, at the dat'C of these oci-nrreiii-es. so
well deiined as tln^v have since become; but, even if \v(> niak'o due
allowance for this, the facilities atiorded to the liiissian fleet appear
to have gone Ijevond the limits conceded by any usa^'C reasonably
consist<:'nt with tho objects of neutralitv. Xor can the lack of ade-
'juate municipal regulafioirs. or defaidt cm the ])art of the local
authorities, in such a caso. exempt a State fi'om its intcijiatioual
rcs])onsibilitv. E(p]ally inconclusive is the plea put forward that
similar privileges would have been at the disposal of Japan; for,
as we have seen, no aid or privilege inconsistent with strict neutrality
can 1)0 extended to one belligerent on the plea of being equally
;ivfn'lable to the other (f).
■1'i;m;k.\i. Xo'jks. The uye of Setitral Territory as a Base of
( ) [)ei-(i1i(iiis : ( i. ) l)} Liiiiil Waiinrc. \\\ a'cncrnl a "!ia-c uf oiKMatiuns"'
denotes a place or a loi al pi>-ilion which, in inilitar\- or iia\:il opox'a-
lioiis. sei\'es as a ]ioint of departure and ret inn. with -which a con-
nection mny be lve])t iij). and whicli may be fallen Iiaciv on in case
of need for shelter or supplies or a j'cnewal of ojid'atiuns {ij). And
it i- m this sense that the l-fMin is used in relation to the ipif>stion of
neiiiral <luiy in land \\-arl'ar<\ As rcgaids wai' on ];ind. the dutv of
a iK'n'ral Stitto to jn'ohihit such a use of its t^errit'iiw- was J'ullv
lecd- iii/e<l under the customary- law. flence \h<- lL'ii>-ne ('onvention.
Xo. .1 of Ht()7, does not expressly d{>al witli this fpiesfion. save for
torbiddinu' the (■ojlei-tidn of foi'ces on neutral tei-ritoi-v. and its use for
the putpo-es of belli'_;'(M ent comnuinicat ion 'li i. The dut\- of a State
ill ilii< I'eo'iirrl <wteiids l,v analou'y also to tho cas(> whei'c hostilities
are threateiK'i] or ciMMied on aa'aiii-t a fi'iendh- Piiwer jn ilie course
" ) Si</.,-n. [,. ,il(i. [. iii. IS. .-itcd Hall, r)!)U. anil Tavlnr
<h S,',n-'i. p. 2S1. 079.
( '/) Sec .Moore, Tilt. \vh. iv. 1100; ( // i See Art-, o. (: aiul p. 'im,
M/.'iiiiii. l',-ri-U '!'• r.l/f il' 'if Ciicrrc. si(ij,((.
l)uth'i> of Xcnlral Sidles. 31!)
u{ ri\il \\;ii' lii' iii^iirr<'i-t!iiii. even ]h()n;^ii in stricincss ilici'c iiia\' l)i'
jiu Milt^i.^t iii<i' I'cliniuii of iKMifi'alitv. It is iiidci'd in such case- that
iiisia nee- of its l)n'ach in luodertj rini(\s liu\"(.' Ixm'il mosi, li('(|ii(Mit .
The i iiilcii States, for iu.stauco. iiuiy he said \o ha\(! hceii ;_i'iiiH.v
'if a \ioiatioii of this diit\- as a<i-aiii-1 (ii'cat Britain in iS.'iiS, and
aii'ain in ISOIi. in allouinu' tlic Fenian insui'o-oui.s 1/* (-olloct and
or^zanize their forces on American teridloi'v. to mako descents fi'om
ihei'<' on unpi'otected parts of (.'ana(hi. and to rotii'e there when de-
l('al<'<l ( / 1.
(ii. I In Sc/i- W (tn'(in'. -Ill maritime war, the term ' Ini.-e of oj)era-
tion-- u!U<t. in view of the peculiar conditions of sea warfare,
proiiahlv h;' r<.>L;arded a- having- a somewhat wider meaning. The
IhiizMp (Jon\ention, Xo. lo of 1907, following the second rule of the
ficaiN of W'aslungion, 1871 (A:), provides that belligerents are for-
iii(jden to u-e neutral j)orts and waters as a base of operations against
ih^'ir a 1\ <'r-aiie-^ i / 1 : and further I'cquires the neutral State to exer-
"i-e >uch \iL;-ilance a-- th<> iueans at. its disjjosal permit to prevent
anv \i(_)laiion of ihi< ruli'O/M. Soiue applications of this rule are
-ullicitMitly olivioir-. li', for instance, a belligerent cruisei' were to
laki' u]) it- -taiion in neutral waters for the pui'pose of making-
descents C)ii passing vessels this would constitute an illegal use of
lUMitral l<M'ritory. and, if kn(nvingly suliered by the neutral, also a
breach of neutral duty t(_)v,-ard- the other belli g<u'ent (».). Beyond
'hi- the teiin "base of operations,'" in s(m warfare and in relation
;o ihi' oiie-iion of ncnti'al duty, woidd ajipe.ar to include any place
u- local po-iiion whiiii is iised by a maritime bellig'tu'ent for the
pn.rpo-c ol' pre|ia!ing >onie hosiil'" opei'aiion or su<:'cessiou of opiu'a-
;ioii- auain--i ilie <Miemy. ex en thougli i; inav not serve or be
intended to ser\e for the pui'po-es of reinforc(Muents or as a
refuse in defeat. It connotes, ho-wev<'r, a use which is either ])ro-
JMii^ed Ol" ie]><\ued (o). Hence it will not extend to the mere taking-
if -applies iM! a ])articnlar occasion, how(>ver needful iliese mav be Un-
-lime sub-^<Mpient operation of war: for this would render a neutral
State re-piin-ible for con<e(juonces which it could n(jt f(ireseo at the
time { fr) . f)ut in maritime war it Avould seem that neutJ-al territorv
max be rc^garded as .serving as a l.)aso of operatioirs if a bellie-eront
i- allowed to make a ro])eate<l use even of different ports or places
in the sam(> country. If this be so. then a use of neutral territorv
(') 8(>(^ Ihill, -215. 11. ,\s to the (m) Art. 25.
M-Lraiiization of fililm^torhii,' oxjx'di- (,A See Opiionhoim. ii. 401 : 3!<ioi-c,
'iciK in tlH> riiited States ao-ainst f)ip-(>-t. ;< 1.31)1.
f'liiia. sec Whcatou (I'.oydi. 5S(i ,■/ { o) It differs from a use of neutral
.--/.,■ and for dif)li)inaric discussions teri-ifory for tlie pro|>ura.tiou of a lios-
111 i-c'_fard to tlieiii. .\t((ore. Ditresf. 1 il- cxpcdii ioii — althoim-li one off^-n iii-
- ;:;ail; and. a< to the u<c ,.f ( o'ci'lc eludes tiie other — both in this respect,
'eia-itory for fiM/dini^T- t!ie in-iii-i-ect ion and in so far as it does not n(>ccssarilv
lu.'in-i 'I'urkey iu Cride, Hall. .)99. in\ o!ve any eonihination of [ireviouslv
'•■ /..'/'/■■', p. ?,-H). disconnected units.
'- S(>e Art. a: and as to tlie eree- {/.; loir an instance of such a <'0n-
non of wireless teleirraphv apj)aratus. tcntion. v(>e pp. :i:]'i. 338. 'yiirn.
11. -JtHt. xi'-,,yn.
320 Cases and Opinvms on International Law.
and its resourcos, which would be permissible if each occasion were
considered separately, may become illegal, and may constitute a use
oi" lliat territory as a base of operations, if it cuji })e shown that
sucli a use was cojistuntly repeated for the pui'pose of carrying out
sonu^ pariicuUir jiaval operation (</). If, again, a neutral State
liabituallj- allows one belligerent to disregard recognized restrictions
as r<'gards the use of its ports and the taking of supplies of fuel
or pi'ovisioiis, it will bo 0])en to the other belligerent to treat these
breaches, when taken together, as evidence of the nioi"e serious
delin(juency of allowing its territory to be used as a base of
operations.
Tiio jn'ohibition of the use of neutral territory as a base of com-
munication by the erection of wireless t/elegraphy stations, or any
similar apparatus, lias already been referred to(r).
(iv, THE COiXSTKUCTIOX AND EQUIPMENT OF
VESSELS OF WAK IN NEUTRAL TERRITOKY.
THE GENEVA ARBITRATION AND AWARD.
I 1872; Mooro, Int. Arb. i. 495—682, iv. 4057—4178; Pari. Papers, N. A., 1872;
Papers relating' to the Treaty of Washington. 1872 — 3: Wheaton (Dana)..
567—580.]
Circumstances leading to Arbitration.^ During iho .Vniorican
civil war, tlio United States Govorninoiit on various occasions
made representations to the British Govornnient with respect to
certain acts of unfriendly or unneutral conduct aUegcid to liave
.been committed by the latter, and also with respect to a vaTi<'t\
of acts alleged to have been coinmitt(,'d by p'ei'soiis within its
territory and jurisdiction iji \iolation of its iieiiti'ality . The
natur(,^ and history of those cliarg('s, in so far as tlu.'v concern the
recognition by (ircat Jh-ilaiii of the belligiireiicy of the Southern
( 'onfedei'acy, have already been considered ''r/ . Other charii'cs.
whieli ])ro\-ed to be the main foundation of the .\.nieriean case
in the arbitration that, followi'd, relatecl to the const I'uction
and ('(piipiiient in J^ritisli territory and the trtiatnient in Bi'itisli
ports of certain vessels, which liad cai'j'ied on hostilities in the
(>,) As indciMJ occiirri'd in tlic use; (r) Si'c ])p. 21)0. :]lll , .s////,v/ ,■ 1 1 . ( '..
(,f 1-Veiicli porls l)y the li^iltic i'^leet. \o. I:] of 11107, .\rt. .5: and II. (',.
i'"or ;i jiroliiljit ion, on tliis L,Tonnd. of No. 5 of lil07, .\rt. ;}.
an otherwise pcrinissihli.- use of neutrnl (a) See vol. i. 62 (■( ftcq.
ports, see j). 353, hiji-n.
Duties of Seutral HtateH. ;i2l
( ausc oi' tlio (Jont'ederacy and coiumitted extensive dopreda-
tions on American coniinorce. With respect to these vessels.
Ml'. Adtinis, the United States Alinister in London, had on several
occasions brought under tlie notice of th(^ British (Jo\f>rn-
nient facts tending to show that British neutrality was being
abust'el by (lie agents of the Confederacy. Alore particularly,
information had bi'cn furnished tending to show that vessels
already constructed in the United Kingdom were about 1o b(.'
despatched in the st'r\ice of the ('onfed<'racy /> : thnt contract.-^
for the construction of similar warshi]js had been placed there
through the agency of a Livori)ool lirni ; ajid that the latter was
arranging a Confederate^ loan for the purpose of carrying them
out (c . In some of the cases which were thus brought under its
notice the British Government intervened with success (^Z;; in
other cases it intervened, but met with a rebuff at th<' hands of
the Courts (f' ; whilst in other causes it deemed the (nidence in-
sulhcient, and either refused to intervene, or failed to intcrxene
in time {^/ . Nor did it see itis way, at the time, to amend the
munici]»al law on thcsesubjects, as recjucsted by theUnit'.'d States.
In April. 18()o, Avhen the war was nearing its close, these and othei'
.illeged violations of Jieutral duty were made the subject of a
formal claim for damages on the ))arl of the United States,
'lliereujion a. long corres|)ond(mce. extending over stn^era I vear.-^.
(>tisued bi'twccn the two Governments. The position taken up h\
the re.-peclive parties was in substance as follows : In support of
its claims which came to be known genei'ically as "'the Alabama
claims'" it was contiMided by the ['iiilcd States ( Jo\(M'nnient
1 that t lu' ri^cognition b\' (irt^at Britain of tli(> SonlhiMai Con-
(Ji) As ill rli(- cuso <)i' I'hr llfirnhi. (p) As in .Hl.-(rr)i. v. SiUou (2
in. i'cliniary. iSli'J; I'hr .!/,>'<>' „>'i . in II. >v ('. t;3i). wIiltc the di't'endants
.iuiii', iSd'J: and T//f .U".r,-i ,11! n' . wore cliarLTcd. uiuIit sect. 7 of rlic
uliirli was till' suhjrct ol' pi-ocrcdi nu's I'^orcitrn iMilistniont .\ct, J,S19, witii
in .ttl.-Cr)). V. Silh'm (2 11. .V C. illc-^'aily littin^- out 'I'hr Ah-xmuh-n
(HI). witli a view to lirr cnniloymcnt ai,'-aiiLst
( ,■) Tliis was in .t'cljiaiary, 1863. a friendly i'owcr: flic itd'ciidants
I'/'; .\s in till' case of certain iron- l)einir ae(|nitted, on ri'iaj. nnd(<r a
(•la;l rams, Imill by Me-sv>. Laird \ dirertion rei |iii riiin- ii,,nin:x lirliii/r-
('o.. wliieli wei'e seized ami iiliimately ri n'l'i as a eondition of liaiiilitv. wliilst
taken omm' liy flie ( lo\ eminent,. an application for a new trial wa,s
Nai'ious |iri isecnt ions were also insti- nd'iised.
tnli'd ai;-aiiist individuals imder the \i < .V- in tlu> case of /7/e Ahth.iw,,
I'mciuti I'lnlistment Act, ISl!). lier-elf: see p. oo2. 'n-i,-,,.
C.I.L, \
^322 Cases ami Opinions on International Laiv.
federacy had been premature and unwarranted, and had to some
extent bi-ought about a state of things which made possible the other
illegalities complained of: ;2 that the measures taken by the
British Government to prevent the sailing from British ports of
vessels which had been fitted out and equipped there in violation of
its neutrality were tardy and feeble, as well as ineffectual, and that
it was immaterial to the United States whether this arose throuii'h
mistake or defect of law or bad faith or incapacitv of officials:
(3) that Great Britain did not seize or disarm these vessels on
their subsequently coming into British ports, as she was entitled
to do ; (4; that the British Government had refused even to propose
any amendments in the neutrality laws after their inefficiency had
been proved : (5" that the British Government had neglected or
refused to prosecute the agents of the Confederacy Avho worf
residing in England and openly engaged in illegal practices, even
though abundant evidence of these had been furnished ; and
'6' that by reason of these acts the rebel Government had been
able to maintain an effective naval force for cruising against
American commerce, which had found asylum, effected repairs,
and received coal and supplies, in British ports. These occur-
rences, it was said, had not merely wrought great injury to
American commerce, but had largely contributed to the prolonga-
tion of the rebellion and the cost of its suppression.
On the part of Great Britain it was contended- 1 that the
recognition of belligerency was at once justifiable and neces-
sary ' g /. (2 that the British Government had tlu'oughout acted
in good faith and with reasonable diligence in enforcing its law.s
for the preservation of neutrality, and that if subordinate oflicials
failed in diligence or capacity in particular cases, their acts or
failures being merely incidental to proceedings in themselves
proper and effective, the nation at large could not be held respon-
sible for their remote consec^uences : (3; that the British Grovern-
uient did in fact seize and prosecute vessels which were cliargcd
with having been fitted out in violation of British Jieutrality. but
that it was not bound by the law of nations (o seize or refuse
<heltei to vessels that had bei'U subsequi'ntl\' duly commissioned
( [I j See vol. i. 62.
Duller of Neutral States. m^
a-s armed vessels of a belligerent Government ; (4 that the
neutrality laws had not proved so defective as to satisfy the
British Government that they needed amendment or as to justify
thi' rnitcil Statrs in chai'g-ing- such refusal as a want of good
faith : (-"3 that the British Government had judged in good
faith and on the advice of competent counsel whether, in tlie
c-ascs suggested, prosecutions should be instituted ; (6 that if
vessels litted out and despatched from British territory, even in
violation oL' British neutrality, had es(;ai)ed without bad faith
on the part of the Crovernment, Great Britain was not respon-
sible for acts of hostility committed by such vessels beyond h(>r
jurisdiction, her duty extending only to the restoring of prizes
i!l( uallv taken Avhich miglit subs(>quently be brought within that
jurisdiction. On these grounds Great I3ritain, in the first
instance, declined to enterfciin any claim for compensation.
Otlu^r differences of a grave character also exist(Kl at the time
between the two Powers, including those arising out of the North
.\merican Fisheries question {h), the navigation of the St. Law-
ri'nce and other waters (^), the operation of the then British
nationality laws in regard to subjects who had been naturalized
in the United States (A'\ and the San Juan boundary question (l)\
whilst Great Britain, on her part, had claims against the United
States for losses sustained by British subjects during the civil
war and b\- reason of the Fenian raids on Canada. Hence the
relations oL' the two Powers were for some time greatly strained.
Tn 18()0. however, on the accession to office of a new administra-
tion 'm^\ the British Government expressed its Avillingness to re-
eonsidf^r the question, with the result that a lonq- series of nea'o-
tiation^ wi'i'c entered on with a virnv to tlie si^ttlement of both of
the ■' Alabimia claims'' and other differences. On two occasions
once m 1 8()S and airain in 1860 — a sntisFactory na'reement
appi'ared to havi; been r(\ached ; but in each case tlie aq-reenient
I'liili'd to secure tlii^ necessary conliiMn;i1 ion on the ]mrt of the
I'liited States Senate (■/?'. In 1871, it wns jn-oposed by Circat.
/'i See vol. i. l-")(!. .^^inister and Lord Stanley as Foreiirn
lO Iliid. llf). Scfretary.
. /•-) //;/'/. 11)^), 19"). (») In rlip <-aso of tlie Johnson-
/) Italleck, i. 173, 4tj4. ChiriMiddii Cunvcnrioii of ]S(i9. tlic
i>t\ With r.ord Derby as Prime ('<in\eiitinn wa-^ snniinai'iiv I'ejecto*] in
V -2
324 Cases and Opinions on International Laiv.
Britain that all quastions affecting the relations between the
United States and the British possessions in North America
should be referred to a Joint High Commission, composed of
members nominated by the two Governments, which should me(;t
at Washington and treat of or discuss the mode of settling each
question. This proposal was accepted by the United States, sub-
ject to a condition that the " Alabama claims ' should be included
in the reference. To this Great Britain assented on condition that
the reference should include all claims both of British subjects
and U^nited States citizens arising out of the civil war. This,
again, was a.ssented to by the United States, with the result that
the proposal, as finally amended, was adopted -o, . A Joint High
Conimission, consisting of live commissioners nominated by each
party, was thereupon appointed, and met at Washington on the
22nd March, 1871. After discussions extendino- over several
weeks, an agreement as to the settlement or mode of settlement to be
adopted, in respect of each of the various matters in issue between
the two Powers, was ultimately reached. With respect to the
" Alabama claims," it was originally proposed that the Commis-
sion itself should make an award of damages; but this being
objected to by the British deleirates on the ground that it assumed
a liability which was not admitted in fact, it was ultimately
agreed to refer them to a special tribunal, subject, liowevcj'. to
a stipulation, made by the United States and ultimately accepted
by Great Britain, that the rules by which tlie arbitrators Avere to
be guided in their decision should be embodied in the treaty-.
It was on this basis that the Treaty of Washington, which A\as
signed on the 8th May, 1871, and subsequently duly ratifii^d
by both parties, was drawn up. Of the various other matters
in issue, all claims against either GoA'ernnienf, arising out of
the civil war, other than the "Alabama claims.' were re-
tlif! Seuate in circum-tan'-o tljat i'<mi- j>rovious]y foiiic to lietwoen Sir Jolin
(Icrcd <iili-(,' |U(!i)t iici;<)! i,it ii iij- i';i r iijoi-c iiosc, a ('ati;idi;ni Minister, who aoti.'fl
diffifult than tli<-y jniiclit otluTwi-o iinofiicialiy on Ix^half ot the British
iiavc hcen: sec .Moii-f. Jnf. Arb. i. 507 Government, and .Mr. trainilton J''ish
et scq. It is contained in four dijjloniatic
/ X rpi • ,.1 1 , v ,n.]r.^r I- notes, wliieli Mv. I'"ish d'.'Spriljcd " u.-
(n) 1 (lis iiietliod ol settlemeiit, ,, ' <,. ■ i • , ,. ,
, . , I 1 • .1 .■ c the olhi:ial [)articuhirs ot twent\
whii'li wa< reaclicii m the lai-e or uii- ,, , ,',. , _ ,, -,r "
, , Tif I*- II ^1 months si'ci-ct di plom^^'V : see Moore
exaniijh'd di th' ii It ic-. ua-. reall\' tlif r , . i • -o.-.
, ' r. !■ ■ II ■ ,- Int. .vrb. 1. oil.
outcome oi a irien(ilv arranu'ement
Duties of Neutral States. 325
f erred to a Joint Commission (p;; the Fisheries question was
dealt with by the treaty itself {q) ; the question of the naviga-
tion of the St. Lawrence and certain other waters Avas also dealt
with by the treaty (r); whilst the San Juan boundary question
wa.s referred to the arbitration of the German Emperor (s) . Here,
however, we are concerned only with those provisions of the treaty
which relate to the "Alabama claims."
The Treaty of Washington and the 'Alabama Claims."'^ It
was agreed by the treaty that these claims should be referred to
a tribunal of arbitration, which was to be composed of live mem-
bers, nominated respectively by the King of Italy, the President
of the Swiss Confederation, the Emperor of Brazil, Great Britain,
and the United States. This tribunal was to sit at Geneva; the
methods of procedure to be followed being prc^scribed with
some minuteness. The arbitrators in dealing with the matter
wei'e required to be guided by the rules embodied in the treaty,
in conjunction with such principles of international law, not being
inconsistent therewith, as might be found applicable thereto.
They were also required to determine, as to each vessel sepa-
rately, wh(>ther Great Britain had failed in her duties; and wore
empowered, if they thought lit, to award a gross sum by way of
damages. The award was to be taken as a final settlement of all
claims in dispute yf .
The Rules laid down by the Treaty. ^ The rules laid down for
the ^'uidanec of the arbitrators were as follows : — A neutral
Government is l)ound: ^ 1 To use duo diligence to jirevent the
fitting out, arming, or e([ui[)ping within its jurisdiction of any
vessel which it has reasonable ground to believe is intended to
cruis(i or to carry on war against a Power \\\\\\ which it is at
peace, and also to use the like diligence to prevent the departure
from its jurisdiction of any vessel intended to cruise or carry on
war a- abov(\ such vessel having been speeiallx' adapted, in whole
or in part, within such jurisdiction, to waidike use. f 2 ; Xot to
(//, Art<. ri— 17 of tilt- Treaty. (a) Arts. 34—42; and llallock, i.
(v) Arts. 18 — 2."): and vol. i. l.")ti. It)4.
./: \rrs. 2(;--2(l: and vol. i. 1!S. (0 Arts. 1 — 11.
'62(j Cases and Opinions on In tcf national Laiv.
permit or sufl'er oitliei- belligerent to make use oi' it- port^ or
waters as the bac?e of naval operations against the other, or for
the purpose of the renewal or augmentation of military supplie^
or arms, or the recruitment of meu. -3 To exercise dut
diligence in its own ports and waters, and, as to all persons within
its jurisdiction, to prevent any violation of the foregoinir obliga-
tion- and duties ii . As to these rules. Great Britain declared
that, whilst she could not accept them as a correct statement of
the principles previousl} in force, she was, with a view to amic-
able settlement, willing to accept them as applicable to the
subject-matter of the controversy. Both parties further under-
took to observe these rules in their future relations with each
other, and also to jn'omote their acceptance hx other maritime
Powei*s (a-, .
The Constitution of the Court and General Course of Pro-
ceedings. A tribunal was thereupon apjjointed, cousi.-tin^' of
(Jount Sclopis, nominated by the King of Itaf\- : AI . Siaempfli.
by the President of the Swi.ss Confederation ; the \'icomt'e
d'ltajuba. by the Emperor of Brazil; Sir Alexander C'ockburn,
by the British Government ; and ]\lr. Charles Fraiici.- .Vdams.
by the United States Government. The arbitration wa> lield at
Geneva, and wa.s ojjened on the l-lth DccembsM'. 1^71 : ('(nint
Sclopis being elected President. In accordance with tlir .stipu-
lations of the treaty each party presented, in due oi'dcr. a printed
case, a printed counter case, and thereafter a printed argument
showing the points and referring to the evidence rrlied on. On
tlie 10th June, 1872, the Court expressed its opinion on the ques-
tion of indirect damai'-e-, which was accepted b;\- the United State,s
as determinative ' y . In the exerci.-e of it> | towers the Court
also ordered speinal argument b\" tlie (■ounsel of tlie respective
parties in elucidation of certain points of law. sueh as the mean-
ing of ''due diliii'once " and tlie effect of the i-sue of a commi.--
sion to an oilendiii^' \es-el ; and aUo on certain issues of fact,
such a.s the allea'ed reeiaiii ment of men b\- the "" .S||,.ii;nii|oaii
at Melbourne : . On tlie -Jord of .\neii-t the ( Miirt. pro-
{it ) Art. f). (v; /,'//',. ji. :i:{ii.
r.r; Art. (i; imt -.••• [i. ;)10. and ( r i /,./,-/. |.. .''vH .
n. {-.). '",'//".
Duties of Neutral Htates. 327
coeded to determine what liability, if any, had beon incun-ed 1)\-
(ircat Britain with respect to each of the vessels complained of.
On the 2nd September it announced its determination to award
a gross .-^uiu by way ol' diunau-es : and on the 14th September it
made its Hnal decision and award.
The Cases: ^^i A)neric(Ut . The American case, alter an in-
troductory statement, deals lirst with the unl'riendly coursi?
allogod to have been [)ursued b}- Groat Britain tlu'ougliout the
war, a,s exeni])lilied in her public action and in the utterances of
her public men; the theory underlying this part of the case being
that (nen though isolated acts or the acts of subordinates might
not sullice to iix with re.si)onsibilitv a Government that was
otherwise honotly endeavouring to discharge its duty, ,\ ot a oon-
currenco of such act.s, if taken in conjunction with proof of
distinct bias, would sulUce to estiiblish culpabilitw It next
l)rocced^ to an exposition of the nature of the dutias to which
Cu'cat I^)ritain — as a neutral State and in the actual circumstances
ot" the war- -was bound, having regard to the rules laid down b\
the treaty antl the j)rinciples of international law consi.'-tent
therewith. "Due diligenc-e." it was contended, meant a diligence
at once |)ropoj'tioned to the dio-nity and strength ol tlu,' Power
that wa> called on to exercise it, and also comnKmsurate with the
emergency or the magnitude ol the result^ of negligence. As
I'l'i^-ards the treatment of belligerent vessels in neutral ports, the
v\\\v< g(>\erninu' the arbitration, whilst not prohibit Ini!- tln'
cirdinai'y risi'ht> ol hospitality. ne\erthele.>s prohibited any
au:i'niciitati()n or renewal ol arm- or e\"cn of su[)plie-< lor the
j)urpo-i' of na\al oi)eratioJis : they rccpiir(}d, in eifect, that the
\es.-e! nmst (put tin.' neutral jjort without havim;' in an\' way added
to her elleelive jjowcr ol injurinu' the- othei- belli^'rent . .As re-
eard- the eonstruetion of warships m nciutral territory, this wa--
not to be reeai'ded a- a mere sale of eoiil raband. but as the
jireparat mn of an in>t ru mental ity ol wai'. N or could the lnibilit\
of an iillendinu- \e-sel be e-ot rid ol l)\ tlu^ subsecpient is-u<' to hei'
of a conimi-sion by the bellie-erent Cm)\ (.'rnnieiit : at an\' rate
in circumstance.-- such a> attended the ct)mmis-ionine- of the
''.Vlabama and other \e>sels. The cn-e next [irocc'd- to an
'V2S Cases and Ojiinions on International Laiv.
examination of the particailar matters in which Great Britain had
faih'd in the di>L-haruc of her neutral duties. With re;>jX'et to
these. stres>s was laid on the establishment of Confederate aor'aioies
at various times and in various places in British territory for the
purchase of arms and ammunition, the littino' out of vessels, and
the linancing of the rebellion : all of which, it was alleged,
pointed to the establishment by the Coiifederacy. on Ijritish soil,
of a military department, a naval department, and a treasury.
It was further alleged that, at the port of Xassau. special facilities
had been granted to Confederate agents and denied to the United
States (7 : and also that excessive h(jSpitality had been roncLa'cd
to ('onfederate vessels in British ports, in the matter of coal
and duration of stay. These alleged violations of neutral duty
were then traced in the history of the care;,'rs of the })articular
cruisers whose acts were complained of. Finally, the case deals
with the question of damages : claiming under this head an in-
demnity, not only for direct losses arising from the destruction
of vessels and their cargoes, but also for the cost of pursuit,,
the losses sustained by the transfer of American ship])ing to the
British flaL^ the enhanced rates of insurance, the prolongation of
the war. and the increased cost of quelling the robiiUion.
I^ii; Briiixli.' -The British case, after referring to the scope
of the arbitration as understood by Great Britain '6 , proceeds
to a vindication of the action of the British Government by
reference both to the orders issued and the measures actually
adopted to secure the observance of it-- neutral it \'. fhe orders
issued had. in faet, been more strina'cni and eom[)reliensive than
those issued l)y any other Power : the measures i'or the I'cpression
of unneutral practices had been vifj'ilant and constant, and such as
to pro\oke complaint on the part of the other belligerent . In these
endcavoui'> the (rovernnient liad iii some ei|>e< ovci'steiipi'd its
international obliirnt ion< : and had also been treated bv tho
(.'ourts as haxiiiL;' exceeded it- IcLnt iiici.te |)fj\\crs c . \\'illi
iaj 'J'lic I'liited States ( 'iO\ornini'iit (b) SeekiiiLT. in f.Tct. tij contiiie it
ajipcar- tn lia\(' dc-iiTii t'l I'-taMisti to x'essels wiiose acts liad been the .sul)-
a coal (lc})ot at t!ii- place; which, as a ject of previous diplomatic complaint,
flafrrant breach of neutrality, was ''■) See Att.-Gt-n. v. Sillem, supra,
necessarily fihjected to by Tlreat p. '-i'll. n. ('').
liritain: see Moore. Int. .\fi). i. .iS'J.
Duties of Neutral States. 329
respect to tho use made of British ports for coaliiii^- and other
purposes, it \va.s shown that a. I'ar inoro extensive use of thos(i
ports had heen inach^ hv United States cruisers than l)y those of
the Cont'ederaey (J . Dealing witii the ride< of hiw and tiie int<'r-
iiational riulits and (hitics ai)j)licahlo to the situation, it was
[lointed out t hat, a neutral I'ower was not bound to prohibit t,he sah?.
or export of articles of contraband, or to prohibit supplias or
ri'pairs to bollig-ercnt vessels, so long as equal facilities were
atloi'iled to (\aeh belligerent and there was no augmentation of
military force. It had also hitherto been the practice to treat
vessels sjtecially constructed or adapted to warlike use in neutral
territory and found under the neutral flag, as being on the footing
of contraband. Moreover, if once a vessel Ma-^ duly armed and
commissioned by a recognized belligerent she acfjuired the status
of a public ship of war, and was as such exempt from the ordinai'v
law and ordinary process. To withdraw such exemption, or to
assume Jurisdiction over such a vessel without previous notic(%
would be to violate a common understanding- which all nations
^\•e^e bound in good faith to respect. Turning to the cpiestion
of "due diligence," it was pointed out that this meant "the
measure of care which any Govei'nment was under an intei'national
obligation to use for a given purpose" ; and that no distinction
could hi drawn between one Power aiid another as regards dignity
or ability [e' . In a case, such as that under consideration, where
the mea>ure of diligenc'C could not bo [Precisely delined, a rough
measure might be found in the diliu'ence which a State would
em])loy m matters alTi'ctino- it:-s own interests, althouirh in practice
a lower ,-tand'ird had ben virtiiall\" accpptr>d. Moreover,
although the duty of neutrality i\\i->ted indejx'ndcnt ly of muni-
cipal law, yet in determining whi/lher due dili^'ence had bei'n
i'xerciscd by a t^articular (Jovcrnmeut some reo-ard should bi' had
to it> })0wei's under its municipal law. so long as th(\s(^ wer(^ not
i:larinu'l\' dclicient, Xor. so Iowj: as the municipal law of a
ni'Uli'al country was reasonabl\' adecpiate ami carried into effect,
cduld a belligerent nnpiii-o tlie neutral Government to overstcjj
that law m a })artieular case in order to prevent some harm beinir
I'/) For details, see p. 331, infra. •■ < Xc/z/y/, p. 327.
380 Cases and Opinions on International Laiv.
done. With respect to blockade running- and contraband trade.
British subjects had been warned of their risks : beyond this the
Government had no power to go : tlie enforcement of its rights
in this respect devolving on the belligerent. In every case to
which its attention had been directed the Government had acted
on the complaint to the full extent of its legal powers. In other
cases it had gone out of its way to avoid anything that might be
likely to compromise its neutrality (/). The British case then
proceeds to a detailed examination of the facts with respect to
particular cruisers whose acts were complained of (^' . In con-
clusion, it was denied that there were any grounds upon which to
found a claim for indemnity. To establish such a claim, it \va*
not enough to show that a Government had acted on an opinion
or a judgment which the tribunal itself might deem questionable,
or that there had been defect of judgment or penetration, or
some delay or lack of the utmost possible promptitude; but it
must be shown that there had been a failure to use such care as
Governments ordinarily employ in their own domestic concerns,
and may reasonably be expected to exert in matters of inter-
national obligation. In any case, moreover, there had been, on
the part of the United States, an extraordinary remissness in the
attempts to capture the vessels whose acts were complained of.
which had greatly contributed to the results complained of.
The Counter-Cases: (i American . -'S1\\q American counter-
case is very brief and adds but little in the way of argument. It
criticizes, however, the British ex|)osition of ''due dilia-encc as
setting up a standard which would ''fluctuate "' with each suc-
ceeding Government in the circuit of the globe : whilst it chal-
lenges the statement that the British neutrality law was mon-
stringent than that of the United States, by a com])arisou of
sections.
(ii />/'/7?"n//. Tlic British couutei'-cax' (jiU'stions the x'arious
propositions on the subject of neutral dut\' advanced by the United
States : and, in ])ar1 icular, asserts that th.e alleginl duty of neiit!';il
(/) As in tlic casr of the Aimlo- (iOS.
Chinese tlotilla: Mooi'i'. Int. .\rl>. i. e"j I ni .n . \>. W-VL i : ^i q.
Dulles of jScLitral IStates. ;j-"5l
States to prevent their hubjcets from supplying belligerents with
ships adapted to wai'like use was not evidenced eithr-r by anv
ti'xt book ol' acknowledged authority anterioi- to the civil war,
or by the general practice of nations. A contrast is drawn
between the standard of neutral duty sought to be enforcM'd by the
United States against Clreat Britain, ajid that actually observed
by the United States (io\ernnient itself in its relations with other
States (Ji) . With respi-ct to the suggestion that the ('oufederacy,
in its employment of agents on British territory foi' the pur-
cliase of arms and ammunition of war and for the paying of
monies therefor, had virtually been allowed to establish there "a
branch of its Avar department and treasury,' it was pointed out
that the same might be said of the United States, wliicli at the
commencement of the war had made large purchases of ai'ms and
militai'y material both in Great Britain and other European
countric> and had paid for the same tiirougli tiuMi' financial
agents in Enu'land. The British Government had no ])ower to
[)roliibil the raising of a loan such as that contemplated by tlie
Confederacy, any more than it could ])rohibit subscriptions on
the part of its subjects to the war loans issued by the United
States. As to the alleged excessive hospital it>' extended to the
Confederates in British poi'ts. the oliicial returns showed that
during the course of the war only ten (Jonfedei-ate vessels had
visited P)]'itish ports, the total numl)er of visits beint^' twenty-fivi':
that repairs had onl\^ been effected on eleven, and coal taken on
sixteen occasions; and that the reu'uJation limit for stny had
been exceeded oidy on sixti'en occasions. ,As against this, the total
number of visits on the part of United States vessels had been
22(S ; repairs had l)Cen effected on thirteen, and coal taken on
foi'ly-li\i' (iccasions: whilst rln' limit of sia>" had l)een (^xcci'ded
on forty-foui' oeeasions. In the matter of coal a sinij'le United
State-- M'ssel had wirliin six weeks obtained fi'om thrre British
\)ov\> more than two-thiinls ol' the tutal amount obtained by the
( 'enfedci'ate-- during tin' wlioli' wiir. ^^ itli respect tn the aileo-ed
exclusion of I nited Slates ve>sels fi'om Nassau in fa\"()nr of th(^
( li ) fiot'cfoiico is madi' in jiurtii-ular tn tiic expcHlitiuii- :iL;;iiii-t ('ulia and
^Icxii'o, and tlie Fenian raid- on Canada.
3:]2 Cases and Opinions on International Lav).
Confederates, the United States vessels had paid thirty-four visits
to Nassau, and the Confederate vessels only two.
The Indirect Claims. j After the presentation of the American
ca.^e a serious controversy arose over the jurisdiction of the Court
to deal with the indirect claims ; these being claims for losses
alleged to have been sustained by the transfer of American shijo-
ping, the enhanced rates of assurance, and the prolongation of
the whole w,ar. Such claims were declared by the British Govern-
ment to be wholly inadmissible and outside the scope of the
arbitration as contemplated by it. At one time it seemed likely
that the arbitration would break down on this question : but
ultimately an agreement was reached, under which these claims
^\ ere teclmically submitted, although in effect only for the purpose
of rejection. On the 19th June the Court accordingly exprec^sed
an opinion that the indirect cLiims did not "'constitute, upon the
principh^s of international law applicable to such cases, a good
foundation for an award of compensation or computation of
damages between nations . . . even if there were no disagree-
ment between the two Government-^ as to tlie competency of the
tribunal to decide thereon.' This was accepted by tlie United
States as determinative of the arbitrator's judgment upon the
question, and these claims were accordinglv withdrawn.
Facts and Causes of Complaint with respect to particular
Vessels: (i's Tlic ''Alabama'' and her Tender r -This ves.--el was
built at Ijiverpool and launched in May, 1862. She Avas
known a.> Xo. 290, but was evidently intended a.s a vessel of war.
On the 2ord June the United States Minister advised the British
Goverjiment that th(^ ve>sel was about to leave with the view of
entc]'ing the ser\ ice of the Confederacy: but it was not until the
Kith July that the law oihcers of the Crown ad\'ised that there
A\ as sullicieiit e\i(lejice to warrant her deti'ntiou: nor was her
detention acluall\' dii'ccted until the Blst July. Me-inwhile, on
the 29th. tlie vessel liersel I' had sailed, though uiiaruied. from Liver-
pool. Sill' procci'ded to the .\/.(>res, where sIk; w a.- ecpiipped as a
vessel of war : her ai'inainent. toe-ether with a iiunil)er of reciaiit.--,
having been broua-ht out to her b\- two vessels tliat had al-o
Duties of Neutral States. :j;i;i
cleared troiii British [)ort.s. She was then coininissioned as a
( 'oiifoderate warship, ci,iid thereafter coinnutted a vari<'ty of depr(^-
diitioiii< oil Auierieau coinnierce, besides destroying the Unibjd
Sta,tes warship " Hatteras.' From time to time she put into
P)ritish ports and Avas alloAved to take ooal and to effect repairs;
a reipicst for her seizure, as having been fitted out in viola-
tion of British neutrality, being refused on the ground tiiat
she was protected by her commission as a public armed vessel
of a recognized belligerent. On the 19th June, 1864, she was
sunk, after an encounter which took phice off Cherbourg, by the
I nited States warship "Kearsage." The main grounds of com-
plaint with respect to this vessel were: (1) that she had been
constructed and littcd out and c((uip]K,'d within the jurisdiction
of Great Britain, with intent to cruise against the United States,
Cireat Britain having reasonable ground to believe in such intent,
and having failed to use due diligence to prevent its being carried
out : (2 ' that inasmuch as both the vessel and her armament
were constructed within British territory and both subsequently
despatched from a British port, the British authorities having-
ample notice of these facta, the whole must be regarded as a
hostile expedition fitted out in Bi-itish territory against the United
Statefi : (3' that, in the circumstances of the case, Great-
Britain was bound to use, but had in fact failed to use. due
diligence to prevent her de]Xirture from Liverpool or from other
British ports which she subsequently visited. It was also con-
tended that the respoiisibilit\' for the vessel herself carriinl
responsibility for the acts of her tender, the '' Tuscaloosa "'(«' .
(ii; The ''Florida'' a>/d her Tenders. — This vessel was also
built at Liverpool, and was originally knoAvn as the ''Oreto. '
She was then represont(Ml as beino- intended for tile Italian
(M)veninirnt. but was on tic -h'*! March. ]S()2. registered in tlr'
namt' of a private owner. She sailed from Liverpool on the
■j'-'nd Mar<h with a clearanci' for i'ah.'rmo and .Jamaica, boinii
at th(> time unarmed, altliouiili her litlin^'- and ari'ani^'enients ww^
suitable to a slii[) ol" war. She tluMi proceeded to Nassau, in tic
]]ahaiiias. where she was arrested and proeeed<>d a<2-ainsl undci-
(/) I, lire. p. 33S.
334 Cases and 0/nnions on International LavK
the Foreign Enlistment Aet, hut ultimately released on the
irround. amongst others, that there was no evidence of her having
been ti'ansf erred to a belligerent. According to the American
• ■ase. she was then taken charge of by a Confederate officer and
proceeded to tureen Cay. in the Bahamas, where she was ec|uipped
as a vessel of war, under the name of the "'Florida ; her arma-
ment, munitions of war and supplies having been brought to her
by another British vessel that had also cleared from Xassau. Sub-
sequently she proceeded to Mobile, a Confederate port, and issued
therefrom as a Confederate cruiser; committing thereafter exten-
sive depredations on American commerce, and being admitted to
Ih-itish ports on the footino- of a public vessel. In October. 18b4,
she was seized in Brazilian waters by a United States warship,
but subsec^uently lost by collision (/j . The grounds of comj)laint
in the case of this vessel were: (1^ that she was fitted out and
equipped within British jurisdiction, and left Liverpool with the
intent to cruise against the United States ; (2' that she had
been specially adapted to warlike uses within British territory;
'3) that Great Britain had reasonable ground for believing in
such facts and intent : and '4" that Ch-eat Britain had failed
both to prevent her original departure and to seize her on her
re-entry into British ports. It was also contended that the re-
sponsibilit}' for the acts of the "Florida" carried responsibility
for the acts of three vessels, the "Clarence,"' the '" Tacony,'' and
the " Archer." which had been fitted out and manned, and u^ed
by her as tenders, and which had also made captures of American
vessels.
/iii) llie ''Shenandoah.' — This vessel Avas originally a British
iiierf'hantman known ;is the "Sea Kino-.' Duriui.;- the civil
war she was purchased by the Confederate authorities, and in
Oct(jber. 18G4, left Liverpool, nominally for Bombay. In fact
>he proceeded to Funchal, in Madeira, where she was transformed
into a Confederate cruiser under the name of the " Slienandoah ";
her arms and munitions of war having been brouo-ht out to her
hv a vessel that had also cleared from a British port; whilst some
members of her orii^inal crew were p^n-suaded to enlist. She sub-
DuUcs of ycalrnl States. 335
sequent ly pi'orOL'ded lo Melbourne, captiivinii' .several prizis on
the \va\-, ()u the ocoasioii of lici' |)iittin<^' into Melbourne, on tlie
"i-">fli .January. 18(i-">, tbe United States (Jonsul brought tbe facts
iind(>r tbo notice ol' tlie autliorities, and ])rotested a^-ainst bei-
reception. She was nexertlielcss received as a prd)lic ves-<e]. and
allowed to clfect repair-, and to take supplies and coal. She was
also said to hav(^ enlisted recruits there (p . As regards this vessel
tlic irrounds of compbiint were: (1) that she had bi^on (Ittinl out
and armed in British territory with intent to carrxon war against
the United States, Gi'eat Britain liaving reasonable ground to
believe this, and having failed to use due diligence to prevent
it: (2^ that on coming again within British jurisdiction she was
not seized but was allowed to depart : ^3^ that she received re-
cruits on British territory without due diligence being used to
prevent this ; and '4 that, in being allowed to effect re]iairs and
take in coal and supplies 'II), she was in fact perniitte<l to make
British territory a "' base of operations."'
(iv The '' Georfjia.''~-Tho '' Greorgia " was a British built
ship, originally known as the ''Japan,' but was acquired by
thf Confederacy, and subsecjuently equipped with arms and
ammunition brought from Britisli t:erritory. She proved, how-
ever, wholly unsuited for purposes of war, and was subsequently
dismantled, and sold whilst in a British port to a private pur-
I'liaser. Slic ^\'as afterwards captured by a Unittxl States warshijx
and was subsequently' condemned on the? ground that she had been
a Uon federate cruis(>r and was vhereforc incapable of b'ansfei'
during tbe war (>»). As regards this v(^ssel. the main grounds of
■'omplaiiit. w(!re: (1) that slu^ bad been illegally construct;^d in
British territory with intent to cruise against the United States;
2) that <lie had tliroiio-li lack of due diligence been allowed t:o
depart tlu'rcd'rom: and (3^ that sIk^ had biM^n aft:>rwards received
in P)rit i<]i ports.
{/) r.tif. urcordiiiu' ti) the l!riti<]i afterward-! lioen secn-tly put on board
i'a~e, open enlist Tiieiit only orciin-cd at niLriit. tlio vcssK^l was refused fui--
iii the casi; i)f fdiir iiei'-nus, all of I her access to British ports.
whom were ]irnci'e'Jeil au'aiii^t : a writ- i '/ i Thi^ refers to the supidies rr-
t(Mi declaration was al<n taken from ccivi'd at Mclhourne.
th(> cajitain that no additions liad {,)i) See 77/e Croyoif (7 Wall. 32 ) ;
hceii made to his crew: whilst, on the .nid p. 117. ■',//".
discovery that certain [)ersons hud
336 6^.5^6' and Opinions on International Laiv.
(v) Other Vessels. — Claims Mere also made in respect of the
'■ Xaslivillc," the '' Siuntor,'" the " lletribution."' the '" Talla-
hassee." and tlie ■' Chiekamanga : as well as in respect of fi\:-
other vessels. l>ui:. as to the former group of cases the Court found
that there had been no breach of dutv on the part of Great
Britain : whilst as to the latter it found that there was not sufii-
cii'ut evidence e^'en lo warrant their consideration.
The Decision and Award : ,i^ Basis. -The award, after point-
ing out that the decision arrived at had been based on the
rule? laid down by thi' Treaty of Washington together with
such principles of international law not inconsistent there-
with as had been found to be applicable by the arbitrators,
proceeds to lay down several important principles of interpretation
with respect to the rules embodied in the treaty.
(ii) Hides of Interpretation. — These were in effect as follows:
(1^' That the "due diligence" referred to in the hrst and third
of the said rules ought to be exercised by neutral GovernmenttJ
in proportion to the risks to which either of the belligerents may
be exposed from a failure to fultil the obligtitioiis of neutrality
on tln'ir part. (2 That the cii'cumstances out of which the facts
constituting the subject-matter of the controversy arose were of
a nature to call for the exercise on the |)art of the British Govern-
ment of all possible solicitude for the observance of the rights and
duties in^'olved in the British proclam;ition of neutrality on the
l-'Uh ^May. 18()1. (3 That the effects of a violation of neutrality
committed V)y means of the construction, e(|uipmeut, and arma-
ment of a vessel are not done away with by an\" commission which
the Government of the belligerent benrlitcd by tlu^ violation of
nrulrality may afterwards ha\e granted to that vc'ssel. for the
r('a>on thai the ultimate step by which an oli'ence is comidetcd
canno! Vie adiuiltcd as a gi'ound for the al)soluti()U of the ohender.
and that a roii-UDimatiou of his fj'aud cannot ])e u>ed by him as
a means of eslahlishing his innocence. (4 That the pri\ilege
of exterriloriality aei'orded to ^\■•!]■^llips had been admitted into the
law of n;ition<. not as an absolute riuiit, but solely as a ]ii'Oei'ediijo-
founded on the prineiple of courte.-y and mutual defei-enc-e
hetwci'U nation>. and therefore ein nexer fte ajii)ealed to fur tlr-
Dulle>> of Xeiilrul kHuIl.s. 337
protection of iictis done in \iolalioii ol' iicutriiiLt y. (Oj That the
absence of a [)i'e\ ious jioticc cniinot be rce-arded a.s a i'ailun! iu
any considcral ion rctjuii-cd by the law of nations in thosi,' casos
in \\hich a vessel caiTies with it its own condemnation (»; .
(b That in ord(>r to impart to any snpplies of coal a character
inconsistent with the seeond rule, ])roliibitinu' the use of neutral
])orts or \\aters as a base of na^"al operations, it is necessary that
the said supi)lies should be connectc'd with 8])ecial circumstances
of time, of persons, or of place, which inixy combine to give them
such a character.
(iii Dechioiu trillt fpspcr-f to p/niicMiar ('nu--<rrs. - -y\ With,
respect to the "Alabama.,"' four of the arbitrators held that
Great Britain had failed to fullil the duties ])rescribed by
the lirsi and third rule^ of the treaty; for the reason (a) that
notwithstanding- the ollicial A\'arnini;s and I'cpresentations of the
United States Great Britain had omitted to take ell'octive
mcajsures of prevention ; (b that ^\■hen orders for the detention
of the vessel were issued thi'y were issued too late ; (c) that
the measures taken for the pursuit and arrest of the vessel -were
imperfect and ineffeeti\'e : ^.l that the Nc-sid was on several
occasions subsec^uently admitted freely into British colonial
ports instead of being- proceeded against : and [v that such a
failure in due cliligence found no just ihcat ion in the ])lea of
inadequate leg-al ].)owei-s. The lifth arbitrator. .Sir Alexander
Gockburn, agreed in tlu> result, but attributinl the breach of duty
to ari unfortunate and unforeseen accident r/\
("2 With i-t'siie(-t to the "Florida."' four of the arbitrators,
held that Crreat Brit-iin had failed to fullil tin' duties pri'seribed
by the sanu^ rule's: foi- the reason 'a, that, notwithstanding' the
represmitations of the United States adc(piate measures were not
taken to prevent her construction and original de{)arture from
LiverpKjol ; (b that therc' had been a failure of diligence on
the part of the colonial authorities as regards her stiiy at Xassau,
her issue from that port, her enlistment of men, her supplies, and
lier armament at Cireeii Cay; e that she was on several oeca-
(«) Tills refers to the JiritLsli ars^u- (o) !Moorc, Int. Arh. iv. 1159.
meiit: sw^ p. 3'29, .<"/;/•'/.
C.I.L. Z
.3-38 6W -9(^.9 and Opinionf^ an Inter iKdional Law.
sions subsequently admitted to Britisli colonial ports ; a.nd
(d that her acquittal at Xassau did not relieve Great Britain
of international responsibility, or her stay at Mobile affect any
prior responsibility that had been incurred.
(3^ \\'ith respect to the "Shenandoah/' the arbitrators unani-
mously held that Great Britiin had ]iot failed in her duty under
the rules prior to that vessel's entry into the port of Melbourne;
but held, l)y a majority, that there had been a failure of duty
under the second and third rules of the treaty, a.s regards the
relitment and supplies obtained at that port 'p .
^^4^ With respect to the " Tuscaloosa " "^g^", the "Clarence,"
the " Tacony," and the "Archer" (?%, the arbitrators unani-
mously held that as tenders they were governed by the decisions
arrived at with respect to the vessels to Avhicli they acted as
auxiliaries,
(5'^ With respect to the " Betribution," three of the arbi-
trators— and Avith respect to the "Georgia."' " Sumt-er," '' Xash-
\ille,'' "Tallahassee," and " Chickamauga.'" all the arbitrators —
held that there had l)oen no default.
'0' With respect to the other cases it was held unanimously
that tliey should be excluded from consideration for want of
evidence.
^iv^ The Qucdinn of Damar/r.^. — With respect to the question
of damaces. it was held by tlu'ee arbitrators that damages in
}'OSp(<-t ol the cost of the pursuit oE the Confcd^'rate cruisers could
not l)e awarded, inasmuch as such costs were undistinguishable
from the general expenses of the -war. It was held by all the
arbitrators that damages in respect of the prospective earnings of
the vessels destroyed could ]iot properly b:' made the subject of
(■■ompensation, for the reason that such earnings were dej)endent
on future and unoi'rtain continirencies. It was also decided that
ijitcrr>t shoidd be allowed and that it was preferable to award a
iii'oss sum l>\' wa\" of <'om])eiisalion i-afhei- than to I'efei' the mafler
for >iihst'(|\ii'iit a-^-^c^-jiieiii . (Jii tlii< hasis four of the arbitrators
(p) Count Sflopi- found, as a fact, ditiou: J\roorc, Jnt. Arb. iv. -il77;
that a larii'c iiuuihcr nf jurn liad hi'cii hut see p. '.il'l. •>•'////■'/.
f-iiiistcd, and. a- ri niattrr of law. that (y, S, '/,,". p. 33o.
th(_' larL;-e >upplifs of coal amounted (, , S///,,", p. :jo4.
to a jircparatioii for a hostile expo
Duties of Neutral is tak'H. :3;j9
awarded to the United States a sum of $Io,500,()00 in ir(j]d, to b(!
paid by Cii'i-at I>rilaiii in Tnll and ]inal satisfaction (ji' all claims
referred to in the treatx". Tlie amouiit so awarded A\'as duh'
paid over by the f!riti>h (Jovernment to that of tlie United
States in Scptembei', 1873 -S' .
This ail)iirati(ni was in iiiaiiv fC-jxM-l-- uiisat i-faftory . The
tribunal ilsoh' was hdi well i-ijii^iii uled : Iwd uf the foreigai
arbitrators being' wiioliy unl'ainiliai' with J'higbsh. and the Ih'itisli
and American representatives Ijeiny leally adNocates, wliilsi '.some
of the arbitrators, at any rate, appear to have had an imperfect
conception of their duties. The course of procedure followed Avas
not strictly judicial, inasmuch as in some cases the cpiestions at issue
appear to have been consi<lered before, inst<'ad of after, the argu-
ment of counsel. Finally, both the rules of tlie Treaty of Washing-
ton wliich governed the arbiti'atiun, and the rules of interpretation
adopted by the triiiunab are loosely expressed, and on some
points, indeed, scarcely intelhgiblc. Xotwillrstanding- tliese defects
the arbitration may be said — both from the gravity of tlie issues
involved, the dignity of tlie Powers that were parties to it, and
above all. its far-reaching inllnenc(> as a national examph*
— to con-titute a distinct e[)0cli in the history of international
organi/ation. Xor does it ]»i)ssess merely an historic interest, for
the rule^ of the treaty on which it was liased have, as we shall
see. now l)een adopted i/i as a part of the conventional law of
jiations I // i: whilst hoth ilie cases ])re>ente(L Ky the }>ailies and the
ruling- of the ('ouri touch on a g-real (li\ersily of (jii(>sti(.uis that still
retain their importance.
With r(^-pect to the correcine-s of the (feci-ion. it seems uiupies-
tic)nalile ilia! . undpr i h<' rules accepted !>yCir(>al Ilrilain ii> governing
ihe arbitration, somo indcnunily was due to the bnited States;
althouu'h (he amount of direct (lamag-<> su-^tuined by the latter appears
to have been greatly over-(>-t Iniated. whilst the claims for iiulirect
damage's were wliolh" unwarrantalde.
In the oc(airrence< whii/li gave ri>e to the dispute, the Ib'itish
(!ov<'rnment wa^ prohablv actuated tliroughout l)y an Injuest desire
to maintain it.< neutialitv accordint^- lo exi-(rng- standards ('a;'). But
I - i 'l"lii< \va< cItVrtcd hy :\ piirrhasc i/, AlriioiiL;-li with soine moditiea-
v'lf rCMlrrrnalilc Ixmd^. t'(iriiiiiiLr part cf tiini of tlicii' terms.
llic lliitrd States debt. VoY tliis a { ', Sec II. ('.. Xo. \?, ol' 1!)07,
coin eei'tilii-ate was issued hy tli" Vi-ts. ."). (1. S; and p. ;5lt. rnirn.
I luted State-: 'I'l'easury tu the hankers i ./■ ) On some uecasions, indeed, the
wiio .'iei(Hl I'm- the iSfiti-ii <M)\ci'ii- I nited States expressed a liio'h apj)rc-
nient. 'i'liis eei'titieate was end(ji'sc(I ciat ii)n of the ineasiii'es adoptetl : and a
to t!ie ofder of eei'taiii i'.i-iti<h nllieials, siniihir eonehisiun is suire-ested hv the
and was then endoi'scd hy thi> lattei- testimony of Mr. .\<laTns. rlie liiited
ID th.e order of the ^lli^■;l States Stat es \] i nister i n J.ondoii : sei> Muore,
Secretary of State, and hy the latter Int. Arh. i. titi2.
io the Secretary of the 'rre.csnrv.
7 O.
340 Cases and Opinions on intcrnaliomd Jmiv.
it was hainpored iu its action b} the lack of legal powera adequate
to occasions tluit wiu-e iheu novel iu their character; it \va« ot'tea
ill served by its kxal ag-euls, acting' sonietinios at a great distajice,
and under tlie influence of a po[)ular feeling' in favour of the Con-
federacy, which was itself largely attributable to the unfriendly and
ag'g'ressive j)olicy prcn iousl_y pursued by the United States toward;-
Great Britain: whilst its own action was often characteristically dihi-
tory and slipshod. In accepting' the rules proscribed by the Treaty
of Washington, moreover, Great Britain submitted to be tried by a
new standard, which, although not unjust in itself and now g-enorally
accei)ted, yet represented a distinct advance on neutral responsibility
as 2>l'c^'iously understood. Indeed, tiie Uiuted States Government
itself appears subseipiently to have admitted that it apprehended
serious risk if it wei'e recptired, iu a maritime war in which the
llnitetl Slates were neutral, to observe the same rules of neutral duty
as those wJiich it soug'ht to enforce against Ciroat Britain (//i. it
is also sig'iiificajit to notice that- that (iovernnient afterwards pro-
posed to treat these same rules as being merely temporary rules
adopted for the guidance of a special Court, and as not binding',
even on the parties themselves, in future cases i^.^). The case for
the United Statos, as present-ed to the Court, was conceived in the
bitterest s])irit ^a), and also comprised many charges that must have
been l)ascd ow imperfect information or wajitonly exaggerated (6;;
a fact which a])pcars to he often ignored even by ]5ritisli writers.
The prijici])al issues of law involved i\\ the arbitration were shortly
these: — (^Ij On the question t)f 'due diligence," the United States
contended in ellect that this was to be measured by the ability of
the party that was to exercise it, the exigencies of the case, and
the magnitude of the results oi negligence. The British view was
that, exrept wIumc^ uku'c [)rccisely delined by usage or agreement,
it nuist be measured by the amount of care usually employed b_\- a
civilized Government in matters ad'ecling its own security or that
of it,s citizens. The Court, in its interpretation of rides i^l ) and (^o),
held that it meant a dilig(nice "in exact proportion to the risks
to Avhich either of the belligerents may be ex])(is^>(l from a failui'e
to fulfil the obligation- of neutrality ~\v). 'I'his probably means
no more than 1 liat d iligenc(>. in order to raidi ;is "<lue. ' musi increjis(>
in [)i'o|)oi't ion to the apparent risks: a pi'inciple which is not in
ifx'lf uhi'easonabk'. so bmg as it is limil<'(l to I'isks that are appai'eni
at. the time when the ])erformance of the duty is iu question. Jkit.
(y) Hcc Wliartoii, f)ii;'. iii. ()5I. til9 ; and .Moore, int. Arb. (i70.
iz) Tf)is on tliL- |)r('t('.\t tliat tliev («) It was spolvcn of liy tin; JSritisli
had not betMi suhniittoil for acccjitancc re])rcs('ntati\(' as aiming' " to jjonr
to other niaritinie I'owers. Siicli, at forth tlie ])i'nt-u|) veiioni of tiatimial
any rate, a])))ea!'s to Ix' liie ])()sitiou and ju'i'sonal iiate."
tafvcn U]) hy Mr. I"'isli in iiis jettcr.s to {!>) See. by way of illustration, [i.
Sir J*]. Tliornton of tli(> Sth .May and Sot). .KUjjyn.
18th Septenibi'r, 187t). us eonnnuni- {<■) A .summary of tlio various eoni-
cated by President Hayes in iiis ments passed on tliis subject by
mca-sagc to tlie Senate of tlie i;3th writers of autliority will l)e found in
January, 1879: see \\liarton. Di"-. iii. .Moore. Int. Arb. i". G71.
Diitioi of Neutral States.
'.'y^V
i'.xQw >(). it U)iu'1h>s oiilv ')ii OHO iuspcci ul' tlio siil)joei. and still
li'ii\<'^ M|i('ii llic (|U<vslioii III' the mea.surc ot' the dili^'eiici' in other
ri'>|i(Hl-~. It i.s. li()\vrv(M-. iiupossihle, wliotlici' in intoriuitional or in.
iiuiiiici)ial law. to dcliiio with any oxactitiido the measure ol' dili-
<^'(Mi((> KMniired in \ar\iu<i' <'ir(.Minis(an('es and cojiditions. Li inuni-
ripal hi w , jii(li(;ial <.h'ci^ioiis and ,suj)plcnieiitarv rules often serve to
niai'l< more (I(Mi-I\ the ineasiii'c of dihu'cnee ro(jiiii'(Hl in parlicuhir
ra>('s; hut. outsich' th('s(> cases, tlu> va<i'ue staiuhird of "reasonable"
(an> or dihu'euce >till ohtaius: and has to he appHed in ])raetiee by
refiM'ence to (vxistiui^' conditions and ])re\ahMil staiulards of conduct.
,Much nioi'e is this so in intei'iiat ioiial hiw. where the^e sup])le-
]nental ai.i'enci(>s ha\-e onl\ recently come into operation. Here,
fiien, 'dne dilii^'cncc^ must he taken to mean that deg'i'Oe of
vi<:"ilanc(> and cai(> which may he (wpected fi'om a well-ordei'cd
State which is at onc(> aliv(^ to its i'espi)nsihiliti(>s and wisliful to
fulfil iIhmu. ami the (-oi\-(Mnmeiit ot' which is endowed with ])owers
ade([uat<> lo i h<>ir di-chari^e in cireumstanee.s I'easonahly likely to
oci'ur. And if tlu' questiun should aiis(> l)ef(tre an inteiaiational Iri-
))unal. thai ii'ihunal would, it scnuns. he eipially hound to a])plv this
ah-traci j'ule in the liu'ht of eurr<Mil standards and prevalent con-
dition.--((/ ). So far as ndates to neutral duties of the kind we are
her(> concernod with, thes(\ as w(> shall see, are now declared bv
the lla<i'ue C'{Ui\'(Mition ; whilst, in tlie perfoi'niance o{ tliem. tlie
neutral State is reipiired only to appl\- such viu'ilanr-e as the means
ai its dispo>al pcu'uiit (O . This has tlie (dlect of modifyino' althoug'h
seeminuK onlx- as r(\u-ards a pai'ticular class of Stat(^s(/'i — ihe cus-
tcunai'y rule that would oiherwise appl\-. l)Ut. .^ul)ject to this modifi-
cation, the (pH'stion of wlnil constitutes (hu' diliu'cnce in th(> di<charo-o
by a Siat(> of its interuatimnil ol)lio'al ions may still aris(\ and must
then, it i> conceived, he determim'd in acc(irdaiu-e with the
principles indicatiMl ahovcv ill) With i'(^spect to the heai'inii' of
municipal law on int(M'national (ihli^aliims. it was Cduteuded by
the I'uitiMi States that tlu^ duty of a niMitral Slat(^ \vas to
be mea-nred l)\- the rules oi' intei-iiat ional and noi of nuniicipal
law I'/i. ('real Ih'itain. whil-t admillinu' ihi- <^'ener.dl\', yet con-
tended that in (^-1 iniat inu' ihic actimi of a t ■ov<M'iou(on.. -ume rep'ard
should lie ha i to \\\v mea-ure nf its ])o\\ers under the nLuni(.a])al
law -II loiiLi' ;:^ tia'se were nut u'larinii'h, dclicienl. In tin' re--itlt
i\u' ( iiiirt ruhvl that \\w iii-nliicienc\ ol' leual pinv(M'< alfoi<ied no
jn-t ilii at inn fur failure to exei'ci-e due diliu'em-e. .\nd this i-idinu' is
eot'taie.U' cnri'ei-! . in m' far a- it a--erl- that det'cci- of local law cannot
'/■) i; Ava< priilialily ;iii :;j.iire: i;it imi
of lie (i;l;irMi;\- n, n j-jiiy i ml'' ilii- ci-iii-
!"■ i p i , • in ; I r I J 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 i n i t y of S l : 1 1 1 ' - . licit"
li'ii ; . i'r;,t rrirnin X'< I'nil lia.-', nil I he
^■(llir !•!! i ilMl t'cll lluc llili^-Cllr" --iloillll
junv.ll
Ufr-rti!;
'I'll 111: 'lit 111 mailer^
-.■i-;iriiv or T'lat (if
' 1 Sr,. II. C, \,,. 1:3 ut 1007,
\rl, -'•'): anil p. :i 1 I. /, -/,<.-.
''I /'■'■"'/. ?,['■>: althoim-h c\i'ii llcr(^
t'li' i|iic>rii'ii may ari-i' a-^ tn what
■iiii<t it in r^ ■■ '\i'4'iiaiiri' l>v a Starr in
1 111' iiM- "i' ! li" iiii'aii- at (li>pii-al .'"
'") i\\rii iiiiiim-li riralilr au-aiii^t tlic
iMrrini,' :':iv.-i ]•: '. '//'. [i. osa.
;)42 Cases and Ojnnions on International Law.
ill "i'cneral be acceptocL as an excuse lor ui even in exteuuation of the
iion-l'ultilniout of iut'Oniational duties i^/ij. At the same time, the
duty in such caso^ is not an absolute duty of prevention, but merely
a duty to u~e due diligence to prevent a violation of neutrality,
and will be discharged if powers sutficient to meet cases ordinarily
likely to occur in practice are both given and made use of(fi.
(3) \\'ith respect to the elfeet of the issue of a commission to a
vessel wliich had been constructed and fitted out in \'iolation of
neutrality, the United State- contended that thi- fact did not. at
any rate iu llie circumstances that there existed, protect iier on
subsei(uenth" coming within the neutral, jurisdiction. A-- against
this. Cheat Ihitain contended that the acknowledged exemption from
the local jurisdiction of a vessel bearing the commission of a recog-
nized belligerent could not be withdrawn — at any rate, without ])re-
vious notice. The Crnirt finally held that the effects of such a
violation of neutrality were not done away with Ijy the issue of a
cunnnis-itiii b\- the ofiending belligerent; although tliis rulini;- cannot.
as we shall see. be regarded as a correct statement of the lawiA').
1 4 ) AVith respect to supplier of fuel, it wa- contended by the
United State~ that an undue supply of coal to a belligerent might
afford evidence of the use of neutral teriitory as a Ijase of 0])erations.
As ao'ainst tlii-. it Ava^ contended by Great Britain that the use of
neutral territory as a base of operation^ meant a continuous -use,
or a tise both as a point of dej^arture and return. Tlie C'otirt does
not appear to have held Great Britain respoiisilile for the acts of
any vessel by reason merely of supplies of coal. But in the ease of
the Shencnidoali it held that the occurrence- at Melbourne, on one
occasion only, amounted to a tise of that port as a base for the
preparation of a hostile expedition i / •: wliil-t it also lays down the
general rule, tliat supplie.- of crjal. in order to constitute a violation of
rule ( 2 t of the Treaty, must bo connected with special circitmstances
of time, persons, or jilace. which may conil)ine to give them that
character. The que-tion of the supply Ijoth of ]'>rovisions and coal,
and the rpiestion of repairs, are. however, mnv regulated by the
Hague (Jonvention I ?// i: "wliilst the question of the conditions under
which undue .-up]»]ies will .-iipport a cjiargc cif ih(> ii<c of neutral
territory a^- a Vta-e of o|)eratioii- ha- already been cdn-idered ( ;?).
(o) On the cpie-tion of damaue- the Uotirt. as we have seen, pro-
nounced again-t the indirect claims: it further disallowed the claims
for the co-t- of pursuit of the cruisers whose acts were complained
of; thus leaving' only the claim for direct lo-ses arising out of the
destruction ol' the ve.-s<d- and tlieir caigncs a- the subioct of award.
The ( 'laut al-o refir-i'd lo admit iui'i-|u'rti\-e eai'ninu's ' o •■ \\< a proper
(7() See ^■ol. i. '2'22. jircs.-ed Ijy tin- Presidnit. su^jm,
('■;/ >'"//,■". p. ;; II . p. oos. n. ( ,' .
(h) I.ifn. ,,. :jt7, I „,; i„i,„\ p. ;;(;■_'.
(/) Till- aw^O'il i-i-i'fi-- (ijily to riilc< {,,, S, ',,,". ]>]i. :]!!•. I'l'lu .
1 and 2. but tiii- wa- the ojiinion ex- lo) Or '■ a'r".-s " a- di-tiirjt from
■• ret " fr-.-iu-'nt-.
Duties of Xeulral. Stale >i. 343
basLs for conipu(atiou of lo.sso.s; and disallowed douljle claims, as
by owuor ami iii.si.uor : but allowed iiitorcit u.s an oleiuout iii the award
of a sviiu in u'ross.
U KNKKAL ^^oTKs. — Tkc C otistruclio)t, Of FitUiig Out of Vessels of
War ill, Seutral Territonj : (i) The Earlier Law. — Although nndor
the eailior law a uoLilral State might not itself supply ships of war
to a belligerent ( ■p), it was under no obligation to prevent its subjecte
from doing so; and at a time Avhen privateering- still prevailed, and
when tlie line between ships adapted and not adapted for war was
not ^o clearly drawn as now, the sale of such vessels by neutrals
to belligerents was of connnon occurrence. If, in such a case, the
neutral seller engaged to deliver the vessel outside neutral terri-
tory, he took the risk of its captui'e and condemnation as contraband
of war. If, oil the other hand, it was transferred to a belligerent
agent in lu'utral territory, the purchaser tnok the risk of its capture
as onemy property. Subject to these risks ii was equally open to
the neutral either to sell a vessel already built, or to agree to build
a vessel for the ]:iurchaser, and this without in either case involving'
his Stilt i\ lUit if a shij) adapted for war was not merely constructed
and sold in jieutral territory, but was there furnislied with a cora-
missioji and also with a crew and armament suihcient to enable her
to engage in hostilities on (j^uitting neutral territ.ory, then the terri-
torial Power became involved, for the reason that such a ])roceeding
was accounted as the ])repai'ati()n in neutral territdry of an insti-umen-
talily of war, which it wa- bound to ])re\eiil. A.n<l iliis rule may
be said to have obtained as between States that had not otherwise
bound them-elves until the latter ])art of the 19tJi century (r/ 1, or,
as some thiidc. until the Hague Conventioii of 1907 I'ri.
(ii I I'lic Forinaiioit of a ^'cir I'siujc. -.Meanwhile a Jiew u.->age —
the elVe.ct of Avliic-li ^\as tn rLMpiiri- the neutral State td prohibit the
con>truclioii or outlit in and tlie <le>[)ati'h from its territory of vessels
of war intended for the stM'vire of eilliin' ])ellig'(M'ent emerg(Hl and
develo|)ed. and finally trjok shape as law. This usage appears to
have had its oriLi'in in th(^ nmidciiial ordinam-cs of some of the smaller
Italian State-, which, duiiiiu' tin' latter part of the IStli century,
madt' it a ]ienal ollence to .-<dl. build, oi- arm. within their territories,
\-ess(d- of war for eitlun' Ixdliiieicnl fs\. This e\am])le was sul)se-
quently f'dlowrd al-o bv other State.-. >U(h a- the l'nit<^d State> in
179.'!. and .Vu>ti'ia in ISO.",. Sinular ride-, although in a jmu'e
devido|ic(| foi'iii. \\<M(' (MiilHidird in the h'nil'^d State- iK^Oralitv
leiiT-latioii of 170 1 and isjs /i. mid in the Ih'iti-h I-'oieiu'n
EidistnuMit .\ii of lsi',1 ; and be(aiiic. at n\\\ rate in the former
iiiira.
\s\ I I:, I!, noT.
314, ( / ) /;''/■'. ].. ;i
(■/') >■"/"
■". y.
:S(it.
'■ I'-
ll.ill.
:; 1 1 .
(IK)
:]44 Cases and Opinions on International Law,
country, the sul)je;'i (if an oxtoii-ive jiidioial interpretation (U).
Tliis fact, added to the inanife^t neetl ni some .siu-h rule in
tlie conditions of nio(hM'n luaritiiuo wav a need i.;-reatly eniplui-
bized hy the events of tlie American civil war- sul)se([uently
led other maritime Power-, such as France, Denmark and Holland,
to amend their numicipal laws in the same direction, hy forbidding-
the e(piii)ment or armament within their territories of vessels of
war i]itended for the service (jf (nther licllig-erent ( .r i. in the
Alulxiiici controvcr-}' this incipient custom was ac-co])ted by Great
Britain as bcinu' internationallv oblia-atniy. at anv rate as regards
the matter in dispute i//): whilst, as tlie iv-ult of the (Jeneva arld-
tratiou. the rule.- on this subject, as t(ji'uudatod bv the treatv and
as interpret-ed and a])plied by t!ie trilumal. became tlio subject of
a \\id(>-pread juristic (li.scussion. In IST-) a rule to the effect that
a neutral State is bound to see tiiat otlx'i' j)ersons do ]iut within
its ]ioris or waters put ve-sels of A\ar at the di-[)o-iii(iii of the
belliLi'erent-. was adopte<l alsci liy the In-ritute of Juternational Law.
In 1 S'JS. duiing the S]ianisli-Amcri<aii war the now usage was recog-
jiized and acted on both Ity the Briti-ii and otliei' Ciovei'iimciits ( :j.
In thi- wav tlie usage in ([uestion may probably lie said, at any
rate before the close of the l!»th i-entury. to have ri])ened into an
obligatory custom ('a\
(iii) Tlie Erisfiyifj ]^(nr.- Xeut!'al respon-ibility in such ca-e- is
now I'eaulated \)\ the llaiiiie ( 'oiiveution. No. J:! of Hi()7. The
3'ules eiubiidie<l in this ( 'onventinii. althoui;li binding -trictlv
onlv mi the sii^natoric- /; i. will ])robably s(>t the -taiidard of
iiitciiiaTioiial (liit\' in tlii< iiialtcr \"V the fiiiiiic. althoiii^h still
Tcrpiii'inu- at some ])iiiiits lo lie -iipjd<Miientcd b\- reference to
the custiiinaiv law. The ( 'onvciition doi-laic,- ihai a neutral
(lovtMiimcnt is bound to cmidov the mean- at it< di<|)ii-al to picxoiu
the iittiuL;' mU oi' armini:- of aii\' \-e--c! within it- juri-di'iion which
it ha- rea-on to beliex*^ i- iiuondeil \n la-ui-o oi- en'^au'O in hn-iile
o]iciation- au'ain.-t a Power with which it i< at pc^aco; and i- al<o
liound to di-|)la\- tln> same viualaan-c to prcxcnt tln^ ilcpai-turo fiom
it- juri-iliciioii of anv vc--cl intended to (aui-e oi' (Mi^'aL^e in lio-tije
ojieratiMiis which ha- been adapted in wlioh^ oi' in pai1. ^\■i^llin the
-aid i nri-dictii 111. 1m wai'like u-e c^ Tlii-. M will be -immi. I'l.pi'n-
diicc- the tir-t rule of the Tri'at\- 'if ^^"a-llinL:■|! .n. wiili the -ab-ti-
tuii'ii! ''\ the e\p!-e--i. HI " i- bnuiid to eMiplo\- ihe mean- at it- dis-
''•'"i .\ ~uii!in;irv nf riiccc (Icci-irm- !)nt w'li.li liad i-callv licr.n purclia-ci-]
will lie tuuml in ^\'i;■':lrllIl 'Dan;;'). Iiy ri;c liiin'<l Srari-<. alriinni;-!! hft'co"'
n. 21."!. at .')i:; .' -.-.■. rln' \\:\r, t'i'cui lc-i\i icj- l!i'iii-li t"i'ri-
('.'•' A- u, tiic -■•..],,. ,,f t!ii..p r,._rii- rMi-v: -c \I.Miri'. Hi-'c-r. -ii. siil,
liuiMii-. ,.-,■,■ Hall, .-.iia .' ■.,,:. ',,) !!,ir .„-... Hall i irli cd.. I-^*M\
' .') -■'•,,■. ,,. :;-.-,. ,;:!>:.
: "1 Tl.c l',i'iti~li ( '.M\ I'l'iiiicai'. for ■ ■/) S-o TaMi', \]ip"nili\ xi v. /,-■',■ -.
in-taii.-". prc\i-iiti'(i tw-i \-. .-.-P. lniild- '■ ! Ai't. S.
inij' i:i tli" ' uiti'd 1\ i !;l'''Cji:i Ci- I'.raxil.
Duties of Neuli'dl Slates.
845
' ii ni;i Liiil;' llic i <\-]i!)iisii)i lit \ nl' I lie iiciit ral ( in\ cniiiKMit cunt iiio(MiJ-. ou
;t1(ilii\ . r>iit llic aliilil\- ict'ci'icil Id i.-. il is conccix cd. (iiil\ au ability
a-- ri'L;'ariU iiiatcriai iiicans. ami would iKit tlicriM'oro covci' a failure
uiisino' (int dI' tli(> n()ii-l)Ost(i\\al o'i adiMpiato lou'al powers; the r(!slric-
li\-e wiirds beiut;' desio'iied inainlv in tli<' interest of minor I'owers not
jii,vv(.^vii|o- ad(M|uaIe means (if repressimi as against a powerful belli-
U'eiiMit. Fur the r<'si. the actual measure of viii'ilancr' re(juired to 1)0
show n liy a Stale in t InMunplMX luent (if t he mt^aiis at its disposal is still
left iiiideiiiHvl, and nmst coiit inii(> to he asc(Mlain{Ml accoi'ilinii' to Ihe
]uincipl(>s and mclhods pi'('\'i(iusl\- applicalile i '/ i. And this o])lio-a-
tidii. w liate\ ci' il > sc(ip(\ will ai'ise w h"!ie\ er a ncut ral lioNfuai merit lias
r(>a-.(mahle i;-r(iun(l f(ir " ludiex inu' " t hat a \ess(d s(i lit led oul (ir armed
is ■' int(Mid<Mi '" to cruisi' or (Uiii'a^'e in hostile op(M'atioiis au'ainst the
other iMdli^'erent . TIh' "li(dief " nuisl lie on the jiart of the neutral
Cioveriimenl ; whil-1 tin' " intent i(in "" must lie on the ])art (if tiioso
wliii lia\(' cdnti'dl (if (li(> \e~s<d within 1 li(^ iKMitral t<>ri'il(iry. To
coii'-titute such an intentidu. howx'ver, there must he an <>xpeetation,
ai'i-inu' (nit of pri>sent circumstaiieos and dealinu's. that the vessel
is 1(1 he so em])l(i\-ed ; and nut a m<M'e snrinis<> 1 hat sh(> ma\- (nentnally
In' -o employed as the result (if further dealinii's r)r transact ions ( ^K
Such an intention ma\. a,- we shall see. often he deduo(>d from the
eharactcr and .^iruciure of tin' \'ess<d. altli(iu<ih this is far fi'dui heino;
conelusi\-e in all eases (f).
Prcsinn p) i()}i^ (illnrhiini la (l/lfcrci/l ' 'Jns.^c.s r,/' ICssc/.-:.- The lulc
eoiilemplates. ap|iaient l\ . (Uih' xcssds cajialile df heinu' used for
" flaht ino' or " (a'uisiiiL;'. In apphini^' it. however. \v(- need —
e<p('ciall\- in rcdation to the (picslidii dt' proof of "1111(^11"" or
"Iiclicf'" td di<tiim'uisli ihr(M> clas-t>v n\' \-(>sseh. Fir-^t. there are
lill'lil inu' -^hips proper, in the nature of lialtl(>s|iips. cruiser.-. (!e-trovers.
torpedo lioafs. or sidmiarines. Ina-nuich as \(^-s(ds of this charaeter
are easily dist iuLi-uislialile \>\ iheir -piM'ial dcsitiD. the constru('tion
of an\ -uch \('s<id in neutral terril mw. and in time of war. to iho
order df an indi\idual. oi- ol Innwi-c than Id the '..i'enuinc d]'(h'i' of a
neutra! State i // >. would alloid a pre-umplidii dl' iiitcnl. ol' whiiji the
territdrial Pdwor would he hound td iai<e cd(_;-ni/a ace. Xdi' wiaild the
fad df a \"essol ol' this (le-ci'ipt idu. hut df the smaller l\pe. liavino-
hi'cii cdu^t I'uctcil iu scctidii- and at'lciwanl- -(uil. iVdin itmUral ti>rritdrv
Id a I M'lli^cicnl (ic-1 inat idii mi hdird -dino lar:i'('i' \('--(d appeal' 1o
cxcnipi a neutral Stale I'ldin il< ii'-pdii^ilu hi \' : Idi' the neiitral
( oe, eiiimeiit i-- lidUiid lo pi'iw (Mil the lit ! i m:' dui a- w (dl a- i lie (|(>spalch
(if \|.^.eh of tlii- kiii'l; whil-t the la>-i of such a \-e--(d Iumul;' uiehn'
> ) f'er ;i ilM.fii! :m;:l..-v. <cc flu'
//-■'. -•, . . ./-/., -v. :(• ,..vp.':ll 1 - : :iiul
J.:., /,/!..■■' V. y, , :- ,./ 1 n.K. ,v I'.
."l.Vl '. Iv/.-l-c:! U. ill // .'.'.^ ■ . //. ,-■, '/
,17 •'. i;. N. S. si7i.
'■ : '. 'It ,-(•'■ I i:i !l, l'> I 1 . \\i,"l'C il i-<
-!:-■-■■ -IimI f|;;it ■■ •'■u. , |:;i:-:pa.T (.f til"
\('--cl."" :in(I net the "•iiircnf." slimiUl
iic ill;- i-(,|il fiilliiiL:- farter in rill ca-cs.
•' 1 I r liriiiL'' llie (illty ef til.' tiTfi-
le!-;,|! I'e'.vcv 1n atrc<I t 1 1 i - : cf. till-
-a^ ■ /■/- /;.■,. ;/■-/, ■■:.]. i. :;i:i:
a!:(l a •• t^i | a'''* ■■ndnl laritr.il laivlu <cv:
e!U'iti_- t'l' Io!-~"-.l a [la lii'-c '.var. ^I'H
;)46 Cases ami (Jjnnions on international Law.
fuust ruction is, in general, easy of ascertainment, in 1904. how-
ever. Avhen two submarines, the Protector and the Fulton, were
despatclied from the United States to Russia, the Unitxjd States
Governmoiit, on a-certaining- the fact, declined to interfere, claiming-
to treat thi.s as being merely an export of contraband. During-
the same war, also, the German Gxovernment permitted the expor-
tation overland to Russia of the requisite parts of a number of torpedo
boat< or destroyers, which were afterwards fitted and put togetliex"
at Libau(/n. Rut all such cases would, it is conceived, now come
witliiu the ternr- of Art. 8 of the Hague Convention, Xo. lo of 1907.
(12) Xext there are vessels of a purelv commercial type, Avhicli are
from their character and build wholly unsuited for either of the
ptir] loses indicated above, even though they might be used as colliers
or supjdv ships. As to these no presumption whether of ""intent or
■'belief'' will arise. ( .'! ) Finally there is an intermediate class, com-
prising- many gradations, liut consisting- in general of vessels which,
althotigh primarily mercantile in their character, nuiy itevertheless
from their size and speed be easily ada[)ted for use iti war as cruisers.
During both the Si)anish-American war of 1898. and the Russo-
Japanese A\ar of 1904-.'). a number of vessels of this ty])e were sold
by Crerman companies to bellig-erent purchasers ( /i. As to vessels of
this type — and omitting the question of the sal(> of sulisidized vess(ds
which has ab-eady been di-eus.-ed i /V i -it Axould seem that a sale to
a private ))urchaser carries no pre'^um[)tiiin nf inlejit to
employ tlie Aesscl in hostile o_[)Orati(_iiis. and tliat in .- udi a case
therefore the teri-itorial Rower is not Ijound \<> intervene, unless
there is some further or more direct proof. But an adaptation
of a vessel, whether of this or any other type, to Avai-like \r<os. within
neutral territory and whilst a war was beiim' waged, would, il is
conceived, create such a presnm])tion. and would therefore" impiose
on tlie territorial Power a duty of vigilance in tli«^ inatter of enquiry
and prevention.
The A/ii/n/o/taltoii of Force of F>elll(iefciit II ursjiljis. The second
ride oi the 'J'rcaty of W'a^liiimton impo-~es on a neutral tki\'ernment
the dulv of not pernutting either lielligereiiL t<i u-e neulial j^ort-s
or water- a< a Ijase of naval operations, or for the [)ur])ose of rlie
renewal or auLimentafion of ndlitary supplie- or arms, or the recruit-
ment ot men. The ])io]ii1)ition aL^'ainsr using neutral ])ort< or Avaters
as a b:i-c cif opei'alion> is. as w(.' Inive seen. re]Udduced b\" .Vrt. •") of
th(" ilai^ue ( 'oiiv(Mition. ^.'o. 1.'! ot 1907. ami altlniuu-h tlii- is oulv
ill the lonii of a jiroliihit ion addre--sed to the boilii^crenl . \q\ bv
.\rt . l.'."^^ the iH'utral "^tate i> [lut under a similar olib'Li'at ion
to pi'event it- eva-ion - / 1. \\\\\\ rv>\)vc\ to aiiainentation of foice.
.Vrr. bs ]i!ovi<lc> that b<dliu"ei'ent war-hip- ma\' noi iiiak<' ux'' (^f
neiitial jiort^, i oai jvirail-. ami icniioiial waters I'or i v|)|cni-hiiiu-
■XIT(
ih) Sfr llcr-hry. D."!. (I, ThNl i-. liv
(/) Si'(' 'r;ik;;lKi~lii. lss. \-ii:'il,-iiii-(' as the incaii- at it< ilispn^a!
( I:'\ <.<,,,'!•, ]i. :;(i,V [)(i-iii!t : -Vrt. -2.).
Duties of Xc'u Ira I Sidles. M7
or iiicioasiiig- their .suj)[)lic.s oi' war luulerial, (jr their annaineut,
oi- for eompietiiiu- their crews; the object being' to ensure that
a b(Mlii;(M('nt vessel shall leave neiiti'al territory wilhout having' in
any \\ay addeii to her Hghliiig force or eU'ectivc power of injury ( ni).
Under the eai'lii-r law it appeal's t(j havc^ been regarded as permis-
sible for a belligerent vessid to ship, e\'en in a neutral port, such a
number ot men as might be necessary to the navigation of the vessel
to her own country; but this, despite the analogy of repairs, would
not be adiuissiblc under the existing rule (n).
The JUitu of ScJiirdls as rcijanis the Eitforcement of these Re-
.■itrictloiis.- -l'>\ the ihinL rule of the Treaty of Washington it is
declared that a neutral (b)vernnient is bound to exercise due dili-
gence in its ports and waters, and as to all persoiis Avithiii its
jurisdiction, to prevent any violation of the obligations previously
recited. This rule is. as we have seen, reproduced by Art. 25
of the (Convention, which provides that a neutral Power must
exercise such vigilance as the means at its disposal permit
to prevent any violation of the duties ])reviously described occur-
ring- in its ports, roadstead, or Avaters. In this way the Convention
virtually adopts, as a part of the written law of nations, all the rules
previously embodied in the Treaty of Washington ('^)i. By Art. 26
it is also declared that the exercise by a neutral State of the rights
and ])owors conferred by the Convention shall not be regarded as an
unfriendly act by a belligerent who has accepted the Articles relating-
thereto.
Tlie Eiject of the issue of a Co in mission to a Vessel iUegaUy fitted
out. — The Geneva Tribunal, as Ave liaA'e seen, ruled, in affirmance
of the American contention, that the issue of a commission by a
b(dligerent GoA'erument to a \-essel that had been fitted out in viola-
tion of neutrality, could not be appealed to as a protection against
acts done in violation of neutrality. Exterritoriality, it Avas said,
was not an absolute right, but a ])roceeding ftninded only on
comitA- and mutual deference, and Avas revocable in a i-ase Avhere
These had been disregarded by tie- belligcu'cnt i 7 l Ihit although
exterritoriality in itself is <)nly a mode of describing certain privi-
leges and immunities Avhicli had their origin in comity or con\'enieuce,
the ])rivileges and imnuinities which it now implies are really sub-
stantive rights, and. as siu'h. th(\v are no more cajiable of being
I'cvoked at will than are the riu'lils of embass\' I'n. In such a case,
therefore, •altlcju^h the neutral State has its remedy against the
(roveriim<.'ut in fault, it would seem that it has no remedy, at any
rate b\- AvaA' of scuzurc. au'aiiist the vessel itself, if once the latter
lias acipiired the status of a public ve-scl. Xoi' woidd this ])q affected
bA' the fa<-t of lh(> a'Os-cI jiavine be(Mi ci)miiiissi(ined merelv 1)A' the
i ,,i) As to the upijai-'Mit ini-oiisis-
tency between tlii< Artiile and tho-^e
wliieli alldw a Hniited -iipply ef ])i'(i-
\i<ii)ns, t'nel. ami rep;iir< nee(>--.ai'y t'or
naviirution. see p. o'l't. iiiiyn.
('„i S,r,ro.
p. 309.
i,A X-, '.-,'.
PP- -'20,
329.
(■r >'"/'/".
]). 33(1.
( /■ ) See vol
. i. 293.
-348 Cases *iiul Opimoas on Infvrnationnl Law.
Goveninieiit vi an iiisuruiMU couniiiiuity. provided its l)elliu-oi'<Miev
liad been lOroj^'iiizcd; fur this in itsidf is an acknowledg-ment of
capacity to answer for i-ondnct conne'.ned with the war (.si. At the
same time, it wonld lie ijuite ojien to a neutral State whose neutrality
had heen \iolated tn furhid any fuither u-e uf its ])ort> to an offending-
vessel: for such a ri^'lit --althouiih ])re-nnied in defaidt of notice to
the contrar\ — nia\' nevertheless he revoked, and any ])rot(>st on tlte
i;'r<iund of disciiiuinatioii woidd he adei|iiate!y met hy ])roof of the
i)ii(U- Niuiatiiui of neutralit\' i / i.
'HIE THE AT MEM OE llELLIGEAiEST WARSHIPS
L\ XEETJEIE PORTS.
r TiiK lu'jj-: OF T^^■^:xTY-FOUH iioru.s- ixteeval.
THE CASE OF THE •• TUSCARORA" AND THE " NASHVILLE."'
|lSii]-2- lici'iiai'd. iSrirNli Xoutraliry duriiin' tlio Ainoriean Civil War, 2*57.]
Case. In 1801 . duriii<2- tln' Aujericaii ciNil war. the "' Xashville."'
a ( 'oufVdci'ale cruiser, put itito clock at .~^outluini])toii in Kno'land,
for the ])urpose of repairs. Soon afterwards the " Tusearora. '
a I'uited States cruism-. also euterc;! British waters, and to:)k U]i h -r
station at tht/ lieid of Soutlianijdoti \\atir, some ten miles Ijflow
the dock. According' to the tieutralitx' rooulation- then in force,
jio shij) of war of (Utlier bLdliiicrent was pi'rmittod to Ic-ne any
l!rili-!i poil or watt'rs fi'om which au\ \i'S-il trclouiiiiiii' to the
othc'r helliu'ercnl . whether a shij) of war or merchant ^■esM'l. had
jifeAiously departi'd. until atfer the expiivilion of t w cait \ -four
hour- from tlie time of sueh doparlure. Takiue- ad\antai|i' of
1 hi- iiiji', 1 lie I a pi a in oi' t h'' "' Tusearoi'a. v\ jl li the aid of timelA' in-
forjiiation Lurni-hed h\- aiieiits in Soul hamjil on and hy keepine'
hi- ship m readine-- I'oi- iii-1aii1 (h'part nre. wa- ahh' to taki^
]irecr(haiee iif the ' ' X ;i -h \U I h '. whelli'Xt'l' l]|e lattel' prOpoSed tO
Iriive. rhi- had thi' (ffe'^t of compc!) iii^;' the Jt.cd authoritie- to
j.rrfnhi; t h'' d' ']ia rt iiri' <>\' the '" .\a-!i\ ii h' foi' i w iMity-l'our hour-;
and hid'uri' thi- pi-iaod rhipx^d tin' '" ru-i-aroi'a rC'Iinai-d to hej-
(.0 S(M' ii.-ill. (ils ' -' ,.7.; l)iit see ; •- ) S.-' Jl. {'.. .\(), ]:] of 11)07,
aUo Wr^tlakr. ii. 2I(;. \i-r. ": ;,i,,l ,,, f. 'Ii.> ri-'li: <if rx-la-
IJdliijen'nt Warshijis in Neutral Ports. 349-
station. By re[)i'aliui;' this o[)L'ruliou slio was enabli'd ['or some
tiuio \imially to Mockadr the '■Xashvilk;' in British Avaters.
111. order to prcx cut a repetition ol' tliis proc(\'diiiy- the Britisli
Cio\ eriiiiieiit issued a i'resh reuuhitiou, pro\ idiuu' that any war
\essel ol' eitlier helliu-er.'Ui euteriui:' u I^ritish [)ort shouhl be
re(|uired to deparl and put to sea within twenty-four hours of her
entrance inio such [)ort. exce])t in eases of stress of weather, or
want, of pro\ isions or oiher thiims necessary for the subsistence
of the crew, or need of re[)airs; in cither of wliieh cases she was
to be retjuired to |)ut to sea as soon as possihh' after tlr' expira-
tion of twenty-four hours.
To prevent the u<e of iieiitral [xiris (»r waters Ijy beJUgerent
vessels ;is a startina'-pdiiit i'or bellie-creiit operations, \arious rules
liave at dillereut tiuie< heeii devised. One of these prohibits belli-
gerent warships from lyinu' in wait in territorial waters, and avoids
all c(.nisequent captures u/i. Another [)rohibits bellieeieiit warsliijjs
from using' neutral ])orts for the purjjoscs of obtaining int'ormatiou
as to enemy vessels likely to arrive and sallying out to meet tiiem {b ).
Another rule, Avhich is of some antiquitJy, prohil)ited hclligereut
warships from following an enemy of inferior strength, and espeeiallv
a merchant vessel, out of a neutral port, with a view to attack and
capture. This Avas at hrst enforced, as against public vessels, by
exacting an undertaking from the commander: and, a< au'ainst priva-
teers, l)y forbidding their departure until after the lapse of an
iiiterA-al of 24 hours or even longer. Subseijuently the latter ])raclice
wa< extended to puldic \'esseh. and came to he known as "the
24 Ikjui's' ruU\" Such a rule \va<. as \\(> liaxe xi'^m. included in the
British neutrality regulations during the American civil war: Avhilst
rules similar in etfectici were ado[)ted in the neutrality regulation-
of most other maritime St;it(^s. In the residt. the imposition
of some such restraint (ui egress, not falling short of 24 hours i^/i.
may ])robal)ly l.)e said to have become obligatory. Such a rule, with
a deiiniti^ limit of 24 lujurs. was iiicorporate(l in the Siuv Canal
Convention of ISSS i c i. a< \\(dl as in the Treaty of I'.Hi 1 made b(>tw(M'u
(rreat 15ritaiii and the rnite<l Stales with respect to the Panama
Canal i /' c ft has now been ado])ted. althoug'h Avith a limit of "' iKjt
less than 24 hour<."' l>v the ilauue Convention. Xo. lo of 1907 (cy).
Thi-- rule, with a \ iew to distinuiiishin^' it from the ride of 24 hours"
sta\' next referre<l to. i> now comnuuily known as "the rule of
24 hours' interval '" (}i ).
{a) S„„,'t. ]i. :]H>. ((') Sec vol. i. 151.
(/,) I„'lr'i. y. 373. (J) lb:d. 153.
(r) .Mtliouu'li (litfcrinu- sometimes in (.'/ ) Sec Art. ll!: p. 3t)2. i/nirii.
ilmail. '/') '''^cc WOtlakc. ii. 207: and (jii
{<l) .Vltlioiiu'li optionally longer: tlie jubjcvt {.■■cuerally, Hail, ti23 c^ .>v 7.
l,ii,-'i. p. 3Sl. n. (/■■;.
•350 Ca.'^es und Opinions on Intcrnatwnal Law.
(ii) THE RULI-: OF TWK^^TY-FOUE HOUKS' STAY;
AXJJ TIIK PJiACTICE OF IXTEKXMEXT.
THE CASE OF THE " MANDJUR."
[1904: Takahashi. 418—429.]
Case. For some time prior to the outbreak of the llu.s.so-
Jajiaiio^;' war tlic " ^landjur.'' a liussian warship, had been
.stationed at Shanghai. On or about the 14t]i Feltruary, 1904,
after hosriliti<'S between llussia and Japan had begun, the Cliinese
Government issued neutrality reguhitions, which, amongst other
things, prohibited the stay of belligerent warships in Chinese
ports for more than twenty -four hours except in cases speci-
lied. Inasmuch as the ''Mandjur," although not coming
Avithin these exceptions, nevertheless continued lior stay, the
Japanese Consul-General, on the 19th February, requested the
Chinese authorities to require her to leave in accordance with
the regulations. This demand was communicated to the Eussian
Consul-General, but the latter declined to comply with it until
he liad received instruciiojis frojn hi^. Minister. The matt'^'
was further complicated by the fact that a Japanese crui.-er was
alleged to be lying in wait for the "'Mandjur'" oh Woosung.
On tlie 22nd February the Japanese AJinistei' at l^.'kin Juade a
new and formal demand that the Chinese Government should
proceed to disarm and intern the "'^Mandjur ' if she did not quit
Shanghai within twenty-lour hours, failing A\'hich it was inti-
mated that Japan might be forced to adopt measures, the rospoji-
sibility for which would then rest with China. This produced
its effect on the Chiiiese Government, and the di>armament of
the "]\land.iur' was resohcd 0]i and carried out. In thf lir.-t
instanrr.'. a limiti'd di>ai'njament involvinir oidy the removal of
guns and ammunition, but accompanied by an unrlertaking
that she should not leave Shanijliai durim;' tin- war, was pro-
posc:d. But tbi- was not aj)]iro\'ed l)y Ja])an; and, after soine
fui'ther negotiation, the ^ital ]):irts of the maehiuory and the
bn-ech Ijlocks of the <^\\\\< were also removr-d and ])laeed undrT
Chinese control. Thi; erew were sent baek \m tli'vir owji c junti'\-
Bellu/crcnf ]V>n'.shi/fs in Neutral Porh. .\h\
under pledge not to engage in liostilitie.^ ag;tin>t Jaj)!Ui during
the war.
TJu8 (•as(^ serves to illustrate the applieatiun of the rule, now
^oiHM'allv accejUvd iu priu'tifo, which limits the duration of stay
of holligeieut v(>ssol.s in neutral ports to 24 hours; as well as the
treatment usually accorded to v(>ssels that are unable or unwilling to
lea\ e within the time allowed. This rule is now conunonly known as
"the iide of 24 hours' stay. ' It is Ijascd on tlic need of preventing
an ahus(> of u(Miti'al hospitality, and iiicichuitally of ])reventing
the use of neutral lenitoiy as a refiin'e fi'om enemy (-(msi I'aiut:
although the latter ouglit in strictness to Ije regarded as the subject
of a separate and independent rule (&).
The "rule of 24 hours' stay " has a much shorter historj- than the
"rule of 24 hours' interval "' (e). It was. as wo have seen, originally
adopted by Great Britain in 18G2, with the object of preventing
an abuse of the latt-er; and was enforced both by Great Britain and
tlie I'nited States in subsequent wars in which those Powers were
neutral. It Avas later also adopted by other maritime States, such
as Italy, Sweden and Xorway, J3onmark, and the Netherlands; but
it was not at lirst formally accepted either by France, Germany, or
Russia. This rule was likewise incorporated in the Suez Canal Con-
vention of 1888, and in the Treaty of 1901 made between Great
Britain and the Unit/Od States Avith respect to the Panama Canal (fZ).
During the Eusso-Japanese war. the "rule of 24 hours' stay,"' Avith
the alternative of di-armament iu the event of non-compliance, was
enforced not only in the case of the Mandjur, btit in a great variety
of other cases; and this even by Powers that had not previously
accept od it(>); although in some cases it>s euforcenrent appears to
have been based rather on the pro])ricty of not allowing belli-
i:erent ve-sels lo use neutral territory as an asylum from onemA'
<_'0u^traint tlian oil the duty of tuerely limiting their stayi^'/). It
AA'as also enforced against transj^orts and colliers, as aa'cII as against
Avarships proper (r/). Finally, and probably iu <]eference to these
instances, the ride was embodied, although oidy in a qualified form,
in the Hau'ue CouA-eniion. Xo. 1.'3 of 19t)7(7/). Its relation to the
rule prohibiting l)ellii^'creiit vessels from u-iiii;' tieutrai jiorts as an
asvhun in war, will be ron^ldorcd lier<>aft('r ( / 1.
( /, ) It'ir". |). •').')7. poi't> and colliers which jiad hccoiiu'
(, . ,V''//,v/. [1. ;!l!i. separated from the IJiissiaii iicet and
('/ ) See vol. i. I.')l. l"):!. had lakiMi rel'iiu'c at Woosuhl:'. liotii
(!•) .\s hy (icrniany. airainst Hus- Ncsseis and crews beinp: detained
>iaii vessels takiiiLT !'et'uL;-e at Kiao- thi'oiiuliout the rest of the war: see
chow: see 'i'akaliaslii, 4 17 r/ -.'vy. 'J'akahasiii. i'.^r, ,( t'/q.
[I I /////", |). ;).")7. I /' ) S( e AiT. 12; and j). 3t.jl, ',>>',■".
I '/ .\s hy ("hiiia. at the ins(aiie(- cif ( / ) /,,/',■//, p. :].')').
• lapaii, ai^'ainst '•ertaiii Kiissian trans-
■ >^rj Cases aih^ ^ tpimons on Internaf.ional Law.
(iii, THE SUPPLY OF COAL AXD PROVISIONS.
THE CASE OF THE -TEREK."
[1905: Takahaihi, 457.]
Case. Oii thr 2^th of June. 1000. durini;' tlio Iiu.N^o-Jupaiiij.^e
A\ar. tli- ■" Terek, a liur>sian crui^ir. \>\\l into the port of Ijataxia.
greatly in net'd of coal and Jlro^■i-lon.-. L nder the .-|.ief;:al reun-
hition- i>-nfi b}" the Duteli Ooveninjcnt \\ith ri_'>pect to th_- u-e
of the port- of the Xetherkuuls-Indie.- during the war. belligert-nt
ve.-.-el.- Avure forbidden to prolong their ,-ta_}" exojpt in ea.-e- of
nece.-:.-ity for more than t\Vfnt}'-four liour.-. or to take in sup-
plies of provision or fuel bt-yond .-uch an amount a.s might be
neee.~.':ar\ to carry them to the ne.ire.-t }jort of their own country,
no further .-upply being permitted within thn-e month.•^ '(/ . Au
applicatiori bv the commander of the "" Terek to the Dutch
authorities for u .-uppl\' of provisions and coal wa- conceded to
the extent allowed by the regulation.-, but an appHcation for au
extended sU])pl}' A\a.- refu.-ed. On the expiration of tw-iity-four
hour.r it wu.- found that the c^al taken on bjard would not .-uiiice
for tht' navigation of thu \i'ssel. and ina^nnich as an extr'ii-ion (<i
time Ava- refu>ixl and the eomrnandt/r deidini-d to leave the [lort
with so little coal, tile ve.->t'l A\"a- di>arnii/d and detainixl. together
\\\x\\ her othcer^^ and cre\\ . for the remaindi'r of the war.
The irnp'irtaMe/' f^i r-oal in ni'jdeni iiawd war neee>saiily led
to some re.-irietieiii beiiii:' iiupe-ed vni it- ^up})]y to ijcllia'creiit
war.-hi]:.- in uential p^at-. Tiie iniriatix'e in tin- re.-]ieit a[.]ieai's
t'> have b'/eii talvcii l,y Great I'.ritaiii. Luder the jieiitrality leeii-
lati'ai.- i--ue'l in I'^'li'. duiine the Aniericaii ei\-il i,\;ir. the anieunr
Ml' e. ,al that iiiie-lit be taken by a l.>elli20rent warship in a Briti-li
port v.a- lirniK"] t'l -m much as weiuld carry tlie vessel to tlie neare-t
]i'rrt "X lier iiV>ii <Miinti'y <>v s'lme ueaiei' de.-tinati' ai. w-jtli a pio-
liibition "i' a]n' lurtlier -ujiply at eitlier the same 'jy am- other liritish
p'lrt ^^iT]lin tluee' nioiitlis. A\ii!i.>ut s|iecial ])erniissiriii . Tin- rule
va- I'a-e.l -111 the duT\' "t' the neutral ."^t^iTo t-'i al^stain from sup[ilviii2'
a belli^'erejit \y->..] v, irh ihe nieai;- <'<\ ae"2'res.-ive aetirm: As]ii]>t at tlie
same tii.'ie it eiuilile 1 lier t" 'ihtain a suliieient su];plv to reaep a li'iiiie
port — a denial of wliich vindd virtually liave had the etfeei of pla'ini'-
('■) luiro. p. 3S2.
IjelUjcrrnl Wa/'n/aj/s in jS'ciitral l^orla. iiO^
her out of afti(Mi i^/; i. This L>xaui|)le was .subscqueullj I'ollowed. by
Ollu'r P(i\\<'fs: sdiiH' Po\v(>rs a(lo[)iijiu' tiic iJritish rcyiiJation in it.s
eiitiivty. whilst (jlhei's aihj])te(i it in substaiico altliouyh with some
varialidu as ro^-ainls ikMails. During' iho Russ()-.Ja[)aiiO>o war.
Groat Britain took the iunher stoj) ol' <l(Miying' even a litnitod
supply of coal in rasos where a belliyerenl ileet was proceeding
either to th(> seat- of WLir. or to a positi<jn or positions on tiio line
of roufo with the ol)]'(>ct of interco])! inu' neutral vessels on sus})icion
of carrxiuLi' contraband. According- to the insirud ioirs issued on
the oih AuLi'u^t, 1904, to the naval connuanders in chief, such a fleet
\\a^ not t'l b;- [lernutled to make use in anv way of a British ))ort
for the purposes of <'oalinii'. eitlier directK' fr<ini ihe shore or even
from collier- aecompan vinu' the Heel, anil wln-ther the vessels of
th;> Ileet presented themselves at the [)ort at the same time or suo-
Ci's^i\<'ly ; and the sam<^ i'id(^ was to be ap[)lied evi'U to sinu'le beili-
U'crent war-vess(ds when manifest 1\' liound on a siunlar errand,
except in cases of actual distress (ri. The French pradico, liow-
e\'er, wa- nun-h more lax: the bellio'iu'eiits beiii<i- allowed to take as
much coal as would eai'ry iheiu to their next port, which was not
c(inlin(Ml to ih(^ nearest home port, and thi- \\itlioiit any limit <if
time(^/: oi' aiiy limitati(ui on the renewal of ■-u])plies i cj. A rule
resti'ictiii^- the sup])lv of fuel to l)(dli<i'eren1 ve-<els in iHuitral ports
ha- now been end)odied in th<' Ilau'ue ( 'oiivention. No. 1;! of iHO? i /'».
^^'ith respect to ])r()\isions. the Briti.-h ])i'aciice was to limit su])-
[>li"s t-o an amount reipiiied for i1h> siiiisistenc-'e of tlie crewf//).
A I'est rici ii m on i'evi<'i uallinu- also linds a ))lai-e in the neutrality
reu'ulal ions of cerlain oilier States, sn.ch as Hollau'l and I'razil.
I)Ut the lesi rir'iim doe- not appear to luiv(> beiui eilh-er definite or
obliu-aioi\ , save in •<o far as ii wa- implied in the duty of pi'(>vent-
inu' ni'iiir;)! poj-fs from ludn;^' made a " b ise of supph' Uit. A
idiiuse ill i'e<ti"aini ot' " i'e\ Ic: ualliie:' h:e-. !io\\(>\<m', iiov, been ein-
bddie*! in ilie llau'iu^ Convenlion. Xo. l-'l ol' itio;,/;.
The piessnre <if these re-tiietion- <iii the b(dliLi-ercnt i-, as v.ill
ha\(' iicen e'athenMl fi'oni th(^ ca-e of tlio I'crcl:. maici'iallv iu'i-ea-ed
\\h('r<> .-upplie-. whethei- of in.d or pro\i-ioii-. a:e yeipnied to be
taken within the time oi'dinarih' avaihdde fm .-ia\. ii'ie-iied ive (jf
-pcidal need-; a praetlc*^ now implicitU' atiiiiried b\- the same Con-
vent ion (/,■:.
I /' 1 Sit liall. (in-2. ;"i ^''i' die [iwti'iutioii- issued in
(, . Sei' I'arl. l'i!|uT-. ihissin. Xo. 1 1S!IS aiid IdiM. p. ;17;J. i-'r'.
IIH).-, ,. 11. e/, I \./,,e./. ].. :!Pt.
i.'i i:xi,>|,i wliere a war-liij) i- ( ■' > Src \vX . 1 !t : and ]i. '-Wl. •,^u-".
ac<-i)iiipanie(l hy a prize. i /■ - Sef An-. 11. l!l: alt Iiiiiil;-1i !•.•-
( ( 1 .\ l:ixi!y \\!iii-h l;-:i\i' ri<e tn taxed in (■a-e< ef <la:!iaL:e and stre--
aiaeli (Ii --a i i^faeiinri duriiiLi' t li'> liie-e- "f weatiier. aiub as rcLfards coal, in
.lapaiie<e war: ser Tl., Ii:,i,,,i, Taka- ea-r- wle-re it eanimr l)y local i-cltu-
ha-hi. 4.Vk lalieii lie taken on hoard until twenlv-
I', Sec Art. l!i: and je •']i)'_'. /,'/,•-/. four hours ha ve ela[)sed : //'/Ve. p. ■'Jiiil .
■>r)4 ('(i.ses and Opiniou.'i on International Laiv.
(iv) TIIK QUESTION OF REPAIRS.
THE CASE OF THE "LENA."
[1904: Takahashi, ioo ; Hershey, 207.1
Case. On the 11th September, 1904, duriiic' tlie Russo-
Ja]niiie>c \v;u-, the '' Eeiia, " a Ru.s.sian auxiliary cruiser, which
had been previouslj' engaged iu crui.sing against Japanese eoni-
inerce in the Pacihe, put into San Francisco harbour greatly
in need ol repairs as regards her engines and boilers. Inasmuch
as the effecting of the repairs would have Jiieant a restoration
of the lighting- power of a vessel which Avas at the time virtually
out of action, tiie Japanese Government instructed its Minister
at Washington to biing the matter under the notice of the United
Slates Goxei'nuicn), and to request tliat approju'iate measures
might be taken withcjut delay. The United States Government
tlu;reu})on dii'r'oted that the \ess'd should be inspe(;ted aiid the
question of repairs reported on by the naval authorities. It
lja\'ing tj('(;ii asccrtiiiiied that the repairs would take some six weeks
to cffef't, and ihr vessel being unable to put to sea without them,
ihi' commander of the "Lena" himself admitted tlial the vessel
must b(; disai'med, and recjuested that the I'cpairs should be allowed
(jii this condition. On the loth ScptfMuljei' the President accord-
ingly issued orders directiuL'" liia1 the ''Lena should be takeji
into the custody of the naval authorities. In the re.-ultlhe vessel
was lirst disarmed under official supervision, and thereafter re-
[laired, Ijut held in custod}' until the end of th(j war ; tlie captain
aLo giving a wi'itten guarantee that the Acssel sliould not leaver
until after the conclu-^ion of ])eace. The oHicers and crew Av<Te
])ut on ])arole ]iot to lea\'e the United States tei'ritcjry durint;- the
war, unle-s s(jine othca' understandine' as to their disposal -hould
])e come t(j between the Go\-ernme>nt of th(' L^nited State.- and
l)Oth the l)elligei-eiil> '('/^ .
Lnder the eii^jom;) ta' linv, be]lia-ei'<Mit warsliips in iieufral ports Avoro
eriiiiinODiv allewcd te<'llecf siich r(>p;iiis u-^ wcie .ii(!f{>s<a!y to iiaxiga-
(fi) It ajipcars that Sdiiic i)f flic Iv'ns- tli'^y were orderi'd {o i-ctiirii, ari'l rv-
'•■ian f)fticcrs brtjkc tlifii- paroli': liut dnccd in rank l)y Avay of puiiisliuifiir :
.ill tlic demand ef the rnit<"l States <<•(; ! [itsIicv, 2()H, n.
Belligerent Warships in Neutral Ports. :j50
tion, but not repairs or tstructural alterations which added to their
tig-hting- strengtli {h). Having regard to the rule which prohibits any
increase in the fighting power ol' a vessel, the allowance of repairs,
even within these limits, is sometimes criticized as illogical, for the
reason that navig-ability and seaworthiness are equally indispensable
to naval action; but the indulgence as regards repairs of a non-
militar}' kind is really founded on the exigencies of life at sea, and
is in practice probably acceptable to both belligerent-s (c).
Under tlie earlier conditions of maritime war, the distinotion
between what wo may call civil and military repairs was not hard
to draw, but witli the increasing complexity of the mechanism of
warships its application became at once more difficult and more
rigid. So, in the case of the " Lena," the right of repair was held
not to cover repairs Avhicli, although primarily of a civil kind, were
yet such as to involve tlie rest-oration of the vessel as a fighting-
unit. And although, in the case of repairs necessary to navigation
and not of so extensive a character, an extension of the ordinary
period of stay is usually granted, yet this will not extend to repairs
against injuries sustained in battle. So when in June, 1905, the
Russian cruisers " A.urora." " Oleg " and " Zamtchug " entered
"Manila after the battle of Tsushima greatly in need of repairs, and
sought an extension of time for this purpose, the requisite permis-
sion was refused, on the ground that time cannot be given for the
repair of injuries received in battle; with the result that all these
vessels were detained until the close of the war(rt'). The question
of repairs is, as we shall see, now regulated, as between the signa-
tories, by the Hague Convention, Xo. 13 of 1907(e).
(v) ASYLUM IN XFATTRAL PORTS.
THE CASE OF THE " ASKOLD ' AND '• GROZOVOI."
[1904; Takahashi, 429— 13;3.J
Case.] On the U3tli August, 1904, the Russian Avarships
'"Askold" and " Grozovoi," after liaving" been defeated in a
naval engagement, sought; refuge in the port of Shanghai. As
these vcs.-els showed signs of ])roloii<:'iii(2- tluM'r stay beyond the
time allowed by the ( hiue.-e lUMitrallty reguLitious, tli«^ Japanese
■Ji ' See W't'stlaki', ii. "210: 'I'aylor. belliirercnt. Japan appears to have
ti9(). Ix'cn satisfied with tliis and imt to
'. ' , /////■'/. j). ;5(;(). ha\'e })resscd for disarniainent : see
( /) Althouprh l)(itli in this and the I'akahashi, 152.
I»revious ease tlic internment was noi {r) See Art. 17; and p. '-MV-l. n'irn.
l>roi)al)ly a disadvantage tu tlie weaker
356 Cases ami Opinions on International Latv.
Consul-General demanded that the Chinese authorities should
cither take steps to procure their immediate departure or dis-
arm and intern them. This demand was notihed to the Russian
Consul-Ceneral, but the latter refused to comply on the ground
that the vessels had a right to remain until repairs had been
effected. As it appeared that these repairs were of an extensive
character, the Jajianese ^Minister at Pekin was instructed to
pi'otest against Chinese ports being used by Kussian vessels
as an a-sylum after defeat and for the purposes of repairs that
would enable them to resume their belligerent operations : and
to demand that they sliould be re(|uired to leave at once. or. if
actually unseaworthy. then that they should be given two days
within wliich to effect the necessary repairs with the alternative
of being dismantled and interned if they failed to leave. The
Chinese Crovernment wavered : now demandinc- the departure of
th'' ve-sels in deference to .Ja]ian"se ]tres-ure, and now extending
the time for dej^arture in deferenc' to th-^ in-istfMic:' of the Eussian
Consul-Cieneral : but on the 23rd August a further extension of
time was granted .
Japanese Circular and Ultimatum.] On the ^oth August
the Japanese Grovernment — anticipating in vie^\■ of ^\hat had
occurred that it mio-ht be compelled to re>ort to measure- of forci',
and having reijard to foreiirn intere-ts at Shane-liai — thouirht it
necessary to address to tln' Powers u circular note. Thi-^, after
reciting the fact>. pointed out th<it Japan could not be exjiected
to submit to the continuance of a condition of things which con-
stituted a menace at once to her belligerent rio-hts and lier com-
merce, and that >he iniirlit thi/refore liiid hers df forced to take
a/'tion., the responsibility for which would re.-t witli (diina. This
v\;e~ Tollowcd on tile "iOtli Auiinst 1)\ all ultimatum adih'i-sseil to
Cdiina. I'eijuirine' '1 that the di-arniament of the ^■t'S^els should
b(^ coiumraieed f.')rtliwil h : "2 that all arm- aitd ammunition,
together with the e-seiitial ]»ortioiis of their mafdiinerw should
be landed and plierd unde]- ('hine-c f'ontrol : •') that the \\\\<-
siaji llairs sluaild h.' liauled do\\n ; '4 that no rejiairs aireeling
the flirhtine" eap;i'itv of the ve-sels should be jierniltti^d ; o that
th" ^■e.-Sl•l.- >o <li-ai'ini'd should ln' phieiM] in the (aistody of th"
Belligerent Warships in Neutral Ports. 357
Chinese autlioritics and under no condition allowed to depart;
and (6 that the crews should be interned by China till the end
of the war. In the result, and after some further controversy
with res])ect to the disposal of the crews, these demands were
in substanei^ complied Avith: and both vessels and crews Avcro
detained throughout tlu; remainder of the war (a) .
Oil [)riiiciple it- would seem ihat where a helligeieiit wai'sliip seeks
the shelter of a neutral port as a protection against euem}- constraint
or capture, both the vessel herself and those on board should, like a.
fugitive force on land (/; i, be subject to inlernino'nt ; and this without
that benefit of stay or su])plies or repairs Avhich would otherwise lie
pei'ini^sible. But, so far. no such restrictioji has been imposed; pro-
l)ablv for tJie reason that the intent to se(>k shelter from attack would
often be dillicuH to prove, and that stich a ride might lead to friction
1)01 ween neutrals and belligerents. Xor do the provisions of the
Hague (Convention. Xo. 13 of 1907, appear to countenance anv such
distinctiojii ( c I. Nevertheless, even tincler the law as it now obtains,
the fact of the neutral port having been sought by a belligerent
vessel aft/tu' an engagement with the enemy, will put the neutral
State under an obliu'ation even more stringent than usual to see
that the or<_linary neutrality regulations are closely observed, and
to disarm and intern any vessel that may ovei'stay her time or be
unfit to take the sea. And this appears to have been the positi')n
taken up hv Ja])an as a belligerent, and for the most part conceded
hy Powers that Avcre tieutral. durino- the war of 1004-."). So. wh<ui
the [{ussian warsliips 'Czarevitch" and " Xovik.'' with several
smallci' ves><'ls, took refuge^ on fh(> lOih Augu<(. 1004. after a naAal
enu'aii'em'Mit . in the ('Crman jiort Kiauchow, tlie '"Xovik." which was
Bcav/orth V. was or<l(ue(l to leaA'C within tw<Mity-f<itir hcuirs. whilst the
'■ ( '/are\'Jt(.'h " and other vessels, which w('r<' nnscaw ortln'. were dis-
armed and inienied tou'ethei' wiih, iheii' ircws till the end of the
Avar (r/ I. Tlu^ .-anio coni'sc \va< l!ik<ui hy France, althrmgh oidv
aftei' som(^ delay, in tb(^ case of th<> " Diana."" a b'nssian laaiiser which
in similai' circnnisiancc^ took iMU'uu'e at ^aigon icm.
I") The crows were iiitcrned in (<■') See Art. 12; and Peai'co
various Chinese treaty ports liaviiitr 1 !ii_''irins. 471.
FJii^siau consuhites; se'e llcr<hev. '1W\. yil , Takahaslii. 417 vl sr<j.
/,i N-', -,•-•. 1.. :;i I. " (c) Sec llershev. 204; Hall,
(;2:i. n.
358 Cases and Opinions on International Law.
(vi) THK ri-:("i:ptiox of prizi:s tnto nkkthal
PORTS.
THE CASE OF THE "TUSCALOOSA."
[1872; I'apers relating to the Treaty of Washington, i. to iv.J
Case.] In 1868, during the American civil war, the "Conrad,"'
a United States merchant ves.sel, was captured by the " Alabama,'
and thereupon converted into a tender to the latter vessel: an
officer and crew with two small guns being put on board, and
her name changed to the "Tuscaloosa."' In this character the
" l^uscaloosa " afterwards put into Ta.ble Bay. The United fStates
Consul protested against her admission on the ground that she
had not been regularly condenmed, and that, a> u ])rize, her
admi.ssion into British ports was prohibitf^d by the n(nitrality
regulations. The Attorney-General of the Colony, however,
held that having received her armament from a duly commis-
sioned vessel, and being commanded by a duly commissioned
officer, she was entitled to be treated a.s a public vesscd. After
the " Tuscaloosa " had left, the opinion of the British Law Officers
was taken on the subject. This opinion was to the effect
(1) that the vessel had not ceased to have the character of a
"prize " merely by reason of what had been done; and (2 that
the nllegations of the United States (Consul should have been
communicated to Captain Semmes and an enquiry held; whilst
(3) it was also suggested, as a matter deserving consideration,
■whether, on its appearing that the vassel was still an uncon-
demned prize, the exorcise of any further control over her by
the captors should not have been prohibited. On the subsequent
return of the " "^ruscaloosa " to Tabh^ Bav she was seized by the
Colonial authorities; but on the protest of her commander, and
in dfiference to an opinion of the Law^ Officers that the seizure
could not be upheld in view of her previous recogjiition as a
public vessel, order.-; were issued for lier restoration. In the
result, however, she remained in the custody of the local autho-
rities until the end of the war, and was then handed over to the
United Stata^. Althouirh Great Britain was u]timal(dv held
Bellujercnt Warships in Neutral Purds. 359
responsiblo by tlio Geneva Tribunal for the acts of tho " Tusca-
loosa," as tender to tlio "Alabama" (a), the question now under
consideration was not specilically dealt with.
L'nder tho customary law, it was quite open to, although iiol.
(jbligatory on, a neutral State to admit prizes taken by a belb-
geront, whether from neutrals or from enemies, into its ports;
and also to allow the captor to deposit them there peiidiug
condemnation and sale ; so long only as this privilege was
extended to both belli ge rentes alike, and aio prize jurisdiction
was exercised in neutral territory. In fact, however, this was
often prohibited or restrained under the municipal regulations
of particular States. But if no such restrictioji was imposed, then
on admissioji to the neutral port both prize and crew were
(Mititlcd to the protection of the flag of the captors, and were exempt
from the neutral jurisdiction (b), unless it could be sliown that the
prize had been captured in violation of the neutrality of tiie territorial
Power (^c). The practice of admitting prizes to neutral ports, save
in cases of distress, is, however, bad in principle and undesirable
in the neutral interest. It is bad in principle, for the reason that the
captor, in being allowed to carry his prize into a neutral port prior to
condemnation, is granted its shelter for property wliich does not yet.
bidong to \\\i\\((X)\ that, in being- allowed to exercise control over
the prize and the caj^tured crew, he is virtually allowed to continue
an act of war in neutral territory; and, finally, that in being allowed
to deposit his prize there, he is enabled to set the })rize crew free
and thus to make use of neutral territory for adding to liis military
strength U'l- It is also undesirable in the neutral interest, in so
far as it exposes the territorial Power to the risk of armed contliet.s
occurring in its ])orts between the captors and the crew of the
captured vessel. It was ])robably in deference to these cojisidera-
tions.(/) that in the latter ])art of the nineteenth century the ])ractice
of admitting [n'iz<>s info neutral ports caine tn l»e greatlv restricti'd
bv municipal regulation; some States prolubitiiig altogether the
bringing of prizes into their jiorts except in cases of distress; others
excluding' them from certain ports; whilst others again admittcil them
but restricted their siay to twenty-four liours and forbade (lieir sali'.
The .British rule, which was first ado])ted in 18G1 and followed in
subse((uent wars, was to exclude them altogether ( g ). A rule limiting
{,n s „/,,;>. ]). 33:5. (<■) IlaU, 614.
{b) See vol. i. 259. _ (/) At any rate, in the later period,
(c) See JIall, (it;! r/ .vvv/.; Westjako, foi- the earlier restrictions were
ii. 213 rf f^c'i.: and as to tho validity directcil rather against privateers: see
under the Knu'lish (irize law of a sen- Westlake. ii. 214.
tenee of condemnation passed on a ^ (^ ^^ ^,^^ practice of other
yviVA^ lym- m a neutral j.nrt. p. Iit_>. ^^^^^^^ _^^,^ Westlake. ii. 211: riail,
""'P'-a- tjpV. Tavlor. t]99.
('J\ S, '/,,'". ]K 21 1 ; hut -rr IlaU.
(lit.
860 Cases and Opinions on International Laiv.
tlieir 6t;iy to t\vcnty-tV)ur hours also liuds ])laec in ihe Suez (.'anal Con-
vention oi' 1888, and llio Panama Canal Tivaly of I'JDli/n. But
tlie usage was not suflicienTlv long cstalilislied or uniform to have
Jbecome obligat'iry. The admission of prizes into neuiral jjorts is
now regulated, as het\v<'cn die signatories, by the Hague Convention.
^0. la of 1907 (i I, whiuli, whilst adopting exclusion as the normal
rule, ^•et recognizes a discretionary exception in favour of prizes
Ijrought into neutral jxn-ts to be setiuesti'ated pending the decision
of a prize Cuurt: an exco])tion which is al^o had in princi])le and
contiary to the trend of jjrevious usage.
CIi;nki{aj, Note.s. I he Aihuis^ion of Bcllif/cre/it W'ar.sltips irdo
yeutraf /'o/75. -Anniher great dillerence between laiid and sea "war-
fare i- thai. \A Inlst tlif htnd fofces of a belligereiil may imt i.nlinarily
be i'eeei\!'(i in neuti'a] territory exce})t lyn cdndition of being dis-
armed and interneib b(>lbgei'(Mit warships may n(_)i only enter neiiti'ul
ports, but \ivd\ al^d take fuel and sn[)plies and <'lfeet i'epiiii> there.
an<I emjihiy the liceii-ed pilots of the terriloiial Pii\\;'r iii their
|ia---age thi'ouah iiemral waters i/,-). without in any wa\" involv-
inii' the neuti'al Siate. The leasou foi' this <lilfer;Mii c lies in
the fai'i thai tla* shelter of iietitral ti'rritoj'v in land 'varfare'
i- alino-! in\ai'i;;b|y son:iht iiiHlei' the pie>Mire of .--npei'ii n/ f (jrce ;
wliil-t ill -en warfa'''' i' is ti'eativl a- an ordinaiw im-ident of
navigation. A lUMitial State i- not indeeil bound to open it-
])orts to Ixdligerent wai'-hip.-. e.\cept in case.- of di,-ti';'.-- ; and
may (dos(> tlaMU (Mileu' in whole or j)ar: il' it thinks iii and ii-i\-es
]iro])ei' noiir-(' of ie- intent ion '/ 1. So. in 18.").!. Au-tida il.i,-ed the
port of Cattara : in bSii^.C^reat l;iilain cbised 1 li<' jiort- of the P)ahama
island-; whiL-t in iitol. Sw eden-Xorw a\' -inularlv (dosed a numlicr
of it- ])oii-. and fjoi'd^. to the <Miti-y of belliuei'enl wai.-ldp-. Put
in (b>fault of notiee a liudit of (Mi'r\'. with all oonseipu'iii privileges
in -^o bira- tlav-eaie <'oii-i-tent with war. will b(> ])i<'siimed. ddie use
of neutral ports b\- iKdliuxuMMit wai'sliip.- i<. howe\'er. sid)j(K't to cer-
tain re.-iidci i<ins whi<di aiise in part under ih;; u'l'nei'al law and in
]iai't uiub'!' 'he loeal neutrality r:'L:idat i^n- ; -mne being idd e_;-atory,
whilst oilifu'- ai'e hd'i to the di,<cretion of tia' i eii'itorial Pnwer subj':^'^,
oidy to this b<dn<i- <'.\ei'ci-ef| inipa rt iallw The.-e li'.-i rict ion-, in .-o far
as they aii-e n\\ the lai.-! oina ly law. hax;' aheady be .|| (■(e.isidei'(>d :
but 1! Slid remain- to -ee how tar the\' ha\e been deelan-il <>\ modi-
fied b\- ( 'on veiition .
Lii'infiil /i/ii 0)1 Xiniihcr.'f. i'rinr to l',Hi7. thei-e was no u^aiz'e limit-
ing the nundiei' of belli^-erent wai'sliip- that miiiht ])0 pi'esent at tlie
same tiino in a neuiial pori. althouL;h -indi a lindt was sometimes
(/,) Sci' v(j1. i. J.')l, I.'):!. (/■ Sec II. f., \<). i;; ct ]lt07,
-■) S. <■ .\rt.-. 1^1. -'-J : :iii(l p. :;(i:t, .\rt. II.
intra. (1) Sec \ol. i. 251. 'i-Vl.
iUdlhjeretit WdrnhipH in Neutral Portn
;;()!
imposed alik<' in tiiun of poaco and war \)\ iininicipal rcuiilaTioii .
On this -iiliji'(;l I he llauiio ( 'onvcnlion, Xo. l."5 oi lUU?, now declares
t hat. ii!iK'---< I he hiws uf a nent lal I'ower ot heiw is(> pi'(>\idc. the nii mi id-
ol' \\ai<hip> ln'h)n;^-iii;4' In (inc helliu<M<'nt which may Ix' in one of th(!
|)iiits oi- roadsteads of thai Po\v(.'r simullaneon-ily shall Jiol exceed
ihr;'ei//n. The terms of tJie article, it will l:e siH'n, J<'av<^ it oj)en
lo the u<nitral I'ower to allow the pre^eueo of a laro-ei' numher of
\e~^s(>|s, whilst, they ar<> I'ondstent with the refusal of aci'e<s to any.
Ihirtifioi/ oi Sldij. The "rule of 21 hours' siav." which was ))re-
\'iousl\-. a^ we liaxc sciui. the .-^idijeci of some cniiflict of practice ( )}).
has now heen emhodied in the llauiie ( '(in\ent ion. No. 1."} of 1907,
allhoui;-li onl\ in a form wJdch i^-rcatly impaii's iis ell'ect . On this
suiijcct. the ( 'oiiNcnuon pi'ovides: ( 1 i That in default of special pro-
\ision< to the cimiraiw in the laws <)( the neutral Power, belli-
<:-ei'(>iit warships >|iall not remain in the ports. ro:id.^te;ids, or terri-
torial waters of Tne sai;l Power for more than '1\ hours, evvcept in
cas(\^ covere<l liw tlu' ( (uivent ion ( o i. i2i That il ;i Power which lias
hei'U inforuH'd of the outhrcak of hostilities learns that a warship
of a liidliuxM'ent is in one of its ports m- i'oadsl(»ads oi' in it- lerri-
torial waters, ii must notify the said ship to <lepai't within 24 lir)nrs
or within th<' time presciahed hy the local law '/yi. i .'5 i 'I'hat^ a
liidliirei'ent warship may not ])rol(mii' its stay in a neutral port beyond
the time piM'udtted. (except on account of damaii'ew/) ni' -tress of
weather, and must d(>pai'i a- soon as tJn^ cause of the di'lay is at an
endi/'i. Put the.'-e rt>u'u lat ions are not lo appiv to warships devoti'd
<'xclu-ivel\- to r(diL;-ious. scieniilic. or philanthropic purpi is(\s i ,s i.
This ( OiiNiMit ion appeal's to represent a cumpi'iimi,-.' iieiwcen the
conllict iie,- \ ieus of Powers ^ / i which hati pre\ ioiisK' a<lopi cil the rule
of 21 hour>" sta\ and tlio-e wlii(li had noti/M. Its i^eiifral eiVcet.
is to e-talili-li the rule nf 21 lioiir-;' -tax a- the norma! i-<>ipiirenient,
to which no exception can ho la-kcu l)\- eitla'r Ic'Jliu'Oren! . hut at the
same tiiix' to h\ive it open to a neutral PowiU' to make alior re^'ti-
l.ilioir- if ii ihiiii-;- fit o/'i. In tin' future the rule of 24 lioiirs' srav,
althonu'h mad*' di-ia'cl i^ eiaa w he iln- ' ''eix'Mit ion. will oiohahlv he
Lj'enerally adopted in prai-iicie le >i w it h-'a iidinL;'' -mia* :e>i'iwations
made hy pariiculai" Powers'//). The cvKMi-imi of stav contmnplatr'd
in the c;i><' of repair- would not. it .-I'tmis. properlx' cxteial |o tho
repair of iniuric- I'ci-eixc:! in haitle. nr I'i'pair- so o\icii.-i\e as to
<„t) Art. 15.
,.> .v-0"". !'. :i.'l.
[0) Art. \-l.
(/') Art. i:;. Thi> w;is proh.-ihl v
intfiidcil to meet such casi's as that nf
tho Mr,„/li'>:. s.i.y.:.
I '/ • Si'(. \r! . 17: ;,ni| |,. :!(;:!. ;,,/,■,/.
i/) Art. It.
(xM .\ri. 11.
(1) Such as fJroat Hrifain and the
United States.
'Jie-^ia: :-cc I'.ar<o lliu'-u'ili-. 170.
( ,'■ ) !!ut such roe-iilatious riinst, liko
all other rcLOilations att'cctini.;' the posi-
tuiii of l)cirii;-|.,-(ait warships in tho
ports of th(^ si^-natorics, he; notitiod to
the Xctherlan<l< Ciovcnaenent for eoni-
iiiunication te tho contractiiiEr l^owors:
.\rt. '27; and must apply oipially to
both liollitreroiiis: Art. 9.
(''/) (leruiany, foi' instam i\ ha.^
^iiTiied flu^ Coinention under resrrva-
{ 'i) Such as I'raner'. (iiM'manv. or ti(.)n of Arts. 1 '2 and lo.
862 Cases and Opinions on International Laio.
involve a re-storation of the tig-hting- power of a vessel which was at
the time coinpl€t<3ly disabled (0;.
The Time and Order of Departure. — '' The rule of 24 hours"
interval" has likewise been adopted by the same Convention. With
respect to this it is provided: (1) That Avhen wai'shijDS beloncing- to
both belligerents are 2^1'esent simulta^ieously in a neutral port or
roadstead, a period of not less than 24 hours must elapse between
the departure of a vessel belonging- to one belligerent and the de-
])arture of a vessel belonging to the other. (2) That the order of
departure sliall be determined by the order of arrival, unless the
vessel that arrived first is so circumstanced that an extension of
stay is permissible, i'i) That a belligerent warship shall not leave
a neutral port or roadstead until 24 hours after the departure of a
merchant ship flying the flag of its adver.sary (a). The Convention
thus settles definitely the cj^uestion of the order of departure, as to
which there had jireviously been some diversity of practice.
Supplies of Coal and Provisions. — With respect to supplies of coal
and provisions the same Convention provides in effect: (1; That belli-
gerent warships in neutral ports or roadsteads may only revietual so
as to bring their supplies up to peace standard (b). i2) That such
vessels may similarly ship only sufficient fuel either to enable them
Uj reach the nearest port of their owji country, or. in the case
where the iieutral Power has adopted tliis method of deter-
miniiig the supply of fuel, to fill up their bunkers built to carry
fuel; with liberty, however, to extend their stay for this purpose in
cases where the local law( c) ])rohibits the taking of coal until 24 hours
after arrival ir/i. ('3 1 That belligerent warshi]is which have already
shipped fuel in a port l^elonging to a neutral Power may not within
the succeeding three months replenish their supply in a port of the
sani(> Power (e). With res])ect to coal the rule is, it will be seen,
less strinofent (f ) than that previotisly followed by countries such
as Ca-eat Britain and the United States; and does not. like the later
British rule, exclude altogether a sup])ly of coal for aggressive
action I'/). No pro\ision is made for an extension of time for the
purpose of revictualling. or even for coaling, except in the case where
the neutral regulations f(n'bid coaling until 24 hours after airivab/; 1.
Till' resfrictions Iniposed bv the Convention on the supply rif (oal
\^o^lld apjicar to ajiplv eijuallv to oil in cases where rhat is used for
fuel .
{;' Si//,,-//, p. 3.5.'). (e) See Art. 20. I?ut Germany
(a) See Art. It). Althouirh a iiier- sisrned under reservation of this
<;lianr vessel may. if it elioosi's, follow .Vrtiele.
a warslii]) without anv siicli interval (/) That is, in view of the alter-
beiuLT intf-rposed. native given.
(://•) .\rt. HI. (r/) .Suj,,y'. p. 3;)3: althouirh thru-
(r) As in the ease of Italy. is no .savincT, ;us under the British recfu-
(d) .Vrt. 19. i')ut (ireat tiritaiii latioiis, for eases of ■' speeial pormis-
and .lajiaii lia\e hotli .-iLrrird tlu' ('on- sion."
\eiirif)n under re<er\atiiin of this (/i) As to the eourse of discussion
.Vrtiele, on this point, see Pearce Iligg'in.s. 476.
BclligerenI W((r ships In Neutral Forts. \^&^
'Ike Execution of Repairs. — Ou the question of repairs the Con-
vention provides in eilect: (1; That belligerent warships in neutral
ports or roadsteads may only carry out such repairs as are absolutely
necessar}', and may not in any manner whatever add to their fighting
force. (2^ That it shall rest with the local authorities of the neutral
States to decide what repairs are necessary, and that these i^hall
bo carried out with the least possible delay (ij. These provisions
apply only to neutral ports and roadsteads, and not to other terri-
torial waters, where the eliecting of repairs, although difficult to
accomplish, would for tlie most part be beyond the control of the
territorial Power. By implicatioji it would seem that an extension
of stay is y)erniissiblo for elfocting of repairs in the case wliere these
are necessary to navigation (k).
The Jieceptioii of Prizes in Seufral Ports. On the question of the
admission of prizes into neutral pons, the Convention provides in
effect: ( 1 ) That a prize may only be brought into a neutral port on
account of unseaworthiness, stress of weather, or want of fuel or
provisions ( /). and that in the latter circuuisfances it must leave as
soon as the justification has come to an end { }n). (2 j That if it does
not, the neutral Power must order it to leave at once, and failing
(;ompliance must employ tlie means at its disposal to xeleasc the
prize witli its officers and crew, and intern the crew put on board
by the captor (n). ( 3 ) That a neutral Pow<!r must similarly release a
prize that has entered its ports without such justification (o).
(4) Tliat a neutral Power may. ncveithcic^ss. allow jtrizes to enter its
ports and roadsteads, whether under convoy or not, in cases where
they are merely brought there to be sequestrated jXMiding the decision
of a Pii/(^ Court: with a consequent right to have the ju'ize taken
to anoth<'r of its ports if it so dcsire>. lu sucli case-^. if the prize
is under convoy of a warshi]) the prize crew of the captor may go
on ])(iai<l th(» convoying ship, whilst if not under convoy they are
to b(^ left at liberty ('p~). The effect of these ])rovisions is to affirm
aenei'alK- the pi'actice of iion-adnii<sion exc-<q)t in ca-^es of distress,
and to saiicfiun formally the exercise by the neutral .State of all
conse(ni('nt aiitliority. .\t the same time tlio oonei'al rule is greatly
qualified in eifect b\- the permission gi'antcd to tlio neufi'al State
to allow '|)rize'< to be deposited in its poi'ts pending the decision of
the Prize ('ourt of the captoi'. By adojtting this qualification tlie
Con\(>ntion virtuallv ))rolongs a practice wliich is in its(>lf vicious i^/).
and which would othei'wis<' pri)ba]i]\- li;i\c come to be ]>arred bv
custom fr): and tliis. ap]Tar<Mitl\'. witliom anv componsatorv advan-
taercs of a taiia'iblc kind i .vV
(() Art. 17. (p) Art. 23. The crew of the cap-
(/.-) That is, from Art. 17 taken tared vessel, if on board the prize, are
in eoniunetion with .Art. It. api)arentlv left to the opeiMriiiu of
(I) Art. 21. the earlier law: see vol. i. 2.5!).
{m^ Art. 21. (v^ S „),,■<,, p. ;?.-)9.
(«) Art. 21 . ( /■) >■'//, ,v/. p. .'5f;().
(n') Art. 22. (s) It was ori^'inallv adupted with
3(>1 Cases (Uid Opinions on Interndtiomd Law.
Penalty for InfringeDient of Seutral lie;/ukiiiotis. — Apart from
the reiuodics available for more s-orinus violations of neutrality. Avliicli
liavo already l)een considered (J i. s|)eeial r«>niedies are provided by
the .same Conv'ention lor breaches of or non-eom])liance with tlie
local neutrality reo-ularions. S(j, it is ])rovided thai if a bellig-ereut"
warslii]) has prcN'ioir^ly failed to conform to the reo:ulations of a
Jieutral Power, or lias violated its neutrality, the vessel may be
forbidden for the future to enter its ))orts or rcjadsteads (u): a cours(>
which, despite some contrarv opinion, appears to have been pre-
viously [)ermis>ible ' 2/ '• Ag-ain. it is provided that if a bellip-erent
warship. aft:'r udtification, fails to leave a neutral port when it is
n(it futitled to remain, the neutral Power ma}" take such measures
as it may <leem neces.-aiy to render tiie vessel incapable of puttinrr
to sea so lon<:' as the war lasts, the comma udinu- olHcer being- even
rciptired to facilitate the execution of such measures (:• i . In such
a case the officers and crew must likewise be detained, either on the
ves.sel it-~elf, or on atiy other vessel, or on land ( « >, and may for
this pur])Ose be subjected to all necessaiy restraints; although the
(illicers tnay be left at liberty on giving their w()rd not to leave
neutral territory without permission ib). The question of intern-
ment— a practice which was. as we have seeti, carried out with
no little .-everity during the Busso-Japanese wariei — is thus
left by the (>_)tivent ir)n in the dix-retion of the neutral, vhiih.
is so far a defect: althongh ])ressure on the ])art of the othei'
belligerent will probably s<>rve in general to eti^ure its exercise.
The Convention, however, now settles definitely that, the olHcers atid
crew of a vessel interned must also be detained, which, although clear
in principle, had formerly been a sultject of controversy (J i. It is
also expressly declared by the Convention that the exercise by a
neutral power of atiy of the rights conforred therebv shall not ])e
considered as an unfriendly act by a belliu'erent Avho has accept^'d
tlte articles rclatino- thereto I'c.'. In cases of sufficient gravity the
remedy of expttlsion will aho be open to the neutral, although in
])!actico a weak neut'/al is naturally indi>]iosed to a!tem])t to enfcn^- ■
this against a ])owerfifl l,)ellig-erent.
a view to cnablinpr an airrccnicnt to bo '7 spr/. .• aiub a-: tn tlic jiri'sont pro-
reached on the quo.stion of tho dostruc- vi<ii)iis (if the [)e(hiration of I-oinhn.
tion of neutral ])rize< and sliould inini. ]i. IS(i.
.strictly have lapsed with the failure (/) .S/^^,,//. p. -J^IS.
of tlii-; aLToeniciit . it was. however, (ri) Art. 9.
soiii_r-|it to retain tlio riu'ht of admission i,/^ S(>.. mjI. i. -Jfi]; and mi,,,::.
\\< \^i\\vs li!;ely to rondcr Ics^ fre- p. 3t,s.
(pient the (h'-t nil tion of prize- liy frj Art. '24.
a belliprerent i'a])tor ha\-inL^ nri home {,,\ Subject to a sufficient number
port near at lianrl : altliouLiii the fact of men bein<x left on t)oard to look
of such a(lmi--ion liciuL,'' disci'cf ionai'v after the vessel,
on the jiart of the neutral rende.-., thi-; {h) Art. '24.
(loubtfid. wliil-t in any ca~e ilie exist- \c, Siii,r<i. p. 3.')1 .
■ nee of such a I'iehr Jiiay ci,ncei\ ai)ly ( ih. See .■.",/,■//. pp. 2Stl. o-'it. :v'>7 ;
lead to friction Ijctween neutrals and and TaKaha-hi, t34. 4>S2.
bellie-erents; -ee I'earce lliL'Ldn<. 47s (r) Art. 26.
Loans awl iSi(b.srn'/>t/o)is; on heh((lf of Jiellu/erents. ;36->
LOASS TO AM) VOUXTAJiY SCBSCRIPTIOXS IX
AID OF HELLKIEREXTS.
AN OPINION OF THE LAW OFFICERS OF THE CROWN, 1823.
( I'liilliinort', iii. App. <)28. |
Questions submitted. In 18'23, tlif Law Oiliccrs of the
Crown (d' wore consulted by the British Gov(>rnnjeiit with raspe^ct
to the h^gality ol' suh.scription.'- or h)aiis 1)\- neutral subjcc-ts in
aid oL" a bellig-erent — apparently on tlie ofca-ion of a [)ropo,sed
loan ill aid of the Ciroek War o(:' IndcpiMidcncc. The question.s
submitted ^■\'ere : 1 Wlu'thin' «ubsei'iptions foi' the use of one of
two belligerent State- by individual .subject^ of a nation i)ro-
fes.<ing' and maintaining a strict neutrality between them were
contrary to the \\\\\ ol' nations, and constituted such an oftV-nce as
the other belliu'erent woidd have a riu'ht to coir-ider as an act of
hostility on th(^ |)art of the neutral (rovcM'nmcnt? '2 Whether —
as-uming that such individual voluntary subscriptions in favour
of one belligci'ent would give just cause of offonce to the other —
loans foi' the same purpose would give the liki^. cause of offence?
(•5 .\nd, if not, where tln^ line should be drawn bei\\x\'n a loan
at an ea<y or jner(^ nominal rate of interest or with a previous
undi'rstanding that intes'csl would ni'\ei' be exacted and a
gratuitous voluntary subscription?
Opinion. The opinion given wa^ as follows: A Subscrip-
tions (d' ihi' natn.i'e alluded to. for the siip])ort oL' one of two
beliin-erent Slalt-- aii'ainst the oilier, entered mtei by individual
subiect> of a CJovermiieiit profi'ssiii::' and mainlaininu' neutralit\',
would l)e ineoir-istent with that mail ra lit \' and C()ntrar\' to thi>
law of nation-. \\ the same time the oIIkm' belliu-ereut wouhl
not \\\\\f a riu-lii to eoii-i(li>r sueh sulxeriptions as cuiisl it ut ini;- an
act, of hostility on the pai1, of the Cm)\ crnment . althoiii.!-h t'ie\
miu'ht afford ju-t i^-roiind (d' complaint if carrii'd to any consuler-
able extent. {'!'• With I'i'-jiect to loans, these, if enter>'d into
(fi\ Sir \l. r.ill'arJ. A.-d.; Sir J. S. Copley, S.-G.; and Sir ('. Itobinson.
.'J(i(j Cases and Ojiinions on International Laiv.
merely Avitli commercial vicAvs, would not, according to the
opinion of -writers on the law of nations and the practice hitherto
prevalent, be an infringement of neutrality. (3) But if, under
colour of a loan, a gratuitous contributitui was afforded without
interest or Avith merely nominal interest, then the matter would
be governed by the same principle as that applicable to voluntary
subscriptions.
In ellect the view of ilie Law Officer* of the CroAvn was iliiit under
tlie law of nations, as it then obtained, loans by neutral individuals
to either belligerent were permissible if made purely in the way of
business; but that voluntary subscriptions in aid of a belligerent
were strictly illegal, although not to be regarded as a ground of
ollence internationally unless carried to any great extent. Aaid
this may probably be said to be a correct statement of the existing
law(&).
With respect to the legality of loans or subscriptions on behalf of
1:)elligerent States under the municipal law, this would appear, ac-
cording to the English and American cases, to depend primarily on
the question whether the transaction is opposed or not to public
policy, which A\ill again depend on the question of its legality under
the law of nations. Hence loans made purely in the way of business,
being int-ernationally permissible, are not contrary to public policy,
and are therefore valid (c); whereas voluntary subscriptions in aid
of one belligerent, being a cause of offence to the other and tending
for this reason to involve the State in foreign complications, are
illegal ((7). T\'ith respect to loans to insurg-ents. if the insurgent
Ciovernment lias been recognized by the lender's Government as
independent or even as belligerent, loans made to it would be equally
\alid with those made to a belligerent State, for the reason tliat this
amounts to a recognition of capacity to do all acts that can be law-
fully done in carrying- on the war, of which the raising of loans is
•ne(>^; whilsr voluntary subscriptions would of course be illegal.
I'.nt an advance of money, whether by way of loan or subscription,
to unrecognized insurg-oiits. in arms against a friendly Government.
^\ould be internationally improper, because loans for promoting an
^ii) l.iiya. p. oGT. gested in the text.
(r) The l"n:rli>h and „\merican (f/) Sec an opinion by the same
.•n'^f'S deal, for the most part, ^vlth the Law Officers, given on the 21st June.
i|iie^tion of loans to insurgents. In 1S23 (eited in Ilalleek, ii. IfU. n.).
)'r'.!<orri v. <'lry,ir-,,f HO ^[oo. V. P. wliere, however, it is admitted tliat a
'■\\~\ tlicre is. indeed. ^/'''/"//? que-tinn- eriminal j)roseeution, as for a niis-
inc: the letralitv of h)ans to a ])ellicre- demeanour or eonspiraey, wouki
rent State. whil~t in Kr},yi' n v. f'liom- scarcely be likely to suceced.
hy,s (It llf>w. .';S) the f|ue<tioii is ( r) See Krnupft v. f'hamhrrs (^■^
hft open; but tlie ,r,riu},) in the Ib.w. .'iS i : 'I'aylor, 191: and vol. i.
former ease is merely til, [try, ;nid the (17: hut ^ee ;ilso Westlake. ii. "218.
True prinei])le ap})e;irs to be that sua--
Loans anJ SubHcn'ption-s on behalf of licllUjcrenlji. '■\\yi
insurrection cannot bo regarded as coming- within the rang(> of coni-
luercial business or as being tree from political motive (/j; and
\\onld for this reason be illegal also in munici])al law (g).
Gknekal Xotes.-^ Loans by Seutral Individual to Belligerent
>tates. — It would, as we have seen, be a breach of neutral duty
for a neutral Government either to make or promote or guarantee
a loan of money to either belligerent (/t). Some writers incline to
the view that such loans are also illegal if made by neutral indi-
viduals, and should on that ground l)t! prohibited by neutral
Governments (i). But so far as relates to loans of a purely com-
mercial kind, this view appears to tind no warrant either in prin-
ciple or in current usage. Froni tJK' standpoint of principle, a
neutral State is under no obligation to interfere Avith the commercial
dealings of it.s subjects with either belligereut, unless they involve
either a participation in some specilic act of war or an illeg-al use of
iieutral territory(/v) ; and this rule applies etjually to dealing's in money
as in other commodities (?). Xor could such au obligatioji, even if
it existed, be adecpiately discharged by a neutral Government, for
iJie reason that such loans could, at any rate in cases where
there was no public issue, be eil'ectcd by methods incapable of
detection i m). From the standpoint of current usage, the legality of
such loans is equally unqtiestionable. So, in 184:2, tlit* Governmeiit
of the United Stales, in reply to a protest made by Mexico, st-ated
that ''as to advances made by individuals to the CJovernment of
Texas f))''), the Mexican Goverjimeut liardly ucvhN to be informed
that there is nothing unlawftil in this so long as Texas is at. peace
with the United States; and that there are things Avhieh no Govern-
lucut undertakes to prevent " (o). In 1854 a Russian loan was
])nlili('ly issued iu Amsterdam, Berlin, and Hamburg, and this in
siiiio of some })rotest on the part of France (]/). In 1870 both a
[•"irncli loan and a part of the Xorth German loan were issued in
l.iin<h)n. In 1904 Japan(\se loans Avere issued in Uondon and Berlin,
and I-Jussiau loans in I'aris and Berlin, without in either case pro-
v(Wdni:- any remonstrance. Rut ahln.uuh .-ucli loans are jiermissible
( /) See Westlake, ii. 2i8: W'linrtou, of seb.uro a.s coiitrabaud if tak(Mi in
I Ml', iii. p. 50s. transit. Cold and .silver in coin or
('/) See Jlr IFf/f:: v. lle;)dr'ekx fP bullion, toprether witli paper nionoy,
M(ii). ('. 1*. .)S(i); )';-/.'-v//v' V. '_'! rm^-iif destined for the \ise of a ( ;o\(M'nin.')it
y\\ .Moo. ('. I'. :]i)S) ; 'rf'n),ij)sn}i V. (lej)a rtnu'ii t or its armed forces, are
/'i,,rj,'K (2 Sim. 191): Kr.:viii v. now made absohite contraband: sec.
<'h'r,)>hry^ (It How. :5S ; : J^jiili. iii. the lleclaration of London, .Vrf. ;]:!.
\p]). <-,S?>{). (»i) See riall, 591.
I /O S!//,yri. p. :j(l.'). on Which at that rime had brcu
(i) S(^c !iluiit<chli, ^ 7(')S ; Calvo, rccoirnized ;in independent.
:j InHU; I'hilliinoi-e. iii. 217: llalleck, c-i See 'i'.iyhir. r)7.') : li;ill.5iil.
)i. l(i:5. ( /' ) As to ' the Confederate loan
' 1 >■";-,". p. :',(:>: ',./,<., p. 1 n;. i-<iied in haiu'land. -ee yi. '■]'.]l. .^'/.r/i,
</•' Sui)ieet, of ci)ur<e. to the risk and Mooi-e. Int. Arb. i. t;2tj.
368 Cases and Opinions on International Law.
uudor uw oxistiuy law, and althuug-h it would bo obviously undesir-
able lo aueui[)i to interi'ore with dealing's uf a purely pi'ivate
cliai'act(M'. it is probable that the general a{K)plioJi of a rule prohibit-
ing- the " publir issue "" of k)aiis on behalf of ji bollig'erent laig-ht serve
both to curtail the duration of wars and in some eases perhaps even
to prevent theii' occnrrenee. Hut such an arrangement could only
l)e readied by way of intei'nat ional agTeement, and "would then be
binding' oidy on the parties ( (2). The question of loans to insurgents,
and th(> distinction in this regard between rocogiuzed and unrecog-
nized insurgents, have ahead}' been consiileretl i /' ;.
Gifts (iiid Voluuturu ('ontribulioits. —Fov a Jieutral Stiite know-
ingly to allow eontribnlions to be raised within its territory on belialf
of either belligerent would undoubtedl}- be a breach of neutral dnt\
in the case of international \\ar: and a breach of duty even in the
t'ase of a civil war or iirsuri'ection ; for such coiuributions can oidy
have a political objoci and cannot be justilicd by the principle of
freedom of eoninierce ( .s'V Nevertheless they are hard to detect, and
the dut_\- of a neutral Stale in (his re^g-ard is iK)t one of absolute
})i'(n'0ntion, but only a duty of using all reasonable vigdlance for the
jjurpose of prevention. Hence if contributions on behalf of either
belligerent are ])ronioled by means of any ]nd)lie org-aiiization or
ap])eal it will lie its duty to intervene. But: if oidy privately pro-
moted— in which case they woidd (jrobably bo limited to bellig-erent
subj(;ct'- ov some small body of neutral sym))athisers---such contri-
butioirs woidd ])robably j)ass uniuiticed, and could not be reg'ard(>d
as a cause of comi)laiid. ag'ainst the neutral Government (7 K The
furTrishiug' of funds by ])ersons r{\sident in a neutral 8tato oji
behalf of the sick and wounded, or in relief of suifering- on (M'ther
side, is not a breach of ]ieutrality, and in rtM-ent wars this has been
freely ]iermitted (//). At tin; sann> time, e\(Mi in this i'as(\ the oiiicial
instrumentalities of the neutral State ought not lo lie huit or n^vd
for this jnrrpose ( .rV
i<j) Oil the .sul)joci ^'■oiicrally, f^cc it is {■oiic('i\0(b is tlio nioaiiinp; of tlir
IFult, /j90 ; W'cstlako, ii. 217; 0})pon- words ■•carried t<^) any coi!eoi\ :il)l('
hi'ini. ii. 430: Moore, l)iLresf. § 11511. extent." use<l in tiie opinion aiiove
1/ 1 S///,i-n. |i. oo(i. cited, p. ',')^).'^.
(x) l'\')r instances in tiio fhisso- (u) Set^ Moore, Dii^est. vii. <)77.
Japanese war, .see Ifershev, 80 rf srq. (:>:) Vov examples, see ilershey. 81;
(/) .More esp(H'ialiy as tlie amount Takaiiashi. 155.
would i)rol)ablv l)e insitriiilieant. Tliis.
National Neiilralll// Laivs. ,369
RATIOS AL M'A TUAIATY r.A^VS.
(i) GREAT BRLTATN.
REG. r. JAMESON AND OTHERS.
[1896; 2 Q. B. 425; 6o L. J. 31. C. 218.]
Case. Ill l)ccoinl)oi-, 189-"), a coii>idL'ra]jlo Jorci' of llie I'ritish
South ,\ I'rica Co.'s armed ]K>lice. uiHlcr llu' coiniiiund of Dr.
Jaiiicxiii. <oii(':'iitrai(Ml at .Mal'ckiiio- in l>rilisli Ijcchuanaland,
ricai' the ^\■^'-^^er]l i'roiitier of the then Soiilli Al'rienii Ri-public.
Su])S('(|ueiit ly. i]i rcsjioiix' to an ajipcul for aid from llritisii rrsi-
dciit-: m d oliaiiiiosbiiru', who alh^ecd (h^il thcii' li\('.> and proportr
"vvia'c ill daiiii'i'r from tin' l>o('r>. dami'soii ;iiid .^oiia^ 800 Acdun-
teors cros-i'd the front ifM' and miirchcd in ai'iii.-s on Johannc^hurg'.
Ordor.s to ruturii wl'I'l' t-rul l)oth i'rom Lundiai and ('apctown. biiL
■\vca'G disri'O'ardod. Tlio TraiL-^vaal CMJ^ laaimeiit. havino- .suo-
CfM-dod partly by tlircats and partly by jtromiscs of rrd'orin in
avcrtina' a rising- at Jolianne.sburg, despatch'^] a strong- force to
nu>et tiie raiders, and alter a .sharp eontc-t forced (hian to sur-
render. The prisoner.^ were alterward> hand d over for ])unish-
nicnt to tho Pndtish (•ox-ennniMit . Januson and otlior h>aders of
the ni(r> eiuent were tlua'eupon broui;"ht to I'aiii'hmd: and were
su])scfpientlv indicted under .-e(is. 11 and \'l or tlic Foreign
EnhstfUfiit Act. 1870. Sect. 11 [)i-o\id('s that 'A'( any ])er.-^on
A\"itliin tho limit- of II. M. df)miiii(ais. ;ind w itiiout tlie liccn-i'
ol' Mcr Maje-ty ])ri.'p'!i'( > or llt.< out an\ :ia\al or militai'y
expedition to pro('oc(l :iuaiie:1 tho dondnion.- ol :iny lriend]\'
Slate, eviM'x^ prr>on cm.^imtal in .-^uili jiri.'p'irat !on . . . .-hall !)<■
guilt V (j)' an oii'cnc . . . nnd ]M_iiii-iial)lc b\ lino aial imprison-
ment 0!' oitho]' "' : whil-t .<ect. 12 ]iro\id(\< fia' tho punishment of
acce>->soric.--. Various objections to the aj)plicabil ity of the Aet
in thr^ <'ircuin-l ane cs of tlic case Ai) were taken on behalf of the
accused lait" ultimatel\- OMa'ruled (// . TIp' aerai-eil AVia-e finally
(a) M'fiinl y lui'lor so.a. ■-', wliicli lii-d- i /, , The i'iilin:.;'< in law wori'
vidcs riiat it -lial! cMimkI to all iSri- ii'ocii in ]iaia in tlu^ (^icrn's Fx-nfli
tisli ])os<c--<i(.n-^ ; anil scrt . :i. which |)!\'i-iiin on niutinn to (piash the in-
prii\-iiic< it <liall tal:i" rllVi-t tlirrc dii't niciit . in ywrx l)y rli(^ ('i)ni-t at bar.
a< t'nmi the datr of ]ii-ii,-!anial iun. ainl in \i-m\ as dirci-t ion.- Io t he j iirv.
e.r.l,. 1! L>
370 Cases and (Jpinions on International Law.
tried at bar, and liaviiig been found guiltv, Avere sentenced to
various terms of imprisonment.
The Summing up.] Lord Eussell of Killowen, L.C.J.. in
his summing up, referred to the general character and object of
the Foreign Enlistment Act. It wa.s, he |)ointed out, an expres-
sion by municipal law of the international obligations of the
country. Its provisions were directed towards enforcing the strict
neutrality of the Queen's subjects; and aimed at preventing
the use of any part of the Queen's dominions as a base of hostile
operations, not only against a Power at war but with which the
country was at peace, but also against the sovereignty or terri-
torial integrity of a foreign Power that was not then at war. It
was, in fact, a partial expression of that duty which every
Sovereign vState owes to every other, viz., to use all reasonable
efl'orts that its subjects did not violate international obligations.
As regards the proof of an offence under sect. 11, such an offence
was complete if it was shown that a person, without licence of
the Crown, and in a place where the Act Avas in force, either
prepared or assisted in the preparation of a military or nayal
expedition, with tlio ijitent that it shoukl proceed a<i-ainst the
dominions of a friendly State, whether in fact it did so proceed
or not. Assuming such a preparation, moreover, as that
described, a ]Jcrson might be guilt}' of partiei]»ating therein, even
though lie was not himself within tlic Queen's dominions at the
time, as where ho sent guns or ammunition from a foreign
country to a pjlace Avhere such a preparation was going on. A
person might also commit the offence of taking employment in
such ail expedition, even thougli he liad jiot engaged or assisted
in its pr(.'paration; and even though he accepted such employment
outside the Queen's dominions, as where hi' joined it after it
had left those dominions. But in each case tliere must be know-
ledge tliat the expedition so proposed was intended to proceed
against the domiiUDHs ol a iieuti'al Stati'. .Vs to A\-hat con-til uted
an illegal expedition, it iiiu>t be one whi(,h intejided b\' forci'.
or show of foL'iT, eithc'r to inlerCore with the eonslitutd (lovern-
tiient, law. oi' adiniiii-trat iou. or to bring about some chanLie
therein. ^.V)r would iho re>ult l)c in any way affected by the fact
Ndtiomil Neidralih) Fauvs. 371
that ilioso who })iuticipatcd in it did 2i()t seek tlio aetiia] overthrow
of the Ciovcriuiicut or were actuated by motives oi ])hil;uiilirop\'
or humanity.
A neutral State i.s bound nut onh' lo observe the obJigations ut'
neutralit}' in its own pnblic action, but also to use vig'ilanee in enforc-
ing- a like observance on all persons foujid witJiin its jurisdiction (ci.
Hence most States have found it necessary to pass laws or enaft
regulatiijii'^ for (Misiuiiig the observance of their ncutrabty. These
constitute the national law of neuti'ality, between which and tlie
general law of neutrality there is in practice, even thoug-li not in
tlaeory, a certain intimacy of relation (^d).
In the case of Great Britain, the first real neutrality law was the
Foreign Enlistment Act, 1819, which was passed in consequence of
tlic part taken by British subjects in the war then prevailing- between
Spain and her American colonies (e). This Act — 59 Geo. III. c. G9
— was directed more especially against illeg-al enlistment, the fitting
out A\itliouf licence from tlie Crown of armed vessels for employment
against a fri(>ndlv State, or the delivery of commissions to such
vessels, ajid tlie augmentation of the force of foreign war vessels (/).
The disj)utes tliat occurred between Great Britain and the United
States over the '"Alabama claims "" (r/i. served to direct artcntion
to th(> defects of this Act, and a special Commission was appointed
\a:> eiupnre into and report on the subject (/j), with the result that
the eai'lier Act was soon afterwards re])lacod by the Foreign Enlist-
Tnenr Act. 1870 (i). This Act in ehect: (1) Makes it an offence puiL-
ishal)le hy tine and imprisonment, or either, for any person Avitliiu
British jurisdiction (/i') to enlist, or to induce any other person to
enlist without licence (Z) in the service of any foreign State (?;?) at
war with a friendly State (»"). (2) It attaches a similar penalty, in
addition to the forJ'eituro of the ship and lier e([uipment, to the
('•) Xiifn-fi. ]i. •2s;!: and, a< to tlic C/') Tlx^ ropDrf was [mblisliod in
oxtcn<i(in of tliis duty to casps of oivil 18()7.
war o]- insurrcftion ae'ainst a fricndtv 6) ,33 ^<;c 31 \\oi. c. 90.
rower, p. ?A>^-\^ ^j.^ Q,. ^Q^, .J i.„.;tigii subject any-
(r) Till' earlier sfatuti'S au-amst tor-
pi..rn .■nli-tmont. .sue!, as :; .lac. r. f. 4, .f'' ''i'' li''''"''"^ r(>li'rrr.d r<) is a
s/lS; !) ('.00. 11. c. 30: and '29 ('Oo. lieiaice trdin tiic ( 'i-n\vn. duly >iu'niticd
II. :■. 17. w-rc di-i-iMMi rallaT Tu a. rr. , ui rrd l.y •^crt . 1 .:>.
Li-aai'd .i.;-aiii-t tlie I'e.-rnit uient id' the {,n) lly virrue of tlic interpretation
t'lrrrc- .li' ri)rei';-ii I 'oweps f roni aiiiiiii--st. clause, -eet. 30. this includes any jiro-
the di-'i'i'e.inl - u i . i ee; s , , f iheCri.wu. viu'-e. oi" part of a St;ite, (u- any
(/) Two iioialde drri-idiis .ui till.' jiei-sous as-umini,' to exercise jrovern-
Act a;-!' .//,'.-c;. ,'. V. SUhi:, r-_' II. ('. tnet't v.\ qv over the same: >ee Th,-
•131). whi.'h l::c; 1 u alr";:,ly ref.'rred ^r' ,-,,,], ,, . sup,-'!.
to:'aMd /'■.•.• .<•'/.■.''. /■ ,1.. 1';. 3 I'. ('. f,;) Seef. 4. Pi'ovisieu is :,\^o
21s ), wliere I he At \\'as held ioa|iply made for tin' TUinishmeiif of aeis .aiul
to the litliuu' on! of vess,.]-: in aiil nf M!feni-es in .■I'nj oi- ahetment or' the
insui'j'eill -. Il'.'ini'i oal oll'enee: .-ee ser;-. ."). (i. 7.
:!72 Case^ iind Ojihiions on Intcrnulional Law.
iollowiiii;- ;ut-; ( ;u Hiiililiiiti'. <.ir ajireciii:^- to Ijiiild a ship with in-
tent or know Joilu'<'. oi' willi ica^oiialile caiHc lor beliol'. that tlie
sunie i- to ho <'iii])lo\ od in the militaiy *)r naval service ol' any f<ji-eig'n
.St»ile at war wiih a I'rioiidly State; i h; i.ssuini;' a conunission to any
sliip wiili the like intent ; ^ c > Ofjnippini:- any sliijj witli the like intent ;
oi; ( d ' allii\\in:i' the do.s[>aieh of any >]u]j with tlio like int'OJit(o).
lUit rliese jtenahies arc not to attach 1o a jj(n'son Avlnj is Iniilding-
or L'(iuij)|!inL; a .shijj in pursiianc^^ of a coirtract made before war,
jirovideti iie leaves notice, upon the issue oi' a proclamation of neu-
tralit}-. to the Secretary of State, furnishes tlie rec[uired par-
ticulais, and[ 5.:i\-es s<'curity au'aiirsi ihe removal oi' the ship before
tiie ti'rinijialiiin ^)\ the \Mir'];>. ( .'! ! \\ aNo juakes it an oit'enee,
siniikirl\- puni'-lialih'. foi' any person, wiihin ilei- Majesty's dominions
and witlinut Jicem.-e. laitoaid in t he w ,u lil;e ('((nij.uneni oi- an.;.i'n!enia-
tirm (it tnrc of an\ ship in the na\"al or mdiiaiy seixdce of a rorei'..i'a
Mat(> al war uil h a fii<Midl\ Slatei'r/ i : uv ! b) to lit out. or 1o aid in the
HitinL: 'Hit nt, any naval or jnilitar}- (■xpedition a^'ainsi ijif dominions
of aiiy fi'iendl;.- Siai:'^/'!. ' d i j\ll :dii]7S oi' ;C:'Oods i-aptuied either
in \ni!atii>n <.if t'.iiijsli neuira[i'i\. or b}' any sliip Ijuilt. e piij)])i;d,
commi.--ii nied. de>j)at^:heil. m- aiiLi'mented in force, in viidaiir)n of
that neulialit}'. and subso(piently In'ouadit into Jhitisli jxn-ts b\- the
captri!' f>r liy an-." other ]r'r>rni liavina' ];0>-e.-sion with jvnowled^-e of
sufh i]h"_alit\, are to be re-tored on ap])licjtiou made t^i the Court
by tlio owner or the State to uduc!i lie licjoii^'s f'.s- -. (■)} The Act,
with a vi-w to tlie pre\euiion ut' such oliences, ejilarL;'es considorablv
the jiowers of the excLaiiive. lai by elilj)o^veriJli;■ the Secretary of
State i7 . if sati-fiod (hat a ^hip Ini- been liuib. equip])ed. oi- com-
mis>!oi;ed cr,nt)'ar\' to ijie /\ci. to is^nc a Avarraiil of arrest fi/ i : id)) b\-
eiupow"! inir Moc.d aut!iori!i<':~ to arrest or detain a ship, oven
with(jut surh a wairant. on in tormalion to flie same elfect reasonablv
be]ie\c'fl bv iliem to be tru'-trr. aial mm liv empf)werina' tlie Seci'e-
tar\- of Stair' I, /I. in case- of sn-i)io-i(ni. to issue a -earch warj'ant
<i\-er an\ (h I'-hvai'd or other ph'u-''i//t. All pi'o'-eedini:'^ nnder the
.■V't fill' the cc;nd,eninati'iii of vcs-el- nmsi ha\-^' the sanclion of the
Sccrot:ii'\' Ol' Siate uy chicd' evccu' i\'e aui!i'>rity. and al! sindi ea^es
nnr-^: be tiled iii the t':,ui-t- ot Admira Itw wdijcii i'or -ihe pnri)ose is
ii!\-e-i<'d \\-ith all it,- <n'dinar\- powei'< in addiiion In lho-e ccrnl'eri'e<l
b\' tiC' .\ci ( ; ). la the eas'' wliore a shij' ha- I'e.'ii -ei/ed or detained
witiien^ '■I'asoaable '-an--". d:i lea '_;■<'- ma\" bo a \\:i ided (' /v i. abhiaej-h
( r.) SrT : .ffi . 8. Tlif ■'•' lik'r- intent"" and ns to t!io punishment oP neccsso-
in I ;ti-it f;i.(. i< intiaiiii'd trj i-o'.vt I'i'--. \y.i\'\' in l lii- and otlwi' (-ii-r^ in!c|i-|-
■■inti'in or j:nii\\-l('il'j'c oi- !i;i\iiiL.' tli" Act. s. 12.
l'c;i -On;il,lr ciju-i' tn ri'ii(.\-. "' ; ;in(i in (^) S. 11.
the I'.-i-c (it illc-.-il .-liii'lniiMinu- snch (I , Or flic chicr cxccut i \-c nutli'.-
iniiin v.'ill li'' p''c-uni"i| nnli-- 1 hi' (-on- i-il\-: <'■,. p. :;7;;. ;,,/,v/.
ti',-a-\- i- ]i!o\o(i: sec s. \i . \n) Ss. L'.'J. '24.
(p) S. S. fr^ S>. 21. 22. 2i.
(',•:' ,S. 10. (..■ , Sec n. ' I ). s,,,,,,i.
I r .\\i\- .-'i:|i-, 01' cniii i.ncnt. or t v ; S. 2.').
.-n-nis or innnitiun- or' w.ir invo!\e<t f ■. ) S~. I!). .'iO.
l.einc ];h(;\vi.-c tortciic,!: - c :,. !1: f„; S. -j.:}.
Xdlhnud Xeutralih/ Laws. '.u'-\
all pei'suiis jutiiiL:' in pursuance ol' the pf.)\vers coal'oiTcd b\' tin;
st;Uuti_> ai'c ))(_'LS(inally cxouiplod I'roin liability (^/; i. Tlu: Act itsoll'
is inadi' applicalile tu ;ill l->i'itisli doniiiiion.s, iucludiiiu' adjaeeul Icrri-
torial Avalcr.s ( ('i; 1 he ])()\\<ms (-(ad'criod \)\ it (Jii llio SociolaiT oi'
8Uite Ixdng- oxcrcisoablc in cci'iain places uut-slde (ireal Britain by
certain specilied ollirei's, and in any liiiiisli ])o-,sGssion l)y tin:
Governiir (il ).
The dbsci'N aucp i.if n(nitral duties, on ilie <.)Utl)reak ui' war between
other States, is furtlici- iiuailraled and enforced h\ a Proclamation
oi' Xoiitraiiiy and by i1h' i-^sue ol special X'euirality Orders. So, ojl
the 11th Februarx. 1!)M I. on the outbreak ot' the Kusso- Japanese war,
a Proclanialioii was issued i 1 ) onjoiiiiim' the stiict ol)servance of all
inniiral oliliiialioiis. whetlier ini|)0secl l)y municipal or inter national
law; I'l) sctiinu' out those sections of the l-'oieiun Enlistment Act,
187tt, '\\hicli dcnl with illeual enlistnieni, shipbuilding-, and expedi-
tions (t^i. as \M'll as (he purport ot' other sections dealing' with pro-
cedure; i /'i; and hnallv (o) directing- attentioii to the fact that persons
enuauinu' in tiie carriau'e ot' conlrabaml, or broach of blockade, or
othei- acts in deroii'ation of ninUral duty, -were subj'ect to the risks
of liolliu-ercnt. capture and i nuKl ilaim jjo prot(n'tion from their ow]i
Cb'Vi'rnmerd. i fi ) .
Idie X'outialit\" Oi'dei's issued on the same in-ca.sioij ( // i were in
ellect as follows: i i ) Ikdli^'orent ■\\arships were ])rohil)iled from
using' !!ritish_ port.s or territorial waters as a station or resort for
an> warliki' purposes, or for obtainina' facilities for warlike equip-
ment. 1 1* i Xo ship of war of either helliuerent A\as to be ].)(M;mitted
to ]i'a\e an\" jxtil ur wati'rs from widch .my ves-el, wln'ther a warship
or iu'crciiaid' ship, of fJio oihor belliuereni had de})arted, until after
tlu' expiration of at least 2-1 Jiours. (3 i \n\ Ijelliu'erent warship
fnieriu!^' a ISriiish port oi' ierritorial w;it(}rs wa^ re.piii'e<l to depart
Avirhin Jf liours after her ^nii raiu;e. exe>'pi in cases of stress of
A\(>ather. or i»f hci' being in. need of things nec(vssary for subsistence,
or of her fjoiuL;' in neOvl iif repairs ; in widch ( a><vs siie amis
to be reipii'.-cd to depail as mmui. a> -po-sililo i laei'after. without
beinu' pernultcd to take supplje,- exci^pi <\\v\\ a^ might l/O
necessary for inmuMJiaie u-^c. or in lla^ ca-c of re])air-. watldn
2-J- liniii'.- aflci' l!ie ncM'e.--ar\- r(^iialr- fiad been oHocted : but
subject in all c;i-'as to the rule uf 2 1 Jiuai'-' inler\al. ( f ) Xo shi])
of wai' or cMhi'i' 1 ic!!i;i'ei'(Mit" \-(>---cl m Ihilish jimUs or watei'^ ■.-.as to bo
]')e]'ndtO'(! to iai-;<' in an\ su.p]ilie-- except pru\-isioirs and other things
reiousiti^ f()!' ihe - idi<is'<Mii'e of h.(\r crew, ami <'oal .~,Ui!icienl to carrv
her t/) th.e ntMresi pm'i lu'leai' own eounirw or to some nearen- named
ntmiial i|c-t inat iiai : and im "oal wa- in bo vU|)j)He(l tn tln^ saitic
slti])- in tlic -amo or auv .ali;>r Ih'iii.-h ]inri oi- watoi'^. walhoni
(!>'. <-.. -1^. ■1\). (n\ n. X i-^. S. J', xcvii. (I:'00-lfH)l\
47t;.
(h) TIiosi^ iu-e foutaiiicd in a eir-
,.;■''. 1). '172. lailar ot the -;ii!U' date addressed to tlio
,, ■. |). ?~,1. \':ii-inii-; p-aldic uHices; hondnn (Jazottc,
utIi V(^^. inot.
S-.. 4 -!■'
•'^74 Cases and Opinions on International Laiv.
special penni.Svsiou. until after tlie expiration of three luontli.s.
( --) ) Armed ships of <>it.her liellio-erent were interdicted from carrj -
iny prizes made liv them into British j)ortfi or -waters. The Governor
or other chief authority was required to notify and puhlisli these
rides in all British possessions beyond the seas(i;. By further
Orders issued on the 8tli August. 1904, it wa-- directed (1) tliai
the hos]jitality usually accorded to belligerent warships in neutral
jiort- shuuld n<jt lie taken to extend so as to enable .such
\es>eL^ to u>.e neutral ]iorts for the purpose of hostile oj)Oi-aLioiis;
I '1 1 tliat the existing regulations as to supplies and coal must not.
therefore, be understood as having any application to the case of a
belligerent fleet proceeding either to the seat of war or to positions
on the line of route, with the object of intercepting neutral vessels
on 6uspieion of carrying contraband of war; (3j that such a fleet
sliould not be permitted to make use of a British port in any way
h)V tlie purpose of coaling, either direi'tly from the sliore or from
colliers acrrim])anving the fleet, and this whether the vessels of tJie
licet presented tliennselves at tlie port at the same time or succes-
sively; and i4; that the >ame restrictions Avere to be imposed on
single belligerent ve.-sels. if it a\;i.- clear that they Mere proceeding-
for the purpose of belliu-erent o]ieratiijns as abijve defined: although
I . J I these rules wei'o not to ajjply 1i> ves.-,els putfina' into port in
distress (Ic).
Amongst the mme notable decisions on the application of the
i-'oi'cign Enlistment Act. 1870, are the following: — In tlie ca-^e of
t;i" (rOHiitlf't . L. K. 4 P. ('. 184 ■ where a Bi'itish tug liad been
euiphned Ijy the Frencli (.'<insul at Dover to tow a (merman merchant
\e-sel that had been taken a- ]>rize b}' the French, from English
waters to Dunkii-k roads- -it was lield b\- the .Judicial (Jimimittee of
tlie Ib'ivv ('ouncil ( h that such employjncni amounted to "a despatch-
iiiL;- of tlio .-biji with inteni '' Aviiljin the meaniiig of sect. 8: and the
Xwj: wa.- accordingly eondemued a> a forfeiture to the ('rowii. This
soi'ves t(i brin:^' a meie auxiliaiy sei\ii-<> "within tin' s( oj;e of the Act:
a piiint on ^vhil4l the British iieiiti'alitv law ajipeai-s to li'o bi'vond tlie
rei|ui)-ements of international lawi///i. But. in the case of the
I ittenuitloind TL. J-i . .'5 A. (.t ¥.. 321 i— where a British vessel during:
the siiiiie -^var \\a^ oinplo\eil. under contiaet with the Fi'eiieli (ioverii-
iiient. in la\iiiu' down submarine cables between certain portions ol
tin.' Fieneli coast -it was held that such an employment did not
<onie wirliiii the provisii.ins of the -Vet. even thoua-h th<.' cables when
laid iiii'jht Ix' us<m1 iiici<hMitalJ\ t'rn' military purposes, ^^r the reason
lhiU tie' -civii-i' wa- priiiiaiiK nf a cuiumei'i-ial <'liai-a'-lia\ ami that
the '\\('v 111 is-il lilii \ ill' a militarv us<> was nri! sufficient to invest
(') .Src i;. ,v I", .s. ]'. vol. xr-vii. 211. 2:32.
M(t(i:]-l!)Ot :. IM. '111.-- i'nrfi-j-ii.hiris- ('/■ ; Soc J-'arl. I'apcrr^ f 1 IKI.") . Euxia.
(lictioij \cMti-ality (Irdi'i- in (Vjiincil" Xo. 1. C'd. 2:>tS.
and the -' llriri-li I'l'iitc^tur.-ircH \fu- (I) IJfversiiiir tlio (liM'ision of the
tralitv (JnliT in ( 'oumil, ' w.i'i- horh Cmu'r nf Aflinirall v.
i--i.4 nn th. -J nil ().■:. |!.ui: ;/,;,/. ( „, , Sc.' W.-tl'aki'. ii. IOC.
Naliomd Neulralitij Ldius. ;i70
it -with a naval or military character within the meaning of the
section. In iUuj. v. Sandoval and others (5G L. T. 52Gj, it was
iicld that the ollcnco of preparing- a hostile expedition, under
sect. 11 of the Act, was sufhcieully constituted by the purchase
by a foreigner tlieii resident in England of arms and ammunition
there, and by tlieir shi[)ment theiic<! to a foreign port for the pur-
pose of being put on Ijoard another vessel, also purchased in England,
with the knowledge thai both ship and creA\- were to be used in a
hostile demonstnuion against a friendly State, even though the
defendant took no j)arl in any overt act: of war, and even though
the vessel was not fully ei|uip[)ed for the expedition within the
British dominions (n).
(ii; TUK UNITJ-M) STATES.
THE UNITED STATES r. aUINCY.
[1S3'2: 6 Peters. 415: Seott, TOti.]
Case. J Tlio defendant in thi> ease was charged with, an offence
under si'ct. o of the Xeutrality .Vet. 1818 'j/ifj. This prox-idcs,
in. olfi'ct. that if any person shall, within the limits of the United
States, tit out and arm, or knowiugly bi' concerned in the iitt ing
out or arming of any sliij). with intent that such ship shall be
em^iloyed in the service ol' an\' foreign Stat", to cruise or commit
hostilities against the subjects or pro[)erty of any fcn'cigu State witii
"wliich the [ nited States are at peace, every })ersunso olfendmg sliall
be guilty of a mi>demeanoui' and liabh^ to line and ijuju'isonmeut.
It appeared from the evidenc(^ that the defendant had superin-
tended at Baltimore the making of certain re[)airs or alterations
of a vessel called the "' E(di\'ia ; that this vessel luu] subsefpiently
left Baltimore. ha\ine- an equipment ])eyond that of a merchant
vessel, and with some warliki' stores on board : that she had then
proceeded under his eonimand. the owner beino- also on board,
to St. Thomas, ^\•h('■re tiie owner, lia\'ing procuriHl the necessar\-
funds, (\piip|tcd lier as a privateer: antl that slu' then assumed
the flag of the United St.ates of l/i Plata, and tlunvalter eiaii-ed
and committed lK)slilitie,^ asrainst tlie subjects and ])roperl\' of
(;<) 15ut fdinit- under .seer. S fur faile<l. See al<o /?'/;■/.,;; v. Pi;,A->">-(on
cquiyipiiic: and (li'>|iate}iinLr witli intent (1.. Ii. '2 I'lxcli. old. :ilS).
(,'/') Xnw s. -Vis:!. |!i'\ . Star.
'47() Ca>sCH and Opialon^ on Jnltriiatioiial Laiv.
the Emperor oi' Brazil, with wlioiii tlio L'liJtcd Stalo- were then
at peace. The dofendant, on returning- to the Uuit'.'d States, was
prosecuted on the char^'e aforesaid. On tlic trial of tlie ca.sc
before the (.'ircuit Court, and after the elo-i' of tlie <'vi(h'nce,
each party prayed for ]:)articuLai' in-tiantions to tliL' jni'y on
certain ]ioijit< of Jaw. As t!ie opinion.- (if thi' judfi'os dift'(;rcd.
the ca-e wns ndVri'fd for d<"'i>ii)ii "ii the-c jioints tij th(j Supri'ine
Court .
Judgment. The iudiiuicui of tiii' Sujireiur ('ouri di'a]>. Iir>t,
with the (-[Ue-^tion a< to \\\\nl woxxld >\\[\u:v to (■(m.-titulc " -v littini^'
out and ariuiuii' of liu' Vi'ss"! m tlii' ( nit!' 1 ,Sta^'> witliin
the nii'auijiL!- of th" >tatut''. Afti^r j'^d' ■rj'inii' to ihr cont-'urion
])Ut forward on hi'halt' of ihi' did'ciKhmt that au a''( ji.iil tal -houlcl
I/O dir-'Cti'ih if it ^\\'V^' i'tjund that thf \' 's^fl on f>;i\iiiii- fjui! iinorc
and on hi/r arri\al at Si. [iioma- wa-~ ncjl fully aj'ni-' d or in a
ooijdiitioii \<) I'Oiimiit liM-tilil ic-. ;!!'■ ( ourt iadfd tlial cither iittinp-
out or a.rniiiio' w;i- ■)\\ oii'i'iic'; ihai it wa- jiot !icfi'<sai'\' that thf
\"0.-r^i! >hould l!i''i] hi' ai'uii'd or in a <-')nd;no!i to i-r;iniiiit h')S-
tilitie-: and that th^ (Ai<'\v'- \\\\'Ai' ln' '•■jiniiiit 0';| -•\rii ihou^Jj
lier i(jiiijjj!ii'iii wa- not coinjdi'te w!i"ii Av h'l't t'l" [ iiiti-'l Statics
and cx-i-iL thoui^ii tlie <'rui-i' did not I'onuii'aice miiij lu 'O v/cre
]'(jcruit'd anii t'urliie.r ciiiijinient iiiadi at St. jdi'iina-. DmiIjio',
nijxt, with the (|ii('-iion id' what windd >iifiiei> id show aoi inl;ent
t(j eiiiphj\- rhe \-i'--cl l\{ t;lie >er\-!c • of a foieii:-n Sta'e ;nal !'-])er'i-
all\' with tlie eoiit'in 1011 tiiat an aeijuit'.M >iionld \):- dir^ete'd if
it v,-er • l'o:ind that when th;. \,.^-;i.| 1 i't tji,. I'niled S'ate< the
ow]iie- ]j;u| ]if, lix"i in1"nii(in to cnii lox' Ijer ,)- a {iri-.'at i'-r. lait
((n]\' a \\n>h >o to do. ilii' fultiliiient of whieji dej,,/nfli.d r,ii hi< olj-
tiiinijiL:' the jv:jiii>itM fund- -tlie Siijuvii!.' ('onrt nil d rliat-. in
order tr, ,-.lahlidl liahilit;, . llie.-;. |i|l|.1 l,;ix,. I;,.'n a li\el ;|)|(i
jU'e- eiii and iioi ni-i'id\' a eontiniient inteniion act iiall \- fornr';l h\'
the defiaMJaiit wdth j'e-])e,-t io 1 jir. :aii|ih)\ ment of llie \,..vrd Im i'on>
sho left tip. hniod State^: i,m that if 1h' w.av fonnd to have !,(.,.)i
hnowin;jl\ ei.ne-a-neil in th' liitine- fjiil r,|' \\y ■'■ n(di\ia" wiliiin
tla"' 1 nit'd Stai'-. with -iieh an inti'iition a- afore-aid. then til'
ollVnK':.' would not h pni-e-.l nieivlx' 1, .i-.-ni-- in th,. j-^nlt that
intent wa- frustrated hy .-uh-eijncut oei'urrenec<.
yathmiil Xeulralitij Laws.
Tin- cii-c .-{'I'M'.- lu luaik a di-l ijictiuii which iiOi':l.< ai\\a\-.s io
lie ial<('ii. <i)uiit dl'; liu! (ii-t iiirii(]ii, tlial, i-, iictwccn ihc iia.lioiiai and
tiic iiit<Miiaii()iiai law el' iitMit ralii v . l^'or aiilioiiuli, (jii tlie puinl lii-t
lull' I oil. tlic lialiilily \m\\\ <it' llii' Stale in inlciaiat ioiial law. and (d'
the iiidi\idiial iiiidri' thai parlicidar iniiiii(i|ial (-(Mle. W(Mdd apj)Oar
lo he u'MNcriuMl h\- th(> same jji'iiiciplc i ^m. \(M. on tin; -^iMMiiid point,
it 1- i-|(>ai that Ud liahiliU' wonid he inciii'i't'd li\' a State t'l/oni a
mere de-ii;ii (in the pafi <it' indi\ idn-al- snlijcsct to it.- jiiri-flict ion,
A\hii]i \\a- nut. in I'act cai'i'ied into e.\(>cut ion i /> ).
Tiirninii- io (he lUMilralilv law- ol' the I nltcil State-, we Jia\'e
ali'eadx' -eee, how tlio ina(!e(p,iac\' ot' iN eoniinon law powers in tlie
sit ea I ion in which the I'niteiJ Sraies ( dA'ernnient then I'oiind it-(di' ( r),
led lo tlie pas-iiic' (if iho X(>iitralil\- .Vet of 1 7;» k wJu<di, ultlioiiii-li iri
the liisi in-iani-e teniporavw Mas iiia<le p^M'iiianent in IH(li). Tliis
.\et wa- ilii'cete:! more esp(M'iallv au'ainst the eidistmcnt ol' men and
the i--ii(> of foreign eommis-iuns m ( idieii. Sial"- leiriloiy. ih" an*,;'-
meiitation there ol ;h.e foi'cv of !(ii'eie'n warships, and llu* pi'epara-
tiou ih'M'e of hostile <■ xpel it ions a'.rainst a t'riendU >e.i1e. in \do]atioii
of I nited State- iient ralil \' ; and eonferreii ex((er-i\-(> powers on the
(e\ecuti\e 1 io\ (Minneni with a view to th.eii' prexioo ion. Altliou^'h
now leplaceil li\ other- le^'islaiion. iIk' ]ias>ino- ,if ilds Act eoir-tilutes
an epo'h in. tlie hiisii)i'\- nf neutral it \-. foi' the rea-oii tliai it n>.i only
s(M a hi'^iim' standard of neutral dnty tlntn iiad liitherlo prevailed,
lad \!iinali\ pi- 'par^'l the way tor i:!:ni\- of \\w now aecf'pted rides
as iTeai'ds nenlial ihiii','s in maiitiiuf^ wai'iJ.. It was sid.iseipiently
rc^pla.'i. ! 1,\ rli<' Xentrality Act. IS18(>.', whiclr. liko the I'.ritish
Foi-eivn I'ddistment .Act. 1819, was r(Mid(M-(>d necessar;. l>y the eir-
(.-nmst I iH-es of the wars •which w<M'e then proceodiiiL;- l>etweeii Spain
and I'oi-niLial and their re-p<:^ctiv(' American colonies. 'j'lie more
im]iorta!it ])rovisions of lids .Vet a knowledo-;> (if whicji is e--pntial
to a proj)!'!' appreciation of the .Vmerii-an d<Mdsions ai-e in otfoet
a.- l'ollow-i /i- I 1 ) !t makes it .•! criminal oiiciic(> foi- any eitiz<m
to aci-epi and e\e;-(ise witldn the j n rr-d I'-t ion of the I luted Slates
a cMmm!--:on to serve aio.' fo'ieiuii State'//', in war. airain-i a Stale
A\-ith which the knited "siMtf--- are at ])"ace. \'1\ It makes it a
criiiiinal ol'i'ence fm- an\- pie-son within the like jurisdiction to
<^;d!-t, :'r to pi-oi-nre a!i\- oihci- pei->rr,i fi enli-t or to l;-. > ahi'oad
t'lif the piii-pu- ' of eidi-t i 11!^-. ill the -ervice of anv foi'eii;-ii Stato
on Icard aii\' \c--;d of wa'.-(//i. ' •'. i [' ako makes it a criminal
offeiic" l:ii- a n \' rci-..(.!i Viithjii the iimiis nf ijc 1 nit^vl Staff's
(n) A---.au'mL;-. tli:it is. rii.-e llicrcjiad
been n i;i"k (if \iu'ii;Mi
of ll:c St:,tc; . - ,/". !.. :! I I .
(h) Sec W'rMlakc. ii. ISf).
-> V,,,,,. . p. :;(is.
-') .-■,,■-. y. :;i7.
( ' 1 'i'lii< !ia\ illL.'- lie. 'II i!i-i'.--<lr(l l)y :
tciujici-ary Act of isl 7.
•' ! \ Sci'. ::ow. \\'-\ . S; it . ■<. .'.llSl-
('/) 'I'lie tci'tn u-i"l tlirn'i'.dioMt i-
any i'(>rcit:-n jwincc. State, ccloiiv,
1 liic pari (li~M-icf. er ])coiil('."'
I. ' /' ; ''"hi- i-. lio-\vc\-cr. sni'j.'cr ro an
e\ri';i; inn \\-li('rc a jicr-n;-, only ii-m-i-
. airly ii! ihc I'nitcd Stares i''.;li<ts on
a \-i'~<.'l !iclii:iL:-ine- tn his (iwi. Stare,
-licli \-e->el luoiae- lieen ei .in j iletely
titled iMir and i-iiiiinii--iiinc'd lieforo
arri\al in the IniO'd Stat.'-: K'ev.
Slat. <. ."c^'.)!.
■378 Cases awl Opinions on International Law.
('a ) to tit out Of ana. or to be kiiowing-ly eonc-Gnied \\\ fitting- out
\jv ariuiny. any vessel with intent to employ her in the service
of a foreign State to commit hostilities against a friendly Stato (^),
<jr to issue a e(jmmission to such vessel with the like intent; or
( b ) to increase or augment the force of any vessel of war oL'
any foreign State at war wiili a friendly State; or (cj to prepare
any military expedition to proceed thence ag-ainst a friendly State.
i4i It also confers on the executive government exceptional powers
wdth respei-t to the detention, restitution, or expulsion of vessels, in
cases uf d<'lintptency ; I'equires the owners of armed ves.sels owned
in whole or part by citizens, and leaving the United States, to g-ive
security against their illegal employment, and authorizes the deten-
tion of stich vessels by the local authorities in cases of suspicion:
and finally etnpo'wers the President to employ either the land or sea
forces in order to execute its proyisions. This Act, although in
some resi^ects less precise in its terminology than tli(} corresponding-
British Act. deals, it will be seen, with much the same classes of
tojiics. Like the latter Act, it applies to aid given to unrecognized
insuro-ont-- against a Government in amity Avith that of the United
States (7 s but not to aid given to the parent State against a revolt-
ing communiry whose Ijelligerency has not lieeii recognized by the
United States i?/n. In the t'liited States, as in Great I'ritain. it is
usual <^\\ the outliroak oi wa)- between foi'eign States to issue ii
Pror-lamatiou of Xeutrality up.
'Die United State> neutrality laws have been the suljject of a
gi'cat varicMy uf d<'ci-ions. s<imo of which haxe alreadv been referred
toioi. .Vinnng.-t others the folhiwing are especially noteworthy:
In the Said'isx'niio Tr/iiidarl (7 AVheat. l2S;j i. a vessel preA-iiuislv em-
])loyed a- a ])ri\al<'or had been refitterl in the Unite! State-- nnd sent
bv her n-wners under the Ameiicaii flag- to Ihieno.^ AA're< f(ir sale as a
coiiimorcial adv(Miture: she was there sold u> ami siib--e([iiently com-
mi-^-ioiied a- a ves-el of war l:)y the ljuen<,)s Aajc- ('0\erniuent,
iti which I'hai'acter. and after recruiting ttieii in a United States
jXji't. she toiik ]iart iiL the cajMure of certain Sjianish property:
thi- tla.' ('onrt wa- jmw asked \(t restoi'C. a- haxiiiL;- been taken in
violation of the local neutrality. In the-e ciicuni^taiice.- it was
held Hi that ther(> wa- noihiiii^'. (uther in the Xcnl lalitA" Act^
or in the law of nation-, whicji ]irecbid":l liiite I Siati'- citizens
from -cjiilinc' aiiiieil \('--el.- a- well a- iiuinition- of war to
foicio-ii jiurt- foi' .-ah', thi- b<'inu' in ihc' natuic of a .-ale of con-
trabaiid. which no State A\a- bound to piohibii : but 2) that
innsiiiiicji a- thei(> ha'l been a sub.-eipUMit illegal augm<Mitation of
i'orce within I nitotj Stat<\- territoiw ( ry ^ thi< must be re^i'arded as
• ) ^■'.'/''. \<. :!77. 11. '/ . Jupfiiio^c war. ,^ci' tlic St;itiitcs at;
(/; '//■' 7/,^.' /■■,;c„,/,U: jtiii [ . S. f.ari;'c. I'.IOIM i)0.). ]>. -IXVl.
1). ('/) \ suiiuriai-y nf tlic jiidirial his-
i „''j Opii-. (if 1 . S. ,\.-<;. vol. xiii. tory of tlic -uhjoct down tn Isdi; will
l.'^fiO. iic fdinul in Wlicaton iDaiia). n.
(}i) for tlic tcian^ oi' tlic j.riiclama- "-'I."): wliil-t tlic mure iniinM-f a iit of tie
ticn i.--\icd nil the (th I'd). IHOI. on I.itra- ci^i'- will he fdund in Scr)tt.
or in anticijiation of the liu.sso- ('/> In the slia|M; of an ciilir^tincnt.
^^aliondl AcatralUij Ldws. 37!>
vitiuliiiu- all capiuio.s iiijidii during' limL cniiso. with tlic result that
the piococds of such capluros found witliiu the jurisdiction must be
restoiM'd I M. In lh<> lulled Sluies v. Trumbull (48 l\'d. Jiep. 99:
.Scott. 7.'!1 ', ii appraieil lluit the defendant, during the civil war in
('hilc. ha<I cMiiie to the I iiited States and there made extensive pur-
chasiw ,if anus and miiidtions of war on behalf of the (Jougressional
party, and that the ll'iln. a ( 'hilian vessel, then in the service of
rlic party, had been Llespaiched from Chile to fetch these, and sub-
sei|uentl\ took deli\erv of them within the territorial waters of the
United States from a small vessel on which they had been shipped
for that purpose by ihe defendant . On these facts the defendant was
subse(juently indicted for a violati(jn of the neutrality laws, it being-
cliarged, amongst other things, that he had been concerned in the
illegal iitting out of an armed v(\ssel " with intent'" (s). as also in an
illegal angmcniation of foi'ce i / 1. and in the preparatir»n of a hostile
expedition ( u c ll was. howcv«M-. Iiehl in elfect ( ./■ i i 1 i that the mere
sending of a ship fi'om ('liih.' to the Tiuted States to take on board
arms aii<l amnuinition |)ui'cjiased in that country and carry them
back to Chile, did not con-^tituto either a "fitting' out and arming,"
oi' a ■' furnishing ' of the vessid. or a " setting on foot rd' any nnlitary
exiK'ditioii," within I'nc meaning of the sections in ([uestion, there
Ijeing no law fofbidding any person or (iovernment from purchasing-
arms from the citi/.eiis of the I'nited States and ship])ing' them at the
risk of the purchas<'r i // 1 : and i2) that the fact that much seciiecv
and d(^cO]itioii had been practised by those on board the Itatu,
and that she had tin-all \- (piitted San Diego in violation of other pro-
vision-- of the domestic lawi:), did not sutiice to biing the case
within the purview of iIh' statute under -which the charge was laid (a).
These oc-currem e> al-'i L;a\e ri-e to a furtlu'r contro\ (M;>y Ijeiweeii tin'
I'nited States and Chile. On vi>iiing San J)iego. ihe Ilnla had
lieen arrested on suspicion by the I'nited States authorili<'s. but had,
whilst in tin' cu^iodx of the marshal of the Court and with that
o nicer on boat d, made her (>>ca pe. a iid. after la ndiiiu' him and shipping-
1 he arms and ammiiidiion alr<M(l\- jeferred, to. had proceeded on
h(M' ^■ovage to Chile. Tlier(Mi|ion she wa-< jiursued and arrested
(ui the higli seas 1)\- a riiite<l Stat<>s warsliip. but <!\'enlually released .
A claim for damau's wa- subx^ipient l\ preferred hy the owners of
the llula aiiain.-i the I'niteil State- ( Jox (M'liment mm the ground
that the seizure oi' the ve-^sel out-id<> the I'nited States jurisdiction
nf men. who. in dcl'ault ot proot'. could Iriiiidly ruwci': Scou. (liC).
not be |irc~unie(l to iir siilijiM-ts of tin- ^^^ IimIim'< .V's:! -.(••' o :]~s s-'/zv
St;in' .if rlH> tl:ii:- -,-",'/". |i. :!77. II. ;'/■ ■,. . , -' ',_'*' '
(,-) Scott. 701. S,.,. aUo /■. .V V. " ' M.lrr -...-is.)..,... |,..,s..wv„v,..
77/' Mrlr,,r iSc(.)tt. 7in. Till IioIkU i"i I ml.T <. .VJsii. -(>(■ p. :37.S. .v"//;-/-.
wliirh arc takiMi. uihIi'I' tlir nriii rality ( ,,■ , |;,,tli in the Di-tiirt anit Cii--
laws, fi-om ai-nit.<l \i'S-rN sailinu- from |.,|jf ('imrr-.
till, fiiiti'd St.-itc- anil .iwiinl liy
I niti'd .--^t.-iti'-" citizi-n-. ai'o ^nl.irct to ^,] j-.-,
I III- comlithm that I h.' \ |.--.'U -hal! ' " "' .
m.t Ur rmpliiyo.l - hv -iirh ,.-,vmT- '■ t.. ' ' ■> ^''""«-
crui-c or commit hu-tilirii-- aii-ainsi a (") Scott, ti'l.
•I ' Src ( (pinhm- of I . s . A t j .-( irii.
380 ('((Si'S <(n<J fJpinlnns on Infernntional Laiu.
^\as illoi;al. Tlii-- \\as rot'orred for clotoi'Jiiinatioii to a (Jominissiou
appointt^d uudi'i' 1I10 L'nited Slates and Cliiliau Claims Conveaiiou
ol' 18'J2. with lli(^ ro.suli tliat an award was ultimately made in favovir
of tho claimants (c).
Ckm-kaj. Nojks. The IicUitiGii at the .Xallu/ud la llw I ntcr-
■/{■■itiui/al LiUf (jj ^,'^'ufralitl/.~ \s Ijotwoen Slates, the (.luiies uf iieu-
Tiality. in si rictnc.-s. dcjit'iid ujxm and ]nu>i I.ip nioa-iiied by intcr-
iiaiiunal law. The lo(?al neutialitv laws, ajiari i'l'dni ilicir bearing'
nil internal order, mereh' ie]Me>ent tin' ]n<'ans ])rii\-ided In- eadi State
Inr enablinL;' it'-ell' to I'ullil its interuatii.uial (imies. If. on the one
hand, tlios:' laws fall short of intern itional rei|nirejneiits. iheir iii-
^-iuiieiency eannot be pleaded as aji exeu^e for tiie non-di-^eharye of
an internal ioiial duly. 'Jdii- wa< formall^' j'lilo:! by the Geneva
Tril)unal I f/ 1 ; and does not ap])ear lo he in any way (piablied by
the terms ,,i the liauue ( 'tnivention. Xo. !•'! ot litoTu'i. If. 'jn th(^
olhcr hand, tinj-e laws impu-e oblig-aiioirs and le-iiii lion.- in excess
<_il' international reqiiiroments. ibis I'act caniK.it strictly ex;<Mul the
rango or i aise the standard of inttn'tiatioJial duty as ;ii:'aiii-t the
IVnvei' in inie-timi. Heine, in ihcMuy. a belligeienl i-annot ii'eat
their noii-cnl'oi-ccineni a- fau-e ot olicice -o long as imeriiat injial
obliLiatioiis are coiiipli(> I with. ian in pract ice tlu' relai imi iietwecn
tile !\M) is -oiiicw iiat mule iiiiimaie. In ihe Hr-i place, in the de)>art-
tiiciit of neiitralit\' even inoie than el-ewheic. i nleiMial iieia I standards
lia\-e ih'velo])ed laiLi'oh or mainh iin^lcr tlie influeiice of tlio
laws and ]ira''li'-(' of pai-t icu la r Sta'c.- 'c In the -ecoiid jda<e.
having' I'cu'ard to tlie iini-crtai ill \" and laol^ ol mul'orinit\" thai lia\e
hifherni ihara<iej'i/<'d 1 he laistotnaiw law. it \\as oidv natural tliat
an au'U'i'iext'd belliucrein -hcadd. in i-a-e of doubt eoid wicje '.he
loi ;d ni'utra!i'\' law favoured his claim. ap])eal ici ihat law as rejUM^-
-I'liiinn ilic. neutral Slate- own e-tiiuate of it- ie.Ku'iiaticiua I olilio-i-
tioji^. Ii(Mic(>. fnun the point of ^■iew "f polir'\-. and a))arf from
the i[ue-;ion of internal lU'der. it is 'probalih' unwise fo!' a Stale
to make or re!ain neutralii\' law- tliat are manifesil\- in cxi-c-s of
iiiteiiiai ional r<M juiKMneats 1 ^/ i : altliouah it miisi needs ])e a'hnitted
that if ibis had been ai-icd on in praelic<' the law of neiiiraliU' Axotild
ha\'!' failed to reach its pre-eio d'cvelopineni . In the i'liturr*. hmv-
c'.ei. this di!iiiiibv i- lilvcly i > b(^ ie--;Mied \>v I he i^'reater ceiuiinly
ami delinitene-- wbi'-li !ia\e nnw b(>en inijiovK.d into ihi- hrancli of'
tlie law b\' ( '' .ii\ ei!! joii. and (.',-] HM;ia IK' \>\ the Ila^j'ue ( '' ui ventioji.
No. 1;; iif I'.ior. Tlii,- ( '.iii\ eniion. a- we Jiave s(H'!i. declares the
naliire ami limit- o!' n'Milial dul\' on a ijciMt varielx' of p.oin'- wliich
had hiilierO) b'aMi open to eom roxer-v ; and ii is pi'obaMe that the
I'o\v(n> whii-Ii ha\"e acceb'<l lo ii A\i!l <r).iner or later lirinc:' their
(r-l Sec Areore. TiiV. .\rl). iii. 30r)7
raid alo, M,;ere. Di-v.t. > j i . 1:^2.
o/) vw, ,... ,,. :;!!.
(r"t .\rt. 'I'y. cvoii thouLi'li ti:o duties
i::em-oho'- iiKiv !)c \aricd tlraT'liy.
. /. >'',,,-•. ,',,,. :j|}. :].^i. :m:5, "3,1!).
• r,^ Sc'c Thili. (ins. n.
Adtidital SiidraUbi Lnir.s
;J8I
iiciii nilil \ la\v> iiilo coul'i iniiity \\itli it. At tlii' saiiu; time. ]ia\-iiig'
j'('Mar<| In t)H> lad that tlic-c (Juiixculinii- .sti'ldly fi[)[)ly only
IkMwimmi tilt' siu-iiatoi'ies: that some States Jia\-e citlici- not accepted
tlieiu 111' lia\e acie[)teiL lliem uiider re'~er\ at iuu nt' partii-iilar j)ro\i-
siiiii-^: tlia.; tliev l<'a\e many ])oiiits iiiidoalt with; and that .sdiik;
o\ iheii- |ii iivi--iiuis ai'<' liable ti» he \ai'ieil !.)y ninnicipa I I'eLi'ula-
tioiL i // 1. it will ho eviiLont that Jiatieiial iieiitiality laws ave still
a uiaiter ul' int(M'nat iojial (•unceiii: whiht ou souk; siihjects tliey
are reijiiired to ho iiitcniationall\- notilied ( /;/n.
E.Kiiii jilt's uf Furcli/i/ }\eutyidil>i J.n'rs. The praetico ot' Slates
a> rei^anh- the eiiactiiienl oi' local neiit ralit \- laws \aries o'i-(.atly.
Sdiiie Slate-, like ('liile. issue neither jiioclainat imi iioi' reo'uJaiions.
Avhilsi iiiheis, Jih(> Mexicn. issue a "general <l(_'(daiation but. no I'egu-
latioji-; [)ieieniii<i', in either case, to j-ely i.m the uenej'al j)rinciple-;
<i|' iniernat imial law and on such pro\'i<ioiis of the iniiniripal coih;
a- nia\ lie appiicadilc. Otliefs. like (.ieriiianv and Ikduiiini. i-^iie
a pi'i iclainat ion or notiic aniiouncin!,;- the war. and enjoining*
in Li'Oneral tenn- the ob,-er\'a!ice <.)i neinral duiie-^'/'i. Others,
like Iha/il. pos<e-s permanent neutrality I'ly^ulai ions which operate
ipso f.iifi) on the oulbnnik of wari/;). Other Siate.v, Jike France,
publish a det'laration enibodyiug- neutrality regulations, although in
no very g-r(>at detail. So, on the 12th February, liiOd, on the oiit-
lu'oak of the l\uss()-.[a].)anese war, a dcclarafion of neutrality "wa.s
])romul'jaO'd b\- t he I'reiich (.ioxeriiment repeatiiig wit h some aniend-
juenls the neutralit\- reoadaiions that had beim i--ued in A.])ril,
ISDS. cm tli(^ outiireak of the Spanish-. \ nieriran A\ar. TIh'so eiiioin
<jn all l-d'Onch subjects and residents the duty of alisiaining from
ad-- ill II mt ra \cnt ion of rieul ralit \' ; foi'l)iil illegal <Milisiinenl or
the iMjuipinfMit or armanient of ve<<(ds: adnpl the rule ol' 21 hours'
Slav. e\i-ept in ca-es of forc(^il dela\' or jiisiiliablr' imcesviu-; forbid
the --all' of ])ri/e or bootv in Fi(Mic)i waiei-;; and announce that
jx.M'son- \'iolaliiiu' tlH><e reu'u lai ion- A\ill fi.rfeit liieir right io pro-
teriimi. and be liable in a ]uo]H.>r ca-e to iie ])i'0((>;Nded aa-ainst nndei
the laws oi' tli(^ b'epublic. ( )t he!' Sla ie>. a u'a i n . ii k'e t he Scandinax ian
Slate- aii-d Holland, issue a ])i'oclamai ion embodying neutrality re-
uulaiiims uf a very ihMailed kind. Idiu-. the proclamation i-^sued
In ihi^ Net hei la nd-- V 'ii\ ei'ume:il nutiH' 12lh l-'rlu iiar\ . I Oil (. aniong'st
oihiM' thin:.:-, i i i foi'bid-. within the buritory. all rei-i uiiiiig- by or on
b(dialf lit either b(d ligereiit . and the f ui iii-hing' uf either bollii;erenr
with \"e-.-ids of wai". or Avitli afins lu; jnunitinns of war: (2) prohibits
fhe eijiiippi ni:'. uf armini;'. or a UL''icc'iilaiiim of i'orre of anv ves.-e]
C* S.- If. C. \e. l:; nf liillT. Art,^. tic I'Jtli Feb, 1901.
II. li'. ]■'). lit. -J']. (/■) Tlu' ]5i-a/;llian Xcutralitv l^diit
(/'/ I'v iii''.-in- III' ;: ruiinii II i;i'-at ilia ef tlii' llitili Api'il. I.SOS. is iu its txcnr-
.•ui(ii-'--iii Til till' Xi'TJii'i'laiuU (Mi>r:-ii- r.il i-i!'i'^'i -iniilartn the Oi'diM'- i--iiril
iiiriii. ./■/. Aft. '27. by (irr;it Jh'itaiii, sa\c that Art. Iii
(') Siaiirtinic- .artiMitiijii i- al-n iiircr|io-;i'S a drlay of si'\i'rily-t wiv
dii'rrtcil tfi ]iartirnlai' |i:'ii\ i-imis of liciif- brtwrcn tlu" d'^|iai'tiirc of a sail-
rlic liuiiiiripal ciiili' that hi\n- mi thi' inir vcssrl of uiii- bclliLi'rrciit and a
siibjcrt. as in the iicLdaii notice of steamer of the otlier.
382 Cases and Opinions on International Law.
belonging- to or intended for tlie service of either belligerent, the
supply of such vessels -with provisions or fuel "without permission,
and the sale of prizes or the holding of the same for the purposes of
preservation; and (o i also directs attention to certain provisions of
the civil and penal codes relating- to these matters, and the liability
incurred Ijy persons engaging in the carriage of contraband or other
acts which a belligerent is entitled to restrain. Special regulations
were also issued with respect to the treatment of belligerent warships
in the ports and waters of the Xetherlands Indies. These limit the
jitnnber of warsliips that may be present in port at the same time;
adopt the "rule of 24 hours' stay," as well as that of "'24 hours'
interval": forbid the entry of ves.sels accompanied by prizes except
in cases of distress: limit the supply of provisions or fuel to an
amount suflicient to carry a vessel to the nearest jDort of its own
country, whilst denying such supply to a warship accompanied by
prizes; reqtiire the abandonment of prizes as a condition of asyltim;
and forbid the sale or exchange of prize or booty (/).
RESTRAINTS ON NEUTRAL TRADE— THE DUTY
OF ACQUIESCENCE.
THE "HELEN.'
[186-3: L. E. 1 A. .^ E. 1.]
Case.j In this ea.so the inaster of the ship "'Helen"' sued for
wages under an agreement entered into between himself and the
owners. The defendants by their cinsweT aliened, in/ry alia, that
the agreement wa< entered into for the purpose of running the
blockade of the southern ports of the L'jiited States or one of
them, and was therefore contrary to kiw and could not be reeoo--
nized or enforced by the Court. On motion by the plaintiff, this
part of the defendant's answer was ordered to Ijo struck oat, on
the ground that trading with a blockaded port wa> not illeu-al.
in the senso of being an orfenee under the municipal \'\v,\ even
thouijli ilu: law of nation^ in sueji ra-" siibjicte:! tie.' iieuti'al pro-
pe-rty If) liability to <;:i ptu.ri' ami condemnation.
Judgment. ])r. Lu:~lrington, in his judgment, ob.-erved that
much turned (ni the sense in wliicli the AX'ord '' iilei^-al ' was used.
• I) A (olli'Ctiori of the-e and other •"jstli t'oiigie-s, 3rd .Se.~.sioii, 1901
j-iLi'ulatioii.s will 1)0 I'lnind in l\ S. ]!)05. 1-1 rt ,w </.
liou-e JJocuiiients (Foi-eiLrr; JJi'liUiens).
Restraints on Neutral Trade. ;i83
Coiitrai'ls U)Y hreacli ut hlockaclc or for tli(.' carrying oi' contra-
band wer.', no tlonht, illegal, in iho sense that tlicy exposed the
parties to such penal consequences as were sanctioned by inter-
national law. But the illegalit\' was one of a lijnited character.
The rehitive situation oi' belligerents and neutrals was that a
neutral countr}' Iiad a right to trade \\ith all other countries in
time of peace. Why should this right of the neutral be inter-
rupted by war? To this the answer of a Ijclligereiit was that he
must seize contraband and t'uforce bh)ckade in order to carry on
the war. In the result the respective rights o! the parties were
regulated by usage. In the case of blockade, if all neoossary
conditions were complied with, the belligerent was by the usage
of nations allowed to capture and condemn neutral \'esseLs which
attempted to violate a blockade, without interference or remon-
strance on the part of their Government. But it Avas no part
of such usage that such voyages should be treated as illegal, or
that a neutral State should be bound to prevent them. In English
law the acts of British subjects in rclatioii to belligerents could
not be treated as offences except under the p)rovisions of some
statute. The Foreign Enlistment ^Vct was itself a proof of this.
And on this point there was no essential difference botween
breaking blockade and carrying contraband. So, according to
the practice of all the princi])ul States of Europe, the insurance
of a contraband vo}'age was not an offence ai^-ainst nmnicipal
law. And the result of tlie American derusions was the same [a .
Both principle, authority, and usage required the rejection of
the doctrine that to carry on trade with a bh>ckaded port is or
ought to be a nuuiicipal offence by the hiA\' of nations.
In Ex parte i'luivassc. He ( 'ni.:('brv(jL' ( •')■! L. J. X. S. Bank.
17 1. it was lield that a cunli'aet of jiarliKM'ship in blockade-
running;' and I'nr ilie ini]ioi'tati<m of eont r-alia nd into the Con-
led<M'al<> Staie< wa- iioi illeu'aL in the sense oi heinu' roniravv
to iiiunici]ial laAv. In liis judLi-mcnt, Lord "Wesfbury observed that
the riiilit wliirli tlu' law <it war L;a\'e tu a Ix^lHa'Crem did not pri)-
(hicc the conseipicnco thai the ar-t oL a neutral in trauspDrtinc numi-
tions n\ ^var to a li'Ilia-eronf (•ouniry wa^ cither a per.vniial oU'enco
(V/ , T/,p >V/./;v;,'.' '/■,■:.:''".' (7 Marine /H^i'i/fhac Co. (G Ma><. l['2) ;
Wluvit. at oKM; A';./,, .,,7.,,;, y. 77..- S,/,.,, v. /.n,r ( I J uhiisu n , ;U -3 ) ,
;]S4 C(tsc-s (iji'l Opinions on litfci-national Law.
a^'aiust the helliu'ercur captor, or au act Avhich g-ave tlio latter any
gTuuiuI 111 cDhiplaiul au-ainst the Govcniiucat of which the former
\va- a -iilijcct. All tlial ijiteruational Jaw did was to .sul)ject the
IK uual iiuMcliaiiT t'l the risk i^f ha\'ing- his ship and car<i0 captured
and coiidi'iniied liv the bellig-eren.t .F(.i\ver fnr whose enemy the cun-
traban<i \\a- (Je.-tined ( /> i. it m'Ciis to be Jiutire*!. Jinwevcr. that
in FniLi'lish law th;' non-diMhi.-uic ijf the real character of such a
\"cnture ma\ iunoimt to a Ijreach (A contractual duty, whicli. accord-
wx to its naiure. may either invalidate the agreement ur found a
claim i'<_ii vlamaii-es to.
(tj;\k:;ai. y~'.)'iY.>.— The Did// of Acqatescci/ce { d). — In the conflict
of inier<'-t wiiiih aio-e between the belligerent, who desired todestmy
so fai a- pii--ible hi- ejieniy's <nminerce, and neutral mcrdiani-. avIio
claimed the right lO continue their i/onimerce without inii'j'ference, a
(■riMijiromi^t wa^ iiltima;el\' ] eaciii'd which, unlike mosi eumpnjmi.-vos,
api>ea!- Oi le-l on .-'nne j'nundai in]] vi jiriufd'pl!'. Tlii- i-. that the
!!fiiti'al retain- hi- riii'lit I'l rarry uii hi- trade ;!- u-ual \\itii either
bihlii^t-rcnl . wlu'ther in llie \\a\" <if .-elliuL; V> him. buyiuL;' frmn him.
or ciirrvinL to i.^r from his e mntry. ('X(.-e[it in so far as sucJi trade i.s
di;i''li\ cahiiial'Mi ti.i pn judi'i.' >>v obstrui-1 the ojieratiMii- of war
of inie I'art}- or to j)romote tlio-e of the other: in wliich case tlie
lii-lli-r-i<_'!it \\hci.-<.' iniere-is are impir'jiied wilJ be entitled to restrain
th" a"!s in (lut'.-iinu and Id c inhscatc tiie ]jro}>('rtA- involved. At
the -aiiie time, thi- ])rinci[He d'le- n<A. a-- we -hall .-ee. invQ}' the
entire ^rouu d nf lli'.' i-eiafiMii- that ii"\v obiai)! bctwe'n 1 lell iu'Ci-vnis
ami iieu.tial- in the marier of r-:'-'r:;ints on n(Utr;d trade 'ri; A\l!i|.-i,
there i- a!-rj mueli divei'sity i.i ijjiinirui and praedee a< 1o the preei.-e
(■' ijiiliiii i)]- under whieh -ueji bed i^crem ri^i'lits inav lie validlv
(Mifierr'd ( '■ . Xe-, erthole-s it is unw almn.-t uni\xa-n]lv recoi;--
nized ' // ) 'it tliat the- eiifurcemejit of tiie-^e re-tiii;tions de-
\"ol\e- eij! tla' belligeretii- theiri-el\'e.-. each litdng iii\'<'-ted for thi.-
]airpose, liMth nil tiie Id^ii -e;t oi' in helligeroti" waters, witli a riglit
of \i-it auil seareh i^er neutral ^ e--el> ai^d their eargo',^. and a
con.-eouei;i liehl of (letf'ntinn iu ca-e- nf .-u-pieh.n and "f eonfi--
eation "H jU'eiof oi e-idit : ' '2 \ ihat the- n<'Utral St:im il-'df i- in't
th'-reb,r,-- ujidi'f any obli^'atiun to cnfoi'ce these re-traints on it- sub-
je'-r,-. n" 1,. ];iiiii.-~h their \ielatioii uii<lei' its mui!iei|ial law. its dut\'
beinu' merelv a nea'ative duty of acip.iiescence in an int<>rference liv
the belli'j-ei'/nit- vdth it.- subje.'ts and tlieir ]nopei-ty diat would not
ritheiw ;-. I;<' v/arianlabl" ! //i; and i -'i ' that an inf riuLi'emeiit of tlie-e
r/y; Sr.. ;:yo >,/,,,, V. /.'-"• '1 Jehu- chiriiTini! n f London -lie;il(i l)icO!!i
son ( X. Y . ■). t'a-. 1 ). hiw.
(>) ./''-'■- /',.■",,-■ s'. >. r,.. V. i,r. .^-, ■,,,■". |). ■Js4.
str'irJ: liiri.y 'J ]v. i;. :;;,■> . l'|.^ ti,, //,/,.„ ,',v.-^,,,>) .■ ii„„, ,
i'h >'"/'>". [•. ■J."'-). Tl,r Urninl l] .r.-'Jiu ,,q r Ash ■! rn -nce f , • .
I'', /,'0 . y. :]n,k CJst'7. -1 Q. i;. i;J5): b;it -■en!-.
(-ii .\ltliou-li tlii- l:ii-lc of unifiinniry ;.. ttii. /,-/,'.•.
will I).'' uTe:it'iV !uitiij-:it"(! if t!:" I >c-
Ixcstrdiulii on iVfu/z-al Tradf
:i85
bclliucrcn; liu'hi^ liy nciiiial ~.iil)i('cis is no! ■illco-nl. in lli(> x'lisc of
hcini;' ci'iininal. oi' iiiilci'd atU'iuled liy iiiiy penal consfMUHMiccs suvo
lliox' in\iil\<'(l in llic po-siMc capluiM' and condcinnal ion ni the
]iro|)(>ri \-.
lu'sh (liiils (III Xciilidl 'inulc: i i. ) I itdcr Ihe ( 'a-stoiimrn Lai.c. — -
TIh' more inipnitanl rc-i rid ion^ on nciiti'al liadi' that cainc lo he
(■-Ialdi-li(Ml nmliM' llic cu^timiarv law -altliouL;li with sonic \'a]i-
alion as 1m ihcii' cxicn! and modi' ol' applnation wci'c llii'sc:
(1 I II ua^ lorouni/cd I'loin a conipaial i \ cK' <'arl\- pci'iod lliat
iicutial- nui>i no! raii'\ on their ti'ade \\ith poits or place.- in tho
t<M'iilor\' lit' <uic liclliuiMcin . ronnnu nicat ion with which had 1)(\'mi
inteiil icted li\ the other; this I'orinin^' the siiliject o|' the "law of
lilorkade. I ndei' th(> ea.rliei- law this was proliald\- conlined to
places Willi which the li(d liLieicnt had cut oil' cominunicat ion. in the
coiii-~i' oj' >oiiic specilic operation ol' war and in pnr--iiance ot' an
iniinediate nnlitar\ cndi/i. liiit hy \irtn(' of a more recent prac-
tice, commoiilx kiiuwn as ■commercial l)lo(d<adi'. * heliiii-ei'enis have
as-nmed the ri'^hi lo iiitenlict nenii'al Iraiiic. not nuM'eh wiih places
that are lilockaded in aid of some specilic <ipei'ation of wai'. Iiut also
wilh exiendeii area-, cinerinii' at limes ;h:' entire s^a-hoai'd of the
OJiemy. AN it h iheolijei-t of ^t likinu- a! his commei'ce and w I'akeni n;^' his
I'esoui-ce^. 'riiis new depaitni'e in maritime war- -althoimdi sipicth-
iji (Jeroaation of the pidnciple on whiidi holliu'erent resli'aints on ihmi-
tral trade wci'e originally ha-ed -lias now hecome siiiliciently t'stah-
li~-hed in piactice and li\' Li'eni'ral acipiio-cenc ' i A' ) to waii'ani its
Ikmiil;' ir(Mted as a peiaiii^silile measure; and. heinu' in t;ici Jiiu'lilv
ollicacioii< as a mi^ins of hiinedne- pr(\ssui'e to hoai' on the enemv.
it i> scarc(d\ lil<el\ to Ix^ ahaiidi nied i / 1. (l*i It wa> i^ipialK well
rt'.co^iii/ed that neutrals miL;lit nut Ciii'r\' to an enemv arti(d(>s cal-
ciilal<'d to aid him in hi^ warlike operaiion^; this foi'iiiiiiL;' the snlijoct.
of the " law < d' cent la i la nd . ( •'! i Snii-eipient l\ . moieo\ ci'. 1 lu^ liahilitv
ol' the nriiiral. lioth in relatiMn i(» cmitraliand and hlockade. was. as
we -hall >(■(', considoialih exUMided li\' the "doctriiK' of continuous
\ o\aL!'C'- ' I im . 1-1 I 1 1 also ca me to lie I'ecoo-n i/cd t hat IHMH ra Is mie'ht
nrit rendei' \n a h dliLiereiii cciiain ser\ ices calculated to aid him in
war. >mdi a- the cania'^e ol' his irmip- or de-jiatchi'- ; 'hi- furminu'
the .-iiliject of what i- uow called the "law of unneutral sci-\ ice."
( ."i 1 I'nder the earliei' law. rt'sn'icl ions were also impos{Ml on the
cai'ida^-e of n<Mitral pi'opert\' in (Miemy shi])s. and of enemy jn'oporty
in neutral ships. e\"en though smdi pi'opert\ was otlunwise innocent
in its characiei' and de-iination. iSiit dilfeient States hei':' act(>d ou
dilfeixMif prin(a'pl<'s. with nm<.-h resuliinu' confusi(ni. w hich ult imatelv
leil to ilu^ ieL;iilai ii 111 of iliis matt<>r h\ ( 'i invent inn i // . ( ti > k'inallv.
(/) -Mtlioimii rhi- \v;i> cot alway,- ditioii of tiic l)l(icka(lc hciiiq- cffiM'tivc;
ni)-cr\c(l in ]ir;icticc\ :i-. fia- cxnniplc. .-cc p. 10.), i,ifri/.
duriiiL;' the N aiiolcciiic ^val■s. .-cc (/; Ii.ii'i, p. 40o : I lull. (i'Js : luit
p. ISS \,i). s,'i,,-'i . .-cc al<o p. 1:37. .-■"/'/".
( /■ ) Siiliicct. iif cuuri'. tn !!m- cdu- 1//,') l,,i,.i. p. iliT.
i.j /,-/,v/. y. •i\yi.
C.I.L. ( c
;38(i Ca^es (did Opinions on International La
w.
under a })ra.eliiO \\lii(.-li i- cominoiily kuuwn as '■ tlie rule ot tlie ^var
of 17.")!) 'to). >(.iiiH^ licUi^eronrs L-lainiod a right to pruliibit tho carry-
iuii' on li\' neutral- in time uf war of a rrade {■l(.».-ed to 'lieui iii time
of peaeO(/'>: a ])raL-tire which is. as we shall s(M'. admis-siblo in
pri]iei])l(> ( 7 I. and A\liieh is still followed by some States, althoug-h
questiMiied liy niher-i/-). In rliis ^vay rliere eiu;>rp-ed a large l)ody
of L-irstoniaiy rules atid fibsorvanees iu relation to belligerent rights
over neutral iraiie. A\hieh, ahiiuugh fairly well asrertained as reganis
their general cliararier and leuour, were yet greatly lacking both
iu certaintv and uidformity as regards their preci-e limits and mode
of a])plication.
I ii- I As Moditu'd by Convention.- On many ]ioints. ho\\ever, this
Avant of certainty aird uniformity has now been corrected by Con-
vention. The Ueelaratioir of Paris, 18-30, in addition to abolishing
privateerinu', whieli was perhaps the most noxious feature of the
earlier sysieni. and ])rold!dling of ''paper blockades," also narrowed
the seojie of lielligerent interference -with neutral trade by exempt-
inti' from ca})ture both enemy goods in neutral siii])S and neutral
gdiid- in (uiemy slnp-. so long as they were not of a contraband
character ',9 . bail this still left a a-reat variety of topics, some of
till ni of the fii'st im[)i irtairce. on wldch the practice of Slates continued
to be <_li\eigent or C'jniradictory . l"he conunercial inconvenience
anil the dauber of internatiotial cum})lications Avhich arose frutn this
coutlict ^A practice. A\ere. moieover, greatly intensified by modern
trade conditions ; a fact fnrcibly exemjilified by ■fhe evem\-. of the
Rus-o-.bipaiicse v,ar. It was with a view ti.^ the removal of this
tlanii'ci' ami ini-onx'enieni-e. a- veil a- with ihe (.>bjcci (if ]uojiaring
the WLiy fur the establi-hmeitt of an International I'ri/e (/ourt, that
the Xaval C'otiference of I'JoS-'.t -was ,-ummoned if), and the resulting
Ueclaralion of London dr;n\ ii w]^. Thi- Declaration deals Avith the
subj(>ct> of bli.iriv-a<le. cinilraband, and incidenially the application
thereto of the di"-trine of crjniinuous voyaLi'O-. a> alsii with iinneutial
service, the (piestion of {he destructirui rif neutral prizes, the ipiesrion
of convfiw the ehect of resistance to soardi. aiui the 'piesri':m of com-
])ensaiirni t'l neutraKi//). On these matters it pre.-criljes uniform
rule-, which aic ddlarc'd to corre-jioiid in siib>iance with ihe ;.;-ene-
rallv rc'f/OLi'nized principle- of internal ional law' /-V I"he-e nil 's
will be con-ideied lii'i'eal'ier in connecfioir with the juiriicular topics
to whi.-h tliey lelaie. Xeverllide-s. the Dcidaration leaves, as we
ha\e -i>en, inan\- 'jue-ti.jns untouched and some jMoldem- un>olvc'il.
iiichidinc- -uch matters a- the true t"st of eneiuA character iu mari-
(o) .MtlioiiL-li ■■'■iiily uf i-;ii'licr dati'. i .- - A- to ether tnp:,~ (IimIt with
I/', /.-■',■■, ;i. I'lL*. sii'-ii as the ciieiay cha'':C'tc:\ :ei!
I <; ) / . ■■- •. e, ii)."). traii-fiTS to the iiciitfal ihiu''. -'<
./)>.■.■! I aih ii-;i .'-•■'. ,■ AN'r-ihikc. pp. ■!'.). lis. ..,.,,,■„.
ii. 'l')\. "^^i-i- I'l-i'liiiiiiia I'v J'i'i ei-i' ai : .al-
/, ',1 , II. '.','.\?,. rh'Ci'jh lai -eiac jiuiiit- realiv .a i-uiii-
■ • .^ ■'.','■. II. I'll. lif lai-c. //'/■/■", ]i. -IS.j-t;.
Neulrn.l GoikU ui Enoufj SJiips. <}87
time wail//), the le^alitA' ol tlio conversion and reconversion of mer-
chant ships into warships on llie lii^-h s(}as(^j and tlie rio-ht of
neutrals io enu'aur in a trade ch.ised to them in lime oi' peace (zz).
(iii. I 'Ihc Aiilhurihi oi Ihc I h't-lcriitioii. of London. — The Dc'chira-
tion oi Liindnii will, oi (Diu.-e^ |,o hindini;- on slk'Ii l*o\\(;r.s ah may
finally rat ir\- ii : ami will i Iumi i-arry a joint <jljlipi' ion on the |)art of
all the Stales that acrepi it \o en>iii(.> the minnail ohs-.-iwance of its
rules in any A\ar iiL v.hich all llu* hel !iL;ereiits are parties U) it: a.s
well as a- se\ eial oiiliL:'at inn on the part nf cai'h toadnpl all iH'ccssary
measni'es foi- securiiiLi' its due eiir(>r( cmeni within its own j'iirisdi<'-
tionuyi. Its riih's will also Ik^ applied hy the 1 nteiaiat ioiial Prize
Court, if and when that: Court is established ( 6 j. It i.s probable,
moreover, that the Declaration, if widely aecepted. Avill sooner or
later be'^onie binding' also on non-sio-u.-nory Powers, as representing^
tlie predondnaid' [)raetice of States ic). I'inalh', even if it should
remain unratified, the iJeclaration will, it is conceived, (wei'cise a
profound infliienc(> on future ])ractice: foi' tlie i-eason that it
embodies those nih's A\liicli | he lepreseiital ives of the loading
maritime' States coiiviihMcd to ln' best, -nited to jiiodei'n C'onditions,
havine- rei^ard tc) the exist iiiu' di\-<M'L;-enf:es of ])ractice and the re-
spective ijiteresfs oi' l)elliL;'<M'(Mi_ts and iientrids. Hence, .so far as its
provisions extend, it is probable^ iliat l)elliuer<Mit.s who act under it
will eommoidx' be deemed to b(> jns|ili<>([ in <lnint^' so; whilst it is,
at anv rate, doid)lfnl wheiliei — in \ i(>w of the increa-fvl siMisibilitv of
neutral trade to the I'evtrii'I ions imposed lo; war. and the general
increa--e of naval sinMiL;th a non-arlheriiiii' bel lie-fM ent, howcn'iM'
powerfnl, w<iidd venture to i-liallenu-i' that combined I'e^istaiice which
a re\ersion to the (dder methods ( il ) miu'ht conceivablv provoke.
////•; cAUUiAi.i-: OF
(i) NHCTIJAL COODS IX I:X!;MY SHIPS.
THE '-FORTUNA.""
;],S(i-2: 1 ('. Jc>'>. -7s ; ■rii'ler. [..niiin- rj-(.< ji, Ma/iriinr Law, 1011. j
Case. Diiriti-' A\ai' bet w inii (i ival 1 Sril j in and th(M_']iit ed Si atos,
the '■ Forliiiia, ail A imcim, ^m \, ..vcL laden willi a cargo of" corn
I ,, \ >.';/.', I), 'i'.'. liy :i .Si.-itc. Ill' tlM> ['ri/.c C.'Diirt CnnvcD-
, -_ I S '.,,,-.. p. j:;i; \\\v\. '',ic'-r~, liei; wirlicin i!u' I tcclarntloii is iiu-
\\\<,- , \m. 1 ('iDli',) i. iol . inehaljie.
■ :■ , /,,/,,-. ,,. fli.^. ' I S:.,. ^,.!. i. ,,. II.
(-7) Sec Art. (It). ''■' 111 -" I'ai'. that i,. a< lie-- iii-
.^rival.ly lie applied Wy iiial Cuu'I t^ tiaJ H\cle Can tlatr r:,i!i d'ed ia lli>
neii--i"'iiateric>. ahliouuii ; la- adept ii m 1 ;-■'•!:, vat ieii. See al-M -'-,.■, p. Is?).
c f 2
o88 Cascx and 0/)iiuo}h'< on Inter national Lair.
for Lisbon, \va,< euptun-d Ijy the British, uiul bi'ouj^lit in for
adjudicatif)ii. Thr shij) wa.'- (.ondLMiUK'd ii> bt'iii<i' cnciiiy pro-
perty; but the eiir<z-o. beiiio- neutral pro|)L'i'ty, was rt^stoi'od. and
was .sub.<e(jueiitl\" forwarded to Lisbon, its oritiinal destination,
and tliere deJi\ered to the oonsigno:'. The case now came before
the Court upon an app^lication b}' the captors for freight, security
having been previously given to abide the decision of the Court
on this point. In the circumstances it was held that the captors
Avere entitled to freiorht.
Judgment. Sir \\'. Scott, in giving judgment, .-aid that in
such a case he a])prehended the ruh^ to be tlial a captor ua.^
entitled to Ireight. ju-t as he wouM Jiot be entitled to it if \\o
did not proceed and perform tlie original \(jyage. fhr ■jiecilic
contract was perf(jrmcd in the' one ca.se and not }jerforni(.'d ju the
other. The true ride wa- that a ca])tor who had i)erfoi-med the
• •ontraf-t oi' the ncss^J A\a-- cntitJed to freiii'lit as a matter of rie-lit ;
althougli if lu.' liad done any tiling to the injury of the pr(j[jerty,
or had been guilty of an\' juisconduct, Ik; would remain answer-
able for the fftect of such misconduct oi' injury, in the way of
sot-oil against, his cLiim. In the jnx'sent (.■ase. however, the captor .->
liad done nothinsi- to forfeit tlcir ri^'ht. and Ireight to them nur-t
accordingly be decreed. _____
II wu- a-siiiiied in tlu- jiHh;'iii(.'iit lliat tlu' li'oorls. \h'[\vj: jicutial
piopei-t\ and of an i iiiio'-fMit eliaiaiaer. were r(.'sto)-aMi', The ca'-e
llieicroie sei-\<'s lo illusn-ale the ti'eiici'al iiil(>. wliicJi wa-- aeU'd <.»ii
li\- (ireal IJiitaiji <'\'C!i prior lo the I Jeclai'at ion of l-'ari-. llial iieiiUal
2()0'h. iinl liciiii:- colli ralia ikI. tDiind en lieai'd an enemx" \ c.-.-el aic
e.venipt i'loni con<h'ninat ion : a- well a- the anciHaiy rule, lo wjiicli
llie ilef-i-i(jii i- more particnlaily i|ii'ecte(|. that if in <\\f\\ a ca^e the
caplm- f<n\\ai(h the ti'oeih to theii' ije-tinalion lie will he entitled
to frei^lit t(i,, ^iilijcct lo aii\' --''t-iif'] ili;ii till' iientral owim'I- \\\a\ lia\e
for loss or (laniaj^e arising out of the caploi's ini^condiict ih). ^^'here
frei;^ht i- deci-ccd. the ('onrt will if tiece<<ary oider tlie .sale of ,a
?nllii-ieni pijition of the ca ili'o lo sati-fy the claim. The ininimiitv
of neutral L;'ood- of an innocent characlei- found on enenn- ves<eh
taken a- pii/.e licin::' now e.<tahli.-li(,'d li\ the Deilaralion of
(ii ) A< to \"ari(ius :i|i|)licarioii> 'if t lii.s of tlic (•.■i])toi' State hi cu'cunistanccs
rule. .~e(; 77" l'r>nr ./,,,/« Cn i liiirrnn frccitit,'' tlicm from tlie taint of illciral
(lie. Piol). 'itiitj; 'n,r Fn,h'.,ii lOdw. trade:' ;ui(i Thr ./;,„ Cr^r,. (| (lall.
:.ti;; I'hr J)'>",iii (;')('. JJoh. !i7).wlici'c 271,,.
it was apphed to the tro(xl3 of subject.s i /> i 'I In r, .,;.',,,, (l ('. |{ol,. 27s i.
Nculrtil ilootis in Eneiii// S///'/).s.
:>,HU
i'iiris. I6')()[<lj, \\ic )\ii'h\ n|' tli(> i-iiplui lu l'rei;4'tit., on roruurdiiiu'
<iO(Hls lu tli<Mf (lost iiiiil ion. wduld jippoav to l)i' slill a.|)))lii-al)le.
TIk' iniinniiitv of ihmiiiuI t^oods in onciiiy ncsm'I.s will jkji, in
iit'iKMal. be all't'cted li\' ihc I'aci of lli<' v<!ssol luM'self liuvin^^- rcsisU'd
captnic I r ). Hnl. ai-c(»i(liiiu- lo the doftiinii of the Jiritisli rrizc
C'ourls, it will lie forfcii<>(l if ilio ^.^'oods were shipped on board
an aimed \(><sel of lli(> enemy, foi- the i'(>asoii that this is regarded
a< o\id(>nre of hostile association and inlentiini to I'esist visit
and search I /). On this (piesiion, howe\cr, ihe Inited States Courts
take a dih<M'(MH \i<'w; holdini;' tiial a neutral <i\\]ier inav ]a\vfulJ\-
em}>loy a lielli^'inHuit armed \-ess(d to transport, his j^'oods, and tliat-
the l;(>oiN will not |o<e iheir jioulral cjiaracier by lea.son of either
tlie ai'mamenl or the lesisiance of the vessel, so lone- as the neutral.
hiurs(>lf does not direi-tl}- j)art ici])a,te th<'rein ( 7 ).
From the poiid of \iew of tlie Freiieh (Jourts. neutral g-oods em-
barked on enemy vessels are also subject to the risk of lo.s.s in the
case whei'C sucli slii|)s are destroyed. So. in th(> case of the
Konvacr/-^ i In wliei'c it appeared tliat a (!erman v(^ssel liaA'ing
neutral goods (.))i boai'd had Ixm'ii capt^ured b\" th(> Fi'ench and
destroyed togethei' with Ihm' caigo an application foi' compensation
bv the Engbsh owners of tlu^ cai'go. on the plea that neutral goods
"were protected 1)\" the Declaral ion of I'aris. was r(M'ir-(>d: this decision
being l)ased on the \ie\v that although the Declaration i'(H'Ogni/ed the
innnunitv of such goods from eonhscation. it did not bv anv nutans
import that an indemnitv coidd be demanded for injnr\- oi' loss sus-
tained bv a legal capture or by any acts of war that accom])anied or
folloAved iti/'i. And tlri< iulei pretatimi of the law wijuld ajipcar to
be correct. ]mo\ ided that the captor ran show that tli(> act of destruc-
i'lon "wa- jnstili(Ml by nulitary nece^<ity. lint, wheie neutral goods of
an innocent chai'actcr arc found on boai'd a neutral vessel and b(_ith
sJiip and '-argo are dt^stroyed by a captor, then tln^ owner of th(^ goods
will be entitled to indemnitv. even rlmugh the act of (k\strue!ioa
prove- to ha\(' boiMi j n<t ilia b|e ( /,■ ).
(d ' Art. o.
{,') S(M' T/ic ('':///'■,■:, 'f! /:n:.^'/>,//, (.")
C. 1^)1.. ■2^-l:.
(f) TIu r<i,.„,i ( 1 J)o(N. I4:;\
(,!) ,<oc 77m ■ Sr,-,,,lr ;9 Crancli.
388). Story, ,1.. indeed, dis.seiited;
l/r) DaUoz. 187-2. iii. !l4.
{ '' ) .V siiuilai' iiulLriiicnt was !^-i\(Mi
in the ease of Thr L^"',,-:,; : see Hall,
710: .and ]i. ;594. :,ii,-f>.
(/') See the 1 )e;'hu'ation of London,
ll)(i!!. .Vrr. .)o : and, as to tJu; ([ue.s-
hut ill Thr .lh'h,,,i,i (:; Wlieat. 4()!t) tiou of the peniiissii)i]it_v of rlie
tlic decision in I'l'i Sc^,,!, was cmii- rlrsi ini'timi of neutral vessels, p. 4S(),
firmed. ./-/V".
o90 Cases and O/ii'iilons <,,( Inhrnational Laiv.
(ii^ ENEMY GOODS IX XEUTEAL .SHIPS.
DARBY /. THE BRIG - ERSTERN."
[1782: -1 Dallas. 34.]
Case. J In 1782, during war between Great Britain on the one
liand, and France and the United States on the other, the Lsland
of Dominica. Avliieh tiien b'long'ed to Great Britain, capituLaled
to the enemy. By the terms of the <'apituhition all commercial
intercourse with Great Britain wa.s prohibited. Subsequently
certain British subjects attemjjtcd to evade the prohibition by
carrying on a trade through the medium of a neutral port and the
neutral Hag. In the }:iresent ca.se it appeared that the " Erstern,"
a neutral ship, had cleared from London, with a cargo belonging
to British owners, ostensibly for Ostend ; and that after arriving
at Ostend slie had cleared Avith the same cargo, now jnirporting
however to liavi^ l^eon transferred to neutral o^\"ners. for Dominica.
On her voyage thither she was captured by a United States
cruiser, and was l)rou<i'ht in for adjudication, on the ground of
having intended a violation of the capitulation. The United
States had in ITSO adopted the principle of "■free .■^hips, free
goods' : aiid liad 1)\ an ordinance oL' Congress exeni|:)ted from
<'aptui'e all n aural \essels. excej)t ■-uch as v 're employed in carry-
ing contraband and the like to the enemy. In the Court below
both ship and cargo were aecj^uitted : tlie iieutral ilag being
ileenied. \^\ \irtue oF the ordinance in (|Ue>tiou. 1o cover enemy
g(jods. But, on appeal, both ship and cargo were condemned,
on the ground that c\ en though the neutral ilac' miii'ht co\er
cnemA' L;-oods. it would not suilicc' to pj'Otect either vessel or cari^-o
against the results of unneutral conduct such a^ that disclosed.
Judgment. _ In giving judgment, the ( "ourt -tated that,
according to tlie evidence, it appeared that the >hi}» was neutral
and the cargo enemy properf;y. Dealing with the objection tliat
the shi}), l)eine' Jieutral, could not properl\' be taken as prize, it
was pointed out that if the ownei> of a neutral ship violated
their neutrality l)y takimr a decided jiart with the enemy, the
ship would then lie in the predicament of laiem^^ jU'opi'ty end
Encinij doixlx III Xeiilral S//i/^s-. .'591
subjeei to .soizLiro and coiiliscaliou. In the present case iha I'aet--
showed that the owner.s oL' the .-^hip had entei'od into eoinhinatiou
\\h\\ I he o\\']irrs oL' the <'aL'U(). and had by the use oi' I'alse and
<'oh)urahh' papers laki'ii on (heniseives th^' owncrshi]) oi' the cargo,
and clothed it with the garb ot* nentr-ality, in order to screen it
from detention and (•a[)ture. TIh' olfeiiee did not Jio merely in
atlribiiting Lo enemy [)roperly a neutral <'haract(']', for such pnj-
jierty, nidess coniraljand, was already sulhciently [)rotecteil by the
neutral Hag', but in attempting by fraudulent eond)inatiou to )'e-
estal)li'>h Uritish commerce with Dominica, in derogation of rights
ac(piired in war by the oi her belligereiits. I) ealinu- with tin? con-
tention tliat the cargo could not hi' taken as prize by r(>asoii of the
ordinance of ('oneres'^ that enemy pro|)ei1y. not beiiig contraband,
fouiid on neuti'al ships was protected, it was pointed out that if
the shi[) had been employed in fair commerce, her cargo, althouii'li
the pro[)erty of an enemy, \\'ouhl not luae been priz', because
it had bi'cn pi'(j\i(l(.'d by ( 'ungre-s that the right- of neutrality
should extend ])i'oteetion to the u'oods and elfect.s of an enemy.
But Congress had not provided that a violated neutrality should
afl'oi'd .-uch })rotcction ; Jmr could it indeed ha\i' done so without
eonfoundin;:;' all di-tinct ion-^ between j'ia'ht and wi'onu'.
The liHiiiuuity ot' eiuMuy gnods, not being conn-al>and. found on
neutral -lii|i^, wa> adopted liy the Cniled Slater in 17S0(r/i. it was
Iield, liowcvtM'. by ihe federal ( 'ourt of A])peals that. e\-en lliongh the
neutral lla'j' iinL;lil i'i\ei; enemy u'l'oiN. it wdiild not protect either
slops <ir i^'Miiils toiiinl t<i iie eiii:;iu'ed ill a tr:ide carried on in fraudulent
a>soi-ial i<iii with the (Mieni\ and in di'itii^nt ion el' right.- seenred in war
b\ the <ither i)(dli;i'ei'(Mit . The genmiil iiinnunil\ of (jneinv goods
found on neiitial \e-^(.'|s \v;i- ^nii-ei |uenl I v esla hh-heil a- heiween the
siiiaiatorie- li\ the l)eilaration ol' i*ari-. 1 .S.ai (^ i. and is now univer-
sally aecepteil in piiuliie. It, wonld. ho\\e\er. still be suhject t li the
e.\i-(>ption -et up in the i-asi. ol' Ihirhi/ \. The I-lfslcni. tliat eneinv
goods on neutral -hip- w d I not lie pioiei-ted \\hei(> the nentral llac is
w^od to (•o\(>r an illicit liade ot' the kind theie de-nalieil \ c \ .
(. i i:Ma;.\ 1. Noii:-. 'I lir ( Uniiiiic a) \ ml iiil < ioails nn i'.ni' ni'i >-hi ns,
(Dili Kiicniii (ii)nils 1,11 Xti/frcl Slilj..^: (i.) The EnrHer l's(nic.—T\\Q
( " 'i A h iNniu'li iMii a- a I'crina inai t- 1/ i [•'( a' ;n! .-i nalnii'aiw ca-i'. svn .",//;v/,
rule. [). Iii-").
( A) Art. '2.
'']92 Casc^ and Opinions on lulernalional Law.
question oi' the JiuhiJliy of neutral j^'oods i'ouud on (Miouiy .-liijj.s and
of eneiuy <^-oo(ls t'ou,u<l on n{'uti'iil ship.s, was i'ornnn'ly 'lie suhjeet of
two strong'ly contrasied |)iinci|)les. which were followed by diil'erent
States ov o'l'iuijjs oL' Suites. (1^ A.ccordi.n<^- t(j one jtrinciple. the
liabilit}' of ])rij])ei'iy to (•a])tu,re A\as deterinine<l l)_\- ihc ncuiral or
enemy charactei- of its o^^■ner. and not by that of th<> \-l'ss;'I in which
it Avas cai'ried. On this \iew, the j^'oods of a fi-iend. not l)einii' con-
traband, were free if found in an enem}' vessel, whilst the li'ijods nf an
enemy were liable if found in that of a friend. The pressui'c of this
rule on neutrals, however. A\as alhndated in pi'actice by certain
an<-illary rules, under which a captor wlio took enemy U'ofids on a
neutral shi]) was I'equii'ed, on their cond(Mnnation. to |)ay fi'ei<^'ht to
the neutral carrier. ('a])tiire being' deemed eipiivalent to delivery,
exce])t where this ric-hr had been forlxdted by unneutral cojidnet ( //; ;
Avhilst, in the converse case, a capic))' who took an (mumiiv sliij) with
neutral goods on board A\as o>i\on an indLuemcni lo loiward the
g'oods to iln'ir destination b\' a I'ccog-nition of his lioht to
freight if ho did so'^'i, This was the ])i'inciple usualh" tiered on
by (J real Bi'itain. and ahu by the Ijiited Slates e.\ci>pt where (piali-
iied by treat}- i / l i'l < According- to the other principle, the liability
of the j)roj)ertv in (^itlier case was held to depend on tin' jiationality
of the vessel in which such goods were carriiid, this being in general
determined Ijy her ilag. On this \-ie\A-, enemy goods, not being con-
traband, found on inniti-al vesscds went fr(>('. whilst jic'iitral g'oods
found on eneiiij- shi])s were treated as ho-^iih'; this being' coinniOid\
ex])ress(M[ in ih<> maxims -free sliip>. free good-,' and "hostile shi])s,
hostile g'oods." This piinci])le \vas for the most pari f(dlowed b\-
eontit rie- such a.-^ France. Holland, and Spain, and wasalsn f:i\oured
by neutrals geiK'rally as tending- to increase their maritijiie traflic. In
view of the compronrise which was idlimatelx' reached mt this subject,
atid which is now universally accepted, it is jieedless to trace the
.sub.^(Mjueni hist(ny of these ri\al principles, be\ojid r:'markiiia' that-
thcdr operation in jn'actice was g-r<Mtly ipialilH';! bv trr>ati(!s -which
wi'vc made from time to time between particidar States, and that suck
treaties were often made with little regai'd to unifornu'tx- or consist-
ency ( 7 i. Ilenee no general (aistom em<M'ged. and the practice on
the subject was chaotic and confused (// '. Such was the condition
(d) T/ir Jlrf'/iieii I'lvjjne ( t C'. Rob. times :i(l(ji)re(l that of nwiicrsiii]).
90). '■ !'"rcc sliij).<. free i^'ond- '" was. inoi'c-
(r) '!'/,!' I-'oili'ii" (A ('. Rol). 78); ov'cr, ^oiiictiiiics adoptrii in coiijinictioii
this o|iri':it i iiu' in the licuti'al intci'cst, with its cdrollai'v. "■ hostile shi])s. lios-
l)y scciirinii' in i;'cnci'al the cine (iciivery tih; si'oed-"": l)u1 at other tinws sejja-
i)i the l;()0(I-. rated t'l-oni it. Not int'i'e juently. too,
(/) See 77'/- .NV-,v.;^/r ('9 Craiieli, ;;8S : wi' find tlie same Stat.' nndvine- with
Scott, H.Sli. nfhei- State.-- tri'aties of :in o[i|)osite
(o) 'idins State- whieli ordinarily ehai'aeter.
followed the eritei'ion of ownership ( h ) Se(> Hall, (ISti i-l s-r,/,, 7].-) ^f
often adopted by ti'eaty the (aat<a'iori s/'i/.: \\'estlake, ii. \'li. <'t srr/.;
of the flai;-. eitlim' wlioHv or in part; V.heaton (Hovd), 598: TJir <■>/,/,,, I d
■wdiilst States which ordinai-ilv fol- l)od<. 299);' and 7'lr \rri;.h- (9
lowed tlic eritfa-ion of the thi- ,-onie- Craneh, .388, (;;31).
Kneiiiff Goods hi Neutral Ships. ;j!):i
of things \\Ikmi. on the oiilhi'iMk of tlie CriuH^aii war, in IH.VI, (Ireat
Jiiitaiii and France, lK>iii<^' allies, I'oiiiid if iioeessary to adopf common
i'nl(\s with r<'S|><n't. lo jnavitimo capiiiro. A compromise was fhere-
iipnii arn'\-e(l at. under which (ireal lii'iiain waiN-ed lici' vic>-hf of stdz-
inii' (Miem V j^dods i u ntMili'al ships, hni without (pialifyin<i' the previous
iminnnitv under her i'id<^ (.)f ncnlral <i'(iods in einniiy ships; whilst
France acc<*pted Ihe immunity of tieutral u'oods in eiuMny ships, buf
^^ithout (piahfyin^' ih<> ])re\'i(Mis iinmuinl\ iind(M.' her rid(; of enemy
Uuiid'^ in iHMitral ships; and 1 hesi^ ])i'iuciples Avere accordiuc^'ly ap[)li<'d
throuuhoul thi^ war by 1h(> Prize (Joiirts of both countries.
( ii. ) I'Jic I h'rl'.iratioi/ o) Paris. I8.")(). .At the close of the war, this
sidth'tniMit (if a loniz'-staiidini^' controA'ers\ was acce|)f(Mi by the other
])arli('s 1(1 the Trinity of L'aris(i), iin<l \\a~. linaJly cmljodied, to<i'ether
with ciMtain other principles of mafitim*' hiw. in the Declaration of
Pari^. IS."")!). This pro\id(\s (I) tliaf the neutral (la<>- shall cover
enein\- i^'oods \Niih thi> (wcepiion of einitrahand of war (/.; ) ; and
(2) that neutral i^-oods, with the exception of C()ntrai)and of war,
shall not lie liabh^ to seizure under the entMux Ihi^' i / ) ; ilius adopting-
■■free shi|)s. fiuH' _u'oods " without its coioMarv "hostile ships, hostile
goods." The l)<'clai'ation, althoiip'h originally binding only on the
signatories^ I »/ ) who wer(> also ])arties lo tlu^ l"'r(>atv of Paris,
had up to Mt07 Ikkmi acceded to l)y all Powers wdth the exception of'
the l'nit(^l Stales, Spain. Mexico. Venezuela. Bolivia and Uruguay(oV,
Avhilst dniinu- tlii^ wai' of 1898 both Spain and the Uidted States con-
forine(| to its ])ro\ i^ioiis. At the llagu(> ('onferenc(^ of 1907, more-
over. tli(^ deh^gaies lioth of Spain and Altwico declared that their
('0\ crnincMits adher(Nl to the J)eclarat iott in its OMiivctv ' p): with
th(> r(\sidi that its principles max now he ]'egai'de(l as of general
(ibliniition .
(^iicstltiii.s Ihiil iihiji (ir'iHc innh')- lite c.vi.sliin/ Laic. A\"itli respect
to en(Mn\- goods in neutral \ ('ss(ds. t h(> ride laid down bv the Decla-
ration of Paris would, it is concei\(Ml. still lu^ ^ul)ject t(i tln^ exce)j-
tion laid down in the case of I)/irJ)>/ v. The llrslcni iV/i. Xor can the
owiKM' of en(Mn\' goods laden on a ninitral \('ss(d. claim conipeirsation
for their loss in the evcnit of th(> \ e<s(d being d(><trov(Nl \)\ a belli-
gerent, unless indiHMl the dest met ion pro\<\-< to have heen unjnsti-
fiahiei/-). ^^'ith iM'spcct to iKMitral goo'ls <ui enemy xcssels. these
r(Miiaiii subj(M't to an\' lo'-s or daniag'O that ma\" he caused by the
caplurt> of th(" \(^--s(d or the interi'ii pt em of the transport of the
cj'oods. l!' ih<^ \e<s(d is hrong'hi in I'or adjudication, the neutral
((■) Sec vol. i. 10. (/■) 111 which case tlio owner would,
(1-) Art. '2. if '" coiiccivod. he eiitirlod to lie ])lac(Hl
(j\ \,.f ;5 ill the same ])(>sirion. so far as iiossiM
{)!>) \o rin'ht of (leinmriatioi
reserved.
IS if tlie ill(^!^-al act had not: Iicimi com-
mitted: set^ the Dcvdaration of London.
,,' ir • .> Ai-i. 'yl: and. as to the (|uestion of
'"> ''■■»'■'■'' ,liia-,n:nis. .:,. ,1,^, destruction of neutral i.rize.s, p.
.3!»4 Cdscs and Oj/{iiio?/t< on International Law.
uwiior is oiititlod to a lostitutiou of the goods, or to thoir proceeds if
sold; whilst if tlie captor chooses to forward them to their destina-
tioji, li,^ would, it is conceived, ho entitled to freigiit (ir). In the
case where an enemy vcssid is destroyed, it still remains to see
whether the Pii/.e Courts of other countries, or the Inter Jiational
Prize Court if it shouhl be established, will follow the decision of
the French Courts in the cases of the Norivaerts and the Ludwlg (t).
In ])rinciple it would seem that, Avhilst a neutral owner who send^
his ooods by enemy vessels mu.st take the rislv of all necessary acts
of war, it will be incumbent on a captor who destroys an enemy
vessel to show that the act of destruction, in consequence of which
goods that would otherAvise have been restorable to the juMitral
owner became lost to hiju, Avas one strictl}' required by military-
necessity. Otherwise, it Avould be oi)on to a belligerent Avho chose
to adopt a general policy of destruction, as regards cikmuv prizes, to
render the ])rovisions of the Declaration of Paris on this subject
virtually nugatory (?<).
BLOrKADK.
(i) c 0 V i:h n l xg p n i x ( if i . ivs .
THE "FRANCISKA."
I IS.Vl-:): Spiiiks. til: 10 AIoo. I'. C. ;57. j
Case. On the '2'2nd May, 18OI, diii'iug wur bctweei! Ch'oat
Britain and iiussia, the "" Frauciska," a Danish \os-~e!, was eap-
tui'(>d by .11. M.S. '" ( 'I'liisei', off Lyscr Ort, and sent 111 foi' adju-
dication oji a charge of ]ui\ing attcuipted to bn-ak 1 hi.' bh)ckade
of Kiga. On bohall' of tlio ownei' it was contciidei] that tlie
shij) was under orders to ];)r(K!ood to Iviga only in the ex out of
that ])oi.'t not bi.'ing uudei." blockade ; tliat the mast or liad inado
encjuiric-, altliough without j'(\sult, ])otli at Copenhauon, where
ho lurd touched oii the Idtli .May, a.iul on the coast, ; aiul that; ho
had hnall\ a|)j)i'oaelied t he '('miser \\it;h the like oljject . Inthe
("oiiri of .\(liniralt y ; c/ a \i'ry leiigtliy and exliaustixi^ judgment
Avas di'li\ereil, eoxei'ing incidentally neai'ly the whole (hunam of
the law of blockade. In the ^e^^lt both ship and freight wiM'O
Is) S/{/i,i'. |i. ;)S<l. («) 'I'Ik' (■:[>!' \>r\\\v: only oiio ol' M
I /;i /hi'/. vl:\<< 1)1' riix\]i. :il! (if whicli ' \vcri> ln\ird,
( -;) S(>r Hull. 720. l),>l(Wi> jud-inciit \v:i^ ;:-i\i'n.
The Latv of llluckmlc. ;]9o
ooiicU'iiuu'tl, on (lie groLiiul lliat the blockade was noLorious at tlie
tiino wluMi llio \csst'J sailed i'roin Ikt last ])ort and that the master
ha\ing' thus ae<|uin'(l iiolicc of the blockade had in tact iidjMuh'd
to viohite it. Oji a|)|)eal to the Privy Council, however, this
deei'oe was reversed and rcc^titution ^-ranted, althou<^li without
costs, on tlie ground that t lie blockade, even tliough otlicrwiso
legal, had been rouhacd imalid by ci'riain rehixaiiinis which had
been granted to belligerent merchant vessels to the exclusion of
neutrals ; and, further, tkat the only notice l)y which the master
was aftected was a Jiotice which wont beyond tlu^ actual facts,
and which was not therefore binding on neutrals. IJut .-avo on
these points the judgmeid: does not: aj^pear to ini|)ugn the prin-
ciples laid down in judgmeiU ot: the Court oL* Admiraitw which
may still be n.-'oardi'd a< authoritative.
Judgment of the Court of Admiralty. In the Court below,
Dr. Lushington 6ta.t(>d at the outset tliat his judgment would be
based on the genei'al [)nnciples previously laid down by Lord
Stowell, for the rea--on, amongst others, that those principles had
been recognized as a jiart of the law of nations bv the celebrated
jurists of the United Sta.tes : and also that he projiosed in the
lirst place to deal with those general cpiestions in relation to
blockade which all'oeted the whole cLi-s of cases then before
him (6).
The lirst question, then, was whether tln' British admiral in
the Baltic had authority to establish blockades, which was a, high
act of sovereignty U; . Such an authority' did iiot belong to a
naval commander in his own ri^ht. but must he commilti>d to
him \)\ liis Go\'eriiment ; aliliough in the ea^e ot distant :M'r\'ice
>uch authoril \' might Ije inrplii'd, whilst in any case tlu^ adop-
tion ol' a. blockade 1)\- the Coxernment would have the I'll'eot of
legitimating it. at an\ rate as re:i'ard> subject^ of other coun-
tries i^J . In the ea>e bel'ore tJn' ('oui't there wa.-- conclusive
evidence l)oth of |.iri(ir aut lioi'il \' and >ub>e(jueiit adopt ion .
IMie next question wa.-^ whether the J'orce emploxcd to estab-
(^h) S.ipriuix. (a). Tiie jiiil--iiiiMii is {<■') TL- Ifc, .,:>■/: ■(..,,( M, ■,■:,• (1 G.
\('i"\' lci!L;'tliy, cxtriidint:' o\('i' sunn' K'nl). llipi.
fiftv pa-M's,' aiul oiilv it- uviicral {d) TJ^r J{olh, (H P. ^^b. oCA) .
cllVct is u'ivcii in the- t('\t.
•]9G (/'(SC8 and Opinions on J nter national Law.
lisli the l)lockade was adLHjiiatc : \i\\\\ heing' a (|UL'>tLOJi distiiu't
from its due inaiut.oiiaiH'c. To be adoejUate the place uiuLt
blockade iiiiist l)e watelied by a force >iilficiout to rtMider i'2Te<s
or ingros^is dangerous : in other words, save under peculiar cir-
cumstances, the force must, be sullicient to render the capture
of ve>sels attempting to go in or come out most probable. On
this point the testimony of the Commander-in-Chief wa.^ mate-
rial: jl:' uncontradicted it might b;' c()n(fu>i\"e: whilst if con-
tradicted a conclusion jnust be drawn from a consideration of the
Avholc of the circumstances. In the present ctise there was no
reaso]! to suj^ijose that a force ot thn.'C or tour steam ve^.-ids was
not adecjuate to blockade t!ie coa-t from Lihau to Ly>er Ort. a
distance ot less than one hundred niili'S. The next rpiestioa
was whether the port of J^iga could be legally blockaded from
Lyser Ort at a distance oT 120 miles. As to this the e\-idi'nce
showed it to l)e perfectly ])ractical)h' for a \e>sif of w ar
stationed near Jjyser Orx. at the entrance ot th(> i>ulf. with a
base of (uily tlo'ce niil(^>. to pri'xeiii tlic iiti^rcss and i^^ress of
\e>s('ls into and tVoiii the 'jull. and conseijuent [\' tn and from
all ])laces within it. The li'galit\' of a blockade was not aifecti.'d
li\ rrason of tlir blockading lorci' beiuo' -tationrd at a con-
siderable distance from llie place IjlockadiMl: ihc true criterion
of it- leu'ality l)oin2' not om' of |.)lacc or distance. l)ut the ca})acity
of thi' force wherc'S'ei' maintained to cut olf all communication
with the place hlockaded c . Both in pifnciple and on authont v,
moreoxia'. it wa- rctjui-ite to the \alidity of a blockade that th >
jifu'fs blockaded should be hostile territory. P)nt in the pres ait
case all t he>e conditions had IxMai complied with.
The next" (pie-tion was wliether the blockade w a- inaint.iiinrMl
with the necessai'v .-trictness. .\> to this, if the I'oi'ce deputed
w a^N (ompei cnt xnne pi'i'-umpt ion fairlv !'ollowe;l that tlie ollic a's
disfharii'ed thcii' ilut \ . In the ]vresent ca'-e the evidence ])oth as
regai'd- the wai'ships eni])loyed and the inei'chant \ ess-l> searohefb
and till- evnlcnce of the admiial hini-elf. t(>nd"d to show this.
.\- aL'am-t tln< i1 was alli^L^eil that manv ^■|■-~<el- wei-c allowa-d to
j, i ixCnt ('mil i. I th: \''. '/'-,■ \. Ayrc^ \va- well inaiiitniiird .-it a (li<-
■/■'y///,,,- (1 Moo. \ M. -JilT !. wii-i'c it taiiec of 10(1 inilr-.
wm'-< lirld that a Mo..ka(lr -f i'oiMio.
The Lnw of Blockade. ^97
go ill a.nd conic out 1)\ oousoiil . ^^'^lu'l^ a blockade had been c.stab-
lislicd bv uol ilicatinii, w cncii dv fa-lo L'or so loui^- a time that all
neutral nations must l)e taken lo be aware ol' it, it was not h'gally
competent to the bhickading' i'oi'ce to allow impress or egress at their
pleasure. Ikit when a blockade de jaHo had been recently estal)-
lislied. then, a.s regards egress, it was the pri\ilege oL' a neutral
trader to come out with cargo ladmi Ix^i'ore blockade, tho blockad-
ing oilicers lia\'iug to i'orni their judgment on thi.s as best thoy
could : wliil>t neutr;il A'ossels in ballast might of course come
out. A> regards ingress, to allo\\' a \'es>el to enter would lie a
breach ol' duty, but it did not follow that every vess(d .seeking to
enter must be detaineil. On the contrary, if there was reason-
able u'round ior boliexing hei' ignorant ol' the bh)ckade. she mu>t
be merely notilied or warneil ; e\"en though it som'time.s ha|)-
pened that such \(\s.--ols tsubsetiuent ly .suc(-e:'(led m -lippint;'
thi'ough. In the present case there was no :'vidcnce ol' ships being
alloAved to go in or come out by permission. There was indeed
evidence that a certain number of vessels succeeded in entering
despite the blockach^ : but maintenance oi' a blockade wa.s always
a fjuestion oi" degree ; and in no case had a blockade be 'U lield to
be \o'\{\. so hjnu' u-s the bloi'kading force wa.-~ (Om])etent and
])i-esi'nl. merel\' be<'ause a crlain number ol' xosids sutM'ecdcd
in evadinu' it. Xo port could be hernuM ically sealed.
With i'e>pi'cl to the ijiiotion whether t!i' blockade was bindini:
bel'ore till' dali' at which it was published in the Gaz 'tie. up to the
time of sueh [)ublicalujn it was a blockade r/c facto: and, as sui'h.
it dependi'il on its own leu'ality and was subjcd to all I'uies tliat;
attached to a blot;kade dc fiicto as disiinuaiished from a, blockade
by notilicat ion . .Vo doubt it wa< eon\'enient that e\'ei'y blockade
dc jacl(' should be n(jtilied as .•-oon a> po>-ible b\' the lEome
CioN ernncnt : and it then became a bhxdvade by not ilication. with
all its attendant ad\ ant ages. But under the Ib'itisli practice noti-
Ueation \\a- not essential, and was indeed sometime^ omitti'O
altogetliL'r ./ . If that wen- so, then a l)h)(d\ade dr facto could
cerlainh' not be invalidated I'eti'o-jiect ivdy by any delay in
notiUeation. it' it was subx'Cjuently notilied.
398 Cases and Opiimns on International Laiv.
With respect to the contention that the blockade was vitiated
by the Orders in Council in conceding- privileges to belligerent
vessels as regards trade with the ports blockaded from which
neutrals were excluded, the learned judge, after a careful con-
sideration of ihe nature and the effect of these orders as regards
neutrals, and a full recognition of the principle that a belligerent
is not entitled to take for himself or concede to the other belli-
gereul rights of trade prohibited to neutrals, concluded that the
eifect of the relaxation in c^uestion, being only partial, was not
such as lo invalidate the blockade, but only to confer on neutrals
a right 1 o similar treatment {g) .
With respect to the cpiestion of notice, knowledge on the part
of the neutral was an indispensable requisite of liabilitv. In
the case of blockade by notification notice of the blockade was
communicated b}" the belligerent Government to foreign Govern-
ments cither through their representatives accredited to it, or
through its own representatives abroad accredited to them : and
any ignorance for which the neutral Government was i-esponsihlo
would I)!' no excu>e (/? . In the case of blockade^ dr facto,
individual warnini:' lo any vessel abou! (o enter mii>t in general
be gi^'C]l. But by la[)>e of time and other eireum.-tances a
blockade de inelo mio'ht become so notorious that a knowledge^
of it ruiiiiit be o-cnerally presumed, either as a prcs)i))ipii<) jnrh I't
dr jure or as throAviug the onus of proof on the claimant. After
examin!}ig the factors necessary to con--titute notoriety and the
evidence of this which had been actually adduced, the learned
judg" concluded that tlic l)lockade in qu(">^tiou was at ^,v^\ rate
of siicli iiotoriet\' as to Idirow on the maitral flie onu- of jiroving-
his i^noiance of a mcisure that had be-omc .-o widely known '/. .
1 rL the liii'lit of fhc-e ])rinci[)l(>s. nud oil the <iia)iinds that llu>
e\id.inc" A\eiit to show- tliat' the blocdcade was notorious at; the
tim" will i: th- \i--e| lind left Ikt la<t port of call, that the nui-t^'r
had mad- a I'aKe drpo-ition. and that he was in fact ]iroe;>eding
(</) l)ii \W:< |ii>iiit ilii' jiidu'inorit vras (/) 'i'lic (|iu'siioii ot' tlii> cil'crr of a
ri'MT-.Ml l)y li;'' .Iiulicia! Coiiniiitt-M- (if ti-(>aiy of lliTU jiiadc ln-iwc-u Crcat,
\'.A'- l'i-!-,v ('u^Ma'il. 'riic yf.x i.ninu' (ii> liritaiii ai!<l I '(-iiiiiark. inakiiiu' ir law-
wjii-a \\ v-.a- fdilliiliil i< i-\\'.y c-Mii- fill foi' <'il!i.M- party \n Irailr Avirli the
-iili-rl ii; t'lc ;\i'.'u-iac!it <if llic lattci': cii'Miiii'- of tia' (UhiT. \va< af-^n <]i<-
->•<• p. 10(1. infra. cussed: src p. |.')2 ft sa^/.
>■) A. p. laS.
The Ldiv of Blockade. 399
to violate the blockade Avitli lull kiiowlodge thereof, a decree of
■condemiialion must be pronounced.
Judgment of the Privy Council.^ In llie judgment of the
Judicial Committee, wliich was delivei'cd by tlic Jit. lion. T.
Pemberton Leigh, it was 2)ointed out that the question.s for
decision were: (1) ■s\'liether the port of Riga was on the'
14th Alay -the date al \\'hi(li the \'i'ssi_'l hd't Copenhagen and
after which there was no proof of any L'urtlier notice — legally in
a state of blockade ; and (_2^ if so, whether the master or owner
had such notice of the blockade as to subject the vessel to
condemnation.
With respect to the existence of a legal blockade, it appeared
that the British admiral had on the 1-jth or 17th April estab-
lished, b}' a competent force properly stationed for th:^ ])urpose,
an eliective blockade of the ports of Libau, Wiiidau, and Riga,
and that this blockade was subsisting at the time of seizure.
On the question of authority it must be presumed that the admiral
had autliorit}' from his Government to institute such a blockade
of the l\u:-si;i]i ports as he might deem desiraljle.
It appear(}d, liowe\er, that on the l-Jth of .Vj)ril the British
tiovernmeiit had issu(Ml an Order in Council. ^\'hi(;h in ehcct per-
mitted Russian \ essels sailing before ilic 1-Jth .Ma>' from any
Riissiaji [)ort in the Baltie for any British [)ort lo j)roei'ed with
their cargoes on sueh a destination; tliaf the French Co\'erninent
had granted a similar permission as regards Russian ^•ossels
sailing for French ])orts; and that the Russian Co\ frnment had
also conceded to British and Frejich \ essels in Russian ports six
weidvs Asithin wliieh to fiad and depart for foreign ports. As
regards egress from the bloi/kaded })orts, iheri'fore, the effect of
these ordinances was \irfually to remove, up to the dati> men-
tioned, all restrictions on tlie con\c\ance of cargoes in Russian
\'essels to Brit isli and Freneli [xu'ls; and, altliough ih'itisli
and Frencli \ e--^els -wouul sirietl\" remain liable for sailing
I'rom l)l(>ekade(l Russian ports after noticL' of blockade, it
wa-- iniprohal)le i!]:il llii' allied I'ewer- inleiulcl 'o d jinxi'
tll'i!' subjeel- (if \\\v i 1 1 d n 1 lie 11 ei ■ i;rante(l to ;h.eu 1)\- the
Rii->ian (i o\ .riinji'iil . The i,>eii<.j':i! elf ct. lliercd'ore. was
40(1 C<(i<c>i and (ij)iidon^ on Infernational Lmv.
to allow tlu' lu'lliticrents to curry on a eoiuun'reo from Avhioli
iiriiiraU wwr excludi^d: and the qiu'stion ^\as whether siicli
an exclu-ioii -wa-- warraiittHl hy the hn\ of nali(jns, and, it not.
to what extent ncnirals conhl a\ail thenisch'es oL' the ohjee-
tion. .V> to this, it had been hiid dow u hy the U'lirncd jndge in
tlu* (.'onrt beh)w that ^ueh an exelu.^ioJi was not jn>tiliable, for
tlie reason that a boUii^'erent was not at liberty tore>er\e [o liini-
scir or to coiiecdi' to the other belliii'crent a riijht of eai'ryini;'
oil eoniniereial intrrconrsr tluit was denied to nentrai nations; that
it was military need alone which instiiied restraints on neutral
trade: and that it the bellii^erent.s themselves ciiu'au'ed m a trade
that was other\\-ise prohibited it wa> clear that no such nei'd v'xisted .
A lid \\\\ h t his principle the .1 udicial ( (Humittee entirel\' eoncurr'd .
( )ii the ipii'vtion. howe\ er. a-~ to how far such license^ would in\ ali-
dati> a blockade, tlu^ >aiue learned jucli^e had held that the cft(\-l
of a relaxation which was only partial but whic-h at the same
time exceeded the limits of some special occasion, was not to
invalidate- the blockade, but to entitle neutrals to the benelit of
similar tri'atment. fn (K'der to test this conclusion it was neces-
sary to remember that the right of blockade was not founded
on arn a'encral unlimiteel rie-ht to cripple the I'nemy's comnicrct'
with n(Mitral>. On the contrary, it w a.^ admitted on all hands
that a neutral had a ri^dit to carry on with either bellie-ereiit
during- war all the trade that wa< 0[)en to him in time of })eace.
Bubject only to the exce|)tion of trade,' in contraband goods and
with Idockaded ports : both these exceiitions ])eing foundinl on
the saiiie reason, namely, that a neutral has no I'igdit to intc'rfere
with tlu' military operation.- of a bellio'erent . It was an acknow-
ledged rule that the obje-'t of blo(dcad(> wa< to cut oil al! commu-
nication with the bloidcaded jilace whethei' for eu't'c-s or in-
gress (/' . Idle Court could not therefore assent to tin-. [)ropo-
sition that any objection on the g'round of ndaxalions by the
belligei'eiit 111 hi> own fa\'our would b(> reiiKned if the Court of
^Vdmiralt\' allowed the >anie indulgence to icutraU : for .-iiel,
relaxatnin-. if applied to neutrals on the sain(> |ei'ui>, miiilit
(y 77- /■■.Yv/,//,/ J/v'/,- (I C. l;5(h: Thr Rolh: (li C. \\v\). 3t;r):
i;.,l). ,S(i): 77/' r.ris.i, (1 C. Hob. 77/. .s-',vv'.s.. (1 Dod-^'. i:ilV
9:3): Tl.r Iru'nr ,/./,/;//, ( 1 ( . 1{,,1,.
T/ic L((/i' (if lilocliiuh'
401
pro\i' oi' very little valuu, whilst ii' (;ou.strU(jd more i'avourabl)
thfv would amount to a ycucrai frccdoiu ot.' coiuaiercr which was
iiiC0Jisi>t('nt with the cxistciict; of au\ hlockadc. The auibig'uit}',
in which all these ([Ue.stious were iel't hy the Order in (Jouncil,
nioreo\ er. was another .strony ai'iiiinient against the validity oi'
the blockade; for If oidy a |);irlial inodilied blockade was to be
ouroi'ced au-ain>l ueulral.s. then justice rccj^uired that such niodili-
cations >hould be notilied to neutral Stales, in oi'der that they
uiigiit be i'uUy appri.-ed as to what act< their subjects might and
migiit not do. II' the.-e \iews wei'e corres't it followed that at
the time this \-ess(>l saihxl i'or Hiiiii shi^ could not be atlected
with not u;e of the blockade, for tlie rea>on tint there was no
legal blockade in existence, and a neutral could not be required
to speculate as to the subse(|Uent. estabiiNhnient of a blockade
dr farlo.
A> regards ingress- into the blot:kaded ports, certain rehixatn^ns
had also been set up by the Ordc^r in Council of the '2'.)th March,
in fa\our of Russian vessels then in or on their way to British,
ports, which were to be ])ermitted lo return to their ports of
destination in their own country. But these relaxations-assum-
ing', as Seemed likely, that the rig'ht of entry extend(>d to ports
blockaded exce[)t when otherwise pro\'ideiI -iniiiht probably be-
said to fail within that class of cases in which a license to enter
mig'hl be yranted on s|)ecial ^'rounds : such cases being' alto-
i^ethei' iii>t ing'Uishable from tho'-e in wiiu'li. ji bellie'er. nt. in his
own intei'e--i, permitted enemy ships to In'inu' him <'ai'i!'0's fi'om
their own jiorts whilst niaintviininu' tlie bloi-k;i(le of tht^ latter
aL!ain-l neutrals.
But e\eii if it wi'i'e a->ui!ied tbat the bbn-k ide wa- not leu-ulh-
in\alidated on tlie-e g'round,>. it .-^tiil j'einained to m'c whetlua-
the notice wa- ellectual. .\s to thi- it was not. indeeil. (>s-ent ial,
accordini:' lo the principle- ado[)l ed b\ the l)riti.--h Prize Courts,
e\en ill the case of a blockade c/c Uicln, and wlcther as rt^g-ards
inur^'-^ or ei^ros : /,' . that spei'ial nntiie should be gi\"en. >o lon>i'
as tic !'■' wa- pi'oiif (if kiiowle(l:_:(>. aeliial or consiructi\
V
(/■ : I'.iirli (if tlioc liciiiu' LinxiTiii'd I / ) 'i'lii- rr|ii'i'-cn;- rlic ili'i;i-!i ..ml
hv llir -;,iiii' )ii-iiici|i|i'. Miiy^cr uiily A iiicriia ii \]i'\\ . As tn tiir pi'o', i>i' ii!.~
to till' l':n ; rt.lil kllnV, 'riiu',' W.l- llinl':' Mi' ll,,. I 'r,':,;-;;iinl| (if l,<,!l;t>:i el! llli.-
iH'a<Iil\- pn -uiiici! ill til'' latti'i' ca--'. mvi'i'cI. m'- ji, !I7, .',-'',■,.
C.I.L.
D D
40'2 C((scs and Opinions on Internafional Lnu\
But even thouo-li rsueli knowledge iiiiglit be presumed from the
general notoriety of the blockade, the notice to bo inferred from
it must V)(' of such a character that it would have been a good,
notice if directly conveyed. In either case, in fact, the notice
must correspond with the reality of the blockade, and must not
be more extcn-ive than the blockade its:'li. -V belligerent could
not, for instance, })roclaini that lie had blockaded several [lorts,
when in fact he had blockaded only one : and any notice of that
kind would be ineffectual and mi^'ht be di<reg:irded by the
neutral {jn . An unlawful Avarning off, which was in fact acted
on, might found a good claim for damages, as in the cases of the
■■ Boyne'' and the '" Monmouth'" (n . Applying these principles
to the ca-e in hand, the master would be clearly aff'ected by notice
of all that was publicly k]iown on the question of the blockade
at Copenhagen on the 11th Alay. But all the evidence on this
point wc]it to show that otficially and generally the impression
then was that a general blockade of all tlie Russian ports
had been established : and that this error had not been pub-
licl}- corrected. Hence tlie only notice to be pre-umed against
the ma-ter was a notice that he must not proceed to any
iiussian port : a notice which went beyond the fact-, as being
more extcnsi\"e than the blockade attually established; and which
was therefore, accordino' to the principles ]')reviously stated,
not bindimr on the neutral.
TJie judi^inent of the Court oi' Adniii-alty in this ra<e inav still
be .-aid Uj reiaiu it~^ autliurity as an expu-itioii of ii'cncral pjanciplos;
<'ven thouLi-k i-iirreeiod by the Ih'ivy Council on eerraiu points a^
]eu;i!<Is ilieii' aii])Ii<-:it ion (0 ). Tlie ju<lL;'nient uf the l'ri\y Conn./il
al<o enunciates a unmlier of general jnanciples in relation to
bloclcado. eeintiriaing generally those laid down in liie vJourt below.
Birecilv. moreover, ii d<'ii(le> two points of consideralile importance.
One i- iliat tlie duo onfoix-emeni of a blockade aii'ainst all
^('s-els alike i< an <\-scntlal condition of it< valldilv. and that
any general rekixalion of its r<'-tricf iciiis in favrnir of ludli-
'.^■eient.- and to the oxclnsion of nemi'als Avill i'end"r it invalid,
that n(jiice of thi' lilorkade. Ii(iwe\'ei' dini\-ed ^ /; i.
le ouier
,/. ) y/-,' II.,, -..-i: '■■■,.' M,,;>: \ {', (',) s,, ...■:,. p. 1(10.
ilul,. l-lCi). (//) ^\ hctlier. that i-. from iiotifi -a-
I ,, 1 Sec ^Moorc. ii,I. Ai'i). i\. oD'Jo li'Mi. -[M'l-ial waniiiiL:-. <a' lutcricf y.
/ .vrv7
The Law of Blockade. 403
raust. foiTO-^pond with ilio actual facts of tlie ])loeka(lc, under
pain of Ixdii^- liold inopeial ivo a^-aiiist lUiiitrals. Taken to<^'(!thor,
ihec^e judtiaiuMil ^ <miiIio(|\' the result.'^ of a <4'ri'at vari(!ty of j)i'Cvioii.s
decision-, and in this wny convf^y Avluit is at once a stalomcnt and
an illii>-;|iatioi: of tlie nuno ini|if)ita nt princijdes that underlie tlie
law of Idoclvade froin tli(> point of view of the British Prize (J(jurls.
The rule^ ai-tuallv laid down, moreover — with the exception ])erhaj)s
of those relating- to the presiiiii|)ti(ni of notiie from general notoriety
and the legality of licenses ( ry i -ajjpear to correspond in substance
with the rules now (nnhodied in the Declai'ation of London (r).
Turning to the law of Idockade in general, it will he convenient.
in our survey of tliis, to touch first on the British view, nith which
the American in the main agi'ces: noticing incidentally certain j)oints
on which the prevalent European vi(M\- dillers from these, and there-
after to consider the rules which have now l)een fornuilated on this
subject bv the declaration of London (s).
At the outset, it is necessary to distinguish a war blockade, such
as Ave are here concerned with, from a so-called ''pacific blockade,"
which, as w<> have seen, is not strictly an operation of war, and
cannot rightly be enbn'ced against neutrals (/). The former niav
be defined as "an act of war carried out by the warsliijjs of a
belligerent, detailed to pinneni access to or departure from a defined
j)ar! of the enemy's c(.)ast " u( ) . As a t-echnical ])rocedure. blot'kade
is virtuallv liiuiied to obsiructiiju of passage by sea and by the action
of na\'al foi'ces. Its object in general is to cut (^11 all communication
by Oi' from the s(.;i with the blockadtvi place iri: altliouy-li it is
sometimes instil ukmI t(j prevent egress oidy. or ingress only, in which
cases ii is usually known as a "bli»cl;ade outwards.' or a "blockade
inwaiYJs" according to the nature of its object (.r).
A ''military" or "\strat(\Ci'ic " blockade is one tindertakon as part
of or as incident to -onie military operation that i- ]M;ocecding on land.
A " conimcrciai " Mockaile, on the other hand, has no iiiuiiediate
iidlitary end, but aims rather ai weak(Mun'_;- the enemy bv cutting*
oif his commerce with tlu' area b|o<'kailed. Thi^ leualiiv of ibis form
of i)lockade was oriL^inallv ijuostioned l>y the I'ldied Slates, and its
ai)andoiimeiit stipulated lor as on<! of the condit i(jns on wliich alone
the I'nil.Ml Suum'.-^ would ai-.tvle to the Declaialiou of Paris (7).
}s(M eri liele-s. duriiiu' the .\nn>ricaii ci\al war. the I nit(?tl Stat(\s ])ro-
claimed a Moc!<ade oi the eniiiO coasi of ihi> .Southern (.''Uifederacv,
ext<Midinu' ovei' some 2.-">o() mile-, and rci juiiinu' some JOo v(!s.sels for
its mainienani-e. Tiii- Mockade. alihoiiL:ii |uimarily " coimnercial "
'"- v,..,,Y/. ,,j,. :!<.)S. 101. i'-i-iii^li \Ii'iii:.r:Mi<!iini '. I'ai'i. I'apiM'-^.
-,. I,'ir". \>. II.'). AJi--. \m. I ii!!()!e. [). ."i: and al-o
(.^ i i.,i,". |,. 111. Xu. ,-) (iii(i<)). p. ::;.■).
[t) Sci. \ol. i. :;i") ,' ,.n. :r. )■■/■■ r.-'i'^r ./■>,/:■/, n c. i;..],.
V', Si" t';c M.'aioi'aii'liaii p'c .ar.d a! I /> 1 V
liy' ilic r.riti:-!! i;..vria!ni.aii {,n- ilir i ■■ : '/V,, /,,,,.,:„,,, >\] Mnn. I'. C.
li'<c 111' tia Xa.val (': hi ;'--i-.'ii •■■. I'.IUS- al II.")'.
llMla ( laaa'aftia- I'ci cia'i ! I ei a- rlir i >, WliarVoii, Diu'. iii. 27-t.
D D 2
404 Cases and Opinions on International Law.
and iiOl ■' >liate^ic. inuvcd iilliiuatcly of ((jusidi'ialdo uiilitaiy
impoi-taiicc. and cniiiriliii t('<l laiiidv lo tlu' ovort lirow of the C'cui-
federacx" I ^ I. Ami tlu' cN'idtMiec llin- ali'itrdcfl ui its utility as au
uperatiiiii uf war idUtiilmtod. a^aiii. tnwaiiU cslalilishiiii;- it as a
periui.-siljk' mcasun' i (/ ).
A l.ilockadi' max take effect on one oi' more ])Oft.s. or tlie JuoutJi of
a. rivci. <.)r a part nf tlic (-(last. oi- even tlic wlmlc sea-boai'd of the
eiiein\' tfMritnrw Kiiotny territory for this [jiapose will include all
territor\ wliicli heloiio's to an enemy, whether in fidl ownership or
undoi' the <i'uise of a lease or a colonial ])rotectiirate i /; i. or which is
in hi^ ai-iual oct-upatii >n and control, whetlicr ]i(ilitii-al or military.
So. in i'.Hi4. Japan pim-laimcil a lihickadc <if the Liantunu' J'cnin^ula.
includin;^' Port Artlim-. and alsi_» of the coast of Manchuria: although
the^c atca-- weri' still foinially sulijfct to the sovcrei^-nTy of ('hina.
But a iiollio-erent cannot otherwise i c > Mfirkade neutral territory i f/ 1:
nor nun^ he in-tirute <ir <'iiforce a hlrickade of (>uemy reiiitory in >ueh
a wav a^ to proliihit oi- (ih^truct access to neutral t(nritoi\- i r i. So if
one Iiaiik or the upper part of a ri\-er lies in neuti'.d territ^uy. a
belligerent cannot lawfulix interfere with free acces>. in the ordinarv
course of naviu-ation. to the other hank or the lriw(>r pai't i/'c Hence
the action of the I'nited States Courts, on the oc(-a-ion of the Mockade
of the Rio (i ramie, durine- the ci\il war in rerpui'ing neutral vi\>sels
bound for Mexii an port-- to keep strictly on the ATexican si(h\ which
wa- not ah\a\s po-siMo in the usual c(jurse of navigation, under
])ain. if found north of tlie line of demarcation, of Ixune- expr)sed t'l
arrest and trial and of being irmlcted in c<.)sts and exjieirses even
thougli shown tij luixe a b()i}a tide neutral destination ('r/i — must lie
regarded a^ oppre^-ive and unwarrantable i /m .
In Older tliai a blockade may 1)0 valid, and that tlie j)enalty mav
take eHed as against neutral vessels, it Avill Ijo necessary to show
il I that the blockade was duly established; i2i that it was effective
in fact: i ■'] ' that it wa- duly maintaiiie(l in the -en-(> both of beini:
enfcu'ced continiiou-lv and enforMMl a^iairi^t all \v^<v\< \ liTi <: (4i thai
there Ava- -oine ai-t of \'iolation eiilie] b\ im^re^^ cu' e^it'ss on
the ]iart rd' the ^•e-sel aii-ainst \\hi"]i it- |)enaltie- are in\oked: and
. • M tha! there \\a- actual oi' con-l im-i i\ c knowl^dLic on llr- ])art of
thn-e ic-pijiidble for th" a<-;ioii of tho \-e--cl i /' i.
( ; 1 "I'aylor. 7(14. in rli.' ;ii'rii;il i-onrrnl er o!-i-ii jKiti.iii nt'
., . tlio cneiiiv.
'"■ ^"■'■'"'- !'■ •'"■'• i'l) L.'i,.. p. A\:,.
'''I Sec vol. !. lie. \V1. \- to a ,,1 Thr I-,;/,' fis,,/,. f l ('. l^.h. (i:3>.
cui-iou-^ (.'i.-ri(.ii t!::it ar(i<c bi'twccu ( /-, jp,l]. -\;!,- Taylor. 7(i.5.
firrar Hrir.-iii! and frain-c rclarixc tn , ,, ^ -fi, h,,:.!, : ,,,, ']]',, .-r (."> WaM.
the MMri;ac;i '.v 'in^ latter ef rlif :'i'a~t 17(li.
of .Sfiic-al ,!u!-iii- a war with rhr in- ,/ , j,^ iiniitin- five a.'cc- tn wu-
Irn.i iiaiio-. ,;n.l in .ili^-.d .|rr:,--a- ti-ai t. iTilMi'v ; iiall.711.
timi uf lliari-li ri-lii~. -.-.■ tii- /'"/- , /,/ , Savin- the nv(M.|,( inn- nicn-
■• ■'/'■'• ' '-'•': ■■ !• ■••■J -hnialy in ti..ne.l ^o,,,. |,. 112.
AtiM-rh-y .lirin^-. (^evnaav" in War. ., '/y, !;,•.,,, ,| ('. IJi.h. Ci,;.
1 " ' ■";■ wliicli i- n-.:al!v iv-aivlr-d a- tlie ehi--
'■■j 'I'lial i-, anl''-~ tht tvrritury i- -i'a! ea-e nu ilii- ,-uliji'et.
The Liiir nf IHochvJr. 400
(I I With icspoit. lu duo <'>talili^liiueiit ii is c.-sontiiil. in the lirst
}ilac('. thai \\w l)lncka<l<' sJumld lie iiislitiited under autiiority of ihe bol-
Ji<^(M('iit- ( i(i\<'niiii('iii . This aiii hiij-il y is usually con fcrrod on a naval
ciliicci' 1)\- <',\iir(\ss iu.stiiKjlioiis I'ruiu his (Jovoriinicut . Ncveiiholcss,
an olHciT iu <'.(iinniand of a Jia\"al force which is o)H.'ratiii<^' out. of veacli
of I'xiui'ss iii>irmiiouv alth(.)UL!'h in view of niodcni metliod.s of
<oiiniHi iiication .such ca-^cs are now less likely to occur — will be
deemed to ha\(' a delcLiated anilnnitx' for this ])ui'|)Os<'. .i>ul even
in ,--in-h a ra>c hi> action in iin|)o-in<^- a lilo(d\a<U> nni;-t he sid.)sei|uontly
a |)|ii o\ ed a nd ado|ii<>d 1)\ hi- ( d i\ (M'ninent ; t he elfei-i of -ueh a(io|)tion
lioiuL;' llicii to \alidate it ' /,' i as fnmi tin! date when it was oi'io-inally
imposed /i. And with ihi- the practice of othei' States appeal's to
As lepti'dv notitication, alihou;j;'li under the Ihitish practice a
public oi' diploinati'' notitication is, as we have seen, in)t a legal
roipasif(^ to the vali<lit\ ^^i a blockade, it is usual t'or tli<> (Jovern-
meid. either in oi'deiin^:' a Moi-kado. ov in adoptine- one alreadv estab-
lished (Ic f(ir/ij. to noiify the tact to neutral Powers ihi'ouu'h the
ordinaiy diplomatic chaiiiK'l-. and aNo to ]iidilish the fact to its own
sulije'ct^; whilst it is al-o the du1\ of the ollicei' in command of
the blockadini;- foice to take sin-h stops as ]i<> eonvenientlv can to
bi'in^' it. to the knowdctlu'c of tlu^ authorities of the p(n'ts blockaded,
and especialh of th<^ foreijin consuls there i ///i.
(2) ^^'ith respect to the conditions rcipdred to render a blockade
"(>necti\(\" there was birmerly a ;ireat di\'ei'c;'ence jiliko of opinion
and practice. In the lii'-t place, in the earliei' period boUi^'ercnts
had been wont to i-siu' declaiat ion^ of blockade in case-., where the
blocl-;adc \\a- nn-uppoited b\ aii\" adeoiiate foi'ce (ji- at timi's ex on bv
an\ forci': tliu- expo-iiiL;- neiitial \es-eN to ihe ii<k of chancf^ cap-
1 ui e I // :. Such blockades came to be known a- ' papi-i' ' < u- " ca[)inet
lilockade-. Toward- the do-e of the INtli ct'inuiv tlieii' illeii'alitv
\va- Li'ciieia ll\- a--eitcd liy neulrab-oi; altlciuiih tlii- jn--t pi-etension
w a- coiivia lit |\ d i>i'(^ca ideil I ly bell ii^'c rent s in t he > u cci 'cd i nu' wavsi jj ) .
It \\a- to u'tianl aij-ain-t lilockades of this tyjie that fhe ! )(>c|nra( ion
of I'aii-. lS.nl, pro\ i(h>d tiiat " blockade- in order to be binditi^- must
Ik' e!iecii\c. that 1-. mainlaiiieil b\ a fcu'ce -iiliji-iiMit lealK" to prevnt
aci-c-v tM the c(ia-t< oj' the oncm\ ''I'- In 'he -(voml placiv e\ on
.it'ter ilii-. tlieic wa- -till -onn' di\ erc'inic,' nt' opinion and ]ir,ictice
as to tin ciiditiMn- icipii-ite Ui ■' I'lfect i\ene>-," Accofdino- to the
/■; 'riuit i-. ii: the iiiaircr nf ;i!nli(,- cf kimwlcl-v nf rill' allc-cd hlockudo
ri/.;iiinn. :o;<l ;i prc-cnr iiUi'iit to \ iolare ir:
{/) Sec the r.riri-li \! ciiior:oi(luin, '','',". )>. ill),
p. .-, ; 7'/'. /;- '" Mi <'. l!nl'. :Hil.: ['■■ A- in rlic ! )("i-lararic;i< of fhc
7/,, ',7.,. --/v.' iS|.iiik>. at 111.. Ariiicd Xciuralitic-: of IT.Sllaiid 180(1.
! ;,, , Sec the r,riti-li Mcia ir lad )'ii. .alrlimiirli iicrc cnnnlcii with coiiditinii-i
>,. .-) ; '/'/■' .\ ' ,-.' ..../'v ■_• ('. Iv'nli. ill)); nor conceded under the I'n-iri^li ]irae-
;,nd /■.■■ /",...-.'". i>. :;(i7. '..,.. 'ice: .<ee 'J'aylor. 7(;i.
I . Which ai'cordiie_;- m ihe AhlHo- /' ' Se,.. hv way nf ex^i ni pie. p. 1 sS.
Aini'i-ican dnelrine ini'.:'ht lia\"c o.'- n. ".. >",,,,..
■lin'cd at ai.y (r,~tane,. fmn: rle jdaee . ,, ;. Arr. I.
bloei-adcd. ~o hiiii;- a^ tiicr,. \va< proof
4U6 Cases and () pinions on Iniernaiional Lav:.
[iievalent European \if\v it \vas necessary for this ptirpose that
ingTCss 01' e<;Tess should be 1)arred by slaps that were either
siationary or iu chose proximity to eaclt other [j), in stich a way as
til exjoose any vessel aiienipting' to [)as.s tiie line oi' l)lockade to a cross
liie from two <>r more slaps {S): altliough this view may now probably
bo rep'arded as aban(h)ued ( f i. Accordinu' to the Ih'itish view, oa
the other hand, a blockade is deemed to be ehective if it is maintained
by a fcucf' sufiicient. under ordinary circuuisfances i u). to ex])o.se any
\ essel attenipiinu- to eiuer to nlivious danger and ])robal>h' capture,
even though some vessels may succeed in getting through (ccj. And
■with this the view of the American C(jurts ap])ears to agree. So,
iu the ca>e of the (Jlmde Jiodrigues (174 U. S. -JlU; Scott. 835),
the Supreme Court ruled that the eltectiveness of a blockade, being
a; bottom a question of fact, was dependent on ]jroof of e\"ident
danger of entrance, liaving regard to all the circumstances of the
case, and especially the local situation, and the speed, armament,
and e(|ui])ment of the vessel or vessels emjiloyed; and that if egress
or ingress Avas shown ti> l)e dangerotis in fact, it was iiot open to a
neutral to challena-o the validity of the Idockade merely on the ground
that it had not bi^en carried tc> the highest degree of efficiency from
a ])urely inilitary standpoint. Proceeding to a]))dy this inanciple to
the i;a-e iu liand. the (Hurt hehl that a bhickade of ihe port of San
.Juan, in Porti:i Rico, a town of no great ])0])ulation and ha\'ina' only
one entraiu-e. was elfecti\'e. e\en though kept only l)v a single cruiser
]:)Ossessing a modern armameni and (Mjuipmcnt i // ). The Anglo-
American view may proljably be said to rcin-esent the existing law;
both as I)eing more in keeping;' with the coialitioir- of modern naval
warfarei ~).and as being now im])lit-itly sanctioned b\- ( onvontioni a,i.
Although the pi'es(>nc(> of some na\al force is necessary to the
existence of a valid blockade, yet shoi-e batterie< and tln^ artificial
ol)struction of navio'able channels i 6 i maA- be used iu aid of naval
operations, and must then lie taken count of in estimating its
eifectiveness I r- ). Hut ])roximity to the blockaded place is not in
il-elf essential, so hjmi' as the blockading- birce is so situated as to
pi'event. or to cau-e dano-er of. entrance i r/).
(/ ) \MietliL'i' witli or witlicut tlic (//■ At one time 'rjic y,,s, ,,,;fr. an
aid of shore liatterics. auxiliary criiisin'. liaving a Sliced of
is\ Itall. 70!. !i. 1.5 ,■ knot < and a j^'iiii i-aim'c uf 3' miles :
I) .S(.,. Iic|i()rt. i'lai-'-- iliu-uiii~. and. at another. 'I'hc \rir Orlrrn/x, an
•j'-o- j'arl. l^a[icrs. ^[i^(■. No. -3 (liKMi -. arnioured cruiser, ha\inir a speed of
Ll.V), i!''-'. it is unne:i'>-ai'y. havinii' 22 knots, a uun rani;'e > if ti ': niile.s. arid
ri'u'ai-d to tlie e(iui2)nient of niudcrn aii eh-i-tric liii'lit rani^e of 11) niile.s.
varshiji-; and an :idiled -our ■■■ of ('-''' >'"/"'^'- n- '''''i-
danger Inoiim- reu-ard tu thi' risk cf (") See tlie 1 (eilai-ation of London,
attack, at any rate on a defended Ai't. ■].
coast, from tor|icdces ;iiid sn!)niarines. ' /, > ]■',,]• inst;iii!-rs in whidi tlie ad-
lu) 1'h:it is. aft(u- makinu' all due niis-iliility cf tliis has been discus>cd
allnwancc fm- r\-ci'|it ional conrlitions inteiuiat innally, sim' Mcoi'e. I )ii;-c.st. \ii.
of weathei'. surli as foij-s or tfni]iests. *J !2sti.
,.>■) T},ryn,.,,i (\ Arton. .')7): 77-. ' '.i 77-- (\, ,„.-.:„„ r2 Wall. 13.3).
/■,v/,,^;.vZv/ (Spinks. ;tr 11.-, : r/,:^,.'y, ,i . y/,, /■•/„,,,-;./■-. : •_' Spinks. at
Sm'^fh (I-. W. 7 (\. I!, at IKt-. 11.3^ ,,. :-;9G. .,/„,„.
The L((w of Uloclcadt'. 407
(.)) A ljl(Kka(lt' iiiiist also ho cuiitinuou>l\ iiia,iiiixtiuc'<l. Accord-
ing- to the Uriti-^h view, ils validilA' will not lie iinpaiicil liv the
teiii|)(jna'\ ali.sonco ol' tlio hlockadiug S(|uadi'Ou owing- to adverse
woathci-, ])ro\id('d \\\v sialioii is rcsiiiiHjd willi due diligence; hut it
will ho iiH])airod if llio hlockading l'orc(! iicgliM'ts othorwi.sci to iiiaiii-
taiii il ('llicioiitl\ , or il' it is diverted to other ciiiployrneut, or if it
is <l rive II oil hv siiporior loit-o i C). Ha hlockade, even tliougli orig-iu-
allv \v<'ll ostahlishod. tails at any ot' these points, it will need to be
ro-estalili>liod in I ho same way as an original blockade (/). It ■will,
as wo have seen, also he invalidated it" the blockading force negdectw
to <'nr{.)rco it iin])art ially against all vessels; for the reason that/
such ro>liaints are as rogards iK'utrals justified only hy military
necessity (7 ). and that it soin(> vcs>els. and o-[)ocially b(dligerents,
are gi\on access for trade, it shows that, no sin-h Jiecossity roall}'
exists (/; I. The (question of what acts will aiuouid: to breacli of
blockatlo will ho considered in e(jnncction with the case next fol-
lowing ( /).
(4) \\'ith rospoct 1o tlio (|uestion of notice, wliilo all systems agree
in r(>ijuirinu' notice^ of tln^ hlockade as a condition of neutral liability,
there was fornioi'ly a marked divergence hot ween the British prac-
tice, with which the Ameiican and Japan<^se in the main ag-ree, and
the Fj'onch piacticc. which was hdlowcd hy certain other f]uropean
Powers (y). as tc) th(> nature of the notice required. According to the
French ])ractice, in addition to the riMjiiirement of a general notifica-
tion and a declaration addressed to the local authorities (/-j), a special
notification was noc(^>saiy: and no vessel was deemi^d to be liable,
in tln^ matl(>r of ingress, unless she attem])ted to enter after
having recei\e(l <'\press noti<e from a warshij) of ilie hlockading"
squadron endor-ed on Ikm' |)a|)ers(/). thit thi-- ruh^ had the
disadvantaiz'e ot enahling' vessels intcMit oti l)ieaking 1)lockade to
make at least on(> attempt without incurring lial>ilitv; and
a])|)oars, on i1h> occasidu of the ?\aval ( dnt'ertMicc. to have boon
al^aiidc)ii<>d h\' its cliid' adherents ( //^ ). Accordinu' to tlie Uritisli
piactii'c. on lh(^ other hand, although thei'(> iim<l b(> some notice, vet
such notice nia\' he aciual oi' pre<unqu i\ i' ( /M. As roii'ards oui'i'ss.
the taci of hlockade is \\\ i;'eiiei'al -^ullicient in case< where esi'iess is
unhn'.tid ( o ). .\> regards in^-iess. in the case ol' a. blockade dc
y>) ri.r /^v ,/-,■;,-/■ M,,/i.', A c, (;■; /„//v/, ji. 4io.
l^oli. S»i): ■/'/"• r,, I. :„,!.;,, (I ('. Kcili. I / I Surli a- Iralv and Spain, l)ut
].)t): 7"Ar llr,tr„,',,i KiC. i;,,l,. 11-2): jiut ( Ici'ina iiv ui- II (ijlaiid .
Tin- rr.,,risl-n iSjiiiik^. Ml,. Oil tlir (/■! /,./,■,;, ,,. 11(1.
<]ii(->tioii nt' ili\ci-iiiii. Si', a (li-rn- (/i Src I'avl. I'apcr-^. Misc. Xe. .5
sion lict\v(M"ii (ii'i'at I'.ritain and tlic iMMlH,. p. ;!() I''ran>'(> . p. (t i Iralv .
t'iiirc<l States a- tu rlic iiiti'mipt ion Imt ■A<n p. I iCrrnianv . and jl .51
,,f the Ido.'kadc uf Charh-inn: Mo.nv. ^ Mnlland i.
Diu'c-t. vii. Si:i. (},>) S.'r M . t'rcniaircnt's ])oclara-
(0 \\'cstlakc. ii. _:!■">. tion, :'<;,f. at l(il.
('/) S,,:u-'\ p. Mid. i ,. ) •/■/.- /!,/■.,,, (1 C. 1^,,!,. (»:;,.
(/-> r.ii't as ti. (MTtain .'xcrpt inn.. (,,) T I. , Vr,,,nr .l.,,l,fl, (1 C. Rob.
..(.,■ ;;-/,.,, pp. 11 -J. II.-.. i.".(e; luit M'c ;,-/,,.. p. 411.
408 ('uses dud Opinions^ on Jnfernafional Laiv.
jdcfo. ox})ro>< wiiriiiiiii' mii.-^t be uivoii and ondorsod on the ship's
papers, uidc.--- the lilnckath^ lias bccMi sulisfMnioiitlT iiotiliod. ov has
boconio iidtdriniis I /M. But in a l»l(icka(k^ by iioiifii-atioii. iiotico will
bo presumed it' llie uotiticalinii \\as iluly i-^iKnl and lliere ha<
boon siifli(-ienl time tor the ve-s(>l tw receive it q r. ii beina' the duty
of the neutral (ii)\(Muiueiit to i-iaunninicatc siidi notii-e \<i ix< sub-
jeet-^iri. Notice will also be jU'esunied if the master refuses to
attend to the summons of a warship of the lilockadin^" s(|ua<lron ('.v ).
Xotice on the part nt tlio master will ailect tlu> owikm's of the vessel,
and also such cai'^in as mav be uwiied bv them i7 .
I .") i \\'ith respect to cessation, a blockade nia\' co]u<' to an end in
the followiuu- wa\s:- I I'l If it^ is declared to be raised either by the
blockadini; (oiA-crnmont or b\' ilio officer in command of the blockad-
ing" forcf>. ill w liicli case all nec('»ar\ -iei)s otiolit to be takiui to m.itify
tlie fact to iH'iiiials. Hut more uii>iiiformafion Ljivcn to a ]iarticular
A('ss(d b\- an office)- of mie of the blockading' ships will nor hav(> this
e'l'ect. altliouyh it will (uititle the vt\ssel to express notice liefore she
(■an be held li.ablei?/i. ('2 i If it ceases to be eib>eiivel\- maintained
or enforced, in th(> sense previoush- described, or if it is var-ated bv
the })ro-siire of iho eiieun . in cither i.d' ^vhich case> it must l)e
formally r(^-(vstablishod befo.ro it cmi li<^ enforced anew .r'. ';'> i If
the Idoekaded ]ilace is actually occiipioil l)y the fr)i'ces ot the Idookad-
in<j,' Power I //I. l>iit on this ])oinl iIk^ American decisions are not in
ao-reement with the British, So. in the ('irrassidi) ,2 ^^'all. J.'S-ji. it
Avas held by the Sn])reme Conn that the bh)ck.:ide of Xcw r)rh'a>irs
was not raided, in fa\onr ot nciit!ab. b\ the oi-cipiaiion of that place
li\- th(^ I'niteil Stale- force-, on the ;.;ronnd rliat it had only recently
occurred and wa- liable to be \;i';itcd b\ the cncniv 1roo)'is who
"W(>r(> still in the \ icinit \ . Th" auihoiil v of tips i-a-e. internatirinallv,
is indeed discredited Itv the subsequent award of an indemniTv in
respect of tlie cai)1ure biv a Joint T'ommission to wdiicli tlie matter
was referred! -I, Xevertlndess it Avas tollowe'l in the AfhiJc ( 1 7G
V . S. oGl ). wliei'o it was held that the occnpation of the .■^|)anish ]invi
of Ouantanairio. tlie cit-\- still remainine' in the hainls of the Spaniards.
did not have the eflect C)f laisiuQ- the blockade. Fl'. in -inh ca-es. the
occu]Tation of a blor-kaded ]dace. even tlioni;h covering;' the sea
entrance, is oiil\- partial, it A\ould appear ipiile leL;itimaie to refuse to
treat tlie blockade as raised.
( /, ) 77-r X,.,,/,',^^'s il C. Pol), tin-
(7) '/•/,. \,i,ii,.,,s I'l ('. t;o1., 170!
'I'hr .]n,.n'- r< !,■<., "ih, i'l c. T^.i,. i:n ^
i ,0 TJ'. \. ,,','..'. '■! C. i;-il>. 1 1(1
(s) Si'C till' tlriri-li .Mc!nMi\!!iili;ii
}•
(') T/'^ M',
n c
11(1 ;i- to otl
tl!).
r.'i Tin \,;,h,,,,,. '•! r. t;ub. iio).
(..■ Tlr [h, if ,,.,,.„ :(i r. |;,,1,. 112^
'/ ) Sec rJ!'' P.riti<li \Ii'i;:er,-in-l.iii>,
Sec ^uv.
tilt. ,\l'l,
::!>tl]
T/ip Lfijv of BlonJcruh\ 409
(ii; BlJKACIl OF IlLOCKADK.
THE -FREDERICK MOLKE."
IT't.S: J C. IJo!). Mil: Tudor. Lcailinu- Cikc- in Maritime Law, 1011.]
Case. nuriiiu war lirtwccii (irrai IJi'itaiii aiid Fi'anco. tho
" PiT'doi'irk M(ilki'," a. I)aiii-li \i'.<-rl, wa-- capliirrd liv the
])iit!<h whrii (■(iiiiiiiii- <»!it of the poi'l nl' llaxrc tlu'ii under
li]Mcka<li^. The \i'-.-~r| \\a- then lioimd on a \()\aij'i' lo tin' roast
of Al'riia Willi a iii i-ndla neons cai'i:'!) : lint it a|i])ran'd that .^lio
Iiad i)i'i'\ ion-<]\" dearr-d fi'din Lislion, nominallv f'oi' Coponha2'''n
Imt I'l'allx i'or Ilaxi'c and that ihi' nia-tcr Imd made tliat jiurt in
tlic I'act^ di' an rxprc-^ warninu' iiixcn him h\' a Ih'itish frigate in
till' ^i(■inil\ . A claim to le^tit'it ion \\a.- made a]i|iariait 1 \' on tlio
CTound that thi" \'f'-si'l had (h'po^itod Ina' carti-o and wa- at tho
time id' rapture on a iioutral (h'-tination . In t he I'l'snlt. and upon
a ri'\ ii.'w oi' tho prinoiplo- iiOAorninu' hroa.ch of hhxlvadr. ii wa.s
hold that hoth '-hip and cin!.;*) v.ia'o iiahh' to condi'innat ion .
Judgment. Sir W . Scott, in i^ixiiii^' indiiinrnt , -tatrd that
lie shouh] address himsrH' priinanl\" to the ipic^tioii fit thi' ai'tual
\i()!ation ol' tho l)lo'd<adi'. ina-nniih a^ if tlial waar' dotornimi'd
a.u'ain-t the idaimant a di<;ii->:on ol' tho ollor point- woiihl ho
nnniM'O-.vjii'x . A> to thi>. ho hold that tlo' fx idoiiri' waait lo -how
th'' ma-Ira' had hoi'n dnl\' w iniod ; that tlnai' w'ro \\ar-lii|i> on
tho -tatioii to pro\ont iniii'i's-, thi- hrini!' -idlicicnl 1 o oon-t it uto a
l>lookadi : and that tho ma-t'a' had kiiowinrh o>adiMl n. l]ut
it x^a- -lill moi'o niatranal that thi' hlorkado in thi' pr"-onl oa<e
liad oontimii'd uiilil tho -hip i-amo out. 'I'lo' hlookado had niih'od
\anrd. hnl N\a- -till in I'oi'o". for tho i'i>a-on that an aooidiaital
mt onaipl loi! duo in tjio wi^athor did not r-anoxa- it. It \va- said
that on tho analoiix of oonti'ahand tho dojiiKjiiiaiox- of ilii. !orinor
\ovati'!' oould not hi' jooki'd to. fhit tlioi'c wa^ r^all \- no ;i na |oo';\-:
for til'' ohif',-i of hlo"kado wa- tn iiit olf ail oi nn inun irat i' oi of
eomm^ roi- A\iili tin hlorkadod plaoi'. and tho ad of i-^r,,^^ v\a- in
fact in-1 a.< mlpahh' a- thar of ini:ro--. ddoav iinAiht h'' ca-i's
of innoi'.'iit r-'ii'--. a- wl^av \r^vrK ha-l limc in h-d'or" iiav^kado.
in wdii'.-r, ca--' x\\'-\ mi'_;lit lu' at lihrrtx" to r-lii:'. although r'\iMi in
410 Cases antJ Opinions on International Lair.
such a case the question uf liabilit}" might arise if they attempted
to carry out cargo. In the present case, however, both ingress and
egress were criminal: and both ship and cargo, being the propert^■
of the same person, were subject to confiscation.
Tliis ca-o serves to illastrate the generaj conditions of neutral
liability a> reo-a.rds Ijrearli of blockade; namely, that there must be
a valid and subsisting blockade, some knoAvlcdge thereof on the part
of the neutral, and, linally, .^ome evasion or attempt at evasion on
his part, whether b} ingress or egress. But in practice, and under the
customary laAv, we find that the rules with respect to liability for
breach are somewhat more elaborate.
According to the British practice, a breach of Itlockade may be
of '' Idockade inwards.'' by which ingress is prevented, or '' Ijlockade
outwards." by which egress is prevented ''a j: although a blockade
is nsually designed to prevent both ingress and egress i' 6 i. AVith
respect to ingress, a vessel having actual or presumptive notice of
the blockade Tc) will be deemed to be guilty of breach (r» if she
passes or attempts to pass into the blockaded portu/): or ('2) if she
ap])roaches the blockaded port, or is found in its vicinity, in ci)--
cumstances warranting a presumption of an intcjition either to enter
it herself or to discharge her caro-o into otlier '\-<'SSp]s for trans])ort
to it('e). In the case of a blockade by notification, moreover, a vessel
was. strictly, liable to capture and condemnation if she even sailed
oil a destination to the Idockaded port, however distant she might
be at the time of capture'/!, uidess she could show either that the
intention to mak'e the blockaded port had been wliolly abandoned
prior to capture fr/ 1, or. in the case of distant \-oya2-es. tliat she in-
tended only to make the iioit if i^ermi^siljh' 1 7? >. But althoujj-h this
was th(» strict iide of the Prize Courts, it a])])<'ars tliat under the later
British prar-lico. at any rate, vessels were nf'^'er in fact seized
for breacli of blockade exce))t when found close to or approaching
the Idookaded ]V'nt or coast </i. Tlio .American law. with respect to
breach of bhickade l)v iiioress. is in the main similar to tlie Bi'itish (7i').
Butundei' tin' rVuitiiicntal practice, pieviously I'otVrr'c*! tn. there could
((') .M;iiiii:il of Xaval Prize \.^\\. (n- 1 1,r l„n,,n (:] C . IJol,. IfiT).
Art. 12'.t. ('},\ Tlr 7;rfs,>, f] C. l?nh, ?,?,-l)-
( /' ' >''/-,", |i. 4(i8. tlie latter exception lieint;' founded on
( f\ Si'j,,'ii_ [,. -Ills. the difficulty of olitainiii'j- ])i-i'ci^e in-
(d) Thr y .rfhr'.rj: .\I(,11:: ;| C. forinatiou a- to tlic hlockadc: an ex-
Rol). SO). ( u<c wln'cli would rarcl\- :!vail iio\v.
(/;) Thr yr,,j,-or,fri (I C, Kol), fO Sec the I!riti<h .Mciunraudum ;
30.; 77- S,,.. „,,,/ J,> -r (.■) f. Kol,. I'arl. i'apcr^. MiM^. \m. 1 ('1909),
70): Th' il,n,h,n, r/,, ;..,;;,, ro C. p. 20.
Kol>. 101). (1:^ See The Crrra.s;,,,, CI Wall.
CO As^nniin-. of curse riiaf the 1 :5.V : and. ircnei'ally. Halleck. c. 2.1,
blockade -till continued: -c 7''.c and Moore, i )io'c-t .' vii . s2il n sp,/..
Cohonbi" (I <". 7?ol,. l.-,4 : //.c \p,,- where the ca~c. are c^ncctcd.
f/',/"s (-1 c. Kci,. no ,.
The Lmv of Blockade. 411
l)C uo liit'uch \>y iiiyre.ss, ualcss iJiero had bcoji ait alleuipi (o enter,
ait«}r (Special waiuing- g'ivoii iii the viciiiit}' ol' the liluckadcd port ( I).
'L'Jio i[iK'sli(jn of the ai)|)licaiioii ol' "'tiie docliine ol' eoiitiuuoua
\u_vaue.- ' K.) cases ol' ljlocka<le, and the exiensiojis (jf tliat (hjctriue
!»}" tlu' Aiiieiicaii ('oiirls during- the civil war will be ooiisidered
heiealier i ni). ^\'ilh n'spect tu eure,ss, il had loJiy been u.sual to
allow neutral vessels already in port at the time of the in.stitution
of ihe Idockade to couie oui. either in ballast or with cargo bond fide
laden liet'ore blockade, within a. time limited for that purpose (^wj;
this being- u-ually not less than iifleen davs ahhoug'li .sometime.'s
longer ;oj. The ih-itish piacfic(> not only conforms to tliks uisag-e
with resj)ei I to egress, bin. in default i>f any tinn' being- lindted for
tliat |)urpo.si', allows neutral vessels already in port at the time of
the iusiiintion of tla^ b|()ckade to come out freelv, so long' as they
aro in ballast or la<len with cargo hi))id fide laken on board before
the blockade cinnmenced i y>). Snljjecl to these exemptions, however,
a vessel will be deemed to be guilty of a breach by ogre.ss (1) if
she comes m' attempts tu come out of a blockaded port after time;.
or (2) if .she is f(nind in the viciiuty of the j)ort in circumstances
warranting a i)i-esuniptioii of intention to take U|) caru'O fi'om other
vessels that liav(! come from the blocka.detl porti^/). .According to
the i^ritisli practice, moreovoi-, a vessel which has succeeded in break-
ing blockadL' outwards r(miains liable to capture uidil the conclusion
of h<M- ])rincipal vo\-aii'e i /- 1. unless thi' ])lock;ide has beeiL mean-
wlule <liscont Inued I ,s- ), The Americaji jjractice witli respect to
breach of blockade by e^'re>s is. aii-ain. in accord with, Ihe lirit ish(/').
The Continental j)ractico. in genei-al. concede^ tlio right of eg-ress
to neutral vessels alreridy in port at tlu.^ time of the institution of the
blockade; and ab.o treats the fad of blocka'le as 'leino- in itself
sufficient to afl'oct with notice vessels alrcad^• in the blocknded ]iort (tt):
but it differs from the An<i-]o-.\meiican. ])i'actice. maiidv. in holding"
tliiit a vessol can onl\' lie ca|)tured foi- bicicli within the range of
'") P>iit sec imw |i. 1(17. II. ''///\ alJcii-od that tlicrc wore no foreign
.v/'^;,v/, sliips tlieii ill port, except Cliineso
' ///) See p. 471. /■/''■/•'/. jiuilcs in tlie si-rviee of tlie enemy: see
(il) 'V\\\> was iiaseil on a recon-nirioii 'fakaliaslii. ;)73.
that tiie riiiiit of interdieiiiiL;- coiiiiiiu- i'/' ) See Thr ]■', ■,,!,, -'il: J//-'/'. : I ('.
nieatioii with an enemy jiort did not T\'ol). (SIO : llir ]',-o>'i'- Ji:'I!.'!i (] C.
extend to the ('(iiitinement of neutral I'nh. l.ilM; .Manual of Xa\al I'rize
vessels alrea<ly in poi-t. (Men thmie-h if 1 a■^^■. e4.
tniti'ht warrant ihe prohiliitlon of aiiv ( '/ ' See 77" (' jm rh't ' r (' /' i-'xfi)/'' (ir>
fnrrlM>r tradini;-: M'e ilall. 7u7. ' <'. l^oh. 101,: and the ISi-itis], .Memo-
[01 The limir <if (il'lcn (lav- wa- i-aiidiim. p. 7.
adojited l)v <;reat I'.ritain and 'I'r.-inee (,-■ I'hr W,lr.ur,t ,„., Vll',nr ('1
in 1S.''>4 : hy t!ie Inited State- ill isiil. ('. Uolc fiS): Thi (;,■;>,■,■,? Ihr„>:'inn
except when extended t'oi- special ('i <'. Kol). fll).
rea.sons: liy I'ranee in l,s7il: whilst (■- ■/'/'■' '[.'■srif, li C. Roh. :;,S7).
in 1898 t\\v riiired St;ite- uave thirtv ( / ) See .Moore. |)iL;('-i. vii. S:].) et
■I-
days: see Hall. 7(1S ; Tayh
r.iit on the lilockade of the L
Teninsiila in Htn I no days (
were alh.iwed hv .laiian. ii hcincr eas(> (d' iniz-ress: y, /,.,,■,/. y, . 1117
r.iit on the lilockade of the Liao-tiine- (.'/I In the sen-e. that is, that no
'eninsida in Htni un days of L''i-ace special iKititiejriiin i- rcipiired. as in
412 ^ 'c./-sr.v awl Ojiinlon-^ on Inter naUonal Lav).
a(;tioii ot' rlu> Ijlockadiiiu' iVn'cc. or if ])ia'sii('(I ajid taken liofoio
i-<'achiii^- a iiciitral ])Oit \n).
TIkM'o are. lio\\('\<'r, coi-taiii <-a--<"^ iu which iiji;-i-es- or ep'i('» is
ii>ualh' all(i\v<Mi \w excnsccl. I ndoi' iht," lirilish aiid .\!iH'ii''aii
pi'aclii-c. this cxaMiipl ion ivoxw the oi'lina i\' nilc ol' i)locka<h' <'xteii(|s
to tli<» )'olh)\\ iii^- i-lass(..s III' \<'ss<'|s: --: I ) Xciiiial warsJiip-, wJiii-h
arc LisiialK' iMMiiiitted to ha\<! access to the l)locka<h'd ])Oft or e(>as1
i.iiidei- |ifo|)ei- i-e-^ti'icl ion^ and I'm- a pfopci- oh jeci i :a- ). althouuli this
is ratliei' a iiiatiei- of count \ tliaii of ri^'ltt (//i. Akin to this
is the ))eniiis>ion iisiiall\ izivcii to the fe-ideiil ininisLei- ol' a
neutral State to send out a \('s^el carrxiinz' di-tresscd seamen (jf liis
own iiat ioualit \' ' :). ■'1) N'eeii'ai \('-s(ds wliicli ha\i' Itccu cuiupi'iJed
li\' stress ol' \\(>alh('r. <ii' the need of )iro\ isimis nr repairs, in ])iit
into the hh)cka(h'd \)<)V\ a.s the oid\ aci-cssddc poit in the circum-
.slaiu-es I r/ ). I .'i I \'cs-;(ds wliich lia\c icccixcd a spci-ial liccn-c from
tlie ( io\ ci'innenT of the hh^ckadini: ."^tatciOi or the ciniimaudci- uf
tlie li]ocl<ad iiiL' forc(>'r). And thcs^' exempt ions, with the (,'xeeption
])ei-ha]i-- of the he-t. arf' aUo recoo-nj/cd in tlie practice of rither .>tales.
Finally, Ase ne<vl lo notii-e that a neutral ve.ssel is tnjt o'uilfy of
l)r<'acli f)f ])|oc]cade liy e^^'ress nierel\- Ly rea.son i.d' lnadinii' a car<_;o
which has Ix.'en hronght to her from a h|o(d<ad<'(| |)ort or c<iasi after
l)ein2' transported (i\-erland o)' h\ iidaiid naxieation to a nenliai <\y
<ipen port; inn' vet of Ineacli of hlock'ade l]\' iiit.;'re-s merelv l>v reason
(jf (ariyine' a caru-n nltimat(d\ de-tine(| foi' the Idockaded port, so
lone- as the car^'o is intmided to he actnalK (liscliai'iicd li\ liej- at. a
iieutra I iM' open ])(jrf ( d ) .
p,iA)('K.\i)i:,
THE "PANAGHIA RHOMEA.'"
) 1S;)M 1-^ M.i'i. P. C. Kis. [
Case. ill J8oo. diiriiie- wai' helwccn (ireiil ISi'iImui and Ivii-sia.
tlie ■' PaliilU'lli:!, K llOlllli.'l. a \c-sei saililll^ IllKJer llli' (ifock ilae.
('', SiM' liv way of r\aiii|i|i'. I'ai'l. A) 'i'lic iiciaicc lirin;^' pa I't icii hi ]■ ajid
l'a|HT-. \Ii-c, \u. .', I i!)0!i , |,. :!f| i,ut ill I'xci'" of til" liiiii;- (,t* -(iit.c
I'ranci',. y. 11 : Italy;. -|)(cial oi-ra-iuii; .•-•/,, .v. |,|,. :;'.is. Kill.
','■) \- tVil' I lie ~ll'-ci)!l r I)!- :riii()\al i.f '<; \lllii)ii:rli a pcriiiil i'j'iaii ali ili-
llicii' iiatioiiaN. iir I'Oiniiiiiiiii .e i'lii witli ''••riuj- (iflicia will ma hi' -iitli'-iiair : .-'■i'
the Idf-al autlii.riti.-^. 7 / -■ //o^.- (I Oods. ■_>■_'(;;.
I in Si" iaA\- tli" III- lai'alioii ot ',1, Scr 'I'l,,- (),,;,,, :', C. jioi,.
J...ii(irai. \i-i. il. '1\U': ri,r SI,, I 1 C. i;,,l,. (i.-,,; 77-"
I-, llall. 7i:!. .h,.,'/, I';,irr (\ C. i;.,l,. T'.I;; and flic
."■• 77-. Il,'.':nr //,-,., -J C. |,'.,1,. llrilNii Al'-iiioraadiiiii. |.. 7; aada^l.,
I;!! : 1'!,' l'-,,'".,i' ' .') C K'uli. '.'T : tli'' i iit'i-afrioii of ihi- latter |.riri"it)li>
apd 77-' <'l,i,h,ih I \'j\\\- . -J.')!'). liy till' Aiiicricaii ('oiirt< dwrin'j- tlio
-■i\il ','. ;ir. |i. 171 . -■-- /',".
The Law of inorka(h\ 41;}
and cari'Niim- ;i carui" <>!' wheat coiisi'^iiod to ni'itlfal ports ''gt ,
\\a> capt lU'i'il 1)\ II. M. .v|ii|) "' Daiiiitloss.' of! Odessa, and sent
ill For atljiidicatioii, on tin' o-ronnd of lia\'iny' atteni|)t('d a vitjla-
tion ol" the l)lockado ol' that port. Idio o\idiMi('C went to show-
that thi' \o>s('l w a> t,hi' propcrt,y of a (Ji'cck merchant : that th(.'
cargo was the joint property of an Ionian ni(>rclian1 resident; in
"^riirkey and a Lon(h)n llian; and thai the N'cssel Wiis at the time
of seiznro really niakinu- i'oi' Odes-a, without, any just ilicatioii
nndi'r tlie plea of necessil\' si'l up 1)\' her owners. Id the
Court helow' both ship and caj'i;o were condenuicd. e\ en tiiouuh
the leariied judii'e was of opinion that, the owiier> ol' tlie eai'iio
were iidl III fact co^'uizant of tin' intended violation ol' blockade.
()n appeal to the Pr!\y ("oiincil the deci'i'e of condemnation was
affirmed, both as t(j ship and caruo : it Ixdni;- held thai, inas-
much as the blockade wa.s known or miu'lit liaNc been known at
the time the earo-o was shi])ped. the owners of the latter were
bound by the illeii'al act of the master.
Judgment. Ln the judiiinejit oJ' tlie Judicial ('ommitteo,
Avhich ^^■a-s d(divered by tlu^ R,t. I[o]i. I\ PtMiiberton Leiiih. the
(jUesiion in issue was stated to be wlnMlier. Iia\-ina' reijard to the
J'aet that tlu sjiip had been riiihtl\' condemned, it was o])en to the
claimants ol' the carivo to protect iheii' pi'oj)erly b\ showmi;' their
innocciic'',. or ■whether the\" were I'onclnded l)y the dleual act of
the master e\'en thoujih done wit hout tlijMi' pri\'ityor aiiainst their
wishe.-. In the ('ourt bidow it had b(>en held that they were so
cDiiiduded. In the '■ Merciirins" J ('. Kob. 80 . Lord Sto\\ell
appraii'd to ha\(' iiehl that a violation ol' blocka.di- b\' the master
alici-trd ihe shi|i but not IIh^ cariio. unless it was the property ol'
till' -;i!iii' owner, or unless the ow nei' wa^ coiiiiizant of the intended
violation. I'lit subseijuent cases appeare(] to have carried the
i'uji' much rurthcr. and to Inn'e e>t abli-hcil that "wIku'.' 1 h<?
hlockiidi wa> kiinwn or mii;hl. Irixc been known to the owjcrs
ol' the :'ar::(i at llie time wlcn the -hipnieiil w:i> made, and whcri^
the iaitcr nn::hi therel'ori' b\ pos>ihdit\ !;■ pi'i\'y to an inten-
tion III' \iolatinL!' the b|(i;'kadi\ siich pi'i\it"\ was to be a-^sumed
('') S\-i'a or tlu- I'ir;rii-.
114 Cases and Opinions on Tnlernational Lavj.
as an irrosLstible inference of law which could ]iot be rebutted:
and that in such a case the master must be treated as the a.gent
for the cargo as well as the ship(?>). Such a rule, although
it might in its application to particuhxr cases be attended with
some hardship, was nevertheless necessary in order to prevent
fraud, and apj)lied not merely to neutrals but to all persons what-
soever, whetlier they were aliens or subjects of the countrv en-
forcing it.
Tlic justification of tliis rule lies in the fact that in nearly
all cases of breach of blockade the attempt is made for the benefit
and with the privity of tlie owners of the cargo. If cai'go owners
were at liberty to set up their innocence of tlie act of llie nKx,ster,
such a plea would invariably be raised, and would often l)e supjiorted
by evidence which it would be difficult or impossible for a captor
to refute, with the result of relaxing largely the deterrents to
blockade-running. In the case, moreover, where the attempted vio-
lation of blockade Avas in fact made agaijist the instructions or wishes
of the cargo owners, the latter will have their remedy against the
master and owners of the ship (c). But the cargo will not be con-
demned Avhen it is shown that the goods Avere shipped before the
blockade was or fduld V)e kiiown ( d).
Gi-KNKiiAi. 'S.OTEs.-- -TJw Lcur of lU'jcl'ddc uiider the Di'darafkm of
LoHdo)i.- -i^o far we have considered only the custoniarA' laAv of
blo<-l>;ad('. or ratliei' the national iut(>r))i'etati(.in of that law on tlie
part of [)arti(ailar States; noticing in tlie r(>3uh a considm'ablo
divergenc'e alike of thcoi'v and of practic(\ On this, as on other sub-
jects connected Avith neuf lal trade, it Avas. as avc hav(^ seen, attempted
on the oc(;i<ion of the ^«'avai ('onfei'cncc of IDOS lo aifi\'e at soiue
au-ieenieni as io wJiat Aviu-e the '' rccou'iiized rules of iiiU'iaiatioiial
hiw '' Aviiiiin llu.' nicaniiiL;' of ilie llagn" ( 'i)n\ ciil ion ( c ). I'liis was
in ;^icat mea-iiro an oniplisluMl bA' ihe Declaration of London. I'JO't.
Thi- 1 toila ral ion will, if raiilioil, Ijci-ouk^. Iiimliau- on tlu^ State- tliat
accept it, lo tin* extent |n(n"iou--ly indicated i /) ; \\]iilst its I'ulcs will
lie inUMprcii'd and applied liy the I nl eiaia! iona I l*ia/(^ (lairl. it and
■>\lieii ilia^ (oiiit is o-ialdished ( I/). I]nl won if il shoidd Jiot Iw
(//} 77," .li<.r-^,.>h'r ;.t C. i;„l,. a:;); (d) Thr E.,-rl,,r,,,ic 'yVAw. :;;i;.
■/■/,. .{,],,,.<>. (.'> C. i;,,!). -j:,';-, : ■/•/,,• (,-) X,). 12 of i!M)7. Art. 7.
/■:.'■'■/,.,,, r/.- {\:dw. •■]'.)): T/,r ./,.„,,.< (■,„,/.■ (/; Sec .\ia<. (i(;. (;((: ^iml .•."■/.,
(I\v. -HW).
]). o>,i
■/■/,, l;:,.,.„l,n, l;l,,n„:,n (,-';.,,':.
The Law of Blockade. 415
extonsivoly ratilicnl llio Uoelaratioii is uovortliolcss likely, for the
reasons pi'Oviously g-iveu (/i), to bocoiiio iu a g-reat measure the
standard oi' iutornatioiial action in the future (i). Hence, in
relation hijili to lilocka<le and other t()j)i(:.s cojuioeted with neutral
trade, it wil! he desirabh' to see h(j\v far tire eu.stoniai'y or national
riile^ oil ihcse siil)j«'cis are atl'ectcd hy its provisions.
I'hc Siojic of JHocL'ddc— Oil the question of ihe scope of blockade
the Det'laration expressly provides that a blockade iuu,st not extend
beyond I he [lorts and coasts belonging- to or occupied by the
(Miciiiy (/,); aiul fnrlher. lliat a. blockading fo]'<'e nuist not bar access
to neiiiial jiorls m- coasts i f). This merely roiilii'ius a principle which
is. a< \\<' lia\<' seen, now u nixcrsally accept rd in. t lieory and c-onnnonly
followed in practice ( //ij.
Essentials to the Vdtidthj of a Hloclcade. — Under the Declaration,
a blockade in order lo be binding' must comply with the following'
conditions: In (he fir<( place, it must bo "clfective," that is to say,
it must be mainlained 1)}- a force sufficient realh' to p)revent access
to ihe enemy coast Hikm;/). I'iiis merely adopts the fornuila and
delinition contained in the Declaration of i'aris, f8oG(o). The
f[uestion of eTiecl i\eiie>s is als(T div-larcd to be a. ipiestioji rif tacl (pj.
Idiis confirms the .A iig-l(.)-.\meric;i ii view — which Jiolds that the
(piestion is one to Ije (hMermined in thi> light of the circumstances
of each particular case, and especially the local situation, and the
nature and calibre of the force employed ( r/)-— and may probably be
said to disjiose of the Continental theory previously referred to (r).
In the second place, the ncelaration implicitly recog'uizos that a
blockade nuist he duly maintained in the sense pr"\-iously indi-
cated (5), whilst at the sam(^ tim(> ])ro\i(liiig' that a blockade sliall not
he deemed to be raised by tin- tem])orary A\ithdrawal of 'he !)lnc!(ad-
ing- force owinu' to stress of wcMihcr (/). In the tliii'd j)lac(\ in or(h'r
10 be lundiiiL;' on ucutrais. the blockade 11111-1 ha\e be<'n " ih>c|ared ''
and ■' Jioi ili<'d '' ( //,) in acconla iicc with the [UMjvision-^ iinMilioned
below. Finallv. it nm-^t be a])plied iiiiparfially to tlu^ ships of all
nations (,r"l; subi(,'ct. ho^\ev(n•, to a- I'igiif oji tlu^ [lari of the com-
mander of a l)loclva<ling f(n'ce to allow a. neutral war>h.ip to g'o in
ainl come out of a hlo'-ka<led port (//). and also to a right of entrj'
and exii oil the pari of a iKMili'al \-e~;-<el in circumsiancos of distress
acknowh^lLi'ed bv an oliiccM- ol' ill" hlockadinu' force, so lono- as no
carii'O is <li<ch;ir'i-ed or ta];en on board whilst in the blockaded
f/o Si,),)-", p. ;>S7. (/') Art. ;].
(/i A-. iii(li'c<l. \\-i< ilic ca-c in tlu> 1 '/ ) S,i;,rf'. p. 406.
Turin-tiMlian war of KUl. (-■) //">/•
(I.-) Art. 1. (^•; Sec !). 107. .w'/./v; and Keport,
(/) Art. IS. Pcar:c I i iu'i;-in>, .571.
' ,.1 S c p. nil. v-,;,/,. ; niid a< fo t!ir (■". Art. 4.
([iii'-ricn 1)1' til'' i-ai-iiiL^' nf a hl(i:-!.;a(!(' > •' i Art. S.
hv iircupatiiMi. |). HIS. v'.',". (.'■) Art. ,').
" (,-■> Art. -1. . '/ \rt, (i.
,. • S^.r,". p. la.-,.
4I<) Casein ami (JpliuoiL'i on Inf.o-national La/v.
[»oilici. (Jii iiiii>t (j1 tliesfj poiut.-> the Doclaiation, it will be seen,
viitiiulJy aflinii^ llio riile-^ and iisacic locogui/.ed iiudor llio Briti^li
|ii'acti(;<' ( '/).
J lif i >((:liinil ion 'jj Bhx/L'udc . A (l<,'i'larai i(.)ii ul' liliickado i< a
lui'Jiial >lal('ni(.'iil -|)('<-il'\iii<i- - I'orllic |)iir])(.i>C'- ol' the ii(j) ilication lun'O-
al'tei- dt'-ii-il)<'d i \) the time at wliiclj a blockade (■oimiH'iiccs; (2) its
;i(Mji:ra))lii'-al liiuit>; and ('■'>) tlio pcriijd witliiii whicli neutral vossols
iiia\ conic uHi . It 111 11-^1 lic made cit In.'i' liv iJie Li(n crnnient ol iho Stale
inijio-ini;- tlic lilockade. or In' the na\al aiitlioi-ities in it,- name (h). If
the hlo'-kade.a- actualh' entenced. I'ail- t<j cijulVn'm to the partieiuars
liiven. or anv of them, liieii tJie dechiraiion will he ti'eat<,'d as void,
and a iie.sh decUiration must \>v i-<ued in order to leg-alize tlie
hhjclxudc. Th<.' <leclaration itself i-> ihirs a l'(jrmal siatement. wJiich
biiuk^ thc' helli'^(Meiit to certain particulars esseiLlial to he Ivuown ii'
neutral- arc to icali/e how tliev ,-taiid in the niatti-r ol' lestraints on
theii' 1)'ade. hut whicji i- onl\' made opoal i\'e hy notification. It will
he -ceil that in tlie-e as in otlier |)io\ i>ions. tlie J)eclaiat ion ol Lrmdon
ini|)liciil\ ieco<ini/(j- tlie delegated power- of a naval comiiiaufler in
ielati(ni to the in-titution eif hlockade i ," i. and the geneial usage of
alIo\\'ing neutral \e->(d- ali-ead\ in the hlockaded poi't 1o come out
within -onic time e.\pi('--l\ liiiiited loi' t hat ]nii'])0-e i ir?;.
Soli iifiHinis jl('(jaired.~ Two noi iiicati(;ir- of the jiai-ticulars
coiilaine<l in tin; declaration aic re^uii'ed. (Jne of the-e must
he made l)\ llie hlockadinii' j'owcr it-elf to neutral Powers;
Ikmuc' a.ddre--ed <'itlici' directly lo the neutral Uo\ernmeiit.s or
to thei' representative- accredited to it. Tin,' oihei' must ho
ma<lc l.'\ the oliicei' in cojiimand of the hlockad i iiLi' I'orce to
ilic local aiithoi-iiic- o|' the place hlockaded. who are in their
iiirn rc^piiied to conmiii iiieaie it a- -oon as ])ri,-sihl;' to all loreig-ii
eoii-ulai- ollicer,- within the blockaded areau'i. It will then Ije
the dut\- of the neutral ( o)\'eriimeiit- and the local aiithoritic.- fo
publish the fact- \u all ])orsoiis within their resjteetive jui'isdicfioirs;
but -vvhet hoi- tlii- i- done or not. the elleet of tlie notification will be
to raise a pi'e-uiiipi ion of knowlede<' both on tlH> part of j)ersoii.s
within the bloekaded aiea and of neutral -uhject- eeneiallv i / i.
.Vnd the -ame condition-, both a- re^iaid- declarat ion and notilicaticea.
are rei|iiii<'d to be .ib,-er\ed it' a iijoekade i- oMendcd. ur if it is ro-
c-iabli-hcil after ha\ine' been rai>ed' 71. '\'\\" \ciluniaiw i-ai-ine of a
bloc!,;a'le, a- well ;i - a ! I \' 1 est ri^i ion on ii - limit.- a- 01 iLiinall \- d<'c hired,
mil-' al-o be notifie:! in the s;ini" w a \' ' // ) : whil-t if a hhickade is
\acatcr| h\- the pre--ure oi the eirMiiw this fact should, it seems,
lie i!<,ii|iei| |,v the latter. .\ faibire <,n the part of the b lock-ad i no- Power
( ;■ . .\\: . 7. .\ !tli();r_: li ep' vx wv.tx
ItC reril.r.,i if \\...- \> \\\-s, .,-ia flilM^eir
proil'ei-- t'c ii''''i.-si I y ;ii<l: :■(■ !!(]ii,!-t.
'■' ^" ■ i- i"'" '>"o
Ih) \yX. '.).
i' , -Vi't-. I), ic:
•'■ ; .\!-t-. \i. hi:
'' , \rt. II.
I'n .\vt. ]'2.
(/■) Art. ]'■}.
I! !
y/zr Luf" of lUuckadi-.
417
lo aiolit'y liu! raising- oi ;i bloukado caiiuol, of cuiir.s;'. pi'oloiig- iiculral
lial)ilil\ : whilst if would l)0 a proper .subject; J'oi' ixMuoii.st ranee or
oven I'l If imlcniuil \ if aii\ ( (iMsi'(|U(Mit ilaniau'c cmuM he ^iiow ii w' i . 'I'lic
ueiH'ial I'liCi-l III' ihc-c |ii(>\ isnuis ;is lo declai'al iun and nnl ilii-a1 lun
i> 1m i-iiii\;m-; \vIi;i1 undrr the lli'iti^li ))r,iclice was an ohl iuat ion
l)iiidin'_;' miix in coniilx . ahlimLili ainio-l in \ai'ia lily olisciNcij in prac-
lii-i'i/.'i. in; 1 1 an uliiiuai ii m whii-li i-^ now in iln.' nalnri' oi a l(.';^-al
eiiiH_l:i ;i Ml . At tin' .^anic lime li;i\inu- leu'.i'd l^. inu lorn J'aciliiie^
oi (-1 iiuiiMi I! i( n I ioii. it docs ji,)[ ap[ii'ar thai thc-c jcipiircinmils aro
(."iiii"!' u M ica-nnald' in ! hcm-d xc- (ir niiilul\" hMi'ilcnsiiinc on \\\k\
i.clj;:;-."! cni . It i-. in(iicii\cr. still npiMi lo a hclliu'crcnl to enforce
a h!(i;-k;cl.' a- J'iniii the nciii'.pnl when (he icipnrc:] nol iii'^a lioiis lni\o
liccn uixcii. c-,tMi as aL'aih-t \e-sc!s not yei aU'eciici li\- thcin. by
l;'i\ i!i'_ a - pci ia! nni ilii-at ii m similar in that rt'ipiii.-'d unaei' I he Ihil isk
and Aiiic.'i-a;; pra'-ii^'i' in the ca-e of a bli»cka/le '/c fu'-h).
i'l :iiii I',- l'i(---<!i ntjil n,,i III Xnlicc . — it is rerii-'iii/i'd by i he Daciara-
lni!i thai iCi NC---.'! i-^ in Li'nili enli'--- llm-;" I'c-nun a iih' U.v her a'-tinii
ha\"C had ji'i; ji-,- m i he Id' n iNad" i / ) . Jh;i . a- undei- i!.m' i hi; i~h ])!-ac-
1 ii'C. -U' h in c ii-e ma \ be eo Ian- ai-Ma-i ! cr iire-^umpt i w . .\.> re.jaid- in-
lia-ess. lna\^Icd'.:c el' tjm IdiM-kade \-vi!l be pr:->emcd it' a ■■.■e--id !(>fl ;i.
nen! ra I p.a', /,/ i .•>n ii- e. aami 1 \ I > ' h ' da te a t w hndi n' >l ill a ' a ai ,,f the
bloekada wCc- made m iiaa teiriiori 1 1 L'awcr, | ii'ij\ ide-d. ti'iai line nuii-
licatiou wa- made in snlli'a('ni time (o reach the perl in i|ne-i ii m ( /^ i ;
alllnaa^'li ild-^ l^;•'••■^a i!i ^c a in 'may be relaifiedioi. if. hi iw e'ver. lai
])rovitm- nmii-e can In' ])rn\i> 1 ov prea'au'd auainst a, \e--el ihai is
shopped, then a >]•,■; ia I nei i ii' e ; am ef dm bhudxade anr-a i/c <.;i\ tm. ami
an CMiary made :a Ina' loe'-bi h ;i; . .--aeiifi^- iha (iete and licao-. aial Imr
htcid pii-iiiiia at i he pme; ai'Oa' \\'d'di -he will cf ca:ir>e lie liabk*
if sJa- aaciaiii. In iircalv dm b! i: d-aide i /- ). 'Idm ip!->!;iai of vhat.
aiiuiuaf- \'-\ biemdi liv i!cj,'re-s wiM. \\ ae'cm-. n'e,\' b" d'Ceianined liv
i'ldos similai' to l!ai-i' eiifim-el nadm' die laaii-di jireti^'i- lan'elo-
l'iii'e(f/i. ,\s v,.<j';;;ds e;.'r(>--;. the ei.-.iian oi' ali'iwimr \e-s(ds
al;'(aab: la teic a' vhe time <ii' tia' in-'iMidmi uf l!ie Iduidcade to
ciame 1 ail" i,\al bin a ! ime limi; ed I'm- iha' | arrc-e 1^ inaide i di! i^- a ior\m ri.
and . a !dma::-i: im dam i- -oe iih- 1 b\- i hv i )e da rad"m dm \\iO,:^ iimsi
bi' ■■ !'ea -eaaidta" ha\;im' re:aiil In die idi am-enae~ aad ihe bical
^-i!ualiea ( .^ a bda- die ia-i. ]],-,■ ni m oi' ;;; lon ii' tia' hi a^ ,imh'iidtie< i-.
m') ()]i d.c acti'iiLry e,' ladiiwi'ii! m-^i'I l.a'i :i l,c;li.j-"iiMii pint ^ifavmhc
wavw'.Wj: !■'•'<'. M'r a. !!-. .-',,, ,• :iiid c ; i lii-:a ina ,[ I I,.. ■:.:.(!.' lu.J I.t.miiic
Ivrjuirl. i'ea-'-c llii;-u-in-. ."iTT. kan^'.ai: '•/. .-'/-.e. ii. lis, ,,, (',,)_
('/■) i;\.ai ia till' i':tM> of :i Ii], ;ciaid' ■ ( ,■ ) Arr. la.
<;'. ■ ■, 'f) it w,!-; ii~a:il li aiiiiry iiii- tn ( "; Sit Ju'iKirt. I'cntra iiiu-rriji-.
1!jO 1o'-;i! nnlliiil'it ie< ;ili(i :il-e 1m in:;- ."iTS.
tr:il j''i)wri'<. a,^ s.nai ,■!-. pii-aiiiia i /, ) A la . III.
altiioivdi :i r:.i!a"i' te an -i vmiilil imr (71 >',,-. ).. -Hn.
havo iieaiii.l.-mMl the Mnrkaile: mm- (a! S,v Aaa. <).
IK :V.i7. -^ '.■.'■. !>•■ See Urpii.t. r.-il'rc !1 iLfLl'illS
(1) Arr. 1 !. "'Tit: a< to tlie pfe\ii.as pmiain' on the
(,,>) .\ni'i l!)'' .-:ai;e pire-ian pt ion siiiijiTi. .-n' p. til. .^ ',,,,■.
would appear to attach when' ilii'
C.I.L. E E
iis ('uses (Did Opini<nis on Inf.CDuillonul Lnw.
asMUued t(j alloet ve.s.sc].- already iji jjorl Aviili notire. aud. lo i<'iuler
,,o]x'>s. jil'ier iJi;,' lime liiuited, luila-wiul. it i.-<, liowever, expres.slv
pru\id<'d thai ii', o\\ Ijjl;- to llif iie^'iiLiejK-e Ol I ho oilii:L'r in (/Liiimiaihi ol
the IdockadiiiL;' tVn-' •'. no dei-laiai i'ui of dn' blockade lia^ l:i''_'ii imiiliod
tn ilie local aLitlioiili<'s. or ii' iu tho declaratiou as notiticd no ]ieriod
lias li"<'!i >|)Ociii('fL wirliin Avliich noiirral ve^scl.s iiiav come out. then
a neutial \e--el may eouie oiU i'reel\'i/;; aliliou,^k this woidd not
aji])Jy 10 \'e--el.s dial liad eulered jji viidalioji ol' liie !jloe!;ad .■ ( »/).
If. oM tlie ijilier liaud. the failure lo iiolifv the lo(al autlioiiric'S was
ijoi due to tli(> lif'ulia'OiKe of tlio cr)mm-Ln(ier. then an oui^-oinp' vc.ssel
nui.it fie \\anjed an<l turned haeic [ .r ) . TJie elleci uf th.j->e ]uo\i.sions
i.< lo imjdify con-idei-ahly the earlier juactiee of hoth <iT0ups of
Slates. f))i the one liaiid tlio Continental vioAv, tJirtt sjiecial notice
\\'a> ner-e-.Sitry in the ea.se of every ve-sei attempting:' to entei- i yi. is
deliniK'ly Miper-;'ded. On die oth 'r hand, the i>ridsli i-ule of notice
h\- penerai no'ojrieiy a- i^'U'aril-- i!i.u'i';ss i r ). i> a!.--o -^ii]):'r-:'ded save
Ikm]];!])- a- reu'^ii'ds ve-->e]s iliat Jiaxe touched :it an enemy jiort (n).
Finally. tliO rule that the fact of bloekado i-^ in it-^elf sulHeiem notice
a-~ re2'aid< v<'~-fd- already in port, so far a- if ohtaine:! i /> i. i- di.^-
plaeed hv tlie leqniiement of noiitication to the loeal aiith(ji'itie-.
TliC Lo('i! I.hiiUs ir'iiJi'ni. vliii-ii (.(i],iure-s itm// he .n'id.>. — dire
l)<'chiration al-o pro\i'ie- that neuiral \'es-el- niay Jioi he raptured
for hrt^a-lt of Ido-j-.-d'.' except A'.idaiii "tiic- ati'a of op^'rat ion- ■" of ilio
war-luj)- ejiijiloy^-'d to iiiaiidaiti tke lilocj^u'le f r i. Tn tlie lieport
aecoiTij)anvjii2" tlie I )e'-la.rat ion thi- i- explained as follows; On
iirsii' Lii:in:;' a ijloclcade a certain force is detailed for this jjtirpose;
the ol.'icer in command then post-; his ve--els alone;- dio line of
Mockad"', atal a ■c]i''.ini,s io eacl] \e-sel tlie zotie whirh -he is to Avatch;
all these zonev iak-en to'j-ethor. and --o oraMidzod as to make the
Idockadc eiiec-ii\e. con-^titiite ■"'tlie area ^A Ojieraiion^ "i d j . Tlio limit.-
within which a capture can lawfully he muh> will :hii< iic' a oie.'-iioi!
rd fa'-t to 1ie drdei'mined in eaeh ]iartieidar "a<e: heina' i!iile])r'ndent
at oneo on die localitv Idock'ade-l and tin' numhei- ()'i ve<<'ds rmpdcA'od.
hut conditional tlii-oii^'lnMii on the hloclaide heinu" eH'c'-i ix'O at the
time of capture fr'. If i-. li'j\ve\er, exj)re-s]\- ])]•■ ivid.cr[ \]\;-^-- v.'Iicn a
ve--el has broken. Idoclcade outwards, or ha- attompfed to Ijroak
■'/) .\it. IP), par. 2.
( '/ ) "r-A-c JIciKjrt, J 'can
:ili--ins.
' '7
■. / ' 'd
■. ."jTO.
-" 1). -i:'7.
Jl!)'
-.,.,,
1 ' -* '
.c,,,..ii7.:;
. Tc.:. .\lt!
,ii:';-
c'>-cn
i--'i"
( /,
;oc,li'
c ;■; i ; ' r
!ic.-c
cf le
I'm!
cf'l (-.p
■.! fc"
c ir.tili- -t'(
cr r!,(: !;!■■•
!y ;.iu- i:
-(il!;i' 1 icic;
c 1,'lc-i. cl
M dc
.■ i| I • -■■Tllf-
omt^. ;.iis,-.
-ViiiciMi-an (Ti-os do not nj^ji'ar to
c-o^'iiiz'.' r!ii< Jiiiiifition.
i.ri ^Vl't. IT.
-c! 1 O- til'-, fill! TCX
wliav IciiLi'tliv. sc.. J':o.
Xo. : ( i'n:h. -ii. -j^.
^ f.) i'l I'^r. f.:,.p of ;, i,l,.r.:-Mlr. n ;' :,
-iim-ic purl liv cnc vc~-;.l. ihc urea (,i'
oiraaiiM!:- v jul'l b ' m",;,- ; ] c (■..:■-" ami
cc;il]i;i;-;;!ii-(.|y lla!■I■■l^V: liat W i t 1 1 ;!T1
ii,'-i-\'. -•• of ilie .-'-iijic or ;Ii'' hloc,'.:;:!!..
ami the :>i;a:I)L'r of \-o, -;,.]< cpi jiajycd. it
'.'.■ca'il l)(':T:!nc lucre cxt'!i-i\ ■'.
Tilt' fjil/V of lilorliadf
415)
bloel\a<l<> inwai'd^. .sliu will lie Jial)l(' t(,i caitluie .su luii;^- a> >lii; j.s ]>ui'-
suecl liv a sjiij) ol' llu; hlockadin;^- I'orcc. allJiuiii;li if tlir |)Ui-.siiit^ is
abaiidoiKM! or il' ihc hh^i/kadu i> mean wJi i le i-ai^cW Iht lial»ilii\- 1m
(■a])tni(' will cra-ci/i. 'I'lii' (|U('vtioii of altanilijiiniciit a^-ain will lie
one 1)1' I'arl . 'i'he mere i^aiiiiii^- ol' a iicii i lal j)ori will ii*.)l (_'\em|il tlie
vessel I'lnm siilisei|iieiil capliue it liio pii i^iier conf i mies lo lie in wail
for Ihm-; out il' she eaiiis a home j)oi'i ihen sIk; will he cxem))! i'ruJii
luriher lia lulil v i ;/ ). The elleei of ihe-^e j)rovisioii.>, it' ailo[)te(l,
woiihl he lo ahrouale lUe U'chnical rule <,)!' I he iJiilish aii<l American
I'ri/e L'oiirl.-i iliai. a \e>SL'l sailing- I'roiu a neutral purl witli intent, to
violate a hlo;-ka<J(! is liable to ''apfure and <'0]nl(Mniiiit ion as I'rom the
time oL .-ailine'. by wluitsoover vessel ra[niireil and at \vhalsoev<U'
distance J'roni the blockaded ])ort(/tj; and uls(j t*) (pialit'y largely
the rule thai a, ves>el which has succeeded in breaking '' lihjekade
OutwaixN '' lemain^ liable- to cajMure until the lei-mination of her
princiiial \oyage ( /\
■■ The I ><)i:l I'riii' 1)1 < o.iiiininiis \'(i)//iti('s " i)i icJ'itinii lo JfljjcJrdde. —
I'dnally il is pro\iihMl tha.t whatexcr may be the idterior ch^stination
of a vessel, siie caiiUMi lie capiuied for breach of blockade if at the
momenl slie i^ on her w a \' to a non-blockaded port '/,'i. Thi^ neu'a-
tives any fun her application of tin; doetrin(,' of "continuous voy-
ages"" in ca-i'~. of blockade (/i; whil-t -till l(>a\ing it open lo a
caplor to show ihai an alh'e'eil tlesiinalion to a neutral poit is not
genuine \ )// ).
The J.l'ihil/J;; of llic (Urijn. With I'-cspect to llus. it is pr<)vidcd
by the Declaration that where a. vessel is eoudemned for breach of
blockade, her eai'u'Li ^vill aNo be liaidi' to conilemiiat ion. unle-s il is
proved tlial at lh" time nf tlu; shipment of die L:i)ods the sldpiper
neither ki;:,'w. nor could lia\e Ivnown, tjf ih-,' intention to break
bloclvade (in. This ipialihes somewhat llie Ibitish rule, under v.hich
the >lii[)iier mu--i ha\e pro\ed that In- neidier knew nor i-ould have
known o|' the exi-imice of ihc^ b|o;-kade. althoui:'h th" din'erenee in
otreet i- no; \(mw madn-ial (oi.
1. '
■ .\l-i.
■il).
L'
/ ~l Si'C
i;.-P
:()1'1. i
'c:M-.-C
' iiii'j'i
;is.
•-. s, I
inid^
; Ahl
I'.i-it
i ini!
,',^:!;!',
I'll I'.ir'
•r,l
tie.
!.':;lc
-. d'.o
■1. 1
1 i;-tr;
■ct ■>.i;-
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1
1 lu
"• p-
til.
( ''
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1 i).
'■ 1'-
171.
,, , /,-.'
' ' ■ ! ' ■
. i77.
'., i .Vrt. -il.
I'M 1 \. ter iii<t;iiicc, at'rcr ,i hlnckado
','.-;:~ co'ilic! i;-cciiis woi-c ■■lii|i|iC'il bond
:'■'/■ loaiiiipiMi poi't but carr!"!! hy the
wroiiLrfill a-r (il' I lie nia^tiM' re a Mock-
adrd [iiirl. rl.i- 'j-i,,!- inidci' T.ln' r.!-iri<h
i-ai" wuul'l 1)1' laei'i'. tlw' dwict lia\-iii;::^
lii< I'l'Micdv a'j'ai p.-t: lie master: ^\■|;;■I•l'-
a-- lihiliT ill" \v\. -J 1 die L^-eods would
l;-o ;'o'" on |ii-e,or that t'le owi'er
i!eil,,ei' kni w rair eould ha\e kiiov,-ri of
! lie laa-te)'- il,! ei;! ion.
420 Cases and (opinions on Intcrnaiional LdV).
CONTRABAND OF WAR.
(i) GEXEEALLY.
THE ■• PETEEHOFF."
[1866: 5 Wall. 28.]
Case._ During the American civil war, the '' Peterhoff,' a
British- vessel, "whilst on a voj'ago from London lo ]\Iatamoras,
a neutral port oii the ]\lexi( an Ado ol' tlie Rio CrranJe, \va.-> eap-
lurptl, olV iho island ot: Si. i'homa> and wliil-t oil a pri^jxa- vourse
for the liio Grande, hy a LTiiited .State- cruiser, and .-r-ent in for
adjudication, it hfiuL!' allcgcvl i)(){li that she was carrxinu- con-
tralutnd aiii,] thai >hi' iutcmli'd tu x'iolalc the hh)ckatir ot the
coastr- ol' till- Sonlli-rn ( "onr(';]L'r;icv. Ihv cavgr) riin>i--tr'd of
artillery ]uirrie>s. armv l)Oot>; regulation blankets, hor.-e shoes,
shoveU. >p;!drs. lH'lhn\>. anvjl-, nails. ;ind leather, a (pianlily of
iron and -trel. an as^taa ment of drui;>. an 1 a lar.ee r|UiUtity of
ordinary muichandi-i'. The hills ol! ladini!' were For didi\'ery
at th<' mouth ol' the ]vi(j (Grande, un the IMi/xicaji side of the
river; it havin-j be^n intended, in vimv of tlie fact that Mata-
moras was not at ihr' time aece.-sihle for vessels of the sh^e
of th(- '■ Petcrholl . to di>-eharue the car^u into lighters f(jr
delivery theri'. Jt wa>. h(V\". excr. alit ::ed 1)\- tlie captors that
the deslination to i\Iatamoras w;i> not genuine, and that the
2'oods were really iutemled tn he earrii'-l iii the lighters to
a bloeka.h'd port, or in anv ca-" to he tiMii-purted to Lon-
I'ederatt; territory. Tn tin' l)i>ii'iet ('ourt hotli shiji arid earsi'O
we'i'e coiidf armed ou the L;'r..)urid that tlie xovae;e A\as a simu-
lat(>d ()]\o Af . On appeal to the Su])i'eiiie CiiUia. thi- doia'.'c was
rever.-e'd a> to the ;dii[t aiiil lia' uiai-.'ont r ihairl |iart DLthr eai'Lro,
but coulirmed a,s to such pai't as was eontral)anil or lielon^-ed
to the same ownei's.
Judgment. t'lia-r. (,'..!.. in L'iviim- jmlii'ment, stated at the
outset that in tlie opinion ol' the Court the voyage of the ship
(V') r.lati-lit'ord, P. C. Hi:].
CoiilrolxiiKl of War. 421
was not a siinulatcil oin'. Di'aliiiu-, iie^t, with a coniciitiou on tli(>
part of the cap1or> that, cvrii if the v(\^-ol was destiuod luv Alata-
iriora<. this cnnstil utixl a hi'oach oP a bhii'kado of tht; inoath of
the river, tli(> ('hiel' Ju-lic(^ ohscrvcd tliat tli<' Court a!t,ou'i'thfr
]'cjcct(xl Ihc \'iow that the wlioh,^ inoiith iil* th<' r^^'or wa^ ijiclurled
ill the hhickaili' oC the I'l'hi'l p()rt->:'/>^; and. on this [^oint, pro-
nouiici'ii hiiili s!dp ami car^o to l)i' ch'ar oT ]iahilit\ . Doalini:'.
iioxt. w ii h th'' ipii'stioii whether the all"u;e'| ulterior <Iestinatioii
of tlie ear^:-!) to the n^hel rosi'ion h\' inland na^"iu■ati(»n or trans-
])ort reiulcrod it liahk^ tx) <,'0iid(Mnnation. he heLl, iipo2i a oon-
t^idi-rat ioii of the authorities e-tahi i^liinu' tlie ]a\\fnlne-,> of a
■jieutral trade i<,i or Ironi a hhjukaded pda -e by inland iia\i ovation
or tran-[iort (r' . that a trade from .London to Matanioras, even
^vith intent to sii|)])lv ^'oods to l'e.va.< ^)\' nteans of land trans-
portatifjn, oonld not Ijo reirai'ded a- a violation of the coast
hloekade. and that on thi- point, too, hotli >Iiij'i and care-o wore
(di^ar ot liahi'lit V. Pa-^ini.;-. Jinallv. i;o tho ipie-t ion oi' the 'iahility
oi that portion of r];o (■ai'i:o winch :-oii-i>|:'d ol' eont I'ahand, the
(Uiief Jii-tiee ohserA'ed. in ivhition to the u'eiioi'al nature of oon-
ti'ahand. that thr* ela--iliea! ion oC £;'Oods fru' the pip']>o<e v.'hich A\'as
best supjioried ]>\ the Aineriea.n arid fhie-ii-h de-i-ions inic'lit be
paid to di\id" all nicrelijndise into three (la-ses. t)|' thc-e elasses
the hrst eousisied oi' artiele< niaioil'aet ured and jnainarilx' and
ordinarily u-od IVr inilit'iry purpo^L'-^ in time of war ; the second
of artich^- v.hieli mie:hl be and wcM'e used for purpose's ot war or
peace, aeeeirdine- to e!reum~iaii>-es : and the tidrd (o'' articles
e.vclusL\cly usi'd J.'oi- peaceful purpo-e,^. Moreh.andis" oT the |ii-=t
clas.- di.-tined (o a. !).dliu'".'ent eouutry or plne^ nceupied. by tho
arniA" r.v n;i\y of a b.'ll !i;'ere.ut wa- alwa\'s eonri'abiand ; mer-
chandise K^''s ;!ie S'^'jiid ■ I'l-s WIS contraband on!\- w'len destined
to th" mililai'x" eir jiavil u-e of a bellLe-.n-eiit: \\li'l>t merelvindise
of t!ie t!i!''il cbiv- WIS not i'onti-.iband at- all. allh(-)ii!di liable t.o
seizure and eondemnation J'or breaeh oj' bio 'kade, A con-idm"-
able [,.,ia of the -o-lvo oI' thi' ^' PeterbolT^ ^o. of th- third elass.
and u:'l.'d C'ir no turtlier r-aeiai'k ; a bii'i."i"> poi'tion wa- of the
second class, hat had lait hem shown to 1)!> di'<t!ncd to bcHio-orent
use. and could not thend'ore lie treated a- eonti'aliand : -whilst
'. ^ ',..". ]). tm. -■) S>!y,r', p. -112.
42"i ('((^es awl Opinions on hderudlaDial. Law.
another part -was of the hivst chuss. or, if of the secoud, destined
for the rebel niilitai-y service. This part consisted of ortillei'v
harness, ariiix^ artillery l)oot.s and Government reo-ulation gra\
hLanket-. It ^^'as true that even these goods, if really intended
For sale in Matanioras, Avould bi> free of liability; for contraband
juight be transported by neutrals to a neutral port if intended
to make part of it- general stoi-k in trado. Ihrt in the present
case the circumstances indicated tiiat tlio,\' were di'Stined for the
use of the rebel forces. (_"ontral)and mi-rchandi>e was subj<'Ct,
to a different rule in respect of ulb'rior destination to non-contra-
baud: tic: Inttcr licini: liable to (•ai)tari' onlx' Avhi:'n a ^"iolation
iif blockade was inti-nded. ^vhil-t the iorncr was liable ^\hen
destined to the hostile country" or to the militarv or naval use
of the enemy, irrespective of blockade. Tlie conveyance by
neutrals to bellicerents of contraband ^\a- always unlawful, aiui
such articles mis'ht alwovs be seize-d durini;- transit b\'-ea. Hence
while articles not conrral:)and mi^'lit be sent 1o AJatamoras and
beyond to ilc ri-bel regions wher.' the communication was nc)t
interrupted l)v bbjckade. article- of a eoutral)and cliaracter
destined in fa'"'t to a State iu rebellion or for thi- u> ■ of its
military forces w.^xv liable to capture. i'\- aj thouiih primaril;\
destined to ]vIatamo]-a.-. For tlie.-e reasons that |)o)'tion of the
cargo wliioh wa< ol:' a eo]itral>and charactor, with so much of the
rest of the caro-o as belonn'cd to the same owners, must be con-
demned : but the .-hip and the remaindr-r of the carH-o Avould
l)e restored. Tnasmur-h. however, a- it appeared that tli^ master
had di^stroyed eertnin pajiers ju-t before ea|>ture. ])a\'m<'nt of
costs and ex])en.-e> b\' the ship would be d^'ia^'d a- a rendition
of restitution yZ}.
Tlii- ea-e i< coninienly treated as a leading autlioriiy on the do'--
trijic oi '■ i-entinur.iu- \f>\ aci'es."' or " uiiimaie <lestiMation." in relatiou
to coiit laliaiid. and will in iliat iharaiaer '-oeie under lensidei'alion
licrcafUM'. ft i-. liMUf\ei. <'\eii ninre jc 'tew uit Jiv a- enil,)odviug a
eLinqjcmli'Mi- -laicnnnit a- to the general iliaraitcr ot' romiahand and
it- l;'o\ eriiiii^' ]irjiii i|i!i'>. from the ]:.oiiit oi view oi the J-]uL:'lis]i and
f '/) A^ a malt''!' la' i':Ha . tli'^ |)i-iicci;(ls th,- \-i->m4 ami x\u- ^■■•■\-\i,\] of tlio
'if the i-ari;-o urd'i'r,! t., In- i-cinn'iMl Ciiiii-i \-.(.i'" ~i;l)-i'i|nriit ly ina'io licfiir''
\\<-Y'- aliiin~l wlinlU" a fijiT' iiiriatf:! tin- Hriti^li an. I A !iiria'''aii ('iaiin'
i.iali'r t!ir' claiiii Utr •■\\,'-\)-'--- . Ciiaeu e, ,,..,,. ;„i, ,,,, l,,it (li-alluw!:' : -oa
claiia-: ari-iiiLT out uf tlic r:i pt urc of Mr, ore. I^nt. Arb. iv. ?>R?,9,.
('uiitrali((it<l of II (If.
42;^
Ainoricau L'uun^; l'\i'ii tlujiiuli llnnr uppliccUiou in liii-, ])ait icular
case may [;i.Mlia))s ho {)\)V\\ in (|^iio.slioJi (^c i. The cla^.-ilicalidii oi"
ai'licli'^ L;i\i'ii in tin' jiid'^-incnt i^ lia^oil nn a -iiiiila'' (■la---ilicali(iii
(iris.',iiia I !}■ jMnpi minicd \)\ ( i i'(jliu^ i _/ i. wliicii. as (l<'\ ('lop^Ml in ihe
J-ai;^li>li ami A UH'iicaii (a-^rs. iiiav li<^ said In JJiiaii>li iIk; I'la iiiowoi'k
(iL' 1 111' mi)il"i-n law .
TiiiaiiiL;' iinw 1(1 I lie pMn'ral law nil llio siihjcci ol ciditralia ihI. it
will i)(- inii\ (MinMil ill niii' Mnwov. Iii'>l. (() cniisifh.M' llio ]i;i;is)i prac-
liff. wuli wliii'li llic A iiu^rii-aii idr tlir iiin<| part aurccs; tdiu-liing-.
I iic it.lrala 1 1 \ . nii llm-r pnini-- on wliiili tin' ( 'mit i iiL'iila i [)i-aotico
<li\ ciL!.!'- I'idiii ilii^ aiiil '.I'ltaui. (■iHisoi[iH'iii dilli'iilt ic-- ; and. tlieix;-
atjoi. I'l rou-i'li'v tlic rule< nn this suhjo!-! which have now hccMi
ciiihfj.lic!! in the Dt'i-la i at iuii ol' Loiiiloii i c/ i.
I i:;li_M the Ihili-h sy,>|!'m. tin' toriii " i-dut raha iid' i'^ a|)])li('fl to
■ iiciii ra I ])i(!|i";t \' inund mi lioani ship ciilicr nn fin! luLih s<'a--. or
ill lh;' M'lriti trial waii'is of cither lndli'^ori'ui . wliich is \)\ nature
capal'li' oi' hcini;' iisivl in as-ist in, and is on it.s way to assist in,
the naval oi miliiarv npin-ations of the cneni\' '" i // i. There are tlius
two essential-: out' hciiiu' tiiat the arliidi.v-- slifnild lie of iiso in war,
and. ill" olln^r tlia.t lhi'\- should lie lak'en oil a hosiil(< (l(\si i nation (';■).
l)iit in dc'oriiiiiiiiiu' the contraliand cjiaraiicr and cnii-eiiui'iit liahiiitv
of ])aii ii-nlai- arlli 1<'<, a di-i iiiri ion is drawn lioiw<>(Mi ilio-c whieii arc
reg'anh'd a- " ahs, ihn;' " and tlinse whiidi are ree-ardcl on!\' as "'foii-
(lifiinia! <nnl ra ha ad ; ihi- di-i iml ion Immiisj- hased jiiiinarilv on a
(lilli.Tcncf.^ ill tlicii' nature hut iiivnUiiiL;' al-o a dill'd'oni-c ol' treatiuent
iji till' nialHT oi de-'tiuation ( / ). 'Ahsnhiio'" cijnlrahand denolcs
aifii-lo \\hi. h an- | a ;l i 'iilai I \ adajitcd and p-riina ril\- ii-ed iuv the
])iir])n<!w nt w I ;■; such a-^ ariu~. a niniunit inn. and inatoi ial^- I'nr inalv'inf}:
the >aiu;'. arti'-h'v dt miliiarv O(|iiij;moii1 . niilitai'.' and na\"a! stoi'cs
and till' li!;'m//i. Smli artiih'- arc liahlc to sci/iirc and e(Mid('nina-
tinii 1 1' I'nund mi a di'^I i nai ion In an\' ])laiM' in tho (uii'iiix' territm'v,
\\dioth('r holnn^'ini:' tn m' ni-cii]U('d hy li iiii. nr ; n the cni'inx" i'nn es : the
])re-aiiiij)i inn i\\ an iii'cndi'd ii-c fnr niiliiaiw npcra.t imi-; hcino' in thi.s
ca-i' ah--' ihiln and irrnhiit lahh' I / '. ■' ( 'nndii inn ah" t)y. a- it i< -nni "times
i-alh-!. ■ I "■- a-'niia I " cmhi ra ha nd dmnite- arii'h'.-. nni J'allin::' within
ilie I'Miiii-r (111 I'l^-mw. \>,lii''h a i" capalm^ nt' heiiii:' ii-e I i<<v ])iirpnst\s
n!' war a- well a- nf ji-ace; such as prM\-i-ii ,ii- nr li(paLd- tnr juiiuan
(on-in'Mpt a ai. !a( -new telci;"' ;i ah:- nr ra i! w a\' mat ■ aia I. linr--e-. ha^^ and
ta!ln\\i/// . ^nih aiiide-. a'cnrdi'iu' in the Ihi;i-h praclice. are
mil \" li ' h'e n i h:' ri".::! r le- 1 a- n lui ra 1 1 I nd it' .-lacM! in he de.-i ined tnr
liic -Wl!!-'; "V I l:i:L iV-V:
•Jit.
!--(iii;|t)ly rc(iu;c'd fdi' the u<.' or
ilccti'c'i (if llr- \c-c': ,.... ■/■/,.. //■-'.
.,-'/ (.-) c. iju!,. :;:!,v..
/; Sec ill.' ia'iiMi .^h■l;|(l!■.lll<hnll.
:i. an.! r: ■ \. ..'.■■ '■ ;] c. !;,,],.
ii(' ; t i- .11, i' nil! Ik
nl:ii!v !.( .'X.-llKJ.
liai.lc. -.vliiM: •••■■
•■■ . s.'c p. I 111, ; ,'■ ..
: ■' ' ' ■ '"/■', ■'■'' •• .s ( ■. i;-:.. .;i;.-)y
r,,.1 Inn- tlir full li-1. <(•.> M:in!;,-il of
\;:\::l I'ri/c l.:(\v, \rt. I'o.
424 (hscs and Opinions on Inicrnaiional Lnn.!.
the naval or military i'oiH-o.s oL' the enemy, or Tor u ])hiee ol' naval
or mililaiy eijuipmejil l)ehjiiging' to or occupied b}- Jiimi^;?). The
Crown may, iio\\e\er, extend or redtice the lists oi' articles that are
abst)ltite or cunditiuual cojttraband, subject to sttch re-^tric-tiotis as
attach either bv treaty or tinder tlio law oI luiliojjs [(>). The ellect ot
the ilriti^h (lociriuc* as reg-ards eonditiomil cnu:raband, ^\as, jnore-
o\'er, somewhat luiiig'ated in eiiecl b\' die pi-actice oi' jtre-empriont py
And with tlii-- \iew oi crmtraljand in ueiiLvral the doctrine oi the
American. ( oiiris and. the pra'.'iice vi th;- .'''..vecudx e i f/j -iibsiaai ialh"
agree (r).
Eurupoan opinion, on the other Itand, was generallv op})osed to
those extensions AvJuch i'ollowed i'rom the ljriii--h doctrine oi' condi-
tional i-ont rabaiid, even as qtialiheil \jy pre-em})tion. ( .s- 1. Tire dis-
tincliiiii 1.)01\vc;mi absohde and cojidiiional contrabantl was. however,
by reason ol' ii.> intrinsic convenience, too important to 1)0 abogeiher
ignoi'ed e\-en in tiu'ory. Hence, in th(.' Comincntal exj/ositions of
eontraljand wo .notice \\\o currents oi' opinions; one or \vhich set
itself- ah Jiongh ineilectna'ily as regiirds its re.-u!i< on practice- -to
linnt contraband, to artick^s of immediale warbko n-e: whilst the
other, Wilh grc:itin" regard for prticficcd coindderatious. r(M-ouiiized
the principle of xariaidlity, wliiclt was the lia.-is of the Ihdii-h dis-
tincuon. but --Oiight to coidiire it Aviihin 1 ho irarrowe^t liuufs (^Z ).
.Tn pre,i-l ;;'(>. ieoreovcr. we iind nrcitiy ]'ini'opc;Mi Sta'c- iioiwrth-
stajiding ilcir r(>]>rL>i)aiion oi lire Ihiii-I; disctiine as un !ul\- opjires-
sive to iHMitiak mrtori ing or adi.^'piin^. when hcliiu'crciU. rules of
corrtrabcnd dcii. I'iconen; ly excC"! in iiicir >e\eri;\' the rules en-
forced under iho Hr!; i-h. s\--;i:nn. ^v) frn i:, :■■ . in i s;-i " . :l in in;^- war ( u \
Avith ('hina. (daimcl to (re:il ri'-.' liMiin'l i'nr |)ori- iiordi '^^ b\ant0)i
as contrabanil. 1)V rea-on of ihe inipor'.aine ^^l I'l-e in the feeding
of the ( hine~i' j)opu iat i' m i ,r i ; Sjjnin, au'ain. in b-;i.S, virttiallv
claimed to im I tele uinlcr n ml redmiid an\' art i''lc'< 1 1n' 1 t Im '.' o\'ern merit
might dcen'minc o) i)e sn (/"/): wlnlsj ]?ns-i;i. in lee!, (diimed to
treat a-- ccmi ruba ml boih fi io:|si n lis. fiiol. ami o\om raw coiion. irre-
S])ecti\-i' tit anv t)roor oi military dc-iinaiion i.; c
(/-; I'i' .',,.,uir Vrr-ii'rf^l." il (.'. (,.) A- ;il<(i thnt i>r ,;:ip:ii:: -;; c fios'u-
'\Iv\k \:^\ij: ■!•;.<' i:-'.ro„' {t ('. iJc',. inooi:... C ii. W. T;, ic. Ikh':;!, 77:).
(iS): Tl" !i: </ir ,'!■' J, :/■■,:, ;i ('. .!;,)(,. ,-; > AifUi.uuii t:,i^ i>it|i,.-ie!iii \\a-;
at!>:^,: 7'.' r /'-c /.e -/ ( .'i WeU. ;:; ,e: i. hii-vls (mi.^ f,, e.c .,-,,,,!■' of ilu- (1,-.c-
Art. ffi. Ti:;-. niiu'ln eiU h- !:;!,:, "i ■',-/,".
atl\eMe;,:;-;' (C wieih! 1 !iiMi en r- ;i 1 l'>W( (1 i/; ii:il!. CtS pI ym.
by li::> ! ' ': !;ir..ei.;i m,' !..m!im. if lice- ( -) (tr wluU wa^ vlrliKiily war.
])crl-!i':a'M!i Ai.. ;:<1 i>>' adiip' ■,!: s(c ( . • . A iri.nciO; ( Ac u Ariaii'ii rofu-cd
ji|». lie. hi'. ■-'..■■. !() r.' '■.Lriii/;i' Ac \'ali(lit\- of aii\- rap-
■ y I /. 0". ; . AAA tco'- a,, ale >.a lliA -ccinut aiiii--^ the
{i. , S, (■ ■'"/. • .'''' /' . '''^ '/' , .1 "^N alL -As ) : ;■;<■(' \va- in I'oiP'.^a of cari'ia';-(> ia
'/'/''■ o,, ,,,,vv,' il \\!:"ai. ;!s:' . ; ( liica'-c caaips (tr a place of .iia\a! or
-!/■■"'■..■.■./,.,,'/,' \-. .'■,-•/.■,.-/{ l' ( '.alL o'_'4 ) : laiHtar-'.- eeiipaciait: •(■(• I'aA. .''■'ji' -
and, a.< in lii.' (eiirial p;\cii = '.\ tlic U ss A' SS.W. JA'a nee. Xo. 1.
(A.'nci-al (nder- ;\n. I'l-J; ,,i' tiu''_M)lli { ;,■ i AlilidU'j-'i in fact conliiiiriu' it 1 e
a lS!ts. \A;ni-,a ICavA. \]\. i\\'.K
a la uac< ;it ^^ ;i i-| Ma' use.
■•; /^w,.a p. 4:v2.
Conlrnbdnd of War. 420
(ii) (JONDLTIOXAL OK OCCASIONAL COXTICVBAND.
THE 'JONGE MARGAKETHA. '
I 171)!): 1 C\ l{ob. 189; Tudor, L. C. 'J.Sl. |
Case. In IT'JT. duriny war bilweuii Great Jiritaiu and France,
the '".)(iii_:g .Mari;ar(M ha A a l^apfidx-ru' >liip, wliil.'^l carr\'ing- a
(■ai'^o (if rhrc-i'.s i'rnm Ainslirdain lo lUu^sI, \v:i,s captured bv the
r>rili-h and mmii in i'or ad judical 'dii . IdiLa-c >\a> at ihc linic in
the port d!' l!i'e-,i ;i coiouhaahir Fi^in-h Meet, whicli w a-^ "Ugaycd
]n ])rcj)ai-iiiL;' J'nr a ho-t iie expcdi! inn aLiaiiist Cr-ai; Hritain. d'he
cheeses wta'i,' ev:acli\^ .-uch as were u^cd in French and Jjritish
ships oL' v.ai' ; ajid the carii-o wa- the' pr(i[)ert v ol' the f)^\'ner of
the vc-sel. In ihe I'e-ull the .-nrL^'o w a - rondennicd as contraband.
Judgment. Sii' W . Seutt, \\\ 'j:'\.\'\\vj: j'Lid..;i!ient, eb.-orved
that ihe >(i!i> i|Uc-! mn i'c;dJ\ wa-; vJiellu'r it wa^ a h^u^al ta'ansac-
ti'en in a iieutrai in c;ii'i'\^ a (ar::<) nj' pri)\ isn>Jis, v.hieh Avct'e nest the
])!-eduel and iiian n i'aei lu'c of !ii-~ nwii. ,'(_)unti'e '_iut ul.' th'' ea;._'niv"s
allv 111 v,ar. ami VvAieh wia'i- a "iniJilal sh:p> >t()rc. le a jKilx of
na\-al eiiej jmp'n; ni' th" I'leaii;, ; inure I'vji, cia 11 v ha\ me' rc^'ard
I ;i the cn;,T. !n--i a eei thai a l-'reueh Iheciv.a-at 1 1n; time |)r:-)i!i;ing"
1(1 ,-adl;. forth I'^em. tiiar jnai nu :i hn^ide c\jie,l :i ii.n aeainst
Area! iJrJi'ain. The calahieaie ,iL cent labaiid had \ arie.] u'reatly,
and >eiiie;jn'e- m -ueh a inanner :i> lo make ji- diiiiriiP tr, e.ssie'ii
'ill' rea^ U! !'i)i- ^Meji \arialiori-. .XF'ia' iia\ me' m-1anee-> ni wAieh.
I 'I'lA ismiis et \arj(ie^ IcMel- had he-n lre:ited n- eemredie.nd wiu.'U
iiitend'M! i^^\• uiilii;!r\ ei' naxal n-e. t||.. hwirnej ludu'e >ialed that
,lhlie!|-il previ-e a;~ \\;av W^r. Ill _;-,iiej''d e; ) ; : I ra ha : C h V:'t ihey
^\ ere laibh 1,1 \.,' ii' ;ll"d ;]-, -Uih Minh'!' i I'd 1 111 -' .; Ue: ■> ill'l-Miy OUt
of the p:i ri i; :;ha r .-!;nari()n el' tiie war or i!ie eopd.ii, uui d' the
■pai'tie.- eivea./eo, \\\ it. Anieim--! the eir(aiiii--iaiiei -- temline' to
lU'eser-, • I •■( i\ i^];,!;,, LVeni t i'.ei ncnl a-- innlr.diand. (Uie wu- iiiat
thee \\:-y'- thi i:":e\\ th id' th.e euimlry expert ii,e; them, whii/h was
no!" tlie . ;.e-" wiiji ! he -])]■! sent caru'o. .\ nel ina' was thar 1 lie art iehi'S
AVer..' ;n their nali\e unmanu i'aei uivil >lale vdn al'. fer invianeo,
beme- more faxenrablx li'eated llian preparal imi-^ I'ur its human
4'2t) Cases and Opinions on international Lavj.
use {a) — which, again, A\a6 not the case with the present cargo.
But the most important distinction of all was whether the articles
wer(^ inti'ndoJ for ordinary use or wero going on a hiu-hly pro-
bable military destination. ,Vs to this, the port to which such
articles were goimi' was a rational although not perhaj^s an abso-
lute, test. If sucli port was ])runarilv a commercial port, then
there wouhi be a j^resumption of intended civil use; whilst if such
port was ]irimarily a ])ort of naval or military equij^ment. then
tlier:' would be a presumption of intended military us:'; even
though, in cither cas(^, it mi<i'lit not be possil^le to detorniine the
linal and actual use. But the presumption of hostile use was very
much inllamcd wh('re. as in tlie present cas\ tliere was in such port
a hostile armament prc])aring. to which a supple' of sueli articles
would be eminently useful. The Court, however, had l)een un-
willing to conclude against th(^ claimant on the mere ])oint of
destination: and further evidence had therefore been called for.
The result of this went to show that tiie cheeses in (piestion w(T(^
precisely such as were exclusivcdy used in French ships of war;
and this seamed to conclude the matter. The cheeses must thirro-
fore b:- treated a-- rontral)and. and condemned. In vi'w. ]iow-
ever. of certain circumstances of exteJiuation. the ship. vsoo.
though bidono'ing to the same ]-)ro])rietoi', would l)e restored.
This decision was followed by the hiaicd Slale< r'onrt.- in the
case of the ("o/Ninc/rcit il \\'lioal . '-IX'- k wlicre. duriuL:' mhv with
Great IJritaiu, it ^\■a^ held that a eai'i:-!.) ot liarley and eat-; on board
a Swedish vessel beund iov lUlhan. hut d<'-iined toi' the use of
tlie llrifish ferer-s in Spain, was h'aide as rout raLarid. lo^- of freiudit
beine- alse (le(aee:l ai^aiii-t the vc.--el i In.
Tlie British doelriue III' oondit ioual (Oiitrahand in the terni in which
it nla^" now lie said ln have ticeome ]iart ot' tlic couventional law of
naiinns. ha-^ alreadv lieou d(v<(a'ifK'd (V' i. As expounded in the
■ foiifii' Mnyiiirvflia. iis scupo was. it Avill lie si\^n. somewhat wider;
for tliiTP' ii was laid dnwii that |)rovi'^iiiiis. and inc!<Iontally other
article^ iitn-iiiilis iisii.<. niic;lit heciuiie cinnrahand umler ciii iiinsfani-es
ari-iii:^' nin of the pariicnlar siiiialinu of tlw war oi' i hi> eniHiit ion
of the parlies euL;'aL!'ed in it. and not uiei-ely hv i-ea^eii of their (l(>sti-
jiation fiir inilitaix' n-e. In this j'diau the (hicM-ine - e\-(M! iheuiili e\-
(a) The -nine i-iil.' wa- ap'iiii'd al-u ( // i Sci' uNn .I/»,V,v,r.;; -.■,>' v. K ■Tt-
to other article-;: ire:! nciiiLi- Tii..rc fa- -',/'/ \1 (iall. S'Jt).
voiirahly treated than aiwhor-. and ' r'\ >'''/■ ^/. ji. 4'2-"..
lic'Tip than ccrdaL''''.
Conlrnhaud of War. 427
pics.sed iu term.s whicli Jiiighl iu cciUiiu circuitislauce.s operate iji
reliel: ol' the neiitial u/. i —was still dangerously \vido; and lliis was
probahly why il was so sti'oii<i-|y o[)poseil' l)y Coiuiiiciital wiilei>, who
assertLvl thai its ell<N't \\a< to cout'er on a helliu'Oi'CDt a rig-ht to ]uak<;
(H' iimiialxc colli raliaiid at plca^uri'. it wa-^, niorcovt'i'. opj)!'e'-<i\'('ly
us('(L during the I'^rcuch J'ovoUitioiiai')' wai's. wlieti Cireat iSritain
olainicd to iM'at |)ro\ i^inns as contiahaud, w'honc\er tlio dopri\-alion
of supplies was nnc (if the incaiis ciii])lov<'d to I'cdiK'C the enemy to
)'ea>(.)jiali!f ioi in- of [x'acc. Xe\"erth('le-'<; the eU'oct oi' ih<! doctrine,
eveji in its earliei' i'oim, was greatly mitigated under the Ijiatislr
system liy tlic pi'ar-iice of i)re-emptiou. Uiuler (Ids, it was usual,
in cases where tiie conti'aliaiid cliai'actei' of lhe goods Ava^ open to
doubt, foi' the capioi'. in lien of coidiscaling them, to exercise tli(>
light <d' purchasing them at a fail- marJcet value ici. The Hritisli rule
in such cuvi's wa- k.) ]ia\" a fair mercantile value, togctiior with a
I'easoiiahle ]U'olit. usnalh- calculated ai ten ]ier cent., as well as
freigiit to the ve-<-el(/).
Vaw in its mo<lern fman the ihjctrine of conditional contrahiaud is
less wide, anil mer<d\' sanctions the ti'(~atment of articles of mixed
u.se as conti'aband in cases where it can bo shown Ihat they are
destined eithei' for the enem\-"s na\al lU' miliiarv forces, or for an
enemy jioil u^ed exclu-i\el\'. or mainlv. as a ])ort of na\'al or military
equipment (r/).
(iiij NECESSITY OE llO.^TILE DEST I NATION.
THE "IMINA.
[ ISOO: 3 (;. iJdl). HiT. i
Case. In 171*6. during war l)i>twi'en (Jreat Britain and
Holland, the '" hniiia. a iic'utral xcssel. sailed on a \oyage from
naid/::; to A uist crdaiii. willi a cargo of shi[) tijuber: but having
learned ;ii I hi' eou.rsc (d' hcj' \()\ai.;e that Anisterdani was thc'ii
umha- Ijlnckade. sic changed !e r couf-^e for ['hnbdcn. a tvutral
port. A\liil-t on tin'- < onf>c <lic w as capt iired bv a Ihatish crniser
\ii ) In tlic circuiictaiici >, tiiat i>. the produce <.)f flic country cxportiniT
which ni'c I'ct'ciTCil to in tii'' iuilu'iiicni fhcm iinil -till in :in uiunaiiiifactui-cd
a- KMirlin- Oi I'clicv.' ijculufi:! -c.N <!:ilc; -c.. 'I'hr S<,,,,], T/, /;.v /;,,,/ (1 C.
of the inipulaticii o!' hcjno- centra- IJoh. 'l'-\~ ' : Manual o!' \a\'al j'ri/.c
hand: -cc p. I-J."). >,,,,,■,,. |,;i\v. Ai't. 81.
(- ) Sc" 7/-, llrah.i .-2 ('. Ihih. ai ('/) The riu-lit of i)0>-enipf inn still
ntf^. wIkm-c Sii- W. SiMti :;ivcs an c\i<t- under the Xavai Pri/c Act of
accouiU l)i>th nf till' natui'c and nriL;-in ISdl. >. oS.
of ]irc-eni pt inn . I'l'i'-cnipi i(ui al<e a p- i r/ ■ Mancal ot' Xa\a! I'la'/i' Law.
jiear- to June hern applie<l te i:-(Hi,t< Art. i'''-].
ab-;olutel\- cnntrahand. when tlicv wer,-
4'28 ^ V^vc'-v (1)1(1 Oj>iiuons oit international Law.
and sent in for adjudication, on the ground of carrying contra-
band. In the result, it A\as hehl that as the ship was captured
after sh(' liad changed licr lichiijiai ion to a neutral port there
could he no (jU(,'stion of conlraband ; and both ship aiid cargo were
accordingly restor(.'d.
Judgment.] Sir ^^^ Scott, in giving judgment, pointed out
thai ir lh)d)'Jen A\'as to be regarded as tlie real d'.'stination then
the rpiostion ol co]itral)and could ]iot arise. Even if it ^\■ere
assumed, its had been contended, that the cargo was of such a
cliaractei' as to constitute contral)and \v]!.en on a hostilt; destina-
tion, aitliough tlnit was by no means certain, the Court could
not iix tlial character on it in tlie present voyage. In order to
constiluti; eont]'aband the goods must be taken in the actual
prosecution, of a, vo>'age to an eiii'my ])ort. The ofl'ence Avas,
indeed, conjjdc.-tc as fi'om the mojiient the voss(d (jiu1t<;'d ])ort on
a hostile di.'stination; luit uidcss Ihi-n; was a hostile destination
stibsistuig- at tlie time ol ea^jjlui'i', the j)enalty was not Jiow
ge]i('rali\ Jicld to a<:1;K'h. \\\ tlie jjrescnt ease the projjcrty liad
ch'aj'l\' ji'i': b('(-n 1;ak('Ji m thi.; jn'oseeiiticj.'i. ol a voyage to a. hostile
port. Ila:! i; Ijc^u teken ec'rore tie; variation ol eours' it JUight
hav(; Ijccn lialih: to coiiiiseat ioji . Ihit as thing's had tnriK'd out,
tlea'c \\-a- no (Ifildurn r^xisting at the timi.' ol Caj)tur(>. and I'csti-
t;nl ion jjiust ihercforu b(; (h-crci'd. llavnig rre;iU'd to tb<' fact.
h()V,e\-cr. thai, tin' caj)t;oj's. in. \\(:\\ ()\ tho original destniatioji,
A\ '•)■." 1)0!!ii!l to l)r!ng l;h(' cause to adjudication, l]ie> must be
all(iwc(' t!;!"r pxi.'cnsc-.
ill (jrdei' !0 .•■(jii.sii; III ;; !-o!ii:rahaiei, Jioi <mi1}^ inii-^t the ailieles
fje in th(/ir jialaie (,a.|iahl(> of hcin;^' iH<!d to a.,N.--i.<l llio oiiemy
in his \vai'lik(; op/M'arioii.-;. Iml ihity iiiM.si aJ.^0 1)0 taken on a
liosiilf' <!('->i iiKi j i.,;i. '{'lie (-use ol' tiie imiini sorv'cs to illn.-,!i'ato the
lai'i'i- i)\ llnN-^:,' L\;o coml iiioiis. 'riaere was, it will I>e o'o.-r,erved, no
sii'_'ei' lioii ill an\' iilicrioi' or ho-ilih:: de.^t i iiat ion on the part of the
'•arii'o: and I ho (;!i'iM-t (jf \\\{) dca-ioii i h',';'o!'i)re ,e'oes no farther tlian
ihi.s, ih;it wli.Mi the (iosi i nation <>[ t h(! eoods is tlie same as that of
the slii]). and when the real as (.h'slinta; from the apj)ai.'eiit ^les-
tiiiaiion of the ship i- a iiLMilral [Hjrt, flieii there oa n bo no rpiestioa
()\ cent rahaiid (a o
(fi) 'riie <li)i-t I'i !!f III' i;]i inial !■ do-;- of .i ni !.m n iii t v. iu tlie siilisfMjucnt '-ase
tinat.ion \\',\- ri'aHv ii'i! in i<-w in llii-; o'i La ''■■id (11 ('. i'ol;. 1).
ca.:sf,'; alllioiiizii j-o ject i-d. a- a .^'jiircc
i^tnlnilniiul of War.
42f)
Acooixliui;; to llic Uriti.sh view, Mic dosLiiialioii ol' I lio cargo is
g'OiuM';ill\- ii.ssuiii('<l lo he lliat ol' the sjiip. When, Jiowcv^cr, tho ship
is lo rail al scvi'ial i>i)ils, some uoulnd and sonic h<j.stik!, thou (ho
pi-csi'iKT (Ml liMiinl ol' gn.jds wldch aix; b<))}d //^/^ ddciiiiioulcd for di.s-
chari^<' al :i, piaor iioiilf:il pnii ( /^ > <;amiot l)C made a gr(jiiiid for
deloulioii ; hiii il.' iIkmh' i< no such doin mentarv (U'ith'iico. llioii that
])()rl whii'li is l(';iv| ruviiurahio to I III' iKuilfal will ho presumed to
he the d<'sl iiinl ion nl' such pail: ol' the cargo as would lie contraband
it' carried to ihat |)mi1 ( c i . The ([ueslioJi of an ulterior linslile dcs-
liiialiou on the part ot tiie gi.iods dill'erent from Iliat oi' the sliip,
Avili come under consideration herealUn; in connection with the doc-
trine ot' continuous voyages (^{/).
A ship c;!i'ryin;:- (■onirahaiid may he seized at any inonient through-
out tlu> whol<> {-ourse of Jrer vo\■a^■c so long as .^ho is on the liigli
sea or in Indligerent -watei's. The \'iew Jias sonnMimes hcen put
forward liiai si-arcli sluaild i)e (roiilined to the actual lhealr(! of iJie
war, or lo wal(Ms uoi tuo di^iaiit 1 lu'rctioii! i c i . DuriiiL;' llie S(.iuih
African war. (ireai Ihiiain. in th.e (oui-.-c ol' iIh' ,\ mrl"-*. 'eiaiian <-n,i-
lrii\aM'sy i ;'l'crr<':[ fc, hereal'ic:'. a'j'iccd iioi lu evlcud lii;r search \^)V
conUaliaad hcxoiid .Vih'ni/i. In ihc li n--o-.l apa ne.-e war. 1 h*'
ih'iti-li ( io\ ('. nmcnl com^ilaiiied wi llui (^Mrcnic i aeon \ on i(Micc in
neutral <'0!iiiiKU'ce of the i\u>sian search foi" couiiaijaiid, Jioi onlv
in proxiinilv to iho sci.mu^ of wa,r iuii all o\er ilie A\oiJd. and esjje-
cially at pla'-os at- A\hicii lu.nitral comnici'e i.-ould 1)0 laosi eihx-iuallv
intcrceptoil ( c/ 1. init neitlier in ipiinciple uor hy usagf> is such a
liniitat ion obli^aiory .
1"Ih^ liahiliiN i'oi- carrviuG' coni laJia nd coaxes wluni tlie eoiitraba.nd
U'oods ha,\!^ 'ie!M! (ii-i'ha r^cd ( /; ) . !i wa-. indeed, formerly Jirld that
a vessel, whicl'L had cniaac-il ^-doIs on lia' (ar, wanl \-oyaae b\- rli(> aid
of false papci-s and 1)\ t''anfl. v,a-> lialslc lo seizure and condemnal inu
on luM' nMnrn \i)vau'e(/''; leu dii-; lade \\a- lia^l in jMiina'pie. and
woidd n"' hf (Mii'orc'S'l b\ llriiish or oijier I'rize (^iiirl- at die present
lime ( '' e
(h) 'riiat i-, hefoi'c till-- ship rcarlic-
aii c'lciuv port.
(,-) '11;,. Trr, ,!r S,,./.: , [\ V. ic.h.
:;ii(!. e.); 7/- /,';.7/,./e -/ [3 ('. Knh.
:a ;;•2s^.
(,/, /„e.e p. IT-.
, ,, j S ■!■ \\ I'-i !:i!v-. ii. ■_!•).!; I'.arrhiv
'roi)lciu>.
17!.
(.'/) IriiO. p. -ImI : luir iH) cl.iini
nppc:o-< to l,;o'c hci'ii ni;uli> tor any di'-
ii iaii.' )-c-! ri(a ion .
(], . 77- l„i:.,a (?> C. I!ob, at If].):
77..' /■•/■ '/7j-7'/,- .!/o,7-- (I ('. ];,,!). s;;,.
;0 'I'l'' -'/'•,■./,., . / { i A. a,,,!. :'0:!):
Th<- \ V (:; i;,,!.. Vl-l).
480 Cases und Oin'nions on Tnfprnalioiiai Laiv.
(iv) THE PENALTY FOll THE UAlUilAGE OF
CONTEABAXD.
THE •• NEUTRALITET.""
[ISOl: 3 C. Pvob. 29o.j
Case. This was a ca--e of a neutral ship, uiicIlt Danish colour-,
■which wa- captured by the British, during' war between Great
Britain and Holland, whilst earryiug contranand b< a Dutch })Ort;
there being at the lime a treaty between Great Britain and Den-
mark which probibited trallic of this kind on the part of subjects
of either country. In these circumstance^ it was held that con-
demnation must extend also to the ship.
Judgment. _ In giving judgment. Sir W. Scott pointed out
that, v,"hatever the earlier practice might have bi^en, the modern
rule was that the vessel wns not in general coiitiscable : this
relaxation being based on the su])position that freights of noxious
or doubtful article- miglit be taken \\'ithout the jiersonal know-
lediii.' of the owni/r. But this rule was liable to exception-; as
where the ship Ijelonged to the owner ot the cargo, or 'Nina'c the
ship' made use of a false destination or false paper.-. The eir-
cui!i.>tances of the j)re.-ent ca-e constituted yei another exception,
by reason of the owners being bound, as subjects of Denmark,
not to carry good- of this nature to tlie eneiiiie- of Great Ib'itain;
and this would have applied, even if the car:.:'u had been the'
pi-iiduce aiid nianuta'lure (d.' Denmark. Asliirh wa- iiol. lioweMT.
the ca-e. The owner was here not only eognizmt oi' tlie irailic,
but it wa- in breaidi of explicit obligations arisinu- by treaiv.
d'lie conii.-cation ed' tlie shiji in tlii> [li'e-ont ca-e, jiowex'-r. would
]ia\e uutouehed the general ride tJLit unTa- oixlinarv ei;xaim-
.-lanr'cs the cai'ritej-o oL conti'altand worke*! a lorreiture nf IVein-jif
a:id i-xjien-rs, bal uoi ol tia^' .-hi]) it-elf.
emlei' ua- la'i'i-li. pia'-u-o lh(,' ereii raliaaii i!-ell is li.iifle Im cmi-
■iiiiKiii'in .1- |)ii/c. An\- ii;ii-i' r;irL;'<i 0!i lieiu'il helnim-iii^- io the
\ iier (it ill" ' iiui 1 ;!': i.nn 1 i- .-i iiiilarh' liaMe ' /; i ; imi iuiMjea: 'mI'u^'
('oiili'dhand of War. 431
beloiii;'Jii,u' tij olhei' owiiur.s will be restored. iiltlnHi^^li witlioiit eoni-
peiisiiliuu l'(ir U)<s arising- fruin (k'hiy and deteiiiiuii ( (■• ). 'I'lie .ship
cairxiiiL;' llic I'Oiil ral);Mid will in ^'eneral he restored ( c/ 1, alt]i(jii<i-h
AvilJKHil (•(iiiiptMi--ai iiiii I'ur loss of t'r<M<i'lil or det<Mit ion ( c) : Imt,
(1) an\ inlcre^l in I lie ves^id which b(dong'.s to the mviier of the
contraband will be snbjccl to condeniiiation ; whilst (2) if she made
forcible re-i<lance Id (lie raptor or carried false ])a|)ers. oi' if lher(;
arc other circuni^lani (■< of conijdicitA- oi' fraud. ( In^ vess(d herself
will be siibi<M'| lo cniidiMunalidn. iriesjXM-t ivi' of ownershij) ( / i. hi
the Xe/itrclili'l the -amc ]icnalty was. as avo ha\e s(mmk cxlended, t/)
the case of con1ral>and carri(>d in violation of treaty.
The (Jonlinenial j)rai'tico fiii thi.s point apjicars to varw In some
systems (he sliip hei'.-<df is confi-CLitod only if all her caro-o consists
of coidrabaud: in others, if tlie conlraband amounts io f hree-fourtlis
of the cargo; and in olliers, ao-ain, if any jjart is com raband fr/).
But if a .<liip is seized for carrying- contraband and in tlic re.sult
no part of her cargo i.s con<lemncd, then the captor wdll be liable
to make com])eir-a(ii*u foi' the lo-s <n<;ain<'d bx-jicr diMonlion; unles^;,
indeed, thei'e wa- lea-diialde 2'r(nind fc)r .suspicion (7/ i, in which ca-e
restitution will be granted but: wilhoui cijsts. or even sulyjeet to
the payment o( co-ts and (*x));mi>c.> to the captoi-T/).
{c) See tiie liriti^h .M enini-inuluiii. (f/) Sec, by waj- of ex;uii]ile, I'ari.
p. .'). Papi'i's (l!)Ui)). >ri<e. Xo. .), p.' 29.
(d) Ber li'iu/rndr .hn-nh (1. C. \l,)h. (/'-) '1^1|''<" is some evidcii'-o of fuels
89)
wiiii'li, if tliev liad l>eeii fullv e.iial)-
, . ,,., r-, , 7)- /( /■ i> 1 li<!ie'l. \vo!il(l ha'.c lustitied condenina-
.,,,\ ' ,,, , , tiou. niul some reason ti)r i)clievin"'
199): altliom'.''li (>xiieii<e^ have s-ine- , !■ ^i • \ t ?
,. , I, ,' , J, , mat upon lui'riier e;i(iiiirv <\w\\ raers
tune- l)(\'ii aliowi'd vm-re die aiieiuii! ,, , , ir 1 1 ' ';•- /> ,
,. , , , . I ,1 would he e-tal)!islii'd: 'Ce I w Of't'nr
ox eonrvalu'.iMl .arried v, ,i~ ^(^•^•^m:ili; .., ,, n , • 1-:,, •■■; i 7
CO The Jonnc Tnl,-,is (V C. IJoh.
(Sjjiidv's. 217); P.ritish ]*iIemoi'andiim.
^2-0 . {/J See 77- r Osis,,-. p. 181, ^u ,rra ;
n.r f„):,.n. p. 42«. s>!/,ra.
432 Cases and Ojauioub on 1 it(einaliinia( Lav:.
(y) the COXFr.ICT OF USAGE AS [REGARDS
C'OXTRABAXU.
CONTROVERSY, IN 1904. BETWEEN RUSSIA ON THE ONE
PART AND GREAT BRITAIN AND THE UNITED STATES
ON THE OTHER, WITH RESPECT TO CONTRABAND
OF WAR.
[l*;irl. J'ajMvr- i.ili<)')j. lius-ia. Xo. J. (.orre^jjoiKlf-iicc rolaTiji'r to Contraband of
War: IL.T^liey, ]G0— 1S7.]
The Russian List of Contraband. On the "iTtli Febiuarv.
llMj-j (/ ^ tiic !\ii>>iaii (>o\'.;rjiiii!_'jii i-^uci c-rlani OrJur.- or Ivi-gu-
larioii- AwhielL ii" pi;o]io--';d to ruJ'uiwjf Jnriiij; t!io war with .[ajjun.
'liifS''. aiuorii:-/!' uUlit {Iiiiil;>. .iuiiin'ij tli;' atiiliiil;' o'i ilia'c Li-oxcrn-
ijii-ul; v-'lli I'l-iii'"! tu nciitral Iracl'': iilliniiiiiL;" 'j'.^ib'i'ali \' thu j'Ju'lit
of nciiirul- 10 roir.ijiU'' rlr/ir \va'](: \vn\i Iius-iaii [••jrt.- and towns.
.suliiort i(. iliL' J;i.\\-s ol' x\v: J'hii})iro and Uu- law" of nation^, and
rL'quirijii:' l"]io militarv aul lioi'itic- lo j'O^pLol ijii- ritibt so far
as niii^'lil !*'"■ •■ijnijOatifl!' A'.ilh A\"arlikr' o|iera.rioi!s: liiiX i.'XOijj'it ing-
tradi: ill i'Dntrananjl ii ; 1 iclrr^. ;i- v-'V foi'tli in rii:' li i;i:ad;irioi!-. aiid.
tlio rond,i-;-i!,_;- O'f unin.'Ulral >^'!vn'" h .
TJn; ]'i>\' of (Mill raliiiiid (;!.))ilaini'd in .Ai;riclo o oL' tiicso Ju_'gu-
Lavions Jia-lndii! L >niad aian.- aii-l L'i.in>: 'I aniniuniliriu for
liri/arin-: o !:'\])lo-~i\"cs a;;;! niat'-rials for canr-ni'j' i;\plo-io]r-:
(4 arti!!':'!"\\ L-ni^in'M'i-ijjO' and cam}) O(jui[>ntonl"; [o ariic!i;s of
nulitary ciiuiinnenl and (dotliirLU'; (i vo-.-ol- Ijoimd for an
oncrnv'.v }.ori;. it' ihoy appoarod from tlavir const ruition ajid other
indicatioii- to liavo foLai Lailt for ^\';:rlikL■ pnrjiosu- iOid to bo
inlcjidc'l i'or -a!i' or trausf'!' to tbc rncmy : .7 Ijoil^ r.- -wil ov-'j-y
kind oi' navai in'cdpdra'v : '8^ c\'ir\" kind df iuob >ii<-b a> coiL
napbtba. alcobol. and llio like: (0,,. articb'S and matorial foi' trdc-
grapli.-, ti'lc'idioncs, and railwav c(,n.-trui ticji: and '10 i;'cncrall\-
an}lhini;' inlL'tidcd for wai'firc b\' >oa or land, as ^\X'd a.- r'n-r^
provi.-ions. bor.-i -. bca-t- ol' burdrai and odi-r nnimaN v\'bii-]i
might b' u-od j'oi' a wiirlikr piirpMs^a if 1 rin-pniifd oii tin; a'.-cuuiit
(a) New- ;tylo. (/j) St'c Arts. 3—7.
Conlralmnd of \\a)\ A'-V-'}
oi* oi- (k'stiucd lor iho oncniy (r^ . These I-ieg-ulalions were later
siij)plenieutecl \)\ Orders issued on the liJlh Alareh and 2Js1
April, iDOi, \)\ ^vhich their striiig-eucy was iiiereascd; " raw
cotton' heing- added to the list of eontraband. whilst the riglit
was reserved to make further additions it oe-easion reipiired d^ .
These Regulations, it will he seen, took no account oi' the dislinc-
tion usuallx^ <h'awn in pi'aetiee between absolute and condili(jnal
contraband, pur})orting' in i'aet to treat all articles c(jniing under
the heads ahoN'e mentioned as absolute coiit,rabaiid ; wliilst. they
included m that category a variety of ai'ticles, such as coal. ()i'o-
\isH)ns, and, at a later linic. raw cotton, which, according to the
Ih'itish and Aniernan |)i'aciicc, were either innocent or liable to
condemnation oidy m ceiiain. contingencies (f . This led to a con-
troversy between Russia on the one hand and (rj'cat Britain and
the I'nited States on the other, which serves at once to mark the
conllict" of usage that then ])revailed on the subject of contra-
band, and. incident.all\", lo justifx' the Pirit ish and .\niorican vic\\ .
The Ensuing- Controversy. On the 1 si dune, 1901, the British
( Jovcrnniont, atte]- ha\ inu' elicited some I'urther information as
to till precise meaninu' and inleiil of the Russian list of eontra-
band. addressed a protest to the Itussian (. Jo\'ernmcnt against
the trealnieiit of rice and pro\ isions a> unconditional c()nl raband,
on the ii'i'ound that surh a ])r()C!_>cdiiio- ^\■a■^ iii'-onsi-^tent wilh the
lav*- and practice of !iatioii>. Such arl!cli'-<. il wa< contended,
could oiil\' l)e tn>a1ed a:- coiit raband A\herc cii'cuins1aiicc> showed
thai tlii'y v.cre de>Iiiii'd for ijie mililarx or iia\al usr of the
I'lienix': nor A\as the decision of a Prize ( "ourt of tin' cajitor m
such a case bindina- on neutral States unless it was in a^'cord-
aiiii' with the reeoii-nized Titles and principles of inlcrnat iona!
law f . To this objection tin' J\ussian ( M)\('riiinent replied, in
-riei-t. that" in the ab>eiice of any international decision a> to
what A\as or was not contral)and. it rested with the belliii'creiil to
ili'cide what articles a\ (mh' and what \\er(^ not to be so re^'ai'di I (j .
(•■) IvKccjit ill iJOA (inly (he licads (/) Lord 1 .aiisiiuwin" to Si r ( '. liar-
arc U-ivO!,; for th,. full t.-x't. sec 1". !'. dillLTr. \<\ .lini.\ 1(11)1. The CdVlTll-
■"Ujii-i'. No. :;. iii"l. liicnt (if the rnileil Slatc< made a
[J■^ lh-,1. Nd. 1."). incl. <in!i!ai- iii-iilcM. vci. II cr-^ii.'v, ItlT.
^l) SiiiDd. ]i. -12:!. (,'/i Sir ('. I lardiii',''!' to Lord l>ans-
dowii". Sth . I line, litdt.
I-'U (Ja.ses (ind Opinions on International Law.
On the lOtli August the British Government made a further
protest against the indiscriminate molestation of neutral com-
merce to Avhich the unwarrantable extension of the doctrine of
contraband by Russia had given rise : especially when taken in
conjunction with the chum to de-^troy neutral jjrizes when their
con\'cyaJice to a Prize (.'ourt miglit be found inconvenient (/^\
It also ])()iut('(l oul {hat the Russian treatment of coal and
fuel a- contraband was diametrically 0]jposed to the declaration
whicli had been made by tlie Russian Plenii)Otentiary in 1884.
on the occa^i(jn of the Berlin ( 'onf erence. wlieu it was stated
that the Ru-sian Government relused categorically to consent to
any treaty or declaration which would implv the recognition of
coal as contraband of war. It was im])ossible for the British
(io\'ernment to admit that coal and fuel of every kind wei'o conlra-
hand irrespective^ oi' wliether thev were destined for the helliu'erent
forces or not: or to admit that it was open to any Power to ignore
the \o\\'2 esijiblisiiesj distinction betwi^en absolute and conditional
eontraband and lo inekule in the former cateiica'x a munher of
article- in i hi'ms;d\ cs inu(!;'ent ;iiul lar^el\- d 'alt in 1)\- neutral
Po^\'er^: (^i' linaUw to admii that tlie seizure of ships and cargoes by
I'l.'a-on nr ''elx' of theii' eomj)risine' such articles, and without proof
()f a mih'tai'v declination, was pi'-t iliaiil ■ in ijiternat ional h\\\ .
lli'nce all claims f(jr com})ensa1 ion put for^\'al■d by Bi'iti>h su!)j'eets
\\lio<e interests had sidfered ])\' the aj!j)!ieat ion of t'l ■ liii^-^ian rules
wfjuld receive the strenuous support of the British Governncnt .
The latter had ]io desire to ])laee obstaide.- in th(,' \\-;<y of a b.dli-
L!-ei'ent desii-ous of takine' reasonable ])recautions to ])ri'vent his
enemy from receiving supplie-: bail it could not admit that this
carried a riudit to intercept, a,t any distance from the sinaie of
opei-atio]!-, and without proof of any militai\\' destination. an\-
article.- which a belliiicrent nii^ht determine to reu'iird as conti'a-
baiid ( h .
Meanwhih.,'. tlif -eizure and condemnation of Amerii-an
(h ) l.oi'd I .;ni-(|ii\viic tuSirC. Mar- h-iini, (lisci-imiiiat cd uni'aii'K- ,;L;-:uiist
diii^-i'. 'f'j'l. Xn. 'ja. I)i'iti<li sliippiiiL'' in favour of tliat of
li) f.oi-(l I .ai.-iiow)ic to Sir ( '. ilai'- otl^M' Sl.itc- ; a cliarLrc wliici! wa<. ,■: f; or
(ili!'j-o, !'. 1'. >'//,'/. No. '.^1. A com- oiHiuii-y. (liM-laiim d hy llir liii^sian
lilainr, \v;i< al-o lua'lo ihat tlio l,'ii>-ian ' o)\"or!iiii('iit : 1'. IV .vv//;v/, \o^. -Jo. iT.
criiiHcrs, in rln'ir ^rai'di for oonti'a-
(Jontndxind of War. 435
iitrgot'^ (/r J)ro^ oked simtlar rcinanst.riiii(:('& on the part of the
United Stato.>. In a despatch of the '"iOth .Vugust, 1904, which
will probably rank as an authorittitivi' utterance on this subject,
Mr. Hay. the IJiiiU'd Slates S('cn'tar\- of State, point(Ml out that
the tru" criteria tor determining what constituted contraband
were warlike nature, use, and destination: that these crit(H'ia had
bei'ii anived at l)y the common consent of ci\"ilized nations after
centuries of struggle; and that the logical results of the llussian
doctrine wouLd l)e to (h'stroy completely all neutral (■ommerc<^
\\ ith the non-combatant jiopuhit ion (d' dapaii, to ol»\iate the neces-
sity of blockades, and to oblit(>rate all distinction between com-
merce ill contral)and and non-contraband gootls (/ . Hence it
was co]itendeil that telegrapbi;-. telejihonic. and I'ailway material
were not (.'onriscabL^ merely l)ecause destined to the commercial
})orts of a Ix'Iligirent ; and tliat ai-ticic< such as coal, cotton, and
provisions wir^' not -^ubjcet lo capture and eonhscation unless
shown to be actually destined for the military or naval forces
of a bellic'crent. Xoi' could tliis sid)stantive princi]>le be allov.cil
to b'> overridden by any technical ruli> of the Priz ■ Courts that
thi' owners of the cargo mu>t prove tliat no part of it would
cvenluaUy come into the hands of the enemy forces (/??.'.
In vi w of the--e remonstrances, and also of cei'tain prouounce-
mi'uts wdiich iuid m-anwhiL' be-n made by tli' Su])reme Prize
Court as to the necessity of recognizing a distinction between
absolnti' and relative contraband ()?.\ the Russian (:ro\'ermnent
agreed lo rec(msi.Jer the-o questions, and ultinjately referretl them
foiTi'poi't to a Commission jiresided over by Professor ]\Iartens foV
As th(^ result of this report fresh instructions were issued to the
Russian Prize Courts and naval comma ndirs. I)\' these the various
articles mentiomnl in ^Vrticle 6, suit-sect. 10, of the Reofulations
previously referi'cd to '/) , includinc' rice and provisions q . were
ri'coii-nized ;is beim;- cundii Ionall^^ I'ontraband ; the distinction
between absolute and I'onditional contraliand luM'tiii- so fai' admitted
(/■i l,.i,<i. p. 4:!7. /'/" '"/'■/"/.., ^r.. p. |;!7-.S. ;,-r, /.- ;nu3
(1) I tcrslu'v, 171* it x'lj. Atlici'!i'v-.l()no-, ('iininitM-c<' in War. <tO.
f,;.-! S.M. •/'///• ./«,','/'' Mnrnnr.fhn (p. in) v. \\ s„,,,-'i. \i^<. -lA. -iti.
■iL'i;, -■■//, Y/), w!:ci'r tlii< (|in'-f-;,in i-; ; /- ) S.,,,rii. p. \:V1.
('iii\v.i(|i'r('(l. ('/) ISiil not horses and b(>asj-,s oi'
i ,,'\ In the i-as,s of '!'!'■ Ar'il'in ami burden.
I- I- 2
436 Cases and Optniuns on International Law.
\)\ Russia. The effect of the new liegulatiouSj after they had been
subjected to some revision, was to exclude such articles from the
category of contraband, unle.-s consigned to the belligerent
(government or its administration, or to its armed forces, for-
tresses, or naval ports. When consigned to individuals, they were
not to be treated as contraband, except on proof by tlu^ captor that
the consignees were really agents or contractors for the naval
or military authorities. Nor were ves.sels carrying contraband to
be liable to condemnation unless more than half the cargo wa.s
contraband (r,. Xotwithstanding thrso mi!;igati(ms, however, coal
^\•as still retained as absolute contraband; nor was it found pos-
sible to ol)taiii any rodri'ss or satisfaction on this point, beyond
a general assurance that the lUissian I'egulations in this regard
would be construed libexally (s\
This controversy serves lo illustral'e the eoiiiiictiiig views that j^re-
vailed with respect to contraband, under the customary law, and the
iucidenfal dillicultios and dangers. Owing to the lack of any settled
rule, Slates were \\out, on the outbreak of wai", to issue an announce-
ment as to whai articles they proposed to treat as contraband, fius.sia,
acting on thi.- prhu-iple. included in her list of contraband — without
I'egard to any distinction between absolute and conditional contra-
band a variety ol' ariicles which, under the British and American
[iracticiy would onlv have Ijeen liable to seizure and condemnation
wheiL on a uiilitary de-tinafion. The ellect of this was prai-ri(/allv
to intoi'di(-t neutrals Iimui carrying' on ti'a(k> in a numl.ior of important
articles with the n()n-cond)ata]it })(i]ni hilioD- ot' Japan. Ib'nce tlie
Ihitisli and .\mcrican j)ro'e-!s. Tlie maiji })()ints nf \\w Ih'iiish
rontomioji were: (1) That tliere was an pstablish^'d distimtion
li(Mween absolute and comliuenal contrahand which coidd nut
lio ienoi'i'd at tlie disci'^'t ii m el a Itelbiieri'iM ; (i'~i that in anv
i'a><.' t'o'id stult> luidd no;. con.--i-t(MitIy witli the laiv and practice
of natioir-^, be treated as confraband exiepr on proof oi' direct,
doslinalioii inv miliiary or naval ii-e : < '■)) tlia; i-oal. ablimiiih
siillii-ienily e-s(Mitial foi" lei^lil" ])iirpiwo.-- to jie-'ify a liinitaiioii
or denial of it> sni)j)lv to l>on ;oei'eiit Mai'^-lujis in neutral |)ovt.<.
wiis at t!i<^ >aiiie time so essentia! for tic lary-i'r ])ar])0.~os of civil
bfe a-- t(i piHsdiide ii from h-dnu' tr<>ated as con' I'ahaiid e\-cci)t
on similar ])riinf of (l'><'ina'ion for militar\- ov naval u-or/i; and
' 4» thai the d<>''i-ioii< of bellio-erent Pi'i/e ('onrts in smdi mat.tcrs
inu.-t. in oi-d<'i' In l,e hindiiia' cm n(aitral Statos. he in ac(ordanco
C-^i V. V. s'l/n-a. \u<. '28 .'!(». ,39. (0 Sir C. TIardinjro to Count
(,v) ^l"hl< wus ill ;ui <'Hrli'T dr-jiatch 1 .am^dorff. fltli Oct.
of tiic 21.=^t Sept.
(oiiirahaii<l oj' War. 4-"37
with rocofrni/.cd priiici[)los of iiiKM-nuiional law. 'I'hc United Stat<\s
Ciovei'iiiiKMil look iij) a similai- j)0.sitioJi witii i'('8|)<jc1 to coal uiid
(joltoii; poiiiliiig- out (\) lliat according' to the Ru.ssian (■onloiilio.u,
every article of huinaii use might be declared contiabaud merely
because tliey udght ultimately and in some degree become useful
to a belligerent tor military purposes; and (2) that llie treatment of
coal and raw cotton as absolute contraband might ultimatfdy lead
to the total inhiltition of the sale by neutrals to the people of bel-
ligerent iStates of all articles which could be finally converted to
military uses i^u).
The application in practice, moreover, of the llussian regulations
to neutral shipping' u'ave rise to much dissatisfaction. In June,
liM)4. the AUantoii. a liritish steamer, whicli had carried W'cdsii
coal to Japan on her outward voyage, was ca])tured on her return
vo\age by a iiussian squadi'Dii in the Straits of Korea Avliilst carry-
ing da])anese coal from Muroran to Singapore. Pjoth sl'dp and cargo
were condemned by the Prize Court at \ ladivostoek, on the ground
that the ship had carried contraband oji tlie outward voyage and
that a combination of facts served also to show that at the time of
capture she was really on a hostile destination. Of the-e it may
be said that the former allegation, although true in fact, aiforded
no ground for condemnation, both because the voyage had been
commenced, liefure coal had fieeu declar(.'(l contraband, and because
in any case the deposit of contraband terminates tlie liability of the
vessel (;ri: whilst the latter conclusion was not borne out by the
evidence. The decree of condemnation was, indeed, subsequently
reversed on a])i)cal iw the Admiralty (Jouncil at St. Petersburg,
.■ilihou!_li <-\<'ii tliat (\iurt lield the s(dzure to have been justihable (//).
In duly. I'.Hii. 1 1|«. h'j/ir/lif Cnm iiMuJpr. a liritish steamer then on
a vo\aL;i' fmni Nt.'w York 1m Kobe and Vohohama with a mixed cargo,
lie IikIhil;' liiuii'. iiiachinciw and a large (|iiantit\' of railwa\' material,
was iii|iiiircd li\ a K'n^.-iaa criii-cr almui .-('\'<Mity miles friun ^'oko-
liaiiia. .Vl'iiT ii luiriicil e\a miiia ' ion the ves^fd wa.s stink on the
uirnuiid that she \\a^ carrxing <■' ain'.i band, and that the ea)»tors were
iiiialile. b\ i(';t<i)!i 'if her |iro\iiiii,y in an (Miem\ poit and lack of
eiial. Ill take her to \' hcli \ . i^i, ,ck . The leu'alit\- of thi^ pioceeding
\\:iv ii|.'i:'ld lioih b\ the \'lai|i\ osio.'k Pii./e ('ourt and the Supreme
I'n/e ( 'onil ; a h lio !!'_;■ h the proie-i oj' i he Ihi' i-h (n )\ ciii menl pt'oi hired
ail a^~-uraiiee that no more iieiiiial [iri/es would be ,^iniki:i. 'Y\\o
-ei/ii re. ami the -ii b.-ei | iieiii i-oiideiii iia t ion by I h" \ lad i \'osio:-k ( ourt .
of A meri<-,i i: lloiir and iail\\,i\- iiriterial found on the Inihin. a (ier-
maii \t'--<>l.and e( Mi<iL;n<'d to .lapaiii'-e poriv. without proof ihat thev
(//) .\ir. il:iv".- ('ii'ciil:ir. lOtli June in \\:\v. M. w ina-i- the juiluini'iit i^
loot: see lierslicy. ItiS. I 7'.i > .' ■-■'/. <etuul.
(.'■) Xei' wa-- tlici'c .-iny cv iilenrc ef u' \ rlaini fur cunijicn-al ion hy tlif
tlie use of false pajxa-s. wliii-li uiRlcr llriti-li ( en la'nnicnt was rcjt'cti'd as
the former l'>riti>li learricc would liavc rc^'ards tlie interests of tlie ownia-s of
Justified caiifiire and ciiuilenination on the ves-^rl. hut admitted .as ri'irards tlie
till' return \iivaL;-e: .■.",. /v/, j!. lijll. iuttM'est^s of owners of innocent cariro
(y) See .\ t lua'ley •lono-;. Coninierce on board.
438 CasPH and Opinions on Internatiou'il Law.
were iiiionded ior the use dI the Japanese (.ioverninent, provoked a
>iuiilar reiuo:i.straiie<' t'ruiu the L'jiited >5Tates Governineut ; and
VA the residl lujth vessel aud earyu were released by the higher
('ourt(rt). Ill the ease of the Calckas, a British steamer, with a
eargo ciJiisistiiig largely of Atiierieau Hour, raw cotton, timber and
maehinery, consigned in part to Japanese ports, both ship aud carg-o
were seized and .-uljseipiently condemned Ijy the >ame Court; but on
aj)peal io the hitj-her Court tlie ship hers(df was released, althoug'h
oidy afie)' Inng- detention, whilst various portiuiis ^f her cargo, in-
cluding the cotton, were condemned (^^j.
Japan, on lie' uiher hand, both in the regulations issued by the
Xaval Department respectin*^- cmitraluind ( c i. and in the decisions
of her Pri/e Courts, adhered in the main to the British and Ameri-
cuii practice u/ 1. In the case of the Aphrodite., Cardiff coah of a
kind rarely used in the Easi (except f(jr naval purjioses. and coii-
si^iied to \ hulivdsto.jk. a naval as well a^ a commercial jiort, was
(••mdemned: the penaby being extendeil to the ve-^scl im the u'vuund
that the entire cargo wa- rontraband ajjd ihat a fahe de-tinaiion
had been ^'ixeuiei. In the ca-e of the >Vo/.s////'//. a caii^-u of I'ice
liMund for \'ladi\ nstdrk was (•on<lemiied in i-irruinst;) me.^ lending' to
show that the latter \\a- intended for the military fiii-ce> of the
enemy: the shi]i al.-o being <-ondemiied on the <^')'Ound that the whole
cargo consisted of <'Ontial)and an 1 ihat the mastei' av;i> g'uilty of
connivance (,/ 1. Iii the caM' of the Tiironui. a caru'o nf sab beef
consigned to the .Kus.-d-Chine.-e Bank at \'ladivo-tO'k'. that bank
being in intimate coirno;'tioii witli the enemy Ciovennneiit. wa-- con-
demned: the Aes.-el sharing- the same fate oii t!i<' ufani 1 nf 'iitmix -
auce and the n-e of ;i false destination iV/).
CrKMiKAl, \oTi:s. (_ indi 'I'ldiKl llluicT flu' < l' !<t() ii'H f >l l.ll"-. Of all
the re.-tiaint- ijn neutral trade j)reviously enumerated, that relating
to ontraband proljably bears most hardly on neutrals. And yet it
^\as pi-eci-ch- on this subject that tlie earlier usage wa> most
lai'kinu' in certainty and unifoiinity. A])art from conventinn.
the oidy points cm wliicJi there ua- anv i^eneral ai;reenient
weie that the jjroperty in order to warrant its confiscatioji as con-
tiaband mu-t be of a kind likely to assist the enem\- in war. and
must ha\e ;i liosiile destination: althou2'h even liere little was ,-ettled
e.\ce])t thai article- of immediate u-e in war were alwa\s lialde
if taken on a direct desiiua'ion in the enf/nn ieiiitoi\ m fnicos.
") Sec lici-sliey. 171. ir) Thc-c ai'e ronraiiicd in an Order
'' , 'I'!.- jiid-an.-nt ill thi^ ca^.' ui'tlic Idih I'ci .ruai'V. I()il4 : -(■:• 'i'^ka-
wl;i'-li i^ >ct our in Arlaa-lcy-Joiics. ha-Iii. !?H '' .v< y.
Ccinaicrc'' in War. at S8 <! >'7. !''/) AltliouL'li with .■-naie xai'iatioiis.
is iintewortliy a« Pinliodyinir a decision ' -f/-- ;i> rcLrar<f< the liability of the
oil t!ic ni''a!;inL:" of "' r;:;//„, ; '' a.- used sliiji in tlie e\-ent of a cei'taiii jiropor-
in a ix'culaTion ~iiiiilar in it< t"iaa~ l^i tion of tlie cai'iro heinu' ci ait ral)and .
.\r1. :;-'r d'' the ])e -haratiiia of I.-iahn;. f '■ ) 'I'akahadii. »i51 .
a- to which -ee |,. ))■! )■„/,■-,. (t) //,;,/. r>91.
(r/j Iir.rJ. 701.
(Jontru'jaiul of War
4;j9
i-u! ;!i,' p;;i(.lical L'Ai_;c'-nio.s ul wur alt^^■otllC'^ pi'ocliuk'd lliv liiiiita-
lioii lit' luiii r;ilia 11(1 t<j ariii^ and iiiiinil ioii-^ dl' wai'; wliilsl as iciiard^
Dtlu'i- ai'liclcs ihtM'c was a <^i'('at lack of uuitoiriut y. not iiici'idv in
llu' j)ra(iicc I'ullourd l)\ dilltM'ciii SlaU'^ (U' ^I'oiips ol' Slat."s, lail
also ill llu; practiuo I'ollnwcd liy the saiiii' Slates at dill'eroiit times, this
di'|ieiidiii<j,' laij^i']}' on iheii- matil inie si I'eii^l h wli'Mi Sielliu-erenI and
their conuiierrial itilei<'>i-- wiien neutral. Il was, ind 'ed. ait<'ni]iied
at> various limes an<l as lieiweeu parliculai- Stat<\s to deliiie conli-a-
liaial l>y ircaiv; hiii .vui-b irealie.-^ show a cumplele aljsene.' oi llial.
iinit'ormiiy wiiich is nei('»ar\ lo ihe iormalion of (aistomi//). Ho-
_v(jnd this we lind i nteiiiai itma I derlarat ions, sncli as llio-e ui the
Armed Xeul I'aiil ies oi I7SI) and i<sn(); Inn ilievc wcir reedly in the
nature oi Jio>tile maniie-loes and were not e()nsistent ly adhered U)
e\eu l)y t h(> Stativs that wi're parties id them. A liod\ of consisie'iit
doctrine and ])raclice willi i-espiM-t to i old laha nd wa-. indeed.
U'ladualh. luiill up li\' dn' ihiiish and .\iiierican ( ourls; hul this was
ihouii'lil lo incline Inn much lo the helliu'ereiit interest, and was not
at iIh' lime ^ein'ralh accepicd ni' acijui ■-cnl in l)\ nllu'r Stales.
Outside ihi-- 'ho.e was neither cinrdslent Uiemw imr harmoniou.s
practiiT. .viid tin's cimdiiion ni' iliin':;-> persisted down In ipiite recent,
times; wiih llu* result that it Hnall\ iiecame e\ id:'iit thai reli(d' from
llie ])re\ a i liiiu' uiiceriaini \ . wiili il.-^ alleudaul liarihhip !o neuiraJs
and con^eipienl dant^ci' oi iiiction. was to he ioiind onl\- l)\- way of
intei'iiat ioiia I aLi'ieiMuent . The ^iilijcit nf cMiilraliand of war was
tlier(d'oie included in tiie proizramme ^'^'i t li<^ llauue i'eace ( 'onfer-
(Mice of IIMIT; Inii hexond the discussion of a jiropo^al made })y
G reat Ilrilain iuv t he enmpleie a I ml it ion of I lie doc I line of <-iiiii lahand.
which wa~ uo*. in fail a ppi nved i / ). and t!ie i'raminu' <ii' a oropo-^ed
list of ali-iili;ie cniil ra ha iid . wliirli was nut at lli<' lime a<liipted i /,• ).
no re,-iil; wa-- anained. .\t tie,' Xa\al ( uiiference <if 1'.M18-',I. how-
e\<'r. the >eii'omenl of lli:' law iif ci )nt ralia iid was one of the foremost
t<ipic<. and as the im^^iiIi of much discu---ion and compromise an
aLireemen' on the <iil)jrci wa< linaHv ar''i\ed at. which ;s now em-
liodiiMl 11! ill* Declaration of Lonihin.
'lilt' I )('! In'til'toii III Liiiiil'ni : /Is 1' i I itl iiK'nt ni Coiiffihd ml /]('■)>{'-
/■iill/i. \\ ilh r<>^peci to colli la ha nd. die Declaration of l.oiidon ado|il<
d<'tiiiiiel\ die di-lincjiou p!e\ iou--ly recon-ni/n.] innl'ii' die llritish and
.AuH^ricaii [iract ice 1)<:>' \\<mmi 'ali-oluie and "coiidii ional ' i out rahaiul ;
it then set-- iorlli a li>I ol' article^ to he inchulcd under each of
tlie^e lieaih. a- well a- a li^I of noii-coni raliaud arlicic- /i; it ihwI
(/,- I Sec llnll. (i:!7 - ' >'-,.: \\c<thikc.
ii. 211 rf ■-■,,/.
I i) 'riiis pnipc-:!! met \v:tl: ,-ii mi-
faviMir;il)lc a rcccptinn that it wa-
!i(i( renewed iMi flie iicM-iiii; of the
\aval ('(iiifereiiee: -e- l':irl. i'a[;ei-v.
Mi>e. Xi>. I I l(iii!i,, [I. ■_':;. i'.iit a
]il-iiiHis-il for t!ie afclitiuii (.;■ euii-
(iitiniial euiiti'nhaial. al-c pfcvinusly
.^au-u-c.-^ted at the Peace ( ■.in fcr-liec
wa-; made l.y the MritNh dideu'ares.
hat withdi'awii : ;'.;/'. p. <)', .
( ./■) .Mtliiiii-di firu-ely ad'ijil. <1 in rlie
ineniiiranda iire-ented hy the pai'tie.-
t" T!;e Va\al Cell fci'ciirc : >ee. hv wav
of e>an;.de. I'arl. i'apei', Ali,.'\c. 'r,
• l!)ai)!. p. •_>.-, ■ Spaiii -. p. 51 ( lidl-
la ml ! : a ml new iiiecrpi mated in tlie
Dcidaraticii ot' r.umhin: <ec p. lie.,
(I) \rx~. -l-l -J'e
440 Cases and Opinions on International Laiv.
|>i-e«(.ribo-' with some iiiinuteno.s.s the condirion.s of liability as regards
liolh classes ot luniraband (^>/i;: ii further detiues the effect of the
carriage of coiitral)aiid on both the vessel and the non-contraband
cargo (^y^i; and, linally, it sanctions certain mitigating practices as
r(>gards the penalty for contraband (^o). In this, as in other matters,
the text is accompanied by a Report containing an explanatory
comment, which will probably be accepted as authoritative.
(i.) Absolute Contrahand: (1) Objects. — The term ''contraband
of war"" connotes, as wo have seen, two elements, otie of which
turns on the nature of the object, and the other on it,s destination.
The distinction between '"absolute'" and "conditional"" contraband,
again, involves dilferences both as regards the nature of the
objects iiu-luded in tliese categories and the rules that govern
their destination. As regards objects, under the Declaration of
London tlie following articles juay, without notice on the part of
a belligerent i /> I. 1)S' treated as "absolute contraband'": (1) Arms
of all lvind~^. including arms for sporting purposes, and their dis-
tinctive component paHs: (2) projectiles, charges, and cartridges
of all kitid^. an<l tlieir distinctive component parts; (,"5) powder
and explosives spociallv prepared for use in war ; (4) gnn
mountings, lind)(M' boxes, limbers, military wagotis, held forges,
and thcii- di-tinctive conqioneiit parts; ( .") ) clotliing and erpupment
of a distinctly military character; (6) all kinds of harness of a dis-
tinctly military character; (7) saddle, draim'ht. and pack animals
suitable for tise in Avar; i8) articles of camp otjuipment and their
disiinctive eiimpnnent parts; lOi armour ])lates; (10) warsliips, in-
ciudinu' boais. and their distinctive com])0!ient parts of such a nature
that the\- can only Ix^ used (ui a vessel of war; and (11) implenrents
an<l apparaius desi'^Mied exc-lusivelv for the mannfacture of munitions
of war. (ir foi' the manufacture or repair of arms or war material for
us<^ on land or sea 'Vy"). This list, it will l)e seen, include.-- n.'arly
<'\erv object tltai is <^\clusi^■oly used for war; as well as som<^ objects.
such as horses, which are also usimI in ]:)(>ace. and which under the
British piactice woulil bt^ trtnited onlv as conditimial contrahand.
In \iew. moriMner. of ))ossibIe mnv discoveries and iiiv(Mitioiis. ir is
])i'0vided iliai articl<\s exclusivelv usetl for war may 1)0 adde<l to this
list l)v declaration on ilu^ ]:)art of a bellicerent ; liut such dechtra-
lion ime-t be imtitifvl to the other Pi)\\ers or their representati\es.
or, if made after tli<e outbreak of liostilities. then to neutral
Pow-ers 1 r e The leo'alitv of such additions may, of course, be
clialleno-ed either bv diplomatic methods, or Ijefoi-c the fn'ei'iiat ion;d
four! if that Court slmnkl he est.aldished ( s) . .\ belliQ-erent may,
howe\<'r. if lie thiidxs fit, we.iA<^ his ]-io-ht to treat any of thes;> lu'ticles
as contraband, or mav rele^-ate tlnnn fri the category of conditional
contrabaiul. snlijeci tn a like declaration ami notifn^at ion i / e
i m ; .\rt>. 2!»- -.^fi, 39. ( q) Art. ■22.
(,i) Arts, 37 — 12. (r) ,\rt. 2.3.
io) ,\rt^. -13. -14. r.v) Sco Royiort. Pearcc TTiu-^ins, .'S3.
(■//; Df 'i.Tpin dro\i. fO -\rt. 20.
('(iittrdhaiid of War. 441
(L' ) Dcslii/'ilioii (iiid I'njd] . Lu llu! matter ot' destination, absolute
<;oiitiah;in(l is lialilc to (■a[>iuM' if <le.sliucii eitlioi- io tciTit(jry helong-
in<j,- to (ly occupied l)v the eiioiuy, <ji' to tlio ufniod forces of ilic enciniv,
and this wlu'llioi' iiir<'ctl\ or Ijy t ranshipnuMit, or Ity .sulj-e([U<Mit land
I r;ins|)iii-i \/i). In this case ii is not the dc-tinalion ol' ihc ve.ssrl
widcli is dc^cisive, Ijui that of the yoods. Even it' the vessel herself
is genuinely hound for a n(MUral port and the ^'oods ait; to he dis-
charged iliere, the latter will he liable if the ca[)tor can show that.
I bey are ultimately destined for the enemy eouidry; the transport
Ijeinu- regarded as a whole. This, it will be seen, imports into the
law of contraband, although only so far as rehites to absolute
conti'aband, the '"doctrine of continuous voyages" th'scribcd here-
after (.r). The onus of jjroof as I'egards dosiination will Hi; on the
cai)t<n'. Hut such pioof will bo <leemod to l)e forllicoiuin;^' and e\on
conclu.si\ ('. if it is shouji ( I) that the <4'oods are ilocumenUid for dis-
char^-e at a.i; (Mieiuy ])oi't i //J, oi' for delivcny lo his ariiK'd forces; or
{'2) that tiie \-es><d is to call at enem\ ports only, or to touch at
an enemy [)orl or lo jueet his armed forces b.dore reaching the
ui'iitral ])ort I'oi whi'-li -sucli goods ai'e document ei| f ,: ). The shi]")"s
papers (// I ai'e, how ('\-.:'r. 'n ]iv talvM'ii as coiiclusixe with re>pccf to
her dentinal ion. iinle^-s she is found clearh' out of the coursi^
:ndicat<>(i b\' them ami is unable sansfa<•tol■II^• tn aciDuiit for such
devial ion I /; t. nr unle-~. Iiei' papers are |ialpabl\- fal>e r-i.
(ii. I ('oiiditiiiintl ('oi/h'ahdini : ( I i Oh/crls.- -The following articles,
which are suscepiililc of us<; in war as well as in peace. ma\ without
notice ()!■ declaration be treat(Ml as ■■conditional coin I'abainl," sub-
jec; to t'eir ha\iiiL!' a special d<'s( inatinn to iiiilitarv use in iIh' sense
indicated herea ft<M' ( J): (1) Food stiilfs. includinu- all ])i'oducts.
whether >olid or li(piid, us<>d. for biiiiian sustenance; f 1' i forau't; and
U'rain suiialde for feeding;' animals; ( ;! i clothini;', fabrics for idothing,
and boots and shoes, snitable for use in war; (4i u'old and silver in
C'oiu or bullion, ]>a])er nioii(>\-i"i; ' e) v(diicl(^s of all kinds axailable
for iis<> in war. and their conipotKuit ]iarts; (Ci\ vossols. craft, and
boats (if all kiiiils. llnaliiiL;' docks, parts of docks, and their component
partsi/i; i7^ rail\\a\ ina'erial. boili ii\<'d and rollinij' >tiick. and
material toi t(de'_;'raiilis. wireless telco-rajdis. and t(de))hones ;
fSi ballonnsaici !l\im;' machiiii's and iIkui' component ])arts, too-ether
Willi acc'^sovKvs aiid articles iM>i'0giii;/ab|(> as iiitend"d I'nr use ni con-
nection with ball'ions and flxiiiL;' machines; lOi fuel and liihricants;
; Kti powder and explosives nor s])(\'iall\ prepared for use in war;
ill) barbed wire, and imphmHMiis for (ixin^- and (aittiim' the same;
/ ll!'> horse shoes and slioein;^' mateiiaN; ' IMt harness and saddlerv;
('/) .\rr. :50. ('•) Sec ficport. Pcircc I fiiririiL^,
(y) [,>ir,i. pp. !(i7. -I7'2. .-)S7, 5S9.
('/) (^r OTIC occupied liv him . ' '/ ) Ii'iin. )i. 112.
(r) Sec .\rt. .'51: and as fn the i. > 'i"lii< iiu'liide^ li:i.il;ni.t-<. hut net
l?ritish practice, p. \'1\\, s"nr'i. hilN of c\i.'haiiL;-i> or elieipies.
(") See v(i1. i. •JT") I i\ IneliuliiiL'- hni!er<.
Kh\ \vi. ■',■!
442 Caae^ mul OpndonH on International Lavj.
aiid (14; field glassert, telescopes, chronoineterfc;, and all kinds of
nautical in.struaionltt {y ). Articles susceptible of use in war, and
not included in either list, may also be added to this list by declara-
tion and noti<'<' I Aj, whilst articles now included in it may, at tin;
discretioji of a belliyerenl. be excluded, subject to the like coti-
ditions ( l).
(2) ne-stti/iili/j// and I'roof. (. ouditional contraband is onlj'
liable it shown to be destincrl either (1; toi' the armed torccs of
the enemy; or i 2; a (o>\ ci'nment de2)ar!me)if of the enemy State i/,-),
llie <^-round of liability iiL the latter case being that such articles
may I'eadily be ajjplied to juilitary uses and will in an}' case scrv'
io increase,' t!i<- iinmodiuto resources of the enemy Stale. But local
ajid municij)al bodies will not rank for this pur])ose as departmeiiis of
State. Even wlioic conditional contraband, moreover, is destined
tor a Government department, the ])resumptioJi of ndlitary use may
]>{■ rebntl(!(J b\' pront that it caunot reallv be used for tlie purposes
of wai-, as when' foo(hi lifts ai'e coiisiy-ned to the civil Oovernment of
an eneiuy colony; althou<i-|i no such <lisj)i'oof is admissible iu the cas(;
ot coin, biillioi]. 01 pa|)<')' moiie\'( /;, In view, how<!\ or. of i he fact that
coidi'aband woidd not iisiiallv lie consio-ned directly to the jnilitary
authorities ov to ( Jo\ernmeii1 de})artments of the eneiiiw it: is pro-
vided that such a destination shall be presumed if the articles in
ijuestioii ar<: convjoned - i J j io euenjy oilicia Is ( /// i ; oi- i :2 i to a ('On-
tractor estahli-hed in tli<' enemy country who Jiotoiiously su])plies
articles of thi> kind to the enemy iy,>j; or (:'>] Uj a fortilied ])lace
belonping- to the <'nem\ , or to any other [)lac<' that serves as a base
of operation^ to;. Jhit all tli(.'so pr<'Sumptions nitty be i-(d)u1t.od. Xor
will any such pre.-^umj)iion ari.^e as re^i-ards a merchant vessel bound
to an}' such place in tlie case where it is souj^dit to prove that she
herself is contraband. In all other cases there will be a presump-
tion of innocent destination, which it will rest with the captor to
dispro\"e; whilst seizure will afford ground for indemidty uidess there
was reasoiKible cause for susjn'cion (p). .As r<'0'ai'ds thf; elfccf of
these provisions, it would seem that, fiut foi' cei'tain ambiguities
arising out of the forms usetl. t,he\' do not diller substantially from
t he coi'rc-poiKJing rule- that obtain inKh'r the Ih'itish piactice. d'his,
(f/j .\rt. 24. '.'>?j and :>yi aii'l of ttic Itcpoft, only
( /i ) .\i-i. 2.'): and ji. till. .<:!'//, r/. \,c intorp.'-ctcd as iiicaninL,'- "' cn^'iny
'') Art. 26: anfl ]>. 140. ■'<"p/yr. crovfrnTneiit "" an<l not '" eiicniv in-
(/:) Art. '■','■'). dividuals ■': sci' I'arl. Papci's. .\Ii.~c.
(I) .Vrt. 3:;. and Hepoit. <of Tearcc Xo. ."> n!H)9;. :5.)S ; I'oarc'f; lli-.iins,
llitr^'ins. .587. "i.^l. n.: and tor a lik'c inf oi'jircr.ition
'//■ The rci'ni u-cd in tin- oriL'^inal of tlir same tiTni hv the liii.-sian
i< rn<fo)-;/rs f„,,r,n',fs. Conrt- ill tlic ca.^C of Thr Cnlrhas,
(/'} 'i'lM- oriL'-iiial niie thus: u,, p. 438. n. [h), sHjn-d.
'■t)ni it'ier<:" II I i'/iil/li r,, /iiii/s /■niichii (o) The tiTrn used in the orit,''inal
lorsi/ ii'il I .v' nnfii'i r<: i/iir II- rir/iDtifrrant \< nut ,-(■ phu-r Kiyrnul >h hiisp anx
joirrii'il a V fli'nfiii'i dn-- ohjf-tfi i-i rnnli-- lorrrs' armi'i'H en ik'hi'i'-k .
rlnif.r llr rrflr iKllUii. 'I'hc tcnil ' // ) .V ft s. 31, 64 : a nd s"/-, '^ p. 4 3 1 ,
»■'/'///'■/>('. althoi]'_'"li othcrwi-c anihiLTnoii-. n. ^Ii).
can. it read in t!ic litrlit of the ,\j-t..-.
Coiitrahattd of War. 44-J
a-, wo lia\(' sot'u, ti'oat^ tl(,'si inal iou to iiiililai'}' use,' u.s ihc g'CiK'rai l-o.^t
ul' lilt? lialiililv ul' coiiilii iDiuiL ctmi rabaiid ; ami pnisiuiios tiiis l'i-(jiii,
\\n\ do^liiiaiiou to the (,'ii',miiv (io\ enuiiciil , of to a ]>Jai-:' ol' iia\al ^)\
iuililai\' ('(jLiipiiK'ni ((/j. SoJiiv aiiihiuiiil v, however, is >ai(i lo ailacli
to tlu' term ■'eiieiu} a> u->eil in thi' o\]>re.ssiou- "a eoiiifadof \\\\yy
nolorioii>!_\ .su])plies artirl(;.s ol ikis l^ill(i to the ejLeiii}' ; alUiou^h
tor the reasons alr<'a(,l\ noted (rj it is scar((dy coiiceival»k! tliai this
cijidd he iiilerj)r<'ied as jiieauijiu' aii^^-hi else than the "'(Mieiuy C'uNcrji-
meiit.' An ambi^^iiity ol' a inorc sei'ions kind, Jiowever, attachi's to
tin' term " place sei'sinj^- as a kase of o^xaations (n). This, although
prokakly tneanl to stand for a [)lace of jnual (jr mililar}' e'juip-
ineiit ukeiH' armed forco> of eitker kind are collecaMl, [)repared.
and (k'.-patcked, mio-Ju — and by a bidliii'crejit probably woukk —
be iiilcrpreied as meaning a '' base; of supply."" in whieli case il
ANOuld cove-' all ports and citu's from wkick supplies \ver<' okiaincd
for the u<e of military nr na\al forc<\s i t). 'I"he risks incidetit Kj this
and^igiiity might, lnj\ve\"('r. be axoided, if ii were possible to arrive
at a common nnderstatiding- on ikis |)oini prior to rat ilicat ion.
Finally, t ke I)eclarali(jn ])ro\ides tkat cinHlitional contraband skall
nol be liable to captiiri; except wken i'outid on board a vessel bound
for territor\ bekjuuing to <ir <iccu[)ied by the enemy, or for tke armed
forces of tke enemy: and even tken not if it is to be discluirgi^d at an
inK.'rvening neniral ])ort; the ship's pajjers being conclusive on both
))oints. e.\ce|)t where she is found clearly out of the course indicated
by her ])apers and is uiiid)le to account for this satisfactorily (u).
In the case, however, where the enemy countiy has no soaboai'd (x),
articles inck;ded under conditional contrabaiKl nray be seized and
condemned e\'(Mi though bound innne^liaody iVir a netitral ])ort, if
shown lo be destined for tke use of tlie armed force or a Government
departUHMit of tke enemy (//I. But in any otker case ''tke doctrine
of continuous vovag(^s '" is wdtolly excluded as regards conditional
coidraband; wkilst in order to guard au'aiirsi un justiliable intcu'-
fer'Mic(> with neuira! vessels on this ground, the ship's papers are
to be takt'u a-- conclusi\(> proof of destination, unless the facts show
rlial e\ ideiicc to be false i : i.
(iii.i \()ii-( 'oiitrdlxi 11(1 . .Vrticles which ar<' not sus<-ept ibie of ti^e
in w.'.v ma\ no; b<' declared contraband i d ' . In particular but with-
out deriic-at iiig fi'om the u-(Mieralit\ of tliis ride tin' I'ollowiiiL;-
ai'iicb'S ai<' declai'ed tn be n'Ui-coidridnind : (H Raw cott(m. wool,
silk. jute, iliix. hemp, and o'Ium' mar<M"ials nf tk<' textih' industries,
(7) S.I/,,//. |i. I'27. falsely": SCI' l'c;iic(> I I i'l;'!;! n •^. •).')'J.li..
(, I S,',,,y,. jj. 1 1:'. II. i ,, ;. ,)St».
{.-) S,'/,,//. []. \\-l. 11. (', . (.'•) .\- ill the iM^c of ilic t'driiiiT
(n ^-cc ncritwi'li, I )iclarat ion of i'south .\fricau U'cpuMic .imi l)ran<r'>
IjOikIoii. 7;>. I'rcc State.
(;/) Art. :55. 'I'lic i;c])()rt add-: ( v) Art-. :>:5, Hti.
■■ wlici'i' a s('ai-('ii of llic \cssrl sliow- (~) ^,/p,/i. \\. \ '') .
that the pajHT- .-tare rhe de-tination {//) Art. 27.
414 CdSf.s Hud (Jpinlons on I nlerndtional Law.
and yarns of the same; (2) oil, .seeds and nuts, copra; (3) rubber,
resins, g-unis and laes, hops; (4) raw liides, horns, bones and ivory:
(o ) natural and artiiii-ial manures, including- nitrates and phosphates
for ag'ricultural jjurposcs; ( G ) metallic ores: (7j earths, clays, lime,
chalk, siono, including- marlde. bricks, slates and tiles; (8) china-
-^Mire and ij'lass: (9) j^aper and paper making materials; ( 10 i soap,
paint and colours. iiLcluding articles exclusively used in their manu-
f;ictui-('. and varnisli : (11) bleaching po-wder, soda ash, caustic soda,
s:ilt calvi'. ammonia, sulphate of anunonia and sulphate of copj)er;
< 12) aL;ricidtural. mining-, textile and printing machinery; (Vi) pre-
cious and semi-precious stones, pearls, mother-of-pearl and coral:
(14) clocks and -watches, other than chronometers; ( loj fa.shion and
fancy goods; (IGj feathers of all kinds, hairs and bristles:
(17) articles of household furnitiu-e and decoration, office furniture
and rccpiisites I £» ), To these are added, on grounds of humanity —
(1 I article- serving exclu.-ively to aid the '-ick and wounded, includ-
ing;- druu'S and medicines, although these, if they have an enemy
destination, may in case of urgent military nece.ssiry be i-ecpiisi-
tioned for use subject to the payment of compensation ('/ ); and
(2) articles intended for the use of the vessel in which they are
found, oi- for the use of her crew and ])as^eno-ers during the voy-
age (c'l. Tlio articles included in the li<t of non-contraband include,
it will Ije soon, the raw material of ilio more impo;'tant industries. It
has also the advantai;-e of securing bevond po->il)ilitv of di-pute
that such articles can n(>ver be declared contraliand under the p'lwer
re-ervt>(l in the l)ellig-(M<'nts of addino- to the ])i-evious ]i-ts(/'i.
llin lAni'd>< of ( a jiture. .V Vi'ssel which is carrxinu' contraband
rna\- ho ca])iured on the hia-h seas, or in tho territorial -^vaters of
either b<41i!rerent. throui.;-ho\it the whole of hei" vowag-e, even thoug-h
she is to touch ai a port of call before reaching- the hostile destina-
rion ( c/). so lonu' as there i-^ a Inistile destinatioji of the kind rec^uired
for the class of contraliand carried (7; K Ihit a vessel cannot be cap-
tured on tho ground of havinii' previoiislv carried contraband, if tlie
contraband has once been dejjo-ired (?i. Th,eso provi-ioii- au'ain are
in accordance -with th(^ ]ue-ent Briti^^h practice (/,• ).
'Hit' (jucstioii of Sotirr. In a-eneial it may fie said that in order
T<j invol\-c Jicuti'als in liability tliere mii.-' be both notice of the
Avar ( /i. an<l notice of tlie contrahiand (haracter of the goods carried.
As to the articles comj)rised in tlie lists previoush' mentioned, the
Dei'laration itself will be standiiiL!- notii-e of tlieir •■ontral)and clia-
I'acter: wlcil-t a< to anv ai'ti'-le.- added there. o pi'ux i<ion i.^ made, as
ve have seen. f(ji' the i-siie of a sue, -ial dccbarat ion and notifica-
(b) Art. 2.S.
(d) As to hospital shijis jii'Ojicr and
their „."//,;,/. -.(_•«■ ],, \-2-2-'.]. .-"/.,".
{r) Art. 29.
■ /i S„,,,a. pp. -ltd. 11L'.
('7) Art. :]7.
//) S„,,,„. pp. .11],
112.
0 Art. ;]S: aii(] ]).
429.
/■; S„r,". ].. 420.
'/•) Sunr'K ],. 287.
"/"
Contraband of Wur. 445
liou (?/<). To meet, tlic case wlierc contraband is found on a vessel
wliicli is io^'norant eitlicr of the outbreak of iiostililios oi' of boiiic
Njx'cial declaration addinu' to or alteriiif^ the existing lists (rz.), or
which on boconiing aware of these facts had no opportunity of dis-
cliaiging tlie contraband, it is j)rovided that in such a case the con-
iraltand part of th(> ciirgo shall not be condemned except on payment
of eoni])ensation, the vessel and the remaining cargo being not only
(ixempt from conlis(,'ation but free from any liability to costs and
expenses that might otherwise be imposed (o). This gives the
l)(>lligerent, as regards such part of the cargo as may prove to
be contraband, a right of pre-emption, Avhidi would presumably
be exei'cise<l on the same lines as th(j>e oljserved under the
I>riti>h jjractiee [)]<>viously vi'fened t(ii]/i. F)ut no vessel can
I'laini to be unaware of the existence of the wax if she left a neutral
port after the fact of -war hatl been notified to the territorial Power,
|)rovided the notilication was made in sulliiient. time: or if she left
an enemy pori after luKstilities Jiad actually begun (7). Xor can
she claim to be unaware of any special declaration of contraband (r)
if she left a neutral port after its notification to the territorial
I'owiM', provided again the nolification was made in sufficient time (s).
The PenaJtn jar camjing CoNtrabcnd. -The cojiti'aband itself is.
of course, liable to condemnation (t). \\'ith respect to the effect of the
carriage of contraband on the ship, and on innocent cargo, tlie Decla-
I'ation jirovides: (1) That the vessel herself shall be liable to con-
demnation if the contraband on board amounts to more than one-half
of 3 he cargo, this whether reckoned l)y value, weight, volume, or
freight (u ); such a proportion of contraband being regarded as ju'oof
of vhe ship's couiplicitv in the contraband venture. (2) That in
auv otlier case the slii]) shall go free: ulthouo'h with a \iow to dis-
couraLZ'c contraliaiid ti'allic she mav. in addition to the loss incident
to ilcientioiL and delay, be condemned fi> pay the costs and expenses
ini'iiried by the captor in I'cspect of the ))rocee(lin2's in the national
!'i'i/e Court and the ciistodv of both ship and cargo (.r). ( .') ) That.
all e'()0(]s iK'lonLiinu- to tlu' owner ol' the contraband, even though
otherwise innocent, ^liall also he liable 10 '(jndemnation ( // ). This
in\(il\(^> a inat<'rial alieration in the liriii^h and .\ niciira 11 practic(>
a-- i'(\2ards the cir(aiinsianc;'s nnder \\hicli the ve->el her.-~<'lf is liable
to condoninal ion I ;• ): but llio rule i- in it-elf not unfair, and will.
if the I )<'iIaralion .<liould Ix^ L;(Micrally a repiO'l. Iia\e the aKantage
of c,-tabl i-hiiiu' a unifoini praciiic.
Thr Sri:>/:-f of f 'a/ifr/ihn )/i! . In all<>'_;e(l r<'lief of neutrals it i>
|iio\id('(j iha' wIk'!'!' a neutral ACs-el i< stoppe<l for c,trr\"ine- contra-
hand, the ainounl of whii-li is not such a- to invohv the vessel her-
i />/ 1 Su/,,r,. pp. 1 10. ll'i. (.V) Art. to.
I,.) /A.-'/. ( /) Art. .39.
(o) Art. 1:5. ('') .\rt. to.
(/,) ,v-',.,". p. 127. (.-•) Art. 41.
(v) An. i;i. ('/) Art. t-2.
V,-) S, :,,,". p. 11 1. (r-) S„/,r>/. p. 431.
146 C<isp^ and Opinions on [nier national Lavj.
self, -lie may. it" circuni^tances permit. l)e allowed to continue her
voyaj^o on liaiidiiiy- over the contraband to the belligerent, together
with all relevant papers; .such delivery being entered in the log-book
of the vess(.'l stopjjed; and the caiJtor Ixdng at liberty to destroy
the contraband it he thinks fit (a ). Such a proceeding, it was thouglit.
although not \\arranted by prior usage, nu^ht prove mutually advan-
tageous whcM'c tJie contraband was small in value and amount; but
it is voluntai'y rm either side, and in any case the seizui'e of the
contraltand must bo passed upon by the Prize Court of the captor (h).
I'lie Kxjiort of ('ontr(i.l>an(l . -The export of contraband, even
iliougJi in the way ot tra<le, has sometimes been made a subject of
(■om])laint on the part of belligerents as against a neutral State.
So. during the civil war, the United States complained of the refusal
of the Bi'itish Goverirment to put a stop to contraband traffic between
British ports and those of the vSouthern Confederacy Tc). In 1870.
Prussia also complained of the action of the British Government
in allowino' the sale and export by English firms of arms and ammu-
nition to France (cZ). In 1904, again, Russia appears to have ques-
tioned the legality of P^ritish trade in conti^aband with /Japan (c). It
is true that most States, iiicluding Great Britain, wuni theii' siib-
jcc'ts of ihe ])cnalties incident to contraband traffic ('/j; tliat some
States cvoii go so far a> 1o prohibit tlio expoi'l of confi'aband from
their territoi'\' ' .7 i : ai]d. finally, ihut -omc wriicrs tire of opinion that a
duty shf>uld bo imi)Osed on neutrid Govcriimfnts of preventini2: the
export of contraband by their sul) jfCls i/n. P)ut so far there is, as
we have seen ( m, no duly on the |)a)1 of neutral Sj;it(>- lo j-(;straiii con-
ti'aljajid 1 1'aflic ( /,' ). unlo~;s it iii\ob<'< a u-e of ueutrul teii'itorv for
lh<' pr('pai;iiion oi an instrumentality of wii!'7i. or a dii'('<:f ])artici-
patioiL in -oiiic s],<,>fific operation of wari///i. It was 011 the latter
^•i-oujul, no doid)t, that the Puitish (;o\'ernment in LS70, whilst re-
fn-ing to intcii'eix! wjtji tho export o!' coal to P^innco aenoi'ally. vet
pi-ohibited it> ex))Oi't fi'om Ri'itis]i ])oi'ts to tho FreiK-h fleet in tlio
Xortli Sea (in. But in -uch ca-cs the ex])Oi't of f-onf rnba nd is reallv
i fi } Art. 44. (/; As whcro an arinfd vcssol is
(b) Sci' \U'\H)Yt. Pearei' lligg-iiLS, despatcliod with intent to ont^ai^-o in
•502. till. <(M-viec of oitlioi' hoiro-i'i-nnt: w'^//«.
(f) ^Vnova. Int. Arb. i. 619. j). ;]43.
(d) Hall, G5G. (m) A« wlioro foal is exported for
(f) iiershcy, 183 ff snq. the use of ;l l)ellia-erent licet operatintr
I) Sill, yd. ]). 373. ill adjoiiiiiiir writers.
( <j ) i;razil .and rhe Netlierhuids, for T;,) See' Mall, (iofi ; and us to
iii-tanee, i:i 1S()S. aiif] Sweden jn (he I'.ritidi aineiKJerl reL;-ulations
l!t')4: altlionn-h thi' <(;ope of the pro- on fhi- ^nhjeet in 11)0 1. y. 371.
hii.it'on \:iiii'^: -■-•e A\'e-tlake. ii. -J.^S. .v/'/,,v/. Shipping- eoal to a lielliu-erent
(h ) !-'or a snL'crested scheme of nen- lleet wonld al-o i-emler rh" shippers
tral ■■ontrol r.ver euiit I'aliaiMl traffie. liable to he pi'o-efdfd ;iirain-t under
^ec i;ai-e|ay, rrohhan-^. 1 00 rt sr,/. fhr. !-'o.-,.;rr|| l^nli-trnent .\'t: ISTO.
'1 >■"/'-". p. -'St. :..;. S aiifl 30; whilst a neiiti-al ^liip
'/■) As is, indeed, now fully reeuir- en<_;-a-ed in tran^poi'liii'i- eoal would he
ni;efl \>\ the llaLMie ' 'on ven tie;i . \o. I.iahh' to <-aptui-e .and eondeinnatii)n
13 nf 1!)07: .<ee Art. 7. and p. 2;)9. hy the other h.dliL-'ei'ent ;i< for un-
■•■''jira. neutral ser\iee: see n. 454, ihlrn.
VnnPufvdJ Service. 447
jiici(l(Mit. to aiiotluM' kind nl' illo<i';ilit v. whii'lt ]< o-ovonied l»y sopa-
iau> and iiidt»j)Oi)(leiit nilc-ii;).
I .\\{:i TRAL SEHVICKia).
(i TiiK CAlfHlACi: 01' X.WAL OH MlLlTAiiY
Pl^HSOXS.
THE "OROZEMBO."
i 1S()7: (i ('. IJoi). 430. 1
Case. In 1807, (lurin*^' wwv hrtwcni (.oH'at Brilaiu and
iloUand, the " Oi'ozcmbo, an American sliip, was cliartcued by
a merchant at Lisbon, ostiuisibly. to proct^cd in ballast to Macao
and thence lo take a cai;<^'o io America. Ai'terwards, by direc-
tion ol; the charterer, three miliiary olliccrs ot' disiinetion and
also two persons enij)h:)yed in t he ci\'il di^partnients oi' the (■overn-
meiit of i3ata\ia who had come from Molhuul to take passage
to ])ata\ia by direction of the Dutcli ('Overnment- -weri^ received
on board, fogi'tlur with their attendants, the \(>ss,'l liaving been
sjieciallA lltted i'or theii' r(!ce])tion. Iti tlic course ot" iier voyage
>\\c Avas captnred bv the British and sent in for ad ju(li(;ation.
( 'ondoinnation of the vessel was prayed i'or, on the ground that
she had been emj)h)yed at the time of capture in the service of
the enem\' and for the purposi' of transpoi'ting tnilitary j)crsoi;s
lo eiicmv territory. On behalf of the o\\ iier, it' was contended
thai the master \\'a^ iunorant of the ser\ ice m which he was en-
U'aLicd. ai!:l thai in ord(M' to warrani cond(>miia1 i(Ui there must be
SOUK proof of d(f 1 n(|Ui'n(/y in him or tln' owner. In the result,
the \'('SS('l was con(iemne(l as ha\ inu' i)e('n lot out m the sei'\ ice
iif i Ik- Dutch ('(n'(>rnment.
( '/ ) N",./v/, j)|,. :!is. :M:!. In i^mj;- (a) The foi-ins of uiuiiuitral srrvice
li<li law rli.' ( M)\ ri-miii'iit |i(is<i'ssr< liiTc (Icsi-i'ilu'd arc Sdaictiiii!'-; ti'cati'd
starurni'v puwcr^ of ^l'|■ili{i(iill^■ tlic oi' uikIci- the lirad of aiialo^'iic^ of coii-
r\|)orI i>f v.at-likr inatcri,;!: sec 1ln> ti-ahaiul. ,<(•(■ Hall, (17 1; l)iit tin-
(■|istoiii< ( 'oii-olidati'iii Art. lS."i:;, ^. aiialou'v is not vcrv c-ji'ai'. rlic liosfilc
i-")(l. a It lionii'li tills is rfally a luca-iirf association hcini;' in soiiii' ca-cs iiioro.
(if solf-pfotccf ion. rni<l in otluM- cases h-ss, close than that
involved in eoiitrabaiid earriasre.
448 Cases and (jpiaions on Interdational Lavj.
Judgment., Sir \\'. Scott, in liis judgment, after referring
to the facts, said that it liad ali'eady been held that a vessel hired
by the ericniy for the convcvaneo of military persons was to
be considered as a transport and as subject to condemnation. It
might be difiicuit to deiine precisely tire niunber of military
persons I'cquircH] to involve a vessel in guilt. J^iit on the whole
he a^-rcful \\\\\i what had been said in ari^ument. that in view
of the pjdneiple on which the law was built up number alone
was not material. It might, for instance, l^e of nuieli more
assistance' to one belligerent, and much more noxious to the
other, to carry a few persons of higher quality than a much
g]'eate'j' number of lower condition: and it was the conse(|uenc(,'S
oL' such assistance that the br'lliger(>nt was entitled to i^revent
and punish. In the j:)res(-'nt case there were three military
persons, as well as two civil (jllieers. Whether the same principle
a])plied to the latter he was not then called upon to determine;
liut on pririci])le it appeari'd reasonalde that wherever it was of
sullicient importance to tbe enemy that suclt persons should be
sent out on the' pul)lic service at the public expense it should
afford ground of forfeiture against the vessel let for a purpose so
intimately- connected witli hostile operations. As to the conten-
tion that there must b(> some jjroof of knowledge or delinquency
on the parr of the master iii oi'der to in.vol\(.' the vessel, tlial wa-i
not essential, it was sulHcient if there was an injury arising
to the belligerent froJU ihe employment in ^\hie]l tlie vessel was
found: and if tlie service was injurious, it gave the l)elligei'ent
a rj^dit t(; prc'xent ihe ihinu' fi'tuu Ijeing' done, or at least repeated,
by eiiforemg tlie ])enalty of contiscatioii . Alore'ovei-, tlie know-
le(l[r(^ 0]' pri\ity of the owner or tliose em|)loyed to act for him
would l)e just as flteetual as that of the masttvr; and. iii the
pi'esent case, the evidence a|)])f'ared to justify' the su|»])Osition
that thf; owner, or those actini;' for him, knew of the nature of
fhe transact Kui . At the same time, the ])rineiple on which he
de(:i(h'd thf' ease was that the carrving of niil]tar\' ])ersons 1e
a co]or)\ of tlie enein\-, tliere to exercise tlicii' military functions,
was in itself a f'ause of eonflemnation, without scanning too
i!iinutel\ tlie number of persons so carried; and that the ignor-
ance oi' the inasleT wa^- no ground of exculpation.
U uncut nil Service. 449
Aecorcliiio' to Ww lirilisli practice (/>;, a iiciitrul vos.scl, wliicli i.s
eiuployod by oik' hoili^eicut to carry ((jiiiliaiajits or iiilending-
coiubalaiils for jxii'posc.s coiUKM'KMi witli llio war. is liable to
capture and foiideiniiaf ion l)y (he other, 1(j<4'elh<H' with Ihm' carg-o;
a]id this uiiether the number cari'ied comprises only a tew indi vi(hnils,
s(j l(jn<4- as ilieir carriaj^e is a service of Siaie i c), ur an eniire detach-
ment (^(/j. Xoi' \Nill it make any diHereiKie that: the master was
iL;'iH)rani of the true character of such ompio\ lueiit. .so hjjig- as it
was an actual eMig'aii;'omont in the onemv .sei'vice, whefln.'r c.\clu.sivG
or partial ( ti) ; or e\'en thai the ein[)lo_\inrMit (ji-ig'inated in at-ts of
\ ioh^nce or <liiress on the part of tie' <itie'r bellio-er-'iil i [). .And
the sauH! rule wcjuld probably a[)plv where a neutral vessel was
employed lo cairy even civil olllcci's, if ihev were despatched on tho
[)iiblic service and a! the public expi.Misc i // j. Ihn sncli a liability
would not, i( seems, attach wheie the ])ersous in (piestion. even
ihouizh having- a miliiaiv character, were merely travelling in the
ortiinary wa\' and as ])ri\ate j)as8engoi'.s at (heir own expense (/).
The pra-ctice of the L'juled Slates on these points appears to be
suhstantially the same as the British (/i;). Sinular rules weie
enforcc(] also by Japan during- the Russo-Japanese w-ar. 1904-.').
So, in the case of tln^ Xlf/rctln — a Britisli vessel captured by tlie
Jaj)anes<^ in IDOi whilst on a voyage from Shanghai to Vladivostx)ck
both ship and cargo wci'e <-ond<Miined on the ground that the vessel
had on btjard two Ixussiaii ollicers who hatl I'ecently been released
from (diina on parol(\ but who were then proceeding to a naval ])ort
of the <'nemy, and fravidling with the cojini\ance of the charterers
under ftduned names and un<ler pr(:Menc(^ of being in the ser\'ice of
the vessel [Ui i. In tln^ YaHf/ls-c I iisurinicc AssocidHini v. 'IIw hulcm-
iiitii Min'ntc Midiiiil Assiinnirc Co. ilDnS. I Iv. 1'. *)1U: '1 K. B.
a 0 1 ), howt^vci', it was lu.dd by th(> l?ri\'3' ('ouncil in a suit on a iKjlicy
of in>ni'aiic<' relatinu' to this \-<'s,~,(>l - a li li! >iiL;h only as a matt(>r of
const luci ion (hat the carriaue of such j)"rsoiis di<| not amouni to
a breach of a warraiiiv ai^'ainsf conli'aband of wai' coiitain(>il in the
polic\', foi' the r(Msoii tliat conlraband in its natuial sense, and in
I he abs<'nce of special circumstanc<'s or >oniethinu' in the text point-
inu' lo a wi<hM' meaiung-(inlv ap[)li(Ml lo goods and not to p(>rsons.
{Ji) Sco tho Jiriti^h .^felll<n•allduIll, (,'/) 1'''' l-urd Stuwcll in '/'//' Om-
p. it. Zrn,ha. ,,. -US, .~<,>i,„<.
,■} r/,r ()r<\:i „i')n (s,<,,,f'. ]>. -ItS). [i) Sec the i'.ritivh :\Lcmi>r:i ikIuiu.
'/) 7'/m- /'//c, ,-/../,/,/ u; C\ IJnli. 42a). ji. !l: and dictum cf Lord Stowcll in
III this caM> a, neutral vessel, wiiich 7'/'/c F ,;, ,,,l sj,, ,, Ml ( '. Jinh. at Vl\)).
had I. ceil enipleyed to carry hack to (/■; S(>e W hcaton iDana), (;:J7 ct
|-'r.iiice a lari:e iiiiinhcr of shi pw reeked xi-ij.
ullieer^ and men heh)m:anu' lo the /,- ) Takaha-lii. C:!!). .\> lo tlic
hri'iich iia\v. \\"a< lield liahlc to coio practic" id' oilier State-, hcjlh on ilii<
demnation a< an cni^iiiy transport. and .alliiMl topic-, <i'c P.arl. I'apcr-.
r) T!,,- (I,,.~.,i,!.n \s,'y,-n, p. -|!S'. Ali-l\ No. .") WWW . W'?, I()7.
( /■• 77/c Cnyur,,,,, • I C'lJol). -Jolil.
4oO Cases and Oj)inions on International Law.
(ii) THE TEAXSMISSIOX OF IXTELLIGEXCE.
(a) DESPATCHES.
THE -ATALANTA."
1 1808: (i C. Pvob. 44il. |
Case." In 1847. during ^var between (ireal Britain antl France,
the "■ Atalanta,' a neutral ship, was ca])ture(l whilst on a voyage
IVoni Batavia to Bremen. It ap])i'are(l that at the Isle of France,
a French possession at which rhe vessel had previously call 'd.
a packet containing despatches from the local authorities to the
Ph'ench Minister of ]\Larine had been taken on board. Th'se
despatches were subsequent^" discovered by the captors con-
cealed in a tea chest, which was itself deposited in a trunk
belonging to the second supercargo. In these circumstances
both ship and cargo were condemned, on the o-round that the
carryi]ig of desjiatches for ;i bi'lliuereut h\ a nraitral ship ])]aees
th.r ship in the ser\dci' ot the foiauer.
Judgment. Sir W. Scott, in his judgment, observed ihat he
\\;i- uet calleil U[)OJL l(^ ih'cldc what mii^hl be the con^i'(jUi'UCe>
of a sim])l(' transmission ol despatches, for the reason that the
present case ^^'as a fraudulent one. Ihit e\ en ihe sini])le cai'ryine-
of des])atclies for the enemy was a si'r\iee hio'hly injui'ious to
the othei' belligerent. And this \\'as so. e\-en thoue-h sucli de-
-pa.t<-he> relateil t(i opiM-atioiis not slrietl\ nnli:ar\'. I'or the reason
that e\('n ci\il (jjjeraljons might \vd\v an imj)ortajit buarine' on
t!ie is>u<' of the A\ar. The consequences of the carriage of
li"<pat('he^ were inJei'd far more serious than the eari'iai^e df
contraband. For m llean there juight be conveyml the ejitire jilan
of cam])a i'l;]! . Al'tcr r*efei'ri7ie' to the auihc)rities the beamed
pide-e came Id l.lie conehl^lon tjiat tile cari'XiliU' oi' <lesp;il clies
for the eiieiiiN warranted tlu' C(^liliscal ion of IJie \-essel. It was
naie 'hat in (irdinar\ ca-es of contraband tbe ^lnp meui'i'ed no
jii'iialty but 1(1^- of IVeiulit. Iiiit inasmuch a-- despati'he^ carried
no t'ri'iubi H wnnld hi' I'ldiciilous to treat tie- mere conli-cat ion
e!' till.' (ji'^pai ell-- theni-i-l\ev as --uliicient pi;nalty. Hence it \\as
IJiuieulrtd Service. 451
ii(;c(-ss;iry to rosorl to L'lii-thci' measures, which could be no other
ihaii ihe coiinscatiou of the -hip. With respect to the liability of
i.he ear^o. it ap[)ear(.Ml in. tlu' jjreseiit cas' that tiie orieuce was as
much the act oi' those who were the agents of the cargo as oi' the
master of the V(^ssel; and for this reason the drcrce o£ conderuna-
tioii must also extend to the cargo.
Aceordijig to tlic J-Sritish jjraetico, liic I'arriage by ;i iioulral vessel
i)f oiienn' (Ios])atcli(>s relating- directly or indirect !y to the opoi'atioiis of
war, either with the pri\ity of tlu; master or oilier [jersons responsible
I'or tlie action oi the ve<s(d or undcu' circunr<tances of fraud or con-
c<\ilnient, r<Mider> the \essel liable to cDiidciiiiiai idii ; aiid this j^enalty
win <\\teii<l at>-() to tiu' cargo in a case where th(! latter belony-s xty
the saiiK^ owners, or where there is e\'ideiic(> of <-oniplicity on the'
pari of tin,' (n\iiers or their a^'eius. But the penalty will -lot attach
in a. ca-e wheie the iuasi{>i' was ieaiorant eitlnn' of the fact that
d<>spatclie- wfre hoiuo' cai'ried ( r/.). O)' of tlieii' true character (/; i .
Xcir will anv liahilitv \)0 ijiciiia'cd Iiy the c;iriia'_;-e of despatches
i'njni an <nieniy ainlias-ndui' dr consul in a innitral country to his
( iovcrtimenl (c); oi' iwen from the encni\' ( oi\ei'ii nieni to an ambas-
-adr)i' y)Y c(in-ul in a n<Mnral I'oniit ry (^/ i : foi' tin' reasDiL that sneh
de<|»a1clu^s are nec(^-sarv in the int(H'ests of the la^itral and cannot
lio pr(.\-ninc<l to have a belliu'(>rent ohject. Xni'. iinallv. \vonld any
>nch liahilit}' now ho incurred hy the cavriage of d(\<patelM\s in fho
ordinary way of ]>o-t: ])o<tal corr(v<pondence. whethei' found oir hoard
neutral or encni\' shi)i>. Limine- (h^clared to he im iolahle hy the Has'ue
I 'on\-ention. Xo. 1 1 of 1!>|)7 ( r"\.
{h] aii:ssa(;ks axd sk;xals.
THE CASE OF THE " HAIMUN.^'
11(11!; 'takiilia^lii, :;s7 -■' .-■'/. '. / ) ; LawrL'iicc. War and Xcut rality. So '•/ s.,/,;
I l-r-hi'V. lli; . -' -"I.: Sinirli X Sililcy. S_' -' v'-y. !
Case. Ill I1M)1. duniiii' the Rusxi-d ajni iic-c war. the steamshij)
■Maimiiii." Ilxiie^- llie liriii-li llai!'. wa- cjia n : tin I l)\ a IhanVli
w ar cor re -pond' iil . ciju i j)pe I with special a p pa i 'a In-, and t ln'r 'a I'ler
, \ uh-< tlii- v.a^ ilni iM -Aac! cf ..! 1 r. }! ,,i .r,s,,,. Iviw. llli t ! .
caieiuii: y,;- ,v. s ', II C. l!nlc 1.11. ') Ar;~. I, -l: and p. 171. ^ ',./-.
n. 1. I ' 1 lvc|ii'iMliiianu' a disri!>>i(iii ut' l!n-
'. 'i'h> I!' .>'■'! VAw . rl-- . i-a-c cciiraiia-d j;. /,,' ,,,,■■; ■ /.,.,■
,'■ rin Cnyni:,,. i\:\\U.\,. hil . .V, / -, - / ,„ , . . i'.icii, [nd.li-la'd liv rh-
I . S. N.aval C'.dl.--c.
452 Cases and Opinions on International Law.
employed, withiu tlie area of belligerent operations, for the pur-
pose of procuring- and forwarding information with respect to
the war. This information was sent from the vessel by wireless
telei:rai)h\ lo a reeeix'iug stulitju at Wci-ha-wci. and th 'iice tele-
graphed to The Times of London and Tlie Xe>r York Times over
neutral cables. The correspondent in question was accredited to
tlio Japanese headquarters and subject to all consequent restric-
tions. The ''Haimun' was at different times visited and
searelicMl by tlie warships of each of the belligerents, and in
particular by the Kussian cruiser "'Bayan,' which appears to
have made a careful examination of the ajjparatus on board. The
api^aratus used was capabb." not only of sending Jiiessages, but also
of intercepting messages sent by either l)elligerent: and, even
thougli such messages would ordinarily Ije in cipher, the infor-
mation so obtained miglit. it' improperly used, have materially in-
Ihienccd the conduct of hostilities [Qj. In these circumstances, on
the l-JLJi of April, an ollicial note Avas addressed by the Russian
(government both to Great Britain, the United States, and other
Powers, containing ihi' follo\vins>- intimation: — ''In case neutral
\"ess('ls, luiving on board correspondents, who ma\' communicate
news to the enemy by means of improved apparatus not yet pro-
vided for by the existing conventions, should be arresti d olf
Kwan-tung, or A\ithin the zone of opi.-rations of the Russian
ileet, such correspondents shall be regarded as spies, and tht.'
vfssels proxided with such apparatus shall be seized as lawful
[trize.'' Bolh (jreat Britain and the United States, however,
refused to accept this deelaratiim as being in conformity A\itli
tlie existim;' la\\'; and made' a formal reservation of their riejit-.
in. the event of thi.;ii- sabject^ or eitizeiiv }j .ing arrested or tiiei)'
vessels seized under this tleelaration. In the result, no furthe]'
aeii(in was taken in the matter by Rus-ia. But Ja[ian <hoi'llv
ai'tei'v.ard- iVirbad the " IFaimuii tu \)V()V'y\ nei'tli (jf a line drawn
be't^eeen ('liel'ee and ('hi'iiinipo.
Tlie claim im ireat th" I i'<i ii-nii-sinu et mii-1i jiie>.-ae'e'> a- <'.-piu!iae'e
\va< cl<.'arlv iinh'ten-ihle < h). Xor, ]>\ existing usage, euuld c.xcop-
lioii he taken, t-i the t raii-nii-si<.)n of wireless messages from the lu'e-li
ir!>-r>. p. KiO.
Unneutral IScrclce. 453
seas to neutral territory and thence by ordinary channels to some
other neulral destination; altli<jng-h in Tuture naval wars the trans-
mission of such messages from any point within the area of belli-
gerent operations may conceivably be subjected to restrictions akin
to those imposed in war on land (c). But if it had been shown that
information gained b}- the int-erception of messages had Ijeen com-
municated by those on board the Haininn directly to the enemy, this
would have l)een a hostile act, wliich woidd have justified the con-
demnation of both vessel and lier apparatus (V/). So, during the
same war. the ludu-^trir { e), a Cierman v<'sscl, was captured and
condemned by the .Japanese, on tlie ground that, although purporting
to be engaged in collecting war news for a newspaper at Chefoo, she
was really employed in watching the m()v(;ments of the Japanese
fleet and conveying military information in the interest of the enemy.
The various questions tliat may arise, in war. in connection with the
«sc of wii'oless telegraphy will be considcMcd hereafter (/).
(ill KX[.lSTMi:X1' IX THE IvXIlMY SKiiVlCK.
THE CASE OF THE " aUANG-NAM."
[190.5: Takahaslii, C'a^es, 73.5. J
Case.^ li. liJO-j, during the Husso-.JaixmGsc war, the "'Quang-
iiam, " a steamship belonging to a French compan}", shipped, at
Saigon, a cargo of spb'its, which she subsec{uentlv delivered to
the "Russian ;;(|uadron lying at Kanirnnh Bay. After leaving
the lattcj- placi' she proceiMfnl nduiinally (jn a voyage to Manilla,
without cargo, but in fact sliapml her coui'se between F'ormosa
and the Pescaihjres. after which she I'an into Hatto Channel,
where she was captured \i\ a -lapanese cruiser, and sent in for ad-
judication. Il appeared that the coiii'>e pursued by the vassel
was such as would enabh' those on board to obtain infoianalion
both as to the coastal defenci'S of .lajian and lhi_' movements of
the. .lapaiieve lleei : whilst, lln'i'' wa- also evideiici^ that she had
been -iippln'il at Saiu'on with <'oal Ifoiii the I'lU'-siaii depot. In
\iew of IJie-i- I'actv tlie \ e<sei wa< c.ond 'iiiiie I .
Judgment., It wa> ludd by the Sa>eho Prize C'lUirt, and
aftta'wai'ds b\ the ( 'ourt". of A])j)eal, that these I'acts went to show
((■) /,///(.', [). -ttilt. (/ ) Takaliaslii. 732.
ij/] //'/-■'/, p. t57-S. f) //,/■/". J). 1.59.
454 Cases and Opinions on International Laiv.
that the vessel had been chartered by the liussian Crovernment,
and that she had heen employed in the enemy service, both in
earrying' supplies to liis lleet and in reconnoitring- on his belialf.
all of Avhicli, according- to the rules of international law, justihed
her condemnation.
According to the British practice, which was liere followed by
the Japanese Courts, -where a neutral vessel is eliartered or
exclusively employed by the enemy Government for service con-
nected with the war, as tor carrying coal or stores to ib? fleet,
or is under the orders or control of that Government or its
officers, both vessel and cargo will ])e liable to condemnation (of).
Such a vessel Avill also remain liable to condemnation, even though
the service on Avhich she was immediately employed has come to an
end, so long as it is shown that she still remains subservient to the
purposes of the belligerent (?;). A neutral vessel which is in the
service of the belligerent and under his orders and control, may,
if found taking ])art in any military o])erations or in the immediate
vicinity of the enemy fleet, be sunh (c).
THE SEIZUHK OF EX4LMY IM^RSOXS OX XKUTRAL
VESSELS.
THE CASE OF THE "TRENT."
I 18(i2: Pari. Puikts. vol. Ixii.; Wlieatoii (Dana), tiil el sc(j. \
Case. J In 1861, during- the American civil war, the '' Trent,"'
a British mail steamer, was on a voyage from Havanna to X^assau
Avith mails and passengers. Amongst the passengers wt>re AL^ssrs.
Alasoji and Slidell, who were procei-ding as envoys From the
Southern Conrederacy to (Jreat Britain and Erauce. ^^dlen about
jrint; miles IVoiu the coast of Cuba, the " TnMil A\as hoarded by
the [jnit(>(l Slates warship "San daciiilo ": and. not w it hstanding
the protest of the Ib'itish commander, Messi-s. Mason and Sjiihdl
and their suite- wei'e talvcn out of the '' TriMit and can-iiMl in the
"San Jacinto as ])ris()ners to the 1 nitcd States. \\di(Mi these
('/; Sci' 7'/,r A'rArrr" ;'i Ai'ton, 1 19). |). 0: and, as to tlic cfVoct of uoii-
(h) I'lir enroll,,,' {■{ V. Udt. -IM). sul. mission. Thr Kni:-sl,r„,i I s„ ,,,■'>,
(c) Sec tiic th'itish Mcinoranduiii . p. 'is.'i^
Uiincidral Hcrvia'. 455
facH liciaiiie known, llic Britisli (ioviTuiiicnt made a porctn])! ory
(liMiiand I'oi' tlir iiiiincdial (' i'cl('a>,' of llir persons seized and I'ol' an
apoloav for iheii' eaptuic. In \ lew ol' lias deinand. in inakiiiii-
wliieli (ireat I>ritain had tlie siijjport ol' oilier i'owors ^c/i, the
I luted Slates (loveninienl iinderlook at once to release the
pi-isoiuas, who wei-e soon after plaeeil \)\ aiTane-enii'iit on IkjritI
a i)i'itisli warship, and eoincyed to Nassau, their oi'io'inal desti-
nation .
Controversy. In the corrospundeiiee which iMisiied on this
snhjeet. the I'liited Slates Cm)\ ('rnineiit re|)iidiated at the outse-t
any claim ol! rig-lit to take noxious person.-, wlietlLer rehels, crimi-
nals, or enemies, as such, from a neutral \'(>s.(d on iIk^ liiu-h seas.
It A\a-- eontendi'd. howcxer. that .Mi^s^rs. Mason and Slidell and
their d(>spatclies were to he regarded as eontrahand of 'war,
and on the same t'ootma' as na\'al and military per>()ns h : and
that this heiiig so. and the captain of the "San dacinto
having' aseiM'tained in the course ol' \'isit and search that the
'" Frcnt was earrxing eontrahand. it was his I'ielit and duty to
make the \essel prizi' and send her in for ad jiidieat ion. tilthouo'li
the fatf of |)ersons on hoard A\"ould reijiiire to be settled hy
diplomatic iiietho(U r . .\t the same time it was admitted that
the captain of the "San .laeinto." in I'elea-ini^' the vessel, whether
out of consideration foi' thi> passiaigcrs and mads or from want
of foi'i'c to Inanii' m hoi h \('>si>ls d . had taken a step which made
the detiMition of Me-sr>. Mason and Sjididl iiiiiustillable. and
the\ would therefore he liherati'd. In repiv to this despatch
the l>ntish (Government c pointed out that the olhce and charae-
ti'i' of the |)erson> detained w ei'c no! >iieii a> to make them
(//; ! iiiliidiim' {■"riiiKc, Ail^li'iii. iTally iicni cjii rlic t'dotin;^' i)f coiiri'U-
l'fii>.-i;i . Italv. and ixiissia. i)aii(l. the ('i)urts wcmld luno jiad a
( // , 111 ~a]i|)()rt of tlii< \'\i'\\ Yi-ii'V ri'Li'liI t" deal w irli tIiciii whicli. ad-
cni'c \va- riiadi' tn \'atli'l, wlin all^w- iiiitli'dly. was nut tlic case,
tiiat a liill'mcri'iit may liiiidcr Ids ( </ ■ TIk^ lattiT was appai'iMiI ly the
furiiiv ■" t'l-diii scndini;' in i iii^tcrs t(] true rca-un ; the caiitaiii and crew of
-olii-it r.-~i-ta ni-r " ; and al-'i to i-crtaiii '."'- /",.-,./ Iia\dnii' in la;r rcl'iwcd to
passai;'cs lontaincd in tin' jiidi^-incnt'- as-ist in wofkiiiu' rlio xcssid. if cap-
in I'hr (■,',■'<!':, I and ■/'/' O, ■',;,„.''-<,. a> tiiro<l.
to which sec '■;'/■,<.'. p. I.V). 11. '1. ;- .\ftcr the I'cdcasc. hut in oi'dci-
(r\ The (iitticulty as to this wa-^ to uuar<l aeain>r hciiie- su|>ih)S(h1 to
thai if the pers(uis in i|iiiwii(,ii luhl acipiie-ce in rhe AnuM-iian couteritioii .
4-ji) (\(i<cs (iiul 0/miioN-s on I ittrrnafiinKd Lmv.
(■()iitr;ibaiul, I'ur the rca;>uu that ncuti'al Stales had admilVodly
a I'iglit to iiiaiiilaiu friendly relations in time of Avar Avith both
hcUigcrcnts. and that, in viow of the reeogiiition of the belli-
gcruney of the Confederacy, neutrals must be deemed to have
similar interest in the maintenance of comnnuiication with that
body, and a oonse(|U('nt right to carry ils ])ublic agents, not
having a military character, -without any breach oi; neutrality (/^ :
and. further, that ]io autliority could be found gi^■ing counten-
ance to the ]:)ro])Osition that persons and despatches, when in a
neutral vessel and on a voyage to a neutral port, couhl ever be
seized as contraband 'cf, .
Alike in its viiidicatiou of the right of neutrals to niiiintain coni-
nuinicatiou with and even to carrv the public agents of an acknow-
ledged belligerent; and in it^ contention that the carriage by a neutral
vessel even of enemy persons or despatches on a genuine neutral
destination could not be treated as a carriage of contraband (7?), the
Bi'itish statement ap[)ears to accord with the existing law u). It Avas
further recognized l)y botli jiarties, that, under the law as it then
olitained, a public vessel had no right to seize and remov(^ noxious
persons, whether enemies or re1)els. found oii board a neutral vessel:
although at the [)resent time the seizure and removal from neutral
vessels of ])ersons belonging to the armed forces of the enemy is, as
wc sliall see. nnder i-ertain circumstances sanctioned hv Con-
\ eution ( / 1.
(irxKiJAr XoTKs. V inicatriil (tml Ilosfilc Service-^ ~^y the iJecla-
laiion (if r>ondon. 1909, eases of unneutral service are divided into
i\\(i clashes. a<:cordinL;' to the gravity of the acts charged. Tliese,
I'nv ihe pni'|)()ses of distiiicticin. we may convenituitly desio-nate as
iimieuiral'' and " hoslile '' service respectively (//n. The lii'st
i-(j\ei'> ease,-., in wliich tlie seivici^ is cudy ])artial: as where a iiemral
\('Sv(il j^ <MiL:'ai;'ed Uj carry jnililary persons or despatclie- concur-
reniU' with other eiiiploymeut of an innocent character. In such
cases ihc A'<'>sel in (piestion is to lie ti'cated in the same inaniier a.s
( /) It was also jioiiited out tliat, (r/i .Sre J .I'ttcrs of J [istoi'icus, 1S7--
ihc divtnni of Sir W. S(-)ir in T/:r ] »s'.
('(iiiiliiir y'i/j,ii. |i]i. -l.")!. II. (V). 1.")")) A) TllC coiitriitioii ill tlir case uf
had iKi rcfiTciici' to tlic ca<r of all tlic 'I'liiii tliat tiic olijccl (.f tin'
aiiilia^sadur to a neutral State on mission rendered the destiiiarion hns-
liiiard a neutral \essel: and that the tile was. on tlic face c)t' it. ii iitenahle.
easr. ,,f Thr (),n-_,,,ihn ,w//,/r/. p. 147; ('.) See J[all. OS;),
was altiiLj'ether di-tinct as she was vir- /) liJic. ]). t.")S.
tu.'illy found to have been enL''ae-ed as (///) Althoutrh the 1 )e(daratioii itself
.111 eiieniv traiisjiort. iiKdudes both under /V'x.v;,v/rt,,^>,>
Unnculrdl Service. 407
a nouhal \(><s('l (Mi<^au-('(1 in tlic cari'ia'i'c of (mjuI raljaiui. In (>ll'oct,
ylie l)Oc<)iiH"< lialilc hi sci/iirc, and on |n'i)ol' of ^-iiill, to condem-
naiidii: iiui she still retains ]i(!r cliMracUn' as a neutral vessel. \\\\\\
llic ic.-nll ihal lliv llai;' will coxci- ciicinx' ti'nods on hoard, ami that
slir caniK.)! Ik' di'-t id\ cii <'\c('|)t in cii'Laini-tain'Cs that Avill ordinarily
jnsiil'\- the (jc^ti'nct ion ot' a ji;'utral j)ri/.<j, and wilJi the like con-
se(|nence-- ( ;n : whilst, as in cases of coiit I'a hand, her liahiliiy will
en<l with the ooinphjtion of the sorviee. TJio second covers cas<\s
where ili<' i'lnploynient oi' (niu-au'Cinent in ili(! enemy service is com-
plete and exclusive: as whei'c a neutral vessel is chartereil foi' eiuMny
1rans|)oit or other sinular ser\ico. In such cases the vessel in (|U(.\stion
is to !»(> treated as an eniMUv vess(d. Tn (dl'ect . she not oid\- hecoines
liahh' to condeinnation on proof of unilt. hut her flau' will no lon^'er
he (hnnned to ci:)ver the j.;'(.)i}ds nn hoard, winch will he presumed to
he enemy prop(M'ty lo); whilst she nia\' also h:- desj|()\fvl under the
same eomlitiouv a^ mi encm\- v(>ssel'/y). \e\ erl heles<. e\('n in this
('a.s(\ the v<>ssel will so far retain her neutral ipnditv as to entitle
liei' to appeal in that character tn the I niei-nat ional Pvi/*^ ('ourtic/i.
i. j I' II in'iil iiil Sr)ri({'ir<. A neutral ^■<^ss(d will he (hnnued to
he unilt \' of unneutial scr\ ice in the si>u<(.' an<l with tli(» con-
scMpUMices aiio\<' <h>-rril)ed I .s' I in tlH> t'ollowinii' ca.-es; (1) If she is
on a \'o\a'_;e speciallv undertaken witli a view to either la i the trans-
port of individual passcn^ier.- who are emhodied in the artned forces
of the <Miem\ ^ / -. although this will not cover the cas<' of |)or.sons
^\llo are inei'<d\ i-eiurninu to the <Miemv countrv foi' rhe purpose of
]iei'forminL; the iidlilar\ ser\'ice reijuired of tliem under the domestic
lawi >('■. (ir I 1)1 the tra nsinis>i(ui of intelligence in the interest of th<^
enemy i,r . The meaniiiL;- of "a \'oyai;'e speciallv undei'iaken, '
u|)pears \n ho that llic <<M'\ii'e i- nut in the ordinai'X' oi- usual course
of the \-e--v(d'^ emplo\ nanit. as wheic <he dixcrue- frnm liei" couise. or
touclies at a poit not u^ualK" called at. in order to fullil it. P>ut in
eitluM- ca<(> the ser\icc. in order to involve the \ (^ss(d in unilt. must be
r(>ndered kiiowiiiLidy. alt hon^-h it uimmI not he an e\ch|vj\|. ser\ ice ( //).
(2) If she i^ to tJH' kiiMwlcdue of the owner, the (diarlorru', or the
inastfM'. euLiaLi'ed in t ran^pon i nu' either 'ai a militai\ detaclunent
of the enem\ ; <ir ih- one m' mine per-on< whu in the cnurse of flip
vo\aiie dii(>ctl\- a^^i^t the operations of the (M)em\ i"'. In thi^ case
l<nowleduc of ihi' nature <<( th-' -.i'r\ice wduld he pie^un,"d if the
]ier-on-^ cai'rie{| were in iniilHrm. luit oiherwis'- it wuidd he lur the
captor to iM'Ove tin>'(/i. In -iich ca>e> proof nf uudl '-\ill inx'olve
}nit rtidv the v(\ssol h<'rself. hut al<M aii\ unod> mi lioard iid' uiui nu'
',.) Iriyi. ji. tSii-7. ("! Sco Report, Poarco HiL'-2-in«,
D) Sec rlic DcclaiMticii of l.diidiiii. 5iM.
Art. 59: s„„,„. ,,. 1(1-. ( ,, yrf. 15.
/' ) li'h'f. p. IS5.
IV, ScO II. C. \n. \-l nf i<)07.
.\rt-. :;. t: iiiul ,^",,,,., p. idti.
(r) Art. t5.
Sec Iveport. L'earce Iliiririiis,
\< liv -i-'iialliiin-: -^(>c Art. (5
(x) Sii /,,':. II. t.")(). ", Sec Ivepiii-r. learec lliu'o-ui
ff) Art. 15 ' '^'■^■^.
408 Cases and Opinions on International Law.
lo tlie same owners, whilst the enemy persons mav also be detained
a-' prisoners of war^^j. But here, as in other cases of partial
service, the liability of the vessel will cease when the service has
been di^cluutied > c- 1. Xor will such a lialjility be incurred if the
vessel is tMu-uuutered at sea whilst .still unaware of the outbreak of
hostiliti(^>. or if after learning' this the master had no opportunity
of diseuibarkino- his ])assengers. But io-norance of the war cannot
be set up if the vessel left an enemy port subse.cpiently to the out-
break of h<_)stilities. or if she left a neutral port subsecpiently io their
notilicatiui! to the territorial Power, pro-sicled that this Avas made in
snfiicieii* time for the vessel to receive it u/ K
fii. ' Hostile Service. — A neutral vessel will be deemed to be fi'uilty
of "liostilo service.' in the sense and with the consecpiences above
descriljed ^ e >. in the following- eases: (1 ) If she lakes any direct part
in hostilities, in which case she will be subject to all incidental
risks. ivikL also to condemnation as enemy ])roperty if captuied.
(2) If she is under the orders or control of an agent placed on
board by the eneuiy (Government, this being deemed to mark hei-
sidjserviency to eneiuy pttrposes. ( 3 < If she is in the exclusive em-
])loymeijt <<( the enemj- (.Tovermnent. as where she is chartered for
carrving coal to the enemy fleet. i4i If she is at the time of cap-
ture, exclusively (Unvoted to la) the transport of en(Muv troops; or
(b) the transmissiou i>f intelligence in the interest of the (uienivifi;
in Ijoth of Avhicli cases she will continue liatde as long as the relation
lasts, even though not actually engaged in such service at the time
of capture I 71. Proof of guilt will here again entail not only the
condemjiation of tlie vesseL but also that of au\ cargo on board
belonging t(j the same owners 1 /; 1.
I'he Seizure on Xeufral Vessels of Persons beloin/inf/ to tlie Anned
Forces of the Enerni/. — According to the British view of tlie rus-
tomury law. which appears in the Treiit corres])ond(uiee to ha\'(> beiuL
eipially admitted by the L'jiited States, a belligerent warship had ji<>
right to remove enemy persons found (Ui board a neutral vessel on the-
high sea. but only a right, in cases of rea-onabl(> vu^picion. to s(>nd
the vessel in for adjudication. And thi- ma\ now prrihaiih' be
regarded as an accojited rrde. subje(-t onlv to c(Mlain (pnililications
s(>t up b\ ( 'onventi(_in, (Jf tliese the lirst is that s(>t up by the Hague
('omcntion. Xo. 10 of 1007. which, as we ha\'e seen, authoiizo tlie
seizure by a 1)elligerent of enemv sidv or wounded found on bnard
neuti-al hos])ital sliips or merchant shi]is i /). 'rhe si^cund is contained
in the Declaration of London. 1909. which ])rovides that anv individual
embodi(>d in the arjn(>d forctvs of the eneni\ who is found on Ixiard
a ncntra! nici-chani \"e^^el nia\' be undo pii>oiier n^ war. (>\'cn iIimul;1i
59G.
(A) .Vrt. -Iti.
1) .\rt. 12; altlinuL;li threat liritain
lias i-atitic'd the CoiMcotion under
i'esei'\-e nt the I )eehi ra t ii iri ali'eady re-
rin-. ferred tc. p. 12o, ---"in".
i // ) See
i;e,
xii-r.
ih;,
/. .)95
i,-) See
tie.
lort.
:i,',,
/. .);)!
{'/) Art.
1.')
r, S,^/,,
.. l.')7
n Art.
t(i'
■ ,1 i , 1
'- 1
1. 1(11).
a,) See
H(
'[)ort.
1'.
■ai'ce
UiuK'nh'iil Scrvici
V>\\-
llicii' 1)0 \u) ^■roiind i'or tiic cupliu'c oi the vessel (7,'j. This rig'lif,
il will lie x't'ii. i> cDiiliiied t(i pci'soiis :icniali_\ ' oiiiliodied in the
ariuecl t'cnce-' of the eiiemv.' and would ikjI I'Xieiid to ])<'l\--oiis in civiL
eiiij)lu_viueul . oi- iiiciciv on tlu'ir way to tak*' n[) niilitai'v s<ivii:e.
Xeveitlndess it couslilutes a seri<jus eueroatdinieut on the Britisli posi-
tion i / 1 ; alt hoiig'h not wit lioni -onie jii>tilii'at ion I'l'oin t he point of view
of piiin'i[)le and e(nn enienic-. From the foinier staiid[)oinf it may
peiliaps lie jnstilied on the gronnd that such poisons are pliysically in
tlie poAver of the beliiuerent and more noxious to liini than contraband;
and, from tlie latter, ow the ii'round that it will sa\(' neutral \essols. and
es|)ecial]y lar^-e passenj^-er sicaniei's. which mav have on hoard in-
di\iduals helonying- to the armerl forces of a iKdliu'crent , whose status
was po>silily unsuspected, from the cosily incon\ ('iiience of being
taken Ix'fore a Prize ( 'ourt and there detained perha])s for a long'
period, as might coju-tuvably ha])pen uiidei' the ensiomary law (w K
But it woidd manifestly be an international dcdiiupuMicy of a
serious kind for a ludligerent to (wenise th(> right except on
clear proof of the military character of the pc'rson seized i;n.
In January. 19112. durinu' tlio Turco-llaliaii Avar, the Manoiiha. a
Fi'cnch mail steamer, was seized by an Italian cruisei'. A\hilst on a.
xtiyag-e from Marscdiles to Tunis, and seni into ( agliari. She had
ou board at \\w time a number of 'J'urkish passeng-ej's. who ( lainied
to he in th(^ s(M\'ic(^ of the Red Crescent but were alleged I»y
the ca|itoi- to be comiiatant olliciu's then on their way to the theatre
of war. In tin' result, and on the ])rotest of the Fi'ench dovernmont,
the \('sstd Avas released and the ])ass(Mia'(U's in (piestion handed
o\<'r to the French consul, on the ujiderstanding' that iin^uiry should
be mad(^ into their true cliaiactei- and that if found to i)e cond»atants
th<'\ >|]i'iil<l be prevenied fioin ci'ossing the Tunisian fi'ontier inio
Tiipoli. wliil~,i thi> (pu'siion of compensation for the seizure of the
\(>s<(.| w a^ i-eser\-(>d.
(^hi( slioiis 'iiisiitf/ (II (■(nuK'rHo// fitii the Ise of W irelcsx Tcle-
gnijih//. riiis in\('nti(m. like that of aerial iiavii^ation ( o i. has
gi\en li-e to a \ariety of lu'w (|uestion< in inl(>rnational law.
some of which still remain iiirsdlx ed i oo i. These include: ( It The
qiH'-timi of the liulil of a belliucu'cnl to ei'cct ami use an in-
stallation of thi- kind on neutral tei'rilorx !/y). Thi<. if a! any
time oj)en to doubt, i^ now <ei at res! b\ the IIai;-ue (/onxcn-
tion. Xo. -") of ]!HI7. \\hi(h (>x|ire^s|\ forbid- its exercise bv a
belligcrciii. or its allowani-e by ueuiraN r/ i . . i' i Tlr' .(lu'stion of
wiicthci- lli<> u-e of wirele-s ieleura|ih\' in ci rcunislances siinihii' to
tho-c of I he U III mini ■ /' i. 'M n be aciou nied a- espionage. A- to 1 hi-
I /■) .\vx. 47: .v'V""- ]'• tni.
( / .\s taken u|) in tlir T , i ,,i iiin-
rnncr-y. .v-'/"". |'- t'ld : .iml .-it tlir
i'c:;cr ( 'nil fci-cllcr. .v '//, -'. |i. I 'Jo.
^ -,. 1 Sec I'arl. Piipcr-. .\li-c. \u. 1
I lltOil ). |i. !)S.
(,r) Ih'nt. its.
(O) .\.- t(i whii'h .-ce \(il. i. Kltl.
n. (/.•).
(nc) \> tu rill' rules fnniiulatiMl en
this siilijcrt ill 1901 hy tin- Iii-titiitL-
(if I iitcriuitiiiiial Law. ^c' ..'.../"'.'. r,
x.\i. .'i'JT.
I // I .V- i iidi'cd (i.-riiiTi' 1 i! iiri w-s t he
Iv'us.-ii-.lajia iic-i' war: ■■';" ■ p- -!•!'.
11, "1.
y-i Sec .\rt-. :;. 1.
■/) s.,i,..-,, ,,. .1.-,!.
4(i0 C((S(\s (ind (Jj)iiiiou>i on lidcrndlional Law.
it has alr(M<ly bot'ii poimecl out tluil the (•hum to iroat tho .sciidiii<>' oi
iiu>ssa|;-('8 hy war coi'iTspoiKlouts to neutral couutrios for public iu-
formatiou as espionage is altog'iUliei' ujiwamiutablc (^.s'). ( -'] ) 'i'lie
questiou ol tlie liability incurred by the iiitorception at sea of wire-
loss inessagos .sent \)\ one bollig-eront and their conununication to tlie
other (^/\ or b>- the ti'ansniission of false messages. Such acts if
done by tlie enemy Avould, of course, be quit(* h^gitimate; and, if done
openly, could not lawfully be ti'eated as espionage («). If done on a
neutral ])rivate vess(d they Avould amount to "■ uniteutral "' or '' hostile "
service, according to tlie nature of tin; employment, and would then
involve I lie })eiialti(>s attaching to those foi'ms of service rosjiec-
tively ( 7^\ If done on a neutral warshi)). they would constitute a
br(\acli of neutral duty, for which reparation and tho punishment of
the olfenders might be demande(_l. (4) '^Fhe ({uestion of the
us(> of wireless teh^graphy by a neutral vessel for ihi> i)ur])ose
of communicating with a blockaded port in a niatlei' alfeeting
the operations of war. Such a pi'ocecxling would apjK'ar to constitute
either a violation of the blockad(% or an act of "' uniunitral "" service,
and would in any case be a lawful ground for condemnation (.r ).
(5) Finally, there is the ({U(!stion of tin; light of belligerents to
prevent neutral jirivate v(>ssels, on the high seas but within the
sphere of belligerent ojierations, from using such apparatus for the
conveying of geneial news. As to this, no such right is so far estab-
lished (//), but tho imposing of restrictions similar to those attaching
to war correspondence on land Avould ap[)(>ar to be warrantable both
by reason of the necessities of the case and in the light of existing
analogies t~). In ell'ect. this would mean a right to exclude such
vessels from an area to Ik^ deliiKul, although capable of A'ariation by
notice, except on condition of being licensed and of opcM'ating under
the direction and control of th(> belligerent granting tlu^ license.
'niE CMUiYIMi ().\ jn Xia ThWLS OF A Th'ADK
CLOSED TO TIIEM / X PEAf E.
THE "IMMANUEL."
|17!l!t: 2 ('. ]\(>1). isti; 'I'lidof. LcadiiiL;' Cases in Maritime Law. !»ts.|
Case. ill 17!)!), during war between (!i-eat i)ri_1aiii and I*' ranee,
the " I iiiniaiiuoj." a llainbui'g slii]), was captui'ed by tin' British
(x) Sci' II. H. l!(l : and )). l.")2. .'■; ////'/.
supra. 'ID Altliouu-Ji in I'aet exei-eised ()y
(/) i""(ir desjiite, the ns(^ H)f ei])lier .lapan in the; ease of tlie lltrimun:
niiicli daina^'ini;' in r(ii-inafii)ii may l)e ■■<'//>r'i. ji. t.")2.
gained. " w.) Sn/n-f. |)|). 1)7, JO(i, -Jti.). 'ifiil ;
// ) ,S//,;,v/. j). (111. and i'iiillipson. Studies in fiiti^r-
r) ,s\i,i,'". ]>. t.")7-S. national Law, 1(1.) /f f^'ij.
\\
Tlie iUimjinti on of a I'radc closed in Peace, 461
lilst on a voyuj^u JJoui llaiuburg to St. J)oiiuiig'o. Slic had,
lio\\e\er, toueluHl in her voyage at Bordeaux, wliere she sohl part
i)J* the goods brought l!roni Hanihurg and took on board a
quantity of other goods for St. Domingo. Condenmation of
both sliip and cargo ^vas sought by the eaptors on the ground
that the vessel was in fact carrying on a trade between France
and one of her colonies. Various (|ueslions were raised in tbc
course of the case, but the main issue was whether the engaging
b\ neutrals in a direct trade between the enemy country and
its colonies was to be regarded as ilh'gal and as a ground for coii-
iiscation. In the result tlu^ cargo takt'n in at Bordeaux was con-
demned: but the vessel, in view oL' th(^ considerations referred to
in tlie judgment, was r(^store(L although subject to loss of freight
and expenses.
Judgment. Sir \\'. Scott, in Jiis judgment, statech in ell'ect,
that on the breaking out oL' war neutrals had a right to C!irry on
their accustomed trade, except trade to blockadc^d places or in con-
traband articles, and subject to visit and search. But it was a
\ery dit'ferent thing for the neutral to engage in a trade not
pi'eviou.sly o])en to liim, to which he had no title in time of peace,
and ^^"hich in I'a.et he could obtain in war by no other title than
tbe success of oni> bellii;('r(>ni au'aiust th^' other and at the former's
expense. Tlu^ C()l(.)nial trade was of such a character, it b;ung
in general conhned to t;]ie motlirr coiintr\ to winch the colony
belonu'i^d: tlius allordini^- to tbe mother e(.)untry at once a market
f()!' her own I'onunodities and a sui)j)l\" of those furnished by the
colony. The otlu'r l)elligerent, moreover, had a riudit to ])ossess
himselJ' of such colonies il' he could, ami a superiority at s(>a and
the euttiniz' oh of outside supplies helped him greatl\' to tliis end.
1 ndei' such circumstances what riii'ht bad a neutral, who had no
existing interest' in such trade, to st('|) in and ])revent the exe-
(iitioi! of tbc bellii^crenl - jMirooM' b\ si'iidini;' suppli '> to and
ex])ortinu' products from sucji a cobuiN? Xeuti'als had. in fact,
no null! to inlrude into a commerce wliicli had bei'n unitOnnh
(dosed auainst lliem. and which was now forced open oid\ b\
the prcs^-iire of the \\\w . Mon'oxci'. e\en if such trade waslegalh'
(i[)eiie(l lip to neutral-^ ilurim;' the war. the force of lone'-estab-
462 Cases and Opinions on International Laiv.
lisliL'd oounectiou would still have the effect of preserving' it for
a lonf.' time to the mother country. It was upon these and other
grounds that an instruction had been issued for the purpose of
preventing the eonununieation of neutrals with the colonies of
the enemy: and thi-- ^^as, no douht, intended to be carried into effect
on the same footing as the prohibition enforced in the war of 170ti.
The importation by a neutral of the manufactures of the enemy
into liis own country and their subsequent export to an enemy
•■olony, or the converse of this as regards colonial products, rested
after all on a different footing; for in either of such cases the
si'oods became a part of the stock of the neutral country, and only
reached the enemy subject to proportionable disadvantage. It
was true that variations of commercial policy often occurred in
lime of peace, but such measures differed from tlie i)resent as
not being undertaken in relief of pressure^ resulting from the
war. Hence in tlie present case, the goods slii])ped at Bordeaux,
even though neutral propei'ty. must be treated as subject to confis-
cation, as being engaged in a <lirect trade between the enemy
countr}- and its colony. Xor was tliere any distinction between
an outward and a return voyage, hint as r(>gards the shi}). this,
'■ven though it belongi'd to the same owners as the cargo, would,
m viev.- of tbe fact tliat the case was one \vliere a neutral misi'ht
more easily misapprehend the extent of his rights, and had to
act, moreover, witlnnit notice of former di^cisions on the subject,
be restored subject to a forfi-iture of frei^'lit and <'X])enM^s 'a. .
Tin.' I)riti--]i practice willi i<'-))ect to iJ](^ Jijibilif\- iii(iiiic([ l)^
iiciitral> Avho I'uoa^-e m rime <<( war in a trade closed to tliom in
lime of ])eace. has varied -omeAvliar liotli as rec'ards tlie altitude taken
ii]t hy tlie lioveriiment i h i and tlu' d(M-isi(Mis of tin:" Courts. Troadlv.
tlieie are vlu'ce |r>rnis of i-c-iric(ion that need to lie iioticcd: fl i The
tii-t i- tliat Avhii-h is commonly laiown as ■'tlie rule of the v, af of
1 7e() " ir-i. Dining tliat war. i-'rani-e. hnding hei-elf iinahle bv rea-
son of Ihiii-h mai'iiinie superiority to maintain her trade wlih hor
'"I 'i'lic illcu-iilitv of -iicli veyat^'cs ])iii'c-r will l>c found in _Pliill, iii. :]S.').
\\",i- Mihscqiicntfv Ic'ld hy the Lord- of iiiid an .■inalv>i< of rlicin in ilailcck,
.\[.pcal to atlarli a- -trcnu'lv to tin? ii. :!lll. n,
-l;|. a.- to rlic c:o'--ii: -(■-■ '/'/■'■ )'n,,,,' ih) In tlic i n-rructions i^-ncd to
!'! nnnK-; ( ?, ('. Koli. -IWl . I;. J. Anciui- tlic n u \" a I l'oi-;-c~.
n:''Mlion of rill' |i'a<linL;' ra<i'< on tlii-; \r. AllliouL'-li iwallv older.
-,'i^"/t from PrJrchard'v Adni ii-alr\-
Till' (^(irr/jiiH/ on of a Trade closed ui Peace. MY-)
'•olmiics. wliicli had liillicrlo liccii <!\clii>i\('ly uoiiliiiod lu I'']T'ik;1i
siili|(>i'is nnd \('s^('l-.. allnwed the Diilcli, who wf'i'C llicn liciiHal. 1o
cari\ oil thai hade iiiiih'i- special ln-ciicc. other iiciilrals hcin'^- cx-
iliidi'il. Ill thc^c iMiiiiiii^ta me-- the I>riti-<li ( iuveniiiiciil. niai iitaiiKMl
-anil ih<' ( oiiiis atliiiiH'(| ihi-; \'ii>\\ that such a ti'uih' was ilh'Li'al;
with the result thai Dutch Ncssel-- >o (Mii|)lin'e(l \v<>r(> seized and
coiideiiined. ioL:'eth<'r with t heir ca r^oes. on the i^'roiiiid that they had
\iriiiall\ liecoiiie i iicorporaled in the iiK'rcaiitiK' marine of the
eiKMiiyi, (/ ). 'idle pri iici[ih' on which t he ( oiiris lie re |iroc(.'e(h'<i was tliat
w here neiit rals in t inie ol' war l)\ >|)ecia I i i id ii licence eii^-a<_!'e in a ]utrel v
national coinineix'i! iroin which the\ were prexioiisly exelud(>d tli(3y
necessarily iKM'oine inipr<\ssed with a liosiil(> cluiracU'r. Tins ride
appears to \)o perl'ecllx' ie<iitinial<' in principle, and Jiiiu'ht rie'Jitly
he enforced under similar conditions if th(>se should recnriri. The
inl(> was iioi. howfwer, <MitV)i'co<l in the war with I'^raiice which Ijroke
'Hit in I77S; apparently on the ui'oiind tliat France had pi'evioiislv
opened up her traile with the W'oi Indian colonies to all neutrals;
although this apj)ear> lo lia\e lieen done only in a nt ici])al ion of the
war. and althoiiL;h tin' iiKjiiopidx wa^ in I'aci re-e-.ta Id islidl at'ti'r
I li(> war had come to a ii <'iid ^ / i.
I 12 1 In 1 7'.»o this lestrii-rion wa-- <'arried --oniewlial I'lirtluM'. IJuriii2:
iliat war i-'i'aiici' auain opened up her colonial trad(!. Imt on this
occa--ion to all neiiiials wiihoiii dislinctioii and without special
licence. (!r<'a1 Ilrilain. ne\ ort Indesv. inainiain(><| that wlrere anv
irad" which w a.> pre\ion<l\- a national nnniopoly wa.s thrown open by
a l)(dliu'eren! inulor pi'e<-iire ot' tin' wai'. nenti'als h\' enc'au'inu' in it
\ irinally intervened in ila^ war in aid ol' mie lieljiuereiit ,nid to tlie
prejndic(^ of the othei', wilh the re-iilt f>i renderini^' their \cssels and
prop(M'ty (Miiharked in sin-ji traih' liahle to ca])fiire and confiscation,
ddiis rule, which is someiimes de>i<_:'iia1<>d "(he riih^ ot i71i-"). was
(Mil'orced throiif.vlioiit the l\(>\(jliit iona ly war,^. it was. in its extended
iorm. ap])liei| to a pariicipation l)\ neutrals ])Olh in a ])revioii~;| v
e\c|n>i\-c colonial iradi". tor the ri'asons leaven in the iud'jinent;
a Ircad \' retei red to ;/ i ; and in a ]n-evio!is|\- <.\clnsi ve coast i iil:' i rade.
on I lie Li'roiind o|' "' i he idteci i\-e accomniodit ion '" w liich lie' caia \dn Li-
on ,.i -nch a trade, diiriim' his own disahiliiw alloi'ded 'o jjie
ciiciiix 1 // I. M\(Mi a- llins exteiidi'd. the rule, altlioii^-h t!ie ^idiject
Mt niiich emit ro\ (M-\ . appear- to lie len-iiiniaic m pri ic-ipl.' ; lor the
rea-oii that neutrals. li\' eii'^'ai!'! iil:' in what was pre\ioii-l\" pureh'
national trad*' thrown open onlv liv n\i>o]! o|' lndl iuereiil pre^-iu'e.
./ , Sec \\ liiMtuii . l):ni:ii. iiti^i rt laxatiuii arc referred to in rlie jiidi:--
w,,..- Iljlleek, ii. :lll| .' x-y..- /,V,v■;^v i;;rMt ill the e;i>c , ) f .77.- A',..-,' / (1
■ . /,' • /. ■■ i 1 W". i;i. :;i:; : i:. :/.,>. , v. C iini). -I'm^).
'//;, . : 1 11. !;|. Km ; -,-1, '-.e- ;e: " Se- 77- hr,,,.' • ■• ' J C. llnl).
.■Itleai|ir to exleiid the I'eM r iet i o 1| Isii,. p. l(il-'J. -■'/'■"•
whieh v,-.-i< oMoaMdeil l,v tlie l.,,r(N of i/, I y/., i:,.,n,.,,,l I C. i;,,!,. -(Ml :
\, ,[.,;.!. 77' '/'-7 r/,'\/-.., . liin--e!l. rr. U.!.:,.^,! ,1 C. i;,,',. \-i-l: 77-
■jl',;i. 7o/, /,,,,„ Tl,,,], ,, (i; ('. i;,,h. :■_' :. ;,:-
r ) l,^i,' . |i. I('p.")-i;. thollL;'h liei'c I'al-e ji,i[jei-< w.'I''- ll^ed.
I / 1 The ei reiiiii-I a iiee~ ot' this i-e-
404 Cases and Opinions on Jn/eriiafional Law.
aiul bv canviiiu' uu in I'act i'ui' one hellig-t'rciil a trade wliich lie can
no Idn^icr cairv (m Tor hini-^ell', rolio\t> lam aj^-ainst the consequences
ol' Avar and thus identity tlioinselxes witli him in interest i/). Witliin
tliesc linuis. and so lon_u' as contined to a direct colonial trade or a
genuine^ i-oa-tinu' trade lA'j, the rule has ih;' a[)|)roval of a consider-
able l)od\ of juristic opinion ((}. At the same time, even within these
linuts its international validitv is not un(iuestioued; whilst even
under the Ihiiish practice it is not invariably enforced (»i-'). 80 far
as reflates (o the colonial trade, indeed, the question has lost much of
its importance, by reason of the fact that the colonial trade has now
beiMi largely, although not universally (n). opent'd up to foreigners
li\- States having colonial possessions. But so far as ]'olates to the
cnasting tiiule. this, although noAv o^icned up by Great Britain (o),
is still maintained as an exchisive trade by other States (']>): and
JHMO the ((U(>stion of the inteiaiat ional validity of the rule may still
present itself for (hvisinn. Its t'xtension by the "doctrine of con-
tinuous voyages'' will be dealt v.ith liereafter ( g 1.
(3) Fiiuilly it needs to be remarked that, foi' a short time(>-).
similar restrictions were applied by C^reat Biitain to the carrying on
\\\ neuti'als of a trade betweiMi their own country and an enemy
ct)lonv, and also of a trade between did'erent ports of the enemy
countrv e\en though with a cargo brought from a neutral country (^^.9).
But such ri^strictions are now admitted to have been irregular, ami
are not likelv to be revived (/ 1.
c;i:nki{.\i. Xotks. — The Eight of Seiitid/.'^ to oujage in u Trade
closed to ilioii iu Peace.- -Tlifd question of the general validity of
('■) i>at SCO Wcstlake, ii. 2.54. of tiic J '(H'laration tif Pai-is. as tu
(/■; Tliat is, a carrying of belli- wliicli sec iiiirc p. 46.3.
gcreiit goods between belligerent (/,j So. trade between the Inited
]5orts. as distinct from a carrying of States and her over-sea dependencies
neutral got)ds lu two or jnore belli- is confined to national vessels ; whilst a.
i;'creut ports in succession. similar reservation is made by l''ranc(<
(/) J5oth Uritish and American, and as regartls trade between French and
to Ji smaller c.Ktcnt Continental, see Algerian ports; and hj iUissia as re-
llall, G34, n. Whcaton (Dana), 6GG. gards trade between her Baltic ports
apjjcars to ojipose any extension be- and Adadivostock.
vond the original limits. The opinion 1^0) \'i ^ 18 Met. c. 5: and jiow
i)f Story. .].^ \n its favour is cited in 39 .V 40 Vict. c. 3li, ss. 140, 141.
ilallcck". ii. 30s. On tlic (piestion of (ji) A< by tlie L'nit(Hl States.
]iracrice. sec ;,,/,■". y. Hw. ('/) /"/" 11'://!", n [5 V. l?ob. 38.)):
/„ ) 'I'he l'>i'iri<!i .\huiual of Xa\al i,,i,r/. p. KKl.
Prize Law. jsss. cx|jr(---!y dircc-tcd (;■) l'>y in-n'uctidus i>sued soon a ftci'
that tlie vulr juiihibitinu- neutral the commencement of th(> war of 1 7;t3.
\e>sels from eiiL:-,-[L;iiiiv in a trade but afterwards relaxed by the insliaic-
clo-cd to them ill time of peai'c tions of 1794 and 1798:' see Ilallcck.
>hoiild not be ciifoi-rrd except und(>r ii. 303 r/ s,,/.
.-jjccial ii;<tnii-tioii< : sec Art. Ill, ( .■- . .\s (]i>tinct from a earrvini;' of
wliieli al-o states that its operation enemy goods between enemy ports.
\\oul(l 111- interfered with Ity Art. 2 (/)'See I'hiU. iii. 383 rV /ry.
The Carru'DKj on of d Traae cloned in Vence. 4(i-">
tli(* I'lilo wliicli [)rcclude.s neiilrals from (;u^ii^iii<^' in a I rude clo.sed
lo lliciii in peace liul (([xmumI to thcin aw or al'tci' the oiitlncjak (jf war.
mav still arise with resp(M-t to the eoastini;- ti'ade, which is e\'en now
often reserved to nationals, and the colonial tiade. which is (jcca^ion-
allv so I'esei'ved ( /M. Xoi' does its validit\' appear lo he affected In"
All. 2 of the J)ec]ai'at ion of l'arisi,/'i; for, if the ride is (^thei'wise
well-founded. It can scarcely ii(> claimed that the protection of the
iHMitral Uau' e\t(Miils eithei- to xcssels which liaNC realK Idrfeitcd their
claim to the neutral character \)\ idi'nt if \ inu' them-elves with the
eneniv(//), or to <i'oods fonnd thereon which ai'c en^-a<4'ed in an nn-
lawfnl tratlic (_-- ). (Jn the occasion of the .\a\ al ( 'on fei'cnce, l!»0(S-*l. it
was pro])ose(l that, neutral vessels eni;ai;in^' with the sanction of the
enemv (oneinment in a trade ojienefl to them aft.er or within two
moiiilis liefiire the outbreak of war, should he lialjlo to be treated a.s
enemv \e>sels; but it was not found possible Xo r<'ach anv a|i-reom(Mit
on the .sid)ject, and in the I'csult th<^ ([uestion of lialjility in sucli
cases was expiessly de<-larod to lie oulsitlo the scope of tlie provisions
of the Declaration deaiinu- \\\\\\ (mumuv character (cj). The ([uostion
lli<M'(d'ore remains an open one. On the one hand, the validif\'
of the I'ule may be supported on the u'rounds that. f(n' Jieiitrals
to eno-au'e in ^\hat was fiu'inei'ly a national and exi'lusive ti-allic.
<.)pene<l up onl\' undei' ili<^ prcssui'e of war. is either an intervention
in ai<L of that belliii'ercnj . oi- at any ra:(> an incorpora(i(ni of the
\('-sels ,-o eiiua,L;'-'d in (h(^ iuercantile marine of the bellic-crents ;
ihai if ncinraf- liav*^ acipiiesced in tlndi- own exclusion fi'om such
tr.ide b\ one belliLi'erent in time of ])eace theii' ex(dusion by tlie othei'
belliu'erent in time of ^\■ar leaves tlunn in lU) wor-e jjosiijon; and
that the lule itself, altliouii'h questioned bv some, has tlie support of a
lai'U'e bodv of juri-^lic opinion (7;') and the sanction of a pi'Cpotent
practice iri. On the other liand. it is said that neuti'al- b\' ei:ii-aL;inu-
in such a trade do not do anytliinu- in pi'eiudic(> of the other belli-
U'creiU's niilitar\' operations, which is the oidy tru'' ^roniid of I'estric-
tioiLu/i; that neuliaK ai'e not either pri\y tc) or ri'^punsible for the
realms \\hiili ma\ act iiale the bell ii:-c rent in tli lowing;- op"n w hal wa-
previouslv a nati(nial and ex<lu-i\(' trade; and that in eiii^-au-iiiL;' in
wduit was pre\iouslv a le.^erx'ed trade. rnMUrals nnn-ely ca'r\- to and
from port- which are ali(>a<ly open to them for other pui'po-cs u- 1.
• ,1 ) Sii/'iii. ]). t()4. r!L;lit to a coiil iiiuaiirc of their -".v-
( •■ i AltliuUL;-ii tlii,< is soip.otiiiic- con- /.-/,/</,// I,"ilr, Sec aisn p. -Kit. n. ., /).
tended: see .,',:.». ,.. -K; 1 : Wcot-ey .,,/,,>'.
'ISSS), ;M!t: \\e-rlake, ii. l!.').'). -■ ) A- a laile \<<wj: eiifcrced hy
(',') An\ niiii'e than it woahi ext.Mid (Ire, it liiatain, and at present ai--
ti) nriitra! \e~~i.l~ en-"iu'inu' in hostih^ cepted hy three h'adir.L;- inai'itinie
I'ow !')■<. iiiehiidinij- t li
■inan\'
<ervi<-e; .-',.-■'■. p. l-">s.
(~\ See /).,//.// V. '/'/"' I'.r^trrn (2 Tapei-s. Mi~e. Nn. .l I'MI!!,. p.
l_)all.' .3tV Thr M...,n.^„. Takah.i.hi, (i:;;!.
.ii\ Art. .")7: and p. -ItKl, Z,.'/'.'. '/ ) Ihn see pp. i^M. ;]s.-|, .w,,,,/.
(Ai ineludin-- th.al of \hn:e| (iii. -, Hall. iWW: We.-thike. ii. iWi,
c. 7. s. ill', \\dai limit- th" n'Mitral
( .1.1 . n ir
46(3 Cases and Opinions on International Laiv.
Moanwhilo. and until it is otherwise (letermincd. by Convention or
\)\ the International Prize Court, it will bo open to States, such as
Great Britain, to eonlinue to enforce this rule within the limits and
subject to the restrictions previously indicated (/); whilst it would,
it is conceived, also be open to such States to ratify the Declaration
of London under reservation of the rio-ht to adhere to their own rules
on this siibjec-t uidess and until altered by common aii'roement ( /7V
THE "DOCTIUXK OF COXTIWOl'S VOYAGES" (a).
(i) AS APPLIED TO PPOlllBrrEI) TliADE.
THE "WILLIAM."
[ISOG; ,3 C. Rob. 385. J
Case.^ In 1800, during war between Great Britain and Spain,
the " William, ' a neutral vessel under the American Hag-, s]iip])Otl
at La Gtiayra(6' a cargo of cocoa, the property of her owners,
wliich wa.- carried to Marbleliead in the United States. Tlierc the
eaj'go was landed, entered at the customs house, and a bond given
for the payment of datie>, whilst .--ome sliglit repairs \\('re also
effected. Thereafter the ve.<sel took on l)oard the u'reater part,
of her former cargo, with some additions, and saiU'd for Bilbao,
in Spain. In the course of the voyat»-e she was captured by the
British, and sent in for adjudication on the gi'ound of being
engaged in a direct trade between Spain and her coloiiii*-, in viola-
tion of the rule of war of iloC) (r- . In the Court below the ship
and some part of llic c;irgo Avere r(\<tored, but the cari.i'o which
had been brought from La Cniaxra was (r/ condemned. Ona])peal
this decree was conlirmed by the L;)i'd> Commissionta'- of A])])i'al
iu Prize Cases.
Judgment. Sir ^^". Craiit, in deli\cring the judgment of the
Court of A])p(nil, observed that the question for decision was
(/) S,i/,,". p. Hi:?--!. .Minioraiuluin s|)ral;s, ])erliaps iiior(>
if/) for altliiiu;rli The Dcclnratinii npj.ro]>i-inti'ly. of "' tiic doftriiie df tlio
cannot l)c .--iuMicd under rcscfvation of continuous vovairo."'
particular |)ro\ anions. Art. .il incrcly ( /, ) 'I'licn a Spaiiisii colonial ]i{jrt.
declares the ride to he outride it's ir) ,S////,y/, p. -WI.
>co|)e. ('/) After further proof on thi^
ill) 'V\\\< is tile terni coiiinionly used question of LTonuine importation.
•11 t\\c text hook:-, althou^:!i 1I1" IJritish
The Doctrine of the Continuous Vof/age. 467
\vli(>tlipr the cari^'o sliippcd at La (liiayi-a was fo be considci'od
as pvocooding directly from that port to Spain, within tlio mean-
ing ol* the Instructions, which prohibited a direct trade betw('(!n
a hostih' (■(douy and its mother country (c). The mere touching
at a neutral port and the unhjading of the cargo there, even
though accompanied by the payment oi' duties, did not nec(;s-
sarily amount to the termination oJ' one voyage and the commence-
ment oi" another ; for such a proceeding might be wholly
unconnected with any purpose of importation into the phice
wliere it; occurred. It might, indeed, be done for the very purpose
of making it appear that the voyage had begun at some other
phice than, that of the original loading. In such a case tlu^ real
voyage would still be from the ])lace of the original shi[)ment,
notwithstanding the atteinj)t to give it an appearance of having
begun froui a different ])lace. The real test was wh(,^ther there
was a genuine importatiou into the neutral country. In the
pic-ent case it appeared that, although a sum of ^'l,'i39 had been
paid or secured a.s duties of custouis, a refund oi' $1,"211 had been
obtained on reshipment: and also that the r)\vners had Jieither
tried nor meant to sell the cargo in (juestion in the .Vmerican
market. Xor would the continuity of the vo\age jiave been
broken even if there had been, as was allegCHl, an oriainal int(>ntion
to sidl at Marblehead, il' this ])urpose liad in fact bctui subse-
quently abandoned : for an intt'iition to import. \\'a> far from
being eijuivalent to an im|)ortation. .Vn examination of the
cases (/' ser\'(Ml to show that the payment of diitic^s had never
becm ado])ted as an al)solute test of c-enuino importation; and
that the payment of a slight duty, as in the present case, would
not tend to establish the hona lldcx of an inqiortation in the same
dcLH-ee as the payment of a heavy duty. Foi- these reasons the
-ejitence of condemnation nuist bo affirmed.
Tlie ' (loctriiie of coiii iiiiiiiii> vnyau'cs"" cdn-istv in rreatiiio- an
idxeiiinre whicli ln\ol\(>s the (;nria'_;e nf o-nods in the (Irsf instance
'o a neutral i>erl and lheiif(> to sonic ulterior and hostile desfi-
nalion. as Ixniiu'. I'>i' eertain ]>ui p. i>e-. rnilv nne tianspni-fal ion.
'■) >'"/""• r- "'•'• inipdi-tiition : iiiclinliim' 'I'l't Eisr.r.
{/> (';■,<(■< roiicliiiiL:- I'll th.' pay- 77,. /'o/f>/. Thr M,rr",)/. Thr E,n,h'.
, KMit of duty as a ti'<t nf ho-nn f'i!r mul 'I'lir ]■' rrrpnrt .
II \\ '1
468 Casein and Opinions on International Lavj.
■witli all the consequences that would attach if the neutral port
had not been interposed (^^;. This doctrine was first applied
by the Puiiish Courts to cases of prohibited trade, and especially
to trade ])rohibited under the rule of the war of 1756. The effect of
flie r.iiti.-li iiisnuclions ('// i being- to prrthiliit any trade diiect between
the ^Micniv colonies and mother country, neutrals sought to evade
this lestriction l)y touching at a neutral port and there landing*
cargo and paying or ])ur]>orting to j)ay dues, subsequently reship-
ping the original cargo, often with some additions, and thereafter
l)rocoeding to some destination in the enemy country. In such cir-
ciinisiuncos, however, tlie British Courts held that the voyage must
be ncated as a continuous one, only colourably interru[)ted, and tliat
tJie penalty would take eilect. But this was not field to apjih- where
it could !)(' shown that there had been a genuine importation of the
goods into tlie neutral country, even though a part of the same goods
might have Ijeen cariied by the ship on Ijer suljscquent voyage (/).
In sucli cases, tlierefore. the crucial question was whether there
had been a genuine submission of tlie goods to the neutral marl^et.
Tt is material to notii-o, however, that ae(-ording to the earlier deci-
sions the doctrine was only held to apply wdiere the second stage
of the journey liad been entered 0!i, and where the carriage was
continued by the same shi])!;'); conditions not, obsei'ved in the later
applications of this doctrine.
The same doi-tiine was also applied to cases of trading with
the cnemv. So. in the case of the Joncje Plefer (-i C. Rob.
79), it was held, undei' tlie rule pi'ohibiting trade with the
(Uieniv, that Bi'itish goods consigned ininiediat(dy to a neutral
port but intended to bi^ forwarded thence to an enemy port
were liable to condenuiat i<ni. siicji uadiiiy being equallv illegnl
even thoiio-h cii'cnitMiis. This, it Avill be >een, invoh'os an extension
of the (ii'iginal rule, in so far as it was a])plied to a case where
I'lesh OK'ans of transportation \vei'<^ enqilo\cd. tfius giving rise to the
doctrine of lontiimous t lansjjoi'i , as di.^linct from that of ihe "con-
liiiiniiis vn\a'^e '■ r/i. In tlie case of the MasliOim TlO Cape Tiine^
b. V\ . !().') !, a British vessel was arrested. duriiiL;- the S(;iilh .Afidcan
war. wbil-t on a voyage fif>iii Xew '^'ork to \-arions .Snnih AlVican
|)oris. incbidiiiii' the neutral port of Delaii'oa f'ay, and condemnation
i)()th of I he ve.sscl and c(>rbun part.s of the cargo -was sought on the
'jTonnd of ira<]iii'_;' wiili the enemv: it beiiiL:' alb'Q-ed. as was indeed tlie
Fact, that such cai'Li'o was inlcudfMl to be scut on from Dela^'oa Bav
irj pcisoii- or firms dDiuicilcd in the b>rritor\ of the enemy. In the
III} S(-i' tIic liriti-li .Mc-.'Hi'-^iirlini]. 1 1 an-port.'it ioTi <jf L-'urxls i'roiii, one
[I. 7' S. oiiciiiy port io anotlicr, in c()iif itivch-
(7- . 'I'lio-c i-ct'cri'i'd to ill till' pfiii- tion of an Order in Council of 1S07.
'■i|ial i-a>c wci-c issued in 17!IM: ,<i'C p. was not l)rok"cn 1)\' a -alf ami Iran-
tii:;. .w/,,,Y/. slii pnicnt, whidi was in fact collusive.
!,) -/■'/,, r<,n,i'-l C. I,':,!.. ;(il): Tlr at a neutral ])ort.
Mar." (', •'. l.'c!.. :;iiVi. (I) See al-^o l'l,r Mah-].',^s n ITniro-
r;, Save in t!,ec;,-.. „r •/■/,. 7V-.„'y,-/x !i7 , : and 77-c /.7;-v/ A,.,, f] [ra-o-
''Ildw. 17). wliere it wa< liejd fliat a •2.')7).
Tlie Doctrine of the Continuous Vo//(((je. 409
result tho \ossol was released on the g-roiiiid that the condiut of those
respoiisil)l(> lor hor had been such ;),■< to exempt licr from liability (m)\
but as 1o the ^-oods, it was licid tliat the setidiii','- of Ih-itish g-r)ods to a
neutial |)oi't with intent that thev should aftei'wards h(> sent on.
even 1)y land trans])ort, to the enemy country, clearly fell withiii
the rule auainst tradino' with the enemy, and hence that all cargo
consio-iHMl to persons domiciled tliere must be condemned (n).
(ii) AS ArPJ.lEI) TO BlULVCII OF BLOCKADE.
THE " SPRINGBOK."
|18(i3: 5 WalL 1: l«7J ; .Moore, Int. .Vrl). Iv. .3!J1'S. |
Case.] During- the American civil war, tlie ■'Springbok,' a
British vessel, was on a voyage from London to Xassau, with a
cargo of goods consisting partly of contraband. Before arriving"
at Xassau she ^\'as ca^jturcd by a Unit(Ml States cruiser and scut lu
for adjudication, on the ground of having intended a violation of
the blockade of the coasts of the Confederacy. In the District
( mirt both vessel and cargo were eondcniucd; but on appeal to the
Supreme Court tiio decree of condemnation was reversed as to
the vessel, although cojifirmed as to the cargo.
Judgment.^' The judgment of lhe Supreme (,'ourt was
delivered by the Chief Justice. With respect to the shif), it was
ol)served that the Court had alrcad\' laid down in the case of the
Bermuda (3 Wall. olC, that where goods ultimately destined
for a belligei't'ut port were being conveyed between tw^o neutral
[)orts by a neutral ship, under a, charter made in good faith for
that voyage, and without any rrauduleut eonniv-tion of the owners
(III) 'l'li;ir is, in inakiiiLr full di.s- liai)lo as enemy properfy, irresjioetive
riosurc to th(^ autliorities : tlie im]iliea- of tlie que-tiou of destination, for the
lion from tlio Tuajority jndu'iiient lieini,'- reason that i)ri)|)erty found on tho
that the <lii|) would otlnTwise havc! sea and not eovered liy the in'utral
hren lialile: whiUt, in the 0[)ini)n of flatr. is liai)le, whether proceeding to
r.awreiH'e. .).. she was liable in any or fi'oni the enemy country, so long as
case: sec p. 77, >"/'/". it is shown to bo vested in the enemy;
(i}) See aNo .1. S. ('. L. (N, S.) ii. a fact which is touched on in the judg-
.'52(1. Tn fact. hr)wever, it would ap- merit of Do Villicrs, C. J.
■|)car that such L.''onds were already
470 Cases and Opinions on International Law.
with the ulterior dc-tinalion of the goods, the ship, altlioug-h liahle
to seizure wiili a view to the coutiscation of the goods. \\a> not
herst'li' liabk' to <'oud('nuiatioi). In the opinion of the Court the
ease of the " S])ringbf)k fairly i-anic within this rule: her ])apers
being ri gular and genuine, and tlie owners neutral and having no
interest in the cargo or prove;! knowledii'e of th:^ destination of the
good.-. With respect to the cargo, however, it appeared that no
consignees A\'ere named and tliat it was made drdiveral)]e to order.
Moreover, the nature of the contents of more than two-thirds r)f
the packages on board had been eonceah'd. A small part of tiie
cargo consisted of arms and munitions of war : another part of
articles useful alike in peace or war ; whil>t the rev-t. althuueh
innocent, belons'ed to the >amc owners. But wlietlcr contraband
or not it was lial)le if destined for a blockaded ])ort. It wa-s
evident from the ship's papers and other documentary evidcnee
that the cargo was not intended for Xas<au. luit was in.tended to
be transhipped there : whilst, in vie^\ of the evidence, the Court
entertained no doubt that the cari^-o wa< intended to be carried on
in violation of the blockade of the ports of the I'ebel States,
and that it had be^en shipped with that intention. The voA'as'O
was therefore, both in law" and accordino- to the intent of the
parties, but one voyage — from London to the blockaded ports— and
the cargo was liable to be captured during any part of that voyage.
For these reasons the condemnation would be reversed with respect
to the slnp. although without costs or damages : but affirmed
with respect to the car^ro.
Award of Commission. _ This decision, although not the sub-
ject of an^' otlicial proti'St //). gavi- rise to mucli dissatisfa<'tion;
])ro\ okijie. indeed, a remarkable expression of criticism and pror<'st
on the part botli of foreiun ami Ih'itish jurist- h . At a later
tiiiii'. aUo. ii |'()riiie(l the >ubjeci of a claim before the l>rili>h and
Amei-iciui Cjaim- ('ommis^ion r-\ P)iit in the i-e-tdl a ejaim for
(a) I iKleed, it was afterwards stated tinir I'rizc C'luiiiiiission iKniiiiiated li\-
iu answer to a petition of the eartro- The Institute cf ! nternariiuial l-aw.
owmTs That 11. .M . (lii\('ninieiit would I'iti'd in .Modrc ItiLi'i-t. \ii. 731: and
not be ju.-titii'd in inakini:- any rlaini the opinion of l'>lunt>elili, ihl'l. Too.
for eonipensation. (,■) Aj)pointed unfh'i- tlie Treaty of
' '' ) See the opinion of the .Mari- 1871. .-"/""• V- ■5-t-o.
Tilt' Doctrine of till' (JontlniiouH ^^"'J'^il''- 471
tlio \;iluc oL' tlic raryu. witli costs and (laiuag-i.'>, wa'- uiiaiiiiiioiislv
rcjci-tcd ; although a claim i'or losses ai-isiug- out of the dct 'iitioii
of the slii|>, with costs and expenses, was allowed, and an award ol'
S0.0()O made in res[)ect thereoL* d).
Of all llio ca-^es decided by the I'luled States ('ourt.s in relatitjii lo
tlie "doctrine of continuous \(j\a,u'es iri that^ of the Sjii'bighok
has piohalily lieeii most wiiiely discussed and criticized ( /). And
althouc;-h the decision it.->elf cannot, liaviii;^- re^'ard to the circnni-
slances under which it wa-^ u'iven ! /y i and its lack of procisoness (/< ^
be said to Jia\e any claim to aiitlunaty, an<l althoii^-h the "'(hjctrine of
continuou.■^ Noyaj^-es'" is scarcely hkidy to be a])plied in the future
to ca'^e.-- of blockad(>. yet it serves t(j illu.>ti'ate the extreme })oint to
winch that docti'ine wa- oiicc^ cai'ried ami its r{dative po<iti(m under
the existin;^' law.
During' the American civil war a considei'able traHi<'. both in
blockade-nmninu' and conti'aband. was carried on by British vessels,
The>e \e><el> saih^l in tli<' lir-^t instance for Nassau, or some
other ncutial poit in the viciiuty of the coasts of the Southern
( 'onfcd(Mac\' < Ik and there either juade a new start foi' a Oonfedenite
piu't. or else t i'ansliippe<l their care'(jes with a vit>w to their being
cariied on b\ other \('ss<'|s; seeking' in thi- way to secure inmmidtv,
at anv rale durim:' the voya^'e from the |)oi't- of shipiin-nt to the
neutral port. It was in these circumstances that the Lnited States
( 'ouris applied the doctrine in (piestion to cases of blockade
and contraband ; holdinj^' that if cmkkIs of any kind were in-
tended to be cari'ied on to a blockaded port, whether l)y the same
or b\' anv oilier v(vs>el. <jr if <^'oods of a conti'aband character were
intcndeil lo be sent or to the I'ebel territory, ^\■|lether by the same
or b\- an\' otliei' iir-trument of ti'anspoit, they w(U'e subject to seizure
and condemnation; and that condenmation would. luoi'fMjver. extend
also to the \ (>v-(>| in ca-e< w heie pi'i\ity cotdd be shown oi' rea<onal)lv
j)resum(Ml on the pait of the ownei's i /,• ). Some applicatioir-; of this
doctrine, although no\el al the time, appeal', from our pre-eiu stand-
pnint. to ha\(> beiui le;iit imate. but oth(M'> were (piite indefeii-ible ;
wliiNt throughout l)oili law and fa-Is ap|)ear to Innc biMui strained
au'ain>l r>rit i<h owiier< i / l
(Vi Aiiiiarcnriy in rc<iii'ct of tlic (Ic-^iiriiati^ the port where blockade \\-as
derenti(Jli ut' til" ve~<el fniiii the time to he violated.
of the <le-ree of the District t'ourt to (/) Such as ('ardeii;;s or AI atai;U)ras.
her tiiiai liiseharLre. ( /• ) The jirim-ipal case- are 'I'/ir
Ir) .S„i,,,,. |,. -KiS. r.r,,,,.,,/,, (■:, W'.-ill. .')1.")); r/:r Str,,/,. ■„
(I, l-"(ji- a siitiiiiia!-\- of criticisms. //-',/ i :; Wa 11 . .l.)!! > : 77," S/, ,:,,>//, nk i ,')
see M.,orc l)i-e.t, vii.'^; I 'M i . Wall, li: aial 77-' /'./,,;', n-r ,'.) Wall.
{ ;/ ) It \va- tlie de"i-iiiii n\' a hare 'J.^: l.
majoritv and auaiicst the opiiiioii ot' (/ .\~ was, indeed, later admitte.l:
the liiemh(M's of the C'lnrt \vle> were see the remarks of Xelsitn. .1., in 1S7:J.
most skilled in tliis hranch of tlie law. (iiioted hy Hall. (i'iO rf s,,j.
(/'I It does not. for instance, even
472 Cases and (Jpinions on International Low.
Ill tlieso docisiuii.s ijuestioiLs of blockade-iainning and contraband
luiriag-e are laryel\- ijirerniing-led. The deei-^iou in the Spriitfjhol,'
was, as we have seen, g-enerally reprobated, and^apart altogether
from the proviisions now embodied in the Declaration of London {m i
- would not be followed by the British Courts in) or, seemingly, even
by those of the United States (o). Hence we may take it that
in cases of blockade, even under the customary law, no shi})
on a genuine destination to a neutral or open port would now be
condemned under the ''doctrine of continuous voyages"; and.
further, that no cargo on board her would now bo held liable under
the "doctrine of continuous transport," for the reason that blockade
is essentialh- a question of the ship, and not of the cargo except
as connectecl with the shipip). Xevertheless, it would still be open
to a captor to show that the ostensible destination of a vessel to a
neutral or open port was not genuine, and that lier actual destination
was to a blockaded port (q).
(iii) AS APPLIED TO COXTKABAXD.
THE •' PETERHOFF."
[1866; Supra, p. 420; Moore. Digest of International Law. vol. vii. §1-260.
During tlie Amerir-an ci\il wai', tlie "doctrine of continuous
voyages" — or, as it is sometimes terined in tliis connection, the
"do(-trine of continumis ti-ansp(.)rt " ; c/. i — was a])p]ied also to the
cari'iago of conti'aliaud. In the case of the Sfephe)) Hart i .") Wall.
.").")!»), a British \c.ssel carrying contraband, but bound for l he
neutral port of (.'ardenas. was condemned, together with her
(■ai'i;o. on^ the ground that the contraband was intonded t-o be carri<>d
"U to euemv lorritory either by the same, or by some other vessel.
Ill the ease of th(> Ilermnthi ( M \"\'all. •"')14i, a British vessp] bound
for Xassau with contraband was similarly treated (7; i. But tlie most
;iuth('nlic ox])osition of the doctrine is probably that contained in
the <-ase of the I'eferhoff . This, as avo have seen, proceeded solely
'/«) See Art. 9; ]). 477. {,//,■('. (o) Sec ^^Foore, Digest, vii. 729.
hi) '{"here is .some authority in Eng- (/>) See T/ie Jo,Hie I'ir-tr ,• A <'. l^)li.
lisli lav.- to tlie oileet that Avhere "a 79) : r/"- Or-f^//? (3 ('. Eol). 297 . ; 77'-
\-ev-el Inmiediately destined for an Stf,-t (4 C Hob. 65).
opiMi poir is .-liown to he ultimately (V/) .See ^ramial of Xaval Prize Law.
destine! for a l)]oekaded ])0i't. slie will Art. 1-34.
he ti-eated as lia\iiiLr an illegal destina- '>/) See ()|)-|ieidieiin. ii. .lOO.
rif^iii tlirouii'linut tlie vi^yaL^e. uidess (J)) In both these cases, however.
thi- i- -hown to lia\f been al)andi]ned : the Conrt proceeded also on tin-
tiiii there is no dire -t dei-i<ii,7i to this ground of the sroods beincr enemy ]iro-
' ttei-r. and the aUeired ruh' has now perty and on the ground of a jire-
bi'i'n ulti'-ially repudiateri : <ec tlic> sinned intention to break blorkad(>.
I!rifi-h .\lenioranfluni. ]>. H.
The Doctrine of the ('unrniUDU^ ' 'V/'V/'"- ^~'^
on the question oi' contiaband ( c). In elloct, the judg-incnl (lo('i(l(>'l
iliat <iO(»<ls ill tin' nature oi' contraband, wliotlier 'absoluio " or "cxjii-
difioiKil, i'ven ihou^li iunnediately bound iox a neutral port, were
subject to cainurc and i-oiidciniiation it' it could be tsliown, in tbo
tonuei' case, that th(>v were intended to be carried on, even tliouyh
liy a dillerent niethiid of transport or overland, to tiie enemy terri-
tory; <n', in tlie latter, that they wore to bo bo transported on an
ultimate destination lor jia\al or military use {^d).
In the British Conrts there is no reported ease in which the '"doc-
trine oi' continuous xoya^es "' is applied in sjDecific terms to the
carriage of cojitral)and. in Hobbs v. Hcnning (34 L. J. (J. P. 117)
-an action on a policv of insurance on a part of tln^ <aru-o of the
I'clcrholl , in Avhiiii the issue was whether such carg-o was to be
rcg-arded as coniialiaiul cai'iicd without the kiiowlfMiu'c of the insurer
and in dd'os^-atioii of the ])olicv it was held in cire(.-t that g'oods
consigned to a ]H>iitral port, e\en though of a character likely to be of
use in war, and c\en thoui^-h the owner nught have expected that they
would 1)0 sent on to belligerent territory ! c ). coidd not. on an allega-
tion of mental process oidy, be regarded as contraband. But in the
sid)sequeiii cas(> of Sei/)ii()Nr v. The Londnit and. Provinnkd Marine
Insurance Assookition Ul L. .] . C. P. I',t3: 42 I;. J. C. P. ill. n. )
-which was also an actic)n on a j)olicy of insurance c>ii a part of
;he cargo of the Pefrrholf. ;diliongh in this case the policy was
sidijecf to an express warraiitv a^'ainsf contraband- it wa.s lield that
in the circumstances of the ca^e the goods must \w regarded as
• •ontraband, and the policy as invalidated 1)v their shipment. With
ros])ecf to oilji-ial j»raitii-(v. the do.'ti'inc of contiiiuons x'ovac'es in its
ap])lication to coiiti'aband -was ]iot recou'nized l)v the Admiralty
Manual of Naxal Pii/e l.aw(/'). l!ul as against this. \\io fact tliat
no j)rot(\st was made b\- the liritisji Go^'ernnlent aii'ainst tlie Ameri-
i-an decisions, and the attitude subsequently taken up l;)y it in the
IhoidcsrfitJi cojitro\ (n's\-. scr\e to show tliat this doctrine has now
been ollicially ari^epted i c/ >.
CONTROVERSY BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN AND GERMANY
WITH RESPECT TO THE - BUNDESRATH " AND OTHER
VESSELS.
:iS9!): I^ju'l. P:ii)ri'< ( l!til(i -. Afrir;i. \(.. I: Aluorr. I)iun>srnl' i mmi.-itional
Law. vii. s ]-_)(;2. |
Case.^ In Di^ecinbor, ISO!), diiriiii;- the South African war, tht.'
'' Bimdesralli,'" a ('Oriiinii mail stcaiiici-. wliil.-t on ;i vovago to
(V;) S>//n-)i. ]). -llin. ])0<o; tlio qiii-stion of !ial)ility in this
('/) S,i, ,,■!'. p. Vl-1. r[x<,^ hv'wvj: left (-iiicn.
(V'~) So Innir .as lio was not a party to ' /') Sec Art. 72: ami p. IT-'), '.irn.
any aetuai aiTaiiLrciiionts for tliat pur- ' y) J/ii'/.
474 C'ub-es and Opuiious on i]iternath)]ial Laiv.
Lorenzo Marques, in Delagoa Bay, was arrested by a British
cruiser, and brought into Durban on suspicion of carrying- contra-
band ultimately destined for the enemy territory. She also had
on board a number of Dutch, German, and Austrian passengers
who were believed to bo officers and intending combatants. On
application to the Prize Court her mails were released and sent on
by another vessel. After search no contraband was found, and both
vessel and cargo av ere discharged after a detention of some twenty -
one days. In January, 1900, the "'Herzog,'" another Clcrman
steamer, bound for the same port, was arrested and brought into
Durban on a similar charge. She, too, had amongst her passen-
gers a number of Duteh and German medical and other officers
and nurses. The British Government, however, ordered her
to bi' released unless it was found that she had on board
guns oi' amnuinition or provisions "'destined for the enemy
Government and intended for or s]3eeially adapted for the use
of troop>. Ill th(> result the vessel was released after three
days' detention. About the same time the "'General.'" another
(-u'rmaii steamer, "was detained ai Aden on a similai' charge: but,
iifter an cxhaustiNf search, involving the rt^noval of a large
part ol lur cargo, this vessel also was released, aft a' six days'
detention.
Controversy. The (rermau Government had meainvhile
entered its protest ao-ainst these seizures : b:ising tins in part on
the assurance that no contraband was carried a . and in part on
freedom of trade between neutrals [h . I pon the I'elease of the
vessels the British Governnient. afti'r expressing' its I'euret for
what had occurred, admitted in principle it- ohlie-ation 1o make
compen.-ation, and offered to submit the cjue.-tion to arl)itratn)n
should an ao-reement by other means be found inijn'articable. It
also i.ssued instructions to ])revent the slopping and si-u'ehini;
of vessels at .Vdeii or at any point". e(piall\' or more distant from
the >eat of war. Finall\', it ae-reed pro\isioiiall\', and until otli«>r
aia-iiniieiiioiits sliouhl be made, that (l(^rinaii mail steamers -hould
not l)e -earehed ""on su>picion oidy.
(./, A~ in rlic case of T /, r /;„„J,s- (/,) As ill t]iC v:\<-r o\' '/'/,' r/py,fni^.
rath.
Till' Doctrine of (Jic Continuous Voijaye. 47-3
In the discus.'iioii that ensiKMl with iTiforoiico 1o t]n> l(!<^'ality of
thcvse prococdiniis, the Cn'nimn tiovoinniciit contciKh'd, in cfrcct,
that the arrost of the vessels was altogether an jusi iliahle for the
reason that , no matter what niig'ht liave hcen on hoard, '' there cotdd
h(> no (|Ucstion of contrahand ol' war.' since, accordine- t:o recoi;--
nized priiicijde^ of international Liw, tiiere cannot he contraband
of war in trade between neutral ])ort>. It was added that this
had been reeo^-nized by the I)i'iti<h (iov(a;nnient its"lf in its pro-
test a<^ainst tlie decision in the case of the '' Springbok,'" and
was also recoR-nizod in the Admiralty Manual of Xaval Prize
Law (r . Jn reply, the British GovernnuMit pointed out that
the '■ Springbok ' decision had not been the subject of any
ofiicial protest on its j)art (r/ ; that the dii'ections contained in
the Manual, although sulliciont for wars waged in the past, were
(j^uite ina|)plicable to the war then proceedinii- \\ ith an inland
State whose only communication with t,h(> sea was over a few
miles of railway to a neutral port : that the I'egulation referred
to- viz.. "that the destination of the vessel is conclusive as to the
destination (jf the goods on board" could not a]»ply to contra-
band of war, if such contraband was at the time of seizure
intended to be d(di\ei'ed to an agent of the en(nny at a neuti'al
[)ort. Ol' was in I'act destined for the enemy s country; and
finally, that the true view wa< l)elieved to be as stated by Pro-
fessor l]luntscldi. tlia.t ''if ship f)r e'oods are sent to the destina-
tion of a neutral |)ort oidy tlie bett(M' to come to the aid of tho
enemy, tlua/e will be contraband of war, and conli-cation -will bo
lustilieil i'\ In the residt. an ai'rangmnent was com' to. and
com[)en>ation paid for the detention of the vessels (/ .
Thi-- case s(m'v<'s al oik-c ki mark the nllicial acceptance of ihe
" (loci vine (if cent i niieii> \(i\au('s in i<'lati()ii le coiiti'ahand liv ('i-enr.
Britain. an<l lo iliiisiiMte the cimlhit ot opinion and pi'aclii'<' that
[)re\aile(l on \\v\< >nlij"ei iiinlei' llie ciistuniarx' law. Incidi'nlall v
also it i llii^t lates s(>veial otiiei' points, sui'li a-- llie non-e\eni))t ioii
of mail st(>ani(Ms tVom \ i>il and seai'di ( r/ i. the volnntaix limita-
tion li\ a li<'lliL;-ei'eni of the area ot' \i-it and -cari-h, and ;lie lialiilitv
') Sit Aft. 1-1. (f) Sec ai<o l..(^ [i. x\ii. 1 'J : wii.
('/) S, >/.,„. |,. 17(1. and n. c . 193.
('■) Jh-oi/ 7,,/rr,i'/''">i"' ('•■'I'llir. iti. f.'/) i'lxci'iit- a- a luattrr of L;a-acc
1S7I. S13. or arraii"'eiiu'iit .
47(] Cases (iiid Opinions on Interiidtional Law.
of a belligorent to make eoiupensation for arrests made without
reasonable cause \Jx). On the main issue, the British contentiou as
regards the application of the doctrine in tj[uestiou to absolute con-
traband g-cnerally, and to conditional contraband in the special cir-
cumstances of the Avar, appears to be borne out by the agreement
wliich Avas subsecpiently arrived at on this subject by the Xaval
(- onferonco of 19U8-9 (/).
The ''doctrine of continuous voyages,'' altliough commonly re-
[)robated by European publicists, is nevertheless approved, in its
application to contraband, by some Continental writers of autho-
rity (A- 1; whilst it has on some occasions also been applied
iji practice. So. in 185-1. during war betwoou France and
Hu-^sia. the Yrau Anna Boiurlna, a Hanovoriau ship, wiiii-h liad
liecn captured by a French cruis(>r whilst on a. voyage from
Lisbon to Hamburg with a cargo of saltpetre, was condemned by,
the French Courts, on the ground that the cargo was contraband and
Avas really intended to be transported to Russian territoiw (/). The
doctrine Avas, again, judicially adopted b}- the Italian Prize Courts
in the case of the Doelwi/ck. a Dutch vessel captured by an Italian
cruiser in 189(), during Avar l)etAveen Italy and Abyssinia, and sent
in for adjudication on the ground of carrying contraband. It
a]:)pearcd thai the vessel had on board at the time a cargo of
arms and ammunition. Avhiih althr)ugli immediately proceeding to
Djiboutil, a neutral port. Avas really intended to be carried thence
into Abyssinia for the use of the armed forces of the enemy. In
these circumstances tlie Italian Court ]U'onounced l.)Oth vessel and
cargo to be liable to condomnalion: altliough it refrained from
passing that sentence o)i the ground thai peace had meanAA'hile been
restored r^y/). During the Iiusso-Jajianese Avai- no decision appears
;o ha\e l)eeu giA'on under tliis doctrine (»K Such ajipears to have
been the ])osition occupied bv this doctrine under the customary
hiAv prior to the Declaration of London.
Clj'.NKijAi, XoTi:s. - TAr "Dfx-troH' ofConfriitiousVoi/ar/e.s': n. i .Is
uppVu'd lo Cases aj I'mJu'bitaJ Trade. — .VllhDiigli tlu^ "doctrine of
rdiitinii'ins vdA'agc^' lia^ nmv Ixmmi aiiirmcd in ('(M'tain cas(is by
(h) Althonu'h in tAvo of tlie cases, at (,))) This beiiiir, liowover. only as
any rate, tlicre seems to liave been of urraee. and not as of ritrlit: see
reasonahlc .trround for suspieion. As Oj»])enlieini. ii. 55(i. In Ihnis \ , Tin-
to the cri'owinp: power of neutral Stat(\s RqijuI K.rcJiHiKjr As<<iiraiicr Carporn-
iu I'estraint of lielH^'erent int<^rference fioii ( IS97. 2 Q. ]>. 135) it wa-s }n>ld,
■>\itli their trade: see Barehiy. Prob- in an action on a jioliey of insurance
li'ins, 107. on this \esseh AvhieJi coNei'ed war
'1 Set' ]). 177. i,'h-'/. risks, tliat tlie re](\i.se of the ye<sel
/.■) Sec Opponheiin. ii. 5t)4 /■/ srrj. after action bronprht did not disentitle
(/) C'alvo, ttli ed. ji. 27f)7. Anionp^-'^t tlie assured to recover as for a total
ihc facts relied on Avas flu; jjroof of an loss, on a ]irior notice of abandoii-
' \tcn-iye ti'ade in contraband betweeji ment.
Jlamburcr and Rii,'a. ('/;) .Althoiitrh raised, somewhat in-
The Doc I rlnc of the Continuous Voyage. 477
tlic Declaraliou of London, its application in otlior cases is still
\vi\ 1o tlie operation ot' the earlier law. There were, as we have
seen. Ilirei; classes ol' cases in which it was prev^iously applied
( I) caNCs ol' pi'ohiliitcd trade: (2) cases of blockade; and ( • j ) cases
of c( mi rahaud . Wif h r(>spect to cases of prohibitod trade, the validity
of the rule, which e\(dudes neutrals froan participating' in war in a
trade closed (o IIumu in time of peace, still remains open to ((ues-
tion (o); buf if, as has been supuested, that rule is to be regarded a>
valid and subsisting, llieu it would seem that the "'doctrine of continu-
ous voyages '' nnisl also be deemed to apply, although subj(>ct pio-
bably to the limitations wliich attached to it under ihe original British
practic<M p). It A\ould ajipear also to be (Npially applicable to viola-
tions of the ride against 1i'a<ling- with lh(^ oiicmy, which, although
a ride of municipal law. mav und<>r the P)ritish a]id Americaji practice
a licet foi'eigners who are domiciled within Ijclligerent territory.
(ii. ) ('(fscs of i>li)clc(i(Je. — With respect to breach of blockade, the
Declaration of London jiow provides that whatever mav be the
ulterior destination of a vessel or of her cargo, she cannot be cap-
tured if at the mom<Mit she is on her way to a nrm-blockaded port (q ).
As liet woeii the ^ii^iiatniies, tln'refore. and when a breach of bloekarle
is ill (piestion. it is the immediat-e destination of the vessel alone,
and not any ulterior destination of the cargo, that must be looked
ro. And ablinuLi'h it would still \)v opon to a captor (r) to prove
that the alleged dentinal io]i of a vessel to a neutral or open port, wa-^
merely sinudated i .s^ ), yet undei' the Declai'ation of London such a
s<Mzure couhl oiiiv Ik- elfectcd within the "area of O])eralious" ov
on a jnn'.-int commenced therefrom (7).
(iii.) (uses nf Coiifrahaitd . — With respect to contraband, the
] )eclai'al ion provide- that ■'ahsolute conl raha nd "' shall lie liable to
cajMui'e if it is shuwii tu be desliiK'd to territory l)elong-ing to or
Oci-upied hv the enemy or In his armed forces; it being inunaterial
in this ease whellier tli<^ carria>ie of the goods is direct, or entails
1 1'anshipment or e\en a. subseipient transport ]>y landi/i). In the
ca<(! of "' ab-oluie Clint ra ba nd. t heicfure. tic " doc! rine of cnntiniions
\()vagcs'' will still apply, if it can be shown thai thi^ goods ar(> tu
be cari'ied on in tlu' -anie \<'-se|; and the "doetrini^ of continuon-
transport." if it can be slio\\ii that. th(\\- are to be carided on b-^- othei
mcan< n\' tran-pnri. eithei' iu the (Miem-\- fciaatory m' to his armed
|'nic(><(,,V And alilninuh the ship's pap<us are in i;-(>neral to be
upliropi-i.ifclv. ill the ( a.sc ni' 7'/n witli the like coiiseiiuence-: <('c ji. tin.
S.\/,nii ('i':lk:ilKI~lii. 71-J): tllL< liriliir !<l'/n-r'.
I'ralK- a caM' of an aliaiHlonci! iiitiai- (■•-■) See R(^i)ort. L'carce IfiiTLi'ins.
iien 't,, htvak l.l.wka.lf. TiSl.
( ,1) S, /,-,". p. Iti."). \' ) S,i,,,il. \K 41s.
(/,) .v.;,.,,/. |.. 4(is. (") Art. 39.
(,,) Art. Id: p. tl!t. .w',,.v/. (.r) S(M" T?('port. I'(>arcc F I iiririns.
()■') \< iiiMle!- ilic i-ustonru-y hiw and 5S() ; and as to the criteria of d(>stina-
tioii. Art. 31. and p. 4il. supra.
478 Cascft and Opinion^; on International Law.
Takeii as conelusivo prool' of tlio voyap-e on wlueli she is en<i-aoed,
yt this is. as wc havo set'U. suhjcct to e\( option in a case wliero
tJie facts show the ])apers to bo false (//). But "'conditional con-
traband " is nut to be liable to capture except when found on
board a vc^-el whiili is itself bound either for territory belong-
ting to or o'CU])ied liy tlie enemy or for hi- arnied forces, and
when it is not to be flischarg-ed at an intervening- neutral port (z),
and snl)ject in any case to proof of an intended military use (a).
And hei'e. again, the ship's ])apers arc to be taken as con-
clusive both as to the voyage of the vessel, and the place of dis-
charge of the goods, unless tlie facts show them to be false (h).
The oidy exception to this general immunity of "conditional con-
tiaband ' when on a genuine neutral destination — ^and the only
ijLstance. therefore, in which the "'doctrine of continuous transport"
remains a])plicable under the Declaration, as regards conditional
contraband — occurs in the case where the country of tlfe enemy has
no seaboard (cj; an exception A\-hich is no doubt founded on the
example of the Boer Republics in the South African war. In
January. 1912. during the Turco-Italian war, the Carthar/e. a French
mail steamer, then on a v(,iyage from Marseilh's lo Tiriiis. was ,-eized
by an Italian crui-er and sent inio ('agliari. on a charge of (.'arrying-
an aero])lane and also spc'-io destined I'oi' the Turlcisli fon-es in
Tri])oli. In the i-esulf. and inasmiK-h as tJK'-e rjbjef-ts constituted
only conditifmal contraband "Adiicli could not be seized when on a
neutral de-tinaiion. the vessel was iidea-ed; tlie i|uesfio7i of com-
peii-aTion for the -eizure beijie- reso'ved for snb-;ei|uent settlement.
VISIT AXD SEAIUII rOM OY.
THE "'MARIA."
;i7(i(»: 1 C. Rn\>. :j40: 'I'lidor. Lcadiiitr ('a<os in .Mai'itiiiic Law. .SSO.i
Case. Durine- war betwci'ii Great Britain and France, a lleet
of Swedish merchant men. under convoy of a Swedish frieate.
wa- encountei'cd off tlio coast of Enirland b^- a British squadron.
l"hi- fleet included the ''Maria "' and live other v^'-se].-. bound for
\ririca]s ports in the Moditeri'aiieaii. and laden witli cai'Lioes con-
'/ ! Si'(- Art. o'_' : ami RcjKjrt. I'cai-cc to tlic [H'c-nin [jfien of siicli a dc-riiia-
lliL'-L'-ill-. .",S7. oS'l. ti(,Il, >,.,. ],. .ll'l. .w/,,,v/.
'■. S.'c Arr. :].'■,. (h) Sfc Art. 3'): and Report.
■■ ■ Tiiat i-. a d.'vti'iatinn fer tlic J'carcc I I iLTLriii-, oST, 5S').
1-1' !.[■ a < ;fj\criini<nt <li'|ia I't ni'Mit or { r <■>•{• Art. -Sfi ; and J'arl. I'api-i-s.
till' armed I'urcf- of thi' ('ii"mv. .\- AIi<c. Xo. I n909;. \)\\.
FZ-s-// and Search. 479
sij^h'iii;' (if iiiival stores ^/ . The IjiMtisli squadron hnvini,^ pro-
posed to o\ei'ei.s(^ a. riu'lit of visit and search over the ves-iiN^ uiidei-
coiiVo\, the convoy iiiu- ve-sel interpo>ed, with the ri-sult that tlu;
exercise (i I' this I'iulii \\a< for some time forciljly resisted, and
suc!i re-i-taiic.' oiil\ nllimately oxci'come hy the sup'i'ioi' fori'c
of thi' I>i'iti>h. On this u-i'iumd hoth the '' Maria "" and thi> othia-
vessels wei'e siuzed and s(Mit ill for ad judical ion . Il^nhs'Mpieutly
appeared also that these \esstds hiid sailed under convoy for tin;
e\[)ress purpose of e\a(liim- I'ritish search; and that, th,e convoying
\cssel had even re<'eiv 'il instruciions to resist it. In I iiese circum-
stances it was lieh! that the penalty of conliscat ion attached l)oth
\{) tlie ships and tlndr caraoes.
Judgment. Sir ^\' . Scotl, m hi> judu'ineiit, hiid down:
(1 , That the rig-ht of vrsitdng and searching niercliant shi])S on
the high sca.s. whatever the ships, what(.'ver the cargcjes. and what-
e^er the destination, was an incontestable right of the lawfully
commissioiu^d cruisers of either belligerent. It was, in fact, only
b\- the exercise of thi.s right that it was possible; to ascertain
whether there was just cause of c.ij)ture. fhe right must be
exercised with a.s litthi vexation to the neutral a< possiljle, but
h()We\cr sorten(\l il rested at bottom on for^'c. ahhouL;-)L a lawful
force'. '^2 That such a right coiihl not be legally varied by the
forcible interposition of the neutral Sovereign. Two Sov^'reigns
mio'ht indeed agree, as in .some instances they had agreed, tliat the
pre-ence ol an arnual ves-el with their merchant shi[)S should br^
mutually understood to iniplx' that nothing was to be found in
till' \ossels under couvox inconsistiuit with amity or neutrality.
Ihit no Sovi>reign couhl com])el the aceejjtance of sueli security by
force. The onl\- >e(airit\ known to the law of nation^ which a
hellio-orent ])0--sessed, independ'aitly of such aui'eenient, wa< the'
riii'ht ol! visitation and search. ['■] That tlie ])enalt\ for ajiy
violent contravention of tlii- riirht was the conliscition of the
propia'tN >o withhehl I'roiii \isitation andseari'h. Uliat this w^is
~o ap])eare(l to Ix^ (nddfuit, both on fair principles of i-ea<on. on
the autli()rit\' ot'\'att(d, and I'rom a (>onsid(a-ation of the institutes
ef all ij:reat marit inie countries.
I") Such sr<ir(>s Ix'iiiu: coiulitiuiKU ' outrahand .
480 C<(ses and Opinions on International Laiv.
Xor "wore there anv special circumstances in the present case.
Avhothcr arisino" under treaty or otherwise, which would serve to
take it out of the general rule. Cases might, indeed, occur in
which a ship would be authorized by the natural right of self-
preservation to defend itself against extreme violence threatened
by a cruiser grossly abusing her commission : but when the
ulmosl iiijury threatened was the being carried nito the nearest
poi't for enquiry, subject to a responsibility on the part of the
captor for costs and damages if he acted vexatiously, a merchant
vessel had no right to take the law into her own hands. For these
reasons a decree of condennration uiust be pronounced l)oth on
ship and cargo '/r.
Tills case decides in olfeci — ( 1 ) that the righ: of visit and soarcli
o\er nievcliaiit vessels (ni the liiu-li sea is a jioces^ary incident of the
rii^-lit of maritinic capture: and (2) that it cannot be displaced by
the intervention of the neutral .Sovereigji, or by the fact of tlie
\essel beino- under convoy. lnci(l(Mitany it touches also on the
r<Mnedy available in cases where a captor exercises his rights
umvarrantably or vexatiously ( c).
With i'<'S)H'ct to visit and search, the general nature of this right
aiul tlu^ CdHiliiidiis of its <'x(>reiso have already been deseribal ((/).
Whilst a nentral ves-el is bound to <ul)!nit ti) visit an<l seai'ch I)y a
qualified bclliu'crenl . a mcic aticinpl to evade it. as by flight,
unaccompanied bv actual i'esistanc(\ will not <nllico to ^\ari'aiU lier
condenmaf ion. although it would justify the belliuereni in
using all necessary foic(> to prevent her from esca])inii- i <' i.
I'ben fcu'cil)!e resist^mce. ]iiiiieo\'or. inii.i']u. a- is pointed <Mit
in the judiiinent. bo jnslifird by an}' ^-lo-s almse of powei' on the
jiart of the captor (fi. In an\ other caso. Innvevei'. it will involve
t)oih ship and cni'iro in a common condemnation ( r/). But resisi-
ancc b\- an <Miemy ship will no! in u'<'neral alfeci n(Mitral caro-o that,
ma\- be- on lioard. for the reason that re^i<fance is always justiliabh*
as l)etween enemies; altlKaiiz'h according to tlie Britisli practice this
will not ap))lv where n<mlral c.'oods arc shiiijied on board an artned
\i'S<el of the <Miemv(/n. On all these ]>oints. save the last fi), and
now (111 tlie (piestion of convov (7r). the .Vmerican practice agrees
(b) '\'h\< jud<rincnt was sulisoquciitly lutcly nocessary to tlic socurit}' of tlio
aflii'inod on Ijcth points bv the Cuui't ca])tors."
of Aiijicaf: <oo Tl.r F.lx,>J,r (4 (' . R(.l.. ■ >J ) >"/"". ]'■ ISl-.i.
■KtSi. {,) The Mvniur (lulw. 207).
(''■) On tlii< ])i)int sec afso lli'- Si. ;/) \"//,-«.
.},,.,„ r.nf,i:.hi :,ii.l T.n /';/,•;.«;„;./ To,,- (y) Tlir KJsrhr ( ,VC . Eob. IT:?).
r, i.r.f,,-, C) ('. i;..!). '^:\). whore <laiiiap-<'^ < I, ) Sec p. 3SH. ..'///,,•«.
wci'r aw;M'<lc(l liv tiic ('i)urr aLrain>t '/') Ihiii.
Ui'iti-li rnpfor- fi'.r MihjiMaiiiLr tlic cap- ' /,■ ) [,,(,'■■. p. -lS-2.
liirrd crew to " resti'aiats not alisn-
Vi-Hit (Did Search.
48 L
A\ il li I lir I'>riii<li i / 1. The riu'lit of vi<it and soarcli. -willi its fiistoniarN
iiicifliMil ^, i< (M|uall\ iciouiiiziNl althou^li with a reservation of tlie
I'iu'lil of (■oiLV<i\' uiidcr the ( 'onlineiital practiee ( ?^M.
\\"i\\\ respeel to the so-calh'<l "rii^iht of convoy/' this appears to
lia\o had it- oiiu-iii in ti'eaties maih^ helucen ])ait iculai' Stato-^. iindoi-
Avliieh nierehani v(\ssels heh)n^inu- to either part\-. ]H>in<i- neuti'al and
under conNoy of a national \\arshi|), were e\eini)t fr(jni visit and
search liy the oihei'; tlie presence of thf eonxoyini;- \ess(d Ixdn^'
undersiood to atloi'd a i;iiai'.i idee that th<'v were not en<_i'au-ed in any
nnhiufid IralHc \ h i. Later, a chiim to exemption l)\' riLi'ht of convoy
Avas ])iit forwar(l a-^ <nie aireaiU- authorized hy custoin; ahlioiiudi at
\\\v liiiu' thtM'e \\a- proliald\^ no (ai^toin which was eith(>r suliiciiudly
j^-eneral or uinforni to tank a- oldii;'atoi'\'. Henc(> (ireat Uritain
continiK'i!. a- we ha\(' seen, to assert and (uiforce lh(^ usual riu'h;
of \i>i' and >earch. in de-^pite of coin'ow So. in ISOi). the '" Freva.""
a Daid^h frigate, was capliii'ed for liavinu' foi'cihlv inti^rposed to
])ro\(Mit th(> \isit and s(^arcli of \(^ss(ds uiahu' lu'r <'()ii\(i\-; iihhou<]:]i
in tlie result th(> v(^ssel was iM\-;tored hv ai'i'aiii;'(Mnent witli Den-
mark lo^. The riu'hl of con\'oy was oii(> of the cLiinis in(duded in
the Declarai i(ni of the Second Armed XiMdralitw lS(i(l(//i. It was.
nioroov(M'. foi- a slnnt lime, recoonized hy Cireat ISritain, althon<i'h
oidy I)\' \iriue of C'onveidioirs concluded with particidar S<atos in
roturn for con((\<>ioirs i ^/ i. and e\cu then snhject to r(>a-onaliI(> safe-
<i'uard.-~ ( r !. Ihit tlics(> ('onv(Mitions w(M'e later rescinded: with, the
result that (ireat Britain reverted wholly to the eailier ])!'actioe.
For some time after hSl.l. liowever. ther(> was luit little occasion
for its exeicise. In IS.ld. dnrinii' th<> \\ar \\ith K(i-sia. the rig'ht
of search as r(>u-ards ve<-els under iKMitral i-inivoy was express!}
Avai\('di-vc Sulise'pient 1 V th(> I)e(daratiou of l'ari<. IS.K). hv ex-
em})tini.i' eiUMiiv j^'oods not hein::- coniraliand from seizur<' uiidei- the
neutral lla<i'. ^'reatU" dimini-lie!l the imporia nee and scope of lli(>
Briti-^h rule in derogation of the riuht of <-onvoy. Xovertlnde^'-.
the riL;ht i»f s(>andi. in de>piie of coii\"o\. i< foiinalh' a--(U'ted in
the Manual of Na\al Friz*' Law. ISNS /). and would still h(» reccyo--
nized li\ the ('onrt-. iiidc-s excluded 1)\- Inst I'lictions is-^u.ed to the
Xaval Foiv(-.
(/^ Wtcntoii 'Dana). (iSS ,/ .w//..- ,/ i A- hy ( 'mi vent icii- iiiiidr with
77." .</.;,.- /,'-,. w \-. Thr l >r.h.l S/,>/..< the i'niltic I'owci's ill ISO! null \H0-2.
(;>t) Coiii't of CliiiiiK. 'i!)! : Scofr. S7!0- (/■) The^c arc iioU'wnrtliy as havinir
(ill' A i-iini p-MiiIiuus st.-Urnicnr ot" pi'olialiiy laid tlu^ i'liuinlatinn of tlir
rill' \i('\\'- III' I'lii riifira II writiT- <iii tlii< ri^'lu a- now roi-ii:_;'!iizi'(] liy Coiivcn-
snliji'i'l \\ill 111' tiiiiiid in iialt'c!;. ii, tiun: s(^i' At Iiiadcv-Joiics. ( 'ciiiniorcc
•l-u. ill War. 3:]!.
(,. ' 'I'liiM'c ai'r rri^'|iii'iil frrarii-: to
this rirrrt. rMM.rially l(. wards tlu' idoM'
of till' .■!'jlil"'Mit h i--iiliiry. alrlnMlLdl
iiiai nl\' iiii > ':•• parr nf i hi' Ha It ii-.
I'owrr-. Ih^'aiai. a
State-.
(o) S,..' Il-iih-k. ii. -ItV.]. n.: Wool
si'v ( !sss •. :;71 .
!M Owinu- U) flic dillicidry rliaf,
would nthi'i'\vi-c lia\c i'vi-li'<l in niain-
tainiiii'' iia\'al co-opi'ra.tiiai ivith
I'ranri'. hy wlioiii the ritrht of
l!ii' I iiiti'd cnmiix- wa- rici'u'nizi'd ; -I'i' I'aia.
I'apia--.. :\!i~i-. Xi). ! . I!i.;:n, -y, .
( / ■ Src Arrs. 7. 1 ls. 1 !<.»: althou-'li
thi- Manual is now withdrav.u.
C.T.L.
I I
482 Cases and Opinions on International Law.
The view of the Anieiicau Courts and writers ou this point agrees
in substance with the British viewi^u). In practice, liowever, this
wt)s iaro-olv (pialiiied by treaties made by the United States Govern-
ment witli other Powers, vinder which the right of convoy was recog-
nized, .sul)ject to certain safeguards; whilst more recently it has
been adopted as a settled rule and in this form embodied in
the Naval \\'ar Code of 1900 (^x). By most European Powers, also,
the right of convoy has long been recognized. Indeed, an examina-
tion of the Memoranda presented by the various Powers that took
part in the Xaval Conference, 1908, shows it to have been accepted
by all the leading maritime States with the exception of Great
Britain (//). By the great majority of jurist-s, moreover, other than
the British and American, the "'right of convoy" is accepted as a
settled principle {yy).
In view of this general recognition, and having regard to the
diminished importance of her own rule owing to the changes wrought
by the Declaration of Paris iz), Great Britain, on the occasion of the
Kaval Conference, 1908, expressed her willingness to recognize the
■'right of convoy '"(a); with the result that rules adopting and
regulating it are now embodied in the Declaration of London. Nor,
even apart from that Declaration, is it probable that Great Britain
Avould now revert to the earlier practice. Nevertheless, "the right
of convoy'" is at bottom one of questionable expediency, by reason
of the diificulty of guarding against fraud and the consequent danger
of its leading to friction between belligerents and neutrals. It is.
however, regarded by some as unlikely to be largely taken advantage
of in practice (b^).
Another (piestion wliich has arisen in connection Avith convoy —
although in this case the convoy is belligerent and not neutral —
is as to the liability incurred by neutral vessels that make use of
enemy con\oy; a question voiy similar in its nature to that raised
by the shipj)ing of iKuitral gonds on board an armed vessel of the
enemy (c;. In 1810 a controversy arose on this subject between
the United States and Denmark. During the war then prevailing
between Great Britain and Denmark, France being at the time in
alliance Avith the latter, a number of American vessels bound for
Russian ports made use of British convoys, Avith the object of escap-
ing A'isit and search on the part of cridsers belonging to the other belli-
gerents. In March, 1810, the Datiish (rov<'rnment issued Instruc-
tions declaring all vessels Avhich had made tise of British convoy
(«) See Tlic yancy {'11 C. C. 99; Japan it is subjoet to exception in cir-
Scott, 8()1): T/ir' Se/i yi//ii/)/i (o() C. (.'. cumsranei'S of prravc sus])icion.
?M}: Scott, iS()9) : W licaton (IJaiia), lyy) In J8S.") it was a(loj)te(l also
fi92, n. by the Institute of 1 ntei'naiioiial l.aw.
(./•j Si'c Art. .'3(1. wlieroliy a deelara- :r) .s'"///v/, p. -isJ.
tion of the CDimiiaiKhM- nl' tlie eonvoy- („) See I'arl. P. Mise. Xo. i (1909).
iiiLC \i's-cl ba-ed nii a thoi'duu-h exaiiii- 'Jo.
nation, i^ accepted in li'Mi of s(>arch. ; A) S(>(> ]>. -IS"). i,,/,'fi.
{!/] See I'arl. I'lipir^. Misi-. \o. .1 r) See p. ;5S9. .s>',,ra.
I9(l!»). p. TS; althoim-h in the ca-e uf
Visit and Search. {><-\
eithoi' ill tlic Atlantic or tlio Baltic to be g-ood pri/c. Under
these Instruct ions a munlx'r of American vessels tliat had made use
of Hritisli c()ii\(iv were seized, and some (d^'htccMi ot them con-
demned as prize l)\ the IJanisli I'lize ('onrts, without any jiroof of
active resistance to visit and search. The IJnitcMl States (lovorii-
ment- protesied aiiainst this ])roceodin^-; contondin<i,' that so Ion*;'
as the ass(.)fi;it idii of the luMitraJ v(!ss<d with th<> eiKMuy convoy
was not acc()m|)aiiicd liv aiiv attempt at ((uicealment or deceit,
or b\- any part icipat idii in th(> resistance of the convo^'iiig- force,
she did not los(i \wv neutral character. To this Denmark replied
that the use of h(dliL;crent convoy showed a settled intention t<>
resist visit and search, and that a neutral thereby ranged himself
on the side of the enemy and renounced the advantages of th<'
friendly or neutral character. In the result, and after negotiations
extending over twenty years, an Indemnity was paid by Denmark,
although subject to a proviso that this should not be drawn into a
precedent {d). The contention put forward by the American C^overn-
ment in this case agrees with tlu^ doctrine of the American (,'ourts (e i.
Judging this question in the light of general principles, it would
seem that the fact of a neutral vessel having made use of enemy
convoy would in itself ])e a good ground for detention and enquiry:
and that the fact of such a vessel having l)een arrested whilst under
enemy convoy, and after resistance on the part of the latter, would
afford just ground for condemnation, l)oth as evincing an intention
to resist visit and search and (.)n the ground of hostile association.
And this appears to accord with the Ihitish practice i/i. and also witli
the views of the leading Jhitish and American writers (c/i.
CiKNKHAL Xo'jKS. — Tlic JU'/lit o'f Vislt (Did Sccircli. — The existence
of this right is so universallv recognized as to need no allirmation
bv Convention. I'ut in 1 he iiial tcr of the lialiilit \' incuired by a neutral
for resisting it, the Declaration of London now ])rovides that forcible
resistance to the legitimate exercise of the right of stoppage, search,
and ca]iture, shall involve in all cases the condemnation of the ves-
sel: that the cargo oji board shall be liable to the same treatment,
as cargo found on board an en<Mny v(>s-el ( h)\ and that goods belong-
ing to the master or owner of the vessel shall be treated as enemy
}>roperty ( / 1, in (Mlect iliis cuiilinns the customary law on the sub-
ject. althouL^'h with soiiH' mil i'_;afion as regards the liability of cargo,
liuler the Declaration. I'nr iiisianic. enemy goocjs woidd still be
{^(1) See Wlieatoii (l)aii;i). (i!ll» rt at t<i;q.
sri/.; and Moore. i)iL;'i'>t. \ii. I'L") '■/ (f) See .Manual of Xa\al I'rizc Law.
S(//. -Vrt. l.")(), wliicli ri'(.'ites tliat v<'ssi>l,s
(r) Sec 77(C JV''/-' '''/■ !• ('rar.i li. ;!SS ) under enemy coinoy are from that <-ir-
and T/ir .!/,,/,',,/" (:) W litaf. ic'.i): hut eum-tance alone lialile to <letentiiin.
SCO abo the di-<>cnt inu' jiiiluincnt of (7) Inehidint,'- Kent, Dana, and
Storv. .).. in T/>r \r,-, ;,/,,■' mul 77,r S,v, Wol.lsey: s,m> Mull, 73(>, n.
\i/, ,',,,/, ' :;(; ( uui'l i.r Chilm^. :',(;(•). /o !\s 1,, the eonseciuence- of this,
l'"(ir a full di-ca^-i'iii ol' ll;i' Ane'i'i- - ''. ^"//,". p. l.")7.
.L-in ca-e. -ee .Moiu'e. Diuo-^t. vii. I'.Mi ,; An. (WJ.
1 I -2
4b>4 Cases and Opinions on International Laiv.
condemned, ioi' ihe jeusdii tlial tlie protection of tJie neutral flag-
can no lonyer be claimed. U'^ would aLso g'oods belong'in.u' to the
master and owner of the vessel, even thoug-h neutral; but neutral
goods, not being contraband, would now go free, subject only to
proof of their neutral character ( A' i . As under the custoniarv law,
a mere attempt to escape, although exposing the vessel and those
on board to the ri>k (d" hostile measure-, will not in its(df be a ground
of condemnation (h .
The lUiiJit of Co»vo>/. — On this subject the Declaration of London
provides that neutral vessels under the convoy (jf Avar.ships of their
own nationality shall be exemjit from .-earch ' /// i: the theory being
that the neutral (b)\-ernnieiit b}' ])lacing the \'essels under convov
assume- j'esponsibility and guarantee- that thev are not engaged
in any venture which i< incon-istent with their neutrality. If en-
countered by a l»elligerent crui.-er. tlie commander of the cMnvoving*
vessel uuist give in writing all information that could bo (ibtained by
search. Imtli a- to the chara;-ter of the ve--els and their viir<j:oQ>'' ;) k
In the event of the l)elligereut sus[iecting tlutt the confidoncc <_\\' the
neutral conunander has been abused (oi. he nmst make known his
suspicimi.- and ask fijr further in.vestigation. In this ca-e it ^\ill
rest ^vith tlie C(.)nimandor of the couvov alone to make such investi-
gation ' p I. although he may. if he tliinks ht. allow an olHcer of the
belligerent Avarshi]) to be present at the investigation (/^ i: but in
any case the result- of the investigation must be embodied in a.
written reptnl and a copy handed to the latter (ri. In the event
of any dill'erence of oi)inion— as might conceivably occur in relation
to vdiat c<jnstitut"s ■'conditional contra1)and" — the belligerent officer
can do mi more than enter his ])rotest. leaving the matter to be settled
by diplomatic jnean.- ixi. Ihil if. in the (jpinion of the commander of
the convo\', the le-ults of the investigation are such as ■would justify
the capture of any \'e-sel under his (miiivoa', then the protection of the
eonvo^' nmst 1)0 withdrawn, and the belligerent must be allo^wed to
send the su-i)ected ve--el in fnr adjudication. Tin' elfect of
these provision- i- thu- tu afliiin geii(>]al!y the riu'lit of convov,
subject to cnnditinii- that are de-iLineil t<i -afeiiMiard boHioxMHUit
riii'lits. Idie initial ])ro\isiun. coii-tru(>d in the Jiii'ht of the ollicial
report. A\-ould appear In ini])o-<^ <in all n.eiiiral (Governments tliat
a\ail thein-el\(v- <<( the riiidil, a corr(dali\e duly of exs-rci-inc;' a
g'enuine >iiper\ i-imi <>\vv the tialiic m' tin' \-e--id.- under con\oy,
A\ith a view t" ]U'e\ iMitin:^' anv abu.-(;> nf the ])ri\ il<'i.;-e ' ( e The written
,-t.aK'men" iei|ii!rcd in bo tHrni-h<>d In the iK'lli^'crent \'\ the cciiu-
I /■ Si';' Ki'iKM't. I'carcc I riu'u'in-. ccalcd cdiil rahaiu! .
lid!). dr Art. lil^.
(/■ Sec Pu'|Mjrt. '/.;-,'. (i(jS. (y. Sec Jicporf. I'carrc lli'-'u'iii.'^,
(„', \vt. (;i. (ioT.
( -/ ■ .\i'i . lit . I ,■ .\i'r. ilL'.
1"^ A- '.v'aT.' \\" /ia~ I'i'a-nii t(i 1h'- !-■ S"c IJcjKirt. I'car.r 1 liu'Li-in-.
lii.'vi' tii'^' a \a"--.''i w!in-.i' jianiT,-- arc OuT.
j-i'i:i;iar i-. i^. \i.''th' 1. -~. '■■avv\[w_- v\t\i- ( .' S(.'c jjcjiurt. ''/"'-''. i)''<'',.
The DeatymUon of Neutral L^ rises. 485
mandcr oT the cuiivoyiiiu' v^'ssel. i.s iutciKlod ai oinc to om}jlia.si/(!
this respoiisihilil y, and to picvciil any ainl)i<iuity ur tnisundor-
istuiidiiig. It siill I'oniains to he seen. lio\v«'\'<'f, liou i'ar llic-c .salV-
sj,'uards will jd'ove eil'ecliial in practice m/j. At the -^aine time, even
if the " ri<2,'ht of ('(jinin should !)(' liiialh accepted, it is tliung'ht to
b(> uidikel\- that it will he largely i(>soited to in piactice. o^vin^• to the
diliiculty that (wists uixh'i' mtjdei'n e(jiulitions of iinitinjj,- in one lifxh-
a nuinh«M' of vi'sscis oi tlill'erent rates of speed i,ri.
('i)iii iieiisiillnii . 'L'lio D<'ehii'atioji (jf London also juakcs provision
Avith ie.sp(H't to the coni[)<'nsation of neutral owners in cases where
the seizure pr(jves to ha\'e been un jusiihahle oi' irre<^ular. As t('
this, the l)(M'lai-ai ion itself merely pro\ ides that if the capture of the
vessel or <^-(mi:1s is not u})held h_\' t li(> Piize (Ouri. or if tlie prize is
released without any decision bein<i' c>'i\"en. then the parties intereste<l
shall he entitled to conipeirsation. unless it can li:' shown that tluM'e
■\vei'e ;^'ood reasons for eflectinu' the capture //i. In ell'ect. if i1h'
case pi'oceed< to a<l judicat ion. it will ite the duty of the national
]*i'i/e ('ourt to det('riuiiM> this (puvstion. sul)j<'ct. to an appeal to the
Iiit<'rnat ional Priz(> ('ouri: whilst if the vessel is r<d(Ms(vl l>y execu-
ti\(' action, and if in such a cas(> the national ('oui1s have W) juris-
diction i^i, then an\' claim foi' con!|)en<ation will ha\(' to he ])ursue(l
li\ di|domatic means w/i. Xo pi'ovisinn is maile as to ilu' maniiei'
in which <lama^■<'s shall he assesscnl, this heinu' h'ft to tin* disi-i-etion
of the (Hurt oi' oiIkm.' determining- ])od\-. [\\\\ no compensation will
lie due. excii thoiiu'h the vess(d or ca ri^o i> idtimaody ;'(deased. il
tliei'e \\a^ leasonaltle cause for ca])tur(': as where llu' nec<\ssarv
]>roofs of non-lial)ilit v wei'(> not fiirinshed until after the arrest, or
wdiei'e papers i'(datin<i- to the ship or caru'o were siijipre.-sed or de-
stro\ed. iir w her(> fals(^ or double ])a])ers were used i /n. Tin' ])rin-
eiples on \\hi( h compensation is o-i\-(>ii ami ass(\ssed under the Ih'itish
prize svsiem ha\-e already been considei'(>d ir).
Tlic Dfsl nicfioi) of Xcidrdl f'ri.:i's : (i.i Cutler llic fiislomarn
Jjiir. -Tiider the customar\' law. enemy vessels taken as [)rize are,
as we hav<^ seen, liable to he d(\stroye<l in case of necessity or emer-
<^'ejicv; althou<i'h even Ikmc the lec-ality of the proceedinu' nuis;
sub-e(pHMitl\' be ad judicaK^l on by tlie Pi'izi> ('ourtu/). \"\'ith respeci,
to neutral vess(>l-. accia'dino' to the Ih'itish practice, the primary
ride is that such vess^ds. or in<leed anv v(\s-;cls whoso nationality
is doubtful, nnisi. if ciicunrsiances pi-e\(Mit their Iieino- brou^'ht
in foi' a<i jiidica t il >ii. b<' released iri. Ihit to this thei-(> a])p(Mrs to
III) Sill,, It. p. 4H"2. boiiiu- ado[iteil: sec tlio N'uvnl Prizo
C>-) Sec Hall. 7.30. I'-ill. 1!)]]. s. -21.
(y) .Vrt. 1)4. ("1 Sec IJeport, Pearce Iliiru'iii^.
(-) As ini(l(>r rlie i>ririsli sysreiii, (ilO.
where the C'eurts have so t':n' mi pcjwer ih) See Ji(>j)ort, lliid. (311.
to award (laiiiaLres c\e'-]it IIS incident to r) S,iji,'fi, pp. LSI. ]S7.
a prize suit, although such a jiirisdic- il) See p. ISt!. f^n/,,-/,.
tlon will pr<ibahly lie uoven in tlie [r\ See .Manual of \aval Prize t. aw.
event of the Deelaration of London Art. 31)3; The Z^'/.VY/f/e TSpijiks. 217) .
48t) Cases and Opinions on International Laiu.
lie linked au ancillary rule, which legalizes, or at any rate con-
templates, destruction in cases of grave importance or honest error(/j:
subject, however, to an obligation on the part of the captor ((/) to
make full restitution in value to the owners of both vessel and
I'argo (/;). This view proceeds on the princij^le that the iieutral title
is only divested by condemnation, prior to which the captor has no
right beyond that of sending the vessel in for adjudication. And with
this the practice of certain other countries, such as Holland and Japan,
ap})ears to agree (I). But according to the practice of most other
States — including France, Germany, Russia and the United StatesrA")
— the right of a captor to destroy his prize extends also to neutral
vessels, if the circumstances are such that the prize cannot be brought
in for adjudication without risk to the captor (/). And this view is
naturally uplield by Powers not possessing over-sea ports or stations,
for the reason that a prohibition to destroy neutral prizes avouIcI,
unless neutral ports were opened tip for their reception, place such
Powers at a great disadvantage in maritime Avar. The question
came under discussion at the Hague Conference of 1907, but no
agreement wa> arrived at. The exercise of this riglit by Russia
during the Russo-Japanese war ( n). provoked much dissatisfaction.
.It the Xaval Conference of London the question again came up for
di-cus.-idu. and on this oi-easion an a<i-reement was come to on the
ha.-i.'^ of Cireat Ik'itain concedinu- a right of destruction in cases of
e.\ce]jtio]ial necessity, subject to the inqiosition of certain safeguards
against, abu^e. The results of this agreonrent are now embodied in
the Declaratioji of Loudon, 190!».
I ii. I Under the Declnrd/ioit of Londoji. — Tlie Declaration first lays
it down as a general rule that a neutral vessel which has been cap-
tured must not under ordinary cireum-tances be destroyed, but must
be brought in for adjudication (o). Py way of exc<'plion. however,
it is pj'ovidcd tliat a neutral prize may be destroyed if the captor can
])rove — that ■-he wf.mld in fact have been liable to condemnation
if she liad Ixmmi luouglit iui//). and also that she could not be
it) See 27>r Actcoh y'l Dods. 48). what, Init inciude generally the un-
((/) Save, of course, in ea.ses where navigaljility of the jirize. the risk of
the destruction was due to some fault capture, and inability to spare a
or conni\aiice on the ])art of those prize crew,
responsible for tlie action uf the vessel. ( /- ) As in the ca.ses of Thi Knight
(h) See Thr Frllclt'i (2 J)ods.381): Cn,,, ,„n ,„lr,- (p. 437. s,,,,,-:i). and The
and ],. 177. .v/^,,./. II ; ,.s,, „,i . Th< Il:I.:,,.n. TJ.r St. KVdu
('■) SiH' I'ai'l. l'a]^crs. .Misc. Xo. 5 'TSritishi. Thi- Tl'm iCernian'). and
'l!t()9). ].. 1(1] ; but^ce al>c tlie Thr }',r,.,rss M<,,-;<i 'Danish), as to
.lapancsi- Xaval IJi.'L^aihitions uf 190t. which see Lawrence, ^^"ar and Xeti-
Takahavhi. 7SS. trality. 250 ct srr/.
(/,■' See Pari. I'.ajicrs. .Misc. Xo. 5 (ri'\ S(>(^ .\rt. 48; and as to how far
'HtOiti. ]>. !)!) rl .wv/.; and the I'.S. neutral ])Oi'ts mav be used for this
Xaval War Code. Art. ;')(!•. .-ilthouirh ])ur|io^e. IT. ('.. S'o. 13 of 1907, Art.
the \ie\v of .Vineri'-an wi-itiu's ajipi'ars 2^5: and ]>. 3(i'i. ■>■"/"'".
to ai-c(ird with that of the llritish (//) As would i)e the ca.se where
Prize ('ourt<: Tavhir. TSt;. more than lialf her carcro was contra-
'/) 'riic^e ('(uidititin-- vary some- band.
The Dditructwn of Contrahund Caryo. 487
broug-ilt in iov adjuflicalion Avithoiit endangering' tlie Siifcty of the
i-aptor or the siicces.s of lijs oprrat ions at the tiniei'/;; the onii.s of
proof, as regards eaeli of these conditions, resting on the captor, and
the determination resting- with th(> national Prize Court, subject to
a rig'lit of appeal t-o the International Court (;•). In any case, niore-
(jver, before the prize is destroyc^d all persons on board must be placed
in safety, and all the ship's pa])ers and other relevant documents be
taken on board the warship {s). All neutral goods of an innocent
character which are involved in the destruction of the vessel must be
l)aid for {t). In their ])ractical application these rules apj)ear to work
out as follows: — (1 ) If the captor fails to show that the destruction
was foi'ced on him by exceptional necessity, then the owners of both
vessel and cargo, even though these may prove to liave been liable to
condemnation, will be entitled to compensation ( m ). There is no defini-
tion of 'exceptional necessity " other than the provision contained in
-Irt. 49 (x), it having been thought bettoi' to leave the determination
of this (question to the discretion of the Prize Court, with the usual
right of appeal. (2) Even if the captor suc<eeds in proving '"ex-
ceptional necessity." he will still be bound to make conipensatio]i,
unless he can also show that the vessel would liave been subject
to condemnation (//). fo) In any case, tlie captor will have to
pay compensation foi' any neutral goods of an innocent character
that wcr(^ invol\(>d in the destruction (2"). These ])rovisions were
thought to provide an adequate safeguard against the reckless
destructicm of iientral prizes by belligereuis: some Powers indeed
regarding' tluMU as oxov stringent, and as auiounting virtualh' to a
renunciaiion of the right of destruction as it obtained under the
Continental practice. Xincrlheless, assuming thes(> rules to be
genei'alK aiM'Cptcd. it sti_ll rcMuains to Ix^ se(Mi how far they will
])rove ed'ectual in practic(>: whilst, (n(Mi if the conditions as regards
compensation ai'C fully ril)ser\'ed, it needs to be remend)ered that in
the conditions of mcxleni trade a legal right to comjiensation ( a i is
rareh' an e(|uiva,lent for th(> loss of either ship or cargo.
Tlw Ih'slrn-clioii- of ('oi/trdhinid ('arfjo. - The Declaration of Lon-
<lon further pr<ivi(les that if a neutral vessel is found carrying goods
liable to cond(Munati(m in circumstanci^s where the vessel herself
wouhl imt be liabl(> to Cdnilemnation ( b k and the captor is prevented
from lu'inging her in for adjudication by causes similar to those
previou>lv m(Mitioiied i c l he may I'eifiiire the surroixler of the
noxiou.- goods and may theicupon d(>sti"o\- them, subji^ct t-o his
(>/: Art. -19. safety of the euptor or the success of
i^r) Art. .■) I ; .<ce iieporr. I'earco hi:? operations.
lliLTcruis, .)!)S. {>/> Art. 52.
x) Art. r}{). (;■) Art. 5:].
., f ) \vt . 'i'->. .1') .\< ])rM\i(lc(l l)y Art. 5'-].
I') .\rx. .')!•. >ei' licpi'it. Pcarcf (/, As whore .<iic carrio-; coiitral)and
llitru'iii^. -"tOs. anioinitiuir to less tliau half her cargo.
(j,-) That is. flu- cxi.-ri'iii-e of cir- i^- ) .\ rt . t9 ; supra.
uinnstanees cahuhiteil to eiidaiin'cr the
488 Cases and Opinions on International Law.
luaking oiitrv tliereof in tlio log'-book and taking- cortifiod copies
of all relevant papers, after wliich the ve.ssel is to be allowed to
continue her vo_vag-(v But this ])r()ceeding' is subject lo the same
conditions as regards proof before the Pi'i/.e Court botii of the
ca])tor"s inability to bring' in tlie vessel and (jf the lialjilit^- of the
projierty to condenuiation — as tliose which attach to the destruction
of neutral prizes ((^/). These provisions are entirely novel, but ■were
thought to bo th(> logical outcome of certain antecedent provisions.
Tims by Art. 44. it will 1)0 ro!uemb(>rod. a captoi' may. in cases of
contraband cai'riago and when the \(>ss(d ]i(>rself is not liable to con-
demnation, accept the surrender of the contraband as an alternative
to sending- the vessel in for adjudication, if this is nmtually agreed
to (e)\ whilst by Art. 49 he may. in a case whore the vessel is herself
liable to condemnation and he is ])re\(mtod from sending- her
in for adjudication bv I'oason of exceptional noci'ssity. destroy
both vessel and cargo ( / ). It may happen, ho\v(>vor. that contraband
is found on a vessel in less ])i-op()rtion than one-half of the total
cargo; an amount which would not warrant either the condomiuTtion
of th(> vessel if she were brought in for adjudication or her destruc-
tion in a case whore necessity ])revented the ca])tor fj-om sending-
her in. In such a case it was thoug-ht reasonalde that the captoi'
should at anv i'at(> have the right of destroying' the n(»\ious goods,
subject to proi)er attc^station of the fact and to the mattiM- being snbse-
cpiently adjudicated on by the Priz(> Courf (/y).
{d) .\rts. .54, 51. .V2: .soc l^.-pcrt. /) .s'/'//,v'. p. 4S7.
Pearce Higgms, 599. ('/) Sec I'ai-I. V-\\-^or< i 1«I0!)). Misc.
■ r) S, >,,,■". p. 41.')-(;. N<i. I. pp. .12. 97.
( 489 )
APPENDICES.
No. I.
TIIK nAAHE COXVKXTION HKI.ATIVK TO THE OPKXIX'G
OF IIOSTIIJTIKS. \o. ;; of liio; un.
1. Tin; ( 'iiiin'aci iiiu' Pdwci-- tim-ou nizc ihat host ilii ios lioiwccn tlioiii
must iiol (•Miiiiiicnci' witiioiii ;i |;i'('\ioiis and e.xplicil uaniiiiu', in
tlio t'oi'iii oT ciihor a (it'claral ion ol' wai'. liiviiiii' icasoii-. oi- an iilli-
inaiiini with a conditional dcclaiatidn of \\ai\
2. 'I'ho cxistoiui' of a staK' ol' war nuisl l)(> jiotificd io the jieuti'al
I'owoi's Avitlioiit dohiy. and shall not ix^ hold to afl'cct llioin until
after \\io r(^coipt of a innilii-atinn. which may. ]i(.)wever. Ix^ given
by teU'<^'ra|th. Xe\<Mlholcs>. ncntral INnvcrs may not roly on the
absence of notiticafion if it be t'stablishcd l)eyon<l donbt that they
wei'e in fact a\\are tA' the ('\isi(Micc of a state of -war.
•'). Artich^ 1 of \\io prt'scnt ('(invention .shall take elfe(-t in case
of war b(M\\een two oi' inor(^ ol' the ( "ont I'act in^' Powers. Article 2
ap[)lies as between a beiliuci'eni Pnwor which is a partv to the
('onventiini and neutral I*ow(n's which are also parties k.i the ( 'on-
V enlion.
(f } 111 the i-a-:c liotli "f rliis and ntlicr ( 'ini\'ciitiiin< the t'lirnial parts are
nmittiMl; as an^ also the [irdvisinns rclariiiij; to I'atiticatioii. adlicsion. (lominei-
atioii, and tluur rcs|iccfi\ c dates of operation, and mode of rei>'istration. for
the coinnion form of which see No. 2 of 1907. .\.i-ts. 3 -7, vol. i. ]i]). -572- 373.
'.riie translation is based on. hnt liy no means idenrieal with, that L;'iven \u
I'arliamentary l'ai>crs. Mi^e. Xo. ti' I'.IO.S). and No. I 19(19). a- to whieli
-^ee \ol. i. 349 n. uO-
4iH) No. II.
No. II.
HAGUE COXVEXTiOX COXXEKXIXGr THE LAWS AXD
CUSTOMS OF WAR OX LAXD, Xo. 4 of 1907 («;.
1. The Contracting- Powers shall issue instructions to their armed
land forces which shall be in coni'orinity Avith tlie Regulations respect-
ing the Laws and Customs of War on Land, annexed to the present
Convention.
2. The provisions contained in the Regulations referred to in
Article L as well as in the present Convention, do not apply except
between Contracting Powers, and then only if all the belligerents
are parties to the Convention.
0. A belligerent party which violates the provisions of the said
Regulations shall, if the case demands, be liable to pay compensation.
It shall be responsible for all acts committed by persons forming'
part of its armed forces.
4. The present Convention, duly ratihed, shall replace, as be-
tween the Contracting Powers, the Convention of the 29th July,
1899, respecting the Laws and Cust^jms of War on Land. The
Conveiifion of 1899 remains in force as between the Powers which
signed ii. but which do not ratify the present Convention.
Iter/y.l-tit/oiis rcspcctiiuj the I.aivs and CuHtoi/hs of ^\ ar o)t Land.
vSkCJIOX I. Oj' pF.LI.lfiKIUOXTS.
CII.M'TKi; 1. "TJIF. SF.VTL'S OF BFr.I>J(';j;RF \ T.
1. The laws, riu-hts, and duties of war apjjly not oiil\" to tlio arnn .
but alsu to nulitia and volunteer corps fuliilling all the following-
conditions:- (1 i They nuist be' commanded by a person responsible
for his subordinaUi.'-: (2i They must liav(> a fixed distinctive sign
recofi'ni/able at a distance; ( .'J ) They must carry anus openly; and
(4 I They must conduct their operations in ac'cordance A\ith the laws
and customs of wai'. In countries where nulitia or volunteer corps
constitute the army, or form ])aft of it. they are included under the
denomination " armv."
2. The inhabitants of a t^rritoi/}' not iin<ler occu])aiion, who, on
the aj)])roach of the enemv. spontanerjuslv take up artns to resist
the inva'liiiL:' troo|)S without having had time to or'j'anizc theinselves
((') Sc<' ji. (a), p. 4S9, -sx/o-'!.
Hague Convention^ 1007. 491
in accordance witli Article 1. siiall bo rcu-ardod as bellif^-oreiite if
they carry arms ojuMily and it' tlioy respect the laws and customs
of war.
.">. The armed forces of tlie bellifiorents may consist <jf combaiaiits
and non-combalants. In tlie case of capture by the enemy, both
liave tlie rio-ht to lie treated as ]nisoiiers of war.
(JIl.Vt'TKH 11. - i'KlSO-VKKS OF WAR.
4. Prisoners of war are in the power of the hostile Government,
but not of the individuals or corps who capture them. They must
be humanely treated. All their personal belong-ing-s, except arms,
horses, and military papers, remain their property.
5. Trisoncrs of war may be interned in a town, fortress, camp, or
other place, and are bound not to g-o beyond certain fixed limits;
but they cannot be placed in confinement except as an indispensable
measure of safety and onh' while the circumstances which neces-
sitate the measure continue to exist.
6. The State may employ the labour of prisoners of war. other
than officers, according- to their rank and (aiiacity. The work shall
not be excessive and shall have no connection with the op(!ration6
of the war. Prisoners may bo authorized to work for the public
service, f(n' private persons, or on their own account. Work done
for the Stiite is paid for at rates proportional to the work of a
similar kind executed by soldiers of the national army, or. if there
are no such rates in force, at rates proportional to the work executed.
When the work is for other branches of the pidjlic service or for
private persons the conditions are settled in aurccunent with the
military authorities. The wages of the pi'isoners shall go towards
improving their position, and the balance shall be paid them on
their release, deductions on account of the cost of juaintenance ex-
cepted.
7. The Ciovernment into whose hands prisonei's of war have
fallen is charged with their maintenance. In default of special
agreement between the belligerents, prisoners of war shall be
treated as regards rations, cpiarters, and clothing on the same footing-
as the troops of the Government which ca])tui'0<l them.
8. Pi'isoners of war shall be subject to the la\\>. rei^iilalions. and
orders in force in the army of the State in the powiM- of wliii'li they
are. .\nv act of iiisub(jrdination jusiilies ihc adopiion towards th<Mn
of such measures of severity as may be c(insid<>i'(Ml necessary.
P.^scajted prisoners who are r<Mal<tMi before Ixdng- able to rejoin their
own ariii\' or bofoi<' l('a\ing tlu^ territory occupied by the army -which
captured t hem an^ lia ble to disciplinary pii nislnneui . Prisonei> who,
after succ(^i'diiig in esca |)i iiii'. are a^^'ain lal<eu prisoiii'r>. are not ]ial)le
10 aiiv punishment on account of tludr pi'e\ ious escape.
9. E\er\- prisoner ol' war i^ bound to gi\-e. if i juesi ioiknI oii the
subject. hi< true name and rank, and i I' he inl'rinues this iide. he is
liable to ha\'e the ad\antaL;'es i^-ivon to pn-oners of his cl.ass cur-
tailed.
41)2 yo. 11.
10. Prisoners oT war may lio sict at liberty on parole if the laws
01' their eoiriitry allow it. and, in such cases, they are bonnd, on their
personal hononr. scrupulously 1o t'ullil. botli towar<ls their own
Governmen! and th(> Government by which they were inade prisoners,
the eng-ag-ements they may have contracted. In such cases their
own Goverjiment is l)ound neither to require of jior accept from
them any service incompatible with the ])arole g'iven.
11. A prisoner (jf war cannot be comjjelled to acce})t \n< liberl}-
on parole: similarly the hostile (.■o\ornment is not oblig-ofl to accede
to the request of a ])risoner to l)e set at liberty on parole.
12. Pri-otiers of war liberate<l on jjarole and recajitureij bearing-
arms against the (iovernment to Avhich they had pledg'ed their
honour, or ag-ainst the allies of that < ojverjiment, forfeit their rig'ht
to be treated as pri<{jners of war. and may be ]tnt on trial lieforc the
( 'ourts.
lo. Indivithiaf-- following- an ainiy witlioiit directly belong-ing- to
it. such as ne\\spa])ei' correspondents or report<'rs. sutlers ijr con-
tractors, who fall iiito the enemy's hands and wliom the latter tlnid'CS
it e.xpedicni to detain, are entitled to be treated as ju'isijners of v,ar,
provided they are in po-sessirjii of a certihf-ate from the military
authoi'itie.- of the army which they were accom])anyin^-.
14. A bureau for information rclatixe to pri>oin'r< of war is in-
stituted at the cinmiienccment of ho-tilities in <'ac|i of ihe belligerent
Slates, and. ■when nece-saiy. in neuii'al counii'ie.- which have receive<l
bc|Jio(.i'ent.s on their territory. The busiu(\~;s (,f tins hurtuiu is to
repiv to all in([uiii<'- about the pri^miers. to recei\'e from the \'arious
services <-ojicerned full information icspectini: inter]imenr> and
transfer--, icleascs on ])ar(de. exihanu'es. e.scape^. admi-.-ion- into
ho>])ital. death-, as well as all (ithei- infoiniati(m n<'i-es.<arv to enable
it to make out and keej) up to dati' an indivi<lual roturn for each
jiiisoner of war. The bureau must state in this retui'ii the reeimental
number, name and surname, ag-e, place of ori<.i-in, raid;, unit, ^\■oun(h.
date and ])laco ni i-apture. infrnment. ^\"ounflin2■. and <leath. a-~ well
a- any observations of a special character. The iiidi\"idnal return
shall be -(>iit to the Goveiiimeiit of the otluu' bellinerent after the
'■onc!iivi(,]| (if ])eac(>. It i-~ al.-o the bu>in;'.-s of the infoiination bureau
to oathei' and keep toii-ether all jier.-onal <dfec;>. \-aluables. letters,
iV<'.. fi')uiid on the field of battle or l"ft bv ])risoiiei'- ^vho have b(>en
re|ea,s(>d cm jiaiole. oi- exchanee<p oi' who have escaped, or died in
hospitah or ambula ni<\s. and to foiwaid them to those conc<'rn(Ml.
1."). .-^ocie'tie.- fm- the relief of pii-oners of ^\■ar. if |iro])(>rh' i-ou-
>tituted in accoi-danc'- with the law> of their criuntry and with the
<ibjer-i of -<M-\-in2' a- the chaiMH'l foi- charit;dil(> (dfoi-t. shall receive
fiom the belli::('r<'m-. foi' i hem>-el\{'s an<l theii- duh" acciedited
a^eut.-. e\ciy facility foi' the <'tlicieii1 ))erforma nc(> of their humane
la.-k within the briuiid> iiii)H».-ed b\' miliiarv exiu'<Mici(>s and adminis-
1iaii\(' i<'L;ula1 ion.-. Hepre-enta t i vcs of these .-ocietie.-. -when fur-
ni-h<'d with a pei-onal iieriiiit b\ tlu' milita.iv aut hoi'ities. inav. on
ILojue Convention, 19U7
493
giviiit:- all iiiHlci'iakiiii^- in ui'iliii;^- K^ comjjl} uitJi all measures ol'
order and jtolice which llie\ may have to issue, he a(huitted to the
|)hires oT iiiteiiimeiit I'oi' the purposi' of (listi'ihul inu' reliel'. as also
to the hahiuu' places of repatriated prisoners,
HI. Intormatiou hureanx enjoy the privilej^'c of fre." cajria^i'e.
Ix'tter.-. money orders, and vahiahh's. as well as |)iistal [jari'td--, iii-
ten<h'd for piisuners ol' war. nr dispatdied hy them, shall he <'.\enipt.
from all postal charu'es in the connlries of ori^'in and destination, as
well a-- in tli(> countries ihey pass thioui^h. Presents and relief in
kind for pris(nier> ol' war shall he admitted free of all import or
other duties, as w(dl as any |)ayment {^w carriau'e h\" State raihva\'s.
17. Oilicer.'- taken pi'is(jneis shall r<M-ei\(' i1h> same rate of pav as.
oliicers of corresponding^' raid<. in the c(.)Uiitiy' where thev tire detained:
the amount shall he refunded hy their own Ch)\ crnment .
IS. Prisoners of war shall enjoy complete lihei't\' in the e.\ercise
of their reli;..i'ioii. including- attendance at the services nf their own
( hiirch. on th(~ sole con<lition that they e(jm]»ly with the ])olice
r(.>L:'iilai ions issiu'd hy th(^ militaiy authorities.
I'.t. TIk' wills of pi'isoners of war are recfdved or drawn u|) in the
sanu' wa\ as for s<ddiers of the national army. The same rule.s shall
be follo\\<'(l as reji'ards eortifieate.s of death and also as to the burials
of pri^oiKMs of war, due regard being ])aid to their giade and rank.
:2(i. .\fter the conelusion of ]ieace. the re])aii-ialion of pi'isoners
of war >hall he carried out as (pnckly as possible.
( iiAi''fi;i; 11. liir; sk k and \\(u .\!)i:1).
l! i . The obligations of bellig'ereiits with I'egaid to the sick and
woundi'd iir(' u'overned b\' the (.oMicxa ( 'oiivention .
Sf.c'l'iox 11. Or' llosTiLrriKs.
(!i\!'ii;i; I. \ii;a\s oi- i.x.ukim; iiik kxi;aiv. >ii:oi>. axd i;oMi;Ai;i)-
MK.XTS.
±1. The riiihl of the Ijelliu'ereuts is jioi unlimited as leaard^ tlic
a(.lopt!iiM iif mi'aii> of injurinu- the eiiemw
l!.'i. In ;iddilioii lo the [)rohibit ions pro\ ided iiy >pcci;d < Mnvon-
tioii-. ii i~- paniciiiarly l(.)rl)id(len - la i To empiloy poi.^on oi' poisoned
weapon-; mm io kill or wrmnd by treacheiy iii<li\ idiia l< lielongini;-
to the lio-iilc natinii or army; > (M to kill oi- wMuiid \\\v cn"m\' who.
luixini:' l::id down hi-^ arm-, or no loiiLicr liaxiu.;- in','an> nf defence.
ha- -c !■ ion doled a 1 d isci'oi ion ; mI ) ii_i de-Tn'c i ha! no .pcii-tcr will be
given; > (M lo (Mirploy arm,-, pro |<>ci ile-. or maieiial calculatiMl to
iMi;-' !i n iie^'e--a r\ sun'ci'ino'; ifi to make imprMpm u-c of a tiau' of
triico, > a' liio national IkiL:'. m' of iho militai'\' in-iu'iiia and iiniloian o)'
till' cM^'iiix. a- \w\\ a- oi ihe di-tiiic!i\e sii_.'i!- nf di' tonaaxa I'lu-
\c!ii i( III ; '^1 ill d"-'i''i\' Ol' <'M/" cnciiix p!Mp'ai\'. aiile-- .-iicli i|o-
-tiic-ii'in (■!■ -ei/iiic he imperal i\"ely domaiid"d l'\ the nei-e-.-itie- ol
4!i4 jVo. II.
war; di) t-o declare extinguished, suspended, or unenforceable in
law, the riglits and rights of action of enemy subjects. A belli-
gerent is likewise forbidden to compel enemy subject* to take part
in tlie operations of war directed against their own country, even
if they were in ilie service of the belligerent before the commence-
ment of the war.
24. Ruses of wai' and the employment of measures necessary for
obtaining information about the enemy and the country are con-
sidered permissible.
'■1'). The attack or bombardment, by any means whatever, of un-
defended town<. villages, dwellings, or btuldings, is forbidden.
2(i. The ollicor in command of an attacking force nmst do all
in his power to Avarn the atithorities before commencing a bombard-
ment, except in cases of assault.
27. In sieges and bombardments all necessary steps must be
taken to spare, as far as possible, buildings dedicated to public
worship, art, science, or charitable purposes, historic monuments,
hospitals, and places where the sick and wounded are collected,
provided they are not being used at the time for military purposes.
It is the duty of the besieged to indicate such buildings or places by
distinctive and visible signs, Avhich shall bo notified to tbe enemy
beforehand.
28. The giving over to pillage of a town or place, even when
taken by assault, is forbidden.
ciiAPTKU 11. --spii;s.
29. A person can only be con.'^idered a spy when, acting clandes-
tinely or on false pretences, he obtains or endeavours to obtain
inffM/mation in tlio zone of operations of a belligerent, with the
intention of comniuiiicating it to tbe hostile party. Accordinglv,
soldiers not wr'aiiiiu' a di-c:-aise mIio have joenetrated into the zone
of operations of tlie hostile army, for the purpose of obtaining in-
formation, are not considered spies. Siuularly. the following are
not consi<lored .-pios: — Soldiers and civilians intrusted with the
dcli\ery of do-[)a!clK'S intended either for their own armv or for
the enemy's aniiy. and carrying out their mission o^ienlv. To this
class likewise liclmig jiersons sent in balloons for the purpose of
cai-i'viim- de>j)aiilic> and. generally, of maintaining communications
boiwren the diHerciit ])arts of an army or a territory.
■'!<). A spy taken in the act sliall not be jniiiished without previous
trial.
.■]J. A spy who. after rejoining the army to which he belongs,
is snbso<'[iiently pa])fiirod bv the enemv. is treated as a prisoner of
war. and incurs jio respoir^ibility for his provioir-^ ar-ts as a spv.
CII.Vt^TFj; in.— Ft.AGs OF TIM CF.
'■)'!. \ ])Ci-.-()n i< r<'L:'ard<'d a- b(>ai'ino- a flas; nf truce who ]ias been
.oil 1ji>i i/cii l)\" out' o[ the belliiieients to enter into (■oniniiini'alion
Hague Convention, 1907. 495
with the other, aud who preseuta hiijxself under a white Hag. He
is entitled to inviokibility, as also the trumpeter, bugler or drummer,
the llag-beai-er and the interpreter who may accompany him.
'<io. Tlie commander to Avlioni a Hag of truce is sent is not obliged
in every case to receive it. lie may take all steps necesisary in
order to jjrevent the envoy from talking advantage of his mission
to obtain information. In case of abu.so, ho has the right temporarily
to detain the envoy.
34. Tlie envoy loses his rights of inviolability if it is proved in
a positive and incontestable manner that Jie has taken advantage
of liis privileged position to provoke or commit an act of treachery.
CHAPTER IV. — CAPITULATIONS.
85. Capitulations agreed upon between the contracting parties
must take into account the rules of military iionour. Unce settled,
they must be scrupulously observed by both parties.
CHAPTER V. — ARMISTICES.
36. An armistice suspends military operations by mutual agree-
ment between the belligerent parties. If its duration is not defined,
the belligerent parties may resume operations at any time, provided
always that the enemy is warned Avithin the time agreed upon, in
accordance with the terms of the armistice.
37. An armistice may be general or local. The tirst suspends the
entire military operations of the belligerent States; the second be-
tween certain portions of the belligerent armies only and within
a fixed zone.
38. An armistice must be notified officially and in good time to
the competent authorities and to the troops. Hostilities are sus-
pended immediately after the notification, or at the time fixed.
39. It rests with the contracting parties to settle, in the terms of
the armistice, what relations may be had by them, within the theatre
of war, A\ith the civil population and with each other.
40. An}- serious violation of the armistice by one of the parties
gives the other party the right of denouncing it, aud even, in cases
of urgency, of recommencing hostilities immediately.
41. A violation of the terms of the armistice by individuals acting
on their own initiative only entitles the injured party to demand
the ])uni-hmcut of the oifenders and, if necessary, compensation
for the losses sustained.
SECTION Hi.- Military Authority over the T];Ri;rroRY of itie
Hostile Stai];.
42. TfriiiMiy i- cun.-idored (i(;cu|iied wlioii ailiialh' plaicd under
;li(> ;iul!i(iiii\ nt th<' hiisiik' ai'inv. 'The orciipai kmi exUMids onlv
to the tci'iiiory whore such authority has l.)oen establis]io<i and can
be exerci.-ed.
4!)G No. II.
4.J. The authority of the legitimate Power liaving passed iii fact
into the hands of the occaipant, the latter sliall do all in liis power to
re-estahlish a)id ensure, as far a^ possible, public order and safety, re-
specting at the same time, nnless absolutely prevented, the laws
in force in the country.
44. A belligorent is fi)rl)icklen to compel the iidiabitants of terri-
tory ociupied by him to furnish information about tlie army of the
other belHgorent. oi' about hi.< means of defence.
4.5. It i< forbidden to com])el the inhabitant^ of occupied territory
to swear aUegiancc to the hostile Power.
4G. Family honour and rights, individual life, and private pro-
perty, as well as religious convictions and worship, mtist be respected.
Private ])roporty may not be conhscated.
47. Pillage is expre.ssly forbidden.
48. If. in the territory occuiiied. the occu[)ant collects the taxes,
dues, and tolls payable to the State, he shall do so. as far as is
Ijossible. in accordance with the rules uf assessment and distribution
in force at the time, and shall in consecpience be liound to defray
tiie expou-es of the admirustration of the <jccu])ied territory on the
same scale as tlie national Government was bound.
41». If. in addition to the taxes mentioned i]i the above Article,
the (je<-u]).iut levies other money contributions in the occupied
territory, this nuist only be for the needs of the army or the adminis-
tration of the territory in cpiostion.
50. X'j collective j)ena.lty. ])ecuniary or otherwise, shall be in-
flicted upon the ])0iHilation <in acr'ouut of the acts of individuals
for winch it cannot l)e regarded a^ collectively responsible.
."Jl. Xo contriljution shall be collected except under a written order,
and oti the re-]»onsil)ility of a general in command. The contribution
shall 1)0 levied, as far as ]»ossilile. in accordance with the rules as
to the a-sessment and incidence of taxes in force at the time. For
every contribution a recei])t shall be given to the contributories.
■")2. l\e(|iiisiti(Mis in hind and services shall not bo demanded from
local authoiiiios ov inhabitants exce])t for the needs of the arinv of
occu]:)alion. They shall be in ju-opririion to the resources of the
countrv. II lid r)f suili a nature as not to invohe the inhalutants in
the oblii^ai ii'M of taking p;ut in militaiw oj)e!'atioii- aL:';iin>t their
own C'iii!tir\'. Sur-h re<|iii-itioiis and se!'\"ices sliall oidv lie demanded
on the autlioiitv (if the comniaiider in the locality or-eu])ied. Sup-
]die^ in hind shall as far as i- ])os<ible Ijo jiaid for in I'oadv money:
if not. a r''(eipi shall lie ^i^-en and j^ayment rif tlie amount '\w^
shall be made a- sriori as ])iissibl(v
.")•■;. An arnn' of occu])ation <hall oidy take ])o<sossion of ca>h.
fnn<l-. <ind rerili/.able sor-iiia't ie- which are sii'ictly th." ]^ri-i]-)fM/t \- of
the Siaic. dcji'it- of aiT!i-. uhmiis of tra n--]ioii. stoi-es and >u])}i]i('-.
and. !_('iicra d \-. all mowable ]"U'o|i'M'| \- li(doiiii'i n-j- to tlie State A^hich
mav !)!■ a-cl !ur militaiy o|UMat ions, Ajiarl froiri r-ase^ L:'i"ivcia!ed liv
naval !:i\'. all -i pplia m-c- adapted fcir the t i-aii-mis^ion rif m-w-. oi-
foi- th'' iiMii-po!' cif p<'i-<(i]is oi' Li'iHid-. whethei- on land, at sea. or in
Hague Convention, 1907. 497
tho air. dopofs of arms, and, in general, all kinds of war material
may be seized, even lhuu<i-h tliey belong- to private individuals, but
they miisf be reslon^l, and tlie indemnities for them re<i'ulated, on
the conclusion of peace.
'){. Submarine cabl(\-< connect inu- an occaipied territor\- with a
neutral tei'riiory shall not be scizc^d or destroyed e.\cept in the case
of absolute necessity. They also nuist be j'estored and indcnnnitics
paid for them on the conclusion of peace.
;-)."). The occujiying- State shall l)e re<;-arded oidy as administrat-or
and usufructuary of public buildings, landed ])roperiy. forests, and
ao-ricultural undertakino-s lielona-inu" to the hostile State, and
situated in th(> occu]iicd country. It nuist satep-uard the capital of
.such properties, and administer them in accordance with tin' ruh's
of usufruct .
5(>. The property of local autlioiitii^s. as well as that of institu-
tions dedicated to jiublic woi'ship. chai'itw education, and to science
and art. even when State j)roperty, shall be tr(>ated as private pro-
perty. .Any seizure or destruction of, or wilful damag-c to, institu-
tions of this charact<M'. historic monuments and works of science and
art. is forbidden, and should be made the subject of legal proceed-
in srs.
.L. Is K
498 No. III.
No. III.
HAG IK COXVENTIOX KESPECTIXO THE KlGHTS AND
DLTIES OE XECTRAL POWEfiS AXD PERSONS IN
WAR ON LAND, No. 5 of 1907(a).
CilAPTEl!. I. — THE RIGHTS AXD DLTIES OF XEUTKAL POWERS.
1. The territory of neutral powers is inviolable.
'1. Belligerents are forbidden to move troops or convoys, whether
of munitions of war or of suj^plies, across the territory of a neuti'al
Power.
o. Belligerents are likewise forbidden to: — (a) erect on the terri-
■ior\- of a neutral Power a wireless telegraphy station or any
up[)aratus for the purpose of communicating with belligerent forces
on land or sea; (h) use any installation of this kind established by
them for purely military purposes on liie territory of a neutral
Power before the war. and not previously opened for tlie service of
public messages.
4. Corps of combatant- jhusi uot bo formed, Jiur recruiting
agencies opened, on tlie territory of a neutral Power, on behalf of the
belligerents.
') . A neutral Power must not allow any of the acts referred to in
Articles 2 to 4 to occur on il< territory. It is not Injund to
puni.-h acts in violation <jf neutralit}' unless >uch acts liave Ijeeu
coniinitted on il.s own territory.
G. A neutral Power will Jiot incur res])onsil)ility meiely from tbe
fact that persons cross the froiuler indivi<lually in order to place
tbemst'lves at the service of one of the helligerejit>.
7. A neutral Power is not bound to prexent the export ur transit,,
on liclialf of either belligerent, nf arms, munitions of war. or. in
u'ciieral, ni anything wluch could Ije of use to an army or fleet.
s. .\ neutral Power is not bound to forbi<l or restrict the use on
bcliali' ot bolliii'crent.s of te]e;i'raph or t'^lephone cables, or of wiroh'ss
K'lc^iaiihy a])i)aratu-. whether Ijolonging to it, or to companies or
tn prixatc individuals.
'.', A iKMitral Power nur-t ajiply impartially to tJie bellia'ei'enis
o\<'r\- restriction i ir piohibji i( m whiih ii nia\'<'nact in rc^'iird to the
mailer- rclCrrcd to in Ai'tii-|os 7 and S. The lU'iitral Power sliall
-c- that the same oblio-aiion is observed bv com])anies or pri\at''
((() See II. {II), p. 489, -^n/yra.
Hague Convention^ 1907. 499
ownoife ol; telegraph or telephone cables or wireless telegraphy
apparatus.
10. Tho fact tiuit a iicuti'al Power roi)olling-, oven hy force, attempts
to violate its neulralitv cannot bo rcirarded as a hostile act.
CUArXKR II. — INTKRNMK.NT OF BELLIGERENTS AND CARE OF THE
WOLXDLD IN NEUTRAL TERRITORY.
11. A neutral Tower which re(:<'ive.s on its territory troops belong-
ing- to the belligerent- armies shall intern them, as far as possible at
a distance from the theatre of war. It may keep them in camps and
may even confine them in fortresses or in places set apart for the
purpose. It should decide whether oiUcers may be left free on
giving their parole not to leave the neutral territory without per-
mission.
12. In default of .^peeial agreement, the neutral Power shall supply
the interned with the food, clothing, and relief which the dictates
of humanity prescribe. At the conclusion of peace the expenses
cau.sed by the internment shall bo made good.
Jo. A neutral Power which receives escaped prisoners of war sliall
leave them at liberty. If it allows them to remain in its territory
it may assign them a place of residence. The same rule applies to
prisoners (jf -war brttught by troojjs taking refuge in the territory
of a. neutral Power.
It. A neutral Power may oullinrize the passage info its torritoiw
rif the >ick' and wounded belc)nu-ing to tli<' belligerent armies, on
condition that the trains or othiM' methods of transport by which thev
are conveyed shall cari'v neither combatants nor Avar material. In
such a case, the iicuti'al Power is Iioniid to take whatevfu' measures
of safety and control are ner-fv^sni'v for the i)ur]iose. The sick and
wounded of on.e belliu'erent bi'ono-jit inuhM' these conditions into
neutral territory by the othei' belligerent must bo so guarded by the
neutral Power as ln (M!<Mi'e th(M'r taking no fui'ther part in the
militai'\' operations. 1'lu* >anie duly shall devolve on the neutral
Power with rea-ard to the sick and wounded of the other armv who
may be eomnutte<l to its care.
1."). The Geneva Convention a])plies to the sick and wounded who
are interned in neutral territory.
CnAPTEH ni. — NEUTRAT, PERSONS.
111. The subji^cls Of cili/ens of a Stale mIucIi is nol takiiig part
in the war are deeiruNl uenlials.
17. A neutral caniiMt claim the lienelit of his neuti'alitv: ('a') If
ho comtnii^ hostile ai'ls auaiii~( a bcljio-creiit : (bi If lie cijmnut.s
act- ill fax'oiii' of a belli-crciit. ])ari icnlarl v if he volnntarilv cidisis
ill the ranks of tho aimed force <u' c)iio ol' the parties. In su'di a ca-e.
iln- iieuti'al shall not be more sexcrcdy treafe<l by the IxdligiM'ont as
against whom Ih^ ha- abaiid'Uied his iieutralitv than a subject or
viti/on of the other b(>llig<M<Mit Slate could be foi' the same act.
K K 2
500 No. III.
18. The following shall not be considered as acts committed in
favour of one bellig-erent within the meaning- of Article 17 (b):
(a) The furnishing of supplies or the making of loans t-o one of
tlie belligerents, provided that the person so doing neither lives
in the territory of tlio other party noi' in territory ufcujiied by
it, and that the supplies do not come from such territory; (b) Ser-
vices rendered in matters of police or civil administration.
CHAPTER IV.— RAILWAY M ATKK lAI. .
19. Railway material conung from the territory of neutral Powers,
whether it be the property of the said PoAvers or of companies or
private persons, and recognizable as such, shall not be rec|ui.sitioiied
or utilized by a belligerent except in so far as is absolutely neces-
sary. It shall be sent back as soon as jiossible to the country of
origin. A neutral Power may likewise, in ca.se of necessity, retain
and utilize to a corresponding e.xient railway material coming from
the territory of tlie belligerent Power. Compensation shall be paid
on either side in proi)ortion to the material used and to the period of
usage.
CHAPTER V. — FINAL PROVISIONS.
20. The provisions of the present Convention do not apply except
between Contracting Powers, and then only if all the bclligerent.s
are parties to the Convention.
Hague Convention, 1907. oOl
No. IV.
HAGUE COXVENTIOxX RELATIVE TO THE STATUS OF
EiXEMY MERCHANT SHIPS AT THE OUTBREAK OF
HOSTIUITIES, Ko G of VM)1 [a).
1. When a uiorchaui riliij^) bolougiiig- tu one of the belligerent
Pduens is ut the coiumciKcnieiit ol' liostilitie.s in an enemy port, it
i8 de.sirable tluit it should be allowed to depai't freely, cither imme-
diately, or after a reasonable number of days of grace, and to pro-
ceed, after being furnished ^vith a pass, direct to its port of desti-
nation or any otiier port imlicatcd to it. The same principle applies
in tlie ease of a ship whieli has left its last port of departure before
tlie commencement of the war and has entered a port belonging
to the enemj' while still ignoi'ant that hostilities had broken out.
'1. A merchant ship which, owing to circumstances beyond it.s
control, may have been unable to leave the enemy port within the
period cont^'mplated in tlie })receding Article, or which was not
allowed to leave, may not l)e confiscated. The belligerent may merely
det.iun it, on (■on<lition of restoring it after the war, without payment
of com]»ensation. or he may re(piisition it on condition of paying
compensation.
."!. Enemy merchant, ships which left their last port of departure
bef<n'e tlic commencement of the war, and are encountered on the
high seas while still ignorant of the outbreak of hostilities may not
be confiscated. They aie mer(>ly liable to l)e detained on condition
that they are r(\st<ii'<>d after the war without payment of compen-
sation; Ol' to be r(M[uisitioiicd. or even destroyed, on payment of
eom[:<Misatiiin. but in siicli case provision must be made for the
safely of th<^ persons on board a> well as the preservation of the
ship's papers. After tnuchinu' at a port in tln^ir own country or
at a neuti'al poU. such ships are subject to the laws and customs
of na\al war.
4. Enemy ciirgo on b()ar<l the vess<'|s i^efei'iH^l to in Articles 1
and "1 is likewise liable lo be (hMaiiied and restored after tlie "war
"without paynuMit of coin])<Misation. or to be requisitioned on pav-
ment of <'oni|ieiis;itioii. with or without th(> ship. Tlie same prin-
ci])le a|)pli(\s in tln^ case of lai'go on board the Acssels referred to
in .\rticle n.
•"). The p)(>sent ('(invention {U)Q<. not w^U^v to mei'chant ships whicli
show by their bnild that \\w\ wvo intended for conversion into wai'
r<hi))S.
n. TIh^ provisions ot ili(> pi'esent ("onveiilion do not ap]ilv e.xce]it
betwe(Mi ( 'ontractinL;- Powers, and then only if all the btdligerent.s
are pai'ties to the ("onvention.
(a) S(-o II. ("). p. -189, sujorr.
502 No. V.
No. V.
HAGUE CONVENTION RELATIVE TO THE CONVEESION OF
MERCHANT SHIPS INTO WAR SHIPS, No. 7 of 1907(a).
1. No MEKCHAXT sliip convert'ed into a war ship shall have the
rights and duties appertaining- to vessels having that status unless
it is placed under the direct authority, immediate control, and re-
sponsibility of the Power, the flag of which it flies.
2. Merchant ships converted into war ships must bear the external
loarks which distinguish the war ships of their nationality.
o. The commander must be in the service of the State and duly
commissioned by the proper authorities. His name must figure on
the list of the ollicers of the fighting fleet.
4. The crew must be subject to military discipline.
5. Every merchant ship converted into a war ship is bound to
observe in its operations the laws and customs of war.
6. A belligerent who converts a merchant ship into a war ship
must, as soon as possible, announce such convor.sion in the list of
its war ships.
7. The provisions of the present Convention do not apply except
between Contracting Powers, and then only if all the belligerents
are parties to the Convention.
(a) See n. (a), p. -189, supra.
lliujue Convention^ 1007. 503
No. VI.
HAGUK CONVENTIOxN RKLATIVK TO THE LAYING OF
AUTOMATR' SIP.MAIUXK CONTACT MIXES, No. 5 of
19U7(ai.
1. It i.s i'orbiddon : (li To lay uuajichorcd automatic contact
mines, unlej^s they be so constructed as to become Jiariuless one
hour at most after the person who laid them luis ceased to control
them; y"l) To lay anchored automatic contact ndnes which do not
become harudoss as soon as they have broken loose from their
moorinys; (,'5) To use torpedoes wJuch do not become harndess when
they have nussed tlicir mark.
2. The laying' of automatic contact mines oif the coast and ports
of the enemy with the sole object of interceplino- commercial sliipping,
is forbidden.
o. When anchoi'cd automatic contact mines are employed, ever}^
possible precaution must be taken for the security of peaceful
ship[)ino-. The belligerents undeitake to do their utmost to render
these nunes harndess after a limited time has elapsed, and, should
the nun(\-< cease to be under observation, to notify the danger zones
as soon as uulitary e.xigencies pcrnnt. by a notice to mariners, which
must also be conummicatod to Itie (Jovernmeiits throug-h the di2:>lo-
matic channel.
4. Xeulral Pinvei'.- which lay automatic contact mines oil their
coasts nmst ol)serve the same x\\\q<- and take the same jirecautions
as are impo.'^ed on belligerents. Tlie neutral Power must give notice
to mariners in advance of the j)laces where automatic (.'ontact mines
have been lai<l. This notice nmst be commuidcated at once to the
Governments llii'ough the <liploiualic channel.
5. At the close of tlu; war. th<' ( 'out I'actiug Powers und(n'take to
do tlieir utmost to remov(> tli(> iiiiiie-; which they hav(^ laid, each
Power removing its own mine.-. .As legards anchoi'ed automatic
contact mines laid by one of the lH'|ligereni.< ojf the coast of the
other, their po.sitioii nmst be notih<'d to th(^ other jiartv bv the
Power which laid them, ami cadi Powci' mu>t pidceeil with the least
possil)h» dela\" to remo\'<'' the luines \\\ \\< own waters.
G. The ( 'out I'actiug Pow(M's whicli do not al present owtt per-
fected nunes of fh<> de.-cript ion contemplated in the ])resent Con-
vention, and which. con.xMpuMitly. coidd not at present carry out.
the rule.s laid down in .Articles 1 and .'!. iindoi'take to convert tlu'
i'l) ^^v U. ("). p. tSt|, .v"/>,v/.
504 • No. VI.
materiel of their miues as soou as possible, so as to bring it into
coni'orniity with the foregoing requirements.
7. TJie provisions of the present Convention do not apply except
between Contracting Powers, and then only if all the belligerents
are parties to the Convention.
11. The present Convention shall remain in force for seven years,
dating from the sixtieth day after the date of the first deposit of
ratifications. Unless denounced, it shall continue in force after the
expirj- of this period. The denunciation shall be notified in writing
to the Nethorland Government, which shall immediately commu-
nicate a duly certified copy of the notification to all the Powers,
informijig them of the date on which it \vas received. The denun-
ciation shall (Jidy operate in respect of the denouncing Power, and
uidy on the expiry of six months after the notification has reached
tiie Xetherland Government.
12. The Contracting Powers agree to reopen the question of the em-
ployment of automatic contact mines six months before the expiry of
the ))eriod contemplated iji the first paragraph of the precedingArticle,
ill the event of the question not having been already taken up and
settled l)y the Third Peace Conference. If the Contracting Powers
conclude a fresh Convention relative to the employment of mines,
the pre.'^ent Convention shall cease to bo applicable from the moment
wlien it comes into force.
Ilar/ne Convention, 1907. 505
No. VII.
IJACil K (()X\J:XT1()N K'ESPKCTIXC no.Mli.VRUMEXTS BY
\A\AL F()I{( KS IX TIME OF WAR. Xu. \) ov 11)07 (>/).
ClIAI'TKK 1. H()M1!A1{1).\IF,.\ r OF I -\ J )KI'i;\ 1 )K1 ) I'OKIS, r()\\N>, \ I 1,1. \( , KS,
DWKI.LIXCS, OR lU"ri,DlX(;s.
1. TiiK Ijoiiihardiuoiit hy naval forces of imdofeiided })ort.s, towns,
villau'(\^. (Iwcllinu's. or buildin^'-s i.s f(jrl)i(l(lun. A [)laco may not be
l)onibai'<lo(i soleh' mi th{> uTonnd that autoniatic siibniarin<' contact
mine-- ar(> andioi'ivl olf tlic hai'honi'.
:_'. Militaiy works, military or Jia\'al cstablisluncnt.'^, depots of
iirnrs or war material. A\orksiio[)s or phiiit which coidd be utilized
foi' the nee<l> of the hostile (hnM or army, and ships of wai' in tlie
luirbour. are not. howevei'. inclinb'd in this [)i'ohibition. The com-
inan<l<M' (if a na\'al force may destroy them with artillery, after a
summon^ fi)llow(Ml by a reasoiiabh^ interval of time, if all other
UK'aiis are impi^ssible. and when the local authoi'ities have not tliem-
sel\-es (lest idyrd them within the time fixed. The commander incurs
no ix'^ptin^ibilitN for an\' unavoidable damau'e which may be caused
bv a bondiai'dnient n nder such circiimsianc(vs. If fm' military reasons
imnK^liale action is nec<'ssai'y. and lU) delay can Ix' allowc^d to the
en(Mnv. it is ne\ crt hel(>-;s nndcrsltjod that the prohibition to bombard
the nndelended town holds o'ood. as in the case <i-iven in the first
para^'raph. and thai 'he commandei' shall take all dne measnres in
oi'd(M' thai th(> town may snifer a'^ little harm as possilde.
.'). Aftei" {\\\v notice ha^ been L;'i\iMi. thf> bombai'dment of iinde-
fende(l pons, towii^. villau'cs. d wellinii's, or bnildinii's niav be com-
in«Mic<>d. if \\\v loi-al a iit lioiit ics. on a formal summoirs Ixmiiu' made
to them. d(M'linc lo comply with i'<Mpi isit ions fm' provisions or
snp])lies nec(\ssary for the immediaK^ use of the naval forc(^ before
the ]dace in (piestion. Such reipiisit ions shall l)e pi'opoit ional to the
re>ourc<>s of the ])lac(V They slnill (Uily b(> demanded in the name
of tln^ commandtM' of the said naval foi'c(>, and they shall, as fai' as
possible, he paid for in readv iiioikm-; if not. receipts shall he p'iven.
4. The bonihardment of nndetended ])orts. towns, villaiz-es, dwell-
iiic^'s. or bnildin<i's. on acconid of failni-e to pav monev contributions,
is forbidden.
((-'^ Sc(> II. (n). )). 189, sr'prf'.
506
No. VII.
CHAPTER II. — GENERAL PROVISIONS.
5. In bombardmenns by naval forces all necessaiy steps must be
taken by the eonimander to spare as far as pos.sible building-s de-
dicated to public Avor.-<hip, art, science, or charitable purposes,
historic monument.-^, hospitals, and places where the sick or wounded
are collected, provided that they are not used at the time for military
purposes. It is the duty of the inhabitants to indicate such monu-
ments, edifices, or ^''hices by visible sig-ns, which shall consist of
large t^tiil' rectangular panels divided diagonallj' into two jxiinted
triangular portions, the ti])per portion black, the lower jxniion
white.
G. Unless military exigencies render it im^DOssible, the oflicer in
command of an attacking naval force must, before commencing' the
bombardment, do all in his power to warn the authorities.
7. The g'iving- ovei' to pillag-e of a town or place, even Avhen taken
by assault, is forbidden.
CHAPTER III. — FINAL PROVISIONS.
8. The provisions of the jiresent Convention do not apidy except
between Contracting- Powers, and then only if all tlie lioiligerent.-
are parties to the Convention.
No. VIII.
HAGUE COXVENTIOX FOR THE ADAPTATION OF THE
PRIXCIPLES OF THE CEXEVA CONVENTION TO
MARITIME WAR. No. 10 of 1907 (a).
The material parts of this Convention, as well as of the Geneva
Conventit)!!. 190G, have alroadv been set forth (//).
(a) S(H' n. (r/), ]). 489, supi-a.
(Ii) Soc [)]). 104, 121. sirprii. Vot the text of the (lonova Convention, 190().
si'o I'earce lllLTs-ins, IS // si'q.: and for that of the l[auai(> Convention. Xn. 1(1
of HIOT, ihhr. 3(;i rf ^rq.
ILujw (Junvention^ 1907. oO'i
No. IX.
HAGUE CONVENTiO.X RELATIVE TO CERTAIN RESTRIC-
TIONS UN THE EXERCISE OF THE RIGHT OF
CAI'TURE IN MARITIME WAR, No. 11 of 1907 (a).
CJIAl'TKR I.-' POSTAL COKKlvSrOMJKNCE.
1. The postal coriespoudeucc of ueutrais or belligerents, what-
ever ite ofiicial or private character, found on board a neutral or
enemy «hip on the high seas is inviolable. If tlie ship is detained,
the correspondence is forwarded by the captor with the least j)os-
sible delay. The provisions of the pDreceding paragraph do not, in
case of violation of blockade, apply to coi'respondence proceeding
to or fronr a blockaded port .
2. The inviolability of postal correspondence does not exempt a
neutral mail ship from the laws and customs of naval war respect-
ing neutral merdiant ships in general. The ship, however, may not
be searched except when absolutely necessary, and then only with
as much consideration and expedition as possible.
CllAfniii II. — EXEMPTION EROM CAPTURE OE CERTAIN VESSELS.
o. \'c>>ols employed exclusively in coast hshcries, or small boats
emplovo<l in loi-al trade, togctlter with their appliances, rigging,
tackle, and cargo, are exempt from capture. This exemption
ceases from the moment that they take any part whatever
in hostilities. The Contracting I'owers liind themselves not to take
advantage oi the harndess character of the saitl vessels in order to use
them for military jjurpc^se-^ while pr<>ser\in^- their peaceful a])pear-
ance .
4. Vessels cniphjycd on i'eligi(ui>. sciciitilic. or philanthropic
missions are likewise exempt fi'oin cajiture.
CHAPTER tll.' KK(;t LATION'S KKOA 1! t)l N'*. LTIK CREWS OF ENEMY MERCH \NT
SHIPS C\PTtR]:D BY A I'FI.LK; FRENT.
.■) . When an enemy nuM'chan) .-hip is captui'cd by a h<'llig(Ment,
such of its cr<nv as are subjects or citizens of a neutral State are not
inaile prisoners of war. The same rule applies in the case of
((') See 11. (/'). \). iS9.
508 No. IX.
the captain and otfieers, likewise subjects and citizens of a neutral
State, if thej give a formal undertaking in writing not to serve on
an enenij ship while the war lasts.
G. The captain, officers, and members of the crew, if subjects or
citizens of the enemy State, are not made prisoners of war, provided
that they undertake, on the faith of a formal Avritten promise, not to
engage, while hostilities last, in any service connected with the
operations of the war.
7. The names of the persons retaining their liberty under the
conditions laid down in Article 5, parag-raph 2, and in Article 6,
are notified by the belligerent captor to the other belligerent. The
latter is forbidden knowingly to employ the said persons.
8. The provisions of the three preceding Articles do not apply to
ships taking part in hostilities.
CHAPTER IV. — FINAL PROVISIONS .
It. The provisions of the present Convention do not apj^ly except
between Contracting Powers, and then only if all the belligerents
are parties to the Convention.
Ilaf/ue Convention, 1907. 509
No. X.
HAGUE CONVfJNTION RELATIVE TO THE ESTABLISH-
MENT OF AN INTERNATIONAL PRIZE COURT, No. 12
OF 1907 (a).
Part I. — Gexkkai. Pi;o\isioxs.
I. TiiK \ali(lity of tlio cap! mo of u morcliant .sliip or its car^o,
when neutral or oiioiuy property is imolved, is decided l)efore
Prize Courts iu accordaiue witli the present Coiiveutiou.
2. Jui'isdictioa iu matters of jn'ize is exercised in the lirst iustajice
by the Prize Courts of tlio belligerent ca])tor. The judginents of
these Courts are pronounced in pu])lic or are otficially notified U>
parties concerned who are neutrals or enemies.
3. The judgments of national Prize Coui'ts may be brought before
the International Prize Court (h): — ( 1) "When tlie judgment of the
national Prize Courts affects the ]n()])erty of a neutral Power or
individual: (2) When the judgment aifcHts oneniy property and re-
lates tu--(a ) cargo on board a neutral ship; (b) an enemy ship cap-
tured in the territorial waters of a neutral Power, wIumi that Power
has n<»t made the capture the sid)jecr (jf a diplomatic claim; (c ) a
claim based upon the allegation tluit the seizui'e has been effected
in violation, either of a conventional stipulation in force between
the belligerent Powers, or of an (uiaclnHMit issued by the belligerent
eaptoi'. The ap))eal against the judgment of the national Court
{■an be based on tlu' u-i'ound that the judg'uient was wrong- either in
fact or in law.
4. An appeal may be brought- ( 1 ) Hy a neutral Power, if the
judgment of the nalional ti'ibuiials alfiM'ts its ))r(>])erty or the pro-
piu'tv of it- subjects (,r ciliziMis (Ailide •'! (1)), or if the caijturc
of an enomv vcss(d is allcu'cd td ha\(' taken place in tlu' tei'ritoi'ial
waters of that Power ('.Vrtide ."J i 2 i i li ) i ; (2) 1)V a neutral individual,
if the judgment of tlu^ national ('oiii't affects his jjropertv (Articde
.") (1 ) ). svd)iect, liow(>ver. to the rescMvation that the Power to which
('0 Sop n. (>/). p. 4S!), s,,,,,-'/.
J)) 15y ail addirioiiai I'rorui-.ii. -in-niMJ on tin' Iltrli S(>])Tcinlicr, ]91(t. hv
lo I'owcrs. iiicliKJiiiL;- (ircat llritaiii. t'i'aticc and t\\o I'liiti'd Stares of Amrrica.
it is provided that siLrnatoi-y oi' adlii'i'inLT Powers whieh ai'e diharicd liv ditH-
cutties of a eoii>I itutioiial kind from ai-ecptiiiLT tiiis ( 'oiivenrioii in its presi'iit
form, may. in ratifyinir or accedimr to it. di'elai'e tliat in prize causes comiiiir
within the jurisdietion of thidi- national Courts, recourse to the I nteiniational
i'rize Court shall only he had in the form of an action of indemnifv for th(^
injury causeil by the capture Art. 1). Othei- Artich's jtrovide for coiisiMiuent
alterations in tlic ])rocedure as oiMLi-iiuilly prcscrilx'd; see p. 19-5, ■■•I'lirii.
510 ^'o. X.
he belongs may forbid him to bring' the ease before the Court, or
may it.self undertake the proceedings in his place; (3) By an indi-
vidual subject or citizen of an enemy Power, if the judgment of
the national Court alfects his property in the eases referi-ed to in
Article 3 {2i, except tliat mentioned in paragraph (b).
5. An ap])eal may also be brought on the same conditions as in
the preceding Article, by persons belonging either to neutral States
or to the enemy, deriving their rights from and entitled to represent
an individual qualified To appeal, and who have taken part in the
proceedings before the national Court. Persons so entitled may
appeal separately to the extent of their interest. The same rule
a^iplies in the ea.se of persons belonging either to neutral States or
to the enemy, who derive their rights from and are entitled to repre-
sent a neutral Power the property of which was the subject of the
decision.
G. When, in accordance with the above Article 3, the International
Court has jurisdiction, the national Courts cannot deal with a case
in more than two instances. The municipal law of the belligerent
captor shall decide whether the case may be brought before the
International Court after Judgment has been given in hrst instance
or only after an appeal. If the national Courts fail to give final
judgment within two years from tlie date of capture, the case may
be carried direct to tlic International Court.
7. If a Cjuestion of law to be decided is covered by a Treaty in
force between the belligerent captor and a Power which is itself,
or the subject or citizen of which is. a party to the proceedings,
the Court is governed by tlie j^fo visions of the said Treaty. In
the absence of such provisions, the Court shall apply the rules of
international law. If no generally recognized rule exists, the Court
shall give judgment in accordance with the general principles of
justice ajid orputy. Tlie above provisions a])])ly equally to ques-
tions relating to the order and mode of jn'oof. If. in accordance
with Article 3 ('2 i (c i. the gi'oun<l of appeal is the violation of an
enactment issucfl Ijy the belliLi-erent captor, the Court shall enforce
the enact nient. The Court may d^'^regard failure to coinply with
the ])rr)fodure laid down iu the legislation of the l)ollio-orcnt captor
wIkmi it i^ of opinion that its conseqttences are unjust and ineqtiitable.
S. If the Court pronotmces the ca]iture of the vessel or car^o
to be valid, they shall bo disposed of in accordance Avith the laws
of the bellia'orent cajitor. If it pronounces the capture to be null,
the Court shall ordi'i' restitution of tlie vessel or cargo, and shall
h'x. if there is occa-inn. the amount of the daiuao-es. If the ves.-^el
oi' cai'a-o have been sold or desiiTjyeil, the Court shall rletermine the
roiii| (Mi>ai ion to be i^-ivon to tho owner on this account. If the
n:i'ioiiril Pi'i/c Court ])i'onouni-o<l tho ca]ifure to lie null, the Court
CI II onlv lic a~kcd to dciilc' a- to the daiiiaa'es.
'.1. Tho ( 'oiitiact iiiu' Parties undeifake to submit in i;-ood faitli
jji i!i(^ decisions of till' Intei'iiat ioual Pii/e Couit an<l to carrv thciii
^'11' with tho least ])o>sild(> ih'lay.
Hague Concention, 1907. 511
Par] II.- CoNsrnuxioN of ihe Jni kknational Phizk (Jourt.
iO. The iulciuiilional Prize Cuuit i.s cuinpo.sed of judges and
deputy judges, who will be appuiuted by tho Coiitiaetiug Powers,
aud luii.sl all be juiisls ol' known protieiency in qucstioas of inter-
national maritime law, and oi' tiie laghest moral reputation. The
appointment oi' those judges and deputy judges shall be jnade within
six months after the ratilicatioji of the present Convention.
11. The judges and deputy judges are appointed for a period of
six years, reckoned from the date on which the Jiotiiication of their
appointment is received by the Administrative Council established
by the Convention for the Pacilic Settlement of International Dis-
putes of the l^Dtii July, 181»*J. Their appointments can be renewed.
Should one of the judges or deputy judg'es die or resign, the same
procedure is followed in lilling the vacancy as was followed in
appointing him. In this case, tlie appointment is made for a fresh
period of six years.
12. The judges of the International Prize Court are all equal
in rank an<.l have precedence according to the date on which the
notilicatioji of tlioii- appointment was received (Article 11, para-
g-raph 1 I, and if they sii, by rota (Article 1'), paragraph 2), accord-
ing to the date on which they entered upon tlieir duties. \\'hen the
'late is the same, the senior in age takes precedence. The deputy
judges when actinu' ai'e in the same positiijn as the judges. They
I'ank. liowever, alter iliem.
1.'!. 1'he judges enjoy diplomatic privileges and imnnmities in
the perfoi'iiKi lice (if their duties and when outside their own country,
l^efore taking their seat, the judges must take an oath, or tnake
a solemn allirmation befori? the Adaunistrative Council, to discharge
their duties impartially and conscientiously.
11. The Court is composed of fifteen judges; nine judges constitute
a (piorum. A judge who is absent or prevented from sitting- is
rephiced by the deputy judge.
1."). Tlie judu'cs ap]>oi)ited by the following Contracting Powers:
liermany, the I'niied Slates of America, A.tistria-Hungary. France,
(Ji'oai Britain, Italy. Japan, and Russia, are ahvavs stimmoned to
sit. Tho ju<lL;'es aiui deputy judiixvs apjjointed. by the otJier Con-
t.ractiug Powcr-^ sit by i'(.)ta as sjiowu in tho Table ((i) annexed to
the ])resent ( 'on vent ion : their duties may be performed successively
by the same ])ei'son. The same jtnlge may be appointed by several
of the said IVnvers.
It;. If a l)elliu-(nTnt Pow<m' has, according to the rotm. no judge
sitting in the ('ourt. it may ask that the judg-e a]:)pointed bv it
<lionld. fake part in ilic .settlement of all cases aiJ-ino- from the war.
hots .Nhall then b!> drawn as to wldch of the juda-es entili'vl to ^it
.iiM'ordino' lo the iota shall withdi'aw. This ari'angoment dttes ]ioi
ailect th(> judg(> appointed by the otliei- bo]lig(M'ent.
I.') l-'or x\\\< ■l'ahI-\ SCO Pari. I'apor.-i, Misc. Xu. (> (19(J8j, p. IKi; I'carcc
llic-gins, 130. Sec also p. iy7, .««/>/•(/.
512 No. X.
17. ]S\i judge may sit wlio has been a part} . in any way whatever,
t-o the sentence prunduiuod lj\- the namnial L'cKirt.s. or has taken
part in the c-a.-^e as cdunsel or advocate lor tuie ol the parties. Xo
ju<l<re or (h.^piily jndu'e may. (hiring liis tenure ol olhce. appear as
agent or adxucate belore the International l*ri/e Court, nor act lor
one ol the paities in any capacity whatever.
18. Tlu' Itelligereiit ca])tin' is entitled to apjioint a naval officer
ol high I'ank Xn sit as assessiu'. but witli luj voice in tJie decision.
A neutral Power, which is a party to the proceedings or the subject
or citizen ol which is a par,y. Jias the same rig-Jit ol ajjpointment;
il in apj)lying this la>t j)rovision moie ihan one Power is c()nc<'rnefh
thev must agree among themselve.--. il nef'(!s.-aiy by lot. on the oUicer
to be appointed.
P,t. TJie Court ekn-ts its President and N'ice-President by an abso-
luie majority ol the votes ca>i . Alter two l.iallots. the election is
made by a bare majority, and. in case the votes are e(jiial. l^y lot.
20. The judges ol tlie International Prize (.'ourt are entitled to
travelling allowances in accordam-c with the regulations in force
in their own country, and in addition leceive. while the Court is
sitting oi- while they are carryinu* out duties conferred u})on them
b\' tlie C(jurt. a stim ol lUU Xeiherland florins per diem. These
payments are inchnied in the general expenses ol the Court dealt
^ith in Article 47, and are paid through the International Bureau
<'>tablislied by the Convention ol the 2'Jth Jidy. ]<S!)9. The judg-es
mav Jiot receive' Irom their own (loxernuient or Irom that of ativ
otlier Power any remuneration in their capacity ol meird:)(>rs of tlie
Court .
21. The International Prize Ctnirt sits at The Hague and may
not, except in circumstances beyond its ((uitrol. be transferred else-
where without the con.sent of the belligerents.
22. The Administrative Council fidhls the same functi(nis with
regard to th<' Internatimial Prize Court as with rea'ard to the Per-
manent Court ol Arbitration, but (n\\\ repre.-enlatives of Contract-
ing P()wers sludl l)e meml)ers ot it.
2-'>. Th(^ International bhii'(>au a-'ts as r<^gistiy to the International
Pi'i/e Court an<l shall place its offices and stall at the disposal of
the Court. It has the custody of the archi\es and cariies out tlie
administrative work. The Secretary-General of the Internatiojial
Thireau acts as registrar. Tlie necessary secretaries to assist the
I'eLristrar, translators and shortliand writers are a])pointod and sworn
in by the Court.
24. TIh' ('oui't determines wlricli language it shall use and the
la iiLiMia !:■<■■< tliC' eniplovnicnt ol wliidi <liall Iw authorized belore it.
The official lani;-iiaL;'e. however, ol' tho national Courts \\hich ha\o
had c(.iLi-iiizani'e oj' the case may always be <mii ployed bet'ore i1h> Court .
2.1. Powers A\liicli are concerned in a ca-~e may aj^point sjiecial
aii-ents to act a< intei-iii(>diaries ]ietw<'fMi theinsolves and the ('ourt.
Tliev nia\- al>o enu'aLi'c coim.-el or ad\'ocates to <lel(uid their righl-
and intei'csts.
2f, . .A ])rivate persi.m concerned in a case will be represented before
Hague Convention^ 1907. 51-3
the (Jourl by an atlonicv, wJio iimsf bo ciUior au advociite qualified
fo plead before a Couit oL" Appeal or a Jliyh Court of one of <ho
(Joutracting' iStates, or a lawyer practising' before a similar Court,
or lastly, a professor of law at one of the hig-hcr teaching centres of
those countries.
i27. For the service of all nolic<"s. in ])ailicular on the pai'lies,
witnesses, or experts, the Court may apply direct to the Govern-
ment of the Stxite on tlie territory of which the service is to be
carried out. The sani(> lulc appli(>< in the ca-^c of steps being-
taken to j)rocur<' evidence. Jlecjucsts for this purpose are to be
executed so far as the means at the disposal of tlie Power a]:)pliefl
to under its muuici])al law allow. They cannot be rejected unless the
Power in (piestion (jon.viih'rs them calculated to impair its sovereign
rights or its safety. If tlu^ rcnpiesf is com])lied with, the lees charged
must only comprise^ th(> (wpcMises actually incui'red. The Court is
equally entille<l tn act thi'ougli the P<iwer within the territory of
winch it is nn^Ming-. Xotic(\s to b<^ given to ])arties in the ])lace where
lh(! ('ourt sits mav b(> ser\'<'d thruuii-h the Tnteriiat ioiial liiii'eau.
1* AIM 111. I'i;o(i:t)i i;i;.
[Arts. 128 .")U omitted: see p. 198. suprd.^
P.iUT 1\ .- FiX.VI. PltOVISlOXS.
51 . The pr(\sont Convention does not apply as of right, except
when the belligerent Powers are all parties to the Convention. It
is further understood that an appeal to the International Prize Court
can only be brought b} a Contrac'ting- Power or the subject or citizen
of a Contracting Power. An appeal is only admitted undei' Article 5
when b(jth tlie owner and the jierson entitled to i-epresent him are
equally Contracting Powers or the subjects or citizens of Contracting
Powers.
')2. The j)resent ('onvention shall be i'aliti(Ml an<l the ratilications
shall be depositi.vl at Tin.' Hague as simn as all the Powei'.- m(Mitioned
in Article 1.5 and in the Table aniH'xed are in a })nsitiMn to do so.
The <le])osit of tin' ral iticaiion> shall lake place, in any case, on
the .'iOtli .lune. llMI'.t. if the Poweis which are ready to ratify furnish
nine judges and nine depntv jmlue- to i1h^ ('ourt. duly (pialilii^d to
constitute a Court. If not. the dejiosii. shall be p(xstpr)iied until this
condition is fidtilled. .V niinuto i_)f th(> deposit of the I'alilications
shall be drawn up. of wliiiji a i'ertili(>(l coj)y shall be I'oi'wardod,
through the di[)loniatic channel, lo each of the Powers r(M'erred to
in the lirst paragrajih.
')'.\. The Powers reiVned to in .Vrtide 1") and in tln^ Table annexed
are entitled to siu'ii the piexMii ('on\ention up to the date of the
deposit ol' the rat ilii-at ions cunti'mplat^^d in j\n'agia])h '1 of the pre-
ceding .Vrticle. Al't(M' tlii> depo-it. tlx^y can at any tiuK^ acivh^ to it,
]iurelv and siniplv. .\ Pnwei' wi-liiiiu' to ac^-ede. iidtilie,^ it- int(Milii>ii
r.T.T.. I, L
514 No. X.
in writing- t-o the Netherland Government, transmitting to it at the
same time tlic act of accession, which shall be deposited in the
archives of the said Government. The latter shall send, through the
diplomatic channel, a certiliod copy of the notihcation and of the act
of accession to all the Powers referred to in the preceding para-
graph, informing them of the date on which it has received the
notification.
54. The present Convention shall come into force six months from
the deposit of the ratifications contemplated in Article 52, para-
graphs 1 and 2. The accessions shall take eifeet sixty days after
the notification of such accession has been received by the Xether-
land Government, or as soon as possible on the expiry of the period
contemplated in the preceding paragraph. The Int^ernational Court
shall, however, have jurisdiction to deal with prize cases decided
by the National Courts at any time after the deposit of the ratifi-
cations or of the receipt of the notification of the accessions. In
such cases, the period fixed in Article 28, paragraph 2, shall only
be reckoned from the date when the Convention comes into force
as regards a Power which has ratified or acceded.
55. The present Convention shall endure for twTdve years from
the date at which it comes into force, as determined by Article 54,
paragraph 1, even for the Powers acceding to it subsecjuently.
It shall be renewed tacitly for successive periods of six years
unless denounced. Denunciation must be notified in writing,
one year at least before the expiry of each of the periods
mentioned in the two preceding paragraphs, to the Xotherland
Government, which will inform all the other Contracting Powers.
The denunciation shall only operate in respect of the notifying
Power. The Convention shall remain in force in the case of the
other Contracting Powers, provided that their share in the appoint-
ment of judges be still sufficient to allow llxe work of the Court to
be discharged by nine judges and nine deprity judges.
5G. In case the present Convention is not in operation as regards
all the Powers referred to in Article 15 and the annexerl Table, the
Administrative Council shall draw up a list on the lines of that
Article and Table of the judges and deputy judges through whom
the Contracting Powers are to share in the composition of the Court.
The times allotted by the said Table to judges who are summoned to
sit in rota shall be redistributed between the different years of the six-
year period in such a way that, as far as possible, the number of tin;
jnd^-es of tlie Court in each year sluill 1)0 the same. If the number
f>l' do])iiiv judges js crreafor than that of the juda'es, tli(~ ]iunil»cr of
the Littcf f'an 1)0 compleiod l)y deputy jiiclo-os chosen by lot among
\\\()<<' Powei-s whidi do not uouiijialo a judiz-e. Tlje list drawn uj)
in thi< wii V by tlio .Xdrninist rative (>Hmril sliaU Ije notified to tiiO
Cfjut i'ii.':l in'j- Po\\<'rs. It shall 1)0 i'Ovis<'d wIi^mi tlie numl^ir of those
i'owcr- is niodirif'<l as the i-osult of acfos.sions or dcjinncjatiotis.
llni (lian2<; r<'-uIiiiio- from an ai^-co^siou is jiftt made until the 1st
Jariuarv aftei' the dato on whicli <he ar-ecssion fakes (>ffect, unles.s
Hague Convention^ 1907. olo
the a(;eo<liii<;' Power is a. bolliyeroul I'owcr, in wJiich wise it can
deniaiul lo be at once r<'])ieso)il'(Hl in (ho Couit, Ihe ])rovision of
ArticJc Hi l)ciii^-, inorcfjvor, apj^licahle il' nocossary. When the total
nunil)ei' ol' jiido-os is loss than <3loven, seven judg-e.s i'oi-ni a (quorum.
57. Two years htil'ore llie expiry oi' each period rel'erred to in
parag-raplis 1 and 2 ol' Article .■)."), any Coniracting- I'owcr may
demand a modilicalion of the ])rovisi(jns oi' Arliclo 15 and of tiie
annexed Tahlo. as regards its jjarticipaf ion in the composition of
the Court. Tlie demand shall ho addressed to the Administratixe
Council, which will examine it ajKl submit to all the Powers pro-
posals as to the measures to be adopted. The Powers shall ini'orm
the Administrative Council of their decision with the least possible
delay. The result shall be communicated at once, and one year and
thirty days at least before the expiry of the said period of two years,
to the Powei' which made the demand. In such circumstances, the
modifications adopted by the Powers shall como into force from the
commencement of the fresh period.
T. r. -J
516 No. XL
Xo. XI.
HAGUE UO^VE.XTIOX EESPECTIXG THE KIGHTS AXD
DUTIES OF XEUTIiAL POWERS IX MARITIME WAR,
Xo. lo OF 1907 (a).
1. Belligi:ke.\ts arc bound to respect tlie .soveroigii riglit^ of ueutral
Po^ve^.s and to abstain, in neutral territorj' or neutral wat-ers, from
anv act Avliich ^vuuld. if Ivnowingly permitted by an}- Power, con-
stitute a violatioji of neutrality.
2. An}- act of lio.stility, including- therein capture and tlie exercise
of the right of searcli, eonunitted by belligerent warships in the
territorial waters of a neutral Power, constitutes a violation of
netitrality and is strictly forbidden.
'6. When a ship has been captured in the territorial waters of a
neutral Power, sucli Power must, if the prize is still within it.s juris-
diction, empio}- the means at its disposal to release the prize with
its officers and crew-, and to intern the prize crew. If the prize is not
withiai the jurisdiction of the neutral Power, the captor Government,
on the demand of the neutral Power, mtist liberate tire prize with
its officers and crew.
4. A Prize Court cannot be established by a belligerent on neutral
territory or on a ve.-sel in neutral waters.
•3. Belligerents are forbidden to use neutral ports and waters as
a base of naval operations against their adversaries; and in particular
they may not erect wireless telegra})hy stations or any apparatus for
the purpose of communicating- witli the bellig-erent forces on land
or sea.
6. The supply, in any manner, directly or indirectly, of ^varships,
supplies, or war material of any kind whate\-er. by a neutral Power
to a belligerent Power, is forbidden.
7. A neutral I'ower is ]iot bcauid to jn-event liie exjiort nr iraiisit,
o]i jjehalf of either belligeient. (if anus, munilifiii- of wai'. or. in
gx3neral, of anything which could be of use to an army or ileet.
8. A neutral Government is l)Ound to employ the means at its
disposal to prevent the fitting out or armiiig- of any vessel within
its jurisdiction whicli it has reason to believe is intended to cruise,
or engage in liostil(> <j])erat inns, against a T-*ow-or with which that
Ctovoininent i< at ])('ai-e. It i~- also bouinl to disjday the same
vigilance to pre\-e;it the departure from its juri-<licf:ion of any vessel
('■■/) See n. (r/"j. j). -Isit). •'■?^/y/'v.
Ikujuc Convenlion^ 1907. .017
inteiidod to cruise, or *Miga<40 in liostil(3 0['MMati(jiis. which has l)Ocii
adapted (Mitiroly or parll}- wiiliiii the said jiirisdicfi(jii lor ii.s(( ia wai-.
!). A ueiili'al Tower imist apply to the two bellij,''Creiit.s inipartially
the conditions, r<>s(rietiojis, or prohibitions issued bj' it in reg-anL
tx) tJu^ ailnussion iido ifs poits, roa<lst<.'ads. or territoria] wafers, of
beliioeient Avaisiuj)s or of their prizes. Nevertheless, a neutral
Power may fiirl)id aii\ j)articiilai' bellig-er<'nt vessid Avhich has failed
to coidorni to the ordeis and reii'ulat i(jns made l)y i), or whicli has
violated neutrality, to <Miter its ports or roadsteads.
10. 'rii'' iKMitiality of a Power is not alfected h\ the more ))a.ssa<ie
throu^'h its tei'ritorial waters of warships or prizes ])elono-ing- to
belliu'eriMits.
11. .\ n<'utr:d I'owei- mu.\- allow belliu'cifMit wai'sliijjs to emplov
its licensed pilots.
12. In default of s])ecial provisions to ihe contr;uy in the lej^ds-
lation of a neutral Power, bellig-ereut warships are not ])ermitt€d
to remain in the ])orts. I'oadsteads, or territorial waters of the said
Power for more than twenty-four houi's. except in the cases covered
by the pr<c-eul Convention.
13. If a l'oA\ei' whicli has rec(d\<><l notice of the outbreak of
hostilities learns tliat a belligerent warshi]) is in one of its ports or
roadstea<ls. or in its territorial waters, it must notify the said ship
to depart within twenty-four hours or within ihe time prescribe<l
by the local law.
14. .\ belliLi-erent warship may not prolong its stay in a neutral
port beyond 1h<^ lime ])ernutte(l e.veept on account of damage or
stress of weatlier. ft must ch^parl as soon as the cause of the debar
is at an <''nd. TIn.i r(\o-iilat ions as to the lenf>'th of time which such
ves.^els ina\ rcMiiain in neutral ports, roadsteads, or waters, do not
apply to warshi))s devoted e.vcbisivelv to religious, scientific, or
philanthropic purposes.
J."). In <lefault of special provjsi(jns to the <'Ontrary in the legis-
lation of a luMitral Power, the maximum number of warsliips belong-
ing to a belliu'iu'ent which mav be in one of the ])orts or roadsteads
of that Power sinudtaneously shall be three.
10. When w;ii'shi])s belonu'ing to l^ith Ixdiigeient,'; ai'(> ];i'osent
simultaneous|\' in a neutral ])ort or roadst(>ad. a pei'iod of not less
than twentv-four liours must ela])se between the dojiarture oT the
ehi]) b(drnio-iiii:- to one l)cllif:'ei'cnt and the departure of the ship
belonging' to tho other. The oi'der of depaiture is detormined by
the order of airival. uidess tln^ shi}i which ari'ived first is so circum-
stanced thai an. cKleirsioii of its stay is jiermissible. A bellig'erenfc
warshi]) may not leave a lUMitral port oi- I'oadstead until twentT-four
hours afiei' flu^ departure of a 7nerchant ship flying the flag- of its
adversary.
17. In neutral ports ainl ioad>tc;ids b(dliu'orciit wai'ships may onlv
carrv out such r(>pairs as an^ absoluf(d\- ncc(>s<arv to render them
seaworthv. and may not add in aiiv manner -whatever to their fighting-
force. Tln^ liicil authorities of ihc nentral Power f-hall decide Avhat.
018 No. XI.
lepairs are necessary, and these must be carried out with the least
jxjssible delay.
18. Belligerent warships may not make use of neutral ports, road-
steads, or territorial waters for replenishing or increasing' their
supplies of war material or their armament, or for completing their
<;rews.
19. Belligerent warships may only revictual in neutral ports or
roadstead.^ to bring up their supplies lo the peace standard. Simi-
larly these vessels may only ship suhicient fuel to enable them to
j'oach the nearest port in iheir own country. They may, on the
(jther hand, fill up their bunkers built to carry fuel, in neutral
countries which have adopted tliis method of determining the amount
of fuel to ]je supplied. If, in accordance with the law of the neutral
Power, the ships are not supplied with coal within twenty-four hours
<)f tlieir ariival, the duration of tlicir permitted stay is extended by
twenty-four hours.
20. Belligerent warships which have shijjped fuel in a port be-
longing to a neutral Power may not witliin the succeeding tliree
months replenish their supply in a port of the same Power.
21. A prize may only be brought into a neutral port on account
of unseaworthiness, stress of weather, or want of fuel or provi-
sions. It must leave as soon as tlie circumstanf;es which justified
its entrj- aie at an end. If it docs not, the neutral Power must order
it to leave at once; should it fail to obey, the neutral Power must
em])loy the meaiLS at its dis])0.sal to release it with it< ollicers and
<-i'ew and to interji ihe piize crew.
22. A. neutral Power juust, siiuilarl}-. release a ])iize Ijrought into
<nie of its ])orts under circumstajices other than those referred to
in Article 21.
23. A neutral Power may allow ])rizes to ejiter its ports and road-
steads, whetlier under convoy or not. when the}- are broug'ht there
to be sequestrated pending the decision of a Prize Court. It may
have the prize taken to anotlier of its ports. If the prize is con-
voyed by a warsliip. the ])rizo crew jnay go on board the convoying-
slii]). If the ]»rize is not under cou\-oy, tlie prize crew are left
at liberty.
24. If, nolwitlistanding' the nolitication of the neutral Power, a
belligerent ship of war docs not lea^■e a ])ort ^\■here it is not entitled
to remain, the nr'uti'al i'owei' i> entitled to tal^e sucli measures as it
considers nofcssarv to rendei' the sliip incai)a]jle of putting- to sea
so long as ilie war lasts, and tlie commandino- ofh'Ci- of ilie ship must
facilitate the exer-ution of sudi measures. When a Ijelligerent ship
is detaincfl Iiy a n<'utr;il Power, the officers and ('■r(!W are likewise
(hitained. The officers and ci'ew so detained jnay 1)0 left in the
shi]) or ke])t either on another vessel or on land, and niay be subjectcid
t/) such rest rif'tions as it mav a]i])ear ncr^essarv to iinpo.'^e upon them.
.\ sufficient numlier of men nnist. howe\ei'. be alway,-- left on board
for loolcinii- after the v(;ssel. The officeis may l>e left at liberty
o!i irivinii' tlieii' wnid not to (|uit tlie nentinl ten-itMi\- without per-
mission.
Udfjuc Convention^ 1907. 51!)
25. A ueutral Power is bound to oxerciso such vigilance as the
means at its disposal permit to prevent any violation of the provi-
sions of the above Articles occurring in its ports or roadsteads or in
its -waters.
2G. The oxerciso by a neutral Power of the rights laid down in
the present Convention can under no circumstances be considered
as an unfriendly act by one or other belligerent w^ho has accepted
the Articles relating thereto.
27. The Contracting Powers sliall comnmnicate to each other in
due course all statutes, orders, and other enactments defining in their
respective countries the situation of belligerent w^arships in their
])orts and waters, by means of a comnmnication addressed to the
Government of the Netherlands, and forwarded immediately by that
Government to the other Contracting Powers.
28. The provisions of the present Convention do not apply except
to the Contracting Powers, and then only if all the belligerents
are parties to the Convention .
520 No. XII.
No. Xll.
HAGUE DECLARATION PROHIBITING THE DISCHARGE
OF PROJECTILES AND EXPLOSIVES FROAI BALLOONS,
No. 1 or 1907 (aj.
The Contracting- Powers agree to prohibit, for a period extending
to tlie close of the Third Peace Conference, the discharge of projec-
tiles and explosives from balloons or by other new methods of a
similar nature.
The present Declaration is only binding on the Contracting Powers
in case of war between two or more of tlieni.
It shall cease to be binding from the moment when, in a war
between the Contracting Powers, one of the belligcront.s is joined
by a non-Contracting- PoAver.
In the event of one of the Higli Contracting Parties denouncing
the present Declaration, such denunciation shall only operate OJi
the expiry of one year after the notilication made in writing to the
Netherland Government, and fortliAvith eonununicated by it to all
the other Contracting Powers.
This dcjiunciation shall only operate in respect of tlie denouncing
Power.
{a) See n. («), p. 189, ^•'iiro.
Decbo'dflon of London, 1909.
>2l
No. Xlll.
TILK DKCLAL'ATIOS OF LOM)0^\ 1009.
i)K(hAI{.\TI()X CONCERN 1>;G THE LAWS OF NAVAL WAR.
PRFLIMINAKV PROVISION Jn.
TiiK, Siii-iiatwry I'owci's aro iiut<'lm| iliai tin' rules rontaijied iu (he
i'ollowiii^' ( haplei's coficspond in .siihstaiicc willi \\\v li-oucrailv ro-
co<i-Jii/<'<i ))i'iiici|)l('s lit' international la\\ .
(11A1'TI:K 1.~ JlLOCIvAOK J\ T1MJ-; Ol' WAlf.
1. .V hidckade must jiot oxtoiid bojond llio pufts aiui ((lasi.s l>e-
lon^iuii' to Of occupicfl by (he cjieiiiy.
2. Lu accoinhincc with the JJeclavaiioii ul' Paris ot' l.S.3(J, a blockade,
in (.)i'd<'r Id Ik' bindino'. inus( l)t> eil'ectixc — tJiat is to say, it must be
maintained bv a force sulliciiMit really to ])revent acc<'s,s to th(> enemy
coast lin<'.
.'!. TIk' iju<'stioii wln'thei' a bluckafb,' i< ellccti\'e is a .juesfion of
fact.
!. .\ bldclvaile i^ not reuai'deii a> raised if t h<^ blockading;- force
i^ ieiii])oraril\ withdrawn on account of stress of weather.
."). .\ bloi-l^a.dc mu^t be applied im()artially to the ships of all
nat ions.
(). The commaiKlei' of a blnckadinu' force may u'ix'e pernus,sic)ii
to a warship to <Miier. an<l subse(pieid ly to leave, a blockad<'d port.
7. In circunisia nc<vs of disti'ess. ackiiowlivle'cd by ;in ollicer of the
blockading' tone, a neutral \(\ss<d may eii(<M' a. ])lace under blockade
and subse_(pi(Mit l\' lea\t' it. proN'ided that she has neiiln'r discharo-ed
nor slupp<>d any car<^-o there.
8. A i)locka<le. in ord<M- to be bindinu', musi be dei-laied in at-cord-
aneo \\ith .Article 'J. and noiiiieil in aceiu'daiK-e with Articles 11
an<l 1(1.
9. .\ declaration ol' b]o<-kade is made eifln.'r b\- the lilockading
PowfM' or l)y tlie naval authorities actiii"' in its name. Ft speci(io.s — -
O) the dal<' w lien tlio bb^ckade Ix^o-ins: ('2) (he u<'i>L.-i-a [)hical limits
of the i-oa-diiK^ uiidei' ldi)ekad<^; i':]) (he period within \\'hieh n<Mi(ral
ve>sels iPia y conn* out .
10. It' th(> opei'adons nt' (he blo(d<adinQ- Power, or of the naval
auilKuities aclinii' in its nam(>, do not (alh' \\itli the part icidars,
which, in aci^m'da nee with .Xriieh^ <» iH and i '2 K nmst ho inserted
A) l-'oriiKil |);n't< iiinirti'il.
022 iXo. XIII.
m the declaration of blockade, the declaration is void, and a uew
declaration is necessai'v in order tu make the blockade operative.
il. A declaration of blockade is notified — (^l) to neutral flowers,
liy the blockading' PoAver by means of a communication addressed
10 the Grove rnmcnts direct, or to their representatives accredited to
it; (2) to the local authorities, by the officer commanding the blockad-
ing- force. The local authorities will, in turn, inform the foreig-n
consular officers at the port or on the coastline under blockade as
soon as possible.
I'l. The rules a.> to declaratiijii ajid notihcation of blockade apply
10 ca>es v/liere the limits of a blockade are extended, or where a
l)lockad<^ is re-established after having- been raised.
lo. The voluntary raising of a blockade, as also ajiy restriction
in the limits of a blockade, must be notified in the manner pre-
scribed by Article 11.
14. The liability of a neutral vessel to capture for breach of
blockade is contingent on her knowledge, acttuil or presumptive, of
the blockade.
1.3. Failing pro(jf to the contrar\-, knowledge of the blockade is
presumed if the vessel left a neutral port subserpiently to the iioti-
tication of the Idorkade to the Power to which such port belongs,
provided that such notification was marie in sufilcient time.
Ki. If a vessel approaching a blockaded port has no knowledge,
actual or presumptive, of the blockade, the notification n\\\<h be made
to the \e><e] itself by an officer of one of the ships of the blockading-
force. Thi- jiotification should be entered in the vessel's logbook,
and unis! state the day and hour, and the geo^iraijlu'i-al ixisiiirui of
the vessel at ihe time. If through the negliii'euce ui the cilfii-er com-
maudiijg the blockading force no declaration of Ifiockade has lieen
notified to the loi-al aulhorities. or, if in the declaration, as notified,
no period has Ijeeu mentioned within whicli neutral vessels may
come oul, a neutral vessel cruuing out of tlie blockaded port uuist be
allowed to pass free.
17. Xeutral vessels may not be i/apturod inv hi-eadi of lilocka<ie
exce])t \vitiiin the area of operations of tlio \\aishi|is d<'i.:(iled to
]-endoi' the Idociuuh' ell'ectiv<'.
18. The blockadiiiu' I'oices iiuist not bar acc»'.-s lo neuiral ports or
coasts.
111. \\']iaie\ei' nia\ 1
le the ultciiiii' (h'>tiu
atidii ni a vosstd iH- of her
car^'O. she can not bo
<-a]j1urod \nv l)reacl
h of l)lo(dvade. if. at the
luoinom . .-lie is on Iht
\\av to a iioM-]ilocl<
adrd ])iirt.
20. .V \es-el which
has brokoii hlockad
<' oiii wards, oi' w liich has
attompK'd to bre.ak M
rickailo inwards, is
liable to captiii<' .-'1 long-
as slic i- pui'-ucd l>v a
sliij) of the blockac
lina- t'orcc. If 1 he pnrsuit
is abandoiiod. <;ir if the
blockade is raised.
hei- captur*' can no lon^'cr
be ofrcci.e<-i .
21 . A \i'.-~-c\ fr)u lid
;i-nill\- ol' hi-eacli of
blockade is liable to cnu-
dcuHiatioii. TIk' cui-l;-
11 i^ al>o coiidcninef
1. unlc-^ it i- ni-iived that
hcfhirntiou of London. liJO'J.
02;i
at the lime- of the sliij)iii<'iil (jf tin; ;^-(m;<Is tlic .sliipiXT neither knew
nor couI<l hav<' kiiMWii of iIh' iiitcni inn tu lirrak the lJoi'ka(h.'.
(■HArTI'Ji II. - -( (>.\ IK'An.VM) Of WAR.
1*2. The folhiw iiJL:- arlii'lo.-- may, willnMil iiolice, lie treated a.'> eou-
Iialiaiui ol' war, iimler the iiaiiu.' <il' ah.'-nUiH' cuiit falniud :- ( 1 j Anns
oi' all kiiuls, iiicliidin^' arnis lur spuitini;- jiiirpo.-e.-<. and llieir dis-
tinctive' comjxiiieni j)arl.'-. (2^ Pro jecl ile.<, char^e.-s, and ( artridg'OS
ot all kinds, aiK.l their distinctive cunij)onent part.s. ('•)) I'owder and
e-XiilosiN*.'-^ .speciallv pr<'[iared i'(.n- use in war. (4^ iMin-nionntino-js^
limher Ito.xes. Jiinher.^, miiilai'v \va^'g-(jii.s, tiejd forues, an<l (h(3ir dis-
tinctive component parts. (.3j C'lotliinii' and eipiipment of a distinc-
tively militar_\' cliarai-Kn'. (G) A.11 Jcinds of harness of a distinctively
niilitarx' character. [~) Saddle, (.Iraug-ht, and pacl< animals suitalde
for use in \var. (8j Articles of camp e(piij)nicni . ;ind their distinctive
component ])arts. ( 'J i Armour ])lates. ( J (J i Warships. incUnling'
boats, and their distinctive cijinponent part.s of such a nature that
they can oidy he used on a \'es.sel of war. (II) lm])]einent.s and
apparatus d<>si<_.|i('d e.\(dusively for the maniifa<-ture of munitions
01 Avar, for the manul'acture c)r re|)air of artir^, or war matorial for
use Oil land or sea.
2o, Articles e.\clusi\(dy u.'-ed for war ma\' he added to the list of
absolute cotitraband by a d(Mlai'at ion, which must lie notified. Such
notitication must he addressed to the (Governments of other Powers,
or to theii" representatives accredited to the Power making- the de-
claration. A notitication made after the outbreak of liostilities is
addres.se<l oidv to neutral Powers.
24. The following;' articles, susceptible (>f use in war as well as
for pur|Mjses of ]ieace. mav, without notice, be treated as contraband
of war, under the nam<> of conditional contiaband; (li Foodstufl's.
i2i F(;raue and grain, siuiable for f(MMlino- aidmals. ; •'! ) Clothing',
fabi'ics iVn clolluu'.;', aixl boots and shoes, suitable foi' u>(> in war.
i4i Gol<l and ^ilver in ciiiu or IniUion; j)ap<'r money. ' ■ h \'ehicles
of all kinds available I'or u>e in wai'. ;uid their coinj)onent ])arts.
(4;) \'c's.-.cl>, crafi, and hoais of all kinds: lloaiini;- dock-, part-s of
docks and thrni' c(jnip(.)nent parts. (7i liaihvax" mat(Mial, both fi.\ed
and rollinc- sio(4<, and maleiial for iclcu-iaph.-. wii«'le>- telegraphs,
and leleplioue.-. (Si Palloons and iKinu' machine.- and their di-tinc-
ti\'e coniponenl p;irt-. lo:i-ethiM' with ;iccc--oii('-> ;ind ;nliclr- iiM'og'-
ni/nlde a- iiit^Mided for u-e in connection with lialloons and Hying'
m;ichinc<. i ;» ) Pbicj; bdoicants. (lili Powder and e.xplo.-ives not
speciallv prepared foi' u-<' in w;ii'. (lis l!;n bed wire and implements
i^A- lixinu' and cuttini;' the -amc >. 12' i bn'sc.-li< le- an<l shoeing-
materials. \\:\\ llai'iic-s and -addlciw (14) l-'ield gla--es. tele-
scopic-, clii'onomctci >. and all k'ind- of nauliial insi rum<Mils.
2."c Ai'tichv- .-ii.-ccpi ibjo 1 4' u-e in \vai' a- A\ell a- foi' j)ui'po.se.s
of ])eace, other than tho-c enumerate. I in .Articles 22 and 24, may
be added to the li-i <if conditinnal conti'aliand bv a declaration, which
524 xYo. XIII.
must be notilied in the iiiaunci' provided for in the second paragraph
of Article 23.
2G. If a Power waives, so far as it is concerned, tlic jight to treat
as contraband of war an article comprised in any of the classes
enumerated in Articles 22 and 24, such intentioji shall be announced
by a declaration, Avhicli must be notified in the manner provided
for in the second paragraph of Article 23.
27. Articles which are not susceptible of use in "war may not be
declared contraband of -war.
28. The following may not bo declared contraband of war: —
( 1 ) Raw cotton, wool, silk, jute, flax, hemp, and other raw materials
of the textile industries, and yarns of the same. (2) Oil seeds and
nuis; copra. i^3) Eid^ber, resins, gums, and la(>s; hops. i4) Raw-
hides and horns, bones, and ivor}-. (o) Natural and artificial
manures, including nitrates and phosphates for agricultural pur-
poses. (G) ^Metallic ores. (7) Earths, clays, lime, chalk, stone,
including marble, bricks, slates, and tiles. (8 ) Chinaware and glass.
(9) Paper and paper-making materials. (10) Soap, paint and
colours, including articles exclusively used in their manufacture,
and varnish. { 1 L ) Bleaching powder, soda ash, caustic soda, salt
cake, ammonia, sulphate of annnonia. and sulphate of copper.
(12) Agriculturah mining, textili;. and printing machinery. (13)
Precious an<l scnii-])re(ious stones, peai'ls. mother-of-pearl, unci coral.
< 14 ) Clocks and watdies, otlier than clinjuometers. (1.")) Fashion
and fancy goixl^. iKh FinitlKU's of all kinds, hairs, and bristles.
(17 I Articles of houst'hold fui'nitui'c and (k;'coration ; ollice furniture
and requisites.
2i>. LikcAviso th(> following may not bo treated as contraband of
war: (1 ) Articles serving exclusively to aid the sick and wounded.
They can, however, in case of urgent jnilitary nece.ssity and subjfMit
to the payment of compensation, be ref[uisitioned. if their destina-
tion is that specilied in Article 30. (2) Articles intended for the use
<.»f the vessel in which they are found, as well as those intended for
t.lie use of her (/rew and jiassengei's during the voyage.
30. Absolute conti'aband is lial)le to capture if it is shown to be
destined to territory belonging to or occu].)iefl by llie enemy, or to
the armed forces of the enemy. It is iirimaterial wluMlier the car-
riage of the goods is direct or entails transhiinnenl oi- a sulisocpuMiC
transport bv land.
31. P)'oof of the destination s])ecitied in Article ;iO is i-om])leie in
the following cases: |] i When tlic goods are documented for dis-
charge in an enemy ])ort. or for deli\-ei'y to tlie armed forces of the
enemy. (2) When the \essel is to call at enemy ])orfs oidy. or when
she is ti) touch at an (Miemv port or uioei the armed ioi'cos of thoi
enemy b<'foi'<^ reaching the neuti'al port for which (he f^-oods in
((uestion are docuinent<Ml .
•'!2. ^^'llel•e a \ (>ss(d is can-ying ab'-olute contraband, hei' papers
are coii<-In-i\e pi'M,)|' a^ to the \Mvau'<> on wliidi she i^ <Mio-ao'ed. unless
Declaration of fjondon^ liJOD. 525
she ift found clcarlv out <jI' the course indicated by Iter jjaper.s and
unable t.o yive atle(Hiat<' leasuns lo justify .sucli deviation.
■'i;i. Conditional contialiaiid is liable to cajjlure if it is shown to be
destined fiU' the us<' of the aimed forces or of a guxernnient dopart-
nieni, oi' the eiieiny State, unless in this latter case th<.' circiiinstanees.
slio\\- that the yoods cannot in fact be used lor the- pur])Oses of the
war ill pro^'ress. This latter exception does jiot a[)plv to a coiisig')!-
ment coming' under Article 21 i4t.
.")4. The desiinati(jii referred to in Article .">;l is pi'esuniod lo (,'xist,
if the g-oods are consig-ned to enemy authorities, or to a contractor
established in the enemy couiitry who, as a matter of commoji know-
ledge, supplies articles of this hind to the enemy. A sinular pre-
sumption arises if the goods ar(! consigned to a fort died place be-
longing to the enemy, or other place iserving as a base for the armed
foicos of the enemy. Xo such prcsum})tion, Innvever, arises in the
case of a merchant vess(^l boun<l for one of tlie.-e [)laces if it is sought
to [irove that she herself is contraband. Jn ca<es where the above
[n'e,--umptions do not arise, i he destination is ];resume(l to bo inno-
cent Tlu> ])re.--uniptions s(M up by this Article niav be rebutted.
;5.3. L'ontlitional contraband is not liable to ca[)ture, (.'xccj)t when
found on board a vessel bound for territory belonging to or occupied
by the enemy, or for the armed forces of the enemy, and when it i.s
not to be discharged in an intervening- neutral port. Tlie shij)'.s
papers are conclusive jiroof both as to tlte voyage on which the vessel
is engaged and as to the port of discharge of \\w. gooils, unless she
is fouiid clearl}- out of the course indicaterl bv Ihm' pai)ers. atid unable
to gi\e a(icipiat<> reasons tn justify such (l<'\'ial ion.
. .")(■). Not uit hstaiidin<^' the provisions of .Vi'ticle .">."). conditional C(ui-
trabaiid. it slujwii to ha\e the destination reteired t<.i in .Vrticlc .'!•').
i.-- liabh- 111 capturi' in cases avIum-c the enemy cdiintiy has no sea-
board .
•">7. .\ \e.'-.--el cariying' g'<j(_)ds lialde to capture a.^ alisolute (jr con-
ditional Clint raband may Ik' caj)fured on the high s(\is or in the
KMritorial \\at(M'.- ^^i tlu' l)ellic('r(>nls througlniut the whole of her
\ii\ac<'. even if she Is to touch at a i)oi1 of call liefor<> reaching- the
hostile di><l inat ion.
.'is. A \c--c! ma\ not be lapturcd on the i^-rouiid that ^h(> ha-;
can led loiiirab.iiid on a prc\ ioii> occa>ion it .Mnh can'iauc is in
poi n; I it lad ai a ii end.
;;',t. ( oiii raband uood> are liable to coiuhnuiial ion .
411. .\ v<'->('l cairxinL;' cont I'a ba nd may lie conilenincd il' the con-
irabaiid. icckoncil ciili'M- b\- \alue. wciiiht. \olnmc. or freiu'hi. forms
more thai' halt' the caru'' '-
IL 1 1' a \('--<d cai'iying' contraband i.-- leleascd. the co^t-- aii<l e\-
piMi-cs iiicuricd liy the captoi- in re-i)eci of the ])roceedini;-s in the
national Pri/c ('curl and th<' cai-lodv ol' the ship and ca r<_;'o (lui'iiic-
the jii (ic'cedinu's sliall be borne liy the ship.
526 No. XIII.
42. Goo<ls which t)ek)rig- to the owner of the r-ontraband and are
on board the same ves8(d are liable to condemnation.
43. Ii a vessel is <'ncoLintered at sea while luiaware of the out-
break of hostiliiies (ir of the declaration of contraband which applies
to her caiiid, the coniraband cannot be condemned e.vcept on payment
of compensation; the vessel herself and the remainder of the cargo
are not liable to condemnation or to the costs and expenses referred
to in Article 41. The same rule applies if the inast-er, after becoming
iiANure of the outbreak of hostilities, or of the declaration, of contra-
bajid. ha^ had no opj)ortunif y of discharging the contraband. A
vessel is (k'omed to be awai'e of the e.vist/Cnce of a state of war-, or
of a declaration of contraband, if she left a neutral port subse-
quently to the notification to the Power to Avliich such port belongs
of the outbreak of hostilities or of the declaration of contraband
respectively, provided that such notification was made in sufficient
time. A vessel is also deemed to be aware of the existence of a
state of war if she left an enemy port after the outbreak of
hostilities.
44. A vessel Avhich has been stopped on the ground that she is
carrjang contraband, and which is not liable to condemnation on
account of the pro])ortion of contraband on board, may, when the
circumstances permit, be allowed to continue her voyage if the
master is Avilling to hand over the contraband to the belligerent
warship. The delivery of the contrabaiid must ])e entered by the
captor on the logbook of the vessel sfoii))ed, and the master must
give the captor duly certified copies of all relevant pa])ers. The
capior is at liberty to destroy (he conti'aband that has b<>eii handed
over to him undei' these conditions.
CH.VPTER III. — T NXEUTK.VL SKRVIfE.
45. A jicutral vessel will be condemned and will, in a general way,
receive tiic same treatment as a neutral vessel liable to .-ondemna-
tioji for carriage of (■oiitral)aii<l: — ( 1) H she is nn a \-i)vage speciallv
undertaken with a view to the transport of individual passengers
who are emljodied in the armed forces of th<; en(Muy, or with a view
to the traiismissioji of intelli^-ence in tlie inKMest of tlie encmv.
(2) If. to th<' knowl(v|o-(' of either the owner. th(! chartei'(M'. or the
mastei', slje is transporting a niih'tary (h'laclimeiit of the enemv,
or one oj' nioi'<! ])(.m'soiis who, in \}\i' conrsc' of the vovage. directlv
a>-ist, the operations of the enemy. In the ca^es specified under
til"' above licad-. goods licfon^^'ing to the ownei' of jli" v(.'ssol ar(!
lik<'\\i-o liabh.' to con<h'mnat ion. The ])i'n\isioi]S of llie ])r(\sent
.Aili'le df' ^\<)[ a])plv if the vessel is encou nt'M'<'d at sna 'Ahile un-
awaio 01 ihe oMtbicak of ho-l i I il i<'s. or if (hc^ mast<'i'. aft-'n- bi^i-omin^-
;i\\arc of tlie outbreak" of ho-t i 1 it ii's. lias had no oppoi'tunil v of di-^-
I'Uiba rk i n;:' the pa--en:i'eis. The \e-->e| is (locnied to be aware of
1 h' e.v i-tenc-e of a state of -war if slie h'ft an (mkmuv port subscMpiontl v
Declardtion of London, 1909. 527
to the outbreak oi' lies ti lilies, or a Jieutral pmt .siibsoqucuLly to tlie
iiotiiiculioii of (ho outbreak of lioslilitics to the J'owcr lo wJiich such
port belonu's, j)rovi<l(Ml that such iKjtihcafiou \v;is imuh) in siillici^'ut
time.
40. A Jieutral \essel will be condeiiined and, in a grjieral way,
receive the same treatment as would be ap[)lirable to Jier if .she
were an enemy merchant vessel — (I) it sJio takes a direct part in
tlie liostilities; (2j it she is under the orders or control of an ag-eut
pkiccd on board by llu' (MK'my Cbivernmeni; ( ."j) ii she is in the
exclusive employmeiit of the enemy Cbnernment ; (4j it she is
exclusively eiigaged at the time <Mther in the transport ot enemy
troops or in the transmission of intelligence in the interest of the
enemy. In the eases covered by the present Article, goods belong--
ing to the owner of the v'essel are likewise liable to condemnation.
47. Any individual embodied in the ai'med forces of tJie enemy
who is found on board a neutral merchant vessel, may be made a
prisoner of war, even though there be no grouml f(jr (h<; capture of
the vessel.
niAPTKR 1\'. --DIvSTKUCTIOX OF Xl'.T rRAl. I'KIZKS.
48. A neutral vessel A\hich has been captured may not be destroyed
by the captor; she must be taken into such port as is jtroper for the
determination there of all t[uestions i-niicerjung the validity of the
capture.
49. As an exce[)lion, a neutral v<'ssel which has be<'u cajjtured bv
a belligerent warshij), an<l which would be liable to i. ondemnation,
may be destroyed if the ol)servance of .Aiticle 48 Avould involve
danger to the safety of th<,' warship oi' to the success of tli(> opera-
tions iji whicl) she is eiigag('<l al tin- time.
•30. ISefore the \'<'ss(d is desti'dved all persons on boai'd mirst be
placed in safety, and all the shi|)'s papers and other dociimont.s
whicli the ])a''ties intereste<l consider r<'levant for the jnirpose of
deciding on the validity of the ca])lui'<' mu'^t b(^ t.;iken on board the.
warshi]).
51, ,\ caploi whd has destroyed a neutral vessel must, prior to
any decision respeciinu- the validity of the prize, establisli that he
onlv aci<^d in the I'ai'c of an except iniml nec(>ssity of the nature
ciiiitenii)]ated in .\iMicl(^ UK 1 1' he tails to do thi<. \w iiiiisi com-
peii.-ale llic pa rl i<'< iiiiei'esivd and no examination sliall Ije made
<_)!' ihe ipie.-tion wlidht'i' the capluie was \'ali<l oi- not,.
.")2. If th<> c;ipfur(> of a neutral v<'-<el is subse(|uently hokl to be
in\alid. ihouu-h the act of destruction has been held (o Jiave been
jiistifialile. the captor must paA- compensation to the oarries in-
l<M<>>te(l. ill place ot the res| it ii t i( ui to which they would ha\'e becMi
em if led.
;"■),"). I i' iHMitral Liiiod-- no; iinlije lo coiidcin im i ioii ii:(\e been de-
stroyed with tli<' \('-.-el, tlu' owiKM' ot sieh u'oods is entitli>d to
CI iiiiixMisat ion .
528 No. XIII.
.34. Tlie captor lias the right to demand the handing- over, or to
proceed himself to the destruction of, any goods liable to condemna-
tion found on board a vessel not herself liable to condemnation, pro-
vided that tlie circumstances are such as Avould, tinder Article 49.
justify the destruction of a vessel herself liable to condemnation.
The captor must enter the goods surrendered or dostroj-ed in the
logbook of the vessel stopped, and must obtain duly certihed copies
of all relevant papers. When the goods have been handed over
or destroyed, and the formalities duly carried out, the master must be
allowed to continue his voyage. Tlie provisions of Articles 51 and
.52 res})ecting the obligations of a caj^tor who has destroyed a neutral
vessel are applicable.
CH.4.PTER V. — TRANSFER TO A NEUTRAL FLAG.
o5. The transfer of an enemy vessel to a neutral ilag, effected
before the outbreak of hostilities, is valid, unless it is proved that such
transfer -was made in order to cvatle the consequences to which an
enemy vessel, as such, is exposed. There is, however, a presump-
tion, if the bill of sale is not on board a vessel which lias lost her
belligerent nationality less than sixt\- days before the outbreak of
hostilities, that the transfer is void. This presumption may be re-
butted. Wlicre the transfer was effected more than thirty days before
tlio outbreak of hostilities, there is an absolute presumption that it
is valid if it is unconditional, complete, and in conformity with the
laws of the countries concerned, and if its effect is such that neither
the control of, nor the profits arising from the employment of. the
vessel remain in the same hands as before the transfer. If. how-
ever, the vessel lost her belligerent nationality less than .^ixty days
before the outbreak of hostilities and if the bill of sale is not on board,
the capture of the vessel gives no right to damages.
.56. The transfer (_»f an enemy vessel to a neutral flag, etfectod after
the outbreak of hostilities, is void unless it is proved that such transfer
was not made in order to evade i\\e consequences to which an enemy
vessel, as such, is expo.sed. There, however, is an absolute pre-
sumption that a transfei' is void: — (1) If the transfer has been made
(luring a vovage or in a blockaded port. (2) If a right to repurchase
or recover the vessel is reserved to the vendor, (?■,') If the require-
ments of th<> mnnici])al law governing the right to fly the Hag und(>r
which the vessel is sailinu'. have not been fulfilled.
Cir.VPXER VI.- -EXEMY ClIARACLER.
57. Sul)ject to the provisions respecting transfer to another flag,
the neuii-al or enemy chara-'tor of a vessel is dotorminod by the flag
which she i-> entilh'd to ily. Tlie ca^e -where a neufral vessel is en-
U-aged in a trade which i- closi'd in time of ])eace. remains outside
the scope ol. and is in no wise aU'ected by. this rule.
58. The neutral or enenu' character of e-oods foiuid on board an
Declaration of London, 1909. 520
enemy vessel is delei'iniiicd by tlie noiitral or enemy character of the
owner.
r)9. In the absence of proof ol' the jieiitral character of goods
found on board an eneuiy vessel, they are [jrcsuined to be ejieiny
goods .
()0. Enemy goods on boai'd an oneniN vcssc.'l I'eiuiii th<'ir eneni\"
c]ui''aettr until they j(>a(h their desiination. not witlistanding any
transfer eifected after the outl)reak of hosiiljiies wliile tlic goods
are being forwardo<l. If, however, pri<n' to tlie capture, a former
neutral owner exercises, (ni the bankruptcy of an :'.\isting enemy
owner, a recognized legal riglit to recover the goods, they regain
their neutral character.
ClIAl'TKK \ 11.- -CON VOV.
<)I. ^,'euirai vessels under jiational convoy arc exempt, from search.
The commander of a convoy gives, in writing, at the request of the
lomuiamk'r of a belligeicMit wai'ship. all information as to the cha-
I'actcr of the vessels and their caj'gocs, Avhich could bo obtained
by search.
()2. If the commander of the belligerent, warship has reason to
suspect that the conlidcnce of the comman(l(M' of the convoy has
been alnised, he communicates his sus])icions lo him. In such a
case it is for the commaiHicr of the convox' alone t(j in\'(\stig'ate the
matter, lie must reccji'd the result of such investigation in a report,
of which a copy is handed to the ofhcer of the warship. If, in
tlu^ opinion of tli<~ commaii<ler of the convny. ilie facts shown in
the re|)ort justify the cai)iure of one or moi'o ves.>ols, the protection
of the coiiv<iv must be withdrawn from .-nch \('ss<>ls.
ciiAi'TKi; \iii. Ki'.sisi'Axci: \\n skaijch.
ti.'i. Forcible re^i>tanc<' in ilic lei^inmalc ex(M'cise of the riii'ht of
.^lopl-aLi'e. searcli. and capture. iii\iil\o> in all la-es tli«> condemnation
of the \('.-.-.el. The caii^n is liable to tlie -ame treatment as the cargo
of an encm\' vessel, (.iood- ixdonging to the ma-ter (U' owner <if the
\('^.^(d ar<'' treated as (uieniv u'oods.
CIlAfl i;i; I\. (OMIM'.XS AllOX.
(;i. If tlie capture ol' a \c-.-<d mi' df goods i> not u|ilield bv the
Pii/" ('unit, or if the pii/e i> i'(d<M^od without any judti'ment Ixdng
_;i\(Mi. tlie partie- inteie>ted have the ri^i'lit to ci>iiip<'n>at ion. unless
iliei'e were '_;-i k id r<'a-nii> I'nr captmini;' iIh' v(>ss<d or Li'oods.
KlXAb 1M;()\1S1().\^.
(;.".. The prii\i-ii.ii- "\ the proent I )<'cla la i ion niiist be treated
a - a \>. liiile, and ca iiicii be -epai'ated .
lii'. The SiL^aialeix- j'uwer- undertake tn iii-iire the iuuliial nli>ei-\-
( ,1.1.. M M
o;30 iVo. XIII.
aiiee of the rules eoiitained iu the present Declaration in any war
in which all the belligerents are parties thereto. They will there-
I'oi'e issue the necessary instructions to their authorities and to their
armed forces, and will t-ake such measures as may be required in
order to insure that it Avill be applied by their courts, and more
particularly by (heir Prize Courts.
(J7. TJlc j)i<'.-('ji1 JJecluratiou shall bo raliiied as soon as possible.
The ratiiicaiions shall be deposiied in London. The first deposit
of raliiicaliou,N shall be recox'dod in a Protocol signed by the Kepre-
sentatives of the Powers taking- part therein, and by His iSritannic
Majesty's Principal Secretary of State for Foreign Aifairs. The
sLibse(juen; deposits of ratiiicaiions shall be made by means of a
wi'itlcn iioiilicaiiou ad(lrc-->ed to lie Ih-itish Uovenimeut, and accom-
panied by the instrument of ratilication. A duly certilied copy of
the Protocol relating to the first deposit of ratifications, and of the
notifications mentioned in the preceding paragraph as well as of
the instruments of ratification which accompany them, shall fjo
immediately sent by the British Government, through the diplomatic
channel, to the Signatory Powers. The said Government shall, in
the cases contemplated in the preceding paragraph, jtiform them
at the same time of the date on wbich it received the notification.
G8. The present Declaration sJiall take eJIect, in tbe case (jf the
Powers Avhich were parties to the first dej)Osit of ratifications, sixty
daj-s after the date of the Protocol recording such deposit, atid, in
the case of tbe Powers which shall ratify subsequently, sixty days
after tlie notification of their ratilication shall have been received
by tbe British (Government.
G9. in the event of one of the Signatory Powers wishing to de-
nounce the present Declaration, such deiumciatifm can only be made
to take effect at the end of a period of twelve ycai'^, Ijcginnitig sixty
days after the first deposit of ratiiicatiojis, and, after that time, at
the end of successive periods of six years, of which iln' first will
begin at the end of the period of twche years. Such denunciation
must be notified in writing, at least on<' year in ad\ance, to the
Ih'itish (lovertiment, whicli shall infmtn all the other Powers, It
will only operate in respect of the denouncing Power.
70. 'J'lie Powei's re])resented at the London Xaval Conference
attach ])aiticidar iinpriilance to tin,' general recognition of the rules
which the}' ha\e ado))led, and therefore e.\[)ress tlie ]i<.)))(^ that the
Powers which wore 3ic)t- rejjrescnti^d (here will acccMJe (o the ])rcs(!iit
i)<'cl;i inilon. They re(juc-( (he ibitish ('mernincnt to invite them
i<> do Ml. .V Power which de>ires (o ac(;eih' shall no(if\- its intent ion
ill wiitinu' (o the l!ri(i>h. ( Miveriiinent . and transmit siinultiineousl v
ih" act of acc(>-sion. uhi'-h will be deposited in ihi' ai'chixes of the
-.lid ( oiv<M iiiiMMii . TIh' >,ii(l ( Mi\ oniiiKMit sliall lorihwith tran-ndt.
to id! the otli<'r Powers a duly ccrliljcd copv of (he not ilicii 1 ion.
to^^o; her with the in-t of aii':'-..ii in. and couimuidcate the <lat.<' on
w lii<ii >iiii] not ilicjii inii \\;i< roi-oi\ed. 'idi<> accession takes ."lf(M-1
-ixty d;iy- after siicji diHe. In lesjiect of all JUiitt^U's cotictu'iiing this
Decldralion of London^ 1909. 531
Declaratiou, acceding' I'owei'.s sjiall he on the same footing' as the
Signatory Powers.
71. The present De(;laraiion, which hear.s the date of the 26th
February, 1909, may bo sio-ned in fjondon up till the 30th June,
1909, by the Plenipofeutiarie.s of tlie I'ower.s r<'presented at the Naval
Conference. In faith whereof the Plenipotentiaries liave sig^ned the
present Declaration, and have thereto affixed their seals. Done at
London, the twenty-sixth day of February, one thousand nine
hundred and nine, in a single original, which shall remain deposited
in the archives of the British Government, and of which duly certified
copies shall be sent through the diplomatic channel to the Powers
represented at the Naval Conference.
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o;;4 iVo. XIV.
EESEKYATIONS.
Note.— For Rescrvatiipiis made on Signatuie, sc(.' vol. i.. App. II., pp. 3-)4 </ srq.
( 'onveutiou. Powers. I{e.<ervations on Ratification or Adliesi<
(U.
I. America •' That the United .States approves this
' Convention with thi' understanding that
: recourse to tlie Permanent Court for the
' settlement of differences can be had only
hy agreement thereto through general or
I special treaties of arbitration heretofore
or hereafter concluded between the parties
; in dispute ; and the United States now
i exercises the option contained in Art. bo
of the said Convention to exclude the
forniuhition of the compromh by the
I'ermanent Court, and hereby excludes
from the competence of the Permanent
Court the power to frame the rompromis
' required by gc-neral or special treaties of
i arbitration concluded or hereafter to be
\ concluded b}" the United States : and
; further expressly declares that thf com-
' promis required by any treaty of arbitra-
tion to Avhich the United States may be a
party shall be settled only by agreement
between the contracting parties, unless
such treaty shall expressly provide other-
wise."
Japan Eeservations on signature maintained in
, Act of Eatification.
I Eoumania Eeservations on signature maintained in
i Act of Eatification.
Switzerlantl Eeservations on signature maintained in
Act of Eatification.
II. America That the Unite<l States approves this
Convention with tlir- U7iderstandi]ig that
; recoursf to the l-'ermanent Court for the
j settlement of the difi'erences referred to
in the .said T'onvention (-an be liad only
b}' agreemt.'Ut thereto ihrough general or
spocial treaties of arbitration heretofore
or lioreafter concluded between the parties
\ in dispute.
iJKSEia'A'J'K )X.S nntlinuid.
Convciitii)ii. Powers. Fu'sci-viitioiis on FuititicatioTi or Adhesion.
(ruatejualii licsoi-vatioiis uw signature luaiiitaiued in
Act 1)1' liatiiicatiou.
Nicaragua 1)V Act of Adliesiou — 1 As rco^ards delits
arising out nf ordinary ((jiitracts })et\vecn
the sul)jort.s ot ojie State and a foreign
( jovei'uiuont recourse siiall not be had to
arbitration except in tlie specific case of a
denial ot justice by tlie Courts of the
country of the contract, whicli ouglit first
to be resorted to. {'1 ^ Public loans, with
I issue of bonds, c(jnstituting national debts
[ cannot under anv circumstances justify
: military aggressi<ui or the effective occu-
])ation of the tei-ritory of American
States.
'' Salvador Keservatiou on signature nuiintained in
Act of liatifi(,'ati(in.
IV. Gi-ermany Reservation on signature maintained in
Act of Katitication.
Austria- Reservation on signature maintained in
llungaiy Act of l\atifi<'ation.
Ja})an JJeservaticm on signature maintained in
Act of Ratification,
fiussia fleservations (jn signature maintained in
Act of Ratification.
'\'l. (jr«u-many Res(>rvation-' on sigiuiture maintained in
Act of Ratification.
Russia Reservations on signature maintained in
.Act of Ratiflciitlon.
^'^IR Germany Resi-rvation on signatui'e maintained in
Act of b'atitication.
Fi'ance Resfr\'arion on signature maintaineil in
Act of K'atitif ation.
(rreat iSrilain Heser\atioii on signature maintaim^d in
Alt of Iv'atifieation.
Siam Re>ervaiion on signature maintainod in
Act of \\\i\ ilication.
IX. (b'niiany Resci-vation on signature nvriintained in
Aei of b'atitication.
France b'esi rvatioii on signature maintaineil in
Aet of Ratitication.
(ireat Ib'itain K'oervaiion on sigmiture maintaincMl in
Act of Ivatilication.
5^6
So. XIV,
F^'E^EIIY ATlOy S—cofituiued.
(?'onYention. | Powers.
Reservations un Ratifieaticm or Adliesiou.
Japan , Peservation on signature maintained in
Act of Eatiflcation.
X. Cliina Reservation on signature maintained in
Act of Eatificati(m.
XIII. ' Germany Reservations on signature maintained in
Act of Ratification.
America By Act of Adhesion — That the United
1 States adheres to tlie said Convention,
subject to tlie reservation and exclusion
of Art. 23 ; and with tlie understanding
that the last clause of Art. o thereof
implies the duty of a neutral Power to
make the demand therein mentioned for
the return of a ship captured within the
neutral jurisdiction and no longer within
that jurisdiction.
T'hina By Act of Adhesion — With the reservation
of Art. 17, par. 2 ; Art. 19, par. 3; and
of Art. 27.
Japan Reservations on signature maintained in
Act of Ratification.
Siam Reservation on signature maintained in
Act of Ratification.
( -^37 )
INDEX.
Admiralty jurisdiction, 190-1, 201
Affi't-iLrhtineiit, effect of war on, 7--4,
.S7-8
,\yency, effect of war on. SS-1>, l.)2
n (m)
Alabama Claims, :)20 't ■-■'.'/.
Alien enemies. 21, 24, oS-tJO
expulsion of. 21. (50
right to remain, .V,J-60
right of witlulrawal, .'>S~'J
suits by, SO n {a,, .So >/ li), ",»()
Ambassadors, withdrawal uf, during
strained relations, 4, S
American Civil W^ar, 1861,
commercial blockade during, 403-4
doctrine of the continuous voyage
applied. 4 6!) rf sn/.
prizes, destruction of, during, 1S6
Andre, ilajni-, case of. 91.) // hj
Angary, 2(i0- 1, 2(iS-0
Annexation. 2o 1-21.S
Arbitrations, internaticmal. Srr Inter-
national arbitrations
Armed neutralitv, 17S0..:iyi: 1800.,
:!<il. 4:il). -l.M
Armistii e. Vr Truce
Asylum, X>< land forces. 2;i'.», MI4-1 ')
tn naval f(iri-i'>. .';.').')-7
t(i piisiimrs, :;M-1 o
tn wiiundcd and sii'k. 'M')
Balloon--. pin]'ectilc> frum. ii-!. 'j.s. 9i)
]).Tsuiis ilclivrriii-- dr.-patches by, 09
scouting in. '.'0 // y
I'ase of op,-rations. oi.s, 319. 113
in land warfare, ."il S
in naval warfare. :; 1 9
under Declaration of J.onddn. 443
neutral territory as. S" Neutral
territory.
Belligerents, qiialitications of. '.iil-~ , 127
, ,' ,o Y .
in land warfare. '.ti;-7
CI iloured tPMips. 07
forces. rei:'ular, 'Ji'>
irr' i;-ular fi .i-ccs. 97
levies • // /nn.yst . '.'7
Belligerents cnfuood.
in land \\;i.vi;a-i'— iiititinn'd.
risitiirs in i)ccui)ied territory,
97, 110
savage trooj)s, 97
in maritime warfare', 127 ft ■■^'q.
naval foi'ces. regular, 128
jiriv.ate vessels, enlistment of,
129-132
pri\ateers, 128-9
loans to, t)v neutral states, 30o
by neutral subjects, 306, 366-7
non-hostile relations of, 100-2
capitulations and .surrenders,
101
cartels, loO, lo7, 170-1, 173
hostages, 101-2
passports and safe conducts,
100
suspensions of arms and truces,
100-101
Berlin. Treaty of. 1S7S. .227
Berlin Congress, 1S78. .227
]5erlin Decree, 1S06. .1,S8 /, (a;
Blockade, 32. 33-4. 117 « ;s . 121, 394
breach of. 10:i-12
by egrc.s>. 111-12
by ingress. 410-11
conditions of liability, 410-11
liability of cargo. lf2-14, 419
Hunts of cai.>tui-e. II0-I2. llS-19
cessation of, 40^
conimer<-ial. 4o;;
continuous voviiire doctrine, applied
to. 111. 419'
Declaration of London, as to. 114-
19
nnlitary. !0^)
notice (.f, 10.'), 407 ,s. 41(i l.s
occupation of blockaded port, effect
of, 33-4, 40S
pacific, 4 03
re(pu.-.ite^ of validity, 403-S, llo-lo
-coj.e <if. iss „ a . "401, 41.'i
time to de])art, allowerl to \'e>^cls in
p.irt. Ill, 111 /■ o,
use of submarine mines in, 121
vesseK exempted from, 112
y;3S
Index.
Bombardment. 99, 114 ,i (k), 117-19
of undefoiided towns, 99, 118-19,
2.')G n (b:
to eiifon.'i' naval re(|uisitions, 118
Booty of war. Go, 201. L'09-10, 290
carrii'd into mutral t(.-ri-itorv, 290
title to, 201. 210
Bounty. ])rize, 177 n 1,, 184, 201
Bullets, expaiisivi; and i-xplosive, 93-4,
98
CAiiLES, submarine. .V'' Teleu'i'aphs.
(,'apitulations and surrenders, lul
Capture. .S" Booty: Mai'itime eapture ;
Prizes
Cartels, 100. 107. 170-3
shijjs exempt from capture, 170-3
Cession, 229, 230, 215. 217
Charter party. Si<- Alfreiu-htment
Civil war, 1 1
Claims based on ^\•ar, 2')ri et snj.
by non-resident n<-utrals (angary),
260-1, 20S-9
by resident m.-utrals. 2.10-9, 200-8
by subjee-ts. 2 7' 1-3
bv subjeijts of eontpiered territory,
* 273-1
for use and d(-,tru<'tion of cables,
202-3, 209-70
natioiial indemnit}- for war losses,
270-4
residfiit neutrals, compensation cj'
grtifui to. 20 1-0
Coal, supplies bv neutrals to bellig-ereuts,
309, 3.",2-3, 302, 373-4, 382
as contraband. S'-'- Contraband
Coloured trooi)s, 97
Commercial intercourse during war, 02
betw(;en enemy subjects, rule of
non-intercourse, O.')-0, 70-8
exceptions tl]ei-(,'to, 7fS-8.')
contracts })etween enemies not
divided b\' tlie lim- of war,
78-80
lir-cnscd trade, 80-2. 103
pi'isoners' contracts. 82-:^>
ransom contracts, 83-0
H.R. 23 'h^, elfect of. M.'i-O
j)aiticular transactions, affreight-
ment. 72-4, S7-S
and
au;'encv. >
S- 9
.Icbt-.'s.i
7
insUT-.inci-
02 -0. 07-^. 71,
insui-aiice
litV. 71
iiitci'<-t>
in corporation.
coinp.ii
ies, S.V-il()
ncL'-otiahl
• instruments, 8
partncr-li
p, 00-71. '^'.'
Commercial intercourse, &c. — continued.
particular transaction.s — contirmcd.
suits by alien enemies, 90
which .suspended, 02-0
which abrogated, 07-74
restraints on neutral trade, 283-4,
3S2-7, 440
under customary law, 38o-6
as modified by convention, 386-7
position of partie.s affected as
regards, 283-4. 383-4, 446
Conquest, effects of, 33, 234 et xcq.
on persons, 242-4
on private rights and laws, 2 18
on pro].)erty and obligations, 234-42
succession in case of, 240-8
temporary or partial, 107, 2or)-0
operation of postliminium,
2 5.') -6
tests of com])leted, 240
title by, 244 rt sfq.
Continuous transport, doctrine ijf, 143,
408-9, 473. 47.3, 477-.S
applied to contrabanl. 113, 4(J«-9,
477. 478
during Sfjuth Afriean ^\'ar, 468-9
under iJeclaration of London, 443,
478
Continuous vox'age, doctrine of, 411,
419, 429', 406 ct .V7.
applied to blockade. 111, 419, 409-
72. 477
applied to contraband, 129, 443,
472-0. 177-^
ap])lied to prohibited trade. 400-9,
470-7
Contraband, analogues of. Sr-c Un-
neutral service
Contraband of war, 120 ' '' nq.
ab.solute, 4 23, 141-2
Declaration of London as to,
44 1-2
conditional, 423-4, 42.')-7, 427-8,
439
conditions of liabilitv for car-
riae-e of, 423-4, '426, 427,
428-9, 4 12-3
Declaration of London as to,
4 11 3
liostile destination a necessary
element, 423-1, 120, 427-9,
44 2-3
]ii'e-eni])tion of. V2 1 , 127
pro])osed ahanilonnient of doc-
trine of. 439
Declaration of London on. 13'.* 't si,^.
destruction of, t87-S
doctrine of continuous x-oyay-e,
ap]ilied to, 12'.i, 11.3, 172 0, 477-8
export of, po>ition of neutral stat*.'
in regard to, 283-1, 3S3-4, 440
Indej
5:^9
Contraband of war coiiilwu'd .
limits of (apture f<ir, -ri'.*. Ill
uoii-conti'ahaiid inider Dcclaratiou
of London, 41. '5-1
occupation of port of destination,
etfcct of. 3;?, 35
penalty for carria^'-c of , li;0-l, 14')
Russian list of, 11)04 .. 432 -3. 435-1;
voluntary surrender of, 445-11
when liabilitv for carriage ceases,
429, 437
when neutral ship confiscable for
carria<,''e of, 430-1, 4;5(j, 445
Contracts, etfcct of war on, ti2-74, 82-90.
AV,' i(hti Connnercial intercourse
Contributions and requisitions. 111-12,
117-lS, 255, 274 }, (h
during' Franco- (xernian War, 112
n (x), 229 n (a)
durinir South African War, 229,
24 7 >^ (fl. 274
in sea warfare, 117-ll.S
proposed e.\eni]ition of neutrals
from, 27, 2t)G-7
wliethcr conqueror liable for those
of conquered state, 24 7
Convention of London, 1S41. . 125 n (d)
Convtnition of Vereeniginy, 1902., 220,
240, 273, 274 // x)
Convoy, right of. 4 78-8;;
Declaration of I^ondon ow, 482,
484-5
Coriiorations, tradintr. domicile of, 2(>,
05 ./ (c)
efi'ect of war on interests in, 89-90
Crimean AVar. 41. 00 // -t;, 91. 129. 3(i7.
470, 481
Crimes, wai'. 1 1 I
Cruisers, (lualitied, 124-7, 129-132
DeI!Ts. ettect of war on. 80-7
private, int'-re^t on, 81; 7
whet lier I'oniisi'able, 55, 50-8
pulilic, whetlicr (•onti-<'able. 4 1-5
in occupied ten-jtory. 1 1 0
of l!o('i- i'c]iutili( >. a<^uined by
Gre.'it b'.iitain, 217
(ill coiKjuoT. liability for. 2 17
treaty, 179 1, (li-eat liritain and
I'nited .^t.itr>. criiicerinng.
12 ,' <! , I I /' h
Declaration .if Ibaisscls. I,s7t. .lei
Declai-aliou of LoTidoii. 20, li:!. 148,
102. 10:;. ii;i. is:;, -ix \ „ u^ . 2s5, :;80.
:;87. 1 14. i:;o. 4 15. I5i;, I5s. 4s2. 183,
b^5. )S7. jss
Declarati.aiof i'aris. I,s50.. lH;, 117. 129,
130. 152. 3S(;. 3S7, :jsO. :;itl, 393-4,
403, 101 /' m, 181, 482
Declaration of St. I'otersbiirg, 1S08..
92, 93-4, 98 ;( (1 , 110
Declar.ation of war, whether necessary,
0-7, 17-19
Hague ('(invention as to, 18
Ivusso-Japanese AVai' dispute, 1-7
unilateral .sufficient to create state
of war, 7, 9, 10
Desertion, 2)ersons negotiating, 99, 114
Despatches, carriage of, 99, 450-1
by neutral ships, 450-1
by post, 451
delivery bv balloon, not esjnonage,
99
Devastation, limits of , 99. Ill m (k)
])omicik>, 22-0, 27-30, 152, 102-3
commercial, 23-4
ilv ij'irrrr, 24 ), A
an<l nationalitv, an tots of enemy
charact.T, 27-30, 152, 102-3
of trading corjjorations, 26
Enkmy character, 19-30, 152-3
of persons. 19 '/ s/y.
of property, 152-)!. 102
Declaration of London as to,
102-4, 380-7
embarked in privileged trade,
21, 152, 153-5, 462-0
passing between neutrals and
enemies, 153, 155, 157-8
transferred in transitu. 158-60,
103
unsold ])roduco of estate in
enemy country, 155-6
of tei-ritory, how affected by occu-
jiation, 32-3, 155
of vessels, 140-3
permanent and tejnporarv, 21
tests of. 21-2, 27-30, 102-3
domicile. 22 0, 152, 102-3
nationality, 19-22
why donncile preferable, 29-30
]->nen>y persons. 21-2. S, ,_ <//,«, Alien
enemies
in neutral '-hips, when sei/able,
303 ,/ IS , 454-0). 158-'.!
Lnemv p7'o]iertv. ])rivate. 52 8, 00-2,
■ 1 11. i:;7 /' b
dcbts. :>h. 50-S, 01
deva-tatioi]. limits of, 99
exemption from mai'itimc capture.
]iroiio>e,l, 1:^5- 10
attitude of (iieat I'.i'ilain. Iy8-
13':i
whether desirable froTu Tiritish
standpoint. l."iS- 10
wliethei' expedient fi'om inter-
national standpoint. 130-8
540
Index.
Enemy property, private — co>iti)tutd.
in neutral ships, l')2, 172. 390-3
neutral lieus on, lGO-2, 163-4
of sovereign, whether confiseahle on
conquest, 248, 253
pillage, 99, lOo, 107. 111. 119
transferred to neutrals ifi transitu,
15S-60. 163
within occupied territory. Ill,
137 >i (b)
within tt'rritorv of other belligerent,
52-.S. 60-2
Knemv property, public. 60, 99, 110-11,
■2.54-.)
within occupied territory, 110-11,
254-5
debts, 60 n (y), 110 // (i;
exceptions to right of seizure,
111
within territory of other belligerent,
44-."). 60
debts. 44-5. 60
Enemy territory, what constitutes, 34-5
neutrals within, proposed exemption
from incidents of war. 27, 266-7
when home or friendly territory
becomes, 33-4. 35
Sie also Enemy character : Enemy
property : Neutrals : Occupation,
military
Exterritoriality, 336. 347-8
Fishing boats, coastal, 169. 172-3
Flag, 98. 100, 101, 119
false, how far permissible in
naval warfare, 119
misuse uf, 98
of truce, 100
white, not proper token of sur-
render, 101, 101 n !z
Forces, land and sea. See Belligerents
Foreia-n Enlistment Act, 1S19. ,343, 371,
Foreign Enlistment Act, 1870. .287 /; (a).
291 N i\), 371-3, 446 „ ;'n;
Franc, -G.'rman War, 1870.
cnntributions and requisitions,
112 ,< X . 229 n fa
indeinMity to Germany. 229
passage I if troops and wounded over
neutral territory forbidden, 313
prisoners of war detained after
peace, lo7 >< (zi
treaties, confirmed bv peace tre.itv, 41
Frankfort. Treaty of, 41, 2!4 /, (e
■•Frrc ."-hips, free goods,'' principle of,
l>!»2
Freight, f-nptur's right to, for carriage
of neutral ii-ood<. 38S-!». 394
Geneva Conference, 1863. . 102
Geneva Convention, 1864.. 92. 93, 103
Geneva Convention, 1868. . 103
Geneva Convention, 1906.. 43 n c\ 93,
104-5, 300
Gifts by neutrals on behalf of sick and
wounded, 368
Goods, enemy. See Enemy property' ;
Maritime capture : Prizes : Vessels
Goods, nevitral. .SVr Contraband : Enemy
character; Maritime capture ; Prizes;
Neutrals ; Vessels
Guerilla forces. 97
Guides, compulsory employment of
enemy subjects as, 108 ;/ (h)
Hagi-e Conference, 1899., 92. 93. 103,
135-6
Hague Conference. 1907.. 27, 136. 138,
266-7, 439
conditional contraband, proposed
abolition of doctrine of. 439
neutrals in belligerent tenitory,
proposed exemption from requisi-
tions and contributions, 27, 266-7
prize money, abolition of, proposed,
I3S „ \)'
proposed exemption of private pro-
f)ertyfrom maritime capture. 136,
138 "
suggested seipiestration instead of
cvipture of private property, 138
Hague Convention, 1904, on hospital
ships, 117, 124
Hague Conventions, 1899 and 1907, as
to,
adaptation of principles (.)f Geneva
Convention to maritime war, 116,
121
automatic submarine ci-mtaet mines,
116, 119-121
bombardment Ijy naval forces, 116
capture in maritime war, restrictions
on. 117, 118. 172-4
conversion of merchant ships. 116,
131-2
International Prize Court. 117,
194-8
Laws and Customs of War on Land,
93 't feq. S"' Hague Regula-
tions
neutral ritrhts and dsities, 2'<4. 299-
301. 305-6, 314, 31S-20, 313-9,
351, 361-2. 380
tipeniuLT of hostilities. 14, 18-19,
2SS '
pacific settlement of disputes. 17-18
rights and duties of lu'utral Powers
in maritime war, 284, 361
Index.
Al
Ha
Ha
Ha
H.
n'uc Conventions contviued.
rights and chities of neutral Powers
and persons in war on land, 93,
284, 299
status of enemj- mcrcliant-sliips on
outbreak of war, 167
LTUo Declarations, as to use of
asphyxiating gases, 94, 98
bullets, expansive or explosive, 94,
98
projectiles from balloons, 94. 98
gue Regulations H. C. No. 4 of 1907),
Art. 2;i (h), meaning of. 8.')-(i
balloonists, scouting ()r carrying
despatches. 99
belligerent qualifications, 9G-7
bombardment, 99
capitulations and surrenders, KU
effect and value of, 95- (i
of German doctrine of military
necessity on. 95-0
irregular troops, 97
occupied territorv, control of, 8o-G,
107-112
pillage, 99, 111
prisoners, 105-7
prohibited methods of warfare, 98-9
spies, 99
submarine cables, destruction of.
209
suspeusiiins of arms and truces,
100 101
violations of. 1 lo
pital ships, 117, 122-1, 171-2, 173
exemption from capture. 171-2, 17o
freediim fi'oni port dues. IIG. 124
us"(l for military purposes. 171, 172
pitiils. 99. 103. ioi
tiL'-es, 101-2, 111), 112
ou tra)ii>. 1 10
t(i enfiirce (•(iiitributidns, 102, 112
IxiiKMNlTV. ;i> term, of pf-ace treaty, 229
fi'V seizure i)f privati' pr(]p(rty in
( iceupied tel I'itiirv. 1 1 1
S, I' f//w/ ( 'lainis bii^rd on war.
In^tituif lit I uttriiatiiJiial J^aw, I'ules
ei'ii'i-l'liillt:'.
autiiTii.iti'' ~uhinai'iiie mines, 1 2 1 /' 'z
b:iinl)ardnii'iit of umli'tViidi'd towns,
117 lis
buildiiiu' a;id littiiiu' "i \v.n--hi;i> in
neutral w atirs. :J 1 1
captui-i- of ]'i-iv;it>' ]>l'oportv at sea,
1:M. !:;.■> /' k
eont li'nuti: iii-^ and ri'i]ui>iiioi)-., lis
einivoy. ri--ht (if. |S2
teIru-)M]iii-, suliTuuriin-. 2i;'.l--7o
\virele>-. l-V.i ,. om
Insurance, effect of war on, G2-o, G7-8,
71, 77. 88
life, 71, 88
marine, 02-.'), 07-8, 77
Interest, effect of war on, 8G-7, 89-90
on debentures held by enemy sub-
jects, 89-90
on debts, 8G-7
Internatioiuil arbitrations, 34, 231-2,
258-9, 264, 320
International commissions, 34, 231, 259,
380. 408, 4 70
Interiuitional I'rizo Court, whv needed,
29, 192, 194
constitution, 197-8
jurisdiction, 195-G
law applicable, 196-7
parties, 19G
proci'dure, 198
■lid (inijiiriiti . Si'r Angary
Jus postriiiiniil. See Postliminium
KoiiEA. di.spute as to neutrality of. 1904
..274-80
aimexed l)y Japan, 225 // (u)
Laxd war. growth and soiu-ees of law
of. 91-5
base of operations in, 318
belligerent (pialifications. 96-7
bomiiardment. 99
di'vastation. limits of. 99
prohibited methods. 98-9
as.-as.sinatiou, 98, 113. IIG
bond)ardment of tmdefendod
towTis, 99
bullets, expanding, 91, 98
bullets, explosive, 93-4, 98
enemy uniform, misuse of, 98
flag of trueo, abu>e (jf, 9S
pillage. !»9. 105. 107, III
p()is(pn. 9S
j)roj<M-ti].> from balloons. 98. 99
projectil.s (liffu>ing aspliyxiat-
iwj: ga-cs. i's
i[uartei'. I'efusal of, 98
rod eross. i:ii-use of, 98
ruses. 9N
spie>. n9
valuer and ettoct ol ILiLi-Uf Keirula-
linn>. '.i.'i
liM\v affected liy (iennan dor-
trine ot military iieces,-itv.
inilitai-\-
■Uigereiits ; Occupation,
542
Index.
Mari tim e ea pture — con t hi xed.
snggested exemptiou of private
propei'ty from , 135-140
attitudeof Great Britain, i:iS-40
whether desirable from British
standpoint, 138-40
whether expedient from inter-
national standpoint, 136-8
valid rapture, conditions of, 175-7
Str also Convoy : Prize Courts ;
Prizes ; Visit and search
Maritime warfare, 114-124
belligerents, qualifications of, 127-
132
bombardment, 117-19
contributions and requisitions,
117-18
false flags. 119
laws of, development and sources,
115-17
ruses and deceit. 119
scope of, 114-15
submarine mines. 1 1 0, 1 TJ- 1 2 1
torpedoes, 120
wounded, treatment of, 11(3. 121-4
,SV/ iiUi, Birlliarerents ; Maritime
capturt": Prize Courts: Prizes;
Vessels I if war : A'isit and search
Martial law. 45-51
as applied by an iii^-ador. 48, 50-1
in the home state, 47-8, 50
Milan D.-cree. 1807.. iss „ fa,
Military forces. See Belligerents
rMaritime capture, property liable, 132-5 j Military law. distinguished from martial
duties and responsibilities of captor, [ law, 49
Law. kinds of, applied in war, 49
martial, a.s applied bv an invader,
48-50
distinguished from military, 49 |
in the home state. 47-S, 50
Laws and customs of war, 51. See (ihej |
Belligerents : Land war ; Maritime j
war: Neutrality: Xcutrals
Lew en iiiiiss, , 07
Loans to belligerents, 38-40. 44-5, 305,
306. 365-8
to state, eflect of war on, 44-5
Ity neutral states, 305
by neutral subjects, 306, 365- 8
public issues, prevention of, possible
effect on war, 368
during Crimean War, 367
during" P'ranco-l.Terman War,
367
during Russo-Japanese War,
367
London. Convention of. 1841.. 125 ;; (d)
London, Declaration of. See Declara-
tion of London
London. Treatv of, 1S71 . .125 „ 'd
Madi:id, Treaty of, 1902. .41
Magna Charta, on treatment of resident
enemy subjects. 217 n b;
]\ranifestoes. 7 n \\ . 287
177-187
enemv vessel on land for repairs,
132-4
in neutral waters. 201. 204-5. 300.
319
re-c:i])ture. S.r Prizes
restrictions on. 161-75
cartel ships, 170-1. 173
coastal rishiu','- boats, 160, 172-3
crews of enemv jirivate vessels.
173-1
eiiemy jtrojierty, not coiitra.-
band, on neutr.al ships, 152,
172. :-;'.•!)- :i
hospital ships. 1 71-2
neutral goods, ni^t contraband. Xa\-al ])isciplii
Military necessity, 95 et g;, 99, 111, 137
266. 268
C4erman doctrine of, 95-(;, 137
right of anu-ary, 260-1, 268-9
Military occupation. Sr,> Occupation
military
Mines, submarine, 116. 119-121
Natioxai.ity, as test of enemy charact'-:
19-22
c-)mparc(l «-itli domicile, 27-30
Naval Cniiferciife. 1008-0.. 131, 14'
10 1. 105. :)S6. 407. 139, 465
A<-t,
1.S66. .ls7.
in en'-mv ship>, ISO, :;sii-&.
:;:(1-1
pi-i-stjnal cffci't-^ of master, pas-
scnLTci's and crew, 1 73
]iM>tal ci(rrc>p( iiiilcnci'. I7I-5
\-cs-cl-. t iiciiiy. at outbreak of
war, \i\\ ':'"
:,, — ]< (iiu'aLred ill reliu'ious,
-cicntific or jiliilautliropic
ii[i~-ions. 141. 160. 1 73
190
Naval I'rize Act. lS64..177/( 1, 1^3.
1S4. ls7. r.Mi. 201. 21 1
Naval forces. S,-, Ilclliirerents
Naval \\-ar. Se- ?ilaritinic- war
Neg. liiable insti'uments. 77. 82-:J. s7
Neutral states, riu'lit.-- and duties of.
\. - N.'iitral tcri'itory : Nentralitv
Neuti'al sul)ject-. jio^irion of. S,,
Neutrals : N'c.-sels. neutral
Index.
54:3
Neutral territory, 2SS ,1 s.q.
as base of opei'atioiis, ■js:;. :!l-')-2l)
asylum in, 8(tO, :ill-l;'), :;.")r--7, 3,')!'
captures in, _'.•(), 29 I
eonsii'uctiou and t>inii])ineiit nt war-
>lii]is in, :;(is, :!20 ri .■.,,/., :m:;-S
duties as reirards. 2s:;. 2if2-l), ;5l)r,
enlistnient of torei's uiid issue of
cniuTuissioiis witliin, 2'.)!), ;>(I()-'J
hostile expeditions frnui. olO-i:i
its inviolability. 2S8 '( .sr,/.
its inuiumity from lu)st ilities, 2'.)0
exceptions to.
self-d<.feuee. 2'.l2. 291
self-redress. 21i.'), 2'.tS
]iassaLre of ti'oops over, :;iM-lt
I'ri/e Courts, in, 1S»2, 20')-7, :!01
prizes ill, adjudication on, l'.l2-o,
20."). 21)7. ■','>9
reception of, 0')',). :',(i'^
ri>i-hts as re.t^'-ards, 2S2 ;/ ';t , 288-',)
violations of, and rcni'^dies therefor,
2i)l, 2!'i-5, ;SUl-2, ■■',i\i
warships in neutral ports, 348
ef sr.,.
wounded and sick, asylum in, oOO,
o 15
passaii-e over, 2ii'.) odi)
Xeutralitv, u'lnieral prinoijiles of, 280,
2s'l-:'/. 2s.')-s
convi-ntious reu'ardiiiir, 2S')-()
duties (if neuti-al states. 282-o,
292-a. :!02-(i
as to loans, oO.)
as to military aid, ■"02-;5
as to sale of sliips and war
materiel, :-io:'.- i. :;()■')
as to ti'tritory. 28:!. 292-8,
2'.i^--9. :;(Mi , > s( y.
impartiah'ty, :;i)l. ^oi!
kinds ..f, 2S0- r
!i;il imial laws of. :ii'i9 r/ w .^ .
Hriti^h. :■!!'.•. Ij-'il. :;.V2, o.V;.
'■'<<\'.^ ~ '1
Tniti-d Stiites, :;;;■) 8(1
utlii-r >y-tini>. : si- 2
pi'iiahy fiir vi<ilations 'if. :;t; 1
rela'iiiii til tlie inti'i'Jiational
L-nv. :-;m)-1
pii'ii'.iini'nt. 2*^1
.juiiliti.-d. 2sl . :;o2 :;
riu-lit-- nf m-iiti-al >»ati-.. 2s2-:'., 2s^
trad'-, neutr ;1. i'i--lit> a"'! liiiliilitie-
iif.2s:; l.2^'li. :1i'.k:1s2 7. 1 Hi
]i' i>iti' 'U 1 if ni'iili-al --tatt - hs
r. -:n-d^. 2M. 2'.''.'. -"'i. :;s4 .'i.
1 p;
vi'i] itinii- of, and ri'Miedies theref' ir,
2!t| . 2:< I-.'). :ioi - 2, :cil
ivhi'n reiatiiiii bei^ins, 28.3-8
Neutral pei'sons. in he]li<rei'ent forces, 2G
in ])olliii:ereiit territory, ])osition as
\ rciranls ti-ade. 2 i. 27
as re<rards invader, 2.")7-8, 2<in-7
i as reLi'ards territorial power,
I 2.-.9. 2<i7 S
I claims foi' \\ar losses, 250-9,
I rumjiinsation ' .< '//v//(V/ to, 2') l-G
! projiosal to exempt from con-
I ti'iljutions and requisitions,
27, 2tjii-7
sujiplv i)f arm- or munitions of
war to h.'lliirerents, l,v, 299,
305
in enemy servioe, 2(i-7. 2.'s7
on hoard enemy merchantmen, 21 ,
2 (
prizt-i, destructi(m of, 177-SO, 18(i,
■■'M), :;94. 48.')-7
property embarked in privileired
trade, 21, 148 „ fa:, 1.58- •'),
l(i2-r), 4(i8
in enemy sliips. .)87-9. 892-4
in eni'iny ships, destroyed on
capture, 18(1, 889
in eni.'inv sliips, armed, 389,
4 so
in neutral sliips. destroyed on
capture. 8S9
in ec(ai]>ied territory. 1 II
ri-cajitured. ijue-tion of salvasj-e.
21^-20
use or destruction of (ansrarv ,
HI, 2i;o 1. 2(i8 9
wrou<.''fnl >i'izure nf, coiupensa-
tion for. ISO. IS7, 485
trade, restraints on, 288 4, 3S2-7.
44fi
undi.'i- custiiinary law, 885-(;
a- moditied by I'onvention.
8sii-7
IHoition of paitie- as reirards.
2S8-4. 8S8 ."1. I 11;
A',- ///>(, L'niii'inral Service
Non-c(inib:itants. in;, I07-S, li)s-l'_', 111
treatment of. 9i;
in noii-necupiMl tei'ritury, 107-.S
in iHiupied territ'irv. 10^-12,
11 1 /' li
OccTP.vrii'X. milirar\-. itb -ts nf, ;;2 1.
los -1 l-j, ■J.-,.-, '
a- i-e--;ird^ trade. ■','■',- {. I'lS
1 nntribu; ii in^ and r. ipii-iii' in>, 1 1 1-
eonti-ul et inlcibit-nits. In;)- In
l;'' A I'l'Mnienl and adniiiii-tratii n. 1 o'
liiisiliminiiuu. eperatiiin . .f . 25l-.">
544
Index.
Occupation, military- — conti)n<ed.
scope of. 34—5
seizure and use of property, enemy,
and neutral. 110-11, 2o5
taxes, collection of. 111, 255
Occupation, permanent. Sec Conquest
Panama Canal. 349. 351, 359
Paris, Treaty of. 1856.. 41, 43 n (e)
Paris, Treaty of. 1898.. 41, '229
Partnershi]\ effect of war on, 69-71. 99
Passports, 100
Peace, Treaty of, 226-9
amnesty clause, 227, 228
authority to make, 227
effects of, 227-9
on eno-au'ements of States and
subjects, 228
on hostile acts done in ignor-
ance of, 229-34
on territory and property, in
default of express stipulation,
228
indemnity, 229
making- of, 22«i-7
preliminaries of peace, 220
usual stipulations, 227
Pillag-e, 99. 105, 107. 111. 119
Pilots, eniplovment of neutral, 301
Pirates, 11, 278 « r
property re-taken from. 215
Poison in warfare, 98. 116
Portsmouth. Treaty cf. 1905. .41. 223-5,
227
Postal correspondence, immunity from
captur(.-. 174-5. 454, 475
desjiati/hes (jf bellisrerent, 451
Postliminium. 219. 248 et seq.
definition, 252
in international law, 253
opeiation on })r<j];i-rty. 254-5
on territory and soyereif^nty.
255-0
Prisoners of war. 105-7
asj-lum in neutr;d territory, 314-15
C(jn tracts hy. 82-5
exchange of, 107, 170-1
hosta<r("s as. 102
rep;itriati(in of, 227
wound.d and ArV as. 104. 122
Priyateering. 113. I2s-it. i:;i), 135, 319
Prize bounty. 177 " 1 . l'^4. 2(il
I'rize Courts, nature and fum-tiuns.
18-J-:;. !'^s ,' ,v./.
Priti-h. !S7. 19M-1. l!i| „ 't
,l.rT( ,.~. r(~],(ai-ibility for. 193
in minial i orf.-. l',)2. '_0.",-7. Mill
intiriiatiiJiial I'rize Court. I94-N,
Prize Courts — continued.
Japanese, 191 w (t,
local situation of, 192. 207, 301
local situation of prize, 192-3
status in international law. 188-90,
192
United States, 191 « (t;
Prize Courts Act, 1894. . 190-1
Prize of war, 201, 209 et seq.
Prizes, adjudication, need to submit for,
177-80, 185-6
British practice, 181, 187, 190-1,
194 n X\
captor's powers and duties. 177-187
capture in neutral waters, 290-1.
294-5, 300, 319
destruction of, 177-80. 186, 394,
485-7
in neutral ports, adjudication on,
192-3, 205, 207, 359
reception of, 359, 363
neutral, wrongly seized, compensa-
tion for. 181, "187. 485
ransom of. 84-5, 187
re-capture, 212-21. And see ?>B.\\a.ge
title of captor, when complete, 2(i4,
207. 210-14, 216. 219
by transfer from captor, 205-7.
211-12
in relation to neutral states,
204 ), [g . 207-9
of owner when diyested, 210-12
primarilyin the Crown, 199-201
yalid capture, essentials of, 175-7
yessels of war not prize. 184-201
who may capture. 184
S'-e nl-io Maritime capture : Prize
Courts
Property, enemy. S'e Booty ; Enemy
property, priyate ; Enemy property,
public ; Prizes
Property, neutral. AVv Xeutrals ; Ve,-sel-
Proyisions, supjilics by neutrals to lu'lli-
gerent ^^"av^hips. 352-3. 363
Qualified cruisers. 124-7, 129-3
Quarter, refusal of, 98, 113, 116
Railway materiel, neutral, use by belli-
gerent, 201. 20S-!'
Ransom contrai'ts, S3-5, 187
IiCcajituro, niaritimo. .s'<' Prizes
Red Cvo». OS. 103, 105. 110 ;/ n .
121 /- a
R(.']iair.- to warsliips in neutral port~,
351-5. 303
Reprisal.-, 19, 44, b^y. 96. 113
Iin/f
>4-')
lic(|ui-itiiiii> ;iii(l .■uiitrilMitinii^, lln, Soutli Afi-icaii W;ii'. 1S9H, ;irtu;il teriiii-
1 1 \-\-l. 117 1 1^, ■!■)■<
ill l-'raiii'i)-( Icrnian War, 1 12 ,■/ x .
■2i';t u ai
iuS.aitli African War, 'IV.'', 2 17 // 'f).
271
lialiility fm- tlicisc of coiKjUfrciI
Stat J, 217
proposed I'xeinptioii of iiiaitrals
from, 2 7, 2()<!-7
Rule of the War of 17.V;. . I(i2-(1, 16s
as (^xtenileil in 17!':! . . \''''-'> - 1
doi'triiie of th'' coutiiiuoiis voyai;'e
iind, 4(i.S
Rr.ses, '.l,S, 11!)
Russo-Jai>aiifse War. IfKM, (■(unmenee-
iiieiit of. 1-7, "^
i-outraliaiiil, IJiissian list of, 124,
4;!2-l
Japatiesepi'ai'tifr roirai'diiii;', 4'->S
expul.-ioii of Japanese subjects.
60 // It)
Korea. dis]iute as to luMitralitv of,
274-80
neutralitv reLiailatinus. Uritisli.
.•;7'3-i
Freueli and Dutch, MSI
prisoners, hui'eau of information for.
1(16 „ s
not detained after war. 107 /' '/
Piussian suhjects allowed to remain
in Japan. 60 n t:
termination of, 221-.")
troatinent of enem}- vessels at out-
break of th(> war, l(i6, 167
warships interned in neutral ports,
ooo^l, ;j!,-)4, :]r)r)-7, :;i;4
Russo-Turkish War, 1S7S,.7 ^ 't;.
4-; ,/ 'e)
•AFi': I'onducts, loo
•alva.i:-.., 212-21. 2.i4
civil, 2211
military or prize, 21 t-lo. 22 1
for recapriire of l!i-:n-li prop-i-t;
)f neutral [jroperiy. 2 1 s 2i
nation of, 226
aliens, exjmlsiou of, b\- I'.ritish, 26-'»
British Mibjccts. expelled bv P.oers.
(iO „ 't '
concentration cam])s durinL.'. !iO /' x
contiabaml, area of search for, 42!'.
4 7-'>
contribution to Boer war losses.
220, 217 /' ifi, 27:5
execution of ]}i'is(]iiers, lOii >/ o
hi.^taL'-e- on trains, 1 10 „ (c
rei|uisitions. TJritish. 229, 217 n {ij.
by IJoer forces, ])ayment of. 271
war l(is,-es, cuinjiensation to British
subjects. 27:1
to expelled aliens. 264 li
to jirotected burrj-hers, 274
to T'esideiits of ('ape Colony.
270-8
Spanish-American ^^"llr, ISOS.
auxiliary ciaiisers under naval liiw .
i:U
enemy merch<antmen at outbreuk
of thewar, tri'Jitmentof, 164-6, 167
Philippines, indemnity for cession
of, 2 2', I
I'ri\'ateers not used, 12!*
Spanish subjects allowecl to remain
in r. S., 61) II t
Spies, !)0. 111. lb!, 4o9-G0
bearers of despatches bv balloon not
spi,-, 1)0
interception of wireless messat;-e bv
liellie'eretit not espionaLre, ItiO
scouts in balloons not spies, !)i.t u (y
Use of wireless by war-correspon-
dents, not e^picjiiae-e, l-')o, 4."i9-(')il
status ,j)i,i ,i„h hrlliiiii. -I'lf^
Stoppae-e '/' f>-<n,s:f„, l.')l. Mo, 16.i-4
riirht ft! neutral consiu-ner to exer-
'ci-e. 16(1. ii;:j-4
Siibmafine cables. s, r Telet^'ra]"!!--
Submarine mines. 1 l','-l 21
.Submariic' I'elei.'-r.aph ('(invention, 1SS4
200
Succession, state, in case of conipiest,
211, 24 6- S
if propert\' ot all\-, 2 1 .'1 l'^. 22ii Sujijily 'if fnod and raw material in war
for rescue ef abandi
neutrals, 1 :'2, 21 !'
San Stefatio. Treaty of. 1S!'S. .227
Savaire troo]ts, ',(7
Second Peace ( 'onfereiice ( '1 in\eiiT i. 11.-
T.;ill, 12:; „ ., and s
Self-prc-ei-vation, 'M'<, OI"
Ships. Srr \'esseK
Sietri.s, CMiidiict of, o:i
Sdurh African Depurtati'iTi ( 'umini-si'Mi,
20 1-6
time, li.iy. ( 'iini., lo^-!»
MUl-endei-s.' lul, Idl // /.
■iisiiensii ms of artus. 1 01)
Taxhs, cdllrctiun iif, in occupied terri-
tnrv, ill. 2:.'.
Telew-,,;;,hic r.li.itl. 2V,' /- h
■j'eleirraiili-. 262-:;. 26o_7r., 2liO. :;iil.
:;it."). 4')l-:i. !."i!i-(i(i
C . T . b
X X
64 <i
JadcA
ilutics (if iieutriil stato ren-ardiug,
land, im
>ub)iiaiiiu.', use or dr.structiou bv
belligcTiut, 202-;;, 209-70
wirclfNS, ei'ectioii on neutral terri-
tory In- belligereut, 299, :;01,
l.V.i
([Ue>linns retrardiuiif, 4.V,)-GU
u>e bv Avar - corresj^oiideuts,
-i:.i-'2, l.V.i-00
Teri-iturial waters, limits of, 290
Territory. ,S'«( l^ueiiiy territ(jr\' ; Neutral
territory
Torpedoes. 120
Trade, licenses to, f50-2
Transvaal ( 'oneessions C'(jnunission, 234-
12, 217
Treachery, is, OS, 114, 119
Treason, war, 114 // 4
Treaties, effect of war on. o5-44
Tn aty of I'Vaiikforl. 1871 . .244 n (e
Treaty of ].ondon, 1871 . . 125 /- (di
Tieaty of Madrid, 1!)02. .41
Treaty of I'aris, l>s.')(i . . 4 1 , 48 /.■ e;, 129
1 SOS... 11
Treaty of I'oir.-moutli. 1005., 41, 221-5,
Treaty of San Stefano, 1S7,S..227
Treaty of W'asliington, 1,S71 . . :i20 etavii..
314', :■!!(;. 317
Tieaty of Zurich. 11
Truce. OS, 100 1
Turco-[talian War, 1011. .11, 12,1s,/
k , 10, 13 ,1 (\ . 159
area of hostilitie>. at first, liiiuted,
11
iiinefir of ihi- ca))itulations, with-
drawn from Italians, 43 // x
coinmencemi-iit of. Is ,, ;]<i, 19
.-(•i/uic of I'"ienc]i mail-boat carry-
iiiL;- Turks, 150
Twenty-four hours inter\-al, 34S-;j, :i51,
373, 3S2
|M).-se,-.~ioij of prize, 202, 210, 213
-tay. 310, 350 1, 373, 3Sl, \',W1
r \\i-;!"i i:ai. >er\4ce, 4 17-''i)
• ■arriai^-e of na\-al or nLilitiu'v p''r-
Mins, 1 i7-;i
ilc-patclc-. cari-ia--. of, 45(j-l
■iili-tmeiil ill ciiciiu' .^ervii'C, 21,
•J'.-7, 10:i-l
:t]i--aL:'e-- and >iL:nal> lo a belli-
•s> r-iit. 151 -:;
■i\ireli-> tclcurapliy. '|iii'Stion> as to
u~e of. I5'.e on
/'' //'..s.s"/' '-^, priic-i).|c rit', 220 22s
\'k];i;km(jixg. Convention of, 1902. .226,
240, 273, 274 n (.\j
\"esscls, British, 143
cartel, 170-1, 173
coastal fishin.a-, 109, 172-3
conversi(jn of, into warsldps, 117,
124-7, 120-31
Declaration of London as to charac-
ter of, 143
enemv, liens by neutrals on, lGO-2,
163-4
neutral ijoods in. :;s7-0, 591-4
putting into port of other belli-
gerent, in distres'^, \''-\
seizure of, bv land forces,
111 n (p)
status of, at outbreak of war,
104-9
transferred to neutral Hau',
144-0
enemy character of, 140-;;
engaged in religious, scientific or
philanthropic niis>ions. 141, 160,
173
hospital, 117, 122, 123, 121, 171-2,
neutral, desti'ui.'tion of, lSlj,3''i3// (s),
437, 44 5, 4SG-7
enemy g-oods in, 152, 172, :i90-4
enemy persons on, sei/;ure of,
4 54-(i, 4 5S-0
enlisted in enemy ser\ici-, 45:)-4
ill privileged trade, 2 1 , \\'-'>ii a;,
153-5. "402-0
.linking of. during I'ranc'o-
(4i rman ^Var. 3(>ii - 1
>iiiking (if. during ]!uss(j-
Japauoe War, 4;5 7
when confiscable for carriage of
contraband, 4:50-!, 4;i0, 445
Wounded and sick on board,
123
wrongful seiziii'e of. compt'usa-
tioii for, ISl, ls7, I'M, 4S5
jniblic. 12S
under neutral llag. (if ]ier^on>
domiciled in enemy country, 152
V-sM'ls of war.
bellii^-ci'iiii , in neutral ]«irt,-. ;,;4S
''"'"I-
a.--vlum. ;155 7
augmentation of force
in. 3-10-7
duration of >tay, :, 5(1-1 ,
numbei- alf iwil. ;;oo - 1
peiialt iesfor infringing
neutrality re<4'u]a-
tions, 201. :Vj\^ :;72
repairs, 301-5, 300
Index. o47
\'('s-rls i)f \\;iv—cijiirtnii',l. War — co)iiinii/d.
liclli<i('i'ent, supplies of coal aud iutiTiiutional law in rflalioii to, 13,
l)rovisioiis, 309, U
3.V2-0, oG2, 373-4 kinds of, 11-12
tiini' ;ind ordi-r of de- law applied in, I'J-oo
parturc, 34.S-',i, 'M'yi, la vvs and customs of, 14-1-'), -jI
373 scope of, 14
tajituri'd, not ])rizf, ISl, 201 violations of, and roniedie.s
classes of, r2SrC.v'v. tlierefor, 112 114
i-oiistruction and eipiijiineiit of, in leji'al effects (jf, 0 \\ . '.'t't cl scij.
neutral territ(.irv, 3iis, 320 (/.vy-, date from wliicli tliev accrue,
343-8 " 0-11
enemv wounded aud sick on board, on lommcrcial relations, 02 el
-3
■sC'j.
illcM-ally fitted out, how atfecl:ed liy on i-nemy persons within belli-
II mimission, 20^1, :il7-S p^rent territor}', ■V2-0
]iassa!4'e tlirouLrh neutral waters, on financial eniraireiuents of
200, 301 " states. 44-.')
transfer by bellij^'erent to neutrals on treaties, -10- 1
iluriiiii" A\ar, 147 losses, claims by reason of. Sec
\'isit and search. 184-."), :iS4, 120. 47-5, ( 'l.ainis based on war
47S-S,') manif(.-stoes, 7 ti u,, 287
,irea of search. 429 notire ef, to neutrals. Is. 2S7-S
in liusso- Japanese War, 429 phice in international relations, 12-
in South African ^\'ar, 4 20, 13
17.'3 stei)s short of. 10
atti'm[)ts to e\"a(le, 484 termination of, 221 -!i
eon\oy in relatii'ii to. 4 78-.S3, ls4-.') three mode-, 22.3 0
J)e<daration of l.,ondon as to. date of endinu- of hostilities, 22(),
484-.', 232
resistance to, 480 .act~ done after, in iii'norance of
Jieace. 220-34
Si I iilsh I'eace, Treaty of
War corresi)undi iits, 97. loi'.. .!.')l-2
A\'ar ]u>ses, ctiiupensation for- S'e
War, autheri/ation of. 17 Claims based on ^\ar
eheeks on. and Tlii'ii'probal)le effects, W.arships. S,, VesseK ef war
|:l Washintrton, Treaty of. 1871 . .32(1 '^ ,sry..
eonimeiicenii'iit of. l-l'.i :1H, 310, 317
date (if, 7-8 Wounded, treatment nf, ii:;. !i9, 102-.'),
mede> of. 7 110, 121-4. 200-3OU, 314-1.')
ei\il. 11 asylum in neutr.al territory. 20'J, 31.')
eriiries, in in land warf.are, 0.;, 1()2-.')
declai'aliun. wiiethei' nece>>arv. 'i-7, in m.aritinie warfai'e. lie, 12I--1
II, 17-10 on iH'Utr.al \e>,~eK. juiblic and
unilateral .-ullicieiil to rre.ate pri\-,ate, 12:1
.-tale ef. 7. \i, 10 IiassaLi'c over neutral territury. 20'.i-
letiniti..n. 1 1 oOO, 314
111 relaticiii l( I inili\iilu,als, 1 •')- I 7
rlieor\- (if l,'i iu.--.eaii, 10,
t!;e,iiv Mf X'atl'I, 1-') Zi-i.lCH. Tr-^atv ef 4 1
:INIKll Y,\ C. r . 1.o\iU1;T]I. SS. 1 l/lu l-.l; I.A.Ni:, ICC.
DUE on the last date stamper! t--'
' I >/k-
L 006 630 671 3
UC SOUTHtPN RFGION/.L UBWm I !.rr 7Y
lllllll
A 001452 233
SCXJTHERN BRANCH
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