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THE  LIBRARY 


The  Ontario  Institute 


for  Studies  in  Education 


Toronto,  Canada 


(  A  R  i 


IT  :,.:-,     INSTiTU 


• 


The  Catholic 
Educational  Review 


VOLUME  XVII 

January-May 
1919 


Published  Monthly  Except  July  and  August 


The  Catholic  Education  Press 

Under  the  Direction  of  the 

DEPARTMENT  OF  EDUCATION 

The  Catholic  University  of  America,  Washington,  D.  C 


Copyright,  1919 

BY 

The  Catholic  Education  Press 


The  Catholic 
Educational  Review 

JANUARY,  1919 

THE  UNIVEKSITY  OF  LOUVAIN.1 

No  incident  in  this  present  dreadful  war  which  is  devastating 
a  large  part  of  Europe  has  so  gone  to  the  heart  of  the  Catholic 
world,  and  especially  the  learned  part  of  it,  as  the  destruction 
of  Lou  vain.  Here  was  a  quiet  university  city,  open  and  un- 
defended, whose  ways  were  peace,  with  ancient  buildings  of 
such  beauty  and  historic  associations  that  they  had  been 
spared  through  the  wars  of  century  after  century,  which  was 
reduced  to  ruins  and  ashes  in  forty-eight  hours. 

It  was  the  home  of  what  had  been,  till  the  foundation  of  the 
Catholic  University  of  America  at  Washington,  the  only 
purely  Catholic  University  in  the  world — a  center  of  learning 
which  irradiated  all  Belgium  with  its  light  and  influence,  and 
through  the  students  who  came  to  it  from  other  countries  shed 
far-flung  beams  to  the  uttermost  ends  of  the  earth. 

If  asked  why  this  destruction  was  wreaked  we  can  only  say 
that  the  reason  alleged  by  the  German  invaders  of  Belgium 
is  that  the  townspeople  had  fired  on  their  soldiers.  We  must 
suppose,  then,  from  this  that  the  town  and  university  were 
razed  as  an  act  of  reprisal,  though  one  cannot  but  have  an  un- 
easy feeling  that  the  punishment  was  in  dreadful  excess  of  the 
crime  alleged.  Against  this  the  Belgian  Minister  of  Foreign 
Affairs  has  officially  declared  that  the  townspeople  and  the 


iThe  article  was  written  for  the  Review  in  May,  1915,  but  the  whole 
world  was  so  absorbed  in  the  struggle  then  going  on  and  in  the  rapid 
succession  of  the  terrible  events  of  the  war  that  it  was  deemed  wiser 
to  hold  it  for  calmer  times.  Today  reconstruction  of  the  devastated 
areas,  in  France  and  Belgium  particularly,  is  receiving  earnest  at- 
tention from  the  nations  assembled  in  Paris  to  map  out  the  future  of 
the  world.  Educators  everywhere  will  now  interest  themselves  in  the 
restoration  of  Belgian  schools  and  particularly  in  the  rehabilitation 
of  its  great  University. — Editoe. 

3 


4  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

police  had  been  disarmed  a  week  before  and  that  the  German 
Commander-in-Chief  would  listen  to  no  protests  and  made  no 
inquiry  into  the  facts.  The  order  for  destruction  was  given; 
the  townspeople  were  ordered  to  leave  and  were  sent  to  destin- 
ations unknown.  What  followed  is  thus  officially  described: 
"Soldiers  furnished  with  bombs  set  fire  to  all  parts  of  the 
town.  The  splendid  church  of  St.  Pierre,  the  University  build- 
ings, the  Library  and  the  scientific  establishment  were  de- 
livered to  the  flames.  Several  notable  citizens  were  shot.  A 
town  of  45,000  inhabitants,  the  intellectual  metropolis  of  the 
Low  Countries  since  the  fifteenth  centuries,  is  now  no  more 
than  a  heap  of  ashes." 

Fuit  Ilium!  With  its  church  and  schools,  its  library  and 
laboratories  burned  and  in  ruins,  with  its  students  and  pro- 
fessors dispersed,  this  ancient  University  of  Louvain  is  no 
more.  A  great  light  has  been  quenched  in  Christendom;  and 
that  when  peace  shall  once  more  reign  it  will  be  relit  does  not 
make  the  present  loss  any  the  less  great  or  keen.  An  academic 
life  almost  unbroken  for  five  hundred  years  has  closed  and  gone 
down  in  blood  and  ashes.  Please  God,  a  new  and  more  glorious 
era  will  soon  open  for  the  old  University;  but  whilst  for  the 
dawn  of  that  we  wait  in  hope,  we  may  well  go  back  upon  the 
past  and  as  students  survey  how  this  great  Christian  school 
arose  and  developed  from  small  beginnings  till  last  year  it 
stood  forth  with  the  honors  of  a  world-wide  reputation  thick 
upon  it. 

The  town  of  Louvain  has  nothing  in  its  early  history  to  in- 
dicate with  what  its  later  greatness  would  be  associated.  Like 
many  of  our  modern  cities,  its  early  character  was  quite 
other  than  that  which  it  took  on  later,  the  earlier  being  either 
a  preparation  for  that  which  came  afterwards,  or  replaced  on 
its  going  by  the  later.  Its  beginnings  were  military — a 
Frankish  settlement  and  a  Norman  camp,  where  the  Norsemen 
may,  in  modern  parlance,  be  said  to  have  entrenched  them- 
selves early  in  the  nineties  of  the  ninth  century  and  where  they 
were  defeated  by  Arnulf  of  Bavaria.  The  place  which  stood 
by  the  still  waters  of  the  Dyle  in  a  forest  clearing  was  known 
as  Lovon  or  Loven,  "loo"  meaning  wood  or  lea,  and  "ven" 
meaning  marsh  or  fen,  thus  corresponding  etymologically  very 
closely  with  "lea-fen,"  which  is  not  far  from  its  modern  Belgian 


The  University  op  Louvain  5 

name  of  Louvain.  In  spite  of  the  defeat,  something  remained 
of  the  old  Norse  camp,  the  castrum  Lovanium,  which,  by  the 
middle  of  the  eleventh  century,  had  become  the  feudal  castle  of 
the  Dukes  of  Brabant,  in  which  capacity  it  served  early  in  the 
fourteenth  century  as  a  winter  residence  for  Edward  III  of 
England.  The  old  church  of  St.  Peter,  on  the  site  of  which,  till 
August  last,  the  great  church  of  St.  Pierre  stood,  had  been 
built  early  in  the  eleventh  century  by  Lambert  the  Bearded, 
and  round  it  a  population  of  "homines  Sancti  Petri,"  Pieters- 
mans  or  Petermen,  had  sprung  up. 

The  people  prospered  and  gradually  accumulated  privileges 
and  rights  and  developed  a  flourishing  trade.  With  their 
growing  prosperity  they  became  more  and  more  jealous  of  their 
customs  and  franchises,  which  they  sought  to  safeguard  by 
repeated  recognition  on  the  part  of  their  rulers.  Thus,  on  his 
arrival  in  Louvain  in  1356,  Duke  Wenceslaus  was  required  to 
swear  in  the  Hotel  de  Ville  in  presence  of  the  representatives 
of  the  people  that  he  would  respect  their  rights  and  privileges, 
a  ceremony  which  was  called  the  "Joyeuse  Entree,"  and  was 
repeated  on  the  accession  of  his  successors,  much  in  the  same 
way  as  in  England  new  sovereigns  were  called  upon  to  give  a 
solemn  confirmation  of  Magna  Carta. 

Meanwhile,  the  importance  of  the  town  had  been  developing. 
A  market  had  grown  up  in  the  twelfth  century;  considerable 
trade  was  done  with  Cologne  and  Bruges ;  and  the  addition  of 
the  fortifications  rendered  necessary  by  its  growing  wealth 
and  position  raised  it  to  the  status  of  an  "oppidum"  or  fortified 
town.  By  immigration  and  acquired  wealth  some  of  its  fam- 
ilies grew  to  patrician  rank;  whilst  on  their  own  side,  follow- 
ing the  trend  of  the  time,  the  workers  formed  themselves  into 
trade  guilds.  Between  these  two  sections,  each  anxious  for 
their  own  security  and  its  protection,  quarrels  and  feuds  broke 
out.  The  struggle  was  a  long  one  but  it  ended  in  the  massacre 
of  seventy  patricians  at  the  town  hall  on  December  16,  1378. 
Thenceforth  the  city  seemed  doomed.  Its  citizens  could  no 
longer  maintain  their  resistance  to  Duke  Wenceslaus.  After 
1381  the  decline  was  serious.  The  weavers  sought  fresh  homes 
in  Holland  and  England,  and  the  reigning  family  departed, 
an  act  which  prepared  the  way  for  the  rise  of  Brussels  as  the 
capital  of  Belgium. 


6  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

But  though  its  great  halls  were  now  unpeopled  with  manu- 
facturers and  weavers,  the  end  of  the  town  was  not  yet.  Its 
first  epoch  of  importance  and  prosperity  as  a  military  and 
commercial  center  and  the  home  of  the  Government  had  closed; 
but  early  in  the  fifteenth  century  a  new  era  was  opened  by  the 
act  of  Duke  John  IV.  A  patron  of  learning,  he  sought  to 
utilize  the  deserted  Halles  as  a  school  for  scholars  who  might 
resort  to  it  not  merely  from  the  town  itself  but  from  a  distance 
and  even  from  other  countries.  The  town  was  thus  flung  into 
the  current  of  the  great  medieval  university  movement.  The 
school  being  one  for  universal  resort,  it  was  what  was  then 
known  as  a  studium  generated  To  raise  it  to  the  status  of  a 
university  was  no  long  .step.  Some  universities  of  more  ancient 
date  had  gradually  grown  from  largely  attended  schools 
through  the  efforts  of  their  guild  of  scholars,  as  at  Bologna, 
or  of  their  guilds  of  masters,  as  at  Paris  and  Oxford,  and  had 
then  received  their  charter  of  confirmation  rather  than  of 
erection  from  Pope  or  King.  Others,  again,  began  with  such 
a  charter  of  constitution,  and  of  this  sort  was  the  studium  of 
Duke  John  IV  at  Louvain,  by  a  Bull  of  Pope  Martin  V  of  the 
year  1425.  The  object  of  the  erection  of  the  University  was 
partly,  as  often  happened  in  Italy,  to  arrest  the  decline  of  the 
prosperity  of  the  town.  At  first  there  was  no  provision  for  a 
Faculty  of  Theology,  but  this  was  supplied  in  1431  by  the  next 
Pope,  Eugenius  IV.  The  University  was  actually  opened  in 
1425  and  its  founder,  Duke  John,  was  greatly  assisted  in  the 
promotion  of  his  beneficial  scheme  by  his  Councillor  Engel- 
bert,  Count  of  Nassau.  The  Provost  of  the  Church  of  St. 
Peter  was  appointed  its  Chancellor,  and  the  Rector  was  given 
full  criminal  and  civil  jurisdiction  over  the  scholars,  a  condi- 
tion insisted  upon  by  the  Pope  before  giving  the  Bull  of  erec- 
tion. The  object  of  this  was,  doubtless,  to  save  possible  future 
wrangling  between  the  University  and  the  local  authorities. 
Three  Apostolic  Conservators  were  named  in  the  Archbishop 
of  Treves,  the  Abbot  of  Tongerloo  and  the  Dean  of  St.  Peter's 
Church.  In  its  constitution  the  University  resembled  that  of 
Paris  but  with  some  modifications  introduced  from  the  earlier 
German  universities.  Seats  in  the  governing  body  were  al- 
lotted to  all  the  Masters ;  only  the  Faculty  of  Arts  was  divided 
into  Nations — Brabant,  Walloon,  Flanders,  Holland — with  a 


The  University  of  Louvain  7 

proctor  for  each;  the  Rector  was  chosen  from  each  of  the 
Faculties  in  turn;  and  the  voting  in  Congregation  was  by 
Faculties.  The  teaching  was,  it  would  seem,  at  first  left  open 
to  any  Regents  who  came  to  lecture;  then  in  1446,  the  Arts 
teaching  was  confined  to  four  Paedagogia,  that  in  Ethics  and 
Rhetoric,  however,  being  reserved  to  university  professors, 
who,  with  those  in  the  Superior  Faculties,  were  provided  for 
by  being  nominated  to  stalls  in  St.  Peter's  Church  and  the 
parish  churches  of  the  town,  the  patronage  being  vested  in  the 
Burgomaster  and  Consuls.  For  its  home  the  University  was 
given  in  1430  the  old  Cloth  Hall,  which  was  destroyed  by  the 
Germans  in  August  last. 

Within  the  next  seventy  years  the  great  Colleges  within  the 
University  were  established  by  a  succession  of  generous  bene- 
factors. There  was  the  College  of  the  Holy  Ghost  for  students 
in  Theology,  founded  in  1442  by  a  Flemish  Knight,  Louis  de 
Rycke;  the  College  of  St.  Ivo  for  Law,  by  Robert  Van  den 
Poele,  a  Doctor  of  Laws,  in  1434 ;  the  College  of  St.  Donatien, 
by  Dr.  Antonius  Hanneron  in  1488.  In  149C>  Henry  de 
Houterle  established  and  endowed  the  Confraternity  of  the 
"Innocent  Boys  of  St.  Peter";  whilst  about  the  same  time  the 
famous  Jean  Standonck,  who  had  established  the  College  of 
Montaign  at  Paris,  erected  a  "Domus  Pauperuin"  which  was 
organized  on  similarly  rigid  and  ascetic  principles.  Then 
there  was  the  College  of  Malines,  founded  by  a  Theologian, 
Arnold  Trot,  in  1500  for  artists;  and  by  this  time  the  four 
Paedagogia  mentioned  above  had  received  a  number  of  small 
endowments.  But  there  was  another  college  which  became 
more  famous  than  any  of  these,  the  "Collegium  Trilingue"  or 
College  of  the  Three  Languages,  for  the  foundation  of  which, 
about  1517,  the  year  in  which  Sir  Thomas  More's  Utopia  was 
published  in  Louvain,  Jerome  de  Busleiden  bequeathed  his 
whole  estate.  The  three  languages  were  Greek,  Latin  and 
Hebrew;  and  so  this  college,  with  the  eminent  professors  and 
the  many  students  it  attracted,  "confirmed,"  as  Mr.  Rashdall, 
the  historian  of  the  Medieval  Universities,  says,  "the  position 
which  Louvain  had  already  won  as  one  of  the  earliest  and  for 
a  time  by  far  the  most  famous  home  of  the  New  Learning  in 
Europe." 

Here,  however,  we  must  enter  a  caveat  in  regard  to  this 


8  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

statement.  The  "New  Learning"  was  not  the  revived  study  of 
the  ancient  classics,  but  rather  what  we  should  now  call  the 
"New  Theology,"  made  in  Germany  by  Luther  and  others ;  and 
it  would  certainly  be  unhistorical  to  say  that  the  University  of 
Lou  vain  was  a  home  of  Protestant  heresy.  Upon  that  point  the 
evidence  is  clear.  As  Mr.  Marshall  says,  with  a  tinge  of  bitter- 
ness, on  a  later  page :  "the  intolerant  Realism  which  prevailed 
in  the  University  prepared  it  for  its  role  as  the  chief  strong- 
hold of  anti-reformation  learning  later  in  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury." Similar  testimony  is  borne  by  Sir  A.  W.  Ward  in  the 
Cambridge  Modern  History  planned  by  Lord  Acton:  "The 
part  which  she  was  long  to  play  in  the  intellectual  culture  of 
the  country  was  determined  by  the  identification  of  her  in- 
terests with  those  of  Church  and  Clergy — especially  in  con- 
sequence of  the  influence  exercised  by  the  monastic  orders, 
Louvain's  academical  character  was  even  more  conservative 
than  that  of  Cologne."  Motley's  denunciations  of  the  Univer- 
sity do  but  corroborate  the  evidence  already  given:  he  de- 
scribes it  as  "reeking  with  pedantry,"  which  was  seen  when 
Luther  printed  his  denunciations  of  Rome.  "Louvain  doctors," 
said  Motley,  "denounce,  Louvain  hangmen  burn  the  bitter 
blasphemous  books." 

It  is  noteworthy,  too,  that  Louvain  quickly  won  so  high  a 
position  as  a  place  of  learning  and  education  that  its  reputa- 
tion may,  without  exaggeration,  be  described  as  European. 
This  was  partly  due  to  the  famous  men  who  lectured  there,  or 
were  otherwise  connected  with  the  University — men  like  Pope 
Adrian  VI,  Erasmus,  Busleiden,  Vives  and  others.  But  even 
more,  perhaps,  was  it  due  to  its  system  of  competitive  examina- 
tions, which  remind  us  of  that  obtaining  at  the  English  uni- 
versities, and  gave  so  high  a  value  to  its  degrees.  In  this  sys- 
tem the  candidates  for  the  Mastership  were  placed  in  three 
classes  —  Rigorosi  or  honor-men,  Transibiles  or  pass-men, 
Gratiosi  or  those  just  allowed  to  go  through,  and  a  fourth  class, 
containing  those  who  were  irredeemably  ploughed.  As  a  re- 
sult, there  was  a  saying  current  in  the  days  of  Erasmus  that 
"no  man  could  graduate  in  Louvain  without  knowledge,  man- 
ners, age."  And  this  has  been  confirmed  by  later  writers. 
Thus  Sir  William  Hamilton  in  his  Discourses  says:  "The 
University  of  Louvain,  long  second  only  to  that  of  Paris  in  the 


The  University  of  Louvain  9 

number  of  its  students  and  the  celebrity  of  its  teachers,  and 
more  comprehensive  even  than  Paris  in  the  subjects  taught, 
was  for  several  centuries  famed  .  .  .  for  the  value  of  its  de- 
grees .  .  .  but  especially  in  Arts,  because  in  this  Faculty  the 
principles  of  academic  examination  were  most  fully  and  most 
purely  carried  out." 

Amid  this  variety  of  subjects,  that  of  Law  was  the  most 
famous,  for  it  seems  to  have  been  the  University's  preposses- 
sion and  interest.  This  subject  of  the  position  of  the  University 
might,  had  we  space  available,  be  illustrated  at  some  length. 
But  there  is  one  gracious  memory  which  is  of  an  interest  too 
close  to  the  heart  of  Catholics  of  English  speech  to  be  passed 
over  in  silence.  When  the  blow  of  the  Eeformation  fell  in 
England,  the  University  showed  itself  hospitable  to  the  Eng- 
lish exiles  and  especially  to  the  Irish  students,  many  of  whom 
found  a  home  in  the  forty-two  colleges  that  enjoyed  university 
connection;  and  even  till  the  destruction  of  the  University  in 
August  last,  burses  for  the  training  of  Irish  ecclesiastical  stu- 
dents were  contributed  by  the  University  from  old  funds.  So 
numerous  and  illustrious  were  the  men  from  Oxford  and 
Cambridge  who  resorted  to  Louvain  that,  by  the  time  of  the 
Northern  Rising  in  1569,  a  school  of  Apologetics  had  been 
formed  at  Louvain  which  was  making  an  effective  attack  on  the 
Reformers  at  home.  As  Dr.  Peter  Guilday  of  the  Catholic 
University  of  America  has  pointed  out  in  his  admirable  Eng- 
lish Catholic  Refugees  on  the  Continent:  "The  Apologetical 
works  issued  from  Louvain  between  1559-1575  had  no  doubt  a 
paramount  influence  in  strengthening  the  arms  of  the  loyal 
Catholic  leaders  of  the  Northern  Counties  in  the  last  gallant 
but  hopeless  stand  against  the  intolerance  which  Protestant 
Englishmen  of  Elizabeth's  day  were  showing  towards  the 
Catholic  faith.  Groups  of  exiles,  such  as  the  University  pro- 
fessors and  students  from  Cambridge  and  Oxford  who  were 
at  Louvain,  were  more  than  equal  to  the  task  of  refuting  the 
Anglican  divines,  and  we  hear  an  echo  of  the  consternation 
their  literary  work  was  causing  in  the  Establishment  in  the 
frantic  appeals  which  passed  between  London  and  Geneva  .  .  .. 
De  Silva,  the  Spanish  Ambassador  in  London,  writing  to  Philip 
II,  says  that  the  books  sent  from  Louvain  had  done  incalcu- 
lable good  in  spreading  the  growth  of  the  Faith.   In  reply,  the 


10  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

King  told  his  Ambassador  how  gratified  he  was  with  the  Apolo- 
getic School  of  Louvain  and  urged  him  to  forego  no  oppor- 
tunity of  encouraging  and  strengthening  the  work  of  the  Eng- 
lish exiles.  The  list  of  names  connected  with  this  work  of  de- 
fending the  Faith  includes  Sander,  Harpsfield,  Harding,  Allen, 
Stapleton,  Marshall,  Dormen,  Rastall  and  others,  whose  works 
constitute  the  strongest  breakwater  Catholic  scholars  have 
ever  made  against  Anglicanism."  The  hospitality  then  offered 
by  the  University  and  the  town  has  never  been  forgotten  by 
English  Catholics;  and  not  they  only  but  the  whole  nation 
and  those  of  their  own  speech  across  the  sea  in  the  United 
States  are  now  returning  it  to  Louvain's  dispersed  professors 
and  students,  rendered  homeless  by  the  destruction  of  last 
year. 

This  struggle,  which  brought  Englishmen  to  shelter  in 
Louvain  and  divided  the  nations  of  Western  Europe  into 
Catholics  and  Protestants,  inevitably  brought  trouble  to  Lou- 
vain, which  then,  as  now,  was  so  close  to  the  fighting  line.  It 
was  besieged  in  1542  by  the  Duke  of  Cleves ;  in  1572  the  Prince 
of  Orange  appeared  before  it ;  and  in  1599  the  last  "Joyous 
Entry"  into  the  town  was  made  by  the  Archduke  Albert.  In 
1635  the  combined  hosts  of  French  and  Dutch  were  hurled 
from  its  gates  during  the  Thirty  Years  War;  a  century  later 
the  Marshal  de  Saxe  was  defeated  in  his  attempt  to  capture  it 
for  the  French  King.  Then  came  Joseph  of  Austria's  attempts 
at  church  reform  in  Belgium,  amongst  which  was  the  trans- 
ference of  most  of  the  Louvain  Faculties  to  Brussels.  The  re- 
sult was  the  revolution  of  Brabant,  during  which  the  Uni- 
versity was  suspended.  Then,  two  years  later,  in  1792,  the  city 
was  annexed  by  the  French  Republican  Government ;  and  after 
further  swayings  of  the  tide  of  war  and  revolution  the  Uni- 
versity was  abolished  by  an  order  from  Paris  in  1797  and  the 
Rector  sent  to  Cayenne.  The  revolutionists  despoiled  the 
churches  but  spared  the  town  and  its  buildings.  And  so 
closed  the  University's  first  phase  of  life  of  nearly  four  hun- 
dred years. 

For  the  second  place  we  have  to  wait  till  the  Consulate  and 
the  First  Empire  of  France  had  passed  away.  In  the  rearrange- 
ments of  Europe  which  had  been  the  result  of  the  Napoleonic 
wars,  Belgium  was  cynically  united  to  Holland.    But  in  1830 


The  University  of  Louvain  11 

she  tore  herself  violently  away  from  this  bond  so  unnaturally 
forced.  With  independence  and  freedom  regained,  and  once 
again  her  own  master,  Belgium's  traditional  love  of  learn- 
ing again  reasserted  itself,  and  there  arose  a  demand  for  a 
University,  at  once  national  and  Catholic,  on  the  site  of  the 
ancient  center  of  learning  which  had  gone  down  in  the  troubles 
of  the  Kevolution.  Freedom  of  teaching  was  one  of  the  prin- 
ciples of  the  new  state,  and  taking  advantage  of  that  freedom 
the  Belgian  Bishops  set  to  work  by  establishing  a  "studium 
gencrale"  at  Antwerp  with  the  cordial  approval  of  Pope 
Gregory  XVI.  Then  in  1834  came  an  invitation  from  the 
Burgomaster  of  Louvain,  William  van  Bockel,  offering  the  use 
of  the  old  Cloth  Hall  in  that  city  for  the  purposes  of  the 
University,  and  thither  in  that  year  the  Bishops  gladly  trans- 
ferred their  Institute  or  Academy.  The  change  could  not  but 
bring  renewed  strength  to  this  new  national  school.  It  gave 
it  at  once  a  link  with  the  past  and  a  tradition  and  a  place  in 
the  national  affection  which  nothing  else  could  have  produced, 
short  of  the  long  lapse  of  time  and  at  least  a  century  of  hard- 
won  and  severely  tested  achievement. 

And  here  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  revived  University 
was  no  creation  of  the  state.  It  was  the  child  of  the  Catholic 
people  of  Belgium,  of  their  zeal  and  love  for  learning  and  also 
of  their  readiness  to  make  sacrifices  for  it.  It  was  neither 
state  created  nor  state  endowed,  but  like  the  later  Catholic 
University  at  Washington,  was  inaugurated,  maintained  and 
developed  out  of  the  free  gifts  of  a  Catholic  people.  In  this 
splendid  work  rich  and  poor  did  their  part,  the  rich  by  special 
foundations  and  rich  and  poor  alike  by  generous  contribu- 
tions to  the  two  collections  made  every  year  in  all  the  churches 
throughout  Belgium.  Besides  this,  the  cures  have  made  house- 
to-house  visitations  so  as  to  canvass  the  needs  of  the  Univer- 
sity and  to  enlist  further  contributions  for  its  maintenance 
and  development. 

And  those  needs  were  inevitably  enormous.  For,  from  the 
first,  the  Bishops  and  the  men  who  were  their  cooperators  in 
the  founding  of  the  work  were  determined  that  the  new  estab- 
lishment should  be  a  real  live  university,  abreast  of  the 
thought  and  the  needs  of  the  day,  so  that  it  could  do  its  part 
in  the  raising  up  of  the  people  and  in  contributing  to  their 


12  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

welfare  as  a  nation  among  the  nations.  Its  beginning  was 
made,  under  the  circumstances,  inevitably  modest.  But  the 
seed  was  sown  and  watered,  and  God  gave  abundant  increase 
in  response  to  the  self-sacrificing  efforts  of  His  people.  With 
far-sighted  wisdom  it  was  determined  that  the  University 
should  be  as  far  as  possible  a  fully  equipped  modern  univer- 
sity. Gradually  faculty  was  added  to  faculty,  so  that  the 
variety  of  subjects  taught  became  truly  remarkable.  Besides, 
as  of  old,  the  Faculties  of  Theology,  Philosophy,  Law,  History 
and  Medicine,  there  was  a  modern  side  which  included  Schools 
of  Engineering  and  Agriculture,  Eastern  Languages  and  the 
whole  catalogue  of  the  physical  sciences,  whilst  thirty  period- 
icals were  published,  which,  by  exchanging  with  a  thousand 
others  of  similar  character  from  every  civilized  country,  car- 
ried abroad  the  learning  of  Louvain.  Laboratories  were  built 
and  equipped  with  every  appliance  and  museums  and  libraries 
were  formed  which  placed  Louvain  in  the  front  rank  of  mod- 
ern universities,  and  made  it  certainly  the  premier  Catholic 
University  of  the  world. 

With  such  widening  opportunities  offered  to  its  students, 
one  can  well  understand  how  the  University,  whilst  it  still  re- 
mained thoroughly  national  in  its  character  and  purpose,  grad- 
ually became  international  in  its  membership.  Beginning  in 
1834  with  no  more  than  80  students — a  number  which  is  ex- 
ceeded by  any  fairly  successful  local  college  or  school — its 
membership  grew  very  quickly.  At  its  silver  jubilee  the  num- 
ber of  students  had  risen  to  800  and  the  year  before  last  it  had 
3,000  students  on  its  rolls,  which  is  about  the  membership  of 
the  University  of  Cambridge.  These  figures  will  give  the 
reader  some  idea  of  the  strain  which  the  growth  of  the  Univer- 
sity and  its  ever-rising  standard  of  efficiency  put  upon  the  ef- 
forts of  the  people  of  Belgium.  There  were  times  when  the 
strain  was  particularly  heavy,  when  deficits  faced  the  Uni- 
versity authorities.  But  still,  in  difficult  as  in  more  pros- 
perous days,  the  Bishops  stood  by  the  University  and  suc- 
ceeded in  obtaining,  in  emergencies,  the  necessary  funds  either 
by  special  appeals  to  the  wealthy  or  by  the  allocation  of 
monies  in  their  own  disposal. 

Not  least  among  the  factors  by  which  the  University's  suc- 
cess was  prepared  and  achieved  was  its  system  of  studies,  ex- 


The  University  of  Louvain  13 

aminations  and  degrees.  As  we  have  already  pointed  out,  the 
standard  aimed  at  and  maintained  throughout  its  three-quar- 
ters of  a  century  of  life  has  been  uniformly  high.  Independent 
of  the  state,  its  administration  and  teaching  were  untrammeled 
by  the  red  tape  of  bureaucracy  or  the  paltering  necessity  for 
vote-catching  in  the  constituencies.  Studies  could  be  profes- 
sional, as  at  Oxford  for  a  "pass,"  or  they  could  be  more  strictly 
scientific  with  the  object  of  specializing  or  research. 

As  to  the  diplomas,  they  were  won  by  efficient  work,  and  the 
degrees  were  conferred  by  the  University.  It  is  noteworthy, 
too,  that,  as  Mr.  Kashdall  points  out,  in  the  "revived  Univer- 
sity of  Louvain  a  nearer  approach  to  the  college  life  of  Ox- 
ford and  Cambridge  may  be  found  than  is  to  be  met  with  else- 
where on  the  continent  of  Europe,  while  Louvain  preserves  or 
has  revived  the  full  graduation  ceremonial  which  had  disap- 
peared everywhere  else  north  of  the  Pyrenees." 

Into  the  work  achieved  by  the  revived  University  this  brief 
survey  of  its  history  can  scarcely  be  expected  to  enter.  And, 
indeed,  the  subject  would  need  an  article  to  itself,  and  even  so 
would  have  an  inevitable  tendency  to  become  a  mere  litany  of 
names.  Still,  however,  one  can  scarcely  omit  to  mention  such 
names  as  Charles  Perrin  in  connection  with  economic  studies, 
or  that  of  de  Harlez,  who  did  so  much  for  Oriental  studies. 
Then  there  were  masters  like  Van  Beneden  in  zoology,  Poussin 
in  geology,  Schwann  in  anatomy  and  writers  like  Jungmann 
and  Lamy  in  theology.  There  is  another  name,  too,  which  can- 
not at  such  a  moment  be  passed  over,  that  of  the  present  Pri- 
mate of  Belgium,  whose  famous  pastoral  is  the  greatest  and 
noblest  utterance  which  the  European  war  has  yet  evoked. 
Until  he  was  suddenly  called  away  from  his  study  to  the  See  of 
Malines,  Cardinal  Mercier's  life  had  been  identified  as  student 
and  professor  with  the  University  of  Louvain.  With  his  clear 
insight  into  the  needs  of  the  day,  this  brilliant  professor  fully 
and  even  enthusiastically  recognized  the  need  for  the  modern- 
ization or  application  of  Scholastic  Philosophy  to  the  thought 
of  the  time.  Thus  it  was  that  when  Pope  Leo  XIII  was  con- 
templating his  scheme  for  the  propagation  of  the  study  of 
Thomistic  Philosophy,  Professor  Mercier  was  summoned  to 
Rome.  At  the  request  of  that  great  Pope,  he  sketched  out  a 
program   of   philosophical  study  which   was   approved   and 


14  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

adopted  and  which  he  successfully  carried  out  in  his  own 
university,  where  he  established  the  Institute  of  Thomistic 
Philosophy.  For  this  a  special  staff  of  professors  was  selected 
and  an  elaborate  range  of  buildings  erected  largely  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  Pope  himself.  Cardinal  Mercier  thus  came  to  be 
regarded  as  the  creator  of  what  is  known  as  Neo-Scholas- 
ticisin,  and  by  his  books  a  man  of  world-wide  reputation  long 
before  he  was  placed  in  light  that  beats  upon  the  primatial 
throne  of  Malines. 

From  these  few  facts  it  will  be  seen  that  the  plan  of  the 
broad-minded  prelates  who  laid  the  foundations  of  the  revived 
university  so  wide  and  deep,  by  reverent  observance  of  the  past 
and  careful  preparation  for  the  present,  proved  as  fruitful  as 
the  most  sanguine  could  have  hoped.  Students  flocked  to  its 
halls  and  returned  to  their  homes  and  worked  in  their  freedom- 
loving  communities  in  the  spirit  which  they  had  imbibed  at 
Louvain.  In  this  way  the  University  could  not  fail  to  have  an 
almost  incalculable  effect  on  the  influence  and  standing  of 
Catholics  in  Belgium. 

On  this  point  we  may  best  quote  the  testimony  of  a  writer 
in  the  British  Review.  Speaking  of  the  University  which  is 
now,  alas,  destroyed,  he  says:  "It  is  a  source  of  incalculable 
strength  to  the  Catholic  body.  In  nearly  every  town  and  vil- 
lage of  Belgium  are  to  be  found  a  group  of  professional  men 
who  have  obtained  their  degrees  and  diplomas  at  the  Catholic 
University.  Among  all  the  leading  officers  of  state,  too,  there 
are  many  Cabinet  Ministers,  judges  and  administrative  chiefs 
who  are  proud  of  their  Louvain  doctorates.  As  a  result,  the 
Catholics  form  a  more  united  and  compact  body  in  Belgium 
than  in  any  other  country  of  Europe.  There  is  much  to  be 
said  for  the  consolidating  work  of  the  Centre  Party  in  Ger- 
many, but  German  Catholics  lack  the  support  and  enlighten- 
ment of  a  distinctively  Catholic  University." 

The  Bishop  of  Salford,  the  Rt.  Rev.  L.  C.  Casartelli,  D.D., 
who  as  student  and  professor  at  Louvain  was  a  colleague  of 
Cardinal  Mercier,  is  to  the  same  effect.  In  a  public  lecture 
given  at  the  Salford  Hippodrome,  his  Lordship  said  that  many- 
supposed,  because  the  University  was  a  Catholic  institution, 
it  was  largely,  if  not  purely,  theological.  So  far,  however,  was 
that  from  being  the  case  that  out  of  some  3,0QQ  s^dei^s  \Q  VsM 


The  University  of  Louvain  15 

last  academic  year  there  were  only  96  in  theology,  and  of  the 
professional  staff  of  some  200,  only  19  were  professors  of  theo- 
logy. And  his  Lordship  went  on  to  state  his  opinion  that  the 
prosperity  of  modern  Belgium  was,  to  a  great  extent,  owing  to 
the  constant  stream  of  highly  educated  young  men  who  were 
turned  out  year  by  year  from  the  University  to  form  the  think- 
ing and  governing  classes  of  the  country. 

In  conclusion,  a  word  may  be  said  concerning  the  splendid 
library  of  the  University  which  is  now  no  more.  Like  other 
medieval  universities,  Louvain  was  in  its  beginnings  dependent 
on  the  good  will  of  others  for  the  loan  of  buildings  and  books. 
For  the  past  two  centuries  of  its  existence  the  University  had 
to  depend  on  the  libraries  of  its  colleges  and  of  the  religious 
houses  in  the  city.  Putianus  had  declared  that  until  it  had  a 
public  library  of  its  own,  it  would  never  be  a  true  university. 
The  nucleus  of  such  a  library  was  provided  by  the  benefaction 
of  books  bequeathed  in  1627  by  Lawrence  Beyerlinck,  Arch- 
priest  of  Antwerp,  to  his  Alma  Mater,  which  was  added  to  by 
later  benefactors.  The  library  was  first  organized  by  Corne- 
lius Jansenius,  Bishop  of  Ypres,  but  a  period  of  difficulty  fol- 
lowed until  1719,  when  Rega,  the  Rector  of  the  University,  re- 
organized the  library  and  secured  its  future  by  transferring  it 
from  the  Halles  to  a  building  erected  above  and  fitted  with 
splendid  carved  wood  work  of  oak  supplied  from  the  land  of 
some  of  the  great  abbeys  of  Europe.  Additional  collections  of 
books  then  flowed  in.  The  building  had  to  be  enlarged. 
During  the  Revolution  the  library  suffered  badly,  but  after  the 
war  of  independence  the  city,  in  1830,  claimed  and  obtained  the 
library  as  municipal  property.  Four  years  later,  however,  on  the 
refoundation  of  the  University,  the  city  placed  the  library 
at  the  disposal  of  the  University.  At  the  time  of  its  destruc- 
tion by  the  Germans,  the  library  contained  nearly  250,000 
printed  volumes  with  hundreds  of  precious  manuscripts  and 
incunabula.  For  two  years  before  the  fatal  day  in  August 
last  Professor  Delannoy  had  been  engaged  in  a  thorough  ex- 
amination of  these  last  and  had  brought  to  light  a  number 
of  unexpected  and  precious  treasures.  He  had  also  been  at 
work  upon  a  catalogue  which  was  nearly  finished  when  it 
perished  in  the  same  conflagration  as  the  books  it  recorded. 
As  to  the  completeness  of  the  destruction,  there  can  be  no 


16  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

doubt.  "Of  these  many  valuable  collections"  (of  Archives) 
said  the  Bishop  of  Salford,  in  an  article  in  the  Manchester 
Guardian,  "absolutely  nothing  remains.  Efforts  have  been 
made  since  the  sack  of  Louvain  to  try  to  discover  some  rem- 
nants underneath  the  library  and  in  the  cellars,  but  not  even 
a  single  leaf  has  been  found  amid  the  black  and  charred 
debris.  Indeed,  considering  the  difficulty  of  burning  large 
masses  of  paper,  it  is  concluded  that  the  contents  of  the  library 
must  have  been  deliberately  destroyed  by  the  use  of  explosive 
grenades,  while  the  building  itself,  as  is  known,  has  been  com- 
pletely shattered  to  fragments  by  the  bombardment."  What 
a  sad  illustration  of  the  old  dictum  of  the  poet,  "Habent  sua 
fata  libelli." 

University  and  library  are  no  more;  its  students  are  scat- 
tered over  the  seas  where  a  generous  hospitality  has  been  ex- 
tended to  them  by  universities  whose  lines  are  cast  in  less 
difficult  places.  For  the  moment  they  are  exiles,  or  rather 
guests  whom  their  hosts  are  delighted  to  honor.  There  they 
await  a  happier  day  when,  "the  fear  of  enemies  being  removed, 
the  times,  by  God's  protection,  may  be  peaceable,"  and  the 
work  of  reconstruction  may  be  begun.  All  is  to  make,  but 
it  will  be  done,  as  it  was  in  1834,  though  under  greater 
difficulties. 

London,  Eng.  J.  B.  Milburn. 


MUSIC  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

Music  is  the  only  subject  that  is  at  present  taught  uninter- 
ruptedly throughout  the  eight  grades  of  the  elementary  public 
schools  of  the  United  States.  This  is  a  rather  startling  fact, 
when  it  is  remembered  that  up  to  a  few  years  ago  music  was 
not  taught  regularly  in  any  of  the  grades  of  the  elementary 
public  schools.  Nor  is  the  full  extent  of  this  change  sufficiently 
indicated  by  the  statement  which  we  have  just  made.  From 
statistics  compiled  by  the  Bureau  of  Education  in  1914,1  it 
would  appear  that  from  60  to  150  minutes  a  week  are  de- 
voted to  class  instruction  in  music,  the  average  for  all  the 
grades  throughout  the  country  being  about  100  minutes.  When 
the  extra  time  spent  in  preparing  songs  for  Commencement 
exercises,  the  marches  played  for  assembling  and  dismissing 
school,  etc.,  is  taken  into  account,  it  is  found  that  two  and  one 
half  hours  per  week,  or  10  per  cent  of  the  entire  school  time, 
is  devoted  to  music.  We  have  no  statistics  on  the  matter  cov- 
ering the  facts  in  our  Catholic  schools,  but  it  is  to  be  pre- 
sumed that  they  are  not  behind  the  public  schools  in  a  matter 
of  this  kind. 

When  the  attention  of  a  French  educator,  who  is  in  this  coun- 
try at  the  present  time  studying  our  methods  and  practices, 
was  called  to  this  large  allotment  of  time  to  music,  much  sur- 
prise was  manifested.  And,  indeed,  it  is  a  matter  of  surprise, 
particularly  when  we  remember  how  complete  the  movement 
has  become  in  the  short  span  since  music  teaching  was  re- 
garded by  the  public  as  one  of  the  fads.  The  school  is  one  of 
our  most  conservative  social  institutions.  Our  teachers,  for 
the  most  part,  are  withdrawn  from  the  advanced  zone,  where 
social  change  is  taking  place  most  rapidly,  and  hence  it  usually 
takes  more  than  one  generation  to  bring  the  adult  attitude  into 
the  schoolroom.  But  it  should  be  noted  that  the  adult  attitude 
does  inevitably  reach  the  school,  and,  when  it  does,  it  brings 
about  the  requisite  adjustments  sometimes  all  too  swiftly.  The 
change  of  attitude  under  consideration,  however,  can  hardly 


i  Music  in  the  Public  Schools:    U.   S.  Bureau  of  Education,   1914. 
No.  133. 

X7 


18  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

be  said  to  be  a  reflex  of  the  adult  attitude,  for  the  older  genera- 
tion in  our  midst  have  little  musical  accomplishment.  Nor 
does  music  enter  into  the  serious  business  of  life,  in  shop  or 
factory,  and  in  the  home,  when  music  does  enter,  it  is  usually 
in  the  form  of  mechanical  contrivances.  Whence,  then,  arises 
the  pressure  which  compels  the  schools  to  yield  so  large  a  pro- 
portion of  their  limited  time  to  the  teaching  of  music? 

The  rise  of  the  movement  for  vocational  training  may  be 
readily  traced  to  the  demands  of  our  growing  manufacturing 
interests.  Adult  occupation  and  economic  need  very  naturally 
turn  to  the  school  for  relief  and  assistance.  But  the  demand 
for  music  teaching  has  nothing  whatever  to  do  with  the  in- 
dustries or  economic  needs  of  the  time.  If  an  adult  occupation 
calls  for  music  in  the  schools,  it  is  the  adult's  leisure  occupa- 
tion, and  this  undoubtedly  furnishes  a  partial  explanation  of 
our  school  practice.  Of  course,  this  demand  of  leisure  upon 
education  is  not  new.  It  bulked  very  large  in  ages  that  have 
passed,  and  might,  indeed,  be  said  to  have  occupied  a  central 
position  in  the  education  of  the  aristocracy  or  the  leisure 
classes.  We  have  come  to  look  upon  this  type  of  education  as 
cultural  education.  It  was  an  education  for  life  rather  than 
for  the  conquest  of  material  nature  and  for  the  hoarding  of 
wealth,  and  this  position  might  still  be  defended  with  the  best 
of  arguments.  But  this  type  of  education  was  not  employed 
for  the  masses.  In  their  case  utility  was  the  keynote.  Protest- 
ant reformers  urged  the  teaching  of  reading,  so  that  the 
children  of  the  people  might  be  able  to  read  the  Bible  and  thus 
save  their  souls.  They  were  taught  arithmetic  so  that  they 
might  take  care  of  their  earthly  possessions,  and  writing  found 
its  place  in  the  schools  for  similar  reasons.  Cultural  educa- 
tion, in  those  days  at  least,  was  regarded  as  appropriate  only 
for  children  that  were  not  destined  to  spend  their  lives  in 
toil  or  gainful  occupations.  In  a  democracy  such  as  ours  we 
have  no  leisure  class,  no  class  of  children  whose  future  is  shut 
off  from  toil  and  gain.  The  god  Mammon  receives  well-nigh 
universal  worship.  In  the  case  of  the  overwhelming  ma- 
jority of  our  people,  at  least,  the  demand  of  the  school  is  for 
things  that  will  help  the  class  most  to  early  efficiency  in 
money-getting.  This  state  of  affairs  makes  the  growth  of 
musical  education  in  our  schools  all  the  more  surprising. 


Music  in  the  Elementary  School  19 

The  real  explanation  will  be  found  in  the  spread  of  psycho- 
logical doctrines,  which  is  so  marked  a  feature  of  our  recent 
progress.  From  the  dawn  of  human  history  down  to  almost 
our  own  day  man's  emotional  nature  found  exercise  and  ex- 
pression in  his  normal  occupations.  Competition  with  his 
fellow-man,  individual  trade  and  barter,  skill  in  the  handling 
of  tools  before  an  audience  of  friends  and  acquaintances  con- 
tinued to  develop  what  was  begun  in  the  hunt  or  the  chase. 
As  we  passed  from  a  tool  to  a  machine  age,  however,  all  this 
was  changed.  Man's  bread-winning  was  rapidly  shorn  of  all 
emotional  content.  It  was  narrowed  until  he  has  come  to 
occupy  the  position  of  a  mere  cog  in  the  vast  wheels  of  indus- 
try. Hour  after  hour,  day  after  day,  year  in  and  year  out,  he 
is  expected  to  stand  at  his  machine  and  constantly  repeat  the 
few  simple  automatic  movements  called  for  to  control  the  ma- 
chine which  cuts  the  upper  of  a  shoe  or  drives  the  pegs  in  its 
sole.  He  no  longer  knows  nor  cares  for  the  various  items  that 
enter  into  the  making  of  the  perfect  shoe.  These  occupations 
have  been  observed  to  cripple  men's  souls  and  shrink  them  so 
that  the  man  ceases  to  be  a  normal  member  of  the  human 
family.  Some  few  years  ago  the  present  writer  was  earnestly 
urged  to  prepare  a  paper  to  be  read  before  a  large  manufactur- 
ing association  in  the  hope  that  he  might  be  able  to  suggest 
remedies  for  an  evil  that  was  all  too  plainly  discernible.  But 
the  disease  is  deep-rooted  and  the  remedy,  to  be  effective,  must 
be  equally  penetrating. 

Modern  psychology  is  making  it  plainer  every  day  that  the 
life  of  man  is  not  confined  to  the  cognitive  side  of  his  being,  nor 
even  to  cognition  and  its  adequate  expression.  The  deep 
well-springs  of  life  lie  in  affective  consciousness.  The  emo- 
tion and  the  will  constitute  the  center  of  life.  Cognition 
merely  furnishes  the  light  required  for  guidance.  It  is  but  a 
means  to  an  end,  and  the  end  is  emotion  and  its  expression. 
We  may  choose  to  ignore  the  emotion  and  its  need  for  cultiva- 
tion in  our  schools  and  in  our  hours  of  leisure,  but  emotion 
will  not  disappear  from  life  on  that  account.  It  will  remain 
ind  find  outlets  of  expression  which,  because  of  the  absence 
if  cultivation  and  appropriate  guidance,  will  be  likely  to  result 
i  disaster  to  the  individual  and  injury  and  annoyance  to 
jciety. 


20  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

It  is  to  the  recognition  of  this  fact  that  the  teaching  of 
music  in  our  elementary  schools  is  indebted  for  most  of  the 
time  and  energy  now  expended  upon  it.  Since  the  occupations 
of  the  adult  no  longer  provide  channels  for  adequate  emotional 
expression,  and  the  home  life  of  the  child  no  longer  provides 
adequate  means  for  emotional  cultivation,  society  is  called 
upon  to  provide  opportunities  for  the  emotional  life  of  her 
people  during  their  hours  of  leisure,  and  she  is  obliged  also  to 
provide  through  her  schools  for  adequate  emotional  training. 

Mr.  David  C.  Taylor  has  recently  presented  an  excellent 
summary  of  the  need  for  musical  education  in  our  schools,  and 
of  the  reasons  which  led  to  its  recent  introduction:  "In  fact 
our  whole  social  environment  has  changed  completely  in  the 
past  twenty-five  years.  The  present  industrial  civilization  is 
entirely  different  from  anything  that  the  world  has  ever 
known  before.  We  live  in  a  new  world.  Formal  education  is 
called  upon  to  prepare  children  for  new  conditions  of  life. 
Some  aspects  of  the  change  that  has  taken  place  are  indeed 
evident  at  the  first  glance.  The  reason  for  the  introduction  of 
courses  in  manual  and  vocational  training,  cookery,  sewing, 
etc.,  is  readily  seen.  But  with  music  the  reason  is  by  no 
means  so  easy  to  assign.  Since  the  study  itself  is  unpractical, 
the  need  for  it  does  not  lie  on  the  surface  of  things.  Con- 
ditions of  living  have  changed  in  many  matters  which  are  not 
directly  practical.  We  must  look  beneath  the  surface  of 
physical  things  to  find  a  reason  why  music  is  so  vitally  needed 
in  education  and  to  see  how  our  spiritual  and  emotional  life 
is  affected  by  the  changed  conditions. 

"In  preparing  the  children  for  life  in  the  world,  earlier 
educational  systems  had  to  consider  little  more  than  the  train- 
ing of  the  mind.  Everything  else  was  provided  for  by  the 
agencies  outside  the  school.  Nowadays,  the  school  is  expected 
to  cover  a  much  wider  field  and  its  problems  are  vastly  more 
complex.  One  problem  in  particular  is  new  to  this  generation 
— the  training  of  the  emotional  nature.  This  is  a  peculiar 
demand,  which  has  been  imposed  upon  us  by  the  rise  of  in- 
dustrialism. To  fit  the  child  for  an  orderly  and  well-conducted 
life,  his  emotional  nature  must  now  receive  a  systematic 
training.  There  is  an  inner  activity  entirely  distinct  from  the 
intellectual  processes  of  the  mind — the  emotional  life.  Modern 


Music  in  the  Elementary  School  21 

conditions  oblige  education  to  take  account  of  the  emotional 
life  and  to  provide  for  its  proper  regulation. 

"We  often  hear  it  said  that  present  conditions  of  life  allow 
little  scope  to  the  emotional  nature.  Everyone  has  his  work  to 
do,  and  that  work  is  of  a  kind  that  makes  unceasing  demands 
on  his  mental  activities.  With  their  minds  held  close  to  their 
daily  tasks,  people  cannot  afford  to  give  free  play  to  their  feel- 
ings. Every  child  that  leaves  our  schools  will  be  called  on  to 
do  his  share  in  the  world's  work.  His  duties  will  be  too  ex- 
acting to  permit  the  indulgence  of  his  emotions. 

"This  is  a  necessary  feature  of  our  industrial  civilization. 
But  it  is  entirely  different  from  former  conditions  of  life. 
Moreover,  our  present  system  of  life  contains  something  ut- 
terly repugnant  to  some  of  our  deepest  and  most  powerful  in- 
stincts. Our  industrial  era  is  beyond  a  doubt  the  greatest  col- 
lective achievement  of  mankind.  The  world  is  better  fed,  bet- 
ter clothed,  and  better  housed  than  ever  before.  Yet  there  is 
something  lacking.  We  have  an  instinctive  longing  for  a  form 
of  inner  activities  which  mankind  enjoyed  in  all  former  ages, 
but  which  is  denied  to  us  now  in  our  working  hours. 

"There  is  no  need  of  defining  in  precise  terms  what  is  meant 
by  this  activity  of  emotional  nature.  We  all  know  the  in- 
ward stirring  that  comes  from  healthful,  happy  activity  of 
any  kind.  A  brisk  walk  on  a  frosty  day  or  a  delightful  sail  on 
a  breezy  lake  normally  gives  us  this  undefinable  sense  of  inner 
well-being.  All  our  interests,  pleasures,  and  enthusiasms  have 
this  accompaniment.  Life  is  warm,  glowing,  and  radiant  when 
our  faculties  are  engaged  in  any  occupation  which,  by  its 
pleasure  or  interest,  makes  a  strong  appeal  to  us.  This  inner 
activity  is  purely  emotional  in  nature.  It  may  be  identified 
with  some  precise  emotional  state,  such  as  love,  joy,  triumph. 
Or,  equally  well,  it  may  be  undefined  in  character,  without  tak- 
ing on  any  precise  color  or  outline.  In  either  case  the  sense  of 
spiritual  expansion  and  well  being  is  very  much  the  same."  2 

This  truth,  expressed  so  clearly  by  Mr.  Taylor,  has  forced 
its  way  in  a  rather  inarticulate  and  subconscious  form  into 
the  community  consciousness  and  into  the  work  of  our  schools. 
Man  is  not  content  to  let  his  emotional  nature  atrophy,  for  he 

2  Taylor:  The  Melodic  Method  in  School  Music.  New  York,  1918,  p. 
3  ff. 


22  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

recognizes  instinctively  that  it  is  immeasurably  more  precious 
than  the  results  of  any  of  his  intellectual  or  constructive 
achievements.  He  experiences  a  shock  at  the  mere  thought  of 
bartering  love  for  money.  But  it  is  not  merely  his  judgment 
that  is  at  stake  as  he  compares  the  values  in  the  emotional  life 
of  his  forbears  with  the  physical  possessions  which  he  now  en- 
joys. The  emotions  continue  to  well  up  in  his  own  breast,  and 
continue  to  demand  room  in  his  life  and  adequate  expression. 
"Under  the  environment  in  which  the  human  instincts  were 
formed,  the  work  by  which  man  wrested  his  living  from 
nature  provided  a  constant  emotional  stimulus.  In  his  hunt- 
ing and  fishing,  in  his  hiding  from  deadly  foes  or  his  stealthy 
attacks  on  them,  primitive  man  experienced  a  never-ceasing 
glow  of  feeling.  This  inner  glow  and  warmth  became  fused 
with  every  activity.  How  different  from  the  cold  mental  and 
mechanical  processes  which  now  make  up  a  day's  work !  Yet 
human  nature  is  exactly  the  same  now  as  it  was  then,  and  the 
instinctive  need  of  emotional  activities  is  just  as  pressing."  3 

In  this  connection  the  Catholic  will  realize  the  Church's 
attitude.  She  has  ever  insisted  that  religion  must  not  be 
allowed  to  cool  into  a  rigid  intellectual  formula.  Her  service 
is  never  permitted  to  shrink  into  a  reasoned  discourse  which 
appeals  merely  to  the  intellect  of  man.  She  realizes  that  re- 
ligion, to  be  of  any  value,  must  be  vital,  and,  if  vital,  it  must 
ever  glow  with  emotion.  Hence,  her  service  from  the  earliest 
days  sought  to  arouse,  to  cultivate  and  to  uplift  the  emotions 
of  her  children.  It  is  for  this  that  she  directed  her  children 
to  dedicate  their  highest  skill  and  their  most  precious  posses- 
sions to  the  building  of  church  edifices  which  would  warm  into 
life  every  noble  emotion  and  feeling  of  the  worshipper.  It  was 
for  this  that  she  developed  her  sacerdotal  vestments,  the  elabo- 
rate drama  of  her  liturgy,  and  above  all,  it  was  for  this  that 
she  established  her  schools  of  chantry  and  made  music  an 
integral  part  of  the  divine  worship  which  she  has  ever  offered 
to  the  Most  High.  The  Catholic  shrinks  from  the  cold,  grey 
walls  of  a  Scottish  kirk,  and  from  the  auditorium  in  which  the 
intellectual  discourses  of  the  Unitarian  masquerade  as  divine 
worship. 

*Ibid.,  6. 


Music  in  the  Elementary  School  23 

But  it  is  not  only  the  Catholic  that  revolts  against  the 
banishing  of  emotion  from  religious  worship.  The  children 
of  the  Reformation  themselves  were  restless  under  this 
deprivation,  and  time  after  time  they  broke  away  from  their 
intellectual  leaders  to  establish  forms  of  religious  service 
which  would  give  some  play  to  their  emotional  life.  Thus 
Protestantism,  having  lost  its  balance  between  the  emotional 
and  the  rational  nature,  has  continued  to  swing  from  extreme 
to  extreme,  until  in  our  day  it  has  lost  most  of  its  vitality  and 
its  power  to  direct  the  lives  of  men  in  the  ways  of  salvation. 

For  two  thousand  years  the  Church  has  drawn  upon  her  re- 
sources to  cultivate  the  emotions  of  her  children  and  to  lead 
them  Sunday  after  Sunday  into  the  highest  forms  of  benefi- 
cent expression.  Nor  does  she  restrain  her  influence  and  con- 
fine it  within  the  Sabbath  Day.  Where  she  is  not  prevented  by 
her  enemies,  her  feasts  and  solemn  processions  are  scattered 
through  the  year  with  a  restrained  profusion  which  marks  the 
seasons  and  consecrates  them  in  the  life  of  the  toiler.  Thrice 
a  day  her  Angelus  awakens  in  their  breasts  tender  emotions 
evoked  by  the  contemplation  of  Mary  in  the  presence  of  the 
angel  who  announced  to  her  the  end  of  the  long  night  of  wait- 
ing and  the  dawn  of  the  wonderful  day  of  redemption.  Thrice 
a  day  she  calls  upon  her  children  to  lift  up  their  eyes  from 
earth,  and  with  hearts  glowing  with  purest  emotion,  to  join 
with  the  angelic  choir  in  homage  to  the  highest  embodiment 
of  purity  and  obedience  as  she  enjoys  the  full  reward  of  a  life 
transfigured  by  emotion. 

The  Catholic,  therefore,  needs  not  to  be  told  that  education 
must  not  be  confined  to  the  practical  and  the  intellectual  sides 
of  life,  but  that  it  must  lay  hold  of  the  emotions  and  culti- 
vate them  and  direct  them  at  every  stage  in  the  child's  develop- 
ment. 

Our  state  schools  are  forced  to  recognize  the  truth  of  this 
position,  while  they  are  denied  the  tremendous  resources  avail- 
able in  the  Catholic  schools.  Mr.  Taylor  confines  his  view  to 
the  state  school,  and  makes  an  honest  endeavor  to  meet  the 
situation.  His  book  should  be  studied  by  all  who  are  in- 
terested in  the  problem.  We  venture  to  add  here  a  further 
quotation  from  it,  as  it  is  as  clear  a  presentation  as  may 
be  found  in  our  current  educational  literature : 


24  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

"What  is  the  world  to  do?  Its  emotional  nature  demands 
an  outlet,  but  its  environment  does  not  afford  this  outlet  in 
its  workaday  activities.  Short  of  changing  the  environment 
or  changing  human  nature — both  downright  impossible — the 
only  thing  to  do  is  to  take  advantage  of  every  opportunity  for 
emotional  activity  afforded  by  life  as  it  is.  That  is  exactly 
what  the  world  tries  to  do,  as  best  it  can.  But  the  situation 
is  so  new  that  the  world  has  not  yet  learned  to  adapt  itself 
perfectly  to  the  change.  One  of  the  pressing  tasks  of  educa- 
tion is  met  here.  It  is  our  duty  to  fit  our  future  citizens  for  the 
environment  in  which  they  will  be  placed.  To  this  end  we  must 
train  them  to  find  a  healthy  outlet  for  the  imperious  demands 
of  their  emotional  natures. 

"These  demands  are  indeed  imperious.  The  emotional  na- 
ture will  not  submit  to  being  entirely  suppressed.  When  it  is 
denied  all  healthful  activity,  it  will  sooner  or  later  break  forth 
violently.  Serious  disorders  of  conduct  are  then  inevitable. 
This  is  one  of  the  great  perils  of  our  exclusively  industrial 
civilization.  Strikes,  violence,  drink,  vice,  dis  rder  of  every 
kind  are  sure  to  occur  where  people  are  condemned  to  a  life  of 
unrelieved  toil.  What  we  as  educators  are  called  on  to  pro- 
duce is  the  type  of  citizen  who  does  his  day's  work  regularly 
and  steadily  with  no  recurring  interruptions  due  to  outbreaks 
of  rebellious  spirit.  Our  whole  community  life  demands  that 
kind  of  citizenship.  We  cannot  fashion  it  by  a  system  of 
education  which  seeks  to  repress  the  instinctive  need  of  emo- 
tional activity.  On  the  contrary,  we  must  recognize  the  need, 
and  train  our  pupils  to  take  advantage  of  the  means  for  its 
fulfillment  which  our  community  life  now  offers. 

"The  overwhelming  majority  of  people  are  forced  to  find 
their  emotional  outlet  in  the  pleasures  and  occupations  of 
their  leisure  time.  Comparatively  few  of  us  are  so  happily 
placed  that  our  daily  tasks  afford  the  outlet.  The  glow  of 
enthusiasm  is  indeed  felt  by  the  novelist  creating  his  char- 
acters and  plot,  the  inventor  eager  to  perfect  a  valuable  device, 
and  the  lawyer  pleading  his  case.  But  it  is  work  of  an  entirely 
different  kind  to  add  endless  columns  of  figures,  measure 
yards  of  cloth,  or  stick  pieces  of  metal  into  a  machine  one  after 
another.  Work  of  the  latter  kind — drudgery  as  a  means  of 
livelihood — falls  to  the  lot  of  most  people.  Education  must 
provide  the  emotional  outlet  for  the  great  mass  of  workers. 


Music  in  the  Elementary  School  25 

"All  the  amusements  in  which  the  working  world  indulges 
have  been  instinctively  designed  for  the  purpose  of  affording 
emotional  exercise.  Dancing,  the  oldest  amusement  of  a  dis- 
tinctly emotional  type,  owes  its  astounding  present  vogue  to  its 
potency  in  this  direction.  Athletics  and  outdoor  sports  of 
every  kind  allow  modern  man  to  live  over  again  the  emo- 
tional experiences  of  the  hunting  and  fighting  stage.  The 
universal  craze  for  moving  pictures  is  another  evidence  of  the 
popular  hunger  for  something  to  stir  the  feelings.  Social 
divergence,  reading,  the  theatre,  gambling,  card-playing,  poli- 
tics— the  list  could  be  enlarged  indefinitely.  Finally,  the 
most  important  on  the  cultural  side,  art  in  every  form,  derives 
its  value  from  its  direct  and  powerful  emotional  appeal. 

"Consistent  good  conduct  is  impossible  without  a  normally 
regulated  emotional  activity.  Denied  this  in  their  daily  work, 
people  are  obliged  to  find  an  outlet  in  their  enthusiasms  and 
pleasures.  Any  form  of  amusement  is  better  than  complete 
starvation  of  the  emotions.  But  it  would  be  a  great  mistake 
to  believe  that  all  forms  of  enjoyment  are  equally  beneficial. 
Broadly  speaking,  we  may  say  that  all  amusements  and  other 
leisure  occupations  fall  into  two  general  classes.  One  class  is 
upbuilding  and  regulating,  the  other  is  demoralizing  and  de- 
grading. It  is  everywhere  recognized  that  pleasures  which  are 
associated  with  gambling,  rowdyism,  vulgarity,  and  dissipa- 
tion are  a  detriment  to  community  well-being.  Laws  have  been 
passed  in  many  states  against  horse-racing  (or  rather  against 
gambling,  for  which  it  is  conducted),  against  cock-fighting, 
pugilism,  of  the  more  brutal  sort,  and  other  questionable 
amusements.  That  these  things  tend  to  lower  the  moral  tone 
of  those  who  indulge  in  them  is  generally  understood.  An- 
other type  of  demoralizing  amusement  is  seen  in  the  craze  for 
sensationalism,  the  love  of  scandal,  the  feverish  devotion  to 
the  yellow  journals,  the  lewd  jest,  the  low  theatrical  show,  and 
the  lurid  moving  pictures — vulgarity,  in  short,  in  all  its  forms 
and  manifestations.  These  are  all  types  of  indulgence  in  un- 
healthful  emotional  sitmulants.  They  are  all  objectionable 
from  the  point  of  view  of  community  welfare.  Their  effect 
might  be  described  as  emotional  dissipation.  They  afford 
inner  activity,  though  of  a  disturbing  kind.  Unhealthy  and 
unregulated  emotional  activity  always  expresses  itself  in  dis- 
ordered conduct. 


26  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

"Far  different  is  the  effect  of  those  enjoyments  which  afford 
an  exercise  of  the  higher  emotions.  These  are  in  the  best  sense 
a  recreation;  they  daily  create  anew  the  love  of  order,  the 
sense  of  duty,  the  spirit  of  cheerful  application.  Pleasures 
and  leisure  occupations  of  the  desirable  kind  act  as  an  emo- 
tional regulator.  Under  modern  conditions  they  are  essential 
to  good  conduct. 

"It  is  coming  to  be  recognized  that  the  community  has  an 
interest  in  providing  healthful  amusements  for  the  people. 
Parks  and  playgrounds,  public  libraries  and  recreation  cen- 
ters,— all  are  maintained  for  this  purpose.  But  it  not  enough 
to  provide  people  with  the  opportunities  for  beneficial  recrea- 
tion. They  must  also  be  provided  with  the  taste  and  the  ability 
to  enjoy  them."  * 

Non-Catholics  frequently  misunderstand  the  policy  of  the 
Church  in  maintaining  a  celibate  clergy  and  in  encouraging 
celibate  religious  communities  of  men  and  women.  They  seem 
to  take  it  for  granted  that  the  Church  places  her  ban  upon 
the  love  which  leads  to  marriage  and  that  she  denies  to  all  who 
enter  her  ministry  or  her  special  service  any  exercise  of  or  out- 
let for  this  emotion,  and  conclude,  rightly  enough,  that  emo- 
tions which  are  not  given  a  legitimate  outlet  must  inevitably 
find  expression  in  evil  deeds.  The  conclusion  follows  from 
their  premise,  but  their  premise  is  false.  Instead  of  placing 
her  ban  on  the  married  state,  the  Church  consecrates  it  by 
sacramental  grace,  and,  if  she  denies  marriage  to  her  clergy 
and  to  those  who  enter  her  religious  communities,  this  denial 
does  not  spring  from  any  failure  on  her  part  to  appreciate 
the  love  of  husband  for  wife  or  of  wife  for  husband.  Indeed, 
it  is  through  such  love  that  she  seeks  to  make  known  to  man 
the  relationship  which  exists  between  Christ  and  His  Church. 
The  Church  treasures  all  natural  and  normal  human  emotions. 
She  cultivates  them  and,  in  the  case  of  those  whom  she  calls 
to  her  special  service,  she  sublimates  the  deepest  and  strongest 
emotions  of  their  nature  for  the  attainment  of  high  purposes. 
The  love  which  would  have  gone  out  to  wife  and  children  she 
does  not  seek  to  eradicate  or  to  suppress,  but,  on  the  contrary, 
she  develops  it  and  purifies  it  and  utilizes  it  in  full  measure  on 

4  Ibid.,  7. 


Music  in  the  Elementary  School  27 

the  high  plane  of  love  for  fellow-man,  zeal  for  the  salvation 
of  souls,  and,  finally,  she  lifts  it  up  and  transfigures  it  into  the 
glowing  love  of  God.  That  she  has  not  always  succeeded  to  the 
full  measure  of  her  desire  in  this  great  endeavor  was  to  be  ex- 
pected. But  what  she  has  achieved  through  this  policy  stands 
out  as  the  most  glorious  page  in  the  history  of  mankind. 

The  state  schools  which  may  not  call  upon  the  resources  of 
religion  must,  nevertheless,  do  everything  possible  to  meet  the 
grave  situation  arising  out  of  the  neglected  and  disordered 
emotions  of  the  masses.  They  must  endeavor  to  prevent  the 
serious  disorder  which  at  present  threatens  the  whole  world. 
The  teaching  of  music  is  one  of  the  means  which  these  schools 
are  employing.  That  it  is  inadequate,  however  helpful,  is  the 
conviction  of  many  thoughtful  educators.  Would  the  Church, 
through  the  aid  of  music  alone,  have  been  able  to  correct  the 
disorders  of  Pagan  Rome  or  the  lusts  of  Attila  and  his  horde 
of  Huns?  The  teachers  in  our  schools  should  realize  the 
mighty  task  that  they  are  called  upon  to  perform  in  correcting 
and  governing  the  emotional  life  of  the  generation  that  is 
about  to  come  on  the  public  stage,  and  they  must  neglect  no 
means  or  method  that  will  aid  them  in  this  effort.  Music  is 
probably  the  most  effective  means  at  their  disposal.  But  the 
teacher  in  the  Catholic  school,  while  relying  upon  the  teaching 
of  music  to  the  fullest  extent  justified  by  the  teaching  of 
psychology  and  experience,  will  place  her  chief  reliance  upon 
the  teachings  and  the  practices  of  our  holy  religion.  In  so 
doing  she  will  not  neglect  the  cultivation  or  the  sublimation  of 
the  child's  emotional  life. 

Thomas  Edward  Shields. 


VOCATIONAL  PREPARATION  OF  YOUTH  IN 

CATHOLIC  SCHOOLS* 

An  Outline  of  the  Movement  Totcard  Vocational  Education 

in  State  Schools 

In  many  instances  the  school  received  more  than  its  due 
share  of  blame  for  the  inadequate  preparation  of  children  for 
their  life-work.  The  efficiency  of  the  schools  in  the  past  was 
extolled  by  the  modern  critic  and  it  was  frequently  said  that 
they  excelled  because  they  taught  fewer  subjects,  but  taught 
these  more  thoroughly.  This  statement,  though  very  popular, 
was  entirely  gratuitous.  An  examination  that  had  been  held 
in  1846  in  Springfield,  Mass.,  was  again  given  in  1905  to  a 
class  of  the  same  grade  and  age.  On  comparison  of  the  papers 
it  was  found  that  the  result  was  throughout  in  favor  of  the 
class  of  1905.  Even  in  spelling,  for  which  our  grandparents 
have  won  a  reputation,  the  1905  class  showed  10.6  per  cent  in- 
crease of  correct  papers.  The  greatest  increase  of  correct* 
papers,  namely  36.1  per  cent,  was  found  in  arithmetic.28  The 
number  of  subjects  that  is  now  being  taught  in  the  schools  is 
greater  than  it  formerly  was,  but  that  these  subjects  were  then 
taught  more  thoroughly  is  an  illusion. 

The  cause  for  the  seemingly  decreased  capabilities  of  the 
child  lies  rather  in  the  rapidly  changing  social  environment  that 
created  many  needs  for  which  no  provision  had  been  made,  and 
deprived  the  child  of  the  means  to  obtain  that  training  through 
useful  activities  hitherto  at  his  command.  Only  fifty  years 
ago  the  typical  American  home  was  the  farm,  not  the  modern 
farm  with  all  its  improved  machinery  and  labor-saving  con- 
trivances, but  the  farm  which  was  the  great  natural  laboratory, 
the  small  cooperative  factory.29     The  great  object  lessons  of 


*  A  dissertation,  by  Sister  Mary  Jeanette,  O.S.B.  M.  A.,  St.  Joseph, 
Minnesota,  submitted  to  the  Catholic  Sisters  College  of  the  Catholic 
University  of  America,  in  Partial  Fulfillment  of  the  Requirements  for 
the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Philosophy. 

"  Gregory,  B.  C,  Better  Schools.    New  York,  1912,  p.  113. 

*•  Partridge,  G.  E.,  Genetic  Philosophy  of  Education.  New  York,  1912, 
p.  115;  also  Salisbury,  Albert,  "Influence  of  Industrial  Arts  and  Sci- 
ences," Proc.  N*  E.  A.,  1909,  p.  640. 

28 


Vocational  Preparation  of  Youth  29 

home  manufacture  were  daily  presented  to  the  child,  even  from 
his  earliest  years.  He  was  familiar  with  all  the  details  of  the 
process  necessary  to  provide  the  garments  he  wore,  the  food 
he  ate,  the  furniture  in  the  home,  and  the  implements  used  on 
the  fields  and  meadows.  According  to  his  age  and  ability  he 
did  his  share  to  carry  on  the  industries  necessary  for  the  com- 
fort of  the  family.  This  trained  him  to  usefulness  without  de- 
stroying his  play  spirit,  and  was  exceedingly  valuable  in  call- 
ing forth  his  ingenuity  and  skill.  He  saw  and  learned  every 
detail  of  the  work,  which  enabled  him  to  see  each  part  in  its 
relation  to  the  whole.  The  lack  of  this  opportunity  makes  it- 
self keenly  felt  in  the  manufacture  of  articles  under  present 
conditions  where  each  laborer  knows  practically  nothing  of  the 
work  performed  by  others  towards  the  completion  of  the  pro- 
duct at  which  he  works. 

The  change  from  these  former  conditions  was  rapid  and 
radical.  The  average  home  of  the  present  day  offers  no  oppor- 
tunity for  the  child  to  exercise  his  constructive  abilities.  Even 
the  country  home  is  very  different  now  because  machinery  is 
employed  to  do  most  of  the  work  formerly  done  by  hand.  Cloth- 
ing, food,  furniture,  and  farm  implements  are  no  longer  made 
at  home  by  the  farmer;  they  are  now  procured  from  the  fac- 
tories where  thousands  of  hands  are  employed  that  would  have 
tilled  the  soil  under  former  conditions.  The  rise  of  industries 
in  cities  and  towns  drew  large  numbers  from  the  country ;  living 
conditions  were  altered  so  rapidly  that  the  people  scarcely  real- 
ized how  such  a  sudden  change  would  affect  the  growing  youth. 
As  long  as  the  education  received  in  the  school  had  been  supple- 
mented by  the  industrial  training  of  the  home  it  had  been 
sufficient  to  enable  the  young  man  to  undertake  and  carry  on 
successfully  whatever  work  he  desired;  the  ambitious  youth 
was  prepared  to  enter  any  career  he  chose. 

But  the  change  that  came  was  as  thorough  as  it  was  rapid. 
The  division  of  labor  and  the  specialized  forms  of  industry 
which  were  necessitated  by  the  growth  of  manufacture,  made 
adequate  preparation  for  a  definite  occupation  essential  to  suc- 
cess. It  was  often  difficult  to  obtain  such  preparation;  espe- 
cially the  work  done  in  the  schools  seemed  so  far  remote  from 
the  future  work  of  the  child  that  he  saw  no  connection  between 
the  two.    The  usual  result  was  complete  loss  of  interest  in  the 


30  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

school  and  an  intense  longing  to  be  released  from  its  unwelcome 
restraint. 

It  was  clear  that  the  school  system  was  seriously  defective 
and  unable  to  meet  the  demands ;  but  how  to  remedy  the  defect 
was  a  difficult  problem.  It  was  necessary  to  bring  about  a  re- 
adjustment of  the  curriculum,  but  opinions  differ  widely  as  to 
the  manner  in  which  this  was  to  be  accomplished.  Until  re- 
cently, the  control  of  this  movement  had  been  in  the  hands  of 
educational  authorities,  and  for  this  reason  academic  interests 
prevailed.  Opposed  to  these  were  the  over-practical  enthusi- 
asts, who,  not  satisfied  with  the  gradual  transformation  of  our 
present  institution  wished  to  discard  everything  that  had  no 
immediate  industrial  utility.30 

While  the  kind  of  training  that  should  be  given  is  very  much 
disputed,  and  in  all  probability  will  continue  a  subject  of  de- 
bate for  some  time  to  come,  it  is  generally  admitted  that  the 
time  of  training  should  be  extended.  Children  who  leave  school 
at  the  early  age  of  fourteen,  and  this  class  is  very  numerous, 
find  themselves  barred  from  any  but  the  unskilled  occupations; 
and  this,  as  has  been  indicated,  gives  rise  to  the  formation  of 
undesirable  habits  that  are  likely  to  prevent  later  progress. 
The  democratic  ideal  of  education  will  never  be  realized  until 
each  child  has  the  opportunity  to  complete  the  preparation  for 
his  career,  be  that  of  an  industrial  or  professional  nature.31 
Although  there  has  been  great  progress  in  this  direction  within 
the  last  decade,  the  realization  of  this  ideal  still  seems  very 
remote.  The  manual  training  that  had  been  introduced  into 
the  schools  was  found  to  be  deficient  since  this  training  did 
not  actually  function  in  the  specific  work  later  undertaken 
by  the  student  unless  the  occupation  in  which  he  was  engaged 
happened  to  be  in  that  line  in  which  he  had  received  instruc- 
tion.32 

Manual  training  schools  were  followed  by  the  evening  voca- 
tional schools,  whose  aim  was  to  supply  the  related  technical 
instruction,  while  the  practical  training  was  acquired  during 
the  actual  work  of  the  day.  Many  adults  seized  this  oppor- 
tunity for  self-improvement,  and  this  demonstrates  the  utility 


"Weeks,  Ruth  M.,  The  People's  School,  Boston,  1912,  p.  95. 
"  Dewey,  John,  Democracy  and  Education.  New  York,  1916,  p.  114. 
"Bulletin,  1916    No.  21,  Vocational  Secondary  Education,  Washing- 
ton, D.  CL-  p.  11. 


Vocational  Preparation  of  Youth  31 

of  these  schools.  While  adults  received  great  benefit  from  these 
evening  schools,  their  advantages  for  children  were  offset  by 
grave  disadvantages.  The  fatigue  caused  by  the  day's  labor 
was  augmented  by  night  study  and  the  result  was  a  serious 
strain  upon  the  constitution,  and  detriment  to  the  physical 
development  of  the  child.  Children  usually  attended  such 
schools  only  when  compelled  by  parents  or  employers.  The 
quality  of  work  done  by  a  tired,  unwilling  child  is  necessarily 
poor  and  the  efforts  of  both  teacher  and  pupil  are  crowned  with 
but  meager  success. 

But  these  evening  schools  are  the  only  possible  means  of 
progress  for  the  more  mature  workers,  who  either  did  not  have 
the  advantages  of  an  industrial  education  in  their  youth,  or  who 
neglected  the  opportunity  they  then  had.  To  this  class  the 
evening  school  is  the  only  hope  of  advancement,  and  adults 
have  learned  to  realize  its  practical  value  since  they  suffered 
from  their  want  of  preparation.  Lack  of  provision  for  the 
industrial  education  of  children  in  the  past  has  created  the 
need  of  evening  schools,  and  this  need  will  continue  to  exist 
until  they  are  replaced  by  day-continuation  schools  or  part- 
time  schools  and  all-day  industrial  schools.33  These  give 
greater  satisfaction  than  the  evening  school.  The  part-time 
schools  and  the  day  vocational  schools  resemble  each  other  in 
many  ways  but  differ  essentially  in  this  respect :  in  the  former 
the  pupils  go  from  the  school  to  the  employing  establishment 
to  obtain  practical  experience,  whereas  in  the  latter  the  pupils 
go  from  the  employing  establishment  to  the  school  so  as  to 
secure  supplemental  training.34 

Technical  schools  no  longer  confine  themselves  to  instruc- 
tion in  the  theoretical  phases  of  the  various  professions.  Origi- 
nally these  were  intended  to  supplement  apprenticeship  as  a 
means  of  vocational  training,  but  in  our  time  there  is  need  of 
supplanting,  rather  than  supplementing,  apprenticeship.  There- 
fore many  technical  schools  have  introduced  work  to  give  the 
necessary  practical  experience.35 

The  National  Educational  Association  has  concerned  itself 
for  many  years  with  the  problem  of  industrial  training,  and  has 
appointed  a  committee  on  Vocational  Education.     This  com- 


u  Ibid.,  pp.  94-95. 
"Ibid.,  p.  62. 
"Ibid.,  p.  65. 


32  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

mittee  attempted  a  classification  of  the  various  vocational 
schools,  excluding  those  of  college  grade.  These  schools  were 
classified  under  five  distinct  types,  each  type  having  a  number 
of  subdivisions.  For  example,  the  Agricultural  schools  have 
the  following  divisions:  (1)  Vocational  agricultural  day 
schools;  (2)  Part-time  agricultural  schools ;  (3)  Practical  arts 
agricultural  schools,  and  (4)  Farm  extension  schools.  The 
Commercial,  the  Industrial,  and  the  Homemaking  schools  each 
have  similar  divisions.  It  was  found  that  in  the  United  States, 
in  1916,  there  were  in  operation  92  agricultural  schools,  224 
commercial  schools,  446  industrial  schools,  423  homemaking 
schools,  and  24  technical  schools.36  This  enumeration  excludes 
all  private  and  semi-private  institutions  sad  all  others  not 
classed  under  secondary  schools.  Nor  does  this  committee  claim 
the  above  to  be  a  complete  record  of  all  the  vocational  schools 
under  the  control  of  the  state  school  system,  since  various  causes 
tended  to  lessen  the  number  of  schools  actually  in  existence, 
and  new  schools  are  continually  being  established.  The  data 
are  sufficient,  however,  to  indicate  the  importance  of  the  move- 
ment and  the  interest  exhibited  in  its  regard  throughout  the 
country.  For  previous  to  the  twentieth  century  practically 
nothing  had  been  done  in  this  field  and  even  until  1905,  the 
measures  that  had  been  taken,  since  they  were  not  of  a  practical 
nature,  were  not  likely  to  produce  the  desired  results.37 

The  efforts  of  the  state  schools  are  reinforced  by  many  private 
and  semi-private  establishments.  The  Young  Men's  Christian 
Association  has  a  large  number  of  agencies  for  industrial, 
scientific,  technical,  and  trade  instruction  in  the  form  of  asso- 
ciations. In  1910  there  were  180  of  these  extending  help  to 
many  workers,  either  by  preparing  them  to  enter  trades,  or 
by  giving  the  desired  instruction  to  those  already  engaged 
in  the  trades.  The  number  of  philanthropic  schools  plus  the 
apprenticeship  schools  may  be  considered  as  equal  to  the  num- 
ber of  schools  conducted  by  the  state.88 

An  Outline  of  the  Vocational  Guidance  Movement 

A  great  deal  of  discontent  and  suffering  is  caused  by  the 
fact  that  many  people  are  engaged  in  the  kind  of  work  which 

"  Ibid.,  pp.  21-22. 
"  Ibid.,  p.  11. 

"  Twenty-fifth  Annual  Report  of  the  Commission  of  Labor,  1910,  pp. 
544-588. 


MUSIC  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

Music  is  the  only  subject  that  is  at  present  taught  uninter- 
ruptedly throughout  the  eight  grades  of  the  elementary  public 
schools  of  the  United  States.  This  is  a  rather  startling  fact, 
when  it  is  remembered  that  up  to  a  few  years  ago  music  was 
not  taught  regularly  in  any  of  the  graces  of  the  elementary 
public  schools.  Nor  is  the  full  extent  of  this  change  sufficiently 
indicated  by  the  statement  which  we  have  just  made.  From 
statistics  compiled  by  the  Bureau  of  Education  in  1914,1  it 
would  appear  that  from  60  to  150  minutes  a  week  are  de- 
voted to  class  instruction  in  music,  the  average  for  all  the 
grades  throughout  the  country  being  about  100  minutes.  When 
the  extra  time  spent  in  preparing  songs  for  Commencement 
exercises,  the  marches  played  for  assembling  and  dismissing 
school,  etc.,  is  taken  into  account,  it  is  found  that  two  and  one 
half  hours  per  week,  or  10  per  cent  of  the  entire  school  time, 
is  devoted  to  music.  We  have  no  statistics  on  the  matter  cov- 
ering the  facts  in  our  Catholic  schools,  but  it  is  to  be  pre- 
sumed that  they  are  not  behind  the  public  schools  in  a  matter 
of  this  kind. 

When  the  attention  of  a  French  educator,  who  is  in  this  coun- 
try at  the  present  time  studying  our  methods  and  practices, 
was  called  to  this  large  allotment  of  time  to  music,  much  sur- 
prise was  manifested.  And,  indeed,  it  is  a  matter  of  surprise, 
particularly  when  we  remember  how  "complete  the  movement 
has  become  in  the  short  span  since  music  teaching  was  re- 
garded by  the  public  as  one  of  the  fads.  The  school  is  one  of 
our  most  conservative  social  institutions.  Our  teachers,  for 
the  most  part,  are  withdrawn  from  the  advanced  zone,  where 
social  change  is  taking  place  most  rapidly,  and  hence  it  usually 
takes  more  than  one  generation  to  bring  the  adult  attitude  into 
the  schoolroom.  But  it  should  be  noted  that  the  adult  attitude 
does  inevitably  reach  the  school,  and,  when  it  does,  it  brings 
about  the  requisite  adjustments  sometimes  all  too  swiftly.  The 
change  of  attitude  under  consideration,  however,  can  hardly 


i  Music  in  the  Public  Schools:    U.   S.   Bureau  of  Education,  1914. 
No.  133. 

17 


18  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

be  said  to  be  a  reflex  of  the  adult  attitude,  for  the  older  genera- 
tion in  our  midst  have  little  musical  accomplishment.  Nor 
does  music  enter  into  the  serious  business  of  life,  in  shop  or 
factory,  and  in  the  home,  when  music  does  enter,  it  is  usually 
in  the  form  of  mechanical  contrivances.  Whence,  then,  arises 
the  pressure  which  compels  the  schools  to  yield  so  large  a  pro- 
portion of  their  limited  time  to  the  teaching  of  music  ? 

The  rise  of  the  movement  for  vocational  training  may  be 
readily  traced  to  the  demands  of  our  growing  manufacturing 
interests.  Adult  occupation  and  economic  need  very  naturally 
turn  to  the  school  for  relief  and  assistance.  But  the  demand 
for  music  teaching  has  nothing  whatever  to  do  with  the  in- 
dustries or  economic  needs  of  the  time.  If  an  adult  occupation 
calls  for  music  in  the  schools,  it  is  the  adult's  leisure  occupa- 
tion, and  this  undoubtedly  furnishes  a  partial  explanation  of 
our  school  practice.  Of  course,  this  demand  of  leisure  upon 
education  is  not  new.  It  bulked  very  large  in  ages  that  have 
passed,  and  might,  indeed,  be  said  to  have  occupied  a  central 
position  in  the  education  of  the  aristocracy  or  the  leisure 
classes.  We  have  come  to  look  upon  this  type  of  education  as 
cultural  education.  It  was  an  education  for  life  rather  than 
for  the  conquest  of  material  nature  and  for  the  hoarding  of 
wealth,  and  this  position  might  still  be  defended  with  the  best 
of  arguments.  But  this  type  of  education  was  not  employed 
for  the  masses.  In  their  case  utility  was  the  keynote.  Protest- 
ant reformers  urged  the  teaching  of  reading,  so  that  the 
children  of  the  people  might  be  able  to  read  the  Bible  and  thus 
save  their  souls.  They  were  taught  arithmetic  so  that  they 
might  take  care  of  their  earthly  possessions,  and  writing  found 
its  place  in  the  schools  for  similar  reasons.  Cultural  educa- 
tion, in  those  days  at  least,  was  regarded  as  appropriate  only 
for  children  that  were  not  destined  to  spend  their  lives  in 
toil  or  gainful  occupations.  In  a  democracy  such  as  ours  we 
have  no  leisure  class,  no  class  of  children  whose  future  is  shut 
off  from  toil  and  gain.  The  god  Mammon  receives  well-nigh 
universal  worship.  In  the  case  of  the  overwhelming  ma- 
jority of  our  people,  at  least,  the  demand  of  the  school  is  for 
things  that  will  help  the  class  most  to  early  efficiency  in 
money-getting.  This  state  of  affairs  makes  the  growth  of 
musical  education  in  our  schools  all  the  more  surprising. 


Music  in  the  Elementary  School  19 

The  real  explanation  will  be  found  in  the  spread  of  psycho- 
logical doctrines,  which  is  so  marked  a  feature  of  our  recent 
progress.  From  the  dawn  of  human  history  down  to  almost 
our  own  day  man's  emotional  nature  found  exercise  and  ex- 
pression in  his  normal  occupations.  Competition  with  his 
fellow-man,  individual  trade  and  barter,  skill  in  the  handling 
of  tools  before  an  audience  of  friends  and  acquaintances  con- 
tinued to  develop  what  was  begun  in  the  hunt  or  the  chase. 
As  we  passed  from  a  tool  to  a  machine  age,  however,  all  this 
was  changed.  Man's  bread-winning  was  rapidly  shorn  of  all 
emotional  content.  It  was  narrowed  until  he  has  come  to 
occupy  the  position  of  a  mere  cog  in  the  vast  wheels  of  indus- 
try. Hour  after  hour,  day  after  day,  year  in  and  year  out,  he 
is  expected  to  stand  at  his  machine  and  constantly  repeat  the 
few  simple  automatic  movements  called  for  to  control  the  ma- 
chine which  cuts  the  upper  of  a  shoe  or  drives  the  pegs  in  its 
sole.  He  no  longer  knows  nor  cares  for  the  various  items  that 
enter  into  the  making  of  the  perfect  shoe.  These  occupations 
have  been  observed  to  cripple  men's  souls  and  shrink  them  so 
that  the  man  ceases  to  be  a  normal  member  of  the  human 
family.  Some  few  years  ago  the  present  writer  was  earnestly 
urged  to  prepare  a  paper  to  be  read  before  a  large  manufactur- 
ing association  in  the  hope  that  he  might  be  able  to  suggest 
remedies  for  an  evil  that  was  all  too  plainly  discernible.  But 
the  disease  is  deep-rooted  and  the  remedy,  to  be  effective,  must 
be  equally  penetrating. 

Modern  psychology  is  making  it  plainer  every  day  that  the 
life  of  man  is  not  confined  to  the  cognitive  side  of  his  being,  nor 
even  to  cognition  and  its  adequate  expression.  The  deep 
well-springs  of  life  lie  in  affective  consciousness.  The  emo- 
tion and  the  will  constitute  the  center  of  life.  Cognition 
merely  furnishes  the  light  required  for  guidance.  It  is  but  a 
means  to  an  end,  and  the  end  is  emotion  and  its  expression. 
We  may  choose  to  ignore  the  emotion  and  its  need  for  cultiva- 
tion in  our  schools  and  in  our  hours  of  leisure,  but  emotion 
will  not  disappear  from  life  on  that  account.  It  will  remain 
ind  find  outlets  of  expression  which,  because  of  the  absence 
>f  cultivation  and  appropriate  guidance,  will  be  likely  to  result 
i  disaster  to  the  individual  and  injury  and  annoyance  to 
xiety. 


20  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

It  is  to  the  recognition  of  this  fact  that  the  teaching  of 
music  in  our  elementary  schools  is  indebted  for  most  of  the 
time  and  energy  now  expended  upon  it.  Since  the  occupations 
of  the  adult  no  longer  provide  channels  for  adequate  emotional 
expression,  and  the  home  life  of  the  child  no  longer  provides 
adequate  means  for  emotional  cultivation,  society  is  called 
upon  to  provide  opportunities  for  the  emotional  life  of  her 
people  during  their  hours  of  leisure,  and  she  is  obliged  also  to 
provide  through  her  schools  for  adequate  emotional  training. 

Mr.  David  C.  Taylor  has  recently  presented  an  excellent 
summary  of  the  need  for  musical  education  in  our  schools,  and 
of  the  reasons  which  led  to  its  recent  introduction:  "In  fact 
our  whole  social  environment  has  changed  completely  in  the 
past  twenty-five  years.  The  present  industrial  civilization  is 
entirely  different  from  anything  that  the  world  has  ever 
known  before.  We  live  in  a  new  world.  Formal  education  is 
called  upon  to  prepare  children  for  new  conditions  of  life. 
Some  aspects  of  the  change  that  has  taken  place  are  indeed 
evident  at  the  first  glance.  The  reason  for  the  introduction  of 
courses  in  manual  and  vocational  training,  cookery,  sewing, 
etc.,  is  readily  seen.  But  with  music  the  reason  is  by  no 
means  so  easy  to  assign.  Since  the  study  itself  is  unpractical, 
the  need  for  it  does  not  lie  on  the  surface  of  things.  Con- 
ditions of  living  have  changed  in  many  matters  which  are  not 
directly  practical.  We  must  look  beneath  the  surface  of 
physical  things  to  find  a  reason  why  music  is  so  vitally  needed 
in  education  and  to  see  how  our  spiritual  and  emotional  life 
is  affected  by  the  changed  conditions. 

"In  preparing  the  children  for  life  in  the  world,  earlier 
educational  systems  had  to  consider  little  more  than  the  train- 
ing of  the  mind.  Everything  else  was  provided  for  by  the 
agencies  outside  the  school.  Nowadays,  the  school  is  expected 
to  cover  a  much  wider  field  and  its  problems  are  vastly  more 
complex.  One  problem  in  particular  is  new  to  this  generation 
— the  training  of  the  emotional  nature.  This  is  a  peculiar 
demand,  which  has  been  imposed  upon  us  by  the  rise  of  in- 
dustrialism. To  fit  the  child  for  an  orderly  and  well-conducted 
life,  his  emotional  nature  must  now  receive  a  systematic 
training.  There  is  an  inner  activity  entirely  distinct  from  the 
intellectual  processes  of  the  mind — the  emotional  life.  Modern 


Music  in  the  Elementary  School  21 

conditions  oblige  education  to  take  account  of  the  emotional 
life  and  to  provide  for  its  proper  regulation. 

"We  often  hear  it  said  that  present  conditions  of  life  allow 
little  scope  to  the  emotional  nature.  Everyone  has  his  work  to 
do,  and  that  work  is  of  a  kind  that  makes  unceasing  demands 
on  his  mental  activities.  With  their  minds  held  close  to  their 
daily  tasks,  people  cannot  afford  to  give  free  play  to  their  feel- 
ings. Every  child  that  leaves  our  schools  will  be  called  on  to 
do  his  share  in  the  world's  work.  His  duties  will  be  too  ex- 
acting to  permit  the  indulgence  of  his  emotions. 

"This  is  a  necessary  feature  of  our  industrial  civilization. 
But  it  is  entirely  different  from  former  conditions  of  life. 
Moreover,  our  present  system  of  life  contains  something  ut- 
terly repugnant  to  some  of  our  deepest  and  most  powerful  in- 
stincts. Our  industrial  era  is  beyond  a  doubt  the  greatest  col- 
lective achievement  of  mankind.  The  world  is  better  fed,  bet- 
ter clothed,  and  better  housed  than  ever  before.  Yet  there  is 
something  lacking.  We  have  an  instinctive  longing  for  a  form 
of  inner  activities  which  mankind  enjoyed  in  all  former  ages, 
but  which  is  denied  to  us  now  in  our  working  hours. 

"There  is  no  need  of  defining  in  precise  terms  what  is  meant 
by  this  activity  of  emotional  nature.  We  all  know  the  in- 
ward stirring  that  comes  from  healthful,  happy  activity  of 
any  kind.  A  brisk  walk  on  a  frosty  day  or  a  delightful  sail  on 
a  breezy  lake  normally  gives  us  this  undefinable  sense  of  inner 
well-being.  All  our  interests,  pleasures,  and  enthusiasms  have 
this  accompaniment.  Life  is  warm,  glowing,  and  radiant  when 
our  faculties  are  engaged  in  any  occupation  which,  by  its 
pleasure  or  interest,  makes  a  strong  appeal  to  us.  This  inner 
activity  is  purely  emotional  in  nature.  It  may  be  identified 
with  some  precise  emotional  state,  such  as  love,  joy,  triumph. 
Or,  equally  well,  it  may  be  undefined  in  character,  without  tak- 
ing on  any  precise  color  or  outline.  In  either  case  the  sense  of 
spiritual  expansion  and  well  being  is  very  much  the  same."  2 

This  truth,  expressed  so  clearly  by  Mr.  Taylor,  has  forced 
its  way  in  a  rather  inarticulate  and  subconscious  form  into 
the  community  consciousness  and  into  the  work  of  our  schools. 
Man  is  not  content  to  let  his  emotional  nature  atrophy,  for  he 

2  Taylor:  The  Melodic  Method  in  School  Music.  New  York,  1918,  p. 
3  ff. 


22  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

recognizes  instinctively  that  it  is  immeasurably  more  precious 
than  the  results  of  any  of  his  intellectual  or  constructive 
achievements.  He  experiences  a  shock  at  the  mere  thought  of 
bartering  love  for  money.  But  it  is  not  merely  his  judgment 
that  is  at  stake  as  he  compares  the  values  in  the  emotional  life 
of  his  forbears  with  the  physical  possessions  which  he  now  en- 
joys. The  emotions  continue  to  well  up  in  his  own  breast,  and 
continue  to  demand  room  in  his  life  and  adequate  expression. 
"Under  the  environment  in  which  the  human  instincts  were 
formed,  the  work  by  which  man  wrested  his  living  from 
nature  provided  a  constant  emotional  stimulus.  In  his  hunt- 
ing and  fishing,  in  his  hiding  from  deadly  foes  or  his  stealthy 
attacks  on  them,  primitive  man  experienced  a  never-ceasing 
glow  of  feeling.  This  inner  glow  and  warmth  became  fused 
with  every  activity.  How  different  from  the  cold  mental  and 
mechanical  processes  which  now  make  up  a  day's  work!  Yet 
human  nature  is  exactly  the  same  now  as  it  was  then,  and  the 
instinctive  need  of  emotional  activities  is  just  as  pressing."  3 
In  this  connection  the  Catholic  will  realize  the  Church's 
attitude.  She  has  ever  insisted  that  religion  must  not  be 
allowed  to  cool  into  a  rigid  intellectual  formula.  Her  service 
is  never  permitted  to  shrink  into  a  reasoned  discourse  which 
appeals  merely  to  the  intellect  of  man.  She  realizes  that  re- 
ligion, to  be  of  any  value,  must  be  vital,  and,  if  vital,  it  must 
ever  glow  with  emotion.  Hence,  her  service  from  the  earliest 
days  sought  to  arouse,  to  cultivate  and  to  uplift  the  emotions 
of  her  children.  It  is  for  this  that  she  directed  her  children 
to  dedicate  their  highest  skill  and  their  most  precious  posses- 
sions to  the  building  of  church  edifices  which  would  warm  into 
life  every  noble  emotion  and  feeling  of  the  worshipper.  It  was 
for  this  that  she  developed  her  sacerdotal  vestments,  the  elabo- 
rate drama  of  her  liturgy,  and  above  all,  it  was  for  this  that 
she  established  her  schools  of  chantry  and  made  music  an 
integral  part  of  the  divine  worship  which  she  has  ever  offered 
to  the  Most  High.  The  Catholic  shrinks  from  the  cold,  grey 
walls  of  a  Scottish  kirk,  and  from  the  auditorium  in  which  the 
intellectual  discourses  of  the  Unitarian  masquerade  as  divine 
worship. 

*Ibid.,  6. 


Music  in  the  Elementary  School  23 

But  it  is  not  only  the  Catholic  that  revolts  against  the 
banishing  of  emotion  from  religious  worship.  The  children 
of  the  Keformation  themselves  were  restless  under  this 
deprivation,  and  time  after  time  they  broke  away  from  their 
intellectual  leaders  to  establish  forms  of  religious  service 
which  would  give  some  play  to  their  emotional  life.  Thus 
Protestantism,  having  lost  its  balance  between  the  emotional 
and  the  rational  nature,  has  continued  to  swing  from  extreme 
to  extreme,  until  in  our  day  it  has  lost  most  of  its  vitality  and 
its  power  to  direct  the  lives  of  men  in  the  ways  of  salvation. 

For  two  thousand  years  the  Church  has  drawn  upon  her  re- 
sources to  cultivate  the  emotions  of  her  children  and  to  lead 
them  Sunday  after  Sunday  into  the  highest  forms  of  benefi- 
cent expression.  Nor  does  she  restrain  her  influence  and  con- 
fine it  within  the  Sabbath  Day.  Where  she  is  not  prevented  by 
her  enemies,  her  feasts  and  solemn  processions  are  scattered 
through  the  year  with  a  restrained  profusion  which  marks  the 
seasons  and  consecrates  them  in  the  life  of  the  toiler.  Thrice 
a  day  her  Angelus  awakens  in  their  breasts  tender  emotions 
evoked  by  the  contemplation  of  Mary  in  the  presence  of  the 
angel  who  announced  to  her  the  end  of  the  long  night  of  wait- 
ing and  the  dawn  of  the  wonderful  day  of  redemption.  Thrice 
a  day  she  calls  upon  her  children  to  lift  up  their  eyes  from 
earth,  and  with  hearts  glowing  with  purest  emotion,  to  join 
with  the  angelic  choir  in  homage  to  the  highest  embodiment 
of  purity  and  obedience  as  she  enjoys  the  full  reward  of  a  life 
transfigured  by  emotion. 

The  Catholic,  therefore,  needs  not  to  be  told  that  education 
must  not  be  confined  to  the  practical  and  the  intellectual  sides 
of  life,  but  that  it  must  lay  hold  of  the  emotions  and  culti- 
vate them  and  direct  them  at  every  stage  in  the  child's  develop- 
ment. 

Our  state  schools  are  forced  to  recognize  the  truth  of  this 
position,  while  they  are  denied  the  tremendous  resources  avail- 
able in  the  Catholic  schools.  Mr.  Taylor  confines  his  view  to 
the  state  school,  and  makes  an  honest  endeavor  to  meet  the 
situation.  His  book  should  be  studied  by  all  who  are  in- 
terested in  the  problem.  We  venture  to  add  here  a  further 
quotation  from  it,  as  it  is  as  clear  a  presentation  as  may 
be  found  in  our  current  educational  literature: 


24  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

"What  is  the  world  to  do?  Its  emotional  nature  demands 
an  outlet,  but  its  environment  does  not  afford  this  outlet  in 
its  workaday  activities.  Short  of  changing  the  environment 
or  changing  human  nature — both  downright  impossible — the 
only  thing  to  do  is  to  take  advantage  of  every  opportunity  for 
emotional  activity  afforded  by  life  as  it  is.  That  is  exactly 
what  the  world  tries  to  do,  as  best  it  can.  But  the  situation 
is  so  new  that  the  world  has  not  yet  learned  to  adapt  itself 
perfectly  to  the  change.  One  of  the  pressing  tasks  of  educa- 
tion is  met  here.  It  is  our  duty  to  fit  our  future  citizens  for  the 
environment  in  which  they  will  be  placed.  To  this  end  we  must 
train  them  to  find  a  healthy  outlet  for  the  imperious  demands 
of  their  emotional  natures. 

"These  demands  are  indeed  imperious.  The  emotional  na- 
ture will  not  submit  to  being  entirely  suppressed.  When  it  is 
denied  all  healthful  activity,  it  will  sooner  or  later  break  forth 
violently.  Serious  disorders  of  conduct  are  then  inevitable. 
This  is  one  of  the  great  perils  of  our  exclusively  industrial 
civilization.  Strikes,  violence,  drink,  vice,  disorder  of  every 
kind  are  sure  to  occur  where  people  are  condemned  to  a  life  of 
unrelieved  toil.  What  we  as  educators  are  called  on  to  pro- 
duce is  the  type  of  citizen  who  does  his  day's  work  regularly 
and  steadily  with  no  recurring  interruptions  due  to  outbreaks 
of  rebellious  spirit.  Our  whole  community  life  demands  that 
kind  of  citizenship.  We  cannot  fashion  it  by  a  system  of 
education  which  seeks  to  repress  the  instinctive  need  of  emo- 
tional activity.  On  the  contrary,  we  must  recognize  the  need, 
and  train  our  pupils  to  take  advantage  of  the  means  for  its 
fulfillment  which  our  community  life  now  offers. 

"The  overwhelming  majority  of  people  are  forced  to  find 
their  emotional  outlet  in  the  pleasures  and  occupations  of 
their  leisure  time.  Comparatively  few  of  us  are  so  happily 
placed  that  our  daily  tasks  afford  the  outlet.  The  glow  of 
enthusiasm  is  indeed  felt  by  the  novelist  creating  his  char- 
acters and  plot,  the  inventor  eager  to  perfect  a  valuable  device, 
and  the  lawyer  pleading  his  case.  But  it  is  work  of  an  entirely 
different  kind  to  add  endless  columns  of  figures,  measure 
yards  of  cloth,  or  stick  pieces  of  metal  into  a  machine  one  after 
another.  Work  of  the  latter  kind — drudgery  as  a  means  of 
livelihood — falls  to  the  lot  of  most  people.  Education  must 
provide  the  emotional  outlet  for  the  great  mass  of  workers. 


Music  in  the  Elementary  School  25 

"All  the  amusements  in  which  the  working  world  indulges 
have  been  instinctively  designed  for  the  purpose  of  affording 
emotional  exercise.  Dancing,  the  oldest  amusement  of  a  dis- 
tinctly emotional  type,  owes  its  astounding  present  vogue  to  its 
potency  in  this  direction.  Athletics  and  outdoor  sports  of 
every  kind  allow  modern  man  to  live  over  again  the  emo- 
tional experiences  of  the  hunting  and  fighting  stage.  The 
universal  craze  for  moving  pictures  is  another  evidence  of  the 
popular  hunger  for  something  to  stir  the  feelings.  Social 
divergence,  reading,  the  theatre,  gambling,  card-playing,  poli- 
tics— the  list  could  be  enlarged  indefinitely.  Finally,  the 
most  important  on  the  cultural  side,  art  in  every  form,  derives 
its  value  from  its  direct  and  powerful  emotional  appeal. 

"Consistent  good  conduct  is  impossible  without  a  normally 
regulated  emotional  activity.  Denied  this  in  their  daily  work, 
people  are  obliged  to  find  an  outlet  in  their  enthusiasms  and 
pleasures.  Any  form  of  amusement  is  better  than  complete 
starvation  of  the  emotions.  But  it  would  be  a  great  mistake 
to  believe  that  all  forms  of  enjoyment  are  equally  beneficial. 
Broadly  speaking,  we  may  say  that  all  amusements  and  other 
leisure  occupations  fall  into  two  general  classes.  One  class  is 
upbuilding  and  regulating,  the  other  is  demoralizing  and  de- 
grading. It  is  everywhere  recognized  that  pleasures  which  are 
associated  with  gambling,  rowdyism,  vulgarity,  and  dissipa- 
tion are  a  detriment  to  community  well-being.  Laws  have  been 
passed  in  many  states  against  horse-racing  (or  rather  against 
gambling,  for  which  it  is  conducted),  against  cock-fighting, 
pugilism,  of  the  more  brutal  sort,  and  other  questionable 
amusements.  That  these  things  tend  to  lower  the  moral  tone 
of  those  who  indulge  in  them  is  generally  understood.  An- 
other type  of  demoralizing  amusement  is  seen  in  the  craze  for 
sensationalism,  the  love  of  scandal,  the  feverish  devotion  to 
the  yellow  journals,  the  lewd  jest,  the  low  theatrical  show,  and 
the  lurid  moving  pictures — vulgarity,  in  short,  in  all  its  forms 
and  manifestations.  These  are  all  types  of  indulgence  in  un- 
healthful  emotional  sitmulants.  They  are  all  objectionable 
from  the  point  of  view  of  community  welfare.  Their  effect 
might  be  described  as  emotional  dissipation.  They  afford 
inner  activity,  though  of  a  disturbing  kind.  Unhealthy  and 
unregulated  emotional  activity  always  expresses  itself  in  dis- 
ordered conduct. 


26  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

"Far  different  is  the  effect  of  those  enjoyments  which  afford 
an  exercise  of  the  higher  emotions.  These  are  in  the  best  sense 
a  recreation;  they  daily  create  anew  the  love  of  order,  the 
sense  of  duty,  the  spirit  of  cheerful  application.  Pleasures 
and  leisure  occupations  of  the  desirable  kind  act  as  an  emo- 
tional regulator.  Under  modern  conditions  they  are  essential 
to  good  conduct. 

"It  is  coming  to  be  recognized  that  the  community  has  an 
interest  in  providing  healthful  amusements  for  the  people. 
Parks  and  playgrounds,  public  libraries  and  recreation  cen- 
ters,— all  are  maintained  for  this  purpose.  But  it  not  enough 
to  provide  people  with  the  opportunities  for  beneficial  recrea- 
tion. They  must  also  be  provided  with  the  taste  and  the  ability 
to  enjoy  them."  * 

Non-Catholics  frequently  misunderstand  the  policy  of  the 
Church  in  maintaining  a  celibate  clergy  and  in  encouraging 
celibate  religious  communities  of  men  and  women.  They  seem 
to  take  it  for  granted  that  the  Church  places  her  ban  upon 
the  love  which  leads  to  marriage  and  that  she  denies  to  all  who 
enter  her  ministry  or  her  special  service  any  exercise  of  or  out- 
let for  this  emotion,  and  conclude,  rightly  enough,  that  emo- 
tions which  are  not  given  a  legitimate  outlet  must  inevitably 
find  expression  in  evil  deeds.  The  conclusion  follows  from 
their  premise,  but  their  premise  is  false.  Instead  of  placing 
her  ban  on  the  married  state,  the  Church  consecrates  it  by 
sacramental  grace,  and,  if  she  denies  marriage  to  her  clergy 
and  to  those  who  enter  her  religious  communities,  this  denial 
does  not  spring  from  any  failure  on  her  part  to  appreciate 
the  love  of  husband  for  wife  or  of  wife  for  husband.  Indeed, 
it  is  through  such  love  that  she  seeks  to  make  known  to  man 
the  relationship  which  exists  between  Christ  and  His  Church. 
The  Church  treasures  all  natural  and  normal  human  emotions. 
She  cultivates  them  and,  in  the  case  of  those  whom  she  calls 
to  her  special  service,  she  sublimates  the  deepest  and  strongest 
emotions  of  their  nature  for  the  attainment  of  high  purposes. 
The  love  which  would  have  gone  out  to  wife  and  children  she 
does  not  seek  to  eradicate  or  to  suppress,  but,  on  the  contrary, 
she  develops  it  and  purifies  it  and  utilizes  it  in  full  measure  on 

*ibid.,  T. 


Music  in  the  Elementary  School  37 

the  high  plane  of  love  for  fellow-man,  zeal  for  the  salvation 
of  souls,  and,  finally,  she  lifts  it  up  and  transfigures  it  into  the 
glowing  love  of  God.  That  she  has  not  always  succeeded  to  the 
full  measure  of  her  desire  in  this  great  endeavor  was  to  be  ex- 
pected. But  what  she  has  achieved  through  this  policy  stands 
out  as  the  most  glorious  page  in  the  history  of  mankind. 

The  state  schools  which  may  not  call  upon  the  resources  of 
religion  must,  nevertheless,  do  everything  possible  to  meet  the 
grave  situation  arising  out  of  the  neglected  and  disordered 
emotions  of  the  masses.  They  must  endeavor  to  prevent  the 
serious  disorder  which  at  present  threatens  the  whole  world. 
The  teaching  of  music  is  one  of  the  means  which  these  schools 
are  employing.  That  it  is  inadequate,  however  helpful,  is  the 
conviction  of  many  thoughtful  educators.  Would  the  Church, 
through  the  aid  of  music  alone,  have  been  able  to  correct  the 
disorders  of  Pagan  Home  or  the  lusts  of  Attila  and  his  horde 
of  Huns?  The  teachers  in  our  schools  should  realize  the 
mighty  task  that  they  are  called  upon  to  perform  in  correcting 
and  governing  the  emotional  life  of  the  generation  that  is 
about  to  come  on  the  public  stage,  and  they  must  neglect  no 
means  or  method  that  will  aid  them  in  this  effort.  Music  is 
probably  the  most  effective  means  at  their  disposal.  But  the 
teacher  in  the  Catholic  school,  while  relying  upon  the  teaching 
of  music  to  the  fullest  extent  justified  by  the  teaching  of 
psychology  and  experience,  will  place  her  chief  reliance  upon 
the  teachings  and  the  practices  of  our  holy  religion.  In  so 
doing  she  will  not  neglect  the  cultivation  or  the  sublimation  of 
the  child's  emotional  life. 

Thomas  Edward  Shields. 


VOCATIONAL  PREPAKATION  OF  YOUTH  IN 

CATHOLIC  SCHOOLS* 

An  Outline  of  the  Movement  Toward  Vocational  Education 

in  State  Schools 

In  many  instances  the  school  received  more  than  its  due 
share  of  blame  for  the  inadequate  preparation  of  children  for 
their  life-work.  The  efficiency  of  the  schools  in  the  past  was 
extolled  by  the  modern  critic  and  it  was  frequently  said  that 
they  excelled  because  they  taught  fewer  subjects,  but  taught 
these  more  thoroughly.  This  statement,  though  very  popular, 
was  entirely  gratuitous.  An  examination  that  had  been  held 
in  1846  in  Springfield,  Mass.,  was  again  given  in  1905  to  a 
class  of  the  same  grade  and  age.  On  comparison  of  the  papers 
it  was  found  that  the  result  was  throughout  in  favor  of  the 
class  of  1905.  Even  in  spelling,  for  which  our  grandparents 
have  won  a  reputation,  the  1905  class  showed  10.6  per  cent  in- 
crease of  correct  papers.  The  greatest  increase  of  correct 
papers,  namely  36.1  per  cent,  was  found  in  arithmetic.28  The 
number  of  subjects  that  is  now  being  taught  in  the  schools  is 
greater  than  it  formerly  was,  but  that  these  subjects  were  then 
taught  more  thoroughly  is  an  illusion. 

The  cause  for  the  seemingly  decreased  capabilities  of  the 
child  lies  rather  in  the  rapidly  changing  social  environment  that 
created  many  needs  for  which  no  provision  had  been  made,  and 
deprived  the  child  of  the  means  to  obtain  that  training  through 
useful  activities  hitherto  at  his  command.  Only  fifty  years 
ago  the  typical  American  home  was  the  farm,  not  the  modern 
farm  with  all  its  improved  machinery  and  labor-saving  con- 
trivances, but  the  farm  which  was  the  great  natural  laboratory, 
the  small  cooperative  factory.29     The  great  object  lessons  of 


*  A  dissertation,  by  Sister  Mary  Jeanette,  O.S.B.  M.  A.,  St.  Joseph, 
Minnesota,  submitted  to  the  Catholic  Sisters  College  of  the  Catholic 
University  of  America,  in  Partial  Fulfillment  of  the  Requirements  for 
the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Philosophy. 

28  Gregory,  B.  C,  Better  Schools.    New  York,  1912,  p.  113. 

**  Partridge,  G.  E.,  Genetic  Philosophy  of  Education.  New  York,  1912, 
p.  115;  also  Salisbury,  Albert,  "Influence  of  Industrial  Arts  and  Sci- 
ences," Proc.  N*  E.  A.,  1909,  p.  640. 

28 


Vocational  Preparation  of  Youth  29 

home  manufacture  were  daily  presented  to  the  child,  even  from 
his  earliest  years.  He  was  familiar  with  all  the  details  of  the 
process  necessary  to  provide  the  garments  he  wore,  the  food 
he  ate,  the  furniture  in  the  home,  and  the  implements  used  on 
the  fields  and  meadows.  According  to  his  age  and  ability  he 
did  his  share  to  carry  on  the  industries  necessary  for  the  com- 
fort of  the  family.  This  trained  him  to  usefulness  without  de- 
stroying his  play  spirit,  and  was  exceedingly  valuable  in  call- 
ing forth  his  ingenuity  and  skill.  He  saw  and  learned  every 
detail  of  the  work,  which  enabled  him  to  see  each  part  in  its 
relation  to  the  whole.  The  lack  of  this  opportunity  makes  it- 
self keenly  felt  in  the  manufacture  of  articles  under  present 
conditions  where  each  laborer  knows  practically  nothing  of  the 
work  performed  by  others  towards  the  completion  of  the  pro- 
duct at  which  he  works. 

The  change  from  these  former  conditions  was  rapid  and 
radical.  The  average  home  of  the  present  day  offers  no  oppor- 
tunity for  the  child  to  exercise  his  constructive  abilities.  Even 
the  country  home  is  very  different  now  because  machinery  is 
employed  to  do  most  of  the  work  formerly  done  by  hand.  Cloth- 
ing, food,  furniture,  and  farm  implements  are  no  longer  made 
at  home  by  the  farmer;  they  are  now  procured  from  the  fac- 
tories where  thousands  of  hands  are  employed  that  would  have 
tilled  the  soil  under  former  conditions.  The  rise  of  industries 
in  cities  and  towns  drew  large  numbers  from  the  country ;  living 
conditions  were  altered  so  rapidly  that  the  people  scarcely  real- 
ized how  such  a  sudden  change  would  affect  the  growing  youth. 
As  long  as  the  education  received  in  the  school  had  been  supple- 
mented by  the  industrial  training  of  the  home  it  had  been 
sufficient  to  enable  the  young  man  to  undertake  and  carry  on 
successfully  whatever  work  he  desired;  the  ambitious  youth 
was  prepared  to  enter  any  career  he  chose. 

But  the  change  that  came  was  as  thorough  as  it  was  rapid. 
The  division  of  labor  and  the  specialized  forms  of  industry 
which  were  necessitated  by  the  growth  of  manufacture,  made 
adequate  preparation  for  a  definite  occupation  essential  to  suc- 
cess. It  was  often  difficult  to  obtain  such  preparation;  espe- 
cially the  work  done  in  the  schools  seemed  so  far  remote  from 
the  future  work  of  the  child  that  he  saw  no  connection  between 
the  two.    The  usual  result  was  complete  loss  of  interest  in  the 


30  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

school  and  an  intense  longing  to  be  released  from  its  unwelcome 
restraint. 

It  was  clear  that  the  school  system  was  seriously  defective 
and  unable  to  meet  the  demands ;  but  how  to  remedy  the  defect 
was  a  difficult  problem.  It  was  necessary  to  bring  about  a  re- 
adjustment of  the  curriculum,  but  opinions  differ  widely  as  to 
the  manner  in  which  this  was  to  be  accomplished.  Until  re- 
cently, the  control  of  this  movement  had  been  in  the  hands  of 
educational  authorities,  and  for  this  reason  academic  interests 
prevailed.  Opposed  to  these  were  the  over-practical  enthusi- 
asts, who,  not  satisfied  with  the  gradual  transformation  of  our 
present  institution  wished  to  discard  everything  that  had  no 
immediate  industrial  utility.30 

While  the  kind  of  training  that  should  be  given  is  very  much 
disputed,  and  in  all  probability  will  continue  a  subject  of  de- 
bate for  some  time  to  come,  it  is  generally  admitted  that  the 
time  of  training  should  be  extended.  Children  who  leave  school 
at  the  early  age  of  fourteen,  and  this  class  is  very  numerous, 
find  themselves  barred  from  any  but  the  unskilled  occupations ; 
and  this,  as  has  been  indicated,  gives  rise  to  the  formation  of 
undesirable  habits  that  are  likely  to  prevent  later  progress. 
The  democratic  ideal  of  education  will  never  be  realized  until 
each  child  has  the  opportunity  to  complete  the  preparation  for 
his  career,  be  that  of  an  industrial  or  professional  nature.31 
Although  there  has  been  great  progress  in  this  direction  within 
the  last  decade,  the  realization  of  this  ideal  still  seems  very 
remote.  The  manual  training  that  had  been  introduced  into 
the  schools  was  found  to  be  deficient  since  this  training  did 
not  actually  function  in  the  specific  work  later  undertaken 
by  the  student  unless  the  occupation  in  which  he  was  engaged 
happened  to  be  in  that  line  in  which  he  had  received  instruc- 
tion.32 

Manual  training  schools  were  followed  by  the  evening  voca- 
tional schools,  whose  aim  was  to  supply  the  related  technical 
instruction,  while  the  practical  training  was  acquired  during 
the  actual  work  of  the  day.  Many  adults  seized  this  oppor- 
tunity for  self-improvement,  and  this  demonstrates  the  utility 


•o  Weeks,  Ruth  M.,  The  People's  School,  Boston,  1912,  p.  95. 
,l  Dewey,  John,  Democracy  and  Education.  New  York,  1916,  p.  114. 
•*  Bulletin,  1916-  No.  21,  Vocational  Secondary  Education,  Washing- 
ton, D.  CL.  p.  11. 


Vocational  Preparation  of  Youth  81 

of  these  schools.  While  adults  received  great  benefit  from  these 
evening  schools,  their  advantages  for  children  were  offset  by 
grave  disadvantages.  The  fatigue  caused  by  the  day's  labor 
was  augmented  by  night  study  and  the  result  was  a  serious 
strain  upon  the  constitution,  and  detriment  to  the  physical 
development  of  the  child.  Children  usually  attended  such 
schools  only  when  compelled  by  parents  or  employers.  The 
quality  of  work  done  by  a  tired,  unwilling  child  is  necessarily 
poor  and  the  efforts  of  both  teacher  and  pupil  are  crowned  with 
but  meager  success. 

But  these  evening  schools  are  the  only  possible  means  of 
progress  for  the  more  mature  workers,  who  either  did  not  have 
the  advantages  of  an  industrial  education  in  their  youth,  or  who 
neglected  the  opportunity  they  then  had.  To  this  class  the 
evening  school  is  the  only  hope  of  advancement,  and  adults 
have  learned  to  realize  its  practical  value  since  they  suffered 
from  their  want  of  preparation.  Lack  of  provision  for  the 
industrial  education  of  children  in  the  past  has  created  the 
need  of  evening  schools,  and  this  need  will  continue  to  exist 
until  they  are  replaced  by  day-continuation  schools  or  part- 
time  schools  and  all-day  industrial  schools.33  These  give 
greater  satisfaction  than  the  evening  school.  The  part-time 
schools  and  the  day  vocational  schools  resemble  each  other  in 
many  ways  but  differ  essentially  in  this  respect :  in  the  former 
the  pupils  go  from  the  school  to  the  employing  establishment 
to  obtain  practical  experience,  whereas  in  the  latter  the  pupils 
go  from  the  employing  establishment  to  the  school  so  as  to 
secure  supplemental  training.3* 

Technical  schools  no  longer  confine  themselves  to  instruc- 
tion in  the  theoretical  phases  of  the  various  professions.  Origi- 
nally these  were  intended  to  supplement  apprenticeship  as  a 
means  of  vocational  training,  but  in  our  time  there  is  need  of 
supplanting,  rather  than  supplementing,  apprenticeship.  There- 
fore many  technical  schools  have  introduced  work  to  give  the 
necessary  practical  experience.35 

The  National  Educational  Association  has  concerned  itself 
for  many  years  with  the  problem  of  industrial  training,  and  has 
appointed  a  committee  on  Vocational  Education.     This  com- 

"Ibid.,  pp.  94-95. 
"Ibid.,  p.  62. 
"Ibid.,  p.  65. 


32  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

mittee  attempted  a  classification  of  the  various  vocational 
schools,  excluding  those  of  college  grade.  These  schools  were 
classified  under  five  distinct  types,  each  type  having  a  number 
of  subdivisions.  For  example,  the  Agricultural  schools  have 
the  following  divisions:  (1)  Vocational  agricultural  day 
schools;  (2)  Part-time  agricultural  schools ;  (3)  Practical  arts 
agricultural  schools,  and  (4)  Farm  extension  schools.  The 
Commercial,  the  Industrial,  and  the  Homemaking  schools  each 
have  similar  divisions.  It  was  found  that  in  the  United  States, 
in  1916,  there  were  in  operation  92  agricultural  schools,  224 
commercial  schools,  446  industrial  schools,  423  homemaking 
schools,  and  24  technical  schools.36  This  enumeration  excludes 
all  private  and  semi-private  institutions  and  all  others  not 
classed  under  secondary  schools.  Nor  does  this  committee  claim 
the  above  to  be  a  complete  record  of  all  the  vocational  schools 
under  the  control  of  the  state  school  system,  since  various  causes 
tended  to  lessen  the  number  of  schools  actually  in  existence, 
and  new  schools  are  continually  being  established.  The  data 
are  sufficient,  however,  to  indicate  the  importance  of  the  move- 
ment and  the  interest  exhibited  in  its  regard  throughout  the 
country.  For  previous  to  the  twentieth  century  practically 
nothing  had  been  done  in  this  field  and  even  until  1905,  the 
measures  that  had  been  taken,  since  they  were  not  of  a  practical 
nature,  were  not  likely  to  produce  the  desired  results.87 

The  efforts  of  the  state  schools  are  reinforced  by  many  private 
and  semi-private  establishments.  The  Young  Men's  Christian 
Association  has  a  large;  number  of  agencies  for  industrial, 
scientific,  technical,  and  trade  instruction  in  the  form  of  asso- 
ciations. In  1910  there  were  180  of  these  extending  help  to 
many  workers,  either  by  preparing  them  to  enter  trades,  or 
by  giving  the  desired  instruction  to  those  already  engaged 
in  the  trades.  The  number  of  philanthropic  schools  plus  the 
apprenticeship  schools  may  be  considered  as  equal  to  the  num- 
ber .of  schools  conducted  by  the  state.38 

An  Outline  of  the  Vocational  Guidance  Movement 

A  great  deal  of  discontent  and  suffering  is  caused  by  the 
fact  that  many  people  are  engaged  in  the  kind  of  work  which 


"  Ibid.,  pp.  21-22. 
"  Ibid.,  p.  11. 

'•  Twenty'fifth  Annual  Report  of  the  Commission  of  Labor,  1910,  pp. 
544-583. 


Vocational  Preparation  of  Youth  33 

does  not  appeal  to  them.  While  necessity  may  keep  such  indi- 
viduals from  seeking  other  and  more  congenial  employment, 
the  motive  which  prompted  them  to  undertake  the  repulsive 
occupation  will  not  restrain  their  ill-will  nor  prevent  them 
from  evading  or  slighting  their  duties.39  For  this  reason  many 
educators  and  social  workers  are  convinced  that  vocational 
guidance  is  of  greater  importance  than  vocational  training. 
The  object  of  vocational  guidance  is  not  to  help  the  child  to 
find  work,  nor  to  prescribe  an  occupation  for  him ;  but  rather 
to  direct  the  child  to  such  work  as  he  seems  best  fitted  to  do 
both  by  nature  and  training.40 

In  1909  a  Vocation  Bureau  was  established  in  Boston  for  the 
public  high  school  students.  The  express  aims  of  this  bureau 
were:  1.  To  secure  thoughtful  consideration,  on  the  part  of 
parents,  pupils  and  teachers,  of  the  importance  of  a  life  career 
motive.  2.  To  assist  in  every  possible  way  in  placing  pupils 
in  some  remunerative  work  when  leaving  school.  3.  To  keep 
in  touch  with  them  thereafter,  suggesting  means  of  improve- 
ment and  watching  the  advancement  of  those  who  need  such 
aid.41 

The  vocational  guidance  movement,  like  the  general  move- 
ment for  vocational  education,  has  its  origin  in  the  solicitude 
for  the  large  number  of  children  who  leave  school  with  very 
little  training  and  who  consequently  face  a  market  for  un- 
skilled labor  only.  There  are  other  associations  that  work 
along  similar  lines  and  that  have  achieved  notable  results. 
Prominent  among  these  are  the  Trade  Extension  League,  the 
Y.  M.  C.  A.,  the  University  Extension  Course  and  Church  Ex- 
tension Committees.  Many  schools  invite  to  their  commence- 
ment exercises  lecturers  who  aim  to  direct  the  attention  of 
the  pupils  and  especially  of  the  graduates,  to  the  question  of 
choosing  and  preparing  for  an  occupation.42  There  has  been 
rapid  progress  in  the  vocational  guidance  movement  and  a  de- 
cided change  in  its  method.  "Not  so  long  ago  it  meant  finding 
a  job  for  the  individual  in  a  certain  industry."  Now  it  is 
"transformed  largely  into  an  effort  to  keep  boys  and  girls  out 
of  the  industries,  by  convincing  them  and  their  parents  of  the 


*•  Dewey,  John,  Democracy  and  Education,  p.  370. 
40  Bloomfield,  Meyer,  Vocational  Guidance — Introduction  xiii. 
"Ibid.,  chap.  3,  pp.  32-33. 

°Cooley,  Edwin  G.,  Vocational  Education  in  Europe,  Chicago,  1912, 
pp.  101-104. 


34  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

value  of  further  schooling,  at  least  until  there  is  available  a 
fund  of  more  definite  knowledge  of  the  industries  into  which 
it  is  proposed  to  send  children."43  Even  in  the  brief  period 
of  six  years  much  valuable  information  has  been  gained  in  the 
department  of  educational  endeavor.  It  is  evident  that  no 
one  can  properly  select  an  occupation  for  the  child,  but  he  may 
be  assisted  materially  by  the  counsellor  who  can  point  out  the 
advantages  and  disadvantages  of  each  occupation,  who  knows 
the  requirements  of  the  trade,  and  has  some  ability  to  judge 
whether  or  not  the  child  is  prepared  to  fill  the  position,  or  to 
advise  means  of  acquiring  the  necessary  preparation.  "We 
must  plan  how  we  may  prevent  from  lapsing  to  unskilled  labor 
the  half-educated  boys  who  leave  school  at  about  fourteen,  many 
with  vocational  tendencies  but  without  sufficient  intellectual 
interests  to  carry  them  on  further  than  the  point  at  which  the 
school  has  left  them."44  Meyer  Bloomfield  expresses  the  same 
view  from  a  commercial  standpoint:  "Authorities  should  be 
empowered  to  deal  with  abuse  and  misapplication  of  the  ex- 
pensively trained  product."45 

While  this  movement  is  still  in  its  early  stage  of  development 
it  would  be  unwise  to  expect  of  it  more  than  monitory  voca- 
tional guidance.  Both  the  child  and  his  parents  are  to  be  led 
to  consider  the  matter,  the  child's  taste  and  abilities  are  to  be 
studied,  information  regarding  occupations  is  to  be  extended, 
and  means  for  acquiring  the  proper  training  should  be  indi- 
cated to  the  child.  A  very  important  service  can  be  rendered 
to  him  by  directing  his  attention  to  the  problem  of  choosing  a 
life-work  and  to  the  data  that  have  any  bearing  on  its  solu- 
tion.46 

One  of  the  most  important  considerations  that  should  prompt 
the  choice  of  an  occupation  has  been  almost  totally  ignored  by 
the  average  child.  A  study  of  boys  and  girls  of  the  upper 
grammar  grades,  made  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  their 
choice  of  vocation  and  the  reason  for  that  choice,  showed  that 
they  were  usually  influenced  by  personal  preference  or  general 


**  Bowden,  "Wm.  T.,  "Progress  in  Vocational  Education,"  Education 
Report,  1913,  Vol.  i,  p.  256. 

44  Partridge,  G.  E.,  Genetic  Philosophy  of  Education,  p.  139. 

45  Bloomfield,  Meyer,  Vocational  Education,  p.  23. 

44  Bowden,  Wm.  T.,  Progress  in  Vocational  Education,  1915,  Vol.  i, 
p.  264. 


Vocational  Preparation  of  Youth  35 

liking  for  a  given  occupation.  Less  frequently  the  wish  of 
parents,  or  the  desire  to  help  the  parentg  determined  their 
choice.  Barely  was  aptitude  for  work  mentioned  as  a  reason 
for  selecting  a  certain  vocation,  and  where  this  was  the  case 
some  work  had  already  been  done  in  the  regular  course.47  Yet 
aptitude  for  work  is  necessary  to  insure  efficiency  and  joy  in 
work,  to  stimulate  further  endeavor  in  a  successful  career. 

It  is  difficult  to  determine  for  what  kind  of  work  the  child 
may  have  aptitude  unless  observation  can  be  made  upon  work 
that  has  been  undertaken.  Gillette  advocates  that  a  large 
part  of  the  information  that  is  given  in  the  school  should  be 
made  to  bear  on  the  future  calling.48  The  variety  of  occupa- 
tions into  which  the  children  may  enter  makes  this  suggestion 
scarcely  applicable  to  any  schools  but  such  as  are  in  a  locality 
where  but  very  few  pursuits  are  offered.  And  even  then  it  is 
doubtful  whether  it  is  wise  to  ignore  the  many  other  occupa- 
tions that  the  child  may  choose  from  a  wider  field.49  A  fair 
means  of  judging  the  aptitude  of  children  is  by  the  interest  they 
exhibit  in  certain  lines  of  work.  Therefore  one  phase  of  the 
vocational  guidance  movement  is  to  supply  material  that  is 
calculated  to  arouse  interest.  For  this  purpose  the  Vocation 
Bureau  of  Boston  issues  a  number  of  bulletins  treating  of  all 
the  phases  of  those  occupations  which  are  most  likely  to  be 
chosen.50  These  are  distributed  freely  among  the  children 
who  are  encouraged  to  read  them;  biographies  are  recom- 
mended as  an  incentive  to  the  ambition  of  youth;  magazines 
that  treat  of  vocational  education  and  manual  training  are 
found  useful  aids  in  stimulating  the  child's  mind  in  regard  to 
his  future  work.  Excursions  to  shops  and  factories  of  the 
neighborhood,  debates  and  discussions  concerning  the  advan- 
tages and  disadvantages  of  various  occupations  are  suggested 
as  a  means  of  arousing  interest  and  as  an  aid  to  select  an  agree- 
able career.  Questionnaires  concerning  the  pupil's  ambitions, 
abilities,  interests,  and  characteristics,  when  answered  by  the 
pupil,  even  if  he  is  not  conscious  of  the  reason  for  which  they 


■  Goldwasser,  I.  E.,  "Shall  Elective  Courses  Be  Established?"  The 
Psychological  Clinic,  Vol.  7,  June,  1914,  p.  214. 

**  Gillette,  John  M.,  Vocational  Education,  p.  247. 

*•  Ayres,  L.  P.,  "Studies  in  Occupations,"  Vocational  Guidance,  1914, 
No.  14,  p.  30. 

80  Twenty-fifth  Annual  Report  of  the  Commission  of  Labor,  1910, 
p.  426. 


36  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

were  asked,  serve  as  a  guide  to  the  vocation  counsellor  and  en- 
able him  to  suggest  a  general  type  of  vocation  with  a  fair  de- 
gree of  accuracy.51 

To  be  successful  the  vocational  guidance  movement  must 
have  the  cooperation  of  parents,  social  workers,  teachers  and 
employers.  If  these  work  in  harmony  and  disinterestedly,  the 
best  possible  chance  can  be  offered  to  the  children  in  whom 
their  interest  is  centered.  It  will  require  time  and  patient  dis- 
cussion to  secure  a  consensus  of  opinion  and  to  work  out  a  pro- 
gram that  will  receive  general  assent,  since  there  are  many 
views,  each  representing  elements  of  value.52  On  this  question 
L.  P.  Ayres  says :  "If  we  are  to  engage  in  vocational  guidance 
our  first  and  greatest  need  is  a  basis  of  fact  for  our  own  guid- 
ance. The  kind  of  vocational  guidance  that  many  of  our  child- 
ren need  is  the  kind  that  will  guide  them  to  stay  in  school  a  few 
years  longer,  and  the  kind  of  vocational  guidance  that  our 
schools  most  need  is  the  kind  that  will  carry  the  children  for- 
ward through  the  grades  further  and  faster."53 

The  work  of  the  vocation  counsellor  is  delicate  and  difficult, 
since  it  calls  for  exceptional  qualities  of  intelligence.  The 
Women's  Educational  and  Industrial  Union,  Boston,  has  pro- 
vided a  year's  program  for  those  who  are  preparing  themselves 
for  work  in  this  field.  The  course  is  offered  especially  to  college 
graduates  and  experienced  teachers,  and  includes  research  as  to 
industrial  opportunities,  economics,  statistics,  observation  and 
practice.54  One  who  undertakes  to  guide  children  in  their 
choice  of  vocation  is  expected  to  have  certain  qualifications. 
According  to  the  opinion  of  Frederick  Bonsor,  the  first  of  these 
is  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  vocational  world,  especially  of 
the  industries  of  that  locality  in  which  the  children  will  most 
probably  spend  their  lives.  This  knowledge  of  the  vocational 
world  should  be  supplemented  by  intimate  knowledge  of  the 
people  and  their  needs.  To  be  successful  the  vocation  coun- 
sellor must  have  the  confidence  of  children,  parents  and  em- 
ployers.   He  must  have  their  cooperation  which  he  can  obtain 


n  Ibid.,  p.  411. 

,J  Mead,  Geo.   H.,   The  Larger  Educational   Bearings   of   Vocational 
Education,  Bulletin  No.  14,  1914,  p.  22. 

"Ayres,  L.  P.,  Studies  in  Occupations,  Bulletin  No.  14,  1914,  p.  30. 
"Arnold,  S.  L.,  Vocation  Guidance,  Bulletin  No.  14,  1914,  p.  90. 


Vocational  Preparation  op  Youth  37 

only  by  being  in  sympathy  with  them;  and  he  will  gain  their 
confidence  only  when  they  know  that  he  is  familiar  with  the 
conditions  of  the  laborers.  The  second  qualification  is  ex- 
perience along  these,  or  similar  lines.  It  is  for  this  reason 
that  teachers  and  others  who  have  previously  directed  the 
young  are  preferred  for  this  work.  Besides  a  knowledge  of  the 
child,  the  counsellor  must  have  a  knowledge  of  the  living  con- 
ditions and  congestion  of  population,  of  child  labor  and  fac- 
tory laws.  Then,  thirdly,  the  personality  of  the  vocation  coun- 
sellor is  important.  A  great  deal  of  tact  is  required  of  a  person 
who  undertakes  a  work  in  which  he  must  deal  with  such  a 
variety  of  characters,  youths  and  adults,  children  and  parents, 
teachers  and  employers.  He  must  be  able  to  meet  occasions 
with  promptness  and  decision,  yet  with  tact  and  human  sym- 
pathy. As  a  fourth  qualification  he  should  have  a  capacity  for 
constructive  research.  Conditions  are  unceasingly  changing, 
and  unless  the  vocation  counsellor  is  able  to  follow  the  altera- 
tions in  his  environment  and  knows  how  to  draw  knowledge 
from  these  changes  which  will  serve  to  guide  him  in  his  future 
work,  the  aim  of  vocational  guidance  will  not  be  realized. 
While  the  whole  process  is  still  in  its  initial  stage,  this  last 
qualification  is  especially  necessary.55 

Teachers  are  expected  to  help  in  making  the  work  of  the 
vocation  bureau  more  efficient  by  giving  to  the  counsellor  the 
benefit  of  their  experience.  They  are  urged  to  stimulate  in 
their  pupils  the  consideration  of  their  future  career,  to  supply 
them  with  the  proper  material  for  reading,  and  to  ascertain 
by  direct  inquiry  and  indirectly  by  means  of  their  work  in 
composition,  their  tastes  and  aptitudes.  "The  ideal  plan  of 
articulating  the  several  elements  which  have  been  treated 
would  be  to  group  and  fuse  all  the  various  factors  about  the 
thought  of  vocation  which  would  serve  as  center  or  core  of  the 
school  program."56 

Some  writers  advocate  early  information  on  matters  per- 
taining to  vocation  but  others  see  in  this  a  serious  danger  for 
the    growing    child,    for    as    early    specialization    effectually 


"Bonsor,  F.  G.,  "Necessity  of  Professional  Training  for  Vocation 
Counseling,"  Vocational  Guidance,  Bulletin  No.  14,  1914,  p.  37;  also 
Bowden,  Wm.  T.,  Education  Report,  1915,  pp.  264-265. 

86  Gillette,  John  M.,  Vocational  Education,  p.  247. 


38  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

hinders  the  discovery  of  personal  aptitudes  and  the  develop- 
ment of  latent  powers  in  the  child,  so  all  that  tends  to  early 
specialization  is  undesirable.  Besides  it  is  a  serious  mistake 
to  train  individuals  for  efficiency  in  a  definite  line  of  work,  since 
especially  at  the  present  time  there  are  abrupt  and  sudden 
changes  in  the  industries,  as  new  ones  arise  and  old  ones  are 
revolutionized.57  Overspecialization  is  the  cause  of  unemploy- 
ment and  of  inability  to  meet  changed  conditions;  this  may 
become  just  as  deterimental  to  the  individual  and  society  as 
the  lack  of  any  development  of  skill.  The  failure  of  Oriental 
education,  which  had  such  a  fair  beginning  in  the  control  of 
nature,  was  caused  by  the  effort  to  suppress  the  individual, 
hampering  his  development,  and  making  progress  practically 
impossible.68  A  similar  condition  would  be  brought  about  by 
too  early  specialization,  therefore  the  earlier  preparation  for 
vocation  must  be  indirect,  rather  than  direct,  or  it  will  defeat 
its  own  purpose. 

Though  at  the  present  time  there  is  no  unanimity  on  this 
question,  the  majority  who  have  devoted  their  time  and  energy 
to  a  study  of  the  situation  recommend  a  broad  and  liberal  edu- 
cation up  to  the  age  of  fourteen  in  order  to  insure  general 
vocational  development.  Nevertheless  it  is  urged  that  the 
curriculum  provide  for  vocational  enlightenment  before  this 
age  is  reached.  Manual  training  is  considered  to  be  sufficient 
to  lay  the  foundation  of  trade  dexterity  and  trade  intelligence, 
because  basic  skill,  whether  mental  or  motor,  is  acquired  early 
in  life.59  Just  how  to  keep  the  proper  balance  between  the  in- 
formal and  the  formal,  the  incidental  and  the  intentional, 
modes  of  education  is  one  of  the  weightiest  problems  with 
which  the  philosophy  of  education  has  to  cope.60 

John  Dewey  says  that  "To  find  out  what  one  is  fitted  to  do 
and  to  secure  an  opportunity  to  do  it  is  the  key  to  happiness. 
Nothing  is  more  tragic  than  failure  to  discover  one's  true  busi- 
ness in  life,  or  to  find  that  one  has  drifted  or  been  forced 
by  circumstances  into  an  uncongenial  calling."  Since  in  his 
opinion  "it  is  the  business  of  education  to  discover  what  each 


•7  Dewey,  John,  Democracy  and  Education.  New  York,  1916,  p.  135. 
•»  Graves,  F.  P.,  History  of  Education.  New  York,  1909,  p.  108. 
"  Weeks,  Ruth  M.,  The  People's  School.  Boston,  1912,  p.  173. 
•°  Dewey,  John,  Democracy  and  Education,  p.  10. 


Vocational  Preparation  of  Youth  39 

person  is  good  for,  ^ind  to  train  him  to  mastery  of  that  mode 
of  excellence,  because  such  development  would  also  secure 
the  fulfillment  of  social  needs  in  the  most  harmonious  way,"61 
the  task  devolving  upon  the  school  is  no  light  one.  A  read- 
justment of  the  present  curriculum  is  imperative  in  order  to 
meet  the  situation.  Whether  the  present  school  system  may 
be  readjusted  by  a  gradual  transformation  preserving  the  in- 
formational, the  cultural,  and  the  disciplinary  features  which 
they  now  possess,  or  whether  a  sudden  and  complete  readjust- 
ment should  be  made,  is  at  the  present  time  an  undecided, 
though  much  debated,  question.62 

(To  be  continued) 


"  Ibid.,  p.  360. 

•a  Gillette,  John  M.,  Vocational  Education,  p.  13;   also  Dewey,  John, 
Democracy  and  Education,  p.  368. 


SELF-DETERMINATION  FOR  IRELAND 

November  30,  1918. 
The  Honorable  Woodrow  Wilson, 
President  of  the  United  States. 
Your  Excellency: 

You  are  about  to  depart  for  Europe,  to  be  at  the  Peace 
Conference  what  you  were  during  the  trying  days  of  war — the 
spokesman  and  the  interpreter  of  the  lovers  of  liberty  in  every 
land.  The  burden  now  rests  upon  you  of  giving  practical  ap- 
plication to  the  principles  of  justice  and  fair  dealing  among 
nations  which,  as  expounded  in  your  many  noble  utterances, 
have  made  our  country  more  than  ever  in  its  history  the  symbol 
of  hope  to  all  oppressed  nations.  Wherefore,  we,  the  Rector 
and  Faculties  of  the  Catholic  University  of  America,  take  this 
opportunity  to  address  you  and  to  ask  respectfully  that  in  this 
historic  gathering  you  be  the  spokesman  for  the  immemorial 
national  rights  of  Ireland.  Your  influence  will  certainly  go 
far  toward  a  final  acknowledgment  of  the  rightful  claims  of 
Ireland  to  that  place  among  the  nations  of  the  earth  from 
which  she  has  so  long  and  so  unjustly  been  excluded.  We  are 
convinced  that  any  settlement  of  the  great  political  issues  now 
involved  which  does  not  satisfy  the  national  claims  of  Ireland 
will  not  be  conducive  to  a  secure  and  lasting  peace.  You  have 
said,  "No  peace  can  last,  or  ought  to  last,  which  does  not 
recognize  and  accept  the  principle  that  governments  derive 
all  their  just  powers  from  the  consent  of  the  governed."  Dis- 
regard of  the  rights  of  small  nations  has  aroused  a  spirit  of 
righteous  indignation  which  can  never  be  appeased  as  long  as 
any  nation  holds  another  in  subjection.  Subjection  and 
democracy  are  incompatible.  In  the  new  order,  "national 
aspirations  must  be  respected ;  peoples  may  now  be  dominated 
and  governed  only  by  their  own  consent.  'Self-determination' 
is  not  a  mere  phrase." 

In  keeping  with  these  words  of  truth,  we  hold  that  the  right 
of   Ireland  to  'self-determination'  is   immeasurably  stronger 
than  that  of  any  nation  for  which  you  have  become  the  ad- 
40 


Self-determination  for  Ireland  41 

vocate.  Moreover,  Ireland's  claims  are  a  hundredfold  re- 
enforced  by  her  centuries  of  brave,  though  unavailing,  struggle 
against  foreign  domination,  tyranny  and  autocracy.  The  man- 
ner in  which  the  national  rights  of  Ireland  will  be  handled  at 
the  Peace  Conference  is  a  matter  of  deep  concern  to  many  mil- 
lions of  people  throughout  the  world,  and  it  is  no  exaggeration 
to  say  that  the  purpose  of  the  United  States  in  entering  the 
war,  namely,  to  secure  a  world-wide  and  lasting  peace,  will 
surely  be  nullified  if  a  large  and  influential  body  of  protest 
remains  everywhere  as  a  potent  source  of  national  friction  and 
animosity. 

That  such  unhappy  feelings  may  not  remain  to  hinder  and 
embitter  the  work  of  the  world's  political,  social,  and  economic 
reconstruction,  we  ask  you  to  use  your  great  influence  at  the 
Peace  Conference  to  the  end  that  the  people  of  Ireland  be  per- 
mitted to  determine  for  themselves  through  a  free  and  fair 
plebiscite  the  form  of  government  under  which  they  wish  to 
live. 

With  most  cordial  sentiments  of  respect  and  esteem,  I 
remain, 

Very  sincerely  yours, 

(Et.  Eev.)  Thomas  J.  Shah  an, 
Rector  of  the  Catholic  University  of  America. 


THE  TEACHER  OF  ENGLISH 

COMMENTS  ON  DR.  ELIOT^S  ADDRESS  IN  CARNEGIE  HALL,  NEW  YORK 

In  the  December  number  of  the  Review  we  reprinted  ex- 
tracts from  an  address  on  "Defects  in  American  Education 
Revealed  by  the  War,"  given  by  Dr.  Charles  W.  Eliot,  Presi- 
dent Emeritus  of  Harvard,  in  Carnegie  Hall,  New  York  City, 
November  24,  1918.  This  address  was  given  in  full  in  the 
New  York  Times  of  Sunday,  November  25. 

Some  of  the  teachers  in  the  field  have  already  joined  issue 
with  Dr.  Eliot,  and  letters  from  two  of  them  reached  the 
Review  in  time  for  inclusion  in  this  number.  Other  letters 
will  be  printed  next  month.  As  was  to  be  expected,  Dr.  Eliot's 
pronounced  and  energetically  proposed  opinions  met  with 
equally  vigorous  and  determined  replies.  The  first  letter  is 
from  a  critic  from  the  West,  who  lives  in  a  state  and  com- 
munity where  not  so  many  years  ago  alien  tongues  actually 
dominated  the  rightful  English  speech  of  the  country: 

The  war  has  brought  to  a  sharp  issue  in  a  few  months  what 
years  of  individual  effort  in  peace  time  have  failed  to  impress 
on  the  national  mind.  It  is  true,  as  Dr.  Eliot  correctly  quotes 
from  the  mobilization  statistics,  that  7.7  per  cent  of  our 
drafted  men  were  illiterate,  and  that  a  distressingly  large 
number  of  them  had  to  be  taught  the  rudiments  of  English  be- 
fore they  could  receive  and  execute  military  commands.  This 
is  a  disgraceful  state  of  affairs  and  must  be  corrected  as  soon 
as  possible. 

I  question  seriously,  though,  the  effectiveness  of  the  remedies 
which  Dr.  Eliot  proposes.  A  mere  money  gratuity  to  each 
pupil  of  alien  birth  on  finishing  a  specified  course  in  the 
English  language  would  not  be  more  than  scratching  the  sur- 
face of  the  problem,  to  say  nothing  of  the  vicious  emphasis  it 
places  on  the  least  worthy  of  the  motives  for  learning  the 
language. 

The  first  step  to  successful  results,  I  think,  must  be  a  gen- 
eral awakening  of  public  opinion,  brought  about  by  a  syste- 
matic campaign  in  schools,  churches,  and  societies,  to  the 
prime  importance  and  necessity  of  every  man,  woman  and  child 
having  a  working  knowledge  of  the  English  language  which 
will  enable  them  to  speak,  read  and  write  English  intelli- 
42 


The  Teacher  of  English  43 

gently  and  fluently  in  their  social  and  political  and  business 
relations.  Make  their  inability  to  use  the  language,  or  their 
disinclination  to  do  so,  a  serious  reflection  on  their  standing 
in  the  community;  make  it  a  defect  to  be  deplored  or  pitied; 
make  their  ability  to  use  intelligible  English  the  key  to  many 
of  the  doors  they  must  open  to  enjoy  American  life.  Finally, 
cultivate  among  our  citizens  a  civic  pride  in  our  language  and 
our  history,  and  the  next  generation  will  not  be  called  upon  to 
face  the  disturbing  problems  confronting  the  government  to- 
day. 

It  is  a  thoughtful  letter,  a  dignified  letter,  and  it  goes  to  the 
heart  of  the  matter. 

"We  are  living  in  a  world  of  terrible  realities,"  writes  an- 
other teacher  of  English,  from  the  South,  "and  I  wonder  how 
many  of  us  are  relating  our  teaching  to  that  fact."  She  con- 
tinues : 

One  sentence  of  Dr.  Eliot's  address  caught  my  fancy  in  a 
special  degree.  He  asserts  that  it  should  be  the  "incessant  ef- 
fort of  the  teacher  to  relate  every  lesson  to  something  in  the 
life  of  the  child  so  that  he  may  see  the  useful  applications  of 
the  lesson,  and  how  it  concerns  him." 

Bravo!  say  I,  for  here  is  something  on  which  Dr.  Eliot 
and  I  can  at  last  agree  after  many  years  of  disagreement  on 
various  matters.  Here  is  a  way  to  be  practical  without  being 
also  a  materialist  or  a  time-server.  Here  is  a  way  to  put  flesh 
and  blood  upon  dry  bones.  Here  is  a  way  to  make  vital  and  at- 
tractive a  subject  which,  especially  to  students  of  science,  is  so 
frequently  uninviting  because — I  am  quoting  one  of  them  liter- 
ally— "It  don't  get  you  nothin'."  I  refer,  of  course,  to  that 
vague  study  known  as  "English,"  a  study  frequently  recom- 
mended for  its  cultural  value  and  thereby  damned  without 
trial. 

Relate  English  to  the  life  of  your  child-student,  be  he  5  or 
15  or  25,  and  English  ceases  to  be  a  set  of  rules,  or  so  many 
hundreds  of  words  to  be  handed  in  as  a  "composition"  on 
Tuesday  or  next  week,  or  a  laboratory  specimen  out  of  which 
will  be  analyzed  the  psychology  of  Jane  Dickens  who  had  novel 
views  on  matrimony.  Instead,  English  becomes  a  wonderful 
thing  that  gives  you  power  and  knowledge  and  delight,  and 
that  is  a  familiar  companion  whose  presence  you  take  for 
granted  but  of  whose  resources  and  possibilities  you  have  just 
become  aware.  Not  until  we  have  made  the  teaching  and  learn- 
ing of  English  a  natural  and  obvious  thing,  have  we  succeeded 
as  teachers,  or  will  our  pupils  come  to  us  at  "English  hour"  just 
for  the  pure  pleasure  of  our  society  while  we  talk  to  them  and 
with  them  about  the  day's  assignment. 


44  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

Their  language,  next  to  their  religion,  is  the  most  real  and 
practical  thing  in  their  lives.  Do  we  teach  it  as  such  ?  Do  we 
relate  it  to  their  own  small  world,  which  after  all  is  the  only 
world  that  matters  to  them  and  should  matter  to  us?  I  hope 
we  teachers  of  English  do,  yet  I  am  suspicious  .lest  we  do  not. 
I  fear  we  find  it  easier  to  drag  them  up  to  our  world,  instead 
of  stooping  graciously  down — or  up! — to  theirs.  I  fear  we 
find  it  easier  to  apply  the  moral  to  their  lives  instead  of 
drawing  it  patiently  from  the  realities  in  which  they  spend  all 
their  waking  moments.  Even  their  day-dreams  and  their  play 
worlds  are  realities,  albeit  touched  beautifully  by  imagination. 
I  wonder  how  often  we  recall  this  and  take  wise  account  of  it. 

Realities  have  become  dreadful  things  since  1914,  and  we 
are  now  receiving  back  into  our  own  America  a  host  of  young 
men  who  have  lived  among  or  close  to  these  realities  for  almost 
two  years.  It  will  not  be  long  before  they  and  their  little  ones 
will  introduce  a  new  and  stern  element  into  our  world  of  edu- 
cation. If  we  have  prepared  for  this  by  learning  well  and 
wisely  the  lesson  that  education  is  vitally  related  to  life,  that 
inductive  reasoning  is  as  important  and  necessary  as  deductive, 
that  our  pupils  should  always  be  brought  to  see  the  full  ap- 
plication and  implication  of  all  we  teach  them,  and  how  that 
teaching  concerns  their  welfare  and  progress  here  and  here- 
after, then  we  can  face  with  assurance  the  difficult  years  to 
come.  Otherwise  a  hand  is  writing  on  the  wall  and  we  would 
do  well  to  pause  and  ponder  and  prepare." 


NOTES 


John  Ayscough,  whose  novels,  "Monks-bridge,"  "Grace 
Church,"  and  others  taking  for  their  theme  English  life,  have 
had  wide  reading  in  this  country,  will  come  to  the  United 
States  in  March  on  a  lecture  tour  that  will  also  embrace  Can- 
ada. Afterwards  he  expects  to  embody  his  impressions  of 
America  in  a  book.  This  will  be  his  first  visit  on  this  side  of 
the  Atlantic,  although  he  has  received  the  degree  of  LL.D. 
from  two  American  universities.  In  private  life  he  is  the 
Right  Rev.  Monsignor  Bickerstaffe  Drew. 


News  comes  from  London  of  a  plan  to  commemorate,  there 
and  at  Raleigh,  North  Carolina,  the  tercentenary  just  passed 
of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh's  death,  October  29,  1618.  Professor 
Gollancz,  with  former  Ambassador  Page,  originated  the 
scheme,  which  provides  for  a  special  service  at  St.  Margaret's, 


The  Teacher  op  English  45 

Westminster,  where  Raleigh  was  buried  and  where  there  is  al- 
ready a  memorial  window  given  by  Americans;  for  a  public 
meeting  at  the  Mansion  House  at  which  Mr.  Gosse,  Mr.  Bal- 
four, Lord  JBryce,  Sir  Ian  Hamilton,  and  American  represen- 
tatives were  to  speak ;  and  for  papers  to  be  read  at  later  dates 
by  Professor  Firth,  Sir  Sidney  Lee,  Sir  Harry  Stephen,  Mr. 
Lionel  Cust,  and  Professor  Gollancz.  There  is  even  talk  of  a 
"Raleigh  House"  in  London  for  promoting  intellectual  co- 
operation between  British  and  American  scholars. 


The  Drama  League  of  America  publishes  a  descriptive  list 
of  patriotic  plays  and  pageants,  and  will  advise  with  any 
amateur  producers  who  wish  to  consult  it,  at  its  bookshop, 
7  East  Forty-second  Street,  or  at  any  of  its  national  offices. 


The  fine  art  of  using  words  to  conceal  a  lack  of  thought 
has  seldom  been  more  perfectly  illustrated  than  in  a  recent 
article  on  Joseph  Conrad  in  one  of  our  oldest  national  weeklies. 

What  might  have  been  a  piece  of  constructive  criticism  at 
once  degenerated,  after  the  first  sentence,  into  a  hopeless 
jumble  of  befogged  ideas  and  befogging  phrases.  For  example, 
"Conrad's  characters  synchronize  with  their  mise  en  scene 
in  a  continuity  completely  conspicuous  (on  his  part)  and  com- 
pletely satisfying ;  which  is  but  another  way  of  saying  that  in 
Conrad's  art  'reflex  action,'  accident,  surprise,  the  repor- 
torial  detailing  of  incidents  for  their  own  sake,  have  no  part." 
You  clear  this  hurdle  only  to  be  spilled  headlong  over  the  next 
— "Conrad's  men  are  vibrant  with  an  enigmatical  rhythm, 
the  hidden  diapason  of  some  of  nature's  most  forbidding 
mysteries." 

We  submit  respectfully  that  nature's  most  forbidding  mys- 
teries could  scarcely  be  more  forbidding  than  this  esoteric 
comment.  After  all,  De  Quincey  was  right.  "Enough,"  said 
he,  "if  every  age  produce  two  or  three  critics  of  this  esoteric 
class,  with  here  and  there  a  reader  to  understand  them."  It 
were  a  pity  should  they  waste  all  their  sweetness  on  the  desert 
air. 


46  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

recent  books 

Biographical. — A  Writer's  Recollections,  by  Mrs.  Humphry 
Ward.  Two  volumes.  Illustrated.  New  York:  Harper  & 
Brothers.  The  Letters  of  Anne  Gilchcrist  and  Walt  Whitman, 
edited,  with  an  introduction,  by  Thomas  B.  Harned.  New  York : 
Doubleday,  Page  &  Co.  The  Epistles  of  Erasmus.  From  His 
Earliest  Letters  to  His  Fifty-third  Year,  Arranged  in  Order  of 
Time.  English  Translations  from  His  Correspondence,  with  a 
Commentary  Confirming  the  Chronological  Arrangement  and 
Supplying  Further  Biographical  Matter,  by  Francis  Morgan 
Nichols.  8vo.  Volume  III.  Already  published:  Vol.  I.  Out  of 
print:  Vol.  II.  Longmans,  Green  &  Co. 

Critical. — English  Literature  in  the  Nineteenth  Century, 
by  William  Henry  Hudson.  New  York :  The  Macmillan  Com- 
pany. George  Meredith:  A  Study  of  His  Works  and  Person- 
ality, by  J.  H.  E.  Crees,  M.A.  (Camb.),  M.A.,  D.Litt.  (Lond.), 
Headmaster  of  the  Crypt  Grammar  School,  Gloucester;  Au- 
thor of  "Didascalus  Patiens,"  etc.  Longmans,  Green  &  Co. 
A  Study  of  William  Shenstone  and  of  His  Critics,  by  Alice  I. 
Hazeltine.  Menasha,  Wis. :  The  Collegiate  Press.  The  Dream 
in  Homer  and  Greek  Tragedy,  by  William  Stuart  Messer.  New 
York:  Columbia  University  Press.  Old  English  Poems,  by 
Cosette  Faust  and  Smith  Thompson.  New  York :  Scott,  Fores- 
man  &  Co.  The  Path  of  the  Modern  Russian  Stage,  by  Alex- 
ander Baksley-Luce.  New  York.  The  Popular  Theater,  by 
George  Jean  Nathan.    New  York:   Alfred  A.  Knopf. 

Educational. — Expressive  English,  by  James  C.  Fernald. 
Funk  and  Wagnalls. 

Thomas  Quinn  Beesley. 


EDUCATIONAL  NOTES 

HUNGRY  CHILDREN 

That  thousands  of  children  in  our  public  schools  are  suffer- 
ing in  health  from  malnutrition,  no  one  will  question.  While 
conscious  of  some  of  the  social  and  economic  problems  involved 
in  the  attempt  to  furnish  a  noon  meal  to  such  children,  we  still 
cannot  help  feeling  the  force  of  words  like  the  following  from 
a  New  York  physician :  "The  school  lunch  affords  an  excellent 
opportunity  for  teaching  our  boys  and  girls  to  choose  their 
food  wisely.  It  meets,  in  addition,  a  practical  need  to  provide 
the  school  children  with  food  at  small  cost.  Many  children 
cannot  obtain  at  home  a  nutritious  mid-day  meal,  which  they 
need  to  maintain  their  vitality.  This  is  particularly  true  at 
the  present  time,  when  so  many  women  have  been  called  to 
war  industries.  In  organizing  this  service  we  are  not  ventur- 
ing upon  unknown  ground,  but,  on  the  contrary,  the  school 
lunch  is  an  organized  part  of  the  school  system  in  a  great  many 
cities  of  this  country  and  elsewhere,  and  wherever  it  has  been 
tried  it  has  been  found  to  be  of  the  greatest  advantage  both 
educationally  and  in  regard  to  the  health  and  the  manners  of 
the  child. 

SOCIALIZING    THE    SCHOOL 

The  large  objective  in  modern  education  is  to  socialize  the 
school.  A  socialized  school  is  one  so  organized  that  the  work, 
activities  and  methods  are  such  that  the  result  is  directly  a 
functional  product.  The  first  essential  of  a  socialized  school 
is  a  body  of  right  objectives  for  its  guidance.  The  socialized 
school  accepts  as  its  general  objective  the  training  of  the 
oncoming  citizens  for  social  efficiency.  Involved  in  this 
phrase,  which  states  the  large  goal  of  the  modern  school,  are 
five  phases  of  efficiency:  (1)  health  or  vital,  (2)  vocational, 
(3)  a  vocational  or  leisure,  (4)  civic,  and  (5)  moral  and  re- 
ligious. The  basis  for  all  phases  of  one's  efficiency  is  a  good 
body,  kept  in  good  health  and  up  to  good  physical  tone.  One 
must  be  efficient  in  the  thing  that  he  does  to  earn  his  bread 
and  butter — the  physical  necessities  of  life.    He  must  be  able 

47 


48  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

to  do  successfully  and  well  his  daily  work.  At  the  same  time, 
he  must  realize  that  the  moderu  day  occupies  but  one-third 
of  the  twenty-four  hours  of  the  natural  day.  One  has  much 
time  for  use,  therefore,  which  is  neither  spent  in  rest  nor 
work.  Education  must  do  as  much  as  possible  to  equip  people 
to  use  their  leisure  time  properly  and  wholesomely  to  them- 
selves and  others.  While  one  is  a  worker  at  occupation  he 
is  also  a  citizen  and  sustains  his  relationships  as  a  citizen  to 
the  civic  affairs  of  the  town,  the  county,  the  state,  and  the 
nation  in  which  he  lives.  An  essential  to  efficiency  in  his 
work,  during  leisure,  and  as  a  citizen,  is  a  right  moral  and 
religious  background  and  outlook.     .     .     . 

Not  only  does  the  socialized  school  demand  the  guidance  of 
right  objectives  and  an  appropriate  body  of  materials  in  the 
course  of  study  as  the  basis  upon  which  to  proceed,  but  it 
likewise  requires  proper  standards  by  which  to  judge  the 
progress  toward  the  goal.  These  standards  are  of  two  kinds : 
(1)  standards  of  discipline  and  control,  and  (2)  standards 
of  attainment  in  work.  Ordinarily,  teachers  are  concerned 
about  standards  of  discipline  and  control  because  of  their 
convenience  in  managing  and  teaching  their  pupils.  They  insist 
upon  punctuality  and  regularity  of  attendance,  quiet  and  order, 
neatness,  accuracy,  honesty  in  work,  and  politeness  and  cour- 
tesy in  the  social  relations  of  the  school,  primarily  because  it 
enables  the  school  to  run  easily  and  smoothly.  The  success- 
ful operation  of  the  school  is,  of  course,  one  justification  of 
these  standards.  The  higher  justification  of  them,  however, 
is  that  the  individual  who  is  working  under  them  and  who 
is  thereby  incorporating  them  into  his  own  personality,  must 
possess  them  by  the  time  he  leaves  the  school  if  he  would  go 
out  to  the  world's  work  successfully  and  satisfactorily.  The 
business  world  is  able  to  enforce  its  standards  of  punctuality, 
neatness,  accuracy,  honesty,  courtesy,  and  so  on,  largely  be- 
cause of  the  faithful  work  which  is  done  in  good  schools  in 
the  establishment  of  these  standards  as  a  part  of  the  perma- 
nent equipment  of  the  pupils.  Or,  to  state  it  from  the  stand- 
point of  the  worker,  to  the  extent  that  the  pupils  who  leave 
the  schools  are  able  to  do  the  work  of  the  world,  it  is  because 


Educational  Notes  49 

they  have  been  equipped  with  those  standards  which  the  busi- 
ness world  rigorously  imposes  upon  those  whom  it  pronounces 
satisfactory. 

The  business  world  has  thoroughly  demonstrated  that  the 
keynote  in  any  organization  promising  success  is  cooperation. 
The  school  which  trains  most  successfully  for  social  efficiency 
recognizes  that  the  attack  which  pupils  should  make  on  new 
problems  and  subject-matter  under  the  teacher's  leadership  is 
the  cooperative  attack.  The  result  is  that  each  student  is 
working  not  alone  as  though  he  were  isolated  on  an  island,  but 
from  the  standpoint  of  his  interests  with  whatever  ability  he 
possesses  upon  a  general  problem  with  which  the  entire  group 
is  concerned,  with  the  object  of  all  sharing  the  results  of  their 
study  and  work  during  the  recitation  period.  The  recitation 
period  is  not  an  individual  matter  between  the  teacher  and 
pupils,  in  which  each  pupil  sits  and  looks  and  listens,  merely 
answering  when  "pumped"  by  the  teacher,  but  it  is  a  social- 
ized situation,  in  which  the  pupils  make  their  contributions 
under  the  umpiring  of  the  teacher  very  much  as  mature  people 
make  their  contributions  in  a  round-table  discussion. 

The  method  of  procedure  of  the  teacher  with  her  students  is 
likewise  employed  by  the  principal  of  the  school  in  relation  to 
the  teaching  staff  in  any  school  which  is  thoroughly  socialized 
and  in  which  cooperation  is  the  keynote.  Instead  of  assuming 
as  principals  formerly  did,  that  he  knows  all  the  needs  of  the 
school  and  is  able  personally  to  determine  all  its  plans  and 
policies,  he  meets  the  teachers  frequently  for  the  purpose  of 
discussing  problems  and  determining  plans  and  policies  in 
round-table  fashion.  He  realizes  that  his  large  function  is 
bringing  of  vision,  leadership,  and  general  point  of  view  in  the 
setting  up  of  policies,  and  executive  ability  which  is  sympa- 
thetic at  the  same  time  that  it  is  efficient  in  the  execution  of 
the  management  of  the  school.  His  dominant  concern,  how- 
ever, is  not  with  issuing  orders,  but  rather  in  providing  ways 
and  means  by  which  all  of  the  best  ideas  possessed  by  the  fac- 
ulty may  function  in  the  progressive  development  of  the  school. 

Nor  is  the  cooperative  spirit  permeating  the  organization 


50  The  Catholic  Educational  Keview 

and  machinery  of  the  school  confined  to  the  classroom  and  to 
the  principal's  relation  to  the  teachers.  It  likewise  manifests 
itself  in  the  establishment  and  upbuilding  of  manifold  school 
and  community  relationships.  A  modern  socialized  school 
does  not  consist  of  well-secured  walls  in  a  substantial  build- 
ing, within  which  teachers  and  pupils  meet  during  certain 
hours  five  days  per  week.  Rather  it  is  a  school  which  is 
relating  itself  to  community  problems  and  needs.  To  that 
end,  it  welcomes  opportunities  for  acquainting  the  interested, 
intelligent  citizens  of  the  community  with  what  the  school  is 
trying  to  do  and  with  its  methods  of  work.  Opportunities  are 
therefore  provided  the  citizens  for  viewing  the  work  of  the 
school  that  they  may  become  familiar  with  it.  Parent-teacher 
organizations  are  established,  school  exhibits  are  arranged  for, 
times  for  visiting  regular  work  are  announced.  Following 
these  opportunities  extended  to  the  patrons,  in  which  they  are 
kept  familiar  with  the  work  of  the  school,  conferences  are 
arranged  that  the  results  of  the  best  thinking  of  the  lay  school 
men  and  women  may  be  focused  back  in  the  improvement  of 
the  school.  By  reason  of  these  cooperative  relations,  the 
school  is  becoming  sensitive  in  reference  to  the  various  sub- 
jects which  possess  functional  value.  Likewise,  the  new 
subjects,  such  as  agriculture,  commercial  work,  cooking,  sew- 
ing, manual  training,  are  being  directed  to  the  teaching  of 
that  information  and  to  the  employment  of  those  methods 
which  will  more  nearly  guarantee  that  the  training  provided 
in  these  subjects  shall  really  equip  the  students  successfully 
to  take  up  the  work  for  which  they  are  preparing. 

H.  B.  Wilson, 
The  Sierra  Education  News,  September,  1918. 

THE  NEED  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING  FOR  BODILY  DEVELOPMENT 

The  one  general  law,  or  that  of  growth  and  development,  is 
a  most  important  factor  in  the  life  of  every  human  being. 
At  all  periods  in  a  lifetime  some  form  of  growth  or  change 
is  taking  place  in  the  body,  and  to  aid  this  growth  and  to  make 
a  more  perfect  development  we  need  physical  training. 


Educational  Notes  51 

The  muscles  and  brain  are  the  two  leading  forces  in  life — 
the  muscles,  instruments  by  which  we  act,  and  the  brain  with 
which  we  think.  While  civilization  has  put  much  stress  upon 
the  right  development  of  the  brain,  it  is  to  be  feared  that  the 
development  of  the  body  has  been  neglected.  Attention  cannot 
be  too  early  paid  to  training  the  body,  for  its  systematic  and 
progressive  culture  should  go  on  jointly  with  that  of  the  mind. 

Between  the  ages  of  five  and  twenty  years,  the  demands  of 
nature  are  such  that  physical  exercise  in  some  systematic 
form  is  most  important.  This  period  is  a  growing  one,  and,  in 
fact,  it  is  the  period  preparing  the  body  for  the  mental  activi- 
ties to  come.  Much  attention  should  be  given  to  muscular 
growth,  for  it  is  during  this  time  that  the  body  changes  most. 
At  all  times  correct  posture  should  be  enforced  so  that  the  body 
will  grow  straight  and  well  formed. 

Systematic  exercise  to  produce  muscular  power,  better  diges- 
tion and  absorption  of  food,  better  and  deeper  respiration,  and 
vigor  in  all  organs  of  the  body  is  invaluable.  Games,  too,  are 
of  great  value,  and  they  furnish  muscular  action  and  pleasur- 
able mental  and  nervous  stimulus. 

In  physical  work  it  should  be  remembered  that  no  part  of 
the  body  should  be  trained  more  than  another  part,  thus  pre- 
venting premature  development.  The  laws  of  physiology 
should  be  a  guide,  and  the  development  of  the  body  should  be 
such  as  to  produce  a  symmetrically  and  harmoniously  devel- 
oped whole,  with  perfect  functional  activity. 

Unless  each  organ  is  in  good  working  order,  the  body  will 
become  clogged  with  poisonous  matter,  mental  activity  will 
become  less  keen,  and  the  mind  will  be  below  its  best  working 
activity. 

If  the  race  as  a  whole  were  leading  the  natural  life,  it  is 
true  that  physical  training  would  not  be  necessary,  but  cus- 
toms, dress,  and  luxuries  of  civilization  all  make  it  impossible 
to  live  an  absolutely  normal  life.  Thus  the  body  suffers  unless 
some  counter  action  is  taken  like  regular,  methodical  exercise. 

The  need  of  physical  training  is  great,  and  upon  it  much 
depends — longevity,  happiness,  and  prosperity.     Let  us  hope 


52  The  Catholic  Educational  Keview 

that  the  world  will  heed  this  need  and  that  the  future  will 
bring  forth  a  healthier  and  better  race  of  people. 

Geneva  Smith, 
The  Posse  Gymnasium,  September,  1918. 

teaching  of  patriotism 

The  teaching  of  patriotism  is  not  a  new  task  imposed  by  the 
war,  but  the  war  has  made  it  more  important  and  necessary. 
To  fail  in  stimulating  the  patriotic  feelings  in  children  would 
mean  a  failure  in  one  of  the  main  functions  of  the  school.  But 
how  to  teach  patriotism  in  connection  with  the  war  is  the 
question  which  we  have  constantly  asked  and  to  which  we  yet 
have  no  answer.  To  my  mind,  the  fundamental  solution  of 
this  problem  presupposes  a  clear  conception  of  what  true 
patriotism  is.  To  conceive  it  in  its  highest  and  best  sense,  the 
teaching  of  it  will  be  beneficial  both  to  the  individual  and  to 
the  nation.  To  conceive  it  in  a  wrong  perspective,  the  teaching 
of  it,  no  matter  how  patriotic  the  teacher  may  feel,  would  be 
poisoning  the  minds  of  the  children  and  doing  a  nation  more 
harm  than  good. 

Now,  what  is  patriotism?  To  say  that  patriotism  is  love  of 
country  is  begging  the  question,  for  the  phrase  "love  of  coun- 
try" needs  further  explanation.  Is  the  hatred  of  the  enemy  to 
be  identified  as  true  patriotism?  Is  the  exaltation  of  the  na- 
tion's greatness  to  be  interpreted  as  real  love  of  country? 
With  all  emphasis,  we  must  say  "No."  To  conceive  patriotism 
in  such  terms  would  be  nothing  short  of  horrible  perversion. 
In  an  autocracy  the  conception  of  patriotism  cannot  be  any- 
thing other  than  the  exaggerated  national  egotism  and  the 
contempt  of  other  nation  peoples,  because  the  autocratic  rulers 
must  deliberately  educate  their  people  into  such  a  frame  of 
mind  in  order  to  further  their  imperialistic  design.  But  in  a 
democracy  we  must  conceive  patriotism  as  an  unqualified 
devotion  to  the  ideals  and  institutions  of  the  country  which 
guarantees  liberty  and  justice  to  all.  It  is  upon  this  higher 
and  nobler  conception  that  we  must  formulate  our  principle 
of  instruction.  Ping  Ling, 

EdAJbOdttiqn^  September,  1918. 


Educational  Notes  53 

the  aim  in  the  education  op  woman 

So  long  as  the  differences  of  physical  power  and  organiza- 
tion between  men  and  women  are  what  they  are,  it  does  not 
seem  possible  that  they  should  have  the  same  type  of  mental 
development.  But  while  we  see  great  reason  to  dissent  from 
the  opinions  and  to  distrust  the  enthusiasm  of  those  who 
would  set  before  women  the  same  aims  as  men,  to  be  pursued 
by  the  same  methods,  it  must  be  admitted  that  they  are  entitled 
to  have  all  the  mental  culture  and  all  the  freedom  necessary  to 
the  fullest  development  of  their  natures.  The  aim  of  female 
education  should  manifestly  be  the  perfect  development,  not  of 
manhood  but  of  womanhood,  by  the  methods  most  conducive 
thereto.  So  may  women  reach  as  high  a  grade  of  development 
as  men,  though  it  be  of  a  different  type.  A  system  of  educa- 
tion which  is  framed  to  fit  them  to  be  nothing  more  than  the 
superintendents  of  a  household  and  the  ornaments  of  a  draw- 
ing-room is  one  which  does  not  do  justice  to  their  nature  and 
cannot  be  seriously  defended.  Assuredly  those  of  them  who 
have  not  the  opportunity  of  getting  married  suffer  not  a  little 
in  mind  and  body  from  a  method  of  education  which  tends  to 
develop  the  emotional  at  the  expense  of  the  intellectual  nature 
and  by  their  exclusion  from  appropriate  fields  of  practical 
activity.  It  by  no  means  follows,  however,  that  it  would  be 
right  to  model  an  improved  system  exactly  upon  that  which 
has  commended  itself  as  the  best  for  men.  Inasmuch  as  the 
majority  of  women  will  continue  to  get  married  and  to  dis- 
charge the  functions  of  mothers,  the  education  of  girls  cer- 
tainly ought  not  to  be  such  as  would  in  any  way  clash  with 
their  organization,  injure  their  health,  and  unfit  them  for 
these  functions.  In  this  matter  the  small  minority  of  women 
who  have  other  aims  and  pant  for  other  careers  canot  be 
accepted  as  the  spokeswomen  of  their  sex.  Experience  may  be 
left  to  teach  them,  as  it  will  not  fail  to  do,  whether  they  are 
right  or  wrong  in  the  ends  which  they  pursue  and  in  the  means 
by  which  they  pursue  them.  If  they  are  right,  they  will  have 
deserved  well  the  success  which  will  reward  their  faith  and 
works;  if  they  are  wrong,  the  error  will  avenge  itself  upon 


54  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

them  and  upon  their  children,  if  they  should  ever  have  any.  In 
the  worst  event,  they  will  not  have  been  without  their  use  as 
failures,  for  they  will  have  furnished  experiments  to  aid  us 
in  arriving  at  correct  judgments  concerning  the  capacities  of 
women  and  their  right  functions  in  the  universe.  Meanwhile, 
so  far  as  our  present  lights  reach,  it  would  seem  that  a  system 
of  education  adapted  to  women  should  have  regard  to  the 
peculiarities  of  their  constitution,  to  the  special  functions  in 
life  for  which  they  are  destined,  and  to  the  range  and  kind  of 
practical  activity,  mental  and  bodily,  to  which  they  would 
seem  to  be  foreordained  by  their  organization  of  body  and 
mind. — Educational  Review,  September,  1918. 

NATIONAL  RURAL  TEACHERS'  READING  CIRCLE 

Organization  and  Purpose. — The  National  Rural  Teachers' 
Reading  Circle  was  organized  in  1915  by  the  Bureau  of  Educa- 
tion in  cooperation  with  an  advisory  committee  of  state  super- 
intendents of  public  instruction.  The  purpose  is  to  be  of  direct 
assistance  to  the  thousands  of  progressive,  serious-minded 
rural  teachers  of  the  country  who  desire  guidance  in  their 
study  to  improve  themselves  professionally.  Never  before  in 
the  history  of  our  country  was  there  so  great  a  demand  for 
well-prepared  rural  teachers  and  supervisors  as  at  the  present 
time.  It  was  to  assist  in  finding  and  equipping  these  educators 
that  the  Bureau  of  Education  organized  the  Reading  Circle 
work  three  years  ago. 

Progress. — The  American  farmers  are  doing,  their  great 
share  in  winning  the  war  through  increased  production  from 
the  land.  After  the  war  is  won  the  rural  population  must  take 
an  equally  vital  part  in  the  economic  reconstruction  that  is 
sure  to  follow  the  war.  This  calls  for  a  new  type  of  leadership, 
cultured  and  educated  in  practical  phases  of  modern  scientific 
agriculture.  The  most  important  and  indispensable  agent  in 
the  attainment  of  this  task  will  be  the  rural  teacher.  Without 
the  well-educated,  broad-minded,  sympathetic  teacher  any  sys- 
tem of  education  can  only  be  a  lifeless  mechanism. 

Therefore  the  public  must  look  to  the  country  teachers  and 
their  preparation  and  see  to  it  that  they  shall  be  men  and 


Educational  Notes  55 

women  of  the  best  native  ability,  the  most  thorough  education 
and  the  highest  degree  of  professional  knowledge  and  skill. 
Since  the  time  of  organization  a  large  number  of  progressive 
rural  teachers  of  the  country  have  become  members  of  the 
Reading  Circle.  No  attempt  has  been  made  to  draw  to  the  circle 
large  numbers;  the  aim  has  been  rather  to  list  a  few  leaders 
from  each  county  of  the  several  states.  Results  have  been  very 
satisfactory.  Of  the  number  matriculated  a  large  percentage 
have  completed  the  work  and  have  received  the  Commissioner's 
certificate. 

Cost. — The  Reading  Circle  for  1918-20,  which  is  hereby  an- 
nounced, will  be  without  cost  to  the  members  except  for  the 
necessary  books,  which  may  be  procured  from  the  publishers  at 
regular  retail  rates,  or  through  local  libraries,  or  in  other 
ways.  There  is  no  restriction  as  to  membership,  although  it  is 
highly  desirable  that  applicants  have  a  liberal  acquaintance 
with  the  best  literary  works,  past  and  present. 

Study  Course  for  the  Years  1918-1920.— The  books  for  this 
period  reflect  largely  the  conditions  in  education  due  to  the 
unprecedented  changes  going  on  in  the  world  today.  They  are 
classified  under  five  heads,  namely;  Nonprofessional  Books  of 
Cultural  Value,  Educational  Classics,  General  Principles  and 
Methods  of  Education,  Rural  Education,  and  Rural  Life 
Problems. 

The  work  is  intended  as  a  two-year  reading  course  although 
it  may  be  completed  by  the  industrious  teacher  in  a  shorter 
time.  A  National  Rural  Teachers'  Reading  Circle  Certificate, 
signed  by  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education,  will 
be  awarded  to  each  teacher  who  gives  satisfactory  evidence  of 
having  read  intelligently  not  less  than  five  books  from  the  gen- 
eral culture  list  and  three  books  from  each  of  the  other  four 
lists — seventeen  books  in  all — within  two  years  from  the  time 
of  registering* 

Correspondence.— Teachers  interested  in  the  1918-20  Read- 
ing Circle  work  should  write  for  circulars,  registration  blanks, 
etc.,  in  the  Rural  School  Division,  Bureau  of  Education, 
Department  of  the  Interior,  Washington,  D.  C. 


REVIEWS  AND  NOTICES 

* 

Fourth  Annual  Report  of  the  Superintendent  of  Parish 
Schools  of  the  Diocese  of  Cleveland  for  the  Year  1917-18. 

While  noting  a  general  increase  in  the  number  of  schools  and 
pupils  for  the  year,  the  Superintendent  of  the  diocese  of 
Cleveland  draws  the  attention  of  his  colaborers  in  the  educa- 
tional system  to  the  fact  that  the  attendance  of  pupils  in  the 
eighth  grade  classes  has  presented  a  problem  of  serious  pro- 
portions. In  the  schools  outside  of  the  city  of  Cleveland  77  per 
cent  of  the  seventh  grade  pupils  of  the  previous  year  entered 
the  eighth  grade  in  September,  1917,  and  in  Cleveland  itself 
only  68  per  cent  returned  for  the  higher  grade.  The  Superin- 
tendent believes  that  the  individual  pastors  can  account  for 
these  serious  losses.  Our  attention  is  drawn  to  the  point  by 
the  belief  that  this  is  not  a  local  problem  but  one  that  is  un- 
fortunately rather  widespread  and  demanding  study  on  the 
part  of  superintendents  and  pastors.  The  war's  demands  may 
account  for  some  of  the  falling  off,  but  it  can  hardly  be  re- 
sponsil  le  for  the  large  percentage  stated  in  this  report  and 
known  to  exist  elsewhere.  The  seriousness  of  the  problem 
urges  that  immediate  steps  be  taken  by  the  school  authorities, 
both  diocesan  and  local,  to  learn  its  causes  in  their  several 
fields. 

Some  very  thoughtful  suggestions  are  proposed  in  the  re- 
port on  the  support  of  the  high  school  movement  generally, 
and  the  necessity  on  the  part  of  pastors,  principals  and  teach- 
ers of  urging  that  a  good  high  school  course  should  be  given 
pupils  before  commercial  studies  or  life  pursuits  be  taken  up. 
Among  the  benefits  to  be  expected  from  the  high  school  is  in- 
crease in  vocations  to  the  religious  life. 

The  Superintendent  reports  in  another  section  that  his 
schools  have  received  much  valuable  help  from  the  municipal 
Division  of  Health,  and,  as  an  evidence  of  the  services  ren- 
dered, prints  a  report  from  the  Supervisor  of  School  Health 
Activities  in  reference  to  work  done  in  twenty  parish  schools  of 
Cleveland.    While  the  fullest  details  are  not  given  as  to  the 

M 


Kbvibws  and  Notices  57 

manner  of  health  inspection  and  direction  in  the  schools,  many 
hints  are  offered  to  reassure  the  fearful  that  the  parental  rights 
and  functions  were  at  no  time  disregarded,  rather  home  co- 
operation was  one  of  the  chief  means  of  realizing  the  success 
attained.  Many  Catholic  educators  are  deeply  interested  in 
this  phase  of  school  supervision,  and  the  Superintendent  of 
Cleveland  may  be  assured  that  any  further  details  he  may  be 
ready  to  give  as  to  the  methods  of  inspection  and  results  will 
be  widely  appreciated. 

Patrick  J.  McCormick. 


Fourteenth  Annual  Report  of  the  Parish  Schools  of  the 
Diocese  of  Pittsburgh  1917-1918. 

We  have  become  so  accustomed  to  look  for  signs  of  progress 
and  growth  in  every  diocesan  superintendent's  report  as  not 
to  be  surprised  to  find  among  the  first  things  mentioned  in  this 
report  that  twelve  new  schools  have  been  added  to  the  system 
and  2,772  pupils  added  to  the  total  enrollment.  This  is  in- 
deed a  significant  item,  characteristic  as  it  is  of  our  reports 
on  Catholic  schools  and  gratifying  to  the  Catholics  at  large 
as  well  as  to  the  local  school  authorities. 

The  1917-1918  report  is  especially  informative  on  the  methods 
in  vogue  in  Pittsburgh  for  the  efficient  supervision  of  the  sys- 
tem, some  of  which,  we  believe,  are  not  in  use  elsewhere.  A 
striking  feature  of  these  arrangements  is  the  assignment  of 
certain  phases  of  school  inspection  to  a  board  of  inspectors. 
Their  chief  work  is  the  investigation  of  the  material  and  hy- 
gienic conditions  of  the  schools.  They  are  obliged  by  diocesan 
statute  to  report  their  findings  to  the  School  Board  each  year. 
Undoubtedly  this  is  an  excellent  arrangement  in  a  system  of 
197  schools,  since  it  were  impossible  for  the  Superintendent  to 
make  an  annual  visit  to  each  school. 

Of  general  interest  also  is  the  Superintendent's  recommen- 
dation to  the  pastors  that  they  cooperate  directly  in  the  work 
of  improving  the  efficiency  of  teachers  by  aiding  the  teachers 
of  their  parish  schools  to  undertake  summer  extension  courses. 
He  very  well  shows  that  whatever  financial  outlay  the  parish 
incurs  in  this  plan  will  be  well  repaid. 

The  most  impressive  note,  however,  in  the  report,  and  one 
bound  to  attract  wide  attention,  refers  to  the  Social  Service 


58  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

work  undertaken  by  several  parishes.  This  consisted  of  night 
school  and  settlement  work.  For  the  the  former,  four  centers 
were  established,  and  we  learn  that  in  them  "nearly  2,000 
pupils  were  enrolled,  and  seventeen  races  and  languages 
represented;  one  hundred  and  eleven  teachers  conducted  45 
classes.  In  six  centers,  Settlement  Work  was  done  among  the 
smaller  children.  The  classes  were  held  in  the  parish  school 
buildings ;  fiOO  pupils  were  instructed  by  70  teachers.  The 
work  is  conducted  by  experienced  and  professional  teachers; 
normal  classes  have  been  instituted  to  train  volunteers,  and 
thus  a  constant  supply  of  competent  teachers  is  ensured. 
Classes  were  held  in  the  various  English  branches,  stenography 
and  typewriting,  sewing,  millinery,  singing,  dramatics,  physi- 
cal culture,  elementary  English  for  girls  of  foreign  parentage, 
and  in  a  variety  of  other  useful  and  cultural  subjects.  A  large 
percentage  of  the  attendance  consisted  of  girls  of  foreign  birth 
who  had  not  had  the  advantage  of  a  complete  American  educa- 
tion. The  work  is  a  voluntary  one — an  offering  to  the  Church 
and  State  under  the  aegis  of  the  Parish  School.  The  example 
of  these  four  centers  could  be  emulated  in  many  parishes  of  the 
diocese ;  the  cause  of  the  Catholic  Church  and  of  Catholic  edu- 
cation would  be  the  gainer." 

Not  many  of  our  Catholic  schools  have  engaged  in  this  sort 
of  social  activity,  and  certainly  the  experiment  in  Pittsburgh 
will  be  watched  with  interest  by  Catholic  superintendents, 
school  officials  and  pastors  throughout  the  country.  Let  us 
hope  that  in  subsequent  reports  the  Superintendent  of  Pitts- 
burgh will  give  more  data  as  to  the  general  plan  and  details  of 
the  arrangement. 

Patrick  J.  McCormick. 


Eighth  Report  of  the^Superintendentfof  Parish*  Schools, 
Diocese  of  Newark,  Year  Ending  June  30,  1918. 

The  report  of  the  Superintendent  of  the  Diocese  of  Newark 
presents  as  usual  in  excellent  form  the  statistical  data  for  the 
educational  system  of  the  diocese.  In  this,  as  in  the  instance 
of  the  Cleveland  Report  for  the  same  year,  some  curious  losses 
are  recorded  in  the  enrollment  of  pupils  for  the  year  reported. 
The  general  increase  in  pupils  over  the  previous  year  is  smaller 
than  in  the  last  eight  years,  and  there  were  672  pupils  less  in 


Reviews  and  Notices  59 

the  schools  at  the  end  of  the  year  than  at  the  beginning — an 
instance  common  to  most  of  the  systems  this  past  school  year, 
and  undoubtedly  owing  to  the  war. 

This  report  is  mainly  concerned  with  questions  connected 
with  the  Diocesan  Course  of  Study  in  use  for  eight  years  and 
now  about  to  be  revised.  It  is  no  doubt  of  first  interest  to  the 
School  Board  and  the  teachers  of  Newark,  but  it  is  of  general 
interest  also  because  of  the  subjects  discussed.  The  question 
of  Christian  Doctrine  is  treated  at  length,  and  primarily  with 
a  view  to  inculcating  the  right  principles  of  method  in  its 
teaching.  The  larger  principles  of  method  are  discussed  and 
their  application  to  the  teaching  of  religion  set  forth.  The 
Superintendent's  intention  is  apparently  one  of  stimulation 
and  encouragement  to  the  teachers,  for  he  tells  us  that  "the 
method  above  outlined  is  in  use  in  our  Parish  Schools,"  al- 
though depending,  as  he  shows  a  little  later,  for  its  successful 
application  on  the  fitness  and  ability  of  the  teachers  to  use  it. 
While  there  can  be  no  question  as  to  the  prevalence  of  the 
method  in  the  schools  of  Newark,  for  the  Diocesan  Superin- 
tendent is  the  best  witness  on  that  point,  one  feels  that  he  is 
too  optimistic  in  predicating  the  same  of  the  schools  of  the 
country,  for  he  says  that  it  is  in  use  "not  only  in  the  schools 
of  this  diocese,  but  in  practically  all  the  Parish  Schools 
throughout  the  country."  Here,  perhaps,  "the  wish  is  father 
to  the  thought."  Certainly  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  wher- 
ever the  method  is  favorably  regarded  or  does  prevail,  its  suc- 
cess is  dependent  on  the  fitness,  ability  and  zeal  of  the  teach- 
ers to  apply  it. 

Patrick  J.  McCormick. 


Keeping  Our  Fighters  Fit  For  War  and  After,  by  Edward 
Frank  Allen,  written  with  the  cooperation  of  Raymond  B. 
Fosdick,  Chairman  of  the  War  and  Navy  Departments  Com- 
missions in  Training  Camp  Activities,  with  a  special  state- 
ment written  for  the  book  by  Woodrow  Wilson.    New  York: 
The  Century  Company,  1918.   Pp.  v+207. 
Now  that  the  war  has  come  to  a  close,  the  thoughts  of  the 
whole  world  are  turning  towards  the  future,  and  to  face  the 
future,  stock  is  being  taken  of  the  present,  of  the  good  and  the 
evil  that  the  war  has  left.    The  present  volume  contains  an 


60  The  Catholic  Educational  Eeview 

authoritative  account  of  the  effort  made  by  this  country  to 
prevent  a  great  deal  of  the  needless  evil  that  so  frequently  has 
resulted  in  the  past  from  the  mobilization  of  armies  and  war 
activities.  In  the  special  statement  prefixed  to  the  volume, 
President  Wilson  says: 

'The  Federal  Government  has  pledged  its  word  that  as  far 
as  care  and  vigilance  can  accomplish  the  result,  the  men 
committed  to  its  charge  will  be  returned  to  the  homes  and 
communities  that  so  generously  gave  them,  with  no  scars  except 
those  won  in  honorable  battle.  The  career  to  which  we  are 
calling  our  young  men  in  defense  of  democracy  must  be  made 
an  asset  to  them,  not  only  in  strengthened  and  more  virile 
bodies  as  the  result  of  physical  training,  not  only  in  minds 
deepened  and  enriched  by  participation  in  a  great,  heroic 
enterprise,  but  in  the  enhanced  spiritual  values  which  come 
from  a  full  life  lived  well  and  wholesomely.  I  do  not  believe 
it  an  exaggeration  to  say  that  no  army  ever  before  assembled 
has  had  more  conscious  painstaking  thought  given  to  the  pro- 
tection and  stimulation  of  its  mental,  moral  and  physical  man- 
hood. Every  endeavor  has  been  made  to  surround  the  men, 
both  here  and  abroad,  with  the  kind  of  environment  which  a 
democracy  owes  to  those  who  fight  in  its  behalf.  In  this  work 
the  Commissions  on  Training  Camp  Activities  have  represented 
the  government  and  the  government's  solicitude  that  the  moral 
and  spiritual  resources  of  the  nation  should  be  mobilized  be- 
hind the  troops.  The  country  is  to  be  congratulated  upon  the 
fine  spirit  with  which  organizations  and  groups  of  many  kinds, 
some  of  them  of  national  standing,  have  harnessed  themselves 
together  under  the  leadership  of  the  government's  agency  in  a 
common  ministry  to  the  men  of  the  army  and  navy." 

T.  E.  S. 


Democracy  Made  Safe,  by  Paul  Harris  Drake.  Boston :  LeRoy 
Philips,  1918.  Cloth,  12mo,  $1,00  net.  Pp.  xii  +  110. 
One  hundred  years  ago  the  autocratic  and  imperialistic  gov- 
ernments of  Europe  took  alarm  at  the  rise  of  democracy  in 
Western  Europe  and  in  the  Treaty  of  Verona,  November  22, 
1822,  Kussia,  Austria,  Prussia,  and  France  signed  articles  in 
which  they  pledged  themselves  to  exert  all  their  power  to  sup- 
press and  eradicate  democracy  from  the  world.     Article  I 


Reviews  and  Notices  61 

of  this  treaty  reads :  "The  high  contracting  powers  being  con- 
vinced that  the  system  of  representative  government  is  equally 
as  incompatible  with  the  monarchical  principles  as  the  maxim 
of  the  sovereignty  of  the  people  with  the  divine  right,  engage 
mutually,  in  the  most  solemn  manner,  to  use  all  their  efforts 
to  put  an  end  to  the  system  of  representative  governments,  in 
whatever  country  it  may  exist  in  Europe,  and  to  prevent  its 
being  introduced  in  those  countries  where  it  is  not  yet  known." 
Article  II  reads :  "As  it  cannot  be  doubted  that  the  liberty  of 
the  press  is  the  most  powerful  means  used  by  the  pretended 
supporters  of  the  rights  of  nations,  to  the  detriment  of  those 
of  princes,  the  high  contracting  parties  promise  reciprocally 
to  adopt  all  proper  measures  to  suppress  it,  not  only  in  their 
own  states,  but,  also,  in  the  rest  of  Europe." 

Of  these  four  monarchies,  France  has  long  since  been  con- 
verted into  a  republic  and  the  present  war  has  apparently 
brought  about  the  complete  destruction  of  the  other  three.  The 
powers  plotting  against  representative  government  have  been 
overcome  by  the  resistless  force  of  the  rising  tide  of  democracy 
in  the  world.  But  let  no  one  suppose  for  a  moment  that  this 
means  the  safety  of  democracy.  The  old  saying  will  apply 
here :  "As  for  my  enemies,  I  will  take  care  of  them  myself,  but 
from  my  friends,  O  Lord,  deliver  me."  The  problem  of  tremen- 
dous present  interest  is  how  democracy  is  to  save  itself  from 
the  multitude  who  are  invoking  force  in  its  name  and  who, 
without  clear  vision,  are  spreading  destruction  and  sowing  the 
seeds  of  defeat. 

Bolshevism  is  inflicting  unheard  cruelty  and  spreading  ter- 
ror throughout  Russia,  and  it  is  threatening  to  engulf  the 
world.  Excesses  of  this  kind  are  in  reality  the  greatest  menace 
to  democracy. 

Mr.  Drake's  harmless  looking  little  volume  is  in  reality  a 
seed  of  incalculable  evil.  The  opening  paragraph  of  the  Fore- 
word sounds  well:  "The  desirability  of  reforming  our  social 
system  so  that  justice  will  flow  down  like  water  and  right- 
eousness like  a  mighty  stream,  is  conceded  by  every  right- 
thinking  person  today.  In  the  minds  of  the  vast  majority  of 
people  our  present  method  of  doing  business  is  far  from  satis- 
factory as  a  basis  of  human  society.  As  a  result,  the  world 
teems  with  every  description  of  reform  organization  imagin- 


62  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

able.  The  mere  existence  of  such  societies  and  bands  of  well- 
disposed  persons  is  evidence  of  the  fact  that  something  is 
wrong.  How  to  go  about  the  problem  of  readjusting  society  to 
conform  with  advanced  ideals  of  humanity  and  social  well- 
being  is  the  thing  which  puzzles  most  people.  What  shall  we 
do  to  be  saved?  is  the  well-nigh  universal  question.  It  is  the 
purpose  of  the  following  pages  to  answer  that  question  in  a 
rational  and  humane  spirit." 

There  is  no  doubt  whatever  of  the  condition  here  complained 
of  nor  of  our  need  of  an  adequate  solution  of  the  many  social 
prblems  which  confront  us  in  the  present  breaking  up  and  re- 
ordering of  the  world,  but  Mr.  Drake's  solution  is  quite  an- 
other matter.  His  call  is  not  to  legitimate  development  but 
towards  destruction  and  a  new  beginning,  in  which  all  the 
progress  of  the  centuries  is  to  be  destroyed  in  order  that  we 
may  begin  at  the  beginning  and  go  through  the  whole  travail 
again.  This  is  sufficiently  indicated  in  the  first  paragraph  of 
his  opening  chapter : 

"The  business  of  the  world  will  one  day  be  run  without  the 
medium  of  money.  The  time  will  come  when  all  of  the  present 
indispensable  mediums  will  not  exist.  Not  until  that  time 
comes  will  democracy  be  assured." 

Propaganda  of  this  nature  is  dangerous  for  the  public  wel- 
fare. It  is  against  the  public  policy  to  muzzle  the  press ;  there 
is,  therefore,  but  one  remaining  source  of  safety — the  education 
of  the  masses  to  think  along  sane  lines  when  considering  social 
and  economic  problems.  The  schools  and  the  press  are  needed 
to  work  overtime  to  prevent  the  forces  of  destruction  from 
working  their  way  with  us. 

T.  E.  S. 


From  Isolation  to  Leadership,  a  Review  of  American  For- 
eign Policy,  by   John    Holladay    Latane,    Ph.D.,  LL.D., 

Professor  of  American  History  in  the  Johns  Hopkins  Univer- 
sity. New  York:  Doubleday,  Page  and  Company,  1918. 
Pp.  215.     Price,  $1.00. 

This  little  volume  contains  scarcely  a  superfluous  word.  It 
presents  a  set  of  clear-cut  pictures  showing  the  rise  of  democ- 
racy and  its  spread  throughout  the  world.    It  brings  out  the 


Reviews  and  Notices  63 

critical  moments  wherein  Providence  intervened  to  save  democ- 
racy, although  Providence  is  not  mentioned  or  given  credit  for 
intervention. 

The  origin  and  meaning  of  the  Monroe  Doctrine  are  set 
forth  with  a  simple  directness  that  none  can  miss.  The  volume 
should  prove  helpful  at  present  in  clearing  the  public  mind  for 
due  consideration  of  the  many  problems  that  await  us. 

T.  E.  S. 


Behind  the  Scenes  in  the  Reichstag,  sixteen  years  of  parlia- 
mentary life  in  Germany,  by  the  Abbe  E.  Wetterle,  ex- 
deputy  at  the  Reichstag  and  in  the  Alsace-Lorraine  Cham- 
ber, with  a  prefatory  letter  by  Rene  Doumic,  translated 
from  the  French  by  George  Frederick  Lees,  Officier  de  L'ln- 
struction  Publique.  New  York:  George  H.  Doran  Com- 
pany, 1918.  Pp.  xiii-f  256. 

This  is  one  of  the  most  illuminating  of  the  many  volumes 
that  have  recently  appeared  dealing  with  the  long-standing 
controversy  between  France  and  Germany  which  resulted  in 
the  world  war  and  the  disruption  of  the  three  great  empires. 
If  the  motives  which  led  the  German  people  to  make  war  on 
France  are  such  as  are  portrayed  by  the  Abb6  WetterlS  in  this 
volume,  the  catastrophe  was  but  poetic  justice.  Hatred  is  a 
disintegrating  principle  and  never  leads  in  any  other  direction 
than  that  of  death  and  ruin. 

Rene  Doumic,  after  a  careful  perusal  of  the  work,  and  aided 
by  a  long  and  intimate  acquaintance  with  the  author  and  his 
many  works,  gives  an  appreciation  of  the  volume  in  his  pre- 
fatory letter,  which  should  serve  as  the  best  of  introductions  to 
the  book.    We  quote  the  following  paragraph  from  his  letter : 

"As  a  member  of  the  Reichstag,  you  have  seen  German  poli- 
ticians close  at  hand.  You  know  what  you  are  to  believe  about 
them.  You  have  been  present  at  their  debates  and  have  seen 
them,  as  in  all  parliaments,  divide  themselves  into  parties.  As 
Conservatives,  Socialists,  or  members  of  the  Catholic  Centre, 
you  have  observed  them  following  different  conceptions.  Only, 
what  you  have  also  seen — seen  with  your  own  eyes — is  that 
there  was  always,  in  any  and  every  case,  a  point  at  which  all 
divisions  ceased  as  though  by  magic,  a  ground  on  which  all 


64  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

could  meet,  an  object  to  which  all  strained  in  common.  The 
feeling  with  which  all  were  in  accord  was  their  hatred  of 
France.  The  thought  in  which  all  collaborated  was  the  pre- 
paration of  war  against  France. 

"During  forty  years  they  combined,  arranged,  strengthened, 
perfected  the  formidable  machine  which  was  to  be  directed 
against  us.  And  we,  during  that  time,  continually  and  stub- 
bornly closed  our  eyes  and  stopped  our  ears,  unwilling  to  see 
or  understand  anything.  We  worked  uninterruptedly — in  that 
case  only,  alas,  uninterruptedly — to  weaken  ourselves.  We 
complacently  welcomed,  forbearingly  diffused  everything  which 
disarms  a  nation  and  betrays  it  to  the  enemy.  .  .  .  Such 
is  the  painful  idea  which  the  mind  evokes  when  one  reads  your 
well-informed  pages.  .  .  .  War  broke  out  at  the  hour  the 
Germans  had  chosen.  So  it  was  necessary,  in  the  magnificent 
reawakening  of  the  race,  that  French  heroism  should  rebuild, 
but  at  the  price  of — what  a  sacrifice !  All  that  our  improvident 
leaders  had  criminally  undone.  Thus  your  book  teaches  a 
lesson — a  lesson  for  the  present  and  the  future." 

T.  E.  S. 


The  German  Terror  in  France,  an  historical  record,  by 

Arnold  J.  Toynbee,  late  Fellow  of  Balliol  College,  Oxford. 

New  York:  George  H.  Doran  Company,  1917.     Pp.  220. 

These  pages  are  a  continuation  of  "The  German  Terror  in 

Belgium,"  reviewed  in  a  former  issue.     This  is  a  detailed 

statement  of  devastation  and  depravity,  profusely  illustrated 

by  photographs  taken  in  the  devastated  area. 


The  Catholic 
Educational  Review 

FEBRUARY,  1919 

AMERICA'S  PIONEER  WAR  SONGS 

In  the  successful  conduct  of  war,  music  is  well-nigh  an  indis- 
pensable factor.  Man  is  led  to  a  great  extent  by  his  feelings,  and 
it  is  to  these  that  music  chiefly  appeals.  During  the  course  of 
almost  every  struggle  of  any  significance,  threatening  clouds  gather 
on  the  political  horizon  of  a  nation.  Dissatisfaction  arises  among 
the  people  at  home,  while  at  the  front  the  troops  become  dis- 
couraged and  yearn  for  more  peaceful  days.  It  is  in  such  times 
that  music  proves  itself  a  friend  in  need.  There  is  something  in 
the  dash  and  vigor  of  a  spirited  band  piece  that  penetrates  our  very 
being.  Even  nations  renowned  for  their  prowess  and  valor  have 
recognized  the  value  of  this  emotional  auxiliary,  and  have  derived 
much  benefit  from  its  use. 

During  the  Second  Messenian  War,  the  Spartans,  the  most 
military  of  the  Greek  commonwealths,  called  to  their  aid  a  lame 
poet  from  Athens,  Tyrtaeus,  that  he  might  inspire  and  lead  them 
to  battle.  In  1803  the  British  Government  awarded  Charles 
Dibdin,  one  of  her  dramatists,  a  pension  of  £200  for  the  valuable 
services  he  had  rendered  in  keeping  popular  feeling  against  the 
French  at  the  high-water  mark  during  the  long  years  of  enmity 
between  the  two  countries.  Dibdin's  songs  had  especially 
an  invigorating  effect  on  the  morale  of  the  men  in  the  British  navy. 
In  the  Civil  War  the  songs  of  the  North  aided  the  Unionists  in 
bringing  the  struggle  to  a  victorious  close.  The  Federals  had  an 
imposing  array  of  battle-hymns,  while  the  Confederates  had 
relatively  few.  Root's  "Battle  Cry  of  Freedom"  more  than  once 
performed  valuable  service  during  this  war,  as  the  following  inci- 
dent will  in  part  attest. 

A  few  days  after  the  capitulation  of  Lee  some  Union  officers  were 
entertaining  a  number  of  their  brethren  of  the  Confederate  army 

65 


66  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

at  a  certain  house  in  Richmond.  They  had  a  quartette  among 
them,  but  out  of  respect  for  the  feelings  of  the  Southerners  refrained 
from  singing  their  camp  songs.  The  men  from  Dixie,  however, 
expressed  a  desire  to  hear  the  Northern  battle-hymns.  Of  course 
the  Union  men  responded  with  a  will,  and  did  not  leave  off  till  they 
had  sung  them  all.  When  they  had  finished,  one  of  the  Confeder- 
ate officers  exclaimed:  "Gentlemen,  if  we'd  had  your  songs  we'd 
have  licked  you  out  of  your  boots!  Who  couldn't  have  marched 
or  fought  with  such  songs,  while  we  had  nothing,  absolutely 
nothing,  except  a  counterfeit  'Marseillaise,'  'The  Bonny  Blue 
Flag,'  and  'Dixie,'  which  were  nothing  but  jigs.  'Maryland,  My 
Maryland'  was  a  splendid  song,  but  the  tune,  old  Lauriger  Hora- 
tius,  was  about  as  inspiring  as  the  'Dead  March  in  Saul,'  while 
every  one  of  these  Yankee  songs  is  full  of  marching  and  fighting 
spirit." 

He  then  addressed  his  superior  officer,  saying,  "I  shall  never 
forget  the  first  time  I  heard  that  chorus, '  Rally  round  the  Flag.'  It 
was  a  nasty  night  during  the  Seven  Days'  fight,  and,  if  I  remember 
rightly,  it  was  raining.  I  was  on  picket,  when  just  before  'taps' 
some  fellow  on  the  other  side  struck  up  'The  Battle  Cry  of  Free- 
dom '  and  others  joined  in  the  chorus  until  it  seemed  to  me  that  the 
whole  Yankee  army  was  singing.  A  comrade  who  was  with  me 
sang  out,  'Good  heavens,  Cap,  what  are  those  fellows  made  of, 
anyway?  Here  we've  licked  them  six  days  running,  and  now,  on 
the  eve  of  the  seventh,  they're  singing  'Rally  round  the  Flag?'  I 
am  not  naturally  superstitious,  but  I  tell  you  that  song  sounded  to 
me  like  the  knell  of  doom;  my  heart  went  down  into  my  boots; 
and  though  I've  tried  to  do  my  duty,  it  has  been  an  uphill  fight 
with  me  ever  since  that  night." 

The  songs  prevalent  during  the  Revolutionary  War  are  not 
conspicuous  for  poetical  or  literary  merit,  but  rather  for  the  spirit 
of  defiance  and  liberty  which  they  breathe.  Whenever  poetry  is 
pressed  into  the  service  of  politics,  it  degenerates  and  sinks  to  a 
low  level.  This  is  as  true  of  the  days  of  Swift  and  Addison  as  of 
the  days  of  Trumbull  and  Barlow.  One  of  the  writers  of  the 
Revolution  says  they  wrote  "from  a  great  desire  to  state  the  truth, 
and  their  opinion  of  it,  in  a  quiet  way,  just  set  their  poetical  lathes 
a-turning,  and  twisted  out  ballads  and  songs  for  the  good  of  the 
common  cause."  Every  section  of  the  country  contributed  its 
share  of  patriotic  literature,  although  perhaps  the  greater  portion 


America's  Pioneer  War  Songs  67 

was  published  in  New  England.  There,  also,  we  find  the  first 
attempt  at  musical  composition  in  this  country,  which,  though 
somewhat  crude,  was  all  the  more  agreeable  for  its  spontaneity  and 
freshness. 

In  this  country  music  is  developing  along  the  same  lines  along 
which  our  literature  was  evolved.  The  early  settlers  were  of 
European  parentage  and  naturally  brought  with  them  the  ideals 
and  customs  of  their  native  land.  This  had  its  effect  on  literature 
and  music,  all  compositions  being  modelled  according  to  Old 
World  examples.  In  literature  nothing  was  considered  excellent 
or  in  good  style  for  which  a  predecessor  could  not  be  found  among 
the  masterpieces  of  England.  Butler's  "Hudibras"  was  "sedu- 
lously aped,"  as  was  also  Pope's  "Rape  of  the  Lock."  But 
gradually  we  broke  away  from  this  hindering  influence,  and  today 
we  have  a  literature  which  is  distinctly  American.  What  Mark 
Twain  says  could  only  proceed  from  a  Missourian.  In  music  we 
have  not  as  yet  reached  this  stage.  We  are  still  in  the  imitating 
period,  no  American  music,  with  the  exception  of  "ragtime," 
having  been  as  yet  evolved. 

But  a  little  study  of  our  history  will  show  that  this  could  hardly 
have  been  avoided.  The  early  colonists  had  scant  leisure  for  the 
study  of  the  arts.  They  had  more  urgent  problems  to  deal  with. 
Theirs  was  a  question  of  existence.  After  the  Indian  Wars  came 
the  struggle  with  Great  Britain.  To  these  were  added  internal 
troubles  relative  to  state  rights  and  slavery,  and,  to  complete  the 
list,  international  complications  arose  against  our  will  and  desire. 
Then  the  nation  has  not  long  since  emerged  from  its  swaddling 
clothes,  and  half -grown  youths  as  a  rule  do  not  concern  themselves 
much  with  questions  of  art. 

Another  reason  for  the  lack  of  musical  ability  among  the  early 
settlers  is  found  in  the  fact  that  the  Pilgrims  looked  with  disfavor 
on  all  music.  The  only  singing  allowed  was  the  chanting  of  the 
Psalms,  and  this  only  because  the  Jews  in  the  Old  Testament  had 
also  sung  the  Psalms  in  praise  of  Jehovah.  Artistic  singing,  or 
singing  by  note,  was  regarded  as  directly  sinful.  No  organ  ac- 
companiment was  permitted  in  the  churches  "so  that  attention 
to  the  instrument  does  not  divert  the  heart  from  attention  of  the 
matter  of  song." 

On  account  of  these  conditions  music  labored  under  difficulties 
in  the  early  days  of  its  existence  in  America.    At  the  commence- 


C8  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

ment  of  trouble  with  England  the  colonists  were  accordingly  at  a 
disadvantage.  Of  poets,  as  usual,  there  were  enough.  But  where 
to  procure  the  tunes  for  the  patriotic  hymns  and  odes  that  were 
pouring  in  from  all  directions  was  another  question.  The  matter 
was  settled  in  part  by  adapting  the  words  of  the  different  poems 
to  tunes  already  existing.  Thus  it  has  come  to  pass  that  we  have 
very  few  original  melodies  for  our  early  patriotic  hymns,  most  of 
them  being  of  foreign  extraction. 

A  song  which  precedes  the  Revolution  in  date  of  composition  is 
that  probably  written  by  Mrs.  Mercy  Warren,  of  Plymouth, 
Massachusetts.  Mrs.  Warren  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  women 
of  the  Revolution.  She  was  the  third  child  of  Col.  James  Otis,  a 
very  conspicuous  figure  in  the  early  days  of  our  trouble  with 
England.  In  1754  she  married  James  Warren,  then  High  Sheriff 
under  the  British  Government,  afterwards  a  general  in  the  Revolu- 
tionary army.  He  it  was  who  suggested  to  Samuel  Adams  the 
idea  of  forming  committees  of  correspondence.  Mrs.  Warren's 
mental  endowments  were  of  a  high  order,  and  often  was  her  advice 
sought  by  such  men  as  Jefferson,  Dickinson,  Samuel  and  John 
Adams,  Gerry,  and  Knox.  She  herself  says:  "By  the  Plymouth 
fireside  were  many  political  plans  originated,  discussed,  and 
digested."     Washington,  also,  was  acquainted  with  her. 

The  song  of  which  she  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  author  was 
sung  to  the  tune  of  "Hearts  of  Oak."  It  was  called  the  "Liberty 
Song."  The  origin  of  national  hymns  very  often  cannot  be 
determined  with  certainty,  no  reliable  data  being  obtainable. 
According  to  some  authorities  the  words  of  this  hymn  were 
written  by  John  Dickinson  and  Arthur  Lee.  On  July  4,  1768,  the 
former  wrote  to  James  Otis,  a  frequent  contributer  to  the  Boston 
Gazette:  "I  enclose  you  a  song  for  American  freedom.  I  have  long 
since  renounced  poetry,  but  as  indifferent  songs  are  very  powerful 
on  certain  occasions  I  ventured  to  invoke  the  deserted  muses.  I 
hope  my  good  intentions  will  procure  pardon,  with  those  I  wish  to 
please,  for  the  boldness  of  my  numbers.  My  worthy  friend,  Dr. 
Arthur  Lee,  a  gentleman  of  distinguished  family,  abilities  and 
patriotism,  in  Virginia,  composed  eight  lines  of  it.  Cardinal  De 
Retz  always  enforced  his  political  operations  by  songs.  I  wish  our 
attempt  may  be  useful." 

This  song  went  through  a  sort  of  evolution  before  it  finally 
emerged  in  its  last  form.    The  initial  version  seems  not  to  have 


America's  Pioneer  War  Songs  69 

suited  the  royalistic  feelings  of  the  Tories,  for,  after  its  publication, 
"A  Parody  upon  a  Weil-Known  Liberty  Song"  appeared  in  the 
Supplement  Extraordinary  of  the  Boston  Gazette,  September  26, 
1768.  Possibly  there  was  too  much  of  the  spirit  of  freedom  and 
independence  in  it  to  suit  the  taste  of  the  Tories.  The  last  form  of 
the  song  came  out  in  1770,  when  a  parody  on  the  Tory  parody  was 
published,  known  as  the  "Massachusetts  Song  of  Liberty." 

In  these  versions  the  state  of  mind  existing  in  those  days  is  very 
well  portrayed.  Although  the  first  edition  breathes  the  old  Saxon 
spirit  of  liberty  and  freedom,  we  find  no  disparaging  remarks  of 
the  home  government.  She  is  even  given  a  toast,  provided  "she 
is  but  just,  and  we  are  but  free."  The  Tory  parody  of  this  version 
is  made  up  of  rather  strong  language,  approaching  even  to  vul- 
garity. In  two  years  the  breach  between  the  two  factions  had 
widened  considerably,  and  the  maiden  colony  was  slowly  drifting 
away  from  her  moorings.  Consequently  the  words  of  the  last 
edition  are  anything  but  a  flattery  of  the  Tory  element.  For  the 
purpose  of  comparison,  stanzas  from  the  original  and  the  last 
version  are  here  given. 

Come  join  in  hand,  brave  Americans  all, 
And  rouse  your  bold  hearts  at  fair  Liberty's  call; 
No  tyrannous  arts  shall  suppress  your  just  claim, 
Or  stain  with  dishonor  America's  name. 

In  freedom  we're  born,  and  in  freedom  we'll  live ! 
Our  purses  are  ready — 
Steady,  friends,  steady! 
Not  as  slaves,  but  as  freemen,  our  money  we'll  give. 

This  bumper  I  crown  for  our  sovereign's  health, 
And  this  for  Britannia's  glory  and  wealth; 
That  wealth  and  that  glory  immortal  may  be, 
If  she  is  but  just,  and  if  we  are  but  free. 

[Chorus] 

From  Version  of  1770 

Come  swallow  your  bumpers,  ye  Tories,  and  roar, 
That  the  sons  of  fair  freedom  are  hampered  once  more; 
But  know  that  no  cut-throats  our  spirits  can  tame, 
Nor  a  host  of  oppressors  shall  smother  the  flame. 
In  freedom  we're  born,  and,  like  sons  of  the  brave, 
We'll  never  surrender, 
But  swear  to  defend  her; 
And  scorn  to  survive,  if  unable  to  save. 


70  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

Ye  insolent  tyrants,  who  wish  to  enthrall, 
Ye  minions!    ye  placemen!    pimps,  pensioners,  all! 
How  short  is  your  triumph,  how  feeble  your  trust! 
Your  honors  must  wither  and  nod  to  the  dust. 

[Chorus] 
Then  join  hand  in  hand,  brave  Americans  all, 
To  be  free  is  to  live;  to  be  slaves  is  to  fall; 
Has  the  land  such  a  dastard  as  scorns  not  a  lord? 
Who  dreads  not  a  fetter  much  more  than  a  sword? 

[Chorus] 

The  first  American  composer  of  any  significance  is  William 
Billings,  born  in  Boston,  October  7,  1746.  Billings  was  a  child  of 
nature,  a  wild  flower  of  the  soil,  so  far  as  musical  education  is 
concerned.  Of  the  rules  of  harmony  and  counterpoint  he  was 
blissfully  ignorant;  in  fact  he  did  not  believe  in  them,  claiming  in 
his  early  days  that  nature  is  our  best  teacher.  He  was  a  tanner 
by  trade  and,  like  all  geniuses,  was  very  eccentric.  His  eyesight 
was  poor,  physically  he  was  deformed,  and  till  his  death  he  lived 
in  want.  Though  he  was  the  first  American  to  show  any  appre- 
ciable musical  talent,  there  is  not  a  stone  to  mark  his  grave.  As 
usual  in  such  cases,  people  took  advantage  of  his  shortcomings  and 
made  sport  of  him.  Over  the  doorway  of  his  home  he  had  hung 
a  sign  which  read  "Billings'  Music."  One  night  the  entire  neigh- 
borhood was  awakened  by  the  peculiar  music  emitted  by  two  cats 
that  had  been  suspended  to  this  sign  with  their  tails  by  someone 
humorously  inclined. 

Like  that  other  native  American  genius,  Stephen  Collins 
Foster,  Billings  wrote  his  own  words  to  his  music.  His  songs 
vibrate  with  patriotism  and  cheered  many  a  desponding  heart. 
His  compositions  were  extremely  popular  with  the  troops,  who 
took  them  along  to  the  front,  and  so  their  influence  spread.  In 
this,  one  is  reminded  of  the  prominent  role  which  a  Massachusetts 
regiment  of  soldiers  played  at  the  beginning  of  the  Civil  War  in 
spreading  the  battle-hymn  "  Glory  Hallelujah."  Although  psalm- 
singing  alone  was  permitted  at  the  time,  the  people  took  up  these 
songs  of  Billings  with  great  enthusiasm.  His  most  popular  tune 
was  "Chester,"  and  many  a  time  the  fifers  in  the  Continental 
Army  played  this  air  in  their  tents.  To  this  melody  Billings  com- 
posed the  following  stirring  words : 

Let  tyrants  shake  their  iron  rod, 

And  slavery  clank  her  galling  chains, 
We'll  fear  them  not,  we'll  trust  in  God; 

New  England's  God  forever  reigns. 


America's  Pioneer  War  Songs  71 

The  foe  comes  on  with  haughty  stride, 
Our  troops  advance  with  martial  noise; 

Their  veterans  flee  before  our  arms, 
And  generals  yield  to  beardless  boys. 

When  God  inspir'd  us  for  the  fight, 

Their  ranks  were  broken,  their  lines  were  forc'd, 

Their  ships  were  shattered  in  our  sight, 
Or  swiftly  driven  from  the  coast. 

What  grateful  offering  shall  we  bring? 

What  shall  we  render  to  the  Lord? 
Loud  hallelujahs  let  us  sing, 

And  praise  his  name  on  every  cord. 

That  the  cause  of  liberty  will  always  find  defenders  and  that  the 
oppressed  will  never  lack  sympathizers  are  evidenced  by  the  fact 
that  Henry  Archer,  though  possessed  of  a  goodly  inheritance  in 
England,  forsook  the  land  of  his  birth  and  threw  in  his  fortunes 
with  the  ragged  soldiers  of  the  Rebellion.  Archer  not  only  spoke 
with  deeds  but  also  with  words.  He  put  his  pen  at  the  service 
of  the  patriots,  and  the  result  was  a  song  which  found  much  favor 
among  the  troops.  It  is  more  of  a  good-fellowship  than  military 
song  and  shows  that  Archer  was  a  warm  admirer  of  the  humble 
dwellers  in  the  New  World.  It  is  made  up  of  a  series  of  toasts. 
Two  of  the  verses  are  herewith  given.  In  the  following  stanzas 
he  toasts  the  lawyer,  the  veteran  who  had  again  responded  to  the 
call  of  arms,  and  the  farmer. 

The  Volunteer  Boys 

Hence  with  the  lover  who  sighs  o'er  his  wine, 

Chloes  and  Phillises  toasting, 
Hence  with  the  slave  who  will  whimper  and  whine, 
Of  ardor  and  constancy  boasting. 
Hence  with  love's  joys, 
Follies  and  noise, 
The  toast  that  I  give  is  the  Volunteer  Boys. 

Here's  to  the  squire  who  goes  to  parade, 

Here's  to  the  citizen  soldier; 
Here's  to  the  merchant  who  fights  for  his  trade, 
Whom  danger  increasing  makes  bolder. 
Let  mirth  appear 
Union  is  here, 
The  toast  that  I  give  is  the  brave  Volunteer. 


72  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

During  the  Revolutionary  period  there  was  at  Hartford  a  group 
of  men  known  as  the  "Hartford  Wits"  who  were  endeavoring  to 
raise  our  literature  out  of  the  provincial  class  and  make  it  national. 
To  the  foremost  of  them  belonged  Joel  Barlow,  a  man  of  many- 
parts.  Barlow  was  built  after  the  pattern  of  Franklin.  He 
successively  was  chaplain  in  the  Continental  Army,  financier, 
poet,  land  speculator,  politician,  and  diplomat.  For  seventeen 
years  he  lived  abroad,  became  a  member  of  the  "Constitutional 
Society"  of  London,  stood  on  intimate  terms  with  the  Girondists 
of  France,  was  consul  at  Algiers,  and  even  enjoyed  French  citizen- 
ship. 

Barlow  wrote  an  epic  of  ten  books,  "The  Columbiad,"  which  was 
to  be  national.  Hawthorne  once  made  the  suggestion  that  we 
stage  this  to  the  accompaniment  of  thunder  and  lightning.  It  is 
rather  dull  reading.  Hearing  that  Massachusetts  was  in  need  of 
chaplains,  Barlow  turned  away  from  the  study  of  law,  took  a 
six-weeks  course  in  theology,  and  at  the  end  of  that  time  was 
licensed  a  minister  of  the  Congregationalist  Church.  How 
highly  he  valued  patriotic  songs  can  be  seen  from  a  remark  which 
he  made  on  his  entrance  into  the  army:  "I  do  not  know,  whether 
I  shall  do  more  for  the  cause  in  the  capacity  of  chaplain  than  I 
would  in  that  of  poet;  I  have  great  faith  in  the  influence  of  songs; 
and  shall  continue,  while  fulfilling  the  duties  of  my  appointment,  to 
write  one  now  and  then,  and  to  encourage  the  taste  for  them 
which  I  find  in  the  camp.  One  good  song  is  worth  a  dozen  ad- 
dresses or  proclamations." 

A  poem  commemorating  the  burning  of  Charlestown,  called 

"Breed's  Hill,"   has  been  ascribed  to  Barlow.     It  consists  of 

fourteen  stanzas. 

Breed's  Hill 

Palmyra's  prospect,  with  her  tumbling  walls, 
Huge  piles  of  ruin  heap'd  on  every  side, 

From  each  beholder,  tears  of  pity  calls, 

Sad  monuments,  extending  far  and  wide. 

Yet  far  more  dismal  to  the  patriot's  eye, 

The  drear  remains  of  Charlestown's  former  show, 

Behind  whose  walls  did  hundred  warriors  die, 
And  Britain's  center  felt  the  fatal  blow. 

To  see  a  town  so  elegantly  form'd, 

Such  buildings  graced  with  every  curious  art, 

Spoil'd  in  a  moment,  on  a  sudden  storm'd, 
Must  fill  with  indignation  every  heart. 


America's  Pioneer  War  Songs  73 

A  name  which  deserves  to  be  much  better  known,  but  which  is 
now  almost  forgotten,  is  that  of  Jonathan  Mitchel  Sewall.  This 
man  made  the  country  his  debtor  through  the  stirring  songs  he 
composed,  strengthening  the  patriots  in  their  resolves  and  put- 
ting new  confidence  into  them.  Such  assistance  was  not  to  be 
despised,  for  dark  days  were  in  store  for  the  embryo  republic, 
days  in  which  the  heart  of  the  boldest  would  be  filled  with  gloom. 
Washington  himself  wrote  toward  the  end  of  the  year  1776. 
"If  every  nerve  is  not  strained  to  recruit  the  new  army  with  all 
possible  expedition,  I  think  the  game  is  pretty  nearly  up." 

Sewall  was  born  in  1749.  He  was  adopted  by  his  uncle,  Chief 
Justice  Stephan  Sewall,  of  Massachusetts,  and  died  at  Ports- 
mouth, March  29,  1808.  His  "  War  and  Washington  "  was  written 
at  the  beginning  of  the  Revolution  and  sung  in  all  parts  of  the 
country.  It  is  very  forceful  and  energetic,  and  when  reading  it  one 
is  reminded  of  the  graphic  and  fitful  style  of  Carlyle.  The  entire 
poem  comprises  twelve  stanzas. 

War  and  Washington 

Vain  Britons,  boast  no  longer  with  proud  indignity, 

By  land  your  conqu'ring  legions,  your  matchless  strength 

Since  we,  your  braver  sons  incens'd,  our  swords  have  girded 
on,  Huzza,  huzza,  huzza,  huzza,  for  War  and  Washington. 

Still  deaf  to  mild  entreaties,  still  blind  to  England's  good, 
You  have  for  thirty  pieces  betray 'd  your  country's  blood. 
Like  Esop's  greedy  cur  you'll  gain  a  shadow  for  your  bone, 
Yet  find  us  fearful  shades  indeed,  inspir'd  by  Washington. 

Great  Heav'n!  is  this  the  nation  whose  thund'ring  arms 

were  hurl'd 
Thro'  Europe,  Afric,  India?     Whose  navy  rul'd  a  World? 
The  luster  of  your  former  deeds,  whole  ages  of  renown, 
Lost  in  a  moment,  or  transferr'd  to  us  and  Washington. 

We  have  already  made  mention  of  the  drawback  under  which 
the  patriots  suffered  through  lack  of  musicians  and  tune  writers, 
and  this  is  very  well  shown  in  Robert  Treat  Paine's  "Rise  Colum- 
bia." Paine's  father  was  one  of  the  signers  of  the  Declaration  of 
Independence.  His  son's  real  name  was  Thomas,  but  he  asked 
permission  of  the  State  Legislature  to  change  this  to  Robert,  his 
father's  name,  remarking  that  "since  Tom  Paine  (the  free-thinker) 


74  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

had  borne  it  he  'had  no  Christian  name.'"  Paine  had  splendid 
intellectual  gifts,  but  he  did  not  make  full  use  of  them.  During 
his  school  days  a  classmate  having  written  a  squib  about  him  on 
the  college  wall,  Paine's  friends  advised  him  to  return  the  com- 
pliment in  like  manner.  He  did  so,  and  in  this  way  discovered  his 
poetic  ability.  Most  of  his  compositions  at  college  were  written 
in  verse.  He  later  entered  the  counting-office  of  Mr.  James  Tis- 
dale,  but  proved  a  rather  heavy  burden  on  his  employer's  hands, 
for  "he  made  entries  in  his  day-book  in  poetry,  and  once  made  out 
a  charter  party  in  the  same  style."  On  another  occasion  he  was 
sent  to  the  bank  with  a  check  for  $500.  On  the  way  he  met  some 
of  his  literary  friends,  went  to  Cambridge,  "and  spent  the  week 
in  the  enjoyment  of  'the  feast  of  reason  and  the  flow  of  soul."  At 
the  end  of  his  trip  he  returned  with  the  money. 

The  song  we  are  here  considering  shows  a  very  marked  resem- 
blance to  Thomson's  famous  poem  "Rule  Britannia,"  one  of  the 
national  hymns  of  England.  It  was  modelled  along  the  same 
lines,  and  also  sung  to  the  same  tune;  it  approaches  rather  close 
to  plagiarism.     The  two  versions  follow. 

Rise  Columbia 

When  first  the  sun  o'er  ocean  glow'd, 

And  earth  unveiled  her  virgin  breast, 

Supreme  'mid  Nature's,  'mid  Nature's  vast  abode, 

Was  heard  th'  Almighty's  dread  behest: 

Rise  Columbia,  Columbia  brave  and  free, 

Poise  the  globe  and  bound  the  sea. 

Rule  Britannia 

When  Britain  first  at  Heav'n's  command, 
Arose  from  out  the  azure  main, 
This  was  the  charter,  the  charter  of  the  land, 
And  guardian  angels  sang  this  strain; 

Rule  Britannia!    Britannia  rule  the  waves; 

Britons  never  shall  be  slaves. 

Not  all  the  songs  were  of  a  warlike  character.  People  were  more 
religious  in  those  days  than  at  present,  and  felt  the  need  of  a 
Helper  in  their  struggle  against  a  superior  enemy.  We  therefore 
find  poems  of  a  semi-religious  nature  among  the  productions  of  this 
period.  The  more  spirited  songs,  those  with  a  military  swing, 
were  sung  on  the  marches;  those  in  which  the  religious  element 
entered  were  sung  at  home  and  in  the  churches.     Among  the  songs 


America's  Pioneer  War  Songs  75 

of  the  latter  class  must  be  reckoned  "Columbia,"  written  by 
Timothy  D  wight. 

Dwight  was  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  Hartford  wits,  and  for 
twenty-one  years  was  president  of  Yale.  As  a  child  he  was  very 
precocious.  He  read  the  Bible  at  four,  studied  Latin  unaided  at 
six,  and  was  ready  for  college  at  eight.  His  mother  was  the  third 
daughter  of  Jonathan  Edwards,  the  noted  divine,  and  from  her 
lips  he  received  his  early  instructions.  Dwight's  best  poetry  is 
found  in  "Columbia,"  written  when  he  joined  the  army  at  West 
Point,  and  composed  for  the  brigade  in  which  he  served  as  chap- 
lain. It  was  taken  up  with  enthusiasm  and  published  in  all 
popular  collections.  The  poem  is  noteworthy  for  the  noble  ideals 
which  it  breathes;  it  is  free  from  hate,  and  seeks  to  elevate  the 
hearts  and  minds  of  its  readers.  In  it  the  author  dreams  of  an 
America  powerful  in  her  justice  and  love,  the  haven  of  the  poor, 
and  "the  queen  of  the  world."  The  entire  poem  consists  of  six 
stanzas. 

Columbia 

Columbia,  Columbia,  to  glory  arise, 
The  queen  of  the  world  and  the  child  of  the  skies; 
Thy  genius  commands  thee;  with  rapture  behold, 
While  ages  on  ages  thy  splendors  unfold, 
Thy  reign  is  the  last  and  the  noblest  of  time. 
Most  fruitful  thy  soil,  most  inviting  thy  clime; 
Let  the  crimes  of  the  east  ne'er  encrimson  thy  name; 
Be  freedom  and  science,  and  virtue  and  fame. 

To  conquest  and  slaughter,  let  Europe  aspire: 
'Whelm  nations  in  blood,  and  wrap  cities  in  fire: 
Thy  heroes  the  rights  of  mankind  shall  defend, 
And  triumph  pursue  them,  and  glory  attend. 
A  world  is  thy  realm :  for  a  world  be  thy  laws, 
Enlarg'd  as  thine  empire,  and  just  as  thy  cause; 
On  Freedom's  broad  basis,  that  empire  shall  rise, 
Extend  with  the  main,  and  dissolve  with  the  skies. 

Thus,  as  down  a  lone  valley,  with  cedars  o'erspread, 
From  war's  dread  confusion  I  pensively  strayed — 
The  gloom  from  the  face  of  fair  heaven  retired, 
The  winds  ceased  to  murmur,  the  thunders  expired; 
Perfumes  as  of  Eden,  flowed  sweetly  along, 
And  a  voice,  as  of  angels,  enchantingly  sang — 
Columbia,  Columbia,  to  glory  arise, 
The  queen  of  the  world  and  the  child  of  the  skies. 


76  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

Another  song  of  semi-religious  character  is  "The  American 
Hero,"  written  by  Nathaniel  Niles,  Norwich,  Connecticut.  Niles 
was  a  graduate  of  Princeton  and  a  Master  of  Arts  at  Harvard. 
He  was  a  man  of  ability  and  filled  positions  of  diverse  nature.  He 
afterwards  removed  to  Vermont,  where  he  became  District  Judge 
of  the  United  States.     He  died  at  the  age  of  eighty-six. 

"The  American  Hero"  was  composed  immediately  after  the 
Battle  of  Bunker  Hill.  It  is  a  Sapphic  ode,  consisting  of  fifteen 
stanzas.  It  also  was  at  once  set  to  music,  and  for  years  afterwards 
was  sung  in  the  churches.  In  the  view  of  some  this  poem  is  the 
best  literary  production  of  the  time. 

The  American  Hero 

Why  should  vain  mortals  tremble  at  the  sight  of 
Death  and  destruction  in  the  field  of  battle, 
When  blood  and  carnage  clothe  the  ground  in  crimson, 
Sounding  with  death  groans? 

Infinite  wisdom  teacheth  us  submission; 
Bids  us  be  quiet  under  all  his  dealings; 
Never  repining,  but  forever  praising 
God  our  Creator. 

Then  to  the  goodness  of  my  Lord  and  Master, 
I  will  commit  all  that  I  have  or  wish  for; 
Sweetly  as  babes  sleep,  will  I  give  my  life  up 
When  called  to  yield  it. 

Life  for  my  country  and  the  cause  of  freedom, 
Is  but  a  cheap  price  for  a  worm  to  part  with; 
And  if  preserved  in  so  great  a  contest, 
Life  is  redoubled. 

{To  be  continued) 

Lawrence  Leinheuser. 


A  MASTER  OF  CAUSERIE 

"A  Little  of  Everything"  is  the  title  of  an  ingathering  of  essays 
from  the  books  of  Mr.  E.  V.  Lucas,  a  delightful  miscellanist.  The 
caption  might  be  used  to  describe  the  contents  of  all  the  volumes — 
and  they  are  many — which  his  pen  has  to  its  credit.  It  is  a  deft 
and  nimble  pen  which  strays  delightfully  at  the  urge  of  his  fancy, 
whether  the  theme  be  fireside  or  sunshine,  coaches  or  motor-cars, 
country  walks  or  city  ways,  traits  of  humor  or  of  pathos.  Through- 
out, his  point  of  view  is  that  of  the  cultured  man  of  the  world,  to 
whom  nothing  comes  amiss,  and  who  can  treat  urbanely  the 
niceties  of  convention  or  some  wilding  charm  of  rustic  life.  A 
graceful  touch  on  little  things,  a  familiarity  with  the  bric-a-brac 
of  literature,  an  eye  for  the  odd,  the  droll,  and  the  whimsical  in 
life  and  manners — these  are  assets  of  this  literary  chef.  His 
literary  fare  he  served  up  with  all  the  rare  taste  of  an  epicure. 
Thus  he  has  culled  for  us  a  florilegium  of  letters  of  all  ages  which 
range  from  grave  to  gay,  from  lively  to  severe.  Companion 
anthologies  set  forth  the  lure  of  the  open  road — sun  and  moon, 
clouds  and  stars,  and  the  wind  on  the  heath — or  the  call  of  the 
friendly  London  town. 

While  he  has  written  of  many  other  cities,  he  is  mostly  insular 
in  his  affections  and  does  not  wander  willingly  beyond  the  metrop- 
olis and  its  environs.  He  loves  to  potter  about  amid  its  inns  and 
art-galleries  and  curio  shops,  to  haunt  the  places  where  lived  its 
celebrities,  to  note  the  national  consciousness  as  evidenced  in  the 
manner  of  its  daily  life,  to  fix  in  words  some  fleeting  aspect  of 
beauty  amid  its  shifting  changes.  Thus,  for  example,  he  dis- 
cusses the  query  whether  London's  prettiest  effect  is  to  be  had  in 
the  key  of  blue  when  the  street-lamps  are  lit,  or  in  the  symphony 
of  colors — blue-gray  and  white-gray — presented  by  the  pigeons 
that  soar  and  circle  against  the  black  and  gray  background  of  the 
British  Museum,  or  in  the  impressionistic  view  at  sunset  of  a  line 
of  barges  on  the  Thames.  For  an  expression  of  the  color-tone  of 
city  life,  however,  we  must  refer  to  the  exquisite  Muse  of  Mrs. 
Meynell,  who  puts  the  matter  beyond  question: 

But  when  the  gold  and  silver  lamps 

Colour  the  London  dew, 
And,  misted  by  the  winter  damps, 

The  shops  shine  bright  anew — 
Blue  comes  to  earth,  it  walks  the  street, 

It  dyes  the  wide  air  through; 

77 


78  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

A  mimic  sky  about  their  feet, 

The  throng  go  crowned  with  blue. 

Our  annalist,  too,  frequents  the  music-halls,  and  recounts  the 
turns  of  the  mimes  and  artistes — Dan  Leno  and  Cinquevalli, 
Genee,  and  Maude  Allan — who  graced  them  in  the  immediate 
past.  Not  only  is  he  a  lover  of  the  theater,  but,  for  all  Kipling's 
satire,  he  is  equally  whole-hearted  in  his  devotion  to  sport.  So  he 
strolls  to  the  cricket-grounds,  where  he  delights  his  eye  with  the 
patterns  woven  by  the  "flanneled  fools"  on  the  greensward: 

"As  the  run-stealers  flicker  to  and  fro." 
Or,  perhaps,  it  is  the  doughty  feat  of  some  "muddied  oaf"  on  the 
Rugby  field,  charging  the  goal  at  a  tense  moment  of  the  game,  that 
he  chronicles.  He  feels,  also,  the  fascination  of  the  circus  and  its 
clowns  and  can  recapture  the  thrill  of  the  big  tops  as  he  first 
experienced  it.  Thus  does  he  stray,  like  Lamb,  within  the  charmed 
circle  of  London  and  find  his  themes  in  its  manifold  occupations. 

Of  the  immediate  out-of-doors  and  of  the  littler  animals  almost 
domesticated  he  writes  with  equal  charm.  A  judicious  blend  of 
fireside  enjoyment  and  feeling  for  nature  gives  his  books  that 
quality  of  intimacy  which  we  find,  for  example,  in  the  essays  of 
Leigh  Hunt.  In  his  pages  the  pleasantest  of  paths  winds  through 
landscapes,  alive  with  country  sights  and  sounds,  to  vistas  which 
beckon  in  the  blue  distance.  By  the  way  he  sketches  the  creatures 
which  cross  the  trail,  with  an  art  which  suggests  the  pen  of  John 
Burroughs.  He  has  something  novel  to  say  on  the  fearfulness  of 
rabbits,  on  the  celerities  of  hares,  and  is  especially  happy  in  his 
observation  of  the  habits  of  squirrels: 

The  squirrel  must  be  emboughed  if  he  is  to  show  in  brightest 
pin.  On  the  ground  he  is  swift  and  graceful,  but  his  tail  impedes 
instead  of  assisting  him;  in  a  tree,  or  in  mid-air  between  two  trees, 
this  brilliant  aeronaut  is  a  miracle  of  joyous  pulsating  life  .  .  . 
Once  the  tree  is  gained,  he  scampers  up  a  yard  or  two,  on  the  side 
farthest  from  the  enemy,  and  then  pauses  as  suddenly  as  if  an 
enchanter  had  bidden  him  turn  to  stone.  Nothing  in  nature  is 
more  motionless  than  a  wary,  watchful  squirrel.  He  clings  to  the 
bark,  with  cocked  head  and  fearful  eyes,  a  matter  of  half  a  minute 
before  climbing  to  the  first  fork  of  the  boughs.  But  to  say  climb- 
ing is  a  mistake;  it  is  not  climbing;  it  is  just  running,  or,  better 
still,  going.    A  squirrel  goes  up  a  tree. 

Notable,  too,  is  his  characterization  of  domestic  fowl:  "the  little 
brood  of  ducklings,  who  move  about  ever  in  solid  phalanx;  collec- 
tively, seven  yellow  ducklings,  with  weakly,  twittering  beaks  and 


A  Master  of  Causerie  79 

foolishly  limp  necks" — but  the  squirrel  he  has  made  peculiarly 
his  own. 

The  interests  of  the  book-lover  dominate  all  he  writes,  for,  after 
all,  his  nearest  congener  is  the  dilettante  who  rooms  over  Bemer- 
ton's  book-shop.  It  is  from  this  vantage-ground  that  he  views 
life,  and  he  selects  for  his  sketches  that  material  which  admits 
best  of  literary  exploitation.  He  often  chooses  for  his  medium  the 
lost  epistolary  art  of  more  leisured  days,  and  restores  to  his  record 
of  current  topics  something  of  its  bygone  charm.  He  makes  it  the 
vehicle  of  life's  little  ironies,  and  in  a  series  of  letters  he  develops 
some  amusing  contretemps  due  to  the  foibles  of  the  imaginary 
correspondents  who  write  at  cross  purposes.  His  style  has  the 
informality  and  unaffected  ease  of  such  writing  at  its  best.  If  he 
gossips  delightfully  of  the  creature-comforts  of  life,  of  the  delicacies 
of  the  breakfast  table — tea  and  toast,  watercress  and  marmalade — 
we  feel  that  he  had  in  ulterior  view  a  repast  of  exquisite  flavor: 

Watercress,  if  it  tastes  of  anything,  tastes  of  early  morning  in 
spring.  It  is  eloquent  of  the  charm  of  its  native  environment. 
Nothing  else — lettuce,  radishes,  cucumber,  land  cress,  or  celery — 
speaks  or  sings  to  the  eater,  as  watercress  does,  of  cool  streams  and 
overhanging  banks  and  lush  herbage.  The  watercress  has  for 
neighbors  the  water-lily,  the  marsh  marigold,  and  the  forget-me- 
not.     The  spirit  of  the  rivulet  abides  in  its  heart. 

Here  is  a  connoisseur  who,  if  he  condescends  to  Mrs.  Beeton,  can 
extract  poetry  from  a  cookery-book ! 

The  amenities  of  society,  modes  and  fashions  in  dress,  some 
rarity  of  art  or  letters,  a  tendre  for  domesticity  and  the  lenitives 
of  life — these  form  the  staple  of  his  repertory.  He  writes  deli- 
riously of  antiques,  nick-nacks  and  old  china;  he  revels  in  memories 
of  the  worthies  of  sporting  days  such  as  figure  in  the  novels  (now 
forgotten)  of  Robert  Surtees;  he  pokes  excellent  fun  at  some  minor 
eccentric — the  Rev.  Cornelius  Whur  who  specialized  in  graveyard 
poems,  or  the  egregious  Thomas  Day  who  wrote  that  priggish 
story  for  boys,  "Sandford  and  Merton";  he  resurrects  some  faded 
dandy  like  the  Count  D'Orsay,  who  shone  in  the  circle  of  Lady 
Blessington  and  Lord  Byron.  Or,  again,  he  chats  engagingly  of 
his  favorite  Dutch  painter,  Vermeer  or  Hobbema,  enlarges  know- 
ingly on  the  contents  of  school  hampers,  or  crystallizes  his  expe- 
rience of  life  in  some  ingenious  apologue.  Rarely  does  he  essay 
any  deep  sentiment;  at  most  he  pens  a  wistful  passage  at  which 
the  eye  of  Phyllis  may  darken.    Though  he  touches  mostly  the 


80  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

comfortable  surface  of  things,  occasionally  this  student  of  manners 
has  something  penetrating  to  say  on  the  art  of  savoir  vivre.  One 
sapient  observation  may  be  quoted  as  a  counsel  of  perfection  in 
this  age  of  social  camouflage: 

The  art  of  life  is  to  show  your  hand.  There  is  no  diplomacy  like 
candour.  You  may  lose  by  it  now  and  then,  but  it  will  be  a  loss 
well  gained  if  you  do.  Nothing  is  so  boring  as  having  to  keep  up  a 
deception. 

"Montaigne  and  Howell's  Letters  are  my  bedside  books,"  wrote 
Thackeray  in  his  gossipy  "Roundabout  Papers."  "If  I  wake  at 
night,  I  have  one  or  other  of  them  to  prattle  me  to  sleep  again." 
For  us  today  the  offhand,  discursive  sketches  of  Lucas  serve  a  like 
purpose.  They  are  charged  with  that  nameless  thing — per- 
sonality. Their  tone  is  essentially  friendly;  their  style — by  turns 
bland,  quizzical,  insistent,  desultory,  fanciful,  wilful — suggests 
the  mood  and  accents  of  an  entertaining  companion  who  is  actually 
chatting  with  us.  The  occasional  asides,  afterthoughts,  questions, 
iterations  help  to  complete  the  illusion.  Then  the  causerie 
throughout  its  varied  range  of  subjects  is  invariably  restful,  sooth- 
ing. It  brings  before  the  imagination  a  succession  of  images  that 
take  shape,  develop,  and  fade  like  the  dream-pictures  in  the 
embers  of  the  evening  fire.  Faces  racy,  quaint,  grotesque;  figures 
normal,  foreshortened  or  elongated;  characters  with  some  odd 
quirk  or  twist  in  them  appear  and  disappear  in  a  series  of  dissolving 
views.  This  shifting  pageant  of  the  hearth  parallels  the  kaleido- 
scopic presentment  of  life  in  his  essays  and  best  expresses  their 
quality.  They  exercise  on  us  a  beguiling  influence  comparable 
only  to  the  spell  of  fireside  milieu  which  he  has  drawn  so  charm- 
ingly: "A  true  luxury  is  a  fire  in  a  bed-room.  This  is  fire  at  its 
most  fanciful  and  mysterious.  One  lies  in  bed  watching  drowsily 
the  play  of  the  flames,  the  flicker  of  the  shadows.  The  light  leaps 
up  and  hides  again;  the  room  gradually  becomes  peopled  with 
fantasies.  Now  and  then  a  coal  drops  and  accentuates  the  silence. 
Movement  with  silence  is  one  of  the  curious  influences  that  come 
to  us:  hence,  perhaps,  part  of  the  fascination  of  the  cinematoscope, 
wherein  trains  rush  into  stations,  and  streets  are  seen  filled  with 
hurrying  people  and  bustling  vehicles,  and  yet  there  is  no  sound 
save  the  clicking  of  the  mechanism.  With  a  fire  in  one's  bed- 
room sleep  comes  witchingly" — as,  also,  with  a  book  of  Lucas' 
to  serve  as  a  livre  de  chevet. 

F.   MOYNIHAN. 


VOCATIONAL  PREPARATION  OF  YOUTH  IN 
CATHOLIC  SCHOOLS* 

An  Outline  of  the  History  of  Vocational  Education  in  Catholic 

Schools 

The  Church  has  ever  been  solicitous  for  the  welfare  of  her 
children,  and  so  we  find  that  from  the  dawn  of  Christianity 
she  provided  for  their  education.  As  soon  as  the  yoke  of  perse- 
cution and  oppression  by  civil  authority  was  removed,  she 
fearlessly  sought  to  accomplish  her  aim ;  namely,  to  extend  the 
sublime  message  of  hope  and  salvation  to  all ;  to  establish  that 
equality  among  men  which  the  Redeemer  bad  come  to  restore; 
to  make  known  the  loftiest  truths  of  religion  and  the  highest 
form  of  morality.  |Her  mission  was  to  teach  religious  truths 
and  moral  precepts,  but  in  order  to  do  this  it  was  necessary  to 
provide  for  the  training  of  the  intellect  as  well.  This  became 
more  imperative  when  the  home  influence  was  no  longer  able 
to  counteract  the  dangers  that  threatened  the  moral  welfare  of 
her  children.  Therefore,  she  established  the  Catechumenal 
schools,  which  provided  religious  instruction  for  prospective 
Christians ;  the  Catechetical  schools,  in  which  vocational  train- 
ing was  given  to  the  future  priest ;  the  Song  schools  and  Parish 
schools,  where  Christian  doctrine,  reading  and  writing  were 
taught,  and  the  children  were  prepared  to  participate  in  the 
services  of  the  Church.63 

Most  important  of  all  the  educational  institutions  during  the 
early  Middle  Ages  were  the  Monastic  schools,  for  though  the 
monasteries  were  primarily  intended  for  purposes  of  devotion, 
they  provided  systematic  instruction  for  the  young  committed 
to  their  care  by  parents  that  they  might  receive  a  Christian 
education.  In  the  West  monasticism  was  to  be  an  instrument 
in  the  hands  of  the  Almighty  for  renewing  the  face  of  Europe. 
St.  Benedict,  who  know  from  his  own  experience  the  moral 
dangers  of  a  Godless  education,  began  a  work  of  untold  benefit 
to  mankind  when  he  established  his  order.    It  is  true  that  this 


*  A  dissertation,  by  Sister  Mary  Jeanette,  O.S.B.  M.  A.,  St.  Joseph, 
Minnesota,  submitted  to  the  Catholic  Sisters  College  of  the  Catholic 
University  of  America,  in  Partial  Fulfillment  of  the  Requirements  for 
the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Philosophy. 

98  McCormick,  P.  J.,  History  of  Education,  Washington,  D.  C,  1915,  pp. 
65-90. 

81 


8£  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

was  not  done  with  the  intention  of  teaching  art,  or  fostering 
architecture,  or  promoting  other  industries ;  the  main  object  of 
life  in  the  monasteries  was  the  sanctification  of  its  members, 
who,  according  to  the  words  of  St.  Benedict,  are  really  worthy 
of  the  name  "monk"  only  when  they  live  by  the  labor  of  their 
own  hands.64  To  work  and  to  pray  was  to  be  the  occupation 
of  his  children,  and  from  this  small  and  apparently  insignifi- 
cant beginning  resulted  the  transformation  of  Europe. 

The  principle  that  manual  labor  has  its  legitimate  place  in 
the  course  of  instruction  did  not  originate  with  St.  Benedict. 
In  the  fourth  century  we  find  in  St.  Basil's  legislation  concern- 
ing pupils  this  statement:  "And  whilst  acquiring  knowledge 
of  letters,  they  are  likewise  to  be  taught  some  useful  art  or 
trade."65  And  in  St.  Jerome's  instruction  to  Laeta  regarding 
the  education  of  her  daughter,  Paula,  there  is  set  forth  expli- 
citly the  kind  of  manual  work  that  she  should  be  taught.68 
This  is  all  the  more  remarkable  since  he  outlined  the  course  for 
a  noble  virgin,  not  for  the  practical  use  that  the  skill  of  her 
hands  might  acquire,  but  as  a  means  of  obtaining  a  complete 
education. 

Though  the  early  Christians  recognized  the  value  of  labor  in 
the  educative  process  and  were  aware  of  its  dignity,  since  the 
Son  of  God  had  deigned  to  teach  this  lesson  by  His  example,  it 
was  a  very  difficult  problem  to  convince  the  newly  converted 
world  of  the  fourth  century  that  their  preconceived  notions  con- 
cerning manual  work  were  erroneous  and  not  in  accordance 
with  those  of  a  true  disciple  of  Christ.  The  Romans,  whose 
dominion  extended  well-nigh  over  the  then  known  world,  looked 
upon  the  pursuit  of  any  industry,  and  especially  of  agriculture, 
which  was  almost  exclusively  the  portion  of  slaves,  as  degrad- 
ing occupations.67  To  overcome  such  prejudice  was  one  of  the 
many  difficult  tasks  that  confronted  the  Church  in  early  Chris- 
tian times.  It  was  accomplished  mainly  through  the  influence 
of  monasticism.  Bound  by  their  rule  to  divide  the  time  between 
prayer  and  labor,  the  followers  of  St.  Benedict,  by  their  ex- 


•*  St.  Benedict,  The  Holy  Rule,  Atchison,  Kansas,  1912,  Ch.  48,  p.  109. 

••  Drane,  A.  T.,  Christian  Schools  and  Scholars,  New  York,  1910,  p.  24. 

86  Denk,  Otto,  Oeschichte  des  Gallo-Frankischen  Unterrichts  u.  Bil- 
dungsivesens.  Mainz.  1892,  p.  262. 

w  Montalembert,  Monks  of  the  West.  Boston,  1872,  Vol.  1,  Book  3, 
p.  297. 


Vocational  Preparation  of  Catholic  Youth      83 

ample,  taught  the  lesson  which  made  possible  the  civilization 
of  Europe.  According  to  the  example  of  Our  Lord  and  His 
disciples,  labor  was  sanctified  by  them  and  raised  to  the  dig- 
nity of  a  virtue  in  which  lies  man's  redemption. 

The  monastery  was  usually  located  in  an  isolated  "desert"; 
that  is,  in  an  uninhabited,  uncultivated  tract  of  land,  covered 
with  forests  or  surrounded  by  marshes.68  The  monks  desired 
the  solitude  which  an  inaccessible  retreat  offered,  and  the 
donor's  munificence  incurred  the  least  possible  sacrifice.  But 
the  patient  toil  of  the  monks  transformed  the  forests,  the 
marshes,  the  sandy  plains  and  barren  heaths  into  fat  pastur- 
ages and  abundant  harvests.  The  regions  thus  restored  often 
comprised  from  one-fourth  to  one-half  of  a  kingdom,  as  was 
the  case  in  Northumberland,  East  Anglia  and  Mercia.69 

The  material  benefit  that  the  work  of  the  monks  secured  for 
Europe  by  the  clearing  of  forests,  by  irrigation,  drainage,  the 
development  of  agriculture,  and  the  impetus  given  to  all  the 
industries  was  very  great;  but  these  were  surpassed  by  the 
mental  and  spiritual  good  that  was  produced  by  means  of  the 
training  given  in  these  schools.  The  conquest  of  the  wild  beasts 
that  dwelt  within  the  forests  was  not  as  difficult  as  the  victory 
over  barbarian  passions;  to  obtain  fruit  and  grain  from  the 
wilderness  was  a  lighter  task  than  to  graft  upon  these  un- 
tamed natures  the  nobility  of  Christian  virtues.70 

The  training  and  instruction  were  transmitted  not  only  by 
direct  teaching  in  the  schools  established  by  the  monks,  but 
also  by  their  intercourse  with  the  people.71  In  the  one  their 
influence  was  necessarily  limited  to  the  comparatively  few  who 
had  the  opportunity  and  inclination  to  attend  their  institu- 
tions. In  the  other  it  extended  directly  or  indirectly  to  the 
inhabitants  of  the  entire  country.  Their  instruction  was  at 
first  intended  only  for  their  immediate  followers,  who  were  to 
attain  the  higher  ideals  of  Christian  life  with  greater  security. 
In  the  plan  of  Divine  Providence  they  were  destined  to  a  great 
deal  more  than  to  accomplish  their  primary  aim. 

Since  the  use  of  meat  as  food  was  limited,  sometimes  alto- 


nIbid.,  Book  14,  p.  613. 

"Ibid..  Book  14,  p.  613;  also  Grupp,  Georg,  Kulturgeschichte  des  Mit- 
telalters,  Paderborn,  1907,  Vol.  1,  p.  261. 
70  Grupp,  Georg,  Kulturgeschichte  des  Mittelalters,  p.  264,  Vol.  2. 
"  Ibid.,  p.  264. 


84  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

gether  prohibited  by  the  rules  and  customs  of  the  monasteries, 
it  became  necessary  to  raise  fruit  and  vegetables.  The  result 
of  their  labor  in  procuring  the  necessaries  of  life  was  so  mar- 
velous that  the  people  deemed  it  supernatural;  they  thought 
that  the  monks  needed  but  to  touch  the  ground  with  a  fork  or 
a  spade  and  the  work  of  cultivation  was  completed.  Again,  the 
legends  tell  us  of  wild  beasts  that  left  the  forests  and  volun- 
tarily offered  their  services  to  the  plough-man;  of  the  bitter 
fruit  of  a  tree  made  sweet  and  palatable  by  the  touch  of  the 
saint's  hand.  In  these  and  similar  legends  we  recognize  the 
monk  as  the  successful  tiller  of  hitherto  unproductive  soil ;  we 
see  him  taming  and  domesticating  wild  animals,  and  we  learn 
that  the  art  of  grafting  was  not  unknown  to  the  monk  of  the 
sixth  century.72 

The  comment  of  Augustus  Jessopp  on  the  monasteries  of 
England  could  well  be  applied  to  any  one  of  these  institutions 
that  sprang  up  in  great  numbers  in  all  parts  of  Europe.  He 
says:  "It  is  difficult  for  us  now  to  realize  what  a  vast  bive 
of  industry  a  great  monastery  in  some  of  the  lonely  and  thinly 
populated  parts  of  England  was.  Everything  that  was  eaten 
or  drunk  or  worn,  almost  everything  that  was  made  or  used  in 
a  monastery,  was  produced  upon  the  spot.  The  grain  grew  on 
their  own  land;  the  corn  was  ground  in  their  own  mills;  their 
clothes  were  made  from  the  wool  of  their  own  sheep ;  they  had 
their  own  tailors  and  shoemakers  and  carpenters  and  black- 
smiths almost  within  call;  they  kept  their  own  bees;  they 
grew  their  own  garden-stuff  and  their  own  fruit.  I  suspect  that 
they  knew  more  of  fish  culture  than,  until  very  lately,  we 
moderns  could  boast  of  knowing.  They  had  their  own  vine- 
yards and  made  their  own  wine."73  The  diversity  of  occupa- 
tions offered  by  the  monasteries  to  their  members  was  largely 
the  cause  of  the  rapid  increase  of  their  numbers.  In  Vienne 
and  vicinity  there  were  twelve  hundred  monks  and  nuns  as 
early  as  the  seventh  century,  or  scarcely  one  hundred  years 
after  monasticism  had  been  established  in  the  Occident.  Each 
convent  soon  possessed  a  school,  with  an  attendance  that  seems 
incredibly  large  in  our  day,  because  the  conditions  in  which 
we  live  are  very  different.     Thus  St.  Finian's  school,  in  the 


"  Ibid.,  Vol.  I,  p.  135. 

"  Jessopp,  Augustus,  The  Coming  of  the  Friars,  New  York,  1892,  p.  148. 


Vocational  Preparation  of  Catholic  Youth         85 

first  half  of  the  sixth  century,  is  said  to  have  had  three  thou 
sand  students;  this  number,  though  large,  is  not  absurd,  for 
instruction  was  given  out  of  doors  and  .the  students  did  not 
live  in  one  building.  They  dwelt  in  huts  constructed  by  them- 
selves, and,  as  the  convent  rule  prescribed,  earned  their  living 
by  the  work  of  their  hands.74 

Gustav  Schmoller,  in  tracing  the  development  of  industries, 
expresses  his  appreciation  of  the  work  done  in  the  convents  when 
he  says  that  it  was  in  these  schools  that  workmen  were  trained 
and  artists  developed.  Architects  and  painters,  sculptors  and 
goldsmiths,  bookbinders  and  metalworkers  were  the  products 
of  technical  instruction  given  in  the  monasteries.  The  schools 
of  the  Benedictines  were  the  schools  of  technical  progress  from 
the  seventh  to  the  eleventh  century.75 

In  the  course  of  time  different  orders  were  founded  having 
different  aims,  and  new  spheres  of  activity  were  created.  We 
have  in  this  an  anticipation  of  the  diversity  of  occupation  in 
the  different  guilds  to  which  the  monastic  schools  gave  rise. 
"The  studious,  the  educational,  the  philanthropic,  the  agricul- 
tural element — all  to  some  extent  made  part  of  the  old  mon- 
astic system."76 

The  very  nature  of  the  work  done  by  the  monks  necessarily 
affected  the  people  of  the  surrounding  country.  When  they 
made  roads  and  bridges,  erected  hospitals  and  churches,  and 
brought  large  tracts  of  land  under  cultivation,  they  offered 
objective  teaching  to  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  vicinity.  This 
work  was  done  especially  by  the  Carthusians,  who  were  occu- 
pied with  providing  asylums  for  the  sick  and  the  poor,  with 
building  schools  and  churches,  with  erecting  bridges  and  mak- 
ing streets;  in  the  neighborhood  of  Chartreuse  this  work  has 
been  continued  down  to  the  twentieth  century,  and  the  means 
wherewith  to  do  this  work  is  obtained  by  the  proceeds  of  their 
own  labor.77 


74  Denk,  Otto,  Oeschichte  des  Gallo-Frankischen  Unterrichts,  p. 
252-260. 

75  Schmoller,  Gustav,  Die  Btrassburger  Tucker  u.  Weberzunft,  Strass- 
burg,  1879,  p.  361;  also  Heimbucher,  Max,  Die  Orden  u.  Kongregationen 
der  Katholischen  Kirche,  Paterborn,  1897,  Vol.  I,  p.  191. 

"Eckenstein,  L.,  Women  Under  Monasticism,  Cambridge,  1896,  p.  186; 
also  Eberstadt,  Rudolf,  Der  Ursprung  des  Zunftwesens,  Leipzig,  1900, 
pp.  139-140. 

11  Heimbucher,  Max,  Orden  u.  Kongregationen,  Vol.  I,  p.  259. 


86  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

In  the  monastery  of  medieval  times  the  baker,  the  butcher, 
the  shoemaker,  the  tanner,  the  saddler,  the  smith,  and  the 
carver  were  able  to  produce  articles  of  superior  quality,  and 
therefore  became  the  teachers  of  the  colonists  in  all  their  occu- 
pations, and  they  were  instrumental  in  the  formation  of  guilds 
and  fraternal  societies.78  The  work  within  the  convent  was 
originally  performed  by  the  members,  but  the  increase  of  their 
estates  made  it  necessary  to  employ  many  other  workmen. 
This  gave  to  lay  people  an  opportunity  to  learn  a  regular  trade 
and  directly  effected  the  spread  of  the  industries  in  the  vicin- 
ity.79 Besides  this,  the  monks  tried  to  attract  tradesmen  from 
afar  and  employed  free  handworkers,  which  indicates  their 
solicitude  for  acquiring  a  knowledge  of  whatever  progress  had 
been  made  elsewhere.80 

In  this  manner  they  succeeded  in  training  men  to  skilled 
labor  that  in  time  of  need  for  prompt  action — e.  g.,  the  erection 
of  barracks  in  the  process  of  a  campaign — each  man,  the  low- 
liest soldier  as  well  as  the  highest  official,  was  able  to  con- 
tribute his  share  with  great  skill  and  speed,  and  the  entire 
work  was  completed  in  a  few  minutes.81  With  like  zeal  and 
eagerness  did  men  devote  themselves  to  the  building  of  churches, 
but  this  work  remained  almost  exclusively  the  work  of  the 
monks  until  the  twelfth  century.  The  monasteries  of  Cluny, 
Corvey,  Fulda,  St.  Gall,  and  Paderborn  were  veritable  schools 
of  architecture.  In  the  last-named  convent  a  Benedictine 
monk  of  the  thirteenth  century  executed  the  most  important 
monument  of  early  medieval  sculpture.82 

Special  attention  was  also  given  to  art  and  architecture  in 
the  Dominican  convents,  notably  those  in  Italy.  The  church  of 
St.  Maria  Novella,  in  Florence,  which  was  built  by  them,  was 
daily  visited  by  Michel  Angelo,  who  pronounced  it  "beautiful, 
simple  and  pure  as  a  bride."83  It  is  remarkable  that  we  find 
few  names  of  the  skillful  artists  who  left  us  such  a  wealth  of 
beauty  in  design  and  ornamentation,  which  even  in  the  bare 

"Miiller,  Walther,  Zur  Frage  des   Ursprungs  der  Mittelalterlichen 
Ziinfte,  Leipzig,  1910,  p.  67. 
T»  Grupp,  Georg,  Kulturgeschichte  des  Mittelalters,  Vol.  II,  pp.  260-263 
"IMd.,  p.  142. 
nIbid.,  p.  146. 

"Heimbucher,  Max,  Orden  u.  Kongregationen,  Vol.  I,  p.  191. 
"  Ibid.,  p.  573. 


Vocational  Preparation  of  Catholic  Youth  87 

fragmentary  remains  is  a  source  of  unending  wonder  and 
delight. 

Like  the  building  of  churches,  so  also  their  decoration  by 
painting  and  sculpture  was  almost  solely  done  by  the  monks. 
They  taught  the  theory  as  well  as  the  practice  of  art  in  these 
early  ages,  as  is  evident  from  the  books  compiled  on  the  subject. 
Theophilus,  a  Benedictine  monk,  who  died  in  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury, was  the  author  of  a  work  which  gave  directions  for 
painting.84  And  a  nun  of  St.  Catherine's  Convent,  in  Nuren- 
berg,  wrote  one  which  gave  instructions  for  making  glass 
pictures  in  mosaic.85 

The  extensive  and  valuable  libraries  that  were  begun  and 
enlarged  by  the  monks  indicate  their  high  esteem  for  learning. 
Those  of  the  Benedictines  rank  foremost  among  the  libraries 
of  all  orders.88  Vocational  training  was  not  only  no  detriment 
to  the  cultivation  of  letters,  but  rather  aided  the  progress  of 
education,  for  some  of  the  most  famous  teachers  of  the  order 
were  masters  in  the  manual  arts.  The  biography  of  Easter- 
wine  gives  us  a  glimpse  of  the  eleventh  century  monk:  "His 
duties  were  to  thrash  and  winnow  the  corn,  to  milk  the  goats 
and  cows,  to  take  his  turn  in  the  kitchen,  the  bakehouse,  and 
the  garden ;  always  humble  and  joyous  in  his  obedience,  .  .  . 
and  when  his  duties  as  superior  led  him  out  of  doors  to  where 
the  monks  labored  in  the  fields,  he  set  to  work  along  with 
them,  taking  the  plough  or  the  fan  in  his  own  hands,  or  forg- 
ing iron  upon  the  anvil."87  When  we  consider  what  the  atti- 
tude of  the  wealthy  had  for  centuries  been  toward  labor  and 
the  laborer,  we  can  readily  understand  the  surprise  that  must 
have  been  caused  among  the  people  when  a  proud  nobleman 
responded  meekly  to  the  call  of  obedience  and  performed  the 
work  which  hitherto  had  been  done  for  him  by  the  servant  and 
the  slave.  It  is  because  the  monks  did  not  disdain  the  most 
humble  occupations  as  a  means  of  advancing,  instructing,  civil- 
izing and  converting  the  pagans  that  they  accomplished  their 
great  task  of  converting  Europe,  for  thus  they  approached  the 
lowliest  and  gained  their  confidence  and  good  will.     St.  Wil- 


84  Ibid.,  Vol.  I,  p.  190. 

M  Janssen,  J.,  History  of  the  German  People,  translation  by  Mitchell, 
London,  1905,  Vol.  I,  Book  II,  p.  213. 
M  Heimbucher,  Max,  Orden  u.  Kongregationen,  Vol.  I,  p.  189. 
"  Montalembert,  Monks  of  the  West.  Boston,  1872,  Vol.  II,  p.  502. 


88  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

frid,  as  he  sought  refuge  among  the  pagans  in  the  kingdoms 
of  the  Southern  Saxons,  taught  his  future  converts,  who  were 
then  suffering  from  a  famine  caused  by  a  drought  of  three 
years'  duration,  a  new  means  of  gaining  their  subsistence  by 
fishing  with  nets.88 

The  monks  possessed  the  confidence  of  the  people  to  such  a 
degree  that  parents  entrusted  to  their  keeping  children  at  the 
tender  age  of  five,  for  no  other  place  offered  such  opportunities 
to  train  them  in  the  sciences  and,  more  important  still,  in  the 
art  of  leading  good  Christian  lives.89  The  moral  value  of  labor 
was  practically  demonstrated  each  day,  labor  itself  being 
transformed  into  prayer.  For  "the  Church  enlisted  art  in  the 
service  of  God,  making  use  of  it  as  a  valuable  supplement  to 
the  written  and  oral  instruction  which  she  gave  the  people. 
Artists  thus  became  her  allies  in  the  task  of  setting  forth  the 
beauties  of  the  Gospel  to  the  poor  and  unlearned.  All  the 
great  artists  grasped  with  fidelity  this  idea  of  the  mission  of 
art,  and  turned  their  talents  into  a  means  for  the  service  of 
God  and  man.  Their  aim  was  not  to  exalt  beauty  for  its  own 
sake,  making  an  altar  and  idol  of  it,  but  rather  for  the  setting 
forth  of  God's  will."90  Art  itself,  though  used  as  an  instrument 
to  teach  and  elevate  by  means  of  symbols,  did  not  suffer  on 
that  account,  nor  was  its  development  in  any  way  hindered. 
On  the  contrary,  never  did  man  produce  finer  masterpieces  in 
painting,  sculpture  and  architecture  than  when  his  motive  was 
only  to  accomplish  his  work  for  the  greater  glory  of  God.  Such 
works  were  not  accomplished  when  the  motive  was  pecuniary 
gain  or  self-glorification.  The  disinterestedness  of  these  art- 
ists is  shown  by  complete  indifference  to  perpetuating  their 
names  with  their  work. 

Some  of  the  most  exquisite  creations  of  art  were  produced 
by  some  unknown,  unnamed  artist.  In  some  cases  an  initial  is 
the  only  indication  that  tells  us  to  whom  we  are  indebted  for 
the  pleasure  of  seeing  the  expression  of  the  author's  noble 
thoughts.  In  many  more  cases  there  is  no  indication  whatso- 
ever of  the  artist's  name.91 


**IMd.,  Vol.  II,  pp.  681-683. 

88  Denk,  Otto,  Geschichte  des  Gallo-Friinkischen  Unterrichts.  p.  194. 

80  Janssen,  J.,  History  of  the  German  People,  Vol.  I,  Book  2,  p.  167. 

81  Sighart,  J.,  Geschichte  u.  Kunstdenkmale,  Bavaria,  Lartdes  in  Volks- 
kunde,  Munchen,  1860,  Vol.  II,  pp.  975-976. 


Vocational  Preparation  of  Catholic  Youth  89 

Scarcely  had  a  nation  issued  from  the  night  of  paganism, 
being  instructed  in  the  mysteries  of  faith  and  the  laws  of 
morality,  when  the  Church  through  her  ministers  hastened  to 
reveal  to  her  children  the  pleasures  of  the  mind  and  the  beauties 
of  art.  This  work  had  begun  in  the  catacombs  at  the  tombs  of 
the  martyrs  and  then  reappeared  in  the  great  mosaics  which 
still  decorate  the  apses  of  the  primitive  churches  in  Rome.  In 
the  seventh  century  Benedict  Biscop  brought  to  England  both 
painters  and  mosaic  workers  from  the  continent  to  decorate 
his  churches.  Thereby  he  obtained  the  twofold  result  of  in- 
structing the  learned  and  unlearned  by  the  attractive  image 
and  also  of  fostering  among  the  Anglo-Saxons  the  practice  of 
art,  architecture  and  glassmaking.92  In  the  following  century 
Ceolfrid,  who  could  wield  the  trowel  as  well  as  the  crosier, 
complied  with  the  request  made  by  the  King  of  the  Picts  and 
sent  his  monks  to  Scotland  where  they  introduced  Christian 
architecture.93 

With  marvelous  rapidity  the  work  of  transformation  went 
on  and  the  ninth  century  witnessed  flourishing  monasteries 
in  all  parts  of  the  country.  The  description  of  one  of  these  is 
given  in  the  following  words :  "Looking  down  from  the  craggy 
mountains  the  traveller  would  have  stood  amazed  at  the  sudden 
apparition  of  that  vast  range  of  stately  buildings  which  almost 
filled  up  the  valley  at  his  feet.  Churches  and  cloisters,  the 
offices  of  a  great  abbey,  buildings  set  apart  for  students  and 
guests,  workshops  of  every  description,  the  forge,  the  bake- 
house and  the  mills;  and  then  the  house  occupied  by  the  vast 
numbers  of  artisans  and  workmen  attached  to  the  monastery; 
gardens  too,  and  vineyards  creeping  up  the  mountain  slopes, 
and  beyond  them  fields  of  waving  corn,  and  sheep  speckling  the 
green  meadows,  and  far  away  boats  busily  plying  on  the  lake 
and  carrying  goods  and  passengers — what  a  world  it  was  of  life 
and  activity ;  yet  how  unlike  the  activity  of  a  town.  It  was,  in 
fact,  not  a  town,  but  a  house,  a  family  presided  over  by  a  father, 
whose  members  were  all  knit  together  in  the  bonds  of  common 
fraternity.  Descend  into  the  valley,  and  visit  all  these  nurseries 
of  useful  toil,  see  the  crowds  of  rude  peasants  transformed  into 


■  Montalembert,  Monks  of  the  West,  Vol.  II,  p.  496. 
•*  Ibid.,  Vol.  II,  p.  516;   also  Sighart,  Landes  u.  VolksJcunde,  Vol.  I, 
p.  260. 


90  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

intelligent  artisans,  and  you  will  find  that  the  monks  of  St. 
Gall  had  found  out  the  secret  of  creating  a  world  of  happy 
Christian  factories."94  It  was  in  this  hive  of  activity  that  we 
find  St.  Toutilo,  the  famous  teacher,  expert  musician  and 
master  in  the  art  of  painting,  architecture  and  sculpture.95  In 
those  days  the  ability  to  construct,  as  well  as  to  play,  the  organ 
or  other  musical  instrument  was  required  of  the  musician.98 

St.  Dunstan  in  the  tenth  century  obliged  his  parish  priests 
to  teach  the  children  of  their  parishioners  grammar,  the  Church 
chant,  and  some  useful  handicraft  trade.97  This  proves  that  not 
only  did  the  children,  who  enjoyed  a  monastic  education,  receive 
vocational  training,  but  also  the  less  fortunately  situated  of 
the  parishioners.  A  typical  example  of  the  kind  of  education 
received  by  a  young  nobleman  of  the  tenth  century  is  that  of 
Bern  ward,  a  talented  Saxon  noble  whose  education  was  en- 
trusted to  Thangmar  in  the  Convent  of  Hildesheim.  He  was 
instructed  not  merely  in  all  the  sciences  of  the  schools,  but 
also  in  the  practical  and  mechanical  arts,  leaving  none  un- 
tried.98 

When  he  became  Bishop  of  Hildesheim  the  beneficial  effects 
of  his  education  were  apparent  to  all  under  his  jurisdiction, 
for  he  promoted  the  spread  of  Christian  education,  the  arts  and 
mechanics.  For  this  purpose  he  established  convents,  engaged 
sculptors,  painters  and  metallists  whose  workshops  he  visited 
daily  and  whose  work  he  inspected  personally.  He  provided 
means  for  boys  and  youths  to  learn  what  was  moat  worthy  of 
imitation  in  any  art;  he  took  those  who  were  talented  with  him 
to  court  and  gave  them  the  opportunity  to  accompany  him  when 
he  travelled;  he  encouraged  them  to  practice  any  handicraft 
of  which  they  had  gained  knowledge.99  In  this  manner  he 
succeeded  in  sharing  with  his  people  the  fruits  of  his  voca- 
tional training  and  his  talents  that  had  been  developed  in 
the  monastery  which  he  finally  entered,  five  years  before  his 
death.100 

(To  be  continued) 

94  Drane,  A.,  Christian  Schools  and  Scholars.    New  York,  1910,  p.  170. 
M  Specht,  F.  A.,  Geschichte  des  Unterrichtsicesens.     Stuttgart,  1885, 
p.  319. 

"Ibid.,  p.  360. 

87  Drane,  A.,  Christian  Schools  and  Scholars,  p.  218. 

•'  Specht,  F.  A.,  Geschichte  des  Unterrichtswesens,  p.  343. 

"Ibid.,  pp.  343-344. 

lmIbid.,  p.  344. 


PRIMARY  METHODS 

According  to  the  function  performed  by  the  teacher,  the  method 
which  she  employs  may  be  characterized  as  didactic  or  organic. 
When  the  teacher  aims  at  building  up  definite  mental  structures  in 
the  mind  of  the  child,  she  examines  each  item  of  knowledge,  and 
endeavors  to  have  the  child  understand  it  and  place  it  in  an  orderly 
system  where  he  may  find  it  when  need  arises.  The  teacher  is 
the  builder;  her  mind  supplies  the  order  and  arrangement  of  parts 
and  the  resulting  growth  proceeds,  like  that  of  a  growing  building, 
in  an  arithmetical  ratio.  The  reason  for  this  ratio  is  obvious — 
the  direction  and  the  energy  employed  in  the  building  come  from 
the  teacher  and  not  from  the  mind  of  the  child  or  from  the  struc- 
tures of  knowledge  that  are  being  erected  in  it.  Such  growth,  it 
is  needless  to  point  out,  is  at  best  instrumental — it  is  neither  vital 
nor  fecund.  It  is  not,  therefore,  organic,  and,  whatever  name  may 
be  applied  to  the  method,  it  is  improper  to  call  it  organic.  If 
the  name  didactic  be  applied  here,  it  is  only  to  set  it  off  in  strong 
contrast  to  the  organic  methods  which  govern  the  teacher  who 
realizes  that  her  function  is  to  stand  without  the  portals  of  life 
and  to  minister  to  the  needs  of  the  inward  builder. 

The  mind  in  its  growth,  like  the  body,  demands  food  and 
proper  conditions;  it  then  proceeds  to  analyze  the  food  and  to  lift 
it  into  its  own  structures.  The  direction  and  the  force  producing 
such  growth  reside  in  the  mind  of  the  pupil  and  are  strengthened 
by  each  additional  item  of  mental  food  thus  assimilated.  It  is 
for  this  reason  that  vital  growth  always  proceeds  in  a  geometrical 
ratio.  The  blacksmith  who  receives  25  cents  for  each  of  the  four 
shoes  which  he  nails  to  a  horse's  feet  earns  a  modest  wage,  but 
were  he  to  receive  one  mill  for  the  first  nail,  two  mills  for  the  second 
nail,  four  for  the  third,  etc.,  his  compensation  for  the  thirty-two 
nails  would  make  him  a  millionaire.  To  astonish  us  by  the 
results  and  bring  home  to  us  the  meaning  of  geometrical  ratio,  a 
teacher  of  my  young  days  placed  the  following  problem  on  the 
blackboard:  "Farmer  Jones  bought  one  hundred  acres  of  land  for 
fifty  dollars  an  acre  and  sold  it  for  one  grain  of  wheat  for  the  first 
acre,  two  grains  for  the  second,  four  for  the  third,  etc.  He  sold  his 
wheat  for  a  dollar  a  bushel,  did  he  make  or  lose  by  the  transaction, 
and  how  much?"     We  counted  the  grains  of  wheat  required  to 

91 


92  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

fill  a  thimble  and  worked  out  the  problem,  but  the  result  was  so 
vast  as  to  dwarf  even  our  newly  acquired  war  expenses. 

In  the  organic  method  the  teacher  aims  at  providing  proper 
conditions  for  mental  assimilation.  She  selects  and  prepares 
the  mental  food  supply  and  stimulates  the  mind  of  the  child,  but 
she  abstains  rigidly  from  any  attempt  to  build  the  inward  mental 
structures.  This  is  left  to  the  mind  of  the  child  and  to  his  con- 
stantly increasing  insight  and  strength.  The  results  are  naturally 
astonishing  when  contrasted  with  those  formerly  obtained  by  the 
didactic  method.  This  may  be  seen  in  the  work  which  is  now 
being  done  in  the  parochial  schools  of  the  Diocese  of  Cleveland. 
Five  years  ago,  our  methods  and  texts  were  put  in  the  first  grade 
of  all  the  schools  of  the  diocese.  The  work  has  been  carried 
with  these  children  up  through  the  higher  grades.  At  first  the 
teachers  were  unfamiliar  with  the  method,  but  even  during  the 
first  year  the  work  was  astonishingly  good.  Since  that  time  the 
teachers  have  grown  in  power,  the  texts  have  been  gradually 
rounded  out,  and  the  results  obtained  have  been  constantly 
improving.  All  that  we  had  dared  to  hope  for  has  been  achieved, 
and  more.  We  publish  here  a  specimen  of  the  work  of  a  child  in  the 
fourth  grade  which  was  sent  to  us  by  the  diocesan  superintendent, 
Rev.  W.  A.  Kane,  together  with  his  statement  of  the  conditions 
under  which  the  work  was  done: 

Jan.  9,  1919. 
Dear  Doctor  Shields  : 

I  am  enclosing  a  report  of  a  talk  given  the  other  day  by  a 
pupil  of  the  fourth  grade  to  the  girls  of  the  high  school.  I  am 
sure  it  will  interest  you,  especially  since  I  vouch  for  the  following : 

1.  It  is  a  stenographic  report,  and  in  the  transcribing  no  correc- 
tions in  language  have  been  made. 

2.  No  special  preparation  had  been  made  for  the  talk.  The 
girl  had  not  given  the  talk  before,  and  did  not  know  she  was  to  give 
it  till  that  day. 

3.  The  talk  concerned  facts  she  had  not  studied  since  September. 

4.  It  was  not  a  memorized  talk,  as  is  evident  from  the  fact  that 
the  girl  has  given  it  three  times  since  in  language  and  construction 
quite  different  from  the  first  speech. 

Sincerely  yours, 

W.  A.  Kane. 

"Girls,  this  is  little  Alma  Donnellon  of  the  fourth  grade.  She 
is  going  to  tell  us  about  Attila  invading  Rome." 

"  Sister,  Attila  didn't  invade  Rome.  He  only  came  to  the  gates 
of  Rome  and  then  went  away  without  entering  the  city." 


Primary  Methods  93 

"Oh,  I  beg  your  pardon,  Alma.  Then  please  tell  us  what 
happened  when  he  came  to  the  gates  of  Rome." 

"Attila  was  king  of  the  Huns.  He  was  said  to  be  a  mower  of 
men.  He  was  born  in  the  western  part  of  Asia  near  the  Forest  of 
Tartary  in  the  fifth  century.  He  was  short,  broad-shouldered 
and  had  a  huge  head.  He  had  a  thin  black  beard.  He  received 
his  company  seated  on  a  wooden  stool  and  ate  from  wooden  dishes, 
but  his  men  ate  from  golden  dishes. 

"After  some  time  Attila  came  down  from  Asia  and  pitched  his 
tents  on  the  banks  of  the  Danube  River.  He  had  an  army  of 
five  hundred  thousand  men.  He  was  warlike  by  nature  and  he 
thought  that  he  would  like  to  go  into  France  and  pillage  and  burn 
all  the  cities  of  that  country.  With  his  men  he  crossed  the  Rhine 
River  into  France  and  burned  and  destroyed  as  he  went  along. 
The  people  had  no  time  to  offer  any  resistance.  When  he  came 
to  the  city  of  Metz  the  people  of  this  city  held  out  a  little  longer 
than  the  others. 

"From  Metz  he  went  to  Troyes.  The  Bishop  of  Troyes  was  a 
very  holy  man.  He  promised  his  people  that  he  would  save  the 
city  for  them.  He  went  to  meet  Attila,  dressed  in  pontifical  attire. 
Attila  was  so  astonished  at  the  bravery  of  this  holy  man  that  he 
left  the  city  unharmed  and  went  back  to  his  tents.  Then  he 
moved  towards  Paris.  The  people  of  Paris  were  dismayed. 
They  prayed  to  St.  Genevieve,  the  patron  saint  of  their  city,  and 
she  told  the  people  to  be  comforted,  that  Attila  would  not  destroy 
their  city.  This  came  true,  for  Attila  for  some  reason  turned  in  a 
different  direction  and  left  Paris  unharmed.  He  then  turned 
towards  Orleans.  Orleans  was  noted  for  miracles.  The  people  in 
Orleans  were  frightened,  for  they  thought  that  in  a  few  days  Attila 
would  come  into  their  city  and  pillage  and  burn  it.  The  Bishop 
of  Orleans  asked  a  Roman  general  if  he  would  send  his  men  to 
fight  for  Orleans.  Just  at  the  critical  moment  when  the  people 
of  Orleans  were  going  to  throw  open  their  gates  to  Attila  the  Roman 
general  came  and  they  had  a  battle  and  Attila  was  defeated. 

"After  his  defeat  at  Orleans,  Attila  crossed  the  Alps  into  Italy. 
Soon  he  was  at  the  gates  of  Rome.  The  people  of  Rome  were  ter- 
rified. They  walked  up  and  down  the  streets  talking  in  low,  anx- 
ious voices.  As  the  soldiers  passed  along  the  people  watched  them, 
for  they  felt  that  the  future  of  their  city  depended  on  the  soldiers. 
Valentinian  and  Theodosius,  the  two  Roman  Emperors,  went  out 
to  Attila  and  asked  him  to  be  a  general  in  the  Roman  army.  But 
he  sneered  at  them,  saying  that  his  servants  were  generals  and 
that  Roman  generals  were  servants.  He  boasted  that  'he  was 
the  scourge  of  God  and  that  grass  never  grew  where  his  horse  had 
trod.'  Valentinian  and  Theodosius  went  back  to  their  palaces  and 
Attila  sent  them  this  insolent  message,  'Prepare  a  palace  for  me 
this  day.'  This  meant  an  invasion.  Valentinian,  who  was  a 
coward,  sent  the  message  to  the  senate  as  though  he  did  not  know 
what   to   do. 


94  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

"The  Roman  senators  selected  Celestus,  one  of  their  number,  to 
go  to  Valentinian  and  make  a  last  attempt  to  induce  him  to  defend 
the  city.  Just  as  Celestus  was  coming  down  the  steps  of  the 
Roman  Forum  he  met  Justus,  a  tribune.  Justus  asked  Celestus 
if  there  was  any  news  that  he  might  carry  to  the  people,  who  were 
very  anxious.  But  Celestus  had  no  good  news  and  said  that  he 
feared  that  the  barbarian  Huns  would  come  in  and  pillage  and 
burn  their  city.  While  they  were  talking,  the  people  gathered 
around  to  hear.  Celestus  asked  Justus  if  he  had  seen  Attila  and 
if  he  knew  how  terrible  a  man  Attila  was.  Justus  said  that  he  had 
not  seen  him.  Then  Celestus  said  that  he  would  tell  Justus  about 
him  so  that  he  might  give  the  description  to  the  people. 

"Celestus  told  Justus  how  he  had  gone  out  to  Attila's  camp  the 
day  before  to  see  if  he  could  make  a  truce  with  him.  Attila 
came  out  of  his  tent  and  his  soldiers  and  the  women  and  children 
gathered  around  him.  They  were  all  very  ugly  and  were  very 
much  afraid  of  Attila,  who  was  very  fierce  and  wicked  looking. 
Celestus  said  that  Attila  made  fun  of  the  Romans  and  boasted 
that  he  had  burned  every  town  and  field  of  grain  between  the  Alps 
and  Rome. 

"Then  Celestus  told  how  he  had  left  the  camp  of  Attila  feeling 
sick  at  heart  and  that  as  he  came  back  into  the  city  he  thought  of 
the  Holy  Father  and  of  how  he  loved  the  people.  This  strength- 
ened him  and  he  went  to  see  Pope  St.  Leo.  The  Holy  Father 
promised  to  help  him  if  Valentinian  still  refused  and  said  that  he 
would  meet  him  at  three  o'clock  the  next  day.  Valentinian 
refused  to  leave  his  palace  and  so  Celestus  arranged  to  meet  the 
Pope.  He  invited  Justus  to  go  with  him.  At  first  Justus  said  it 
was  too  great  an  honor  for  him,  but  after  awhile  he  agreed  to  go. 

"The  Pope  did  not  want  any  soldiers  to  accompany  him  and 
said  that  only  Celestus  and  Justus  should  go  with  him.  Celestus 
and  Justus  rode,  one  on  each  side  of  him,  on  two  proud  black  horses, 
and  four  African  slaves  carried  the  chair  of  the  Pope.  As  they 
approached  the  tent  of  Attila  they  could  hear  the  singing  of  rude 
songs  and  rough  merry-making.  When  Attila's  people  saw  them 
they  shouted  that  they  were  lords  of  the  world  and  the  Romans 
were  coming  to  bow  before  them.  Then  St.  Leo  turned  to  Celes- 
tus and  Justus  and  said  that  Attila  was  justly  called  the  Scourge 
of  God;  for  God  uses  strange  means  with  which  to  punish  people 
for  their  sins.  He  sometimes  lets  them  be  punished  by  other  men 
and  sends  them  war,  famine  and  sickness.  Then  they  see  that 
they  need  God  and  they  turn  to  Him  and  the  world  becomes  better. 

"Attila  came  out  of  his  tent  and  rode  toward  St.  Leo.  He 
was  mounted  on  a  shaggy  pony.  When  Attila  came  near^he 
began  to  sneer  at  St.  Leo  and  his  companions  and  to  call  them 
slaves.  But  St.  Leo  just  looked  right  through  Attila  and  did  not 
speak  a  word.  Attila  tried  to  look  back  at  St.  Leo  but  the  Pope's 
eyes  were  so  full  of  holiness  that  he  had  to  drop  his  for  shame. 


Primary  Methods  95 

Then  St.  Leo  began  to  speak  to  Attila  and  to  ask  him  why  he 
had  come  to  Rome  to  injure  their  city  and  to  pillage  and  rob  when 
they  had  never  injured  nor  stolen  from  him.  Attila  could  not 
answer.  St.  Leo  then  told  him  of  the  power  of  God  and  how  it 
could  conquer  all  men,  and  as  he  talked  his  eyes  glowed  like  fire. 
Attila  began  to  feel  afraid  and  to  tremble  and  moved  toward 
Thuros,  one  of  his  generals,  who  had  accompanied  him.  He 
whispered  to  Thuros  that  he  was  afriad  and  asked  him  to  hurry 
with  him  back  to  camp.  Then  he  sent  Thuros  back  with  a  message 
to  St.  Leo,  saying  that  he  would  go  away  to  the  East  and  leave  the 
city  unharmed.  Celestus  was  not  satisfied  with  the  promise  of 
Attila  and  wanted  St.  Leo  to  demand  his  written  word.  But  the 
Pope  said  that  there  is  no  faith  in  the  word  of  a  barbarian,  but  there 
is  faith  in  the  word  of  God  and  God  had  told  him  to  be  consoled. 

"Then  St.  Leo  and  his  two  companions  turned  back  towards  the 
city,  and  St.  Leo,  as  he  rode  along,  bowed  his  head  in  a  prayer  of 
thanksgiving  that  God  had  spared  their  city." 


Questions 

"What  river  did  he  cross  in  going  into  France?" 

"He  crossed  the  Rhine  River." 

"When  he  left  France  and  started  towards  Rome  what 

mountains  did  he  cross?" 
"He  crossed  the  Alps." 
"  When  he  left  Rome  and  went  back  to  his  own  country,  in 

what  direction  did  he  go?" 
"He  went  east." 

"Alma,  why  was  Attila  called  a  mower  of  men?" 
"  Because  he  went  through  the  cities  and  killed  and  cut  down 

men  as  if  he  were  mowing." 
"What  do  you  think  about  Valentinian?" 
"I  think  he  was  a  coward  and  mean  to  his  people." 
"Alma,  you  said  that  Attila  sent  an  insolent  message  to 

Valentinian.     What  do  you  mean  by  insolent  message?" 
"He  sent  a  rude,  bold  message.     He  wasn't  particular  about 

how  he  worded  it." 
"Why  were  Attila's  people  afraid  of  him?" 
"Because  he  was  cruel  to  them." 
"Why  couldn't  Attila  look  the  Pope  in  the  eye?" 
"Because  Attila  was  wicked  and  the  Pope  was  holy;  and  a 

wicked  person  can  never  look  a  good  person  in  the  eye." 
"Is  there  any  one  of  whom  you  have  heard  that  resembles 

Attila?" 
"Yes,  the  Kaiser." 
"Why?" 
"  Because  he  too  went  through  cities  killing  people  that  had 

not  harmed  him." 


96  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

Q.  "Did  the  Kaiser  go  into  the  same  part  of  the  world  as 

Attila?" 
A.  "Yes,  the  Kaiser  pillaged  and  burned  Belgium  and  about 

three-fourths  of  France.     He  tried  to  get  into  Paris,  but 

the  Allies  wouldn't  let  him." 
Q.  "Is  there  any  difference  between  Attila  and  the  Kaiser?" 
A.  "Yes,  Attila  went  at  the  head  of  his  army  but  the  Kaiser 

stayed  home  in  his  nice  palace  and  sent  out  his  men  to 

fight  and  pillage  and  burn  the  cities  of  other  people." 
Q.  "Well,  thep,  do  you  think  that  the  Kaiser  was  worse  than 

Attila?" 
A.  "Well,  neither  one  of  them  was  any  good." 

The  opening  sentence  of  this  talk  indicates  that  the  child  is 
moved  by  a  clear  inward  vision  of  that  which  she  relates,  hence 
it  is  not  irreverence  or  want  of  respect  that  leads  her  to  correct 
her  teacher's  introductory  statement.  The  inward  vision  dictated 
and  not  the  will  of  the  child.  This  view  of  the  case  is  amply  sus- 
tained by  the  talk  that  followed.  Attila  is  vividly  before  her  and 
she  is  present  at  all  the  moving  events  which  follow. 

The  basis  of  the  talk  was  the  opening  lesson  of  the  Fourth 
Reader,  but  to  any  one  who  compares  the  child's  talk  with  that 
lesson  it  will  be  obvious  that,  instead  of  memorizing  the  lesson,  she 
used  the  materials  which  it  contains  freely.  She  amplified  the 
facts,  probably  by  the  aid  of  the  teacher's  instruction,  but  the 
important  thing  to  note  is  that  all  the  facts  in  the  case,  whether 
taken  from  the  drama,  from  the  teacher's  instruction,  or  from  her 
own  reading,  were  organized  and  vitalized  so  that  her  hearers,  as 
they  listened  to  her  talk,  were  made  to  see  Attila  with  her;  to  see 
his  generals  and  the  rabble;  to  see  his  invasion  of  France,  his  awe 
of  the  courage  of  the  Bishop  of  Troyes,  his  mysterious  turning  aside 
from  Paris  and  his  defeat  at  Orleans.  When  her  interest  shifts  to 
the  streets  of  Rome,  her  audience  accompany  her.  They  see  the 
cowardice  of  the  Roman  Emperor,  the  terror  in  the  hearts  of  the 
populace,  and  their  pitiful  dependence  upon  the  soldiers.  They 
approach  the  Pope  with  reverential  awe  and  listen  to  his  preaching 
great  fundamental  truths,  and  they  share  in  his  gratitude  as  he 
returns  to  the  city  which  he  has  saved  from  destruction. 

This  child  is  just  beginning  her  work  in  the  fourth  grade.  She 
is  presumably  in  her  tenth. year.  There  is  no  apparent  effort  of 
memory,  although  some  months  have  elapsed  since  the  facts 
narrated  were  studied  in  school,  and  during  part  of  that  time  the 


Primary  Methods  97 

school  was  probably  closed  on  account  of  the  prevalent  influenza. 
The  fact  that  the  child  in  her  subsequent  talks  uses  different 
language  and  a  different  construction  of  her  scones  proves,  as 
Father  Kane  points  out,  that  her  work  is  vital  and  not  a  memory 
load.  She  has  not  been  taught  formal  grammar,  nevertheless  her 
grammar  is  faultless.  When  the  proper  time  comes  for  her  to 
study  formal  grammar,  she  will  only  need  to  analyze  the  forms  of 
speech  to  which  she  has  grown  accustomed. 

No  child  could  gain  this  vital  mastery  of  thought  and  expression 
through  the  old  procedure  of  passing  from  form  to  content,  nor 
could  he  ever  attain  fecund  knowledge  of  this  sort  under  the  hands 
of  a  teacher  who  deliberately  aimed  at  building  up  mental  struc- 
tures in  the  mind  of  the  child  according  to  her  own  prearranged 
plan. 

Thomas  Edward  Shields. 


THE  TEACHER  OF  ENGLISH 

A   SERIOUS   STATE   OF  AFFAIRS 

No  state  of  affairs  revealed  to  us  by  the  war  is  more  serious 
than  the  extent  of  our  adult  illiteracy  here  in  the  United  States. 
There  were  700,000  illiterate  men  among  the  millions  called  by  the 
draft.  Roughly,  this  is  about  10  per  cent.  It  is  a  distressing 
total.     The  implications  of  it  are  more  distressing  still. 

The  Secretary  of  the  Interior,  Mr.  Lane,  has  issued  a  bulletin 
on  the  subject.  "There  can  be  neither  national  unity  in  ideals 
nor  in  purpose,"  he  asserts,  "unless  there  is  some  common  method 
of  communication  through  which  may  be  conveyed  the  thought 
of  the  nation."    He  continues: 

What  should  be  said  of  a  democracy  which  sends  an  army 
to  preach  democracy  wherein  there  was  drafted  out  of  the  first 
2,000,000  men  a  total  of  200,000  men  who  could  not  read 
their  orders  or  understand  them  when  delivered,  or  read  the 
letters  sent  them  from  home? 

What  should  be  said  of  a  democracy  which  calls  upon  its 
citizens  to  consider  the  wisdom  of  forming  a  league  of  nations, 
of  passing  judgment  upon  a  code  which  will  insure  the  freedom 
of  the  seas,  or  of  sacrificing  the  daily  stint  of  wheat  or  meat 
for  the  benefit  of  the  Roumanians  or  the  Jugo-Slavs  when  18 
per  cent  of  the  coming  citizens  of  that  democracy  do  not  go  to 
school? 

What  should  be  said  of  a  democracy  in  which  one  of  its 
sovereign  states  expends  a  grand  total  of  $6  per  year  per  child 
for  sustaining  its  public-school  system? 

What  should  be  said  of  a  democracy  which  is  challenged  by 
the  world  to  prove  the  superiority  of  its  system  of  government 
over  those  discarded,  and  yet  is  compelled  to  reach  many 
millions  of  its  people  through  papers  printed  in  some  foreign 
language?     .     .     . 

What  should  be  said  of  a  democracy  which  permits  tens  of 
thousands  of  its  native-born  children  to  be  taught  American 
history  in  a  foreign  language — the  Declaration  of  Independ- 
ence and  Lincoln's  Gettysburg  speech  in  German  and  other 
tongues? 

What  should  be  said  of  a  democracy  which  permits  men  and 
women  to  work  in  masses  where  they  seldom  or  never  hear  a 
word  of  English  spoken? 

Using  figures  taken  from  the  Secretary's  report,  the  Baltimore 
Sun  puts  the  situation  in  this  wise: 
08 


The  Teacher  of  English  99 

At  the  last  census,  that  of  1910,  there  were  5,516,163  persons 
in  the  United  States  over  ten  years  of  age  who  could  not  read 
or  write.  Of  this  total  4,600,000  were  twenty  years  of  age  or 
more.  Over  58  per  cent  are  white,  and  of  these  1,500,000  are 
native  Americans.  There  are  now  nearly  700,000  men  of 
draft  age  in  the  United  States  who  cannot  read  or  write.  Until 
April,  1917,  the  Regular  Army  would  not  enlist  illiterates;  yet 
in  the  first  draft  between  30,000  and  40,000  illiterates  were 
brought  into  the  Army,  and  approximately  as  many  near- 
illiterates. 

From  a  military  and  economic  standpoint  such  widespread 
illiteracy  as  this  forms  a  burdensome  handicap.  The  illiterate 
soldier  is  not  only  at  a  serious  disadvantage  himself,  but  is  a 
serious  disadvantage  to  others.  In  a  certain  sense  he  is  like  a 
blind  man  who  must  constantly  depend  upon  others  for  guid- 
ance, who  in  an  emergency  requiring  rudimentary  education 
may  make  a  misstep  disastrous  to  himself  and  his  friends. 
Economically,  illiteracy  represents  a  waste  of  potential  pro- 
ductive power,  since  this  power  is  dependent  largely  upon  the 
degree  of  educated  intelligence. 

The  Providence  Journal  is  ruthlessly  frank  in  revealing  the  state 
of  affairs  in  New  England,  beginning  with  conditions  at  home, 
where  in  Rhode  Island  the  percentage  of  illiteracy  is  7.7  per  cent, 
exactly  the  national  average!     The  Journal  said: 

In  New  England  as  a  whole  it  was  5.3,  in  the  Middle  Atlantic 
States  5.7,  in  the  South  Atlantic  States  16.0,  in  the  East 
South-Central  group,  17.4.  In  Louisiana  it  reached  its  highest 
figures,  29.0.  There  is  a  great  work  to  be  done  in  order  to 
strengthen  our  democratic  system  along  this  fundamental 
educational  line. 

It  is  not  enough  that  Americans  should  be  able  to  speak 
and  write  some  other  language  than  English.  English  is  the 
national  tongue,  the  one  vitally  essential  medium  of  popular 
communication.  There  are  tens  of  thousands  of  our  native- 
born  children  who  have  heretofore  been  taught  American 
history  in  German  and  other  alien  languages.  Such  a  condi- 
tion is  a  shame  and  a  reproach,  and  demands  immediate  atten- 
tion. We  must  weed  out  the  rank  growth  of  separatism  in 
the  United  States.  Separatism,  hyphenism,  disloyalty — all 
these  find  a  congenial  soil  where  the  English  tongue  is  not 
customarily  spoken  and  read. 

Iowa  and  Nebraska  showed  less  illiteracy  than  any  other  of 
the  states  in  the  Union,  yet,  curiously  enough,  Nebraska  has 
an  internal  problem  of  Americanization  that  is  declared  acute! 
It  is  an  interesting  paradox.    The    Morning   World-Herald   of 


100  The  Catholic  Tducational  Review 

Omaha  insists  that  the  problem  of  Americanization  and  the  per- 
centage of  general  illiteracy  are  not  always  related  as  cause  to 
effect.  In  a  recent  editorial  comment  this  newspaper  asserts  that: 

Excepting  only  our  neighbor  State  of  Iowa,  there  is  less 
illiteracy  in  Nebrasks  than  in  any  other  State,  the  percentage 
for  Nebraska  being  1.9  and  for  Iowa  1.7.  In  the  New  England 
States  the  illiteracy  is  three  times  as  great;  it  is  three  times  as 
great  in  New  York;  in  the  South  it  averages  ten  times  as 
as  great. 

Here  our  unfulfilled  task  is  not  so  much  to  teach  our  people 
to  read  and  write  as  to  teach  all  of  them  to  read  and  write 
English  and  make  it  the  language  of  common  speech.  Our 
State  has  been  settled  by  large  colonies  of  Germans,  Bohe- 
mians, Swedes,  Danes,  particularly  in  the  rural  districts,  while 
in  Omaha  there  is  a  truly  polyglot  population,  including,  in 
addition  to  those  enumerated,  Italians,  Greeks,  Syrians,  Poles, 
Lithuanians,  Hungarians,  Belgians,  Jews,  and  other  national- 
ities, many  of  whom  persist  in  the  use  of  their  mother-tongue 
in  preference  to  the  official  language  of  their  new  home.  This 
has  come  about  naturally  and  as  much  through  our  own  fault 
as  theirs.  Their  practical  segregation  into  separate  colonies, 
if  it  has  not  been  encouraged,  certainly  has  not  been  dis- 
couraged. They  were  left,  unadvised  and  unassisted,  to 
choose  the  line  of  least  resistance,  which,  in  a  new  and  strange 
land,  was  to  form  little  communities  using  the  language  they 
already  knew.  With  their  own  schools,  their  own  churches, 
their  own  newspapers,  and  with  leaders  and  advisers  of  their 
own  particular  nationality,  it  has  been  relatively  easy  for  many 
of  them  to  neglect  or  evade  the  difficult  task  and  duty  of  as- 
similating themselves  with  the  language,  ways,  and  customs 
and  thought  of  the  American  people.  That,  in  spite  of  this 
failure,  they  have  made  as  good  and  desirable  citizens  as  they 
have — orderly,  law-abiding,  industrious,  thrifty,  and  for  the 
most  part  intensely  devoted  to  their  new  country  as  patriotic 
citizens — is  as  highly  creditable  to  them  as  to  the  pervasive  and 
penetrating  influences  of  American  institutions  and  American 
freedom. 

There  is  much  to  endorse  in  this  last-quoted  editorial,  much  to 
commend.     It  is  on  such  lines  as  this  that  we  will  make  progress 

in  solving  our  problem. 

T.  Q.  B. 


MORE   LETTERS 

The  letters  which  have  come  to  this  column,  in  comment  on  Dr. 
Eliot's  now  famous  address  at  Carnegie  Hall  on  the  improvement 


The  Teacher  op  English  101 

of  our  primary  and  secondary  education,  have  been  very  illumi- 
nating in  their  opinions  and  criticisms,  and  interesting  in  their 
freedom  of  expression.  In  the  main,  they  agreed  with  Dr.  Eliot's 
more  fundamental  contentions,  although  they  were  sharp  with 
him  for  his  failure  to  mention  even  the  place  that  religious  instruc- 
tion or  ethical  ideals  should  have  in  any  proper  system  of  early 
education.  There  was  a  majority  opinion  that  a  longer  school 
year,  with  a  better  organized  scheme  of  recreation  and  holidays  to 
relieve  the  strain  of  additional  school  periods,  was  eminently 
desirable.  Training  of  the  faculties  of  observation;  better  articu- 
lation of  courses;  providing  the  teacher  of  language  with  relatively 
the  same  amount  of  laboratory  equipment  as  the  teacher  of  science; 
smaller  classes;  and  well-planned  school  buildings,  were  other 
matters  that  engaged  the  sympathetic  attention  of  our  corres- 
pondents. Such  an  exchange  of  opinion  is  inevitably  helpful,  and 
when  the  war-time  restrictions  on  space  and  print-paper  are 
removed  we  hope  to  find  place  for  even  more  letters  than  at 
present  we  are  physically  enabled  to  publish. 

T.  Q.  B. 


NOTES 

The  University  of  California  has  added  "Scenario  Writing" 
to  its  courses  in  English.  "Photo-dramatic  Composition"  is  the 
more  accurate  term  for  the  new  course,  which  is  given  by  extension. 
Classes  are  conducted  both  in  San  Francisco  and  in  Oakland,  and 
the  course  is  proving  so  popular  that  other  cities  will  probably  be 
chosen  as  further  centers  for  the  work.  According  to  The  Moving 
Picture  World: 

The  general  scheme  of  the  course  is  a  combination  of  lecture 
and  laboratory  methods,  and  the  ultimate  end  of  it  is  to 
give  the  aspiring  author  an  understanding  of  the  kind  of 
material  that  is  best  screenable  and  the  essential  technique 
for  best  presenting  it  to  the  scenario  editor.  However,  there 
is  no  attempt  to  encourage  false  hopes  or  to  exaggerate  the 
fruitlessness  of  scenario  writing  as  a  chosen  field  of  endeavor. 
Particular  emphasis  is  placed  on  the  fact  that  a  plot  for  the 
screen  must  be  just  as  painstakingly  constructed  as  one  for 
the  stage  and  that,  while  the  genuinely  good  story  is  sure 
of  a  market  irrespective  of  who  writes  it,  there  is  no  longer 
a  place  for  the  mediocre  scenario  from  the  free  lance  writer. 

In  his  first  half  dozen  lectures  the  instructor  endeavors  to 
fix  a  working  foundation  of  technique,  with  emphasis  upon 


102  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

the  contemporaneous  development  of  several  story  threads 
toward  a  common  crux  through  cut-ins  and  cut-backs, 
probability  in  basic  situations,  suspense,  tying  up  the  plot 
for  compactness,  provision  for  elapsed  time,  the  establishment 
of  background,  the  creation  of  atmosphere  and  comedy  relief 
without  interrupting  the  forward  rush  of  the  narrative,  action 
as  the  chief  medium  of  screen  expression,  the  screen  exposition 
in  character  development,  the  general  plan  of  a  photo- 
dramatic  plot,  etc.  After  these  preliminary  lectures,  the 
course  devolves  into  an  analytical  study  of  successful  manu- 
scripts and  of  photoplays  selected  and  projected  for  the 
class. 

A  considerable  percentage  of  the  registration  in  the  classes 
comes  from  writers  who  have  already  met  a  measure  of 
success  in  some  other  field  of  literary  endeavor  and  are  inter- 
ested in  the  particular  technique  of  the  photoplay. 


In  his  article  on  the  Government  Printing  Office  in  the  December 
Bookman  Henry  Litchfield  West  says  that  whenever  a  member 
of  Congress  dies  there  must,  in  obedience  to  the  law,  be  printed 
and  bound  8,000  volumes  containing  the  obituary  addresses,  of 
which  fifty  copies  must  be  "in  full  morocco  with  gilt  edges"  for 
presentation  to  the  family  of  the  deceased  statesman,  1,950  must 
go  to  his  colleagues  from  his  own  State,  and  the  remaining  6,000 
are  apportioned  among  the  other  Senators  and  Representatives, 
from  whose  desks  they  soon  find  their  way  to  the  junk  dealer  in 
waste  paper. 

Of  the  eighty-two  students  enrolled  this  term  in  the  4-year 
course  of  Journalism  at  the  University  of  Wisconsin,  seventy-three 
are  young  women.     There  are  only  nine  men  in  the  course. 

Amelia  E.  Barr's  "The  Paper  Cap,"  just  published  by  the 
Appletons,  brings  the  number  of  her  novels  well  over  seventy, 
besides  several  volumes  of  poetry  and  short  stories.  She  is  now 
eighty-seven. 

"It  is  a  habit  of  criticism  to  find  technical  perfection  at  the 
moment  when  technique  has  lost  its  relation  to  the  significance  of 
its  subject  matter  and  has  thus  become  a  degraded  and  detached 
mechanical  facility.  Technique  rightly  considered  is  the  result  of 
power  over  means  of  expression,  and  when  that  power  is  at  its 
full  technique  mounts  to  its  furthest  heights.  Fortunately,  how- 
ever, there  are  long  periods  during  which  a  race  enjoys  the  power 


The  Teacher  of  English  103 

of  hand  it  has  developed  through  centuries,  before  it  loses  interest 
and  treats  art  as  a  plaything." — Huneker. 


1919  is  the  centennial  of  the  birth  of  Mrs.  E.  D.  E.  N.  South- 
worth,  one  of  the  most  prolific  of  our  American  novelists.  How 
many  of  her  novels  can  you  recall  offhand?  And  did  you  ever 
read  any  of  "Bertha  M.  Clay's"  novels?  No  modern  literary 
education  is  complete  without  reading  at  least  one  of  each ! 


In  "Reminiscences  of  Lafcadio  Hearn,"  by  Setsuko  Koizumi, 
his  Japanese  wife,  there  is  a  delicious  paragraph  in  which  she  lumps 
together  the  various  things  which  Hearn  liked  or  disliked  extremely. 
Here  they  are : 

The  west,  sunsets,  summer,  the  sea,  swimming,  banana- 
trees,  cryptomerias  (the  sugi,  the  Japanese  cedar),  lonely 
cemeteries,  insects,  "  Kwaidan"  (ghostly  tales),  Urashima,  and 
Horai  (songs).  The  places  he  liked  were:  Martinique, 
Matsue,  Miho-no-seki,  Higosaki  and  Yakizu.  He  was  fond 
of  beefsteak  and  plum-pudding,  and  enjoyed  smoking.  He 
disliked  liars,  abuse  of  the  weak,  Prince  Albert  coats,  white 
shirts,  the  city  of  New  York,  and  many  other  things.  One 
of  his  pleasures  was  to  wear  the  yukata  in  his  study  and  listen 
quietly  to  the  voice  of  the  locust. 


QUERY 

Brother  X. — The  information  you  ask  concerning  English  in 
secondary  schools  can  be  found  in  full  in  "Bulletin  No.  2,  1917," 
published  by  "Bureau  of  Education,  Department  of  the  Interior," 
and  entitled  "Reorganization  of  English  in  Secondary  Schools." 
The  author  of  the  bulletin  is  J.  F.  Hosic.  Extra  copies  of  this 
bulletin  can  be  obtained  from  the  Government  Printing  Office, 
Washington,  D.  C,  for  a  nominal  sum. 


NEW   BOOKS 

Criticism. — Joyce  Kilmer:  Poems,  Essays,  and  Letters,  edited 
with  a  memoir  by  Robert  Cortes  Holliday.  In  two  volumes. 
Doran.  George  Meredith,  by  J.  H.  E.  Crees.  New  York:  Long- 
mans, Green  &  Co. 

Editions. — Canadian  Poems  of  the  Great  War.  Chosen  and 
edited  by  John  W.  Garvin.    Toronto:  McClelland  &  Stewart. 


104  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

Five  Somewhat  Historical  Plays,  by  Philip  Moeller.     New  York. 
Alfred  A.  Knopf. 

Biographical. — The  Women  Who  Make  Our  Novels,  by  Grant 
M.  Overton.  Moffat,  Yard  &  Co.  Our  Poets  of  Today,  by 
Howard  Willard  Cook.  New  York:  Moffat,  Yard  &  Co.  The 
Early  Years  of  the  Saturday  Club:  1855-1870,  by  Edward  Waldo 
Emerson.  Boston:  Houghton  Mifflin  Company.  The  English 
Middle  Class,  by  R.  H.  Gretton.  New  York:  The  Macmillan 
Company. 

Instruction. — How  to  Read  Poetry,  by  Ethel  M.  Colson. 
Chicago :  A.  C.  McClurg  &  Co.  The  Writing  and  Reading  of  Verse, 
by  Lieut.  C.  E.  Andrews.  New  York:  D.  Appleton  &  Co.  The 
English  of  Military  Communications,  by  William  A.  Ganoe. 
Menasha,  Wis.:  George  Banta  Publishing  Company.  Military 
English,  by  Percy  Waldron  Long.     New  York:  Macmillan. 

Thomas  Quinn  Beesley. 


DEEDS,  NOT  WORDS1 

Mark,  now,  how  a  plain  tale  shall  put  you  down. — I  Hen.  iv,  ii,  4. 

Under  the  above  title  the  Italian  public  has  been  given  a  sum- 
mary of  the  good  work  done,  and  good  offices  performed,  by  His 
Holiness  the  Pope  for  humanity  during  the  war.  The  following 
outline  of  these  practical  evidences  of  Papal  concern  in  the  welfare 
of  the  nations  is  based  on  the  facts  given  in  the  above-mentioned 
publication.  The  list  is  incomplete  and  suffers  from  other  obvious 
defects,  but  even  the  barest  statement  of  what  the  Pope  has  done 
cannot  but  serve  its  purpose  in  impressing  the  world  with  what  it 
owes  to  a  power  whose  sole  reward  has  been  criticism,  hostility, 
and  insult. 

The  Pope  has  effected,  or  made  possible,  the  exchange  of  pris- 
oners of  war,  the  victualling  of  occupied  countries,  communications 
between  prisoners  and  their  friends,  tracing  of  missing  relatives, 
preservation  of  sacred  or  public  buildings  from  vandalism,  the  care 
of  the  graves  of  the  dead,  the  prevention  of  deportation,  the  com- 
mutation of  death  sentences  passed  on  individuals,  and  other 
acts  of  mercy  or  justice.  He  has  contributed  bountifully  from  his 
private  purse  to  the  various  war  charities — domestic  or  allied. 

With  the  Holy  Father's  utterances  the  world  is,  or  should  be, 
well  acquainted,,  for  he  has  missed  no  opportunity  of  bringing 
before  the  belligerents  the  basis  upon  which  peace  is  founded  and 
the  immorality  of  infringing  the  conditions  under  which  war  can 
be  legitimately  waged.  His  actions  are  less  widely  known — hence 
the  present  attempt  to  summarise  them. 

On  December  31,  1914,  Benedict  XV  put  into  action  his  pro- 
gramme for  alleviating  the  sufferings  produced  by  the  war  by 
addressing  proposals  to  the  sovereigns  and  heads  of  states  at  war 
for  the  exchange  of  prisoners  unfit  for  military  service.  All  the 
belligerent  nations  responded  favorably,  and  shortly  afterwards 
the  exchanges  across  Switzerland  began,  and  have  continued 
throughout  the  war,  transfers  having  been  likewise  effected  to 
other  neutral  countries.  The  nations  which  responded  to  the 
Pope's  initiative  on  this  occasion  were:  Great  Britain,  France, 

1  A  plain  statement  of  the  actions  of  the  Pope  for  the  benefit  of  humanity 
during  the  war,  collated  by  the  editor  of  the  London  Universe  from  articles 
published  in  the  Civilta  Cattolica. 

105 


106  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

Germany,  Austria-Hungary,  Bavaria,  Serbia,  Belgium,  Russia, 
Turkey,  Montenegro,  Japan.  Between  March,  1915,  and  Novem- 
ber, 1916,  above  8,868  French  and  2,343  Germans  returned  to 
their  homes  across  Switzerland. 

On  January  11,  1915,  the  Pope  submitted  to  the  belligerents  a 
proposal  for  the  repatriation  of  (1)  women  and  girls;  (2)  boys 
under  17;  (3)  adults  over  55;  (4)  doctors,  ministers  of  religion,  and 
all  men  unfit  for  military  service.  Great  Britain,  Belgium, 
Russia,  Germany,  Austria-Hungary,  Bavaria  and  Turkey  agreed. 
Agreements  already  under  discussion  between  Serbia  and  Austria 
were  completed,  and  France  ended  by  coming  to  terms  with 
Germany  and  Turkey  with  Great  Britain.  More  than  3,000 
Belgians  returned;  in  a  single  month  20,000  left  the  occupied 
territories  for  Southern  France  as  the  direct  result  of  Papal 
initiative. 

The  Pope  turned  his  attention  to  the  relief  of  wounded  and  sick 
prisoners  of  war  in  May,  1916.  His  proposal,  conveyed  to  Berne 
by  Count  Santucci,  coincided  with  those  of  the  Federal  Council 
and  of  the  Central  International  Committee  of  the  Red  Cross. 
It  was  accepted  in  Switzerland,  and  long  negotiations  ensued,  an 
agreement  being  arrived  at  in  December,  1916,  between  Switzer- 
land, France  and  Germany.  The  first  experimental  hospitaliza- 
tion of  100  French  and  100  German  tuberculous  subjects  began  on 
January  25,  1917.  The  other  nations  entered  into  the  agreement 
at  a  subsequent  date.  At  the  termination  of  the  war  several 
thousands  of  men  were  in  residence  in  Switzerland  and  in  other 
neutral  countries,  thanks  to  the  initial  efforts  of  the  Holy  Father. 

His  Holiness  negotiated  with  special  persistence  in  May  and 
June,  1916,  for  the  hospitalization  of  prisoners — fathers  of  four 
children,  or  those  who  had  been  in  captivity  over  eighteen  months. 
Germany  accepted  the  proposal  for  French  prisoners  on  condition 
of  reciprocity.  In  July,  1916,  Austria  and  Russia  joined  in  the 
negotiations.  A  protracted  discussion  ensued,  but  practical 
agreements  were  arrived  at  in  the  Convention  of  Berne  in  May, 
1918,  and  crowned  the  Pope's  persevering  effort  with  success. 

The  repatriation  without  exchange  of  tuberculous  Italian 
prisoners  in  Austria  was  achieved  through  the  efforts  of  the  Pope 
in  January,  1918;  as  a  witness  to  this  fact,  the  train  which  week  by 
week  brought  the  tuberculous  Italian  to  his  native  land  was  known 
as  "the  Pope's  train." 


Deeds,  not  Words  107 

At  the  end  of  1915  the  Holy  See  was  asked  to  intervene  on  behalf 
of  the  hundreds  of  thousands  of  French  and  Belgian  people  who 
were  cut  off  from  all  correspondence  with  their  families.  In  the 
words  of  the  Swedish  Minister  at  Berne,  a  prompt  and  successful 
result  could  only  be  obtained  through  the  Holy  See.  The  Pope 
induced  Cardinal  Hartmann  to  approach  the  German  Government. 
Practical  proposals  were  made,  strengthened  by  letter,  and  shortly 
after  Cardinal  Hartmann  received  a  reply  from  General  Freytag, 
containing  a  concession,  which  enabled  news  to  be  obtained  by  the 
families  in  question,  subject,  however,  to  a  rigid  control. 

The  Pope  rendered  a  similar  service  to  the  Serbian  refugees  and 
to  Austrian  subjects  in  territories  occupied  by  Italy. 

The  Pope's  proposal,  made  in  August,  1915,  that  Sunday  should 
be  observed  as  a  day  of  rest  for  all  prisoners  of  war,  was  sent  to 
all  the  belligerents.  Great  Britain,  Belgium  and  Serbia  agreed  in 
writing  in  September,  and  Russia,  Turkey,  France  and  Italy, 
and  Austria-Hungary  followed  suit  in  October,  1915. 

With  regard  to  the  conservation  of  the  graves  of  the  dead, 
particularly  those  in  the  Dardanelles,  in  March,  1916,  the  Pope, 
in  answer  to  many  requests  from  England  and  France,  took  steps 
to  satisfy  the  demands  of  those  who  had  lost  relatives  in  the 
Dardanelles,  and  desired  that  their  graves  should  be  preserved 
intact,  and  piously  tended.  In  the  following  April  the  assurance 
was  obtained  that  the  graves  should  be  "preserved  intact  and 
religiously  guarded,  and  that  each  shall  show  the  religion  of  the 
deceased."  Photographs  of  the  various  cemeteries  were  procured 
and  forwarded  to  the  various  governments,  and  by  means  of  these 
some  of  the  graves  were  identified;  the  British,  Russian,  and 
especially  the  French  Government,  each  returned  cordial  thanks  to 
the  Vatican  for  this  active  work  of  charity. 

The  Vatican  Bureau  of  Information  was  established  at  the  end 
of  1914  to  cope  with  the  correspondence  addressed  to  the  Vatican 
from  bishops,  priests  and  families  making  enquiries  about  missing 
soldiers.  The  greater  part  of  these  were  addressed  personally  to 
the  Pope,  and  came  chiefly  from  France  and  Belgium.  The  Pope 
read  and  annoted  these  letters  and  set  enquiries  on  foot.  The 
voluminous  nature  of  the  work  led  to  the  creation  of  an  office  to 
deal  with  it  in  a  methodical  fashion.  Mr.  Bellamy  Storer,  ex- 
Ambassador  of  the  U.  S.  A.  at  Vienna,  undertook  the  charge,  and 
conducted  the  work  with  the  utmost  zeal  from  January  12  to 


108  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

April  18,  1915.  In  the  meantime  the  Holy  Father  had  instituted 
a  bureau  at  Paderborn  for  French,  Belgian  and  British  prisoners, 
and  in  compliance  with  his  request  a  bureau  was  established  at 
Fribourg,  where  the  Mission  Catholique  Suisse  was  already  at 
work  on  behalf  of  the  prisoners  of  war. 

In  April,  1915,  on  the  return  of  Mr.  Bellamy  Storer  to  America, 
his  work  was  undertaken  by  Father  Dominic  Reuter,  also  an 
American.  The  bureau  was  set  up  in  the  House  of  the  Dominican 
Order  at  Rome.  Later  on,  to  facilitate  enquiries  concerning 
Italian  prisoners  in  Austria,  the  Pope  established  a  bureau  in 
connection  with  the  Nunciature  at  Vienna.  Both  the  Holy 
Father  and  the  Secretary  of  State  were  personally  occupied  with 
the  work  of  the  bureau,  whose  complete  staff  was  comprised  of 
members  of  the  religious  orders  and  secular  priests,  while  nuns 
and  ladies  of  the  Roman  aristocracy  cooperated — from  160  to  200 
in  all,  and  almost  all  working  without  remuneration.  The  expenses 
were  borne  entirely  by  the  Holy  Father. 

In  the  early  months  of  1916  urgent  entreaties  from  various 
quarters  reached  the  Holy  Father  that  he  should  come  to  the  aid 
of  the  famine-stricken  Poles.  Appeals  were  received  from  the 
Archbishop  of  Warsaw  on  February  16,  1916,  and  from  the  entire 
Polish  hierarchy  on  March  25,  to  which  was  added  one  from  the 
distinguished  writer,  H.  Sienkievicz,  dated  April  6.  America, 
which  had  cooperated  in  the  relief  of  Belgium,  was  equally  prompt 
in  coming  to  the  assistance  of  Poland,  but  certain  facilities  were 
requisite  from  Russia,  Germany,  Austria,  France,  and,  above  all, 
Great  Britain.  Long  and  laborious  negotiations  were  carried  on 
by  the  Pope,  lasting  nearly  a  year,  but  at  length  agreements  were 
reached  which  rendered  the  provisioning  of  Poland  possible. 

In  the  case  of  Montenegro,  whose  starving  population  was  fed 
by  a  British  Relief  Committee,  it  was  owing  to  the  good  offices  of 
the  Vatican  that  facilities  were  obtained  from  the  Austrian  Govern- 
ment for  forwarding  the  provisions  which  were  to  be  used  exclu- 
sively by  the  civil  population  and  exempt  from  any  kind  of  requi- 
sition. The  Pope,  upon  being  appealed  to,  took  steps  (April  26, 
1916)  through  the  Cardinal  Secretary  of  State.  Negotiations  were 
set  on  foot  with  the  Austrian  Government.  It  was  found,  in 
July,  1916,  that  the  consent  of  the  Italian  Government  was 
necessary,  and  complications  arose  which  tested  the  perseverance 
of  the  Vatican.     But,  finally,  the  Pope's  efforts  were  crowned 


Deeds,  not  Words  109 

with  success,  and  in  1918  consignments  of  provisions  were  able  to 
reach  Montenegro  by  sea  to  certain  specified  ports,  and  under  the 
responsibility  of  the  Holy  See  itself. 

In  October,  1916,  the  Pope,  in  answer  to  an  appeal  from  Mr. 
Herbert  Hoover,  President  of  the  Belgian  Relief  Committee,  came 
to  the  relief  of  1,500,000  Belgian  children,  who  were  suffering  from 
want  of  food.  Mr.  Hoover  begged  the  Pope  to  appeal  to  the 
children  of  America.  In  addition  to  subscribing  $2,000  himself, 
the  Holy  Father  exercised  his  influence  by  a  special  appeal  to  the 
Hierarchy  and  faithful  of  America  to  contribute  to  the  Fund. 
Cardinal  Gibbons  was  able  to  send  $40,000  to  the  Commission. 
Other  American  bishops  sent  personal  gifts,  following  the  Holy 
Father's  example,  and  Mr.  Hoover's  appeal  to  His  Holiness  to 
further  the  scheme  fully  justified  itself  in  its  results. 

The  Pope's  benevolence  to  prisoners  of  war  has  been  bestowed 
without  distinction  of  nationality  or  creed.  Donations  of  money, 
foodstuffs,  clothing,  books,  have  been  distributed  without  excep- 
tion to  the  concentration  camps  of  the  various  belligerent  nations. 
Whilst  the  Italian  prisoners  in  Austria  naturally  claimed  a  special 
share  in  the  Pope's  charity,  the  English  and  French  prisoners  in 
Constantinople  received  gifts  from  His  Holiness,  the  Christmas  of 
1916  saw  20,000  prisoners  in  Austria  provided  with  parcels  of 
food  and  clothing,  as  well  as  other  occasions. 

In  May,  1916,  a  two-fold  proposal  was  recommended  to  the  Pope. 
He  was  asked  to  gain  concessions  from  the  German  Government 
that  the  latter  should  allow  not  only  the  sending  of  parcels  to 
individual  French  prisoners,  but  also  collective  consignments. 
M.  Leon  Watine  Dazin  proposed  that  Switzerland  should  organize 
the  provisioning  of  the  French  occupied  regions,  at  least  as  regards 
certain  commodities.  The  Pope  took  up  the  question  (May  19 
and  May  26,  1916),  and  on  May  27  the  British  Government 
informed  the  Pontiff  that  the  Relief  Committee  had  been  author- 
ized to  import  1,600  tons  of  condensed  milk  a  month  into  Northern 
France.  On  June  15  the  German  Government  announced  that 
collective  consignments  would  be  permitted  to  the  French  prisoners, 
provided  that  there  was  reciprocity  for  German  prisoners.  This 
concession  was  likewise  made  to  Belgian  and  French  civilians. 

In  April,  1915,  the  Pope  sent  to  the  Cardinal  Archbishop  of 
Paris  40,000  lire  for  necessitous  French,  and  in  1917, 150,000  francs, 
received  from  the  French  bishops  to  the  French  Provinces  invaded 


110  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

by  Germany;  in  April,  1915,  to  the  Union  Fraternalle  des  Regions 
Occupees,  20,000  lire;  5,000  lire  to  Soissons.  In  July,  1915,  the 
Bishop  of  Luxemburg  received  10,000  lire  for  the  necessitous 
inhabitants  of  the  Grand  Duchy. 

The  sums  collected  through  the  German  bishops  were  allocated 
for  the  needs  of  the  German  prisoners  in  Russia. 

Poland  has  received  from  the  Vatican  coffers:  In  March,  1915, 
10,000  lire  from  the  Pope,  from  the  Sacred  College  3,000  lire;  in 
April,  1915,  25,000  crowns  and  20,000  lire.  In  April,  1918,  the 
Pope  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  British  Minister  to  the  Vatican 
100,000  lire  on  behalf  of  the  Poles.  To  the  Lithuanian  Society 
he  sent  10,000  lire;  to  the  Serbians,  10,000  lire;  to  the  Monte- 
negrins, 10,000  crowns.  At  the  Pope's  instigation  collections  were 
made  in  the  churches  for  the  Lithuanians,  which  early  in  1918 
had  reached  a  sum  of  several  hundred  thousand  lire. 

Belgium  has  received  monetary  assistance  from  the  Holy  Father, 
which  includes  the  sum  of  25,000  lire  sent  through  the  Cardinal 
Secretary  of  State  (April  6,  1916)  to  Cardinal  Mercier.  The 
Catholics  of  the  whole  world  being  invited  to  follow  this  example, 
30,000  lire  allocated  to  Belgium  from  the  monies  collected  in  Spain 
for  war  victims,  and  various  smaller  sums  sent  on  succeeding 
occasions  ever  since  1914. 

The  foregoing  very  incomplete  list  serves  to  give  some  idea  of 
the  extended  nature  of  the  Pope's  monetary  benefactions  to  nations 
distressed  by  the  war. 

The  Pope  has  supported  the  various  Italian  war  charities  with 
unremitting  generosity,  both  by  personal  donations  and  by  appeals, 
and  the  allocation  of  funds  collected.  He  allocated  140,000  lire 
for  the  benefit  of  Italian  war  orphans,  500  lire  to  the  Soldiers' 
House  at  Rieti,  10,000  lire  to  the  Italian  Colony  at  Smyrna,  100 
lire  to  the  Asylum  for  Soldiers'  Children  at  Portogruaro,  1,000  lire 
to  the  Leece,  1,000  lire  to  the  Orphans'  Fund  at  Perugia,  and  200 
lire  monthly  for  the  duration  of  the  War  to  the  Aid  Committee  for 
the  Italian  workers  in  Belgium.  In  Rome  the  following  Pontifical 
Houses  were  handed  over  for  the  use  of  the  wounded:  Hospital  of 
St.  Martha,  Leonine  College,  German  College,  De  Merode  Tech- 
nical Institute,  Missions  Institute,  and  many  other  diocesan 
institutions,  of  which,  unfortunately,  the  list  is  incomplete. 

The  direct  intervention  of  the  Pope  on  behalf  of  private  indi- 
viduals has  obtained  favors  in  instances  too  numerous  to  record. 


Deeds,  not  Words  111 

Under  German  rule,  M.  Joseph  de  Hemptinne  (November  24, 
1915),  Countess  de  Bellerville,  Madame  Thurlier,  M.  Louis 
Severin  (NovemberlO,  1915),  Madame  Leotine  Pellot  (January 
28,  1916),  M.  Freyling,  Chef  de  Cabinet,  Belgian  Ministry  of  War 
(February  27,  1916),  to  name  a  few,  were  reprieved  from  the  death 
sentence. 

Owing  to  the  Pope,  concessions  and  facilities  were  obtained  for 
Princess  Marie  de  Croy,  who  had  been  condemned  to  ten  years' 
imprisonment  on  the  charge  of  having  concealed  Belgian  and 
French  soldiers  (November,  1915,  March,  1916);  and  favorable 
treatment  for  Madame  Carton  de  Wiart,  wife  of  the  Belgian 
Minister  of  Justice,  who  had  been  condemned  to  three  months' 
detention.  At  the  end  of  that  time  she  was  sent  to  Switzerland, 
and  action  of  the  Holy  Father  has  enabled  this  lady's  five  children 
to  join  their  mother. 

Papal  intervention  has  likewise  secured  the  liberty  of  a  number 
of  those  interned  and  held  as  hostages.  Through  the  good  offices 
of  the  Nunciate  in  Brussels  the  commutation  of  the  sentence  of 
hard  labor  passed  on  the  Rev.  P.  Van  Bambeke,  S.J.,  parish  priest 
at  Curezhem,  was  obtained,  and  a  number  of  British  subjects  have 
benefited  in  this  way. 

The  Pope  made  a  general  protest  against  deportation  in  Decem- 
ber, 1916.  In  April,  1917,  the  efficacy  of  the  Holy  Father's  pro- 
testation was  proved  in  the  case  of  the  Belgian  deportations.  The 
Osservalore  Romano  then  published  an  official  note  from  Count 
Hertling,  at  that  time  Bavarian  Prime  Minister  and  Foreign 
Minister,  addressed  to  the  then  Nuncio  at  Munich.  In  this  note 
it  was  stated  that  in  consequence  of  steps  taken  by  the  Holy  See 
the  German  authorities  had  expressed  their  willingness  to  refrain 
from  further  enforced  deportations  of  Belgian  workmen,  and  to 
allow  the  repatriation  of  those  who  had  in  error  been  unjustly 
deported.  The  deportations  then  ceased,  and  Cardinal  Mercier 
warmly  thanked  the  Pope.  His  Holiness  has  taken  similar  action 
in  the  case  of  deportations  from  the  occupied  parts  of  France. 

Thus,  on  June  7,  1916,  the  Cardinal  Secretary  of  State  wrote  to 
the  Archbishop  of  Cologne,  to  the  effect  that  information  had 
reached  the  Vatican  that  the  German  authorities  in  the  occupied 
regions  of  France  had  deported  batches  of  youths  and  girls  into 
Germany,  regardless  of  all  laws  of  justice  or  morality.  His  Holi- 
ness requested  precise  information.  The  German  reply  was  that 
the  deportations  had  taken  place  on  account  of  the  food  shortage 


112  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

and  to  relieve  the  communities  by  giving  their  able-bodied  mem- 
bers a  means  of  earning  their  living — an  example  of  Germany's 
method  of  exculpating  herself.  On  other  occasions  the  Holy  See 
took  similar  action — a  fact  which  is  not  affected  by  the  absence  of 
the  desired  result. 

Owing  to  the  action  of  the  Holy  Father,  through  the  Nunciature 
at  Brussels,  special  protection  was  obtained  for  the  Bollandists' 
Library  at  Brussels,  for  the  Jesuits'  Psychical  Institute  at  Louvain, 
as  well  as  other  educational  institutions.  The  Nuncio  demanded 
the  evacuation  of  convents  occupied  by  German  troops,  or  at  least 
the  separation  of  the  part  occupied  from  that  inhabited  by  the 
Community.  After  the  sack  of  Louvain  the  Nunciature  handed 
to  the  Military  Governor  of  Brussels  a  full  list  of  the  monuments, 
religious  or  otherwise,  in  that  city  which  had  been  drawn  up  by  the 
Royal  Monuments  Commission  of  Belgium,  with  a  request  that 
they  should  be  respected  and  safeguarded.  The  Governor  gave 
his  promise  to  comply. 

Similarly,  after  the  bombardments  of  Malines  and  Antwerp 
Cathedrals,  the  Nunciature  presented  to  the  Governor-General 
of  Belgium  a  list  of  all  the  buildings  classified  by  the  Monuments 
Commission,  and  the  latter  had  the  list  distributed  to  the  various 
German  commands  with  orders  for  their  protection.  This  im- 
portant fact  was  published  in  the  "Official  Bulletin,  Royal  Arts 
and  Archaelogical  Commission,"  Brussels,  1914.  In  order  to  view 
the  damage  done  to  churches  and  other  ecclesiastical  buildings, 
so  as  to  be  able  to  formulate  demands,  the  staff  of  the  Nunciate 
undertook  many  hazardous  journeys,  and  there  were  innumerable 
difficulties  to  be  overcome  before  a  result  could  be  achieved. 

The  action  of  the  Vatican  has  also  been  instrumental  in  saving 
the  church  bells  of  Belgium.  At  the  beginning  of  1917  the  Holy 
See  learned  that  the  German  Government  intended  to  requisition 
the  bronze  and  other  metal  objects  used  in  Belgian  churches. 
Intervention  was  made  through  the  Nunciature  at  Munich,  and 
Cardinal  Hartmann,  and  the  project  was  abandoned.  In  February, 
1918,  notice  was  given  to  Cardinal  Mercier  of  the  approaching 
requisitions  of  bells  and  organ,  pipes.  The  Holy  Father  sent  in 
his  protest,  but  received  the  reply  that  the  measure  was  neces- 
sitated by  military  exigencies.  The  Pope,  however,  insisted,  mak- 
ing a  second  effort  in  May,  1918,  and  on  this  occasion  the  Nuncio 
at  Munich  was  able  to  inform  His  Holiness  that  the  requisitioning 
of  the  church  bells  of  Belgium  had  been  abandoned. 


THE  KNIGHTS  OF  COLUMBUS  WAR  SERVICE 

Knights  of  Columbus  secretaries  and  Catholic  chaplains  who 
entered  the  military  service  through  the  Knights,  stationed 
aboard  transports  bringing  our  troops  home,  are  playing  a  big  r61e 
in  war  relief  work  in  connection  with  the  care  of  and  supplying 
comforts  to  the  wounded  warriors. 

Our  soldiers  are  men  of  action  rather  than  words,  but  aboard 
ship  returning  home  they  frequently  talk  about  their  experiences 
abroad  and  it  is  then  the  various  war  relief  organizations  and  their 
work  are  discussed.  Knights  of  Columbus  secretaries  and  chap- 
lains bring  evidence  daily  of  the  esteem  our  soldiers  entertain 
for  the  Knights. 

First  Lieutenant,  Chaplain  Father  Marcellus  Horn,  O.  M.  Cap., 
who  was  in  transport  service  for  many  months  and  who  was  this 
week  again  assigned  to  the  same  work  aboard  the  U.  S.  transport 
Metsonia,  writes  entertainingly  about  his  experience  on  troop 
ships  as  a  representative  of  the  Knights  of  Columbus.  In  his 
letter  he  says : 

I  would  like  to  say  a  few  words  in  praise  of  the  Knights  of 
Columbus.  They  are  doing  wonderful  work  for  the  boys,  and 
would  do  more  if  people  would  only  understand  and  supply  the 
means.  If  they  only  had  men  and  money  enough  to  do  their  work 
in  the  best  possible  manner! 

Let  me  emphasize  the  fact  that  every  cent  the  people  give  to  the 
K.  of  C.  is  given  to  the  boys  in  the  form  of  little  comforts  the  soldier 
so  much  enjoys.  I  have  met  hundreds  of  boys  from  the  front,  and 
all  had  the  same  story  to  tell.  The  soldiers  love  the  K.  of  C.  and 
appreciate  the  work  they  are  doing.  The  same  story  can  be  told 
of  their  work  everywhere  in  France  and  the  States.  I  met  officers, 
lieutenants,  colonels,  captains,  majors — and  all  had  the  same 
story  to  tell  about  the  Knights'  work  in  France,  especially  at  the 
front.  "  Their  work  is  a  blessing  for  my  boys,"  one  officer  repeated 
again  and  again. 

He  then  continues: 

Since  I  entered  the  transport  service  in  order  to  do  my  bit  for 
my  country  in  a  great  and  glorious  cause,  and  to  assist  our  boys 
in  their  spiritual  needs  I  have  had  lots  of  experience. 

I  have  made  four  trips  on  one  of  the  best  transports  in  the 
service.  At  the  end  of  this  voyage  I  will  have  traveled  full  24,000 
miles.  This  long  voyage  I  began  on  June  6th  last  year.  During 
this  time,  from  June  till  October,  I  have  met  thousands  of  our 

113 


114  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

finest  and  best  boys.  This  ship  unloads  thousands  and  thousands 
of  the  noblest  and  best  specimens  of  American  manhood,  for  our 
Uncle  Sam  sends  only  the  best  overseas.  At  ports  "somewhere  in 
France"  I  have  said  goodbye  to  my  noble  soldier-friends  of  a 
few  days  and  sent  them  on  their  way  to  battle  and  perhaps  death 
with  a  fond  prayer  and  a  blessing. 

My  work  aboard  ship  is  not  only  that  of  a  spiritual  father  and 
guide;  indeed  my  duties  become  very  material  at  times,  for 
instance,  I  am  expected  to  be  an  all-round  good  "sport."  The 
spiritual,  real  spiritual,  work  is  only  a  small  portion  of  my  obliga- 
tions. Now  do  not  misunderstand  me.  I  mean  by  the  real 
work  Holy  Mass,  confessions,  instructions,  etc. 

Place  yourself  aboard  one  of  the  transports.  It  is  leaving  one 
of  the  ports  somewhere  along  the  Atlantic  coast  with  a  few  thou- 
sand soldiers.  Soon  time  will  become  heavy  on  their  hands.  Some 
will  get  seasick,  others  homesick;  they  need  diversion  and  dis- 
traction. Now  it  is  the  chaplain's  duty  to  see  that  everybody  is 
happy.  He  must  be  to  the  soldiers:  father,  mother,  sister,  brother, 
sweetheart(P)  friend,  in  fact,  he  must  console,  encourage,  cheer. 
This  is  the  work,  the  bit,  I  am  trying  to  do.     But  how? 

This  is  how  I  try.  I  go  about  among  them,  speak  to  them,  try 
to  have  a  kind  word  and  a  smile  for  every  one.  I  endeavor  to  see 
and  speak  to  each  one.  At  the  same  time  I  am  letting  them  know 
that  I  am  a  Catholic  priest  and  that  I  am  at  the  service  of  all,  and 
that  the  Catholic  boys  will  have  every  opportunity  aboard  ship 
to  attend  Mass  and  receive  the  Sacraments.  Thus  I  try  to  gain 
their  trust  and  confidence.  Of  course,  there  is  a  Protestant 
chaplain  aboard  to  take  charge  of  the  non-Catholic  services. 
However,  on  the  first  two  voyages,  I  also  held  services  for  non- 
Catholics,  there  being  no  chaplain  aboard. 

Just  imagine,  holding  forth  to  a  Protestant  congregation! 
Shades  of  Jupiter!  How  some  good  souls  would  turn  in  their 
graves.  I  think  also  that  I  can  see  a  dubious  smile  on  some  of  my 
readers'  lips  and  a  curious  twinkle  in  their  eye.  Well,  it  was  done 
just  the  same  in  the  line  of  duty,  and  I  believe  I  did  some  good; 
you  never  know  how  soon  the  good  seed  will  strike  good  ground, 
take  root  and  flourish.  At  the  end  of  one  trip,  a  non-Catholic  boy 
came  to  bid  me  good-bye.  While  shaking  hands,  he  said :  "  Father, 
I'll  not  forget  what  you  said  about  cursing  and  blaspheming;  I've 
cut  some  of  it  already."  Then  and  there  I  felt  well  repaid  for 
every  effort  I  had  made  on  the  trip  to  do  some  good.  That  good 
Sammie  was  sent  on  his  way  with  an  extra  blessing. 

Very  much  can  be  done  by  this  personal  contact  with  the  men, 
in  fact,  it  seems  to  me  to  be  very  important.  They  must  know 
they  have  a  friend  in  the  chaplain,  one  who  takes  interest  in  all 
their  affairs,  big  and  small. 

But  how  to  keep  the  boys  occupied!  Officers  and  men  gather 
about  the  ring  to  enjoy  some  good  sport.     (The  ring  is  on  deck,  of 


The  Knights  of  Columbus  War  Service  115 

course.)  ]|  Boxing  and  wrestling  contests  and  vaudeville  enter- 
tainments take  up  many  an  afternoon  and  evening.  The^blood 
flows  a  little  once  in  a  while,  but  nobody  minds  such  a^trifle. 
There  is  also  music  aboard,  for  each  regiment  has  its  band.  Then, 
too,  we  often  find  an  orchestra  among  the  different  companies. 
So  why  worry  when  there  is  such  fun?  I  sincerely  believe  fear  of 
"subs"  is  the  least  fear  among  the  soldiers.  They  are  much  more 
afraid  of  the  revolution  in  the  "  netherlands  "  and  hanging  over  the 
rail.  Feeding  the  fishes  is  a  very  unpopular  pastime.  I  know. 
Veni,  vidi,  vici,  which  means,  "I  did  the  same  as  the  rest  of  the 
boys." 

But  to  get  back  to  the  ring.  I  fear  many  of  you  would  be  just  a 
little  scandalized  to  see  me  in  the  ring  acting  the  part  of  referee  or 
timekeeper.  However,  that  also  is  part  of  my  duty,  so  the 
scandalized  one  will  kindly  pardon  me.  I'll  do  penance  when  I 
get  back  into  habit  and  sandals  again.  I  wish  I  could  get  there 
now,  for  sometimes  I  get  homesick  for  the  quiet,  holy  life  within 
the  monastery  walls  and  the  work  in  the  parish.  Still  it  is  God's 
will  that  I  am  here,  and  our  soldier  boys  need  me,  so  I  dare  not  let 
selfishness  creep  into  my  heart  now.  It  would  destroy  all  the  good 
I  am  trying  to  do. 

I  wish  that  the  mothers,  sisters,  and  sweethearts,  and  fathers 
and  brothers,  too,  could  witness  the  sight  of  a  Mass  at  sea.  It  is 
soul-inspiring.  While  the  priest  is  celebrating  the  Holy  Sacrifice 
of  Mass  their  loved  ones — hundreds  of  them — are  kneeling  close 
by  on  deck  in  humble  adoration  and  prayer,  either  telling  their 
beads  or  using  their  prayer-book.  When  I  see  this,  I  know  that 
every  one  is  a  real  patriot  and  soldier.  When  I  turn  to  read  the 
epistle  and  gospel  and  preach  to  them,  I  hurriedly  breathe  a  short 
prayer  of  thanksgiving  to  God,  asking  Him  to  keep  them 
always  so. 

Knights  of  Columbus  are  meeting  the  reconstruction  problem 
overseas  and  appear  to  be  blazing  a  path  by  tackling  the  physical 
as  well  as  the  moral  side  of  the  question.  One  evidence  of  this  is  a 
shipment  from  here  of  more  than  a  hundred  kits  of  carpenters' 
tools.  Recently  enough  overalls  to  supply  more  than  a  thousand 
Knights  of  Columbus  secretaries  were  shipped  to  France.  More 
than  5,000  tools  and  implements  are  included  in  this  shipment  of 
workmen's  outfits. 

The  inhabitants  of  all  the  war-wrecked  cities  and  villages  in 
France  turn  to  the  Knights  of  Columbus  for  aid  in  their  distress, 
and  it  is  to  help  them  rebuild  or  repair  their  houses  that  carpenters' 
tools  are  now  forwarded  to  Knights  of  Columbus  secretaries. 

The  Knights,  too,  are  building  many  new  buildings  for  club- 
houses and  rest  places  for  our  soldiers,  and  as  the  labor  problem 


116  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

abroad  precludes  the  employment  of  French  or  Belgian  labor, 
which  is  devoted  entirely  to  rebuilding  their  cities,  the  Knights  of 
Columbus  are  erecting  their  own  structures.  Thirty  new  K.  of  C. 
buildings  are  at  present  in  course  of  construction. 


A  letter  which  throws  a  strong  light  on  Knights  of  Columbus 
overseas  activities,  and  in  a  modest,  yet  graphic  manner,  describes 
the  part  Catholic  chaplains  are  taking  in  the  war,  was  recently 
received  by  Mr.  E.  P.  Clark,  of  Knights  of  Columbus  Overseas 
Headquarters,  New  York.  It  is  a  testimonial  of  the  efficient 
services  of  William  J.  Mulligan,  Chairman  of  K.  of  C.  Committee 
on  War  Activities,  and  William  P.  Larl  in,  Director  of  K.  of  C. 
Overseas  Activity,  and  pays  eloquent  tribute  to  Past  Supreme 
Knight  Edward  L.  Hearn,  now  K.  of  C.  Overseas  Commissioner 
at  Paris.     The  letter,  in  part,  follows: 

November  22,  1918. 
My  Dear  Gene: 

Your  kind  welcome  letter  of  October  12th  has  been  chasing  me 
around  France  and  finally  caught  me  on  the  march  a  few  days  ago. 

You  already  know  of  my  transfer  out  of  the  49th.  As  they  were 
fixed,  I  had  no  opportunity  to  get  up  Front,  so  I  finally  succeeded 
in  getting  a  transfer  to  a  fighting  outfit,  the  101  Inf.,  the  old  9th 
Mass. — Irish  and  Catholic. 

I  joined  them  up  at  the  Front,  and  was  with  them  long  enough 
to  get  a  taste  and  a  realization  of  actual  warfare.  Believe  me,  it 
is  hell.  I  saw  only  a  little,  but  that  made  me  thank  God  with  a 
full  heart  that  peace  had  come,  and  my  hat  goes  off  to  the  men 
who  have  stood  the  gaff  through  it  all.  Our  infantry  boys  are 
wonders  and  the  artillerymen  hand  it  to  the  dough-boys  every 
time. 

When  the  armistrice  was  signed,  the  outfit  was  pulled  out  of 
the  line,  and  we  have  been  on  the  hike  ever  since.  This  has  been 
our  first  rest.  The  weather  has  been  splendid,  though  a  trifle  cold. 
We  shall  probably  remain  at  our  present  locality  to  get  cleaned 
and  clothed  and  washed  and  respectable  looking,  and,  best  of  all, 
get  rid  of  the  cooties.     What  will  follow,  no  one  of  us  knows  yet. 

Before  leaving  Lemans,  things  were  working  O.  K.  and  supplies 
were  coming  in  to  the  boys  from  the  Knights  of  Columbus  regu- 
larly. I  had  twenty-four  hours  at  Paris  on  my  way  east  and  Mr. 
Hearn  was  more  than  kind  and  cordial.  He  made  me  his  guest, 
and  I  remained  at  his  house.  He  made  it  a  real  home  to  me,  and 
that  was  the  last  time  I  saw  a  bed  till  the  other  night.  Mr.  Hearn 
is  making  a  wonderful  success  of  the  work.     He  gets  everything 


The  Knights  of  Columbus  War  Service  117 

from  the  French  officials  and  is  a  live  wire,  on  the  job  every 
minute,  never  missing  a  cue  or  an  opportunity. 

The  Knights  of  Columbus  is  exceedingly  popular  with  the 
soldiers.  "Everybody  Welcome  and  Everything  Free"  is  literally 
lived  up  to,  and  the  Protestant  and  Jewish  boys  look  to  the  Knights 
of  Columbus  just  like  our  own  boys;  and  the  boys  who  have  been 
at  the  Front  are  especially  loudest  in  their  appreciation.  The 
War  has  been  the  opportunity  for  the  Knights  of  Columbus,  and 
they  have  risen  to  it  fully. 

Please  remember  me  to  all  our  mutual  friends  and  particularly 
to  all  the  Castilianites. 

Sincerely, 

(Signed)     John  J.  Mitty, 
Chaplain,  101st  Inf.,  A.  E.  F. 


BOY  SCOUTS  IN  WAR  AND  PEACE » 

The  following  is  a  conservative  statement  of  Boy  Scout  activities 
during  the  last  year  and  a  half. 

Membership  of  the  Boy  Scouts  of  America  at  the  close  of  1918: 

Registered  scouts 339,468 

Scoutmasters  and  assistants 28,823 

Member  of  local  councils  and  officials 60,687 

The  movement  is  founded  upon  a  steadfast  observance  of  the 
Scout  Oath  and  Law,  which  are  as  follows: 

The  Scout  Oath 

On  my  honor  I  will  do  my  best — 

1.  To  do  my  duty  to  God  and  my  country,  and  to  obey  the 
Scout  Law. 

2.  To  help  other  people  at  all  times. 

3.  To  keep  myself  physically  strong,  mentally  awake,  and  mor- 
ally straight. 

The  Scout  Law 

1.  A  scout  is  trustworthy.  7.  A  scout  is  obedient. 

2.  A  scout  is  loyal.  i  8.  A  scout  is  cheerful. 

3.  A  scout  is  helpful.  9.  A  scout  is  thrifty. 

4.  A  scout  is  friendly.  10.  A  scout  is  brave. 

5.  A  scout  is  courteous.  11.  A  scout  is  clean. 

6.  A  scout  is  kind.  12.  A  scout  is  reverent. 

The  program  of  the  Boy  Scouts  of  America  calls  for  a  week  of 
camping  for  every  scout,  where  possible.  Frequent  hikes  into  the 
country  on  observation  trips.  Study  of  woodcraft.  First  aid, 
Life  saving,  and  safety-first.  Study  of  animals,  birds  and  trees. 
Study  games  of  skill  and  strength.  Outdoor  fire  building  and 
cooking:  everything  pertaining  to  campcraft.  Signaling  by  code. 
Knot  tying.  Swimming  and  sailing.  Outdoor  life  to  the  full. 
Doing  a  good  turn  every  day  to  some  person  without  pay.  The 
program  also  includes  for  first  class  scouts  an  opportunity  to 
earn  merit  badges  in  one  or  more  of  fifty-eight  practical  studies, 
which  have  a  leading  toward  a  vocation. 

The  program  has  a  myriad  forms  of  expression,  and  is  the 
livest  thing  there  is  today  for  boys.     During  the  past  year  and  a 


1  Supplied  by  the  Bureau  for  Catholic  Extension  of  Boy  Scouts  of  America. 
This  Bureau  was  approved  by  his  Eminence  Cardinal  Farley. 

118 


Boy  Scouts  in  War  and  Peace  119 

half,  it  took  in  the  larger  service  called  for  by  the  Government  in 
its  conduct  of  the  war.  In  obedience  to  the  Oath  of  duty  to  God 
and  country,  the  Boy  Scouts  of  America  signified  their  readiness 
to  stand  100  per  cent  behind  the  Government.  In  consequence, 
the  Government  and  the  heads  of  the  important  bureaus,  such  as 
the  Food  Conservation  Commission,  repeatedly  called  upon  the 
scotits  for  special  services,  and  the  record  below  shows  what  the 
response  has  been.  The  same  call  is  being  made  by  the  Govern- 
ment in  its  program  of  reconstruction  measures,  and  the  same 
response  will  be  given. 

The  daily  good  turn  of  the  Boy  Scouts  is  one  of  the  strong 
features  of  the  program;  it  turns  the  boy's  thoughts  in  helpfulness 
toward  others.  The  good  turn  is  done  individually,  or  by  the 
troops  of  a  community  as  a  civic  good  turn.  And  the  develop- 
ment of  the  daily  good  turn  into  organized  civic  service  by  boys, 
is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  and  encouraging  things  in  our 
history. 

Here  is  a  partial  list  of  good  turns: 

Thorough  clean-up  campaigns  of  towns,  delivering  Health 
Department  bulletins  to  every  household,  and  reporting  upon  the 
condition  of  every  front  and  back  yard.  Also  actually  cleaning 
up. 

Good  health  campaigns,  reporting  upon  unsanitary  conditions 
and  gathering  other  data  incidental  to  such  a  campaign. 

Census  of  the  trees  of  the  town,  in  one  town,  for  example, 
listing  14,083  trees,  tabulating  61  different  varieties. 

Safety-first  campaigns. 

Outings  for  poor  boys  under  scout  age. 

Help  police  parades. 

Organized  as  fire  patrols. 

Gather  and  saw  and  split  dead  wood  from  the  forests,  for  the 
poor. 

Innumerable  services  to  the  sick  and  needy. 

A  typical  troop  good  turn  was  the  picking  of  450  pounds  of 
blackberries  so  that  the  juice  could  be  sent  to  an  army  hospital. 

They  take  charge  of  feeding  the  birds. 

They  collect  and  market  junk  of  every  kind. 

They  establish  public  drinking  places. 

Are  responsible  for  the  raising  and  lowering  of  the  flag,  on 
public  buildings. 


120  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

Assist  in  town-beautiful  movements  and  other  community 
movements. 

Perform  many  services  for  the  churches. 

The  War  Service  rendered  by  the  Boy  Scouts  of  America  is 
tabulated  as  follows : 

In  three  Liberty  Loans  (figures  from  fourth  drive  not  yet  avail- 
able) make  1,343,018  sales,  amounting  to  $206,862,950. 

Tentative  returns  of  over  363,000  subscriptions  totaling  $46,050,- 
450  in  value  indicate  over  $100,000,000  of  sales  in  the  Fourth 
Liberty  Loan  Campaign. 

Sold  War  Savings  Stamps  to  the  value  of  $22,997,260. 

Located  20,758,660  board  feet  (5,200  carloads)  of  standing 
walnut. 

Collected  over  100  carloads  of  fruit  pits,  enough  to  make  over 
one-half  million  gas  masks,  and  were  still  going  strong  when  the 
armistice  was  signed. 

Responsible  for  over  12,000  war  gardens  actually  reported, 
with  thousands  more  not  reported  in  detail.  In  addition  to  this, 
many  thousands  of  scouts  worked  on  farms. 

Distributed  over  30,000,000  pieces  of  government  literature. 

Assisted  the  Red  Cross  continuously  in  its  work,  and  served  in 
every  membership  and  financial  drive. 

Assisted  the  United  War  Work  Committee's  campaign  for 
money. 

Performed  many  services  for  the  selective  Service  Boards  and  the 
government  intelligence  bureau. 

Were  called  upon  for  messenger  and  other  service  wherever  the 
influenza  epidemic  raged. 

The  Boy  Scout  movement  aims  to  keep  a  boy  100  per  cent  boy, 
intensify  his  fun,  but  at  the  same  time  so  direct  his  fun  and  his 
energies  out  of  school  hours  as  to  supplement  the  work  of  the 
school,  the  home  and  the  church  in  training  the  boy  for  good 
citizenship  .- 

The  fact  that  between  300,000  and  400,000  boys  are  keen  to 
carry  out  the  program,  and  that  hundreds  of  thousands  more  are 
known  to  be  waiting,  to  come  into  the  movement  as  soon  as 
scoutmasters  can  be  provided,  sufficiently  attests  the  soundness 
of  the  principles  on  which  the  Boy  Scout  movement  is  based. 

The  movement  is  also  of  incalculable  benefit  to  the  men  them- 
selves who  are  in  it.  It  keeps  them  young  and  in  the  open,  and 
progressive.  They  must  be  men  of  unassailable  character, 
sincerely  interested  in  boys,  and  desirous  of  giving  leadership  to 
them  in  such  a  program  of  activities.    The  scoutmaster  need 


Boy  Scouts  in  War  and  Peace  121 

not  at  the  beginning  be  an  expert  in  scouting,  and  he  finds  it  an 
easy  matter  to  equip  himself  for  his  work. 

The  above  tabulation  of  facts  is  by  no  means  complete.  The 
movement  is  one  of  intense  enthusiasm  and  of  intense  practica- 
bility. It  is  making  a  contribution  to  the  nation  such  as  no 
movement  with  boys  has  ever  before  accomplished.  It  is  evident 
that  one  of  the  finest  forms  of  service  to  our  country  is  in  bringing 
the  benefits  of  scouting  to  an  ever-increasing  number  of  boys 
between  the  ages  of  twelve  and  nineteen.  In  recognition  of  this 
fact  the  War  Department  has  issued  an  order  calling  attention  of 
officers  and  enlisted  men,  "who  have  the  necessary  qualifications, 
to  the  opportunity  which  the  Boy  Scouts  affords  for  them  to  fur- 
ther serve  their  country  after  discharge." 

The  Boy  Scouts  of  America  celebrate  their  ninth  anniversary 
in  the  week  of  February  7-13  inclusive.  The  scouts  come  up  to 
this  birthday  event  with  a  record  to  be  proud  of.  And  they  are 
going  to  celebrate  in  true  scout  fashion. 

On  Friday,  February  7,  in  the  evening,  every  scout  and  scout 
man  will  get  on  the  mark  to  carry  out  the  program  for  the  week,  long 
in  preparation. 

On  Saturday,  scouts  will  cut  loose  for  a  day  of  fun.  Community 
committees  are  expected  to  help  make  the  fun  complete.  It  is 
to  be  a  big  day  of  relaxation  after  a  year  and  a  half  of  strenuous 
war  work;  but  in  the  evening  comes  the  annual  anniversary  day 
meeting,  when  every  scout  renews  his  Scout  Oath,  renews  his 
pledge  of  allegiance  to  the  flag,  and  pulls  in  his  belt  preparatory 
to  a  new  year's  work. 

Sunday,  February  9,  is  to  be  Scout  Sunday  all  over  the  United 
States,  with  special  sermons  in  churches. 

On  Monday,  fathers  and  sons  get  together  for  a  banquet, 
an  annual  event  in  scouting,  to  be  followed  in  the  evening  by  a 
general  get-together  of  scout  men  and  scouts  for  entertainment. 

Tuesday,  February  11,  the  scouts  take  off  their  hats  to  the 
returned  soldiers  and  sailors  and  their  families.  Whatever  the 
local  committees  can  devise  that  will  show  honor  to  these  men, 
the  scouts  will  put  through. 

Wednesday,  February  12,  will  be  given  over  to  patriotic  observ- 
ances of  Lincoln's  birthday,  where  that  day  is  a  holiday.  Wher- 
ever there  are  scouts  there  will  be  demonstrations  and  scout 
activities. 

Thursday  the  anniversary  will  culminate  in  the  filling  up  of 
the  ranks  of  all  troops  and  the  recruiting  of  new  scoutmasters. 

This  anniversary  week  gives  the  public  a  splendid  opportunity 
to  recognize  the  services  the  scouts  have  rendered  the  country 
during  the  war;  and  also  the  services  they  are  rendering  the 
community  right  straight  along,  day  by  day.  One  thing  about  the 
anniversary  week  program,  not  mentioned  above,  is  the  daily  good 
turn,  which  will  take  some  specific  form  each  day  in  the  week. 
This  feature  of  the  Boy  Scout  movement,  the  daily  good  turn  which 


122  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

every  scout  promises  to  do  for  someone  without  pay,  has  developed 
into  a  highly  organized  form  of  civic  service;  to  such  an  extent, 
in  fact,  that  the  President  of  the  United  States  and  the  different 
branches  of  the  Government  called  upon  the  Boy  Scouts  of  Amer- 
ica, as  an  organization,  to  perform  many  extremely  important 
services  in  the  conduct  of  the  war.  And  not  once  did  the  scouts 
fail  to  respond  with  zeal  and  efficiency. 


WOMAN'S  LAND  ARMY  OF  AMERICA 

The  Great  World  War  is  over.  The  high  hazards  of  the  battle- 
field no  longer  thrill  us  to  action,  but  there  is  a  cry  coming  to 
America  from  the  peoples  and  nations  who  are  starving  for  food. 
America  must  produce  more  food  and  then  more  food  if  we  would 
at  this  time  supply  Armenia,  Russia  and  Poland. 

The  Woman's  Land  Army  of  America  was  organized  in  the 
spring  of  1917  as  a  war  emergency  organization  to  increase  food 
production  by  placing  units  of  patriotic  young  women  where  they 
would  be  available  as  farm  laborers.  Fifteen  thousand  girls  all 
over  the  country  responded  to  the  call  last  summer,  leaving  their 
books  and  their  desks  and  during  their  precious  vacation  time 
labored  in  the  fields  that  we  might  as  a  nation  have  more  food  to 
send  to  these  starving  peoples.  Even  though  the  war  is  over,  its 
ravages  are  still  before  us,  and  the  Woman's  Land  Army,  working 
under  the  Department  of  Labor,  is  preparing  to  meet  the  farmers' 
need  when  it  comes  in  the  spring. 

There  has  always  been  a  shortage  of  laborers  on  the  farms,  and 
the  war  crystallized  the  situation.  Even  with  the  boys  coming 
back  from  France,  there  will  still  not  be  enough  farm  laborers. 
During  the  past  summer  the  "farmerette"  worked  in  twenty 
States,  supplying  15,000  laborers,  from  Massachusetts  to  Cali- 
fornia and  from  Virginia  to  Oregon.  They  all  loved  their  work, 
and  when  the  harvest  was  over  felt  that  they  had  helped  with  their 
hands  to  feed  the  nations  at  war.  Under  God's  guidance  the  war 
is  over.  The  guns  have  ceased  to  fire  over  there  and  perhaps  the 
appeal  is  not  so  dramatic,  but  it  should  come  even  more  strongly 
to  every  farmer,  to  plant  more  and  more  crops. 

The  Woman's  Land  Army  wants  to  help  by  doing  the  work  that 
it  has  been  proven  women  can  do.  The  farmer  who  needs  help 
and  the  women  who  want  to  do  this  service  can  obtain  information 
through  the  National  Office  at  19  West  44th  Street,  New  York 
City. 


REVIEWS  AND  NOTICES 

The  Great  Crime  and  Its  Moral,  by  J.  Selden  Wilmore.    New 
York :  George  H.  Doran  Company,  1917.    Pp.  xi+323. 

More  than  a  year  has  elapsed  since  this  work  was  published, 
and  the  year  was  the  most  eventful  one  in  the  history  of  the 
world,  with  the  sole  exception  of  that  year  which  ushered  in 
Christianity  as  a  heaven-sent  force  to  work  for  freedom  and 
brotherly  love.  The  book  is,  therefore,  in  one  sense  ancient 
history,  but,  if  so,  it  is  a  history  that  we  shall  need  to  keep 
before  our  eyes  until  the  whole  world  understands  that  the 
doctrine  that  might  is  right  is  essentially  evil  and  must  be  met 
and  conquered  not  only  when  it  enthrones  itself  at  the  head 
of  great  empires  and  armaments  but  when  it  appears  in  the 
domestic  circle  and  in  the  everyday  transactions  of  private 
life.  We  have  a  long  way  to  go  before  this  aim  is  attained. 
The  scope  of  the  book  is  set  forth  concisely  by  the  author  in 
the  following  paragraphs : 

"The  principal  features  of  the  Great  Crime  have  been  al- 
ready separately  recorded  and  developed  in  books  and  pam- 
phlets without  number  and  in  many  languages.  In  the  follow- 
ing pages  various  counts  of  the  indictment  are  set  out  in  the 
form  of  a  short  but  connected  narrative,  and,  that  the  story 
may  carry  the  greater  conviction,  the  details  which  compose  it 
have  been  described,  wherever  possible,  in  the  words  of  neu- 
trals and  of  Germans  themselves,  the  references  to  whose  writ- 
ings will  serve  as  a  guide  to  readers  desiring  a  closer  insight 
into  any  particular  incident  or  aspect  of  the  crime. 

"We  have,  indeed,  been  at  great  pains  throughout  to  present 
the  facts  in  as  convincing  a  form  as  possible ;  but  in  some  cases 
we  have  not  been  able  to  describe  them  in  all  their  horror,  be- 
cause, had  we  done  so,  we  should  have  produced  a  work  unfit 
for  general  reading  and  so  defeated  the  object  we  have  in  view, 
which  is  to  give  an  opportunity  to  every  man,  woman  and  child 
who  has  any  understanding  whatever,  to  realize,  once  for  all, 
the  character  of  the  people  who  have  made  war  on  the  world, 
the  motives  by  which  they  were  actuated  in  so  doing,  the  appall- 
ing nature  of  the  catastrophe  which  would  follow  upon  the  suc- 

123 


124  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

cess  of  their  scheme — of  their  plot  against  humanity — and  the 
danger  of  making  peace  with  them  before  their  power  for  evil 
is  broken." 

T.  E.  S. 


The  Ways  of  War,  by  Professor  T.  M.  Kettle,  Lieut.,  9th  Dublin 
Fusiliers,  with  a  memoir  by  his  wife,  Mary  S.  Kettle.  New 
York :  Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  1917.  Pp.  x+246. 

This  volume  stands  out  conspicuously  among  the  many  vol- 
umes written  on  the  world  war.  The  personality  of  the  author, 
his  passion  for  freedom,  and  his  high  ideals  of  patriotism  and 
international  welfare  radiate  through  the  volume.  We  quote 
from  the  preface : 

"Perhaps  the  order  of  the  chapters  in  the  present  volume  re- 
quire a  word  of  explanation.  They  have  a  natural  sequence  as 
the  confessions  of  an  Irishman  of  letters  as  to  why  he  felt  called 
upon  to  offer  up  his  life  in  the  war  for  the  freedom  of  the 
world.  Kettle  was  one  of  the  most  brilliant  figures  both  in  the 
young  Ireland  and  young  Europe  of  his  time.  The  opening 
chapters  reveal  him  as  a  Nationalist  concerned  about  the  lib- 
erty not  only  of  Ireland — though  he  never  for  a  moment  forgot 
that — but  of  every  nation,  small  and  great.  He  hoped  to  make 
these  chapters  part  of  a  separate  book,  expounding  the  Irish 
attitude  to  the  war ;  but  unfortunately,  as  one  must  think,  the 
War  Office  would  not  permit  an  Irish  officer  to  put  his  name 
to  a  work  of  the  kind.  After  the  chapters  describing  the  in- 
evitable sympathy  of  an  Irishman  with  Serbia  and  Belgium — 
little  nations  attacked  by  two  imperial  bullies — comes  an  ac- 
count of  the  tragic  scenes  Kettle  himself  witnessed  in  Belgium, 
where  he  served  as  a  war-correspondent  in  the  early  days  of 
the  war.  'Silhouettes  from  the  Front,'  which  follow,  describe 
what  he  saw  and  felt  later  on,  when,  having  taken  a  commis- 
sion in  the  Dublin  Fusiliers,  he  accompanied  his  regiment  to 
France  in  time  to  take  part  in  the  battle  of  the  Somme.  Then 
some  chapters  containing  hints  of  that  passion  for  France, 
which  was  one  of  the  great  passions  of  his  life." 

The  book  is  beautifully  written. 

T.  E.  S. 


Reviews  and  Notices  125 

History  of  the  Sinn  Fein  Movement  and  the  Irish  Rebellion 
of  1916,  by  Francis  P.  Jones,  with  an  introduction  by  John 
W.  Goff.  New  York:  P.  J.  Kennedy  &  Sons,  1917.  Pp. 
xxviii-f-447. 

Judge  Goff,  in  his  introduction  to  this  volume,  writes  a 
rather  severe  indictment  of  England's  censorship  on  news  to 
this  country  from  the  scene  of  war  and  especially  from  Ireland. 

"Not  within  the  confines  of  human  knowledge  has  it  been 
known  that  any  one  nation  has  wielded  such  power  nor  ex- 
ercised such  arbitrary  control  over  international  communica- 
tions as  England  does  today.  The  ships  on  the  water  that 
carry  the  mails,  the  ocean  cables  beneath  the  water,  and  the 
wireless  telegraph  above  the  water  are  each  and  all  com- 
pletely in  her  hands.  Every  avenue  of  intelligence  is  guarded 
by  her  police  and  picketed  by  her  agents.  Service  to  her  in- 
terests is  the  rule  applied  to  the  suppression  of  the  dissemina- 
tion of  news.  In  the  titanic  struggle  for  existence  in  which 
she  is  engaged,  this,  from  her  point  of  view,  may  be  justifiable ; 
but  from  the  point  of  view  of  history,  founded  upon  truth,  it 
is  a  malforming  of  facts  and  a  poisoning  of  the  wells  of  knowl- 
edge. In  none  of  the  fields  of  her  world-wide  activities  is  her 
censorship  so  complete  or  so  drastic  as  it  is  in  matters  relating 
to  Ireland  or  Ireland's  interests  at  home  or  abroad.  .  .  . 
But  never  has  there  been  such  wholesale  suppression  of  reali- 
ties and  falsification  of  truth  as  since  the  great  war."  .  .  . 
He  adds  that  the  book  was  "written  by  an  author  whose  facili- 
ties for  acquiring  first  hand  knowledge  were  unsurpassed  and 
whose  capacity  for  imparting  it  will  be  appreciated." 

The  newspapers  have  fed  the  public  on  England's  side  of 
Irish  questions.  There  are  many  in  this  country  who  will 
want  to  hear  the  other  side,  and  the  writer  presents  his  case 
convincingly  and  backs  up  his  statements  by  documentary 
evidence. 

T.  E.  S. 


Les  vrais  Principes  de  PEducation  chretienne  rappeles  aux 
maitres  et  aux  families,  par  le  P.  A.  Monfat,  de  la  Societe 
de  Marie.  Nouvelle  edition  soigneusement  revue.  Preface 
de  Mgr.  Lavallee.    Paris:  Pierre  Tequi,  1918. 


126  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

The  Catholic  teacher  who  has  been  accustomed  to  look  for  real 
inspiration  in  our  current  educational  literature  may  turn  to  this 
new  edition  of  Father  Monfat's  work  with  the  assurance  that  he 
will  find  therein  what  he  seeks,  and  spiritual  refreshment  as  well. 
This  book,  which  a  distinguished  French  prelate  hoped  to  see  in 
every  household  and  educational  institution,  he  will  be  glad  to  read 
and  to  reread,  and  even  to  use  for  spiritual  purposes.  It  is  at  once 
a  Christian  philosophy  of  education  and  a  teacher's  spiritual 
manual,  prepared  to  be  of  special  help  to  the  priest  or  religious 
teacher,  but  also  to  meet  the  spiritual  needs  of  the  lay  teacher  or 
parent. 

In  its  two  main  divisions  this  valuable  work  treats  first  of  the 
excellence  of  the  teaching  office  from  the  Christian  viewpoint,  and 
secondly  of  the  dispositions  required  for  the  successful  discharge 
of  the  common  duties  of  the  teacher's  state  in  life.  The  treatment 
in  either  case  may  be  described  as  abundant,  replete  with  the 
wisdom  of  the  Gospel,  supported  by  the  teachings  of  the  ancient 
philosophers,  the  Christian  Fathers,  the  great  thinkers  in  every 
age,  and  the  tradition  of  the  Catholic  Church.  Its  reading  will, 
indeed,  do  more  than  refresh  and  inspire;  it  will,  above  all  else, 
convince  teacher  and  parent  that  in  the  task  of  character  and  soul 
formation  he  has  been  entrusted  with  one  of  the  noblest  and 
gravest  responsibilities  given  to  man,  and  for  its  successful  dis- 
charge he  needs  all  the  wholesome  direction  and  counsel  which 
the  wisdom  of  the  past  can  bring  him. 

Patrick  J.  McCormick. 


The  World  and  the  Waters,  by  Edward  F.  Garesche,  S.J. 
St.  Louis,  Mo.:  The  Queen's  Work  Press.    Pp.  110. 

" .     .     .    the  thirsty  soul, 
Piercing  the  dry  and  outer  forms  of  things, 
Sinks   to   the   secret   springs,    and,    drinking   deep, 
Knows  the  sweet  flavors  of  God's  presence  there." 

So  does  the  poet  of  the  present  book  of  verses  translate  his  title. 
His  dedication  is  "To  the  Virgin  Mary."  It  is  not  altogether  a 
collection  of  religious  verses,  but  the  spiritual  note  recurs  insist- 
ently. 

It  is  as  a  book  of  verses  that  we  will  review  it  rather  than  as  a 
book  of  poetry,  feeling  sure  that  this  distinction  in  terms  will  be 


Reviews  and  Notices  127 

received  pleasantly.  Poetry  is  characterized  by  a  perfect  union  of 
imagination,  artistic  expression  and  a  worthy  theme.  A  book  of 
verses,  as  distinct  from  a  book  of  poetry,  may  and  usually  does 
possess  these  elements  in  perfect  union  occasionally,  but  more 
frequently  either  in  disassociation  or  in  combinations  of  two,  with 
one  or  the  other  element  only  imperfectly  represented.  With  a 
sterner  hand  evidenced  by  the  author  in  the  matter  of  admissions 
to  his  book,  perhaps  the  present  distinction  would  not  have  to  be 
drawn.  There  is  abundant  evidence  of  power,  ample  presence  of 
imagination,  nobility  of  theme,  and  more  than  once  a  genuine 
height  of  expression,  yet  more  often  is  there  promise  rather  than 
performance.  This  is  said  in  no  hostile  spirit.  There  is  too  much 
in  the  book  that  is  genuinely  worthy  of  praise.  It  contains  too 
many  real  poems  for  us  to  omit  a  protest  against  those  which  are 
not. 

There  is  a  gracious  mental  quality  evident  everywhere  in  this 
volume.  There  is,  likewise,  a  sturdy  spiritual  quality.  The 
philosophy  of  life  which  it  discloses  is  at  once  virile  and  attractive 
and  wholesome.  There  is  depth  everywhere  to  the  ethical  per- 
spective, and  frequently  to  the  poetic  perspective.  Finally,  and 
this  is  the  highest  praise,  there  is  unquestionable  evidence  that  the 
author  understands  other  poets  and  little  children. 

Thomas  Quinn  Beesley. 


The  ABC  of  Exhibit  Planning,  by  E.  G.  and  M.  S,  Routzahn. 
Russell  Sage  Foundation,  1918.  Pp.  234. 
The  publicity  campaigns  which  have  preceded  and  accompanied 
the  Liberty  Loan  Drives,  the  Red  Cross  War  Fund  and  other 
campaigns,  and  the  various  efforts  which  have  been  made  during 
the  last  two  years  to  draw  the  attention  of  the  American  public 
to  matters  social  and  politic,  have  all  combined  to  accustom  us  to 
exhibits  of  one  kind  or  another,  and  to  appeals  to  our  intelligence 
and  emotions  conveyed  almost  exclusively  by  the  eye.  There  will 
inevitably  be  an  equally  wide  use  of  the  publicity  methods  to  which 
we  are  now  accustomed,  in  the  coming  decade,  by  agencies  whose 
business  is  chiefly  social,  agencies  like  the  schools,  the  public 
welfare  organizations,  and  the  like.  People  will  look  at  placards, 
will  stop  to  inspect  a  still-life  group  in  a  shop  window,  will  chuckle 
over  a  cartoon,  where  a  speech  on  the  same  subject,  or  any  vocal 
effort  to  arrest  their  attention,  would  utterly  fail  to  interest  them 
or  hold  them. 


128  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

There  is  a  practical  value  in  all  this  for  the  schools.  An 
exhibit  of  the  children's  work  may  be  poorly  planned,  or  it  may  not 
be  displayed  to  the  utmost  advantage,  or  it  may  be  so  devised  that 
it  fails  to  educate  the  parents  and  visitors — any  one  of  a  dozen 
objections  may  be  possible  to  it.  For  any  one  contemplating  an 
exhibit,  the  book  at  present  under  review  is  most  cordially  recom- 
mended. It  is  an  introductory  treatise,  and  is  not  at  all  technical. 
It  is  admirably  illustrated  with  both  good  and  bad  exhibits,  well 
photographed.  A  study  of  the  illustrations  alone  is  educational 
to  a  degree.  Almost  every  kind  of  an  exhibit,  from  small  to  large, 
from  simple  to  technical,  is  either  discussed  or  actually  represented 
by  photographs.  Finally,  the  authors  are  experts  on  the  subject 
of  exhibits.  In  every  way  it  is  an  interesting,  valuable,  and 
unusual  book. 

Thomas  Quinn  Beesley. 


An  Estimate  of  Shakespeare,  by  John  G.  McClorey,  S.J. 
New  York:  Schwartz,  Kirwin  and  Fauss.  Price,  50  cents 
net. 

The  most  pleasant  thing  we  can  say  about  this  little  volume  is 
that  it  is  not  "just  another  Shakespeare  book."  It  is  true,  as 
the  author  engagingly  admits  in  his  Preface,  that  various  other 
gentlemen,  like  Bradley  and  Dowden,  have  been  laid  under 
contribution.  He  has  given  the  reader  enough  of  himself,  however, 
to  absolve  him  from  any  suspicion  of  using  these  critics  as  a  crutch 
and  to  make  it  plain  that  he  employed  them  merely  as  a  walking 
stick.     Which  is  as  it  should  be. 

The  book  is  presented  in  two  developments,  of  which  Part  I  is 
"Shakespeare  in  General,"  and  Part  II  is  "Shakespeare  and 
Tragedy."  It  is  interesting  that  Part  I,  which  is  indicated  by  the 
title  as  the  wider  in  scope,  is  actually  somewhat  the  shorter  in 
extent.  It  is,  to  the  present  reviewer's  taste,  the  less  conventional 
of  the  two  parts,  although  at  the  same  time  the  less  valuable  of  the 
two  as  a  piece  of  criticism. 

There  are  many  good  things  in  the  ninety-six  pages  of  the  little 
book,  and  it  has  fewer  than  usual  of  the  inevitable  superlatives 
and  exclamation  marks!  It  is  precisely  what  its  author  adver- 
tizes it  to  be — an  "estimate."  It  is  not  a  verdict,  or  a  panegyric, 
nor  is  it  entirely  derivative.  It  is  a  conservative  valuation  given 
with  some  restraint,  and  is  proportionally  worthy  of  attention. 

Thomas  Quinn  Beesley. 


The  Catholic 
Educational  Review 

MARCH,  1919 

SOCIAL  RECONSTRUCTION— A  GENERAL  REVIEW  OF 
THE  PROBLEMS,  AND  SURVEY  OF  REMEDIES1 

"Reconstruction"  has  of  late  been  so  tiresomely  reiterated, 
not  to  say  violently  abused,  that  it  has  become  to  many  of  us  a 
word  of  aversion.  Politicians,  social  students,  labor  leaders, 
business  men,  charity  workers,  clergymen  and  various  other  social 
groups  have  contributed  their  quota  of  spoken  words  and  printed 
pages  to  the  discussion  of  the  subject;  yet  the  majority  of  us  still 
find  ourselves  rather  bewildered  and  helpless.  We  are  unable  to 
say  what  parts  of  our  social  system  imperatively  need  recon- 
struction; how  much  of  that  which  is  imperatively  necessary 
is  likely  to  be  seriously  undertaken;  or  what  specific  methods  and 
measures  are  best  suited  to  realize  that  amount  of  reconstruction 
which  is  at  once  imperatively  necessary  and  immediately  feasible. 

Nevertheless  it  is  worth  while  to  review  briefly  some  of  the 
more  important  stalements  and  proposals  that  have  been  made 
by  various  social  groups  and  classes.  Probably  the  most  notable 
declaration  from  a  Catholic  source  is  that  contained  in  a  pastoral 


1  The  ending  of  the  Great  War  has  brought  peace.  But  the  only  safeguard 
of  peace  is  social  justice  and  a  contented  people.  The  deep  unrest  so  em- 
phatically and  so  widely  voiced  throughout  the  world  is  the  most  serious 
menace  to  the  future  peace  of  every  nation  and  of  the  entire  world.  Great 
problems  face  us.  They  cannot  be  put  aside;  they  must  be  met  and  solved 
with  justice  to  all. 

In  the  hop<:  of  stating  the  lines  that  will  best  guide  us  in  their  right  solution 
the  following  pronouncement  is  issued  by  the  Administrative  Committee  of 
the  National  Catholic  War  Council. 

*  Peter  J.  Mtjldoon,  Chairman,        "i"  Patrick  J.  Hayes, 

Bishop  of  Rockford.  Bishop  of  Tagaste. 

"*  Joseph  Schrembs,  *  William  T.  Russell, 

Bishop  of  Toledo.  Bishop  of  Charleston. 

129 


130  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

letter,  written  by  Cardinal  Bourne  several  months  ago.  "It  is 
admitted  on  all  hands,"  he  says,  "that  a  new  order  of  things, 
new  social  conditions,  new  relations  between  the  different  sec- 
tions in  which  society  is  divided,  will  arise  as  a  consequence  of  the 
destruction  of  the  formerly  existing  conditions.  .  .  .  The  very 
foundations  of  political  and  social  life,  of  our  economic  system 
of  morals  and  religion  are  being  sharply  scrutinized,  and  this  not 
only  by  a  few  writers  and  speakers,  but  by  a  very  large  number 
of  people  in  every  class  of  life,  especially  among  the  workers." 

The  Cardinal's  special  reference  to  the  action  of  labor  was 
undoubtedly  suggested  by  the  now  famous  "Social  Reconstruc- 
tion Program"  of  the  British  Labor  Party.  This  document  was 
drawn  up  about  one  year  ago,  and  is  generally  understood  to  be 
the  work  of  the  noted  economist  and  Fabian  Socialist,  Mr.  Sidney 
Webb.  Unquestionably,  it  is  the  most  comprehensive  and  co- 
herent program  that  has  yet  appeared  on  the  industrial  phase 
of  reconstruction.  In  brief  it  sets  up  "four  pillars"  of  the  new 
social  order: 

1.  The  enforcement  by  law  of  a  national  minimum  of  leisure, 
health,  education  and  subsistence; 

2.  The  democratic  control  of  industry,  which  means  the  nation- 
alization of  all  monopolistic  industries  and  possibly  of  other 
industries,  sometime  in  the  future,  if  that  course  be  found 
advisable; 

3.  A  revolution  in  national  finance;  that  is,  a  system  of  taxation 
which  will  compel  capital  to  pay  for  the  war,  leaving  undisturbed 
the  national  minimum  of  welfare  for  the  masses; 

4.  Use  of  the  surplus  wealth  of  the  nation  for  the  common  good; 
that  is,  to  provide  capital,  governmental  industries,  and  funds  for 
social,  educational  and  artistic  progress. 

This  program  may  properly  be  described  as  one  of  immediate 
radical  reforms,  involving  a  rapid  approach  towards  complete 
Socialism. 

PROGRAM   OF  AMERICAN   LABOR 

In  the  United  States  three  prominent  labor  bodies  have  for- 
mulated rough  sketches  of  reconstruction  plans.  The  California 
State  Federation  of  Labor  demands  a  legal  minimum  wage, 
government  prevention  of  unemployment,  vocational  education  of 
discharged  soldiers  and  sailors,  government  control  and  manage- 


Social  Reconstruction  131 

ment  of  all  waterways,  railroads,  telegraphs,  telephones  and 
public  utilities  generally,  opening  up  cf  land  to  cooperative  and 
small  holdings,  and  payment  of  the  war  debt  by  a  direct  tax  on 
incomes  and  inheritances.  "Common  ownership  of  the  means  of 
production"  is  also  set  down  in  the  program,  but  is  not  sufficiently 
emphasized  to  warrant  the  conclusion  that  the  authors  seriously 
contemplate  the  early  establishment  of  complete  Socialism. 

The  State  Federation  of  Labor  of  Ohio  calls  for  a  legal  minimum 
wage,  insurance  against  sickness,  accidents,  and  unemployment, 
old  age  pensions,  heavy  taxation  of  land  values  and  reclamation 
and  leasing  of  swamp  lands;  and  government  ownership  and 
management  of  railroads,  telegraphs,  telephones,  merchant 
marine,  coal  and  metal  mines,  oil  and  gas  wells,  pipe  lines  and 
refineries. 

The  Chicago  Federation  of  Labor  has  organized  an  Inde- 
pendent Labor  Party,  and  adopted  a  platform  of  "Fourteen 
Points."  The  principal  demands  are  an  eight-hour  day  and  a 
minimum  family  living  wage;  reduction  of  the  cost  of  living 
through  cooperative  enterprises  and  methods;  government  pre- 
vention of  unemployment,  and  insurance  on  life,  limb,  health 
and  property;  government  ownership  and  operation  of  railways 
and  all  other  public  utilities,  steamships,  stockyards,  grain  ele- 
vators, and  "basic  natural  resources;"  and  payment  of  the  war 
debt  by  taxes  on  incomes  and  land  values  and  by  appropriation 
of  all  inheritances  in  excess  of  one  hundred  thousand  dollars. 
In  some  of  its  general  expressions,  such  as  "the  nationalization 
and  development  of  basic  natural  resources,"  this  platform  is  the 
most  radical  of  the  three  labor  pronouncements. 

BRITISH    QUAKER   EMPLOYERS 

Probably  the  most  definite  and  comprehensive  statement  from 
the  opposite  industrial  class  was  put  forth  several  months  ago  by 
a  group  of  twenty  Quaker  employers  in  Great  Britain.  In  out- 
line their  program  is  as  follows:  A  family  living  wage  for  all 
male  employes,  and  a  secondary  wage  in  excess  of  this  for  workers 
having  special  skill,  training,  physical  strength,  responsibility 
for  human  life;  the  right  of  labor  to  organize,  to  bargain  collec- 
tively with  the  employer  and  to  participate  in  the  industrial 
part  of  business  management;  serious  and  practical  measures  to 


132  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

reduce  the  volume  and  hardship  of  unemployment;  provisions  of 
such  working  conditions  as  will  safeguard  health,  physical  integrity 
and  morals;  the  reduction  so  far  as  practicable  of  profits  and 
interest  until  both  the  basic  and  the  secondary  wage  has  been 
paid,  and  transfer  to  the  community  of  the  greater  part  of  surplus 
profits. 

The  spirit  and  conception  of  responsibility  that  permeate 
every  item  of  the  program  are  reflected  in  this  statement:  "We 
would  ask  all  employers  to  consider  very  carefully  whether  their 
style  of  living  and  personal  expenditure  are  restricted  to  what 
is  needed  in  order  to  insure  the  efficient  performance  of  their 
functions  in  society.  More  than  this  is  waste,  and  is,  moreover, 
a  great  cause  of  class  divisions." 

AMERICAN   EMPLOYERS 

The  only  important  declaration  by  representatives  of  the 
employing  class  in  the  United  States  was  given  out  December  6 
by  the  Convention  of  the  National  Chamber  of  Commerce.  Com- 
pared with  the  program  of  the  British  Quakers,  it  is  extremely 
disappointing.  By  far  the  greater  part  of  it  consists  of  pro- 
posals and  demands  in  the  interest  of  business.  It  opposes  gov- 
ernment ownership  of  railroads,  telegraphs  and  telephones,  calls 
for  moderation  in  taxation  and  demands  a  modification  of  the 
Sherman  Anti-Trust  Law.  While  it  commended  the  program  of 
John  D.  Rockefeller,  Jr.,  on  the  relations  that  should  exist  be- 
tween capital  and  labor,  it  took  away  much  of  the  value  of  this 
action  by  declining  to  endorse  the  specific  methods  which  that 
gentleman  proposed  for  carrying  his  general  principles  into 
effect.  The  most  important  and  progressive  general  statements 
made  by  Mr.  Rockefeller  are,  that  industry  should  promote  the 
advancement  of  social  welfare  quite  as  much  as  material  welfare 
and  that  the  laborer  is  entitled  to  fair  wages,  reasonable  hours  of 
work,  proper  working  conditions,  a  decent  home  and  reasonable 
opportunities  of  recreation,  education  and  worship. 

The  mcst  important  specific  method  that  he  has  recommended 
for  bringing  about  harmony  between  employers  and  employees  is 
adequate  representation  of  both  parties.  Apparently  the  National 
Chamber  of  Commerce  is  not  yet  ready  to  concede  the  right  of 
labor  to  be  represented  in  determining  its  relations  with  capital. 


Social  Reconstruction  133 

an  interdenominational  statement 

In  Great  Britain  an  organization  known  as  the  Interdenom- 
inational Conference  of  Social  Service  Unions,  comprising  ten 
religious  bodies,  including  Catholics,  spent  more  than  a  year 
formulating  a  statement  of  Social  Reconstruction.  (See  the 
summary  and  analysis  contained  in  the  Catholic  Social  Year 
Book  for  1918.)  This  statement  deals  with  principles,  evils  and 
remedies.  Presuming  that  Christianity  provides  indispensable 
guiding  principles  and  powerful  motives  of  social  reform,  it  lays 
down  the  basic  proposition  that  every  human  being  is  of  ines- 
timable worth  and  that  legislation  should  recognize  persons  as 
more  sacred  than  property,  therefore  the  state  should  enforce 
a  minimum  living  wage,  enable  the  worker  to  obtain  some  control 
of  industrial  conditions;  supplement  private  initiative  in  pro- 
viding decent  housing;  prevent  the  occurrence  of  unemployment; 
safeguard  the  right  of  the  laborer  and  his  family  to  a  reasonable 
amount  of  rest  and  recreation;  remove  those  industrial  and  social 
conditions  which  hinder  marriage  and  encourage  an  unnatural 
restriction  of  families,  and  afford  ample  opportunities  for  educa- 
tion of  all  children  industrially,  culturally,  religiously  and  morally. 
On  the  other  hand,  rights  imply  duties,  and  the  individual  is 
obliged  to  respect  the  rights  of  others,  to  cultivate  self-control, 
to  recognize  that  labor  is  the  law  of  life  and  that  wealth  is  a 
trust.  Finally,  the  statement  points  out  that  all  social  reform 
must  take  as  its  end  and  guide  the  maintenance  of  pure  and 
wholesome  family  life. 

Such  in  barest  outline  are  the  main  propositions  and  prin- 
ciples of  this  remarkable  program.  The  text  contains  adequate 
exposition  of  the  development  and  application  of  all  these  points, 
and  concrete  specifications  of  the  methods  and  measures  by  which 
the  aims  and  principles  may  be  brought  into  effect.  In  the  latter 
respect  the  statement  is  not  liable  to  the  fatal  objection  that  is 
frequently  and  fairly  urged  against  the  reform  pronouncements 
of  religious  bodies:  that  they  are  abstract,  platitudinous  and 
usually  harmless.  The  statement  of  the  Interdenominational  Con- 
ference points  out  specific  remedies  for  the  evils  that  it  describes; 
specific  measures,  legislative  and  other,  by  which  the  principles 
may  be  realized  in  actual  life.  Especially  practical  and  valuable 
for  Catholics  are  the  explanations  and  modifications  supplied  by 
the  Year  Book  of  the  Catholic  Social  Guild. 


134  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

no  profound  changes  in  the  united  states 
It  is  not  to  be  expected  that  as  many  or  as  great  social  changes 
will  take  place  in  the  United  States  as  in  Europe.  Neither  our 
habits  of  thinking  nor  our  ordinary  ways  of  life  have  undergone 
a  profound  disturbance.  The  hackneyed  phrase,  "things  will 
never  again  be  the  same  after  the  war,"  has  a  much  more  con- 
crete and  deeply  felt  meaning  among  the  European  peoples. 
Their  minds  are  fully  adjusted  to  the  conviction  and  expectation 
that  these  words  will  come  true.  In  the  second  place,  the  devas- 
tation, the  loss  of  capital  and  of  men,  the  changes  in  individual 
relations  and  the  increase  in  the  activities  of  government  have 
been  much  greater  in  Europe  than  in  the  United  States.  More- 
over, our  superior  natural  advantages  and  resources,  the  better 
industrial  and  social  condition  of  our  working  classes,  still  consti- 
tute an  obstacle  to  anything  like  revolutionary  changes.  It  is 
significant  that  no  social  group  in  America,  not  even  among  the 
wage-earners,  has  produced  such  a  fundamental  and  radical  pro- 
gram of  reconstruction  as  the  Labor  Party  of  Great  Britain. 

A   PRACTICAL   AND   MODERATE   PROGRAM 

No  attempt  will  be  made  in  these  pages  to  formulate  a  com- 
prehensive scheme  of  reconstruction.  Such  an  undertaking 
would  be  a  waste  of  time  as  regards  immediate  needs  and  pur- 
poses, for  no  important  group  or  section  of  the  American  people 
is  ready  to  consider  a  program  of  this  magnitude.  Attention 
will  therefore  be  confined  to  those  reforms  that  seem  to  be  desir- 
able and  also  obtainable  within  a  reasonable  time,  and  to  a  few 
general  principles  which  should  become  a  guide  to  more  distant 
developments.  A  statement  thus  circumscribed  will  not  merely 
present  the  objects  that  we  wish  to  see  attained,  but  will  also 
serve  as  an  imperative  call  to  action.  It  will  keep  before  our 
minds  the  necessity  for  translating  our  faith  into  works.  In  the 
statements  of  immediate  proposals  we  shall  start,  wherever  possi- 
ble, from  those  governmental  agencies  and  legislative  measures 
which  have  been  to  some  extent  in  operation  during  the  war. 
These  come  before  us  with  the  prestige  of  experience  and  should 
therefore  receive  first  consideration  in  any  program  that  aims  to 
be  at  once  practical  and  persuasive. 

The  first  problem  in  the  process  of  reconstruction  is  the  in- 


Social  Reconstruction  135 

dustrial  replacement  of  the  discharged  soldiers  and  sailors.  The 
majority  of  these  will  undoubtedly  return  to  their  previous  occu- 
pations. However,  a  very  large  number  of  them  will  either  find 
their  previous  places  closed  to  them,  or  will  be  eager  to  consider 
the  possibility  of  more  attractive  employments.  The  most  impor- 
tant single  measure  for  meeting  this  situation  that  has  yet  been 
suggested  is  the  placement  of  such  men  on  farms.  Several  months 
ago  Secretary  Lane  recommended  to  Congress  that  returning 
soldiers  and  sailors  should  be  given  the  opportunity  to  work  at 
good  wages  upon  some  part  of  the  millions  upon  millions  of  acres 
of  arid,  swamp,  and  cut-over  timber  lands,  in  order  to  prepare 
them  for  cultivation.  President  Wilson  in  his  annual  address  to 
Congress  endorsed  the  proposal.  As  fast  as  this  preliminary  task 
has  been  performed,  the  men  should  be  assisted  by  government 
loans  to  establish  themselves  as  farmers,  either  as  owners  or  as 
tenants  having  long-time  leases.  It  is  essential  that  both  the  work 
of  preparation  and  the  subsequent  settlement  of  the  land  should 
be  effected  by  groups  or  colonies,  not  by  men  living  independently 
of  one  another  and  in  depressing  isolation.  A  plan  of  this  sort 
is  already  in  operation  in  England.  The  importance  of  the 
project  as  an  item  of  any  social  reform  program  is  obvious.  It 
would  afford  employment  to  thousands  upon  thousands,  would 
greatly  increase  the  number  of  farm  owners  and  independent 
farmers,  and  would  tend  to  lower  the  cost  of  living  by  increasing 
the  amount  of  agricultural  products.  If  it  is  to  assume  any  con- 
siderable proportions  it  must  be  carried  out  by  the  governments 
of  the  United  States  and  of  the  several  States.  Should  it  be 
undertaken  by  these  authorities  and  operated  on  a  systematic 
and  generous  scale,  it  would  easily  become  one  of  the  most  bene- 
ficial reform  measures  that  has  ever  been  attempted. 

UNITED   STATES   EMPLOYMENT   SERVICE 

The  reinstatement  of  the  soldiers  and  sailors  in  urban  indus- 
tries will  no  doubt  be  facilitated  by  the  United  States  Employ- 
ment Service.  This  agency  has  attained  a  fair  degree  of  develop- 
ment and  efficiency  during  the  war.  Unfortunately  there  is  some 
danger  that  it  will  go  out  of  existence  or  be  greatly  weakened 
at  the  end  of  the  period  of  demobilization.  It  is  the  obvious  duty 
of  Congress  to  continue  and  strengthen  this  important  institu- 


136  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

tion.  The  problem  of  unemployment  is  with  us  always.  Its 
solution  requires  the  cooperation  of  many  agencies,  and  the  use 
of  many  methods;  but  the  primary  and  indispensable  instrument 
is  a  national  system  of  labor  exchanges,  acting  in  harmony  with 
state,  municipal,  and  private  employment  bureaus. 

WOMEN  WAR   WORKERS 

One  of  the  most  important  problems  of  readjustment  is  that 
created  by  the  presence  in  industry  of  immense  numbers  of 
women  who  have  taken  the  places  of  men  during  the  war.  Mere 
justice,  to  say  nothing  of  chivalry,  dictates  that  these  women 
should  not  be  compelled  to  suffer  any  greater  loss  or  inconvenience 
than  is  absolutely  necessary;  for  their  services  to  the  nation 
have  been  second  only  to  the  services  of  the  men  whose  places 
they  were  called  upon  to  fill.  One  general  principle  is  clear: 
No  female  worker  should  remain  in  any  occupation  that  is  harm- 
ful to  health  or  morals.  Women  should  disappear  as  quickly 
as  possible  from  such  tasks  as  conducting  and  guarding  street 
cars,  cleaning  locomotives,  and  a  great  number  of  other  activities 
for  which  conditions  of  life  and  their  physique  render  them  unfit. 
Another  general  principle  is  that  the  proportion  of  women  in 
industry  ought  to  be  kept  within  the  smallest  practical  limits. 
If  we  have  an  efficient  national  employment  service,  if  a  goodly 
number  of  the  returned  soldiers  and  sailors  are  placed  on  the 
land,  and  if  wages  and  the  demand  for  goods  are  kept  up  to 
the  level  which  is  easily  attainable,  all  female  workers  who  are 
displaced  from  tasks  that  they  have  been  performing  only  since 
the  beginning  of  the  war  will  be  able  to  find  suitable  employments 
in  other  parts  of  the  industrial  field,  or  in  those  domestic  occupa- 
tions which  sorely  need  their  presence.  Those  women  who  are 
engaged  at  the  same  tasks  as  men  should  receive  equal  pay  for 
equal  amounts  and  qualities  of  work. 

NATIONAL  WAR  LABOR  BOARD 

One  of  the  most  beneficial  governmental  organizations  of  the 
war  is  the  National  War  Labor  Board.  Upon  the  basis  of  a  few 
fundamental  principles,  unanimously  adopted  by  the  representa- 
tives of  labor,  capital,  and  the  public,  it  has  prevented  innumer- 
able strikes,  and  raised  wages  to  decent  levels  in  many  different 
industries  throughout  the  country.     Its  main  guiding  principles 


Social  Reconstruction  137 

have  been  a  family  living  wage  for  all  male  adult  laborers;  recog- 
nition of  the  right  of  labor  to  organize,  and  to  deal  with  em- 
ployers through  its  chosen  representatives;  and  no  coercion  of 
non-union  laborers  by  members  of  the  union.  The  War  Labor 
Board  ought  to  be  continued  in  existence  by  Congress,  and  en- 
dowed with  all  the  power  for  effective  action  that  it  can  possess 
under  the  Federal  Constitution.  The  principles,  methods,  ma- 
chinery and  results  of  this  institution  constitute  a  definite  and 
far-reaching  gain  for  social  justice.  No  part  of  this  advantage 
should  be  lost  or  given  up  in  time  of  peace. 

PRESENT   WAGE   RATES   SHOULD   BE   SUSTAINED 

The  general  level  of  wages  attained  during  the  war  should 
not  be  lowered.  In  a  few  industries,  especially  some  directly 
and  peculiarly  connected  with  the  carrying  on  of  war,  wages 
have  reached  a  plane  upon  which  they  cannot  possibly  continue 
for  this  grade  of  occupations.  But  the  number  of  workers  in 
this  situation  is  an  extremely  small  proportion  of  the  entire 
wage-earning  population.  The  overwhelming  majority  should 
not  be  compelled  or  suffered  to  undergo  any  reduction  in  their 
rates  of  remuneration,  for  two  reasons :  First,  because  the  average 
rate  of  pay  has  not  increased  faster  than  the  cost  of  living;  second, 
because  a  considerable  majority  of  the  wage-earners  of  the  United 
States,  both  men  and  women,  were  not  receiving  living  wages 
when  prices  began  to  rise  in  1915.  In  that  year,  according 
to  Lauck  and  Sydenstricker,  whose  work  is  the  most  compre- 
hensive on  the  subject,  four-fifths  of  the  heads  of  families  obtained 
less  than  $800,  while  two-thirds  of  the  female  wage-earners  were 
paid  less  than  $400.  Even  if  the  prices  of  goods  should  fall  to 
the  level  on  which  they  were  in  1915 — something  that  cannot  be 
hoped  for  within  five  years — the  average  present  rates  of  wages 
would  not  exceed  the  equivalent  of  a  decent  livelihood  in  the  case 
of  the  vast  majority.  The  exceptional  instances  to  the  contrary 
are  practically  all  among  the  skilled  workers.  Therefore,  wages 
on  the  whole  should  not  be  reduced  even  when  the  cost  of  living 
recedes  from  its  present  high  level. 

Even  if  the  great  majority  of  workers  were  now  in  receipt  of 
more  than  living  wages,  there  are  no  good  reasons  why  rates  of 
pay  should  be  lowered.  After  all,  a  living  wage  is  not  necessarily 
the  full  measure  of  justice.     All  the  Catholic  authorities  on  the 


138  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

subject  explicitly  declare  that  this  is  only  the  minimum  of  jus- 
tice. In  a  country  as  rich  as  ours,  there  are  very  few  cases  in 
which  it  is  possible  to  prove  that  the  worker  would  be  getting 
more  than  that  to  which  he  has  a  right  if  he  were  paid  something 
in  excess  of  this  ethical  minimum.  Why,  then,  should  we  assume 
that  this  is  the  normal  share  of  almost  the  whole  laboring  popula- 
tion? Since  our  industrial  resources  and  instrumentalities  are 
sufficient  to  provide  more  than  a  living  wage  for  a  very  large 
proportion  of  the  workers,  why  should  we  acquiesce  in  a  theory 
which  denies  them  this  measure  of  the  comforts  of  life?  Such  a 
policy  is  not  only  of  very  questionable  morality,  but  is  unsound 
economically.  The  large  demand  for  goods  which  is  created  and 
maintained  by  high  rates  of  wages  and  high  purchasing  power 
by  the  masses  is  the  surest  guarantee  of  a  continuous  and  general 
operation  of  industrial  establishments.  It  is  the  most  effective 
instrument  of  prosperity  for  labor  and  capital  alike.  The  only 
persons  who  would  benefit  considerably  through  a  general  reduc- 
tion of  wages  are  the  less  efficient  among  the  capitalists,  and  the 
more  comfortable  sections  of  the  consumers.  The  wage-earners 
would  lose  more  in  remuneration  than  they  would  gain  from 
whatever  fall  in  prices  occurred  as  a  direct  result  of  the  fall  in 
wages.  On  grounds  both  of  justice  and  sound  economics,  we 
should  give  our  hearty  support  to  all  legitimate  efforts  made  by 
labor  to  resist  general  wage  reductions. 

HOUSING   FOE   WORKING   CLASSES 

Housing  projects  for  war  workers  which  have  been  completed, 
or  almost  completed  by  the  Government  of  the  United  States 
have  cost  some  forty  million  dollars,  and  are  found  in  eleven 
cities.  While  the  Federal  Government  cannot  continue  this  work 
in  time  of  peace,  the  example  and  precedent  that  it  has  set,  and 
the  experience  and  knowledge  that  it  has  developed,  should  not 
be  forthwith  neglected  and  lost.  The  great  cities  in  which  con- 
gestion and  other  forms  of  bad  housing  are  disgracefully  appar- 
ent ought  to  take  up  and  continue  the  work,  at  least  to  such  an 
extent  as  will  remove  the  worst  features  of  a  social  condition 
that  is  a  menace  at  once  to  industrial  efficiency,  civic  health,  good 
morals  and  religion. 


Social  Reconstruction  139 

reduction  of  the  cost  of  living 

During  the  war  the  cost  of  living  has  risen  at  least  75  per  cent 
above  the  level  of  1913.  Some  check  has  been  placed  upon  the 
upward  trend  by  government  fixing  of  prices  in  the  case  of  bread 
and  coal,  and  a  few  other  commodities.  Even  if  we  believe  it 
desirable,  we  cannot  ask  that  the  Government  continue  this  action 
after  the  articles  of  peace  have  been  signed;  for  neither  public  opinion 
nor  Congress  is  ready  for  such  a  revolutionary  policy.  If  the  extor- 
tionate practices  of  monopoly  were  prevented  by  adequate  laws 
and  adequate  law  enforcement,  prices  would  automatically  be 
kept  at  as  low  a  level  as  that  to  which  they  might  be  brought  by 
direct  government  determination.  Just  what  laws,  in  addition 
to  those  already  on  the  statute  books,  are  necessary  to  abolish 
monopolistic  extortion  is  a  question  of  detail  that  need  not  be 
considered  here.  In  passing,  it  may  be  noted  that  government 
competition  with  monopolies  that  cannot  be  effectively  restrained 
by  the  ordinary  anti-trust  laws  deserves  more  serious  consideration 
than  it  has  yet  received. 

More  important  and  more  effective  than  any  government 
regulation  of  prices  would  be  the  establishment  of  cooperative 
stores.  The  enormous  toll  taken  from  industry  by  the  various 
classes  of  middlemen  is  now  fully  realized.  The  astonishing 
difference  between  the  price  received  by  the  producer  and  that 
paid  by  the  consumer  has  become  a  scandal  to  our  industrial 
system.  The  obvious  and  direct  means  of  reducing  this  discrep- 
ancy and  abolishing  unnecessary  middlemen  is  the  operation  of 
retail  and  wholesale  mercantile  concerns  under  the  ownership 
and  management  of  the  consumers.  This  is  no  Utopian  scheme. 
It  has  been  successfully  carried  out  in  England  and  Scotland 
through  the  Rochdale  system.  Very  few  serious  efforts  of  this 
kind  have  been  made  in  this  country  because  our  people  have 
not  felt  the  need  of  these  cooperative  enterprises  as  keenly  as 
the  European  working  classes,  and  because  we  have  been  too 
impatient  and  too  individualistic  to  make  the  necessary  sacrifices 
and  to  be  content  with  moderate  benefits  and  gradual  progress. 
Nevertheless,  our  superior  energy,  initiative  and  commercial 
capacity  will  enable  us,  once  we  set  about  the  task  earnestly,  even 
to  surpass  what  has  been  done  in  England  and  Scotland. 

In  addition  to  reducing  the  cost  of  living,   the    cooperative 


140  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

stores  would  train  our  working  people  and  consumers  generally 
in  habits  of  saving,  in  careful  expenditure,  in  business  methods, 
and  in  the  capacity  for  cooperation.  When  the  working  classes 
have  learned  to  make  the  sacrifices  and  to  exercise  the  patience 
required  by  the  ownership  and  operation  of  cooperative  stores, 
they  will  be  equipped  to  undertake  a  great  variety  of  tasks  and 
projects  which  benefit  the  community  immediately,  and  all  its 
constituent  members  ultimately.  They  will  then  realize  the  folly 
of  excessive  selfishness  and  senseless  individualism.  Until  they 
have  acquired  this  knowledge,  training  and  capacity,  desirable 
extensions  of  governmental  action  in  industry  will  not  be  at- 
tended by  a  normal  amount  of  success.  No  machinery  of  govern- 
ment can  operate  automatically,  and  no  official  and  bureau- 
cratic administration  of  such  machinery  can  ever  be  a  substitute 
for  intelligent  interest  and  cooperation  by  the  individuals  of 
the  community. 

THE   LEGAL  MINIMUM   WAGE 

Turning  now  from  those  agencies  and  laws  that  have  been 
put  in  operation  during  the  war  to  the  general  subject  of  labor 
legislation  and  problems,  we  are  glad  to  note  that  there  is  no 
longer  any  serious  objection  urged  by  impartial  persons  against 
the  legal  minimum  wage.  The  several  States  should  enact  laws 
providing  for  the  establishment  of  wage  rates  that  will  be  at 
least  sufficient  for  the  decent  maintenance  of  a  family,  in  the 
case  of  all  male  adults,  and  adequate  to  the  decent  individual 
support  of  female  workers.  In  the  beginning  the  minimum  wages 
for  male  workers  should  suffice  only  for  the  present  needs  of  the 
family,  but  they  should  be  gradually  raised  until  they  are  ade- 
quate to  future  needs  as  well.  That  is,  they  should  be  ultimately 
high  enough  to  make  possible  that  amount  of  saving  which  is 
necessary  to  protect  the  worker  and  his  family  against  sickness, 
accidents,  invalidity  and  old  age. 

SOCIAL   INSURANCE 

Until  this  level  of  legal  minimum  wages  is  reached  the  worker 
stands  in  need  of  the  device  of  insurance.  The  state  should 
make  comprehensive  provision  for  insurance  against  illness,  in- 
validity, unemployment,  and  old  age.    So  far  as  possible  the 


Social  Reconstruction  141 

insurance  fund  should  be  raised  by  a  levy  on  industry,  as  is  now 
done  in  the  case  of  accident  compensation.  The  industry  in 
which  a  man  is  employed  should  provide  him  with  all  that  is 
necessary  to  meet  all  the  needs  of  his  entire  life.  Therefore,  any 
contribution  to  the  insurance  fund  from  the  general  revenues  of 
the  state  should  be  only  slight  and  temporary.  For  the  same 
reason  no  contribution  should  be  exacted  from  any  worker  who 
is  not  getting  a  higher  wage  than  is  required  to  meet  the  present 
needs  of  himself  and  family.  Those  who  are  below  that  level 
can  make  such  a  contribution  only  at  the  expense  of  their  present 
welfare.  Finally,  the  administration  of  the  insurance  laws 
should  be  such  as  to  interfere  as  little  as  possible  with  the  indi- 
vidual freedom  of  the  worker  and  his  family.  Any  insurance 
scheme,  or  any  administrative  method,  that  tends  to  separate  the 
workers  into  a  distinct  and  dependent  class,  that  offends  against 
their  domestic  privacy  and  independence,  or  that  threatens  indi- 
vidual self-reliance  and  self-respect,  should  not  be  tolerated.  The 
ideal  to  be  kept  in  mind  is  a  condition  in  which  all  the  workers 
would  themselves  have  the  income  and  the  responsibility  of  pro- 
viding for  all  the  needs  and  contingencies  of  life,  both  present 
and  future.  Hence  all  forms  of  state  insurance  should  be  re- 
garded as  merely  a  lesser  evil,  and  should  be  so  organized  and 
administered  as  to  hasten  the  coming  of  the  normal  condition. 

The  life  insurance  offered  to  soldiers  and  sailors  during  the 
war  should  be  continued,  so  far  as  the  enlisted  men  are  con- 
cerned. It  is  very  doubtful  whether  the  time  has  yet  arrived 
when  public  opinion  would  sanction  the  extension  of  general  life 
insurance  by  the  Government  to  all  classes  of  the  community. 

The  establishment  and  maintenance  of  municipal  health  in- 
spection in  all  schools,  public  and  private,  is  now  pretty  generally 
recognized  as  of  great  importance  and  benefit.  Municipal  clinics 
where  the  poorer  classes  could  obtain  the  advantage  of  medical 
treatment  by  specialists  at  a  reasonable  cost  would  likewise  seem 
to  have  become  a  necessity.  A  vast  amount  of  unnecessary  sick- 
ness and  suffering  exists  among  the  poor  and  the  lower  middle 
classes  because  they  cannot  afford  the  advantages  of  any  other 
treatment  except  that  provided  by  the  general  practitioner.  The 
service  of  these  clinics  should  be  given  gratis  only  to  those  who 
cannot  afford  to  pay. 


142  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

labor  participation  in  industrial  management 

The  right  of  labor  to  organize  and  to  deal  with  employers  through 
representatives  has  been  asserted  above  in  connection  with 
the  discussion  of  the  War  Labor  Board.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that 
this  right  will  never  again  be  called  in  question  by  any  con- 
siderable number  of  employers.  In  addition  to  this,  labor  ought 
gradually  to  receive  greater  representation  in  what  the  English 
group  of  Quaker  employers  have  called  the  "industrial"  part 
of  business  management — "the  control  of  processes  and  ma- 
chinery; nature  of  product;  engagement  and  dismissal  of  em- 
ployees; hours  of  work,  rates  of  pay,  bonuses,  etc.;  welfare  work; 
shop  discipline;  relations  with  trade  unions."  The  establish- 
ment of  shop  committees,  working  wherever  possible  with  the 
trade  union,  is  the  method  suggested  by  this  group  of  employers 
for  giving  the  employees  the  proper  share  of  industrial  manage- 
ment. There  can  be  no  doubt  that  a  frank  adoption  of  these 
means  and  ends  by  employers  would  not  only  promote  the  wel- 
fare of  the  workers,  but  vastly  improve  the  relations  between 
them  and  their  employers,  and  increase  the  efficiency  and  pro- 
ductiveness of  each  establishment. 

There  is  no  need  here  to  emphasize  the  importance  of  safety 
and  sanitation  in  work  places,  as  this  is  pretty  generally  recog- 
nized by  legislation.  What  is  required  is  an  extension  and 
strengthening  of  many  of  the  existing  statutes,  and  a  better 
administration  and  enforcement  of  such  laws  everywhere. 

VOCATIONAL   TRAINING 

The  need  of  industrial,  or  as  it  has  come  to  be  more  generally 
called,  vocational  training,  is  now  universally  acknowledged.  In 
the  interest  of  the  nation  as  well  as  in  that  of  the  workers  them- 
selves, this  training  should  be  made  substantially  universal. 
While  we  cannot  now  discuss  the  subject  in  any  detail,  we  do 
wish  to  set  down  two  general  observations.  First,  the  vocational 
training  should  be  offered  in  such  forms  and  conditions  as  not 
to  deprive  the  children  of  the  working  classes  of  at  least  the 
elements  of  a  cultural  education.  A  healthy  democracy  cannot 
tolerate  a  purely  industrial  or  trade  education  for  any  class  of 
its  citizens.  We  do  not  want  to  have  the  children  of  the  wage- 
earners  put  into  a  special  class  in  which  they  are  marked  as  out- 


Social  Reconstruction  143 

side  the  sphere  of  opportunities  for  culture.  The  second  observa- 
tion is  that  the  system  of  vocational  training  should  not  operate 
so  as  to  weaken  in  any  degree  our  parochial  schools  or  any  other 
class  of  private  schools.  Indeed,  the  opportunities  of  the  system 
should  be  extended  to  all  qualified  private  schools  on  exactly  the 
same  basis  as  to  public  schools.  We  want  neither  class  divisions 
in  education  nor  a  state  monopoly  of  education. 

CHILD   LABOR 

The  question  of  education  naturally  suggests  the  subject  of 
child  labor.  Public  opinion  in  the  majority  of  the  states  of  our 
country  has  set  its  face  inflexibly  against  the  continuous  employ- 
ment of  children  in  industry  before  the  age  of  sixteen  years. 
Within  a  reasonably  short  time  all  of  our  states,  except  some 
stagnant  ones,  will  have  laws  providing  for  this  reasonable  stand- 
ard. The  education  of  public  opinion  must  continue,  but  inas- 
much as  the  process  is  slow,  the  abolition  of  child  labor  in  certain 
sections  seems  unlikely  to  be  brought  about  by  the  legislatures 
of  those  states,  and  since  the  Keating-Owen  Act  has  been  declared 
unconstitutional,  there  seems  to  be  no  device  by  which  this 
reproach  to  our  country  can  be  removed  except  that  of  taxing 
child  labor  out  of  existence.  This  method  is  embodied  in  an 
amendment  to  the  Federal  Revenue  Bill  which  would  impose  a 
tax  of  10  per  cent  on  all  goods  made  by  children. 

Probably  the  foregoing  proposals  comprise  everything  that 
is  likely  to  have  practical  value  in  a  program  of  immediate  social 
reconstruction  for  America.  Substantially  all  of  these  methods, 
laws  and  recommendations  have  been  recognized  in  principle  by 
the  United  States  during  the  war,  or  have  been  indorsed  by  im- 
portant social  and  industrial  groups  and  organizations.  There- 
fore, they  are  objects  that  we  can  set  before  the  people  with  good 
hope  of  obtaining  a  sympathetic  and  practical  response.  Were 
they  all  realized,  a  great  step  would  have  been  taken  in  the  direc- 
tion of  social  justice.  When  they  are  all  put  into  operation  the 
way  will  be  easy  and  obvious  to  still  greater  and  more  beneficial 
result. 

ULTIMATE   AND   FUNDAMENTAL   REFORMS 

Despite  the  practical  and  immediate  character  of  the  present 
statement,  we  cannot  entirely  neglect  the  question  of  ultimate 
aims  and  a  systematic  program;  for  other  groups  are  busy  issuing 


144  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

such  systematic  pronouncements,  and  we  all  need  something  of 
the  kind  as  a  philosophical  foundation  and  as  a  satisfaction  to 
our  natural  desire  for  comprehensive  statements. 

It  seems  clear  that  the  present  industrial  system  is  destined 
to  last  for  a  long  time  in  its  main  outlines.  That  is  to  say,  private 
ownership  of  capital  is  not  likely  to  be  supplanted  by  a  collec- 
tivist  organization  of  industry  at  a  date  sufficiently  near  to  justify 
any  present  action  based  on  the  hypothesis  of  its  arrival.  This 
forecast  we  recognize  as  not  only  extremely  probable,  but  as 
highly  desirable;  for,  other  objections  apart,  Socialism  would 
mean  bureaucracy,  political  tyranny,  the  helplessness  of  the  indi- 
vidual as  a  factor  in  the  ordering  of  his  own  life,  and  in  general 
social  inefficiency  and  decadence. 

main  defects  of  present  system 

Nevertheless,  the  present  system  stands  in  grievous  need  of 
considerable  modifications  and  improvement.  Its  main  defects 
are  three:  Enormous  inefficiency  and  waste  in  the  production  and 
distribution  of  commodities;  insufficient  incomes  for  the  great 
majority  of  wage-earners,  and  unnecessarily  large  incomes  for 
a  small  minority  of  privileged  capitalists.  The  evils  in  produc- 
tion and  in  the  distribution  of  goods  would  be  in  great  measure 
abolished  by  the  reforms  that  have  been  outlined  in  the  foregoing 
pages.  Production  will  be  greatly  increased  by  universal  living 
wages,  by  adequate  industrial  education,  and  by  harmonious  re- 
lations between  labor  and  capital  on  the  basis  of  adequate  par- 
ticipation by  the  former  in  all  the  industrial  aspects  of  business 
management.  The  wastes  of  commodity  distribution  could  be 
practically  all  eliminated  by  cooperative  mercantile  establish- 
ments, and  cooperative  selling  and  marketing  associations. 

COOPERATION   AND    COPARTNERSHIP 

Nevertheless,  the  full  possibilities  of  increased  production 
will  not  be  realized  so  long  as  the  majority  of  the  workers  remain 
mere  wage-earners.  The  majority  must  somehow  become  owners, 
or  at  least  in  part,  of  the  instruments  of  production.  They  can 
be  enabled  to  reach  this  stage  gradually  through  cooperative 
productive  societies  and  copartnership  arrangements.  In  the 
former,  the  workers  own  and  manage  the  industries  themselves; 
in  the  latter  they  own  a  substantial  part  of  the  corporate  stock 


Social  Reconstruction  145 

and  exercise  a  reasonable  share  in  the  management.  However 
slow  the  attainment  of  these  ends,  they  will  have  to  be  reached 
before  we  can  have  a  thoroughly  efficient  system  of  production, 
or  an  industrial  and  social  order  that  will  be  secure  from  the 
danger  of  revolution.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  this  particular  modi- 
fication of  the  existing  order,  though  far-reaching  and  involving 
to  a  great  extent  the  abolition  of  the  wage  system,  would  not 
mean  the  abolition  of  private  ownership.  The  instruments  of 
production  would  still  be  owned  by  individuals,  not  by  the  state. 

INCREASED  INCOMES  FOR  LABOR 

The  second  great  evil,  that  of  insufficient  income  for  the  ma- 
jority can  be  removed  only  by  providing  the  workers  with  more 
income.  This  means  not  only  universal  living  wages,  but  the 
opportunity  of  obtaining  something  more  than  that  amount  for 
all  who  are  willing  to  work  hard  and  faithfully.  All  the  other 
measures  for  labor  betterment  recommended  in  the  preceding 
pages  would  likewise  contribute  directly  or  indirectly  to  a  more 
just  distribution  of  wealth  in  the  interest  of  the  laborer. 

ABOLITION   AND   CONTROL   OF   MONOPOLIES 

For  the  third  evil  mentioned  above,  excessive  gains  by  a  small 
minority  of  privileged  capitalists,  the  main  remedies  are  preven- 
tion of  monopolistic  control  of  commodities,  adequate  govern- 
ment regulation  of  such  public  service  monopolies  as  will  remain 
under  private  operation,  and  heavy  taxation  of  incomes,  excess 
profits  and  inheritances.  The  precise  methods  by  which  genuine 
competition  may  be  restored  and  maintained  among  businesses 
that  are  naturally  competitive,  cannot  be  discussed  here;  but  the 
principle  is  clear  that  human  beings  cannot  be  trusted  with  the 
immense  oportunities  for  oppression  and  extortion  that  go  with 
the  possession  of  monopoly  power.  That  the  owners  of  public 
service  monopolies  should  be  restricted  by  law  to  a  fair  or  average 
return  on  their  actual  investment,  has  long  been  a  recognized 
principle  of  the  courts,  the  legislatures,  and  public  opinion. 
It  is  a  principle  which  should  be  applied  to  competitive  enter- 
prises likewise,  with  the  qualification  that  something  more  than 
the  average  rate  of  return  should  be  allowed  to  men  who  exhibit 
exceptional  efficiency.  However,  good  public  policy,  as  well  as 
equity,  demands  that  these  exceptional  business  men  share  the 
fruits  of  their  efficiency  with  the  consumer  in  the  form  of  lower 


146  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

prices.  The  man  who  utilizes  his  ability  to  produce  cheaper 
than  his  competitors  for  the  purpose  of  exacting  from  the  public 
as  high  a  price  for  his  product  as  is  necessary  for  the  least  efficient 
business  man,  is  a  menace  rather  than  a  benefit  to  industry  and 
society. 

Our  immense  war  debt  constitutes  a  particular  reason  why 
incomes  and  excess  profits  should  continue  to  be  heavily  taxed. 
In  this  way  two  important  ends  will  be  obtained:  the  poor  will 
be  relieved  of  injurious  tax  burdens,  and  the  small  class  of  spe- 
cially privileged  capitalists  will  be  compelled  to  return  a  part 
of  their  unearned  gains  to  society. 

A   NEW   SPIRIT   A   VITAL   NEED 

"Society,"  said  Pope  Leo  XIII,  "can  be  healed  in  no  other 
way  than  by  a  return  to  Christian  life  and  Christian  institu- 
tions." The  truth  of  these  words  is  more  widely  perceived  today 
than  when  they  were  written,  more  than  twenty-seven  years  ago. 
Changes  in  our  economic  and  political  systems  will  have  only 
partial  and  feeble  efficiency  if  they  be  not  reinforced  by  the 
Christian  view  of  work  and  wealth.  Neither  the  moderate  re- 
forms advocated  in  this  paper,  nor  any  other  program  of  better- 
ment or  reconstruction  will  prove  reasonably  effective  without  a 
reform  in  the  spirit  of  both  labor  and  capital.  The  laborer  must 
come  to  realize  that  he  owes  his  employer  and  society  an  honest 
day's  work  in  return  for  a  fair  wage,  and  that  conditions  cannot 
be  substantially  improved  until  he  roots  out  the  desire  to  get  a 
maximum  of  return  for  a  minimum  of  service.  The  capitalist 
must  likewise  get  a  new  viewpoint.  He  needs  to  learn  the  long- 
forgotten  truth  that  wealth  is  stewardship,  that  profit-making  is 
not  the  basic  justification  of  business  enterprise,  and  that  there 
are  such  things  as  fair  profits,  fair  interest  and  fair  prices.  Above 
and  before  all,  he  must  cultivate  and  strengthen  within  his  mind 
the  truth  which  many  of  his  class  have  begun  to  grasp  for  the 
first  time  during  the  present  war;  namely,  that  the  laborer  is  a 
human  being,  not  merely  an  instrument  of  production;  and  that 
the  laborer's  right  to  a  decent  livelihood  is  the  first  moral  charge 
upon  industry.  The  employer  has  a  right  to  get  a  reasonable 
living  out  of  his  business,  but  he  has  not  right  to  interest  on  his 
investment  until  his  employees  have  obtained  at  least  living  wages. 
This  is  the  human  and  Christian,  in  contrast  to  the  purely  com- 
mercial and  pagan,  ethics  of  industry. 


VOCATIONAL  PREPARATION  OF  YOUTH  IN 
CATHOLIC  SCHOOLS* 

An  Outline  of  the  History  of  Vocational  Education  in  Catholic 
Schools — Continued 

Like  Bernward,  so  also  his  contemporary,  Abbot  Godehard 
of  Altaich,  was  renowned  for  furthering  the  progress  of  arts 
and  sciences.  He  was  skilled  in  the  mechanic  arts,  being  one  of 
the  greatest  architects  and  metallists  of  Bavaria.  Among 
other  works  he  produced  a  Bible  of  wonderful  beauty,  all  the 
material  used  in  its  construction  being  prepared  by  his  own 
hands.101  Godehard's  influence  on  industry  asserted  itself  in 
the  next  generation  when  those  men  who  had  profited  by  his 
instruction  became  conspicuous  for  their  skill  in  the  various  oc- 
cupations for  their  artistic  ability. 

Whatever  progress  had  been  made  in  the  arts  and  industries 
up  to  the  tenth  century  wTas  due  to  the  monastic  schools.  One 
convent  may  have  excelled  in  some  particular  branch  of  work ; 
e.  g.,  Tegernsee  was  noted  for  the  production  of  writing  materials 
and  for  its  monks  well  skilled  in  painting,  glass-staining  and 
mechanic  arts;  Cluny  and  Paderborn  were  famous  for  the 
architects  that  they  produced;  and  the  Cistercians  were  re- 
nowned for  their  achievements  in  agriculture.102  But  the  aim 
of  each  foundation  was  to  help  all  human  creatures  to  obtain 
true  peace  and  happiness;  and,  next  to  prayer,  they  knew  no 
more  potent  means  to  accomplish  this  than  labor  performed 
joyfully  and  well  for  a  noble  motive. 

The  deep-seated  prejudice  against  manual  work  gradually 
gave  way  under  the  influence  of  the  teaching  of  the  Church  and 
the  example  of  the  monks  who  labored  with  untiring  zeal. 
Fostered  by  the  Church,  the  guilds  attained  a  wonderful  de- 
velopment ;  these  taught  their  members  to  regard  labor  as  the 
complement  of  prayer  and  the  foundation  of  a  well-regulated 


•A  dissertation,  by  Sister  Mary  Jeanette,  O.S.B.  M.  A.,  St.  Joseph, 
Minnesota,  submitted  to  the  Catholic  Sisters  College  of  the  Catholic 
University  of  America,  In  Partial  Fulfillment  of  the  Requirement*  for 
the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Philosophy. 

101  Ibid.,  p.  389. 

103  Helmbucher,  Max,  Orden  u.  Kongregationen,  Vol.  I,  p.  191.  Also, 
Schmoller,  Gustav,  Die  StrussVurtfer  Tucher  u.  WebersttCnftt  p.  7. 

147 


148  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

life.  The  aim  was  protection  of  the  common  interests  of  the 
laboring  class,  but  for  motives  similar  to  those  that  prevailed 
in  the  monasteries.  God's  law  and  Christian  love  were  the  domi- 
nant factors  in  shaping  the  character  of  these  associations.103 
During  the  tenth  and  eleventh  centuries  these  guilds  came  to  be 
firmly  established  and  in  a  few  centuries  their  beneficial  in- 
fluence pervaded  all  the  continent.  In  the  meantime  the  Cis- 
tercians had  become  the  recognized  teachers  of  all  branches  of 
agriculture.  Local  and  national  sympathy  were  enlisted  by 
the  Cistercians  since  they  favored  every  kind  of  outdoor  pur 
suit.  Of  them  especially  can  it  be  said  that  "they  turned  woods 
into  fields,  they  constructed  water-conduits  and  water-mills, 
they  cultivated  gardens,  orchards,  and  vineyards,  they  were 
successful  in  rearing  cattle,  in  breeding  horses,  in  keeping  bees, 
in  regulating  fishing,  and  they  made  glass  and  procured  the 
precious  metals."10*  The  occupations  of  the  religious  in  the  Cis- 
tercian nunneries  were  of  a  similar  nature;  "they  sewed  and 
span,  and  went  into  the  woods  where  they  grubbed  up  briars 
and  thorns."106 

The  range  of  subjects  generally  taught  in  the  nunneries  was 
wide.  For  this  reason  life  in  the  convent  was  very  attractive 
to  the  daughters  of  the  mediaeval  knight  and  soldier,  since  it 
offered  the  companionship  of  equals  and  a  careful  training  of 
hand  and  mind ;  it  was  a  welcome  relief  from  the  monotony  of 
life  in  the  castle  at  a  time  when  men  were  more  frequently 
found  on  the  battlefield  than  in  their  homes.106  Monasteries 
for  women  had  developed  rapidly  and  exerted  a  social  and  in- 
tellectual influence  such  as  rarely  has  fallen  to  the  lot  of 
women's  religious  settlements  in  the  course  of  history.  Some 
of  these  became  centers  of  art  industry  and  remained  so  to  the 
time  of  the  Reformation.  In  fact,  the  history  of  art  at  this 
period  is  identical  with  the  history  of  the  productions  in  the 
monasteries.  The  technique  of  weaving  and  the  art  of  design 
were  brought  to  their  highest  perfection  in  the  nunnery.107 

If  an  institution  may  be  judged  for  efficiency  by  what  has 


10*  Catholic  Encyclopedia,  Guilds,  p.  67  and  p.  70. 
104  Eckenstein,  L.,  Women  Under  Monasticism,  p.  190. 
101  Ibid.,  p.  191.     Also,  Heimbucher,  Max,  Orden  u.  Kongregationen, 
p.  232  and  p.  425. 
108  Eckenstein,  L.,  Women  Under  Monasticism,  p.  149. 
l9T  Ibid.,  pp.  222-224. 


Vocational  Education  of  Youth  149 

been  accomplished  it  must  be  said  that  a  system  of  education 
which  developed  the  capabilities  of  such  women  as  Hrosvith 
of  Gandersheim,108  Herrad,  abbess  of  Hohenburg,109  Hildegard 
of  Bingen,110  St.  Elizabeth  of  Schonau111  and  Queen  Ma- 
thilda,112 was  admirably  suited  to  develop  vocations.  The  in- 
struction given  in  the  convent  prepared  both  men  and  women 
for  any  career  they  desired  to  choose.  This  education  was 
practical  for  the  future  wife  and  mother  since  occupations 
proper  to  their  sex  were  not  neglected.113  The  arts  of  weaving, 
spinning,  embroidering  and  other  household  occupations  in 
which  daughters  had  been  instructed  by  their  mothers  were 
gradually  transferred  to  the  curriculum  of  the  convent  school 
from  the  sixth  century  onward.114  Schools  for  interns  pro- 
vided for  the  proper  training  in  the  religious  vocation  and 
schools  for  externs  which  were  established  in  all  larger  mona- 
steries prepared  students  for  a  useful  life  outside  of  the  con- 
vent. No  woman's  education  was  considered  to  be  complete  if 
she  was  not  efficient  in  the  domestic  arts;  even  if  she  was 
destined  to  wear  the  crown  she  was  still  expected  to  be  well 
able  to  conduct  the  household  even  as  Queen  Mathilda  did,  who 
taught  her  servants  the  arts  she  herself  had  learned  in  the  con- 
vent of  Herford.118 

The  directions  that  St.  Jerome  had  given  to  Laeta  as  to  her 
daughter's  education  were  followed  almost  without  exception 
in  all  nunneries.  In  regard  to  the  pursuit  of  religious  and 
literary  studies  the  course  closely  resembled  that  pursued  by 
the  monks  up  to  the  time  of  the  rise  of  the  Universities.118  On 
the  whole  they  were  the  first  institutions  that  undertook  the  edu- 
cation of  woman  on  a  large  scale.  Taught  more  by  example 
than  by  precept,  the  young  women  so  trained  were  able  to  ac- 
quit themselves  creditably  of  the  work  they  undertook  later 
in  life.    Since  a  convent  education  gave  so  much  satisfaction 


,M  Ibid.,  pp.  154-183. 
,0,I6id.,  pp.  238-256. 
™Ibid.,  pp.  256-286. 
uiIbid.,  pp.  285-305. 

u'  Specht,  F.  A.,  Oeschichte  des  Unterrichtswesens,  p.  277. 
,1*  McCormick,  P.  J.,  Education  of  the  Laity  in  the  Middle  Ages,  p. 
20.    Also,  Montalembert,  Monks  of  the  West,  Book  XV,  p.  690. 
"*  Denk,  Otto,  Oeschichte  des  Oallo-Frankischen  Unterrichts,  p.  264. 
"•  Specht,  F.  A.,  Oeschichte  des  Unterrichtswesens,  Part  2,  pp.  280-285. 
"•  Denk,  Otto,  Oeschichte  des  Oallo-Frankischen  Unterrichts,  p.  263. 


150  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

it  was  appreciated  by  parents  and  it  was  sought  for  by  the 
daughters  of  the  nobles,  with  whom  it  was  usual  to  enter  upon 
their  future  career  after  having  enjoyed  the  privileges  of  train- 
ing in  a  convent  school.117 

The  thirteenth  century  was  especially  prolific  in  archi- 
tectural structures  which  previously  had  been  erected  mainly 
by  the  monks.  This  art  had  grown  to  greatness  in  the  mona- 
steries and  manifested  itself  most  exuberantly  in  the  erection 
of  buildings  and  cathedrals,  which  arose  during  this  century 
in  every  part  of  the  country,  even  in  places  whose  population 
was  less  than  that  of  an  ordinary  town  or  village  of  today. 
Historians  who  have  made  a  study  of  the  productions  of  this 
period  assert  that  these  monuments  of  architectural  beauty 
were  almost  exclusively  the  work  of  local  craftsmen.118  Great 
and  glorious  success  had  crowned  the  perseverance  of  the  mon- 
astic teacher,  for  the  rude  peasant  of  a  few  centuries  ago  had 
been  replaced  by  the  intelligent  and  systematic  laborer,  then 
by  the  skilled  mechanic  and  artist  until  "we  get  fairly  be- 
wildered by  the  astonishing  wealth  of  skill  and  artistic  taste 
and  aesthetic  feeling  which  there  must  have  been  in  times 
which  till  lately  we  had  assumed  to  be  barbaric  times."119  Art 
had  grown  out  of  manual  work  as  a  flower  grows  from  its  stem. 
The  distinction  between  the  artist  and  the  artisan  was  not 
sharply  drawn  as  we  see  by  the  signatures  of  names  in  early 
documents.  A  simple  "joiner"  or  "stonecutter"  or  "copper- 
smith" is  the  modest  appendage  to  the  names  of  men  who  today 
are  acknowledged  as  artists  of  great  ability.120  So  well  did 
each  individual  laborer  accomplish  his  part  of  the  grand  whole 
that  critics  now  declare  the  cathedrals  to  be  "noble  Christian 
poems  embodied  in  stone  and  color."121  The  student  of  today 
finds  no  better  models  on  which  to  exercise  his  imitative  ability 
than  the  work  done  seven  centuries  ago;  he  is  encouraged  to 
strive  for  equal  skill  by  tireless  study  and  observation. 

117  Gasquet,  Abbot,  English  Monastic  Life,  London,  1910,  p.  177. 
Also,  McCormick,  P.  J.,  Education  of  the  Laity  in  the  Middle  Ages,  pp. 
45-46. 

"•Jessopp,  Augustus,  Before  the  Great  Pillage.  London,  1901,  pp. 
24-25. 

"•  Ibid.,  p.  25.  Also,  Janssen,  J.,  History  of  the  German  People,  Vol.  I, 
p.  164. 

"•  Janssen,  J.,  History  of  the  German  People,  Vol.  I,  Book  II,  p.  241. 

"*  Walsb,  James  J.,  The  Thirteenth  Greatest  of  Centuries.  New  York, 
1913,  p.  11. 


Vocational  Education  of  Youth  151 

We  marvel  that  with  implements  so  crude  in  comparison  with 
ours  and  with  material  so  inadequate  for  the  purpose  of  the 
artist,  the  productions  of  the  Middle  Ages  should  be  as  a  whole 
and  in  every  detail  so  far  superior  to  our  own.  The  cathedrals 
of  the  thirteenth  century  and  the  stained  glass  windows  that 
adorn  them  are  an  unending  delight,  even  in  their  fragmentary 
remains,  and  far  superior  to  anything  made  since  the  thirteenth 
century.  The  reason  for  the  excellence  of  his  work  is  to  be 
found  in  the  motive  which  actuated  the  workman.  He  was  very 
probably  uneducated,  in  the  modern  sense  of  the  term,  with 
little  ability  to  read  and  write ;  but  he  had  the  mental  develop- 
ment which  enabled  him  to  design  and  execute  the  work  as- 
signed to  him,  and  to  do  this  as  perfectly  as  it  is  ordinarily  pos- 
sible for  any  man.  The  workmen  heard  the  beautiful  Scrip- 
ture narratives  and  reproduced  them  in  the  drama  which  was 
then  so  popular.  In  these  plays  every  artisan  actually  lived 
his  part  as  a  biblical  character,  and  his  later  work  showed  the 
result  of  the  inspiration  and  knowledge  thus  obtained.  Besides 
he  had  ample  opportunity  to  observe  from  childhood  days  how 
much  care  was  taken  in  each  minor  detail  of  constructive 
work.122  The  aim  of  the  workman  was  not  to  hasten  the  com- 
pletion of  any  article,  nor  the  desire  to  obtain  their  pay ;  they 
strove  rather  to  produce  something  that  would  be  best  adapted 
to  the  end  for  which  it  was  intended  and  at  the  same  time  be 
a  source  of  pleasure  for  those  who  were  to  see  or  use  it.  What 
has  been  said. of  the  authors  who  wrote  the  literary  master- 
pieces of  the  thirteenth  century  can  be  applied  with  equal  truth 
to  the  artisan  and  the  artist.  They  "had  evidently  not  as  yet 
become  sophisticated  to  the  extent  of  seeking  immortality  for 
their  works.  They  even  seem  to  have  been  indifferent  as  to 
whether  their  names  were  associated  with  them  or  not.  Enough 
for  them  apparently  to  have  had  the  satisfaction  of  doing,  all 
else  seemed  futile."123 

But  no  matter  how  lofty  the  ideal,  how  sublime  the  motive 
may  have  been,  the  construction  of  such  buildings  required  in 
addition  such  skill  as  could  only  have  been  acquired  by  careful 
and   systematic   training.     There   must  have  been  technical 


Walsh,  James  J.,  The  Thirteenth  Greatest  of  Centuries,  pp.  110-111. 
Ibid.,  p.  211. 


152  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

schools  in  abundance,  though  they  were  not  called  by  that 
modern  and  ambitious  name.  The  erection  of  each  cathedral 
and  abbey  church,  since  it  extended  over  a  considerable  period 
of  time,  in  no  instance  less  than  twenty-five  years  while  some- 
times more  than  a  century  expired  before  its  completion,  was 
in  itself  a  center  of  technical  education  for  the  growing 
youth.124  The  greatest  factor  in  the  spread  of  technical  knowl- 
edge was  the  system  of  guilds.  These  had  originated  in  many 
instances  in  the  form  of  fraternities,  often  established  and 
fostered  by  the  Church.  In  the  first  half  of  the  twelfth  century 
these  fraternities,  whose  object  had  been  of  a  religious  nature, 
began  to  change,  and  grew  into  societies  and  unions  having  a 
civil  purpose.125  The  guilds  had  three  aims  in  view,  namely :  To 
administer  Christian  charity  to  the  aged,  the  sick,  the  poor,  and 
those  suffering  temporarily  from  losses  by  fire,  flood  or  ship- 
wreck ;  to  promote  education  by  aiding  poor  scholars  and  sup- 
porting schools  and  schoolmasters ;  and  to  aid  in  the  propaga- 
tion of  the  faith  by  representing  biblical  truth  in  plays.126 
Since  the  guilds-apprentices  received  their  instruction  gratis, 
the  guilds  wielded  a  greater  influence  in  spreading  technical 
training  than  any  other  institution  of  the  thirteenth  century127 
though  many  architects  were  still  to  be  found  outside  the  guilds 
in  the  monasteries. 

The  fourteenth  century  marks  a  period  of  retrogression  in  the 
quality  of  mechanical  and  artistic  work.  The  chief  reason  for 
this  was  the  substitution  of  a  lower  motive  for  the  high  ideal  of 
the  thirteenth  century  workman.  During  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury "the  great  idea  of  association  for  mutual  help  gave  place 
to  the  narrow-minded  spirit  of  the  mere  acquisition  of  capital ; 
petty  rivalries  and  hateful  egotism  prevailed  over  brotherhood 
and  equality  of  rights ;  the  rich  withdrew  to  separate  guilds  and 
there  arose  internal  disputes."128  The  very  institutions  which 
had  been  the  means  of  securing  rights  and  privileges  for  the 
workman  degenerated  into  mere  capitalist's  societies,  and  jeal- 


124  Walsh,  J.  J.,  The  Thirteenth  Greatest  of  Centuries,  Appendix,  pp. 
469-470. 
"*  Eberstadt,  Rudolf,  Der  Ursprung  des  Zunftwesens,  pp.  139-140. 
"*  Howell,  George,  Conflicts  of  Capital  and  Labor,  London,  1878,  p.  6. 
1,T  Janssen,  J.,  History  of  the  German  People,  Vol.  I,  p.  167. 
1M  Howell,  George,  Conflicts  of  Capital  and  Labor,  p.  56. 


Vocational  Education  of  Youth  153 

ousy  among  the  various  guilds,  as  well  as  laws  enacted  against 
them,  caused  their  decay.129 

The  Renaissance  which  began  at  this,  period  contributed  to 
the  retrogression  of  art  in  so  far  as  one  result  of  this  move- 
ment was  to  under-value  the  work  done  by  artists  and  archi- 
tects of  the  previous  century.  Then  followed  the  socalled  Refor- 
mation with  its  detrimental  effects  upon  the  school  systems  gen- 
erally,130 and  the  wanton  destruction  of  artistic  products  in 
particular.131  Under  such  adverse  circumstances  it  is  not  sur- 
prising that  the  mechanical  arts  declined  and  barely  survived. 
However,  when  the  Jesuits  labored  among  the  American  In- 
dians in  the  seventeenth  century  they  built  beautiful  churches 
and  furnished  them  artistically.  They  attracted  the  savages 
by  the  tones  of  musical  instruments  which  the  Fathers  con- 
structed in  the  forests  of  the  New  World.  Before  long  they  had 
succeeded  in  imparting  to  the  Indians  not  only  a  knowledge 
of  Christian  truths,  but  also  in  instructing  them  in  agriculture 
and  the  arts  of  peace.132  This  course  of  civilizing,  Christianiz- 
ing and  educating  the  Indians  which  the  Jesuits  adopted  was 
followed  by  all  other  missionaries  among  the  natives,  and 
proved  to  be  the  only  successful  method  of  securing  for  them 
the  blessings  of  civilization.  Attracted  by  that  which  is  pleas- 
ing and  beautiful,  then  given  the  opportunity  to  imitate  and 
reproduce  that  which  they  admired,  they  gradually  acquired 
habits  of  industry  and  culture. 

Many  religious  congregations  that  were  founded  in  the  last 
two  centuries  were  established  for  the  express  purpose  of  help- 
ing the  poor  classes  by  means  of  training  and  instruction. 
A.  D.  1835,  the  Brothers  of  St.  Joseph  undertook  the  care  of 
neglected  boys  and  trained  them  to  become  able  craftsmen, 
tradesmen  and  farmers.  Ten  years  later  the  Brothers  of  St. 
Vincent  de  Paul  undertook  the  supervision  of  apprentices  and 
labor  unions.133  At  this  time  the  enthusiastic  Don  Bosco,  in 
spite  of  misunderstandings  and  persecutions,  succeeded  in 
erecting  oratories,  churches,  institutes,  trades  buildings  and 
printing  press  for  his  boys,  thereby  giving  several  millions  of 


,2»  Ibid.,  p.  68. 

1,0  McCormick,  P.  J.,  History  of  Education,  pp.  211-212  and  p.  225. 

ia  Jessopp,  Augustus,  Before  the  Great  Pillage,  p.  25. 

1U  Heimbucher,  Max,  Orden  u.  Kongregationen,  pp.  220-226. 

■  Ibid.,  pp.  421-422. 


154  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

neglected  youths  an  opportunity  to  become  good  and  useful 
workers.  The  vocational  character  of  his  work  is  demonstrated 
by  the  fact  that  18,000  apprentices  annually  left  his  Oratories 
to  become  journeymen,  and  that  up  to  the  year  of  his  death,  in 
1888,  six  thousand  of  his  students  had  become  priests.13* 

Victor  Braun,  a  priest  and  contemporary  of  Don  Bosco,  tried 
to  help  women  and  girls,  especially  those  who  worked  in  fac- 
tories; for  this  purpose  he  founded  the  Congregation  of  the 
Servants  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  whose  members  conducted  even- 
ing schools,  hospitals,  workhouses,  homes  for  the  aged,  and 
gathered  the  poor  and  neglected  women  around  themselves  for 
Sunday  recreation.135  Two  years  later,  1868,  the  Daughters  of 
Divine  Love  undertook  to  educate  orphan  girls  for  their  future 
career,  to  provide  shelter,  home,  instruction  and  care  for  poor 
girls  seeking  employment  and  an  asylum  for  disabled  serv- 
ants.136 The  Society  des  missionaires  de  Notre  Dame  des  mis- 
sions d'Afrique  d'Alger,  established  also  in  1868,  had  as  object 
the  instruction  of  orphans  in  agriculture  and  handicrafts.  The 
congregation  of  the  Soeurs  de  Jesus-Marie,  in  Lyons,  which 
came  into  existence  in  1871,  had  a  similar  aim.137  A.  D.  1889 
the  Congregation  of  Devout  Laborers  was  founded  in  Vienne; 
its  object  was  to  care  for  the  physical  and  spiritual  welfare  of 
tradesmen  and  laborers,  and  its  members  took  special  interest 
in  apprentices  and  journeymen  and  secured  for  them  both  prac- 
tical instruction  in  technical  schools,  and  religious  training.138 
The  work  of  these  new  congregations  and  that  of  the  older 
orders  was  seriously  handicapped  at  the  time  of  th(  French 
Revolution.  Many  were  temporarily  dissolved,  others  perma- 
nently destroyed.  But  they  had  spread  and  flourished  in  other 
countries  of  Europe  and  in  America,  and  had  gained  a  foothold 
in  Asia.139 

During  the  nineteenth  century  the  need  of  Catholic  schools 
in  the  United  States  was  keenly  felt  and  teaching  communities 
of  Europe,  especially  of  France  and  Germany,  were  requested  to 
supply  the  demand.    The  response  was  generous,  and  though 

m  Ibid.,  pp.  406-407. 
135  iud.,  p.  539. 

1M  Ibid.,  p.  461. 
™Ibid„  p.  462. 
1,1  Ibid.,  p.  461. 
inIbid.,  p.  462. 


Vocational  Education  of  Youth  155 

laboring  under  many  hardships  and  not  accustomed  to  the 
language  of  the  country,  they  were  most  successful  in  estab- 
lishing schools  in  all  parts  of  the  land.  The  variety  of  local 
conditions  which  increased  during  the  immigration  period,  pre- 
vented the  systematic  organization  of  Catholic  schools.  The 
first  movement  in  this  direction  by  Eight  Eev.  John  Nepomu- 
cene  Neuman,  of  Philadelphia,  in  1852,  was  unsuccessful ;  after 
the  Civil  War  efforts  toward  securing  greater  unity  of  purpose 
and  action  were  renewed  and  carried  out  successfully.140 

The  curriculum  of  the  Catholic  school  was,  however,  largely 
determined  by  the  needs  of  each  community.  Where  manual 
training  was  demanded  by  the  nature  of  the  work  which  the 
student  intended  to  undertake,  such  training  was  provided  for. 
The  Brothers  of  the  Congregation  of  the  Holy  Cross  opened  a 
manual  labor  school  soon  after  they  had  established  their 
mother  house  and  College,  1841.  Commercial  Academies  and 
Colleges  were  erected  by  the  Brothers  of  the  Christian  Schools 
in  1859  and  I860.141  During  this  period  the  Franciscan  and 
Xaverian  Brothers  had  also  begun  Commercial  and  Industrial 
schools.142  The  teaching  Sisters  aimed  at  training  the  hands, 
as  well  as  the  head  and  heart,  of  the  pupils  placed  under  their 
instruction,  and  taught  them  to  "use  the  needle  as  well  as  the 
pen ;  to  make  and  to  mend ;  to  darn  and  to  knit  and  become  use- 
ful in  the  home."143 

The  missionaries  among  the  Indians,  notably  the  Franciscans 
and  Jesuits,  taught  these  children  of  nature  how  to  build  for 
themselves  permanent  shelters,  how  to  till  the  soil  and  store  a 
supply  for  the  time  of  need.144  All  the  schools  for  Indian  girls 
conducted  by  the  various  Sisterhoods  gave  special  attention  to 
manual  work.  In  respect  to  agriculture  and  other  industrial 
arts  Catholic  educators  were  the  pioneers  in  our  Western 
States.145  The  history  of  the  work  done  by  the  Ladies  of  the 
Sacred  Heart,  the  Sisters  of  Loretto,  and  the  Sisters  of  Provi- 
dence shows  that  the  teaching  of  elementary  academic  branches 


140  Burns,  J.  A.,  The  Growth  and  Development  of  the  Catholic  School 
System  in  U.  S.    New  York,  1912,  pp.  199-200. 

"'Ibid.,  pp.  102-108. 

"'Ibid.,  p.  121. 

™Ibid.,  p.  125. 

144  Rittenhouse,  M.  F„  "The  Mission  Play  of  San  Gabriel,"  Catholic 
Educational  Review,  March,  1916,  p.  231. 

"•  Burns,  J.  A.,  Growth  and  Development,  etc.,  pp.  152-155. 


156  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

was  accompanied  by  training  in  the  common  industrial  arts. 
The  home  of  the  white  settler  generally  provided  adequately  for 
industrial  training,  and  therefore  comparatively  few  schools 
were  required  to  offer  vocational  subjects  in  their  courses.  In 
schools  for  the  Indians,  however,  manual  work  was  invariably 
a  part  of  the  curriculum  as  a  means  of  helping  the  proper  de- 
velopment of  the  child's  mind  and  character  as  well  as  for  the 
practical  benefit  he  was  to  derive  from  it.  The  wisdom  of  pro- 
ceeding in  this  manner  is  now  fully  recognized  and  advocated 
for  other  schools  besides  those  for  the  uncivilized  Indian.  The 
changes  that  have  taken  place  in  the  child's  environment  make 
it  necessary  to  supply  in  the  schoolroom  what  the  industrial 
home  furnished  in  the  past.  This  is  no  less  imperative  in  re- 
gard to  Catholic  schools  than  in  the  state  schools.  Formerly 
knowledge  was  equivalent  to  opportunity  and  was  alone  suffi- 
cient to  enable  an  ambitious  youth  to  advance  from  the  lowest 
to  the  highest  positions  in  political  and  industrial  life.  But 
the  changes  in  the  school  curriculum  have  not  kept  pace  with 
the  altered  condition  of  the  social  world  and  the  evolution  of 
industry.  This  is  the  cause  of  the  present  dissatisfaction  with 
the  entire  school  system,  but  more  especially  with  secondary 
schools,  and  the  attention  of  all  educators  is  directed  toward 
the  readjustment  of  the  curriculum.  John  Dewey  describes  the 
present  situation  as  follows :  "The  problem  is  not  easy  of  solu- 
tion. There  is  a  standing  danger  that  education  will  per- 
petuate the  older  traditions  for  a  select  few,  and  effect  its  ad- 
justment to  the  newer  economic  conditions  more  or  less  on  the 
basis  of  acquiescence  in  the  untransformed,  unrationalized,  and 
unsocialized  phases  of  our  defective  industrial  regime.  Put  in 
concrete  terms,  there  is  danger  that  vocational  education  will 
be  interpreted  in  theory  and  practice  as  trade  education ;  as  a 
means  of  securing  technical  efficiency  in  specialized  future  pur- 
suits."1*6 The  Catholic  schools  face  the  same  problem  and  must 
do  their  share  in  finding  its  solution.  They  have  met  conditions 
in  former  times  with  admirable  success,  and  having  inherent 
in  themselves  that  wonderful  power  of  adaptation  which  the 
Catholic  Church  transmits  to  her  institutions,  the  Catholic 
schools  will  continue  to  offer  their  pupils  the  best  preparation 
for  their  career. 

(To  be  continued) 


**•  Dewey,  John,  Democracy  and  Education.    New  York,  1916,  p.  368. 


AMERICA'S  PIONEER  WAR  SONGS 

{Concluded) 

We  now  come  to  consider  a  song  about  whose  origin  there  has 
been  much  dispute,  but  of  whose  popularity  there  has  never  been 
a  doubt — our  own  Yankee  Doodle.  Though  the  tune  is  trivial 
and  frivolous  in  nature,  many  countries  have  claimed  the  honor 
of  its  authorship,  Spain,  Holland,  France,  England,  Turkey, 
Hungary,  even  Persia,  being  among  the  number.  The  accounts  as 
to  its  origin  vary  exceedingly.  Some  see  in  the  tune  a  resemblance 
to  an  old  German  street  air,  while  others  claim  it  to  have  been  a 
vintage  song  of  the  south  of  France.  And  in  the  good  old  days 
of  yore,  when  the  mighty  dollar  had  not  yet  acquired  such  a 
firm  foothold  among  the  nations,  the  laborers  on  the  harvest  fields 
of  Holland  were  given  as  wages  "all  the  buttermilk  they  could 
drink  and  a  tenth  of  the  grain  secured  by  their  exertions."  Happy 
with  the  thought  of  their  promised  reward,  the  laborers  used  to 
sing  this  verse: 

Yanker,  dudel,  doodle  down, 

Diddle,  dudel,  lanther, 
Yankee  viver,  voover  vown, 

Botermilk  and  tanther." 

On  June  3,  1853,  the  American  Secretary  of  Legation,  Mr. 
Buckingham  S  nith,  sent  this  communication  from  Madrid:  "The 
tune  of  Yankee  Doodle,  from  the  first  of  my  showing  it  here,  has 
been  acknowledged,  by  persons  acquainted  with  music,  to  bear 
a  strong  resemblance  to  the  popular  airs  of  Biscay;  and  yesterday, 
a  professor  from  the  north  recognized  it  as  being  much  like  the 
ancient  sword-dance  played  on  solemn  occasions  by  the  people  of 
San  Sebastian.  He  says  the  tune  varies  in  those  provinces.  The 
first  strains  are  identically  those  of  the  heroic  Danza  Esparta  of 
brave  old  Biscay." 

During  the  reign  of  Charles  I  of  England,  the  following  words  are 
said  to  have  been  sung  to  the  same  air. 

Lucy  Locket  lost  her  pocket, 

Kitty  Fisher  found  it — 
Nothing  in  it,f nothing  on  it, 

But  the  binding  round  it. 

157 


158  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

Afterwards  the  tune  served  the  cavaliers  of  Charles  as  an  instru- 
ment in  ridiculing  Cromwell.  The  latter  is  supposed  to  have 
gone  to  Oxford  on  a  small  horse  "with  his  single  plume  fastened 
in  a  sort  of  knot,  which  was  derisively  called  a  'macaroni.'" 

Yankee  doodle  came  to  town, 

Upon  a  Kentish  pony; 
He  stuck  a  feather  in  his  cap, 

Upon  a  macaroni. 

The  melody  made  its  first  appearance  in  this  country  in  1755, 
during  the  French-Indian  War.  The  British  commander  was  at 
Albany  for  the  purpose  of  assembling  the  colonists  preparatory 
to  an  attack  on  forts  Niagara  and  Frontenac.  From  all 
directions  came 

The  old  Continentals 

In  their  ragged  regimentals. 

They  must  have  presented  a  very  ludicrous  picture  when  contrasted 
with  the  splendid  uniforms  of  the  British  army.  Each  one  was 
dressed  according  to  his  own  fashion,  and  bore  as  a  weapon  the 
heirloom  of  his  ancestry.  The  music  played  by  the  band  that 
accompanied  them  might  have  served  at  the  siege  of  Troy,  but 
was  hardly  adapted  to  keep  these  modern  Cincinnati  in  marching 
order. 

This  spectacle  aroused  the  poetic  fancy  of  the  regimental 
surgeon  in  the  British  army,  Dr.  Richard  Shuckburgh,  afterwards 
Secretary  of  Indian  Affairs  under  Sir  William  Johnson.  The 
picture  of  Cromwell  riding  to  town  on  his  pony  amid  the  jeers 
of  the  handsomely  attired  courtiers  of  Charles  rose  before  him. 
Writing  down  the  tune  from  memory,  he  composed  different  words 
to  suit  the  occasion  and  then  gave  the  song  to  the  bandsmen  to  play. 
In  a  few  hours  the  melody  was  ringing  throughout  the  entire  camp. 
This  same  air  was  afterwards  used  by  the  British  in  Boston  to 
ridicule  the  patriots.  The  irony  of  history  appears  in  this,  for  in 
the  course  of  a  few  years  the  well-groomed  troops  of  Britain  were 
obliged  to  march  through  those  same  ragged  ranks  to  the  ever- 
fresh  tune  of  "Yankee  Doodle." 

The  colonists  took  a  liking  to  this  air  from  the  start.  The 
sauciness  and  flippancy  of  the  melody  appealed  to  them  as  can  be 
seen  from  an  advertisement  that  appeared  in  the  New  York  Jour- 
nal, October,  13,  1?68: 


America's  Pioneer  War  Songs  159 

The  British  fleet  was  bro't  to  anchor  near  Castle  Williams  in 
Boston  Harbor,  and  the  opinion  of  the  visitors  to  the  ships  was 
that  the  "Yankee  Doodle  Song"  was  the  capital  piece  in  the  band 
of  their  musicians. 

The  number  of  poems  adapted  to  the  tune  of  "Yankee  Doodle" 
during  the  Revolution  is  legion,  but  the  most  popular  version  was 
that  commencing  "Father  and  I  went  down  to  camp."  It  appears 
in  a  collection  made  in  1813  by  Isaiah  Thomas,  and  was  probably 
published  around  1775. 

Father  and  I  went  down  to  camp, 

Along  with  Captain  Gooding, 
And  there  we  saw  the  men  and  boys 
As  thick  as  hasty  pudding. 
Yankee  Doodle,  keep  it  up, 

Yankee  Doodle  dandy, 
Mind  the  music  and  the  step, 
And  with  the  girls  be  handy. 

And  there  I  saw  a  swamping  gun, 

Large  as  a  log  of  maple, 
Upon  a  deuced  little  cart, 

A  load  for  father's  cattle. 

Chorus : 

And  every  time  they  shot  it  off, 

It  takes  a  horn  of  powder, 
And  makes  a  noise  like  father's  gun, 

Only  a  nation  louder. 

Chorus: 

"  Yankee  Doodle  "  is  our  first  song  of  triumph.  It  was  played  at 
the  Battle  of  Lexington,  at  the  surrender  of  Burgoyne,  and  also 
at  Yorktown.  As  remarked  before,  the  tune  is  trivial.  The 
words,  also,  have  small  weight.  It  makes  a  good  instrumental 
number,  but  does  not  lend  itself  to  harmonization  for  vocal  pur- 
poses. It  is  not  made  to  cause  serious  thought  in  people,  because 
the  tune  is  of  the  kind  that  sets  the  feet  in  motion,  or,  in  the 
language  of  the  everyday  man,  "it  gets  into  your  bones." 

A  curious  incident  is  connected  with  its  advent  into  European 
lands  as  the  national  hymn  of  America.  When  Henry  Clay  and 
John  Quincy  Adams  were  in  Ghent  conducting  peace  negotiations 
with  the  British  ambassador,  the  honest  citizens  of  the  town  were 
very  much  flattered  at  the  great  honor  accorded  them.     Wishing 


160  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

to  show  their  appreciation  in  some  way,  they  decided  to  salute 
the  distinguished  visitors  with  their  respective  national  airs. 
England's  "God  Save  the  King"  was  perfectly  familiar  to  them, 
but  when  the  question  of  America's  national  hymn  arose,  they 
were  at  their  wit's  end.  They  called  on  the  bandmaster  and 
sought  information  from  him.  He,  likewise,  was  at  a  loss  and 
directed  them  to  Clay.  On  being  asked,  the  American  responded 
"Yankee  Doodle."  The  bandmaster  requested  him  to  hum 
the  air  that  he  might  note  it  down,  but  this  Clay  was  unable 
to  do.  The  secretary  of  the  commission  in  the  same  manner 
failed  in  his  endeavors  to  reproduce  the  tune.  Clay  then  called 
in  his  negro  servant,  Bob,  and  told  him  to  whistle  "Yankee 
Doodle"  for  the  gentlemen.  Bob  straightway  responded,  and 
so  was  our  national  hymn  introduced  into  European  lands  from 
the  lips  of  a  darky  servant.  It  subsequently  appeared  in  Europe 
under  the  heading,  "National  Anthem  of  America." 

A  melody  taken  over  by  the  patriots  very  early,  to  which  differ- 
ent words  were  adapted,  is  that  of  "God  Save  the  King."  The 
origin  of  this  tune  is  very  problematical.  Henry  Carey,  composer 
of  "Sally  in  Our  Alley,"  is  regarded  by  some  as  its  author.  Ac- 
cording to  W.  H.  Cummings,  who  has  made  an  extensive  study  of 
the  subject,  the  tune  was  written  by  Dr.  John  Bull,  Gresham  pro- 
fessor in  1596.  No  doubt  the  melody  was  known  in  its  first  form 
in  England.  Since  then  it  has  undergone  modifications,  as  is 
generally  the  case  with  folk  music.  This  kind  of  music  is  rarely 
preserved  in  its  pure  state.  The  words  now  sung  to  the  tune 
almost  exclusively  in  this  country,  "My  Country,  'tis  of  Thee," 
were  written  by  Rev.  Dr.  Samuel  F.  Smith  for  a  children's  cele- 
bration in  Boston,  July  4,  1832. 

The  melody  of  "God  Save  the  King"  is  simple  and  chantlike, 
and  for  this  reason  lends  itself  very  well  for  a  folk  song  or  a  patrio- 
tic air.  Quite  a  few  nations  have  taken  it  up  into  the  repertoire  of 
their  national  anthems.  Haydn  in  his  time  was  captivated  by  the 
melody  and  wrote  out  one  of  his  own  on  the  same  lines,  which  now 
serves  as  the  national  hymn  of  Austria,  "  Gott  Erhalte  Franz  den 
Kaizer."  Prussia,  also,  has  taken  up  this  air  among  her  patriotic 
songs,  the  tune  being  sung  to  the  words  of  "Heil  Dir  im  Sieger- 
kranz."  The  patriots  in  this  country  had  adopted  the  melody 
already  in  1779.  Some  time  after  this  date  an  ode  for  the  Fourth 
of  July  appeared,  called  "The  American."  This,  too,  was  sung 
to  the  air  of  England's  national  hymn. 


America's  Pioneer  War  Songs  161 

THE  AMERICAN 

From  her  Imperial  seat, 
Beheld  the  bleeding  state, 
Approv'd  this  day's  debate 
And  firm  decree. 

Sublime  in  awful  form, 
Above  the  whirling  storm, 

The  Goddess  stood; 
She  saw  with  pitying  eye, 
War's  tempest  raging  high, 
Our  heroes  bravely  die, 

In  fields  of  blood. 

High  on  his  shining  car, 
Mars,  the  stern  God  of  war, 

Our  struggle  blest: 
Soon  victory  waved  her  hand, 
Fair  Freedom  cheer 'd  the  land, 
Led  on  Columbia's  band 

To  glorious  rest. 

Now  all  ye  sons  of  song, 
Pour  the  full  sound  along, 

Who  shall  control; 
For  in  this  western  clime, 
Freedom  shall  rise  sublime, 
Till  ever  changing  time, 

Shall  cease  to  roll. 

So  much  for  the  songs  of  the  Revolution.  A  hymn  of  which 
both  words  and  music  belong  to  us,  is  "Hail  Columbia."  The 
music  of  this  song  had  existed  for  nine  years  before  words  were 
set  to  it. 

During  the  Revolution  and  the  period  immediately  following  it, 
much  military  and  march  music  was  in  vogue.  This  was  at  that 
time  about  the  most  popular  form  of  music.  "Washington's 
March"  had  long  held  the  place  of  vantage,  when  it  was  super- 
seded by  one  called  "The  President's  March."  The  accounts  as 
to  the  authorship  of  the  latter  are  at  variance.  Mr.  Custis, 
Washington's  adopted  son,  says  it  was  composed  in  1789  by  the 
conductor  of  the  orchestra  in  the  John  Street  Theater,  New  York, 


162  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

as  a  tribute  to  Washington  on  the  occasion  of  the  general's  first 
visit  to  this  playhouse.  The  name  of  the  conductor  was  Fayles. 
But  the  son  of  Professor  Phyla  of  Philadelphia  asserts  that  his 
father  composed  the  march.  A  German  named  Johannes  Roth 
is  also  mentioned  as  its  author.  Possibly  Fayles  and  Phyla  are 
identical,  some  similarity  existing  between  the  names.  Others 
claim  that  the  march  was  played  for  the  first  time  when  Wash- 
ington crossed  the  bridge  at  Trenton  on  his  way  to  attend  the 
inauguration  ceremonies  at  New  York.  Be  this  as  it  may,  the 
march,  no  doubt,  would  soon  have  been  forgotten  had  it  not  sud- 
denly been  brought  somewhat  dramatically  into  the  foreground. 

Toward  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century  our  young  republic 
was  passing  through  a  critical  stage  of  her  history.  A  new  land 
was  in  the  throes  of  birth.  The  constitution  had  been  framed, 
but  had  also  met  with  much  opposition.  For  a  fuller  acquaintance 
with  this  subject  the  reader  is  referred  to  Fiske's  "Critical  Period 
of  American  History."  To  our  domestic  troubles  were  added 
international  complications.  War  with  France  seemed  imminent. 
The  country  was  divided  into  two  factions.  The  Federalists 
under  Adams  wished  to  steer  clear  of  an  alliance  with  France  and 
preserve  our  national  honor,  while  the  Republicans  were  deter- 
mined to  remain  at  peace  with  France  at  any  price.  The  elder 
Decatur  had  already  captured  a  French  privateer,  and  the  famous 
slogan,  "Millions  for  defense,  but  not  one  cent  for  tribute,"  was 
heard  on  all  sides.  Public  feeling  ran  very  high.  It  was  during 
these  turbulent  times  that  "Hail  Columbia"  had  its  birth. 

The  author  of  the  words,  Joseph  Hopkinson,  was  born  November 
12,  1770.  He  practiced  law  at  Easton  and  Philadelphia,  and  was 
at  one  time  a  member  of  Congress.  He  subsequently  became 
Judge  of  the  United  States  District  Court.  He  has  written  his 
own  account  of  the  circumstances  leading  to  the  composition  of 
the  song,  and,  as  this  may  interest  the  reader,  it  is  given  almost  in 
full. 

This  song  was  written  in  the  summer  of  1798,  when  a  war  with 
France  was  thought  to  be  inevitable,  Congress  being  then  in 
session  in  Philadelphia,  deliberating  upon  that  important  subject, 
and  acts  of  hostility  having  actually  occurred.  The  contest 
between  England  and  France  was  raging,  and  the  people  of  the 
United  States  were  divided  into  parties  for  one  side  or  the  other; 
some  thinking  that  policy  and  duty  required  us  to  take  part  with 


America's  Pioneer  War  Songs  163 

republican  France,  as  the  war  was  called;  others  were  for  our  con- 
necting ourselves  with  England,  under  the  belief  that  she  was  the 
great  preservative  power  of  good  principles  and  safe  government. 
The  violation  of  our  rights  by  both  belligerents  was  forcing  us 
from  the  just  and  wise  policy  of  President  Washington,  which  was 
to  do  equal  justice  to  both,  to  take  part  with  neither,  but  to  keep 
a  strict  and  honest  neutrality  between  them.  The  prospect  of  a 
rupture  with  France  was  exceedingly  offensive  to  the  portion  of 
the  people  who  espoused  her  cause,  and  the  violence  of  the  spirit  of 
party  has  never  risen  higher,  I  think  not  so  high,  as  it  did  at  that 
time,  on  that  question.  The  theatre  was  then  open  in  our  city.  A 
young  man  (Gilbert  Fox  was  his  name)  belonging  to  it,  whose 
talent  was  as  a  singer,  was  about  to  take  his  benefit.  I  had 
known  him  when  he  was  at  school.  On  this  acquaintance,  he 
called  on  me  on  Saturday  afternoon,  his  benefit  being  announced 
for  the  following  Monday.  He  said  he  had  twenty  boxes  untaken, 
and  his  prospect  was  that  he  should  suffer  a  loss  instead  of  receiving 
a  benefit  from  the  performance;  but  that  if  he  could  get  a  patriotic 
song  adapted  to  the  tune  of  the  "President's  March,"  then  the 
popular  air,  he  did  not  doubt  of  a  full  house;  that  the  poets  of 
the  theatrical  corps  had  been  trying  to  accomplish  it,  but  were 
satisfied  that  no  words  could  be  composed  to  suit  the  music  of 
that  march.  I  told  him  I  would  try  for  him.  He  came  the  next 
afternoon,  and  the  song,  such  as  it  is,  was  ready  for  him.  It  was 
announced  on  Monday  morning,  and  the  theatre  was  crowded  to 
excess,  and  so  continued  night  after  night,  for  the  rest  of  the  whole 
reason,  the  song  being  encored  and  repeated  many  times  each 
night,  the  audience  joining  in  the  chorus.  It  was  also  sung  at 
night  in  the  streets  by  large  assemblies  of  citizens,  including 
members  of  Congress.  The  enthusiasm  was  general,  and  the 
song  was  heard,  I  may  say,  in  every  part  of  the  United  States. 

Although  the  song  makes  no  allusion  to  either  party  and  avoids 
politics,  it  was  taken  up  as  an  encomium  of  Adams,  and  some 
bitter  attacks  were  launched  against  it.  Bache's  Aurora  was 
especially  caustic  in  its  remarks  on  the  poem.  The  words  of  the 
last  stanza  in  particular  roused  the  ire  of  Adams'  political  enemies. 
But  the  song  has  since  lost  its  political  nature  and  has  become 
one  of  our  national  hymns.     The  first  and  last  stanzas  follow : 

Hail  Columbia 

Hail,  Columbia!  happy  land! 

Hail,  ye  heroes!  heaven-born  band! 

Who  fought  and  bled  in  Freedom's  cause, 
Who  fought  and  bled  in  Freedom's  cause, 

And  when  the  storm  of  war  was  gone, 

En  joy  'd  the  peace  your  valor  won. 


164  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

Let  independence  be  our  boast, 
Ever  mindful  what  it  cost; 
Ever  grateful  for  the  prize, 
Let  its  altars  reach  the  skies. 
Firm,  united,  let  us  be, 
Rallying  round  our  Liberty; 
As  a  band  of  brothers  join'd, 
Peace  and  safety  we  shall  find. 

Behold  the  chief  who  now  commands, 
Once  more  to  serve  his  country  stands, 
The  rock  on  which  the  storm  will  beat; 
The  rock  on  which  the  storm  will  beat. 
But,  arm'd  in  virtue  firm  and  true, 
His  hopes  are  fix'd  on  Heaven  and  you. 
When  hope  was  sinking  in  dismay, 
And  glooms  obscured  Columbia's  day, 
His  steady  mind,  from  changes  free, 
Resolved  on  death  or  liberty. 

Chorus. 

The  first  one  to  use  the  melody  of  "Anacreon  in  Heaven  "for 
patriotic  purposes  was  Robert  Treat  Paine,  of  whom  mention  has 
already  been  made.  This  identical  tune  was  afterwards  used  for 
Francis  Scott  Key's  immortal  "Star  Spangled  Banner."  The  mu- 
sic had  formerly  served  as  a  convivial  song  of  the  Anacreontic 
Society,  London,  which  flourished  in  the  latter  half  of  the  eight- 
eenth century.  Its  composer  is. supposed  to  have  been  John 
Stafford  Smith,  the  date  of  composition  lying  between  1770  and 
1775. 

Paine's  version  was  written  in  1798.  He  wrote  the  poem  to 
commemorate  the  anniversary  of  the  Massachusetts  Charitable 
Fire  Society.  Paine  baptized  the  song  "Adams  and  Liberty," 
but  it  was  afterwards  better  known  under  the  name  of  "Ye  Sons 
of  Columbia."  The  song  had  been  advertised  in  the  Columbian 
Sentinel,  and  in  the  issue  for  June  2,  1798,  we  read  the  following: 
"The  Boston  Patriotic  Song  of  'Adams  and  Liberty,'  written  by 
Mr.  Paine,  was  sung  and  re-echoed  amidst  the  loudest  reiterated 
plaudits." 

Paine  received  very  large  sums  for  his  works.  "Adams  and 
Liberty"  netted  him  more  than  $750,  and  for  his  "Invention  of 
Letters"  he  was  given  five  dollars  a  line.  After  Adams'  term  of 
office  had  expired,  a  new  version  of  the  song  appeared  in  honor  of 


America's  Pioneer  War  Songs  165 

his  successor,  called  "Jefferson  and  Liberty."  Yet  a  third  edi- 
tion was  published  upon  the  reverses  of  Napoleon  in  Russia,  ex- 
tolling the  success  of  Russian  arms.  This  was  sung  in  Boston 
where  feeling  against  the  French  ran  very  high. 

From  "Adams  and  Liberty" 

Ye  sons  of  Columbia,  who  bravely  have  fought 
For  those  rights  which  unstained  from  your  sires  had  descended. 
May  you  long  taste  the  blessings  your  valor  has  bought, 
And  your  sons  reap  the  soil  which  your  fathers  defended. 

Mid  the  reign  of  mild  Peace, 

May  your  nation  increase 
With  the  glory  of  Rome  and  the  wisdom  of  Greece. 
And  ne'er  shall  the  sons  of  Columbia  be  slaves 
While  the  earth  bears  a  plant  or  the  sea  rolls  its  waves. 

While  France  her  huge  limbs  bathes  recumbent  in  blood, 
And  Society's  base  threats  with  wide  dissolution, 
May  peace  like  the  dove  who  returned  from  the  flood, 
Find  an  ark  of  abode  in  our  mild  constitution. 

But  though  peace  is  our  aim, 

Yet  the  boon  we  disclaim, 
If  bought  by  our  sovereignty,  justice,  or  fame; 
For  ne'er  shall  the  sons  of  Columbia  be  slaves 
While  the  earth  bears  a  plant  or  the  sea  rolls  its  waves. 

Some  time  after  the  publication  of  this  song,  Paine  was  the  guest 
of  Maj.  Benjamin  Russell  of  the  Sentinel.  While  they  were  at 
dinner,  however,  his  host  refused  to  drink  with  him  on  the  ground 
that  the  song  made  no  mention  of  Washington.  Paine  scratched 
his  head  a  moment,  then  dashed  off  the  verse  in  honor  of  our  first 
President  as  it  now  stands.  This  can  be  taken  as  a  specimen  of 
Paine's  ability.  To  conjure  up  at  a  moment's  notice  so  striking  a 
picture  of  the  "Father  of  his  Country"  guarding  the  portals  of 
the  temple  of  freedom  with  breast  and  sword  gives  evidence  of  a 
very  active  mind. 

Should  the  tempest  of  war  overshadow  our  land, 
Its  bolts  could  ne'er  rend  Freedom's  temple  asunder; 
For  unmoved  at  its  portals  would  Washington  stand, 
And  repulse  with  his  breast  the  assaults  of  thunder: 

His  sword  from  the  sleep 

Of  its  scabbard  would  leap. 
And  conduct  with  its  point  every  flash  to  the  deep! 
For  ne'er  shall  the  sons  of  Columbia  be  slaves 
While  the  earth  bears  a  plant  or  the  sea  rolls  its  waves. 


166  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

During  the  next  year,  in  1799,  Paine  delivered  a  magnificent 
oration  on  the  "first  anniversary  of  the  dissolution  of  the  alliance 
with  France."  He  sent  a  copy  of  this  to  General  Washington,  who 
replied  with  these  commendatory  words: 

You  will  be  assured  that  I  am  never  more  gratified  than  when 
I  see  the  effusions  of  genius  from  some  of  the  rising  generation, 
which  promises  to  secure  our  national  rank  in  the  literary  world; 
as  I  trust  their  firm,  manly,  patriotic  conduct  will  ever  maintain 
it  with  dignity  in  the  political. 

Washington  generally  spoke  the  right  words  at  the  right  place. 
He  was  quick  to  grasp  a  situation  and  use  it  to  the  best  advantage. 
Whenever  he  could,  he  spoke  words  of  advice  and  encouragement 
to  his  countrymen,  and  so  spurred  them  on  to  greater  efforts. 

"One  of  the  finest  tributes  to  a  national  flag  that  has  emanated 
from  any  nation"  is  "The  Star  Spangled  Banner."  The  poem 
has  all  the  more  interest  for  us  because  it  was  born  under  very 
dramatic  circumstances.  Americans,  as  a  rule,  have  a  greater 
liking  for  a  thing  if  an  element  of  adventure  is  connected  with  it. 

As  is  well  known,  the  words  were  written  by  Francis  Scott  Key, 
a  lawyer,  and  graduate  of  St.  John's  College,  Annapolis.  Key's 
ancestors  came  to  this  country  very  early,  his  father  having  served 
as  officer  in  the  Revolutionary  army.  Key  had  the  habit  of  scrib- 
bling his  verses  and  poetic  inspirations  on  the  backs  of  letters  and 
scraps  of  paper.  After  his  death  his  friends  attempted  to  collect 
his  writings,  but  could  find  no  sequence  among  these  scraps.  The 
first  stanza  of  "The  Star  Spangled  Banner"  was  also  written  on  a 
letter  back. 

It  was  during  the  War  of  1812.  A  personal  friend  of  Key,  Dr. 
Beanes,  was  being  detained  as  a  prisoner  of  war  on  the  English 
frigate  Surprise.  Convinced  that  his  friend,  who  was  already  past 
the  prime  of  life,  was  being  unjustly  detained  as  a  non-combatant, 
Key  set  out  to  effect  the  release  of  the  old  doctor.  He  was  ac- 
companied by  John  S.  Skinner,  who  had  been  appointed  by  Presi- 
dent Madison  to  conduct  negotiations  with  the  British  relative  to 
the  exchange  of  prisoners.  While  engaged  in  this  work,  Key  was 
obliged  to  witness  the  bombardment  of  Fort  McHenry,  and,  under 
the  stress  of  his  emotional  excitement,  the  first  stanza  of  the  poem 
had  its  birth  on  board  the  British  ship.  The  succeeding  verses 
were  written  on  land.  The  entire  poem  made  its  appearance 
eight  days  after  the  bombardment  in  the  Baltimore  American, 


America's  Pioneer  War  Songs  167 

entitled  "Defence  of  Fort  McHenry;  Tune,  Anacreon  in  Heaven." 
Under  this  was  appended  the  notice: 

The  annexed  song  was  composed  under  the  following  circum- 
stances: A  gentleman  had  left  Baltimore  with  a  flag  of  truce,  for 
the  purpose  of  getting  released  from  the  British  fleet  a  friend  of  his 
who  had  been  captured  at  Marlborough.  He  went  as  far  as  the 
mouth  of  the  Patuxent,  and  was  not  permitted  to  return  lest  the 
intended  attack  on  Baltimore  should  be  disclosed.  He  was 
therefore  brought  up  the  bay  to  the  mouth  of  the  Patapsco,  where 
the  flag  vessel  was  left  under  the  guns  of  the  frigate,  and  he  was 
compelled  to  witness  the  bombardment  of  Fort  McHenry,  to  which 
the  Admiral  had  boasted  that  he  would  carry  it  in  a  few  hours, 
and  that  the  city  must  fall.  He  watched  the  flag  at  the  fort 
through  the  whole  day  with  an  anxiety  that  can  better  be  felt 
than  described,  until  the  night  prevented  him  from  seeing  it.  In 
the  night  he  watched  the  bombshells,  and  at  early  dawn  his  eye 
was  again  greeted  by  the  proudly  waving  flag  of  his  country. 

Could,  therefore,  a  more  fitting  song  have  been  chosen  as  the 
official  salute  of  the  flag  in  army  and  navy? 

The  circumstances  under  which  the  tune  was  chosen  are  also 
very  interesting.  The  manner  of  selection  is  related  by  a  certain 
Mr.  Hendon,  who  was  present  at  the  first  reading  of  the  poem: 

Francis  Key  read  the  poem  aloud  once,  twice,  three  times, 
until  the  entire  audience  seemed  electrified  by  its  eloquence.  An 
idea  seized  Ferdinand  Durang.  Hunting  up  a  volume  of  old  flute 
music,  which  was  in  my  tent,  he  impatiently  whistled  snatches  of 
tune  after  tune,  until  one  called  'Anacreon  in  Heaven'  struck  his 
fancy.  Note  after  note  fell  from  his  puckered  lips,  until  he  ex- 
claimed, 'Boys,  I  have  hit  it!'  and,  fitting  the  tune  to  the  words, 
there  rang  out  for  the  first  time  the  song  of  'The  Star  Spangled 
Banner.'  How  the  men  cheered  and  clapped!  The  song  was 
caught  up  in  the  camps,  sung  around  the  fires  and  whistled  in  the 
streets,  and  when  peace  was  declared  and  we  scattered  to  our 
homes,  it  was  carried  to  thousands  of  firesides,  as  the  most  precious 
relic  of  the  war  of  1812. 

Oh,  say,  can  you  see,  by  the  dawn's  early  light, 

What  so  proudly  we  hailed  at  the  twilight's  last  gleaming, 
Whose  broad  stripes  and  bright  stars,  thro'  the  perilous  fight, 
O'er  the  ramparts  we  watched,  were  so  gallantly  streaming? 
And  the  rockets'  red  glare,  and  the  bombs  bursting  in  air, 
Gave  proof  thro'  the  night  that  our  flag  was  still  there. 
Oh,  say,  does  that  star-spangled  banner  yet  wave 
O'er  the  land  of  the  free  and  the  home  of  the  brave? 

Lawrence  Leinheuser. 


K.  OF  C.  MAN  GREETED  LOST  BATTALION 

One  of  the  first  men  to  greet  the  famous  Lost  Battalion  when 
they  had  been  caught  in  the  Argonne  and  one  of  the  first  men  to 
enter  Germany,  even  ahead  of  the  American  Army  of  Occupation, 
is  Frank  A.  Bundschu,  a  K.  of  C.  overseas  secretary  of  Louisville, 
Ky.,  who  has  just  returned  after  spending  over  nine  months  in 
active  service  in  France. 

Bundschu  was  first  attached  to  the  42d  Division,  the  Rainbow 
Division,  and  saw  the  famous  New  York  69th  Regiment  in  action. 
Later  he  went  to  the  77th  Division,  which  contained  large  drafts 
of  New  York  men.  He  declares  that  the  bravery  of  the  New 
York  men  was  magnificent. 

When  the  news  came  that  Whittlesey's  Lost  Battalion  was 
fighting  its  way  out  of  ambush,  Bundschu  was  one  of  a  group  of 
war  relief  workers  who  went  directly  to  their  aid.  He  distributed 
candy,  chewing  gum  and  cigarettes  to  the  boys,  most  of  whom  were 
badly  wounded  but  rejoicing  over  the  fact  that  they  had  bested 
the  Germans.  At  Chateau  Thierry  he  worked  among  officers  and 
men  of  the  69th,  Captain  Gillam  and  Major  McKenna  of  New 
York,  who  were  subsequently  killed,  being  among  them. 

"Nobody  was  more  sorry  that  the  Lost  Battalion  was  lost," 
says  Bundschu,  "  than  the  Germans,  for  our  boys  took  a  terrible 
toll  of  the  enemy;  about  105  of  the  battalion  were  killed.  They 
were  all  eager  for  more  fighting  when  the  armistice  was  signed." 

Entering  Coblenz  ahead  of  the  army,  Bundschu,  who  speaks 
German  well,  reports  having  heard  a  conversation  between  two 
German  civilians,  one  of  whom  asked  why  the  Americans  should  be 
treated  well  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  occupied  territory.  The 
other  German  replied:  "They  are  treating  us  much  better  than 
we  treated  them." 

Bundschu,  who  has  two  sons  in  the  service,  piloted  a  Knights  of 
Columbus  roller-kitchen  through  the  thick  of  the  fight  in  the 
Argonne,  giving  the  doughboys  hot  chocolate  as  they  went  into 
and  came  out  of  the  front  line.  He  and  his  kitchen  escaped  being 
hit  scores  of  times.  After  nine  months  abroad,  nearly  every  week 
of  which  he  spent  under  fire,  Bundschu  declares  that  the  greatets 
impression  he  received  in  France  was  the  unwavering  good  nature 
of  the  American  soldier.     On  many  occasions  when  his  supplies 

168 


K.  of  C.  Man  Greeted  Lost  Battalion  169 

had  been  thinned,  he  told  men  coming  up  to  the  front  that  there  was 
only  enough  for  those  leaving  the  lines.  The  boys  always  raised 
a  cheer  and  yelled  to  Bundschu,  "Give  it  to  the  other  fellers,  pop." 
Among  other  experiences  Bundschu  spent  fifty-six  hours  under 
continuous  shell  fire  in  the  Argonne.  "The  boys  may  not  have 
had  a  subtle  understanding  of  the  points  they  were  fighting  for," 
said  Bundschu.  "They  were  all  eager  to  hear  about  home,  and 
all  crazy  to  get  back  home;  but  not  one  of  them  would  have  gone 
back  home  until  the  job  was  finished." 


THE  K.  OF  C.  IN  COBLENZ « 

Coblenz:  .  .  .  Over  here  the  K.  of  C.'s  have  pulled  off  all 
sorts  of  stunts  for  the  soldier  boys  and  have  not  stopped  at  any- 
thing to  see  that  the  lads  have  the  care  they  need.  In  the  matter 
of  spiritual  comforts,  as  well  as  bodily,  everything  possible  has 
been  done,  against  all  sorts  of  odds.  Mass  has  been  celebrated, 
somehow,  somewhere,  and  the  Sacraments  administered.  But 
it  is  in  Coblenz,  the  capital  of  the  American  Army  of  Occupation, 
that  we  have,  for  the  first  time,  I  believe,  actually  confiscated  an 
entire  parish — a  church  with  pastor,  choir  and  organist  to  boot! 
I  can't  tell  you  how  pleased  and  gratified  I  have  felt  over  this 
achievement,  not  because  it  is  unique,  but  because,  as  results 
have  shown,  it  has  been  appreciated  by  the  boys  to  the  fullest 
extent.  .  .  .  All  this  the  enclosed  clipping  from  one  of  the 
local  dailies  will  show  you.  ...  It  was  only  yesterday  that  I 
learned  that  the  German  press  had  taken  notice  of  the  K.  of  C.'s 
and  our  work  here. 

With  H.  L.  Welch,  another  of  our  secretaries,  the  man  who  drove 
me  up  here  from  Paris  through  the  historic  ground  extending  from 
the  Argonne  to  Verdun  and  Etain,  I  was  the  first  war-worker  to 
enter  occupied  territory;  and  the  K.  of  C.'s  were  thus  the  first  wel- 
fare organization  on  the  ground,  preceding  the  Salvation  Army 
by  two  or  three  days,  and  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.  by  nearly  a  week.  (As 
it  chanced,  I  was  also  the  first  war  worker  to  cross  the  Rhine,  going 
by  invitation  with  F  Company,  39th  Engineers,  to  Neuwied,  30 
kilos  down  the  river,  to  assist  at  the  burial  of  one  of  their  comrades 
who  had  been  killed  on  the  train  entering  Coblenz.     This  poor 

1  First-hand  account  of  entry  and  work  of  first  American  relief  workers  (K. 
of  C.)  to  enter  Germany  with  the  American  army  of  occupation, 


170  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

lad,  a  Catholic  and  a  Californian — Charles  Neilon,  of  Yreka,  Cal. — 
was  thus  indeed  the  first  American  to  occupy  German  soil  "Uber 
dem  Rhine",  and  I  the  first  K.  of  C.  to  cross  into  that  then  "for- 
bidden territory,"  for  the  Army  of  Occupation  had  not  been 
advanced  so  far.) 

My  few  words  of  German  were  useful  in  establishing  our  head- 
quarters for  the  III  Army;  the  work  of  dealing  with  the  local 
people  devolved  upon  me.  I  was  the  only  one  of  us  who  knew 
any  German  at  all.  (It  was  a  ghastly  joke,  how  I  got  by  with  my 
20  words).  My  duties  ranged  from  the  purchase  of  a  box  of 
tacks  to  the  securing  of  a  warehouse,  of  club  buildings  (two — one 
for  officers,  and  one  for  enlisted  men),  of  furniture  for  same, 
pianos,  repairs,  what  not.  And  in  my  chasings  about  the  city,  I 
came  upon  this  Church  of  St.  Joseph — in  times  past,  a  Benedictine 
— then  a  Carmelite  Chapel  (300  years  ago).  In  later  days  it  had 
become  the  Imperial  Garrison  Church,  popularly  known  as  "The 
Military  Church,"  used  exclusively  for  the  local  military.  But 
when  I  found  it,  it  had  been  closed  by  order  of  the  Socialist  gang 
up  in  Berlin — the  Soldiers'  and  Workmen's  Council;  and  when 
I  managed  to  locate  the  pastor  (a  Polish  priest  who  has  acted 
for  years  as  an  army  chaplain  with  the  German  troops),  I  found 
him  only  too  glad  to  consider  the  prospects  of  re-opening  his 
church  and  restoring  the  Blessed  Sacrament  to  the  Altar. 

It  did  not  take  long  for  our  "confiscation"  to  be  achieved;  and 
when  I  left  Fr.  Rarkowski  that  day  I  had  to  return  to  our  director, 
F.  J.  Riler,  one  of  the  ablest  men  the  Knights  have  sent  over  here, 
to  report  that  I'd  gone  and  done  it — that  I  had  a  church  on  my 
hands,  with  a  priest,  organist  and  choir. 

Yet  my  troubles  had  only  really  begun,  for  I  still  lacked  the  big 
essential  that  had  started  me  on  my  adventure — an  English-speak- 
ing chaplain,  to  hear  the  boys'  confessions.  From  the  first,  the 
soldiers  here  had  made  inquiries  as  to  this,  but  as  yet  there  was 
no  sign  of  a  chaplain.  Christmas  was  coming  on,  and  days 
passed  and  no  chaplain.  I  was  just  in  the  midst  of  a  final  search 
through  the  town  for  some  local  priests  who  could  speak  English 
and  had  located  two,  when  Father  Dannigan  (Capt.  Patrick  Dan- 
nigan,  senior  chaplain  of  the  III  Army)  arrived  in  town.  That  was 
Friday,  December  20,  and  I  had  only  a  few  hours  left  to  arrange 
and  advertise  Saturday's  confessions,  Sunday's  Masses  and  the 
Christmas  Day  services. 


The  K.  of  C.  in  Coblenz  171 

Father  Dannigan  went  to  bat  like  a  shot,  and,  to  make  a  long 
story  short,  he  wound  up  by  landing  a  real  success !  The  clipping 
will  tell  you  the  rest.  One  interesting  item  it  omits  is  this:  the 
orphan  children  who  sang  the  responses  were  all  war  orphans — 
not  one  of  them  whose  father  was  not  killed  in  the  war.  The 
Indian  lady  who  sang  "Holy  Night"  was  Princess  Red  Feather, 
of  the  Cherokees.  The  final  novel  twist  to  the  affair  was  the 
presence  of  Bishop  Brent,  who  asked  to  address  the  boys  and,  after 
the  services  were  concluded,  he  spoke  a  few  words,  and  very 
beautiful  and  appealing  words  they  were. 

The  church  was  crowded,  we  had  to  put  chairs  in  the  aisles, 
officers  and  men  alike  came  in  crowds,  and  the  natives  were  there 
in  force  and  curiosity. 

There  was  another  feature  that  must  be  mentioned — the  Crib 
It  is  very  beautiful  and  was  erected  by  K.  of  C.  Secretary  Jos. 
Nihill,  with  the  assistance  of  two  soldier  boys.  The  church  is  a 
fine  old  structure,  full  of  martial  figures,  St.  Mauritius,  St.  George, 
St.  Sebastian,  etc.     It  seats  about  1,500.    The  organ  is  splendid. 

I  have  the  whole  city  posted  now  with  placards — red,  white  and 
blue : 

Catholic  Army  Services 

All  members  of  the  A.  E.  F. 
are  invited  to  the  services 
held  regularly  in  Coblenz 

At  the  Military  Church 

Rhinestrasse  &  Karmeliterstrasse 
(opposite  the  Knights  of  Columbus  Club) 

Masses — Every  Sunday  Confessions 

at  7-9-10  Everybody               Every  Saturday 

Sermons  in  English  Welcome                         3-5:30 

Music,  Singing  7-9  o'clock 

Charles  Phillips. 


MISSIONARY  ASSOCIATION  OF  CATHOLIC   WOMEN'S 
EASTER  SEAL  CAMPAIGN 

During  the  season  of  Lent,  the  Missionary  Association  of 
Catholic  Women  will  conduct  its  second  nation-wide  Easter  Seal 
Campaign.  The  Seals  will  be  sold  through  the  various  branches 
of  the  Association,  through  the  other  ladies'  societies  that  may  be 


172  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

willing  to  cooperate,  through  the  parochial  schools,  and  by  the 
members  of  and  promoters  of  the  M.  A.  C.  W. 

The  Seals  are  done  in  green;  they  represent  the  Easter  Lamb 
holding  aloft  a  banner  upon  which  the  Easter  greeting,  "Peace 
be  to  you,"  is  inscribed.  Show  that  you  have  a  lively  faith  in  the 
Lamb  of  God  sacrificed  for  our  redemption  by  taking  an  active 
part  in  the  campaign,  if  not  by  selling  Seals,  at  least  by  purchasing 
some  of  them.  By  so  doing  you  will  contribute  your  mite  towards 
carrying  the  faith  to  the  still  pagan  world. 

For  Seals  address:  The  Missionary  Association  of  Catholic 
Women,  834  Thirty-sixth  Street,  Milwaukee,  Wisconsin. 


THE  TEACHER  OF  ENGLISH 

THE   HEART   OF   THE   MATTER 

One-third  of  our  people,  at  a  conservative  estimate,  have 
their  roots  in  foreign  soil.  Over  thirty  different  races  are  repre- 
sented in  the  United  States.  They  speak  over  fifty  different 
tongues  and  dialects.  There  are  in  this  present  year  about  15,000,- 
000  people  within  the  confines  of  the  United  States  who  were  born 
abroad.  This,  in  brief,  is  the  heart  of  the  matter  in  our  problem 
of  Americanization  and  of  illiteracy. 

Not  that  native-born  Americans  are  outside  the  consideration 
of  the  plans  for  Americanization  and  for  abolishing  illiteracy. 
Certain  types  of  native  Americans  fall  well  within  the  scope  of 
this  inquiry.  It  is  rather  that  the  newcomer  within  our  gates 
should,  for  our  national  advantage,  receive  scrutiny  as  to  the 
manner  in  which  we  are  receiving  him  and  making  him  part  of 
our  household. 

We  have  become  accustomed  to  use  glibly  a  certain  phrase, 
"the  melting  pot."  It  is  an  unfortunate  phrase,  for  it  implies 
an  alchemy  that  does  not  exist  in  fact.  There  are  too  many 
spiritual  elements,  too  many  factors  of  human  psychology,  for 
any  kind  of  natural  chemistry  to  transmute  our  immigrants 
straightway  into  English-speaking,  pure  Americans.  Not  even 
a  common  language  will  change  the  soul,  nor  will  a  common 
citizenship.  It  is  possible  to  have  the  finest  and  truest  kind  of 
an  American  at  heart  and  yet  have  one  who  does  not  speak  the 
English  language.  Such  people  must  be  taught  the  English 
language,  to  be  sure,  and  it  should  be  made  to  their  spiritual, 
political,  and  economic  advantage  to  speak  it.  The  heart  of  the 
matter,  however,  lies  even  deeper  than  that.  It  lies  within 
ourselves  and  in  our  understanding  of  those  who  would  join  their 
political  and  racial  destinies  with  ours. 

There  should  be  removed  for  them  at  once,  of  course,  as  many 
outward  barriers  as  possible,  chief  among  them  the  barrier  of  a 
different  language.  The  removal  of  this  barrier  must  not  be  at- 
tempted by  prohibition.  The  prohibition  of  foreign-language 
religious  services,  press,  and  speech  is  a  wrong  remedy  and  a  stupid 
one,  unless  it  is  directed  in  time  of  national  peril  against  a  common 
enemy.  Then  it  is  a  most  proper  and  necessary  remedy.  In 
other  cases,  however,  the  overthrowing  of  the  barrier  is  a  matter 
for  patient,  understanding,  persistent  effort  and  persuasion.     We, 

173 


174  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

as  native  Americans,  must  approach  the  matter  in  a  spirit  of  ac- 
commodation, not  of  compulsion.  Our  problem  of  illiteracy,  of 
the  persistent  presence  of  alien  tongues,  will  be  long  postponed 
in  its  solution  until  we  come  to  this  point  of  view. 

In  our  desire  to  Americanize  our  newcomers  and  to  root  out  the 
causes  of  illiteracy,  it  is  imperative  to  remember  above  all  that 
these  people  come  here  for  the  hope  of  the  political  freedom  and 
the  equality  of  opportunity  they  will  find  here.  "Life,  liberty, 
and  the  pursuit  of  happiness"  are  to  them  no  mere  empty  words 
and  symbols.  They  come  seeking  a  land  which  promises  to  make 
their  lives  happier  and  better.  For  us,  then,  the  heart  of  the 
matter  lies  close  at  home.  Are  we  meeting  this  instinctive  desire 
on  the  part  of  the  people  who  come  here?  Are  we  establishing 
facilities  of  absorption  which  will  accommodate  the  purposes  and 
ideals  of  these  people  to  ours?  Have  we,  finally,  a  proper  and  deep 
enough  sense  of  responsibility  towards  them  as  new  Americans? 

If  we  can  answer  even  one  of  these  questions  affirmatively,  then 
we  are  well  along  the  road  to  solving  our  problems  of  Americaniza- 
tion and  the  reduction  of  illiteracy.  If  we  cannot,  then  we  are 
culpable.  This  is  not  a  light  matter,  nor  is  any  individual  per- 
sonally free  from  responsibility,  no  matter  how  remote  he  may 
think  himself  from  any  immediate  contact  with  these  problems. 
There  are  more  than  2,300  communities  in  the  United  States  that 
have  over  100  residents  of  foreign  origin  or  derivation,  of  com- 
paratively recent  origin.  There  are  almost  1,500  communities 
that  have  over  500  persons  of  foreign  extraction.  The  figures  show 
plainly  how  personal  a  problem  it  is  for  all  of  us,  how  immediately 
all  of  us  are  in  contact  with  it  as  a  problem.  If  we  have  not 
taken  solid  thought  of  it,  then  the  time  is  upon  us  in  which  we 
must.  If  we  have  taken  thought  of  it,  then  the  time  is  come  for 
even  greater  responsibilities  and  increasingly  sympathetic  effort. 
We  are  going  out  into  new  worlds,  and  new  worlds  will  before  long 
be  coming  over  to  us  with  hopes  and  aspirations  which  will  be  as 
much  to  our  progress  and  advantage  as  to  theirs.  A  new  destiny 
awaits  our  English  language  among  these  people,  and  we  should 
and  must  be  prepared  for  it.  We  must  be  prepared  to  make  it  be 
to  them  an  eminently  desirable  and  beautiful  possession,  desirable 
because  of  the  doors  of  realization  and  opportunity  which  it  will 
open,  and  beautiful  because  of  the  social,  ethical,  and  political 
ideals  which  it  will  convey  to  their  desiring  hearts. 

T.  Q.  B. 


The  Teacher  of  English  175 

senate  bill  no.  5464 

Write  to  your  Senator  for  a  copy  of  Senate  Bill  No.  5464,  and 
ask  him  at  the  same  time  to  send  you  a  copy  of  the  Annual  Report 
for  1918  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior.  They  are  very  im- 
portant documents. 

T.  Q.  B. 


NOTES 


A  recent  critic  notes  four  "significant  and  definable  forces" 
that  affect  the  literary  artist :  the  social  influence  of  the  group  with 
which  he  chances  to  be  affiliated;  the  personality  of  the  individual 
writer;  the  spirit  of  the  age  in  which  he  lives;  and  the  literary 
tradition  that  he  follows. 


Thomas  Wright,  Headmaster  of  the  Cowper  School  at  Olney, 
England,  and  author  of  biographies  of  Sir  Richard  Burton,  Edward 
FitzGerald,  and  Walter  Pater,  is  at  work  upon  a  Life  of  John 
Payne,  the  poet  and  translator,  who  died  about  two  years  ago. 
Payne  was  on  terms  of  close  friendship  with  Mallarme,  De  Banville, 
and  other  famous  French  men  of  letters,  and  had  many  literary 
connections  with  such  Englishmen  as  Burton  and  Swinburne,  so 
that  the  forthcoming  biography  should  be  of  much  interest. 


Of  late  there  has  been  a  tendency  to  break  away  from  the 
traditional  mode  of  writing  the  history  of  English  literature. 
Instead  of  considering  a  "period"  author  by  author,  "cross- 
cuts" are  taken  through  the  epoch,  along  the  lines  of  the  several 
more  or  less  independent  literary  types. 


"  I  have  always  thought  that  the  chief  object  of  education  was  to 
awaken  the  spirit,  and  that,  inasmuch  as  a  literature  whenever  it 
has  touched  its  great  and  higher  notes  was  an  expression  of  the 
spirit  of  mankind,  the  best  induction  into  education  was  to  feel  the 
pulses  of  humanity  which  had  beaten  from  age  to  age  through  the 
universities  of  men  who  had  penetrated  to  the  secrets  of  the  human 
spirit." — Woodrow  Wilson. 

The  appearance  of  the  new  and  complete  catalogue  of  the  John 
Carter  Brown  Library,  in  Providence,  R.  I.,  is  a  matter  of  con- 
siderable interest.    As  a  collection  of  Americana,  published  before 


176  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

1801,  the  library  has  been  surpassed  in  number  and  in  quality  only 
by  the  collection  made  by  James  Lenox.  In  certain  features,  such 
as  Spanish  works  and  pamphlets  of  the  period  of  the  Stamp  Act  and 
American  Revolution,  the  Brown  Library  has  been  the  stronger. 
The  Lenox  collection  has  gone  into  the  New  York  Public  Library, 
and  the  one  library  of  Americana  which  could  be  mentioned  in  the 
same  class — the  Church  Library — has  been  annexed  to  the  general 
Library  of  Mr.  Henry  E.  Huntington.  The  Brown  Library  thus 
stands  alone  as  devoted  to  Americana,  and  its  concentration  has 
already  given  it  a  unique  position  among  American  libraries,  and 
permitted  its  free  development  in  its  special  field.  No  catalogue 
of  the  Lenox  Library  has  ever  been  issued.  The  much  prized 
earlier  catalogue  of  the  Brown  Library,  issued  before  1883,  and 
for  private  distribution,  gave  only  a  selection  from  the  titles  then 
in  the  library.  The  Committee  of  Management  announce  the 
issue  of  the  first  part  of  a  new  catalogue,  which  will  include  all  the 
contents  of  the  Brown  Library,  and  will  be  completed  in  about  ten 
parts,  at  the  rate  of  two  parts  a  year.  It  is  published  by  the 
library. 

The  friends  of  Joyce  Kilmer — and  who  is  not  his  friend! — will 
prize  the  following  poem : 

FOR  POETS  SLAIN  IN  WAR 

By  Walter  Adolphe  Roberts 

Happy  the  poets  who  fell  in  magnificent  ways ! 
Gayly  they  went  in  the  pride  of  their  blossoming  days, 
Each  with  his  vision  of  Liberty,  chanting  its  praise. 

Seeger  and  Kilmer  and  Pearse  and  Brooke  and  Peguy — 
Names  that  are  songs  in  the  saying,  that  surely  shall  be 
Laureled  among  the  immortals,  for  all  men  to  see. 

Lo,  they  were  darlings  of  destiny!    Weakly  we  shed 
Even  one  tear  that  they  lie  at  the  barricades  red, 
Splendidly  dead  for  the  Patria,  splendidly  dead! 


William  Dean  Howells  once  remarked  that  the  so-called  renais- 
sance of  the  English  drama  was  the  work  of  two  Irishmen,  Wilde 
and  Shaw;  a  Scotchman,  Barrie;  a  Welshman,  Henry  Arthur 
Jones;  and  a  Jew,  Pinero.  All  five,  it  is  true,  write  with  a  touch 
that  is  current  internationally.  Howells  would  have  been  more 
accurate,  therefore,  to  have  said  "renaissance  of  the  British 
drama." 


The  Teacher  of  English  177 

Yet,  by  the  same  token,  much  of  Shakespeare's  comedy  is 
typically  English.  The  humor  of  Dogberry  and  Bottom,  his 
two  ripest  low-comedy  characters,  lies  in  their  intense  though 
inarticulate  humanity.  Falstaff  is  a  master  of  the  verbal  thrust 
and  parry;  although  delight  in  him  springs  not  so  much  from  what 
he  says  as  from  what  he  inevitably  is — from  sheer  character. 
Dickens  is  absolutely  "English"  in  his  humor.  George  Meredith 
likewise.  The  safest  conclusion,  therefore,  is  "every  country  to 
its  own  kind  of  humor,"  and  each  man  to  his  own  taste  in  criticism. 


No  one  who  is  in  the  habit  of  observing  the  shifting  currents  of 
literature  can  have  failed  to  perceive  that  there  has  been  in  the 
last  score  of  years  an  extraordinary  intensification  of  popular 
interest  in  the  drama.  This  is  at  once  a  consequence  and  a  cause 
of  an  equally  obvious  revival  of  the  drama  itself.  Half  a  century 
ago  the  drama  languished  in  English  literature  as  it  was  also  lan- 
guishing in  Italian,  in  Spanish,  and  in  German.  In  the  midyears 
of  the  nineteenth  century  the  drama  flourished  only  in  France,  and 
the  rest  of  the  world  was  more  or  less  dependent  on  France.  The 
plays  which  were  successful  on  the  Parisian  stage  were  adapted  or 
translated  in  the  hope  that  they  might  also  please  the  audiences 
of  the  theaters  of  London  and  New  York,  Madrid  and  Rome, 
Vienna  and  Berlin.  And  the  situation  in  Great  Britain  and  the 
United  States  was  worse  than  it  was  in  Italy,  in  Spain,  or  in  Ger- 
many. For  half  a  century  the  plays  written  in  English  were 
hopelessly  unworthy  of  the  race  which  had  produced  Shakespeare 
and  Sheridan.  The  pieces  which  were  actable  were  unreadable, — 
and  the  poems  which  were  readable  were  unactable.  There  was 
a  divorce  between  literature  and  the  drama. 

Then  in  the  final  quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century  our  laws  were 
made  more  stringent,  and  it  ceased  to  be  possible  to  take  a  French 
play  without  asking  the  permission  of  its  author.  The  playwrights 
of  our  language  were  relieved  from  the  necessity  of  competing  with 
stolen  goods.  As  soon  as  playwriting  became  as  profitable  as 
novel  writing,  the  men  of  ability  who  could  tell  a  story  and  people 
it  with  human  beings  were  tempted  to  acquire  the  technique  of 
the  theater  and  to  present  their  visions  of  life  in  the  dramatic  form, 
always  more  difficult  (and  therefore  more  attractive  to  the  real 
artist)  than  the  narrative  method. 

There  is  no  need  to  call  the  roll  of  the  men  of  letters,  British  and 


178  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

American,  who  are  now  writing  for  our  stage,  and  who  have  been 
encouraged  to  publish  their  plays  for  the  benefit  of  those  who  are 
deprived  of  the  privilege  of  beholding  them  in  the  actual  theater. 
The  public  has  recovered,  or  at  least  it  seems  to  be  in  process  of 
recovering,  the  lost  art  of  reading  a  play. — Brander  Matthews, 
in  the  New  York  Times. 


In  one  of  his  last  letters  from  France,  Joyce  Kilmer  wrote: 
"To  tell  the  truth,  I  am  not  at  all  interested  in  writing  nowadays, 
except  in  so  far  as  writing  is  the  expression  of  something  beautiful. 
And  I  see  daily  and  nightly  the  expression  of  beauty  in  action 
instead  of  words,  and  I  find  it  more  satisfactory."  Many  a  writer 
and  critic  can  join  him  in  that  experience  these  last  two  years. 


The  approximate  total  circulation  of  the  foreign  language  press 
in  the  United  States  is  10,982,000.  This  press  consists  of  1,575 
publications  printed  in  38  tongues.  There  were  483  German 
language  papers  in  1917,  most  of  which  have  since  suspended  cir- 
culation or  were  suppressed.  The  next  in  numerical  order  are 
the  Italian  papers,  with  190  publications.  In  the  number  of  sub- 
scriptions the  German  papers  were  first  with  3,000,000.  Jewish 
papers,  with  156  publications,  are  third  in  numerical  order, 
although  now  they  are  probably  first  in  subscribers  with  a  circu- 
lation of  1,500,000.  Polish  papers  rank  fourth, — 97  in  number — 
with  a  circulation  of  about  850,000  among  a  Polish  population  of 
a  million  and  a  half. 

The  Scandinavian  groups  also  are  large.  There  are  approxi- 
mately 600,000  persons  in  each  group  of  Swedes,  Norwegians,  and 
Danes,  the  Swedes  being  most  numerous  in  Minnesota,  Wisconsin, 
Illinois,  and  New  York,  while  the  Danes  and  Norwegians  are  found 
chiefly  in  Minnesota,  Wisconsin,  and  Illinois.  There  are  77 
publications  in  Swedish,  with  a  circulation  of  700,000,  and  60  in  the 
Norwegian  and  Danish  languages,  with  a  circulation  of  446,000. 

The  circulation  in  all  of  the  above-named  groups  reaches  some- 
thing over  three-quarters  of  the  population  in  each  group.  An 
anomaly  discloses  itself  in  the  case  of  the  Spanish  language  papers, 
where  a  circulation  of  250,000  is  divided  among  as  many  as  87 
papers.  This  is  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  Mexicans  and 
American  business  men  are  also  among  the  readers  of  Spanish 
papers. 


The  Teacher  of  English  179 

The  Albanians,  Arabians,  Armenians,  Assyrians,  Belgians, 
Bohemians,  Bulgarians,  Chinese,  Croatians,  Dutch,  Finns,  Greeks, 
Japanese,  Lithuanians,  Magyars,  Portuguese,  Roumanians,  Rus- 
sians, Serbians,  Slovaks,  Slovenians,  Swiss,  Turks,  and  Ukrainians, 
living  in  this  country,  all  publish  papers  in  their  respective  lan- 
guages. 


RECENT   BOOKS 

Criticism. — Some  Aspects  of  the  Victorian  Age,  by  H.  H.  As- 
quith.  Oxford  University  Press.  The  Necessity  of  Poetry,  an 
Address,  by  Robert  Bridges.  Oxford  University  Press.  The 
Descent  of  Manuscripts,  by  A.  C.  Clark.  Oxford  University 
Press.  War  Libraries  and  Allied  Studies,  by  T.  W.  Koch.  Stech- 
ert  Press.  Studies  by  members  of  the  Department  of  English, 
University  of  Wisconsin.  University  of  Wisconsin  Press.  Cur- 
rents and  Eddies  in  the  English  Romantic  Generation,  by  F.  E. 
Pierce.  Yale  University  Press.  Formative  Types  in  English 
Poetry,  by  George  Herbert  Palmer.  Houghton  Mifflin  Co.  The 
Women  Novelists,  by  R.  Brimley  Johnson.     Collins  (London). 

Biography. — Eminent  Victorians,  by  Lytton  Strachey.  G. 
P.  Putnam's  Sons.  Commemorazione  di  Fr.  De  Sanctis,  etc., 
being  the  Commemoration  of  Francesco  De  Sanctis,  on  his  Hun- 
dredth Anniversary,  under  the  auspices  of  the  University  of 
Naples.  Napoli,  Italia.  The  Life  of  David  Belasco,  by  William 
Winter.    Moffatt,  Yard  &  Co. 

Drama. — European  Theories  of  the  Drama,  an  anthology  of 
dramatic  criticism  from  Aristotle  to  the  present  day,  in  a  series  of 
selected  texts  with  commentaries,  biographies  and  bibliographies, 
by  Barrett  H.  Clark.  Cincinnati:  Steward  and  Kidd  Co.  Wil- 
liam Dunlap:  A  Study  of  His  Life  and  Works,  and  of  His  Place  in 
Contemporary  Culture,  by  Oral  Sumner  Coad.  The  Dunlap 
Society. 

Thomas  Quinn  Beesley. 


REVIEWS  AND  NOTICES 

On  Listening  to  Music,  by  E.  Markham  Lee.  E.  P.  Dutton  & 
Co.,  1918.  Price,  $1.50. 
Any  work  that  helps  to  increase  interest  in  the  appreciation  of 
music,  as  art  and  cultural  material,  is  most  welcome.  Such  books 
are  those  that  aid  one  to  become  an  intelligent  listener  when 
hearing  music.  The  author  of  this  work  is  an  English  musician 
who  is  already  well  known  in  music  circles.  He  takes  up  the 
different  kinds  of  music  that  the  music-lover  would  meet  with, 
and  devotes  a  chapter  to  the  consideration  of  each  one,  as  orches- 
tral and  chamber  concerts,  organ,  vocal  and  piano  recitals,  opera, 
sacred  and  secular  music,  etc.  The  structure  of  these  different 
forms  is  explained  in  a  scholarly  fashion,  so  that  one  who  seriously 
studies  each  chapter  is  thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  nature 
of  the  different  kinds  of  music  and  becomes  an  intelligent  hearer 
when  attending  concerts  and  recitals.  There  is  also  a  chapter  on 
"Home  Music"  which  is  especially  interesting.  Here  are  a  few 
thoughts  taken  from  his  chapter  on  "Home  Music":  "There  are 
few  homes  in  which  possibilities  for  music  do  not  exist.  In  the 
far-away  days  of  some  centuries  back,  we  are  told  that  every  house- 
hold could  sing  its  madrigals."  Referring  to  chamber  music,  he 
says:  "If  people  would  only  realize  the  joys  and  advantages  to 
themselves  of  some  form  of  communal  music,  they  would  never 
be  willing  to  be  without  them  .  .  .  Is  it  too  much  to  hope  that, 
at  some  future  date,  when  a  love  of  music  shall  have  spread  farther, 
there  will  be  a  renaissance  of  part-singing  and  home  playing." 

F.  J.  Kelly. 


Aural    Harmony,    by    Franklin    Robinson.     New    York:  G. 
Schirmer,  1918. 

The  study  of  harmony  in  these  latter  years,  seems  to  be  under- 
going a  great  change.  The  old  and  tried  systems,  which  contented 
themselves  with  giving  fundamental  laws  and  rules,  are  being 
considered  as  out  of  date,  and  as  a  waste  of  effort  by  those  who  have 
found  other  means  of  acquiring  a  knowledge  of  harmony.  Time 
will  tell. 

The  author  of  this  work  is  a  well-known  teacher  at  the  Institute 

180 


Reviews  and  Notices  181 

of  Musical  Art,  New  York  City.  One  realizes  at  a  glance  that  the 
work  is  a  subject  of  deep  thought  and  too  intricate  for  young 
students.  He  treats  only  of  triads  and  dominant  seventh  chords, 
laying  the  foundation  for  the  practice  of  the  essentials  of  harmony. 
He  makes  a  marked  distinction  between  harmonic  law-governing 
triad  progressions  and  melodic  law-governing  upper  voice  progres- 
sions. He  insists  on  the  relation  of  harmonic  progression  to  metric 
accent.  Many  exercises  are  given  for  aural  practice  through 
dictation,  in  which  the  pupils  note  down  the  Roman  numerals 
symbolizing  the  harmony,  and  the  Arabic  numerals,  indicating 
the  melody,  before  using  any  notation.  In  his  summary,  he  says: 
"The  knowledge  of  the  fitting  and  purposeful  use  of  harmonies  is 
the  end  and  aim  of  all  harmonic  study,  and  this  knowledge  cannot 
spring  alone  from  an  understanding  of  the  structural  facts  of  a 
chord,  but  it  must  rely  upon  a  full  and  complete  knowledge  of  the 
manner  in  which  a  chord  structure  relates  itself  to  other  chord- 
structures,  thereby  establishing  the  laws,  harmonic  and  melodic, 
through  which  laws  tonality  is  cognized.  In  this  day,  when  it 
would  seem  that  the  initial  effort  of  all  composition  is  to  destroy 
all  tonal  sense,  it  is  imperative  to  call  attention  to  the  fact  that  all 
things  are  interrelated,  that  there  is  nothing  in  the  universe  which 
is  isolated  or  disjointed." 

F.  J.  Kelly. 


Excursions  in  Musical  History,  by  Helen  A.  and  Clarence 
Dickinson.  New  York:  H.  W.  Gray  Co.,  1917.  Price, 
$1.50  net. 
The  idea  that  most  authors  have,  in  writing  a  work  of  this  kind, 
is  that  it  will  be  read  by  musicians  only.  As  a  result,  technical 
terms  are  used  which  none  but  the  educated  musician  is  able  to 
grasp.  This  is  a  great  mistake,  for  these  works  fall  into  the  hands 
of  those  who,  though  not  well  versed  in  the  art  of  music,  yet  are 
intensely  interested  in  it.  This  work  is  one  of  the  few  exceptions 
to  this  rule,  for  the  authors  have  used  language  that  is  intelligible 
both  to  the  musician  and  the  music-lover  alike.  Anyone  inter- 
ested in  the  art  of  music  can  read  this  work,  understand  and  enjoy 
it  in  as  great  a  degree  as  the  most  learned  musician.  It  is  a  most 
interesting  work,  appealing  to  all,  without  exception,  who  have 
any  love  or  regard  for  the  heavenly  art. 


182  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

The  work  is  admirably  divided  into  studies,  some  of  which  give 
biographical  sketches  of  renowned  musicians  and  composers  in 
the  different  ages  of  musical  history,  others  treat  of  the  influence 
of  great  religious  movements  in  music,  while  others  take  up  mis- 
cellaneous subjects,  such  as  the  tendencies  of  the  ultra-modern 
schools  of  composers,  the  evolution  of  the  organ,  the  development 
of  musical  form,  the  folk  song,  etc.  Moreover,  the  work  is  made 
doubly  interesting  and  instructive  from  the  fact  that  it  is  illus- 
trated, containing  reproductions  of  rare  pictures  and  cuts  and 
musical  settings,  which  elucidate  the  text.  It  covers  the  same 
ground  as  a  complete  History  of  Music,  but  in  a  concise  way, 
touching  the  most  important  events  in  musical  history,  so  that 
musician  and  music-lover  alike  will  find  the  greatest  pleasure  and 
instruction  in  its  perusal.  It  is  a  most  valuable  contribution  to 
the  literature  of  music  today,  and  should  be  in  every  music-lover's 

library. 

F.  J.  Kelly. 


Short  Studies  of  Great  Masterpieces,  by  D.  G.  Mason.  Ap- 
preciation of  Music  Series,  Vol.  III.  New  York:  H.  W. 
Gray  Co.,  1917.  Price,  $1.25  net. 
This  is  Mr.  Mason's  third  contribution  to  the  "Appreciation  of 
Music  Series,"  and  in  this  work  he  has  made  the  world  his  debtor. 
Twelve  of  the  most  famous  compositions  of  the  great  masters  are 
analyzed  in  "  Short  Studies  "  in  a  masterly  and  entertaining  way, 
demonstrating  the  thorough  musicianship  of  the  author.  To  get 
some  idea  of  the  scope  of  this  work,  here  are  a  few  of  the  master- 
pieces included:  "New  World  Symphony,"  by  Dvorak;  "Varia- 
tions," by  Elgar;  "Pathetique  Symphony,"  by  Tchaikovsky; 
"Symphony  No.  3,"  by  Saint-Saens,  etc.  All  the  masterpieces 
analyzed  by  Mr.  Mason  in  "Short  Studies"  are  well  known  to  the 
real  musician,  and  his  analyses  will  be  read  and  studied  with  a 
great  deal  of  interest,  as  the  author  is  one  of  the  greatest  of  the 
world's  musicians  living  today.  Let  us  hear  what  Mr.  Mason 
himself  says  in  one  of  the  chapters  of  this  work:  "Modern  music 
itself  is  both  an  evidence  and  a  means,  through  its  potent  evident 
expression  of  men  to  men,  of  that  internationalization  which,  in 
spite  of  all  interruptions  and  set-backs,  is  gradually  knitting  the 
world  together.  It  is  the  most  glorious  thing  any  art  can  be,  a 
language  of  human  feeling,  understood  by  all  men." 

F.  J.  Kelly. 


Reviews  and  Notices  183 

Master  Study  in  Music,  by  James  Francis  Cooke.     Philadelphia : 
Theo.  Presser  Co.,  1918. 

This  practical  work  is  so  arranged  by  the  author  that  it  can  be 
used  for  classroom  work,  in  musical  clubs,  as  well  as  for  home 
reading  and  private  study.  Teachers  who  make  a  specialty  of 
musical  history  will  find  this  work  a  great  aid  to  supplement  such 
a  course.  It  takes  up  the  life  of  the  great  composers  of  the  art 
of  music  and  brings  to  the  fore  such  information  concerning  them 
that  every  serious  student  of  music  should  know.  The  composers 
of  the  very  great  masterpieces  in  music  are  treated  by  the  author 
at  some  length.  No  exception  is  made  among  the  great  masters, 
each  and  every  one  being  treated  in  an  entertaining  and  practical 
manner.  This  work  very  logically  supplements  the  "Standard 
History  of  Music,"  that  most  instructive  work  by  the  same  author. 

Master  study  in  music  was  never  very  seriously  insisted  upon, 
even  in  our  conservatories  and  colleges  devoted  to  the  art.  A 
knowledge  of  the  History  of  Music,  in  a  sort  of  a  general  way,  was 
all  that  was  considered  necessary.  To  make  any  detailed  study 
of  the  great  masters  was  not  considered  a  requisite  for  true  musi- 
sianship.  But  things  have  changed,  for  today  the  music  pupil 
finds  that  the  study  of  the  lives  of  the  masters  is  of  great  value, 
even  for  the  correct  interpretation  of  the  masterpieces.  This 
work,  above  all  things,  is  comprehensive,  practical  and  educa- 
tional. It  contains  information  and  details  which  are  not  found 
in  very  large  works.  Much  of  the  matter  is  entirely  new,  having 
been  secured  from  original  sources,  hitherto  inaccessible  in  the 
English  language.  The  masters  are  arranged  according  to  their 
prominence  as  composers,  while  lesser  notice  is  given  to  the  more 
modern  composers. 

Although  the  work  can  be  used  as  a  text-book,  it  is  also  a  very 
interesting  volume  for  home  reading.  Each  biography  is  fol- 
lowed by  a  set  of  questions  and  directions  as  to  supplementary 
reading.  It  is  not  a  History  of  Music,  properly  so  called,  yet  it 
covers  all  the  ground  from  Bach  down  to  the  present  day. 

F.  J.  Kelly. 


Keyboard  Training  in  Harmony,  by  A.  E.  Heacox.     In  two 
parts.     Boston,  Mass.:  Arthur  Schmidt  Co.,  1917.     Price, 
$1.00  each. 
When  one  takes  up  the  study  of  harmony,  he  desires  above  all 


184  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

things  a  work  that  is  practical.  This  is  the  first  requirement  in 
order  to  get  a  correct  notion  of  harmony.  That  this  work  is  a 
practical  work  we  can  judge  from  the  author's  own  words,  indicat- 
ing the  purpose  of  the  book  and  the  material  contained  therein: 
"Seventy  hundred  and  twenty-five  exercises  graded  and  designed 
to  lead  from  the  easiest  first-year  keyboard  harmony  up  to  the 
difficult  sight-playing  tests  set  for  advanced  students."  From 
his  own  words  we  gather  that  the  work  is  a  complete  study  of 
harmony. 

The  real  musician  of  today  must  have,  above  all  other  require- 
ments, a  good  knowledge  of  harmony.  This  work  furnishes  the 
student  with  a  practical  and  thorough  text-book,  treating  every 
detail  of  this  most  important  department  of  music  in  a  most 
complete  way.  The  work  can  be  used  in  connection  with  any 
standard  work  in  harmony,  since  the  author  adopts  the  methods 
of  figuring  generally  found  in  those  works.  The  plan  of  the  work 
presumes  that  the  student  apply  the  principles  of  harmony  learned 
from  the  systematic  practice  of  the  exercises,  at  the  piano  key- 
board. All  the  exercises  are  well  graded,  one  difficulty  being 
taken  up  at  a  time.  It  is  a  study  of  harmony  that  trains  both  the 
eye  and  ear  at  the  same  time.  It  should  certainly  commend  itself 
to  all  interested  in  this  department,  as  a  practical  way  of  studying 
harmony. 

F.  J.  Kelly. 


A  Method  for  Pipe  Organ,  by  Clarence  Eddy.     Cincinnati: 
John  Church  Co.,  1918. 

The  name  of  Clarence  Eddy  is  a  household  word  among  students 
and  teachers  of  the  pipe  organ  in  America.  Therefore  anything 
that  emanates  from  his  pen  will  be  gladly  welcomed.  An  organ 
method  compiled  by  one  with  his  years  of  experience  must  meet 
with  an  instant  and  permanent  success.  He  has  been  heard 
from  one  end  of  this  country  to  the  other,  in  France  and  England, 
and  everywhere  he  has  been  hailed  as  a  master  of  the  king  of 
instruments.  His  "Method  for  Pipe  Organ"  consists  of  two 
volumes,  containing  one  hundred  lessons.  As  the  pedals  present 
the  first  difficulties  to  the  student,  especially  in  overcoming  the 
sympathy  between  the  left  hand  and  the  feet,  he  has  devoted  the 
first  fifteen  lessons  to  that  important  part  of  organ  playing.  After 
the  preliminary  lessons,  each  following  lesson  is  accompanied  by 


Reviews  and  Notices  185 

works  in  which  the  difficulty  mastered  in  the  lesson  are  put  in 
practice.  As  Bach's  style  and  technic  are  the  best  means  for 
becoming  a  skilled  organist,  naturally  the  author  calls  on  his 
compositions  frequently. 

In  order  to  take  up  the  work  of  this  volume,  it  is  necessary  that 
one  has  learned  the  rudiments  of  music,  such  as  elementary  har- 
mony, major,  minor,  and  chromatic  scales,  and  at  least  one  year's 
finger  technic  upon  the  piano.  The  principles  insisted  upon  in 
the  work  are:  Correct  position  at  the  organ;  height  of  the  organ 
stool;  the  employment  of  both  feet,  toe  and  heel  in  the  use  of  the 
pedals;  the  different  kinds  of  touch,  rhythm,  accentuation  and 
phrasing.  Great  attention  is  paid  to  that  most  important  part 
of  organ  playing,  namely,  registration,  the  correct  use  of  organ 
stops  and  their  nature.  It  is  a  work  which  every  teacher  of  the 
organ  in  our  schools  should  examine,  for,  besides  its  general 
excellence,  it  is  admirably  graded,  leading  the  pupil  from  the  very 
first  principles  of  organ  playing  to  a  perfect  mastery  of  the  organ. 

F.  J.  Kelly. 


Horace  in  the  English  Literature  of  the  Eighteenth  Century, 

by    Caroline    Goad.     New   Haven:  Yale   University   Press, 
1918.     Pp.  641.     Price,  $3.00  net. 
The  Influence  of  Horace  on  the  Chief  English  Poets  of  the 
Nineteenth   Century,   by   Mary  Rebecca  Thayer.     New 
Haven:  Yale  University  Press,  1916.     Pp.  117. 
These  two  works,  companion  pieces  as  it  were,  since  they  both 
deal  with  Horace's  influence  in  a  certain  period  of  English  litera- 
ture, are  doctoral  dissertations,  the  one  presented  to  the  Depart- 
ment of  English  at  Yale  University,  the  other  submitted  to  the 
like  department  at  Cornell  University.     Both  studies  are  doctor's 
dissertations  of  the  best  type  and  contribute  much  to  some  future 
great  work  which  may  be  called  "Horace  in  English  Literature." 
The  former  of  these  studies  covers  a  very  wide  field,  but  not  one 
whit  less  carefully  on  that  account.     The  introduction  treats  in  an 
excellent  style  of  the  "Place  of  Horace  in  the  Eighteenth  Cen- 
tury," developing  in  a  most  interesting  way  such  general  state- 
ments as,  "It  remained  for  the  least  imaginative  and  most  critical 
period  in  English  literature,  the  first  half  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
to  give  full  appreciation  to  Horace"  (p.  3).     "Horace  may  be 


186  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

said  to  pervade  the  literature  of  the  eighteenth  century  in  three 
ways:  as  a  teacher  of  political  and  social  morality;  as  a  master 
of  the  art  of  poetry;  and  as  a  sort  of  a  elegantiae  arbiter"  (p.  8). 
"The  use  made  of  Horace  by  the  four  great  novelists,  Richardson, 
Sterne,  Smollett,  and  Fielding,  is  striking  in  its  diversity.  Richard- 
son's allusions  are  at  second  hand;  Sterne  uses  him  with  other 
classical  authors,  but  is  only  casually  interested  in  him  as  a  literary 
critic;  Smollett  is  fond  of  him,  and  likes  to  quote  him,  but  Horace's 
gentle  raillery  seldom  softens  his  own  bitter  invective;  Fielding, 
in  his  friendly  criticism  and  tolerance  of  human  frailties,  is  a  true 
Horatian"  (p.  13).  Then  the  general  topic  is  treated  of  "Horace 
as  Used  by  Some  of  the  Great  Writers  of  the  Eighteenth  Century," 
each  author  being  considered  in  separate  chapters. 

In  the  appendix  we  find  a  carefully  prepared  list  of  "References 
to  Horace  in  the  Works  of  those  Writers  of  the  Eighteenth  Century 
already  Considered,"  and  an  index  to  all  the  references  made  to 
Horace  throughout  the  work.  A  select  bibliography  precedes 
each  author  as  treated  in  the  appendix. 

Miss  Thayer's  work  covers  a  much  more  restricted  field,  but  her 
material  is  not  as  ably  handled  as  Miss  Goad's.  The  introduction 
covers  forty-two  of  the  one  hundred  and  two  pages  of  the  disser- 
tation proper,  and  is  really  the  fruit  of  the  investigation.  Here 
we  have  an  excellent  running  account  of  Horace's  influence  on 
William  Wordsworth,  Samuel  Taylor  Coleridge,  Lord  Byron, 
Percy  Bysshe  Shelley,  John  Keats,  Alfred  Lord  Tennyson,  and 
Robert  Browning. 

The  remaining  sixty  pages  of  the  work  are  taken  up  by  the 
material  from  which  the  ideas  of  the  introduction  are  deduced, 
i.  e.,  passages  from  Horace  with  quotations  from  each  English 
author  which  show  influences  and  borrowings.  These  passages 
are  presented  with  almost  no  comment,  causing  the  whole  to 
savour  much  of  Teutonism.  The  work,  we  think,  would  have 
been  much  improved  if  the  introduction  had  been  cut  down  to  a 
short  general  account,  a  real  introduction,  and  if  the  bulk  of  the 
excellent  observations  contained  therein  had  been  interspersed 
throughout  the  latter  part  of  the  work. 

A  good  bibliography  and  an  index  of  the  passages  quoted  from 
Horace  follow. 

Both  authors  perhaps  might  have  made  more  use  of  the  vast 
literature  on  Horace  himself,  aside  from  his  influence  on  later 


Reviews  and  Notices  187 

authors,  but  this  neglect  is  not  so  great  as  to  be  serious.  Both 
works  will  be  interesting  both  to  the  layman  and  to  the  teachers  of 
English  and  the  classics  alike.  Both  studies,  by  reason  of  their 
careful  indices,  will  be  most  useful  to  future  editors  of  Horace  and 
the  English  authors  discussed. 

Roy  J.  Deferrari. 


Beginner's  Greek  Book,  by  Allen  Rogers  Benner  and  Herbert 
Weir  Smyth.  New  York:  American  Book  Company. 
There  are  a  number  of  beginner's  Greek  books  on  the  market, 
but  any  beginner's  book  which  can  show  even  a  slight  improve- 
ment over  the  rest  is  always  welcomed.  The  material  in  this 
primer  has  been  very  carefully  selected  and  arranged,  and  the 
authors  have  been  successful  in  their  aim  to  limit  the  contents  to 
the  strict  essentials  of  the  language.  The  work  also  contains  sim- 
plified selections  from  the  Anabasis,  which  may  be  read  by  pupils 
who  are  not  quite  ready  to  take  up  the  Anabasis  from  the  begin- 
ning, and,  in  addition,  possesses  useful  summaries  of  fopms  and 
syntax.     This  book  is  well  worth  a  try. 

Roy  J.  Deferrari. 


Joyce  Kilmer:  Poems,  Essays  and  Letters,  in  Two  Volumes, 
with  a  Memoir  by  Robert  Cortes  Holliday,  Literary  Executor 
of  Joyce  Kilmer.  New  York  City:  George  H.  Doran  Co. 
Volume  1,  Memoir  and  Poems,  271  pages;  Volume  2,  Prose 
Works,  290  pages.     Boards,  2  vols.     Price,  $5  net. 

If  you  did  not  have  the  acquaintance  of  Joyce  Kilmer  before  he 
went  away  to  the  war,  never  to  return,  go  read  these  two  volumes 
and  meditate  on  the  full-length  portrait  of  himself  that  he  has 
left  therein.  It  is  so  revealing,  so  human,  so  animated  that  it 
seems  radiantly  alive.  It  is  the  portrait  of  one  you  would  like  to 
have  known  long  and  intimately;  you  count  it  a  loss  that  you  did 
not,  even  while  you  reckon  it  a  treasure  that  even  this  much  of 
him  you  are  privileged  to  know  and  to  possess. 

There  is  a  curious  thing  about  these  two  volumes — you  come 
away  from  them  with  a  feeling  of  intense  joy,  a  tremulous  kind 
of  joy.  How  otherwise  could  you  feel,  when  you  have  been  chal- 
lenged in  this  fashion : 


188  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

in  memory  of  rupert  brooke 

In  alien  earth,  across  a  troubled  sea, 

His  body  lies  that  was  so  fair  and  young. 

His  mouth  is  stopped,  with  half  his  songs  unsung; 
His  arm  is  still,  that  struck  to  make  men  free. 
But  let  no  cloud  of  lamentation  be 

Where,  on  a  warrior's  grave,  a  lyre  is  hung. 

We  keep  the  echoes  of  his  golden  tongue, 
We  keep  the  vision  of  his  chivalry. 

So  Israel's  joy,  the  loveliest  of  kings, 

Smote  now  his  harp,  and  now  the  hostile  horde. 

Today  the  starry  roof  of  Heaven  rings 

With  psalms  a  soldier  made  to  praise  his  Lord; 

And  David  rests  beneath  Eternal  wings, 
Song  on  his  lips,  and  in  his  hand  a  sword. 

When  you  have  been  listening,  through  two  volumes,  to  the  echoes 
of  a  golden  tongue,  when  you  have  been  lost  in  the  white  vision  of  a 
flaming  chivalry,  there  is  no  place  in  your  heart  save  for  joy. 
You  know,  of  a  certainty,  that  this  'happy  warrior'  has  long  since 
seen 

Our  Lady's  smile  shine  forth,  to  bring 
Her  lyric  Knight  within  her  choir  to  stand. 

You  know,  happiest  of  all,  that  he  who  loved  so  much  has  found 
Love  in  a  perfect  and  great  abundance. 

As  for  the  rest,  what  is  there  to  say  of  these  books  except  the 
truest  praise?  Mr.  Holliday's  Memoir  is  an  admirable  thing, 
done  with  fine  critical  judgment  and  a  rare  tact.  There  can  be 
few  to  quarrel  with  his  selection  of  those  poems  deemed  advisable 
to  preserve.  The  choice  of  the  prose  pieces  likewise  is  discrimi- 
nating, and  the  copious  inclusion  of  the  "Letters  "  a  happy  thought. 
One  can  have  only  the  deepest  gratitude  to  Mrs.  Kilmer  for  shar- 
ing some  of  these  letters  with  us,  sharing  them  just  as  they  are 
without  any  reservation.  The  act  does  her  a  greater  honor  and 
in  itself  is  a  nobler  tribute  than  any  words  can  properly  describe. 
The  sweet  "I  love  you,"  with  which  all  the  letters  end,  is  the  key 
to  Joyce  Kilmer's  heart  and  soul.  He  lived  and  worked  in  a  great 
love;  he  prayed  for  it;  he  found  it;  he  died  for  it.  His  soul  has 
gone  where  the  heroes  are.  Like  the  morning  star  shall  his 
memory  shine. 

Thomas  Quinn  Beesley. 


Reviews  and  Notices  189 

Walking  Stick  Papers,  by  Robert  Cortes  Holliday.  New 
York  City:  George  H.  Doran  Co.  Cloth,  309  pages.  Price, 
$1.50  net. 

If  Washington  Irving,  crossing  Times  Square  on  a  nipping  win- 
ter afternoon,  should  encounter  the  author  of  this  book,  he  would 
inevitably  hail  him  from  afar  and  insist  that  they  repair  to  a  cer- 
tain tavern  of  that  vicinity  where  there  is  much  good  cheer  to  be 
had,  and  where  one  may  see  any  number  of  celebrities  at  five  o'clock 
of  a  winter  day.  For  Washington  Irving  and  Mr.  Holliday 
would  have  much  in  common — they  could  exchange  eyeglasses  and 
observe  life  with  scarcely  any  perceptible  variance  in  their  vision. 
Charles  Lamb,  if  he  should  happen  in,  would  certainly  come  over 
to  their  corner  and  sit  down  with  a  fine  sentiment  of  comfort. 
They  would  have  a  complete  entente,  the  three  of  them,  and 
afterwards  if  their  way  should  chance  to  lie  uptown  it  is  probable 
they  would  go  off  arm  in  arm  together.  More  probably,  however, 
they  would  struggle  into  the  turmoil  below-ground  at  Times 
Square  and  go  home  germinating  an  essay  on  "The  Delights  of 
Subway  Travel." 

"  Walking  Stick  Papers  "  is  a  book  of  rare  flavor.  It  is  mellow 
and  comfortable  and  translucent,  like  the  old  wines  in  certain 
parts  of  Italy;  it  is,  like  them,  non-intoxicating  but  distinctly  exhil- 
arating. You  can  no  more  read  it  through  in  sequence,  or  at  one 
sitting,  than  you  could  eat  two  dinners  within  an  hour,  or  spend 
an  entire  afternoon  in  a  gallery  of  Turner's  paintings,  or  do  any- 
thing else  that  makes  sharp  demands  upon  your  emotions.  You 
keep  coming  back  to  the  book  again  and  again;  you  read  each  of 
the  essays  at  least  twice,  and  some  of  them  you  will  keep  reading 
indefinitely.  You  will  recommend  the  book  to  your  friends, 
loan  them  your  copy,  and  then  have  to  go  straightway  and  buy 
another.  The  book  should  be  given  a  place  with  your  Stevenson, 
your  Lamb,  and  your  Irving,  if  you  are  a  pedagogue.  If  you 
carry  a  walking  stick,  then  you  simply  cannot  afford  to  be  without 
it!  Thomas  Quinn  Beesley. 


The  German  Conspiracy  in  Education,  by  Gustavus  Ohlinger, 
Captain,  U.  S.  A.  New  York:  George  H.  Doran  Co.  Cloth, 
113  pages.     Price,  $1.25  net. 

To  all  thoughtful  and  well-informed  Germans,  1914  was  not  a 
beginning — it  was  a  culmination.     "Der  Tag"  had  come!    The 


190  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

mind  of  the  nation  had  already  been  regimented  and  the  moral 
force  for  the  military  machine  artificially  provided.     Everything 
was  ready  at  home.    Everything  was  ready  abroad.    At  least  so  the 
German  leaders  thought. 
As  Captain  Ohlinger  says : 

Just  as  Germany  planned  her  own  educational  system  with 
reference  to  her  military  power,  so  she  sought,  as  a  part  of  her 
higher  strategy,  to  enhance  her  superiority  by  insinuating  herself 
into  the  moral  and  intellectual  life  of  foreign  countries.  German 
schools  and  churches  abroad  she  set  down  as  important  outposts 
of  her  power.  If,  in  addition  to  supporting  these  institutions,  she 
could  introduce  her  agents  into  the  native  education,  there  dissem- 
inate doubt  as  to  the  validity  of  native  traditions  and  with  regard 
to  the  adequacy  of  established  institutions,  replace  national  spirit 
by  a  shallow  cosmopolitanism,  and  foster  an  admiration  of  Kultur 
to  the  disparagement  of  national  achievements — then  she  could 
sap  the  very  sources  of  moral  resistance.  It  would  be  an  easy  mat- 
ter to  fit  the  people  with  a  coat  of  Kultur  cut  to  her  own  measure 
and  according  to  her  own  patterns.  This  accomplished,  political 
domination  would  come  in  due  course,  either  through  voluntary 
submission  or  after  a  short  war  in  which  every  moral  and  material 
advantage  was  with  the  aggressor. 

It  was  the  "short  war"  on  which  German  leaders  had  placed 
their  faith.  Their  propagandists  in  this  country  became  bold 
accordingly.  For  both,  leaders  and  propagandists,  the  actual 
long  war  was  a  catastrophe.  It  gave  the  world  time  to  realize 
what  they  were  about,  and  to  become  thoroughly  familiar  with 
their  odious  and  shameful  methods.  It  finally  fixed  the  date  of 
"The  Day"  as  November  11,  1918,  at  11  a.  m. 

Captain  Ohlinger  was  the  principal  witness  summoned  by 
Congress  when  it  began  its  investigation  of  the  National  German- 
American  Alliance.  It  was  his  testimony,  in  corroboration  of 
certain  discoveries,  that  caused  Congress  to  revoke  the  charter  of 
the  treasonable  German- American  Alliance  and  to  hand  certain 
names  and  pieces  of  evidence  over  to  the  Department  of  Justice. 
Captain  Ohlinger 's  book  contains  that  part  of  his  investigations 
for  the  Government  which  had  to  do  with  the  German  conspiracy 
in  American  education.  He  traces  this  conspiracy  back  twenty 
years  and  cites  nothing  save  authentic  documents  and  well-known 
facts  in  proof  of  his  conclusion.  He  points  out,  step  by  step,  the 
drive  which  was  made  so  successfully  to  fasten  German  on  our 
elementary  schools  as  the  foreign  language.    He  reveals  the  grad- 


Reviews  and  Notices  191 

ual  insinuation  of  Kultur  into  our  universities  and  colleges,  and  the 
organized  effort  to  implant  Kultur  through  text-books,  whether 
books  like  either  the  notorious  Im  Vaterland,  or  the  absurd  speller 
once  used  in  the  upper  grades  of  Chicago  schools.  He  shows  fully 
the  part  played  by  "German"  societies  such  as  the  German- Amer- 
ican Alliance  in  influencing  legislation  and  education,  and  in 
sympathizing  hypocritically  with  any  revolutionary  movement 
that  would  be  anti-English  or  anti-Ally.  In  conclusion  Captain 
Ohlinger  has  this  to  say  about  the  place  of  German  in  our  educa- 
tional system: 

Instruction  in  the  German  language  may  be  appropriate  for 
the  technician  and  the  scientist,  but  it  should  never  again  be  per- 
mitted in  the  elementary  or  high  schools.  We  may  well  take 
a  leaf  from  the  science  of  philology  as  developed  in  Germany;  a 
nation's  life,  so  German  scientists  have  taught,  is  embodied  in  its 
speech.  Applying  this  conclusion  we  find  that  the  ideas  which  are 
fundamental  in  our  institutions  cannot  be  translated  into  modern 
German.  Let  anyone  who  doubts  this  statement  attempt  to 
render  into  the  Kaiser's  language  the  second  paragraph  of  the 
Declaration  of  Independence;  he  will  find  no  equivalents  for  such 
expressions  as  "liberty,"  "pursuit  of  happiness,"  "the  consent 
of  the  governed."  Nor  can  he  find  in  the  German  language  a 
means  for  adequately  expressing  the  concluding  sentence  in  which 
the  authors  pledge  to  each  other  "their  lives,  their  fortunes,  and 
their  sacred  honour."  When  Professor  Gneist  wrote  his  work  on 
"  Self  -Government "  he  searched  for  a  German  equivalent  for  that 
concept.  He  could  find  none,  and  finally  in  despair  entitled  his 
monumental  treatise  with  the  English  expression,  and  wherever 
the  idea  comes  up  in  the  discussion  the  English  words  are  used 
without  any  attempt  at  translation.  .  .  .  The  ideas  of  indivi- 
dual liberty  have  so  long  encountered  a  blank  spot  in  the  German 
brain  that  there  is  in  the  language  no  medium  for  their  expression. 
No  man  of  German  descent  can  become  thoroughly  American 
while  retaining  allegiance  to  the  German  language;  no  man  of  any 
race  can  become  an  American  at  heart  until  he  seeks  to  make  the 
English  language  not  merely  the  language  of  his  business,  but 
also  of  his  fireside. 

All  this  is  said  with  a  due  appreciation  for  the  treasures  of 
German  literature.  But  the  associations  of  the  German  language 
with  the  atrocities  of  the  war  are  such  that  the  world  can  never 
again  enjoy  the  German  classics  until  the  memories  of  the  present 
generation  shall  have  been  effaced. 

Thomas  Quinn  Beesley. 


192  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

Logarithmic  and  Trigonometric  Tables  and  Mathematical 

Formulas,  by  Ernest  R.  Breslich.     Chicago:  The  University 
of  Chicago  Press,  1917.    Pp.  xvii+117. 


The  Cadet  Manual,  Official  Handbook  for  High  School  Volun- 
teers of  the  United  States,  by  Major  E.  Z.  Seever  and  Major 
J.  L.  Frink.  Philadelphia:  J.  B.  Lippincott,  1918.  Pp. 
xxxi+317. 

Rural  Arithmetic,  by  Augustus  O.  Thomas.  New  York: 
American  Book  Company,  1916.    Pp.  288. 


Real  Stories  from  Baltimore  County  History,  data  obtained 
by  teachers  and  children  of  Baltimore  County  (Maryland) 
Schools,  by  Isobel  Davidson.  Baltimore :  Warwick  &  York, 
1917.     Pp.  282. 


Stories  the  Iroquois  Tell  Their  Children,  by  Mabel  Powers. 
New  York:  American  Book  Company,  1917.     Pp.  216. 


Paz  and  Pablo,  a  story  of  two  little  Filipinos,  by  Addie  F.  Mit- 
chell.   Yonkers:    World  Book  Company,  1917.     Pp.  95. 


Peter  and  Polly  in  Autumn,  by  Rose  Lucia.  New  York:  Ameri- 
can Book  Company,  1918.     Pp.  176. 


An  Elementary  Handbook  of  Logic,  by  John  J.  Toohey,  S.  J. 
New  York:  Schwartz,  Kirwin  &  Fauss,  1918.  Pp.  241. 
12mo,  cloth.     $1.25. 


How  to  Do  Business  by  Letter,  by  Sherwin  Cody.     Yonkers: 
World  Book  Company,  1918.     Pp.  238. 


The  Catholic 
Educational   Review 

JUNE,  1919 

LETTER  OF  POPE  BENEDICT  XV  TO  THE  AMERICAN 

EPISCOPATE 

To  James  Gibbons,  Cardinal  of  the  Holy  Roman  Church,  Arch- 
bishop of  Baltimore,  William  O'Connell,  Cardinal  of  the  Holy 
Roman  Church,  Archbishop  of  Boston,  and  to  the  other  Arch- 
bishops and  Bishops  of  the  United  States  of  America. 

Beloved  Sons,  Venerable  Brethren,  Health  and  Apostolic 
Benediction. 

Your  joint  letter  to  Us  from  Washington,  where  you  had 
gathered  to  celebrate  the  Fiftieth  Anniversary  of  the  Episcopate 
of  Our  beloved  son  James  Gibbons,  Cardinal  Priest  of  the 
Holy  Roman  Church,  was  delivered  to  Us  on  his  return  by 
Our  Venerable  Brother  Bonaventura,  Titular  Archbishop  of 
Corinth,  whom  We  had  sent  to  represent  Us  and  bear  you  Our 
message  of  joy  on  this  very  notable  occasion.  Your  close  union 
with  Us  was  confirmed  anew  by  the  piety  and  affection  which 
your  letter  breathed,  while  your  own  intimate  union  was  set 
forth  in  ever  clearer  light  by  the  solemn  celebration  itself,  so 
perfectly  and  successfully  carried  out,  no  less  than  by  the  great 
number  and  the  cordiality  of  those  present.  For  both  reasons 
we  congratulate  you  most  heartily,  Venerable  Brethren,  all  the 
more,  indeed,  because  you  took  the  opportunity  to  discuss  mat- 
ters of  the  highest  import  for  the  welfare  of  both  Church  and 
country.  We  learn  that  you  have  unanimously  resolved  that 
a  yearly  meeting  of  all  the  bishops  shall  be  held  at  an  appointed 
place,  in  order  to  adopt  the  most  suitable  means  of  promoting 
the  interests  and  welfare  of  the  Catholic  Church,  and  that  you 
have  appointed  from  among  the  bishops  two  commissions,  one  of 
which  will  deal  with  social  questions,  while  the  other  will  study 
educational  problems,  and  both  will  report  to  their  Episcopal 

321 


322  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

brethren.  This  is  truly  a  worthy  resolve,  and  with  the  utmost 
satisfaction  We  bestow  upon  it  Our  approval. 

It  is,  indeed,  wonderful  how  greatly  the  progress  of  Catholicism 
is  favored  by  those  frequent  assemblies  of  the  bishops,  which 
Our  predecessors  have  more  than  once  approved.  When  the 
knowledge  and  the  experience  of  each  are  communicated  to  all  the 
bishops,  it  will  be  easily  seen  what  errors  are  secretly  spreading, 
and  how  they  can  be  extirpated;  what  threatens  to  weaken  dis- 
cipline among  clergy  and  people  and  how  best  the  remedy  can  be 
applied;  what  movements,  if  any,  either  local  or  nation-wide,  are 
afoot  for  the  control  or  the  judicious  restraint  of  which  the  wise 
direction  of  the  bishops  may  be  most  helpful.  It  is  not  enough, 
however,  to  cast  out  evil;  good  works  must  at  once  take  its  place, 
and  to  these  men  are  incited  by  mutual  example.  Once  admitted 
that  the  perfection  of  the  harvest  depends  upon  the  method  and  the 
means,  it  follows  easily  that  the  assembled  bishops,  returning  to 
their  respective  dioceses,  will  rival  one  another  in  reproducing 
those  works  which  they  have  seen  elsewhere  in  operation,  to  the 
distinct  advantage  of  the  faithful.  Indeed,  so  urgent  is  the  call 
to  a  zealous  and  persistent  economico-social  activity  that  we  need 
not  further  exhort  you  in  this  matter.  Be  watchful,  however,  lest 
your  flocks,  carried  away  by  vain  opinions  and  noisy  agitation, 
abandon  to  their  detriment  the  Christian  principles  established 
by  Our  predecessor  of  happy  memory,  Leo  XIII,  in  his  Encyclical 
Letter  Rerum  Novarum.  More  perilous  than  ever  would  this 
be  at  the  present  moment,  when  the  whole  structure  of  human 
society  is  in  danger,  and  all  civic  charity,  swept  by  storms  of 
envious  hate,  seems  likely  to  shrivel  up  and  disappear. 

Nor  is  the  Catholic  education  of  children  and  youth  a  matter  of 
less  serious  import,  since  it  is  the  solid  and  secure  foundation  on 
which  rests  the  fulness  of  civil  order,  faith  and  morality.  You  are 
indeed  well  aware,  Venerable  Brethren,  that  the  Church  of  God 
never  failed  on  the  one  hand  to  encourage  most  earnestly  Catho- 
lic education,  and  on  the  other  to  vigorously  defend  and  protect 
it  against  all  attacks;  were  other  proof  of  this  wanting,  the  very 
activities  of  the  Old  World  enemies  of  Christianity  would  furnish 
conclusive  evidence.  Lest  the  Church  should  keep  intact  the 
faith  in  the  hearts  of  little  children,  lest  her  own  schools  should 
compete  successfully  with  public  anti-religious  schools,  her  ad- 
versaries declare  that  to  them  alone  belongs  the  right  of  teaching, 


Letter  of  Pope  to  American  Episcopate  323 

and  trample  under  foot  and  violate  the  native  rights  of  parents 
regarding  education;  while  vaunting  unlimited  liberty,  falsely  so- 
called,  they  diminish,  withhold,  and  in  every  way  hamper  the 
liberty  of  religious  and  Catholic  parents  as  regards  the  education 
of  their  children.  We  are  well  aware  that  your  freedom  from  these 
disadvantages  has  enabled  you  to  establish  and  support  with 
admirable  generosity  and  zeal  your  Catholic  schools,  nor  do  We 
pay  a  lesser  meed  of  praise  to  the  superiors  and  members  of  the 
religious  communities  of  men  and  women  who,  under  your  direc- 
tion, have  spared  neither  expense  nor  labor  in  developing  through- 
out the  United  States  the  prosperity  and  the  efficiency  of  their 
schools.  But,  as  you  well  realize,  we  must  not  so  far  trust  to 
present  prosperity  as  to  neglect  provision  for  the  time  to  come, 
since  the  weal  of  Church  and  State  depends  entirely  on  the  good 
condition  and  discipline  of  the  schools,  and  the  Christians  of  the 
future  will  be  those,  and  those  only,  whom  you  will  have  taught 
and  trained. 

Our  thoughts  at  this  point  turn  naturally  to  the  Catholic  Uni- 
versity at  Washington.  We  have  followed  with  joy  its  marvelous 
progress  so  closely  related  to  the  highest  hope  of  your  churches, 
and  for  this  Our  good  will  and  the  public  gratitude  are  owing 
principally  to  Our  Beloved  Son  the  Cardinal  Archbishop  of  Bal- 
timore and  to  the  Rector  of  the  University,  Our  Venerable  Brother, 
the  Titular  Bishop  of  Germanicopolis.  While  praising  them, 
however,  we  do  not  forget  your  own  energetic  and  zealous  labors, 
well  knowing  that  you  have  all  hitherto  contributed  in  no  small 
measure  to  the  development  of  this  seat  of  higher  studies,  both 
ecclesiastical  and  secular.  Nor  have  we  any  doubt  but  that, 
henceforth,  you  will  continue  even  more  actively  to  support 
an  institution  of  such  great  usefulness  and  promise  as  is  the 
University. 

We  make  known  to  you  also  how  deeply  we  rejoice  to  hear 
that  popular  devotion  to  Mary  Immaculate  has  greatly  increased 
in  view  of  the  proposal  to  build  on  the  grounds  of  the  University 
the  National  Shrine  of  the  Immaculate  Conception.  This  most 
holy  purpose  merited  the  approval  and  cordial  praise  of  Our  Pre- 
decessor of  happy  memory,  Pius  X.  We,  too,  have  always  hoped 
that  at  the  earliest  possible  date  there  would  be  built,  in  the 
National  Capital  of  the  great  Republic,  a  temple  worthy  of  the 
Celestial  Patroness  of  all  America,  and  that  all  the  sooner  because, 


324  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

under  the  special  patronage  of  Mary  Immaculate,  your  University 
has  already  attained  a  high  degree  of  prosperity.  The  University, 
We  trust,  will  be  the  attractive  center  about  which  will  gather 
all  who  love  the  teachings  of  Catholicism;  similarly,  We  hope 
that  to  this  great  church  as  to  their  own  special  sanctuary  will 
come  in  ever  greater  numbers,  moved  by  religion  and  piety,  not 
only  the  students  of  the  University,  actual  and  prospective,  but 
also  the  Catholic  people  of  the  whole  United  States.  O  may  the 
day  soon  dawn  when  you,  Venerable  Brethren,  will  rejoice  at 
the  completion  of  so  grand  an  undertaking!  Let  the  good  work 
be  pushed  rapidly  to  completion,  and  for  that  purpose  let  everyone 
who  glories  in  the  name  of  Catholic  contribute  more  abundantly 
than  usual  to  the  collections  for  this  church,  and  not  individuals 
alone  but  also  all  your  societies,  those  particularly  which,  by 
their  rule,  are  bound  to  honor  in  a  special  way  the  Mother  of 
God.  Nor  in  this  holy  rivalry  should  your  Catholic  women  be 
content  with  second  place,  since  they  are  committed  to  the  pro- 
motion of  the  glory  of  Mary  Immaculate  in  proportion  as  it 
redounds  to  the  glory  of  their  own  sex. 

After  thus  exhorting  you,  it  behooves  Us  now  to  set  an  example 
that  will  lead  Our  hearers  to  contribute  with  pious  generosity  to 
this  great  work  of  religion,  and  for  this  reason  We  have  resolved 
to  ornament  the  high  altar  of  this  Church  with  a  gift  of  peculiar 
value.  In  due  time,  We  shall  send  to  Washington  an  image  of 
the  Immaculate  Conception  made  by  Our  Command  in  the  Vati- 
can Mosaic  Workshop,  which  shall  be  at  once  a  proof  of  Our  devo- 
tion towards  Mary  Immaculate  and  Our  goodwill  towards  the 
Catholic  University.  Our  human  society,  indeed,  has  reached 
that  stage  in  which  it  stands  in  most  urgent  need  of  the  aid  of 
Mary  Immaculate,  no  less  than  of  the  joint  endeavors  of  all  man- 
kind. It  moves  now  along  the  narrow  edge  which  separates 
security  from  ruin,  unless  it  be  firmly  re-established  on  the  basis 
of  charity  and  justice. 

In  this  respect,  greater  efforts  are  demanded  of  you  than  of  all 
others,  owing  to  the  vast  influence  which  you  exercise  among 
your  people.  Retaining,  as  they  do,  a  most  firm  hold  on  the 
principles  of  reasonable  liberty  and  of  Christian  civilization,  they 
are  destined  to  have  the  chief  role  in  the  restoration  of  peace 
and  order,  and  in  the  reconstruction  of  human  society  on  the 
basis  of  these  same  principles,  when  the  violence  of  these  tempes- 


Letter  of  Pope  to  American  Episcopate  325 

tuous  days  shall  have  passed.  Meantime,  We  very  lovingly  in  the 
Lord  impart  the  Apostolic  benediction,  intermediary  of  divine 
graces  and  pledge  of  Our  paternal  goodwill,  to  you  Our  Beloved 
Sons,  to  Our  Venerable  Brethren  and  to  the  clergy  and  people 
of  your  flocks,  but  in  a  particular  manner  to  all  those  who  shall 
now  or  in  the  future  contribute  to  the  building  of  the  National 
Shrine  of  the  Immaculate  Conception  at  Washington. 

Given  at  St.  Peter's,  Rome,  the  tenth  day  of  April,  1919,  in  the 
fifth  year  of  Our  pontificate. 

Benedict  PP.  XV. 


THE  TOWNER  BILL  AND  THE  CENTRALIZING  OF 
EDUCATIONAL  CONTROL 

On  May  19  Mr.  Towner  introduced  in  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives a  bill  "to  create  a  Department  of  Education,  to  author- 
ize appropriations  for  the  conduct  of  said  Department,  to  author- 
ize the  appropriation  of  money  to  encourage  the  States  in  the 
promotion  and  support  of  education,  and  for  other  purposes." 

This  proposed  legislation  is  not  new.  It  is  substantially  the 
same  as  the  Smith  bill,  introduced  in  the  Senate  on  the  19th  of 
February,  and  which  passed  its  second  reading  before  Congress 
adjourned.  It  is  a  manifestation  which  is  growing  stronger  day 
by  day  of  a  centralizing  tendency,  which  is  gradually  trans- 
forming the  fundamental  framework  of  our  institutions  by  central- 
izing authority  and  removing  control  of  the  most  vital  elements  in 
life  from  the  people  most  intimately  concerned.  The  statement 
of  the  purpose  of  the  bill  seems  innocent  enough:  to  lend  dignity 
to  the  educational  work  of  the  nation  and  assistance  in  unifying 
the  work  and  lifting  it  to  a  higher  level.  The  real  purpose  of  the 
bill,  however,  is  to  remove  the  control  of  education  from  the 
several  States  and  lodge  it  in  the  National  Congress  and  in  a 
Secretary  of  Education  to  be  appointed  by  the  President  with  the 
approval  of  Congress.  With  this  central  aim  of  the  bill  there  are 
associated  several  lesser  aims,  such  as  adding  to  the  salary  of  the 
public  school  teachers  throughout  the  United  States,  encouraging 
physical  education,  and  assisting  the  rural  schools. 

Section  6  of  the  Towner  bill  proposes  "that  for  the  fiscal  year 
ending  June  30,  1921,  and  annually  thereafter,  the  sum  of  $500,000 
is  hereby  authorized  to  be  appropriated  out  of  any  money  in  the 
Treasury  not  otherwise  appropriated,  to  the  Department  of 
Education,  for  the  purpose  of  paying  salaries  and  conducting 
investigations  and  paying  all  incidental  and  travelling  expenses 
and  rent  where  necessary,  and  for  the  purpose  of  enabling  the 
Department  of  Education  to  carry  out  the  provisions  of  this 
Act.  ..."  Section  7  of  the  same  bill  reads  "that  in  order  to 
encourage  the  States  in  the  promotion  and  support  of  education, 
there  is  hereby  authorized  to  be  appropriated,  out  of  any  money 
in  the  Treasury  not  otherwise  appropriated,  for  the  fiscal  year 
ending  June  30,  1921,  and  annually  thereafter,  $100,000,000  to  be 
apportioned,  dispersed,  and  expended  as  hereinafter  provided." 
326 


Cebtralizing  of  Educational  Control  327 

The  distribution  of  this  $100,000,000  is  determined  in  the  fol- 
lowing sections: 

Sec.  8.  That  in  order  to  encourage  the  States  to  remove  illiter- 
acy, three-fortieths  of  the  sum  authorized  to  be  appropriated  by 
Section  7  of  this  act  shall  be  used  for  the  instruction  of  illiterates 
ten  years  of  age  and  over.  Such  instruction  shall  deal  with  the 
common-school  branches  and  the  duties  of  citizenship,  and  when 
advisable  shall  prepare  for  some  definite  occupation.  Said  sum 
shall  be  apportioned  to  the  States  in  the  proportions  which  their 
respective  illiterate  populations  of  ten  years  of  age  and  over,  not 
including  foreign-born  illiterates,  bear  to  such  total  illiterate 
population  of  the  United  States,  not  including  outlying  posses- 
sions, according  to  the  last  preceding  census  of  the  United  States. 

Sec.  9.  That  in  order  to  encourage  the  States  in  the  American- 
ization of  immigrants,  three-fortieths  of  the  sum  authorized  to 
be  appropriated  by  Section  7  of  this  act  shall  be  used  to  teach 
immigrants  ten  years  of  age  and  over  to  speak  and  read  the 
English  language  and  to  understand  and  appreciate  the  spirit  and 
purpose  of  the  American  Government  and  the  duties  of  citizenship 
in  a  free  country.  The  said  sum  shall  be  apportioned  to  the  States 
in  the  proportions  which  their  respective  foreign-born  populations 
bear  to  the  total  foreign-born  population  of  the  United  States, 
not  including  outlying  possessions,  according  to  the  last  preceding 
census  of  the  United  States. 

Sec.  10.  That  in  order  to  encourage  the  States  to  equalize 
educational  opportunities,  five-tenths  of  the  sum  authorized  to 
be  appropriated  by  Section  7  of  this  act  shall  be  used  in  public 
elementary  and  secondary  schools  for  the  partial  payment  of 
teachers'  salaries,  for  providing  better  instruction  and  extending 
school  terms,  especially  in  rural  schools  and  schools  in  sparsely 
settled  localities,  and  otherwise  providing  equally  good  educational 
opportunities  for  the  children  in  the  several  States,  and  for  the 
extension  and  adaptation  of  public  libraries  for  educational  pur- 
poses. The  said  sum  shall  be  apportioned  to  the  States,  one-half 
in  the  proportions  which  the  number  of  children  between  the  ages 
of  six  and  twenty-one  of  the  respective  States  bear  to  the  total 
number  of  such  children  in  the  United  States,  and  one-half  in  the 
proportions  which  the  number  of  public  school  teachers  employed 
in  teaching  positions  in  the  respective  States  bear  to  the  total  num- 
ber of  public  school  teachers  so  employed  in  the  United  States,  not 
including  outlying  possessions,  said  apportionment  to  be  based 
upon  statistics  collected  annually  by  the  Department  of  Edu- 
cation. 

Provided,  however,  That  in  order  to  share  in  the  apportionment 
provided  by  this  section  a  State  shall  establish  and  maintain  the 
following  requirements  unless  prevented  by  constitutional  limi- 
tations, in  which  case  these  requirements  shall  be  approximated 


328  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

as  nearly  as  constitutional  provisions  will  permit:  (a)  a  legal 
school  term  of  at  least  twenty -four  weeks  in  each  year  for  the  bene- 
fit of  all  the  children  of  school  age  in  such  State;  (b)  a  compulsory 
school  attendance  law  requiring  all  children  between  the  ages  of 
seven  and  fourteen  to  attend  some  school  for  at  least  twenty-four 
weeks  in  each  year;  (c)  a  law  requiring  that  the  English  language 
shall  be  the  basic  language  of  instruction  in  the  common  school 
branches  in  all  schools,  public  and  private. 

Sec.  11.  That  in  order  to  encourage  the  States  in  the  promotion 
of  physical  education,  two-tenths  of  the  sum  authorized  to  be 
appropriated  by  Section  7  of  this  act  shall  be  used  for  physical  edu- 
cation and  instruction  in  the  principles  of  health  and  sanitation, 
and  for  providing  school  nurses,  school  dental  clinics,  and  other- 
wise promoting  physical  and  mental  welfare.  The  said  sum  shall 
be  apportioned  to  the  States  in  the  proportions  which  their  respec- 
tive populations  bear  to  the  total  population  of  the  United  States, 
not  including  outlying  possessions,  according  to  the  last  preceding 
census  of  the  United  States. 

Sec.  12.  That  in  order  to  encourage  the  States  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  teachers  for  public-school  service,  particularly  in  rural 
districts,  three-twentieths  of  the  sum  authorized  to  be  appro- 
priated by  Section  7  of  this  act  shall  be  used  to  provide  and  extend 
facilities  for  the  improvement  of  teachers  already  in  service  and 
for  the  more  adequate  preparation  of  prospective  teachers,  and 
to  provide  an  increased  number  of  trained  and  competent  teachers 
by  encouraging,  through  the  establishment  of  scholarships  and 
otherwise,  a  great  number  of  talented  young  people  to  make  ade- 
quate preparation  for  public  school  service.  The  said  sum  shall 
be  apportioned  to  the  States  in  the  proportions  which  the  number 
of  public  school  teachers  employed  in  teaching  positions  in  the 
respective  States  bear  to  the  total  number  of  public  school  teachers 
so  employed  in  the  United  States,  not  including  outlying  posses- 
sions, said  apportionments  to  be  based  on  statistics  collected  an- 
nually by  the  Department  of  Education. 

Sec.  13.  A  State  may  accept  the  provisions  of  any  one 
or  more  of  the  respective  apportionments  authorized  in 
Sections  8,  9,  10,  11  and  12  of  this  act,  and  may  defer 
the  acceptance  of  any  one  or  more  of  said  apportionments: 
Provided,  however,  that  no  money  shall  be  apportioned  to 
any  State  from  any  of  the  funds  provided  in  Sections 
8,  9,  10,  11  and  12  of  this  act,  unless  a  sum  equally  as 
large  shall  be  provided  by  said  State,  or  by  local  authorities,  or  by 
both,  for  the  same  purpose:  And  provided,  that  the  sum  or  sums 
provided  by  a  State  for  the  equalization  of  educational  oppor- 
tunities, for  the  promotion  of  physical  education  and  for  the 
preparation  of  teachers,  shall  not  be  less  for  any  year  than  the 
amount  provided  for  the  same  purpose  for  the  fiscal  year  next 


Centralizing  of  Educational  Control  329 

preceding  the  acceptance  of  the  provisions  of  this  act  by  said 
State:  And  provided  further,  That  no  money  apportioned  to  any 
State  under  the  provisions  of  this  act  shall  be  used  by  any  State 
or  local  authority  directly  or  indirectly,  for  the  purchase,  rental, 
erection,  preservation,  or  repair  of  any  building  or  equipment,  or 
for  the  purchase  or  rental  of  land,  or  for  the  payment  of  debts  or 
interest  thereon. 

It  is  provided  further  on,  in  Section  14,  "that  all  the  educational 
facilities  encouraged  by  the  provisions  of  this  act  and  accepted  by 
a  State  shall  be  organized,  supervised,  and  administered  exclu- 
sively by  the  legally  constituted  State  and  local  educational 
authority  of  said  State,  and  the  Secretary  of  Education  shall 
exercise  no  authority  in  relation  thereto  except  as  herein  provided 
to  insure  that  all  funds  apportioned  to  said  State  shall  be  used  for 
the  purposes  for  which  they  are  appropriated,  and  in  accordance 
with  the  provisions  of  this  act  accepted  by  said  State." 

This  bill  is  interesting  from  many  points  of  view,  but  it  is  scarcely 
more  interesting  than  the  lobby  which  is  being  organized  to  secure 
its  enactment;  700,000  public  school  teachers  scattered  through 
every  village  and  hamlet  and  congregated  in  larger  numbers  in 
every  city  of  the  land  are  lined  up  behind  the  measure  by  a  promise 
of  an  annual  dole  of  $50,000,000  from  the  National  Treasury. 
The  rural  populations  throughout  the  entire  country  are  promised 
an  annual  dole  of  $22,000,000  for  their  schools,  to  be  divided 
between  contributions  toward  the  training  of  teachers  and  the 
removal  of  illiteracy.  The  large  section  of  the  population  which 
is  enthusiastically  interested  in  the  rapid  Americanization  of 
foreigners  is  promised  $7,500,000  for  their  pet  project,  while  the 
advocates  of  physical  training,  who  are  very  numerous  in  the  land, 
are  promised  $20,000,000,  provided  they  all  line  up  back  of  this, 
bill.  A  well  organized  lobby  carried  the  Prohibition  Amendment 
and  taught  people  political  wisdom,  at  least  that  sort  of  political 
wisdom  that  secures  any  desired  legislation  however  undesirable 
it  may  be. 

The  propaganda  mills  are  hard  at  work  covering  up  and  ob- 
scuring the  objectionable  features  of  the  bill  and  emphasizing  the 
interests  of  the  particular  section  of  the  people  appealed  to.  The 
following  article  sent  out  to  the  press  of  the  country  a  few  days 
ago  from  the  office  of  the  Field  Secretary  of  the  National  Educa- 
tion Association  by  Hugh  S.  McGill  is  a  good  sample  of  this: 


3S0  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 


AMERICA  S   UNFINISHED   WORK 

Hugh  S.  Magill,  Field  Secretary 
National  Education  Association 

The  treaty  of  peace  is  completed.  A  league  of  nations  seems 
assured.  Autocracy  has  received  a  crushing  blow,  but  the  spirit 
of  autocracy  is  not  dead.  By  the  blood  of  millions  democracy  has 
been  saved,  but  democracy  is  not  yet  secure.  Monarchy  has  been 
dethroned,  but  anarchy  and  the  tyranny  of  the  mob  still  threaten 
the  world.  Liberty  must  find  her  only  safe  abiding  place  in 
organized  free  government,  where  law  is  reverenced  and  obeyed. 

A  great  unfinished  work  remains.  A  better  civilization  must  be 
builded,  founded  on  a  higher  conception  of  man's  relation  to  his 
fellowman.  The  vicious  spirit  of  greed  and  human  selfishness 
must  give  way  to  the  nobler  impulses  of  human  brotherhood. 
From  the  millions  who  perished  we  must  take  "increased  devotion 
to  the  cause  for  which  they  gave  the  last  full  measure  of  devotion." 

The  world  is  looking  to  America  for  guidance  and  she  must  rise 
to  her  opportunity.  But  to  be  worthy  of  world  leadership  America 
must  recognize  always  that  her  prestige  depends  not  upon  her 
boundless  material  resources  but  upon  her  steadfast  devotion  to 
her  national  ideals ;  not  upon  her  wealth  but  upon  her  manhood  and 
womanhood.  Regarded  by  the  world  as  a  pleasure  loving,  money- 
getting  people,  we  rose,  stirred  by  a  mighty  passion  for  liberty  and 
justice,  to  the  support  of  those  who  were  battling  to  save  the  world 
from  autocracy  and  oppression.  It  was  the  inspiring  and  com- 
pelling influence  of  great  ideals  that  lifted  America  to  the  eminence 
of  international  supremacy  and  leadership.  The  mortal  conflict 
over,  shall  we  forget  the  lessons  it  has  taught,  and,  becoming 
grossly  materialistic,  predicate  our  greatness  upon  our  wealth 
alone? 

"Ill  fares  the  land  to  hastening  ills  a  prey, 
Where  wealth  accumulates  and  men  decay." 

The  principles  set  forth  in  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  the 
Preamble  of  our  Constitution  and  the  Gettysburg  Address,  must 
be  more  fully  realized  here  in  the  United  States.  Life,  liberty  and 
the  pursuit  of  happiness  are  not  yet  vouchsafed  to  all.  Equality 
of  opportunity  is  not  enjoyed  by  all  who  have  a  right  to  claim  the 
blessings  of  our  free  government.  And  yet,  "to  establish  these 
rights  governments  are  instituted  among  men."  Thousands  die 
every  year  as  a  result  of  insanitary  conditions  and  from  pre- 
ventable diseases.  There  are  a  million  and  a  half  native  born 
whites  and  two  and  a  quarter  million  native  born  colored  citizens 
of  America  who  cannot  read  or  write. 

An  American  soldier  of  pure  Anglo-Saxon  blood,  whose  parents 
and  grandparents  were  born  in  America,  when  asked  why  he  had 
never  learned  to  read  and  write,  replied,  "Captain,  I  never  had  no 


Centralizing  of  Educational  Control  331 

chance."  What  American  is  not  humiliated  by  the  fact  that, 
nearly  a  century  and  a  half  since  our  fathers  gave  to  the  world 
our  charter  of  liberty  declaring  all  men  created  equal  and  endowed 
by  their  Creator  with  certain  inalienable  rights,  millions  born  in 
this  country  cannot  read  that  charter  nor  the  Constitution  which 
they  are  sworn  to  uphold  with  their  lives.  If  this  be  a  national 
disgrace,  it  establishes  a  national  responsibility. 

Education  a  National  Issue 

The  most  important  subject  before  the  American  people  today, 
and  the  one  most  neglected  by  statesmen,  is  the  question  of  public 
education.  Our  fathers  recognized  the  vital  importance  of  this 
question  away  back  at  the  founding  of  this  government  when  they 
solemnly  declared  in  the  Ordinance  of  1787,  "Religion,  morality 
and  knowledge  being  necessary  to  free  government  and  the 
happiness  of  mankind,  schools  and  the  means  of  education  shall 
forever  be  encouraged."  But  notwithstanding  the  fact  that 
education  is  so  "necessary  to  free  government,"  and  so  vitally 
related  to  national  welfare,  it  has  never  received  just  recognition 
by  the  National  Government.  Agriculture,  commerce  and  labor 
have  been  exalted  to  departmental  rank,  each  with  a  Secretary  in 
the  President's  cabinet,  while  education  is  still  tucked  away  in  a 
bureau  of  the  Interior  Department. 

The  National  Government  has  made  liberal  appropriations  for 
the  promotion  of  special  education  but  has  failed  to  go  right  to  the 
heart  of  the  subject  and  encourage  the  states  in  the  training  and 
support  of  teachers  and  the  promotion  of  general  education. 
Vocational  education  is  important  and  should  be  promoted,  but 
it  is  not  so  essential  to  the  welfare  of  the  nation  as  that  every  child 
should  have  the  opportunity  to  obtain  a  good  common  school 
education.  The  Americanization  of  adult  immigrants  and  the 
attempted  education  of  adult  illiterates  is  very  necessary,  but  the 
most  effective  place  to  teach  American  ideals  is  in  our  public 
schools,  and  if  free  school  privileges  are  guaranteed  to  every  child 
in  America  illiteracy  will  soon  disappear. 

Education  is  so  vitally  essential  to  the  very  life  of  our  nation 
that  patriotic  considerations  demand  that  the  National  Government 
shall  encourage  and  assist  the  States  in  its  promotion.  The  Nation, 
the  State  and  the  local  community  should  each  bear  a  just  share  of 
the  necessary  expense,  for  each  shares  in  the  benefits  derived.  In 
addition  to  financial  aid,  the  National  Government  should  give  to 
the  States  and  to  the  people  the  benefits  of  educational  research 
and  investigation,  but  the  administration  and  control  of  the 
schools  must  be  left  to  the  States  and  local  communities.  The 
Federal  Government  has  no  right  under  the  Constitution  to  under- 
take the  supervision  and  control  of  education  in  the  States. 


332  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

Who  Is  Bach  of  This  Movement? 

Who  is  supporting  this  movement  to  establish  a  Department  of 
Education  and  grant  federal  aid  to  the  states  in  promoting  educa- 
tion ?  Those  who  think  the  promotion  of  human  welfare  is  the  first 
duty  of  the  nation.  Those  who  would  profit  by  the  great  lessons 
which  the  war  has  taught,  who  believe  that  to  "secure  the  blessings 
of  liberty  to  ourselves  and  our  posterity "  America  must  develop 
through  education  a  citizenship  physically  and  intellectually  sound 
and  imbued  with  the  spirit  and  ideals  of  true  Americanism. 

Back  of  this  movement  is  the  National  Education  Association 
representing  the  seven  hundred  thousand  teachers  of  America. 
Back  of  it  is  the  American  Federation  of  Labor,  representing  the 
millions  of  toilers  who  want  the  best  educational  advantages  for 
their  children.  Back  of  it  are  the  forward  looking  men  who 
believe  that  education  is  essential  to  democracy  and  the  best 
insurance  against  anarchy  and  social  disorders.  And  back  of  it 
are  the  noble  women  of  America  who  have  endorsed  it  in  their 
clubs  and  organizations  and  who  will  work  for  it  until  it  is  enacted 
into  law. 

Of  course  we  shall  have  to  overcome  the  influence  of  certain 
rich  men  in  the  North  who  claim  they  should  not  be  taxed  by  the 
Government  to  help  educate  American  children  born  in  the  South. 
Such  men  have  not  yet  learned  to  think  in  terms  of  all  America. 
They  should  be  proud  to  contribute  in  proportion  to  their  wealth 
to  the  education  of  every  child  under  the  protection  of  our  flag, 
whether  that  child  were  born  in  the  crowded  city  of  the  North 
or  the  remote  rural  district  of  the  South.  We  spent  billions  of 
wealth  and  thousands  of  lives  to  uphold  liberty  abroad,  nor  did 
anyone  cavil  over  who  was  paying  most.  Shall  we  be  less  pa- 
triotic in  caring  for  our  own?  Shall  we  begrudge  a  few  hundred 
millions  to  make  secure  the  foundations  of  liberty  at  home? 

The  ultimate  success  of  this  movement  is  certain.  It  may  be 
hindered  but  it  cannot  be  stopped.  It  is  a  part  of  America's 
unfinished  work.  The  principle  is  sound.  The  cause  is  just.  It 
is  bound  to  win. 

Mr.  McGill  quite  successfully  camouflages  the  effort  of  the 
Towner  Bill  to  wrest  the  control  of  education  from  the  States  and 
lodge  it  in  a  National  Department  of  Education,  and  he  solemnly 
tells  his  readers,  "In  addition  to  financial  aid,  the  National  Govern- 
ment would  give  to  the  States  and  to  the  people  the  benefits  of 
educational  research  and  investigation,  but  the  administration 
and  control  of  the  schools  must  be  left  to  the  States  and  local 
communities.  The  Federal  Government  has  no  right  under  the 
Constitution  to  undertake  the  supervision  and  control  of  education 
in  the  States."     This  same  sentiment  is  expressed  in  the  conclud- 


Centralizing  of  Educational  Control  333 

ing  paragraph  of  Section  14  of  the  Towner  Bill.  "And  provided 
further,  that  all  the  educational  facilities  encouraged  by  the  pro- 
visions of  this  act  and  accepted  by  a  State  shall  be  organized, 
supervised,  and  administered  exclusively  by  legally  constituted 
State  and  local  educational  authorities  of  said  State,  and  the 
Secretary  of  Education  shall  exercise  no  authority  in  relation 
thereto  except  as  herein  provided  to  insure  that  all  the  funds  appor- 
tioned to  said  State  shall  be  used  for  the  purposes  for  which  they 
are  appropriated,  and  in  accordance  with  the  provisions  of  this 
act  accepted  by  said  State."  This  sounds  very  well,  but  what 
do  we  find  to  be  the  actual  situation?  There  are  many  people 
in  our  midst  who  believe  in  the  sacredness  of  the  home,  and  who 
realize  that  the  natural  bonds  which  build  up  and  support  the 
home  are  chiefly  made  up  of  the  five-fold  dependence  of  the  child 
upon  its  parents,  for  love,  for  nutrition,  for  protection  against 
danger,  for  remedy  in  disaster,  and  for  the  models  of  his  imitative 
activity.  If  the  State  should  take  over  any  of  the  corresponding 
functions  of  the  parent,  it  thereby  weakens  the  home,  and  the 
State  is  in  reality  made  up  of  homes  and  must  remain  so  if  it  is  to 
remain  a  healthy  Christian  State.  The  most  deadly  enemy  of 
society  is  to  be  found  in  those  organized  influences  that  are  aimed 
at  the  strength  and  the  life  of  the  home.  Many  of  the  States 
have  refused  to  yield  to  this  pressure.  The  conviction  still  holds 
with  them  that  if  the  child  needs  nursing  it  should  be  provided 
for  through  its  parents,  if  he  needs  the  assistance  of  the  dentist, 
again  it  should  come  to  him  through  his  parents,  but  the  Towner 
Bill  will  have  none  of  this.  It  insists  that  the  State  give  up  its 
convictions  along  these  lines,  and  not  only  administer  the  funds 
provided  through  the  National  Government,  but  that  it  must 
raise  an  equal  sum  to  add  to  that  supplied  by  the  National  Govern- 
ment to  provide  district  nurses,  dental  clinics,  etc.  Now,  we  are 
not  concerned  here  with  the  rights  or  the  wrongs  of  this  contro- 
versy, but  we  do  hold  that  in  accordance  with  the  spirit  of  our 
Government  and  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States,  the 
National  Government  has  no  jurisdiction  in  the  matter  and  no 
right  whatever  to  interfere.  It  may  be  said  that  the  National 
Government  does  not  appoint  an  officer  to  enforce  these  provisions 
upon  an  unwilling  State.  The  State  can  refuse  to  accept  the 
national  grant,  but  it  should  be  remembered  that  in  so  doing  it  is 
forfeiting  its  proportion  of  the  national  fund  which  has  been 


334  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

contributed  by  its  own  citizens  in  the  form  of  income  tax  and  in 
other  forms  of  national  taxation.  Again,  the  State  cannot  receive 
its  proportion  of  the  $100,000,000  grant  unless  it  maintains  a 
school  term  of  a  designated  length,  the  designation  to  be  not  by 
the  will  of  the  State,  but  by  the  will  of  the  National  Government. 
Again,  compulsory  school  attendance  is  a  matter  upon  which 
there  is  not  universal  agreement.  But,  any  State,  in  order  to 
receive  its  allotment  of  this  national  grant,  must  enact  a  com- 
pulsory school  attendance  law  requiring  all  the  children  between 
the  ages  of  7  and  14  to  attend  school  for  at  least  24  weeks  in  each 
year.  Again,  while  there  is  pretty  general  agreement  that  the 
English  language  should  be  the  basic  language  of  instruction  in 
the  common  school  branches  in  all  schools,  public  and  private, 
the  National  Government  lays  down  this  as  another  condition 
necessary  if  the  State  is  to  receive  its  quota.  From  these  things 
it  should  be  sufficiently  evident  that  the  Towner  Bill  aims  at  giving 
the  real  control  of  education  to  the  National  Government,  while 
at  the  same  time  avoiding  the  constitutional  provisions  intended 
to  prevent  this  centralized  control.  The  Carnegie  Institute 
demonstrated  the  power  of  money  to  control  the  standards  and  the 
spirit  of  educational  institutions  throughout  the  country.  Never- 
theless, the  Carnegie  Institute  has  no  legal  status  and  no  legal 
backing  in  this  jurisdiction  over  educational  institutions.  The 
function  and  the  power  of  money  to  control  education  was  demon- 
strated long  before  the  Carnegie  Institute  was  founded  in  many 
of  the  Western  States  where  the  real  control  of  the  local  school 
was  wrested  from  the  local  community  and  lodged  in  State  officials 
through  the  granting  of  State  per  capita  subsidies  to  local  schools 
that  complied  with  the  conditions  laid  down  by  the  State  officials. 
The  Towner  Bill,  it  may  be  added,  does  not  force  its  conditions 
upon  any  State,  since  any  State  may  refuse  compliance  and  will 
incur  thereby  no  penalty.  It  will  merely  forfeit  its  pro  rata  of  the 
national  grant.  This  would  have  more  plausibility  if  the  national 
grant  were  derived  from  some  wholly  independent  source,  such 
as  the  Carnegie  Fund,  but  it  is  hard  to  see  its  force  in  the  light 
of  the  fact  that  the  proposed  grant  is  to  be  derived  through  taxes 
from  the  people  of  every  State,  whether  they  accept  the  grant  or 
not. 

Mr.  McGill  sounds  very  plausible  when  he  tells  us,  "Education 
is  so  vitally  essential  to  the  very  life  of  our  nation  that  patriotic 


Centralizing  of  Educational  Control  335 

considerations  demand  that  the  National  Government  shall 
encourage  and  assist  the  States  in  its  promotion."  Poor  sovereign 
States,  poor  little  waifs,  that  still  need  the  encouragement  of  a 
nursing  bottle  and  paternal  guidance  and  protection  and  paternal 
encouragement  in  the  performance  of  their  most  elementary  duties ! 
Has  all  consciousness  of  Statehood  and  its  dignity  departed 
from  the  several  States  of  this  Union  that  they  can  calmly  endure 
these  insults?  It  also  sounds  well  to  say,  "The  Nation,  the  State 
and  the  local  community  should  each  bear  a  just  share  of  the 
necessary  expense,  for  each  shares  in  the  benefits  derived."  But 
such  a  statement  fails  to  disclose  the  fact  that  the  selfsame  people 
pay  all  three  taxes.  What  it  really  means  is  that  they  have 
something  to  say  about  the  disposal  of  their  funds  in  the  local 
community,  a  little  to  say  about  the  disposal  of  their  contribution 
through  State  authority,  and  scarcely  anything  to  say  about  the 
disposal  of  their  contribution  through  the  National  Government. 
The  several  sovereign  States  are  calmly  asked  to  permit  a  large 
share  of  the  school  funds  to  be  handled  by  the  National  Depart- 
ment of  Education,  and  that  in  the  handling  of  these  funds  the 
National  Department  of  Education  lay  down  its  own  conditions, 
among  which  is  the  condition  that  each  State  shall  raise  an  addi- 
tional amount  equal  to  its  pro  rata  of  the  national  grant  and 
allow  that,  too,  to  be  controlled  by  the  Department  of  Education. 
The  States  are  asked  to  give  up  their  inalienable  rights  and  privi- 
leges to  the  National  Government  and  its  Executive  Depart- 
ment and  to  furnish  the  National  Government  at  the  same  time 
with  an  effective  club  to  compel  compliance. 

Mr.  McGill  adds,  "In  addition  to  financial  aid,  the  National 
Government  should  give  to  the  States  and  to  the  people  the 
benefits  of  educational  research  and  investigation."  From  this 
statement  the  unwary  reader  might  reasonably  conclude  that  this 
was  a  new  benefit  to  be  derived  through  the  Towner  Bill,  whereas, 
in  fact,  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Education  under  the  Depart- 
ment of  the  Interior  has  for  several  decades  been  performing  this 
function  in  a  most  efficient  and  worthy  manner.  It  has  collected 
information  from  all  the  civilized  nations  of  the  earth  that  would 
be  of  use  to  our  schools.  It  has  compiled  statistics,  conducted 
surveys,  and  lent  its  aid  and  help  to  educational  institutions  whether 
supported  by  the  State,  by  religious  denominations,  or  by  private 
beneficence,  nor  has  the  Bureau  of  Education  attempted  to  secure 


336  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

control  of  any  school  in  any  measure  through  the  conferring  of  its 
benefactions.  The  functions  of  the  Bureau  of  Education  are 
such  as  rightly  belong  to  the  National  Government  and  may 
rightly  be  performed  by  it,  but  the  Towner  Bill,  seeking  to  utilize 
national  funds  in  order  to  coerce  the  several  States  into  com- 
pliance with  the  theories  of  a  few  men,  is  quite  another  matter, 
and  should  not  be  confounded  by  the  public  with  an  institution 
that  it  has  long  so  well  and  favorably  known. 

Thomas  Edward  Shields. 


LAND  COLONIZATION1 

I.    THE   PLAN 

The  United  States  Department  of  the  Interior  is  asking  Con- 
gress to  permit  it  to  prepare  farms  for  the  returning  soldiers  and 
sailors  who  wish  to  settle  on  the  land.  The  plan  of  the  Depart- 
ment is  to  hire  the  ex-service  men  at  a  fair  wage  to  build  up  the 
farms  and  farm  buildings  and  then  to  sell  them  the  land  upon  such 
terms  as  would  practically  insure  the  success  of  the  enterprise. 

The  Interior  Department  would  have  the  Federal  Government 
cooperate  with  the  States  in  the  working  out  of  the  project.  A 
model  bill  has  already  been  sent  to  the  different  States  which, 
when  enacted  into  law,  will  make  possible  this  cooperation  as  soon 
as  Congress  has  enacted  its  legislation. 

To  state  the  plan  in  a  general  way,  it  is  proposed  that  the 
States  furnish  the  land  out  of  which  the  farms  for  the  returning 
soldiers  and  sailors  are  to  be  made  and  that  the  Federal  Govern- 
ment be  responsible  for  the  work  of  making  the  land  into  farms 
and  selling  it  to  the  settlers.  In  the  working  out  of  the  plan  the 
Federal  Government  will  in  many  cases  create  the  farms  out  of 
its  own  land  without  State  aid;  and  undoubtedly  many  of  the 
States  will  develop  farm  colonies  without  Federal  aid.  But  the 
general  plan  is  to  be  one  of  cooperation. 

Many  varieties  of  lands  are  to  be  used  in  the  enterprise.  Secre- 
tary Lane  of  the  Department  of  the  Interior  has  called  attention 
to  the  important  work  that  has  already  been  done  by  the  Reclama- 
tion Service  in  the  matter  of  irrigating  the  dry  lands  of  the  West 
and  he  points  out  that  there  is  still  much  of  this  kind  of  work  that 
can  be  done.  He  would  also  reclaim  extensive  areas  of  swamp 
lands  by  draining  them  and  he  would  also  make  homes  for  settlers 
on  the  cut-over  timber  lands  by  pulling  the  stumps  which  inter- 
fere with  the  use  of  agricultural  implements. 

These  three  types  of  reclamation,  namely,  irrigation,  drainage 
and  the  pulling  of  stumps,  are  especially  emphasized  by  Secretary 
Lane,  but  there  are  many  other  situations  where  Government 
assistance  would  be  extremely  desirable  in  helping  the  ex-soldiers 
and  sailors  to  a  successful  start  as  farmers.      For  example,  in 


1  Reconstruction  Pamphlets  No.  2,  National  Catholic  War  Council. 

337 


338  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

many  parts  of  the  country  where  the  land  has  been  allowed  to 
deteriorate  a  judicious  application  of  agricultural  instruction  and 
financial  aid  will  enable  the  settler  to  rebuild  the  soil  and  to  make 
farming  profitable  where  otherwise  his  efforts  would  be  doomed 
to  failure. 

The  various  States  will  naturally  desire  to  retain  their  return- 
ing soldiers  and  sailors  within  their  own  borders  as  far  as  possible. 
For  this  reason  it  will  not  be  desirable  for  the  Department  of  the 
Interior  to  concentrate  its  reclamation  efforts  upon  any  one  type 
of  land.  Plenty  of  arid  land  is  to  be  had  in  the  West  upon  which 
a  great  deal  of  labor  could  be  employed  in  the  immediate  future 
in  irrigation  projects  and  out  of  which  many  rich  farms  could  be 
made.  But  farms  must  also  be  built  out  of  the  swamp  lands  of 
the  East  and  the  cut-over  lands  of  the  Northwest  and  North  and 
South. 

It  is  estimated  that  there  are  between  fifteen  and  twenty 
million  acres  of  land  in  the  possession  of  the  Government  upon 
which  the  rainfall  is  insufficient  to  produce  crops  but  which  may 
be  reclaimed  by  irrigation.  There  are  said  to  be  between  seventy 
and  eighty  million  acres  of  swamp  and  overflowed  land  of  which 
sixty  million  acres  can  be  reclaimed  and  made  profitable  for 
agriculture.  Of  former  timber  lands  but  now  merely  stump- 
bearing  lands  there  are  roughly  two  hundred  million  acres  in  the 
United  States  suitable  for  agricultural  development.  Add  to 
these  vast  areas  the  millions  of  acres  of  unused  lands  that  need 
only  intelligent  treatment  in  order  to  make  them  crop-bearing 
and  it  will  be  at  once  evident  that  there  will  be  no  dearth  of  land 
upon  which  to  employ  those  of  the  returning  soldiers  and  sailors 
who  desire  such  employment. 

II.    THE   NEED 

Two  serious  problems  face  the  American  people.  One  is  the 
problem  of  supplying  food  to  a  starving  world.  The  other  is  the 
problem  of  unemployment. 

The  world  stands  ready  to  take  from  us  for  the  immediate 
future  a  practically  unlimited  quantity  of  food  stuffs.  We  are 
admonished  that  while  the  war  is  over  for  many  purposes,  it  is 
not  over  in  so  far  as  the  saving  of  food  is  concerned.  Our  asso- 
ciates and  our  late  enemies  in  the  war  stand  in  need  of  our  food 
production  in  excess  of  what  is  required  for  ourselves. 


Land  Colonization  339 

But  the  demand  upon  the  soil  of  America  for  a  large  food 
production  will  not  cease  when  the  ugliest  of  the  wounds  of  war 
have  been  healed.  As  the  years  go  on  our  own  increasing  num- 
bers will  call  for  an  ever-enlarging  food  supply. 

In  Napoleon's  day,  Great  Britain  could  have  fed  her  eight 
millions  of  people  from  the  products  of  her  own  land  if  an  enemy 
had  succeeded  in  blockading  her  entire  coast  line.  To-day  the 
forty  million  residents  of  the  island  would  be  at  the  mercy  of  a 
foe  that  could  prevent  the  importation  of  foodstuffs.  As  the 
nation  has  grown  in  industry  and  great  cities  have  been  built  up, 
it  has  been  necessary  to  supplement  home  agricultural  production 
by  the  products  of  other  lands. 

The  United  States  with  her  immense  industrial  development 
is  still  an  agricultural  nation.  But  as  her  industrial  expansion 
continues  she  will  be  compelled  to  press  harder  and  harder  on  her 
land  for  subsistence.  It  is  by  no  means  unthinkable  that  the  day 
will  come  when  the  United  States  will  be  mainly  an  importer 
rather  than  an  exporter  of  the  products  of  the  farm. 

In  the  year  1800  there  were  approximately  five  million  persons 
in  the  United  States.  In  1850  the  population  was  twenty-three 
million;  in  1880,  fifty  million;  in  1900,  seventy-six  million;  and  in 
1918,  one  hundred  and  six  million.  What  it  will  be  in  1925  we 
do  not  know,  but  it  is  reasonable  to  assume  that  the  food  supply 
sufficient  for  to-day  will  not  be  sufficient  for  that  not  far  distant 
date.  Our  younger  soldiers  returning  from  the  battle  front  may 
even  indulge  in  academic  speculation  as  to  our  probable  source 
of  food  supply  in  1950. 

The  second  of  the  two  problems  named  above  is  that  of  un- 
employment. At  all  times  there  is  a  certain  amount  of  unem- 
ployment in  industry.  That  is,  there  are  always  men  who  are 
able  to  work  and  who  are  seeking  work,  but  who  are  out  of  work. 

Even  during  the  war  when  the  clamor  for  labor  for  war  in- 
dustries was  the  loudest  there  were  certain  trades  in  which  there 
was  a  good  deal  of  unemployment.  For  example,  in  many 
parts  of  the  country  where  there  was  no  Government  construction 
work  there  was  dullness  and  unemployment  in  the  building  trades 
because  of  the  difficulty  or  impossibility  of  getting  material. 

In  times  of  peace  there  is  always  a  certain  amount  of  unem- 
ployment. The  amount  of  it  is  greater  at  some  times  than  at  other 
times.     Years  of  industrial  expansion  are  followed  by  years  of 


340  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

business  depression  when  wages  fall  and  employees  are  dis- 
charged in  large  numbers.  These  discharged  men,  demoralized, 
seek  for  work  which  returns  to  them  only  with  the  return  of 
business  prosperity. 

Again,  employment  in  many  occupations  is  of  a  seasonal  nature. 
There  is  a  part  of  the  year  when  workers  are  needed,  only  to  be 
discharged  when  the  slack  season  arrives.  There  are  for  instance 
many  industries  which  work  feverishly  for  the  Christmas  holiday 
trade  and  which  have  their  dull  season  as  soon  as  the  holiday  is 
reached. 

Then,  too,  there  are  casual  occupations  where  workers  are 
employed  in  considerable  numbers  upon  a  job  lasting  only  a  day 
or  a  few  days.  When  the  job  is  finished  the  workers  become  idlers 
and  their  time  is  wasted  until  a  new  job  turns  up.  The  work  of 
the  longshoreman  has  long  served  as  the  type  of  this  kind  of  un- 
employment. 

In  the  years  that  are  to  come,  these  various  forms  of  unem- 
ployment will  be  with  us  as  they  have  been  in  the  past  unless 
some  serious  effort  is  made  to  find  a  remedy  for  them.  In  the 
more  immediate  future  they  will  be  with  us  in  an  accentuated 
form  due  to  the  fact  that  such  a  large  number  of  soldiers  and 
sailors  will  be  returning  to  civilian  life  and  such  a  large  number  of 
workers  in  munitions  factories  will  be  seeking  employment  in 
peace  industries.  Moreover,  women  have  gone  into  industry  in 
large  numbers  during  the  war  and  many  of  them  will  no  doubt 
remain  in  their  new-found  places  in  the  years  that  are  to  come. 
The  men  who  have  formerly  held  these  positions  will  now  be 
compelled  to  look  for  other  work. 

To  sum  up  the  situation:  we  are  confronted  by  the  likelihood 
of  unemployment  on  a  large  scale  in  the  years  directly  ahead  of 
us,  and  we  are  urged  to  produce  food  for  the  world  for  the  im- 
mediate future  and  to  prepare  to  produce  food  for  ourselves  on  a 
larger  scale  than  hitherto  for  the  years  that  lie  beyond  the  im- 
mediate future.  The  rich  prairies  of  the  Civil  War  period  no 
longer  remain  in  Government  possession  to  be  granted  to  returning 
soldiers;  but  we  have  hundreds  of  millions  of  acres  of  equally 
rich  soil  at  present  unused  which,  at  a  cost  in  labor  not  at  all 
prohibitive,  may  be  made  into  productive  farms.  What  could  be 
a  more  reasonable  procedure  than  to  apply  the  surplus  labor 
upon  this  unused  land  and  produce  the  needed  food. 


Land  Colonization  341 

iii.  soldier  settlements  in  english-speaking  countries 

Long  before  we  had  entered  the  war  the  allied  nations  were 
devoting  attention  to  the  problem  of  the  occupation  of  the  re- 
turning soldier.  At  the  present  time  the  United  States  is  the 
only  English-speaking  country  which  has  not  passed  special 
soldier  settlement  legislation. 

In  Great  Brilain  there  has  been  a  great  deal  of  agitation  for 
land  settlement  legislation  but  the  experiment  is  still  in  its  rude 
beginnings.  Four  colonies  have  been  established  already  by  the 
Soldiers  and  Sailors  Land  Committee.  According  to  the  plan, 
each  of  these  colonies  is  to  have  about  a  hundred  families  living 
on  farms  averaging  from  ten  to  twenty-five  acres  each.  The 
land  is  to  be  leased  to  the  settlers  rather  than  sold  to  them. 

In  Canada  there  has  been  soldier  settlement  legislation  by  the 
Dominion  Government  and  by  several  of  the  Provinces.  The 
Dominion  law  of  August  29,  1917,  entitled  an  "Act  to  assist  re- 
turned soldiers  in  settling  upon  the  land  and  to  increase  agri- 
cultural production,"  grants  agricultural  credit  when  needed  to 
soldiers  in  any  part  of  the  Dominion  and  makes  a  gift  of  Dominion 
land  in  Western  Canada. 

The  Provinces  of  New  Brunswick,  Ontario  and  British  Columbia 
have  supplemented  the  Dominion  legislation  by  grants  of  both 
lands  and  credit  to  the  returning  soldier.  Experiment  farms  are 
to  be  maintained  by  New  Brunswick  and  Ontario  to  train  the 
settlers  as  well  as  by  the  Dominion  Government.  Details  of 
the  plans  are  presented  in  the  table  below. 

In  Australia  under  an  agreement  between  Commonwealth  and 
States  the  States  are  to  furnish  the  land  for  settlement  while  the 
Commonwealth  makes  advances  to  cover  the  cost  of  improve- 
ments, stock,  etc.  A  board  consisting  of  a  minister  from  each 
State  and  one  from  the  Commonwealth  is  to  administer  the  funds. 
Each  settler  is  to  be  allowed  a  loan  up  to  the  full  value  of  his 
improvements. 

In  the  States  of  New  South  Wales,  Queensland  and  South 
Australia  a  perpetual  leasehold  tenure  of  the  land  is  granted 
which  will  amount  in  practice  to  a  freehold  tenure.  In  Victoria 
and  Western  Australia  the  settler  gets  a  fee  simple  title  to  the 
land  after  the  purchase  conditions  have  been  met. 

In  New  Zealand  and  Tasmania  both  leasehold  and  freehold 
tenures  are  provided.     In  both  cases  agricultural  training  is  pro- 


342  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

vided  for  the  settlers,  as  it  also  is  in  the  other  Australasian  States. 
Here,  too,  capital  is  advanced  to  the  settler  to  aid  in  the  improve- 
ment of  the  land. 

In  the  Union  of  South  Africa  there  has  been  no  special  soldier 
settlement  legislation  of  importance.  The  British  South  Africa 
Company  is  the  principal  agency  preparing  farms  for  settlement. 
It  has  500,000  acres  of  irrigable  land  which  it  will  clear  and  plow 
for  the  settlers.  Twenty  per  cent  of  the  purchase  price  is  to  be 
paid  in  six  years  and  the  balance  in  the  four  following  years. 
The  settler  does  not  pay  interest  during  the  first  five  years.  The 
Government  assists  the  settler  in  the  matters  of  agricultural  train- 
ing and  capital  for  improving  the  farm. 

The  accompanying  table,  compiled  by  the  United  States 
Reclamation  Service,  sets  forth  the  principal  details  of  the  various 
soldier  settlement  plans. 

IV.    THE   STATE   LAND    SETTLEMENT   OF   CALIFORNIA 

Under  a  law  passed  by  the  legislature  of  California  in  1917, 
a  State  Land  Settlement  Board  was  created  and  given  the  task 
of  planning  and  developing  organized  rural  neighborhoods.  The 
limit  of  the  experiment  was  placed  at  ten  thousand  acres. 

The  purpose  of  the  legislation  is  stated  in  the  Land  Settlement 
Act  as  that  "of  promoting  closer  agricultural  settlements,  assist- 
ing deserving  and  qualified  persons  to  acquire  small  improved 
farms,  providing  homes  for  farm  laborers,  increasing  oppor- 
tunities under  the  Federal  Farm  Loan  Act,  and  demonstrating 
the  value  of  adequate  capital  and  organized  direction  in  sub- 
dividing and  preparing  agricultural  land  for  settlement." 

After  examining  a  number  of  blocks  of  land  suitable  for  the 
purpose,  the  Board  purchased  a  tract  near  Durham,  California, 
and  proceeded  to  subdivide  it  and  prepare  it  for  crops.  When 
the  land  was  offered  for  settlement  in  May,  1918,  crops  were 
growing  on  a  considerable  area  of  it  and  much  of  it  was  ready  for 
irrigation. 

The  following  were  the  conditions  on  which  the  land  was 
offered  for  settlement:  "Settlers  were  to  pay  5  per  cent  of  the  cost 
of  the  land  and  40  per  cent  of  the  cost  of  the  improvements  at  the 
time  of  purchase,  the  remainder  of  the  purchase  price  to  extend 
over  a  period  of  twenty  years,  with  interest  at  the  rate  of  5  per 
cent  per  annum.     Payments  are  principal  and  interest  to  be  made 


Land  Colonization  343 

semi-annually  in  accord  with  the  amortization  table  of  the  Federal 
Farm  Loan  Board,  the  settler  to  receive  a  contract  of  purchase 
which  sets  forth  the  conditions  of  payment  and  the  obligation  he 
assumed,  deed  to  the  land  to  be  given  when  payments  were 
completed." 

The  Board  in  its  first  annual  report  sets  forth  the  following  as 
among  the  things  which  it  desires  to  see  achieved: 

1.  The  settlement  to  become  widely  and  favorably  known  as 
the  home  of  one  breed  of  dairy  cattle,  one  breed  of  beef  cattle, 
one  breed  of  hogs,  and  one  or  two  breeds  of  sheep. 

2.  The  cooperation  of  the  settlers  in  buying  and  selling. 

3.  The  establishment  at  Durham  or  on  the  settlement  land  of  a 
training-school  in  agriculture. 

4.  The  erection  in  the  near  future  of  a  social  hall  owned  and 
paid  for  by  settlers. 

In  addition  to  farms  the  plan  provides  also  for  a  number  of 
two-acre  allotments  for  farm  laborers.  Upon  these  it  is  expected 
that  the  laborer  will  keep  a  cow  and  chickens  and  cultivate  a 
vegetable  garden.  The  payments  necessary  for  the  purchase  of 
such  an  allotment  are  less  than  the  laborer  would  have  to  pay  for 
house  rent  in  town. 

Some  measure  of  the  probable  success  of  the  California  ex- 
periment in  land  colonization  may  be  gained  from  the  eagerness 
of  applicants  to  secure  farms.  At  the  time  the  allotment  of  farms 
was  made  there  were  twice  as  many  applicants  for  farms  as  there 
were  farms.  The  payments  made  by  the  settlers  will  be  without 
any  doubt  sufficient  to  pay  back  to  the  State  all  of  the  money 
advanced,  with  interest.  All  of  the  farm  laborers'  allotments  have 
been  applied  for  and  are  now  occupied. 

V.    DETAILS   OF   SECRETARY   LANE'S    PLAN 

In  the  expectation  that  Congress  will  enact  legislation  authoriz- 
ing the  Federal  Government  to  cooperate  with  the  States  in  pro- 
viding farms  for  ex-service  men,  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior 
has  communicated  to  the  Governors  of  the  various  States  a  draft 
of  a  bill  which  they  are  requested  to  present  to  the  State  legis- 
latures for  appropriate  action.  In  forwarding  the  document  to 
the  Governors  the  Secretary  entitles  it  "Draft  of  bill  proposed  for 
cooperation  between  the  States  and  the  United  States  to  provide 
employment  and  homes  for  soldiers,  sailors  and  marines,  under 


344  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

which  the  States  shall  furnish  the  lands  and  the  United  States 
the  funds;  with  an  alternative  proposition  so  that  the  States  may 
participate  further  in  furnishing  funds  and  also  in  supervising  the 
improvement  and  settlement  of  the  lands."  In  addition  to 
these  plans  the  Department  of  the  Interior  will  go  forward  with 
its  plans  which  have  already  been  under  way  for  sixteen  years 
of  developing  irrigation  projects  and  locating  settlers  on  Govern- 
ment land. 

Under  the  first  of  the  two  plans  of  cooperation  between  State 
and  Federal  Government,  the  State  is  to  provide  the  land  for 
settlement  and  the  United  States  is  to  provide  the  money  neces- 
sary to  meet  the  expenses  of  reclamation  and  subdivision  and 
the  necessary  improvements  and  equipment  and  to  perform  the 
necessary  work  and  have  charge  of  all  settlement  work.  The 
Federal  Government  is  to  collect  the  payments  from  the  settlers 
and  repay  to  the  State  the  cost  of  the  land. 

Under  the  alternative  plan  the  State  is  to  furnish  not  only 
the  land  but  a  considerable  part  of  the  capital  to  be  spent  in  the 
work  of  reclamation  and  for  farm  implements  and  stock  and 
other  necessary  equipment.  Under  this  second  plan  the  State 
Soldier  Settlement  Board  has  the  option,  under  the  supervision 
of  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior,  of  controlling  the  preparation  of 
the  land  as  homes  and  its  settlement  in  accordance  with  certain 
principles  stated  in  the  act. 

The  farms  to  be  provided  are  to  be  of  an  unimproved  value 
of  not  more  than  $15,000.  The  allotments  for  farm  laborers  are 
to  be  of  an  unimproved  value  of  not  more  than  $1,500.  The 
maximum  public  expenditure  for  improvements  upon  each  farm 
is  to  be  fixed  by  agreement  between  the  State  and  Federal  agencies 
charged  with  the  handling  of  the  matter. 

The  United  States  is  to  advance  funds  to  the  Soldier  Settle- 
ment Board  to  make  loans  to  approved  settlers  for  making  im- 
provements and  purchasing  equipment.  The  funds  for  this  latter 
purpose,  called  "short- time  loans,"  are  not  to  exceed  $3,000  to 
each  settler.  The  Board  is  to  be  held  responsible  for  seeing  that 
the  money  advanced  is  applied  by  the  settler  for  the  purpose  for 
which  it  was  loaned. 

The  manner  of  sale  of  the  farms  is  to  be  such  as  to  afford  equal 
opportunity  to  all  qualified  soldiers  desiring  to  purchase.  The 
contract  shall  provide  for  immediate  payment  of  2  per  cent  of  the 


Land  Colonization  345 

sale  price  of  the  land,  including  reclamation  costs  and  in  addition 
not  less  than  10  per  cent  of  the  cost  of  farm  improvements.  The 
balance  of  the  cost  of  the  land  and  of  the  reclamation  costs  is 
to  be  paid  in  forty-four  years  together  with  interest  on  deferred 
payments  at  the  rate  of  4  per  cent.  The  amount  due  on  farm 
improvements  is  to  be  repaid  in  a  period  not  to  exceed  twenty 
years  in  annual  payments  sufficient  to  return  the  capital  sum  and 
interest  at  4  per  cent  on  deferred  payments.  Short-time  loans  are 
to  be  repaid  in  a  period  not  exceeding  five  years. 

The  contract  will  require  that  the  purchaser  cultivate  the  land 
in  a  manner  to  be  approved  by  the  Board  and  that  he  keep  all 
buildings,  improvements  and  equipment  in  good  order.  If  he 
fails  to  comply  with  the  terms  of  the  contract  the  Board  has  the 
option  of  cancelling  the  contract. 

Whenever  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior  and  the  State  Board  find 
that  the  available  lands  are  not  required  for  soldiers,  sailors  or  ma- 
rines, they  may  be  opened  to  other  citizens  of  the  United  States. 

VI.    WHY   GROUP   SETTLEMENT   IS   DESIRED 

The  Government  was  able  to  offer  to  the  soldiers  returning  from 
the  Civil  War  fertile  prairie  farms  in  what  are  now  the  rich  agri- 
cultural States  of  the  Northwest.  But  for  the  soldiers  returning 
from  the  present  war  there  are  no  fertile  prairie  lands  to  be  given 
away.  Instead  there  are  the  swamp  lands,  and  the  dry  lands  and 
the  cut-over  lands  and  the  lands  with  wornout  soils. 

The  early  settlers  on  the  Western  farms  often  underwent 
severe  hardships  that  settlers  of  to-day  would  shrink  from — hard- 
ships that  would  have  been  often  unnecessary  if  saner  methods 
of  settlement  had  been  adopted.  The  sons  and  grandsons  of 
those  settlers  know  of  the  early  trials  and  disappointments  only 
by  hearsay,  if  at  all;  but  the  valuable  farms  which  they  have  in- 
herited are  real.  And  so  it  is  not  to  be  wondered  at  if  they  are 
slow  to  see  the  need  of  giving  greater  assistance  to  the  soldier 
farmer  of  to-day  than  was  given  to  the  veterans  of  the  Civil  War. 

But  the  individual  soldier  addressing  himself  to  the  problem 
without  appreciable  capital  cannot  unaided  build  the  dams  and 
dig  the  trenches  necessary  to  make  an  irrigated  farm  out  of  a 
stretch  of  desert  land.  If  the  thing  is  to  be  done  economically,  a 
hundred  or  a  thousand  farms  must  be  prepared  at  a  time. 

Similarly  one  farm  cannot  be  created  from  a  vast  swamp. 
The  whole  swamp  must  be  drained  as  one  operation. 


346  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

The  individual  settler  can  make  a  farm  out  of  a  cut-over  area, 
but  it  is  a  back-breaking  operation.  Power  machines  can  be 
obtained  to  pull  stumps,  but  they  represent  a  considerable  in- 
vestment of  capital.  They  can  be  used  to  advantage  only  when 
large  areas  are  to  be  cleared  of  stumps.  They  are  too  expensive 
for  the  individual  settler  to  employ.  And  so  clearing  cut-over 
land  is  a  matter  for  group  rather  than  individual  action. 

Where  the  soil,  once  cultivated,  has  been  allowed  to  deteriorate 
and  cultivation  has  been  abandoned,  it  may  require  two  or  three 
years  of  building  up  before  profitable  crops  can  be  obtained. 
Here  again  the  individual  settler  without  capital  is  unable  to  cope 
with  the  situation.  He  needs  guidance  and  credit  in  order  that  he 
may  plan  wisely  and  wait  patiently,  and  these  can  most  profitably 
be  furnished  to  settlers  in  groups. 

But  even  after  the  land  is  prepared  for  cultivation  and  crop- 
growing,  there  are  many  advantages  accruing  to  the  settlers  who 
act  in  unison.  Houses  and  farm  buildings  must  be  planned  and 
bought  and  built  and  this  planning  and  buying  and  building  can 
be  done  much  more  cheaply  and  satisfactorily  when  it  is  done 
wholesale. 

Better  grades  of  livestock  will  be  produced  if  the  breeds  are 
standardized  for  the  whole  community.  Better  prices  will  be 
obtained  for  livestock  and  crops  if  cooperative  marketing  is 
practiced. 

Farming  is  a  seasonal  occupation.  At  certain  times  of  the  year 
the  farmer  needs  outside  assistance.  A  great  deal  of  the  extra 
labor  which  the  farmer  calls  in  is  casual  labor — hobo  labor. 
The  hobo  is  without  family  ties.  He  is  a  social  outcast.  He  is  a 
social  menace.  But  in  properly  organized  farm  communities  a 
place  is  reserved  for  farm  labor.  Laborers'  allotments  of  an 
acre  or  two  are  provided  for  the  laborer  where  he  may  keep  his 
cow  and  chickens  and  garden.  He  may  marry  and  bring  up  a 
family  and  lead  a  normal  life,  spending  his  spare  time  in  his 
garden  when  he  is  not  able  to  secure  day's  wages.  The  plan 
enables  the  farmer  to  have  a  reliable  labor  supply  and  it  enables 
the  laborer  to  lead  a  human  life. 

VII.    POPE   LEO'S   LAND    POLICY 

Some  of  the  advantages  of  group  action  from  the  standpoint 
of  the  settler  have  been  indicated  in  the  preceding  section.     From 


Land  Colonization  317 

the  standpoint  of  the  nation  there  are  also  reasons  why  a  policy 
of  unrestricted  laissez  faire  in  agriculture  is  not  desirable. 

In  many  of  the  most  fertile  agricultural  States  of  the  country 
there  are  fewer  persons  occupied  on  the  land  than  there  were 
ten  or  twenty  years  ago.  Free  trade  in  land  has  made  it  profitable 
to  treat  land  as  capital  from  which  a  money  income  is  to  be  gained 
rather  than  as  a  source  of  subsistence  for  the  human  race.  Owner- 
ship by  absentee  landlords  and  cultivation  by  tenant  farmers  is 
on  the  increase. 

A  land  policy  is  needed  which  will  encourage  the  tenant  worker 
to  hope  to  become  an  owner-worker.  The  divorce  of  land- 
ownership  from  land  worker  ship  should  be  annulled.  The  nation 
will  be  the  gainer  when  the  men  who  work  the  land  are  the  men 
who  own  the  land. 

As  Pope  Leo  XIII  put  it,  "Men  always  work  harder  and  more 
readily  when  they  work  on  that  which  belongs  to  them;  nay,  they 
learn  to  love  that  very  soil  which  yields,  in  response  to  the  labor 
of  their  hands,  not  only  food  to  eat,  but  an  abundance  of  good 
things  for  themselves  and  those  that  are  dear  to  them.  That 
such  a  spirit  of  willing  labor  would  add  to  the  produce  of  the 
earth  and  to  the  wealth  of  the  community  is  self-evident." 

VIII.    SPECIAL   CATHOLIC   INTEREST  IN   LAND    COLONIZATION 

As  good  citizens  Catholics  have  the  same  interest  as  other 
good  citizens  in  the  working  out  of  a  healthy  land  policy.  It 
matters  to  them  as  it  matters  to  all  good  citizens  not  only  that 
the  nation  is  able  to  feed  itself  to-day  but  that  it  looks  forward 
twenty-five  or  fifty  years  and  work  out  the  plans  that  will  supply 
food  to  the  population  of  the  future.  Whatever  may  be  said  for 
or  against  a  policy  of  isolation  in  other  respects,  the  war  has 
demonstrated  that  a  nation  which  can  produce  its  own  food  supply 
is  in  a  position  of  peculiar  advantage  when  war  threatens.  But 
it  is  also  true  that  in  times  of  peace  a  nation  which  has  a  numerous 
citizenship  consisting  of  land-owners  who  cultivate  their  own 
land  and  with  their  own  hands  is  likely  to  enjoy  a  more  whole- 
some existence  than  one  made  up  predominantly  of  wage-earners. 
And  so  good  Catholics  are  not  without  interest  in  the  land  settle- 
ment question. 

In  the  choosing  of  the  settlers  to  whom  allotments  are  to  be 
made,  we  shall,  of  course,  be  interested  in  a  special  way  to  know 


348  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

that  Catholics  are  not  discriminated  against — that  they  have 
the  same  chance  as  any  other  section  of  our  citizenry  to  obtain 
land  from  the  Government  on  reasonable  terms.  The  Catholics 
in  this  country  are  already  to  too  small  an  extent  cultivators  of 
the  soil.  They  are  in  the  main  city  dwellers  rather  than  country 
folk.  But  the  future  of  the  Nation  belongs  to  the  dwellers  in 
the  country.  The  city  population  dies  out  and  is  replenished  by 
new  blood  from  the  country.  The  country  not  only  maintains 
itself  but  it  maintains  the  city  by  giving  of  its  excess  population. 
Looking  at  the  matter  again  not  so  much  as  a  selfish  Catholic 
interest  but  as  a  broader  American  interest,  it  is  of  the  greatest 
importance  that  the  land  colonization  plan  be  successful;  but  its 
success  can  best  be  assured  if  the  religious  denominations  of  the 
country  make  their  contribution  to  the  working  out  of  the  plan. 
In  the  attempts  of  the  past  in  this  country  to  carry  on  land  coloni- 
zation the  greatest  successes  have  been  achieved  by  colonies  held 
together  by  the  religious  bond.  It  was  not  the  well-advertised 
colonies  of  Fourier  and  Owen  and  the  Brook  Farm  Colony  that 
succeeded  but  rather  the  religious  colonies  of  the  Mormons  and 
Shakers,  and  the  numerous  settlements  of  Catholics  and  Lutheran 
and  other  religious  denominations. 


afT*" 


SOME  EXCELLENT  TENDENCIES  IN  CATHOLK 
CATION  REVEALED  BY  THE  WAR 

Thirteen  days  after  the  signing  of  the  armistice,  the  President 
Emeritus  of  Harvard,  Dr.  Charles  W.  Eliot,  addressed  a  represen- 
tative gathering,  in  one  of  the  largest  halls  of  New  York  City,  on 
the  topic,  "Defects  in  American  Education  Revealed  by  the  War." 
Dr.  Eliot's  critique  on  the  American  system  of  education  was 
well  founded.  His  criticisms  were,  moreover,  constructive. 
Indeed,  the  pedagogic  reformation  suggested  by  our  educational 
Nestor  will  likely  be  in  full  operation  before  long,  much  to  the 
interest  of  the  children  of  to-day  and  the  efficiency  of  the  men  and 
women  of  to-morrow. 

If,  as  Dr.  Eliot  asserts,  the  war  has  revealed  appalling  defects 
in  American  education,  it  has  also  brought  conspicuously  to  light 
many  excellencies  in  Catholic  education.  In  so  far  as  the  educa- 
tion given  in  our  Church  schools  coincides  with  that  of  the  govern- 
ment schools,  we  may  generally  accept  the  recommendations  of 
Dr.  Eliot.  And  in  all  branches  of  study  purely  secular,  it  is  the 
aim  of  the  Catholic  school  to  give,  in  quantity  and  quality,  at 
least  the  equivalent  of  what  is  furnished  in  the  public  school. 
That  there  is,  indeed,  plenty  of  room  for  improvement  in  our 
courses  of  study,  by  wise  elimination,  by  thoughtful  enriching,  by 
development  of  interest,  earnestness,  and  devotion,  we  only  too 
readily  admit.  In  that,  however,  which  alone  differentiates  the 
Catholic  school  from  the  public  school,  i.  e.,  the  cultivation  of  the 
religious  sense,  the  war  has  pointed  out  most  signally  the  excellence 
and  paramount  importance,  from  a  patriotic  viewpoint,  of  many 
of  the  virtues  a  knowledge  of  which  is  imparted  and  the  practice 
of  which  is  encouraged  in  our  Catholic  schools. 

To  the  formerly  prodigal,  lavish,  yes,  even  wantonly  wasteful 
people  of  America,  the  war  has  taught  a  much  needed  lesson  of 
conservation.  Herbert  Hoover  has,  in  fact,  immortalized  himself 
by  his  success  in  leading  us  back  to  the  simple  life,  in  persuading 
us  to  be  contented  with  restricted  diet,  few  pleasures,  and  ordi- 
nary clothes.  The  task  of  the  great  food  administrator  was  made 
easier  for  him  by  the  lessons  that  had  been  taught  from  the  begin- 
ning in  our  Catholic  schools.  Long  before  Herbert  Hoover 
prescribed  his  meatless  Tuesday,  Catholic  teaching  had  established 
a  meatless  Friday.     The  other  restrictions  the  food  administra- 

349 


350  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

tion  placed  on  diet  were  welcomed  as  a  matter  of  course  by  the 
Catholics  of  the  country  who  from  infancy  had  learned  the  doc- 
trine of  retrenchment  from  the  annual  Lenten  pastorals  of  their 
bishops. 

In  Catholic  schools,  the  first  sermon  of  the  Master,  that  on 
the  Mount,  is  presented  as  containing  the  basis  of  religious  thought, 
the  motive  of  all  altruistic  action.  That  discourse  begins  with 
a  eulogy  of  poverty :  Blessed  are  the  poor  in  spirit.  This  opening 
sentence,  it  is,  that,  in  its  effects,  makes  possible  our  Catholic 
schools.  Were  it  not  for  the  practice  of  poverty  by  our  teaching 
brotherhoods  and  sisterhoods,  the  expense  of  maintaining  separate 
schools  would  be  beyond  the  means  of  our  Catholic  people.  The 
teachers  of  our  Catholic  schools,  much  to  the  edification  of  their 
pupils  and  their  neighbors,  have  ever  been  practicing  conserva- 
tion, living  content  with  the  bare  necessaries  of  life  in  order  the 
better  to  extend  the  kingdom  of  Him  Who  made  poverty  a  corner- 
stone of  the  indestructible  fabric  He  came  on  earth  to  build.  The 
self-denial  always  taught  in  our  Catholic  schools  and  the  poverty 
practiced  by  our  Catholic  teachers  were  implicitly  approved  and 
commended  by  Mr.  Hoover's  plans  for  conservation. 

As,  on  the  entrance  of  the  United  States  into  the  war,  our 
cantonments  began  to  swell  out  from  little  camps  to  veritable 
cities,  stringent  measures  were  taken  by  the  War  Department  to 
safeguard  the  men  in  khaki  against  the  lower  and  more  shameful 
forms  of  vice.  Lines  were  drawn  fast  and  rigid  regulations 
were  made  to  protect  the  chastity  of  the  troops.  Chaplains  were 
increased  threefold  that  a  religious  foundation  for  virtue  might 
be  more  securely  laid.  Secretary  Baker  even  threatened  to 
remove  whole  divisions  of  the  army  from  localities  where  the 
ordinary  civil  authority  was  slow  in  seconding  the  efforts  of  the 
army  officials  to  secure  wholesome,  morally  sound  camp  sur- 
roundings. Secretary  Daniels,  in  like  manner,  strove  hard  to 
develop  a  sea  force  of  virile,  continent  sailors,  for  he,  as  well  as 
his  cabinet  colleague  in  control  of  the  land  forces,  knew  full  well 
that  the  vigorous,  indomitable,  unconquerable  fighter  is  the  chaste 
fighter. 

Now  chastity  is  a  virtue  that  is  nourished  as  the  tender  lily  in 
Catholic  schools.  All  the  doctrines  of  our  religion  constitute,  as 
it  were,  a  rampart  around  it.  The  sacraments  water,  support 
and  sustain  the  delicate  plant.     The  thought  of  the  ever  abiding 


Catholic  Education  and  the  War  351 

presence  of  God,  renewed  frequently  in  our  classrooms,  is  the 
sunshine  essential  for  all  healthy  growth.  Very  often,  under  such 
fostering  care,  the  virtue  flowers  into  a  virgin  nun  or  a  priest 
pledged  to  continence.  Catholic  schools  thus  produce  happy 
results  in  the  promotion  of  esteem  for  chastity  for  the  reason  that 
the  teachers  of  our  schools  have  the  advantage  derived  from  a 
higher  standard.  Nobody  less  instructed  than  the  high  school 
graduate  attempts  to  teach  a  grade  class;  the  college  graduate  is 
demanded  as  a  high  school  instructor;  only  the  university  man  with 
a  post  graduate  degree  is  given  a  college  chair.  The  advantage  to 
the  teacher  of  a  higher  standard  is,  indeed,  manifestly  apparent. 
So  is  it  with  the  inculcation  of  chastity,  the  ornament  of  the 
individual,  the  bulwark  of  the  family,  the  honor  of  the  nation; 
"How  beautiful  is  the  chaste  generation  with  glory."  As  our 
Catholic  teachers,  Priests,  Brothers,  and  Sisters  vow  chastity, 
their  influence  is  increased  by  the  vantage  ground  thus  taken; 
for,  while  they  lead  their  young  charge  on  to  the  observance  of  the 
commandments,  they  themselves  tend,  not  only  to  the  same  goal, 
but  to  the  higher  ideal  of  the  evangelical  counsel.  There  have 
been,  indeed,  scoffers  at  the  chastity  of  our  religious  and  clergy, 
but  they  have  been  silenced,  in  large  measure,  by  the  attitude  of 
our  government  toward  the  best  moral  interests  of  our  men  under 
arms  in  the  late  war.  It  is  more  freely  admitted  now  that  chastity 
is  necessary  for  the  army  of  the  cross  as  for  the  army  of  the  sword. 
The  war  has,  then,  shown  of  what  utility  to  the  nation  is  Catholic 
teaching  and  practice  regarding  the  holy  virtue  of  purity. 

Freedom  of  speech,  freedom  of  the  press,  individual  assertive- 
ness,  all,  willingly  or  unwillingly  surrendered  their  esteemed  privi- 
leges upon  the  entrance  of  our  country  into  the  late  war.  Our 
chief  magistrate  was,  for  the  duration  of  the  strife,  invested  with 
powers  that  made  him  a  virtual  autocrat.  Unfeigned  respect  for 
officials  and  blind  obedience  to  authority  were  preached  from  plat- 
form, stage,  and  sanctum,  as  well  as  from  pulpit.  Loyalty  to 
President  and  Flag  was  the  watchword  of  the  hour. 

These  concerted  efforts  to  arouse  a  spirit  of  unswerving  allegiance 
to  our  government  constituted  nothing  new  for  those  trained  in 
Catholic  schools  where,  under  the  heading  of  the  Fourth  Com- 
mandment of  the  Decalogue,  they  were  repeatedly  taught  the 
obligation  of  obeying,  besides  parents,  all  magistrates  and  other 
lawful  superiors.     Obedience  is  a  virtue  kindly  but  firmly  insisted 


352  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

upon  in  our  Catholic  schools.  It  is  vowed  by  our  teachers,  prom- 
ised by  our  school  principals,  the  priests,  at  their  ordination,  and 
sworn  to  by  our  chief  pastors,  the  bishops,  on  the  occasion  of  their 
consecration.  Respect  for  authority  and  fealty  to  the  representa- 
tives thereof,  ever  fostered  in  our  Catholic  schools,  became  highly 
appreciated  war  assets  during  the  period  of  recent  hostilities.  We 
are,  indeed,  accused  of  overemphasizing  authority  and  obedience 
in  our  system  of  education ;  yet  that  is  precisely  the  kind  of  teach- 
ing that  the  nation  needed  most  and  heartily  adopted  throughout 
the  term  of  the  war. 

The  government,  in  the  earlier  half  of  the  past  year,  asked  its 
loyal  citizens  to  raise  their  minds  and  hearts  to  the  Lord  several 
times  each  day  and  to  beseech  the  God  of  Armies,  through  the 
Prince  of  Peace,  to  interpose  and  to  put  an  end  to  the  frightful 
carnage  then  going  on.  The  recommendation  was  anticipated  by 
those  trained  in  our  parochial  schools  where  prayer  begins  and 
ends  the  sessions  and  where  the  beautiful  practice  is  acquired  of 
saying  the  Angelus  morning,  noon,  and  night. 

Last  spring  President  Wilson  requested  us  to  make  Decoration 
Day,  May  30,  a  day  of  fasting  and  prayer.  That  was  another 
approbation  of  Catholic  practice  perpetuated  in  our  Church 
through  her  system  of  education.  The  worst  kind  of  demon, 
disorder,  Catholic  children  are  taught  can  be  cast  out  only  by 
prayer  and  fasting.  So  by  proclamation  of  His  Holiness,  Benedict 
XV,  the  21st  of  March,  1915,  was  made  a  day  of  prayer  and 
penance  for  the  purpose  of  appeasing  God  and  terminating  the 
war.  Our  heavenly  Father  did  not  then  hearken  immediately. 
He  wished,  it  seems,  to  develop  the  religious  sense  of  our  rich, 
powerful,  exultant  American  people  by  bringing  them,  through 
stress  of  war,  to  recognize  the  worth  of  Catholic  education,  not 
only  to  the  individual,  but  to  the  body  politic.  The  war  has 
shown  that  the  political  fabric,  as  well  as  Catholic  education,  rests 
on  the  four  corner  stones — conservation,  chastity,  obedience,  and 
prayer  with  fasting.  This  was  demonstrated  step  by  step  within 
fifteen  months  after  our  break  in  diplomatic  relations  with  Ger- 
many. As  a  result,  ever  since  the  30th  of  last  May,  the  day  on 
which  acknowledgment  was  made  that  the  fourth  lesson  was 
learned  the  American  and  Allied  armies,  starting  out  from  Chateau 
Thierry,  have  kept  up  a  steady  and  unbroken  advance  to  the 
Rhine. 


Catholic  Education  and  the  War  353 

The  war,  then,  though  a  great  evil,  is  not  without  its  advantages 
to  mankind.  According  to  Dr.  Eliot,  it  has  awakened  our  leading 
teachers  to  a  realization  of  many  defects  in  American  education. 
It  has  done  more.  It  has  brought  a  world  that  was  fast  becoming 
agnostic  and  irreligious  to  recognize  some  excellent  tendencies  in 
Catholic  education. 

John  J.  Tracy. 
Mount  St.  Charles  College, 

Helena,  Montana. 


VOCAL  MUSIC  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

That  it  is  highly  desirable  to  teach  the  children  in  the  primary 
grades  to  sing  is  readily  admitted.  To  be  able  to  sing  is  an  ac- 
complishment which  might  well  be  desired  for  his  child  by  any 
parent.  But  there  are  graver  reasons  than  this  for  teaching  the 
children  to  sing.  There  is  at  present  a  widespread  recognition  of 
the  fact  that  music  plays  a  very  important  role  in  the  mental  and 
moral  development  of  the  child.  Modern  psychology  and  the 
practice  of  the  Christian  Church  lay  heavy  emphasis  on  the 
importance  of  music  as  a  basic  element  in  education.  If,  there- 
fore, we  find  Catholic  schools  that  fail  to  teach  music,  it  may  rea- 
sonably be  inferred  that  this  failure  is  not  due  to  a  want  of  recog- 
nition on  the  part  of  the  school  authorities  of  the  importance  of  the 
subject.  It  is  chiefly,  if  not  wholly,  due  to  the  difficulties  which 
seem  to  lie  in  the  way  of  securing  for  the  little  ones  competent 
instruction  in  music. 

A  large  percentage  of  our  primary  teachers  have  had  little  or  no 
instruction  in  music,  and  they  are  accordingly  reluctant  to  un- 
dertake a  work  for  which  they  feel  themselves  incompetent.  In 
fact,  many  of  these  teachers  would  be  frightened  at  the  sound  of 
their  own  voices  were  they  to  attempt  to  sing.  How  then,  it  is 
asked,  can  such  teachers  teach  the  little  ones  to  sing? 

When  the  primary  teachers  have  little  or  no  knowledge  of  music, 
would  it  be  wise  to  employ  a  special  teacher  who  would  devote 
herself  to  the  musical  instruction  of  the  several  grades?  Such  a 
procedure  would  find  much  to  commend  it,  and  certain  valid 
arguments  might  be  urged  against  anyone  but  the  primary  teacher 
undertaking  the  task.  However,  we  need  not  here  discuss  the 
question  of  desirability,  since  the  real  question  to  be  decided  is  one 
of  possibility. 

Our  schools  at  present  are  taxed  to  their  utmost  to  secure  the 
minimum  number  of  teachers.  The  salary  of  an  additional  teacher 
who  would  devote  her  entire  time  to  musical  instruction  would  be 
an  added  burden  not  lightly  to  be  undertaken  by  many  of  the 
schools.  Moreover,  even  if  the  parish  was  willing  to  supply  the 
added  salary,  the  communities  in  most  instances  would  find  them- 
selves unable  to  provide  the  extra  teacher.  The  teaching  com- 
munities are  unable  to  meet  the  present  demands  for  teachers,  and 
354 


Vocal  Music  in  the  Primary  Grades  355 

are  consequently  not  in  a  position  to  consider  applications  for 
extra  teachers. 

From  considerations  such  as  these,  it  will  readily  be  concluded 
that  the  primary  teacher  must  teach  the  children  music,  if  music 
is  to  be  taught  to  them.  However  great  the  difficulties  in  the  way 
may  seem,  they  must  be  overcome,  and  the  practical  question  is, 
What  can  be  done  to  help  those  teachers  who  are  devoid  of  musical 
education  to  get  the  minimum  of  training  for  the  work  of  teaching 
the  children  to  sing?  This  training,  of  course,  does  not  imply  an 
effort  to  transform  the  primary  teachers  into  musicians.  Experi- 
ence has  abundantly  demonstrated  the  fact  that  a  teacher  with 
very  limited  ability  in  music  may  be  taught  to  do  fairly  good  work 
with  the  little  ones  if  she  follows  a  correct  system. 

Thirty  hours  of  competent  instruction  and  practice  during  a 
summer  session  at  the  Sisters  College  will  make  it  possible  for  any 
fairly  intelligent  first  grade  teacher  to  teach  the  music  required 
in  her  grade  by  the  Catholic  University  Music  Course.  And  an 
additional  course  of  thirty  hours  will  suffice  as  a  minimum  for  a 
second  grade  teacher  in  the  same  course.  An  added  course  of 
thirty  hours  will  be  necessary  for  the  third  grade  teacher.  It  would 
be  well,  and  in  most  cases  it  will  be  possible,  to  have  some  super- 
vision by  a  more  competent  music  teacher. 

The  normal  course  for  the  primary  teachers  should  be  conducted 
by  one  who  is  not  only  a  musician  but  who  is  familiar  with  the 
problems  of  the  primary  room,  and  who  knows  how  to  teach  little 
children.  The  fundamental  pedagogical  principles  involved  in 
teaching  the  children  music  are  the  self-same  principles  which  the 
primary  teacher  must  use  in  teaching  the  other  subjects  of  the 
curriculum.  It  is  to  be  presumed,  therefore,  that  she  is  familiar 
with  these  principles,  and  if  the  brief  course  of  instruction  in 
music  which  she  receives  at  the  summer  session  is  clearly  based  on 
these  pedagogical  principles  she  will  make  rapid  progress. 
It  is,  in  fact,  only  in  this  way  that  such  brief  courses  can  have 
real  value  for  the  primary  teacher. 

Science  used  to  be  regarded  by  many  as  a  body  of  secret  and 
subtle  knowledge  which  was  accessible  only  to  the  few.  This 
concept,  however,  is  passing.  There  is  at  present  a  general 
recognition  of  the  fact  that  science  is  nothing  more  nor  less  than 
a  body  of  organized  truth  which  anyone  with  normal  faculties 
may  hope  to  master  if  he  is  willing  to  expend  the  requisite  time  and 


356  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

effort.  In  like  manner,  it  is  popularly  supposed  that  the  ability 
to  sing  is  an  inherited  talent  denied  to  the  many.  This  is  both 
untrue  and  mischievous.  There  are  very  few  who  lack  the  requi- 
site ability  to  sing  correctly,  but  most  children  need  training  to 
perfect  their  native  faculties  in  music  as  in  other  directions. 
Progress  in  this  field  of  education  has  been  much  impeded  by 
certain  mistaken  views  which  tend  to  discourage  both  the  teacher 
and  the  pupils.  Some  of  these  views  are  worthy  of  more  than 
passing  attention. 

The  so-called  scientific  method  is,  in  fact,  the  most  unscientific 
pretense  in  the  educational  field,  but  because  it  is  called  the 
scientific  method  many  have  come  to  believe  that  it  constitutes  the 
only  legitimate  entry  into  the  field  of  vocal  music.  This  method 
is  based  on  the  singer's  direct  conscious  control  of  the  muscular 
operations  involved  in  vocal  tone  production. 

The  mechanism  involved  in  vocal  tone  production  may  for  purposes 
of  convenience  be  considered  as  the  combination  of  three  groups  of 
muscles :  those  concerned  in  the  process  of  breathing,  those  govern- 
ing vocal  cord  action,  and  those  controlling  resonance.  These  are 
unquestionably  the  three  main  factors  involved  in  correct  singing. 
It  will  also  be  conceded  by  all  who  are  competent  to  speak  in  the 
matter  that  a  knowledge  of  the  mechanisms  involved  is  interesting 
from  many  points  of  view.  The  anatomist  and  the  physiologist 
find  this  study  well  within  their  respective  fields,  and  the  psycholo- 
gist adds  to  the  findings  of  morphology  and  physiology  the  results 
of  his  own  study  and  investigations.  But  this  knowledge,  how- 
ever complete,  will  not  of  itself  enable  one  to  sing.  In  fact,  it  may 
prove  very  effective  in  preventing  good  singing.  It  is  sure  to  do  so 
if  the  would-be  singer  allows  his  attention  to  drift  to  the  muscular 
mechanisms  involved,  instead  of  resting  upon  the  conscious  tonal 
representation  or  memory  picture. 

If  a  child  in  learning  to  drive  a  nail  were  first  obliged  to  learn 
the  names  and  actions  of  the  various  muscles  involved  before  begin- 
ning to  drive  the  nail,  it  is  quite  possible  that  his  fingers  might 
be  the  worse  for  such  knowledge.  For  while  his  attention  wTas 
fastened  on  the  various  contracting  muscles  and  his  will  involved 
in  the  effort  to  throw  the  requisite  tension  into  each  separate 
muscle,  the  hammer  would  be  likely  to  go  wide  of  its  mark.  As 
a  matter  of  fact,  the  child  learns  to  drive  the  nail  by  keeping  in 
mind  a  clear  picture  of  the  nail  and  of  its  position  in  space.     His 


Vocal  Music  in  the  Primary  Grades  357 

brain  is  so  constructed  that  these  images  automatically  release 
the  proper  motor  mechanisms.  In  like  manner,  when  the  mind 
holds  a  clear  image  of  the  desired  tone  this  image  automatically 
releases  the  proper  motor  mechanisms.  In  like  manner,  when  the 
mind  holds  a  clear  image  of  the  desired  tone  this  image  automat- 
ically releases  the  requisite  muscular  mechanisms  for  breathing,  for 
vocal  cord  action,  and  for  resonance.  Practice  will,  of  course,  be 
required  to  perfect  these  actions  and  render  them  automatic, 
just  as  practice  is  required  for  like  reasons  in  every  other  art.  But 
it  should  be  remembered  that  the  practice  is  practice  in  sensory 
control  over  muscular  reaction,  and  not  practice  in  intellectual 
or  reasoned  interference  with  the  motor  activity  which  can  never 
work  normally  until  it  is  a  part  of  the  thoroughly  established 
sensory  motor  action.  Whenever  the  motor  activity  depends  upon 
the  intellect  and  attention  instead  of  upon  sensory  images  the 
resultant  action  is  stiff  and  artificial,  resembling  that  of  an 
automaton  rather  than  that  of  a  living  being. 

The  pedagogical  principle  involved  in  this  phase  of  vocal  tone 
production  is  generally  spoken  of  as  the  procedure  from  content 
to  form.  When  the  child  holds  the  thought  clearly  in  mind  he  will 
with  little  difficulty  find  for  it  adequate  vital  expression,  whereas 
drilling  in  the  forms  of  expression  when  the  child  has  no  thought 
to  express  invariably  leads  to  stiffness  and  artificiality.  Forty 
years  ago  the  children  learning  to  read  were  taught  in  many 
schools  to  pause  at  a  comma  while  they  could  count  one,  at  a  semi- 
colon while  they  could  count  two,  and  at  a  period  while  they  could 
count  three.  They  were  taught  to  raise  their  voices  at  a  syllable 
immediately  preceding  an  interrogation  point,  and  to  lower  them 
at  one  immediately  preceding  a  period.  The  resultant  reading 
was  as  far  from  the  natural  utterance  of  the  author's  thought  as 
well  could  be  imagined.  This  mistaken  method  under  slightly 
changed  form  may  still  be  found  in  much  of  the  elocution  teaching 
of  the  present  day.  The  error  has  come  down  to  us  in  spite  of 
all  the  development  of  psychology  that  has  characterized  the  last 
few  decades.  In  spite  of  all  the  efforts  devoted  to  elocution  along 
the  lines  of  this  mistaken  method  the  results  are  poor  and  artificial. 
The  attention  of  the  audience,  like  that  of  the  speaker,  tends  to  rest 
upon  inflection,  accent  and  tonal  quality  instead  of  on  the  thought 
of  the  speaker.  When,  on  the  other  hand,  the  speaker's  attention 
is  wholly  absorbed  in  the  thought  that  he  is  imparting,  the  audi- 


358  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

ence  accompanies  him,  and  they  too  forget  all  about  tonal  quality 
and  inflection,  and  the  mannerisms  of  the  speaker,  unless  these  be 
peculiarly  offensive. 

The  child's  faulty  tonal  production  should,  of  course,  be  cor- 
rected by  the  teacher,  and  there  can  be  no  question  of  the  fact 
that  a  knowledge  of  the  mechanisms  involved  will  prove  helpful  to 
the  teacher  in  the  accomplishment  of  this  task,  but  she  must 
under  no  circumstance  rely  upon  the  explanation  of  the  vocal 
mechanism  to  cure  the  child's  fault.  If  a  doctor  proceeded  to 
explain  to  his  patient  just  what  was  the  etiology  and  progress  of 
the  disease  before  prescribing  for  him  the  chances  are  that  he  would 
aggravate  the  malady  and  forfeit  his  patient's  confidence.  We 
expect  the  doctor  to  know  his  pathology,  his  materia  medica,  and 
the  other  branches  of  his  profession,  but  we  expect  him  also  to 
have  sufficient  common  sense  to  discharge  his  duty  towards  his 
patient  without  attempting  to  give  the  sufferer  a  medical  educa- 
tion in  half  an  hour. 

If  the  child's  breathing  be  defective  it  may  be  remedied  by 
practice,  but  the  remedy  is  to  be  found  in  teaching  the  child  to  keep 
in  mind  the  phrase  to  be  sung.  In  this  way  the  organs  of  respira- 
tion will  gradually  adjust  themselves  to  the  demands  made  upon 
them.  Giving  the  child  a  full  account  of  the  diaphragm,  the 
intercostal  muscles  and  the  motor  centers  would  scarcely  prove 
serviceable  and  would  certainly  not  correct  the  error  in  question 
until  such  time  as  the  child  learned  to  forget  the  muscular  mechan- 
ism and  to  think  exclusively  of  the  phrase  he  was  about  to  sing. 
It  may  be  quite  necessary  to  teach  the  child  grammar,  but  it  is 
certain  that  he  can  never  speak  with  ease  until  he  forgets  his 
grammar  in  the  thought  that  he  is  uttering.  What  is  said  of  the 
mechanism  of  breathing  applies  with  equal  force  to  cord  control 
and  to  resonance.  The  clear  mental  picture  of  the  tone  and  quality 
desired  must  be  the  channel  through  which  the  end  is  reached. 
Our  effort,  therefore,  must  be  directed  toward  building  up  in  the 
child  this  sensory  image,  and  toward  seeing  that  he  has  sufficient 
practice  in  producing  it.  The  corrections  which  he  should  receive 
from  the  teacher  are  neither  numerous  nor  difficult  to  administer, 
and  the  teacher  should  be. able  to  acquire  the  ability  to  do  this 
work  in  a  course  of  instruction  such  as  that  we  have  referred  to 
above.  The  scientific  method  is  opposed  to  this  procedure. 
It    should,    in   fact,    be   called    the   unscientific    method,    since 


Vocal  Music  in  the  Primary  Grades  359 

at  every  step  it  violates  the  fundamental  principles  of  the  science 
of  psychology.  It  is  deserving  of  the  name  scientific  only  if 
we  reduce  the  word  scientific  to  its  derivative  meaning,  and 
understand  by  it  a  method  by  which  we  seek  to  control  muscular 
action  throught  a  scientific  knowledge  of  the  muscles  and  nerves 
involved  and  the  manipulation  of  them  by  the  intellect  instead  of 
by  the  sensory  image. 

The  psychological  method,  usually  spoken  of  as  the  natural 
method,  is  based  on  correct  sensory  impressions.  These  are  relied 
upon  to  guide  the  musculature  involved  in  vocal  tone  production. 
In  this  method  the  ear  is  trained  by  listening  to  correct  and  beauti- 
ful tones.  The  memory  is  built  up  progressively  through  the 
gradual  mastery  of  musical  phrases  of  ever-increasing  length  and 
complexity.  Practice  in  vocal  tone-production  is  utilized  both 
to  enhance  the  strength  of  the  sensory  impression  and  to  correct 
it.  In  a  word,  the  teacher  in  this  method  believes  that  the  Creator 
in  making  man  understood  how  the  vocal  mechanism  should  work 
better  than  any  scientist  or  music  teacher,  and  while  obeying 
nature's  laws  he  seeks  to  assist  her  to  a  full  realization  of  her  highest 
ideals.  At  no  time  is  he  tempted  to  take  the  control  of  the  voice 
out  of  nature's  hands  and  to  do  with  it  artificially  what  nature 
fails  to  do  by  the  operation  of  its  own  laws. 

It  is  frequently  said  that  the  basic  principle  of  the  natural 
method  is  that  the  voice  is  guided  by  the  ear.  This  is  entirely 
true  if  we  understand  by  "ear  "  something  more  than  the  peripheral 
end-organ  of  hearing.  In  this  connection  it  means  the  conscious 
end  of  the  sensory  process,  the  tone  as  it  appears  in  consciousness. 
Nor  is  it  the  tone  actually  resultant  from  the  sound  waves  here  and 
now  impinging  upon  the  external  ear  that  is  meant,  but  the  tone 
about  to  be  produced  held  in  consciousness  in  advance  as  a  standard 
to  control  the  voice  production.  It  is  more  than  the  single  tone, 
however.  A  musical  ear  means  a  built-up  musical  content  which 
acts  as  a  judge  of  the  suitableness  of  the  tone  to  be  produced  as 
well  as  an  efficient  cause  and  an  effective  critic  of  the  sensory 
elements  arising  in  consciousness  as  a  result  of  vocal  action.  What- 
ever sound  is  called  for  by  the  ear  the  vocal  organs  naturally  and 
automatically  tend  to  produce.  In  their  adjustments  to  this  end 
the  vocal  organs  are  directed  by  reflex  mechanisms  which  nature 
provides,  and  which  need  to  be  practised  or  exercised  repeatedly  in 
order  to  attain  perfection.     This  arrangement  is  not  confined  to 


360  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

the  musculature  of  vocal  tone  production.  It  is  operative  in  all  the 
muscular  reactions  involved  in  every  art. 

In  instrumental  music  the  muscles  of  the  hand  must  be  brought 
under  the  control  of  the  ear,  and  this  is  a  much  more  difficult 
task  than  that  involved  in  the  connection  between  sensory  tonal 
images  and  vocal  production,  but  it  is  notorious  that  the  hand's 
efficiency  is  very  limited  until  the  required  muscles  learn  to 
operate  unconsciously  and  automatically.  The  pianist  who  would 
attempt  deliberately  to  guide  each  muscle  or  muscular  reaction 
involved  in  controlling  the  instrument  would  find  himself  hopelessly 
handicapped  in  the  attempt  to  render  even  the  simplest  music. 
In  the  beginning  of  the  process  the  intellect  may  have  to  guide  each 
movement  of  the  hand,  but,  as  in  the  case  of  the  boy  driving  the 
nail,  the  intellect  controls  through  the  sensory  images  of  eye  and 
ear,  and  not  by  direct  application  of  its  power  to  the  motor  ele- 
ments. In  instrumental  music  the  muscles  of  the  hand  must  be 
brought  under  the  control  of  the  ear,  and  this  requires  long  and 
painstaking  practice,  and  the  progressive  building  up  of  groups  of 
reflex  reactions.  But,  as  in  the  case  of  voice  production,  the 
physiology  and  morphology  involved  are  not  necessary  steps  to 
the  desired  muscular  control,  and  dwelling  upon  these  elements  of 
the  process  would  inevitably  kill  the  soul  of  music  and  leave  it  but 
the  outer  shell  of  technique. 

The  mental  conception  of  pure  tone  is  basic  in  the  psychological 
method.  This  conception  is  dependent  on  the  ear's  previous 
experience  in  hearing  tones  of  correct  musical  type.  The  axiom 
of  the  great  Italian  masters  of  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth 
centuries  was,  "Listen  and  imitate."  It  would  be  well,  therefore, 
for  the  teacher  to  sing  for  the  children  occasionally  a  few  tones  or  a 
short  musical  phrase,  so  that  they  might  hear  exactly  how  the 
tones  sound.  But  our  trouble  is  that  the  teacher  herself  is  fre- 
quently unable  to  produce  beautiful  tones.  In  such  cases  the 
supervisor  of  music  will  be  especially  welcome  to  the  children,  and 
there  is  usually  another  resort.  In  almost  every  class  there  will 
be  found  a  few  children  whose  voices  are  comparatively  free  from 
faults  and  these  may  be  used  to  good  advantage  in  producing 
model  tones  for  the  less  favored  children. 

It  will  not  be  difficult  for  any  primary  teacher  in  the  course  of 
thirty  hours  to  learn  how  to  correct  the  usual  faults  in  the  chil- 
dren's voices.     With  this  minimum  of  training  she  will  be  able  to 


Vocal  Music  in  the  Primary  Grades  361 

do  what  is  necessary  to  give  the  children  a  start,  but  of  course  it 
is  highly  desirable  that  the  teacher  should  possess  a  keen  sense  of 
hearing  for  correct  tones,  the  ability  to  produce  a  tone  of  fairly 
good  musical  quality,  and  be  able  to  detect  even  slight  traces  of 
throaty  or  nasal  quality  in  the  children's  voices.  The  teacher  will 
be  saved  from  discouragement  by  remembering  that  her  little 
store  of  ability  will  grow  with  her  practice  in  teaching. 

Thomas  Edward  Shields. 


THE  TEACHER  OF  ENGLISH 

A   LONG   STEP   FORWARD 

The  knowledge  gained  during  the  war  in  connection  with  the 
training  and  instruction  of  illiterate  and  non-English  speaking 
soldiers  is  to  be  turned  to  account  in  the  recruiting  of  a  peace-time 
army. 

By  direction  of  the  War  Department  there  is  being  established 
at  Camp  Upton,  N.  Y.,  the  first  "Recruit  Educational  Center." 
Fifty  barracks  and  other  buildings  have  been  set  aside  for  this 
"center."  It  will  be  conducted  on  the  lines  followed  by  Major 
Ralph  Hall  Ferris  when  he  made  such  a  success  of  Development 
Battalion  No.  6  at  Camp  Upton  during  the  war.  This  battalion 
was  largely  made  up  of  illiterates  or  non-English  speakers,  and 
was  demobilized  when  the  armistice  was  signed. 

Brig.  Gen.  Nicholson,  camp  commander,  received  on  May  1  the 
order  to  establish  the  new  Center,  and  recruiting  has  begun 
throughout  the  Eastern  and  Northeastern  Departments  of  the 
army. 

An  illiterate  or  non-English-speaking  recruit  who  enlists  under 
the  new  plan  will  be  taught  to  speak  English,  will  receive  thorough 
American  training  from  officers  born  here,  and  will  in  addition 
get  citizenship  papers  when  his  enlistment  term  of  three  years  has 
expired. 

Under  the  Draft  Act,  24.9  per  cent  of  the  men  enlisted,  or 
practically  one-quarter  of  them,  were  unable  to  read  a  newspaper 
or  write  a  letter  home.  There  were  1,500  such  men  sent  to  Camp 
Upton  and  they  were  put  in  Major  Ferris's  Development  Battalion. 
His  method  of  training  and  educating  them  attracted  attention  in 
Washington.  In  the  notification  sent  to  General  Nicholson  by 
Major  Gen.  Henry  Jervey,  Assistant  Chief  of  Staff,  General  Jer- 
vey  said:  "Your  camp  has  been  selected  for  the  Center  not  only 
because  it  is  centrally  located  but  also  because  of  the  excellent 
results  in  connection  with  the  teaching  of  English  that  have  been 
obtained  in  Development  Battalion  No.  6,  Camp  Upton." 

On  Aug.  21,  1918,  the  Sixth  Development  Battalion  was  organ- 
ized at  Camp  Upton  and  all  rookies  who  were  illiterate  or  did  not 
speak  English,  except  a  few  who  had  physical  defects,  were  trans- 
ferred to  it.  The  teachers  selected  were  privates  or  noncommis- 
362 


The  Teacher  of  English  363 

sioned  officers  who  held  university  degrees  or  who  were  teachers 
in  civil  life.  Race  was  not  considered  in  the  choosing  of  officers. 
It  was  soon  proven  that  squads  and  platoons  composed  of  different 
nationalities  received  their  military  instruction  as  easily  as  if 
racial  groups  had  been  organized  for  the  purpose.  Only  English 
was  permitted  to  be  spoken  in  the  mess  halls,  military  forma- 
tions, and  general  gatherings  of  the  men.  Instruction  except  in 
the  elementary  classes  was  given  in  English. 

Within  three  months  men  who  could  speak  little  or  no  English 
when  they  entered  the  battalion  became  sufficiently  proficient  in 
military  English  to  fulfil  the  ordinary  functions  of  soldiers  both 
in  organization  and  on  separate  missions.  In  addition,  practically 
all  of  the  recruits  proved  their  spirit  of  Americanism  by  becoming 
citizens. 

The  recruits  upon  being  accepted  for  the  new  center  will  be  clas- 
sified according  to  their  knowledge  of  English  and  assigned  to  bat- 
talions accordingly.  A  school  of  instruction  for  the  illiterate 
and  non-English  speaking  recruits  is  being  thoroughly  established. 
The  course  of  instruction  will  be  normally  four  months,  or  six 
months  in  exceptional  cases.  The  men  will  be  classed  in  groups 
of  fifteen  to  twenty  and  will  be  graded  according  to  the  progress 
shown. 

A  board  of  examiners  will  examine  the  recruits  for  classification 
and  prepare  suitable  tests  to  determine  the  rate  of  progress  espec- 
ially of  slow-learning  men  and  the  reasons  for  their  backwardness. 
When  the  recruits  have  developed  sufficiently  for  assignment  Major 
Ferris  will  report  them  to  the  Adjutant  General  of  the  Army  for 
disposition. 

In  reviewing  the  plan  for  the  new  Center,  General  Nicholson 
says: 

The  organization  of  the  Recruit  Educational  Center  at  Camp 
Upton  is  a  great  constructive  plan  of  Americanization.  The 
idea  underlying  the  Recruit  Educational  Center  will  unquestion- 
ably meet  with  nation-wide  approval  since  it  makes  for  better 
citizenship  and  for  a  higher  order  of  Americanism.  It  will  be  a 
distinct  step  toward  making  the  people  of  the  United  States 
appreciate  that  those  responsible  for  the  functioning  of  the  army 
are  really  trying  to  make  our  army  a  people's  army. 

The  army,  like  every  other  great  agency  in  the  country, 
has,  in  view  of  the  unusual  conditions  incident  to  the  war,  a  great 
opportunity  to  do  in  a  short  space  of  time  what  would  otherwise 


364  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

have  taken  decades  to  accomplish.  The  Recruit  Educational 
Center  is  simply  one  phase  of  this  great  opportunity;  in  its  adop- 
tion the  army  will  receive  due  credit  for  a  far-seeing  policy;  and 
we  shall  be  doing  now  what  will  be  demanded  of  the  army  later 
when  thought  along  the  lines  of  reconstruction  begins  to  crystallize. 
Europe  has  for  centuries  suffered  from  the  bitter  racial  antag- 
onisms of  its  various  peoples.  America  is  no  place  to  perpetuate 
these  antagonisms,  and  no  method  has  been  conceived  which 
will  so  successfully  eliminate  racial  antagonisms  as  the  Camp 
Upton  plan  which  the  War  Department  has  adopted  for  its  Recruit 
Educational  Center. — Adapted  from  The  New  York  Times. 


NOTES 


The  Governor  of  Pennsylvania  has  recently  approved  the  Mal- 
lery  bill  amending  section  1414  of  the  school  code  so  as  to  require 
every  child  between  the  ages  of  8  and  16  years,  having  a  legal 
residence  in  Pennsylvania,  to  attend  a  day  school  in  which  the 
common  English  branches  are  taught  "in  the  English  language." 
The  purpose  of  this  act  is  to  require  the  teaching  of  these  branches 
in  the  English  language  in  all  public,  private  and  parochial  schools 
of  the  state.  The  Governor  has  also  in  his  hands  the  Davis  bill, 
which  would  prohibit  the  teaching  of  the  German  language  in  the 
public  and  normal  schools  of  the  state. 


What  is  it  that  makes  blank  verse  dramatic — that  is,  makes 
it  interesting  and  emotionally  stirring  to  an  audience?  A  shrewd 
observation  by  James  Russell  Lowell  may  indicate  the  answer. 
To  Milton,  he  said,  blank  verse  was  a  richly  colored  mantle,  in  the 
flowing  folds  of  which  he  draped  his  stately  thoughts;  to  Shake- 
speare it  was  a  transparent  medium,  in  which  the  thought  shone 
forth  alive  and  quivering.  Now,  Shakespeare's  thoughts  are 
seldom  or  never  his  personal  own;  they  are  the  thoughts  of  his 
characters  in  the  given  situation.  Blank  verse  is  dramatic,  there- 
fore, in  proportion  as  (while  maintaining  the  iambic  rhythm  and 
the  pentameter  line  beat)  it  approaches  the  speech  of  life. 
When  thus  written  (and  spoken)  it  ceases  to  be  the  thing  of  all 
things  that  makes  the  business  man  (and  others)  most  tired,  and 
becomes  a  source  of  the  utmost  vigor  and  lifelikeness  in  speech 
and  character. 

As  it  happens,  we  can  trace  the  development  of  Shakespeare's 
verse  through  three  very  significant  phases.  At  first,  under  the 
influence  of  "Marlowe's  mighty  line,"  it  was  regular  and  sonorous 
— and  thus  almost  void  of  subtle  variety,  of  quick  adaptability  to 


The  Teacher  of  English  365 

mood  and  character.  Then,  in  the  great  period  beginning  with 
''Julius  Caesar"  and  "Hamlet"  it  developed  variety  and  freedom 
without  losing  much  of  its  distinctive  quality  as  verse.  Finally, 
in  "The  Winter's  Tale"  and  "The  Tempest,"  it  became  so  free  and 
varied  (and,  indeed,  so  involved  in  thought  and  in  syntax)  that  the 
meter  is  at  times  almost  imperceptible  and  the  lines  indistinguish- 
able. But  always,  after  the  first  years  of  apprenticeship,  it  is  so 
simply  true  to  the  given  character  and  moment  as  to  be,  in  effect, 
colloquial.     .     .     . 

It  is  only  when  the  verse  of  Shakespeare's  best  period  is  spoken 
fluently,  colloquially,  as  if  from  man  to  man,  that  it  develops  its 
full  metrical  force  and  beauty. 

The  poetic  drama,  then,  is  essentially  musical  speech,  which 
takes  form  and  color  from  the  varied  characters  and  dramatic 
moments.  It  is  a  lack  of  any  adequate  sense  of  this  that  has  kept 
our  so-called  poetic  drama  from  commanding  the  stage  and  the 
public — the  drama  of  Tennyson  and  Browning  no  less  than  that  of 
Stephen  Phillips.  Instead  of  life,  it  brings  only  a  faint  and  dis- 
torted reflex  of  literature;  instead  of  the  tang  of  character  im- 
passioned, it  brings  the  reek  of  midnight  oil. — John  Corbin. 


Sixty  per  cent  of  the  10,000  inhabitants  of  Herrin,  Illinois,  are 
Italians,  who  came  to  America  too  late  in  life  to  learn  the  English 
language,  but  not  too  late  to  learn  the  fascination  of  "the  movies." 
So  they  fill  the  motion  picture  theatres  every  night.  They  cannot 
read  the  English  sub-titles  of  the  film,  however.  The  Italian  - 
American  boys  of  the  colony  have  been  taught  to  speak  Italian  in 
their  homes,  and  have  acquired  English  in  the  public  schools. 
They  are  in  demand,  therefore,  as  translators  for  the  older  genera- 
tion. Realizing  their  strategic  position,  the  youngsters  demand, 
and  receive,  5  or  10  cents  each  for  going  to  motion-picture  theatres 
with  adults  and  translating  the  English  sub-titles  into  Italian. 


Writing  to  a  friend  in  the  United  States  concerning  his  recently 
published  novel,  The  Arrow  of  Gold,  Joseph  Conrad  said  in  a 
letter  received  recently: 

The  Arrow  of  Gold  is  a  subject  which  I  have  had  in  my  mind  for 
some  eighteen  years,  but  which  I  hesitated  to  take  up  until  now. 
This  state  of  mind  may  appear  to  an  American  very  dilatory  and 
ineffectual;  and  I  won't  attempt  to  apologize  for  my  opinion  that 
work  is  not  to  be  rushed  at  simply  because  it  can  be  done  or 
because  one  suffers  from  mere  impatience  to  do  it.  A  piece  of 
work  of  any  sort  is  fully  justified  only  when  it  is  done  at  the  right 
time;  just  as  the  potentiality  and  energy  of  a  fire  brigade  is  justified 


366  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

only  when  a  house  is  on  fire.  .  .  .  But  having  found  the 
mood  I  didn't  tarry  much  on  my  way,  having  finished  that  novel 
in  about  ten  months. 


According  to  a  chart,  published  recently  in  The  Bookseller, 
Newsdealer  and  Stationer,  as  compared  with  the  year  1917  there  was 
a  total  loss  of  823  books  published  in  the  United  States  and  of  415 
in  Great  Britain.  The  decrease  in  this  country,  coming  in  the 
second  year  of  our  entrance  into  the  war,  is  not  surprising.  The 
scarcity  of  paper  and  various  other  adverse  conditions  had  pointed 
to  the  result  long  before  it  had  become  a  fact  to  be  used  by  statis- 
ticians. The  most  interesting  feature  of  the  chart  is  the  showing 
made  by  books  of  history.  Under  this  classification  there  were 
922  titles  published  in  1918,  while  of  fiction,  the  next  largest  divi- 
sion, there  were  788 .  This  comparative  decrease  in  fiction  is  not 
to  be  attributed  solely  to  the  influence  of  the  war.  The  Bookseller 
gives  this  interesting  survey  of  what  has  been  taking  place  in  this 
respect  for  some  years  back: 

Statistics  for  the  past  eight  years  record  a  lessening  number,  as 
well  as  a  decreasing  proportion,  of  fiction  to  the  whole  total;  and 
for  the  past  eight  years  at  least  ninety  out  of  each  and  every  hun- 
dred books  have  been  non -fiction.  In  1908  the  percentage  was 
16.1  per  cent,  in  1904  it  was  22  per  cent,  and  in  1901,  27  per  cent, 
or  more  than  one-quarter  fiction. 

A  curious  effect  of  literary  centenaries  on  the  production  of 
books  is  thus  recorded  by  The  Bookseller: 

The  year  1909  was  noted  as  the  centenary  or  bicentary  or  ter- 
centenary of  Lincoln,  Poe,  O.  W.  Holmes,  Samuel  Johnson,  Calvin, 
Gogol,  Mendelssohn,  Haydn,  Mrs.  Kemble,  Edward  Fitzgerald, 
Tennyson,  Darwin,  Mrs.  Browning,  Browning,  and  Charles  Lever. 
The  consequent  republication  of  the  works  of  the  above-mentioned 
and  of  much  literary  matter  concerning  them  swelled  the  class 
known  as  "general  literature"  to  abnormal  proportions,  not  only 
in  1909,  when  the  record  was  1,136  in  this  class  to  1,098  in  fiction, 
but  over  into  1910  with  the  huge  total  of  2,091  as  compared  with 
1,539  in  fiction. 


Many  admirable  pieces  of  reporting  were  done  by  the  various 
war  correspondents  writing  in  English,  yet  few  achieved  such  per- 
fect expression  of  a  fact  as  did  Philip  Gibbs  on  the  fateful  morn- 
ing of  November  11,  1918,  when  news  of  the  armistice  reached 
him.     He  wrote  with  a  fine  simplicity: 


The  Teacher  of  English  367 

The  war  belongs  to  the  past.  There  will  be  no  flash  of  gunfire 
in  the  sky  tonight.  The  fires  of  hell  have  been  put  out,  and  I  have 
written  my  last  message  as  war  correspondent,  thank  God! 

This  is  a  year  of  centenaries.  It  is  the  hundredth  year  of  John 
Ruskin,  Arthur  Hugh  Clough,  James  Russell  Lowell,  Walt  Whit- 
man, Charles  A.  Dana,  and  George  Eliot. 


The  opening  feature  of  the  North  Carolina  English  Association 
Conference  at  Greensboro,  N.  C,  on  May  2  and  3,  was  a  lecture 
by  Dr.  Frederich  H.  Koch,  of  the  chair  of  dramatic  literature  of 
the  University  of  North  Carolina,  who  pointed  out  the  wonderful 
possibilities  of  developing  local  subjects  into  folk-plays.  Dr. 
Koch  displayed  pictures  of  what  has  been  accomplished  in  this 
field,  under  his  leadership,  in  Dakota.  Accounts  of  what  Dr. 
Koch  has  already  done  with  this  interesting  study,  in  his  univer- 
sity courses,  and  through  the  organization  of  the  North  Carolina 
Playmakers  and  Playhouse,  have  spread  rapidly,  and  give  promise 
of  a  new  era  of  folk-expression  and  an  awakened  appreciation  of 
folk  life,  both  past  and  present. 


The  Society  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  of  which  Bainbridge  Colby  is 
president,  has  decided  as  a  memorial  to  0.  Henry  to  offer  two 
prizes,  one  of  $500  and  the  other  of  $250,  for  the  best  and  second 
best  short  stories  written  by  an  American  and  published  in  America 
during  the  year  1919.  The  committee  appointed  to  pass  upon 
and  select  the  stories  for  the  award  are  Blanche  Colton  Williams, 
Associate  Professor  of  English  at  Hunter  College;  Edward  J. 
Wheeler,  editor  of  Current  Opinion;  Edith  Watts  Mumford, 
author  and  dramatist;  Robert  Wilson  Neal,  of  the  Faculty  of 
Amherst  College,  and  Merle  St.  Croix  Wright.  An  advisory 
committee,  consisting  of  more  than  a  score  of  authors  and  critics, 
representing  all  parts  of  the  United  States,  will  be  on  the  watch  for 
short  stories  of  merit,  no  matter  how  obscurely  they  may  be 
published.  The  Society  of  Arts  and  Sciences  was  founded  in 
1882  at  the  suggestion  of  Herbert  Spencer  on  the  occasion  of  a  din- 
ner held  in  his  honor. 


L.  Frank  Baum  is  dead,  and  the  children,  if  they  knew  it,  would 
mourn.  That  endless  procession  of  "Oz"  books,  coming  out  just 
before  Christmas,  is  to  cease.     "The  Wizard  of  Oz,"  "Queen 


368  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

Zixi  of  Ix,"  "Dorothy  and  the  Wizard,"  "John  Dough  and  the 
Cherub,"  there  will  never  be  any  more  of  them,  and  the  children 
have  suffered  a  loss  they  do  not  know. 


RECENT   BOOKS 

Editions. — The  World's  Classics.  12mo.  New  York:  Oxford 
University  Press.  65  cents  each.  Mary  Barton,  by  Elizabeth  C. 
Gaskell.  Resurrection,  by  Leo  Tolstoy.  Selected  English  Short 
Stories  (nineteenth  century).  Selected  Speeches  and  Documents 
on  British  Colonial  Policy.  Edited  by  Arthur  Berriedale  Keith. 
(Two  Volumes.)  Texts  for  Students,  by  Caroline  A.  J.  Skeel,  H.  J. 
White  and  J.  P.  Whitney.  Pamphlets.  New  York:  The  Mac- 
millan  Company.  Selections  from  Matthew  Paris,  30  cents.  Select 
Passages,  arranged  by  H.  J.  White.  10  cents.  Selections  from 
Giraldus  Cambrensis.  30  cents.  Latin  Writings  of  St.  Patrick, 
by  Newport.  J.  D.  White.  20  cents.  Libri  Sancti  Patrici. 
Edited  by  N.  J.  D.  White.     20  cents. 

Short  Story. — The  Best  Short  Stories  of  1918.  Uniform  with 
"The  Best  Short  Stories  of  1915,  1916,  1917."  Edited  by  Edward 
J.  O'Brien.  How  to  Study  "  The  Best  Short  Stories."  An  Analysis 
of  Edward  J.  O'Brien's  Annual  Volume  of  the  Best  Short  Stories 
of  the  Year.  By  Blanche  Colton  Williams  of  Columbia  Univer- 
sity; Small,  Maynard  &  Company,  Boston.  The  Best  College 
Short  Stories.  Edited  by  Henry  T.  Schnittkind.  Boston:  The 
Stratford  Company. 

Primary  and  Grammar. — Types  of  Children's  Literature.  Edited 
by  Walter  Barnes.  New  York.  World  Book  Company.  Eighth 
Grade  Poems,  by  Ulysses  F.  Axtell.  Syracuse,  N.  Y. :  C.  W.  Bar- 
deen.  A  Dictionary  of  6,000  Phrases.  Compiled  by  Edwin 
Hamlin  Carr.     New  York:  G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons. 

Criticism. — The  Erotic  Motive  in  Literature,  by  Albert  Mordell. 
New  York:  Boni  &  Liveright.  Shylock  Not  a  Jew,  by  Maurice 
Packard.  Boston:  The  Stratford  Company.  The  Cambridge- 
History  of  American  Literature.  Edited  by  William  Peterfield 
Trent  and  others.  8vo.  New  York :  G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons.  Three 
volumes.  Volume  II,  Early  National  Literature  (part  two). 
Later  National  Literature,  (part  one).  Lewis  Theobald.  His 
Contribution  to  English  Scholarship,  by  Richard  Foster  Jones, 
Ph.D.  The  Columbia  University  Press.  American  Authorship 
of  the  Present  Day,  by  T.  E.  Rankin.  Ann  Arbor,  Mich. :  George 
Wahr.  A  New  Light  on  Lord  Macaulay,  by  Albert  R.  Hassard. 
Toronto:  Rockingham  Press.  Cervantes,  by  Rudolph  Schevill. 
New  York:  DufBeld  &  Co.  The  Realistic  Presentation  of  Ameri- 
can Characters  in  Native  American  Plays  Prior  to  1870,  by  P.  I. 
Reed.  Columbus:  Ohio  State  University.  Dante,  by  Henry 
Dwight  Sedgwick.  New  Haven:  Yale  University  Press.  Virgil 
and  the  English  Poets,  by  Elizabeth  Nitchie,  Ph.D.     New  York: 


The  Teacher  of  English  369 

The  Columbia  University  Press.  Dickens,  Reade  and  Collins; 
Sensation  Novelists,  by  Walter  C.  Phillip,  Ph.D.  The  Columbia 
University  Press.  Convention  and  Revolt  in  Poetry,  by  Professor 
John  Livingston  Lowes.  Boston:  The  Houghton  Mifflin  Com- 
pany. The  English  Village,  by  Julia  Patton,  Ph.D.  New  York: 
The  Macmillan  Company. 

Linguistics. — The  Pronunciation  of  Standard  English  in  Amer- 
ica, by  George  Philip  Krapp.  New  York:  The  Oxford  University 
Press.  The  American  Language,  by  H.  L.  Mencken.  New  York: 
Alfred  A.  Knopf. 

Letters  and  Biografhy. — The  Letters  of  Algernon  Charles  Swin- 
burne. Edited  by  Edmund  Gosse,  C.  B.,  and  Thomas  James  Wise. 
Two  volumes.  John  Lane  Company.  The  History  of  Henry 
Fielding,  by  Wilbur  L.  Cross,  Ph.D.  New  Haven :  The  Yale  Uni- 
versity  Press.     Three  Volumes. 

Poetry. — Candles  that  Burn,  by  Aline  Kilmer.  12mo.  New 
York:  George  H.  Doran  Company.  The  Modern  Book  of  English 
Verse,  Edited  by  Richard  Le  Gallienne.  New  York:  Boni  & 
Livereight.  Our  Poets  of  Today,  by  Howard  Willard  Cook.  With 
an  introduction  by  Percy  MacKaye.  Modern  American  Writers 
Series.  New  York:  Moffat,  Yard  &  Co.  The  Poets  of  the  Future. 
Edited  by  Henry  T.  Schnittkind.  Boston:  The  Stratford  Com- 
pany. The  Path  of  the  Rainbow:  The  Book  of  Indian  Poems. 
Edited  by  George  W.  Cronyn.  With  an  introduction  by  Mary 
Austin  and  designs  by  T.  B.  Piatt.  New  York:  Boni  &  Liveright. 
170  Chinese  Poems,  by  Arthur  Waley.  New  York:  Alfred  Knopf. 
A  New  Study  of  English  Poetry,  by  Henry  Newbolt.  New  York : 
E.  P.  Dutton  &  Co.  The  English  Poets,  by  T.  H.  Ward.  Vol. 
v.  Macmillan.  The  New  Era  in  American  Poetry,  by  Louis 
Untermeyer.     New  York:  Henry  Holt  &  Co. 

Thomas  Quinn  Beesley. 


CURRENT  EVENTS 

SIXTEENTH    ANNUAL    MEETING     OF    THE     CATHOLIC    EDUCATIONAL 
ASSOCIATION,    ST.    LOUIS,    MO.,   JUNE   23-26,    1919. 

The  sixteenth  annual  meeting  of  the  Catholic  Educational 
Association  will  be  held  at  St.  Louis  on  June  23  to  June  26, 
1919.  The  preliminary  program  has  been  published  but,  at  the 
time  of  its  publication,  it  was  not  possible  to  announce  many  of 
the  important  papers  and  addresses  that  will  be  presented  at  the 
meetings  of  the  Association  and  its  departments  and  sections.  A 
large  number  of  the  bishops  of  the  country  are  sending  official 
delegates,  and  every  important  educational  interest  in  the  Church 
in  the  United  States  will  be  represented.  Special  meetings  will 
be  held  for  representatives  of  the  various  teaching  Sisterhoods. 

The  formal  opening  of  the  Convention  will  take  place  on  Tues- 
day, June  24,  with  high  Mass  celebrated  in  St.  Louis  Cathedral. 
His  Grace,  Most  Rev.  Archbishop  Glennon,  will  address  the 
members  on  that  occasion. 

The  Catholic  people  and  Catholic  educators  of  the  country 
are  determined  to  maintain  their  educational  work  which  has 
been  built  up  at  the  cost  of  so  much  sacrifice,  and  which  has  given 
so  much  sacrifice,  and  which  has  given  such  splendid  service  both 
to  the  Church  and  the  country.  From  present  indications  it  is 
certain  that  the  meeting  will  be  successful  in  every  respect. 


370 


REVIEWS  AND  NOTICES 

Food  Problems,  To  Illustrate  the  Meaning  of  Food  Waste  and 
What  May  be  Accomplished  by  Economy  and  Intelligent 
Substitution,  by  A.  N.  Farmer,  and  Janet  Rankin  Hunting- 
ton. Boston:  Ginn  &  Co.,  1918.  Pp.  xxi+90.  Boards, 
octavo. 
The  evils  of  the  War  are  many  and  obvious.  Constant  contem- 
plation of  them  makes  the  soul  sick  and  undermines  endeavor. 
It  is  well  to  turn  our  minds  at  times,  at  least,  to  some  of  the 
possible  good  to  be  garnered  from  the  situation.  This  is  a  land  of 
plenty,  of  almost  unlimited  natural  resources,  and  we  had  grown 
very  wasteful  along  many  lines.  The  great  shortage  in  food 
created  by  the  War  still  exists  and  will  continue  to  exist  for  some 
time  to  come.  This  should  stimulate  both  home  and  school 
towards  effort  at  preventing  waste  and  economizing  and  the 
efforts  cannot  fail  to  have  a  beneficial  result  on  character  formation 
no  less  than  on  health.  The  little  volume  before  us,  prepared  under 
the  inspiration  of  the  Food  Administration  at  Washington,  prom- 
ises to  be  very  helpful.  The  author  does  not  fail  to  grasp  the 
indirect  benefits  which  may  be  derived  from  a  study  of  this  nature. 
It  gives  to  school  work  actual  problems  which  cannot  fail  to  stimu- 
late interest  along  many  lines  of  recognized  school  work.  It  pro- 
vides material  valuable  and  vitally  interesting  for  arithmetic, 
for  geography,  civics,  drawing,  English  and  history  and  is  very 
suggestive  of  the  right  lines  of  correlation.  "The  wise  use  of 
this  material  will  result  in  developing  in  the  pupils  not  only  arith- 
metical skill  but  also  such  character-making  qualities  as  considera- 
tion for  others,  devotion  to  an  ideal,  the  spirit  of  cooperation,  self- 
control,  and  a  sense  of  responsibility.  It  will  teach  the  lesson  of 
our  independence  and  the  obligation  of  the  strong  to  help  the 
weak."  Not  the  least  of  the  advantages  of  this  work  will  be 
found  in  the  cooperation  of  the  home  and  school. 

Thomas  Edward  Shields. 


What  To  Do  for  Uncle  Sam,  A  First  Book  of  Citizenship,  by 

Carolyn  Sherwin  Bailey.     Chicago:  A.  Flanagan  Company, 

1918.    Pp.  220. 

This  little  book  is  a  pioneer  in  a  very  useful  field.     It  aims  at 

laying  the  foundation   of  civic  virtue  in  the  child's  everyday 

371 


372  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

activities  and,  by  personifying  Uncle  Sam  and  putting  him  in  a 
certain  sense  in  a  group  with  fairies  and  Santa  Claus,  it  meets 
the  child's  imaginative  needs  and  establishes  deep  in  his  life  and  in 
his  love  the  right  kind  of  patriotism.  The  book  is  well  illustrated 
and  is  full  of  suggestions  for  practical  work.  The  chapter  titles 
give  sufficient  indication  of  the  field  covered.  "Who  is  Uncle 
Sam?"  "When  He  Sits  Behind  The  Teacher's  Desk;"  "Harvest- 
ing Boys  and  Girls  Can  Do;"  "Helping  to  Save  for  Him;"  "Keep- 
ing Well;"  "Saving  the  Wild  Fowl  and  Birds;"  "Being  Kind 
to  His  Animals;"  "Keeping  His  Holidays;"  "Helping  His  De- 
pendent Family;"  "Following  the  Road;"  "Taking  Care  of  His 
Gifts  to  You;"  "Using  Money  in  the  Best  Way;"  "When  He 
Blows  the  Postman's  Whistle;"  "Taking  Care  of  His  Flag;" 
"Life-Saving;"  "Keeping  Your  Town  Beautiful;"  "Being  Bird 
Landlords;"  "In  Forest  and  Stream;"  "How  to  Be  a  Good  Citi- 
zen;" "In  His  Junior  Service;"  "Getting  Ready  to  Work  for 
Him." 


Great  Inventors  and  Their  Inventions,  by  Frank  P.  Bachman, 
Ph.D.  New  York:  American  Book  Company,  1918.    Pp.  272. 

"This  book  contains  twelve  stories  of  great  inventions,  with  a 
concluding  chapter  on  famous  inventors  of  today.  Each  of  the 
inventions  described  has  added  to  the  comforts  and  joys  of  the 
world.  Each  of  these  inventions  has  brought  about  new  indus- 
tries in  which  many  men  and  women  have  found  employment. 
These  stories,  therefore,  offer  an  easy  approach  to  an  under- 
standing of  the  origin  of  certain  parts  of  our  civilization,  and 
of  the  rise  of  important  industries.  The  story  of  each  invention 
is  interwoven  with  that  of  the  life  of  its  inventor.  The  lives  of 
inventors  furnish  materials  of  the  highest  educative  value.  These 
materials  are  not  only  interesting,  but  they  convey  their  own  vivid 
lessons  on  how  big  things  are  brought  about,  and  on  the  traits  of 
mind  and  heart  which  make  for  success." 

The  stories  of  the  inventions  are  told  in  simple,  clear  language 
and  form  excellent  material  to  train  the  thinking  powers  of  the 
older  children,  besides  forming  a  basis  of  thought  material  which 
will  help  to  adjust  the  child  to  the  age  in  which  we  live. 


First  Principles  of  Agriculture,  by  Emmet  S.  Goff  and  D.  D. 

Mayne.  New  York:  American  Book  Company,  1918.  Pp  272. 

Science  and  invention  have  touched  farming  in  this  country  and 


Reviews  and  Notices  373 

transformed  it  as  if  by  magic.  The  old  simple  procedures  are 
gone  and  their  educative  values  lost  to  the  children  of  this  gener- 
ation. In  its  stead  a  child  must  be  brought  in  contact  with 
agriculture  under  the  inspiration  of  science  and  the  control  of 
labor-saving  inventions,  and  the  school  is  called  upon  to  pro- 
vide the  requisite  training.  The  little  volume  before  us  s  eems 
destined  to  do  good  work  in  laying  the  foundation  of  scientific 
agriculture. 


The  Beginnings  of  Science,  Biologically  and  Psychologically 
Considered,  by  Edward  J.  Menge,  M.  A.,  Ph.  D.  Boston: 
Richard  G.  Badger,  1918.     Pp.  256. 

This  book  represents  an  attempt  to  describe  the  relationship 
between  philosophy  and  the  laboratory  sciences.  The  author  tells 
us  that  his  aim  and  object  "has  been  to  show  what  is  necessary  for 
a  broad,  logical,  and  clear  cut  view  of  life;  what  theories  are  held 
by  able  men  in  all  the  various  walks  of  life;  where  and  how  they 
agree  and  where  and  how  they  do  not  agree — to  give  perspective." 
This  is  a  startling  announcement.  To  achieve  this  within  the 
narrow  space  of  230  pages  would  indeed  be  worth  living  for.  The 
reader  must,  therefore,  not  be  too  deeply  disappointed  if  the 
author's  twelve  chapters  on  "Biological  Laboratories;"  "Psycho- 
logical Laboratories;"  "Genetics;"  "Metaphysics  and  Episte- 
mology;"  "Logic;"  "The  Present  Status  of  Evotional  Philosophy;" 
"Theories  of  Evolution;"  "Vitalism;"  "The  Ideal;"  "Authorities;" 
"Summary;"  and  "Suggested  Reading,"  leave  him  without  the 
fullness  of  information  that  one  looks  for  from  the  pen  of  a 
doctor  of  philosophy.  It  is  difficult  to  see  how  such  vast  subjects 
can  be  crowded  into  so  small  a  compass  without  confusion,  and  we 
are  prepared  to  expect  little  in  this  direction,  but  we  naturally  look 
for  a  sympathetic  understanding  of  the  fields  covered,  and  confess 
to  something  of  a  shock  upon  meeting  passages  like  the  following 
which  occurs  on  page  36.  "And  so  modern  psychology,  or 
experimental  psychology,  or  physiological  psychology,  all  meaning 
practically  the  same  thing,  were  born  in  the  laboratory.  It 
should  rather  be  said  that  the  laboratory  was  its  mother,  and  in- 
sanity its  father,  for  if,  as  Dr.  Henry  Smith  Williams  contends, 
modern  psychology  was  born  in  the  year  1795,  when  Dr.  Pinell 
removed  the  shackles  from  the  insane  in  Paris,  and  if,  as  will  be 
observed  in  his  statement  of  that  event,  all  the  past  was  to  be 


374  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

heartily  condemned,  we  can  read  into  it  all,  it  would  seem,  the 
ideas  of  one  who  is  not  very  familiar  with  either  what  the  past 
stood  for  or  attempted,  but  whose  view,  nevertheless,  is  the  pre- 
vailing one;  he  says:  'And  so  it  chanced  that  in  striking  the 
shackles  from  the  insane,  Pinell  and  his  confreres  struck  a  blow 
also,  unwittingly,  at  time-honored  philosophical  traditions.'" 
These  two  sentences  give  sufficient  indication  of  the  blurred  vision 
which  the  author  offers  as  a  means  of  clearing  up  the  popular 
consciousness. 


Backgrounds  for  Social  Workers,  by  Edward  J.  Menge,  M.A., 
Ph.D.,  M.Sc.  Boston:  Richard  G.  Badger,  1918.  Pp.  214. 
This  book,  we  are  told,  consists  of  several  articles  previously 
published  in  current  periodicals.  The  chapters  entitled  "Birth 
Control;"  "Sterilization,  Sex  Instruction  and  Eugenics;"  "The 
Primitive  Family;"  "The  Mediaeval  Family;"  and  "The  Renais- 
sance and  Reformation  Family,"  sufficiently  indicate  the  scope  of 
the  work.  The  other  four  chapters  derive  their  meanings  from 
these:  "Introduction,"  "Training,"  "What  Ought  We  to  Do?" 
and  "Summary." 


Science  of  Plant  Life,  A  High  School  Botany  Treating  of  the 

Plant  and  Its  Relation  to  the  Environment,  by  Edgar  Nelson 

Transeau,    Professor    of    Botany,    Ohio    State    University. 

New    York:  World    Book    Company,    Yonkers-on-Hudson, 

1919.     Pp.  x+336. 

A  foreign  language  may  be  studied  for  several  purposes.     We 

may  wish  to  gain  access  to  its  literature,  and  so  we  wish  only  to  be 

able  to  understand  what  we  read,  or  we  may  wish  to  travel  in  the 

country  in  question  and  desire  a  medium  of  ready  communication 

with  the  dwellers  therein,  or  we  may  study  the  structure  of  the 

language  because  we  believe  it  will  help  to  make  clear  to  us  the 

meaning  and  scope  of  certain  principles  of  linguistic  development. 

Evidently  our  mode  of  procedure  in  studying  the  language  will 

vary  with  the  end  we  have  in  view.     In  like  manner,  we  may  study 

botany  so  as  to  be  able  to  read  the  vast  literature  of  the  subject  and 

to  be  able  to  identify  the  material  which  we  meet  in  our  walk 

through  field  and  forest.     Systematic  botany  and  the  history  of 

classification  will  be  our  object,  but  it  is  quite  conceivable  that  we 

introduce  the  study  of  botany  into  our  high  schools  as  a  means  of 


Reviews  and  Notices  375 

making  clear  to  our  pupils  some  of  the  fundamental  laws  of  life, 
some  of  the  important  principles  of  physiology  and  of  the  many- 
sided  relationships  between  living  things  and  their  environment. 
If  this  is  our  object  the  stress  will  fall  on  the  biological  aspect  of 
plant  life.  There  is  still  a  third  object  which  may  furnish  the  real 
reason  for  introducing  the  subject  into  the  crowded  curriculum  of  our 
high  schools.  Our  pupils  on  leaving  school  will  be  likely  to  follow 
agriculture  as  a  vocation,  and  if  so,  they  should  know  the  funda- 
mental principles  of  plant  life  and  study  their  relationships  with 
human  needs.  The  relationship  of  plant  to  soil  and  life  will  then 
be  studied  with  reference  to  economic  production.  It  is,  of  course, 
possible  to  aim  at  achieving  these  three  ends  at  one  and  the  same 
time,  and  if  so,  our  program  must  be  outlined  accordingly.  Dr. 
Transeau's  work  aims  chiefly  to  supply  the  need  of  those  who  are 
looking  for  the  scientific  background  to  agricultural  pursuits. 
But  it  does  not  exclude  the  other  aims. 


Insect  Adventures,  by  J.  Henri  Fabre.  Retold  for  Young 
People  by  Louise  Seymour  Hasbrouck.  Illustrated  by  Elias 
Goldberg.  Yonkers-on-Hudson,  New  York:  World  Book 
Company,  1917.     Pp.  xi+287. 

Insect  Adventures,  by  J.  Henri  Fabre.  Retold  for  Young  People, 
by  Louise  Seymour  Hasbrouck.  Illustrated  by  Elias  Goldberg. 
New  York:  Dodd,  Mead  and  Company,  1917.     Pp.  287. 

These  two  books  are  practically  the  same.  The  latter  is  printed 
on  heavier  paper  and  in  larger  type;  the  former  is  a  more  conven- 
ient size  book  for  children.  The  stories  offer  excellent  material 
for  supplementary  reading  for  third  and  fourth  grade  children. 
There  is  a  fascination  about  Fabre's  narrative  that  holds  the 
adult  mind  as  well  as  that  of  the  child  and  his  keen  sympathy  is 
contagious.  He  began  his  observations  about  the  year  1830, 
and  several  years  later  when  he  began  to  publish,  the  world  was  not 
prepared  for  the  form  of  his  narrative.  If  it  was  learned  it  had  to 
be  dry  and  uninteresting,  and  Fabre's  work  was  anything  but 
this,  and  so  it  fell  under  the  condemnation  of  the  ponderously 
wise.  An  e'xcerpt  from  Fabre's  defense  of  his  attitude  towards 
the  little  things  of  nature  is  probably  the  best  illustration  avail- 
able of  the  nature  of  his  work.  "Come  here,  one  and  all  of  you," 
he  addressed  his  friends,  the  insects.     "You,  the  sting-bearers, 


376  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

and  you,  the  wing-cased  armor-clads — take  up  my  defense  and 
bear  witness  in  my  favor.  Tell  of  the  intimate  terms  on  which  I 
live  with  you,  of  the  patience  with  which  I  observe  you,  of  the 
care  with  which  I  record  your  actions.  Your  evidence  is  unani- 
mous; yes,  my  pages,  though  they  bristle  not  with  hollow  formulas 
or  learned  smatterings,  are  the  exact  narrative  of  facts  observed, 
neither  more  nor  less;  and  whoso  cares  to  question  you  in  his  turn 
will  obtain  the  same  replies.  And  then,  my  dear  insects,  if  you 
cannot  convince  these  good  people,  because  you  do  not  carry  the 
weight  of  tedium,  I,  in  my  turn,  will  say  to  them:  'You  rip  up  the 
animal  and  I  study  it  alive;  you  turn  it  into  an  object  of  horror 
and  pity,  whereas  I  cause  it  to  be  loved;  you  labor  in  a  torture 
chamber  and  dissecting  room,  I  make  my  observation  under  the 
blue  sky  to  the  song  of  the  cicadas;  you  subject  cell  and  protoplasm 
to  chemical  tests,  I  study  instinct  in  its  loftiest  manifestations;  you 
pry  into  death,  I  pry  into  life.  ...  I  write  above  all  for  the 
young.  I  want  to  make  them  love  the  natural  history  which 
you  make  them  hate;  and  that  is  why,  while  keeping  strictly  in 
the  domain  of  truth,  I  avoid  your  scientific  prose  which  too 
often,  alas,  seems  borrowed  from  some  Iroquois  idiom." 

Alexander  Teiseira  de  Mattos  rendered  a  valuable  service 
by  translating  into  English  Fabre's  "Souvenirs  Entomologiques," 
and  Miss  Hasbrouck  has  conferred  an  additional  favor  by  adapt- 
ing the  stories  to  the  tastes  of  our  young  people. 


A  Short  History  of  the  English  People,  by  John  Richard 
Green,  Revised  and  Enlarged,  with  Epilogue  by  Alice  Stopford 
Green.  New  York:  American  Book  Company,  1916.  Pp. 
liv+1039. 

In  these  days  of  brief  sketchy  histories  this  volume  will  hardly 
be  accepted  by  the  average  schoolboy  as  a  "short  history."  In 
reading  the  volume,  however,  you  will  soon  find  that  the  "long 
way  round"  is  in  this  case  "the  short  way  home,"  for  the  book  is 
not  a  chronicle  of  facts  and  names  and  dates.  It  aims  at  giving 
vivid  pictures  of  the  life  of  the  English  people  as  it  traces  it  through 
the  various  phases  of  development.  There  is  no  mistake  in  the 
earnestness  and  sincerity  of  the  author,  nor  could  anyone  well 
mistake  his  meaning,  even  though  at  times  the  reader  may  find 
himself  disagreeing  with  him  profoundly  on  questions  of  politics 
and  religion. 


Reviews  and  Notices  377 

Democracy  Today,  An  American  Interpretation,  Edited  by 
Christian  Gauss.  New  York:  Scott  Foresman  &  Co.,  1917. 
Pp.  228+102,  duodecimo. 

We  are  told  in  the  Introduction  that  "it  is  the  purpose  of  this 
volume  to  provide  certain  important  documents  of  abiding  value 
which  will  help  students  in  secondary  schools  and  colleges  to 
understand  the  situations  in  which  the  country  finds  itself  today, 
and  which  will  serve  also  to  clarify  their  ideas  on  the  purposes 
and  significance  of  America."  The  selections  consist  of  Lincoln's 
Gettysburg  Address;  Lowell — Democracy;  Cleveland — The  Mes- 
sage of  Washington;  Roosevelt — Our  Responsibilities  as  a  Nation; 
and  seventeen  utterances  from  the  pen  of  President  Wilson. 


The  American's  Creed  and  Its  Meaning,  by  Matthew  Page 
Andrews.  Illustrated.  New  York:  Doubleday,  Page  and 
Company,  1919.  Pp.  88. 
This  little  book  gives  an  account  of  the  origin  of  the  American's 
Creed,  a  copy  of  the  text,  a  discussion  of  the  meaning  of  the  creed, 
and  a  statement  of  the  doctrinal  authority  upon  which  the  Amer- 
ican's Creed  is  based.  The  creed  is  brief,  as  a  creed  should  be. 
It  is  familiar  to  every  reader  of  current  literature.  Still  we  add 
it  here  for  the  convenience  of  reference.  "I  believe  in  the  United 
States  of  America  as  a  government  of  the  people,  by  the  people, 
for  the  people;  whose  just  powers  are  derived  from  the  consent  of 
the  government;  a  democracy  in  a  republic;  a  sovereign  nation  of 
many  sovereign  states;  a  perfect  union,  one  and  inseparable; 
established  upon  those  principles  of  freedom,  equality,  justice, 
and  humanity  for  which  American  patriots  sacrificed  their  lives 
and  fortunes.  I  therefore  believe  it  is  my  duty  to  my  country 
to  love  it;  to  support  its  constitution;  to  obey  its  laws;  to  respect 
its  flag;  and  to  defend  it  against  all  enemies."  I  take  it  there  are 
few  amongst  us  who  will  question  the  value  of  teaching  such  a  creed 
to  the  children  in  our  schools,  and  of  keeping  such  a  creed  fresh 
and  vigorous  in  the  minds  of  all  the  loyal  citizens  of  the  country, 
and  yet  we  are  told  that  this  is  not  the  day  of  creeds,  and  we  hear 
men  that  otherwise  seem  intelligent  questioning  the  Apostles' 
Creed  or  the  Nicene  Creed,  questioning  the  mode  of  its  origin 
and  the  value  of  its  statements  as  a  brief  summary  of  the  beliefs 
of  loyal  Catholics.     It  is  true  that  these  religious  creeds  were  for- 


378  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

mulated  at  ecumenical  councils  by  a  full  representation  of  the 
bishops  of  the  Christian  world  assisted  by  the  most  learned  theolo- 
gians in  the  Church.  It  is  true  that  article  by  article  was  care- 
fully compared  with  the  teachings  of  Christ,  of  the  Apostles,  and 
of  their  legitimate  successors  down  to  the  time  of  the  formation  of 
the  creed,  whereas  this  valuable  patriotic  creed  resulted  from  the 
offer  of  a  prize  of  one  thousand  dollars  for  the  best  attempt  at 
formulating  our  beliefs.  The  authority  that  finally  pronounced 
on  the  best  creed  consisted  of:  1,  a  Committee  on  Manuscripts;  2, 
a  Committee  on  Award;  3,  a  number  of  well  known  men  and  women 
agreed  to  act  as  an  advisory  committee  in  consultation  with  the 
members  of  the  Committee  on  Award.  "The  President  of  the 
United  States  informally  approved  the  contest,  and  many  state 
governors,  United  States  senators,  and  congressmen  were  en- 
rolled in  this  committee,  of  which  the  United  States  Commissioner 
of  Education  was  Ex-OfBcio  Chairman."  If  you  take  away  from 
the  people  their  faith,  superstitions  that  seem  silly  and  frequently 
noxious  take  its  place.  If  you  take  away  their  religious  creed, 
they  are  bound  to  put  some  other  creed  in  its  place,  and  so  it  is 
really  wise,  after  all,  to  supply  them  a  wholesome  political  creed, 
for  this  will  help  to  keep  them  from  adopting  their  working  creed 
from  anarchists,  bolshevists,  and  other  rabble. 

Thomas  Edward  Shields. 


War  Addresses  of  Woodrow  Wilson,  With  an  Introduction  and 

Notes,  by  Arthur  Roy  Leonard,  M.A.     Boston:  Ginn  and 

Company,  1918.     Pp.  xxx-f-129. 

These  addresses  are  intended  by  the  author  to  be  studied  in 

secondary  schools.     For  this  he  gives  three  reasons;  first,  their 

intrinsic  literary  merit;  second,  their  timeliness;  and  third,  the 

light  they  shed  on  the  meaning  of  democracy. 


English  for  Coming  Citizens,  by  Henry  H.  Goldberger.  Illus- 
trated. New  York:  Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  1918.  Pp. 
xx -f- 236. 

In  the  process  of  Americanizing  our  foreign  population,  the 
teaching  of  them  to  speak  and  to  read  English  constitutes  a 
very  important  element.  This  object  also  very  rightly  should 
determine  the  method  employed.  An  academic  and  grammatical 
foundation  taught  in  abstract  formulas,  if  j  ustifiable  elsewhere,  is 


Reviews  and  Notices  379 

certainly  not  justifiable  in  a  work  of  this  kind.  "Logically, 
the  word  is  simpler  than  the  sentence,  but  psychologically  the 
sentence  is  simpler  than  the  word.  The  unit  of  advance  is  not, 
therefore,  the  single  word  but  rather  the  sentence,  or  better  still, 
the  topic.  No  one  was  ever  able  to  use  language  by  learning  the 
words  dictionary  fashion.  Periods  in  this  book  are,  therefore, 
caught  in  their  proper  settings,  in  sentences  which  have  proper 
associates  rather  than  as  disparate  facts." 


Alice's  Adventures  in  Wonderland,  by  Lewis  Carroll,  Edited 
by  Clifton  Johnson,  Illustrations  by  John  Tenniel.  New  York: 
American  Book  Company,  1918.     Pp.  154. 
The  book  contains  a  brief  history  of  the  author  and  the  cir- 
cumstances which  led  to  the  production  of  the  tale.     It  is  well 
printed  on  good  paper  and  will  continue  for  many  a  day  to  yield 
pleasure  to  the  young  and  to  take  the  kinks  out  of  the  old  and 
cranky. 


A  Child's  Book  of  the  Teeth,  by  Harrison  Wader  Ferguson, 
D.D.S.,  Illustrated  by  the  author.  Yonkers-on-Hudson, 
New  York:  World  Book  Company,  1918.  Pp.  63. 
There  is  general  agreement  that  in  the  care  of  teeth  as  in  other 
things  an  ounce  of  prevention  is  worth  a  pound  of  cure.  If  the 
children  take  proper  care  of  their  teeth  they  will  save  themselves 
much  pain  in  the  dentist's  chair  and  will  save  considerable  dentist 
bills.  But  this  is  not  the  most  important  phase  of  the  subject.  In 
the  last  few  years  we  have  come  to  recognize  the  fact  that  decaying 
teeth  distil  into  the  system  many  subtle  poisons  which  are  respon- 
sible for  ill  health  in  many  forms.  It  has  been  the  custom  in  many 
homes  to  train  the  children  to  clean  their  teeth  properly,  but  it 
should  be  remembered  that  children  are  something  more  than  pet 
animals,  and  that  training  is  not  an  adequate  remedy  for  the 
evils  that  threaten  the  health  of  the  child  through  his  teeth. 
He  should  develop  a  clear  intelligence  of  the  nature  of  the  evils 
that  threaten  through  neglected  teeth  and  of  the  reasons  for  the 
remedies  offered.  This  little  book  is  written  for  children  of  the 
third  or  fourth  grade,  and  both  the  text  and  the  illustrations  seem 
well  calculated  to  achieve  the  desired  end. 


380  The  Catholic  Educational  Reyiew 

Poems  My  Children  Love  Best  of  All,  Edited  by  Clifton  John- 
son, Illustrated  by  Mary  R.  Bassett  and  Will  Hammell,  Lloyd 
Adams  Noble.  New  York,  1917.  Pp.  xviii+256. 
The  author  in  an  introductory  note  lays  down  the  following 
conditions  as  those  guiding  him  in  the  selection  of  the  poems. 
"The  first  requisite  of  the  poem  admitted  to  these  pages  was  that 
they  should  be  interesting  to  the  average  intelligent  child.  Toler- 
ation is  not  enough.  The  poem  capable  of  winning  no  more 
than  that  has  been  rejected,  no  matter  what  its  graces  of  expres- 
sion or  form,  or  what  its  fame  of  authorship.  .  .  .  Narratives 
that  have  to  do  with  animals  are  particularly  welcome  and  such 
have  a  large  place  in  the  present  volume.  Some  of  the  selections 
are  portions  of  long  poems,  and  I  have  never  hesitated  to  omit 
parts  of  shorter  poems,  when  by  so  doing  I  could  enhance  the 
interest  without  sacrificing  an  artistic  completeness.  It  has  been 
my  aim  to  avoid  entirely  subjects  alien  to  the  tastes  of  healthy 
childhood,  and  this  means  in  the  main  the  exclusion  of  verse  that  is 
melancholy,  retrospective,  sentimental  or  devotional. 

One  would  imagine  from  this  statement  that  the  interests  of 
healthy  children  centers  chiefly  in  animals.  Few  who  know 
children  intimately  will  accept  this  as  a  truthful  statement  of  the 
case.  The  children  love  fairies  and  creations  of  pure  fancy,  and 
in  spite  of  the  curious  correlation  of  devotion  with  melancholy, 
retrospective  and  sentimental  poems,  the  child  loves  to  read  about 
angels  and  saints,  about  the  Blessed  Mother  and  the  great  central 
truths  of  religion.  It  is  the  business  of  education  to  lift  the  chil- 
dren above  the  instincts  of  animal  life  and  not  to  develop  these 
instincts  on  the  merely  animal  plane.  The  book,  we  are  happy  to 
say,  is  somewhat  better  than  the  author's  forecast.  We  find  in 
it,  "The  May  Queen,"  "The  Landing  of  the  Pilgrim  Fathers," 
"New  Year's  Eve,"  "Paul  Revere's  Ride,"  "The  Violet,"  "A 
Good  Thanksgiving,"  "Filial  Trust,"  "God  Made  Them  All," 
"Snowbound,"  "The  Charge  of  the  Light  Brigade." 


Le  Premier  Livre,  by  Albert  A.  Meras,  Ph.D.,  and  B.  Meras,  A.M. 

Illustrations    by    Kerr   Eby.     New    York:  American    Book 

Company,  1915. 
"This  book  is  an  elementary  book  intended  to  cover  all  the  work 
of  the  first  half  year.     It  is  a  grammar  and  a  reader  combined. 
The  aim  of  the  author  is  to  put  in  the  hands  of  the  beginner,  from 


Reviews  and  Notices  381 

the  very  first  lesson,  natural,  practical,  and  interesting  French. 
The  story  about  which  the  book  is  built  is  Hector  Malot's  Sans 
Famille.  On  this  story  the  grammar,  conversation  and  com- 
position are  based." 


Spoken  Spanish,  A  Conversational  Reader  and  Composition, 
by   Edith   J.    Broomhall.     Boston:  Allyn    &   Bacon,    1918. 
Pp.  v+100. 
This  book  is  planned  as  a  conversational  reader  and  composi- 
tion text.     The  fourteen  short  sketches  in  the  collection  were 
written  originally  for  the  programs  of  La  Tertulia,  the  Spanish  club 
of  the  North  Central  High  School,  to  give  the  students  examples 
of  colloquial  Spanish  not  available  in  their  text-books.     .     .     . 
As  the  aim  of  this  book  is  to  teach  the  language  as  it  is  spoken, 
the  composition  exercises  have  a  purely  conversational  tone. 


Anecdotas  Espanolas,  Edited  for  Conversational  Work,  With  an 

Appendix  of  Familiar  Words,  Phrases,  and  Idioms,  by  Philip 

Warner  Harry.  Boston:  Allyn  &  Bacon,  1919.    Pp.  viii+235. 

This  book  aims  to  stimulate  interest  in  colloquial  Spanish  by 

using  acecdotes  and  short  stories  which  have  been  found  best 

fitted  for  conversational  drill  in  the  classroom.     These  have  been 

selected  from  a  wide  range  of  subject  matter,  have  been  carefully 

graded,  and  have  been  provided  with  interesting  questions.     An 

elaborate  appendix  of  idioms  and  phrases  furnishes  a  wealth  of 

additional  material  for  conversation. 


El  Reino  De  Los  Incas  Del  Peru,  Arranged  from  the  Text  of 
"Los  Commentarios  Reales  de  Los  Incas"  of  The  Inca  Gar- 
cilaso  de  La  Vega,  Edited  with  Vocabulary  and  Notes,  by 
James  Bardin.     Boston:  Allyn  &  Bacon,  1918.  Pp.  xiv-f-114 
+66. 
This  little  volume  contains  a  readable  account  of  the  Inca 
civilization  which  was  destroyed  by  the  Spanish  adventures.   While 
the  aim  of  the  book  is  naturally  to  assist  the  student  to  the  mastery 
of  Spanish,  its  chief  interest  lies  in  the  story  itself.     "The  extra- 
ordinary nature  of  the  facts  described  by  the  historian  of  the  Inca 
Empire  gives  the  text  of  the  ancient  volume  a  decided  flavor 
of  romance,  and  the  author  makes  the  most  of  this  curious  and 
appealing  material  he  had  in  hand.     If  for  no  other  reason,  the 
interest  inherent  in  the  remarkable  story  itself  and  in  the  manner 


382  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

of  its  telling,  justifies  a  careful  reading  of  the  book.  The  close 
analogies  between  the  theory  of  the  Inca  State  and  the  theories  of 
modern  State  Socialism  make  the  book  very  valuable  to  the 
student  of  politics." 


El  Pajaro  Verde,  by  Jaun  Valera,  Edited  with  Introduction, 
Notes,  Exercises  and  Vocabulary,  by  M.  A.  DeVitis.  Boston : 
Allyn  &  Bacon,  1918.     Pp.  x+155. 

This  edition  of  El  Pajaro  Verde  is  edited  for  pupils  in  the  early 
stage  of  their  study  of  Spanish.  Therefore  the  notes  have  been 
made  both  exhaustive  and  elementary;  all  verb  forms  whose 
stems  differ  from  the  stem  of  the  infinitive  have  been  noted  in  the 
vocabulary;  and  there  is  a  full  explanation  of  every  subjunctive 
form  occurring  in  the  text,  as  well  as  of  the  uses  of  several  Spanish 
verbs  which  offer  difficulty  to  the  student. 


Nature  Cure,  Philosophy  and  Practice  Based  on  the  Unity  of 
Disease  and  Cure,  by  H.  Lindlahr,  M.D.  Chicago,  111.: 
The  Nature  Cure  Publishing  Co.,  1918.     Pp.  438. 

There  are  many  good  and  true  things  in  this  volume.  Its 
fundamental  claim  is,  of  course,  correct.  If  we  direct  intelligent 
effort  towards  keeping  bodily  health  and  vigor  there  will  be  far 
less  disease  and  suffering  in  the  world  and  less  need  of  surgery  and 
violent  remedies.  The  avoidance  of  over-indulgence,  reasonable 
care  in  the  proper  preparation  of  foods  and  in  the  adaptation  of 
food  to  our  needs  would  render  surgery  and  violent  remedies  less 
frequently  necessary.  Dr.  Lindlahr  gives  many  good  and  whole- 
some advices  along  these  lines,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  there  are 
many  things  in  his  book  that  will  scarcely  be  accepted  by  people 
of  the  average  intelligence  much  less  by  the  medical  profession. 


Nature  Cure  Cook  Book  and  A.  B.  C.  of  Natural  Dietetics, 

by  Mrs.  Anna  Lindlahr  and  Henry  Lindlahr,  M.D.,  Seventh 
Edition.  Chicago,  111.:  The  Nature  Cure  Publishing  Co. 
Pp.  xii+469. 

This  book  is  a  companion  to  "Nature  Cure."  It  contains  a 
large  number  of  excellent  recipes  for  the  preparation  of  vegetable 
soups  and  for  the  cooking  of  vegetables  and  fruits. 


Reviews  and  Notices  388 

Religious  Education  in  the  Church,  by  Henry  Frederick  Cope. 
New  York:  Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  1918.    Pp.  viii+274. 

The  Catholic  mind  never  detaches  the  idea  of  religion  from  the 
idea  of  the  Church,  except  for  purposes  of  analytical  study,  but 
this  is  not  the  case  outside  the  Catholic  Church.  Multitudes 
of  earnest  souls  accept  religion  as  a  necessary  factor  in  life  and  yet 
have  little  or  no  comprehension  of  the  need  of  the  Church  as  an 
institution.  It  is  to  this  body  of  non-Catholics  that  the  author  of 
the  present  book  addresses  himself.  Speaking  of  the  change 
brought  about  by  the  recent  world  crisis,  he  says:  "Now  we  have 
a  renaissance  of  the  spiritual,  under  the  stress  of  a  world  agony. 
But  there  is  a  tendency  to  feel  that  the  spiritual  is  so  implicit  in  all 
things  that  it  does  not  need  explicit  expression  anywhere.  Men 
ask  whether  a  spiritual  age  needs  a  special  religious  institution. 
Further,  various  social  agencies  have  taken  over  many  of  the 
activities  of  the  churches.  Men  are  asking  whether  in  the  social 
organization  of  today  there  remains  any  special  task  or  place  for 
the  church.  .  .  .  The  world  is  not  indifferent  to  religion;  it  is 
becoming  more  conscious  of  its  spiritual  needs.  There  is  almost  a 
religious  devotion  in  the  principal  charge  against  the  church,  that 
"it  is  not  on  to  its  job."  This  seems  to  me  not  alone  that  it  is 
inefficient,  but  that  it  does  perceive  its  task.  That  is  the  heart 
of  the  problem,  the  lack  of  a  sufficiently  clear,  distinct,  and 
definite  function,  one  that  will  meet  a  need  otherwise  unmet,  one 
that  will  convince  the  minds,  enlist  the  wills,  and  win  the  hearts 
of  all  men  and  women  of  spiritual  perceptions."  With  the  Sacri- 
fice of  the  Mass,  the  great  central  feature  of  Christian  worship, 
gone,  with  a  definite  body  of  teaching  no  longer  available,  it  is  not 
strange  that  these  bodies  of  Christian  men  and  women  should  find 
it  difficult  to  definitely  visualize  the  functions  of  the  Church. 

Thomas  Edward  Shields. 


The  Experience  of  God  in  Modern  Life,  by  Eugene  William 
Lyman,  D.D.  New  York:  Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  1918. 
Pp.  ix+154. 

This  little  volume  consists  of  three  lectures  delivered  at  Union 
Theological  Seminary  in  the  fall  of  1917.  The  titles  of  the  separate 
lectures  are:  "The  Experience  of  God  and  the  Development  oe 
Personality,"   "The   Experience  of   God  and   Social   Progress," 


384  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

"The  Experience  of  God  and  Cosmic  Evolution."  There  is  here 
three  splendid  themes,  but  the  handling  of  them  for  a  Catholic 
audience  and  for  such  an  audience  as  that  to  which  they  were 
delivered  is  two  vastly  different  tasks.  The  author  looks  confi- 
dently to  society  to  evolve  for  itself  and  from  itself  and  by  itself  a 
religion  that  will  adequately  meet  the  need  of  a  shocked  and  dis- 
couraged humanity.  "We  know  that  the  War  is  bound  to  be 
followed  by  a  new  world  vastly  different — whether  for  better  or  for 
worse — from  the  old.  Times  of  such  tremendous  change,  men 
instinctively  feel,  are  in  a  peculiar  sense  times  for  religion.  And  so 
they  are  asking:  'What  religion  shall  we,  and  can  we,  have?'  It 
will  be  our  purpose  in  the  following  discussions  to  try  to  do  some- 
thing towards  answering  this  question."  It  is  pathetic  to  find  man, 
even  intelligent  man,  trying  to  create  a  religion  and  to  dispense 
with  dogma  or  Divine  authority. 


The  Catholic 
Educational  Review 

NOVEMBER,  1919 
THE  SEASONABLE  LIMITS  OF  STATE  ACTIVITY1 

By  William  Cardinal  O'Connbll 
Archbishop  of  Boston 

The  history  of  the  human  race,  from  the  first  to  its  latest 
page,  is  a  record  of  bitter  conflict  between  those  invested  with 
authority  on  the  one  side  and  those  subject  to  it  on  the  other. 
For  two  mighty  forces  have  ever  been  at  work  in  human 
society — the  greed  for  power  and  the  love  of  liberty ;  one  mani- 
festing itself  in  tyranny  and  usurpation,  the  other,  unchecked, 
leading  to  chaos  and  anarchy.  Over  against  the  constant 
and  universal  tendency  of  the  sovereign  power  in  the  state  to 
enlarge  its  dominion  and  to  invade  the  rights  of  its  subjects 
stands  another  tendency  just  as  universal,  the  tendency  of  the 
people  to  defend  their  liberties  and  to  restrain  the  encroach- 
ments of  their  oppressors.  Thus  has  an  age-long  strife  en- 
sued— the  strife  between  democracy  and  despotism,  between 
the  freedom  of  the  individual  and  the  supremacy  of  the  state. 

In  this  struggle  the  measure  of  human  liberty  has  always 
been  determined  by  the  degree  of  sacredness  attached  to  human 
existence.  Wherever  religion  has  been  held  in  honor  and 
the  laws  of  God  permitted  to  prevail,  there  the  rights  of 
men  have  been  respected  and  the  functions  of  the  state  re- 
stricted within  their  proper  bounds. 

Always  is  the  recognition  of  God  the  strongest  and  surest 
safeguard  of  popular  liberties.  For  religion  emphasizes  the 
divine  origin  of  man  and  his  immortal  destiny;  it  insists 
upon  those  sacred  and  inalienable  rights  which  man  has 
received  from  his  Creator  and  upon  which  no  state  can  with 


i  Paper  read  at  the  Annual  Convention  of  the  Catholic  Educational 
Association  St.  Louis,  June,  1919. 

513 


514  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

justice  infringe.  It  teaches  the  fundamental  truth  that  all 
men  before  God  are  equal,  that  all  are  children  of  a  common 
Father,  and  that  all  are,  therefore,  brothers.  This  teaching 
is  at  the  very  root  of  civil  and  political  liberty.  It  guarantees 
to  the  citizen  the  fullest  measure  of  legitimate  freedom,  and 
when  it  becomes  a  working  principle  in  the  lives  of  the  ruler 
and  the  ruled,  tyranny  and  anarchy  find  no  reason  for  exist- 
ence. So  long  as  there  is  a  God  of  nations,  no  government  is 
absolute  or  supreme.  So  long  as  man  is  spiritual  in  his 
nature  and  undying  in  his  destiny,  he  must  be  more  than  a 
mere  puppet  of  the  state. 

To  this,  the  Christian  view  of  man's  relation  to  the  secular 
power,  is  opposed  the  view  of  the  Secularist  and  the  Socialist. 
Life,  according  to  their  philosophy,  is  commensurate  only  with 
earthly  existence.  Death  is  the  end  of  all,  and  man  is  limited 
to  earth  for  his  origin,  his  happiness  and  his  destiny.  From 
this  perverted  conception  of  human  nature  has  originated 
every  false  view  of  marriage,  every  false  conception  of  parental 
duties,  every  false  theory  of  education,  every  false  economic, 
educational,  or  domestic  creed  which  is  set  forth  today  as  a 
guiding  principle  of  human  conduct.  And  each  of  these 
pernicious  doctrines,  sprung  from  a  materialistic  philosophy 
of  life,  contributes  notably  to  the  sovereignty  of  the  state  or 
reflects  its  ever  growing  tendency  to  widen  the  sphere  of  its 
activity.  For  those  who  would  rob  man  of  his  dignity  would 
strip  him  also  of  his  freedom. 

In  the  great  nations  of  antiquity  men  were  slaves,  or  at 
best  but  cogs  in  a  gigantic  state  machine,  because  the  sacred 
significance  and  worth  of  life  were  ignored.  And  if  the  modern 
world  has  witnessed  the  destruction  of  time-honored  dynasties 
and  aristocracies,  it  is  because  atheism  and  infidelity  had 
clothed  them  with  an  omnipotence  which  crushed  the  individ- 
uality of  their  subjects  until  they  arose  in  their  might  to 
claim  that  liberty  which  should  be  theirs  as  Imman  beings, 
and  which,  because  God-given,  is  inviolable.  Wherever  so- 
ciety fails  to  recognize  its  duties  to  God,  it  fails  also  to  respect 
the  rights  of  men.  It  begins  with  the  denial  of  the  super- 
natural only  to  end  with  the  rejection  of  the  natural.  He 
who  denies  this  proposition  has  read  the  history  of  humanity 
in  vain. 


Reasonable  Limits  of  State  Activity  515 

Even  here  in  America,  unfortunately,  we  are  not  immune 
from  those  influences  which  in  European  countries  have  sacri- 
ficed the  individual  for  the  state.  Centralizing  tendencies, 
characteristic  of  empires  and  of  despotic  sovereignties,  have 
been  steadily  weakening  the  props  of  our  democratic  govern- 
ment. Old-world  fashions  and  policies,  among  them  irreligion, 
have  gradually  taken  root  here,  and  to  this  can  be  traced 
the  origin  and  growth  of  the  tyrannical  elements  in  the  law- 
making bodies  of  the  land,  so  that  in  our  own  political  history 
we  find  confirmed  the  truth  that  human  liberty  and  human 
worth  stand  or  fall  together. 

By  the  noble  patriots  who  framed  our  Constitution  and 
laid  so  firmly  the  foundations  of  our  Republic,  man's  exalted 
dignity  was  recognized  and  the  personal  freedom  of  the  in- 
dividual deemed  a  glorious  boon  to  be  extended  and  protected. 
Religious-minded,  God-fearing  men  were  they,  with  a  vision 
not  confined  to  the  things  of  earth;  and  thus,  in  making  laws 
for  the  land,  they  provided  for  their  countrymen  the  fullest 
freedom  in  the  working  out  of  their  eternal  destiny.  Reject- 
ing the  absolutism  of  the  Bourbons,  the  Hohenzollerns  and  the 
Guelphs,  they  established  in  the  New  World  a  democracy,  a 
government  of  the  people,  by  the  people,  and  for  the  people; 
and  in  immortal  words  they  declared  that  all  men  are  created 
equal;  that  they  are  endowed  by  their  Creator  with  certain 
inalienable  rights;  that  among  these  are  life,  liberty  and  the 
pursuit  of  happiness. 

As  fundamental  principles  of  the  national  legislative  pro- 
gram these  fathers  of  our  country  declared  that  the  state 
exists  for  the  individual;  that  the  government  is  the  servant 
of  the  people,  based  on  their  consent  and  answerable  to  them 
for  its  conduct ;  that  its  authority  over  the  individual  must  be 
measured  only  by  the  demands  of  the  public  welfare,  leaving 
to  every  citizen  the  widest  possible  sphere  for  the  free  exercise 
of  his  personal  initiative.  Thus  to  every  American  citizen  has 
come  the  blessed  inheritance  of  civil,  political,  and  religious 
liberty  safeguarded  by  the  American  Constitution — giving  to 
every  man  "the  right  to  his  children  and  his  home;  the  right 
to  go  and  come;  the  right  to  worship  God  according  to  the 
dictates  of  his  conscience;  the  right  to  be  exempt  from  inter- 


516  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

ference  by  others  in  the  enjoyment  of  these  rights;  the  right 
to  be  exempt  from  the  tyranny  of  one  man  or  of  a  few;  the 
right  so  to  live  that  no  man  or  set  of  men  shall  work  his  or 
their  will  upon  him  against  his  consent." 

Such  was  the  spirit  in  which  the  great  democracy  of  America 
was  born;  the  spirit  that  honors  manhood,  the  spirit  that 
favors  freedom  and  frowns  on  despotism,  and  any  spirit  other 
than  this  is  not  the  spirit  that  stands  behind  the  traditions  and 
laws  of  this  land. 

Upon  this  point  too  much  emphasis  cannot  be  placed,  for 
our  democratic  institutions  are  endangered  by  the  present 
tendency  of  the  state  to  increase  its  powers  and  to  absorb 
the  individual  in  its  paternalistic  legislation.  The  forces  which 
have  produced  Caesarism  and  despotism  in  other  lands  have 
made  their  appearance  among  ourselves,  and  each  year  we 
witness  attempts,  some  of  them  successful,  to  exalt  unduly 
the  state  and  by  so  much  to  degrade  the  citizen.  Everywhere 
there  is  a  passion  for  uniformity  and  centralization;  and 
yielding  to  that  passion  we  create  bureaus  and  commissions 
each  one  of  which  means  a  restriction  upon  the  sphere  of 
independent  individual  activity. 

As  though  civil  power  or  authority  was  a  personal  right 
and  not  a  public  trust,  the  state  seeks  to  exaggerate  its  im- 
portance; and  in  its  legislative  measures  manifests  an  arro- 
gance not  in  keeping  with  the  genius  of  the  American  Con- 
stitution. In  the  industrial  field  it  is  attempting  to  weaken 
excessively  individual  management  and  enterprise  by  im- 
moderate governmental  regulation.  The  work  of  charity  and 
reform  it  is  gradually  controlling  or  taking  over  altogether 
from  private  concern;  and  with  its  meddlesome  and  corrupt- 
ing divorce  laws  it  invades  the  sanctuary  of  the  home,  de- 
stroying family  life,  and  leaving  licentiousness,  domestic  dis- 
cord, and  a  weakened  society  as  evidences  of  its  usurped 
authority.  Religion,  which  the  founders  of  the  nation  judged 
so  vital  for  its  safety  and  success,  it  has  legislated  from  its 
schools;  and  over  the  schools  themselves,  public  and  private, 
its  power  is  day  by  day  developing  into  a  monopoly. 

A  glance  back  over  the  past  fifty  years  of  our  national  ex- 
istence will  confirm  the  view  that  we,  led  on  by  desire  for 


Reasonable  Limits  of  State  Activity  517 

centralized  control,  are  drifting  away  from  democratic  gov- 
ernment and,  trespassing  upon  the  rights  and  liberties  of  the 
citizens,  are  assuming  functions  never  anticipated  and  never 
intended  when  the  Constitution  was  written. 

A  grave  political  and  social  danger  lurks  beneath  this  un- 
American  tendency  of  the  Government  to  enlarge  the  area  of 
its  activity  at  the  expense  of  popular  liberty.  We  are  never 
very  far,  even  in  a  democracy,  from  the  old  pagan  idea  that 
the  state  is  a  god  and  that  for  it  the  individual  exists.  In- 
deed, there  are  among  us  today  leaders  of  public  thought  who 
teach  that  the  state  is  omnipotent,  that  it  is  above  all  law, 
and  that  in  its  sovereignty  it  has  no  limits.  In  the  months 
of  these  teachers  such  a  political  philosophy  is  perfectly  nat- 
ural and  logical.  They  recognize  no  God  in  heaven,  and 
their  religious  instincts,  which  cannot  be  silenced,  prompt 
them  to  deify  the  state  upon  earth.  For  them  man  is  merely 
a  creature  of  flesh  and  blood,  whose  only  ambition  is  physical 
and  social  satisfaction;  and  thus  they  make  the  state  a  pater- 
nal agent,  a  kind  of  earthly  Providence  directing  every  phase 
of  man's  activity,  and,  like  the  recent  Prussian  state,  thrust- 
ing upon  him  all  that  it  decides  to  be  necessary  for  his  welfare. 

Once  that  view  of  the  state  prevails  and  once  the  atheistic 
conception  of  life  dominates  in  the  land,  men  will  be  led  to 
surrender  their  liberties  in  their  desire  to  gain  through  the 
sovereign  state  the  material  comforts  of  a  mere  animal  ex- 
istence. A  real  menace  of  government  absolutism,  therefore, 
threatens  the  nation  because  of  the  state's  increasing  usurpa- 
tion of  power,  and  because  of  the  growing  tendency  of  the 
citizen  to  expect  from  the  state  omniscience  and  omnipotence 
— both  attributes  of  God  alone.  Let  religious  convictions  dis- 
appear from  amongst  us,  and,  with  these  other  mischievous 
forces  operating,  we  will  be  subjected  to  a  despotism  paral- 
leling any  in  the  darkest  days  of  paganism. 

All  this  means  that  we  must  get  back  to  a  proper  under- 
standing of  the  nature  and  the  functions  of  the  state.  Only 
when  the  fundamental  principles  that  constitute  the  rationale 
of  civil  society  are  known  and  adopted,  can  its  pretensions  be 
kept  from  running  wild ;  only  when  the  object  of  its  existence 
is  correctly  appreciated  can  the  reasonable  limits  of  its  activity 
be  determined. 


518  The  Catholic  Educational  Kevibw 

What,  then,  is  the  state? 

To  give  to  this  question  its  adequate  answer  it  is  necessary 
to  have  sound  notions  relative  to  the  origin  of  the  state  and 
to  the  process  by  which  it  came  into  being.  Ignorance  or  error 
in  this  matter  is  responsible  for  all  false  theories  of 
government. 

At  the  very  root  of  the  question  we  are  considering  is  the 
fact  that  before  the  state  came  into  being  the  individual  ex- 
isted; and  before  civil  society  was  formed  individual  united 
with  individual  to  constitute  the  family,  the  unit  of  society. 
By  virtue  of  their  nature,  their  divine  origin  and  eternal  des- 
tiny, men  both  as  individuals  and  as  members  of  domestic 
society,  were  in  possession  of  God-given  rights  which  they 
realized  could  be  completely  and  securely  enjoyed  not  by  sin- 
gle-handed effort,  but  by  the  association  and  cooperation  of 
all.  Their  very  nature  as  social  beings  led  them  to  seek  in 
society  the  fullest  measure  of  existence;  and  in  civil  society, 
whose  formation  was  divinely  instituted  and  inspired,  their 
natural  weakness  prompted  them  to  find  the  supplement  of 
individual  activity  and  enterprise  in  the  temporal  order. 

It  was  thus  that  the  state  originated — it  had  its  birth  in 
the  union  of  families,  seeking  the  protection  of  their  rights 
and  the  promotion  of  their  temporal  well-being.  The  state 
became  by  nature  and  by  institution  the  servant  of  the  people ; 
their  earthly  interests  it  was  intended  to  further,  and  their 
rights  it  was  created  to  safeguard,  not  to  absorb  or  to  destroy. 
Human  rights  which  are  natural  and  inalienable  were  not  to 
be  lost  or  sacrificed  by  the  individual's  entrance  into  civil 
society,  but  sanctified  and  fortified. 

The  state,  therefore,  exists  for  the  individual.  That  funda- 
mental principle  of  political  philosophy,  the  original  states- 
men of  this  nation  unmistakably  expressed  in  the  preamble 
to  the  remarkable  legal  document  they  composed.  "We,  the 
people  of  the  United  States,  in  order  to  form  a  more  perfect 
union,  establish  justice,  ensure  domestic  tranquillity,  provide 
for  the  common  defense,  promote  the  general  welfare,  and 
secure  the  blessings  of  liberty  to  ourselves  and  our  posterity, 
do  ordain  and  establish  this  Constitution  of  the  United  States 
of  America."      To  further    the  common    interests  and    the 


Reasonable  Limits  of  State  Activity  519 

temporal  prosperity  of  the  community  and  to  protect  the  pri- 
vate rights  of  the  citizens — this  was  the  purpose  for  which  our 
Republic  was  set  up;  this  is  the  mission  which  this  and  all 
other  civil  governments  are  expected  in  virtue  of  their  nature 
and  institution  to  fulfill. 

Always  must  attention  be  directed  to  this  view  of  the  state, 
for  by  it,  as  a  norm,  legislation,  to  be  reasonable  and  just, 
must  be  measured.  It  is  the  only  view  which  can  logically 
and  consistently  take  its  place  in  the  mind  of  a  man  convinced 
of  the  two  fundamental  truths  that  God  exists  and  that  the 
human  soul  is  immortal.  Fortunately  for  the  world  the 
Catholic  Church  has  kept  that  view  in  honor  when  others 
would  embrace  the  degrading  theories  of  Hobbes  and  Rous- 
seau or  the  dwarfing  political  program  of  the  German  So- 
cialist, Marx. 

So  let  us  repeat — the  state  is  the  servant,  not  the  master 
of  the  people,  and,  far  from  creating  or  determining  their 
rights,  it  finds  them  already  existing.  It  is  a  natural  and  per- 
fect society,  and  as  such  bears  relation  to  affairs  and  interests 
peculiar  to  itself  and  for  which  it  is  responsible.  But  the 
limits  of  its  action  are  definitely  expressed  in  the  twofold 
purpose  of  its  existence — the  protection  of  individual  rights, 
and  the  advancement  of  the  general  good. 

"The  foremost  duty  of  the  rulers  of  the  State,"  wrote  the 
great  Leo  XIII,  "should  be  to  make  sure  that  the  laws  and 
institutions,  the  general  character  and  administration  of  the 
commonwealth  shall  be  such  of  themselves  as  to  realize  public 
well-being  and  private  prosperity."  These  ends  the  state 
can  never  realize  if  it  neither  understands  that  it  is  the  helpful 
agent  of  the  individual,  who  besides  being  a  citizen  of  the 
state  is  a  moral  being  also,  nor  remembers  that  prior  to  it, 
both  in  nature  and  in  time,  is  the  individual  and  the  family 
too,  the  safeguarding  of  whose  interests  is  the  only  reason 
of  its  existence. 

Once  these  principles  are  grasped  it  becomes  a  relatively 
easy  matter  to  determine  the  area  within  which  the  state  may 
legitimately  operate.  It  is  immediately  evident  that  from 
its  authority  must  be  excluded  everything  of  a  purely  moral 
or  religious  character,  except  the  duty  of  encouragement  and 


520  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

protection.  To  another  perfect  society,  the  Church,  religious 
and  kindred  interests  are  intrusted.  It  is  evident,  also,  that 
the  state  may  not  transgress  the  divine  or  natural  law;  nor 
may  it  unjustly  invade  the  rights  of  individual  initiative,  or 
violate  the  sacredness  of  the  home. 

Viewing  the  question  of  the  state's  authority  in  a  positive 
way,  it  may  be  stated  as  a  general  principle  that  the  civil 
power,  while  respecting  the  rights  of  individuals  and  keeping 
them  inviolate,  can  and  must  interfere  whenever  men  and 
private  associations  of  men  are  prevented  from  the  enjoy- 
ment of  rights  which  are  theirs  by  nature  or  by  legitimate 
acquisition;  or  whenever  the  public  good  is  endangered  by 
evils  which  can  in  no  other  way  be  removed.  Thus  it  is  within 
the  power  of  the  state  to  suppress  crime;  to  settle  disputes 
upsetting  the  peace  and  order  of  society;  to  safeguard  true 
moral  standards  and  the  liberty  of  worship.  In  the  industrial 
field  it  must  intervene,  either  by  special  legislation  or  by  the 
exercise  of  its  executive  powers,  to  defend  the  worker  against 
excessive  and  degrading  burdens,  unsanitary  working  or  living 
conditions,  and  unjust  returns  from  labor.  These  and  other 
responsibilities  come  reasonably  within  the  scope  of  the  civil 
power ;  they  flow  as  corollaries  from  the  reason  of  its  existence 
— the  protection  of  personal  rights  and  the  promotion  of  the 
general  welfare. 

To  express  this  in  other  words,  the  state  has  a  right  to 
act  only  when  such  action  is  demanded  by  the  good  of  the 
community  and  only  after  private  initiative  has  proved  inade- 
quate to  cope  with  the  situation.  "The  individual  and  the 
family,"  says  Leo  XIII,  "far  from  being  absorbed,  must  be 
allowed  free  and  untrammelled  action,  as  far  as  it  is  con- 
sistent with  the  common  good" ;  and  again,  "The  law  must  not 
undertake  more  or  go  farther  than  is  required  for  the  remedy 
of  the  evil  or  the  removal  of  the  danger." 

These  basic  principles  which  mark  the  bounds  of  legitimate 
state  action  all  come  back  to  the  proposition  that  the  state 
exists  for  man,  not  man  for  the  state.  They  reflect  the  value 
of  human  freedom  and  individual  initiative. 

With  the  exception  of  divine  grace,  no  greater  blessing  can 
come  to  man  than  that  of  liberty  enjoyable  within  proper 


Reasonable  Limits  of  State  Activity  521 

bounds;  and  in  no  country  are  the  securities  for  peace  and 
order  stronger  than  in  that  where  free  men  live,  proud  of  its 
institutions  because  of  the  liberty  they  grant,  and  obedient  to 
the  laws  because  of  the  security  which  they  guarantee.  The 
sense  of  personal  freedom  awakens  a  sense  of  self-dependence 
and  of  self-worth,  and  all  three  result  in  successful  individual 
endeavor  which  alone  can  give  to  a  nation  lasting  strength 
and  vitality.  It  was  a  full  realization  of  the  value  of  these 
forces  to  society  that  prompted  the  great  Irish  statesman, 
Edmund  Burke,  to  declare  that  it  should  be  the  constant  aim 
of  every  wise  public  council  to  find  out  by  cautious  experi- 
ment and  rational,  cool  endeavor,  with  how  little,  not  how 
much,  of  this  restraint  the  community  can  subsist.  For  liberty, 
he  said,  is  a  good  to  be  improved,  not  an  evil  to  be  lessened. 

For  these  reasons,  we  as  citizens  of  this  country,  jealous 
of  its  welfare  and  cautious  for  our  own  liberties,  stand  op- 
posed to  every  tendency  that  makes  for  absolutism  in  the  state. 
Toward  this  direction,  nevertheless,  we  in  America  are  con- 
stantly drifting.  Each  year  the  volume  of  over-legislation 
is  increasing;  the  sacredness  of  human  rights  is  ignored,  and 
the  state,  according  to  the  philosophy  of  the  day,  is  regarded 
as  an  object  of  worship,  the  one  supreme  authority  in  society. 
This  is  the  Czarism  of  Russia  and  the  Prussianism  of  Ger- 
many reproduced,  and  as  such,  we  resist  it  because  it  is  dis- 
astrous in  its  consequences  and  false  to  the  spirit  of  American 
traditions. 

Were  the  purposes  of  the  state  simply  to  provide  for  its 
people  the  greatest  possible  amount  of  earthly  riches,  or 
material  comforts,  or  sensual  pleasures,  we  might  seek,  perhaps 
in  a  paternal  government,  the  most  efficient  means  for  the 
attainment  of  this  end.  Governments,  however,  exist,  in  the 
divine  plan,  to  secure  for  every  man  the  means  of  developing 
not  only  his  physical,  but  his  mental  and  moral  endowments 
as  well;  and  this  makes  imperative  in  the  state  a  tendency 
towards  decentralization  rather  than  towards  centralization 
of  power. 

Were  the  subjects  of  the  civil  power  children  or  slaves  by 
nature,  Hegel's  doctrine  of  the  absolute  state  might  with 
some  show  of  reason  be  defended  and  with  some  degree  of 


522  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

success  applied.  But  those  for  whom  laws  are  made,  God 
created  free  men ;  and  they  are  worth  most  to  themselves  and 
to  society  when  their  freedom  is  recognized  and  their  individ- 
ual initiative  encouraged. 

It  is  well  to  remember  that  the  tendency  of  governments, 
even  the  best  intentioned,  is  always  in  the  direction  of  en- 
croachment upon  the  individual.  That  explains  why  eternal 
vigilance  is  the  price  of  liberty.  The  story  of  other  nations 
makes  clear  the  lesson  that  arbitrary  power  is  apt  to  be  used 
in  an  arbitrary  way ;  that  under  its  iron  heel  individual  hopes 
and  interests  are  crushed;  and  that  though  for  a  time  its 
machine-like  structure  may  appear  to  give  the  maximum 
strength  and  efficiency,  nevertheless  the  final  result  is  decay 
and  destruction.  These  are  solemn  reflections,  but  they  are 
salutary.  Here  in  America  we  cannot  hope  to  escape  the 
penalty  which  other  nations  have  paid  if,  as  they,  we  sacri- 
fice the  things  we  value  most — liberty,  individuality,  and  re- 
ligion; and  by  exaggerated  organization  and  centralization 
allow  the  state  to  become  an  instrument  of  tyranny  in  the 
hands  of  those  who  make  our  laws. 

It  is  in  the  field  of  education  that  we  are  especially  inter- 
ested and  it  is  just  here  that  the  most  dangerous  forces  are 
at  work;  for  the  complete  monopoly  of  education  towards 
which  we  are  tending,  unless  there  is  a  vital  reform,  will 
become  a  reality  and  furnish  the  state  with  a  most  powerful 
means  for  crushing  popular  liberty  and  tyrannizing  over  its 
people. 

That  there  is  a  decided  movement  in  the  direction  of  cen- 
tralizing authority  over  the  educational  agencies  of  the  coun- 
try cannot  be  denied.  For  some  years  now  it  has  been  con- 
stantly increasing  in  power  and  widening  out  more  and  more 
to  embrace  activities  for  which  the  parent  or  the  home  was 
formerly  considered  responsible.  The  medical  inspection  of 
schools,  the  physical  examination  and  treatment  of  school 
children,  the  supplying  of  food  for  the  indigent  pupil,  free 
dispensary  treatment  for  the  defective,  and  other  similar  pro- 
visions which  have  been  added  to  the  educational  program  of 
the  state,  all  are  signs  of  the  spirit  of  machine  centralization 
and  control.    It  is  manifested  also  in  the  increasing  volume 


Reasonable  Limits  of  State  Activity  523 

of  legislation  directed  towards  greater  uniformity  in  school 
standards  and  closer  organization  in  school  management;  in 
the  approval  of  powerful  and  irresponsible  Foundations ;  in 
the  growing  antipathy  for  private  school  sytsems;  and  in  the 
cramping  limitations  placed  upon  the  freedom  of  private  edu- 
cational institutions.  Back  of  all  this  can  be  detected  the 
philosophical  principle  of  the  French  revolutionist,  Danton, 
that  the  children  belong  to  the  state  before  they  belong  to  their 
parents ;  and  that  other  false  and  undemocratic  principle,  that 
the  state  should  be  the  only  educator  of  the  nation. 

Such  teaching  it  is  that  is  back  of  the  ever-insistent  scheme 
to  establish  a  national  university,  and  of  the  recent  attempt 
to  subject  the  educational  agencies  of  the  country  to  a  ministry 
of  education,  with  its  center  at  Washington  and  its  chief 
executive  in  the  Cabinet  of  the  President. 

Right  here,  perhaps,  we  touch  upon  the  strongest  and  most 
pernicious  influence  which  the  countries  of  Europe  have  ex- 
erted upon  the  educational  theory  of  America.  In  Germany, 
especially,  for  the  past  fifty  years  there  has  been  a  state 
monopoly  in  education,  from  the  primary  school  to  the  uni- 
versity. No  educational  policies,  standards,  or  ideals  were 
tolerated  except  those  created  by  the  omnipotent  German 
state,  and  no  teacher  or  institution  could  engage  in  educational 
work  without  a  permit  from  the  government's  educational 
bureau.  To  the  state  this  system  brought  absolute  control 
and  authority  over  the  varied  activities  of  the  people;  it  pro- 
duced a  uniformity  of  thought  and  of  purpose  in  the  nation, 
but  it  was  at  the  expense  of  the  people's  freedom  and  individ- 
uality. And  this  system  America  is  each  year  making  more 
completely  its  own,  because  America's  educators,  trained  along 
German  lines  in  German  universities,  have  failed  to  recognize 
beneath  the  apparent  benefits  of  centralized  control  and  uni- 
formity, the  noxious  forces  that  were  operating  steadily 
towards  Germany's  final  destruction. 

In  the  light  of  recent  happenings  a  state  monopoly  in  educa- 
tion stands  condemned.  The  disaster  which  has  fallen  upon  the 
German  people  may  be  attributed  to  the  fact  that  they  allowed 
themselves  to  be  absorbed  in  the  omnipotent  state.  They 
sacrificed  their  liberty  to  pay  for  commercial  and  military 


524  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

efficiency;  they  allowed  their  self-reliant  manhood  to  be  legally 
suppressed  and  in  the  end  they  became  mere  puppets  of  the 
state,  cogs  in  its  complex  machine.  To  the  state  they  turned 
over  the  agencies  of  education,  admitting,  in  practice  at  least, 
that  their  children  were  not  their  own,  but  the  property  of 
the  nation;  and  the  state  monopoly  in  education  that  resulted 
became  a  powerful  instrument  for  their  enslavement.  For  the 
government  that  controls  the  thought  of  its  people  has  them 
completely  at  its  mercy;  and  absorbing  their  intellects  in  the 
sovereign  intellect  of  the  state,  it  can  do  with  them  as  it 
pleases.  This  was  pagan  political  philosophy  revived,  the 
Spartan  state  with  its  Lycurgan  legislation  rejuvenated;  and 
with  these  came  the  same  penalty  which  the  Greeks  paid  for 
their  arrogance  and  despotism — ruin. 

Apart,  however,  from  these  considerations  which  in  them- 
selves are  for  us  sufficient  reason  for  viewing  with  alarm 
the  Prussian  trend  of  educational  policies  here  in  our  own 
country — apart  from  the  fact  that  state  supremacy  in  educa- 
tion would  beget  a  bellicose  nationalism  and  lead  inevitably 
to  militarism  and  autocratic  industrialism;  apart  from  the 
further  fact  that  the  concentration  of  education  in  the  hands 
of  a  few  government  officials  would  inevitably  lessen  popular 
interest  in  the  schools,  crush  out  individual  enterprise  and 
healthy  competition,  and,  reducing  all  processes  of  training 
to  a  dead  level  of  uniformity,  would  weaken  the  educational 
forces  and  through  these  civilizing  influences  in  society — 
apart,  I  say,  from  such  vital  considerations  there  is  the 
more  serious  and  more  fundamental  reflection,  that  state  con- 
trol of  education  is  in  this  country  unconstitutional  and  every- 
where an  arrogant  usurpation  of  parental  rights. 

In  this  land  of  liberty  the  laws  and  the  spirit  of  the  country 
have  hitherto  secured  and  encouraged  freedom  of  education. 
Indeed,  this  freedom  granted  to  parents  in  the  education  of 
their  children  follows  as  a  corollary  from  the  religious  free- 
dom guaranteed  by  the  American  Constitution  to  the  Amer- 
ican people.  And  as  no  state  or  government  has  the  right 
to  restrict  the  liberty  of  the  individual  in  the  practice  of  his 
religion,  so  also  no  state  can  with  justice  interfere  with  the 
individual  in  the  education  of  his  children,  provided  that  edu- 
cation meets  with  the  just  requirements  of  the  state. 


Reasonable  Limits  of  State  Activity  525 

A  few  words  will  make  this  clear.  Under  our  laws  every 
man  is  free  to  embrace  and  practice  the  religion  he  wishes, 
and  he  is  free  as  a  consequence  to  adopt  every  legitimate 
means  to  protect  himself  and  his  family  in  the  possession  of 
this  constitutional  right  by  the  proper  education  of  his  chil- 
dren. For  under  the  present  public  school  system,  religious 
instruction  and  training  are  allowed  no  place  in  the  curricu- 
lum; and  in  the  judgment  of  those  American  citizens  who 
consider  education  and  religion  as  inseparable,  such  a  system 
cannot  serve  them  in  the  exercise  of  religious  freedom. 

In  this  their  judgment  is  sound  and  justified.  The  funda- 
mental purpose  of  education  is  to  secure  for  the  child  not 
temporal  success  alone,  but,  more  urgent  still,  eternal  welfare 
as  well;  and  thus  in  the  training  and  development  of  youth 
the  primary  and  all-important  element  is  religion.  Precisely 
because  it  makes  a  great  difference  upon  religious  belief 
whether  the  teacher  accepts  or  rejects  the  principle  of  God's 
existence,  and  bcause  as  far  as  the  child's  moral  training  is 
concerned  it  surely  matters  much  whether  the  school  keeps 
religious  truths  in  the  foreground  or  passes  them  over  in  silence 
or  indifference,  freedom  to  educate  must  be,  under  the  present 
secular  school  system,  part  and  parcel  of  freedom  to  worship. 
Any  attempt,  therefore,  to  trespass  on  the  one  is  an  attempt 
to  trespass  upon  the  other. 

Not  only  is  this  right  of  the  parent  to  control  the  educa- 
tion of  his  children  a  constitutional  right  under  our  govern- 
ment ;  it  is  also  under  God  an  in  alienable  and  inviolable  right. 
The  child  belongs  to  the  parent  primarily  and  before  all  others. 
In  determining  the  responsibility  for  education  and  the  limits 
of  state  activity  in  this  matter,  that  fundamental  law  of 
nature  must  never  be  out  of  mind.  No  more  false  or  fatal 
proposition  could  ever  be  enunciated  than  that  which  would 
vest  in  the  state  the  absolute  and  supreme  ownership  and 
control  of  its  subjects. 

This  right  of  parental  possession  is  a  natural  right  with  its 
foundation  in  the  very  fact  of  birth;  and  that  right  involves 
the  right  of  the  parent  to  feed,  clothe,  and  to  educate  the 
child  physically,  intellectually,  and  morally.  These  rights 
involve  the  corresponding  duties,  and  these  the  parent  may 


526  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

neither  evade  nor  ignore.  Any  state  invasion  of  these  rights 
or  government  interference  with  these  duties  is  a  violation 
of  liberties  that  are  God-given  and  which  are  by  us  inherited 
from  those  who  gave  America  national  independence. 

This  does  not  mean,  however,  that  the  state  has  no  com- 
petence as  an  educator  and  no  legitimate  functions  in  the  field 
of  education.  The  very  purpose  of  its  existence,  the  protec- 
tion of  private  rights  and  the  promotion  of  peace  and  happiness 
in  society,  suggests  the  right  and  the  duty  of  the  state  to 
interest  itself  actively,  under  certain  well-defined  circum- 
stances, in  the  training  of  its  citizens.  While  always  ex- 
pected to  foster  and  facilitate  the  work  of  private  educational 
agencies,  and  to  supplement  the  educational  efforts  of  the 
citizens,  there  are  times  when  the  state  must  act,  if  its  chil- 
drn  are  to  be  worthy  citizens  and  competent  voters.  It  has  the 
right,  therefore,  to  build  schools  and  take  every  other  legiti- 
mate means  to  safeguard  itself  against  ignorance  and  against 
the  weakness  which  follows  from  illiteracy.  That  is,  its  edu- 
cational activity  is  justified  when  it  is  necessary  to  promote 
the  common  weal  or  to  safeguard  its  own  vital  interests,  which 
are  endangered  only  when  the  child  through  neglect  of  its 
parent,  fails  to  receive  the  education  which  is  a  right  and 
a  necessity. 

Further  than  this  the  state  cannot  go  without  trespassing 
upon  the  rights  of  its  subjects.  It  may  encourage  and  pro- 
mote education,  but  this  does  not  necessitate  a  monopoly.  It 
may  provide  schooling  for  children  who  would  otherwise  grow 
up  in  ignorance,  but  this  is  a  supplementary  right,  not  a 
primary  and  underived  one.  It  may  use  constraint  to  bring 
such  children  to  its  schools,  but  when  parents  otherwise  fur- 
nish proper  education  it  cannot  compel  them  to  send  children 
to  the  educational  institutions  it  has  established,  nor  can  it 
exercise  exclusively  the  function  of  education.  And  all  this, 
because  education  is  a  parental,  not  a  political,  right,  and  the 
state  exists  to  promote  the  welfare  and  to  protect  the  rights 
of  its  citizens,  not  to  antagonize  or  injure  them.  Different 
teaching  than  this  comes  only  from  those  who  know  and  care 
little  of  human  rights,  and  less  of  the  legitimate  functions  of 
a  constitutional  democracy. 


Reasonable  Limits  of  State  Activity  527 

Judged  by  these  principles,  which  are  the  principles  of 
sound  political  philosophy,  the  civil  government  in  America 
stands  accused  of  unreasonable  trespasses  upon  the  rights  and 
liberties  of  its  citizens.  In  the  field  of  education  its  inter- 
fering activities  constitute  a  most  serious  menace,  for  there 
is  no  more  dangerous  monopoly  than  the  monopoly  of  the 
despotic  state  over  the  minds  of  its  people. 

For  this  reason  it  is  just  here  that  the  work  of  reform 
must  begin.  If  the  nation  is  to  be  turned  aside  from  its  pres- 
ent path  towards  autocracy,  it  must  restrict  its  activities 
in  all  departments  of  the  people's  life,  but  especially  in  that 
which  relates  to  the  schools  in  which  their  children  are  trained. 
It  must  suppress  its  tendencies  towards  the  nationalization, 
centralization,  and  standardization  of  education,  get  rid  of 
its  self-perpetuating  educational  boards  and  commissions, 
neither  representative  nor  responsible  to  the  people,  and 
bring  the  control  of  education  back  to  the  parents,  to  whom 
it  naturally  and  primarily  belongs. 

It  is  a  truth  that  cannot  be  gainsaid  that  the  country's 
most  stalwart  defenders  are  those  parents  who  are  educating 
their  children  in  schools  where  God  is  recognized  and  religious 
training  given  the  place  of  prominence.  Their  schools,  which 
are  the  only  schools  in  the  land  that  harmonize  with  our 
national  traditions,  will  protect  the  rights  of  the  citizen  be- 
cause they  will  insist  upon  his  dignity  as  a  man,  and,  in  the 
end,  will  procure  vitality  and  strength  for  the  nation  when  all 
governmental  machineries  and  state  establishments  fail. 

Let  the  state,  therefore,  cease  that  unreasonable  interfer- 
ence in  education  which  would  hamper  these  schools  in  their 
most  necessary  and  salutary  work.  Let  it  restore  to  its  sub- 
jects in  the  field  of  education  and  in  other  private  pursuits  the 
fullest  freedom  consistent  with  the  public  welfare,  lest  it  be 
guilty  of  folly  in  embracing  the  tyrannizing  policies  it  has 
sacrificed  so  much  blood  and  treasure  to  destroy,  and  justly 
incur  the  charge  of  hypocrisy  in  making  a  world-wide  proclama- 
tion of  democratic  principles  while  at  the  same  time  doing 
violence  to  the  spirit  and  genius  of  its  own  democratic  institu- 
tions at  home. 


THE  CURRICULUM  OF  THE  CATHOLIC  ELEMENTARY 
SCHOOL.*  A  DISCUSSION  OF  ITS  PSYCHOLOGICAL 
AND  SOCIAL  FOUNDATIONS 

By  George  Johnson 

introduction 

The  curriculum  is  the  fundamental  element  in  a  school  system. 
Upon  it  everything  else,  administration,  supervision,  methods  of 
teaching,  testing,  depends.  It  is  the  concrete  embodiment  of 
the  school's  ideals;  in  it  are  implied  the  changes  the  school  aims  to 
effect  in  the  mind  and  heart  of  the  child  in  order  that  he  may  be 
led  out  of  the  Egyptian  bondage  of  his  native  tendencies  into  the 
Promised  Land  of  his  social  inheritance.  To  it  the  teacher  turns 
for  guidance  and  in  it  finds  a  means  of  avoiding  the  indefinite 
and  haphazard;  it  serves  the  supervisor  as  a  norm  for  judging 
the  quality  of  the  teaching;  it  is  the  basis  of  the  choice  of  text- 
books.    It  is  the  pivot  upon  which  the  entire  system  turns. 

Hence  the  importance  of  discovering  the  principles  that  should 
underlie  the  curriculum  of  our  Catholic  elementary  schools. 
Without  the  light  of  these  principles,  practical  administration  is 
handicapped  and  must  of  necessity  be  content  with  half -measures. 
A  sound  theory  is  the  most  practical  thing  in  the  world,  and  the 
present  discussion  is  undertaken  with  the  hope  of  at  least  pointing 
the  way  to  such  a  theory. 

The  program  of  the  modern  elementary  school  embraces  a  great 
number  of  topics  that  were  not  found  there  a  generation  ago. 
This  is  not  due  entirely,  as  some  charge,  to  the  fads  of  educational 
theory,  but  largely  to  the  operation  of  social  forces.  The  history  of 
education  reveals  how  the  schools  change  from  age  to  age  to  meet 
the  needs  of  society.  Education  is  preparation  for  life  and  it 
is  but  natural  to  expect  that  the  conditions  of  life  at  any  given  time 
should  influence  educational  agencies.  However,  the  school 
tends  to  lag  behind  in  the  march  of  progress.  It  becomes  formal, 
canonizing  subject-matter  and  methods  that  have  proven  valid  in 
the  past  and  according  only  tardy  recognition  to  innovations. 
Modern  educational  philosophy,  in  the  light  of  the  development 

*  A  dissertation  submitted  to  the  faculty  of  philosophy  of  the 
Catholic  University  of  America  in  partial  fulfillment  of  the  require- 
ments for  the  Degree  of  Doctor  of  Philosophy. 

528 


Curriculum  op  Catholic  School  529 

of  social  science,  would  overcome  this  inertia  and  adopt  a  more 
forward-looking  policy.  The  school  is  to  be  regarded  as  a  means 
of  social  control.  It  shall  represent  the  ideal  in  social  conditions 
and  imbue  the  child  with  an  intelligent  discontent  with  anything 
short  of  this  in  actual  life.  This  development  of  educational 
thought  is  of  the  deepest  importance  for  the  Catholic  school.  It 
means  that  Catholic  education  must  work  out  a  practical  social 
philosophy  of  its  own,  and  not  be  satisfied  to  follow  where  blind 
guides  may  lead. 

An  analysis  of  the  present  condition  of  society  reveals  the 
existence  of  three  major  phenomena.  First,  the  prime  charac- 
teristic of  present-day  civilization  is  industrialism.  The  last  cen- 
tury has  witnessed  developments  in  industrial  processes  that  have 
completely  revolutionized  the  conditions  of  living.  The  coming  of 
the  machine  has  changed  the  face  of  the  earth.  It  has  affected 
every  phase  of  human  life  and  has  introduced  problems  of  the 
deepest  import.  Since  in  the  development  of  the  mechanical 
processes  there  was  a  tendency  to  lose  sight  of  the  deeper  human 
values,  great  evils  have  arisen  in  the  social  order,  and  these  have 
fostered  the  second  phenomenon,  namely,  the  universal  discontent 
with  present  conditions  and  the  zeal  for  social  reform.  Because 
industrialism  tends  to  beget  materialism  and  because  the  philoso- 
phy of  the  last  400  years  has  tended  to  irreligion,  this  reform  is 
being  sought  by  measures  that  are  purely  secular  and  humanitarian. 
Religion  as  a  force  for  human  betterment  receives  but  scant  con- 
sideration from  modern  social  science;  it  may  be  a  contributory 
factor,  but  its  importance  is  but  secondary. 

The  Catholic  school  must  meet  this  condition  by  insisting  always 
on  the  essential  need  of  religion,  by  applying  the  force  of  religion 
to  social  problems  and  by  taking  cognizance  of  the  great  fact  of 
industry.  In  other  words  it  must  adjust  the  child  to  the  present 
environment  and  interpret  unto  him  the  Doctrine  of  Christ  in 
such  manner  that  he  will  understand  its  bearing  on  his  everyday 
problems  and  realize  that  in  it  alone  can  be  found  the  means  of 
salvation,  temporal  as  well  as  eternal. 

However,  in  striving  to  make  the  school  meet  present  needs, 
there  is  danger  of  becoming  too  practical  and  utilitarian.  Secular 
education  is  prone  to  despise  cultural  values.  In  its  zeal  to  stamp 
out  individualism,  the  modern  school  bids  fair  to  destroy  the 
individual.     The  doctrine  of  formal  discipline  is  being  generally 


530  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

scouted  and  the  cry  is  for  specific  education.  Yet,  an  examination 
of  the  psychological  arguments  that  are  alleged  against  the 
doctrine  and  of  the  experiments  that  have  been  made  in  relation 
to  the  transfer  of  training,  seems  to  indicate  that  conclusions  have 
been  too  hasty.  Though  the  effects  of  formal  discipline  have  been 
exaggerated  in  the  past,  the  fact  has  yet  to  be  conclusively  dis- 
proven.  Culture,  or  the  building  up  of  individual  character,  is 
best  accomplished  by  means  of  general  and  not  specific  training, 
though  the  influence  of  practical,  every-day  forces  should  not  be 
despised  in  the  process. 

There  is  no  room  in  the  present  system  of  things  for  a  program 
of  elementary  education  that  is  narrowly  conceived  for  the  benefit 
of  those  who  will  receive  a  higher  schooling.  The  elementary 
school  has  an  independent  mission  of  its  own.  Its  aim  should  be 
to  give  all  the  children  that  enter  its  doors  a  real  education.  This 
does  not  mean  that  it  should  attempt  to  teach  all  that  a  higher 
school  would  teach,  but,  with  due  regard  for  the  limitations  of  the 
child's  mind,  it  should  offer  him  such  fundamental  knowledge  of 
God,  of  man  and  of  nature,  as  wall  afford  the  basis  of  a  character 
capable  of  the  best  religious,  moral  and  social  conduct. 

It  is  along  these  lines  that  the  present  study  is  conducted. 
Specific  applications  to  the  individual  branches  are  beyond 
its  scope,  nor  does  it  attempt  to  work  out  a  system  of  correlation 
of  studies.  These  are  practical  conclusions  that  can  be  deduced 
from  the  general  principles  set  forth.  The  aim  is  to  discover  a 
working  basis  for  the  making  of  the  curriculum  for  the  Catholic 
elementary  school,  that  it  may  be  in  a  better  position  to  accomplish 
its  mission  in  the  midst  of  modern  conditions  and  be  freed  from 
the  tyranny  of  objectives  that  are  immediate  and  merely  con- 
jectural. 

THE   DEVELOPMENT   OF  THE   ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL  CURRICULUM  IN 

THE   UNITED   STATES 

One  of  the  favorite  criticisms  directed  against  American  ele- 
mentary education  is  that  in  attempting  to  do  everything,  it  suc- 
ceeds in  doing  nothing.  University  professors,  business  men,  law- 
yers, doctors  and  even  some  teachers  vie  with  one  another  in 
lauding  the  good  old  days  of  the  three  R's  and  in  decrying  the 
faddism  that  has  loaded  the  curriculum  of  the  elementary  school 
with  an  astounding  amount  of  material  that  does  not  belong  there. 


Curriculum  of  Catholic  School  531 

They  tell  us  that  the  modern  child  upon  completing  his  schooling  is 
scatter-brained  and  inexact;  that  he  is  poor  in  spelling  and  quite 
helpless  in  the  face  of  the  simplest  problem  in  arithmetic.  This 
they  ascribe  to  the  fact  that  instead  of  being  trained  in  the  school 
arts,  he  is  forced  to  listen  to  a  great  number  of  superficial  facts 
concerning  nature,  the  care  of  his  body,  the  history  of  Europe; 
that  instead  of  being  exercised  in  steady  and  sustained  effort,  he  is 
entertained  and  amused  by  drawing,  music,  manual  training  and 
industrial  arts.  The  schools,  they  tell  us  are  defeating  their  pur- 
pose by  attempting  things  that  are  beyond  their  scope. 

It  might  be  interesting  to  make  a  study  of  the  alleged  basis  of 
this  criticism,  namely,  the  inefficiency  of  the  average  graduate  of 
the  elementary  school,  and  to  discover  whether  it  has  any  sub- 
stance or  is  just  an  easy  generalization  from  isolated  instances.  Yet 
whatever  might  be  the  result,  it  would  not  argue  in  the  direction 
pointed  by  the  critics.  We  cannot  return  to  the  old  formal  curricu- 
lum, for  the  simple  reason  that  such  a  curriculum  would  be  utterly 
inadequate  under  present  conditions.  The  mission  of  the  ele- 
mentary school  is  not  mere  training  in  the  use  of  the  tools  of 
learning.  The  elementary  school  period  is  the  season  of  planting, 
of  germination,  of  development.  It  is  a  season  of  gradual  awaken- 
ing, during  which  the  mind  of  the  child  becomes  more  and  more 
cognizant  of  the  life  that  surrounds  it.  It  is  a  season  of  prepara- 
tion for  life,  and  the  more  complex  life  is,  the  more  detailed  must 
be  the  preparation.  The  educational  thought  of  the  day  goes 
even  further  and  maintains  that  the  school  is  more  than  a  prepara- 
tion for  life,  that  it  is  life  itself,  and  must  of  a  consequence  in- 
clude all  of  life's  elements,  at  least  in  germ.  It  must  touch  all  of 
life's  essential  interests  and  must  prepare  for  those  eventualities 
that  every  individual  must  meet.  If  the  modern  curriculum  is 
varied  beyond  the  dreams  of  an  older  generation,  if  it  refuses  to 
confine  itself  to  the  three  R's,  it  is  not  because  arbitrary  fad  holds 
the  rein,  but  because  conditions  of  life  have  changed  and  in 
changing  have  placed  a  greater  responsibility  upon  the  lower 
schools.  The  history  of  education  in  the  United  States  shows  how 
one  study  after  another  has  been  admitted  into  the  schools  under 
an  impulse  that  came,  not  from  some  pedagogue  with  a  fad  to 
nurse,  but  from  the  recognition  of  very  evident  social  needs. 

The  school  program  of  Colonial  days  was  a  very  jejune  affair. 
Only  the  rudiments  of  reading  and  writing  were  imparted  in  the 


532  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

Puritan  schools  of  New  England,  and  very  little  more  elsewhere 
through  the  colonies.  Those  were  pioneer  days,  days  of  hardship 
and  danger  when  men  labored  hard  and  found  little  time  for  the 
refinements  of  life.  There  was  a  new  country  to  be  reclaimed, 
hostile  savages  to  be  warded  off,  an  urgent  need  for  food,  clothing 
and  shelter  to  be  satisfied.  Yet  some  learning  was  requisite  even 
in  those  hard  circumstances.  First  of  all,  religion  played  a  promi- 
nent role  in  the  lives  of  the  colonists.  In  Europe,  the  religious  con- 
troversy subsequent  to  the  Protestant  Revolt  waxed  ever  warmer 
through  the  seventeenth  century  and  reflected  itself  in  colonial 
life.  For  the  most  part,  the  colonists  were  refugees  from  religious 
persecution  or  from  circumstances  that  interfered  with  the  free 
following  of  the  dictates  of  conscience.  They  brought  with  them, 
whether  they  were  the  Catholics  of  Maryland,  the  Quakers  of 
Pennsylvania  or  the  Puritans  of  New  England,  strong  religious  pre- 
judices and  preoccupations.1  There  were  religious  books,  tracts 
and  pamphlets  to  be  read;  hence  the  necessity  of  learning  to  read. 
As  early  as  1642,  a  Massachusetts  enactment  gave  selectmen  the 
power  to  investigate  as  to  the  education  of  children  and  to  im- 
pose fines  on  parents  who  refused  to  provide  schooling.2  Under 
this  law,  the  duty  of  educating  their  children  devolved  upon  the 
parents;  teachers  where  they  could  be  found,  were  more  or  less  on  a 
level  with  itinerant  journeymen.  In  1674,  a  law  was  passed  requir- 
ing the  towns  to  maintain  schools.  The  preamble  states  ex- 
plicitly the  reason  of  the  law: — "it  being  one  chief  point  of  the  old 
deluder  Satan,  to  keep  men  from  a  knowledge  of  the  Scriptures."3 
Reading  texts  were  of  a  religious  character,  as  for  example,  the 
horn  book  and  the  primer;  the  catechism  which  concluded  the 
primer  was  considered  of  prime  importance.  The  chief  aim  was 
to  give  the  children  such  training  in  reading  as  would  enable  them 
to  read  the  Bible  and  follow  the  lines  of  religious  controversy. 

The  legal  and  commercial  status  of  the  colonies  likewise  necessi- 
tated ability  to  read,  as  well  as  some  skill  in  writing.  From  the 
very  beginning,  some  sort  of  legal  code  was  demanded,  to  make  for 
solidarity  and  protect  the  group  from  external  encroachment  and 
unscrupulousness  within.     Legal  documents  must  be  drawn  up, 


1  Parker,  Samuel  Chester,   The  History  of  Modern  Elementary   Education, 
Boston,  1912,  p.  67. 
8  Ibid.,  p.  59. 
» Ibid.,  p.  60. 


Curriculum  op  Catholic  School  533 

must  be  scrutinized  and  understood.  The  transfer  of  property 
must  be  safe-guarded.  Moreoever  there  was  an  increase  in  com- 
mercial activity,  in  barter  between  the  colonies  and  trade  with  the 
mother  country.4  These  facts  operated  particularly  in  favor  of 
writing,  which  lacked  a  universal  religious  sanction.  In  the 
beginning,  these  phases  of  instruction  were  separated.5  There 
were  so  many  different  styles  of  penmanship  that  the  teaching  of 
it  called  for  considerable  skill,  and  it  was  exceedingly  difficult  to 
find  a  good  master.6  Out  of  this  condition  developed  the  "double- 
headed  system"  of  reading  and  writing  schools.7 

The  Catholic  schools  of  the  period  followed  pretty  well  the 
course  described  above.  The  mission  schools  made  more  provi- 
sion for  industrial  education,  as  we  see  from  the  records  of  the 
missions  of  New  Mexico,  Texas  and  California.8  But  for  the 
rest,  outside  of  instruction  in  the  catechism  and  bible  history,  the 
Catholic  schools  diifered  little  from  the  others. 

It  was  only  well  into  the  eighteenth  century  that  spelling, 
grammar  and  arithmetic  came  into  their  own  as  school  subjects.9 
Parker  sums  up  the  situation  in  the  following  words;  "The  curricu- 
lum of  the  American  elementary  school  down  to  the  American 
Revolution  included  reading  and  writing  as  the  fundamental  sub- 
jects, with  perhaps  a  little  arithmetic  for  the  more  favored  schools. 
Spelling  was  emphasized  toward  the  end  of  the  period.  The 
subjects  that  had  no  place  were  composition,  singing,  drawing 
object  study,  physiology,  nature  study,  geography,  history,  secular 
literature,  manual  training."10 

In  1789,  arithmetic  assumed  an  official  place  in  the  curriculum. 
European  educational  tradition  of  the  seventeenth  century  did  not 
consider  arithmetic  essential  to  a  boy's  education  unless  he  was 


4  Carlton,  Frank  Tracy,  Education  and  Industrial  Evolution.  New  York, 
1908,  p.  21. 

6  Parker,  Samuel  Chester,  The  History  of  Modern  Elementary  Education, 
p.  86. 

8  Jessup,  W.  A.,  The  Social  Factors  Affecting  Special  Supervision  in  the 
Public  Schools  of  the  United  States.  New  York  (Columbia  University  Publica- 
tion), 1911,  p.  78. 

7  Parker,  Samuel  Chester,  The  History  of  Modern  Elementary  Education, 
p.  86. 

8  Burns,  J.  A.,  The  Principles,  Origin  and  Establishment  of  the  Catholic 
School  System  in  the  United  States.     New  York,  1912,  pp.  42,  47,  52,  58. 

9  Bunker,  Frank  Forest,  Reorganization  of  the  Public  School  System.  United 
United  States  Bureau  of  Education  Bulletin,  1916,  No.  8,  p.  3. 

10  Parker,  Samuel  Chester,  The  History  of  Modern  Elementary  Education, 
p.  84. 


534  The  Catholic  Educational  Keview 

"less  capable  of  learning  and  fittest  to  put  to  the  trades."  To  the 
subject  attached  all  the  odium  which  in  those  days  was  suggested  by 
practical  training.  The  minds  of  the  colonists  were  colored  by  this 
tradition.  Of  course,  settlers  like  the  Dutch  of  New  York,  who  were 
come  of  a  commercial  nation,  and  who  sought  these  shores  in  the 
interest  of  commercial  enterpri  e,  could  not  afford  to  neglect 
arithmetic.11  Even  here  and  there  throughout  New  England, 
arithmetic  was  taught,  though  there  is  little  specific  mention  of  it 
in  the  records.  It  was  sometimes  part  of  the  program  in  the 
writing  schools.  In  1635,  a  school  was  establish; ed  at  Plymouth, 
in  which  a  Mr.  Morton  taught  children  to  "read,  write  and  cast 
accounts."12  Arithmetic  was  not  required  for  college  entrance 
before  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century.  There  is  mention  of 
it  at  times  in  teacher's  contracts,  coordinately  with  reading  and 
writing.  In  1789,  the  teaching  of  reading,  writing  and  arithmetic 
was  made  compulsory  in  both  Massachusetts  and  New  Hampshire. 
It  is  not  unreasonable  to  suppose  that  these  laws  represent  the 
legalizing  of  a  practice  already  more  or  less  prevalent. 

The  principal  aim  of  the  teaching  of  arithmetic  in  the  colonial 
schools  seems  to  have  been  the  satisfying  of  the  needs  of  trade  and 
commerce.  Authors  of  the  texts  used  made  this  very  explicit. 
James  Hodder  is  induced  to  publish  "this  small  treatise  in  Arith- 
metik  for  the  compleating  of  youths  as  to  clerkship  and  trades" 
(1661).  The  title  page  of  Greenwood's  arithmetic,  published  in 
1729,  reads  "Arithmetik,  Vulgar  and  Decimal,  with  the  Appli- 
cation thereof  to  a  Variety  of  Cases  in  Trade  and  Commerce."  A 
ciphering  book  prepared  in  Boston  in  1809,  bears  the  title,  "Prac- 
tical Arithmetic,  comprising  all  the  rules  necessary  for  transacting 
business."13  After  the  Revolution,  when  the  colonies  had  been 
welded  together  into  a  nation  and  a  national  currency  was  esta- 
blished, the  need  for  skill  in  arithmetic  was  everywhere  recognized, 
and  thenceforth  the  subject  developed  steadily. 

With  the  close  of  the  War  of  1812,  there  began  a  new  era  in  the 
social,  economic  and  industrial  life  of  our  country.  The  war  had 
demonstrated  that  the  new  nation  could  not  perdure  unless  it 
developed  strong  and  vigorous  institutions  of  its  own.  It  had 
achieved  complete  independence  of  any  foreign  domination;  it 


11  Monroe,   W.  S.,   Development  of  Arithmetic  as  a  School  Subject,   United 
States  Bureau  of  Education  Bulletin,  1917,  No.  10,  p.  7. 

12  Ibid.,  p.  9. 

13  Ibid.,  p.  15. 


Curriculum  op  Catholic  School  535 

must  now  prove  itself  self-dependent.  The  result  was  a  marvel- 
ous commercial  and  industrial  evolution.  Only  shortly  before,  the 
machine  had  revolutionized  European  industry;  it  now  made  its 
appearance  in  America.  Immediately  there  was  a  shift  from  an 
agrarian  to  an  industrial  basis.  Large  cities  grew  up  and  special- 
ized labor  was  introduced.  Hand  in  hand  with  the  benefits  that 
attended  this  change,  came  the  host  of  evils  already  prevalent  in 
Europe — poverty  and  unemployment,  poor  housing  and  unsanitary 
living,  insecurity  of  finance  and  exploitation  of  labor. 

The  reflex  of  these  conditions  at  once  became  evident  in  the 
schools.  Everywhere  it  was  the  sense  of  thanking  men  that  in 
education  rested  the  hope  of  American  institutions.  There  came  a 
demand  for  free,  centralized  American  schools.  The  authority  of 
religious  bodies  in  matters  educational  was  gradually  under- 
mined. Over  in  Europe,  the  churches  had  already  lost  their  hold 
upon  the  schools  and  strong  state  systems  were  growing  up.  Edu- 
cation was  assuming  a  secular  aspect  and  at  the  same  time  coming 
to  play  a  more  comprehensive  role  in  human  life.  A  great  body  of 
educational  doctrine  appeared,  based  on  the  thought  of  men  like 
Locke,  Comenius  and  Rousseau.  There  was  a  reaction  against 
the  exclusiveness  and  formalism  of  the  classical  education  and  a 
demand  for  schooling  that  would  be  more  according  to  nature  and 
the  exigencies  of  the  age. 

After  the  hard  times  of  1819-1821,  there  was  an  insistent  de- 
mand for  schools  supported  by  public  tax.  This  demand  was 
voiced  by  the  labor  unions  and  the  great  humanitarian  movements 
of  the  time.  Education  must  forever  remain  inadequate,  unless  it 
be  transferred  from  a  charity  to  a  rate  basis.14  When  religious 
control  went  by  the  board,  the  teaching  of  religion  went  with  it; 
not  that  schoolmen  like  Horace  Mann  did  not  consider  religion  a 
matter  of  vital  importance  to  the  life  of  the  nation,  but  because 
they  deemed  it  outside  the  scope  of  the  school,  which  to  their 
thinking  was  a  secular  enterpri  e.  The  teaching  of  religion  could 
well  be  left  to  the  churches.15 

During  this  period  great  changes  were  made  in  the  curriculum. 
The  work  of  the  Prussian  schools  was  studied  by  Stowe,  Barnard 
and  Mann,  and  they  inaugurated  reforms  in  line  with  their  o1.  serva- 


14  Carlton,  Frank  Tracy, Education  and  Industrial  Evolution,  p.  28. 

15  Shields,  Thomas  Edward,  Philosophy  of  Education.     Washington,  D.  C, 
1917,  p.  405. 


536  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

tions.  The  school  must  be  brought  closer  to  life.  These  leaders 
echoed  the  teaching  of  Rousseau  and  Pestalozzi,  and  in  answer 
there  came  changes  in  administration,  method  and  subject-matter. 
In  1826,  geography  became  a  required  study.  There  had  been 
little,  if  any,  geography  in  the  early  schools,  for  the  interests  of  the 
previous  generation  had  been  local  and  circumscribed.  But  the 
great  territorial  changes  that  took  place  from  1789-1826,  the 
purchase  of  Florida  and  Louisiana,  the  opening  up  of  the  Rockies 
after  the  Lewis  and  Clarke  expedition,  and  the  settlement  of  the 
Great  Northwest,  stimulated  interest  in  the  geography  of  this 
continent.  Moreover,  after  the  War  of  1812,  our  foreign  com- 
merce began  to  develop,  the  Monroe  Doctrine  was  formulated 
and  as  a  consequence  there  was  need  for  a  more  comprehensive 
knowledge  of  the  lands  beyond  the  seas,  of  South  America  and  the 
Far  East.  The  principal  countries  of  the  world,  their  character- 
istics and  the  condition  of  their  inhabitants  must  become  matters 
of  common  knowledge,  not  for  reasons  of  mere  curiosity,  but 
because  these  things  affected  our  own  national  life.16 

Stimulus  had  been  given  to  the  study  of  geography  by  Comenius, 
who  would  have  children  in  the  vernacular  schools  learn  "the 
important  facts  of  cosmography,  in  particular  the  cities,  moun- 
tains, rivers  and  other  remarkable  features  of  their  own  coun- 
try."17 Rousseau  advocated  geography  as  a  necessary  part  of 
science  instruction.18  To  Pestalozzi  belongs  the  credit  of  inaugu- 
rating the  beginnings  of  modern  geography.  Prior  to  his  time,  geo- 
graphy had  been  of  a  dictionary-encyclopedic  type.  The  geogra- 
phy of  Morse,  published  in  1789,  contained  a  great  mass  of  infor- 
mation such  as  is  generally  found  in  encyclopedias;  the  Peter 
Parley  books  were  the  same  in  content,  though  they  were  so 
arranged  as  to  be  interesting  to  children.19 

It  was  Carl  Ritter  (1779-1859)  who  revolutionized  the  teaching 
of  geography.  He  learned  geography  from  Pestalozzi  and  was 
imbued  with  Pestalozzian  principles.  He  developed  the  principle 
that  geography  is  the  study  of  the  earth  in  its  relation  to  man  and 
insisted  upon  home  geography  as  the  proper  method  of  intro- 
ducing the  child  to  his  natural  environment.     This  type  of  geogra- 


16  Boston  Board  of  Supervisors.     School  Document,  No.  3,  1900. 

17  Comenius,  John  Amos,  School  of  Infancy,  Vol.  VI,  6,  p.  34. 

18  Rousseau,  J.  J.  Emile.     Applelon  Edition,  p.  142. 

19  Parker,  Samuel  Chester,  The  History  of  Modern  Elementary  Education, 
p.  341. 


Curriculum  of  Catholic  School  537 

phy  was  fostered  in  the  American  schools  by  Col.  Parker  (1837- 
1902)  .20 

History  began  to  find  favor  as  a  branch  of  elementary  educa- 
tion about  1815.  Before  that  time  it  was  taught  incidentally  to 
geography  and  literature.  However  when  the  generation  of  the 
Revolution  began  to  disappear  and  the  memory  of  olden  days  grew 
dim,  there  came  an  interest  in  the  vanishing  past  of  the  country. 
Moreover  great  numbers  of  strangers  were  coming  to  these  shores 
in  search  of  a  new  home.  If  these  immigrants  were  to  take  a  real 
part  in  the  life  of  the  nation  and  contribute  to  the  perpetuation  of 
the  ideals  for  which  the  fathers  had  so  nobly  striven,  they  must 
have  a  knowledge  of  the  trying  times  that  were  gone  and  of  the 
circumstances  which  had  inspired  American  principles.  In  1827, 
Massachusetts  made  history  mandatory  as  a  branch  of  the  curricu- 
lum "in  every  city,  town  or  district  of  500  families  or  householders." 
New  York  soon  followed  the  example  and  it  was  particularly  well 
received  by  the  newer  states.21 

The  history  taught  in  the  beginning  was  the  history  of  the 
United  States.  In  1835,  the  Superintendent  of  Schools  in  New 
York  said,  "The  history  of  foreign  countries,  however  desirable  it 
may  be,  cannot  ordinarily  enter  into  a  system  of  common  school 
education  without  opening  too  wide  a  field.  It  is  safer  in  general 
to  treat  it  as  a  superfluity  and  leave  it  to  such  as  have  leisure  in 
after  life."  It  is  interesting  to  note  the  change  in  modern  educa- 
tional thought,  according  to  which  it  is  impossible  to  give  an  ade- 
quate idea  of  American  History,  without  first  treating  in  some 
fashion,  its  background  in  Europe.22 

The  anti-slavery  agitation  preceding  the  Civil  War  also  provoked 
great  interest  in  history,  both  sides  of  the  controversy  looking  to 
the  past  for  a  substantiation  of  their  claims.23 

The  introduction  of  music  was  due  to  influences  other  than  peda- 
gogical. The  Puritans  had  looked  askance  at  music  as  being 
frivolous  and  worldly;  there  was  none  of  it  in  the  schools  which 
they  dominated.  Around  1800,  popular  interest  in  music  began 
to  grow  and  singing  societies  were  formed  in  different  centers.     In 

i0Ibid.,  pp.  343-349. 

21  The  influence  of  the  doctrines  of  Spencer  and  Herbart  had  much  to  do 
with  the  fostering  of  historical  instruction  in  the  schools.  The  former  advo- 
cated it  as  descriptive  sociology  and  the  latter  regarded  it  as  the  source  of 
social  and  sympathetic  interest  and  as  of  primary  moral  value. 

22  Johnson,  Henry,  The  Teaching  of  History.     New  York,  1916,  pp.  127-130. 

23  Boston  Board  of  Supervisors.     School  Document  No.  3,  1900. 


538  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

1830,  William  C.  Woodbridge  delivered  a  lecture  on  "Vocal 
Education  as  a  Branch  of  Common  Instruction,"  and  in  1836, 
Lowell  Mason  of  the  Boston  Academy  of  Music  succeeded  in 
persuading  the  Select  School  Committee  of  Boston  to  adopt  a 
memorial  in  favor  of  music.  In  1837,  the  board  resolved  to  try  the 
experiment  and  in  1838,  appointed  Mason,  supervisor  of  Music  for 
the  Boston  schools.  Other  states  followed  this  lead  and  music 
gradually  became  part  of  elementary  education.24 

There  were  precedents  from  Europe  to  help  the  cause.  Music 
was  an  integral  part  of  German  education  and  men  like  Barnard 
and  Mann  were  indefatigable  in  its  defense.  German  immigrants 
brought  with  them  a  love  of  song  and  the  great  singing  societies 
were  in  vogue.  The  schools,  at  first  loath  to  admit  the  branch, 
finally  accepted  it  for  its  disciplinary  value.25 

Naturally,  because  of  the  circumstances  of  pioneer  life,  the  colo- 
nists would  have  little  interest  in  drawing.  Franklin  noted  its 
economic  importance  and  included  it  with  writing  and  arithmetic. 
Over  a  century  elapsed  before  popular  interest  was  awakened.26 
The  First  International  Exposition  in  1851,  by  demonstrating  the 
inferior  quality  of  English  workmanship,  when  compared  with  con- 
tinental, convinced  the  manufacturing  interests  of  the  importance 
of  drawing;  for  drawing  was  taught  on  the  continent  but  not  in 
England.  Influence  was  brought  to  bear  on  the  Massachusetts 
legislature  in  1860,  to  make  drawing  a  permissive  study.27 

The  French  Exposition  of  1867  showed  how  English  workman- 
ship had  improved  with  the  introduction  of  drawing  into  the 
English  schools.  The  result  was  that  in  1870,  the  Massachusetts 
legislature  passed  a  law  making  drawing  mandatory  in  the  schools. 
Pennsylvania,  Ohio  and  California  made  similar  laws  at  the  time 
and  other  states  soon  fell  into  line.28 

Popular  interest  in  Physical  Education  is  of  comparatively  recent 
date.  Men  who  worked  the  live  long  day  in  the  clearings  would 
scarcely  see  the  need  of  any  artificial  exercise.  But  when  the 
industrial  changes  of  the  early  nineteenth  century  came  and  urban 


24  Jessup,   W.  A.,    The  Social  Factors  Affecting  Special  Supervision  in  the 
Public  Schools  of  the  United  Statps,  p.  38. 

25  Hagar,  Daniel    B.     National  Educational  Association  Proceedings,    1885, 
p.  17. 

28  Jessup,   W.  A.,    The  Social  Factors  Affecting  Special  Supervision  in  the 
Public  Schools  of  the  United  States,  p.  20. 
27  Ibid.,  p.  21. 
2»  Ibid.,  p.  23. 


Curriculum  of  Catholic  School  539 

life  developed,  the  necessity  for  some  sort  of  physical  training  be- 
came more  and  more  apparent.  The  example  of  the  German 
schools  was  noted.  The  German  Turners  came  with  their  gym- 
nastics and  the  Fellenberg  movement  preached  its  doctrine  of 
exercise.  The  appeal  of  the  latter  was  broader  and  met  with 
greater  sympathy,  for  exercise  does  not  require  the  same  output 
of  energy  nor  necessitate  the  same  training  as  gymnastics.  The 
movement  received  great  impetus  from  the  development  of  phy- 
siology and  hygiene  about  1850.  There  was  a  decline  of  interest 
with  the  Civil  War,  but  in  the  80's  the  popularity  of  the  subject 
was  revived,  largely  through  the  influence  of  such  organizations  as 
the  North  American  Gymnastic  Union,  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.  and  the 
American  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Physical  Educa- 
tion.29 

After  the  Civil  War,  there  came  a  greater  appreciation  of  the 
relations  of  the  school  with  industry.  The  new  industrial  condi- 
tions afforded  very  little  training  for  hand  and  eye.  The  special- 
ization that  was  so  general,  did  little  to  develop  manual  skill. 
Business  and  industry  became  interested  in  the  possibility  of 
manual  training  in  the  schools. 

The  Centennial  of  1876,  at  Philadelphia,  displayed  the  work  of 
Sweden  and  Russia  to  such  good  advantage,  that  there  was  at 
once  inspired  a  movement  to  incorporate  their  methods  of  manual 
training  into  the  American  schools.  In  1879,  the  St.  Louis  Manual 
Training  School  was  opened  under  the  direction  of  C.  N.  Wood- 
ward. In  1884,  Baltimore  opened  the  first  manual  training  school 
supported  by  public  funds.  Industrial  institutions  adopted  the 
Fellenberg  plan.  All  of  these  were  secondary  schools.  In  1887, 
manual  training  was  introduced  into  the  public  schools  of  New 
York. 

The  schools  opposed  the  movement  on  the  ground  that  it  was  not 
fostered  by  the  people,  but  by  "a  class  of  self -constituted  philan- 
thropists who  are  intent  on  providing  for  the  masses  an  education 
that  will  fit  them  for  their  sphere."30  However,  the  Froebelians 
favored  the  movement,  for  manual  training  offered  a  splendid 
means  of  expression.  Gradually  the  philanthropic  basis  gave  way 
to  an  intellectual  one.     Murray  Butler  said  in  1888,  "It  is  inter- 


29  Ibid.,  p.  64. 

30  Clark,  J.  E.,  Art  and  Industry.     United  States  Bureau  of  Education, 
1885-89,  Vol.  II,  p.  917. 


540  The  Catholic  Educational  Keview 

esting  to  note  that  an  organization  founded  as  a  philanthropic 
enterprise  has  become  a  great  educational  force  and  has  changed 
its  platform  of  humanitarianism  to  one  of  purely  educational 
reform  and  advancement."31 

The  changing  economic  and  social  conditions  of  the  last  cen- 
tury were  accompanied  by  drastic  changes  in  home  life.  Home 
industry  disappeared  and  even  the  home  arts  suffered  when 
women  took  their  places  in  the  ranks  of  the  wage-earners.  The 
school  must  supplement  home  training.  Skilful  agitation  resulted 
in  the  introduction  of  sewing  and  cooking  for  girls,  and  though 
there  was  a  great  cry  of  "fad,"  there  were  so  many  unanswerable 
arguments  from  actual  conditions,  that  the  success  of  the  movement 
was  assured,  and  today,  the  place  of  the  domestic  arts  in  the  curricu- 
lum is  being  gradually  conceded.32 

It  was  the  conviction  of  schoolmen  rather  than  outside  pressure, 
that  made  Nature  Study  a  part  of  the  curriculum.  The  Oswego 
schools,  which  represented  the  first  considerable  introduction  of 
Pestalozzianism  into  the  United  States,33  systematized  object 
teaching  and  developed  a  course  in  elementary  science.  Superin- 
tendent Harris  furthered  the  movement  in  the  schools  of  St.  Louis 
and  arranged  a  very  highly  organized  and  logically  planned  course.34 
In  1905,  the  Nature  Study  Review  was  founded.  This  publication, 
edited  by  trained  scientists  gave  a  new  turn  to  the  movement. 
Science  may  be  defined  as  completely  organized  knowledge,  but 
knowledge  completely  organized  cannot  be  given  to  children. 
This  was  the  fault  with  Dr.  Harris'  course.  Children  should 
learn  a  great  number  of  intimate  things  about  nature  and  their 
information  should  be  based  on  nature  and  not  simply  conned  by 
rote.  Later  on  as  students  in  higher  schools  they  may  make 
+iu»  detailed  analysis  and  classification  of  their  knowledge  which 
is  necessary  for  the  discovery  of  underlying  general  laws.  This 
is  natural  science  in  the  real  sense  of  the  word,  but  it  is  unsuited 
to  the  elementary  school,  where  not  science  but  the  study  of  nature 
is  in  order.  Nature  Study  aims  at  giving  "the  first  training  in 
accurate  observation  as  a  means  of  gaining  knowledge  direct  from 


31  Jessup,   W.   A.,    The  Social  Factors  Affecting  Special  Supervision  in  the 
Public  Schools  of  the  United  States,  p.  32. 

32  Ibid.,  p.  35. 

33  Parker,  Samuel  Chester,   The  History  of  Modern  Elementary  Education, 
p.  330. 

M  Ibid.,  pp.  333-334. 


Curriculum  of  Catholic  School  541 

nature  and  also  in  the  simplest  comparing,  classifying  and  judging 
values  of  facts;  in  other  words  to  give  the  first  training  in  the  sim- 
plest processes  of  the  scientific  method."35 

Of  course  there  are  practical  reasons  for  teaching  Nature  Study 
in  the  schools.  Pestalozzi  advocated  observation  and  object 
teaching  for  the  purpose  of  sharpening  perception.  But  over  and 
above  this,  the  knowledge  of  nature  and  the  awakening  of  interest 
in  natural  science  have  a  social  value.  No  man  who  is  ignorant 
of  the  rudiments  of  science  can  claim  to  be  educated  today.  Her- 
bert Spencer's  essay,  "What  Knowledge  Is  Most  Worth,"  had  a 
tremendous  influence  in  this  country,  though  it  was  intended 
primarily  as  an  attack  on  the  strongly  intrenched  classicism  of 
the  English  secondary  schools,  and  it  went  far  toward  bringing 
about  the  introduction  of  science  into  the  elementary  schools.36 

Reading  and  literature  offer  another  argument  in  favor  of 
Nature  Study.  The  shift  of  the  population  from  the  country  to 
the  city  and  the  universal  preoccupation  with  the  problems  of 
urban  life,  has  resulted  in  the  appearance  of  a  generation  that  is 
stranger  to  the  charm  of  wood  and  field,  to  whose  mind  birds  and 
flowers  are  objects  of  indifferent  interest.  Naturally,  when  these 
children  meet  with  allusions  to  nature  in  literature,  they  miss  the 
real  meaning  and  only  too  often  read  empty  words.  Dr.  G.  Stan- 
ley Hall,  in  an  investigation  of  the  content  of  children's  minds, 
found  a  surprising  ignorance  of  some  very  commonplace  objects 
among  Boston  children.37  These  children  would  not  have  the 
necessary  mental  content  to  apperceive  the  meanings  pervading 
literature  and  could  never  acquire  good  literary  tastes. 

From  this  brief  review,  it  can  be  seen  that  every  new  subject, 
with  the  possible  exception  of  nature  study,  that  has  been  intro- 
duced into  the  curriculum,  has  been  fostered  by  definite  social 
needs  and  not  by  the  dreams  of  educational  theorists.  Even 
Nature  Study  answers  real  practical  demands.  Not  a  single 
subject  can  be  dispensed  with,  if  the  elementary  school  is  to  perforpi 
its  proper  function  in  American  life.     The  schools  of  other  nations 

,s  Quoted  from  the  Nature  Study  Review.  By  Parker,  Samuel  Chester, 
"The  History  of  Modern  Elementary  Education,"  p.  340. 

n  Parker,  Samuel  Chester,  The  History  of  Modern  Elementary  Education, 
p.  338. 

87  Pedagogical  Seminary,  Vol.  I,  pp.  139-173.  Among  other  things,  72.5 
per  cent  of  these  children  had  never  seen  a  bluebird,  87.5  per  cent  had  never 
seen  growing  oats,  87  per  cent  had  no  knowledge  of  an  oak  tree,  61  per  cent  had 
never  seen  growing  peaches,  etc. 


542  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

are  essaying  quite  as  much.  Over  and  above  the  three  R's,  the 
English  schools  teach  drawing,  needlework,  singing,  physical 
training,  geography,  nature  study,  history  and  a  surprisingly 
complete  course  in  religious  instruction.  The  French  and  German 
curricula  are  quite  as  crowded.38  The  changed  conditions  of 
modern  living  must  be  borne  in  mind  by  all  who  would  criticize 
educational  procedure.  The  evolution  of  industrial  society 
forever  precludes  a  return  to  the  methods  of  the  past.  When 
society  was  less  complex,  much  could  be  accomplished  by  the 
agencies  of  informal  education,  particularly  by  the  home.  Today 
these  agencies  are  unequal  to  the  task  and  the  burden  has  been 
shifted  to  the  school.  If  the  school  is  to  be  a  real  educative  agency, 
it  must  meet  this  growing  responsibility. 

Yet  the  fact  that  new  subjects  were  only  too  often  introduced 
haphazardly  and  with  little  attempt  at  correlation  while  obsolete 
matter  was  not  always  eliminated  has  brought  about  an  over- 
crowding of  the  curriculum.  Lack  of  adequate  arrangement  of 
subject-matter  affects  the  quality  of  the  teaching  and  operates  to 
bring  the  new  subjects  into  disrepute  with  those  who  expect  the 
schools  to  provide  them  with  clerks  and  accountants  who  are 
capable  of  a  certain  amount  of  accuracy  and  speed  in  their  work. 

Moreover  there  have  been  great  changes  in  the  content  of  the 
single  subjects.  Arithmetic  has  changed  to  meet  modern  require- 
ments, but  very  often  continues  to  insist  on  applications  and  pro- 
cesses that  have  lost  their  practical  value  and  are  preserved  merely 
for  disciplinary  purposes.39  Geography  has  been  encumbered  with 
a  discouraging  mass  of  astronomical,  mathematical  and  physio- 
graphic detail  that  could  not  be  properly  included  in  the  modern 
definition  of  the  subject.  History  is  no  longer  content  to  tell  the 
story  of  our  own  country  to  seventh  and  eighth  grade  pupils, 
but  seeks  entrance  into  the  program  of  every  grade  and  would 
include  the  entire  past.  Reading  and  writing  have  branched  out 
into  formal  grammar,  composition,  literature,  language  study  and 
memory  gems.  Manual  training  has  developed  into  industrial 
arts;  with  nature  study  has  come  elementary  agriculture.  The 
result  is  confusion,  nerve-racking  to  the  teacher,  puzzling  to  the 
child  and  disastrous  for  the  best  interests  of  education. 


38  Payne,  Bruce  R.,  Public  Elementary  School  Curricula.     New  York,  1905, 
pp. 107-156. 

39  Monroe,  W.  S.,  The  Development  of  Arithmetic  as  a  School  Subject,  p.  14S. 


Curriculum  of  Catholic  School  543 

It  was  at  the  Washington  meeting  of  the  Department  of  Super- 
intendence of  the  National  Educational  Association,  in  1888,  that 
President  Eliot  in  his  address,  "Can  School  Programs  be  Shortened 
and  Enriched?"  first  brought  to  focus  the  question  of  reorganizing 
American  education.  Among  other  things  he  asserted  the  possi- 
bility of  improving  the  school  program.  In  1892,  at  the  suggestion 
of  President  Baker,  of  the  University  of  Colorado,  the  National 
Council  appointed  a  Committee  of  Ten,  under  the  chairmanship  of 
President  Eliot,  to  examine  into  the  subject  matter  of  secondary 
education  for  the  purpose  of  determining  limits,  methods,  time 
allotments  and  testing.  The  report  while  dealing  ex  professo  with 
secondary  education,  "covers  in  many  significant  respects,  the 
entire  range  of  the  school  system."40  The  report  provoked  wide 
study  and  comment  not  only  at  home  but  abroad.  In  1893,  the 
Department  of  Superintendence  appointed  a  Committee  of  Fifteen 
on  elementary  education.  Its  work  was  divided  into  three  sec- 
tions— the  training  of  teachers,  the  correlation  of  studies  and  the 
organization  of  city  school  systems.  Each  sub-committee  pre- 
pared a  questionnaire  which  was  sent  to  representative  schoolmen 
throughout  the  country  and  the  results  reported  at  the  Cleveland 
meeting  in  1895.41 

The  sub-committee  on  the  Correlation  of  Studies  worked  under 
the  chairmanship  of  Dr.  Harris,  later  Commissioner  of  Education. 
Dr.  Harris'  report  has  become  one  of  the  most  important  documents 
in  American  educational  literature.  Yet  it  failed  to  suggest  any- 
thing immediately  workable  in  the  way  of  a  solution  of  curricular 
difficulties.  "Dr.  Harris  set  himself  the  task  of  setting  forth  an 
educational  doctrine — the  task  of  formulating  guiding  principles 
that  underlie  educational  endeavor.  He  therefore  pushed  the 
study  of  correlation  beyond  a  mere  inquiry  into  the  relief  of  con- 
gested programs  by  means  of  a  readjustment  of  the  various  bran- 
ches of  study  to  each  other,  to  a  more  fundamental  inquiry,  viz., 
What  is  the  educational  significance  of  each  study?  What  con- 
tribution ought  each  study  to  make  to  the  education  of  the  modern 
child?  What  is  the  educational  value  of  each  study  in  correlating 
the  individual  to  the  civilization  of  his  time?"42 

40  Report  of  the  Committee  of  Ten.  Natural  Educational  Association  Pro- 
ceedings, 1893. 

41  Bunker,  Frank  Forest,  Reorganization  of  the  Public  School  System,  p.  50. 
Report  of  the  Committee  of  Fifteen.     New  York,   1895,  published    by  the 

American  Book  Company. 

42  Hanus,  Paul  H.,  A  Modern  School.     New  York,  1904,  p.  225. 


544  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

In  1903,  at  the  suggestion  of  President  Baker,  a  committee  was 
appointed  to  report  on  the  desirability  of  an  investigation  into  the 
Culture  Element  and  Economy  of  Time  in  Education.  The 
committee  set  out  to  determine  the  proper  period  for  high  school 
education  and  the  devices  already  in  use  for  shortening  the  college 
course.  A  preliminary  report  was  made  at  Cleveland  in  1908.43 
The  Committee  was  increased  to  five  members  and  presented  a 
brief  report  at  Denver  in  1909.44  In  1911,  President  Baker  pre- 
sented the  conclusions  he  himself  had  reached.45  Among  other 
things,  he  stated  his  belief  that  the  tools  of  education  could  be 
acquired  at  the  age  of  twelve.  Elimination  of  useless  material  will 
stimulate  the  interest  of  the  pupil  and  result  in  better  effort.48 

The  Seventeenth  Yearbook  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study 
of  Education,  1918,  carries  the  third  report  of  the  Committee  on 
the  Economy  of  Time.47  It  contains  studies  of  minimal  essentials 
in  elementary  school  subjects  and  a  symposium  on  the  purpose  of 
historical  instruction  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades.  The 
studies  are  made  in  the  light  of  social  needs  and  conditions,  and 
while  no  one  of  them  could  be  considered  absolutely  final  and 
satisfactory,  they  indicate  a  tangible  and  objective  method  of 
approaching  the  vexed  question. 

There  have  been  a  great  number  of  other  attempts  to  meet  the 
difficulty,  some  of  them  quite  notable  and  encouraging.  Courses 
of  studies  have  been  worked  out  by  individual  systems,  with  an 
aim  of  meeting  the  growing  function  of  the  school  on  one  hand  and 
the  congestion  of  the  program  on  the  other.48  Surveys  of  great 
school  systems  have  one  and  all  considered  ways  and  means  of 
reorganizing  the  curriculum.49  A  very  valuable  report  was 
published  in  1915  by  the  Iowa  State  Teachers  Association,  Com- 
mittee on  the  Elimination  of  Subject  Matter.     In  its  Sixtieth 


43  National  Educational  Association  Proceedings,  1908,  p.  466. 

44  National  Educational  Association  Proceedings,  1909,  p.  373. 
48  National  Educational  Association  Proceedings,  1911,  p.  94. 

*•  Economy  of  Time  in  Education.  United  States  Bureau  of  Education 
Bulletin,  1913,  No.  8.  Contains  a  complete  account  of  the  work  of  the  Com- 
mittee on  "The  Culture  Element  and  the  Economy  of  Time  in  Education." 

47  The  Seventeenth  Yearbook  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Educa~ 
tion,  1918,  Part  I,  Third  Report  of  the  Committee  on  Economy  of  Time  in 
Education. 

48  Especially  noteworthy  are  the  courses  worked  out  in  Baltimore,  Boston, 
and  in  the  Speyer  and  Horace  Mann  Schools,  conducted  in  conjunction  with 
Teachers  College,  Columbia. 

49  cf.  Cleveland,  St.  Paul,  San  Antonio,  Portland  Surveys.  Also  McMurry, 
Frank,  Elementary  School  Standards,  New  York,  1914. 


Curriculum  of  Catholic  School  545 

Annual  Session  at  Des  Moines,  Nov.  5,  1914,  a  resolution  carried 
to  appoint  "a  representative  committee  to  study  and  make  a 
report  upon  the  elimination  of  obsolete  and  useless  topics  and 
materials  from  the  common  school  branches,  with  a  view  that  the 
efforts  of  childhood  may  be  conserved  and  the  essentials  better 
taught."60  Only  a  few  representative  branches,  arithmetic, 
language,  grammar,  writing,  geography,  physiology  and  hygiene, 
history  and  spelling,  were  chosen  for  study.  The  study  was 
based  on  the  needs  of  the  child  and  his  ability  to  comprehend.  A 
positive  program  along  these  same  lines,  was  published  the  fol- 
lowing year. 

Concerning  the  curriculum  of  our  Catholic  schools,  Dr.  Burns 
remarks,  "Generally  speaking,  the  curriculum  of  the  Catholic 
schools,  outside  the  matter  of  religious  instruction,  does  not  differ 
very  greatly  from  that  of  the  corresponding  public  schools  in  the 
same  place.  There  are  two  reasons  for  this.  One  is  the  desire  of 
the  pastor  and  the  Catholic  teachers  to  have  the  parish  school 
recognized  as  fully  abreast  of  the  public  schools  so  that  the  parents 
may  not  have  cause  to  complain.  Another  reason  is  found  in  the 
fact  that  the  same  general  causes  that  have  operated  to  bring  about 
changes  in  the  public  school  curriculum,  have  had  influence  also 
upon  the  course  of  studies  in  the  Catholic  schools — an  influence  not 
so  great  perhaps,  but  still  direct  and  constant."51 

The  curriculum  has  come  up  for  discussion  in  the  meetings  of 
the  Catholic  Educational  Association,  from  time  to  time.  A 
paper  read  by  Dr.  F.  W.  Howard,  at  the  New  Orleans  meeting  in 
1913,  dealt  in  detail  with  problems  of  the  curriculum,  not  only  as 
they  affect  elementary  education  but  higher  education  as  well. 
The  paper  was  ably  discussed  by  Brother  John  Waldron,  S.M.62 
In  1917,  a  Committee  on  the  curriculum  was  appointed,  with 
the  Rev.  Patrick  J.  McCormick,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Education  at 
the  Catholic  University  of  America,  as  chairman.  In  a  paper 
read  at  Buffalo  meeting  in  1917,  Dr.  McCormick  outlined  the 
principles  of  standardization.53    The  first  step  toward  standardiz- 

60  Iowa  State  Teachers  Association.  Report  of  Committee  on  the  Elimination 
of  Subject  Matter,  1914,  p.  3. 

81  The  Growth  and  Development  of  the  Catholic  School  System  in  the  United 
States.     New  York,  1912,  p.  351. 

82  Howard,  Francis  W.,  The  Problem  of  the  Curriculum.  Catholic  Educa- 
tional Association,  Report  of  the  Proceedings  and  Addresses,  Vol.  X,  No.  1, 
1913,  p.  132. 

83  McCormick,  Patrick  J.,  Standards  in  Education.  Catholic  Educational 
Association,  Report  of  Proceedings  and  Addresses,  Vol.  XIV,  No.  1, 1917,  p.  70. 


546  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

ing  education,  is  the  standardization  of  the  curriculum.  This  will 
in  turn  standardize  the  organization  of  education,  the  grading, 
the  text-book,  methods  and  teacher  training.  The  committee 
has  been  working  along  these  lines  and  the  results  of  their  study 
are  awaited  with  keenest  interest. 

One  who  reads  the  record  of  the  growth  of  the  elementary  curric- 
ulum and  the  efforts  that  have  been  made  to  reorganize  it,  cannot 
but  feel  that  what  is  needed  above  all  else  is  a  definite  set  of 
principles  for  the  guidance  of  elementary  school  procedure. 
What  is  the  function  of  the  elementary  school?  What  is  its  rela- 
tion to  society?  What  shall  it  attempt  to  do  for  the  individual? 
Is  it  simply  a  preparation  for  secondary  education?  Or  is  it 
something  complete  in  itself,  having  its  own  peculiar  nature  and 
function,  aiming  to  accomplish  its  own  objectives  and  make  certain 
differences  in  the  lives  of  children,  regardless  of  their  future 
educational  fate?  In  the  light  of  experience  and  actual  facts, 
this  would  seem  to  be  true.  The  elementary  school  sums  up  the 
complete  education  of  approximately  80  per  cent  of  our  American 
children.  In  the  elementary  school  they  must  receive  the  neces- 
sary information  and  character  formation  for  future  life,  if  they 
are  to  receive  them  at  all.  This  means  that  mere  training  in  the 
school  arts  can  no  longer  be  emphasized  at  the  expense  of  real 
education. 

In  the  present  study,  the  question  is  dealt  with  in  its  foundational 
aspects.  The  ambition  is  to  discover  the  philosophy  of  American 
elementary  school  education.  There  must  be  some  set  of  working 
principles  which  are  recognizable.  Armed  with  these,  the  Catholic 
school  can  more  confidently  go  forth  to  accomplish  its  great  task 
of  raising  up  true  followers  of  Jesus  Christ,  men  and  women  who 
exale  the  sweet  odor  of  His  influence,  not  only  when  they  are  at 
their  devotions,  but  in  the  council  chamber,  the  market  place, 
the  workshop  and  the  home  as  well. 

(To  be  continued) 


THE  PAINTER  AND  THE  PUBLIC1 

THE    PUBLIC 

To  the  superior  and  highly  cultivated  person  it  might  come 
as  a  matter  of  some  surprise  if  he  were  to  consider  the  diffi- 
culties which  beset  the  path  of  the  ordinary  individual  in  his 
quest  for  artistic  knowledge.  Much  literature  we  have  on  the 
subject,  but,  largely  historical  in  its  nature,  it  is  difficult  to 
draw  from  it  principles  that  would  guide  one  to  the  under- 
standing of  those  purposes  which  are  independent  of  the 
changes  of  time  and  fashion. 

We  are  hopelessly  confused  by  the  vagueness  of  terms.  For 
example,  what  does  beauty  mean? — a  very  important  thing  to 
know,  since,  in  a  general  way,  it  seems  to  be  a  final  reason 
for  all  pictures.  Is  it  a  matter  of  opinion,  or  is  it  some- 
thing quite  definite  that  all  may  feel  and  understand? 

Our  art  critics  of  the  press  and  the  current  magazines  do 
their  part  by  showing  what  is  proper  to  like,  but  lack  of 
space,  as  well  as  other  reasons,  too  often  prevents  them  from 
giving  the  constructive  criticism  which  might  lead  the  public 
to  a  broader  knowledge  of  the  subject. 

How  does  a  critic  know  that  No.  19  in  the  current  exhibi- 
tion is  a  notable  example?  He  says  it  reminds  him  of  some- 
thing else  which  is  presumably  better,  or  he  would  not  have 
mentioned  it,  that  the  technique  is  very  satisfactory,  and  that 
it  represents  a  studio  lady  pouring  tea.  We  know  that  he 
must  be  right  in  all  of  these  things,  but  he  does  not  help  us 
to  form  an  independent  judgment  of  the  neighboring  pic- 
ture, which  reminds  us  of  nothing  we  have  ever  seen  or  heard 
of  before  and  has  a  technique  that  is  incomprehensible.  But 
this  one  is  good,  too,  our  critic  says,  and  for  practically  the 
same  reasons.  One  would  be  led  to  suppose  that  the  grounds 
for  criticism  should  be  found  in  an  ability  to  classify,  a  knowl- 
edge of  technique,  and  the  identification  of  the  subject ;  though 
the  tendency  seems  to  be  to  lay  less  stress  on  the  latter  require 


i  Advanced  sheets  from  "Painting  and  the  Personal  Equation"  by 
Charles  H.  Woodbury.    Printed  by  premission  of  the  Author. 

947 


548  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

ment  as  time  goes  on.  But  the  point  of  any  criticism  is  lost 
when  the  use  of  the  knowledge  is  forgotten,  though  it  may 
give  one  a  glow  of  modest  pride  to  be  able  to  say,  with  author- 
ity, this  is  good,  and  that  is  bad. 

The  painter  might  well  ask  that  his  offering  be  taken  on 
the  ground  of  the  sensation  he  intended  to  convey  and  be 
judged  by  the  degree  of  success  he  has  reached  in  that  attempt. 
This  presupposes  that  his  intentions  are  known,  and  it  is  not 
always  the  case.  The  difficulty  used  to  be  met  by  the  Eng- 
lish painters,  especially  of  the  Royal  Academy,  who  quoted 
the  poets  liberally  in  inscriptions  on  the  frame,  and  so  pre- 
pared the  public  mind  to  understand  more  fully  the  beauties 
above.  But  this  has  never  been  our  custom,  though,  in  many 
cases,  it  might  be  a  welcome  aid.  One  might  say  with  some 
assurance  that  either  the  painter  or  the  public  must  be  at 
fault — but  both  are  the  losers.  A  picture  necessarily  means 
subject-interest  of  some  description.  Beyond  the  personal 
pleasure  in  being  able  to  do  it  comes  the  impersonal  pleasure 
in  the  thing  done.  It  is  here  that  the  picture  becomes  public 
property  and  where  one  finds  the  only  possible  starting-point 
for  a  general  understanding.  The  dealer  is  right  from  his 
limited  point  of  view,  but  his  mind  runs  to  fiction  and  to 
compliments,  nice  stories,  and  the  reminders  of  a  happy  day, 
subjects  that  would  appeal  to  the  common  taste  as  it  is,  rather 
than  to  such  things  as  might  be  added  to  it  and  lead  it 
further. 

A  picture  is  to  give  pleasure,  of  course.  It  present*  a 
subject  for  our  thought,  not  in  the  form  of  an  essay,  but  rather 
as  a  statement  of  conditions  from  which  each  may  draw  his 
own  conclusions.  A  human  story  will  appeal  to  many,  but 
it  might  be  put  into  words  far  more  effectively  and  so  can  be 
only  a  minor  thing  in  painting.  As  a  matter  of  common  inter- 
est, we  have  place  associations,  things  seen  or  connected  with 
some  agreeable  memory  of  personal  importance  chiefly,  and 
not  general  enough  in  their  nature  to  stand  by  their  own 
worth.  Beyond  these  are  more  universal  subjects,  those  deal- 
ing with  light,  beautiful  form,  subtle  color,  and  the  compli- 
cated relations  of  the  three,  which  have  no  end  in  their 
variety  and  are  limited  only  by  the  ability  of  humanity  to 


The  Painter  and  the  Public  &  .5      ft^v549 


feel.     These  subjects  are  not  easily  understandable  sinc^pl* 
them  description  plays  a  minor  part,  and,  pik  into  word 
they  would  mean  very  little.  \ 

A  picture  of  a  haystack  does  not  sound  exciting,  and  one 
might  say  that  a  castle  on  the  Ehine  would  be  a  much  better 
choice.  But  the  haystack  has  been  immortalized  by  a  painter 
of  light,  and  light  is  a  master  subject. 

Subject,  then,  divides  itself  into  two  classes,  in  one  of  which 
we  have  a  story  more  or  less  definitely  told  with  the  interest 
in  the  objects  represented.  In  the  other,  color,  light,  and 
form  are  associated  to  create  a  primary  sensation  that  can 
be  duplicated  neither  in  words  nor  in  music.  The  latter  is 
the  exclusive  possession  of  painting.  When  the  other  arts, 
borrowing  the  name,  try  in  their  language  to  arouse  the  same 
emotion,  they  are  at  best  trading  on  memory  and  the  result 
is  a  thing  at  second  hand. 

To  understand  this  more  abstract  side  of  painting  requires 
training,  but,  short  of  that,  many  of  us  get  definite  sensa- 
tion from  these  elements  without  in  any  way  knowing  why. 
This  is  instinctive  appreciation — good  taste — and  grows  with 
use.  It  may  not  come  to  expression  with  the  brush,  for  the 
ability  to  transcribe  is  rare  and  seems  to  be  a  special  gift. 
A  more  thorough  understanding,  however,  is  possible  to  all, 
and  it  would  seem  worth  the  effort  since  it  increases  the  power 
of  mental  enjoyment.  That  desperate  person  we  have  spoken 
of  before  who  knows  nothing  about  pictures,  but  knows  what 
he  likes,  should  be  taken  very  seriously. 

To  like  something,  no  matter  how  bad,  is  the  first  step  to- 
ward understanding.  Too  frequently,  however,  in  this  declara- 
tion of  independence  we  read,  "All  tastes  are  created  free  and 
equal,"  which  would  preclude  chance  of  change,  growth  or 
discussion.  There  is  no  doubt  as  to  the  freedom  of  tastes, 
but  equality  would  carry  us  into  strange  places. 

"It  is  as  much  as  we  can  do  to  stand  father,  but  we  can't 
stand  mother  at  all,"  said  an  American  girl  in  the  Louvre,  as 
she  was  looking  up  the  starred  pictures  in  her  Baedeker.  One 
sees  the  development  of  taste  in  such  a  family  and  feels  the 
growing  pains.  Father  had  a  taste  of  his  own,  mother  made 
mistakes,  and  the  girls,  seeking  culture,  were  guided  by  the 


550  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

stars.  Perhaps  the  Star  Route  is  the  best  way  at  the  begin- 
ning, but  it  has  the  difficulty  of  being  highly  empirical.  One 
is  in  the  position  of  a  moral  idiot  who  learns  the  laws  that 
must  be  kept,  one  by  one,  but  has  no  way  of  meeting  unclassi- 
fied things  for  lack  of  understanding  of  the  spirit  of  the  law. 
Superficial  education  can  never  take  the  place  of  that  under- 
standing which  is  either  acquired  or  instinctive.  At  best,  in 
matters  of  taste,  it  can  prevent  us  from  being  an  offense  in 
the  eyes  of  our  superiors,  but,  unless  it  is  the  true  person 
that  is  educated  up  to  the  point  where  that  material  may  be 
carried,  the  result  is  a  sham  in  its  good  form. 

Father  in  honest  inferiority  had  at  least  the  beginning  of 
something  better  in  his  sheer  sincerity.  To  pretend  what  he 
did  not  feel  would  have  wrecked  the  bad  taste  which  was  his, 
and  perhaps  no  one  would  have  been  the  gainer.  There  is  a 
place  in  the  world  for  all  of  the  honest  bad  art,  for  it  belongs 
to  the  people  who  like  no  better.  Through  it  they  pass,  if  it 
is  within  their  power,  and  it  is  the  history  of  many  a  fine 
collection  in  America  that  it  was  begun  with  very  doubtful 
company.  The  early  purchases  rose  as  times  went  on  and 
found  a  resting-place  under  the  roof  or  in  an  auction  room, 
there  to  begin  again  their  useful  career.  To  the  poor,  but 
honest,  painter  it  must  bring  a  throb  of  pride  to  think  that, 
however  far  he  may  fall  from  high  accomplishment,  and  per- 
haps in  proportion  to  that  fall,  he  is  the  spokesman  for  the 
many  who  know  what  they  like  and  like  his  sort. 

The  world  is  made  of  those  who  produce  and  those  who 
reproduce.  The  producers  must  always  be  few  in  number, 
for  the  creative  spirit  is  rare,  and  it  is  the  lot  of  most  of  us 
to  follow  and  conform  to  the  accepted  ways.  We  are  obedient, 
automatic,  but  with  some  faint  tinge  of  the  creative,  for  the 
difference  between  us  and  the  creators  is  one  of  degree  and 
not  of  kind.  Appreciation,  aspiration,  are  both  the  working 
of  the  superior  quality,  though  there  is  some  link  missing  that 
makes  them  in  most  of  us  barren  of  tangible  results.  We  are 
of  two  classes;  and  there  must  be  a  line  between,  on  the  one 
side  of  which  stands  talent,  on  the  other  the  common  mind. 
True  enough,  there  is  a  line,  but  it  is  called  permanence,  and 
it  does  not  reach  within  a  hundred  years  of  our  feet.    Which 


The  Painter  and  the  Public  551 

ilde  of  the  line  we  will  be  we  cannot  know,  and  if  we  could 
it  would  not  be  of  much  importance,  for  it  is  enough  that  our 
effort  is  in  the  direction  of  permanent  things,  whether  it  be 
in  the  form  of  performance  or  of  support. 

It  is  human  to  seek  for  ranks  and  differences,  but  if  all 
men  were  declared  equal  as  once  was  done,  the  discussion 
would  soon  arise  as  to  who  would  be  the  most  equal  man.  Free 
and  equal  has  in  it  a  contradiction  in  terms,  for  freedom 
breeds  inequality.  Motion,  the  very  foundation  of  progress, 
is  unbalance;  and  genius,  the  moving  spirit,  is  the  small 
dynamic  sum  in  excess  of  stability.  Each  important  human 
activity  supplies  a  little  more  than  is  needed  for  the  moment, 
and  so  we  accumulate  capital  which  we  pass  to  other  times. 

If  to  the  public  the  painter  appears  to  take  himself  too 
seriously,  we  need  only  think  of  how  long  his  sort  has  lasted. 
He  may  be  a  very  bad  painter — there  have  been  such — but  it  is 
not  in  success  that  all  values  lie,  for  even  success  is  relative 
and  has  nothing  of  the  absolute  about  it.  It  might  be  profit- 
able to  consider  how  bad  a  bad  painter  should  be  before  a 
kindly  hand  may  stop  him,  for  the  importance  of  failure  as  a 
means  of  progress  is  easily  lost  sight  of,  especially  by  the 
contributor  himself.  Failure  through  a  bad  motive  is  not  to  be 
tolerated,  for  an  evil  intention  has  no  element  of  constructive 
value  even  as  a  warning.  A  good  intention,  though  abortive, 
at  least  helps  to  make  secure  the  footing  of  others  and  paves 
a  way  where  support  may  be  much  needed. 

We  never  can  become  superior  to  intention,  and  the  im- 
portance of  any  individual  depends  on  the  general  worth  of 
that  moving  impulse,  plus  the  ability  to  carry  it  out.  A 
burglar  may  be  a  very  able  person,  but  his  motive  is  selfish 
and  he  does  not  duly  consider  the  rights  of  others.  The  law 
disposes  of  him  and  there  is  no  comment  on  the  philosophy 
of  the  situation,  but  his  real  offense  is  his  individualism.  We 
are  not  in  the  position  of  Adam,  who  could  never  have  been 
a  thief.  Intention  must  run  in  line  with  the  development  of 
the  race,  and  the  individual  must  be  a  part  of  all  humanity, 
as  well  as  an  independent  being.  When  he  fails  in  the  first 
he  obstructs  the  stream  and  is  swept  away  in  the  end,  no 
matter  how  strong  he  may  be.     This  applies  directly  in  the 


552  The  Catholic  Educational  Eeview 

work  of  the  artist,  for  he  is  above  all  things  a  historian.  He 
is  of  his  time,  reflecting  its  general  mental  attitude  and  put- 
ting it  into  permanent  expression.     If  his  spirit  be  creative, 

he  will  do  more  than  record he  will  be  in  his  own  way 

a  prophet.  He  may  revolt  from  the  accepted ;  he  cannot  revert. 
But  he  belongs  to  the  public  life  and  is  the  voice  of  the  peo- 
ple. A  twentieth-century  primitive  is  a  contradiction  in  terms. 
We  may  doubt  the  man  who  is  ahead  of  his  time,  but  the 
one  who  is  behind  it  is  of  very  little  importance. 

It  would  only  happen  by  some  extraordinary  chance  that 
the  primitive  could  be  the  true  personal  expression  of  a  living 
man,  and  even  then  it  would  be  of  no  importance  to  anybody 
but  himself.  Much  more  likely  such  impulses  come  from  a 
spirit  restless  in  the  present,  with  no  individual  vision  of  a 
logical  future,  and  grasping  the  outer  form  of  the  past  as 
a  final  hope.  We  leave  out  of  consideration  those  who,  unable 
to  meet  the  technical  standards  of  the  day,  or  unwilling  to  pay 
the  price  of  time  and  effort  to  reach  them,  repeat  the  imper- 
fect form  of  the  past. 

The  ways  of  the  old  men  were  simple  and  direct,  and  they 
painted  unhampered  by  the  complexities  that  surround  us, 
their  successors.  They  had  the  directness  of  children,  wis- 
dom, but  not  great  knowledge,  and  so  they  spoke  for  their 
people,  finding  their  words  as  they  could.  It  is  their  wisdom 
that  should  pass  to  us,  rather  than  their  words,  for  wisdom 
is  of  no  time  or  period  and  changes  only  in  its  scope. 

The  desire  to  astonish,  to  hurt,  to  corrupt,  or  even  the 
record  of  those  feelings  in  ourselves — all  are  destructive. 
Every  human  impulse  that  is  on  the  wrong  side  may  creep  into 
a  picture  and  continue  its  harm  in  so  doing.  These  vagaries 
of  the  painter  would  be  of  little  account  if  he  did  not  pursue 
them  in  the  name  of  art.  Experiment  is  necessary  in  all  forms 
of  constructive  thought,  but  a  picture  is  put  out  as  a  con- 
clusion and  the  profession  assumes  the  burden.  The  actual 
damage  is  borne  by  the  public,  which  is  either  completely 
mystified  or  acquires  an  evil  taste.  It  is  no  question  of  moral 
lessons,  but  the  perversion  of  a  cause  to  trivial  uses.  The 
public  has  a  right  to  protest,  but  it  sometimes  remains  to  buy. 

In  the  long  run  the  work  that  the  painter  leaves  behind  him 


The  Painter  and  the  Public  553 

lives  or  dies  in  proportion  to  its  general  value  to  others.  He 
feeds  the  growing  world  with  his  accomplishment.  He  may 
be  like  yesterday's  dinner,  with  identity  lost,  but  having 
made  his  contribution  to  the  general  support.  Perhaps  he  is 
more  permanent  food  and  reaches  to  the  life  current  itself. 
But  whether  he  be  as  a  green  apple  or  a  draught  of  aesthetic 
wine,  he  disappears  as  an  individual.  A  drop  of  acid  in  a 
tub  of  brine  modifies  the  brine,  but,  after  all,  does  it  matter 
in  the  result  who  put  it  there?  Few  people  are  so  abstract  as 
to  forget  themselves  entirely  in  the  interest  of  posterity,  and 
The  painter  is  no  different  from  other  men  in  this  respect.  He 
does  his  work  primarily  for  himself,  because  he  wants  to  and 
is  willing  gracefully  to  accept  all  of  the  fame  and  power  that 
a  grateful  public  will  accord  him.  At  the  same  time,  he  will 
still  do  his  work  if  these  are  denied.  So  the  impulse  really 
lies  behind  personal  gain,  and  he  is  answering  a  deeper  call 
of  his  nature  than  is  given  to  most.  This  can  happen  only  in 
some  form  of  creative  expression,  and  at  the  end  there  is 
always  a  future  value,  a  personal  contribution  to  a  general 
cause. 

One  can  conceive  of  art  for  art's  sake,  or  science  for  knowl- 
edge's sake,  but  plumbing  for  plumbing's  sake  would  be  exalt- 
ing the  necessary  but  passing  service  to  a  universal  claim.  A 
plumber  is  a  national  character,  very  much  needed  or  even  bet- 
ter forgotten,  but  he  is  not  constructive  in  his  nature,  and 
his  works  do  not  live  after  him.  He  justifies  his  existence  with 
labor,  helps  to  maintain  the  world's  betterment,  but  he  is  one 
of  the  millions,  simply  an  element  of  stability.  He  and  his 
sort  are  matter,  while  the  few  are  force. 

The  inevitable  tendency  is  to  extinguish  the  person  as  a 
separate  individual,  of  whatever  order  he  may  be.  If  he 
is  of  the  mass,  he  and  his  work  are  used  up  in  the  daily  life. 
If  he  is  of  the  few,  his  work  lasts  as  world-capital,  but  he  him- 
self passes. 

In  the  final  analysis  art  is  the  search  for  order,  and  it  has 
the  significance  of  a  basic  human  instinct.  Art,  science, 
philosophy,  psychology— all  are  seeking  the  laws  that  assign 
us  our  place  in  the  universe  and  help  us  to  fill  it  understand- 
ing^. It  is  not  the  thirst  for  knowledge  that  drives  us,  but 


554  The  Catholic  Educational  Kbvikw 

rather  the  instinct  to  escape  from  chaos.  We  do  not  know 
where  we  are  going,  but  we  do  know  what  we  are  leaving 
behind  us.  Wherever  the  tendency  arises  to  deny  order, 
whether  it  be  in  the  arts  or  the  art  of  living,  there  comes 
degeneracy.  Direction  and  continuity  are  the  only  means  by 
which  we  are  able  to  measure,  for  a  more  concrete  standard 
has  its  own  limits  within  itself. 

It  would  be  useless  to  debate  the  relative  importance  of 
the  various  forms  of  intellectual  life,  for  they  seem  to  unite 
to  make  man  as  he  is  at  the  present  stage  of  development.  It 
is  not  venturesome  to  predict  that  the  arts  will  assume  an 
increasing  importance  as  the  material  needs  of  mankind  are 
more  fully  met. 

With  the  advance  of  civilization  it  becomes  more  and  more 
apparent  that  individualism,  whether  in  the  person  or  in  the 
nation,  has  been  left  behind.  We  recognize  public  responsi- 
bility. The  individual  generally  admits  this  by  his  acquies- 
cence in  the  laws  and  customs  that  are  made  for  the  common 
good,  but  the  creative  man  adds  his  allegiance  to  a  common 
cause.  He  is  personal,  and  at  the  same  time  impersonal,  hav- 
ing all  the  needs  of  other  men,  but  in  his  sum  merely  a 
working  unit  in  the  scheme  of  the  whole.  It  is  a  nice  balance 
between  a  man  and  a  cause.  This  is  the  professional  painter 
of  the  first  profession  in  the  world. 


TO  LIVE,  THE  WORLD   MUST  PRODUCE   MORE 
AND  TALK  LESS1 

Production,  Not  Phrases,  Are  Needed  in  the  Crucial 
Times  of  International  Unrest 

By  W.  A.  Appleton 

President,  International  Federation  of  Trade  Unions 

[Editorial  Note:  The  following  statement  by  the  man  who  was 
at  Amsterdam,  recently  elected  president  of  the  world's  Federation  of 
Trade  Unions,  is  of  the  greatest  significance  at  the  present  time. 
Mr.  Appleton  points  out  that  phrases  and  catchwords  are  everywhere 
taking  the  place  of  production.  Unless  the  world  produces  it  cannot 
live.  While  the  statement  is  made  in  regard  to  conditions  in  England 
it  applies  everywhere,  and  Printers'  Ink  is  glad  to  present  it  to  its 
readers  through  the  courtesy  of  the  American  Alliance  for  Labor 
and  Democracy.] 

The  tragedy  which  threatens  to  overwhelm  Britain  proceeds 
in  regular  fashion.  Gradually,  but  definitely,  is  unfolded  the 
plot  to  bring  misery  upon  the  people  in  the  expectation  that 
misery  may  advance  revolution  and  exalt  the  demagogues 
who  would  become  autocrats.  There  has  been  the  battle  of 
phrases,  the  avalanche  of  promises,  and  the  sapping  of  moral 
fiber.  Today  there  is  the  game  of  tactics  between  the  revolu- 
tionaries who  control  the  Miners'  Federation  and  the  Railway 
Workers'  Organization.  Tomorrow  one  may  confidently  antici- 
pate the  outbreak. 

Circumstances  follow  each  other  with  the  regularity,  though 
not  the  harmony,  of  a  musical  cadence.  There  has  been  prepara- 
tion, now  there  is  percussion,  and  tomorrow  there  will  be 
revolution  and  revolution  that  may  involve  dissolution  of  the 
British  Empire. 

In  the  battle  of  phrases,  even  the  government  has  joined. 
It  has  seen  salvation  in  ninepence  for  fourpence,  in  accept- 
ance of  the  demand  that  workers  should  be  remunerated  ac- 
cording to  their  desires,  instead  of  according  to  their  earn- 
ing capacities,  in  the  resuscitation  of  the  discredited  labor 
laws  and  conditions  of  Edward  III.     It  has  permitted  and 


i  Reprint  from  Printer?  Ink,  September  4,  1919. 

956 


556  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

does  permit  fraud  in  high  and  low  places  to  go  unpunished 
or  under  punished. 

The  government  is  at  a  disadvantage  in  the  battle  of  words 
and  promises.  It  is  expected  to  make  good  its  utterances  and 
fulfil  its  promises.  This  involves  expense,  and  in  endeavor- 
ing to  raise  the  money  with  which  to  meet  expenses,  the  gov- 
ernment incurs  opposition  and  unpopularity.  So  far  it  has 
met  the  situation  by  more  words  and  more  promises,  and  by 
the  creation  of  an  administrative  machine  which  it  estimates 
will,  this  year,  cost  one  hundred  and  sixteen  and  a  half  mil- 
lions! It  has  so  far  found  no  method  of  turning  the  develop- 
ing tragedy  into  a  drama  with  a  happy  ending.  It  has  still 
no  ascertainable  policy. 

TEACHINGS  OF  ECONOMICS  IGNORED 

A  few  weeks  ago  an  eminent  Polish  statesman  asked  me 
whether  the  men  who  formed  the  British  Government  had 
read  history  or  studied  economics.  I  hastened  to  assure  him 
that  most  of  them  had  passed  through  the  public  schools  and 
the  universities,  and  that,  presumably,  they  were  conversant 
with  both  subjects.  ''Then  why  in  the  name  of  greatness  do 
they  ignore  the  teachings  of  history  and  economics  in  their 
treatment  of  internal  politics?"  The  answer  to  the  supple- 
mental question  I  was  unable  to  give,  and  yet  I  do  not  know 
whether  it  is  ignorance  or  incapacity  or  fear  which  prevents 
the  promulgation  and  enforcement  of  a  policy  aimed  at  con- 
serving the  real  interests  of  the  empire. 

The  few  men  who  frighten  the  government  and  mislead 
labor,  and  through  labor  the  whole  empire,  start  their  cam- 
paign with  many  advantages.  They  have,  in  the  main,  to  deal 
with  an  unthinking  proletariat.  They  may  enrich  their  prom- 
ises with  rhetoric's  choicest  ornaments;  they  may  build  not 
castles  in  Spain,  but  empires  on  formulae.  They  have  no  re- 
sponsibility. They  usually  suffer  from  moral  obliquity  and 
constructive  paralysis.  To  demand  rather  than  to  provide  is 
their  metier.  The  consequences  of  these  demands  are  either 
beyond  their  intelligence  or  without  influence  upon  their  con- 
sciences. They  will  cheerfully  adopt  and  promulgate  every 
panacea  of  the  ancients  or  the  moderns,  and  just  as  cheer- 


To  Live  Produce  More,  Talk  Less  557 

fully  discard  and  forget  them.    Whoever  dies,  they  live;  who- 
ever fails,  they  are  triumphant. 

It  is  no  use  analyzing  intentions.  A  nation  faced  with 
strangulation  can  only  deal  with  effects,  and  the  effects  of 
the  propaganda  which  these  revolutionaries  have  fathered 
are  culminating  in  disaster. 

the  peril  to  the  world 

The  friends  of  the  men  really  responsible  for  the  troubles 
in  the  mines  and  on  the  railways  and  in  the  docks  may  argue 
that  all  of  them  are  altruists,  but  to  the  average  man  it  seems 
very  much  as  if  their  altuism  was  for  abroad  and  not  for 
home.  Whatever  their  intentions,  the  fact  remains  that  they 
have  brought  English  industry  into  perilous  circumstances 
and  British  workmen  to  the  certainty  of  grave  suffering  and 
possibly  starvation. 

Faced  with  a  restriction  of  output  of  coal  and  an  ineffi- 
cient and  costly  system  of  railways,  faced  daily  with  sporadic 
strikes,  what  will  the  government  do?  What  will  the  nation 
do?  The  answer  to  the  first  question  is  easier  to  find  than 
that  of  the  second.  The  government  will  do  what  it  has  been 
doing  since  Mr.  Asquith  gave  his  fatuous  advice  to  follow 
prices  with  wages.  It  will  temporize  in  the  Micawbean  hope 
of  something  turning  up. 

Salvation  lies  now,  as  always,  with  the  nation.  Upon  the 
manner  in  which  it  faces  the  situation  everything  depends. 
Each  individual  must  accept  his  own  share  of  responsibility 
and  perform  his  own  task. 

The  flooding  of  mines  and  the  cessation  of  work  on  railways 
destroys  wealth  and  rots  food.  It  is  useless  to  talk  of  taxing 
wealth  which  chicanery  and  folly  have  destroyed,  or  of  enjoy- 
ing food  which  unreasoning  railway  men  have  left  to  perish. 
Every  man  and  woman  and  child  in  Britain  will  have  to  pay 
for  the  past  and  current  week's  follies,  and  the  poorest  will 
pay  most,  because  they  will  pay  in  actual  suffering,  while  the 
well  paid  will  only  incur  the  disadvantages  of  straitened 
circumstances. 

It  is  up  to  the  individual  to  study  for  himself  the  economic 
situation  and  to  act  accordingly.     He  must  learn  to  appre- 


558  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

ciate  for  himself  the  significance  of  imports  £1,319,338,591,  and 
exports  £498,473,065.  In  effect  this  means  that  as  a  nation  we 
are  spending  one  shilling  and  three  halfpence  and  earning  a 
little  less  than  fivepence.  Onr  reexports,  too,  have  fallen  from 
£111,737,691  in  1912  to  £31,956,029  in  1918,  and  that  in  spite  of 
existing  inflated  values. 

These  figures  are  like  the  pulse  of  the  national  life.  They 
indicate  grave  derangements  and  almost  certain  catastrophe. 

The  state  is  often  described  as  a  ship.  Today  the  ship  is  on  a 
lee  shore,  and  all  hands  must  work  at  maximum  speed  if  she  is 
to  be  saved  from  utter  wreck. 


FOREIGN  STUDENTS  WELCOME  TO  AMERICA1 

Will  the  United  States  help  build  up  the  civilization  of  the 
future  by  opening  wide  the  doors  of  her  colleges  and  universi- 
ties to  students  from  all  over  the  world?  Can  Germany  re- 
establish her  educational  prestige  and  draw  students  to  her, 
first  from  the  near  east,  and  later  from  other  countries 
against  whom  she  fought  in  the  war?  Is  America  to  assume 
the  educational  leadership  to  which  her  new  responsibilities 
call  her? 

These  are  questions  asked  by  the  Bureau  of  Education, 
Department  of  the  Interior,  in  a  special  article  in  School  Life, 
an  official  publication  of  the  bureau. 

In  a  letter  to  college  and  university  officers  in  this  country 
the  Commissioner  of  Education  writes : 

"The  higher  educational  institutions  of  western  Europe 
have  been  prostrated  by  the  war.  Large  numbers  of  the  lead- 
ing scientists  and  of  the  younger  men  whose  scientific  careers 
were  just  beginning  have  been  killed.  Because  the  intellec- 
tual resources  of  the  United  States  have  not  been  similarly 
drained,  the  western  nations  are  looking  to  the  United  States 
to  assume  the  responsibilities  of  leadership  in  education  and 
in  science.  That  the  colleges  and  universities  of  the  United 
States  appreciate  these  responsibilities  and  are  endeavoring 
to  meet  them  is  evidenced  by  the  various  movements  that 
have  been  undertaken  to  promote  closer  educational  relations 
between  this  country  and  the  western  allies. 

"Apparently  Germany  expects  to  regain  the  influence  which 
she  formerly  exerted  over  foreign  nations  by  means  of  her 
universities,  technical  schools,  and  scientific  institutes.  This 
office  is  informed  that  efforts  have  already  been  made  by 
German  educational  institutions  to  recover  their  clientele  of 
foreign  students,  especially  from  the  countries  in  the  near 
east  adjacent  to  or  contiguous  to  Germany.  There  is,  of  course, 
no  immediate  prospect  that  she  could  make  a  successful  appeal 
to  the  students  of  Great  Britain,  France,  or  Italy.  Students 
and  young  scientists  in  Czecho-Slovakia,  Jugo-Slavia,  Russia, 


i  Prepared  by  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education. 

659 


560  The  Catholic  Educational  Revibw 

Roumania,  and  western  Asia  are  much  more  likely  to  be  drawn 
to  German  universities  and  to  technical  schools.  Germany  is 
near,  and  they  know  about  it.  The  cost  of  living  is  lower 
than  in  some  of  the  remoter  countries,  especially  the  United 
States.  Nevertheless  it  is  believed  that  students  from  these 
countries  would  gladly  come  to  the  United  States  if  they 
were  familiar  with  its  educational  opportunities,  and  particu- 
larly if  they  could  be  assured  of  sufficient  means  to  complete 
their  education.  Evidently  it  is  desirable  that  the  tide  of 
students  from  these  countries  should  be  turned  this  way  rather 
than  to  Germany.  Moreover,  the  countries  themselves  need 
assistance.  To  render  this  is  part  of  the  responsibility  in- 
volved in  our  new  position  of  leadership. 

"The  State  Department  suggests,  and  this  office  cordially 
indorses  its  suggestion,  that  the  college  officers  of  the  country 
give  this  problem  their  attention.  If  they  are  generally  dis- 
posed to  encourage  the  coming  of  students  from  these  coun- 
tries by  means  of  scholarships  or  special  provisions  for  self- 
help,  their  offerings  can  be  reported  to  the  Bureau  of  Educa- 
tion, transmitted  to  the  State  Department,  and  through  the 
agents  of  that  department  brought  to  the  attention  of  educa- 
tional authorities  in  the  lands  mentioned." 

In  this  connection  the  Bureau  of  Education  is  revising  the 
bulletin  on  "Opportunities  for  Foreign  Students  at  Colleges 
and  Universities  in  the  United  States"  and  is  planning  the 
preparation  of  a  very  much  briefer  statement  that  can  be 
translated  into  the  languages  of  certain  of  these  countries 
and  distributed  through  the  agents  of  the  State  Department. 


SCOPE   OF   THE   FOURTEENTH    CENSUS   EXTENDED 

Washington,  November  2. — That  the  Fourteenth  Decennial 
Census,  on  which  the  actual  enumeration  work  will  begin 
January  2,  1920,  is  to  be  the  most  important  ever  taken  is 
shown  by  the  fact  that  the  act  of  Congress  providing  for  this 
census  expressly  increased  the  scope  of  the  inquiries  so  as  to 
include  forestry  and  forest  products,  two  subjects  never  cov- 
ered specifically  by  any  preceding  census. 

The  inquiries  to  be  made  relating  to  population,  manufac- 
ture, mines,  quarries  and  agriculture  were  also  extended  in 
their  scope  by  Congress,  the  keenest  interest  over  the  forth- 
coming census  having  been  shown  by  the  members  of  the 
census  committees  of  both  the  House  and  Senate  while  the 
law  was  under  consideration. 

The  statistics  gathered  on  mining  will  include  all  oil  and 
gas  wells.  Many  startling  developments  in  this  important 
branch  of  the  nation's  resources  are  looked  for  by  census  offi- 
cials. The  figures  gathered  in  Texas,  Oklahoma  and  Kansas 
will  no  doubt  prove  to  be  those  most  eagerly  sought  for,  as- 
shown  by  inquiries  already  received  by  the  Census  Bureau. 

The  compilation  and  gathering  of  forestry  and  forest  prod- 
ucts statistics  will  be  in  charge  of  a  special  force  of  experts. 
The  accurate  and  comprehensive  figures  gathered  concerning 
this  vital  natural  resource  will  be  much  in  demand,  and  the 
comparisons  made  with  conditions  existing  before  the  war 
will  be  of  great  interest. 

Agricultural  statistics  will  likewise  be  the  subject  of  special 
effort  on  the  part  of  the  Census  Bureau,  as  the  importance 
of  farming  is  being  realized  by  the  average  citizen  far  more 
than  ever  before. 


501 


THE  TEACHER  OF  ENGLISH 

THB    LIVING    PRESENT 

It  is  too  soon  yet  to  measure  the  extent  of  the  change  in 
the  world  that  has  taken  place  since  the  beginning  of  the 
war.  It  is  almost  too  soon  to  be  aware  that  a  profound  change 
has  actually  occurred,  so  tenaciously  does  habit  of  mind  and 
custom  of  circumstance  cling  to  us  in  our  daily  life.  The 
radical  alterations  of  the  politics  and  the  social  concepts  of 
the  world  which  came  to  pass  under  the  terrific  pressure  of 
war's  necessities  seemed  so  obvious  at  the  time  that  they  are 
already  taken  for  granted,  although  ten  years  ago  they  would 
have  been  termed  a  radical  social  and  political  revolution,  to 
be  met  with  organized  and  determined  opposition;  yet  today 
the  year  1913  belongs  as  definitely  to  the  past  as  1861,  or 
1794,  or  1775.  The  thought  of  the  world  is  coursing  rapidly 
along  new  highways,  and  many  of  the  old  roads  and  familiar 
paths  have  suddenly  given  out  on  strange  fields  and  new 
horizons. 

Education  must  gird  itself  for  new  adventures  and  new 
conquests.  The  old  material  must  be  read  in  a  new  light — 
in  the  light  of  its  lessons  for  the  present.  The  new  material 
must  be  digested  and  organized,  and  a  basis  be  laid  for  liberal 
and  constructive  criticism  along  the  new  lines  made  necessary 
by  new  times  and  new  necessities.  For  teachers  of  English 
especially  is  there  an  obligation  to  recognize  the  living  present 
and  live  mentally  abreast  of  its  fullest  current.  Language  is 
always  the  key  to  a  people's  philosophy  and  a  people's  art. 
The  student  of  language  and  of  its  works  will  find  everything 
to  fascinate  him,  to  challenge  his  powers  of  criticism  and 
analytical  reasoning,  in  these  new  times  of  ours.  Teachers  of 
English  who  recognize  this,  and  who  have  the  courage  to 
dare  new  fields  and  new  adventures,  will  know  as  no  others 
will  the  joys  of  discovery  and  the  power  of  leadership  at  an 
hour  in  the  world's  history  when  all  the  best  rewards  are  for 
the  leaders  and  the  discoverers.  From  now  on,  all  roads  are 
forward. 

T.  Q.  B. 

562 


The  Teacher  of  English  563 

NOTES 

The  campaign  to  raise  $500,000  for  the  building  and  equip- 
ping of  a  new  library  for  the  University  of  Louvain  inaugu- 
rated on  the  recent  occasion  of  the  awarding  of  the  degree 
of  LL.  D.  by  Columbia  University  to  Cardinal  Mercier,  has 
aroused  general  interest  in  the  world's  treasure-store  of 
precious  books  and  manuscripts  and  the  measures  taken  for 
their  protection. 

For  Belgium  to  regain  her  pre-war  prosperity,  according 
to  competent  university  authorities,  the  speedy  restoration 
of  the  University  of  Louvain  is  vitally  necessary.  They  point 
out  that  practically  every  Belgian  engineer  was  a  graduate  of 
the  technological  department  of  Louvain,  as  well  as  lawyers 
and  theologians,  including  the  great  Primate  himself. 

Among  the  Americans  who  personally  visited  Louvain  for 
the  purpose  of  making  a  careful  examination  of  the  university 
were  Alexander  J.  Hemphill,  of  the  Guaranty  Trust  Com- 
pany of  New  York  City,  and  Herbert  Putnam,  Librarian  of 
Congress,  both  of  whom  are  members  of  the  Executive  Com- 
mittee in  charge  of  the  Louvain  Restoration  Campaign. 

Their  report  shows  that  although  some  of  the  walls,  pillars 
and  buttresses  of  the  Louvain  Library  still  remain,  even  re- 
taining in  places  their  beautiful  carvings  and  sculptures,  the 
idea  of  rebuilding  the  old  library  stone  by  stone,  in  harmony 
with  the  traditions  of  the  fourteenth  century,  is  not  enter- 
tained, and  an  entirely  new  library  building  will  therefore  be 
erected.  The  selection  of  an  architect  and  the  making  of 
plans  for  the  new  building  will  be  begun  in  the  near  future. 

The  destruction  of  the  contents  of  the  old  library  of  the 
university  was  complete.  Not  a  leaf  of  a  single  volume  could 
be  salvaged  from  the  debris.  Several  volumes  still  retaining 
their  shape  were  found  by  M.  Delannot,  librarian  of  Louvain, 
but  every  one  of  these  crumbled  to  dust  as  soon  as  they  were 
handled. 

In  addition  to  the  many  thousands  of  printed  volumes  which 
were  destroyed  by  the  Germans,  were  at  least  a  thousand 
priceless  and  irreplaceable  manuscripts.  Among  them  were  a 
signed  copy  of  the  sermons  of  Thomas  a  Kempis,  gems  like  the 
"Imitation  of  Christ;"  a  fifteenth  century  manuscript  of  "De- 


564  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

viris  illustrious"  of  Cornelius  Nepos,  which  was  regarded  as 
one  of  the  most  important  extant  texts  of  that  author;  and 
two  autographed  manuscripts  of  Dionysius  Carthusiensis. 

In  an  investigation  of  the  subject  of  the  various  measures 
taken  for  the  protection  of  priceless  volumes,  printed  and  in 
manuscript  form,  in  our  libraries,  the  investigator  met  pretty 
generally  among  librarians  with  the  statement  that  the  build- 
ings are  fireproof;  the  most  valuable  specimens  are  kept  in 
steel  cases;  there  are  steel  galleries,  steel  shelves,  and  steel 
stairways;  a  fire  would  be  unlikely,  and,  granted  a  fire,  it 
would  be  still  more  unlikely  to  spread. 

The  famous  joke  of  architects — to  the  effect  that  a  real 
modern  fireproof  building  is  like  nothing  so  much  as  a  good 
stove — it  won't  burn,  but  its  contents  will — is  brought  to  mind 
by  this  attitude  which  we  encountered  among  librarians  on  the 
subject  of  protection  against  fire.  Even  steel  cases,  if  suffi- 
ciently heated,  will  not  serve  as  a  protection  to  their  con- 
tents, if  their  contents  are  of  such  destructible  nature  as  books. 
The  genuinely  fireproof  library  would  be  prohibitively  ex- 
pensive to  build,  and  not  practical  even  if  built. 


To  an  Imagist  poet  the  following  is  probably  a  wonderful 
poem,  but  to  our  taste  it  is  rather  the  plot  for  a  poem  that 
might  be  written,  than  a  completed  work  of  art: 

"You  shine,  Beloved, 
You  and  the  moon, 
But  which  is  the  reflection? 
The  clock  is  striking  eleven. 
I  think,  when  we  have  shut  and  barred  the  door, 
The  night  will  be  dark 
Outside." 
In  Imagist  poetry  there  is  invariably  a  lack  of  proportion 
between  the  subject  matter  and  the  medium  of  its  expression. 


For  genuine  pith  and  accuracy  of  satire,  nothing  in  recent 
years  quite  equals  Finley  Peter  Dunne's  "Mr.  Dooley  on 
Making  a  Will  and  Other  Evils."  Charity  of  heart  is  as  es- 
sential as  a  sense  of  humor,  for  the  perfect  satire.    There  are 


The  Teacher  of  English  565 

few  perfect  satirists — the  majority  tend  either  to  the  savage 
or  the  burlesque.  "Mr.  Dooley"  is  perfect  satire.  Witness  the 
following : 

"Rellijon  is  a  quare  thing.  Be  itself  it's  all  right.  But 
sprinkle  a  little  pollyticks  into  it  an'  dinnymite  is  bran  flour 
compared  with  it.  Alone  it  prepares  a  man  f'r  a  betther  life. 
Combined  with  pollyticks  it  hurries  him  to  it.  D'ye  suppose  th' 
ol'  la-ads  who  started  all  these  things  cinchries  ago  had  anny 
rellijon?  Divil  th'  bit  th'  likes  iv  thim  iver  had,  thin  or  iver. 
They  wanted  to  get  a  piece  iv  land  or  a  bunch  iv  money  an' 
they  knew  they  cudden't  get  anybody  to  lave  horn  an'  fight 
just  be  sayin'  '1  want  land  an'  money.'  So  they  made  a  relli- 
jous  issue  out  iv  it.  They  said  to  the  likes  iv  jrou  an'  me: 
'That  fellow  over  there  thinks  ye  ar-re  goin'  to  hell  whin  ye 
die.   Ye  take  his  life  an'  I'll  take  his  land  an'  his  money.'  " 


A  survey  of  the  motion-picture  requirements  of  colleges  and 
universities  is  being  made  by  a  committee  of  the  American 
Educational  Motion  Picture  Association,  of  which  Allen  S. 
Williams,  director  of  the  Reptile  Study  Society,  is  president. 
The  survey  is  for  the  purpose  of  stimulating  the  production 
of  pictures  to  supplement  the  courses  of  study  in  colleges, 
English  as  well  as  science!  Secondary  and  primary  schools 
will  be  considered  subsequently  in  the  same  manner. 

The  committee  at  work  is  composed  of:  Dolph  Eastman, 
editor  of  the  Educational  Film  Magazine;  Dr.  Maximilian 
P.  E.  Groszmann,  Educational  Director  of  the  National  Asso- 
ciation for  the  Study  and  Education  of  the  Exceptional  Child ; 
Margaret  I.  McDonald,  editor,  Educational  Department,  Mov- 
ing Picture  World;  Lloyd  Van  Doren,  Chemical  Department, 
John  Hopkins  University;  Roland  Rogers;  J.  P.  Brand, 
managing  editor,  Reel  and  Slide  Magazine;  Allen  S.  Williams, 
president  of  the  American  Educational  Motion  Picture  Asso- 
ciation, and  A.  D.  V.  Storey,  executive  secretary  of  the 
association. 

Another  committee  of  the  association  is  at  work  in  an  effort 
to  modify  and  standardize  the  conditions  governing  the  in- 
stallation of  motion-picture  machines  in  churches  and  schools 
throughout  the  United  States.  This  committee  includes  H.  H. 


56t>  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

Casselman,  director  of  the  Graphic  Department  of  the  Inter- 
church  World  Movement;  George  J.  Zehrung,  director  Motion 
Picture  Bureau,  International  Y.  M.  C.  A.,  and  T.  J.  Kemper, 
of  the  Extension  Film  organization  of  the  Catholic  Church. 


H.  G.  Wells  is  said  to  be  engaged  upon  a  mammoth  task, 
which  when  completed  will  make  a  history  of  the  world  of  some 
350,000  words  in  length.  The  interval  between  the  announce- 
ment and  the  publication  may  be  interestingly  filled  by  lovers 
of  games  of  chance  by  laying  wagers  as  to  the  respective  per- 
centages of  facts  and  Wellsian  theories  which  the  volume  will 
contain. 


Doubleday,  Page  &  Co.  are  about  to  bring  out  "new  Words 
Self-Defined,"  in  which  Professor  C.  Alphonso  Smith,  biog- 
rapher of  O.  Henry,  has  collected  a  great  quantity  of  the 
new  words,  slang  and  other,  which  so  plentifully  came  into 
use  during  the  war  years.  Professor  Smith  has  made  each  word 
define  itself  by  quoting  a  sentence  in  which  its  use  makes  its 
meaning  clear. 


Current  topics  usually  stimulate  better  compositions. 


The  style  of  the  country  editor  sometimes  lacks  rhetorical 
perfection,  but  not  infrequently  it  gets  a  great  many  facts 
together  in  a  small  space.  This  characteristic  is  deliciously 
illustrated  by  the  following  authentic  paragraph  from  a  coun- 
try weekly: 

"Mrs.  Henry  Severance,  who  so  barely  escaped  breaking  her 
hip  or  other  bones  last  Wednesday  when  she  fell  off  the  step 
ladder  on  to  the  porch  floor,  as  a  string  broke  that  she  was 
trying  to  pull  up  the  rose  branches  with,  to  fasten  up  near 
the  ceiling,  is  slowly  gaining  and  manages  pretty  well,  with 
crutches,  to  get  around  the  dining  room." 


Success  to  Sophie  Kerr,  the  author,  in  her  effort  to  banish 
the  word,  "kiddie"!  "What  a  cheap  and  horrid  word  it  is!"  she 
writes.    "Here  in  America  it  is  an  insidious  and  maddening 


The  Teacher  of  English  567 

omnipresence.  It  crawls  into  our  best  books  and  magazines; 
it  is  tucked  coyly  into  all  sorts  of  advertisements;  it  has  be- 
come part  of  the  very  trade  name  of  various  toys  and  belong- 
ings of  children;  yet  it  is  and  never  will  be  anything  but 
what  I  must  call  a  'chewing-gum  word' — by  which  I  mean 
the  sort  of  word  which  is  always  in  high  favor  with  the  con- 
firmed gum-chewing  type  of  human." 


Sometimes,  however,  a  colloquialism,  or  even  a  word  racy 
of  the  street  has  practical  arguments  in  its  favor  which  a  bar- 
barism or  vulgarity  like  "kiddie"  has  not.  For  instance,  most 
American  authorities  say  it  is  not  good  form  to  use  a  man's 
title  in  addressing  his  wife,  as,  for  example,  "Mrs.  Dr.  E.  G. 
Brown,"  or  "Mrs.  Prof.  G.  E.  White,"  yet  there  are  worthy 
arguments  on  the  other  side.  A  man  is  generally  better  known 
by  his  title,  if  he  has  one,  than  by  his  initials,  and  it  is  con- 
ceivable that  a  letter  addressed  to  "Mrs.  Prof.  G.  E.  White" 
might  be  delivered,  when  a  letter  addressed  to  "Mrs.  G.  E. 
White"  might  not.  Some  of  those  who  think  that  the  hus- 
band's title  should  be  used,  in  spite  of  the  prevailing  practice, 
put  it  in  parentheses,  thus:  "Mrs.  (Prof.)  G.  E.  White."  This 
is  only  a  compromise,  and  like  many  compromises,  is  the 
worst  of  the  alternatives  offered!  "Mrs.  G.  E.  White"  is  the 
best  form,  and  the  mail  service  is  improving! 

Thomas  Quinn  JBeeslky. 


REVIEWS  AND  NOTICES 

Poems,  by  Theodore  Maynard,  with  an  introduction  by  G.  K. 
Chesterton.  New  York:  Frederick  A  Stokes  &  Co.,  1919. 
Pp.  xiv+169. 

This  volume  is  much  more  than  a  collection  of  readable 
poems;  it  is  part  of  the  new  movement  for  the  resurrection 
of  the  spirit  of  the  thirteenth  century  for  which  Mr.  Cram 
and  others  have  been  laboring  so  strenuously.  Mr.  Chester- 
ton says  of  the  work :  "But  the  sentiment  of  color  still  ran  like 
a  thread  through  the  whole  texture;  and  I  think  there  is 
hardly  a  poem  that  does  not  repeat  it.  And  this  is  important, 
because  the  whole  of  Mr.  Maynard's  inspiration  is  part  of 
what  is  the  main  business  of  our  time — the  resurrection  of 
the  Middle  Ages.  The  modern  movement,  with  its  Guild  So- 
cialism and  its  military  reaction  against  the  fatalism  of  the 
barbarian,  is  as  certainly  drawing  its  life  from  the  lost 
centuries  of  Catholic  Europe  as  the  movement  more  commonly 
called  the  Renaissance  drew  its  life  from  the  lost  languages 
and  sculptures  of  antiquity.  And,  by  a  quaint  inconsistency, 
Hellenists  and  Neo-Pagans  of  the  school  of  Mr.  Lowes  Dick- 
inson will  call  us  antiquated  for  gathering  the  flowers  which 
still  grow  on  the  graves  of  our  medieval  ancestors,  while 
they  themselves  will  industriously  search  for  the  scattered 
ashes  from  the  more  distant  pyres  of  the  Pagans." 

The  readers  of  the  Review  will  be  interested  to  know  that 
this  poet  is  the  son  of  a  Protestant  minister.  His  early  educa- 
tion was  received  in  England,  but  it  was  in  Massachusetts 
that  he  made  his  studies  for  the  Congregational  ministry.  His 
career  as  a  minister,  however,  was  very  brief,  for  his  first 
sermon  was  on  fools  and  struck  the  deacons  of  his  church 
so  forcibly  that  they  immediately  demanded  his  resignation. 
During  the  hard  times  that  followed,  the  young  minister 
spent  several  weeks  in  Philadelphia  living  on  twenty-five  cents 
a  day.  This  personal  experience,  however,  seems  to  have  been 
necessary  to  bring  out  the  hidden  treasure  of  this  poet  con- 
vert to  Catholicism  and  to  the  mystic  life  of  the  Middle  Ages. 


568 


Reviews  and  Notices  569 

Hidden  Treasure:  The  story  of  a  chore  boy  who  made  the  old 
farm  pay,  by  John  Thomas  Simpson.  Philadelphia:  J.  B. 
Lippincott  Co.,  1919.     Pp.  303. 

This  story  is  attractively  written.  It  is  undoubtedly  whole- 
some and  it  is  calculated  to  awaken  or  stimulate  boys'  and 
girls'  interest  in  scientific  farming  and  in  the  new  condition 
that  is  springing  up  in  our  farming  community.  Of  course 
the  incidents  related  constitute  a  bit  of  extravaganza,  and  the 
love  thread  that  runs  through  it  is  more  wholesome  than 
artistic.  The  volume  can  be  used  in  any  school  or  home  with- 
out fear  of  planting  evil  seed  in  the  minds  or  hearts  of  young 
people,  and  this  fact  makes  some  amends  for  the  absence  of 
more  perfect  literary  form. 

Thomas  Edward  Shields. 


American  Leaders,  Book  1,  by  Walter  Lefferts,  Ph.D.     Phila- 
delphia: J.  B.  Lippincott  Co.,  1919.     Pp.  v-f  329. 

"This  story  history  is  the  first  of  two  companion  volumes 
which  describe  the  lives  of  some  forty  national  leaders  and 
cover  the  period  from  the  beginnings  of  the  Revolution  to 
the  present  day.  It  is  written  in  consonance  with  the  recom- 
mendations of  the  Committee  of  Eight  of  the  American  His- 
torical Asociation.  Although  it  deals  with  men  whose  activi- 
ties cover  the  whole  extent  of  our  country,  it  bears  a  special 
significance  to  Philadelphia  and  surrounding  district. 

"The  children  approximately  of  grade  five  are  the  readers 
who  have  been  kept  in  mind." 

The  volume  contains  twenty  character  sketches  divided  into 
three  groups.  The  twelve  arranged  in  the  first  group  as  the 
men  who  helped  to  make  our  country  independent  are  Benja- 
min Franklin,  Samuel  Adams,  Patrick  Henry,  George  Wash- 
ington, Thomas  Jefferson,  John  Paul  Jones,  Marquis  de  Lafay- 
ette, George  Rodgers  Clark,  Robert  Morris,  Anthony  Wayne, 
John  Barry,  John  Peter  Muhlenberg.  The  four  given  as  the 
men  who  helped  to  make  our  country  strong  are  Alexander 
Hamilton,  Stephen  De  Carter,  Oliver  Haggard  Perry,  Stephen 
Girard.  And  the  last  five  given  as  the  men  who  helped  to 
make  our  country  larger  are  Daniel  Boone,  Meriwether  Lewis, 
William  Clark,  David  Crocket  and  John  Charles  Fremont.    It 


570  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

will  scarcely  be  questioned  that  these  sketches  possess  value 
for  the  children  and  that  their  study  will  awaken  in  them 
fountains  of  interest,  but  if  the  book  were  to  be  used  in  our 
Catholic  schools  the  selections  would  scarcely  be  the  same, 
nor  would  we  like  to  see  our  children  brought  up  in  forgetful- 
ness  of  the  great  work  of  the  Franciscans,  the  Jesuits,  and 
the  other  Catholic  missionaries  and  explorers.  A  similar  line 
of  reasoning  would  lead  us  to  direct  the  child's  attention  at 
subsequent  stages  of  our  country's  history  to  men  who  have 
deserved  not  less  well  of  our  country  because  of  the  ardent 
Christian  faith  which  animated  them. 

Thomas  Edward  Shields. 


Life  of  Paul,  by  Benjamin  Willard  Robinson,  Ph.D.     Chicago: 
University  of  Chicago  Press,  1918.     Pp.  viii-f-250. 

The  author  of  this  volume  is  professor  of  New  Testament 
Literature  and  Interpretations  in  the  Chicago  Theological 
Seminary.  One  wonders  whether  it  is  lack  of  politeness  or 
religious  prejudice  that  makes  him  deny  to  St.  Paul  a  title 
which  he  so  justly  earned.  Dr.  Robinson  probably  would 
miss  the  prefix  to  his  own  name,  but  poor  St.  Paul  is  so  far 
removed  from  the  University  of  Chicago  that  we  hope  he  will 
not  feel  the  slight  intended,  or  otherwise.  The  book  contains 
twelve  chapters  on  the  following  topics:  "Mediterranean  Life 
in  Paul's  Day,"  "Paul's  Youth,"  "The  Call  to  Service  Among 
the  Nations,"  "Years  of  Adjustment,"  "The  Compaign  with 
Barnabas,"  "Emancipating  the  Gospel  from  Jewish  Legalism," 
"Come  Over  Into  Macedonia,"  "At  Athens  and  Corinth,"  "At 
Ephesus,"  "From  Ephesus  to  Corinth,"  "Arrest  and  Appeal," 
"At  Rome." 

This  paragraph  taken  from  the  chapter  on  "Paul's  Youth" 
sufficiently  illustrates  the  manner  of  treatment:  "Paul  was  a 
pacifist  and  a  vigorous  fighter.  Peace  and  reconciliation  are 
among  his  greatest  words.  His  nature  seemed  at  times  to 
have  been  an  extremely  tender  one.  When  he  wrote  a  severe 
letter  to  the  Corinthians  it  cost  him  many  tears,  as  he  tells 
in  II  Cor.  ii,  4.  But  he  wrote  it,  nevertheless.  He  often  speaks 
affectionately  of  his  converts  as  his  beloved  children.  In 
his  letter  to  the  Philippians  he  reveals  how  deeply  he  loved 


Reviews  and  Notices  571 

them.  In  1  Cor.  i,  13  is  the  great  poem  on  Christian  love.  Love 
is  not  provoked,  taketh  not  account  of  evil.  Yet  Paul  asks 
those  same  Corinthians:  "Shall  I  come  unto  you  with  a  rod, 
or  in  the  spirit  of  gentleness?" 

The  book  presents  evidences  of  scholarship,  but  a  Catholic 
pupil  will  miss  the  reverent  spirit  in  which  he  is  accustomed 
to  hear  Christ  and  His  Apostles  spoken  of,  and  one  may  well 
question  whether  there  is  any  compensation  in  increased 
scholarship  for  this  needless  omission. 

Thomas  Edward  Shields. 


The  Teaching  of  Arithmetic:  Manual  for  teachers,  by  Paul 
Clapper,  Ph.D.    New  York:  D.  Appleton  &  Co.,  1916. 

The  scope  of  this  book  is  thus  briefly  set  forth  in  the  author's 
preface:  "The  early  chapters  study  critically  the  values  of 
arithmetic,  the  principles  governing  the  organization  of  the 
course  of  study,  and  the  psychology  underlying  sound  method 
in  arithmetic.  The  later  chapters  set  forth  methods  rather 
than  the  method  of  teaching  each  of  the  important  branches 
of  arithmetic.  The  aim  of  the  book  is,  therefore,  to  evolve  a 
plan  of  teaching  to  be  based  on  approved  psychology  of  num- 
ber, which  incorporates  the  lessons  of  contemporary  research 
in  methodology  and  which  has  stood  the  final  test  of  ex- 
perience This  book  is  not  a  text  on  the  subject  of  arithmetic, 
but  a  manual  of  method  of  teaching  arithmetic."  The  author 
groups  values  of  the  study  of  arithmetic  under  two  heads : 
(a)  The  practical  values,  (6)  the  traditional  values,  which 
include  (1)  the  disciplinary  values,  (2)  the  pleasure  values, 
(3)  the  cultural  value,  (4)  the  preparatory  value.  There  is 
much  in  this  volume  that  will  challenge  the  teacher's  atten- 
tion, much  that  will  shake  the  traditional  attitude  toward 
many  of  the  supposed  values  of  arithmetic.  "We  are  rapidly 
making  for  a  new  arithmetic.  The  new  psychology  which 
opposes  the  doctrine  of  the  transfer  of  abilities,  the  view  of 
education  as  its  socializing  function,  the  demands  of  indus- 
try, the  more  sympathetic  comprehension  of  child  life — all 
these  are  cooperating  to  humanize  the  subject  and  to  teach 
that  the  practical  value  of  arithmetic  is  the  primary  value. 
To  it  all  other  values  must  bend.   A  course  of  study  in  arith- 


572  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

metic,  selected  and  organized  with  the  utilitarian  aim  in  view, 
can  be  so  taught  that  all  other  values  are  attained  in  their 
fullest  measure." 

This  author  would  exclude  from  the  curriculum  "much  of 
the  unnecessary  work  in  tables  of  uncommon  weights  and 
measures,  complex  fractions,  calculations  with  fractions  whose 
denominators  are  absurdly  large,  impossible  reductions  ascend- 
ing and  descending  in  denominate  numbers,  extreme  rationali- 
zation in  early  stages  of  number  work — in  a  word,  the  socially 
useless  matter  that  was  retained  because  of  false  psychology 
and  reverence  for  tradition.  All  these  must  go.  The  course 
of  study  must  be  simplified  by  rigorously  excluding  all  those 
topics  that  are  not  possessed  of  social  use,  and  by  so  teach- 
ing the  subject  that  habits  of  speedy  and  accurate  manipula- 
tions and  solutions  are  inculcated,  while  increased  powers 
of  thought,  abstraction,  concentration  and  analysis  are  natural 
mental  byproducts." 

It  is  time  that  our  teaching  of  arithmetic  was  purged  of 
the  useless  element  which  made  encroachments  on  the  pupil's 
time  and  burdened  the  curriculum.  Arithmetic  must  be  closely 
correlated  both  in  substance  and  in  form  with  the  other 
branches  of  the  curriculum. 

Thomas  Edward  Shields. 


The  Mind  and  Its  Education,  by  George  Herbert  Betts,  Ph.D. 
New  York:  D.  Appleton  Co.,  1916.     Pp.  xxvii+311. 

This  is  a  revised  edition  of  a  volume  issued  in  1906.  The 
author  is  widely  and  favorably  known  in  the  educational  field. 
The  persent  work  on  the  psychology  of  education  is  one  of  the 
simplest  and  most  practical  manuals  of  the  psychology  of  edu- 
cation available.  The  author  confines  himself  to  a  presenta- 
tion of  fundamental  and  important  truths  and  aims  at  avoid- 
ing the  controversial  field.  This  of  course  is  as  it  should  be 
in  an  elementary  text-book.  The  presentation  is  enriched  by  a 
wealth  of  apt  illustration.  The  scope  of  the  work  is  prob- 
ably indicated  in  the  titles  of  the  eighteen  chapters  of  which 
the  book  consists:  The  Mind,  or  Consciousness;  Attention; 
The  Brain  and  the  Nervous  System;  Mental  Development  and 
Motor  Training ;  Habit ;  Sensation ;  Perception ;  Mental  Images 


Keviews  and  Notices  573 

and  Ideas;  Imagination;  Association;  Memory;  Thinking; 
Instinct ;  Feeling  and  Its  Functions ;  The  Emotions ;  Interest ; 
The  Will ;  Self -Expression  and  Delevopment.  The  new  edition 
is  in  many  respects  an  improvement  upon  the  old. 

Thomas  Edward  Shields. 


Democracy  in  Education :  A  social  interpretation  of  the  history 
of  education,  by  Joseph  Kinmont  Hart,  Ph.D.  New  York: 
The  Century  Co.,  1918.     Pp.  xiii+418. 

Democracy  is  a  word  to  conjure  by  in  our  day.  It  is  not  a 
new  idea.  All  down  the  ages  democracy  has  sought  to  assert 
itself,  sometimes  with  a  little  brief  success,  but  more  often 
making  painfully  slow  progress.  Democracy  has  its  advan- 
tages and  its  disadvantages,  and  our  attitude  will  naturally 
be  determined  by  the  aspect  of  the  subject  that  we  keep  under 
consideration,  and  by  the  meaning  which  we  attach  to  the 
term.  If  we  mean  that  our  idea  and  our  level  of  advancement 
must  be  determined  by  the  majority  where  we  count  noses 
instead  of  measuring  standards,  then  democracy  is  unquestion- 
ably a  leveling-down  process.  It  is  an  ebbing  tide  that  inevi- 
tably will  carry  man  back  to  primitive  and  elemental  condi- 
tions. If,  however,  we  mean  by  democracy  the  rue  by  the  whole 
people  in  the  interest  of  the  whole  people,  instead  of  a  rule 
by  the  majority  for  the  ideals  and  standards  of  the  majority, 
then  democracy  must  contain  our  only  real  hope  of  advance- 
ment. If  the  social  body  is  to  be  organized  in  such  way  that 
its  movement  will  be  determined  by  the  highest  excellence 
contained  within  it,  it  follows  that  a  democracy,  more  than 
any  other  form  of  social  organization,  demands  the  highest 
development  of  those  chosen  individuals  who  embody  the  high- 
est potentialities  of  the  race.  At  the  present  hour  there  is  much 
confusion  concerning  democracy  and  its  ways.  If  it  is  to  be 
made  safe  for  the  world,  it  must  be  dealt  with  carefully  and 
through  our  educational  institutions.  Our  children  must  come 
to  look  upon  it  with  clear  vision  that  is  freed  from  the  ob- 
scuring enthusiasms  of  the  fanatic  and  the  demagogue.  The 
author  of  the  volume  before  us  does  not  lack  eloquence.  He 
holds  the  interest  of  the  reader  throughout  even  when  he 
fails  completely  to  win  conviction.     The  work  is  more  val- 


574  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

liable,  in  fact,  for  the  stimulation  which  it  will  give  to  the 
general  reader  than  from  the  findings  set  forth  in  its  pages. 
The  following  paragraph  from  the  author's  preface  contains 
as  good  an  indication  of  the  character  of  the  volume  as  any 
that  we  have  found  in  its  pages: 

"The  modern,  western  world  professes  to  have  taken  democ- 
racy as  its  political  goal;  certain  peoples  of  this  western 
world  profess  to  have  taken  it  also  as  their  social  goal ;  and  all 
of  them,  or  nearly  all,  feel  the  profound  urge  of  that  same 
ideal  as  an  economic  and  industrial  goal.  Nowhere,  how- 
ever, has  democracy  been  taken  as  the  educational  goal.  It 
has  been,  indeed,  professed  in  America ;  but  it  has  never  been 
professed  seriously  enough  to  cause  us  to  transform  our  tradi- 
tional and  therefore  autocratically  inspired  educational  in- 
strumentalities into  actual  democratic  institutions.  History 
has  not  been  interpreted  as  offering  comfort  to  our  democratic 
aspirations.  The  fate  of  democracy  has  almost  always  been 
pictured  in  dismal  colors.  To  be  sure,  history  does  not  prove 
that  democracy  will  be,  or  must  be  successful;  but  history 
does  show  that  human  purposes  have  been  powerful  detri- 
ments of  the  long  course  of  events,  and  democracy  is  now  our 
human  purpose.  The  great  war  has  become  the  war  for 
democracy.  But  while  big  guns  may  do  valiant  service  for 
democracy  again,  as  not  infrequently  in  the  past,  it  is  of  the 
very  logic  of  democracy  that  it  must  some  day  be  based  upon 
intelligence  and  moral  freedom,  rather  than  upon  force.  Hence 
the  ultimate  problem  of  democracy  becomes  a  problem  of 
education.  Two  items  become  important,  therefore:  First, 
history  must  be  so  interpreted  that  the  actual  gains  which 
democracy  has  made  in  the  past,  and  the  lasting  problems 
which  still  face  democracy,  will  stand  out  clearly  in  the  con- 
sciousness of  a  democratic  citizen,  the  one  aspect  of  the  sub- 
ject for  his  cheer,  the  other  to  deepen  his  sense  of  responsi- 
bility. Second,  education  must  be  seen  as  something  more 
than  a  schoolroom  task  to  be  turned  over  to  immaturity  and 
impracticality  for  solution.  The  school  must  become  an  ac- 
tually socialized  institution,  and  education  must  find  itself  at 
home  once  more,  as  in  the  olden  days,  in  the  very  life  of  the 
community." 


Reviews  and  Notices  575 

This  passage  and  many  other  passages  in  the  book  will  in- 
evitably awaken  a  challenge  in  the  mind  of  the  thoughtful 
reader.  Is  it  not  the  business  of  history  to  present  facts 
as  they  are?  And  if  the  fate  of  democracies  has  been  almost 
always  dismal,  why  should  this  fate  be  camouflaged  and  by  the 
use  of  a  prevalent  instrument,  propaganda,  be  made  to  appear 
other  than  it  is?  Again,  the  movement  finding  expression  in 
the  Smith  Towner  bill  is  one  which  would  remove  the  control 
of  education  from  the  states  no  less  than  from  the  individual 
communities  and  concentrate  it  in  a  cabinet  officer  appointed 
by  the  President  and  confirmed  by  the  Senate.  Does  the  spirit 
of  democracy  call  upon  us  to  counter  this  movement? 

Thomas  Edward  Shields. 


St.  Thomas  Aquinas  and  Medieval  Philosophy,  by  D.  J. 
Kennedy,  O.P.  New  York:  Enclopedia  Press,  1919.  Pp. 
128. 
At  this  time  many  men  of  light  and  leading  are  turning  to 
the  Middle  Ages  with  a  new  interest.  They  seek  to  find  in 
that  incomparable  time  the  spirit  that  was  banished  by  the 
selfishness  and  vanity  of  a  movement  which  culminated  in  the 
disasters  of  the  recent  war.  Very  naturally  these  men  turn 
in  the  first  place  to  the  philosophy  of  the  time,  and  St.  Thomas 
and  his  writings  embody  the  highest  expression  of  that  philos- 
ophy. Father  Kennedy  has  rendered  a  great  service  to  many 
by  supplying  this  easy  and  delightful  introduction  to  medieval 
philosophy  and  to  the  writings  of  the  incomparable  Doctor 
whom  Pope  Leo  summoned  back  as  a  guide  of  our  Catholic 
schools.  In  seven  chapters  the  author  discusses:  The  Rise 
of  Scholasticism — St.  Anselm ;  Dangers  and  Abuses  of  Scholas- 
ticism— Abelard;  The  Experimental  Sciences — Albertus  Mag- 
nus— Roger  Bacon;  A  Condition  of  Philosophy  in  the  Thir- 
teenth Century — What  St.  Thomas  Found  at  Paris;  Influence 
of  St.  Thomas  on  Philosophy;  The  Summa  Theologica  of  St. 
Thomas;  Specimen  Pages  from  the  Summa  Theologica  of  St. 
Thomas.  This  brief  and  fascinating  little  volume  will  lead 
many  into  an  understanding  of  the  philosophy  of  the  thir- 
teenth century  who  might  otherwise  find  the  technical  litera- 
ture on  the  subject  too  difficult  of  comprehension. 

Thomas  Edward  Shields. 


576  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

Towards  Racial  Health:  A  handbook  on  the  training  of  boys 
and  girls,  parents,  teachers  and  social  workers,  by  Norah  H. 
March,  with  foreword  by  Arthur  Thompson.  New  York: 
E.  P.  Dutton  &  Co.,  1919. 

This  volume  represents  one  more  attempt  to  check  the  spread 
of  the  social  evil  and  sex  disease  through  the  education  of 
children  along  the  lines  of  eugenics  and  sex  enlightenment. 
Professor  Thompson,  in  commenting  on  the  work  in  his  fore- 
word, says:  "What  is  prominent  is  the  equal  emphasis  which 
she  lays  on  the  biological  approach  to  sex  instruction  and 
on  the  ethical  note  which  must  be  sounded  sympathetically 
when  personal  relations  are  approached.  The  absence  of 
platitudinarian  talk  and  the  firmness  of  her  treatment  of  the 
facts  of  the  case  will  meet  with  the  approval  of  all  discerning 
readers.  Miss  March  does  not  propose  any  doctrinaire  scheme, 
but  she  offers  suggestions  which  can  be  adapted  to  different 
circumstances,  for  it  seems  to  be  clear  that  education  and 
racial  hygiene  must  be  graduated  and  differentiated  by  the 
teacher's  discretion.  The  author  discusses  in  as  many  chap- 
ters the  physical  development  of  the  child,  the  mental  and 
emotional  development  of  the  child,  care  of  children,  supervi- 
sion-psychological aspects,  nature  study  in  the  service  of  sex- 
instruction,  further  aids  towards  understanding  the  biology  of 
sex,  ethical  training,  education  for  parenthood,  social  safe- 
guarding, and  in  her  appendices  she  treats  some  suggestions 
for  parents  on  how  to  answer  children's  questions  and  how 
to  prepare  children  for  pubural  changes,  special  hygiene  for 
girls,  physiology  of  human  reproduction,  care  of  animals,  and 
som<*  notes  on  plant  life  referred  to  in  the  text. 

Thomas  Edward  Shields. 


The  Catholic 
Educational   Review 

DECEMBER,  1919 

CARDINAL  MERCIER  RECEIVES  THE  DEGREE  OF 
DOCTOR  OF  SACRED  THEOLOGY  FROM  THE  CATH- 
OLIC UNIVERSITY  OF  AMERICA 

Cardinal  Mercier  was  honored  on  October  29  by  the  Catholic 
University  of  America  with  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Sacred 
Theology.  It  was  conferred  on  him  by  Bishop  Shahan,  Rector 
of  the  University,  at  the  residence  of  Archbishop  Hayes,  in 
the  presence  of  several  distinguished  ecclesiastics.  It  had  been 
planned  to  confer  the  degree  with  the  usual  solemnities  at 
the  University  on  the  return  of  Cardinal  Mercier,  but  a  change 
of  plans  made  this  impossible.  This  is  the  only  occasion  on 
which  the  University  has  conferred  this  honorary  degree.  Of 
all  the  academic  honors  received  by  the  distinguished  church- 
man, this  seems  the  most  appropriate,  all  his  writings  and  his 
life  work  being  of  a  strictly  religious  character.  Bishop  Sha- 
han, in  conferring  the  degree,  spoke  as  follows : 

Your  Eminence: 

The  Catholic  University  of  America  is  proud  this  day  to 
associate  itself  with  the  entire  intellectual  world  of  the  United 
States,  in  offering  you  a  hearty  welcome  to  our  shores,  and 
in  the  universal  prayer  that  you  may  ere  long  return  to  us 
and  complete  the  admirable  work  that  you  have  begun  so 
auspiciously,  though  for  us  in  far  too  summary  a  manner. 

The  Catholic  University  of  America  beholds  in  you  a  teacher 
of  universal  renown  in  whose  school  a  multitude  of  influential 
men  have  received  a  thorough  training  in  the  great  funda- 
mentals of  exact  and  logical  thinking  and  in  the  stable  prin- 
ciples of  justice  toward  God,  man,  society,  and  one's  own  self 
and  destiny.  In  the  heart  of  once  peaceful  Europe,  amid  a 
people  of  supreme  gentleness  and  ancient  courtesy,  you  have 
renewed  the  best  traditions  of  that  glorious  intellectual  life 
whose  fine  flower  offers  yet  its  sweet  savor  in  the  survivals  of 

577 


578 


The  Catholic  Educational  Review 


the  highest  life  yet  known  to  man,  the  cathedral,  the  university, 
the  fine  arts,  perfect  taste,  moderation  and  balance  of  spirit, 
and  supreme  reverence  for  those  shadows  of  heaven,  the  good, 
the  true  and  the  beautiful,  not  alone  in  the  realm  of  matter, 
but  also  in  the  higher  eternal  realm  of  the  soul. 

There  came  a  day  long  ago  when  the  world's  greatest  human 
teacher,  Socrates,  was  called  on  for  the  supreme  test  of  his 
philosophy.  His  cup  of  hemlock  remains  forever  the  monument 
of  his  consistency  and  the  evidence  of  his  ethical  teaching. 
Other  philosophers,  guides  of  mankind,  have  walked  the  same 
dolorous  way,  but  to  none  has  come  the  supreme  opportunity 
for  confessing  truth  and  justice  in  so  full  a  measure  as  to 
you.  Standing  amid  the  ruins  of  your  church  and  your  coun- 
try you  have  cried  aloud  to  all  mankind  in  embattled  protest 
against  the  greatest  crimes  and  the  most  complete  injustice 
of  all  time.  And  to  you  has  come  back  an  echo  of  adhesion, 
approval,  and  sympathy  from  the  modern  world  which  does  it 
honor,  and  proves  that  amid  so  much  error  and  vice,  so  much 
oppression  and  degradation,  the  heart  of  humanity  yet  beats 
true  to  the  great  doctrines  of  Catholicism,  both  of  theory  and 
of  practice,  of  thought  and  of  conduct. 

For  it  is  not  so  much  you  who  cried  aloud  to  your  people 
and  to  the  world  in  those  dark  days  of  menace  and  fear,  but 
the  very  heart  of  our  Catholic  philosophy  of  life.  By  your 
lips  spoke  the  great  leaders  of  Catholic  thought,  Thomas  and 
Bonaventure  and  Scotus,  Suarez  and  Bellarmine,  the  great 
sufferers  for  right  and  justice,  the  Leos,  the  Gregorys,  the 
Innocents,  and  by  whatsoever  name  are  known  those  mouth- 
pieces of  the  Gospel,  of  Catholic  tradition  of  ecclesiastical 
history,  and  of  our  immemorial  religious  life  in  face  of  the 
ever-changing  figure  of  this  world. 

We  hail  in  you  the  last-come  of  the  great  line  of  Catholic 
teachers  of  philosophical  and  religious  truth,  not  as  it  emerges 
from  the  nebulous  regions  of  individual  reflection,  but  as  it 
shines  from  the  revealing  and  directing  agency  of  the  Holy 
Spirit,  ever  present  in  the  Church  of  God,  but  never  more 
so  than  in  the  hours  of  confusion  and  oppression. 

That  your  teaching,  indeed,  was  one  day  enhanced  in  moral 
impact  and  opportunity  by  the  pastoral  office  was  not  due  to 
your  own  rare  genius,  your  own  firm  grasp  of  its  basic  tenets. 
On  the  other  hand  it  is  your  due  that,  like  Thomas  a  Becket 
and  a  hundred  other  great  bishops,  you  withstood  the  abso- 
lutism of  your  day  and  place,  though  unlike  your  predecessors 
you  have  lived  to  see  an  unexpected  retribution  and  to  receive 
from  all  mankind  the  highest  measure  of  approval  ever  yet 
given  to  an  individual  champion  of  right  against  wrong,  of 
justice  against  oppression,  of  the  great  ethical  truths  against 


Cardinal  Mbrcier  Receives  Degree  579 

a  perfect  combination  of  modern  hypocrisy,  delusion,  and  bar- 
barous force,  cloaked  over  with  the  specious  names  of  science, 
progress,  and  social  necessity. 

Yes,  we  are  very  proud  that  it  is  a  Catholic  bishop,  a  prince 
of  our  Holy  Church,  the  right  hand  and  the  ear  and  eye  of 
Benedict  XV,  who  rises  morally  dominant  above  the  welter  of 
these  five  years.  That  glory  can  never  depart  from  the  annals 
of  modern  Catholicism.  Such  a  fruitage  of  its  teachings  argues 
the  soundness  and  the  viability  of  the  ancient  root,  and  inci- 
dentally puts  to  shame  much  of  the  vague  subjective  teachings 
of  recent  philosophy,  as  impotent  to  guide  men  and  women 
along  the  immemorial  paths  of  right  and  justice,  of  universal 
equity  and  moderation  in  the  conduct  of  mankind  and  the 
development  of  life  and  society. 

On  the  occasion  of  his  double  jubilee  of  the  priesthood  and 
the  cardinalate  your  noble  University  of  Louvaine  conferred 
upon  our  Eminent  Chancellor,  Cardinal  Gibbons,  the  honorary 
degree  of  Doctor  of  Sacred  Theology.  He  lives  in  vigorous 
health  of  body  and  mind  to  return  the  honor  this  day,  by  what- 
ever marvelous  changes  it  becomes  his  supreme  joy  to  confer 
upon  you  the  same  dignity,  and  in  you  upo  nthat  venerable 
seat  of  Catholic  learning  whose  fame  today  trumpeted  the 
world  over,  in  protest  it  is  true  against  a  supreme  wrong,  a 
mighty  tort  against  learning  and  the  mind,  but  also,  however 
unconsciously,  as  an  approval  of  its  work  through  the  cen- 
turies, culminating  in  your  honored  self  and  in  the  attitude 
of  your  people  through  a  luster  of  infinite  sorrow  and  the 
eclipse  of  every  hope.  Slowly,  perhaps,  this  great  center  will 
rise  again  from  its  material  ruins,  but  swiftly  already  has 
come  about  its  true  resurrection  in  the  person  of  its  head 
and  father,  through  whom  it  is  today  so  widely  known  and 
honored  that  never  more  can  it  be  neglected  in  the  annals  of 
any  learning  headed  for  life  and  service,  for  all  the  goods  of 
a  higher  order,  intellectually  and  morally.  In  begging  you 
to  accept  at  its  hands  this  degree,  our  Faculty  of  Theology 
feels  itself  highly  honored  that  so  eminent  a  name  should 
henceforth  forever  be  inscribed  on  its  annals,  while  the  Emi- 
nent Chancellor  and  the  Trustees  of  the  University  rejoice 
that  they  can  bestow  upon  you  the  highest  honor  in  their 
power.  Professors  and  students  of  our  University  join  with 
the  Rector  in  wishing  you  great  happiness  during  the  years 
that  remain  to  you,  and  have  only  one  regret,  namely,  that 
circumstances  made  it  impossible  to  welcome  you  formally  at 
Washington,  though  we  are  greatly  consoled  by  the  oppor- 
tunity of  thus  honoring  you  under  the  hospitable  roof  of  a 
most  distinguished  alumnus  of  the  Catholic  University. 


THE  CUKRICULUM  OF  THE  CATHOLIC  ELEMENTARY 
SCHOOL.*  A  DISCUSSION  OF  ITS  PSYCHOLOGICAL 
AND  SOCIAL  FOUNDATIONS 

By  George  Johnson 
(Continued) 

SUBJECT-MATTER   AND   SOCIETY — THE   PAST 

Two  elements  are  basic  in  any  valid  philosophy  of  education, 
the  needs  of  society  and  the  needs  of  the  individual.  The  child 
enters  upon  life,  his  powers  undeveloped,  his  mind  shrouded  in 
ignorance,  his  habits  unformed.  By  nature  endowed  with  a  set 
of  instincts  whereby  he  can  effect  certain  elemental  adjustments  to 
his  environment,  he  is  utterly  helpless  in  the  face  of  that  highly 
complex  condition  of  human  living  that  we  call  society.  It  is 
the  function  of  education  to  raise  the  child  above  the  level  of  his 
native  reactions,  to  make  him  heir  to  the  treasures  civilization  has 
amassed  in  its  onward  progress,  and  in  the  process  of  so  doing,  to 
develop  his  powers,  to  substitute  for  instinct  rational  habit,  to 
impart  to  him  the  truth  that  shall  make  him  free.  In  order  to 
effect  this,  education  must  know  the  nature  of  the  human  mind  and 
the  conditions  of  its  growth  and  development;  but  it  must  likewise 
be  conscious  of  the  character  of  the  social  environment  for  which 
it  would  fit  the  child.  In  other  words  its  subject  matter  must  be 
social  as  well  as  psychological,  must  prepare  for  life,  the  while  it 
gives  the  power  to  live. 

Regarded  in  one  light,  education  is  society's  means  of  self- 
preservation  and  self -perpetuation.  In  the  march  of  progress, 
human  society  stores  up  an  amount  of  intellectual  and  moral 
treasure,  builds  up  out  of  experience  certain  institutions,  develops 
approved  modes  of  procedure.  These  must  perdure,  if  progress 
is  to  have  any  continuity.  Else  each  succeeding  generation  would 
have  to  relearn  the  lessons  of  life  and  living. 

Accordingly  it  has  always  been  the  principal,  though  for  the 
most  part  implicit  and  unconscious  aim  of  the  human  race,  to 
educate  its  immature  members,  to  impart  to  them  the  knowledge 
and  train  them  in  the  skills  that  are  necessary  to  maintain  a  given 

*A  dissertation  submitted  to  the  faculty  of  philosophy  of  the 
Catholic  University  of  America  in  partial  fulfillment  of  the  require- 
ments for  the  Degree  of  Doctor  of  Philosophy. 

580 


Curriculum  of  Catholic  Elementary  School        581 

social  footing.  The  child  must  be  adjusted  to  the  environment. 
Among  primitive  peoples,  this  process  was  and  is,  comparatively 
simple.  The  father  trained  the  son  in  the  arts  of  the  chase  and  of 
war,  for  the  tribe  demands  first  of  all,  food  and  protection.  The 
mother,  upon  whom  devolved  all  that  concerned  shelter  and  the 
preparation  of  food  and  clothing,  trained  her  daughter  in  these 
activities.  This  was  education  for  the  immediate  demands  of 
practical  life.54  But  over  and  above  this  was  a  training  which 
we  might  call  theoretical.  It  was  not  enough  that  the  young 
should  learn  the  arts  of  the  present;  race-preservation  demanded  a 
knowledge  of  the  past.  They  listened  while  the  elders  of  the  tribe 
described  in  solemn  cadence  the  adventures  of  the  ancient  heroes 
and  in  time  themselves  learned  these  epics  by  rote.  The  mysteries 
of  nature  came  to  be  clothed  in  myth  and  natural  phenomena  to 
be  ascribed  to  occult  agencies.  The  conduct  of  the  tribe,  its 
mutual  duties  and  obligations,  as  well  as  its  religious  life,  consti- 
tute the  matter  of  its  theoretical  education.56 

Primitive  education  is  interesting  as  being  primarily  social.  It 
is  carried  on  in  the  midst  of  the  group  and  initiates  the  child  im- 
mediately into  group  life  and  needs.  It  is  not  intellectual  and 
remote  from  life,  as  education  among  highly  developed  peoples 
tends  to  become.  It  deals  with  situations  that  are  present  and 
with  problems  that  are  vital.  It  is  not  without  moral  value,  for 
the  individual  must  continually  submit  his  will  to  the  group.  It 
has  a  religious  value,  elementary  and  distorted  though  it  be,  for 
even  the  lowest  savages  believe  in  some  sort  of  animism,  whilst 
more  developed  tribes  have  a  considerable  religious  lore  which 
affords  them  some  insight  into  the  world  of  the  spirit  and  aids 
them  to  find  a  supernatural  sanction  for  the  law  of  nature.68 

The  discovery  of  the  art  of  writing  marks  the  beginning  of  educa- 
tion as  a  formal  institution  in  human  society.  When  men  found 
that  they  could  make  permanent  records  and  thus  preserve  and 
perpetuate  their  traditions,  a  new  momentum  was  given  to  progress 
and  civilization  and  culture  were  born.  No  longer  were  religion, 
history,  morals  and  law  left  to  the  mercy  of  word  of  mouth.  They 
were  snatched  from  a  precarious  basis  and  made  sure  and  lasting. 
Moreover,  with  the  mastery  of  the  art  of  writing,  a  wider  and 

54  Monroe,  Paul,  Text-book  in  the  History  of  Education.     New  York,  1914,  p.  6. 

"  Ibid.,  p.  7. 

66  Hart,  Joseph  Kinmont,  Democracy  in  Education.     New  York,  1918,  p.  20. 


582  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

deeper  kind  of  learning  was  made  possible.  The  school  became 
a  necessary  demand.  If  the  social  inheritance  of  the  human  race 
was  to  be  transmitted  by  means  of  written  record,  men  must  learn 
not  alone  the  art  of  making  records,  but  of  deciphering  them  as 
well.  The  art  of  writing  called  for  its  complement,  the  art  of 
reading.  These  arts,  being  artificial,  could  not  be  acquired  by 
mere  unconscious  imitation,  as  the  practical  arts  had  been  acquired 
before,  but  called  for  formal,  explicit  education.67 

The  introduction  of  reading  and  writing  made  another  tremen- 
dous difference  in  the  process  of  education.  Heretofore,  education 
had  been  immediate  and  direct;  the  school  had  been  life-experience. 
Henceforward,  it  is  indirect,  effected  by  means  of  a  mediating 
instrument,  the  book.  As  a  consequence  education  tends  to 
become  remote  from  life  and  to  take  on  an  artificial  character.  A 
new  problem  arises,  the  problem  of  keeping  education  close  to  life, 
of  preventing  its  becoming  formal  and  theoretical,  of  guarding  lest 
it  render  men  unfit  for  life  instead  of  efficient  in  practical  concerns. 
This  problem  must  be  met  by  every  age,  for  as  society  changes  and 
the  conditions  of  life  become  different,  education  must  change  too. 
The  school  must  be  kept  close  to  every-day  experience;  to  be  really 
effective,  it  must  be  colored  by  present  life.  Yet  because  of  the 
nature  of  the  media  with  which  its  deals,  it  finds  this  adjustment 
difficult.58  Means  easily  come  to  be  treated  as  ends,  and  the 
book,  instead  of  being  regarded  as  the  key  to  life,  is  accepted  as 
life  itself.  The  function  of  education  as  adjustment  to  the  environ- 
ment begins  to  demand  particular  emphasis. 

Inasmuch  as  the  present  study  is  concerned  with  elementary 
education  solely,  we  will  confine  ourselves  here  to  an  examination 
of  the  influence  of  social  needs  upon  the  beginnings  of  education 
in  the  various  epochs  of  the  world's  history.  Among  earlier 
peoples  elementary  education  was  received  in  the  home.  There 
were  nations  who  considered  ability  to  read  and  write  a  common 
necessity,  and  not  an  art  to  be  cultivated  by  any  special  group  or 
caste.  The  early  Israelites  looked  upon  the  Word  of  God  as 
contained  in  the  Sacred  Scriptures  as  the  most  important  thing  in 
life,  and  demanded  a  knowledge  thereof  of  every  individual.  The 
family  was  responsible  for  the  imparting  of  such  knowledge.69 


"  Willmann,  Otto,  Didaktik,  Braunschweig,  1894,  Band  I,  p.  113. 
68  Dewey,  John,  Democracy  and  Education.     New  York,   1916,  p.  9. 
«  Willmann,  Otto,  Didaktik,  Band  I,  pp.  124-133. 


Curriculum  of  Catholic  Elementary  School        583 

Likewise  the  Chinese  were  inspired  by  religious  reasons  in  their 
care  for  universal  literacy.  Though  only  the  privileged  were 
destined  for  higher  learning,  all  the  children  of  the  realm  might, 
if  their  parents  desired,  acquire  the  rudiments  of  reading  and 
writing.  The  nature  of  the  language  rendered  this  learning 
exceedingly  difficult  and  long  hours  must  be  spent  in  memorizing 
a  great  number  of  characters  and  in  conning  by  rote  the  canonical 
books.60 

It  remained  for  the  Greeks  to  organize  a  real  system  of  education, 
and  though  in  the  beginning  it  was  rather  indefinite  in  character, 
still  it  showed  the  same  general  arrangement  as  the  schools  of 
today.  The  first  period  extended  from  the  sixth  or  eighth  to 
approximately  the  fourteenth  or  sixteenth  year;  the  second  period 
lasted  until  the  twenty-first  year  and  the  last  from  that  time 
onward.61  The  first  period  was  that  of  school  education,  the 
second,  the  college,  which  in  Sparta  lasted  until  the  age  of  thirty,62 
and  the  third,  university  education. 

Before  the  introduction  of  written  language,  the  education  of 
the  Greek  child,  resembled  very  much  that  of  youths  of  other 
early  nations.  The  knowledge  he  acquired  was  gleaned  incident- 
ally or  by  imitation,  whether  at  home  or  abroad.  The  aim  was 
preparation  for  the  practical  life  of  a  citizen.  From  the  earliest 
times  of  which  we  have  record,  there  were  two  elements  in  Greek 
education,  gymnastics  for  the  body  and  music  for  the  soul.68 
The  latter  had  nothing  to  do  with  the  training  of  the  intelligence 
but  was  intended  to  strengthen  and  harmonize  the  emotions.  With 
the  introduction  of  the  book  came  the  school.  Under  its  aegis, 
education  gradually  changed  its  character  and  became  diagogic, 
as  Davidson  puts  it.64  The  practical  aim  gave  way  to  diagoge,  or 
preparation  for  social  enjoyment  in  the  cultivation  of  the  arts  and 
philosophy.     The   Didaskaleon,   or   Music   School,   widened   its 


60  Monroe,  Paul,  Text-book  in  the  History  of  Education,  p.  28.  Despite  the 
fact  that  the  Oriental  peoples  were  so  largely  engaged  in  trade  and  that  the 
Egyptians  in  particular  were  such  tremendous  builders,  it  is  curious  to  note 
that  there  are  no  records  of  the  teaching  of  arithmetic  and  mathematics. 
Among  the  Egyptians,  there  were,  however,  institutions  conducted  in  con- 
junction with  those  destined  for  higher  learning,  where  architecture,  sculpture 
and  painting  were  taught. 

61  Ibid.,  p.  83. 
42  Ibid.,  p.  75. 

88  Davidson,   Thomas.     The  Education   of  the  Greek  People.     New    York, 
1906,  p.  61. 
«  Ibid.,  p.  68. 


584  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

scope  and  introduced  literary  and  moral  instruction.  Reading, 
writing  and  arithmetic  were  taught,  besides  patriotic  songs  and 
the  great  epic  poems. 

Sparta,  whose  civilization  was  primarily  military  in  character, 
provided  schools  that  gave  little  place  to  reading  and  writing,  but 
insisted  on  physical  training,  discipline  and  the  recital  of  ancient 
deeds  of  valor  for  the  purpose  of  fostering  martial  virtue.65 

With  the  close  of  the  Persian  Wars,  a  mighty  change  took  place 
in  the  life  and  thought  of  the  Greek  people.  The  change  had  been 
foreshadowed,  in  a  manner,  by  the  intellectual  readjustment  that 
had  been  taking  place  in  Athens  prior  to  the  war.66  Early  Greek 
life  had  been  dominated  by  the  current  mythology  and  the  morals 
of  the  people  looked  to  the  gods  for  sanction.  Gradually,  however, 
the  ancient  polytheism  had  lost  its  hold,  though  the  religious  rites 
that  had  grown  up  around  it  continued  to  hold  sway.  The  social 
order  was  strengthened  by  these  rites  as  well  as  the  ideal  of  com- 
munity life  that  had  survived  the  religion  which  had  sponsored  its 
origin.  The  reflective  thought  that  had  undermined  the  worship 
of  the  gods,  now  turned  itself  to  a  criticism  of  the  existing  political 
and  social  ideals,  and  gradually  gave  rise  to  an  individualism  that 
was  no  longer  content  with  yielding  an  unthinking  allegiance  to 
the  group.  The  Persian  Wars  resulted  in  the  hegemony  of  Athens, 
a  leadership  based  not  so  much  on  the  common  choice  of  the  other 
states,  as  upon  Athenian  assertiveness.  But  the  individualism 
practised  by  Athens  in  foreign  matters,  reacted  within  her  own 
walls.  The  Sophists  rose,  their  critical  philosophy  questioning 
everything  and  blasting  the  very  foundations  of  the  state.  Institu- 
tions long  maintained  on  the  basis  of  habit,  trembled  in  the  balance 
and  opinion  waged  war  on  conviction  born  of  an  authority  no 
longer  recognized.67 

Naturally  this  change  in  thought  had  its  effect  upon  society. 
The  spirit  of  the  environment  became  individualistic  rather  than 
social,  and  Man,  rather  than  the  State,  came  to  be  regarded  as  the 
measure  of  all  things.  There  was  a  corresponding  shifting  in  the 
ideals  of  education.  The  schools  began  to  strive  for  the  improve- 
ment of  the  individual  in  place  of  preparation  for  civic  life.  The 
old  rigor  of  the  gymnasium,  intended  to  impart  strength  and  vigor 
to  the  body  in  order  that  it  might  become  a  fit  instrument  for  the 


46  Monroe,  Paul,  Text-book  in  the  History  of  Education,  p.  75. 
M  Davidson,  Thomas,  The  Education  of  the  Greek  People,  p.J9. 
"  Ibid.,  p.  83. 


Curriculum  of  Catholic  Elementary  School        585 

performance  of  civic  duties,  was  relaxed  and  the  new  ideal  became 
the  acquiring  of  grace  and  beauty  for  the  purpose  of  enjoyment  and 
cultured  leisure.  There  was  likewise  a  change  in  the  Music  School. 
Where  the  old  aim  had  been  the  development  of  those  mental 
qualities  which  would  enable  a  man  to  play  a  worthy  role  at  home 
and  in  the  market  place,  the  new  aim  became  individual  happiness. 
A  new  poetry  supplemented,  if  it  did  not  entirely  supplant  the 
traditional  epic;  the  strong  Doric  airs  gave  way  to  the  lighter 
Phrygian  and  Lydian.  Discussion  and  intellectual  fencing  became 
the  order  of  the  day  and  eventually  fostered  the  introduction  of 
grammar,  logic  and  dialectic.  The  program  of  the  lower  schools 
was  almost  modern  in  the  variety  of  subjects  it  offered. 

Socrates  sought  to  reduce  the  sophistic  chaos  to  order  by  his 
doctrine  of  the  idea  and  the  dialectic  method.  He  sought  to 
reestablish  the  old  social  order,  based  as  it  was  on  habit,  on  a  new 
principle  derived  from  reflection.  His  influence  was  responsible 
for  the  introduction  of  dialectics  in  the  schools.  Physical  training 
was  forced  to  assume  a  role  of  lessening  importance.68 

Plato's  teaching  concerning  the  nature  of  ideas  and  his  theory 
of  the  State,  while  it  did  not  effect  any  profound  change,  had  its 
influence  on  educational  thought.  He  regarded  the  school  as  a 
selective  agency  for  determining  the  class  in  society  to  which  a 
man  shall  belong.  At  the  end  of  the  primary  period,  it  should  at 
once  be  seen  who  is  adapted  by  nature  to  become  the  craftsman, 
the  soldier  or  the  ruler.  Plato  would  bridge  the  chasm  between 
the  practical  and  the  diagogic,  by  demonstrating  that  only  the 
select  few  are  fitted  for  the  latter.  Davidson  says,  "The  educa- 
tion which  had  aimed  at  making  good  citizens  was  spurned  by 
men  who  sought  only  to  be  guided  by  the  vision  of  divine  things. 
Hence  the  old  gymnastics  and  music  fell  into  disrepute,  their  place 
being  taken  by  dialectic  and  philosophy,  which  latter  Plato  makes 
even  Socrates  call  the  highest  music."69 

Aristotle's  educational  ideas  did  not  differ  essentially  from 
Plato's.  Only  the  prospective  citizen  should  be  educated  and 
citizenship  is  a  boon  to  be  conferred  only  on  the  most  worthy. 
Merchants,  artisans  and  slaves  are  to  be  excluded.  Physical 
training  should  come  first,  followed  by  the  moral  and  the  intellec- 
tual. Intellectual  nature  is  man's  highest  good  and  can  be 
acquired  by  means  of  the  traditional  subject-matter  of  the  schools, 

M  Davidson,  Thomas,  The  Education,  of  the  Greek  People,  p.  113. 
*  Ibid.,  p.  ISO. 


586  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

provided  that  something  more  than  its  utilitarian  character  be 
kept  in  view.  "To  seek  after  the  useful  does  not  become  free  and 
exalted  souls."70  Music  is  important  as  a  means  of  amusement 
and  relaxation;  dialectic  and  logic  are  fundamental. 

Thus  did  the  changing  ideals  and  conditions  of  the  Greek  people 
reflect  themselves  in  education.  In  the  beginning  practical  and 
civic  in  character,  Greek  education  gradually  assumes  a  theoretical 
complexion,  and  the  farther  it  progresses  in  this  direction,  the  less 
universal  does  it  become.  At  first  it  included  all  classes,  for  every 
man  is  a  citizen  of  the  state.  But  when  Plato  drew  up  a  plan  of 
the  state  wherein  some  were  destined  to  rule  and  others  to  obey, 
and  when  Aristotle  closed  the  doors  of  citizenship  upon  such  as 
worked  at  menial  tasks,  the  school  tended  to  become  an  esoteric 
institution.  The  effects  of  all  this  on  subject  matter  are  plainly 
discernible.  Diagoge,  more  and  more  theoretically  interpreted, 
becomes  the  ideal;  Gymnastics  and  Music,  so  cherished  in  the 
beginning,  fall  into  a  neglect  that  borders  on  contempt.  The 
history  of  Greek  education  affords  an  interesting  example  of  the 
manner  in  which  education  is  affected  by  the  environment.  The 
school  is  intended  as  a  preparation  for  life;  the  quality  of  the  life 
considered  desirable  at  any  given  time,  will  always  determine  the 
quality  of  the  preparation  the  school  must  give. 

The  same  phenomenon  evinces  itself  in  the  history  of  Roman 
education.  The  elementary  school  of  the  early  Romans  was  the 
home,  where  the  boy  learned  the  arts  of  war  and  agriculture.  The 
Laws  of  the  Twelve  Tables  must  be  learned  by  heart  and  once 
mastered  were  the  index  of  culture.  The  father  taught  the  arts  of 
reading  and  writing.  Later  on  we  find  an  occasional  school 
referred  to,  in  particular  when  through  the  agency  of  commerce 
and  diplomacy,  Greece  came  to  be  a  factor  in  Roman  life.  Then 
it  was  that  the  Odyssey  was  adopted  as  a  text  in  the  schools  and 
the  Greek  language  became  an  element  in  subject-matter  (233 
B.C.).  The  elementary  school  was  entered  by  boys  of  six  or  seven. 
It  was  known  as  the  "ludus"  and  in  it  were  learned  the  arts  of 
reading  and  writing  with  simple  operations  in  arithmetic.  The 
Odyssey,  in  Latin,  was  the  first  reading  book  and  a  great  many 
maxims  and  bits  of  poetry  were  copied  in  Latin  and  conned  by 
rote.  The  custom  of  learning  the  Laws  of  the  Twelve  Tables  was 
continued  until  the  first  century  before  Christ.71 

70  Aristotle,  Politics,  Vol.  VIII.  p.  3. 

71  McCormick,  Patrick  J..  History  of  Education.  Washington.  1915,  p. 
53ss. 


Curriculum  of  Catholic  Elementary  School        587 

When  the  decline  of  Rome  set  in,  we  note  once  more  that 
education  is  no  longer  fostered  for  the  practical  advantage  of  the 
whole  people.  It  becomes  a  hollow,  empty,  formal  process,  making 
for  affectation  and  dilettantism — a  badge  of  distinction  for  a 
favored  class.  In  other  words,  it  gives  preparation  for  a  life  that 
is  neither  worthy  or  universal.  It  produces  weak  and  effeminate 
characters.  The  result  in  the  case  of  Rome  was  the  injustice  and 
oppression  in  social  life  that  sounded  the  knell  of  the  Empire.72 

The  educational  concerns  of  the  early  Church  were  two-fold. 
On  the  one  hand  there  was  the  duty  of  training  the  young  in  the 
doctrines  and  practises  of  Christianity.  The  world  must  come  .to 
know  Christ  Who  is  its  only  salvation,  Whose  words  offer  the  only 
valid  solution  to  its  problems.  In  the  beginning  faith  had  come 
by  hearing,  but  with  the  death  of  the  Apostles  the  written  Word 
assumed  a  tremendous  importance.  It  demanded  ability  to 
read.  At  first  such  learning  was  given  in  the  home,  for  the  schools 
of  the  age  were  so  thoroughly  pagan  in  character,  so  much  opposed 
in  spirit  and  practice  to  the  teachings  of  Christ,  that  men  and 
women  who  were  ever  ready  to  lay  down  their  lives  in  defense  of 
their  faith,  would  with  little  likelihood  risk  the  faith  of  their 
children  by  allowing  them  to  attend  the  existing  institutions  of 
learning.73 

On  the  other  hand,  the  Church  was  ever  conscious  that  though 
her  children  were  not  of  the  world,  they  were  none  the  less  in  the 
world  and  must  be  able  to  maintain  themselves  in  the  struggle  of 
life.  At  times,  it  is  true,  we  are  at  a  loss  to  determine  the  exact 
attitude  of  the  Church  toward  secular  learning.  Tertullian, 
Chrysostom,  Jerome,  all  great  scholars  themselves,  condemned  it 
as  dangerous  to  faith  and  morals.  When  we  remember  that 
secular  learning  was  largely  comprised  in  the  literary  story  of  the 
pagan  gods  and  that  it  subsumed  a  philosophy  that  was  pagan, 
we  can  readily  appreciate  the  attitude  of  the  Fathers.  Christ  had 
come  to  save  the  world  from  precisely  this  sort  of  error,  and  until 
the  old  order  had  disappeared  and  the  triumph  of  the  Church  was 
assured,  it  were  better  to  attempt  no  compromise  with  the  world.74 

There  was  provision  for  elementary  instruction  in  the  early 
monasteries.  Every  novice  must  learn  to  read;  according  to  the 
Rule  of  St.  Benedict,  he  is  required  to  read  through  a  whole  book 

72  Monroe,  Paul,  Text-book  in  the  History  of  Education,  p.  272. 

73  Lalanne,  J.  A.,  Influence  des  Peres  de  L'Eglise  sur  U  Education  Publique. 
Paris,  1850,  p.  7. 

« Ibid.,  p.  39. 


588  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

during  Lent.  Moreover,  in  their  great  work  of  civilizing  the 
barbarians,  the  Benedictines  found  that  the  interests  of  the  Gospel 
could  be  best  served  if  they  fitted  themselves  to  become  teachers  of 
agriculture,  handwork,  art,  science  and  cultural  activities  of  every 
sort.75 

Summing  up,  we  may  say  that  the  early  Christian  schools 
cherished  a  religious  ideal  and  responded  to  a  religious  need. 
Whenever  they  admitted  subject  matter  that  was  secular,  they  did 
so  with  a  view  of  serving  a  higher  end.  The  environment  to  which 
they  sought  to  adjust  the  child,  was  not  the  existing  environment 
with  its  myriad  evils,  but  an  ideal  environment  to  be  effected 
through  the  transforming  power  of  the  Word  of  God.  The  schools 
that  developed  under  this  ideal  came  nearer  to  the  notion  of  true 
education  than  any  of  the  schools  of  antiquity.  They  sought  not 
only  information  and  external  culture,  but  true  education.  Know- 
ing was  supplemented  with  doing,  the  theoretical  was  combined 
with  the  practical,  faith  required  act.  All  things  met  in  religion 
and  thus  was  brought  about  a  unity  and  coherence  of  subject 
matter  that  had  not  been  approximated  in  the  past.76 

Throughout  the  Middle  Ages,  religion  continued  to  dominate 
life  and  consequently  education.  The  Christian  ideal  permeated 
all  the  lower  schools  of  the  time,  the  Cathedral  and  Chantry  schools, 
the  great  monastic  schools  and  the  schools  established  by  the 
various  religious  orders.  It  was  the  soul  of  Chivalry  and  formed 
a  background  for  the  training  afforded  by  the  Guilds.  Not  that 
there  was  not  wide  provision  made  for  secular  learning,  but  secular 
learning  was  sought  as  a  means  of  coming  to  the  fulness  of  Christian 
life. 

Charlemagne  effected  a  great  educational  revival  under  the 
direction  of  Alcuin  (735-804).  The  new  nations  must  become 
heirs  of  the  civilization  that  had  preceded  them,  the  while  their 
own  characteristics  are  developed.  Education  is  the  agency  which 
can  accomplish  this  end.  The  famous  Capitularies  gave  minute 
directions  as  to  the  training  of  the  young.  The  importance  of 
religious  training  is  emphasized  and  this  in  turn  demands  the 
ability  to  read  and  write,  lest  there  will  be  "lacking  the  power 
rightly  to  comprehend  the  Word  of  God."77     Schools  for  boys  are 


76  Willmann,  Otto,  Didaldil;  Band  I,  p.  239. 
»  Ibid.,  p.  240. 

77  Migne,  Patrologia  Latina,  Vol.  cv,  p.  196. 


Curriculum  of  Catholic  Elementary  School        589 

to  be  established  in  every  monastery  and  episcopal  See,  where 
they  will  be  taught  reading,  writing,  arithmetic  and  grammar. 

The  development  of  the  higher  schools  with  the  Trivium  and 
Quadrivium  and  the  rise  of  Scholasticism,  brought  the  civilization 
of  the  Middle  Ages  to  its  zenith,  and  the  conclusion  is  valid  that 
the  tremendous  work  done  in  the  Universities  and  the  consequent 
spread  of  knowledge,  could  not  but  stimulate  the  lower  schools. 
They  supplied  the  knowledge  of  letters  necessary  for  admittance 
into  the  Temple  of  Learning  and  with  them  can  be  classed  the 
grammar  schools,  which  according  to  the  analogy  represent  the 
first  and  second  floors  of  the  edifice.78 

The  Renaissance  came  and  with  it  a  new  trend  in  education. 
Many  causes  operated  to  bring  about  the  great  rebirth  of  ancient 
learning,  the  return  to  the  civilizations  of  Greece  and  Rome  as  to 
the  fountain  of  wisdom.  Scholasticism  like  all  things  human, 
saw  the  day  of  its  decline.  The  later  Scholastics  lost  sight  of  the 
end  of  their  system,  so  eager  were  they  for  the  mental  game  that 
its  method  afforded  them.  Formalism  always  breeds  revolt  and 
reaction,  and  when  men  like  Dante,  Petrarch  and  Boccaccio  came 
forth  to  illumine  the  past  with  the  beacon  light  of  their  intelligence, 
they  found  a  world  prepared  to  follow  where  they  led.  Italy 
always  proud  of  her  lineal  descent  from  the  Romans,  hailed  their 
message  with  joy.  The  past  became  the  absorbing  interest  of  the 
day.  History  was  enthusiastically  cultivated.  More  than  that, 
actual  life  and  daily  experience  were  accounted  subjects  worthy 
of  study.  Things,  not  books  and  formulae  were  to  be  studied. 
The  physical  universe  was  opened  to  investigation  and  modern 
science  was  born;  the  emotions,  which  had  suffered  at  the  hands 
of  the  late  Scholastics,  came  into  their  own.  Ancient  literature  was 
the  key  to  all  this  varied  knowledge,  revealing  as  it  did  the  old, 
classic  civilization  as  a  kind  of  mirror  of  the  present,  wherein 
things  so  seemingly  sordid  in  the  garish  light  of  the  present,  were 
reflected  in  a  nobler  and  more  ideal  vision. 

The  elementary  education  of  the  time  was  concerned  with  prep- 
aration for  the  classical  studies.  The  elements  of  Latin  and 
Greek  were  taught  as  before,  but  now  with  a  new  end  in  view.  It 
was  no  longer  the  Grammar,  Rhetoric  and  Dialectic  of  the  Trivium 
that  the  child  anticipated,  but  the  reading  of  the  ancient  masters. 

78  Cubberly,  E.  C,  Syllabus  of  Lectures  on  the  History  of  Education.  New 
York,  1904,  p.  85. 


590  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

Not  that  the  schools  of  the  early  Renaissance  were  mere  literary 
academies.  Vittorino  da  Feltre  sought  to  prepare  youths  for 
life.79  Literature  was  the  basis,  but  this  was  because  it  was 
deemed  best  suited  to  give  a  liberal  education,  the  education  worthy 
of  a  free  man.  Erasmus  was  zealous  for  the  knowledge  of  truth 
ns  well  as  the  knowledge  of  words,  though  he  held  that  in  order  of 
time,  the  latter  must  be  acquired  first.  Object  teaching,  the 
learning  of  reading  and  writing  "per  lusum,"  arithmetic,  music, 
astronomy — all  were  to  be  studied,  but  always  in  a  subordinate 
way  to,  letters.  Quite  modern  is  Vives,  in  his  treatment  of 
geography,  mathematics  and  history.80  While  all  the  humanists 
defended  Latin  as  the  language  of  the  cultured  man,  they  saw  the 
necessity  of  training  in  the  vernacular.  True,  it  is  to  be  learned 
in  the  home,  but  the  teacher  is  to  be  ever  on  the  alert  to  see  that 
the  native  language  is  correctly  written  and  spoken. 

The  great  humanist  schools  were  intended  for  noble  and  influen- 
tial youths.  But  there  was  a  ferment  at  work  among  the  masses. 
Economic  conditions  were  changing.  The  old  feudalism  was 
breaking  down.  Discoverers  went  forth  to  find  new  trade  routes 
and  free  towns  were  springing  up  everywhere.  A  new  impetus 
was  given  to  commerce  and  a  new  type  of  education  was  demanded 
for  the  future  merchant.  Town  schools  were  established,  Latin 
in  character  but  practical  in  their  aim.  Elementary  adventure 
schools  and  vernacular  teachers  came  into  vogue.  In  1400,  the 
city  of  Lubeck  was  given  the  right  to  maintain  four  vernacular 
schools  where  pupils  could  be  trained  in  reading,  writing  and  good 
manners.81  There  were  also  writing  schools  and  reckoning  schools, 
Sometimes  the  Latin  schools  taught  arithmetic  for  disciplinary 
reasons.  But  merchants  needed  clerks  who  could  manipulate 
number  in  business  transactions  and  hence  the  reckoning  master 
must  teach  "Latin  and  German  writing,  reckoning,  book-keeping 
and  other  useful  arts  and  good  manners."82 

We  note,  then,  that  the  needs  of  society  affected  elementary 
education  during  the  period  of  the  Renaissance,  in  a  two-fold  way. 
First,  the  humanistic  character  of  the  higher  schools  demanded 
linguistic  training  for  those  who  were  in  a  position  to  become 


79  McCormick,  Patrick  J.,  History  of  Education,  p.  176. 

80  Ibid,  p.  202. 

81  Parker,  S.  C,  The  History  of  Modern  Elementary  Education,  p.  SO. 

82  Record  of  appointment  of  a  reckoning  master  at  Rostock,  1627.     Ibid.. 
p.  80. 


Curriculum  of  Catholic  Elementary  School        591 

gentlemen  and  scholars.  Secondly,  the  development  of  commerce 
and  business  called  for  a  more  universal  ability  to  read  and  write 
the  vernacular  and  to  use  numbers  in  a  practical  manner. 

The  study  of  the  vernacular  was  given  added  impetus  by  the 
Protestant  Revolt.  The  Bible  became  the  basis  of  Protestant 
belief  and  must  be  made  accessible  to  the  masses.  Hence  the 
zeal  to  translate  it  into  the  vernacular  and  to  teach  the  people  to 
read.  The  Catholic  Bible  had  long  before  been  translated  into 
the  vernacular.  The  invention  of  printing  stimulated  the  spread 
of  vernacular  literature  of  a  secular  kind  and  made  ability  to  read 
an  indispensable  requisite  for  all  who  would  take  part  in  com- 
mercial affairs.  Where  the  churches  became  nationalized,  as  in 
Protestant  Germany,  the  State  fostered  education,  though  it  is 
interesting  to  note  that  the  rulers  took  care  to  provide  Latin  schools 
showing  thus  a  preference  for  class  education  as  against  the  educa- 
tion of  the  masses. 

In  England  elementary  schools  were  not  provided  by  the  State 
or  the  Established  Church.  The  "dame  schools,"  private  enter- 
prises, took  care  of  this  phase  of  education.  Mulcaster  said  in 
1581,  "For  the  elementary,  because  good  scholars  will  not  abase 
themselves  to  it,  it  is  left  to  the  meanest  and  therefore  to  the 
worst."83 

The  Catholic  Counter-Reformation  set  great  store  by  the  spread 
of  elementary  education.  The  Council  of  Trent  ordered  parish 
schools  reopened  wherever  they  had  declined  and  offered  particular 
encouragement  to  those  religious  orders  that  had  chosen  the  ele- 
mentary school  as  the  field  of  their  endeavor.  A  new  spirit  of 
zeal  fired  the  orders  in  question  and  synods  and  councils  sought  to 
apply  the  Council's  directions.  The  Jesuits  did  not  enter  the  field 
of  the  lower  schools,  but  other  Orders,  such  as  the  Ursulines  did. 
Later  on  the  Brethren  of  the  Christian  Schools  took  the  elementary 
field  for  their  very  own,  gave  instruction  in  reading,  writing  and 
arithmetic,  and  exemplified  the  simultaneous  method,  a  great 
improvement  over  the  school  procedure  of  the  time  and  the 
foundation  of  the  modern  methods  of  school  management.84 
These  schools,  it  goes  without  saying,  were  religious  in  character; 
yet  they  did  not  fail  on  this  account  to  provide  the  necessary 
preparation  for  practical  life.    They  are  a  further  example  of  the 

M  Watson,  F.,  English  Orammar  Schools  to  1660.     Cambridge,  1909,  p.  156. 
M  McCormick,  Patrick  J.,  The  History  of  Education,  p.  304. 


592  The  Catholic  Educational  Keview 

Church's  educational  method  throughout  the  ages — to  seek  first 
of  all  that  which  is  the  "better  part,"  but  while  so  doing  not  to 
neglect  the  natural  means  that  were  intended  as  aids  to  salvation. 
She  prepares  her  children  for  life  in  the  world,  though  insisting 
ever  that  their  welfare  and  the  good  of  the  world,  consists  in  their 
striving  not  to  be  of  the  world. 

Meanwhile  new  currents  of  educational  thought  were  beginning 
to  run  in  men's  minds.  Humanism,  at  first  so  full  of  warm, 
human  life,  had  become  devitalized.  Formalism  enveloped  it. 
The  languages  of  the  ancients,  once  cultivated  for  their  own 
intrinsic  beauty  and  the  depths  of  human  emotion  they  expressed, 
were  now  cultivated  for  mere  verbal  reasons.  Elegant  speech 
was  sought,  not  as  a  vehicle  for  elegant  thought,  but  simply  as  a 
social  grace.  Erasmus  had  foreseen  this  eventuality  and  had 
sought  to  prevent  it.  Prophets  of  his  order  were  Rabelais, 
Mulcaster  and  Montaigne.  They  preached  the  real  purpose  of 
the  study  of  the  classics,  the  study  of  ideas.  This  is  the  move- 
ment known  to  the  history  of  education  as  Realism.  Bacon, 
Ratke  and  Comenius  carried  its  implications  to  further  conclu- 
sions. Education  is  more  than  a  training  of  the  memory.  Its 
materials  are  not  all  enclosed  within  the  covers  of  a  book.  Learn- 
ing is  founded  on  sense  perception;  every-day  experience  has  an 
educational  value;  the  object  should  be  known  prior  to  the  word. 
The  vernacular  is  no  longer  simply  tolerated,  but  comes  into  its 
own  as  a  proper  study  in  the  schools.  The  social  ills  of  the  time 
direct  men's  attention  to  education  as  a  means  of  amelioration. 
From  this  time  forward  the  social  character  of  education  is  em- 
phasized more  and  more.  All  the  knowledge  that  the  race  has 
acquired  throughout  the  ages  concerning  man  and  nature,  is  to 
become  the  common  heritage  of  all,  that  through  it  mankind  may 
be  bettered.     Plato's  philosopher  king  is  being  forced  to  abdicate.86 

When  the  seventeenth  century  came,  the  new  realism  had  met 
with  such  favor  from  society  and  taken  such  complete  hold  of  the 
schools  that  the  traditional  literary  and  classical  curriculum  must 
needs  find  new  grounds  to  justify  its  position.  A  new  theory  was 
formulated,  which  recognized  the  inadequacy  of  classical  training 
as  a  direct  preparation  for  practical  life,  but  which  maintained 
that  direct  preparation  is  not  educative  in  the  best  sense  of  the 
word.     The  ideal  procedure  is  to  prepare  for  life  by  indirection. 

M  Monroe,  Text-book  in  the  History  of  Education,  p.  462. 


Curriculum  of  Catholic  Elementary  School        593 

This  is  accomplished  by  the  development  of  the  individual  char- 
acter and  the  building  up  of  general  habits  which  will  function  in 
any  situation.  It  is  not  the  thing  learned  that  matters,  but  the 
process  of  learning.  The  old  languages  offer  certain  difficulties 
in  the  encountering  of  which  the  mind  receives  the  best  kind  of 
training.  "  Studies  are  but,  as  it  were,  the  exercise  of  his  faculties 
and  the  employment  of  his  time;  to  keep  him  from  sauntering  and 
idleness,  to  teach  him  application  and  to  accustom  him  to  take 
pains  and  to  give  him  some  little  taste  of  what  his  own  industry 
must  perfect."86 

John  Locke,  though  his  philosophy  of  education  might  as  justly 
be  classified  with  that  of  Montaigne  or  Bacon,  or  even  in  some 
points  with  that  of  Rousseau,  is  generally  regarded  as  the  father 
of  the  theory  of  formal  discipline.  Locke  regarded  the  perfection  of 
life  as  consisting  in  the  love  of  truth,  to  attain  which  the  mind  must 
be  properly  educated.  Education  should  aim  at  vigor  of  body, 
virtue  and  knowledge.  The  first  is  to  be  obtained  by  inuring  the 
child  to  physical  hardship,  the  second  by  the  formation  of  good 
habits  and  the  discipline  of  impulse,  the  third  by  training  the  mind 
in  the  process  of  learning,  first  of  all  by  preparing  it  for  learning 
and  then  by  exercising  it  in  the  observation  of  the  logical  connec- 
tion and  association  of  ideas.87 

The  disciplinary  ideal  has  influenced  education  even  to  the 
present  day.  The  English  public  schools  subscribe  to  it,  it  sug- 
gests the  name  of  the  German  Gymnasia,  and  even  here  in  America, 
where  the  elective  system  has  largely  replaced  it  in  the  higher 
schools,  it  still  affects  the  elementary  school.  Only  with  the 
greatest  reluctance,  do  the  schools  admit  content  studies.  Even 
when  new  subjects  are  introduced  through  social  pressure,  school- 
men hasten  to  justify  them  on  disciplinary  grounds.88 

The  eighteenth  century  was  a  period  of  ferment.  On  the  one 
hand,  society,  as  represented  by  the  so-called  privileged  classes, 
was  becoming  more  and  more  artificial  and  trivial  in  its  interests. 
The  architecture  of  the  time,  with  its  redundance  of  ornament,  its 
weakness  of  design  and  its  at  times  almost  fantastic  orientation,  is 
a  significant  expression  of  the  spirit  of  the  generation.     A  life  of 

88  Locke,  John,  Thoughts  on  Education.     Quick  Ed.,  pp.  75-76. 

87  Ibid.,  passim. 

88  Jessup,  W.  A.,  The  Social  Factors  Affecting  Special  Supervision  in  the 
Public  Schools  of  the  United  States.  Shows  how  disciplinary  reasons  have 
been  alleged  by  the  schools  in  justification  of  the  newer  subjects. 


594  The  Catholic  Educational  Keview 

elegant  leisure  and  diverting  amusement  was  the  ambition  of  the 
upper  classes  and  education  was  regarded  in  the  light  of  this  ideal. 
Literature  and  art  were  cultivated  as  the  embellishments  of  life 
and  things  practical  were  despised  as  beneath  the  level  of  the 
gentleman.  On  the  other  hand,  the  lower  classes,  poor,  over- 
worked, with  little  or  no  opportunity  of  beholding  life  in  its  kindlier 
aspects,  were  becoming  sullen  and  restless.  The  feeling  that 
there  was  nothing  in  the  essential  order  of  things  which  doomed 
some  to  slave  while  others  spent  their  days  in  magnificent  idleness, 
was  becoming  more  and  more  explicit.  The  towns  established  in 
the  Middle  Ages  under  the  inspiration  of  commerce  and  improved 
methods  of  production,  fostered  the  growth  of  a  middle  class,  the 
Bourgeoisie.  This  class,  active,  resourceful,  powerful  in  business, 
was  steadily  extending  and  deepening  its  influence.  Out  of  its 
ranks  were  recruited  the  legal  profession  of  a  given  realm,  the 
lawyers  and  lesser  officials.  It  became  ambitious  for  political 
power,  until  that  time  vested  in  a  decadent  nobility,  and  stretched 
forth  its  hands  to  position  and  embellishment,  so  long  the  sacred 
heritage  of  birth  and  class. 

The  Bourgeoisie  were  interested  in  science  and  learning.  Science 
flourished  during  the  period,  and  we  behold  the  emergence  of  great 
lights  like  Newton,  Leibnitz,  Galvani,  Volta,  Lavoissier,  Caven- 
dish, Haller,  Jenner  and  Buffon.  Encyclopedias  were  published 
and  royal  societies  and  academies  of  science  were  founded.89 

The  success  which  greeted  the  human  mind  in  its  attempts  to 
solve  the  problems  of  the  physical  universe,  stimulated  it  to  in- 
quire into  the  secrets  of  social  living.  The  power  of  Reason  was 
exalted;  no  limits  were  admitted  to  the  possibility  of  its  accom- 
plishments. Divine  Revelation  and  ecclesiastical  direction  were 
regarded  with  impatience.  Rationalism  became  the  order  of  the 
day  and  a  new  philosophic  era,  the  era  of  the  Enlightenment  was 
proclaimed.  Voltaire  is  the  great  name  of  the  period,  and  he  the 
product  of  the  Bourgeoisie.  He  attacked  the  Church,  scoffed  at 
Revelation,  exalted  experimental  science  and  became  the  prophet 
of  Deism.  His  efforts  were  seconded  by  the  Encyclopedists  in 
France — the  Encyclopedia  being  "more  than  a  monument  of 
learning;  it  was  a  manifesto  of  radicalism.  Its  contributors  were 
the  apostles  of  rationalism  and  deism  and  the  criticism  of  current 


88  Hays,  Carlton,  J.  H.,  A  Political  and  Social  History  of  Modern  Europe, 
New  York,  1916.  Vol.  I,  pp.  413-418. 


Curriculum  of  Catholic  Elementary  School        595 

ideas  about  religion,  society  and  science,  won  many  disciples  to 
the  new  ideas."90 

The  immediate  effect  of  the  Enlightenment  upon  the  minds  that 
came  under  its  spell,  was  a  formalism  even  colder  and  more  arti- 
ficial than  that  which  afflicted  society  before  its  advent.  A  new 
aristocracy  developed,  an  aristocracy  of  learning,  which,  though  it 
professed  to  hold  the  key  to  a  better  order  of  things,  had  really  very 
little  sympathy  with  the  masses  and  awakened  little  enthusiasm 
in  the  heart  of  the  common  man.  The  cult  of  the  reason  degen- 
erated into  mere  cleverness  and  affectation,  a  mere  outward  seem- 
ing that  cloaked  the  meanest  selfishness  and  tolerated  the  worst 
injustice. 

On  the  other  hand  the  Enlightenment  planted  a  seed  which  in 
due  time  was  destined  to  bear  its  fruit.  The  social  correlate  of  the 
philosophy  of  the  day  was  Individualism.  Custom  and  tradition 
being  ruled  out  of  court,  the  appeal  was  made  to  the  intelligence 
of  the  individual.  Educationally  this  meant  less  insistence  on 
religion,  on  history  and  social  ethics,  and  zeal  to  build  up  virtues 
of  a  rather  abstract  quality.  This  ideal  made  itself  felt  in  the 
lower  schools  in  a  contempt  for  the  traditional  catechism  and 
primer,  an  insistence  on  the  practical  arts,  and  an  over-emphasis 
on  the  instruction  side  of  education.  This  latter  was  in  line  with 
the  doctrines  of  rationalism.  The  reason  being  all-powerful,  it 
followed  that  the  reason  should  be  cultivated  in  preference  to  the 
other  powers.     The  feeling  side  of  education  was  neglected.91 

But  the  social  ills  of  the  day  were  too  real  to  be  thus  reasoned 
away.  The  people  were  demanding  relief.  Like  the  Sophists 
of  old,  the  philosophers  of  the  Enlightenment  blasted  away  the 
foundations  of  the  existing  order  without  offering  anything  con- 
structive in  its  stead.  Historically  the  result  was  the  French 
Revolution ;  philosophically  and  pedagogically,  it  was  the  thought 
of  Jean  Jaques  Rousseau.  Rousseau,  the  apostle  of  Romanticism, 
detested  the  coldness  of  the  philosophers  and  proclaimed  that 
right  feeling  is  as  essential  as  right  thinking.  "Rousseau  had  seen 
and  felt  the  bitter  suffering  of  the  poor  and  he  had  perceived  the 
cynical  indifference  with  which  educated  men  often  regarded  it. 
Science  and  learning  seemed  to  have  made  men  only  more  selfish. 
He  denounced  learning  as  the  badge  of  selfishness  and  corruption, 

90  Ibid.,  p.  421. 

"  Willmaan,  Otto,  Didaktik,  Band  I,  p.  349. 


596  The  Catholic  Educational  Eeview 

for  it  was  used  to  gratify  the  pride  and  childish  curiosity  of  the 
rich  rather  than  to  right  the  wrongs  of  the  poor."92 

Rousseau  raised  the  cry,  "Back  to  nature."  His  educational 
ideas  were  not  really  new;  they  are  implicit  in  all  the  great  educa- 
tional thought  of  all  times.  But  because  the  education  of  the 
day  had  become  so  formal  and  pedantic,  it  seemed  a  new  doctrine, 
and  enthusiasts  can  be  excused  when  they  hail  Rousseau  as  the 
"discoverer  of  the  child."  Children  should  be  allowed  to  follow 
their  natural  inclinations  and  not  forced  to  study  things  for  which 
they  have  no  love.  Practical  and  useful  subjects  are  of  greater 
import  than  Latin  and  Greek.  "Let  them  learn  what  they  must 
do  when  they  are  men,  not  what  they  must  forget."  The  Emile 
was  read  everywhere  and  with  enthusiasm.  "Purely  naturalistic 
and  therefore  unacceptable  to  Christians,  it  is  defective  in  purpose, 
having  only  temporal  existence  in  view;  it  is  one-sided,  accepting 
only  the  utilitarian  and  neglecting  the  aesthetic,  cultural  and 
moral.  Among  so  much  error  there  was  nevertheless  some  truth. 
Rousseau,  like  Comenius,  called  attention  to  the  study  of  the  child, 
his  natural  abilities  and  tastes,  and  the  necessity  of  accommodating 
instruction  and  training  to  him  and  of  awaiting  natural  develop- 
ment. His  criticism  served  many  useful  purposes  and  in  spite  of 
his  chicanery  and  paradoxes  many  of  his  views  were  successfully 
applied  by  Basedow,  Pestalozzi  and  other  modern  educators."98 

The  men  who  followed  Rousseau  may  or  may  not  have  been 
aware  of  his  influence.  No  doubt  he  was  but  the  spokesman  of  a 
conviction  that  was  general  and  which  would  have  worked  itself 
out  even  if  he  had  never  raised  his  voice.  The  tremendous  social 
changes  of  the  time  and  the  new  doctrine  of  human  rights  that  had 
become  prevalent,  called  for  a  reform  in  the  world  of  the  school. 
Again,  it  was  but  natural  that  science  should  discover  that  mental 
processes  like  other  phenomena  are  subject  to  the  reign  of  law. 
Henceforth  we  find  education  more  concerned  with  its  starting 
point  than  its  completion.  No  longer  is  it  the  ideal  of  the  gentle- 
man, his  mind  well  stocked  with  approved  knowledge,  his  manner 
perfect,  that  predominates;  the  child  with  his  unfolding  powers, 
holds  the  center  of  the  stage.  Pestalozzi,  on  the  theory  that 
education  is  growth  from  within  stimulated  by  the  study  of  objects 
rather  than  symbols,  sought  by  object  study  to  awaken  in  the 

92  Hayes,  Carlton,  J.  H.,  A  Political  and  Social  History  of  Modern  Europe, 
Vol.  I,  p.  423. 

93  McCormick,  Patrick  J.,  History  of  Education,  p.  318. 


Curriculum  of  Catholic  Elementary  School        597 

child  perception  of  his  environment.  Herbart  goes  further,  and 
shows  how  Pestalozzi's  precepts  are  not  sufficient,  that  object 
study  arrives  nowhere  unless  ideas  are  elaborated.  Pestalozzi's 
method  is  but  the  beginning;  it  presents  to  the  child  the  world  of 
sense.  But  the  real  end  of  education  is  virtue,  and  this  is  to  be 
achieved  by  presenting  to  the  child  in  addition  to  the  world  of 
sense,  the  world  of  morals.  The  presentations  of  sense  must  be 
worked  over  by  the  mind,  assimilated  and  elaborated  into  ideas 
and  judgments  which  finally  produce  action.94  Instruction  must 
so  proceed  that  idea  leads  to  idea;  this  is  accomplished  by  means  of 
apperception.  Interest  must  be  aroused  that  will  become  part  of 
the  child's  very  being  and  which  will  consequently  direct  his 
conduct. 

Herbart  made  instruction  the  chief  aim  of  education  on  the 
assumption  that  knowledge  is  virtue.  Friedrich  Froebel,  with 
keener  insight  into  child  psychology,  emphasized  the  importance 
of  guiding  the  child  in  his  own  spontaneous  activity.  Learning  is 
an  active  process.95  Expression  must  be  stimulated.  The  mate- 
rials of  education  must  be  drawn  from  life  as  it  now  is,  for  we  best 
prepare  for  life  by  living. 

Under  this  new  inspiration,  the  school  becomes  a  place  for 
activity  and  not  mere  passive  listening.  The  play  of  children  is 
studied  and  its  educational  value  noted.  Handwork  becomes  an 
important  instrument  for  exercising  creative  ability;  nature  study 
is  cultivated  as  a  source  of  natural  interest  and  because  it  affords 
opportunity  for  activity. 

The  nineteenth  century  was  scientific  in  character;  hence  it  was 
but  natural  that  the  scientific  element  should  seek  entrance  into 
the  schools.  There  was  a  long  and  bitter  controversy  between  the 
advocates  of  science  and  the  defenders  of  the  old  classical  ideal  of 
a  liberal  education.  In  the  end  a  new  ideal  of  liberal  education 
developed,  placing  value  on  everything  that  could  make  a  man 
a  worthier  member  of  society.  Science  could  not  be  left  out  of 
such  a  scheme,  and  chiefly  through  the  influence  of  Herbert 
Spencer  and  his  doctrine  of  education  for  complete  living,96  the 
claims  of  the  new  discipline  were  finally  recognized. 

94  Herbart,  John  Frederick,  Outlines  of  Educational  Doctrine.  Translated 
by  Alexis  F.  Lange.     New  York,  1901,  Ch.  III. 

95  Froebel,  Friederich,  The  Education  of  Man.  Translated  by  W.  N.  Hail- 
mann.     New  York,  1906,  p.  8. 

96  Spencer,  Herbert,  Education — Intellectual,  Moral  and  Physical.  New 
York,  1895,  p.  30. 


598  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

From  this  cursory  summary  we  see  how  educational  ideals 
change  from  age  to  age  to  meet  the  change  in  social  conditions.  The 
prophets  of  the  day  generally  turn  to  the  school  as  a  means  of 
propagating  their  doctrine  for  they  realize  that  their  hope  lies  in 
the  plastic  mind  of  the  child  rather  than  in  the  formed  and  pre- 
judiced intellect  of  the  adult.  It  is  no  easy  matter  to  prepare  the 
soil  when  deeply  imbedded  rocks  of  conviction  and  the  stubborn, 
tangled  under-brush  of  habit  and  custom  must  first  be  cleared 
away.  The  mind  of  the  child  is  a  virgin  soil  which  welcomes  the 
seed  and  nurtures  it  to  fruitfulness. 

However  it  would  be  wrong  to  say  that  the  schools  of  a  particu- 
lar age  always  respond  to  contemporary  social  ideals  and  needs. 
The  education  of  primitive  groups  is  immediate  and  direct,  but 
when  education  becomes  formal  it  tends  to  become  conservative. 
Education  as  an  institution  exhibits  the  same  suspicion  of  change 
that  is  characteristic  of  other  institutions.  It  guards  jealously  the 
heritage  of  the  past  and  is  slow  to  approve  the  culture  of  the  pres- 
ent. Though  the  Sophists  scoffed  at  the  religious  and  social  foun- 
dations of  ancient  Greece,  the  schools  continued  to  extol  them 
because  they  at  least  afforded  some  positive  sanction  for  public 
morality.  The  ideal  of  the  orator  dominated  Roman  education 
long  after  the  function  of  the  orator  had  lapsed  into  desuetude* 
Scholasticism  waned  in  influence  because  it  failed  to  take  proper 
cognizance  of  the  social  and  intellectual  changes  that  preceded 
the  Renaissance.  The  later  humanists  saw  in  the  classics  only  an 
exercise  in  verbal  intricacies.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  when 
civilization  reaches  a  certain  degree  of  culture,  formalism  usually 
eventuates,  for  the  reason  that  culture  tends  to  become  abstract 
and  divorced  from  reality.  The  school  accentuates  this  condition 
and  heeds  the  claims  of  the  symbol  rather  than  the  thing,  of  the 
book  rather  than  life. 

The  result  is  that  the  boon  of  education  comes  to  be  denied  all 
but  the  favored  few.  Class  distinction  is  born  and  the  evils  of  priv- 
ilege and  oppression  make  their  appearance.  When  reaction  sets  in 
reformers  demand  a  more  real  and  universal  education.  Mon- 
taigne, Locke,  Rousseau,  Pestalozzi,  Froebel,  and  in  our  own  day 
John  Dewey,  have  regarded  education  as  a  means  to  social  better- 
ment. The  same  was  true  in  other  days  of  the  work  of  John  Bap- 
tist de  la  Salle.  But  the  doctrines  of  men  of  this  type  do  not  as  a 
rule  affect  contemporary  practice,  except  in  the  case  where  they 


Curriculum  of  Catholic  Elementary  School        599 

found  schools  of  their  own  for  the  purpose  of  exemplyifying  their 
ideas.  Even  then  the  results  are  merely  local.  The  schools  of 
tomorrow  apply  the  doctrines  of  the  schoolmen  of  today. 

Now  it  would  be  ideal  if  the  schools  of  each  succeeding  age 
were  to  adjust  the  individual  perfectly  to  his  present  environ- 
ment. But  this  would  imply  that  society  at  any  given  time  be 
self-conscious.  It  must  know  its  own  characteristics,  its  ideals,  the 
function  of  its  institutions  and  its  means  of  control.  It  goes 
without  saying  that  society  in  the  past  has  not  possessed  such 
knowledge.  It  is  only  in  comparatively  recent  times  that  experi- 
mental science  has  turned  its  attention  toward  social  organiza- 
tion; scientfic  sociology  is  as  yet  in  the  infant  stage.  The  study 
of  the  past,  shows  us  how  certain  institutions  and  forces  have 
operated  for  the  maintenance  of  order  and  the  building  up  of  social 
organization.  But  at  the  time  it  was  the  method  of  trial  and  error 
rather  than  a  conscious  ideal  of  procedure  that  was  followed. 
The  point  of  departure  was  the  individual  rather  than  the  group. 

Today,  with  the  advance  of  the  social  sciences,  the  objective 
point  of  view  is  extolled  over  the  subjective.  Ways  and  means 
are  being  studied  to  control  the  group  directly  instead  of  indirectly 
by  means  of  metaphysics  and  psychology.97  Education  is  listed 
among  the  means  of  control.  The  school  is  no  longer  to  be  con- 
sidered a  philanthropic  enterprise  for  rescuing  the  individual  from 
the  unfriendly  forces  that  abound  in  his  environment,  but  as  a  social 
instrument  for  fostering  group  ideals  and  insuring  group  progress. 
Education  is  made  universal  and  compulsory  because  ignorance 
is  a  social  danger  that  must  be  eliminated  for  the  good  of  society.98 

This  new  conception  of  education  as  social  control  has  tremen- 
dous possibilities  for  good  or  evil.  The  norm  of  control  must  be 
true  and  valid;  if  it  is  nothing  more  than  mere  expediency,  the 
results  will  be  disastrous.  Moreover  there  must  be  a  deep  insight 
into  social  forces  and  phenomena.     His  philosophy  affords  the 


97  Bernard,  Luther  Lee,  The  Transition  to  an  Objective  Standard  of  Social 
Control.     Chicago,  1911,  p.  92. 

g8  Ross,  Edward  Alsworth,  Social  Control,  A  Survey  of  the  Foundations 
of  Order.  New  York,  1901,  p.  163.  Ross  charges  that  the  Church  was  in  the 
beginning  too  much  interested  in  "soul-saving"  to  give  much  attention  to  the 
welfare  of  society.  He  fails  to  understand  that  the  Church's  zeal  for  the  salva- 
tion of  the  individual  soul  resulted  in  a  complete  subversal  of  the  old  pagan 
ideals  of  life  that  had  produced  such  corruption,  oppression  of  the  weak  by 
the  strong  and  caused  the  decay  of  society.  The  educational  activities  of  the 
early  Church  afford  a  splendid  instance  of  the  power  of  the  school  to  change 
the  environment,  to  control  the  group. 


600  The  Catholic  Educational  "Review 

Catholic  educator  a  knowledge  of  the  necessary  fundamental  prin- 
ciples which  he  must  follow.  These  are  to  be  interpreted  in  the 
light  of  present  conditions.  The  school  must  answer  the  needs  of 
the  time.  A  knowledge  of  present  social  conditions  is  absolutely 
imperative  for  the  formulation  of  a  curriculum;  otherwise  the 
school  will  fail  of  its  mission.  This  aspect  of  the  relation  of 
subject-matter  to  society  will  be  considered  in  the  following 
chapter. 

(To  be  continued) 


ROBINSON'S  READINGS  IN  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

The  publication  of   Source  Books  should  be  hailed  with 
satisfaction.     We  wish  to  get  at  the  truth  and,  as  far  as 
possible,  draw  our  knowledge  from  the  spring  itself.     We 
always  prefer  to  "see  for  ourselves."     "The  oftener  a  report 
passes  from  mouth  to  mouth  the  less  trustworthy  and  accurate 
does  it  tend  to  become."    The  ideal  would  be  to  handle  and 
examine  the  originals  themselves  and  pick  out  and  note  the 
passages  which  are  of  importance.     Most  of  the  documents 
which  bear  on  the  history  of  the  Middle  Ages  many  of  us 
could  even  read  in  the  language  in  which  they  were  written 
because  during  that  period  the  common  idiom  of  all  the  edu 
cated  in  Europe  was  Latin.     But  the  ponderous  tomes  ii 
which  most  of  the  sources  are  now  deposited  are  inaccessibl 
to  most  of  us.    The  more  should  we  welcome  the  opportunity 
to  peruse  and  study  at  least  a  few  of  the  most  importanj 
passages  in  faithful  translations.    This  is  what  the  so-called 
source  books,  which  are  becoming  more  and  more  common 
in  our  days,  make  possible  for  us. 

It  is  to  be  deplored  that  unfairness,  often  quite  uninten- 
tional, can  be  practiced  even  in  source  books.  The  passages 
may  be  so  selected  as  to  give  to  some  real  fact  an  undue  promi- 
nence; or  some  less  reliable  sources  may  be  represented  as  on 
equal  footing  with  better  ones;  or  finally,  the  translation 
may  be  incorrect,  or,  if  correct  on  the  whole,  may  render  some 
details  less  accurately. 

It  will  certainly  be  worth  our  while  to  examine  one  of 
the  more  widely  spread  source  books,  at  least  in  some  of 
its  important  features. 

James  Harvey  Robinson's  Readings  in  European  History  is 
announced  as  "a  collection  of  extracts  from  the  sources 
chosen  with  the  purpose  of  illustrating  the  progress  of  cul- 
ture in  Western  Europe  since  the  German  invasions."  We 
are  not  surprised  at  the  insertion  of  secondary  sources.  Many 
a  point  would  otherwise  require  a  very  large  amount  of 
original  information — for  instance,  the  more  lasting  condi- 
tions and  customs  of  ancient  times.  If  the  secondary  author 
in  conscientious  and  fair,  he  will  save  us  the  trouble  of  study- 

601 


602  The  Catholic  Educational  Keview 

ing  and  analyzing  the  original  sources,  though,  as  remarked 
above,  we  should  always  prefer  to  look  into  the  latter  ourselves. 

The  work  has  two  volumes,  the  first  covering  the  period 
up  to  A.  D.  1500.  To  this  volume  we  shall  here  confine 
ourselves. 

Volume  I  contains  some  three  hundred  pages  of  merely 
secular  matter.  They,  with  the  additional  information  given 
by  the  author  in  prefaces  and  notes,  are  very  welcome  and 
interesting.  There  are  twenty  bibliographies,  which  cover 
about  seventy  pages.  A  peculiar  charm  is  hidden  in  the  de- 
tailed descriptions  of  the  sources  and  source  editions  which 
form  part  of  the  book  lists.  Catholic  authors  are  by  no  means 
neglected.  Mann's  and  Pastor's  Histories  of  the  Popes  are 
mentioned  and  not  dismissed  without  remarks  of  praise. 
Special  care  has  been  taken  to  introduce  the  student  into 
the  knowledge  of  the  older,  mostly  Latin,  sources  of  our 
knowledge  of  the  Middle  Ages.  Although  the  author  repeat- 
edly reminds  the  reader  that  all  this  is  very  incomplete,  the 
beginner  will  perhaps  thank  him  all  the  more  for  what  is 
disclosed  to  him.  Each  bibliography  has  three  parts.  The 
third  is  devoted  to  source  material  in  the  stricter  sense  of  the 
word.    The  first  two  give  references  to  present-day  historians. 

The  Catholic  Encyclopedia  is  not  mentioned.  But  the 
"Headings"  were  compiled  in  1904.  Had  it  been  issued  ten 
years  later,  I  do  not  doubt  in  the  least  that  that  great  Cath- 
olic publication  would  have  been  duly  recommended.  The 
small  Catholic  Dictionary  by  Addis  and  Arnold  has  found  a 
place  and  is  set  down  as  a  very  useful  book.  There  are  some 
riddles,  however.  It  does  not  appear  how  Sabatier's  Life  of 
St.  Francis  could  be  so  favorably  spoken  of,  when  the  same 
Church  which  declared  St.  Francis  a  Saint  has  put  this  life 
on  the  Index  of  Forbidden  Books.  One  should  think  it  is 
the  Church  that  must  know  what  precisely  made  the  great 
poor  man  of  Assisi  a  Saint. 

The  readings  on  events  of  a  religious  character  cover  about 
two  hundred  pages.  Unfortunately  a  very  large  part  of  them 
cannot  be  said  to  have  been  chosen  appropriately.  It  is  cer- 
tainly well  to  reproduce  the  famous  section  from  Eugenius 
IV's  bull  Exultate  Deo  which  authentically  explains  the  na- 


Robinson's  Readings  in  European  History  603 

ture  of  the  Seven  Sacraments  (p.  348).  But  the  next  chapter, 
"Tales  Illustrating  the  Power  of  the  Sacraments,"  does  not 
illustrate  that  power  at  all  (p.  355).  There  are  two  pious 
stories — one  rather  naive;  both,  however,  translated  in  a  rev- 
erent style — to  illustrate  the  Real  Presence  of  Christ  in  the 
Sacred  Eucharist.  To  the  non-Catholic  reader  they  will  sim- 
ply furnish  one  more  "proof"  for  the  implicit  belief  in  miracles 
which  he  has  ever  attributed  to  Catholics.  He  will  be  unable 
to  recognize  in  them  anything  of  the  true  efficacy  of  the 
Sacrament  of  Christ's  Body  and  Blood. 

The  next  story  tells  how  a  monk's  confession  blots  out,  in 
the  devil's  record,  a  little  fault  which  the  monk  had  com- 
mitted. But  that  confession  is  not  sacramental.  It  is  the 
self -accusation  made  before  the  assembled  monastic  community. 

One  of  the  grandest  features  of  religious  life  in  the  Middle 
Ages  was  the  veneration  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary.  It  was 
the  inspiration  of  knight  and  monk  and  maiden,  of  poet  and 
artist  and  preacher.  It  furnished  an  ideal  to  the  great  and 
the  lowly  alike.  Nothing  would  be  easier  than  to  fill  pages 
with  quotations  from  medieval  prose  and  poetry  on  the  glories 
of  the  Queen  of  Heaven.  Robinsin  gives  us  one  single  story, 
again  a  miracle  story  (p.  357).  A  monk  and  a  married  woman 
had  sinned.  Miraculously  their  reputation  was  restored  to 
them,  when  with  true  contrition  they  implored  the  help  of 
"the  Virgin."  This  is  all  the  non-Catholic  reader  will  hear 
of  that  grand  devotion  which  truly  penetrated  medieval  Chris- 
tianity to  the  very  core.  Unless  the  author  was  willing  to  say 
much  more  on  this  point,  he  should  not  have  mentioned  any- 
thing. Must  not  the  non-Catholic  reader  begin  to  wonder 
what  benefit,  after  all,  present-day  Catholics  can  derive  from 
the  veneration  of  the  Mother  of  the  Lord? 

The  next  selection,  meant  to  show  the  nature  of  the  Privilege 
of  the  Clergy  (p.  359  ff.),  creates  an  absolutely  erroneous 
impression.  It  is  culled  from  the  Philobiblion  of  Richard  of 
Bury.  The  "Books"  themselves  are  introduced  as  complaining 
of  the  ingratitude  of  members  of  the  clergy,  though  the  latter 
owe  their  position  and  privileges  chiefly  to  the  advantages 
secured  by  books.  A  clergyman  may  even  be  saved  from  the 
gallows  by  the  books.    A  man  accused  of  all  sorts  of  excesses 


604  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

stands  before  the  secular  judge.  He  has  no  friend  to  appeal  to 
for  help.  But  lo  and  behold,  he  is  able  to  read  the  Bible,  and 
thus  proves  himself  to  be  a  clergyman.  He  is  immediately 
surrendered  to  the  bishop,  and  "rigor  is  changed  into  favor." 
This  again  is  all  the  non-Catholic,  or,  let  us  say,  the  modern 
man  learns  of  that  privilege.  Nothing  about  the  reasonable- 
ness of  such  an  exemption,  at  any  rate  during  a  period  when 
educated  clerymen  might  otherwise  be  obliged  to  submit  to 
the  verdict  of  some  rude,  ignorant  knight.  Judging  from  this 
passage  all  the  privilege  was  good  for  was  to  enable  criminals 
to  escape  well-merited  punishment.  Here,  again,  either  more 
illustrations  should  have  been  given  or  none  at  all. 

It  is  impossible  to  see  what  we  are  expected  to  understand 
by  heresy.  A  chapter  (XVII,  p.  371  ff.)  is  headed,  "Heresy 
and  the  Friars."  The  first  section  is  "Denunciations  of  the 
Evil  Lives  of  the  Clergy."  Now,  the  unchurchly  lives  of  priests, 
monks,  and  bishops  are  no  heresy.  The  confusion  in  the  use 
of  this  term,  which  is  often  observed  elsewhere,  should  not  be 
increased  by  works  that  have  the  name  of  a  renowned  historian 
on  their  title  page.  Ten  pages  are  filled  with  reports,  in  prose 
and  poetry,"  of  the  deplorable  condition  of  the  clergy  with  no 
counterpoise  at  all.  And  this  another  chief  defect  of  the 
work.  It  nearly  always  puts  in  the  foreground  the  less  attract- 
ive, the  blamable,  even  the  repulsive,  when  speaking  of 
ecclesiastical  persons  and  conditions.  The  positive  side,  the 
grand,  the  lovable,  is  neglected  or  represented  in  such  a  way  as 
to  be  overshadowed  by  the  contrary.  That  the  Church  was  a 
power  for  good,  for  the  betterment  of  morals  and  manners,  that 
she  furnished  the  truest  and  strongest  motives  for  pure  and 
peaceful  and  useful  living,  is  hidden  rather  than  clearly  set 
forth  throughout  the  whole  work.1 


iSomething  similar  is  the  case  with  the  author's  school  text-book, 
"Medieval  and  Modern  Times."  There  is  a  chapter  In  it,  "The  Medieval 
Church  at  Its  Height."  It  begins  by  stating  that  "without  them 
(church  and  clergy)  medieval  history  would  become  almost  a  blank, 
for  the  Church  was  incomparably  the  most  important  institution  of 
the  time,  and  its  officers  were  the  soul  of  nearly  every  great  enterprise." 
When  reading  on  we  cannot  escape  the  impression  that  the  author  was 
immediately  sorry  for  having  given  such  a  recognition  to  the  Church. 
For  the  whole  chapter  is  practically  devoted  to  toning  down  the  state- 
ment he  has  just  made. 


Robinson's  Readings  in  European  History  605 

Concerning  the  Scholastics,  the  first  impression  given  by  the 
"Readings"  is  that  of  praise  and  respect  (p.  458  ff.).  But  the 
toning  down  process  begins  at  once.  The  section  winds  up  by 
a  quotation  from  RashdalPs  "History  of  the  Medieval  Universi- 
ties," which  ends  thus:  "...  the  Summa  Theologhe  of 
Aquinas,  still  the  great  classic  of  the  Seminaries.  To  that 
marvelous  structure — strangely  compounded  of  solid  thought, 
massive  reasoning,  baseless  subtlety,  childish  credulity,  light- 
est fancy — Aristotle  has  contributed  assuredly  not  less  than 
St.  Augustine."  Omitting  the  question  whence  the  greater 
part  of  the  material  embodied  in  the  Summa  has  been  derived — 
from  Aristotle,  or  St.  Augustine,  or  the  Councils  of  the  Church, 
or  the  Bible — it  is  certainly  amazing  that  such  an  insinuation 
against  the  professors  of  our  seminaries  should  have  been 
allowed  to  figure  in  this  book. 

One  might  really  wish  Robinson  had  left  all  questions  of 
religion  and  theology  severely  alone.  It  would  have  been  better 
for  him  and  his  work.  This  becomes  still  clearer  by  a  closer 
examination  of  a  selection  to  which  he  apparently  attaches 
more  than  ordinary  importance.  It  is  taken  from  a  work, 
which,  he  says,  "has  been  quite  properly  called  the  greatest  and 
most  original  political  treatise  of  the  Middle  Ages."  It  is  the 
famous  Defensor  Pads,  Defender  of  Peace,  the  principal 
author  of  which  was  one  Marsiglio  (Marsilius)  of  Padua  (pp. 
491  ff.). 

During  the  first  half  of  the  fourteenth  century  there  was  a 
fierce  struggle  between  Popes  John  XXII  and  Clement  VI  and 
the  German  king,  Louis  the  Bavarian,  who  styled  himself  em- 
peror, though  he  was  never  crowned  by  a  lawful  pope.  Mar- 
siglio was  one  of  Louis'  most  active  and  most  able  followers. 
To  give  theoretical  backing  to  the  "emperor's"  extravagant  de- 
mands he  wrote  the  Defensor  Pads.  The  book  is  certainly 
radical  enough.  It  would  not  have  found  many  readers  unless 
the  soil  had  been  prepared  by  the  widely  disseminated  charges 
of  wordliness,  avarice,  and  unfairness  hurled  freely  against 
priests,  monks,  bishops,  and  popes  (see  Guggenberger,  II,  par. 
18) .  Marsiglio  boldly  stated  exactly  the  contrary  of  what  had 
so  far  been  generally  accepted  in  political  matters,  by  high 
and  low  in  all  Christendom.    The  pope,  he  says,  is  not  the 


606  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

supreme  head  of  the  Church,  but  in  every  regard  subject  to  the 
secular  authority,  which  may  even  depose  him  if  it  sees  fit. 
"With  the  consent  of  the  human  legislator,  other  bishops  may, 
together  or  separately,  excommunicate  the  Roman  bishop  and 
exercise  other  forms  of  authority  over  him."  "No  bishop  or 
priest,  or  assembly  of  bishops  or  priests,  may  excommunicate 
any  person  or  interdict  the  performance  of  divine  services,  ex- 
cept with  the  authority  of  the  lawgiver  (namely,  the  people)." 
The  temporal  possessions  of  the  Church  are  of  course  to  be 
seized  by  the  temporal  rulers.  Several  pages  are  filled  with 
similar  quotations. 

And  how  does  Marsiglio  prove  such  astounding  doctrines? 
Robinson  does  us  the  favor  of  quoting  at  least  one  instance, 
evidently  the  one  which  he  considers  the  most  brilliant.  He 
introduces  it  with  the  remark :  "Marsiglio's  modern  independ- 
ence of  thought  and  methods  of  criticism  may  be  illustrated 
by  the  following  passage,  in  which  he  questions  a  universally 
accepted  belief  of  the  Middle  Ages."  We  reproduce  the  sub- 
stance of  the  quotation. 

The  last  chapter  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  says  Marsiglio, 
makes  it  very  probable  that  St.  Peter  had  not  arrived  in  Rome 
before  St.  Paul  was  brought  there  as  a  prisoner.  For  when  the 
latter,  three  days  after  his  entry  into  the  city,  addressed  the 
Roman  Jews,  they  told  him,  "we  neither  received  letters  out  of 
Jerusalem  concerning  thee,  neither  any  of  the  brethren  that 
came  shewed  or  spake  any  harm  of  three.  But  we  desire  to 
hear  of  thee  what  thou  thinkest,  for  as  concerning  this  sect 
(of  the  Christians)  we  know  that  everywhere  it  is  spoken 
against."  "I  would,"  continues  Marsiglio,  "that  any  one 
anxious  for  the  truth,  and  not  bent  on  mere  discussion,  should 
tell  me  if  it  be  probable  that  St.  Peter  had  preceded  Paul  in 
Rome  and  yet  made  no  proclamation  of  Christ's  faith,  which 
the  Jews,  in  speaking  to  Paul,  call  a  sect."  In  other  words, 
he  maintains  that  St.  Peter  could  not  have  been  in  Rome  before 
Paul,  because  Christianity  was  unknown.  Now  this  latter 
supposition  is  the  very  acme  of  superficiality* 

First  of  all,  the  words  of  the  Jews  show  very  clearly  that 
they  knew  already  many  things  of  the  "sect"  of  the  Christians. 
It  was  not  St.  Paul  who  introduced  the  subject  but  the  Jews 
themselves.     It  was  evidently  a  burning  question  for  them. 


Robinson's  Readings  in  European  History  607 

Could  they  not  have  heard  about  Christian  doctrine,  directly 
or  indirectly,  from  St.  Peter?  Nay,  if  we  suppose  that  the 
new  religion  was  already  accepted  by  numerous  persons,  who 
in  that  case  must  have  been  chiefly  recruited  from  the  Jewish 
colony  in  Rome,  the  words  of  the  Rabbis  sound  very  natural. 

Moreover,  and  this  is  the  worst  for  Marsiglio  and  his 
methods,  only  a  few  verses  before  the  account  of  the  meeting 
of  St.  Paul  with  the  Jews,  the  text  of  the  Acts  says:  "We 
came  ...  to  Puteoli,  where,  finding  brethren,  we  were 
desired  to  tarry  with  them  seven  days;  and  so  we  came  to 
Rome.  And  from  thence  when  the  brethren  had  heard  of  us 
they  came  to  meet  us  as  far  as  Appii  Forum,  and  the  Three 
Taverns.  Whom  when  Paul  saw,  he  gave  thanks  to  God  and 
took  courage."  This  is  found  in  Chapter  xxviii,  13-15;  the 
verses  referred  to  by  Marsiglio  are  in  the  same  chapter,  17-22. 
These  "brethren"  were  evidently  Christians.  Jews  are  not 
spoken  of  in  this  way  by  the  author  of  the  Acts.  Nor  would 
their  sight  have  encouraged  St.  Paul.  Nor  would  he  have 
arranged  for  a  meeting  with  the  chief  of  the  Jews  three  days 
after  his  arrival  in  the  city.  Forum  Appii  is  forty,  Tres 
Tabernae  thirty  miles  from  Rome.  There  seems  to  have  been 
then,  a  goodly  number  of  Christians  in  Rome,  and  among  them 
many  that  could  afford  to  travel  such  distances  to  meet  the 
Apostle  of  the  Gentiles.  By  looking  a  little  more  carefully,  or 
rather  just  a  little  less  carelessly  at  the  text  before  his  eyes, 
Marsiglio  could  have  made  the  discovery  that  there  were 
Christians  in  Rome  before  the  arrival  of  St.  Paul.  Marsiglio's 
"modern  independence  of  thought  and  methods  of  criticism" 
really  appear  in  a  very  miserable  light. 

He  adds  a  few  more  "critical"  remarks,  one  of  which  is  this : 
If  St.  Peter  had  been  in  Rome,  "why  did  the  author  of  Acts 
make  absolutely  no  mention  of  the  fact?"  A  few  lines  later, 
he  states,  "we  must,  following  Holy  Scripture,  hold  that  St. 
Paul  was  bishop  of  Rome."  We  answer  by  asking  the  same 
question :  If  he  was,  why  does  the  author  of  Acts  make  abso- 
lutely no  mention  of  the  fact  ?  We  can  expect  this  the  more  as 
the  sacred  text  says  expressly  that  St.  Paul  remained  in  Rome 
two  years — two  long  years,  and  no  mention  is  made  of  any 
episcopal  action,  not  even  of  a  sermon,  except  the  one  inter- 
view with  the  "chief  of  the  Jews." 


608  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

As  few  of  us  will  ever  be  able  to  examine  the  Defensor  Pads 
itself,  we  are  indebted  to  Mr.  Robinson  for  having  given  us 
this  opportunity.  We  know  now  what  an  empty  talker  Mar- 
siglio  has  been.  Such  a  man  was  not  able  to  produce  an  epoch- 
making  work.  If  it  were  widely  read,  the  reason  was  not 
depth  of  thought  or  solidity  of  argumentation,  but  the  fact 
that  it  put  into  fluent  Latin  what,  unfortunately,  many  would 
have  liked  to  be  true.  It  was  written  for  non-thinking  people, 
and  the  quotation  in  Robinson's  Readings  can  appeal  to  non- 
thinking people  only. 

Many  more  sections  could  be  pointed  out  as  inaccurate  or 
misleading  in  this  otherwise  so  interesting  and  useful  book. 
It  is  much  to  be  regretted,  that  we  are  obliged  to  be  on  our 
guard  even  in  works  originating  from  such  well-meaning 
authors.  But  we  must  not  be  reprehended  for  calling  attention 
to  defects  like  these.  They  injure  considerably  the  value  of 
publications,  with  the  general  tendency  of  which  we  are  in 
full  accord.  Let  us  hope  that  some  means  be  found  to  avoid 
such  shortcomings  in  future. 

F.  S.  Betten,  S.J. 


THE  POPE'S  MESSAGE  TO  THE  CENTRAL- VEREIN 

From  the  Vatican  on  the  18th  of  July,  1919. 
Department  of  State 

of  His  Holiness. 
To  the  Most  Rev.  Monsignor  George  William  Mundelein, 

Archbishop  of  Chicago. 
Most  Rev.  Archbishop: 

The  information  has  come  to  the  Holy  Father  that  the  Cen- 
tral-Verein,  after  the  long  interruption  caused  by  the  war,  will 
soon  meet  again  in  the  city  of  Chicago. 

This  information  has  been  received  with  the  greatest  satis- 
faction by  the  Sovereign  Pontiff,  who  is  well  acquainted  with 
the  splendid  merits  of  its  work.  At  the  same  time  he  is  deeply 
grieved  to  learn  that  there  is  no  longer  with  you  your  worthy 
president,  Mr.  Frey,  whom  it  has  pleased  Almighty  God  to 
call  to  his  eternal  reward. 

And  now  that  the  Central-Verein  takes  up  its  labors  anew, 
the  Sovereign  Pontiff  desires  to  pay  it  the  tribute  of  praise  it 
has  well  earned  by  the  work  it  has  so  successfully  accom- 
plished in  the  past,  and  also  to  send  to  its  members  his  fatherly 
greetings  as  a  harbinger  of  an  even  happier  future. 

His  Holiness  has  no  doubt  whatever  that  such  a  bright 
future  is  in  store  for  them,  because  of  those  remarkable  quali- 
ties which  German-Americans  have  given  proof  of  on  every 
occasion,  and  particularly  during  the  recent  war.  While 
keeping  alive  the  love  they  bore  for  the  land  of  their  fathers, 
yet  this  has  not  hindered  them  from  doing  their  full  duty 
towards  their  adopted  country,  and  nobly  indeed  have  they 
responded  to  its  different  calls,  pouring  out  for  it  lavishly 
their  money,  their  service  and  their  lives. 

But  now  that  the  war  has  at  last  come  to  an  end,  there  is 
offered  an  even  more  promising  field  for  their  beneficent  zeal. 
It  is,  alas,  only  too  true  that  this  cruel  war,  which  has  so 
completely  divided  the  human  race  into  two  opposite  camps, 
has  left  behind  it  a  trail  of  hate  among  the  nations.  And  yet 
the  world  cannot  possibly  enjoy  the  blessed  fruits  of  peace  for 
any  length  of  time  unless  that  hatred  be  entirely  blotted  out 

609 


610 


The  Catholic  Educational  Review 


and  all  the  nations  be  brought  together  again  in  the  sweet 
bonds  of  Christian  brotherhood. 

To  bring  this  about  the  Catholics  in  a  more  particular 
manner  must  lend  themselves,  since  they  are  already  closely 
united  in  the  mystical  body  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  should  there- 
fore constantly  give  others  an  example  of  Christian  charity. 
And  in  accomplishing  this  result,  the  work  of  the  German 
Catholics  in  the  United  States,  who,  being  united  by  the  closest 
ties  to  both  lately  warring  races,  ought  to  be  particularly 
successful. 

Consequently,  the  Holy  Father,  to  whose  heart  there  is 
nothing  dearer  than  the  real  reconciliation  of  the  nations,  and 
who  has  already  addressed  himself  on  this  subject  to  the 
bishops  of  Germany,  he  now  appeals  to  you  in  order  that  you 
too  may  cooperate  in  such  a  noble  mission.  Moreover,  knowing 
the  dreadful  conditions  under  which  our  brethren  in  Germany 
are  now  living,  the  Sovereign  Pontiff  implores  you  most  fer- 
vently to  lend  them  every  assistance,  material  as  well  as  moral, 
and  in  the  quickest  and  most  effective  way,  especially  facilitat- 
ing the  early  resumption  of  commerce  and  all  those  benefits 
that  naturally  follow  in  its  wake.  To  this  invitation  the  Holy 
Father  feels  certain  that  not  only  you  will  gladly  respond,  out 
all  the  children  of  your  generous  country  without  any  dis- 
tinction whatever,  for  surely  they  will  be  mindful  of  the  great 
services  their  fellow-citizens  of  German  birth  and  descent  have 
rendered  their  country  during  this  war.  In  this  way  they  will 
become  real  benefactors  of  the  human  race  and  draw  down 
upon  their  own  nation  Almighty  God's  choicest  blessings.  And 
as  a  pledge  of  this,  the  Holy  Father  with  an  outpouring  of 
fatherly  affection  bestows  on  Your  Grace,  on  all  who  shall  take 
part  in  the  Congress,  and  on  all  of  your  faithful,  the  Apostolic 
Blessing. 

All  of  this  I  am  pleased  to  communicate  to  Your  Grace, 
while  with  sincerest  esteem,  I  beg  to  remain, 

Your  Grace's  devoted  servant, 

Peter  Cardinal  Gasparri. 


A  NATIONAL  PROGRAM  FOR  EDUCATION1 

A  PROFESSIONAL  ORGANIZATION   FOR  ALL  TEACHERS 

The  profession  of  teaching  and  the  national  organization 
which  represents  that  profession  have  been  recognized  by  the 
highest  authority  of  our  Government.  The  National  Education 
Association  was  chartered  by  Act  of  Congress  "To  elevate  the 
character  and  advance  the  interests  of  the  profession  of  teach- 
ing and  to  promote  the  cause  of  education  in  the  United 
States." 

The  Association  is  devoted  to  the  improvement  of  the  pro- 
fessional status  of  the  teacher,  and  its  membership  is  open  to 
all  the  teachers  of  the  nation  that  the  experience,  needs  and 
opinions  of  all  may  find  effective  expression  and  be  mobilized 
and  directed  toward  the  promotion  of  education. 

Such  a  professional  organization,  national  in  its  scope  and 
membership  and  sensible  of  its  responsibility  to  the  common 
good,  can  guarantee  a  professional  opinion  free  from  local, 
provincial  or  partisan  taint,  and  command  the  confidence  of 
the  public  and  the  support  of  the  members  of  the  profession. 
It  must  consistently  and  unselfishly  serve  the  interests  of  the 
whole  public  and  be  free  to  reach  its  decisions  and  to  offer  its 
recommendations  as  the  interests  of  the  profession  and  the 
welfare  of  the  schools  may  dictate. 

The  National  Education  Association  by  its  declared  pur- 
poses and  its  record  of  achievements  is  definitely  committed 
to  this  policy. 

COOPERATION  WITH  STATE  AND  LOCAL  ORGANIZATIONS 

The  National  Education  Association  seeks  the  cooperation 
of  state  and  local  organizations  of  teachers.  The  administra- 
tion and  control  of  public  education  is  recognized  as  a  function 
of  the  several  states.  In  the  exercise  of  this  prerogative,  the 
states  have  delegated  large  responsibilities  and  corresponding 
authority  to  local  boards  of  education,  thereby  stimulating 

i  A  statement  of  policies  by  the  Commission  on  the  Emergency  In 
education  of  the  National  Education  Association,  adopted  September 
13,  1919. 

611 


612  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

local  initiative  and  insuring  local  interest  in  the  welfare  of  the 
schools.  Organizations  of  teachers  representing  these  state 
and  local  units  are  essential  elements  in  this  plan  of  educa- 
tional organization.  In  order  that  these  organizations  may 
make  the  largest  possible  contributions  to  educational  ad- 
vancement there  must  be  cooperation  among  them,  and  between 
them  and  the  National  Education  Association.  Only  through 
such  cooperation  can  the  combined  interests  of  the  local  com- 
munities, the  states,  and  the  nation  as  a  whole  be  effectively 
subserved. 

In  recognition  of  these  principles  the  Association  stands 
ready  to  give  to  state  and  local  organizations  of  teachers  every 
possible  assistance  in  promoting  their  plans  and  purposes  in 
so  far  as  these  are  in  harmony  with  the  purpose  of  the  Asso- 
ciation as  set  forth  in  its  charter.  The  Association  is  pledged 
to  exert  all  of  its  influence  through  its  officers,  its  committees, 
its  staff,  and  its  publications  to  secure  the  enactment  of  such 
state  and  federal  laws  as  will  give  proper  recognition  and 
support  to  public  education  and  provide  adequate  compensa- 
tion for  teachers.  It  is  pledged  to  urge  unceasingly  the  estab- 
lishment and  maintenance  of  adequate  standards  with  respect 
to  preparation  and  qualifications  of  teachers,  length  of  school 
terms  and  the  enforcement  of  attendance  laws,  provisions  for 
sanitary  buildings  and  modern  equipment,  elimination  of  all 
class  distinction  and  privilege  from  public  education,  and  an 
increasing  emphasis  upon  the  study  and  investigation  of  edu- 
cational problems. 

At  the  Pittsburgh  meeting  in  1918  the  Association  voted  to 
employ  a  field  secretary  who  is  now  devoting  his  time  to 
effecting  closer  cooperative  relations  with  state  and  local  or- 
ganizations. This  kind  of  service  was  considered  of  such  great 
importance  that  at  the  Milwaukee  meeting  in  1919  the  Asso- 
ciation instructed  its  officers  to  employ  additional  field  secre- 
taries to  further  promote  this  cooperative  work. 

participation  of  classroom  teachers  in  determining 
educational  policies 

In  the  administration  of  the  public  schools  we  recognize 
boards  of  education  as  the  representatives  of  the  people.  Theirs 


A  National  Program  for  Education  613 

Is  the  responsibility  to  adopt  the  policies  which  will  make  for 
the  development  of  public  education  and  through  public  edu- 
cation for  the  development  of  our  democratic  society.  We 
recognize  the  superintendent  of  schools  as  the  executive  officer 
chosen  by  the  Board  of  Education  to  carry  out  its  policies  and 
to  recommend  to  these  representatives  of  the  people  the  kind 
of  action  that  will  make  for  the  realization  of  our  educational 
ideals.  At  the  same  time,  we  know  that  teachers  working  in 
the  classrooms  of  our  public  schools  have  contributed  ideas  that 
have  had  a  determining  influence  upon  educational  progress. 
Through  teachers'  councils,  through  committees,  through  vol- 
untary associations,  and  through  individual  recommendations, 
teachers  have  concerned  themselves  with  the  larger  problems 
of  educational  administration  to  the  great  benefit  of  the 
schools. 

Boards  of  education  and  administrative  officers  in  those 
communities  that  have  made  the  greatest  progress  have  recog- 
nized this  principle.  In  many  places,  by  rule  of  the  board  or 
by  invitation  of  the  superintendent,  teachers'  organizations 
have  been  requested  to  make  recommendations  affecting 
courses  of  study,  the  adoption  of  text-books,  types  of  building 
and  equipment,  the  organization  of  special  classes  and  special 
kinds  of  schools,  and  the  formulation  of  budgets. 

We  believe  that  this  participation  by  teachers  is  indispens- 
able to  the  best  development  of  the  public  schools.  We  believe 
that  such  participation  should  be  the  right  and  responsibility 
of  every  teacher.  To  this  end  we  urge  that  boards  of  education 
by  their  rules  recognize  this  right  and  provide  stated  meetings 
at  which  teachers  will  be  heard.  In  order  to  guarantee  such 
participation,  we  urge  state  legislatures— the  final  authorities 
through  whose  action  local  boards  of  education  exercise  the 
control  now  vested  in  them — to  enact  laws  providing  that 
teachers  may  appear  before  boards  of  education,  and  providing 
that  these  boards  shall  give  them  an  opportunity  to  present 
their  suggestions  and  proposals  for  improving  the  work  of 
the  schools. 

If  these  steps  are  taken  not  only  will  the  insight,  knowledge, 
and  skill  of  every  teacher  be  made  available  for  the  promotion 
of  educational  progress,  but  the  responsibility  and  influence  of 


614  The  Catholic  Educational  Keview 

the  classroom  teacher  will  be  officially  recognized,  the  calling 
will  become  thereby  more  dignified  and  attractive,  and  larger 
numbers  of  the  strong  and  capable  young  men  and  women 
of  the  country  will  enter  public  school  service  as  a  life  career. 
Next  to  the  provision  of  better  salaries  for  teachers,  nothing 
will  do  more  to  raise  the  status  of  the  profession  and  make  its 
service  attractive  to  the  kind  of  men  and  women  that  the 
schools  need,  than  the  adoption  of  a  policy  that  will  lift  the 
classroom  teacher  above  teh  level  of  a  mere  routine  worker 
carrying  out  in  a  mechanical  fashion  plans  and  policies  that 
are  handed  down  from  above. 

In  recognition  of  the  principles  of  democracy  in  public- 
school  service,  there  must  be  added  to  the  wisdom  of  the  boards 
of  education  and  to  the  judgment  and  executive  ability  of  their 
administrative  officers  the  effective  participation  of  class  room 
teachers  in  the  development  of  the  policies  which  control 
education. 

AN  INTERNATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 

We  believe  that  the  public  schools  of  al  lthe  great  democra- 
cies of  the  world  can,  through  cooperative  effort,  do  much  to 
conserve  and  promote  the  great  ideals  for  which  the  war  was 
fought  and  won.  We  hold,  indeed,  that  a  distinct  responsibility 
rests  upon  the  teachers  of  the  allied  and  associated  nations  to 
i  on  a  broader  plane  than  ever  before  their  great  function 
as  trustees  of  the  human  heritage — to  see  to  it  that  what  has 
been  gained  at  so  great  and  so  terrible  a  cost  is  sedulously 
safeguarded  and  transmitted  without  loss  and  without  taint  to 
each  new  generation. 

So  important  is  this  problem  and  so  great  are  the  possibili- 
ties of  international  cooperation  in  effecting  its  solution,  that 
the  National  Education  Association  has  urged  the  creation  of 
an  international  bureau  of  education  in  the  League  of  Na- 
tions. As  a  step  toward  the  establishment  of  such  a  bureau, 
and  as  the  nucleus  of  an  international  association  of  teachers, 
it  i  sdesirable  that  an  international  conference  of  the  teachers' 
associations  of  the  free  nations  be  held  at  an  early  date.  Eep- 
resentatives  of  the  Teachers'  Federation  of  France  have  re- 
quested that  the  National  Education  Association  of  the  United 


A  National  Program  for  Education  615 

States  take  the  initiative  in  calling  this  conference.  At  the 
Milwaukee  meeting  of  the  Association,  the  proposal  for  a  con- 
ference was  approved  and  the  Commission  on  the  Emergency 
in  Education  was  instructed  to  represent  the  Associaion  and 
ake  all  necessary  arrangements. 

upon  these  instructions,  the  Commission  announces 
that  a  Conference  representing  the  voluntary  teachers'  organ- 
izations of  the  allied  and  associated  nations  will  be  held  in 
Cleveland,  Ohio,  February  twenty-fourth  to  thirtieth,  inclusive, 
under  the  auspices  of  the  National  Education  Association  of 
the  United  States.  The  Commission  has  appointed  the  follow- 
ing committee  to  represent  the  National  Education  Association 
on  this  occasion  and  to  make  the  preliminary  arrangements: 
Frank  E.  Spaulding,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Cleveland, 
Chairman ;  Sarah  Louise  Arnold,  Dean  of  Simmons  Colelge,  Bos- 
ton ;  William  C.  Bagley,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University, 
New  York ;  Mary  C.  C.  Bradford,  State  Superintendent  of  Pub- 
lic Instruction,  Denver;  W.  A.  Jessup,  President  Iowa  State 
University,  Iowa  City;  Wm.  B.  Owen,  President  Chicago  Nor- 
mal College,  Chicago;  Josephine  Corliss  Preston,  State  Super- 
intendent of  Public  Instruction  and  President  of  the  National 
Education  Association,  Olympia ;  George  D.  Strayer,  Teachers 
College,  Columbia  University,  New  York;  J.  W.  Withers,  Su- 
perintendent of  Schools,  St.  Louis. 


THE  TEACHER  PROBLEM 

More  than  100,000  teaching  positions  in  the  public  schools  of 
the  United  States  are  either  vacant  or  filled  by  teachers  below 
standard,  and  the  attendance  at  normal  schools  and  teacher- 
training  schools  has  decreased  20  per  cent  in  the  last  three 
years.  These  startling  facts  are  shown  by  the  complete  report 
of  an  investigation  made  by  the  National  Eduction  Associa- 
tion. 

Letter  were  sent  out  by  the  Association  in  September  to 
every  county  and  district  superintendent  in  the  United  States 
asking  for  certain  definite  information.  Signed  statements  were 
sent  inby  more  than  1,700  superintendents,  from  every  state,  re- 
persenting  238,573  teaching  positions.  These  report  an  actual 
shortage  of  14,685  teachers,  or  slightly  more  than  6  per  cent  of 
the  teaching  positions  represented,  and  23,006  teachers  below 
standard  who  have  been  accepted  to  fill  vacancies,  or  slightly 
less  than  10  per  cent.  It  is  estimated  that  there  are  650,000 
teaching  positions  in  the  public  schools  of  the  United  States, 
and  if  these  figures  hold  good  for  the  entire  country  there  are 
39.000  vacancies  and  65,000  teachers  below  standard 

These  same  superintendents  report  that  52,798  teachers 
dropped  out  during  the  past  year,  a  loss  of  over  22  per  cent. 
On  this  basis  the  total  number  for  the  entire  country  would  be 
143,000.  The  reports  show  that  the  shortage  of  teachers  and  the 
number  of  teachers  below  standard  are  greatest  in  the  rural 
districts  where  salaries  are  lowest  and  teaching  conditions 
least  attractive. 

The  states  in  which  salaries  and  standards  are  highest  have 
the  most  adequate  supply  of  teachers.  California  shows  a  com- 
bined shortage  and  below  standard  of  3*4  per  cent ;  Massachu- 
setts shows  4%  per  cent,  and  Illinois  7  per  cent.  In  at  least  six 
of  the  southern  states  more  than  one-third  of  their  schools  are 
reported  either  without  teachers  or  being  taught  by  teachers 
below  their  standards. 

Nearly  all  of  the  superintendents  declare  that  teachers'  sal- 
aries have  not  increased  in  proportion  to  the  increased  cost  of 
living,  nor  as  salaries  have  in  other  vocations,  and  that  teach- 
ers are  continuing  to  leave  the  profession  for  other  work. 


The  Teacher  Problem  617 

Keports  received  by  the  National  Education  Association 
from  normal  school  presidents  show  that  the  attendance  in 
these  teacher-training  institutions  has  fallen  off  alarmingly. 
The  total  attendance  in  78  normal  schools  and  teacher-training 
schools  located  in  35  different  states  for  the  year  1916  was 
33,051.  In  1919  the  attendance  in  these  same  schools  had  fallen 
to  26,134.  The  total  number  of  graduates  in  these  schools  in 
1916  was  10,295,  and  in  1919,  8,274.  The  total  number  in  the 
graduating  classes  of  1920  in  these  78  schools  is  7,119.  These 
figures  show  a  decrease  of  over  30  per  cent  in  four  years  in  the 
finished  product  of  these  schools. 

The  presidents  of  these  institutions  state  that  in  order  to  in- 
duce promising  young  men  and  women  to  enter  the  teaching 
profession  and  thereby  furnish  the  country  an  adequate  supply 
of  competent,  well  trained  teachers,  there  must  be: 

1.  Higher  salaries  for  trained  teachers. 

2.  Higher  professional  standards,  excluding  the  incompetent 
and  unprepared. 

3.  A  more  general  recognition  by  the  public  o  fthe  import- 
ance of  the  teaching  profession. 

4.  More  liberal  appropriations  to  state  normal  schools  and 
teacher-training  schools  in  order  to  pay  better  salaries  in  these 
institutions  and  furnish  better  equipment. 

5.  Extending  the  courses  and  raising  the  standards  in  the 
teacher-training  schools. 

National  Education  Association, 
1400  Massachusetts  Avenue  N.  W. 
Washington,  D.  C. 


THE  TEACHER  OF  ENGLISH 

TEACHING  ENGLISH  TO  THE  FOREIGN  BORN 

If  the  teacher  could  always  see  the  results  of  her  work  among 
the  foreign  born  there  would  never  be  the  slightest  discourage- 
ment. One  thought  conveyed  to  the  mind  of  the  student  at  the 
school  reaches  many  more  in  the  home  and  then  in  the  sur- 
rounding neighborhood. 

At  Manchester  (Conn.),  for  example,  where  the  chamber  of 
commerce  has  raise  $3,000  and  put  a  director  in  charge  of  the 
Americanization  work,  many  things  have  been  accomplished 
with  the  cooperation  of  the  people  of  the  city.  Forty  home 
classes  have  been  conducted  where  enough  English  has  been 
taught  to  enable  the  pupils  to  do  their  own  marketing,  to  under- 
stand orders  given  them  by  their  employers,  and  to  read  Eng- 
lish newspapers. 

The  director  says  that  one  of  the  most  interesting  classes  was 
formed  in  a  park  populated  almost  entirely  by  Polish  people 
who  used  the  language  of  their  former  country.  The  owner 
of  a  small  store  on  the  tract  sought  out  the  Americanization 
worker  and  asked  that  he  and  his  countrymen  be  taught  Eng- 
lish. An  editor  and  an  insurance  man  were  interested  in  the 
class  and  at  the  end  of  the  season  had  sixteen  men  who  could 
speak  and  understand  English.  Moreover,  these  men,  with 
keen  pride  in  their  accomplishment,  have  taken  their  lessons 
home  and  are  now  engaged  in  the  task  of  teaching  their  wives 
English. 

It  is  principally  a  matter  of  cooperation.  The  most  necessary 
thing  is  to  start  the  movement — the  interest  in  it  will  accumu- 
late rapidly. 

T.  Q.  B. 


A    REAL   OPPORTUNITY    FOR   PATRIOTISM 

A  significant  item  in  connection  with  the  steel  strike  has 
been  lost  sight  of  in  the  general  turmoil.  That  it  was  necessary 
to  use  seven  different  languages,  and  even  nine  in  one  city,  to 
communicate  with  the  workers  of  this  country  is  a  decided  call 
for  more  assistance  in  bringing  to  the  foreign  born  residing  in 

618 


The  Teacher  of  English  619 

this  country  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  English  language. 
In  every  community,  however  small,  there  is  an  opportunity 
for  each  person  with  a  knowledge  of  English  to  add  their  tithe 
by  teaching — individual,  group,  or  class — the  English  that  will 
put  a  member  of  the  foreign-born  legions  into  a  position  to 
grasp  the  essentials  of  pure  American  citizenship. 

T.  Q.  B. 


NOTES 


A  significant  trend  of  the  public  interest  in  books  is  shown  by 
the  growing  demand  for  works  on  the  problems  of  business, 
a  demand  that  has  sprung  up  almost  wholly  during  the  last 
few  years. 


"One-fourth  part  of  the  morality,  rectitude  and  sense  of 
justice  which  an  audience  brings  into  the  theater  would,  if  left 
outside,  make  the  world  over  into  a  paradise,"  is  one  of  the 
settled  convictions  on  theatrical  affairs  held  by  Jacinto  Bena- 
vente,  the  Spanish  playwright. 


Plays  are  made,  not  for  their  effect  upon  a  single  reader,  nor 
even  upon  a  solitary  madman  in  an  otherwise  empty  auditor- 
ium, but  for  their  appeal  to  a  gathering.  A  closet  drama  is  as 
much  of  an  absurdity  as  a  closet  megaphone." — Augustus 
Thomas. 


Fanny  Burney,  Jane  Austen,  Charlotte  Bronte,  and  George 
Eliot  are  chosen  as  the  "Great  Four"  among  women  writers 
of  fiction,  by  a  contemporary  English  critic.  Which  would  be 
your  four  choices? 


An  examination  of  this  year's  lists  of  new  books  reveals  two 
outstanding  features :  the  gradual  return  of  fiction  to  its  pre- 
war preoccupations,  and  a  great  showing,  in  the  non-fiction 
field,  of  books  dealing  strictly  with  the  war  itself.  These  seem- 


620  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

ingly  antipodal  tendencies  are  easily  explained.  During  the 
war  it  was  impossible  for  those  directly  and  officially  involved 
in  it  to  tell  what  they  knew  about  the  great  conflict.  The  field 
was  therefore  left  free  for  novelists  and  fiction  writers  gen- 
erally. But  now  that  it  is  possible  for  Viscount  French,  Mar- 
shal Foch,  Philip  Gibbs,  Julian  Corbett,  Viscount  Jellicoe,  H. 
W.  Nevinson,  G.  M.  Trevelyan,  von  Tirpitz,  and  many  others 
to  write  their  story  of  tlie  war  without  fear  of  divulging  facts 
that  it  was  safer  to  leave  untold,  we  have  an  impressive  array 
of  important  histories,  books  that  are  in  their  several  ways 
definitive,  or  that  will  supply  the  material  for  the  definitive 
historian  of  the  future — whenever  he  comes. 


A  recent  cable  from  Vice-Governor  Yeater  of  the  Philippines 
to  the  War  Department  states  that  70  per  cent  of  the  inhabi- 
tants of  the  Philippines  over  ten  years  old  are  literate,  as 
shown  by  a  census  taken  in  1918. 

Of  the  estimated  population  of  10,500,000,  10,000,000  are 
civilized  Christians,  while  500,000  represent  the  non-Christians 
or  so-called  wild  tribes.  The  latter,  however,  are  included  in 
the  population,  of  which  70  per  cent  are  literate. 

The  percentage  of  literacy  in  the  Philippines  as  shown  by 
the  census  just  completed,  is  almost  as  high  as  that  of  some 
of  the  Southern  States  of  the  Union,  higher  than  that  of  Greece, 
Italy,  Portugal,  Roumania,  and  Servia. 


The  census  of  1911  disclosed  that  there  were  752,732  foreign- 
born  people  resident  in  Canada,  of  whom  148,764  were  in  On- 
tario, and  33,131  in  the  city  of  Toronto.  The  same  returns 
stated  that  6.51  per  cent  of  the  population  of  Ontario  were 
listed  as  illiterate.  The  Public  Service  Committee  has  been 
studying  the  problem  of  the  native  illiterates  and  foreign  born, 
and  has  been  authorized  by  the  council  of  the  board  to  inaugu- 
rate a  "Canadianization"  movement,  which  will  not  only  aim 
to  teach  the  English  language  to  all  native-born  illiterates  and 
foreigners  but  will  also  educate  them  in  the  fundamental  prin- 
ciples of  government  and  citizenship,  the  betterment  of  their 
living  conditions,  and  housing,  public  health,  and  such  other 
work  as  will  assist  in  making  them  more  successful  and  intelli- 
gent citizens. 


The  Teacher  of  English  621 

There  is  much  food  for  reflection  in  the  following  humorous 
squib  from  one  of  the  New  York  newspapers : 

"Optimists  who  believe  in  easy  cure-alls  have  sometimes  sug- 
gested that  the  defects  of  American  literature  would  in  great 
measure  disappear  if  the  taking  of  payment  for  any  work  of 
creative  writing  were  prohibited  by  law.  Undoubtedly  a  great 
many  authors  who  are  good  at  marketing  novels  or  plays  would 
turn  to  marketing  real  estate,  and  thereby  the  field  would  be- 
come somewhat  less  crowded;  but  any  magazine  editor  will 
tell  you  mournfully  that  there  are  several  million  people  in 
these  United  States  who  would  go  on  writing  utterly  impossible 
literature  despite  such  a  law,  for  they  never  get  any  money 
for  it  now.  Yet  their  output  makes  the  editor's  table  groan  and 
drives  him  in  early  middle  life  to  go  away  madly  and  start 
growing  oranges  in  Florida.  The  money  is  incidental;  what 
we  need  is  a  reading  public  which  is  willing  to  rise  up  and  say 
that  all  worthless  books  and  plays  are  worthless.  If  they  ac- 
cuse a  number  of  quite  meritorious  works  of  being  worthless, 
no  great  harm  will  be  done;  most  geniuses  can  stand  unjusti- 
fiable obloquy,  and  the  error,  if  any,  should  be  on  the  side  of 
sternness." 


There  are  just  four  requisites  to  the  making  of  great  plays. 
They  are: 

1.  Be  guided  by  principles  and  not  by  mere  rules. 

2.  Write  for  the  audience. 

3.  A  true  play  is  the  rounded  story  of  a  conflict. 

4.  The  necessity  for  writing  that  particular  play ! 

There  is  no  particular  order  of  importance  or  priority 
among  these  requisites.  You  will  find  all  of  them  in  Shake- 
speare ! 


In  discussing  recently  the  question  of  whether  New  York 
City  could  be  called  the  literary  center  of  America,  William 
Dean  Howells  gave  it  as  his  opinion  that  the  United  States 
has  never  had  and  never  will  have  a  literary  center  in  the 
sense  that  Paris  has  always  been  the  literary  center  of  France, 
and  that  Athens  was  the  literary  center  of  Greece.  Mr.  How- 


622 


The  Catholic  Educational  Ebvibw 


ells  asserted  that  Boston,  some  years  since,  "had  distinctly  a 
literary  atmosphere,  which  more  or  less  pervaded  society;  but 
New  York  has  distinctly  nothing  of  the  kind  in  any  pervasive 
sense.  It  is  a  vast  mart,  and  literature  is  one  of  the  things 
marketed  here ;  but  our  good  society  cares  no  more  for  it  than 
some  other  products  bought  and  sold  here;  it  does  not  care 
nearly  so  much  for  books  as  for  horses  or  for  stocks;  and  I 
suppose  it  is  not  unlike  the  good  society  of  any  other  metropo- 
lis in  this." 

Thomas  Quinn  Bbeslet. 


REVIEWS  AND  NOTICES 

Studies  in  Greek  Tragedy,  by  Louise  M.  Matthaei.  Cam- 
bridge: University  Press.     Pp.  220. 

The  authoress  says  in  her  introduction:  "These  essays  are 
not  bound  together  by  any  single  thesis  which  can  be  stated  in 
so  many  words;  I  have  simply  taken  four  plays  which  inter- 
ested me  and  tried  to  show  by  analyzing  them  what  are  the 
qualities  which  make  the  tragic  spirit.  Though  the  plays 
analyzed  have  been  chosen  somewhat  at  haphazard,  there  are 
definite  general  principles  which  underlie  them,  and,  indeed, 
every  true  example  of  the  tragic  art." 

In  this  quotation  we  may  see  both  the  faults  and  the  good 
qualities  of  the  book.  Miss  Matthaei  is  prone  to  generalize 
too  much  and  on  insufficient  evidence.  Thus  she  admittedly 
selects  four  plays  at  haphazard  and  attempts  from  a  study 
of  only  these  to  discover  the  qualities  which  make  up  the 
tragic  spirit.  These  four  tragedies  are  in  no  way  properly 
distributed  among  the  authors  of  Greek  tragedy.  We  have  an 
analysis  of  the  Prometheus  of  Aeschylus,  and  the  Ion,  Hip- 
polytus  and  Hecuba  of  Euripides.  Sophocles  is  not  repre- 
sented at  all  in  this  study,  and  the  Prometheus  can  hardly  be 
called  representative  of  Aeschylus,  as  it  is  very  different  from 
all  the  other  plays  of  this  author,  so  much  so  in  fact  that  its 
authenticity  has  been  often  seriously  questioned. 

However,  if  Miss  Matthaei  had  approached  every  tragedy 
in  the  manner  that  she  has  these  four,  we  believe  that  her 
conclusions  would  have  been  the  same,  for  we  fear  she  has 
studied  her  material  with  certain  preconceived  notions,  and  is 
trying  to  make  her  material  fit  in  with  her  ideas.  For  example, 
in  the  introduction  we  read :  "Every  true  tragedy  turns  on  a 
conflict,  whatever  it  be,  a  mere  personal  rivalry  between  one 
man  and  another,  or  a  conflict  on  a  grander  scale,  a  struggle 
between  opposing  principles."  Obviously  there  are  some  true 
tragedies  which  cannot  be  so  defined,  and  indeed  one  of  Miss 
Matthaei's  own  four,  the  Ion  of  Euripides,  can  only  with  diffi- 
culty, and  with  a  complete  misunderstanding  of  the  play  itself, 
be  brought  within  this  definition. 

However,  the  authoress  is  sincere  in  her  work.  She  is  not 

683 


624  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

endeavoring  to  find  the  means  of  spinning  a  theory.  She  is 
searching  honestly  for  the  true  tragic  spirit,  and  in  places 
where  she  breaks  away  from  her  quest  and  talks  about  the 
play  as  she  finds  it,  she  says  much  that  is  inspiring  and  of 
great  help  to  the  reader.  As  a  whole,  this  work  is  very  stimu- 
lating, and  after  reading  the  volume  one  cannot  help  but 
approach  a  tragedy  with  a  mind  well  awakened  to  the  many 
tragic  struggles  possible  within  it.  "Studies  in  Greek  Tra- 
gedy" will  be  found  equally  as  interesting  to  those  who  know 
the  masters  of  Greek  tragedy  through  translation  as  to  the 
more  fortunate  ones  who  know  them  in  the  original. 

Roy  J.  Deferrari. 


Virgil;  Aeneid  7-12,  The  Minor  Poeins,  with  an  English  Trans- 
lation by  Rushton  Fairclough.  Vol.  II  (Loeb  Classical 
Library).  New  York:  G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons,  1918.  Pp. 
551. 


Cicero;  Letters  to  Atticus,  with  an  English  Translation  by 
E.  O.  Winstedt.  Vol.  Ill  (Loeb  Classical  Library).  New 
York:  G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons  1918.    Pp.  445. 

With  these  two  volumes  the  Classical  Library  completes  two 
of  its  most  important  subjects,  the  works  of  Virgil,  and 
Cicero's  letters  to  Atticus. 

Professor  Fairclough  has  completed  in  the  former  volume 
a  very  faithful  and  yet  idiomatic  translation  of  the  Aeneid. 
The  minor  poems  of  Virgil  are  handled  equally  well,  and  are 
in  nearly  every  case  preceded  by  a  r6sum6  of  the  principal 
MSS.  and  the  most  important  literature  concerned.  The 
author  has  given  us  a  larger  number  of  variant  readings  and 
explanatory  notes  than  is  usual  for  this  series,  but  they  are  all 
to  the  point  and  add  much  to  the  usefulness  of  the  work.  This 
volume  also  contains  a  careful  index  to  the  proper  names  in 
the  whole  set. 

The  letters  of  Cicero  contained  in  the  present  volume  begin 
with  one  written  just  after  Caesar's  final  victory  over  the  last 
of  the  Pompeian  party  at  Thapsus  in  April,  46  B.  C,  and 
cover  three  of  the  last  four  years  of  Cicero's  life.  Herein 
we  get  a  very  intimate  picture  of  Cicero,  as  he  supported  now 


Reviews  and  Notices  625 

one  member  of  the  triumvirate,  now  another,  and,  in  fact,  any- 
one who  to  him  showed  the  slightest  hope  for  the  reestablish- 
ment  of  the  Republic.  Each  letter  is  filled  with  happiness  or 
sadness,  according  as  this  fervent  Roman  patriot  saw  the 
prospects  of  a  new  republic  grow  bright  or  dim.  Towards  the 
end  of  this  series  of  letters  we  see  less  of  politics.  We  see 
Cicero  prostrate  with  grief  over  the  death  of  his  daughter 
Tullia,  and  more  busily  engaged  than  ever  in  literary  work,  in 
an  effort  to  assuage  his  grief. 

Mr.  Winstedt  has  produced  a  very  readable  translation,  filled 
with  the  spirit  of  the  original. 

Roy  J.  Deferrari. 


Cathechist's  Manual,  by  Roderick  MacEachen,  D.D.  Wheel- 
ing, West  Virginia;  The  Catholic  Book  Company.  Pp. 
356. 

"This  manual,"  says  the  author,  "is  intended  to  furnish  de- 
tailed matter  for  every  lesson  in  the  first  elementary  course 
of  Christian  doctrine."  Besides  an  introductory  lesson  on  the 
Lord's  Prayer,  it  contains  forty  lessons  on  the  chief  subjects 
of  religious  instruction.  Each  lesson  usually  treats  one  topic 
and  is  divided  into  four  sections.  For  instance,  the  first  lesson 
treats  of  "God — Creator  of  Man,"  and  contains  the  following 
divisions:  "(1)  God  made  me;  (2)  God  made  all  the  people 
in  the  world;  (3)  God  loves  us  all;  (4)  I  love  God  above  all 
things."  The  matter  of  the  lesson  is  given  chiefly  in  the  form 
of  questions.  Suggestions  as  to  method  are  offered  in  the 
early  lessons,  and  occasionally  the  author  supplies  the  answer 
material  in  the  form  of  direct  address  to  the  children. 

The  arrangement  of  the  material  of  instruction  is  in  some 
respects  a  departure  from  the  customary.  After  the  Divine 
Attributes  come  lessons  on  the  Trinity,  Angels,  Devils,  Heaven, 
and  the  Commandments.  Then  follow  Sin,  Redemption,  the 
Church,  Grace,  the  Sacraments,  and  the  final  chapter  is  on 
Judgment.  However  unusual  this  order  may  be,  the  general 
method  is  indeed  one  which  will  be  of  help  to  catechists,  first, 
because  of  its  abundance  of  material;  secondly,  its  well- 
directed  questions;  and  thirdly,  its  language,  which  is  sim- 
plicity itself  and  well  within  the  comprehension  of  children. 


626  The  Catholic  Educational  Keview 

In  these  times,  when  too  few  teachers  have  any  real  method 
in  their  religious  instruction,  such  a  manual  will  be  a  real 
blessing.  It  may  hasten  the  day  when  mere  memoriter  recita- 
tions will  no  longer  be  a  characteristic  of  our  lessons  in  re- 
ligion, but  perhaps  the  best  service  it  will  render  will  be  to 
offer  types  of  good  lessons  on  particular  topics  which  the 
teacher  can  study  and  adopt  in  accordance  with  his  special 
needs.  All  the  lessons  are  such  as  to  offer  suggestions  in 
method  to  any  interested  teacher. 

The  recitation  in  religion,  as  in  any  other  subject,  will 
necessarily  involve  the  art  of  questioning  to  a  very  high  de- 
gree. A  teacher's  preparation  of  catechetical  instruction  will 
be  greatly  enhanced  by  a  study  and  classification  of  the  types 
o  questions  used  in  this  manual,  even  if  he  should  not  follow 
in  his  own  work  a  similar  arrangement  of  material.  Two 
types  of  questions  are  conspicuous  in  the  manual,  namely, 
the  review  and  the  leading  questions,  both  of  which  can  un- 
doubtedly be  used  to  good  effect.  The  other  kinds  which  ap- 
pear are  presumably  serving  their  definite  purposes;  they 
would  be  more  effective,  perhaps,  in  the  hands  of  young  teach- 
ers if  they  were  classified  so  that  the  teacher  could  see  before- 
hand what  their  purpose  is  and  thereby  judge  of  their  appli- 
cability in  particular  instances. 

Patrick  J.  McCormick. 


General  Psychology,  by  Walter  S.  Hunter.     Chicago:  Univer- 
sity of  Chicago  Press,  1919.     Pp.  xiii+351. 

"Psychology  is  far  more  than  normal  adult  psychology. 
Yet  many  of  its  readers  retain  the  impression  that  its  chief 
topic  is  sensation  and  space  perception.  The  present  book 
seeks  to  forestall  these  misconceptions  in  the  student  by  pre- 
senting a  general  survey  of  the  science  while  still  stressing 
the  customary  side  of  the  subject." 


Everyday  Science,  by  William  H.  Snyder,  S.  C.  B.,  Principal  of 
the  Hollywood  High  School,  Los  Angeles.  Boston:  Allyn 
Bacon  &  Co.,  1919.    Pp.  xiv+553. 

"Everyday  Science  was  written  primarily  for  eighth  and 
ninth-grade  pupils  who  will  never  have  any  further  training 


Kbviews  and  Notices  627 

in  science.  The  book,  therefore,  covers  a  wide  field,  and  does 
not  unduly  emphasize  any  of  the  special  sciences  The  sub- 
ject-matter is  chosen,  not  for  the  purpose  of  appealing  to  any 
group  of  special  science  teachers,  but  rather  with  a  view  to 
making  pupils  as  intelligent  and  useful  citizens  as  possible. 
The  book  is,  first  of  all,  both  interesting  and  simple,  and  aims 
not  only  to  furnish  a  fund  of  valuable  scientific  information, 
but  also  to  arouse  scientific  curiosity  and  to  encourage  further 
study,  both  in  and  out  of  school." 


Plant  Production,  Part  I.  Agronomy;  Part  II.  Horticulture,  by 
Ranson  A.  Moore,  Professor  of  Agronomy,  University  of  Wis- 
consin, and  Charles  Halligan,  B.S.,  Professor  of  Landscape 
Gardening,  Michigan  Agricultural  College.  New  York: 
American  Book  Co.,  1919.     Pp.  428. 

"This  series  of  agricultural  texts  is  based  on  the  theory  that 
the  successful  farmer  should  know  the  physical  and  biological 
forces  with  which  he  has  to  contend;  that  he  should  under- 
stand the  laws  under  which  these  forces  operate;  and  that 
he  should  acquire  some  skill  in  directing  them.  He  should 
ultimately  become  able  to  adjust  and  correlate  these  forces 
so  as  to  bring  them  all  under  the  orderly  operation  of  eco- 
nomic law.  In  conformity  with  the  above  theory,  the  series 
has  been  made  to  cover  the  following  fundamental  divisions: 
The  science  and  art  of  producing  agricultural  plants ;  the  pro- 
duction, and  care  of  farm  animals ;  the  establishment  and  con- 
servation of  soil  fertility,  with  the  chemistry  of  the  same  in 
relation  to  plant  and  animal  production;  the  proper  balance 
and  combination  of  these  three  aspects  of  agricultural  pro- 
duction in  the  business  management  of  the  farm." 


American  Leaders,  Book  II,  by  Walter  Lefferts,  Ph.D.     Phila- 
delphia: J.  B.  Lippincott  Co.,  1919. 

This  volume  contains  sketches  of  Ely  Whitney,  Robert  Ful- 
ton, DeWitt  Clinton,  the  men  who  made  the  first  railroads, 
Cyrus  McCormick,  Morse,  Bell,  Edison,  Lucretia  Mott,  Harriet 


628  The  Catholic  Educational  Review 

Beecher  Stowe.  Lincoln.  Grant,  J.  Cooke.  Robert  E.  Lee,  Grover 
Cleveland,  William  McKinley,  Clara  Barton,  Frances  E.  Wil- 
lard,  Theodore  Roosevelt.  That  biographical  sketches  is  an 
excellent  way  in  which  to  arouse  the  children's  interest  in 
history  will  readily  be  granted;  but  there  will  not  be  great 
unanimity  in  commending  the  selections  here  presented. 


Office  Training   and   Standards,   by   Frank   C.   McClelland. 
Chicago:  A.  W.  Shaw  Co.,  1919.     Pp.  xviii+283. 

The  book  is  well  illustrated  and  full  of  suggestion  and  of 
helpful  information. 


Model  English,  Book  II.  The  Qualities  of  Style,  by  Francis  P. 
Donnelly,  Professor  of  English,  Holy  Cross  College,  Wor- 
chester,  Mass.  Boston:  Allyn,  Bacon  &  Co.,  1919.  Pp.  v+ 
301. 


La  Belgique  Triomphante.  Ses  Luttes,  Ses  Souffrances — Sa 
Liberte.  Par  L'Abbe  Joseph  Lansimont.  Yonkers-on-Hud- 
son:  World  Book  Co.,  1919.     Pp.  xiv+311. 

This  volume  is  intended  as  an  elementary  French  reader. 
It  is  simple  and  interesting.  It  is  provided  with  a  good  vocab- 
ulary and  abundant  notes.  Each  lesson  is  followed  by  suit- 
able exercises.  The  story  covers  the  history  of  Belgium  from 
the  time  of  the  invasion  of  the  Romans  to  the  present  day.  It 
gives  an  account  of  the  famous  cities,  of  notable  buildings, 
and  celebrated  works  of  art,  as  well  as  brief  biographies  of 
some  of  the  more  famous  Belgians. 


Aux  Etats-Unis — A  French  reader  for  beginners,  by  Adolphe  De 
Monvert.  Boston:  Allyn,  Bacon  &  Co.,  1919.  Pp.  viii-f- 
265  and  70. 

The  volume  is  well  illustrated,  Is  provided  with  good  notes 
and  a  vocabulary  suited  to  the  needs  of  beginners.  The  text 
discusses  places  and  buildings  and  other  objects  of  interest 
in  the  United  States. 


CONTRIBUTORS 

Appleton,  W.  A.,  To  Live,  the  World  Must  Produce  More 

and  Talk  Less 555 

Askew,  Frances,  Educational  Notes 47,  300,  499 

Beesley,  Thomas  Quinn,  Joyce  Kilmer,  Poems  from  France.  200 

The  Teacher  of  English, 42,  98,  171,  239, 

296,  362,  430,  495,  562,  618 

Book  Reviews 126-128,  189-191,  250-251,  441-443 

Betten,  F.  S.,  Robinson's  Readings  in  European  History. . .  601 
Carey,  William,  A  Conference  for  Teachers  of  the  Classics.  480 

Cram,  Ralph  Adams,  The  Philosophical  Necessity 385 

Deferrari,  Roy  J.,  The  Tradition  of  the  Study  of  Latin  in 

Modern  Education 279 

Book  Reviews 814-317,  437-439,  443,  623-625 

Dowling,  Most  Rev.  Archbishop,  The  Place  of  the  Semi- 
nary in  the  Economy  of  the  Church 454 

Filene,  Edward  A.,  The  Supreme  Opportunity  of  the  Church 

in  the  Next  Three  Months 222 

Fitzgerald,  William  J.,  The  Junior  High  School 466 

Gasparri,  Peter  Cardinal,  The  Pope's    Message    to  the 

Central-Verein 609 

Jeanette,  Sister  Mary,  Vocational  Preparation  of  Youth 

in  Catholic  Schools 28,  81,  147,  211,  262 

Johnson,  George,  The  Curriculum  of  the  Catholic  Ele- 
mentary School 528,  580 

Kelly,  F.  Joseph,  First  Steps  in  Training  Boy  Choirs 274 

Book  Reviews 317-320,   444,   446,  507-512 

Kerby,  William  J.,  Undergraduate  Teaching  of  Sociology.  193 
Leinheuser,  Lawrence,  America's  Pioneer  War  Songs,  65,  157 

McCormick,  Patrick  J.,  Book  Reviews 445,  625 

Marble,  Sarah  A.,  The  Kindergarten  Helps  Mothers  to 

Understand  Their  Little  Ones 228 

Milburn,  John  B.,  The  University  of  Louvain 3 

Moynihan,  Florence,  A  Master  of  Causerie 77 

Lionel  Johnson,  Poet  and  Critic 257 

O'Connell,  William  Cardinal,  The  Reasonable  Limits  of 

State  Activity 513 

Schrants,  Charles  B,  Our  Clerical  Colleges 408 

Shahan,  Rt.  Rev.  Thomas  J.,  Self-Determination  for  Ireland.     40 
Cardinal  Mercier  Receives  the  Degree  of  Doctor  of 
Sacred  Theology  from  the  Catholic  University  of 
America 577 


G29 


630  Catholic  Educational  Review 

Shields,  Thomas  Edward,  Music  in  the  Elementary  School.     17 

Primary  Methods 91 

Art  Teaching  in  the  Primary  Grades 230 

The  Function  of  Music  in  Character  Formation 289 

The  Towner  Bill  and  the  Centralizing  of  Educational 

Control 326 

Vocal  Music  in  the  Primary  Grades 354 

The  Need  of  the  Catholic  Sisters  College  and  the 

Scope  of  its  Work 420 

Book  Reviews,  59-64,  123-125,  251-254,  304-307,  371-384, 
439-441,  568-576,  626-630. 
Tracy,  John  A.,  Some  Excellent  Tendencies  in  Catholic 

Education  Revealed  by  the  War, 349 

Ufford,  Elizabeth  Brown,  The  Home  Service  of  the  Ameri- 
can Red  Cross 226 

Waring,  E.  Vincent,  The  Effects  of  the  War  on  Religion . .  491 

Woodbury,  Charles  H.,  The  Painter 484 

The  Painter  and  the  Public 547 


GENERAL  INDEX 


Adolescence 468,  471 

Aims,  Catholic  educational 264 

utilitarian 264 

Alcuin  and  education 588 

"America,"  hymn 159 

American  books  in  England 434 

education,  defects  in 849 

hero,  the 76 

labor    program    for    recon- 
struction     180 

America's  pioneer  war  songs.  65,  157 

Americanization 173,  363 

Bulletin 432 

American     Red     Cross     Home 

Service 226 

Archer,  Henry,  "The  Volunteer 

Boys". 71 

Architecture    in    the    thirteenth 

century 150,  232 

Arithmetic  in  the  curriculum.  .  .   533 

Aristotle's  education 585 

Art  in  the  monasteries 88 

thirteenth  century 150 

fourteenth  century 152 

knowledge  of 547 

subject  in 548 

taste  in 547 

teaching 236 

teaching  in  primary  grades.  230 

Atheism,  effects  of 514 

Attila,  story  of 92 

Authority 513 

Basil,  St.,  and  manual  labor.  ...      82 
Benedict  XV,  and  the  Catholic 

University  of  America.  .  .   323 

and  the  war 105 

on  Catholic  schools 323 

Benedict,  St.,  Order  of 81 

Benedictine  education 587 

Benedictines,  work  of 85 

Billings,    Wm.,    first    American 

composer 70 

Biographies,    educational    value 

of 246 

Bishops,  annual  meeting  of 321 

Blank  verse 364 

Blessed  Virgin,  veneration  of .  .  .    603 

Bolshevism 247 

Book  stores,  decreasing  of 435 

Bourgeoisie 593 

Bourne,     Cardinal,     on     recon- 
struction     130 

Boy-choirs,  faults  of 275 

selection  of 247 

Boy  Scouts 118 

law  of 118 

oath  of 118 


Boy-voice,  delicacy  of 247 

register  of 276 

training  of 247,  277 

Breathing,  defective 358 

Breed's  Kill 72 

Brothers      of      the      Christian 

Schools 591 

St.  Joseph 153 

St.  Vincent  de  Paul 153 

British  Interdenominational  Con- 
ference  of   Social  Service  138 
Labor  Party,   Social  recon- 
struction program 130 

Quakers  and  reconstruction.   131 
Burrall,  Miss,  and  the  teaching 

of  geography 463 

California,  land  settlement  of.  .   342 
state  federation  of  labor.  .  .    130 

Candor  in  the  teacher 495 

Carthusians,  work  of 85 

Catechumenal  schools 81 

Cathedrals,  building  of 231,  588 

Catholic  choir-master 274 

education,  aim  of 211 

and  the  war 349 

education  series 219,  232 

Catholic  Educational  Association 

and  standard  colleges.  .  .  .   408 

the  curriculum 545 

annual  meeting  of 249,  370 

work  of 427 

Catholic  elementary  school,  cur- 
riculum of 580 

evidence  guild 493 

photo-play 496 

schools,  Benedict  XV,  on.  .  .    323 

of  the  Colonies 533 

in  the  U.S.. 154 

Catholic  University  of  America, 

affiliation  with 217 

diocesan  superintendents.  .  .   479 
meeting  of  hierarchy  at.  .  .  .   449 

music  course 355 

Causerie,  a  master  of 77 

Celibacy 26 

Census,  14th,  scope  of 561 

Chantry  Schools 230,  588 

Character  formation 216 

music  in 289 

Charlemagne  and  education.  .  .  .   588 

Chastity,  virtue  of 850 

Chicago    Federation    of    Labor, 

demands  of 131 

Child  labor 143 

Child,  the,  and  environment. . . .   580 
China,  missionaries  to 500 

631 


(JS3 


Catholic  Educational  Review 


Chinese     students     coming     to 

America 499 

Chivalry  and  education 588 

Christianity    and  man's  rights.  514 

Church  and  art 230 

celibacy 26 

labor 147 

music 22 

reconstruction 222 

the  League  of  Nations 224 

the  priest 454 

the  teaching  of  music 290 

Church  extension  courses 83 

Church,  mission  of 81 

opportunity  of 222 

Cistercians  and  labor 147 

Citizenship,  training  for 620 

Classics,  conference  of  teachers 

of  the 480 

teaching  of  the 481 

value  of  a  study  of 480 

Clergy-reform 456 

Clerical  colleges 408 

Clerical   education 407,  412 

College  teaching,  difficulties  of.   194 

Colonial  Catholic  schools 533 

Columbia 75 

Columbiad,  the 72 

Committee  of  Ten 543 

Conduct  and  emotion 25 

Constitution,  framing  of 515 

Convent  life 148 

Correlation 543 

Cost  of  living,  reduction  of 139 

Council  of  Trent  and  education.  591 
Cram,  Ralph  Adams,  on  archi- 
tecture    232 

Creation,  Christian  doctrine  of. .   391 

Cultural  education 18 

knowledge 194 

Curriculum  and  vocation 263 

Catholic   elementary  school  426 
528,  545,  580 

changes  in 536,  544 

Colonial 531 

criticisms  of 580 

defense  of 531 

elementary 530 

evolution  of 541 

importance  of 528 

modern 528 

subject-matter  of. 580 

standardization  of 546 

Dancing  and  emotion 25 

Democracy  and  despotism 513 

spirit  of .•  •  •  •   ^^ 

Dewey,     John,     on     vocational 

guidance 270 

Didactic  method fll 

Dioccian  superintendents 420 


Discipline 593 

Dorney,    Wm.,   Catholic  educa- 
tion above  grades.  ......   263 

Drawing  in  the  curriculum 538 

Dualism 395 

Duns     Scotus,     materia     primo 

prima 391 

Dwight,  Timothy,  Columbia..  . .     75 

Ear-training 293 

Economics,  teaching  of 556 

Educational  fads 528 

foundations 271 

legislation 523 

Education,  aim  of 195 

and  reconstruction 430 

and  society 580 

and  the  state 525 

Benedict  XV  on 322 

effects  of 195 

essentials  of 230 

function  of 580 

in  a  democracy 281 

in  Germany 523 

in  the  early  church 587 

in  the  17th  century 592 

in  the  18th  century 593 

in  the  19th  century 597 

national  control  of 333 

nationalization  of 527 

new  opportunities  for 562 

parental  control  of 525 

primitive 581 

progress  in 28 

Prussian  trend  of 524 

religious  control  of 535 

scientific 597 

secular 529 

social  nature  of 592 

state  control  of.. 332,  523,  535 
E'ementary  education,  history  of  582 
Elementary  school,  mission  of.  .  530 
Eliot,  Chas.  W.,  defects  in  Am. 

education 42 

.  war  and  education 349 

Emotional  expression 289 

nature  and  music 21 

suppression  of 24 

training  of 20 

Emotion  and  conduct 25 

dancing 25 

religion 23 

England,  early  education  in.  .  .  .   591 
English  language  in  the  U.  S.. .  .    296 

teaching  foreigners 618 

teaching  of 430 

Enlightenment,  the 594 

Environment,  adjustment  of.529,  580 

Erasmus 590 

Ethical  life. 197 

European  history,  readings  in. . .  601 


General  Index 


633 


Fatherhood  of  God 514 

Fatherless  children  of  France.  . .  501 

Fathers  of  the  Church 587 

Federation  of  Catholic  Alumnae, 

convention SOS 

Fiction  in  191S 497 

Food  supply SS8 

Foreign  students  in  America . . .  559 

Froebel 597 

Genius,  definition  of 240 

Geography  in  the  curriculum .  .  .   536 

taught  with  pictures 463 

teaching  and  the  war 480 

God  and  Liberty 513 

Godehard,   Abbot,   influence  on 

industry 147 

Government,  centralized 522 

Grammars,  English 239 

Greek  system  of  education 583 

Gregory    the    Great,    letter    to 

Desiderius 279 

Guilds 147,  152 

Hail  Columbia 161 

Harlez,  de,  at  Louvain 13 

Hartford  wits 92 

Hegel's  absolute  state 521 

Herbart . 597 

Hierarchy,  annual  meeting  of . . .  449 
High  school  attendance 262 

curriculum 262 

History  in  the  curriculum 537 

Holy  Eucharist,  the 400 

Holy  Orders  and  the  Council  of 

Trent 455 

in  the  early  Church 454 

Housing  the  working  classes. . . .    138 
Hugh  of  St.  Victor,  definition  of 

a  sacrament.- 395 

Humanism 592 

Humanistic  revival 284 

Ideals,  teaching  of  high 236 

Illiteracy 620 

among  soldiers 862 

in  the  U.  S 98 

Imitation,  value  of 264 

Incarnation,  the 387 

Individualism 584,  595 

Industrial  arts 147 

education 301 

system,  needed  reforms  in. .    143 

Industrialism 529 

Instinct  in  the  child 290 

two-fold  aim  of 290 

International  Education  Ass'n.  .   614 
Ireland  and  the  Classics 281 

self-determination  for 40 

Jesuits .^ 591 

missionaries  in  New  World.   153 
Johnson,  Lionel 257 

Conversion  of 258 


Jungmann,  at  Louvain 13 

Junior  High  School 466 

advantages  of 468 

objections  to 470 

Kane,  W.  A.,  letter  of 92 

Kilmer,     Joyce,     poems     from 

France 200 

Kindergarten  helps  for  mothers. 

228,  303 
Knights  of  Columbus  war  ser- 
vice.   . 113,  168 

Labor    and    industrial    manage- 
ment   142 

the  Church 147 

Lamy  at  Louvain 13 

Land  colonization 337 

Catholic  interest  in 347 

in  Australia 341 

in  Canada 341 

in  England 341 

Pope  Leo's  plan 346 

Lane,  Secretary,  on  illiteracy ....  98 

Latin,  conversational 284 

in  the  early  church 279 

in  the  Middle  Ages 279 

modern  study  of 285 

study  of 279,  589 

League  of  Knowledge 493 

League  of  Nations,  need  for ....  223 

Leisure  occupations 24 

Leo  XIII,  on  family  rights 520 

Liberty,  blessings  of 520 

love  of 513 

political 522 

song 68,  69 

Life-work,  preparing  for ;  218 

Literature,  effects  of  the  war  on.  257 

Locke,  John 593 

Louvain  and  the  medieval  Uni- 
versity movement 6 

Louvain,  early  history  of  town  of.  4 

Louvain,  University  of 3 

and  the  new  learning 7 

and  the  Reformation 9 

Catholicity  of 11 

character  of  students  at. .    .  14 

colleges  of 7 

constitution  of 6 

degrees  of 13 

destruction  of 3 

eminent  men  at 13 

examinations  at 8 

funds  for 563 

history  of 4 

influence  of 14 

international  character  of. . .  12 

library  of 15 

revival  of 11 

suspension  of 10 

Lucas,  E.  V 77 


634 


Catholic  Educational  Review 


Mallery  Bill  in  Pa 364 

Manual  training 29 

in  the  curriculum 539 

Materialism,  effects  of 387,  514 

growth  of 529 

Matter  and  spirit 390 

Medieval  civilization 388 

Medieval  Latin 282 

Melody 294 

Mercier,  Cardinal,  address  of .  .  .  452 
and  Louvain  University. ...  13 
degree  of  Sacred  Theology. .    577 

praises,  Red  Cross 503 

Middle  Ages,  philosophy  of 389 

Minimum  wage 140 

Miracle  Plays 151 

Missionary  Association  of  Cath- 
olic Women 171 

Monastic  schools 81 

and  the  arts 147 

Monasteries  and  manual  labor.      82 

Monopolies,  abolition  of 145 

Motion  picture  scenarios 433 

Motion     pictures,      educational 

value  of 240,  244 

in  colleges 565 

Motivation 266 

"  Motu  Propio" 274 

Music  and  emotion 294 

and  the  Catholic  Church.  .  .      22 
and  the  primary  teacher .  .  .    355 

and  war 65 

in  education 354,  583,  585 

in  the  Civil  War 65 

in  the  curriculum 17,  537 

in  the  elementary  school.  .  .      17 

in  the  primary  grades 295 

in  the  Revolution 36 

in  the  school 274 

psychological  effects  of.  19,  290 

time  allotment 17 

National  Catholic  Welfare  Coun- 
cil    449 

National  Committee  on  mathe- 
matical requirements ....   504 
National  Education  Association.  611 
and  vocational  training.  ...      31 
National      Geographic      Society 

pictures 463 

National  program  for  education.  611 
National  Rural  Teachers  Read- 
ing Circle 54 

National  Shrine  of  the  Immacu- 
late Conception 287 

National  War  Labor  Board 136 

New  England,  illiteracy  in 99 

Niles,    Nathan,    the    American 

hero 76 

Normal     course     for     primary 

teachers 355 


Obedience,  teaching  of 291 

Olier,  M 459 

Organic  method 91 

Paine,  Robert  T.,  Rise  Columbia.     73 

Painter  and  the  public 547 

the 484 

Painting,  understanding  of 549 

Paternal  government 521 

Paternalistic  legislation 516 

Patriotism 618 

teaching  of 52,  247 

Perrin,  Chas.,  at  Louvain 13 

Pestalozzi 596 

Pestalozzi  and  geography 536 

Pestalozzi's  theory  of  vocational 

guidance 273 

Philosophical  necessity,  the 385 

Philosophy 385 

Physical  training 50 

Picture,  meaning  of  the 548 

Pitch  perception 293 

Pope    Benedict    XV,    letter    to 

Episcopate 321 

Pope    Leo    XIII    and    Cardinal 

Mercier 13 

Pope  Leo  XIII  land  policy 346 

Pope's  message  to  the  Central 

Verein 609 

Poussin,  at  Louvain 13 

Poverty,  practice  of 350 

Power,  greed  for 513 

Priests,  work  of  in  America 461 

Primary  grades,  art  teaching  in .    230 

Primary  methods 91 

Primary  music 854 

Primary  work 289 

Public  school  education 612 

Punctuation 245 

Rationalism 594 

Realism 592 

Reason,  age  of 291 

Reconstruction     and     American 

employers 132 

Reconstruction,  American   labor 

program 130 

and  socialism 130 

and  the  church 222 

British  Quakers 131 

Cardinal  Bourne  on 130 

in  the  U.  S 134 

program    of    British    labor 

party 130 

social 129 

Recruit  Educational  Center ....   362 

Redemption,  the 396 

Reformation  and  education 591 

Reformation,  effects  of....  153,  387 
Religion  among  non-Catholics.. .   491 

and  Catholics 491 

and  emotion 23 


General  Index 


635 


Religion  and  the  rights  of  man. .   513 

Catholics  knowledge  of 492 

effect  of  the  war  on 491 

need  of 389 

primitive 581 

Religious  freedom 525 

Renaissance  and  education 589 

effect  on  art 153 

Research  work 193 

Rhythm 292 

Rise  Columbia 73 

Ritter,  Carl,  and  geography ....   586 
Robinson's    Readings    in    Euro- 
pean History 601 

Roman  education 586 

decline  of 587 

Rossetti,  William  M.,  death  of . .   241 

Rote  singing 294 

Rousseau 596 

Sacrament,  definition  of 895 

Sacramentalism 394 

Sacramental      system      of     the 

Church 393 

Sacraments,  the 397,  404 

Saint  Sulpice 459 

Secretary  Lane's  land  plan 343 

Secularist  and  man's  rights 514 

Self-denial 213 

Seminary  and  the  Catholic  Uni- 
versity    460 

Seminary  and  the  Church 454 

in  France 459 

institution  of 456 

Seven  Sacraments,  rejection  of.  .   394 
Sewall,  J.   M.,  war  and  Wash- 
ington       73 

Scholae  Cantorum 274 

Scholasticism,  rise  of 589 

School  book  prices, 502 

School,  criticism  of 466 

fires 804 

lunch 47 

new  demands  on 20 

period 262 

play 243 

Schwann,  at  Louvain 13 

Shahan,    Bishop,    officer   of   the 

Legion  of  Honor.  . 800 

Shakespeare,  decline  of  interest 

in 242 

use  of  English 236 

Singing,  correct 256 

Sisters  College 12 

achievements  of 425 

and  the  Catholic  University.  420 

Brady  Hall 429 

foundation  of 423 

Garvan  Endowment  Fund..   429 

instruction  in 422 

nature  of 421 


Sisters  College,  need  of 420,  424 

number  of  students  at 420 

summer  courses 425 

work  of 420 

Smith  Bill 326 

Socialists  and  man's  rights 514 

Socializing  the  school 47 

Social  insurance 140 

Socialism  and  reconstruction..  .  .    130 

Social  reconstruction 129 

Social  reform 529 

Sociology,  teaching  of 198,  196 

Sophist  philosophy 584 

Source  books 601 

Spartan  education 583 

Specialization 37,  270 

Spirit  and  matter 390 

Star  Spangled  Banner 166 

State,  absolutism  in  the 521 

State  activity 513 

and  education 611 

centralizing  tendencies  in. .  .   515 

control  of  education 535 

functions  of 517 

State  high  schools,  efforts  of.262,  263 
State  schools  and  the  emotions. .     27 

State,  sovereign  power  of 518 

Strikes,  peril  of 557 

Subject-matter  of  curriculum .  .  .   580 
Supician    seminary  at  the  Cath- 
olic University 461 

Taylor,  David  C,  music  in  edu- 
cation       20 

Teacher  of  English  42,  98,  173,  239' 
296,   362,   430,   495,   562,   618 

Teachers,  present  need  of 616 

Teacher  problem 616 

Teachers,  rights  of 613 

salaries  of 431,  616 

scarcity  of 481 

Thompson,  Francis,  poems  of . . .   257 

Tone-color 276 

Tone-placing 275 

Tone-production 293,  357,  359 

Towner  Bill 326 

Trade  Extension  League 33 

Transubstantiation 400 

Van  Beneden,  at  Louvain 13 

Vincent,  M 459 

Virtue,  inculcation  of 214 

Vittorino  da  Feltre 590 

Vives 590 

Vocabulary,  acquisition  of 241 

Vocation  Bureau 33,  85 

Vocation,  choice  of 269 

debates  on 270 

preparation  for 264 

Vocational  counsellor,  qualities  of     86 
Vocational  education  in  Catholic 

schools 147,  211 


386 


Catholic  Educational  Kevtew 


Vocational    education    in    state 

schools 28 

Vocational  education,  rise  of 18 

Vocational  guidance 34,  265 

and  parents 266 

and  the  employer 272 

and  the  teacher 265 

Bureau 268 

in  Catholic  schools 267 

in  state  schools 267 

in  the  home 266 

literature  on 268 

movement 32,  86 

problem  of 273 

teachers  help  in 27 

Vocational  preparation  of  youth 

in    Catholic    schools,    28,    81, 
147,  211,  262 

Vocational  schools,  evening 30 

Vocational  training 142 

in  Catholic  schools 81 

Vocational   work   and   the   high 

school 263 

Voice  training 293 

Voltaire 594 

Volunteer  Boys,  the 71 


Undergraduate  teaching 193 

Unemployment 338 

U.  S.  Employment  Service 135 

Unity  among  Catholic  schools.. .   216 

University  extension  courses 33 

Wages  during  the  war 137 

War  and  vice 350 

War  and  Washington 73 

War,  effects,  of  the 249 

effects  on  literature 257 

War  songs 65 

War,  lessons  of  the 235 

Warren,    Mrs.     Mercy,    Liberty 

Song 68 

Wisdom,  substance  of 385 

Woman's  land  army 122 

Women,   education  of,  53,    148,    154 

Women  war  workers 186 

Women's   Educational   and   In- 
dustrial Union 36 

World  war,  cause  of  the 887 

Writing,  art  of 581 

Yankee  Doodle 157 

Y.    M.    C.    A.    and    vocational 

guidance 38 


REVIEWS  AND  NOTICES 


Abbott,  Arthur  J.,  Ear  Training.  447 

Adams,   Crosby,   Pedal  Studies.  318 

Adams,  Henry,  The  Education  of 
Henry  Adams,  An  Autobio- 
graphy    251 

Allen,  E,  F.,  Keeping  Our 
Fighters  Fit  for  War  and  After.     59 

Andrews,  Matthew  Page,  The 
American's  Creed  and  Its 
Meaning 377 

Bachman,  Frank  P.,  Great  In- 
ventors and  their  Inventions.  372 

Bacon,  Ernest  Lacher,  Our  Musi- 
cal Idiom 507 

Bailey,  L.  H.,  What  is  De- 
mocracy     812 

Bailey,  Carolyn  S.,  What  To 
Do  For  Uncle  Sam 871 

Bardin,  James,  El  Iteino  de  los 
Incas  del  Peru 381 

Benner,  Allen  R.,  Beginners' 
Greek  Book 187 

Betts,  George  Herbert,  The 
Mind  and  Its  Education 572 

Breslich,  Ernest  R.,  Correlated 
Mathematics  for  Junior  Col- 
leges    680 

Logarithmic  and  Trigono- 
metric Tables  and  Mathe- 
matical Formulas 192 

Brownhall,  Edith  J.,  Spoken 
Spanish 381 

Carroll,  Lewis,  Alice's  Adven- 
tures in  Wonderland 379 

Caruthers,  Julia  Lois,  Finger 
Plays 319 

Cleveland,  4th  Annual  Report 
of  the  Paris  Schools  of  the 
Diocese 56 

Cody,  Sherwin,  How  to  do  Busi- 
ness by  Letter 192 

Cooke,  James  Francis,  Master 
Study  in  Music 183 

Cooper,  Lane,  The  Greek  Genius 

and  its  Influence 254 

Cope,  Henry  F.,  Religious  Edu- 
cation in  the  Church 383 

Cram,  Ralph  Adams,  The  Sub- 
stance of  Gothic 307 

Cross,  George,  What  Is  Chris- 
tianity?    441 

Davidson,  Isobel,  Real  Stories 
from  Baltimore  County  His- 
tory    192 

De  Vitis.  M.  A.,  El  Pajaro  Verde.  382 

Dickinson,  Helena  and  Clarence, 
Excursions  in  Musical  History.  181 


Dillon,  John  A.,  Moments  With 
the  Consoling  Christ 629 

Donnelly,  Francis  P.,  Model 
English,  Book  II 628 

Drake,  Paul  H.,  Democracy 
Made  Safe 60 

Eddy,  Clarence,  A  Method  of 
Pipe  Organ. 184 

Egan,  Maurice  Francis,  Ten 
Years  Near  the  German  Fron- 
tier    252 

Fabre,  J.  Henri,  Insect  Ad- 
ventures     375 

Fairclough,  Rushton,  Virgil; 
Aeneid 624 

Farmer,  N.  A.,  Food  Problems. .  371 

Fearis,  J.  S.,  The  Awakening  of 
Spring 507 

Fearis,  J.  S.,  The  Trial  of  Santa 
Claus 507 

Ferguson,  Harrison  W.,  A  Child's 
Book  of  the  Teeth 379 

Fowles,  Ernest,  Harmony  in 
Pianoforte  Study 446 

Game,  Josiah  B.,  The  Teaching 
of  High  School  Latin. 316 

Gardner,  Carl  E.,  Music  Com- 
position, a  New  Method  of 
Harmony 508 

Garesche,  E.  F.,  The  World  and 
the  Waters. 126 

Gauss,  Christian,  Democracy 
To-Day 377 

Gilbert,  H.  M.,  A  Vision  of 
Music 511 

Goff,  Emmet  S.,  First  Principles 
of  Agriculture 372 

Goldberger,  Henry  H.,  English 
for  Coming  Citizens 878 

Good,  Caroline,  Horace  in  the 
English  Literature  of  the  18th 
Century 185 

Grant,  J.  B.,  Pussy  Willow  and 
Other  Nature  Songs 510 

Grant,  J.  B.,  Pussy  Willow  and 
Other  Nature  Songs 444 

Green,  John  Richard,  A  Short 
History  of  the  English  People.  376 

Heacox,  A.  E.,  Keyboard  Train- 
ing in  Harmony 183 

Hamilton,  Samuel,  Hamilton's 
Essentials  of  Arithmetic,  First 
Book 629 

Harry,  Philip  W.,  Anecdotas 
Espanolas 381 

Hart,  Joseph  K.,  Democracy  in 
Education 573 

637 


638 


Catholic  Educational  Review 


Holliday,  Robert  C,  Walking- 
Stick  Papers 189 

Holliday,  Robert  C,  Joyce  Kil- 
mer, Poems,  Essays  and 
Letters .    187 

Hunt,  Brenelle,  A  Community 
Arithmetic 256 

Hunter,  Walter  S.,  General  Psy- 
chology      626 

Huntington,  Janet  R.,  Food 
Problems 371 

Hurlburt,  Stephen  A.,  Handbook 
for  First  Year  Latin  Vocabu- 
lary   :.'.'.   448 

Hurlburt,  Stephen  A.,  A  Note- 
Book  for  First  Year  Latin 
Vocabulary 448 

Issacson,  Charles  D.,  Face  to 
Face  with  the  Great  Musi- 
cians     509 

Johnson,  Clifton,  Poems  My 
Children  Love  Best  of  All. . .  .   380 

Jones,  Francis  P.,  History  of  the 
Sinn  Fien  Movement  and  the 
Irish  Rebellion  of  1916 125 

Kelsey,  Francis  W.,  Caesar's 
Commentaries 256 

Kennedy,  D.  J.,  St.  Thomas 
Aquinas 445 

Kennedy,  D.  J.,  St.  Thomas 
Aquinas  and  Medieval  Philos- 
ophy    575 

Kettle,  T.  M.,  The  Ways  of  War.  124 

Klapper,  Paul,  The  Teaching  of 
Arithmetic 571 

Krackowizer,  Alice  M.,  Projects 
in  the  Primary  Grades 310 

Latane,  John  H.,  From  Isolation 
to  Leadership 62 

Larsimont,  Joseph,  La  Belgique 
Triomphante 628 

Lefferts,  Walter,  American 
Leaders,  Book  1 569 

Lefferts,  Walter,  American 
Leaders,  Book  II 627 

Lennes,  N.  J.,  Applied  Arith- 
metic— The  Three  Essentials.  631 

Leonard,  Arthur  R.,  War  Ad- 
dresses of  Woodrow  Wilson. . .   378 

Liljencrantz,  Johan,  Spiritism 
and  Religion 437 

Lindlahr,  Henry,  Nature  Ctlre 
Cook  Book 382 

Lindlahr,  Henry,  Nature  Cure.  882 

Lyman,  Eugene  W.,  The  Experi- 
ence of  God  in  Modern  Life.  383 

MacEachen,  Roderick,  Cate- 
chists*  Manual 625 

McClelland,  Frank  C.  Office 
Training  and  Standards 628 


McClorey,  John  G.,  An  Estimate 
of  Shakespeare 128 

McMurtrie,  Douglas  C,  The 
Disabled  Soldier 442 

Malot,  Hector,  Sans  Famille. .  .   447 

March,  Norah  H.,  Towards 
Racial  Health 576 

Lee,  E.  Markham,  On  Listening 
to  Music 180 

Marriott,  J.  A.  R.,  English 
History  in  Shakespeare 441 

Mason,  D.  G.,  Short  Studies  of 
Great  Masterpieces 182 

Matthaei,  Louise  M.,  Studies  in 
Greek  Tragedy 623 

Maynard,  Theodore,  Poems.  .  .  .    568 

Menge,  Edward  J.,  Backgrounds 
for  Science  Workers 374 

Menge,  Edward  J.,  The  Be- 
ginnings of  Science 873 

Meras,  Albert  A.,  Le  Premier 
Livre 380 

Merx,  Hans.,  New  Hymn  Book.  317 

Mills,  Mary  W.,  Graded  Sen- 
tences for  Analysis 448 

Mitchell,  Addie  P.,  Peter  and 
Polly  in  Autumn 192 

Monfat,  P.  A.  Les  Vrais  Principes 
de  l'Education  chretienne  rap- 
peles  aux  maitres  et  aux 
families 125 

Monvert,  Adolphe  de,  Aux  Etats- 
Unis 628 

Moore,  Ranson  A.,  Plant  Pro- 
duction: Part  I,  Agronomy, 
Part  Ii,  Horticulture 627 

Newnrk,  8th  Annual  Report  of 
the  Superintendent  of  Parish 
Schools 58 

Ohlinger,  Gustavus,  The  German 
Conspiracy  in  Education 189 

Pace,  Roy  Bennet,  Readings  in 
English  Literature 256 

Parker,  Horatio,  The  Dream  of 
Mary 320 

Paton,  W.  R.,  The  Greek  Anthol- 
ogy,  Vols.  IV  and  V 448 

Pittsburgh,  14th  Annual  Report 
of  Superintendent  of  Parish 
Schools 57 

Platner,  Samuel  B.,  The  Topog- 
raphy of  Ancient  Rome 314 

Powers,  Mabel,  Stories  the  Iro- 
quois Tell  Their  Children 192 

Ramsey,  G.  G.,  Juvenal  and 
Persius.With  an  English  Trans- 
lation    255 

Rhodes,  A'oysius,  Corona  Vir- 
ginura 317 


Reviews  and  Notices 


639 


Robinson,  Benjamin  W.,  Life 
of  Paul 570 

Robinson,  Franklin,  Aural  Har- 
mony     180 

Routzahn,  E.  G.,  The  A.  B.  C. 
of  Exhibit  Planning 127 

Rosman,  Mary  B.,  Graded  Sen- 
tences for  Analysis 448 

Rota,  A.,  Hossfeld's  New  Prac- 
tical Method  for  Learning  the 
Italian  Language 256 

Sasia,  Joseph  C,  The  Future 
Life 439 

Scherer,  Peter  J.,  Beginner's 
French  Reader 447 

Seever,  Major  E.  Z.,  The  Cadet 
Manual 192 

Shurter,  Edwin  Duvois,  Patrio- 
tic Selections 251 

Simpson,  John  T.,  Hidden 
Treasure 596 

Skinner  E.  L.  and  A.  M.,  Happy 
Tales  for  Story  Time 448 

Snyder,  William  H.,  Everyday 
Science 626 

Smith,  MacDonald,  From  Brain 
to  Keyboard 509 

Smith  Laura  R.,  The  Awakening 
of  Spring 507 


Stevenson,  R.  L.,  An  Inland  Voy- 
age and  Travels  with  a  Don- 
key    448 

Thomas,  Augustus  O.,  Rural 
Arithmetic 192 

Thurber,  Samuel,  Shakespeare's 
Julius  Caesar 448 

Toohey,  John  J.,  An  Elementary 
Handbook  of  Logic 192 

Toynbee,  Arnold  J.,  The  German 
Terror  in  France 64 

Transeau,  Edgar  N.,  Science  of 
Plant  Life 374 

U.  S.  Food  Administration, 
Food  Saving  and  Sharing.  ...   311 

Webster's  New  Handy  Diction- 
ary    447 

West,  Andrew,  Value  of  the 
Classics 315 

Wetterle,  Abbe  A.,  Behind  the 
Scenes  in  the  German  Reich- 
stag        63 

Wilmore,  J.  Selden,  The  Great 
Crime  and  Its  Moral 123 

Winston's  Simplified  Dictionary.  447 

Winstedt,  E.  O.,  Cicero:  Letters 
to  Atticus 624 

Wright,  Davis,  The  Book  of 
Lincoln 250 

Zucca,  Manna,  Children's  Songs.  511 


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