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The  Catholic  Encyclopedia 


VOLUME    TWELVE 

Philip— Revalidation 


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HORACE  H.  SAGKHAM 
EDUCATIONAL  HEMORIAL 


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THE  CATHOLIC 
ENCYCLOPEDIA 


AN    INTERNATIONAL    WORK    OF    REFERENCE 

ON     THE     CONSTITUTION,     DOCTRINE, 

DISCIPLINE,  AND   HISTORY  OF  THE 

CATHOLIC   CHURCH 


EDITED  BY 

CHARLES  G.  HERBERMANN,  Ph.D.,  LL.D. 

EDWARD   A.  PACE,  PH.D.,  D.D.        CONDE  B.  FALLEN,  Ph.D.,  LL.D. 

THOMAS  J.  SHAHAN,  D.D.  JOHN   J.  WYNNE,  S.J. 

ASSISTED   BY   NUMEROUS  COLLABORATORS 


FIFTEEN  VOLUMES  AND  INDEX 
VOLUME  XII 

SPECIAL    EDITION 

OMDBK  THE  AtTSPICGS  OT 

E  KNIGHTS  OF  COLUMBUS  CATHOLIC  TRUTH  COMMITTEE 


new  Botli 
THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  PRESS,  INC 


Nihil  Obstat,  June  1,  1911 
REMY  LAFORT,  S.T.D. 


cnraoB 


Imprimaiwr 

+JOHN  CARDINAL  FARLEY 

ARCHBISHOP  OF  NEW  YORK 


Copyright,  1911 
By  Robert  Appleton  Company 

Copyright,  191S 
By  the  encyclopedia  PRESS,  INC. 

The  articles  in  this  work  have  been  written  specially  for  The  Catholic 
Encyclopedia  and  are  protected  by  copyright.    All  rights,  includ- 
ing the  right  of  translation  and  reproduction,  are  reserved. 


Contributors  to  the  Twelfth  Volume 


AIKEN,  CHARLES  F.,  S.T.D.,  Professor  of 
Apologetics,  Cathouc  University  of  Amer- 
ica, Washington:    Religion. 

AIMfi  DE  MARIE,  SISTER,  Monastery  of  the 
PREdous  Blood,  St.  Htacinthe,  Canada: 
Precious  Blood,  Sisters  Adorers  of  the. 

XldXsY,  ANTAL,  Ph.D.,  Archivist  of  the 
Library  of  the  National  Museum,  Buda- 
pest: Pray,  George. 

ALMOND,  JOSEPH  CUTHBERT,  O.S.B.,  Supe- 
RiOR  OF  Parker's  Hall,  Oxford  :  Ramsey  Abbey ; 
Reading  Abbey. 

AI^TON,  G.  CYPRIAN,  O.S.B.,  London:  Re- 
sponsorium. 

AMADO,  RAMON  RUIZ,  S.J.,  LL.D.,  Ph.L., 
College  of  St.  Ignatius,  Sarria,  Barcelona: 
Plasencia,  Diocese  of. 

ANTONIO,  SISTER  M.,  St.  Clare's  Convent, 
Hartwbll,  Ohio:  Poor  of  St.  Francis,  Sisters 
of  the. 

ARBOLEDA,  MANUEL  ANTONIO,  CM.,  Arch- 
bishop OF.  PopayAn,  Repubuc  of  Colombia: 
Popay&n,  Archdiocese  of. 

ARENDZEN,  J.  P.,  Ph.D.,  S.T.D.,  M.A.  (Cantab.), 
Professor  of  Sacred  Scripture,  St.  Ed- 
mund's College,  Ware,  England:  Pneuma- 
tomachi. 

AVELING,  FRANCIS,  S.T.D.,  London:  Quality; 
Quantity;    Rationalism. 

BACCHUS,  FRANCIS  JOSEPH,  B.A.,  The  Ora- 
tory, Birmingham,  England:  Pionius,  Saint; 
Polycarp,  Saint;  Possidius,  Saint;  Proclus, 
Saint;  Prosper  of  Aquitaine,  Tiro;  Rabbulas, 
Bishop  of  Edessa. 

BARNES,  Mgr.  ARTHUR  STAPYLTON,  M.A. 
(OxoN  AND  Cantab.},  Cambridge,  England: 
Pilate,  Pontius. 

BARRETT,  MICHAEL,  O.S.B.,  Buckie,  Scotland: 
Pluscarden  Priory. 

BARRO,  FERMfN  FRAGA,  Pinar  del  Rio, 
Cuba:  Pinar  del  Rio,  Diocese  of. 

BARRY,  WIJXIAM  CANON,  S.T.D.,  Leaming- 
ton, England:  Poetry,  Hebrew,  of  the  Old 
Testament;  Pusey  and  Puseyism;  Renaissance, 
The. 

BAUMGARTEN,  Mgr.  PAUL  MARIA,  J.U.D., 
8.T.D.,  Rome:   Pontifical  Colleges. 

BECHTEL,  FLORENTINE,  S.J.,  Professor  of 
Hebrew  and  Sacred  Scripture,  St.  Louis 
Untvebsity,  St.  Louis,  Missouri:  Pillar  of 
Ooud;   Plagues  of  Egypt. 


BECK,  JOSEPH,  S.T.D.,  Professor  of  Pastoral 
Theology,  Superior  Collegii  Theologici 
Salesiani,  University  of  Fribourg:  Poor, 
Care  of,  by  the  Church. 

BENIGNI,  Mgr.  UMBERTO,  Prothonotary 
Apostouc  Partecipante,  Professor  of  Ec- 
clesiastical History,  Pontificia  Accademia 
DEI  NoBiu  EccLESiASTici,  Rome:  Piacenza, 
Diocese  of;  Piatto  Cardinalizio;  Piazza  Armer- 
ina.  Diocese  of;  Piccolomini,  Alessandro;  Pic- 
colomini-Ammannati,  Jacopo;  Pignatelli,  Giu- 
seppe Maria,  Venerable;  Pinerolo,  Diocese  of; 
Pisa,  Archdiocese  of;  Pistoia  and  Prato,  Diocese 
of;  Pius  X,  Pope;  Poggio  Mirteto,  Diocese  of; 
Policastro,  Diocese  of;  Pomponazzi,  Pietro; 
Pontremoli,  Diocese  of;  Porto  and  Santa  Rufina, 
Diocese  of;  Poesevinus,  Antonius;  Pozzuoli, 
Diocese  of;  Propaganda,  Sacred  Congregation 
of;  Ravenna,  Archdiocese  of;  Racanti  and 
Loreto,  Diocese  of;  Reggio  dell'  Emilia,  Diocese 
of;  Reggio  di  Calabria,  Archdiocese  of. 

• 

BERTRIN,  GEORGE,  Lrrr.D.,  Fellow  of  the 
University,  Professor  of  French  Litera- 
ture, Institut  Cathouque,  Paris:  Rabelais, 
Francois. 

BEWERUNGE,  H.,  Professor  of  Church  Music, 
Maynooth  College,  Dublin:  Plain  Chant. 

BIHL,  MICHAEL,  O.F.M.,  Lector  of  Ecclesias- 
tical History,  Collegio  San  Bonaventuba, 
Quaracchi,  Florence:  Philip  of  Jesus,  Saint; 
Portiuncula. 

BIRKNER,  FERDINAND,  Ph.D.,  Curator  of 
the  Pre-Historic  Anthropologic  Colleo- 
TioN  OF  Munich:  Race,  Human. 

BLUME,  CLEMENS,  S.J.,  Munich:  Prose  or 
Sequence. 

BOUDINHON,  AUGUSTE-MARIE,  S.T.D.,  D.C.L., 
Director,  ''Canoniste  Contemporain",  Pro- 
fessor OF  Canon  Law,  Institut  Catho- 
uque, Paris:  Pothier,  Robert  Joseph;  Pre- 
caria;  Presentation,  Right  of;  Priest;  Primate; 
Privilege;  'Protocol;  Provincial  CouncU;  Re- 
demptions, Penitential. 

BRANN,  HENRY  A.,  S.T.D.,  New  York:  Pise, 
Charles  Constantine. 

BRANTS,  VICTOR,  J.U.D.,  Member  of  the 
Royal  Academy  of  Belgium,  Louvain:  Ram, 
Pierre  Francois  Xavier  de. 

BRAUN,  JOSEPH,  S.J.,  St.  Ignatius  College, 
Valkenburg,  Holland:  Rationale. 

BRfiHIER,  fiMILE,  Lrrr.D.,  Rbnnes,  France: 
Philo  Judffius. 


CONTRIBUTORS  TO  THE  TWELFTH  VOLUME 


BR£HIER,  LOUIS-RENfi,  Professor  of  Ancient 
AND  Meddsval  Histort,  Uniyersitt  of  Cler- 
mont-Ferrand, Puy-db-DAmb,  France:  Polo, 
Marco;  Raymond  IV,  of  Saint  Gilles;  Ray- 
mond VI  and  VII,  Counts  of  Toulouse. 

BROWN,  CHARLES  FRANCIS  WEMYSS, 
LocHTON  Castle,  Perthshire,  Scotland: 
Piacenza,  University  of. 

BRUCKER,  JOSEPH,  S.J.,  Editor  of  "Etudes", 
Paris:  Pr^mare,  Joseph  Henri  Marie  de; 
Protectorate  of  Missions;   R^gis,  Jean-Baptiste. 

BURTON,  EDWIN,  S.T.D.,  F.  R.  Hist.  Soc.,  Vice- 
President,  St.  Edmund's  College,  Ware, 
England:  Phillip,  Robert;  Pilgrimage  of  Grace; 
Pitts,  John;  Plantagenet,  Henry  Beaufort; 
Plegmund,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury;  Plowden, 
Edmund;  Plymouth  Brethren;  Pullen,  Robert; 
Puritans;  Quin,  Michael  Joseph;  Rathbome, 
Joseph;  Recusants,  English;  Repington,  Philip. 

BUTSCH,  JOSEPH  S.,  S.J.,  Rector,  St.  Joseph's 
Seminart,  Bauhmore,  Maryland:  Race, 
Negro. 

CABOR,  A.,  C.S.Sp.,  Superior  of  the  Petit 
S£MiNAiRB-CoLii:GE,  Port-au-Prince,  Haiti: 
Port-au-Prince,  Archdiocese  of. 

CABROL,  FERNAND,  O.S.B.,  Abbot  of  St. 
Michael's,  Farnborough,  England:  Prime; 
Proprium. 

CALfiS,  JEAN,  S.J.,  Professor  of  Old  Testa- 
ment Exegesis,  Enghien,  Belgium  :  Prophecy, 
Prophet,  and  Prophetess. 

CANDIDE,  FATHER,  O.M.Cap.,  Vicar  and 
Professor  of  Theology,  College"  of  the  Ca- 
puchin Fathers,  Ottawa,  Canada:  Preacher, 
Apostolic. 

CANEVIN,  J.  F.  REGIS,  S.T.D.,  Bishop  of 
Pittsburg,  Pennsylvania:  Pittsburg,  Diocese 
of. 

CARDAUNS,  HERMANN,  Bonn:  Reichensberger, 
August  and  Peter. 

CATHREIN,  VICTOR,  S.J.,  Professor  of  Moral 
Philosophy,  St.  Ignatius  College,  Valken- 
BURG,  Holland:   Property. 

CERULLI,  VINCENZO,  Director  of  the  Col- 
LURANiA  Astronomical  Observatory,  Teramo, 
Italy:  Respighi,  Lorenzo. 

CHAPMAN,  JOHN,  O.S.B.,  B.A.  (Oxon.),  Prior 
OF  St.  Thomas's  Abbey,  Erdington,  Bir- 
mingham, England:  Photinus;  Praxeas. 

CLEARY,  GREGORY,  O.F.M.,  J.C.D.,  J.Civ.D., 
S.T.L.,  SOMETIME  Professor  of  Canon  and 
Moral  Theology,  St.  Isidore's  College, 
Rome:  Ponce,  John;  Pontius,  Carbonell;  Porter, 
Francis. 

COLLARD,  CHARLES,  LL.D.,  Private  Cham- 
berlain TO  His  Holiness  Pope  Pius  X, 
Louvain:  Prisons. 


COYLE,  MOIRA  K.,  New  York:  Porto  Alegre 
Archdiocese  of. 

CRIVELLI,  CAMILLUS,  S.J.,  Instituto  Cien- 
tIpico  de  San  Jos£,  Guadalajara,  Mexico: 
Pizarro,  Francisco;  Quer6taro,  Diocese  of. 

DEBUCHY,  PAUL,  S.J.,  Litt.L.,  Enghien,  Bel- 
gium: Retreats. 

DEDIEU,    JOSEPH,    Litt.D.,     Institut    Catho- 

LiQUE,    Toulouse:    Prades,    Jean-Martin    de; 

Remigius,  Saint;  Remiremont;  Remuzat,  Anne- 

.    Madeleine,  Venerable;    Remy,  Abbey  of  Saint. 

DE  LACY,  WILLIAM  HENRY,  Judge  of  the 
Juvenile  Court,  Associate  Professor  of 
Common  Law,  Cathouc  University  of  Amer- 
ica, Washington:   Protectories. 

DELAMARRE,  LOUIS  N.,  Ph.D.,  Instructor  in 
French,  College  of  the  City  of  New  York: 
Raynouard,  Frangoi&Jusie-Marie. 

DELANY,  FRANCIS  X.,  S.J.,  Woodstock  Col- 
lege, Maryland:  Raccolta. 

DELANY,  JOSEPH,  S.T.D.,  New  York:  Prescrip- 
tion; Presumption;  Pride;  Prudence;  Rela- 
tionship; Relatives,  Duties  of;  Religion,  Virtue 
of;   Reputation. 

DE  SALES,  BROTHER,  B.A.,  Presentation 
College,  Kingstown,  Ireland:  Presentation 
Brothers. 

DEVINE,  ARTHUR,  C.P.,  St.  Paul's  Retreat, 
Mount  Argus,  Dublin:  Presence  of  God; 
Prophecy;    Quiet,  Prayer  of;    Recollection. 

DEVITT,  E.  J.,  S.J.,  Professor  of  Psychology, 
Georgetown  University,  Washington:  Plow- 
den, Charles;  Plowden,  Robert;  Plowden, 
Thomas  (alias  Salisbury);  Plowden,  Thomas 
Percy. 

DE  WULF,  MAURICE,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  J.U.D., 
Professor  of  Philosophy,  University  of 
Louvain:  Philosophy. 

DOWLING,  AUSTIN,  Providence,  Rhode  Is- 
land:  Providence,  Diocese  of. 

DRI8C0LL,  JAMES  F.,  S.T.D.,  New  Rochellb, 
New  York:  Philistines;  Phylacteries;  Promise, 
Divine,  in  Scripture;  Proselyte;  Publican; 
Rachel;  Raphael  the  Archangel;  Rechab  and 
the  Rechabites;    Refuge,  Cities  of. 

DRUM,  WALTER,  S.J.,  Professor  of  Hebrew 
and  Sacred  Scripture,  Woodstock  College, 
Maryland:  Pineda,  John  de;  Prado,  Jerome 
de;    Psalms. 

DUHEM,  PIERRE,  Professor  of  Theoretical 
Physics,  Univbrsfty  of  Bordeaux:  Physics, 
History  of;    Pierre  de  Maricourt. 

DWYER,  WILLIAM  J.,  New  York:  Randall, 
James  Ryder. 

ENGELHARDT,  ZEPHYRIN,  O.F.M.,  Santa 
Barbara,  Caufornia:  Quevedo.  Juan  de. 


▼1 


CONTRIBUTORS  TO  THE  TWELFTH  VOLUME 


EWING,  JOHN  GILLESPIE,  M.A.,  New  York: 
Pugh,  George  Ellis;    Pulaski,  Casimir. 

FANNING,  WILLIAM  H.  W.,  S.J.,  Professor 
OP  Church  History  and  Canon  Law,  St. 
Louis  University,  St.  Louis,  Missouri: 
Pichler,  Vitus;  Plenary  Council;  Postulation; 
Fnelatvs  Nullius;  Precept,  Canonical;  Pre- 
sumption (in  Canon  Law);  Prisons,  Eoclesiaft- 
tical;  Promotor  Fidei;  Property,  Ecclesiastical, 
in  the  United  States;  Renunciation;  Reserved 
Cases. 

FAY,  SIGOURNEY  W.,  B.A.,  Washington:  Prot- 
estant Episcopal  Church  in  the  United  States  of 
America. 

FINEGAN,  PHILIP  M.,  S.J.,  College  of  the 
Ateneo,  Manila:  Philippine  Islands. 

FORD,  JEREMIAH  D.  M.,  M.A.,  Ph.D.,  Pro- 
fessor OF  the  French  and  Spanish  Lan- 
guages, Harvard  Universfty,  Cambridge, 
Massachusetts:  Pindemonte,  Ippolito;  Porta, 
Carlo;  Pulci,  Luigi;  Redi,  Francesco. 

FORGET,  JACQUES,  Professor  of  Dogmatic 
Theology  and  the  Syriac  and  Arabic  Lan- 
guages, University  of  Louvain:  Precipiano, 
Humbert-Guillaume  de;  Quesnel,  Pasquier; 
Quesnellism;    Ravesteyn,  Josse. 

FORTESCUE,  ADRIAN,  Ph.D.,  S.T.D.,  Letch- 
worth,  Hertfordshire,  England:  Photius 
of  Constantinople;  Postcommunion;  Preface; 
Protopope;  Psellus,  Michael. 

FOURNET,  PIERRE  AUGUSTE,  S.S.,  M.A., 
Montreal:   Picquet,  Francois. 

FOX,  WILLIAM,  B.Sc.,  M.E.,  Associate  Pro- 
fessor OF  Physics,  College  of  the  City 
OF  New  York:  Piazzi,  Giuseppe;  Picard, 
Jean;  Poleni,  Giovanni;  Puiseux,  Victor- 
Alexandre;  Regnault,  Henri-Victor. 

FRERI,  Mgr.  JOSEPH,  D.C.L.,  Director  Gen- 
eral FOR  THE  United  States  op  the  Society 
FOR  the  Propagation  of  the  Faith,  New 
York:  Propagation  of  the  Faith,  The  Society 
for  the. 

FUENTES,  VENTURA,  B.A.,  M.D.,  Instructor, 
College  of  the  Cmr  of  New  York:  Pinto, 
Femfio  Mendes;   Ponce  de  Le6n,  Juan. 

GANCEVIC,  ANTHONY  LAWRENCE,  Ph.D., 
S.T.D.,  Zaostrog,  Dalmatia:  Pulati,  Diocese  of. 

GEUDENS,  FRANCIS  MARTIN,  C.R.P.,  Abbot 
Titular    of    Barlings,    Tongerloo    Abbey, 
Wbsterloo,       Belgium:       Premonstratensian . 
Canons;      Pr6montr6,     Abbey     of;      Psaume, 
Nicholas. 

GHELLINCK,  JOSEPH  DE,  Professor  of  Pa- 
trology  and  theological  literature  of  the 
Middle  Ages,  Universfty  of  Louvain: 
Radulph  of  Rivo. 


GIETMANN,  GERARD,  S.J.,  TEAcraa  of  Classi- 
CAL  Languages  and  iEsTHETics,  Sr.  Ignatius 
College,  Valkenburg,  Holland:  Porta, 
Giacomo  della;  Pozzo,  Andreas;  Pulpit;  Rethel, 
Alfred. 

GIGOT,  FRANCIS  E.,  S.T.D.,  Professor  of 
Sacred  Scripture,  St.  Joseph's  Seminary, 
DuNWooDiE,  New  York:  Proverbs,  Book  of; 
Redemption  in  the  Old  Testament;  Red  Sea. 

GILBERT,  JOHN  W.,  B.A.  (Univ.  of  Lond.), 
Secretary  of  the  Providence  Night  Refuge 
AND  HoifE,  London:  Poor,  Care  of,  by  the 
Church  in  Grea^;  Britain  and  Ireland. 

GILLET,  LOUIS,  Paris:  Poussin,  Nicolas;  Puvis 
de  Chavannes,  Pierre;    Raphael. 

GOGGIN,  J.  F.,  S.T.D.,  Ph.D.,  St.  Bernard's 
Seminary,  Rochester,  New  York:  Pontificale; 
Pontifical  Mass;  Priest,.  Assistant. 

GOLUBOVICH,  GIROLAMO,  O.F.M.,  Florence: 
Quaresmius,  Franciscus. 

GOYAU,  GEORGES,  Associate  EnrroR,  "Revue 
'*  DES  Deux  Mondes",  Paris:  Philip  II  and 
IV,  Kings  of  France;  Pithon,  Pierre;  Ray, 
Pierre-Guillaume-Fr^^ric  Le;  Poitiers,  Dio- 
cese of;  Quimper,  Diocese  of;  Reims,  Arch- 
diocese of;  Renaudot,  Thtephraste;  Rennes, 
Archdiocese  of;  Rets,  Jean-Frangois-Paul-Gondi, 
Cardinal  de. 

GRAHAM,  CHARLES  MORICE,  Titular  Bishop 
OF  Tiberias,  Plymouth,  England:  Plymouth, 
Diocese  of. 

GRATTAN-FLOOD,  W.  H.,  M.R.I.A.,  Mus.D., 
RosEMOUNT,  Enniscorthy,  IRELAND :  Proskc, 
Karl;  Purgatory,  St.  Patrick's. 

HANDLEY,  MARIE  LOUISE,  New  York: 
Pichler,  Antonio  Giovanni  Luigi;  Puget,  Pierre; 
Quercia,  Jaoopo  della. 

HANNA,  EDWARD  J.,  S.T.Q.,  Professor  of 
Theology,  St.  Bernard's  Seminary,  Roches- 
ter, New  York:  Purgatory. 

HARTIG,  OTTO,  Assistant  Librarian  of  the 
Royal  Library,  Munich:  Pordenone,  Odoric  of. 

HARTY,  JOHN  M.,  S.T.D.,  Professor  of  Moral 
Theology  and  Canon  Law,  Maynooth  Col- 
lege, Dublin:  Probabilism. 

HASSETT,  Mgr.  MAURICE  M.,  S.T.D.,  Harri&. 
burg,  Pennsylvania:  Portraits  of  the  Apostles; 
Presbytery. 

HEALY,  PATRICK  J.,  S.T.D.,  Assistant  Pro- 
fessor OF  Church  History,  Cathouc  Uni- 
versity of  America,  Washington:  Pris- 
cillianism;  Quadratus. 

HEHIR,  MARTIN  A,,  C.SS.R.,  President,  Holy 
Ghost  College,  Pittsburg,  Pennsylvania: 
Ratisbonne,  Maria  Theodor. 


vii 


\ 


CONTRIBUTORS  TO  THE  TWELFTH  VOLUME 


HENRY,  HUGH  T.,  Litt.D.,  R«ctor  op  Roman 
Cathouc  High  School  for  Boys,  Professor 
OF  English  Literature  and  of  Gregorian 
Chant,  St.  Charles  Seminary,  Overbrook, 
Pennsylvania:  Precentor;  Quern  terra,  pontus 
sidera;  Quicumque  Christum  Qusritis;  Rector 
Potens,  Verax  Deus;  Regina  CcbU;  Rerum 
Creator  Optime;   Rerum  Deus  Tenax  Vigor. 

HILGENREINER,  KARL,  S.T.D.,  Ph.D.,  Im- 
ferial  Royal  Professor,  University  of 
Prague:   Piusverein;   Prague,  University  of. 

HILGERS,  JOSEPH,  S.J.,  Rome:  Purgatorial 
Societies. 

HOEBER,  KARL,  Ph.D.,  Editor,  ''Volkbzbi- 
tung"  and  ''A^fja)EMiscHE  MonatsbiJLtter", 
Cologne:  Philip  the  Arabian;  Placidia,  Galla; 
Probus,  Marcus  Aurelius. 

HOFLER,  WALTER  A.,  Southam,  Warwickshire, 
England:  Poor  Child  Jesus,  Sisters  of  the. 


KENNEDY,  D.  J.,  O.P.,  8.T.M.,  Professor  or 
Sacramental  Theology,  Cathouc  Univer- 
sity OF  America,  Washington:  Politi,  Lancelot; 
Porrecta,  Serafino. 

KENNEDY,  THOMAS,  B.A.  (R.U.L),  London: 
Piiu6n,  Martin  Alonso;  Proechko,  Frani 
Isidor. 

KENT,  W.  H.,  O.S.C.,  Batswatbb,  London: 
Rawes,  Henry  Augustus. 

KERRY,  WILLIAM  J.,  S.T.L.,  Ph.D.,  Doctor  of 
Special  and  Political  Sciences,  Professor 
OF  Sociology,  Cathouc  University  of  Amer- 
ica, Washington:  Poor,  Care  of,  by  the  Church, 
in  the  United  States. 

KING,  JOHN  HENRY,  Ph.D.,  S.T.B.,  PoRTft- 
mouth,  England:   Portsmouth,  Diocese  of. 

KING,  THOMAS  GEORGE,  K.S.G.,  Hon.  Secre- 
tary Catholic  Guardians  Association,  Lon- 
don: Poor  Laws. 


HOLWECK,  FREDERIC  G.,  St.  Louis,  Missouri:    ,,^^^„    , ,        ,^„ .  ^,^,  ^    «  «,  ^     ^ 

Prayer  of  Christ,  Feast  of  the;  PresenUtion  of    KmSCH,  Mgr.  JOHANN  P.,  S.T.D.,  Professor 


the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary,  Feast  of  the;  Ransom, 
Feast  of  Our  Lady  of. 

HOULIHAN,  JOHN  W.,  Portland,  Maine:  Port- 
land, Diocese  of. 

HUDLESTON,  GILBERT  ROGER,  O.S.B., 
Downside  Abbey,  Bath,  England:  Pickering, 
Thomas,  Venerable;  Placidus,  Saint;  Polding, 
John  Bede;  Pontefract  Priory;  Powel,  Philip, 
Venerable;  Reform  of  a  Religious  Order. 

HULL,  ERNEST  R.,  S.J.,  Editor,  "The  Ex- 
aminer", Bombay,  India:  Pondicherry,  Arch- 
diocese of;  Poona,  Diocese  of;  Quilon,  Diocese 
of;   Rajpootana,  Prefecture  Apostolic  of. 


OF  Pathology  and  Christian  ARCHiEOLOGY, 
University  of  Fribourg:  Phillips,  George; 
Philomena,  Saint;  Piedmont;  Pius  I,  Saint, 
Pope;  Pontian,  Saint;  Porter;  Praxedes  and 
Pudentiana;  Prelate;  Primicerius;  Primus  and 
Felician,  Saints;  Prisca,  Saint;  Processus  and 
Martinian,  Saints;  Prothonotary  Apostolic; 
Protus  and  Hyacinth,  Saints;  Province,  Ec- 
clesiastical; Pulcheria,  Saint;  Quinctianus, 
Saints;  Qulricus  and  Julitta,  Saints;  Quirinus, 
Saints;  Ratherius  of  Verona;  Referendarii; 
Reformation,  The;  Regesta,  Papal;  Regino  of 
PrOm;   Regionarii. 

KOTODZIEJCZYK,  EDMUND,  Cracow,  Galicia, 
Austria:  Poland. 


HUNT,  LEIGH,  Professor  of  Art,  College  of 

THE   City   of   New  York:    Piranesi,   Giam-    KURTH,  GODEFROID,  Director,  Belgian  His- 

torical  Institute,  Rome:   Philip  II,  King  of 


battista;  Raimondi,  Marcantonio. 

HUNTER-BLAIR,  SIR  D.  O.,  Bart.,  O.S.B.,  M.A., 
Fort  Augustus  Abbey,  Scotland:  Preston, 
Thomas. 

HUONDER,  ANTHONY,  S.J.,  St.  Ignatiub  Coi/- 
LEGE,  Valkenburo,  HOLLAND :  ReductioHs  of 
Paraguay. 

JARRETT,  BEDE,  O.P.,  B.A.  (Oxon.),  S.T.L., 
St.  Dominic's  Priory,  London:   Pilgrimages. 

J9NES,  W.  A.,  O.S.A.,  S.T.D.,  Bishop  of  Porto 
Rico:  Porto  Rico. 

JOYCE,  GEORGE  HAYWARD,  S.J.,  M.A.  (Oxon.), 
St.  Beuno's  College,  St.  Asaph,  Wales: 
Pope,  The. 

KAMPERS,  FRANZ,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Medi- 
eval AND  Modern  History,  University  of 
Brbslau:   Rainald  of  Dassel. 

KELLY,  BLANCHE  M.,  New  York:  Poor,  Little 
Sisters  of  the;  Poor  Servants  of  the  Mother  of 
God;  Port  Louis,  Diocese  of;  Port  Victoria, 
Diocese  of;  Providence,  Sisters  of,  of  St.  Anne. 


Spain. 

LATASTE,  JOSEPH,  Lrrr.D.,  Superior  of  the 
Seminary,  Airs-sur-Adour,  Landes,  France: 
Pius  V,  Saint,  Pope;  Polignac,  Melchior; 
Port-Royal. 

LAUCHERT,  FRIEDRICH,  Ph.D.,  Aachen:  Phy- 
siologus;  Pietism;  Pighius,  Albert;  Pistorius, 
Johann;  Raich,  Johann  Michael;  R&ss,  Andreas; 
Ratzinger,  Georg. 

LAVELLE,  Mgr.  MICHAEL  J.,  Vicar-General 
OF  THE  Archdiocese  of  New  York:  Preston, 
Thomas  Scott. 

•LE  BARS,  JEAN,  B.A.,  Lrrr.D.,  Member  of  the 
Asiatic  Society,  Paris:    Racine,  Jean. 

LEJAY,  PAUL,  Fellow  of  the  University  of 
France,  Professor,  Institut  Catholique, 
Paris:  Poggio  Bracciolini,  Giovanni  Francisco; 
Politian;  Priscianus;  Proba,  Faltonia;  Pru- 
dentius,  Aurelius  Clemens. 


vm 


CONTRIBUTORS  TO  THE  TWELFTH  VOLUME 


LENNOX,  PATRICK  JOSEPH,  B.A.,  Professor 
OF  English  Lanquaqb  and  Literature, 
Cathouc  University  of  America,  Washi  no- 
ton:  Pope,  Alexander;  Proctor,  Adelaide  Anne. 

LETELLIER,  A.,  S.S.S.,  Superior,  Fathers  of 
THE  Blessed  Sacrament,  New  York:  Priests' 
Communion  League. 

UNDSAY,  LIONEL  ST.  GEORGE,  B.Sc.,  Ph.D., 
EIditor-in-Chief,  "La  Nouyelle  France", 
Quebec:  Plessis,  Joseph-Octave;  Quebec,  Prov- 
ince of;  Raffeix,  Pierre;  Ragueneau,  Paul; 
Raymbault,  Charles. 

LINS,  JOSEPH,  Freiburg-im-Breibgau,  Germany: 
Plock,  Diocese  of;   Ratisbon,  Diocese  of. 

LOFFLER,  KLEMENS,  Ph.D.,  Librarian,  Uni- 
VERsrrr  of  MI^nster:  Pirkheimer,  Charitas; 
Pirkheimer,  WiUibaid;  Pius  VIII,  Pope;  Pome- 
rania;  Pontus;  Poppo,  Saint;  Pragmatic  Sanc- 
tion; PrQm;  Reifenstein;  Reisch,  Gregor; 
Reuchlin,  Johannes. 

LORTIE,  STANISLAS  A.,  M.A.,  S.T.D.,  Professor 
OF  Theology,  University  of  Laval,  Quebec: 
Poor,  Care  of,  by  the  Church,  in  Canada. 

•LOUGHLIN,  MoR.  JAMES  F.,  S.T.D.,  Phila- 
delfhia:  Pius  III  and  IV,  Popes. 

MAAS,  A.  J.,  S.J.,  Rector,  Woodstock  College, 
Maryland:  Preadamites;  Psalms,  Alphabetic; 
Quarantines;  Resurrection. 

McENERNEY,  GARRET  W.,  San  Francisco, 
California:  Pious  Fund  of  the  Calif omias. 

MacERLEAN,  ANDREW  A.,  New  York:  Quito, 
Archdjpcese  of. 

McGAHAN,  FLORENCE  RUDGE,  M.A.,  Youngs- 
TOW>f,  Ohio:  Presentation  Order,  Nagle,  Nano 
(Honoria);  Presentation,  Religious  Congrega- 
tions of  the;  Providence,  Daughters  of. 

McGINNIS,  CHARLES  F.,  Ph.D.,  S.T.L.,  St. 
Paul,  Minnesota:  Philip  Benizi,  Saint. 

McHUGH,  JOHN  AMBROSE,  O.P.,  S.T.L.,  Lector 
OF  Philosophy,  Dominican  House  of  Studies, 
Washington:  Presbyterianism;  Raymond  Mar- 
tini; Reginald,  Antonio;  Reginald  of  Pipemo. 

McNICHOLAS,  JOHN  T.,  O.P.,  S.T.L.,  New  York: 
Quam  singulari. 

MAERE,  R.,  S.T.D.,  Professor  of  Christian 
Archjbolqgy,  University  of  Louvain:  Reu- 
sens,  Edmond. 

MAGNIER,  JQHN,  C.SS.R.,  Clapham,  England: 
Redemptoristines. 

MAHER,  MICHAEL,  S.J.,  Lnr.D.,  M.A.  (Lond.), 
Director  of  Studies  and  Professor  of  Peda- 
gogics, Stonyhurbt  College,  Blackburn, 
England:  Psychology. 

MAN  DONNET,  PIERRE-FRANgOIS-FELIX, 
O.P.,  S.T.D.,  Rector,  University  of  Fribouro: 
Preachers,  Order  of. 


MARCH,  JOS£  MARIa,  S.J.,  Professor  or 
Church  History  and  Pathology,  Jesuit  Coi/- 
LEGE,  Tortosa,  Spaini  Pilar,  Nuestra  Sefkora  del. 

MARY  OF  PROVIDENCE,  MOTHER,  Provin- 
cial Superior,  Sisters  of  Charity  of  Provi- 
dence, Holyoke,  Massachusetts:  Providence, 
Sisters  of,  of  Charity. 

MARY  OF  ST.  DAVID,  SISTER,  Provincial  Su- 
perior, Sisters  of  the  Presentation,  St. 
Hyacinthe,  Canada:  Presentation  of  Mary, 
Congregation  of  the. 

MEEHAN,  ANDREW  B.,  S.T.D.,  J.U.D.,  Pro- 
fessor OF  Canon  Law  and  Liturgy,  St.  Ber- 
nard's Seminary,  Rochester,  New  York  :  Proof ; 
Provision,  Canonical;  Provost;  Public  Honesty; 
Putative  Marriage;  Rector;  Registers,  Paro- 
chial; Reguls  Juris;  Repose,  Altar  of;  Re- 
scripts, Papal;  Reservation;  Residence,  Ec- 
clesiastical. 

MEISTERMANN,  BARNABAS,  O.F.M.,  Lector, 
Convent  of  S.  Salvator,  Jerusalem:  Pre- 
't(»ium. 

MERSHMAN,  FRANCIS,  O.S.B.,  S.T.D.,  Pro- 
fessor OF  Moral  Theology,  Canon  Law,  and 
Liturgy,  St.  John's  College,  Collegevillb, 
Minnesota:  Piscina;  Plenarium;  Quadrages- 
ima; Quinquagesima;  Raymond  Nonnatus, 
Saint;  Renty,  Gaston-Jean-Baptiste  de. 

MOELLER,  CH.,  Professor  of  General  History, 
IIniversity  of  Louvain:  Redeemer,  Knights  of 
the. 

MOONEY,  JAMES,  United  States  Ethnologist, 
Bureau  of  African  Ethnology,  Washing- 
ton: Pima  Indians;  Piro  Indians;  Piscataway 
Indians;  Potawatomi  Indians;  Pouget,  Jean- 
Fran^ois-Albert  du;  Pueblo  Indians;  Puyallup 
Indians;  Quamichan  Indians;  Quapaw  Indians; 
Quiche;  Quichua  Indians;  -Quintana,  August  in; 
Ravalli,  Antonio. 

•MORAN,  PATRICK  FRANCIS  CARDINAL, 
Archbishop  of  Sydney,  Primate  of  Australia: 
Plunkett,  OUver,  Venerable. 

MORENO-LACALLE,  JULIAN,  B.A.,  Editor, 
"  Pan-American  Union  ",  Washington  :  Piauhy, 
Diocese  of;  Porto  Alegre,  Diocese  of;  Portoviejo, 
Diocese  of;  Puno,  Diocese  of. 

MORICE,  A.  G.,  O.M.I.,  Lecturer  in  Anthro- 
pology, University  of  Saskatchewan,  Win- 
nipeg, Manitoba,  Canada:  Prince  Albert,  Dio- 
cese of;  Regina,  Diocese  of. 

MUELLER,  ULRICH  F.,  Professor  of  Philos- 
ophy, St.  Charles  Borromeo  Seminary, 
Carthagena,  Ohio:  Precious  Blood,  Feast  of 
the  Most;  Precious  Blood,  Archoonfratemity  of 
the  Most;  Precious  Blood,  Congregation  of  the 
Most;  Precious  Blood,  Daughters  of  the;  Pre- 
cious Blood,  Sisters  of  the. 


iz 


CONTRIBUTORS  TO  THE  TWELFTH  VOLUME 


MURRAY,  Mob.  JOHN  B.,  Vicar-General  op  the 
Abchdiocebe  of  Cincinnati,  Ohio:  Purcsell 
John  Baptist. 

NEVILS,  WILLIAM  COLEMAN,  S.J.,  Woodstock 
College,  Maryland:  Piconio,  Bemardine  a. 

NORTON,  JOHN  HENRY,  S.T.D.,  Bibhop  op  Port 
Augusta,  Australia:  Port  Augusta,  Diocese  of^ 

OBRECHT,  EDMOND  M.,  O.C.R.,  Abbot  of 
Gethsemani,  Kentucky:  Pierre  de  Castelnau, 
Blessed;  Pontigny,  Abbey  of;  Ranc6,  Jean- 
Armand  le  BouthiUier  de. 

O'BYRNE,  MICHAEL,  O.P.,  Vicar-General  of 
THE  Archdiocese  of  Port  of  Spain,  Trinidad, 
British  West  Indies:  Port  of  Spain,  Archdio- 
cese of. 

O'DONNELL,  MICHAEL  JOSEPH,  Professor  of 
Moral  Theology,  Maynooth  College,  Dub- 
lin: Possession,  Demoniacal. 

O'DONNELL,  PATRICK,  S.T.D.,  Bishop  of  Ra- 
phob,  Ireland:  Raphoe,  Diocese  of. 

O'HARA,  EDWIN  V.,  Portland,  Oregon:  Poor 
Clares. 

O'HARA,  FRANK,  M.A.,  Ph.D.,  Instructor  in  Po- 
litical Economy,  Catholic  University  of 
America,  Washington:  Physiocrats;  Political 
Economy,  Science  of. 

O'KANE,  MICHAEL  M.,  O.P.,  Ph.D.,  S.T.D.,  Pro- 
vincial OF  THE  Irish  Province  of  the  Do- 

*  • 

MiNiCAN  Order,  Dubun:    Raymond  of  Pena- 
fort,  Saint. 

OLIGER,  LIVARIUS,  O.F.M.,  Lector  of  Church 
History,  Colleoio  S.  Antonio,  Rome:  Poor 
Brothers  of  Saint  Francis  Seraphicus;  Quif&ones, 
Francisco. 

OTT,  MICHAEL,  O.S.B.,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  the 
History  of  Philosophy,  St^  John's  College, 
.  CoLLEOEviLLE,  MINNESOTA:  PicHus;  Pilgrim; 
Pinna  da  Encamagao,  Mattheus;  Pitra,  Jean- 
Baptiste-Frangois;  Pius  VI  and  IX,  Popes; 
Prior;  Prioress;  Priory;  Prudentius,  Galindo; 
Rabanus,  Maurus  Magnentius;  Ratisbonne, 
Maria  Alphonse;  Ratramnus;  Reding,  Augus- 
tine; R^ale,  Droit  de;  Reims,  Synods  of. 

OTTEN,  JOSEPH,  Pittsburg,  Pennsylvania: 
Philips,  Peter;  Piel,  Peter. 

OUSSANI,  GABRIEL,  Ph.D.,  Professor,  Ecclesi- 
astical History,  Early  Christian  Litera- 
ture, AND  Biblical  Arch^eeology,  St.  Joseph's 
Seminary,  Dunwoodie,  New  York:  Phcenicia. 

PACE,  EDWARD  A.,  Ph.D.,  S.T.D.,  Professor  of 
Philosophy,  Catholic  University  of  America, 
Washington:  Quietism. 

PAPI,  HECTOR,  S.J.,  Ph.D.,  B.C.L.,  S.T.D.,  Pro- 
fessor OF  Canon  Law,  Woodstock  College, 
Maryland:  Prefect  Apostolic;  Procurator. 


PARKINSON,  HENRY,  S.T.D.,  Ph.D.,  Rector, 
OscoTT  College,  Birmingham,  England: 
Priests,  Confraternities  of;  Priests'  Eucharistic 
League;  Pugin,  Augustus  Welby  Northmore. 

PETERSON,  JOHN  B.,  Professor  of  Eccelsia&- 
TiCAL  History  and  Liturgy,  St.  John's  Sem- 
inary, Brighton,  Massachusetts:  Pistoia, 
Synod  of. 

♦PfiTRIDES,  SOPHRONE,  A.A.,  Professor, 
Greek  Catholic  Seminary  of  Kadi-Keui, 
Constantinople:  Philomelium;  Phocsea;  Pi- 
nara;  Pityns;  Pogla;  Polemonium;  Polybotus; 
Polystylum;  Pomaria;  Priene;  Proconnesus; 
Ptolemais;  Ptolemais  (Saint-Jean  d'Acre);  Re- 
mesiana. 

PHILLIMORE,  JOHN  SWINNERTON,  M.A. 
(OxoN.),  Professor  of  Humanities,  Univer- 
sity OF  Glasgow  :  Procopius  of  Csesarea. 

PHILLIPS,  EDWARD  C,  S.J.,  Ph.D.,  Woodstock 
College,  Maryland:  Pianciani,  Giambattista; 
Provancher,  L6on  Abel;  Raynaud,  Th^phile. 

PIACENZA,  PIETRO,  S.T.D.,  J.U.D.,  Prothono^ 

TARY  ApOSTOUC  OF  THE  SaCRED  CONGREGATION 

OF  Rites,  Professor  of  Liturgy,  Seminary  of 
St.  Apolunarib,  Rome:  Requiem,  Masses  of. 

PIERRON,  JOHN  BAPTIST,  S.T.D.,  Milwaukee, 
Wisconsin:  Poor  Catholics. 

PLASSMAN,  THOMAS,  O.F.M.,  Ph.D.,  S.T.D.,  St. 
Bonaventure's  Seminary,  St.  Bonaventure, 
New  York:  Pian6  Carpine,  Giovanni  da. 

PLATER,  CHARLES  D.,  S.J.,  B.A.  (Oxon.),  St. 
Beuno's  College,  St.  Asaph,  Wales:    Porter, 
George. 

POHLE,  JOSEPH,  S.T.D.,  Ph.D.,  J.C.L.,  Pro- 
fessor OF  Dogmatic  Theology,  University  of 
Breslau:  Predestinarianism;  Predestination; 
Priesthood;  Regeneration. 

POLLARD,  WILLLAM  HENRY,  B.A.  (Univ.  of 
LoND.),  Vice-Rector,  Ratcliffe  College, 
Leicester,  England:  Providence,  Sisters  of, 
of  the  Institute  of  Charity. 

POLLEN,  JOHN  HUNGERFORD,  S.J.,  London: 
Redford,  Sebastian. 

PRESTAGE,  EDGAR,  B.A.  (Balliol  College,  Ox- 
ford), Commendador  Portuguese  Order  of  S. 
Thiago;  Corresponding  Member  of  the  Lis- 
bon Royal  Academy  of  Sciences  and  the  Lis- 
bon Geographical  Society,  Chiltern,  Bow- 
don,  Cheshire,  England:  Pombal,  Sebastifio 
Jo86  de  Carvalho  e  Mello,  Marquis  de;  Portugal 
and  Portuguese  Literature;  Portuguese  East 
Africa;  Portuguese  West  Africa. 

PUSTET,  FRIEDRICH,  Ratisbon,  Germany: 
Pustet. 

RAHILLY,  ALFRED  J.,  S.J.,  M.A.,  Stonyhurst 
College,  Blackburn,  England:  Reason. 


CONIRIBUTORS  TO  THE  TWELFTH  VOLUME 


REILLY,  WENDELL  S.,  S.S.,  S.T.D.,  D.S.S.,  Pro- 
fessor OF  Sacred  Scripture,  St.  John's  Sem- 
iNARTy  Brighton,  Massachusbttb:  Polyglot 
Bibles. 

REMY,  ARTHUR  F.  J.,  M.A.,  Ph.D.,  Adjunct-Pro- 
fessor OF  Germanic  Philobopht,  Columbia 
University,  New  York:  Reinmar  of  Hagenau. 

REVHiLE,  JOHN  CLEMENT,  S.J.,  Professor  of 
Rhetoric  and  Sacred  Eloqxtence,  St.  Stanib- 
liAUS  College,  Macon,  Georgia:  Ravignaiiy 
Gustave-Xavier-Lacroix  de. 

RITCHIE,  C.  SEBASTIAN,  M.A.  (Cantab.),  The 
Oratory,  Birmingham,  England:  Philip  Ro- 
molo  Neri,  Saint. 

ROMPEL,  JOSEF  HEINRICH,  S.J.,  Ph.D.,  Stella 
Matutina  College,  Feldkirch,  Austria: 
Plumier,  Charles. 

RYAN,  JOHN  A.,  S.T.D.,  Professor  of  Moral 
Theology,  St.  Paul  Seminary,  St.  Paul,  Min- 
nesota: Population  Theories;  Poverty  and 
Pauperism;  Rerum  Novarum. 

8ACHER,  HERMANN,  Ph.D.,  Edttor  of  the 
"Konversationslexikon",  Assistant  Editor, 
''Staatslexikon^',  of  the  GOrresgesell- 
schaft,  Freiburo-im-Breisgau,  Germany: 
Reufls. 

SAGMtTLLER,  JOHANNES  BAPTIST,  Professor 
OF  Theologt,  University  of  TtJBiNGBN:  Privil- 
eges, Ecclesiastical. 

SALEMBIER,  LOUIS  CANON,  S.T.D.,  Professor 
OF  Church  History,  University  of  Lille: 
Pisa,  Council  of. 

SALTET,  LOUIS,  S.T.D.,  Lttt.  Lie,  Professor 
OF  Church  History,  Instftut  Cathouque, 
Toulouse:  Reordinations. 

SAUVAGE,  GEORGE  M.,  C.S.C.,  S.T.D.,  Ph.D., 
Professor  of  Dogmatic  Theology,  Holy 
Cross  College,  Washington:  Positivism; 
R^gis,  Pierre-Sylvain. 

SCHEID,  N.,  8.J.,  Stella  Matutina  College, 
Feldkirch,  Austria:  Pyrker,  Johann  Ladis- 
laus  von  Orberwart. 

SCHLAGBR,  HEINRICH  PATRICIUS,  O^F.M., 
St.  Ludwig's  College,  Dalheim,  Germany: 
Reisach,  Carl  von;  Reumont,  Alfred  von. 

SCHMID,  ULRICH,  Ph.D.,  Edttor,  "Walhalla", 
Munich:  Reichenau. 

SCHUYLER,  HENRY  C,  S.T.L.,  Vice-Rector, 
Catholic  High  School,  Philadelphia,  Penn- 
sylvania: Ride,  Sebastian. 

SCHWEITZER,  JOSEPH,  C.R.,  St.  Jerome's  Col- 
lege, Berlin,  Province  of  Ontario,  Canada: 
Resurrection,  Congregation  of  the. 

SCHWICKERATH,  ROBERT,  S.J.,  Holy  Cross 
College,  Worcester,  Massachusetts:  Ratio 
Studionim. 

scxyrr,  henry  Arthur,  s.t.d.,  ll.d.,  stb. 

FoY,  Province  of  Quebec,  Canada:   Quebec, 
Archdiocese  of. 


SCULLY,  VINCENT  JOSEPH,  C.R.L.,  St.  Ivbb, 
Cornwall,  England:  Radewyns,  Florens. 

SECUNDA,  MOTHER  M.,  Provincial  Superior, 
Poor  Handmaids  of  Jesus  Christ,  Fort 
Wayne,  Indiana:  Poor  Handmaids  of  Jesus 
Christ. 

SEROCZYNSKI,  FELIX  THOMAS,  B.A.,  Whit- 
ing, Indiana:  Poles  in  the  United  States. 

SHIPMAN,  ANDREW  J.,  M.A.,  LL.M.,  New  York: 
Prsemysl,  Sambor,  and  Sanok,  Diocese  of;  Ras- 
kolniks. 

SIMAR,  THfiOPHILE,  Ph.D.,  Lttt.D.,  Louvain: 
Puteanus,  Erycius. 

SLATER,  T.,  S.J.,  St.  Francis  Xavibr's  College, 
Liverpool,  England:  Reparation;  Restitution. 

SLOANE,  CHARLES  W.,  New  York:  Prescription, 
In  Civil  Jurisprudence ;  Provisors, '  Statute  of. 

SOLLIER,  JOSEPH  FRANCIS,  S.M.,  S.T.D.,  Pro- 
vincial OF  THE  American  Province  of  the  So- 
ciety OF  Mary,  Boston,  Massachusetts:  Pie, 
Louis-Edouard-DiSsird;  Precious  Blood;  Que- 
len,  Hyacinthe-Louis  de;  Rapin,  Ren6;  Re- 
demption. 

SORTAIS,  GASTON,  S.J.,  Associate  Edttor, 
"Etudes",  Paris:  Pinturicchio;  PoUajuolo, 
Antonio  and  Piero  Benci. 

SOUVAY,  CHARLES  L.,  CM.,  S.T.D.,  Ph.D.,  Pro- 
fessor, Sacred  Scripture,  HebreTw  and  Lit- 
urgy, Kenrigk  Semin^y,  St.  Louis,  Missouri: 
Pisidia;  Plants  in  the  Bible;  Pools  in  Scripture; 
Purim;  Rabbi  and  Rabbinism. 

SPAHN,  MARTIN,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Modern 
History,  University  of  Strasburg:  Prussia; 
Radowiti,  Joseph  Maria  von. 

STANISLAUS,  MOTHER  M.,  St.  Michael's  Prbs^ 
ENTATiON  Convent,  New  York:  Presentation 
Order  in  America. 

STEELE,  FRANCESCA  M.,  Stroud,  Gloucester- 
shire, England:  Refuge,  Sisters  of  Our  Lady  of 
Charity  of  the;  Retreat  of  the  Sacred  Heart, 
Congregation  of  the. 

STEIN,  JOHN,  S.J.,  Doctor  in  Mathematics  and 
Astronomy  (Leiden),  Amsterdam,  Holland: 
Pingr^,  Alexandre  Guy;  Platina,  Bartolomeo. 

STOCKMAN,  ALOIS,  S.J.,  Frankfortk)n-thb- 
Main,  Germany:  Prester  John. 

TARNOWSKI,  COUNT  STANISLAUS,  President, 
Imperial  Academy  oi;  Sciences;  Professor, 
Polish  Literature,  University  of  Cracow: 
Polish  Literature. 

THEODOSIA,  SISTER  MARY,  St.  Mary-of-the- 
WooDS,  Indiana:  Providence,  Sisters  of. 

THURSTON,  HERBERT,  S.J.,  London:  Pole, 
Reginald;  Pontificalia;  Popular  Devotions; 
Prayer-Books;  Primer,  The;  Processional,  Ro- 
man; Processions;  Processional  Cross;  Prop- 
erty, Ecclesiastical;  Psalterium;  'Pyx;  Rambler, 
The;  Regalia;  Relics;  Reliquaries;  Reserva- 
tion of  the  Blessed  Sacrament. 


CONTRIBUTORS  TO  THE  TWELFTH  VOLUME 


TIERNEY,  JOHN  J.,  M.A.,  S.T.D.,  Professor  of 
Sacred  Scripture  and  Semitic  Studies,  Mt. 
St.  Mary's  College,  Emmitsburg,  Maryland: 
Priest,  The  High. 

TURNER,  WILLLA.M,  B.A.,  S.T.D.,  Professor  of 
Logic  and  the  History  of  Philosophy,  Catho- 
lic University  of  America,  Washington: 
Plato  and  Platonism;  PYethon,  Georgius  Ge- 
mistus;  Pragmatism;  Pyrrhonism;  Pythagoras 
and  Pythagoreanism;  Ramus,  Peter;  Raymond 
LuHy;  Raymond  of  Sabunde;  Remigius  of 
Auxerre. 

VAILHfi,  SIMfiON,  A.A.,  Member  of  the  Russian 
AbchjEOlogical  Institute  of  Constantinople, 
Professor  of  Sacred  Scripture  and  History, 
Greek  Cathouc  Seminary  of  Kadi-Keui,  Con- 
stantinople: Philippi;  Philippopolis  (Thracia 
Secunda)';  Philippopolis,  in  Arabia;  Pompeiop- 
olis;  Porphyreon;  Prusias  ad  Hypium;  Ra- 
matha. 

VAN  DER  HEEREN,  ACHILLE,  S.T.L.  (Lou- 
vain),  Professor  of  Moral  Theology  and 
Librarian,  Grande  S£minaire,  Bruges,  Bel- 
gium: Philippi;  Philippians,  Epistle  to  the. 

VAN  HOVE,  A.,  D.C.L.,  Professor  of  Church 
History  and  Canon  Law,  University  of  Lou- 
vain:  Pirhing,  '^mricus;  Polycarpus;  Prece- 
dence; Preconization;  Promulgation;  Reiffen- 
stuel,  Johann  Georg. 

VASCHALDE,  A.A.,  C.S.B.,  Catholic  University 
OF  America,  Washington:  Philoxenus  of  Mar- 
bogh. 

VERMEERSCH,  ARTHUR,  S.J.,  LL.D.,  Doctor 
OF  Social  and  Poutical  Sciences,  Professor 
OF  Moral  Theology  and  Canon  Law,  Lou- 
vain:  Postulant;  Poverty;  Profession,  Re- 
ligious; Provincial;  Regulars;  Religious  Life. 

VICTORIA,  SISTER  M.,  C.PP.S.,  Maria  Stein, 
Ohio:  Precious  Blood,  Sisters  of  the. 

■v. 

VOGEL,  JOHN,  Vicar  Provincial  of  the  Pious  So- 
ciety OF  Missions,  Brooklyn,  New  York: 
Pious  Society  of  Missions,  The. 

WAINEWRIGHT,  JOHN  BANNERMAN,  B.A. 
(OxoN.),  London:  Pibush,  John,  Venerable; 
Pike,  William,  Vfenerable;  Pilchard,  Thomas,  Ven- 
erable; Pormort,  Thomas,  Venerable;  Postgate, 
Nicholas,  Venerable;  Pounde,  Thomas;  Ralph 
Crockett,  Venerable;  Ralph  Sherwin,  Blessed. 

WALKER,  LESLIE  J.,  S.J.,  M.A.  (Lond.),  St. 
Bbuno'b  College,  St.  Asaph,  Wales:  Provi- 
dence, Divine;  Relativism. 


WALLAU,  HEINRICH  WILHELM,  Mainz,  Ger- 
many: Plantin,  Christophe. 

WALSH,  JAMES  J.,  M.D.,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  D.Sc., 
Dean  of  the  Medical  School,  Fordham  Uni- 
versity, New  York:  Psychotherapy. 

WALTER,  ALOYSIUS,  C.SS.R.,  Professor  of 
Dogmatic  Theology,  St.  Mary's,  Kinnoull, 
Perth,  Scotland:  Pitoni,  Joseph;  Rameau, 
Jean-Philippe. 

WARD,  Mgr.  BERNARD,  Canon  of  Westmin- 
ster, F.R.  Hist.  Soc.,  President,  St.  Edmund's 
College,  Ware,  England:  Plowden,  Francis; 
Poynter,  William. 

WARREN,  CORNELIUS,  C.SS.R.,  Professor  of 
Sacred  Scripture,  Redemptorist  House  of 
Studies,  Esopus,  New  York:  Putxer,  Joseph. 

WEBER,  N.  A.,  S.M.,  S.T.D.,  Professor  of  Fun- 
damental Theology  and  Church  History, 
Marist  College,  Washington:  Pius  II  and 
VII,  Popes;  Porphyrins,  Saint;  Ptolemy  the 
Gnostic;  Quierzy,  Councils  of;  Quirini,  Angelo 
Maria;  Rader,  Matthew;  Raynaldi,  Odorich; 
Reformed  Church;  Renaudot,  Eusebius. 

WHYTE,  M.  DB  SALES,  Convent  of  the  Presen- 
tation, Cork,  Ireland:  Presentation,  Order  of 
the. 

WILHELM,  JOSEPH,  S.T.D.,  Ph.D.,  Aachen, 
Germany:  Protestantism. 

WILLIAMSON,  GEORGE  CHARLES,  Lirr.D., 
London:  Piombo,  Sebastian  del;  Pordenone, 
Giovanni  Antonio;  Reni,  Guido. 

WILLIS,  JOHN  WILEY,  M.A.,  St.  Paul,  Min- 
nesota: Punishment,  Capital. 

WDLFSGRUBER,  COLESTINE,  O.S.B.,  Vienna: 
Prague,  Archdiocese  of;  Przemysl,  Diocese  of; 
Ragusa,  Diocese  of;  Rauscher,  Joseph  Othmar. 

WOODLOCK,  THOMAS  F.,  New  York:  Piout, 
Father. 

WUEST,  JOSEPH,  C.SS.R.,  Ilchbster,  Maryland: 
Redeemer,  Feast  of  the  Most  Holy;  Redempto- 
rists. 

WYNNE,  JOHN  J.,  S.J.,  New  York:  Prayer. 

ZEVELY,  JULIA,  New  York:  Pierron,  Jean;  Pier- 
son,  Philippe  Rividre;  Poncet,  Joseph  Anthony  de 
la  Riviere. 

ZIMMERMAN,  BENEDICT,  O.D.C.,  St.  Luke's 
Priory,  Wincanton,  Somersetshire,  England: 
Philip  of  the  Blessed  Trinity. 


Tables  of  Abbreviations 

The  following  tables  and  notes  are  intended  to  guide  readers  of  The  Catholic  Encyclopedia  in 
interpreting  those  abbreviations,  signs,  or  technical  phrases  which,  for  economy  of  space,  will  be  most  fre- 
quently  used  in  the  work.    For  more  general  information  see  the  article  Abbreviations,  Ecclesiastical. 


I. — General  Abbreviations. 

a. article. 

ad  an. at  the  year  (Lat.  ad  annum). 

an.,  ann.  • the  year,  the  years  (Lat.  annua^ 

annt), 

ap in  (Lat.  apud). 

art article. 

Assyr. Assyrian. 

A.  8 Anglo-Saxon. 

A.  V Authorized  Version  (i.e.  tr.  of  the 

Bible  authorized  for  use  in  the 
Anglican  Church — the  so-called 
"King  James",  or  "Protestant 
Bible"). 

b.*. bom. 

Bk. Book. 

Bl Blessed. 

C,  o. about  (Lat.  circa);  canon;  chap- 

ter; compagnie, 

can « . .  .canon. ' 

cap. chapter  (Lat.  caput — used  only 

in  Latin  context). 

cf. compare  (Lat.  confer). 

cod. codex. 

col column. 

ooncL conclusion. 

const.,  constit.  •  •  .Lat.  constitutio, 

cur&. by  the  industry  of, 

d. died. 

diet dictionary  (Fr.  dicUonnaire), 

di^ Lat.  disputaiio. 

diss. Lat.  dtssertoHo, 

dist. Lat.  disUnctio. , 

D.  V Douay  Version. 

ed.,  edit. edited,  edition,  editor. 

Ep.,  Epp. letter,  letters  (Lat.  eputo&i). 

Fr. French. 

geo.  •  •  • genus. 

Or. Greek. 

a.  E.,  Hist.  Eod.  .Ecclesiastical  History. 

Heb.,  Hebr. Hebrew. 

lb.,  ibid in  the  same  place  (Lat   ibidetn). 

Id.  •  •  • .' the  same  person,  or  author  (Lat. 

idem). 


inf. below  (Lat.  infra). 

It Italian. 

L  c,  loc.  cit at  the  place  quoted  (Lat.  loco 

citato). 

Lat Latin. 

lat latitude. 

lib book  (Lat.  liber). 

long longitude. 

Mon Lat.  Monumenta. 

BIS.,  MSS manuscript,  manuscripts. 

n.,  no .number. 

N.  T New  Testament. 

Nat National. 

Old  Fr.,  O.  Fr. . .  .Old  French. 

op.  cit in  the  work  quoted  (Lat.  opere 

citato). 

Ord Order. 

O.  T Old  Testament. 

p.,  pp page,  pages,  or  (in  Latin  ref- 
erences) pars  (part). 

par. paragraph. 

passim. in  various  places. 

pt..... part. 

Q. ., Quarterly    (a    periodical),    e.g. 

"Church  Quarterly". 

Q.,  QQ.,  quest. . .  .question,  questions  (Lat.  qmestio). 

q.  V which  [title]  see  (Lat.  quod  vide). 

Rev Review  (a  periodical). 

R.S Rolls  Series 

R.  V Revised  Version 

S., SS Lat.    Sanctus,    Sancti,    "Saint", 

"Saints" — used  in  this  Ency- 
clopedia only  in  Latin  context 

Sept Septuagint. 

Sees Session. 

Skt Sanskrit. 

Sp Spanish. 

0q.,  sqq following  page,  or  pages.  (Lat. 

sequens). 

St.,  Sts. Saint,  Saints. 

sup Above  (Lat.  supra). 

s.  v Under    the    corresponding   title 

(Lat.  sub  voce). 

torn volume  (Lat.  tomiLs\ 


TABIiES  OF  ABBREVIATIONS. 


tv.  •  •  ••  •  • tranBlation  or  translated.  By  it- 
self it  means  "English  transla- 
tion", or  "translated  into  Eng- 
lish by  ".  Where  a  translation 
is  into  any  other  language,  the 
language  is  stated. 

tr.,  tract tractate. 

V see  (Lat.  vide). 

Yen Venerable. 

Vol Volume. 

II. — ^Abbbeviations  of  Titles. 

Acta  SS Ada  Sanctorum  (Bollandists). 

Ann.  pont.  cath Battandier,  A  nnuatra  pontifioal 

catholique. 

Bibl.  Diet.  Eng.  Cath.Gillow,  Bibliographical  Diction- 

*  ary  of  the  English  Catholics. 

Diet. Christ.  Antiq..  .Smith    and   Cheetham    (ed.\ 

Dictionary  of  Christian  An- 
tiquities. 


Diet.  Christ.  Bipg.  . .  Smith  and  Waoe  (ed.),  Diction- 
ary of  Christian  Biography. 
Diet,  d'aroh.  chr6t..  .Gabrol  (ed.),  DicHonnaire  d^at' 

ch4oloffieckf4HmneetdeUhir' 
gie. 

Dict..deth^L  cath.  .Vacant  and   Mangenot  (ed.), 

DicUonnaire      de     thMogie 

catholiqiie. 
Diet.  Nat.  Biog. Stephen    (ed.).   Dictionary  of 

National  Biography. 
Hast.,  Diet,  of  the 
Bible Hastings  (ed.),  A  Dictionary  jof 

the  Bible. 
Kirchenlex. Wetzer  and  Welte,  KircherUexir 

'Con, 

P.  G Migne  (ed.),  Paires  Gnxci. 

P.  L Migne  (ed.),  Palrea  Latini. 

Vig.,  Diet,  de  la  Bible.  Vigouroux  (ed.),  Dictionnaire  di 

la  BibU. 


NoTB  I. — Large  Roman  numerals  standins  alone  indicate  volumee.  Small  Roman  numerals  standing  alone  indicate 
chaptera.  Arabic  numerals  standing  alone  indicate  pages.  In  other  cases  the  divisions  are  explicitly  stated.  Thus  "  Rashdall, 
Universities  of  Europe,  I.  ix"  refers  the  reader  to  the  ninth  chapter  of  the  first  vc^ume  of  that  work;  "I,  p.  ix"  would  indicate  the 
ninth  page  of  the  preface  of  the  same  volume. 

NoTB  II. — Where  St.  Thomas  (Aquinas)  is  cited  without  the  name  of  any  particular  work  the  refermce  is  always  to 
**8umma  Theologica"  (not  to  "Summa  Philosophic").  Hm  divisions  of  the  "Summa  Theol."  are  indicated  by  a  system  which 
may  beot  be  understood  by  the  following  example:  *'  I-II,  Q.  vi,  a.  7,  ad  2  um  "  refers  the  reader  to  the  9eoenth  artiele  of  the 
tisah  question  in  the  firai  part  of  the  secoruf  part,  in  the  response  to  the  teoond  objection. 

NoTB  III. — ^The  abbreviations  employed  for  the  various  books  of  the  Bible  are  obvious.  Eocleeiasticus  is  indicated  by 
EoduM.t  to  Hii«i.ingiiiHh  it  from  Eooleaiastes  (Ecdea.).  It  should  also  be  noted  that  I  and  II  Kings  in  D.  V.  carreepond  to  I  and  II 
Samuel  in  A.  V. ;  and  I  and  II  Par.  to  I  and  II  C3ironicles.  Where,  in  the  spelling  ef  a  i»oper  name,  there  is  a  marked  differaaoe 
between  the  D.  V.  and  the  A  V.,  the  form  found  in  the  latter  is  added,  in  pawntheBSK. 


XIV 


Full  Page  Illustrations  in  Volume  XII 

Frontispiece  in  Colour  pagb 

Philip  II— Titian 4 

Compostela — Church  of  Santiago 90 

Pisa — Baptistery,  Cathedral,  and  Bell  Tower 112 

Pius  VII — ^Jacques-Louis  David 134 

Pius  IX 136 

PiusX 138 

Reginald,  Cardinal  Pole — Sebastiano  del  Piombo 202 

Tobias  and  the  Angel — PoUajuolo 216 

Portugal — Hieronymite  Monastery,  etc 304 

Portugal — ^The  Hospital,  Braga,  etc 306 

Prague 340 

Pretorium — ^The  Rock  of  Baris  and  the  Turkish  Barracks,  Jerusalem 404 

Pueblo  Dance  and  Group  of  PUeblo  Indians 556 

Pulpits 562 

St.  Genevieve — Puvis  de  Chavannes , 586 

Quebec 598 

Raphael 646 

Ravenna 666 

Cathedral  of  Notre-Dame,  Reims 730 

Reliquary  in  the  form  of  a  Diptych 786 

Reliquaries  in  the  Church  of  S.  Ursula,  Cologne 737 

Guido  Reni 768 


\ 


Maps 

Philippine  Islands 16 

Poland 194 

The  Jesuit  Reductions  of  Paraguay 696 


THE 
CATHOLIC  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Philip  II  (Augustus),  King  of  France,  b.  22  or  25 
Aug.,  1165;  d.  at  Mantes,  14  July,  1223,  son  of  Ix)ui8 
VII  and  Alix  de  Champagne.  He  was  saved  from  a 
serious  illness  after  a  pilgrimage  made  by  his  father  to 
the  tomb  of  Thomas  a  Recket;  he  succeeded  to  the 
throne  18  Sept.,  1180.  His  marriage  with  Isabella 
of  Hainault,  niece  of  the  Count  of  Flanders,  the  con- 
flicts which  he  afterwards  sustained  against  the  latter, 
and  the  deaths  of  the  Countess  (1182)  and  Count  oi 
Flanders  (1185),  increased  the  royal  power  in  the 
north  of  France.  His  strife  with  Henry  II  of  England 
in  concert  with  the  sons  of  that  monarch,  Henry, 
Richard,  and  John,  resulted  in  1189  in  the  Treaty  of 
Azay-sur-Cher,  which  enhanced  the  royal  power  in 
the  centre  of  France.  The  strug§;le  with  the  Plantag- 
enets  was  the  ruling  idea  of  Philip  II's  whole  policy. 
Richard  Cceur  de  Lion  having  become  King  of  Eng- 
land, 6  July,  1189,  was  at  first  on  amicable  terms  with 
Philip.  Together  they  undertook  the  Third  Crusade, 
but  quarrelled  in  Palestine,  and  on  his  return  Philip 
II  accused  Richard  of  having  attempted  to  poison 
him.  As  Richard  had  supported  in  Sicily  the  claims 
of  Tancred  of  Lecce  against  those  of  the  Emperor 
Henry  VI,  the  latter  resolved  to  be  avenged.  Ricnard, 
having  been  taken  captive  on  his  return  from  the  Cru- 
sade by  the  Duke  of  Austria,  was  delivered  to  Henry 
VI,  who  held  him  prisoner.  Philip  II  sent  William, 
Archbishop  of  Reims,  to  Henry  VI  to  request  that 
Richard  should  remain  the  captive  of  Germany  or 
that  he  should  be  delivered  to  Philip  as  his  prisoner. 
Without  loss  of  time  Philip  reached  an  agreement  with 
John  Lackland,  Richard  s  brother.  Normandy  was 
delivered  up  by  a  secret  treaty  and  John  acknowl- 
edged himself  Philip's  vassal.  But,  when  in  Feb., 
1194,  Richard  was  set  free  by  Henry  VI,  John  Lack- 
land became  reconciled  with  him  and  endless  conflict 
followed  between  Richard  and  Philip.  On  13  Jan., 
1199,  Innocent  III  imposed  on  them  a  truce  of  five 
yeara.  Shortly  after  this  Richard  died.  Subsequently 
Philip  defended  against  John,  Richard's  successor,  the 
claims  of  the  young  Arthur  of  Brittany,  and  then 
those  of  Hugh  de  Lusignan,  Count  of  La  Marche, 
whose  betrothed  had  been  abducted  by  John.  The 
war  between  Philip  and  John,  interrupted  by  the 
truces  imposed  by  the  papal  legates,  became  a  na- 
tional war;  and  in  1206  John  lost  his  possessions  in 
central  France.  Philip  was  sometimes  displeased 
with  the  pontifical  intervention  between  France  and 
"the  Plantagenets,  but  the  prestige  of  Innocent  III 
forced  him  to  accept  it.  Protracted  difficulties  took 
place  between  him  and  the  pope  owing  to  the  te- 
nacity with  which  Innocent  III  compelled  respect  for 
the  indissolubility  of  even  royal  marriages. 

In  1190  Philip  lost  his  w^ife,  Isabella  of  Hainault, 

whom  he  had  married  in  order  to  inherit  Artois,  and  in 

1193  he  married  Ingeburga,  sister  of  Canute  VI,  King 

of  Denmark.    As  he  immediately  desired  to  repudiate 

XII.— 1 


her,  an  assembly  of  complaisant  barons  and  bishops 
pronounced  the  divorce,  but  Ingeburga  appealed  to 
Rome.  Despite  the  remonstrances  of  Cclestine  III, 
Philip,  having  imprisoned  Ingeburga,  married  Agnes 
de  M6ran,  daughter  of  a  Bavarian  nobleman.  Inno- 
cent III,  recently  elected,  called  upcm  him  to  repudi- 
ate Agnes  and  take  back  Ingeburga,  and  on  the  king's 
refus^  the  legate,  Peter  of  Capua,  placed  the  kingdom 
under  an  interdict  (1198).  Most  of  the  bishops  re- 
fused to  publish  the  sentence.  The  Bishops  of  Paris 
and  Senlis,  who  published  it,  were  punished  by  having 
their  goods  confiscated.  At  the  end  of  nine  months 
Philip  appeared  to  yield;  he  feigned  reconciliation 
with  Ingeburga,  first  before  the  legate,  Octavian,  and 
then  before  the  Council  of  Soissons  (May,  1201),  but 
he  did  not  dismiss  Agnes  de  Mdran.  She  died  in  Au- 
gust, 1201,  and  Innocent  III  consented  to  legitimize 
the  two  children  she  had  borne  the  king,  but  Philip 
persisted  that  Rome  should  pronounce  his  divorce 
from  Ingeburga,  whom  he  held  prisoner  at  Etampes. 
Rome  refused  and  Philip  dismissed  the  papal  legate 
(1209).  In  1210  he  thought  of  marrying  a  princess 
of  Thurin^pa,  and  in  1212  renewed  his  importunities 
for  the  divorce  with  the  legate,  Robert  de  Cour^on. 
Then,  in  1213,  having  need  of  the  aid  of  the  pope  and 
the  King  of  Denmark,  he  suddenly  restored  Ingeburga 
to  her  station  as  queen. 

Another  question  which  at  first  caused  discord  be- 
tween Philip  II  and  Innocent  III,  and  regarding  which 
they  had  later  a  common  policy,  was  the  question  of 
Germany.  Otto  of  Brunswick,  who  was  Innocent 
Ill's  candidate  for  the  dignity  of  emperor,  was  the 
nephew  of  Richard  and  John  Lackland.  This  was  suffi- 
cient to  cause  Philip  to  interfere  in  favour  of  Philip 
of  Suabia.  They  formed  an  alliance  in  June,  1 198,  and 
when  Philip  of  Suabia  was  assassinated  in  1208  Philip 
put  forward  the  candidacy  of  Henry  of  Brabant. 
However,  the  whole  of  (jrermany  rallied  to  Otto  of 
Brunswick,  who  became  emperor  as  Otto  IV,  and  in 
1209  Philip  feared  that  the  new  emperor  would  in- 
vade France.  But  Otto  IV  quarrelled  with  Innocent 
III  and  was  excommunicated,  and  the  pope  by  an  un- 
expected move  called  upon  Philip  for  subsidies  and 
troops  to  aid  him  against  Otto.  They  agreed  to  pro- 
claim as  emperor  Frederick  of  Hohenstaufen,  the 
future  Frederick  II,  Philip  giving  Frederick  20,000 
"marcs"  to  defray  the  cost  of  his  election  (Nov.,  1212). 
Thus  was  inaugurated  the  policy  by  which  France 
meddled  in  the  affairs  of  Germany  and  for  the  first 
time  the  French  king  claimed,  like  the  pope,  to  have  a 
voice  in  the  imperial  election. 

The  accord  established  between  Innocent  and  Philip 
with  regard  to  the  affairs  of  Germany  subsequently 
extended  to  those  of  England.  Throughout  his  reign 
Philip  dreamed  of  a  landing  in  England.  As  early  as 
1209  he  had  negotiated  vnth  the  English  barons  who 
were  hostile  to  John  Lackland,  and  in  1212  with  the 

1 


PHILIP 


Iriflh  and  the  Welsh.  When  John  Lackland  subjected 
to  cruel  persecution  the  English  bishops  who,  in  spite 
of  him,  recognized  Stephen  Langton  as  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  Innocent  III  in  1212  placed  England 
under  interdict,  and  the  legate,  Pandulphus,  declared 
that  John  Lackland  had  forfeited  his  throne.  Then 
Philip,  who  received  at  his  court  all  the  enles  from 
England,  consented  to  go  to  England  in  the  name  of 
Innocent  III  to  take  away  the  crown  from  John  Lack- 
land. It  was  to  be  given  to  his  son,  the  future  Louis 
yill.  On  22  May^  1213,  the  French  expedition  was  to 
embark  at  Gravelmes,  when  it  was  learned  that  John 
Lackland  had  become  reconciled  with  Rome,  and  some 
months  later  he  became  a  vassal  of  the  pope.  Thus 
failed,  on  the  eve  of  its  realization,  the  project  of  the 
French  invasion  of  England.  But  the  legate  of  Inr 
nocent  III  induced  Philip  to  punish  Ferrand,  Count 
of  Flanders,  who  was  the  ally  of  all  the  enemies  of  the 
king.  At  the  battle  of  Bouvines  (27  July,  1214) 
Ferrand,  who  supported  Otto  IV^  was  taken  prisoner. 
This  battle  is  regarded  as  the  first  French  national 
victory.  Philip  II,  asserting  that  he  had  on  both  sides 
two  great  and  terrible  lions,  Otto  and  John,  excused 
himself  from  taking  part  in  the  Crusade  against  the  Al- 
bigenses.  He  permitted  his  son  Louis  to  make  two 
expeditions  into  Languedoc  to  support  Simon  de 
Montfort  in  1215,  and  Amaury  de  Montfort  in  1219, 
and  again  in  1222  he  sent  Amaury  de  Montfort  two 
hundmi  knights  and  ten  thousand  foot  soldiers  under 
the  Archbishop  of  Bourges  and  the  Count  of  La 
Marche.  He  foresaw  that  the  French  monarchy 
would  profit  by  the  defeat  of  the  Albigenses. 

Phihp's  reign  was  characterized  by  a  gigantic 
advance  of  the  French  monarchy.  Before  his  time 
the  King  of  France  reigned  only  over  the  He  de 
France  and  Bern,  and  had  no  communication  with 
the  sea.  To  this  patrimony  Philip  II  added  Artois, 
Amienois^  Valois,  Vermanaois,  a  la>rge  portion  of 
Beauvaisis,  Normandy,  Maine,  Anjou,  Touraine,  and 
a  part  of  Poitou  and  Saintonge.  His  bailiffs  and 
seneschals  established  the  royal  power  firmly  in  these 
countries.  Paris  became  a  fortified  city  and  attracted 
to  its  university  students  from  different  countries. 
Thanks  to  the  possession  of  Dieppe,  Rouen,  and  cer- 
tain parts  of  Saintonge,  the  French  monarchy  became 
a  maritime  and  commercial  power,  and  rhilip  in- 
vited foreign  merchants  to  France.  Flanders,  Pon- 
thieu,  and  Auvergne  became  subject  fiefs,  supervised 
by  agents  of  the  king.  He  exercised  a  sort  of  pro- 
tectorate over  Champagne  and  Burgundy.  Brittany 
was  in  the  hands  of  Pierre  de  Dreux,  a  Capetian  of 
the  younger  branch.  * '  History ' * ,  writes  M .  Luchaire, 
''does  not  present  so  many,  such  rapid,  and  such  com- 
plete changes  in  the  fortune  of  a  State". 

Philip  Augustus  did  not  interfere  in  episcopal  elec- 
tions. In  Normandy,  where  the  Plantagenets  had 
assumed  the  customof  directly  nominating  the  bishops, 
he  did  not  follow  their  example.  Guillaume  Le  Bre- 
ton, in  his  poem  the  ''Philippide",  makes  him  say: 
"I  leave  to  the  men  of  God  the  things  that  pertain 
to  the  service  of  God".  He  favoured  the  emancipa- 
tion of  communes,  desiring  to  be  Uked  by  the  middle 
classes  of  the  districts  he  annexed.  He  often  exacted 
a  tax  in  exchange  for.  the  communal  charter.  But  he 
did  not  allow  the  communes  to  infringe  on  the  prop- 
erty of  clerics  or  the  episcopal  right  of  jurisdiction.  At 
Noyen  he  intervened  f6rmally  in  behalf  of  the  bishop, 
who  was  threatened  by  the  commime.  He  undertook 
a  campaign  in  defence  of  the  bishops  and  abbots 
against  certain  feudal  lords  whom  he  nimself  desired 
to  humiliate  or  weaken.  In  1180,  before  he  was  king, 
he  undertook  an  expedition  into  Berri  to  punish  the 
Lord  of  Charenton,  the  enemy  of  the  monks,  and 
into  Burgundy  where  the  Count  of  Chalon  and  the 
Lord  of  Beaujeu  were  persecuting  the  Church.  In 
1186,  on  the  complaint  of  the  monks,  he  took  posses- 
sion of  Chatillon-sur-Seine,  in  the  Duchy  of  Burgundy, 


and  forced  the  duke  to  repair  the  wrongs  he  had  com- 
mitted against  the  Church.  In  1210  he  sent  troops  to 
Erotect  the  Bishop  of  Clermont,  who  was  threatened 
y  the  Count  of  Auvergne. 

But  on  the  other  hand,  in  virtue  of  the  preponder- 
ance which  he  wished  royalty  to  have  over  feudalism, 
he  exacted  of  the  bishops  and  abbots  the  performance 
of  all  their  feudal  duties,  including  military  service: 
although  for  certain  territories  he  was  the  vassal  ot 
the  bishops  of  Picardy,  he  refused  to  pav  th^in  homage. 
Moreovef ,  he  declared  with  regard  to  Aianasses,  Bishop 
of  Orleans,  that  the  royal  court  was  entitled  to  judge 
at  the  trials  of  bishops,  and  he  made  common  cause 
with  lay  feudalism  in  the  endless  discussions  regarding 
the  province  of  ecclesiastical  tribunals,  which  at  the 
beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century  were  disposed  to 
extend  their  jurisdiction.  An  ordinance  issued  about 
1206  at  the  instance  of  the  kin^,  executed  in  Nor- 
mandy and  perhaps  elsewhere,  stipulated  that  in  cer- 
tain cases  lav  judges  might  arrest  and  try  guilty 
clerics,  that  tne  right  of  asylum  of  religious  buildings 
should  be  limited,  that  the  Church  might  not  excom- 
municate those  who  did  business  on  Sunday  or  held 
intercourse  with  Jews,  and  that  a  citizen  having 
several  children  should  not  give  more  than  half  of  his 
estate  to  that  one  of  his  sons  who  was  a  cleric.  Finally 
he  imposed  on  the  clergy  heavy  financial  exactions. 
He  was  the  first  king  who  enaeavoured  to  compel 
clerics  to  pay  the  king  a  tenth  of  their  income.  In 
1188  the  archdeacon  Peter  of  Blois  defeated  this  claim, 
but  in  1215  and  1218  Philip  renewed  it,  and  bv  de- 
grees the  resistance  of  the  clergy  gave  way.  Philip, 
however,  was  pious  in  his  own  way,  and  in  the  ad- 
vice which  St.  Louis  gave  to  his  son  he  said  that 
Philip,  because  of  "God's  goodness  and  mercy 
would  rather  lose  his  throne  tnan  dispute  with  the 
servants  of  Holy  Church".  Thus  the  reputation  left 
by  Philip  II  was  quite  diflFerent  from  that  of  Philip 
I V,  or  Frederick  II  of  Germany.  He  never  carried 
out  towards  the  Church  a  policy  of  trickery  or  petty 
vexations,  on  the  contrary  he  regarded  it  as  his  collab- 
orator in  the  foundation  of  French  unity. 

Le  Breton.  La  Pkilippide,  ed.  Delabordb  (Paris,  1883-6); 
RiooRD  AND  Le  Breton,  Chroniques;  Deuble,  Caialoaue  d€$ 
actes  de  Philippe-Augttsle  (Paru,  1856);  Luchaire,  Philippe 
Auguate  in  Latisse.  Hist,  de  France^  III  (Parts,  1901):  Lu- 
chaire, UUniversiti  de  Pane  soue  Philippe-AtMuete  (Paris, 
1899);  Gautier«  La  France  aous  Philippe-Auouate  (Tours.  1899); 
Cartellieri,  Philipp  II  Auguet,  Kfhtig  von  Frankreich  (3  vols., 
Leipsig,  1899-1909) ;  Davidsohn,  Philipp  Augttet  von  Frankreich 
una  Inoeborg  (1888);  Walker.  On  the  xncreaee  of  royal  power  in 
France  under  PhUip  i4u9i««tu«(1888);  Huttos,  Philip  Auguetue 
(London.  1896). 

Georges  Gotau. 

Philip  n,  King  of  Spain,  only  son  of  the  Emperor 
Charles  V,  and  Isabella  of  rortugal,  b.  at  Valladolid, 
21  May,  1527;  d.  at  the  Escorial,  13  Sept.,  1598.  He 
was  carefully  educated  in  the  sciences,  learned  French 
and  Latin,  though  he  never  spoke  anything  but  Cas- 
tilian,  and  also  showed  much  interest  in  architecture 
and  music.  In  1543  he  married  his  cousin,  Maria  of 
Portugal,  who  died  at  the  birth  of  Don  Carlos  (1535). 
He  was  appointed  regent  of  Spain  with  a  council  by 
Charles  VT  In  1554  he  married  Mary  Tudor,  ^ueen  of 
England,  who  was  eleven  years  his  senior.  This  polit- 
ical marriage  gave  Spain  an  indirect  influence  on  the 
aflfairs  of  England,  recently  restored  to  Catholicism; 
but  in  1555  Philip  was  summoned  to  the  Low  Coun- 
tries, and  Mary's  death  in  the  same  year  severed  the 
connexion  between  the  two  countries.  At  a  solemn 
conference  held  at  Brussels,  22  Oct.,  1555,  Charles  V 
ceded  to  Philip  the  Low  Countries,  the  crowns  of  Cas- 
tille,  Aragon,  and  Sicily,  on  16  Jan.,  1556,  and  the 
countship  of  Burpmd'y  on  the  tenth  of  June.  He  even 
thought  of  secunng  for  him  the  imperial  crown^  but 
the  opposition  of  his  brother  Ferdinand  caused  him  to 
abandon  that  project.  Having  become  king,  Philip, 
devoted  to  Catholicism,  defended  the  Faith  through- 
out the  world  and  opposed  the  progress  of  heresy,  and 


PHILIP 


PHILIP 


these  two  things  are  the  key  to  his  whole  reign!  He 
did  both  bv  means  of  absolutism.  His  reign  began 
unpleasantly  for  a  Catholic  sovereign.  He  had  signed 
with  France  the  Treaty  of  VaucelTes  (5  Feb.,  1556). 
but  it  was  soon  broken  by  Frimce,  which  joined  Paul 
IV  against  him.  Like  Julius  II  this  pope  longed  to 
drive  the  foreigners  out  of  Italy.  Philip  had  two  wars 
on  his  hands  at  the  same  time^^in  Italy  and  in  the  Low 
Countries.  In  Italy  the  Duke  of  Alva,  Viceroy  of 
Naples,  defeated  the  Duke  of  Guise  and  reduced  the 
pope  to  such  distress  that  he  was  forced  to  make  peace. 
Philip  granted  this  on  the  most  favourable  terms  and 
the  Duke  of  Alva  was  even  obliged  to  ask  the  pope's 
pardon  for  having  invaded  the  Pontifical  States.  In 
the  Low  Countries  Philip  defeated  the  French  at  Saint 
Quentin  (1557)  and  Gravelines  (1558)  and  afterwards 
signed  the  Peace  of  Cateau-Cambresis  (3  April,  1559), 
which  was  sealed  by  his  marriage  with  Elizabeth  of 
Valois,  daughter  of  nenry  II.  Peace  concluded,  Philip, 
who  had  been  detained  in  the  Low  Countries,  retumea 
to  Spain.  For  more  than  forty  years  he  directed  from 
his  cabinet  the  affairs  of  the  monarchy.  He  resided 
alternately  at  Madrid  which  he  made  the  capital  of 
the  kingdom  and  in  vilUgialurea^  the  most  famous  of 
which  is  the  Escorial,  which  he  built  in  fulfillment  of  a 
vow  made  at  the  time  of  the  battle  of  Saint  Quentin. ' 

In  Spain,  Philip  continued  the  policy  of  the  Catholic 
Ferdinand  and  Isabella.  He  was  merciless  in  the'sup- 
pression  of  the  Lutheran  heresy,  which  had  appeared 
m  various  parts  of  the  country,  notably  at  Valladolid 
and  Seville.  *  *  If  my  own  son  were  guilty  like  you  " ,  he 
replied  to  a  gentleman  condemned  to  death  for  heresy 
who  had  reproached  him  for  his  cruelty,  "I  should  lead 
him  with  my  own  hands  to  the  stake  .  He  succeeded 
in  exterminating  Protestantism  in  Spain,  but  encoun- 
tered another  enemy  no  less  dangerous.  The  Moris- 
coes  of  the  ancient  Kingdom  of  Granada  had  been 
conquered,  but  they  remained  the  implacable  enemies 
of  their  conquerors,  from  whom  they  were  separated 
by  religion,  language,  dress,  and  manners,  and  they 
plotted  incessaintly  with  the  Mussulmans  outside  the 
country.  Philip  wished  to  force  them  to  renounce 
their  language  and  dress,  whereupon  they  revolted 
and  engaged  m  a  bloody  struggle  against  Spain  which 
lasted  three  years  (1567-70)  until  ended  by  EXon  Juan, 
natural  son  of  Charles  V.  The  defeated  Moriscoes 
were  transplanted  in  great  numbers  to  the  interior  of 
the  country.  Another  event  of  historical  importance 
in  Philip's  reign  was  the  conquest  of  Portugal  in  1580. 
After  tne  death  of  the  young  King  Sebastian  at  the 
battle  of  Alcazar  (1578)  and  that  of  his  successor  the 
appd  Cardinal  Henry  (1580),  Philip  II,  who  through 
his  mother  was  a  grandson  of  Kins  Emmanuel,  pleaded 
his  title  of  heir  and  sent  the  Duke  of  Alva  to  occupy 
the  country.  This  was  the  only  conquest  of  the  reign. 
Iberian  unity,  thus  realized,  lasted  from  1580  to  1640. 
Other  events  were  the  troubles  in  Aragon,  which  were 
fomented  by  Antonio  Perez,  former  secretary  of  the 
king.  Being  pursued  for  high  treason  he  sought  refuge 
in  his  native  country,  and  appealed  for  protection  to 
\\&fuero8  that  he  might  not  be  delivered  to  the  Castil- 
ian  judges,  nor  to  the  Inauisition.  The  inhabitants  of 
Saragossa  defended  him  oy  force  of  arms  and  he  suc- 
ceeded in  escaping  abroad,  but  Philip  sent  an  army  to 
punish  Aragon,  ii^ringed  on  the /ueros  and  established 
absolutism  m  the  Kingdom  of  Aragon,  hitherto  proud 
of  its  freedom  (1592). 

In  the  Low  Countries,  where  Philip  had  committed 
the  government  to  his  aunt,  Margaret  of  Parma,  the 
nobles,  chafed  because  of  their  want  of  influence, 
plotted  and  trumped  up  grievances.  They  protested 
against  the  presence  in  the  country  of  several  thou- 
sands of  Spanish  soldiers,  against  Cardinal  de  Gran- 
velle's  influence  with  the  regent,  and  against  the  sever- 
ity of  Charles  V's  decrees  :igain.st  heresy.  Philip 
recalled  the  Spanish  soldiers  and  the  Cardinal  de 
Granvelle,  but  he  refused  to  mitigate  the  decrees  and 


declared  that  he  did  not  wish  1o  reign  over  a  nation  of 
heretics.  The  difficulties  with  the  Iconoclasts  having 
broken  out  he  swore  to  punish  them  and  sent  thither 
the  Duke  of  Alva  with  an  army,  whereupon  Margaret 
of  Parma  resigned.  Alva  behaved  as  though  in  a  con- 
quered country,  caused  the  arrest  and  execution  of 
Uount  Egmont  and  de  Homes,  who  were  accusetl  of 
oomplicity  with  the  rebels,  created  the. Council  of 
Troubles,  which  was  popularly  styled  the  "Council  of 
Blood",  defeated  the  Prince  of  Oi'ange  and  his  brother 
who  had  invaded  the  country  with  German  mercena- 
ries, but  could  not  prevent  the  "Sea-beggars"  from 
capturing  Brille.  lie  followed  up  his  military  suc- 
cesses but^was  recalled  in  1573.  His  successor  Keque- 
sens  could  not  recover  Leyden.  Influenced  by  the 
Prince  of  Orange  the  provinces  concluded  the  "  Pacifi- 
cation of  Ghent"  which  regulated  the  religious  situa- 
tion in  the  Low  Countries  \\'ithout  royal  intervention. 
The  new  governor,  Don  Juan,  upset  the  calculations 
of  Orange  Dy  accepting  the  "  Pacification  ",  and  finally 
the  Prince  of  Orange  decided  to  proclaim  Philip  s 
deposition  by  the  revolted  provinces.  The  king  re- 
plied by  placing  the  prince  under  the  ban;  shortly 
afterwards  he  was  slain  by  an  assassin  ( 1 584 ) .  Never- 
theless, the  united  provinces  did  not  submit  and  were 
lost  to  Spain.  Those  of  the  South,  however,  were  re- 
covered one  after  another  by  the  new  governor,  Alex- 
ander Famese,  Prince  of  Parma.  But  he  having  died 
in  1592  and  the  war  becoming  more  difficult  against 
the  rebels,  led  by  the  great  general  Maurice  of 
Nassau,  son  of  William  of  Orange,  Philip  II  realized 
that  he  must  change  his  policy  and  ceded  the  Low 
Countries  to  his  daughter  Isabella,  whom  he  espoused 
to  the  Archduke  Albert  of  Austria,  with  the  provision 
that  the  provinces  would  be  returned  to  Spain  in  case 
there  were  no  children  by  this  union  (1598).  (See 
Alva;  Egmont;  Granvelle;  Netherlands.)  The 
object  of  Philip's  reign  was  only  partly  realized.  He 
had  safeguarded  the  religious  unity  of  Spain  and  had 
exterminated  heresy  in  the  southern  Low  Countries, 
but  the  northern  Ix)w  Countries  were  lost  to  him  for- 
ever. 

Philip  had  three  enemies  to  contend  with  abroad, 
Islam,  England,  and  France.  Islam  was  master  of  the 
Mediterranean,  being  in  possession  of  the  Balkan 
Peninsula,  Asia  Minor,  Egypt,  all  the  coast  of  north- 
em  Africa  (Tunis,  AlgiersTNIorocco) ;  it  had  just  con- 
quered the  Island  of  Cyprus  and  laid  siege  to  the 
Island  of  Malta  (1505),  which  had  valiantly  repulsed 
the  assault.  Dragut,  the  Ottoman  admiral,  was  the 
terror  of  the  Mediterranean.  On  several  occasions 
Philip  had  fought  against  the  Mussulman  peril,  meet- 
ing alternately  with  success  and  defeat.  He  therefore 
eagerly  joined  the  Holy  League  organized  by  Kus  V 
to  resist  Islam,  and  which  Venice  consenteci  to  join. 
The  fleet  of  the  League,  commanded  by  Don  Juan, 
brother  of  Philip  II,  inflicted  on  the  Turkish  fleet  the 
terrible  defeat  of  Lepanto  (7  Oct.,  1571),  the  results  of 
which  would  have  been  greater  had  Venice  not  proved 
false  and  if  Pius  V  had  not  died  in  1572.  Neverthe- 
less, the  Turkish  domination  of  the  Mediterranean 
was  ended  and  in  1578  Philip  concluded  a  treaty  with 
the  Turks  which  lasted  till  the  end  of  his  reign.  Rela- 
tions of  intimacy  with  England  had  ceased  at  the  death 
of  Mary  Tudor.  Philip  attempted  to  renew  them  by 
his  chimerical  project  of  marriage  w^ith  Elizabeth,  who 
had  n©t  yet  become  the  cruel  persecutor  of  Cathol- 
icism. When  she  constituted  herself  the  protectress  of 
Protestant  interests  throughout  the  world  and  did  all 
in  her  power  to  encourage  the  revolt  of  the  Low  Coun- 
tries, Philip  thought  of  contending  with  her  in  her  own 
country  by  espousing  the  cause  of  Mary  Stuart,  but 
Elizabeth  did  away  with  the  latter  ia  1587,  and  fur- 
nished relief  to  the  Low  Countries  against  Pliilip,  who 
thereiiiM^n  armed  an  immense  fleet  (the  Invincible 
Armada)  against  England.  But  being  led  by  an  in- 
competent commander  it  accomplished  notUng  and 


PHILIP 


PHILIP 


was  almost  wJioUy  destroyed  by  storms  (1588).  This 
was  an  irreparable  disaster  which  inaugurated  Spain's 
naval  declme.  The  English  corsairs  could  with  im- 
punity pillage  her  colonies  and  under  Drake  even  her 
own  coast;  in  1596  the  Duke  of  Essex  pillaged  the 
flourishing  town  of  Cadiz,  and  the  sceptre  of  the  seas 

gassed  from  Spain  to  England.  From  1559  Philip  II 
ad  been  at  peace  with  France,  and  had  contented  him- 
self with  urging  it  to  crush  out  heresy.  French  interven- 
tion in  favour  of  the  Low  Countries  did  not  cause  him 
to  change  his  attitude,  but  when  at  the  death  of  Henry 
III  in  1589  the  Protestant  Henry  of  Bourbon  became 
heir  to  the  throne  of  France,  Philip  II  allied  himself 
with  the  Guises,  who  were  at  the  head  of  the  League, 
supplied  them  with  money  and  men,  and  on  several 
occasions  sent  to  their  relief  his  great  general  Alexan- 
der Famese.  He  even  dreamed  of  obtaining  the  crown 
of  France  for  his  daughter  Isabella,  but  this  daring 
project  was  not  realized.  The  conversion  of  Henry  IV 
(1593)  to  Catholicism  removed  the  last  obstacle  to  his 
accession  to  the  French  throne. .  Apparently  Philip  II 
failed  to  grasp  the  situation,  since  he  continued  for 
two  years  more  the  war  against  Henry  IV,  but  his 
fruitless  efforts  were  finally  terminated  in  1595  by  the 
absolution  of  Henry  IV  by  Clement  VIII. 

No  sovereign  has  been  the  object  of  such  diverse 
judgments.  While  the  Spaniards  regarded  him  as 
their  Solomon  and  called  him  "the  prudent  king''  (el 
rey  pruderUe),  to  Protestants  he  was  the  "demon  of  the 
south''  (dceinon  meridianus)  and  most  cruel  of  tyrants. 
This  was  because,  having  constituted  himself  the  de- 
fender of  Catholicism  throu^out  the  world,  he  en- 
countered innumerable  enemies,  not  to  mention  such 
adversaries  as  Antonio  Perez  and  William  of  Orange 
who  maligned  him  so  as  to  justifv  their  treason.  Sub- 
sequently poets  (Schiller  in  his  "Don  Carlos"), 
romance-writers,  and  publicists  repeated  these  calum- 
nies. As  a  matter  of  fact  Philip  II  joined  great  quali- 
ties to  great  faults.  He  was  industrious,  tenacious, 
devoted  to  study,  serious,  simple-mannered,  generous 
to  those  who  served  him,  the  friend  and  patron  of  arts. 
He  was  a  dutiful  son,  a  loving  husband  and  father, 
whose  family  worshipped  him.  His  piety  was  fervent, 
he  had  a  boundless  devotion  to  the  Catholic  Faith 
and  was,  moreover,  a  zealous  lover  of  justice.  His 
stoical  strength  in  adversity  and  the  courage  with 
which  he  endured  the  suffenngs  of  his  last  illness  are 
worthy  of  admiration.  On  the  other  hand  he  was  cold, 
suspicious,  secretive,  scrupulous  to  excess,  indecisive 
ana  procrastinating,  little  disposed  to  clemency  or 
forgetfulness  of  wrongs.  His  religion  was  austere  and 
sombre.  He  could  not  understand  opposition  to  her- 
esy except  by  force.  Imbued  with  ideas  of  absolutism, 
as  were  all  the  rulers  of  his  time,  he  was  led  into  acts 
disapproved  by  the  moral  law.  His  cabinet  policy, 
always  behind-hand  with  regard  to  events  and  ill- 
informed  concerning  the  true  situation,  explains  his 
failures  to  a  great  extent.  To  sum  up  we  may  cite  the 
opinion  of  Baumstark :  "  He  was  a  sinner,  as  we  all  are, 
but  he  was  also  a  king  and  a  Christian  king  in  the  full 
sense  of  the  term". 

Gacrard,  Correspondance  de  Philippe  IT  sur  let  affaires  des 
Pay$  Bas  (Bruasels  and  Ghent.  1848-1851);  Idem,  Lettres  de 
Philippe  IldsesfiUee  (Paris.  1884) ;  Idem,  Don  Carlos  el  Philippe 
II  (Paris,  1863) ;  Pke«cott,  History  of  the  reign  of  Philip  II, 
King  of  Spain  (London,  1855);  Cordoba,  Felipe  II,  rey  de 
Espafia  (Madrid,  1876-78) ;  Baumstark,  Philippe  II.  K6nig  ton 
Spanien' (Freiburg,  1875),  tr.  into  French.  Kdrth  (1877);  Mon- 
tana, Nrieva  lus  y  juido  verdadero  sobre  Felipe  II  (Madrid.  1882); 
Fornsron,  HisUnre  de  Philippe  II  (Paris,  1882);  Hume,  Philip 
II  of  Spain  (London,  1807). 

GODEFROID   KURTH. 

Philip  IV,  sumamed  le  Bel  (the  Fair),  King  of 
France,  b.  at  Fontainebleau,  1268;  d.  there,  29  Nov., 
1314;  son  of  Philip  III  and  Isabel  of  Aragon;  became 
king,  5  Oct.,  1285,  on  the  death  of  his  father,  and  was 
consecrated  at  Reims,  6  Jan.,  12S6,  with  his  wife 
Jeanne,  daughter  of  Henry  I,  King  of  Navarre,  Count 
of  Champagne  and  Brie;  this  marriage  united  these 


territories  to  the  royal  domain.  Having  taken  Viviers 
and  Lyons  from  the  empire,  Valenciennes,  the  inhabi- 
tants of  which  united  themselves  voluntarily  with 
France,  La  Marche  and  Angoumois,  which  he  seized 
from  the  lawful  heirs  of  Hueues  de  Lusignan,  Philip 
wished  to  expel  Edward  I  of  England  from  Guienne, 
all  of  which  province,  with  the  exception  of  Bordeaux 
and  Bayonne,  was  occupied  in  1294  and  1295.  By 
the  Treaty  of  MontreuiC  negotiated  by  Boniface  VIII, 
he  gave  Guienne  as  a  gift  to  his  daughter  Isabel,  who 
married  the  son  of  Edward  I,  on  condition  that  this 
younc  prince  should  hold  the  province  as  Philip's 
vassal.  Philip  wished  to  punish  Count  Guy  of  Flan- 
ders, an  ally  of  England,  and  caused  Charles  of  Valois 
to  invade  his  territory,  but  he  was  defeated  at  Coutrai 
by  the  Flemings,  who  were  roused  by  the  heavy  taxes 
imposed  on  them  by  Philip;  he  took  his  revenge  on 
the  Flemings  at  the  naval  victory  of  Zierichzee  and 
the  land  victory  of  Mons  en  Puelle;  then  in  1305  he 
recognized  Robert,  Guy's  son,  as  his  vassal  and  re- 
tained possession  of  Lille,  Doiiai,  0:\:hies,  and  Valen- 
ciennes. Having  thus  extended  his  kingdom,  Philip 
endeavoured  energetically  to  centralize  the  govern- 
ment and  impose  a  very  rigorous  fiscal  system. 
Legists  like  Enguerrand,  Philippe  de  Marigny.  Pierre 
de  Latilly,  Pierre  Flotte,  Raoul  de  Presle,  and 
Guillaume  de  Plassan,  helped  him  to  establish  firmly 
this  royal  absolutism  and  set  up  a  tyrannical  power. 

Ihese  legists  were  called  tne  chevaliera  de  Vkdlel, 
the  chevaliers  bs  loiSj  the  mUites  regis;  they  were  not 
nobles,  neither  did  they  bear  arms,  but  they  ranked 
as  knights.  The  appearance  of  these  legists  in  the 
Government  of  France  is  one  of  the  leading  events  of 
the  reign  of  Philip  IV.  Renan  explains  its  significance 
in  these  words:  "An  entirely  new  class  of  politicians, 
owing  their  fortune  entirely  to  their  own  merit  and 

Personal  efforts,  unreservedly  devoted  to  the  king  who 
ad  made  them,  and  rivals  of  the  Church,  whose  place 
they  hoped  to  fill  in  many  matters,  thus  appeared  in 
the  history  of  France,  and  were  destined  to  work  a 
profound  change  in  the  conduct  of  public  affairs". 

It  was  these  legists  who  incited  and  supported 
Philip  IV  in  his  coiSict  with  the  papacy  and  the  trial 
of  the  Templars.  In  the  articles  Boniface  VIII; 
Clement  V:  Molai;  Templars,  will  be  found  an 
account  of  the  relations  of  Philip  IV  with  the  Holy 
See;  M.  Lizerand.  in  1910,  has  given  us  a  study  on 
Philip  IV  and  Clement  V,  containing  thirtynseven 
unpublished  letters  written  by  the  two  sovereipis. 
The  principal  adviser  of  Philip  in  his  hostile  relations 
with  the  Curia  was  the  legist  Guillaume  de  Nogaret 
(q.  v.).  Renan,  who  made  a  close  study  of  Nogaret's 
dealings  with  Boniface  VIII,  Clement  V,  and  the  Tem- 
plars, thinks  that  despite  his  ardent  profession  of 
Catholic  fidelity  he  was  somewhat  hypocritical,  at  all 
events  **he  was  not  an  honest  man",  and  that  **he 
could  not  have  been  deceived  by  the  false  testimony 
which  he  stirred  up  and  the  sophisms  he  provoked'  . 
Nogaret's  methods  of  combating  Boniface  VIII  and 
the  Templars  are  better  understood  when  we  examine, 
in  Gastoil  Paris's  work,  the  curious  trial  of  Guichard, 
Bishop  of  Troyes,  for  witchcraft. 

Another  important  personage  whose  curious  writ- 
ings must  be  read  to  understand  the  policy  of  Philip 
correctly  is  Pierre  Dubois.  He  had  been  a  ptupil  of 
St.  Thomas  Aquinas  at  the  University  of  Paris,  and 
was  a  lawyer  at  Coutances.  In  1300  Dubois  wrote  a 
work  on  the  means  of  shortening  the  wars  and  conflicts 
of  France;  in  1302  he  published  several  virulent 
pamphlets  against  Boniface  VIII;  between  1304  and 
1308,  he  wrote  a  very  important  work  "De  recupera- 
tione  Terra;  Sanctse";  in  1309  alone,  he  wrote  on  the 
question  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire,  on  the  Eastern 
question,  and  against  the  Templars.  Dubois  started 
from  the  idea  that  France  ought  to  subdue  the  papacy, 
after  which  it  would  be  e:usy  for  the  King  of  France 
to  use  the  papal  influence  for  his  own  advantage.     He 


t 

n^M 

I. 

^^      -rr''/  ' 

^'-'v                                ^-"t     ^ 

¥ 

f 

ft 

J  J 

uchI  his  prococdinRa  aoainst  the  DomiDicans.  Then 
H<Tnard  Dciicieus  andsome  of  Ihe  people  of  CarcBs- 
sonne  conspired  to  deliver  the  t«wn  into  the  h&nda  of 
I'rincc  Femand,  Infant  of  Majorca;  Philip  caused  six- 
ti'on  of  the  inhabitants  to  be  luuigcd,  and  impoeed  a 
.  grant  the  pope  the  revenues  of  the  hea\-y  fine  on  the  town;  and  this  conspiracy  of  Ber- 
"It  depends  on  the  pope",  \  '  "■"' 


wiflbed  his  king  to  become  ma8t«r  of  the  Pupal  l^l:itr«, 
to  administer  them,  to  reduce  the  caetlcH  and  <-i ill's 
of  this  state  to  his  obedience,  and  to  force  Tuscuny, 
Sicily,  En^and,  and  Aragon,  vassal  countries  of  the 

Holy  See,  to  do  homage  to  the  King  of  Fr 

torn  the  kingi  ....         .• 

P^al  States.  ... 

he  in  hia  worii  of  1302,  "to  rid  himsolf  of  hw  worldly 
occupations  and  to  preacn-e  his  revenues  without 
having  any  trouble  about  them ;  if  he  does  not  isish  to 
accept  such  an  advantageous  offer,  he  nil!  incur  uni- 
veisal  reproach  for  his  cupidity,  pride,  and  ratih 
presumption."  "Clement  V",  continued  Dubois  in 
hia  treatise  "  De  recupcratione  Terne  Sanclw", 
"aft«r  having  given  up  his  temporaJ  possesions  to  Ibe 

King  of   France,   would   be   protected   against   the     Abb^  Chabot,  we  learn  that  Philip  said 
a  of  Rome,  and  would  live  long  in  good  health,     Sept.,  1287:  "If  the  Mongohans,  who  ' 


131S  to  pelpetual  /»  Fact,  o 

Philip  1\  was  not  therefore  in  any  way  asystematic 
adversary  of  the  inquisition.  On  the  other  hand,  re- 
cently published  documents  show  that  he  was  Mn- 
cerely  attaclieil  to  the  idea  of  a  Crusade.  From  the 
memoirs  of  Kahban  Cauma,  ambassador  of  Ai^im, 
King  of  the  Tatars,  translated  from  the  Syriac  by 

•■■■"■■ " Rabbanin 

not  Chrifl' 


,  fight  to  capture  Jerusalem,  we  have  much  n' 
I  presen-e  the  reason  to  fight;  if  it  be  God'a  will,  we  will  go  with  an 
army."  And  the  news  of  the  fall 
of  Saint-Jean  d'Acre  (1291).  which 
induced  so  many  provincial  coun- 
cils to  express  a  deare  for  a  new 
crusade  was  certainly  calculated 
to  strengthen  this  resolution  of 
the  king.  We  have  referred  to 
Dubois's  zeal  for  the  conquest  of 
the  Holy  Land;  Nogaret  was  per- 
haps a  still  BtroQger  advocate  of 
the  project;  but  in  the  plan  which 
he  outlined  about  1310,  the  first 
step,  aCiX>r<Ung  to  him,  was  to 
phice  all  the  money  of  the  Church 
of  France  in  the  king's  hands. 

The  French  Church  under  Philip 
IV  displayed  very  little  indepen- 
dence; it  was  in  reality  enslaved  to 
theroyalwill.    Almost  everyyear 
it  contributed  to  the  treasury  with 
or  without  the  pope's  approval,  a 
tenth  and  sometimes  a  fifth  of 
its    revenues;  these   pecuniary 
sac rificea were  consentwi  toby 
the    clergy   in   the    provincial 
councils,  which  in  return  asked 
favours  of 


in  his  native  land  of  France,  where  in 
a  suflicient  number  of  French  cardinals 
papacy  from  the  rapacious  hands 
of  the  Romans."  Dubois  de- 
sired not  only  that  the  King  of 
France  should  subjugate  the 
pspacv,  but  that  tiie  empire 
abould  be  forced  to  cede  to  France 
the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  Pro- 
vence. Savoy,  and  all  its  rights 
in  Liguria,  Venice,  and  Lombardy. 
In  1308,  after  the  death  of  the 
Emperor  .Albert  I ,  he  even  thought 
of  having  the  pope  confer  the 
imperial  crown  on  the  French 
Capets.  He  also  devised  plans 
for  subjugating  Spun.  Thus  re- 
organized b}/  France  Christian 
Europe  was  (in  the  mind  of  Pierre 
Dubois)  to  undertake  the  Cru- 
eade;  the  Holy  Land  would  be  re- 
conquered, and  on  the  return,  the 
Palfeologi,  who  reigned  at  Con- 
stantinople, would  be  replaced  by 
the  Capetian,  Charles  of  Valois, 
representing  the  rights  of  Cather- 
ine de  Courtenay  to  the  l^ttn 
Empire  of  Constantinople.    The 

Kreonal  influence  of  Pierre  Du- 
is  on  Philip  IV  must  not  be  e\-  ^ 
aggerated.    Although  all  his  writ- 
ings were  presented  to  the  king, 
Dubois  never  had  an  official  place        Wooucui 
in    Philip's    council.      However, 
there  is   an   indisputable    parallelism    between    his 
ideas  and  certain  political  mantruvres  of  Philip  IV. 

For  instance  on  9  June,  1308,  Philip  wrote  to  Henry     , ^      _.__ 

of  Carinthia,  King  of  Bohemia,  to  propose  Charles  Philipconfirmed  the  immunities  of  the  Church  always 
of  Valois  as  a  candidate  for  the  crown  of  Germany;  contained  subtle  restrictions  which  enabled  the  king's 
and  on  11  June  he  sent  three  knights  into  Germany     agents  to  violate  them. 

to  offer  money  to  the  electors.  This  wss  fruitless  A  list  of  the  gravamina  of  the  Churches  and  the 
labour,  however,  for  Henry  of  Luxemburg  was  elected  clerics,  discussed  at  the  Council  of  Vienne  (1311), 
and  Clement  V,  less  subservient  to  the  King  of  France  contains  ample  proof  of  the  abuse  of  authority  to 
than  certain  enemies  of  the  papacy  have  said,  hastened  which  the  Church  was  subjected,  and  the  writer  of  the 
to  confirm  the  election.  poem  "Avisemens  pour  le  roy  Loys",  composed  in 

Philip  IV  was  not  really  a  free-thinker;  he  was  re-  1315  for  Louis  X,  exhorted  this  new  king  to  bve  in 
ligious.and  even  made  pilgrimages:  his  attitude  to-  peace  with  the  Church,  which  Philip  IV  hi^  not  done, 
wardstheinquisitionisnot  that  of  afrec-thinker,a.4is  To  concentrate  in  his  hands  all  the  wealth  of  the 
especially  apparent  in  the  trial  of  the  Franciscan  Ber-  French  Church  for  the  Crusade,  and  then  to  en- 
nard  IKIicieux.  The  latter  brought  the  deputies  of  deavourtomakeanagreementwiththepftpai^for the 
CaAsasBonne  and  AIbi  to  Philip  IV  at  Senlis,  lo  com-  control  and  disposition  of  the  income  of  the  Universal 
plain  of  the  Dominican  inquisitorsof  Lanf^edoc;  the  Church,  was  the  peculiar  policy  of  Philip  IV.  Re- 
result  of  his  action  was  an  ordinance  of  Philip  putting  cently  some  vcrras  have  been  discovered,  written  by  a 
the  Dominican  inquisitors  under  the  control  of  the  contemporary  on  a  leaf  of  the  register  of  the  delibera' 
bishops.  On  the  receipt  of  tlua  news  Langue<Ioc  be-  tions  of  Nolre-Dame  de  Chartres,  which  reveal  the 
came  inflamed  against  the  Dominicans;  Bernard  Deli-  impression  produced  by  this  policy  on  the  minda  of 
cieux  In  1303  headed  the  movement  in  Carcassonne,     certain  contemporaries: 

and  when  in  1304  Philip  and  the  queen  visited  Tou-  Jam  Petri  navis  titubat,  racio  quia  clavis. 

louae  andCarcassonne,he  organized  tumultuous  mani-  Errat;  rex,  papa,  foeti  sunt  unica  capa, 

(eatations.    The  king  was  displeased,  and  discontin-  Declarant,  do,  dee,  Pilatus  et  alter  Herodes. 


agents,  if  they  met  with  resis- 
tance, Imd  down  the  principle 
that  the  king  could  by  his  own 
authority  collect  from  all  hia 
subjects,  especiallyincaseof  necessity,  whatever  taxes 
he  wished.    His  onic*s  frequently  harassed  the  clergy 
monstrous  manner;  and  the  documents  by  wluch 


PHILIP 


6 


Philip  IV,  by  his  formal  condemnation  of  the  memory 
of  Boniface  VIII,  appointed  himself  judge  of  the  or- 
thodoxy of  the  popes.  It  was  laid  down  as  a  principle, 
says  Geoffrey  of  Paris,  that  'Hhe  king  is  to  submit  to 
the  spiritual  power  only  if  the  pope  is  in  t^e  right 
faith".  The  adversaries  of  the  "theocracy"  of  the 
Middle  Ages  hail  Philip  IV  as  its  destroyer;  and  in 
their  ^thusiasm  for  him,  by  an  extraordinary  error, 
they  proclaim  him  a  precursor  of  modern  Uberty.  On 
the  contrary  he  was  an  absolutist  in  the  fullest  sense 
of  the  term.  The  Etats  g^n^aux  of  1302,  in  which  the 
Third  Estate  declared  that  the  king  had  no  superior  on 
earth,  were  the  precursors  of  the  false  Gallican  theo- 
ries of  Divine  right,  so  favourable  to  the  absolutism  of 
sovereigns. 

The  civilization  of  the  Middle  Ages  was  based  on 
a  great  principle,  an  essentially  liberal  principle,  from 
which  arose  the  political  hberty  of  England;  according 
to  that  principle,  taxes  before  being  raised  by  royal 
authority,  ought  to  be  aoproved  by  the  tax-payers. 
Boniface  VIII  in  the  connict  of  130^  was  only  main- 
taining this  principle,  when  he  insisted  on  the  consent 
of  the  clergy  to  the  collection  of  the  tithes.  In  the 
struggle  between  Philip  and  Boniface,  Philip  represents 
absolutism,  Boniface  the  old  medieval  ideas  of  auton- 
omy. " The  reign  of  Philip  IV  ",  writes  Renan,  "is  the 
reign  which  contributed  most  to  form  the  France  of 
the  five  succeeding  centuries,  with  its  good  and  bad 
qualities.  The  mUitea  regiSf  those  ennobled  plebeians, 
became  the  agents  of  all  important  political  business; 
the  princes  of  the  royal  blood  alone  remained  superior 
to  or  on  an  equalitv  with  tjiemj  the  real  nobility,  which 
elsewhere  established  the  parliamentary  governments, 
was  excluded  from  participating  in  the  pubUc  policy. " 
Renan  is  ri^ht  in  declaring  that  the  nrst  act  of  the 
French  magistracy  was  "to  diminish  the  power  of  the 
Church  per  fas  et  nefaa"  to  establish  the  absolutism  of 
the  king;  and  that  such  conduct  was  for  this  magis- 
tracy "an  original  sin". 

HuicrienM  de  la  France,  t.  XX,  XXIII;  Lanolois  in  LATiflSB, 
Hi^oire  de  France,  III  (Parifl,  1903);  Boutaric,  La  France  aous 
Philippe  le  Bel  (Paris,  1861);  Renan,  Etudee  »ur  Vhistoire  re- 
litfieuee  du  rigne  de  Philippe  ie  Bel  (Paris,  1899) ;  Wenck,  Philipp 
der  Sehdne  von  Prankreieh,  eeine  Perednlichkeit  und  doe  Urteil  der 
Zeitgenoseen  (Marburi^,  1905) ;  Finke,  Zur  Charakterietik  Philippe 
dee  Schdnen  in  MiUeUungen  dee  InetitiUs  /flr  deterreichiache  Ge- 
echiehte,  XXVI  (1905^ ;  Milangee  eur  le  Rione  de  Philippe  le  Bel: 
reeueil  d'artielee  extraiU  du  Moyen  Age  (Ch&lon-sur-SaOne,  1906); 
HoLTxifANN,  Wilhelm  ton  Nogaret  (Freiburg  im  Br.,  1897) ;  Paris, 
Un  prooie  criminel  eoue  Philippe  le  Bel  in  Revue  du  Palais  (Aug., 
1898) ;  Lanolois.  Lee  papiera  de  0.  de  Nogaret  etdeG,de  Plaieiane 
Triaor  dee  Chartee  (Nottcea  ef  extraita  dea  manuaerita),  XXXI V; 
Lanolois,  DoUancea  du  cUrgS  de  France  au  tempa  de  Philippe  le 
Bel  in  Revue Bleue  (9  Sept.,  and  14 Oct.,  1905) ;  Licerand,  CUment 
V  et  Philippe  IV  le  Bel  (Paris,  1910);  AROuiLuisRE,  L'Appel  au 
eoncite  aoua  Philippe  le  Bel  et  la  genkae  dea  Ihioriea  conciharea  in 
Revue  dea  Qtteaiiona  Hiatoriquea  (1911). 

Georges  Gotau. 

Philipi  Acts  op  Saint.  See  Apocrtpha,  sub- 
title III. 

Philip,  Antipope.    See  Stephen  IV,  Pope. 

Philip  Benizi,  Saint,  propagator  and  fifth  Genera] 
of  the  Servite  Order,  b.  at  Florence,  Italy,  15  Aug., 
1233;  d.  at  Todi,  in  Umbria,  23  Aug.,  1285.  His 
parents  were  scions  of  the  renowned  Benizi  and 
Frescobaldi  families.  After  many  years  of  married 
life  had  left  them  childless,  Philip  was  granted  to 
them  in  answer  to  their  prayers.  When  but  five 
months  old,  on  beholding  ot.  Alexis  and  St.  Buona- 
giunta  approaching  in  quest  of  alms,  he  exclaimed : 
"Mother,  here  come  our  Lady's  Servants;  give  them 
an  alms  for  the  love  of  God ''.  At  thirteen  years  of  age, 
in  view  of  his  precocious  genius,  he  was  sent  to  the 
University  of  Paris.  Here  he  led  a  life  of  study  and 
edification,  and  after  a  brilliant  career,  completed  his 
course  in  medicine  at  the  University  of  Padua.  He 
practised  medicine  at  Florence  for  one  year,  chiefly 
for  the  benefit  of  the  poor.  As  a  layman  he  lived  like 
a  member  of  a  religious  community,  entertaining  high 


ideals.  In  a  vision  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  he  was  finally 
directed  to  enter  the  order  of  her  servants,  known  as 
the  Servites.  St.  Philip  was  received  into  the  order 
in  1254  by  St.  Buonfiglio,  its  first  superior.  Because  of 
his  purity  and  deep  numility,  he  asked  to  be  enrolled 
as  a  simple  brother,  and  was  sent  to  Mt.  Senario  near 
Florence,  there  to  continue  his  life  of  penance  and 
sacrifice.  The  miraculous  fountain  that  sprang  forth 
in  his  grotto  is  still  seen  enclosed  in  a  small  Byzantine 
chapel  built  on  the  native  rock.  In  1258  while  on  a 
journey  to  Siena,  his  great  ability  and  learning,  hith- 
erto concealed  from  his  brethren,  was  accident^y  dis- 
covered. He  was  at  once  ordered  to  prepare  for  Holy 
Orders. 

The  following  year  he  was  ordained  to  the  priest- 
hood by  Bishop  John  Mangiadoro  of  Florence.  He 
made  great  progress  in  sanctity,  drawing  hb  inspira- 
tion to  hohness  and  virtue  principally  from  the 
Passion  of  Jesus  and  the  Sorrows  of  Marv.  His  abil- 
ity was  so  recognized  that  he  rose  rapidly  from  one 
post  in  the  order  to  another,  until  finally  on  5  June, 
1267,  he  was  unanimously  chosen  Superior  General. 
In  this  position  his  administrative  powers  and  apos- 
tolic zeal  enjoyed  a  broad  field  for  development.  He 
travelled  throughout  Eurore  preaching  and  working 
miracles.  Under  his  care  tne  order  grew  in  numbers 
and  holiness,  many  of  his  spiritual  children  having 
been  raised  to  the  honours  of  the  altar.  The  greatest 
perhaps  was  St.  Juliana  Falconieri,  foundress  of  the 
Servite  Nuns.  After  the  death  of  Clement  IV  in  1208, 
the  cardinals  were  about  to  choose  St.  Philip  as  his 
successor,  but  the  saint,  leamine  of  their  intention, 
fled  secretlv  and  remained  in  solitude  until  another 
choice  had  been  made.  In  1274  he  was  present  at  the 
Council  of  Lyons,  where  hejpossessed  the  rare  and 
apostolic  gift  of  tongues.  When  the  furious  strife 
between  Guelph  and  Ghibelline  was  at  its  height, 
Philip  was  active  everywhere  as  a  peace-maker,  espe- 
cially in  Florence,  Pistoia,  Arezzo,  Forli,  and  Boloma. 
God  having  revealed  to  him  his  approachins  end,  he 

S laced  the  government  of  the  order  in  the  hands  of 
ilessed  Lotharingus.  He  then  repaired  to  Todi,  where 
he  selected  the  smallest  and  poorest  convent  for  the 
scene  of  his  death,  which  occurred  after  a  short  illness. 
Many  miracles  were  wrought  at  his  intercession;  even 
the  dead  were  raised  to  life.  He  was  canonized  by 
Clement  IX  in  1671. 


SonuBR.  Vie  de  Saint  Philippe  Biniai  (ParU^  1886;  tr.  London, 

1.  M.  K,  pi 
Benui  (London,  1874)  in  Oralorian  Seriea,  ed.  Bowdkn. 


1886);  Annalea  6rd.  Serv.  B.  M.  r..paaaim;  Life  of  Saint  Philip 


Charles  F.  McGinnis. 

Philip  of  Hesse.     See  Hesse;  Luther,  Martin. 

Philip  of  Jetufli  Saint,  b.  in  Mexico,  date  im* 
known:  d.  at  Nagasaki  early  in  Februarjr,  1597. 
Though  unusually  frivolous  as  a  boy,  he  joined  the 
Discalced  Franciscans  of  the  Province  of  St.  Didacus. 
founded  by  St.  Peter  Baptista,  with  whom  he  suffered 
martyrdom  later.  After  sbme  months  in  the  Order, 
Philip  grew  tired  of  monastic  life,  left  the  Franciscans 
in  1589{  took  up  a  mercantile  career,  and  went  to  the 
Philippines,  where  he  led  a  life  of  pleasure.  Later  he 
desirea  to  re-enter  the  Franciscans  and  was  again 
admitted  at  Manila  in  1590.  After  some  years  he 
was  to  have  been  ordained  at  the  monastery  in  Mex- 
ico, the  episcopal  See  of  Manila  being  at  that  time 
vacant.  He  sailed,  12  July,  1596,  but  a  storm  dibve 
the  vessel  upon  the  coast  of  Japan.  The  governor 
of  the  province  confiscated  the  ship  and  imprisoned 
its  crew  and  passengers,  among  whom  were  another 
Franciscan,  Juan  de  Zamorra,  two  Augustinians,  and 
a  Dominican.  The  discoverv  of  soldiers,  cannon,  and 
ammunition  on  the  ship  led  to  the  suspicion  that  it 
was  intended  for  the  conquest  of  Japan,  and  that  the 
missionaries  were  merely  to  prepare  the  way  for  the 
soldiers.    This  was  also  said,  falsely  and  unwarrant- 


tmu^ 


PHILIPPI 


ably,  by  one  of  the  crew  (cf .  Japan,  Christianity  in 
Japan,  Catholicism).  This  enraged  the  Japanese 
Emperor  Hideyoshi,  generally  called  Taicosaina  by 
Europeans.  He  commanded,  8  December,  1596^  the 
arrest  of  the  Franciscans  in  the  monastery  at  Miako, 
now  Kyoto,  whither  St.  Philip  had  gone.  The  reli- 
fdous  were  kept  prisoners  in  the  monastery  until  30 
December,  when  they  were  transferred  to  the  city 
prison.  There  were  six  Franciscans,  seventeen  Jap- 
anese tertiaries,  and  the  Japanese  Jesuit,  Paul  Miki, 
with  his  two  native  servants.  The  ears  of  the  prison- 
ers were  cropped  on  3  January,  1597,  and  they  were 
paraded  through  the  streets  of  Kyoto;  on  21  January 
they  were  taken  to  Osaka,  and  thence  to  Nagasaki, 
which  they  reached  on  5  February.  They  were  taken 
to  a  mountain  near  the  city,  ''Mount  of  the  Mar- 
tyrs", bound  upon  crosses,  after  which  they  were 
pierced  with  spears.  St.  Philip  was  beatified  in  1627 
oy  Urban  VIII,  and,  with  his  companions,  canonized 
8  Ji^ne,  1862,  by  Pius  IX.  He  is  the  patron  saint  of 
the  city  of  Mexico. 

RiBADENEQRA,  Htntoria  de  loi  lalaa  del  Archipiilago  y  Reynoa 
delaOran  China,  Tartaria  .  .  .  ]/  Japan,  V,  VI  (Barcelona,  1601); 
these  are  sometimes  wrongly  cited  as  Adas  del  martirio  de  San 
Pedro  Bautista  y  au*  eompaheroa  (Barcelona,  1601);  Archivum 
franc,  hiat.,  I  (Quaracchi,  1908),  536  aqq.:  Francisco  de  S. 
Antonio,  Chron,  de  la  apoatol.  prot.  de  S.  Gregorio  ...  in  Laa 
lalaa  PhUipinaa,  III  (Manila,  1743),  31  sqq.:  Ada  SS.,  Feb.,  I. 
723  sqq.;  Geroniuo  de  Jesus,  Hiat.  delia  Chriaiandad  del  Japon 
(1601) ;  DA  CiVECZA,  Sagffio  di  Bibliog.  Sanfranceac.  (Prato,  1879), 
250,  590  sqq.,  523;  Idem,  Storia  unit,  delle  miaaioni  franc,  VII, 
ii  (Prato,  1891),  883  sqq.;  da  Oriua,  Storia  dei  ventitre  Martiri 
Oiapponeai  deW  Ord.  Min.  Oaaerv.  (Rome,  1862) ;  Melchiorri, 
Annal.  Ord.  Min.  (Ancona,  1869).  101  sqq.,  218  sqq.,  26t)  sqq. 

Michael  Bihl 

Philip  of  the  Blessed  Trinity  (Esprit  Juuen;, 
Discalced  Carmelitei  theologian,  b.  at  Malaucene,  near 
Avignon,  1603;  d.  at  Naples,  28  February,  1671.  He 
took  the  habit  at  Lyons  where  he  made  his  profession, 
8  September,  1621.  Choosing  the  missionary  life,  he 
studied  two  years  at  the  semmary  in  Rome  and  pro- 
ceeded in  February,  1629,  to  the  Holy  Land  and  Per- 
sia, and  thence  to  Goa  where  he  became  prior,  and 
teacher  of  philosophy  and  theology.  After  the  martyr- 
dom of  Dionysius  a  Nativitate,  his  pupil,  and  Re- 
demptus  a  Cruce,  29  Nov.,  1638,  Philip  collected  all 
available  evidence  and  set  out  for  Rome  to  introduce 
the  cause  of  their  beatification  which,  however,  only 
terminated  in  1900.  He  did  not  return  to  the  mission, 
but  was  entrusted  with  important  offices  in  France,  in 
1665,  was  elected  general  of  the  order  with  residence 
in  Rome,  and  three  years  later,  re-elected.  While 
visiting  all  the  provinces  of  his  order,  he  was  caught 
in  a  terrific  gale  off  the  coast  of  Calabria,  and  reached 
Naples  in  a  dying  condition.  Besides  the  classical  lan- 
guages he  spoke  fluently  French,  Italian,  Spanish, 
Portuguese,  Persian,  and  Arabic.  .Of  his  numerous 
works  the  following  have  lasting  value:  "Summa  phil- 
osophise'', 4  vols.,  Lyons,  1648,  in  which  he  follows  not 
only  the  spirit  but  also  the  method  of  St.  Thomas 
Aquinas;  "Summa  theologise  thomisticse".  5  vols., 
Lyons,  1653;  "Summa  theolo^se  mystics;  ,  Lyons, 
1656,  reprinted  in  3  vols..  Pans,  1884;  "Itinerarium 
orientale",  Lyons,  1649,  also  in  Italian  and  French: 
**  Decor  Carmeli  religiosi",  the  lives  of  the  saints  and 
saintly  members  of  his  Order,  Lyons,  1665;  "Theolo- 
gia  carmelitana",  Rome,  1665.  The  two  last  named 
and  some  smialler  works  dealing  to  some  extent  with 
historical  matters  of  a  controversial  nature,  called 
forth  a  reply  from  Pierre-Joseph  de  Haitze,  under  the 
titles,  **Des  Moines  empnint^z",  and  *'Des  Moines 
travestis". 

Henricub  a  88.  Sacramento,  CoOedio  Seriptorum  Ord.  Carmel. 
Excalc.,  II  (Savona,  1884).  110. 

6.  Zimmerman. 

Philippe  le  Bel.    See  Philip  IV,  King  op  France. 

Philippi  (Gr.  0/Xixirot  Lat.  Philippi)  was  a  Mace- 
donian town,  on  the  borders  of  Thracia.  Situated  on 
the  summit  of  a  hill,  it  dominated  a  large  and  fertile 


plain,  intersected  by  the  Egnatian  Way.  It  was 
north-west  of  Mount  Pangea,  near  the  River  Gangites, 
and  the  ^gean  Sea.  In  358  b.  c.  it  was  taken, 
enlarged,  and  fortified  by  the  King  of  Macedonia, 
Philip  II,  hence  its  name  Phihppi.  Octavius  Augustus 
(42  B.  c.)  conferred  on  it  the  jus  ItcUicum  (Acts,  xiv. 
12),  which  made  the  town  a  miniature  Rome,  ana 
granted  it  the  institutions  and  privileges  of  the  citi- 
zens of  Rome.  That  is  why  we  find  at  PhiUppi,  along 
with  a  remnant  of  the  Macedonians,  Roman  colonist! 
together  with  some  Jews,  the  latter,  however,  so  few 
that  they  had  no  synagogue,  but  only  a  place  of 
prayer  (xpo^cvxi^).  Philippi  was  the  first  European 
town  in  which  St.  Paul  preached  the  Faith.  He  ar- 
rived there  with  Silas,  Timothy,  and  Luke  about  the 
end  of  52  a.  d.,  on  the  occasion  of  his  second  Apostolic 
voyage.  The  Acts  mention  in  particular  a  woman 
called  Lydia  of  Thyatira,  a  seller  of  purple,  in  whose 
house  St.  Paul  probably  dwelt  during  his  stay  at 
Philippi.  His  labours  were  rewarded  by  many  con- 
versions (Acts,  xvi),  the  most  important  taking  place 
amon^  women  of  rank,  wh^  seem  to  have  retained 
their  influence  for  a  long  time.  The  Epistle  to  the 
Philippians  deals  in  a  special  manner  with  a  dispute 
that  arose  between  two  of  them,  Evodia  and  Syntyche 
(iv,  2).  In  a  disturbance  of  the  populace,  Paul  and 
Silas  were  beaten  with  rods  and  cast  into  prison,  from 
which  being  miraculously  delivered,  they  set  out  for 
Thessalonica.  Luke,  however,  continued  to  work  for 
five  years. 

The  Philippians  remained  very  attached  and  grate- 
ful to  their  Apostle  and  on  several  occasions  sent  him 
pecuniary  aid  (twice  to  Thessalonica,  Phil.,  iv,  14-16; 
once  to  Corinth,  II  Cor.,  xi,  8-9;  and  once  to  Rome, 
Phil.,  iv,  10-18.  See  Philippians,  Epistle  to  the). 
Paul  returned  there  later;  he  visited  them  on  his 
second  journey,  about  58,  after  leaving  Ephesus  (Acts. 
XX,  1-2).  tt  is  believed  that  he  wrote  his  Second 
Epistle  to  the  Corinthians  at  Philippi,  whither  he 
returned  on  his  way  back  to  Jerusalem,  passing  Easter 
week  there  (Acts,  xx,  5-6).  He  always  kept  in  close 
communication  with  the  inhabitants.  Having  been 
arrested  at  Ciesarea  and  brought  to  Rome,  he  wrote 
to  them  the  Epistle  we  have  in  the  New  Testament, 
in  which  he  dwells  at  great  length  on  his  predilection 
for  them  (i,  3,  7;  iv,  1;  etc.).  Paul  probably  wrote 
them  more  letters  than  we  possess;  Poly  carp,  in  his 
epistle  to  the  Philippians  (II,  1  so.),  seems  to  allude  to 
several  letters  (though  the  Greek  word,  hriffTo\al^  is 
used  also  in  speaking  of  a  single  letter),  and  Paul 
himself  (Phil.,  iii,  1)  seems  to  refer  to  previous  writ- 
ings. He  hoped  (i.  26;  ii,  24)  to  revisit  Philippi  aft.er 
his  captivity,  and  ne  may  have  written  there  his  First 
Epistle  to  Timothy  (Tim.,  i,  3).  Little  is  known 
of  the  subsequent  history  of  the  town.  Later  it  waa  « 
destroyed  by  the  Turks;  to-day  nothing  remains  but 

some  ruins. 

For  bibliography  see  Philippians,  Epistle  to  the. 

A.  Vander  Heeren. 

Philippi,  a  titular  metropolitan  see  in  Macedonia. 
As  early  as  the  sixth  century  b.  c.  we  learn  of  a  region 
called  Datos,  overrun  by  the  inhabitants  of  Thasos, 
in  which  there  was  an  outlying  post  called  Crenides 
(the  little  springs),  and  a  seaport,  Neapolis  or  Cavala. 
About  460  B.  c.  Crenides  and  the  country  lying  inland 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Thracians,  who  doubtless 
were  its  original  inhabitants.  In  360  the  Thasians, 
aided  by  Callistratus  the  Athenian  and  other  exiles, 
re-established  the  town  of  Datos,  just  when  the  dis- 
covery of  auriferous  deposits  was  exciting  the  neigh- 
bouring peoples.  Philip  of  Macedonia  took  possession 
of  it,  and  gave  it  his  name,  Philippi  in  the  plural,  as 
there  were  different  sections  of  the  town  scattered  at 
the  foot  of  Mount  PanpsBUs.  He  erected  there  a  for- 
tress barring  the  road  between  the  Pangaeus  and  the 
Haemus.    The  gold  mines,  called  Asyla,  which  were 


• 


PHILIPPIANS                               8  PHILIPPIANS 

energetically  worked,  gave  Philip  an  annual  revenue  profited  by  the  opportunity  to  confide  to  him  a  letter 
of  more  than  1000  talents.  In  108  b.  c.  the  liomans  to  the  faithful  and  the  heads  of  his  Church.  In  this 
captured  the  place.  In  the  autumn  of  42  b.  c.  the  letter,  probably  written  by  Timothy  at  his  dictation, 
celebrated  battle  between  the  triumvirs  and  Brutus  Paul  expresses  the  sentiments  of  joy  and  gratitude 
and  Cassius  was  fought  on  the  neighbouring  marshy  which  he  cherishes  in  regard  to  the  Philippians.  This 
plain.  In  the  first  conflict  Brutus  triumphed  over  is  the  keynote  of  the  letter.  It  is  an  outpouring  of  the 
Octavius,  whilst  Antony  repulsed  Cassius,  who  com-  heart,  breathing  a  wholly  spontaneous  and  paternal 
mitted  suicide.  Unable  to  maintain  discipline  in  his  intimacy.  In  it  the  loving  heart  of  the  Apostle  re- 
army,  and  defeated  twenty  days  later,  Brutus  also  veals  itself  completely,  and  the  affectionate  tone,  sin- 
took  his  life.  The  same  year  a  Roman  colony  was  cerity,  and  delicacy  of  the  sentiments  must  have 
established  there,  which  after  the  battle  of  Actium  charmed  its  readers  and  won  their  admiration  and 
took  the  name  of  Colonia  Augusta  Julia  Philippensis.  love.  Hence  this  letter  is  much  more  epistolary  in 
When  St.  Ignatius  of  Antioch  and  the  martyrs  Zosi-  style  than  the  other  Epistles  of  St.  Paul.  Familiar 
mus  and  Rufus  were  passing  through  Philippi,  St.  expressions  of  joy  and  gratitude  are  mingled  with 
Ignatius  told  the  Christians  of  that  town  to  send  a  dogmatic  reflexions  and  moral  exhortation,  and  it  is 
letter  of  congratulation  to  the  faithful  of  Antioch.  useless  to  seek  for  orderly  arrangement  or  strict 
They  therefore  wrote  to  Polycarp  of  Smyrna,  asking  sequence. 

him  at  the  same  time  for  the  writmgs  of  St.  Ignatius.  On  the  other  hand,  although  the  general  condition 

Poly  carp  answered  them  in  a  letter,  still  extant,  which  of  the  Church  of  Philippi  was  excellent  and  St.  Paul 

was  written  before  the  death  of  St.  Ignatius.  did  not  have  to  deal  with  grave  vices,  there  were 

Although  the  Church  of  Philippi  was  of  Apostolic  nevertheless  certain  things  which  were  not  altogether 

origin,  it  was  never  very  important;  it  was  a  suffragan  satisfactory  or  which  aroused  apprehension.     Paul 

bishopric  of  Thessalonica.    Towards  the  end  of  the  had  heard  that  the  pride  and  vainglory  of  some,  espe- 

ninth  century  it  ranked  as  a  metropoHtan  see  and  had  cially  of  two  women,  Evodia  and  Syntyche,  had  aroused 

six  suffragan  dioceses;  in  the  fifteenth  century  it  had  misunderstandings  and  rivalries.    Moreover  a  greater 

only  one,  the  See  of  Eleutheropolis.    The  Archdiocese  pjid  more  serious  danger  threatened  them,  perhaps 

of  Cavala  was  reunited  to  the  metropolis  in  Decem-  on  the  part  of  Judaizers,  who,  though  there  is  no  need 

ber,  1616.    In  1619,  after  a  violent  dispute  with  the  to  assume  their  presence  or  propaganda  at  Philippi 

Metropolitan   of   Drama,    Clement,    tne   titular  of  itself,  had,  it  seems,  disseminated  their  baneful  doc- 

Philippi,  got  permission  to  assume  the  title  of  Drama  trines  throughout  the  neiglibouring  regions.    Hence 

also,  and  this  was  retained  by  the  Metropolitan  of  the  exhortations  to  fraternal  charity  and  concord  as 

Philippi  until  after  1721,  when  it  was  suppressed  and  the  well  as  to  disinterestedness;  these  exhortations  (i,  8, 

metropolis  of  Drama  alone  continued.    Inthe^'Echos  27;  ii,  2,  3,  14,  16;  iv,  2  sq.)  Paul  bases  on  exalted 

d*Orient"^  III.  262-72,  the  writer  of  this  article  com-  dogmatic  considerations  taken  from  the  example  of 

piled  a  cntical  list  of  the  Greek  titulars  of  Philippi,  Christ,  and  he  also  proposes  to  them  the  example  of 

containing;  sixty-two  names,  whereas  only  eighteen  his  own  way  of  thinking  and  acting,  which  had  but  a 

are  given  m  Le  Quien,  "  Oriens  christianus  ",  II,  67-70.  single  object,  the  ^lory  of  God  and  Christ.    But  when 

Some  Latin  titulars  are  cited  in  Eubel,  "Hierarchia  he  warns  the  PhiHppians  against  the  Judaizers  he 

catholica  medii  aevi",  I,  418;   II,  238;   III,  291;   Le  returns  to  the  tone  of  deep  sorrow  and  unmitigated 

Quien,  op.  cit..  Ill,  1045.  In  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  indignation  which  characterizes  the  Epistle  to  the 

century,  Philippi  is  mentioned  in  connexion  with  the  Galatians. 

wars  between  John  V,  Palajolo^us,  and  Cantacuzenus,  II.  Analysis. — For  the  reasons  stated  above  a  defi- 

who  has  left  a  description  of  it  (P.  G.,  CLIV,  336).  nite  plan  or  clear  division  must  not  be  sought  in  this 

The  ruins  of  Philippi  lie  near  the  deserted  hamlet  of  Epistle.  The  Letter  is  a  succession  of  exhortations  and 

Filibedjik,   fifteen  kilometres  from  Cavala,   in  the  pffusions  which  may  be  collected  under  the  following 

vilayet  of  Salonica;  they  contain  the  remains  of  the  heads: — 

acropolis,  a  theatre  anterior  to  the  Roman  occupa-  A.  Introduction. — After  the  superscription,  in  which 

tions,  Ofc  temple  of  Syfvanus,  and  numerous  sculptured  he  addresses  himself  to  bishops,  deacons,  and  faithful 

rocks  bearing  inscriptions.  (i»  1-2),  St.  Paul  rejoices  in  tne  excellent  condition  of 

Leake.  Northem  Greece,  III.  215-23;   Smith,  Diet,  of  Gr.  and  the  Church  of  the  Philippians  and  gives  thanks  that 

Rom.  Geog  s  x.'^  S^Qsrn,DePMipperu>ibustanquamiumi^  by  their  alms  they  have  shared  in  the  merits  of  his 

tn  mumio  (Leipzig,  1728);   Hooa,  De  caettu  ehrtstumorum  Fnutp'  j.'    •.           j  xi.                 j     r  au     /^           i  /o    o\    V     i 

pen«t«  condUione  prima  (Leyden.  1823) ;  Heuiey, 3/wsion  archMo-  CaptlVltV  and  the  Spread  of  the  Oospe!  (3-8)  ;   he  loves 

gique  de  Macidoine  (Paris,  1876),  1-124;  Mertzid&s.  Phiiippea  them  all  with  an  intense  love,  ardently  desiring  and 

iS;S'-/&&  \xilk^i^s^%7F;i^'&ll  dirBiW^:  urgently  entreating  that  G«x}  would  deign  to  complete 

B.  V.  m  them  the  work  of  perfection  (^11). 

S.  Vailh6.  B.  Body  of  the  Epistle. — (1)  Paul  begins  by  giving 

news,  as  a  whole  very  satisfactory — with  regard  to  his 
Philippians,  Epistle  to  the. — I.  Historical  own  situation  and  that  of  the  Church  in  Rome.  But 
Circumstances,  Occasion,  and  Character  (see  also  what  he  relates  concerning  himself  must  have  been 
Philippi). — The  Philippians,  who  were  much  en-  meant  for  a  tacit  but  no  less  eloquent  appeal  to  abne- 
deared  to  St.  Paul  (i,  3,  7;  iv,  1),  had  already  on  gation  and  detachment,  for  Paul  depicts  himself  as 
former  occasions  and  under  various  circumstances  seeking  in  all  things  not  his  own  glory  or  personal  ad- 
sent  him  pecuniar^'  aid,  and  now  on  learning  of  his  vantage,  but  solely  the  glory  of  Christ.  His  captivity 
imprisonment  at  Rome  (Acts,  xxvii-xx\'iii)  they  sent  becomes  to  him  a  cause  of  joy,  since  it  avails  for  the 
to  him  Epaphroditus,  one  of  their  number,  to  bear  propagation  of  the  Gospel  (i,  12-14);  what  does  it  mat- 
him  alms  and  minister  to  his  needs  (ii,  25-29;  iv,  18).  ter  to  him  that  some  preach  the  Gospel  out  of  un- 
St.  Paul  received  him  gladly,  rejoicing  in  the  affec-  worthy  zealotry,  provided  Christ  be  preached?  (15- 
tionate  and  Christian  sentiments  of  the  Philippians  18);  given  a  choice  of  life  and  death  he  knows  not 
(iv,  10-19),  and  in  the  generally  satisfactory  condition  which  he  prefers,  life  which  permits  him  to  do  good  for 
of  their  Church  as  reported  to  him  by  Epaphroditus.  souls,  or  death,  which  shall  be  a  testimony  for  Christ 
It  may  be  that  Epaphroditus  had  bet^n  the  Apostle's  and  shall  unite  him  to  Him  (19-25).  He  thinks,  how- 
companion  and  assistant  at  Philippi  (ii,  25) ;  at  least  ever,  that  he  will  be  set  free  and  may  still  labour  for  the 
he  became  such  at  Rome  (ii,  30),  but  he  fell  danger-  spiritual  progress  of  the  Philippians. 
ously  ill  and  was  at  the  point  of  death  (ii,  27).  This  (2)  He  exhorts  them  more  directly  to  lead  a  life 
news  was  distressing  to  the  Philippians,  and  as  soon  worthy  of  the  Gospel  (i,  27a),  and  especially  to  con- 
as  he  recovered  he  was  eager  to  return  home  (ii,  26).  cord  and  abnegation  (i,  27b-ii,  4)  (i)  by  the  example 
Paul  therefore  hastened  to  send  him  (ii,  26-28)  and  of  Christ  Who  being  in  the  Divine  form  and  possessing 


PHILIPPIANS 


9 


PHILIPPIANS 


supreme  independence  neverthelessi  for  our  good,  anm- 
hilated  himself  and  assumed  the  condition  of  a  slave, 
even  undergoing  death ;  (ii)  by  the  desire  for  a  heavenly 
reward,  such  as  Christ  received  (ii,  5-1 1 ) .  He  concludes 
by  repeating  his  general  exhortation  to  Christian  per- 
fection and  by  affirming  that  to  procure  them  this  per- 
fection he  would  gladly  sacrifice  his  life. 

(3)  The  Apostle  tells  the  Philippians  that  as  soon  as 
he  knows  the  outcome  of  his  imairs  he  will  send  to 
them  Timothy,  his  devoted  companion,  who  is  so  well- 
disposed  towards  the  Philippians  (ii,  19-24);  in  the 
meantime  he  sends  them  Epaphroditus,  his  fellow- 
labourer  and  their  delegate  to  him  (see  above) ;  he 
asks  them  to  receive  him  with  jov  and  to  honour  him 
greatly,  because  of  the  love  which  he  bears  them  and 
the  danger  of  death  to  which  he  was  exposed  while  ful- 
filling his  mission  (25-30). 

(4)  Desiring  to  end  or  abbreviate  his  Epistle  Paul 
begins  the  conclusion  (iii,  la,  the  Td  \oir6v).  but  sud- 
denly interrupts  it  in  order  again  to  put  the  Philip- 
pians on  their  guard  against  the  Judaizing  teachers, 
which  he  does  by  once  more  presenting  to  them  his 
own  example:  Has  he  not  all  the  benefits  and  titles  in 
which  the  Judaizers  are  accustomed  to  glory  and  much 
more?  But  all  this  he  has  despised  and  rejected  and 
counted  as  dung  that  he  might  gain  true  justice  and 
perfection,  whicn  are  secured,  not  by  the  works  of  the 
law,  but  by  faith  (iii^  1-1 1) .  This  perfection,  it  is  true, 
he  had  not  yet  attained,  but  he  never  ceased  to  press 
towards  the  mark  and  the  prize  to  which  God  had 
called  him,  thus  refuting  by  his  own  example  those 
who  in  their  pride  call  themselves  perfect  (12-16);  he 
incites  his  readers  to  imitate  him  (17)  and  not  to  fol- 
low those  who,  loving  the  things  of  this  world,  have 
depraved  habits  (18-iv,  1). 

(5)  To  this  general  exhortation  Paul  adds  a  special 
admonition.  He  binds  two  women,  Evodia  and  Syn- 
tyche,  to  concord  (iv,  2-3),  and  exhorts  all  to  spiritual 
joy,  urging  the  observance  of  goodness  and  gentleness 
among  them  (5),  bidding  them  be  disturbed  by  noth- 
ing, but  have  recourse  to  God  in  all  their  anxieties 
(6^-7),  and  endeavour  to  attain  to  Christian  perfection 
in  all  things  (8-9). 

C.  Epilogue. — Paul  concludes  his  Epistle  by  a  more 
expUcit  renewal  of  thanks  to  the  Philippians  for  their 
alms,  using  the  most  delicate  expressions  and  making 
his  manner  of  acceptance  a  final  exhortation  to  detach- 
ment and  abnegation  (11-19).  This  is  followed  by  the 
Doxology  and  e^utations.  Especially  noteworthy  are 
his  salutations  to  those  of  the  household  of  the  em- 
peror (20-23). 

III.  Authenticity,  Unity,  and  Integrity. — The 
authenticity  of  the  Epistle  as  a  whole,  which  was  gen- 
erally accepted  until  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury, was  first  denied  by  the  Tubingen  School  (Baur, 
1845;  Zeller;  Volckmar).  Their  arguments,  namely 
lack  of  originality,  the  evidence  of  a  semi-Gnostic  idea, 
a  doctrine  of  justification  which  could  not  be  that  of 
St.  Paul  etc.,  were  triumphantly  refuted  by  Lune- 
mann,  Brilckner,  Schenkel  etc.  But  other  contra- 
dictors subseauently  arose,  such  as  van  Manen  and 
especially  Hoisten  (for  their  chief  arguments  see 
below).  At  present  the  authenticity  may  be  said  to 
be  universally  admitted  not  only  by  Catholic  exegetes 
but  also  by  most  Protestants  ana  Rationalists  (Hilgen- 
feld.  Hamack,  Zahn,  Jiilichcr,  Pficiderer,  Lightfqot, 
Gibb,  Holtzmann). 

(1)  Arguments  from  external  criticism  permit  no 
doubt  on  the  subject.  We  will  not  deal  witn  the  quo- 
tations from  or  reminiscences  of  the  Epistle  which 
some  authors  profess  to  find  in  early  ecclesiastical 
writers,  such  as  Clement  of  Rome,  Ignatius  of  Antioch, 
the  Shepherd  of  Hennas,  the  Epistle  to  Diognetus  etc. 
(see  Comely,  "Introductio",  IV,  491;  Jacquier,  p. 
347;  Toussaint  in  ''Diet,  de  la  Bible",  s.  v.  Philip- 
picas).  About  120  St.  Polycarp  speaks  explicitly  to 
the  Philippians  of  the  letters  (or  the  letter,  iTurro^al) 


which  Paul  had  written  to  them,  and  some  passages  of 
his  letter  prove  that  he  had  read  this  Epistle  to  the 
Philippians.  Subsequently  the  Muratorian  Canon, 
St.  Irenseus,  Clement  of  Alexandria,  TertuUian,  and 
the  Apostolicon  of  Marcion  attribute  it  expressly  to 
St.  Paul.  After  TertuUian  the  testimonies  become 
numerous  and  incontestable  and  the  unanimity  was 
maintained  without  the  slightest  exception  until  the 
middle  of  the  nineteenth  century.' 

(2)  Internal  Criticism. — The  difficulties  drawn  from 
the  Epistle  itself,  which  some  authors  have  urged 
against  tradition,  are  misleading,  as  is  now  admitted 
by  the  most  prominent  Rationalists  and  Protestants. 

(a)  Language  and  style:  the  tLra^  Xtydfuva  (which 
occur  about  forty  times)  prove  nothing  against  the 
Pauline  origin  of  the  Epistle,  since  they  are  met  with 
in  almost  the  same  proportion  in  the  certainly  authen- 
tic Epistles.  Moreover,  certain  words  (about  twenty) 
quite  peculiar  to  the  Epistles  of  St.  Paul,  certain  forms 
of  expression,  figures,  methods  of  style  (i,  22,  27,  29; 
iii,  8^  14),  and  repetitions  of  words  demonstrate  the 
Pauhne  character  of  the  Epistle. 

(b)  Doctrine:  the  two  chief  objections  brought  for- 
wwd  by  Hoisten  (Jahrb;  fur  Prot.  theol.,  I,  125;  II, 
58, 282)  have  found  little  credit  among  exegetes,  while 
Hoisten  himself  in  a  more  recent  work  ("Das  Evan- 
gelium  des  Paulus",  Berlin,  1898,  II,  4)  concedes  that ' 
the  theology  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Philippians  is  thor- 
oughlv  Pauline.  In  fact  (a)  the  Christology  of  the 
Epistle  to  the  Philippians,  which  portrays  Christ  pre- 
existing in  the  form  of  God  and  made  man  through  the 
Incarnation,  does  not  contradict  that  of  the  First 
Epistle  to  the  Corinthians  (xv,  45),  which  depicts  the 
Risen  Christ  as  a  heavenly  Man,  clothed  with  His 
glorified  body,  or  that  of  the  other  Epistles  which,  in  a 
simpler  form,  also  show  us  Christ  pre-existing  as  a 
Divine  Being  and  made  man  through  the  Incarnation 
(Gal.,  iv,  4;  Rom.,  vui,  3;  II  Cor.,  viii,  9).  (b)  The 
doctrine  on  justification  by  faith  and  not  by  works  set 
forth  in  the  Epistles  to  the  Romans  and  the  Galatians, 
is  not  contradicted  here  (iii,  6);  if  indeed  St.  Paul 
speaks  here  of  legal  justice  it  is  obviously  to  show  its 
powerlessness  and  nothingness  (7-9). 

The  unity  and  integrity  of  the  Epistle  have  also 
been  denied  or  doubted  by  some  authors.  Volter  and 
Spitta  maintained  that  this  Epistle  is  a  compilation  of 
another  authentic  Epistle  to  the  Philippians  and  an 
apocryphal  one  written  about  a.  d.  120.  Clemen  saw 
in  it  a  compilation  of  two  authentic  Epistles.  These 
theories  met  with  little  success,  while  the  arguments 
which  have  been  brought  forward  in  their  behalf,  viz. 
the  double  conclusion  (iii,  1,  and  iv,  4)  mingled  with 
personal  details,  moral  counsels,  doctrinal  instructions 
etc.,  are  sufficiently  explained  by  the  familiar  and 
consequently  free  and  unrestrained  character  of  the 
Epistle. 

Place  and  Dale. — ^There  is  not  the  shadow  of  a  doubt 
that  the  Epistle  to  the  Philippians  was  written  during 
the  Apostle's  captivity  (i,  7, 13, 14, 17;  ii,  24).  More- 
over, it  is  certain  that  it  was  written  not  at  Csesarea,  as 
some  have  maintained,  but  at  Rome  (  a  .  d  .  62-64) .  Such 
is  the  nearly  unanimous  opinion  even  of  those  who  claim 
that  the  three  other  Epistles  of  the  Captivity  were 
written  at  Caisarea  [see  i,  13  (the  praetonum);  iv,  22 
(the  house  of  Csesar) ;  i,  17  sqq.  (this  supposes  a  more 
important  Church  than  that  of  Caesarea)].  Critics  do 
not  agree  as  to  whether  the  Epistle  was  written  at  the 
beginning  of  the  sojourn  at  Rome  or  at  the  end,  before 
or  after  the  other  three  Epistles  of  the  captivity. 
Most  of  them  incline  towards  the  second  view  (Meyer, 
Weiss,  Holtzmann,  Zahn,  Jiilicher  etc.).  For  the 
arguments  pro  and  con  see  the  works  of  the  various 
critics.  The  present  author,  however,  is  of  the  opinion 
that  it  was  written  towards  the  end  of  the  captivity. 

The  following  are  general  works  and  commentaries,  in  which 
the  reader  will  fintl  a  more  extenHive  bibliography,  and  inforraa* 
tion  concerning  earlier  w^orka  and  comment arioft. 

BiSELKN,  CommerUariu*  in  Epistolam  S.  Pauli  ad  Philipperuie* 


PHILIPPINE 


10 


PHILIPPINE 


(2n(l  ed.,  Louyaio,  1852) ;  Idem,  Het  nieuwe  Testament  (Bruces, 
1892);  BiBPiNQ,  BrklArung  der  Brief e  an  die  Spheeer,  Philipper 
und  Kolosser  (MQnflter,  1866);  Lipsius,  Brief  an  die  OatcUar, 
BdmeTt  Philipper  (Handcommentar  turn  N.  T.),  adapted  by 
HOLTZMANN  (2Dd  ed.,  Freiburg,  1802);  Moulb,  The  BpisUe 
to  the  Philippians  (Cambridge,  1895)  ;  Cobnelt,  IntrodwUio 
epecialia  in  aingiUoe  N.  T.  librae  (Paria,  1897)  ;  MOller,  Der 
Ap.  Paultu  Brief  an  die  Philipper  (Freiburg  1899);  van  Steen- 
KI8TE,  Commentariua  in  omnes  S.  Pault  Epietolae  (Bruges, 
1899);  Funk,  PairM  Apoeloliei  (TObingen.  1901);  Vincent, 
The  Epistles  to  the  Philippians  and  to  Philemon  (2nd  ed., 
Edinburgh,  1902);  Hadpt,  Die  Gefangensehafisbriefe  (8th  ed., 
Gottingen,  1902);  Jacquier,  Histoire  des  livres  du  Nouveau 
Testament,  I  (Paris,  1904) ;  Shaw,  The  Pauline  Epistles  (2nd  ed., 
Edinburgh,  1904);  Clemen,  PatduSt  sein  Leben  und  Wirken 
(Giessen,  1904) ;  Belser,  Einleitung  in  das  neue  Testament  (2nd 
ed.,  Freiburg,  1905);  Le  Camus,  Uauvre  des  ApAtres  (Paria, 
1905);  POlzl.  Der  Weltaposlel  Paulus  (Ratisbon.  1905) ;  Lioht- 
rooT,  St.  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Philippians  (16th  ed.,  London, 
1908) ;  FiLUON  in  ViaouRoux.  Diet,  de  la  Bible^  s.  v.  Phi- 
lippes:  ToussAiNT,  ibid.,  s.  v.  Philippiens;  Idem,  EpUres  de  S. 
Paul  (Paris.  1910);  Prat.  La  thioloote  de  8.  Paul  (Paris,  1909); 
FouARD,  Saint  Paul,  see  demih-es  annies  (Paria,  1910);  ViQOU- 
BOUx-BACUEB-BaAJBAAC,  Manuel  Biblique,  IV  (Paris,  1911). 

A.  Vander  Heeren. 

Philippine  iBlands. — Situation  and  Area. — ^The 
Philippine  Islands  Ue  between  116*^  40'  and  126**  34' 
E.  long.,. and  4*  40'  and  21°  10'  N.  lat.  The  islands 
are  washed  by  the  China  Sea  on  the  north  and  west, 
the  Pacific  Ocean  on  the  east,  and  the  oea  of  Celebes 
on  the  south.  Thev  are  nearly  south  of  Japan,  and 
north  of  Borneo  ana  the  Celebes,  with  which  they  are 
connected  by  three  partly-submerged  isthmuses.  The 
archipelago  belongs  to  the  same  geographic  region  as 
Borneo,  Sumatra,  and  Java,  and  therefore  to  Asia 
rather  than  to  Oceanica.  In  all  there  are  3141  islands; 
1668  of  them  are  listed  by  name.  Luzon  has  an  area 
of  40,969  sq.  miles;  Mindanao,  36,292  sq.  m.  Nine 
islands  have  an  area  between  1000-10,000  sq.  m.; 
20  between  100  and  1000  sq.  m.;  73  between  10  and 
100  sq.  m. ;  and  262  between  1  and  10  sq.  m.  The  re- 
maining 2775  islands  are  each  less  than  1  sq.  m.  The 
total  area  of  the  islands  is  115,026  sq.  m.  The  ex- 
tent of  the  Earth's  surface  included  by  the  boundaries 
of  the  treaty  lines  is  about  800,000  so.  m. 

Physical  Geography — Fauna  and  Flora, — ^The  sce- 
nery of  the  islands,  especially  Luzon,  is  very  beautiful. 
The  greatest  known  elevation,  Mt.  Apo,  in  Mindanao, 
is  over  10,000  ft.;  it  was  ascended  for  the  first  time 
by  Father  Mateo  Gisbert,  S.J.,  accompauied  by  two 
laymen,  in  1880.  There  are  twenty  well-known  and 
recent  volcanic  cones,  twelve  of  them  more  or  less 
active.  Mayon  Volcano,  about  8000  ft.,  is  probably 
the  most  beautiful  symmetrical  volcanic  cone  in  the 
world.  There  are  no  very  laree  rivers;  the  Cagay^ 
of  northern  Luzon  and  the  Rio  Grande  and  the  Agusan, 
both  in  Mindanao,  are  more  than  200  miles  in  length. 
The  largest  lakes  are*  Laguna  de  Bay,  near  Manila, 
and  Laguna  de  Lanao,  in  Mindanao;  the  surface  of 
the  latter  is  2200  ft.  above  sea-level.  Laguna  de 
Bombon,  in  Batangas  Province,  Luzon,  is  the  crater 
of  an  immense  volcano,  of  roughly  elliptical  shape, 
seventeen  by  twelve  miles.  On  an  island  in  the  lake 
is  the  active  volcano  of  Taal.  The  fauna  of  the  Phil- 
ippines resembles  that  of  the  neighbouring  Malayan 
islands  to  z  certain  extent.  Two-thirds  oi  the  birds 
of  the  Philippines  are  peculiar  to  them;  what  is  more 
strange  is  that  of  286  species  of  birds  found  in  Luzon, 
at  least  fifty-one  are  not  to  be  met  with  in  any  other 
part  of  the  archipelago.  The  flora  of  the  islands  is 
similar  to  that  of  Java,  Sumatra,  and  Borneo,  but 
with  differences  sufficiently  numerous  to  give  it  a 
marked  individuaUty.  Forests  form  seven-tenths  of 
the  area  of  the  archipelago;  they  embrace  a  great 
variety  of  woods,  many  of  them  highly  valuable. 

Mineral  Resources.— CoaA  is  found  in  many  parts  of 
the  islands.  Two  mines  arc  now  in  operation  on  the 
small  island  of  Batan,  Albay  Province,  Southern 
Luzon.  The  total  output  in  the  Philippines  during 
1909  was  valued  at  nearly  $100,000.  About  $250,000 
worth  of  gold  was  mined  the  same  year.    Iron  is  also 


found,  the  product  in  1909  being  worth  a  little  more 
than  $15,000. 

ClinuUe, — ^The  climate  is^  generally  speaking,  trop- 
ical, although  there  are  pomts  in  the  islands  wnere  it 
cannot  strictly  be  so  termed.  The  mean  temperature 
in  Manila  during  the  period  1883-1902  was  80°  F. : 
the  average  niaximum  during  the  same  time  was  97 
and  minimuin  63°.  The  average  rainfall  in  Manila 
is  something  more  than  75  inches.  Baguio.  Province 
of  Benguet,  has  been  called  the  Simla  of  tn,e  Phifip- 
pines.  Climatic  conditions  are  so  favourable  that  tne 
commission  and  assembly  held  their  sessions  there 
this  year  (1910)  during  the  warm  months.  The  mean 
minimum  temperatures  for  four  months  of  the  year 
are  lower  in  Baguio  than  at  Simla,  and  almost  equal 
for  two  other  months.  The  monthly  means  are  nearly 
equal  for  the  two  places  during  five  months. 

Railways, — ^Railway  lines  are  in  operation  in  Luzon, 
Panay,  Cebti,  and  Negros,  about  four  hundred  miles 
in  all. 

Population. — ^A  census  of  the  islands  taken  in  1903 
estimates  the  population  at  7,635,426,  of  whom 
6,987,686  are  claasied  as  civilized  and  647,740  as  wild. 

There  was  no  cjuestion  in  Spanish  times  about  the 
number  of  Christians;  but  a  difference  of  opinion  pre- 
vails about  the  number  of  the  wild  people.  An  esti- 
mate published  in  Madrid  in  1891  puts  down  the 
non-civiUzed  tribes  (Moros  included)  at  1,400,000. 
According  to  the  Director  of  the  Census  of  1903,  there 
has  been  tendency  to  exaggerate;  he  admits  that  the 
number,  647,740,  is  possibly  too  small,  but  that  it  is 
probably  within  ten  per  cent,  of  the  true  number. 

Wild  Tribes. — ^The  Negritos  are  believed  to  have 
been  the  aborigines  of  tne  islands.  There  remain 
about  23,000  of  these,  leading  to-day  a  primitive  life, 
nomadic  within  a  certain  district,  living  in  groups  of 
twenty  or  thirty  under  a  chief.  They  are  a  race  of 
dwarfs,  four  feet  eight  inches  in  height.  They  are  of 
a  sooty  black  colour,  their  hair  woolly,  their  toes 
almost  as  prehensile  as  fingers.  The  Negritos,  it  is 
thought,  once  occupied  the  entire  archipelago,  but 
were  driven  back  into  the  mountains  by  the  Malays. 

Among  other  wild  tribes  may  be  mentioned  the 
Igorottes  in  Northern  Luzon,  some  of  whom  are  head- 
hunters.  They,  are  an  industrious  and  warlike  race. 
Belgian  missionaries  have  been  working  among  them 
the  past  few  years  with  considerable  fruit.  The 
Ibilao  or  Ilongot  is  noted  for  his  bloodthirsty  propen- 
sities; the  Ifugaos  are  said  to  resemble  the  Japanese 
in  appei9krance.  They  use  the  lasso  with  great  dex- 
terity, and  with  it  capture  the  luckless  traveller,  de- 
capitate him,  and  add  the  head  to  their  collection. 
They  wear  as  many  rings  in  their  ears  as  they  have 
taken  heads.  In  Palawan  (Paragua)  the  most  numer- 
ous tribe  is  that  of  the  Tagbanuas,  many  of  whom 
have  been  Christianized.  The  Manguianes  occupy 
the  interior  of  Mindoro;  they  are  a  docile  race  and  do 
not  fiee  from  civilized  man.  Among  the  wild  tribes  of 
Mindanao  may  be  mentioned  the  Manobos,  Basobos. 
Bukidnons,  Tirurays,  and  Subanos.  They  are  ciassea 
as  Indonesians  by  some  ethnologists.  Slavery  is 
practised,  and  human  sacrifices  are  known  to  have 
taken  place  within  the  past  few  years. 

The  Moros  or  Mohammedan  Malays  chiefly  in- 
habit Mindanao  and  the  Sulu  archipelago,  though 
they  are  found  also  in  Basilan  and  ralawan.  They 
were  professional  pirates,  and  advanced  as  far  as 
Manila  at  the  time  of  the  arrival  of  the  Spaniards. 
They  killed  large  numbers  of  Filipinos,  and  carried 
others  into  slavery.  Until  within  about  sixty  years 
ago,  when  Spanish  gunboats  of  light  draught  were 
introduced,  tney  made  marauding  excursions  into  the 
Visayan  islands  (Panay,  Negros,  Cebti,  Bohol,  Leyte, 
Samar  etc.),  carrying  off  a  thousand  captives  as  slaves 
annually.  They  were  the  great  obstacle  to  the  civ- 
ilization of  Mindanao.  The  Moro  is  possessed  of 
much  physical  strength,  is  indifferent  to  bloodshed. 


PHILZPPIHB  1 

too  proud  to  work,  and  eirtremely  fuiatioal.  Many  of 
them  build  th^  towns  in  the  water,  with  movable 
bamboo  bridges  oooDected  with  the  shore.  Flanking 
their  settlements  they  built  coWm  or  forts.  The  walls 
ofsomaof  these  were  twenty-four  feet  thick  and  thirty 
feet  high.  The  United  States  Government  respects 
.the  Moro  custom  of  discarding  the  hat.  by  permitting 
the  Moro  Constabulary  (military  police)  to  wear  a 
Turkish  fei  and  to  go  barefoot. 

Extensive  misaionary  work  has  been  done  by  the 
Jesuits  in  Mindanao,  Previous  to  the  American  oc* 
cupation,  they  ministered  to  200,000  ChrJHtians  in 
various  parts  of  the  islands.  Even  among  the  Moros 
their  efforts  were  successful  and  in  one  yeAT  (1892) 


PHIUFPtn 


individuals  of  the  Visayas,  but  there  is  a  great  difff 
ence  in  their  languaees,  a  Visayan  of  Cebd,  lor  inBtan< 

will  not  understand  a  Visayan  of  Panay.    For  all  thi 


blanoe,  mentally,  morally,  and  physically,  between 

■'    "■  .    ..(--! Mtdiffer- 

_    instance, 

Visayan  of  Panay.  For  all  that, 
it  18  said  that  the  Filipinos  had  a  common  racial  oriein 
and  at  one  time  a  common  language.  Physically,  the 
Filipinos  are  of  medium  height,  although  tall  men  are 
to  be  found  amons  them,  especially  in  the  mount^n 
districts.  Generfuly  speaking,  they  are  of  a  brownish 
colour,  with  black  eyes,  prominent  cheel;  bones,  the 
nose  fiat  rather  than  arched  or  straiRht,  nostrils  wide 
and  full,  mouth  inclined  to  Ijc  large,  lips  full,  good 
teeth,  and  round  chin. 
The  following  estimates  of  the  Fiiipir.os  are  selected 


they  baptized  3000  Moros  in  the  district  of  Divao. 
They  establiahed  twtf  large  orphan  aeiylums,  one  for 
boyu  and  the  other  for  girls,  at  Tamontaca,  where 
liberated  slave-children  were  trainwl  to  a  useful  life, 
and  which  Inter  formed  the  ba.sis  of  new  Christian 
villages.  For  lack  of  support  a  grutil  deal  of  this  work 
had  to  be  abandoned  with  the  withdrawal  of  Spanish 
sovereignty  from  the  islands. 

Chritlvm  Trihet.—Th.^  inhabitants  of  Luion  and 
adjacent  islands  are  the  Tagalogs,  Pampangaas, 
Bicols,  PaososinanB,  Ilocano.s,  Ibunags  or  Caguy.lnes, 
and  Zambales,  The  most  important  of  these  are  the 
Togalogs,  who  number  about  a  million  and  a  half; 
the  Pampangans,  about  400,tX)0,  excel  in  agriculture; 
the  BicoLs  in  South-eaatem  Luzon  were,  according  to 
Blumentritt,  the  first  Malays  in  the  Phdippines;  the 
Pangasinans,  in  the  province  of  that  name,  number 
about  SOO.OiX);  the  Hocanos,  an  industrious  rai^, 
occupy  the  north-western  coast  of  Luion;  the 
Ibanags,  said  to  be  the  finest  race  and  the  most  valiant 
men  in  the  islands  (Sawyer),  dwell  in  Northern  and 
Eastern  Luzon.  The  Zambales  were  famous  head- 
hunters  at  the  time  of  the  Spanish  conquest,  and  made 
drinking-cups  out  of  their  enemies'  skulls.  They 
number  about  100,000.  The  Visayan  Islands  are  in- 
habited by  the  Visayas,  the  most  numerous  tribeof  the 
Phih[jpines.  Fewerwild  oeople  are  found  among  them 
than  in  other  portions  of  the  arehipelago.  The  popu- 
'-«—  =9  about  3,000,000.  There  is  a  strong  resera- 


lation  i 


from  the  Unirod  Statcn  Consua  Ileporl  of  liMH.  The 
Rrst  gives  an  appre<'iatiun  of  the  people  shortly  iiflcT 
the  arrival  of  the  Spanianis  and  bi-forn  they  were 
Christianized.  The  second  and  IhinI  are  the  vit'ws 
of  an  American  and  an  Englishman,  rrapeetively,  of 
the  Christianized  FiIi|iino  before  and  at  (he  time  of 
the  American  occupation. 

(1)  L^iaspi,  after  four  years' residence,  writes  thus 
of  the  natives  of  Cebii:  "They  are  a  crafty  and 
treacherous  race,  ,  ,  ,  They  arc  a  people  extremely 
vicious,  fickle,  untruthful,  and  full  of  other  supersti- 
tions. No- law  binds  relative  to  relative,  parents  to 
children,  or  brother  t«  brother,  .  .  .  If  a  man  in  some 
time  of  need  shelters  a  relative  or  a  brother  in  his 
house,  supports  him,  and  provides  him  with  food  for  a 
few  days,  he  will  consider  that  relative  as  his  slave 
from  that  time  on.  ...  At  times  they  se''  uheir  own 
children.  ,  .  .  Privateering  and  robbery  have  a  natu- 
ral attraction  for  them.  ...  I  believe  that  these 
natives  could  be  easily  subdued  by  good  treatment 
and  the  display  of  kindness". 

(2)  Hon.  Dean  C.  Worcester  was  in  the  Philip- 
pities  in  1887-88  and  1890-93.  He  says:  "The  trav- 
eller cannot  fail  to  be  impressed  by  his  (the  Filipmo'sJ 
open-handed  and  cheerful  hospitality.  He  will  go  to 
any  amount  of  trouble,  and  often  to  no  little  expense, 
in  order  to  accommodate  some  perfect  stranger.  If 
cleanliness  be  next  to  godliness,  he  has  much  to  recom- 
mend him.    Hardly  less  noticet^le  than  the  almost 


PHILIPPINE 


12 


PHILIPPINE 


umversal  hospitality  are  the  well-regulated  homos  and 
the  happy  family  life  which  one  soon  finds  to  be  the 
rule.  Children  are  orderly,  respectful,  and  obedient 
to  their  parents.  The  native  is  self-respecting  and 
self-restrained  to  a  remarkable  degree.  .  .  .  He  is 
patient  under  misfortune  and  forbearing  under  provo- 
caJtion.  .  .  .  He  is  a  kind  father  and  a  dutiful  son. 
His  Bjted  relatives  are  never  left  in  want,  but  are 
brougnt  to  his  home  and  are  welcome  to  share  the 
best  that  it  affords  to  the  end  of  their  days". 

(3)  Frederick  H.  Sawyer  lived  for  fourteen  years  in 
the  Philippines;  he  writes:  "The  Filipino  possesses 
a  great  deal  of  self-respect,  and  his  demeanour  is  quiet 
and  decorous.  He  is  polite  to  others  and  expects  to  be 
treated  politely  himself.  He  is  averse  to  rowdyism  or 
horseplay  of  any  kind,  and  avoids  giving  offence.  For 
an  inhabitant  of  the  tropics  he  is  fairly  industrious, 
sometimes  even  very  hard-working.  Those  who  have 
8e|en  him  poling  cascos  against  the  stream  of  the  Pasig 
will  admit  this.  He  is  a  keen  sportsman,  and  will  readily 

Eut  his  money  on  his  favourite  horse  or  gamecock; 
e  is  also  addicted  to  other  forms  of  gambling.  The 
position  taken  by  women  in  a  community  is  often 
considered  as  a  test  of  the  degree  of  civilization  it  has 
attained.  Measured  by  this  standard,  the  Filipinos 
come  out  well,  for  among  them  the  wife  exerts  great 
influence  in  the  family  and  the  husband  rarely  com- 
pletes any  important  business  without  her  concur- 
rence. 

"The  Filipinos  treat  their  children  with  great  kind- 
ness and  forbearance.  Those  who  are  well-off  show 
much  anxiety  to  secure  a  good  education  for  their 
sons  and  even  for  their  daughters.  Parental  authority 
extends  to  the  latest  period  in  life.  I  have  seen  a  man 
of  fifty  years  come  as  respectfully  as  a  child  to  kiss 
the  hands  of  his  aged  parents  when  the  vesper  bell 
sounded,  and  this  notwithstanding  the  presence  of 
several  European  visitors  in  the  house.  Children,  in 
return,  show  great  respect  to  both  parents,  and  come 
morning  and  evening  to  kiss  their  hands.  They  arc 
trained  in  good  manners  from  their  earliest  youth, 
both  by  precept  and  example". 

History. — The  islands  were  discovered  16  March, 
1521,  by  Ferdinand  Magellan.  Several  other  ex- 
peditions followed,  but  they  were  fruitless.  In  1564 
Legaspi  sailed  from  Mexico  for  the  Philippines.  He 
was  accompanied  by  the  Augustinian  friar  Urdaneta. 
As  a  layman  this  celebrated  priest  had  accompanied 
the  expiedition  of  Loaisa  in  1524,  which  visited  Min- 
danao and  the  Moluccas.  Lqgaspi  landed  in  Cebil  in 
1565.  The  islands  had  been  called  San  Lazaro  by 
Magellan;  Villalobos,  who  commanded  an  expedition 
from  Mexico,  called  the  island  at  which  he  touched 
Filipina,  in  honour  of  Prince  Philip.  This  name  was 
extended  to  the  whole  archipelago  by  Legaspi,  who 
was  sent  out  by  the  former  prince  then  ruling  as 
Philip  II. 

Though  there  were  not  wanting  indications  of  hos- 
tility and  distrust  towards  the  Spaniards  from  the 
inhabitants  of  Cebti,  Legaspi  succeeded  in  .winning 
their  friendship  after  a  few  months.  Later,  in  1569, 
he  removed  the  seat  of  government  to  Iloilo.  He  sent 
his  nephew  Juan  Salcedo'to  explore  the  islands  to  the 
north.  Salcedo's  report  to  his  uncle  was  favourable 
and  in  15:  \  Legaspi,  leaving  the  affairs  of  government 
in  the  hands  of  natives,  proceeded  north  and  founded 
the  city  of  Maynila,  later  Manila.  Legaspi.  imme- 
diately set  about  the  organization  of  the  new  colony ; 
he  appointed  rulers  of  provinces,  arranged  for  yearly 
voyages  to  New  Spain,  and  other  matters  pertain- 
ing to  the  welfare  of  the  country.  In  his  work  of 
pacification  he  was  greatly  aided  by  the  friars 
who  were  then  be^nning  the  work  of  Christian  civ- 
ilization in  the  Philippines  which  was  to  go  on  for 
several  centuries.  Legaspi  died  in  1574.  To  him- 
belongs  the  glory  of  founding  the  Spanish  sovereignty 
in  the  islands.     He  was  succeeded  by  Lavezares. 


About  this  time  the  Chinese  pirate  Li-ma-hon  invadcfl 
Luzon,  with  a  fleet  of  over  sixty  vessels  and  about  6000 
people.  A  storm  that  met  the  fleet  as  it  neared  Manila 
wrecked  some  of  his  boats,  but  Li-ma-hon  proceeded 
on  his  journey  and  landed  1500  men.  Repulsed  in 
two  attacks  by  the  Spaniards,  Li-ma-hon  went  north 
and  settled  in  Pangasinan  province.  The  following 
year  (1575)  Salcedo  was  sent  against  them;  he  de- 
feated them  and  drove  the  fleeing  Chinese  into  the 
mountains. 

A  few  years  later  the  arrival  of  the  first  bishop  is 
chronicled,  the  Dominican  Salazar,  one  of  the  greatest 
figures  in  the  history  of  the  Philippines;  he  was  ac- 
companied by  a  few  Jesuits  (1581).  Tne  Augustin- 
ians  had  come  with  Legaspi,  the  Franciscans  arrived 
in  1577,  and  the  Dominicans  in  1587.  By  unanimous 
vote  of  the  entire  colony  the  Jesuit  Sanchez  was  sent 
to  Spain  to  explain  to  Philip  II  the  true  state  of  affairs 
in  the  islands.  His  mission  was  entirely  successful; 
Philip  was  persuaded  to  retain  his  new  possessions, 
which  many  of  his  advisers  were  counselling  him  to 
relinquish.  In  1591  an  ambassador  came  from  Japan 
demanding  that  tribute  be  paid  that  country.  This 
the  new  governor  Dasmarifias  refused,  but  he  drew 
up  a  treaty  instead  that  was  satisfactory  to  both 
parties.  An  expedition  that  started  out  against  the 
k  Moluccas  in  1593  ended  disastrously.  On  the  voyage 
some  of  the  Chinese  crew  mutinied,  killed  Dasmari£as 
and  took  the  ship  to  China.  Dasmarifias  built  the 
fortress  of  Santiago^  Manila,  and  fortified  the  city 
with  stone  walls.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Luis. 
During  his  governorship  the  convent  of  Santa  Isabel, 
a  school  and  home  for  children  of  Spanish  soldiers, 
was  founded  (1594).  It  exists  to  this  day.  The 
Audiencia  or  Supreme  Court  was  re-established  about 
this  time.  As  it  was  appointed  from  Mexico  and  sup- 
ported from  the  islands  it  had  proved  too  great  a  dram 
on  the  resources  of  the  colony,  and  so  had  been  sup- 

fressed  after  the  visit  of  the  Jesuit  Sanchez  to  Philip 
I.  The  last  years  of  the  sixteenth  and  the  beginning 
of  the  seventeenth  centuries  were  marked  by  the 
seizure,  by  the  Japanese,  of  a  richly-laden  Spanish 
vessel  from  the  islands.  It  had  sought  shelter  in  a 
storm  in  a  port  of  that  country.  The  crew  were  put 
to  death.  Then  there  was  a  fruitless  expedition 
against  Cambodia;  a  naval  fight  against  two  Dutch 
pirate-ships,  one  of  which  was  captured;  and  a  con- 
spiracy of  the  Chinese  against  the  Spaniards.  The 
force  of  the  latter,  130  in  number,  was  defeated,  and 
every  man  of  them  decapitated.  The  Chinese  were 
repulsed  later,  and  it  is  said  that  23,000  of  them  were 
killed.  The  Recollect  Fathers  arrived  in  Manila  in 
1606. 

During  the  first  half  of  the  seventeenth  century  the 
colony  had  to  struggle  against  internal  and  external 
foes;  the  Dutch  in  particular,  the  Japanese,  the  Chi- 
nese, the  Moros,  the  natives  of  Bonol,  Leyte,  and 
C-agayan.  A  severe  earthquake  destroyed  Manila  in 
1645.  In  spite  of  the  difficulties  against  which  the 
islands  had  to  struggle,  the  work  of  evangelization 
went  rapidly  forward.  The  members  of  the  various 
religious  orders,  with  a  heroism  rarely  paralleled  even 
in  the  annals  of  Christian  missions,  penetrated  farther 
and  farther  into  the  interior  of  the  country,  and  estab- 
lished their  missions  in  what  had  been  centres  of 
Paganism.  The  natives  were  won  by  the  self -sacri- 
ficing lives  of  the  missionaries,  and  accepted  the 
teachings  of  Christianity  in  great  numbers.  Books 
were  wntten  in  the  native  dialects,  schools  were  every- 
where established,  and  every  effort  employed  for  the 
material  and  moral  improvement  of  the  people.  From 
the  time  of  the  fearless  Salazar,  the  missionaries  had 
always  espoused  the  cause  of  the  natives  against  the 
injustices  and  exactions  of  individual  rulers.  It  is  not 
strange,  therefore,  that  trouble  arose  at  times  between 
the  civil  and  ecclosiivstical  authorities.  AS  these  mi.**- 
undcrstandings  grew  from  the  mistakes  of  individualsi 


PHiuppiiai  1 

they  were  not  of  long  duratioD,  and  they  did  not  in 
any  way  interfere  with  the  ftrmcr  control  of  the  iHlantts 
which  SptiiD  was  year  by  year  obtaining,  or  with  the 
healthy  growth  ol  the  Church  throughout  the  archi- 
pelago. 

Spanish  sovereignty  in  the  Philippines  waa  threat- 
enea  by  the  capture  of  Manila  by  the  British  under 
Draper  in  1762.  There  were  only  600  Spaniah  soldiera 
to  reeiat  a  force  of  6000  Britiah  with  their  Indian 
aUiea.  Their  depredations  were  bo  dreadful  that 
Draper  put  a  stop  to  them  after  three  days.  The  city 
remfuned  under  Britiah  aovereimty  until  1764. 

There  were  several  uprisings  by  the  natives  during 
the  Ijeginning  of  the  nineteenth  century.  One  of  the 
moat  aerious  of  these  was  that  headed  by  Apolinario 
de  La  Crux,  who  called  himself  King  of  the  Tagalogs. 
By  attributing  to  himself  supernatural  power,  lie 
gathered  about  him  a  large  number  of  deluded  fanatics, 
men,  women,  and  children.  He  was  apprehended  and 
put  lo  death.    An  event  of  great  importance  was  the 

mtroduction  in  1860     

of  shallow-draught 
steel  Runhoat!)  to  be 
used   against   the 

S'ratical  Moros  of 
indanao.  for  cen- 
turies they  had  rav- 
aged the  ViaayaQ 
islands,  carrying  ofT 
annually  about  a 
thousand  prisoners. 
A  severe  earthquake 
in  Manila  in  1S63 
destroyed  the  chief 
public  buildings,  the 
cathedral,  and  other 
church  CD,  except  that 
of  San  Aguatin. 

Some  native  clet^ 
participateilinasen- 

EVplt 


Cavite  in  1872. 
ThreeFilipinoprieats 
who  were  implicated  in  the  uprising,  Gomez,  Zamora, 
and  Burgos,  were  eiecuted.  It  is  said  that  the  spirit  of 
insurrection  which  manifested  itself  ao  strongly  during 
the  laat  quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century  was  the  reault 
of  the  establishment  of  certain  secret  societies.  The 
first  Masonic  lodge  of  the  Philippines  was  founded 
at  Cavite  in  1S60.  Lodges  were  later  formed  at 
Zamboanga  (in  Mindanao),  Manila,  and  CebA.  Euro- 
peans only  were  admitted  at  first,  but  afterwards  na- 
tives were  received.  The  lodges  were  founded  by  anti- 
clericals,  and  naturally  anti-clericitla  flocked  brgely 
to  the  standard.  There  was  no  idea  then  of  separation 
from  the  mother  country,  but  only  of  a  more  liberal 
form  of  government.  After  the  insurrection  at  Cavite 
in  1872,  the  Spanish  Mason.>(  separated  themselves 
from  the  revoluuonary  ones.  New  societiea  were  grad- 
ually formed,  the  most  celebrated  being  the  Liga 
Filipina,  founded  by  the  popular  hero  Dr.  Rizal. 
Practically  all  the  members  were  Masons,  and  men  of 
means  amd  education. 

A  more  powerful  society  and  a  powerful  factor  in 
the  insurrection  of  1S96,  recalling  the  American  Ku- 
Klux  Klan,  was  the  Kalipunan.  Ita  aymbol  KKK  was 
literally  anti-Spanish,  for  there  is  no  K  in  Spanish. 
The  full  title  of  the  society  was  "  The  Sovereign  Wor- 
shipful Association  of  the  Sons  of  the  Country".  The 
members  (from  10,000  to  50,000)  were  poor  people 
who  subscribed  little  sums  monthly  for  the  purchase 
of  arms,  etc.  Later  a  woman's  lodge  was  or^anited. 
According  to  Sawyer  "the  Katipunan  adopted  some 
of  the  Masonic  paraphernalia,  and  some  of  ita  initia- 
tory  ceremonip^i    but   were   in   no  sense   Masonic 


lodges"  (p.  S3).  In  1896  another  insurrection  broke 
out  near  Manila,  in  Cavite  province.  Aguinaldo,  a 
young  school  teacher,  becar^?  prominent  about  this 
time.  The  spirit  of  revolt  spread- through  the  neigh- 
bouring provinces;  there  were  several  engagements, 
until  finally,  Aguinaldo,  at  the  head  of  the  remnant 
of  rebels,  left  Cavite  and  took  refuge  near  Angat  in 
the  Province  of  Bulac&n.  As  it  would  have  t^en  a 
long  time  to  dislodge  them,  a  method  of  conciliation 
was  adopted.  The  result  was  the  pact  of  Biak- 
n^ato,  signed  14  Dec,  1897.  By  tha  terms  of  this 
agreement  the  Filipinos  were  not  to  plot  against  Span- 
ish sovereignty  for  a  period  of  three  y«ars;  Agutrialdo 
and  other  followers  were  \o  be  deported,  for  a  period 
to  be  fixed  by  Spain.  In  return  they  were  to  receive 
the  sum  of  S500,000  as  indemnity;  and  those  who  had 
not  taken  up  arms  were  to  be  given  $350,000  as  reim- 
bursement for  the  losses  they  had  incurred.  The  lead- 
ers of  the  insurrection  of  1806  exercised  despotic 
power,  and  ill-treated  and  robbed  those  of  their  coun- 
trymen who  would 
not  join  them.  An- 
drOs  Bonifacio,  the 
terrible  preudent  of 
the  Katipunan,  ulti- 
mately became  a  vic- 
tim of  these  despots. 
30,000  Filipinos  are 
reported  l«  have  lost 
their  li^-es  in  the  re- 
bellion of  1896. 

In  1898  hostilities 
broke  out  between 
Spiun  and  the  United 
SUtes.  OD24April, 
1898,  Aguinaldo  met 
the  American  Consul 
at  Singapore,  Mr. 
Pratt;  two  days  later 
he  proceeded  1«  Hong 
Kong.  The  Amer- 
ican squadron  under 
Commodore  (now 
Admiral)  Dewey 
destroyed  the  Span- 
iah  ships  in  Manila  Bay.  A^naldo  and  seven- 
teen followers  landed  at  Cavite  from  the  United 
States  vessel  Hugh  McCuUough  and  were  furnished 
arms  by  Dewey.  Aguinaldo  proclaimed  dictator^ 
iai  government,  and  asked  rec<^nition  from  foreign 
powers.  The  American  troops  took  Manila  on  13  ~ 
August.  A  treaty  of  peace  was  signed  at  Paris  by 
the  terms  of  which  the  Philippines  were  ceded  to  the 
United  States,  and  the  latter  paid  Spain  tfae-sum  of 
120,000,000.  It  was  later  discovered  that  certdn 
islands  near  Boriieo  were  not  included  in  the  boun- 
daries fixed  by  the  peace  commission.  These  were 
also  ceded  to  the  United  States,  which  paid  an  addi- 
tional 1100,000.  The  Filipinos  had  organized  a  gov- 
ernment of  their  own,  the  capital  being  at  Maloloa, 
in  the  Province  of  Bulac^n.  Fighting  between  them 
and  the  Americans  began  on  4  Feb.,  1899;  but  by 
the  end  of  the  year,  all  organized  opposition  was  prac- 
tically at  an  end.  Aguinaldo  was  captured  in  April, 
1901,  and  on  1  July  ot  the  same  year  the  insurrection 
was  declared  to  be  extinct,  the  administration  was 
turned  over  to  the  civil  Government,  and  Judge  Taft 
(now  President)  was  appointed  governor. 

American  Government:  GenenU. — The  Spanish  laws 
remain  in  force  to-day,  except  as  changed  by  mihtary 
order.  Act  of  Congress,  or  Act  of  the  Philippine  Com- 
mission. The  first  Philippine  Commission  was  ap- 
pointed by  President  McKmlcy  Jan.,  1899.  The  sec- 
ond Philippine  Commission  was  sent  to  the  islands 
in  1900.  Itsobject  was  to  establish  aeivil  government 
based  on  the  recommendations  of  the  first  commission. 
The  principles  that  were  t<)  guide  this  commission  are 


^m^^m 


ffilLIPPlME                             14  PHILIPPtKS 

thus  expressed  in  the  following  instructions  |?i  ven  them :  general  for  sufficient  cause.    The  provincial  governor, 

''The   Commission   should   bear   in  mind  that  the  the  treasurer,  and  the  third  member  form  the  pro- 

Kovemment  that  they  are  estabUshin^  is  designed  not  vincial  board,  which  lejdsiates  in  a  limited  way  for  the 

for  our  satisfaction  or  for  the  expression  of  our  theo-  province.  ,  The  non-Chnstian  tribes  are  under  a 

retical  views,  but  for  the  happiness,  peace,  and  pros-  eovemor,  secretary,  treasurer,  supervisor  and  fiscal, 

perity  of  the  people  of  the  Philippine  Inlands,  and  the  In  some^rovinces  there  is  also  a  lieutenant-governor, 

measures  adopted  should  be  maide  to  conform  to  their  These  officers  are  appointed  by  the  governor-general 

customs,  their  habits,  and  'even  their  prejudices,  to  with  the  consent  oi  the  commission.     The  Moro 

the  fullest  extent  consistent  with  the  indispensable  province  includes  the  greater  part  of  Mindanao,  the 

requisites  of  just  and  effective  government.''    ''No  whole  of  the  Sulu  Archipelago,  and  smaUer  groups  of 

laws  shall  be  made  respecting  an  establishment  of  islands.     The  inhabitants  number  500,000,  haJf  of 

religion  or  prohibiting  the  free  exercise  thereof,  and  them  Moros;   the  remainder,  with  the  exception  of 

that  the  free  exercise  and  enjoyment  of  religious  pro-  some  thousand  Christians,  are  wild  tribes.    The  Gov* 

fession  and  worship  without  discrimination  or  prefer-  emment  of  the  Moro  province  is  civil-military.    It  is 

ence  shall  for  ever  be  allowed."    This  was  confiimed  divided  into  five  distncts,  each  with  its  governor  and 

by  Act  of  Congress  1  July,  1902,  in  almost  identical  secretanr,  appointed  by  the  governor  of  the  province, 

words  (section  5).    The  members  of  the  commission  On  the  legislative  council  of  the  entire  province  there 

are  appointed  by  the  president,  with  the  consent  of  is,  besides  the  governor,  a  secretary,  treasurer,  and 

the  Senate;  their  tenure  of  office  is  at  the  pleasure  of  attorney.    While  the  governor-general  appoints  these 

the  president.    There  are  nine  commissioners,  one  of  officers,  the  two  first  named  are  usually  officers  of  the 

whom  is  the  governor-general  (the  chief  executive  of  United  St^ates  army  detailed  for  this  purpose.    The 

the  Philippine  Islands),  and  four  are  secretaries  of  the  district  officers  are  also  usually  detailed  from  the 

departments  of  the  Interior,  of  Commerce  and  Police,  army. 

of  Finance  and  Justice,  and  of  Public  Instruction.  Courts  of  Justice. — ^There  is  no  trial  by  jury  in  the 

Each  of  these  departments  is  divided  into  bureaus  of  Philippine  Islands.    There  are  three  classes  of  courts 

which  there  are  twenty-three  in  all.    Through  these  of  justice:  justice-of-the-peace  courts,  courts  of  first 

the  actual  administration  of  the  affairs  of  the  Govern-  instance,  and  the  supreme  court;  a  justice  of  the  peace 

ment  is  carried  on.  must  be  at  least  twenty-three  years  of  age.    He  is 

On  16  Oct.,  1907,  the  Philippine  Assembly  was  in-  appointed  by  the  governor  from  a  number  of  individ- 
augurated.  The  assembly  snares  legislative  power  uals  whose  names  are  presented  b^  a  judge  of  the  court 
with  the  commission  over  all  parts  of  the  islands  "not  of  first  instance,  and  by  the  director  of  education, 
inhabited  by  Moros  or  other  non-Christian  tribes''.  Among  his  powers  is  that  of  performing  marriage  cere- 
Over  the  Moros  and  the  non-Christian  tribes  the  com-  monies.  Tne  courts  of  first  instance  try  appei^s  from 
mission  alone  has  power.  The  legislative  power  of  the  the  lower  court  and  cases  in  which  they  have  original 
commission  and  assembly  over  the  Christian  tribes  is  jurisdiction.  These  judges  are  appointed  by  the  gov- 
equal.  No  law  may  be  made  without  the  approval  of  emor  with  the  approval  of  the  commission, 
both  houses.  If  at  any  session  the  annual  appropria-  Sujjreme  Court. — ^This  court  is  composed  of  one 
tion  for  the  support  of  the  Government  shall  not  have  chief  justice  and  six  associates.  Important  cases  may 
been  made,  an  amount  equal  to  the  last  annual  appro-  be  appealed  from  it  to  the  Supreme  Court  of  the 
priation  is  considered  thereby  appropriated  for  the  en-  ^United  States.  The  supreme  court  rarely  hears  wit- 
suing  year.  The  members  of  the  assembly  are  elected  'nesses,  but  examines  the  written  testimony  made  be- 
by  popular  vote.  The  right  to  this  suffrage  is  extended  fore  the  lower  court,  and  listens  to  arguments  of  the"^ 
to  all  male  citizens  of  the  Philippine  Islands  or  of  the  opposing  lawyers.  The  supreme  court  may  not 
United  States,  over  twenty-three  years  of  age,  who  merely  reverse  or  affirm  the  decision  of  the  lower  court, 
possess  at  least  one  of  the  following^ qualifications:  but  it  may  even  change  the  degree  and  kind  of  pun- 
(1)  ability  to  speak,  read,  and  write  English  or  Span-  ishment.  A  defendant,  fo;r  instance,  sentenced  to 
ish:  (2)  ownership  of  real  property  to  the  value  of  imprisonment  for  life  or  for  twenty  years  may,  and 
$250  or  the  payment  of  $15  annually  of  the  estab-  sometimes  does,  have  his  sentence  changed  on  appeal 
lished  taxes;  (3)  holding  of  municipal  office  under  the  to  the  supreme  court  to  the  death  penalty. 
Spanish  Government  m  the  Philippines.  All  acta  Religion. — Before  the  arrival  of  tne  Spaniards  the 
passed  by  the  commission  and  by  the  assembly  are  reUpion  of  the  islands  was  similar  to  that  of  the 
enacted  by  authority  of  the  United  States  Congress,  majority  of  the  Chinese^  Japanese,  and  Malayans, 
which  reserves  the  power  and  authority  to  annul  them.  They  were  worshippers  ot  the  souls  of  their  ancestors. 
The  assembly  may  consist  of  not  less  than  fifty  nor  of  the  sun.  the  moon,  the  stars,  plants,  birds,  ana 
more  than  a  hundred  members.  Each  province  is  en-  animals.  Among  the  deities  of  the  Tagalogs  were:  a 
titled  to  one  delegate;  and  if  its  population  is  more  blue  bird,  called  Bathala  (divinity);  the  crow,  called 
than  90,000,  to  an  additional  member  for  every  extra  Maylupa  (lord  of  the  earth) ;  the  alligator,  called 
90,000  and  major  fraction  thereof.  There  are  at  Nona  (grandfather).  They  adored  in  common  with 
present  eighty  delegates.  Manila  is  counted  as  a  other  Mal^ans  the  tree  palete^  which  they  did  not 
province.  Thirty-one  delegates  are  from  the  Visayan  dare  cut.  They  had  idols  in  their  houses,  called  antto, 
Islands,  and  forty-four  from  Luzon.  The  commission  and  by  the  Visayans,  diucUa.  There  were  anitos  of  the 
and  assembly  are  authorized  to  send  two  commis-  country  who  permitted  them  to  pass  over  it;  anitos 
sioners  to  the  United  States  to  represent  the  interests  of  the  fields  who  gave  fertility  to  the  soil;  anitos  of 
of  the  Philippines  at  Washington.  the  sea  who  fed  the  fishes  and  guarded  boats;   and 

American  Government:    Provincial. — According  to  anitos  to  look  after  the  house  and  newly-bortt'infants. 

their  form  of  government,  the  islands  are  divided  into  The  anitos  were  supposed  to  be  the  souls  of  their  an- 

three   classes:    the   Christian  provinces^   the^non-  cestors.    Their  story  of  the  origin  of  the  world  was 

Christian  provinces,  and  the  Moro  provinces.  *  The  that  the  sky  and  the  water  were  walking  together; 

officers  of  the  Christian  province  are  the  governor,  a  kite  came  between  them,  and  in  order  to  keep  the 

the  treasurer,  the  third  member  of  the  provincial  waters  from  rising  to  the  sky,  placed  upon  them  the 

board,  and  the  fiscal  or  district  attorney.   The  gover-  islands,  the  Filipinos'  idea  of  tne  worlcl.    The  origin 

nor  and  third  member  are  elected  to  office;  the  treas-  of  man  came  about  in  the  following  manner:  a  piece 

urer  and  fiscal  are  appointed  by  the  governor  of  the  of  bamboo  was  floating  on  the  water;  the  water  cast 

Philippine  Islands  with  the  consent  of  the  Commis-  it  at  the  feet  of  a  kite;  the  kite  in  anger  broke  the 

sion;    the  tenure  of  their  office  depends  upon  the  bamboo  with  its  beak;  out  of  one  piece  came  man. 

governor-general.    Any  provincial  officer  may  be  sus-  and  out  of  the  other,  woman.    The  souls  of  the  dead 

pended  or  removed  from  office  by  the  governor-  were  supposed  to  feed  on  rice  and  tuba  (a  native 


PRtLIFPIHB  ] 

liquor),  thua  food  was  placed  at  the  gravea  of  the 
daul,  a  custom  wbich  still  aurvivee  among  some  of  the 
midviliied  tribes  of  Mindanao. 

The  ministers  of  religion  were  priestesses — crafty 
and  diabolical  old  womeD,  who  offered  sacri&cea  of 
unjTnulii  and  even  of  human  beings.  Sacrifices  of  ani- 
mals still  occur  among  the  tribes;  and  accounts  of 
recent  human  sacrifice  will  be  found  in  the  reports  of 
the  Philippine  Commission.  The  superstitions  of  the 
Filipinos  were  numerous.  In  Supreme  Case  no.  5381 
there  is  giveu  the  testimony  of  Igorrotes,  who  before 
starting  to  murder  a  man,  a  couple  of  years  ago, 
killed  some  chickens  and  examined  their  entrails  to 
discover  if  the  time  was  favourable  for  the  slaying  of 
a  man.  The  Itootinf;  of  owls,  the  hissing  of  lizardB, 
and  the  sight  of  a  serpent  had  a  supernatural  sig- 
nification. One  of  the  most  feared  of  the  evil  spirits 
was  the  aeuang,  which  was  supposed  to  capture  chil- 
dren  orlonely  travellers,  A  fuller  description  of  these 
superstitions  ia  given  in  Delgado,  "Historia  General 
de  las  Islae  Filipinss"  (Manila,  1894)  bk.  Ill,  xvi, 
xvii,  and  in  Blumentritt,  "Mythologicai  Dictionary". 
As  might  be  expected  , 

from  idolatrous  tribes    p~^~ 


IxiUKhi  and  sold,  and 


this  that  the  Spanish 
had    to 


9  phuippinb 

science.  Father  Manuel  Blance,  an  Augustinian,  was 
the  author  of  "Flora  F^lipina",  a  monumental  work 
in  four  folio  volumes,  illustrated  with  hundreds  of 
coloured  plates  reproduced  from  water-colour  paints 
inge  of  the  plsnts  of  the  Philippines,  Father  Rodrieo 
Aganduru  Mori»,  a  Recollect  (Augustinian  Diacalced), 
(1584-1626),  after  cvanKeUzing  the  natives  of  Bataan, 
and  founding  houses  of  his  order  in  Manila  und  Cebil, 
and  missions  in  Mindanao,  set  sail  from  the  Phil- 
ippines. He  spent  some  time  in  Persia,  where  he 
brought  back  numerous  schismatics  to  the  Faith  and 
converted  many  infidels.  Arriving  in  Rome,  Urban 
VllI  wished  to  send  him  back  to  Persia  as  Apostolic 
delegate  with  some  religious  of  hia  order,  but  he  died 
a  few  months  later  at  the  a|^  of  forty-two.  Among 
hifl  works  are :  "  A  General  History  of  the  Philippines  , 
in  two  volumes;  "The  Persecution  in  Japan";  a 
book  of  aermons:  a  grammar  and  dictionary  of  a 
native  dialect;  Origm  of  the  Oriental  Empires"; 
"Chronology  of  Oriental  Kings  and  Kingdoms";   a 


lands,  seas,  and  prov- 
inces:   the  work  of 

(Disc^lced)  in  the 
conversion  of  the 
Philippines  and  of 
Japan  a  family  book 
of  medicine  for  the 
of  Filipinc 


The   I 


r  of 


work.  A  Christi 
Malay  race,  a  people 
that  from  the  lowest 
grade  of  savasery  had 
advanced  to  tne  Idl- 
est form  of  civjli- 
»ation^  was  the  result 
of  their  efforts. 

Up    to    the    year 
1806  the    Augustin- 

ians   had    founded  *  v.LL*a.  miiuiioh 

242  towns,  with  a  population  of  more  than  2  000  000 
There  were  310  relipoua  of  the  order  th  s  mcludea 
(and  the  same  apphes  to  the  following  figures)  lay 
brothers,  students,  and  invalids  The  Franciscans 
numbered  455  in  133  towns  with  a  population  of  a 
little  more  thfui  a  million  there  were  206  Dominicans 
in  60  towns,  with  about  700  000  inhabitants  192 
Recollects  in  194  towns,  with  a  population  of  1,175,- 
000;  167  Jesuits  who  ministered  to  about  200,000 
Christian^  in  the  missions  of  Mindanao.  The  total 
reUdoua  therefore  in  1906  was  1330  to  look  after  a 
CathoUc  population  of  more  than  5,000,000,  while 
secular  clergy  were  in  charge  of  nearly  a  million  more. 
The  membere  of  religious  orders  in  the  Philippines  in 
1906  did  not  amount  to  500.  The  condition  of  the 
Filipino  people,  as  they  were  prior  to  the  revolution 
of  1896,  forms  the  best  argument  in  favour  of  the 
labours  of  the  reLgious  orders.  The  islands  were  not 
conquered  by  force;  the  fcreater  part  of  the  fighting 
was  to  protect  the  natives  from  enemies  from  without. 
It  was  not  until  1822  that  there  was  a  garrison  of 
Spanish  troops  in  the  archipelago.  And,  as  all  im- 
partial historians  admit,  the  small  number  of  troops 
needed  waa  due  solely  to_ the' religious  influence  of  the 
priests  over  the  people.  "The  total  strength  of  Amer- 
ican regiments  in  tne  Philippines  in  1910,  including 
the  Philippine  Scouts,  was  17,102.  To  this  should  be 
added  more  than  4000  members  of  the  Philippine 
Constabulary,  a  military  police  neoeesary  for  the 
maintenance  of  order. 

Besides  ihmi  far-reaching  influence  for  peace,  the 
religioua  orders  did  notable  work  in  literature  and 


Augustinian  authors 
alone  until  1780  was 
1,31  and  the  books 
pubhahed  by  tliem 
more  than  200  in  nine 
native  liolects,  more 
than  100  in  Spaniah, 
besides  a  number  of 
volumes  in  the  Chi- 
nese and  Japanese 
languages.  How  ex- 
ten8i\ e  and  how 
vaned  nere  the  mis- 
aionarj  literary,  and 
scientific  workaof  the  members  of  the  rehgious  ordeis 
may  be  gathered  from  the  r  chronicles  The  Philip- 
p  nea  const  tute  an  ecclea  ast  cal  province,  of  wbich 
the  Archbishop  of  Mamla  is  the  metropolitan.  The 
auffra^an  seea  are  Jaro  hueva  CAcerea;  Nueva 
Segovia  Cebd,  Calbajog  Lipa  Tu^egarao;  Zam- 
boanga  and  the  Prefecture  Apostolic  of  Palawan. 
There  arc  o^er  a  thousand  pncsta,  and  a  Catholic 
population  of  6,000,000.  (SeeCEBu;  Jaro;  Manila, 
AncHDiocsBB  op;  Maniim  Observatorv;  Nugva 
CXcEREs;  NuEVA  Segovia;  Palawan;  Sauar  and 
Levte;  Tuouegarao;' Zauboanqa.) 

Diocese  OF  Li PA  (Lipensis),  erected  10  April,  1910, 
compriaea  the  Provinces  of  Batangas,  La  Luguna, 
Tayabas  (with  the  Districts  of  Infanta  and  Prin- 
cipe), Mindoro,  and  the  sub-Province  of  Marinduque, 
formerly  parts  of  the  Archdiocese  of  Manila.  lit. 
Rev.  Joseph  Petrelll,  D.D.,  the  first  biahou,  was  ap- 

Kinled  12  April,  1910,  and  consecrated  at  Manila,  12 
ne,  1910.  There  are  95  pariahesj  the  Diaralced 
Augustinians  have  charge  of  14,  and  the  Capuchins 
of  6.  The  diocese  comprises  12,208  aq.  m,;  about 
640,000  Christians;   and  9000  non-Christians. 

Aglipayanism. — The  Aglipayano  sect  cauaed  more 
annoyance  than  damage  to  the  Church  in  the  Phil- 
ippines. The  originator  of  the  schism  was  a  native 
priest,  Gregorio  Aglipay,  He  was  employed  as  a 
servant  in  the  Auguatmian  house,  Manila,  and  being 
of  ingratiating  manners  waa  educated  and  ordained 
— '—•     Lat«r  ne  took  the  field  as  an  insurgeijt  general. 

^an  troops  ho  sur- 

n  1901.    In  1902heain>- 


PHILIPPIHE  1 

gated  to  himseirthetitleof  "PoiitirexMa]tiiDUa",aRd 
through  friendship  or  fear  dretr  to  his  allegiance  eome 
native  prieHts.  Those  of  the  latter  who  were  liis 
frieadanenominat«d  "bishops".  Simeon  Mandac, one 
of  the  two  lay  pillars  of  the  movementj  ia  now  eerving 
a,  term  of  twenty  years  in  the  penitentiary  tor  murder 
and  rebellion.  At  first  the  achiam  seemed  to  make 
headway  in  the  north,  chiefiv  for  political  reasons. 
With  the  restoration  of  the  churches  under  order  of 
the  Supreme  Court  in  190&-07  the  schism  began  to 
dwindle,  and  its  adherents  are  now  inconsideraole. 

Religious  Policy  of  the  Govemmeni, — Freedom  of 
worship  and  separation  of  Church  and  State  is  a  prin- 
ciple of  the  American  Government.  In  a  country 
_!..„  .1. .!._  _■_:_.__.  --^-^  qC  Church  and 


where  there  was  the  strictest 


State  for  m<ire  lliitii  tlircc  reiiturirH,  this  policy  is  not 
without  iK'riou^  (lifhcult  ies.  At  times  ignorant  offi- 
cials may  uct  as  if  the  Church  must  be  separated  from 
her  lights  as  a  lawful  corporation  existing  in  the  State. 
Id  some  such  w.iy  as  this  several  Catholic  churches 
were  seized,  with  the  connivaiTcc  or  the  open  consent 
of  municii>al  officers,  by  adherents  of  the  Aglipayano 
sect.  It  reauired  time  and  considerable  outlay  of 
money  for  the  Church  to  rcgiun  possession  of  her 
property  through  the  courts.  And  even  then  tlie 
aggreswrs  often  succeeded  in  damaging  as  much  as 
possible  the  church  buildings  or  ils  belongings  before 
surrendering  them.  There  is  no  distinction  or  privilege 
accorded  clergymen,  except  that  they  are  precluded 
from  Iwing  municipal  councillors.  However;  "there 
shall  be  exempt  from  taxation  burying  grounds, 
churches  and  their  adjacent  parsonages  or  convents, 
and  lands  and  buildings  used  excluuvely  for  religious, 
charitable,  scientific,  or  educational  purposes  and  not 
for  private  profit".  This  does  not  apply  to  land  or 
buildings  owned  by  the  Church  to  procure  revenue  for 
religious  purposes,  e.  g,  the  support  of  a  hospital, 
oipnan  asylum,  etc.,  so  that  glebe  land  is  taxable. 
The  only  exception  made  in  the  matter  of  free  imports 
for  church  puiposea  is  that  Bibles  and  hymn  books 
are  admitted  tree  of  duty.     Practically  everything 


6  PHUjppnn 

needed  in  the  services  of  the  Catholic  Church,  vest- 
ments, sacred  vessels,  altars,  statues,  pictures,  ete. 
pay  duty,  if  such  goods  are  not  purchased  from  or 
manufactured  in  the  United  States.  Religious  cor- 
porations or  associations,  of  whatever  sect  or  denom- 
ination, were  authorized  to  hold  land  by  an  act  of  the 
commission  passed  in  October,  1901. 

In  April,  1906,  the  law  of  corporations  came  into 
force.  Under  this  Act  (no.  1459)  a  bishop,  chief 
prieet,or  presiding  elder  of  any  rel^ous  denomination, 
can  become  a  corporation  sole  by  filing  articles  of  in- 
corporation holding  property  in  trust  for  the  denom- 
ination. Authority  is  also  given  to  any  religious 
society  or  order,  or  any  diocese,  synod,  or  organization 
to  incorporate  underspecified  conditions  to  administer 
its  temporalities.  The  same  act  empowers  colleges 
and  institutes  of  learning  to  incorporate.  All  ceme- 
teries arc  under  the  control  of  the  Bureau  of  Health, 
By  an  Act  passed  in  Feb,,  1906,  existing  cemeteries 
and  burial  grounds  were  to  be  closed  unless  authorized 
by  the  ilirector  of  hetdth;  municipalities  were  em- 
powered, subject  to  the  same  authority,  to  set  apart 
land  for  a  municii>al  burial  ground,  and  to  make  by- 
laws without  discriminating  aeainst  race,  nationality, 
or  religion.  The  church  burial  grounds  had  generallv 
to  be  enlarfted  or  new  ones  consecrated,  and  individ- 
ual graves  mdieated  and  allotted.  The  right  to  hold 
public  funerals  and  to  take  the  remains  into  church 
was  not  to  be  abridged  or  interfered  with,  except  in 
times  of  epidemics  or  in  case  of  contagious  or  infee- 
tjous  diseases,  when  a  public  funeral  might  be  held  at 
the  grave  after  an  hour  had  elapsed  from  the  actual 
interment.  The  right  of  civil  marriage  was  estat>- 
Ushed  in  1898,  by  order  of  General  Otis.  The  cer- 
tificate of  marriage,  by  whomsoever  celebrated,  must 
be  filed  with  the  civil  authorities.  The  forbidden  de- 
grees extend  to  half-blood  and  step-parents,  A  sub- 
sequent marriage  white  husband  or  wife  is  alive  is 
illegal  and  void,  unless  the  former  marriage  has  been 
annulled  or  dissolved,  or  by  presumption  of  death 
after  seven  years'  absence.  There  ia  no  express  pro- 
vision for  divorce;  but  marriages  may  be  annulled 
by  order  of  judgM  of  the  court  of  first  instance  for 
impediments  existing  at  the  time  of  marriage,  such  as 
being  under  the  age  of  consent  (fourteen  years  tor 
boys,  twelve  years  for  girls),  insanity,  etc. 

Tlie  local  health  officershall  report  to  the  municipal 
president  "all  births  that  may  come  to  his  knowl- 
edge", the  date,  and  names  of  parents.  The  parochial 
clergy  have  generally  complete  and  carefully-kept 
rqristers  of  baptisms,  and  furnish  certified  copies  to 
those  who  need  them.  The  property  of  deceased  per- 
sons was  in  general  formerly  distributed  at  a  family 
council,  with  the  approval  of  the  courU.  But  it 
appears  that  at  the  present  time  the  estates  of  de- 
ceased persons  must  be  administered  under  direction 
of  the  courts  of  first  instance.  Testaments  are  made 
and  property  devolves  in  accordance  with  the  pro- 
visions of  the  Spanish  civil  code. 

Eduealion. — The  Spanish  missionaries  established 
schools  immetliately  on  reaching  the  islands.  Wher- 
ever they  penetrated,  church  and  school  went  to- 
gether. The  Jesuits  had  two  universities  In  Manila, 
besides  colleges  at  Cavite,  Marinduque,  Ar6valo. 
CeblJ,  and  Zamboanga.  The  Dominicans  had  their 
flourishing  Univcnuty  of  S.  TomAs,  Manila,  existing 
to  this  day,  and  their  colleges  in  other  large  towns. 
There  was  no  Christian  village  without  its  school ;  all 
the  young  people  attended.  On  the  Jesuits'  return 
to  the  islands  in  1859,  the  cause  of  hisher  education 
received  a  new  impetus.  They  establisned  the  collie 
of  the  Ateneo  de  Manila,  where  nearly  all  those  who  . 
have  been  prominent  in  the  history  of  their  country 
during  the  last  half-century  were  educated.  They 
opened  a  normal  school  which  sent  its  trained  Filipino 
teachers  over  all  parts  of  the  islands.  The  normal 
school  graduated  during  the  thirty  years  of  its  exis- 


PHILIPPOPOLIS                           17  PHILIPPOPOLIS 

tence  1948  teachers.    After  the  American  occupation  distant  from  habits  of  idolatry  and  savagery  cannot 

a  public-school  system,  modelled  on  that  of  the  United  be  removed  from  daily  religious  education  and  still 

States,  was  established  by  the  Government.    The  total  be  expected  to  prosper.     That  the  majority  of  the 

number  of  schools  in  operation  for  1909-10  was  4531,  Filipino  people  desires  a  Christian  education  for  their 

an  increase  of  107  over  the  preceding  year.    The  totar  children  may  be  seen  from  this,  that  the  Catholic 

annual  enrolment  was  587,317,  plus  4946  in  the  schools  colleges,  academies,  and  schools  established  in  all  the 

of  the  Moro  Province.     The  average^  monthly  en-  dioceses  are  overcrowded.    For  the  present,  and  for 

rolment    however    was   427,165,    and    the    average  many  years  to  come,  the  majority  of  Filipinos  cannot 

monthly  attendance  only  337,307;    of  these,  2300  afford  to  pay  a  double  school  tax,  and  hence  must 

were  pupils  of  secondary  schools,   15,487  of  inter-  accept  the  educational  system  imposed  upon  them  by 

mediate  schools   and   319,520  of   primary  schools,  the  United  States. 

TTiere    were    732    American    teachers,    8130    Filipino  „  El  ArchipUlapo  Filipino,  par  algunot  imdrade  lamiaiM  de  la 

teachers,  and  145  Filipino  apprentices-teachers  who  ^SS^^'^^^^i^  ^pS^cJ^iS;.  «0^-.MlS5SSl 

serve  without  pay.  years  (Waahington,  1901—) ;    Censu*  of  the  Philippine  Ulanda 

Act  74,   sec.    16,  provides:    "No  teacher  or  other  (Waahin^n,  1905);  Atkinson,  TAe  PAt/ij>ptn« /«tond«  (Bo«ton, 

norcmn   shftll   t^Anh   or  rritiriyp  th#»  HopfririAH  of  anv  1903);    Sawter,   The  InhabilanU  of  the  Philippinee   (London, 

person  snail  leacn  or  cnucize  tne  aocmnes  oi  any  ^c^ooy^  MacMickisq,  RecoUedion*  of  Manila  and  the  Philippine* 

church,  relimoUS  sect,  or  denomination,  or  shall  at-  (London,  1851) ;  Comtn,  Memona  aobre  fl  eatado  de  las  Filipinaa 

tempt  to  influence  pupils  for  or  against  any  church  or  (Madrid,  1820),  tr.  Walton,  State  of  the  Philippine  hlande  (Lon- 

relipoua  sect  in  any  public  school.    If  any  teacher  fe„f  .^^^^^^^i^V  (MlSflHsS^^^^^^^ 

Hhall  inUmtlonally  violate  this  section  he  or  she  shall,  of  the  Pkilippinea  (Onsiw  Bureau.  Washington,  1904);   The  Atin- 

after  due  hearing,  be  dismissed  from  the  public  sorv-  tral  Resource*  of  the  Philippine  Island*,  ed.  Smith  (Manila,  1910); 

ice ;  providea :  however,  that  it  shall  be  lawful  for  the  J,^--  ^^;^!gSt^'6i"At'"'liT^Uf 'X'  P^^JST, 

pnest  or  minister  of    any  church  establLshed  m  the  Tavera,   Bibliooraphy  of  the  Philippine  Islands  (WaehiMrton. 

town  wherein  a  pubHc  school  is  situated,   either  in  1903),give8ali8tof  2850  books  on  the  Philippines;  White,  fenlfc 

person  or  bv  a  designated  teacher  of  religion  to  teach  ^.H?,'  i^^'mo)?'S^.^  Sl'^t.J^lioJi'a^sSi" 

for  one-half  hour  three  times  a  week,  m  the  school  CetUres  of  the  Philippine  Archipelago  (Census  Bureau.  Washing- 
building,  to  those  public-school  pupils  whose  parents  ton.  1904);   Martinez,  Apuntes  hist&rico*  de  la  Prooineia  Agiw 

or  guardians  desire  it  and  express,  their  desire  therefor  ^^^J^^^'^^'i^^J.Ttk.  SL^FSS^^attu! 

m   writing    faied    with    the   pnncipai   teacher   of    the  ises) ;   Moao,  Missiones  de  Filipinos  de  la  orden  de  San  Agustin 

school,  to  DC  forwarded  to  the  division  superintendent,  (Madrid,    1763);    Gomez  Platebo,   Catdlogo  hiognifico  de  loa 

who  shall  fix  the  hours  and  rooins  for  such  teaching  «^'*g:^,f ""^Z?  ^  u!f'&ot»'A^^'^eJ^'£. 

But   no   public-school   teachers   shall   either   conduct  PUipinas  (Madrid,  1906);   Ferrando-FonsecA:  HisUniadeloe 

religious  exercises,  or  teach  reUgion,  or  act  as  a  desig-  PP.  Dominieos  en  la*  Isla*  FiUpina*  (Madrid.  1870);    de  San 

nated  religious  teacher  in  the  school  building  under  Antonio.  Crdniai*  de  la  ProvincUide  «f^^"£"«»^« '''jf- 

.,       -          ^.              Ai_      "x             J                    •!      1-    11   1-  Franctsco  en  la*  lala*  Filtptwu  {Majxilsk,  1738) ;  Promncia  de  San 

the   foregoing   authority,    and   no   pupil   shall   be   re-  Nicola*  de  Tolentino  de  Agu*iino*  de*caUo*  de  la  Congregacion  de 

quired  by  any  public-school   teacher  to   attend   and  Espafla'S  India*  (Manila,  1879);    Pabtells,  Labor  EtangSlica 

receive  the  religious  instruction  herein  permitted,  i* '^^ 'ST'"  p''* '^.  ^'^'?/^,^* -^1^  *?oJK  ^'fe„^^^ 

ij>\.      \j  j.\.               ^      '2.      1.1^                     A      J.        1-       !•    •  Pof  e*  Padre  Francisco  Colin  (Barcelona.  1900);   Combes,  Ht*' 

Should  the  opportunity  thus  given  to  teach  religion  toria  de  Mindanao  y  JoU  (Madrid,  1897);    MuRiLLO  Velarde, 

be  used  by  the  priest,   minister,  or  religious  teacher  Hi*toria  de  la  Provinda  de  Filipino*  de  la  Compaliia  de  JesH* 

for  the  purpose  of  arousing  disloyalty  to  the  United  (f  ^««  .^f  t^«  Society  of  Jesus.  Manila.  1742);   de  San  AousrrfN. 

t,.    .         *^       f    r                          xu        Ia       1                r            •!  Conquista  de  la*  Islas  Filtptnas  (Madnd.  1698);    Hbrrbro  t 

States,  or  of  discouraging  the  attendance  of  pupils  Sampedro,  Nuestra  Frisian  en  poder  de  los  reududonarios  fOi^ 

at  any  such  public  school,  or  creating  a  disturbance  pinos  (Press  of  the  College  of  S.  Tom&s,  Manila,  1900) ;    Mab^ 

of  pubUc  order,  or  of  interfering  with  the  disciphne  of  ™'^*',  f  ??Pr^,  H ■;^'*'^"?!J' i^J"Vfe^^^®^^ L ^^IJ^?^'  ^J" 

~,   »'*• '       1   iv     J'    •  •                 -:    *      J      A        u*     xj.     iL  chxvo  del  BxbhofUo  Filtptno  (Madnd,  1905);    Carta*  de  to*  PP, 

the  school,  the  division  superintendent,  subject  to  the  de  la  Compaliia  de  Je*Ua  de  la  mi*iM  de  Filipina*  (ManiU. 

approval  of  the  director  of  education,  may,  after  due  1890-97). 

investigation   and   hearing,    forbid   such   offending  Philip  M.  Fineoan. 
priest,  minister,  or  rehgious  teacher  from  entering  the 

public-school  building  thereafter.''  PhilippojpoliB,  titular  metropolitan  see  of  Thracia 

That  the  religion  of  the  Filipino  people  must  in-  Secunda.    The  city  was  founded  by  Philip  of  Mace- 

evitably  sufifer  from  the  present  system  of  education  don  in  342  b.  c.  on  the  site  of  the  legendaiy  Eumol- 

ifl  evident  to  anyone  conversant  with  existing  condi-  pias.    As  he  sent  thither  2000  culprits  in  addition  to 

tions.     To  the  rehgious  disadvantages  common  to  the  colony  of  veterans,  the  town  was  for  some  time 

the  public  school  of  the  United  States  must  be  added  known  as  PoniropoUs  as  well  as  by  its  official  designa* 

the  imitative  habit  characteristic  of  the  Filipino,  and  tion.      During   Alexander's    expedition,    the    entire 

the    proselytizing    efforts    of    American    Protestant  country  fell  again  under  the  sway  of  Seuthes  III, 

missionaries.    The  place  in  which  the  greatest  amount  King  of  the  Odrysians,  and  it  waa  only  in  313  that  the 

of  harm  can  be  done  to  the  religion  of  the  Filipino  is  Hellenic  supremacy  was  re-established  by  Lysim- 

the  secondaiT  school.     Despite  the  best  intentions  achus.    In  200  b.  c.  the  Thracians,  for  a  brief  interval 

on  the  part  of  the  Government,  the  very  fact  that  the  it  is  true,  drove  back  the  Macedonian  garrisons;  later 

vast  majority  of  the  American  teachers  in  these  they  passed  under  the  protectorate  and  afterwards  the 

schools  are  not  CathoUcs  incapacitates  a  great  num-  domination  of  Rome  in  the  time  of  Tiberius.    The 

ber  of  them  from  giving  the  Cathohc  interpretation  city  was  now  called  Trimontium,  but  only  for  a  very 

of  points  of  history  connected  with  the  Reformation,  short  time  (Pliny,  "Hist.  Nat. ",  IV,  xviii).    From  the 

the  preaching  of  indulgences,  the  reading  of  the  Bible,  reign  of  Septimius  Severus,  PhiUppopolis  bears  the 

etc.     Accustomed  to  identify  his  religion    and  his  title  of  metropolis,  on  coins  and  in  inscriptions.    It 

Government,  the  step  towards  concluding  that  the  was  there  that  the  conventus  of  Thrace  assembled. 

American  Government  must  be  a  Protestant  Govern-  In  172  Marcus  Aurelius  fortified  the  city  with  walls; 

ment  is  an  easy  one  for  the  young  Filipino.    Further,  in  248  Philip  granted  it  the  title  of  colony,  two  years 

as  the  secondary  schools  are  only  situated  in  the  pro-  before  its  destruction  by  the  Goths,  who  slaughtered 

vincial  c^itals,  the  students  leave  home  to  live  in  the  100,000  men  there  (Ammianus  Marcellinus,  XXVI. 

capital  of  their  province.    It  is  among  these  young  x).     Restored  again,  it  became  the  metropolis  of 

people  particularly  that  the  American   Protestant  Thracia  Secunda. 

missionary  works.    Even  though  he  does  not  make  The  exact  date  of  the  establishment  of   Chris- 

the  student  a  member  of  this  or  that  particular  sect,  tianity  in  this  town  is  unknown;   the  oldest  testi- 

a  spirit  of  indifferentism  is  generated  which  does  not  mony,    quite   open    to    criticism,    however,    is    in 

bode  well  for  th^  future  of  the  country,  temporally  connexion  with  thirty-seven   martyrs,   whose   feast 

or  spiritually.    A  natif>n  tliat  is  only  three  centuries  is  celebrated  on  20  August,  and  who  are  said  to  have 
XII.— 2 


PHILIPPOPOLIS 


18 


PHTTilP 


been  natives  of  Philippopolis,  though  other  towns  of 
Thrace  are  frequently  given  as  their  native  place.  In 
344  was  held  at  Philippopolis  the  concUiabtuum  of  the 
Eusebiansy  which  brougnt  together  76  bishops  sep- 
arated from  their  colleagues  of  Sardica,  or  Sona,  and 
adversaries  of  St.  Athanasius  and  his  friends.  Among 
its  most  celebrated  ancient  metropolitans  is  Silvanus, 
who  asked  the  Patriarch  Proclus  to  transfer  him  to 
Troas  on  account  of  the  severity  of  the  climate,  and 
whose  name  was  inserted  by  Baronius  in  the  Roman 
Martyrology  for  2  December.  Philippopolis,  which 
from  the  fifth  centuiy  at  the  latest  was  the  ecclesias- 
tical metropolis  of  Thracia  Secunda  and  dependent 
on  the  Patriarchate  of  Constantinople,  had  three 
suffragan  bishoprics  in  the  middle  of  the  seventh  cen- 
tury (Gelzer,  "  Ungedruckte  .  .  .  Texte  der  Notitiffi 
episcopatuum",  542);  in  the  tenth  century  it  had  ten 
(ibid..  577) ;  towards  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century 
it  had  none  (ibid.).  The  Greek  metropolitan  see  has 
continued  to  exist,  in  spite  of  the  occupation  of  the 
Bulgarians.  The  latter,  however,  have  erected  there 
an  orthodox  metropolitan  see  of  their  own.  Though 
generally  held  by  the  Byzantines  Philippopolis  was 
often  captured  by  other  peoples — Huns,  Avars,  Slavs, 
Bulgarians,  and  the  Franks  who  retained  it  from  1204 
till  1235.  It  was  taken  bv  the  Turks  in  1370  and  finally 
came  under  the  sway  of  the  Bulgarians  in  1885.  By 
transporting  thither  on  several  occasions  Aimenian 
and  Syrian  colonists,  the  Byzantines  made  it  an  ad- 
vanced fortress  to  oppose  the  Bulgarians;  unfortu- 
nately these  colonists  were  nearly  all  Monophysites 
and  especially  Paulicians,  so  the  city  became  tne  great 
centre  of  Manichseism  in  the  Miadle  Ages.  These 
heretics  converted  bv  the  Capuchins  in  the  seven- 
teenth century  have  become  fervent  Catholics  of  the 
Latin  rite.  The  city  called  Plovdif  in  Bulgarian  con- 
tains at  present  47,(XX)  inhabitants,  of  whom  about 
4000  are  Catholics.  The  Greeks  and  Turks  are  fairly 
numerous:  the  Catholic  parish  is  in  charge  of  secular 
priests;  tnere  is  a  seminary,  which  however  has  only 
from  20  to  25  students.  The  Assumptionists,  who 
number  about  30,  have  had  since  1884  a  college  with  a 
commercial  department,  attended  by  250  pupils;  the 
primary  school  for  boys  was  established  in  1863  by  the 
Assumptionist  Sisters;  the  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  have 
a  boarding-school  and  a  primary  school  for  girls;  the 
Sisters  of  Charity  of  Agr&m  have  an  hospital. 

Le  Qoisn,  Orient.  cAri«f.,I,  1155-62;  Tsouka las,  Description 
hittorieo-giographique  de  Itparehie  de  Philippowflia  ^ienna, 
1851),  in  Greek;  MOller,  PtoUmai  Geographiatl  (Pans),  483; 
JiBECBK,  Dae  FUrelenihum  Bulgarien  (Prague.  1891),  378-87; 
Dupct-FAtou*  La  Buloarie  aux  Bulgaree  (Paria,  1896),  142-^, 
291-8;  Reotu  franeo-bulgare  (1910),  10-18. 

S.  Vailh^. 

PhilippopoliB,  titular  see  in  Arabia,  suffragan  of 
Bostra.  Its  bishop,  Hormisdas,  was  present  at  the 
Council  of  Chalcedon  in  451  (Le  Quien,  "Oriens  chris- 
tianus'\  II,  861).  An  inscription  makes  known  an- 
other bishop,  Basil,  in  553  ("Echos  d'Orient",  XII, 
1909,  103).  Philippopolis  figures  as  a  see  in  the  ''No- 
titiae  Episcopatuum  "  in  the  sixth  century  (op.  cit.,  X, 
1907.  145).  There  were  also  several  titular  bishops  in 
the  nfteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries  (Eubel,  "nier- 
archia  catholica  medii  »vi",  II,  238;  III,  291).  The 
ancient  name  of  this  place  is  unknown.  The  Emperor 
Philip  (244-9)  founded  this  town  and  gave  it  his  name 
(Aurelius  Victor,  "De  Csesar.'',  28).  Thenceforth  it 
grew  very  rapidly  as  evidenced  by  the  fine  ruins,  re- 
mains of  the  colonnades  of  a  temple  and  colossal  baths, 
discovered  on  its  site  at  Shohba  in  the  Hauran. 

Waddinoton.  Inscriptiona  tpreequee  et  laiinee  reeueilliee  en 
Grkee  e<  en  Aeie  Mineure,  490-3;  Gelxer,  Oeargii  Cyprii  Degcriplio 
orbui  romani,  204 ;  Revue  biblique,  VII  (1898),  Q0l-3;Echoa  d'Ortent, 
II  (1899).  175. 

S.  Vailh£. 

Philip  BoEQolo  Neri,  Saint,  Apostle  of  Rome,  b. 
at  Horence,  Italy,  22  July,  1515;  d.  27  May,  1595. 


Philip's  family  originally  came  from  Castelfranco  but 
had  lived  for  many  generations  in  Florence,  where  not 
a  few  of  its  members  had  practised  the  learned  profes- 
sions, and  therefore  took  rank  with  the  Tuscan  nobil- 
ity. Among  these  was  Philip's  own  father,  Francesco 
Neri,  who  eked  out  an  insufficient  private  fortune 
with  what  he  earned  as.  a  notary.  A  circumstance 
which  had  no  small  influence  on  the  life  of  the  saint 
was  Francesco's  friendship  with  the  Dominicans;  for 
it  was  from  the  friars  of  S.  Marco,  amid  the  memories 
of  Savonarola,  that  Philm  received  many  of  his  early 
religious  impressions.  Besides  a  younger  brother, 
who  died  in  early  childhood,  Philip  had  two  younger 
sisters,  Caterina  and  Elisabetta.  It  was  with  them 
that  "the  good  Pippo",  as  he  soon  began  to  be  called, 
committed  his  only  known  fault.  He  gave  a  sU^t 
push  to  Caterina,  because  she  kept  interrupting  him 
and  Elisabetta,  while  they  were  reciting  psalms  to- 

?;ether,  a  practice  of  which,  as  a  boy,  he  was  remarkably 
ond .  One  incident  of  his  childhood  is  dear  to  his  earl^ 
biographers  as  the  first  visible  intervention  of  Provi- 
dence on  his  behalf,  and  perhaps  dearer  still  to  his 
modern  disciples,  because  it  reveals  the  human  charac- 
teristics of  a  boy  amid  the  supernatural  graces  of  a 
saint.  When  about  eight  years  old  he  was  left  alone 
in  a  courtyard  to  amuse  himself;  seeing  a  donkey 
laden  with  fruit,  he  jumped  on  its  back;  the  beast 
bolted,  and  botn  timibled  into  a  deep  cellar.  His 
parents  hastened  to  the  spot  and  extricated  the 
child,  not  dead,  as  they  feared,  but  entirely  un- 
injured. 

From  the  first  it  was  evident  that  Philip's  career 
would  run  on  no  conventional  lines;  when  shown  his 
family  pedigree  he  tore  it  up,  and  the  burning  of  his 
father's  house  left  him  unconcerned.'  Having  studied 
the  huDQianities  under  the  best  scholars  of  a  scholarly 
generation,  at  the  a^e  of  sixteen  he  was  sent  to  help 
his  father's  cousin  m  business  at  S.  Germano,  near 
Monte  Cassino.  He  applied  himself  with  diligence, 
and  his  kinsman  soon  determined  to  make  him  his 
heir.  But  he  would  often  withdraw  for  prayer  to  a 
Uttle  mountain  chapel  belonging  to  the  Benedictines 
of  Monte  Cassino,  built  above  the  harbour  of  Gaeta 
in  a  cleft  of  rock  which  tradition  says  was  among 
those  rent  at  the  hour  of  Our  Lord's  death.  It  was 
here  that  his  vocation  became  definite:  he  was  called 
to  be  the  Apostle  of  Rome.  In  1533  he  arrived  in 
Rome  without  any  money.  He  had  not  informed  his 
father  of  the  step  he  was  taking,  and  he  had  deliberately 
cut  himself  off  from  his  kinsman's- patronage.  He 
was.  however,  at  once  befriended  by  (jaleotto  Caccia, 
a  Florentine  resident,  who  gave  him  a  room  in  his 
house  and  an  allpwance  of  flour,  in  return  for 
which  he  undertook  the  education  of  his  two  sons. 
For  seventeen  years  Philip  lived  as  a  layman  in 
Rome,  probably  without   thinking  of  becoming  a 

Eriest.  It  was  perhaps  while  tutor  to  the  boys,  that 
e  wrote  most  of  the  poetry  which  he  composed  both 
in  Latin  and  in  Italian.  Before  his  death  he  burned 
all  his  writings,  and  only  a  few  of  his  sonnets  have 
come  down  to  us.  He  spent  some  three  years, 
beginning  about  1535,  in  the  stud^  of  philosophy 
at  the  Sapienza,  and  of  theology  m  the  school  of 
the  Augustinians.  When  he  considered  that  he  had 
learnt  enough,  he  sold  his  books,  and  gave  the  price  to 
the  poor.  Though  he  never  agsdn  made  study  his 
regular  occupation,  whenever  he  was  called  upon  to 
cast  aside  his  habitual  reticence,  he  would  surprise  the 
most  learned  with  the  depth  and  clearness  of  his  the- 
ological knowledge. 

He  now  devoted  himself  entirely  to  the  sanctificsr 
tion  of  his  ow}i  soul  and  the  ^ood  of  his  neighbour. 
His  active  apostolate  began  with  solitary  and  unob- 
trusive visits  to  the  hospitals.  Next  he  induced  others 
to  accompany  him.  Then  he  began  to  frequent  the 
shops,  warehouses,  banks,  and  publicplaces  of  Rome, 
melting  the  hearts  of  those  whom  he  cnanced  to  meet 


PHTTiIP 


19 


PHILIP 


nnd  exhorting  tlirttii  to  serve  God.    In  1544,  or  kter,  him  ae  t«  whether  he  should  not  discontinue  his  active 

lie  became  the  friend  of  St.  Ignatius.    Many  of  hie  worli  and  retire  into  absolute  solitude.    His  perplexity 

disciples  tried  and  found  their  vocations  in  the  in-  tvas  set  at  rest  by  a  viuon  of  St.  John  the  Baptist, 

itmt  Society  of  JeeuB:  but  the  majority  remained  in  and  by  another  vision  of  two  souls  in  ^lory,  one  of 

the  world,  and  formed  the  nucleus  of  what  afterwards  whom  was  eating  a  roll  of  bread,  signifying  God's 

became    the    Brotherhood    of    the    Little    Oratory,  will  that  he  should  live  in  Rome  for  the  good  of  souls 

Thou^  he  "appeared  not  fasting  to  men",  hia  pri-  as  though  ho  were  in  a  desert,  abstaining  as  far  as 

viite  life  was  that  of  a  hermit.     His  single  daily  meal  possible  from  the  vise  of  meat. 

was  of  bread  and  wat«r,  to  which  a  few  herbs  were         In  1551,  however,  he  received  a  true  vocation  from 

sometimea  added,  the  furniture  of  hia  room  consisted  God.     At  the  bidding  of  his  confessor — nothing  short 

of  a  bed,  to  which  he  usually  preferrred  the  floor,  a  of  this  would  overcome  hia  humility — he  entered  the 

table,  a  few  ch^rs,  and  a  rope  to  hang  his  clothes  on;  priesthood,  and  went  to  Uve  at  S.  Girolamo,  where  a 

and   he   disciplined   himself   frequently   with   small  staff  of  chaplains  was  supported  by  the  Confraternity  ' 

chains.     Tried  by  fierce  temptations,   diabolical  as  of  Charity.     Each  priest  had  two  rooms  assigned  to 

well  as  human,  he  passed  through  them  all  unscathed,  him,  in  which  he  lived,  slept,  and  ate,  under  no  rule 

and  the  purity  of  his  soul  manifested  itself  in  certain  save   that  of   hving   in   charity   with   his   brethren. 

striking  physical  trtuta.     He  prayed  at  first  mostly  Among  Philip's  new   companions,   besides   Per^ano 

'n  the  church  of  S.  Eustarhio,  hard  by  Ciiccia's  houiie.  Rosa,  was  Buonaignore  Cacciaguerra  (see  "A  Pre- 


Next  he  took  to  visiting  the  p — 
Seven  Churches.  But  it  was  f^ 
in  the  catacomb  of  S.  Sebas- 
tlano — confounded  by  early 
bioRraphers  with  thai  of  ^. 
CalUBto — that  he  kept  the 
longest  vigils  and  received 
the  most  abundant  consola- 
tions. In  this  catacomb,  a 
few  days  before  Pentecost  in 
1544,  the  well-known  riiir- 
acle  of  his  heart  took  place. 
Qacci  describee  it  thus: 
"While  he  was  with  the 
greatest  earnestness  asking 
of  the  Holy  Ghost  His  gifts, 
there  appeared  to  him  a 
globe  of  fire,  which  entered 
mto  hia  mouth  and  lodged  in 
his  breast ;  and  thereupon  he 
was  suddenly  surprisM  with 
Buch  a  fireof  love,  that,  un- 
able to  bear  it,  he  threw  him- 
self on  the  ground,  and,  hke 
one  trying  to  cool  himself, 
bared  his  breast  to  temper  in 

which  he  felt.  When  he  had 
remained  so  for  some  time, 
and  was  a  little  recovered, 
he  rose  up  full  of  unwonted 
joy,  and  immediately  all  his 
body  began  to  shake  with  a 
violent  tremour  and  put- 
ting bis  hand  to  his  bosom, 
he  felt  by  the  side  of  his 
heart,  a  swellmg  about 


.  ._  _;SC.Philip"byLady 
Amabel  Kerr,  Lonclon),  a 
remarkable  penitent,  who 
was  at  that  time  carrying 
on  a  vigorous  propaganda 
in  favour  of  frequent  Com- 
munion. Philip,  who  as  a 
layman  had  been  quietly 
encouraging  the  frequent 
reception  of  the  aacraments, 
expended  the  whole  of  his 
pnestly  energy  in  promoting 
;;  but  unlike 


he 


led  the  young  especially 
to  coufess  more  often  than 
they  communicated.  The 
church  of  S.  Girolamo  was 
much  frequented  even  be- 
fore the  coming  of  Philip, 
and  his  confessional  there 
soon  became  the  centre  of 
a  mighty  apostolate.  He 
stayea  in  church,  hearing 
coii essions  or  ready  to  hear 
them,  from  daybreak  till 
nearly  midday,  and  not  con- 
tent with  this,  he  usually 
confessed  some  forty  per- 
sona in  his  room  before  dawn. 
Thus  he  laboured  untiringly 
throughout  his  long  priest- 
hood, Asaphystcianof  souls 
he  received  marvellous  gifts 
from  God.  He  would  some- 
times tell  a  penitent  hia  most 
wvrvt  sins  without  hia  con- 
he  converted  a  j'oung  noble- 
vision   of    hell.      Shortly 


big  as  a  man's  fist^  but  neither  then  nor  afterwards  fessing  them,  and  onci 

was  it  attended  with  the  shghtest  pain  or  wound"     man  oy  showing  him  _    _.    ._.. 

The  cause  of  this  swelling   was  dn>co\cred   by-the  before    noon    he   would    leave   his   confesaonal   I 

doctors  who  examined  his  body  after  dealh      The  say  Mass     His  devotion  to  the  Blessed  Sacrament, 

Baint'a  heart  had  been  dilated  under  the  sudden  im-  like  the  miracle  of  hia  heart,  is  one  of  those  mani- 

pulse  of  love,  and  m  order  that  it  might  haii  suffi-  fcstations  of  sanctity  which  are  peculiarly  his  own. 

cient  room  to  move,  two  ribs  had  been  broken,  and  Sogreatwo.slhetei'vourof  hischarity, that,inateadof 

curved  in  the  form  of  an  arch.     From  the  time  of  the  recollecting  himself  before  Moss,  he  had  to  use  de- 

roiracle  till  his  death,  hia  heart  would  palpitate  vio-  liberate  means  of  distraetion  in  order  to  attend  to  the 

leutly  whenever  he  performed  any  spiritual  action.  external  rite.     During  the  last  five  years  of  his  life 

Djring  his  laat  years  a»  a  layman,  Philip'a  aposlo-  he  had  permis.sion  to  celebrate  privately  in  a  little 

late  spread  rapidly.     In  1548,  together  with  his  con-  chapel  close  to  his  room.     At  the  "Agnus  Dei"  the 

feasor,  Persiano  Kosa,  he  founded  the  Confraternity  server  went  out,  locked  the  doors,  ami  hung  up  a 

of  the  Most  Holy  Trinity  for  looking  after  pilgrims  notice:  "Silence,  the  Father  is  saying  Mass".     When 

and  convalescents.    Its  members  met  for  Communion,  he  returned  in  two  hours  or  more,  the  saint  was  so 

pr^er,  and  other  spiritual  exercises  in  the  church  of  absorbed  in  God  that  he  seemed  to  be  at  the  point  of 

S.  ^vatore,  and  the  saint  himself  introduced  exposi-  death. 

tion  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament  once  a  month   (see  Philip  devoted  his  afternoons  to  men  and  boya,  in- 

FoBiT    HocRe'     Devotion).     At    these    devotions  viting  them  to  informal  meetings  in  hia  room,  taking 

Philip  preached,  though  still  a  layman,  and  we  learn  them  to  visit  churches,  interesting  himself  in  their 

that  on  one  occasion  aJone  he  converted  no  less  than  amusements,  hallowing  with  hia  sweet  influence  every 

thirty  dinolute  youths.    In  1550  a  doubt  occurred  to  department  of  their  Uvea.    At  one  time  he  had  a  long- 


PHILIP 


20 


PHILIP 


ing  desire  to  follow  the  example  of  St.  Francis  Xavier, 
and  go  to  India.  With  this  end  in  view,  he  hastened 
tiie  ordination  of  sonoe  of  his  companions.  But  in 
1557  he  soueht  the  counsel  of  a  Cistercian  at  Tre 
Fontane;  and  as  on  a  former  occasion  he  had  been  told 
to  make  Rome  his  desert,  so  now  the  monk  communi- 
cated to  him  a  revelation  he  had  had  from  St.  John 
the  Evangelist,  that  Rome  was  to  be  his  India.  Philip 
at  once  abandoned  the  idea  of  going  abroad,  and  in  the 
following  year  the  informal  meetings  in  his  room  de- 
veloped mto  regular  spiritual  exercises  in  an  oratory, 
which  he  built  *over  the  church.  At  these  exercises 
laymen  preached  and  the  excellence  of  the  discourses, 
the  high  quality  of  the  music,  and  the  charm  of 
Philip's  personality  attracted  not  only  the  humble 
and  lowly,  but  men  of  the  highest  rank  and  distinction 
in  Church  and  State.  Of  these,  in  1590,  Cardinal 
Nicol6  Sfondrato,  became  Pop|e  Gregory  XIV,  and  the 
extreme  reluctance  of  the  saint  alone  prevented  the 
pontiff  from  forcing  him  to  accept  the  cardinalatc.  In 
1559,  Philip  began  to  organize  regular  visits  to  the 
Seven  Churches,  in  company  with  crowds  of  men, 
priests  and  religious,  and  laymen  of  every  rank  and 
condition.  These  visits  were  the  occasion  of  a  short 
but  sharp  persecution  on  the  part  of  a  certain  malicious 
faction,  who  denounced  him  as  "a  setter-upof  new 
sects".  The  cardinal  vicar  himself  summoned  him, 
and  without  listening  to  his  defence,  rebuked  him  in  the 
harshest  terms.  For  a  fortnight  the  saint  was  sus- 
pended from  hearing  confessions ;  but  at  the  end  of  that 
time  he  made  his  defence,  and  cleared  himself  before 
the  ecclesiastical  authorities.  In  1562,  the  Florentines 
in  Rome  begged  him  to  accept  the  office  of  rector  of 
their  church,  S.  Giovanni  dei  Fiorentini,  but  he  was 
reluctant  to  leave  S.  Girolamo.  At  length  the  matter 
was  brought  before  Pius  IV,  and  .a  compromise  was 
arrived  at  (1564).  While  remaining  himself  at  S. 
Girolamo,  Philip  became  rector  of  S.  Giovanni,  and 
sent  five  priests,  one  of  whom  was  Baronius,  to  rep- 
resent him  there.  They  lived  in  conmiunity  under 
Philip  as  their  superior,  taking  their  meals  together, 
and  regularly  attending  the  exercises  at  S.  Girolamo. 
In  1574,  however,  the  exercises  began  to  be  held  in  an 
oratory  at  S.  Giovanni.  Meanwhile  the  community 
was  increasing  in  size,  and  in  1575  it  was  formally 
recognised  by  Gregory  XIII  as  the  Congregation  of 
the  Oratory,  and  given  the  church  of  S.  Maria  in 
Valhcella.  (See  OratoIiy.)  The  fathers  came  to  live 
there  in  1577,  in  which  year 'they  opened  the  Chiesa 
Nuova,  built  on  the  site  of  the  old  S.  Maria,  and  trans- 
ferred the  exercises  to  a  new  oratory.  Philip  him- 
self remained  at  S.  Girolamo  till  1583,  and  it  was  only 
in  obedience  to  Gregory  XIII  that  he  then  left  his  old 
home  and  came  to  live  at  the  ValHcclla. 

The  last  years  of  his  life  were  marked  by  alternate 
sickness  and  recovery.  In  1593,  he  showed  the  true 
ffreatness  of  one  who  knows  the  limits  of  his  own  en- 
durance, and  resigned  the  ofhce  of  superior  which  hstd 
been  conferred  on  him  for  life.  In  1594,  when  he  was 
in  an  agony  of  pain,  the  Blessed  Virgin  appeared  to 
him,  and  cured  him.  At  the  end  of  March,  1595,  he 
had  a  severe  attack  of  fever,  which  lasted  throughout 
April;  but  in  answer  to  his  special  prayer  God  gave 
him  strength  to  say  Mass  on  1  May  in  honour  of  SS. 
Philip  and  James.  On  the  following  12  May  he  was 
seized  with  a  violent  haemorrhage,  and  Cardinal 
Baronius,  who  had  succeeded  him  as  superior,  gave 
him  Extreme  Unction.  After  that  he  seemed  to  re- 
vive a  little  and  his  friend  Cardinal  Frederick  Bor- 
romeo  brought  him  the  Viaticum,  which  he  received 
with  loud  protestations  of  his  own  unworthiness.  On 
the  UQxt  dav  he  was  perfectly  well,  and  till  the  actual 
day  of  his  aeath  went  about  his  usual  duties,  even  re- 
citmg  the  Divine  Office,  from  which  he  was  dispensed. 
But  on  15  May  he  predicted  that  he  had  only  ten  more 
days  to  live.  On  25  M ay,  the  feast  of  Corpus  Christi,  he 
went  to  say  Mass  in  his  little  chapel,  two  hours  earlier 


than  usual.  "At  the  beginning  of  his  Mass'',  writes 
Bacci,  ''he  remained  for  some  tinie  looking  fixedly  at 
the  hill  of  S.  Onforio,  which  was  visible  from  the  chapel, 
just  as  if  he  saw  some  great  vision.  On  coming  to  tfie 
Gloria  in  Excdais  he  began  to  sing,  which  was  an  un- 
usual thing  for  him,  and  sang  the  whole  of  it  with  the 
greatest  joy  and  devotion,  and  all  the  rest  of  the  Mass 
he  said  with  extraordinary  exultation,  and  as  if  sing- 
ing.'' He  was  in  perfect  health  for  the  rest  of  that 
day,  and  made  his  usual  night  prayer;  but  when  in  bed. 
he  predicted  the  hour  of  the  nignt  at  which  he  would 
die.  About  an  hour  after  midnight  Father  Antonio 
Gallonio,  who  slept  under  him,  heard  him  walking  up 
and  down,  and  went  to  his  room.  He  found  him  lying 
on  the  bed,  suffering  from  another  haemorrhage.  An- 
tonio, I  am  going",  he  said:  Gallonio  thereupon 
fetched  the  medical  men  and  the  fathers  of  the  con- 
gregation. Cardinal  Baronius  made  the  commenda- 
tion of  his  soul,  and  asked  him  to  give  the  fathers 
his  final  blessing.  The  saint  raised  his  hand  slightly, 
and  lookt>d  up  to  heaven.  Then  inclining  his  head 
towards  the  fathers,  he  breathed  his  last.  Philip  was 
beatified  by  Paul  V  in  1615,  and  canonized  by  Gregory 
XV  in  1622. 

It  is  perhaps  by  the  method  of  contrast  that  the  dis- 
tinctive characteristics  of  St.  Philip  and  his  work  are 
brought  home  to  us  most  forcibly  (see  Newman. 
"Sermons  on  Various  Occasions",  n.  xii^  "Historical 
Sketches",  III,  end  of  ch.  vii).  We  hail  him  as  the 
patient  reformer,  who  leaves  outward  things  alone 
and  works  from  within,  depending  rather  on  the  hid- 
den might  of  sacrament  and  prayer  than  on  drastic 
policies  of  external  improvement;  the  director  of  souls 
who  attaches  more  value  to  the  mortification  of  the 
reason  than  to  bodily  austerities,  protests  that  men 
may  become  saints  in  the  world  no  less  than  in  the 
cloister,  dwells  on  the  importance  of  serving  God  in  a 
cheerful  spirit;  and  gives  a  quaintly  humourous  turn 
to  the  maxims  of  ascetical  theology;  the  silent  watcher 
of  the  times,  who  takes  no  active  part  in  ecclesiastical 
controversies  and  is  yet  a  motive  force  in  their  devel- 
opment, now  encouraging  the  use  of  ecclesiastical 
history  as  a  bulwark  against  Protestantism,  now  in- 
sisting on  the  absolution  of  a  monarch,  whom  other 
counsellors  would  fain  exclude  from  the  sacraments 
(see  Baronius),  now  praying  that  God  may  avert 
a  threatened  condemnation  (see  Savonarola)  and 
receiving  a  miraculous  assurance  that  his  prayer  is 
heard  (see  Letter  of  Ercolani  referred  to  by  Capece- 
latro) ;  the  founder  of  a  Congregation^  which  relies 
more  on  personal  influence  than  on  disciplinary  or- 
ganization, and  prefers  the  spontaneous  practice  of 
counsels  of  perfection  to  their  enforcement  by  means 
of  vows;  above  all,  the  saint  of  God,  who  is  so  irresis- 
tibly attractive,  so  eminently  lovable  in  himself,  as  to 
win  the  title  of  the  "  Amabile  santo". 

Gallonio,  companion  of  the  raint,  was  the  first  to  produce  a 
Life  of  St.  Philip,  publifihed  in  Latin  (1600)  and  in  lUlian  (1601), 
written  with  great  precision,  and  following  a  strictly  chronologi- 
cal order.  Several  medical  treatises  were  written  on  the  saint's 
palpitation  and  fractured  ribs,  e.  g.  Anoelo  da  Baqnarxa'a 
Medica  dispiUatio  de  palpitatione  cordiM,fraetura  eostarunit  aliitque 
affectionibua  B.  Phtlippi  Nerii  .  .  .  911a  ostendilur  prcsdictaa 
affediones  fuia»e  »upra  naturam,  dedicated  to  Card.  Frederick 
Borromeo  (Rome,  1613).  Bacci  wrote  an  Italian  Life  and  dedi- 
cated it  to  Gregory  XV  (1622).  His  work  is  the  outcome  of  a 
minute  examination  of  the  processes  of  canonisation,  and  con- 
tains important  matter  not  found  in  Gallonio.  Brocchi's 
Life  of  St.  Philip,  contained  in  his  VUe  de'  tanti  e  betUi  Fio- 
rentini (Florence.  1742).  includes  the  saint's  pedigree,  and  gives 
the  Florentine  tradition  of  his  early  years;  for  certain  chronologi- 
cal discrepancies  between  (Gallonio,  Bacci,  and  Brocchi,  see 
notes  on  the  chronology  in  Antrgbub'  ed.  of  Bacci.  Other 
Liees  are  by  Ricci  (Rome,  1670).  whose  work  b  an  enlargement 
of  Bacci.  and  includes  his  own  LiveM  of  the  Companions  of  <S<. 
Philip;  Marciano  (1693) ;  Soneonio  (1727) ;  Bkrnabei  (d.  1662), 
whose  work  was  published  for  the  first  time  by  the  Bollandibts 
(Acta  SS.,  May,  VII);  Ramirbs,  who  adapts  the  language  of 
Scripture  to  St.  Philip  in  a  Latin  work  called  the  Via  (acfca,  dedi- 
cated to  Innocent  XI  (Valencia.  1682);  and  Batlx  (1850). 
Goethe  at  the  end  of  his  Italien.  Rei»e  (Italian  Journey)  ^ves  m 
sketch  of  the  saint,  entitled  Filippo  Neri,  der  humorutiache 
Heilige.  The  most  important  modern  Life  is  that  of  Capecela- 
TRO  (1879),  treating  fully  of  the  saint's  relations  with  the  persona 


PHILIPS 


21 


PHILISTINES 


%Bd  events  of  his  time.  There  is  an  English  Life  by  Hopb  (Lon- 
don, New  Yorlc.  Cincinnati,  Chicago).  An  abridged  English 
translation  of  Bacci  appeared  in  penal  times  (Paris,  1656).  a  fact 
which  shows  our  Catholic  forefatnera'  continued  remembrance  of 
Um  saint,  who  used  to  greet  the  English  (Allege  students  with  the 
words,  "Salvete.  flores  mvtyrum."  Fabbr's  Modern  SainU 
(1847)  includes  translations  of  an  enlarged  ed.  of  Bacci,  and  of 
Ricci  a  Livea  of  the  Companions.  Of  the  former  there  is  a  new  and 
reidsed  edition  by  Antrobus  (London,  1902).  Capscklatro's 
work  has  been  translated  by  Pope  (London.-1882).  English  ren- 
derings of  two  of  St.  Philip  s  sonnets  by  Ryder  are  published  at 
the  end  of  the  recent  English  editions  of  Bacci  and  Capecelatro, 
together  with  translations  of  St.  Philip's  letters.  These  were 
originally  published  in  Bisconi's  RaeeoUa  di  leUere  di  »anti  e 
heati  Fiorentini  (Florence,  1737) ;  but  aince  that  time  twelve  other 
letters  have  come  to  light. 

C.  Sebastian  Ritchie. 

Philips,  Peter  (also  known  aa  Petrus.Philifpus, 
PiETBO  Phillipo),  b.  in  England  about  1560;  date 
and  place  of  death  unknown.  It  is  generally  accepted 
^at  Philips,  remaining  faithful  to  the  Church,  left 
England  for  the  Netherlands,  whence  he  went  to 
Rome,  and  afterwards,  returning  to  Antwerp,  became 
organist  at  the  Court  of  the  governor,  Duke  Albert. 
Having  entered  Holy  orders,  he  held  a  canonry  at 
Bethune,  in  Flanders,  which  he  exchanged  for  a  similar 
honour  at  Soignes  in  1612.  It  has  been  pointed  out 
that  the  title-pages  of  his  published  works  are  the  best 
index  to  his  movements  and  abiding  places,  and  the^ 
are  various.  Philips  ranks  in  importance  as  a  musi- 
cian with  Talljrs,  Byrd,  Morley,  and  Orlando  Gibbons, 
and  is  considered  one  of  the  great  masters  of  his  time. 
Besides  canzoni  and  madrigals  for  six  and  eight  voices, 
he  left  innumerable  instrumental  works  which  have 
been  preserved  in  the  libraries  of  Antwerp,  Leyden, 
Strasburg,  and  London.  Nineteen  of  these  are  con- 
tidned  in  "The  Fitz-WiUiam  Virginal  Book"  by  J.  A. 
Fuller-Maitland  and  W.  B.  Squire.  To  the  Cfhurch, 
however,  Philips  devoted  his  best  efforts.  Besides 
sin^e  numbers  found  in  various  collections  of  his 
penod,  a  volume  of  five-part  motets;  another  of  sim- 
ilar works  for  eight  voices;  "Gemmulie  sacrse"  for  two 
and  three  voices  and  figured  bass;  "Les  rossignols 
spirituels",  a  collection  of  two-  and  four7part  pieces, 
some  to  Latin  words,  but  most  of  them'  to  French: 
"Deliciaj  sacne",  forty-one  compositions  for  two  and 
three  parts,  are  preserved  in  the  British  Museum. 
TTie  library  of  John  IV  of  Portugal  contains  PhilifM^s 
posthumous  works — masses  for  six,  ei^ht.  and  nine 
voices,  and  motets  for  eight  voices.  His  "Cantiones 
sacrs  have  recently  been  made  available  for  modem 
use,  and  have  been  added  to  the  repertoire  of  the  choir 
of  Westminster  Cathedral. 

Bbbomans,  UOrganutte  den  drchidues  AU>ert  el  laabeUe  (Ghent, 
1903);  SquiBB  in  Gbove,  Dictionary  of  Music,  s.  v. 

Joseph  Ottbn. 

Philip  the  Arabian  (Philippus),  Emperor  of 
Rome  (244-249),  the  son  of  an  Arab  sheik,  b.  in 
Bosra.  He  rose  to  be  an  influential  officer  of  the 
Roman  army.  In  243  the  Emperor  Gordianus  III 
was  tit  war  with  Persia;  the  administration  of  the 
army  and  the  empire  were  directed  with  ^reat  success 
by  ma  father-in-law  Timesitheus.  Timesitheus,  how- 
ever, died  in  243  and  the  helpless  Gordianus,  a  minor, 
appointed  Marcus  Julius  Pnilippus  as  his  successor. 
By  causing  a  scarcity  of  provisions  Philip  increased 
the  exasperation  of  the  soldiers  against  tne  emperor 
and  they  proclaimed  Philip  emperor.  Philip  now  had 
Gordianus  secretly  executed.  However,  as  ne  erected 
a  monument  to  Gordianus  on  the  Euphrates  and 
deified  him,  he  deceived  the  Senate  and  obtained 
recognition  as  emperor.  He  abandoned  the  advan- 
tages Timesitheus  had  won  from  the  Persian  King 
Sapor.  He  withdrew  from  Asia,  and  recalled  a  large 
number  of  divisions  of  the  army  from  Dacia,  Rhaetia, 
and  Britain  to  northern  Italy  to  protect  it  against 
incursions  from  the  East.  On  account  of  invasions 
by  the  Capri  he  hastened  to  the  lower  Danube,  where 
he  was  successful  in  two  battles.  Consequently  on 
coin«  be  bears  the  surname  of  Carpicus  Maximus. 


Philip  gave  high  offices  of  State  to  his  relations  who 
misused  these  positions.  He  also  made  his  son  Pliilip, 
when  seven  years  of  a^,  co-ruler.  The  most  impor- 
tant event  of  his  reign  was  the  celebration  of  the 
thousandth  year  of  the  existence  of  Rome  in  April, 
248. 

The  insecurity  of  his  authority  in  the  outlyins  dis- 
tricts showed  itself  in  the  appearance  of  nval  em- 
perors proclaimed  by  the  legions  stationed  there.  The 
Goths  sought  to  settle  permanently  in  Roman  terri- 
tory; and  as  the  army  of  the  Danube  could  not  defend  • 
itself  without  a  centralized  control,  the  soldiers,  at 
the  close  of  248,  forced  Decius,  sent  to  suppress  the 
inutinies,  to  accept  the  position  of  emperor.  Decius 
advanced  into  Italy,  where  he  defeated  Philip  near 
Verona.  Philip  and  his  son  were  killed.  During 
Philip's  reign  Christians  were  not  disturbed.  The 
emperor  also  issued  police  regulations  for  the  main- 
tenance of  public  morality.  A  statement  of  St.  Je- 
rome's caused  Philip  to  be  regarded  in. the  Middle 
Ages  as  the  first  Christian  Emperor  of  Rome. 

MOUMSEN.   Rdm,  Ge»ch»  V  (Berlin,  1885);  for  further  bibli- 
ography, see  Pbrtviax.  KaBL  HOBBER. 

Philistines  (D\^tfbc;  LXX  i>v\urrutfA  in  the  Pen- 
tateuch and  Josue,  elsewhere  dXX60u\o4,  "foreign- 
ers")* III  the  Biblical  account  the  Philistines  come 
into  prominence  as  the  inhabitants  of  the  maritime 
plain  of  Palestine  from  the  time  of  the  Judges  onward. 
They  are  mentioned  in  the  genealogy  of  the  nations 
(Gen.,  X,  14;  cf.  I  Par.,  i,  11, 12),  where  together  with 
the  Caphtorim  they  are  set  down  as  descendants  of 
Mesraim.  It  is  conjectured  with  probability  that 
thev  came  originally  from  Crete,  sometimes  identified 
with  Caphtor,  and  that  they  belonged  to  a  piratical, 
seafaring  people.  They  m^e  their  first  appearance 
in  Biblical  history  late  in  the  period  of  the  Judges  in 
connexion  with  the  prophesied  birth  of  the  hero 
Samson .  The  angel  appearing  to  Saraa,  wife  of  Manue 
of  the  race  of  Dan,  tells  her  that,  though  barren,  she 
shall  hear  a  son  who  "shall  begin  to  deliver  Israel 
from  the  hands  of  the  Philistines  (Judges,  xiii,  1-5); 
and  we  are  informed  in  the  same  passage  that  ^e 
domination  of  the  Philistines  over  Israel  had  lasted 
forty  years.  In  the  subsequent  chapters  graphic 
accounts  are  given  of  the  encounters  between  Samson 
and  these  enemies  of  his  nation  who  were  encroaching 
upon  Israel's  western  border.  In  the  early  davs  of 
Samuel  we  find  the  Philistines  trying  to  make  them- 
selves masters  of  the  interior  of  Palestine,  and  in  one 
of  the  ensuing  battles  they  succeeded  in  capturing 
the  Ark  of  the  Covenant  (I  Kings,  iv).  The  coining 
of  a  pestilence  upon  them,  however,  induced  them  to 
return  it,  and  it  remained  for  many  years  in  the  house 
of  Abinadab  in  Cariathiarim  (I  Kmgs,  v;  vi;  vii). 
After  Saul  became  king  the  Philistines  tried  to  break 
his  power,  but  were  unsuccessful,  chiefly  owing  to  the 
bravery  of  Jonathan  (I  Kings,  xiii;  xiv).  Their 
progress  was  not,  however,  permanently  checked,  for 
we  are  told  (I  Kings,  xiv,  52)  that  there  was  a  ''great 
war  against  the  Plulistines  all  the  days  of  Saul '',  and 
at  the  end  of  the  latter's  reign  we  find  their  army  still 
in  possession  of  the  rich  plain  of  Jezrael  including  the 
city  of  Bethsan  on  its  eastern  border  (I  Kings,  xxxi, 
10).  They  met  with  a  severe  defeat,  however,  early 
in  the  reign  of  David  (II  Kings,  v,  20-25),  who  suc- 
ceeded in  reducing  them  to  a  state  of  vassalage  (II 
Kings,  viii,  1).  Prior  to  this  date  the  power  of  the 
Philistines  seems  to  have  been  concentrated  in  the 
hands  of  the  rulers  of  the  cities  of  Gaza,  Ascalon, 
Azotus  (Ashdod),  Accaron,  and  Geth,  and  a  pecuHar 
title  signifying  "Lord  of  the  Philistines"  was  borne 
by  each  of  these  petty  kings.    The  Philistines  re- 

fained  their  independence  at  the  end  of  the  reign  of 
)avid,  probably  about  the  time  of  the  schism,  for 
we  find  the  Kings  of  Israel  in  the  ninth  century  en- 
deavouring to  wrest  from  them  Gebbethon,  a  city 


PHILLIP 


22 


PHILLIPS 


on  the  border  of  the  maratime  plain  (III  Kmgs,  xv, 
27;  xvi,  15).  Towards  the  close  of  the  same  century 
the  Assyrian  ruler,  King  Adad-Nirari,  placed  them 
under  tribute  and  began  the  long  series  of  As83rrian 
interference  in  Philistine  affairs.  In  Amos  (i,  6,  8) 
we  find  a  denunciation  of  the  Philistine  monarchies 
as  among  the  independent  kingdoms  of  the  time. 

During  the  latter  part  of  the  eighth  century  and 
during  the  whole  of  the  seventh  the  history  of  the  Phil- 
istines is  made  up  of  a  continual  series  of  conspiracies, 
conquests,  and  rebellions.  Their  principal  foes  were 
the  Assyrians  on  the  one  side  and  the  Egyptians  on 
the  other.  In  the  year  of  the  fall  of  Samaria  (721 
B.  c.)  they  became  vassals  of  Sargon.  They  rebelled, 
however,  ten  years  later  under  the  leadership  of 
Aahdod,  but  without  permanent  success.  Another 
attempt  was  made  to  shake  off  the  Assyrian  yoke 
at  the  end  of  the  reign  of  Sennacherib.  In  this  con- 
flict the  Philistine  King  of  Accaron,  who  remained 
faithful  to  Sennacherib,  was  cast  into  prison  by  King 
Ezechias  of  Juda.  The  allies  who  were  thus  brought 
together  were  defeated  at  Eltekeh  and  the  result  was 
the  si^e  of  Jerusalem  by  Sennacherib  (IV  Kings, 
xviii-xix).  Esarhaddon  and  Asurbanipal  in  their 
western  campai^s  crossed  the  territory  of  the  Phil- 
istines and  held  it  in  subjection,  and  after  the  dechne 
of  Assyria  the  encroachments  of  the  Assyrians  gave 
place  to  those  of  the  Egyptians  under  the  Twenty- 
sixth  Dynasty.  It  is  probable  that  the  Philistines 
Buffered  defeat  at  the  hands  of  Nabuchodonosor, 
though  no  record  of  his  conquest  of  them  hajs  been  pre- 
served. The  old  title  "Lords  of  the  Philistines"  has 
now  disappeared,  and  the  title  "King"  is  bestowed  by 
the  Assyrianson  the  Philistine  rulers.  The  sie^eof  Gaza, 
which  held  out  against  Alexander  the  Great,  is  famous, 
and  we  find  the  Ptolemies  and  Seleucids  frequently 
fighting  over  Philistine  territory.  The  land  finally 
passed  under  Roman  rule,  and  its  cities  had  subse- 
quently an  important  history.  After  the  time  of  the 
Assyrians  the  Philistines  cease  to  be  mentioned  by 
this  name.  Thus  Herodotus  speaks  of  the  "Ara- 
bians" as  being  in  possession  of  the  lower  Mediter- 
ranean coast  in  the  time  of  Cambyses.  From  this 
it  is  inferred  by  some  that  at  that  time  the  Phitistines 
had  been  supplanted.  In  the  ebb  and  flow  of  warring 
nations  over  this  land  it  is  more  than  probable  that 
they  were  gradually  absorbed  and  lost  their  identity. 

It  is  generally  supposed  that  the  Philistines  adopted 
in  the  main  the  religion  and  civilization  of  the  Cha^ 
naanites.  In  I  Kings,  v,  2,  we  read:  "And  the  Phil- 
istines took  the  ark  of  God,  and  brought  it  into  the 
temple  of  Dagon,  and  set  it  by  Dagon",  from  which 
we  infer  that  their  chief  god  was  this  Semitic  deity. 
The  latter  appears  in  the  Tel  el-Amama  Letters  and 
also  in  the  Babylonian  inscriptions.  At  Ascalon 
likewise  there  was  a  temple  dedicated  to  the  Semitic 
goddess  Ishtar,  and  as  the  religion  of  the  Philistines 
was  thus  evidently  Semitic,  so  also  were  probably 
the  other  features  of  their  civilization. 

Besides  the  standard  Commentaries  see  Maspero,  Histoire 
ancienne  dee  peuplee  de  VOrient  (6th  ed.,  Paris,  1904),  tr..  The 
Davm  of  Civilitation  (4th  ed.,  London,  1901);  Bruobch,  Egypt 
under  the  Pharaohe  (tr.,  London,  1880),  ix-xiv. 

James  F.  Driscoll. 

Phillip,  Robert,  priest,  d.  at  Paris,  4  Jan.,  1647. 
He  was  descended  from  the  Scottish  family  of  Phillip 
of  Sanquhar,  but  nothing  is  known  of  his  early  life. 
Ordained  in  Rome,  he  returned  in  1612  to  Scotland 
where  he  was  betrayed  by  his  father,  seized  while 
saying  Mass,  and  tried  at  Edinburgh  as  a  seminary 
pnest,  14  Sept.,  1613.  The  sentence  of  death  was 
commuted  to  oanishment,  and  he  withdrew  to  France, 
where  he  joined  the  French  Oratory  recently  founded 
by  Cardinal  de  B^rulle.  In  1628  he  went  to  England 
as  confessor  to  Oueen  Henrietta  Maria,  and  at  her  re- 
ouest  he  besou^t  the  pope  for  financial  aid  against 
tne  king's  enemies.   The  subsequent  negotiations  were 


discovered,  and  Phillip  was  impeached  on  the  charge! 
of  bein^  a  papal  spy  and  of  having  endeavoured  to  per- 
vert Pnnce  Charles,  but  proceedings  dropped  owing  to 
the  displeasure  of  Richelieu  at  the  introduction  of  his 
own  name  into  the  matter.  Later  he  was  committed 
to  the  Tower  for  refusing  to  be  sworn  on  the  Anglican 
Bible  on  2  Nov..  1641,  when  he  had  been  summoned 
by  the  Lords'  committee  to  be  examined  touching 
State  matters.  Released  through  the  queen's  influ- 
ence, he  accompanied  her  t^  The  Hague  in  March, 
1642,  and  remained  with  her  m  Paris  till  his  death. 

Nalson,  CoUection  of  Affairs  of  St^e,  II  (London,  1682-3); 
BEfrfNQTON,  Memoirs  of  Pansani  (Birmingham,  1793) ;  Stotbert, 
Catholic  Church  in  Scotland,  ed.  Gordon  ((jrla«|ow,  1869); 
Foley.  Records  of  Eng.  Jesuits,  V  (London,  1879) ;  Seccombe  m 
Diet.  Nat.  Biog.t  8.  v.  Phiups,  Robert;  Gillow.  Bibl.  Diet.  Eng. 

Cath.,B,y,  Edwin  Burton. 

Phillips,  George,  canonist,  b.  at  Kdnigsberg,  6 
Sept.,  1804;  d.  at  Vienna,  6  September,  1872,  was  the 
son  of  James  Phillips,  an  Englishman  who  had 
acquired  wealth  as  a  merchant  in  Kdnigsberg,  and 
of  a  Scotchwoman  nee  Hay.  On  completing  his  course 
at  the  gynmasium,  George  studied  law  at  tne  Univer- 
sities of  Berlin  and  Gottingen  (1822-24) ;  his  principal 
teachers  were  von  Savigny  and  Eichhom,  and,  under 
the  influence  of  the  latter,  he  devoted  himself  mainly 
to  the  study  of  Germanic  law.  After  obtaining  the 
degree  of  Doctor  of  Law  at  G6ttingen  in  1824,  he  paid 
a  long  visit  to  England.  In  1826  he  Qualified  at  Berlin 
as  Privatdozent  (tutor)  for  German  law,  an(J  in  1827 
was  appointed  professor  extraordinary  in  this  faculty. 
In  the  same  year  he  married  Charlotte  Housselle,  who 
belonged  to  a  French  Protestant  familv  settled  in 
Berlin.  Phillips  formed  a  close  friendsnip  with  his 
colleague  K.  E.  Jarcke,  professor  at  Berlin  since  1825, 
who  had  entered  the  Catholic  Church  in  1824. 
Jarcke's  influence  and  his  own  searching  studies  into 
medieval  Germany  led  to  the  conversion  of  PhilUps,^ 
and  his  wife  in  1828  (14  May).  Jarcke  having  re- 
moved to  Vienna  in  1832,  Phillips  accepted  in  1833 
a  call  to  Munich  as  counsel  in  the  Bavarian  Ministry 
of  the  Interior.  In  1834  he  was  named  professor  of 
history,  and  a  few  months  later  professor  of  law  at  the 
University  of  Munich.  He  now  joined  that  circle  of 
illustrious  men  including  the  two  Gorres,  MoUer, 
Dollinger,  and  Ringseis,  who,  filled  with  enthusiasm 
for  the  Church,  laboured  for  the  renewal  of  the  relir 
gious  life,  the  defence  of  CathoHc  rights  and  religious 
freedom,  and  the  revival  of  Catholic  scholarahip. 
In  1838  he  founded  with  Guide  Gorres  the  still 
flourishing  militant  " Historischpolitische  Blatter". 
His  lectures,  notable  for  their  excellence  and  form, 
treated  with  unusual  fullness  subjects  connected  with 
ecclesiastical  interests.  In  consequence  of  the  Lola 
Montez  affair,  in  connexion  with  which  Phillips 
signed,  with  six  other  Munich  professors,  an  address 
of  sympathy  with  the  dismissed  minister  Abel,  he 
was  relieved  of  his  chair  in  1847.  In  1848  he  was 
elected  deputy  of  a  Munster  district  for  the  National 
Assemblv  of  Frankfort,  at  which  he  energetically 
upheld  the  Catholic  interests.  In  1850,  after  declining 
a  call  as  professor  to  Wurzburg,  he  accepted  the  chair 
of  German  law  at  Innsbruck,  and  there  resumed  his 
academic  activitv.  Invited  to  fill  the  same  chair  in 
Vienna  in  1851,  he  removed  to  the  Austrian  capital, 
and  remained  there  until  his  death.  Once  (1862-7) 
he  accepted  a  long  leave  of  absence  to  complete  his 
' '  Kirchenrech t " .  He  always  maintained  his  relations 
with  his  friends  in  Munich  and  other  cities  of  Germany, 
and  never  relaxed  his  activity  in  furthering  Cathohc 
interests.  As  a  writer,  his  labours  lay  in  the  domain 
of  German  law,  canon  law,  and  their  respective  his- 
tories. At  first  his  activity  was  directed  mainly  to  the 
first-mentioned,  his  principal  contributions  on  the 
subject  being:  '^Versuch  einer  Darstellung  des  angel- 
sachsischen  Rechtes"  (Gottineen,  1825);  "Englische 
Reichs-  und  Rechtsgeschichte  ,  of  which  two  volumes 


TIAN. 


PHILOCALIAN  23  PHILO 

(dealing  with  the  period  1066-1189)  appeared  (Ber-  more  on  the  philosophical  and  reli^^ous  syncretism 

lin,  1827-8);  "Deutsche  Geschichte  mit  besonderer  prevailing  in  Greek  civilization.  They  may  be  divided: 

Rucksicht  auf  Religion,  Recht  und  Veifassung'',  of  (1)  exposition  of  the  Jewish  Law;    (2)  apologetical 

which  two  volumes  s^one  were  issued  (Berlin,  1832-4),  works;  (3)  philosophical  treatises, 
deals  with   Merovingian   and   Carlovingian  times;        (1)  The  expositions  of  the  Law  are  in  three  works  of 

"Grundsatze  des  .gemeinen  deutschen  Privatrechts  varied  character:  (a)  "The  Exposition  of  the  Law", 

mit    Einschluss    des    Lehnrechts''    (Berlin,    1838);  which  begins  by  a  treatise  on  the  creation  of  the  world 

"Deutsche  Reichs-  und  Rechtsgeschichte''  (Munich,  (Commentaries  on  the  first  chapter  of  Genesis)  and 

1845).    After  his  call  to  Munich,  however,  Phillips  continues  with  treatises  on  Abraham,  Isaac,  Jacob, 

recognized  his  chief  task  in  the  treatment  of  canon  and  Joseph  (those  on  Isaac  and  Jacob  are  lost).   Each 

law  from  the  strictly  Catholic  standpoint.    In  addi-  of  the  patriarchs  is  considered  as  a  type  of  a  virtue 

tion  to  numerous  smaller  treatises,  he  published  in  and  his  life  as  a  natural  or  unwritten  law.    Then 

this    domun:     "Die    Diozesansynode       (Freiburg,  follows  a  series*  of  treatises  on  the  laws  written  by 

1849),  and  especially  his  great  "Klrchenrecht'^  which  Moses,  grouped  in  order  according  to  the  Ten  Com- 

appeared  in  seven  volumes  (Ratisbon,  1845-72),  and  mandments.    The  Exposition  closes  with  the  laws 

was  continued  by  Vering  (vol.  VIII,  i,  Ratisbon,  referring  to  general  virtues  (On  Justice  and  Courage), 

1889).   This  comprehensive  and  important  work  exer-  and  a  treatise  on  the  reward  reserved  to  those  who 

dsed  a  great  influence  on  the  study  of  canon  law  and  obey  the  Law.    (See  "De  Prsemiis  et  Poenis",  §§1, 

its  principles.    Phillips  also  published  a  "Lehrbuch  2.)      (b)  The  great    "Allegorical  (Commentary   on 

des  Kirchenrechts"  (Hatisbon,  1859-62;  3rd  ed.  by  Genesis"  is  the  chief  source  of  information  regarding 

Moufang,  1881)and  "Vermiscnte  Schriften"  (3  vols.,  Philo's  ideas;    in  it  he  applies  systematically  the 

Ratisbon,  185&-60).  method   of    allegorical    interpretation.     The   com- 

Bmbhthai^  KonwrfOenWWcr.  I  (2nd  ed.),  478  aqq.,  Schtjltb  mentary  foUows  the  Order  of  verses  (torn  Gen.,  ii,  1, 

?.4%SJ?'^/rT^a^iJ:SL%J^^^  to  iv,  if  With  some  more  or  less  important  lacunie. 

J.  P.  KiBSCH.  1^  ^  i^ot  known  whether  the  work  began  by  a  treatise 

-^- ., m,_^   rt^t^^jM a      r^        JL       r\ \  ^^  chapter  1,  concerning  creation;    in  any  case,  it 

PhUoealian  Calendar.    See  Calendar,  Chris-  ^  be*;^^  /^^  the  alfusions  to  this  chapter  tU 

Philo  had  a  system  of  interpretation  on  this  point. 

Philo  JudflBUS,  b.  about  25  b.  c.    His  family,  of  a  Notwithstanding  i\A  form,  this  work  is  not  a  series  of 

saoerdotaJ  line,  was  one  of  the  most  powerful  of  the  interpretations  strung  together  verse  by  verse;  the 

populous  Jewish  colony  of  Alexandria.    His  brother  author  considers  Genesis  m  its  entirety  as  a  history 

Alexander  Lvsimachus  was  steward  to  Anthony's  of  the  soul  from  its  formation  in  the  intelligible  world 

second  daughter,  and  married  one  of  his  sons  to  to  the  complete  development  of  wisdom  alter  its  fall 

the  daughter  of  Herod  Agrippa,  whom  he  had  put  and  its  restoration  by  repentance  (see  ed.  Mangey, 

under  financial  obligjations.   Alexander's  son,  Tiberius  '  ''De  Posteritate  Caini",  p.  259).    The  object  of  the 

Alexander,  apostatized  and  became  procurator  of  allegorical  method  is  to  discern  in  each  person  and  in 

Judea  ana  Prefect  of  Egypt.    Philo  must  have  re-  his  actions  the  symbol  of  some  phase  either  in  the  fall 

ceived  a  Jewish  education,  studying  the  laws  and  or  in  the  restoration  of* the  soul,    (c)  "Questions  and 

national  traditions,  but  he  followed  also  the  Greek  Solutions"  are  a  series  of  questions  set  down  at  each 

plan  of  studies  (^ammar  with  reading  of  the  poets,  verse  of  the  Mosaic  bookis.    An  Armenian  transla- 

geometry,  rhetonc.  dialectics)  which  he  regarded  as  a  tion  has  preserved  the  questions  on  Genesis  (Gen., 

{>reparation  for  pnilosophy.  Notwithstanding  the  iL  4-xxiii,  8,  with  lacunae)  and  the  questions  on 
ack  of  direct  information  about  his  philosophical  Exodus  (Ex.,  xii,  2-xxviii,  38).  some  Greek  f rag- 
training,  his  works  show  that  he  had  a  first  hand  ments  of  these  works  and  of  tne  questions  on  Le- 
knowled^e  of  the  stoical  theories  then  prevailing,  viticus.  a  very  mediocre  Latin  translation  of  the  last 
Plato's  dialogues,  the  neo-Pythagorean  works,  and  the  part  oi  the  questions  on  Genesis  (iy,  154  sq.)'  In 
moral  popular  literature,  the  outcome  of  Cynicism,  these  treatises  as  well  as  in  the  short  discourses  on 
He  remained,  however,  profoundly  attached  to  the  Samson  and  Jonas,  there  is  much  less  unity  than  in 
Jewish  religion  with  all  the  practices  which  it  implied  the  preceding  ones.  This  first  group  of  works  is 
among  the  Jews  of  the  dispersion  and  of  which  the  addressed  to  readers  already  initiated  in  the  Mosaic 
basis  was  the  unitv  of  worship  at  the  Temple  in  Jem-  Law,  i.  e.  to  the  author's  coreUmonists. 
salem.  Toward  the  Alexandrine  commumty  and  the  (2)  It  is  quite  different  with  nis  apologetical  writ- 
duties  which  it  required  of  him,  his  attitude  was  per^  ings.  The  "Life  of  Moses"  is  a  r^sum^  of  the  Jewi^ 
haps  changeable;  he  possessed  in  his  youth  a  taste  Law,  intended  for  a  larger  public.  The  treatise  "On 
for  an  exclusively  contemplative  life  and  solitary  re-  Repentance"  \ft$s  written  for  the  edification  of  the 
treats;  and  he  complains  of  an  of&cial  function  which  newly  converted.  The  treatise  "On  Humanity" 
forced  him  to  abandon  his  studies.  Later  he  became  which  followed  that  "On  Piety"  seems  from  its 
engrossed  with  the  material  and  moral  interests  of  the  introduction  to  pertain  to  the  "Life  of  Moses"  and 
community.  His  "Allegorical  Commentary  "  of  ten  al-  not  to  the  "Exposition  of  the  Law"  as  tradition  and 
ludes  to  the  vexations  to  which  the  Alexandrine  Jews  some  contemporaneous  scholars  maintain.  The 
were  subjected;  a  special  treatise  is  devoted  to  the  *Tiro^eripd  (fragments  in  Eusebius,  "Evangelical 
persecution  of  Flaccus,  Prefect  of  Egjrpt.  The  best-  Preparation".  VIII,  v,  vi)  as  well  as  the  "Apology 
known  episode  of  his  life  is  the  voyage  he  made  to  for  the  Jews'  (ibid.,  VIII,  x)  were  written  to  defend 
Rome  in  39;  he  had  been  chosen  as  head  of  the  em-  his  coreligionists  against  calumnies,  while  the  "Con- 
bassy  which  was  to  lay  before  Emperor  Caius  Caligula  templative  Life"  was  to  cultivate  the  best  fruits  of 
the  complaints  of  the  Jews  regarding  the  introduction  the  Mosaic  worship.  The  "Against  Flaccus"  and  the 
of  statues  of  the  emperor  in  the  synagogues.  This  "Embassy  to  Caius'',  with  another  work  lost  in  the 
hardship,  due  to  the  Alexandrians,  was  all  the  more  persecution  of  Scianus,  were  intended  to  establish 
grievous  to  the  Jews,  as  they  had  long  been  known  for  the  truth  about  tne  pretended  impiety  of  the  Jews, 
their  loyalty,  and  their  attachment  to  the  empire  was  (3)  Finally,  we  have  purely  philosophical  treat- 
doubtless  one  of  the  chief  causes  of  anti-Semitism  at  ises:  "On  the  Liberty  of  the  Wise",  "On  the  Incor^ 
Alexandria.  The  drawing  up  of  the  account  of  the  ruptibility  of  the  World"  (authenticity  contested  by 
embassy  shortly  after  the  death  of  Caius  (41)  is  the  Bemays,  but  generally  admitted  now),  "On  Provi- 
latest  known  fact  in  the  life  of  Philo.  dence",  "On  Animals"  (these  last  two  in  the  Arme- 
WrUinga, — ^These  contain  most  valuable  informa-  nian  translations).  The  small  treatise  "DeMundo" 
tion,  not  only  on  the  intellectual  and  moral  situation  is  merely  a  compilation  of  passages  from  other  works, 
of  the  Jewi^  community  at  Alexandria,  but  still  The  question  of  chronology  is  more  difficult  than  that 


PHXLO 


24 


PHILO 


of  classification.  The  solution  of  the  difficulty  would 
be  of  great  value  especially  for  the  subdivisions  of  the 
first  group  of  writings,  in  order  to  understand  the 
development  of  Philo's  doctrines;  but  on  this  point 
there  is  a  wide  divergence  of  opinion.  It  is  probable, 
however,  that  the  "Exposition  of  the  Law"  with  its 
frequent  appeals  to  the  authority  of  the  masters  and 
its  cautious  way  of  introducing  the  allegorical  inter- 
pretation is  anterior  to  the  "Allegorical  Commen- 
tary" which  shows  more  assurance  and  independence 
of  thought. 

Doctrine. — Philo's  work  belongs  for  the  most  part 
to  the  immense  literature  of  comnientaries  on  the 
Law,  and  it  is  especially  as  a  commentator  that  he 
must  be  considered.  But  in  this  regard  he  holds  a 
unique  place.  First  of  all,  he  uses  the  Greek  transla- 
tion of  the  Septuagint.  The  variations  that  have 
been  pointed  out  between  his  text  and  that  which  we 
pow  possess  of  the  Septuagint  may  be  explained  to 
our  satisfaction,  not  by  the  reading  of  the  Hebrew 
text  (Hitter),  but  by  the  fact  that  our  recension  is 
of  a  later  date  than  the  one  he  used.  Furthermore, 
his  method  of  interpretation  appears  as  something 
new  and  original  among  the  juridical  commentaries 
of  the  Palestinian  rabbis.  Eliminating  what  formed 
the  common  basis  of  idl  commentaries  of  this  kind — 
the  interpretation  of  the  Hebrew  proper  names  (Philo 
gives  them  at  times  a  Greek  etymology),  the  particular 
rules  for  the  signs  which  indicate  that  Moses  intended 
us  to  look  beyond  the  hteral  sense  (Siegfried),  the  oral 
traditions  added  to  the  account  of  the  Pentateuch 
(and  again,  at  the  beginning  of  the  "Life  of  Moses" 
these  traditions  are  clearly  of  Alexandrine  origin), 
and  the  prescriptions  of  the  worship  in  Jerusalem — 
two  essential  features  remain:  first^  the  conviction ' 
that  the  Jewish  law  is  identical  with  the  natural; 
and  then  the  allegorical  interpretation.  The  first, 
according  to  which  the  acts  of  the  prophets  and  the 
prescriptions  of  Moses  are  regarded  as  ideals  con- 
formable to  nature  (in  the  Stoic  sense),  gives  to  the 
Jewish  religjion  a  universaUty  incompatible  with  the 
narrow  national  Messianism  of  the  Jewish  sibyls. 
Philo  thus  abandons  entirely  the  Messianic  promises; 
there  is  no  national  tradition  to  exclude  the  Gentile 
from  Judaism.  To  find  his  precursors  one  must  go 
back  to  the  Prophets;  tradition  he  revives,  but  only 
with  serious  modifications.  To  the  idea  of  moral  uni- 
versality he  adds  the  idea  of  nature  which  he  received 
from  the  Stoics.  His  interpretation  is  wholly  bent 
on  identifying  the  Mosaic  prescription  with  natural 
law. 

•  The  second  feature  is  the  allegorical  interpretation. 
Without  doubt  Philo  had  his  predecessors  among  the 
Alexandrines.  The  proof  of  this  is  found  not  in  the 
fragments  of  Aristobulus  (which  areggrossly  false  and 
later  than  Philo),  but  in  the  work  of  Philo  himself, 
which  is  based  sometimes  on  the  authority  of  his  pre- 
decessors, in  the  "Wisdom  of  Solomon^'  (an  Alex- 
andrine work  of  the  first  century  b.  c,  which  contains 
some  traces  of  this  method),  and  finally  in  the  descrip- 
tion Philo  has  given  us  of  the  occupations  of  the 
Therapeutse  and  the  Essenes.  The  tradition,  how- 
ever, tnus  formed  cannot  have  amounted  to  much,  for 
it  does  not  prevail  against  personal  inspiration  and  it 
lacks  unitv.  This  interpretation  appears  to  us  rather 
as  a  day-by-day  creation  of  that  age,  and  in  Philo's 
works  we  can  follow  an  allegory  in  process  of  forma- 
tion, e.  K.  the  interpretation  of  man  "after  the  image 
of  God  .  The  development  of  the  interior  moral-life 
as  Philo  conceived  it  is  always  bound  up  with  his 
allegorical  method.  This  method  differs  from  that  of 
mo^  of  his  Greek  predecessors  who  sought  an  arti- 
ficial means  to  bring  out  the  philosophical  conceptions 
in  time-honoured  texts,  sucn  as  that  of  Homer.  As 
a  rule  he  does  not  search  in  the  sacred  text  for  any 
strictly  philosophical  theory;  more  often  he  puts 
forth  these  theories  directly  on  their  own  merits. 


Though  at  times  enthusiastic  in  his  admiration  of 
Greek  philosophers,  he  does  not  try  to  represent  them 
as  unavowed  disciples  of  Moses.  What  he  seek^  in 
Genesis  is  not  this  or  that  truth,  but  the  description 
of  the  attitudes  of  the  soul  towards  God,  such  as  inno- 
cence, sin,  repentance.  The  allegorical  method  of 
Philo  neither  proves  nor  attempts  to  prove  anything. 
Itjs  not  a  mode  of  apologetic;  m  the  "  Life  of  Moses 
e.  g.  this  method  is  seldom  employed;  the  only 
apologetic  feature  is  the  presentation  of  the  high 
moral  import  of  the  Jewish  laws  taken  in  their  literal 
sense.  But  the  method  is  indispensable  for  the  in- 
terior life;  it  gives  the  concrete  image  which  the 
mystic  needs  to  explain  his  effusions,  and  it  makes 
the  Jewish  books  profitable  in  the  spiritual  life.  The 
spiritual  life  consists  in  the  feeling  oi  confidence  which 
gives  us  faith  in  God,  a  feeling  which  coincides  with 
that  of  the  nothingness  of  man  left  to  his  own  strength. 
Faith  in  God  is  not  in  itself  the  condition  but  the  end 
or  crowning  of  this  life,  and  human  life  oscillates 
between  confidence  lin  self  and  confidence  in  (}od. 
This  God  conceived  in  His  relations  with  the  moral 
needs  of  man  has  the  omnipotence  and  infinite  good- 
ness of  the  God  of  the  prophets;  it  is  by  no  means 
the  God  of  the  Stoics,  in  direct  relation  with  the 
cosmos  rather  than  with  man. 

Under  this  influence  the  Philonian  cult  became  an 
eminently  moral  one:  the  originality  of  Philonism 
consists  m  its  moral  interpretation  of  the  actions  of 
the  divinity  upon  the  world,  which  till  then  had  been 
regarded  more  in  their  physical  asi>ect.  The  funda- 
mental idea  is  here  that  of  Divine  power  conceived 
according  to  the  manner  of  the  Jews  as  goodness  and 
sovereignty  in  relation  to  man.  It  is  remarkable  that 
with  this  idea  the  cosmic  power  of  philosophy  or  of 
Greek  religion  is  transformed  by  Philo  into  moral 
power.  Divine  wisdom  is  without  doubt  like  the 
Isis  in  Plutarch's  treatise,  mother  of  the  world,  but 
above  all  mother  of  gooaness  in  the  virtuous  soul. 
The  "Man  of  God"  is  the  moral  consciousness  of  man 
rather  than  the  prototype  or  ideal.  The  Divine  spirit 
is  transformed  from  the  material  ether  into  the  prin- 
ciple of  moral  inspiration.  We  recognize^  it  is  true*, 
the  traces  of  the  cosmic  origin  of  the  Divine  inter- 
mediaries; the  angels  are  material  intermediaries  as 
well  as  spiritual,  and  Philo  accepts  the  belief  in  the 
power  of  the  heavenly  bodies  as  an  inferior  degree  of 
wisdom.  Nevertheless  he  did  his  best  to  suppress 
every  material  intermediary  between  man  ancf  God. 
This  is  quite  evident  in  the  celebrated  theory  of  the 
Logos  of  God.  This  Logos,  which  according  to  the 
Stoics  is  the  bond  between  the  different  parts  of  the 
world,  and  according  to  the  HeracHteans  the  source 
of  the  cosmic  oppositions,  is  regarded  by  Philo  as  the 
Divine  word  which  reveals  God  to  the  soul  and  calms 
the  passions  (see  Logos).  It  is  finally  from  this  point 
of  view  of  the  interior  life  that  Philo  transforms  the 
moral  conception  of  the  Greeks  which  he  knew  mainly 
in  the  most  popular  forms  (cynical  diatribes);  he 
discovers  in  them  the  idea  of  the  moral  conscience 
accepted  though  but  slightly  developed  by  phi- 
losophers up  to  that  time.  A  very  interesting  point 
of  view  is  the  consideration  of  the  various  moral 
systems  of  the  Greeks,  not  simply  as  true  or  false,  but 
as  so  many  indications  of  the  soul's  progress  or  recoil 
at  different  stages. 

Consult  various  editions  of  Philo's  works:  Manoet  (2  vols.. 
Tendon.  1742);  Cohn  and  Wendland.  I-V  (Berlin.  1896-1906); 
CiTMONT,  De  /Etemitale  Mundi  (Berlin,  1891);  Conybeare, 
Philo  about  Contemplative  Life  (Oxford,  1895);  Harris,  FraQ- 
tnenta  of  Philo  Judtpua  (Cambridge,  1886);  Wendland,  iVeii- 
enldeckte  FragmerUe  Philot  (Berlin,  1891).  Writino*:  Grobbmann, 
De  Philonis  operum  continua  aerie,  I  (Leipsig,  1841),  II  (1842); 
MAHeEBiKAC,  L«  CUusement  des  (Euvrea  de  Philon  in  Biblioth. 
de  I'Ecole  dea  hautea  (tudes,  I  (1889),  1-91;  Mabbebieau  and 
Br^hier,  Chronologie  de  la  Vie  et  dea  (Eutrea  de  Philon  in  Revue 
d'hiat.  dea  relig.  (1906),  1-3.  Doctrine:  Drummond.  Philo 
Judtrua  (2  vols..  Ixindon,  1S88):  Hkrriot.  Philon  le  Juif;  Esfi-ni 
aur  VEcole  Juive  d'Alezandrie  (Paris,  1898);  Martin,  Philon 
(Paria,  1907);    Bk^hikr,  Lea  Idiea  Philoaophii^ea  et  Religierut* 


PHILOMELIITM 


25 


PHILOSOPHY 


(I  Philon  d*Alexandrie  (Paris,  1908);  SchDrer.  Geseh.  des 
JUditehm  Volkea  imZeitaUer  Jesu  Christi  (3rd  ed..  Berlin,  1900); 
SiBorBiED,  Philo  V.  Alexaruiria  ah  Awilegerd.  A.  T.  (Jona,  1875). 

Emile  Br^hibr. 

Philomaliuzn,  titular  see  in  Pisidia,  suffragan  of 
Antioch.  According  to  ancient  writers  Philomelium 
was  situated  in  the  south-west  of  Phrygia  near  the 
frontier  of  Lycaonia,  on  the  road  from  Synnada  to 
Iccfnium.  It  formed  part  of  the  **conventus"  of  Syn- 
nada. Its  coins  show  that  it  was  allied  with  the  neigh- 
bouring city  of  Mandropolis  (now  Mandra).  In  the 
sixth  century  it  formed  part  of  Pisidla,  the  inhabitants 
of  which  pronounced  its  name  Philomede  or  Philo- 
mene.  In  the  Middle  Ages  it  is  often  mentioned  by 
Byzantine  historians  in  connexion  with  the  wars  with 
the  Seljukian  sultans  of  Iconium.  In  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury it  was  one  of  the  chief  cities  of  the  sultanate ;  from 
this  time  it  bore  the  Turkish  name  of  Ak-Sheher 
(white  city),  and  to-day  is  the  chief  town  of  the  caza 
of  the  vilayet  of  Konieh,  numbering  40Q0  inhabitants, 
nearly  all  Mussulmans,  and  is  a  station  on  the  railway 
from  Eski-Shehr  to  Konieh.  The  ancient  ruins  are  un- 
important; they  include  a  few  inscriptions,  some  of 
them  Christian.  In  a  suburb  is  the  tomb  of  Nasr  Ed- 
din  Hodja,  famous  for  his  sanctity  among  the  Turks. 
Christianity  was  introduced  into  PhilomeUum  at  an 
early  date.  In  196  the  Church  of  Smyrna  wrote  to  the 
Church  of  Philomelium  announcing  the  martyrdom  of 
St.  Poljrcarp  (Eusebius  "Hist.  Eccl.",  IV,  xix).  Seven 
of  its  bishops  are  known:  Theosebius,  present  at  the 
Council  of  Constantinople  (381);  Paul,  at  Chalcedon 
(451);  Marcianus,  who  signed  the  letter  to  Emperor 
Leo  from  the  bishops  of  Pisidia  (458):  Aristodemus, 
present  at  the  Council  of  Constantinople  (553) ;  Mari- 
nus,  at  O)nstantinople  (680  and  692)^  Sisinnius,  at 
Nicsea  (787) ;  Euthymius  at  the  Photian  Council  of 
Constantinople  (879).  In  the  Greek  "Notitiae  epis- 
copatuum''  Philomelium  is  first  mentioned  among  the 
suffragan  sees  of  Antioch  in  Pisidia,  and  in  the  ninth 
century  among  those  of  Amorium  in  Phrygia.  It  re- 
ceives mention  until  the  thirteenth  century. 

Ada  SS.,  Jan.,  Ill,  317;  Lb  Quien,  Orien«  christ.,  I,  1059; 
Hauiutov,  Researches,  I,  472;  II,  184;  Abundell,  Diacoveries,  I, 
282  sq.;  Tbxibb,  Aaie  Afmeure,  435;  Smith,  Diet,  of  Greek  and 
Roman  Geogr.,  a.  v.,  contains  bibliography  of  ancient  authors;  see 
Also  the  notes  of  MOller  in  Ptolemy,  ed.  Didot,  I,  831. 

S.   P^TRIDfcs 

Philomana,  Saint.— On  25  May,  1802,  during  the 
quest  for  the  graves  of  Roman  martyrs  in  the  Cata- 
comb of  Priscula,  a  tomb  was  discovered  and  opened; 
as  it  contained  a  glass  vessel  it  was  assumed  to  oe  the 
grave  of  a  martyr.  The  view,  then  erroneously  enteiv 
tained  in  Rome,  that  the  presence  of  such  vessels  (sup- 
posed to  have  contained  the  martyr's  blood)  in  a 
prave  was  a  symbol  of  martyrdom,  has  been  rejected 
in  practice  since  the  investigations  of  De  Rossi  (cf. 
Leclercq  in  "Diet,  d'arch^ol.  chr6t.  et  de  liturg.",  s.  v. 
Ampoules  de  sang) .  The  remains  found  in  the  above- 
mentioned  tomb  were  shown  to  be  those  of  a  young 
maiden,  and,  as  the  name  Filumena  was  discovered  on 
the  earthenware  slabs  closing  the  grave,  it  was  As- 
sumed that  they  were  those  of  a  virgin  mart3T  named 
Philumena,  On  8  June,  1805,  the  relics  were  trans- 
lated to  the  church  of  Mugnano,  Diocese  of  Nola  (near 
Naples),  and  enshrined  under  one  of  its  altars.  In  1827 
Leo  XII  presented  the  church  with  the  three  earthen- 
ware tiles  with  the  inscription,  which  may  be  seen  in 
the  church  even  to-day.  On  the  basis  of  alleged  reve- 
lations to  a  nun  in  Naples,  and  of  an  entirely  fanciful 
and  indefensible  explanation  of  the  all^orical  paint- 
ings, which  were  found  on  the  slabs  beside  the  inscrip- 
tion, a  canon  of  the  church  in  Mugnano,  named  Di 
Lucia,  composed  a  purely  fictitious  and  romantic 
account  of  the  supposed  martyrdom  of  St.  Philomena, 
who  is  not  mentioned  in  any  of  the  ancient  sources. 
In  consequence  of  the  woncierful  favours  received  in 
answer  to  prayer  before  the  relics  of  the  saint  at  Mu- 


gnano, devotion  to  them  spread  rapidly,  and,  after  in- 
stituting investigations  into  the  quo8lion,GregoryXVI 
appointed  a  special  feast  to  be  held  on  9  September, 
"in  honorem  s.  Philumense  virginis  et  martyris"  (cf. 
the  lessons  of  this  feast  in  the  Roman  Breviary).  The 
earthenware  plates  were  fixed  in  front  of  the  grave  as 
follows :  Lumen  A  Pax  tecum  Fi.  The  plates  were 
evidently  inserted  in  the  wrong  order,  and  the  inscrip- 
tion should  doubtless  read  Pax  tecum  Filumena.  The 
Jetters  are  painted  on  the  plates  with  red  paint,  and 
the  inscription  belongs  to  the  primitive  class  ol  epi- 

§raphical  memorials  in  the  Catacomb  of  Priscilla,  thus 
atmg  from  about  the  middle  or  second  half  of  the 
second  century.  The  disarrangement  of  the  inscrip- 
tion proves  that  it  must  have  been  completed  before 
the  plates  were  put  in  position,  although  m  the  numer- 
ous other  examples  of  this  kind  in  the  same  catacomb' 
the  inscription  was  adde^  only  after  the  grave  had 
been  closeid.  Consequently,  since  the  disarrangement 
of  the  plates  can  scarcely  be  explained  as  arising  from 
an  error,  Marucchi  seems  justified  in  concluding  that 
the  inscription  and  .plates  originally  belonged  to  an 
earlier  grave,  and  were  later  employed  (now  in  the 
wrong  Order)  to  close  another.  Apart  from  the  letters, 
the  plates  contain  three  arrows,  either  as  a  decoration 
or  as  punctuation,  a  leaf  as  decoration,  two  anchors, 
and  a  palm  as  the  well-known  Christian  symbols. 
Neither  these  signs  nor  the  glass  vessel  discovered  in 
the  grave  can  be  regarded  as  a  proof  of  martyrdom. 

pE  Waau  D.  Grabeehrift  d.  Philumena  aua  d.  COmeterium  d. 

c^.,  with  illustra- 
*%lumena,  vergine  « 
.  Controversia  aid  ceUbre 
epUaffio  di  S.  Filumena  vergine  e  martire  (Rome,  1906) ;  Idkm,  La 
queetione  puramente  archeUogica  e  atmrico-archeologiea  neUa  contro- 
versia Filumeniana  (Rome,  1907) ;  Marccchi,  Studio  areheologieo 
sulla  celebre  iscrizione  di  Filumena  aeoperta  nel  cimitero  di  PriaciUa 
in  Nuovo  Bullettino  di  archeal.  criat.,  XII  (1^*06),  2.53  aqq. 

J.   P.   KiRSCH. 

Philoponu8»  John.  SeeEuTrcniANisM;  Monoph- 

YSITES. 

Philosophuznena.    See  Hippolttus. 

Philosophy.— I.  Definition  of  Philosophy.  II. 
Division  of  Philosophy.  III.  The  Principal  System- 
atic Solutions.  iV.  Philosophical  Methods.  V. 
The  Great  Historical  Currents  of  Thought.  VI. 
Contemporary  Orientations.  VII.  Is  Progress  in 
Philosophy  Indefinite,  or  Is  there  a  PhMosophia 
Ferennisf  VIII.  Philosophy  and  the  Sciences.  IX. 
Philosophy  and  Religion.  X.  The  Catholic  Church 
and  Pliilosophy.  XL  The  Teaching  of  Philosophy. 
XII.  Bibliography. 

I.  Definition  op  Philosophy. — According  to  its 
etymology,  the  word  "philosophy"  (^iXoo'o^^  {torn 
<f>i\eTvj  to  love,  and  ffwpia^  wisdom)  means  "the  love 
of  wisdom".  This  sense  appears  again  in  aapien' 
liaj  the  word  used  in  the  Middle  Ages  to  designate 
philosoph:^.  In  the  early  stages  of  Greek,  as  of  every 
other,  civilization,  the  boundary  line  between  phi- 
losophy and  other  departments  of  human  knowledge 
was  not  sharply  defined,  and  philosophy  was  under- 
stood to  mean  "every  striving  tow^s  knowledge". 
This  sense  of  the  word  survives  in  Herodotus  (I,  xxx) 
and  Thucydides  (II,  xl).  In  the  ninth  century  of 
our  era.  Alcuin,  employing  it  in  the  same  sense,  says 
that  philosophy  is  "naturarum  inquisitio,  rerum 
humanarum  divinarumque  cognitio  quantum  homini 
possibile  est  sestimare" — investigation  of  nature,  and 
such  knowledge  of  things  human  and  Divine  as  is 
possible  for  man  (P.  L.,  CI,  952). 

In  its  proper  acceptation,  philosophy  does  not 
mean  the  aggregate  of  the  human  sciences,  but  "the 
general  science  of  things  in  the  universe  by  their 
ultimate  determinations  and  reasons";  or  again,  "the 
intimate  knowledge  of  the  causes  and  reasons  of 
things",  the  profound  knowledge  of  the  universal 
order.     Without  here  enumerating  all  the  historic 


FHILOSOPHT  26  PHILOSOPHY 

definitions  of  philosophy ,  some  of  the  most  si^fi-  ^  particular  science  (e.  g.  chemistiy),  to  this  or  that 
cant  may  be  given.  Plato  calls  it  ''the  acquisition  process  of  becoming,  or  to  this  or  that  being  (e.  s. 
of  knowledge  ,  icrija-tf  iTurri/ifiTis  (Euthydemus,  288  the  combinationoftwo  bodies),  but  to  all  being  and  wl 
d).  Aristotle,  mightier  than  his  master  at  com-  becoming.  All  being  has  within  it  its  constituent 
pressing  ideas,  wntes:  r^v  dvofAa^/idviiv  co^law  vtpl  principles^  which  account  for  its  substance  (consti- 
r&  vpQra  oXtm  Kal  rdt  dpx^i  (nroKafi^povffi  irdvrct —  tutive  material  and  formal  causes);  all  becoming, 
''AH  men  considef  philosophy  as  concerned  with  or  change,  whether  superficial  or  profound^  is  brought 
first  causes  and  principles''  (Metaph.,  I,  i).  These  about  bv  an  efficient  cause  other  than  its  subject; 
notions  were  perpetuated  in  the  post-Anstotelean  and  lastly  things  and  events  have  their  bearings  irom 
schools  (Stoicism,  Epicureanism,  neo-Platonism),  a  finality,  or  final  cause.  The  harmony  of  prind- 
with  this  difference,  that  the  Stoics  and  Epicureans  pies,  or  causes,  produces  the  universal  order.  And 
accentuated  the  moral  bearing  of  philosophy  ("Phi-  thus  philosophy  is  the  profound  knowledge  of  the 
losophia  studium  summsB  virtutis  ,  says  Seneca  in  universal  order,  in  the  sense  of  having  for  its  object 
"Epist.'',  Ixxxix,  7),  and  the  neo-Platonists  its  mysti-  the  simplest  and  most  general  principles,  by  means  of 
caloearing  (see  section  V  below).  The  Fathers  of  the  which  all  other  objects  of  thou^t  are,  m  the  last 
Church  and  the  first  philosophers  of  the  Middle  resort,  explained.  By  these  principles,  says  Aristotle, 
Ages  seem  not  to  have  had  a  very  clear  idea  of  philoso-  we  know  other  things,  but  other  things  do  not  suffice 
phy  for  reasons  which  we  will  develop  later  on  (section  to  make  us  know  these  principles  (dtd  7d/>  raOra  KtU 
IX),  but  its  conception  emerges  once  more  in  all  its  iK  to&tuv  r^lLKKa  7iw/>/ferat,  dXX*  od  raOra  did  t«p 
purity  among  the  Arabic  philosophers  at  the  end  of  WoKeifUrup — Metaph.,  I).  The  expression  univer' 
the  twelfth  century  and  the  masters  of  Scholasticism  sal  order  should  be  understood  in  the  widest  sense, 
in  the  thirteenth.  6t.  Thbmas,  adopting  the  Aristote-  Man  is  one  part  of  it:  hence  the  relations  of  man 
lean  idea,  writes:  "Sapientia  est  scientia  quse  con-  with  the  world  of  sense  and  with  its  Author  be- 
siderat  causas  primas  et  universales  causas;  sapientia  long  to  the  domain  of  philosophy.  Now  man,  on 
causas  primas  omnium  causarum  considerat'| —  the  one  hand,  is  the  responsible  author  of  these  relar 
"Wisdom  [i.  e.  philosophy]  is  the  science  which  tions,  because  he  is  free,  but  he  is  obliged  by  nature  it- 
considers  first  and  universal  causes;  wisdom  con-  self  to  reach  an  aim,  which  is  his  moral  end.  On  the 
siders  the  first  causes  of  all  causes''. (In  metaph.,  I,  other  hand,  he  has  the  power  of  reflecting  upon  the 
lect.  ii).  knowledge  which  he  acouires  of  all  things,  and  this 

In  general,  modem  philosophers  may  be  said  to  leads  him  to  study  the  logical  structure  of  science, 
have  adopted  this  way  of  looking  at  it.  Descartes  Thus  philosophical  knowledge  leads  to  philosophical 
regards  philosophy  as  wisdom:  " PhilosophisB  voces  acquaintance  with  morality  and  logic.  And  nence 
sapientis  studium  denotamus" — "By  the  term  phi-  we  have  this  more  comprehensive  definition  of  phi- 
losophy we  denote  the  pursuit  of  wisdom"  (Pnnc.  losophy:  "The  profound  knowledge  of  the  universal 
philos.,  preface)!  ^^^  ^^  understands  by  it  "cognitio  order,  of  the  duties  which  that  order  imposes  upon 
veritatis  per  pnmas  suas  causas"  — "knowlec^e  of  man,  and  of  the  knowledge  which  man  acquires  from 
truth  by  its  first  causes"  (ibid.).  For  Locke,  philos-  reaUty" — "La  connaissance  approfondie  de  I'ordre 
ophy  is  the  true  knowledge  of  things;  for  Berkeley,  universel,  des  devoirs  qui  en  r^ultent  pour  I'hommeet 
"the  study  of  wisdom  and  truth  (Princ).  The  de  la  science  que  I'homme  acquiert  de  la  r6alit^" 
many  conceptions  of  philosophy  given  by  Kant  (Mercier,  "Lojpque",  1904,  p.  23). — The  develop- 
reduce  it  to  that  of  a  science  of  the  general  prin-  ment  of  these  same  ideas  under  another  aspect  will 
ciples  of  knowledge  and  of  the  ultimate  objects  be  found  in  section  VIII  of  this  article, 
attainable  by  knowledge — "Wissenschaft  von  den  II.  DrvisiON  op  Philosophy. — Since  the  universal 
letzten  Zwecken  der  menschlichen  Vemunft".  For  order  falls  within  the  scope  of  philosophy  (which 
the  numerous  German  philosophers  who  derive  studies  only  its  first  principles,  not  its  reasons  in 
their  inspiration  from  his  criticism — Fichte,  Hegel,  detail),  philosophy  is  led  to  the  consideration  of 
Schelling,  Schleiermacher,  Schopenhauer,  and  the  all  that  is:  the  world,  God  (or  its  cause),  and  man 
rest — it  is  the  general  teaching  of  science  (Wis-  himself  (his  nature,  origin,  operations,  moral  end, 
senachaftslehre).    Many  contemporary  authors  regard  and  scientific  activities). 

it  as  the  synthetic  theory  of  the  particular  sciences:        It  would  be  out  of  the  question  to  enumerate  here 

"Philosophy",  says  Herbert  Spencer,  "is  completely  all  the  methods  of  dividing  philosophy  that  have 

unified  knowledge"  (First  Principles,  §  37).   Ostwald  been  given:  we  confine  ourselves  to  those  which  have 

haa  the  same  idea.    For  Wundt,  the  object  of  philos-  played  a  part  in  history  and  possess  the  deepest 

ophy  is  "the  acquisition  of  such  a  general  conception  significance. 

of  the  world  and  of  life  as  will  satisfy  the  exigencies        A.  In  Greek  Philosophy, — ^Two  historical  divisions 

of  the  reason  and  the  needs  of  the  heart" — "Gewin-  dominate  Greek  philosophy:   the  Platonic  and  the 

nung  einer  allgemeinen  Welt-  und  Lebensanschauun^,  Aristotelean. 

welche  die  Forderungen  unserer  Vemunft  und  die         (1)  Plato  divides  philosophy  into  dialectic,  phys- 

Bedilrfnisse    unseres    Gemiiths    bef riedigen    soil "  ics,  and  ethics.    This  division  is  not  found  in  Plato's 

(Einleit.  in  d.  Philos.,  1901,  p.  5).    This  idea  of  phi-  own  writings,  and  it  would  be  impossible  to  fit  his 

losophy  as  the   ultimate    science  of  values  (Wert^  diaJogues  into  the  triple  frame,  but  it  corresponds  to 

lehre)  is  emphasized  by  Windelband,  Doring,  and  the  spirit  of  the  Platonic  philosophy.    According  to 

others.  Zeller,  Xenocrates  (314  b.c.)  his  msciple,  and  the 

The  list  of  conceptions  and  definitions  might  be  leading  representative  of  the  Old  Academy,  was  the 

indefinitely  prolonged.    All  of  them  affirm  the  emi-  first  to  adopt  this  triadic  division,  which  was  destined 

nently  synthetic  character  of  philosophy.     In  the  to  go  down  through  the  ages  (Grundriss  d.  Geschichte 

opinion  of  the  present  writer,  the  most  exact  and  com-  d.    griechischen    Philosophic,    144),    and    Aristotle 

prehensive  definition  is  that  of  Aristotle.     Face  to  follows  it  in  dividing  his  master's  philosophy.    Dia- 

lace  with  nature  and  with  himself,  man  reflects  and  lectic  is  the  science  of  objective  reality,  i.  e.,  of  the 

endeavours  to  discover  what  the  world  is,  and  what  Idea  (W/o,  eWof),  so  that  by  Platomc  dialectic  we 

he  is  himself.    Having  made  the  real  the  object  of  must  understand  metaphysics.     Physics  is  concerned 

studies  in  detail,  each  of  which  constitutes  science  (see  with  the  manifestations  of  the  Idea,  or  with  the  Real, 

section  Vtll),  he  is  led  to  a  study  of  the  whole,  to  in  the  sensible  universe,  to  which  Plato  attributes  no 

incjuire  into  the  principles  or  reasons  of  the  totality  of  real  value  independent  of  that  of  the  Idea.    Ethics 

things,  a  study  which  supplies  the  answers  to  the  last  has  for  its  object  human  acts.  Plato  deals  with  logic. 

Why* 8,    The  last  Why  of  all  rests  upon  all  that  is  and  but  has  no  system  of  logic;  this  was  a  product  of 

all  that  becomes:   it  does  not  apply,  as  in  any  one  Aristotle's  genius. 


i'HiLosoPEnr                   27  pHiLosopmr 

Plato's  classification  was  taken  ^up  by  his  school  philosopher's   reflection.    Now   there   is   an   order 

(the  Academy),  built  was  not  long  in  3aelding  to  the  which    the    intelligence    does   not    form   but    only 

influence  of  Aristotle's  more  complete  division  and  lie-  considers;    such   is   the  order  realized   in   nature, 

cording  a  place  to  logic.    Following  the  inspirations  of  Another  order,  the  practical,  is  formed  either  by  the 

the  old  Academics,  the  Stoics  divided  philosophy  into  acts  of  our  intelligence,  or  by  the  acts  of  our  will, 

physics  (the  study  of  the  real),  logic  '(the  study  of  or  by  the  application  of  those  acts  to  external  things 

the  structure  of  science),  and  morals  (the  studv  of  in  the  arts:  h^ce  the  division  of  practical  philosophy 

moral  acts).     This  classification  was  perpetuated  by  into  logic,  moral  philosophy,  and  aesthetics,  or  the 

the  neo-Platonists.  who  transmitted  it  to  the  Fathers  philosophy  of  the  arts  (''Ad  philosophiam  naturalem 

of  the  Church,  ana  through  them  to  the  Middle  Ages,  pertinet    considerare    ordinem    rerum    quem    ratio 

(2)  Aristotle,  Plato's  illustrious  disciple,  the  most  numana  conrnderat  sed  non  facit;  ita  quod  sub 
didactic,  and  at  the  same  time  the  most  synthetic,  naturali  philosophia  comprehendamus  et  metaphor- 
mind  of  the  Greek  world,  drew  up  a  remarkable  sicam.  (Drdo  autem  quem  ratio  considerando  facit 
scheme  of  the  divisions  of  philosophy.  The  philo-  in  proprio  actu,  pertinet  ad  ration^em  philosophiam, 
Bophical  sciences  are  divided  into  theoretic,  practical,  cujus  est  considerare  ordinem  partium  orationis  ad 
and  poetic,  according  as  their  scope  is  pure  speculative  invicem  et  ordinem  principiorum  ad  invicem  et  ad 
knowledge,  or  conduct  (Tpo^tt),  or  external  produc-  conclusiones.  Ordo  autem  actionum  voluntariarum 
tion  (xoiifffii).  Theoretic  philosophy  comprises:  (a)  pertinet  ad  considerationem  moralis  philosophise, 
physics,  or  the  study  of  corporeal  things  which  are  Ordo  autem  quem  ratio  considerando  facit  in  rebus 
subject  to  change  (dx<Apt^ro  fiiv  dXX'  od«c  dWMyro):  exterioribus  per  rationem  humanam  pertinet  ad 
(b)  mathematics,  or  the  study  of  extension,  i.  e.,  ot  artes  mechamcas.''  To  natural  philosophy  pertains 
a  corporeal  property  not  subject  to  change  and  con-  the  consideration  of  the  order  of  things  which  human 
sidered,  by  abstraction,  apart  from  matter  {dxlinfTa  reason  considers  but  does  not  create — lust  as  we  in- 
fUp  oi  x^P^^"^^  ^*  tfftat,  dXX'  wt  iv  t\Q) ;  (c)  metaphysics,  elude  metaphysics  also  under  natural  philosophy, 
called  theology,  or  fiirst  philosophy,  i.  e.  the  study  of  But  the  order  which  reason  creates  of  its  own  act  by 
being  in  its  unchangeable  and  (whether  naturally  or  consideration  pertains  to  rational  philosophy,  the 
by  abstraction)  incorporeal  determinations  {x*^^"^^  oflice  of  which  is  to  consider  the  order  of  the  parts  of 
mX  dKltnrra),  Practical  philosophy  comprises  ethics,  a  speech  with  reference  to  one  another  and  the  order 
economics,  and  politics,  the  second  of  these  three  of  the  principles  with  reference  to  one  another  and  to 
often  merging  mto  the  last.  Poetic  philosophy  is  the  conclusions.  The  order  of  voluntary  actions  per- 
concerU^  in  general  with  the  external  works  con-  tains  to  the  consideration  of  moral  philosophy,  while 
ceived  by  human  intelligence.  To  these  may  conve-  the  order  which  the  reason  creates  m  external  thin^ 
niently  be  added  logic,  the  vestibule  of  philosophy,  through  the  human  reason  pertains  to  the  mechani- 
which  Aristotle  stucuea  at  length,  and  of  which  he  cal  arts. — "In  X  Ethic,  ad  Nic."j  I,  lect.  i).  The 
may  be  called  the  creator.  philosophy  of  nature,  or  speculative  philosophy,  is 

To  metaph3rsics  Aristotle  rightly  accords  the  place  divided  into  metaphysics,  mathematics,  and  phys- 

of  honour  m  the  grouping  of  philosophical  studies,  ics,  according  to  the  three  stages  traversed  by  the 

He  calls  it  "first  philosophy   .      His  classification  intelligence  in  its  effort  to  attmn  a  synthetic  com- 

was  taken  up  by  the  Peripatetic  School  and  was  prehension  of  the  universal  order,  by  abstracting  from 

famous  throughout  antiquity;    it  was  eclipsed  by  movement  (ph3rsics),  intelligible   quantity    (mathe- 

the  Platonic  classification  during  the  Alexandrine  matics),  being  (metaphysics)  (In  lib.  Boeth.  de  Trini- 

period,  but  it  reappeared  during  the  Middle  Ages.  tate,  .Q.  v.,  a.  1).    In  this  classification  it  id  to  be  noted 

B.  In  the  Middle  Ages. — ^Though  the  division  that,  man  being  one  element  of  the  world  of  sense, 
of  philosophy  into  its  branches  is  not  uniform  in  the  psychology  ranks  as  a  part  of  physics, 
first  period  of  the  Middle  Ages  in  the  West,  i.  e.  down  C.  In  Modem  Philosophy. — ^The  Scholastic  classi- 
to  the  end  of  the  twelfth  century,  the  classifications  fication  may  be  said,  generally  speaking,  to  have 
of  this  i)eriod  are  mostly  akin  to  the  Platonic  division  lasted,  with  some  exceptions,  until  the  seventeenth 
into  logic,  ethics,  and  physics.  Aristotle's  classifica-  century.  Beginning  with  Descartes,  we  find  a  mul- 
tion  of  the  theoretic  sciences,  though  made  known  by  titude  of  classifications  arising,  differing  in  the 
Boethius,  exerted  no  influence  for  the  reason  that  principles  which  inspire  them.  Kant^  for  instance, 
in  the  early  Middle  Ages  the  West  knew  nothing  distinguishes  metaphysics,  moral  philosophy,  reli- 
ef Aristotle  exc^t  his  works  on  logic  and  some  gion,  and  anthropology.  The  most  widely  accepted 
fragments  of  his  speculative  philosophy  (see  scheme,  that  which  still  governs  the  division  of  the 
section  V  below).  It  should  be  added  here  that  branches  of  philosophy  in  teaching,  is  due  to  Wolff 
philosophy,  reduced  at  first  to  dialectic,  or  logic,  (167^1755),  a  disciple  of  Leibniz,  who  has  been  called 
and  placed  as  such  in  the  Trivium,  was  not  long  in  the  educator  of  Germany  in  the  eighteenth  century, 
setting  itself  above  the  liberal  arts.  This  scheme  is  as  follows: 

The  Arab  philosophers  of  the   twelfth   century  ,jx  lo_5^» 

(Avicenna,    Averroes)    accepted    the    Aristotelean  v  ;      gi                                     ^ 

classification,   and   when  their  works — ^particularly  |    physics^ 

their  translations  of  Aristotle's  great  original  treatises  (&)  SpeoaUUve  Philosophy-^ 

— ^penetrated  into  the  West,  the  Aristotelean  division  ' 

definitively   took   its  place   there.     Its   coming   is  Lspeci*!  MeU-^ 

heralded  by  Gundissaiinus   (see  section  XII),  one  phymcs 

of    the    Toletan     translators     of     Aristotle,     and  rEthica 

author  of  a  treatise,   "De  divisione  philosophic",  (8)  Practical Philoeophy-i  Politics 

which  was  imitated  by  Michael  Scott  and  Robert  LEconomics 

Kilw£uxiby.    St.  Thomas  did  no  more  than  adopt  it  Wolff  broke  the  ties  binding  the  particular  sciences 

and  pve  it  a  precise  scientific  form.     Later  on  we  to  philosophy,  and  placed  them  by  themselves;   in 

shall  see  that,  conformably  with  the  medieval  notion  his  view  philosophy  must  remain  purely  rational. 

of  9apieniiaf  to  each  part  of  philosophy  corresponds  It  is  easy  to  see  that  the  members  of  Wolff's  scheme 

the  preliminary  study  of  a  group  of  special  sciences,  are  found  in  the  Aristotelean  classification,  wherein 

The  general  scheme  of  the  division  of  philosophy  theodicy  is  a  chapter  of  metaphysics  and  psychology 

in  the  thirteenth  century,  with  St.  Thomas's  com-  a  chapter  of  physics.    It  may  even  be  said  that  the 

mentary  on  it,  is  as  follows:  Greek  classification  is  better  than  Wolff's  in  regard 

There  are  as  many  parts  of  philosophy  as  there  are  to  speculative  philosophy,  where  the  ancients  were 

distinct   domains   in   the   order   submitted   to   the  guided  by  the  formal  object  of  the  study — i.  e.  by 


rOntoIo^,  or  General  Meta- 


Theodicy  (the 
study  of  God). 

Cosmology  (the 
study  of  the 
World). 

PBychology  (the 
study  ofMan). 


PHILOSOPHY 


28 


PHILOSOPHY 


the  de^ee  of  abstraction  to  which  the  whole  universe 
is  subjected,  while  the  modems  always  look  at  the 
matenal  object— i.  e.,  the  three  categories  of  beings 
which  it  is  possible  to  study,  God,  the  world  of  sense, 
and  man. 

D.  In  Contemporary  PhUosovhy. — ^The  impulse 
received  by  philosophy  during  the  last  half-century 
gave  rise  to  new  philosophical  sciences,  in  the  sense 
that  various  branches  have  been  detached  from 
the  main  stems.  In  psychology  this  phenomenon 
has  been  remarkable:  criteriology,  or  epistemol- 
ogy  (the  study  of  the  certitude  of  knowledge) 
has  developed  into  a  special  study.  Other  branches 
which  have  formed  themselves  into  new  psycho- 
logical sciences  are:  physiological  psychology, 
or  the  study  of  the  physiological  concomitants 
of  psychic  activities;  didactics,  or  the  science  of 
teaching;  pedagogy,  or  the  science  of  education; 
collective  pisychology  and  the  psychology  of  peoples 
(Vdlkerpsychologie)^  studying  the  psychic  phenomena 
observaole  in  human  groups  as  such,*  and  in  the  dif- 
ferent races.  An  important  section  of  lo^ic  (called 
also  noetic,  or  canonic)  is  tending*to  sever  itself  from 
the  main  body^  viz.,  methodology,  which  studies 
the  special  logical  formation  of  various  sciences. 
On  moral  philosophy,  in  the  wide  sense^  have  been 
grafted  the  philosopny  of  law,  the  philosophy  of 
society,  or  social  philosophy  (which  is  much  the  same 
as  sociology),  and  the  philosophies  of. religion  and 
of  histoiy. 

III.  THE  Principal  Systematic  Solutions. — 
From  what  has  been  said  above  it  is  evident  that 
philosophy  is  beset  by  a  great  number  of  questions. 
It  would  not  be  possible  here  to  enumerate  all  those 
questions,  much  less  to  detail  the  divers  solutions 
which  have  been  given  to  them.  The  solution  of 
a  philosophic  question  is  called  a  philosophic  doctrine, 
or  theoi^r.  A  philosophic  system  (from  vvviorrifu^ 
put  together)  is  a  complete  and  organized  group  of 
solutions.  It  is  not  an  incoherent  assemblage  or  an 
encyclopedic  amalgamation  of  such  solutions;  it  is 
dominated  by  an  organic  unity.  Only  those  -phil- 
osophic systems  which  are  constructed  conformably 
with  the  exigencies  of  organic  unity  are  really  power- 
ful :  such  are  the  systems  of  the  Upanishads,  of  Aristotle, 
of  neo-Platonism^  of  Scholasticism,  of  Leibniz,  Kant, 
and  Hume.  So  that  one  or  several  theories  do  not 
constitute  a  system;  but  some  theories,  i.  e.  answers 
to  a  philosophic  question,  are  important  enough  to 
determine  the  solution  of  other  important  problems 
of  a  system.  The  scope  of  this  section  is  to  indicate 
some  of  these  theories. 

A.  Monism^  or  Pantheism^  and  Pluralism^  Indi- 
mdualism,  or  Theism, — Are  there  many  beings  dis- 
tinct in  their  reality,  with  one  Supreme  Being,  God, 
at  the  summit  of  the  hierarchy;  or  is  there  but  one 
reality  (/aoi^i,  hence  monism),  one  All-God  {Tap-dtbi)^ 
of  whom  each  individual  is  but  a  member  or  fragment 
(Substantialistic  Pantheism),  or  else  a  force,  or  energy 
(Dynamic  Pantheism)?  Here  we  have  an  important 
question  of  metaphysics  the  solution  of  which  reacts 
upon  all  other  domuns  of  philosophy.  The  systems 
of  Aristotle,  of  the  Scholastics,  and  of  Leibniz  are 
Pluralistic  and  Theistic;  the  Indian,  neo-Platonic, 
and  Hegelian  are  Monistic.  Monism  is  a  fascinating 
explanation  of  the  real,  but  it  only  postpones  the 
diniculties  which  it  imagines  itself  to  be  solving  (e.  g. 
the  difficulty  of  the  interaction  of  things),  to  say 
nothing  of  the  objection,  from  the  human  point  of 
view,  that  it  runs  counter  to  our  most  deeply-rooted 
sentiments. 

B.  Objectivism  and  Suhjectimsm. -^lyoes  being, 
whether  one  or  many,  possess  its  own  life,  independent 
of  our  mind,  so  that  to  be  known  by  us  is  only  accidental 
to  being,  as  in  the  objective  system  of  metaphysics 
(e.  g.  Aristotle,  the  Scholastics,  Spinoza)?  Or  has 
being  no  other  reality  than  the  mental  and  subjective 


presence  which  it  acquires  in  our  representation  of 
it  as  in  the  Subjective  system  (e.  g.  Hume)?  It  is 
in  this  sense  that  the  ''Revue  de  m^taphysique  et 
de  morale"  (see  bibliography)  uses  the  term  meta- 
physics in  its  title.  Subjectivism  cannot  explain 
the  passivity  of  our  mental  representations,  which 
we  do  not  draw  out  of  ourselves,  and  which  therefore 
oblige  us  to  infer  the  reality  of  a  non-ego. 

C.  SubstanHalism  and  Pkenometiism. — Is  all  reality 
a  flux  of  phenomena  (Heraclitus,  Berkeley,  Hume, 
Taine),  or  does  the  manifestation  appear  upon  a 
basis,  or  substance,  which  manifests  it»elf,  ana  does 
the  phenomenon  demand  a  noumenon  (the  Scholas- 
tics)? Without  an  underlying  substance,  which 
we  only  know  through  the  medium  of  the  phenomenon, 
certain  realities,  as  walking,  talking,  are  inexplicable, 
and  such  facts  as  memory  become  absufd. 

D.  Mechanism  and  Dynamism  (Pure  and  Modified). 
— Natural  bodies  are  considered  by  some  to  be  aggre- 
gations of  homogeneous  particles  of  matter  (atoms) 
receiving  a  movement  which  is  extrinsic  to  them,  so 
that  these  bodies  differ  only  in  the  number  and 
arrangement  of  their  atoms  (the  Atomism,  or  Mechan- 
ism, of  Democritus,  Descartes,  and  Hobbes).  Others 
reduce  them  to  specific,  unextended,  immaterial 
forces,  of  which  extension  is  only  the  superficial 
manifestation  (Leibniz).  Between  the  two  is  Modi- 
fied Dynamism  (Aristotle),  which  distinguishes  in 
bodies  an  immanent  specific  principle  (form)  and  an 
indeterminate  element  (matter)  which  is  the  source  of 
limitation  and  extension.  This  theory  accounts  for 
the  specific  characters  of  the  entities  in  question  as 
well  as  for  the  reality  of  their  extension  in  space. 

E.  MaUrialiem,  Agnosiicismy  and  Spirittudism, — 
That  everything  real  is  material,  that  whatever 
might  be  immaterial  would  be  unreal,  such  is  the 
cardinal  doctrine  of  Materialism  (the  Stoics,  Hobbes, 
De  Lamettrie).  Contemporary  Materialism  is  less 
outspoken:  it  is  inspired  by  a  Positivist  ideology 
(see  section  VI),  and  asserts  that,  if  anything  supra- 
material  exists,  it  is  unknowable  (Agnosticism,  from 
d  and  7»'5o'tf,  knowledge.  Spencer.  Huxley).  Spirit- 
ualism teaches  that  incorporeal,  or  immaterial, 
beings  exist  or  that  they  are  possible  (Plato, 
Aristotle,  St.  Augustine,  the  Scholastics,  Des- 
cartes, Leibniz).  Some  have  even  asserted  that 
only  spirits  exist:  Berkeley,  Pichte,  and  Hegel  are 
exaggerated  Spiritualists.  The  truth  is  that  there 
are  Dodies  and  spirits;  among  the  latter  we  are 
acquainted  (though  less  well  than  with  bodies)  with 
the  nature  of  our  soul,  which  is  revealed  by  the  nature 
of  our  immaterial  acts,  and  with  the  nature  of  God, 
the  infinite  intelligence,  whose  existence  is  demon- 
strated by  the  very  existence  of  finite  things.  Side 
by  side  with  these  solutions  relating  to  the  problems 
of  the  real,  there  is  another  group  of  solutions,  not 
less  influential  in  the  orientation  of  a  system,  and 
relating  to  psychical  problems  or  those  of  the  human 
ego. 

F.  Sensualism  and  Ralionalismy  or  Spiritualism. — 
These  are  the  opposite  poles  of  the  ideogenetic  ques- 
tion, the  Question  of  the  origin  of  our  knowledge. 
For  Sensualism  the  only  source  of  human  knowledge 
is  sensation:  everything  reduces  to  transformed 
sensations.  This  theory,  long  ago  put  forward  in 
Greek  philosophy  (Stoicism,  Epicureanism),  was 
developed  to  the  full  by  the  English  Sensualists 
(Locke,  Berkeley,  Hume)  and  the  English  Associa- 
tionists  (Brown,  Hartley,  Priestley);  its  modem 
form  is  Positivism  (John  Stuart  Mill,  Huxley,  Spen- 
cer, Comte,  Taine,  Littrd  etc.).  Were  this  theory  trtie, 
it  would  follow  that  we  can  know  only  what  falls 
under  our  senses,  and  therefore  cannot  pronounce 
upon  the  existence  or  non-existence,  the  reality  or 
unreality,  of  the  super-sensible.  Positivism  is  more 
logical  than  Materialism.  In  the  New  World,  the 
term  Agnosticism  has  been  very  happily  employed 


PHIL080PH7 


29 


TBSLOSOVKt 


to  indicate  this  attitude  of  reserve  towards  the  super- 
sensible. Rationalism  (from  ratio ^  reason),  or  Spirits 
ualism,  establishes  the  existence  in  us  of  concepts 
higher  than  sensations,  i.  e.  of  abstract  and  general 
concepts  (Plato,  Aristotle,  St.  Augustine,  the  Scholas- 
tics, Descartes,  Leibniz,  Kant,  Cousin  etc.)-  Ideo- 
logic SpirituaUsm  has  won  the  adherence  of  hmnan- 
ity's  greatest  thinkers.  Upon  the  spirituality,  or 
immateriality,  of  our  higher  mental  operatiozis  is  based 
the  proof  of  the  spirituality  of  the  principle  from 
which  they  proceea  and,  hence,  of  the  immortality 
of  the  soul. 

G.  Scepticism^  Dogmatism^  and  Crilidsm.-^So 
many  answers  have  been  given  to  the  question: 
whether  man  can  attain  truth,  and  what  is  the 
foundation  of  certitude,  that  we  will  not  attempt 
to  enumerate  them  all.  Scepticism  declares  reason 
incapable  of  arriving  at  the  truth,  and  holds  certitude 
to  be  a  purely  subjective  affair  (Sextus  Empiri- 
cus,  ^nesidemus).  Dogmatism  asserts  that  man  can 
attain  to  truth,  and  that,  in  measure  to  be  further 
determined,  our  cognitions  are  cert.ain.  The  motive 
of  certitude  is,  for  the  Traditionalists,  a^  Divine  rev- 
elation, for  the  Scotch  School  (Reid)  it  is  ^an  in- 
clination of  nature  to  affirm  the  principles  of  com- 
mon sense;  it  is  an  irrational,  but  social,  necessity 
of  admitting  dertain  principles  for  practical  dogma- 
tism (Balfour  in  his  'Foundations  of  Belief"  speaks 
of  "non-rational  impulse",  while  Mallock  holds  that 
"certitude  is  found  to  be  the  child,  not  of  reason  but 
of  custom"  and  Bruneti^re  writes  about  "the  bank- 
ruptcy of  science  and  the  need  of  belief");  it  is  an 
affective  sentiment,  a  necessity  of  wishing  that  cer- 
tain things  may  be  verities  (Voluntarism;  Kant's 
Moral  Dogmatism),  or  the  fact  of  living  certain 
verities  (contemporary  Pragmatism  and  Humanism; 
William  James,  Schiller).  But  for  others^— and 
this  is  the  theory  which  we  accept — the  motive  of 
certitude  is  the  very  evidence  of  the  connexion 
which  appears  between  the  predicate  and  the  sub- 
ject of  a  proposition,  an  evidence  which  the  mind 
perceives,  out  which  it  does  not  create  (Moderate 
Dogmatism).  Lastly  for  Criticism,  which  is  the 
Kantian  solution  of  the  problem  of  knowledge, 
evidence  is  created  by  the  mind  by  means  of  tne 
structural  functions  with  which  every  human  in- 
tellect is  furnished  (the  categories  of  the  understand- 
ing). In  conformity  with  these  functions  we  con- 
nect the  impressions  of  the  senses  and  construct  the 
world.  Knowledge,  therefore,  is  valid  only  for  the 
world  as  represented  to  the  mind.  Kantian  Crit- 
icism ends  in  excessive  Idealism,  which  is  also 
called  Subjectivism,  or  Phenomenalism,  and  accord- 
ing to  which  the  mind  draws  all  its  representations 
out  of  itself .  both  the  sensory  impressions  and  the 
categories  wnich  connect  them:  the  world  becomes  a 
mental  poem,  the  object  is  created  by  the  subject 
as  representation  (Fichte,  Schelling,  Hegel). 

H.  Nominaliamf  RealisMf  and  Conceptualism  are 
various  answers  to  the  question  of  the  real  objectiv- 
ity of  our  predications,  or  of  the  relation  of  fidelity 
existing  between  our  general  representations  and  the 
external  world  (see  Nominalism,  Realism,  (Dok- 
ceptuausm). 

I.  Determinism  and  Indeterminiam. — Has  every 
phenomenon  or  fact  its  adequate  cause  in  an  ante- 
cedent phenomenon  or  fact  (Cosmic  Determinism)? 
And,  in  respect  to  acts  of  the  will,  are  they  likewise 
determined  in  all  their  constituent  elements  (Moral 
Determinism,  Stoicism,  Spinoza)?  If  so,  then  liberty 
disappears,  and  with  it  human  responsibifity,  merit, 
and  demerit.  Or,  on  the  contrary,  is  there  a  cate- 
gory of  volitions  which  are  not  necessitated,  and 
which  depend  upon  the  discretionary  power  of  the 
win  to  act  or  not  to  act  and  in  acting  to  follow  a 
freely  chosen  direction?  Does  liberty  exist?  Most 
Spintualists  of  all  schools  have  adopted  a  liber- 


tarian philosophy,  holding  that  liberty  alone 
gives  the  moral  life  an  acceptable  meaning;  by 
various  argumente  they  have  confirmed  tie  testimony 
of  conscience  and  the  data  of  common  consent.  In 
physical  nature  causation  and  determinism  rule; 
m  the  moral  life,  liberty.  Others,  by  no  means 
numerous,  have  even  t^retended  to  discover  cases  of 
indeterminism  in  physical  nature  (the  so-called 
Contingentist  theories,  e.  g.  Boutroux). 

J.  Utilitarianism  and  the  Morality  of  Obligatum.-^ 
What  constitutes  the  foundation  of  morality  in  our 
actions?  Pleasure  or  utility  say  some,  personal 
or  egoistic  pleasure  (Egoism — Hoboes,  Bentham,  and 
"the  arithmetic  of  pleasure");  or  again,  in  the 
pleasure  and  utility  of  all  (Altruism  —  John  Stuart 
Mill).  Others  hold  that  morality  consists  in  the 
performance  of  duty  for  duty's  sake,  the  observance 
of  law  because  it  is  law,  independently  of  personal 
profit  (the  Formalism  of  the  Stoics  and  of  Kant). 
According  to  another  doctrine,  which  in  our  opinion 
is  more  correct,  utility,  or  personal  advantage,  is 
not  incompatible  with  duty,  but  the  source  of  the 
obligation  to  act  is  in  the  last  analysis,  as  the  very 
exigencies  of  our  nature  tell  us,  the  ordinance  of 
God. 

IV.  Philosophical  Methods. — Mefhod  {/uB*  66^y^ 
means  a  path  taken  to  reach  some  objective  point. 
By  philosophical  method  is  imderstood  the  path 
leading  to  philosophy,  which,  again,  may  mean 
either  the  process  employed  in  the  construction  of 
a  philosophy  (constructive  method,  method  of  in- 
vention), or  the  way  of  teaching  philosophy  (method 
of  teaching,  didactic  method).  We  will  deal  here 
with  the  former  of  these  two  senses;  the  latter  will 
be  treated  in  section  XI.  Three  methods  can  be, 
and  have  been,  applied  to  the  construction  of 
philosophy. 

A.  Experimental  (Empiric,  or  Analytic)  Method, — 
The  method  of  all  Empiric  philosophers  is  to  observe 
facts,  accumulate  them,  and  co-ordinate  them. 
Pushed  to  its  ultimate  consequences,  the  empirical 
method  refuses  to  rise  beyond  observed  and  observ- 
able fact;  it  abstains  from  investigating  anything 
that  is  absolute.  It  is  found  among  the  Materialists, 
ancient  and  naodem,  and  is  most  unreservedly  applied 
in  contemporary  Positivism.  (Domte  opposes  the 
''positive  mode  of  thinking",  based  solely  upon 
observation,  to  the  theological  and  metaphysical 
modes.  For  Mill,  Huxley,  Bain.  Spencer,  there  is 
not  one  philosophical  proposition  but  is  the  product, 
pure  ana  simple,  of  experience:  what  we  take  for  a 
general  idea  is  an  aggregate  of  sensations;  a  judgment 
IS  the  union  of  two  sensations;  a  syllogism,  the 
passage  from  particular  to  particular  (Mill,  ''A 
system  of  Logic,  Rational  and  Inductive",  ed. 
Lubbock,  1892;  Bain,  '/Logic",  New  York,  1874). 
Mathematical  propositions,  fundamental  axioms 
such  as  a=a,  the  principle  of  contradiction,  the  prin- 
ciple of  causality  are  only  "generalizations  from  facte 
of  e]9)erience"  (Mill,  op.  cit.,  vii.  §5).  According 
to  this  author,  what  we  oelieve  to  be  superior  to  ex- 
perience in  the  enunciation  of  scientific  laws  is  derived 
from  our  subjective  incapacity  to  conceive  ite  con- 
tradictory; according  to  Spencer,  this  inconceivabil- 
ity of  the  negation  is  developed  by  heredity. 

Applied  in  an  exaggerated  and  exclusive  fashion, 
the  experimental  method  mutilates  facts,  since  it  is 
powerless  to  ascend  to  the  causes  and  the  laws  which 
govern  facte.  It  suppresses  the  character  of  objective 
necessity  which  is  inherent  in  scientific  jud^ente, 
and  reduces  them  to  collective  formulie  of  facte 
observed  in  the  past.  It  forbids  our  asserting,  e.  g., 
that  the  men  who  will  be  bom  after  us  will  be  subject 
to  death,  seeing  that  all  certitude  reste  on  experience, 
and  that  by  mere  observation  we  cannot  reach  the 
unchangeable  nature  of  things.  The  empirical 
method,  left  to  its  own  resources,  checks  the  upward 


PHntOSOPHT 


30 


PHIL0S0PH7 


movement  of  the  mind  towards  the  causes  or  objects 
of  the  phenomena  which  confront  it. 

B.  Efeducavef  or  Synthetic  a  Priorif  Method. — At 
the  opposite  pole  to  the  preceding,  the  deductive 
method  starts  from  vei^  general  principles,  from 
higher  causes,  to  descend  (Lat.  deducerCf  to  lead  down) 
to  more  and  more  complex  relations  and  to  facts. 
The  dream  of  the  Deductionist  is  to  take  as  the 
point  of  departure  an  intuition  of  the  Absolute,  of 
the  Supreme  Reality — ^for  the  Theists,  God;  for  the 
Monists,  the  Universal  Being — ^and  to  draw  from  this 
intuition  the  synthetic  knowledge  of  all  that  depends 
upon  it  in  the  universe,  in  conformity  with  the 
metaphysical  scale  of  the  real.  Plato  is  the  father  of 
deductive  philosophy:  he  starts  from  the  world  of 
Ideas,  and  from  the  Idea  of  the  Sovereign  Good,  and 
he  would  know  the  reality  of  the  world  of  sense 
only  in  the  Ideas  of  which  it  is  the  reflection. 
St.  Au^stine,  too,  finds  his  satisfaction  in  studying 
the  universe,  and  the  least  of  the  beings  which  com- 
pose it,  only  in  a  synthetic  contemplation  of  God,  the 
exemplary,  creative,  and  final  cause  of  all  things. 
So,  too,  the  Middle  Ages  attached  great  importance 
to  the  deductive  method.  "I  propose",  writes 
Boethius,  ''to  build  science  by  means  of  concepts 
and  maxims,  as  is  done  in  mathematics."  Anselm 
of  Canterbury  draws  from  the  idea  of  God,  not 
only  the  proof  of  the  real  existence  of  an  infinite 
being,  but  also  a  group  of  theorems  on  His  attributes 
and  His  relations  with  the  world.  Two  centuries 
before  Anselm,  Scotus  Eriugena,  the  father  of  anti- 
Scholasticism,  is  the  completest  type  of  the  Deduc- 
tionist: his  metaphysics  is  one  long  descrii)tion  of  the 
Divine  Odyssey,  inspired  by  the  neo-Platonic,  monistic 
conception  of  the  descent  of  the  One  in  its  successive 
generations.  And,  on  the  very  threshold  of  the  thir- 
teenth century,  Alain  de  Lille  would  apply  to  phi- 
losophy a  mathematical  methodology.  In  the  thir- 
teenth century  Raymond  Lully  believed  that  he  had 
found  the  secret  of  "the  Great  Art"  {ars  magna), 
a  sort  of  syllogism-machine,  built  of  general  tabu- 
lations of  ideas,  the  combination  of  which  would  give 
the  solution  of  any  question  whatsoever.  Des- 
cartes, Spinoza,  and  Leibniz  are  Deductionists:  they 
would  construct  philosophy  after  the  manner  of 
geometry  {more  aeom£irico)j  linking  the  most  special 
and  complicatea  theorems  to  some  very  simple 
axioms.  The  same  tendency  appears  among  the 
Ontologists  and  the  post-Kantian  Pantheists  in  Ger- 
many (Fichte,  Schelling,  Hegel),  who  base  their 
philosophy  upon  an  intuition  of  the  Absolute  Being. 

The  deductive  philosophers  generally  profess  to 
disdain  the  sciences  of  observation.  Their  great 
fault  is  the  comprombing  of  fact,  bending  it  to  a 
preconceived  explanation  or  theory  assumed  a  priori, 
whereas  the  observation  of  the  fact  ought  to  precede 
the  assignment  of  its  cause  or  of  its  adequate  reason. 
This  defect  in  the  deductive  method  appears  glaringly 
in  a  youthful  work  of  Leibniz's,  "Specimen  denion- 
strationum    politicarum   pro    rege    Polonorum    eli- 

§endo",  published  anonjrmously  in  1669,  where  he 
emonstrates  by  geometrical  methods  {more  geo- 
melrico)f  in  sixty  propositions,  that  the  Count  Pala- 
tine of  Neuburg  ought  to  be  elected  to  the  Polish 
Throne. 

C.  Anatytico-Synthetic  Method, — This  corrhiiuition 
of  analysis  and  S3rnthe8is,  of  observation  and  deduc- 
tion, is  the  only  method  appropriate  to  philosophy. 
Indeed,  since  it  undertakes  to  furnish  a  general 
explanation  of  the  universal  order  (see  section  I), 
philosophy  ought  to  be^n  with  complex  effects, 
facts  known  by  observation,  before  attempting  to 
include  them  in  one  comprehensive  explanation  of 
the  universe.  This  is  manifest  in  psychology,  where 
we  begin  with  a  careful  examination  of  activities, 
notably  of  the  phenomena  of  sense,  of  intelligence, 
and  of  appetite;  in  cosmology,  where  we  observe  the 


series  of  changes,  superficial  and  profound,  of  bodies; 
in  moral  philosophy,  which  sets  out  from  the  observa- 
tion of  moral  facts;  in  theodicy,  where  we  interrogate 
religious  betiefs  and  feelings;  even  in  metaphysics, 
the  starting-point  of  which  is  really  existing  being. 
But  observation  and  analysis  once  completed,  the 
work  of  synthesis  begins.  We  must  pass  onward 
to  a  synthetic  psychology  that  shall  enable  us  to 
comprehend  the  destinies  of  man's  vital  principle; 
to  a  cosmology  that  shall  explain  the  constitution 
of  bodies,  their  changes,  and  the  stabiUty  of  the  laws 
which  govern  them:  to  a  synthetic  moral  philosophy 
establiSiing  the  end  of  man  and  the  ultimate  ground 
of  duty;  to  a  theodicy  and  deductive  metaphysics 
that  shall  examine  the  attributes  of  God  and  the 
fundamental  conceptions  of  all  being.  As  a  whole 
and  in  each  of  its  divisions,  philosophy  applies  the 
analytic-synthetic  method.  Its  ideal  would  be  to 
give  an  account  of  the  universe  and  of  man  by  a 
synthetic  knowledge  of  God,  upon  whom  all  reality 
oepends.  This  panoramic  view — the  eagle's  view 
of  things — ^has  allured  all  the  great  geniuses.  St. 
Thomas  expresses  himself  admirably  on  this  synthetic 
knowledge  of  the  imiverse  and  its  first  cause. 

The  analytico-eynthetic  process  is  the  method,  not 
only  of  philosophy,  but  of  every  science,  for  it  is  the 
natural  law  of  thought,  the  proper  function  of  which 
is  unified  and  orderly  knowledge.  ''Sapientis  est 
ordinare."  Aristotle,  St.  Thomas,  Pascal,  Newton, 
Pasteur,  thus  understood  the  method  of  the  sciences. 
Men  hke  Helmholtz  and  Wundt  adopted  erjmthetic 
views  after  doing  anal3rtical  work.  Even  the  Posi- 
tivists  are  metaphysicians,  though  they  do  not  know 
it  or  wish  it.  ifoes  not  Herbert  Spencer  call  his 
philosophy  synthetic?  and  does  he  not,  by  reasoning, 
pass  beyond  that  domain  of  the  '' observable"  within 
which  he  professes  to  confine  himself? 

V.  The  Great  Historical  Currents. — ^Among 
the  many  peoples  who  have  covered  the  globe  phil- 
osophic culture  appears  in  two  groups:  the  Semitic 
and  the  Indo-European,  to  which  may  be  added  the 
Egyptians  and  the  Chinese.  In  the  Semitic  group 
(Arabs,  Babylonians,  Assyrians,  Aramsans,  Chal- 
deans) the  Arabs  are  the  inost  important;  neverthe- 
less, their  part  becomes  insignificant  when  compared 
with  the  intellectual  life  of  the  Indo-Europeans. 
Amon^  the  latter,  philosophic  life  appears  succes- 
sively in  various  ethnic  divisions,  and  the  succession 
forms  the  great  periods  into  which  the  history  of 
philosophy  is  divided;  first,  among  the  people  of 
India  (since  1500  b.  c);  then  among  the  Greeks  and 
the  Romans  (sixth  century  B.  c.  to  sixth  century  of 
our  era)^  again,  much  later,  among  the  peoples  of 
Central  and  Northern  Europe. 

A.  Indian  Philosophy. — The  philosophy  of  India 
is  recorded  principally  in  the  sacred  books  of  the 
Veda,  for  it  has  always  been  closely  united  with 
religion.  Its  numerous  poetic  and  religious  produc- 
tions carry  within  themselves  a  chronology  which 
enables  us  to  assign  them  to  three  periods.  (1)  The 
Period  of  the  Hymns  of  the  Rig  Veda  (1500-1000 
B.  c).  This  is  the  most  ancient  monument  of  Indo- 
Germanic  civilization;  in  it  may  be  seen  the  progres- 
sive appearance  of  the  fundamental  theory  that 
a  single  Being  exists  under  a  thousand  forms  in  the 
multiplied  phenomena  of  the  universe  (Monism). 
(2)  The  Period  of  the  Br&hmAnas  (1000-500  b.  c). 
This  is  the  age  of  Brahminical  civilization.  The 
theory  of  the  one  Being  remains,  but  little  by  little 
the  concrete  and  anthropomorphic  ideas  of  the  one 
Being  are  replaced  by  the  doctrine  that  the  basis  of 
all  things  is  in  oneself  {dtman).  Psychological 
Monism  appears  in  it«  entirety  in  the  Upanishads: 
the  absolute  and  adequate  identity  of  the  Ego — 
which  is  the  constitutive  basis  of  our  individuality 
{dlmati) — and  of  all  things,  with  Brahman,  the 
eternal  being  exalted  above  time,  space,  number. 


PHIL080PH7 


31 


PHILOSOPHY 


and  change,  the  generating  principle  of  ail  things, 
in  which  all  things  are  finally  reabsorbed— such  is 
the  fundamental  theme  to  be  found  in  the  Upanishads 
under  a  thousand  variations  of  form.  To  arrive  at 
the  &tman,  we  must  not  stop  at  empirical  reality, 
which  is  multiple  and  cognizable;  we  must  pierce 
this  husk,  penetrate  to  the  unknowable  and  in- 
effable superessence,  and  identify  ourselves  with 
it  in  an  imconscious  unity.  (3)  The  Post-Vedic, 
or  Sanskrit,  Period  (since  500  b.  c).  From  the 
germs  of  theories  contained  in  the  Upanishads, 
a  series  of  systems  spring  up,  orthodox  or  neterodox. 
Of  the  orthodox  systems,  Yedanta  is  the  most  inter- 
esting; in  it  we  find  the  principles  of  the  Upanishads 
devek>ped  in  an  integral  philosophy  which  comprises 
metaphysics,  cosmology,  psychology,  and  ethics 
(transmigration,  metempsychosis).  Among  the  sys- 
tems not  in  harmony  with  the  Vedic  dogmas,  the 
most  celebrated  is  Buddhism,  a  kind  of  Pessimism 
which  teaches  liberation  from  pain  in  a  state  of 
unconscious  repose,  or  an  extinction  of  person- 
ahty  {Ntrvdna),  Buddhism  spread  in  China,  where 
it  lives  side  by  side  with  the  doctrines  of  Lao  Tsee 
and  that  of  Confucius.  It  is  evident  that  even  the 
systems  which  are  liot  in  harmony  with  the  Veda 
are  permeated  with  religious  ideas. 

B.  Greek  Philosophy, — ^This  philosophy,  which 
occupied  six  centuries  before,  and  six  after,  Christ, 
may  be  divided  into  four  periods,  corresponcung  with 
the  succession  of  the  principal  tines  of  research: 

(1)  From  Thales  of  Miletus  to  Socrates  (seventh  to 
fifth  centuries  b.  c. — preoccupied  with  cosmology); 

(2)  Socrates,  Plato,  and  Aristotle  (fifth  to  fourth 
centuries  b.  c. — psychology) ;  (3)  From  the  death  of 
Aristotle  to  the  rise  of  neo-Platonism  (end  of  the 
fourth  century  b.  c.  to  third  century  after  Christ 
— moral  philosophy);  (4)  neo-Platonic  School  (from 
the  third  century  after  Christ,  or,  including  the  sys- 
tems of  the  forerunners  of  neo-Platonism,  from  Uie 
first  century  after  Christ,  to  the  end  of  Greek  philos- 
ophy in  the  seventh  century — ^mysticism). 

(1)  The  pre-Socratic  philosophers  either  seek  for 
the  stable  basis  of  things — which  is  water,  for  Thales 
of  Miletusj  air,  for  Anaximenes  of  Miletus:  air 
endowed  with  intelligence,  for  Diogenes  of  Apollonia; 
number,  for  Pythagoras  (sixth  century  b.  c);  ab- 
stract and  immovable  being,  for  the  Eleatics— or 
they  study  that  which  changes:  while  Parmenides 
and  the  Eleatics  assert  that  everything  is,  and  noth- 
ing clumges  or  becomes.  Heraclitus  (about  535-475) 
h(3ds  that  everything  becomes,  and  nothing  is 
unchangeable.  Democritus  (fifth  century)  reduces 
all  beings  to  groups  of  atoms  in  motion,  and  this 
movement,  according  to  Anaxagoras,  has  for  its  cause 
an  inteltigent  being.  (2)  The  Period  of  Apogee: 
Socrates,  Plato,  Aristotle.  When  the  Sopmsts 
(Protagoras,  Gorgias)  had  demonstrated  the  insuffi- 
ciency of  these  cosmologies,  Socrates  (470-399) 
brought  philosophical  investigation  to  bear  on  man 
himself,  studying  man  chiefly  from  the  moral  point 
of  view.  From  the  presence  in  us  of  abstract  ideas 
Plato  (427-347)  deduced  the  existence  of  a  world 
of  supersensible  reaUties  or  ideas,  of  which  the 
visible  world  is  but  a  pale  reflection.  These  ideas, 
which  the  soul  in  an  eartier  life  contemplated,  are 
now,  because  of  its  union  with  the  body,  but  faintly 
perceived.  Aristotle  (384-322),  on  the  contrary, 
shows  that  the  real  dwells  in  the  objects  of  sense. 
The  theory  of  act  and  potentiatity,  of  form  and  matter, 
is  a  new  solution  of  the  relations  between  the  per- 
manent and  the  'changing.  His  psychology,  founded 
upon  the  principle  of  the  unity  of  man  and  the 
substantial  union  of  soul  and  boay,  is  a  creation  of 
^nius.  And  as  much  may  be  said  of  his  logic.  (3) 
The  Moral  Period.  After  Aristotle  (end  of  the  fourth 
century  b.  c.)  four  schools  are  in  evidence:  Stoic, 
Epicurean,  Platonic,  and  Aristotelean.    The  Stoics 


(2ieno  of  Citium,  Cleanthes,  Chrysippus),  tike  the 
Epicureans,  make  speculation  subordinate  to  the 
quest  of  happiness,  and  the  two  schools,  in  spite  of 
uieir  divergencies,  both  consider  happiness  to  be  an 
drapa^la  or  absence  of  sorrow  and  preoccupation. 
The  teachings  of  both  on  nature  (Dynamistic  Monism 
with  the  Stoics,  and  Pluralistic  Mechanism  with  the 
Epicureans)  are  only  a  prologue  to  th^ir  moral  phi- 
losophy. After  the  latter  half  of  the  second  century 
B.  c.  we  perceive  reciprocal  infiltrations  between  the 
various  schools.  This  issues  in  Eclecticism.  Seneca 
(first  century  b.  c.)  and  Cicero  (106-43  b.  c.)  are  at- 
tached to  Eclecticism  with  a  Stoic  basis;  two  great 
commentators  of  Aristotle,  Andronicus  of  Rhodes 
(first  century  b.  c.)  and  Alexander  of  Aphrodisias 
(about  200),  affect  a  Peripatetic  Eclecticism.  Paral- 
lel with  Eclecticism  runs  a  current  of  Scepticism 
(iEnesidemus,  end  of  first  century  b.  Cm  and  Sextus 
Empiricus,  second  century  a.  d.).  (4)  The  Mystical 
Period.  In  the  first  century  b.  c.  Alexandria  had  be- 
come the  capital  of  Greek  intellectual  tife.  Mystical 
and  theurgic  tendencies,  bom  of  a  longing  for  the  ideal 
and  the  beyond,  began  to  appear  in  a  current  of  Greek 
philosophy  which  originated  in  a  restoration  of 
Py  thagonsm  and  its  alliance  with  Platonism  (Plutarch 
of  Chaeronea.  first  century  b.  c.  ;  Apuleiusof  Madaura; 
Numenius,  about  160  and  others),  and  still  more  in  the 
Grseco-Judaic  philosophy  of  Pbilo  the  Jew  (30  b.  c. 
to  A.  D.  50).  But  the  dominance  of  these  tendencies  is 
more  apparent  in  neo-Platonism.  The  most  brilUant 
thinker  of  the  neo-Platonic  series  is  Plotinus  (a.  d. 
204-70) .  In  his ''  Enneads  "  he  traces  the  paths  which 
lead  the  soul  to  the  One,  and  estabtishes,  in  keeping 
with  his  mysticism,  an  emanationist  metaphysical 
system.  Porphyry  of  Tyre  (232-304),  a  disciple 
of  Plotinus.  popularizes  his  teaching,  emphasizes 
its  retigious  oearing,  and  makes  Aristotle's ''  Organon  " 
the  introduction  to  neo-Platonic  philosophy. .  Later 
on,  neo-Platonism,  emphasizing  its  religious  features, 
placed  itself,  with  JambUchus,  at  the  service 
of  the  pagan  pantheon  which  growing  Chris^ 
tianity  was  ruining  on  all  sides,  or  again,  as  with 
Themistius  at  Constantinople  (fourth  century), 
Proclus  and  Simpticius  at  Athens  (fifth  century),  and 
Anunonius  at  Alexandria,  it  took  an  Encyclopedic 
turn.  With  Ammonius  and  John  Philoponus  (sixth 
century)  the  neo-Platonic  School  of  Alexandria 
developed  in  the  direction  of  Christianity. 

C.  Patristic  Philosophy. — In  the  closmg  years  of 
the  second  century  and.  still  more,  in  the  third  cen- 
tury, the  philosophy  or  the  Fathers  of  the  Church 
was  developed.  It  was  born  in  a  civilization  domi- 
nated by  Greek  ideas,  chiefly  neo-Platonic,  and  on  this 
side  its  mode  of  thought  is  still  the  ancient.  Still, 
if  some,  like  St.  Augustine,  attach  the  greatest  value 
to  the  neo-Platonic  teachings,  it  must  not  be  forgotten 
that  the  Monist  or  Pantheistic  and  Emanationist  ideas, 
which  have  been  accentuated  by  the  successors  of 
Plotinus,  are  carefully  replaced  by  the  theory  of 
creation  and  the  substantial  distinction  of  bemgs; 
in  this  respect  a  new  spirit  animates  Patristic  phi- 
losophy. It  was  developed,  too,  as  an  auxiUary  of  the 
dogmatic  system  which  the  Fathers  were  to  establish. 
In  the  third  century  the  great  representatives  of  the 
Christian  School  of  Alexandria  are  Clement  of 
Alexandria  and  Oriffen.  After  them  Gregory  of 
Nyssa,  Gregory  of  Nazianzus,  St.  Ambrose,  and, 
al>ove  idl,  St.  Augustine  (354-430)  appear.  St. 
Au([ustine  gathers  up  the  intellectual  treasures  of  the 
ancient  world,  and  is  one  of  the  principal  interme- 
diaries for  their  transmission  to  the  modem  world. 
In  its  definitive  form  Au^ustinism  is  a  fusion  of  in- 
tellectualism  and  mysticism,  with  a  study  of  God 
as  the  centre  of  interest.  In  the  fifth  century, 
pseudo-Dionysius  perpetuates  many  a  neo-Platonio 
doctrine  adapted  to  Christianity,  and  his  writings 
exercise  a  powerful  influence  in  the  Middle  Ages. 


iPHILOSOPHT 


32 


PHILOSOPHY 


p.  Medieval  Philosophy, — The  philosophy  of  the 
Middle  Ages  developed  simultaneously  in  the  West, 
at  Byzantium,  and  in  divers  Eastern  centres;  but 
the  Western  philosophy  is  the  most  important.  It 
built  itself  up  with  great  effort  on  the  ruins  of  bar- 
barisin:  until  the  twelfth  century,  nothing  was  known 
of  Aristotle,  except  some  treatises  on  logic,  or  of 
Plato,  except  a  few  dialogues.  Gradually,  problems 
arose,  and,  foremost,  in  importance,  the  question  of 
universals  in  the  ninth,  tenth,  and  eleventh  centuries 
(see  Nominalism),  ^t.  Anseim  (1033-1109)  made  a 
firet  attempt  at  systematizing  Scholastic  philosophy, 
and  developed  a  theodicy.  But  as  early  as  the 
ninth  century  an  anti-Scholastic  philosophy  had 
arisen  with  £riugena  who  revived  the  neo-Platonic 
Monism.  In  the  twelfth  century  Scholasticism  formu- 
lated new  anti-Realist  doctrines  with  Ad^ard  of 
Batn,  Gauthier  de  Mortagne,  and,  above  all,  Abelard 
and  Gilbert  de  la  Porr^e,  whilst  extreme  Realism 
took  shape  in  the  schools  of  Chartres.  John  of 
Salisbury  and  Alain  de  Lillc,  in  the  twelfth 
century,  are  the  co-ordinating  minds  that  in- 
dicate the  maturity  of  Scholastic  thought.  The 
latter  of  these  waged  a  campaign  against  the  Pan- 
theism of  David  of  Pinant  and  the  Epicureanism  of 
the  Albigenses — the  two  most  important  forms  of 
anti-Scholastic  philosophy.  At  Byzantium,  Greek 
philosophy  held  its  ground  throughout  the  Middle 
Ages,  and  kept  apart  from  the  movement  of  Western 
ideas.  The  same  is  true  of  the  S3rrians  and  Arabs. 
But  at  the  end  of  the  twelfth  century  the  Arabic 
and  Byzantine  movement  entered  into  relation  with 
Western  thought,  and  effected,  to  the  profit  of  the 
latter,  the  brilliant  philosophical  revival  of  the  thir- 
teenth century.  This  was  due,  in  the  first  place, 
to  the  creation  of  the  University  of  Paris;  next,  to 
the  foundation  of  the  Dominican  and  Franciscan 
orders;  lastly,  to  the  introduction  of  Arabic  and 
Latin  translations  of  Aristotle  and  the  ancient  au- 
thors. At  the  same  period  the  works  of  Avicenna  and 
Averroes  became  known  at  Paris.  A  pleiad  of  bril- 
liant names  fills  the  thirteenth  century — Alexander 
of  Hales,  St.  Bonaventure,  Bl.  Albertus  Magnus,  St. 
Thomas  Aquinas,  Godfrey  of  Fontaines.  Henry  of 
Ghent,  Giles  of  Rome,  and  Duns  Scotus  bring  Scho- 
lastic synthesis  to  perfection.  They  all  wage  war  on 
Latin  Averroism  and  anti-Scholasticism,  defended  in 
the  schools  of  Paris  by  Siger  of  Brabant.  Roger 
Bacon,  Lully,  and  a  group  of  neo-Platonists  occupy 
a  place  apart  in  this  century,  which  is  completely 
filled  by  remarkable  figures.  In  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury Scholastic  philosophy  betrays  the  firat  symptoms 
of  decadence.  In  place  of  individualities  we  have 
schools,  the  chief  being  the  Thomist,  the  Scotist, 
and  the  Terminist  School  of  William  of  Occam, 
which  soon  attracted  numerous  partisans.  With 
John  of  Jandun,  Averroism  perpetuates  its  most 
audacious  propositions;  Eckhart  and  Nicholas 
of  Cusa  formulate  philosophies  which  are  sympto- 
matic of  the  approaching  revolution.  The  Renais- 
sance was  a  troublous  period  for  philosophy.  Ancient 
systems  were  revived:  the  Dialectic  of  the  Humanistic 
philologists  (Lauren tins  Valla,  Viv^s),  Platonism. 
Aristoteleanism,  Stoicism.  Telesius,  CampancUa,  and 
Giordano  Bruno  follow  a  naturalistic  philosophy. 
Natural  and  social  law  are  renewed  with  Thomas 
More  and  Grotius.  All  these  philosophies  were 
leaded  together  against  Scholasticism,  ana  very  often 
against  Catholicism.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
Scholastic  philosophers  grew  weaker  and  weaker, 
and,  excepting  for  the  brilliant  Spanish  Scholasticism 
of  the  sixteenth  century  (Bafiez,  Suarez,  Vasquez, 
and  so  on),  it  may  be  said  that  ignorance  of  the  fun- 
damental doctrine  became  general.  In  the  sevon- 
toenth  century  there  was  no  one  to  support  Schohis- 
ticism:  it  fell,  not  for  lack  of  ideas,  but  for  lack  of 
defenders. 


E.  Modem  Philosophy. — The  philosophies  of  the 
Renaissance  are  mainly  negative:  modem  philosophy 
is,  first  and  foremost,  constructive.  The  latter  is 
emancipated  from  all  do^a:  many  of  its  syntheses 
are  powerful;  the  definitive  formation  of  the  various 
nationalities  and  the  diversity  of  languages  favour 
the  tendency  to  individualism.  The  two  great  initia- 
tors of  modem  philosophy  are  Descartes  and  Francis 
Bacon.  The  former  inaugurates  a  spiritualistic 
philosophy  based  on  the  data  of  consciousness,  and 
his  influence  may  be  traced  in  Malebranche,  Spinoza, 
and  Leibniz.  Bacon  heads  a  line -of  Empiricists,  who 
regarded  sensation  as  the  only  source  of  knowledge. 
In  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries,  a 
Sensualist  philosophy  grew  up  in  England,  based  on 
Baconian  Empiricism,  and  soon  to  develop  in  the 
direction  of  Subjectivism.  Hobbes,  Locke,  Berkeley, 
and  David  Hume  mark  the  stages  of  this  logical 
evolution.  Simultaneously  an  Associationist  psy- 
chology appeared  also  inspired  by  Sensualism,  and, 
before  long,  it  formed  a  special  field  of  research. 
Brown,  David  Hartley,  and  Priestley  developed  the 
theory  of  association  of  ideas  in  various  directions. 
At  the  outset  Sensualism  encountered  vigorous  opposi- 
tion, even  in  Endand,  from  the  Mystics  and  Plato- 
nists  of  the  Cambridge  School  (Samuel  Parker  and, 
especially,  Ralph  Cudworth).  The  reaction  was  still 
more  lively  in  the  Scotch  School,  founded  and  chiefly 
represented  by  Thomas  Reid,  to  which  Adam  Fer- 
guson, Oswald,  and  Dugald  Stewart  belonged  in  the 
seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries,  and  which 
had  great  influence  over  Eclectic  Spiritualism,  chiefly 
in  America  and  France.  Hobbes's  "selfish"  system 
was  developed  into  a  moraUty  by  Bentham,  a  parti- 
san of  Egoistic  Utilitarianism,  and  by  Adam  Smith, 
a  defender  of  Altruism,  but  provoked  a  reaction 
amoiig  the  advocates  of  the  moral  sentiment  theory 
(Shaftesbury,  Hutcheson,  Samuel  Clarke).  In 
England,  also,  Theism  or  Deism  was  chiefly 
developed,  instituting  a  criticism  of  all  positive 
religion,  which  it  sou^t  to  supplant  with  a 
philosophical  religion.  English  Sensualism  spread 
m  France  during  the  eighteenth  century:  its  influence 
is  traceable  in  de  Condilla<^  de  la  Mettrie,  and  the 
Encyclopedists;  Voltaire  popularized  it  in  France 
and  with  Jean-Jacques  Rousseau  it  made  its  way 
among  the  masses,  undermining  their  Christianity 
and  preparing  the  Revolution  of  1789.  In  Germany, 
the  philosophy  of  the  eighteenth  century  is,  directly 
or  indirectly,  connected  with  Leibniz — the  School  of 
Wolff,  the  iGsthetic  School  (Baumgarten),  the  philoso- 
phy of  sentiment.  But  all  the  German  philosophers 
of  the  eighteenth  century  were  eclipsed  by  the. great 
figure  of  Kant. 

With  Kant  (1724-1804)  modem  philosophy  enters  its 
second  period  and  takes  a  critical  orientation.  Kant 
bases  his  theory  of  knowledge,  his  moral  and  aesthetic 
system,  and  his  judgments  of  finality  on  the  structure 
of  the  mind.  In  the  first  half  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, German  philosophy  is  replete  with  great  names 
connected  with  Kantianism — after  it  had  been  put 
through  a  Monistic  evolution,  however — Fichte, 
Schellmg.  and  Hegel  have  been  called  the  triumvirate 
of  Pantheism;  then  a^ain,  Schopenhauer,  while 
Herbart  returned  to  individualism.  French  philos- 
ophy in  the  nineteenth  century  is  at  first  dominated 
by  an  eclectic  Spiritualistic  movement  with  which 
the  names  of  Maine  de  Biran  and,  especially,  Victor 
Cousin  are  associated.  Cousin  had  disciples  in 
America  (C.  Henry),  and  in  France  he  gained  favour 
with  those  whom  the  excesses  bf  the  Revolu- 
tion had  alarmed.  In  the  first  half  of  the 
nineteenth  century  French  Catholics  approved 
the  Tnulitionalism  inaugurated  by  de  Bonald 
and  de  Lamennais,  while  another  group  took 
refuge  in  Ontologism.  In  the  same  period  Auguste 
Comte  founded  Positivism,  to  which  lAitr6  and  Taine 


PHIL0S0PH7 


33 


PHILOSOPHY 


adhered,  though  it  rose  to  its  greatest  height  in  the 
KnglJRh-apeflking  countries.  In  fact,  England  ma^ 
be  said  to  have  been  the  second  fatherland  of  Posi- 
tivism: John  Stuart  Mill,  Huxley,  Alexander  Bain, 
and  Herbert  Spencer  expanded  its  doctrines,  com- 
bined them  with  Aasociationism  and  emphasized  its 
criteriological  aspect,  or  attempted  (Spencer)  to 
construct  a  vast  synthesis  of  human  sciences.  The 
Associationist  philosophy  at  this  time  was  con- 
fronted by  the  Scotch  philosophy  which,  in  Hamil- 
ton, Combined  the  teachings  of  Reid  and  of  Kant, 
and  found  an  American  champion  in  Noah  Porter. 
Mansel  spread  the  doctrines  of  Hamilton.  As- 
sociationism  regained  favour  with  l^homas  Brown 
and  James  Mill,  but  was  soon  enveloped  in  the  larger 
conception  of  Positivism,  the  dominant  philosophy  in 
England.  Lastly,  in  Italy,  Hegel  was  for  a  long  time 
the  leader  of  nineteenth-century  philosophical  thou^t 
(Vera  and  d'Ercole),  whilst  Gioberti,  the  ontologist, 
and  Rosmini  occupy  a  distinct  position.  More 
recently.  Positivism  ^as  gained  numerous  adherents 
in  Italy.  In  the  middle  of  the  century,  a  large  Krau- 
sist  School  existed  in  Spain,  represented  cbaefly  by 
Sanz  del  Rio  (d.  1869)  and  N.  SaJmeron.  Balmes 
(1810-48),  the  author  of  "Fundamental  Philosophy", 
is  an  original  thinker  whose  doctrines  have  many 
points  of  contact  with  Scholasticism. 

VI.  Contemporary  Omentations. — A.  Favourite 
Problems. — Leaving  aside  social  questions,  the  study 
of  which  belongs  to  philosophy  in  only  some  of 
their  aspects,  it  may  be  said  that  in  the  philosophic 
interest  of  the  present  day  peychologicai  questions 
hold  the  first  place,  and  that  chief  among  them  is  the 
problem  of  certitude.  Kant,  indeed,  is  so  important 
a  factor  in  the  destinies  of  contemporary  philosophy, 
not  only  because  he  is  the  initiator  of  critical  formal- 
ism, but  still  more  because  he  obliges  his  successors 
to  deal  with  the  preliminary  and  fundamental  ques- 
tion of  the  limits  of  knowledge.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  experimental  investigation  of  mental  processes 
has  become  the  object  of  a  new  study,  psychos- 
physiology,  in  which  men  of  science  co-operate  with 
philosophers,  and  which  meets  with  increasing  suc- 
cess. This  study  figures  in  the  programme  of  most 
modem  universities.  Originating  at  Leipzig  (the 
School  of  Wundt)  and  Wtirzburg,  it  has  quickly  be- 
come naturalized  in  Europe  and  America.  In 
America,  "The  Psychological  Review"  has  devoted 
many  articles  to  this  branch  of  philosophy.  Psycho- 
logical studies  are  the  chosen  field  of  the  Americans 
(I^d,  William  James,  Hall). 

The  great  success  of  psycholopr  has  emphasized 
the  subjective  character  of  sesthetics,  in  which  hardly 
anyone  now  recognizes  the  objective  and  metaphysi- 
cal element.  The  solutions  in  yogue  are  the  Kantian, 
which  represents  the  sesthetic  judgment  as  formed  in 
accordance  with  the  subjective,  structural  functions 
of  the  mind,  or  other  psychologic  solutions  which 
reduce  the  befkutiful  to  a  psychic  impression  (the 
"sympathy",  or  EinfUhlung,  of  Lipps;  the  "con- 
crete intuition ' '  of  Benedetto  Croce) .  These  explana- 
tions are  insufficient,  as  they  neglect  the  objective 
aspect  of  the  beautiful — ^those  dements  which,  on 
the  part  of  the  object,  are  the  cause  of  the  iesthetic 
impression  and  enioyment.  It  may  be  said  that  the 
neonScholastic  philosophy  alone  takes  into  account 
the  objective  sesthetic  factor. 

The  absorbing  influence  of  psychology  also  mani- 
fests itself  to  the  detriment  of  other  branches  of 
philosophy;  first  of  all,  to  the  detriment  of  meta- 
physics, which  our  contemporaries  have  unjustly 
ostracized — ^unjustly^  since,  if  the  existence  or  pos- 
sibitity  of  a  thing-in-itself  is  considered  of  importance, 
it  behooves  us  to  inquire  under  what  aspects  of  reality 
it  reveals  itself.  .This  ostracism  of  metaphysics, 
moreover,  is  largely  due  to  misconception  and  to  a 
wrong  understanding  of  the  theories  of  substance, 
XII.— 3 


of  faculties,  of  causes  etc.,  which  belong  to  the  tr»» 
ditional  metaphysics.  Then  again,  the  invasion  of 
psychology  b  manifest  in  logic:  side  by  side  with  the 
ancient  logic  or  dialectic,  a  mathematical  or  symbotic 
logic  has  developed  (Peano,  Russell,  Peirce,  Mitchell, 
and  others)  and,  more  recently,  a  genetic  logic  which 
would  study,  not  the  fixed  laws  of  thought,  but  the 
changing  process  of  mental  life  and  its  genesis 
(Baldwin). 

We  have  seen  above  (section  II,  D)  how  the  increasing 
cultivation  of  psychology  has  produced  other  scientific 
ramifications  which  findf  a  vour  with  the  learned  world. 

Moral  philosophy,  long  neglected,  enjoys  a  renewed 
vogue  notably  m  America,  where  ethnography  is 
devoted  to  its  service  (see^  e.  g.,  the  publications  of 
the  Smithsonian  Institution).  "The  International 
Journal  of  Ethics"  is  a  review  especially  devoted 
to  this  line  of  work.  In  some  quarters,  where  the 
atmosphere  is  Positivist,  there  is  a  desire  to  get  rid  of 
the  ola  morality,  with  its  notions  of  value  and  of  duty, 
and  to  replace  it  with  a  collection  of  empiric  rules 
subject  to  evolution  (Sidgwick,  Huxley,  Leslie 
Stephen,  Durkheim,  Levy-Bruhl). 

As  to  the  history  of  philosophy,  not  only  are  very 
extended  special  studies  devot«d  to  it,  but  more  and 
more  room  is  given  it  in  the  study  of  every  philosophic 
question.  Among  the  causes  of  this  exaggerated 
vogue  are  the  impulse  given  by  the  Schools  oTCousin 
and  of  Hegel,  the  progress  of  historical  studies  in 
general,  the  confusion  arising  from  the  clash  of  rival 
doctrines,  and  the  distrust  engendered  by  that  con- 
fusion. Remarkable  works  have  been  produced  by 
Deussen',  on  Indian  and  Oriental  philosophy ;  by  Zeller, 
on  Greek  antiquity;  by  Denifle,  Haureau,  B&umker, 
and  Mandonnet,  on  the  Middle  Ages;  by  Windelband, 
Kuno  Fischer,  Bioutroux  and  Hdffding,  on  the  modem 
period;  and  the  list  might  easily  De  considerably 
prolonged. 

B.  The  Opposing  Systems. — ^The  rival  systems  of 
philosophy  of  the  present  time  may  be  reduced  to 
various  groups:  Positivism,  neo-Kantianisin.  Mon- 
ism, neo-Scholasticism.  Contemporary  philosophy 
lives  in  an  atmosphere  of  Phenomenism,  since  Posi- 
tivism and  neo-Kantianism  are  at  one  on  this  impor- 
tant doctrine:  that  science  and  certitude  are  possible 
only  within  the  limits  of  the  world  of  phenomena, 
which  is  the  immediate  object  of  experience.  Posi- 
tivism, insisting  on  the  exclusive  rights  of  sensory 
experience,  ana  Kantian  criticism,  reasoning  from 
the  structure  of  our  cognitive  faculties,  hold  that 
knowledge  extends  only  as  far  as  appearances;  that 
beyond  this  is  the  absolute,  the  dark  depths,  the 
existence  of  which  there  is  less  and  less  disposition  to 
deny,  but  which  no  human  mind  can  fathom.  On  the 
contrary,  this  element  of  the  absolute  forms  an 
integral  constituent  in  neo-Scholasticism,  which  has 
revived,  with  sobriety  and  moderation,  the  funda- 
mental notions  of  Aristotelean  and  Medieval  metar- 
physics,  and  has  succeeded  in  vindicating  them  against 
attack  and  objection. 

(1)  Positivism,  under  various  forms,  is  defended  in 
England  by  the  followers  of  Spencer,  by  Huxley, 
Lewes,  Tyndall,  F.  Harrison,  Congreve,  Beesby,  J. 
Bridges,  Urant  Allen  (James  Martineau  is  a  reaction- 
ary against  Positivism) ;  by  Balfour,  who  at  the  same 
time  propounds  a  characteristic  theory  of  belief, 
and  falls  back  on  Fideism.  From  England  Posi- 
tivism passed  over  to  America,  where  it  soon 
dethroned  the  Scottish  doctrines  (Carus) .  De  Roberty, 
in  Russia,  and  Ribot,  in  France,  are  among  its  most 
distinguished  disciples.  In  Italy  it  is  found  in  the 
writings  of  Ferran,  Ardigo,  Mid  Morselli;  in  Ger- 
many, in  those  of  Laas,  Riehl,  Guyau,  and  Durkheim. 
I^icss  brutal  than  Materialism,  the  radical  vice  of 
Positivism  is  its  identification  of  the  knowable  with 
the  sensible.  It  seeks  in  vain  to  reduce  general  ideas 
to   collective   images,    and    to  deny   the   abstract 


PHIL0S0PH7 


34 


PHILOSOPHY 


and  universal  character  of  the  mind's  concepts.  It 
vainly  denies  the  super-experiential  value  of  the  first 
logical  principles  in  which  the  scientific  life  of  the 
mind  is  rooted;  nor  will  it  ever  succeed  in  showing 
that  the  certitude  of  such  a  iud^ent  as  2+2=^4 
increases  with  our  repeated  additions  of  numbers  of 
oxen  or  of  coins.  In  morals,  where  it  would  reduce 
precepts  and  judgments  to  sociological  data  formed 
m  the  collective  conscience  and  varying  with  the 
period  and  the  environment,  Positivism  stumbles 
|Lgainst  the  judgments  of  value,  and  the  supersensible 
ideas  of  obligation,  moral  good,  and  law,  recorded 
in  every  human  conscience  and  unvarying  in  their 
essential  data. 

(2)  Kantianism  had  been  forgotten  in  Germany 
for  some  thirty  years  (1830-60);  Vogt,  Biichner,  and 
Moleschott  haa  won  for  Materialism  an  ephemeral 
vogue;  but  Materialism  was  swept  away  by  a  strong 
Kantian  reaction.  This  reversion  towards  Kant 
{RUckhehr  zu  Kant)  begins  to  be  traceable  in  1860 
(notably  as  a  result  of  Lange's  *' History  of  Mate- 
rialism ),  and  the  influence  of  Kantian  doctrines 
may  be  said  to  permeate  the  whole  contemporary 
German  philosophy  (Otto  Liebmann,  von  Hartmann, 
Paulsen,  Rehmke.  Dilthey,  Natorp,  Eucken,  the 
Imman^ntists,  ana  the  Empirico-criticists).  French 
nco-Criticism,  represented  oy  Renouvier,  was  con- 
nected chiefly  with  Kant's  second  "Critique"  and 
introduced  a  specific  Voluntarism.  .  Vacherot,  Secr6- 
tan,  Lachelier,  Boutroux,  Fouillde,  and  Bergson  are 
all  more  or  less  under  tribute  to  Kantianism.  Ra- 
vaisson  proclaims  himself  a  follower  of  Maine  de 
Biran.  Kantianism  has  taken  its  place  in  the  state 
programme  of  education  and  Paul  Janet,  who,  with 
F.  Bouillier  and  Caro,  was  among  the  last  legatees  of 
Cousin's  Spiritualism,  appears,  in  his  "Testament 
philosophique",  affecting  a  Monism  with  a  Kantian 
inspiration.  All  those  who,  with  Kant  and  the  Posi- 
tivists,  proclaim  the  "bankruptcy  of  science"  look 
for  the  basis  of  our  certitude  in  an  imperative  demand 
of  the  will.  This  Voluntarism,  also  called  Pragmatism 
(William  James),  and,  quite  recently.  Humanism 
(Schiller  at  Oxford),  is  inadequate  to  the  establish- 
ment of  the  theoretic  moral  and  social  sciences  upon 
an  unshakable  base:  sooner  or  later,  reflection  will 
afik  what  this  need  of  living  and  of  willing  is  worth, 
and  then  the  intclligeilce  will  return  to  its  position  as 
the  supreme  arbiter  of  certitude. 

From  Germany  and  France  Kantianism  has  spread 
everywhere.  In  England  it  has  called  into  activity 
the  Critical  Idealism  associated  with  T.  H.  Green  and 
Bradley.  Hodgson,  on  the  contrary,  returns  to  Real- 
ism. S.  Laurie  may  be  placed  between  Green  and 
Martineau.  Emerson^  Harris,  Everett,  and  Royce 
spread  Idealistic  Criticism  in  America;  Shad- 
worth  Hodgson,  on  the  other  hand,  and  Adamson  tend 
to  return  to  Realism,  whilst  James  Ward  emphasizes 
the  function  of  the  will. 

(3)  Monism.-^With  a  great  many  Kantians,  a 
stratum  of  Monistic  ideas  is  superimposed  on  Criti- 
cism, the  thing  in  itself  being  considered  numerically 
one.  The  same  tendencies  are  observable  among 
Positivist  Evolutionists  like  Clifford  and  Romanes, 
or  G.  T.  Ladd. 

(4)  Neo-Scholasticism,  the  revival  of  which  dates 
from  the  last  third  of  the  nineteenth  century  (Libera- 
tore^  Taparelli,  Comoldi,  and  others),  and  which 
received  a  powerful  impulse  under  Leo  XIII,  is  tending 
more  and  more  to  become  the  philosophy  of  Catholics. 
It  replaces  Ontologism,  Traditionalism,  Gunther's 
Dualism,  and  Caxlesian  Spiritualism,  which  had 
manifestly  become  insufficient.  Its  S3mtheses,  re- 
newed and  completed,  can  be  set  up  in  opposition  to 
Positivism  and  Kantianism,  and  even  its  adversaries 
no  longer  dream  of  denving  the  worth  of  its  doctrines. 
The  bearings  of  neo-Scholasticism  have  been  treated 
elsewhere  (see  Neo-Scholasticism). 


VII.  Is  PRbGRESS  IN  PhILOSOPHT  INDEFINITE  OR  IS 

THERE  A  Philosophia  Perbnnib? — Considering  the 
historic  succession  of  systems  and  the  evolution  of 
doctrines  from  the  remotest  ages  of  India  down  to  our 
own  times,  and  standing  face  to  face  with  the  progress 
achieved  by  contemporary  scientific  philosophy,  must 
we  not  infer  the  indefinite  progress  of  pnilosophic 
thought?    Many  have  allowed  themselves  to  be  led 
away  by  this  ideal  dream.     Historic  IdeaUsm  (Karl 
Marx)  regards  philosophy  as  a  product  fatally  en- 
gendered by  pre-existing  causes  in  our  physical  and 
social  environment.     Auguste  Comte's  "law  of  the 
three    states",     Herbert    Spencer's    Evolutionism, 
Hegers  "inde^nite  becoming  of  the  soul",  sweep 
philosophy  along  in  an  ascending  current  toward  an 
ideal  perfection,  the  realization  of  which  no  one  can 
foresee.    For  all  these  thinkers,  philosophy  is  vari- 
able and  relative:  therein  lies  tneir  serious  error. 
Indefinite  progress,  condemned  by  history  in  many 
fields,   is  untenable  in  the  history  of  philosophy. 
Such  a  notion  is  evidently  refuted  by  the  appearance 
of  thinkers  like  Aristotle  and  Plato  three  centuries 
before  Christ,  for  these  men,  who  for  ages  have  domi- 
nated, and  still  dominate,  human  thought,  would 
be  anachronisms,  sinc6  they  would  be  inferior  to 
the  thinkers  of  our  own  time.    And  no  one  would 
venture  to  assert  this.     History  shows,  indeed,  that 
there  are  adaptations  of  a  synthesis  to  its  environ- 
ment, and  that  every  age  has  its  own  aspirations  and 
its  special  way  of  looking  at  problems  and  their 
solutions;  but  it  also  presents  unmistakable  evidence 
of  incessant  new  beginnings,  of  rhythmic  oscillations 
from  one  pole  of  thought  to  the  other.     If  Kant  found 
an  original  formula  of  Subjectivism  and  the  reine 
Innerlichkeitf  it  would  be  a  mistake  to  think  that  Kant 
had  no  intellectual  ancestors:  he  had  them  in  the 
earliest  historic  ages  of  philosophy:  M.  Deussen  has 
found  in  the  Vedic  hymn  of  the  tJpanishads  the  dis- 
tinction between  noumenon  and  phenomenon,  and 
writes,  on  the  theory  of  M&y&,  "Kants  Grunddogma, 
80  alt  wie  die  Philosophic"  ("Die  Philos.  desUpani- 
shad's",  Leipzig,  1899,  p.  204). 

It  is  false  to  say  that  all  truth  is  relative  to  a  given 
time  and  latitude,  and  that  philosophy  is  the  product 
of  economic  conditions  in  a  ceaseless  course  of  evo- 
lution, as  historical  Materialism  holds.  Side  by  side 
with  these  things,  which  are  subject  to  change  and 
belong  to  one  particular  condition  of  the  life  of  man- 
kind, there  is  a  soul  of  tnith  circulating  in  every  sys- 
tem, a  mere  fragment  of  that  complete  and  unchange- 
able truth  which  haunts  the  human  mind  in  its  most 
disinterested  investigations.  Amid  the  oscillations 
of  historic  systems  there  is  room  for  a  philosophia 
perennis — as  it  were  a  purest  atmosphere  of  truth, 
enveloping  the  ages,  its  clearness  somehow  felt  in 
spite  of  cloud  and  mist.  "The  truth  Pythagoras 
sought  after,  and  Plato,  and  Aristotle,  is  the  same  that 
Augustine  and  Aquinas  pursued.  So  far  as  it  is 
developed  in  history,  truth  is  the  daughter  of  oiine; 
so  far  as  it  bears  within  itself  a  content  in- 
dependent of  time,  and  therefore  of  history,  it  is 
the  daughter  of  eternity"  [Willmann,  "Gesch.  d. 
Idealismus",  II  (Brunswick,  1896).  550;  cf.  Commer 
"Die  immerwahrende  Philosophic"  (Vienna,  1899)]. 
This  does  not  mean  that  essential  and  permanent 
verities  do  not  adapt  themselves  to  the  intellectual 
life  of  each  epoch.  Absolute  immobility  in  philos- 
ophy, no  less  than  absolute  relativity,  is  contrary 
to  nature  and  to  history.  It  leads  to  decadence  and 
death.  It  is  in  this  sense  that  we  must  interpret 
the  adage:    Vita  in  molu. 

VIII.  Philosophy  and  the  Sciences. — Aristotle 
of  old  laid  the  foundation  of  a  philosophy  supported 
by  observation  and  experience.  We  need  only  glance 
through  the  list  of  his  works  to  see  that  astronomy, 
mineralogy,  physics  and  chemistry,  biology,  zoology, 
furnished  him  with  examples  and  baaes  for  his  theories 


PHIL080PH7 


35 


PHIL080PH7 


on  the  constitution,  of  the  heavenly  and  terrestrial 
bodies,  the  nature  of  the  vital  principle,  etc.  Be- 
sides, the  whole  Aristotelean  classification  of  the 
branches  of  philosophy  (see  section  II)  is  inspired 
b^r  the  same  idea  of  making  philosophy — general 
science — rest  upon  the  particular  sciences.  The 
early  Middle  Ages,  with  a  rudimentary  scientific 
culture,  regarded  all  its  learning,  built  up  on  the  Tri- 
vium  (grammar,  rhetoric,  dialectic)  and  Quadrivium 
(arithmetic,  geometry,  astronomy,  music),  as  a 
preparation  for  philosophy.  In  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury, when  Scholasticism  came  under  Aristotelean 
influences,  it  incorporated  the  sciences  in  the  pro- 
gramme of  philosophy  itself.  This  may  be  seen  m  a 
regulation  issued  by  the  Faculty  of  Arts  of  Paris, 
19  March,  1255,  '^De  libris  qui  legcndi  e88ent'\ 
This  order  prescribes  the  study  of  commentaries  on 
various  scientific  treatises  of  Aristotle,  notably  those 
on  the  first  book  of  the  ''Meteorological',  on  the^ 
treatises  on  Heaven  and  Earth,  Generation,  the 
Senses  and  Sensations,  Sleeping  and  Waking,  Mem- 
ory, Plants,  and  Animals.  Here  are  amply  sufficient 
means  for  the  magiairi  to  familiarize  the  ''artists'' 
with  astronomy,  botany,  physiology,  and  zoology, 
to  say  nothing  of  Aristotle  s  "Physics",' which  was 
also  prescribedas  a  classical  text,  and  which  afforded 
opportunities  for  numerous  observations  in  chemistry 
and  physics  as  then  understood.  Grammar  and 
rhetoric  served  as  preliminary  studies  to  logic; 
Bible  history,  social  science,  and  politics  were  intro- 
ductory to  moral  philosophy.  Such  men  as  Albertus 
Magnus  and  Roger  Bacon  expressed  their  views  on 
the  necessity  of  linking  the  sciences  with  philosophy, 
and  preached  it  by  example.  So  that  both  antiquity 
and  the  Middle  Ages  knew  and  appreciated  scientific 
philosophy. 

In  the  seventeenth  century  the  question  of  the 
relation  between  the  two  enters  upon  a  new  phase: 
from  this  period  modem  science  takes  shape  and 
begins  that  triumphal  march  which  it  is  destined  to 
continue  through  the  twentieth  century,  and  of  which 
the  human  mind  is  justly  proud.  Modem  scientific 
knowledge  differs  from  that  of  antiquity  and  the 
Middle  Ages  in  three  important  respects:  the  multi- 
plication of  sciences;  their  independent  value;  the 
divergence  between  common  knowledge  and  scien- 
tific knowledge.  In  the  Middle  A^es  astronomy  was 
closely  akin  to  astrology,  chemistry  to  alchemy, 
physics  to  divination;  modern  science  has  severely 
excluded  all  these  fantastic  connexions.  Considered 
now  from  one  side  and  again  from  another,  the 
physical  world  has  revealed  continually  new  aspects, 
and  each  specific  point  of  view  has  become  the  focus 
of  a  new  study.  On  the  other  hand,  by  defining 
their  respective  limits,  the  sciences  have  acquired 
autonomy;  useful  in  the  Middle  Ages  only  as  a  prep- 
aration for  rational  physics  and  for  metaphysics, 
they  are  nowadays  of  value  for  themselves,  and  no 
longer  play  the  part  of  handmaids  to  philosophy. 
Indeed,  the  progress  achieved  within  itself  by  each 
particular  science  brings  one  more  revolution  in 
knowledge.  So  long  as  instruments  of  observation 
were  imperfect,  and  inductive  methods  restricted,  it 
was  practically  impossible  to  rise  above  an  elementary 
knowledge.  People  knew,  in  the  Middle  Ages,  that 
wine,  when  left  exposed  to  the  air,  became  vinegar; 
but  what  do  facts  like  this  amount  to  in  comparison 
with  the  complex  formulse  o^  modem  chemistry? 
Hence  it  was  that  an  Albertus  Magnus  or  a  Roger 
Baoon  could  flattei  himself,  in  those  oays,  with  having 
acquired  all  the  science  of  his  time,  a  claim  which 
would  now  only  provoke  a  smile.  In  every  department 
progress  has  drawn  the  line  sharply  between  popular 
and  scientific  knowledge;  the  former  is  ordinarily  the 
starting-point  of  the  latter,  but  the  conclusions  and 
teachings  involved  in  the  sciences  are  unintelligible 
to  those  who  lack  the  requisite  preparation. 


Do  not,  then,  these  profound  modifications  in  the 
condition  of  the  sciences  entail  modifications  in  the 
relations  which,  until  the  seventeenth  century,  had 
been  accepted  as  existing  between  the  sciences  and 
philosophy?  Must  not  the  separation  of  philosophy 
and  science  widen  out  to  a  complete  divorce?  Many 
have  thought  so,  both  scientists  and  philosophers, 
and  it  was  for  this  that  in  the  eighteenth  and  nine- 
teenth centuries  so  many  savants  and  philosophers 
turned  their  backs  on  one  another.  For  the  former, 
philosophy  has  become  useless;  the  particular  sci- 
ences, they  say,  multiplying  and  becoming  perfect, 
must  exhaust  the  whole  field  of  the  knowable,  and  a 
time  will  come  when  philosophy  shall  be  no  more. 
For  the  philosophers,  philosophy  has  no  need  of  the 
immeasurable  mass  of  scientific  notions  which  have 
been  acquired,  many  of  which  possess  only  a  pre- 
carious and  provisional  value.  Wolff,  who  pro- 
nounced the  divorce  of  science  from  philosophy, 
did  most  to  accredit  this  view,  and  he  has  been  fol- 
lowed by  certain  Cath6lic  philosophers  who  held  that 
scientific  study  may  be  excluded  from  philosophic 
culture. 

What  shall  we  say  on  this  question?  That  the 
reasons  which  formerly  existed  for  keeping  touch 
with  science  are  a  thousand  times  more  imperative 
in  our  day.  If  the  profound  synthetic  view  of  things 
which  justifies  the  existence  of  philosophy  presu])- 
poses*  analytical  researches,  the  multiplication  and 
perfection  of  thosd  researches  is  certainly  reason  for 
neglecting  them.  The  horizon  of  detailed  knowledge 
widens  incessantly;  research  of  every  kind  is  busy 
exploring  the  departments  of  the  universe  which  it  has 
mapped  out.  And  philosophy,  whose  mission  is  to 
explain  the  order  of  the  universe  by  general  and  ulti- 
mate reasons  applicable,  not  only  to  a  group. of  facts, 
but  to  the  whole  body  of  known  phenomena,  cannot 
be  indifferent  to  the  matter  which  it  has  to  explain. 
Philosophy  is  like  a  tower  whence  we  obtain  the 
panorama  of  a  great  city — its  plan,  its  monuments, 
its  great  arteries,  with  the  form  and  location  of  each-r- 
things  which  a  visitor  cannot  discern  while  he  goes 
through  the  streets  and  lanes,  or  visits  libraries, 
diurches,  palaces,  and  museums,  one  after  another. 
If  the  city  grows  and  develops,  there  is  all  the  more 
reason,  if  we  would  know  it  as  a  whole,  why  we 
should  hesitate  to  ascend  the  tower  and  study  from 
that  height  the  plan  upon  which  its  new  quarters 
have  been  laid  out. 

It  is,  happily,  evident  that  contemporary  phi- 
losophy is  inclined  to  be  first  and  foremost  a  scientific 
philosophy;  it  has  found  its  way  back  from  its  wan- 
derings of  yore.  This  is  noticeable  in  philosophers 
of  the  most  opposite  tendencies.  There  would  be  no 
end  to  the  list  if  we  had  to  enumerate  every  case 
where  this  orientation  of  ideas  has  been  adopted. 
''This  union",  says  Boutroux,  speaking  of  the  sci- 
ences and  philosophy,  "is  in  tmth  the  classic  tradition 
of  philosophy.  But  there  had  been  established  a 
psychology  and  a  metaphysics  which  aspired  to  set 
themselves  up  beyond  the  sciences,  by  mere  reflection 
of  the  mind  upon  itself.  Nowadays  all  philosophers 
are  agreed  to  make  scientific  data  their  starting-point " 
(Address  at  the  Intemational  Congress  of  Philosophy 
in  1900;  Revue  de  M6taph.  et  de  Morale,  1900,  p. 
697).  Boutroux  and  many  others  spoke  similarly 
at  the  Intemational  Congress  of  Bologna  (April, 
1911).  Wundt  introduces  this  union  into  the  very 
definifion  of  philosophy,  which,  he  says,  is  "the  gen- 
eral science  whose  function  it  is  to  unite  in  a  system 
free  of  all  contradictions  the  knowledge  acquired 
through  the  particular  sciences,  and  to  reduce  to  thpir 
principles  the  general  methods  of  science  and  the 
conditions  of  knowledge  supposed  by  them"  ("Einlei- 
tung  in  die  Philosophic",  Leipzig,  1901,  p.  19).  And 
R.  Eucken  says:  "The  farther  back  the  limits  of  the 
observable  world  recede,  the  more  conscious  are  we 


PHILOSOPHY 


36 


PHILOSOPHY 


of  the  lack  of  an  adequately  comprehensive  expla- 
nation'' ['^Gesammelte  Aufsatze  zur  Philos.  u.  Leben- 
sanschanung"  (Leipzig^  1903),  p.  157].  This  same 
thought  inspired  Leo  XIII  when  he  placed  the  paral- 
lel and  harmonious  teaching  of  philosophy  and  of  the 
sciences  on  the  programme  of  the  Institute  of  Phi- 
losophy created  by  him  in  the  University  of  Louvain 
(see  Ned-Scholasticism). 

On  their  side,  the  scientists  have  been  coming  to 
the  same  conclusions  ever  since  they  rose  to  a  syn- 
thetic view  of  that  matter  which  is  the  object  of  their 
study.  So  it  was  with  Pasteur,  so  with  Newton. 
Ostwald,  professor  of  chemistry  at  Leipzis,  has  under- 
taken to  publish  the  "  Annalen  der  Naturphilosophie  ", 
a  review  "devoted  to  the  cultivation  of  the  territory 
which  is  common  to  philosophy  and  the  sciences  . 
A  great  many  men  of  science,  too,  are  engaged 
in  philosophy  without  knowing  it:  in  their  con- 
slant  discussions  of  "Mechanism",  "Evolutionism", 
"Transformism",  they  are  using  terms  which  imply 
a  philosophical  theory  of  matter. 

If  philosophy  is  the  explanation  as  a  whole  of  that 
world  which  the  particular  sciences  investigate  in 
detail,  it  follows  that  the  latter  find  their  culmination 
in  the  former,  and  that  as  the  sciences  are  so  will 
philosophy  be.  It  is  true  that  objections  are  put 
forward  against  this  way  of  uniting  philosophy  and  the 
sciences.  Common  observation,  it  is  said,  is  enough 
support  for  philosophy.  This  is  a  mistake:  philoso- 
phy cannot  ignore  whole  departments  of  knowledge 
which'  are  inaccessible  to  ordinary  experience; 
biology,  for  example,  has  shed  a  new  light  on  the 
philosophic  study  of  man.  Others  again  adduce  the 
extent  and  the  growth  of  the  sciences  to  show  that 
scientific  philosophy  must  ever  remain  an  unattain- 
able ideal;  the  practical  solution  of  this  difficulty 
concerns  the  teaching  of  philosophy  (see  section 
XI). 

IX.  Philosophy  and  Religion. — ^Religion  pre- 
sents to  man,  with  authority,  the  solution  of  many 
problems  which  also  concern  philosophy.  Such  are 
.the  questions  of  the  nature  of  God,  of  His  relations 
with  the  visible  world,  of  man's  origin  and  destiny. 
Now  religion,  which  precedes  philosophy  in  the  social 
life,  naturally  obliges  it  to  take  into  consideration 
the  points  of  religious  doctrine.  Hence  the  close 
connexion  of  philosophy  with  religion  in  the  early 
stages  of  civihzation.  a  fact  strikingly  apparent  in 
Indian  philosophy,  wnich,  not  only  at  its  beginning, 
but  throughout  its  development,  was  intimately  bound 
up  with  the  doctrine  of  the  sacred  books  (see  above). 
The  Greeks,  at  least  during  the  most  important 
periods  of  their  history j  were  much  less  subject  to  the 
influences  of  pagan  reli^ons;  in  fact,  they  combined 
with  extreme  scrupulosity  in  what  concerned  cere- 
monial usage  a  wide  liberty  in  regard  to  do^ma. 
Greek  thought  soon  took  its  independent  flight; 
Socrates  ridicules  the  gods  in  whom  the  common 
people  believed;  Plato  does  not  banish  religious  ideas 
ffom  his  philosophy;  but  Aristotle  keepjs  them  en- 
tirely apart,  his  God  is  the  Actus  purusj  with  a  mean- 
ing exclusively  philosophic,  the  prime  mover  of  the 
universal  mecnanism.  The  Stoics  point  out  that  all 
things  obey  an  irresistible  fatality  and  that  the  wise 
man  fears  no  gods.  And  if  Epicurus  teaches  cosmic 
determinism  and  denies  all  finality,  it  is  onl^  to  con- 
clude that  man  can  lay  aside  all  fear  of  divine  inter- 
vention in  mundane  affairs.  The  question  takes  a 
new  aspect  when  the  influences  of  the  Oriental  and 
Jewish  religions  are  brought  to  bear  on  Greek 
philosophy  by  neo  -  Pjrthagorism,  the  Jewish  the- 
ology (end  of  the  first  century),  and,  above  all,  neo- 
Platonism  (third  century  b.  c).  A  yearning  for 
religion  was  stirring  in  the  world,  and  philosophy 
became  enamoured  of  every  religious  doctnne. 
Plotinus  (third  century  after  Christ),  who  must 
always    remain    the    most    perfect    type    of    the 


neo-Piatonic  mentality,  makes  philosophy  identical 
with  religion,  assigning  as  its  highest  aim  the  union 
of  the  soul  with  God  by  mystical  ways.  This  mystical 
need  of  the  supernatural  issues  in  the  most  bizarre 
lucubrations  from  Plotinus's  successors,  e.  g.  Jambli- 
cus  (d.  about  a.  d.  330),  who,  on  a  foundation  of  neo- 
Platonism,  erected  an  international  pantheon  for  all 
the  divinities  whose  names  are  known. 

It  has  often  been  remarked  that  Christianity,  with 
its  monotheistic  dogma  and  its  serene,  purifying 
morality,  came  in  the  fulness  of  time  and  appeased 
the  inward  unrest*  with  which  souls  were  afflicted  at 
the  end  of  the  Roman  world.  Though  Christ  did 
not  make  Himself  the  head  of  a  philosophical  school, 
the  religion  which  He  founded  supplies  solutions  for  a 
group  of  problems  which  philosophy  solves  by  other 
methods  (e.  g.  the  immortality  of  the  soul).  The  first 
Christian  philosophers,  the  Fathers  of  the  Church, 
were  imbued  with  Greek  ideas  and  took  over  from  the 
circumambient  neo-Platonism  the  commingling  of 
philosophy  and  religion.  With  them  philosophy 
IS  incidental  .and  secondary,  employed  only  to 
meet  polemic  needs,  and  to  support  dogma;  their 
philosophy  is  religious.  In  this  Clement  of  Alexan- 
dria and  Origen  are  one  with  St.  Augustine  and 
Pseudo-Dionysius  the  Areopagite.  The  early 
Middle  Ages  continued  the  same  traditions,  and 
the  first  philosophers  may  be  said  to  have  re- 
ceived neo-Platonic  influences  through  the  channel 
of  the  Fathers.  John  Scotus  Eriugena  (ninth  cen- 
tury), the  most  remarkable  mind  of  this  first  period, 
writes  that  "true  religion  is  true  philosophy  and, 
conversely,  true  philosophy  is  true  religion"  (De 
div.  prsecl.,  I,.  I).  But  as  the  era  advances  a  process 
of  dissociation  sets  in,  to  end  in  the  complete  separa- 
tion between  the  two  sciences  of  Scholastic  theology 
or  the  study  of  dogma,  based  fundamentally  on  Holy 
Scripture,  and  Scholastic  philosophy,  based  on  purely 
rational  inve^igation.  To  understand  the  successive 
stages  of  this  differentiation,  which  was  not  completed 
until  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century,  we  must 
draw  attention  to  certain  historical  facts  of  capital 
importance. 

(1)  The  ori^n  of  several  philosophical  problems, 
in  the  early  Middle  Ages,  must  be  sought  within  the 
domain  of  theology,  in  the  sense  that  the  philosophical 
discussions  arose  in  reference  to  theological  questions. 
The  discussion,  e.  g.  of  transubstantiation  (Beren- 
garius  of  Tours),  raised  the  problem  of  substance 
and  of  change,  or  becoming.  (2)  Theology  being 
regarded  as  a  superior  and  sacred  science,  the  whole 
p^agogic  and  didactic  organization  of  the  period 
tended  to  confirm  this  superiority  (see  section  XI). 
(3)  The  enthusiasm  for  dialectics,  which  reached  its 
maximum  in  the  eleventh  century,  brought  into 
fashion  certain  purely  verbal  methods  of  reasoning 
bordering  on  tne  sophistical.  Anselm  of  Besata 
(Anselmus  Peripateticus)  is  the  type  of  this  kind  of 
reasoner.  Now  the  dialecticians,  in  discussing  theo- 
logical subjects,  claimed  absolute  validity  for  their 
methods,  and  they  ended  in  such  heresies  as  Gott- 
schalk's  on  predestination,  Berengarius's  on  tran- 
substantiation, and  Roscelin's  Tritheism.  Beren- 
garius's  motto  was:  "Per  omnia  ad  dialecticam 
confugere".  There  followed  an  excessive  reaction  on 
the  p^  of  timorous  theologians,  practical  men  before 
all  things,  who  charged  dialectics  with  the  sins  of 
the  dialecticians.  This  antagonistic  movement  coin- 
cided with  an  attempt  to  reform  religious  life.  At 
the  head  of  the  group  was  Peter  Damian  (1007- 
72),  the  adversary  of  the  liberal  arts;  he  was  the 
author  of  the  saying  that  philosophy  is  the  handmaid 
of  theology.  From  this  saying  it  has  been  concluded 
that  the  Middle  Ages  in  general  put  philosophy  under 
tutelage,  whereas  the  maxim  was  current  only  among 
a  narrow  circle  of  reactionary  theologians.  Side  by 
side  with  Peter  Damian  in  Italy,  were  Mancgold 


PHIL080PH7  37  PmLOSOPHT 

of  Laujtenbach  and  Othloh  of  St.  Emmeram,   in  sides.  Theism^  being  only  a  form  of  Natorism  applied 

Germany.  to  religion,  suited  the  independent  wavs  of  the  Henais- 

(4)  At  the  same  time  a  new  tendency  becomes  dis-  Hance.    As  in  building  up  natural  law,  human  na- 

cemible  in  the  eleventh  century,  in  Lanfranc,  Wil-  ture  was  taken  into  consideration,  so  reason  was  in> 

liam  of  Hirschau,  Rodulfus  Ardens,  and  particularly  terrogated  to  discover  religious  id^.    And  hence  the 

St.  Anselm  of  Canterbury;  the  theolo^an  calls  in  the  wide  acceptance  of  Theism,  not  among  Protestants 

aid  of  philosophy  to  demonstrate  certam  dogmas  or  to  only,  but  generally  among   minds   that  had*  been 

show  their  rational  side.    St.  Anselm,  in  an  Angus-  carried    away    with    the    Renaissance    movement 

tinian  spirit,  attempted  this  justification  of  dogma,  (Erasmus,  Coomheert). 

without  perhaps  invariably  applying  to  the  demon-  For  this  tolerance  or  religious  indifferentism  modem 
strative  value  of  his  arguments  the  requisite  limi-  philosophy  in  more  than  one  instance  substituted  a 
tations.  In  the  thirteenth  century  these  efforts  disdain  of  positive  reUgions.  The  English  Theism  or 
resulted  in  a  new  theological  method,  the  dialec-  Deism  of  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries 
tic.  (5)  While  these  disputes  as  to  the  relations  criticizes  all  positive  religion  and,  in  the  name  of  an 
of  philosophy  and  theology  went  on,  many  philosophi-  innate  religious  sense,  builds  up  a  natural  retigion 
cal  questions  were  nevertheless  treated  on  their  own  which  is  reducible  to  a  collection  of  theses  on  the 
account,  as  we  have  seen  above  (universals,  St.  An-  existence  of  God  and  the  immortality  of  the  soul. 
Belm'stheodicy,Abelard's  philosophy,  etc.).  (6)  The  The  initiator  of  this  movement  was  Herbert  of  Cher- 
dialectic  method,  developed  fully  in  the  twelfth  cen-  bury  (1581-1648);  J.  Toland  (1670-1722),  Tmdal 
tury,  just  when  scholastic  theology  received  a  power-  (1656-1733),  and  Lord  Bolingbroke  took  part  in  it. 
ful  impelus,  is  a  theological  not  a  philosophical.  This  criticizing  movement  inaugurated  in  England 
method.  The  principal  method  in  theology  is  the  was  taken  up  m  France,  where  it  combined  with  an 
interpretation  of  Scripture  and  of  authority;  the  outright  hatred  of  Catholicism.  Pierre  Bayle  (164er- 
dialectic  method  is  secondary  and  consists  m  first  1706)  propounded  the  thesis  that  all  religion  is  anti- 
establishing  a  dogma  and  then  showing  its  reasonable-  rational  and  absurd,  and  that  a  state  composed  of 
ness,  confirming  the  argument  from  authority  by  the  Atheists  is  possible.  Voltaire  wished  to  substitute 
argument  from  reason.  It  is  a  process  of  apologetics,  for  Catholicism  an  incoherent  mass  of  doctrines  about 
From  the  twelfth  century  onward,  these  two  theo-  God.  The  religious  philosophy  of  the  eighteenth 
logical  methods  are  fairly  distinguished  by  the  words  century  in  France  led  to  Atheism  and  paved  the  ^a.y 
auctoritateSf  rationes.  Scholastic  theology,  condensed  for  the  Revolution.  In  justice  to  contemporary  phi- 
in  the  ^'summse"  and  "books  of  sentences",  is  hence-  losophy  it  must  be  credited  with  teaching  the  amplest 
forward  regarded  as  distinct  from  philosophy.  The  tolerance  towards  the  various  religions;  and  in  its 
attitude  of  theologians  towards  philosophy  is  three-  programme  of  research  it  has  included  religious  psy- 
fold:  one  group,  the  least  influential,  still  opposes  its  chology,  or  the  study  of  the  reUgious  sentiment, 
introduction  into  theology,  and  carries  on  the  reaction-  For  Catholic  philosophy  the  relations  between 
ary  traditions  of  the  preceding  period  (e.  g.  Gauthier  philosophv  and  theology,  between  reason  and  faith, 
de  Saint- Victor) ;  another  accepts  philosophy,  but  were  fixed,  in  a  chapter  of  scientific  methodology,  by 
takes  a  utilitarian  view  of  it,  regarding  it  merely  the  great  Scholastic  thinkers  of  the  thirteenth  cen- 
as  a  prop  of  dogma  (Peter  Lombard);  a  third  group,  tury.  Its  principles,  which  still  retain  their  vitality, 
the  most  influential,  since  it  includes  the  three  theo-  are  as  follows:  (a)  Distinctness  of  the  two  sciences. — 
logical  schools  of  St.  Victor^  Abelard^  and  Gilbert  Theindependenceof  philosophy  in  regard  to  theologv, 
de  la  Porr6e^  grants  to  philosophy,  in  addition  to  as  in  regard  to  any  other  science  whatsoever,  is  only 
this  apologetic  r61e,  an  independent  value  which  en-  an  interpretation  of  this  undeniable  principle  of  sci- 
titles  it  to  be  cultivated  and  studied  for  its  own  entific  progress,  as  applicable  in  the  twentieth  century 
sake.  The  members  of  this  group  are  at  once  both  aa  it  was  in  the  thirteenth,  that  a  rightly  constituted 
theologians  and  philosophers.  science  derives  its  formal  object,  its  principles,  and 

(7)  At  the  opening  ol  the  thirteenth  century  one  its  constructive  method  from  its  own  i:esources,  and 
section  of  Au^ustinian  theologians  continued  to  em-  that,  this  being  so,  it  cannot  borrow  from  any  other 
phasize  the  utilitarian  and  apologetic  office  of  philoso-  science  without  compromising  its  own  right  to  exist. 
phy.  But  St.  Thomas  Aouinas  created  new  Scholastic  (b)  Negative,  not  positive,  material,  not  formal,  sub- 
trsbditions,  aiid  wrote  a  chapter  on  scientific  method-  ordination  or  philosophy  in  regard  to  theology. — 
ology  in  which  the  distinctness  and  independence  of  This  means  that,  while  the  two  sciences  keep  their 
the  two  sciences  is  thoroughljr  established.  Duns  formal  independence  (the  independence  of  the  prin- 
Scotus,  again,  and  the  Temiinists  exaggerated  this  ciples  by  wmch  their  investigations  are  guided),  there 
independence.  Latin  Averroism,  which  had  a  bril-  are  certain  matters  where  philosophv  cannot  con- 
liant  but  ephemeral  vogue  in  the  thirteenth  and  tradict  the  solutions  afforded  by  theology.  The 
fourteenth  centuries,  accepted  whole  and  entire  in  Scholastics  of  the  Middle  Ages  justified  this  subordi- 
philoflophy  Averroistic  Peripateticism,  and,  to  saf&-  nation,  being  profoundly  convinced  that  Catholic 
guard  Catholic  orthodoxy,  took  refuge  behind  the  dogma  contains  the  infallible  word  of  God,  the  ex- 
sophism  that  what  is  true  in  philosophy  may  be  false  pression  of  truth.  Once  a  proposition,  e.  g.  that  two 
in  theology,  and  conversely — wherein  they  were  more  and  two  make  four,  has  been  accepts  as  certain, 
reserved  than  Averroes  and  the  Arab  philosophers,  logic  forbids  any  other  science  to  form  any  conclusion 
who  regarded  religion  as  something  inferior,  good  subversive  of  that  proposition.  The  material  mutual 
enough  for  the  masses,  and  who  did  not  trouble  them-  subordination  of  the  sciences  is  one  of  those  laws  out 
selves  about  Moslem  orthodoxy.  Lully,  goine  to  .  of  which  logic  makes  the  indispensable  guarantee  of 
extremes,  inaintained  that  all  dogma  is  susceptible  of  the  unity  of  knowledge.  "The  truth  duly  demon- 
demonstration,  and  that  philosophy  and  theology  strated  oy  one  science  serves  as  a  beacon  in  an- 
ooalesce.  Taken  as  a  whole,  the  Middle  Ages^  pro-  other  science."  The  certainty  of  a  theory  in  chemistry 
foundly  religious,  constantly  sought  to  reconcile  its  imposes  its  acceptance  on  physics,  and  the  physicist 
philosophy  with  the  Cathohc  Faith.  This  bond  the  who  should  go  contrary  to  it  would  be  out  of  his 
Renawsance  philosophy  severed.  In  the  Reformation  course.  Similarly,  the  philosopher  cannot  contradict 
period  a  group  of  pubhcists,  in  view  of  the  prevailing  the  certain  data  of  theology,  any  more  than  he  can 
strife,  formed  projects  of  reconciliation  among  the  contradict  the  certain  conclusions  of  the  individual 
numerous  religious  bodies.  They  convinced  them-  sciences.  To  deny  this  would  be  to  deny  the  conform- 
selves  that  all  religions  possess  a  common  fund  of  ity  of  truth  with  truth,  to  contest  the  principle  of 
essential  truths  relating  to  God,  and  that  their  con-  contradiction,  to  surrender  to  a  relativism  which  is 
tent  ia  identical,  in  spite  of  divergent  dogmas.    Be-  destructive  ot  all  certitude.    "It  being  supposed  that 


PHILOSOPHY  38  PHILOSOPHY 

nothing  but  what  is^  true  is  included  in  this  science  tion  between  God  and  matter,  and  of  various  doo- 
(ac.  theology)  .  .  \  it  being  supposed  that  what-  trines  condemned  in  the  fourteenth  century  as  tend- 
ever  is  true  by  the  decision  and  authority  of  this  ing  to  the  negation  of  morality.  It  has  been  the  same 
science  can  nowise  be  false  by  the  decision  of  right  in  modem  times.  To  mention  onlv  the  condemnations 
reason:  these  things,  I  say,  being  supposed,  as^it  is  of  Gfinther,  of  Rosmini,  and  of  Ontolosism  in  the 
manifest  from  them  that  the  authority  of  this  science  nineteenth  century,  what  alarmed  the  Church  wafl 
and  reason  alike  rest  upon  truth,  and  one  verity  can-  the  fact  that  the  theses  in  question  had  a  theological 
not  be  contrary  to  anouier,  it  must  be  said  absolutely  bearing. 

that  reason  can  in  no  way  be  contrary  to  the  authoritv        B.  The  Church  has  never  imposed  any  philosophi- 

of  this  Scripture,  nay,  all  ri^t  reason  is  in  accord  with  cal  system,  though  she  has  anathematized  many 

it"  (Henty  of  Ghent,  '^Summa  Theologica",  X,  iii,  doctrines,  or  branded  them  as  suspect. — This  oor- 

n.  4).  responds  with  the  prohibitive,  but  not  imperative, 

But  when  is  a  theory  certain?    This  is  a  question  attitude  of  theology  in  regard  to  philosopny.    To 

of  fact,  and  error  is  easy.    In  proportion  as  tne  prin-  take  one  example,  faith  teaches  that  the  world  was 

ciple  is  simple  and  absolute,  so  are  its  appUcations  created  in  time;  and  yet  St.  Thomas  maintains  that 

complex  and  variable.    It  is  not  for  philosophy  to  the  concept  of  eternal  creation  {ab  cBtemo)  involves 

establish  the  certitude  of  theological  data,  any  more  no  contradiction.    He  did  not  think  himself  obliged 

than  to  fix  the  conclusions  of  chemistry  or  of  physiol-  to  demonstrate  creation  in  time:  his  teacb^g  would 

oj^.    The  cert^dntv  of  those  data  and  those  conclu-  have  been  heterodox  only  if,  with  the  Averroists  of 

sions  must  proceed  from  another  source.    ''The  pr&-  his  day,  he  had  maintained  the  necessary  eternity 

conceived  idea  is  entertained  that  a  Catholic  savant  of  the  world.    It  may,  perhaps,  be  objected  that  many 

is  a  soldier  in  the  service  of  his  religious  faith,  and  Thomistic  doctrines  were  condemned  in   1277  by 

that,  in  his  hands,  science  is  but  a  weapon  to  defend  Etienne  Tempier,  Bishop  of  Paris.    But  it  is  well  to 

his  Credo.    In  the  eyes  of  a  great  many  people,  the  note,  and  recent  works  on  the  'subject  have  abun- 

Catholic  savant  seems  to  be  always  under  the  menace  dantly  proved  this,  that  Tempier's  condemnation,  in 

of  excommunication,  or  entangled  in  dogmas  which  so  far  as  it  applied  to  Tliomas  Aquinas,  was  the  issue 

hamper  him,  and  compelled,  for  the  sake  of  loyalty  of  intrigues  and  personal  animosity,  and  that,  in. 

to  his  Faith^  to  renounce  the  disinterested  love  of  canon  law,  it  had  no  force  outside  of  the  Diocese  of 

science  and  its  free  cultivation"  (Mercier,  "Rapport  Paris.    Moreover,  it  was  annulled  by  one  of  Tempier's 

sur  les  Etudes  sup6r.  de  philos.'^  1891,  p.  9).    Nothing  successors,  Etienne  de  Borr^te,  in  1325. 
could  be  more  untrue.  C.  The  Church  has  encouraged  philosophy.— To 

X.  The  Catholic  Church  and  Philosophy. —  gay  nothing  of  the  fact  that  ail  those  who  applied 

The  principles  which  govern  the  doctrinal  relations  of  themselves  to  science  and  philosophy  in  the  Middle 

philosophy  and  theology  have  moved  the  Catholic  Ages  were  churchmen,  and  that  the  liberal  arts  found 

Church  to  intervene  on  various  occasions  in  the  his-  an  asylum  in  capitular  and  monastic  schools  until  the 

tory  of  philosophy.    As  to  the  Church's  right  and  twelfth  century,  it  is  important  to  remark  that  the 

duty  to  intervene  for  the  purpose  of  maintaining  the  principal  universities  of  the  Middle  Ages  were  pon- 

int^pity  of  theological  dogma  and  the  deposit  of  tifical  foundations.    This  was  the  case  with  Paris, 

faith,  there  is  no  need  of  discussion  in  this  place.    It  To  be  sure,  in  the  first  years  of  the  university's  ac- 

is  interesting,  however,  to  note  the  attitude  taken  quaintance  with  the  Aristotelean  encyclopaedia  (late 

by  the  Church  towards  philosophy  throughout  the  twelfth  century)  there  were  prohibitions  against  read- 

a^^  and  particularly  in  the  Middle  Ages,  when  a  ing  the   "Physics",   the   "Metaphysics  ,    and  the 

civihzation  saturated  with  Christianity  had  estab-  treatise  "On  the  Soul".    But  these  restrictions  were 

lished  extremely  intimate  relations  between  theology  of  a  temporary  character  and  arose  out  of  par- 

and  philosophy.  ticular  circumstances.     In  1231,  Gregory  IX  laid 

A.  The  censures  of  the  Church  have  never  fallen  upon  a  commission  of  three  consultors  the  charge  to 
upon  philosophy  as  such,  but  upon  theological  appli-  prepare  an  amended  edition  of  Aristotle  "ne  utile  per 
cations,  judged  false,  wnich  were  based  upon  pnil-  mutile  vitietur"  (lest  what  is  useful  suffer  damage 
osophical  reasonings.  John  Scotus  Eriugena,  Rosce-  through  what  is  useless).  Th^  work  of  expurgation 
lin,  Berengarius,  Abelard,  Gilbert  de  la  Porr6e  were  was  done,  in  point  of  fact,  by  the  Albertine-Thomist 
condemned  because  their  teachings  tended  to  subvert  School,  and,  beginning  from  the  year  1255,  the 
theological  dogmas.  Eriugena  denied  the  substantial  Faculty  of  Arts,  with  the  knowledge  of  the  ecclesiasti- 
distinction  between  God  and  created  things;  Rosce-  cal  authority,  ordered  the  teaching  of  all  the  books 
lin  held  that  there  are  three  Gods;  Berengarius,  that  previously  prohibited  (see  Mandonnet,  "Siger  de 
there  is  no  r€«l  transubstantiation  in  the  Eucharist:  Brabant  et  raverrolsme  latin  au  XIII®  s.",  Louvain, 
Abelard  and  Gilbert  de  la  Porr^  essentially  modified  1910).  It  might  also  be  shown  how  in  modem  times 
the  dogma  of  the  Trinity.  The  Church,  through  her  and  in  our  own  day  thepopes  have  encouraged  phil- 
councib^condemned  their  theological  errors  ;wit£  their  osophic  studies.  Leo  XIII,  as  is  well  known,  con- 
philosophy  as  such  she  does  not  concern  herself,  sidered  the  restoration  of  pnilosophic  Thomism  one 
"NominaUsm",  says  Haur6au.  "b  the  old  en^ny.  of  the  chief  tasks  of  his  pontificate. 
It  is,  in  facf,  the  doctrine  wnich,  because  it  best  XI.  The  Teaching  of  Philosophy. — ^The  methods 
accords  with  reason,  is  most  remote  from  axioms  of  of  teaching  philosophy  have  varied  in  various  ages, 
faith.  Denounced  before  council  after  council,  Nom-  Socrates  used  to  interview  his  auditors,  and  hold 
inalism  was  condemned  in  the  person  of  Abelard  as  it  symposia  in  the  market-place,  on  the  porticoes, 
had  been  in  the  person  of  Rosceun"  (Hist,  philos.  scol.,  and  m  the  public  gardens.  His  method  was  interro- 
1, 292).  gation,  he  whetted  the  curiosity  of  the  audience  and 

No  assertion  could  be  more  inaccurate.  What  practised  what  had  become  known  as  Socratic  irony 
the  Church  has  condemned  is  neither  the  so-called  and  the  maieutic  art  {funevriKii  r^ny),  the  art  of  de- 
Nominalism,  nor  Realism,  nor  philosophy  in  general,  livering  minds  of  their  conceptions.  His  successors 
nor  the  method  of  arguing  in  theology,  but  certain  opened  schools  properly  so  called,  and  from  the  places 
applications  of  that  method  which  are  judged  dan-  occupied  by  these  schools  several  systems  took  their 
gerous.  i.  e.  matters  which  are  not  philosopMcal.  In  names  (the  Stoic  School,  the  Academy,  the  Lyceum). 
5ie  thirteen^  century  a  host  of  teachers  adopted  the  In  the  Middle  Ages  and  down  to  the  seventeenth 
philosophical  theories  of  Roscelin  and  Abelard,  and  century  the  learned  language  was  Latin.  The  Ger- 
no  councils  were  convoked  to  condemn  them.  The  man  discourses  of  Eckhart  are  mentioned  as  merely 
same  may  be  said  of  the  condemnation  of  David  of  sporadic  examples.  From  the  ninth  to  the  twelfth 
Dinant  (thirteenth  century),  who  denied  the  distinc-  century    teachmg   was   confined    to    the   monastic 


PHn.OSOPHT 


39 


PHILOSOPHY 


and  cathedral  schools.  It  was  the  golden  age  of 
schools.  Masters  and  students  went  from  one  school 
to  another:  Lanfranc  travelled  over  Etiroi)e;  John 
of  Salisbury  (twelfth  century)  heard  at  Paris  all  the 
then  famous  professors  of  philosophy;  Abelard 
gathered  crowds  about  his  rostrum.  Moreover:  as 
the  same  subjects  were  taught  everywhere,  and  from 
the  same  text-books  scholastic  wanderings  were 
attended  with  few  disadvantages.  The  books  took 
the  form  of  eommentaries  or  monographs.  From  the 
time  of  Abelard  a  method  came  into  use  which  met 
with  great  success,  that  of  setting  forth  the  pros 
and  cons  of  a  question,  which  was  later  perfected  by 
the  addition  of  a  soltUio.  The  application  of  this 
method  was  extended  in  the  thirteenth  century  (e. 
g.  in  the  "Summa  theologica^'  of  St.  Thomas). 
Lastlv,  philosophy  being  an  educational  preparation 
for  theology,  the  "Queen  of  the  Sciences "^  philo- 
sophical and  theological  topics  were  combmed  in 
one  and  the  same  book,  or  even  in  the  same 
lecture. 

At  the  end  of  the  twelfth  century  and  the  beginning 
of  the  thirteenth,  the  University  of  Paris  was  organ- 
ized, and  philosophical  teaching  was  concentrated 
in  the  Faculty  of  Arts.  Teaching  was  dominated  by 
two  principles:  internationalism  and  freedom.  The 
student  was  an  apprentice-professor:  after  receiving 
the  various  degrees,  he  ootained  from  the  chan- 
cellor of  the  university  a  licence  to  teach  (licentia 
docendi).  Many  of  the  courses  of  this  period  have 
been  preserved,  the  abbreviated  script  of  the  Middle 
Ages  being  virtually  a  stenographic  system.  The 
programme  of  courses  drawn  up  in  1255  is  well  known: 
it  comprises  the  exegesis  of  all  the  books  of  Aristotle. 
The  commentary,  or  lectio  (from  legerCy  to  read),  is  the 
ordinary  form  of  instruction  (whence  the  German 
Vorlesungen  and  the  English  lecture).  There  were 
also  disputations,  in  which  questions  were  treated 
by  means  of  objections  and  answers ;  the  exercise  took  a 
lively  character,  eaieh  one  being  invited  to  contribute 
his  thoughts  on  the  subject.  The  University  of  Paris 
was  the  model  for  all  the  others,  notably  those  of 
Oxford  and  Cambridge.  These  forms  of  instruction 
in  the  universities  lasted  as  long  as  Aristotelcanism, 
i.  e.  until  the  seventeenth  century.  In  the  eighteenth 
century — the  aikde  deslumihes  (ErHdrung) — philos- 
ophy took  a  popular  and  encyclopedic  form,  and 
was  circulated  in  the  literary  productions  of  the 
period.  In  the  nineteenth  century  it  resumed  its 
didactic  attitude  in  the  universities  and  in  the  semi- 
naries, where,  indeed  its  teaching  had  long  continued. 
The  advance  of  philological  and  historical  studies  had 
a  great  influence  on  the  character  of  philosophical 
teaching:  critical  methods  were  welcomed,  ancf  little 
by  little  the  professors  adopted  the  practice  of  special- 
izing in  this  or  that  branch  of  philosophy— a  practice 
which  is  still  in  vogue.  Without  attempting  to  touch 
on  all  the  questions  involved  in  modem  methods  of 
teaching  philosophy,  we  shall  here  indicate  some  of 
the  principal  features. 

A.  The  L/anguage  of  Philosophy. — ^The  earliest  of 
the  modems — as  Descartes  or  Leibniz — ^used  both 
Latin  and  the  vernacular,  but  in  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury (except  in  ecclesiastical  seminaries  and  in  certain 
academical  exercises  mainly  ceremonial  in  character) 
the  living  languages  supplanted  Latin;  the  result  has 
been  a  gain  in  clearness  of  thought  and  interest  and 
vitality  of  teaching.  Teaching  in  Latin  too  often  con- 
tents itself  with  formulae:  the  living  language  effects 
a  better  comprehension  of  things  which  must  in  any 
case  be  difficult.  Personal  experience,  writes  Fr. 
Hogan,  formerly  superior  of  the  Boston  Seminary,  in 
his  "Clerical  Studies"  (Philadelphia,  1895-1901). 
has  shown  that  among  students  who  have  learned 
philosophy,  particularly  Scholastic,  only  in  Latin, 
very  few  have  acquired  anything  more  than  a  mass 
of  formulse,  which  they  hardly  understand;  though 


this  does  not  always  prevent  their  adhering  to  their 
formulae  throu^  thick  and  thin.  Those  who  continue 
to  write  in  Latin — ^as  many  Catholic  philosophers,  of- 
ten of  the  highest  worth,  still  do — ^have  the  sad  ex- 
perience of  seeing  their  books  confined  to  a  very 
narrow  circle  of  readers. 

B.  Didactic  Processes. — Aristotle's  advice,  fol- 
lowed by  the  Scholastics,  still  retains  its  value  and  its 
force:  before  giving  the  solution  of  a  problem,  ex- 
pound the  reasons  for  and  against.  This  explains,  in 
particular,  the  great  part  played  by  the  history  of 
philosophy  or  the  critical  examination  of  the  solutions 
proposed  by  the  great  thinkers.  Commentary  on  a 
treatise  still  figures  in  some  special  higher  courses; 
but  contemporary  philosophical  teachmg  is  princi- 
pally divided  accoraing  to  the  numerous  branches  of 
philosophy  (see  section  II).  The  introduction  of 
laboratories  and  practical  seminaries  (siminaires  pra- 
tiques) in  philosophical  teaching  has  been  of  the  great- 
est advantage.  Side  by  side  w^ith  libraries  and  shelves 
full  of  periodicals  there  is  room  for  laboratories  and 
museums,  once  the  necessity  of  vivifying  philos- 
ophy by  contact  with  the  sciences  is  admitted  (see 
section  VIII).  As  for  the  practical  seminary,  in 
which  a  group  of  students,  with  the  aid  of  a  teacher, 
investigate  to  some  special  problem,  it  may  be  ap- 
plied to  any  branch  of  philosophy  with  remarkable 
results.  The  work  in  common,  where  each  directs 
his  individual  efforts  towards  one  general  aim,  makes 
each  the  beneficiary  of  the  researches  of  all;  it 
accustoms  them  to  handling  the  instruments  of  re- 
search, facilitates  the  detection  of  facts,  teaches  the 
pupil  how  to  discover  for  himself  the  reasons  for  what 
ne  observes,  affords  a  real  experience  in  the  con- 
structive methods  of  discovery  proper  to  each  sub- 
ject, and  very  often  decides  the  scientific  vocation 
of  tnose  whose  efforts  have  been  crowned  with  a  first 
success. 

C.  The  Order  of  Philosophical  Teaching. — One  of 
the  most  complex  questions  is:  With  what  branch 
ought  philosopnical  teaching  to  begin,  and  what  order 
should  it  follow?  In  conformity  with  an  immemorial 
tradition,  the  beginning  is  often  niade  with  logic. 
Now  logic,  the  science  of  science,  is  difficult  to  under- 
stand and  unattractive  in  the  earliest  stages  of  teach- 
ing. It  is  better  to  begin  with  the  sciences  which  take 
the  real  for  their  object:  psychology,  cosmology, 
metaphysics,  and  theodicy.  Scientific  logic  will  be 
better  understood  later  on;  moral  philosophy  pre- 
supposes psychology;  systematic  nistory  of  plii- 
losophy  requires  a  preliminary  acquaintance  with  all 
the  tranches  of  philosophy  (see  Mercier,  "Manuel  de 
philosophic".  Introduction,  third  edition,  Louvain, 
1911). 

Connected  with  thia  question  of  the  order  of  teaching 
is  another:  viz.  What  should  be  the  scientific  teaching 
preliminary  to  philosophy?  Only  a  course  in  the  sciences 
specially  appropriate  to  philosophy  can  meet  the  man- 
ifold exigencies  of  the  problem.  The  general  scientific 
courses  of  our  modem  universities  include  too  much 
or  too  little:  "too  much  in  the  sense  that  professional 
teaching  must  go  into  numerous  technical  facts  and 
details  with  which  philosophy  has  nothing  to  do;  too 
little,  because  professional  teaching  often  makes  the 
observation  of  facts  its  ultimate  aim,  whilst,  from  our 
standpoint,  facts  are,  and  can  be,  only  a  means,  a 
starting-point,  towards  acquiring  a  knowledge  of  the 
most  general  causes  and  laws"  (Mercier,  "Rapport 
sur  les  etudes  sup^rieures  de  philosophic",  Louvain, 
1891,  p.  25).  M.  Boutroux,  a  professor  at  the  Sor- 
bonne,  solves  the  problem  of  philosophical  teaching  at 
the  university  in  the  same  sense,  and,  according  to  him, 
the  flexible  and  very  liberal  organization  of  the  faculty 
of  philosophy  should  include  "the  whole  assemblage 
of  the  sciences,  whether  theoretic,  mathematico- 
physical,  or  philologico-historical "  ("Revue  Inter- 
nationale de  Tenseignement",  Paris,  1901,  p.  510). 


PHILOZENUS 


40 


PHOCiBA 


The  programme  of  courses  of  the  Institute  of  Philos- 
ophy of  Louvain  is  drawn  up  in  conformity  with 
this  spirit. 

Gbncral  Works. — Mercicr,  Cow*  de  philosophie.  Logique, 
CriUriologie  ghUraU.  OrUotogie.  Ptychologie  (Louvain,  1905-10) ; 
Nt6,  Co9moloifie  (Louvain,  1904) ;  Stonyhur$t  Philosophieal  Seriu: 
— CuLRKB,  I^)ffic  (London,  1909);  John  Rickabt,  Firti  Princi- 
vlet  of  KnotoUdge  (London,  1901) ;  Josbph  Rickabt,  Moral  Phi- 
lotophy  (London,  1910);  Boeddsr,  NcUural  Theology  (London* 
1906);  Maher,  Psychology  (London,  1909);  John  Rickabt,  Gen- 
eral Metaphyaica  (London,  1909) ;  Walkkr,  Theories  of  Knowledge 
(London,  1910 — ) ;  Ziguara,  Summa  philoe.  (Paris) ;  Schiffini, 
Prineipia  philoa,  (Turin);  UrrAburu,  IvMittU.  philosophiae 
(Vaiiodoiid);  Idem,  Compend.  phil.  schoL  (Madrid);  Philoeophia 
.  Lacensit: — Pbsch,  Inst,  logicales  (Freiburg,  1888) ;  Idem,  Inst, 
phil.  natur.  (Freiburg,  1880);  Idem,  Insl.  psyckol.  (Freiburg, 
189S);  HONTHEiM,  Inst,  theodiceea;  Meter,  Ifuf.  jiuris  natur.; 
DoMET  DE  VoRQEs,  Abrigi  de  tnftaphytique  (Paris);  Faroes, 
Etudes  phil.  (Paris);  Gutberlbt,  Lehrbuch  der  Philos.  Logik  und 
Erkenntnisth^nie,  Algemeine  Metaphys.,  Naturphilos.,  Die  psy- 
chol.^  Die  Theodieee,  Ethik  u.  NcUurrecht,  Ethik  u.  Religion 
(MQnster,  1878-85):  Rabier,  Lecons  de  phil.  (Paris);  Windbi.- 
BAND  with  the  collaboration  of  Liebmann,  Wundt,  Ijppb, 
Bauch,  La0K,  Rickert,  Troeltsch,  and  Grooa,  Die  Philos.  im 
Beginn  des  twanzigsten  Jahrhund.  (Heidelberg);  Systematisehe 
Philosophie  by  Dilthbt,  Riehl,  Wundt,  Obtwald,  Ebbinghaub, 
EucKEM,  Paulbbn,  and  Mcnch;  Lipps,  Des  Oesamttoerkers,  Die 
KtUtur  der  Oegenwdrt  (Leipsig),  pt.  I,  vi;  Db  Wulf,  tr.  Coffet, 
S<^iolasticistn  Old  and  New.  An  Introduction  to  Neo-Scholastic 
Philosophy  (Dublin,  1907);  Kulpe,  Einleitung  in  die  Philos. 
(Leipsig);  Wundt,  Einleitung  in  die  Philos.  (Leipsig) ;  Harper, 
The  Metaphysics  of  the  School  (London,  187^-84). 

Dictionaries. — Baldwin,  Diet,  of  Philosophy  and  Psychology 
(London,  1901-05) ;  Franck,  Diet,  des  sciences  phil.  (Paris,  1876) ; 
Eislbr,  WiMerhuch  der  Philosoph.  Begriffe  (Berlin,  1899) ;  Voca- 
bulaire  technique  et  critique  de  phil.,  in  course  of  publication  by  the 
8oo.  fran^aiae  de  philosophie. 

Collections. — Bibliothique  de  Vlnstitut  supSrieur  de  philoso- 

g\ie;  Peillaubb,  Bibl.  de  phil.  expirimentale  (Paris);  RJvitRB, 
ibl.  de  phil.  eontemporaine  (Paris) ;  CoU.  historique  des  grands 
fhilosoMes  (Paris) ;  Lb  Bon,  Bibl.  de  philosophie  scientif.  (Paris) ; 
*IAT.  Les  grands  philosophes  (Paris);  Philosophische  BMiolhek 
(Leipsig). 

Periodical  Pubucations. — Mind,  a  quarterly  review  of  ncy- 
chology  and  philosophy  (London,  1876 — );  The  Philosoph.  Rev. 
(New  York,  1892—);  Intemat.  Jour,  of  Ethics  (Philadelphia); 
Proe.  of  Aristotelian  Society  (London,  1888 — ) ;  Rev.  nio-^cholas- 
tique  dephil.  ^Louvain,  1894  ) ;  Rev.des  sciences  ^il.  et  thioL  (Paris) ; 
Revue  Thomtste  (Toulouse.  1893 — ) ;  Annales  de  philosophie  chrit. 
(Paris,  1831 — ):  Rev.  de  pnilos.  (Paris);  Philosophisches  Jahrbuch 
(Fulda);  Zeitschr,  Mr  philos.  und  philosophische  Kritik,  formerly 
Fichte-Ulrisische  Zeitschr.  (Leipsig,  1847—);  Kantstvdien  (Ber- 
lin, 189d — );  Arch.  /.  wtssenschafUiche  Philos.  und  Soeiologie 
(Leipsig,  1877 — );  Arch.f.  systematisehe  Philos.  (Berlin,  1895 — ); 
Arch.  f.  Qesch.  d.  Philos.  (Berlin,  1888 —) ;  Rev.  phil.  de  la  France 
et  de  VEtranger  (Paris,  1876 — ) ;  Rev,  de  mitaph,  et  de  morale  (Paris, 
1894—);  Tijdschrift  voor  Wijsbegeerte  (Amsterdam,  1907—);  Riv. 
di  fUosofia  neo-scholaetica  (Florence,  1909 — );  Rivisia  di  filosofia 
(Niodena). 

Division  or  Philosopht.  —  Methods.  —  Maribtan,  Le  pro- 
bUme  de  la  classification  des  sciences  d'Aristote  d  S.  Thomas  (Paris, 
1901);  WiLLMANN.  Didaktik  (Brunswick,  1903). 

General  Histort. — Ubbbrwbg,  Hist,  of  Philosophy,  tr.  Mor- 
ris (New  York,  1875-76);  Erdmann,  Hist,  of  Phil.  (London. 
1898) ;  Windelband,  Hist,  of  Phil.  (New  York,  1901) ;  Turner, 
Hist,  of  Phil.  (Boston,  1903) ;  Willmann,  Gesch.  des  Idealismus 
(Brunswick,  1908) ;  Zeller,  Die  Philos.  der  Oriechen  (Berlin),  tr. 
Alletne,  Reichel,  Goodwin,  Costelloe,  and  Muirhead  (Lon- 
don) ;  Db  Wulf.  Hist,  of  Mediaeval  Phil.  (London,  1909;  Paris, 
TQbingen,  and  Florence,  1912);  Windelband,  Gesch.  der  neueren 
Philos.  (Leipsig,  1872-80),  tr.  Tufts  (New  York,  1901) ;  Hoffding, 
Den  nyere  rilosofis  Historic  (Copenhagen,  1894),  tr.  Mater,  A 
Hist,  of  Mod.  Phil.  (London,  1900) ;  Fisher,  GeschicfUe  der  neueren 
Philosophie  (Heidelberg,  1889-1901);  8t6ckl,  Lehrbuch  der  Oe- 
schichte  der  Philosophie  (  Mains,  1888;  tr.  in  part  by  Finlat,  Dub- 
lin, 1903) ;  Weber,  History  of  Philosophy,  tr.  Thillt  (New  York, 
1901). 

Contemporart  Histort. — Euckbn,  Oeistige  Sirihnungen  der 
Gegenwart  (Leipsig.  1901);  Windelband,  Die  Philos.  im  Beginn 
d.  XX.  Jahr.,  I  (Heidelberg);  Caldbron,  Les  courants  phil.  dans 
VAmirique  latine  (Heidelberg.  1909) ;  Ceulemanb.  Le  mouvement 
phil.  en  AmSrique  in  Rev.  h^o-scholast.  (Nov.,  1909);  Baumann, 
Deutsche  u.  ausserdeutsche  Philos.  der  letzen  Jahrxehnte  (Gotha, 
1903). 

Philosopht  and  Thbologt. — Heitz,  Essai  hist,  tnir  les  rapp. 
entre  la  philosophie  et  la  foi  de  Bh-enger  de  Tours  d  S.  Thomas 
(Paris.  1909);  jBrunhes,  La  foi  chrH.  et  la  phil.  au  temps  de  la 
renaiss.  caroling.  (Paris,  1903);  Grabmann,  Die  Gesch.  der  scht/- 
last,  methode  (Freiburg,  1909). 

M.  De  Wulf. 

Philoxanus  (Akhsenata)  of  Mabbogh,  b.  at  Ta- 
hal,  in  the  Persian  province  of  Beth-Garmal  in  the 
second  quarter  of  the  fifth  century;  d.  at  Gangra,  in 
Paphlagonia,  523.  He  studied  at  Edessa  when  Ibas 
was  bishop  of  that  city  (435-57).  Shortly  after  he 
joined  the  ranks  of  the  Monophysites  and  became 
their  most  learned  and  courageous  champion.  In  485 
he  was  appointed  Bi.shop  of  Hierapolis,  or  Mabbogh 


(Manbidj)  by  Peter  the  Fuller.  He  continued  to 
attack  the  Decrees  of  Chalcedon  and  to  defend  the 
"Henoticon"  of  Zeno.  He  twice  visited  Constanti- 
nople in  the  interests  of  his  party,  and  in  512  he  per- 
suaded the  Emperor  Anastasius  k)  depose  Flavian  of 
Antioch  and  to  appoint  Severus  in  his  stead.  His  tri- 
umph, however,  was  short-lived.  Anastasius  died  in 
518  and  was  succeeded  by  the  orthodox  Justin  I.  By  a 
dqcree  of  the  new  ruler  the  bishops  who  had  been  de- 
posed under  Zeno  and  Anastasius  were  restored  to 
their  sees,  and  Philoxenus,  with  fifty-three  other 
Monophysites,  was  banished.  He  went  to  Philippop- 
olis,  in  Thrace,  and  afterwards  to  Gangra  where  he 
was  murdered. 

Philoxenus  is  considered  one  of  the  greatest  masters 
of  Syriac  prose.  He  wrote  treatises  on  liturgy,  exe- 
gesis, moral  and  dogmatic  theology,  besides  many 
letters  which  are  important  for  the  ecclesiastical  history 
of  his  time.  Notice  must  be  taken  of  the  Philoxenian 
Syriac  version  of  the  Holy  Scriptjiires.  This  version 
was  not  Philoxenus's  own  work^  but  was  made,  upon 
his  request  and  under  his  direction,  by  the  chorepiaca- 
jma  Polycarp  about  505.  It  seems  to  have  been  a  free 
revision  of  the  Peshitta  according  to  the  Lucian  re- 
cension of  the  Septuagint.  It  is  not  known  whether  it 
extended  to  the  whole  Bible.  Of  the  Philoxenian  ver- 
sion of  the  Old  Testament  we  have  only  a  few  frag- 
ments of  the  Book  of  Isaias  (xxviii,  3-17;  xhi,  17-xlix, 
18;  Ixvi,  11-23)  preserved  in  Syr.  MS.  Add.  17106  of 
the  British  Museum,  and  pubUshed  by  Ceriani.  Of 
the  New  Testament  we  have  the  Second  Epistle  of  St. 
Peter,  the  Second  and  Third  Epistles  of  St.  John  and 
the -Epistle  of  St.  Jude,  all  of  which  are  printed  in  our 
S3rriac  Bibles.  There  remain  also  a  few  fragments  of 
the  Epistles  of  St.  Paul  (Rom.,  vi,  20;  I  Cor.,  i  28;  II 
Cor.,  vii,  13;  x,  4;  Eph.,  vi,  12),  first  published  by 
Wiseman  from  Syr.  MS.  153  of  the  Vatican.  Gwynn 
is  of  the  opinion  that  the  Syriac  text  of  the  Apocalypse 
published  by  himself  in  1897  probably  belongs  to  the 
original  Philoxenian. 

Duval,  Littirature  Syriaque  (3rd  ed.,  Paris,  1907);  Wright,  A 
Short  History  of  Syriac  Literature  (London,  1894);  Abbemani, 
Bibliotheca  Orientalis,  II  (Rome,  1719) ;  Wiseman,  Hora  Syriacte 
(Rome,  1828);  Ceriani,  Monumenta  sacra  Hprofana,  V  (Milan. 
1868);  Renaudot,  Liturgiarum  Orientalium  CoUectio,  II  (Frank- 
fort, 1847);  Martin.  Syro-Chaldaicce  Institutiones  (1873);  Guidi, 
La  Lettera  di  Filosseno  ai  monad  di  Tell  'Adda  (Rome.  1886); 
Frothingham,  Stephen  bar  Sudaili,  the  Syrian  Mystic  and  the 
Book  of  Hierotheos  (Leyden,  1886);  Walus-Budoe,  The  Dis- 
courses of  Philoxenus,  Bishop  of  Maobogh  (2  vols.,  London,  1894) ; 
Vabchaloe,  Three  Letters  of  Philoxenus,  Bishop  of  Mabbogh 
U85-519)  :  being  the  letter  to  the  monks,  the  first  letter  to  the  monks  of 
Beth-Gaugal,  arui  the  letter  to  Emperor  Zeno,  with  an  English  trans- 
lation, and  an  introduction  to  the  life,  works,  and  doctrine  of 
Philoxenus  (Rome,  1902) ;  Idem,  Philoxeni  Mabbugensis  Traclatus 
de  lyinitate  et  Incamatione  in  Corpus  Scriptorum  Christianorum 
Orientalium  (Paris,  1907) ;  Gwtnn,  T^e  Apocalypse  of  St.  John  in 
a  Syriac  Version  hitherto  unknown  (Dublin,  1897);  Idem,  Rem- 
nants of  the  later  Syricu:  Versions  of  the  Bible  (Oxford.  1909) ; 
Baethoen.  Philoxenus  von  Mabug  Hber  den  Glauben  in  Zeitschrift 
far  Kirchgeschichte,  V  (1882).  122-38. 

A.  A.  Vaschalde. 

PhoCfloa,  titular  see  in  Asia,  suffragan  of  Ephesus. 
The  town  of  Phocaea  was  founded  in  the  eleventh 
century  b.  c.  by  colonists  from  Phocidia  led  by  two 
Athenians.  They  settled  first  on  a  small  island  on 
the  neighbouring  coast,  a  territory  given  by  the 
Cymseans,  between  the  Bays  of  Cyma?us  and  Her- 
mseus,  23  miles  north  of  Smyrna.  It  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  Ionian  Confederation  after  having 
accepted  kings  of  the  race  of  Codrus.  Its  fine  posi- 
tion, its  two  ports,  and  the  enterprising  spirit  of  the 
inhabitants  made  it  one  of  the  chief  maritime  cities  of 
ancient  times.  Historians  speak  of  it  but  rarely  before 
the  Roman  wars  against  Antiochus.  The  praptor 
iEmilius  Regillus  took  possession  of  the  town  (189 
B.  c.) ;  he  disturbed  neither  its  boundaries  nor  its  laws. 
During  the  war  against  Aristonicus,  who  reclaimed  the 
throne  of  Per^amum,  the  Phocaeans  took  his  part  and, 
through  the  mtervention  of  Massilia,  escaped  being 
severely  punished  by  the  Romans.    At  the  time  the 


PHCBNICIA 


41 


PHCBNICIA 


latter  had  definitively  established  his  power  in  Asia, 
Phocflea  was  only  a  commercial  town;  its  money  was 
coined  until  the  time  of  the  later  Empire;  but  its  har- 
bour gradually  silted  up  and  the  innabitants  aban- 
doned it.  In  978  Theodore  Carentenus  built  Bardas 
Sclerus  near  Phocsea.  In  1090  the  Turk  Tchaga  of 
Smyrna  took  possession  of  it  for  a  short  time.  The 
Venetians  traded'  there  after  1082,  but  the  Genoese 
quickly  supplanted  them. 

In  1275  Michael  VIII  Palaeologus  gave  Manuel  Zac- 
caria  the  territory  of  the  city  and  the  right  to  exploit 
the  neighbouring  alum  mines.  In  1304  the  Genoese, 
with  the  co-operation  of  the  Greeks  of  the  adjoining 
towns,  erected  a  fortress  to  defend  the  town  against 
the  Turks,  and  some  distance  from  the  ancient  Pho- 
c»a  founded  a  city  which  they  called  New  Phocaea. 
In  1336  Andronicus  the  Young,  allied  with  Saroukhan, 
Sultan  of  Magnesia,  besieeed  the  two  towns  ana 
obliged  them  to  pay  the  tribute  stipulated  in  1275. 
They  continued  also  to  pay  annually  to  Saroukhan 
500  ducats.  From  1340  to  1345  the  Greeks  occupied 
the  two  towns,  and  filjgain  in  1358  for  a  short  period. 
At  the  time  of  the  invasion  of  Timur  in  1403,  they  pur- 
chased peace  bv  the  payment  of  money.  In  the  midst 
of  difficulties  the  Genoese  colony  continued  until  the 
end  of  1455,  when  it  passed  into  the  hands  of  the 
Turks.  In  1650  a  naval  battle  between  the  Turks  and 
Venetians  took  place  in  sight  of  Phocsea.  To-day 
Phocsea,  in  Turkish  Fotchatin,  or  Eski  Fotcha  (an- 
cient Phocsea),  is  the  capital  of  a  cazaof  the  vilayet  of 
Smvma,  has  about  6000  inhabitants  (4500  Greeks) ^ 
ana  exports  salt.  About  six  miles  to  the  north,  Yem 
Fotcha  (new  Phootea)  is  situated  on  the  Gulf  of  Tchan- 
darh;  it  has  4500  inhabitants  (3500  Greeks),  and  ex- 
ports agricultural  products. 

Seven  Greek  bishops  of  Phocsea  are  known  by  their 
signatures  at  the  Councils;  Mark,  at  Sardica  (344); 
Theoctistus,  at  Ephesus  (441);  Quintus,  at  Chalcedon 
(451);  John,  at  Constantinople  (692);  Leo,  at  Nice 
(787);  Nicetas,  at  Constantinople  (869);  Paul,  at  Con- 
stantinople (879).  In  1387  smcient  Phocsea  was  sepa- 
rated from  Ephesus  and  given  to  the  suffragan  of 
Smyrna.  In  1403  it  still  had  a  titular.  The  Genoese 
colony  had  its  Latin  bishops,  seven  of  whose  names 
are  recorded  from  1346  to  1475;  the  later  ones  were 
undoubtedly  non-residents:  Bartholomew,  1346;  John, 
1383;  John,  before  1427;  Nicholas,  1427;  Ludovicus, 
about  1450;  Stephanus,  1457;  iBsddius.  1475. 

Lb  Quien,  Orient  chritt.,  I,  735;  III.  1077;  Tsxier.  Am 
mineure,  371-5;  Thisquen,  Pkocaiea  (Bonn,  1842);  de.  Mas- 
Latrib,  Trisor  de  chronologie  (Paria,  1889),  1787;  Tomaschek, 
Zur  kietcrieehen  Topographie  von  Kleinasien  im  MitlelaUer  (Vienna, 
1891).  25-27;  Wabchteb,  Z>er  VerfdU  dee  Orieehentunu  in  KUina- 
Mien  im  XIV.  Jahrhundert  (Leipsig,  1903),  63;  Cuinbt.  La  Tur- 
auM  <rA««,  III.  478-86.  S.   P^TRIDiJS. 

PhoBnicia  is  a  narrow  strip  of  land,  about  one  him- 
dred  and  fifty  miles  long  and  thirty  miles  wide,  shut  in 
between  the  Mediterranean  on  the  west  and  the  high 
range  of  Lebanon  on  the  east,  and  consisting  mostly  of 
a  succession  of  narrow  valleys,  ravines,  and  hills,  the 
latter  descending  gradually  towards  the  sea.  On  the 
north  it  is  bounded  by  the  River  Orontes  and  Mount 
Casius.  and  by  Mount  Carmel  on  the  south.  The  land 
is  fertile  and  well  irrigated  by  numerous  torrents  and 
streams  deriving  their  waters  mainly  from  the  melting 
snows  and  rain-storms  of  the  winter  and  spring  seasons. 
The  principal  vegetation  consists  of  the  renowned 
cedars  of  Lebanon,  cypresses,  pines,  palms,  olive,  vine, 
fig,  and  pomegranates.  On  tnis  narrow  strip  of  land, 
the  Phoenicians  had  twenty-five  cities  of  which  the 
most  important  were  Tyre,  Sidon,  Aradus,  Byblus, 
Marathus,  and  Tripolis.  Less  important  were  Lao- 
dicea,  Simyra,  Area,  Aphaca,  Bers^tus,  Ecdippa,  Akko, 
Dor,  Joppa.  Gabala,  Betrys,  and  Sarepta.  The  name 
"Phoemcia  is  in  all  probability  of  Greek  origin,  <t>otvi^ 
being  a  Greek  derivative  of  ^oiwf,  blood-red.  Our 
principal  sources  of  information  concerning  Phcenicia 
are:  first,  numerous  Phoenician  inscriptions   found 


in  Phoenicia,  Cyprus,  Egypt,  Greece,  Sicily,  Spain, 
Africa,  Italy,  and  France,  and  published  in  the  Cor- 
pus Inscriptionum  Semiticarum",  the  oldest  being  a 
simple  one  of  the  ninth  century  b.  c;  the  rest  of 
little  historical  value,  and  of  comparatively  late  date, 
i.e.,  from  the  fourth  century  b.  c.  down:  second, 
Egyptian  and  Assyro-Babylonian  historical  inscrip- 
tions, especially  the  Tell-el-Amama  letters  of  the  fif- 
teenth century  b.  c,  in  which  are  found  f refluent  and 
valuable  references  to  Phcenicia  and  its  political  rela- 
tions with  Western  Asia  and  Egypt;  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, especially  in  III  Kings,  v,  xvi;  Isaias,  xxiii ;  Jere- 
mias,  XXV,  xxvii,  and  Ezechiel,  xxvi-xxxii;  finally, 
some  Greek  and  Latin  historians  and  writers,  both 
ecclesiastical  and  papan. 

The  oldest  historical  references  to  Phoenicia  are 
found  in  the  Egyptian  inscriptions  of  the  Pharaohs, 
Aahmes  (1587-62  b.  c.)  and  his  successoni,  Thothmes  > 
I  (1541-16  b.  c:),  and  Thothmes  III  (1503-1449  b.  c.) 
in  which  the  Fj^oenicians  are  called  ''Dahe"  or 
''Zahi",  and  "Fenkhu".  .  In  the  Tell-el-Amama  let- 
ters is  found  much  interesting  information  concerning 
their  cities  and  especially  Tyre,  famous  for  her  wealth. 
During  all  this  period  Egyptian  suzerainty  was  more 
or  less  effective.  Sidon  was  gradually  eclipsed  by  the 
risinig  power  and  wealth  of  Tyre,  against  which  the 
Philistines  were  powerless,  though  they  constantly 
attacked  the  former.    About  the  year  1250,  after  con- 

auering  Ashdod,  Askelon,  Ekron,  Gaza,  and  Gath,  \ 
iey  forced  the  Sidonians  to  surrender  the  city  of  Dor. 
At  this  time  Tyre  became  foremost  in  Phoenicia  and 
one  of  the  greatest  and  wealthiest  cities  of  the  Medi- 
terranean region.  Its  first  king  was  Hiram,  the  son  of 
Abi-Baal  and  contemporary  of  David  and  Solomon. 
His  reign  lasted  some  forty  years,  and  td  his  energy 
Tyre  owed  much  of  its  renown.  He  enlarged  the  city, 
surrounding  it  with  massive  walls,  improved  its  har- 
bours, and  rebuilt  the  temple  of  Melkarth.  He  forced 
the  Philistine  pirates  to  retreat,  thus  securing  pros- 
perity in  maritime  commerce  and  caravan  trade,  and  . 
Phoenician  colonization  spread  along  the  coast  of  Asia 
Minor,  Sicily.  Greece,  and  Africa.  He  established  a 
commercial  alliance  with  the  Hebrews,  and  his  Phoeni- 
cian artists  and  craftsmen  greatly  aided  them  in  build- 
ing the  temple,  and  palaces  of  Solomon.  He  quelled 
the  revolt  in  Utica  and  established  Phoenician  su- 
premacy in  North  Africa  where  Carthage,  the  most 
important  of  all  Phoenician  colonies,  was  later  built. 

Hiram  was  succeeded  in  922  by  his  son,  Abd-Starte  I, 
who,  after  seven  years  Of  troubled  reign,  was  mur- 
dered, and  most  of  his  successors  also  met  with  a 
violent  end.  About  this  time  hostilities  arose  between 
Phoenicia  and  Assyria,  although  two  centuries  earlier 
Tiglath-rpileser  I,  when  marching  through  the  northern 
part  of  Phoenicia,  was  hospitably  entertained  by  the 
inhabitants  of  Aradus.  In  880  Ithbasd  became  King 
of  Phoenicia,  contemporaneous  with  Asshur'-nasir-pal 
in  Assyria  and  Achab  in  Israel.  He  was  succeeded  by 
Baal-azar  and  Metten  I.  Metten  reigned  for  nine 
years  and  died,  leaving  Pygmalion,  an  infant  son,  but 
nominating  as  his  successor  Sicharbas,  the  high  priest 
of  Melkarth,  who  was  married  to  Elissa,  his  daughter. 
The  tale  runs  that  when  Pygmalion  came  to  manhood 
he  killed  Sicharbas,  upon  which  Elissa,  with  such 
nobles  as  adhered  to  her,  fled  first  to  C3rpru8  and  after- 
wards to  Africa,  where  the  colony  of  Carthage  was 
founded  (c.  850  b.  c).  Asshur-nasir-pal  and  his  son 
and  successor  Shalmaneser  II  nominally  conquered 
Phoenicia;  but  in  745  b.  c.  Tiglath-pileser  III  com- 
pelled the  northern  tribes  to  accept  Assyrian  gov- 
ernors. As  soon  as  this  scheme  of  complete  absorption 
became  manifest  a  general  conflict  ensued,  from  which 
Assyria  emerged  victorious  and  several  Phoenician 
cities  were  captured  and  destroyed.  The  invasion  of 
Shalmaneser  IV  in  727  was  frustrated,  but  in  722  he 
almost  sacked  the  city  of  Tyre.  Sargon,  his  successor 
and  great  general,  compelled  Elulaeua^  ^"w^  ^^  '^^^^^   ^ 


PHOSNICIA 


42 


PHOSNICIA 


to  come  to  honourable  terms  with  him.  In  701  Sen- 
nacherib conquered  the  revolting  cities  of  Syria  and 
PhcBnicia.  Elukeus  fled  to  Cyprus  and  Tubaal  was 
made  king. 

In  680  Abd-Melkarth,  his  successor,  rebelled  against 
the  Assyrian  domination,  but  fled  before  Esarhs^don, 
the  son  of  Sennacherib.  Sidon  was  practically  de- 
stroyedj  most  of  its  inhabitants  carried  off  to  Assyria, 
and  their  places  filled  by  captives  from  Babylonia  ana 
Elam.  During  the  reign  of  Asshurbanipal  (668-625 
B.  c.)  Tyre  was  once  more  attacked  and  conquered, 
but,  as  usual,  honourably  treated.  In  606  the  Assyr- 
ian empire  itself  was  demolished.by  the  allied  Baby- 
lonians and  Medes,  and  in  605  Nabuchadonosor,  son 
and  successor  of  Nabopolassar,  after  having  conquered 
Elam  and  the  adjacent  countries,  subdued  (586  b.  c.) 
Syria,  Palestine,  Phoenicia,  and  Egypt.  As  the 
Tyrians  had  command  of  the  sea,  it  was  thirteen  years 
before  their  city  surrendered,  but  the  long  siege 
crippled  its  commerce,  and  Sidon  regained  its  ancient 
position  as  the  leading  city.  Phoenicia  was  passing 
through  its  final  stage  of  national  independence  and 
glory.  From  the  fifth  century  on,  it  was  continually 
harassed  by  the  incursions  of  various  Greek  colonies 
who  gradually  absorbed  its  commerce  and  industry. 
It  passed  repeatedly  under  the  rule  of  the  Medo- 
Persian  kings,  Cyrus,  Cambyses,  Darius,  and  finally 
Xerxes,  who  attacked  the  Athenians  at  Salamis  witn 
the  aid  of  the  Phoenician  navy,  but  their  fleet  was 
defeated  and  destroyed.  In  332,  it  was  finally  and 
completely  conquered  by  Alexander  the  Great,  after 
whose  death  and  subsequent  to  the  partition  of  his 
great  Macedonian  empire  amongst  his  four  generals, 
it  fell  to  Laodemon.  In  314,  Ptolemy  attacked  Lao- 
demon  and  annexed  Phoenicia  to  Egypt.  In  198  b.  c, 
it  was  absorbed  by  the  Seleucid  dynasty  of  Syria, 
after  the  downfall  of  which  (65  a.  d.),  it  became  a 
Roman  province  and  remained  such  till  the  Moham- 
medan conquest  of  Syria  in  the  seventh  century. 
Phoenicia  now  forms  one  of  the  most  important 
Turkish  vilayets  of  Syria  with  Beyrout  as  its  prin- 
cipal city. 

The  whole  political  history  and  constitution  of 
Phoenicia  may  be  summarized  as  follows:  The 
Phoenicians  never  built  an  empire,  but  each  city  had 
its  little  independent  territory,  assemblies,  kings,  and 
government,  and  for  general  state  business  sent  dele- 
gates to  Tyre.  They  were  not  a  military,  but  essen- 
tially a  seafaring  and  conunercial  people,  and  were 
successively  cofiquered  by  the  Egyptians,  Assyrians, 
Babylonians,  Persians,  Greeks,  and  Romans,  to  whom, 
because  of  their  great  wealth,  they  fulfilled  all  their 
obligations  by  the  payinent  of  tribute.  Although 
blessed  with  fertile  land  and  well  provided  by  nature, 
the  Phccnicians,  owing  to  their  small  terntory  and 
comparatively  large  population,  were  compelled,  from 
the  very  remotest  antiquity,  to  gain  their  livelihood 
through  commerce.  Hence,  their  numerous  caravan 
routes  to  the  East,  and  their  wonderful  marine  com- 
merce with  the  West.  They  were  the  only  nation  of 
the  ancient  East  who  had  a  navy.  By  land  they 
pushed  their  trade  to  Arabia  for  gold,  a^^ate,  onyx, 
mcense,  and  myrrh*  to  India  for  pearls,  spices,  ivory, 
ebony,  and  ostrich  plumes;  to  Mesopotamia  for 
cotton  and  linen  clothes;  to  Palestine  and  Egypt  for 
grain,  wheat,  and  barley;  to  the  regions  of  the  Black 
Sea  for  horses,  slaves,  and  copper.  By  sea  they  en- 
circled all  the  Mediterranean  coast,  along  Syria, 
North  Africa,  Asia  Minor,  the  i^gean  Sea,  and  even 
Spain,  France,  and  England.  A  logical  result  of  this 
remarkable  commercial  activity  was  the  founding  in 
Cyprus,  Egypt,  Crete,  Sicily,  Africa,  Malta,  Sardinia, 
Spain,  Asia  Minor,  and  Greece  of  numerous  colonies, 
which  became  important  centres  of  Phoenician  com- 
merce, and  civilization,  and  in  due  time  left  their 
deep  m.irk  upon  the  history  and  civilization  of  the 
chisaicul  nations  of  the  Mediterranean  world. 


Owin^  to  this  activity  also,  the  Phoenicians  devel- 
oped neither  literature  nor  arts.  The  work  done  by 
them  for  Solomon  shows  that  their  architectural  and 
mechanical  skill  was  great  only  in  superiority  to  that 
of  the  Hebrews.  The  remains  of  their  architecture 
are  heavy  and  their  sesthetic  art  is  primitive  in  char- 
acter. In  literature,  they  left  nothing  worthy  of 
preservation.  To  them  is  ascribed  the  simplification 
of  the  primitive^  pictorial  or  ideographic,  and  syllabic 
systems  of  writmg  into  an  alphabetic  one  consisting 
of  twenty-two  letters  and  written  from  right  to  left, 
from  which  are  derived  all  the  lat«r  and  modem 
Semitic  and  European  alphabets.  This  tradition, 
however,  must  be  accepted  with  some  modification. 
There  is  also  no  agreement  as  to  whether  the  basis  of 
this  Phoenician  alphabet  is  of  Eg>'ptian  (hieroglyphic 
and  hieratic)  or  of  Assyro-Babylonian  (cuneiform) 
origin.  Those  who  derive  it  from  a  Cypriot  prototype 
have  not  as  yet  sufliciently  demonstrated  the  plau- 
sibility and  probability  of  their  opinion.  The  recent 
discovery  of  numerous- Minoan  inscriptions  in  the 
Island  of  Crete,  some  of  them  dating  as  early  as  2000 
b.  c,  has  considerably  complicated  the  problem. 
Other  inventions,  or  improvements,  in  science  and 
mechanics,  such  as  weights  and  measures,  glass  manu- 
facture, coinage,  the  finding  of  the  polar  star,  and 
navigation  are  perhaps  justly  attributed  to  the 
Phoenicians.  Both  ethnographically  and  linguistic- 
ally, they  belong  to  the  so-called  Semitic  group. 
They  were  called  Canaanites,  and  spoke  a  dialectical 
variety  of  the  Canaanite  group  of  Western  Semitic 
tongues,  closely  akin  to  the  dialects  of  the  Semitic 
inhabitants  of  Syria,  Palestine,  and  Canaan.  A  few 
specimens  of  their  language,  as  it  was  spoken  by  the 
colonics  in  North  Africa  towards  the  end  of  the  third 
century  b.  c,  may  still  be  read  in  Plautus,  from  which 
it  appears  to  have  already  attained  a  great  degree  of 
consonantal  and  vocal  decay.  The  dialect  of  the 
inscriptions  is  more  archaic  and  less  corrupt. 

Our  information  concerning  the  rehgion  of  the 
Phoenicians  is  meagre  and  mainly  found  in  the  Old 
Testament,  in  classical  traditions,  and  legends.  Of 
special  interest,  however,  are  the  votive  inscriptions 
in  which  a  great  number  of  proper  names  generally 
construed  with  that  of  some  divinity  are  found. 
Phoenician  polytheism,  like  that  of  the  other  Semitic 
nations,  was  based  partly  on  Animism  and  partly 
on  the  worship  of  the  great  powers  of  nature,  mostly 
of  astral  origin.  They  deified  the  sun  and  the  moon, 
which  they  considered  the  great  forces  that  create 
and  destroy,  and  called  them  Baal  and  Astaroth. 
Each  city  had  its  divine  pair:  at  Sidon  it  was  Baal 
Sidon  (the  sun)  and  Astarte  (the  moon);  at  Gebel. 
Baal  Tummuz  and  Baaleth;  at  Carthage,  Baal 
Hainon  and  Tanith.  But  the  same  god  changed  his 
name  according  as  he  was  conceived  as  creator  or 
destroyer;  thus  Baal  as  destroyer  was  worshipped 
at  Carthage  under  the  name  of  Moloch.  These  gods, 
represented  by  idols,  had  their  temples,  altars,  and 
pnests.  As  creators  they  were  honoured  with  orgies 
and  tumultuous  feasts;  as  destroyers,  by  human  vic- 
tims. Astoreth  (Venus),  whom  the  Sidonians  repre- 
sented by  the  crescent  of  the  moon  and  the  dove, 
had  her  cult  in  the  sacred  woods.  Baal  Moloch  was 
figured  at  Carthage  as  a  bronze  colossus  with  arms 
extended  and  lowered.  To  appease  him  children  were 
laid  in  his  arms,  and  fell  at  once  into  a  pit  of  fire. 
When  Agathocles  besieged  the  city  the  principal 
Carthaginians  sacrificed  to  Moloch  as  nTany  as  two 
hundred  of  their  children.  Although  this  sensual  and 
sanguinary  religion  inspired  the  surrounding  nations 
with  horror,  they,  nevertheless,  imitated  it.  Hence, 
the  Hebrews  frequently  sacrificed  to  Baal  on  the 
mountains,  and  the  Greeks  adored  Astarte  of  Sidon 
under  the  name  of  Aphrodite,  and  Baal  Melkart  of 
Tyre  under  the  name  of  Heraklos.  The  principal 
Pha^nician  divinities  arc  Adonis,  Kl,  Ksbinon,  Htial, 


PHOTINUS                               43  PHOTIUS 

Gad,  Molochi  Melkarth,  Sakan,  Anath,  Astaroth,  St.  Hilary  translates  TXan^M^-Au  and  0'v0'rAXc0'^«,  while 
Rasaph,  Sad,  and  man]^  others.  (For  the  history  oi  Mercator's  version  of  Nestorius's  fourth  sermon  gives 
Christianity  in  Phcenicia  and  its  present  condition  ''extended  and  collected'').  This  is  exactly  the  word- 
see  Syria.)  .  ing  of  Sabellius,  who  said  that  God  TXari/ycreu,  is 
Movers.  Di«  Phdniner  (Bomtt-Berlin,  1841-66);  LENOBMAinp-  broadened  out,  into  Son  and  Spirit.    To  Photinus  the 

^''JS^^rT^  iLJiSTi^L&  anilf  ';  f?PrJ''A^'?T^^*'  ^l'  r''^  «  °?t.  until  the  human 

Rawunson.  Hi$t.  of  Phmicia  (London,  1889) ;  Metbb.  Oeseh,  Durth  of  ^hnst.    Hence  before  the  Incarnation  there  is 

(L  AUeHunu  (Stuttgart,   1884-1902)  :  Piktschmann.  Geactu  d,  nO  Son,  and  God  is  Father  and  Word,  AoyoTdrtap,    The 

f^iilf^i^l^^t^.'SiJi^'oriHTn  fk^t^iZ^.:  Incarnation  seems  to  have  been  conmved  after  a  Nee- 

1885);  Bacdimin.  Studien  mr  »emUuchen  Rdiaianaqeich.,  I,  II  tonan  fashion,  for  Photmus  declared  the  Son  of  Mai^ 

(Leipiig,  1876-TO) ;   Baetbgbn,  BeUrOo^  lur  Semiiuehen  Rdi-  to  be  mere  man,  and  this  is  the  best-known  point  in  his 

«?JESSi:-  '^liiSrTSr^AS-o^tSin^Tl^S.i'^'-^^  ^Wng.    He  was  consequently  class^  wS  Paul  of 

1902);  Landav,  Die  Phffnizier  in  DerAUe  Orient  (Leipsig.  1903);  Samosata;  Jerome  even  calls  him  an  Ebionite,  prob- 

EisKLBN.  SidoH,  a  Study  in  Oriental  HisL  (New  York,  1907).  ably  because,  like  Mercator,  he  believed  him  to  have 

Gabriel  Oubsani.  denied  the  Virgin  birth.    But  this  is  perhaps  an  error. 

He  certainly  said  that  the  Hol^  Ghost  descended  upon 
Photinus,  heretic  of  the  fourth  century,  a  Galatian  Christ  and  that  He  was  conceived  by  the  Holy  Ghost, 
and  deacon  to  Marcellus,  Metro|x>litan  of  Ancjrra;  d.  By  His  union  with  the  prophoric  Word,  Christ  was  the 
376.  He  became  Bishop  of  Sirmium  in  Pannonia,  an  Son.  The  Holy  Ghost  is  iaentified  like  the  Word  with 
important  position  on  account  of  the  frequent  residence  the  Unbegotten;  He  is  a  part  of  the  Father  and  the 
of  the  Emperor  Constantiusthere.  The  city  was  more  Word,  as  the  Word  is  a  part  of  the  Father.  It  is  evident 
Latin  than  Greek,  and  Photinus  knew  both  languages,  that  Photinus  went  so  far  beyond  Marcellus  that  it  is 
Marcellus  was  deposed  by  the  Arian  party,  but  was  imfair  to  call  him  his  follower.  In  his  Trinitarian  doc- 
restored  by  Pope  Juhus  and  the  Synod  of  Saidica  trine  he  is  a  Modalist  Monarchian,  and  in  his  Chris- 
(343) ,  and  was  believed  bv  them  to  be  orthodox.  But  tology  aDynamistic  Monarchian,  combining  the  errors 
Photinus  was  obviously  heretical,  and  the  Eusebian  of  Theodotus  with  those  of  Sabellius.  3ut  it  is  clear 
court-party  condemned  them  both  at  the  Synod  of  that  his  views  were  partly  motived  by  the  desire  to  get 
Antioch  (344),  which  drew  up  the  *'  macrostich ''  creed,  away  from  the  Ditheism  which  not  only  the  Arians  but 
Three  envoys  were  sent  to  the  West  and  in  a  synod  at  even  the  Eastern  moderates  were  unable  to  avoid,  and 
Milan  (345)  Photinus  was  condemned,  but  not  Mar-  he  especially  denounced  the  Arian  doctrine  that  the 
cellus;  communion  was  refused  to  the  envoys  because  Son  is  produced  by  the  Will  of  the  Father.  His  writ- 
they  refused  to  anathematize  Alius.  It  is  evident  ings  are  lost;  thechief  of  them  were ''Contra  Gentes" 
from  the  way  in  which  Pope  liberius  mentions  and  "Libri  ad  Valentinianum",  according  to  St. 
this  synod  that  Roman  l^ates  were  present,  and  Jerome;  he  wrote  a  work  in  both  Greek  and  Latin 
St.  Hilary  calls  its  sentence  a  condemnation  by  the  against  all  the  heresies,  and  an  explanation  of  the 
Romans.  Two  years  later  another  synod,  perhaps  also  Creed, 
at  Milan,  tried  to  obtam  the  deposition  of  Photinus  ^  See  Awanim*:  alio  flmi.^  CouneiU,  II;  Walch,  Hitiorie 

but  this  was.  impossible  owing  to  an  outbreak  of  the  Ifa^^ett^ri  '^L^^^f  affi.^Sa^":  ^V^,  S^r^t*  ^l^: 

populace  m   his   favour.      Another  synod   was  held  Ancyra  (Gotha.  1867)  ;  Ffoulkss  in  Diet.  Christ.  Biog.  (1887). 

against  him  at  Sirmium;  some  Arianizmg  propositions  John  Chapman. 
from  it  are  quoted  by  St.  Hilary.  The  heretic  appealed 

to  the  emperor,  who  appointed  judges  before  wnom  he  Photius  of  Constantinopla,  chief  author  of  the 

should  be  heaid.    For  this  purpose  a  great  synod  as-  great  schism  between  East  and  West,  was  b.  at  Con- 

sembled  at  Sirmium  (351).  .  Basil,  the  supplanter  of  stantinople  c.  815  (Uergcnrother  says  "not  much  ear- 

Marcellus  as  Bishop  of  Ancjrra  and  the  future  leader  Her  than  827 '\  "Photius'',  1, 316;  others,  about  810); 

of  the  Semi-Arians,  disputed  with  Photinus.   The  her-  d.  probably  6  Feb.,  897.    His  father  was  a  spcUharios 

etic  was  deposed,  anci  twentynseven  anathematisms  (lifeguard)  named  Sergius.    Symeon  Magister  ("De 

were  agreed  to.   Photinus  probably  returned  to  his  see  Mich,  et  Theod.",  Bonn  ed.,  1838,  xxix,  668)  says  that 

at  the  accession  of  Julian,  uke  the  other  exiled  bishops,  his  mother  was  an  escaped  nun  and  that  he  was  ille- 

for  St.  Jerome  says  he  was  banished  by  Valentinian  gitimate.     He  further  relates  that  a  holy  bishop, 

(364-75).    Eventually  he  settled  in  Galatia.    Epipha-  Michael  of  Synnada,  before  his  birth  foretold  that  he 

nius,  writing  at  about  the  date  of  his  death,  considered  would  become  patriarch,  but  would  work  so  much  evil 

his  heresy  dead  in  the  West.    In  Pannonia  there  were  that  it  would  be  better  that  he  should  not  be  bom. 

still  some  Photinians  in  381,  and  a  Photinian  named  His  father  then  wanted  to  kill  him  and  his  mother,  but 

Marcus,  driven  from  Rome  under  Innocent  I,  found  the  bishop  said:  "You  cannot  hinder  what  God  has 

adherents  in  Croatia.    In  later  writers,  e.  g..  St.  Augus-  ordained.     Take  care  for  yourself.''    His  mother  also 

tine,  Photinian  is  the  name  for  any  who  held  Christ  dreamed  that  she  would  give  birth  to  a  demon.   When 

to  be  a  mere  man.  he  was  bom  the  abbot  of  the  Maximine  monastery 

We  obtain  some  knowledge  of  the  heresies  of  Pho-  baptized  him  and  gave  him  the  name  Photius  (En- 

tinus  from  the  twenty-seven  anathematisms  of  the  ligntened),  saying:  "Perhaps  the  anger  of  God  will  be 

council  of  351,  of  which  all  but  1, 10, 12, 13, 18, 23, 24,  turned  from  him''  (Symeon  Magister,  ibid.,  cf.  Her- 

25  (according  to  St.  Hilary's  order:  1,  10,  11,  12.  17,  genrother,    "Photius^    I,    318-19).    These   stories 

22,  24,  25)  and  possibly  2  are  directed  against  niip.  need  not  be  taken  seriously.    It  is  certain  that  the  fu- 

We  have  corroborative  evidence  from  many  writers,  ture  patriarch  belonged  to  one  of  the  great  families  of 

especially  St.  Epiphanius,  who  had  before  him  the  Constantinople;  the  Patriarch  Tarasius  (784-806),  in 

complete  minutes  of  the  disputation  with  Basil  of  whose  time  the  seventh  general  council  (Second  of 

Ancyra.     The  canons  obviously  misrepresent  Pho-  Nicsea,  787)  was  held,  was  either  elder  brother  or  uncle 

tinus's  doctrine  in  condemning  it,  in  so  far  as  they  of  his  father  (Photius:  Ep.  ii.  P.  G.,  CIII,  009),    The 

sometimes  say  "  Son"  where  Photinus  would  have  said  family  was  conspicuously  ortnodox  and  had  suffered 

"Word".    He  makes  the  Father  and  the  Word  one  some  persecution  in  Iconoclast  times  (under  Leo  V, 

Person  (TpScforov),    The  Word  is  equally  with  the  813-20).    Photius  says  that  in  his  youth  he  had  had  a 

Father  unbegotten,  or  is  called  a  part  of  the  Father,  passing  inclination  for  the  monastic  life  ("Ep.  ad 

eternally  in  Him  as  our  logos  is  m  us.    The  latent  Orient,  et  OBcon.",  P.  G.,  CII,  1020),  but  the  prospect 

Word  (MMtTot)  becomes  the  explicit  Word  (vpo-  of  a  career  in  the  world  soon  eclipsed  it. 

^opucAt)  not,  apparently,  at  the  creation,  but  at  the  He  early  l£id  the  foundations  of  that  erudition 

Incarnation,  lor  only  then  is  He  really  Son.    The  which  eventually  made  him  one  of  the  most  famous 

Divine  Substance  can  be  dilated  and  contracted  (so  scholars  of  all  the  Middle  Ages.    His  natural  aptitude 


PHOTinS 


44 


PHOTIUS 


must  have  been  extraordinary,  his  industir  was  colos* 
sal.  Photius  does  not  appear  to  have  had,  anv  teach- 
,  ers  worthy  of  being  remembered;  at  any  rate  he  never 
alludes  to  his  masters.  Hergenr6ther,  however,  notes 
that  there  were  many  good  scholars  at  Constantinople 
while  Photius  was  a  cmld  and  young  man,  and  argues 
from  his  exact  and  systematic  knowledge  of  all 
branches  of  learning  that  he  could  not  have  been  en- 
tirely self-taught  (op.  cit.,  I,  322).  His  enemies  ap- 
preciated his  learning.  Nicetas,  the  friend  and  biog- 
rapher of  his  rival  Ignatius,  praises  Photius's  skill  m 
grammar,  poetry,  rhetoric,  philosophy,  medicine,  law, 
^and  all  science"  ("Vita  S.  Ignatii'^in  Mansi,  XVI, 
229).  Pope  Nicholas  I,  in  the  heat  of  the  quarrel, 
writes  to  the  Emperor  Michael  III:  "Consider  very 
carefully  how  Photius  can  stand,  in  spite  of  his  great 
virtues  and  universal  knowledge"  (Ep.  xcviii  "Ad 
Mich.",  P.  G.,  CXIX,  1030).  It  is  curious  that  so 
learned  a  man  never  knew  Latin.  While  he  was  still  a 
young  man  he  made  the  first  draft  of  his  encyclopedic 
"Myrobiblion".  At  an  early  age.  also,  he  be^an  to 
teach  grammar,  philosophy,  and  theology  in  his  own 
house  to  a  steaaity  increasing  number  ofstudents. 

His  public  career  was  to  be  that  of  a  statesman, 
coupled  with  a  military  command.  His  brother 
Sergius  married  Irene,  the  emperor's  aunt.  This 
connexion  and  his  undoubted  merit  procured  Photius 
speedy  advancement.  He  became  chief  secretary  of 
State  (rptiyroirjiKpiiTit)  and  captain  of  the  Life  Guard 
{Tpunoffwaddpios).  He  was  unmarried.  Probably  about 
838  he  was  sent  on  an  embacey  "to  the  Assyr- 
ians" ("Myrobiblion",  preface),  i.  e.,  apparently,  to 
the  Khalifa  at  Bagdad.  In  the  year  857,  then,  when 
the  crisis  came  in  his  life.  Photius  was  already  one  of 
the  most  prominent  members  of  the  Court  of  Constan- 
tinople. That  crisis  is  the  story  of  the  Great  Schism 
(see  Greek  Church).  The  emperor  was  Michael 
III  (842-6^).  son  of  the  Theodora  who  had  finally  re- 
stored the  holy  images.  When  he  succeeded  his 
father  Theophilus  (829-842)  he  was  only  three  years 
old;  he  grew  to  be  the  wretched  boy  known  in  Byzan- 
tine history  as  Michael  the  Drunkard  (6  ^^vo-ri^s). 
Theodora,  at  first  regent,  retired  in  856,  and  her 
brother  Bardas  succeeded,  with  the  title  of  Csesar. 
Bardas  lived  in  incest  with  his  daughter-in-law 
Eudocia.  wherefore  the  Patriarch  Ignatius  (846-57) 
refused  nim  Holy  Communion  on  the  Epiphany  of 
857.  Ignatius  was  deposed  and  banished  (Nov.  23, 
857),  and  the  more  pliant  Photius  was  intruded  into 
his  place.  He  was  hurried  through  Holy  Orders  in 
six  days;  on  (^hristmas  Day,  857,  Gregory  Asbestos 
of  Syracuse,  himself  excommunicate  for  insubordina- 
tion by  Ignatius,  ordained  Photius  patriarch.  By  this 
act  Photius  committed  three  offences  against  canon 
law:  he  was  ordained  bishop  without  having  kept  the 
interstices,  by  an  excommunicate  consecrator,  and 
to  an  already  occui)ied  see.  To  receive  ordination 
from  an  excommunicate  person  made  him  too  ex- 
communicate ipso  facto. 

After  vain  attempts  to  make  Ignatius  resign  his  see, 
the  emperor  tried  to  obtain  from  Pope  Nicholas  I 
(858-67)  recognition  of  Photius  by  a  letter  grossly 
misrepresenting  the  facts  and  asking  for  legates  to 
come  and  decide  the  question  in  a  synod.  Photius 
also  wrote,  very  respectfully,  to  the  same  purpose 
(Hergenrother,  "Photius",  I,  407-11).  The  pope 
sent  two  legates,  Rodoald  of  Porto  and  Zachary  of 
Anagni,  with  cautious  letters.  The  legates  were  to 
hear  both  sides  and  report  to  him.  A  synod  was  held 
in  St.  Sophia's  (May,  861).  The  legates  took  heavy 
bribes  and  agreed  to  Ignatius's  deposition  and  Photius  s 
succession.  They  returned  to  Rome  with  further 
letters,  and  the  emperor  sent  his  Secretary  of  State, 
Leo,  after  them  with  more  explanations  (Hergen- 
rother, op.  cit.,  I,  439-460).  In  all  these  letters  both 
the  emperor  and  Photius  emphatically  acknowledge 
the  Roman  primacy  and  categorically  invoke  the 


pope's  jurisdiction  to  confirm  wha.t  has  happened. 
Meanwhile  Ignatius,  in  exile  at  the  island  Terebinth, 
sent  his  friend  the  Archimandrite  Theognostus  to 
Rome  with  an  urgent  letter  setting  forth  his  case  (Her- 
genrother, Ij  46&-61).  Theognostus  did  not  arrive 
till  862.  Nicholas,  then,  having  heard  both  sides, 
decided  for  Ignatius,  and  answered  the  letters  of 
Michael  and  Photius  by  insisting  that  Ignatius  must 
be  restored,  that  the  usurpation  of  his  see  must  cease 
(ibid.,  I,  511-16,  516-19).  He  also  wrote  in  the  same 
sense  to  the  other  Eastern  patriarchs  (5 10-1 1 ) .  From 
that  attitude  Rome  never  wavered:  it  was  the  immedi- 
ate cause  of  the  schism.  In  863  the  pope  held  a  synod 
at  the  Lateran  in  which  the  two  legates  were  tried, 
degraded,  and  excommunicated.  The  synod  repeats 
Nicholas's  decision,  that  Ignatius  is  lawful  Patnarch 
of  Constantinople;  Photius  is  to  be  excommunicate 
unless  he  retires  at  once  from  his  usurped  place. 

But  Photius  had  the  emperor  and  the  Court  on  his 
side.  Instead  of  obeying  the  pope,  to  whom  he  had 
appealed,  he  resolved  to  dfeny  hfs  authbrity  altogether. 
Ignatius  was  kept  chained  in  prison,  the  pope's  letters 
were  not  allowed  to  be  published.  The  emperor  sent 
an  answer  dictated^  by  Photius  saying  that  nothing 
Nicholas  could  do  would  help  Ignatius,  that  all  the 
Eastern  Patriarchs  were  on  Photius's  side,  that  the 
excommunication  of  the  legates  must  be  explained 
and  that  unless  the  pope  altered  his  decision,  Michael 
would  come  to  Rome  with  an  army  to  punish  him. 
Photius  then  kept  his  place  undisturbed  for  four 
years.  In  8^7  he  carried  the  war  into  the  enemy's 
camp  by  excommunicating  the  pope  and  his  Latins. 
The  reasons  he  gives  for  this,  in  an  encyclical 
sent  to  the  Eastern  patriarchs,  are:  that  Latins  (1) 
fast  on  Saturday,  (2)  do  not  begin  Lent  till  Ash 
Wednesday  (instead  of  three  days  earlier,  as  in  the 
East),  (3)  do  not  allow  priests  to  be  married,  (4)  do 
not  allow  priests  to  administer  confirmation,  (5)  have 
added  the  filioque  to  the  creed.  Because  of  these 
errors  the  pope  and  all  Latins  are:  "forerunners  of 
apostasy,  servants  of  Antichrist  who  deserve  a 
tnousand  deaths,  liars,  fighters  against  God"  (Her- 
genrother, I,  642-46).  It  is  not  easy  to  say  what  the 
Melchite  patriarchs  thought  of  the  quarrel  at  this 
juncture.  Afterwards,  at  the  Eighth  General  Coun- 
cil, their  legates  declared  that  they  had  pronounced 
no  sentence  against  Photius  because  that  of  the  pope 
was  obviously  sufficient. 

Then,  suddenly,  in  the  same  year  (Sept.,  867), 
Photius  fell.  Michael  III  was  murdered  and  Basil  I 
(the  Macedonian,  867-86)  seized  his  place  as  emperor. 
Photius  shared  the  fate  of  all  Michael's  friends.  He 
was  ejected  from  the  patriarch's  palace,  and  Ignatius 
restored.  Nicholas  I  died  (Nov.  13,  867).  Adrian  II 
(867-72),  his  successor,  answered  Ignatius's  appeal  for 
legates  to  attend  a  synod  that  should  examine  the 
whole  matter  by  sending  Donatus,  Bishop  of  Ostia, 
Stephen,  Bishop  of  Nepi^  and  a  deacon,  Marinus. 
They  arrived  at  CJonstantmople  in  Sept.,  869,  and  in 
October  the  synod  was  opened  which  Catholics  recog- 
nize as  the  Eighth  General  (Ik)uncil  (Fourth  of  Con- 
stantinople). This  synod  tried  Photius,  confirmed 
his  deposition,  and,  as  he  refused  to  renounce  his 
claim,  excommunicated  him.     The  bishops  of  his 

?arty  received  li^t  penances  (Mansi,  XVI,  308-409). 
hotius  was  banished  to  a  monastery  at  Stenos  on  the 
Bosphorus.  Here  he  spent  seven  years,  writing  let- 
ters to  his  friends,  organizing  his  party,  and  waiting 
for  another  chance.  Meanwhile  Ignatius  reigned  as 
patriarch.  Photius,  as  part  of  his  policy,  professed 
great  admiration  for  the  emperor  and  sent  him  a 
fictitious  pedigree  showing  his  descent  from  St. 
Gregory  the  Illuminator  and  a  forged  prophecy  fore- 
telling his  greatness  (Mansi,  XVI,  284).  Basil  was 
so  pleased  with  this  that  he  recalled  him  in  876  and 
appointed  him  tutor  to  his  son  Constantine.  Photius 
ingratiated  himself  with  everyone  and  feigned  recon- 


PHOTIUS  45  f^HOTttfS 

eiliation  with  Ignatius.  It  is  doubtful  how  far  Igna-  of  Photius  in  867;  so  Rome  refused  to  recognise  hitfi. 
tius  believed  in  him,  but  Photius  at  this  time  never  It  was  only  under  his  successor  Antony  11  (893-95) 
tires  of  expatiating  on  his  close  friendship  with  the  that  a  synod  was  held  which  restored  reunion  for 
patriarch.  He  became  so  popular  that  when  Ignatius  a  century  and  a  half,  till  the  time  of  Michael  Caerular- 
died  (23  Oct.,  877)  a  strong  party  demanded  that  ius  (1043-68).  But  Photius  had  left  a  powerful  anti- 
PhotiuB  should  succeed  him;  the  emperor  was  now  Roman  piuty,  eager  to  repudiate  the  pope's  primacy 
on  their  side,  and  an  embassy  went  to  Rome  to  explain  and  reaay  for  another  schism.  It  was  this^arty.  to 
that  everyone  at  Constantmople  wanted  Photius  to  wluch  Csrularius  belonged,  that  triumphed  at  Con- 
be  patriarch.  The  pope  (John  VIII,  872-82)  agreed,  stantinople  under  him.  so  that  Photius  fe  rightly  con- 
absolved  him  from  all  censure,  and  acknowledged  sidered  the  author  oi  the  schism  which  still  lasts, 
hin  as  patriarch.  After  this  second  deposition  Photius  suddenly  dis- 

This  concession  has  been  much  discussed.     It  has  appears  from  history.    It^is  not  even  known  in  what 

been  represented,  truly  enough,  that  Photius  had  monastery  he  spent  his  last  years.    Among  his  many 

shown  himself  unfit  for  such  a  post;  John  VII I's  letters  there  is  none  that  can  be  dated  certainly  as  be- 

acknowledgment  of  him  has  been  described  as  showing  longing  to  this  second  exile.    The  date  of  his  death, 

deplorable  weakness. '  On  the  other  hand,  by  Igna-  not  quite  certain,  is  generally  given  as  6  February, 

tius's  death  the  See  of  Constantinople  was  now  really  897. 

vacant;  the  clergy  had  an  undoubted  right  to  elect        That  Photius  was  one  of  the  greatest  men  of  the 

their  own  patriarch;  to  refuse  to  acknowledge  Photius  Middle  Ages,  one  of  the  most  remarkable  characters 

would  have  provoked  a  fresh  breach  with  the  East,  in  all  church  history,  will  not  be  disputed.    His  fatal 

would  not  have  prevented  his  occupation  of  the  see,  quarrel  with  Rome,  though  the  most  famous,  was  only 

and  would  have  given  his  party  (including  the  emperor)  one  result  of  his  many-sided  activity.    During  the 

just  reason  for  a  quarrel.     The  event  proved  that  stormy  years  he  spent  on  the  patriarch's  throne,  while 

almost  anything  would  have  been  better  than  to  alUw  he  was  warring  against  the  Latins,  he  was  negotiating 

his  succession,  if  it  could  be  prevented.     But  the  pope  with  the  Moslem  Khalifa  for  the  protection  of  the 

could  not  foresee  that,  and  no  doubt  hoped  that  Christians  under  Moslem  rule  and  the  care  of  the  Holy 

Photius,  having  reached  the  height  of  his  ambition.  Places,  and  carrying  on  controversies  against  various 

would  (uop  the  quarrel.  Eastern  heretics,  Armenians,  Paulicians   etc.      His 

In  878.  then,  Photius  at  last  obtained  lawfully  the  interest  in  letters  never  abated.    Amid  all  his  ciaies 

place  he  had  formerly  usurped.    Rome  acknowledged  he  found  time  to  write  works  on  dogma,  Biblical  criti- 

him  and  restored  him  to  her  communion.    There  was  cism,  canon  law,  homilies,  an  encyclopsedia  of  all  kinds 

no  possible  reason  now  for  a  fresh  quarrel.     But  he  had  of  learning,  and  letters  on  all  questions  of  the  day. 

identified  himself  so  completely  with  that  strong  Had  it  not  been  for  his  disastrous  schism,  he  mi^t  be 

anti-Roman  party  in  the  East  which  he  mainly  had  counted  the  last,  and  one  of  the  greatest,  of  the  Greek 

formed,  and,  doubtless,  he  had  formed  so  great  a  hatred  Fathers.    There  is  no  shadow  ofsuspicion  against  his 

of  Rome,  that  now  he  carried  on  the  old  quarrel  with  private  life.    He  bore  his  exiles  and  other  troubles 

as   much   bitterness   as  ever  and   more  infiuence.  manfully  and  well.    He  never  despaired  of  his  cause 

Nevertheless  he  applied  to  Rome  for  legates  to  come  and  spent  the  years  of  adversity  in  building  up  his 

to  another  synod.    There  was  no  reason  for  the  synod,  party,  writing  letters  to  encourage  his  old  friends  and 

but  he  persuaded  John  VIII  that  it  would  clear  up  make  new  ones. 

the  last  remains  of  the  schism  and  rivet  more  firmly  .    And  yet  the  other  side  of  his  character  is  no  less 

the  union  between  East  and  West.     Hb  real  motive  evident.     His  insatiable  ambition,  his  detennination 

was,  no  doubt,  to  undo  the  effect  of  the  synod  that  had  to  obtain  and  keep  the  patriarchal  see,  led  him  to  the 

deposed  him.     The  pope  sent  three  legates,  Cardinal  extreme  of  disdionesty.       His  claim  was  worthless. 

Peter  of  St.  Chrysogonus-^  Paul,  Bishop  of  Ancona.  That  Ignatius  was  the  rightful  patriarch  as  lon^  as  he 

and  Eugene,  Bishop  of  Ostia.    The  synod  was  opened  lived,  and  Photius  an  intruder,  cannot  be  demed  by 

in  St.  Sophia's  in  ^fovember.  879.    This  is  the  "  Pseu-  any  one  who  does  not  conceive  the  Church  as  merely 

dosy nodus  Photiana'*  which  the  Orthodox  count  as  the  slave  of  a  civil  government.    And  to  keep  this 

the  Eighth  General  Council.     Photius  had  it  all  his  place  Photius  descended  to  the  lowest  depth  of  deceit, 

own  way  throughout.     He  revoked  the  acts  of  the  At  the  very  time  he  was  protesting  his  obedience  to 

former  E^od  (869),  repeated  all  his  accusations  against  the  pope  he  was  dictating  to  the  emperor  insolent 

the  Latins,  dwelling  especially  on  the  fUioque  griev-  letters  that  denied  all  papal  jurisdiction.    He  misrep- 

ance,  anathematized  all  who  added  an3rthing  to  the  resented  the  story  of  Ignatius's  deposition  with  un- 

Creed,  and  declared  that  Bulgaria  should  belong  to  blushing  lies,  and  he  at  least  connived  at  Ignatius's 

the  Byzantine  Patriarchate.    The  fact  that  there  ill-treatment  in  banishment.    He  proclaimed  openly 

was  a  great  majority  for  all  these  measures  shows  how  his  entire  subservience  to  the  State  in  the  whole 

strong  Photius  s  partv  had  become  in  the  East.    The  question  of  his  intrusion.    He  stops  at  nothing  in  his 

legates,  like  their  predecessors  in  861,  a^^-eed  to  every-  war  against  the  Latins.    He  heaps  up  accusations 

thing  the  majority  desired  (Mansi,  AVlI,  374  sq.).  against  them  that  he  must  have  known  were  lies. 

As  soon  as  they  had  returned  to  Rome,  Photius  sent  His  effrontery  on  occasions  is  almost  incredible.    For 

the  Acts  to  the  pope  for  his  confirmation.     Instead  instance,  as  one  more  grievance  against  Rome,  he 

John,  naturally,  again  excommunicated  him.    So  the  never  tires  of  inveighing  against  the  fact  that  Pope 

schism  broke  out  again.     This  time  it  lasted  seven  Marinus   I    (882-84),  John   VIIPs   successor,   was 

years,  till  Basil  I's  death  in  886.  translated  from  another  see,  instead  of  being  ordained 

Basil  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Leo  VI  (886-912),  from  the  Roman  clergy.  He  describes  this  as  an 
who  strongly  disliked  Photius.  One  of  his  first  acts  atrocious  breach  of  canon  law,  quoting  against  it 
was  to  accuse  him  of  treason,  depose,  and  banish  the  first  and  second  canons  of  Sardica;  and  at  the  saine 
him  (886).  The  story  of  this  second  deix)sition  time  he  himself  continually  transferred  bishops  in  his 
and  banishment  is  obscure.  The  charge  was  that  patriarchate.  The  Orthodox,  who  look  upon  him, 
Photius  had  conspired  to  depose  the  emperor  and  rightly,  as  the  great  champion  of  their  cause  against 
put  one  of  his  own  relations  on  the  throne — an  accusa-  Rome,  have  for^ven  all  bis  offences  for  the  s&e  of 
lion  which  probably  meant  that  the  emperor  wanted  this  championship.  They  have  canonized  him,  and 
to  get  rid  of  him.  As  Stephen,  Leo's  younger  brother,  on  6  Feb.,  when  they  keep  his  feast,  their  office  over- 
was  made  patriarch  (886-93)  the  real  explanation  flows  with  his  praise.     He  is  the  "far-shining  radiant 


PHRTGIAKS 


46 


PHYLACTERIES 


of  Roman  pride''  (''Menolodon"  for  6  Feb.,  ed.  Malt- 
£ew,  I,  916  sq.).  The  Catnolic  remembers  this  ex- 
traordmaiy  man  with  mixed  feelings.  We  do  not 
dmy  his  eminent  qualities  and  yet  we  certainly  do  not 
remember  him  as  a  thrice  blessed  speaker  for  God. 
One  may  perhaps  sum  up  Photius  b^  saying  that  he 
was  a  great  man  with  one  blot  on  his  character — ^his 
insatiable  and  unscrupulous  ambition.  But  that  blot 
80  covers  his  life  that  it  eclipses  ever3rthing  else  and 
makes  him  deserve  our  final  judgment  as  one  of  the 
worst  enemies  the  Church  of  Christ  ever  had,  and  the 
cause  of  the  greatest  calamity  that  ever  befell  her. 

Works. — Of  Photius's  prolific  literary  production 
part  has  been  lost.  A  great  merit  of  what  remains  is 
that  he  has  preserved  at  least  fragments  of  earlier 
Greek  works  of  which  otherwise  we  should  know  noth- 
ing. This  applies  especially  to  lus  *'Myriobiblion". 
(1)  The  "Myriobiblion"  or  "Bibliotheca"  is  a  col- 
lection of  descriptions  of  books  he  had  read,  with  notes 
and  sometimes  copious  extracts.  It  contains  280 
such  notices  of  books  (or  rather  279;  no.  89  is  lost)  on 
every  possible  subject — theology,  philosophy,  rhet- 
oric, grammar,  physics,  medicine.  He  quotes  pagans 
and  Christians,  Acts  of  Councils,  Acts  of  Martyrs, 
and  so  on,  in  no  sort  of  order.  For  the  works  thus 
partitdly  saved  (otherwise  unknown)  see  Krumbacher, 
^*Bya.  Litter.",  518-19.  (2)  The  "Lexicon"  (A^^wk 
ffvpaywyij)  was  compiled,  probably,  to  a  great  extent 
by  his  students  under  his  direction  (Krumbacher,  ibid., 
521),  from  older  Greek  dictionaries  (Pausanias,  Har- 
pokration,  Diogenianos,  MMus  Dionysius).  It  was 
intended  as  a  practical  help  to  readers  of  the  Greek 
classics,  the  Septuagint,  and  the  New  Testament. 
Only  one  MS.  of  it  exists,  the  defective  "Codex 
Galeanus"  (formerly  in  the  possession  of  Thomas 
Gale,  now  at  Cambridge),  wntten  about  1200.  (3) 
The  "  Amphilochia",  dedicated  to  one  of  his  favourite 
disciples,  Amphilochius  of  Cyzicus,  are  answers  to 

Questions  on  Biblical,  philosophical,  and  theological 
ifficulties,  written  during  his  first  exile  (867-77). 
There  are  324  subjects  discussed,  each  in  a  regular 
form — question^  answer,  difficulties,  solutions — ^but 
arranged  again  m  no  order.  Photius  ^ves  mostly  the 
views  of  famous  Greek  Fathers,  Epiphanius,  Cyril 
of  Alexandria,  John  Damascene,  especially  Theodoret. 
(4)  Biblical  works. — Only  fr^ments  of  these  are 
extant,  chiefiy  in  Catenas.  The  longest  are  from 
Commentaries  on  St.  Matthew  and  Romans.  (5) 
Canon  Law. — ^The  classical  "Nomocanon"  (q.  v.),  the 
official  code  of  the  Orthodox  Church,  is  attributed  to 
Photius.  It  is,  however,  older  than  his  time  (see 
John  Scholasticus).  It  was  revised  and  received 
additions  (from  thes^odsof  861  and  879)  in  Photius's 
time,  probably  by  his  orders.  The  "Collections  and 
Accurate  Expositions"  (2  vya7(iryat  Kal  dirodt^it  dxpifiets) 

(Her^enrother,  op.  cit.,  Ill,  165-70)  are  a  series  of 
questions  and  answers  on  points  of  canon  law,  really 
an  indirect  vindication  of  his  own  claims  and  position. 
A  number  of  his  letters  bear  on  canonical  questions. 
(6)  Homilies. — Hergenrother  mentions  twenty-two 
sermons  of  Photius  (III,  232).  Of  these  two  were 
printed  when  Hergenrother  wrote  (in  P.  G.^  CII,  548 
sq.),  one  on  the  Nativity  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  and 
one  at  the  dedicatior4  of  a  new  church  during  his 
second  patriarchate.  Later,  S.  Aristarches  published 
eighty-three  homilies  of  different  kinds  (Constanti- 
nople, 1900).  (7)  Dogmatic  and  polemical  works. — 
Many  of  these  bear  on  his  accusations  against  the 
Latins  and  so  form  the  beginning  of  the  long  series  of 
anti-Catholic  controversy  produced  by  Orthodox 
theologians.  The  most  important  is  "  Concerning  the 
Theology  about  the  Holy  Ghost"  (Hepi  r^  rod  iiylov 
TwfdfMTot  fiv^Tayuylatj  P.  G.,  CII,  264-541),  a  defence 
of  the  Procession  from  God  the  Father  alone,  based 
chiefly  on  John,  xv,  26.  An  epitome  of  the  same 
work,  made  by  a  later  author  and  contained  in 
Euthymius  Zigabenus's  ''Panoplla",  XIII,  became 


the  favourite  weapon  of  Orthodox  controversialists 
for  many  centuries.  The  treatise ' *  Against  Those  who 
say  that  Rome  is  the  First  See",  also  a  very  popular 
Orthodox  weapon,  is  only  the  last  part  or  supplement 
of  the  '' Collections",  often  written  out  separately. 
The  '^  Dissertation  Concerning  the  Reappearance  of  the 
Manichseans"  {Ai'fhrv^tf  vcpi  rift  ftanx^f^y  dvafilkaari^ 
^«wj,  P.  G.,  CII,  9-264),  in  four  books,  is  a  history  and 
refutation  of  the  Paulicians.  Much  of  the  '^Amphu- 
ochia"  belongs  to  this  heading.  The  little  work 
''  Against  the  Franks  and  other  Latins  "  (Hergenrother, 
"Monumenta",  62-71),  attributed  to  Photius,  is  not 
authentic.  It  was  written  after  Cserularius  (Hergen- 
rother, "Photius",  IIIj  172-224).  (8)  Letters.— 
Migne.  P.  G.,  CII,  publishes  193  letters  arranged  in 
three  books;  Balettas  (London,  1864)  has  edit^  a 
more  complete  collection  in  five  parts.  Thev  cover 
all  the  chief  periods  of  Photius's  life,  and  are  the  most 
important  source  for  his  history. 

A.  Ehrhard  (in  Krumbacher,  "Bysantinische  Lit- 
teratur",  74-77)  judges  Photius  as  a  distinguished 

Sreacher,  but  not  as  a  tneolo^an  of  the  first  importance, 
[is  theological  work  is  chiefiy  the  collection  of  ex- 
cerpts from  Greek  Fathers  and  other  sources.  His 
erudition  is  vast,  and  probably  unequalled  in  the  Mid- 
dle Ages,  but  he  has  little  originality,  even  in  his  con- 
troversy against  the  Latins.  Here,  too,  he  only 
needed  to  collect  angry  things  said  by  Byzantine 
theologians  before  his  time.  But  his  discovery  of  the 
filioque  grievance  seems  to  be  original.  Its  success 
as  a  weapon  is  considerably  greater  than  its  real  value 
deserves  (Fortescue,  "Orthodox  Eastern  Church", 
372-84). 

Editions. — The  works  of  Photius  known  at  the  time 
were  collected  by  Migne,  P.  G.,  CI-CV.  J.  Balettas, 
^tariov  iiruFTo\al  (London^  1864),  contains  other  let- 
ters (altogether  2^)  not  in  Migne.  A.  Papadopulos- 
Kerameus,  "S.  Patris  Photii  Epistote  XLV^  (St. 
Petersburg,  1896)  gives  forty-five  more,  of  which,  how- 
ever, only  the  first  twenty-one  are  authentic.  S.  Aris- 
tarches, ^tariov  X^yoi  jra(  6iu\Uu  83  (Constantinople, 
1900,  2  vols.),  gives  other  homilies  not  in  Migne. 
Oikonomos  has  edited  the  "Amphilochia"  (Athens, 
1858)  in  a  more  complete  text.  J.  Hergenr6ther, 
"Monumenta  grsca  ad  Photium  eiusoue  historiam 
pertinentia"  (Ratisbon,  1869),  and  Papaaopulos-Kera- 
m^us^  "Monumenta  graeca  et  latina  aa  historiam 
Photii  patriarchs  pertinentia"  (St.  Petersburg,  2  parts, 
1899  and  1901),  add  further  documents. 

The  AcUofthe  Synods  of  869  and  879  are  the  most  important 
■ources  (Mansi,  Xvl  and  XVII).    Theognobtus  (Archimandrite 


at  Constantinople),  AifitXXo^  irtpi^x*"!'  *5*^?  rd  ff«rdL  r6r  Mryay 

sq.):  ISIKETAB 

Btof  'lyvartov  (Manai,  aVI>  209  sq.).    Papadopuix>8-Kerambus 


'lyKATior,  a  contemporary  account  ofthe  beadnning  of  the  schism 

Pi 


(in  Mansi,  XVI.  295  sq.) :  Niketab  David  Paphlaoon  (d.  890) ; 
Btof  'lyvartov  (Manai,  aVI>  209  sq.).  Papadopulob-Kerameub 
declared  this  to  be  a  fourteenth-century  forgery  in  the  ViMont. 
Vremennik  (1899),  13-38,  i'cvdoviK^af  &  ira^AaYwr) ;  he  was  suo- 
cessfully  refuted  by  Vabiljewbki  (»6uf.,  39-56);  ej.  Byzant.  Zeit- 


Vremennik  (1899),  lZ-^,irtv6ovuciTat  bwa^\aym¥);he  was  suo- 

'  ily  refuted  by  Vabiljewbki  (»6uf.,  39-56);  ef.     ^  ' 

achrifl,  IX  (1900) .  268  sq.    Qbiybbiob,  BaaiAtrat  (written  between 


945-959).  a  history  of  the  emperors  and  Court  from  Leo  V  (813- 
20)  to  Basil  I  (867-86),  published  in  Corpus  Serijaiorum  Hut, 
Bytantina  (Bonn,  1834)  and  P.O.,CIX,  985  sqq.;  Tbbopbakm 
CoNTiNUATUB  for  813-961  in  Corpus  Script.,  1838.  and  P.  O., 
CIX,  15  sqq.;  Leo  Gbammaticub,  re-edition  of  Stmbon  Maoib- 
TER,  CkronieU,  in  Corpus  Script.,  1842,  and  P.  (7.,  CVIII.  1037  Bq9. 
HeroeniiOthbr,  Photitu,  Piitriarch  von  KonslarUinopd,  soin 
L^>en^  seine  Schrifien  u.  das  griechische  Schisma  (Ratisbon,  1867- 
69)  (the  most  learned  and  exhaustive  work  on  the  subject). 
DeiietraKOPULOS,  'Ivropia  rov  VYcV^arof  riff  Aariyuciff  iwh  n^f 


ba$fM(ov  cfficAifa-taf  (Leipiig.  1867),  is  ah  attempted  rejoinder  to 
Hergenrother,  as  is  also  KRBMOB,'I<rropia  rov  ^vi^iiarot  n»v  Avo 
cfficAifo-twi'    (Athens,  190&-07,  two    volumes   published   out  of 


four).  UlMMER,  Pap^  Nikolaus  u.  die  bysantinische  Staatskirehe 
seiner  Zeii  (Berlin,  1857);  Pichlbr,  Qeschidde  der  kirchliehen 
Trenntmg  svoischen  dem  Orient,  u.  Occident  (Munich,  1864-65); 
NoRDBN,  Das  PapsUum  und  Bysanz  (Berlin,  1903) ;  Krumbachbr, 
OeschiefUe  der  Bysantinisehen  LiUeratur  (Munich,  1897).  73-79, 
515-524  (with  copious  bibliography) ;  Fortebcue,  The  Orthodox 
Eastern  Church  (London,  1907),  13^171 ;  Rcinaut,  Le  schisms  do 
Photius  (Paris.  1910). 

Adrian  Fortbscub. 
PhrygiaDJ.    See  Montanistb. 

PhylactariM  (^vXaxri^Mor.  safeguard,  amulet,  or 
charm).   The  word  occurs  only  once  in  the  New  Tea- 


PHYSICS 


47 


PHYSICS 


tament  (Matt.,  xxiii,  5),  in  the  great  discourse  of  Our 
Lord  against  the  Pharisees  whom  He  reproaches  with 
ostentation  in  the  discharge  of  their  religious  and 
social  duties:  "For  they  make  their  phylacteries 
broad  and  enlarge  their  fringes".  By  the  Jews  the 
phylacteries  are  termed  tephilliTif  plural  of  the  word 
tephiUahf  "a  prayer",  and  consist  of  two  small  square 


Arm  entwined  with  Phylactery 

cases  of  leather,  one  of  which  is  worn  on  the  forehead, 
the  other  on  the  upper  left  arm.  The  case  for  the 
forehead  holds  four  distinct  compartments,  that  for 
the  arm  only  one.     They  contain  narrow  strips  oi 

Parchment  on  which  are  copied  passages  from  the 
entateuch,  viz.,  Ex.,  xiii,  1-10;  and  Deut.,  vi,  4-9; 
xi,  iat-21.  The  practice  of  wearing  the  phylacteries 
at  stated  moments  is  still  regarded  as  a  sacred  reli- 
gious duty  by  the  orthodox  Jews. 

Klgin.  6ie  Toiapholh  nach  Bibel  und  Tradition  in  JahrbUeher 
f.  Prol.  Thtol.  (Berlin,  18S1),  606-689;  Viqouroux,  Did.  de  la 
Bible,  a.  v.  Phylactirea. 

James  F.  Driscoll. 

PhysicSi  History  of. — The  subject  will  be  treated 
under  the  following  heads: — I.  A  Glance  at  Ancient 
Physics;  II.  Science  and  Early  Christian  Scholars; 
III.  A  Glance  at  Arabian  Physics;  IV.  Arabian  Tradi- 
tion and  Latin  Scholasticism;  V.  The  Science  of  Ob- 
servation and  Its  Progress — Astronomers — ^The  Stat- 
ics of  Jordanus — Thierry  of  Freiberg — Pierre  of 
Maricourt;  VI.  The  Articles  of  Paris  (1277)— Possi- 
bility of  Vacuum;  VII.  The  Earth's  Motion— -Oresme; 
VIII.  Plurality  of  Worlds;  IX.  Dynamics— Theory  of 
Impetus — Inertia — Celestial  and  Sublunary  Mechan- 
ics Identical;  X.  Propagation  of  the  Doctrines  of  the 
School  of  Paris  in  Germany  and  Italy — Purbach  and 
Regiomontanus — Nicholas  of  Cusa — Vinci;  XI.  Ital- 
ian Averroism  and  its  Tendencies  to  Routine — At- 
tempts at  Restoring  the  Astronomy  of  Homocentric 
Spheres;  XII.  The  Copemican  Revolution}  XIII. 
Fortunes  of  the  Copemican  System  in  the  Sixteenth 
Century;  XIV.  Theory  of  the  Tides;  XV.  Statics  in 
the  Sixteenth  Century — Stevinus;  XVI.  Dynamics  in 
the  Sixteenth  Century;  XVII.  Galileo's  ,Work; 
XVIII.  Initial  Attempts  in  Celestial  Mechanics — 
Gilbert — Kepler;  XI A.  Controversies  concerning 
Geostatics;  aX.  Descartes'sWork;  XXI.  Progress  of 
Experimental  Physics;  XXII.  Undulatoiy  Theory  of 
Light;  XXIII.  Development  of  Dynamics;  XXIV. 
Newton's  Work ;  XXV.  Progress  of  General  and  Celes- 
tial Mechanics  in  the  Eighteenth  Century;  XXVI. 
Establishifient  of  the  Theory  of  Electricity  and  Mag- 
netism; XXVII.  Molecular  Attraction;  XXVIIl. 
Revival  of  the  Undulatory  Theory  of  Light;  XXIX. 
Theories  of  Heat. 

I.  A  Glance  at  Ancient  Physics. — Although  at 
the  time  of  Christ's  birth  Hellenic  science  had  pro- 
duced nearly  all  its  masterpieces,  it  was  still  to  give 
to  the  world  Ptolemy's  astronomy,  the  way  for  which 
had  been  pavejl  for  more  than  a  century  by  the  works 
of  Hipparchus.  The  revelations  of  Greek  thought  on 
the  nature  of  the  exterior  world  ended  with  the 
"Almagest",  which  appeared  about  a.  d.  145,  and 
then  began  the  decline  of  ancient  learning.  Those  of 
its  works  that  escaped  the  fires  kindled  by  Moham- 
medan warriors  were  subjected  to  the  barren  inter- 
pretations of  Mussulman  commentators  and,  like 
parched  seed,  awaited  the  time  when  Latin  Chris- 
tianity would  furnish  a  favourable  soil  in  which  they 
could  once  lAore  flourish  and  bring  forth  fruit.  Hence 
it  is  that  the  time  when  Ptolemy  put  the  fmishing 


touches  to  his  "Great  Mathematical  Syntax  of  Astron- 
omy" seems  the  most  opportune  in  which  to  study 
the  field  of  ancient  physics.  An  impassable  frontier 
separated  this  field  into  two  regions  in  which  different 
laws  prevailed.  From  the  moon's  orbit  to  the  sphere 
enclosing  the  world,  extended  the  region  of  beings 
exempt  from  generation,  change,  and  death,  of  per- 
fect, divine  beings,  and  these  were  the  star-sphere  and 
the  stars  themselves.  Inside  the  lunar  orbit  lay  the 
region  of  generation  and  corruption,  where  the  four 
elements  and  the  mixed  bodies  generated  by  their 
mutual  combinations  were  subject  to  perpetual 
change. 

The  science  of  the  stars  was  dominated  by  a  prin- 
ciple formulated  by  Plato  and  the  Pythagoreans, 
according  to  which  all  the  phenomena  presented  to  us 
by  the  heavenly  bodies  must  be  accounted  for  by 
combinations  of  circular  and  uniform  motions.  More- 
over, Plato  declared  that  these  circular  motions  were 
reducible  to  the  rotation  of  solid  globes  all  limited  by 
spherical  surfaces  concentric  with  the  World  and  the 
Earth,  and  some  of  these  homocentric  spheres  carried 
fixed  or  wandering  stars.  Eudoxus  of  Cnidus,  Cal- 
ippus,  and  Aristotle  vied  with  one  another  in  striving 
to  advance  this  theory  of  homocentric  spheres,  its 
fundamental  hypothesis  being  incorporated  in  Aris- 
totle's *  *  Physics '  *  and ' '  Metaphysics  .  However,  the 
astronomy  of  homocentric  spheres  could  not  explain 
all  celestial  phenomena,  a  considerable  number  of 
which  showea  that  the  wandering  stars  did  not  always 
remain  at  an  equal  distance  from  the  Earth.  Hera- 
ciides  Ponticus  in  Plato's  time,  and  Aristarchus  of 
Samos  about  280  b.  c.  endeavoured  to  account  for  all 
astronomical  phenomena  by  a  heliocentric  system, 
which  was  an  outline  of  the  Copemican  mechanics: 
but  the  arguments  of  physics  and  the  precepts  of 
theology  proclaiming  the  Earth's  immobility,  readily 
obtained  the  ascendency  over  this  doctrine  which 
existed  in  a  mere  outlinel  Then  the  labours  of  Apol- 
lonius  Pergffius  (at  Alexandria,  205  b.  c),  of  Hip- 
parchus (who  made  observation  at  Rhodes  in  128  and 
127  B.  c),  and  finally  of  Ptolemy  (Claudius  Ptol- 
emaeus  of  relusium)  constituted  a  new  astronomical 
system  that  claimed  the  Earth  to  be  immovable  in  the 
centre  of  the  universe;  a  system  that  seemed,  as  it 
were,  to  reach  its  completion  when,  between  a.  d.  142 
and  146,  Ptolemy  wrote  a  work  called  '^MeydXri 
fjuiOrifiaTuc^  a^vra^is  r^t  darpovofjUai^^  its  Arabian  title 
being  transliterated  by  the  Christians  of  the  Middle 
Ages,  who  named  it  "Almagest".  The  astronomy  of 
the  "Almagest"  e?q)lained  all  astronomical  phe- 
nomena with  a  precision  which  for  a  long  time  seemed 
satisfactory,  accounting  for  them  by  combinations  of 
circular  motions;  but,  of  the  circles  described,  some 
were  eccentric  to  the  World,  whilst  others  were  epi- 
cyclic  circles,  the  centres  of  which  described  deferent 
circles  concentric  with  or  eccentric  to  the  World; 
moreover,  the  motion  on  the  deferent  was  no  longer 
uniform, seemingso only  when  viewed  from  the  centre 
of  the  equant.  Briefly,  in  order  to  construct  a  kine- 
matical  arrangement  by  means  of  which  phenomena 
could  be  accurately  represented,  the  astronomers 
whose  work  Ptolemy  completed  had  to  set  at  naught 
the  properties  ascribed  to  the  celestial  substance  by 
Aristotle's  "Physics",  and  between  this  "Physics 
and  the  astronomy  of  eccentrics  and  epicycles  there 
ensued  a  violent  struggle  which  lasted  until  the 
middle  of  the  sixteenth  century. 

In  Ptolemy's  time  the  physics  of  celestial  motion 
was  far  more  advanced  than  the  physics  of  sublunary 
bodies,  as,  in  this  science  of  beings  subject  to  genera- 
tion and  corruption,  only  two  chapters  had  reached 
any  degree  of  perfection,  namely,  those  on  optics 
(called  perspective)  and  statics.  The  law  of  reflec- 
tion was  known  as  early  as  the  time  of  Euclid,  about 
320  B.  c,  and  to  this  geometrician  was  attributed,  al- 
though probably  erroneously,  a  "Treatise  on  Mir- 


PHYSICS 


48 


PHYSICS 


rors'^  in  which  the  principles  of  catoptrics  were  cor- 
rectly set  forth.  Dioptrics,  being  more  difficult,  was 
developed  less  rapidly.  Ptolemy  already  knew  that 
the  angle  of  refraction  is  not  proportional  to  the  angle 
of  incidence,  and  in  order  to  determine  the  ratio  be- 
tween the  two  he  undertook  experiments  the  results 
of  which  were  remarkably  exact. 

Statics  reached  a  fuller  development  than  optics. 
The  ''Mechanical  Questions''  ascribed  to  Aristotle 
were  a  first  attempt  to  organize  that  science,  and  they 
contained  a  kind  of  outline  of  the  principle  of  virtual 
velocities,  destined  to  justify  the  law  of  the  equi- 
librium of  the  lever;  besides,  they  embodied  the  happv 
idea  of  referring  to  the  lever  theory  the  theory  of  all 
simple  machines.  An  elaboration,  in  which  Euclid 
seems  to  have  had  some  part,  brought  statics  to  the 
stage  of  development  in  which  it  was  found  by  Ar- 
chimedes (about  287-212  b.  c),  who  was  to  raise  it 
to  a  still  higher  degree  of  perfection.  It  will  here 
suffice  to  mention  the  works  of  genius  in  which  the 
great  S3rracusan  treated  the  equilibrium  oT  the 
weights  suspended  from  the  two  arms  of  a  lever,  the 
search  for  the  centre  of  gravity,  and  the  equilibrium 
of  liquids  and  floating  bodies.  The  treatises  of  Ar- 
chimedes were  too  scholarly  to  be  widely  read  by  the 
mechanicians  who  succeeded  this  geometrician;  these 
men  preferred  easier  and  more  practical  writings  as, 
for  instance,  those  on  the  Unes  of  Aristotle's  "Mechan- 
ical Questions".  Various  treatises  by  Heron  of  Alex- 
andria have  preserved  for  us  the  type  of  these  de- 
cadent works. 

II.  Science  and  Early  Christian  Scholars. — 
Shortly  after  the  death  of  Ptolemy,, Christian  science 
took  root  at  Alexandria  with  Origen  (about  180-253), 
and  a  fragment  of  his  "Commentaries  on  Genesis", 
preserved  by  Eusebius,  shows  us  that  the  author  was 
familiar  with  the  latest  astronomical  discoveries, 
especially  the  precession  of  the  equinoxes.  However, 
the  writings  in  which  the  Fathers  of  the  Church  com- 
ment upon  the  work  of  the  six  days  of  Creation,  notably 
the  commentaries  of  St.  Basil  and  St.  Ambrose,  bor- 
row but  little  from  Hellenic  physics;  in  fact,  their  tone 
would  seem  to  indicate  distrust  in  the  teachings  of 
Greek  science,  this  distrust  being  engendered  by  two 
prejudices:  in  the  first  place,  astronomy  was  becoming 
more  and  more  the  slave  of  astrology,  the  superstitions 
of  which  the  Church  diligently  combatted;  in  the 
seeond  place,  between  the  essential  propositions  of 
peripatetic  physics  and  what  we  believe  to  be  the 
teaching  of  Holy  Writ,  contradictions  appeared; 
thus  Genesis  was  thought  to  teach  the  presence  of 
water  above  the  heaven  of  the  fixed  stars  (the  firma- 
ment) and  this  was  incompatible  with  the  Aristotelean 
theory  concerning  the  natural  place  of  the  elements. 
The  ciebates  raised  by  this  question  gave  St.  Augustine 
an  opportunity  to  lay  down  wise  exegetical  rules,  and 
he  recommended  Christians  not  to  put  forth  lightly, 
as  articles  of  faith,  propositions  contradicted  by 
physical  science  based  upon  careful  experiments.  St. 
Isidore  of  Seville  (d.  636),  a  bishop,  considered  it 
legitimate  for  Christians  to  desire  to  Know  the  teach- 
ings of  profane  science,  and  he  laboured  to  satisfy 
this  curiosity.  His  "Etymologies"  and  "De  natura 
rerum"  are  merely  compilations  of  fragments  bor- 
rowed from  all  the  pagan  and  Christian  authors  with 
whom  he  was  acquainted.  In  the  height  of  the  Latin 
Middle  Ages  these  works  served  as  models  for  numer- 
ous encyclopsedias,  of  which  the  "De  natura  rerum" 
by  Bede  (about  672-735)  and  the  "De  universo"  by 
Rabanus  Maurus  (776-856)  were  the  best  known. 

However,  the  sources  from  which  the  Christians  of 
the  West  imbibed  a  knowledge  of  ancient  physics 
became  daily  more  numerous,  and  to  Pliny  the  Elder's 
"Natural  History",  read  by  Bede,  were  added 
Chalcidius's  commentary  on  Plato's  "Timajus"  and 
Martianus  Capella's  "De  Nuptiis  Philologiae  et  Mer- 
curii",  these  diflferent  works  mspiring  the  physics  of 


John  Scotus  Eriugena.  Prior  to  a.  d.  1000  a  new 
Platonic  work  b^  Macrobius,  a  commentary  on  the 
*'3oranium  Scipionis",  was  in  great  favour  in  the 
schools.  Influenced  by  the  various  treatises  already 
mentioned,  Guillaume  of  Conches  (1080-1150  or 
1154)  and  the  unknown  author  of  "De  mundi  con- 
stitutione  liber",  which,  by  the  way,  has  been  falsely 
attributed  to  Bede,  set  forth  a  planetary  theory 
m^ing  Venus  and  Mercury  satellites  of  the  sun,  but 
Eriugena  went  still  further  and  made  the  sun  also, 
the  centre  of  the  orbits  of  Mars  and  Jupiter.  Had  he 
but  extended  this  hypothesis  to  Saturn,  he  would  have 
merited  the  title  of  precursor  of  Tycho  Brahe. 

III.'  A  Glance  at  Arabian  Physics. — ^The  authors 
of  whom  we  have  heretofore  spoken  had  only  been 
acquainted  with  Greek  science  through  the  medium 
of  Latin  tradition,  but  the  time  came  when  it  was  to 
be  much  more  completely  revealed  to  the  Christians 
of  the  West  through  tne  medium  of  Mussulman 
tradition. 

There  is  no  Arabian  science.  The  wise  men  of 
Mohammedanism  were  always  the  more  or  less  faith- 
ful disciples  of  the  Greeks,  but  were  themselves  desti- 
tute of  all  originaUty.  For  instance,  they  compiled 
many  abridgments  of  Ptolemy's  ''Almagest",  made 
numerous  observations,  and  constructed  a  great  many 
astronomical  tables,  but  added  nothing  essential  to 
the  theories  of  astronomical  motion;  their  only  inno- 
vation in  this  respect,  and,  by  the  way.  quite  an  un- 
fortunate one,  was  the  doctrine  of  tne  oscillatory 
motion  of  the  equinoctial  points,  which  the  Middle 
Ages  ascribed  to  ThAbit  ibn  Kdrrah  (836-901),  but 
which  was  probably  the  idea  of  Al-Zarkali,  who  lived 
much  later  and  made  observations  between  1060  and 
1080.  This  motion  was  merely  the  adaptation  of  a 
mechanism  conceived  by  Ptolemy  for  a  tot^ly  differ- 
ent purpose. 

In  physics,  Arabian  scholars  confined  themselves 
to  commentaries  on  the  statements  of  Aristotle,  their 
attitude  being  at  times  one  of  absolute  servility.  This 
intellectual  servility  to  Peripatetic  teaching  reached 
its  climax  in  Abul  ion  Roshd,  whom  Latin  scholastics 
called  Averroes  (about  1120-98)  and  who  said:  Aris- 
totle "founded  and  completed  logic,  physics,  and 
metaphysics  .  .  .  because  none  of  those  who  have 
followed  him  up  to  our  time,  that  is  to  say^  for  four 
hundred  years,  have  been  able  to  add  anything  to  his 
writings  or  to  detect  therein  an  error  of  any  impor- 
tance '  .  This  unbounded  respect  for  Aristotle's  work 
impelled  a  great  many  Arabian  philosophers  to  attack 
Ptolemy's  ''Astronomy"  in  the  name  of  Peripatetic 
physics.  The  conffict  between  the  hypotheses  of 
eccentrics  and  epicycles  was  inaugurated  by  Ibn 
B4dja,  known  to  the  scholastics  as  Avempace  (d. 
1138),  and  Abu  Bekr  ibn  el-Tofeil,  called  Abubacer 
by  the  scholastics  (d.  1186),  and  was  vigorously  con- 
ducted by  Averroes,  the  pTot6.g6  of  Abubacer.  Abu 
Ish&k  ibn  al-Bitrogi,  known  by  the  scholastics  as 
Alpctragius,  another  disciple  of  Abubacer  and  a  con- 
temporary of  Averroes.  advanced  a  theory  on  plan- 
etary motion  wherein  he  wished  to  account  for  the 
phenomena  peculiar  to  the  wandering  stars,  by  com- 
pounding rotations  of  homocentric  spheres;  his  trea- 
tise, which  was  more  neo-Platonic  than  Peripatetic, 
seemed  to  be  a  Greek  book  altered,  or  else  a  simple 
plagiarism.  Less  inflexible  in  his  Peripateticism  than 
AverroSs  and  Alpetragius,  Moses  ben  Maimun,  called 
Maimonides  (1139-11^),  accepted  Ptolemy's  astron- 
omy despite  its  incompatibility  with  Aristotelean 
physics,  although  he  regarded  Aristotle's  sublunary 
physics  as  absolutely  true. 

IV.  Arabian  Tradition  and  Latin  Scholasti- 
cism.— It  cannot  be  said  exactly  when  the  first  trans- 
lations of  Arabic  writings  began  to  be  received  by  the 
Christians  of  the  West,  but  it  was  certainly  previously 
to  the  time  of  Gerbert  (Sylvester  II;  about  930-1003). 
Gerbert  used  treatises  translated  from  the  Arabic, 


PHYSICS 


49 


PHYSICS 


and  containing  instructions  on  the  use  of  astronomical 
instruments,  notably  the  astrolabe,  to  which  instru- 
ment Hermann  the  Lame  (1013-54)  devoted  part  of 
his  researches.  In  the  beunning  of  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury the  contributions  of  Mohammedan  science  and 
philosophy  to  Latin  Christendom  became  more  and 
more  frequent  and  important.  About  1120  or  1130 
Adelard  of  Bath  translated  the  ''Elements"  of  Euclid; 
and  various  astronomical  treatises;  in  1141  Peter  the 
Venerable,  Abbot  of  Cluny,  found  two  translators, 
Hermann  the  Second  (or  the  Dalmatian)  and  Robert 
of  Ratines,  established  in  Spain;  he  engaged  them 
to  translate  the  Koran  into  Latin,  and  in  1143  these 
same  translators  made  Christendom  acquainted  with 
Ptolemy's  planisphere.  Under  the  direction  of 
Raimond  (Archbishop  of  Toledo^  1130;  d.  1150), 
Domengo  Gondisalvi  (Gonsalvi;  Gundissalinus), 
Archdeacon  of  S^ovia,  began  to  collaborate  with  the 
converted  Jew,  John  of  Luna,  erroneously  called  John 
of  Seville  "(Johannes  Hispalensis).  Wnile  John  of 
Luna  applied  himself  to  works  in  mathematics,  he  also 
assisted  Gondisalvi  in  translating  into  Latin  a  part  of 
Aristotle's  physics,  the  "Pe  CabIo"  and  the  "Meta- 
physics'', besides  treatises  by  Avicenna,  Al-Gaz41i, 
Al-F&r&bi,  and  perhaps  Salomon  ibn  Gebirol  (Avice- 
bron).  About  1134  John  of  Luna  translated  Al- 
Ferg&ni's  treatise ' '  Astronomy ' ' ,  which  was  an  abridge- 
ment of  the  "Almagest",  thereby  introducing  Chris- 
tians to  the  Ptolemaic  system,  while  at  the  same  time 
his  translations,  made  m  collaboration  with  Gondi- 
salvi, familiarized  the  Latins  with  the  physical  and 
metaphysical  doctrines  of  Aristotle.  Indeed  the  in- 
fluence of  Aristotle's  "Physics"  was  already  apparent 
in  the  writings  of  the  most  celebrated  masters  of  the 
school  of  Chartres  (from  1121  until  before  1155),  and 
of  Gilbert  de  la  Porr^e  (1070-1154). 

The  abridgement  of  Al-Ferg&ni's  "Astronomy", 
translated  by  John  of  Luna,  does  not  seem  to  have 
been  the  first  work  in  which  the  Latins  were  enabled 
to  read  the  exposition  of  Ptolemy's  system;  it  was 
undoubtedly  preceded  by  a  more  complete  treatise, 
the  "De  Scientia  stellarum"  of  Albategnius  (Al- 
BattAni),  latinized  by  Plato  of  Tivoli  about  1120. 
However,  the  "Almagest"  itself  was  still  unknown. 
Moved  by  a  desire  to  read  and  translate  Ptolemy's 
immortal  work,  Gerard  of  Cremona  (d.  1187)  left  Italy 
and  went  to  Toledo,  eventually  making  the  transla- 
tion which  he  finished  in  1175.  Besides  the  "Alma- 
gest", Gerard  rendered  into  Latin  other  works,  of 
which  we  have  a  list  comprising  seventy-four  different 
treatises.  Some  of  these  were  writings  of  Greek 
ori^n,  and  included  a  large  portion  of  the  works  of 
Anstotle,  a  treatise  by  Archimedes,  Euclid's  "Ele- 
ments" (completed  by  Hypsicles),  and  books  by 
Hippocrates.  Others  were  Arabic  writings,  such  as  the 
celebrated  "Book  of  Three  Brothers",  composed  by 
the  Beni  M(tea,  "Optics"  by  Ibn  Al-Haitam  (the 
Alhazen  of  the  Scholastics),  "Astronomy"  by  Geber, 
and  "De  motu  octavse  sphserse"  by  Th&bit  ibn 
Kiirrah.  Moreover,  in  order  to  spread  the  study  of 
Ptolemaic  astronomy,  Gerard  composed  at  Toledo  his 
"Theoricae  planetanim",  which  during  the  Middle 
Ages  became  one  of  the  classics  of  astronomical  in- 
struction. 'Beginners  who  obtained  their  first  cos- 
mographic  information  through  the  study  of  the 
"Sphsera",  written  about  1230  by  Joannes  de  Sacro- 
boscOy  could  acquire  a  knowledge  of  eccentrics  and 
epi^cles  by  reading  the  "TheoricsB  planetanim" 
of  uerard  of  Cremona.  In  fact,  until  the  sixteenth 
century,  most  astronomical  treatises  assumed  the 
form  of  commentaries,  either  on  the  "Sphsera",  or 
the  "Theoricffi  planetanim". 

"Aristotle's  philosophy",  wrote  Roger  Bacon  in 
1267,  "reached  a  great  development  among  the  Latins 
when  Michael  Scot  appeared  about  1230,  bringing 
with  him  certain  parts  of  the  mathematical  and  phys- 
ical treatises  of  Aristotle  and  his  learned  commen- 
XII. 


tators".  Among  the  Arabic  writings  made  known  to 
Christians  by  Michael  Scot  (before  1291;  astrologer 
to  Frederick  II)  were  the  treatises  of  Aristotle  and 
the  "Theory  of  Planets",  which  Alpetragius  had  com- 
ix)sed  in  accordance  with  the  hypothesis  of  homo- 
centric  spheres.  The  translation  of  this  last  work  was 
completed  in  1217.  By  propagating  amons  the  Latins 
the  commentaries  on  Averroes  and  on  A^petragius's 
theory  of  the  planets,  as  well  as  a  knowledge  of  the 
treatises  of  Anstotle,  Michael  Scot  developed  in  them 
an  intellectual  disposition  which  might  be  termed 
Averroism,  and  wnich  consisted  in  a  superstitious 
respect  for  the  word  of  Aristotle  and  his  commentator. 
There  was  a  metaphysical  Averroism  which,  because 

Erofessing  the  doctrine  of  the  substantial  unity  of  all 
uman  intellects,  was  in  open  conflict  with  ChrfBitian 
orthodoxy;  but  there  was  likewise  a  physical  Averro- 
ism which,  in  its  blind  confidence  in  Peripatetic 
physics,  held  as  absolutely  certain  all  that  the  latter 
tau^t  on  the  subject  of  the  celestial  substance,  re- 
jecting in  particular  the  system  of  epicycles  and  eccen- 
trics in  order  to  commend  Alpetragius's  astronomy  of 
homocentric  spheres. 

Scientific  Averroism'  found  partisans  even  among 
those  whose  purity  of  faith  constrained  them  to 
strugggle  against  metaphysical  Averroism,  and  who 
were  very  often  Peripatetics  in  so  far  as  was  possible 
without  formally  contradicting  the  teaching  of  the 
Church.  For  instance,  William  of  Auvergne  (d.  1249), 
who  was  the  first  to  combat  "Aristotle  and  his  sec- 
tarians" on  metaphysical  grounds,  was  somewhat 
misled  by  Alpetragius's  astronomy,  which,  moreover, 
he  understood  but  imperfectly.  Albertus  Magnus 
(1193  or  1205-1280)  followed  to  a  great  extent  the 
doctrine  of  Ptolemy,  although  he  was  sometimes  in- 
fluenced by  the  objections  of  Averroes  or  affected  by 
Alpetragius's  principles.  Vincent  of  Beauvais  in  his 
"Speculum  guadruplex",  a  vast  encyclopsedic  com- 
pilation published  about  1250,  seemed  to  attach  great 
importance  to  the  system  of  Alpetragius,  borrowing 
the  exposition  of  it  from  Albertus  Magnus.  Finally, 
even  St.  Thomas  Aquinas  gave  evidence  of  being  ex- 
tremely perplexed  by  the  theory  (1227-74)  of  eccen- 
trics and  epicycles  which  justified  celestial  phenomena 
by  contraoicting  the  principles  of  Peripatetic  physics, 
and  the  theory  of  Alpetragius  which  honoured  these 
principles  but  did  not  go  so  far  as  to  represent  their 
phenomena  in  detail. 

This  hesitation,  so  marked  in  the  Dominican  school, 
was  hardly  less  remarkable  in  the  Franciscan.  Robert 
Grosseteste  or  Greathead  (1175-1253),  whose  in- 
fluence on  Franciscan  studies  was  so  great,  followed 
the  Ptolemaic  system  in  his  astronomical  writings,  his 
physics  being  imbued  with  Alpetragius's  ideas.  St. 
&onaventure  (1221-74)  wavered  between  doctrines 
which  he  did  not  thoroughly  understand,  and  Roger 
Bacon  (1214-92)  in  several  of  his  writings  weighed 
with  great  care  the  arguments  that  could  Be  made  to 
count  for  or  against  each  of  these  two  astronomical 
theories,  without  eventually  making  a  choice.  Bacon, 
however,  was  familiar  with  a  method  of  figuration  in 
the  system  of  eccentrics  and  epicycles  which  Alhazen 
had  derived  from  the  Greeks;  and  in  this  figuration 
all  the  motions  acknowledged  by  Ptolemy  were  traced 
back  to  the  rotation  of  solid  orbs  accurately  fitted  one 
into  the  other.  This  representation,  which  refuted 
most  of  the  objections  raised  by  Averroes  against 
Ptolemaic  astronomy,  contributed  largely  to  prop- 
agate the  knowledge  of  this  astronomy,  and  it  seems 
that  the  first  of  the  Latins  to  adopt  it  and  expatiate 
on  its  merits  was  the  Franciscan  Bernard  of  Verdun 
(end  of  thirteenth  century),  who  had  read  Bacon's 
writings.  In  sublunary  physics  the  authors  whom 
we  have  just  mentioned  aid  not  show  the  hesitation 
that  rendered  astronomical  doctrines  so  perplexing, 
but  on  almost  all  points  adhered  closely  to  Peripatetic 
opinions. 


/ 


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50 


PHYSICS 


V.  The  Science  op  Observation  and  Its  Prog- 
ress— Astronomers — ^The  Statics  of  Jordanus — 
Thierry  op  Freiberg — Pierre  of  Maricourt. — 
Averroism  had  rendered  scientific  progress  impossible, 
but  fortunately  in  Latin  Christendom  it  was  to  meet 
with  two  powerful  enemies:  the  unhampered  curi- 
osity of  human  resjson,  and  the  authority  of  the 
Churoh.  Encouraged  by  the  certainty  resulting  from 
experiments,  astronomers  rudely  shook  off  the  yoke 
which  Peripatetic  physics  had  imposed  upon  them. 
The  School  of  Paris  in  particular  was  remarkable  for 
its  critical  views  and  its  freedom  of  attitude  towards 
the  argument  of  authority.  In  1290  William  of  Saint- 
Cloud  determined  with  wonderful  accuracy  the  ob- 
liquity of  the  ecliptic  and  the  time  of  the  vernal 
equinox,  and  his  observations  led  him  to  recognize  the 
inaccuracies  that  marred  the  "Tables  of  Toledo", 
drawn  up  by  Al-Zarkali.  The  theory  of  the  pre- 
cession of  the  equinoxes,  conceived  by  the  astron- 
omers of  Alfonso  X  of  Castile,  and  the  "Alphonsine 
Tables"  set  up  in  accordance  with  this  theory,  gave 
rise  in  the  first  half  of  the  fourteenth  century  to  the 
observations,  calculations,  and  critical  discussions  of 
Parisian  astronomers,  especially  of  Jean  des  Lini^res 
and  his  pupil  John  of  Saxonia  or  Connaught. 

At  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century  and  the  begin- 
ning of  the  fourteenth,  sublunary  physics  owed  great 
advancement  to  the  simultaneous  efforts  of  geome- 
tricians and  experimenters — their  method  and  dis- 
coveries being  ciuly  boasted  of  by  Roger  Bacon  who, 
however,  took  no  important  part  in  their  labours. 
Jordanus  de  Nemore,  a  talented  mathematician 
who,  not  later  than  about  the  beginning  of  the  thir- 
teenth century,  wrote  treatises  on  arithmetic  and 
geometry,  left  a  very  short  treatise  on  statics  in  which, 
side  by  side  with  erroneous  propositions,  we  find  the 
law  of  the  eq[uilibrium  of  the  straight  lever  very  cor- 
rectly established  with  the  aid  of  the  principle  of 
virtual  displacements.  The  treatise,  "De  ponder- 
ibus",  by  Jordanus  provoked  research  on  the  part  of 
various  commentators,  and  one  of  these,  whose  name 
is  unknown  and  who  must  have  written  before  the  end 
of  the  thirteenth  century,  drew,  from  the  same  prin- 
ciple of  virtual  displacements,  demonstrations,  ad- 
mirable in  exactness  and  elegance,  of  the  law  of  the 
equilibrium  of  the  bent  lever,  and  of  the  apparent 
weight  (gravitaa  secundum  aitum)  of  a  body  on  an 
inclined  plane. 

Alhazen's  "Treatise  on  Perspective"  was  read  thor- 
oughly by  Roger  Bacon  and  his  contemporaries,  John 
Peckham  (1228-91),  the  English  Franciscan,  giving 
a  summary  of  it.  About  1270  Witelo  (or  Witek;  the 
Thuringopolonu8)f  composed  an  exhaustive  ten-vol- 
ume treatise  on  optics,  which  remained  a  classic  nntil 
the  time  of  Kepler,  who  wrote  a  commentary  on  it. 

Albertus  Magnus,  Roger  Bacon,  John  Peckham, 
and  Witelo  were  deeply  interested  in  the  theory  of  the 
rainbow,  and.  like  the  ancient  meteorologists,  they  all 
took  the  rainbow  to  be  the  image  of  the  sun  reflected 
in  a  sort  of  a  concave  mirror  formed  by  a  cloud 
resolved  into  rain.  In  1300  Thierry  of  Freiberg 
proved  by  means  of  carefully-conducted  experiments 
in  which  he  used  glass  balls  filled  with  water,  that  the 
rays  which  render  the  bow  visible  have  been  reflected 
on  the  inside  of  the  spherical  drops  of  water,  and  he 
traced  with  great  accuracy  the  course  of  the  rays 
which  produce  the  rainbows  respectively. 

The  system  of  Thierry  of  Freiberg,  at  least  that 
part  relating  to  the  primary  rainbow,  was  reproduced 
about  1360  by  Themon,  "Son  of  the  Jew"  (Themoju 
dm)f  and,  from  his  commentary  on  "Meteors",  it 
passed  on  down  to  the  days  of  the  Renaissance  when, 
having  been  somewhat  distorted,  it  reappeared  in 
the  writings  of  Alessandro  Piccolomini,  Simon  Porta, 
and  Marco  and  Antonio  dc  Dominis,  being  thus  propa- 
gated until  the  time  of  Descartes. 

The  study  of  the  magnet  had  also  made  great 


progress  in  the  course  of  the  thirteenth  century;  the 
permanent  magnetization  of  iron,  the  properties  of 
the  magnetic  poles,  the  direction  of  the  Earth's  ac- 
tion exerted  on  these  poles  or  of  their  action  on  one 
another,  are  all  founcl  very  accurately  described  in 
a  treatise  written  in  1269  by  Pierre  of  Maricourt 
(Petrus  Peregrinus).  Like  the  work  of  Thierry  of 
Freiberg  on  the  rainbow,  the  "Epistola  de  magnete" 
by  Mancourt  was  a  model  of  the  art  of  logical  se- 
quence between  experiment  and  deduction. 

VI.  The  Articles  of  Paris  (1277) — Possibility 
OF  Vacuum. — The  University  of  Paris  was  very  un- 
easy because  of  the  antagonism  existing  between 
Christian  dogmas  and  certain  Peripatetic  doctrines, 
and  on  several  occasions  it  combatted  Aristotelean 
influence.  In  1277  Etienne  Tempier,  Bishop  of  Paris, 
acting  on  the  advice  of  the  theologians  of  the  Sor- 
bonne,  condemned  a  great  number  of  errors,  some  of 
which  emanated  from  the  astrology,  and  pthers  from 
the  philosophy  of  the  Peripatetics.  Among  these 
errors  considered  dangerous  to  faith  were  several 
which  might  have  impeded  the  progress  of  physical 
science,  and  hence  it  was  that  the  theologians  of  Paris 
declared  erroneous  the  opinion  maintaining  that  God 
Himself  could  not  give  the  entire  universe  a  recti- 
linear motion,  as  the  universe  would  then  leave  a 
vacuum  behind  it,  and  also  declared  false  the  notion 
that  God  could  not  create  several  worlds.  These  con- 
demnations destroyed  certain  essential  foundations 
of  Peripatetic  physics;  because,  although,  in  Aris- 
totle's system,  such  propositions  were  ridiculously  un- 
tenable, belief  in  Divine  Omnipotence  sanctioned  them 
as  possible,  whilst  waiting  for  science  to  confirm  them 
as  true.  For  instance,  Aristotle's  physics  treated  the 
existence  of  an  empty  space  as  a  pure  absurdity; 
in  virtue  of  the  "Articles  of  Paris"  Richard  of  Mid- 
dletown  (about  1280)  and,  after  him,  many  masters 
at  Paris  and  Oxford  admitted  that  the  laws  of  nature 
are  certainly  opposed  to  the  production  of  empty 
space,  but  that  the  realization  of  suoh  a  space  is  not, 
in  itself,  contrary  to  reason;  thus,  without  any  ab- 
siu>dity,  one  could  argue  on  vacuum  and  on  motion  in  a 
vacuum.  Next,  in  order  that  such  arguments  might 
be  legitimatized,  it  was  necessary  to  create  that 
branch  of  mechanical  science  known  as  dynamics. 

VII.  The  Earth's  Motion — Oresme. — ^The  "Ar- 
ticles of  Paris"  were  of  about  the  same  value  in  supr 
porting  the  question  of  the  Earth's  motion  as  m 
furthering  the  progress  of  dynamics  by  regarding 
vacuum  as  something  conceivable. 

•  Aristotle  maintained  that  the  first  heaven  (the 
firmament)  moved  with  a  uniform  rotary  motion,  and 
that  the  Earth  was  absolutely  stationary,  and  as  these 
two  propositions  necessarily  resulted  from  the  first 
principles  relative  to  'time  and  place,  it  would  have 
been  absurd  to  deny  them.  However,  by  declaring 
that  God  could  endow  the  World  with  a  rectilinear 
motion,  the  theolo^ans  of  the  Sorbonne  acknowledged 
that  these  two  Anstotelean  propositions  could  not  be 
imposed  as  a  logical  necessity  and  thenceforth,  whilst 
continuing  to  admit  that,  as  a  fact,  the  Earth  was  im- 
movable and  that  the  heavens  moved  with  a  rotary 
diurnal  motion,  Richard  of  Middletown  and  Duns 
Scotus  (about  1275-1308)  began  to  formulate  hy- 
potheses to  the  effect  that  these  bodies  were  animated 
by  other  motions,  and  the  entire  school  of  Paris 
adopted  the  same  opinion.  Soon,  however,  the  Earth's  / 
motion  was  taught  in  the  School  of  Paris,  not  as  a 
possibility,  but  as  a  reality.  In  fact,  in  the  specific 
setting  forth  of  certain  information  given  by  Anstotle 
and  Simplicius,  a  principle  was  formulated  which  for 
three  centuries  was  to  play  a  great  r61e  in  statics,  viz. 
that  every  heavy  body  tends  to  unite  its  centre  of 
gravity  with  the  centre  of  the  Earth. 

When  writing  his  "Questions"  on  Aristotle's  "De 
Caelo"  in  1368,  Albert  of  Helmstadt  (or  of  Saxony) 
admitted  this  principle,  which  he  applied  to  the  entire 


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61 


PHYSICS 


mass  of  the  terrestrial  element.  The  centre  of  gravity 
of  this  mass  is  constantly  inclined  to  place  itself 
in  the  centre  of  the  universe,  but,  within  the 
terrestrial  mass,  the  position  of  the  centre  of  gravity 
is  incessantly  cnanging..  The  principal  cause  of  this 
variation  is  the  erosion  brought  about  by  the  streams 
and  rivers  that  continually  wear  away  the  land  sur- 
face, deepening  its  valleys  and  carrying  off  all  loose 
matter  to  the  bed  of  the  sea,  thereby  producing  a  dis- 

f>lacement  of  weight  which  entails  a  ceaseless  change 
n  the  position  of  the  centre  of  gravity.  Now,  in  or- 
rier  to  replace  this  centre  of  gravitv  in  the  centre  of 
the  universe,  the  Earth  moves  without  ceasing;  and 
meanwhile  a  slow  but  perpetual  exchange  is  being 
effected  between  the  continents  and^  the  oceans. 
Albert  of  Saxony  ventured  so  far  as  to  think  that  these 
small  and  incessant  motions  of  the  Earth  could  ex- 
plain the  phenomena  of  the  precession  of  the  equi- 
noxes. Tne  same  author  declared  that  one  of  his 
masters,  whose  name  he.  did  not  disclose,  announced 
himself  in  favour  of  the  daily  rotation  of  the  Earth, 
inasmuch  as  he  refuted  the  arguments  that  were  bp- 
poaed  to  this  motion.  This  anonymous  master  had  a 
thoroughly  convinced  disciple  in  Nicole  Oresme  who, 
in  1377,  being  then  Canon  of  Rouen  and  later  Bishop 
of  Lisieux,  wrote  a  French  commentary  on  Aris- 
totle's treatise  '^De  CsbIo'',  maintaining  with  quite 
as  much  force  as  clearness  that  neither  experiment  nor 
argument  could  determine  whether  the  aaily  motion* 
belonged  to  the  firmamep^  of  the  fixed  stars  or  to  the 
Earth.  He  also  showed  h*>w  to  interpret  the  difficul- 
ties encountered  in  ''the  l^acred  Scriptures  wherein 
it  is  stated  that  the  sun  tu  \s,  etc.  It  might  be  sup- 
posed that  here  Holy  Wri  adapts  itself  to  the  com- 
mon mode  of  human  speef  as  also  in  several  places, 
for  instance,  where  it  is  ten  that  God  repented 
Himself,  ana  was  angry  and  calmed  Himself  ana  so  on, 
all  of  wnich  is,  however,  not  to  be  taken  in  a  strictly 
literal  sense".  Finally,  Oresme  offered  several  con- 
siderations favourable  to  the  hypothesis  of  the 
Earth's  daily  motion.  In  order  to  refute  one  of  the 
objections  raised  by  the  Peripatetics  against  this 
pomt,  Oresme  was  led  to  explain  how,  in  spite  of  this 
motion,  heavy  bodies  seemed  to  fall  in  a  vertical  line; 
he  admitted  their  real  motion  to  be  composed  of  a 
fall  in  a  vertical  line  and  a  diurnal  rotation  identical 
with  that  which  the}r  would  have  if  bound  to  the 
Earth.  This  is  precisely  the  principle  to  which 
Galileo  was  afterwards  to  turn. 

VIII.  Plurality  op  Worlds. — Aristotle  main- 
tained the  simultaneous  existence  of  several  worlds  to 
be  an  absurdity,  his  principal  argument  being  drawn 
from  his  theory  of  gravity,  whence  he  concluded  that 
two  distinct  worlds  could  not  coexbt  and  be  each  sur- 
rounded by  its  elements;  therefore  it  would  be  ridic- 
ulous to  compare  each  of  the  planets  to  an  earth 
similar  to  ours.  In  1277  the  theologians  of  Paris  con- 
demned this  doctrine  as  a  denial  of  the  creative  oihnip- 
otence  of  God;  Richard  of  Middletown  and  Henry  of 
Ghent  (who  wrote  about  1280),  Guillaume  Varon  (who 
wrote  a  commentary  on  the  "Sentences''  about  1300), 
and,  towarils  1320,  Jean  de  Bassols,  William  of  Occam 
(d.  after  1347),  and  Walter  Burley  (d.  about  1343)  did 
not  hesitate  to  declare  that  God  could  create  other 
worlds  similar  to  ours.  This  doctrine,  adopted  by 
several  Parisian  masters,  exacted  that  the  theory  of 

Savity  and  natural  place  developed  bv  Aristotle  be 
oroughly  changed;  in  fact,  the  following  theory 
was  substituted  for  it.  If  some  part  of  the  elements 
forming  a  world  be  detached  from  it  and  driven  far 
away,  its  tendency  will  be  to  move  towards  the  world 
to  which  it  belongs  and  from  which  it  was  separated; 
the  elements  of  each  world  are  inclined  so  to  arrange 
themselves  that  the  heaviest  will  be  in  the  centre  and 
the  lightest  on  the  surface.  This  theory  of  gravity 
appeared  in  the  writings  of  Jean  Buridan  of'  B^thune, 
wno  became  rector  of  tne  University  of  Paris  in  1327, 


teaching  at  that  institution  until  about  1360;  and  in 
1377  tms  same  theory  was  formallv  proposed  by 
Oresme.  It  was  also  destined  to  be  adopted  by 
Copemiciis  and  his  first  followers,  and  to  be  main- 
tained by  GaUleo,  William  Gilbert,  and  Otto  von 
Guericke. 

IX.  Dynamics — ^Theory  op  Impetus — Inertia — 
Celestial  AND  Sublunary  Mechanics  Identical. 
— If  the  School  of  Paris  completely  transformed  the 
Peripatetic  theory  of  gravity,  it  was  equally  respon- 
sible for  the  overthrow  of  Aristotelean  dvnamics. 
Convinced  that,  in  all  motion,  the  mover  should  be 
directly  contiguous  to  the  body  moved,  Aristotle  had 
proposed  a  strange  theory  of  the  motion  of  projectiles. 
He  held  that  the  projectile  was  moved  by  the  fluid 
medium,  whether  air  or  water,  through  which  it 
passed  and  this,  by  virtue  of  the  vibration  brought 
about  in  the  fluid  at  the  moment  of  throwing,  and 
spread  through  it.  In  the  sixth  century  of  our  era 
this  explanation  was  strenuously  opposed  by  the 
Christian  Stoic,  Joannes  Philoponus,  according  to 
whom  the  projectile  was  moved,  by  a  certain  jx)wer 
communicated  to  it  at  the  instant  of  throwing;  how- 
ever, despite  the  objections  raised  by  Philoponus, 
Aristotle  s  various  commentators,  particularly  Aver- 
roes^  continued  to  attribute  the  motion  of  the  pro- 
iectile  to  the  disturbance  of  the*  air,  and  Albertus 
Magnus,  St.  Thomas  Aquinas,  Roger  Bacon,  Gilles  of 
Rome,  and  Walter  Burley  persevered  in  maintaining 
this  error.  By  means  of  most  spirited  argumentation, 
William  of  Occam  made  known  the  complete  absur- 
dity of  the  Peripatetic  theory  of  the  motion  of  projec- 
tiles. Going  back  to  Philoponus's  thesis,  Buridan 
gave  the  name  impetus  to  the  virtue  or  power  com- 
municated to  the  projectile  by  the  hand  or  instrument 
tibrowing  it;  he  declared  that  in  any  given  bodjr  in 
motion,  this  impetus  was  proportional  to  the  velocity, 
and  that,  in  different  bodies  in  motion  propelled  by 
the  same  velocity,  the  quantities  of  impetus  were  pro- 
portional to  the  mass  or  quantity  of  matter  denned 
as  it  was  afterwards  defined  by  Newton. 

In  a  projectile,  impetus  is  gradually  destroyed  by 
the  resistance  ol  air  or  other  medium  and  is  also 
destroyed  by  the  natural  gravity  of  the  body  in 
motion,  which  gravity  is  opposed  to  the  impetus  if 
the  projectile  be  thrown  upward;  this  struggle  ex- 
plains the  (Afferent  peculiarities  of  the  motion  of 
projectiles.  In  a  fallmg  body,  gravity  comes  to  the 
assistance  of  impetus  which  it  increases  at  every 
instant,  hence  the  velocity  of  the  fall  is  increasing 
incessantly. 

With  the  assistance  of  these  principles  concerning 
impetus,  Buridan  accounts  for  the  swinging  of  the 
pendulum.  He  likewise  analyses  the  mechanism  of 
impact  and  rebound  and.  in  this  connexion,  puts  forth 
very  correct  views  on  tne  deformations  and  elastic 
reactions  that  arise  in  the  contiguous  parts  of  two 
bodies  coming  into  collision.  Nearly  all  this  doctrine 
of  impetus  is  transformed  into  a  very  correct  mechan- 
ical theory  if  one  is  careful  to  substitute  the  expression 
vis  viva  for  impetus.  The  dynamics  expounded  by 
Buridan  were  adopted  in  their  entirety  bv  Albert  of 
Saxonv,  Oresme,  Marsile  of  Inghem,  and  the  entire 
Schodl  of  Paris.  Albert  of  Saxony  appended  thereto 
the  statement  that  the  velocity  of  a  falling  body 
must  be  proportional  either  to  the  time  elapsed  from 
the  beginning  of  the  fall  or  to  the  distance  traversed 
during  this  time.  In  a  projectile,  the  impetus  is  grad- 
ually destroyed  either  by  the  resistance  of  the  medium 
or  by  the  contrary  tendency  of  the  gravity  natural 
to  the  body.  Where  these  causes  of  destruction  do 
not  exist,  the  impetus  remains  perpetually  the  same, 
as  in  the  case  of  a  millstone  exactly  centred  and  not 
rubbing  on  its  axis;  once  set  in  motion  it  will  turn  in- 
definitely with  the  same  swiftness.  It  was  under 
this  form  that  the  law  of  inertia  at  first  became  evi- 
dent to  Buridan  and  Albert  of  Saxony. 


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62 


PHYSICS 


The  conditions  manifested  in'  this  hypothetic  mill- 
stone are  realized  in  the  celestial  orbs,  as  in  these 
neither  friction  nor  gravity  impedes  motion;  hence 
it  may  be  admitt-ed  that  each  celestial  orb  moves  in- 
definitely bv  virtue  of  a  suitable  impetus  communi- 
cated to  it  by  God  at  the  moment  of  creation.  It  is 
useless  to  imitate  Aristotle  and  his  commentators  by 
attributing  the  motion  of  each  orb  to  a  presiding  spirit. 
This  was  the  opinion  proposed  by  Buridan  and  culopted 
by  Albert  of  Saxony;  and  whilst  formulating  a  doctrine 
from  which  modem  dynamics  was  to  spring,  these 
masters  understood  that  the  same  dynamics  governs 
both  celestial  and  sublunary  bodies.  Such  an  idea 
was  directly  opposed  to  the  essential  distinction  estab- 
lished by  ancient  phvsics  between  these  two  kinds  of 
bodies.  Moreover,  following  William  of  Occam,  the 
masters  of  Paris  rejected  tms  distinction;  they  ac- 
knowledged that  the  matter  constituting  celestial 
bodies  was  of  the  same  nature  as  that  constituting 
sublunarv  bodies  and  that,  if  the  former  remained 
perpetually  the  same,  it  was  not  because  they  were,  by 
nature,  incapable  of  change  and  destruction,  but  sim- 
ply because  the  place  in  which  they  were  contained 
no  agent  capable  of  corrupting  them.  A  century 
elapsed  between  the  condemnations  pronounced  by 
Etienne  Tempier  (1277)  and  the  editing  of  the 
"Trait6  du  Oel  et/iu  Monde"  by  Oresme  (1377)  and, 
within  that  time,  all  the  essential  principles  of  Aris- 
totle's phvsics  were  undermined,  and  the  great  con- 
trolling ideas  of  modem  science  formulated.  This 
revolution  was  mainly  the  work  of  Oxford  Franciscans 
like  Richard  of  Middletown,  Duns  Scotus,  and  Wil- 
liam of  Occam,  and  of  masters  in  the  School  of  Paris, 
heirs  to  the  tradition  inaugurated  by  these  Francis- 
cans; among  the  Parisian  masters  Buridan,  Albert  of 
Saxony,  and  Oresme  were  in  the  foremost  rank. 

X.  Propagation  of  the  Doctrines  of  the 
School  of  Paris  in  Germany  and  Italy — Purbach 

AND  ReGIOMONTANUS^ — NICHOLAS  OF  CuSA — ^VlNCI. — 

The  great  Western  Schism  involved  the  University  of 
Paris  in  poUtico-religious  quarrels  of  extreme  violence; 
the  misfortimes  brought  about  by  the  conflict  between 
the  Armagnacs  and  Burgundians  and  by  the  Hundred 
Years'  War,  completed  what  these  quarrels  had  begun, 
and  the  wonderful  progress  made  by  science  during 
the  fourteenth  century  m  the  University  of  Paris  sud- 
denly ceased.  However,  the  schism  contributed  to  the 
diffusion  of  Parisian  doctrines  by  driving  out  of  Paris 
a  large  number  of  brilliant  men  who  hadtaught  there 
with  marked  success.  In  1386'Marsile  of  Inghem 
(d.  1396),  who  had  been  one  of  the  most  gifted  pro- 
fessors of  theUniversity  of  Paris,became  rector  of  the  in- 
fant University  of  Heidelberg,  where  he  introduced  the 
dynamic  theories  of  Buridan  and  Albert  of  Saxonv. 

About  the  sape  time,  another  master,  reputedly  of 
Paris,  Heinrich  Heimbuch  of  Lan^ensteiiK  or  of  Hesse, 
was  chiefly  instrumental  in  founding  the  University  of 
Vienna  and,  besides  his  theological  knowledge,  brought 
thither  the  astronomical  tradition  of  Jean  des  Lini^res 
and  John  of  Saxony.  This  tradition  was  carefully 
preserved  in  Vienna,  being  magnificently  developed 
there  throughout  the  fifteenth  century,  and  paving 
the  way  for  Georg  Purbach  (1423-61)  and  his  disciple 
Johann  Muller  of  Konigsberg,  sumamed  Regiomon- 
tanus  (1436-76).  It  was  to  the  writing  of  theories 
calculated  to  make  the  Ptolemaic  system  known,  to 
the  designing  and  constructing  of  exact  instruments, 
to  the  multiplying  of  observations,  and  the  preparing 
of  tables  and  almanacs  (cphemerides),  more  accurate 
than  those  used  by  astronomers  up  to  that  time,  that 
Purbach  and  Regiomontanus  devoted  their  prodig- 
ious energy.  By  perfecting  all  the  details  of  Ptolemy  s 
theories,  which  they  never  called  in  question,  they 
were  most  helpful  in  bringing  to  light  the  defects  of 
these  theories  und  in  preparing  the  materials  by  means, 
of  which  Ck>pemicus  was  to  build  up  his  new  astron- 
omy. 


Averroism  flourished  in  the  Italian  Universities  of 
Padua  and  Bologna,  which  were  noted  for  their  ad- 
herence to  Peripatetic  doctrines.  Still  from  the  be- 
ginning of  the  fifteenth  century  the  opinions  of  the 
School  of  Paris  began  to  find  their  way  into  these  insti- 
tutions, thanks  to  the  teaching  of  Paolo  Nicoletti  of 
Venice  (flourished  about  1420).  It  was  there  de- 
veloped by  his  pupil  Gactan  of  Tiene  (d.  1465). 
These  masters  devoted  special  attention  to  propaga- 
ting the  dynamics  of  impetus  in  Ualy . 

About  the  time  that  raola  of  Venice  was  teaching 
at  Padua,  Nicholas  of  Cusa  came  there  to  take  his 
doctorate  in  law.  Whether  it  was  then  that  the 
latter  became  initiated  in  the  physics  of  the  School  of 
Paris  matters  little,  as  in  any  event  it  was  from  Pari- 
sian phvsics' that  he  adopted  those,  doctrines  that 
smacKed  least  of  Peripateticism.  He  became  thor- 
oughly conversant  with  the  dynamics  of  impetus  and, 
like  Buridan  and  Albert  of  Saxonv,  attributed  the 
motion  of  the  celestial  spheres  to  the  impetus  which 
God  had  communicated  to  them  in  creating  them,  and 
which  was  perpetuated  because,  in  these  spheres,  there 
was  no  element  of  destruction.  He  admitted  that  the 
Earth  moved  incessantly,  and  that  its  motion  might 
be  the  cause  of  the  precession  of  the  equinoxes.  In  a 
note  discovered  long  after  his  death,  he  went  so  far  as 
to  attribute  to  the  Earth  a  daily  rotation.  He  imag- 
ined that  the  sun,  the  moon,  and  the  planets  were  so 
,  many  sy^ems,  each  of  which  contain^  an  earth  and 
elements  analogous  to  our  Earth  and  elements,  and  to 
account  for  the  action  of  gravity  in  each  of  these  sys- 
tems he  followed  closely  the  theory  of  gravity  ad- 
vanced by  Oresme. 

Leonardo  da  Vinci  (1452-1519)  was  perhaps  more 
thoroughly  convinced  of  the  merits  of  the  Parisian 
physics  than  anv  other  Italian  master.  A  keen  ob- 
server, and  endowed  with  insatiable  curiosity,  he 
had  studied  a  great  number  of  works,  amongst  which 
we  may  mention  the  various  treatises  of  the  School  of 
Jordanus,  various  books  by  Albert  of  Saxony,  and  in 
all  likelihood  the  works  of  Nicholas  of  Ousa;  then, 
profiting  by  the  learning  of  these  scholars,  he  formally 
enunciated  or  else  simply  intimated  many  new  ideas. 
The  statics  of  the  School  of  Jordanus  led  him  to  dis- 
cover the  law  of  the  composition  of  concurrent  forces 
stated  as  follows :  the  two  component  forces  have  equal 
moments  as  regards  the  direction  of  the  resultant,  and 
the  resultant  and  one  of  the  components  have  equal 
moments  as  regards  the  direction  of  the  other  com- 
ponent. The  statics  derived  from  the  properties  which 
^Ibert  of  Saxony  attributed  to  the  centre  of  gravity 
caused  Vinci  to  recognize  the  law  of  the  polygon  of 
support  and  to  determine  the  centre  of  gravity  of  a 
tetrahedron.  He  also  presented  the  law  of  the  equi- 
librium of  two  hquids  of  different  density  in  commu- 
nicating tubes,  and  the  principle  of  virtual  displace- 
ments seems  to  have  occasioned  his  acknowledgement 
of  the  hydrostatic  law  known  as  Pascal's.  Vinci  con- 
tinued to  meditate  on  the  properties  of  impetus,  which 
he  called  impeto  or  forza^  and  the  propositions  that  he 
formulated  on  the  subject  of  this  power  very  often 
showed  a  fairly  clear  discernment  of  the  law  of  the  con- 
servation of  energy.  These  propositions  conducted 
him  to  remarkably  correct  and  accurate  conclusions 
concerning  the  impossibility  of  perpetual  motion.  Un- 
fortunately he  misunderstood  the  pregnant  explana- 
tion, afforded  by  the  theory  of  impetus,  regarding  the 
acceleration  of  falling  bodies,  and  like  the  Peri- 
patetics attributed  this  acceleration  to  the  impulsion 
of  the  encompassing  air.  However,  by  way  of  com- 
pensation, he  distinctly  asserted  that  the  velocity  of  a 
Dody  that  falls  freely  is  proportional  to  the  time  occu- 

{)ied  in  the  fall,  and  he  understood  in  what  way  this 
aw  extends  to  a  fall  on  an  inclined  plane.  When  he 
wished  to  determine  how  the  path  traversed  by  a  fall- 
ing body  is  connected  with  the  time  occupied  in  the 
faU,  he  was  confronted  by  a  difficulty  which,  in  the 


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53 


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seventeenth  centuryi  was  likewise  to  baffle  Baliani  and 
Gassendi. 

Vinci  was  much  enj^ossed  in  the  analysis  of  the  de- 
fonnations  and  elastic  reactions  which  cause  a  body 
to  rebound  after  it  has  struck  another,  and  this  doc- 
trine, formulated  by  Buridan,  Albert  of  Saxony,  and 
Marsile  of  Inghem  he  appUed  in  such  a  way  as  to 
draw  from  it  the  explanation  of  the  flight  of  birds. 
This  ^ght  is  an  alternation  of  falls  during  which  the 
bird  compresses  the  air  beneath  it,  and  of  rebounds 
due  to  the  elastic  force  of  this  air.  Until  the  great 
painter  discovered  this  explanation,  the  question  of  the 
night  of  birds  was  always  looked  upon  as  a  problem 
in  statics,  and  was  likened  to  the  swimming  of  a  fish 
in  water.  Vinci  attached  great  importance  to  the 
views  developed  by  Albert  of  Saxony  in  regard  to 
the  Earth's  equilibrium.  Like  the  Parisian  master, 
he  held  that  the  centre  of  gravity  within  the  ter- 
restriaJ  mass  is  constantly  changing  under  the  in- 
fluence of  erosion  and  that  the  Earth  is  continually 
moving  so  as  to  bring  this  centre  of  gravity  to  the 
centre  of  the  World.  These  small,  incessant  motions 
eventually  bring  to  the  surface  of  the  continents  those 
portions  of  earth  that  once  occupied  the  bed  of  the 
ocean  and,  to  place  this  assertion  of  Albert  of  Saxony 
beyond  the  range  of  doubt,  Vinci  devoted  himself  to 
the  study  of  fossils  and  to  extremely  cautious  observa- 
tions which  made  him  the  creator  of  Stratigraphy.  In 
many  passages  in  his  notes  Vinci  asserts,  like  Nicholas 
of  Cusa.  that  the  moon  and  the  other  wandering  stars 
are  worlds  analogous  to  ours,  that  thev  carry  seas  upon 
their  surfaces,  and  are  surrounded  by  air;  and  the 
development  of  this  opinion  led  him  to  talk  of  the 
gravity  binding  to  eacn  of  these  stars  the  elements 
that  belonged  to  it.  On  the  subject  of  this  gravity  he 
professed  a  theory  similar  to  Oresme's.  Hence  it 
would  seem  that,  in  almost  every  particular,  Vinci 
was  a  faithful  disciple  of  the  great  Parisian  masters  of 
the  fourteenth  century,  of  Buridan,  Albert  of  Saxony, 
and  Oresme. 

XI.  Italian  Averroibm  and  Its  Tendencies  to 
Routine — ^Attbmpts  at  Restoring  the  Astronomy 
OP  HoMOCENTRic  SPHERES. — ^Whilst,  through  the  anti- 
Peripatetic  influence  of  the  School  of  Paris,  Vinci 
reaped  a  rich  harvest  of  discoveries,  innumerable  Ital- 
ians devoted  themselves  to  the  sterile  worship  of  de- 
funct ideas  with  a  servility  that  was  truly  astonishing. 
The  Averroists  did  not  wish  to  acknowledge  as  true 
anything  out  of  conformity  with  the  ideas  of  Aristotle 
as  interpreted  by  Averrocs;  with  Pompanazzi  (1462- 
1526),  the  Alexandrists,  seeking  their  inspiration  fur- 
ther back  in  the  past,  refused  to  understand  Aristotle 
otherwise  than  he  had  been  understood  by  Alexander 
of  Aphrodisias;  and  the  Humanists,  solicitous  only 
for  purity  of  form,  would  not  consent  to  use  any  tech- 
nics language  whatever  and  rejected  all  ideas  that 
were  not  sufficiently  vaj^e  to  be  attractive  to  orators 
and  poets;  thus  Averroists,  Alexandrists,  and  Human- 
ists proclaimed  a  truce  to  their  vehement  discussions 
so  as  to  combine  against  the  ''language  of  Paris",  the 
"logic  of  Paris",  and  the  "physics  of  Paris".  It  is 
difficult  to  conceive  the  absurdities  to  which  these 
minds  were  led  by  their  slavish  surrender  to  routine. 
A  great  number  of  physicists,  rejecting  the  Parisian 
theoiy  of  impetus,  returned  to  the  untenable  dynamics 
of  Anstotle,  and  maintained  that  the  projectile  was 
moved  by  the  ambient  air.  In  1499  Nicold  Vemias 
of  Ghieti,  an  Averroist  professor  at  Padua,  taught  that 
if  a  heavy  body  fell  it  was  in  consequence  of  the  mo- 
tion of  the  air  surrounding  it. 

A  servile  adoration  of  Peripateticism  prompted 
many  so-called  philosophers  to  reject  the  Ptolemaic 
system,  the  only  one  which,  at  that  time,  could  satisfy 
the  legitimate  exigencies  of  astronomers,  and  to  re- 
adopt  the  hypothesis  of  homocentric  spheres.  They 
held  as  null  and  void  the  innumerable  observations 
that  showed  changes  in  the  distance  of  each  planet 


from  the  ^arth.  Alessandro  Achillini  of  Bologna 
(1463-1512),  an  uncompromiang  Averroist  and.  a 
stronp  opponent  of  the  theory  of  impetus  and  Qf  all 
Parisian  aoctrines,  inaugurated^  in  his  treatise  "De 
orbibus"  (1498),  a  stranjB;e  reaction  against  Ptolemaic 
astronomy;  Agostino  Nuo  (1473-1538)  laboured  for 
the  same  end  in  a  work  that  has  not  come  down  to  us; 
Girol^mo  Fracastorio  (1483^1553)  gave  us,  in  1535, 
his  book  "  De  homocentricis",  and  Gianbattista  Amico 
(1536),  and  Giovanni  Antonio  Delfino  (1559)  pub- 
lished small  works  in  an  endeavour  to  restore  the 
system  of  homocentric  spheres. 

XII.  The  Copernican  Revolxttion. — Although 
directed  by  tendencies  diametrically  opposed  to  the 
true  scientific  spirit,  the  efforts  made  by  Averroists  to 
restore  the  astronomy  of  homocentric  spheres  were 
perhaps  a  stimulus  to  the  progress  of  science,  inas- 
much as  they  accustomed  physicists  to  the  thought 
that  the  Ptolemaic  system  was  not  the  only  astro- 
nomical doctrine  possible,  or  even  the  best  that  could 
be  desired.  Thus,  in  their  own  way,  the  Averroists 
paved  the  way  for  the  Copernican  revolution.  The 
movements  forecasting  this  revolution  were  noticeable 
in  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century  in  the  writings 
of  Nicholas  of  Cusa,  and  in  the  beginning  of  the  fif- 
teenth century  in  the  notes  of  Vinci,  both  of  these 
eminent  scientists  being  well  versed  in  Parisian  phys- 
ics. 

Celio  Calca^nini  proposed,  in  his  turn,  to  explain 
the  daily  motion  of  the  stars  by  attributing  to  the 
Earth  a  rotation  from  West  to  East,  complete  in  one 
sidereal  day.  His  dissertation,  "Quod  ccelum  stet, 
terra  vero  moveatur",  although  seeming  to  have  been 
written  about  1530,  was  not  publish^  until  1544, 
when  it  appeared  in  a  posthumous  edition  of  the 
author's  works.  Calcagmni  declared  that  the  Earth, 
originally  in  equilibrium  in  the  centre  of  the  universe, 
received  a  first  impulse  which  imparted  to  it  a  rotary 
motion,  and  this  motion,  to  which  nothing  was  op- 
posed, was  indefinitely  preserved  by  virtue  of  the 
principle  set  forth  by  Bundan  and  accepted  by  Albert 
of  Saxony  and  Nicholas  of  Cusa.  According  to  Cal- 
cagnini  the  daily  rotation  of  the  Earth  was  accom- 
panied by  an  oscillation  which  explained  the  move- 
ment 6{  the  precession  of  the  equinoxes.  Another 
oscillation  set  the  waters  of  the  sea  in  motion  and 
deteriAined  the  ebb  and  flow  of  the  tides.  This  last 
hypothesis  was  to  be  maintained  by  Andrea  Cesalpino 
(1519-1603)  in  his  "Qu»stiones  peripatetic®"  (1569), 
and  to  inspire  Galileo,  who,  unfortunately,  was  to  seek 
in  the  phenomena  of  the  tides  his  favourite  proof  of 
the  Earth's  rotation. 

The  "De  revolutionibus  orbium  ccelestium  libri 
sex"  were  printed  in  1543,  a  few  months  after  the 
death  of  Copernicus  (1473-1543),  but  the  principles 
of  the  astronomic  system  proposed  by  this  man  of 
genius  had  been  published  as  early  as  1539  in  the 
"Narratio  prima"  of  his  disciple,  Joachim  Rhseticus 
(1514-76).  Copernicus  adhered  to  the  ancient  astro- 
nomical hypotheses  which  claimed  that  the  World 
was  sphencal  and  limited,  and  that  all  celestial 
motions  were  decomposable  into  circular  and  uniform 
motions;  but  he  held  that  the  firmament  of  fixed  stars 
was  immovable,  as  also  the  sun,  which  was  placed  in 
the  centre  of  this  firmament.  To  the  Earth  he  attrib- 
uted three  motions:  a  circular  motion  by  which  the 
centre  of  the  B^rth  described  with  uniform  velocity 
a  circle  situated  in  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic  and 
eccentric  to  the  sun;  a  daily  rotation  on  an  axis  in- 
clined towards  the  ecliptic,  and  finally,  a  rotation 
of  this  axis  around  an  axis  normal  to  the  ecliptic 
and  passing  through  the  centre  of  the  Earth.  The 
time  occiH)ied  by  this  last  rotation  was  a  little  longer 
than  that  required  for  the  circular  motion  of  the 
centre  of  the  Earth  which  produced  the  phenomenon 
of  the  precession  of  the  equinoxes.  To  the  five 
planets  Copernicus  ascribed  motions  analogpus  tA 


PHYSICS 


54 


PHYSICS 


those  with  which  the  Earth  was  provided,  and  he 
maintained  that  the  moon  moved  m  a  circle  around 
the  Earth. 

Of  the  Copernican  hypotheses,  the  newest  was  that 
^  according  to  which  the  Eeuth  moved  in  a  circle  around 
the  Sim.  From  the  days  of  Aristarchus  of  Samos 
and  Seleucus  no  one  had  adopted  this  view.  Me- 
dieval astronomers  had  all  rejected  it,  because  they 
supposed  that  the  stars  were  much  too  close  to  the 
Earth  and  the  sun,  and  that  an  annual  circular 
motion  of  the  Earth  might  give  the  stars  a  perceptible 
parallax.  Still,  on  the  other  hand,  we  have  seen  that 
various  authors  had  proposed  to  attribute  to  the 
Earth  one  or  the  other  of  the  two  motions  which 
Copernicus  added  to  the  annual  motion.  To  defend 
the  hypothesis  of  the  daily  motion  of  the  Earth  against 
the  objections  formulated  by  ^  Peripatetic  physics, 
Copermcus  invoked  exactly  the  same  reasons  as 
Oresme,  and  ip  order  to  explain  how  each  planet 
retains  the  various  parts  of  its  elements,  he  adopted 
the  theory  of  gravity  proposed  by  the  eminent  mas- 
ter. Copernicus  showed  himseu  the  adherent  of 
Parisian  physics  even  in  the  following  opinion,  enun- 
ciated accidently :  the  acceleration  of  the  fall  of  heavv 
bodies  is  explained  by  the  continual  increase  which 
impetus  receives  from  gravity. 

XIII.   FOBTUNBS  OF  THE  COPERNICAN  StSTEM  IN 

THE  Sixteenth  Century. — Copernicus  and  his 
disciple  Rheeticus  very  probably  r^arded  the  motions 
whicn  their  theory  ascribed  to  the  Earth  and  the 
planets,  the  sun^s  rest  and  that  of  the  firmament  of 
fixed  staro,  as  the  real  motions  or  real  rest  of  these 
bodies,  llie  '^De  revolutionibiis  orbium  caelestium 
libri  sex''  appeared  with  an  anonymous  preface 
which  inspired  an  entirely  different  idea.  This  pref- 
ace was  the  work  of  the  Lutheran  theologian  Osian- 
der  (1498-1552),  who  therein  expressed  the  opinion 
that  the  hypotheses  proposed  by  philosophers  in 
general,  and  by  Copernicus  in  particular,  were  in  no 
wise  calculated  to  acquaint  us  with  the  reality  of 
things:  ^'Neque  enim  necesse  est  eas  hypotheses  esse 
veras,  imo,  ne  verisimiles  quidem,  sea  sufficit  hoc 
unum  si  calculum  observationibus  con^entem 
exhibeanf .  Osiander's  view  of  astronomical  hy- 
potheses was  not  new.  Even  in  the  days  of  Grecian 
antiquity  a  number  of  thinkers  had  Inamtained  that 
the  sole  object  of  these  hypotheses  was  to  ''save 
appearances'',  ffi&^eiv  r&  ^aii^/icra;  and  in  the  Middle 
Ages,  as  well  as  in  antiquity,  this  method  continued 
to  be  that  of  philosophers  who  wished  to  make  use 
of  Ptolemaic  astronomy  whibt  at  the  same  time  up- 
holding the  Peripatetic  physics  absolutely  incom- 
patible with  this  astronomy.  Osiander's  doctrine 
was  therefore  readily  received,  first  of  all  by  astron- 
omers who,  without  believing  the  Earth's  motion 
to  be  a  reality,  accepted  and  admired  the  kinetic 
combinations  conceived  by  Copernicus,  as  these 
combinations  provided  them  with  better  means  than 
could  be  offered  by  the  Ptolemaic  system  for  figuring 
out  the  motion  of  the  moon  and  the  phenomena  of 
the  precession  of  the  equinoxes. 

One  of  the  astronomers  who  most  distinctly  as- 
sumed this  attitude  in  regard  to  Ptolemy's  system 
was  Erasmus  Reinhold  (1511-53),  who,  although  not 
admitting  the  Earth's  motion,  professed  a  great 
admiration  for  the  system  of  Copernicus  and  u^  it 
in  computing  new  astronomical  tables,  the  ''Prutenicse 
tabulae"  (1551),  which  were  largely  instrumental  in 
introducing  to  astronomers  the  kinetic  combinations 
originated  by  Copernicus.  The  "Prutenic®  tabulse" 
were  especially  employed  by  the  commission  which 
in  1582  effected  the  Gregorian  reform  of  the  calendar. 
Whilst  not  believing  in  the  Earth's  motion,  the  mem- 
bers of  this  commission  did  not  hesitate  to  use  tables 
founded  on  a  theory  of  the  precession  of  the  equi- 
noxes and  attributing  a  certain  motion  to  the  earth. 

However,  the  freedom  permitting  astronomers  to 


use  all  hypotheses  Qualified  to  account  for  phenomena 
was  soon  restricted  by  the  exigencies  of  Peripatetic 

Ehilosophers  and  Prptestant  theologians.  Osiander 
ad  written  his  celebrated  preface  to  Copemicus's 
book  with  a  view  to  warding  off  the  attacks  of  theo- 
logians, but  in  this  he  did  not  succeed.  Martin 
Luther,  in  his  "Tischrede",  was  the  first  to  express 
indignation  at  the  impiety  of  those  who  admitted  the 
hypothesis  of  solar  rest.  Melanchthon,  although 
acknowledging  the  purely  astronomical  advantiiges 
of  the  Copernican  system,  strongly  combatted  the 
hypothesis  of  the  Earth's  motion  (1549),  not  only 
with  the  aid  of  arguments  furnished  by  Peripatetic 
physics  but  likewise,  and  chiefly,  with  the  assistance 
of  numerous  texts  taken  from  Holy  Writ.  Kaspar 
Peucer  (1525-1602),  Melanchthon's  son-in-law,  whilst 
endeavouring  to  have  his  theory  of  the  planets  har- 
monize with  the  progress  which  the  Copernican  system 
had  made  in  this  regard,  nevertheless  reject^  the 
Copernican  hypotheses  as  absurd  (1571). 

It  then  came  to  be  exacted  of  astronomical  h3rpoth- 
eses  that  not  only,  as  Osiander  had  desired,  the  result 
of  their  calculations  be  conformable  to  facts,  but  also 
that  they  be  not  refuted  "either  in  the  name  of  the 
principles  of  physics  or  in  the  name  of  the  authority 
of  the  Sacred  Scriptures".  This  criterion  was  explic- 
itly formulated  in  1578  by  a  Lutheran,  the  Danish 
astronomer  Tycho  Brahe  (1546-1601),  and  it  was 
precisely  by  virtue  of  these  two  requirements  that 
the  doctrines  of  Galileo  were  to  be  condemned  by  the 
Inquisition  in  1616  and  1633.  Eager  not  to  admit 
any  hypothesis  that  would  conflict  with  Aristotelean 
physics  or  be  contrary  to  the  letter  of  the  Sacred 
Scriptures,  and  yet  most  desirous  to  retain  all  the 
astronomical  advantages  of  the  Copernican  system, 
Tycho  Brahe  proposed  a  new  system  which  virtually 
consisted  in  leaving  the  Earth  motionless  and  in 
moving  the  other  heavenly  bodies  in  such  a  way  that 
their  displacement  with  regard  to  the  Earth  might 
remain  the  same  as  in  the  system  of  Copernicus. 
Moreover,  althou^  posing  as  the  defender  of  Aris- 
totelean physics,  Tycho  Brahe  dealt  it  a  disastrous 
blow.  In  1572  a  star,  until  then  unknown,  appeared 
in  the  constellation  of  Cassiopeia,  and  in  showing 
accurate  observations  that  the  new  astral  body  was 
really  a  fixed  star,  Tycho  Brahe  proved  conclusively 
that  the  celestial  world  was  not,  as  Aristotle  would 
have  had  us  believe,  formed  of  a  substance  exempt 
from  generation  and  destruction. 

The  Church  had  not  remained  indifferent  to  the 
hypothesis  of  the  Earth's  motion  until  the  time  of 
iVcl^o  BrahCj  as  it  was  amongst  her  members  that 
this  hypothesis  had  found  its  first  defenders^  counting, 
adherents  even  in  the  extremely  orthodox  University 
of  Paris.  At  the  time  of  defending  this  hypothesis, 
Oresme  was  Canon  of  Rouen,  and  immediately  after 
he  was  promoted  to  the  Bishopric  of  Lisieux;  Nicholas 
of  Cusa  was  Bishop  of  Brixen  and  cardinal,  and  was 
entrusted  with  important  negotiations  by  Eugenius 
IV,  Nicholas  V,  and  Pius  II;  Calcagnini  was  protho- 
notary  Apostolic;  Copernicus  was  Canon  of  Thorn, 
and  it  was  Cardinal  Schomberg  who  ui]ged  him  to 
publish  his  work,  the  dedication  of  which  was  ac- 
cepted by  Paul  III.  Besides,  Oresme  ba^  made 
clear  how  to  interpret  the  Scriptural  passages  claim^ 
to  be  opposed  to  the  Copernican  system^  and  in  1584 
Didacus  a  Stunica  of  Salamanca  found  m  Holy  Writ 
texts  which  could  be  invoked  with  just  as  much 
certainty  in  favour  of  the  Earth's  motion.  However, 
in  1595  the  Protestant  senate  of  the  University  of 
Tubingen  compelled  Kepler  to  retract  the  chapter 
in  his  ''Mysterium  cosmographicum ",  in  which  he 
had  endeavoured  to  make  the  Copernican  system 
agree  with  Scripture. 

Christopher  Clavius  (1537-1612),  a  Jesuit,  and  one 
of  the  influential  members  of  the  commission  that 
reformed  the  Gregorian  Calendar,  seemed  to  be  the 


PHYSICS                                55  PHYSICS 

first  Catholic  astronomer  to  adopt  the  double  test  In  1559  a  posthumous  work  by  Delfino  gave  a  de- 
imposed  upon  astronomical  hypotheses  by  Tycho  scription  of  the  phenomena  of  the  tides,  identical  with 
Brahe,  and  to  decide  (1581)  that  the  suppositions  that  deduced  from  the  mechanism  conceived  by 
of  Copernicus  were  to  be  rejected,  as  opposed  both  to  Grisogone.  The  doctrine  of  the  Dalmatian  physician 
Peripatetic  physics  and  to  Scripture;  on  the  other  was  reproduced  by  Paolo  Gallucci  in  1588,  and  by 
hand,  at  the  end  of  his  life  and  under  the  influence  Annibale  Raimondo  in  1589:  and  in  1600  Claude 
of  Galileo's  discoveries.  Clavius  appeared  to  have  Ihu^t,  who  had  plagiarized  Delfino's  treatise,  pub- 
assumed  a  far  more  favourable  attitude  towards  lished  in  France  tne  description  of  the  tides  given  in 
Copemican  doctrines.    The  enemies  of  Aristotelean  that  work. 

philosophy  gladly  adopted  the  system  of  Copernicus,  XV.  Statics    in    the    Sixteenth    Century — 

considering  its  hvpotheses  as  so  manv  propositions  Stevinits. — ^When  writing  on  statics  Cardano  drew 

physically  true,  this  being  the  case  with  Fierre  de  La  upon  two  sources,  the  writings  of  Archimedes  and 

K£un6e,  called  Petrus  Ramus  (1502-72),  and  espe-  the  treatises  of  the  School  of  Jordanus;  besides,  he 

cially  with  Giordano  Bruno  (about  1550^1600).    The  probably  plagiarized  the  notes  left  by  Vinci,  and  it 

physics  developed  by  Bruno,  m  which  he  incorporated  was  perhaps  from  this  source  that  he  took  the  theo- 

the  Copemican  hypothesis,  proceeded  from  Nicole,  rem:  a  system  endowed  with  weight  is  in  equilibrium 

Oresme,  and  Nicholas  of  Cusa;  but  chiefly  from  the  when  the  centre  of  gravity  of  this  system  is  the  lowest 

ph3r8ics  taught  in  the  University  of  Paris  in  the  four-  possible. 

teenth  centuiy.    The  infinite  extent  of  the  universe  Nicolo  Tartaglia  (about  1500-57),  Cardano's  an- 

and  the  plurality  of  worlds  were  admitted  as  possible  tagonist,  shamelessly  purloined  a  supposedly   for- 

by  many  theologians  at  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  gotten  treatise  by  one  of  Jordanus's  commentators, 

century,  and  the  theory  of  the  slow  motion  which  Ferrari.  Cardano^s  faithful  disciple,  harshly  rebuked 

gradually  cause?  the  central  portions  of  the  Earth  Tartaglia  for  the  theft,  which  nevertheless  had  the 

to  work  to  the  surface  had  been  taught  by  Albert  merit  of  re-establishing  the  vogue  of  certain  discov- 

of  Saxony  before  it  attracted  the  attention  of  Vinci,  eries  of  the  thirteenth  century,  especially  the  law  of 

The  solution  of  Peripatetic  arguments  against  the  the  equilibrium  of  a  body  supported  by  an  inclined 

Earth's  motion  and  the  theory  of  gravity  called  forth  plane.    By  another  and  no  less  barefaced  plagiarism, 

by  the  comparison  of  the  planets  witii  the  Earth  Tartaglia  published  under  his  own  name  a  translation 

would  appear  to  have  been  borrowed  by  Bruno  from  of  Ar^imedes's  ''Treatise  on  floating  bodies''  made 

Oresme.    The  aposta^^and  heresies  for  which  Bruno  by  William  of  Moerbeke  at  the  end  of  the  thirteenth 

was  condemned  in  1600  had  nothing  to  do  with  the  century.    This  publication,  dishonest  though  it  was, 

physical  doctrines  he  had  espoused,  which  included  helped  to  give  prominence  to  the*  study  of  Arch- 

m   particular   Copemican   astronomy.    In   fact   it  imedes's  mechanical  labours,  which  study  exerted 

does  not  seem  that,  in  the  sixteenth  century,  the  the  greatest  influence  over  the  progress  of  science  at 

Church  manifested  the  slightest  anxiety  concerning  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century,  the  blending  of 

the  system  of  Copernicus.  Archimedean   mathematics   with   Parisian  physics, 

XIV.  Theory  of  the  Tides. — It  is  undoubtedly  to  generatmg  the  movement  that  terminated  in  Gatileo's 
the  s^eat  voyages  that  shed  additional  lustre  on  the  work.  The  translation  and  explanation  of  ;the  works 
close  of  the  fifteenth  century  that  we  must  attribute  of  Archimedes  enlisted  the  attention  of  geometricians 
the  importance  assumed  in  the  sixteenth  century  such  as  Francesco  Maurolycus  of  Messina  (1494- 
by  the  problem  of  the  tides,  and  the  gr6at  progress  1575)  and  FedericoCommandino  of  Urbino(  1509-75), 
made  at  that  time  towards  the  solution  of  this  prob-  and  these  two  authors,  continuing  the  work  of  the 
lem.  The  correlation  existing  between  the  phenome-  great  Syracusan,  determined  the  position  of  the 
non  of  high  and  low  tide  and  the  course  of  the  moon  centre  of  gravity  of  various  solids;  in  addition  Com- 
was  known  even  in  ancient  times.  Posidonius  accu-  mandin  translated  and  explained  Pappus's  mathe- 
rately  described  it;  the  Arabian  astronomers  were  matical ''Collection",  and  tne  fragment  of  Mech^Ji- 
also  famihar  with  it,  and  the  explanation  ^ven  of  it  ics"  by  Heron  of  Alexandria  appended  thereto, 
in  the  ninth  century  by  Albumazar  in  his  ''Intro-  Admiration  for  these  monuments  of  ancient  science 
ductorium  magnum  ad  Astronomiam"  remained  a  inspired  a  number  of  Italians  with  a  profound  con- 
classic  throughout  the  Middle  Ages.  The  observation  tempt  for  medieval  statics.  The  fecundity  of  the  prin- 
of  tidal  phenomena  very  naturafly  led  to  the  supposi-  ciple  of  virtual  displacements,  so  happily  employed 
tion  that  the  moon  attracted  the  waters  of  the  ocean  by  the  School  of  Jordanus,  was  ignored;  and,  de- 
and,  in  the  thirteenth  century,  William  of  Auvergne  prived  of  the  laws  discovered  by  this  school  and 
compared  this  attraction  to  that  of  the  magnet  for  of  the  additions  made  to  them  by  Vinci,,  the  treatises 
iron.  However,  the  mere  attraction  of  the  moon  did  on  statics  written  by  over-enthusiastic  admirers  of 
not  suffice  to  account  for  the  alternation  of  spring  'the  Archimedean  method  were  notably  deficient, 
and  neap  tides,  which  phenomenon  clearly  indicated  Among  the  authors  of  these  treatises  Guidobaldo 
a  certain  intervention  of  the  sun.  In  his  "Questions  dal  Monte  (1545-1607)  and  Giovanni  Battista 
sur  les  livres  des  M^tdores",  which  appeared  during  Benedetti  (1530-90)  deserve  special  mention, 
the  latter  half  of  the  fourteenth  centuiy,  Themon,  Of  the  mathematicians  who,  in  statics,  claimed  to 
"Son  of  the  Jew",  introduced  in  a  vague  sort  of  way  follow  exclusively  the  rigorous  methods  of  Archimedes 
the  idea  of  superposing  two  tides,  the  one  due  to  the  and  the  Greek  geometricians,  the  most  illustrious 
sun  and  the  other  to  the  moon.  was  Simon  Stevinus  of  Bruges  (1548-1620).   Ti^ugh 

In  1528  this  idea  was  very  clearly  endorsed  by  him  the  statics  of  solid  bodies  recovered  all  that  had 

Federico  Grisogone  of  Zara,  a  Dalmatian  who  taught  been  guned  by  the  School  of  Jordanus  and  Vinci,  and 

medicine  at  Padua.    Grisogone  declared  that,  under  lost  by  the  contempt  of  such  men  as  Guidobaldo  del 

the  action  of  the  moon  exclusively^  the  sea  would  Monte  and  Benedetti.    The  law  of  the  equilibrium 

assume  an  ovoid  shape,  its  major  axis  being  directed  of  the  lever,  one  of  the  fundamental  propositions  of 

towards  the  centre  of  the  moon;   that  the  action  of  which  Stevinus  made  use,  was  established  by  him  with 

the  sun  would  also  give  it  an  ovoid  shape,  less  elon-  the  aid  of  an  ingenious  demonstration  which  Galileo 

gated  than  the  first,  its  major  axis  bemg  directed  was  also  to  employ,  and  which  is  found  in  a  small 

towards  the  centre  of  the  sun;  and  that  the  variation  anonymous  work  of  the  thirteenth  century.    In  order 

of  sea  level,  at  aU  times  and  in  all  places,  was  obtained  to  confirm  another  essential  principle  of  his  theory, 

by  adding  the  elevation  or  depression  produced  by  the  law  of  the  equilibrium  of  a  body  on  an  inclinea 

the  solar  tide  to  the  elevation  or  depresraon  produced  plane,  Stevinus  resorted  to  the  impossibility  of  per- 

by   the   lunar   tide.     In    1557   Girolamo   Cardano  petual  motion,  which  had  been  affirmed  with  great 

accepted  and  briefly  explained  Griso^one's  theory,  precision  by  Vinci  and  Cardano.     Stevinus's  chief 


PHYSICS 


56 


PHYSICS 


§loiy  lay  in  his  discoveries  in  hydrostatics;  and  the 
etermining  of  the  extent  and  point  of  application 
of  the  pressure  on  the  slanting  inner  side  of  a  vessel 
by  the  liquid  contained  therein  was  in  itself  sufficient 
to  entitle  this  geometrician  from  Bruges  to  a  foremost 

{>lace  among  the  creators  of  the  theory  of  the  equi- 
ibrium  of  fluids.  Benedetti  was  on  the  point  of 
enunciating  the  principle  known  as  Pascal's  Law,  and 
an  insi^ficant  addition  permitted  Mersenne  to 
infer  this  principle  and  the  idea  of  the  hydraulic 
press  from  what  the  Italian  geometrician  had  written. 
Benedetti  had  justified  his  propositions  by  using  as 
an  axiom  the  law  of  the  equilibrium  of  liquids  in 
communicating  vessels,  and  prior  to  this  time  Vinci 
had  followed  the  same  logical  proceeding. 

XVI.  Dynamics  in  the  Sektbenth  Century. — 
The  geometricians  who,  in  spite  of  the  stereotyped 
methods  of  Averroism  and  the  banter  of  Humanism, 
continued  to  cultivate  the  Parisian  dynamics  of 
impetus,  were  rewarded  by  splendid  discoveries. 
Dissipating  the  doubt  in  which  Albert  of  Saxonv  had 
remained  enveloped,  Vinci  had  declared  the  velocity 
acquired  by  a  falling  body  to  be  proportional  to  the 
time  occupied  by  the  fall,  but  he  did  not  know  how 
to  determine  the  law  connecting  the  time  consumed 
in  fidling  with  the  space  passed  over  by  the  falling 
body.  Nevertheless  to  find  this  law  it  would  have 
sufficed  to  invoke  the  following  proposition:  in  a 
uniformly  varied  motion,  the  space  traversed  by  the 
moving  body  is  eq^sA  to  that  which  it  would  traverse 
in  a  uniform  motion  whose  duration  would  be  that 
of  the  preceding  motion,  and  whose  velocity  would 
be  the  same  as  that  wnich  affected  the  preceding 
motion  at  the  mean  instant  of  its  duration.  This 
proposition  was  known  to  Oresme,  who  had  demon- 
strated it  exactly  as  it  was  to  be  demonstrated  later 
by  Galileo;  it  was  enunciated  and  discussed  at  the 
close  of  the  fourteenth  century  by  all  the  logicians 
who,  in  the  University  of  Oxford,  composed  the  school 
of  William  of  Hejrtesbury,  Chancellor  of  Oxford  in 
1375;  it  was  subsequently  examined  or  invoked  in  the 
fifteenth  century  by  all  the  Italians  who  became  the 
commentators  of  these  logicians;  and  finally,  the 
masters  of  the  University  of  Paris,  contemporaries 
of  Vinci,  taught  and  demonstrated  it  as  Oresme  had 
done. 

This  law  which  Vinci  was  not  able  to  determine 
was  published  in  1545  by  a  Spanish  Dominican, 
Dommgo  Soto  (14M^1560),  an  alumnus  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Paris,  and  professor  of  theology  at  Alcald 
de  Henares,  and  afterwards  at  Salamanca.  He  for- 
mulated these  two  laws  thus: 

The  velocity  of  a  falling  body  increases  propor- 
tionally to  the  time  of  the  fall. 

The  space  traversed  in  a  uniformly  varied  motion 
is  the  same  as  in  a  uniform  motion  occupving  the* 
same  time,  its  velocity  being  the  mean  velocity  of 
the  former. 

In  addition  Soto  declared  that  the  motion  of  a 
body  thrown  vertically  upward  is  uniformly  retarded. 
It  should  be  mentioned  that  all  these  propositions 
were  formulated  by  the  celebrated  Dominican  as  if 
in  relation  'to  truths  generally  admitted  by  the  mas- 
ters among  whom  he  fived. 

The  Parisian  theory,  maintaining  that  the  accel- 
erated fall  of  bodies  was  due  to  the  effect  of  a  continual 
increase  of  impetus  caused  by  gravity,  was  admitted 
^  Julius  CsBsar  Scaliger  (1484-1558),  Benedetti,  and 
Uabriel  Vasouez  (1551-1604),  the  celebrated  Jesuit 
theologian.  The  first  of  these  authors  presented  this 
theory  in  such  a  way  that  uniform  acceleration  of 
motion  seem^  naturally  to  follow  from  it. 

Soto,  Tartaglia,  and  Cardano  made  strenuous 
efforts,  after  the  manner  of  Vinci,  to  explain  the 
motion  of  projectiles  by  appealing  to  the  conflict 
between  impetus  and  gravity,  but  their  attempts 
were  frustrated  by  a  Peripatetic  error  which  several 


Parisian  masters  had  long  before  rejected.  They 
believed  that  the  motion  of  the  projectile  was  acceler- 
ated from  the  start,  and  attributed  this  initial  acceler- 
ation to  an  impulse  communicated  by  the  vibrating 
air.  Indeed,  throughout  the  sixteenth  century,  the 
Italian  Averroists  continued  to  attribute  to  the  am- 
bient air  the  very  transportation  of  the  projectile. 
Tartaglia  empirically  discovered  that  a  piece  of 
artillerv  attained  its  greatest  range  when  pointed  at 
an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees  to  the  horizon.  Bruno 
insisted  upon  Oresme's  explanation  of  the  fact  that 
a  body  appears  to  fall  in  a  vertical  line  in  spite  of  the 
Earth's  motion;  to  obtain  the  trajectory  of  this 
body  it  is  necessary  to  combine  the  action  of  its 
weight  with  the  impetus  which  the  Earth  has  im- 
parted to  it.  It  was  as  follows  that  Benedetti  set 
forth  the  law  followed  by  such  an  impetus.  A  body 
whirled  in  a  circle  and  suddenly  left  to  itself  will 
move  in  a  straight  line  tangent  to  the  circle  at  the 
very  point  where  the  body  happened  to  be  at  the 
moment  of  its  release.  For  this  achievement  Bene- 
detti deserves  to  be  ranked  among  the  most  valuable 
contributors  to  the  discovery  of  the  law  of  inertia. 
In  1553  Benedetti  advanced  the  following  argument: 
in  air,  or  any  fluid  whatever,  ten  ec^ual  stones  fall 
with  the  same  velocity  as  one  of  their  number;  and 
if  all  were  combined  they  would  still  fall  with  the 
same  velocity;  therefore,  in  a  fluid  two  stones,  one 
of  which  is  ten  times  heavier  than  the  other,  fall  with 
the  same  velocity.  Benedetti  lauded  the  extreme 
novelty  of  this  argument  with  which,  in  reality, 
many  scholastics  had  been  familiar,  but  which  they 
had  all  claimed  was  not  conclusive,  oecause  the  resis- 
tance which  the  air  offered  to  the  heavier  stone 
could  certainly  not  be  ten  times  that  which  it  opposed 
to  the  lighter  one.  Achillini  was  one  of  those  who 
clearly  maintained  this  principle.  That  it  might 
lead  to  a  correct  conclusion,  Benedetti's  argument 
had  to  be  restricted  to  the  motion  of  bodies  in  a 
vacuum,  and  this  is  what  was  done  by  Galileo. 

XVII.  Galileo's  Work.— Galileo  GaUlei  (1564- 
1642)  had  been  in  youth  a  staunch  Peripatetic,  but 
was  later  converted  to  the  Copemican  system,  and 
devoted  most  of  his  efforts  to  its  defence.  The  tri- 
umph of  the  system  of  Copernicus  could  only  be 
secured  by  the  perfecting  of  mechanics,  and  espe- 
cially by  solving  the  problem  presented  by  the  tail 
of  bodies,  when  the  earth  was  supposed  to  be  in 
motion.  It  was  towards  this  solution  that  many 
of  Galileo's  researches  were  directed,  and  to  bring 
his  labours  to  a  successful  issue  he  had  to  adopt  cer- 
tain principles  of  Parisian  dynamics.  Unfortunately, 
instead  of  using  them  all,  he  left  it  to  others  to  ex- 
haust their  fecundity. 

Galilean  statics  was  a  compromise  between  the 
incorrect  method  inaugurated  in  Aristotle's  ''Mechan- 
ical Questions"  and  the  correct  method  of  virtual 
displacements  successfully  applied  by  the  School  of 
Jordanus.  Imbued  with  ideas  that  were  still  intensely 
Peripatetic,  it  introduced  the  consideration  of  a 
certain  impeto  or  momento,  proportional  to  the 
velocity  of  the  moving  body  and  not  unlike  the 
impetus  of  the  Parisians.  Galilean  hydrostatics 
also  showed  an  imperfect  form  of  the  principle  of 
virtual  displacements,  which  seemed  to  have  been 
suggested  to  the  great  Pisan  by  the  effectual  re- 
searches made  on  the  theory  of  running  water  by  his 
friend  Benedetto  Castelli,  the  Benedictine  (1577-1644) . 
At  first  GaUIeo  asserted  that  the  velocity  of  a  falling 
body  increased  proportionally  to  the  space  traversed, 
and  afterwards,  by  an  ingenious  demonstration,  he 
proved  the  utter  absurdity  of  such  a  law.  He  then 
taught  that  the  motion  of  a  freely  falling  body  was 
uniformly  accelerated;  in  favour  of  this  law^  he  con- 
tented himself  with  appealing  to  its  simplicity  with- 
out considering  the  continual  increase  of  impetus 
under  the  influence  of  gravity.    Gravity  creates,  in 


PHYSICS 


57 


PHYSICS 


eaual  periods,  a  new  and  uniform  impetus  which, 
added  to  that  already  acquired,  causes  the  total 
impetus  to  increase  in  arithmetical  progression 
according  to  the  time  occupied  in  the  fall;  hence  the 
velocity  of  the  falling  bod^.  This  argmnent  towards 
which  all  Parisian  tradition  had  been  tending  and 
which;  in  the  last  place,  had  been  broached  by  Sca- 
liger,  leads  to  our  modem  law:    a  constant  force 

{)roduces  uniformly  accelerated  motion.  In  Gali- 
eo's  work  there  is  no  trace  either  of  the  argument 
or  of  the  conclusion  deduced  therefrom;  however, 
the  argument  itself  was  carefully  developed  by 
Galileo^  friend,  Giambattista  Baliani  (1582-1666). 
From  the  very  definition  of  velocity,  Baliani  en- 
deavoured to  deduce  the  law  according  to  which  the 
space  traversed  by  a  falling  body  is  increased  pro- 

Eortionally  to  the  time  occupied  in  the  fall.  Here 
e  was  confronted  by  a  difficulty  that  had  also  baffled 
Vinci;  however,  he  eventually  anticipated  its  solu- 
tion, which  was  cdven,  after  similar  hesitation,  by 
another  of  Galileo  s  disciples,  Pierre  Gassendi  (1592- 
1655).  Galileo  had  reached  the  law  connecting  the 
time  occupied  in  the  fall  with  the  space  traversed  by 
a  falling  body,  by  using  a  demonstration  that  became 
celebrated  as  the  'demonstration  of  the  triangle ''. 
It  was  textually  that  given  by  Oresme  in  the  four- 
teenth century  and,  as  we  have  seen,  Soto  had  thought 
of  using  Oresme's  proposition  in  the  study  of  the 
accelerated  fall  of  bodies.  Galileo  extended  the  laws 
of  freely  falling  bodies  to  a  fall  down  an  inclined  plane 
and  subjected  to  the  test  of  experiment  the  law  of  the 
motion  of  a  weight  on  an  inclined  plane. 

A  body  which,  without  friction  or  resistance  of  any 
kind,  would  describe  the  circumference  of  a  circle 
concentric  with  the  Earth  would  retain  an  invariable 
impeto  or  momentOy  as  gravity  would  in  no  wise  tend 
to  increase  or  destroy  this  impeto:  this  principle, 
which  belonged  to  the  dynamics  of  Bundan  ana 
Albert  of  Saxony,  was  acknowledged  by  Galileo. 
On  a  small  surface,  a  sphere  concentric  with  the 
Earth  is  apparently  merged  into  a  horizontal  plane; 
a  body  thrown  upon  a  horizontal  plane  and  free  from 
all  friction  woula  therefore  assume  a  motion  appar- 
ently rectilinear  and  uniform.  It  is  only  under  this 
restricted  and  erroneous  form  that  Galileo  recognized 
the  law  of  inertia  and.  in  this,  he  was  the  faithful 
disciple  of  the  School  oi  Paris. 

If  a  heavy  body  moved  by  an  impeto  that  would 
make  it  describe  a  circle  concentric  with  the  Earth 
is,  moreover,  free  to  fall,  the  impeto  of  uniform  rota- 
tion and  gravity  are  component  forces.  Over  a 
small  extent  the  motion  produced  by  thb  impeto 
may  be  assumed  to  be  rectilinear,  horizontal,  and 
uniform;  hence  the  approximate  law  may  be  enun- 
ciated as  follows:  a  neavv  body,  to  wmch  a  hori- 
zontal initial  velocity  has  been  imparted  at  the  very 
moment  that  it  is  abandoned  to  the  action  of  gravity, 
assumes  a  motion  which  is  sensibly  the  combination  ot 
a  uniform  horizontal  motion  with  the  vertical  motion 
that  it  would  assume  without  initial  velocity.  Galileo 
then  demonstrated  that  the  trajectory  of  this  heavy 
bodv  is  a  parabola  with  vertical  axis.  This  theory 
of  the  motion  of  projectiles  rests  upon  principles  in 
no  wise  conformable  to  an  exact  knowledge  of  the 
law  of  inertia  and  which  are,  at  bottom,  identical 
with  those  invoked  by  Oresme  when  he  wished  to 
explain  how,  despite  the  Earth's  rotation,  a  body 
seems  to  fall  vertically.  The  argument  employed  by 
Galileo  did  not  permit  him  to  state  how  a  projectile 
moves  when  its  initial  velocity  is  not  horizontal. 

Evangelista  Torricelli  (1608-47),  a  disciple  of 
Gastelli  and  of  Galileo,  extended  the  latter's  method 
to  the  case  of  a  projectile  whose  initial  velocitv  had 
a  direction  other  than  horizontal,  and  proved,  that 
the  trajectory  remained  a  parabola  witn  a  vertical 
axis.  On  the  other  hand  Gassendi  showed  that  in 
this  problem  of  the  motion  of  projectiles,  the  real 


law  of  inertia  which  had  just  been  formulated  by 
Descartes  should  be  substituted  for  the  principles 
admitted  by  the  Parisian  dynamics  of  the  fpurteenth 
century. 

Mention  should  be  made  of  Galileo's  observations 
on  the  duration  of  the  oscillation  of  the  pendulum, 
as  these  observations  opened  up  to  dynamics  a  new 
field.  Galiled's  progress  in  dynamics  served  as  a 
defence  of  the  Copemican  system  and  the  discoveries 
which,  with  the  aid  of  the  telescope,  he  was  able  to 
make  in  the  heavens  contributed  to  the  same  end. 
The  spots  on  the  sun's  surface  and  the  mountains, 
similar  to  those  uix)n  the  Earth,  that  hid  from  view 
certain  portions  of  the  lunar  disc,  gave  ample  proof 
of  the  fact  that  the  celestial  bodies  were  not,  as  Aris- 
totelean  physics  had  maintained,  formed  of  an  in- 
corruptible substance  unlike  sublunary  elements; 
moreover,  the  r6Ie  of  satellite  which,  in  this  helio- 
centric astronomy,  the  moon  played  in  regard  to  the 
Earth  was  carried  out  in  relation  to  Jupiter  by  the 
two  "Medioean  planets",  which  Galileo  had  been  the 
first  to  discover.  Not  satisfied  with  having  defeated 
the  ar^ments  opposed  to  the  Copemican  system  by 
adducing  these  excellent  reasons,  Galileo  was  eager 
to  establish  a  positive  proof  in  favour  of  this  system. 
Inspired  perhaps  by  Calcagnini.  he  believed  that  the 
phenomenon  of  the  tides  would  furnish  him  the  de- 
sired proof  and  he  consequently  rejected  every  expla- 
nation of  ebb  and  flow  founded  on  the  attraction  of 
the  sun  and  the  moon,  in  order  to  attribute  the  motion 
of  the  seas  to  the  centrifugal  force  produced  by  ter- 
restrial rotation.  Such  an  explanation  would  con- 
nect the  period  of  high  tide  with  the  sidereal  instead 
of  the  limar  day,  thus  contradicting  the  most  ordi- 
nary and  ancient  observations.  This  remark  alone 
ought  to  have  held  Galileo  back  and  prevented  him 
from  pibducing  an  argument  better  calculated  to 
overthrow  the  doctrine  of  the  Earth's  rotation  than 
to  establish  and  confirm  it. 

Oti  two  occasions,  in  1616  and  1633,  the  Inquisi- 
tion condemned  what  Galileo  had  written  in  favour 
of  the  system  of  Copernicus.  The  hypothesis  of  the 
Earth's  motion  was  declared  faUa  in  Philoaovhia  et 
ad  minus  erronea  in  fide;  the  hypothesis  of  tne  sun 
being  stationary  was  adjudged  falsa  in  Philosophia 
et  formaliter  hoeretica.  Adopting  the  doctrine  formu- 
lated by  Tycho  Brahe  in  1578,  the  Holy  Office  forbade 
the  use  of  all  astronomical  hypotheses  that  did  not 
agree  both  with  the  principles  of  Aristotelean  physics, 
and  with  the  letter  of  the  Sacred  Scriptures  (see 
Gaulei,  Galileo). 

XVIII.  Initial  Attempts  in  Celestial  Mecban- 
ics — Gilbert — Kepler. — Copernicus  had  endeav- 
oured to  describe  accurately  the  motion  of  each  of  the 
celesti^  bodies,  and  Galileo  had  striven  to  show  that 
the  views  of  Copernicus  were  correct;  but  neither 
Copernicus  nor  Galileo  had  attempted  to  extend  to 
the  stars,  what  they  knew  concerning  the  dynamics 
of  sublimary  motions,  or  to  determine  thereby  the 
forces  that  sustain  celestial  motions.  They  were 
satisfied  with  holding  that  the  daily  rotation  of  the 
Earth  is  perpetuated  by  virtue  of  an  impetus  given 
once  for  all;  that  ther  various  parts  of  an  element 
belonging  to  a  star  tend  towards  the  centre  of  this 
star  by  reason  of  a  gravitv  peculiar  to  each  of  the 
celestial  bodies  through  which  the  body  is  enabled 
to  preserve  its  entireness.  Thus,  in  celestial  mechan- 
ics, these  two  great  scientists  contributed  scarcely 
an3rthing  to  what  had  already  been  taught  by 
Buridan,  Oresme,  and  Nicholas  of  Cusa.  About 
Galileo's  time  we  notice  the  first  attempts  to  consti- 
tute celestial  mechanics,  that  is  to  say,  to  explain 
the  motion  of  the  stars  by  the  aid  of  forces  analogous 
to  those  the  effects  of  which  we  feel  upon  earth;  the 
most  important  of  these  initial  attempts  were  made 
by  William  Gilbert  (1540-160.S),  and  Johann  Kepler 
(1571-1631). 


PHYSICS  58  PHYSICS 

To  Gilbert  we  are  indebted  for  an  exhaustive  trea-  of  the  three  admirable  laws  that  have  immortalized 
tise  on  magnetism,  in  .which  he  systematically  incor-  his  name:  and,  by  teaching  that  the  planets  de- 
porated  ,what  was  known  in  medieval  times  of  elec-  scribed  ellipses  instead  of  circles,  he  pnxluoed  in 
trical  and  magnetic  phenomena,  without  adding  astronomy  a  revolution  greater  oy  far  than  that 
thereto  anything  very  essential;  he  also  gave  the  caused  by  Ck>pemicus;  he  destroyed  the  last  time- 
result  of  ms  own  valuable  experiments.  It  was  in  honoured  principle  of  ancient  physics,  according 
this  treatise  that  he  began  to  expotmd  his  ''  Magnetic  to  which  all  celestial  motions  were  reducible  to  cir- 
Philosophy^',  that  is  to  say  his  celestial  mechanics,  cular  motion. 

but  the  work  in  which  he  fully  developed  it  was  not       XIX. ''Controversies  concerning  Geostatics. — 

published  until  1651,  lon^  after  his  death.     Like  The  "magnetic''  philosophy  adopted  and  developed 

Oresme  and  Copernicus,  Gilbert  maintfuned  that  in  by  Gilbert  was  not  only  rejected  by  Kepler  out 

each  star   there  was  a  particular  gravity  through  badly  abused  in  a  dispute  over  the  principles  of 

which  the  material  parts  belonging  to  this  star,  and  statics.     A    number  of   the    Parisian    Scholastics 

these  only,  tended  to  rejoin  the  star  when  they  had  of  the  fourteenth  century,  and  Albert  of  Saxony  in 

been  separated  from  it.    He  compared  this  gravity,  particular,  had  accepted  the  principle  that  in  every 

peculiar  to  each  star,  to  the  action  by  which  a  piece  body  there  is  a  fixea,  determmed  point  which  tenda 

of  iron  flies  towards  the  magnet  whose  nature  it  to  join  the  centre  of  the  World,  this  point  being 

shares.    This  opinion,  held  by  so  many  of  Gilbert^s  identical  with  the  centre  of  f^avity  as  considercMl  by 

predecessors  and  adopted  by  a  great  number  of  his  Archimedes.     From  this  principle  various  authors, 

imitators,  led  Francis  Bacon  astray.    Bacon  was  the  notably  Vinci,  deduced  corollaries  that  retained  a 

enthusiastic   herald   of   the    experimental    method  place  m  statics.     The  Copemican  revolution  had 

which,  however,  he  never  practised  and  of  which  he  modified   this  principle  but   little,   having   simply 

had  an  utterlv  false  conception.    According  to  Gil-  substituted,  for  the  centre  of  the  universe,  a  particular 

bert,  the  Earth,  sun,  and  the  stars  were  animated,  and  point  in  each  star,  towards  which  point  tended  the 

the  animating  principle  of  each  communicated  to  centre  of  gravity  of  each  mass  belonging  to  this  star, 

the  body  the  motion  of  perpetual  rotation.    From  a  Copernicus,  Galileo,  and  Gilbert  admitted  the  prin- 

distance,  the  sun  exerted  an  action  perpendicular  ciple  thus  modified,  but  Kepler  rejected  it.    In  1635 

to  the  radius  vector  which  goes  from  the  centre  of  Jean  de  Beaugrand  deduced  from  this  principle  a 

the  sun  to  a  planet,  and  this  action  caused  the  planet  paradoxical  theory  on  the  gravity  of  bodies,  and  par- 

''to  revolve  around  the  sun  just  as  a  horse  turns  the  ticularlyonthevariationintheweightof  a  body  whose 

horse-mill  to  which  it  is  yoked.  distance  from  the  centre  of  the  universe  changes. 

Kepler  himself  admitted  that  m  his  first  attempts  Opinions  similar  to  those  proposed  by  Beaugrandf  in 

along  the  line  of  celestial  mechanics  he  was  tmder  the  his  geostatics  were  held  in  Itoly  by  Castelli,  and  in 

influence  of  Nicholas  of  Cusa  and  Gilbert.    Inspired  France    by    Pierre    Fermat    (1608-^).      Fermat's 

by  the  former  of  these  authors,  he  attributed  the  doctrine   was   discussed   and   refuted   by    Etienne 

Earth's  rotation  on  its  axis  to  an  impetus  communi-  Pas<^  (1588-1651)  and  Gilles  Persone  de  Roberval 

cated  by  the  Creator  at  the  beginning  of  time;  but.  (1602-75),  and  the  admirable  controversy  between 

under  the  influence  of  Gilbert's  theory,  he  declared  theseauthorsandFermatcontributed  in  great  measure 

that  this  impetus  ended  by  being  transformed  into  to  the  clear  exposition  of  a  certain  number  of  ideas 

a  soul  or  an  animating  principle.    In  Kepler's  earliest  employed  in  statics,  amongst  them,  that  of  the  centre 

system,  as  in  Gilbert  s,  the  distant  sun  was  sidd  to  of  gravity. 

exercise  over  each  planet  a  power  perpendicular  to        It  was  this  controversy  which  led  Descartes  to 

the  radius  vector,  wnich  power  produced  the  circular  revive  the  question  of  virtual  displacements  in  pre- 

motion  of  the  planet.     However,  Kepler  had  the  cisely  the  same  iomx  as  that  adopted  by  the  School 

happy  thought  of  submitting  a  universal  attraction  of  Jordanus,  in  order  that  the  essential  propositions . 

for  the  magnetic  attraction  that  Gilbert  had  con-  of  statics  might  be  given  a  stable  foundation.    On 

sidered  peculiar  to  each  star.     He  assumed  that  the  other  hand,  Torricelli  based  all  his  arguments 

every  material  mass  tended  towards  every  other  concerning  the  laws  of  equilibrium  on  the  axiom 

materia]  mass,  no  matter  to  what  celestial  body  each  (quoted  aoK)ve,  viz. :  a  system  endowed  with  weight 

one  of  them  belonged;  that  a  portion  of  matter  placed  is  in  equilibrium  when  the  centre  of  gravity  oi  all  the 

between  two  stars  would  tend  towards  the  larger  bodies  forming  it  is  ^e  lowest  possible.   Cardano  and 

and  nearer  one,  although  it  might  never  have  belonged  perhaps  Vinci  had  derived  this  proposition  from  the 

to  it;  that,  at  the  moment  of  high  tide,  the  waters  doctrine  of  Albert  of  Saxony,  but  Torricelli  was  care- 

of  the  sea  rose  towards  the  moon,  not  because  they  ful  to  use  it  onl3r  under  circumstances  in  which  all 

.  had  any  special  affinity  for  this  humid  star,  but  by  verticals  are  considered  parallel  to  one  another  and, 

virtue  of  the  general  tendency  that  draws  all  material  in  this  way.  he  severed  all  connexion  between  the 

masses  towaras  one  another.  axiom  that  ne  admitted  and  the  doubtful  hypotheses 

In  the  course  of  numerous  attempts  to  explain  of  Parisian  physics  or  magnetic  philosophy.  Thence- 
the  motion  of  the  stars,  Kepler  was  led  to  complicate  forth  the  principles  of  statics  were  formulated  with 
hb  first  celestial  mechanics.  He  assumed  that  all  accuracy,  John  Wallis  (1616-1703),  Pierre  Varignon 
celestial  bodies  were  plunged  into  an  ethereal  fluid,  (1654-1722),  and  Jean  Bernoulli  (1667-1748)  having 
that  the  rotation  of  the  sun  engendered  a  vortex  with-  merely  to  complete  and  develop  the  information  pro- 
in  this  fluid  the  reactions  ef  which  interposed  to  vided  by  Stevinus,  Roberval,  Descartes,  and  Tor- 
deflect  6ach  planet  from  the  circular  path.    He  also  ricelli. 

thought  that  a  certain  jx)wer,  similar  to  that  which        XX.  Debcartes'b  Work. — ^We  have  just  stated 

directs  the  magnetic  needle,   preserved  invariable  what  part  Descartes  took  in  the  building  of  statics 

in  space  the  direction  of  the  axis  around  which  the  by  bnnging  forward  the  method  of  virtual  displace- 

rotation  of  each  planet  is  effected.     The  unstable  ments,  but  his  active  interest  in  the  building  up  of 

and    complicated    system    of    celestial    mechanics  dsmamics  was  still  more  important.    He  clearly  for- 

taught  by  Kepler  sprang  from  very  deficient  dyuam-  mulated  the  law  of  inertia  as  observed  by  Benedetti: 

ics  which,  on  many  ix)int8,  was  more  akin  to  that  every  moving  body  is  inclined,  if  nothing  prevent  it, 

of  the  Peripatetics  than  to  that  of  the  Parisians,  to  continue  its  motion  in  a  straight  line  and  with 

However,  these  many  vague  h3rpotheses  exerted  an  constant  velocity;  a  bodv  cannot  move  in  a  circle 

incontestable  influence  on  the  attempts  of  scientists  unless  it  be  drawn  towardis  the  centre,  by  centripetal 

from  Kepler  to  Newton  to  determine  the  forces  that  movement  in  opposition  to  the  centrifugal  force  by 

move  the  stars.    If,  indeed,  Kepler  prepared  the  way  which  this  body  tends  to  fly  awajr  from  the  centre, 

for  Newton's  work,  it  was  mamly  by  the  discovery  Because  of  the  similarity  of  the  views  held  by  Des^ 


PHYSICS                                59  PHYSICS 

cartes  and  Benedetti  concerning  this  law^  we  may  If  the  special  physical  truths  demonstrated  or 
conclude  that  Descartes's  discovery  was  influenced  anticipated  bv  Descartes  were  easily  traceable  to  the 
by  that  of  Benedetti,  especially  as  nenedetti's  works  philosophy  of  the  fourteenth  century,  the  principles 
were  known  to  Marin  Mersenne  (1588r-1648),  the  on  which  the  great  geometrician  wished  to  base 
faithful  friend  and  correspondent  of  Descartes,  these  truths  were  absolutely  incompatible  with  this 
Descartes  connected  the  following  truth  with  the  philosophy.  In  fact,  denying  that  in  reality  there 
law  of  inertia:  a  weight  constant  in  size  and  direction  existed  anything  qualitative^  Descartes  insisted  that 
causes  a  uniformly  accelerated  motion.  Besides,  we  matter  be  reduced  to  extension  and  to  the  attributes, 
have  seen  how,  with  the  aid  of  Descartes's  principles,  of  wluch  extension  seemed  to  him  susceptible,  namely, 
Gassendi  was  able  to  rectify  what  Galileo  had  taught  numerical  proportions  and  motion;  and  it  was  by 
concerning  falling  bodies  and  the  motion  of  projec-  combinations  of  different  figures  and  motions  that 
tiles.  all  the  effects  of  physics  could  be  explained  according 
In  statics  a  heavy  body  can  very  often  be  replaced  to  his  liking.  Therefore  the  power  by  virtue  of  which 
by  a  material  point  placed  at  its  centre  of  gravity;  a  body  tends  to  preserve  the  direction  and  velocity 
but  in  dynamics  the  question  arises  whether  the  of  its  motion  is  not  a  quality  distinct  from  motion, 
motion  of  a  body  be  treated  as  if  this  body  were  such  as  the  impetus  recognized  by  the  scholastics; 
entirely  concentrated  in  one  of  these  points,  and  also  it  is  nothing  else  than  the  motion  itself,  as  was  taught 
wUch  point  this  is?  This  question  relative  to  the  by  William  of  Occam  at  the  beginning  of  the  four- 
existence  and  finding  of  a  centre  of  impulsion  had  teenth  century.  A  body  in  motion  and  isolated  would 
already  engrossed  the  attention  of  Vinci  and.  after  always  retain  the  same  quantity  of  motion,  but  there 
him,  of  Bernardino  Baldi  (1553-1617).  Baldi  as-  is  no  isolated  body  in  a  vacuum,  because  matter  being 
serted  that,  in  a  body  undergoing  a  motion  of  trans-  identical  with  extension,  vacuum  is  inconceivable, 
lation,  the  centre  of  impulsion  does  not  differ  from  the  as  is  also  compressibility.  The  only  conceivable 
centre  of  gravity.  Now,  is  there  a  centre  of  impulsion  motions  are  those  which  can  be  produced  in  the  midst 
and,  if  so,  where  is  it  to  be  found  in  a  body  under-  of  incompressible  matter,  that  is  to  say,  vortical 
^ing  a  motion  other  than  that  of  translation,  for  motions  confined  within  their  own  bulk, 
mstance,  by  a  rotation  around  an  axis?  In  other  In  these  motions  bodies  drive  one  another  from  the 
words,  is  there  a  simple  pendulum  that  moves  in  the  place  they  have  occupied  and,  in  such  a  transmission 
same  way  as  a  given  compound  pendulum?  Inspired,  of  motion,  the  quantity  of  motion  of  each  of  these 
no  doubt,  by  reading  Baldi,  Mersenne  laid  this  prob-  bodies  varies:  however,  the  entire  quantity  of  motion 
lem  before  Roberval  and  Descartes,  both  of  whom  of  all  the  homes  that  impinge  on  one  another  remains 
made  great  efforts  to  solve  it  but  became  unfriendly  constant,  as  God  always  maintains  the  same  sum 
to  each  other  because  of  the  difference  in  their  respeo-  total  of  motion  in  the  world.  This  transmission  of 
tive  propositions.  Of  the  two,  Descartes  came  nearer  motion  by  impact  is  tlie  only  action  that  bodies  can 
to  the  truth,  but  the  dynamic  principles  that  he  used  exert  over  one  another  and  in  Cartesian,  as  well  as 
were  not  sufficiently  accurate  to  justify  his  opinion  in  Aristotelean  physics,  a  body  cannot  put  another 
in  a  convincing  manner;  the  glory  was  reserved  to  in  motion  unless  it  touch  it,  immediate  action  at  a 
Christian  Huygens.  distance  being  beyond  conception. 

The  Jesuits,  who  at  the  College  of  La  Fl^che  had  There  are  various  species  of  matter,  differing  from 
been  the  preceptors  of  Mersenne  and  Descartes,  did  one  another  only  in  the  size  and  shape  of  the  contig- 
not  teach  Peripatetic  physics  in  its  stereotyped  uous  particles  of  which  they  are  formed.  The  space 
integrity,  but  rarisian  physics:  the  treatise  that  that  extends  between  the  different  heavenly  bodies 
guided  the  instruction  imparted  at  this  institution  is  filled  with  a  certain  subtile  matter,  the  very  fine 
being  represented  by  the  ''Commentaries"  on  Aris-  particles  of  which  easily  penetrate  the  interstices 
totle,  published  by  the  Jesuits  of  Coimbra  at  the  close  left  between  the  coarser  constituents  of  other  bodies, 
of  the  seventeenth  century.  Hence  it  can  be  under-  The  properties  of  subtile  matter  pUgr  an  important 
stood  why  the  dynamics  of  Descartes  had  many  part  in  idl  Carteaan  cosmology.  The  vortices  in 
points  in  common  with  the  d3mamics  of  Buridan  and  which  subtile  matter  moves,  ana  the  pressure  gener- 
the  Parisians.  Indeed,  so'  close  were  the  relations  ated  by  these  vortical  motions,  serve  to  explain  all 
between  Parisian  and  Cartesian  physics  that  certain  celestial  phenomena.  Leibniz  was  right  in  supposing 
professors  at  La  Fl^he,  such  as  Etienne  NoSl  (I58I-  that  for  this  part  of  his  work  Descartes  had  drawn 
1660)j  became  Cartesians.  Other  Jesuits  attempted  largely  upon  ICepler.  Descartes  idso  strove  to  ex- 
to  build  up  a  sort  of  a  combination  of  Galilean  and  plam,  witn  the  aid  of  the  figures  and  motions  of  sub- 
Cartesian  mechanics  with  the  mechanics  taugh  by  tile  and  other  matter,  the  different  effects  observable 
Parisian  Scholasticism,  and  foremost  among  these  Sn  physics,  particularly  the  properties  of  the  magnet 
men  must  be  mentioned  Honors  Fabri  (1606-88),  a  and  of  light.  Li^t  is  identical  with  the  pressure 
friend  of  Mersenne.  which  subtile  matter  exerts  over  bodies  and,  as  sub- 
In  every  moving  body  Descartes  maintained  the  tile  matter  is  incompressible,  light  is  instantly  trans- 
existence  of  a  certain  power  to  continue  its  motion  mitted  to  any  distance,  however  great, 
in  the  same  direction  and  with  the  same  velocity  and  The  suppositions  by  t^e  aid  of  which  Descartes 
this  power,  which  he  called  the  quantity  of  motion,  attemptea  to  reduce  all  physical  phenomena  to  com- 
he  measured  by  estimating  the  product  of  the  mass  binations  of  fibres  ana  motions  had  scarcely  any 
of  the  moving  body  by  the  velocity  that  impels  it.  part  in  the  discoveries  that  he  made  in  physics; 
The  affinity  is  close  between  the  rdle  which  Descartes  therefore  the  identification  of  light  with  the  pressure 
attributed  to  this  quantity  of  motion,  and  that  which  exerted  by  subtile  matter  plays  no  part  in  the  inven- 
Buridan  ascribed  to  impetus.  Fabri  was  fully  aware  tion  of  the  new  truths  which  Descartes  taught  in 
of  this  analogy  and  the  momentum  that  he  discussed  optics.  Foremost  amongst  these  truths  is  the  law 
was  at  once  the  impetus  of  the  Parisians,  and  Des-  of  the  refraction  of  light  passing  from  one  medium  to 
cartes's  quantity  of  motion.  In  statics  he  identified  another,  although  the  question  still  remains  whether 
this  momentum  with  what  Galileo  called  momento  or  Descartes  discovered  this  law  himself,  or  whether,  as 
imveto,  and  this  identification  was  certainly  conform-  Huygens  accused  him  of  doing,  he  borrowed  it  from 
able  to  the  Pisan's  idea.  Fabri's  synthesis  was  well  Will3)rord  Snellius  (1591-1626),  without  any  men- 
adi^ted  to  make  this  truth  clear,  that  modem  dynam-  tion  of  the  real  author.  By  this  law  Descartes  gave 
ics,  the  foundations  of  which  were  laid  by  Descartes  the  theory  of  refraction  throu^  a  prism,  which  per- 
and  Galileo,  proceeded  almost  directly  from  the  mitted  him  to  measure  the  indices  or  refraction; 
djmamics  taught  during  the  fourteenth  century  in  moreover,  he  greatly  perfected  the  study  of  lenses, 
the  Univenrity  of  Paris.  and  finally  completed  uie  explanation  of  the  rainbow, 


PHYSICS 


60 


PHYSICS 


no  progress  havingbeen  made  along  this  line  from  the 
year  1300,  when  Thierry  of  Freiberg  had  given  his 
treatise  on  it.  However,  the  reason  whjr  the  rays 
emerging  from  the  drops  of  water  are  variously  col- 
oured was  no  better  known  by  Descartes  than  by 
Aristotle;  it  remained  for  Newton  to  make  the  dis- 
covery. 

XaI.  Progress  op  Experimental  Physics.— 
Even  in  Descartes's  work  the  discoveries  in  physics 
were  almost  independent  of  Cartesianism.  The 
knowledge  of  natural  truths  continued  to  advance 
without  the  influence  of  this  system  and,  at  times, 
even  in  opposition  to  dt,  althou^  those  to  whom  this 
progress  was  due  were  often  Cartesians.  This  ad- 
vancement was  largely  the  result  of  a  more  frequent 
and  skilful  use  of  the  experimental  method.  The  art 
of  making  logically  connected  experiments  and  of 
deducing  their  consequences  is  indeed  very  ancient; 
in  a  way  the  works  produced  by  this  art  were  no  more 
perfect  than  the  researches  of  Pierre  of  Maricourt  on 
the  magnet  or  Thierry  of  Freiberg  on  the  rainbow. 
However,  if  the  art  remained  the  same,  its  technic 
continued  to  improve;  more  skilled  workmen  and 
more  powerful  processes  furnishing  physicists  with 
more  intricate  and  better  made  instruments,  and  thus 
rendering  possible  more  delicate  experiments.  The 
rather  imperfect  tests  made  by  Galileo  and  Mersenne 
in  endeavouring  to  determine  the  specific  weight  of 
air  mark  the  beginning  of  the  development  of  the 
experimental  method^  which  was  at  once  vigorously 
pushed  forward  by  discussions  in  regard  to  vacuum. 

In  Peripatetic  phvsics  the  possibihty  of  an  empty 
space  was  a  logical  contraoiction;  but,  after  the 
condemnation  pronounced  at  Paris  in  1277  by  Tem- 
pier,  the  existence  of  a  vacuum  ceased  to  be  consid- 
ered absurd.  It  was  simply  taught  as  a  fact  that 
the  powers  of  nature  are  so  constructed  as  to  oppose 
the  production  of  an  empty  space.  Of  the  various 
conjectures  proposed  concerning  the  forces  which 
|)revent  the  appearance  of  a  vacuum,  the  most  sen- 
sible and^  it  would  seem,  the  most  generally  received 
among  sixteenth-century  Parisians,  was  tne  follow- 
ing: contig;uous  bodies  adhere  to  one  another,  and 
this  adhesion  is-  maintained  by  forces  resembling 
those  by  which  a  piece  of  iron  adheres  to  the  magnet 
which  it  touches.  In  naming  this  force  horror  vacuij 
there  was  no  intention  of  considering  the  bodies  as 
animate  beings.  A  heavy  piece  of  iron  detaches 
itself  from  the  magnet  that  should  hold  it  up,  its 
weight  having  conquered  the  force  by  which  the 
magnet  retained  it;  in  the  same  way,  the  weight  of 
too  heavy  a  body  can  prevent  the  horror  vacui  from 
raising  this  body.  This  very  logical  corollary  of  the 
hypothesis  we  have  just  mentioned  was  formulated 
by  Galileo,  who  saw  therein  the  explanation  of  a  fact 
well-known  to  the  cistern  makers  of^his  time;  namely, 
that  a  suction-pump  could  not  raise  water  higher 
than  thirty-two  feet.  This  corollary  entailed  the 
possibility  of  producing  an  empty  space,  a  fact  known 
to  Torricelli  who,  in  1644,  maae  the  celebrated  experi- 
ment with  mercury  that  was  destined  to  immortalize 
his  name.  However,  at  the  same  time,  he  anticipated 
a  new  explanation  of  this  experiment;  the  mercury 
is  ^pported  in  the  tube  not  by  the  horror  vacui  that 
does  not  exist,  but  by  the  pressure  which  the  heavy 
air  exerts  on  tne  exterior  surface  of  the  basin. 

Torricelli's  experiment  quickly  attracted  the  atten- 
tion of  physicists.  In  France,  thanks  to  Mersenne, 
it  called  forth  on  his  part,  and  on  that  of  those  who 
had  dealings  with  him,  many  experiments  in  which 
Roberval  and  Pascal  (1623-62)  vied  with  each  other 
in  ingenuity,  and  in  order  to  have  the  resources  of 
technic  more  easily  at  his  disposal,  Pascal  made  his 
startling  experiments  in  a  glass  factory  at  Rouen. 
Among  the  numerous  inquirers  interested  in  Torri- 
celli's  experiment  some  accepted  the  explanation 
oflFered  by  the  "column  of  air",  and  advanced  by  the 


great  Italian  geometrician  himself;  whereas  others, 
such  as  Roberval,  held  to  the  ancient  hypothesis  of 
an  attraction  analogous  to  magnetic  action.  At 
length,  ^ith  a  view  to  settling  the  difference,  an 
experiment  was  made  which  consisted  in  measuring 
at  what  height  the  mercury  remained  suspended  in 
Torricelli's  tube;  observing  it  first  of  all  at  the. foot 
of  a  mountain  and  then  at  its  summit.  The  idea  of 
this  experiment  seemed  to  have  suggested  itself  to 
several  physicists,  notably  MereenneTDescartes,  and 
Pascal  and.  through  the  instrumentality  of  the  last 
named  and  the  courtesy  of  P^rier,  his  brother-in- 
law,  it  was  made  between  the  base  and  summit  of 
Puy;de-D6me,  19  Sept.,  1648.  The  "Traits  de  V 
6quilibre  de  liqueurs  et  de  la  pesanteur  de  la  masse 
de  Fair",  which  Pascal  subsequently  composed,  is 
justly  cited  as  a  model  of  the  art  of  logically  connected 
experiments  with  deductions.  Between  atomists 
and  Cartesians  there  were  many  discussions  as  to 
whether  the  upper  part  of  Torricelli  *s  tube  was  really 
empty  or  filled  with  subtile  matter;  but  these  dis- 
cussions bore  little  fruit.  However,  fortunately  for 
physics,  the  experimental  method  so  accurately  fol- 
lowed by  Torricelli,  Pascal,  arid  their  rivals  continued, 
to  progress. 

Otto  von  Guericke  (1602-86)  seems  to  have  pre- 
ceded Torricelli  in  the  production  of  an  empty  space, 
since,  between  1632  and  1638,  he  appears  to  nave 
constructed  his  first  pneumatic  machine,  with  the  aid 
of  which  instrument  he  made  in  1654  tne  celebrated  • 
Magdeburg  experiments,  published  in  1657  by  his 
friend  Caspar  Schoot,  S.J.  (1608-60).  Informed  by 
Schoot  of  Guericke's  researches,  Robert  Boyle 
(1627-91)  perfected  the  pneumatic  machine  and, 
assisted  by  Richard  Townley,  his  pupil,  pursued  ttie 
experiments  that  made  known  the  law  of  the  com- 
pressibility of  perfect  gases.  In  France  these  experi- 
ments were  taken  up  and  followed  by  Manotte 
(1620-84).  The  use  of  the  dilatation  of  a  fluid  for 
showing  the  changes  of  temperature  was  already 
known  to  Galileo,  but  it  is  uncertain  whether  the 
thermoscope  was  invented  by  Galileo  or  by  some  one 
of  the  numerous  physicists  to  whom  the  priority  is 
attributed,  among  these  being  Santorio,  cailed  Sanc- 
torius  (1660-1636),  Fra  Paolo  Sarpi  (1552-1623), 
Cornells  van  Drebbel  (1572-1634),  and  Robert  Fludd 
(1574-1637).  Although  the  various  thermoscope^ 
for  air  or  liquid  used  in  the  very  beginning  admitted 
of  only  arbitrary  graduation,  they  nevsrtheless  served 
to  inoicate  the  constancy  of  the  temperature  or  the 
direction  of  its  variations,  and  consequently  contrib- 
uted to  the  discovery  of  a  number  of  the  laws  of  physics. 
Hence  this  apparatus  was  used  in  the  Accademia  del 
Cimento,  opened  at  Florence  19  June,  1657,  and 
devoted  to  the  study  of  en)erimental  physics.  To 
the  members  of  this  academy  we  are  especially 
indebted  for  the  demonstration  of  the  constancy  of 
the  point  of  fusion  of  ice  and  of  the  absorption  of 
heat  accompanying  this  fusion.  Observations  of 
this  kind,  made  by  means  of  the  thermoscope,  created 
an  ardent  desire  for  the  transformation  of  this  appar 
ratus  into  a  thermometer,  by  the  aid  of  a  definite 
graduation  so  arranged  that  everjrwhere  instruments 
could  be  made  which  would  be  comparable  with  one 
another.  This  problem,  one  of  the  most  important 
in  physics,  was  not  solved  until  1702  when  GuiUaume 
Amontons  (1663-1705)  worked  it  out  in  the  inost  , 
remarkable  manner.  Amontons  took  as  a  starting- 
point  these  two  laws,  discovered  or  verified  by  him* 
the  boiling  point  of  water  under  atmospheric  pressure 
is  constant.  The  pressures  sustained  by  any  two 
masses  of  air,  heated  in  the  same  way  in  any  two  con- 
stant volumes,  have  a  relation  independent  of  the 
temperature.  These  two  laws  enabled  Amontons 
to  use  the  air  thermometer  under  constant  volume 
and  to  graduate  it  in  such  a  way  that  it  gave  what  we 
t^whiy  call  abHoluto  temperature.    Of  all  the  defini- 


PHYSICS  61  PHYSICS 

tions  of  the  degree  of  temperature  given  since  Amon-  theory  of  impact  seemed  like  the  first  chapter  of 

tons's  tune,  he,  at  the  first  stroke,  found  the  most  rational  physics.    This  theory  had  already  enlisted 

perfect.     Equipped    with   instruments    capable   of-  the  attention  of  Galileo,  Marcus  Marci  (1639),  and 

measuring    pressure    and    registering    temperature,  Descartes  when,  in  1668,  the  Royal  Society  of  Lon- 

experimental   physics   could   not   but   make   rapid  don  proposed  it  as  the  subject  of  a  com^tition  and, 

progress,  this  being  still  further  augmented  by  reason  of  the  three  important  memoirs  submitted  to  the 

of  the  interest  i^own  by  the  learned  societies  that  had  criticism  of  this  society  by  John  Wallis,  Christopher 

been  recently  founded.    The 'Accademia  del  Cimento  Wren  (1632-1723),  and  Huygens,  the  last  is  the  only 

was  discontinued  in  1667,  but  the  Royal  Society  of  one  that  we  can  consider.    In  his  treatise  Huvgens 

London  had  begun  its  sessions  in  1663,  and  the  adopted  the  following  principle:  if  a  material  body, 

Acad6mie  des  Sciences  at   Paris  was  founded  or  subject  merely  to  the  action  of  gravity,  starts  from  a 

rather  organized  by  Colbert  in  1666.    These  different  certedn  position,  with  initial  velocity  equal  to  zero, 

academies    immediately    became    the    enthusiastic  the  centre  of  gravity  of  this  body  ciin  at  no  time  rise 

centres  of  scientific  research  in  regard  to  natural  higher  than  it  was  at  the  outset  of  the  motion.    Hu^r- 

phenomena.  pens  justified  this  principle  by  observing  that,  if 

XXII.  Undulatobt  Theory  of  Light. — It  was  it  were  false,  perpetual  motion  would  be  possible, 
to  the  Academic  des  Sciences  of  Paris  that,  in  1678,  To  find  the  origin  of  this  axiom  it  would  be  necessary 
Christian  Huygens  (162^-95)  presented  his  "Treatise  to  go  back  to  "De  Subtilitate"  by  Cardano,  who  had 
on  li^t".  According  to  the  Cartesian  sjrstem,  light  probably  drawn  it  from  the  notes  of  Vinci;  the  propo- 
was  instantly  transmitted  to  any  distance  through  sition  on  which  Torricelli  had  based  his  statics  was 
the  mecUum  of  incompressible  subtile  matter.  Des-  a  corollary  from  this  postulate.  By  maintaining  the 
cartes  did  not  hesitate  to  assure  Fermat  that  his  accuracy  of  this  postulate,  even  in  the  case  where 
entire  philosophy  would  give  way  as  soon  as  it  should  parts  of  the  system  clash;  by  combining  it  with  the 
be  demonstrated  that  light  is  propagated  with  a  lim-  law  of  the  accelerated  fall  of  bodies,  taken  from  Gali- 
ited  velocity.  In  1675  Ole  RSmer  (1644-1710),  the  leo's  works,  and  with  another  postulate  on  the  relsr 
Danish  astronomer,  announced  to  the  Acad6mie  des  tivity  of  motion,  Huygens  arrived  at  the  law  of  the 
Sciences  the  extent  of  the  considerable  but  finite  impact  of  hard  bodies.  He  showed  that  the  quantity 
velocity  with  which  light  traverses  the  space  that  the  vaiue  of  which  remains  constant  in  spite  of  this 
separates  the  planets  from  one  another,  the  study  of  impact  is  not,  as  Descartes  declared j  the  total 
the  eclipses  of  Jupiter's  satellites  having  brought  quantity  of  motion,  but  that  which  Leibmz  called  the 
him  to  this  conclusion.     Descartes's  optical  theory  quantity  of  vis  viva  (living  force). 

was  destroyed,  and  Huygens  undertook  to  build  up  a        The  axiom  that  had  so  happily  sei^^ed  Huygens  in 

new  theory  ot  light.    He  was  constantly  guided  by  the  study  of  the  impact  of  bodies  he  now  extended  to  a 

the  supposition  that,  in  the  midst  of  compressible  body  oscillating  around  a  horizontal  axis  and  his 

ether,  substituted  for  incompressible  subtile  matter,  "Horologium    oscillatorium",    which    appeared    in 

light  is  propagated  by  waves  exactly  similar  to  those  1673,  solved  in  the  most  elegant  and  complete  manner 

which  transnut  sound  through  a  gaseous  medium,  the  problem  of  the  centres  of  oscillation  previously 

This  comparison  led  him  to  an  explanation,  which  handled  by  Descartes  and  Roberval.     Tnat  Huy- 

is  still  the  standard  one,  of  the  laws  of  reflection  and  gens's  axiom  was  the  subversion  of  Cartesian  dynamics 

refraction.    In  this  explanation  the  index  of  the  refrac-  was  shown  by  Leibniz  in  1686.    If,  like  Descartes, 

tion  of  light  passing  from  one  medium  to  another  we  measure  the  efficiency  of  a  force  by  the  work  that 

equals  the  ratio  of  the  velocity  of  propagation  in  the  it  does,  and  if,  iporeover,  we  admit  Huygens's  axiom 

firet  medium  to  the  velocity  of  propagation  in  the  and  the  law  of  falling  bodies,  we  find  that  this  effi- 

second.    In  1850  this  fundamental  law  was  confirmed  ciency  is  not  measured  by  the  increase  in  the  quantity 

by  Foucault's  experiments.  of  motion  of  the  moving  body,  but  by  the  increase  in 

However,  Huygens  did  not  stop  here.     In   1669  half  the  product  of  the  mass  of  the  moving  body  and 

Erasmus  Berthel^n.  known  as  Bartholinus  (1625-  the  square  of  its  velocity.    It  was  this  product  that 

98),  discovered  the  double  refraction  of  Iceland  spar.  Leibniz   called  vis  viva.     Huygens's   ^'Horologium 

By  a  generalization,  as  ingenious  as  it  was  danng,  oscillatorium''  not  only  gave  the  solution  of  the 

of  the  theory  he  had  given  for  non-crystallized  media,  problem  of  the  centre  of  oscillation  but  likewise  a 

Huygens  succeeded  in  tracing  the  form  of  the  surface  statement  of  the  laws  which^  in  circular  motion, 

of  a  luminous  wave  inside  of  a  crystal  such  as  spar  or  govern  the  magnitude  of  centrifugal  force,  and  thus 

quartz,  and  in  defining  the  apparently  complex  laws  it  was  that  the  eminent  physicist  prepared  the  way 

of  the  double  refraction  of  light  in  the  interior  of  for  Newton,  the  lawgiver  of  dynamics, 
these  crystals.    At  the  same  time,  he  called  attention        XXIV.    Newton^    Work. — Most  of  the  great 

to  the  phenomena  of  polarization  which  accompany  dynamical  truths  had  been  discovered  between  the 

this  double  refraction;  he  was,  however,  unable  to  time  of  Galileo  and  Descartes,  and  that  of  Huygens 

draw  from  his  optical  theory  the  explanation  of  these  and  Leibniz.    The  science  of  dynamics  requir^  a 

effects.    The  comparison  between  light  and  sound  Euclid  who  would  organize  it  as  geometry  had  been 

^caused  Malebranche  (1638-1715)  to  make  some  very  organized,  and  this  Euclid  appeared  in  the  person  of 

effective  conjectures  in  1699.    He  assumed  that  light  Isaac  Newton  (1642-1727)  who,  in  his  "  Philosophi® 

is  a  vibratory  motion  analogous  to  that  produced  by  naturalis  principia  mathematical^  published  in  1687, 

sound;  the  greater  or  less  amplitude  of  this  motion,  succeeded  in  deducing  the  entire  science  of  motion 

as  the  case  may  be,  generates  a  greater  or  less  inten-  from  three  postulates:  inertia;  the  independence  of 

fflty  but,  whilst  in^  sound  each  period  corresponds  to  the  effects  of  previously  acquired  forces  and  motions; 

a  particular  note,  in  light  it  corresponds  to  a  particu-  and  the  equauty  of  action  and  reaction.    Had  New- 

lar   colour.      Through    this    analogy    Malebranche  ton's  "Principia"  contained  nothing  more  than  this 

arrived  at  the  idea  of  monochromatic  light,  which  co-ordination  of  dynamics  into  a  logicad  system,  they 

Newton  was  to  deduce  from  admirably  conducted  would  nevertheless  have  been  one  of  the  most  im- 

experiments;  moreover,  he  established  between  simple  portant  works  ever  written;   but,  in  addition,  they 

colour  and  the  period  of  the  vibration  of  light,  the  gave  the  grandest  possible  application  of  this  dynam- 

oonnexion  that  was  to  be  preserved  in  the  optics  ics  in  utilizing  it  for  the  establishment  of  celestial 

of  Young  and  Fresnel.  mechanics.     In  fact,  Newton  succeeded  in  showing 

XXIII.  Developments  op  Dynamics. — Both  Car-  that  the  laws  of  bodies  falling  to  the  surface  of  the 
tesians  and  atomists  maintained  that  impact  was  the  earth,  theiaws  that  preside  over  the  motion  of  planets 
only  process  by  which  bodies  could  put  one  another  around  the  sun,  and  of  satellites  around  the  planets 
in  motion;   hence,  to  Cartesians  and  atomists,  the  which  they  accompany,  finally,  the  laws  that  govern 


PHYSICS 


62 


PHYSICS 


the  form  of  the  Earth  and  of  the  other  stars,  as  also 
the  high  and  low  tides  of  the  sea,  are  but  so  many 
corollaries  from  this  unique  hypothesis:  two  bodies, 
whatever  their  origin  or  nature,  exert  over  each  other 
an  attraction  proportional  to  the  product  of  their 
masses  and  in  mverse  ratio  to  the  square  of  the  dis- 
tance that  separates  them. 

The  dommating  principle  of  ancient  physics 
declared  the  essential  distmction  between  the  laws 
that  directed  the  motions  of  the  stars — ^beings  exempt 
from  generation,  change,  and  death — and  the  laws 
presiding  over  tne  motions  of  sublunary  bodies  sub- 
ject to  generation  and  corruption.  From  the  birth 
of  Christian  physics  and  especially  from  the  end  of 
the  thirteenth  century,  physicists  had  been  endeav- 
ouring to  destroy  the  authority  of  this  principle  and 
to  render  the  celestial  and  sublimaiy  worlds  subject 
to  the  same  laws,  the  doctrine  of  universal  gravitation 
bein^  thex)utcome  of  this  prolonged  effort.  In  pro- 
portion as  the  time  approached,  when  Newton  was  to 
produce  his  system,  attempts  at  cosmology  were 
multiplied,  so  many  forerunners,  as  it  were,  of  this 
discovery.  When  m  1672  Guericke  again  took  up 
Kepler's  celestial  mechanics,  he  made  out  one  cor- 
rection therein,  which  unfortunately  caused  the  dis- 
appearance of  the  only  proposition  by  which  this 
work  led  up  to  Newton's  discoveries.  Kepler  had 
maintained  that  two  material  masses  of  any  kind 
attract  each  other,  but,  in  imitation  of  Copernicus, 
Gilbert,  and  Galileo,  Guericke  limited  this  mutual 
attraction  to  parts  of  the  same  star,  so  that,  far  from 
being  attracted  by  the  Earth,  portions  of  the  moon 
would  be  repelled  by  the  Earth  if  placed  upon  its 
surface.  But,  in  1644,  imder  the  pseudonym  of 
Aristarchus  of  Samos,  Roberval  published  a  system 
of  celestial  mechanics,  in  which  the  attraction  was 
perhaps  mutual  between  two  masses  of  no  matter 
what  kind;  in  which,  at  all  events,  the  Earth  and 
Jupiter  attracted  their  satellites  with  a  power  iden- 
tical with  the  gravity  with  which  they  endow  their 
own  fragments.  In  1665,  on  the  pretence  of  explain- 
ing the  motions  of  Jupiter's  satellites,  Giovanni 
Auonso  Borelli  (1608-79)  tried  to  advance  a  theory 
which  simultaneously  comprised  the  motions  of  the 
planets  aroimd  the  sun  and  of  the  satellites  around  ' 
the  planets.  He  was  the  first  of  modem  scientists 
(Plutarch  havinf^  preceded  him)  to  hold  the  opinion 
that  the  attraction  which  causes  a  planet  to  tend 
towards  the  sim  and  a  satellite  to  tend  towards  the 
star  which  it  accompanies,  is  in  equilibrium  with  the 
centrifugal  force  produced  by  the  circular  motion 
of  the  planet  or  satellite  in  question.  In  1674  Robert 
Hooke  (1635-1702)  formulated  the  same  idea  with 
^eat  precision.  Having  already  supposed  the  attrac- 
tion of  two  masses  to  vary  inversely  as  the  square 
of  their  distance,  he  was  in  possession  of  the  funda- 
mental hypotheses  of  the  theory  of  universal  gravi- 
tation, which  hypotheses  were  held  by  Wren  about 
the  same  time.  However,  neither  of  these  scientists 
was  able  to  deduce  therefrom  celestial  mechanics, 
as  both  were  still  unacquainted  with  the  laws  of 
centrifugal  force,  published  just  at  this  time  by 
Huygens.  In  1684  Edmund  Halley  (1656-1742) 
strove  to  combine  Huygens's  theories  with  Hooke's 
hypotheses,  but,  before  his  work  was  finished,  Nowton 

E resented  his  "Principia"  to  the  Royal  Society, 
aving  ior  twenty  years  silently  pursued  his  medita- 
tions on  the  system  of  the  world.  Halley,  who  could 
not  forestall  Newton,  had  the  glory  of  broadening 
the  domain  of  universal  gravitation  by  making  it 
include  comets  (1705). 

Not  satisfied  with  creating  celestial  mechanics, 
Newton  also  contributed  largely  to  the  progress  of 
optics.  From  ancient  times  the  colouring  of  the 
spectrum,  produced  by  the  passage  of  white  light 
tnrough  a  glass  prism,  had  elicited  the  wonder  of 
observers  and  appealed  to  the  acumen  of  physicists 


without,  however,  being  satisfactorily  explained. 
Finally,  a  complete  explanation  was  given  by  Newton 
who,  m  creatm^  a  theory  of  colours,  accomplished 
what  all  the  philosophers  from  Aristotle  down  had 
laboured  in  vain  to  achieve.  The  theory  advanced 
by  the  English  physicist  agreed  witi^  tliat  proposed 
by  Malebranche  at  the  same  time.  However,  Male- 
branche's  theory  was  n6thing  more  than  a  hypothesis 
suggested  by  the  analogy  between  light  and  sound, 
whereas  Newton's  explanation  was  drawn  from  experi- 
ments, as  simple  as  they  were  ingenious,  its  exposition 
by  the  author  being  one  of  the  most  beautiful  ex- 
amples of  experimental  induction.  Unfortunately 
Newton  disregarded  this  anidogy  between  soimd  and 
li^ht  that  had  furnished  Huygens  and  Malebranche 
with  such  fruitful  discoveries.  Newton's  opinion 
was  to  the  effect  that  lia^t  is  formed  of  inmiitely 
small  projectiles  thrown  off  with  extreme  velocity  by 
incandescent  bodies.  The  particles  of  the  medium 
in  which  these  projectiles  move  exert  over  them  an 
attraction  similar  to  universal  attraction;  however, 
this  new  attraction  doea  not  vary  inversely  as  the 
square  of  the  distance  but  according  to  another 
function  of  the  distance,  and  in  such  a  way  that  it 
exercises  a  very  great  power  between  a  material 

S article  and  a  luminous  corpuscle  that  are  contiguous, 
[evertheless  this  attraction  becomes  altogether 
insensible  as  soon  as  the  two  masses  between  which 
it  operates  are  separated  from  each  other  by  a  per- 
ceptible interval. 

This  action  exerted  by  the  particles  of  a  medium 
on  the  luminous  corpuscles  pervading  them  changes 
the  velocity  with  which  these  bodies  move  and  the 
direction  which  they  follow  at  the  moment  of  passing 
from  one  medium  to  another;  hence  the  phenomenon 
of  refraction.  The  index  of  refraction  is  the  ratio 
of  the  velocity  of  light  in  the  medium  which  it  enters, 
to  the  velocity  it  had  in  the  medium  which  it  leaves. 
Now,  as  the  index  of  refraction  so  understood  was 

Precisely  the  reverse  of  that  attributed  to  it  by 
[uygens's  theory,  in  1850  Foucault  submitted  both 
to  the  test  of  experiment,  with  the  result  that  New- 
ton's theory  of  emission  was  condemned.  Newton 
expluned  Uie  experimental  laws  that  govern  the 
colouring  of  thin  lamina,  such  as  soap  bubbles,  and 
succeed^  in  compelling  t^ese  colours,  by  suitable 
forms  of  these  thm  laminse,  to  assume  the  regular 
order  known  as  '^ Newton's  Kings".    To  explain  this 

Ehenomenon  he  conceived  that  luminous  projectiles 
ave  a  form  that  may,  at  the  surface  of  contact  of 
two  media,  either  pass  easily  or  be  easily  reflected, 
according  to  the  maimer  of  their  presentation  at  the 
moment  of  passage;  a  rotary  motion  causes  them  to 
pass  alternately  by  ''fits  of  easy  transmission  or  of 
easy  reflection". 

Newton  thought  that  he  had  accounted  for  the 
principal  optical  phenomena  by  supposing  that, 
besides  this  universal  attraction,  there  existed  an 
attraction,  sensible  only  at  a  very  short  distance, 
exerted  by  the  particles  of  bodies  on  luminous  cor- 
puscles, and  naturally  he  came  to  believe  that  these 
two  kinds  of  attraction  would  suffice  to  explain  all 
physic^  phenomena.  Action  extending  to  a  con- 
siderable distance,  such  as  electric  and  magnetic 
action,  must  follow  laws  analogous  to  those  which 
govern  universal  gravity;  on  the  other  hand,  the 
effects  of  capillarity  and  cohesion,  chemical  decom- 
position ana  reaction  must  depend  on  molecular 
attraction  extending  only  to  extremely  small  dis- 
tances and  similar  to  that  exerted  over  luminous 
corpuscles.  This  comprehensive  hypothesis  proposed 
by  Newton  in  a  "question"  placed  at  the  end  of  the 
second  edition  of  his  "Optics"  (1717)  gave  a  sort  of 
outline  of  the  programme  which  ei^teenth-centuiy 
physics  was  to  attempt  to  carry  out. 

aXV.  Progress  of  General  and  Celestial 
Mechanics  in  the  Eighteenth  Century. — ^This 


PHYSICS                                 63  PHYSICS 

programme  made  three  demands*,  first,  that  {^neral  effective  these  two  treatises  are,  they  do  not  bv  any 

mecnanics  and  celestial  mechanics  advance  in  the  means  include  all  the  discoveries  in  general  and 

way  indicated  by  Newton;    secondly,  that  electric  celestial  mechanics  for  which  we  are  indebted  to  their 

and  magnetic  phenomena  be  explained  by  a  theory  authors.    To  do  Lagrange  even  meagre  justice  his 

analogous  to  that  of  universal  gravitation;   thirdly,  able  researches  should  be  placed  on  a  par  with  his 

that  molecular  attraction  furnish  the  detailed  expla-  ''M^anioue  analytique'';  and  our  idea  of  Laplace's 

nations  of  the  various  changes  investigated  by  physics  work  would  be  very  incomplete  were  we  to  omit  the 

and  chemistry.  grand  cosmo^onic  hypothesis  with  which,  in  1796, 

Many  followed  in  the  path  outlined  by  Newton,  he  crowned  his  ^'Exposition  du  syst^me  du  monde". 

and  tried  to  extend  the  domain  of  general  and  celestial  In  developing  this  hypothesis  the  illustrious  geometri- 

mechanics,  but  there  were  three  who  seem  to  have  cian  was  unaware  that  in  1755  Kant  had  expressed 

surpassed   all   the   others:    Alexis-Claude   Clairaut  similar  suppositions  which  were  marred  by  serious 

(1713-65),  Jean-Baptiste  le  Rond  d'Alembert  (1717-  errors  in  dynamic  theories. 

83),  and  Leonhard  Euler  (1707-83).    The  progn^  XXVI.  Estabushment  op  the  Theory  op  Elbc- 

which,  thanks  to  these  three  able  men,  was  made  in  tricitt  and  Magnetism. — For  a  long  time  the  study 

general  mechanics;  may  be  summed  up  as  follows:  of  electric  action  was  merely  superficial  and,  in  the 

In  1743,  by  his  pnnciple  of  the  equilibrium  of  chan-  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century,  it  was  still 

nels,  which  was  easily  connected  with  the  principle  in  the  condition  in  which  Thales  of  Miletus  had  left 

of  virtual  displacements,  Clairaut  obtained  the  gen-  it,  remaining  far  from  the  point  to  which  the  study 

eral  equations  of  the  equiUbrium  of  liquids.    In  the  of  magnetic  attraction  and  repulsion  had  been  carried 

same  year  d' Alembert  formulated  a  rule  whereby  all  in  the  time  of  Pierre  of  Maricourt.  When,  in  1733  and 

problems  of  motion  were  reduced  to  problems  of  1734,  Charles-Francois  de  Cistemay  du  Fay  distin- 

equilibrium  and,  in  1744,  applied  this  rule  to  the  guished  two  kinds  oi  electricity,  resinous  and  vitreous, 

equation  of  hydrostatics  given  by  Clairaut  and  arrived  and  when  he  proved  that  bodies  charged  with  the  same 

at  the  equations  of  hydrodynamics.     Euler  trans-  kind  of  electricity  repel  one  another,  Whereas  those 

formed  these  equations  and,  in  his  studies  on  the  charged  with  different  kinds  attract    one  another, 

motion  of  liquidB,  was  enabled  to  obtain  results  no  electrical  science  was  brought  up  to  the  level  that 

less  important  than  those  which  he  had  obtained  by  magnetic   science   had    long   before   attained,    and 

analysing  the  motion  of  solids.   Clairaut  extended  the  thenceforth  these  two  sciences,  united  by  the  closest 

consequences  of  universal  attraction  in  all  directions,  analogy,  progressed  side  by  side.     They  advanced 

and,  in  1743,  the  equations  of  hydrostatics  that  he  rapidly  as,  in  the  eighteenth  century,  the  study  of 

had  established  enabled  him  to  perfect  the  theory  of  electrical  phenomena  became  a  popular  craze.   Physi- 

the  figure  of  the  earth.     In  1752  he  published  his  cists  Were  not  the  only  ones  devoted  to  it;  men  of  the 

theory  of  lunar  inequalities,  which  he  had  at  first  world  crowded  the  salons  where  popularizers  of  the 

despaired  of  accountmg  for  bv  Newton's  principles,  science,  such  as  the  Abb6  Nollet  (1700-70),  enlbted 

The  methods  that  he  devised  for  the  study  of  the  as    votaries    dandified    marquesses    knd    sprightly 

perturbations  which  the  planets  produce  on  the  path  marchionesses.    Numberless  experimentalists  applied 

of  a  star  permitted  him,  in  1758,  to  announce  with  themselves  to  multiplying  observations  on  electncity 

accuracy  the  time  of  the  return  of  Halley's  Comet,  and  ma^etism,  but  we  sh^l  restrict  ourselves  to 

The  confirmation  of  this  prediction  in  which  Cluraut .  mentionmg  Benjamin  Franklin  (1706-90)  who,  by  his 

had  received  assistance  from  Lalande  (1732-1807)  logically-conducted    researches,    contributed    more 

and    Mme.    Lepaute,    both    able    mathematicians,  than  any  other  man  to  the  formation  of  the  theories 

g laced  beyond  doubt  the  applicability  of  Newton's  of  electricity  and  magnetism.     The  researches  of 

ypotheses  to  comets.  Henry  Cavendish  (1731-1810)  deserve  to  be  placed 

Great  as  were  Clairaut's  achievements  in  perfecting  in  the  same  rank  as  Franklin's,  though  they  were 

the  system  of  universal  attraction,  they  were  not  as  but  little  known  before  his  death, 

important  as  those  of  d'Alembert.     Newton  could  By  means  of  Franklin's  experiments  and  his  own, 

not   deduce   from   his   suppositions   a   satisfactoiy  ^pinus  (Franz  Ulrich  Theodor  Hoch,  1724-1802) 

theory  of  the  precession  of  the  equinoxes,  and  this  was  the  first  to  attempt  to  solve  the  problem  suggested 

failure  marred  the  harmony  of  the  doctrine  of  uni-  by  Newton  and,  by  the  hypothesis  of  attractive  and 

versal   gravitation.     In    1749   d'Alembert  deduced  repellent  forces,  to  explam  the  distribution  of  elec- 

from  the  hy]x>thesis  of  gravitation  the  explanation  tncity  and  magnetism  over  the  bodies  which  they 

of  the  precession  of  the  equinoxes  and  of  the  nutation  affect.    His  researches  could  not  be  pushed  very  far, 

of  the   earth's    axis;    and  soon  afterwards  Euler,  as  it  was  still  unknown  that  these  forces  depend  upon 

drawing  upon  the  admirable  resources  of  his  mathe-  the  distance  at  which  they  are  exerted.     Moreover, 

matical  genius,  made  still  further  improvements  on  ^pinus  succeeded  in  drawing  still  closer  the  connexion 

d'Alembert's  discovery.     Clairaut,  d'Alembert,  atid  already  established  between  the  sciences  of  electricity 

Euler  were  the  most  brilliant  stars  in  an  entire  con-  and  magnetism,  by  showing  the  polarization  of  each 

stellation  of  mechanical  theorists  and  astronomers,  of  the  elements  of  the  insulating  plate  which  separates 

and  to  this  group  there  succeeded  another,  in  which  the  two  collecting  plates  of  the  condenser.     The 

shone  two  men  of  surpassing  intellectuality,  Joseph-  experiment  he  made  in  this  line  in  1759  was  destined 

Louis    Lagrange     (1736-1813)     and    Pierre-Simon  to  suggest  to  Coulomb  the  experiment  of  the  broken 

Laplace    (1749-1827).    Laplace  was  said   to   have  magnets  and  the  theory  of  magnetic  polarization, 

been  bom  to  complete  celestial  mechanics,  if,  indeed,  which  is  the  foimdation  of  the  study  of  magnets; 

it  w;ere  in  the  nature  of  a  science  to  admit  of  com-  and  was  also  to  be  the  starting-point  of  an  entire 

pletton;  and  quite  as  much  could  be  said  of  Lagrange  branch  of  electrical  science,  namely  the  study  of 

with  regard  to  general  mechanics.    In  1787  Lagrange  dielectric  bodies,  which  study  was  developed  in  the 

published  the  nrst  edition  of  his  ''M6canique  analy-  nineteenth  century  by  Michael  Faraday  and  James 

tioue";  the  second,  which  was  greatly  enlarged,  was  Clerk-Maxwell. 

puolished  after  the  author's  death.  Laplace^s  **M6-  Their  analogy  to  the  fertile  law  of  universal  gravi- 
canique  celeste"  was  published  from  1799  to  1805,  tation  undoubtedly  led  physicists  to  suppose  that 
and  both  of  these  works  give  an  account  of  the  greater  electrical  and  magnetic  forces  vary  inversely  as  the 
part  of  the  mechanical  conquests  made  in  the  course  square  of  the  distance  that  separates  the  acting  ele- 
of  the  eighteenth  century,  with  the  assistaiice  of  the  ments;  but,  so  far,  this  opinion  had  not  been  con- 
principles  that  Newton  had  assigned  to  general  firmed  by  experiment.  However,  in  1780  it  received 
mechanics  and  the  laws  that  he  had  imposed  upon  this  confirmation  from  Char]e.s-Augiistin  de  (Coulomb 
universal    gravitation.      However    exhaustive    and  with  the  aid  of  the  torsion  balance.    By  the  use  of 


PHYSICS  64  PHYSICS 


this  balance  and  the  proof  plane,  he  was  enabled  to  "M^moire  sur  la  thtorie  mathdmatique  des  ph^ 

make  detailed  experiments  on  the  subject  of  the  dis-  nomdnes  ^lectro-dynamiaues  uniquement  d6duite  de 

tribution  of  electricity  over  conductive  bodies,  no  Texp^rience",   a  work   tnat  can  stand  the  test  of 

such  tests  having  been  previously  made.    Although  comparison  with  the  '*  Philosophise  naturalis  princi- 

Coulomb's  experiments  placed  beyond   doubt   the  pia  mathematical  and  not  be  found  wanting, 

elementary  laws  of  electricity  and  magnetism,  it  still  Not  wishing  to  carry  the  history  of  electncity  and 

remained  to  be  established  by  mathematical  analysis  magnetism  beyond  this  date,  we  shall  content  our- 

how  electricity  was  distributed  over  the  surface  of  selves  with  making  another  comparison  between  the 

conductive  bodies  of  given  shape,  and  how  a  piece  two  works  we  have  just  mentioned.    As  Newton's 

of  soft  iron  was  magnetized  under  given  circum-  treatise  brought  about  numerous  discoveries  on  the 

stances.  The  solution  of  these  problems  was  attempted  part  of  his  successors,  Ampere's  memoir  gave  the 

by  Coulomb  and  also  in  1787  by  Haliy  (q.  v.),  but  initial   impetus   to   researches   which   have   greatly 

neither  of  these  two  savants  pushed  his  tests  very  far.  broadened  the  field  of  electro-dynamics  and  electro- 

The  establishment  of  princi]3les  which  would  permit  ma^etism.     Michael  Faraday  (1791-1867),  an  ex- 

of  an  analysis  of  the  distribution  of  electricity  on  con-  penmentalist  whose  activity,  skill,  and  good  fortune 

ductors,  and  of  magnetism  on  soft  iron,  required  the  have  perhaps  never  been  equalled,  e^abli^ed  in 

genius  of  Simon-Denis  Poisson  (1781-1840).  1831  tne  experimental  laws  of  electro-dynamic  and 

In  1812  Poisson  showed  how  the  investigation  of  electro-magnetic  induction,  and,  between  1845  and 

the  distribution  of  electricity  in  equilibrium  on  con-  1847,  Franz  Ernst  Neumann  (1798-1895)  and  Wil- 

ductors  belonged  to  the  domain  of  analysis,  and  he  helm  Weber  (1804-^91),  by  closely  following  Ampere's 

gave  a  complete  solution  of  this  problem  in  the  case  method  of  studying  electro-dynamic  force,  finally 

of  two  conductive  spheres  influencing  each  other,  established  the  mathematical  theory  of  these  phe- 

whether  placed  at  given  distances  or  in  contact,  nomena  of  induction.    Michael  Faraday  was  opposed 

Coulomb's  experiments  in  connexion  with  contiguous  to  Newtonian  doctrines,  and  highly  disapproved  the 

spheres  established  the  truth  of  Poisson's  theory,  theory  of  action  at  a  distance;    in  fact,  when  he 

In  1824  Poisson  established  on  the  subject  of  hollow  applied   himself   to   analysing   the   polarization   of 

conductors  limited  either  interiorly  or  exteriorly  by  a  insulated  media,  which  he  called  dielectrics,  he  hoped 

spherical  cavity,  theorems  which,  in  1828,  were  ex-  to  eliminate  the  hypothesis  of  such  action.     Meantime 

tended  by  George  Green  (1793-1841)  to  all  kinds  of  by  extending  to  dielectric  bodies  the  formulae  that 

hollow  conductors  and  which  Faraday  was  subse-  Poisson,  Ampere,  and  Neumann  had  established  for 

quedtly  to  confirm  through  experimentation.     Be-  magnets  and  conductive  bodies,  James  Clerk-Maxwell 

tween  1813  and  1824  Poisson  took  up  the  study  of  (1831-79)   was  enabled  to  create  a  new  branch  of 

magnetic   forces   and   magnetization   by   impulsion  electro-dynamics,   and   thereby  bring  to  light  the 

ana,  in  spite  of  a  few  inaccuracies  which  the  future  long-sought  link  connecting  the  sciences  of  electricity 

was  to  correct,  the  formuke  which  he  established  and  optics.    This  wonderful  discovery  was  not  one 

remain  at  the  basis  of  all  the  research  of  which  mag-  of  the  least  important  conquests  of  the  method  defined 

netism  has  meanwhile  been  the  object.    Thanks  to*  and  practised Tby  Newton. 

Poisson's  memoirs,  the  theory  of  the  forces  exercised  AX VII.    Molecular   Attraction. — While   uni- 

in  inverse  ratio  to  the  square  of  the  distance,  by  versal  atttaction,  which  varies  proportionally  as  the 

annexing  the  domain  of  static  electricity  and  mag-  product  of  the  masses  and  inversely  as  the  square  of 

netism,  markedlv  enlarged  the  field  which  at  first  the  distance,  was  being  establish^  throughout  the 

included  only  celestial  mechanics.    The  study  of  the  science  of  astronomy,  and  while,  thanks  to  the  study 

action  of  the  electric  current  was  to  open  up  to  this  of  other  forces  also  varying  inversely  as  the  square 

theory  a  new  and  fertile  territory.  of  the  distance,  electricity  and  inagnetism  were  being 

The  discoveries  of  Aloisio  Galvani  (1737-98)  and  organized,  other  parts  of  physics  received  no  less 

Alessandro  Volta  (1745-1827)  enriched  physics  with  light  from  another  Newtonian  hypothesis,  namely, 

the  voltuc  battery.    It  would  be  impossible  to  enu-  the  supposition  that,  between  two  material  particles, 

merate,  even  briefly,  the  researches  occasioned  by  this  there  is  an  attraction  distinct  from  universal  attrac- 

discovery.     All  physicbts  have  compared  the  con-  tion  and  extremely  powerful,  while  the  two  particles 

ductor,  the  seat  of  a  current,  to  a  space  in  which  a  are  contiguous,  but  ceasing  to  be  appreciable  as  soon 

fluid  circulates.     In  his  works  on  hydrodynamics  as  the  two  masses  which  it  acts  upon  are  separated 

Euler  had  established  general  formulae  which  apply  by  a  sensible  distance.  '^  Among  the  phenomena  to  be 

to  the  motion  of  all  fluids  and,  imitating  Euler  s  explained  by  such  attractions,  Newton  had  already 

method.  Jean-Baptiste-Joseph  Fourier  (1768-1830)  signalized  the  effect  of  capillarity  in  connexion  with 

began  tne  study  of  the  circulation  of  heat— -then  con-  which  Francis  Hauksbee  (d.  1705)  had  made  inter- 

sidered  a  fluid  and  called  caloric — within  conductive  esting  experiments.     In   1718  James  Jurin    (1684- 

bodies.     The  mathematical  laws  to  which  he  had  1750)  tried  to  follow  Newton's  idea  but  without  any 

recourse  once  more  showed  the  extreme  importance  marked  success,  and  it  was  Clairaut  who,  in  1743, 

of  the  mathematical  methods  inaugurated  by  La-  showed    how    hydrostatic    methods    permitted    the 

grange  and  Laplace  in  the  study  of  universal  attrac-  application  of  this  idea  to  the  explanation  of  capillary 

tion,  and  at  the  same  time  extended  by  Poisson  to  the  pnenomena.    Unfortunately  his  able  reasoning  led  to 

study  of  electrostatics.     In  order  to  treat  mathe-  no  important  result,  as  he  had  ascribed  too  great  a 

matically  of  the  circulation  of  electric  fluid  in  the  value  to  the  extent  of  molecular  action, 

interior  of  conductive  bodies,  it  sufficed  to  take  up  Chemical  action  also  was  one  of  the  actions  which 

Fourier's  analysis  almost  textually,  substituting  the  Newton  made  subject  to  molecular  attraction,  and 

word  electricity  for  the  word  heat,  this  being  done  in  John  Keill  (1671-1721),  John   Freind   (1675-1728),  » 

1827  by  Georg  Simon  Ohm  (1789-1854).  and  Pierre-Joseph  Macquer  (1718-84)  believed  in  the 

Meanwhile  on  21  July,  1820,  Hans  Christian  Oer-  fruitfuliiess  of  this  Newtonian  opinion.  The  hypothe- 
sted  (1777-1851)  had  discovered  the  action  of  the  sis  of  molecular  attraction  proved  a  great  annoyance 
electric  current  on  the  magnetic  needle.  To  this  dis-  to  a  man  whose  scientific  mediocrity  had  not  pre- 
covery  Andr6-Marie  Ampere  (1775-1836)  added  that  vented  him  from  acquiring  great  influence,  we  mean 
of  the  action  exerted  over  each  other  by  two  conduc-  Georges-Ijouis-Leclerc  de  Buffon  (1707-88).  Inca- 
tors  carrying  electric  currents  and,  to  the  study  of  pable  of  .understanding  that  an  attraction  could  be 
electrondynamic  and  electro-magnetic  forces,  he  other  than  inversely  proportional  to  the  square  of  the 
applied  a  method  similar  to  that  used  by  Newton  distance,  Buffon  entered  into  a  discussion  of  the  sub- 
when  studying  universal  attraction.  In  1826  Ampere  ject  with  Clairaut,  and  fondly  imagined  that  he  had 
gave  the  complete  theory  of  all  these  forces  in  his  triumphed  over  the  modest  learning  of  his  opponent. 


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Ruggiero  Giuseppe  Boscovich,  S.J.  (1711-87),  pub- 
lished a  detailed  exposition  of  the  views  attacked  by 
BufTon  and  defended  by  Clairaut,  and,  inspired  alike 
by  the  opinions  of  Newton  and  Leibniz,  he  conceived 
a  cosmology  in  which  the  universe  is  composed  solely 
of  materisdpoints,  these  being  attracted  to  each  other 
in  pairs.  When  these  points  are  separated  by  a 
sensible  distance,  their  attraction  is  reduced  to  mere 
universal  attraction,  whereas  when  they  are  in  very 
close  proximity  it  assumes  a  dominant  importance. 
Boscovich's  cosmology  provided  phjrsical  theory 
with  a  programme  which  the  geometricians  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  and  of  a  great  portion  of  Uie 
nineteenth,  laboured  assiduously  to  carry  out. 

The  efforts  of  Johann  Andreas  von  Segner  (1704- 
77),  and  subsequently  of  Thomaa  Young  (1773-1829). 
a^ain  drew  attention  to  capillary  phenomena,  ana 
with  the  assistance  of  the  hypothesis  of  molecular 
attraction,  as  also  of  Clairaut's  method,  Laplace 
advanced  in  1806  and  1807  an  admirable  theory, 
which  Karl  Friedrich  Gauss  (1777-1855)  improved 
in  1829.  Being  a  thoroughly-convinced  partisan  of 
Boscovich's  cosmolo^cal  doctrine,  Laplace  com- 
municated his  convictions  to  numerous  geometricians, 
who  surrendered  to  the  ascendency  of  £j8  genius;  we 
shsdl  only  mention  Claude-Louis-Marie  Navier  (1785- 
1836),  Poisson,  and  Augustm  Cauchy  (1789-1857). 
In  developing  the  consequences  of  the  hypothesis  of 
molecular  attraction  Navier,  Poisson,  and  Cauchy 
succeeded  in  building  up  the  theory  of  the  equilibrium 
and  small  motions  of  elastic  bodies,  one  of  the  finest 
and  most  fruitful  theories  of  modern'  physics.  The 
discredit  into  which  the  progress  of  present-day 
thermodynamics  has  brought  Boscovich's  cosmology 
has,  however,  affected  scarcely  anything  of  what 
Laplace,  Gauss,  Navier,  Poisson,  Cauchy,  and  man^ 
others  have  deduced  from  the  principles  of  this 
cosmology.  The  theories  which  they  established 
have  always  been  readily  justified  with  the  assistance 
of  new  methods,  the  way  of  bringing  about  this  justi- 
fication having  been  indicated  by  Cauchy  himself 
and  George  Green.  After  Macquer,  manjr  chemists 
used  the  nypothesis  of  molecular  attraction  in  an 
attempt  to  disentangle  the  laws  of  reaction  which 
they  studied,^nd  among  these  scientists  we  may  men- 
tion Torbem  Bergman  (1735-1784),  and  above  all 
Claude-Louis  Berthollet  (1784-1822).  When  the 
latter  published  his  ^'Statique  chimique''  in  1803,  he 
believed  that  the  Science  ot  chemical  equilibria,  sub- 
ject at  last  to  Newton's  method,  had  found  its  true 
direction;  however,  it  was  not  to  enter  upon  this 
direction  until  much  later  on,  when  it  would  be  guided 
by  precepts  altogether  different  and  which  were  to 
be  formulated  by  thermodynamics. 

XXVIII.  Revival  op  the  Undulatort  Theory 
OF  Light. — ^The  emission  theory  of  light  not  only 
led  Newton  to  conceive  the  hypothesis  of  molecular 
attraction,  but  seemed  to  provide  this  hypothesis 
with  an  opportunity  for  further  success  by  permitting 
Laplace  to  find,  in  the  emission  system,  tne  laws  m 
the  double  refraction  of  Iceland  spar,  which  laws 
Huygens  had  discovered  by  the  use  of  the  undulatory 
theory.  In  this  way  Newton's  optics  appeared  to 
rob  Huygens's  optics  of  the  one  advantage  m  which  it 
glorified.  However,  at  the  very  moment  that  La- 
place's discovery  seemed  to  ensure  the  triumph  of  the 
emission  system,  the  undulatory  theory  carried  off 
new  and  dazzling  victories,  won  mainly  through  the 
efforts  of  Thomas  Young  and  Augustin-Jean  Fresnel 
(1788-1827).  Between  1801  and  1803  Youn^  made 
the  memorable  discoveries  which  provoked  this  revi- 
val of  undulatory  optics.  The  comparison  of  the  ether 
that  vibrates  in  a  ray  of  light  to  the  air  that  vibrates 
in  a  resonant  tube  led  him  to  explain  the  alternately 
light  and  dark  fringes  that  show  in  a  place  illumined 
by  two  equal  beams  slightly  inclined  to  each  other. 
Tbie  principle  of  interference,  thus  justified,  allowed 
XIL— 5 


him  to  connect  with  the  undulatory  theory  the  expla- 
nation of  the  colours  of  thin  laminae  that  Newton  nad 
demanded  of  the  ''fits  of  easy  transmission  and  easy 
reflection''  of  the  particles  of  li^ht. 

In  1815  Fresnel,  who  combined  this  principle  of 
interference  with  the  methods  devised  by  Huygens, 
took  up  the  theory  of  the  phenomena  of  diffraction 
which  had  been  discovered  by  Francesco  Maria  Gri- 
maldi,  S.J.  (1618-63),  and  had  remained  a  mystery  to 
opticians.  Fresnel's  attempts  at  explaining  these 
phenomena  led  him  to  draw  up  in  1818  a  memoir 
which  in  a  marked  degree  revealed  the  essential  char- 
acter of  his  genius,  namely,  a  strange  power  of  divina- 
tion exercise!  independently  of  all  rules  of  deductive 
reasoning.  Despite  the  insularity  of  his  procedure, 
Fresnel  made  known  very  complicated  formuke,  the 
most  minute  details  of  which  were  verified  by  experi- 
ment, and  long  afterwards  justified  according  to  the 
logical  method  of  mathematicians.  Never  did  ph3rsi- 
cist  conquer  more  important  and  more  unthought-of 
truths,  and  yet  never  was  there  employed  a  method 
more  capable  of  leading  the  common  mmd  into  error. 
Up  to  this  time  the  vibrations  of  ether  in  a  ray  of 
light  had  been  supposed  to  be  longitudinal,  as  it  is  in 
the  air  of  a  resonant  tube,  but  in  1808  Etienne-Louis 
Malus  (1775-1812)  discovered  the  polarization  of 
light  when  reflected  on  glass,  and,  m  1817,  when 
studying  this  phenomenon.  Young  was  led  to  suppose 
that  luminous  vibrations  are  perpendicular  to. the 
ray  which  transmits  them.  Fresnel,  who  had  con- 
ceived the  same  idea^  completed  an  experiment  (1816) 
in  collaboration  with  Arago  (1786^1853),  which 
proved  the  view  that  luminous  vibrations  are  trans- 
verse to  the  direction  of  propagation. 

The  hypothesis  of  transverse  vibrations  was.  for 
Fresnel,  the  key  to  all  the  secrets  of  optics,  and  from 
the  day  that  he  adopted  it  he  made  cuscoveries  with 
rareat  rapidity.  Among  these  discoveries  were:  (a) 
The  complete  theory  of  the  phenomena  of  polarization 
accompanying  the  reflection  or  refraction  of  light  on 
the  surface  of  contact  of  two  isotropic  media.  The 
peculiarities  which  accompany  totai  reflection  gave 
Fresnel  an  opportunity  to  display  in  a  most  striking 
manner  his  strange  power  of  oivination  and  thus 
throw  out  a  veritable  challenge  to  logic.  This  divi- 
nation was  no  less  efficient  in  the  second  discovery, 
(b).  In  studying  double  refraction,  Huygens  limited 
himself  to  determining  the  direction  of  luminous  rays 
in  the  interior  of  crystals  now  called  uniaxial^  without, 
however,  being  able  to  account  for  the  polarization  ot 
t^ese  rays;  but  with  the  lud  of  the  wave-surf ace^ 
Fresnel  succeeded  in  cpving  the  most  elegant  form  to 
the  law  of  the  refraction  of  rays  in  biaxial  crystals, 
and  in  formulating  rules  by  which  rays  polarize  in  the 
interior  of  all  crystals,  umaxial  as  well  as  biaxial. 

Although  all  these  wonderful  theories  destroyed 
the  theory  of  emission,  the  hypothesis  of  molecular 
attraction  was  far  from  losing  ground.  In  fact  Fresnel 
tiiought  he  could  find  in  the  elasticity  of  the  ether, 
which  transmits  luminous  vibrations,  the  explanation 
of  all  the  optical  laws  that  he  had  verified  by  experi- 
ment, and  he  sousht  the  explanation  of  this  elasticity 
and  its  laws  in  the  attraction  which  he  believed  to 
exist  between  the  contiguous  particles  of  this  fluid. 
Being  too  little  of  a  mathematician  and  too  little  of  a 
mechanician  to  go  very  far  in  the  analysis  of  such  a 
problem,  he  left  its  solution  to  his  successors.  To 
this  task,  so  clearly  defined  by  Fresnel,  Cauchy  de- 
voted the  most  powerful  efforts  of  his  genius  as  an 
algebraist  and,  thanks  to  this  pupil  of  Laplace,  the 
Newtonian  physics  of  molecular  attraction  became  an 
active  factor  in  the  propagation  of  the  theory  of 
undulatory  optics.  Fresners  discoveries  did  not 
please  all  Newtonians  as  much  as  they  did  Cauchy. 
Arago  could  never  admit  that  luminous  vibrations 
were  transverse,  notwithstanding  that  he  had  collab- 
orated with  Fresnel  in  making  thQ  experiment  by 


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66 


PHYSICS 


whi^h  this  point  wafl  verified,  and  Jean-Baptbte  Hiot 
(1774-1862),  whose  experimental  researches  were 
numerous  and  skilful,  and  who  had  furnished  recent 
optics  with  very  valuable  matter,  remained  strongly 
attached  to  the  system  of  emission  by  which  he 
endeavoured  to  explain  all  the  phenomena  that  Fres- 
nel  had  discovered  and  explained  by  the  undulatory 
s]^8tem.  Moreover,  Biot  would  not  acknowledge 
himself  defeated,  or  regard  the  system  of  emission  as 
condemned  until  Foucault  (1819-^)  proved  that  light 
is  propagated  much  more  quickly  in  air  than  in  water. 

XXEv.  Theories  op  Heat. — ^The  idea  of  the 
(quantity  of  heat  and  the  invention  of  the  calorimeter 
intendea  for  measuring  the  amount  of  heat  emitted  or 
absorbed  by  a  body  under  given  circumstances  are 
due  to  Joseph  Black  (1728-99)  and  Adair  Crawford 
(1749-95),  who,  by  joining  calorimetry  with  ther- 
mometry, veritably  created  the  science  of  heat,  which 
science  remained  unborn  as  long,  as  the  only  thing 
done  was  the  comparison  of  temperatures.  Like 
Descartes,  Newton  held  that  heat  consbted  in  a  very 
lively  agitation  of  the  smallest  parts  of  which  bodies 
are  composed.  By  showing  that  a  certain  quantity 
of  heat  is  furnished  to  ice  which  melts,  without  how- 
ever raising  the  temperature  of  the  ice,  that  this  heat 
remains  in  a  ^'latent  state"  in  the  wat^  resulting 
from  the  melting  and  that  it  again  becomes  manifest 
when  the  water  returns  to  ice,  the  experiments  of 
Black  and  Crawford  led  physicists  to  change  their 
opinion  concerning  the  nature  of  heat.  In  it  they 
beheld  a  certain  fluid  which  combines  with  other 
matter  when  heat  passes  into  the  latent  state,  and 
separates  from  it  when  heat  is  liberated  again,  and, 
in  the  new  nomenclature  that  perpetuated  the  rev- 
olution brought  about  by  Antoine-Laurent  Lavoisier 
(1743-94),  this  imponderable  fluid  was  assigned  a 
place  among  simple  bodies  and  named  caloric. 

Air  becomes  heated  when  it  is  compressed,  and 
cools  again  when  rarefied  under  the  receiver  of  the 
pneumatic  machine.  Johann  Heinrich  Lambert  (1728- 
77),  Horace  de  Saussure  (1740-79),  and  John  Dalton 
(1766-1844)  recognized  the  importance  of  this  already 
old  experiment,  but  it  is  to  Laplace  that  we  are 
indebted  for  a  complete  explanation  of  this  phenome- 
non. The  experiment  proved  to  Laplace  mat,  at  a 
given  temperature,  a  mass  of  air  contains  a  quantity 
of  caloric  proportional  to  its  volume.  If  we  aomit  the 
acciu'acy  of  tne  law  of  compressibilitv  enunciated  by 
Boyle  and  Mariotte,  this  quantity  of  heat  combinea 
vnm  a  given  mass  of  air,  also  of  given  temperature, 
is  proportional  to  the  volume  of  this  air.  In  1803 
Laplace  formulated  these  propositions  in  a  short  note 
inserted  in  BerthoUet's  "Statique  chimique".  In 
order  to  verify  the  consequences  which  Laplace 
deduced  therefrom  concerning  the  expansion  of  gases, 
Louis-Joseph  Gay-Lussac  (1778-1850)  began  re- 
searches on  this  subject,  and  in  1807  on  the  variations 
of  temperature  produced  when  a  gas  contained  in  a 
receiver  enters  another  receiver  previously  empty. 

Laplace's  views  entail  an  evident  corollary;  to 
raise  to  a  certain  number  of  degrees  the  temperature 
of  a  ^as  of  a  fixed  volume^  the  communication  of  less 
heat  IS  required  than  if  this  gas  were  expanded  under 
an  invariable  pressure.  Hence  a  gas  ^mits  of  two 
distinct  kinds  of  specific  heat  which  depend  on 
whether  it  is  heated  at  constant  voliune  or  under 
constant  pressure;  the  specific  heat  being  greater 
in  the  latter  case  than  in  tne  former.  Through  these 
remarks  the  study  of  the  specific  heat  of  gases  was 
signalized  as  one  of  the  most  important  in  which 
experimenters  could  engage.  The  Institute  made  this 
study  the  subject  of  a  competition  which  called  forth 
two  notable  memoirs,  one  by  Delaroche  and  B^rard 
on  the  measurement  of  the  specific  heats  of  various 
gases  under  constant  pressure;  and  the  other  by 
Desormes  and  Clement,  published  in  1812,  (»  the  de- 
termination of  the  increase  of  heat  due  to  a  given  com- 


pression in  a  given  mass  of  air.  The  experiments 
of  Desormes  and  Clement  enabled  Laplace  to  deduce, 
in  the  case  of  air,  the  ratio  of  specific  lieat  under  con- 
stant pressure  to  specific  heat  under  constant  volume, 
and  hence  to  test  the  ideas  he  had  formed  on  the 
propagation  of  sound.- 

In  applying  to  air  the  law  of  compressibility  dis- 
coverea  by  Bovle,  Newton  had  attempted  to  calculate 
the  velocity  of  the  propagation  of  sound  in  this  fluid, 
and  the  formula  which  he  had  established  gave  values 
very  inferior  to  those  furnished  by  experimental 
determination.  Lagrange  had  alreadv  shown  that, 
by  modifying  Boyle^  law  of  compressibility,  this  dis- 
agreement could  be  overcome:  however,  the  modifi- 
cation was  to  be  justified  not  by  what  Lagrange  said 
but  by  what  Laplace  discovered.  When  sound  is 
propagated  in  air  by  alternate  condensations  and 
rarefactions,  the  temperature  at  each  point  instead 
of  remaining  unchanged,  as  Boyle's  law  supposed, 
is  alternately  raised  and  lowered  about  a  mean  value. 
Hence  velocity  of  sound  was  no  longer  expressed  by 
the  formula  Newton  had  proposed;  this  expression 
had  to  be  multiplied  by  the  square  root  of  the  ratio 
of  specific  heat  under  constant  pressure  to  specific 
heat  imder  constant  volume.  Laplace  had  this 
thou^t  in  mind  in  1803  (Berthollet,  '^Statique 
chimique'') ;  its  consequences  being  developed  in  1807 
by  Poisson,  his  disciple.  In  1816  Laplace  published 
his  new  formula;  fresh  experiments  by  Desormes  and 
Clement,  and  analogous  e3n)eriments  by  Gay-Lussac 
and  Welter  gave  him  tolerably  exact  vsJues  of  the  re- 
lation of  the  specific  heats  of  gases.  Henceforth  the 
great  geometrician  could  compare  the  result  given  by 
His  formula  with  that  furnished  by  the  direct  deter- 
mination of  the  velocity  of  sound,  the  latter,  in  metres 
per  second,  being  represented  by  the  number  340-889, 
and  the  former  by  the  number  337*715.  This  agree- 
ment seemed  a  very  strong  confirmation  of  the  hypoth- 
esis of  caloric  and  the  theory  of  molecular  action,  to 
both  of  which  it  was  attributable.  It  would  appear 
that  Laplace  had  a  right  to  say:  ''The  phenomena  of 
the  expansion  of  heat  and  vibration  of  gases  lead  back 
to  the  attractive  and  repellent  forces  sensible  only  at 
imperceptible  distances.  In  my  theory  on  capillary 
action,  I  have  traced  to  similar  forces^ the  ^ects  of 
capillarity.  All  terrestrial  phenomena*  depend  upon 
this  species  of  force,  just  as  celestial  phenomena 
depend  upon  universal  gravitation,  and  the  study  of 
these  forces  now  seems  to  me  the  principal  object 
of  mathematical  philosophy''  (written  in  1823). 

In  1824  a  new  truth  was  formulated  from  which  was 
to  be  developed  a  doctrine  which  was  to  overturn, 
to  a  great  extent,  natural  philosophy  as  conceived  by 
Newton  And  Boscovich  and  carriea  out  by  Laplace 
and  his  (usciples.  However,  Sadi  Camot(1796-1832), 
the  author  of  this  new  truth,  still  assumed  the  cor- 
rectness of  the  theory  of  caloric.  He  proposed 
to  extend  to  heat-engines  the  principle  of  the  impossi- 
bihty  of  perpetual  motion  recognized  for  engines  of 
unchfm^ng  temperature,  and  was  led  to  the  following 
conclusion:  In  order  that  a  certain  quantity  of  caloric 
may  produce  work  of  the  kind  that  human  industry 
requires,  this  caloric  must  pass  from  a  hot  to  a  cold 
body;  when  the  quantity  of  caloric  is  given,  as  well 
as  tne  temperatures  to  which  these  two  bodies  are 
raised,  the  useful  work  produced  admits  of  a  superior 
limit  independent  of  the  nature  of  the  substances 
which  transinit  the  caloric  and  of  the  device  by  means 
of  which  the  transmission  is  efi'ected.  The  moment 
that  Camot  formulated  this  fertile  truth,  the  founda- 
tions of  the  theory  of  caloric  were  shaken.  However, 
in  the  hypothesis  of  caloric,  how  could  the  ^neration 
of  heat  by  friction  be  explained?  Two  bodies  rubbed 
together  were  found  to  be  just  as  rich  in  caloric  as 
they  had  been;  therefore,  whence  came  the  caloric 
evolved  by  friction? 

As  early  as  1783  Lavoisier  and  Laplace  were  much 


FHYSldCRATS  67  PHYSIOCRATS 

troubled  by  the  problem,  which  also  arrested  the  at-  JuUie,  depuis  la  RenaUaanct  dea  Lettrt*  junqu'tk  h  Jin  du  X  Vlf 

tention  of  physicists;    as  in  1798  when  Benjamin  ^ •^tJ''^\Z^^l2^'i^P  ^/"muii: Jf^i^l'^L^^ii^Z 

Thompson,  i^unt  Kumiord  (176*-l5l4).  made  ac-  Pascau  (Euvtm,  ed.  Bbunschvico  and  Boumoux-  (3  vols.. 

curate  experiments  on  the  heat  evolved  by  friction,  Paris,  1008):    Rousb  Ball,  An  EB»ay  on  Newton*»  Frindpia 

and,  in  1799,  when  similar  experiments  were  made  by  (London  ^^d  New^  Yorit.  1893) ;   Mhnoiret  but  VEUctrodyna^ 

Sir  Humphrey  Davy   (1778-1829).      In   1803,  beside  p^ynmu,  II-III  (Paris,  1885-7);  Sub  Ainb,  HUt.  duGahaniHme 

4he  notes  m  which  Laplace .  announced  some  of  the  el  amuyae  de»  diffiren$  ouvragts  publiU  9wr  eelte  dieowtertA,  depuit 

greatest  conquests  of  the  doctrine  of  caloric,  Bei^  V7jf^^oV^V^'^  "^  ^*^"  ^f  T.^^'  ^"!J^'  »»  x  (i802)--an 

ru^il^4>  :..!.:«<< Q4»«;^.,A^u;»«;^..A>>    »«^r«. «.«  »»^..^«  ^r  XIII  (1803);  Thirion,  Pascal,  Vhorreur  du  nde  et  la  presaton 

thollet,  m  his     Statique  Chunique    ,  gave  an  account  of  almotphSrigue  in  Revue  des  Quest,  scien.,  3rd  series:  XII  (1907). 

Rumfords  experiments,  trying  m  vam  to  reconcile  384;   xili  (1908),  149;   XV  (1909).  149;Thdrot.  RediereheM 

them  with  the  prevaihng  opinion.    Now  these  ex-  ^^^' '^'' H  ^^J^n'i^^'^iS^%rK'it^a^^^^ 

.^•:»«^n«^o   «,k;^k  »rA«»  ;,>»^««.^«f ;u1a  ™.;*u  *u«  u^.^^^u  senes,  Pans).  XVIII  (1868),  389   XIX  (1869),  42;  III,  284,  345 

penmentS,  which  were  incompatible  with  the  hypoth-  XX  (1809),  14;   Todhuntbb,  a  Hi^.  of  Malhematieal  Theories 

esis  that  heat  is  a  fluid  contained  m  a  quantity    in  of  AUmclion  and  the  Figure  of  the  Earth  from  time  of  Nevoion  to 

each    body,    recalled   to   mind    the   supposition    of  '*^  ^'^^.'^^^  J?  y^^*  ^"*i?°v^®.P^:  T^^ 

rww.»«.#^  J.^^   xr<,«r4-^,^    «,>k;»k   »1«:.v«»^  wJL*  ♦«  K«  -  son,  ^ //w<.  fl/<A<  Theory  o/Ff<Mact/w  (2  vols.,  Cambndije,  1880- 

Descartes  and  Newton,  which  claimed  heat  to  be  a  93);     Vknturi.   CommeT^tari  aopra  la  Storica  e  U    Teorie  detV 

very  lively  agitation  of  the  small  particles  of  bodies.  OUica  (Bologna,  1814);  Verdbt,  introduction  aux  (Euvres  d'Aw 

It  was  in  favour  of  this  view  that  Rumford  and  Davy  ?*"'»»  ^'•"^' J  Jf^?™*  ^S^Zl^lo^^'t « V*"'*'  ^if  *?5S^^i?' 

£^^11..  J^^i^..^   «u^»..»vi...w,  ^'  li^re  V.  d.  ElektrtcttOt,  2nd  ed.  (3  vols.,  Brunswick,  1893-5); 

tmaUy  declared  themselves.  Wohlwill,  D,  Entdeekung  d.  BeharrungsgeseUes  in  Zeilsehrift  f. 

In  the  last  years  of  his  life  Camot  consigned  to  Vdlkerpsychohgie   u.  Sprachwissenschafl    (Beriin),   XIV  (1883) 

paper  a  few  notes  which  remained  unpublished  until  365;   XV  (i^),  70.  337;   Idem.  Galilei  u.  seinKampf  /.  d. 

187«.    In  these  notes  he  rejected  the  theory  of  ca-  ^^>p«^«»'»«^  ^'^  (Hamburg  and  Leipsig.  1909). 
loric  as  inconsistent  with   Rumford's  experiments.  Pierre  Duhem. 

"Heat",  he  added,  "is  therefore  the  result  of  motion. 

It  is  q[uite  plain  that  it  can  be  produced  by  the  con-        PhjBiocratB  (0jiJ<rtf,  nature,  ^poTcir,  rule),  a  school 

sumption  of  motive  power  and  that  it  can  produce  of  writers  on  political  and  economic  subjects  that 

this  power.    Wherever  there  is  destruction  of^motive  flourished  in  France  in  the  second  half  of  the  eigh- 

power  there  is,  at  the  same  time,  production  of  heat  teenth  century,  and  attacked  the  monopolies,  exclu- 

m  a  quantity  exactly  proportionid  to  the  quantity  sive  corporations,  vexatious  taxes,  and  various  other 

of  motive  power  destroyed;  and  inversely,  wherever  abuses  which  had  grown  up  under  the  mercantile  sys- 

there  is  destruction  of  heat,  there  is  production  of  tem.    Statesmen  of  the  mercantile  school  in  France 

motive  power''.  and  elsewhere  had  adopted  a  system  of  tutelage  which 

In  1842  Robert  Mayer  (1814-78)  found  the  princi-  often  gave  an  artificial  growth  to  industry  but  which 

pie  of  the  equivalence  between  heat  and  work,  and  pressed,  hardly  upon  agriculture.     The  physiocrats 

showed  that  once  the  difference  in  two  specific  heats  proposed  to  advance  the  interests  of  agnculture  by 

of  a  gas  is  known,  it  is  possible  to  calculate  the  me-  adopting  a  system  of  economic  freedom.     Laissez 

chanical  value  of  heat.    This  value  differed  little  faire  et  uiissez  passer  was  their  watchword.     Franyois 

from  that  found  by -Camot.     Mayer's  pleasing  work  Quesnay  (1694-1774),  physician  to  Mme  de  Ponrrpa- 

exerted  scarcely  any  more  influence  on  the  progress  of  dour  and  Louis  XV,  founded  the  school  (1758).    The 

the  theory  of  heat  than  did  Camot's  unpublished  term  "physiocracy**  was  probably  used  by  Ques- 

notes.    However,    in    1843    James    Prescott    Joule  nay  to  convey  the  idea  that  the  new  system  provides 

(1818-89)  was  the  next  to  discover  the  principle  of  the  for  the  reign  of  the  natural  law.    Quesnay  and  his 

equivalence  between  heat  and  work,  and  conducted  disciples  were  called  iconomistes  by  their  contempo- 

several  of  the  experiments  which  Carnot  in  his  notes  raries;    the  term  physiocralea  was  not  used  until  the 

had  requested  to  have  made.    Joule's  work  com-  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
municated  to  the  new  theory  a  frcah  impetus.     In        rolUioal  Philosophy. — In  metaphysics  Quesnay  was 

1849    William  Thomson,   afterwards    Loni    Kelvin  a  follower  of  Descartes  and  borrowed  from  him  the 

(1824-1907),  indicated  the  necessity  of  reconciling  mathematical  method  used  in  his  '^ Tableau  Econ- 

Camot's    principle    with    the    thenceforth    incon-  omique".    He  accepted  a  modified  form  of  the  natural 

testable  principle  of   the  mechanical  equivalent  of  rights  theor^c  which  pervades  eighteenth-century  lit- 

heat;  and  in  1850  Rudolf  Clausius  (1822-88)  accom-  erature  and  gave  it  an  optimistic  interpretation.    He 

plished  the  task;  thus  the  science  of  thermodynamics  emphasizes  the  distinction  between  the  natural  order 

was  founded.     When  in  1847  Hermann  von  Helmholtz  {ordre  nalurel)  and  the  positive  order  (ordre  posilif). 

published  his  small  work  entitled  **  Ueber  die  Erhal-  The  first  is  founded  upon  the  laws  of  nature  which  are 

tung  der  Kraft",  he  showed  that  the  principle  of  the  the  creation  of  God  and  which  can  be  discovered  by 

mechanical  equivalent  of  heat  not  only  established  reason.     The  second  is  man-made;    when  its  laws 

a  bond  between  mechanics  and  tlie  theory  of  heat,  coincide  with  those  of  the  natural  order  the  world 

but  also  Unked  the  studies  of  chemical  reaction,  will  be  at  its  best.    He  objected  to  the  natural  rights 

electricity,  and  magnetism,  and  in  this  way  physics  philosophers  of  his  day  that  they  concerned  themselves 

was  confronted  with  the  carrying-out  of  an  entirely  only  with  the  nositive  order  to  the  neglect  of  the 

new  programme,  whose  results  are  at   present  too  natural.    He  held  that  primitive  man  upon  entering 

incomplete  to  be  judged  even  by  scientists.  society  does  not  give  up  any  of  his  natural  rights, 

AutAOii,   La  doUrina  della   marea   nrW   antichitd  daesica  et  thus  taking  issue  with  RoUSSeau's  theory  of  the  SOcial 

jfl^^'m™*  ^^Ks.^r!2.ii?^K'\^i^"^i'^'^i^ ,^  contract.    From  his  optimistic  doctrines  concerning 

Ltncet   (It)me,   lllOo);  Cavebni.   !:>.jria  del  metoJo  npertmentale  xli  r  a\.  a        tji-jj  l-ja* 

in  Italii  (Florence,  1891-8);  Duu  :m.  Lea  theories  de  la  chaieur  the  laws  Of  the  natural  Order  he  deduces  his  doctnue 

in  Rerue  des  Deux  Mondes  (1895),  CXXIX,  869;    CXXX,  of  latssez  faire.    Economic  evils  arise  from  the  monop- 

iSm  ^!^  Jt^lL  dl*u^Li^('t'.J!*TJ2^^o^^!^^.  T?!?2'  olies  and  restrictions  of  the  positive  order;  statesmen 

IDEM,  l/ss  ong*nes  ae  la  HUUique  {2  vols.,  rans,  lOJo-o);   Idem,  l      ij     •       a     t.  •       xi_  'a*  j  -xi    ^l 

Etudes  sur  Uonard  de  Vinei,  ceux  qn'ii  a  tut  ct  ceux  qui  Vont^u  should  aim  to  harmonize  the  positive  order  With  the 

(2  vols.,  Paria,  1906^);   Idem,  La  thiorir  ph'jnique,  son  objet  natural  by  abolishing  these  excrescences.    The  state 

S«5  sTSTLi^i^Shie  '¥1^  XliJirpi^^JlTJusi  «^«Hld  withdraw  its  support,  from  the  attempts  of 

(P»ria.  1008);  DtJaajira,  Kritische  Gesch,  d.  allg,  Mechanik  (2nd  special  interests  to  bolster  up  industry  artificially.    In 

•d.,  Leipnc,  1877);  Hslleb,  Qesch,  d.  Phynk  v.  AHHoteies  bis  the  language  of  the  physiocrats,  **He  governs  best 

laii^rSS  i^  AarX"-l/i^;liJ.>"u:=^';3;;^  'TJ'o  governs  least-.    Although  ,Jtimately  their  prin- 

Mtisnus  (16  vols.,  Berlin,  1893-1904);  Jouquet,  Lectures  de  ciples  proved  favourable  to  the  Revolution,  Quesnay 

Mieanique,   La    Mieanique  enseignie   par  lea  auteura  oriqinanx  and  his  disoiples  Were  in  favOUr  of  an  absolute  mon- 

1? J^ik  ^*^iJ2?!^l*  ^fm'  R'  :i*?'**^fe'i^''•  ,^^'^'^'"»*'  archy  subject  only  to  the  laws  of  the  ** natural  order '*. 

Atitortscn    i*.    krUxseh    dargeatelU    (Leipzig,    1872);     L\mswitx,  rr«i  -j        j*^Li'A  iji_  •       a  i 

Oeseh.  d.  Atomistik  vom  Mittelalter  bis  Newton  (2  vols..  H  im'jurg  Ihey  considered  that  it  would  be  easier  to  persuade 

%Dd  Leipsig,  1890);   Libki,  //t«t.  des  Sciences  maihimatiiuea  en  a  prince  than  a  nation  and  that  the  triumph  of  their 


V 
PHTSIOLOGUS  68  PHTSIOLOGUS 

principles  would  be  sooner  secured  by  the  sovereign  which  the  importance  of  agriculture  is  recognized  and 

power  of  a  single  man.  the  doctrine  of  produit  net  developed.     The  elder 

Economic  Doctrine. — Quesnay  divides  the  citizens  Mirabeau  was  Quesnay's  first  disciple.     His  "Phi- 

of  a  nation  into  three  classes:  the  productive,  which  losophie  rurale"   (1763)  gained  disciples.     Dupont 

cultivates  the  soil  and  pays  a  rent  to  the  landed  pro-  de  Nemours,  who  later  exerted  considerable  influence 

prietors,  the  proprietors  (Turgot's  claase  disponible).  in  the  Constituent  Assembly  in  the  discussions  on  tax- 

who  receive  the  rent  or  net  product  (produit  net)  of  ation,  wrote  several  works  in  defence  of  the  system; 

agriculture,  and  the  barren  (classe  8tMe),  which  com-  Other  important  writers  were  Baudeau^  Mercier  de  la 

prises  those  engaged  in  other  occupations  than  that  Riviere,  and  Letrosne.    The  most  emment  of  Ques- 

of  agriculture,  and  produces  no  surplus.   For  example,  nay's  disciples  was  Turgot,  who,  as  Intendant  of 

in  a  country  producing  five  billions  of  agricultural  Limoges  and  afterwards  as  minister  of  finance  under 

wealth  annually,  two  billions  will  go  to  the  proprie-  Louis  XVI,  attempted  to  apply  some  of  the  physio> 

tors  as  rent.    With  this  the  proprietors  will  buy  one  cratic  principles  practically  (Reflexions  sur  la^forma- 

billion's  worth  of  agricultural  products  and  one  bil-  lion  et  la  distribution  des  richesses,  1766).    Outside 

lion'sworthof  the  manuf  acturea  products  of  the  barren  of  France  the  school  had  not  many  disciples.    The 

class.    The  productive  class  also  will  buy  one  billion's  best  known  are  the  Swiss  Iselin  and  the  German 

worth  of  the  products  of  the  barren  class.   The  barren  Schlettwein.  The  latter  was  engaged  by  the  Margrave 

class  will  spend  the  two  billions  which  it  receives  in  Karl  Friedrich  of  Baden,  a  friend  of  Mirabeau,  to 

buying  one  billion's  worth  of  agricultural  products  introduce  the  single  tax  in  three  villages  of  Baden, 

upon  which  to  subsist  and  one  billion's  worth  of  raw  The  experiment,  made  under  unfavourable  conditions, 

material  to  work  up  into  its  finished  product.    Thus  was  soon  abandoned.    In  Italy  the  physiocratic  school 

the  barren  class  receive  two  billions  and  spend  two  had  few  followers.    In  England,  on  account  of  the 

billions.    The  value  of  their  product  equals  the  cost  advanced  position  of  trade  and  industry,  it  had  none, 
of  their  subsistence  plus  the  cost  of  the  raw  material.        Criticism. — The  principal  service  of  tne  physiocrats 

Thus  industry  and  commerce  are  barren.    Agricul-  to  modem  political  economy  was  not  the  discovery  of 

ture  is  productive,  since  it  supports  those  who  are  any  one  of  their  doctrines,  but  their  attempt  to  for- 

engaged  in  it  and  produces  in  addition  a  surplus.   The  mulate  a  science  of  society  out  of  materials  already  at 

national  welfare  depends  upon  having  this  surplus  hand.    It  was  from  this  system  as  a  base  that  Adam 

production  as  large  as  possible.    In  <other  woros,  a  Smith  set  out  to  give  a  new  impetus  to  the  study  of 

nation  will  prosper  not  in  proportion  as  it  succeeds  economic  phenomena.    Another  important  contnbu- 

in  getting  forei^  money  in  return  for  its  manufac-  tion  consisted  in  calling  attention  to  the  weaknesses 

tures,  but  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  its  net  prod-  of  the  mercantile  system.    Laisaez  Jaire  was  a  good 

uct.    The  mercantilists,  therefore,  made'  a  mistake  doctrine  for  the  eighteenth  century  because  there  was 

in  encouraging  manufactures  and  commerce  at  the  need  of  a  reaction,  but  it  was  a  mistake  to  set  it  up 

expense  of  agriculture.   The  true  policy  is  to  encourage  as  a  universal  principle  applicable  under  all  condi- 

agriculture.     Statesmen   of   the   mercantile   school  tions.    The  chief  weakness  in  the  physiocratic  teach- 

thought  it  desirable  to  have  cheap  food  so  that  the  ing  lay  in  its  theory  of  value.   While  agriculture  brings 

home  industries  could  compete  with  the  foreign  and  forth  the  raw  material  of  production,  commerce  and 

thus  the  nation  might  secure  a  favourable  balance  of  manufactures  are  equally  productive  of  wealth.     In  a 

trade  which  would  bring  money  into  the  country,  sense^  the  physiocrats  recognized  this,  but  they  held 

The  physiocrats  rejected  the  balance  of  trade  argu-  that  m  producing  this  wealth  the  manufacturing  and 

ment  and  held  that  dear  food  was  desirable  because  commercial  classes  use  up  an  equivalent  amount  of 

this  meant  the  prosperity  of  agriculture  and  the  swell-  value.    This  is  a  gratuitous  assumption,  but  even  if 

ing  of  the  net  product.  Quesnay  even  held  that  under  true'  the  same  thing  could  be  said  of  the  so-called 

some  circumstances  it  might  be  desirable  to  levy  a  proauctive  class.    Moreover,  if  wages  were  governed 

duty  on  imported  agricultural  products  or  to  grant  by  the  "iron  law"  both  in  agriculture  and  in  manu- 

an  export  bounty  in  order  to  keep  up  prices.    Holding  factures  and  commerce,  as  the  physiocrats  assume,  the 

that  the  incomes  received  by  the  productive  and  sterile  "  net  product "  would  be  made  up  of  wealth  created  by 

classes  were  just  sufficient  for  their  support,  the  phys-  the  commercial  and  manufacturing  classes  as  well  as 

iocrats  believed  that  any  tax  levied  upon  the  members  by  the  agricultural  class.    The  theory  of  the  imp&t 

of  either  of  these  classes  must  be  shifted  until  it  finally  unique  or  single  tax  rested  upon  the  assumption  that 

fell  upon  the  net  product  belonging  to  the  proprietors,  all  incomes,  except  those  of  the  proprietors,  were  at 

In  the  interest  of  economy  of  administration,  there-  the  existence  minimum.    Since  this  is  not  true,  it  is 

fore,  they  urged  that  a  single  tax  be  levied  upon  rent,  also  not  true  that  all  taxes  levied  upon  the  other  classes 

This  was  their  celebrated  impdt  unique.   The  proposal  will  ultimately  be  paid  by  the  proprietors, 
was  somewhat  similar  to  the  more  recent  demands  of       Hiaos,  The  PhysiocnUa  (London,  1897) ;   Onckcn,  (Euvret 

Henry  George  for  a  single  tax.     The  physiocrats  f «»««»«»ffi^  «rf  Mt/o«opA*«w««  d«  Fr.  Qi*^ 

iTx  i.  X     4.  A    1      J   J  '2.  K'/j""^*"*-"  Idem  in  Handicdrterbuch  d.  SkuUttPUsentcha/len,  8.  v.  Quetnay; 

sought  to  protect  the  landed  propnetors,  while  Oeorge  Habbach,  D.  allg.  philotophinchen  Grundlagen  d.  von  F.  Que»nay 

wished  to  expropriate  them.  u.  A,  Smiik  begrUndeten  politiscKen  Oekonomie  (Leipgig,  1890). 

The  School. — Most  of  the  ideas  of  the  phy^ocratic  p.  |n.,Tx 

school  are  found  in  earlier  writings.    The  expression  r  rank  u  uara. 

laissez  faire  is  said  to  have  been  used  by  a  French 

merchant,  Legendre,  in  answering  a  question  ad-        Phy8iologU8»  an  early  Christian  work  of  a  popular 

dressed  by  Colbert  to  a  gathering  of  merchants  con-  theological  type,  describing  animals  real  or  fabulous 

ceming  the  needs  of  industry.    T^e  idea  is  developed  and  giving  each  an  allegoncal  interpretation.    Thus 

in  the  writings  of  Bois-Guillebert  (1712)  and  the  policy  the  story  is  told  of  the  lion  whose  cubs  are  bom  dead 

was  advocated  by  the  Marquis  d'Argenson  in  1735.  and  receive  life  when  the  old  lion  breathes  upon  them, 

Goumay,  a  contemporary  of  Quesnay,  seems  to  have  and  of  the  phoenix  which  bums  itself  to  death  and 

originated  the  extended  expression  laissez  faire  et  riseson  the  third  day  from  the  ashes;  both  are  taken 

laissez  passer.    This  formula  called  for  freedom  of  as  t3rpe8  of  Christ.    The  unicorn  also  which  only  per- 

intemal  commerce  and  manufacture.    Some  critics  mits  itself  to  be  captured  in  the  lap  of  a  pure  virgin 

hold  that  Goumay  is  equally  entitled  with  Ouesnay  is  a  type  of  the  Incarnation;  the  pelican  that  sheds 

to  be  called  the  founder  of  the  physiocratic  school  q^  its  own  blood  in  order  to  sprinkle  therewith  its  dead 

account  of  the  currency  which  he  gave  to  the  doctrine  young,  so  that  they  may  live  again,  is  a  type  of  the 

of  freedom  of  trade.    Other  sources  are  Hume's  criti-  salvation  of  mankind  by  the  death  of  Christ  on  the 

cism  of  the  balance  of  trade  theory,  and  Cantillon,  Cross.    Some  allegories  set  forth  the  deceptive  entice- 

"Essai  sur  la  Nature  du  Commerce  en  G6n6ral",  in  ments  of  the  Devil  and  his  defeat  by  Christ;  others 


PIACBNZA 


69 


PIACENZA 


present  qualities  as  examples  to  be  imitated  or  avoided, 
llie  book,  originally  written  in  Greek  at  Alexandria, 
perhaps  for  purposes  of  instruction,  appefu^  prob- 
ably in  the  second  century,  though  some  place  its  date 
at  the  end  of  the  third  or  in  the  fourth  century.  In 
later  centuries  it  was  ascribed  to  various  celebrated 
Fathers,  especially  St.  Epiphanius,  St.  Basil,  and  St. 
Peter  or  Alexandria.  Origen,  however,  had  cited  it 
under  the  title  *'  Physiologus",  while  Clement  of  Alex- 
andria and  perhaps  even  Justin  Martyr  seem  to  have 
known  it.  The  assertion  that  the '  method  of  the 
'* Physiologus"  presupposes  the  allegorical  exegesis 
developed  by  Origen  is  not  correct;  the  so-called 
"Letter  of  Barnabas"  offers,  before  Origen,  a  suffi- 
cient model,  not  only  for  the  general  character  of  the 
"Physiologus"  but  also  for  many  of  its  details.  It 
can  hardly  be  asserted  that  the  later  recensions,  in 
which  the  Greek  text  has  been  preserved,  present  even 
in  the  best  and  oldest  manuscripts  a  perfectly  reUable 
transcription  of  the  original,  especially  as  this  was  an 
anonymous  and  popular  treatise.  "Physiologus"  is 
not  the  original  title;  it  was  given  to  the  book  because 
the  author  introduces  his  stories  from  natural  history 
with  the  phrase:  "the  physiologus  says",  that  is,  the 
naturalist  says,  the  natural  philosophers,  the  author- 
ities for  natural  history  say.  About  400  the  "Physi- 
ologus" was  translatea  into  Latin;  in  the  fifth  cen- 
tury into  ^tUopic  [edited  by  Hommel  with  a  German 
translation  (Leipzig,  1877),  revised  German  transla- 
tion in  "Komanische  Forschungen",  V,  13-36];  into 
Armenian  [edited  by  Pitra  in  "Spicilegium  Soles- 
mense".  III,  374-90;  French  translation  by  Cahier 
in  "  Nouveaux  Melanges  d'arch^ologie,  d'histoire  et  de 
litt^rature"  (Paris,  1874)1;  into  Syrian  [edited  by 
Tychsen,  "Physiologus  Syrus"  (Rostock,  1795),  a 
later  Syrian  and  an  Arabic  version  edited  by  Land  in 
"AnecdotaSyriaca",  IV  (Leyden,  1875)].  Numerous 
Quotations  and  references  to  the  "Physiologus"  in 
tne  Greek  and  the  Latin  Fathers  show  that  it  was  one 
of  the  most  generally  known  works  of  Christian  antiq- 
uity. Various  translations  and  revisions  were  cur- 
rent in  the  Middle  Ages.  The  earliest  translation  into 
Latin  was  followed  by  various  recensions,  among 
them  the  "Dicta  Johannis  Chrysostomi  de  naturis 
bestiarum",  edited  by  Heider  in  "Archiv  ftir  Kunde 
osterreichischer  Geschichtsquellen"  (II,  550  sqq., 
1850).  A  metrical  Latin  "Physiologus"  was  written 
in  the  eleventh  century  by  a  certain  Theobaldus,  and 
printed  by  Morris  in  "An  Old  English  Miscellany" 
(1872),  201  sqq.;  it  also  appears  among  the  works  of 
Hildebertus  Cenomanensis  in  P.  L.,  CLaXI,  1217-24. 
To  these  should  be  added  the  literature  of  the  "Bes- 
tiaries "  (q.  v.),  in  which  the  material  of  "Physiologus " 
was  used;  the  "Tractatus  de  bestiis  et  alius  rebus", 
attributed  to  Hugo  of  St.  Victor;  and  the  "Speculum 
naturale"  of  Vincent  of  Beauvais. 

Translations  and  adaptations  from  the  Latin  intro- 
duced the  "Physiologus  into  almost  all  the  languages 
of  Western  Europe.  An  eleventh-century  German 
translation  was  printed  by  Mullenhoff  and  Scherer  in 
"Denkm&ler  deutscher  Poesie  und  Prosa"  (No. 
LXXXI);  a  later  translation  (twelfth  century)  has 
been  edited  by  Lauchert  in  "Geschichte  des  Physi- 
ologus" (pp.  280-99);  and  a  rhymed  version  appears 
in  Karaian,  "Deutsche  Sprachdenkmale  des  XII. 
Jahrhunderts"  (pp.  73-106),  both  based  on  the  Latin 
text  known  as  * '  Dicta  Chrysostomi ' ' .  Fragments  of  a 
ninth-century  Anglo-Saxon  "Physiologus  ,  metrical 
in  form,  still  exist;  they  are  printed  by  Thorpe  in 
"Codex  Exoniensis"  (pp.  355-67),  and  by  Grein  in 
"BibHothek  der  angelsachischen  Poesie"  (I,  233-8). 
About  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century  there  ap- 
peared an  English  metrical  "Bestiary",  an  adaptation 
of  the  Latin  "  Physiologus  Theobaldi " ;  this  has  been 
edited  by  Wright  and  Halliwell  in  "Reliquiae  anti- 
quffi"  (I,  20^27),  also  by  Morris  in  "An  Old  English 
Miscellany"  (1-25).    Icelandic  literature  includes  a 


"Physiologus"  belonging  to  the  early  part  of  the 
thirteenth  century,  edited  by  Dahlerup  (Copenhagen, 
1889).  In  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  century  there 
appeared  the  "Bestiaires"  of  Phihppe  de  Thaim,  a 
metrical  Old-French  version,  edited  by  Thomaq 
Wright  in  "Popular  Treatises  on  Science  Written 
during  the  Middle  Ages"  (74-131),  and  by  Walberg 
(Lund  and  Paris,  1900);  that  by  uuillaume,  clerk  of 
Normandy,  called  "Bestiaire  divin",  and  edited  by 
Cahier  in  his  "Melanges  d'arch^logie"  (II-IV),  also 
edited  by  Hippeau  (Caen,  1852),  and  by  Reinsch 
(Leipzig,  1890);  the  "Bestiaire"  of  Gervaise,  edited 
by  PaulMeyer  in  "Romania"  (I,  420-42);  the  "Bes- 
tiaire" in  prose  of  Pierre  le  Picard,  edited  by  Cahier 
in  "Melanges"  (II-IV).  A  singular  adaptation  is 
found  in  the  old  Waldensian  literature,  ana  has  been 
edited  by  Alfons  Mayer  in  "Romanische  Forschun- 
gen" (V,  392  sqqO-  As  to  the  Italian  bestiaries,  a 
Tosco-Venetian  **JBestiarius"  has  been  edited  (Gold- 
staub  and  Wendriner,  "£in  tosco-venezianischer  Bes- 
tiarius",  Halle,  1892).  Extracts  from  the  "Physiol- 
ogus" in  Provencal  have  been  edited  by  Bartsch, 
"ProvenzalischesLesebuch"  (162-66).  The  "Physi- 
ologus" survived  in  the  Uteratures  of  Eastern  Europe 
in  books  on  animals  written  in  Middle  Greek,  among 
the  Slavs  to  whom  it  came  from  the  Byzantines,  and 
in  a  Roumanian  translation  from  a  Slavic  original 
(edited  by  Gaster  with  an  Italian  translation  in 
"  Archivio  glottologico  italiano",  X,  273-304).  Medi- 
eval poetical  literature  is  full  of  allusions  to  the 
"Physiologus",  and  it  also  exerted  great  influence  on 
the  symbolism  of  medieval  ecclesiastical  art;  symbols 
like  those  of  the  phcenix  and  the  pelican  are  still 
well-known  and  popular. 

Lauchert,  Geteh.  a.  PAysioIogtMCStraabur^,  1880),  supplemented 
in  Romaniseht  Forschungen,  V,  3-12,  and  in  ZeUachnft  fOr  kath' 
olische  Theoloffie,  XXXIII  (1909).  177-79;  Kkppleb.  D.  miUel^ 
alterliehe  Phyaiologtu  in  Arehiv  fUr  chri^  Kunst,  IX  (1891),  n.  2-4, 
pp.  14-10.  23-4.  32-6;  Michael,  Geseh.  d.  detOsehen  Volkes,  III 


i 


»p. 

Freiburg,  1903).  413-17  ;  Pitra  in  Spicilegium  Soleamenttt 
11  (Paris,  1855),  338-73;  Karnejev.  D.  Phynologusd.  Moskauer 
Rynodalhibliothek  in  BytantiniscKe  ZeUachrift,  III  (1894),  26-63; 
Peters,  D.  griechische  Physiologu*  u.  »eine  orxnUaliaehen  Uther^ 
teitungen  (Berlin,  1898);  the  Latin  text  has  been  edited  by 
Cahier  and  Martin,  Milangea  d'arcfUologie,  d'hiat.  et  de  litt.^ 
II-IV  (Paris,  1851-66);  Goldbtaetb,  D.  Physiclogua  u.  seine 
Weiierbildung  heaondert  in  d.  lateinischen  u.  byzantini»ehen  Lit, 
in  Philologua,  suppIemenUry  vol.  VIII  (1901).  337-404;  Krum- 
bacher,  Gesch.  d,  byzantintschen  Lit.  (2nd  ed.,  Munich,  1897), 
874-77;   Strztgowski,  D.  Bilderkrei*  d.  griechiachen  Physiologua 


in  Byxantiniacke*  Archiv,  II  (Leipzig,  1899);  Leitschuh,  Geach, 
d.  karolingiachen  Malerei  (Berlin,  1894),  405  aq.  ;  Schuid, 
Christ.  Symbole  aiu  alter  u.  neuer  Zeit  (2nd  ed.,  Freiberg,  1909); 
Drbves,  D.  Jagd  d.  Einhoma  in  Stimmen  aua  Marta-Laach, 
XLIII  (1892),  60-76. 

Fbiedrich  Lauchert. 

Piac6ZUBa»  Diocese  of  (Placentinensis),  in  Emi- 
ha,  central  Italy.  The  city  is  situated  on  the  right  of 
the  Po,  near  its  junction  with  the  Trebbia.  in  an  im- 
portant strategic  position.  Agriculture  is  the  chief  in- 
dustry. The  cathedral  is  of  the  ninth  century;  it  was 
remodelled  by  Santa  da  Sambuceto  and  others  (1122- 
1223)  in  beautiful  Lomb^d  style.  The  campanile, 
over  216  feet  high,  is  surmounted  by  an  angel,  in  brass*, 
the  cupola  is  a  more  recent  part  of  the  edifice;  there 
are  frescoes  by  Guercino  and  by  Morazzone,  Ludovico 
Caracci,  Procaccino,  and  others.  Its  Cappella  del 
Crocifisso  has  an  arch  with  statues  of  Nero  and  of 
Vespasian;  the  Cappella  di  S.  Corrado  has  an  admi- 
rable Madonna  by  Zitto  di  Tagliasacchi,  and  contained 
once  a  picture  of  St.  Ck>nrad  by  Lanfranco,  but  it  was 
taken  to  France.  Among  the  churches  is  S.  Antonio 
(fourth  century),  many  times  restored j  until  877  it 
was  the  cathedral;  in  1183  the  prelimmaries  of  the 
Peace  of  (Constance  were  concluded  in  this  church; 
here  also  are  paintings  by  Procaccino,  Mulinaretto, 
Novoloni  etc.;  the  sacristy  contains  a  triptych  with 
the  gesta  of  S.  Antonio.  In  the  pastor's  residence  of  S. 
Andrea  there  is  an  ancient  mosaic.  S.  Bartolommeo, 
formerly  a  church  of  the  Jesuits,  contains  besides  its 
beautiful  paintings  two  crucifixes,  one  very  ancient. 


beautiful  oolunuia,  but  tun  h^rn  dnfipircd  by  inmo- 
0uou«  reetonUiofw;  it  omtaiiut  a  Pirts  by  Brtaardo 
Caat«Ui,  >  kfadooiu  by  Fraona,  and  the  tomb  cf  the 

UkrvMtni  io  Canali  (1320),  fomrthr  ei  thr.  Tannlan. 
and  later  of  the  Dofninkma, 
by  iti!  reetorUiona;  it  contains  atatuea  ot  Pfoa 
beot^ri  XI.UM-UMiibof  the  Seoiti  family  and  of  the 
physrun  Guli^liiwi  da  .Saliceto.  H.  Sarino  (903)  waa 
rH(t/iml  srvpraJ  timra  and  entirely  tranrfonned  in  the 
eigtitM'nUi  •ralur^;  ronoeriy  thne  na  a  monastery 
anaexoi  to  il ;  in  lU  mxnt  icatoratioas,  paintitig*  of 
the  fourteenth  century  were  diacorered,  aod  also  pil- 
Un  and  other  Meulptures  of  the  original  oonatnietiotL 
.  ■•  wefl  ••  nuaairfl,  >  crucifix  earved  io  wood,  aod 
Other  objerta.  Oulnde  the  city  the  DKNUWtery  ot  the 
PiiMJiii  III  BenedirtinFs,  S.  Sisto,  foimded  in  874  by 
Queen  AwlberKa.  i>  a  Tcritable  nitctuaij  of  art;  the 
lammw  Sutine  Ma- 
donna by  Kaphad, 
was  fiisi   here,  but 


Hanta  Maria  in 
Canipagna  containa 
a  very  ancient  statue 
in  njaible  of  Our 
Lady,  four  atatuea 
in  wood  by  Hermann 

painlinznby  Procae- 
eino.  Pordenone, 
G  uerdno,  and  others. 

The  Palazzo  Du- 
eale,  a  work  irf  Vi- 
icniila  (\S.Vi>.  has 
Minn- 1 SOO Nerved  as  a 
foarru-kfl.  The  Pa- 
lazzo AnKuiMHola  da 
flrazzano  contains 
fine  painting.  The 
Palazzo  Braodini  haa 
a  gallery  otyaintiit^ 
by  Corregpo,  Rem,  Guercino,  Andres  del  Sarto,  and 
MuriUo.  The  Palazzo  Lsndicontainspaintinssby  Van 
I>yek.  ThePalazzoPalaBtreliihasalibraryoTworkson 
tM  hiiitory  of  Fiacenia.  Cardinal  Alberoni  eetablinhed 
in  this  town  a  famous  college.  Ita  church  haspaintings 
byPaoloVeronese,GuidoReni,au'lother8.  llienazsa 
de  Cavalli  ha«  e<|ueRtrian  statues  of  Aleaeandro  and 
of  Kanuceio  I,  Kameee,  by  Mocchi  da  Montevarchi. 

Plncentia,  with  Cremona,  was  founded  in  218  d.  c, 
to  hold  in  cheek  the  Gaulu  after  their  defeat  near 
Claatidium,  The  Via  Emilia  terminated  there. 
Keipio,  defeated  near  the  Trebbio,  retreated  to  this 
Uiwu.  In  20ti  it  was  besieged  in  vain  by  Ilaadrubal 
and  burned  by  the  GauU  in  200.  There  Emperor 
(nhu  defeated  Vitelliiu  (69)  and  then  Aurelian  was 
di^eated  by  the  Alamanni  (271);  there  also  Emperor 
Orestea  was  decapitated  (467).  The  Lombards  took 
poaaesHion  of  it,  at  the  beginning  (rf  their  invasion,  and 
thereafter  it  remained  in  their  power.  From  the  ninth 
century  the  temporal  power  was  in  the  hands  of  the 
liiHhops,  until  the  twelfth  century,  when  the  town  be- 
came a  commune,  governed  by  consuls,  and  later 
(IISS),  by  a  podeeUi.  In  the  wars  between  the  Lom- 
bard cities  and  with  the  emperors,  I^aeenaa  was  an 
ally  of  Milan,  on  account  of  its  hatred  of  Cremona  and 
uf  Pavia;  wherefore  it  was  Guelph  and  a  party  to  both 
of  the  Lombard  leazuee.  Twice,  Uberto  Palai-icino 
made  himaelf  lord  of  the  city  (1254  and  1261),  but  the 
fr«e  commune  waitre-cstabbshed.  Froml290  to  1313, 
Alberto  Scotti  was  lord  of  Piacenxa ;  his  rule  had  many 
hiterruptions,  as  in  1308,  by  Guido  dells  Torre  of 
Milan,  in  1312,  by  Henry  VII.    The  latter'i  vicar, 


eipelM  by  the  ponlifica] 

b^ate  Beilraado  del  Pooetlo  (1322-35).  In  1338 
riaoenaa  came  again  xut&t  Ibe  niie  of  the  dukea  of 
Milan;  between  1404  and  1418  tbey  were  eompdlcd  to 
retake  the  city  on  Tarious  oecMkna.  In  1447  there 
«■•  a  new  atlcfiqit  to  ii  mlalirwli  iiuJepeiKlait  gov* 
enunent.  The  fortnnes  of  war  gave  Fiaeenxa  to  the 
H(dy  Ser  in  1512;  in  1545  it  was  onited  to-tfae  new 
Duchy  of  Paraw.  After  tlw  aiziamiiialiiai  of  Pier 
Luigi  Fanwae,  which  oceurred  at  naemza  (1547),  the 
city  was  occupied  by  the  troops  cf  the  imperial  gov- 
emtsr  of  Milan  and  was  not  mtond  to  the  I>och;  of 
Parma  for  ten  yemn.  In  1746  the  Aostrians  obtained 
a  great  vietoty  thoe  over  the  French  and  Spai&arda, 
and  in  1799  the  Ruwans  and  Austmu  defeated  the 
Ftenefa.  SmpiAeoii  made  Lebrun  Duke  of  nacaua. 
St.  Antonius,  who  is  sud  to  have  belonged  to  the 
Theban  Legion,  suffoed  mar^rdam  at  Piaceiua,  in  the 
■eeood  or  third  centuiy.  The  first  known  bialxqi  is 
St.  Victor,  preeent  at 
the  Council  of  Sar- 
diea  (343);  St.  Sa- 
vinus,  present  at 
Aquileia  (3S1),  waa 
probably  the  Savinus 
to  iriiom  St.  Am- 
brose wrote  sevnal 
lettcis.  Other  biah- 
(^M  were  St.  Mau- 
rus,  St.  Flavianua, 
St.Haiorianus(451). 
Whether  the  emperor 
of  this  name  intended 
to  become  Kshopof 


tain;  be  wan  not  its 
bishop,  having  been 
kiUed  soon  after  his 
abdication.  Joannes 
was  acontempwary 
of  St.  Gn^ory  the 
Great;  Thomae  (737) 

with  King  Luit- 
prand;Podo{d.S39) 
was  honoured  with  a  metiical  cfntanh;  Guido  (904),  a 
man  of  arms  rather  than  of  the  Church;  Boso  (940) 
freed  himself  from  thejuiiadictionof  the  metropolitan 
See  of  Ravenna  (re-established  by  Gregoiy  V),  aod  be- 
came the  antipopeJohnXVl;t^etn)(l03I)wasexikdto 
Germany  by  Conrad  n;Dioniaio  waad^oeedin  1076 
by  Gregory  VII;  St.  BoaiM>  (1088),  who  bad  beok 
Bishop  of  Sutri  and  agreataupporto-of  GregoirVII, 
waa  killed  in  1089;  during  the  incumboicy  of  Aldo 
(1096),  Emilia  waa  temporarily  taken  from  the  juris- 
diction ot  Ravenna;  Anluino  (1118)  founded  the  new 
cathedral;  Ugo  (1155),  a  nephew  of  Anacletua  II,  was 
driven  from  his  diocese  by  the  schismatics;  under  Ai- 
diuone  (1102)  and  Grumerio  (1199)  grave  oonten- 
tiona  he^ua  between  the  clerey  and  the  consuls,  and 
Grumerio  was  driven  from  the  diocese;  Ortaodo  da 
Cremona,  O.P.,  was  mortally  wounded  by  a  Catha- 
riat  while  preaching  (1233);  P.  Alberto  Pandom 
(1243),  an  AuKustinian;  Pietro  FUargo  (1386)  became 
Pope  Alewicter  V;  Pietro  Maineri  (1388)  wax  for- 
merly the  phyncian  of  Galeaiio  II;  Braoda  Castig- 
Uone  (1404)  was  a  professor  of  law  at  Pavio,  and  took 

S-t  in  the  conciliabulum  of  Pisa  aod  in  the  Council  of 
oatance,  and  became  a  cardinal;  Alessio  da  Sin^no 
(1412)  waa  a  famoua  preacher;  Fabriiio  Marhani 
(1476)  was  veiT  lealoua  for  the  reform  of  morals  in  the 
clergy  and  ia  the  people;  Cardinal  Scaramuaia  Trivul- 
«io  (1519);  Ctttalano  Trivulzio  (1525);  Cardinal  Gio- 
vanni Bernardino  Scotti  (1559)  waa  a  very  learned 
Tbeatine;  the  Bl,  Paolo  Burali  (1570),  a  Theatine,  be- 
came a  cardinal;  Cardinal  ¥lIippo  Se«a  (1578);  Alea- 
eandro Sc^pi  (1627)  was  obliged  to  leave  the  duchf 


PIANCIANI 


71 


PIANO 


for  having  excommunicated  the  duke,  Odoardo; 
Alessandrp  Pisani's  election  (1766)  was  on6  of  the 
causes  of  dissension  with  the  Holy  See;  Stefano  Fallot 
de  Beaumont  (1807)  was  present  at  the  national 
council  of  Paris  (1810).  Bl.  Ck>rrado  (d.  at  Noto  in 
1351)  was  from  Piacenza.  The  councils  of  Piacenza 
were  those  of  1076  (concerning  the  schismatics  against 
Gregory  VII),  1090  (Urban  II  acainst  the  concubi- 
nage of  the  clergy,  and  in  favour  of  the  crusade),  1132 
(Innocent  II  against  Answletus  II).  There  were  ten 
synods  under  Bishop  Marliani  (147^1508). 

In  1582  the  dioceSe  was  ihade  a  suffragan  of  Bo- 
logna; it  is  now  immediately  dependent  upon  the 
Holy  See..  It  has  350  parishes,  with  310,000  inhabi- 
tants*  1 1  religious  houses  for  men,  and  29  for  women,  5 
educational  establishments  for  male  students,  and  18 
for  girls,  1  dailv  paper,  and  1  monthly  periodical.  The 
diocese  has  a  house  of  missionaries  for  emigrants  es- 
tablished by  the  late  bishop,  Mgr  Scalabrini. 

Cappelletti,  L€  Chiese  d* Italia,  XV;  Campi,  Hisloriaecelenaa- 
tica  di  Piacenza;  PoaaiAU,  Memorie  storiche  di  Fiaeenta  (12  vols., 
1757-66);  Giarblu,  StoHa  d%  Piacenza  (2  vols.,  1880);  Mura- 
TORi,  Rerum  iuUicarum  Ser.,  XX;  Malchiooi  (and  others),  La 
r^fia  hazHica  di  S.  Savino  in  Piacenza  (Piacensa,  1903).    See  also 

U.  Benigni. 

University  op  Piacenza. — Piacenza  was  the  first 
Italian  city  to  apply  for  a  Bull  erecting  its  town- 
schools  .  into  a  studium  generate,  which  Bull  was 
granted  b>r  Innocent  IV  in  1248,  and  conferred  all  the 
usual  privileges  of  other  studia  genercdia;  by  it  the 
power  of  giving  degrees  was  vested  in  the  Bishop  of 
Piacenza.  But  no  practical  work  was  done  here  until 
1398,  when  Gian  (jialeazzo  Visconti,  Duke  of  Mdlan 
and  Pavia,  refounded  the  university  in  his  capacity 
of  Vicar  of  the  Empire.  The  University  of  Pavia  was 
«  suppressed,  as  he  did  not  wish  to  have  a  university  in 
eitlier  of  his  capitals.  Gian  Galeazzo  liberally  en- 
dowed Piacenza,  organizing  a  university  of  jurists  as 
well  as  a  university  of  arts  and  medicine,  each  with  an 
independent  rector.  Between  1398  and  1402  seventy- 
two  salaried  professors  are  recorded  as  having  lectured, 
including  not  only  the  usual  professors  of  theology, 
law,  medicine,  philosophy,  and  grammar,  but  also  the 
new  chairs  of  astrology,  rnetoric,  Dante,  and  Seneca. 
But  this  endeavour  to  establish  a  large  university  in  a 
small  town  which  had  no  natural  influx  of  students 
was  doomed  to  failure,  and  little  or  no  work  was  done 
after  Gian  Galeazzo's  death  in  1402.  In  1412  Pavia 
had  its  university  restored,  and  the  subjects  of  the 
duchy  were  forbidden  to  study  elsewhere.  Piacenza 
then  obtained  an  unenviable  notoriety  as  a  market  for 
cheap  degrees.  This  traffic  was  still  flourishing  in 
1471,  though  no  lectures  had  been  given  for  sixty 
years.  A  college  of  law  and  a  college  of  arts  and 
medicine,  however,  maintained  a  shadowy  existence 
for  many  years  later.  Among  the  famous  teachers  at 
Piacenza  may  be  named  the  jurist  Placentinus, 
founder  of  the  law-school  at  Montpellier  (d.  there, 
1192);  and  Baldus  (b.  1327),  the  most  famous  jurist 
ofhis  day  (Muratori,  "Rer.  It.  SS.",  XX,  939). 

Campi,  Hiet.  Univer».  delle  ease  ecd.  come  eeculari  di  Piacenza,  II 
(Piaoenxa.  1651),  187  sq.;  Rashdall,  Univ.  of  Bwrope  in  the  Mid- 
dU  Agee,  II.  pt.  I  (Oxford.  1895).  35. 

C.  F.  Wemtbs  Brown. 

Pianciani,  Giambattista,  scientist,  b.  at  Spoleto, 
27  Oct..  1784;  d.  at  Rome,  23  March,  1862.  He  en- 
tered the  Society  of  Jesus  on  2  June,  1805;  after 
having  received  the  ordinary  Jesuit  training  he  was 
sent  to  various  cities  in  the  Papal  States  to  teach  math- 
ematics and  physics  and  finally  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor in  the  Roman  College,  where  he  lectured  and 
wrote  on  scientific  subjects  for  twenty-four  years.  He 
was  an  active  member  of  the  Accademia  d' Arcadia,  his 
academical  pseudonjrm  being  "Polite  Megaride",  of 
the  Accademia  de*  Lincei,  and  of  other  scientific  soci- 
eties. His  scientific  labours  were  abruptly  brought  to 
an  end  by  the  Revolution  of  1848;  he  succeeded,  how- 


ever, in  making  his  escape  from  Rome  and  having 
come  to  America  he  taught  dogmatic  theology  during 
the  scholastic  year  184^50  at  the  Jesuit  theolo^ate 
then  connected  with  Georgetown  College,  Washmg- 
ton,  D.  C.  When  peace  was  restored  in  Rome  he  re- 
turned thither  and  from  1851  till  his  death  was  en- 
gaged chiefly-in  administrative  duties  and  in  teaching 
phUosophy  both  in  the  Roman  College  and  in  the 
Collegio  Filosofico  of  the  Universitv  of  Rome,  of  which 
latter  college  he  was  president  during  the  last  iwo 
years  of  his  life.  Besides  numerous  articles  on  scien- 
tific subjects,  especially  on  electricity  and  magnetism, 
and  on  philosophico-religious  subjects,  he  publishea 
the  following  works:  "Istituzioni  fisico-cnemiche'' 
(4  vols.,  Rome.  1833-4);  "Elementi  di  fisico-chi- 
mica"  (2  vols.,  Naples,  1840-41);  '^nl^istoriam  crea- 
tionismosaicamcommentarius''  (Naples,  1851),  which 
he  wrote  whilst  at  Georgetown  and  of  which  there  is 
a  German  translation  by  Schdttl  (Ratisbon,  1853); 
'^Saggi  filoeofici"  (Rome,  1855);  ''Nuovi  saggi  filo- 
soficr'  (Rome,  1856);  "Cosmogonia  naturale  com- 
parata  col  Geneei'^  (Rome,  1862). 

SoiOfSBVOGCL,  BibL  delaC.de  /.,  VI  (Bnisaeb.  1895). 

Edward  C.  Phillips. 

Pian6  Carpine,  Giovanni  da,  b.  at  Pian  di  Carpine 
(now  called  della  Magione),  near  Perugia,  Umbria, 
1182;  d.  probably  in  1252.  Having  entered  the  Fran- 
ciscan Order  he  was  a  companion  of  Csesar  of  Spires, 
the  leader  of  the  second  mission  of  the  Franciscans  to 
Germany  in  122 1 .  He  took  a  leading  part  in  f  oimding 
various  new  establishments  of  the  order,  and  was  sev- 
eral times  provincial  in  Saxonjr  and  once  in  Spain. 
In  1245  Innocent  IV^  in  comphance  with  the  resolu- 
tions passed  at  the  nrst  council  of  Lyons,  entrusted 
Carpine  with  an  embassy  to  the  princes  and  people  of 
Mongolia  or  Tatary  with  a  view  to  checking  the  mva- 
sions  of  these  formidable  hordes  and  eventually  effects 
ing  their  conversion.  Carpine  set  out  early  in  1246: 
among  his  companions  were  Brothers  Stephen  of 
Bohemia  and  Benedict  of  Poland,  who  were  to  act  as 
interpreters.  They  were  hospitably  entertained  bv 
Duke  Vasilico  in  Russia,  where  they  read  the  pope  a 
letters  to  the  assembled  schismatic  bishops,  leaving 
them  favourably  disposed  towards  reunion.  They 
reached  Kanieff ,  a  town  on  the  Tatar  frontier,  early  in 
Februaiy.^  The  Tatar  officials  referred  them  to 
Corenza,  commander  of  the  advance  guards,  who  in 
his  turn  directed  them  to  Batu.  Khan  of  Kipcnak  etc., 
then  encamped  on  the  banks  ot  the  Volga.  Batu  com- 
missioned two  soldiers  to  escort  the  papal  envoys  to 
Kar&korumj  the  residence  of  the  Great  Khan.  They 
reached  their  destination  in  the  middle  of  July  after  a 
journey  of  indescribable  hardships.  The  death  of  the 
Great  Khan  Okkodai  made  it  necessary  to  defer  nego- 
tiations till  the  end  of  August  when  Kuyuk,  his  suc- 
cessor, ascended  the  throne.  After  much  delay  Ku3ruk 
finally  demanded  a  written  statement  of  the  pope's 
propositions.  His  letter  in  reply  is  still  preserved. 
Its  tone  is  dignified  and  not  unfnendly,  but  indepen- 
dent and  arrogant.  In  it  he  says  in  substance : ''  If  you 
desire  peace,  come  before  me  I  We  see  no  reason  why 
we  should  embrace  the  Christian  religion.  We  have 
chastised  the  Christian  nations  because  th&/  disob^ed 
the  commandments  of  God  and  Jenghiz  Khan.  The 
power  of  God  is  manifestly  with  us."  The  superscrip- 
tion reads:  "Kuyuk,  by  the  power  of  God,  Khan  and 
Emperor  of  all  men — ^tothe  Great  Pope!"    Carpine 

Procured  a  translation  of  the  letter  in  Arabic  and  Latin, 
►n  their  homewsurd  journey  the  envoys  halted  at  the 
former  stations,  arriving  at  Kieff  (Russia)  in  June,  1247. 
They  were  enthusiasticallv  received  everywhere,  espe- 
cially by  the  Dukes  Visilico  and  Daniel,  his  brother. 
Carpine's  proposals  for  reunion  had  been  accepted  in 
the  meantime,  and  special  envoys  wel^  to  accompany 
him  to  the  papal  Court.  From  a  political  and  religious 
aspect  the  mission  to  Tatary  proved  successful  only 


PIATTO 


72 


PIAZZI 


In  a  remote  aense^  but  the  ambasBadora  brought  with 
them  invaluable  mf ormation  rerauxling  the  countries 
and  peoples  of  the  Far  East.  Carpine's  written  ac- 
count, the  first  of  its  kind  and  remarkable  for  its 
accuracy,  was  exhaustively  drawn  upon  by  such 
writers  as  Cantii  and  Hue  (''Travels  in  Tataiv, 
Thibet  and  China",  2  vols.,  1852).  It  has  been  pub- 
lished by  d'Azevac:  "Jean  de  Plan  de  Carpin.  Rela- 
tion des  Mongols  ou  Tartares"  in  "Recueil  ae  voy- 
ages'', IV  (Paris,  1839),  and  later  by  Kulb:  "Ge- 
schichte  der  Missionsreisen  nach  der  Mongolei",  I 
(Ratisbon,  1860),  1-129.  Salimbene,  who  met  Car- 
pine  in  France,  found  him  "a  pleasant  man^  of  lively 
wit,  eloquent,  well-instructed,  and  skilful  in  many 
things''.  Innocent  IV  bestowed  upon  him  every 
mark  of  esteem  and  affection.  Having  been  sent  as 
papal  legate  to  St.  Louis,  King  of  fiance,  Carpine  was 
shortly  afterwards  named  Archbishop  of  Antivari  in 
Dalmatia. 

Chronica  Fr.  Jordani  dd  Jano  in  Analerla  Franeiscana  (Qua- 
raeehi,  1885—),  I.  8-18;  II.  71;  III.  266;  Waodimo.  SerxpUtre* 
(Rome,  1906),  8.  v.;  Sbabalca,  Suvplemtntum  (Rome,  1806), 
a.  v.;  DA  CiVBUA,  Storia  univeraaU  dme  miMtione  france»cane,  I 
(Rome,  1857).  324. aqq.;  IV  (Rome,  1860).  186;  Eubeu  Gesch. 
der  oberdeutsehen  Minoritenprocinx  (WQnburg.  1886).  4.  6.  9.  20, 
206;  Idbm,  Die  Bisehdfe  atu  dem  Minoritenorden  in  tUm,  Quarial- 
$dirifi,  IV,  207,  n.  9;  Voiot  in  Abhandlunoen  der  philolog.-hislor. 
Klaeee  der  kUnigl.  9dch».  GeeelUch.  d,  Wiueneeh.,  V  (Leipiic.  1870), 
465  aqq.:  Hcc.  Chrietianitv  in  China,  Tatary  and  Thibet,  1, 
(tr.,  New  York,  1897),  t;  da  MAUaNAKO,  The  L{feofSt.  Franeia  of 
Aeaiei  and  a  Skeleh  of  the  Franeieoan  Order  (tr..  New  York,  1887). 
444  aqq.;  Viatob  in  Bivdee  franeieeainea,  V  (1901).  505  aqq..  600 
■gq.;  Qolubovich,  BiUioUoa  bio-bib,  dwa  Terra  Santa,  I 
(Quaraeehi,  1906),  190  aqq.  Schlaobb,  MonooUn/akrten  der 
Frantiekaner  in  Aua  alien  Zonen  {Bilder  au»  den  Mieeionen  der 
Franxiakaner  in  Verg.  «.  Gegenw.),  II,  1-43. 

Thomas  Plassicakn. 

Piatto  eardinalixiO;  an  allowance  granted  by  the 
pope  to  cardinals  residmg  in  curia  or  otherwise  em- 
ployed in  the  service  of  the  Church,  to  enable  them  to 
maintain  their  dignity  with  decorum.  It  was  not 
given  to  cardinals  supported  in  Rome  by  their  sover- 
eign, nor  is  it  accepted  by  cardinals  of  noble  family. 
The  entire  allowance  was  not  always  |pranted.  If  the 
cardinsd  had  other  revenues,  he  received  enou^  to 
make  up  the  amoimt  of  the  aJlowance.  This  desinia- 
tion  piatto  was  first  used  in  the  conclave  of  1458.  Paul 
II  fixed  the  sum  at  109  gold  florins  a  month  for  cardi- 
nals whose  revenues  were  not  more  than  4000  florins. 
This  sum  was  called  **  the  poor  cardinal's  plate ".  Leo 
XI  intended  to  proAnde  otherwise  for  the  needful 
revenues.  Paul  V  raised  the  piatto  to  1500  scudi  a 
vear,  for  cardinals  whose  ecclesiastical  revenues  were 
less  than  60(X)  scudi.  Then  the  custom  was  introduced 
of  giving  60(X)  8cudi  annually  to  cardinals  without  ec- 
clesiastical revenues.  This  sum  was  reduced  in  1726 
to  4000  9cudif  as  determined  in  1464  and  1484,  the 
amoimt  allowed  to-day,  the  cardinals  renouncing 
their  ecclesiastical  benefices.  For  some  distinguished 
cardinals  the  amount  was  larger.  The  piatto  cardinali" 
zio  is  reckoned  to-dav  at  4000  Roman  <cudt  (about 
$4000) .  It  is  reduced,  according  to  the  other  revenues 
of  the  cardinal. 

MoBONi,  Ditionario,  LII,  274  aqq. 

U.  Benigni. 

Piauhy  (de  Piauht),  Diocese  of  (Piahunensis), 
suffragan  of  the  Archdiocese  of  Belem  do  Para,  in  the 
State  of  Piauhy,  north-eastern  Brazil.  The  state  is 
bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Atlantic,  west  by 
Maranhao,  south  by  Bahia,  east  by  Pemambuco  and 
Oara.  It  ti^es  its  name  from  the  river  Piauhy. 
Its  area  is  116,218  sq.  miles,  and  it  has  a  coast  line  of 
ten  miles.  Piauhy  is  one  of  the  poorest  of  the  Brazil- 
ian states.  \  It  has  a  small  trade  in  cotton  and  cattle. 
Frequent  periods  of  drought,  followed  by  famine  and 
typhus,  add  to  the  diaadvantages  of  its  unhealthful 
climate.  Except  in  mountainous  districts,  vegetation 
is  scanty;  even  the  agricultural  products — sugar- 
cane, coffee,  tobacco — barely  support  the  population. 


Therezina  is  the  capital  and  Pamahyba  the  chief  port. 
Emigration  is  makmg  heavy  drains  on  the  population, 
and  attempts  to  colonize  by  immi^tion  have  proved 
unsuccessful.  The  Diocese  of  Piauhy,  formerly  in- 
cluded in  the  Diocese  of  Sfio  Luiz  do  Maiunhao,  was,  on 
II  August,  1002,  erected  by  Leo  XIII  into  a  separate 
diocese.  Its  jurisdiction  comprises  the  Piauhy  State, 
and  its  population  (1911)  is  425,000,  with  32  parishes. 
Its  first  bishop,  Mgr  de  Aranjo  Pereira  (b.  at  Limolira. 
4  Nov.,  1853),  was  consecrated  on  9  Nov.,  1003,  ana 
the  present  bishop  Mgr  Joachim  Antonio  de  Almeida 
(b.  7  Aug.,  1868)  on  HDecember,  1905. 

J.  Moreno-Lacalle. 

Piaua  Irxnerina,  Diocese  of  (Platiensis),  in 
the  province  of  Caltanissetta,  Sicily.  The  city 
of  Piazza  Armerina  is  situated  on  a  high  hiU 
in  a  very  fertile  district.  Its  origin  is  obscure. 
Gulielmo  il  Mak>  destroved  it  in  1166  on  account 
of  a  rebellion,  and  Gulielmo  il  Buono  rebuilt  it,  to- 
gether with  the  church  of  1' Asunta,  now  the  cathedral, 
and  in  which  there  is  an  admirable  picture  of  the  As- 
sumption by  Pidadino.  The  church  of  the  priory  of 
S.  Andrea  also  has  fine  paintings  and  frescoes.  The 
diocese,  taken  from  that  of  .Catania  was  created  in 
1817,  its  first  prelate  was  Girolamo  Aprile  e  Benzi; 
it  is  a  suffragan  of  S3rracuse,  has  23  parishes,  with  184,- 
500  inhabitants,  7  retigious  houses  of  men  and  19  of 
women,  1  school  for  boys  and  7  for  girls,  and  1  Cath- 
olic weekly. 

Cai^psllrti,  Le  Chieae  d'ltalia,  XXI. 

U.  Benigni. 

Piaui,  Giuseppe,  astronomer,  b.  at  Ponte  in 
Valtellina.  16  July,  1746;  d.  at  Naples,  22  July,  1826. 
He  took  the  habit  of  the  Theatines  at  Milan  and  fin- 
ished his  novitiate  at  the  convent  of  San  Antonio. 
Studying  at  colleges  of  the  order  at  Milan,  Turin, 
Rome,  and  Genoa,  under  such  preceptors  as  Tirabos- 
chi,  Beccaria,  Le  Seur,  and  Jacquier,  he  acquired  a 
taste  for  mathematics  and  astronomy.  He  taught 
philosophy  for  a  time  at  Genoa  and  mathematics  at 
the  new  University  of  Malta  while  it  lasted.  In  1779, 
as  professor  of  dogmatic  theologor  in  Rome,  his  col- 
league was  Chiaramonti,  later  Pius  VII.  In  1780 
he  was  called  to  the  chair  of  higher  mathematics  at  the 
academy  of  Palermo.  There  he  soon  obtained  a  grant 
from  Pnnce  Caramanico,  Viceroy  of  Sicily,  for  an  ob- 
servatory. As  its  director  he  was  charged  to  get  the 
necessary  instruments.  He  went  to  Paris  in  1787  to 
studv  with  Lalande,  to  England  in  1788  to  work  with 
Maskelyne  and  the  famous  instrument-maker  Rama- 
den.  A  large  vertical  circle  with  reading  microscopes, 
a  transit,  and  other  apparatus  were  sent  to  Palermo 
in  1789,  where  they  were  placed  on  top  of  a  tower  of 
the  royal  palace.    Observations  were  started  in  May, 

1791,  and  the  first  reports  were  published  as  early  as 

1792.  Soon  he  was  able  to  correct  errors  in  the  esti- 
mation of  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic,  of  the  aberra- 
tion of  light,  of  the  length  of  the  tropical  year,  and  of 
the  paraUstt  of  the  fix^  stars.  He  saw  the  necessity 
for  a  revision  of  the  existing  catalo^es  of  stars  and 
for  the  exact  determination  of  their  positions.  In 
1803  he  published  a  list  of  6784  stars  and  in  1814  a 
second  catalogue  containing  7646  stars.  Both  lists 
were  awarded  prizes  by  the  Institute  of  France. 

While  looking  for  a  small  star  mentioned  in  one  of 
the  earlier  lists  he  made  his  great  discovery  of  the  first 
known  planetoid,  1  Jan.,  1801.  Locating  a  strange 
heavenly  body  of  the  eighth  magnitude  and  repeatmg 
the  observation  several  nights  in  succession,  he  found 
that  this  star  had  shifted  slightly.  Believing  it  to 
be  a  comet,  he  announced  its  discovery.  These  few 
but  exact  measurements  eiiabled  Gauss  to  calculate 
the  orbit  and  to  find  that  this  was  a  new  planet,  be- 
tween Mars  and  Jupiter.    Kepler  and  Bode  had 


coned  attention  to  the  apparent  gap  between  these 
two,  ao  that  the  pladng  of  this  new  body  within  that 
space  caused  great  excitement  among  astronomers. 
Piazii  propoaed  the  name  of  Ceree  Ferdinandea, 


but 


the  astronomer 
requested  the  pri  v- 
ilege  of  using  the 
money  for  the  pur- 
pose of  a  much- 
needed  equatorial 
telescope.  In  1812 
ho  received  the 
commission  to  re- 
form  the  weights 


Sicily  in  accord- 
«  with  the 
trie  system.  In 
1817  as  director- 
general  of  the  ob- 
8?rvatorie8  of  the 
Two  Sicilies  hewas 
charged  with  the 
plans  of  the  new  observatory  which  Murat  was  es- 
tablishing in  Naples.  He  was  a  memtier  of  the  Acad- 
emies of  Naples,  Turin,  Gottingen,  Berlin,  and  St. 
Petetsbunc,  foreign  associate  of  the  Institute  of  Milah 
etc.  Besides  the  numerous  memoirs  published  in  the 
proceedings  of  the  various  academies,  the  following 
works  may  be  mentioned:  "Delia  specola  aatronomica 
di  Palermo  libri  quatro"  (Palermo,  1792);  "SuH' 
orologio  Italiano  e  I'Europeo"  (Palermo,  1798); 
"Delia  scoperta  del  nuovo  planeta  Cerere  Ferdi- 
nandea" (Palermo,  1802);  "Prscipuarum  stellarum 
inerrantium  poeitiones  inedis  incunte  seculo  XIX  ex 
observationibus  habitis  in  specula  Panormitana  at 
1793 ad  1802"  (Palermo,  1803, 1814);  "Codicemetrico 
slculo"  (Catane,  1812);  "Lexiooi  di  astronomia" 
(Palermo,  1817;  tr.  Westphal,  Berlin,  1822);  "Raga- 
nagliodalrealeoeservatonod'Napoli    (Naples,  1821). 

Wolf,  Gadiidut  dir  AxromnnH  [Munich,  ISTf);  Mathut. 
LMUronorM  Giotanni  Piaiii  IMilM,  1871);  Cotmoi  (PwM.  2 
Mitrch,  ud  IS  Juoe,  19011;  Khelleb,  Dm  ChrulerUam  (Ftci- 
bun,  19M),  75-80. 

William  Fox. 

Pibush,  JoBN,  Venerable,  English  martyr,  b.  at 
Thirsk,  Yorkshire ;  d.  at  St.  Thomas's  Waterings, 
Camberwell,  18  February,  1000-1.  According  to 
Gillow  he  was  probably  a  son  of  Thomas  Pibush,  of 
Great  Fencott,  and  Jane,  sister  to  Peter  Danby  of 
Scotton.  He  came  to  Reims  on  4  August,  1580,  re- 
ceived minor  orders  and  subdiaconate  in  Sept.,  and 
diaconate  in  Dec.,  1586,  and  was  ordainea  on  14 
March,  1587.  He  was  sent  on  the  English  mission 
on  3  Jan.,  15S8-9,  arrested  at  Morton-in-Marsh, 
Gloucestershire,  in  1583,  aad  sent  to  London,  where 
he  arrived  before  24  July.  The  Privy  Council  com- 
mitted him  lo  the  Gatehouse  at  Westminster,  where 
he  remained  a  year.  He  was  then  tried  at  the 
Gloucester  Assizes  under  27  Ehz.,  c.  2,  for  being  a 
priest,  but  not  sentenced,  and  was  returned  to  Glouces- 
ter gaol,  whence  he  escaped  on  19  February  (1594- 
S).  The  next  dav  he  was  recaptured  at  Matson  and 
taken  back  to  Gloucester  gaol,  whence  he  was  sent 
to  the  Marahalsea,  London,  and  agtun  tried  under  the 
same  statute  at  Westminster  on  1  July,  1595.  He 
was  sentenced  to  sulTcr  the  penalties  of  high  treason 
at  St.  Thomas's  Waterings,  and  in  the  meantime  was 
to  be  returned  to  the  Marahalsea.  However,  by  the 
end  of  the  year  he  was  in  the  Queen's  Bench  prison, 
where  he  remained  for  more  than  five  years.  The 
sentence  was  carried  out  after  one  day's  notice. 


3  PICCOLOHINI 

Khoi,  Douay  Diariii  (LDDdaa.  1B7S).  IflB,  179.  IBS,  212,  214. 
223:  POU.EH,  AtU  of  the  Enfttth  Uarlvrt  (Loadno.  I8B1).  336-6; 
Eftelith  Harlyrt,  I68i-ie03  dtinAoaCtXh.  Il«g.8w,.  19081,337- 
*0:Oi\Jav,  Bibl.Dii*,Bnt.Cat\.».y. ;Ciu.>.iova.  Uutiimatv 
PriaU.  I.  n.  13S;  Diwur,  AcU  of  !*•  Priry  CouiKit  (Loodoo. 
1890-1W)7).  ul*,  Ul. 

John  B.  Wainxwkiobt. 

PlC4rd,  Jean,  astronomer,  b.  at  La  FI£che,  21 
July,  1620;  d.  at  Paris,  12  Oct.,  16S2.  He  was  a  priest 
and  prior  of  RillS  in  Anjou.  As  a  pupil  of  Gasaendi  he 
obee«Ted  with  him  the  solar  eclipse  of  25  Aug.,  1645. 
In  1656  he  succeeded  his  master  as  professor  of  astron- 
omy at  the  Collie  de  France.  His  principal  achieve- 
ment was  the  accurate  measurement  of  an  arc  of  a 
meridian  of  the  earth,  the  distance  from  Sourdon, 
near  Amiens,  to  Malvoisine,  south  of  Paris,  in  1669- 
70.  His  result,  57060  towea  (a  toise  =  about  6'4  ft.) 
for  the  degree  of  arc,  has  been  found  to  be  only  14 
loiset  too  small.  He  applied  telescopes  and  microm- 
eters to  graduated  astronomical  and  measuring  in- 
stniments  as  early  as  1667.  The  quadrant  he  used 
had  a  radius  of  38  inches  and  nas  so  finely  graduated 
that  he  could  read  the  angles  to  one  quarter  of  a  min- 
ute. The  sextant  employed  for  determining  the  me- 
ridian was6  feet  in  radius.  In  1669  he  was  able  to  ob- 
serve stars  on  the  meridian  during  day-time  and  to 
measure  their  position  with  the  aid  of  cross-wires  at 
the  focus  of  his  telescope.  In  order  to  make  sure 
that  his  standard  loUe  snottid  not  be  lost,  like  those 
used  by  others  before  him,  he  conceived  the  idea  of 
comparing  it  with  the  length  of  the  simple  pendulum 
beating  seconds  at  Paris,  and  thus  made  it  possible  to 
reproduce  the  standard  at  any  time. 

Picard  is  regarded  as  the  founder  of  modem  as- 
tronomy in  France.  He  introduced  new  methods,  im- 
proved the  old  instruments,  and  added  new  devices, 
such  as  the  pendulum  clock.  As  a  result  of  Picard's 
work,  Newton  was  able  to  revise  his  calculations  and 
announce  his  great  law  of  universal  gravitation. 
The  discovery  of  the  aberration  of  light  also  became  ~ 
a  possibihty  on  account  of  Picard's  study  of  Tycho 
Brahe's  ob»ervations.  In  1671  he  received  from  Bat^ 
tholinus  at  Copenhagen  an  exact  copy  of  Tycho's 
records  and  then  went  with  BarthoUnus  to  the  Island 
of  Hveen  in  order  to  determine  the  exact  position  of 
Tycho's  observatory  at  Uranienborg.  He  was  modest 
and  unselfish  enou^  to  recommend  the  rival  Italian 
astronomer  Cassini  to  Colbert  and  Louis  XIV  for  the 
direction  of  the  new  observatory  at  Paris.  Caasini, 
on  the  contrary,  proved  envious,  igjioring  Picard's 
insistent  recommendations  of  a  mural  circle  for  accurate 
meridional  observationB,  until  after  the  latter's  death. 

IHcard  was  among  the  first  members  of  the  Acad- 
enu'.  He  also  started  the  publication  of  the  ^ninml 
"Connaissance  des  temps"  In  1679  (Paris,  1678),  and 
continued  the  same  until  1683.  Since  then  it  has  been 
published  continuously.  His  "Mesure  de  la  terre" 
was  brought  out  in  1671,  Paris. 

WoL7,  OmtAkAi.  dirr  A.ii-onoiiiw  (Munich.  1879) ;  DriAMBHe, 
Ilia,  de  I'oKr.  mod.,  II  (Psria.  1821).  667-632. 

WiLUAH  Fox. 

Picc«loiainl,ALEBBANDRo,  litterateur,  philosopher, 
astronomer,  b.  13  June,  1508;  d.  12  March,  1578.  He 
passed  his  youth  in  the  study  of  literature  and  wrote 
several  comedies  ("Amor  costante",  "Alessandro", 
"Ortensio"),  translated  into  Italian  verse  Ovid's 
"Metamorphoses",  part  of  the  "^neid",  Aristotle's 
"Poetics"  and  "Rnetoric",  composed  a  hundred 
Bonnete  (Rome,  1549),  and  other  rhyme.  He  repu- 
diated in  later  years  "Raffaello"  or  "Dialogo  della 
creansa  donne  "  as  too  hcentious.  In' 1540  he  became 
professor  of  philosophy  at  Padua,  where  he  wrote 
"  Istituiione  di  tutta  la  vita  dell'  uomo  nato  nobile 
e  in  cittjl  libera",  "Filosofia  naturale"  in  which  he 
followed  the  theories  of  ancient  and  medieval  phi- 
losophers, while  in  his  "Trattato  della  grandezza 
della  terrae dell'  acqua"  (Venice,  1558),  he combatted 


PICCOLOMINI  74  PICHLEB 

the  Aristotelean  and  Ptolemaic  opinion  that  water        Pichler,   a  renowned  Austrian  family  of  gem* 

was  more  extensive  than  land,  thereby  provoking,    cutters  who  lived  and  died  in  Italy^ 

with 


versy, 
nedetti. 
stelle 

to  the  Ptolemaic^theory.    He  also  wrote  on  the  reform  art.    He  went  to  work  in  Naples  with  a  goldsmith  and 

of  the  calendar  (1578),  and  a  commentary  on  the  engraver  of  precious  stones.    In  1743,  proficient  in 

mechanics  of  Aristotle.    To  counteract  "Raffaella"  his  new  calling,  he  moved  to  Rome  and  copied  many 

he  wrote  his  "Orazione  in  lode  delle  donne"  (Rome,  antiques.    He  attained  excellence  and  fame,  but  waa 

(1549).    His  fame  extended  beyond  Italy.    Gregory  somewhat   limited   in   his  field  for  want  of  early 

AlII,  in  1574,  appointed  him  titular  Bishop  of  Pa-  training  and  grounding  in  design. 

traB  and  coadjutor  to  Francesco  Bandini,  Archbishop  Giovanni  (Johann  Anton),  the  son  of  the  fore- 

of  Siena,  who  survived  him.  going,  was  b.  at  Naples,  1  Jan.,  1734;   d.  in  Rome. 

FABiAin,  Vita  diAlesaandroPiceolominHSienA,  1749  tLud  1759);  25  Jan.,  1791.     He  was  a  painter,  gem-cutter,  and 

TiRABoscHi.  Storia  delta  leUeratura  itaiiana,  V".  P^- 1   ^  experimenter  in  encaustic  and  mosaic,  a  pupil  of  his 

father,  and  of  the  painter  Corvi.     His  scholarship 

Piccolomini,  Enea  Silvio.    See  Pius  U,  Pope.  and  knowledge  of  the  fine  arts  gave  him  unusual 

advantages.    Early  m  life  he  executed  a.senes  of  his- 

Piccoloxnini-Amxnaxinati,  Jacopo,  cardinal,  b.  in  torical  paintings  for  the  Franciscans  at  Orioli,  and  the 

the  Villa  Basilica  near  Lucca,  1422;  d.  at  San  Lorenzo  Augustinians  at  Braccian;  also  a  St.  Michael  for  the 

near  Bolsena,  10  Sept.,  1479.    He  was  related  to  the  Pauline  nuns  in  Rome.    Later  he  devoted  himself 

Piccolomini  of  Siena.    His  Uterary  and  theological  wholhr  to  intaglio;  he  wrought  gems  of  great  beauty 

education  he  acquired  in  Florence.    Under  Nicholas  V  and  finish,  which  resembled  the  classic  so  closely  in 

he  went  to  Rome,  where,  for  a  while,  he  Uved  in  ex-  style  and  execution  that  Winckelmann  is  said  to  have 

treme  penury.    In  1450  ne  became  private  secretary  thought  them  antiques.    He  was  held  in  high  regard 

to  Cardinal  Domenico  Capranica ;  later  Calistus  III  and  received  innumerable  honours  and  lucrative  com- 

appointed  him  secretary  of  Briefs.    He  was  retained  missions.     Works:    Hercules  strangling  the  Lion; 

in  this  office  bpr  Pius  II,  who  also  made  him  a  member  Leander  crossing  the  Hellespont;    Nemesis,  Leda, 

of  the  pontifical  household,  on  which  occasion  he  Galatea,  Venus,  Dancers,  the  Vestal  Tuccia,  Arethusa, 

assumea  the  family  name  of  Piccolomini.    In  1460  he  Ariadne,  Antinous,  Sappho;    portraits  of  Pius  VI 

was  made  Bishop  of  Pa  via  by  Pius  II,  and  throughout  and  the  Emperor  Joseph  II ;  and  many  other  subjects, 

the  pontificate  of  the  latter  was  his  most  trusted  con-  His  son  Giacomo  was  trained  to  be  a  gem-cutter  and 

fidant  and  adviser.    He  exhibited  paternal  solicitude  executed  many  works  in  Milan,  whither  he  had  gone 

in  the  government  of  his  diocese,  and  during  his  pro-  to  be  near  his  sister  Theresa,  married  to  the  poet 

longed  absences  entrusted  its  affairs  to  able  vicars,  Vincenzo  Monti.    He  died  in  early  manhood, 

with  whom  he  remained  in  constant  touch.    On  18  Giuseppe  (Johann  Joseph),  b.  in  Rome,  1760: 

December,  1461,  he  was  made  cardinal,  and  was  com-  d.  there,  1820.    He  was  a  son  of  Antonio  by  a  second 

monly  known  as  the  Cardinal  of  Pavia.    He  accom-  marriage  and  half  brother  to  Giovanni,  who  taught 

{>aniea  Pius  II  to  Ancona,  and  attended  him  in  his  him  the  family  art.    Among  his  works  are  the  por- 

ast  illness.    In  the  subsequent  conclave  he  favoured  trait  of  Alexander  I  of  Russia;  the  Three  Graces  after 

the  election  of  Paul  II,  whose  displeasure  he  after-  Canova;  Achilles,  Bacchus,  Ceres,  lo,  Medusa,  Per- 

ward  incurred  by  insisting  on  the  full  observance  sens  etc.     He  signs  in  Greek,  like  the  older  Pichlers 

of  the  ante-election  capitulations  that  the  pope  had  IIIXAEP,  using  the  initial  ^. 

signed.    The  imprisonment  of  his  private  secretary  Luigi,  the  most  distinguished  of  the  Pichler  family, 

by  Paul  II  on  a  cnarge  of  complicity  in  the  conspiracy  was  b.  in  Rome  31  Jan.,  1773,  of  the  second  marriage 

of  the  "Accademici    offended  Piccolomini  still  more,  of  Antonio;   d.  13  March,  1854.    Losing  his  father 

and  his  open  defence  of  the  secretarv  aggravated  the  while  very  young,  he  was  indebted  to  his  half-brother, 

eope's  ill-will.    The  disfavour  in  which  he  was  held  Giovanni,  for  his  careful  education  under  a  private 

y  Paul  II  did  not  exempt  his  episcopal  revenues  from  tutor  and  for  four  years  of  art  training  with  the 

sequestration  by  the  Duke  of  Milan,  Galeazzo  Maria,  painter  De  Angelis.     Almost  in  childhood  the  bov 

It  was  due  to  his  insistence  that  Paul  II  took  energetic  had  taken  to  himself  the  tools  of  the  gem-cutter  and, 

measures  against  George  Podiebrad,  King  of  Bohemia,  as  he  grew  older,  showed  a  special  liking  for  cameo. 

Sixtus  IV  was  scarcely  more  favourable  towards  Picco-  Gipvanni  taught  him  their  common  art,  and  con- 

lomini  than  Paul  II.  noisseurs  esteem  that  Luigi's  incisions  have  even  more 

He  was  the  friend  of  students  and  scholars,  and  pro-  finish,   clearness,  and  Ught-^athering  quality  than 

tected  Jacopo  de  Volterra.    In  1470  he  was  trans-  those  of  his  brother.    He  received  many  commissions 

f erred  to  the  See  of  Lucca  and  was  named  papal  envoy  from  the  Vatican  and  the  Courts  of  France  and  Aus- 

to  Umbria.    He  wrote  a  continuation  in  seven  books  tria,  and  kept  a  splendid  house  where  music  and 

of  the"Commentarii''of  PiusII.   His  stvle  is  elegant,  masques  were  frequently  given.     He  made  several 

but  he  is  not  alwavs  inipartial,  especially  apropos  of  trips  to  Vienna  and  was  asked  to  found  a  school  there. 

Paul  II  or  Sixtus  IV.    His  Commentaries,  neverthe-  In  1818  he  copied  in  enamel  five  hundred  gems  of  the 

less,  remain  an  important  source  for  contemporary  Vienna  Cabinet  which  the  emperor  wished  to  present 

history,  and  his  valuable  letters  have  been  collected  to  the  pope.    For  the  same  city  he  made  a  complete 

and  published.    Ammannati  is  one  of  the  most  sym-  collection  of  copies  of  the  intaglios  of  his  father  and 

pathetic  personalities  of  the  Italian  Renaissance.    He  brother,  adding  a  set  of  his  own,  thus  bringing  the 

enjoyed  the  friendship  of  noted  prelates  and  human-  historical  collection  of  1400  antiques  up  to  modem . 

ists,  among  others.  Cardinals  Bessarion,  Carvajal,  times.    Venus,  Cupid  and  Psyche,  Apollo,  Head  of 

Roverella  etc.     Bessarion  (Pastor,  "Geschichte  der  Julius  Csesar,  Mars,  Iris,  the   Day  and   Ni^ht  of 

P&pste",  II,  731),  praises  his  executive  ability  and  Thorwaldsen;  and  two  exquisite  heads  of  Christ  are 

readiness,  his  charity  and  zeal.  some  of  his  subjects;    bp.side8  many  originals  and 

BvistoUt  a  eommentaHi  Jaecbi  Piccolomini  cardinali»  PapienH,  Portraits,    including    Giovanni    Pichler's,    WinckeV- 

(Milan,   1506),   added  also  to  the  Frankfort  ed.  of  the  Com-  mann's,    Joseph    II,    PlUS    VII,    and    Gregory    XVI. 

7!r*^'""j°/i  ^*"?  ."  (Frankfort,  1614);   Paul;,  Ditouisizione  Luisti  received  innumerable  honours  from  the  popes 

'irS'n.T'diSr.  hxT'^^^i^.  ^  t^  SdiJi^in.  «ind  sovereigns  of  his  day.    His  last  gem,  a  hea/Tf 

163.  Ajax,  which  he  wished  to  present  to  Pius  IX,  was 

U.  Bbnigni.  placed  by  tho  pope  in  a  gold  case  in  the  Vatican  coUec- 


PICHLBB  75  PICQUET 

tion  with  the  signature  n.  A  or  niXAEP.  A.    The  clamour,  which  loudly  demanded  the  death  of  Oates's 

tomb  of  the  Pichlers  is  in  S.  Lorenzo  in  Lucina,  victims,  and  twice  within  a  month  the  three  prisoners 

Rome.  were  ordered  for  execution  and  then  reprieved.    At 

r  ?*^'  ^^ii^  ^'"-  iS?!-  ^S***"  ^^???'  V^^Im  M'^o^^'  length  Charles  permitted  the  execution  of  the  other 

J  Ire  PiehUr  (Vienna,   1844);    Rollett.  Die  dm  Meiater  der  ♦,„Jr  k«,*;,»»*l»«*  i.i,:„„^„|j  „„x:„r,,4.k^,,,^^i«  «„j  „«„^ 

Gemmoolvpiik,   Antonio,   Giovanni  und  Luigi  PiehUr  (Vienna,  two,  hopmsf  that  this  WOUld  satisfy  the  people  and  save 

IS7A) ,NAaijat'mNeus9aU{femoine$KQn$tUr Lex.  (Munich,  i&ii);  Pickenng  from  his  fate.    The  contrary  took  place, 

BoccABDo  in  JVuPto  Bneidopedia  /(aiiaiw  (Turin,  1884).  however,  and,  26  April,  1679,  the  House  of  Commons 

M.  L.  Handlet.  petitioned  for  Pickering's  execution.    Charles  yielded 

Plchler.  Vitus,  distincuiahed  canonuit  and  contro-  |J??»JP!ff  W^^T^itn*^"^  TnWr^«^Ili?''Ji?K 

vereial  writer,  b.  at  GroSberghofen,  24  May,  1670;  d.  £  f^^.^'^/J^LA^lP^e*,?!  ^?*^  !i*S!L^^o 

at  Munich,  15  Feb.,  1736.   He  stuAed  for  tfie  secillar  K^     preserved  among  the  rehcs  at  Downside 

Drie8th«)d,  but  aftw  ordination  entered  the  Society  of       rA«^fr^  ./  wiUi^m  Ireland,  Tiuma»  PicMno  and  John 

Jesus,  28  Sept.,  1696.    For  four  vears  he  was  professor  Ornt  far  eontpiriitt  to  murdtr  the  hint    .     .     .  (London,  1678)  i 

of  philosophy  at  Brieue  and  Dillingen.     He  was  then  A.n exact abridgmmt of aUlluTyiaU    .     .     .     rehHnt^lothepopiih 

•dvan«d  to  the  cLir  of    th^iogy, "  controversial  }fiaS^''!SS^;^f^J!l^l^'^£l!^/Zli^':in 

and  scholastic,  at   AUgsburs.     He  acamred  fame  m  (BmsaelB.    1742),    318;     Challoner,    Memoira   of   Misgionary 

the  field  of  canon  law,  which  he  taught  for  nineteen  ^'"'f.  II  (London.  1742),  376;   Oliver,  ColUHioM  ittustrating 

vmirR  at   Dillinirpn    anrl  at   Tmrolnt  Ailt   whnrp  htk  wm  '."*  Hxaiory  of  the  Caiholie  Reltgton  %n  Comtoall,  Devon,  etc.  (Lon-, 

years  at  l^imngen,  ana  ai  ingOlStaat,  wnere  ne  was  ^^^^  igjjj    5Q0.    Corkbr,  Reinonttranee  0/ piety  and  innocence 

the  successor  of  the  lllustnoUS  canonist,  Fr.  Schmalz-  (London.  1683);    Snow.   Necrolooy  of  the  Bnaliah  BenedieiineM 

grueber.     His  latest  employment  was  as  prefect  of  (London,  1883),  178;  W«u>on.  Chronologieal  Notea  on  the  Bngliah 

Egher  studies  at  Munich. .  lib  first  important  Ut««y  ^SS^t^^i.^lt^^^fif^^^i^';'^''^'' 
work  was  "  Examen  polemicum  super  AuKustana  Con-  q,  Rogeb  Hudlebton. 

fessione"  (1708),  an  examination  of  the  Lutheran 

Augsburg  Confession.   Other  controversial  works  fol-       Piconio,  Bernardinb  a  (Henri  Bernardine  de 

lowed,  generally  directed  against  Lutheranism,  such  Picquigny),  b.  at  Picquigny,  Picardy,  1633;   d.  in 

as  "Lutheranismus  constanter  errans"  (1709) ;  "Una  Paris,  8  December,  1709;  was  educated  at  Picquigny, 

et  vera  fides"  (1710);  "Theologia  polemica  particu-  and  joined  the  Capuchins  in  1649.    As  professor  of 

laris"  (1711).    In  his  "Cursus  theologi®  polemica  theology  he  shed  great  lustre  upon  his  order;  hisbest- 

universae"  (1713),  Pichler  devotes  the  first  part  to  the  known  work  is  his  "Triplex  expositio  epistolarum 

fundamentals  of  polemical  theology  and  the  second  sancti  Pauli"  (Paris,  1703  [French],  1706  [English, 

part  to  the  particular  errors  of  the  reformers.    It  is  tr.  Prichard],  London,  1888),  which  has  ever  been 

said  that  he  was  the  first  writer  to  lay  down,  clearly  popular  among  Scriptural  scholars.     Piconio  also 

and  separately,  the  distinction  between  fundamental  wrote  "Triplex  expositio  in  sacrosancta  D.  N.  Jesu 

theology  and  other  divisions  of  the  science.    He  also  Christi  Evangelia"  (Paris,  1726),  and  a  book  of  moral 

wrote  an  unportant  work  on  papal  infallibility,  "  Papa-  instructions.  A  complete  edition  of  his  works,  "Opera 

tus  nunquam  errans  in  proponendis  fidei  articulis"  omnia  Bemardini  a  Piconio",  was  published  at  Paris 

(1709).    Although  widely  renowned  as  a  polemical  (1870-2). 

theologian.  Pichler  is  better  known  as  a  canonist.    He       Hurtbr,  Nomenckuor  Uterariue,  ll,  788. 
published  nis  "Candidatus  juris  prudentia  sacrae"  in  William  C.  Nevilb. 
1722;  this  was  foUowed  by  "^mma  iurisprudentiffl        Picpus,  eoNGREOATioN  op  the.      See  Sacred 
8acr»umvers»    m  1723  sjiq.   He  also  issued  "Mam-  Heartoof  Jesus  and  Mary,  Congregation  op  the. 
pulus  casuum  jindicorum    and  several  epitomes  of  his                                                  ' 
larger  canonical  treatises.     Pichler's   controversial        Picquet,  Francois,  a  celebrated  Sulpician  mission- 
works  were  in  great  vogue  during  the  eighteenth  cen-  ary  in  Canada,  b.  at  Bourg,  Bresse,  France,  4  Dec., 
tury,  while  his  oooks  on  canon  law  were  used  as  text-  1708;  d.  at  Verjon,  Ain,  France,  in  1781.  He  entered 
books  in  many  universities.    His  solutions  of  difficult  the  Seminary  of  Lyons  (1727),  where  he  was  ordained 
cases  in  jurisprudence  gave  a  decided  impetus  to  the  deacon  in  1731.    At  the  Seminary  of  St.  Sulpice  in 
study  of  the  canons  andafforded  a  key  to  the  intricate  Paris,  after  winning  his  doctorate  at  the  Sorbonne, 
portionsof  the  "Corpus  juris  canonici".    Fourteen  of  he  was  raised  to  the  priesthood,  and  became  a  Sul- 
Pichler's  works,  excluding  the  many  editions  and  alter-  pician.    The  same  year  he  begged  to  be  sent  to  Can- 
ations,  are  enumerated.  ada,  and  in  the  month  of  July  arrived  at  Montreal, 
HwTKR.  Nomon^ator  literariua.  III  (innBbnick.  1895);  Sou-  where  for  five  years  (1734-9)  he  was  engaged  in  the 

MEBVOOEL,  BMiothioue  de  la  Compaon*e  de  Jistu,  VI  (Bnusels,  wiinifltrv       On    fha    Tnrlian    Tniaainn    nf    thp    JM*^fti^ 

1896):  DKBACKiaTitWwiWflueiiM^mwtiM.  5.  y.  (LiAge,  1853-  5J>nistry.  un  tne  Indian  mission  01  tne  LiajMies- 
76).  William  H.  W.  Fanning.  Deux-Montagnes  (now  Oka),  he  acquired  the  Algon- 
quin and  Iroquois  tongues  so  perfectly  that  he 
Piekaring,  Thomas,  Venerable,  lay  brother  and  surpassed  the  ablest  orators  of  these  tribes.  His  in- 
inart3rr,  a  member  of  an  old  Westmoreland  family,  b.  fluence  enabled  him  to  win  a  large  number  of  these 
c.  1621;  executed  at  Tyburn,  9  May,  1679.  He  was  savages  to  the  true  Faith.  The  Lake  mission  became 
sent  to  the  Benedictine  monasteiy  of  St.  Gregory  at  venr  populous:  Nipissings,  Outaouois,  Mohawks, 
Douai,  where  he  took  vows  as  a  fay  brother  in  1660.  and  Hurons  crowded  alongside  the  Algonquins  and 
In  1665  he  was  sent  to  London,  where,  as  steward  or  Iroquois.  Picquet  fortified  this  Cathohc  centre 
procurator  to  the  little  community  of  Benedictines  against  the  pagan  tribes,  and  erected  the  Calvary 
who  served  the  queen's  chapel  royal,  he  became  ^ich  still  existe,  with  its  well-built  stations  stretch- 
known  personally  to  the  queen  and  Charles  II;  and  ing  along  the  mountain  side  facing  the  lake.  In  the 
when  in  1675,  urged  by  the  parliament,  Charles  issued  intercolonial  war  between  France  and  England  (1743- 
a  proclamation  ordering  tne  Benedictines  to  leave  8),  the  Indian  aUiesof  these  two  powers  came  to  arms. 
England  jirithin  a  fixed  time,  Pickering  was  allowed  to  Due  to  the  injQuence  of  their  missionary  the  Five 
remain,  probably  on  the  ground  that  he  was  not  a  Nations,  hitherto  allies  of  the  English,  remained 

?riest.    in  1678  came  the  pretended  revelations  of  neutrfd,  while  the  other  savages  carried  on  a  guerilla 

'itus  Oates,  and  Pickering  was  accused  of  conspiring  war  in  New  England  or  served  as  scouts  for  the  French 

to  murder  the  king.    No  evidence  except  Oates's  troops.     When  peace  was  restored,  Picquet  volun- 

word  was  produced  and  Pickering's  innocence  was  so  teered  to  establisn  an  Indian  post  on  the  Presentation 

obvious  that  the  queen  publicly  announced  her  belief  River,  whence  he  spread  the  Gospel  among  the  Iro^ 

in  him,  but  the  jury  found  him  guilty,  and  with  two  quois  nations,  as  far  as  the  Indians  of  the  West, 

others  he  was  condemned  to  be  nanged,  drawn,  and  Founded  on  1  June,  1749,  this  post  became  the  Fort 

quartered.    The  king  was  divided  between  the  wish  of  the  Presentation  in  the  following  year;   from  it 

to  save  the  innocent  men  and  fear  of  the  popular  arose  the  town  of  Ogdensburg,  New  York* 


PICT8  7&  PIEDMONT 

In  1751  Picquet  travelled  round  Lake  Ontario  to  Leo  XIII  made  him  cardinal,  1879.    Sincerely  at* 

gather  into  his  mission  as  many  Iroquois  as  possible,  tached  to  his  diocese,  Mgr  Fie  had  refused  all  ofifers 

and  succeeded  in  establishing  392  families  at  the  of  preferment:  a  seat  in  the  National  Assembly,  the 

Presentation.    In  1752  Mgr  de  Pontbriand,  the  last  Archbishopric  of  Tours,  and  even  the  primatial  See  of 

French  Bishop  of  Quebec,  baptized  132  of  them.    A  Lyons.    Kis  works,  full  of  doctrine  and  unction,  were 

banner,  preserved  in  the  church  of  Oka,  perpetuates  published  serially  during  his  Ufetime  at  Poitiers,  but 

the  souvenir  of  this  event,  and  the  memory  of  the  were  later  collected  into  ''(Euvres  ^piscopales",  10 

fidelity  of  the  Five  Nations  to  the  cause  of  France,  vols.,  Paris,  s.  d.,  and  "(Euvres  sacerdotales",  2  vols., 

for,  in  the  course  of  the  Seven  Years*  War,  it  floated  Paris,  s.  d. 

side  by  side  with  the  Fleur-de-lis  on  many  a  battle-  ,  Baunard.  ^trtoir*  du  CardiruU  Fie  (Poitiers,  1893);  Bebsb, 

field     In  1753  Picquet  went  to  France  an/  presented  '^,^^tS!^^,r:  u  ^n'll'^in  '^S^^^^-JJ-ffi 

to    the    mimster    of    the     Navy    a    well-documented  Caiholiquea  (ParU,  1895);  La  France  Catholique  (Paris,  1881); 

memorandum    concerning    Canada,    in    which    he  L'Epitcopat/rancaU,  i80s-i 906  {ViuiB,  1907),  B.y.  Poitiers. 
pointed  out  the  best  means  for  preserving  that  colony  J-  F.  Sollier. 

for  the  French  Crown.    Hardly  had  he  returned  to 

Canada  (1754)  when  hostilities  were  resumed.  He  Piedmont  (Ital.  Piemonte)^  a  part  (compariimento) 
directed  his  savages  against  the  English,  whom  he  of  northern  Italy,  bounded  on  the  north  by  Switser- 
considered  as  much  the  enemies  of  Catholicism  as  of  land,  on  the  west  by  France,  on  the  south  by  Ligiuia, 
France,  and  for  six  years  accompanied  them  on  their  and  on  the  east  by  Lombardy.  It  includes  the  plain 
expeditions  and  into  the  field  of  battle.  ^'Abb^  of  the  Upper  Po,  and  the  Alpine  valleys  that  descend 
Picquet  was  worth  several  regiments '\  said  Governor  towards  the  plain  from  the  south  side  of  the  Pennine 
Duauesne  of  him.  The  English  set  a  price  on  his  Alps,  from  the  east  side  of  the  Graiian  and  Cottian, 
heaa.  When  all  hope  of  the  cause  was  lost,  by  the  and  from  the  north  side  of  the  Maritime  Alps.  Its 
order  of  his  superiors  who  feared  he  might  fall  into  name,  pedes  moniium^  from  which  arose  Pedimontium, 
the  hands  of  the  English,  Pic<]uet  returned  to  France,  came  from  its  geographical  position,  enclosed  on  three 
passing  thither  through  Louisiana  (1760).  He  was  sides  by  high  mountains.  At  the  present  time  it  in- 
engaged  in  the  ministry  in  Paris  till  1772.  He  then  eludes  the  four  Italian  provinces  of  Turin,  Novara, 
returned  to  his  homeland,  Bresse,  and  was  named  Alessandria,  and  Cuneo.  In  the  Middle  Ages  and  in 
canon  of  the  cathedral  of  Bourg,  where  he  died.  antiquity  the  country  was  important  chiefly  because 
l^es  fdifianus  et  eurieueee  {Mhnmrea  des  Indes),  XXVI  jt  contained  the  passes  over  the  Alps  which  led  from 

^c^'^li  ^-%JSS:^'^"cJrr&^Z  It  Is  s^«r^i  Italy  to  Gaul. .  ifnta  the  berinning  of  the  fourth  cen- 

du  Cfinada,  XII.  sect.  1  (1894) ;  Bertrand.  Bihliothkque  sidpi-  tury  Chnstianity  had  made  little  progress.    However, 

^if**^*  **Y^\^l.^.  '?i?^*!^  ^  "*  <^^P^i«  ^^  Sainf-Sulpice,  I  jq  the  course  of  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries  Chris- 

(Pana,  19(X)),  394-401;    Chaqny,   Un  difeiiseur  de  la  NouvtUe-  ai^-u,,  „,»-.«,«  j  -„«;^i,,  n,v>r^*«n.  4-V.a  watv^^Ia    «a«*  «rv«» 

France,  Franioie  Picquk  ''le  Canidien"  (Lyons,  1911).  tianity  spread  rapidly  among  the  people,  now  com- 

A.  FouRNET.  pletely  Romanized.    The  earhest  episcopal  sees  were 

-oAm^m     a«^  Q^^^mr  ^^^^  estabushcd  in  this  era,  namely  Turin,  Asti,  and  Aosta. 
new.    HeeacoTLAND.  j^  ^j^^  ^^j^  ^^^^^^  ^ges  various  petty  feudal 

Pie,  Louis-Edouard-D6sir£,  cardinal,  b.  at  Pont-  states  were  formed  in  the  Piedmontese  country,  the 

gouin.  Diocese  of  Chartres,  1815;  d.  at  Angoul^me,  inost  important  of  which  were  the  Marquessates  of 

1880.     He  studied  at  the  Seminary  of  Chartres  and  Ivrea,  Suso,  Saluzzo,  Montferrat,  and  the  Countship 

at  St.  Sulpice,  was  ordained  1839,  became  Vicar-  of  Turin.    The  counts  of  Savoy  early  made  successful 

General  of  Chartres,  1844,  and  Bishop  of  Poitiers,  attempts  to  establish  their  authority  in  this  region. 

1849.     He  created  many  parishes,  established  in  his  At  the  beginning  of  the  eleventh  century  Aosta  and 

seminary  a  canonical  nujulty  of  theology,  founded  the  territory  under  its  control  belonged  to  Count 

for  the  missions  of  the  diocese  the  Oblates  of  St.  Humbert  I  of  Savoy.    His  son  Oddo  (Otto,  d.  1060) 

Hilary,  and  brought  the  Jesuits  to  Poitiers  and  the  married  the  Marchioness  Adelaide  of  Turin,  and  in 

Benedictines  to  Solesmes  and  Ligug^.    To  his  initia-  this  way  became  possessed  of  the  Marquessate  of  Susa, 

tive  were  largely  due  the  resumption  of  the  provincial  with  the  towns  of  Turin  and  Pinerolo,  the  foundation 

synods  in  France,  the  promotion  of  St.  Hilary's  cultus,  of  the  later  Piedmont.     After  the  death  (1232)  of 

and  the  erection  of  the  national  shrine  of  the  Sacred  Thomas  I,  Count  of  Savoy,  this  marquessate  went  to  a 

Heart  at  Montmartre.     He  is,  however,  best  known  younger  branch,  the  descendants  of  Thomas  II  (d. 

for  his  opposition  to  modem  errors,  and  his  cham-  1259),  son  of  Thomas  I;  Amadeus  V,  son  of  Thomas 

pionship  of  the  rights  of  the  Church.     Regarding  as  H,  is  the  ancestor  of  the  present  ItaUan  royal  family, 

futile  the  compromises  accepted  by  other  Catholic  These  rulers  called  theiyselves  Counts  of  Piedmont, 

leaders,  he  fought  alike  all  philosophical  theories  and  On  account  of  the  position  of  their  territories  the 

political  arrangements  that  did  not  come  up  to  the  Dukes  of  Savoy  had  a  large  share  in  the  wars  for 

full  traditional  Christian  standard.     His  stand  in  supremacy  in  northern  Italy.    Besides  extending  their 

matters  philosophical  was  indicated  as  early  as  1854-  authority  into  Switzerland  in  the  fifteenth  and  six- 

65  in  two  synodal  instructions  against  "  the  errors  of  teenth  centuries,  they  also  gained  new  domains  in 

the  present  day  and  of  philosophy".  Italy:  the  lordships  of  VerceUi,  Asti,  and  Cava,  and 

In  politics  a  staunch  follower  of  the  Comte  de  the  feudal  suzerainty  over  Montferrat.  In  the  wars 
Chambord,  he  trusted  but  Httle  the  other  regimes  between  the  Emperor  Charles  V  and  Francis  I  of 
under  which  he  lived.  To  Napoleon  III,  who  had  France,  Duke  Charles  III  id.  1553)  of  Piedmont  lost 
declared  untimely  certain  measures  suggested  by  the  the  greater  part  of  his  duchy.  In  the  Peace  of  C4teau- 
bishop,  Pie  said  one  day:  "Sire,  since  the  time  has  not  Cambresis  (1559),  however,  his  son  Emmanuel  Phi- 
come  for  Christ  to  reign,  then  the  time  has  not  come  libert  (d.  1580)  regained  nearly  all  of  his  father's 
for  government  to  last".  Such  was  the  vigour  with  possessions,  and  obtained,  in  exchange  for  other  ter- 
which  he  stigmatized  the  imperial  insincerity  regard-  ritories,  the  Marquessate  of  Tenda  and  the  Princi- 
ing  the  independence  of  the  Papal  States  that  he  was  pality  of  Oneglia. 

denounced  to  both  the  Council  of  State  and  the        Emmanuel  Philibert's  successor,  Charles  Emmanuel 

Holy  See.    The  former  pronounced  him  guilty  of  I  (1580-1630),  acquired  the  Marquessate  of  Saluzzo 

abuse  of  power,  but  Cardinal  Antonelli  valiantly  stood  and  a  large  part  of  Montferrat,  which  his  son  Victor 

by  him.    At  the  Vatican  Council  he  did  not  sign  the  Amadeus  I  (1630-37)  was  able  to  retain  by  conceding 

rmstulaiion  petitioning  for  the  definition  of  papal  in-  two  other  lordships  to  France.    During  the  re^cy  of 

fnllibility,  but  once  it  was  placed  on  the  programme  of  the  widow  of  Victor  Amadeus  I,  the  French  Princess 

the  council,  he  proved  one  of  the  best  exponents  and  Christine,  the  influence  of  France  in  the  Duchy  of 

defenders  of  it.    As  a  reward  for  his  loyal  services,  Savoy  was  greatly  increased.  Her  son  Charles  Emjnwi- 


PIEDMONT 


77 


PIEDMONT 


ud  II  (d.  1675)  sought  in  vain  to  escape  this  dominat- 
ing control.  Victor  Amadeus  II  (1675-1730)  joined 
the  great  alliance  against  France  in  the  War  oftlic 
Spanish  Succession.  By  the  victory  of  Turin  in  1706 
ranee  Eugene  drove  out  the  French  troops  that  had 
made  a  sudden  descent  upon  Piedmont,  thus,  ridding 
the  duke  of  his  enemies.  As  a  reward  for  joining  the 
cdliance  the  duke  received  by  the  Peace  of  Utrecht  of 
1713  the  Marauessate  of  Montferrat,  the  City  of  Ales- 
sandria, and  tne  Districts  of  Val  Sesia  and  Liomellina. 
so  that  the  part  of  his  territories  situated  in  Italy  had 
essentially  the  same  extent  as  the  present  Department 
of  Piedmont.  Outside  of  these  new  territories  he  was 
granted  the  Island  of  Sicily,  which,  however,  he  lost 
again  when  Spanish  troops  attacked  the  island  in  1718. 
In  1720  as  compensation  for  this  loss  he  received  the 
Island  of  Sardinia.  He  now  assumed  the  title  of  Kins 
of  Sardinia;  besides  the  island,  the  kingdom  included 
Savov  and  Piedmont  on  the  mainland.  In  the  Polish 
and  Austrian  wars  of  succession  the  next  king,  Charles 
Emmanuel  III  (as  king^  Charles  Emmanuel  I,  1730- 
73),  acquired  the  additional  Italian  districts  of  Tor- 
tona  and  Novara,  also  Anghiera,  Bobbio,  and  a  part 
of  the  principality  of  Pavia.  His  son  Victor  Amadeus 
III  (1773-96)  was  a  weak  man  of  little  iihportance. 
During  his  reign  the  storms  caused  by  the  French 
Revolution  swept  over  his  kingdom.  Napoleon's  vic- 
tories obliged  him  in  1796  to  cede  Savoy  and  Nice  to 
France,  and  his  son  and  successor  Charles  Emmanuel 
II  (1796^^1802)  lost  all  his  territories  on  the  mainland, 
which,  together  with  Liguria  and  Parma,  were  united 
to  France.  The  king  abdicated,  entered  the  Society  of 
Jesus,  and  in  1802  resigned  the  crown  to  his  brother 
Victor  Emmanuel  I.  At  first  the  latter  resided  in 
Sardinia. 

Until  the  seventeenth  century  the  position  of  the 
Church  in  Piedmont  was  a  satisfactory  one;  no  re- 
striction was  placed  upon  its  activities.  The  country 
contained  numerous  dioceses;  of  these  Aosta  was  a 
suffragan  of  Tarentaise,  Nice  of  Embrun,  and  the 
other  dioceses  on  Italian  soil  were  suffragans  of  Milan. 
In  1515  Turin,  where  the  Dukes  of  Savoy  lived,  was 
made  an  archdiocese  with  the  two  suffragan  sees  of 
Ivrea  and  Mondovi.  As  lord  chancellor  and  first  sec- 
letarv  of  state  the  Archbishop  of  Turin  was  by  law  a 
member  of  the  council  of  state.  The  ducal  family  was 
very  religious,  and  until  the  end  of  the  seventeenth 
centurv  maintained  close  relations  with  the  Papal 
See,  which  had  established  a  permanent  nunciature  at 
Turin  in  the  sixteenth  century,  while  an  agent  of  the 
Government  of  Piedmont  resided  at  Rome.  For  some 
of  their  domains  the  dukes  were  vassals  of  the  Holy 
See,  but  this  relation  caused  no  difficulties.  There  was 
a  large  body  of  clergy,  and  monasteries  were  numerous. 
There  were^also  two  religious  orders  of  knights,  that 
of  St.  Lasarus,  an  order  or  hospitallers  for  the  care  of 
the  sick,  especiallv  lepers,  and  that  of  ^t.  Mauritius, 
which  had  been  founded  by  Amadeus  VIII  in  1434 
and  confirmed  in  1572  by  Gregory  XII.  The  same 
pope  confirmed  the  union  of  the  two  orders,  of  which 
the  duke  was  the  perpetual  grand  master.  The  orig- 
inal purpose  of  these  knightly  orders  was,  however, 
very  soon  lost  sight  of;  in  recent  times  they  have  been 
changed  into  a  secular  decoration.  Duke  Charles 
Emmanuel  I  was  very  zealous  in  the  struggle  against' 
Protestantism,  and  both  he  and  his  two  successors 
took  energetic  measures  against  the  growth  of  the 
Waldensians.  However,  Emmanuel  Philibert  made 
the  executioA^of  the  judgments  of  the  ecclesiastical 
Inauisition  dopendent  on  the  consent  of  the  senate 
and  judicial  investigation  by  the  Government. 

Towards  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century  the 
dukes,  who  had  become  absolute  rulers,  and  their 
administrative  officials  began  to  suppress  the  liberties 
of  the  Church  in  imitation  of  France.  They  even 
interfered  in  the  purely  ecclesiastical  government  of 
the  Church.   Thus  during  the  administration  of  Vic- 


tor Amadeus,  who  was  the  actual  ruler  from  1684, 
violent  dissensions  with  the  Holy  See  arose  and  se- 
riously injured  religious  life,  especially  because  large 
numbers  of  dioceses  and  higher  ecclesiastical  benefices 
remained  vacant  for  a  long  period.  Length>r  negotia- 
tions were  carried  on  with  Home.  An  edict  issued  by 
Victor  Amadeus  in  1694  for  the  benefit  of  the  Walden- 
sians was  rejected  at  Rome,  because  it  annulled  the 
old  law  for  the  protection  of  the  Catholic  Church. 
The  duke  took  the  most  severe  measures  against  this 
Roman  decree.  The  senate  forbade  its  publication 
under  heavy  penalties,  so  that  it  could  not  be  executed, 
and  the  tribunal  of  the  Inquisition  of  Piedmont  lost 
nearly  all  its  importance.  The  Dioceses  of  Casale, 
Acqui,  and  Ventimiglia  included  parts  of  the  territory 
of  Piedmont,  although  the  bishops  did  not  reside  in 
the  duchy;  this  was  regarded  as  a  great  grievance. 
The  duke  wished  to  force  these  bishops  to  appoint 
episcopal  vicars  for  the  supervision  ot  those  of  his 
subjects  belonging  to  their  dioceses;  this  the  bishops 
refused  to  do.  Whereupon  the  landed  property  m 
Piedmont  belonging  to  the  Diocese  of  Nice  was  se- 
questrated; this  Ic^  the  bishop,  after  three  years  of 
unsuccessful  negotiations,  to  excommunicate  the 
secular  officials  who  had  carried  out  the  ducal  decree. 
The  senate  forbade  the  recognition  of  the  sentence  of 
excommunication  under  the  severest  penalties,  for 
the  laity  the  penalty  of  death,  and  commanded  the 
priests  to  grant  the  sacraments  to  the  excommuni- 
cated. This  last  command,  however,  was  recalled  by 
the  duke  as  too  extreme  a  measure  against  ecclesias- 
tical authority. 

Victor  Amadeus  now  claimed  the  entire  right  of 
presentation  to  all  the  sees  and  to  all  the  abbeys  in  his 
territories  granted  by  the  pope  in  consistory,  on 
p^round  of  a  privilege  conferred  by  Pope  Nicholas  V 
in  1451  upon  Duke  Louis  of  Savoy,  whereby  the  pope, 
before  filling  sees  and  abbacies,  would  ask  for  the 
opinion  and  consent  of  the  duke  in  regard  to  the  per- 
sons nominated.  This  privilege  had  oeen  confirmed 
on  various  occasions  during  the  sixteenth  century. 
Rome  was  not  willing  to  acknowledge  the  privilege 
in  this  enlarged  form.  The  duke  had  also  issued  an 
edict  by  which  a  secular  judge  was  not  to  grant  per- 
mission to  those  desiring  to  enter  the  clergy  until  he 
had  fully  informed  himself  concerning  the  ability  of 
the  candidate,  the  number  of  parishes  in  the  locality, 
and  of  the  priests  and  monks  there,  and  the  nature  ot 
the  property  to  be  assigned  to  the  candidate  for  his 
support.  In  1700  a  bitter  dispute  arose  between  the 
Arcnbishop  of  Turin  and  the  ducal  delegation,  when 
the  arehbishop  by  a  decree  declared  invalid  the  eccle- 
siastical^ arrangements  proposed  by  the  laity  against 
the  decrees  of  the  Apostolic  See.  However,  the  bish- 
ops, supported  by  the  nuncio,  followed  the  instruc- 
tions of  the  pope  in  all  ecclesiastical  questions.  Fur- 
ther disputes  also  arose  concerning  the  testamentary 
competency  of  regulars,  a  right  which  was  denied  the 
regular  clergy  by  the  Government,  and  as  to  thejnghts 
of  the  pope  in  the  fiefs  of  the  Roman  Church  thai 
were  possessed  by  the  dukes.  These  questions  were 
exhaustively  examined  at  Rome,  and  the  advocate  of 
the  consistory,  Sardini,  was  sent  to  Turin  to  negotiate 
the  matters;  but  the  agreement  adjusting  the  diffi- 
culty that  was  obtained  by  him  was  not  accepted  at 
Rome.  New  troubles  constantly  arose  when  the 
duke  confiscated  the  revenues  of  benefices  accruing 
during  their  vacancy  and  abrogated  the  spolia  (prop- 
erty of  ecclesiastics  deceasidd  intestate)  of  ecclesias- 
tical benefices.  The  Government  appointed  an  ad- 
ministrator of  its  own  for  the  care  and  administi^Xion 
of  the  estates  of  vacant  benefices,  but  he  was  not  recog- 
nized by  the  bishops.  Secular  approval  of  ecclesias- 
tical acts  and  ordmances  was  made  necessary  in  a 
continually  increasing  number  of  cases.  New  negotia- 
tions, undertaken  in  1710  at  Rome  by  Count  de 
Gubematis,  produced  no  results.   The  only  agreement 


PIEDMONT 


78 


PIEDMONT 


reached  was  in  regard  to  the  administrator  of  vacant 
benefices,  who  was  also  appointed  the  Apostolic  ad- 
ministrator for  this  purpose.  In  this  form  the  office  of 
the  Apostolic-royal  steward  continued  to  exist. 

When  the  Island  of  Sardinia  was  granted  to  Pied- 
mont in  1720  a  new  conflict  arose,  as  the  pope  claimed 
to  be  the  sovereign  of  the  island.  The  basb  of  this 
was  that  Boniface  VIII  had  invested  the  King  of 
Aragon  with  the  island  under  the  condition  that  it 
should  never  be  separated  from  the  Crown  of  Aragon. 
Consequently  the  demand  was  made  upon  the  new 
King  or  Sardinia  that  he  should  seek  papal  investiture. 
As  Victor  Amadeus  refused  to  do  this,  the  pope  re- 
jected the  arrangements  for  filling  the  episcopal  sees 
and  ecclesiastical  benefices  made  by  the  king,  who  also 
clamed  all  the  rights  of  patronage  exercised  by  the 
Spanish  sovereign.  As  a  consequence  most  of  the  sees 
on  the  islands  were  without  incumbents,  which  in- 
creased the  difficulties.  Benedict  XIII  (1724-30) 
sought  to  bring  about  a  reconciliation  in  order  to  put 
an  end  to  the  injury  inflicted  on  religious  life.  In 
Turin  the  necessity  of  an  accommodation  was  also 
reaUzed,  and  the  king  sent  the  adroit  and-iskilful 
Marquess  d'Ormefk  to  Home  to  prepare  the  way  for 
the  negotiations.  The  peace-loving  pope  made  large 
concessions,  although  the  king  made  still  further  en- 
croachments upon  the  rights  of  the  Church.  The 
negotiations  were  carried  on  by  a  congregation  com- 
posed of  four  cardinals  and  the  prelate  Merlini.  Sev- 
eral points  were  adjusted,  especially  the  king's  ri^t 
of  presentation  to  the  bishoprics  and  abbacies,  while 
others  were  discussed,  particularly  the  immunity  of 
the  Church,  the  right  of  the  pope  to  claim  the  spolia, 
also  the  right  to  charge  ecclesiastical  revenues  with 
pensions.  Most  of  the  difficulties  were  finally  ad- 
justed, and  an  agreement  was  signed  in  1727,  so  that 
the  vacant  sees  could  now  be  filled  and  ecclesiastical 
administration  resumed.  King  Charles  Emmanuel 
III  (1730-73)  made  new  conventions  with  Benedict 
XIV  (1740-59),  who  had  formerly  supported  the 
Marquess  d'Ormea  in  his  negotiations,  and  had  al- 
ways maintained  friendly  relations  with  him.  By  two 
conventions  made  in  1741  the  King  of  Sardinia  was 
granted  the  Apostolic  vicariate  for  the  papal  fiefs  on 
condition  of  paying  a  quit-rent,  and  the  questions  of 
the  ecclesiastical  benences,  the  revenues  of  benefices 
during  vacancy,  and  the  administration  of  these  va- 
cant benefices  were  adjusted.  Notwithstanding  his 
friendliness,  the  papal  commissioner  had  a  very  difficult 
position  to  maintain  in  his  relations  with  the  presidcmt 
of  the  senate,  Caissotti.  Finally  on  6  Jan.,  1742.  the 
pope  issued  instructions  to  the  bishops,  in  which  t>oth 
jides  had  concurred;  in  these  it  was  made  the  duty  of 
foreign  bishops  to  appoint  vicars  for  the  parts  of  their 
dioceses  in  tne  territory  of  Piedmont,  ecclesiastical 
jurisdiction  was  curtailed,  and  the  landed  property  of 
the  Church  that  had  been  obtained  after  162X)  was 
made  subject  to  the  ordinary  civil  taxes.  In  1750  the 
pope  resigned  various  revenues  that  the  Apostolic  See 
derived  from  Piedmont  in  return  for  a  very  small  in- 
demnity. Charles  Emmanuel  III  now  remained  on 
the  best  of  terms  with  Rome,  notwithstanding  isolated 
difficulties  and  disputes  which  still  arose.  Merlini 
was  once  more  received  at  Turin  as  nuncio,  and  the 
piously-inclined  king  sou^t  to  promote  the  interests 
of  religion,  to  protect  Christian  discipline,  and  to  sup- 
port the  nghta  of  the  Church  in  other  countries. 

The  last  period  of  the  history  of  the  Kingdom  of 
Sardinia  began  after  the  Napoleonic  era.  In  1814-15 
Victor  Emmanuel  I  re^ainea  Piedmont  with  the  terri- 
tories of  Genoa  (Liguna)  and  Grenoble.  The  Govern- 
ment again  sought  to  base  the  administration  on  the 
old  political  principles  of  the  period  before  the  French 
Revolution,  while  a  larpe  part  of  the  citizens  of  the 
country  were  filled  with  ideas  of  political  independence 
and  Liberalism,  and  the  revolutionary  secret  society, 
the  Carbonari,  was  at  work.   When  in  1821  a  military 


insurrection  broke  out,  the  king  abdicated  in  favour  of 
his  brother  Charles  Felik  (1821-31).  Before  Charles 
Felix  arrived  the  country  was  administered  by' 
Charles  Albert,  the  heir-presumptive  to  the  throne, 
who  was  a  memb^  of  the  Savoy-Carignan  branch  of 
the  family.  Charles  at  once  established  the  Spanish 
constitution  of  1812  and  summoned  a  Liberal  minis- 
try. However,  Charles  Felix  crushed  the  Liberal 
opposition  with  the  aid  of  Austrian  troops  and  re- 
estiEJ[>lished  former  administrative  conditions.  At  his 
death  the  direct  line  of  the  dynasty  of  Savoy  was  ex- 
tinct, and  he  was  succeeded  by  Charles  Albert  of 
Savoy-Carignan  ( 183 1-49) .  This  kins  gave  the  coun- 
try a  constitution  in  1848,  summonea  a  Liberal  min- 
istry, and  assumed  the  l^uiership  of  the  movement 
for  the  national  unity  of  Italy.  Tnis  led  to  a  war  with 
Austria  in  which  he  was  defeated  at  Novara,  and  con- 
sequently was  obliged  to  abdicate  on  4  Nov.,  1849,  in 
favour  of  his  son  Victor  Emmanuel  II  (1849-78). 
Count  Camillo  de  Cavour  (d.  6  June,  1861)  was  soon 
made  the  head  of  the  administration.  Journeys  in 
France  and  England  had  imbued  Cavour  with  ideas 
of  political  and  parUamentary  freedom;  from  1848  he 
had  sought  to  spread  his  opinions  by  publishing  with 
the  aid  of  Balbo,  Santa  Rosa,  and  others  the  journal 
''II  Risorgimento'\  On  4  Nov.,  1852,  he  was  made 
president  of  the  ministry;  he  now  sought  by  the  eco- 
nomic development  of  the  country  and  by  aiplomattc 
relations,  especially  on  the  occasion  of  the  Crimean 
War,  and  at  the  Congress  of  Paris  in  1856,  where  the 
"  Italian '^  question  was  raisied,  to  prepare  for  war 
with  Austria. 

In  a  secret  agreement  with  Napoleon  III  made  at 
Plombi^res  on  20  July,  1858,  he  gsdned  the  support  of 
the  French  emperor  by  promising  to  cede  Savoy  and 
Nice  to  France.  In  this  way  Victor  Emmanuel  II  was 
able  in  1859  to  begin  war  against  Austria  with  the 
aid  of  Napoleon,  and  the  two  alUes  defeated  the  Aus- 
trian army  at  Magenta  (4  June)  and  at  Solferino  (24 
June).  At  the  same  time  a  revolution  broke  out  in 
central  Italy  that  had  been  planned  by  the  followers 
of  Mazzini,  and  the  national  union  founded  by  him  in 
Piedmont.  Tuscany,  the  duchies,  and  the  districts 
ruled  by  delegation  received  Piedmontese  adminis- 
trators. In  his  choice  of  means  the  only  principle  fol- 
lowed by  Cavour  was  to  use  whatever  might  prove 
advantageous  to  him.  His  connexion  with  men  like 
Mazzini.  Garibaldi,  and  others  shows  the  lack  of  prin- 
ciple in  nis  conduct.  Piedmont  adopted  the  cause  of 
the  revolution.  In  the  Peace  of  Zurich,  10  Nov.,  1859, 
it  was  stipulated  that  Lombardy  would  be  given  to 
Piedmont.  In  1860  the  people  of  Savoy  and  Nice 
voted  for  union  with  France,  so  that  these  territories 
now  became  a  part  of  France^  and  the  royal  d3masty 
of  Piedmont  resigned  its  native  land  of  Savoy.  As 
compensation  for  this  loss  Piedmont  received  Tus- 
cany and  Emilia.  On  2  April,  1860,  the  "National 
Parliament''  was  opened  at  Turin;  the  parliament, 
asserting  the  principle  of  nationality,  demanded 
* '  Italy  for  the  Italians ' ' .  Soon  other  Italian  domains 
were  absorbed,  and  on  17  March,  1861,  Victor  Em- 
manuel II  assumed  the  title  of  Kin^  of  Italy  (see 
Italy),  whereby  Piedmont  and  the  Kingdom  of  Italy 
were  merged  into  the  united  Kingdom  of  Italy.  On 
29  March,  1861,  Cavour  announced  that  Rome  was 
the  future  capital  of  united  Italy. 

After  the  readjustment  of  ecclesiastical  conditions 
in  1817  there  were  seven  Church  provinces  in  the 
Kingdom  of  Sardinia  that  had  been  formed  and  en- 
larged in  the  period  following  the  Napoleonic  era. 
These  archdioceses  were:  in  Piedmont,  Turin  with  10 
suffragans,  to  which  in  1860  an  eleventh,  Aosta  (which 
had  belonged  to  Chamb^ry),  was  added;  Vercellt 
with  5  suffragans;  in  Liguria,  Genoa  with  6  suffragans; 
in  Savoy,  Chambi§ry  with  4  suffragans  (after  the  with- 
drawal of  Aosta  only  3):  on  the  Island  of  Sardinia  the 
three  Archdioceaes  of  CagUari,  Oristano,  and  Sassari, 


phl 


79 


with  8  suffragans.  Both  the  Liberal  movement  and 
the  intrigues  of  the  revolutionary  party  in  Piedmont 
were  in  every  way  inimical  to  the  CJhurch.  In  March, 
1S48,  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits  was  begun  in  the 
harshest  manner.  In  October  a  law  regarding  instruc- 
tion was  issued  that  was  adverse  to  the  Church.  In 
the  next  year  began  the  hostilities  directed  against 
Archbishop  Luigi  Franconi  of  Turin  and  other  bish- 
ops. The  Archbishops  of  Turin  and  Sassari  were 
even  imprisoned.  In  1850  the  ecclesiastical  immuni- 
ties were  suppressed  and  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  was 
limited.  In  1851  the  Government  regulated  theo- 
logical instruction  without  the  concurrence  of  the 
Church;  in  1853*  civil  marriage  was  introduced;  in 
1853  the  office  of  the  Apostolic  royal  steward  was  com- 
pletely secularized;  in  1854  laws  were  issued  directed 
against  the  monasteries;  in  1855  the  ecclesiastical 
academy  of  Superga  was  suppressed;  in  1856  and  the 
following  years  oppressive  measures  were  issued 
against  parish  priests  and  parish  administration,  such 
as  confiscation  of  the  greater  part  of  the  lands  of  the 
Church.  Using  the  party  cry  of  a  "free  Church  in  a 
free  state",  Cavour  and  his  confederates  robbed  the 
Church  in  many  directions  of.  its  essential  rights  and 
freedom,  as  well  as  of  its  rightful  possessions.  The 
same  spirit  of  hostility  to  the  Church  was  shown 
towards  the  papacy;  the  nunciature  at  Turin  was 
suppressed.  Thus  the  union  of  It^ly  was  carried  on, 
even  by  Piedmont,  that  had  allied  itsdf  to  revolution- 
ary elements  hostile  to  the  Church,  in  a  manner 
inimical  throughout  to  the  Church  ana  religion.  This 
hostility  continued  to  control  the  official  measures  as 
well  as  the  entire  course  of  the  Italian  Government. 

Monumenia  hittoria  pairia,  I  aqq.  (Turin,  1836);  Carutti, 
Regetta  eomUum  SabaudicB,  marehionum  in  Italia,  xuque  cut  an, 
i^oJ  (Turin,  1889);  Cibrabio,  OpereUe  e  frammenli  9torici  (Flor- 
ence, 1856);  Idem,  Origini  eprogreaao  delle  istituzioni  ddUa  mo- 
nardiia  di.  Savoia  (2nd  ed.,  2  voU.,  Florence,  1869) ;  Cardtti, 
Storia  dd  regno  di  ViOorio  Amadeo  I  J  (Turin,  1856);  Ricotti, 
^aria  deUa  monarehia  Fiemontete  (6  vols.,  Florence,  1861-49); 
Gaboito,  Storia  del  Piemonte  1292-1S49  (Rome.  1894);  GaI/- 
LBNGA,  llietory  of  Piedmont  (3  vols.,  London,  1854-55);  Brof- 
FERio,  Storia  del  Piemonte  dal  1814  ai  giomi  noatri  (5  vols..  Turin, 
1849-52);  Valla uri,  Storia  delle  Univerntii  degli  atudi  in  Pie- 
manU  (Turin.  1845);  Savio,  Gli  anliehi  veaeovi  d' Italia:  I.  // 
Piemonte  (Turin,  1898);  Mkyranebius,  Pedemontium  aacrumt 
I  sq.  (Turin,  1834 — )',  HerqenrOthbr.  Piemonte  Unterhand- 
lungen  mit  dem  hi.  StuhU  im  18.  Jahrh.  in  Kaiholieche  Studien,  III 
(WQrsburg,  1876) ;  Coloml4TTi,  Megre.  Luigi  dei  marehesi  Pran- 
eani,  ttreiteeeove  di  Torino  1832-1862  (Turin,  1902);  Bxanchi. // 
eonU  Camillo  Catour  (3rd  ed.,  Turin.  1863) ;  ICraus,  Cavour.  Die 
Srhd>ung  Italiene  im  19.  Jahrh.  in  WeUgeschiehte  in  Charakterbil' 
dtm  (Mainx.  1902) ;  Manno,  Bibliogre^fia  etoriea  degli  etati  delta 
monarehia  d%  Savoia  (8  vols.,  Turin,  1884-1908). 

J.   P.   KiBSCH. 

• 

.  Piel,  Petbr,  a  pioneer  in  the  movement  for  reform 
of  church  music,  b.  at  Kessewick,  near  Bonn,  12  Aug., 
1835;  d.  at  Bcppard,  on  the  Rhine,  21  Aug.,  19&. 
Educated  in  the  seminary  for  teachers  at  Kempen, 
he  was  instructed  in  music  by  Albert  Michael  Jop- 
ken  (1828-78),  and  became  professor  of  music  at  tne 
Seminary  of  Boppard  in  1868,  a  position  which  he 
held  until  his  death.  During  all  the  years  of  his  in- 
cumbency Piel  displaved  extraordinary  activity  as 
composer,  teacher,  and  critic.  He  wrote  a  number  of 
masses,  both  for  e<]ual  and  mixed  voices,  numerous 
motets,  antiphons  in  honour  of  the  Blessed  Virgin 
Mary  for  four  and  eight  voices,  Magnificats  in  the 
eight  Gregorian  modes,  and  a  Te  Deum,  all  of  which 
have  enjoyed  great  vogue.  Piel's  compositions  reveal 
the  resourceful  contrapuntist,  and  are  of  classic 
purity  of  style.  His  trios^  preludes,  and  postludes  for 
the  organ  are  models  of  finish  and  smoothness.  It  is 
as  a  teacher,  however,  and  through  the  large  number 
of  distinguished  musicians  whom  he  formed  that 
Piel  exerted  the  greatest  influence.  His  "Harmonie- 
lehre"  has  passed  through  a  number  of  editions  and 
is  a  standard  book  of  instruction  in  liturgical  music. 
In  1887  he  received  from  the  German  Government 
the  title  of  Royal  Director  of  Music. 

HoKYBLER,    Peter    Piel   (DOaaeldorf,    1907);     Cdeilienverein*9 
Caialoo  (Ratiabon.  1870).  JoBEPH  OtTEN. 


Pienza.    See  Chiusi-Pienza,  Diocese  of. 

Pie  Pelicane,  Jesu,  Doxnine,  the  sixth  quatrain 
of  Adoro  Te  Devote  (a.  v.),  sometimes  used  as  a 
separate  hymn  at  Benediction  of  the  Most  Blessed 
Sacrament. 

Pierius,  priest  and  probably  head  master  of  the 
catechetical  school  at  Alexandria  conjointly  with 
Achillas,  flourished  while  Theonas  was  bishop  of  that 
city;  d.  at  Rome  after  300.  His  skill  as  an  exegetical 
writer  and  as  a  preacher  gained. for  him  the  impel- 
lation,  "Origen  the  Younger".  Philip  of  SideyPho- 
tius,  and  others  assert  that  he  was  a  martyr.  Hpw- 
ever,  since  St.  Jerome  assures  us  that  he  survived  the 
Diocletian  persecution  and  spent  the  rest  of  his  life 
at  Rome,  the  term  '^  martyr  can  only  mean  that  he 
underwent  sufferings,  not  death,  for  ms  Faith.  The 
Roman  Mart3rrology  commemorates  him  on  4  Novem- 
ber. He  wrote  a  work  (fitfi^low)  comprising  twelve 
treatises  or  sermons  (^^oc),  in  some  of  which  he 
repeats  the  dogmatic  errors  attributed  by  some 
authors  to  Origen  (q.  v.),  such  as  the  subordination 
of  the  Holy  Ghost  to  the  Father  and  the  Son,  and  the 
pre-existenoe  of  human  souls.  His  known  sermons  are : 
one  on  the  Gospel  of  St.  Luke  (tls  rd  jcard  Aovxaw); 
an  Easter  sermon  on  Osee  (c'f  r6  ird^-xa  '^^  '^^^  *^V) ; 
a  sermon  on  the  "Mother  of  God  («-epi  r^f  dwrUov)'^ 
a  few  other  Easter  sermons;  and  a  eulogy  on  St. 
Pamphilus,  who  had  been  one  of  his  disciples  (e't 
rhw  ptoF  rod  iiy lov  Uofi^IKov).  Only  some  fragments 
of  his  writings  are  extant.  They  were  edited  by 
Routh  in  "Reliqui»  Sacr®"^  III,  423-35,  in  P.  G., 
X,  241-6.  and,  with  newly  discovered  fragments,  by 
Boor  in  Texte  und  Untersuchun^en  zur  Geschichte 
der  altchristlichen  Literatur",  V,  li  (  (Leipzig,  1888), 
165-184.  For  an  English  translation  see  Salmond  in 
"Ante-Nicene  Fathers"  (New  York,  1896),  157. 

Radvord,  Three  Teachere  of  Alexandria  (Cambridge,  1908); 
Bardbnhbwkr,  Oeseh.  der  altehrial.  Lit.,  II  (Freiburg.  1903), 
198-203;  Idem,  Patrologie,  tr.  Shahan  (Freiburg.  1908),  158; 
Harnack,  Geach.  der  altchrist.  Lit.,  I  (Leiptig,  1893).  439-44; 
Acta  SS.,   II  Nov.,  254-64. 

Michael  Ott. 

Pierleone,  Pibtro.    See  Anaclbtus  II,  Popb. 

.  Pierre  d'Ailly.    See  Aillt. 

Pierre  de  Caatelnau,  Blessed,  b.  in  the  Diocese 
of  Montpellier,  Languedoc,  now  Department  of  H6- 
rault,  France;  d.,  15  Jan.,  1208.  He  embraced  the  ec- 
clesiastical state,  and  was  appointed  Archdeacon  of 
Maguelonne  (now  Montpellier).  Pope  Innocent  ill 
sent  him  (1199)  with  two  Cistercians  as  his  legate  into 
the  middle  of  France,  for  the  conversion  of  the  Al- 
bigenses.  Some  time  later,  about  120K2,  he  received  the 
Cistercian  habit  at  Fontfroide,  near  Narbonne.  He 
was  agiun  confirmed  as  Apostolic  legate  and  first  inquis- 
itor. He  gave  himself  untiringly  to  his  work,  strength- 
ening those  not  vet  infected  with  error,  reclaiming 
with  tenderness  those  who  had  fallen  but  manifested 
good  will,  and  pronouncing  ecclesiastical  censures 
against  the  obdurate.  Whilst  endeavouring  to  recon- 
cile Ravmond,  Count  of  Toulouse,  he  was,  by  order 
of  the  latter,  transpierced  with  a  lance,  crying  as  he 
fell,  "  M^  God  forgive  you  as  I  do."  His  feast  is  cele- 
brated in  the  Cistercian  order,  by  one  part  on  5  March, 
and  by  the  other  on  14  March.  He  is  also  honourea 
as  a  mar^  in  the  Dioceses  of  Carcassonne  and 
Treves.  His  relics  are  interred  in  the  church  of  the 
ancient  Abbey  of  St-Gilles. 

Breviariumcittercienae  (5  March) ;  Chalsmot,  Serxee  eanctorum 
et  Beatorum  «.  o.  e.  (Paris,  1670);  Annua  eiatercienaia  (Wettingen, 
1682);  Henriqusz,  Menologium  ciatercienae  (Antwerp,  1630); 
Cauvbt,  Stude  hiatorique  aur  Fontfroide  (Montpellier,  1875); 
Carstto,  Santorale  ciatercienae,  II  (Turin,  1708). 

Edmoxd  M.  Obrecht. 

Pierre  de  Maricourt,  sumamed  Peter  the 
Pilgrim  {Petrus  'Peregrinus)^  phvsician  of  the  Middle 
Ages.  Under  the  name  of  Magister  Petrus  de 
Mahame-curia,  Picardus",  he  is  quoted  by  Roger 


PIEBRE 


80 


PIETISM 


Bacon  in  his  "Opus  Majus''  as  the  onlv  author  of  his 
time  who  possessed  an  exact  knowleage  of  perspec- 
tive.  According  to  Bacon  he  came  from  Picardy,  and 
the  village  of  Maricourt  is  situated  in  the  Depart- 
ment of  the  Somme,  near  P^ronne.    He  has  left  a  re- 
markable treatise  on  the  magnet,  ''Epistola  Petri 
Peregrini  de  Maricourt  ad  Sygerum  de  Foucauoourt, 
militem,  de  mamete'^:  Syger  de  Foucaucourt  was  a 
friend  and  neighbour  ol  the  author,  his  domain  border- 
ing on  that  of  Maricourt.    It  is  dated  8  August,  1269, 
and  bears  the  legend:  Actum  in  castriaf  in  obsidiane 
LuceruB  (done  in  camp  during  the  si^e  of  Luceria), 
whence  wp  know  that  the  author  was  in  the  army  of 
Charles  of  Anjou,  who,  in  1260,  laid  sie^e  to  the  city 
of  Lucera  or  Nocera,  the  only  detail  of  his  life  known. 
The  sobriquet  '^Pilgrim"  would  lead  us  to  suppose, 
in  addition,  that  he  was  a  crusader.    The  ''Epistola 
de  magnete"  is  divided  into  two  parts.    The  first, 
a  model  of  inductive  reasoning  based  on  definite  ex- 
periences correctly  interpreted,  sets  forth  the  funda- 
mental laws  of  magnetism.    His  part  seems  to  have 
been,  not  the  discovery  of  these  laws,  but  their  pres- 
entation in  logical  order.     In  the  second  division,  less 
admirable,  an  attempt  is  made  to  prove  that  with  the 
help  of  magnets  it  is  possible  to  realize  perpetual  mo- 
tion.  From  medieval  times  the  work  was  exceedingly 
popular;  in  1326  Thomas  Bradwardine  quotes  it  in 
nis  "Tractatus  de  proportionibus'',  and  after  his  time 
the  masters  of  Oxtora  University  make  frequent  use 
of  it.    The  manuscripts  containing  it  are  very  numer- 
ous, and  it  has  been  printed  a  number  of  times.    The 
first  edition  was  issued  at  Augsburg,  1558,  by  Achilles 
Gasser.    In  1572  Jean  Taisner  or  Taisnier  publi^ed 
from  the  press  of  Johann  Birkmann  of  Cologne  a  work 
entitled  ^'Opusculum  perpetua  memoria  dignissimum, 
de  natura  magnetis  et  ejus  effectibus.  Item  de  motu 
continuo''.    In  this  celebrated  piece  of  plagiarism 
Taisnier  presents,  as  though  from  his  own  pen,  the 
''Epistola  de  magnete^'  of  Pierre  de  Maricourt  and  a 
treatise  on  the  fall  of  bodies  by  Gianbattista  Bene- 
detti.    The  "Epistola  de  magnete'^  was  later  issued 
by  Libri  (Histoire  des  sciences  math6matiques  en 
Italic,  II,  Paris,  1838;  note  v,  pp.  487-505),  but  this 
edition  was  full  of  defects;  correct  editions  were  pub- 
hshed  by  P.  D.  Timoteo  Bertelli  (in  "Bulletino  di 
bibliografia  e  di  storia  delle  scienze  matematiche  e 
fisiche  pubblicata  da  B.  Boncampagni",  I,  1868,  pp. 
70-80)  and  G.  Hellmann  ("Neudrucke  von  Schriften 
und  Karten  Uber  Meteorologie  und  Erdmagnetismus, 
No.  10,  Rara  magnetica'',  6erlin,  1898).    A  transla- 
tion into  English  has  been  made  by  Silvanufi  P. 
Thompson  ("Peter  Peregrinus  of  Maricourt,  Epistle 
to  Sygerus  of  Foucaucourt,  Soldier,  concerning  the 
Magnet '\  Chiswick  Press,  s.  d.),  also  by  Brother 
Arnold  ("The  Letter  of  retrus  Peregrinus  on  the 
Magnet,  a.  d.   1269",  with  introductory  note  by 
Brother  Potamian,  New  York.  1904). 

Bertelu,  Sopra  PvUro  Peregrino  ai  Maricourt  e  la  sua  EpiaUAa 
de  MagneU  in  BvUeiino  publieala  da  B.  Bonemnpaan**  I  (18^)  i 
1-32;  Idem.  Sulla  BpiaUAa  di  Bietro  Peregrino  di  MarieouH  e 
iopra  aleuni  trovati  e  teorie  magneliche  dd  secoio  XIII,  ibid., 
0^-09,  319-420;  Idbii,  Inlomo  a  due  eodiei  Vatieani  deUa  Bjnatola 
de  tnagnele  di  Pietro  Peregrino  di  Maricourt  ed  aUe  prime  oeeer- 
9aeioni  della  dedinatione  magneticat  ibid.,  IV  (1871).  303-31; 
BONCOMPAOKI,  Intorno  alle  editioni  della  Bpietola  de  magnete 
di  Pietro  Peregrino  de  Maricourt,  ibid.,  332-39. 

Pierre  Duhem. 

Pierre  Mathieu.    See  Liaer  Septimus. 

Pierron,  Jean,  missionary,  b.  at  Dun-sur-Meuse, 
France,  28  Sept.,  1631;  date  and  place  of  death  un- 
known. He  entered  the  Jesuit  novitiate  at  Nancy,  21 
Nov.,  1650,  and  after  studying  at  Pont-^-Mousson  he 
became  an  instructor  at  Reims  and  Verdun;  he  com- 
pleted the  curriculum  in  1665  and  spent  two  years 
more  as  an  instructor  at  Metz.  On  his  arrival  in 
Canada  in  June,  1667,  he  was  sent  to  the  Iroquois 
mission  of  Sainte-Marie.  In  a  letter  written  the  same 
year  he  described  his  impressions  of  the  country,  the 


characteristics  and  customs  of  the  savages,  and  e& 
pressed  an  admiration  for  the  Iroquois  language,  which 
reminded  him  of  Greek.  He  arrived  at  Tionontoguen, 
the  principal  village  of  the  Mohawks,  on  7  Oct.,  1668, 
where  he  replaced  Father  Fremin..  These  people  were 
one  of  the  most  flourishing  of  the  Iroauois  nations, 
vaUant  and  proud  warriors,  and  difficult  to  convert. 
Father  Pierron  made  use  of  pictures  which  he  painted 
himself  in  order  to  make  his  teachings  more  impres- 
sive, and  invented  a  game  by  means  of  which  the  In- 
dians learned  the  doctrines  and  devotions  of  the 
Church;  he  taught  the  children  to  read  and  write.  He 
spent  one  winter  in  Acadia  to  ascertain  if  it  were  po»- 
sible  to  re-establish  the  missions  which  had  been  ex- 
pelled in  1655,  and  travelled  through  New  England, 
Maryland  (wluch  at  that  time  had  a  Catholic  gover- 
nor, Charles  Calvert),  and  Virginia;  returning  to  the 
Iroquois,  he  worked  among  them  until  1677  and  went 
to  France  in  the  following  year.  He  was  a  man  of 
rare  virtue,  and  during  all  his  missionary  career  fought 
against  a  natural  repugnance  to  the  Iroquois. 

Ed.  Tkwaitbs.  Jeeuit  Rdatume  (Cleveland.  1896-1901) ;  Camp- 
bell, Pioneer  Prieeta  of  North  America  (New  York,  1909). 

J.  Zevelt. 

Pienon,  Philippe,  b.  at  Ath,  Hainaut  (Belgium), 
4  January,  1642;  d.  at  Lorette,  Quebec,  1688.  At 
the  age  of  eighteen  he  entered  the  Jesuit  novitiate  at 
Toumai,  and  pursued  his  studies  at  Louvain,  Lille, 
and  Douay.  He  was  an  instructor  at  ,Armenti^res 
and  Bethune  before  he  went  to  Canada  in  1666,  where 
he  taught  grammar  in  the  college  at  Quebec>  and  pre- 
sented a  successful  Latin  play  on  the  Passion  of  Our 
Lord.  After  studying  theology  for  two  years  he  was 
ordained  in  1669,  then  worked  among  the  Indians  at 
Prairie  de  la  Madeleine  and  Sillery.  From  1673  to 
1683  he  (Ud  excellent  work  b^  spreading  Christianity 
among  the  Hurons  of  the  Makinac  mission.  In  a  letter 
from  St.  Ignace  he  described  how  his  church  increased 
in  numbers  and  grew  strong  in  faith.  Later,  from  1683 
he  was  a  missionai^  among  the  Sioux  west  of  Lake 
Superior,  and  remained  as  such  until  his  death. 

Ed.  Thwaites.  Jeeuit  Relatione  (Cleveland,  1896-1901). 

J.  Zevelt. 

Pietism,  a  movement  within  the  ranks  of  Protest- 
antism, originating  in  the  reaction  agunst  the  fruitless 
Protestant  orthodoxy  of  the  seventeenth  century,  and 
aiming  at  the  revival  of  devotion  and  practical  Chris- 
tianity. Its  appearance  in  the  German  Lutheran 
Church,  about  1670,  is  connected  with  the  niune  of 
Spener.  Similar  movements  had  preceded  it  in  the 
Reformed  Church  of  the  Netherlands  (Gisbert 
Voetius,  Jodocus  von  Lodensteyn)  and  on  the  German 
Lower  Rhine  (Gerhard  Tersteegen).  Among  German 
Lutherans  the  mystics  Valentin  Weigel  and  Johannes 
Amdt  an''  the  theologians  Johann  Gerhard,  Johann 
Matthias  Meyfart,  and  Theophilus  Grossgebauer  may 
be  regarded  as  precursors  of  Spener. 

Phnipp  Jakob  Spener,  bom  in  1635  at  Rappoltsweiler 
in  Alsace,  had  been  from  his  earliest  years,  under  the 
influence  of  the  pious  Countess  Agathe  von  Rappolt- 
stein,  familiar  with  such  ascetical  works  as  Arndt's 
"Sechs  Bticher  vom  wahren  Christenthum".  At 
Geneva,  whither  he  went  as  student  in  1660,  he  was 
profoundly  impressed  by  Jean  de  Labadie,  then  active 
as  a  Reformed  preacher,  but  later  a  separatist  fanatic. 
Spener  found  his  first  sphere  of  practical  work  at 
Frankfort  on  the  Main,  where  he  was  appointed  pastor 
and  senior  in  1666.  His  sermons,  in  which  he  em- 
phasized the  necessity  of  a  lively  faith  and  the  sane- 
tification  of  daily  Ufe,  brought  him  many  adherents 
among  the  more  serious  of  his  hearers;  but  recognizing 
the  impossibihty  of  leading  the  people  at  large  to  the 
desired  degree  of  perfection,  he  conceived  the  idea  of 
an  ecclesima  in  ecdesiay  established  in  1670  the  so- 
called  ''Collegia  pietatis"  (whence  the  name  Pietists), 


PIETISM                         ,         81  PIETISM 

i  e  private  aaBemblies  in  his  own  house  for  pious  read-  promoted  the  dissemination  of  the  Bible  through  the 
ing  Mid  mutual  edification,  and  wrote  "Pia  desideria  establishment  (1710),  by  Freiherr  von  Qanstein,  of  a 
Oder  herzliches  Verlangen  nach  gotteefalliger  Besse-  bible  house  at  the  Halle  orphan  asylum.  The  Pietists 
rung  der  wahren  evangelischen  Kirche"*  (1675).  After  on  the  whole  preserved  the  doctrinal  content  of  Lu- 
criticising  the  prevalent  abuses,  he  makes  six  sugges-  theran  dogma,  but  treated  systematic  theology  and 
tions  for  the  improvement  of  ecclesiastical  conditions:  philosophy  as  quite  secondary.  In  preaching  against 
In  view  of  the  inadequacy  of  sermons  for  the  purpose,  the  prevalent  laidty  of  morals  they  relegated  to  the 
private  gatherings  should  be  held  to  secure  among  the  background  the  Lutheran  dogma  of  justification  by 
people  a  more  thorough  acquaintance  with  the  Word  faith  alone  and  insisted  on  a  life  of  active  devotion, 
of  God;  the  idea  of  a  universal  priesthood,  which  had  and  the  doctrine  of  repentance,  conversion,  and  regen- 
not  attained  its  rightful  significance  in  tne  previous  eration.  The  Pietist  conventicles  sought  to  further 
development  of  the  Lutheran  Church,  was  to  oe  more  the  "penitential  conflict"  leading  to  regeneration  by 
fully  realized;  with  the  knowledge  of  Christianity  was  prayer,  devout  reading,  and  exhortations.  The  so- 
to  be  closely  joined  the  exercise  of  charity  and  the  called  "adiaphora",  theatres,  dancing,  etc.,  were 
spirit  of  forraveness;  the  attitude  towards  unbehevers-  regarded  as  sinful.  After  the  foundation  of  the  Uni- 
snould  be  determined  upon  not  by  a  controversial  versity  of  Halle  the  campaign  against  Pietism  was 
spirit,  but  by  the  charitable  desire  of  winning  these  pursued  with  increased  vigour  by  the  orthodox  Lu- 
souls;  the  theological  course  should  be  reformed  in  therans,  notably  Samuel  Schelwig  at  Danzig,  Valen- 
order  to  spur  the  students  not*  only  to  diligence,  but  tin  Alberti  at  Leipzig,  and  the  theological  faculty  of 
also  to  a  devout  life,  in  which  the  professors  should  set  Wittenberg,  with  Johann  Deutschmann  at  its  head, 
the  example;  in  preaching,  rhetoric  should  be  aban-  Later  came  Valentin  Ernst  Ldscher  (d.  1747),  against 
doned  and  stress  laid  upon  inculcating  fiuth  and  a  whom  Pietism  was  defended  by  Joachim  Lange,  pro- 
living,  practical  Christianity.  Si)ener  further  de-  fessor  at  Halle.  During  these  struggles  the  founders 
fended  his  ideas  of  a  universal  priesthood  in  ''Das  of  Pietism  had  passed  away,  Spener  m  1705,  Francke 
geistliche  Priesterthum,  ausgottlichem  Wort  ktirzlich  in  1727,  Breithaupt  in  1732,  and  then  followed  the 
b^hrieben"  (1677).    His  "Pia  Desideria"  won  him  period  of  decUne. 

many  adherents,  but  also  aroused  violent  opposition  Meanwhile,  despite  opposition,   the  influence  of 

among  Lutheran  theologians.  Pietism  had  spread,  and  its  prestige,  with  the  support 

A  wider  sphere  of  activity  opened  to  Spener  in  1686  of  King  Freclerick  I  and  Frederick  William  I,  sur- 

when  he  was  appointed  court  preacher  at  Dresden,  vived  Francke's  death.    Frederick  William  I  decreed 

During  the  same  year,  August  Hermann  Francke.  (1729)  that  all  theologians  desiring  appointments  in 

Paul  Anton,  and  Johann  Kaspar  Schade  established  Prussia  should  study  at  Halle  for  two  years;  but  the 

at  Leipzig,  along  the  line  of  Spener's  ideas,  the  "Col-  favour  shown  the  Pietists  ceased  with  the  accession 

legia  philobiblica",  for  the-practical  and  devotional  of  Frederick  II.    Besides  Halle,  the  Universities  of 

explanation  of  Holy  Scripture,  which  attracted  large  Konigsberg  and  Giessen  aided  in  the  spread  of  Piet- 

numbers  of  masters  and  students.    The  Pietist  move-  ism.    It  had  also  a  powerful  patron  in  Frederick  IV, 

ment  at  Leipzig,  however,  came  to  an  end  a  few  years  King  of  Denmark,  who  encouraged  the  movement  in 

later  owing  to  the  opposition  of  the  theological  faculty,  his  country,  sent  Danish  students  of  theology  to  Halle, 

headed  by  Professor  Johann  Benedict  Carpzov.    The  and  requested  Francke  to  recommend  missionaries 

Pietists  were  accused  of  false  doctrines,  contempt  for  for  the  Danish  East  Indian  possessions.    At  Wiirtem- 

public  worship  and  the  science  of  theology,  and  sepa-  ber^  Pietism  took  on  a  special  character;  while  hold- 

ratistic  tendencies.    The  "Collegia  philoDiblica"  was  ing  m  essentials  to  the  ideas  of  Spener  and  Francke,  it 

dissolved  in  1690  and  the  leaders  of  the  movement,  for-  was  more  moderate,  adhered  more  closely  to  the  or- 

bidden  to  lecture  on  theology,  left  Leipzig.     Spener,  ganization  and  theology  of  the  Lutheran  Church,  kept 

who  had  fallen  into  disfavour  with  the  Elector  of  Sax-  clear  of  eccentricities,  had  more  scholarly  interests, 

ony,  removed  in  1691  to  Berlin,  where  he  was  ap-  and  flourished  longer  than  the  Pietism  of  Northern 

pomted  provost  to  the  church  of  St.  Nicholas  and  Germany.    Francke,  who  had  travelled  through  WOr- 

counsellor  to  the  consistory.     Pietism  was  also  at-  temberg  in  1717,  was  held  in  great  veneration,  while 

tacked  in  Carpzov's  Blaster  programme  of  1691  and  there  was  no  intercourse  at  aU  with  the  later  rerae- 

the  anonymous  treatise  ''Imago  Pietismi"   (1691),  sentatives  of  Pietism  in  Northern  Germany.     The 

probably  the  work  of  Pastor  Roth  of  Halle.    A  lively  leader  of  the  movement  at  Wtirtemberg  was  Johann 

exchange  of  controversial  pamphlets  ensued.  Spener's  Albrecht  Bengel   (d.   1752),  who,  like  many  other 

call  to  Berlin  was  of  great  significance  for  Pietism,  Wtirtemberg  theologians,  had  studied  at  Halle;  with 

as  he  here  enjoyed  the  full  confidence  of  Prince  Fred-  him  were  associated  Eberhard  Weismann  and  Frie- 

erick  III  (later  King  Frederick  I  of  Prussia)  and  drich  Christoph  Oetinger.    A  separatistic  community 

wielded  a  decisive  influence  in  the  selection  of  pro-  which  grew  out  of  Pietism  was  the  "Hermhtiter," 

fessors  for  the  theological  faculty  of  the  recently  whose  founder.  Count  von  Zinzendorf,  had  been  edu- 

founded  University  of  Halle.    Francke,  who  had  been  cated  in  Francke's  institutions  at  Halle.     In  Swit- 

working  at  Erfurt  since  his  departure  from  Leipzig,  zerland.  Pietism  was  widespread,  specially  in  the 

went  to  Halle  as  professor  and  pastor  in  January,  cantons  of  Bern.  Zurich,  Basle,  and  Waadt. 

1692;  his  friend,  Joachim  Justus  Breithaupt,  had  pre-  So  far  as  it  followed  the  paths  traced  by  Spener  and 

ceded  him  in  October.  1691,  as  first  professor  of  theol-  Francke,  Pietism  produced  some  beneficial  results, 

oflpr  and  director  of  the  theological  seminary.    Some-  In  the  subjective  bias  of  the  whole  movement,  how- 

what   later   Paul   Anton,   formerly  a  colleague  of  ever,  there  lay  from  the  beginnning  the  danger  of  many 

Francke's  at  Leipzig,  also  received  a  chair  at  Halle,  abuses.    It  often  degenerated  into  fanaticism,  with 

Professors  in  other  faculties,  like  the  celebrated  jurist  alleged  prophecies,  visions,  and  mystical  states  (e.  g.. 

Christian  Thomasius,  organizer  of  the  new  university,  bloody  sweats).    This  decadent  Pietism  led  to  the 


^  .    _     .          ^  orgies  (e.  g.  the  Wittgenstein  scandals  and  the 

movement  m  Lutheran  Germany.  Buttlar  gang).     Among  the  theologians  who,  starting 

Francke  ranks  high  also  m  the  history  of  education,  as  Pietists,  advanced  to  an  independent  position, 

owing  to  the  establishment  (1695)  of  his  orphan  asy-  quite  at  variance  with  organized  Protestantism,  the 


XII.— 6 


PCBTRO                                  82  ,                     PIONATELLI 

of  orthodox  Christianity.    Though  the  founders  of  vam  Marci  Beneventani  astronomiam ''  (Paris,  1522); 

Pietism  had  no  idea  of  forsaking  the  basis  of  Lutheran  and  **  Defensio  Apologias  adversus  Marci  Beneven- 

dogma,  the  Pietistic  movement,  with  its  treatment  of  tani  astronomiam    (Paris,  1622).    As  a  theologian  he 

dogma  as  a  secondary  matter  and  its  indifference  to  zealously   defended  the   authority   of   the   Church 

variations  in  doctrine,  prepared  the  ground  for  the  agidnst  the  Reformers.    His  most  important  theologi- 

theological  rationalism  of  the  period  of  enlighten-  cal  work  is  a  rejoinder  to  Henry  VIII  of  England  and 

ment.    Johann  Salomo  Semler,  the  father  of  ration-  is  entitled:  '^merarchise  ecclesiasticsD  assertio''  (d^o- 

alism,  came  from  the  Halle  school  of  Pietism,  and  his  logne,  1538,  dedicated  to  Paul  III;  later  editions,  1544, 

appointment  as  professor  of  theology  at  the  Univer-  1558,  1572).    In  reply  John  Lebmd  wrote  his  ^'Anti- 

sity  of  Halle  in  1752  opened  the  way  to  the  ascendancy  philarchia" ;  cf. ''  Diet.  Nat.  Biog.''  (new  ed.,  London, 

of  rationalism,  against  which  the  devout  Pietists  1909), 'XI,  893.    Pighius  also  wrote: '' Apologia  indicti 

were  as  powerless  as  the  representatives  of  Protestant  a  Paulo  III.    ConciUi,  adversus  Lutheranas  confce- 

orthodoxy.    Pietism  revived  in  Protestant  Germany  derationes"  (Cologne,  1537;  Paris,  1538);  ^'De  libero 

and  Protestant  Switzerland,  early  in  the  nineteenth  hominis  arbitrio  et  divina  jgratia  libri  X"  (Cologne, 

century,  as  a  reaction  against  the  rationalistic  en-  1542),  against  Luther  and  Calvin; ''Controversiarum 

Ughtenment  and  a  response  to  more  deeply  felt  reli-  prsBcipuarum   in   Comitiis   Ratisponensibus  tracta- 

gious  needs.    /.  far-reaching  activity  along  these  lines  iarum  .  .  .  explicatio  (Cologne,  1542).   To  this  were 

was  exerted  in  many  parts  of  Germany  and  Switzer-  added  the  two  treatises:  '^Qusestio  de  divortiatorum 

land  by  Freif rau  von  KrUdener  by  means  of  her  ser-  novis  coniugiis  et  uxorum  pluralitate  sub  lege  evan^e- 

mons  on  penance.    Tract  societies  and  associations  lica"  and     Diatriba  de  actis  VI.  et  VII.  Synodi". 

for  propagating  home  missions  did  much  to  promote  Other  theological  works  were:  ''Ratio  componendo- 

the  spirit  of  Pietism.    On  the  other  hand,  along  with  mm  dissidiorum  et  sarciendse  in  religione  concordiae" 

good  results,  this  movement  again  degenerated  into  ((Cologne,  1542),  and  his  last  worl!,  "Apologia  adver- 

mystical    fanaticism    and    sectarianism  (e.  g.,  the  bus  Martini  Buceri  calumnias"  (Mainz,  1543).     A 

''sanctimonious  hypocrites"  at  Kdnigsberg,   about  treatise  "Adversus  Grsecorum  errores",  dedicated  to 

1835;  the  adherents  of  Schonherr,  Ebel,  andDiestel).  Clement  VII,  is  preserved  in  manuscript  in  the  Vati- 

There  are  also  connecting  links  between  the  subjectiv-  can  Library. 

ism  of  the  Pietists  and  the  theological  hberahsm  of  Pighius  was  in  his  convictions  a  faithful  adherent  of 

Albrecht  Ritschl  and  his  school,  whose  insistence  on  the  Church  and  a  man  of  the  best  intentions,  but  on 

interior  religious  experience  in  the  form  of  feeling  is  some  points  he  advanced  teachings  which  are  not  in 

a  basic  idea  of  Pietism,  although  the  Bitschlian  school  harmony  with  the  Catholic  position.    One  was  his 

is  opposed  by  devout  Pietists  as  well  as  by  Orthodox  opinion  that  original  sin  was  nothing  more  than  the 

Lutnerans.  sin  of  Adam  imputed  to  every  child  at  birth,  without 

ScRMiD.Z>ie(7Mc^<2MPiM<MmtM(N(5rdlingen,  1863):Tholucx.  any  inherent  taint  of  sinfulness  being  in  the  child 

ai^JS^Z^te  (iriS.  •i^)r'H^^o^TlS  •*««•    I»  th«  doctrine  of  justification  al?o.he  made 

Pietiamua  (Bonn,  1880-88);  Sachasb.  Urapning  u.  Weten  de*  too  many  concessions  toFrotestants.  He  on^nated  the 

Pieiitmua  (Wiesbaden,  1884) ;  HObbneb,  Ueber  den  Pietistntu  in  doctrine  of  the  doublc  righteOUSneSS  by  wmch  man  is 

pZ^^t'^^'ii^l,^' r7^!li;]!r*?S^n**77''rJ'^*  '^  ^^"^i'  justified,  that  has  justly  been  characterized  as  "semi- 

rreiKtrcM  %n  iiacMen  (^wiclcau,  1901;,  17— loo;   Hadobn,  Gesch,  V     xi.          •        »»       *           j*       a    xi.*    xi.             ai^    •          *   j 

de«  Pietismtu  in  den  schweizerxBchen  re/ormierten  Kireken  (Ck)n-  Luthcramsm    .    According  to  this  theory,  theunputed 

stance,  1901) ;  Rennbb,  Lebentbilder  au9  der  PietiateneeU  (Bremen,  righteousness  of  Christ  is  the  formal  Cause  of  the  JUS- 

^^\\iS?^r'^^^^lL''A^T%'t!.1^^^  tification  of  man  before  God,  while  the  individual 

ed.,  1853);   ubunsbbq,  jtA.  J.  Spener  (Gdttinffen,  1803-1906):  'ux                    •!_          x*               -i            •          _^j.j 

NiEMBTBB,  A.  H.  Francke  (Halle.  1794);   Gubbickb,  A.  A.  nghteousness  inherent  m  man  IS  always  imperfect  and 

Pvancke  (Halle,  1827);  Kbambb,  A.  H,  Francke  (Halle,  1880-2);  therefore  insufficient.   These  opinions  of  Pighius  were 

f^^^F^^^lLi,"  rwi.nr'J^U^                           ^'vS'^'  ^^™'  adopted  by  Johannes  Cropper  and  CanKal  Con- 

A*  H.  rraneke  (Halle,  1902);    Katbbb,  ChrxHxan  Thomaetue  u.      ±,     •    •.  j      ••'      ±a       i*  1  xu    o :i  ^r  rp x  ^t 

der  PieUemtu,  supplement  to  JahreaberieJU  dee  WWielm  Oymna-  tanm^urmg  the  dlSCUSSlon  at  the  Cx>uncil  Of  Irent  Of 

nuffM  in  Hambiurg  (Hamburg.  1900).  the  "Decretum  de  Justificatione "  they  were  miun- 

Friedrich  Lauchert.  tained  b;y  Seripando,  but  the  Council,  with  due  regard 

Pietaro  di  Murrone.     See  Cblbstinb  V,  Saint,  (or  the  ideas  that  were  justifiable  in  themselves,  re- 

Pqpiq                                                                '            *  jected  the  untenable  compromise  theory  itself. 

LxNSBNMANN,  Albertits  Pighiua  und  aein  tkeologieeher  Stant^ 

PighiuB  (PiooHE),  ALBERT  theologian,  mathenuj-  ^^J&'^^H^i^&'^^lli  ']^;S'^V^:i 

tician,  and  astronomer,  b.  at  Kampen,  Overyssel,  Xarfa F.(Freiburgim  Br.,  1879),  167  8q.;DrrTBrcH.0Ia«paro  Con- 
Holland,  about  1490;  d.  at  Utrecht,  26  Dec.,  1542.  <arin»(Braunaberg,  1885),  660-69;  Hbfblb-HebobkbOtheb,  Con- 
He  studied  philosophy  and  began  the  study  of  the-  «?»«J<'"<^'^-.  '^  (^^^te«  r^\A^?^^'  ®^S^i  %!S"V^ 

_i   ^ A  r  ^..      •         ^L  ^  A  j_:          *  tta       t- a   1   X  "'""^^  ErUatehungsgeech.  des  TrxerUer  Recht/erttffungBdeeretea  (Paderborn, 

OlOgy  at  LiOUVam,  where  Adrian  of  Utrecht,  later  Pope  1909),  165  sq.    His  correspondence  was  published  by  Fbibdens- 

Adnan  VI,   was  one  of  his  teachers.      Pighius  com-  bubq.  BeilrOge  zum  Briefvecheel  der  kathol.  QeUhrten  DetUeehlanda 

pleted  his  studies  at  Colome  and  received  m  1517  the  fTo^f "TTS^m"'*^'^  ^  Zeiuchrifi  fur  Kirchengeeck.,  XXIII 

degree  of  Doctor  of  Theology.    He  then  followed  his  Friedrich  Lauchbrt. 
teacher  Adrian  to  Spain,  and^  when  the  latter  became 

pope,  to  Rome,  where  he  also  remained  during  the  Pignatelli,  Venerable  -Giuseppe  Maria,  b.  27 

reigns  of  Clement  VII  and  Paul  III,  and  was  repeat-  December,  1737,  in  Saragossa,  Spain;  d.  11  Novom- 

edly  employed  in   ecclesiastico-political  embassies,  ber,  1811.    His  family  was  of  Neapolitan  descent  and 

He  had  taught  mathematics  to  Cardinal  Alessandro  noble  hneage.     After  finishing  his  early  studies  in 

Famese,  afterwards  Paul  III;  in  1535  Paul  III  ap-  the  Jesuit  College  of  Saragossa,  he  entered  the  Societv 

pointed  him  provost  of  St.  John's  at  Utrecht,  where  of  Jesus  (8  May, -1753)  notwithstanding  his  family'iB 

he  had  held  a  canonry  since  1524.    At  the  religious  opposition.    On  concluding  his  ecclesiastical  studies 

disputation  of  Ratisbon  in  1541  he  was  on  the  Catho-  he  was  ordained,  and  tau^t  at  Saragossa.    In  1766 

lie  side*  the  Governor  of  Saragossa  was  held  responsible  for 

Among  hb  writings  the  following  belong  to  the  the  threatened  famine,  and  so  enraged  was  the  popu- 

sphere  of  his  mathematico-astronomical  studies:  "As-  lace  against  him  that  they  were  about  to  destroy  his 

trologiffi  defensio  adversus  prognosticatorum  vulgus,  palace  by  fire.     Pignatefli's  persuasive  power  over 

qui  annuas  praedictiones  edunt  et  se  astrologos  men-  the  people  averted  the  calamity.    Despite  the  letter 

tiuntur "  (Paris,  1518) ;  also  the  treatise  addressed  to  of  thanks  sent  by  Charles  III  the  Jesuits  were  accused 

I^  X  upon  the  reform  of  the  calendar,  "De  squinoc-  of  instigating  the  above-mentioned  riot.    Pignatelli's 

tiarum  solstitiorumque  inventione  et  de  ratione  pas-  refutation  of  the  calumny  was  followed  by  the  decree 

chalis   celebrationis   deque   restitutione  ecclesiastic!  of  expulsion  of  the  Fathers  of  Saragossa  (4  April, 

Calondarii  (Paris,  1520);  also  "Apologia  adversus  no-  1767).     Minister  Aranda  offered  to  reinstate  Nioola 


83 


PILATE 


and  Giuseppe  Pignatelli,  providing  they  abandon  their 
order,  but  in  spite  of  Giuseppe's  ill-health  they  stood 
firm .  Not  permitted  by  Clement  III  to  land  at  Civit4 
Vwchia,  with  the  other  Jesuits  of  Aragon,  he  repaired 
to  8t.  Boniface  in  Corsica  where  he  displajred  singular 
ability  for  organisation  in  providing  for  nve  hundred 
fathers  and  students.  His  sister,  the  Duchess  of 
Acerra,  aided  him  with  money  ana  provisions.  He 
oreanized  studies  and  maintidned  regular  observance. 
When  France  assumed  control  of  Corsica,  he  was 
obliged  to  return  to  Genoa.  He  was  again  detailed  to 
secure  a  location  in  the  legation  of  Ferrara,  not  only 
for  the  fathers  of  his  own  province  of  Aragon,  but  also 
for  those  of  Peru  and  Mexico,  but  the  community  was 
dissolved  in  August,  1773.  The  two  Pignatelli  brothers 
were  then  obliged  to  betake  themselves  to  Bologna, 
where  they  Uved  in  retirement  (being  forbidden  to 
exercise  the  sacred  ministrv).  They  devoted  them- 
selves to  study  and  Pignatelli  himself  collected  books 
and  manuscripts  bearing  on  the  history  of  the  Society. 
On  ascertaining  from  Pius  IV  that  the  Society  of 
Jesus  still  survived  in  White  Russia,  he  desired  to 
be  received  there.  For  various  reasons  he  was  obliged 
to  defer  his  departure.  During  this  delay  he  was 
invited,  on  the  instance  of  Ferdinand,  Duke  of  Parma, 
to  re-establish  the  Society  in  his  States;  and  in  1793, 
having  obtained  through  Catharine  II  a  few  fathers 
from  Russia,  with  other  Jesuits,  an  establishment  was 
made.  On  6  July,  1797,  Pignatelli  there  renewed 
his  vows.  In  1799  he  was  appointed  master  of 
novices  in  Colemo.  On  the  decease  of  the  Duke  of 
Parma,  the  States  of  Parma  were  placed  under  alle- 
giance to  France.  Notwithstanding  this  fact,  the 
Jesuits  remained  undisturbed  for  eighteen  months, 
during  which  period  Pignatelli  was  appointed  Pro- 
vindiu  of  Italy.  After  consTderable  discussion  he  ob- 
tained the  restoration  of  the  Jesuits  in  Naples.  The 
papal  Brief  (30  Julv,  1804)  was  much  more  favourable 
than  that  granted  for  Parma.  The  older  Jesuits  soon 
asked  to  be  received  back;  many,  however,  engaged 
in  various  ecclesiastical  callings,  remained  at  their 
posts.  Schools  and  a  college  were  opened  in  Sicily, 
out  when  this  part  of  the  kingdom  fell  mto  Napoleon  s 
power,  the  dispersion  of  the  Jesuits  was  ordered; 
but  the  decree  was  not  rigorously  executed.  Pi^a- 
telli  founded  colleges  in  Rome,  Tivoli,  and  Orvieto, 
and  the  fathers  were  invited  to  other  cities.  During 
the  exile  of  Pius  VII  and  the  French  occupation  the 
Society  continued  unmolested,  owing  largelv  to  the 
prudence  and  the  merits  of  Pignatelli;  he  even 
managed  to  avoid  the  oaths  of  allegiance  to  Napo- 
leon. He  also  secured  the  restoration  of  the  Society 
in  Sardinia  (1807).  Under  Gregory  XVI  the  cause  of 
his  beatification  was  introduced. 

NoNBLL,  Bl  V.  P.  Jo»i  At.  PignaieUi  ylaC.de  J.  en  m  eatindion 
y  reatableeimierUo  (3  vols.,  Manresa,  1893-4);  Boebo,  Istoria 
dd  V.  Padn  Qiut.  M.  PignaUlli  (Rome.  1856). 

U.  Benigni. 

Pike,  William^Venerable,  martyr,  bom  in  Dor- 
setshire; died  at  Dorchester,  Dec,  1591.  He  was  a 
ioiner,  and  lived  at  West  Moors,  West  Parley.  On 
his  way  from  Dorchester  to  his  home,  he  fell  in  with 
the  venerable  martyr  Thomas  Pilchard,  who  con- 
verted him,  probably  in  1586.  At  his  trial  for  being 
reconciled  with  the  See  of  Rome  'Hhe  bloody  question 
about  the  Pope's  supremacy  was  put  to  him,  and  he 
frankly  confessed  that  he  maintcuned  the  authority 
of  the  Roman  See;  for  which  he  was  condemned  to 
die  a  traitor's  death".  When  they  asked  him  to  re- 
cant in  order  to  save  his  hfe  and  his  family,  ''he 
boldly  replied  that  it  did  not  become  a  son  of  Mr. 
PUchard  to  do  so".  "Until  he  died,  Mr.  Pilchard's 
name  was  constantly  on  his  lips."  Being  asked  at 
death  what  had  moved  him  to  that  resolution  etc., 
he  said  ''Nothing  but  the  smell  of  a  pilchard".  The 
date  of  his  death  is  not  recorded,  but  m  the  Menology 
his  name  is  imder  22  Dec. 


PoLLKN,  AcU  of  the  Bngliah  Martyrs  (London.  1891).  287; 
English  MaHyrt  1684-1608  (London,  1008),  289;  Challonbr, 
Missionary  Pfiests,  I,  no.  80:  Stanton,  Menology  of  England  and 
WaUs  (London.  1887).  606.  689. 

John  B.  Wainewright. 

Pilar,  NuESTRA  Se5^ora  del  (Our  Lady  of  the 
Pillar),  a  celebrated  church  and  shrine,  at  Saragossa. 
Spsdn,  containing  a  miraculous  image  of  the  Blessea 
Virgin,  which  is  the  object  of  very  special  devotion 
throughout  the  kingdom.  The  image,  which  is  placed 
on  a  marble  pillar,  whence  the  name  of  tho  cnurch, 
was  crowned  in  1905  with  a  crown  designed  by  the 
Marquis  of  Grifii,  and  valued  at  450,000  pesetas 
(£18,750).  The  present  spacious  church  in  Baroque 
style  was  begun  in  1681.  According  to  an  ancient 
Spanish  tradition,  given  in  the  Roman  Breviary  (for 
12  October,  Ad.  mat.,  lect.  vi),  the  original  shnne 
was  built  by  St.  James  the  Apostle  at  the  wish  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin,  who  appeared  to  him  as  he  was  praying 
by  the  bamu  of  the  Ebro  at  Saragossa.  There  has 
been  much  discussion  as  to  the  truth  of  the  tradition. 
Mgr  L.  Duchesne  denies,  as  did  Baronius,  the  coming 
of  St.  James  to  Spain,  and  reproduces  arguments 
founded  on  writings  of  the  Twelfth  (Ecumenical  Coun- 
cil,>  discovered  by  Loaisa,  but  rejected  as  spurious  by 
the  Jesuit  academician  Fita  and  manv  others.  Those 
who  defend  the  tradition  adduce  the  testimony  of 
St.  Jerome  (P.  L.,  XXIV,  373)  and  that  of  the  Moa- 
arabic  Office.  The  oldest  written  testimony  of  devo* 
tion  to  the  Blessed  Virgin  in  Saragossa  usually  quoted 
is  that  of  Pedro  Librana  (1155).  Fita  has  published 
■data  of  two  Christian  tombs  at  Saragossa,  datiQg  from 
Roman  days,  on  which  the  Assumption  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin  is  represented. 

Ada  8S.,  VI  July;  Fl6rxs  t  Ruoo,  Espotia  aaorada^  III.  IV, 
XXX;  TolrA.  Venida  de  Saniiaqo  d  B»paHa  (Madrid.  1797); 
Natalu  Alexander,  Hist,  eed..  Ill;  Duchesne,  Annates  du 
Midi  (1900) ;  RodrIques  in  Appendix  to  Los  seis  primeros  siglos 
de  la  iglesia  (Span.  tr.  of  Duchesne's  work,  Barcelona,  1910) ;  Fita 
in  Ratdn  y  Pe  (Madrid,  1901,  1902,  1904);  Noauis.  Hist.  erU, 
apol.  de  la  Yirgen  del  Pilar  (Madrid.  1862) ;  Quadrado.  EspafUi, 
sus  monumenios  .  .  .  Aroifdn  (Barcelona,  1886);  Mensajero  del 
Corazdn  de  Jeads  (Madrid,  19()5) ;  Messenger  of  the  Sacred  HeaH 
(New  York,  1894). 

J.  M.  March. 
Pilate,  Acre  of.    See  Apocrypha,  sub-title  III. 

Pilate,  Pontius. — ^After  the  deposition  of  the  eld- 
est son  of  Herod,  Archelaus  (who  had  succeeded  his 
father  as  ethnarch),  Judea  was  placed  under  the  rule 
of  a  Roman  procurator.  Pilate,  who  was  the  fifth, 
succeeding  Valerius  Gratus  in  a.  d.  26,  had  greater 
authority  than  most  procurators  under  the  empire, 
for  in  addition  to  the  ordinary  duty  of  financial  ad- 
ministration, he  had  supreme  power  judicially.  His 
unusually  long  period  of  office  (a.  d.  2&-36)  covers  the 
whole  of  the  active  ministry  both  of  St.  John  the  Baptist 
and  of  Jesus  Christ.  As  procurator  Pilate  was  neces- 
sarily of  equestrian  rank,  but  beyond  that  we  know 
Httle  of  his  funily  or  origin.  Some  have  thought  that 
he  was  only  a  freedman,  deriving  his  name  from 
pileus  (the  cap  of  freed  slaves)  but  for  this  there  seems 
to  be  no  adequate  evidence,  and  it  is  unlikely  that  a 
freedman  would  attain  to  a  post  of  such  importance. 
The  Pontii  were  a  Samnite  gens.  Pilate  owed  his 
appointment  to  the  influence  of  Sejanus.  The  official 
residence  of  the  procurators  was  the  palace  of  Herod 
at  Csesarea;  where  there  was  a  military  force  of  about 
3,000  soldiers.  These  soldiers  came  up  to  Jerusalem 
at  the  time  of  the  feasts,  when  the  city  was  full  of 
strangers,  and  there  was  greater  danger  of  disturbances, 
hence  it  was  that  Pilate  had  come  to  Jerusalem  at  the 
time  of  the  Crucifixion.  His  name  will  be  forever 
covered  with  infamy  because  of  the  part  which  he 
took  in  this  matter,  though  at  the  time  it  appeared 
to  him  of  small  importance. 

Pilate  is  a  type  of  the  worldly  man,  knowing  the  right 
and  anxious  to  do  it  so  far  as  it  can  be  done  without 
personal  sacrifice  of  any  kind,  but  yielding  easily  to 


PILCHARD 


84 


PUOBIMAOE 


pressure  from  those  whose  interest  it  is  that  he  should 
act  otherwise.  He  would  gladly  have  acquitted 
Christ,  and  even  made  serious  efforts  in  that  direction, 
but  gave  way  at  once  when  his  own  position  was 
threatened.  The  other  events  of  his  rule  are  not  of 
venr  great  importance.  Philo  (Ad  Gidum^  38)  speaks 
of  him  as  innexible,  merciless,  and  obstmate.  The 
Jews  hated  him  and  his  administration,  for  he  was  not 
only  very  severe,  but  showed  little  consideration  for 
their  susceptibilities.  Some  standards  bearing  the 
unage  of  Tiberius,  which  had  been  set  up  by  him  in 
Jerusalem,  caused  an  outbreak  which  would  have 
ended  in  a  massacre  had  not  Pilate  given  way.  At  a 
later  date  Tiberius  ordered  him  to  remove  certain  gilt 
shields,  which  he  had  set  up  in  Jerusalem  in  spite  of 
the  remonstrances  of  the  people.  The  incident  men- 
tioned in  St.  Luke,  xiii,  1,  of  the  Gahlseans  whose 
blood  Pilate  mingled  with  the  sacrifices,  is  not  else- 
where referred  to,  but  is  quite  in  keeping  with  other 
authentic  events  of  his  rule.  He  was,  therefore,  anx- 
ious that  no  further  hostile  reports  should  be  sent  to  the 
emperor  concerning  him.  The  tendency,  already  dis- 
cernible in  the  canonical  Gospels,  to  lay  stress  on  the 
efiforts  of  Pilate  to  acquit  Christ,  and  thus  pass  as 
lenient  a  judgment  as  possible  upon  his  crime,  goes 
further  in  the  apocrypnal  Gospels  and  led  in  later 
years  to  the  claim  that  he  actually  became  a  Chnstiach. 
The  Abyssinian  Church  reckons  him  as  a  saint,  and 
assigns  25  June  to  him  and  to  Claudia  Procula,  his 
wife.  The  belief  that  she  became  a  Christian  goes 
back  to  the  second  century,  and  may  be  found  in 
Origen  (Hom.,  in  Mat.,  xxxv).  The  Greek  Church 
assi^ps  her  a  feast  on  27  October.  Tertullian  and 
Justin  Martyr  both  speak  of  a  report  on  the  Cruci- 
fixion (not  extant)  sent  in  by  Pilate  to  Tiberius,  from 
which  idea  a  large  amount  of  apocryphal  literature 
originated.  Some  of  these  were  Christian  in  origin 
(Gospel  of  Nicodemus),  others  came  from  the  heathen, 
but  these  have  all  perished. 

His  rule  was  brought  to  an  end  through  trouble 
which  arose  in  Samana.  An  impostor  had  given  out 
that  it  was  in  his  power  to  discover  the  sacred  vessels 
which,  as  he  alleged,  had  been  hidden  by  Moses  on 
Mount  Gerizim,  whither  armed  Samaritans  came  in 
large  numbers.  Pilate  seems  to  have  thought  the 
whole  affair  was  a  blind,  covering  some  other  more 
important  design,  for  he  hurried  forces  to  attack  them, 
and  many  were  slain.  They  appealed  to  VitelUus,  who 
was  at  that  time  legate  in  Syria,  saying  that  nothing 
pohtical  had  been  intended,  and  complaining  of 
Pilate's  whole  administration.  He  was  summoned  to 
Rome  to  answer  their  charges,  but  before  he  could 
reach  the  city  the  Emperor  Tiberius  had  died.  That 
is  the  last  that  we  know  of  Pilate  from  authentic 
sources,  but  legend  has  been  busy  with  his  name.  He 
is  said  by  Eusebius  (H.  E.,  ii,  7),  on  the  authority  of 
earlier  writers,  whom  he  does  not  name,  to  have  fallen 
into  great  misfortunes  under  Caligula,  and  eventually 
to  have  committed  suicide.  Other  details  come  from 
less  respectable  sources.  His  body,  says  the  ''Mors 
Pilati",  was  thrown  into  the  Tiber,  but  the  waters 
were  so  disturbed  by  evil  spirits  that  the  body  was 
taken  to  Vienne  and  sunk  in  the  Rhone,  where  a  monu- 
ment, called  Pilate's  tomb,  is  still  to  be  seen.  As  the 
same  thing  occurred  there,  it  was  again  removed  and 
sunk  in  the  lak^  at  Lausanne.  It«  final  disposition  was 
in  a  deep  and  lonely  mountain  tarn,  which,  according 
to  later  tradition,  was  on  a  mountain,  still  called 
Pilatus,  close  to  Lucerne.  The  real  origin  of  this  name 
is,  however,  to  be  sought  in  the  cap  of  cloud  which 
often  covers  the  mountain,  and  serves  as  a  barometer 
to  the  inhabitants  of  Lucerne.  There  are  many  other 
legends  about  Pilate  in  the  folklore  of  Germany,  but 
none  of  them  have  the  slightest  authority. 

MOllkr,  Pontiiu  PikUuH  aer  fUnfle  Prokuralor  von  Judda 
(Stuttgart,  1888),  gives  a  licit  of  earlier  writings  on  Pilate; 
KoaiiREa,  Ponce  Filale  (Paris.  1883) ;  Waltjer.  Pontius  Pilatus, 
fleiM  ttudie  (AnuBterdam,  1888);  Oluvibr,  Ponce  Pilate  §t  Ua 


Ponlii  in  Heme  Biblique,  V  (1896) ,  247-64. 594-600;  Innbs.  Trial  of 
Jesus  Christ  (London,  1899),  a  legal  monograph;  for  apocryphal 
literature  see  Lipbius,  Die  Pilatus  Aden  (Leipsig,  1871). 

Arthur  S.  Barnes. 

Pilchard  (Pilcher),  Thomas  Venerable,  mar- 
tyr, b.  at  Battle,  Sussex,  1557;  d.  at  Dorchester,  21 
March,  1586-7.  He  became  a  Fellow  of  Balliol  Col- 
lege, Oxford,  in  1576,  and  took  the  degree  of  M.A.,  in 
1579,  resigning  his  fellowship  the  following  year.  He 
arrived  at  Reims  20  Nov.,  1581,  and  was  ordained 
priest  at  Laon,  March,  1583,  and  was  sent  on  the 
mission.  He  was  arrested  soon  after,  and  banished; 
but  returned  almost  immediately.  He  was  again 
arrested  early  in  March,  1586-7,  and  imprisoned  in 
Dorchester  Gaol,  and  in  the  fortnight  between  com- 
mittal to  prison  and  condemnation  converted  thirty 
persons.  He  was  so  cruelly  drawn  upon  the  hurdle 
that  he  was  fainting  when  he  came  to  the  place  of 
execution.  When  the  rope  was  cut,  being  still  alive 
he  stood  erect  under  the  scaffold.  The  executioner, 
a  cook,  carried  out  the  sentence  so  clumsily  that  the 
victim,  turning  to  the  sheriff,  exclaimed  ''Is  this  then 
your  justice,  Mr.  Sheriff?"  According  to  another 
account  "the  priest  raised  himself  and  putting  out  his 
hands  cast  forward  his  own  bowels,  crying  '  Miserere 
mei '  " .  Father  Warf ord  says :  "  There  was  not  a  priest 
in  the  whole  West  of  England,  who,  to  my  knowledge, 
was  his  equal  in  virtue. 

PoLiJEN,  Acts  of  the  English  MaHyrs  (London,  1891),  261-3.320- 
1;  Enghth  Martyrs  1584-1603  in  Cath.  Rec.  Soc,  (London,  1908). 
288-9,  395;  Foster.  Alumni  Oxonienses  (Oxford,  1891);  Knox, 
Douay  Diaries  (London,  1878),  paasim;  Challonbr,  Missionary 
Priests,  I,  no.  42.  JoHN  B.  WaINEWRIGHT. 

Pilgrimage  of  Qrace,  the  name  giveji  to  the  reli- 
gious rising  in  the  north  of  England,  1536.  The  cause 
of  this  great  popular  movement,  which  extended 
over  five  counties  and  found  svmpathizers  all  over 
England,  was  attributed  by  Robert  Aske,  the  leader 
of  uie  insurgents,  to  "spreading  of  heretics,  suppres- 
sion of  houses  of  religion  and  other  matters  touching 
the  commonwealth".  And  in  his  "Narrative  to  the 
King",  he  declared:  "In  all  parts  of  the  realm  men's 
heaj^  much  grudged  with  the  suppression  of  abbeys, 
and  the  first  fruits,  by  reason  the  same  would  be  the 
destruction  of  the  whole  religion  in  England.  And 
their  especial  great  grudge  is  against  the  lord  Crum- 
well."  The  movement  broke  out  on  13  Oct.,  1536, 
immediately  following  the  failure  of  the  Lincoln- 
shire Rising;  and  Robert  Aske,  a  London  barrister  of 
good  YorkiSiire  family,  who  had  been  to  some  extent 
concerned  in  the  Lincolnshire  rising,  putting  himself 
at  the  head  of  nine  thousand  insurgents,  marched  on 
York,  which  he  entered.  There  he  arranged  for  the 
expelled  monks  and  nuns  to  return  to  their  houses; 
the  king's  tenants  were  driven  out  and  religious  ob- 
servance resumed.  The  subsequent  success  of  the 
rising  was  so  great  that  the  royal  leaders,  the  Duke 
of  Norfolk  and  Earl  of  Shrewsbury,  opened  negotia- 
tions with  the  insurgents  at  Doncaster,  where  Aske 
had  assembled  between  thirty  and  forty  thousand 
men.  As  a  result  of  this,  Henry  authorized  Norfolk 
to  promise  a  general  pardon  and  a  Parliament  to  be 
held  at  York  within  a  year.  Aske  then  dismissed  his 
followers,  trusting  in  the  king's  promises.  But  these 
promises  were  not  kept,  and  a  new  rising  took  place  in 
Cumberland  and  Westmoreland,  and  was  spreading  to 
Yorkshire.  Upon  this,  the  king  arrested  Aske  and 
several  of  the  other  leaders,  who  were  all  convicted 
of  treason  and  executed.  The  loss  of  the  leaders  en- 
abled Norfolk  to  crush  the  rising.  The  king  avenged 
himself  on  Cumberland  and  Westmoreland  by  a  series 
of  massacres  under  the  form  of  martial  law.  Though 
Aske  had  tried  to  prevent  the  rising  he  was  put  to 
death.  Ix>rd  Darcy,  Sir  Henry  Percy,  and  several 
other  gentlemen,  together  with  the  four  Abbots  of 
Fountains,  Jervaulx,  Barlings,  and  Sawley,  who  were 
executed  at  Tyburn,  have  been  reckoned  by  Catholic 


PILORIMAaES 


85 


PILORIMAaES 


writers  as  martyrs  for  the  Faith,  and  their  names  in- 
serted in  martyroloeies,  but  they  have  not  been  in- 
cluded in  the  cause  of  beatification  of  English  martyrs. 

Gasquet,  Henry  VIII.  and  the  Bngluh  Monaeleriea,  II  (Lon- 
don, 1888),  ii-iv,  And  state  papers  (Henry  VIII.)  therein  referred 
to;  TiBBNBT-DoDD.  Chwch  History,  I  (London,  1839);  Linqard, 
History  ofBngland,  V  (London,  1883) ;  for  non-Catholic  accounts, 
the  stuiaard  authorities  on  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII  (q.  v.),  such 
•a  Qairdner,  Dixon,  and  the  Cambridge  Modem  History. 

,  Edwin  Burton. 

Pilgrimages  (Mid.  Eng.  inlgrime,  Old  Fr.  j)degrin, 
derived  from  Lat.  peregrinumj  supposed  on^n,  per 
and  €Lger — with  idea  of  wandering  over  a  distance) 
may  L^  defined  as  journeys  made  to  some  place  with 
the  purpose  of  venerating  it,  or  in  order  to  ask  there 
for  supernatural  aid,  or  to  discharge  some  religious 
obligation. 

Origin. — ^The  idea  of  a  pilgrimage  has  been  traced 
back  by  some  (Littledale  in  "Encyc.  Brit.",  1885, 
XIX,  90;  "New  Intemat.  Encyc",  New  York,  1910, 
XVI,  20,  etc.)  to  the  primitive  notion  of  local  deities, 
that  is,  that  the  divine  beings  who  controlled  the  move- 
ments of  men  and  nature  could  exercise  that  control 
only  over  certain  definite  forces  or  within  set  boun- 
daries. Thus  the  river  gods  had  no  power  over  those 
who  kept  away  from  the  river,  nor  could  the  wood 
deities  exercise  any  influence  over  those  who  lived  in 
deserts  or  clearings  or  on  the  bare  mountain-side. 
Similarly  there  were  gods  of  the  hills  and  ^ods  of  the 
plidns  who  could  only  work  out  their  designs,  could 
only  favour  or  destroy  men  within  their  own  locality 
(III  Kings,  XX,  23).  Hence,  when  some  man  belonging 
to  a  mountain  tribe  found  himself  in  the  plain  and  was 
in  need  of  divine  help,  he  made  a  pilgrimage  back  again 
to  the  hills  to  petition  it  from  his  gods,  ft  is  therefore 
the  broken  tribesmen  who  originate  pilgrimages. 

Without  denying  the  force  of  this  argument  as  sug- 
gesting or  extending  the  custom,  for  it  has  been  ad- 
mitted as  plausible  by  distinjguished  Catholics  (cf . 
Lagrange,  "Etudes  sur  les  relig.  s^mit.,  VIII,  Paris, 
190^,  295, 301),  we  may  adhere  to  a  less  arbitrary  solu- 
tion by  seeking  its  cause  in  the  instinctive  motion  of 
the  human  heart.  For  pilgrimages  properly  so  called 
are  made  to  the  places  where  the  gods  or  heroes  were 
bom  or  wrought  some  great  action  or  died,  or  to  the 
shrines  wher^  the  deity  had  already  signified  it  to  be 
his  pleasure  to  work  wonders.  Once  theophanies  are 
localized,  pilgrimages  necessarily  follow.  The  Incar- 
nation was  boundf  inevitably  to  draw  men  across 
Europe  to  visit  the  Holy  Places,  for  the  custom  itself 
arises  spontaneously  from  the  heart.  It  is  found  in  all 
religions.  The  Egyptians  journeyed  to  Sekket's 
shrine  at  Bubastis  or  to  Ammon's  oracle  at  Thcbesj 
the  Greeks  sought  for  counsel  from  Apollo  at  Delphi 
and  for  cures  from  Asclepius  at  Epidaurus;  the  Mexi- 
cans ^thered  at  the  huge  temple  of  Quetzal;  the 
Peruvians  massed  in  sun-worship  at  Cuzco  and  the 
Bolivians  in  Titicaca.  But  it  is  evident  that  the  reli- 
gions which  centred  round  a  single  character,  be  he 
god  or  prophet,  would  be  the  most  famous  for  their 
pilgrimages,  not  for  any  reason  of  tribal  returns  to  a 
central  custrict  where  alone  the  deity  has  power,  but 
rather  owing  to  the  perfectly  natural  wish  to  visit  spots 
made  holy  by  the  birth,  life,  or  death  of  the  god  or 
prophet.  Hence  Buddhism  and  Mohammedanism  are 
especially  famous  in  inculcating  this  method  of  devo- 
tion. Huge  gatherings  of  people  intermittently  all  the 
year  round  venerate  Kapilavastu  where  Gaukama 
Buddha  be^an  his  life,  Benares  where  he  opened  his 
sacred  mission,  Kasinagara  where  he  died:  and  Mecca 
and  Medina  have  become  almost  bywords  in  English 
as  the  goals  of  long  aspirations,  so  famous  are  they 
for  their  connexion  with  the  prophet  of  Islam. 

Granting  then  this  instinctive  movement  of  human 
nature,  we  should  expect  to  find  that  ia  Christianity 
God  would  Himself  satisfy  the  craving  He  had  first 
Himself  created.    The  story  of  His  appearance  on 


earth  in  bodily  form  when  He  "dwelt  amongst  us" 
could  not  but  be  treasured  up  by  His  followers,  and 
each  city  and  site  mentioned  become  a  matter  of  grate- 
ful memory  to  them.  Then  again  the  more  famous  of 
His  disciples,  whom  we  designate  as  saints,  themselves 
bc^an  to  appeal  to  the  devotion  of  their  fellows,  and 
round  the  acts  of  their  Uves  soon  clustered  a  whole 
cycle  of  venerated  shrines.  Especially  would  this  be 
felt  in  the  case  of  the  martyrs;  for  their  passion  and 
death  stamped  more  dramatically  still  the  exact 
locality  of  their  triumph.  Moreover,  it  seems  reason- 
able to  suppose  that  yet  another  influence  worked  to 
the  same  end.  There  sprang  up  in  the  early  Church 
a  curious  privilege,  accorded  to  dying  martyrs,  of 

nting  the  remission  of  canonical  penances..  No 
)t  it  began  through  a  generous  acceptance  of  the 
relation  of  St.  Stephen  to  St.  Paul.  But  certain  it  is 
that  at  an  early  date  this  custom  had  become  so  highly 
organized  that  there  was  a  libelluSj  or  warrant  of 
reconciliation,  a  set  form  for  the  readmittance  of 
sinners  to  Christian  fellowship  (BatifTol,  "Etudes 
d'hist.  et  de  thdol.  posit.",  I,  Paris,  1906,  112-20). 
Surely  then  it  is  not  fanciful  to  see  how  from  this  came 
a  further  development.  Not  only  had  the  martyrs  in 
their  last  moments  this  power  of  absolving  from  eccle- 
siastical penalties,  but  even  after  their  deaths,  their 
tombs  and  the  scenes  of  their  martyrdom  were  con- 
sidered to  be  capable  also — ^if  devoutly  venerated — of 
removing  the  taints  and  penalties  of  sin.  Accordinp;^ 
it  came  to  be  looked  upon  as  a  purifying  act  to  visit 
the  bodies  of  the  saints  and  above  all  the  places  where 
Christ  Himself  had  set  the  supreme  example  of  a 
teaching  sealed  with  blood. 

Again  it  may  be  noted  how,  when  the  penitential 
system  of  the  Church,  which  grouped  itself  round  the 
sacrament  of  the  confessionfu,  had  been  authorita- 
tively and  legally  organized,  pilgrimages  were  set 
down  as  adequate  punishments  inflicted  for  certain 
crimes.  The  hardships  of  the  joumev,  the  penitential 
garb  worn,  the  mendicity  it  entailecl  made  a  pilgrim- 
age a  real  and  efficient  penance  (Beazley,  "Dawn  of 
Modern  Geography".  II,  139;  Fumivall,  "The  Sta- 
cions  of  Rome  and  the  Pilgrim's  Sea  Voyage",  Lon- 
don, 1867,  47).  To  quote  a  late  text,  the  following  is 
one  of  the  canons  enacted  under  King  Edgar  (959-75) : 
"It  is  a  deep  penitence  that  a  layman  lay  aside  his 
weapons  ana  travel  far  barefoot  and  nowhere  pass  a 
second  night  and,  fast  and  watch  much  and  pray  fer- 
vently, by  day  and  by  night  and  willingly  under^^o* 
fatigue  and  be  so  squalid  that  iron  come  not  on  hair 
or  on  nail"  (Thorpe,  "Ancient  Laws",  London.  1840. 
411-2;  cf.  44,  410,  etc.).  Another  witness  to  tne  real 
difficulties  of  the  wayfaring  palmer  may  be  cited  from 
"Syr  Isenbras",  an  early  EngUsh  ballad: — 
"They  bare  with  them  no  maner  of  thynge 

That  was  worth  a  f  arthynge 
Cattell,  golde,  ne  fe; 

But  mekely  they  asked  theyre  meate 

Where  that  they  myght  it  gette. 
For  Saynct  CJharytie." 
(Utterson,  "Early  Popular  Poetry",  I,  London,  1817. 
83) .  And  the  Earl  of  Arundel  of  a  later  date  obtained 
absolution  for  poaching  on  the  bishop's  preserves  at 
Hoghton  Chace  only  on  condition  of  a  pilgrimage  to 
the  shrine  of  St.  Richard  of  Chichester  ("Archaeo- 
logia",XLV,  176;  cf. Chaucer,  "Works",  ed.  Morris, 
III,  266).    And  these  are  but  late  descriptions  of  a 

f)ractice  of  penance  which  stretches  back  beyond  the 
egislation  of  Edgar,  and  the  organization  of  St.  Theo- 
dore to  the  sub-Apostolic  age.  Finally  a  last  influence 
that  made  the  pifgrima|2;e  so  popular  a  form  of  devo- 
tion was  the  fact  that  it  contributed  very  largely  to 
ease  the  soul  of  some  of  its  vague  restlessness  in  an  age 
when  conditions  of  life  tended  to  cramp  men  down  to 
certain  localities.  It  began  to  be  looked  upon  as  a 
real  help  to  the  establishment  of  a  perfectly  controlled 
character.    It  took  its  place  in  the  medieval  manuals 


PILORIMAOES                           86  PILORXMAQES 

of  pgycholo^.     So  John  de  Burg  in  1386  (Pupilla  the  twin  prince  Apostles  (In  Rom.  horn.  32^  iii,  678, 

oculi,  fol.  LXIII),  ''contra  acediam,  opera  laboriosa  etc.,  in  P.  G.,  LX).   Nor  in  this  is  he  advocating  a  new 

bona  ut  sunt  peregrinationes  ad  loca  sancta. "  practice,  for  he  mentions  without  conment  how  many 

History  in  General. — In  a  letter  written  towards  people  hurried  across  the  seas  to  Arabia  to  see  and 

the  end  of  the  fourth  century  by  Sts.  Paula  and  venerate  the  dunghill  of  Job  (Ad  pop.  Antioch.  hom. 

Eustochium  to  the  Roman  matron  Marcella  urging  5,  69,  in  P.  G.,  XLIX).    St.  Jerome  was  cramped  by 

her  to  follow  them  out  to  the  Holy  Places,  they  insist  no  such  official  duties  as  had  kept  St.  Chrysostom  to 

on  the  universality  of  the  custom  of  these  pilgrimages  his  diocese.    His  conversion,  following  on  the  famous 

to  Palestine: — "Whosoever  is  noblest  in  uaul  comes  vision  of  his  judgment,  turned  him  from  his  studies  of 

hither.    And  Britain  though  divided  from  us  yet  has-  pagan  classics  to  the  pages  of  Holy  Writ,  and,  uniting 

tens  from  her  land  of  simset  to  these  shrines  known  to  with  his  untiring  energy  and  thoroughness,  pushed  him 

her  only  throu^  the  Scriptures.''    They  go  on  to  enu-  on  to  Palestine  to  devote  himself  to  the  Scriptures  in 

merate  the  various  nationalities  that  crowded  round  the  land  where  they  had  been  written.   Once  there  the 

these  holy  places,  Armenians,  Persians,  Indians,  Ethio-  actual  Gospel  scenes  appealed  with  supreme  f  redmess 

pians,  and  many  others  (P.  L.,  XXII;  Ep.  xlvi,  489-  to  him.  and  on  his  second  return  from  Rome  his  enthu- 

90).    Bat  it  is  of  greater  interest  to  note  how  they  siasm  nred  several  Roman  matrons  to  accompany  him 

claim  for  this  custom  a  continuity  from  Apostolic  days,  and  share  his  labours  and  his  devotions.    Monasteries 

From  the  Ascension  to  their  time,  bishops,  martyrs,  and  convents  were  built  and  a  Latin  colony  was  estab- 

doctors,  and  troops  of  people,  say  they,  had  flocked  to  lished  which  in  later  times  was  to  revolutionize  Europe 

see  the  sacred  stones  of  Bethlehem  and  of  wherever  by  inaugurating  the  Crusades, 

else  the  Lord  had  trod  (489).    It  has  been  suggested  From  the  Hol^y  Land  the  circle  widens  to  Rome,  as 

that  this  is  an  exaggeration,  and  certainly  we  can  offer  a  centre  of  pilgnmages.    St.  Ctrysoetom,  as  has  been 

no  proof  of  any  such  uninterrupted  practice.    Yet  shown,  expressed  his  vehement  desire  to  visit  it.    And 

when  the  first  examples  begin  to  appear  they  are  repre-  in  the  early  church  histories  of  Eusebius,  Zosimus, 

sented  to  us  without  a  word  of  astonishment  or  a  note  Socrates,  and  others,  notices  are  frecjuent  of  the  jour- 

of  novelty,  as  though  people  were  already  fully  accus-  neyings  of  celebrated  princes  and  bishops  of  the  City 

tomed  to  like  adventures.    Thus  in  Eusebius^  "  His-  of  the  Seven  Hills.    Of  course  the  Saxon  kings  and 

tory''  (tr.  Crus6,  London,  1868,  VI,  xi,  215),  it  is  re-  royal  families  have  made  this  a  familiar  thing  to  us. 

marked  of  Bishop  Alexander  that  "he  performed  a  The  "Ecclesiastical  History"  of  St.  Bede  is  crowded 

journey  from  Cappadocia  to  Jerusalem  in  consequence  with  references  to  princes  and  princesses  who  laid  aside 

of  a  vow  and  the  celebrity  of  the  place. "  And  the  date  their  royal  diadems  in  order  to  visit  the  shrine  of  the 

given  is  also  worthy  of  notice,  a.  d.  217.    Then  again  Apostles;  and  the  "Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle"  after  his 

there  is  the  story  of  the  two  travellers  of  Placentia,  death  takes  up  the  same  refrain.    Then  from  Rome 

John  and  Antoninus  the  Elder  (Acta  SS.,  July,  II,  18),  again  the  shrines  of  local  saints  begin  to  attract  their 

which  took  place  about  303-4.    Of  course  with  the  votaries.    In  the  letter  already  cited  in  which  Paula 

conversion  of  Constantine  and  the  visit  to  Jerusalem  and  Eustochium  invite  Marcella  to  Palestine  they 

of  the  Empress  St.  Helena  the  pilgrimages  to  the  Holy  argue  from  the  eJready  established  custom  of  visiting 

Land  became  very  much  more  freouent.   The  story  of  the  shrines  of  the  martyrs:  "  Martjrrum  ubique  sepul- 

the  finding  of  the  Cross  is  too  well  known  to  be  here  chra  veneramur"  (Ep.  xlvi,  488,  in  P.  L.,  XXII).    St. 

repeated  (cf.  P.  L.,  XXVII,  1125),  but  its  influence  Augustine  endeavours  to  settle  a  dispute  by  sending 

was  unmistakable.    The  first  church  of  the  Resurrec-  both  litigants  on  a  pilgrimage  to  the  tomb  of  St.  Felix 

tion  was  built  by  Eustathius  the  Priest  Qoc.  cit .,  1 164) .  of  Nola,  m  order  that  the  samt  may  somehow  or  other 

But  the  flow  of  pilgrimages  b^an  in  vigour  four  years  make  some  sign  as  to  which  party  was  telling  the  truth, 

after  St.  Helena's  visit  (Acta  SS.,  June,  III,  176;  Sept.,  He  candidly  admits  that  he  knows  of  no  such  miracle 

III,  56).    Then  the  organization  of  the  Church  that  having  been  performed  in  Africa;  but  argues  to  it  from 

Sartly  caused  and  partly  resulted  from  the  Council  of  the  analogy  of  Milan  where  God  had  made  known  His 

[icsea  continued  the  same  custom.  pleasure  through  the  relics  of  Sts.  Gervasius  and 

In  333  was  the  famous  Bordeaux  Pilgrimage  ("  Pal-  Protasius  (Ep.  Ixxvii,  269,  in  P.  L.,  XXXIII).   Indeed, 

estine  Rlgrim  Text  Society",  London,  1887,  preface  the  very  idea  of  relics,  which  existed  as  early  as  the 

and  notes  by  Stewart).    It  was  the  first  of  a  whole  earliest  of  the  catacombs,  teaches  the  essential  worth 

series  of  pilgrimages  that  have  left  interesting  and  of  pilgrimages,  i.  e.,  of  the  journeying  to  visit  places 

detailed  accounts  of  the  route,  the  peoples  through  hallowed  by  events  in  the  hves  of  heroes  or  of  gods 

which  they  passed,  the  sites  identified  with  those  men-  who  walked  in  the  guise  of  men  (St.  Aug.,  "Deciv. 

tioned  in  the  Gospels.    Another  was  the  still  better-  Dei",  XXII,  769,  in  P.  L.,  XXXVIII). 

known  "Peregrinatio  Silvia;"  (ed.  Barnard,  London.  At  first  a  mere  question  of  individual  travelling,  a 

1891,  Pal.  Pilg.  Text  Soc.;  cf.  "Rev.  des  quest,  hist."  short  period  was  sufficient  to  develop  into  pilgrimages 

1903,367,  etc.).     Moreover,  the  whole  movement  properly  organized  companies.    Even  the    Pei^grina- 

was   enormously  increased   by   the    language   and  tio  Silvia"  shows  how  they  were  being  systematixed. 

action  of  St.  Jerome,  whose  personality  at  the  close  The  initiators  were  clerics  who  prepared  the  whole 

of  the  fourth  centuiy  dominated  East  and  West,  route  beforehand  and  mapped  out  the  cities  of  call. 

protect  the 
invented  a 
_  ilgrima^e 

in  P.'G.,  LXII).    And  his  personal  love  of  St.  Paul  for  those  unable  actually  to  take  part  in  them;   it 

would  have  unfailingly  driven  him  to  Ro]                "  .  .  ^.  .    » «       .         ,        .,     i-^.  /i-«._j__i       trix-n- 

tomb  of  the  Apostles,  but  for  the  burden 

pal  office.    Hesays  (InEphes.  hom.  8,  ii,  ^., _.,     _.,  ^^, ,     „ -  .. 

LXII),  "  If  I  were  freed  from  my  labours  and  my  body  The  conversion  of  the  Hungarians   ainpU&ed  this 

were  in  sound  health  I  would  eagerly  make  a  pilgrim-  system  of  halts  along  the  road;   of  St.  Stephen,  for 

age  merely  to  see  the  chains  that  nad  held  him  captive  example,  we  read  that  "he  made  the  way  very  safe  for 

and  the  prison  where  he  lay."    While  in  another  pas-  all  and  thus  allowed  by  his  benevolence  a  countless 

sage  of  extraordinary  eloquence  he  expresses  his  long-  multitude  both  of  noble  and  common  people  to  start 

ing  to  gaae  on  the  dust  of  the  great  Apostle,  the  dust  for  Jerusalem"  (Glaber,  "Chron.",  Ill,  C.  I.  Mon. 

of  the  fips  that  had  thundered,  of  the  hands  that  had  Germ.  Hist.,  VII,  62).    Thus  these  pious  journeys 

been  fettered,  of  the  eyes  that  had  seen  the  Master;  gradually  hsuxien  down  and  become  fixed  and  definite, 

even  as  he  speaks  he  is  dazzled  by  the  splendour  of  the  They  are  allowed  for  by  laws,  civil  and  ecclesiaHtical . 

metropolis  of  the  world  lit  up  by  the  glorious  tombs  of  Wars  are  fought  to  insure  their  safety,  crusades  are 


> 


piLaaDUOES 

begun   _.     .__ 

S anted  free  occoas  in  times  a 
y  the  "Consuetudines"  at  the  c; 
cathedral  we  see  that  legislation 


87 


PILOBIHAOBS 


derful  storiefl  to  tell,  when  they  came  back.    Thus,  4ks 

peace  ancl  war.  the  ceDturica  pass,  we  find  human  nature  the  same  in 

ons  of  Hereford  ila  complexity  of  motives.     Its  nobleat  actions  arc 

vas  found  to  be  found  to  be  often  caused  by  petty  spites  or  vanity  or 

more  than  one  overvau! ting  ambition;  and  even  when  b^un  in  good 

pilenmage  beyond  the  seas  in  his  own  lifetime.    But  faith  aa  a  source  of  devotion,  the  practices  of  piety  at 

each  year  three  weeks  were  allowed  to  enable  any  th^t  times  are  d^i^ed  into  causes  of  vice.    So  the  author 

would  to  visit  shrines  within  the  kingdom.    To  ao  of  the  "Imitation  of  Christ"  raises  bis  voice  agiunst 

abroad  to  the  tomb  of  St.  Denis,  seven  weeks  of  ob-  overmuch  pi  lerim  age-making:    "Who  wander  much 

aence  was  considered  legal,  eight  weeks  to  the  body  of  are  but  little  hallowed."     Note  too  the  words  of  the 

St.  Edmund  at  Pontigny,  sixteen  weeks  to  Rome,  or  to  fifteenth-centurv  English  Dominican,  John  Bromyanl 

St.  James  at  Compostella,  and  a  year  to  Jerusalem  ("Summa  PrtedLcantium",  Tit.  Feria  n.  6,  fol,  191, 

(ArchKol.,  XXXI,  251-2  noI«s).  Lyons,  1522):— "There  are  some  who  keep  their  pil- 

Again  in  another  way  pilgrimages  were  bemg  re-  pimagcs  and  festivals  not  for  God  but  for  the  devil. 

Earded  as  part  of  normal  ufe.    In  the  register  of  the  They  who  sin  more  freely  when  away  from  home  or 

InquiBition  at  Carcassonne  (Waterton,  "Pietas  Man-  who  go  on  pilgrimage  to  succeed  in  inordinate  and 

anaBritannica",  112)  we  find  the  four  following  places  fooli^  love — those  who  spend  their  time  on  the  road 

noted  as  beins  the  centres  of  the  greater  pilgrimages  in  evil  and  uncharitable  conversation  may  indeed  say 

to  be  imposed  as  penances  for  the  graver  crimes,  the  ■peregraiamuT  a  Domino — they  make  their  pilgrimage 

tomb  of  Che  Apostles  at  Rome,  the  shrine  of  St.  James  away  from  God  and  to  the  devil," 

at  Compostella,  ^t.  Thomas's  body  at  Canterbury,  But  the  most  splenetic  acorn  is  t«  be  found  in  the 

and  the  relics  of  the  Three  Ktn^  at  Cologne.    Natu-  jHiges  of  that  master  of  satire^  Erasmus.    Big  "Reli- 

rally  with  all  this  there  was  a  great  detd  of  corruption,  gious  Pilgrimage"  ("Colloquies"  ed.  Johnson,  Lon- 


don, 1878.  II,  1-37) 
is  a  terriDle  indict- 
ment of  the  abuses 
of  his  day.  Exag- 
gerated no  doubt  m 
its  cTipres^ons,  yet 
reveahng  a  sufficient 
modicum  of  real  evil, 
it  is  a  graphic  picture 
from  the  hand  of  an 
intelligent  observer. 
There  IS  evident  sign 
that  pilgrimages 
were  losing  in  popu- 
larity, not  merely 
because  the  charity 
of  many  was  growing 
cold,  but  because  of 
the  excessive  credu- 
lity of-the  guardians 
of  the  shrines,  their 
overwrought  insist- 
ence on  the  necessity 
He  has  a  short  letter  in  which  he     of  pilgrimage-making,   and  the  fact  that  many  who 


a  BlTHLlHtW  1- 


Even  from  the  ear- 
liest times  the  Fa- 
thers perceived  how 
liable  such  devotions 
were  to  degenerate 
into  an  abuse,  St. 
John  Chrysostom,  so 
ardent  in  his  praise 
of  pilgrimages,  found 
it  necessary  to  ex- 
plain that  there  was 
"need  for  none  to 
cross  the  seas  or  tare 
upon  along  journey; 
let  each  of  us  at  home 
invoke  God  earnest- 
ly and  He  will  hear 
ourprayer"(Adpop. 
Antioch.  horn,  hi,  2, 
49,  in  P.G.,  XLIX; 
cf.  horn,  iv,  6,  fiS). 
St.  Gregory  Naxian- 
len  is  even  stronger 

in  his  condemnation.     . ,_^         ^. 

speaks  of  those  H  ho  regard  it  as  an  essential  part  of  piety  journeyed  from  shrine  to  shrine  neglected  their  do- 
to  visit  Jorusalem  and  see  the  traces  of  l.lie  Passion  of  meatic  duties.  These  three  evils  are  quaintly  ex- 
Christ.  ThiH,  he  says,  the  Master  has  never  com-  pressed  in  the  above  mentioned  dialogue,  with  a 
nianded,  though  the  custom  is  not  therefore  without  liberty  of  speech  that  makes  one  astonished  at  Rome's 
merit.  But  stillheknows  that  in  many  cases  the  jour-  toleration  in  the  sixteenth  century.  With  all  these 
ney  has  proved  a  scandal  and  caused  serious  harm,  abuses  Erasmus  saw  how  the  spoiler  would  have  ready 
He  witnesses,  therefore,  both  to  the  custom  and  the  to  hand  excuses  for  suppressing  the  whole  System  and 
abuse,  evidently  thinking  that  the  latter  outweighed  plundering  the  most  attractive  treasures.  The  wealth 
the  former  (Ep.  ii,  1003,  in  P.  G^XLVI).  So  again  might  well  be  put,  he  suggested,  to  other  uses;  but 
St.  Jerome  writes  to  Paulinus  (Ep.  Ixviii  in  P.  L.,  the  idea  of  a  pilgrimage  contained  in  it  nothing  op- 
XXII)  to  explain,  in  an  echo  of  Cicero's  phrase,  that  posed  to  the  enlightened  opinions  of  this  prophet  of 
it  is  not  the  fact  of  living  in  Jerusalem,  but  of  living  sweet  reasonableness".  "If  any  shall  do  it  of  their 
there  well,  that  is  worthy  of  praise  (579) ;  he  instancrs  own  free  choice  from  a  great  affection  to  piety,  I  think 
countless  saints  who  never  set  foot  in  the  Holy  Land;  they  deserve  to  be  left  to  their  own  freedom"  (op, 
and  dares  not  tie  down  to  one  small  portion  of  the  cit,,  35).  This  was  evidently  the  opinion  also  of 
Earth  Him  whom  Heaven  itself  is  unable  to  contain.  Henry  VIH,  for,  though  in  the  Injunctions  of  1536 
He  ends  with  a  sentence  that  is  by  now  famous,  "ct  de  and  1538  pilgrimages  were  to  be  discouraged,  yet  both 
Uierusolymis  et  de  Britannia  a^qualiter  patet  aula  in  the  bishop's  book  (The  Institution  of  the  Christian 
wtleBtis''  (581).  Man,  1537)  and  the  kine's  book  (The  Necessary  Doc- 

Another  well-quoted  passage  comes  from  a  letter  trine  and  Erudition  of  the  Christian  Man,  1543),  it  is 
of  St.  Augustine  in  which  he  expounds  in  happy  para-  laid  down  that  the  abuse  and  not  the  custom  is  repre- 
dox  that  not  by  journeying  but  by  loving  we  draw  hensible.  What  they  really  attack  is  the  fashion  of 
nigh  unto  God.  To  Him  who  is  everywhere  present  "putting  differences  between  image  and  image,  trust- 
and  everywhere  entire  we  approach  not  by  our  feet  ing  more  in  one  than  in  another"  (cf.  Oairdner, 
but  by  our  hearis  (Ep.  civ,  672,  in  P.  L.,  XXXII),  "Lollardy  and  the  Reformation"  II,  London,  1908, 
For  certainly  pilgrimages  were  not  always  undertaken     IV,  ii,  330,  etc.).    All  this  shows  how  alive  Christen- 


for  the  best  of  motives.    Glaber  (ed.  Prou,  Paris, , 

107}  thinks  it  necessary  to  note  of  Lethbald  that  he 
was  far  from  being  one  of  those  who  were  led  to  Jeru- 
salem simply  from  vanity,  that  they  might  have  won- 


dom  has  been  to  evils  which  Reformers  are  forever 
denouncing  as  inseparable  from  Catholicism.  It  ad- 
mits the  danger  but  does  not  allow  it  to  prejudice  the 
good  use  ("  Diayloge  of  Syr  Thomas  -More",  London, 


PILGRIBUaBS  8 

1620).  Before  dealing  with  each  pilgrimagi^  in  particu- 
IftT  one  further  remark  should  be  made.  Though  not 
properly  included  uuder  a  list  of  abuses,  a  custom 
~  must  be  noted  of  ^oit^  in  search  of  shrtnes  utterly  at 
haphazard  and  without  any  definite  notion  of  where 
the  journey  waa  to  end  (Waterton,  "Piet.  Mar. 
Britt.",  London,  1879,  III,  107;  "Anglo-Sax.  Chron.", 
tr.  Thorpe  in  E.  S.,  London,  1861,  II,  69;  Beazley, 
"Dawn  of  Mod.  Geog.",  London,  1897-1906,  I,  174-6; 
Tobl.  Bibl.  Geog.  Pal.  26,  ed.  of  1876). 

History  is  Pahticplak. — It  will  be  neceKsary  to 
mention  and  note  briefly  the  chief  places  of  Catholic 
pilgrims^,  in  early  days,  in  the  Middle  Ages,  and  in 
modem  times. 

Aachen,  Rhenish  Prussia. — -This  celebrated  city 
owes  its  fame  as  a  centre  of  pilgrimage  to  the  extraor' 
dinary  list  of  precious  relics   which  ''  "' 


their  authenticity  there  is  no  need  here  to  apeak,  but 
they  include  amone  a  host  of  others,  the  swaddling 
clothes  of  the  child  Jesus,  the  loin-cloth  which  Our 
Lord  wore  on  the  Cross,  the  cloth  on  which  the  Bap- 
tist's head  lay  after  his  execution,  and  the  Blessed 
Virgin's  cloak.  These  relics  are  exposed  -to  public 
veneration  every  seven  years.  The  number  of  pil- 
grims in  18S1  was  158,968  (Champagnac,  "Diet,  dea 
pSlerinages",  Paris,  1859,  I,  78). 

AUi,  Limoux,  France,  contains  a  shrine  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin  dating  traditionally  from  the  twelfth 
century.  Trie  principal  feast  is  celebrated  on  8  Sep- 
tember, when  there  is  still  a  great  concourse  of  pil- 
grims from  the  neighbourhood  of  Toulouse.  It  is  the 
.centre  of  a  confraternity  of  the  Immaculate  Heart  of 
Wary  founded  for  the  converKion  of  sinners,  the  mcm- 
bera  of  which  exceed  several  thousands  (Champagnac, 

n,  89). 

ArrJiTojtay,  Burgundy,  France,  an  ancient  shrine  of 
the  Blessed  Vii^n,  dating  back  to  the  seventh  century. 
It  is  still  a  centre  of  pilgrimage. 

Amorgos,  or  Morgo,  in  the  Cireek  Archipelago,  has 
ft  quaint  picture  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  painted  on  wood, 
which  is  reputed  to  have  been  profaned  and  broken  at 
Cyprus  and  then  miraculously  rejoined  in  its  present 
shnne.  Near  by  is  enacted  the  pretended  miracle  of 
the  ITme.  so  celebrated  in  tlie  Archipelago  (Cham- 
pagnac, 1,  130). 


paQaauoBS 


eyes  of  the  Madonna  were  seen  filled  with  teais,  which 
was  later  interpreted  to  have  prefigured  the  calamities 
that  fell  on  Pius  VI  and  the  Church  in  Italy  owing  to 
Napoleon.  The  picture  was  solemnly  crowned  by 
PiuH  Vll  on  13  May,  1814,  under  the  title  "R^na 
Sanctorum  Omnium  (Champagnac,  I,  133;  Anon.,  ' 
"P^lerinages  aux  sanct.  de  la  m^re  de  Dieu",  Pane, 
1840). 

Ajige»,  Seine-ct-Oisp,  France. — The  present  chapel 
only  dates  from  1808;  but  the  pil^im^e  is  really 
ancient.  In  connexion  with  the  shnne  is  a  spring  of 
miraculous  water  (Champagnac,  I,  146). 

Arcachnn,  Gironde,  France. — It  ia  curious  among 
the  shrines  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  as  eont^ning  an 
alabaster  statue  of  the  thirteenth  century,  Pius  IX 
granted  to  this  statue  the  honour  of  coronation  in 
1870,  since  which  time  pilgrimages  to  it  have  greatly 
increased  in  number  and  in  frequency. 

ArdiUiers,  Saumur,  France. — A  chapel  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin  founded  on  the  site  of  an  ancient 
monastery.  It  has  been  visited  by  famous  French 
pilgrims  such  as  Anne  of  Austria,  Louis  XIII,  Kenn- 
eth Maria,  etc.  The  sacristy  was  built  by  Ceeare, 
Duke  of  Venddme,  and  in  1634  Cardinal  Richelieu 
added  a  chapel  (Champagnac,  I,  169). 

ArgenleuU,  Seine-et-Oise,  France,  is  one  of  the 
places  which  boasts  of  posseesing  the  Holy  Coat 
of  Jesus  Christ.  Its  abbey  was  also  well  known  as 
having  had  as  abbess  the  famous  H^lolse.  Whatever 
may  be  thought  of  the  authenticity  of  the  relic,  the 
antiquity  of  pilgrimages  drawn  to  its  veneration  dates 
from  its  presentation  to  St.  Louis  in  1247.  From  the 
pilgrimage  of  Queen  Blanche  in  1255  till  our  own  dair 
there  has  been  an  almost  uninterrupted  flow  of  visi- 
tor. The  present  ckAsse  woa  the  gift  of  the  Duchess 
of  Guise  in  1680  (Champagnac,  I,  171-223). 

Aubervilks,  Seine,  France,  an  ancient  place  of  pil- 
grimage from  Paris.  It  is  mentioned  in  the  Calencurs 
of  that  diocese  under  the  title  of  Notre-Dame-des- 
VertuB,  and  its  feast  was  celebrated  annually  on  the 
second  Tuesday  in  May.  An  early  list  of  miraculous 
cures  performed  under  the  invocation  of  this  Madonna 
was  printed  at  Paris  in  1617  (Champagnac,  I,  246). 

AurieainUe,  Montgomery  Co.,  New  York,  U.  S.  A., 
is  theeentreofoneof  the  great  pilgrimages  of  the  New 
World.  It  is  the  scene  of  martyrdom  of  three  Jesuit 
missionaries  by  Mohawk  Indians;  but  the  chapel 
erected  on  the  spot  has  been  dedicated  to  Our  Lsidy 
of  Martyrs,  presumably  because  the  cauac  of  the 
beatification  of  the  three  fathers  is  as  yet  uncompleted. 
15  August  is  the  chief  day  of  pilgrimage;  but  the  prac- 
tice of  visiting  Auriesville  increases  yearly  in  fre- 
quency, and  lasts  intermittently  throughout  the  whole 
summer  (Wynne,  "A  Shrine  in  the  Mohawk  Valley", 
New  York,  1905;  Gerard  in  "The  Month",  March, 
1874,  306). 

BaiiJeul-teSoc,  Oiae,  France,  possesses  a  chapel 
dedicated  to  the  Blessed  Virgin,  dating  from  the  rcign 
of  Louis  XIV.  It  has  received  no  episcopal  authoriia- 
tion,  and  in  fact  was  condemned  by  the  Bishop  of 
Beauvais,  Mgr  de  S^nt-Aignan,  24  February,  1716. 
This  was  in  coneei}uence  of  the  pilgrimaBe  whicli 

Strang  up,  of  visitmg  a  well  of  medicinal, waters. 
wing  to  il«  health-giving  properties,  it  was  called 
Saine-Fontaine,  but,  ay  the  superstition  of  the  people, 
who  at  once  invented  a  legend  to  account  for  it,  this 
was  quickly  chained  to  Sainte-Fonlaine.  It  is  still  h 
place  of  veneration;  and  pilgrims  go  t«  drink  the 
waters  of  the  so-called  holy  well  (Champagnac,  1, 264). 
Bitharram,  Baases-Pyr^nSes,  France,  one  of  the 
oldest  shrines  in  all  France,  the  very  name  of  which 
datps  from  the  .Saracenic  occupation  of  the  country. 
A  legend  puts  back  the  foundation  into  the  fourth 
century,  but  this  is  certainly  several  hundred  years 


PILQRIlUaiS 


too  early.    In  much  more  recent  times  a  calvaiy,  with 
vatioua  stations,  baa  been  erected  and  hae  brou^t 


century  work  and  is  very  well  preserved  considering 
its  great  age  and  the  various  calamities  through  which 
it  1^  pa^ed.  Pilgrimages  to  it  are  organized  from 
time  to  time,  but  on  no  veiy  considerable  scale  (Wall, 
"Shrines  of  BriUsh  Sainta'',  83-7). 

Bonaria,  Sardinia,  ia  celebrated  for  its  statue  nf  Our 
Lady  of  Mercy.  It  is  of  Italiau  workmanship,  prob- 
ably about  1370,  and  came  miraculously  to  Bonnria, 
floating  on  the  waters.    Every  Saturday  local  pjlgrim- 

Sm  were  organized;    but  to-day  it  is  rather  om  an 
ject  of  devotion  to  the  fiaherfolk  that  the  shrine  is 
popular  (Champagnac,  I,  1130-1). 

Boulogne,  France,  has  the  remains  of  a  Tamous 
statue  that  has  been  a  centre  of  pilgrimage  for  many 
centuries.  The  early  history  of  the  shrine  is  lost  in 
the  legends  of  the  seventh  century.  But  whatever 
was  the  origin  of  its  foundation  there  has  always  been 
a  close  connexion  between  this  particular  ahnne  and 
Uie  seofarinK  population  on  both  sides  of  the  Channel. 
In  medieval  France  the  pilgrimage  to  it  was  looked 
upon  as  so  recognized  a  lonn  of  devotion  that  not  a 
few  judicial  sentences  are  recorded  as  having  been 
commuted  into  visits  to  Notre-Dame-de-Boulogne- 
sur-mer.  Besides  several  French  monarchs^  Henry 
III  visited  the  shrine  in  1255,  the  Black  Pnnce  and 
John  of  Gaunt  in  1360,  and  later  Charles  the  Bold  of 
Bu^undy.  So,  too,  in  1814  Louis  XVIII  gave  thanks 
for  Us  restoration  before  this  same  statue.  The  devo- 
tion of  Our  Lady  of  Boulogne  has  been  in  France  and 
England  increased  by  the  official  recognition  of  the 
Ar^confrat«mity  of  Our  Lady  of  Compassion,  estab- 
lished at  this  shnne,  the  object  of  which  is  to  pray  for 
the  return    •■'"'■'  .    .    .>     r,  ...   ,^ 

pagnac,  I, 
18fe,  287). 

Bruge*,  Belgium,  has  its  famous  relic  of  the  Holy 
Blood  which  is  the  centre  of  much  pilgrimage.  This 
was  brought  from  Palestine  by  Thierry  of  Alsace  on 
his  return  from  the  Second  Crusade.  From  7  April, 
1150,  this  relic  has  been  venerated  with  muchdevo- 


9  PILOBIUAOIS 

before  he  could  hope  to  arrogat«  himself  full  eccle- 
siastical authority.     The  poetry  of  Chaucer,  the 

wealth  of  England,  the  crown  jewels  of  France,  and 
marble  from  ruins  of  ancient  Carthage  (a  papal  gift) 
had  glorified  the  shrine  of  St.  Thomas  beyond  com- 
pare^ and  the  pilgrim  signs  (see  below)  which  are 
continually  being  discovered  all  over  England  and 
even  across  the  Channel  ("  Guide  to  MedisDval  Room, 
British  Museum",  London,  1907,  09-71)  emphasize 
the  popularity  of  this  pilgrima4;e.  The  precise  time 
of  the  year  for  vi.^tine  Canterburv  seems  difficult  to 
determme  (Belloc,  ibid.,  54),  tor  Cnaucer  says  spring, 
the  Continental  traditions  imply  winter,  anci  the  chief 
gatherings  of  which  we  have  any  record  point  to  the 
summer.  It  was  probably  determined  by  the  feaalfl 
of  the  saint  and  the  seasons  of  the  year.  The  place  of 
the  martyrdom  haji  onec  more  become  acent  re  of  devo- 


tion. The  annua]  pilgriniage,  attended  by  the  Flemish 
nobility  in  their  quaint  robes  and  thousands  of  pil- 
grims from  other  parts  of  Christendom,  takes  place 


[»  the  Monday  following  the  first  Sunday 
when  the  relic  is  carried  in  procession.  But  every 
Friday  the  relic  is  less  solemnly  eicpoeed  for  the  ven- 
eration of'the  faithful  (Smith,  "Bruges",  London, 
1901,  va»iim;  cL  "Tablet",  LXXXIII,  817). 

Bugloae,  Landes,  France,  was  for  long  popular  as 
a  place  of  pilgrimage  to  a  statue  of  the  Ble^ea  Viigin ; 
hut  it  is  perhaps  as  much  visited  now  as  the  birthplace 
of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul.  The  house  where  he  was  bom 
and  where  he  spent  his  boyhood  is  still  shown  (Cham- 
pamac,  I,  374-90). 

Canlerhtry,  Kent,  England,  was  in  medieval  times 
t^  most  famous  of  English  shrines.  First  as  the 
birthplace  of  Saxon  Chnstianitv  and  as  holding  the 
tomb  of  St.  Augustine;  secondly  as  the  scene  of  the 
martyrdom  of  St.  Thomas  Becket,  it  fitly  represented 
the  ecclesiastical  centre  of  England.  But  even  from 
beyond  the  island,  men  and  women  trooped  to  the 
ahrineof  the  "blissful  martyr",  especially  at  the  great 
pardons  or  Jubilees  of  the  feast  every  fifty  years  from 
1220  to  1520:  his  death  caused  hia  own  city  to  be- 
come, what  Winchester  had  been  till  then,  the  spiritual 


(Sm  Htide  U  Puy,  VoL  [X 

tion,  mainly  through  the  action  of  the  Guild  of  Ran- 
som (Wall,  "Shrines",  152-171;  Belloc,  op.  cit.; 
Danka,  "Canterbury",  London,  1910). 

Camel,  Palestine,  has  been  for  centuries  a  sacred 
mountain,  both  for  the  Hebrew  people  and  for  Chri»- 
tians.  The  Mohammedans  also  regard  it  with  devo- 
tion, and  from  the  eighteenth  century  onwards  have 
joined  with  Christians  and  Jews  in  celebrating  the 
feast  of  Elias  in  the  mountain  that  bea:s  hia  name. 

Ceylon  may  be  mentioned  as  possessing  a  curious 
place  of  pilgrimage,  Adam  Peak.  On  the  summit  of 
this  mountain  is  a  ccrlain  impression  which  the  Mo- 
hammedans assert  to  be  the  footprint  of  Adam,  the 
Brahmins  that  of  Rama,  the  Buddhists  that  of  Buddha, 
the  Chinese  that  of  Fo,  and  the  Christians  of  India 
that  of  St.  Thomas  the  Apostle  (Champagnac,  I,  446). 

Charlres  is  in  many  respects  the  most  wonderful 
sanctuary  in  Europe  dedicated  to  the  Blessed  Virgin, 
as  it  boasts  of  an  uninterrupted  tradition  from  the 
times  of  the  druids  who  dedicated  there  a.  statue 
ttirgini  pariiurm.  This  wooden  statue  is  stud  to  have 
been  still  existing  in  1793,  but  to  have  been  destroyed 
during  the  Revolution.  Moreover,  to  enhance  the 
sacredness  of  the  place  a  relic  was  preserved,  presented 
by  Charlemagne,  viz.,  the  chemiae  or  veil  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin.     Whatever  may  be   the  history  or 


nuHtnuftts  i 

aotbcDticitj'  of  the  refic  hoetf,  it  eatamly  is  of  grest 
aaiiqimf  and  reamiMcs  the  vok  Dtfw  wrm  by  woiDen 
in  the  Ea«t.  A  third  xiorce  of  deviMkn  ia  the  praail 
attne  image  of  the  Bleawd  Vb^  imnganted  with 
gKM  pomp  in  1&57.  The  iMlgnmaeEs  to  thic  riuine 
at  ChaitTEB  have  DataraDr  beni  frequent  and  of  lone 
eoDiinnance.  Amongst  oibas  who  hare  takea  put  in 
these  viaU  of  derotioD  wtit  popes,  kings  of  Fiance 
and  RfMdanH,  saints  like  Bernard  of  Clairranx.  An- 
Kfan  of  CantertNm-.  Thomaa  Berket,  Mticait  de  Paul, 
uid  Franeii  de  Sales,  and  the  faapkfls  Mary  QoBEn  cf 
t<atts.  Thae  is,  moreover,  an  annual  proeeaaon  to  the 
dmne  on  15  Matrfa  iChampagnac,  1, 4S2-flO;  Nortb- 
coie.  -SHurt.  of  the  Madonna".  London,  1S6S,  I\',  169- 
77;  Chahannes,  "liisl.  de  N.-D.deCharlra",  Char- 
tres,  1S73)   ■ 

Ckidu4:ir.  Sussex.  En^aod,  had  in  iu  cathedral  the 
tomb  of  ^i .  RicturtL  iU  renowned  biabop.  The 
throng  of  pilgmn-i  io  ibia  shrine,  made  famous  bjtbe 
derotioa  of  Ldward  1,  was  ao  creat  that  the  body  w«b 
diananbered  ao  as  to  make  thlee 
Even  then,  in  1478, 
Biabap  Storey  had  to 
draw  op  stringent 
rules  to  that  the 
rrowd   should  ap- 

aremly  mancwr.  Each 

at  ibe  west  door  in 
the  ptesnibed  order, 
of  which  notice  had 
to  be  given  by  the 
pari^  {wirets  in  iheir 
churches  on  the  Sun- 
day preceding  the 
feast.  BeadesSApril. 
another  pilgrimage 
wae  made  on  Whii- 
-. Sunday  ^WaH,  126- 
31  J. 

Cologne,  Rhmish 
Gennany.  as  a  ctly 
(rf  pilgrimage  centres 
round  the  shrine  of 
(beThreeKin^.  The 

leBes  are  reputed  to  have  been  brought  by  St.  Helena 
to  Constantinople,  to  have  been  transferred  tbence  to 
Milan,  and  ei-idently  in  the  twelfth  ccnluiy  to  have 
been  carried  in  triumph  by  Frederick  BarbaroaA  to 
CologiK.  The  iweaent  ehdtte  is  omiaidered  the  n>ast 
remarkable  example  extant  of  the  medieval  nild- 
smith's  art.  Tbouf^  of  old  reckoned  as  cMie  of  the 
four  greater  pilgrimaf^es,  it  seems  to  have  kwt  tbe 
power  of  attracting  huge  crowds  out  of  devoticm; 
thou^  many,  no  doubt,  are  drawn  to  it  by  ita  splen- 
dour (Champagnae.  I,  482). 

Composldla,  Spain,  has  long  beoi  famous  as  con- 
taining tbe  shrue  of  St.  JaoKa  the  Greater  (q.  v., 
where  the  authenticity  of  tbe  rehes  etc.  is  discussed 
at  some  length).  In  srane  senses  this  was  tbe  most 
renowned  medieval  pilgrimage^  and  the  custom  of 
those  who  bore  back  with  thtm  from  Galir^ia  scallop 
shells  as  proofs  of  their  journey  gradually  extended  to 
every  form  trf  pilgrima^ce.  The  old  feast-day  of  St. 
James  (5  Augitnj  h  still  celebrated  by  the  boys  of 
London  with  their  grottos  of  oyster  shells.  TTie 
earUest  records  of  ^-isits  paid  to  this  shrine  date  from 
tbe  eighth  ceoturv;  and  even  in  receat  years  the 
custom  has  been  enlhumaslically  obeer^ed  (cf.  Rymer, 
"Foedfta".  London,  1710,  XI,  371.  376,  etc), 

Cancepcidn,  Chile,  has  a  pilgrimage  to  a  ahnne  of 
tbe  Blessed  \1rgin  that  is  perhaps  unique,  a  rock- 
drawn  figure  of  the  Mothered  God.  It  was  discovered 
by  a  chiW  in  the  eighteenth  century  and  was  for  long 
popular  among  the  Chilians. 


was  ocipnaDy  venerated  ai  Villa  Vicioaa  in  Porto^- 
Deaamae  of  the  neglecl  into  which  it  had  faDen.  a  psous 
rfsi^Mid  carried  it  off  to  Codova.  whence  the  For- 
tngoeseendeavouicdsevaal  times  to  irrov^  it,  being 
frustrated  each  time  by  a  miraculous  intaimtian 


!5). 


Cnep^,  Poland,  is  said  l_ 

statoe  of  the  Blened  \'irEin  bcottgfat  to  it  by  St. 
Hyacinth,  to  which  ia  times  pafi  pilgrimages  w«e 
often  made  (Acta  SS..  .\ug..  III.  317-11  r- 

Croyfowd.  liBOofakahire.  En^and.  was  the  centre  of 
fn^yh  pilgrima —        "*"   -'---   -'  ^ 
pririapaliy  to  I 
(Wan.  116-8). 

Czentfoaknra.  Poland,  b  tbe  moa  famous  of  PoGrii 
riuines  dedicated  to  tbe  Mother  of  God.  wbeie  a  pae- 
ture  painted  on  cypress-wood  and  sttiibaled  to  St. 
Luke  is  pub&cly  veneiated.    This  is  reputed  to  be  tbe 

_-.i.^ ■_  jj^,rQjy    .A  copy  of  tbe  picture 

•       ■"-'•■■     ■       -.VtJw 

Down 


County 


a  so  I  net 
Down,    Ire 


:   the    I 


Ire- 


a  curious  Madonna  irtuch 


.  of  Irdand 
in  that  the  botfies  of 
Ireland's  highest 

"In  the  to>wn  of 
Down,  buried  in  one 

Bridget.  Patiiek, 
and   the   imoub   Co- 

Xothing  need  be  said 
here  about  tbe  rriiea 
of  these  saints;  it  is 
sufficient  roerely  to 
hint  at  the  pilgrim- 
ages that  m*de  this 
a  cmtre  of  devotion 
iWall.  31-2). 
Drumlant,  Ire- 
r  TMi  Holt  Bofu  land,     was      at      one 

time  ceJebrsled  as 
containing  tbe  relics  of  S.  Moedoc  in  tbe  famous  Bre«e 
Moedoc.  This  shrine  was  in  the  custody  of  the  local 
priest  tin  1846,  when  it  was  bi»TO«ed  and  sold  t 
Dubhn  jeweller,  from  whom  in  turn  it  was  bou^  ~ 
Dr.  Petrie.  It  is  now  in  the  museum  of  tbe  I 
Irish  Academy  iTiVall,  80-3)- 

Dunftrmline,  Fife,  Scotland,  was  the  reeort  of 
couniksB  pilgrims,  for  in  the  abbey  was  the  tluine  of 
St.  Maiiaret.  She  was  long  regarded  as  the  moot 
popular  of  Scottish  saints  and  ber  tomb  was  the  most 
revered  in  all  that  kiiudom.  Out  of  derotkm  to  her, 
Dunfermline  succeetled  iooa  as  being  the  burial  |riac« 
of  the  kings  (WaU.  4S-jOi. 

Durham,  EngUnd.  pos^^essed  many  rdica  which 
drew  to  it  the  de^-otion  of  mariv  ^-isitors.  But  ila  two 
chirf  shrineB  werr  those  of  Si.  CuthbMt  and  St.  Bede. 
The  former  was  eni-losed  in  a  gorgeous  reliquary, 
which  was  put  in  its  finished  state  by  John.  Lorf 
Ncvill  of  Raby,  in  1372.  Some  idea  may  be  had  of 
the  number  of  pilgrims  from  the  anMHint  put  by  the 
poorer  ones  into  lie  monev-boi  thai  stood  close  by. 
TTie  year  13S.>-6  jielded  £il3  17s,  Sd.  which  would  be 
equivalent  inourmoney  to  £12 1 1  13s.  4d.  A  tli^ute 
rages  rouiMi  the  present  relics  of  St,  Cuthbert,  and 
there  is  also  some  uncertainty  about  the  body  of  St 
Bede  (Wall.  176-207.  110-6t, 

Edmunddmry,  Suffolk,  England,  sheered  in  its 
abbey  church  the  shrine  of  St,  E^imutMl,  Hug  and 
martjT,  Many  roj-al  pilgrims  from  King  Canute  to 
H«iry  VI  knelt  and  made  offerings  at  the  tomb  of  the 
saint;  and  the  comnxMi  people  crowded  there  in  gr«at 


C0MP08TELA— FACADE  OP  THE  CHURCH  OF   SANTIAGO   (ST.   JAMES) 


PILQEIMAOES  9 

numbers  because  of  the  ext  raordinary  miracles  worked 
by  the  holy  martyr  (Wall,  2lti-23;  Mackinlay,  "St. 
Kdmund  King  and  Martyr",  Loodon,  1893;  Snead- 
CoK,  "Life  ot  Cardinal  Vaughah",  London,  1910,  II, 
287-94). 

EintUdeln,  Schwyz,  Switzerland,  haa  been  a  place 
of  pilgrimage  since  Leo  VIII  in  954.  The  reason  of 
this  (Kvotion  is  a  miraculous  statue  of  the  Blcaaed 
Virgin  broi^ht  by  8t.  Meinrad  from  Zurich.  The 
saint  waa  murdered  in  861  by  robbera  who  coveted  the 
rich  offerings  which  already  at  that  early  date  were 
left  by  the  pilgrims.  The  principal  daya  for  visiting 
the  shrine  are  14  Sept.  and  13  Oct.;  it  is  calculated 
that  the  yearly  number  of  pilgrims  exceeds  150,000. 
Even  I^teatants  from  the  surrounding  cantons  are 
known  to  have  joined  the  throng  of  worshippers 
(Nortbcote,  "Sanctuaries",  132-32). 

Elti,  Cambridgeshire.  England,  was  the  centre  of  a 
'a  the  shrine  of  St.  Etheldreda.    One  of 

.___   .8  still  preaerved  in  a  shrine  in  the  (pre- 

Reformation)  Catholic  church  dedicated  to  her  in 
London  (Wall,  55-6). 

Ephettu,  Asia  Minor,  is  the  centre  of  two  devotions, 
one  to  the  mythical  Seven  Sleepers,  the  other  to  the 
Mother  of  God,  who  lived  here  some  years  under  the 
care  of  St.  John-  Here  also  it  was  that  the  Divine 
maternity  of  Our  Lady  was  proclaimed,  by  the  Third 
(Ecumenical  Council,  a.  d.  491  ("P^lcrinages  aux 
sanct. de  la m6re de  Dieu",  Paris,  1840, 1 19-32;  Cham- 
paoiac,  I,  608-19). 

Evreux,  Eure,  France,  has  a  splendid  cathedral 
dedicated  to  the  Blessed  Virpn,  hut  the  pilgrimage  to  it 
dates  only  from  modem  times  (Champagnac,  I,  S41). 

Faviert,  8eine-et-Oise,  France,  is  the  centre  ot  a 
pilgrimage  to  the  church  of  St.  Sulpice,  where  there 
are  relics  of  the  saint,  St.  Louis  IX  paid  his  homage 
at  the  shrine;  and  even  now,  from  each  parish  of  St. 
Sulpice  (a  common  dedication  among  French  churches) 
deputies  come  here  annually  on  pilgrimage  for  the 


1  PILOBIHAOBS 

GroUafen<Ua,  Campagna,  Italy,  a  famous  monas- 
tery of  the  Greek  Rile,  takes  ite  name  (traditionally) 
from  a  picture  of  the  Madonna  found,  protected  by  a 
grille,  in  a  grotto.  It  is  still  venerated  in  the  abbey 
church  and  is  the  centre  of  a  local  pilgrimage  (Cham- 
pagnac, I,  714-15), 

Guadalupe,  Estradamura,  Spain,  is  celebrated  for 
its  wonder-working  statue  of  the  Blessed  Virgin.  But 
it  has  been  outshone  by  another  shrine  of  the  same 
name  in  Mexico,  which  has  considerably  gained  in 
importance  as  the  centre  of  pilgrimage.  As  a  sanc- 
tuary the  latter  takes  the  place  of  one  dedicated  to  an 
old  pagan  goddees  who  was  there  worshipped.    The 


three  Sundays  following  tlic  feast  which  o 
August  (Champagnac,  I,  C"  -' 
Garaison,  Tarbes,  Kra 


n27 


n  ap- 


parition of  Our  Lady  to  a  shepherdess  of  twelve  years 
old,  Agl^se  de  Sagasan,  early  m  the  sixteenth  century. 
The  sanctuary  was  dedicated  afresh  after  the  Revolu- 
tion and  is  once  more  thronged  with  pilgrims.  The 
cUef  festival  is  celebrated  on  8  September  (Cham- 
pagnac, 1,  95-9). 

Genezzanc,  Italy,  cont^ns  the  miraculous  picture 
of  Our  Lady  of  Good  Counsel  which  is  said  to  have 
been  translated  from  Albania.  It  has,  since  its  arrival 
25  April,  1467,  been  visited  by  popes,  cardinals,  kings, 
and  Dv  countless  throngs  of  pilgrims:  and  devotion  to 
the  shrine  steadily  increases  (Northcote,  "Sanctua- 
ries", 15-24). 

Gla»Umbury,  Somerset,  England,  has  been  a  holy 
place  for  many  centuries  and  round  it  cluster  legends 
and  memories,  such  as  no  other  shrine  in  England  can 
boast.  The  Apostles,  St.  Joseph  of  Arimathea,  Sts, 
Patrick  and  David,  and  King  Arthur  b^n  the  aston- 
ishing cycle  which  is  continued  by  names  hke  St. 
Dunstan,  etc.  The  curious  thorn  which  blossomed 
twice  yearly,  in  May  and  at  Christmastide,  also 
proved  an  attraction  for  pilgrims,  though  the  stoiy  of 
its  miraculous  origin  does  not  seem  to  go  back  much 
before  the  sixteenui  century.  A  proof  of  the  devotion 
which  the  abbey  inspired  is  seen  in  the  "Pilgrim's 
Ipn,"  a  building  of  late  fifteenth  century  work  m  the 


Grace,  Lot-etJ^aronne,  France,  used  to  be  the  seat 
of  an  ancient  statue  at  the  Blessed  Virgin  which  en- 
tered the  town  in  a  miraculous  fashion.  It  was  en- 
■hrined  in  a  Uttlc  chapel  perched  on  the  bridge  that 
nwns  the  river  Lot.  Henoeita  old  name,  NostroDamo 
oel  eap  del  Fount,  Even  now  some  pilgrimages  are 
msdc  to  the  restored  shrine  (Champagnac,  1,  702-5). 


etory  of  the  oripn  of  this  shrine  (see  Guadalcpb, 
Shrine  or)  is  astonishing. 

Hal,  Belgium,  contiuns  a  wooden  statue  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin  which  is  decorated  with  a  golden  crown. 
It  has  been  described  by  Justus  Lipsius  in  his  "Diva 
Vinrr,  HntlpnBin"  ("Omnin  Onpra",  Antwerp,  1637, 
, ^ ,..„  .  oagc,  it  has  been  fa- 
all  Europe  and  has  received  gifts  from  many 


was  lent  for  use  during  the  Eucharistie  Congress  ii 
London  in  1909.  The  miracles  recorded  are  certainly 
wonderful. 

HolytBeU,  North  Wales,  still  draws  large  bodies  of 
pilgrims  by  its  wonderful  cures.  It  has  done  so  con- 
tinuously for  over  a  thousand  years,  remaining  the  one 
active  example  of  what  were  once  very  common  (Holy 
Wells.  Chahners,  "Book  of  Days",  II,  6-8).  The 
well  is  dedicated  to  St.  Winefride  and  is  said  to  mark 
the  spot  of  her  martyrdom  in  634  (Mahcr,  "Holy- 
well m  1894"  in  "The  Month",  February,  1895, 
153). 

lona,  Scotland,  though  not  properly,  until  recently, 
a  place  of  pilgrimage,  can  hardly  be  omitted  with 
propriety  from  this  list.  The  mention  of  it  is  sufficient 
to  recall  memories  of  its  crowded  tombs  of  kings, 
chieftains,  prelates,  which  witness  to  the  honour  in 
which  is  was  held  as  the  Holy  Island  (Trenholme, 
"Story  of  lona",  Edinbutghj  1909). 

JerutaUm,  Palestine,  was  m  many  ways  the  origin 


piLQBiMAais  9: 

of  all  pilgrimttgea.  It  is  the  firet  spot  to  which  the 
Christiftn  turned  with  longiog  eyes.  The  csj-liest 
recorded  pilgrima^  go  buck  to  the  third  century  with 
the  mention  of  Bishop  Alexander;  then  in  the  fourth 
century  came  the  great  impulse  given  by  the  Empress 
Helena  who  was  followed  by  the  Bordeaux  Pilgrims 
and  the"PeregrinatioSiIvi£e"andother8  (cf.  AotaSS,, 
June,  III,  176;  Sept.,  JII,  56).  The  action  of  St, 
Jerome  and  his  anstocrtttic  lady  friends  made  the 
custom  fashionable  and  the  Latin  colony  was  estab- 
lished by  them  which  made  it  continuous  (Gregory  of 
Tours.  "Hist.  Franc",  Paris,  1886,  ed.  by  Omont,  11, 
68;  V,  181;  etc.).  So  too  comes  the  visit  of  Arculf, 
cited  by  St.  Bede  ("Eccl.  Hist.",.V,  xv,  263,  ed.  Giles. 
London,  1847)  from  the  writings  of  Adamnan;  of 
Cadoc  the  Welsh  bishop  mentioned  below  (cf.  Si. 
Andreios);  of  Probua  sent  by  Gregory  I  to  establish  a 
hospice  in  Jerusalem  (Acta  SS,,  March,  II,  §  23,  150, 
158a,  etc.)-  There  are  also  the  legendary  accounts  of 
Kin^  Arthur's  pilgrimage,  and  that  of  Charlemagne 
(Pans,  "Romania  , 


same  custom  in  the 
tenth  century  (Beaz- 
ley,  II,  123),  but 
there  a  a  lull  in 
these  visits  to  Jeru- 
salem till  the  elev- 
enth century.  Then, 
at  once,  a  new  stream 
begins  to  pou^  over 
to  the  East  at  times 
in  small  numbers,  as 
Foulque  of  N'eira  in 
1011,  Meingoz  took 
with  him  only  Simon 
the  Hermit,  and  Ul- 
ric,  later  prior  of  Zell, 
was  accompanied  by 
one  who  could  chant 
the  psalms  with  him; 
at  times  also  in  huge  forces  as  in]026undcrRichardII 
of  Normandy,  in  1033  a  record  number  (Glabcr,  Paris, 
1886,IV,6,l06,ed.Prou),  in  1035  anotherundcr  Robert 
the  Devil  (ibid.,  128).  and  most  famous  of  all  in  1065 
that  under  Gunther,  Bishop  of  Bamberg,  with  twelve 
thousand  pilgrims  (Lambert  of  GersReld, "  Mon.  Germ. 
Hist",  Hanover,  1844,  V,  169).  This  could  only  lead 
to  the  Crusades  which  stamped  the  Holy  Land  on  the 
memsry  and  heart  of  Christendom.  The  number  who 
tooktheCrosaseemsfubuloustcf.GiraldusCambrensis, 
"Itm.  Cambriie",  Ilxiii,  147,  in  R.  S,,  ed.  Dimock, 
1868);  and  many  who  could  not  go  themselves  left 
instructions  for  their  hearts  to  be  buried  there  (cf. 
Hovenden,  "Annals",  ed.  Stubbs,  1869,  in  R.  S.,  II, 
279;  "Chron.  de  Froisaart",  Bouchon,  1853,  Paris, 
1853,  I,  47;  cf.  35-7).  So  eager  were  men  to  take  the 
Cross,  that  some  even  branded  or  cut  its  mark  upon 
them  {"Miracula  s.  Thonuc",  by  Abbot  Benedict,  ed. 
Giles,  186)  or  "with  a  sharpe  knyfe  he  share,  A  crosse 
upon  his  shoulder  bare"  ("Syr  Isenbros"  in  Utterson, 
"Early  Pop.  Poetry",  London,  1S17,  1,  83).  From 
the  twelfth  century  onwards  the  flow  is  uninterrupted, 
Russians  (Beailey,  II,  156),  Northerners  (II,  174), 
Jews  (218-74),  etc.  And  the  end  is  not  yet  {"Itinera 
hieroBolymitana  SEeculi  IV-VIII",  ed.  Geyer  in  the 
"Corp.  script,  eccl.  lat.",  39,  Vienna,  1898;  Palestine 
Pilg.  Text  Soc.,  London,  1884  sqq.i  "Deutsche  Pil- 
gerreisen  nach  dem  heiligen  Lande  ,  II,  Innsbruck, 
1900,  etc.;  Br^hier,  "L'.5glise  et  TOrient  au  moyen- 
Sge",  Pans,  1907,  10-15,  42-50). 

Kavdaer,  Guelders,  is  a  daughter-shrine  to  the 
Madonna  of  Luxemburg,  a  copy  of  which  was  here 
enshrined  in  1642  and  continues  to  attract  pilgrims 
(Champognac,  I,  875). 


!  piiaiuBaAau 

La  Quercia,  Viterbo,  Italy,  is  celebrated  for  its 

Suoint  shrine.  Within  the  walls  of  a  church  built  by 
ramante  is  a  tabernacle  of  marble  that  enfolds  the 
wonder-working  image,  painted  of  old  by  Batiste 
Juzzantt  and  hung  up  for  protection  in  an  o(^.  A  p«t 
of  the  oakstill  survives  within  the  shrine,  which  boasts, 
as  of  old,  its  pilgrims  (Mortier,  "Notre  Dame  de  la 
Querela",  Florence   1904). 

La  SaUUe,  Dauphiny,  France,  is  one  of  the  places 
where  the  Blessed  Virgin  is  said  to  have  appeared  in 
the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  centuiy.  This  is  no  place 
to  discuss  the  authenticity  of  the  apparition.  As  a 
place  of  pilgrimage  it  dates  from  19  Sept.,  1846,  imme- 
diately after  which  crowds  began  to  flock  to  the  shrine. 
The  annual  number  of  visitors  is  computed  to  be  about 
30,000  (Northcotc,  "Sanctuaries",  178-229). 

La  fiarle,  Huv,  Bel^um,  boasts  a  shrine  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin  that  dominates  the  surrounding  coun- 
try. Perched  on  the  top  of  a  hill,  past  a  long  avenue  of 
waysidechapels,  is  the  statue  found  by  chance  in  1621. 
Year  by  year  during 
May  countless  pil- 
grims organised  in 
parishes    climb   the 

creasing  numbers 
(Halflants,"  Hist.de 
N.-D.  de  la  Sarte", 
Huy,  1871). 

f.aus,  Hautes- 
Alpes,  France,  Is  one 
of  the  many  seven- 
teenth-century 
shrines  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin.  There  is  the 
familiar  story  of  an 
apparition  to  a  shep- 
herdess with  a  com- 
mand to  found  a 
church.  So  popular 
this  shrinp  b«- 


!>  tha 


the   I 


pilgrims  is  said  to  be  close  o 
pilgrimage  times  are  Pentecost 
tol^r  (Northcotc,  "Sanctuaries 
L«  Puy,  Haute-ljiire,  France, 
of  any  of  the  Blessed  Virgi 


nual  number 
L  80,000.  The  chief 
and  throughout  Oc> 
,  146-59). 

.  boasts  the  earliest 
apparitions.    Its 


legend  bc^ns  about  the  year  50.  After  the  Crusades 
had  commenced,  Puy-Notre-Dame  became  famous  as 
a  sanctuary  of  the  Blessed  Vii^n  throughout  aU 
Christendom.  Its  great  bishop,  A»lhemarof  Montheil, 
was  the  first  to  take  the  Cross,  and  he  journeyed  to 
Jerusalem  with  Godfrey  de  Bouillon  as  legate  of  the 
Holy  See.  The  "  Salve  Redna"  is  by  some  attributed 
to  him,  and  was  certainly  often  known  as  the  "Anthem 
of  Puy".  Numberless  French  kings,  princes,  and 
nobles  have  venerated  this  sanctuary;  St.  Louis  IX 
presented  it  with  a  thorn  from  the  Sacred  Crown. 
The  pilgrimages  that  we  read  of  in  connexion  with  this 
shrine  must  have  been  veritable  pageants,  for  the 
crowds,  even  as  late  as  1853,  exceeded  300,000  in  num- 
ber (Northcotc,  "Sanctuaries",  160-9). 

Lichfield,  Staffordshire,  England,  is  one  of  the  placea 
of  pilgrimage  which  has  ceased  to  be  a  centre  of  devo- 
tion; for  the  relics  of  St.  Chad,  cast  out  of  their  tomb 
by  Protestant  fanaticism,  have  now  found  a  home  in 
a  Catholic  church  (the  Birmingham  cathedral),  and 
it  is  to  the  new  shrine  that  the  pilgrims  turn  (Wall, 
97-102). 

Liet»e,  Picardy,  France,  was  before  the  rise  of 
Lourdes  the  most  famous  centre  in  France  of  pilgrim- 
age to  the  Blessed  Virgin.  The  date  of  its  foundation 
is  pushed  back  to  the  twelfth  century  and  the  quaint 
story  of  its  origin  connects  it  with  Christian  captives 
during  the  Crusades.  Its  catalogue  of  pilgrims  reads 
like  an  "Almanach  de  Gotha";  but  the  numberlesi 


PILGRIMAGES 


93 


PILGBIBfAGES 


unnamed  pilgrims  testify  even  more  to  its  popularity. 
It  is  still  held  in  honour  (Champagnac,  I,  91^22). 

Ldna)ln,  Lincolnshire,  England,  in  its  splendid  ca- 
thedral guarded  the  relics  of  its  bishop,  St.  Hugh.  At 
theentombment  in  1200,  two  kings  and  sixteen  bishops, 
at  the  translation  in  12ii80,  ohc  king,  two  queens,  and 
many  prelates  took  part.  The  inflow  of  pilgrims  was 
enormous  every  year  till  the  great  spoliation  under 
Henry  VIII  (Wall.  130-40). 

Loges.  Seine-et-Oise,  France,  was  a  place  much  fre- 
cHientea  by  pilgrims  because  of  the  shrine  of  St. 
Fiacre,  an  Irish  solitary.  In  1615  it  became,  after  a 
lapse  of  some  three  centuries,  once  more  popular,  for 
Louis  XIII  paid  several  visits  there.  Among  other 
famous  worshippers  were  James  II  and  his  queen  from 
their  place  of  exile  at  St.-Germain.  The  chief  day  of 
pilgrimage  was  the  feast  of  St.  Stephen,  protomartyr 
(26  December).  It  was  suppressed  in  1744  (Champa- 
gnac, I,  934-5). 

Loreto,  Ancona,  Italy,  owin^  to  the  ridicule  of  one 
half  of  the  world  and  the  devotion  of  the  other  half,  is 
too  well-known  to  need  more  than  a  few  words.  Nor 
is  the  authenticity  of  the  shrine  to  be  here  at  all  dis- 
cussed. As  a  place  of  pilgrimage  it  will  be  sufficient  to 
note  that  Dr.  Stanley,  an  eyewitness,  pronounced  it  to 
be  "undoubtedly  the  most  frequented  shrine  in  Chris- 
tendom" (Northcote,  "Sanctuaries",  65-106;  Dolan 
in  "The  Month",  August,  1894,  545;  cf.  ibid.,  Febru- 
ary, 1867,  178-83). 

LourdeSf  Pyr6n6es,  France,  as  a  centre  of  pilgrimage 
is  without  a  rival  in  popularity  throughout  the  world. 
A  few  statistics  are  all  that  shall  be  recorded  here. 
From  1867  to  1903  inclusively  4271  pilgrimages 
passed  to  Lourdes  numbering  some  387,0(X)  pilgrims; 
the  last  seven  years  of  this  period  average  150  pilgrim- 
ages annually.  Again  within  thirty-six  years  (1868  to 
1904)  1643  bishops  (including  63  cardinals)  have  vis- 
ited the  grotto;  and  the  Southern  Railway  Company 
reckon  that  Lourdes  station  receives  over  a  million 
travellers  every  year  (Bertrin,  "Lourdes",  tr.  Gibbs, 
London,  1908;  "The  Month",  October,  1905,  359; 
February,  1907,  124). 

Luxemburg  possesses  a  shrine  of  the  Blessed  Virgin 
under  the  title  of  "Consoler  of  the  Afflicted".  It  was 
erected  by  the  Jesuit  Fathers  and  has  become  much 
frequented  by  pious  pilgrims  from  all  the  country 
round.  The  patronal  feast  is  the  first  Sundav  of  July, 
and  on  that  day  and  the  succeeding  octave  the  chapel 
is  crowded.  Whole  villages  move  up,  beaded  by  their 
parish  priests;  and  the  niunber  of  the  faithful  who 
frequent  the  sacraments  here  is  sufficient  justification 
for  the  niunerous  indulgences  with  which  this  sanc- 
tuary is  enriched  (Champagnac,  I,  985-95). 

Lyons f  Rhdne.  France,  boasts  a  well-known  pilgrim- 
age to  Notre-Dame-de-Fourvi^res.  This  shrine  is 
supposed  to  have  taken  the  place  of  a  statue  of  Mer- 
cury in  the  forum  of  Old  Lugdunum.  But  the  earliest 
chapel  was  utterly  destroyed  by  the  Calvinists  in  the 
sixteenth  century  and  again  during  the  Revolution. 
The  present  structure  dates  from  the  reinauguration 
by  Piua  VII  in  person,  19  April,  1805.  It  is  well  to 
remember  that  L^ons  was  ruled  by  St.  Iremeus  who 
was  famed  for  his  devotion  to  the  Mother  of  God 
(Champagnac,  I,  997-1014). 

MalaecOt  Malay  Peninsiila,  was  once  possessed  of  a 
shrine  set  up  by  St.  Francis  Xavier,  dedicated  under 
the  title  Our  Lady  of  the  Mount.  It  was  for  some 
vears  after  his  death  (and  he  was  buried  in  this  chapel, 
before  the  translation  of  his  relics  to  Goa,  cf.  "The 
Tablet;^  31  Dec.,  1910,  p.  1055),  a  centre  of  pilgrim- 
age. When  Malacca  passed  from  Portuguese  to  Dutch 
rme,  the  exercise  of  the  Catholic  religion  was  forbidden, 
and  the  sanctuary  became  a  ruin  (Champagnac,  I, 
1023-5). 

Mantua,  Lombardy,  Italy,  has  outside  the  city 
walls  a  beautiful  church,  S.  Maria  delle  Grazie,  dedi- 
cated by  the  noble  house  of  Gonzaga  to  the  Mother  of 


God.  It  enshrines  a  picture  of  the  Madonna  painted 
on  wood  and  attributed  to  St.  Luke.  Pius  II,  Charles 
V,  the  Constable  of  Bourbon  are  among  the  many 
pilgrims  who  have  visited  this  sanctuanr.  The  chief 
season  of  pilgrimage  is  about  the  feast  of  the  Assump- 
tion (15  August),  when  it  is  computed  that  over  one 
hundred  thousand  faithful  have  some  years  attended 
the  devotions  (Champagnac,  I,  1042). 

MariaSleiny  near  Basle,  Switzerland,  is  the  centre 
of  a  pilgrimage.  An  old  statue  of  the  Blessed  Virgin, 
no  doubt  the  treasure  of  some  unknown  hermit,  is 
famed  for  its  miracles.  To  it  is  attached  a  Benedictine 
monastery — a  daughter-house  to  Einsiedeln  (Cham- 
pagnac, I,  1044). 

Mariazelly  Styria,  a  quaint  village,  superbly  situated 
but  badly  built,  possesses  a  tentn-centurv  statue  of 
the  Madonna.  To  it  have  come  almost  all  the  Hab&- 
burgs  on  pilgrimage,  and  Maria  Theresa  left  there, 
after  her  visit,  medallions  of  her  husband  and  her 
children .  From  all  the  country  round ,  from  Carinthia, 
Bohemia,  and  the  Tyrol,  the  faithful  fiock  to  the  shrine 
during  June  and  July.  The  Government  used  to  de- 
cree the  day  on  which  the  pilgrims  from  Vienna  wore 
to  meet  in  the  capital  at  the  old  Cathedral  of  St. 
Stephen  and  set  out  in  ordered  bands  for  their  four 
days'  pilgrimage  (Champagnac,  I,  1045-7). 

MaraeilleSf  France,  as  a  centre  of  pilgrimage  has 
a  noble  shrine,  Notre-Dame-de-la-Garde.  Its  chapel, 
on  a  hill  beyond  the  city,  dominates  the  neighbourhood, 
where  is  the  statue,  made  by  Channel  in  1836  to  take 
the  place  of  an  older  one  destroyed  during  the  Revolu- 
tion (Champagnac,  I,  1055). 

MauriaCf  Cantal,  France,  is  visited  because  of  the 
thirteenth-century  shrine  dedicated  to  Notre-Dame- 
des-Miracles.  The  statue  is  of  wood,  auite  black. 
The  pilgrimage  day  is  annually  celebratea  on  9  May 
(Champagnac,  I,  1062).. 

Messina,  Sicily,  the  luckless  city  of  earthquake,  has 
a  celebrated  shrine  of  the  Blessed  Virgin.  It  was 
peculiar  among  all  shrines  in  that  it  was  supposed  to 
contain  a  letter  written  or  rather  dictated  by  the 
Mother  of  God,  congratulating  the  people  of  Messina 
on  their  conversion  to  Christiamty.  During  the 
destruction  of  the  city  in  1908,  the  picture  was 
crushed  in  the  fallen  cathedral  (Thurston  in  "The 
Tablet",  23  Jan.,  1909,  123-5). 

Montaigu,  Belgium,  is  perhaps  the  most  celebrated 
of  Belgian  shrines  raised  to  the  honour  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin.  All  the  year  round  pilgrimages  are  made  to 
the  statue;  and  the  number  of  offerings  day  by  day 
is  extraordinary. 

MorUmarlre,  Seine,  France,  has  been  for  centuries  a 
place  of  pilgrimage  as  a  shrine  of  the  Mother  of  God. 
St.  Ignatius  came  here  with  his  first  nine  companions 
to  receive  their  vows  on  15  Aug.,  1534.  But  it  is 
famous  now  rather  as  the  centre  of  devotion  to  the 
Sacred  Heart,  since  the  erection  of  the  National 
Basilica  there  after  the  war  of  1870  (Champagnac,  I, 
1125-46). 

MonlpeUier,  Herault,  France,  used  to  possess  a 
famous  statue  of  black  wood — Notre-DamcKies- 
Tables.  Hidden  for  long  within  a  silver  statue  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin,  life-size,  it  was  screened  from  public 
view,  till  it  was  stolen  by  the  Calvinists  and  has  since 
disappeared  from  history.  From  1189  the  feast  of 
the  Miracles  of  Mary  was  celebrated  with  special 
Office  at  Montpellier  on  1  Sept.,  and  throughout  an 
octave  (Champagnac,  I,  1147). 

Mont  Sl'Michd,  Normandy,  is  the  quaintest,  'most 
beautiful,  and  interesting  of  shrines.  For  long  it  was 
the  centre  of  a  famous  pilgrimage  to  the  ^at  arch- 
angel, whose  power  in  times  of  war  and  distress  was 
earnestly  implored.  Even  to-day  a  few  bands  of 
peasants,  and  here  and  there  a  devout  pilgrim,  come 
amid  the  crowds  of  visitors  to  honour  St.  Michael  as 
of  old  (Champagnac,  I,  1151). 

Montserratj  Spain,  lifts  iteelf  above  the  surroimding 


PILGRIMAGES  94  PILGRIMAGES 

country  in  the  same  way  as  it  towers  above  other  stolenwiththeothertreasuresbyHenryirs  turbulent 

Spanish  centres  of  pilgrimage  to  the  Blessed  Virgin,  eldest  son,  Henry  Court  Mantel  (Drane,  '*Hist.   of 

Its  existence  can  be  traced  to  the  tenth  century,  but  St.  Dominic",  London.  1891,302-10;  Laporte,  ''Guide 

it  was  not  a  centre  of  much  devotion  till  the  thir-  du  pdlerin  k  Rocamaaour",  Rocamadour,  1862). 

teenth.    The  present  church  was  only  consecrated  on  •     RocheviUey  Toulouse,  France. — The  legend  of  its 

2  Feb.,  1562.    It  is  still  much  sought  after  in  pilgrim-  origin  fixes  the  date  of  its  apparition  of  the  Blessed 

age  (Champagnac,  I,  1152-73).  Virgin  as  1315.    Long  famous,  then  long  neglected,  it 

Naples,  Italy,  is  a  city  which  has  been  for  many  has  once  more  been  restored.    During  the  octave  of 

centuries  and  for  many  reasons  a  centre  of  pilgrimage,  the  Nativity  of  Our  Lady  (8-15  Sept.)  it  is  visited  by 

Two  famous  shrines  there  are  the  Msbdonna  del  quite  a  large  body  of  devout  pilgnms  (Qiampagnac, 

Carmine  and  Santa  Maria  della  Grotta  (Northcote,  II,  101). 
''Sanctuaries'',  107-21;  see  also  Januarius,  Saint).         Rio  de  Janeiro,  Brazil,  contains  a  sanctuary  dedi- 

Oostacker,  Ghent.  Belgium,  is  one  of  the  famous  cated  to  Our  Lady  of  Travel.    This  statue  is  in  a 

daughter-shrines  ol  Lourdes.    Built  in  imitation  of  convent  of  nuns  situated  iust  outside  the  city,  on 

that  sanctuary  and  having  some  of  the  Lourdes  water  the  east  of  the  bay.    It  is  devoutly  venerated  by  the 

in  the  pool  of  the  grotto,  it  has  almost  rivalled  its  pious  people  of  Brazil,  who  invoke  the  protection  of 

parent  m  the  frequency  of  its  cures.    Its  inauguration  the  Blessed  Virgin  on  their  journeys  (Champagnac, 

began  with  a  body  of  2000  pilgrims,  29  July,  1875,  II,  517-8). 

since  which  time  there  has  been  a  continuous  stream        Rome,  Italy,  has  had  almost  as  much  influence  on 

of  devout  visitors.    One  has  only  to  walk  out  there  the  rise  of  Christian  pilgrimages  as  the  Holy  Land, 

from  Ghent  on  an  ordinary  afternoon  to  see  many  The  sacred  city  of  the  Christian  world,  where  lay  the 

worshippers,  men,  women,  whole  parishes  with  theu*  bodies  of  the  twin  prince  Apostles,  attracted  the  love 

cur6s,  etc.  kneeling  before  the  shrine  or  chanting  of  every  pious  Chnstian.    We  have  quoted  the  words 

before  the  Blessed  Sacrament  in  the  church  (Scheer-  of  St.  Chrysostom  who  yearned  to  see  the  relics  of  St. 

linck,  "Lourdes  en  Flandre'',  Ghent,  1876).  Paul;  and  his  desire  has  been  expressed  in  action  in 

Oxford,  England,  contained  one  of  the  premier  every  age  of  Christian  time.    The  early  records  of 

shrines  of  Britain,  that  of  St.  Frideswide.    Certainly  every  nation  (of  the  histories  of  Eusebius,  Zosimus, 

her  relics  were  worthy  of  grateful  veneration,  espe-  Socrates,  Bede,  etc.  passim)  give  name  after  name  of 

daily  to  Oxford  dwellers,  for  it  is  to  her  that  the  city  bishop,  kin^,  noble,  priest,  layman  who  have  jour- 

and  university  alike  appear  to  owe  their  existence,  neyed  to  visit  as  pilgrims  the  limina  Apostolorvm. 

Her  tomb  (since  restored  at  great  pains,  1890)  was  Full  to  repletion  as  the  city  is  with  relics  of  Christian 

the  resort  of  many  pilgrims.   Few  English  kings  cared  holiness,  the  "rock  on  which  the  Church  is  built ''  has 

to  enter  Oxford  at  all;  but  the  whole  university,  twice  been  the  chief  attraction;    and  Bramante  has  well 

a  year,  i.  e.  mid-Lent  and  Ascension  Day,  headed  by  made  it  the  centre  of  his  immortal  temple.    Thus  St. 

the  chancellor,  came  in  solemn  procession  to  offer  Marcius  came  with  his  wife  Martha  and  his  two  sons 

their  gifts.    The  Catholics  of  the  city  have  of  late  all  the  way  from  Persia  in  269;   St.  Patemus  from 

years  reorganized  the  pilgrimage  on  the  saint's  feast-  Alexandria  in  253;   St.  Maiuiis  from  Africa  in  284. 

day,  19  Oct.  (Wall,  63i-71).  Again  Sts.  Constantine  and  Victorian  on  their  arrival 

Padua,  Italy,  is  the  centre  of  a  pilgrimage  to  the  at  Rome  went  straight  to  the  tomb  of  St.  Peter,  where 

relics  of  St.  Antnony.   In  a  vast  choir  behind  the  sane-  soldiers  cau^t  them  and  put  them  to  death.    So  also 

'tuary  of  the  church  that  bears  his  name  is  the  treasury  St.  Zoe  was  found  praying  at  the  tomb  of  St.  Peter  and 

of  St.  Anthony;  but  his  body  reposes  under  the  high  martyred.   Even  then  in  these  early  days  the  practice 

altar.    Devotion  to  this  saint  has  increased  so  enor-  of  pilgrimages  was  in  full  force,  so  that  the  danger  of 

mously  of  late  years  that  no  special  days  seem  set  death  did  not  deter  men  from  it  (Barnes,  "St.  Peter  in 

apart  for  pilgrimages.    They  proceed  continuously  all  Rome",  London,  1900,  146).    Then  to  overleap  the 

the  year  round  (Ch6ranc6,  "St.  Anthony  of  Padua",  centuries  we  find  records  of  the  Saxon  and  Danish 

tr.  London,  1900).  kings  of  England  trooping  Romewards,  so  that  the 

Pennant  MelangeU.  Montgomery,  Wales,  to  judge  very  name  of  Rome  has  become  a  verb  to  express  the 

from  the  sculptured  tragments  of  stone  built  into  the  idea  of  wandering   (Low  Lat.,  romerus:    Old  Fr., 

walls  of  the  church  and  lych  gate,  was  evidently  a  romieu;  Sp.,  romero;  Port.,  romeiro;  A.  S.,  romaign; 

place  of  note,  where  a  shrine  was  built  to  St.  Alel-  M.  E.,  romen;    Modem,  roam).    And  of  the  Irish, 

angell,  a  noble  Irish  maiden.    The  whole  structure  as  the  same  uninterrupted  custom  has  held  good  till  our 

restored  stands  over  eight  feet  high  and  originally  own  day  (Ulster  Archaeolog.  Jeur.,  VII,  lS8-42).    Of 

stood  in  the  Cell-yrBedd,  or  Cell  of  the  Grave,  and  the  other  nations  there  is  no  need  to  speak, 
was  clearly  a  centre  of  pilgrimage  (Wall,  48).  It  is  curious,  however,  to  note  that  though  the  chief 

Poniigny,  Yvonne,  France,  was  for  many  centuries  ahrine  of  Rome  was  undoubtedly  the  tomb  of  the 

a  place  of  pilgrimage  as  containing  the  shrine  of  St.  Apostles — to  judge  from  all  the  extant  records — ^yet 

Edmund  of  Canterbury.     Special  facilities  were  al-  the  pilgrim  sign  (see  below)  which  most  commonly  be- 

lowed  by  the  French  king  for  English  pilgrims.    The  tokcn^  a  palmer  from  Rome  was  the  "vemicle"  or 

Huguenots  despoiled  the  shrine,  but  the  relics  were  reproduction  of  St.  Veronica's  veil.    Thus  Chaucer 

saved  to  be  set  up  again  in  a  massive  chdsse  of  eigh-  (Bell  s  edition,   London,    1861,    105)   describes  the 

teenth-century  workmanship.    In  spite  of  the  troubles  pardoner:— 

in  France  the  body  remains  in  its  old  position,  and  is        "That  strait  was  comen  from  the  Court  of  Rome 
even  carefully  protected  by  the  Government  (Wall,  A  vemicle  had  he  served  upon  his  cappe". 

171-5).  However,  there  was  besides  a  medal  with  a  reproduc- 

Puche,  Valencia,  Spain,  is  the  great  Spanish  sane-  tion  of  the  heads  of  Sts.  Peter  and  Paul  and  another 

tuary  dedicated  to  Our  Lady  of  Mercy,  in  honour  of  with  the  crossed  keys.  These  pilgrimages  to  Rome,  of 

whom  the  famous  Order  of  Mercy  came  into  being  which  only  a  few  early  instances  have  been  given,  have 

through  Spanish  saints.    The  day  of  pilgrimage  was  increased  of  late  years,  for  the  prisoner  of  the  Vatican, 

the  feast  of  Our  Lady  of  Mercy,  24  Sept.  (Champa-  who  cannot  go  out  to  his  children,  has  become,  since 

gnac,  II,  488-92).  1870,  identified  with  the  City  of  the  Seven  Hills  in  a 

Rocamadour,  Lot,  France,  was  the  centre  of  much  way  that  before  was  never  for  long  experienced.  Hence 

devotion  as  a  shrine  of  the  Blessed  Virgin.    Amongst  the  pope  is  looked  upon  as  embodying  in  his  person 

its  pilgrims  may  be  named  St.  Dominic;    and  the  the  whole  essence  of  Rome,  so  that  to-day  it  is  the 

heavy  mass  of  iron  hanging  outside  the  chapel  wit-  pope  who  is  the  living  tomb  of  St.  Peter.    All  this  has 

nesses  to  the  legendary  pilgrimage  of  Roland,  whose  nelped  to  increase  the  devotion  and  love  of  the  Cath- 

good  sword  Durendal  was  deposited  there  till  it  was  olic  world  for  its  central  city  and  has  enormously 


PILOEIMAaBS  S 

multipbed  the  annuat  number  of  pilgrima.  Within 
the  city  iteeU,  mention  muel  juat  he  made  of  the  relc- 
braled  pilgrimage  to  the  seven  churches,  a  devotion 
HO  dear  to  the  heart  of  St.  Philip  (Capecelatro,  "Life 
of  St.  Philip",  tr.  Pope,  London,  1894,  I,  106,  238, 
etc.).  Hia  name  recalls  the  great  work  he  did  for  the 
pilgriraa  who  came  to  Rome.  He  established  his  Con- 
gregation of  the  TrinitA  dei  Pellegrini  (ibid.,  I  138-54), 
the  whole  work  of  which  was  to  care  for  and  look  after 
the  thronging  crowds  who  came  every  year,  more  espe- 
cially in  the  years  of  jubilee.  Of  course,  many  auch 
hospices  already  existed.  The  English  College  had 
ori^nally  been  a  home  for  Saion  pilgrimsj  and  there 
were  and  are  many  othere.  But  St.  Philip  gave  the 
movement  a  new  impetus. 

St.  Albant,  Hertford,  Engiandj  was  famous  over 
Europe  in  the  Middle  Ages.  This  is  the  more  curious 
as  the  sainted  martyr  was  no  prieat  or  monk,  but  a 
simple  layman.  The  number  of  roj'al  pilgrims  prac- 
tically includes  the  whole  list-  of  iLnglish  kings  and 
Sieens,  but  especially  devoted  to  the  shrine  were 
enry  III,  Edward  I,  Edward  II,  Richard  II.  During 
the  last  century  the  broken  pieces  of  the  demolished 
shrine  (to  the  number  of  two  thousand  fragments) 
were  patiently  fitted  together,  and  row  enable  the 
present  generation  to  picture  IJie  beauty  it  presented 
to  the  pilgrims  who  thronged  around  it  (Wall,  II, 
35-43). 

Si.  Andreirs,  Fife,  Scotland,— Though  more  cele- 
brated as  a  royal  burgh  and  as  the  seat  of  Scotland's 
moat  ancient  university,  its  earher  renown  came  to  it 
u  a  centre  of  pitgrimc^.  Even  as  far  back  as  the 
year  500  we  find  a  notice  of  the  pilgrimages  made  by 
the  Welsh  bishop,  Cadoc.  He  went  seven  times  to 
Rome,  thrice  to  Jerusalem,  and  once  to  iSt.  Andrews 
(Acta  SS.,  Jan.,  111,219). 

St.  David's,  Pembrokeshire,  Wales,  was  so  cele- 
brated a  place  of  pilgrimage  that  William  I  went  there. 
Immediately  after  the  conquest  of  England,  The  im-" 
portance  of  this  shrine  and  the  reverence  in  which  the 
relics  of  St.  David  were  held  may  be  gathered  from 
the  papal  Decree  that  two  pilgrimages  here  were  equal 
to  one  to  Rome  (Wall,  91-5). 

Ste  Anne  d'Aurau,  Vonnes,  Brittany,  a  centre  of 
pilgrimage  in  one  of  the  holiest  cities  of  the  Bretons, 
oelebratea  for  its  ■pardons  in  honour  of  St.  Anne.  The 
priociDal  pilgrimages  take  place  at  Pent«cost  and  on 

Ste  Anne  de  Beauvri,  Quebec,  Canada,  has  be- 
come the  most  popular  centre  of  pilgrimage  in  all 
Canada  within  quite  recent  years.  A  review,  or  pious 
magazine,  "Les  Annaies  de  la  Bonne  S.  Anne",  has 
been  founded  to  increase  the  devotion  of  the  people: 
•nd  the  zeal  of  the  Canadian  clet^  has  been  di^tayea 
in  organizing  parochial  pilgrimages  to  the  ahnne. 
The  Euchoristic  Congress,  held  at  Montreal  in  1910, 
also  did  a  great  deafto  spread  abroad  the  fame  of 
this  sanctuary. 

Sainte-Baume. — S.  Maximin,  Toulouse,  France,  is 
the  centre  of  a  famous  pilgrimage  to  the  sui>po8ed 
relics  of  St.  Mary  Magdalene.  The  historical  evidence 
agunst  the  authentication  of  the  tombs  is  extraordi- 
narily strong  and  has  not  been  really  seriously  answered. 
The  pilgrima^,  however,  continue;  and  devout 
irorshippera  visit  the  shrine,  if  not  of,  at  least,  dedi' 
cated  to.  St.  Mary  Magdalene.  The  arguments 
against  tne  .tradition  have  been  marshalled  and  fully 
set  out  by  Mgr  Duchesne  ("  Pastes  ^piscopaux  de 
I'ancienne  Gaul",  Paris,  1S94-19(XI)  and  appeared 
in  English  form  in  "The  Tablet",  XCVl  (1900),  88, 
282,  323,  305,  403,  444. 

St.  Patriek'M  PurgatoTy,  Donegal,  Ireland,  has  been 
the  centre  of  a  pilgrimage  from  far  remote  days.  The 
legends  that  describe  its  foundation  are  full  of  Dan- 
t^ue  episodes  which  have  won  for  the  shrine  a  place 


5  PILaRIHAOKS 

dramatized  by  CalderAn,  is  referred  to  by  Erasmus, 
and  its  enstence  seems  implied  in  the  remark  of  Ham- 
let concerning  the  ghost  from  purgatoryr  "Yes  by  St. 
Patrick  but  there  is,  Horatio"  (Act  1,  sc.  V).  Though 
suppressed  even  before  the  Reformation,  and  of  course 
during  the  Penal  Times,  it  is  atill  extraordinarily  popu- 
lar with  the  Irish  people,  for  whom  it  is  a  real  peni- 
tential exercise.  It  seems  the  only  pilgrimage  of  mod- 
em times  conducted  like  those  of  the  Middle  Ages 
(Chambers,  "Bookof  Days",  London,  I,  725-8;  Leflie 
in  "The  Tablet",  ISIO). 

SaTOf/oesa,  Aragon,  Spain,  is  celebrated  for  its 
famous  shrine  dedicated  to  the  Blessed  Virpn  under 
the  title  Nuestra  Seflora  del  Pilar.  Tradition  asserts 
that  the  origin  of  this  statue  goes  back  to  the  time  of 


St.  James,  when,  in  the  lifetime  of  the  Mother  of 
God,  it  was  set  up  by  order  of  the  Apostle.  This  was 
approved  by  Callistus  III  in  1456.  It  is  glorious  on 
account  of  the  many  miracles  performed  there,  and  is 
the  most  popular  of  all  the  shrines  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin  in  the  Peninsula  and  the  most  thronged  with 
pilgrims  {Acta  SS,,  July,  VII,  880-900). 

Savona,  Genoa,  Italy,  claims  to  possees  the  oldest 
sanctuary  dedicated  to  the  Blessed  Virgin  in  all  Italy, 
for  to  it  Constantine  is  said  to  have  gone  on  pilgrim- 
age. The  statue  was  solemnly  crowned  by  Pius  VII, 
not  while  spending  his  five  years  of  captivity  in  the 
city,  but  later,  i.  e.,  on  10  May,  1815,  assisted  Dy  King 
Victor  Emmanuel  and  the  royal  family  of  Savoy 
(Champa«nae,'fl,  852-7). 

"■        ■         "  '  "     da.    has   a  stai. _.    

s  found  by 
ime  strange 
e  time  after 


enshrines  a  statue  of  the  Blessed  Viigin  in  a  chapel 
of  jasper,  ornamented  with  magnificent  and  unique 
treasures.  Ttis  centre  of  devotion  to  the  Blessed 
Virgin  which  draws  to  it  annually  a  great  number  of 
pilgrims,  is  due  to  the  tradition  -of  the  apparition  to 
bt.  lldephonsus  (Champagnac,  II,  944-6), 

Toi\jia,  Syria,  was  in  the  Middle  Ages  famous  for  a 


PILGRIMAGES 


96 


PILGBIBfAGBS 


shrine  of  the  Blcesed  Virgin,  which  claimed,  to  be  the 
mo6t  ancient  in  Christendom.  There  is  a  quaint  story 
about  a  miracle  there  told  by  Joinville  who  made  a 
pilgrimage  to  the  shrine,  when  he  accompanied  St. 
Louis  to  the  East  (Champagnac,  II,  951). 

TourSf  Indre-et-Loire,  France,  has  long  been  cele- 
brated for  the  tomb  of  St.  Martin,  to  which  countless 
pilgrims  journeyed  before  the  Revolution  (Goldie  in 
*'The  Month",  Nov.,  1880,  331). 

Trier f  Rhenish  Prussia,  has  boasted  for  fifteen  cen- 
turies of  the  possession  of  the  Holy  Coat.  This  relic, 
brought  back  by  St.  Helena  from  the  Holy  Land,  has 
been  the  centre  of  pilgrimage  since  that  date.  It  has 
been  several  times  exposed  to  the  faithful  and  each 
time  has  drawn  countless  pilg^ms  to  its  veneration. 
In  1512  the  custom  of  an  exposition  taking  place  every 
seven  years  was  begun,  but  it  has  been  often  inter- 
rupted. The  last  occasion  on  which  the  Holy  Coat 
was  exhibited  for  public  veneration  was  in  1891,  when 
1,900,000  of  the  faithful  in  a  continual  stream  passed 
before  the  relic  (Clarke,  "A  Pilgrimage  to  the  Holy 
Coat  of  Treves",  Ix>ndon,  1892). 

TuriUf  Piedmont,  Italy,  is  well  known  for  its 
extraordinarv  relic  of  the  Holy  Winding-Sheet  or 
Shroud.  Whatever  may  be  said  against  its  authen- 
ticity, it  is  an  astonishing  relic,  for  the  impression 
which  it  bears  in  negative  of  the  body  of  Jesus  Christ 
could  with  difficulty  have  been  added  by  art.  The 
face  thereon  impr^sed  agrees  remarkably  with  the 
traditional  portraits  of  Christ.  Naturally  the  exposi- 
tions of  the  sacred  relic  are  the  occasions  of  numerous 
pilgrimages  (Thurston  in  "The  Month",  January, 
1903,  17;  February,  162). 

VaUcmbrosay  Tuscany,  Italy,  has  become  a  place 
of  pil^mage,  even  though  the  abbey  no  longer  con- 
tains its  severe  and  picturesque  throng  of  monks.  Its 
romantic  site  has  made  it  a  ceaseless  attraction  to 
minds  like  those  of  Dante,  Ariosto,  Milton,  etc.j  and 
Benvenuto  Cellini  tells  us  that  he  too  made  a  pilgnmage 
to  the  shrine  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  there  to  thank  her 
for  the  many  beautiful  works  of  art  he  had  composed; 
and  as  he  went  he  sang  and  prayed  (Champagnac, 
II,  1033-7). 

WaUingham,  Norfolk,  England,  contained  England's 
greatest  shrine  of  the  Blessed  Virgin.  The  chapel 
dates  from  1061,  almost  from  which  time  onward  it 
was  the  most  frequented  Madonna  sanctuaiy  in  the 
island,  both  by  foreigners  and  the  English.  Many  of 
the  English  kings  went  to  it  on  pilgrimage;  and  the 
destruction  of  it  weighed  most  heavily  of  all  his  mis- 
deeds on  the  conscience  of  the  dying  Henry  VIII. 
Erasmus  in  his  " ReUgious  Pilgrimage "  ("Colloquies ", 
London,  1878,  II,  1-37)  has  given  a  most  detailed 
account  of  the  shrine,  though  his  satire  on  the  whole 
devotion  is  exceptionally  caustic.  Once  more,  annu- 
ally, pilgrimages  to  the  old  chapel  have  been  revived; 
and  the  pathetic  '' Lament  of  Walsingham"  is  ceasing 
to  be  true  to  actual  facts  ("The  Month",  Sept.,  1901, 
236;  Bridgett,  "Dowry  of  Mary",  London,  1875, 
303-9). 

Westminster y  London,  England,  contained  one  of  the 
seven  incorrupt  bodies  of  samts  of  Endand  (Acta  SS., 
Aug.,  I,  276),  i.  e.,  that  of  St.  Edwara  the  Confessor, 
the  only  one  which  yet  remains  in  its  old  shrine  and  is 
still  the  centre  of  pilgrimage.  From  immediately  after 
the  king's  death,  his  tomb  was  carefully  tended,  espe- 
cially by  the  Norman  kings.  At  the  suggestion  of  St. 
Thomas  Becket  a  magnificent  new  shrine  was  pre- 
pared by  Henry  II  in  1163,  and  the  body  of  the  saint 
there  translated  on  13  Oct.  At  once  pilgrims  began  to 
flock  to  the  tomb  for  miracles,  and  to  return  thames  for 
favours,  as  did  Richard  I,  after  his  captivity  (Radulph 
Coggeshall,  "Chron.  Angl."  in  R.  S.,  ed.  Stevenson, 
1875,  63).  So  popular  was  this  last  canonized  English 
king,  that  on  the  rebuilding  of  the  abbey  by  Henry 
III  St.  Edward's  tomb  really  overshadowed  the  pri- 
mary dedication  to  St.  Peter.    The  pUgrim's  sign  was 


a  king's  head  surmounting  a  pin.  The  step  on  which 
the  shrine  stands  was  deeply  worn  by  the  kneeling 
pilgrims,  but  it  has  been  relaid  so  that  the  hollows  are 
now  on  the  inner  edge.  Once  more  this  sanctuary,  too, 
has  become  a  centre  of  pilgrimage  (Stanley, ''  Mem.  of 
Westminster",  London,  1869,  passim;  Wall,  223-35). 
Garb. — In  older  ages,  the  pilgrim  had  a  special  garb 
which  betokened  his  mission.  This  has  been  prac- 
ticaUy  omitted  in  modem  times,  except  among  the 
Mohammedans,  with  whom  ihram  still  distinguishes 
the  Hailed  and  Hadj  from  the  rest  of  the  people.  As 
Tar  as  one  can  discover,  the  dress  of  the  medieval 
pilgrim  consisted  of  a  loose  frock  or  long  smock,  over 
which  was  thrown  a  separate  hood  with  a  cape,  much 
after  the  fashion  of  the  Dominican  and  Senate  habit. 
On  his  head,  he  wore  a  low-crowned,  broad-brimmed 
hat,  such  as  is  familiar  to  us  from  the  armorial  bear- 
ings of  cardinals.  This  was  in  wet  and  windy  weather 
secured  under  his  chin  by  two  strings,  but  strings  of 
such  length  that  when  not  needed  the  hat  could  be 
thrown  off  and  hang  behind  the  back.  Across  his 
breast  passed  a  belt  from  which  was  suspended  his 
wallet,  or  script,  to  contsun  his  relics,  food,  money,  and 
what-not.  In  some  illuminations  it  may  be  noted  as 
somehow  attached  to  his  side  (cf .  blessing  infra) .  In  one 
hand  he  held  a  staff,  composed  of  two  sticks  swathed 
tightly  together  by  a  withy  band.  Thus  in  the  grave 
of  Bishop  Mayhew  (d.  1516),  which  was  opened  a 
few  years  ago  m  Hereford  cathedral,  there  wajs  found 
a  stock  of  hasel-wood  between  four  and  five  feet  long 
and  about  the  thickness  of  a  finger.  As  there  were 
oyster  shells  also  buried  in  the  same  grave,  it  seems 
reasonable  to  suppose  that  this  stick  was  the  bishop's 
pilgrim  staff;  but  it  has  been  suggested  recently  that 
it  represents  a  crosier  of  a  rou^kind  used  for  the 
burial  of  prelates  (Cox  and  Harvey,  "Church  Furni- 
ture", London,  1907,  55).  Occasionally  these  staves 
were  put  to  uses  other  than  those  for  which  Uiey  were 
intended.  Thus  on  St.  Richard's  day,  3  April,  1487, 
Bishop  Storey  of  Chichester  had  to  make  stringent 
regulations,  K)r  there  was  such  a  throng  of  pilgrims 
to  reach  the  tomb  of  the  saint  that  the  struggles  for 
precedence  led  to  blows  and  the  free  use  of  the  staves 
on  each  other's  heads.  In  one  case  a  death  had  re- 
sulted. To  prevent  a  recurrence  of  this  disorder,  ban- 
ners and  crosses  only  were  to  be  carried  (Wall,  128). 
Some,  too,  had  bells  in  their  hands  or  other  instruments 
of  music:  "some  others  pilgrimes  will  have  with  them 
baggepipes;  so  iJiat  everie  towne  that  they  came 
through,  what  with  the  noice  of  their  singing  and  with 
the  sound  of  their  piping  and  with  the  jangling  of 
their  Canterburie  bells,  and  with  the  barking  out  of 
dogges  after  them,  that  they  make  more  noice  then  if 
the  King  came  there  away  with  all  his  clarions  and 
many  other  minstrels"  (Fox,  "Acts",  London,  1596, 
493). 

This  distinctive  pilgrim  dress  is -described  in  most 
medieval  poems  and  stories  (cf.  "Renard  the  Fox", 
London,  1886, 13,  74,  etc.;  "Squyr  of  Lowe  Degree", 
ed.  Ritson  in  "Metrical  Romancers",  London,  1802. 
Ill,  151),  most  minutely  and,  of  course,  indirectly,  and 
very  late  by  Sir  Walter  Raleigh: — 

"Give  me  my  scallop^eU  of  quiec. 

My  staff  of  faith  to  walk  upon, 
My  scrip  of  joy,  inmiortal  diet, 

My  bottle  of  Salvation, 
My  gown  of  glory  (hope's  true  gage), 

And  then  Til  take  my  pilgrimage." 
(Cf.  Fumivall,  "The  Stacions  of  Rome  and  the  Pil- 
grim's Sea  Voyage".)  In  penance  they  went  alone 
and  barefoot,  ifiieas  Sylvius  Piccolomini  tells  of  his 
walking  without  shoes  or  stockings  through  the  snow 
to  Our  Lady  of  Whitekirk  in  East  Lothian,  a  tramp 
of  ten  miles;  and  he  remembered  the  intense  cold  of 
that  pilgrimage  to  his  life's  end  (Paul,  "Royal  Pil- 
grimages in  Scotland"  in  "Trans,  of  Scottish  Eccle- 
siological  Soc.",  1905),  for  it  brought  on  a  severe 


PILQBIMAOBS  £ 

attack  of  gout  (Boulting,  ".I^acaa  Sylvius",  l-"n(lon, 
1908,  60). 

Pilgrim  Signs. — A  last  part  of  the  pil^rim'B  atlire 
must  De  mentioned,  the  famous  pilgrim  sigfis.    These 
were  badges  sewn  on  to  the  hat  or  hung  rovnd  the  neck 
or  pinned  on  the  clothes  of  the  pilgrim. 
"A  boUe  and  s,  haggp 

He  bar  by  hia  ayde 

And  hundred  ampulles; 

On  hia  hat  seten 

SigDes  of  Synfty, 

And  Shellea  of  Galice, 

And  many  a  coache 

On  his  cloke, 

And  keys  of  Rome, 
—  And  the  Vemycle  bi-fore 

For  men  sholde  kaowe 

And  se  bi  hise  sigites 

Whom  he  sought  badde" 


7  PILQBIMAaKS 

Peter  and  Paul  or  the  keys  or  tho  vemicle  (this  last 
also  might  mean  Genoa  where  there  was  a  rival  shrine 
of  St.  Veronica'a  veil};  to  St.  James  of  Corapostella 

the  scallop  or  oyster  shell:  to  Canterbuir,  a  bell  or 
the  head  of  the  saint  on  a  brooch  or  a  leaden  ampulla 
filled  with  water  from  a  well  near  the  tomb  tinctured 
'with  an  infinitesimal  drop  of  the  martyr's  blood  ("Mat. 
for  Hist,  of  Thomas  Beckett",  1878  in  R.  S.,  II,  269; 
III,  152,  187);  to  Walsingham,  the  virgin  and  child; 
to  Amiens,  the  head  of  St.  John  the  Baptist,  etc. 
Then  there  was  the  horn  of  St,  Hubert,  the  comb  of 
St.  Blaise,  the  axe  of  St.  Olave,  and  so  on.  And  when 
the  tomb  was  reached,  votive  offerings  were  left  of 
jewels,  models  of  limbs  that  hod  been  miraculously 
cured,  spears,  broken  fetters,  etc.  (Rock,  "Church  of 
our  Fathers",  London,  1852,  HI,  463). 

Effects, — Among  the  countless  effecte  which  pil- 
grimages produced  the  following  may  be  set  down; — 

ro«fM. — Matthew  Paris  notes  ("Chron.  major." 


(Piers  Plowman,  ed.  Wright,  London,  185G,  I,  109). 
There  are  several  moulds  extant  in  which  these  signs 
were  cast  (cf.  British  Museum;  Mus^  de  Lyon; 
Muafe  de  Cluuy,  Paris;  etc.),  and  not  a  tew  signs 
themselves  have  been  picked  up,  especially  in  the  oeds 
of  rivers,  evidently  dropped  by  the  pilgrims  from  the 
ferry-boals.  These  signs  protected  the  pilgrims  from 
assault  and  enabled  them  to  pass  through  even  hostile 
ranks  ("Paston  Letters",  I,  85;  Forgews,  "Coll.  de 
plombs  histories",  Paris,  1863,  52-80;  "Archawl. 
Jour.",  VII,  400;  XIII,  105),  but  as  the  citation  from 
Piers  Plowman  shows,  they  were  also  to  show  "  whom 
he  sought  hadde".  Of  course  the  cross  betokened  the 
cnieoder  (though  one  could  also  take  the  cross  against 
the  Moors  of  Spain,  Simeon  of  Durham,  "Hist,  de 
gestia  regum  Anghie  ,  ed.  Twywien,  London,  1652,  I, 
249),  and  the  colour  of  it  the  nation  to  which  he  be- 
longed, the  English  white,  the  French  red,  the  Flemish 
green  (Matthew  Paris,  "Chron.  majora",  ed.  Luard, 
London,  1874,  11,330,  an.  1199,  in  R.S.);  the  pilgrim 
to  Jerusalem  had  two  crossed  leaves  of  palm  (hence 
the  name  "palmer");  to  St,  Catherine's  tomb  on 
Mount  Sinai,  the  wheel;  to  Rome,  the  heads  of  Sis. 
XII.— 7 


in  R.  S.,  I,  3,  an.  1067)  that  in  England  (and  the  saxne 
thing  really  applies  all  over  Europe)  there  was  hardly 
a  town  where  there  did  not  lie  the  bodies  of  martyrs, 
confessors,  and  holy  virgins,  and  though  no  doubt  in 
very  many  coses  it  was  the  importance  of  the  towns 
that  macle  them  the  chosen  resting-places  of  the 
saint's  relics,  in  quite  as  man^  others  the  importance 
of  the  saint  drew  so  many  religious  pilgrims  U>  it  that 
the  town  sprang  up  into  real  significance.  So  it  has 
been  not«d  that  Canterbury,  at  least,  outshone  Win- 
chester, and  since  the  Reformation  has  once  more 
dwindled  into  insignificance.  Bury  Saint  Edmunds, 
St.  Albans,  Walsingham,  Compostella,  Lourdes.  La 
Sdette  have  arisen,  or  grown,  or  decayed,  accordinglv 
as. the  popularity  among  pilgrims  began,  advanced, 
declined. 

Roads  were  certainly  made  in  many  cases  by  the 
pilgrims.  They  wore  out  a  path  from  the  sear<!oaBt 
to  Canterbury  and  joined  Walsingham  k)  the  great 
centres  of  Enf;lish  life  and  drove  trucks  and  paths 
across  the  Syrian  sands  fo  the  Holy  City.  And  men 
and  women  for  (heir  soul's  sake  made  benefactions  so 
as  to  level  down  and  up,  and  to  straighten  out  the 


PUQBIMAOES  G 

wandering  ways  that  led  Trom  port  h)  sanctuary  and 
from  ahrine  to  Hhrine  (Digby,  "Compitum",  Loodon, 
1851,1,408).  ThuB  theylioped  to  get  tbor  share  also 
in  the  merits  ot  the  pilgrim.  The  whole  subject  has 
been  iUuminat«d  in  a  particular  instance  by  a  mono- 
graph of  Hilaire  Belloc  in  the  "Old  Road  (London, 
1904), 

GeoffrajAy  too  sprang  from  the  same  source.  Each 
pilgrim  who  wrote  an  account  of  his  travels  for  the 
instruction  and  edification  of  his  fellows  was  uncon- 
sciously laying  the  foundations  of  a  new  science;  and 
it  is  astonishing  how  very  early  theee  written  accounts 
begin.  The  fourth  century  saw  them  riae,  witnessed 
tbe  publication  of  many  "Peregrinationea"  (cf. 
Palestine  Pil)?.  Text  Soc.,  jXMsim),  and  started  the 
fashion  of  writing  these  day-to-day  descriptions  of  the 
countriee  through  which  they  journeyed.  It  is  only 
fait  to  mention  with  en)ecial  praise  the  names  of  the 
Dominicans  lUcoldo  da  Monte  Cruce  (1320)  and 
Burchard  of  Mount  Sion  (Beazley,  II,  190,  383),  the 
latter  of  whom 
has  given  meas- 
urements of  sev- 
eral Biblical  sites, 
J,he  accuracj^  of 
'which  is  testified 


we  know  that 
Roger  ot  Sicily 
caused  the  famous 
work  "The  Book 
of  Roger,  or  the 
Debght  of  whoso 
loves  to  make  the 
Circuit  of  the 
Worid"  (1164)  to 
be  compiled,  from 
information  gath- 
ered from  pilgrims 
and  merchants, 
who  were  made  to  appear  betore  a  select  committee  of 
Arabs  (SvmondB,"8ketchesinltaly",Leiprig,  18S3, 1, 
249) ;  ana  we  even  hearof  amedieval  Continental  guide- 
book to  the  great  shrines,  prefaced  by  a  list  of  the 
most  richly  indulgenced  sanctuaries  and  containing  de- 
tails of  where  money  could  be  changed,  where  inns 
and  hospitals  were  to  be  found,  what  roaas  were  safest 
and  best,  etc.  ("The  Month".  March,  1909,  295; 
"Itineraries  of  William  Wey",ea.  for  Roxburgh  Club, 
London,  1857;  Thomas,  De  paasagiis  in  Teiram 
Sanctam",  Venice,  1879;  Bounardot  and  Longnon, 
"Le  stunt  voyage  dc  Jh6rusalem  du  Seigneur  d'Au- 
glure",  Paris,  1878). 

Cruiadet  also  naturally  arose  out  of  the  idea  of 
pilgrimages.  It  was  these  various  peregrinaliones 
made  to  the  Sepulchre  of  Jesus  Chnst  that  at  all 
familiarised  people  with  the  East.  Then  came  the 
huge  columns  of  devout  worshippers,  pawing  larger 
and  larger,  becomins  more  fully  organized,  and  well 
protected  oy  armed  oands  of  disciphned  troops.  The 
most  famous  pilgrimage  of  all,  that  of  1065,  which 
Bumbered  about  12,000,  under  Gunther,  Bishop  of 
Bamberg,  assisted  by  the  Archbishop  of  Maim,  and 
the  Bishops  of  Ratisbon  and  Utrecht,  was  attacked  by 
Bedouins  after  it  had  left  Ctesarea.  The  details  of 
that  Homeric  struggle  were  brought  home  to  Europe 
(Lambert  of  Gersfield,  "Mon.  Germ.  Hist.",  1844,  V, 
]S9)  and  at  once  gave  rise  the  Crusades. 

MiraeU  Ptayi  are  held  to  be  derived  from  returning 
pilgrims.  This  theory  is  somewhat  obscurely  worked 
out  by  P^re  Menestncr  ^lepr&entations  en  musique 
snc.  et  modemes;  cf.  ChampaKnac,  I,  9).  But  he 
bases  his  conclusions  on  the  idea  that  the  miracle  plays 
benn  by  the  story  of  the  Birth  or  Death  of  Christ 
and  holds  that  the  return  to  the  West  of  those  who 
bad  visited  the  scenes  of  the  life  of  Christ  naturally 


8  nLOBOUOES 

led  tkem  to  reproduce  these  as  best  they  could  for 

thar  less  fortunate  brethren  (St.  Aug.,  "Deciv.  Dei" 
in  P.  L.,  XXXVIII,  764).  Hence  the  miracle  plays 
that  deal  with  the  stoiy  of  Christ's  Passion  were  im- 
ported for  the  benefit  of  those  who  were  unftble  to 
visit  the  very  shrines.  But  the  connexion  between 
the  pilgrimages  and  these  plays  comes  out  much  more 
clearly  when  we  realize  that  the  scene  of  the  martyr- 
dom of  the  saint  or  some  legend  concerning  one  of  his 
miracles  was  not  uncommonly  acted  before  his  shrine 
or  during  the  pilgrimage  that  was  being  made  to  it. 
It  was  performed  in  order  to  stimulate  devotion,  and 
to  teach  the  lessons  of  his  life  to  those  who  probably 
knew  little  about  him.  It  was  one  way  and  the  most 
effective  way  of  seeing  that  the  reason  for  visiting  the 
shrine  was  not  one  of  mere  idle  superstition,  but  that 
it  had  a  purpose  to  achieve  in  the  moral  improvement 
of  the  pilgrim. 

InUmational  Communiealu/m  owed  an  enormous 
debt  to  the  continual  interchange  of  pilgrims.  Pi]< 
grimagea  and  wars  were  practically  the  only  reasons 
that  led  the  people  of  one  country  to  visit  that  of 
another.  It  may  safely  be  hazarded  that  an  exceed- 
int^y  large  proportion  of  the  foreigners  who  came  to 
En^and,  came  on  pumose  to  venerate  the  tomb  of 
tbe  "Holy  blissful  Martyr",  St.  Thomas  Becket. 
Special  enactments  allowed  pilgrims  to  pass  unmo- 
lested through  districts  that  were  in  the  throes  of  war. 
Again  facilities  were  granted,  as  at  Pontigny,  for 
strangers  to  visit  the  shrines  of  their  own  saints  in 
other  lands.  The  result  of  this  was  naturally  to  in- 
crease communications  between  foreign  countries. 
The  matter  of  road-making  has  been  already  alluded 
to  and  the  establishment  of  hospices  along  the  lines 
of  march,  as  the  ninth-century  monastery  at  Mont 
Cienis,  or  in  the  cities  most  frequented  by  pilgrims, 
fulfilled  the  same  purpose  (Acta  88.,  March,  II,  150, 
157;  Glaber,  "Chron.^' in  Mon.  Germ.  Hist.:  Script, 
VII,  62).  Then  lastly  it  may  be  noted  that  We  have 
distmct  notices,  scattered,  indirect,  and  yet  all  the 
more  convincing,  that  pilgrims  not  unfrequently  acted 
as  postmen,  carrying  letters  from  place  to  place  as 
they  went;  and  that  people  even  waited  with  their 
notes  written  till  a  stray  pilgrim  should  pass  along  the 
route  (Paston  Letters,  II,  62). 

Religiout  Orders  began  to  be  founded  to  succour  the 
pilgrims,  and  these  even  the  most  famous  orders  of  the 
medieval  Church.  The  Knights  Hospitallers,  or 
Knights  of  St.  John,  as  their  name  implies,  had  as  their 
office  to  guard  the  straggling  bands  of  Latin  Chris- 
tians; the  Knights  oF  Rhodes  had  the  same  work  to 
carry  out;  as  i&  had  the  Knights  Templars.  In  fact 
the  seal  of  these  last  represented  simply  a  kni^t 
rescuing  a  helpless  pil^m  (compare  also  the  Trimt& 
dei  Peregrini  of  St.  Philip). 

Scandah  effected  by  this  form  of  devotion  are  too 
obvious  and  were  too  often  denounced  by  the  saints 
andjjther  writers  from  St.  Jerome  to  Thomas  a  Kem- 
pis  to  need  any  setting  out  here.  The  "Canterbury 
Tales"  of  Chaucer  are  sufficient  evidence.  But  the 
"Colloquy"  of  Erasmus  briefly  mentions  the  more 
characteristic  ones:  (i)  excessive  credulity  of  the 
guardianof  theshrine;  (ii)  insistence  upon  the  obUga- 
tion  oF  pilgrimages  as  though  they  were  necessary  tor 
salvation;  (iii)  the  neglect  on  the  part  of  too  many  of 
the  pilgrims  of  their  own  duties  at  home  in  order  to 
spend  more  time  in  passing  from  one  sanctuary  to 
another;  (iv)  the  wantonness  and  evil-living  and  esdl- 
speaking  indulged  in  by  the  pilgrims  themselves  in 
many  cases.  Not  as  though  these  abuses  invalidated 
the  use  of  plumages.  Erasmus  himself  declares  that 
they  did  not;  but  they  certainly  should  have  been 
more  stringently  and  rigorously  repressed  by  the 
church  rulers.  The  dangers  of  these  scandals  are  evi- 
dently reduced  to  a  minimum  by  the  speed  of  modem 
travel:  yet  from  time  to  time  warnings  need  to  be  !»■ 
peated  lest  the  old  e^-ils  should  return. 


PIUGRIM 


99 


PILLAR 


Blbssino. — ^To  complete  this  article,  it  will  be  well 
to  give  the  following  blessingB  taken  from  the  Sarum 
Miflsal  (London,  1868,  595-6).    These  should  be  com- 

fiared  with  Mohammedan  formularies  (ChampagnaCi 
I,  1077-80,  etc.):— 

Blessing  of  Scrip  and  Staff, 

f.  The  Lord  be  with  you. 

I^.  And  with  thv  spirit. 
Let  us  pray.  0  Lord  Jesus  Christ  who  of  Thy  un- 
speakable mercy  at  the  bidding  of  the  Father  and  by 
the  Co-operation  of  the  Holv  Ghost  wast  willing  to 
come  down  from  Heaven  and  to  seek  the  sheep  that 
was  lost  by  the  deceit  of  the  devil,  and  to  carry  him 
back  on  Thy  shoulders  to  the  flock  of  the  Heavenly 
Country;  and  didst  commend  the  sons  of  Holy 
Mother  Church  by  prayer  to  ask,  by  holy  living  to 
seek,  bv  persevering  to  knock  that  so  they  may  the  more 
speedily  find  the  reward  of  saving  life;  we  humbly 
call  upon  Thee  that  Thou  wouldst  be  pleased  to  bless 
these  scrips  (or  this  scrip)  and  these  staves  (or  this 
staff)  that  whosoever  for  the  love  of  Thy  name  shall 
desire  to  wear  the  same  at  his  side  or  hang  it  at  his 
neck  or  to  bear  it  in  his  hands  and  so  on  his  pilgrimage 
to  seek  the  aid  of  the  Saints  with  the  accompaniment 
of  humble  prayer,  being  protected  by  the  guardian* 
ship  of  Thy  Right  Handmajr  be  found  meet  to  attain 
unto-  the  joys  of  the  everlasting  vision  through  Thee, 
0  Saviour  of  the  World,  Who  livest  and  reignest  in 
the  unity  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  God  for  ever  and  ever. 
Amen. 

Here  lei  the  scrip  be  sprinkled  with  Holy  Water  and 
let  the  Priest  put  it  round  each  pUgrinCs  neck^  saying: 
In  the  Name  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  receive  this 
scrip,  the  habit  of  thy  pilgrimage,  that  after  due  chas- 
tisement thou  mayest  be  found  worthy  to  reach  in 
safety  the  Shrine  of  the  Saints  to  which  thou  desirest 
to  go;  and  after  the  accomplishment  of  thy  journey 
thou  mayest  return  to  us  in  health.    Through,  etc. 

Here  let  him  give  the  Staff  to  the  PUgrinij  saying: 
Receive  this  staff  for  thy  support  in  the  travail  and 
toil  of  thy  pilgrimage^  that  thou  mayest  be  able  to 
overcome  all  the  hosts  of  the  enemy  and  reach  in 
safety  the  Shrine  of  the  Saints  whither  thou  desirest 
to  go;  and  having  obediently  fulfilled  thy  course 
.  mayest  return  again  to  us  with  joy.    Throujji,  etc. 

The  Blessing  of  the  Cross  for  one  on  a  pilgrimage  to 
Jerusalem, 

^.  The  Lord  be  with  you. 

IJ.  And  with  thy  spirit. 
Let  us  pray.  0  God,  whose  power  is  invincible  and 
pity  cannot  be  measured,  the  aid  and  sole  comfort  of 
pilgrims;  who  givest  unto  Thy  servants  armour  which 
cannot  be  overcome;  we  beseech  Thee  to  be  pleased 
.  to  bless  this  dress  which  is  humbly  dcvotc<i  to  Thee, 
that  the  banner  of  the  venerated  Cross,  the  figure 
whereof  is  upon  it^  may  be  a  most  mighty  strength  to 
Thy  servants  against  the  wicked  temptations  of  the 
old  enemy:  a  defence  by  the  way,  a  protection  in  Thy 
house,  ana  a  security  to  us  on  every  side.  Through, 
etc. 

Here  lei  the  garment  marked  with  the  Cross  he 
sprinkled  with  Holy  Water  and  given  to  the  pilgrim ,  the 
priest  sayinq: 

Receive  this  dress  whereupon  the  sign  of  the  Cross 
of  the  Lord  Our  Saviour  is  traced,  that  through  it 
safety,  benediction  and  strength  to  journey  in  pros- 
perity, may  accompany  thee  to  the  Sepulchre  of  Him, 
who  with  Uod  the  Father  and  the  Holy  Ghost,  liveth 
and  reigneth  one  God,  world  without  end.    Amen. 

Marx,  D<u  WaUfahren  in  der  katholUchen  Kirehe  (Trier,  1842); 
8mnr  and  CHAMrAONAC,  Didionn.  det  pilerinagea  (Paria, 
185G);  Rock,  The  Church  of  Our  ^aihert  (London.  1852);  Ls 
Rot.  Uiti.  det  p^er.  d9  la  aainU  Vierge  en  France  (Paris,  1875) ; 
Watsbton,  Pidae  Mariana  Britannica  (London,  1879);  Cham- 
BKm,  Book  of  Dayt  (Tx>ndon,  a.  d.):  JufWERANO.  tr.  Smith.  Eng- 
h»h  Wayfaring  Life  in  the  Middle  Age*  (I^oodon,  1892) ;  Itintrairea 
/rancdM  Xb-XlIJ'  siieUm,  ed.  Michelant  and  Raynaud 
(1882—);  PaUfftine  Pilgrim  Text  Society  (London.  1884—); 
DnUeche  Pilgerreieen  nach  dem  heiligen  Land§  (Innabruek.  19(X)) ; 


Bbaslet,  Davm  of  Modem  Geography  (London,  1897-1006); 
Wall.  Shrinee  of  British  Sainta  (London,  1905);  BrArieh. 
Vigliee  et  VOrieni  au  mayen-dge  (Paria,  1907);  Camm,  ForgoOen 
Shrinee  (London,  1910);  Revue  de  VOrient  laiin  (Paria,  1893—); 
Meeeenaer  of  the  Sacred  Heart  (New  York,  1892-9),  paeeim. 

Bbde  Jarrett. 

Piligrim,  Bishop  of  Passau,  date  of  birth  unknown; 
d.  20  May,  991.  He  was  educated  at  the  Benedictine 
monastery  of  Niederaltaich,  and  was  made  bishop  in 
971.  To  him  are  attributed  some,  if  not  all,  of  the 
"Forgeries  of  Lorch",  a  series  of  documents,  espe- 
cially Bulls  of  Popes  Symmachus,  Eugene  II,  Leo  VII, 
and  A^apetus  II,  fabricated  to  prove  that  Passau  was 
a  contmuation  of  a  former  archdiocese  named  Lorch. 
By  these  he  attempted  to  obtain  from  Benedict  VI 
the  elevation  of  Passau  to  an  archdiocese,  the  re- 
erection  of  those  dioceses  in  Pannonia  and  Moesia 
which  had  been  suffragans  of  Lorch,  and  the  pallium 
for  himself.  While  Piligrim  was  ambitious^  he  also 
had  at  heart  the  welfare  of  the  captive  Christians  in 
Hungary  and  the  Christianization  of  that  country. 
There  is  extant  an  alleged  Bull  of  Benedict  VI  granting 
Piligrim's  demands;  but  this  is  also  the  work  of  Pili- 
grim, possibly  a  document  drawn  up  for  the  papal 
signature^  which  it  never  received.  Apart  from  these 
forgeries,  common  enough  at  the  time,  Piligrim  .was 
a  good  and  zealous  bishop,  and  converted  numerous, 
heathens  in  Hunsary,  built  many  schools  and  churches, 
restored  the  Rule  of  St.  Benedict  in  Niederaltaich, 
transferred  the  relics  of  St.  Maximilian  from  Getting 
to  Passau,  and  held  synods  (983-91)  at  Ennsburg 
(Lorch),  Mautem,  and  Mistelbach.  In  the  "Niebel- 
ungenlied"  he  is  lauded  as  a  contemporary  of  the 
heroes  of  that  epic. 

DOmmlsr,  Piligrim  ton  Paeeau  und  das  Erzbislhum  Lorch 
(Leipsis,  1854);  Idem  in  Berliner  Sitzungsberichte  (1898),  758-75; 
Uhurz,  Die  Urkundenfdlschung  zu  Passau  im  srhnten  Jahrhundert 
in  MilUieilungen  des  InstUtUs  fUr  dslerreichuiche  Oeschichtsfor- 
sehung.  III  (Vienna,  1882),  177-228;  Idkm.  »M</..  supplementary 
vol..  II  (1888),  548  sq.j  Hxuwibsbr,  Sind  die  Bischdfe  ton  Passau 
Nachfolger  der  BisehOfe  ton  Lorehf^  in  Theologisch-praktisehe 
Monats-Schnfl,  XXI  (Paaaau,  1910).  13-23,  85-90;  MittbrmOl- 
LEB,  War  Bischof  Piligrim  ton  Passau  ein  UrkundenfdUchert  in 
Der  Katholik,  XLVII  (Maini,  1867),  337-62. 

Michael  Ott. 

Pillar  of  Cloud  (Pillar  of  Fire),  a  cloud  which 
accompanied  the  Israelites  during  their  wandering. 
It  was  the  same  as  the  pillar  of  fire,  as  it  was  luminous 
at  night  (cf.  Ex.,  xiv,  19,  20,  24;  Num.,  ix,  21,  22). 
The  name  "pillar''  is  due  to  the  columnar  form  which 
it  commonly  assumed.  It  first  appeared  while  the 
Israelites  were  marching  from  Socoth  to  Etham,  and 
vanished  when  they  reached  the  borders  of  Chanaan 
(Ex.,  xiii,  20-22;  xl,  36).  It  was  a  manifestation  of 
God's  presence  among  His  people  (Ex.,  xiv,  24  sqq.; 
xxxiii,  9;  Num.,  xi,  25;  xii,  5;  Deut.,  xxxi,  15;  Ps. 
xcviii.  7).  During  encampment  it  rested  over  the  tab- 
ernacle of  the  covenant,  after  it  was  built,  and  before 
that  time  probably  over  the  centre  Of  the  camp.  It 
rose  as  a  signal  that  camp  was  to  be  broken,  and  during 
the  march  it  preceded  the  people,  stopping  when  they 
were  to  pitch  their  tents  (Ex.,  xl,  34,  35;  Num.,  ix,  17 
sqq.;  Deut.,  i,  33).  At  the  crossing  of  the  Red  Sea 
it  rested  between  the  Israelites  and  the  Eg3rpjLians, 
being  bright  on  the  side  of  the  former  and  dark  on 
the  other  (Ex.,  xiv,  19,  20).  During  the  marches  it  lit 
the  way  at  night,  and  by  day  protected  the  people 
from  the  heat  of  the  sun  (Num.,  x,  34;  Deut.,  i,  33; 
II  Esd.,  ix,  12:  Wis.,  x,  17;  xviii,  3;  Ps.  civ,  39). 
It  may  be  doubted  whether  it  covered  the  camp  by 
day,  as  many  commentators  maintain.  Num.,  x,  34, 
speaks  only  of  the  march,  and  Wis.,  xix,  7,  does  not 
necessarily  refer  to  the  whole  camp.  St.  Paul  (I  Cor., 
X,  1,  2,  6)  considers  it  as  a  type  of  baptism,  and  the 
FatheiB  regard  it  as  the  figure  of  the  Holv  Ghost 
leading  the  faithful  to  the  true  Promise<l  Land.  The 
rationalistic  explanation  which  sees  in  the  pillar  only 
a  torch  carried  on  a  pole,  such  as  is  used  even  now  by 


PQCA 


100 


PQCA 


Cftravans  in  Arabia,  fails  to  take  the  data  of  the  Bible 
into  consideration. 

Paus,  in  VioouBonx,  Did,  de  la  Bib,,  s.  v.  Colonne  de  NttSe; 
and  oomznentarieB  on  the  texts  cited. 

F.  Bechtel. 

Pima  Indians,  an  important  tribe  of  southern  Ari- 
zona, centring  along  the  Middle  Gila  and  its  affluent, 
the  oalt  River.  Linguistically  they  belong  to  the 
Piman  branch  of  the  widely-extended  Shoshonean 
stock,  and  their  language,  with  dialectic  variation,  is 
the  same  as  that  spoken  also  bv  the  Pdpago  and  ex- 
tinct Sobaipuri  of  southern  Arizona,  and  by  the 
Nevome  of  Sonora,  Mexico.  In  Spanish  times  the 
tribes  of  the  Arizona  group  were  known  collectively 
as  Pimas  Altos  (Upper  Pima),  while  those  of  Sonora 
were  distinguished  as  Pimas  Bajos  (Lower  Pima),  the 
whole  territory  being  known  as  the  Pimeria.  The 
tribal  name  Puna  is  a  corruption  of  their  own  word 
for  "no",  mistaken  by  the  early  missionaries  for  a 
proper  name.  They  call  themselves,  simply  'Aatam, 
people",  or  sometimes  for  distinction  'Aatam- 
akimtllt,  "river-people".  Notwithstanding  their  im- 
portance as  a  tribe,  the  Pima  have  not  been  prominent 
m  history,  owing  to  their  remoteness  from  military 
and  missionary  activity  during  the  Spanish  period, 
and  to  their  almost  unbroken  peaceable  attitude 
towards  the  whites.  It  was  at  one  time  claimed  that 
they  were  the  authors  of  the  ruined  pueblos  in  their 
country,  notably  the  celebrated  Casa  Grande,  but 
later  investigation  confirms  the  statement  recorded 
by  Father  Garcds  as  early  as  1780  that  they  were  built 
by  a  previous  people  connected  with  the  Hopi. 

The  real  history  of  the  Pima  may  be  said  to 
begin  with  the  German  Jesuit  missionary  explorer. 
Father  Eusebio  Kino  (Kiihn),  who  in  1687  estab- 
lished a  mission  headquarters  at  Dolores,  near  the 
present  Cucurpe.  northern  Sonora,  Mexico,  from 
which  point  until  his  death  in  1711  he  covered  the 
whole  Pimerfa  in  his  missionary  labours.  In  1694,  led 
by  Indian  reports  of  massive  ruins  in  the  far  north,  he 
penetrated  alone  to  the  Gila,  and  said  Mass  in  the  Casa 
Grande.  In  1697  he  accompanied  a  military  explora- 
tion of  the  Pima  country,  under  Lieutenant  Bemal 
and  Captain  Mange,  baptizing  nearly  a  hundred  In- 
dians. In  1701  he  made  the  earliest  map  of  the  Gila 
region.  He  found  the  Pima  and  their  cousins  the 
Pdpago  most  anxious  for  teachers.  "They  were, 
above  all,  desirous  of  bein^  formed  into  regular  mis- 
sion communities,  with  resident  padres  of  their  own; 
and  at  many  rancherlas  they  built  rude  but  neatly 
cared-for  churches,  planted  fields,  and  tended  herds 
of  live  stock  in  patient  waiting  for  missionaries,  who, 
in  most  cases,  never  came"  (Bancroft).  From  1736 
to  1750  Fathers  Keller  and  Sedelmair  several  times 
visited  the  Pima,  but  no  missions  were  established  in 
their  country,  although  a  number  of  the  tribe  attached 
themselves  to  the  Pdpago  missions.  The  revolt  of  the 
southern  tribes  in  1750  caused  a  suspension  of  the 
work,  but  the  missions  were  resumed  some  years 
later  and  continued  under  increasing  difficulties  until 
the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits  in  1767,  at  which  time 
the  whole  number  of  neophytes  in  Arizona,  chiefly 
P^pago,  was  about  1200.  In  the  next  year  the  Ari- 
zona missions  were  turned  over  to  Franciscans  of  the 
College  of  Queretaro,  who  continued  the  work  with 
some  success  in  spite  of  constant  inroads  of  the 
Apache.  Although  details  are  wanting,  it  is  probable 
that  the  number  of  neophytes  increased.  The  most 
noted  of  these  later  workers  was  Father  Francisco 
Garc^s,  in  charge  of  the  Pdpago  at  San  Xavier  del  Bac 
(1768-76).  In  1828,  by  decree  of  the  revolutionary 
government  of  Mexico,  all  the  missions  were  confis- 
cated, the  Spanish  priests  expelled,  and  all  Christian- 
izing effort  came  to  an  end. 

About  1840  the  Pima  were  strengthened  by  the 
Maricopa  from  the  lower  Gila,  who  moved  up  to 


escape  the  attacks  of  the  Yuma,  the  common  enemy 
of  both.  Both  tribes  continue  to  live  in  close  alliance, 
although  of  entirely  different  language  and  origin. 
Their  relations  with  the  United  States  Government 
began  in  1846,  when  General  Kearney's  expedition 
entered  their  territory^  and  met  with  a  friendly  recep- 
tion. Other  expeditions  stopped  at  their  villages 
within  the  next  few -years,  all  meeting  with  kind  treat- 
ment. With  the  influx  of  the  California  gold  hunters 
about  1850  there  set  in  a  long  period  of  demoraliza- 
tion, with  frequent  outrages  by  the  whites  which 
several  times  almost  provoked  an  outbreak.  In  1850 
and  1857  the  hostile  Yuma  were  defeated.  The 
Apache  raids  were  constant  and  destructive  until  the 
final  subjugation  of  that  tribe  by  the  Government. 
In  all  the  Apache  campaigns  since  1864  the  Pima 
have  served  as  willing  and  efficient  scouts.  In  1857  a 
non-resident  agent  was  appointed,  and  in  1859  a 
reservation  was  surveyed  for  the  two  tribes,  and 
$10,000  in  goods  distributed  among  them  as  a  recog- 
nition of  past  services.  In  1870  the  agency  was  estab- 
lished at  Sacaton  on  the  reservation,  since  which  time 
they  have  been  regularly  under  Government  super- 
vision. The  important  problem  of  irrigation,  upon 
which  the  future  prosperity  of  the  tribes  depends,  is 
now  in  process  of  satisfactory  solution  by  the  Govern- 
ment. As  a  body  the  Indians  are  now  civilized,  in- 
dustrious as  farmers  and  labourers,  and  largely  Cnris- 
tian,  divided  between  Presbyterian  and  Catholic. 
Presbyterian  work  was  begun  in  1870.  The  Catholics 
re-entered  the  field  shortly  afterwards,  and  have  now 
a  nourishing  mission  school,  St.  John  Baptist,  at  Gila 
Crossing,  built  in  1899,  in  charge  of  Franciscan 
Fathers,  with  several  small  chapels,  and  a  total  Cath- 
olic population  of  600  in  the  two  tribes,  including 
fifty  Maricopa.  The  5000  or  more  Pdpago  attached 
to  the  same  agency  have  been  practically  all  Catholic 
from  the  Jesuit  period. 

In  their  primitive  condition  the  Pima  were  agricul- 
tural and  sedentary,  living  in  villages  of  lightly-built 
dome-shaped  houses,  occupied  usually  by  a  single 
family  each,  and  cultivating  by  the  help  of  irrigation 
large  crops  of  com,  beans,  pumpkins,  and  native  cot- 
ton, from  which  the  women  spun  the  simple  clothing, 
consisting  of  a  breech-cloth  and  head-band  for  the 
man,  and^  short  skirt  for  the  women,  with  sandals  or 
moccasins  for  special  occasion  and  a  buckskin  6hirt 
in  extreme  cold  weather.  They  also  prepared  clothing 
fabrics  from  the  inner  bark  of  the  willow.  The  heav- 
ier labour  of  cultivation  was  assumed  by  the  men. 
Besides  their  cultivated  foods,  they  made  use  of  the 
fruit  of  the  sagnaro  cacliiSj  from  wnicb  also  they  pre- 
pared the  intoxicating  iizwirij  and  the  mesquite  bean, 
oesides  the  ordinary  game  of  the  country.  They 
painted  and  tattooed  their  faces  and  wore  their  hair 
at  full  length.  The  women  were  not  good  potters,  but 
they  excelled  as  basket  makers.  Their  arms  were  the 
bow,  the  club,  and  the  shield,  fighting  always  on  foot. 
Their  allies  were  the  Pdpago  and  Maricopa,  their 
enemies  the  Apache  and  Yuma.  The  killing  of  an 
enemy  was  followed  by  an  elaborate  purification  cere- 
mony closing  with  a  victory  dance.  There  was  a  head 
tribunal  chief,  with  subordinate  village  chiefs.  Po- 
lygamy was  allowed,  but  not  frequent.  Descent  was 
in  the  male  line.  Unlike  Indians  generally,  they  had 
large  families  and  welcomed  twins.  Also  unlike  their 
neighbours,  they  buried  in  the  ^und  instead  of  cre- 
mating their  dead.  Deformed  infants  were  killed  at 
birth,  as  were  also  in  later  times  the  infants  bom  of 
white  or  Mexican  fathers.  They  had,  and  stiU  re- 
tain, many  songs  of  ceremony,  war,  hunting,  gaming, 
love,  medicine,  and  of  childhood. 

According  to  their  elaborate  genesis  myth,  the 
earth  was  formed  by  "Earth  Doctor",  who  himself 
evolved  from  a  dense  cloud  of  darkness.  He  made  the 
plants  and  animsds,  and  a  race  of  never-dying  humans, 
who  by  their  increase  so  crowded  the  earth  that  hf 


PINARA 


101 


PINEDA 


destroyed  his  whole  creation  and  made  a  new  world 
with  a  new  race  subject  to  thinning  out  by  deatli. 
Another  hero  god  is  "Elder  Brother'^  and  prominent 
place  is  assigned  to  Sun,  Moon,  Night,  and  Coyote. 
The  myth  also  includes  a  deluge  story.  Althougn  the 
linguistic  relations  of  the  Pima  are  well  known,  all 
that  is  recorded  in  the  language  is  comprised  chiefly 
in  a  few  vocabularies,  none  exceeding  200  words,  sev- 
eral of  which  in  manuscript  are  in  the  keeping  of  the 
Bureau  of  American  Ethnology.     (See  Kino;    PX- 

PAGO   iNDIA^fS.) 

BANCRorr,  HUiL  AritoAa  and  New  Mexico  (San  Francisco, 
1889);  Idem,  Hist,  Mexican  States  and  Texas  (2  vols.,  San  Fran- 
cisco. 1886);  Bartlkit,  Personal  Narrative  XX  of  Boundary 
Commission  (2  vols.,  New  York,  1854) ;  Browne,  Adventures  in  the 
Apache  Country  (New  York,  1869) ;  Catholic  Indian  Missions,  Bu- 
reau of,  annual  reports  of  Director  of  (Washington) ;  Commissioner 
of  Indian  Affairs,  annual  reports  of  (Washington) ;  Diary  and  Itin- 
erary of  Francisco  Garci»,  ed.  Cones  (2  vols.,  New  York,  1900)  • 
Documerdos  para  Historia  de  MSxico  (20  vols.,  Mexico,  18.53-57), 
includes  Bebnal,  Rdaeidn  de  la  Pimeria,  Manob.  Hist.  Pimeria, 
etc.;  Emery,  Notes  of  a  Military  Reconnaissance  (Washington, 
1848);  RuMELL,  The  Pima  Indians  in  Twenty-sixth  Rept.  Bur. 
Am,  Bthndogy  (Washington,  1908) ;  Whipple,  RejA.  of  Expedi- 
tion from  San  Diego  to  the  Colorado  (one  of  official  Pacific  Railroad 
Repts.,  Ex.  Doc.  19.  31st  Ong.,  2nd  sess.,  Washington,  1891). 

James  Mooney. 

Pinarai  titular  see  in  Lycia,  suffragan  of  Myra. 
Pinara  was  one  of  the  chief  cities  of  the  Lycian  con- 
federation. The  Lycian  hero,  Pandarus,  was  held  there 
in  great  honour.  It  was  supposed  to  have  been 
founded  by  Pinarus,  who  embarked  wifh  the  first  Cre- 
tans. According  to  another  tradition,  it  was  a  colony 
of  Xanthus  and  was  first  called  Artvmnessus!  As 
in  Lycian  Pinara  signifies  ''round  hill  ,  the  city  being 
built  on  a  hill  of  this  nature  would  have  derived  its  new 
name  from  this  fact.  It  is  now  the  village  of  Minara  or 
Minareh  in  the  vilayet  of  Koniah.  It  contains  magnif- 
icent ruins:  walls,  a  theatre,  an  acropolis,  sarcophagi 
and  tombs,  rare  inscriptions  (often  Lycian)^  and  the 
remains  of  a  church.  Five  bishops  of  Pinara  are 
known:  Eustathius,  who  signed  the  formula  of  Aca- 
cius  of  Csesarea  at  the  Council  of  Selencia  in  359: 
Heliodorus,  who  signed  the  letter  from  the  bishops  ot 
Lycia  to  the  Emperor  Leo  (458) ;  Zenas,  present  at  the 
Trullan  Council  (692);  Theodore,  at  the  Council  of 
Nicsea  (787);  Athanasius,  at  the  Photian  Council  of 
Constantinople  (879). 

Lb  Quien,  Oriens  ehrist.,  I,  975;  Smith.  Diet,  of  Greek  and 
Roman  geog.,  a.  v.;  Fellows,  Lyeia^  139;  Spratt  and  Forbes, 
Travels  in  Lycia,  I,  1  sqq. 

S.   P^TRIDfes. 

^  Pinar  del  Rio,  Diocese  of  (Pinetensis  ad  Flu- 
men),  in  Cuba,  erected  by  the  Brief  "Actum  prae- 
clare''  of  Leo  XIII,  20  Feb.,  1903.  The  boundaries 
of  the  diocese  are  those  of  the  civil  province;  it  oc- 
cupies the  western  part  of  the  island  and  has  an  area 
of  2867  square  miles.  Its  first  bishop  was  Braulio  de 
Ome  y  Vivanco,  consecrated  at  Havana,  28  October, 
1903,  died  the  following  year.  The  present  bishop  is 
Manuel  Ruiz  y  Rodriguez,  consecrated  at  Cienfuegos, 
11  June,  1907.  The  diocese  contains  27  parishes  with 
19  secular  priests.  There  is  a  boys'  school  con- 
ducted by  the  Piarist  Fathers,  and  a  girls'  school 
under  the  care  of  religious  women. 

Fermin  Fraga  Barro. 

Pindamonte,  Ippolito,  an  Italian  poet  of  noble 
birth,  b.  at  Verona,  13  Nov.,  1753;  d.  there,  18  Nov., 
1828.  He  received  his  training  at  the  Collegio  di  San 
Carlo  in  Modena.  As  a  result  of  much  travelling  in 
Italy  and  foreign  lands  he  ac€]uired  a  wide  acquaint- 
ance, and  formed  close  relations  with  many  men  of 
letters.  He  witnessed  the  beginnings  of  the  Revolu- 
tion in  Paris,  and  poetized  thereupon  in  his  "Fran- 
cia".  Thence  he  went  to  London,  Berlin,  and  Vienna. 
In  1791  he  returned  to  Verona,  with  health  impaired 
and  saddened  at  the  failure  of  his  hopes  for  the  regen- 
eration and  aggrandizement  of  Italy,  and  devoted  his 


last  years  to  study  and  religious  practices.  The  chief 
l>ootical  works  of  Pindemonte  are  the  "Poesie"  and 
"  Prose  campestri",  the  "Sepolcri"  and  his  version  of 
the  Odyssey.  The  **Poesie  and  "Prose  campestri" 
were  published  between  1788  and  1794;  the  most  ad- 
mired portions  are  those  entitled  "Alia  Luna",  "Alia 
Salute  ,  "La  Melanconia",  and  "La  Giovinezza". 
They  evince  his  reading  of  the  English  descriptive 

f)oets.  The  "  Sepolcri  "  is  in  the  form  of  a  letter  and  is 
argely  a.  response  to  the  similarly  named  poem  of 
Foscolo,  with  whose  views,  respecting  the  patriotic 
and  other  emotions  evoked  by  the  aspect  of  the  tombs 
of  the  well-deserving,  he  sympathizes:  he  rebukes 
Foscolo,  however,  for  having  neglected  to  recount, 
among  the  other  emotions,  that  of  the  comfort  brought 
to  us  by  religious  considerations.  The  influence  of  the 
English  poet  Gray  is  noticeable  in  this  work.  Upon 
his  version  of  the  Odyssey  he  seems  to  have  laboured- 
fifteen  years,  and  is  quite  faithful  to  the  letter  and 
spirit  of  the  original.  It  appeared  in  print  in  1822. 
His  lesser  work  sinclude  among  others  several  trag- 
edies, the  "Ulisse",  the  "Geta  e  Caracalla",  the 
"Eteocle  e  Polinice",  and  especially  the  "Arminio". 
composed  in  1804  and  revealing  the  influence  exerted 
upon  him  by  the  Ossianic  matter.  In  prose  he  pro- 
duced the  "Clementina",  and  a  short  story,  "Aba- 
ritte",  which  imitates  Johnson's  "Rasselas".  He  left 
a  large  correspondence  exchanged  with  noted  persons 
of  his  time  and  a  few  minor  documents. 

Poesie  originali  di  I.  Pindemonte  (Florence,  1858-9) ;  Odissea, 
ed.  LoNZoaDS,  Sansoni;  Torraca,  /.  Sepolcri  di  I.  Pindemonte 
in  Discussioni  (Leghorn,  1888);  Montanarx,  Staria  delta  vita  de 
opere  di  I.  P.  (Venice,  1855);  Zanblla,  /.  Pindemonte  e  (^ 
IngUsi  in  Paralleli  letterari  (Verona,  1885). 

J.  D.  M.  Ford. 

Pineda,  John  de,  b.  in  Seville,  1558:  d.  there,  z7 
Jan.,  1637.  He  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  in  1572, 
taught  philosophy  and  theology  five  years  in  Seville 
and  Cordova,  and  specialized  in  Scripture,  which  he 
taught  for  eighteen  years  at  Cordova,  Seville,  and 
Madrid.  He  held  the  posts  of  Provost  of  the  pro- 
fessed house  and  rector  of  the  college  of  Seville. 
He  was  consultor  to  the  Spanish  Inquisition,  and,  in 
this  capacity,  visited  the  chief  libraries  of  Spain.  The 
result  of  his  visits  was  the  "Index  Librorum  Prohi- 
bitorum"  (1612),  which  won  the  appreciation  of  the 
Inquisition  and  of  the  chief  inquisitor,  Cardinal 
Sandoval,  Archbishop .  of  Toledo;  it  was  re-edited 
(1632)  for  Cardinal  Zapata.  His  learning  is  evidenced 
by  the  nineteen  printed  works  and  six  <nanuscript8, 
chiefly  on  exegetical  subjects,  which  remain  to  us  of 
his  writings:  (1)  VCommentariorum  in  Job  Libri 
tredecim"  (Madrid,  1597-1601).  Each  chapter  is 
paraphrased  and  fully  commented  upon.  Th^  two 
folios  were  often  re-issued  in  Madrid,  Cologne,  Se- 
ville, Venice,  and  Paris.  Seven  indexes  served  as 
guides  to  the  student.  Both  Catholic  and  Protestant 
exegetes  still  praise  this  colossal  storehouse  of  erudi- 
tion. The  archaeology,  textual  criticism,  comparison 
of  various  interpretations,  use  of  historical  data  from 
profane  writers,  all  show  Pineda  to  have  been  far 
ahead  of  his  time  in  scientific  criticism  of  the  Bible; 
(2)  "Praelectio  sacra  inCanticaCanticorum"  (Seville, 
1602),  issued  as  a  greeting  to  Cardinal  de  Guevera, 
Archbishop  of  Seville,  on  the  occasion  of  his  visit  to 
the  Jesuit  college  there;  (3)  "Salomon  praevius,  sive 
de  rebus  Salomonis  regis  libri  octo"  (fol.,  pp.  587; 
Lyons,  1609;  Mainz,  1613).  The  life,  kingdom,  wis- 
dom, wealth,  royal  buildings,  character,  and  death 
of  Solomon  are  treated  in  scholarly  fashion;  five  in- 
dexes are  added  as  helps  to  the  student.  (4)  "De  C, 
Plinii  loco  inter  erumtos  controverso  ex  Hb.  VII. 
Atque  etiam  morbus  est  aliquis  per  sapientiam  mori". 
Considerable  controversy  resulted  from  his  interpreta- 
tion of  Pliny  (see  Sommervogel,  infra).  (5)  "Com- 
mentarii  in  Ecclesiasten^  liber  unus"  (fol.,  pp.  1224; 
Seville,  1619),  appeared  m  various  editions,  as  did  the 


PINEROLO 


102 


PINNA 


oommentary  on  Solomon.  The  fame  he  won  by  his 
erudition  and  sanctity  is  attested  in  many  ways.  On 
a  visit  to  the  University  of  Evora  he  was  greeted  by  a 
Latin  speech,  and  a  memorial  tablet  was  set  up  with 
the  legend:  Hie  Pineda  fuit.  What  astounos  one 
most  in  the  writings  of  this  exegete  of  the  old  school 
is  his  vast  ki^owledge  not  merely  of  Latin,  but  of 
Greek  and  Hebrew. 

NiBBBMBBBO.  VoTonet  Jlutire*  de  la  C.  de  J.,  VII  (Bilbao, 
1801),  195;  SoMMBBVOOEL.  Bihliothigue  d9taC.de  J.  (Pftris, 
1896),  VI.  796;  IX.  772;  Ouilhbbmy.  Mtnotoge  de  la  C.  de  J, 
AMMutanee  d'Btpagne,  I  (Paris,  1902),  178. 

Wauter  Drum. 

Pinerolo,  Diocese  of  (Pinerouensis),  in  the 
province  of  Turin,  in  Piedmont,  Northern  Italy, 
suffragan  of  Turin.  In  the  Middle  Ages  the  city  of 
Pinerolo  was  one  of  the  keys  of  Italy,  and  was  there- 
fore one  of  the  principal  fortresses  of  the  dukes  of 
Savoy.  It  is  now  the  seat  of  a  military  school.  Those 
of  its  churches  deserving  mention  are  the  cathedral 
(which  dates  from  the  nmth  century,  and  has  a  beau- 
ful  campanile)  and  San  Maurizio.  a  beautiful  Gothic 
church,  from  the  belfiy  of  whicn  there  is  a  superb 
view  of  the  Alps  and  of  the  sub-Alpine  plain.  The 
earliest  mention  of  Pinerolo  is  in  the  tenth  century; 
it  belonged  to  the  Marca  di  Torino  (March  of  Turin) 
and  was  governed  by  the  abbots  of  Pinerolo,  even 
after  the  city  had  established  itself  as  a  commune 
(1200).  From  1235,  however,  Amadeus  lY  of  Savoy 
exercised  over  the  town  a  kind  of  protectorate  which, 
in  1243,  became  absolute,  and  was  exercised  there- 
after either  by  the  house  of  Savoy,  or  of  Savoy- 
Acaia.  When  the  French  invaded  Piedmont  (1536), 
Pinerolo  fell  into  their  hands  and  they  remained  in 
possession  until  1574.  However,  by  the  treaty  of 
Q^erasco  it  again  fell  to  France  (1630),  and  it  re- 
mained under  French  rule  until  restored  by  the  treaty 
of  Turin  to  Savoy.  The  latter -state,  at  the  same  time, 
withdrew  from  the  league  ag^nst  Louis  XIV.  Piner- 
olo was  originally  an  abbey  nullius.  It  was  founded 
in  1064  by  Adelaide,  Princess  of  Susa,  and  was  made 
a  diocese,  in  1748,  at  the  request  of  Charles  Emman- 
uel, its  first  prelate  being  G.  B.  d'Orli^.  In  1805, 
conformably  with  the  wi«i  of  Napoleon,  the  diocese 
was  united  with  that  of  Saluzzo,  but,  in  1817,  was 
re-established  as  an  independent  see.  Within  its' 
territory  is  the  famous  fortress  of  Fenestrelle.  It  has 
58  parishes.  16,200  inhabitants,  3  religious  houses  of 
women,  ana  3  educational  institutes  for  girls. 

Cappbllbtti,  L9  Chieae  d*  Italia  (Venice,  1857);  Cabititi, 
Storia  di  Piner^  (Pinerolo,  1893).  U.  BeNIQNI. 

Pingr6,  Alexandre  Gut.  b.  in  Paris  11  September, 
1711;  d.  1  May,  1796.  He  was  educated  in  Senlis 
at  the  college  of  the  Genovefan  fathers.  Regulars 
of  the  Order  of  St.  Augustine,  which  he  entered  at 
sixteen.  In  1735  he  was  made  professor  of  theolo^ 
there.  About  1749  he  accepted  the  professorship 
of  astronomy  in  the  newly-foimded  academy  at 
Rouen.  Already  famous  for  detecting  an  error  of 
four  minutes  in  Lacaille's  calculation  of  the  limar 
eclipse  of  23  December,  1749,  in  1753  he  further  di»- 
tinguished  himself  by  the  observation  of  the  transit 
of  Mercury  and  was  consequently  appointed  corre- 
sponding member  of  the  Academic  des  Sciences. 
Later  he  was  made  librarian  of  Ste-Genevi^ve  and 
chancellor  of  the  university.  He  built  an  observatory 
in  the  Abbey  of  Ste-Genevidve  and  there  spent  forty 
years  of  strenuous  labour.  He  compiled  in  1753  the 
first  nautical  almanac  for  the  year  1754,  and  subse- 
Quently  for  1755-57,  when  Lalande  was  charged  with 
tne  publication.  ^Mripe  had  calculated  for  his 
treatise,  ''L'art  dij^^^B  les  dates'',  the  eclipses  of 
the  first  nineteen^^^Bries  of  the  Christian  era; 
Pixin^in  a  seeonrl^^Bn  took  up  his  calculations 
a^^^Kded  thoi  '^^Hten  centuries  hafore  Christ. 
I^^Whe  join*      ^^^uccessful  i  Ion  to  the 

IsT     ^odngu»       ^         twific  to  0I  the  transit 


of  Venus  on  6  June,  1761.  More  satisfactory  re- 
sults were  obtained  from  an  expedition  to  the  French 
Cape  on  Haiti  where  the  next  transit  was  observed 
on  3  June,  1769.  About  1757  he  became  engrossed  in 
the  history  of  comets,  and  in  his  '^Com^tographie  ou 
Traits  historique  et  thdorique  des  com^tes  '  (2  vols., 
Paris,  1783-4),  the  material  contained  in  all  the 
ancient  annals  and  more  recent  publications  is  me- 
thodically arranged  and  critically  sifted.  In  1756  he 
published  a  "Projet  d'une  histoire  d'astronomie  du 
dix-septidme  si^le'',  completed  in  1786.  Through 
Lalande's  influence  the  National  Assembly  granted 
three  thousand  francs  to  defray  the  expenses  of  pub- 
lication, but  it  proceeded  slowly  and  at  Pingr6's 
death  was  discontinued.  In  1901  the  whole  work  was 
re-ed7ted  by  Bigourdan  under  the  title:  "Annales 
celestes  du  dix-septidme  si^cle".  Pingr6  also  pub- 
lished ''Manuale  Astronomioon  libri  quinaue  et 
Arati  Phenomena,  cum  interpretatione  Galuca  et 
notis"  (2  vols.,  1786),  and  numerous  astronomical 
observations  in  the  ''Mtoioires  de  I'lnstitut''  (1753- 
87),  in  the  ''Journal  de  Tr^voux",  in  the  ''Phil. 
Trans."  etc. 

In  encyclopedic  works  it  is  oommonljr  asserted 
that  Pinn^  took  an  active  part  in  Jansenistic  quar- 
rels, and  nence  was  relegatea  to  provincial  towns  and 
colleges.  Consequently  he  is  often  said  to  have  fallen 
a  victim  to  Roman  intolerance.  The  fact  is  that  during 
his  earlier  career  Pingr6  seems  to  have  been  imbued 
with  Jansenistic  views,  as  is  borne  out  by  the  "Nou- 
velles  Eccl^dastiques",  the  great  Jansenist  organ. 
In  1737  Mgr  de  Salignac,  Bishop  of  Pamiers,  active 
against  Jansenism,  summoned  Pingr6,  who  was 
severely  rebuked  and  finally  had  to  submit  to  an 
examen  by  some  Jesuit  fathers.  He  expressed  him- 
self willing  to  condemn  the  five  propositions,  de  centr 
et  d'eepritf  at  the  same  time  maintaining  that  he 
could  not  condemn  them  as  propositions  of  Jansenius. 
as  they  were  not  to  be  found  in  nis  works.  (It  should 
be  remembered  that  in  1653  and  1656  the  popes  had 
declared  repeatedlv  that  the  propositions  were  de 
facto  contained  in  tne  "  Augustinus".)  In  1745  a  gen- 
eral chapter  of  the  fathers  of  Ste- Genevieve  was 
convened;  by  order  of  the  king  Father  Chambroy 
was  elected  superior  general.  Strict  orders  had  been 
issued  to  the  superiors  of  the  conventual  establish- 
ments that  only  such  members  should  be  deputed  as 
were  willing  to  subscribe  to  the  papal  Bulls  and  espe- 
ciiJly  "Umgenitus".  This  measure  excited  opposi- 
tion. Father  Pingr6,  then  living  at  Senlis,  and  some 
of  his  fellow  religious  entered  a  vehement  protest 
against  the  proceedings  of  the  chapter.  Father 
Scoffier,  one  of  the  most  determined  opponents  of 
the  election,  was  removed  from  Senlis.  A  similar 
disciplinary  punishment  was  inflicted  on  Pingr6, 
then  professor  of  theology.  According  to  an  in- 
troductory notice  prefac^  to  the  memoirs  of  the 
Jansenist  Abb6  Arnauld  d'Andilly,  in  the  collection 
"M6moire8  sur  Thistoire  de  France  de  Michaud  et 
Poujoulat"  (2nd  series,  IX),  Pingr^  is  their  editor 
(Leaden,  1756).  He  was  therefore  an  active  Jan- 
senist, at  least  until  1747;  his  influence,  however, 
never  became  serious  nor  lasting.  In  the  ecclesiasti- 
cal history  of  the  eighteenth  century,  especially  in 
the  "M^moires  pour  servir  k  Thistoire  eccl^astique 
pendant  le  18^  si^le^of  Picot,  his  name  is  not  men- 
tioned. 

Pbont,  Noiiee  »ur  la  tie  el  lea  ouvragee  d^ Alexandre  Otn  Pinifr% 
in  Mtmoirtede  Vlnetilut^  I;  Lalandb,  Hiel.  de  VAetronomie  now 
1790,  pp.  773-8;  Dblambbb.  Hitt.  de  VAetronomie  au  XVIII', 
aikcU,  pp.  064-87;  Ventbnat,  Notice  eur  la  tie  du  eiloyen  Pingrk, 
lue  d  la  eianee  publique  du  Lyote  dee  Arte  in  Magaein  Bneydth' 
Mique,  I,  342;  7ViM«  raieonnie  el  alphabHitue  du  noutellee 
SceUeiaeHquee  devuie  1798  juegu'en  1760  indutieemenit  (1767), 
B.  vv.  Pingri;  Salionae;  Cnanoinee  Riguliere  de  Sie-Qenenkee. 

J.  Stein. 

Pinna  da  l6ncarn>gao»  Matthsxts,  writer  and 
theologian,  b.  at  Rio  de  Janeiro,  23  Aug.,  1687;  d. 


PIHTO 


PDtTUKICCHIO 


there,  18  Dec.,  1764.    On  3  March,  1703,  he  bei^anie  a  pa^e  of  hiH  book,  several  limm  shipwrecked,  taken 

Benedictine  at  the  Abbey  of  Nossa  Senhora  do  Mont-  Tirisoncr  many  times  and  Kold  as  a  elave.    He  was  the 

Rerrate  at  Rio  de  Janeiro,  where  he  also  studied  the  nrat  to  make  known  tite  natural  richea  of  Jaijan,  and 

humanities  and  philoeopt^'  under  the  learned  Joa£  founded  the  first  settlement  near  Yokohama^  in  1548. 
da  Natdvidade.    After  Btudying 


I  the  monastery  of 
Bahis^e  was  ordiuned  priest  24 
March,  1708,  and  appointed  pro- 
feaaoF  of  philosopny  and  the- 
ok)gy.  Along  with  Caspar  da 
Madre  de  Deua  (d.  about  1780), 
Antonio  de  SSo  Bernardo  (d. 
1774)  and  a  tew  others,  he  was 
the  most  learned  Benedictine  of 
his  province  and  his  contempo- 
raries considered  him  the  great- 
est theolo^an  in  Brazil.  He  was 
likewise  highly  esteemed  for  his 
piety  and  charity   towards  the 

rr,  the  mck,  and  the  neglected. 
1726  he  was  elected  abbot  of 
the  monastery  at  Rio  de  Janeiro, 
but  BOon  after  his  election  in- 
curred the  displeasure  of  Luiz 
Vahia  Monteiro,  the  Governor  of 
Brazil,  who  banished  him  from 
his  monastery  in  1727.  Soon 
afterwards  he  escaped  to  Portu- 

e1,  became  very  mfluential   at 
lurt  and  was  restored  to  his 


In  1558,  tired  of  wandering,  he 
returned  to  Portugal  where  he 
married,  settling  in  the  town  of 
AIniada.  The  first  account  of 
his  travels  is  to  be  found  in  a 
collection  of  Jesuit  letters  pub- 
lished in  Venice  in  1565,  but  the 
beat  is  his  own  "  Peregrina^&o  ", 
the  first  edition  of  which  ap- 
peared in  Lisbon  in  1614.  The 
work  is  regarded  as  a  classic  in 
Portugal,  where  Pinto  is  consid- 
ered one  of  their  beat  prose  writ- 


.  .     In  other  ,  _. 

been  enthusiastically  read  by 
some,  by  others  characterized  M 
a  highly  coloured  romance.  But 
it  has  an  clement  of  sincerity 
which  is  convincing,  and  its  sub- 
stantial honesty  is  now  generally 
admitted.  It  is  probable  that, 
having  written  it  from  memory, 
he  put  down  his  impressions, 
rather  than  events  as  they  actu- 
ally occurred.  The  ^anish 
edition  by  Francisco  de  Uerrara 
appeared  in  1620,  reprinted  in 
1729.  He  held  the  office  of  abbot  repeatedly  there-  1627,  1645,  1664.  The  French  translation  is  by 
aftCT,  both  at  Rio  de  Janeiro  (1729-31  and  1739)  Figmer  (Paris,  1628,  and  1630).  There  are  three 
and  at  Bahia  in  1746.  In  1732  he  was  elected  pro-  English  editions  by  Cogan  (London,  1663,  1692,  and 
vincial  abbot,  in  which  c^>acity  he  visit«d  even  the  1891),  the  last  abridged  and  illustrated. 
most  distant  monasteries 


,  Spello 


of  Bracil,  despite  the  great 
difficulty  of  travel.  He 
was  again  elected  provin- 
cial a^tin  1752,  but  this 
tjme  he  declined  the  hon- 
our, preferring  to  spend 
his  old  age  in  prayer  and 
retirement.  His  works  are; 
"DefenuoS.MatrisEccle- 
ms"  (Lisbon,  1729),  an 
extenmve  treatise  on  grace 
and  freewill  against  Ques- 
nel,  Baius,  Jansenius,  etc. : 
"  Viridario  Evangelico  '* 
(Lisbon,  1730-37),  four 
volumes  of  sermons  on 
the  Gospels;  "Theologia 
Scholasti ca  Dogmstica", 
in  six  volumes,  which  he 
did  not  comDlet«  entirely 
nor  was  it  pul>lished. 

i>i<<iini>  da  Uotlnra  dt  tf.  S, 
do  ManUttrait  do  Rio  dt  Jannro, 
prncrvHl  in  MS.  M  the  Monu- 
Itry  Library  of  K>o  dn  Juieini, 
8B-7*,  312-18;  Rawi  OalvIo, 
Aptmtantnif  hutoricoa  tabre 
a  Ordtm  Btiudirfino  tm  atntral, 
4  nt  parliciWdr  MOtm  o  iioit&iro 
dt  N.  a.  dc  MonirrrsU  do  Rio 
dt  Janriro  id  Rttilla   Trimtntat 

t  KftiHvrapAico  do  Bratit  (Kio 
de  Jueira.  1872).  240  eq. 

Michael  Utt. 

Pinto,  FehnXo  Men-  ^-  ? 

DBS,  Portuguese  traveller, 
b.  at  Montemor-o-Velho  near  Coimbra,   . 
Almada  near  Lisbon,  8  July,  1583.    After  serving 
"    e  to  the  Duke  of  Coimora,  he  went  to  the  Es 


Mtndtt    Pifito,    tt.    (London. 
1891). 

V.   FUENTtS. 

Pinturioohlo  (  Bernab- 
DINO  Di  Bbtto,  Bumamed 
PiNTOHiccHio),  b.  at  Ve- 
rona, about  1454;  d.  at  Si- 
ena, 11  December,  1513. 
HestudiedunderFiorenzo 
di  Lorenzo;  and  his  fellow 
students,  perhaps  because 
of  his  great  facility,  sur- 
named  him  Fintuncchio 
(the  dauber).  Pinturic- 
chio  did  an  immense 
amount  of  work.  His 
principal  easel  pictures 
are:  "St.  Catherine" 
(National  Gallery,  Lon- 
don); a  "Madonna"  (Ca- 
thedral of  Sanaeverino), 
with  the  prothonotary, 
liberato  Bartello,  kneel- 
ing; "PortrMt  of  aChild" 
(Dresden  Gallery): 
"Apollo  and  Marsyas 
(the  Louvre),  attributed 
to  Perugino,  Francia,  and 
even  Raphael;  the  ''Ma- 
donna enthroned  between 
saints",  an  altar-piece 
(Pinacotheca  of  Perugia); 
the  "Madonna  of  Monte- 
oliveto"  (communal  palace 
Coronationofthe Virgin'  (Pin- 
acotheca oflhe  Vatican);  the  "Return  of  Ulyaaea" 
(NationalGallery,London);  the"A8centofCalvary' , 


imhio,  Appuuunento  Borfii.  Rome 

1509;  d.  at    ofSanGimignano); 


laiim  in  1537,  and,  for  twenty-one  yeara,  travelled,  a  splendid  miniature  (Borromeo  Palace,  Milan).  He 
chiefly  in  the  Far  East.  In  the  course  of  his  adven-  waachiefly  afreacoist,followingprincipally  theproceas 
turoua  career  at  sea,  he  was,  as  he  tells  on  the  title    of  distemper  (fe>np«ra).  There  are  frescoes  of  his  in  the 


Siatine  Chapel,  in  the  decoration  of  which  he  as^sted 


critics  ^rec  in  recognizing  cuj  his  two  frescoes  in  Ihc 
Sistine  Chapel,  the  "Baptiam  of  Jeaus"  and  "Moses 
journeying  to  Ecypt".  The  Bufalini  commiBBioned 
nim  to  paint  the  life  of  St.  Bemardine  for  the  chapel 
at  the  Ara  C<Eli ;  but  his  chief  work  was  the  decoration 
of  the  Boi^a  apartment  entrusted  to  him  by  Alexander 
VI.  His  compoeitions  begin  in  the  Hall  of  Mysteries, 
ao  called  because  it  contains  the  "Annunciation",  the 
"Visitation",  the  "Crib",  the  "Resurreclion",  the 
"Pentecost",  the  "Ascension";  that  of  the  "Resur- 
rection" contains  a  splendid  portrait  of  Alexander 
VI.  In  the  Hall  of  Saints,  the  most  beautiful  of  all, 
he  has  outlined  with  much  grace  and  brilliancy  the 
histories  of  various  martyrs:  St,  Susanna,  St.  Bar- 
bara, Disputation  of  St.  Catherine,  Visit  of  St. 
Anthony  to  St.  Paul  the  Hermit,  and  the  Martyr- 
dom of  St.  Sebastian,  The  next  hall  is  devoted 
to  the  representation  of  the  Liberal  Arts.  Critics 
generally  deny  that  the  decoration  of  the  last  two 
rooms  is  the  work  of  Pinturicchio,  but  the  three 
large  rooms  which  he  certainly  decorated  form  an 
exquisite  museum.  Following  the  Sienese  school 
Pinturicchio  enlivened  his  paintings  by  making  use  of 
sculptured  reliefs  glistening  with  gold  which  he  mixed 
with  his  frescoes.  In  1501  he  decorated  the  chapel  of 
the  Blessed  Sacrament  in  St.  Mary  Major  at  Spello. 
On  the  ceiling  he  painted  four  Sibyls  and  on  the  walla 
the  Annunciation,  the  Adoration  of  the  Shcfiherds  and 
the  Arrival  of  the  Magi,  and  Jeeus  in  the  midst  of  the 
Doctors.  He  had  a  special  love  for  these  pictures  for 
in  them  he  placed  his  own  portrait.  In  1502  Cardinal 
Francisco  Rccolomini  commissioned  him  to  depict  the 
life  of  his  uncle,  Pius  II,  in  ten  large  compositions  on 
the  side  walls  of  the  Piccolomini  library  at  Siena. 
These  frescoes  are  fifteenth-century  tableaux  m^ants  in 
which  people  of  all  conditions  are  repreeented.  Above 
the  altar  erected  at  the  entrance  to  the  Library  is  seen 
the  Coronation  of  Pius  III.  Pinturicchio,  again  sum- 
moned to  Rome  by  Julius  II,  painted  on  the  ceiling 
of  the  choir  of  Sta  Maria  del  Popolo  splendid  Sibyls 
and  Doctors  of  the  Church,  in  stucco  frames  separated 
by  graceful  arabesques, 

Cbowe  and  Catau^abelle,  a  neifl  hxBtory  of  painting  in  Itaiy. 
Ill  (London.  1806).  256;  BnncEBAH&T  and  Bode,  Lr  Ciarnnt. 
tr,  GtRAHD,  II  (Puis,  1892),  688-81 :  Ehhle  and  Stevchson,  Oii 
aSradudtt  PinturicMw  ntll'  apparMmmlo  Borgia  (Itomp.  ISB7); 
BniHAHH,  PinUirierhiB  (BielelEld,  1898):  BotER  d'Aoeh,  Pin- 
twiahto  in  Siena  (Berlin,  19031:  Ricci.  Pinlnrvxhio.  tr.  mCo 
Frencb  (Farii.  19031 :  Bohtaib,  Piilii.ncdtiB  a  tScnlt  ambrienne 
in  Exmriiona  qfMiIioum  rf  liufrairu  (Paris,  1903).  2dc)  Hries,  1- 
89:  GamH.  Pintunahiii  (Farii.  19061:  Ptmii,  Pinturicchio  in 
Hill,  dif  Arid' AndrtUichtl.  IV  Ipnia,  19091,317-29, 

Gaston  Sort  a  is. 

Plnsftn,  MartIn  Alonso,  Spanish  navigator  and 
companion  of  Columbus  on  his  first  voyage  to  the  New 
World,  b.  at  Palos  de  Moguer,  1441;  d.  there  at  the 
convent  of  La  RSbida,  149a.  Sprung  from  a  family  of 
seamen,  he  became  a  hardy  sailor  and  skilful  pilot. 
According  to  Parkman  and  other  historians,  he  sailed 
under  Cousin,  a  navigator  from  Dieppe,  to  the  eastern 
coast  of  Africa,  whence  they  were  carried  far  to  the 
south-west.  Tney  there  discovered  an  unknown  land 
and  a  mighty  river.  Pinzfin's  conduct  on  this  voyage 
was  so  mutinous  that  Cousin  entered  a  complaint  to 
the  admiralty  on  their  return  home,  and  hod  him  dis- 
missed from  the  maritime  service  of  EHeppe.  Re- 
turning to  Spiun  Pinz6n  became  acquainted  with 
Columbus  through  Fray  Juan  Perez  do  Marchina, 
prior  of  the  convent  of  La  R&bida,  and  became  an 
enthusiastic  promoter  of  the  scheme  of  the  great 
navigator.  Other  historians  account  differently  for 
the  oripn  of  Pinzfin's  interest  in  Columbus's  project. 
According  to  these,  he  heard  of  the  scheme  several 
years  after  he  had  retired  from  active  life  as  a  sailor, 
and  established  with  his  brothers  a  shipbuilding  firm 


4  PIOKBO 

in  his  native  town.  During  a  visit  to  Rome  he  learned 
from  the  Holy  Office  of  the  tithes  which  had  been  pud 

from  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century  from  a 
country  named  Vinland,  and  examined  the  charts  of 
the  Norman  explorers.  On  his  return  home  he  sup- 
ported the  cl^ms  of  Columbus,  when  his  opinion  was 
sought  by  Queen  Isabella's  advisers  concerning  the 
proposed  voyage.  It  was  he  who  paid  the  one-eighth 
of  the  expense  demanded  from  Columbus  as  his  share, 
and  built  the  three  vessels  for  the  voyage.  Through 
his  influence  also  Columbus  securfed  the  crews  for  the 
transatlantic  journey.  Pinz6n  commanded  tne 
"Pinta",  and  his  brother  Vicente  Yaflei  the  "Nifia". 
On  21  November,  1492,  he  deserted  Columbus  off 
Cuba,  hoping  lo  be  the  first  to  discover  the  imsginary 
ifllancl  of  Osabequo,  He  was  the  first  to  discover 
Haiti  (Hispaniola),  and  the  river  where  he  landed 
(now  the  Porto  Caballo)  was  long  called  after  him 
the  River  of  Martin  Alonso,  He  carried  off  thence 
four  men  and  two  girts,  intending  to  steal  them  as 
slaves,  but  he  was  compelled  to  restore  them  to  their 
homes  by  Columbus,  whom  he  rejoined  on  the  coast 
of  lleiti  on  6  January,  1493.  It  was  during  tlus 
absence  that  the  flagship  was  driven  ashore,  and 
Columbus  compelled  to  take  to  the  "NiHa".  In' 
excuse  for  his  conduct,  Pinzdn  afterwords  alleged 
stress  of  weather.  Off  the  coast  of  the  Azores  he 
again  deserted,  and  set  sul  with  all  speed  for  Spun, 
hoping  to  be  the  first  to  communicate  the  news  of  the 
discovery.  Driven  by  a  hurricane  into  the  port  of 
Bayonne  in  Galicia,  he  sent  a  letter  to  the  king  asking 
for  an  audience.  The  monarch  refusing  to  receive 
anyone  but  the  admiral,  Pins6n  sailed  for  Palos,  which 
he  reached  on  the  same  day  as  Columbus  (15  March, 
1403),  Setting  out  immediately  for. Madrid  to  make 
a  fresh  attempt  to  see  the  king,  he  was  met  by  -a 
messenger  who  forbade  him  to  appear  at  court,  .4iiger 
and  jeiuousy,  added  to  the  privations  of  the  voyage, 
undermined  hie  health,  and  led  to  his  death  a  few 
months  later, 

eapecislly  Ascensio,  Marffn  Aloma  Pintin.  ctladia'liitUrue 
(Madrid.   ISS2):    Fehhahdei  Dduo,   Colin,   Fim6n  (Mudiid. 

1883).  Thomas  Kennedy. 

Fiombo,  Sebastian  del,  more  correctly  known  as 
Sebastian  Luciani,  Venetian  portrait  painter,  b,  at 

Venice,  1485;  d,  ii    "  '         

de!  Rombo,  from 
the  office,  con- 
ferred upon  him 
by  Clement  VII, 
of  keeper  of  the 
leaden  seals.  He 
was  a  pupil  of 
Giovanni  Bellini, 
and  later  on  of 
Giorgione,  His 
first  idea  was  to 
becomea  religious 

and  it  is  probable 
that  he  t«ok  minor 
orders  and  had 
every  intention  of 
proceeding  to  the 
priesthood,  but  he 
was  strongly  in- 
terested in  music, 
devoted  consider- 
able timeto  study- 
ing that  art,  and  in  so  doing  became  acquainted  with 
Giorgione,  a  clever  musician,  who  it  appears  induced 
him  to  delay  hia  procedure  towards  theprieathood  and 
give  some  attention  to  painting.  It  was  on  Giorgione's 
recommendation  that  he  entered  the  studio  of  Bellini 
and,  later,  worked  with  (Jionfione  in  his  own  studio. 
From  the  time  of  his  acquaintance  with  him,  we  hear 


PI0NIU8  11 

no  more  of  his  intention  to  embrace  on  ecclcaiastical 
career.  Hie  earlier  paintingB  were  executed  in  Venice, 
but  he  was  invited  to  Rome  by  Agostino  Chigi,  who 
was  then  building  the  Farnesina  Palace,  and  some  of 
the  decoration  ofthe  rooms  was  put  in  the  handa  of 
Luciani.  Hia  work  attracted  the  attention  ot  Michcl- 
angelo,  and  the  two  men  became  warm  fnenda  A 
little  later  Raphael  saw  hia  work  and  praised  it 
highly,  but  they  were  never  friends  because  of  the 
(eolouay  existing  between  Michelangelo  and  Raph,M>l 
and   the  friendship  between    Luciam    and    Michel 


35  PIOHim 

•was  marked  by  vigour  of  colounng,  sweetneas,  and 
grace;  his  jMrtraits  are  exceedingly  true  and  lifelike, 
the  draperies  well  painted,  and  well  drawn,  but  the 
feature  of  his  work  is  the  extraordinary  quality  of  his 
colour  and  the  atmosphere  with  all  the  delicate 
subtleties  of  colour  value  which  it  gives.  Iij  many  of 
bis  pictures  the  colouring  is  as  clear  and  fresh  to-day 
as  tt  n  as  when  it  was  first  painted,  and  this  more  espe> 
Pially  applies  to  the  carnations,  in  other  men's  work 
the  first  to  fade.  After  the  death  of  Ri^hael,  he 
was  regarded  as  the  chief  painter  in  Rome,  and  it 
was  then  that  he  acquired  nia  position  as  keeper  of 
the  lead  seals,  an  office  which  was  lucrative  and  im- 
|)<>rtant,  and  which  enabled  him  to  have  more  leisure 
tliun  hitherto  had  been  at  his  disposal.  His  death 
took  place  at  the  time  that  he  was  painting  the  chapel 
of  the  Chi^i  family,  a  work  which  was  to  be  finished 
]>%  Salviati.  His  pictures  can  be  studied  in  Florence, 
Madrid,  Naples,  Parma,  St,  Petersburg,  and  Tra- 
\esio  three  of  his  most  notable  portraits  being  those 
at  Naples  and  Parma,  and  the  fine  portrait  of  Cardi- 
nal Pole,  now  at  St.  Petersburg. 

betV/LaxKi'tLiTttoflhrPaiiUert.  viuiaua  cdiliona;  aiulkwock 
by  Claddio  Tolomsi.  dtod  t^  Limi,  uid  knowa  u  Piituri  di 

Gbobob  Chaklj:s  Wil 


GallfliT,  Londoa 


Michelangelo.  Their  grandeur  of  composition 
could  have  come  from  no  other  artist  of  the  time, 
but  their  magnificence  of  colour  has  nothing  to  do 
with  the  great  sculptor,  and  is  the  result  of  Luciani's 
genius.  A  special  event  in  Luciani's  career  is  con- 
nected with  the  commission  ^ven  to  Raphael  to 
paint  the  picture  of  the  Transfiguration.  Cardinal 
de'  Medici,  who  commissioned  the  picture,  dcHJred 
at  the  same  time  to  give  an  altar-piece  to  his  titular 
cathedral  at  Narbonne,  and  commissioned  a  painting 
to  be  called  the  "Raising  of  Lazarus",  and  to  be  of 
the  same  size  as  Raphael  s  "Transfiguration".  The 
two  works  were  finished  at  about  the  same  time,  and 
were  exhibited.  It  was  perfectly  evident  that  Luciani 
owed  a  great  deal  to  the  inSuence  and  the  assistance 
of  Michelangelo,  but  the  colouring  was  so  magnifi- 
cent, and  the  effect  so  superb,  that  it  created  great 
excitement  in  Rome;  notwithstanding  that  the 
"Transfiguration"  by  Raphael  was  regarded  as  the 
greater  picture,  Luciani  s  work  was  universally 
admired.  The  picture  is  now  in  the  English  National 
Gallery. 

Luciani  punted  a  great  many  portraits,  one  of 
Cardinal  de'  Medici,  another  of  Aretino,  more  than 
one  portrait  of  members  of  the  Doria  family,  of  the 
Famese.  and  of  the  Gonzaga  families,  and  a  clever 
one  ot  Baccio  BandinelU  the  painter.     His  painting 


Ploniui,  Saint,  martyred  at  Smyrna,  12  March, 
250.  Pionius,  with  Sabina  and  Aselcpiades,  was  ar- 
rested on  23  February,  the  anniversary  ot  St.  Poly- 
carp's  martyrdom.  They  had  passed  the  previous 
nigbt  in  prayer  and  fasting,  Knon-ing  of  his  impend- 
ing arrest,  Pionius  hod  fastened  fetters  round  the 
necks  of  himself  and  his  companions  to  sif^ify  that 
they  were  already  condemned.  People  seeing  them 
led  off  unbound  might  suppose  that  they  were  pre- 
pared, like  BO  many  other  Christians  in  Smyrna,  the 
Dishop  included,  to  sacrifice.  Early  in  the  morning, 
after  they  had  partaken  of  the  Holy  Bread  and  of 
water,  they  were  conducted  to  the  forum.  The  place 
was  thronged  with  Greeks  and  Jews,  for  it  was  a  great 
Sabbath  and  therefore  a  general  holiday  in  the  city— 
an  indication  of  theimportanceof  the  Jews  in  Smyrna. 
Pionius  harangued  the  multitude.  He  begged  the 
Greeks  to  remember  what  Homer  had  said  about  not 
mocking  the  corpse  of  an  enemy.  Let  them  refrain 
therefore  from  mocking  those  Christians  who  had 
apostatized.  He  then  turned  to  the  Jews  and  quoted 
Moses  and  Solomon  to  the  same  effect.  He  ended 
with  a  vehement  refusal  to  offer  sacrifice.  Then  fol- 
lowed the  usual  interrogatories  and  threats,  after 
which  Pionius  and  his  companions  were  relegated  to 
prison,  to  await  the  arrival  of  the  proconsul.  Here 
they  found  other  confessors,  among  them  a  Montanist. 
Many  pagans  visited  them,  and  Christians  who  had 
sacrificed,  lamenting  their  fall.  The  latter  Pionius  ex- 
horted to  repentance,  A  further  attempt  before  the 
arrival  of  the  proconsul  was  made  lo  force  I^onius  and 
his  companions  into  an  act  of  apostasy.  They  were 
carried  off  to  a  temple  where  every  effort  was  made  to 
compel  them  to  participate  in  a  sacrifice.  On  12 
March,  Pionius  was  brought  before  the  proconsul  who 
ffrst  tned  persuasion  and  then  torture.  Both  having 
failed,  Pionius  was  condemned  to  be  burnt  alive.  He 
suffered  in  company  with  Metrodorus,  a  Marcionite 
priest.  His  feast  is  kept  by  the  Latins  on  1  Feb.;  by 
the  Greeks  on  11  March.  The  true  day  of  his  martyr- 
dom, according  to  the  Acts,  was  12  March,  Eusebius 
("H,E.",  IV,  xv;  "Chron,",  p.  17,  ed,  Schoene)  places 
the  martyrdom  in  the  reign  of  Antoninus.  His  mis- 
take was  probably  due  to  the  fact  that  he  found  the 
martyrdom  of  Pionius  in  a  volume  containing  the 
Acts  of  Martyrs  of  an  earlier  date.  Possibly  his  MS, 
lacked  the  chronological  note  in  our  present  ones. 
For  the  Life  of  Polycarp  by  I^onius,  see  Poltcarp, 
Saint.  Did  Pionius  before  his  martyrdom  celebrate 
with  bread  and  water?  We  know  from  St.  Cyprian 
(Ep.  63)  that  this  abuse  existed  in  his  time.    But  note 


PIOTO  106  PIOUS 

!1)  the  bread  is  spoken  of  as  Holy,  but  not  the  water; '  pledged  the  revenue  from  tobacco  for  the  payment  of 

2)  it  is  imUkely  that  Pionius  would  celebrate  with  that  amount  ''to  carry  on  the  objects  to  which  said 

ooJy  two  persons  present.    It  is  more  likely  therefore  fund  is  destined''. 

that  we  have  here  an  account,  not  of  a  celebration,        By  the  Treaty  of  Guadalupe  Hidalgo^  2  Feb.,  1848, 

but  of  a  private  Communion  (see  Funk,  ''Abhand-  Upper  Cahfomia  was  ceded  to  the  United  States  by 

lungen'',  I,  287).  Mexico,  and  all  claims  of  citizens  of  the  United  States 

..  ?*%  A®^  ^^  Pionius  exiat  in  two  Latin  trandatiomi,  one  pub-  against  the  Republic  of  Mexico  which  had  theretofore 

mArchivfur  siatuche PhUoiogie,  XVIII  (Berlin.  1896), reprinted  After  the  Treaty  of  Guadalupe  Hidalgo  (and  mdeed 

in  hiB  Acta  tnartyrum  teiecta  (perXin,  1902)  a,nd  in  Ksorr,  Auige-  for  some  years  before)   Mexico  made  no  payments 

:SZ."tCl^Z^JS^yj^'a^  P^.cL^n^.f  l^a"^;,^  for  the  benefit  of  the  mksions    The  archbishop  and 

Zabn,  Forachungen  xur  Oeach.  de*  neuteH.  Kanon»,  IV.  271  aqq.  blshopS  of  Callfonua  claimed  that,  as  Citizens  of  the 

J.  F.  Bacchits.  United  States,  they  were  entitled  to  demand  and  re- 
Pious  BequastB.  See  Lbgacibs.  "^^^  ^I?°?  T"^^  ^^'  ^®  benefit  of  the  missions 
<r«vuo  «#vHuvov0.    kjcc  JJJUUAV.XAO.  within  their  dioceses  a  proper  proportion  of  the  sums 

Pious  Fund  of  the  Califomias,  The  (Fondo  which  Mexico  had  assumed  to  pay  in  its  legislative 

PiADOso  DE  LAS  CaufCrnias).  had  its  origin,  in  1697,  decree  of  24  October,  1842.    By  a  convention  between 

in  voluntary  donations  made  oy  individuals  and  reli-  the  United  States  and  Mexico,  concluded  4  July,  1868. 

Sious  bodies  in  Mexico  to  members  of  the  Society  of  and  proclaimed  1  February,  1869,  a  Mexican  and 
^  esus,  to  enable  them  to  propagate  the  Catholic  Faith  American  Mixed  Claims  Commission  was  created  to 
in  the  territory  then  known  as  California.  The  early  consider  and  adjudge  the  validity  of  claims  held  by 
contributions  to  the  fund  were  placed  in  the  hands  of  citizens  of  either  country  against  the  Government  of 
the  missionaries,  the  most  active  of  whom  were  Juan  the  other  which  had  ansen  between  the  date  of  the 
Maria  Salvatierra  and  Francisco  Eusebio  Kino.  The  Treaty  of  Guadalupe  Hidalgo  and  the  date  of  the 
later  and  larger  donations  took  the  form  of  agreements  convention  creating  the  commission.  To  this  com- 
by  the  donors  to  hold  the  property  donat^  for  the  mission  the  prelates  of  Upper  California,  in  1869,  pre- 
use  of  the  missions  and  to  devote  the  income  therefrom  sented  their  claims  against  Mexico  for  such  part  of 
to  that  purpose.  In  1717  the  capital  sums  of  prac-  twenty-one  years*  interest  on  the  Pious  Fund  (accrued 
tically  ail  of  the  donations  were  turned  over  to  the  between  1848  and  1869)  payable  under  the  terms  of 
Jesuits,  and  from  that  year  until  the  expulsion  of  the  the  Santa  Ana  decree  of  October,  1842,  as  was  prop- 
members  of  the  Society  of  Jesus  from  Mexico  the  erly  apportionable  to  the  missions  of  Upper  Califor- 
Pious  Fund  was  administered  by  them.  In  1768,  with  nia  (Lower  California  having  remained  Mexican 
the  expulsion  of  all  members  of  the  Society  from  Span-  territory). 

ish  territory  by  the  Pragmatic  Sanction  of  Charles  III  Upon  the  submission  of  this  claim  for  decision  the 
of  Spain,  the  Crown  of  Spain  assumed  the  administra-  Mexican  and  American  commissioners  disagreed  as 
tion  of  the  fund  and  retained  it  until  Mexican  inde-  to  its  proper  disposition,  and  it  was  referred  to  the 
pendence  was  achieved  in  1821.  During  this  period  umpire  of  the  commission.  Sir  Edward  Thornton,  then 
(1768-1821)  missionary  labours  in  Caufomia  were  British  Ambassador  at  Washington.  On  11  Nov., 
divided,  the  territory  of  Upper  California  being  con-  1875,  the  umpire  rendered  an  award  in  favour  of  the 
fided  to  the  Franciscans,  and  that  of  Lower  Calitomia  archbishop  and  bishops  of  Califomia.  By  that  award 
to  the  Dominicans.  Prior  to  the  expulsion  of  the  the  value  of  the  fund  at  the  time  of  its  sale  under  the 
Jesuits  thirteen  missions  had  been  founded  in  Lower  decree  of  1842  was  finally  fixed  at  $1,435,033.  The 
California,  and  by  the  year  1823  the  Franciscans  had  annual  interest  on  this  sum  at  six  per  cent  (the  rate 
established  twenty-one  missions  in  Upper  California,  fixed  by  the  decree  of  1842)  amounted  to  $86,101.98 
In  1821  the  newly  established  Government  of  Mexico  and  for  the  twenty-one  years  between  1848  and  1869 
assumed  the  administration  of  the  fund  and  continued  totalled  $1,808,141.58.  The  umpire  held  that  of  this 
to  administer  it  imtil  1840.  amount  one-half  should  equitably  be  held  apportion- 
In  1836  Mexico  passed  an  Act  authorizing  a  petition  able  to  the  missions  in  Upper  Califomia,  located  in 
to  the  Holy  See  for  the  creation  of  a  bishopric  in  Cali-  American  territory,  and  therefore  awarded  to  the 
fomia,  and  declaring  that  upon  its  creation  'Hhe  United  States  for  tne  account  of  the  archbbhop  and 
property  belonging  to  the  Hous  Fund  of  the  Califor-  bishops  of  California,  $904,070.79.  This  judgment 
nias  shall  be  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  new  bishop  was  paid  in  gold  by  Mexico  in  accordance  with  the 
and  his  successors,  to  be  by  tnem  managed  and  em-  terms  of  the  Convention  of  1868.  in  thirteen  annual 
ployed  for  its  objects,  or  other  similar  ones,  always  instalments.  Mexico,  however,  ttien  disputed  its  ob- 
respecting  the  wishes  of  the  founders''.  In  response  ligations  to  pay  any  interest  accruing  after  the  period 
to  this  petition,  Gregory  XVI,  in  1840,  erected  the  covered  by  the  award  of  the  Mixed  Claims  Commis- 
Califormas  into  a  diocese  and  appointed  Francisco  sion  (that  is,  after  1869),  and  diplomatic  negotiations 
Garcia  Diego  (then  president  of  the  missions  of  the  were  opened  by  the  Government  of  the  United  States 
Califomias)  as  the  first  bishop  of  the  diocese.  Shortly  with  the  Government  of  Mexico,  which  resulted,  after 
after  his  consecration,  Mexico  delivered  the  properties  some  years,  in  the  signing  of  a  protocol  between  the 
of  the  Pious  Fimd  to  Bishop  Diego,  and  they  were,  two  Governments,  on  22  May,  1902,  by  which  the 
held  and  administered  by  him  imtil  1842,  when  (jeneral  question  of  Mexico's  liability  was  submitted  to  the 
Santa  Ana,  President  of  Mexico,  promulgated  a  decree  Permanent  Court  of  Arbitration  at  The  Hague.  This 
repealing  the  above-quoted  provision  of  the  Act  of  was  the  first  International  controversy  submitted  to 
1836,  and  directing  that  the  Grovemment  should  again  that  tribunal.  By  the  terms  of  the  protocol  the 
assume  charge  of  the  fund.  The  properties  of  the  Arbitral  Court  was  to  decide  first  whether  the  liability 
fund  were  surrendered  under  compulsion  to  the  Mexi-  of  Mexico  to  make  annual  payments  to  the  United 
can  Government  in  April,  1842,  and  on  24  October  of  States  for  the  account  of  the  Roman  Catholic  prelates 
that  year  a  decree  was  promulgated  by  General  Santa  of  Califomia  had  been  rendered  res  judicata  by  the 
Ana  directing  that  the  properties  of  the  fund  be  award  of  the  Mixed  Claims  Commission  and,  second, 
sold,  and  the  proceeds  incorporated  in  the  national  if  not,  whether  the  claim  of  the  United  States,  that 
treasury,  and  further  providing  that  the  sale  should  Mexico  was  bound  to  continue  such  payments,  was 
be  for  a  sum  representing  the  annual  income  of  the  just. 

properties  capitalized  at  six  per  cent  per  annum.  The        On  14  October.  1902,  the  tribunal  at  The  Ha^e 

decree  provided  that  "the  public  treasury  will  ac-  made  an  award  adjudging  that  the  liability  of  Mexico 

knowledge  an  indebtedness  of  six  per  cent  per  annum  was  established  by  the  principle  of  res  judicaUij  and 

on  the  total  proceeds  of  the  sales  "i  and  specially  by  virtue  of  the  arbitral  sentence  of  Sir  Eklward 


PIOUS  107  PX&AMESI 

Thornton,  as  ximpire  of  the  Mixed  Claims  Commis-  the  constitution  and  rules  for  the  society,  which  PiuE 

sion:  that  in  consequence  the  Mexican  Government  IX  approved  ad  tempua^  1846.    According  to  them, 

was  Dound  to  pay  to  the  United  States^  for  the  use  of  the  members  of  the  societv  should,  after  two  years 

the  Roman  Catholic  archbishop  and  bishops  of  Cali-  novitiate,   promise  four  things,  poverty,   chastity, 

fomia,  the  sum  of  $1,420,682.67,  in  extinguishment  of  obedience,  and  refusal  of  any  ecclesiastical  di^ty, 

the  annuities  which  had  accrued  from  1869  to  1902,  except  bv  obedience  to  the  Holy  See.     Pope  Pius  X 

and  was  under  the  further  obligation  to  pay  "per-  approved  ad  experiendum   the   newly-revised  rules 

petually''  an  annuity  of  $43,050.99,  in  money  having  and  constitutions,  December,  1903,  for  six  years,  and 

Iega]<;urrency  in  Mexico.   The  Government  of  Mexico  gave  the  final  approbation  on  5  Nov.,  1909.     The 

has  since  the  date  of  The  Hague  award  complied  with  mother-house  is  in   the  Via  Pettinari  57,  Rome,  at- 

its  provisions,  and  annually  pays  to  the  Government  tached  to  the  church  of  San  Salvatore.    Pallotti  sent 

of  the  United  States,  in  Mexican  silver,  for  the  use  of  his  first  missionary  fathers  to  London  in  1844,  to 

the  Catholic  prelates  of  California,  the  sum  adjudged  take  care  of  Italian  emigrants  in  the  Sardinian  Ora- 

to  be  due  from  it  as  a  "perpetual "  annuity .  torv.      Rev.   D.  Marquese  Joseph  Fa&   di    Bruno 

TraMcnjdof  Re<^  of  Proceedings  More  the  Mexican  and  built   the   church   of    St.    Petcr    in    Hatton    Garden 

cStfU^So.  4^5^.ilm«w  D^STJTovSimgtoii.  1902)1  Dtp/omirfti  ^^^^  j?  ^^^  principal  church  of  the  Italians  in  Lon- 

Correepondenee  Relative  to  "  The  Pioue  Fund  of  the  Catifomiae'*  don.     He  was  One  of  the  generals  of  the  SOCiety,  and 

(WMhington.  1902);   United  Stateeve.  Mexieo,    .    .    .Senate  wrote  "Catholic  Belief",  a  clear  and  concise  exposi- 

M^)  •  '^"''  "^  (Washington,  ^j^^  ^f  CathoUc  doctrine,  especially  intended  for  nwi- 

Garret  W.  McEnebnst.  Catholics.    Over  one  million  copies  of  this  book  were 

sold,  and  it  was  translated  into  Italian  by  the  author. 

Pious  Society  of  Ml8Sion8,  The,  founded  by  Yen.  Under  his  eeneralate,  the  society  extended  its  activ- 

Vincent  Mary  Pallotti  in  1835.    The  members  of  the  ity  beyond  Home,  Rocca  Priora,  and  London  to  other 

society  are  generally  called  Pallottini  Fathers.   Its  ob-  countries.    He  received  from  Leo  XIII  the  church  of 

ject  is  to  preserve  the  Faith  among  Catholics,  espe-  S.  Silvestre  in  Capite  in  Rome  for  the  use  of  the  Eng- 

cially  among  emigrants,  who  are  exposed  to  many  lish-speaking  colonv  there.     In  Masio  in  northern 

grave  dangers,  and  to  propaeate  the  Faith  among  Italy,  he  established  an  international  college,  a  mission 

non-Catholics  and  infidels.    The  Society  of  Missions  at  Hastings,  England,  and  in  London  (St.  Boniface's) 

embraces  three  classes:  (1)  priests,   clerics,  and  lay-  for  the  German  colony;  in  Limburg,  Ehrenbreitstein, 

brothers;  (2)  sisters,  who  help  the  priests  in  their  mis*  and  Vallemdar  there  are  flourishing  colleges  for  the 

sionary  works  as  teachers  and  catechists,  and  who  missions  in  Kamerun,  West  Africa.    These  missions 

care  for  the  temporal  necessities  of  their  churches  and  have  now  a  vicar  Ai)ostolic  and  12  houses,  with  70 

houses;  (3)  affiliated  ecclesiastics  and  lay  people.  The  schools  belonging  to  it.    In  South  America  there  are 

sisters  live  a  community  life,  and  follow  the  Rule  of  establishment  at  Montevideo,   Mercedes;  Saladas, 

St.  Francis.   They  dedicate  themselves  to  the  spiritual  and  Suipacha;  14  missions  of  the  society  in  Brazil  em- 

and  temporal  welfare  of  their  sex.    They  are  espe-  brace  a  territory  three  times  the  size  of  the  State  of 

cially  engaged  in  missionary  work  among  the  emigrants  New  York.    Rev.  Dr.  E.  Kimer  started  the  first  Ital- 

in  Amenca,  and  the  infidels  in  Africa  and  Australia,  ian  Mission  in  New  York  City  in  1883,  afterwards  one  ' 

The  third  class  consists  of  both  the  secular  and  regu-  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  Newark,  N.  J.,  Hammondton,  N. 

lar  clergy  and  the  laity  who  are  affiliated  with  the  J.,  and  Baltimore,  Md.    In  North  America  the  Pallot- 

Society  of  Missions  and  help  by  their  prayers,  works,  tini  Fathers  have  at  present  over  100,000  Italian  em- 

and  financial  aid  the  propagation  of  the  Faith.  igrants  under  their  spiritual  care.    The  society,  in 

The  founder  prescribed  that  his  society  should  be  a  the  year  1909,  was  divided  into  four  provinces,  the 

medium  between  the  secular  and  the  regular  clergy.  Italian,  American,  English,  and  German. 
He  desired  to  foster  the  work  of  the  Catholic  Apos-  John  Vogel. 

^^^J^c^ffiL'^rtrS'^wrh'KS:  ,^^^;    See  TKKH.aN.,  Skzze,  ^.  P.pkh.o. 

gurated  in  1836)  and  the  feast  of  Epiphany  in  Rome  (see  ^i«>cb8B  op. 

Pallotti,  Vincent  Mary.  Venerable).    He  gave  to        Piranesi,   Giambattibta,  an  Italian  etcher  and 

his  society  the  name  of ''Catholic  Apostolate,i^ter-  engraver^  b.  at  Venice,  1720;   d.  in  Rome,  9  Nov., 

wards  chan^^  by  Pius  IX  to  the    Pious  Society  of  1778.   His  uncle  Lucchesi  gave  him  lessons  in  drawing. 

Missions'*.  The  word  Pious  is  to  be  taken  in  the  sense  until  in  1738  his  father,  a  mason,  sent  him  to  Rome  to 

ol  the  Latin  pia,  i.  e.,  devoted  or  dedicated  to  God.  study  architecture  under  Valeriani  and  en^ving 

On  9  Jan.,  1835,  Pallotti  conceived  the  plan  of  his  in-  under  Vasi.    He  did  not  return  except  for  a  brief  visit 

stitute  and  submitted  it  to  the  Apostolic  See,  and  re-  to  his  family.    In  1741  he  brought  out  a  work  on 

ceived  the  reauired  approbation  through  the  cardinal  arches,  bridges,  and  other  remains  of  antiquity,  a 

vicar,  Odescalchi,  on  4  April,  1835,  as  again  by  an-  notable  monument  of  black  and  white  art;  thereafter 

other  rescript  on  29  May,  and  finallv  by  Pope  Gregory  he  opened  a  gallery  for  the  sale  of  prints,  chiefly  his 

XVI  on  14  July  of  the  same  year.    Nearly  all  rehgious  own.    He  was  a  rapid  and  facile  worker  and  etched 

orders  and  communities  favoured  the  newly-created  more  than  2000  larse  plates,  full  of  detail,  vigour,  and 

institute  with  a  share  in  all  their  spirktual  works  and  brilliancy.    As  a  rule  he  drew  directly  on  copper,  and 

indulgences.    In  the  first  years  of  its  existence  the  hence  his  work  is  bold,  free,  and  spinted  to  a  marked 

Pious  Society  of  Missions  had  among  its  affiliated  degree;  his  shadows  are  luminous,  but  at  times  there 

members,  twentv-five  cardinals,  many  bishops,  Ro-  is  too  much  chiaroscuro.    The  result  is  a  dramatic 

man  princes,  and  reh^ous  communities  and  societies,  alternation  of  black  and  white,  and  of  light  and  shade, 

as  also  men  known  in  that  time  as  great  apostles,  whichdeservedly  wonforhim  thenameof  ^'theRem- 

Blessed  Caspar  del  Buffalo,  the  founder  of  the  Con^re-  brandt  of  architecture  ". 

gation  of  the  Most  Precious  Blood  and  Maria  Clausi  of        Skilful  and  artistic  printing  lent  an  added  charm  to 

the  Order  of  St.  Francis  of  Paula.    For  a  time  the  So-  his  proofs,  and  the  poor  impressions  that  exist  in  west- 

ciety  of  the  Propagation  of  Faith  in  Lyons  feared  that  em  Europe  come  mm  plates  that  were  captured  by 

the  new  society  would  interfere  with  its  special  work.  British  warships  during  the  Napoleonic  wars.    Some 

Pallotti  satisfied  the  Holy  See  that  the  purpose  of  his  of  the  etchings  in  his  twenty-nine  folio  volumes  are  on 

society  was  different  from  that  of  the  Propagation,  double-elephant  paper,  ten  feet  in  length.    While  he 

As  the  name,  "Catholic  Apostolate'',  occasioned  ob-  achieved  a  work  of  magnitude  in  pictorial  records  of 

jecttons  in  some  quarters,  it  was  changed  to  the  Roman  monuments  of  antiquity  and  of  the  Renais- 

' Pious  Society  of  Missions''.  sance,  and  gave  immense  archaeological,  antiquarian. 

At  the  Camaldolese  convent  near  Frascati,  be  wrote  and  topographical  value  to  this  work,  the  artistic 


quality  always  predominates.  He  was  fond  of  peo- 
pling hU  ruina  with  Calbt-like  figures,  and  "like Callot 
makes  great  use  of  the  swelliug  line"  (Hind).  His 
plates  ultimately  came  into  the  possession  of  the  pope. 
Although  not  eminent  aa  an  architect  he  repaired 
among  other  edifices  the  church  of  S.  Mana  del 
Popolo,  and  the  Priory  of  Malta,  in  which  is  a  life-size 
statue  to  his  memory.  Piranesi  married  a  peasant, 
and  his  children,  Francesco  tfnd  Laura,  were  of  great 
assistance  to  him  towards  the  end  of  his  laborious  life. 
Laura's  touch  strongly  resembles  (hat  of  her  father. 
He  was  decorated  with  the  Order  of  Christ  and  was 
made  a  member  of  the  London  Society  of  Antiquaries, 
His  works  are:  "Ro- 
man Antiquities" 
(220  plates);  Views 
orRome(130plates); 
Antique  Statues, 
Vases  and  Busts  (350 
plates) ;  Magnifi- 
cence of  the  Romans 
(47  plates). 


ffrannff  and  Etching  (Lod- 

dDD,      leOS):      HUHEEM, 

Promenadu  of  an  /mpr»- 
BOnii<  (New  York,  IBIO). 

Leiqh  Hunt. 

Plrhlng,    Ernri- 

cvB,  b.  at  Sigarthin, 

near    Passau,    1606: 

d.  between  1678  and 

1681.     At  the  ageof  T«  Ti:«pt«  of  Cos. 

twenty- " 


■  by  Giu 


tered  the  Society  of  Jesus,  where  he  gave  instruction 
in  the  Sacred  Sciences.  He  tauEht  canon  law  and 
Scripture  for  twelve  years  at  DilUn^en,  where  he  was 
still  living  in  1675.  His  "Jus  canomcum  in  V  libros 
Decretalium  distributum"  (5  vols.,  Dillingen,  1674- 
77;4vols.,pillingen,  1722;  5vob.,Venice,  1759)  marks 
a  progress  in  canonical  science  in  Germany,  for  al- 
though he  maintains  the  classical  divisions  of  the 
"Corpus  Juris",  he  gives  a  complete  and  synthetic 
explanation  of  the  canonical  legislationof  the  matters 
which  he  treats.  He  published  also,  under  the  form  of 
theses,  seven  pamphlets  on  the  titles  of  the  first  book 
of  the  Decretals,  which  were  resumed  in  his  "Jus 
Canonicura " ;  and  an  "Apologia"  against  two  ser- 
mons of  the  Proteetont  Balduinus  (Ineolatadt,  1652; 
Munich,  1653).  After  his  death  one  of  his  colleagues 
published  a  "Synojisis  Pirhiagana",  or  rSsum6  of  his 
"Jus  Canonicum"  (Dillingen,  1695;  Venice,  1711). 

C.dl  /.  (IJ^E,  1872),  II,  19M:  SCHDLTE,  Did  Gncb.  drr  QuilUn 
M.  LilrratMrlti  tanmitchtn  RediH  (Stullcart,  1S80).  III.  U3. 

A.  Van  Hove. 

PirUuinMr,  Cbahitas,  Abbess  of  the  Convent  of 
St.  Clara,  of  the  Poor  Clares,  in  Nuremberg,  and  sis- 
ter of  the  celebrated  Humanist  Willibald  Pirkhcimer, 
b.  in  Nuremberg,  21  March,  1466;  d.  there  19 
August,  1532.  At  the  age  of  twelve  she  obtwned 
a  remarkable  spiritual  formation  in  the  cloister  of  St. 
Clara.  It  is  not  known  when  she  entered  the  religious 
life.  She  found  a  friend  in  Apollonia  Tucher,  whom 
her  nephew,  Christoph  Scheurl,  entitles  "The  crown 
of  her  convent,  a  mirror  of  virtue,  a  model  of  the  sis- 
terhood," and  who  became  prioress  in  1494.  She  also, 
toward  the  end  of  the  century,  became  a  friend  of  the 
cousin  of  Apollonia,  the  provoat,  Sixtus  Tucher.  This 
rriendahip  finds  expression  in  thirty-four  letters  of 
Tucher  addressed  to  the  two  nuns,  treating  principally 


of  spiritual  subjccta  and  of  the  contemplative  life. 
Cnaritas,  who  in  1500  was  a  teacher  and  perhaps 
also  mistress  of  novices,  was  chosen  on  20  Decem- 
ber, 1503,  aa  abbess.    The  first  twenty  years  of  her 


tenure  of  office  she  passed  in  the  peace  of  contemplati  vi; 
life.  She  was  able  to  read  the  Latin  authors,  and 
thereby  acquired  a  clasuc  style.  The  works  of 
the  Fathers  of  the  Church,  especially  of  St.  Jerome, 
were  her  favourite  reading.  In  her  studies  her 
brother  Willibald  was  her  guide  and  teacher.  He 
dedicated  to  her  in  1513  his  Latin  translation  of 
Plutarch's  Treatise  "On  the  Delayed  Vengeance  of 
the  Deity"  and  praises  in  the  preface  her  education 
and  love  for  study,  against  which  Charitas,  "mote 
disturbed  than  astonished",  protested,  claiming  that 
'  '  ""  '"  the  friend  of  learned 
I  his  sisters,  Charitas 
and  Clara,  who  since 
1494  had  also  been  a 
PoorClare,  the  works 
of  St.  Fulgentius,and 
in  1521  he  translated 
for  them  the  sennona 
of  St.  Gregory  of 
Nasiansus.  Several 
of  Pirkheimer's  hu- 
manist friends  be- 
came acquainted 
with  the  highly  cul- 
tivated abb^.  Con- 
rad Celtes  presented 
her  with  his  edition 
of  the  works  of  the 
nun  Hrotfivit  (Ros- 
witha)  of  Gander- 
sheim,  and  his  own 
poems,  and,  in  a  eu- 
logy, praises  her  as  a 
.  rare    adornment    of 

uatiiBiE  riciDHi  jjjg  Qgrman  Father- 

land. Charitas  thanked  him,  but  advised  him  frankly 
to  rise  from  the  study  of  pagan  writiitgs  to  that 
of  the  Sacred  Books,  from  earthly  to  heavenly 
pursuits.  Christoph  Scheurl  dedicated  t^i  her  in 
1506  his  "militates  misso;"  (Uses  of  the  Mass);  in 
1515  he  published  the  letters  of  Tucher  to  Chantaa 
and  Apollonia.  She  was  highly  esteemed  by  Georg 
Spalatm,  Kiliam  I^eib,  Johannes  Butibach,  and  the 
celebrated  painter,  Diirer.  But  all  the  praise  she  re- 
ceived excited  no  pride  in  Charitas;  she  remained 
simple,  affable,  modest  and  independent,  uniting  in 
perfect  harmony  high  education  and  deep  piety.  It 
was  thus  she  resisted  the  severe  temptations  which 
hung  over  the  last  ten  years  of  her  life. 

When  the  Lutheran  doctrines  were  brought  into 
NuremberK,  thepeaceof  the  convent  ceased.  Charitas 
had  already  made  herself  unpopular  by  a  letter  Ui 
£mser(1522)  In  which  she  thanked  him  for  his  valiant 
actions  as  "The  Powerful  Defender  of  the  Christian 
Faith".  Since  1524  the  governor  had  sought  to  re- 
form the  cloister  and  to  acquire  poeeeesioD  of  its 
property.  He  assigned  to  the  convent  of  the  Poor 
Clares  Lutheran  preachers  to  whom  the  nuns  were 
forced  to  listen.  The  acute  and  bigoted  inspector, 
NUtzel,  tirelessly  renewed  his  attempts  at  perversion, 
while  outside  the  people  rioted,  threw  stones  into 
the  church  and  sang  scandalous  songs.  Three  nuna, 
at  the  request  of  their  parents  and  in  spite  of  their  re- 
sistance, were  taken  out  of  the  convent  by  violence. 
On  the  other  hand  Melanchthon,  during  hie  residence 
in  Nuremberg  in  1525,  was  very  friendly  to  them,  and 
the  diminution  of  the  persecution  is  attributable  to 
him.  Nevertheless,  the  convent  was  deprived  of  the 
care  of  souls,  was  highly  taxed  and,  in  fine,  doomed  to 
a  slow  death.  With  constant  courage  and  resourceful 
superiority,  Charitas  defended  her  rights  against  the 
attacks  and  wiles  of  the  town-council.thc  abusive  words 
of  the  preachera,  and  the  shameful  slanders  of  the  peo- 
ple. Her  memoirs  illuminate  this  period  of  sufTerin^ 
as  far  aa  152H.  Her  last  experience  of  earthly  happi- 
ness was  the  impressive  celebration  of  her  jubilee  at 


PIRO 


109 


PIBO 


Easter,  1529.  At  last  a  peaceful  death  freed  her  from 
bodily  sufferings  and  attacks  of  the  enemies  of  her 
convent.  Her  sister,  Clara,  and  her  niece,  Katrina, 
daughter  of  WiUibald,  succeeded  her  as  abbess.  The 
last  abbess  was  Ursula  Muffel.  Towards  the  end  of 
the  century  the  convent  was  closed. 

Chabitas  PiRKHKiif  er,  Denkwardigketlen,  ed.  HOfler  (Bam- 
berg, 1852);  Loose,  Aus  ^dem  Leben  der  Charitaa  Pirkheimer 
(Dreaden,  1870);  Binder,  Charitaa  Pirkheimer  (2nd  ed.,  Frei- 
burg. 1878).  * 

KlEMENS   L5FFLER. 


become  Lutheran.  This  affected  him  deeply  and  aided 
in  extinguishing  his  enthusiasm  for  the  Reformation. 
His  last  literary  labour^  which  he  addressed  to  the 
council  in  1530,  was  on  behalf  of  the  convent;  this 
was  the  '^Oratio  apologetica  monialium  nomine'',  a 
master-piece  of  its  kind. 

Pirkheimer,  Opera  (Frankfort,  1610);  Roth,  WiUibald  Pirk- 
heimer (Halle,  1887);  Haqen,  Pirkheimer  in  aeinem  VerhdUnie 
turn  Humaniemut  wtd  zur  Reformation  (Nuremberg,  1882); 
Drews,  Pirkheimer*  Stellung  zur  Reformation  (Leipug.  1887); 
Reimann,  Pirkheimer^udien  (Berlin,  1900). 

Klemens  Loffler. 


Pirkheimer,  Willibald,  German  Humanist,  b.  at 
Eichstatt,  5  I)ecember,  1470;  d.  at  Nuremberg,  22  Piro  TndianB,  a  tribe  of  considerable  importance 
December,  1530.  He  was  the  son  of  the  episcopal  ranging  by  water  for  a  distance  of  three  nundred 
counciUor  and  distinguished  lawyer,  Johannes  Pirk-  miles  along  the  upper  Ucayali  (Tambo)  River,  and 
heimer,  whose  family  came  from  Nuremberg,  which  its  affluents,  the  Apurimac  and  Urubamba,  Depart- 
Willibald  regarded  as  his  native  place.  He  studied  ment  of  Loreto,  in  northeastern  Peru.  Their  chief 
jurisprudence,  the  classics,  and  music  at  the  Universi-  centre  in  the  last  century  was  the  mission  town  of 
ties  of  Padua  and  Pavia  (1489-95).  In  1495  he  mar-  Santa  Rosa  de  los  Piros,  at  the  confluence  of  the 
ried  Crescentia  Rieter  (d.  1504),  by  whom  he  had  five  Tambo  and  Urubamba  (8anta  Ana).  To  the  Qui- 
daughters.  From  1498  to  1523,  when  he  voluntarily  chua-speaking  tribes  of  Peru  they  are  known  as 
retired,  he  was  one  of  the  town  councillors  of  Nurem-  Chontaquiro,  nearly  equivalent  to  ''Black  Teeth'', 
berg,  where  he  was  the  centre  of  the  Humanistic  from  their  former  custom  of  staining  their  teeth  and 
movement,  and  was  considered  one  of  the  most  dis-  gums  with  a  black  dye  from  the  chonta  or  black-wood 
tinguished  representatives  of  Germany.  His  house  palm  (pcperonia  tinctorioidea).  They  are  also  known 
stood  open  to  everyone  who  sought  intellectual  iita-  as  Simirinches.  They  belong  to  the  great  Arawakan 
provement,  and  was  celebrated  by  Celtis  as  the  gath-  linguistic  stock,  to  which  also  belong  the  warlike 
cring  place  of  scholars  and  artists.  His  large  corre-  Campa  of  the  extreme  upper  Ucayali  and  the  cele- 
spondence  shows  the  extent  of  his  literary  connexions,  brated  Moxos  (q.  v.)  of  Bolivia,  whose  main  territory 
In  1499,  with  the  aid  of  a  capable  soldier,  he  led  the  was  about  the  lower  Orinoco  and  in  the  West  Indies. 
Nuremberg  contingent  in  the  Swiss  war,  his  classical  The  Piro  excel  all  the  other  tribes  of  the  Ucayali  both 
history  of  which  appeared  in  1610  and  won  for  him  the  in  strength  and  vitality,  a  fact  which  may  be  due  to 
name  of  the  German  Xenophon.  Maximilian  ap-  the  more  moderate  temperature  and  superior  health- 
pointed  him  imperial  councillor.  He  owes  his  fame,  fulness  of  their  country.  As  contrasted  with  their 
to  his  many-sided  learning,  and  few  were  as  widely  neighbours  they  are  notably  jovial  and  versatile,  but 
read  as  he  in  the  Greek  and  Latin  literatures.  He  i^ressively  talkative,  inclined  to  bullying,  ana  not 
translated  Greek  ^classics,  e.  g.,  Euclid,  Xenophon,  always  dependable.  They  are  of  quicK  intelligence 
Plato,  Ptolemy,  Plutarch,  Lucian,  and  the  Church  and  have  the  Indian  gift  for  languages,  many  of  them 
Fathers  into  Latin.  Like  Erasmus,  he  paid  less  atten-  speaking  Quichua,  Spanish,  and  sometimes  Portu- 
tion  to  a  literal  rendering  than  to  the  sense  of  his  trans-  guese,  in  addition  to  their  own.  Like  most  of  the  tribes 
lations,  and  thus  produced  works  which  can.be  com-  of  the  region  they  are  semi-agricultural,  depending 
pared  with  the  best  of  the  translated  literature  of  that  chieflv  upon  the  plantain  or  banana  and  the  maguey 
period.  He  also  wrote  a  work  on  the  earliest  history  (manniot)^  which  produce  abundantly  almost  without 
of  Germany,  and  was  interested  in  astronomy,  math-  care.  The  preparation  from  these  of  the  intoxicating 
ematics,  the  natural  sciences,  numismatics,  and  art.  masalo  or  cnicha,  to  which  they  are  given  to  excess, 
Albert  Dfirer  was  one  of  his  friends  and  has  painted  forms  the  principal  occupation  of  the  women  in  all 
his  characteristic  portrait.  He  defended  Reuchlin  in  the  tribes  of  the  Ucayali  country.  They  also  make 
the  latter's  dispute  with  the  theologians  of  Cologne,  use  of  fish  and  the  oil  from  turtle  eggs.    Their  houses 

At  the  beginning  of  the  Reformation  he  took  sides  are  light,  open  structures  thatched  with  palm  leaves, 
with  Luther,  whose  able  opponent,  Johann  Eck,  he  with  sleeping  hammocks,  hand-made  earthen  pots, 
attacked  in  the  coarse  satire  "  Eckius  dedolatus'^  (Eck  .and  the  wooden  maaato  trough  for  furniture.  Their 
planed  down).  On  behalf  of  Luther  he  also  wrote  a  dress  is  a  sort  of  shirt  for  the  men  and  a  short  skirt 
second  bitter  satire,  in  an  unprinted  comedy,  called  for  the  women,  both  of  their  own  weaving  from  nathre 
''Schutzschriff .  Consequently  his  name  was  in-  cotton  and  dyed  black.  They  wear  silver  nose  pen- 
eluded  in  the  Bull  of  excommunication  of  1520,  and  dants  and  paint  their  faces  black.  The  men  aresplen- 
in  1521  he  was  absolved  ''not  without  painful  personal  did  and  daring  boatmen,  in  which  capacity  their  ser- 
humiliation'',  was  required  to  acknowledge  Luther's  vices  are  in  constant  requisition.  In  their  primitive 
doctrine  to  be  heresy,  and  denounce  it  formally  by  condition  the  Piro  used  the  bow,  lance,  and  blowgun 
oath.  Nevertheless,  up  to  1525  his  sympathies  were  with  poisoned  arrows.  They  were  polygamists  and 
with  the  Reformation,  but  as  the  struggle  went  on,  made  constant  raids  upon  the  weaker  tribes  for  the 
like  many  other  Humanists,  he  turned  aside  from  the  purpose  of  carrying  on  women.  They  buried  their 
movement  and  drew  towards  the  Church,  with  which  dead,  without  personal  belongings,  in  canoes  in  the 
he  did  not  wish  to  break.  In  Luther,  whom  he  had  at  earthen  floor  of  the  house.  Their  principal  divinities 
first  regarded  as  a  reformer,  he  saw  finally  a  teacher  of  were  a  benevolent  creative  spirit  or  hero-god  called' 
false  doctrines,  "completely  a  prey  to  delusion  and  led  Huyacali,  and  an  evil  spirit,  Saminchi,  whom  they 
by  the  evil  fiend".  Luther's  theological  ideas  had  greatly  feared.  They  had  few  dances  or  other  cere- 
never  been  matters  of  conscience  to  him,  hence'  the  monies. 

results  of  the  changes,  the  decay  of  the  fine  arts,  the  The  first  missions  on  the  upper  Ucayali  were  under- 
spread  of  the  movement  socially  and  economically,  taken  in  1673  under  Fr.  Biedma,  of  the  Franciscan 
the  reUgious  quarrels,  and  the  excesses  of  zealots  Convent  of  the  Twelve  Apostles  in  Peru,  who  had 
repelled  him  as  it  did  his  friend  Erasmus  who  was  in  already  been  at  work  on  the  Huallaga  since  1631.  In 
intellectual  83rmpathy  with  him.  His  sister,  Charitas,  1674  the  warlike  Campa  attacked  and  destroyed  the 
was  the  Abbess  of  the  Convent  of  St.  Clara  at  Nurem-  mission  established  among  them  and  massacred  four 
berg,  where  another  sister,  Clara,  and  his  daughters,  missionaries  together  with  an  Indian  neophyte.  In 
Katharina  and  Crescentia,  were  also  nuns.  From  1687  Fr.  Biedma  himself  was  killed  by  the  Piro. 
1524  they  were  troubled  by  the  petty  annoyances  and  Others  were  murdered  or  sank  under  the  climate  until 
"efforts  at  conversion"  of  the  city  council  that  had  in  1694,  when  Frs.  Valero,  Huerta,  and  Zavala  were 


nsA  1] 

killed,  the  UcayttU  missionH  were  abandoned.  They 
were  renewed  arter  some  years  with  a  f^r  degree  ot 
success,  but  in  1742  were  again  wiped  out  and  all  the 
mifliioiiaiies  brutally  butchered  in  a  terrible  riaing 
headed  by  tha  Campa,  under  the  leaderahip  of  an 
apofitat«  Indian,  Juan  Santoe,  who  took  the  name  of 
Atahualpa,  cbuming  to  be  a  descendant  of  the  last  of 
the  Idcos.  In  1747  Fr,  Manuel  Albaran,  descending 
the  Apurimac,  was  killed  by  the  Piro.  In  1767  another 
genertd  rising  resulted  in  the  death  of  all  but  one  of 
sixteen  missionaries  of  the  Franciscan  collie  of 
Ocopa,  Peru,  which  had  taken  over  the  work  in  1754. 
In  17W  the  Franciscans  again  had  eighteen  missions 
in  operation  in  the  upper  Ucayali  and  Huallaga 
region,  with  a  total  population  of  3494  souls.  In  1704 
an  attempt  to  gather  the  Piro  into  a  mission  was  de- 
feated by  an  epidemic,  which  caused  them  to  scatter 
into  the  forests.  In  1799  (or  1803-R^moDdi)  the 
attempt  was  successfully  carried  out  by  Fr.  Pedro 
Garcia  at  the  mission  ofNuestra  Seflora  del  Pilar  de 
Bepuano.  In  1815  the  principal  and  last  mission  for 
the  tribe  was  established  by  Fr.  Manuel  Plaza  under 
the  name  of  Santa  Rosa  de  Lima  de  los  Piros.  After 
the  revolution,  which  made  Peru  a  separate  govern- 
ment, the  missions  were  neglected,  most  of  the  mis- 
uonaries  were  withdrawn,  the  neophytes  sought  em- 
ployment at  the  river  porta  or  in  the  rubber  forests, 
or  rejoined  their  wild  kindred,  and  in  1835  only 
one  mission  station,  Sarayacu,  remained  upon  the 
Ucayali.  The  Piro,  however,  still  r^k  among  the 
imiwrtant  tribes,  although,  on  account  of  their  wan- 
dering habit,  their  true  number  is  unknown.  Hervas 
dves  the  IHro  language  three  dialects,  and  states  that 
Ft.  Enrique  Richter  (o.  1685)  prepared  a  vocabulary 
and  catechism  in  it  and  in  several  other  languages. 
Castelnau  and  Marcoy  also  give  vocabularies. 

Bhintoh.  Thi  Amerian  Race  (^few  York,  1891) ;  Cashlnau. 
BrptdHian  daru  Ua  parlUa  cmiraitt  de  t'Amirigut  du  &vd,  IV 
(e  vol!.,  Parii.  1850-1);  Gkus.  Indiana  o/  Peru  in  SmWumiaH 
*«(./«■  IST7(WMhi^aton,  18T8);  Hibhdon,  JBipJorodon  o/Di( 
ValUv  of  In  Amaim  <WuiuDi(OD.  IBS3):  Hibtk.  Coldlofa  dt 
lot  Lmauat,  I  (Mulnd.  1800);  Labrm  Aonrt  In  3ai«itti  Gmg- 
iloQ..  VI  (Ediaburfh.  1890) :  Mibehxu.  fribu  in  tht  Valley  of 
llu  Amaian  in  Jour.  AniK.  7nX.,  XXIV  (London.  IS95);  MiscOT. 
Voyoft  d  traKTi  I'^m^ruiu  du  Sud  (2  vola.,  Puii,  1869);  Ob- 
DIHAIKI,  Lu  Sauwaga  du  PIrou  in  Htrut  iT BAnoffraphie.  VI 
IViiiM,  1887);  Orivh,  Tlie  Ande,  and  lie  Amaian  (3rd  «d..  New 
York.  1ST6):  Ruuokdi,  Apiiniu  lO&ra  In  Prirrincia  lUoral  dl 
IitrtU  (Limm.  1882).  in  piin  Cr.  by  BoLUfST  in  Anihropalaoiair 
Beiitit.  I  (London,  1803) ;  Rklits.  SouIA  America.  I  (New  York. 
ISM):    SwrTH  AND  Lowe.  Jimmev  Jrom  Lima  la  Pard  (London, 

1880)-  Jaueb  Moonet. 

Pisa,  Abcbdiocesk  of  (Pia«),  in  Tuscany,  central 
Italy.  The  cityissituatcdontheAmo.aixmilee  from 
the  sea,  on  a  fertile  plain,  while  the  neighbouring  moun- 
tains yield  marble,  alabaster,  copper,  and  other  min- 
eral products;  mineral  waters  abound  in  the  province. 
The  famous  duomo,  or  cathedral,  begun  (1063)  by 
Buschetto  and  consecrated  by  Gelasius  II  (1118),  is  a 
ba^ca  in  the  shape  of  a  Latin  cross,  with  five  naves, 
the  columns  'of  which  are  of  oriental  granite.  The 
upper  portion  of  the  fai;ade  is  formed  by  five  rows  of 
columns,  one  above  the  other;  the  bas-reliefs  of  the 
four  bronie  doors  were  executed  by  Domenico  Parte- 

K'  mi  and  Augusto  Serrano,  afl«r  the  designs  of  Giam- 
lo^a  and  others.  The  cupola  was  painted  by 
Orazio  Riminaldi  and  Michele  CinKanelli;  the  altars 
are  all  of  Luna  marble.  Among  the  notable  objects 
in  this  cathedral  are  the  octagonal  pulpit,  the  um  of 
St.  Ranieri,  and  the  lamp  of  Possenti  da  Pietrasanta, 
under  which  GaUleo  studied  the  isochronistn  of  the 
pendulum.  In  front  of  the  duomo  is  the  baptistery,  a 
round  structure,  with  a  cupola  surmounted  by  a  statue 
ot  St.  John  the  Baptist;  it  was  erected  in  1152.  Be- 
side the  duomo  is  the  celebrated  leaning  campanile. 
The  campoaanlo  (begun  in  1278,  completed  in  1464) 
is  a  real  museum  of  painting  and  of  medieval  sculp- 
ture; its  architect  was  Giovanni  Pisano,  by  whom  also 
are  six  statues  placed  over  one  of  the  entrances.  The 
freecoea  are  by  Giotto,  Orcagna,  Benozio  Goiioli, 


Spinelto  Aretino,  Simone  Memmi,  and  I^etro  Laurati. 
It  cont^ns  the  tomb  of  the  Emperor  Henry  VII. 
Other  churches  are  Santa  Maria  della  Spina  (1230; 
1323);  San  Nicola,  dating  from  about  1000;  the 
church  of  the  Knights  of  S,  Stefano  (1555),  a  work  of 
Vasari;  S.  Francesco  (thirteenth  century);  S.  C^te- 
rina  (1353),  which  belongs  to  the  seminary  and  con- 
tains the  mausoleums  of  Bishop  Saltarelli  and  of 
Gherardo  Compagni;  S.  Anna  has  two  canvaasee  by 
Ghirlandajo;  S.  Michele  (1018);  S.  Frediano  (ninU> 
century);  S.  Sepolcro  (1150);  8.  Paolo  (805T)  called 
the  old  duomo;  S.  Pietro  in  Grado,  which  dates  from 
the  fifth  century,  and  was  restored  in  the  ninth.  The 
episcopal  re^dence,  of  the  twelfth  century,  has  im- 
portant archives.  Other  buildings  of  interest  are  the 
Loggia  dei  mercanti,  by  Bountalenti,  and  the  univer- 
sity (1105-1343),  witn  which  were  united  several 
coUeges,  as  the  Puteano,  Ferdinando,  Vitt«riano^  and 
Rjcci.  Outside  the  city  are  the  Certosa  di  Calci,  the 
Bagni  di  Pisa,"ancient  baths  which  were  restored  by 
Countess  Matilda,  and  the  Villa  Reale  diS.  Rossore. 
Pisa  is  the  ancient  PJam,  in  antiquity  held  to  bd  & 


colony  of  Pisie  in  Elis.  Later,  it  probably  belonged 
to  the  Etruscans,  though  often  troubled  by  the  Ligu- 
riana.  The  people  devoted  themselves  to  commerce 
and  to  piracy.  From  225  b.  c.,  they  were  in  amicable 
relations  wiUi  the  Romans,  who  used  the  port  of  Piss 
in  the  Punic  War,  and  against  the  Ligunans,  in  103. 
By  the  Julian  law,  if  not  earlier,  the  town  obtained 
Roman  citizenship.  Little  mention  is  made  of  it  in 
the  Gothic  War.  In  553  it  submitted  to  Narses,  of  its 
own  accord;  after  the  Lombard  invasion,  it  seems  to 
have  enjoyed  a  certain  independence,  and  it  was  not 
until  the  eighth  century  that  Pisa  had  a  Lombard  dux, 
while,  in  the  ninth  century,  it  alternated  with  Lucca 
as  the  seat  of  the  Marquis  of  Tuscany.  The  war  be- 
tween Pisa  and  Lucca  (1003)  was  tne  first  war  be- 
tween two  Italian  cities.  In  1005,  the  town  was  sacked 
by  the  Saracens,  under  the  famous  Musetto  (Mugheid 
al  Amen),  who,  in  turn,  was  vanquished  by  tJie  Pisana 
and  Genoese,  in  Sardinia.  In  ICuO,  the  Pisans  block- 
aded Carthage;  and  in  1050,  Musetto  having  again 
come  to  Sardinia,  they  defeated  him  with  the  assist- 
ance of  Genoa  and  of  the  Marquis  of  Lunipana;  but 
the  division  of  the  conquered  island  became  a  source 
of  dissension  between  the  allied  cities,  and  the  discord 
was  increased  when  Urban  II  invested  the  Pisans  with 
the  Btuerainty  of  Corsica,  whose  petty  lords  (1077) 
had  declared  thdr  wish  to  be  fiefs  only  of  the  Holy  See. 
In  1126,  Genoa  opened  hostilities  by  an  assault  on 
Porto  I^sano,  ana  only  through  the  intervention  of 
Innocent  II  (1133)  was  peace  re-established.  Mean- 
while, the  Pisans,  who  for  centuries  had  had  stations 
in  Calabria  and  in  Sicily,  had  extended  their  com- 
merce to  Africa  and  to  Spain,  and  also  to  the  Levant. 


^ .....   ,                       -            „            -  -,-  ..,-.,       ;,  name  imkoown,  takeo  pruoDer  by 

for  tike  tnuuportatioD  of  crusaders  in  1099.  aad  there*  ChaflemagQeattheBi^eof  I'avia  (774);  Oppiio  (1039), 

after  people  of  all  nations  were  to  be  found  in  their  the  founder  of  the  Camaldolit«  convent  of  S.  Michele; 

city.     In  1063  they  had  made  an  attempt  againat  l*ndulfu8(1077),8entbyGr^oryVIl8fllegatetoCor- 

Palerroo,  and  in  1114  led  by  the  consul,  Auo  Marig-  nca;  GeraiduH  (1080),  an  able  controveraiuiat  against 

nani,  conquered  the  Balearic  Islands.    Pisa  supported  the  Greeks;  Diabertus  (10S5),  the  firat  archbishop,  to 

t^  emperors  at  an  early  date,  and  Henry  IV,  m  1084,  whom  Urban  II  gave  the  sees  of  Coraica  as  suffragans 

confirmed  its  statutes  and  its  maritime  rights.    With  in  1099,  the  firat  Lulin  Patriarch  of  Jeruaalem^  Pietro 

its  fleet,  it  supported  the  expedition  of  Lotbair  II  to  Moriconi  (1105),    In  1121,  on  account  of  thejealou^ 

Calabria,  dratroyiiiK  in  1137  the  maritime  cities  of  of  Genoa,  the  bishops  of  Corsica  were  made  unmedi- 

Ravello,  La  Scala,  b  Fratta,  and  above  all,  Amalfi,  ately  dependent  upon  the  Holy  See,  but  Honorius  II 

which  then  lost  ita  commercial  standing.    The  Piaans  (1126)  restored  the  former  status  of  Pisa  as  their  met- 

alsogave  their  SMistanceto  Henry  IV  in  the  conquest  ropolitan;  in  1133,  however.  Innocent  II  divided  them 

of  Sicily,  and  as  reirard  lost  the  advantages  that  they  between  PiaA  and  Genoa  which  was  then  made  an 

had  then  enjoyed.  archdiocese.    Thereafter,  Pisa  received  for  sufi'ragana 

The  reprisalB  of  Innocent  III  in  Sardinia  led  the  alao   Populonis   and   two   sees   in   Sardinia.     Other 

I^aans  to  espouse  the  cause  of  Otto  IV  and  that  of  bixhops  were:    Cardinal  Uberto  Lanfranchi  (1132), 

Frederick  II,  and  Pisa  became  the  head  and  refuge  of  who  often  served  as  pontifical  l^ate;   Cardinal  Vil' 

the  Ghibelhnea  of  Tuscany,  and, accordingly,  a  fierce  lano  Gaetani  (1145),  compelled  to  flee  from  the  city 
enemy  of  Florence.  The  victory  of  Montaperti  (1260) 
marks  the  culmination  of  I^san  power.  Commercial 
jealousy,  political  hatred,  and  the  fact  that  I^sa  ac- 
corded protection  to  certain  petty  lords  of  Corsica, 
who  were  in  robeUion  against  Genoa,  brought  about 
another  war,  in  which  one  hundred  and  seven  Genoese 
ships  defeated  one  hundred  and  three  ships  of  the 
Pisans,  at  La  Meloria,  the  former  taking  ten  thousand 

gisoners.  All  would  have  been  bst,  if  Ugolino  della 
herajdesca,  eapUano  del  popoU)  and  podeatA,  had  not 
rvidently  taken  chanre  of  the  Government.  But  as 
had  protected  the  Guelphs,  Archbishop  Ruggieri 
degli  Ubaldini  took  up  arms  against  him,  and  shuthim 
up  (1288)  in  the  tower  of  the  Gualandi,  where  with  his 
sons  he  starved  to  death  (Inferno,  XXXIII,  13).  At 
the  peace  of  1290,  I^sa  was  compelled  to  resign  its 
ri^ts  over  -Corsica  and  the  possession  of  Sassari  in 
Sardinia.  The  Pisans  hoped  to  retrieve  themselves  by 
inviting  Henry  VII  tc  establish  himself  in  their  city, 
ottering  tiitn  two  million  florins  for  his  war  against 
Florence,  and  their  fleet  for  the  conquest  of  Naples; 
but  his  death  in  1313  put  an  end  to  these  hopes. 
Tbeceupon  they  elected  (1314)  Uguccione  della  Fa-  on  account  of  hia  fldelity  to  Aleicander  III  (1167); 
giuola  of  Lucca  as  their  lord;  but  they  rid  themselves  Lotario  Rosari  (1208),  dso  Patriarch  of  Jerusalem 
of  him  in  the  same  year.  At  the  approach  of  Louis  the  (1216);  Federico  Visconti  (1254),  who  held  provincial 
Bavarian,  they  besought  that  prince  not  to  enter  synods  in  1258,  1260,  and  1262;  Oddone  della  Sala 
Pisa;  but  Castruccio  degli  AntelmmelU  incited  Louis  (1312)  had  litigations  with  the  republic,  and  later  be- 
to  besiege  the  city,  with  the  result  that  Pisa  surren-  came  Patriarch  of  Alexandria;  SLmoneSaltorelli;  Gio- 
dered  in  1327,  and  paid  a  large  sum  of  money  to  the  vanni  Scarlatti  (1348),  who  had  been  legate  to  Armenia 
victor.  In  1329  Louis  resided  there  again,  with  the  and  to  the  emperor  at  Constantinople;  Lotto  Gomba- 
antipope,  Pietro  di  Corvara,  Internal  dissensions  and  corta  (1381),  compelled  to  flee,  after  the  death  of  his 
the  competition  of  Genoa  and  Barcelona  brought  brotherKetro,tyrantofPisa(1392);AlamannoAdinari 
about  the  decay  of  Pisan  commerce.  To  remedy  (1406),  a  cardinal  who  had  an  important  part  in  the 
financial  evils,  the  duties  on  merehandise  were  in-  concihahulumof  Pisa  and  in  the  Council  of  Constance; 
creased,  which,  however,  produced  a  neater  loss,  for  Cardinal  Francesco  Salviati  Riario  (1475),  hung  at 
Florence  abandoned  the  port  of  Pisa.  In  1400  Florence  in  connexion  with  the  conspiracy  of  the 
GaleaizoVisconti  bought  PisafromGherardoAppiani,  Paz»i;  in  1479  he  was  succeeded  by  his  nephew, 
brd  of  the  city.  In  1405,  GabrielcM.  Visconti  having  Rafaele  Riario,  who  narrowly  escaped  being  a  victim 
Kipulated  the  sale  of  Pisa  to  the  Florentines,  the  of  the  same  conspiracy;  Cesare  Riario  (1499);  Cai^ 
Pisans  made  a  supreme  effort  to  oppose  that  humilia-  dinal  Scipione  Rebita  (1556);  Cardinal  Giovanni  de' 
tion;  the  town,  however,  was  taken  and  its  principal  Medici  (1500),  a  son  of  Coeimo;  Cardinal  Angelo 
citiieae  exiled.  The  expedition  of  Charles  VIII  re-  Niccolini  (1564);  Carlo  Antonio  Pozii  (1582),  founder 
stored  its  independence  (^1494-1509) ;  but  the  city  was  of  the  Puteano  college,  and  author  of  works  on  canon 
unable  to  rise  agun  to  its  former  prosperity.  Under  and  on  civil  law;  Giulio  de'  Medici  (1620),  served  on 
Cosiniode' Medid,  there  were  better  tmiea,  especially  missions  for  the  duke,  founded  the  seminary,  intro- 
for  the  university.  duced  wise  reforms,  and  evinced  great  charity  during 
Among  the  natives  of  Pisa  were:  B.  Pellegrino  the  pest  of  1629;  Cardinal  Scipione  Pannocchieschi 
(seventh  century);  B.  Chiara  (d.  in  1419),  and  B.  (1636):  Cardinal CosimoCorsi  (1853-70).  Important 
Pietro,  founder  of  the  Hermits  of  St.  Jerome  (d.  in  councils  have  been  in  1135,  against  Anacletus  II  and 
1435);  B.  Giordano  da  Pisa,  O.P.  (d.  in  1311);  and  the  heretic  Enrico,  leader  of  the  Petrobrusiani  in 
Gregory  X.  Connected  with  the  church  of  San  Pietro  1409,  which  increased  the  schism  by  the  deposition  of 
in  Grodo  there  is  a  legend  according  to  which  St.  Peter  Gregory  XII  and  of  Benedict  XIlI,  and  by  the  elec- 
landed  at  Pisa,  and  left  there  his  disciple  St.  Pierinus.  tion  of  Alexander  V;  in  1511,  brouriit  about  by  afew 
The  firat  known  bishop  was  Gaudentius,  present  at  the  schismatic  cardinals  and  French  bishops  at  the  mstigs- 
Council  of  Rome  (313),  Other  bishops  were  St.  Senior  tion  of  Louis  XII  against  Julius  II. 
(410),  who  consecrated  St.  Patrick;  Joannes  (493);  L^om,  Pescia,  Pontremoli,  and  Volterra  are  the 
one,  name  unknown,  who  took  part  in  the  schism  of  suffragans  of  Pisa;  the  arehdiocese  has  136  parishes; 


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112 


PISA 


190,000  inhabitants;  10  religious  houses  of  men.  and 
29  of  women;  6  educational  establishments  for  boys, 
and  13  for  girls;  1  Catholic  daily  paper. 

CAPPELLBTTr,  Lc  ChiMe  (T Italia,  XVI;  Tronci,  Annuali  Pisani 
CPisa,  1868-71);  dal  Bosoo,  DisMertanoni  tulla  Horia  piaana 
(Pisa,  1761-68) ;  Chzrone  Epidaubico,  Navioatione  e  eommereio 
vitano  (Piaa,  1797);  Fbdeli,  /  documenti  porUificit  riguardarUi 
V  Univerntd  di  Piaa  (Piaa,  1908) ;  Supimo.  Fmo  in  Italia  Ariialiea, 
XVI  (Bergamo.  1905). 

U.  Benigni. 

University  op  Piba. — In  the  eleventh  century 
there  were  many  jurisconsults  at  Pisa  who  lectured 
on  law;  prominent  among  them  were  Opitone  and 
Sigerdo.  There  also  was  preserved  a  coidex  of  the 
Pandects,  dated,  it  was  said,  from  Justinian.    Four 

Srofessors  of  the  Law  School  of  Bologna,  Bulgarus, 
»urgundius,  Uguccione,  and  Bandino,  successors  of 
Imerius,  were  trained  here;  Burgundius  acquired 
renown  by  his  translation  of  the  Pandects  and  of 
Greek  works  on  medicine.  Gerardo  de  Fasiano,  Lam- 
bertuccio  Arminsochi,  Zacchia  da  Volterra,  Giovanni 
Fagioli,  Ugo  Benci,  Baldo  da  Forli,  and  Giovanni 
d'-fiidrea  taught  at  Pisa  in  the  thirteenth  century.  In 
the  same  century  medicine  also  was  taught;  the  most 
famous  professor  was  Guido  of  Pisa,  who  afterwards 
went  to  Bologna  (1278).  In  1338,  as  Benedict  XII 
had  placed  Bologna  under  interdict,  R^nieri  da  Forli 
and  Bartolo  removed  to  Pisa  with  a  large  following. 
The  Stvdium  of  Pisa  is  mentioned  in  the  communal 
documents  of  1340.  In  1343  Clement  VI  erected  a 
8tv4ium  generalef  with  all  the  faculties,  including 
theology;  and  Charles  IV  confirmed  it  in  1355. 

The  university,  however,  did  not  flourish.  From 
1359  to  1364  it  was  closed,  and  was  only  reopened  by 
Urban  VI.  Meantime,  however,  the  teaching  of  law 
was  not  discontinued.  In  1406  Pisa  fell  into  the  power 
of  the  Florentines  who  suppressed  the  university.  In 
1473  Lorenzo  de'  Medici  with  Sixtus  IV's  approval 
closed  the  University  of  Florence  and  reopenea  Pisa. 
For  its  endowment  the  goods  of  the  Church  and  clergy 
were  put  under  contriJSution  to  such  an  extent  that 
Paul  III  in  1534  recalled  the  concessions  of  his  pred- 
ecessors. The  most  celebrated  teachers  of  this  first 
epoch  were  the  jurisconsults  Francesco  Tigrini,  Baldo 
degli  Ubaldi,  Lancellotto  Decio,  Francesco  Alcolti, 
Baldo  Bartolini,  Giasone  del  Maino,  Bartolommeo 
and  Mariano  Socini;  the  physicians,  Guido  da  Prato, 
Ammanati,  Ugolino  da  Montecatini,  Alessandro  Ser- 
moneta,  Albertino  da  Cremona,  Pietro  Leoni,  and 
Cristoforo  Prati;  the  Humanists,  Bartolommeo  da 
Pratorecchi,  Ix)renzo  Lippi,  Andrea  Dati,  Mariano 
Tucci;  the  theologians,  Bernardino  Cherichini  (1478) 
and  Giorgio  Benigni  Salviati. 

In  1543  Cosimo  de'  Medici  undertook  to  restore  the 
university,  and  to  this  end  Paul  III  made  large  con- 
cessions out  of  the  revenues  of  the  Church  and 
monasteries.  Several  colleges  were  founded,  such  as 
the  DucaJ  College,  the  Ferdinando,  and  the  Puteano 
(Pozzi  for  the  Piedmontese).  The  university  at  this 
time  became  famous  especially  by  its  cultivation  of 
the  natural  sciences.  Among  its  noted  scientists  were : 
Cesalpino  (botany,  medicine,  philosophy);  Galileo 
GaUlei  (mathematics  and  astronomy);  Borelli  (me- 
''chanics  and  medicine);  Luca  Ghini,  first  director  of 
the  botanical  gardens  (1544) ;  Andrea  Vesalio,  Realdo 
Colombo,  Gabriele  Falloppo;  Giovanni  Risischi,  and 
Lambeccari  in  anatomy;  Baccio  Baldini,  Vidio  Vidi, 
Girolamo  Mercuriale,  Rodrigo  Fonseca  (seventeenth 
century),  Fil.  Cavriami,  Marcello  Malpighi  in  medi- 
cine. In  view  of  its  progressive  spirit,  Pisa  may  be 
called  the  cradle  of  modem  science.  The  professors 
of  jurisprudence  were  rather  conservative,  out  there 
were  not  wanting  able  thinkers,  such  as  the  two 
Torellis,  Francesco  Vegio,  Asinio,  Giacomo  Mandelli, 
the  two  Facchinis,  and  the  Scotsman  Dempster; 
Nicola  Bonaparte,  who  introduced  into  Pisa  the 
critical-histoncal  study  of  Roman  Law  inaugurated  by 


Cujas,  Giuseppe  Averani,  Stefano  Fabrucd,  historian 
of  the  university,  Bernardo  Tanucci,  afterwards  min- 
ister of  Charles  III  of  Naples.  * 
At  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century  the 
university  was  again  in  a  precarious  condition;  but 
the  new  Lorenzian  dynasty  sought  to  strengthen  it 
by  increasing  the  scientific  institutes,  and  revising  the 
statutes;  thus  after  1744  the  rector  was  no  longer 
elected  by  the  scholars  or  from  their  ranks,  but  mui 
to  be  one  of  the  professors.  In  the  eighteenth  century 
Valsecchi  and  Berti  won  distinction  in  theology; 
Andrea  Guadegni,  Bart.  Franc.  Pellegrini^  Migliorotto 
Maccioni,'FIaminio  Dal  Borgo,  Gian  Mana  Lampredi. 
Sandonnini  (canonist),  the  criminalists  della  Pura  and 
Ranuccia  in  jurisprudence;  Politi,  Corsini,  Antonioli, 
Sarti,  in  letters;  Guido  Grandi,  Claudio  Fromond, 
Anton  Nicola  Branchi,  Lorenzo  Pignotti,  Lorenzo 
Tilli,  and  Giorgio  Santi  in  natural  science;  An|;elo 
Gatti,  Antonio  Matani,  Franc.  Torrigiani  in  medicme; 
Bro|:iani  and  Berlinghieri  in  anatomy.  In  1808  the 
regulations  of  the  French  universities  were  introduced, 
but  were  superseded  by  others  in  1814.  The  pro- 
fessors were  then  dividea  into  the  faculties  of  theology, 
law  (comprising  philosophy  and  literature),  ana 
medicine.  But  the  number  of  the  chairs  increased) 
in  1840  there  were  six  faculties.  In  1847  the  '' Annali 
delle  UniversitJl  toscane"  were  published. 

In  1851,  for  political  reasons,  the  Universities  of 
Pisa  and  Siena  were  united,  the  faculties  of  jurispru- 
dence and  theology  located  at  Siena,  and  those  of 
philosophy  and  medicine  at  Pisa.  The  former  regime 
was  re-established  in  1859  with  such  modifications  as 
the  Law  of  Casati  required.  In  1873  all  chairs  of 
theology  were  suppressed  throughout  Italy.  Noted 
professors  in  law  were  Lorenzo  Quartieri,  Federioo, 
del  Rosso,  Valeri,  Poggi,  Salvagnoli,  Franc.  Ferrara. 
P.  Emilio  Imbriani,  and  Franc.  Carrara  (criminalist). 
Science  and  letters  were  represented  by  the  physicist 
Gerbi ;  the  chemist  Piria;  the  mathematician  Betti ;  the 
physicians  Puccinotti,  Pacini,  Marcacci,  Ranzi  (path- 
ology) ;  the  criminalist  Rosellini,  the  Latinist  Ferrucci ; 
and  Francesco  de  Sanctis,  literary  critic.  Besides  the 
usual  faculties,  Pisa  has  schools  of  engineering,  agri- 
culture, veterinary  medicine  and  pharmacy,  and  a 
normal  high  school.  In  1910-11  there  were  159  in- 
structors and  1160  students. 

Fabroni,  Hisloria  Aead.  Piaance  (Piaa,  1791);  dalBoroo,  Dia- 
aertazione  epistoUire  auW  origine  delV  unit,  di  Piaa  (Pisa,  1765); 
Cai.isse,  Cenni  atorici  atdV  Univeraitd  di  Piaa  in  Annuario  dwa 
Uniteraitd  di  Piaa  (1899-1900);  Buonamici,  Della  acuola  Piaana 
del  diritto  romano  etc.  (Pisa,  1874) ;  Idem,  / giureconaviii  di  Piaa  al 
tempo  deUa  acuola  Bologneat  (Rome,  1888);  Fedeu,  I  documenti 
pontificii  riguardanti  V  Univeraitd  di  Piaa  (Pisa,  1908). 

U.  Benigni. 

Pisa,  Council  of. — Preliminaries. — ^The  Great 
Schism  of  the  West  had  lasted  thirty  years  (since  1378). 
and  none  of  the  means  employed  to  bring  it  to  an  end 
had  been  successful.  Compromise  or  arbitral  agree- 
ment between  the  two  parties  had  never  been  seri- 
ously attempted;  surrender  had  failed  lamentably 
owing  to  the  obstinacy  of  the  rival  popes,  all  equ^y 
convinced  of  their  rights;  action,  that  is  the  interfer- 
ence of  princes  and  armies,  had  been  without  result. 
During  these  deplorable  divisions  Boniface  IX,  Inno- 
cent VII,  and  Gregory  XII  had  in  turn  replaced 
Urban  VI  (Bartholomew  Prignano)  in  the  See  of 
Rome,  while  Benedict  XIII  had  succeeded  Clement 
VII  (Robert  of  Geneva)  in  that  of  Avignon. 

The  cardinals  of  the  reigning  pontiffs  being  greatly 
dissatisfied,  both  with  the  pusillanimity  and  nepotism 
of  Gregonr  XII  and  the  obstinacy  and  bad  will  of 
Benedict  AlII,  resolved  to  make  use  of  a  more  effica- 
cious means,  namely  a  general  council.  The  French 
king,  Charles  V,  had  recommended  this,  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  schism,  to  the  cardinals  assembled  at 
Anagni  and  Fondi  in  revolt  against  Urban  VI,  and  on 
his  deathbed  he  had  expressed  the  same  wish  (1380). 
It  had  been  upheld  by  several  councils,  by  the  cities 


PISA 


113 


PISA 


of  Ghent  and  Florence,  by  the  Universities  of  Oxford 
and  Paris,  and  by  the  most  renowned  doctors  of 
the  time,  for  example:  Henry  of  Langenstein 
(^'Epistola  pacis",  1379,  "Epistola  concilii  pacis", 
1381);  Conrad  of  Gelnhausen  ("Epistola  Concor- 
di»",  1380);  Gerson  (Sermo  coram  Anglicis);  and 
especially  the  latter's  master,  Pierre  d'Ailly,  the  emi- 
nent Bishop  of  Cambrai,  who  wrote  of  himself:  "A 
principio  schismatis  materiam  concilii  generalis 
primus  .  .  .  instanter  proseoui  non  timui  (Apo- 
logia Concilii  Pisani,  apud  Tschackert).  Encour- 
a|^  by  such  men,  by  the  known  dispositions  of 
King  Qiarles  V4  and  of  the  University  of  Paris,  four 
membei-s  of  the  Sacred  College  of  Avignon  went  to 
Leghorn  where  they  arranged  an  interview  w^ith  those 
of  Rome,  and  where  they  were  soon  joined  by  others. 
The  two  bodies  thus  united  were  resolved  to  seek 
the  union  of  the  Church  in  spite  of  everything  and 
thenceforth  to  adhere  to  neither  of  the  competitors. 
On  2  and  5  July,  1408,  they  addressed  to  the  princes 
and  prelates  an  encyclical  letter  summoning  them  to  a 
general  council  at  Pisa  on  25  March,  1409.  To  oppose 
this  project  Benedict  convoked  a  council  at  Perpignan 
while  Gregory  assembled  another  at  Aquileia,  but 
these  assemblies  met  with  little  success,  hence  to  the 
Council  of  Pisa  were  directed  all  the  attention^  un- 
rest, and  hopes  of  the  Catholic  world.  The  Univer- 
sities of  Paris,  Oxford,  and  Cologne,  manv  prelates, 
and  the  most  distinguished  doctors,  Uke  d'Ailly  and 
Gerson,  openly  approved  the  action  of  the  revolted 
cardinals.  The  princes  on  the  other  hand  were  divided, 
but  most  of  them  no  longer  relied  on  the  good  will  of 
the  rival  popes  and  were  determined  to  act  without 
them,  despite  them,  and,  if  needs  were,  against  them. 
Meeting  of  the  Council. — On  the  feast  of  the  Annun- 
ciation, 4  patriarchs,  22  cardinals,  and  80  bishops 
assembled  in  the  cathedral  of  Pisa  under  the  presidency 
of  Cardinal  de  Malesset,  Bishop  of  Palestrina.  Among 
the  clergy  were  the  representatives  of  100  absent 
bishops,  87  abbots  with  the  proxies  of  those  who  could 
not  come  to  Pisa,  41  priors  and  generals  of  religious 
orders,  300  doctors  of  theolo^  or  canon  law.  The 
ambassadors  of   all  the  Christian   kingdoms   com- 

Cleted  this  august  assembly.  Judicial  procedure 
egan  at  once.  Two  cardinal  deacons,  two  bishops, 
and  two  notaries  gravely  approached  the  church  doors, 
opened  them,  and  in  a  loud  voice,  in  the  Latin  tongue, 
.called  upon  the  rival  pontiffs  to  appear.  No  one  re- 
plied. "Has  anyone  been  appointed  to  represent 
them?"  they  added.  Again  there  was  silence.  The 
delegates  returned  to  their  places  and  requested  that 
Gregory  and  Benedict  be  declared  ^ilty  of  contu- 
macy. On  three  consecutive  days  this  ceremony  was 
repeated  without  success,  and  throughout  the  month  of 
Niay  testimonies  were  heard  against  the  claimants, 
but  the  formal  declaration  of  contumacy  did  not  take 
place  until  the  fourth  session.  In  defence  of  Gregory, 
a  German  embassy  unfavourable  to  the  project  of  the 
assembled  cardinals  went  to  Pisa  (15  April)  at  the 
instance  of  Robert  of  Bavaria,  King  of  the  Romans. 
John,  Archbishop  of  Ri^a,  brought  before  the  council 
several  excellent  objections,  but  in  general  the  Ger- 
man delegates  spoke  so  blunderingly  that  they 
aroused  hostile  manifestations  and  were  compelled  to 
leave  the  city  as  fugitives.  The  hne  of  conduct 
adopted  by  Carlo  Malatesta,  Prince  of  Rimini j' was 
more  clever.     Robert  by  his  awkward  friendliness  in- 

t'ured  Gregory's  otherwise  most  defendable  cause; 
mt  Malatesta  defended  it  as  a  man  of  letters,  an  orator, 
a  politician,  and  a  knight,  though  he  did  not  attain 
the  desired  success.  Benedict  refused  to  attend  the 
council  in  person,  but  his  delegates  arrived  very  late 
(14  June),  and  their  claims  aroused  the  protests  and 
laughter  of  the  assembly.  The  people  of  Pisa  over- 
whelmed them  with  threats  and  insults.  The  Chancel- 
lor of  Aragon  was  listened  to  with  little  favour,  while 
the  Archbishop  of  Tarragona  made  a  declaration 
XII.— 8 


of  war  more  daring  than  wise.  Intimidated  by 
rough  demonstrations,  the  ambassadors,  amoilg  them 
Boniface  Ferrer,  Prior  of  the  Grande  Chartreuse, 
secretly  left  the  city  and  returned  to  their  master. 

The  pretended  preponderance  of  the  French  dele- 
gates has  been  often  attacked,  but  the  French  element 
did  not  prevail  either  in  numbers,  influence,  or  bold- 
ness of  ideas.  The  most  remarkable  characteristic  of 
the  assembly  was  the  unanimity  which  reigned  among 
the  500  members  during  the  month  of  June,  especially 
noticeable  at  the  fifteenth  general  session  (5  June, 
1 409) .  When  the  usual  formality  was  completed  with 
the  request  for  a  definite  condemnation  of  Peter  de 
Luna  and  Angelo  Corrario,  the  Fathers  of  Pisa  re- 
turned a  sentence  until  then  unexampled  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  Church.  All  were  stirred  when  the 
Patriarch  of  Alexandria,  Simon  de  Cramaud,  addressed 
the  august  meeting:  "Benedict  XIII  and  Gregory 
XII",  said  he,  ''are  recognised  as  schismatics,  the 
approvers  and  makers  of  schism,  notorious  heretics, 
guilty  of  perjury  and  violation  of  solemn  promises, 
and  openly  scandalising  the  universal  Church.  In 
consequence,  they  are  declared  unworthy  of  the 
Sovereign  Pontificate,  and  are  ipso  facto  deposed  from 
their  functions  and  dignities,  and  even  driven 
out  of  the  Church.  It  is  forbidden  to  theih  hence- 
forward to  consider  themselves  to  be  Sovereign 
Pontiffs,  and  all  proceedings  and  promotions  made  by 
them  are  annulled.  The  Holy  See  is  declared  vacant 
and  the  faithful  are  set  free  from  their  promise  of 
obedience."  This  grave  sentence  was  greeted  with 
joyful  applause,  the  Te  Deum  was  sung,  and  a  solemn 
procession  was  ordered  next  day,  the  feast  of  Corpus 
Christi.  All  the  members  appended  their  signatures 
to  the  decree  of  the  council,  and  every  one  thought 
that  the  schism  was  ended  forever.  (Jn  15  June  the 
cardinals  met  in  the  archiepiscopal  palace  of  Pisa  to 
proceed  with  the  election  of  a  new  pope.  The  con- 
clave lasted  eleven  days.  Few  obstacles  intervened 
from  outside  to  cause  delay.  Within  the  council,  it 
is  said,  there  were  intrigues  for  the  election  of  a  French 
pope,  but,  through  the  influence  of  the  energetic  and 
ingenious  Cardinal  Cossa,  on  26  June,  1409.  the  votes 
were  unanimously  cast  in  the  favour  ol  Cardinal 
Peter  Philarghi,  who  took  the  name  of  Alexander  V 
(q.  T.).  His  election  was  expected  and  desired,  as 
testified  by  universal  joy.  The  new  pope  announced 
his  election  to  all  the  sovereigns  of  Christendom, 
from  whom  he  received  expressions  of  lively  sympathy 
for  himself  and  for  the  position  of  the  Cnurch.  He 
presided  over  the  last  four  sessions  of  the  council, 
confinned  all  the  ordinances  made  by  the  cardinals 
after  their  refusal  of  obedience  to  the  antipopes, 
united  the  two  sacred  colleges,  and  subsequently 
declared  that  he  would  work  energetically  for  reform. 

Judgment  of  the  Council  of  Pisa. — The  right  of  the 
cardinals  to  convene  a  general  council  to  put  an  end 
to  the  schism  seemed  to  themselves  indisputable. 
This  was  a  consequence  of  the  natural  principle  that 
demands  for  a  large  corporation  the  capacity  of  dis- 
covering within  itself  a  means  of  safety:  Salus  pomdi 
suprema  lex  estOf  i.  e.,  the  chief  interest  is  the  safety 
of  the  Church  and  the  preservation  of  her  indispen- 
sable unity.  The  tergiversations  and  perjuries  of  the 
two  pretenders  seemed  to  justify  the  united  sacred 
colleges.  "Never",  said  they,  "shall  we  succeed  in 
ending  the  schism  wh|le  these  two  obstinate  persons 
are  at  the  head  of  the  opposing  parties.  There  is  no 
undisputed  pope  who  can  summon  a  general  council. 
As  the  pope  is  doubtful,  the  Holy  See  must  be  consid- 
ered vacant.  We  have  therefore  a  lawful  inandate 
to  elect  a  pope  who  will  be  undisputed,  and  to  con- 
voke the  universal  Church  that  her  adhesion  may 
strengthen  our  decision  " .  Famous  universities  urged 
and  upheld  the  cardinals  in  this  conclusion.  And 
yet,  from  the  theological  and  judicial  point  of  view, 
their  reasoning  might  seem  false,   dangerous,  anq 


PI8AN0 


114 


PISCATAWAT 


revolutionaiy.  For  if  Gregoiy  and  Benedict  were 
doubtful,  so  were  the  cardinals  whom  they  had 
created.  If  the  fountain  of  their  authority  was  Un- 
certain, so  was  their  competence  to  convoke  the  uni- 
versal Church  and  to  elect  a  pope.  Plainly,  this  is 
arguing  in  a  circle.  How  then  could  Alexander  V, 
electedby  them,  have  indisputable  rights  to  the  recog- 
nition of  the  whole  of  Christendom?  Further,  it  was 
to  be  feared  that  certain  spirits  would  make  use  of 
this  temporary  expedient  to  transform  it  into  a 
general  rule,  to  proclaim  the  superiority  of  the  sacred 
college  and  of  the  council  to  the  pope,  and  to  legalize 
henceforth  the  appeals  to  a  future  council,  which  had 
already  commenced  under  King  Philip  the  Fair.  The 
means  used  by  the  cardinals  could  not  succeed  even 
temporarily.  The  position  of  the  Church  became 
still  more  precarious;  instead  of  two  heads  there 
were  three  wandering  popes,  persecuted  and  exiled 
from  their  capitals.  Yet,  masmuch  as  Alexander  was 
not  elected  in  opposition  to  a  generally  recognized 

Contiff,  nor  by  scnismatic  methods,  his  position  was 
etter  than  that  of  Clement  VII  and  Benedict  XIII, 
the  popes  of  Avignon.  An  almost  general  opinion 
asserts  that  both  he  and  his  successor,  John  XXIII, 
were  true  popes.  If  the  pontiffs  of  Avignon  had  a 
colourable  title  in  their  own  obedience,  such  a  title 
can  be  made  out  still  more  clearly  for  Alexander  V 
in  the  eyes  of  the  universal  Church.  In  fact  the 
Pisan  pope  was  acknowledged  bv  the  majority  of  the 
Church,  1.  e.  by  France,  England,  Portugal,  Bohemia, 
Prussia,  a  few  countries  of  Germany,  Italy,  and  the 
Coimty  Venaissin,  while  Naples,  Poland,  Bavaria, 
and  part  of  Germany  continued  to  obey  Gregory,  and 
Spain  and  Scotland  remained  subject  to  Benedict. 

Theologians  and  canonists  are  severe  on  the  Council 
of  Pisa.  On  the  one  hand,  a  violent  partisan  of 
Benedict's.  Boniface  Ferrer,  calls  it  "a  conventicle 
of  demons  .  Theodore  Urie,  a  supporter  of  Gregory, 
seems  to  doubt  whether  they  gathered  at  Pisa  with 
the  sentiments  of  Dathan  and  Abiron  or  those  of 
Moses.  St.  Antoninus,  Cajetan,  Turrecremata,  and 
Ra3mald  openly  call  it  a  conventicle,  or  at  &ny  rate 
cast  doubt  on  its  authority.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
Galilean  school  either  approves  of  it  or  pleads  extenu- 
ating circumstances.  Koel  Alexander  asserts  that 
the  council  destroyed  the  schism  as  far  as  it  could. 
Bossuet  says  in  his  turn:  ''If  the  schism  that  de- 
vastated the  Church  of  God  was  not  exterminated  at 
Pisa,  at  anv  rate  it  received  there  a  mortal  blow  and 
the  Council  of  Constance  consummated  it.''  Protest- 
ants, faithful  to  the  consequences  of  their  principles, 
applaud  this  council  unreservedly,  for  they  see  m  it 
"the  first  step  to  the  deliverance  of  the  world",  and 
greet  it  as  the  dawn  of  the  Reformation  (Gregorovius). 
Perhaps  it  is  wise  to  say  with  Bellarmine  that  this 
assembly  is  a  general  council  which  is  neither  ap- 
proved nor  disapproved.  On  account  of  its  illegalities 
and  inconsistencies  it  cannot  be  quoted  as  an  oecu- 
menical council.  And  yet  it  would  be  unfair  to  brand 
it  as  a  conventicle,  to  compare  it  with  the  ''  robber 
council"  of  Ephesus.  the  pseudo-council  of  Basle,  or 
the  Jansenist  council  of  Pistoia.  This  synod  is  not  a 
pretentious,  rebellious,  and  sacrilegious  coterie.  The 
number  of  the  fathers,  their  quality,  authority^  in- 
telligence and  their  zealous  and  generous  intentions, 
the  almost  unanimous  accord  with  which  they  came 
to  their  decisions,  the  royal  support  they  met  with, 
remove  every  suspicion  of  Intrigue  or  cabal.  It 
resembles  no  other  council,  and  has  a  place  by  itself 
in  the  history  of  the  Church,  as  unlawful  in  the  man- 
ner in  which  it  was  convoked,  unpractical  in  its  choice 
of  means,  not  indisputable  in  its  results,  and  having 
no  claim  to  represent  the  Universal  Church.  It  is 
the  original  source  of  all  the  ecclesiastico-historical 
events  that  took  place  from  1409  to  1414,  and  opens 
the  way  for  the  Council  of  Constance. 

D'AcuiRY,  SpicUegiutn,  I  (Parii,  1723),  853.  eee  names  of  the 


members  of  the  Council,  I.  844;  d'Aillt  in  Operibtu  6era<mi%,  ed. 
Elueb  Ddpin  (1706);  St.  Antoninus.  Summa  Hi»toriAli»,  III, 
xxii,  c.  V, |2;  Bsuabmins. Dtconcil.,  I  (Paris,  1608),  viii,  13;  Bb8b, 
Johannet  QertonunddiektrehenpiUitUehen  Parteien  Frankreieha  9or 
demKomil  m  Fua  (Marburgi  18Q0) ;  Buemetxbieder,  i>a«(ren«^ 
ral  Ko^uU  im  ffroMenaberuUdnditchen  Sehianui  (Paderbom,  1004); 
Bouix,  D«  Papa,  I,  497;  Chronicon  S.  Dionyni,  IV,  52.  216-38; 
Qbrson.  Opera  Omnia,  ed.  Elusa  Dupin,  II  (1706).  123  sqq.; 
HAROoqxN,  C<mcftiid.  VlII,  85;  Hbfblb.  Hittoire  dea  ConciUa, 
Lbclbbcq,  X,  255;  Mansi,  CoUectio  ConcUiorum,  XXVI,  1000- 
1240,  XXVII.  114-368;  Mabt^nb  and  Ddrand.  AmplUnma  Col^ 
lectio,  VII,  804;  Idbm,  Thesaunu,  II,  1374-1476;  Muuabblu, 
De  atuAor.  Rom.  porUifida,  II,  414 ;  Nibm.  Dt  Sehitmate,  ed.  Eblbb. 
Ill  (Leipsig,  1800),  26-40.  262  sqq. ;  Pastob.  HiHoire  det  Papet,  I, 
200-3;  Salbmbibb.  Le  grand  achieme  d' Occident  (Paris.  1000).  251- 
74.  tr.  MrrcHBtL  (London,  1007) ;  Iobm,  Petrue  ab  AUiaeo  (Lille. 
1886),  76  sqq.;  Tibaboschi,  Storia  liU.  ital.,  II,  370;  Tschackbbt, 
Peter  ton  AiU%  (Gotha,  1877),  see  especially  Appendix,  p.  20;  Va- 
LOis,  La  France  et  le  grand  Schieme  d'Occident,  IV,  75  sqq. ;  Wbu- 
bIcxbb,  DeuUche  Reichetagaakten,  VI,  496  sqq. ;  Bubm btsbzbdbb, 
lAterarieehe  Polemik  eu  Beginn  dee  groaaen  abendlandiaehen  Sdiie- 
mae;  Ungadruckte  texte  und  Unterauchungen  (Vienna  and  Leipsic, 
1009) ;  Die  ktrehenreehllichen  Sehriften  Patera  von  Luna,  tr.  Ebhlb 
in  ArchitfltrlAieratur.undKirchengeaehiehU,  VII  (lOOOJ.  387. 514; 
ScHiim.  Zur  OeeehicMe  dea  Koneila  ton  Piaa  in  Rdm.  Quartalachr. 

(^805).  L,  Salembieb. 

PiBattio,  NiccoLA.    See  Niccola  Pisano. 

Piscataway  IndianB,  a  tribe  of  Algonquian  lin- 
guistic stock  formerly  occupying  the  pemnsula  of 
lower  Maryland  between  the  Potomac  River  and 
Chesapeake  Bay  and  northward  to  the  Patapsco, 
including  the  present  District  of  Columbia,  and  not- 
able as  -being  the  first  tribe  whose  Christianization 
was  attempted  under  English  auspices.  Tlie  name 
by  which  they  were  commonly  known  to  the  Mary- 
land colonists  Pascatse  in  the  Latin  form — was 
properly  that  of  their  principal  village,  on  Piscataway 
Creek  near  its  mouth,  within  the  present  Prince 
George  county.  After  their  removal  to  the  north 
they  were, known  as  Conoy,  a  corruption  of  their 
Iroquois  name.  There  seems  to  be  no  good  ground 
for  the  assertion  of  Smith  (1608)  that  they  were  sub- 
ject to  the  Powhatan  tribes  of  Virginia.  Besides 
Piscataway,  which  was  a  palisaded  village  or  ''fort'', 
they  had  about  thirty  other  settlements,  among 
which  may  be  named  Yaocomoco,  Potopaco  (Port 
Tobacco),  Patuxent,  Mattapanient  (Mattapony), 
Mattawoman,  and  Nacochtank  (Lat.  Anacastan,  now 
Anacostia,  D.  C).  The  original  relation  of  these 
towns  to  one  another  is  not  very  clear,  but  under  the 
Maryland  Government  their  chiefs  or  ''kings''  all 
recognized  the  chief  of  Piscataway  as  their  "em- 
peror'', and  held  the  succession  sObiect  to  the  ratifica- 
tion of  the  colonial  "assembly  .  Their  original 
population  was  probably  nearly  2500. 

The  recorded  history  of  the  Piscataway  begins  in 
1608,  when  Captain  John  Smith  of  Virginia  sailed 
up  the  Potomac  and  touched  at  several  of  their 
villages,  including  Nacochtank,  where  "the  people 
did  their  best  to  content  us".  In  1822  the  same  town 
was  destroyed  by  a  band  of  plunderers  from  Vir- 
ginia, but  afterward  rebuilt.  On  25  March,  1634, 
the  Catholic  English  colony  of  Lord  Baltimore,  includ- 
ing the  Jesuit  Fathers  Andrew  White  and  John  Altham, 
and  two  lay  brothers,  landed  on  St.  Clement's 
(Blackistone  s)  Island  and  established  friendly  rela- 
tions with  the  people  of  Yaocomoco,  as  well  as  with 
the  great  chief  of  Piscataway,  as  also  the  chief  of 
Potomac  town  on  the  Vir^nia  side.  The  first  altar 
was  set  up  in  an  Indian  wigwam.  Owing  to  the  at- 
tacks of  the  powerful  Susquehanna  at  the  head  of 
the  bay  the  people  of  Yaocomoco  were  about  to 
remove,  apparently  to  combine  with  those  of  Piscat- 
away, and  the  English  settlers  bargained  with  them 
for  the  abandoned  site. 

The  Jesuits  at  once  set  to  work  to  study  the  lan- 
guage and  customs  of  the  Indians  in  order  to  reach 
them  with  Christianity.  Father  White,  superior  of 
the  mission,  whose  valuable  "Relatio"  is  almost 
our  only  monument  to  the  Maryland  tribes,  composed 
a  grammar,  dictionary,  and  catechism  in  the  Pis- 
cataway dialect,  of  which  the  last,  if  not  the  others. 


PISCINA  i: 

naBBtilliDexiHtrnnein  Rome  in  1932.  Another  catc- 
rhism  was  coraiiilitl  lulrr  by  Father  Roger  Rigbio 
at  Patuxent.  The  Indians  Roncrally  were  well- 
disposed  to  the  new  teBching,  and,  other  Jesuits  hav- 
inff  arrived,  miasiona  were  established  at  St.  Mary's 
(Yaocomoco),    Maltapony,    Kent    Island,    and,    in 


Kittamaquund,  "Bi 


;  Beaver",  V 


s  sometimes  known 


of  the  governor  and  several  of  the  colonial  officers 
who  attended  for  the  purpose.  Father  White,  with 
public  ceremony,  baptized  and  gave  Christian  names 
to  the  great  chief,  his  wife,  and  daughter,  and  to  the 
chief  councillor  and  hia  son,  afterward  uniting  the 
chief  and  hia  wife  in  Christian  marriage.  A  year 
later  the  mismonaries  were  invited  to  Naoochtank. 
and  in  1642  Father  White  baptized  the  chief  and 
several  others  of  the  Potomac  tribe. 

About  this  time  the  renewed  inroads  of  the  Sus- 
quehanna compelled  the  removal  of  the  mission  from 
FiscAtaway  to  Potopaco,  whpre  the  woman  chief  and 
over  130  others  were   Christians.     The   work   pros- 

Kred  until  1644,  when  Cl^bome  with  the  help  of  the 
iritan  refi^ees  who  hod  been  accorded  a  safe  shel- 
tiT  in  the  Catholic  colony,  seized  the  government, 
deposed  the  governor,  and  sent  the  missionaries  as 
pnaoners  to  England.  They  returned  in  I64S  and 
again  took  up  the  work,  which  was  again  interrupted 
by  the  confusion  of  the  civil  war  in  England  until 
toe  establishment  of -the  Cromnellian  government  in 
1652  outlawed  Catholicism  in  its  own  colony  and 
brought  the  Piscataway  mission  to  an  end. 
Under  the  new  Government  the  Piscataway  rap- 


sented  to-day  by  a  few  negro  mongrels  who  claim  the 

Id  habit  and  ceremony  the  Piscataway  probably 
closely  Ksembled  the  kindred  Powhatan  Indians  of 
Virginia  as  described  by  Smith  and  Strachey.  but 
except  for  Father  White's  valuable,  though  brief, 
"Relatio"  we  have  alrnost  no  record  on  the  subject. 
Their  houses,  probably  communal,  were  oval  wig- 
wams of  poles  covered  with  mats  or  bark,  and  with 
the  fire-hole  in  the  centre  and  the  smoke-hole  in  the 
roof  ^mve.  The  principal  men  had  bed  platforms, 
but  the  common  people  slept  upon  skins  upon  the 
ground.  Their  women  maae  pottery  and  baskets, 
while  the  men  made  dug-out  canoes  and  carried  the 
bows  and  arrows.  They  cultivated  com,  pumpkins, 
and  a  species  of  tobacco.  The  ordinary  dress  con- 
sisted simply  of  a  breech-cloth  for  the  men  and  a  short 
deerskin  apron  for  the  women,  while  children  went 
entirely  naJted.  They  panted  their  faces  with  bright, 
colours  in  various  patterns.  They  had  descent  ui  the 
female  line,  believed  in  good  and  "bad  spirits,  ana  paid 
special   reverence  I  ..•»...        i.fi .. 


1  and  fire.     Father  Wiit< 


kindly  and  rather  unwarlike  disposition,  and  physi- 
cally were  dark,  very  tall,  muscular,  and  well  propo> 
tioncd. 

Arckita  d/  Mnryland  (29  vols.,  BftlUmon.  1883-1600);  Boi. 
MAN.  HUlOTM  s/  Margland  (2  VDla..  BsJdmora,  1B37);  Brihto.i, 
Tlu  Unapt  and   Ihrir    Ltatadi  (Waiam  Olam)   (Pliiladflphia 

Le  Lnpct  Potomac  io  Amrr- 

-  ,     „— .  1889);    JV™  York  CalBniat 

Albrniy,  1853-87).  •.  v.  Cotuji;.-  PUealawa^. 

eta.;  Shea.  CoAMc  IruOan  Mimani  (Nfw  Yark,  ISM);  SuiTH. 
Omiral  Hilton,  oj  Virainia  (Londoa,  1620;    Ricbmonii,  ISiei, 


forbidden  the  possession  of  guns  for  their  own  de- 
fence, their  plantations  destroyed  by  the  cattle 
and  hogs  of  the  settlers  and  their  pride  broken  by 


;  restrictions,  they  sank  to  the  condition 
<^  helpless  dependents  whose  numbers  constantly 
diminished.  In  1666  they  addressed  a  pathetic 
petition  to  the  assembly;  We  can  flee  no  further. 
Let  us  know  where  to  hve,  and  how  to  be  secured  for 
the  future  from  the  hogs  and  cattle".  As  a  result 
reservations  were  sooft  afterward  established  for  each 
of  twelve  villages  then  occupied  by  them.  Encroach- 
ments still  continued,  however^  and  the  conquest  of 
the  Susquehanna  by  tne  Iroquois  in  1675  only  brought 


massacred  by  the  Iroquois,  who  sent  word  to  the 
assembly  that  they  intended  to  exterminate  the 
whole  tribe.  Peace  was  finally  arranaed  in  1685. 
In, 1692  each  principal  town  was  put  under  a  nominal 
yearly  tribute  of  a  bow  and  two  arrows,  their  chi^s 
to  be  chosen  and  to  hold  at  the  pleasure  of  the  asaem- 
bly.  At  last,  in  1697,  the  "emperor"  and  principal 
chiefs,  with  nearly  the  entire  tnbe  excepting  appar- 
ently those  on  the  Chaptico  river  reservation,  aban- 
doned their  homes  and  fled  into  the  backwoods  of 
Virginia.  At  this  time  they  seemed  to  have  num- 
bered under  four  hundred  and  this  small  remnant 
was  in  1704  atlll  further  reduced  by  a  wasting  epi- 
demic. Refusing  all  offers  to  return,  they  opened 
negotiations  with  the  Iroquois  for  a  settlement  under 
their  protection,  and,  permisaion  being  given,  they 
began  a  slow  migration  northward,  stopping  for  long 
periods  at  various  points  along  the  Susquehanna 
imtil  in  1766  we  find  them  living  with  other  remnant 
tribes  at  or  near  Chenango  (now  Binghamton,  New 
York)  and  numbering  only  about  120  souls.  Thence 
they  drifted  west  witn  the  Delawares  and  made  their 
last  appearance  in  history  at  a  council  at  Detroit  in 
1793.    Thooe  who  remained  in  Maiyland  are  repre- 


the  name  was  used 
to  denote  a  baptis- 
mal font  or  the 
ciatem  into  which 
the  water  flowed 
from  the  head  of 
the  person  bap- 
tised; or  an  ex- 
cavation, some 
two  or  three  feet 
deep  and  about 
one  foot  wide,  cov- 
ered with  a  atone 
slab,  to  receive  the 
water  from  the 
washing  of  the 
priest's  hands,  the 
water  used  (or 
washing  the  palls, 
purifiers,  and  cor- 
porals, the  bread 
crumbs,  cotton, 
etc.    used    after 

and  for  the  ashes 

of  sacred  things  no 

longer  fit  for  use. 

It  was  conatructed  „ 

near  the  altar,  at  (Xiii  Comm 

the  south  wall  of  the  sanctuary,  in  the  sacristy,  or 

some  other  suitable  place.  It  is  found  also  in  the  form 

of  a  small  column  or  niche  of  atone  or  metal. 

Rock,  Chi:rdi  of  Our  Fallini.  IV  (London.  1H04),  IM:   Bin- 
Tsmiu,  Dtnkviardiakritcn,  IV.  I.  112;    ThtU.  prakl.  Quarlaltckri/l 

(iB7B).33.  Francis  J' 


PISE 


116 


PISTOIA 


ChARLBB   CONftTANTINS   PUB 


Pi8e»  Charles  Constantine,  priest,  poet,  and  prose 
writer,  b.  at  Annapolis,  Maryland,  22  Nov.,  1801;  d. 
at  Brooklyn,  New  York,  26  May,  1866.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Georgetown  College,  and  was  for  sdme  time 
a  member  of  the  Society  of  Jesus.  He  taught  rhetoric 
at  Mount  St.  Mary's  College,  Emmitsburg,  Md., 
where  John  Hughes,  afterwards  Archbishop  of  New 
York,  was  among  his  pupils.  In  1825  he  was  or- 
dained to  the  priesthood  and  officiated  for  some  time 

at  the  cathedral  in 
Baltimore.  He  after- 
wards served  at  St. 
Patrick's  church, 
Washington,  as  as- 
sistant pastor,  and 
while  there  was 
elected  (11  Dec, 
1832)  chaplain  to  the 
United  States  Senate 
— the  only  CathoUc 
priest    hitherto    ap- 

S tinted  to  that  office, 
e  was  a  personal 
friend  of  President 
Tyler.  In  1848  he 
became  pastor  of  St. 
Peter's  Church.  New 
York:  he  had  pre- 
viously been  assistant 
pastor  in  the  same  church  under  the  vicar-general. 
Dr.  Powers.  In  1849  he  was  appointed  pastor  of 
St.  Charles  Borromeo's,  Brooklyn,  where  he  officiated 
until  his  death.  Dr.  Pise  wrote  several  works  in 
prose  and  verse,  among  them  being  "A  History 
of  the  Catholic  Church^'  (5  vols.,  1829),  "Father 
Rowland"  (1829),  "Aletheia,  or  Letters  on  the 
Truth  of  the  Catholic  Doctrines"  (1845),  "St.  Ig- 
natius and  His  First  (Companions"  (1845).  "Chris- 
tianity and  the  Church"  (1850).  His  "(Jlara".  a 
poem  of  the  fifteenth  centunr,  and  "Montezuma",  a 
drama^  were  never  published.  He  contributed  to  the 
magazme  literature  of  the  day,  was  a  distinguished 
lecturer  and  preacher,  and  a  writer  of  Latin  verse. 

Shea.  History  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  the  United  States,  IV 
(New  York.  1892).  jj^^^  ^    ^^^^ 

Pifidia,  a  coimtry  in  the  southwestern  part  of  Asia 
Minor,  between  the  high  Phrygian  tableland  and  the 
maritime  plain  of  PamphiUa.  1  his  district,  formed  by 
the  lofty  ridges  of  the  western  Taurus  range,  was  in 
pre-Christian  times  the  abode  of  stalwart,  half- 
civilized,  and  unruly  tribes,  never  entirely  subdu^. 
Ancient  writers  describe  them  as  a  restless,  plunder- 
loving  population.  St.  Paul,  no  doubt,  had  in  mind 
Pisidia,  which  he  had  traversed  twice  (Acts,  xiii, 
13-14 :  note  here  that,  according  to  the  more  probable 
text,  in  the  latter  verse  we  should  read  Pisidian 
Antioch";  xiv,  20-23),  perhaps  thr^  times  (Acts, 
xvi,  6),  when  in  II  Cor.,  xi,  26,  he  mentions  the 
"perils  of  waters"  and  "perils  of  robbers"  he  had 
confronted.  Independent  until  36  b.  c,  the  Pisidians 
were  then  conquered  by  the  Galatian  king,  Amyntas. 
and  soon  after,  together  with  their  conquerors,  forced 
to  acknowledge  Roman  suzerainty.  Joined  first  to 
one  province,  then  to  another,  it  received  a  governor 
of  its  own  in  297  a.  d.  The  principal  cities  were 
Cremna,  Adada  (the  modem  name  of  which,  Kara 
Bavlo,  preserves  the  memory  of  St.  Paul),  Serge,  Ter- 
messos,  Pednalissos,  Sagalassos.  Heaps  of  imposing 
ruins  are  all  that  is  now  left. 

CoNYBEARB  AND  HowiMJN,  The  Life  and  Epistles  of  St.  Paul 
(Iy>ndon.  1876):  Fouard,  Saint  Paul  and  His  Missions,  tr. 
Griffith  (New  York,  1894);  Rambay,  Historical  Geography  of 
Asia  Minor  (London,  1890)  ;  Idem,  The  Church  in  the  Roman 
Empire  (London,  1894);  Idem,  InscriiAions  en  langue  Pisidienne 
in  Revue  des  Universitfe  du  Midi  (189r,),  .3r>.'J-60:  Kiepert, 
Manuel  de  glographie  andennt  (French  tr.,  Paris.  1887);  Lanc- 
KORONSKI,  SfdJte  Pamphyliens  und  PiHdien)^  (Vicuna,  1892). 

Charles  L.  Souvay. 


Pifltis,  Sophia.    See  Gnosticism. 

Pifltoia,  Synod  of,  held  18  to  28  September,  1786, 
by  Scipio  de'  Ritci,  Bishop  of  Pistoia  and  Prato.  It 
marks  the  most  daring  effort  ever  made  to  secure  for 
Jansenism  and  allied  errors  a  foothold  in  Ital3r.  Peter 
Leopold,  created  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany  in  1763, 
emulated  the  example  of  his  brother,  Emperor  Joseph 
II,  in  assuming  to  control  religious  affairs  in  his 
domain.  Imbued  with  Regalism  and  Jansenism  he 
extended  a  misguided  zeal  for  reform  to  minutest 
details  of  discipline  and  worship.  In  two  instructions 
of  2  August,  1785,  and  26  January,  1786,  he  sent  to 
each  of  the  bishops  of  Tuscany  a  series  of  fiftynseven 
'* points  of  view  of  His  Royal  Highness''  on  doctrinal, 
disciplinary,  and  Uturgical  matters,  directing  that  dio- 
cesan synods  be  held  every  two  years  to  enforce  reform 
in  the  Church  and  "to  restore  to  the  bishops  their 
native  rights  abusively  usurped  by  the  Roman  Court". 
Of  the  eighteen  Tuscan  bishops  but  three  convoked 
the  synod;  and  of  these  his  only  partisan  was  Scipio 
de'  Ricci  in  whom  he  found  a  kindred  spirit.  Bom  in 
1714  of  an  eminent  family,  de'  Ricci  gave  early  prom- 
ise of  worth  and  eminence.  Made  Bishop  of  Pistoia 
and  Prato;  the  most  populous  of  the  Tuscan  dioceses, 
19  June,  1780,  he  planned  and  energetically  pursued, 
with  the  encouragement  of  Pius  VI,  the  work  of  much- 
needed  reform,  but  influenced  by  the  times,  his  zeal 
came  to  be  marked  by  reckless  audacity.  He  con- 
demned devotion  to  the  Sacred  Heart,  discouraged  the 
use  of  relics  and  images,  undervalued  indulgences,  im- 
provised liturgy,  and  founded  a  press  for  Jansenistic 
propaganda.  On  3 1  July,  1786,  de '  Ricci,  in  convoking 
the  synod,  invoked  the  authority  of  Pius  VI  who  had 
previously  recommended  a  synod  as  the  normal  means 
of  diocesan  reform.  With  characteristic  energy  and 
prevision  he  prepared  for  the  council  by  inviting  from 
without  his  aiocese,  theologians  and  canonists  noto- 
rious for  Galilean  and  Jansenistic  tendencies  and 
issued  to  his  clergy  pronouncements  which  reflected 
the  dominant  errors  of  the  times.  On  18  September, 
1786,  the  synod  was  opened  in  the  church  of  St.  Leo- 
pold in  Pistoia  and  continued  through  seven  sessions 
until  28  September.  De'  Ricci  presided,  and  at  his 
right  sat  the  royal  commissioner,  Giuseppe  Paribenii 
professor  at  the  University  of  Pisa,  ana  a  regalist. 
The  promoter  was  Pietro  Tamburini,  professor  at  the 
University  of  Pavia,  conspicuous  for  his  learning  and 
for  Jansenistic  sympathies.  At  the  opening  session 
234  members  were  present ;  but  at  the  fifth  session  246 
attended,  of  whom  180  were  pastors,  13  canons,  12 
chaplains,  28  simple  priests  of  the  secular  clergy,  and 
13  regulars.  Of  these  many,  including  even  the  pro- 
moter, were  extra-diocesans  irregularly  intruded  by 
de'  Ricci  because  of  their  S3rmpathy  with  his  designs. 
Several  Pistorian  priests  were  not  invited  while  the 
clergy  of  Prato,  where  feeling  against  the  bishop  yras 
particularly  strong,  was  all  but  ignored. 

The  points  proposed  by  the  grand  duke  and  the 
innovations  of  the  oishop  were  discussed  with  warmth 
and  no  little  acerbity.  The  Regalists  pressed  their 
audacity  to  heretical  extremes,  and  evoked  protests 
from  the  papaJ  adherents.  Though  these  objections 
led  to  some  modifications,  the  propositions  of  Leopold 
were  substantially  accepted,  the  four  Galilean  Articles 
of  the  Assembly  of  the  French  Clergy  of  1682  were 
adopted,  and  the  reform  programme  of  de'  Ricci  car- 
ried out  virtually  in  its  entirety.  The  theological 
opinions  were  strongly  Jansenistic.  Among  the  vaga- 
nes  proposed  were :  the  right  of  civil  authority  to 
create  matrimonial  impediments;  the  reduction  of  all 
religious  orders  to  one  body  with  a  common  habit  and 
no  perpetual  vows;  a  vernacular  liturgy  with  but  one 
altar  in  a  church  etc.  Two  hundred  and  thirty-three 
members  signed  the  acts  in  the  final  session  of  28 
September,  when  the  synod  adjourned  intending  to 
reconvene  in  the  following  April  and  September.    In 


PISTOIA 


117 


PISTOIA 


F^niaiy,  1787,  the  Sret  edition  (thirty-five  hundred  Rotondo,  (he  rormer  baptiatrv;  it  is  B,a  (Kitagonal 

copin)  of  the  Acts  and  Decreea  anpeared,  bearing  the  Ht.ructure,  the  work  of  Andrea  PisaDO  (1333-50),  with 

roy  alimprijnatur.    De  Ricci,  wiehing  the  Holy  See  to  derwrations  by  Cellino  di  Neae;  the  font  itself  is  & 

believe  that  the  work  was  approved  by  hia  clergy,  square  base  with  four  wells,  Hunnounted  by  a  statue  of 

summoned  his  priests  to  pastoral  retreat  in  April  with  Kt,  John  the  Baptist  by  Andrea  Vacd.    The  church 

s  view  to  obtaining  their  signatures  to  an  acceptance  of  S.  Giovanni  Fuoricivjtas  is  Hurrounded,  on  the  upper 

of  the  synod.   'Only  twenty-seven  attended,  and  of  part,  by  two  rows  of  arches;  it  is  a  work  of  the  twelfth 

these  twenty  refusM  to  sian.     Leopold  meantime  century;  within,  there  is  the  pulpit,  with  its  Bculpturea 

flummoned  all  the  Tuscan  bishopa  to  meet  at  Florence,  by  Fra  Gulielmo  d'Asnello,  and  the  holy-water  font, 

23  April,  1787,  to  pave  the  way  for  acceptance  of  the  representing  the  theological  virtuea,  by  Giovanni  Pi- 

Pistorian  decrees  at  a  provincial  council;    but  the  sano.     Thfi  name  of  PisWia  appears  for  the  first  time 

assembled  bishops  vigorously  opposed  his  project,  and  in  history  in  connexion  with  the  conspiracy  of  Cati- 

after  nineteen  stormy  sessions  he  dismissed  the  assem-  linp  (62  b,  c),  but  it  was  only  after  the  sixth  century 

bly  and  abandoned  hope  of  the  council.     De   Ricci  that  it  became  important;  it  was  governed,  first,  by 

became  discredited,  —      -'.—  i u'-  ~  -.    .  ■  .         ...  ......        .      .  ™ 

the  imperial  throne 
Us  see.    Pius  VI 


id,  after  Leopold's  accession  to    its  bishops,  later  by  stewards  of  the  Marouis  of  Tus- 
1790,  was  compelled  to  resign     cany.     It  was  the  first  to  establish  its  independence, 
'  ined  four  bishops,  assisted     after  the  death  of  Countess  Matilda,  and  its  municipal 


the 


by  theologians  of  the  secular  clergy. 
Pistorian  enactments,  and  deputeu  a  congregation  ui 
cardinals  and  bishops  to  pass  judgment  on  them. 
•  They  condemned  the  synod  and  stigmatized  eighty- 
five  of  its  propostitions  as  erroneous  and  dangerous. 
Pius  VI  on  28  August,  1794,  dealt  the  death-blow  tc 
the  influence  of  the  synod  and  of  Jansenism  in  Italy  in 
' '    "  ""  "Auctorem 


statuteaare  the  most  ancient  of  their  kind  in  Italy.  _. 
was  a  Ghibelline  town,  and  had  subjugated  several 
cities  and  castles;  but,  after  the  death  of  Frederick  11, 
the  Florentines  compelled  it  to  become  Guelph. 
About  1300,  the  Houses  of  the  Cancellieri  (Guetpns), 
and  Panciatichi  (Ghibellincs),  slniggled  with  each 
other  for  supremacy.  The  former  having  trium^ihed 
it  soon  divided  into 
Bianehi  and  Neri, 
which  made  it  easy 
for  Caatruccio  Caa- 
to   subject 


the 


1,  1862),  XXXII,  48-60. 


John  B.  Peterbo.n. 


of  PietAia  is  situated  at  the  foot  of  the  Apenn 
the  valley  of  the  Ombrone.  The  chief  industries  of 
the  town  are  the  manufacture  of  paper  and  objects 
in  straw.  The  cathedral  dates  tram  the  fifth  cen- 
tury, but  was  damaged  bv  fire  several  times  prior  to 
the  thirteenth  century,  when  Nicold  Pisano  defligned 


domination,  in 
Florence  assisted  the 
Pistoians  t«  drive 
Castru  cciofromtheir 
town,  but  that  aid 
soon  weighed  upon 
them,  and  they  re- 
volted (1343),  taking 
part  with  Pisa.  In 
1351  Pistoia  be- 
came definitively 
subject  to  Florence. 
Clement  IX  was  a 
Pistoian. 

pRATO   is  also   a 
city  in  the  Province 
of  Florence,  situated 
in  the  fertile  valley 
of  the  Biseniio, 
which     supports 
many   industries,   among   them  flour   mills,   woolen 
and   silk   manufactories,   quarritw,   iron,     and     cop- 
per works.     The  Cicognani  college  of  Prato    is  fa- 
The  cathedral,  wliich  was  erected  before  the 
tenth  century,   was  restored  in  the  thirteenth  and 
fourteenth  centuries,  according  to  plans  of  Giovanni 
Pisano:  it  ccntains  paintings  by  Fra  Filippo  Lippi  and 
"by  Gaddi,  a  pulpit  that  is  a  masterpiece  of  Donaiello, 
and  the  mausoleums  of  Carlo  de'  Medici  and  of  Vin- 
cenzo  Danti.     In  the  chapel  of  la  Cintola  there  is  pre- 
The  city    served  a  girdle  that,  according  to  the  legend,  w 


byOur  Lady  to  St.  Thomas.  Prato  is  first  mentioned 
in  history,  in  1007,  as  being  in  rebellion  against 
Florence;  after  that  it  had  several  wars  with  Florence 
and  Pistoia.  In  1350,  it  was  bought  by  the  Floren- 
tines, to  prevent  it  from  fallinE  into  the  hands  of  thp 
In  1512,  it  was  saclced  by  the  Spaniards. 


its  present  form ;  the  outer  walls  are  inlaid  with  bands  Fra  Arlotto,  author  of  the  first  Biblical  concordance, 

of  black  and  white  marble;  the  tribune  was  painted  by  was  a  native  of  Prato,  as  were  also  Fra  Bartolommco 

PaseiKnano  and  ^  Sorri;  the  paintings  by  Aleaaio  della  Porta  and  several  personages  of  the  Inghirami 

d'Anm«a  and  by  Buonaccorso  di  Cino  (1347),  which  family.     Pistoia  claims  to  have  received  the  Gospel 

were  in  the  centre  aisle,  have  disappeared.    Other  from  St.  Romulus,  the  first  Bishop  of  Fiesole.    The 

things  to  be  admired,  are  the  ancient  pulpit,  the  ceno-  first  mention  of  a  Bishop  of  Pistoia  is  in  492,  though 

tapha  of  Cino  da  Pistoia  and  Cardinal  Forteguerri,  the  name  of  this  prelate,  like  that  of  another  Bishop 

by  Verrocchio,  thealtarof  S,  Atto,  with  its  silver  work,  of  Pis(.oia,  referred  to  in  516,  is  unknown.     The  first 

the  baptismal  font  by  Femicci,  and  the  equipments  historically   known   bishop  is  Joannes    (700);  Leo 

of  the  sacristy.    Opposite  the  cathedral  is  S.Giovanni  (10C7),  important  in  the  scniam  of  Henry  IV;  Jacobus 


puTORnn  1 

(1118-41);  the  Blessed  Atto  (1135-53);  Bonus  (1189), 
author  of  "  De  cohabi  tat  ione  clericoniiD  et  mulierum  " ; 
the  Ven,  Giovanni  Vivenzi  (1370);  Matteo  Dianianti 
(1400);  Donato  de'Medici  (14,1G)  Nicold  Pandolfini 
(1475),  who  later  became  a  cardinal ;  three  PiiccL,  Car- 
dinal iiuienxo  (lol6),  Cardinal  Antonio  {1519)  and 
Roberto  (1541);  Aiessandro  de'Mcdici  (1573)  becamB 
Leo  XI.  In  1653,  Prato  WEts  made  a  diocese,  and 
unit«d,  aqae  principaliler,  with  Ratoia;  aa  early  as 
1400,  Florence  askM  for  the  creation  of  a  dioceae  at 
Prato,  on  account  of 
the  diBsenHions  of  the 
collegiate  church  of 
Prato  with  the  Bish- 
ops of  Piatoia;  and 
in  1460,  it  had  been 
made  a  prelatvra 
titJliua,  and  given,  tis 
a  rule,  to  some  car- 
dinal,  in  eommetuiam . 
Other  bishops  of 
theae  sees  were  the 
Ven.  Gerardo  Ge- 
rardi  (1679-90),  un- 
der whom  Prato 
founded  its  eemi- 
nary;  Leone  Strozza 
(1690),  Abbot  of 
Vallorabrosa,  found- 
ed the  seminary  of 
Pistoia,  enlarged  by 
Michele  C.  Visdo- 
mini(1702) ;  Scipione 
lUcci  (1780),  famous 
on  account  of  the 
Synod  of  Pistoia 
which  he  convened 
in  1786,  and  which  I^ub  VI  afterwanis  condemned. 
The  diocese  is  a  sufTr^an  of  Florence;  has  194  par- 
ishes, with  200,100  inhabitants,  5  religious  houses  ol 
men,  and  19  of  women,  and  7  educational  establieh- 
ments  for  girls. 

CArFELU!!^.  Li  Chiaa  d'Ibdia.  XVII;  Rosati.  Mfmorir.  pa 


EdIuchI  by  Qi 


U.  Bbnioni. 

Pistoriui,  JoBANN,  controversialist  and  historian, 

b.  at  Nidda  in  Hesse,  14  February,  1546;  d.  at  Frei- 
burg, 18  July,  1608.  He  is  sometimes  called  Niddanus 
from  the  name  of  his  birthplace.  His  father  was  a 
well-known  Protestant  minister,  Johano  Pistoriua  the 
Elder  (d.  1583  at  Nidda),  who  from  1541  was  super- 
intendent or  chief  minister  of  Nidda,  and  took  part  in 
several  religious  disputations  between  Catholics  and 
Protestants.  Pistonus  the  Younger  studied  theology, 
law,  and  medicine  at  Marburg  and  Wittenberg  1559- 
67.  He  received  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Medicine, 
and  in  1575  was  appointed  court  physician  to  the 
Margrave  Karl  II  of  Baden-Durlach,  who  frequently 
BOU^t  his  advice  in  political  and  theological  matters. 
In  search  of  more  consistent  beliefs,  .Piatorius  turned 
from  Lutheranism  to  Calvinism;  through  his  in- 
fluence the  Margrave  Ernst  Fricdrich  of  I)aden-Dur- 
lach  made  the  same  change.  As  time  went  on.  how- 
ever, Pislorius  became  diasatiafied  with  Calvinism 
also.  In  1584  he  became  a  privy  councillor  of  Mar- 
gr.ivc  James  III  of  Baden-Hochben;  at  Emmen- 
dingcn;  after  further  investigation  he  entered  the 
Catholic  Church  in  1588.  At  his  request  the  Mar- 
grave James  brought  about  the  religions  disputations 
of  Baden,  1589,  and  Emmendingen,  1590.  After  the 
second  disputation  the  court  preacher  Zehender  and 
the  margrave  himself  became  Catholics,  James  III, 
however,  died  on  17  August,  1.590,  and  bring  suc- 
ceeded by  his  Protestant  brother  Ernst  Fried  rich, 
Pistoriua  was  obliged  (o  leave.  He  went  to  Frcibunt. 
became  a  pricat  in  1591,  then  *icar-geni'riil  of  C'"i- 


8  PITHOV 

stance  until  1594;  after  this  he  was  an  imperial  coun- 
cillor, cathedral  provost  of  Brealau.  Apostolic  pru' 

thonotary,  and  in  1601  confessor  to  the  Emperor 
Rudolph  II,  After  his  death  his  library  came  into 
the  possession  of  the  Jesuits  of  Molsfaeim  and  later 
was  transferred  to  the  theological  seminary  at  Stras- 
bur^. 

Pistorius  Dublished  a  detailed  account  of  the  con- 
version of  Margrave  James  III:  "  Jakobs  Marggrafen 
£U  Baden  ,  .  ,  christliche,  erhebliche  und  wol- 
fundirte  Motifen" 
(Cologne,  1501).  His 
numerous  writings 
against  Protestant- 
ism, while  evinana 
clearness,  skill,  ana 
thorough  knowladge 
of  his  opponents,  es- 
pecially of  Luther, 
are  marked  by  con- 
troversial sharpnesb 
and  coarseness.  The 
most  important  are: 
' '  Analomia  Lutheri  " 
(Cologne,  1595-8); 
"Hochwichtige 
Merkieichen  des  al- 
ten  und  neuen  Glau- 
bens"  (Munster, 
1599);  "Wegweiser 
vor  alle  verflihrte 
Christen"  (MUnst«r,. 
1599).  Pistorius  was 
attacked  violently 
by  the  Protestants; 
e.  g.,  by  Huber, 
Spangenbert,  Ment- 
ser,  HorstiuB,  and  Christoph  Agncola.  Replies 
to  the  "Anatomia  Lutheri  were  written  by  the 
Protestant  theologians  of  Wittenberg  and  Hesse. 
Pistorius  also  busied  himself  with  cabalistic  studies, 
and  published  "Artis  cabbalisticte,  h,  e.  recon- 
dita;  theologis)  et  philosophia;  scriptorum  tomus 
UQUs"  (Basle,  1587).  As  court  historiographer  to  the 
Margrave  of  Baden,  he  invcatigated  the  genealogy 
of  the  princely  house  of  Zahringen;  he  ajso  issued  two 
works  on  historical  sources:  "Polonies;  iustorife  cor- 
pus, i,  e.  Polonicanim  rerum  latini  veteres  et  recen- 
tiores  scriptorcs  quotquot  eistant"  (Basle,  1582), 
and  "  Rerum  Gernkamcarum  veteres  jam  primum 
publicati  Bcriptorea  aliquot  insignes  medii  atvi  ad 
Carolum  V"  (Frankfort,  1583-1607), 

RjH,  Dit  CoiKitilai  inl  drr  Rtjarmalim    (Freiburi,    1860), 

II.  488-607;  III,  Bl  sqq.i  Qah  io  AUatm.  deul.  Biof..  XXVI, 
IW-201;  HcBTKB.  NBmtitrialBT.  lit  (Innabruck,  1907);  Janhkn, 
HUl.  0/  Uu  Gtrman  Ptspit  at  the  ttnie  of  Du  Uiidit  AflM.  X  (tr. 
CaitBTtE.  London,  leoel,  lie-4S:  Scrkidun,  Johaitn  Piiioriu 
ail  Prom  i"  Eliaii  in  HiH.  JoKrburh.  XXIX  (1908).  790-804; 
[ZellI.  Mnrtara/  Jakob  III.  ton  Baden  in  Hiil.-pal.  BJdUir, 
XXXVIII(I8£6):  von  Wiecb,  ZurOucA,  rf<j  MarAvro/m  Ja»6 

III.  mm  Badra  und  Harhhrra  la  ZliiKh.  /Or  Gacll.  dei  Otrrrkrint, 
new  wries,  VII  (1892).  656-700;   VIII  (1893),  710;  XII  (1897), 

^®^^^'  Friedbich  Laochbbt. 

Pitara],  John  Baptist.     Sec  Santa  Ft,  Anca- 


Pithou,  PiERRB,  writer,  b.  at  Troyea,  1  Nov.,  1530; 
d.  at  Nogent^«ur-Seine,  1  Nov.,  1596.  His  father,  a 
distinguished  lawyer,  had  secretly  embraced  Calvin- 
ism. Pierre  studied  the  clasaics  m  Paria  under  Tur- 
n^be,  an<l  aflj>rwards  with  his  brother.  Francois  Pithou, 
attended  lectures  in  law  at  Bourges  and  Valence  under 
Cujas,  who  often  a^d:  Fithai  fralree.  clarissima  Iv- 
mina.  In  1560  he  was  admitted  to  practise  at  the 
Paris  bar;  but  on  the  outbreak  of  the  second  war  of 
religion,  he  withdrew  to  Troyea.  Not  being  admitted 
to  the  bar  at  Troves  on  account  of  his  Calvinist  be- 
lief, he  withdrew  to  Sedan  which  was  a  Protestant 
district,  m'd,  ;ii  ilnTff|ui'at  ot  the  Due  de  Bouillon.  W 


PITIGLIAHO  1] 

codified  the  legal  ciutome  into  the  form  of  laws.  He 
then  proceeded  to  Ba^le,  where  he  published  Otto  de 
FreiBingen'8"Vie|deFrMdricBftrborous8e"and  Wam- 
frid'a"Hi8toriaMiBcellaJiea".  After  the  Edict  of  Paci- 
fication of  1 570  he  returned  to  France,  escaped  during 
the  Maasacre  of  St.  Bartholomew,  and,  in  1573,  joined 
the  Catholic  Church.  In  the  etruggles  between  the 
future  Henry  IV  and  the  League,  hu  was  an  ardent  ad- 
herent of  Henry;  he  collaborated  in  the  production  of 
the  "Satire  M£nipp^",  and  being  skilled  in  canon 
law,  made  a  study,  in  an  anonymouB  letter  publiehed 
1593,    of  the 


right 

French  bishope  to 
absolveHenrylV 
without  consult- 
ing the  pope.  In 
1594hepubhshed 
an  epoch  -  mak- 
ing work  "Lee  U- 
bcrt£s  de  l'£gUee 
gallicane".  Tor 
the  first  time  the 
raaidiiiB  of  Gal- 
hcaniiun  were 
really  codified,  in 
eighty-three  arti- 
cles. The  first 
edition  was  ded- 
icated to  Henry 
IV,  The  permis- 
sion  to  publish 
the  edition  of 
1651  under  Louis 
XIV  contains 

"We  wish  to  show 
our  favour  to  a  work  of  ao  great  importance  for  the 
rights  of  our  crown".  Pithou's  book  was  the  bBsis  of 
the  Four  Articles  of  1682,  D'Agueseeau  declared  that 
the  book  was  "the  palladium  of  France",  President 
Bdnault,  that  "the  maxims  of  Pithou  have  in  a  sense 
the  force  of  laws".  An  edict  of  1719,  and  a  decree  of 
the  Parliament  of  Dauphin^  on  21  April,  176S,  or- 
dered the  enforcement  of  certain  articles  in  Pithou's 
book,  as  if  these  eighty-three  articlee  were  legal  enact- 
ments.   They  were  reprinted  by  Dupin  in  1824, 

Henry  IV  appointed  Pithou  procurator  general  of 
the  Pariiainent  of  Paris ;  but  he  soon  resigned  the  post, 
preferring  to  return  to  his  juristic  and  literary  studies. 
He  edited  Salvian,  Quintilian,  Petronius,  PhaKiruB, 
the  Capitularies  of  Charlemagne,  and  the  "Cor- 
pus iuns  canonici".  His  brother  Frangois  (1541- 
1621),  who  became  a  Catholic  in  1678,  wrote  in  1687  a 
treatise  on  "  TheKreatnessof  the  rights,  and  of  thepre- 
eminence  of  the  kings  and  the  kingdom  of  France", 
and  was  distinguished  for  his  fanatical  hostility  to  the 
Jesuits.  Pierre  Hthou,  more  equitable,  saved  the 
Jesuits  from  some  of  the  dangers  that  threatened  them 
for  a  short  time  after  the  attempted  assassination  of 
Henry  IV  by  Chfttel, 

Qboslit,  Vit  di  Pirrrt  PiUum  (Piria.  ITaa);  DuriH,  LibtrUi 
i(e  fEgliie  aaUicant  (Piuia.  1S24),  pralan. 

GGO^QBe  GoYAU, 
PiUfliuio.     See  Sovana  and  Pitiquano,  Dio- 
cssBor. 

Pitoni,  Joseph,  muaii^xui,  u.  a-  ^»cu,  iciubis, 
Ital^,  18  March,  1657;  d.  at  Rome,  1  Feb.,  1743,  aod 
buned  in  the  church  of  San  Marco,  wherehe  had  been 
choirmaster,  in  the  Pitoni  family  vault.  His  biog- 
rairfiy,  by  his  pupil  Girolamo  Chiti,  is  in  the  library  of 
the  Corsini  palace.  At  five  years  he  began  to  study 
music  at  Rome.  Not  yet  ^xteen,  he  composed  pieces 
which  were  sung  in  the  church  of  the  Holy  Apostles, 
At  that  age  he  was  in  charge  of  the  choir  at  Monte  Ho- 
tondo;  at  seventeen  at  the  Cathedral  of  Assisi.  At 
twenty  (1677)  he  returned  to  Rome,  and  was  maestro 


9  PITEA 

di  cappdia  in  many  churches;  in  1708  he  was  Bp- 
point«d  director  of  St.  John  Lateran.  In  1719  he  be- 
came choirmaster  of  St.  Peter's,  and  remained  in  that 
office  for  twenty-four  years.  In  the  Accademia  di  S, 
CeciUa  he  was  one  of  the  four  esaminatori  dei  maestri. 
Pitoni  acquired  such  a  marvellous  f  aciht^,  that  for  his 
compositions,  which  were  of  great  musical  value,  he 
could  write  every  part  separately,  without  making  a 
score.  The  number  of  his  compositions,  says  Chiti,  is 
infinite.  Many  of  them  are  written  for  three  and  four 
choirs.  He  also  be^an  a  Mass  for  twelve  choirs;  but 
his  advanced  age  did  not  allow  him  to  finish  it.  He 
left  a  work  "Notizie  dei  maestri  di  Cappella  u  di 
Roma  che  oltramontani". 

Diaiimarii  of  Munc /ran  USO-18S0  (Londoir.  1880);  ErTNUi. 
Qt«U«t.Jiii«Bi,VlI(190a),482-M;BAim,  Afmwri.  .  ,  .  diO.P. 
da  PaUttriia.  II  (Itoms,  1828},  SS,  nots  G02.  G«r.  tr.  K*NDLU 
[Vieuu,  1S34). 

A.  Wai/teb, 

Pib«,  JEAN-BAPTtSTB-FRAKgots,  cardinal,  famous 
archsologist  and  theologian,  b.  1  August,  1812^  at 
Champforgeuil  in  the  Department  of  Sa6ne-et-Loire, 
France;  d.  9  Feb.,  18S9,  m  Rome.  He  was  educated 
at  Autun,  ordained  priest  on  11  December,  1836,  and 
occupied  the  chair  of  rhetoric  at  the  pelU  timiriaire  of 
Autun  from  1836  to  IS41.  From  bis  early  youth  he 
manifested  a>  indefatigable  diUgence  which,  combined 
with  biilh  mt  talents  and  a  remarkable  memory ,  made 
him  one  of  the  most  learned  men  of  his  time.  The 
first  fruit  of  his  scholarship  was  his  decipherment,  in 
1839,  of  the  fragments  of  a  sepulchral  monument,  dis- 
covered in  the  cemetery  of  Saint-Pierre  at  Autun  and 
known  as  the  "Inscription  of  Autun",  It  probably 
dates  back  to  the  third  century,  was  composed  by  a 
certain  Pectorius  and  placed  over  the  grave  of  his 
parents.  The  initials  of  the  first  five  versee  of  the 
eleven-line  inscription  form  the  symbolical  word  Ix^' 
(fish),  and  tha  whole  inscription  is  a  splendid  testi- 
mony of  the  early  belief  in  baptism,  the  Holy  Kucha- 
riit,  prayer  for  the  dead,  communion  of  saints,  and  life 
everlastmg.  He  published  the  inscription  in  Spidle- 
gium  Solesmense^'  (III,  554-641, 

In  1840  Pitra  applied  to  Abbot  Gufranger  of  So- 
lesmes  for  admission  into  the  Benedictine  order  but, 
to  accommodate  the  Bishop  of  Autun,  he  remiuned  an- 
other year  as  professor  at  the  petit  siminaire  of  Autun. 
He  finally  began  hisnoviliateat  Solesmes  on  1 5  January, 
1842,  and  made  hie  profession  on  10  Februaty,  1843, 
A  month  later,  he  was  appointed  prior  of  St-Glermun 
in  Paris,  During  his  sojourn  there  he  was  one  of  the 
chief  collaborators  of  Abb6  Migne  in  the  latteHs  colos- 
sal "  Cursus  patrologis  " .  Pitra  drew  up  the  list  of  the 
authoiB  whose  writings  were  to  find  a  place  in  the 
work,  and  collaborated  in  the  edition  of  the  Greek 
writers  up  to  Photius,  and  of  the  Latin  up  to  Innocent 
III.  At  the  same  time  he  contributed  extensively  to 
the  newly  founded  periodical  "Auxiliaire  catholique". 
In  1845  he  had  to  break  his  connexion  with  the  great 
work  of  Migne,  owing  to  the  financial  difficulties  of  the 


through  Champagne,  Burgundy,  Lorraine,  Alsace, 
Switxerland,  Belgium,  Holland,  and  England  in  the 
interests  of  his  priory.  At  the  same  time  he  visited 
numerous  libraries  in  these  countries  in  search  of  un- 
published manuscripts  bearing  on  the  history  of  the 
at  Rieti,  Perugia,  early  Christian  Church.  The  fruits  of  his  researches 
,  -r.  I     ■-.«  he  gave  to  the  world  in  lus  famous  "Spicilegium  So- 

lesmense"  (see  below). 

His  many  ^reat  archsoloeical  discoveries  and  hia 
unusual  acquaintance  with  whatever  bore  any  rdatjon 
to  the  Byzantine  Church,  induced  Pius  IX  i«  send  him 
on  a  scientific  misuon  to  the  libraries  of  Russia  in 
1868.  Before  setting  out  on  his  journey  he  studied  the 
manuscripts  relative  to  Greek  canon  law,  in  the  Ubra- 
ries  of  Rome  and  other  Italian  cities.  In  Russia,  where 
he  spent  over  seven  months  (July,  ISSS-March,  1860), 


PITTS 


120 


PITTS 


he  had  free  access  to  all  the  libraries  of  St.  Petersburg 
and  Moscow.  On  his  return  he  made  an  official  visit 
of  the  twenty  Basilian  monasteries  of  Galicia  at  the 
instance  of  the  papal  nuncio  at  Vienna.  After  arrang- 
ing his  writings  at  the  monasteries  of  Solesmes  and 
Ligug^y  he  was  called  to  Rome  in  Au^st,  1861,  to  con- 
sult with  the  pope  on  the  advisabihty  of  erecting  at 
the  Propaganda  a  special  department  for  Oriental 
affaiTs  and  to  make  a  personal  report  on  his  findings 
in  the  libraries  of  Russia.  Pitra  was  also  chosen  to 
supervise  the  new  edition  of  the  liturgical  books  of  the 
Greek  Rite,  whicli  was  being  prepared  by  the  Propa- 
ganda. He  was  created  cardinal  on  16  March,  1863, 
with  the  titular  church  of  St.  Thomas  in  Parione.  As 
his  residence  he  chose  the  palace  of  San  Callisto  where 
he  continued  to  live  the  simple  life  of  a  monk  as  far  as 
his  new  duties  permitted.     * 

On  23  Jan.,  1869,  he  was  appointed  librarian  of  the 
Vatican.  He  drew  up  new  and  more  liberal  regula- 
tions for  the  use  of  the  library  and  facilitated  in 
every  way  access  of  scholars  to  the  Vatican  manu- 
scripts. Above  all,  however,  he  himself  made  diligent 
researches  among  the  manuscripts  and  published 
many  rare  and  valuable  specimens  in  lus  "Ana- 
lecta"  (see  below).  At  the  Vatican  Council  in  1870, 
he  ably  maintained  against  theinopportunists  that  the 
Catholics  of  the  Greek  and  Oriental  Churches  upheld 
the  papal  infallibility.  After  the  accession  of  Leo 
XIII  (20  Feb..  1878)  he  supervised  the  edition  of  a 
catalogue  of  tne  Vatican  manuscripts,  of  which  the 
first  volume,  "Codices  Palatini  Grseci'*,  appeared  in 
1885  and  was  prefaced  by  Cardinal  Pitra  with  a  lauda- 
tory epistle  addressed  to  Leo  XIII.  On  21  May,  1879, 
he  was  appointed  Cardinal-Bishop  of  Frascati  and  for 
five  years  laboured  incessantly  for  the  welfare  of  his 
diocese,  which  had  been  greatly  neglected.  On  24 
March,  1884,  he  was  transferred  to  the  episcopal  Soe 
of  Porto  and  Santa  Rufina  to  which  was  annexed  the 
dignity  of  subdean  of  the  Sacred  College.  On  19  Mav, 
1885,  Abb6  Brouwers  published  in  the  "  Amstelbode  , 
a  Catholic  journal  of  Belgium,  a  letter  of  Pitra,  which 
the  hostile  press  construed  into  an  attack  upon  the 
policy  of  Leo  XIII;  but  Pitra  soon  satisfied  the  Holy 
See  of  his  filial  devotion. 

Cardinal  Pitra  was  one  of  the  most  learned  and 
pious  members  of  the  Sacred  College.  Besides  being 
Librarian  of  the  Holy  Roman  Church  and  member  of 
various  Roman  congregations  and  cardinalitial  com- 
missions, he  was  cardinal  protector  of  the  Cistercians, 
the  Benedictine  congregation  of  France,  the  Benedic- 
tine nuns  of  St.  Cecilia  at  Solesmes  and  of  Stanbrook 
in  England,  the  Eudist^,  the  Brothers  of  Christian 
schools,  the  Sisters  of  Mercy  of  St.  Charles  in  Nancy, 
and  the  Sisters  of  the  Atonement  in  Paris.  The  follow- 
ing are  his  literary  productions : —  ( 1 ) "  Histoire  de  Saint 
L^ger,  6v6que  d'Autun  et  martyr,  et  de  I'^glise  des 
Francs  au  Vlle  sidcle"  (Paris,  1846),  one  of  the  most 
complete  monographs  on  the  Church  of  the  Franks 
during  the  seventh  century ;  (2)  *'  La  Hollande  catho- 
lique  (Paris,  1850),  consisting  mostly  of  letters  con- 
cerning Holland  and  its  people,  which  he  wrote  while 
travellmg  in  that  country  in  1849 ;  (3)  "  Etudes  sur  la 
collection  dea  Actes  des  Saints  par  les  RR.  PP.  J6suites 
Bollandistes''  (Paris,  1850),  a  complete  history  of  the 
"Acta  Sanctorum"  of  the  BoUandists,  preceded  by  a 
treatise  on  the  hagiological  collections  up  to  the  time 
of  Rosweyde  (d.  1629) ;  (4)  "Spicilegium  Solesmense" 
(4  vols.,  Paris,  1852-1858),  a  collection  of  hitherto 
unpublished  works  of  Greek  and  Latin  Fathers  of  the 
Church  and  other  early  ecclesiastical  writers;  (5) 
"Vie  du  P.  Libermann"  (Paris,  1855;  2nd  ed.,  1872; 
3rd  ed.,  1882),  a  very  reliable  life  of  the  Venerable 
Paul  Libermann,  founder  of  the  Congregation  of  the 
Sacred  Heart  of  Mary.  Libermann  had  been  a  per- 
sonal acquaintance  of  Pitra;  (6)  "Juris  ecclesiastici 
Graecorum  historia  et  monumenta"  (2  vols.,  Rome, 
1864-8),  containing  the  canonical  writings  of  the 


Greeks  from  the  so-called  "Apostolic  Constitutions'* 
to  the  "Nomocanon'',  generally  ascribed  to  Photius. 
With  its  learned  introduction  and  its  many  notes  and 
comments,  the  work  forms  a  complete  history  of 
Byzantine  law;  (7)  "Hymnographie  de  I'^glise 
grecque"  (Rome,  1867),  a  dissertation  on  Greek 
hymno^aphy,  accompanied  by  numerous  Greek 
hymns  m  honour  of  Sts.  Peter  and  Paul ;  (8)  "  Analecta 
sacra  Spicilegio  Solesmensi  parata''  (8  vols.),  a  supple- 
ment to  "  Spicilegium  Solesmense  ".  The  first  volume 
(Paris,  1876)  contains  Greek  hymns;  the  second 
(Frascati,  1883),  the  third  (Venice,  1883),  and  the 
fourth  (Paris,  1883)  contain  writings  of  ante-Nicene 
Fathers;  the  fifth  (Paris,  1888)  is  composed  of  writ- 
ings of  the  Fathers  and  of  a  few  pagan  philosophers; 
the  seventh  (Paris,  1891)  contains  writings  bearing  on 
the  canon  law  of  the  Greeks  and  was  published  posthu- 
mously by  Battandier,l¥ho  had  been  Fitra's  secretai^; 
the  eighth  (Monte  Cassino^  1881)  contains  the  writ- 
ings of  St.  Hildegard;  the  sixth,  which  was  to  contain 
Greek  melodies,  has  not  been  published;  (9)  "Ana- 
lecta novissima  (2  vols.,  Frascati,  1885-8),  a  second 
supplement  to  "Spicilegium  Solesmense".  The  first 
volume  contain^  a  French  treatise  on  papal  letters, 
buUaria,  catalo^es  of  popes  etc.,  and  a  hitherto  un- 
published treatise  on  Pope  Vigilius  by  Dom  Constant. 
The  second  volume  is  devoted  to  writings  of  Odon 
d'Ourscamp,  Odon  de  Ch&teauroux,  Jacques  de  Vitry, 
and  Bertrand  de  la  Tour,  four  medieval  French  bishops 
of  Frascati;  (10)  "Sancti  Romani  cantica  sacra" 
(Rome,  1888),  a  collection  of  hvmns  written  by 
Romanes,  the  greatest  Byzantine  hymnodist.  Pitra 
presented  this  work  to  Leo  XIII  on  the  occasion  of  his 
sacerdotal  jubilee.  In  addition  to  these  works  Pi- 
tra contributed  numerous  archseological,  theological, 
historical,  and  other  articles  to  various  scientific  pe- 
riodicals of  France. 

Cabrol,  Histoire  du  Cardinal  Pitra,  bhiidictin  de  la  ConffriffO' 
tion  de  France  (Paris,  1893),  tr.  into  German  by  BChler  in 
Studien  und  Mitteilungen  aua  dem  Benediktiner'  und  Cistercieneer' 
Orden,  XXVIII-XXX  (BrOnn,  1907-9);  Battandier,  Le  car- 
dinal Jean-Baptiete  Pitra^  Mque  de  Porto,  bibliothicaire  de  la 
Sainte  Eglise  romaine  (Paris,  1896) ;  Cabrol,  Le  Cardinal  Pitra. 
Sea  travaux  et  »es  dicouvertes  in  Science  eatholique  (1889),  tr.  in 
The  Lamp  (1899) ;  Bibliographic  dee  Binididinea  de  la  Ctfngriffation 
de  France  (Paris.  1906),  120-31. 

Michael  Ott. 

Pitts,  John,  b.  at  Alton,  Hampshire,  1560;  d.  at 
Liverdim,  Lorraine,  17  Oct.,  1616.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Winchester  and  New  College,  Oxford, 
where  he  remained,  20  March,  1578-1580.  He  was 
admitt^  to  the  English  College,  Rome,  18  Oct.,  1581, 
ordained  priest  2  March,  1588,  became  professor  of 
rhetoric  and  Greek  at  the  English  College,  Reims, 
proceeded  M.A.  and  B.D.  at  Pont-d,-Musson,  Lic.D. 
at  Treves  (1592),  and  D.D.  at  Ingolstadt  (1595). 
After  holding  a  canonry  at  Verdun  for  two  years  he 
was  appointed  confessor  and  almoner  to  the  "uuchess 
of  Cleves,  and  held  this  position  for  twelve  years. 
After  her  death  his  former  pupil,  the  Bishop  of  Toul, 
appointcKi  him  dean  of  Liverdun.  His  chief  work  is  the 
"  Kelationum  Historicarum  de  rebus  Anglise  ",  of  which 
only  one  part,  "De  Illustribus  Anglise  Scriptoribus", 
was  published  (Paris,  1619).  The  other  sections.  "  De 
Re^DUs  Anglise",  "De  Episcopis  Anglise",  and  "De 
Vins  Apostolicis  Angli»".  remained  in  MS.  at  Liver- 
dim.  The  "De  Scriptoribus"  is  chiefly  valuable  for 
the  notices  of  contemporary  writers.  On  other  points 
it  must  be  used  with  caution,  being  largely  compiled 
from  the  uncritical  work  of  Bale.  Pitts  also  publiBhed 
"Tractatus  de  legibus"  (Trier,  1592);  "Tractatus 
de  beatitudine"  (Ingolstadt,  1595);  and"LibriBep- 
tem  de  peregrinatione"  (Dusseldorf,  1604). 

KiRBY.  Annala  of  Winchester  College  (London.  1892) ;  FoaTBR. 
Alumni  Oxonienaes  (Oxford,  1891);  Wood.  Athena  Oxonienses 
(Ixjndon.  1813-20);  Dodo,  Church  History,  II  (BnisBels,  1739); 
Knox,  Douay  Diaries  (London,  1878) ;  Foley,  Records  Eng.  Prov. 
S.  J.,  Ill,  VI;   Giux>w,  Bibl.  Diet.  Eng.  Calh.,  s.  v. 

Edwin  Burton. 


PITTSBURG 


121 


PITTSBURG 


Pittlburg,  Diocese  op  (PnTSBURGExsis),  suf- 
fragan of  Pfculadelphia,  in  the  Unitefd  States  of  Amer- 
ica. It  comprises  the  counties  of  Allegheny,  Armstrong, 
Beaver,  Butler,  Fayette,  Qfeene,  Indiana,  Lawrence, 
Washington,  and  Westmoreland  in  the  State  of  Penn- 
sylvania, an  area  of  7238  square  miles,  the  total  popu- 
lation of  which  is  1,944,942  (U.  8.  Census,  1910). 
Aboot  24.42  per  cent  of  these  are  Catholics. 

It  is  probable  that  the  first  religious  services  held  by 
white  men  within  the  limits  of  what  is  now  the  Dio- 
cese of  Pittsburg  vrere  conducted  by  a  Jesuit,  Father 
Bonnecamp,  who  accompanied  Celeron  in  his  explora- 
tion along  the  Allegheny  and  Ohio  Rivers  in  1749. 
The  strategic  character  of  the  ground  where  the  Mo- 
nongahela  and  Allegheny  Rivers  meet  to  form  the 
Ohio  pointed  this  place  out  to  George  Washington  as 
a  spot  of  future  importance.  He  first  saw  ''the 
Forts",  as  the  place  was  called  by  the  Indians,  on 
24  November,  1753,  when  engaged  in  bearing  a  letter 
from  Robert  Dinwiddie,  Lieutenant-Governor  of  Vir- 
ginia, to  the  commander  of  the  French  forces,  asserting 
the  British  claims  to  the  territory  of  Western  Pennsyl- 
vania. Both  England  and  France  regarded  the  Forks 
as  a  valuable  military  position,  openm^  a  way  for  ex- 
ploration to  the  west  and  south,  and  each  was  deter- 
mined to  occupy  it.  At  that  time  the  adjacent  country 
was  occupied  by  various  Indian  tribes — the  Shawnees, 
Delawares,  Senecas — dwelling  along  the  Allegheny, 
Monongahela,  and  Ohio  Rivers.  The  first  place  of 
public  worship  within  this  territory  was  a  chapel 
crectwl  by  the  French  in  the  stockade  of  Fort  Du- 
Guesne,  after  Captain  Contrecceur  and  his  forces  had 
ariven  Ensigns  Ward  and  Frazier  from  the  Fort  they 
were  constructing  at  the  fork  of  the  Ohio.  This  chapel 
was  built  at  some  time  later  than  16  April,  1754,  and 
dedicated  under  the  title  of  "The  Assumption  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin  of  the  Beautiful  River  " .  In  those  days 
and  for  long  afterwards,  the  Ohio — on  account  of  its 
clear  water  and  rugged  scenery — was  known  as  the 
"beautiful  river*'. 

There  is  preserved  in  the  archives  of  the  city  of 
Montreal  a  register  of  baptisms  and  deaths  kept  by 
the  army  chaplain  at  Fort  Duquesne,  from  which  we 
learn  that  the  first  interment  in  the  cemetery  of  the 
fort  was  that  of  Toussaint  Boyer,  who  died  20  June, 
1754.  The  first  white  child  Dom  on  the  site  of  the 
city  of  Pittsburg  was  John  Daniel  Norment.    His 

fodfather  was  the  chief  officer  of  Fort  Duquesne. 
ohn  Daniel  Sieur  Dumas.  These  entries  are  signed 
by  "Friar  Denys  Baron,  Recollect  Priest,  Chaplain". 
If  writt€a  evidence  alone  were  to  be  considered. 
Father  Baron,  and  not  Father  Bonnecamp  (mentionea 
above),  must  be  regarded  as  the  first  priest  to  offer 
the  Holy  Sacrifice,  and  the  first  white  man  to  perform 
any  public  act  of  religious  worship  in  the  territory  of 
the  diocese.  The  register  of  baptisms  and  interments 
which  took  place  at  Fort  Duquesne  begins  11  July, 
1753,  and  ends  10  October,  1756.  The  records  before 
June,  1754,  are  from  posts  occupied  by  the  French  in 
the  north-western  part  of  Pennsylvania,  now  in  the 
Diocese  of  Erie,  before  they  took  possession  of  the 
spot  on  which  Fort  Duquesne  stood.  In  the  register 
we  find  entries  made  by  Friar  Gabriel  Amheuser  and 
Friar  Luke  Collet,  but  they  were  chaplains  from  other 
French  forts.  Friar  Denys  Baron  alone  signs  himself 
"  Chaplain  "  of  Fort  Duquesne.  These  records  testify 
to  the  baptism  and  burial  of  a  number  of  Indians, 
showing  that  the  French  chaplains  did  not  neglect 
their  missionary  duties. 

The  French  evacuated  the  fort,  the  British  army 
under  General  Forbes  took  possession  in  1758,  and 
the  place  was  named  Pittsburg,  or  Fort  Pitt,  after 
Wilham  Pitt,  Prime  Minister  of  England.  For  thirty 
or  forty  years  the  Catholic  religion  was  almost,  if  not 
entirely,  without  adherents  in  Western  Pennsylvania. 
Gradually,  as  the  western  part  of  the  state  was  settled, 
the  Catholics  gained  a  foothold,  but  met  with  much 


opposition  in  this  strongly  Calvinistic  section.  In 
1784  their  numbers  had  increased  sufficiently  about 
Pittsburg  to  warrant  them  in  sending  Felix  Hughes 
to  the  Very  ReV.  John  Carroll,  at  Baltimore,  who  was 
then  superior  of  the  clergy  in  the  United  States,  asking 
that  a  priest  be  sent  to  minister  to  them  at  least  once 
or  twice  a  year.  By  this  time  there  were  seventy-five 
or  eighty  families  along  the  Chartiers  Creek,  up  the 
Monongahela  Valley,  and  about  Pittsburg.  Riests 
were  few  in  the  country  then,  and  the  request  could 
not  be  complied  with.  Under  such  conditions  some  of 
the  Catholics  in  Western  Pennsylvania  became  indif- 
ferent, abandoned  their  religion  altogether,  or  neg- 
lected their  religious  duties,  even  when  the  priests 
came.  It  is  probable  that  the  first  priest  to  pass 
through  Western  Pennsylvania  and  minister  to  the 
Catholics  there  was  a  Carmelite,  Father  Paul,  who 
came  in  1785.  Another  was  the  Rev.  Charles  Whalen, 
a  Capuchin,  who  remained  a  short  time  in  1787.  In 
1792  the  Rev.  Benedict  Joseph  Flaget,  afterwards 
Bishop  of  Bardstown,  remained  here  for  some  weeks. 
In  1793  the  Revs.  Baden  and  Barrieres  came  to  Pitts- 
burg and  remained  from  September  imtil  November. 
The  Rev.  Michael  Founyer  was  here  fourteen  weeks 
in  the  winter  of  1796-7. 

The  site  on  which  St.  Vincent's  Archabbey  now 
stands,  in  Unity  township,  Westmoreland  county, 
was  the  first  place  where  a  permanent  Catholic  settle- 
ment was  made  in  Western  Pennsylvania.  This  was 
about  1787.  The  Rev.  Theodore  Browers  purchased 
the  tract  of  land  then  known  as  "Sportsman's  Hall" 
in  1790,  and  became  the  first  priest  of  the  little  colony. 
When  the  Rev.  Peter  Heilbro^came  to  take  charge 
of  the  parish,  in  November,  1799,  he  found  seventy- 
five  communicants.  In  March,  1789,  ground  was  pur- 
chased at  Greensburg,  where  the  Rev.  John  B.  Causse 
said  Mass  for  the  first  time  in  June,  1789.  A  log 
chapel  was  begun  in  1790,  but  was  never  completed. 
The  Rev.  Patrick  Lonergan  went  with  a  colony  of 
Catholics  from  Sportsman's  Hall  in  1798  and,  after  a 
short  stay  at  West  Alexander,  began  a  church  at 
Waynesburg,  Greene  County,  in  1799,  or  1800, 
"which",  says  Archbishop  Kenrick  of  Baltimore, 
writing  in  1862,  "was  completed  by  me  thirty  years 
later".  In  the  summer  of  1799,  the  Rev.  Deme- 
trius A.  Gallitzin  came  to  reside  with  a  colony  of 
Catholics  at  Maguire's  Settlement,  now  known  as 
Loretto,  in  Cambria  County,  in  the  present  Diocese 
of  Altoona,  and  his  mission-field  included  much  of 
what  is  now  the  Diocese  of  Pittsburg.  These,  with 
the  churches  at  Sugar  Creek,  Armstrong  County, 
where  the  Rev.  Lawrence  S.  Phelan  took  up  his  resi- 
dence in  1805,  and  at  Pittsburg,  where  the  Rev. 
William  F.  X.  O'Brien  settled  in  1808,  were  the  first 
centres  of  the  Faith  in  Western  Pennsylvania.  The 
Franciscans,  who  had  reared  the  first  altar  at  Fort 
Duquesne,  furnished  the  first  missionaries  to  attempt 
permanent  centres  of  Catholic  life,  and  establish 
places  of  worship  in  Western  Pennsylvania.  The 
Revs.  Theodore  Browers,  John  B.  Causse,  Patrick 
Lonergan,  Peter  Heilbron,  Charles  B.  Maguire,  all 
belonged  to  one  or  another  branch  of  the  Order  of  St. 
Francis. 

The  Rev.  William  F.  X.  O'Brien,  the  first  resident 
pastor  of  Pittsburg,  was  ordained  at  Baltimore  11 
June,  1808,  came  to  Pittsburg  in  November  of  the 
Battle  year,  and  took  up  the  erection  of  the  church 
which  is  known  in  history  as  "Old  St.  Patrick's".  It 
stood  at  the  comer  of  Liberty  and  Epiphany  streets, 
at  the  head  of  Eleventh  Street,  in  front  of  the  present 
Union  Station.  The  Right  Rev.  Michael  Egan  dedi- 
cated this  church  in  August,  1811,  and  its  dedication 
a.nd  the  administration  of  the  Sacrament  of  Confirma- 
tion mark  the  first  visit  of  a  bishop  to  this  part  of  the 
state.  After  twelve  years  of  labour  and  exposure  on 
the  missions  of  his  extensive  territory,  in  which  there 
were    perhaps   not    more   than   1800  souls,  Father 


PITTSBURG 


122 


PITTSBURG 


O'Brien's  health  deoHned,  and  in  March,  1820,  he 
retired  to  Maryland,  where  he  died  1  November,  1832. 
He  was  succeeded  in  May,  1820,  by  the  Rev.  Charles 
B.  Maguire,  who  had  been  pastor  of  the  church  at 
Sportsman's  Hall  since  1817.  ''Priest  Maguire",  as 
he  was  called  by  the  Protestant  people  of  Pittsburg, 
was  a  man  of  great  ability  and  extensive  learning,  and 
in  his  day  one  of  the  best  known  and  most  r^ected 
and  influential  citizens  of  the  community.  Hegave 
to  the  parish  of  St.  Patrick,  and  to  the  Church  in  West- 
em  Pennsylvania  something  of  his  own  strong  pcirson- 
ality  and  splendid  qualities  of  order,  progress,  indus- 
try, love,  and  fidelity  to  Jesus  Christ — ^influences  that 
are  still  felt.  He  began  in  1827  the  erection  of  St.  Paul's 
church,  which,  when  finished  and  dedicated  4  May, 
1834,  was  the  largest  and  most  imposing  chiu'ch  edifice 
in  the  United  States.  The  Poor  Clare  Nuns  opened  a 
convent  and  academy  in  1828  on  Nunnery  Hill  in 
what  was  then  Allegheny  (now  the  North  Side  of  Pitts- 
burg). The  community  left  Nunnery  Hill  in  1835 
and^  after  remaining  in  another  part  of  Allegheny 
ui\til  1837,  the  sistera  either  returned  to  Europe^  or 
entered  other  religious  communities  in  the  Umted 
States. 

Father  Maguire  died  of  diolera  17  July,  1833,  and 
was  succeeded  as  pastor  by  his  assistant,  the  Kev. 
John  O'Reilly,  who  completed  St.  Paul's  church,  in- 
troduced the  Sisters  of  Charity  from  Emmitsburg, 
Maryland,  in  1835,  and  established  in  the  same  year 
a  Catholic  school,  and  in  1838  an  orphan  asylum 
which  the  Sisters  of  Charity  conducted  until  they  were 
withdrawn  from  the  diocese  b>r  their  superiors  in  1845. 
In  April,  1837,  Father  O'Reilly  was  transferred  to 
Philadelphia,  and  th6  Rev.  Thomas  Heyden,  of  Bed- 
ford, took  his  place.  In  November  of  the  same  year. 
Father  He3rden  returned  to  Bedford,  and  the  Rev. 
P.  R.  Kenrick,  the  late  Archbishop  of  St.  Louis,  be- 
came pastor  of  St.  Paul's,  Pittsburg.  In  the  sum- 
mer of  1838,  Father  O'Reilly  exchanged  places  with 
Father  Kenrick,  and  retumwi  to  Pittsburg.  He  re- 
mained at  St.  Paul's  until  succeeded  by  the  Rev. 
Michael  O'Connor,  17  Jirne,  1841.  He  then  went  to 
Rome,  entered  the  Congregation  of  the  Mission,  and 
died  at  St.  Jjouis,  Missouri,  4  March,  1862.  The  first 
religious  community  of  men  was  established  in  Pitts- 
burg, 8  April,  1839,  which  date  marks  the  advent  of 
the  Fathers  of  the  Congregation  of  Our  Most  Holy 
Redeemer,  in  the  person  of  the  Rev.  Father  Prost. 
who  came  to  take  charge  of  St.  Patrick's  parish,  and 
establish  St.  Philomena's. 

Bishop  Flaget  appears  to  have  been  the  first  to 
regard  Pittsburg  as  the  future  see  of  a  bishop,  having 
entertained  this  idea  in  1825.  As  early  as  1835  Bishop 
Kenrick  proposed  to  the  cardinal  prefect  of  Propa- 
ganda a  division  of  the  Diocese  of  Philadelphia  by  the 
erection  at  Pittsburg  of  an  episcopal  see,  and  he 
recommended  the  appointment  of  the  Rev.  John 
Hughes  as  Bishop  either  of  Philadelphia*  or  of  Pitts- 
burg. The  suggestion  of  Bishop  Kenrick  was  offi- 
cially approvedin  Rome,  and  in  January,  1836,  the 
Rev.  Jonn  Hughes  was  named  Bishop  of  Philadelphia, 
and  Bishop  Aenrick  was  transferred  to  Pittsburg. 
Some  obstacle  intervened,  and  the  appointments  were 
recalled .  The  matter  was  again  discussed  in  the  Third 
Provincial  Council  of  Baltimore,  16  April,  1837,  but 
no  definite  action  was  taken.  In  the  Fifth  Provincial 
Council,  which  assembled  at  Baltimore,  14  May,  1843, 
the  division  of  the  State  of  Pennsylvania  into  two 
dioceses  was  recommended  to  the  Holy  See,  and  the 
Rev.  Dr.  Michael  O'Connor  was  named  as  the  most 
suitable  person  to  govern  the  new  see.  Both  actions 
of  the  council  were  confirmed  at  Rome.  The  new 
Diocese  of  Pittsburg,  according  to  the  Bull  of  erec- 
tion^ issued  11  August,  1843,  was  "Western  Pennsyl- 
vania". This  designation  being  rather  vague.  Bishop 
Kenrick,  of  Philadelphia,  and  Bishop  O'Connor 
a^^ed  to  consider  the  Diocese  of  Pittsburgh  as  com- 


prising the  Counties  of  Bedford,  Huntingdon,  Clear- 
field, McKean,  and  Potter^and  aJl  west  ofthem  in  the 
State  of  Pennsylvania.  This  agreement  was  after- 
wards oonfirmea  by  a  rescript  of  the  Holy  See.  The 
new  diocese  contained  an^area  of  21,300  so.  miles,  or 
a  httle  less  than  one-half  of  the  state,  ana  not  more 
than  one-third  either  of  the  entire,  or  of  the  Catholic 
population.  Dr.  Michael  O'Connor  was  in  Rome  at 
the  time  of  the  division  of  the  Diocese  of  Philadelphia, 
and  his  appointment  to  the  new  see  was  announced 
to  him  by  Gregory  XVIj  while  the  future  bishop  Imelt 
at  his  feet  to  ask  permission  to  enter  the  Society  of 
Jesus.  ''  You  shall  oe  a  bishop  first,  and  a  Jesuit  after- 
wards", said  the  venerable  pontiff.  These  prophetic 
words  were  literally  fulfilled.  The  Bull  of  his  appoint- 
ment was  dated  11  August,  1843,  and  he  was  conse- 
crated four  davs  later  by  Cardinal  Franzoni  in  the 
church  of  S.  Agata,  at  Rome,  on  the  feast  of  the 
Assumption  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  the  titidar  feast 
of  the  nrst  chapel  at  Fort  Duquesne. 

Michael  O'Connor  was  bom  near  the  city  of  Cork, 
Ireland.  27  September,  1810.  His  early  education  was 
received  at  Queenstown,  in  his  native  coimty.  At  the 
age  of  fourteen  he  went  to  France,  where  he  studio 
for  several  vears.  Then  he  was  sent  by  the  Bishop  of 
Cloyne  and  Ross  to  the  College  of  the  Propaganda, 
at  Rome  where  he  won  the  title  of  Doctor  of 
Divinity.  Cardinal  Wiseman,  then  Rector  of  the 
English  College  at  Rome,  in  his  '*  Recollections  of  the 
Last  Four  Popes  ",  speaks  in  terms  of  high  commenda- 
tion of  the  ability  of  the  youthful  O'Connor,  and  of 
the  manner  in  which  he  won  his  doctor's  cap  and  ring. 
On  1  June,  1833,  he  was  ordained,  and  immediately 
afterwards  was  appointed  professor  of  Sacred  Scrip- 
ture at  the  Propaganda.  The  post  of  vice-rector  of 
the  Irish  College  was  next  assigned  to  him.  and,  re- 
turning to  his  native  land,  he  was  stationed  tor  a  time 
in  the  parish  of  Fermoy.  At  the  invitation  of  Bishop 
Kenrick  he  came  to  the  United  States  in  1839,  and 
was  at  once  appointed  to  a  professorship  in  St.  Charles 
Borromeo's  Seminary,  Philadelphia,  afterwards  be- 
coming its  president.  During  his  connexion  with  the 
seminary,  he  attended  the  mission  at  Morristown,  and 
built  the  church  of  St.  Francis  Xavier  at  Fairmount. 
In  June,  1841,  he  was  appointed  vicar-general  of  the 
western  part  of  the  State  of  Pennsylvania,  and  came 
to  Pittsburg  to  succeed  the  Rev.  John  O'Reilly,  as 
pastor  of  St.  Paul's.  The  event  is  chronicled  in  his 
notebook  as  follows:  ''June  17, 1841^  arrived  at  Pitts- 
burg on  this  day  (Thursday):  lodging  at  Mrs.  Tim- 
mons,  at  $4.00  per  week".  One  month  after  his  ar- 
rival, Father  O  Connor  undertook  the  erection  of  a 
parochial  school,  organized  a  literary  society  for  the 
young  men  of  the  city,  and  opened  a  reading-room. 
He  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Pittsburg  15  August, 
1843,  at  Rome.  Soon  after  his  consecration  he  left 
Rome  and  passed  through  Ireland  on  his  wa>r  to 
America,  with  a  view  of  providing  priests  and  religious 
for  his  oiocese.  He  called  at  Nla3rnooth  in  October, 
1843,  and  made  an  appeal  to  the  students,  asking  some 
of  them  to  volunteer  their  services  for  the  new  Dio- 
cese of  Pittsburg.  Five  students  whose  course  of 
studies  was  almost  completed  and  three  others  also 
far  advanced  resolved  to  accompany  the  bishop. 
Coming  to  Dublin,  he  obtained  a  colony  of  seven 
Sisters  of  the  recently-founded  Order  of  Our  Lady  of 
Merc^  to  take  charge  of  the  parochial  schools  and  of 
the  hi^er  education  of  young  ladies.  These  were  ths 
first  Sisters  of  the  Order  of  Mercy,  founded  by  Mother 
Catherine  McCauley,  to  establish  a  convent  in  the 
United  States.  He  sailed  for  America  12  November, 
and  arrived  at  Pittsburg  in  December,  1843.  At  that 
time  the  bishop  had  in  his  vast  diocese  33  churches,  a 
few  of  which  were  unfinished,  16  priests,  and  a  Cath- 
olic population  of  less  than  25,000  souls. 

The  following  were  the  churches  and  priests  of 
Western  Pennsylvania  at  the  time  of  the  erection  of 


PITTSBUBQ  V. 

the  Diocese  ot  Pittsburg.  Tn  Allegheny  County: 
Pittabuix,  St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  the  Very  Rev.  M. 
O'Connor  and  hia  assistant,  the  Rev.  Joseph  F.  Deane; 
St. Patrick's,  the  Rev.  E.F. Garland;  St.  Philomena's 
(German),  the  Revs.  John  N.Neuman,  Julius  P.  Saen- 
derl,  F.  X.  Tschenheus,  Peter  Czackert,  C.SS.R.  The 
Rev.  A.  P.  Gibbs  resided  in  Pittrfjurg  and  attended  a 
number  of  small  conizations  and  missions  in  Alle- 
gheny and  other  counties:  St.  Philip's,  Broadhead  (now 
Crafton):  St.  Mary's.  Pine  Creek;  St.  Alphonsus,  Wex- 
ford: Si. Peter's,  McKeeaport.  Westmoreland  County: 
St.  Vincent's;  Mt.Carmel  (near  Derry),  the  Rev.  Jas. 
A.Stillinger.  IndianaCounty:  Blairsville,  Sts. Simon 
and  Jude,  and  St.  Patrick's,  Cameron's  Bottom;  the 
Rev.  Jas.  A.  Stillinger,  from  St.  Vincent's.  Butler 
County:  Butler,  St.  Peler's,  the  Rev.  H.  P.  Gal- 
lagher; Donegal,  St.  Joseph's  (now  North  Oakland); 


ArmstroiiK  County:  St.  Patrick's.  Sugar  Creek;  St. 
Mary's,  I^eeport;  the  Rev.  Joseph  Cody,  residing  at 
Sugar  Creek.  Washinjrton  County :  St.  James,  West 
Alexander.  Fayette  County;  St.  Peter's,  Browns- 
ville (in  course  of  erection),  the  Rev.  M.  Gallagher. 
Greene  County:  Waynesburg,  St.  Ann's;  other  sta- 
tions in  Greene  County,  Washii^^n  Countv,  and 
Fayette  County,  attended  by  the  Rev.  M.  Gallagher, 
from  Brownsville.  Beaver  County:  Beaver,  Sts, 
Peter  and  Paul.  Bedford  County:  Bedford,  St. 
Thomas,  the  Rev.  Thomas  Heyden.  Somerset 
County:  Harman  Bottom,  St.  John's,  the  Rev. 
Thomas  Heyden  (residing  at  Bedford).  Huntingdon 
County:  Huntingdon,  Holy  Trinity,  attended  from 
Newry  by  the  Rev.  James  Bradley,  Blwr  County: 
Newiy,  St.  Patrick's;  St.  Luke's,  Sinking  Valley  and 
St.  Mary's,  Hollidaj^burg,  attended  from  Newry  by 
(he  Rev,  James  Bradley.  Cambria  County:  Loretto, 
St.  Michael's;  Jefferson  (now  Wilmore),St.  Barthol- 
omew's; Johnstown,  St.  John  Gaulbert;  Ebensburg, 
St.  Patrick's  (now  Holy  Name  of  Jesus);  Hart^s 
Sleeping  Place,  St.  Joseph's;  Summit,  St,  Aloyeius's 
(these  places  att«nded  m  1S43  by  the  Rev.  Peter  H. 
Lemke,  pastor  of  Loretto,  and  his  aeustant,  the  Rev. 
Matthew  W.  Gibson).  Mercer  County:  Mercer,  St. 
EUfibael'e,  attended  from  Butler,  by  ue  Rov.  H.  P. 


!3  PITTSBUBG 

Gallagher.  CIrarfirld  County:  Clearfield,  St.  Fran- 
cis;  French  Settlement,  St.  Mary's;  Grampian  Hills, 
St.  Bonaventure.  Crawford  County;  Cupewago  (dedi- 
cation unknown)  ;French8ettlement,  St.  Hippolyte's; 
Oil  Creek,  St.  Stephen's.  Erie  County:  Erie,  St.  Pat- 
rick's; Ene,  St.  Mary's.  Elk  County:  ElkCreek(dedi- 
cation  unknown);  Marysville  (dedication  unknown). 
Clarion  County:  £rismanB,St.  Michael's;  Red  Bank, 
St,  Nicholaa's.  The  Rev.  J.  A.  Berti  seems  to  have 
attended  the  missions  of  Clearfield,  Crawford,  Erie, 
Elk,  and  Clarion  Counties  in  1S43. 

As  yet  there  were  but  two  religious  communities  in 
ihe  diocese,  the  Bederaptorist  Fathers  at  St.  Philo- 
mena's  church,  and  the  Sisters  of  Charity,  who  had 
char^  of  St.  Paul's  Orphan  Asylum,  and  two  schools 
in  Pittsburg.  The  first  parochial  school  building  at 
St.  Paul's,  which  has  already  been  mentioned,  was 
opened  14  April,  1844.  On  16  June  of  the  same  year 
the  first  diocesan  synod  was  held,  and  statutes  were 
enacted  for  the  government  of  the  Church.  On  the 
30th  of  the'  same  month  a  chapel  was  opened  for  the 
use  of  the  coloured  Cathohcs  ol  the  city.  In  the  same 
year  the  publication  of  "The  Catholic"  was  b^un, 
and  the  paper  has  been  regularly  issued  every  week 
down  to  the  present  time,  St.  Michael's  ecclesiastical 
seminary,  for  the  education  of  candidates  for  the 
priesthood,  was  est^lished  also  in  1844.  Thus  in  the 
brief  space  of  a  single  year  Bishop  O'Connor  had  suc- 
ceedea  in  thoroughly  organizing  all  the  departments 
of  his  vast  diocese.  The  Presentation  Brothers  came 
in  1845  to  take  charge  of  St.  Paul's  Boys'  School. 
They  withdrew  from  the  diocese,  however,  in  1848. 
In  1846  Bishop  O'Connor  received  the  Benedictine 
Order  into  the  diocese.  Their  abbey  was  founded  at 
St,  Vincent's,  Beatty,  Pa,,  by  the  late  Archabbot 
Boniface  Wimmer  (then  the  Rev.  Boniface  Wimmer, 
O.S.B.)  from  the  Benedictine  monastery  of  Melten, 
in  Bavaria,  and  in  its  college  and  seminary  manyyoimg 
men  have  received  their  higher  education  and  com- 
pleted their  studies  for  the  priesthood.  The  little, 
seed  sown  at  Sportsman's  Hall  has  developed  into  the 
great  Archabbey  of  St.  Vincent's,  which  is,  at  this  date 
?1911),  the  largest  Benedictine  institution  in  thc^  worid. 
In  1847  a  community  of  the  members  of  the  Third 
Order  of  St.  Francis  came  from  Ireland  and  settled  at 
Loretto,  Cambria  County,  Pa.  In  1848  the  Sist^^ra 
of  Notre  Dame  opened  a  convent  and  school  at  St. 
Philomena's,  Pittsbui^.  The  Passionists,  then  an 
Italian  order,  were  introduced  inl«  the  diocese  in  18S2, 
and  from  their  first  monastery  of  St.  Paul's,  Pitts- 
burg, the  order  has  since  spread  into  many  States 
of  the  Union. 

By  1S52  the  diocese  had  increased  to  such  an  extent 
that  the  bishop  began  to  consider  the  propriety  of 
having  it  divided,  and  a  new  one  formed  Irom  the 
northern  counties.  He  laid  the  matter  before  the 
FathtTs  of  the  First  Plenary  Council  of  Baltimore, 
which  assembled  9  May,  1S52,  and  the  division  was 
recommended  to  the  Holy  See,  The  Bulls  dividing 
the  Diocese  of  Pittsburg  and  erecting  the  new  Dio- 
cese of  Erie  were  dated  29  July,  1853.  The  dividing 
line  ran  east  and  west  along  the  northern  boundaries 
of  Cambria,  Indiana,  Armstrong,  Butler,  and  Law- 
rence, taking  from  Pittsburg  all  the  counties  lying 
north  thereof,  and  giving  thirteen  counties  to  the  new 
and  fifteen  to  the  old  diocese.  The  area  of  the  Dio- 
cese of  Pittsbura  was  reduced  from  21,300  so.  miles 
to  11,314  sq.  miles.  Bishop  O'Connor  chose  the  new 
and  poorer  diocese  as  his  portion,  and  the  Holy  See 
approved  his  choice.  The  Rev.  Joshua  M.  Voung,  of 
the  Archdiocese  of  Cincinnati,  was  named  Bishop  of 
Pittsburg.  The  reluctance  of  Father  Young  to  be 
the  successor  of  Bishop  O'Connor  in  the  See  of  Pitts- 
burg and  the  urgent  petition  of  the  clergy  and  the 
people  of  the  diocese  moved  the  Holy  See  to  restore 
Bishop  O'Connor  after  five  months  (20  December, 
1853)  to  his  former  bishopric,  and  appoint  fii^op 


PITTSBURG 


124 


PITTSBURG 


Young  to  the  new  Diocese  of  Erie.  A  comparison  of 
the  condition  of  the  diocese  at  the  date  of  its  division 
to  form  the  Diocese  of  Erie  with  what  it  was  at  the 
time  of  its  erection  ten  years  before  will  furnish  the 
most  convincing  evidence  Qf  the  zeal,  prudence,  and 
energy  which  characterized  the  administration  of 
Bishop  O'Connor.  At  the  time  of  the  division,  the  43 
churcnes  had  increased  to  78,  and  4  more  were  in 
course  of  erection.  The  16  priests  had  increased  to  64, 
and  the  Catholic  population  from  less  than  25,000  to 
at  least  50,000. 

On  23  May,  I860.  Bishop  O'Connor  resigned  his  see 
to  carry  out  his  cnerished  purpose  of  entering  the. 
Society  of  Jesus.  He  made  his  novitiate  in  Germany 
and  then  returned  to  this  country,  where  he  laboured 
with  characteristic  energy  and  zeal  as  a  professor,  also 
preaching  and  lecturing  all  over  the  United  States  and 
Canada.  With  his  other  acquirements,  Bishop  O'Con- 
nor was  a  linguist  of  considerable  note,  being  familiar 
with  Latin,  Greek,  and  Hebrew,  and  speaking  English, 
Irish,  French,  German,  Italian,  and  Spanish.  He  was 
called  to  his  reward  18  October,  1872,  in  his  sixty- 
third  year.  His  remains  were  deposited  by  the  side 
of  his  Jesuit  brethren  at  Woodstock,  Maryland,  and 
there  still  lies  all  that  is  mortal  of  one  of  the  most 
brilliant  lights  that  has  ever  shed  its  lustre  on  the 
Church  in  the  United  States.  When  Bishop  O'Connor 
.  resigned,  the  statistics  of  the  diocese  were  as  follows: 
77  churches,  86  priests,  30  clerical  students,  4  male 
and  2  female  reli^ous  orders,  1  seminary,  3  male  and 
2  female  institutions  of  higher  education,  2  orphan 
asylums,  1  hospital,  and  a  Catholic  population  of 
50,000.  Any  one  who  understands  the  resources  of 
the  diocese  in  1843  would  find  it  difficult  to  compre- 
hend how  the  bishop  could  have  accomplished  so 
much  for  the  good  of  religion.  A  stranger,  after  exam- 
ining all  that  had  been  done — ^the  chantable  and  edu- 
cational establishments  founded,  churches  built — 
would  at  once  conclude  that  the  person  who  accom- 
plished so  much  must  have  had  control  of  vast  means, 
or  must  have  been  at  the  head  of  a  numerous  and  in- 
fluential, wealthy,  and  munificent.  Catholic  body.  Yet 
Bishop  O'Connor  in  fact  enjoyed  none  of  these  advan- 
tages. The  Catholics  of  the  Diocese  of  Pittsburg  at 
that  time,  though  generous  to  support  religion,  cannot 
be  said  to  have  been  influential  in  the  community,  or 
possessed  of  great  means.  Indeed  they  were,  almost 
without  exception,  the  poorer  people  of  the  commu- 
nity. But  during  sixteen  years  they  had  enjoyed  the 
advantages  of  an  episcopal  administration,  all  things 
considered,  the  most  brilliant  and  most  successful  in 
the  history  of  the  American  Church.  The  Very  Revs. 
James  A.  Stillinger  and  Edward  McMahon  were 
Bishop  O'Connor^  vicara-general. 

The  Right  Rev.  Michael  Domenec,  who  succeeded 
Bishop  O  Connor,  28  September,  1860,  was,  at  the 
time  of  his  appointment,  pastor  of  the  church  of  St. 
Vincent  de  Paul,  Germantown.  He  was  born  at  Ruez, 
near  Tarragona,  Spain,  in  1816.  His  early  education 
was  received  at  Madrid.  The  outbreak  of  the  Carlist 
War  interrupted  his  studies,  and  at  the  age  of  fifteen 
he  went  to  France  to  complete  his  education.  Having 
spent  some  years  in  the  Lazarist  seminary  in  Paris, 
he  entered  that  order.  In  the  company  of  the  Very 
Rev.  John  Timon,  then  visitor-general  of  theLazarists, 
he  came  to  the  United  States  in  1838,  and  was  or- 
dained at  the  seminary  at  Barrens,  Missouri,  29  June, 
1839.  Having  acted  as  professor  in  that  seminary,  at 
the  same  time  labouring  as  a  missionary  in  various 
parts  of  Missouri,  he  was  sent  in  1845  with  some  other 
Lazarist  Fathers  to  take  charge  of  the  diocesan  sem- 
inary at  Philadelphia,  a  position  formerly  occupied  by 
the  first  Bishop  of  Pittsburg.  In  conjunction  with 
his  work  at  the  seminary  he  was  pastor,  first  at  Nice- 
town,  and  afterwards  at  Germantown.  He  was  con- 
secrated in  St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  Pittsburg,  on  9 
December,  1860,  by  Archbishop  F.  P.  Kenrick  of 


Baltimore,  and  entered  upon  his  new  duties  with  a 
zeal  and  activity,  the  effects  of  which  were  soon  evi- 
dent all  over  the  diocese  in  new  churches,  schools,  hos- 
pitals, and  asylums  for  the  sick  and  poor. 

While  Bishop  Domenec  was  recogmzed  as  a  man  of 
great  baming,  an  eloquent  preacher,  and  a  zealous 
and  indefatigable  chief  pastor  of  the  diocese,  it  is  to 
be  regretted  that  the  closing  chapter  in  the  Hfe  and 
historv  of  this  amiable  and  saintly  prelate  was  dark- 
ened by  the  gloom  of  one  of  the  severest  trials  that 
any  bishop  in  the  United  States  has  ever  passed 
through.  When  the  panic  of  1873  had  destroyed  the 
prosperity  of  the  country  and  disheartened  the  people 
of  the  Diocese  of  Pittsburg,  the  bishop,  probably 
overcome  by  financial  and  other  difficulties  which 
beset  him,  set  out  on  a  visit  to  Rome^  6  Nov.,  1875, 
to  petition  for  the  division  of  the  Diocese  of  Pitts- 
burg, and  the  formation  of  a  new  diocese  with  Alle- 
gheny City  as  its  see.  Priests  and  people  were  taken 
by  surprise  when  the  division  was  announced  from 
Rome,  and  found  difficulty  in  creditlngthe  report. 
But  further  intelligence  confirmed  it.  The  Diocese 
of  Pittsburg  was  divided,  and  Bishop  Domenec  was 
transferred  to  the  new  See  of  Allegheny.  The  Bulla 
for  both  the  division  and  the  transfer  were  dated  1 1 
January,  1876.  Many  persons  had  expected  that  tie 
division  of  the  diocese  with  Altoona  as  the  new  scv 
would  take  place  in  time,  but  felt  that  the  panic  which 
the  people  were  passing  through  must  necessarilx- 
defer  it  for  a  few  years  to  come.  By  Bulls  dated  lii 
January,  1876,  the  Very  Rev.  John  Tuigg  of  Altoona 
was  elevated  to  the  v^ant  See  of  Pittsburg.  The 
new  diocese  of  Allegheny  had  8  counties,  with  an  area 
of  6530  sq.  miles,  leaving  the  parent  diocese  6  coun- 
ties, and  an  area  of  4784  sq.  miles.  Broken  in  health 
and  saddened  by  the  trials  which  he  had  passed 
through.  Bishop  Domenec  resigned  the  See  of  Alle- 
gheny 27  July,  1877,  and  retired  to  his  native  land, 
where  he  died  at  Tarragona,  7  January,  1878.  Bishop 
Domenec  had  for  his  vicars-general  the  Very  Revs. 
Tobias  Mullen,  afterwards  Bishop  of  Erie,  and  John 
Hickey.  The  Fathers  of  the  Con^egation  of  the  Holy 
Ghost  entered  the  diocese  15  April,  1874,  and,on  1  Octo- 
ber, 1878,  opened  the  Pittsburg  College  of  the  Holy 
Ghost,  which  is  now  (1911)  attended  by  over  400 
students. 

The  Right  Rev.  John  Tuigg  was  bom  in  County 
Cork,  Ireland,  19  February,  1821.  He  began  his 
studies  for  the  priesthood  at  AU  Hallows  College, 
Dublin,  and  completed  his  theological  course  at  St. 
Michael's  Seminary,  Pittsburg.  He  was  ordained 
by  Bishop  O'Connor  on  14  May,  1850,  and  was  as- 
signed to  the  cathedral  as  an  assistant  priest^  and 
secretary  to  the  bishop.  He  organized  the  parish  of 
St.  Bridget,  Pittsburg,  in  1853.  He  was  then  en- 
trusted with  the  charge  of  the  important  mission  of 
Altoona,  where  monuments  of  his  pastoral  seal  and 
energy  exist  in  the  shape  of  a  church,  convent,  and 
schools.  In  1869  he  was  appointed  vicar-forane  for 
the  eastern  portion  of  the  diocese.  On  11  January, 
1876,  he  was  appointed  to  fill  the  vacant  See  of  Pitts- 
burg, and  was  consecrated  bishop  in  the  Cathedral 
of  St.  Paul  on  19  March,  1876,  by  the  Most  Rev. 
James  Frederic  Wood,  Archbishop  of  Philadelplua. 
At  that  time,  owing  mainly  to  the  effects  of  the  panic 
of  three  years  previous,  and  the  discontent  arising 
from  the  division  of  the  former  Diocese  of  Pittsburg, 
he  found  ^reat  financial  and  other  cares  to  encounter. 
The  division  of  the  diocese  was  the  beginning  of  the 
darkest  period  in  the  history  of  the  Church  in  Western 
Pennsylvania.  It  was  followed  by  disputes,  mistrust, 
and  litigations,  which  sundered  many  old  friendships, 
created  clerical  and  lay  factions,  and  did  violence  to 
the  peace  and  charity  which  haa  hitherto  blessed  the 
diocese.  In  the  manner  in  which  it  was  brought  about, 
in  the  lines  which  designated  the  limits  of  each  dio- 
cese, in  the  apportionment  of  debt,  in  fact  from  every 


PITTSBURG 


125 


PITTSBURa 


point  of  view,  the  division  proved  unsatisfactory  and 
resulted  in  bitter  contention  and  disorder  which  ended 
only  with  the  suppression  of  the  See  of  Allegheny  and 
the  reunion  of  the  two  dioceses  as  though  no  division 
had  taken  place.  With  foresight^  energy,  determina- 
tion, and  pterseverance  the  new  bishop  faced  the  diffi- 
culties with  which  he  was  surrounded,  and  entered 
upon  the  task  of  restoring  order  and  confidence,  and 
placing  the  embarrassed  properties  of  the  diocese  upon 
a  safe  and  sound  footing.  He  sacrificed  his  personal 
comfort,  his  own  private  means,  and  reduced  the  ex- 
pense of  the  diocese  by  the  ^rictest  economy,  in  order 
that  the  creditors  of  the  Church  might  not  suffer  loss, 
and  flJthough  his  once  vigorous  constitution  was  shat- 
tered by  the  labours  and  trials  through  which  he 
passed,  confidence  was  restored,  and  the  diocese 
started  on  one  of  the  most  prosperous  periods  of  its 
history.  Although  these  heavy  burdens  rested  on  his 
shoulders,  as  Biuiop  of  Pittsburg,  yet  the  Holy  See, 
on  3  Auffust,  1877,  after  Bishop  Domenec  resigned, 
entrusted  to  him  the  administration  of  the  vacant  See 
of  Allei^eny. 

In  the  year  1883  Bishop  Tuigg  was  warned  of  his 
approaching  end  by  a  stroke  of  paralysis,  and,  al- 
though he  hngered  for  some  years  longer,  suffering 
and  pain  werems  constant  companions.  By  slow  but 
sure  degrees  he  continued  to  grow  worse,  until  on  7 
December,  1889,  the  soul  of  the  venerable  prelate 
passed  away  to  its  heavenly  home.  His  last  moments 
were  singularly  peaceful,  and  his  death  was  a  fitting  close 
to  his  long  and  saintly  career.  It  may  be  said  of  him 
that  he  combined  the  qualities  of  firmness  and  gentle- 
ness to  a  degree  rarely  found  in  the  same  individual; 
strong  and  unyielding  when  confident  of  the  justice 
and  propriety  of  any  position  he  took,  he  was  at  the 
same  time  kind  and  courteous  to  those  from  whom  he 
differed.  Proofs  of  his  executive  ability,  his  piety,  and 
his  self-sacrificing  zeal  abound  throughout  the  diocese 
over  which  God  called  him  to  rule,  and  which  he  left 
in  better  condition  than  it  had  known  for  some  years. 

The  Right  Rev.  Richard  Phelan,  the  fourth  occu- 
pant of  the  See  of  Pittsburg,  was  bom  1  January, 
1828,  at  Sralee,  County  Kilkenny,  Ireland.  He  was 
one  of  a  family  of  nine  children,  four  of  whom  em- 
braced the  reugious  life.  He  entered  St.  Kieran's 
College,  Kilkenny,  in  1844,  to  study  for  the  priest- 
hood. When  Bisnop  O'Connor  visited  Ireland,  in 
1850,  in  search  of  students  to  labour  in  the  Diocese  of 
Pittsburg,  Richard  Phelan  volunteered  his  services. 
He  came  to  the  United  States,  completed  his  theological 
studies  at  St.  Mary's,  Baltimore,  and  was  ordained  at 
Pittsburg  by  Bishop  O'Connor,  4  May,  1854.  He 
served  as  vicar-general  to  Bishop  Tuigg.  By  a  Bull 
dated  12  May,  1885,  he  was  appointedtitular  Bishop 
of  Cybara,  and  by  a  Bull  dated  15  May,  1885,  he  was 
appointed  coadjutor  to  Bishop  Tuigg  with  right  of 
succession,  and  was  consecrated  by  Archbishop  Ryan 
in  St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  Pittsburg,  on  2  August,  1885. 
He  succeeded  as  bishop  to  the  united  Dioceses  of 
Pittsburg  and  Allegheny,  7  December,  1889.  By  a 
Bull  dated  1  July,  1889,  the  See  of  Allegheny  was 
totally  suppressed,  and  the  Diocese  of  Pittsburg  was 
declared  to  embrace  the  territory  of  what  had  been 
the  two  dioceses,  as  though  no  division  had  ever  taken 
place.  The  administration  of  Bishop  Phelan  was  a 
remarkably  successful  one.  He  was  a  man  of  pru- 
dent zeal  and  extraordinary  business  ability.  The 
people  of  many  nationalities  who  were  coming  in  large 
numbers  to  "find  work  in  the  mines  and  mills  of  West- 
em  Pennsylvania  were  formed  into  regular  conpega- 
tions,  supplied  with  pastors  who  could  speak  their  own 
languages,  and  the  material  and  spiritual  develop- 
ment of  the  diocese  kept  pace  with  ttie  growth  of  the 
population.  In  May,  1901,  the  counties  of  Cambria, 
Blair,  Bedford,  Huntingdon,  and  Somerset  were  taken 
from  the  Diocese  of  Pittsburg  to  form,  with  several 
counties  taken  from  the  Diocese  of  Harrisburg,  the  new 


Diocese  of  Altoona,  leaving  the  Diocese  of  Pittsburg 
its  present  territory  (see  beginning  of  this  article). 

When  Bishop  Phelan,  as  a  priest,  began  his  work 
in  the  Diocese  of  Pittsourg,  religious  prejudices  ran 
high,  and  misguided  men  said  and  did  thmgs  against 
CathoUcs  which  have  passed  into  history.  Placed  in 
the  most  trying  positions,  he  always  disarmed  bigotry 
by  his  straightforward  aaherence  to  principles  of  jus- 
tice and  charity  towards  all  men.  and  by  his  consider- 
ate treatment  of  those  who  in  belief  and  worship  were 
separated  from  him.  His  life  as  priest  and  bishop  was 
coincident  with  a  remarkable  transitional  period  in 
Western  Pennsylvania.  No  r^on  has  expenenced  so 
great  changes  within  the  last  fifty  years  as  has  West- 
ern Pennsylvania.  During  the  administration  of 
Bishop  Phelan  these  changes  were  most  marked.  He 
saw  tne  wonderful  growth  and  development  of  the 
iron,  steel,  coal,  and  coke  industries,  to  which  the 
western  portion  of  the  state  owes  its  distinction  and 
prosperity.  The  sudden  advent  of  immense  Catholic 
populations  with  strange  tongues  and  strange  cus- 
toms, and  all  of  them  impoverished,  gave  rise  to 
groblems  that  would  have  taxed  the  ablest  men. 
[ere  was  a  field  in  which  Bishop  Phelan  showed  his 
splendid  administrative  ability.  By  his  wise  and  pru- 
dent counsel^  by  the  exercise  of  judgment  and  fore- 
sight which  m  the  light  of  events  to-day  are  seen  to ' 
have  been  of  the  first  excellence,  either  the  difficulties 
that  arose  were  solved  or  the  way  for  their  solution 
was  prepared.  At  his  death,  which  occurred  20  Decem- 
ber, 1904,  at  St.  Paul's  Orphan  Asylum,  Idlewood, 
Pennsylvania,  he  was  the  head  of  a  diocese  which  in 
organization,  in  the  personnel  of  its  clergy  and  its 
adequate  equipment  for  the  needs  of  its  people,  was 
second  to  none  in  the  United  States.  His  vicars- 
general  were  Veiy  Rev.  Stephen  Wall,  Very  Rev. 
F.  L.  Tobin,  and  Very  Rev.  E.  A.  Bush. 

The  Right  Rev.  Regis  Canevin,  present  (1911)  Bishop 
of  Pittsburg,  was  born  in  Westmoreland  County, 
Pennsylvama,  5  June,  1853,  educated  at  St.  Vincent's 
College  and  the  seminary  at  Beatty,  and  ordained 
priest  in  St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  Pittsburg,  4  June, 
1879.  He  became  coadjutor  to  Bishop  Phelan,  with 
right  of  succession,  being  consecratea  in  the  asttne 
cathedral  by  Archbishop  Ryan,  of  Philadelphia,  24 
February,  1903.  His  vicars-general  are  Rt.  Rev.  F.  L. 
Tobin  and  Rt.  Rev.  Joseph  Suhr.  The  present  Cath- 
olic population  is  about  475,000,  and  is  composed  of 
so  many  nationalities  that  the  Gospel  is  preached  in 
at  least  fourteen  languages:  English,  German,  French, 
Italian,  Slovak.  Polish,  Bohemian,  Magyar,  Slovenian. 
Lithuanian,  Croatian,  Rumanian,  Ruthenian,  and 
Syrian. 

The  religious  communities  of  men  in  the  diocese 
number  as  follows:  Redemptorists,  6  members;  Bene- 
dictine Fathers,  134;  Passionist  Fathers,  32;  Brothers 
of  Mary  (D^ton,  Ohio),  11;  Capuchin  Fathers,  50; 
Holy  Ghost  Fathers,  42;  Carmelite  Fathers,  7;  Ital- 
ian Franciscan  Fathers,  10.  Total,  292  members. 
The  religious  communities  of  women  number:  Sisters 
of  Mercy,  353  members;  Sisters  of  Notre  Dame 
(Motherhouse.  Baltimore),  50:  Franciscan  Sisters, 
239;  Sisters  ot  St.  Joseph,  189;  Benedictine  Nuns,  78; 
Ursuline  Nuns,  26;  Sisters  of  Charity,  331 ;  Little  Sis- 
ters of  the  Poor,  32;  Sisters  of  the  Good  Shepherd,  61 ; 
Sisters  of  Divine  Providence,  180;  Sisters  of  Mercy 
(Motherhouse,  Cresson),  13;  Sisters  of  Nazareth 
(Motherhouse,  Chicago),  64;  Slovak  Sisters  of  Char- 
ity, 27;  Third  Order  of  St.  Francis  Nuns  (Mother- 
house,  Allegheny,  New  York),  7;  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph 
(Motherhouse,  Watertown,  New  York),  16;  Sisters  of 
the  Incarnate  Word,  3;  Missionary  Franciscan  Sis- 
ters (Motherhouse,  Rome),  5;  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph 
(Motherhouse,  Rutland,  Vermont),  7;  Felician  Sis- 
ters (Motherhouse,  Detroit),  40j  Sisters  of  St.  A^es 
(Motherhouse,  Fond  du  Lac,  Wisconsin),  5;  Passion- 
ist Nuns,  8;  Immaculate  Heart  Nuns  (Motherhousei 


PITTUS 


126 


PIUS 


Scranton).    15;    BeraardiBe  Sisters   (Motherhouse, 
Reading,  Pennsylvania).  5.    Total,  1754  members. 

General  statistics  of  the  diocese  (1911):  bishop,  1; 
archabbot,  1:  diocesan  priests,  353;  regular,  145; 
churches  witn  resident  priests,  275;  missions,  29; 
parochial  schools,  145^  pupils.  45,593;  diocesan  sem- 
marians,  70;  seminanes  of  religious  orders,  3;  boys' 
colleges,  3,  with  700  students;  girls'  academies,  4, 
with  490  pupils;  preparatory  sdiools  for  boys,  2,  with 
129  pupils;  deaf-mute  school,  1.  with  37  pupils;  or- 

{)han  asylums,  4^  with  1586  orpnans;  foundling  asy- 
um,  1;  industrial  school  for  Doys,  2.  for  girls,  1. 
Total  number  of  pupils  in  schools  and  asylums, 
48,555;  hospitals,  7;  nome  for  aged  poor^  2;  homes 
of  the  Good  Shepherd,  2;  homes  for  workmg  girls,  2. 
Catholic  population,  about  475.000. 

Babon,  tUmsler  of  Baptiama  and  auriala  in  Port  Dttquesna, 
176^1766;  Craio,  HxUory  of  PitUburg  (Pittsburg,  1851—); 
TheCatholieiViXtMhvag,  1844-1911).  files:  ^.  VincenVa  in  Penn^ 
ayltania  (New  York.  1873);  O'Coknor,  Dioeeaan  ReffisUr  (Pitt»- 
burg.  1843) ;  Lambino,  Hiatory  of  the  Diocaae  of  PiUahuro  (New 
York,  1880);  Bkck.  The  Redemptoriala  in  PiUaburg  (Pittsburg. 
1889) ;  Lambino,  Catholic  Hiatorioal  Reaearchea  (Pittsburg,  (1884- 
86) ;  Gbiitin,  Ameriean  Catholic  Hiatorical  Reaearchea  (Philadel- 

?hia,  1886-1911);  Idem,  Hiatory  of  Biahop  Egan  (Philadelphia, 
893);  Hiatory  of  PiUaburg  (Pittoburg,  1908);  Cathedral  Record, 
PiUaburg  (Pittoburg,  1895-1911);  Shba,  Hiatofy  of  the  Catholic 
Church  in  the  United  Statea  (New  York,  1892). 

Regis  Caneyin. 

PityUB,  a  titular  see  in  Pontus  Polemoniacus,  sufTra- 
gan  of  Neocsesarea.  Pityus  was  a  large  and  wealthy 
Greek  city  on  the  northeast  of  the  Black  Sea  (Artemi-t 
dorus,  in  Strabo,  XL  496),  which  was  destroyed  before 
the  time  of  Plinv  (Hist,  nat.,  VI,  v,  16).  Arrianus 
mentions  its  anchorage  in  ''Periplus  Ponti  Euxini", 
27.  The  city  was  rebuilt  and  fortified  by  the  Romans, 
captured  by  the  Scjrthians  under  Galhenus,  and  de- 
stroyed by  the  Byzantines  to  prevent  Chosroes  from 
entering  it  (Zosimus,  I,  32;  Procopius,  ''De  bello 
gothico^',  IV,  4;  "De  sBdificiis'',  IV,  7).  In  535  it 
was  ''a  fortress  rather  than  a  city''  (Justinian,  ''No- 
vella'', 28).  Stratophilus,  Bishop  of  Pityus,  assisted 
at  the  Council  of  Nicsea  in  325;  since  then  there  is  no 
mention  of  the  see,  which  does  not  figure  in  any  of  the 
Greek  "Notitiae  episcopatuum"  (Le  Quien,  "Oriens 
cbrist.",  1, 519).  It  was  towards  Pityus  that  St.  John 
Chrysostom  (q.  v.)  was  being  led  by  the  imperial  sol- 
diers, in  execution  of  the  decree  of  exile,  when  he  died  on 
the  way  (Theodoret, ' *  Hist,  eccl.",  V,  34) .  Pityus  was 
located  at  the  end  of  the  gulf,  east  of  Cape  Pitsunda, 
near  the  River  Chypesta  and  the  village  of  Abchasik, 
in  the  vilayet  of  Trebizond. 

NoROMANN,  Reiae  durch  die  weatlichen  Provimen  dea  Caucaaua 
in  Annalen  der  Erd-  und  Vdlkerkunde  (Berlin,  1839),  257;  Smith, 
Diet.  ofOreek  and  Roman  Oeogr.,  b.  ▼. 

S.  P^TRIDtS. 

Pius  I,  Saint,  Pope,  date  of  birth  unknown;  pope 
from  about  140  to  about  154.  According  to  the  earli- 
est list  of  the  popes,  given  by  Irenaeus  (Adv.  haer.", 
II,  xxxi;  cf.  Eusebius.  "Hist,  eccl.",  V,  vi),  Pius  was 
the  ninth  successor  of  St.  Peter.  The  dates  given  in 
the  Liberian  Catalogue  for  his  pontificate  (146-61) 
rest  on  a  false  calcumtion  of  earlier  chroniclers,  and 
cannot  be  accepted.  The  only  chronolodcal  datum 
we  possess  is  supplied  by  the  year  of  St.  Polycarp  of 
Smyrna's  death,  which  may  be  referred  with  great 
certainty  to  155-6.  On  his  visit  to  Rome  in  the  year 
before  his  death  Polycarp  found  Anicetus,  the  suc- 
cessor of  Pius,  bishop  there:  consequently,  the  death 
of  Pius  must  have  occurrea  about  154.  The  "Liber 
Pontificalis"  (ed.  Duchesne,  I,  132)  says  the  father  of 
Pius  was  Rufinus,  and  makes  him  a  native  of  Aquileia; 
this  is,  however,  probably  a  conjecture  of  the  author, 
who  had  heard  of  Rufinus  of  Aauileia  (end  of  fourth 
century) .  From  a  notice  in  the  "Liberian  Catalogue " 
(in  Duchesne,  "Liber  Pontificalis",  I,  5),  which  is 
confirmed  by  the  Muratorian  Fragment  (ed.  Preu- 
schen,  "Analecta",  I,  Ttibingen,  1910),  we  learn  that 
a  brother  of  this  pope,  Hennas  by  name,  published 


"The  Shepherd"  (see  Hbrmab).  If  the  information 
which  the  author  dves  concerning  his  personal  condi- 
tions and  station  (first  a  slave,  then  a  treedman)  were 
historical,  we  should  know  more  about  the  origin  of 
the  popCj  his  brother.  It  is  venr  possible  that  the 
story  which  Hermas  relates  of  himself  is  a  fiction. 
During  the  pontificate  of  Pius  the  Roman  Church 
was  visited  by  various  heretics,  who  sou^t  to  propa- 
gate their  false  doctrine  among  the  faithful  of  the 
capital.  The  Gnostic  Valentinus,  who  had-  made  his 
appearance  imder  Pope  Hyginus,  continued  to  sow 
his  herecn^,  apparently  not  without  success.  The 
Gnostic  Cerdon  was  alio  active  in  Rome  at  this 
period,  during  which  Marcion  arrived  in  the  capital 
(see  Marcionites).  Excluded  from  communion  by 
I^us,  the  latter  founded  his  heretical  body  (Irensus, 
"Adv.  luer.".  Ill,  iii).  But  Catholic  teachers  also 
visited  the  Roman  Church,  the  most  important,  be- 
ing St.  Justin,  who  expounded  the  Christian  teach- 
ings during  the  pontificate  of  Pius  and  that  of  his  suc- 
cessor. A  ^reat  activity  thus  marks  the  Christiap 
community  m  Rome,  which  stands  clearly  conspicuous 
as  the  centre  of  the  Church.  The  "  Liber  Pontificalis  " 
(ed.  cit.)  speaks  of  a  decision  of  this  pope  to  the  e£fect 
that  Jewish  converts  to  Christianity  should  be  ad- 
mitted and  baptized.  What  this  means  we  do  not 
know:  doubtless  tiie  author  of  the  "Liber  Pontifi- 
calis' ^  here  as  freouently,  refers  to  the  pope  a  decree 
valid  in  the  Churcn  of  his  own  time.  A  later  legend 
refers  the  foundation  of  the  two  churches,  the  titulus 
Piuientis  (ecdesia  PuderUiana)  and  the  tilulus  PraxediSf 
to  the  time  of  this  pope,  who  is  also  supposed  to  have 
built  a  baptistery  near  the  former  ana  to  have  exer- 
cised episcopal  functions  there  (Acta  SS.,  IV  May, 
299  sqq.;  cf.  de  Rossi,  "  Musaici  delle  chiese  di  Roma: 
S.  Pudenziana,  S.  Prassede").  The  story,  however, 
can  lay  no  claim  to  historical  credibility.  These  two 
churches  came  into  existence  in  the  fourth  centui]y, 
although  it  is  not  impossible  that  they  replaced  Chris- 
tian houses,  in  which  the  faithful  of  Rome  assembled 
for  Divine  service  before  the  time  of  Constantine;  the 
legend,  however,  should  not  be  alleged  as  proof  of  this 
fact.  In  many  later  writings  (e.  g.  the  "Liber  Pon- 
tificalis") the  "Pastor"  or  "Shepherd"  in  the  work 
of  Hermas  is  erroneously  accepted  as  the  name  of  the 
author,  and,  since  a  Roman  priest  Pastor  is  assigned 
an  important  r61e  in  the  foundation  of  these  churches, 
it  is  quite  possible  that  tlie  writer  of  the  legend  was 
similarly  misled,  and  consequently  interwove  Pope 
Pius  into  his  legendary  narrative  (see  Praxedes  and 
Pudentiana).  Two  letters  written  to  Bishop  Justus 
of  Vienne  (P.  L.,  V,  1125  sq.:  Jaff6,  "Regesta",  I, 
2nd  ed.,  pp.  7  sqO,  ascribed  to  Pius,  are  not  authentic. 
The  feast  of  St.  Pius  I  is  celebrated  on  11  July. 

Liber  Pontif.,  I,  ed.  Duchmne,  132  aq.;  Langbn.  Geaeh.  der 
r»m.  Kirche,  I  (Bonn,  1881),  111  sq.;  Duchebxe,  Hiat.  ancienne 
de  V^liae,  I  (Parifl.  1906) ,  236  aqq.  On  ohrt>nolo8ical  questions  cf. 
LiGHTFOOT,  The  Apoatolic  Fathera,  I,  i  (2nd  ed.,  London,  1890). 
201  sqq.;  Harnacx,  Oeach.  der  aUchriatL  Lit,,  II  (Leipsig,  1897), 
i.  133  aqq.;  Metbick,  Litea  of  the  Early  Popea  (London,  1880). 

J.  P.  KiRSCH. 

PiuB  n,  Pope  (Enba  Silvio  de'  PiccoLOjnNi),  b. 
at  Corsignano,  near  Siena,  18  Oct.,  1405;  elected  19 
Aug.,  1458:  d.  at  Ancona,  14  Aug.,  1464.  He  was  the 
eldest  of  eighteen  children  of  SDvio  de'  Piccolomini 
and  Vittoria  Forteguerra.  Although  of  noble  birth, 
straitened  circumstances  forced  him  to  help  his  father 
in  the  cultivation  of  the  estate  which  the  family  owned 
at  Corsignano.  This  village  he  later  ranked  as  a  town 
and  made  an  episcopal  residence  with  the  name  of 
Pienza  (Pius).  Having  received  some  elementary  in- 
struction from  a  priest,  he  entered,  at  the  age  of 
eighteen,  the  University  of  Siena.  Here  he  gave  him- 
self up  to  diligent  study  and  the  free  enjoyment  of 
sensual  pleasures.  In  1425  the  preaching  of  St.  Ber- 
nardine  of  Siena  kindled  in  him  the  desire  of  embracing 
a  monastic  life,  but  he  was  dissuaded  from  his  purpose 


Pins  i: 

by  his  friends.  Attracted  by  the  fame  of  the  cele- 
brated Fllelfo,  he  shortly  after  spent  two  years  in  the 
study  of  the  classics  and  poetry  at  Florence.  He  re- 
turned to  Siena  at  the  ui^ent  request  of  his  relatives, 
to  devote  his  time  to  the  study  of  jurirorudence.  Paee- 
ing  through  Siena  on  his  nay  to  the  Council  of  Basle 
(q.  v.),  Capranioa,  Bishop  of  Fermo,  invited  Enea  to 
accompany  him  as  his  secretaiy.  Bishop  and  secre- 
tary arrived  there  in  1432,  and  joined  the  opposition 
to  Pope  Eugene  IV. 

Kccolomini,  however,  soon  left  the  service  of  the 
impecunious  Capranica  for  more  remunerative  em- 
ployment with  Nicodemo  della  Scala,  Bishop  of  Frei- 
sing,  with  Bartolomeo,  Bishop  of  Novara,  and  with 
Cardinal  Albergati.  He  accompanied  the  latter  on 
several  journeys,  particularly  to  tneCongrese  of  Arras, 
which  in  1435  discussed  peace  between  Bui^undy  and 
France.  In  the  same  year  his  master  eent  him  on  a 
secret  mission  to  Scotland.  The  voyage  was  very  tem- 
pestuous and  Piccolomini  vowed  to  walk,  if  spared, 
oarefoot  from  the  port  of  arrival  to  the  nearest  shriito 
of  Our  I.ady.  He  landed  at  Dunbar  and,  from  the 
pilgrimage  of  ten  miles  throu)(h  ice  and  snow  to  the 
sanctuary  of  Whitekirk,  he  conlracted  the  gout  from 
which  he  suffered  for  the  rest  of  his  life.  Although  on 
his  return  from  Scotland  Cardinal  Albergati  was  no 
longer  at  Basle,  he 
determined  to  re- 
main in  the  city, 
and  to  his  human- 
istic culture  and 
oratorical  talent 
owed  his  appoint- 
ment   to   differ- 

functions  by  the 
council.  He  con- 
tinued to  side  with 
the  oppoaitiop  to 
Eugene    IV,    and 

jariy  with  a  small 
circle  of  friends 
who  worshipped 
classical  antiquity 
and  led  dissolute 
Uvea.       That    he 

_..  . freely  indulged  his 

PiccouxfiHi  MunsiOk  passions     is    evi- 

(XVI  CMuTy)  dencednotonlyby 

the  birth  of  two  illegitimate  children  to  him  (the  one 
in  Scotland,  the  other  at  Strasbui^),  but  by  the  friv- 
olous manner  in  which  he  glories  in  his  own  disorders. 
TTie  low  moral  standard  of  the  epoch  may  partly  ei- 

a'n,  but  cannot  excuse  his  dissolute  conduct.  He 
not  yet  received  Holy  orders,  however,  and  shrank 
from  the  ecclesiastical  state  because  of  the  obligation 
of  continence  which  it  imposed.  Even  the  inducement 
to  become  one  of  the  electors  of  a  successor  to  Eugene 
IV,  unlawfully  deposed,  could  not  overcome  this  reluc- 
tance! rather  than  receive  the  diaconate  he  refused  the 
proffered  honour. 

He  was  then  appointed  master  of  ceremonies  to  the 
concl&ve  which  elect«d  Amadeus  of  Savojf  to  the 
papacy.  He  likewise  belonged  to  the  delegation  which 
was  to  escort  to  Basle  in  1439  the  newly-elected  anti- 
pope,  who  assumed  the  name  of  Felix  V  and  chose 
Piccolomini  as  his  secretary.  The  latter's  clear- 
sightedness, however,  soon  enabled  him  to  realize  that 
the  position  of  the  schismatic  party  could  not  fail  to 
become  untenable,  and  he  profited  fay  his  presence  as 
envoy  of  the  council  at  the  Diet  of  Frankfort  in  1442 
agun  to  change  masters.  His  literary  attainments 
were  brought  to  the  attention  of  Frederick  III,  who 
crowned  htm  imperial  poet,  and  offered  him  a  position 
inhisservicewhich  was  gladly  accepted.  On  11  Nov., 
1442,  Enea  left  Basle  for  Vienna,  where  he  assumed  in 


!7  PID8 

January  of  the  following  year  the  duties  of  secretary 
in  the  imperial  chanceir.  Receding  gradually  from  his 
attitude  of  supporter  of  Felix  V,  he  ultimately  became, 
with  the  imperial  chancellor  Schlick,  whose  favour  he 
enjoyed,  a  partisan  of  Eugene  IV.  The  formal  recon- 
ciliation between  him  and  this  pope  took  place  in  1445, 
when  he  came  on  sn  official  mission  to  Ilome.  He  was 
first  absolved  of  the  censures  which  he  had  incurred  as 
partisan  of  the  Council  of  Basle  and  official  of  the 
adtipope.  Hand  in  hand  with  this  change  in  peiBonal 
allegiance  went  a  tranaformation  in  his  moral  charac- 
ter and  in  March,  1446,  he  was  ordained  subdeacon  at 
Vienna.  The  same  year  he  succeeded  in  breaking  up 
the  Electors'  League,  equally  dangerous  to  Eugene  IV 
and  Frederick  111,  and  shortly  afterwards  a  delega- 
tion, of  which  he  was  a  member,  laid  before  the  pope 
the  conditional  submission  of  almost  all  Germany.  In 
1447  he  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Trieste;  the  follow- 
ing year  he  played  a  prominent  part  in  the  conclu- 
sion of  the  Concordat  of  Vienna;  and  in  1450  he 
received  the  Bishopric  of  Siena.  He  continued,  how- 
ever, until  1455  m  the  service  of  Frederick  III,  who 
had  frequent  recourse  to  his  diplomatic  ability.  In 
1451  he  appeared  in  Bohemia  at  the  head  of  »  royiit 
embassy,  and  in  1452  accompanied  Frederick  to  Rome 
for  the  imperial  coronation.  He  was  created  cardinal 
18  Dec,  1456,  by  Calixtus  111,  whose  successor  he 
became. 

The  central  idea  of  his  pontificate  was  the  liberation 
of  Europe  from  Turkish  domination.  To  this  end  he 
summoned  at  the  beginning  of  his  reign  all  the  Chris- 
tian princes  to  meet  in  congress  on  1  June,  1459. 
Shortly  before  his  departure  for  Mantua,  where  he  was 
personally  to  direct  the  deliberations  of  this  assembly, 
no  issued  a  Bull  instituting  a  new  religious  order  of 
kniehts.  They  were  to  bear  the  name  of  Our  Lady  of 
Betlilehem  and  to  have  their  headquarters  in  the 
Island  of  Lemnoe.  History  is  silent  concerning  the 
actual  enstence  of  this  foundation,  and  the  order  was 
probably  never  organized.  At  Mantua  scant  attend- 
ance necessitated  a  delay  in  the  opening  of  the  sessions 
until  26  Sept.,  1459.  Even  then  but  few  delegates 
were  present,  and  the  deliberations  soon  revealed  the 
fact  that  the  Christian  states  could  not  be  relied  on 
for  mutual  co-operation  against  the  Turks.  Venice 
pursued  dilatory  and  insincere  tactics;  France  would 
promise  nothing,  because  the  pope  had  preferred 
Ferrante  of  Arwm  for  the  throne  of  Naples  to  the 
pretender  of  the  House  of  Aniou .  Among  the  German 
delegates,  Gregory  of  Heimburg  (q.  v.)  assumed  an 
ostentatiously  disrespectful  attitude  toward  Pius  II; 
the  country,  however,  ultimately  agreed  to  raise 
32,000  footmen  and  10,000  cavalry.  But  the  promise 
was  never  redeemed,  and  although  a  three  years'  war 
was  decreed  against  the  Turks,  the  congrmt  failed  of 
its  object,  as  no  practical  results  of  any  importance  , 
were  attmned.  It  was  apparent  that  the  papacy  no 
longer  commanded  the  assent  and  respect  of  any  of 
the  Powers.  This  was.  further  demonstrated  by  the 
tact  that  Pius,  on  the  eve  of  his  departure  from  Man- 
tua, issued  the  Bull  "Execrabilis'',  in  which  he  con- 
demned all  appeals  from  the  decisions  of  the  pope  to 
an  cBcumenical  corfncil  (18  Jan.,  1460). 

.  During  the  congress  war  had  broken  out  in  southern 
Italy  about  the  possession  of  the  Kingdom  of  Naples. 
The  pope  continued  to  support  Ferrante  against  the 
Angevin  claimant.  This  attitude  was  adverse  to 
eccTesiastiwil  interests  in  France,  where  he  aimed  at 
the  repeal  of  the  Pragmatic  Sanction  of  Bourges.  At 
his  accession  to  the  throne  in  1461,  Louis  XI  sup- 
pressed indeed  that  instrument;  but  this  papal  suc- 
cess was  more  apparent  than  real.  For  Louis's  expec- 
tation of  support  in  southern  Italy  was  not  realised ; 
and  opposition  to  the  suppression  manifesting  itself  in 
FVance,  his  dealit^  with  the  Church  underwent  a 
correxponding  change,  and  royal  ordinances  were  even 
issued  aiming  at  the  rcvivid  of  the  former  Gallicon 


PIUS  i: 

liberties.  In  Germany  Frederick  III  showed  readiness 
U>  comply  with  the  obligations  assumed  at  Mantua, 
but  foreign  and  domcal.ic  dilficulties  rendered  him 

?)werle88.  Between  Pius  II  and  Duke  Sigismund  of 
yrol,  however,  an  acute  conflict  developed  concern- 
ing the  Bishopric  of  Urixen  (ij.  v.).  Likewise  the  re- 
fusal of  the  Archbishop  of  Mamz,  Diether  ot  Isenbure 
(([.  v.);  to  abide  by  the  pope's  decree  of  deposition  led 
lo  civil  strife,  Dielher  was  ultimately  defeated  and 
supplanted  by  Adolf  of  Nassau,  who  had  been  up- 
pomted  in-his  stead.  More  difficult  to  adjust  were 
the  troubles  in  Bohemia.  Hu.s.si(ism  was  rampant  in 
t  he  kingdom,  which  was  governed  bv  the  wily  Georgi; 
Podiebrad,  a  king  secmiagl^  devoid  of  religious  con- 
vtciionit.  He  had  promiseiT  in  a  secret  coronation  oath 
|>crsonatIy  to  profess  the  Catholic  faith  and  to  restore, 
lu  his  realm,  union  with  Rome  in  ritual  and  worship. 
This  was  tantamount  to  a  renunciation  of  the  "Com- 
puct  of  Basle",  which,  under  certain  conditions  8ul>- 
Mrquently  not  observed  by  the  Bohemians,  had  granted 
1  under  both  kinds  and  other  priv- 


8  pnn 

influences  exennscd  over  hirn  by  the  environment  In 
which  his  lot  was  cast,  are  so  many  factors,  the  bea^ 
ing  of  which  can  be  justly  and  precisely  estimated  only 
with  the  greatest  difficulty.  In  the  early  period  of 
his  life  he  was,  like  many  humanists,  frivolous  and 
immoral  in  conduct  and  writing.  More  earnest  were 
his  conceptions  and  manner  of  life  after  his  entrance 
into  the  ecclesiastical  state.  As  pope  he  was  indeed 
not  sufficiently  free  from  nepotism,  but  otherwise 
served  the  best  interests  of  the  Church.  Not  only 
was  he  constantly  solicitous  for  the  peace  of  Christen- 
dom against  Islam,  but  he  also  instituted  acommisNon 
for  the  reform  of  the  Roman  court,  seriously  endeav- 
oured to  restore  monastic  discipline,  and  defended  the 
doctrine  of  the  Church  a^inst  the  writings  of  Rw- 
nald  Peacock,  the  former  Bishop  of  Chichester.  He 
retracted  the  errors  contained  in  bis  earlier  writings 
in  a  Bull,  the  gist  of  which  was  "Reject  Eneas,  hoM 
fast  to  Pius".  St.  Catherine  ot  Siena  was  canonized 
during  his  pontificate. 
'  Even  among  the  many  cares  of  his  pontificate  he 
found  time  for  continued  literary  activity.  Two  im- 
portant works  of  his  were  either  entirely  or  partly 
written  during  this  period:  his  geographical  and 
ethnographical  description  of  Asia  and  Europe;  and 
bis  "Memoirs",  which  are  the  only  autobiography 
left  us  by  a  pope.  They  are  entitled  "Pii  II  Com- 
tnentarii  rerum  memorabiUum,  qwe  temporibus  suis 
contigerunt".  Earlier  in  his  liJe  he  had  written,  be- 
sides "Eurialus  and  Lucretia"  and  the  recently  dis- 
covered comedy  "Chiysis",  the  following  historical 
works:  "LibeUus  dialogorum  de  generals  concilii 
auctoritatc  et  gestis  Basileensium";  "Commentarius 
de  rebus  Basileie  gestis";  "Historia  rerum  Frederici 
III  imperatoris";  "Historia  Bohemica".  Incom- 
plete collections  of  his  works  were  published  in  1551 
and  1571  at  Basle.  A  critical  edition  of  his  letters  by 
Wolkan  is  in  course  of  publication. 

fii  // inMijUTOBi,  ffn-.  Hal.  scripl..  HI,  ii. 


(;  PUTII 


r,  ed.  I 


il^ea.  The  pope,  deceived  for  a  time'  by  the  pro- 
testations of  royal  fidelity,  used  his  influence  to  bring 
back  the  CathoUc  city  of  Broslau  to  the  kill's  alle- 
giance. But  in  1461  Podiebrad,  to  further  his  fanciful 
schemes  of  political  aggrandizement,  promised  his 
subjects  to  maintain  the  Compact.  When  in  1462 
his  long-promised  embassy  appeared  in  Home,  its 
purpose  was  not  only  to  do  homage  to  the  pope,  but 
also  to  obt^n  the  confirmation  of  that  agreement. 
Rus  II,  instead  of  acceding  to  the  latter  request, 
withdrew  the  misused  concessions' made  by  Basle. 
He  continued  negotiations  with  the  king,  but  died 
before  any  settlement  was  reached. 

The  prevalence  of  such  discord  in  Christendom  left 
but  little  hope  for  armed  opposition  to  the  Turks. 
As  rumours  had  been  circulated  that  the  sultan 
doubted  the  faith  of  Islam,  the  pope  attempted  to  con- 
vert him  to  the  Christian  f^th.  But  in  vun  did  he 
address  to  him  in  1461  a  letter,  in  Which  were  set  forth 
the  claims  of  Christianity  on  his  belief.  Possibly  the 
transfer  with  extraordinary  pomp  of  the  head  of  St. 
Andrew  to  Rome  was  also  a  fruitless  attempt  to  re- 
kindle zeal  for  the  Crusades.  .\s  a  last  resort.  Pius  II 
endeavoured  to  stir  up  the  enthusiasm  of  the  apa- 
thetic Christian  princes  by  placing  himself  at  the  head 
of  the  crusaders.  Although  seriously  ill  he  left  Rome 
for  the  East,  but  died  at  Ancona,  the  mustering-place 
of  the  Christian  troops. 

There  have  been  widely  divergent  appreciations  of 
the  life  of  Pius  II.  While  his  varied  talents  and  supe- 
rior culture  cannot  be  doubted,  the  motives  of  his 
frequent  transfer  of  allegiance,  the  causes  of  the  radical 
transform  at  ions  which  his  opinions  underwent,  the 


(3  vo}t..  London;  \SDH>:  'Wolk.k,  Drr  Briifvethul  del  Enra- 
SilriuiPiccalomini  in  Foalttrmm  AuMriacarum  (VimiiH.  1900—) : 
VoioT.  Enea  Silvio  dr'  Piccolamini  alt  FapM  Piu  II  uniJ  mi 
ZeilaUer  (BerJin.  IBS6-63):  CBEianTON,  Hiltaru  of  Ihr  Fanacn, 
III  {new  ed..  N««  York,  1903).  202-358;  Witu.  Ar„«u  sllkw 
PicraLimin  ob  Papt  Piui  II  (Grai.  ISST) ;  Pastor.  AuUrv  <•/ 
On  Popet  (London.  1891-94);  BouLTisn.  ^nca(StJiiui|«u(?/), 
Ornlor.  Man  of  Lrllrri.  Slalrtmin.  and  Popr  (I.ondon.  ■"■"'      "" 


Tie 


e   (Nsw  Vorl 

N.  A.  Webeb. 


Plua  m.  Pope  (Francesco  Tobeschini  Picco- 
LOMiNi),  b.  at  Siena,  29  May,  1439;  elected  22  Sept., 
1503;  d.  in  Rome,  18  Oct.,  1503,  after  a  pontificate  of 
four  weeks.  Piccolomini  was  the  son  of  a  sister  of 
Pius  II.  He  had  passed  his  boy-  p 
hoodindestitute  circumstances  when 
his  uncle  took  him  into  his  house- 
hold, bestowed  upon  him  his  family    ,      , , 

name  and  arms,  and  superintended  I  (U)   O  (U) 
his   training    and    education.      He   1  '    — 

studied  law  in  Perugia  and  immedi- 
ately after  receiving  the  doctor- 
ate as  canonist  was  appointed  by 
his  uncle  Archbishop  of  Siena,  and 
on  5  March,  1460,  cardinal -deacon  ^ 
with  the  title  of  S.  Eustachio. 
The  following  month  he  was  sent  as  legate  to  the 
March  of  Ancona,  with  the  experienced  Bishop  of 
Marsico  as  his  counsellor.  "The  only  thing  objection- 
able about  him",  saysVoigt  (Enea  Silvio,  III,  531), 
"  was  his  youth;  for  m  the  administration  of  hia  lega- 
tion and  in  his  later  conduct  at  the  curia  he  proved 
to  be  a  man  of  spotless  character  and  many-sided 
capacity,"  He  was  sent  by  Paul  U  as  legate  to  Ger- 
many, where  he  acquitted  himself  with  eminent  suc- 
the  knowledge  of  German  that  he  had  acquired 


VI  he  kept  KW«f  from  Rome  u  much  u  poaaible 
"■  ■  .    ^     .  ■      1     knew  him  well  tellH  lu  t" 

pied ;  his  time  for  study  1 


dragged  along  for  over  three  months,  when  it  was  ob- 


"  he  left  no  moment  ui 


.__  ■  the  Spat 

.                            ;upied;histimeforstudywa8  tritui  faction  oould  win  the  eleetion.    Then,  msiiilj' 

before  d^break;  be  spent  his  mornings  in  pra;^er  and  through  the  exertions  of  Cardinal  Famese,  the  con- 

his  middav  hours  in  giving  audiences,  to  wluch  the  clave  by  acclamation  pronounced  in  favourof  Medid. 

humblest  had  easy  access.    He  was  so  temperate  in  He  was  crowned  6  Jan.,  1560,  and  took  the  name  (rf. 

food  and  drink  that  he  only  allowed  himself  aji  evening  Pius  IV. 

meal  every  other  day."  Yet  this  is  the  excellent  Ilisfirstoffidalactwastagrant anamnesty tothoee 
man  to  wliom  Gr^oroviusin  his  "Lucreiia  Borgia",  who  had  outraged  the  memory  of  his  predecessor,  Paul 
without  a  shadow  of  authority,  gives  a  doien  chil'  IV;  but  he  mused  clemency  to  Pompeio  Colonna, 
dren — the  calumny  bdng  repeated  by  Broech  and  who  had  murdered  his  mother-in-law.  God  forbid", 
Creighton.  After  the  death  of  Alexander  VI.  the  he  said,  "that  I  should  begin  my  pontificate  with  oon- 
concTave  could  nol^  unite  on  the  principal  candidates,  doning  a  parricide,"  The  enmity  of  Rp^n  and  the 
d'Amboise,Rovere,andSforia;hencethegreatmajor-  popular  deteetation  of  the  Caraffaa  caused  him  to 
ity  cast  their  votes  for  Piccolomini,  who  though  only  open  a  process  against  the  relatives  of  Paul  IV,  as  a 
dxly-four  was,  like  his  uncle,  tortured  with  gout  and  result  of  which  Cardinal  Carlo  Caraffa  and  his  brother, 
was  prematurely  old.  He  took  the  name  of  Hus  Hi  to  whom  Paul  had  given  the  Duchy  of  Paliano,  were 
in  honour  of  his  uncle,  was  crowned  on  8  Oct.,  after  condemned  and  executed.  The  sentence  was  after- 
receiving  priestly  and  episcopal  orders.  The  strain  wards  declared  unjust  by  St.  Pius  V  and  the  memoiy 
of  the  loi^  ceremony   ,                                                       _  .      .^_,  of  the  victims  vindi- 


la  so  great  that  the 


Peter's,  but  hia  re- 
transferred  to  S.  An- 
dreadell  a  Valle  where 
-  he  rests  by  the  side 
'of  Pius  II. 

PaSTOK,  Hiitoru    of  tA« 
Pdp«,V1,  ISSaqq.;  Fah- 

Pialina:  TON    Rdc 


1  cat' 

I   estal 


nd  thei 


estates  restored.  Car- 
dinal Morone  and 
other  dignitaries 
whom  Paul  had  im- 
prisoned for  suspicion 
of   heresy   were    re* 

Piu^  IV  now  de- 
voted his  undivided 
attention  to  the  com- 
pletion of  the  labours 
of  the  Council  of 
Trent.  He  was  luck- 
ier than  his  predeces- 
sors in  the  youth 
whom  hecreat«lcar- 
diifal-nephew.  This 
T  EmoT  or  Pidb  III  was  St.  Charles  Bor- 

Crypt  of  lb>  V.lioui  (XVI  Centuiy)  romeo,  the    glory   of 

March,  1499,  at  Milan;  elected  26  December,  1659;  Mihmandofthe Universal Churchinthestirteenthcen- 
d.  in  Rome  9  Dec.,  1565.  The  Medici  of  Milan  Uved  tury.  Piusbadthesatisfactionofsceingthecloaeofthe 
in  humble  circiunstancea  and  the  proud  Florentine  long-continuedcounciland  the  triumph  of  the  papacy 
house  of  the  same  name  claimed  no  kindred  with  them  over  the  antipapal  tendencies  which  at  times  asserted 
until  Cardinal  Medici  was  seated  on  the  papal  throne,  themselves.  His  name  isimmortallyconnected  with  the 
His  father  Bernardino  had  settled  in  Milan  and  gained  "Profession  of  Faith",  which  must  be  sworn  to  by 
his  liveUhood  by  farming  the  taxes.  Bernardino  had  everyone  holding  an  ecclesiastical  office.  The  few 
two  enterprising  sons,  both  able  to  rise  in  the  world  by  yearswhich  remained  to  him  afterthe  close  of  the  ooun- 
different  roads.  The  oldest,  Giangiacomo,  became  a  dlweredevotedtomuch  needed  improvements  inRome 
soldier  of  fortune  and  after  an  adventurous  career  and  the  papal  states.  Unfortunately  for  his  popular- 
received  from  the  emperor  the  title  of  Marcheae  di  ity,the8eworkscouldnot  be  perfected  without  the  im- 
Marignano.  He  coounanded  the  imperial  troops  who  podtion  of  additional  taxea.  Amid  the  numerous  em- 
conquered  Siena,  Giovanni  Angela  was  as  success-  bellishments  with  which  his  name  is  connected,  onetrf 
ful  with  his  books  as  his  brother  with  his  sword.  He  the  most  useful  was  the  founding  of  the  pontifical 
made  his  studies  first  at  Pavia,  then  at  Bologna,  printing-office  for  the  issuing  of  books  in  aU  languages, 
devotine  himself  to  philosophy,  medicine,  and  law,  He  procured  the  necessary  type  and  placed  the  insti- 
in  the  last  mentioned  branch  taking  the  degree  of  tution  under  the  able  superintendence  of  Paul  Mi- 
doctor.  He  g^ned  some  reputation  as  a  jurist.  In  nutius.  In  addition  to  the  heavy  expenses  incurred 
his  twenty-eighth  year  he  determined  to  embrace  the  in  the  fortification  and  embellishment  of  Rome,  PiuB 
eccleeiasUcal  state  an4  seek  his  fortune  in  Rome,  was  under  obligation  to  contribute  many  hundred 
He  arrived  in  the  Eternal  City,  26  Dec.,  1537,  just  thousands  of  seudi  to  the  support  of  the  war  against 
thirty-two  years  to  a  day  before  hia  election  to  the  the  Turks  in  Hungary. 

papacy.    From  Clement  VII  he  obtained  the  office        The  mildness  of  Pius  IV  in  dealing  with  suspects  of 

of  protbonotaiy,  and  by  his  intelli^nce.  industry,  heresy,  so  different  from  the  rigour  ot  his  predecessor, 

and   trustworthiness'  commended  himself  to  Paul  made  many  suspect  his  own  orthodoxy.    A  fanatie 

III  who  entertained  the  greatest  confidence  in  his  in-  named  Benedetto  Ascolti,  "inspired  by  his  guardian 

tc^ty  and  ability  and  employed  him  in  the  governor-  angel",   made  an  attempt  upon  his  life.     A   more 

ship  of  manv  dties  of  the  papal  stat«a.     In  the  last  formidable  foe,  the  Roman  fever,  carried  him  off  0 

year  of  Paul  Ill's  rdgn,  Meoid,  whose  brother  had  Dec.,  1565,  with  St,  Philip  Ncri  and  St.  Charles 

married  an  Orsini,  dster  to  the  pope's  daughter-in-law,  Borromeo  at  his  pillow.     He  was  buried  first  in  St. 

was    created    cardinal-priest    with    the    title   of    S.  Peter's,  but  4  June,  1583,  his  remains  were  transferred 

Piideniiaos.    Julhja  111  made  him  legate  in  Romagna  to  Michelangelo's  great  church  of  S.  Maria  degU 

and  commander  of  the  papal  troops.    The  antipathy  An^eb,  one  of  Pius  s  most  magnifieent  structures. 

ofPaulIV wasrathertohisadvantagetbanotherwise;  "Pius  IV",  says  the  fearless  Muratori,  "had  faults 

for  in  the  reaction  which  followed  the  death  of  that  (who  is  without  themT);  but  they  are  aa  nothing  com- 

moroee  pontiff  all  eyee  finally  settled  on  the  man  who  pared  with  bis  many  virtues.    His  memory  shall 

in  every  respect  was  Paul's  oprtodte.    The  conclave  ever  remain  in  benetuction  for  having  brought  to  a 
XII.— 9 


MU8  i; 

glnrioua  termination  the  Council  of  Trent;  for  having 
reformed  all  the  Roman  tribunals;  for  having  maia- 
tajned  oAler  and  plenty  in  his  dominion;  for  bavfnz 
promoted  to  the  cardinalate  men  of  great  merit  and 
rare  literary  ability;  finally,  for  havins  avoided  exceaa 
of  love  for  his  kindred,  and  enriched  Rome  by  the 
building  of  so  many  fine  edifices," 

RaHIE.  HiMiory  of  itU  papa  in  tht  Siilanlh  and  Smnltml\ 
Cnluriu;  Mdutou,  AnnoAd'/Iolia.' Van  Riuhont.  OnckicUf 
iir  Sladt  Rum;  Aarutp  pe  Mohtob,  HitlBrii  oj  iKt  Papa  (New 
York.  lSe7). 

Jaues  F.  Lovohun. 

Plui  V,  Saint,  Pope  (Micbele  Gribl^ri),  b.  at 
Bosco,  near  Alexandria,  Lombardy,  17  Jan.,  1504; 
elected  7  Jan.,  1566;  d.  1  May,  1572.    Being  of  a  poor 


though  noble  family  his  lot  would  have  been  to  follow 
a  trade,  but  he  was  taken  in  by  the  Dominicaas  of 
Vo^era,  where  he  received  a  good  education  and  was 
trained  in  the  way  of  solid  and  austere  piety.  He 
entered  the  order,  was  ordained  in  152S,  and  taught 
theolo^  and  philosophy  for  sixteen  years.  In  the 
meantime  he  was  master  of  novices  and  was  on  several 
occasions  elected  prior  of  different  houses  of  his  order, 
in  which  he  strove  to  develop  the  practice  of  the 
monastic  virtues  and  spread  the  spirit  of  the  holy 
founder.  He  himself  was  an  example  to  all.  He 
fasted,  did  penance,  passed  long  hours  of  the  night  in 
meditation  and  prayer,  travelled  on  foot  without  a 
cloak  in  deep  silence,  or  only  speaking  to  his  compan- 
ions  of  the  things  of  God.  In  1556  he  was  made 
Bishop  of  Sutri  by  Paul  IV,  His  real  against  heresy 
caused  him  to  be  selected  as  inquisitor  oT  the  faith  in 
Milan  and  Lombardy,  and  in  1557  Paul  II  made  him 
a  cardinal  and  named  him  inquisitor  general  for  all 
Christendom.  Inl559hewas  transferred  to  Mondovi, 
where  he  restored  tlie  purity  of  f^th  and  discipline, 
gravely  impaired  by  the  wat«  of  Piedmont,  Fre- 
quently called  to  Rome,  he  displayed  his  unflinching 
zeal  in  all  the  affairs  on  which  be  was  consulted.  Thus 
he  offered  an  insurmountable  opposition  to  Pius  IV 
vhen  the  latter  wished  to  admit  Ferdinand  de' 


0  PIUS 

Medici,  then  only  thirteen  vears  old,  into  the  Sacred 
College,  %sain  it  was  he  wno  defeated  the  project  of 
Maximilian  II,'  Emperor  of  Germany,  to  abolish  eccle- 
siastical celibacy.  On  the  death  oi  Pius  IV,  he  was, 
despite  bis  tears  and  entreaties,  elected  pope,  to  the 
great  ioy  of  the  whole  Church. 

He  began  his  pontificate  by  giving  large  alms  to  the 
poor,  instead  of  distributing  hi^bounty  at  haphaxard 
like  his  predeeessors.  As  pontiff  >  he  practised  the 
virtues  he  had  displayed  as  a  monk  and  a  bishop.  His 
piety  was  not  diminished,  and,  in  spite  of  the  heavy 
labours  and  anxieties  of  nis  office,  he  made  at  least 
two  meditations  a  day  on  bended  knees  in  presence 
of  the  Blessed  Sacrament.  In  his  charity  he  visited 
the  hospitals,  and  sat  by  the  bedside  of  the  sick,  con- 
soling them  and  preparing  them  to  die.  He  washed 
the  feet  of  the  poor,  and  embraced  the  lepers.  It  is 
related  that  an  English  noblenwn  was  converted  on 
seeing  him  kiss  the  feet  of  a  beggar  covered  with  ul- 
cws.  He  was  very  austere  and  banished  luxury  from 
his  court,  raised  the  standard  of  morality,  laboured 
with  his  intimate  friend,  St.  Charles  Borromeo,  to 
reform  the  clergy,  obliged  his  bishops  to  reside  in 
th«r  dioceses,  and  the  cardinals  to  lead  lives  of  sim- 
plicity and  piety.  He  diminished  public  scandals  by 
relegating  prostitutes  to  distant  quarters,  and  he  for- 
bade bull  nghts.  He  enforced  the  observance  of  the 
discipline  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  reformed  the  Cis- 
tercians, and  supported  the  missionsof  the  New  World. 
In  the  Bull  "In  Ctena  Domini"  he  proclaimed 
the  traditional  princfplea  of  the  Roman  Church  and 
the  supremacy  of  the  Holy  See  over  the  civil  ijower. 

But  the  great  thought  and  the  constant  preoccupa- 
tion of  his  pontificate  seems  to  have  been  tne  struggle 
against  the  Protestants  and  the  Turks.  In  Germany 
he  supported  the  Catholics  oppressed  by  the  heretical 

'  loes.  In  France 
encouraged  the 
League  by  his 
counsels  and  with 
pecuniary  aid.  In 
the  Low  Countries 
he  auppoTted 
Spain,  InEngland, 
finally,  he  excom- 
municated Elis- 
abeth, embraced 
the  cause  of  Mary 
Stuart,  and  wrote 
to  console  her  in 
prison.  In  the  at- 
dour  of  his  faith 
he  did  not  hesitate 
to  display  severity 
against  the  dissi- 
dents when  neces- 
sary, and  to  give  a 
new  impulse  to  the 
activity  of  the  lo- 

which  he  has  been 
blamed  by  certain 
historians  who 
have  exaggerated 
his  conduct.  De- 
spite allrepreeenta- 
tions  on  his  behalf 
he  condemned  the 
writings  of  BaiuB 
(q.  v.),  who  ended 
by  submitting. 

He  worked  mceesantly  to  unite  the  Christian  princes 
against  the  hereditary  enemy,  the  Turks.  In  the  first 
year  of  his  pontificate  he  had  ordered  a  solemn  jubilee, 
exhorting  the  faithful  to  penance  and  almsgiving  to 
obtain  the  victory  from  God.  He  supported  the 
Knights  of  MaJta,  sent  money  for  the  fortification  of 


pnra  i; 

the  free  towns  of  Italy,  furmahed  monthly  contiibu- 
tHHU  to  the  Chrietiaiu  of  Hung&ry.  and  endeavoured 
eapenally  to  bnns  Maxumlian,  Ptulip  II,  and  Charles 
IX  togeuker  for  the  defence  of  Chriatendom.  In  1667 
for  the  aame  purpoae  he  collected  from  all  convents 
one4enth  of  their  revenues.  In  1570  when  Sol^an 
II  attaicked  Cyprus,  threBtening  all  Christianity  in 
the  West,  he  never  rested  till  he  united  the  forces  of 
Venice,  Bpain,  and  the  Holy  See.  He  sent  his  blessing 
to  Don  John  of  Austria,  the  commaader-in-chief  of  the 
expedition,  recommeading  him  to  leave  behind  all 
Mldiers  of  evil  life,  and  promising  him  the  vlcUiry  if 
he  did  so.  He  ordered  public  prayers,  and  increased 
his  own  flupplications  to  heaven.  On  the  day  of  the 
Battle  of  L^^nto,  7  Oct.,  1571,  he  was  working  with 
the  eardinalB,  when,  auddenlv,  mtermpting  his  work, 
opening  the  window  and  lookmg  at  the  sky,  he  cried 
out,  "A  truce  to  business;  our  great  task  at  present 
is  to  thank  God  for  the  victory  which  He  has  just 
given  tie  Christian  army  ".  He  burst  into  tears  when 
ne  heard  of  the  victory,  which  dealt  the  Turkish 
power  a  blow  from  which  it  never  recovered.  In 
memory  of  this  triumph  he  instituted  for  the  first 
Sunday  of  October  the  feast  of  the  Roeary,  and  added 
to  the  Litany  of  Lore  to  the  supphcation ' '  Help  of  Chris- 
tians". He  wao  hoping  to  put  an  end  to  the  power  of 
Islam  by  forming  a  general  allianceof  the  ItaUan  cities, 
Poland,  France,  and  all  Christian  Europe,  and  had 
begun  negotiations  tor  this  purpose  when  he  died  of 
gravel,  repeating  "O  Lord,  increase  my  sufferings  and 
my  patience!"  He  left  the  memory  of  a  rare  virtue 
and  an  unfiling  and  inflenble  int^rity.     He 


,^^„.„.„M.LiftiindPontificatiii/Bt.Fiiu  f  (LoDdoQ.  183^  ud 
183S);  AdaSS-l  May:  Tojmos.tiBmmttitttalTtidtl'ordrtdtSt- 
OomiiiWM,IV:F*Li»n][.  H«<««d»S.««  KiPiris,  1853);  P»8- 
■KK.  CucA.  drr  Paptli,  Aktaud  de  MoHTam.  Hwiorji  of  Ihe  Popa 
(New  Yorli.  18671;  Pope  Pint  V,  tin  Fallia  at  ChnOiadom  in 
thMin  Rmno.  LlX  (London,  1866).  273.        T,  Lataste. 

Piiu  VI  (GipvANNi  Anoeuco  Brascbi),  Pope,  b. 

atCe8ena,27Dec.,  1717;  elected  15  Feb.,  1775;  d.  at 
Valence,  France,  29  Aug.,  1799.  He  was  of  a  noble  but 
impovenshad  family,  and  was  educated  at  the  Jesuit 
College  of  Ceseoa  and  studied  law  at  Ferrara.  After  a 
diplomatic  mission  to  Naples,  he  was 
appointedpapal  secretary  and  canon 
of   St.   Peter's   in    1755.     Clement 

XIII  appointed  him  treasurer  of  the 
Roman  Church  in  1766,  and  Clement 

XIV  made  him  a  cardinal  in  1775. 
He  then  retired  to  the  Abbey  of 
Subiaco,  of  which  he  was  commen- 
datory abbot,  until  his  election  as 
Pius  VI. 

[  Spain,  Portugal,  and  France 
bad  at  first  combined  to  prevent 
his  election,  because  he  was  believed  to  be  a  friend 
of  the  Jesuits;  he  was  well  disposed  towards  the 
order,  but  he  dared  not  revoke  the  Bull  of  their 
suppression.  Still  he  ordered  the  liberation  of  their 
^aeral,  Ricci,  a  priaoaer  in  the  Castle  of  Sant'  Angelo 
in  Rome,  but  the  general  died  before  the  decree  of 
liberation  arrived.  Upon  the  request  of  Frederick  II 
of  Prussia  he  permitted  the  Jesuits  to  retain  their 
schools  in  Prussia;  while  in  RusMa,  he  permitted  an 
unintemipted  continuation  of  the  order.  Soon  after 
his  acceeaion  he  took  steps  to  root  out  the  Galilean 
idea  on  papal  supremacy  which  had  been  spread  in 
Germany  by  Hontheim  (q.  v.;  see  Febronianism). 
Joseph  11  forbade  the  Austrian  bishops  to  apply  to 
Rome  for  faculties  of  any  kind,  and  suppressed  innu- 
mersble  monasteries.  Pius  VI  resolved  to  go  to 
Vienna;  he  left  Rome  on  27  Feb.,  1782,  and  arrived 
in  Vienna  on  22  March.  The  emperor  received 
himrespeetfuUy,  though  the  minister,  Kaunits  (q.  v.), 
neglected  even  the  o^naiy  rules  of  etiquette.  The 


pope  remained  at  Vienna  until  22  April,  17S3.  AD 
that  he  obtained  from  the  emperor  was  the  promise 
that  his  eccleaastical  reforms  would  not  contain  any 
violation  of  Catholic  dogmas,  or  compromise  the  dig- 


and  suppressed  this  monastery  a  few  hours  after  the 
pope  had  left  it.  Scarcely  had  the  pope  reached  Rome 
when  he  again  saw  himself  compelled  to  iirotest 
against  the  emperor's  uninstifiabfe  eonfiBcation  of 
ecclesiastical  property.  But  when  Joseph  II  filled  the 
vacant  See  of  Milan  of  his  own  authority^  Pius  sol- 
emnly protested,  and  it  was  probably  at  tnis  occasion 
that  ne  threatened  the  emperor  with  excommunication. 
On  33  Dec.,  1783, 


expecteiuy  came 
to  Rome  to  return 
thepapal  visit.  He 
was  determined  to 
continue    his    ec- 


istical  r 


■  o»  Pira  VI 


forms,  and  'made 

Spanish  diplomat, 
Asara,  his  project 
of  separating  the 
German  Church 
entirely  from 
Rome.  The  latter 
however,  dissuad- 
ed him  from  tak- 
ing this  fatal  step. 
To  avoid  worse 
things,  the  pops 
granted  him  the 
right  of  nominat- 
ing the  bishops  in 
the  Duchies  of 
Milan  and   Man- 

dat 'dated  20  Jan., 

1784    (see    Nusn, 

"Conventiones  de 

rebus  ecclesiaeticis 

et  civilibus  inter  S.  Sedem  et  ravilem  poteslatem", 

Maim,  1870,  138-9). 

Joseph's  example  was  followed  in  Tuscany  by  his 
brother,  the  Grand  Duke  Leopold  II  and  Bishop 
Scipio  Ricci  of  Pistoia.  Here  the  antipapal  reforms 
culminated  in  the  Synod  of  Pistoia  (q.  v.)  in  1786, 
where  the  doctrines  of  Jansenius  and  Quesnel  were 
sanctioned,  and  the  papal  supremaf^  was  eliminated. 
In  his  Bull  "Auctorem  fidei"  of  28  Aug.,  1794,  the 
pope  condemned  the  acts,  and  in  particular  eighty-five 
propositions  of  this  synod.  In  Germany  tne  three 
ecclesiastical  Electors  of  Maim,  Trier,  and  Cologne. 
and  the  Archbishop  of  Salzburg  attempted  to  curtail 
the  papal  authority  by  convemng  a  congress  at  Ems 
(q.  v.).  With  Portugal  the  papal  relatione  became 
verv  friendly  after  the  accession  of  Maria  I  in  1777, 
and  a  satisfactory  concordat  was  concluded  in  1778 
"'      '■    loc.  cit.,  138-39).    In  Spain,  Sardinia,  and 


1,  Milu  CMbednl 


Venice  the  Governments  to  a  peat  extent  followed  ii 

. "   II.    But  the  most  sweeping 

iti-ecclesiastical  reforms  were  carried  out  in  the  Two 


the  footsteps  of  Joseph  I 


Sicilies.  Ferdinand  IV  refused  the  exequatur  to  all 
papal  briefs  that  were  obtained  without  the  roval  per- 
mission, and  cltumed  the  right  to  nominate  all  eccle- 
siastical beneficiaries.  Pius  VI  refused  to  accept  the 
bishops  that  were  nominated  by  the  king  and^  as  a 
result,  there  were  in  1784  thirty  vacant  sees  in  the 
Kingdom  of  Naples  alone,  which  number  had  in- 
creased to  sixty  in  1798.  The  king,  moreover,  refused 
to  acknowledge  the  papal  suzerainty  which  had  existed 
for  eight  hundred  years.  The  pope  repeatedly  made 
overtures,  but  the  King  persisted  in  nominating  to  all 


PIUS 


132 


the  vacant  sees.  In  April,  1791,  when  more  than  half 
the  sees  in  the  Kin^oom  of  Naples  were  vacant,  a 
temporary  compromise  was  reached  and  in  that  year 
sixty-two  vacant  sees  were  filled  (Rinieri,  loc.  cit., 
infra). 

In  response  to  the  application  of  the  clergy  of  the 
United  States,  the  Bull  of  April.  1780,  erected  the  See 
of  Baltimore  (see  BAi/nMORE,  ARcaDiocESE  of). 

Pius  VI  put  the  papal  finances  on  a  firmer  basis; 
drained  the  marshy  lands  near  Citt&  della  Pieve, 
Perugia,  Spoleto,  and  Trevi;  deepened  the  harbours 
of  Porto  d' Anzio  and  Terracina;  added  a  new  sacristy 
to  the  Basilica  of  St.  Peter;  completed  the  Museo  Pio- 
Clementino,  and  enriched  it  with  many  costly  pieces 
of  art;  restored  the  Via  Appia;  and  dram^  the 
greater  part  of  the  Pontine  Manxes. 

After  the  French  Revolution,  Pius  rejected  the 
"Constitution  civile  du  clerg6'*  on  13  March,  1791, 
suspended  the  priests  that  accepted  it,  provided  as 
well  as  he  could  for  the  banished  cler|nr  and  protested 
against  the  execution  of  Louis  X  VI .  france  retaliated 
by  annexing  the  small  papal  territories  of  Avignon  and 
Venaissin.  The  pope  s  co-operation  with  the  Allies 
against  the  French  Republic,  and  the  murder  of  the 
French  attach^,  Basseville,  at  Rome,  brought  on  by 
hb  own  fault,  led  to  Napoleon's  attack  on  the  Papal 
States.  At  the  Truce  of  Bologna  (25  June,  1796) 
Napoleon  dictated  the  terms:  twenty-one  million 
francs,  the  release  of  all  political  criminals,  free  access 
of  French  ships  into  the  papal  harbours,  the  occupa- 
tion of  the  Romagna  by  French  troops  etc.  At  the 
Peace  of  Tolentino  (19  Feb.,  1797)  Pius  VI  was  com- 
pelled to  surrender  Avignon,  Venaissin,  Ferrara^  Bo- 
logna, and  the  Romagna;  and  to  pay  fifteen  million 
francs  and  give  up  numerous  costly  works  of  art  and 
manuscripts.  In  an  attempt  to  revolutionize  Rome 
the  French  General  Duphot  was  shot  and  killed, 
whereupon  the  French  took  Rome  on  10  Feb.,  1798, 
and  proclaimed  the  Roman  Republic  on  15  Feb. 
Because  the  pope  refused  to  submit,  he  was  forcibly 
taken  from  Rome  on  the  night  of  20  Feb.,  and  brought 
first  to  Siena  and  then  to  Florence.  At  the  end  of  March, 
1799,  thoiudi  seriously  ill,  he  was  hurried  to  Parma, 
Piacenza,  Turin,  then  over  the  Alps  to  Brian9on  and 
Grenoble,  and  finallv  to  Valence,  where  he  succumbed 
to  his  sufferings  before  h^  could  be  brought  further. 
He  was  first  buried  at  Valence,  but  the  remains  were 
transferred  to  St.  Peter's  in  Rome  on  17  Feb.,  1802 
(see  Napoleon  I).  His  statue  in  a  kneeling  position 
by  Canova  was  placed  in  the  Basilica  of  St.  Peter  be- 
fore the  crypt  oi  the  Prince  of  the  Apostles. 

BuUarii  Romani  Continuation  ed.  Babbbri  (Rome,  1842  sq.), 
V-X;  ColUetio  Brevium  atque  Jnstntetionum  Pit  Papa  VI  qua  ad 
jfrasente9  OaUieanarutn  edleMtarum  ealamitatea  pert%nent  (2  vols., 
Augsburg,  1796) ;  Ada  Pii  VI  qailnu  eceUsicB  oatholica  ealami- 
taitbua  in  OaUia  contuUum  eat  (2  vols.,  Rome.  1871) ;  BoiTBaoiNa, 
Mhnoim  hiatoriquea  et  philosophiqueM  »ur  Pie  VI  et  eon  pontificat 
(2  vols.,  Paris,  1800) ;  Genobt,  Pie  VI.  Sa  tie,  eon  pontificat  1 777- 
99,  d*aprhe  lee  arehivee  vaticanee  et  de  nonibreux  doeumente  in^He 
(2  vols.,  Paris,  1007) ;  Wolf,  Geeeh.  der  Kath.  Kirche  unter  der 
Regieruno  Piue  VI  (ZQricb,  1793-1802).  7  vols.  (JosephiDistic) ; 
Beccatini.  Storia  di  Pio  VI  (A  vols.,  Venice,  1801-02);  Ferrari. 
Vita  Pii  VI  (Padua,  1802);  Bbrtrand.  Le  Pontificat  de  Pie  VI 
el  VAtMieme  RSvolutionnaire  (2  vols.,  Bar-le-Duc,  1879);  Samp- 
son, Pitu  VI  and  the  French  Revolution  in  Amer,  Cath.  Quarterly 
Review  (New  York.  1906).  220-40.  413-40.  601-31;  Piue  VI  in 
Catholic  World,  XIX  (New  York.  1874).  755-64;  Tiepou,  Relati- 
oni  eul  eondave  per  la  eUzione  di  papa  Pio  VI  (Venice.  1896) ; 
KdNiG,  Piue  VI  und  die  Sdkulariiation,  Program  (Kalksburg, 
1900) ;  ScHUTTBR,  Piue  VI  und  Joeeph  II  von  der  RUckkehr  dee 
Papatee  nach  Rom  bie  turn  Abechluae  dee  Konkordate,  ibid.  II 
(Vienna.  1894);  Cordara.  De  profeetu  Pii  Vladaulam  Vienncn- 
eem  eijueque  eauaie  el  exitu  commentarii,  ed.  BotBO  (Rome.  1855) ; 
RiHiBRi,  DMa  rovina  di  una  Monarehia,  Relaeioni  etoriche  Ira 
Pio  Vie  la  Corle  di  Napoli  negli  anni  1776-99,  eeeondo  documenti 
inediti  deW  Arehivio  Vatieano  (Turin,  1910);  Baloabbabi.  Hie- 
Urire  de  VenUvetnent  etdela  capliviti  de  Pie  VI  (Paris,  1839).  Ger. 
(r.  Stbck  (TQbingen,  1844);  Madblin.  Pie  VI  et  la  premikre 
eoaliiufn in  Revuediu  queet.  hiet.,  LXXXI  (Paris.  1903).  1-32. 

Michael  Ott. 

Pius  Vn,  Pope  (Barn aba  Chiaramonti),  b.  at 
Cesena  in  the  Pontifical  States,  14  Aug.,  1740;  elected 
at  Venice  14  March,  1800;  d.  20  Aug.,  1823.    His 


Abmb  of  Pius  VII 


father  was  Count  Scipione  Chianunonti,  and  hia 
mother,  of  the  noble  house  of  Ghini,  was  a  lady  of  rare 

fiety  who  in  1763  entered  a  convent  of  Carmelites  at 
'ano.  Here  she  foretold,  in  her  son's  hearing,  as  Pius 
VII  himself  later  related,  his  elevation  to  the  papacjy 
and  his  protracted  sufferings.  Bamaba  received  his 
early  education  in  the  college  for  nobles  at  Ravenna. 
At  the  age  of  sixteen  he  entered  the  Benedictine  mon- 
astery of  Santa  Maria  del  Monte,  near  Ceaena,  where 
he  was  called  Brother  Gregory.  After  the  completion 
of  his  philosophical  and  theological  studies,  he  was 
appointed  professor  at  Parma  and  at  Rome  in  oolk^es 
of  his  order.  He  was  teaching  at  the  monastery  of 
San  Cailisto  in  the  latter  city  at  the  accession  of  Pius 
VI,  who  was  a  friend  of  the  Chiaramonti  family  and 
subsequently  appointed  Bamaba  d:>bot  of  his  monas- 
tery. The  appomtment  did  not  meet  with  the  uni- 
versal approbation  of  the  inmates,  and  complaints 
were  soon  lodged  with  the  papal  authority  against  Yhe 
new  abbot.  Investigation,  however,  proved  the 
charges  to  be  unfounded,  and  Pius  VI  soon  raised  him 
to  further  dignities.  After  conferring  upon  him  suc- 
cessively the  Bishoprics  of  Tivoli 
and  Imola  he  created  him  cardinal 
14  Feb.,  1785.  When  in  1797  the 
French  invaded  northern  Italy, 
Chiaramonti  as  Bishop  of  Imola 
addressed  to  his  flock  the  wise  and 
practical  instruction  to  refridn  from 
useless  resistance  to  the  overwhelm- 
ing and  threatening  forces  of  the 
enemy.  The  town  of  Lugo  refus^ 
to  submit  to  the  invaders  and  was  de- 
livered up  to  a  pillage  which  had  an 
end  only  when  the  prelate,  who  had  counselled  subjec- 
tion, suppliantly  cast  himself  on  his  knees  before  Gen- 
eral Augereau.  That  Chiaramonti  could  adapt  himself 
to  new  situations  clearly  appears  from  a  Ohristmas 
homily  delivered  in  1797,  in  which  he  advocates  sub- 
mission to  the  Cisalpine  RepubUc,  as  there  is  no  oppo- 
sition between  a  democratic  form  of  government  and 
the  constitution  of  the  Catholic  Church.  In  spite  of 
this  attitude  he  was  repeatedlv  accused  of  treasonable 
proceeding  towards  the  republic,  but  alwa3r8  success- 
fully vindicated  his  conduct. 

According  to  an  ordinance  issued  by  Pius  VI,  13 
Nov.,  1798,  the  city  where  the  largest  number  of  car- 
dinals was  to  be  found  at  the  time  of  his  death  was  to 
be  the  scene  of  the  subseouent  election .  In  conformity 
with  these  instructions  the  cardinals  met  in  conclave, 
afl^r  his  death  (29  Au^.,  1799),  in  the  Benedictine 
monastery  of  San  Giorgio  at  Venice.  The  place  was 
agreeable  to  the  emperor,  who  bore  the  expense  of  the 
election.  Thirty-four  cardinals  were  in  attendance 
on  the  opening  day,  30  Nov.,  1799;  to  these  was  added 
a  few  days  later  Cardinal  Herzan,  who  acted  simul- 
taneously as  imperial  oomniissioner.  It  was  not  lone 
before  the  election  of  Cardinal  Bellisokni  seemed 
assured.  He  was,  however,  unacceptable  to  the 
Austrian  party,  who  favoured  Cardinal  Mattel.  As 
neither  candidate  could  secure  a  sufficient  number^f 
votes,  a  third  name,  that  of  Cardinal  Gerdil,  was  pro- 
posea,  but  his  election  was  vetoed  by  Austria.  At 
last,  after  the  conclave  had  lasted  three  months,  some 
of  the  neutral  cardinals,  including  Maury,  su^ested 
Chiaramonti  as  a  suitable  candidate  ana,  with  the 
tactful  support  of  the  secretary  of  the  conclave,  Ercole 
Consalvi,  he  was  elected.  The  new  pope  was  crowned 
as  Pius  VII  on  21  March,  1800,  at  Venice.  He  then 
left  this  city  in  an  Austrian  vessel  for  Rome,  where  he 
made  his  solemn  entry  on  3  July,  amid  the  universal 
ioy  of  the  populace.  Of  all-important  consequence 
for  his  reign  was  the  elevation  on  11  Aug.,  1800,  of 
Ercole  Consalvi,  one  of  the  greatest  statesmen  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  to  the  college  of  cardinals  and  to 
the  office  of  secretary  of  state.  Consalvi  retained  to 
the  end  the  confidence  of  the  pope,  although  the  con- 


Pins  i; 

fliet  with  Nnpoleon  forced  him  out  of  office  for  sereral 

With  no  country  was  Kub  VII  more  concerned  dur- 
ing his  Teign  than  with  France,  where  the  revolution 
had  destroyed  the  old  order  in  religion  no  less  than  in 
politics.  Boiiaparte,  as  6rst  oonaul,  mgnified  his  readi- 
■en  to  enter  into  negotiations  tending  to  the  oettie- 
ment  of  the  religious  (question.  These  advances  led  to 
the  conclusion  ot  the  historic  Concordat  of  1801,  which 
for  over  a  hundred  years  governed  the  relations  of  the 
French  Church  with  Rome  (on  this  compact ;  the  jour- 


tative  Conaolvi.  Onl^  a  amall  stiip  of  land 
in  the  power  of  Austria,  and  this  usurpation  n  bo  !>■  u- 
test«d.  In  the  temporal  administration  of  these  states 
some  of  the  features  making  for  uniformity  and  effi- 
ciency introduced  by  the  French  were  judiciously 
retuned,  the  feudal  rights  of  the  nobility  were  abol- 
ished, and  the  ancient  privileges  of  the  municipali- 
ties suppressed.  Consiaerable  opposition  developed 
against  these  n    "  .   .     '^ 

ened  rebellion; 
cuted  and  on 


his  captivity  and  restoration,  see  Concobdat;  Con- 
SALVi;  and  Napoleon  I).  After  the  fall  of  Napoleon 
a  new  concordat  was  negotiated  between  Piua  VII  and 
Louis  XVIIl.  It  provided  for  an  additional  number  of 
French  bishoprics  and  abrogated  the  Organic  Articles. 
But  liberal  and  Gallican  apposition  (o  it  was  so  strong 
that  it  could  never  be  carried  out.  One  of  its  objects 
wu  later  rcaliied  when  in  1822  the  circumscription 
Bull "  Fat«mffi  Cari talis"  erected  thirty  new  episcopal 

At  the  Peace  of  Lungville  in  1801,  some  German 
princes  lost  their  hereditary  rights  and  dominions 
through  the  cession  of  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine  to 
France.  When  it  became  known  that  they  contem- 
plated compensating  their  loss  by  the  secularization  of 
ecclesiastical  lands,  Pius  VII  instructed  Dalberg,  Elec- 
tor of  Mainz,  on  2  Oct.,  1802,  to  use  atl  his  influence  for 
the  protection  of  the  rights  of  the  Church.  Dalberg, 
however,  displayed  more  ardour  for  his  own  advance- 
ment than  seal  in  the  defence  of  religious  interests, 
and  the  seizure  of  ecclesiastical  property  was  pemut- 
t«d  in  1803  by  the  Imperial  Deputation  at  Ratisbon. 
The  measure  resulted  in  enormous  loss  for  the  Church, 
but  the  pope  was  powerless  to  resist  its  execution. 
The  ecclesiastical  reorganisation  of  Germany  now  be- 
came a  pressing  need.  Bavaria  soon  opened  negotia- 
tions in  view  oia  concordat  and  was  shortly  after  fol- 
lowed by  WOrtcmburg.  But  Rome  would  rather  treat 
with  the  central  imperial  eovemment  than  with  indi- 
vidual states,  and  after  the  suppression  of  the  Holy 
Roman  Empire  in  1806,  Napoleon's  aim  was  to  obtain 
a  uniform  concordat  for  the  whole  Confederation  of 
the  Rhine.  Subsequent  events  prevented  any  agree- 
ment before  Napoleon's  dowzifall.  At  the  Congress  of 
Vienna  (1814-15)  Consalvi  in  vtun  advocated  the 
restoration  of  the  former  eccle«astical  organisation. 
Soon  after  this  event  the  individual  German  States 
separately  entered  into  negotiations  with  Rome  and 
the  first  concordat  was  concluded  with  Bavaria  in 
1817.  In  1821  Pius  VII  promulgated  in  the  Bull  "  De 
salute  animarum"  the  sgreement  concluded  with 
Pruana,  and  the  same  year  another  Bull,  "Provida 
Solersque",  made  a  fresh  distribution  of  dioceses  in  the 
ecclesiastical  province  of  the  Upper  Rhine.  An  ar- 
rangement with  Rome  based  on  mutual  concessions 
was  likewise  contemplated  in  England  in  regard  to 
Irish  ecclesiastical  affairs,  notably  episcopal  nomina- 
tions (the  veto).  The  papal  administration  favoured 
the  project  the  more  readily  seeing  that  common  re- 
sistance to  Napoleon  had  brought  the  Holy  See  and 
the  British  Government  more  closely  together,  and 
that  it  still  stood  in  need  of  the  assistance  of  English 
n^^t  and  diplomacy.  But  Irish  opposition  to  the 
scheme  was  so  determined  that  nothing  could  be 
done,  and  the  Irish  clergy  remained  free  from  all  state 
control.  Similar  freedom  prevailed  in  the  growing 
Church  of  the  United  States,  in  which  country  Piua 
VII  erected  in  1808  the  Dioceses  of  Boston,  New  York, 


of  Charleston  and  Richmond  in  1820,  and  that  of 
Cincinnati  in  1821. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  successes  of  his  pontifi- 
cate was  the  restoration  of  the  Pontifical  States,  se- 
cured at  the  Congress  of  Vienna  by  the  papal  repreaen- 


Of  a 


the 


nature 

revolution  which 
in  1820  broke  out 
in  Spain  and 
which,  owing  to 
its  anticlerical 
chsi'acter,  gave 
aea,t  concern  to 
the  papacy.  It 
restricted  the  au- 
thority of  ecclesi- 
astical courts  (26 
S^t.,  1830);  de- 
creed (23  Oct.) 
the  suppression 
of  a  large  namber 
of  monasteries, 
and  prohibited 
(14  April,  1821) 
the  forwarding  of 
finandal  contri- 
butions to  Rome. 
It  also  secured  the 
appcnntmentofCanonVillanueva,  a  public  advocate  of 
the  abolition  of  the  papacy,  as  Spanish  ambassador  to 
Rome,  and,  upon  the  refusal  of  Pius  VII  to  accept  him, 
broke  off  diplomatic  relations  with  the  Holy  See  in 
1823.  This  same  year,  however,  the  armed  interven- 
tion of  Prance  suppressed  the  revolution  and  King 
Ferdinand  VII. repealed  the  anti-Catholic  laws. 

During  the  latter  part  of  the  reign  of  Pius  VII,  the 
prestige  of  the  papacy  was  enhanced  by  the  presence 
m  Rome  of  several  European  rulers.  The  Emperor 
and  Empress  of  Austria,  accompanied  by  their  dau^- 
ter,  made  an  official  visit  Ui  the  pope  in  1819.  "nie 
King  of  Naples  visited  Rome  in  1821  and  was  followed 
in  1822  by  the  King  of  Prussia.  The  blind  Charles 
Emmanuel  IV  of  Savoy,  and  King  Charles  IV  of  Spain 
and  his  queen,  permanently  resided  in  the  Eternal  City. 
Far  more  glonous  to  Pius  VII  peisonally  is  the  fact 
that,  after  the  downfall  of  his  persecutor  Napoleon,  he 
gladly  offered  a  refuge  in  his  capital  to  the  members  of 
the  Boiiaparte  family.  Princess  Letitia,  the  deposed 
emperor's  mother,  lived  there;  likewise  did  his  broth- 
ers Lucien  and  Louis  and  his  uncle.  Cardinal  Pesch. 
So  for^ving  was  Pius  that  upon  hearing  of  the  severe 
captivity  in  which  the  imperial  prisoner  was  held  at 
St.  Helena,  he  requested  Cardinal  Consalvi  to  plead 
for  leniency  with  the  Prince-Regent  of  England. 
When  he  was  informed  of  Napoleon's  desire  for  the 
ministrations  of  a  Catholic  pnest,  he  sent  him  the 
Abb£  Vignali  as  chapl^n. 

Under  Pius's  imga  Rome  was  also  the  favourite 
abode  of  artists.  Among  these  it  sufficea  to  cite  the 
illustrious  names  of  the  Venetian  Canova,  the  Dane 
Thorwaldsen,  the  Austrian  Filhrich,  and  the  Germans 
Overbeck,  Pforr,  Schadow,  and  Cornelius.  Pius  VII 
added  numerous  manuscripts  and  printed  volumes  to 
the  Vatican  Library;  reopened  the  English,  Scottish, 
and  German  Colleges  at  Rome,  and  established  new 
chairs  in  the  Roman  College.  He  reorganiied  the  Con- 
gri^tioD  of  the  Propaganda,  and  condisnned  the  BiUe 


nu8  i; 

Sodeties  (q.  v.).  In  1805  he  received  at  Florence  the 
unconditional  Bubmisaion  of  Scipioue  Ricci,  the  fonner 
Bishop  of  PiHtoisr-Prato,  who  had  ref  lued  obedience  to 
Pius  VI  in  hia  condemnation  of  the  Synod  of  I^stoia, 
The  suppressed  Society  of  Jeaua  he  re-established  for 
RuBsift  in  1801,  for  the  Kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies 
in  1804;  for  America,  England,  and  Ireland  In  1813, 
and  for  the  Universal  Church  on  7  August,  1814. 

On  6  July,  1823,  Pius  VIl  fell  in  his  apartment  and 
fractured  his  thigh.  He  was  oblised  to  take  to  hia  bed, 
never  to  rise  agam.  Dmiog  his  Ulnees  the  magnificent 
bawlica  of  St.  Paul  Without  the  Walla  was  destroyed 
hv  fire,  a  calamity  which  was  never  revealed  to  him. 
llie  gentle  but  courageous  pontiff  breaUied  his  last  in 
tiie  presence  of  his  devoted  Consalvi,  who  was  soon  to 
follow  him  to  the  srave. 

Thn  Bulli  oJ  Pius  VII  are  partly  In  fiuBo™  Romani  emlinualiB. 
«L  Barberi.  XI-XV  (Roins.  I84S-a3):  DaocHON,  Iflwtaira  du 
unJiruI  Cimxtlvi  (P»ria,  1896);  Pacc*.  tr.  HCAD.  HMiricai 
Ummri  of  Cardinal  Patca{LoDdoa.l&iOy.  Artaud  on  MoviaR, 
HitliTiri  du  ftj»  Pit  ril  (3rd  Bd.,  Piris,  1839) ;  Wihhah,  H«oi- 
iietiontoJOuLn,tFin,TpapiilBotv>a.\S5f,);  Allio.  Tht  life nf 
Papt  Piui  VII  (and  ed..  iaaiaa.  18B7) ;  MAcCArratt,  Hiatry 
^Ihe  CatMie  Church  in  the  KinHtentk  Cealaru  (3nd  ad..  Dublin 
•ndSt.  Lcniii.  1910);  Actoh,  Tht  Cambridai  ModBT\  Hitltry:  vtA. 
X,  Tlu  RiMoraUim  (New  York.  1907);  Sahfsoh.  Piui  VII  ami 
IIh  Prmeh  Bmtl-ulim.  id  Amer.  Calh.  Q-uarterlu  Rez.  (Pbilndetpliis, 
Apr..  190S~).  Bee  iilwi  bibUocmpbin  to  Concohdat;  Com- 
■ALT],  Ercoli;  Naklroh  I  (Bohapartr). 

N.  A.  Weber. 

Pfui  VIU,  Pops  (Francebco  Xavbrio  Castiou- 
onb),  b.  at  angoU,  20  Nov.,  1761 ;  elected  31  March, 
1829;  d.  1  Dec.,  1830.  He  came  of  a  noble  family  and 
attended  the  Jesuit  school  at  Osimo,  lat«r  taking 
oouises  of  canon  law  at  Bologna  and  Rome.  In  Rome 
he  associated  himself  with  his  teacher 
Devoti,  asfdsted  him  in  the  compila- 
tion of  his  "  Institutiones"  (1792), 
and,  when  Devoti  was  appointed 
Bishop  of  Anagni,  became  nis  vicar- 
general.  He  subsequently  filled  the 
eame  position  under  Bishop  Severoli 
'  at  Cingoli,  and,  after  some  time,  be- 
le  provost  of  the  cathedral  in  his 
native  city.     In    1800    Pius    VII 

,_ .^,.  named    him  Bishop  of    Montalto, 

lam  OF  Pnr.  VIII  ^j^j^  ^^  j,g  gj^^^Iy  afterwards  ex- 
dianged  for  that  of  Cesena,  Under  the  French  dom- 
ination he  was  arrested,  having  refused  to  take  the 
oath  of  allesiBnce  to  the  King  of  Italy,  and  brou^t  to 
Macerata,  then  to  Mantua,  and  finally  to  France.  In 
1816  the  pope  conferred  upon  him  the  cardinal's  hat, 
and  in  1822  appointed  him  Bishop  of  Frascati  and 
Grand  Penitentiary,  As  early  as  the  conclave  of  1S23, 
Castiglione  was  among  the  candidates  for  the  papacy. 
At  the  election  of  1829,  France  and  Austria  were  de- 
sirous of  electing  a  pope  of  mild  and  temperate  dis- 
position, and  Castighone,  whose  character  corre- 
sponded with  the  recjuirements,  was  chosen  after  a 
five  weeks' session.  His  reign,  which  lastedbut  twenty 
months,  was  not  wanting  in  notable  occurrences.  In 
April,  1829,  the  Catholic  Emancipation  Bill,  which 
made  it  possible  for  Catholics  to  sit  in  Parliament 
and  to  hold  public  o^ces,  was  passed  in  En^and. 
Leo  Xn  haij  taken  a  great  interest  in  Catholic  Eman- 
upation,  but  had  not  lived  to  see  it  become  law.  On 
26  March,  1830,  Pius  published  the  Brief  "Litteris 
altera  abhinc",  in  which  he  declared  that  marriage 
could  be  blessed  by  the  Church  only  when  the  proper 
promises  were  made  regarding  the  Cathohc  education 
of  the  children;  otherwise,  the  parish  priest  should 
only  assist  passively  at  the  ceremony.  Under  his  suc- 
cessor this  matter  became  a  cause  of  conflict  in 
Prussia  between  the  bishops  and  the  Government  (see 
Drobte-Vischesinq,  Clemens  Adoust  von).  The 
pope's  last  months  were  troubled.  In  France,  the 
Revolution  of  July  broke  out  and  the  king  was  ob- 
liged to  flee,  being  succeeded  on  the  throne  by  the 
younger  Orleans  branch.    The  pope  recognized  the 


Rome,  where  a  lodge  of  CarboDui  with  twen^-six 
members  was  diaoovered.  Ib  the  midst  of  anxiety 
and  care,  ISus 
Vni,  whose  con- 
stitution had  al- 
ways been  deli- 
cate, passed  away. 
Before  the  cor- 
onation ofhissua- 
cessor,  revolution 
broke  out  in  the 
Papal  States.  The 
character  of  Pius 
VIII  was  mild  and 
amiable,  and  he 
enjoyed  a  reputa- 
tion for  learning, 
being  especially 
versMl  in  canon 
law,  numismatics, 
and  Biblical  liter- 
ature. In  addi^ 
tion,  he  was  ex- 
tremely conscien- 
tious. Thus,  he 
ordered     all     his 

relatives,  upon  his  - 

-    -Tsioa    to     the  Tenerwil.  St.  Petar'. 

Ifical  throne,  to  resign  the  positions  which  they 


KuiMENS  LOffler. 

Piiit  IZ  (Giovanni  Mahia  Mastai-Ferretti), 
Pope  from  1846-78,  b.  at  SmigagUa,  13  May,  1792;  d. 
in  Rome,  7  February,  1878,  After  rec^ving  his  clasu- 
cal  education  at  the  Piarist  College  in  Volt«rra  from 
1802-09  he  went  to  Rome  to  study  philosophy  and 
theology,  but  left  there  in  1810  on  account  of  poUtical 
disturbances.  He  returned  in  1814  and,  in  deference 
to  his  father's  wish,  asked  to  be  admitted  to  the  pope's 
Noble  Guard.  Being  subject  to  epileptic  fits,  he  was 
refused  admission  and,  following  the  desire  of  his 
mother  and  his  own  ^inclination,  he  studied  theolon' 
at  the  Roman  Seminary,  1814-18.  Meanwhile  his 
malady  had  ceased  and  he  was  orduned  priest^  10 
April,  1819.  Pius  VII  appointed  him  spiritual  direc- 
tor of  the  orphan  asylum,  popularly  known  as  "Tata 
Giovanni",  in  Rome,  and  in  1823  sent  him,  as  auditor 
of  the  Apostolic  delegate,  Mgr  Musi,  to  Chili  in  South 
America.  Upon  his  return  in  1825  he  was  made 
canon  of  Santa  Maria  in  Via  Lata  and  director  of  the 
large  hospital  of  San  Michele  by  Leo  XII.  The  same 
pope  created  him  Archbishop  of  Spoleto,  21  May, 
1827.  In  1831  when  4000  Italian  revolutionists  fled 
before  the  Austrian  army  and  threatened  to  throw 
themselves  upon  Spoleto,  the  archbishop  persuaded 
them  to  lay  down  their  arms  and  disband,  induced  the 
Austrian  commander  to  pardon  them  for  their  treason, 
and  gave  them  sufficient  money  to  reach  their  homes. 
On  17  February,  1832,  Gregory  XVI  tranderred  him 
to  the  more  important  Diocese  of  Imola  and,  14 
December,  1840,  created  him  cardinal  priest  with  the 
titular  church  of  Santi  Pietro  e  Marcellino,  after  hav- 
ing reserved  him  in  petto  since  23  December,  1839. 
He  retained  the  Diocese  of  Imola  until  his  elevation 
to  the  papacy.  His  great  charity  and  amiability  had 
made  him  beloved  by  the  people,  while  his  friendship 
with  some  of  the  revolutionists  had  gained  for  him 
the  name  of  liberal. 

On  14  June,  1846,  two  weeks  after  the  death  of 
Gregory  XVI,  fifty  cardinals  assembled  in  theQuirinal 
for  the  conclave.  They  were  divided  into  two  fac- 
tions, the  conservativee,  who  favoured  a  continuance  of 


^^^^^^^^■'7^   .. 

^^^y    ^» 

m% 

"i        '        ^       '^\     •  1 

^   &'  ^1 

\       }'  ,'•;    :U  \ 

ws 

PIUS  VII 

JACQUES-LOUIS  DAVID,  LOUVBB 


pnn  1! 

absolutiam  in  the  temporal  government  of  tbeChurcb, 
and  the  liberale,  who  vera  deeiroiu  of  moderate 
poUtJcal  reforms.  At  the  fourth  scrutiny,  16  June, 
Cardinal  Maatai-Ferretti,  the  libera]  candidate, 
received  three  votea  beyond  the  required  majority. 
Cardinal  Archbishop  Gaysruck  of  Milan  had  arrived 
too  late  to  make  use  of  the  right  of  exclusion  against 
his  election,  given  him  by  the  Austrian  Government. 
'The  new  pope  accepted  the  tiara  with  reluctance  and 
in  memotV  of  Pius  VII,  his  former  benefactor,  took 
the  name  of  Pius  IX.  His  coronation  took  place  in 
the  Basilica  of  St.  Peter  on  21  June.  Hie  election  was 
greeted  with  joy,  for  his  charity  towards  the  poor,  his 
undheartedness,  and  his  wit  hhd  made  lum  very 
popular. 

Young  Italy"  was  clamouring  for  greater  political 
freedom.  The  unyielding  attitude  of  Gregory  XVI 
and  his  secretary  of  state,  Cardinal  Lamoruachim, 
had  brought  the  papal  states  to  the  verge  of  a  revolu- 
tion. The  new  pope  was  in  favour  of  a  political  re- 
form. His  first  great  political  act  was  tbe  granting 
of  a  general  amnesty  to  poUtical  exiles  and  prisoners 
on  16  July,  1846.  This  act  was  hailed  with  enthu- 
siasm by  the  people,  but  many  prudent  men  had  rea- 
sonable feara  of  the 
results.  Some  ex- 
treme reactionaries 
denounced  the  pope 
as  in  league  with 
the  Freemasons  and 
the  Carbonari.  It 
did  not  occur  to  the 
kindly  nature  of 
PiuB  IX  that  many 
of  the  pardoned 
political  offenders 
would  use  their  lib- 
erty to  further  their 
revolutionary  ideas. 
That  he  was  not  in 
accord  with  the  rad- 
ical ideas  of  tbe 
times  he  clearly 
demonstrated  by 
his  Encyclical  of  9 
Nov.,  1846,  in  which 
he  laments  the  op- 
pression of  CathoUc 

interests,     intriguea  '*"^ ""  "■ 

against  the  Holy  See,  machinations  of  secret  societies, 
sectarian  bitterness,  tbe  Bible  associations,  indifferent- 
ism,  fsjae  philosophy,  communism,  and  the  licentious 
press.  He  was,  however,  willing  to  grant  such  poUti- 
cal reforms  ashe  deemed  expedient  to  the  welfare  of  the 
people  and  compatible  wtth  the  papd  sovereignty. 
On  19  April,  1847,  he  announced  his  intention  to  es- 
tablish an  adviso^  council  (ConguUa  di  State),  com- 
pMed  of  laymen  from  the  various  provinces  of  the 
papal  territory.  This  was  followed  by  the  establish- 
ment of  a  civic  guard  (Guardia  Civica),  S  July,  and  a 
c^inet  council,  29  December.  But  the  more  con- 
cessions the  pope  made,  the  greater  and  more  in- 
sistent became  the  demands.  Secret  clubs  of  Rome, 
especially  the  "Circolo  Romano",  under  the  direction 
of  Ciceruacchio,  fanaticized  the  mob  with  their 
radicalism  and  were  the  real  rulers  of  Rome.  They 
spurred  the  people  on  to  be  satisfied  with  nothing 
but  a  constitutional  government,  an  entire  laicization 
of  the  ministry,  and  a  declaration  of  war  against  hated 
and  reactionary  Austria. 

On  8  February,   1848,   a  street  riot  extorted  the 

Komise  of  a  la^  ministry  from  the  pope  and  on  14 
arch  he  saw  himself  obliged  to  ^ant  a  constitution, 
but  in  his  allocution  of  29  April  he  solemnly  pro- 
claimed that,  as  the  Father  of  Christendom,  be  could 
never  declare  war  agiunst  Catholic  Austria.  Riot 
followed  riot,  the  pope  was  denounced  as  a  traitor  to 


5  PIU8 

bis  country,  his  prime  minister  Rossi  was  stabbed  to 
death  while  ascending  tbe  steps  of  the  Cancellcria, 

whither  he  had  gone  to  open  the  parliament,  and  on 
the  following  day  the  pope  himself  was  besieged  in  the 
Quirinal.  Palma,  a  papal  prelate,  who  was  standing  at 
a  window,  was  shot,  and  the  pope  was  forced  to  prom- 
ise a  democratic  ministry.  With  the  assistance  of  the 
Bavarian  ambassador.  Count  Spaur,  and  the  French 
ambassador.  Due  d'  Harcourt,  Pius  IX  escaped  from 
the  Quirinal  in  disguise,  24  November,  and  fled  to 
Gaita  whore  he  was  joined  by  many  of  the  cardinals. 
Meanwhile  Rome  was  ruled  by  trMtors  and  adven- 
turers who  abolished  the  temporal  power  of  the  pope,  9 
February,  184S,  and  under  the  name  of  a  democratic' 
republic  terrorized  the  people  and  committed  untold 
outrages.  The  pope  applied  to  France,  Austria, 
Spwn,  and  Naples.  On  29  June  French  troops  under 
General  Oudinot  restored  order  in  his  territory. 
On  12  April,  1850,  Pius  IX  returned  to  Rome,  no 
longer  a  political  liberaJist.  Cardinal  Antondli,  his 
secretary  of  state,  exert«d  a  paramount  political  in- 
fluence until  his  death  on  6  Nov.,  1876.    The  tem- 


1870, 


of  the  last 
laa  one  continu- 
.  .  .  struggle,  on  the 
one  hand  against 
the  intrigues  of  the 
ravolutionaries,  on 
the  other  against 
the  Piedmontese 
ruler  Victor  Em- 
manuel, his  crafty 
premier  Cavour. 
and  other  aotipapal 
statesmen      who 

);—  ^B^  umed  at  a  united 
|Aa^9  Ital^,  with  Rome 
IH^^^I  as  its  capital,  and 
'H  HH  the  Piedmontese 
'IV  ^^3  ruler  as  its  king. 
.  ::H^^9  I'be  political  diffi- 
'^S^^^l  "^'^'^  °^  '^^  pope 
T  ■ "  ■■  were  still  further  in- 
*  creased  by  the  double 
dealing  of  Napoleon 
III,  and  the  necessity 
of  relying  on  French 
and  Austrian  troops 

of  order  in  Rome  and  the  papal  legations  in  the  north. 
When  Pius  IX  viated  his  provmces  in  the  summer 
of  1857  he  received  everywhere  a  warm  and  loyal  recep- 
tion. But  the  doom  of  his  temporal  power  was  sealed, 
when  a  year  later  Cavour  and  Napoleon  III  met  at 
PlombiSres,  concerting  plans  for  a  combined  war 
against  Austria  and  the  su oseauent  territorial  extension 
of  tbe  Sardinian  Kingdom.  Tliey  sent  their  agents  into 


at  Magenta  on  4  Julj[,  1859,  and  the  subsequent  with- 
drawal of  the  Austrian  troops  from  tiic  papal  lega- 
tions, inaugurated  the  dissolution  of  the  Papal  States. 
The  insurrection  in  some  of  the  cities  of  the  Romagna 
was  put  forth  as  a  plea  for  annexing  this  province  to 
Piedmont  in  September,  1859.  On  6  Feb.,  1860, 
Victor  Emmanuel  demanded  the  annexation  of  Um- 
bria  and  the  Marehes  and,  when  Pius  IX  resisted 
this  unjust  demand,  made  ready  to  annex  them  by 
force.  After  defeating  the  papal  army  at  Castelb- 
dardo  on  18  Sept,,  and  at  Ancona  on  30  Sept.,  he  de- 
prived the  pope  of  all  his  possessions  with  the  excep- 
tion of  Rome  and  the  immediate  vicinity.  Finally  on 
20  Sept.,  1870,  he  completed  the  spoliation  of  the  pa- 
pal possessions  by  seizing  Rome  and  making  it  the 
capital  of  United  Italy,  The  so-called  Law  of  Guar- 
antees, of  15  May,  1871,  which  accorded  the  pope  the 
rights  of  a  sovereign,  an  annual  remuneration  of 


nini 


136 


pnni 


dK  million  lire  ($650,000),  and  exterritoriality  to  a 
few  papal  palaces  in  Rome,  was  never  accepted  by 
Pius  IX  or  His  successors.  (See  States  of  the  Church  ; 
Rome;  Guarantees,  Law  of.) 

The  loss  of  his  temporal  power  was  only  one  of  the 
many  trials  that  filled  the  long  pontificate  of  Pius  DC. 
There  was  scarcely  a  country,  Catholic  or  Protestant. 
.  where  the  rights  of  the  Church  were  not  infringed 
upon.  In  Piedmont  the  Concordat  of  1841  was  set  aside, 
the  tithes  were  aboUshed,  education  was  laicized,  mon- 
asteries were  suppressed,  church  property  was  confis- 
cated, religious  orders  were  expelled,  and  the  bi^ops 
who  opposed  this  anti-ecclesiastical  le^lation  were 
imprisoned  or  banished.  In  vain  did  Pius  IX  protest 
against  such  outrages  in  his  allocutions  of  1850,  1852. 
1853,  and  finally  in  1855  by  publishinff  to  the  world 
the  niunerous  injustices  which  the  Piedmontese  gov- 
ernment had  committed  against  the  Church  and  her 
representatives.  In  WUrtemberg  he  succeeded  in 
concluding  a  concordat  with  the  Government,  but, 
owing  to  the  opposition  of  the  Protestant  estates,  it 
never  became  a  law  and  was  revoked  by  a  royal  re- 
script  on  13  June,  1861.  The  same  occurred  in  the 
'  Grand  Duchy  of  Baden  where  the  Concordat  of  1859 
was  abolished  on  7  April,  1860.  Equally  hostile  to  the 
Church  was  the  policy  of  Prussia  and  other  German 
states,  where  the  anti-ecclesiastical  legislations 
reached  their  height  during  the  notorious  KtUiur- 
katnpf  (q.  v.),  inaugurated  in  1873.  The  violent  out- 
rages committed  in  Switzerland  against  the  bishops 
and  the  remaining  clergy  were  solemnly  denounced  by 
Pius  IX  in  his  encyclical  letter  of  21  Nov.,  1873,  and, 
as  a  result,  the  papal  internuncio  was  expelled  from 
Switzerland  in  January,  1874.  The  concordat  which 
Pius  IX  had  concluded  with  Russia  in  1847  remained  a 
dead  letter^  horrible  cruelties  were  committed  against 
the  Catholic  clergy  and  laity  after  the  Polish  insurrec- 
tion of  1863,  and  all  relations  with  Rome  were  broken 
in  1866.  The  anti-ecclesiastical  legislation  in  Colom- 
bia was  denounced  in  his  allocution  of  27 Sept.,  1852, 
and  again,  together  with  that  of  Mexico,  on  30  Sept., 
1861 .  With  Austria  a  concordat,  very  favourable  to  the 
Church,  was  concluded  on  18  August,  1855  ("Con- 
ventiones  de  rebus  eccl.  inter  s.  sedem  et  civilem  po- 
testatem'',  Mainz,  1870,  310-^18).  But  the  Protes- 
tant agitation  against  the  concordat  was  so  strong,  that 
in  contravention  to  it  the  emperor  reluctantly  ratified 
marriage  and  school  laws,  25  March,  1868.  In  1870 
the  concordat  was  abolished  by  the  Austrian  Govern- 
ment, and  in  1874  laws  were  ^nacted,  which  placed  all 
but  the  inner  management  of  ecclesiastical  affairs  in 
the  hands  of  the  Government.  With  Spain  Pius  IX 
concluded  a  satisfactory  concordat  on  16  March,  1851 
(Nuflsi,  281-297;  "Acta  PU  IX",  I,  293-341).  It  was 
supplemented  by  various  articles  on  25  Nov.,  1859 
(Nussi,  341-5).  Other  satisfactory  concordats  con- 
cluded by  Pius  IX  were  those  with:  Portugal  in  1857 
(Nussi.  318-21);  Costa  Rica,  and  Guatemala,  7  Oct., 
1852  (Ib^  297-310);  Nicaragua, 2  Nov.,  1861  (lb.,  361- 
7) ;  San  Salvador,  and  Honduras,  22  April,  1862  (lb., 
367-72;  349):  Haiti,  28  March,  1860  (lb.,  34&-8);  Ven- 
ezuela, 26  July,  1862  (lb.,  356-61) ;  Ecuador,  26  Sept., 
1862  (lb.,  349-56).  (See  Concordat:  Summary  ojf 
Principal  ConcardaU.) 

His  greatest  achievements  are  of  a  purely  eccle- 
siasticid  and  religious  character.  It  is  astounding 
how  fearlessly  he  fought,  in  the  midst  of  many  and 
severe  trials,  against  the  false  liberalism  which  threat- 
ened to  destroy  the  very  essence  of  faith  and  religion. 
In  his  Encyclical  ''Quanta  CHira''  of  8  Dec.,  1864,  he 
condemned  sixteen  propositions  touching  on  errors 
of  the  age.  This  Encyclical  was  accompanied  by 
the  famous  "Syllabus  errorum'\  a  table  of  eighty 
previously  censured  propositions  bearing  on  panthe- 
ism, naturalism,  rationahsm,  indifferentism,  socialism, 
communism,  freemasonry,  and  the  various  kinds  of 
religious  liberalism.    Though  misunderstandings  and 


malice  combined  in  representing  the  Syllabus  as  a 
veritable  embodiment  of  religious  narrow-mindedness 
and  cringing  servility  to  papal  authority,  it  has  done 
an  inestimable  service  to  the  Church  ana  to  society  at 
large  b^  unmasking  the  false  liberahsm  which  had  be- 
gun to  insinuate  its  subtle  poison  into  the  very  marrow 
of  Catholicism.  Previously,  on  8  January,  1857,  he 
had  condemned  the  philosophico-theological  writings 
of  Gunther  (q.  v.).  and  on  many  occasions  advocated 
a  return  to  the  philosophy  and  theology  of  St.  Thomas. 
Through  his  whole  hfe  he  was  very  devout  to  the 
Blessed  Virgin.  As  early  as  1849,  when  he  was  an  ex- 
ile at  Gaeta,  he  issued  letters  to  the  bishops  of  the 
Church,  asking  their  views  on  the  subject  of  the  Im- 
maculate Conception  (q.  v.),  and  on  8  Pec.,  1854,  in 
the  presence  of  more  than  200  bishops,  he  proclaimed 
the  Immaculate  Conception  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  as  a 
dogma  of  the  Church.  He  also  fostered  the  devotion 
to  the  Sacred  Heart,  and  on  23  Sept.,  1856,  extended 
this  feast  to  the  whole  world  with  the  rite  of 
a  double  major.  At  his  instance  the  Catholic  world 
was  consecrated  to  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus  on  16 
June,  1875.  He  also  promoted  the  inner  life  of  the 
Church  by  many  important  liturgical  regulations,  by 
various  monastic  reforms,  and  especially  by  an  unpre- 
cedented number  of  beatifications  and  canonizations. 
On  29  June,  1869,  he  issued  the  Bull  **Mterm  Patris'' 
(q.  v.),  convoking  the  Vatican  Council  which  he 
opened  in  the  presence  of  700  bishops  on  8  Dec.,  1869. 
During  its  fourth  solemn  session,  on  18  July,  18/0,  the 
papal  infallibility  (q.  v.)  was  made  a  dogma  of  the 
Church.    (See  Vatican  Council.)       » 

The  healthy  and  extensive  growth  of  the  Church 
during  hb  pontificate  was  chiefly  due  to  his  unsdfish- 
ness.  He  appointed  to  important  ecclesiastical  posi- 
tions only  such  men  as  were  famous  both  for  piety  and 
learning.  Among  the  great  cutiinals  created  by  him 
were:  Wiseman  and  Manning  for  England;  Cullen  for 
Ireland;  McCloskey  for  the  United  States;  Diepen- 
brock,  Geissel,  Reisach,  and  Ledochowski  for  Ger- 
many; Rauscher  and  Franzelin  for  Austria;  Mathieu, 
Donnet,  Gousset.  and  Pitra  for  France.  On  29  Sept., 
1850,  he  re-establii^ed  the  CathoUc  hierarchy  in  Eng- 
land by  erecting  the  Archdiocese  of  Westminster  with 
the  twelve  suffragan  Sees  of  Beverley,  Birmingham, 
Clifton,  Hexham,  Liverpool,  Newport  and  Menevia, 
Northampton,  Nottingham,  Plymouth,  SalfoVd, 
Shrewsbury,  and  South wark.  The  widespread  com- 
motion which  this  act  caused  amon{[  English  fanatics, 
and  which  was  fomented  by  Prime  Minister  Russell  and 
the  London  "Times",  temporarily  threatened  to  re- 
sult in  an  open  persecution  of  CathoUcs  (see  Eng- 
land). On  4  March,  1853,  he  restored  the  CathoUc 
hierarchy  in  Holland  by  erecting  the  Archdiocese  of 
Utrecht  and  the  four  suffragan  S^s  of  Haarlem,  Bois- 
le-Duc,  Roermond,  and  Br^a  (see  Holland). 

In  the  United  States  of  America  he  erected  the 
Dioceses  of:  Albany,  Buffalo,  Cleveland,  and  Galves- 
ton in  1847;  Monterey,  Savannah,  St.  Paul,  Wheeling, 
Santa  Fe,  and  Nesc[ually  (Seattle)  in  1850;  Burling- 
ton, Covington,  Erie,  Natchitoches,  Brooklyn,  New- 
ark, and  Quincy  (Alton)  in  1853;  Portland  (Maine)  in 
1855;  Fort  Wayne,  Sault  Sainte  Marie  (Marquette)  in 
1857;  Columbus,  Grass  Valley  (Sacramento),  Green 
Bay,  Harrisburg,  La  Crosse,  Rochester.  Scranton,  St. 
Joseph,  Wilmington  in  1868;  Springfield  and  St.  Au- 
gustme  in  1870;  Providence  and  Ogdensburg  in  1872; 
§an  Antonio  in  1874;  Peoria  in  1875;  Leavenworth  in 
1877;  the  Vicariates  Apostolic  of  the  Indian  Territory 
and  Nebraska  in  1851;  Northern  Michigan  in  1853; 
Florida  in  1857;  North  Carolina,  Idaho,  and  Colorado 
in  1868;  Arizona  in  1869;  Brownsville  in  Texas' and 
Northern  Minnesota  in  1874.  He  encouraged  the  con- 
vening of  provincial  and  diocesan  synods  in  various 
countries,  and  established  at  Rome  the  Latin  American 
College  in  1853,  and  the  College  of  the  United  States 
of  America,  at  his  own  private  expense,  in  1859.    His 


mu  tlie  longest  ptmtificote in  tiiefawtoiT  of  the  papacy. 
In  1871  be  oelebnted  his  twenty^^th,  in  1876  his  thir- 
tieth, annivemry  tta  pope,  aad  in  1877  hia  golden 
episcopal  julnlee.  Hia  tonib  ia  in  the  church  of  San 
Utteaao  fuori  le  mura.  The  so-caUed  diocesan  pro- 
cess of  his  beatification  was  begun  on  II  F^ruaiy, 
1907.  ' 

Aela  Pit  IX  (Rodui.  I8M-78) ;  Ada  Sancta  Stdit  (Ram«,  ISW 
wa.);  RuHCII,  BauM  ita  atlacutiant  nmiufDriatu  iPtlJM.  1S53 
n.) ;  DiidfTMidd  Sanmt  Pool.  Pie  IX  (Rome,  1872-8):  MAOniHi, 
«i«  IX  awl  hit  Timit  {Dnblin.  lB8i}:  Taou^M,  Lift  of  Piia 
IXfUmioa.  1877);  Sbea,  Lift  arid  PanUfiraU  rj  Piut  IX  (\fw 
Y«k.  1877);  Bn«HN*H.  .4  Popular  Lift  of  Our  UUy  Failur  Popt 
Piui  IX  (New  York,  1877);  0'lUiLi.r.  Lifi  of  Piat  IX  (New 
Yoik.  18rt);  McCtFRiT,  HitL  oftluCaUk.  C*i.rc*  in  U.  Mm- 
iHoMCnln-v,  I  [DoMia,  1B09):  Ltoii\  Dimaltha rttp.  Itii am- 
Jititn  ofUit  Pafoi  StaUM  (LoDdoD,  1880);  Ballehini,  La  pre- 
niirtt  vast*  dm  vontifleat  dt  Pit  IX  (Rome,  1909);  Poiia«ii>, 
ffitfinn  dt  Ke  rx.  •on  pDnlijEoU  «  HH  niijc  (Puii.  1ST7-8e> ;  V»^ 
LUKAVCSB,  Pit  IX, «  tit.  tm  hiMoirt,  -m  titcU  (Paris,  18781 ; 
Stata.  &S.  Pit  IX.  h  tic,  »i  IcriU.  m  doetrint  (Fui^  ISSfi); 
RocFBV.  Souvfnirj  d'un  prtiai  romain  tur  Rome  tt  ta  cimr  pontifi- 
al>  au  Impi  d>  Pit  IX  (Puu.  18961 ;  Vah  Ddebil  Som  M  la 
Franc- lAifBiuuni  (BnuH<>,  IBM);  01I4.ST,  Pie  IX.  iant,illtt 
mitt  dt  KM  BQrUifical  (Puu,  1S7T) ;  ROtjh,  Ltbm.  virktn  und 
In^cn  Sr.  Htititieit  Piiu  IX  (ObBrhmuKD.  18701:  Hotactup, 
Paptt  Piut  IX  in  ttintm  Lditn  und  Wirktn  (MOnaMr,  lB7fi); 
SrirnscaHBoo.  Papt  Pi<a  IX  md  win*  Z«l  (VMu.  187S): 
WirPHAHHirMQU,  Lcfrn  und  IFirJtcn  da  Pa^  Piut  IX  (Ratu- 
boD.  1379):  NOHNBERan,  PapiOum  and  KimSentlaM,  ll,  HI 
(Mauu.  1898-1900):    Mtaocoo,  Pia  IX  (Turin.  18el-4);   Mo- 


(Ro 
IX 


L  c  lo  ttait  dti  Papa  dat  ril 


Michael  Orr. 

Plus  X  Pope  (Giosepfb  Melchiobeb  Sabto), 
b.  2  June,  1835,  at  Riese,  Province  of  Treviao,  in 
Venice.  His  parents  were  Giovanni  Battiata  Sazta 
and  Margarita  (rUe  Sanson);  the  former,  a  postman, 
died  in  1852,  but  Margarita  lived  tn  see  her  son  a 
cardinal.  After  finishing  his  elements,  Giuseppe  at 
first  received  private  lessons  in  Latin  from  the  arch- 
priest  of  his  town,  Don  Tito  Fusaroni,  after  which  he 


1850  he  reoQved  the  tonsure  from  the  Bishop  of  Tr&- 
viso,  and  was  given  a  scholarship  of  the  Diocese  of 
Treviao  in  the  seminary  of  Padua,  where  he  finished 
his  classical,  philosophical,  and  theological  studies 
with  distinction.  He  was  ordained  in  1858,  and  for 
nine  yeazs  was  chaplain  at  Tombolo,  having  to  assume 
most  of  the  functions  of  parish  priest,  as  the  pastor 
was  old  and  an  invalid.  He  sought  to  perfect  his 
knowledge  of  theol(«y  by  assiduously  studying  Saint 
Thomas  and  canon  law;  at  the  same  time  he  estab- 
lisbed  a  night  school  for  adult  students,  and  devoted 
himself  to  the  nunistry  of  preaching  in  other  towns 
to  which  he  was  called.  In  1867  he  was  named  arch- 
priest  of  Saliano,  a  lai^  borough  of  the  Diocese  of 
-Treviso,  where  he  restored  the  church,  and  provided 
for  the  enlargement  and  maintenance  of  the  hospital 
by  his  own  means,  consistently  with  his  habitual 
generoeity  to  the  poorj  he  e^iecially  distinguished 
himself  by  his  abnegation  during  the  cholera.  He 
showed  great  solicitude  for  the  religious  iostntction 
of  adults.  In  1875  he  was  made  a  canon  of  the  cathe- 
dral of  Treviso,  and  filled  several  offices,  among  them 
those  of  spiritual  director  and  rector  of  the  seminary, 
examiner  of  the  clergy,  uid  vicar.^eneral;  moreover, 
he  made  it  posnble  for  the  students  of  the  public 
schools  to  receive  religious  instruction.  In  1878,  on 
the  death  of  Bishop  ZanelU,  he  was  elected  vicar- 
capitular.  On  10  November,  1884,  be  was  named 
Bishop  of  Mantua,  then  a  very  troublesome  see,  and 
consecrated  <m  20  Novembef.  His  chief  care  in  his 
new  position  was  for  the  formation  of  the  clergy  at 
the  seminary,  where,  for  several  yea»,  be  himself 
taught  dogmatic  theology,  and  for  another  year 
moni  theology.  He  wished  the  doctrine  and  method 
of  St.  Thomas  to  be  followed,  and  to  many  of  the 
poorer  students  he  gave  copies  of  the  "Summa  theo- 
fo^ca";  at  the  same  time  he  cultivated  the  Gregorian 


7  run 

Chant  in  occnpan^  with  the  seminarians.  The  t«n- 
potal  sdminislratKin  of  his  see  imposed  great  sacri- 
nces  upon  him.  In  1887  he  held  a  diocesan  synod. 
By  his  sttoidance  at  ^e  confessional,  he  gave  the 
example  of  pastoral  seal.  The  Cathohc  organization 
of  Italy,  then  known  as  the  "Opera  dei  CongresBi", 
found  in  him  a  zealous  propagandist  from  the  time 
of  Ids  ministry  at  Salzono. 

At  the  secret  consistory  of  June,  1893,  Leo  XIII 
created  him  a  cardinal  under  the  title  of  San  Bemaido 
alle  Terme;  and  in  the  public  consistory,  three  dip's 
later,  he  was  preconiied  Patriarch  of  Venice,  retain- 
ing meanwhile  the  title  of  Apostolic  Administrator  of 
Mantua,  Cardinal  Sarto  was  obUged  to  wait  eighteen 
months  before  he  was  able  to  take  possesuon  of  his 
new  diocese,  because  the 
Italian  government  re- 
fused its  exequatur, 
cluming  the  right  of 
nomination  as  it  had 
been  exercised  by  the 
Emperdr  of  Austria, 
This  matter  was  dis- 
cussed with  bitterness 
in  the  newspapers  and 
in  pamphlets;  the  Gov- 
ernment, by  way  of  re- 
prisal, refused  its  ex- 
equatur to  thq  other 
bishops  who  were  ap- 
pointed in  the  mean- 
time, so  that  the  num- 
ber o!  vacant  sees  grew 
to  thirty.  Finally,  the 
minister  Crispi  having 
returned  to  power,  and 
the  Holy  See  having  raised  the  mis^on  of  Eritrea  to  th« 
rank  of  an  Apostolic  Prefecture  in  favour  of  the  Ital- 
ian Capuchins,  tjie  Government  withdrew  from  its 
position.  Its  opposition  had  not  been  caused  by  any 
objection  to  Sarto  peraonollY.  At  Venice  the  cardinal 
found  a  much  better  condition  of  thin^  than  he  had 
found  at  Mantua,  There,  also,  he  paid  great  atten- 
tion to  the  semiaary,  where  he  obtiuned  the  establish- 
ment of  the  faculty  of  canon  law.  In  1898  he  held  the 
diocesan  synod.  He  promoted  the  use  of  the  Grego- 
rian Chant,  and  was  a  great  patron  of  Lorenzo  Peroai; 
he  favoured  social  works,  especially  the  rural  parochial 
banks;  he  discerned  and  energetically  opposed  IJie 
dangers  of  certain  doctrines  and  the  conduct  of  cer> 
tain  Christian-Democrats.  The  international  £u- 
choristic  Congress  of  1897,  the  centenary  of  St,  Gerard 
Ssgredo  (1900),  and  the  blessing  of  the  corner-stone 
of  the  new  belfry  of  St,  Mark's,  also  of  the  commemo> 
rative  chapel  of  Mt,  Grappa  (1901),  were  events  that 
l^t  a  deep  impression  on  him  and  ms  people.  Mean- 
while, Leo  XIII  having  died,  the  cardinals  entered 
into  conclave  and  after  several  ballots  Giuseppe  Sarto 
was  elected  on  4  August  by  a  vote  of  55  out  of  a  pos- 
sible 60  votes.  His  coronation  took  place  on  the  fol- 
lowing Sunday,  9  August,  1903. 

In  nis  first  Encyclical,  wishing  to  develop  his 
programme  to  some  extent,  he  saia  that  the  motto  of 
his  pontificate  would  be  "  instaurare  omnia  in  Christo  " 
(Epbes.,  i,  10).  Accordingly,  his  greatest  care  always 
turned  to  the  direct  interests  of  the  Church.  Before 
all  else  his  efForts  were  directed  to  the  promotion  of 
piety  among  the  faithful,  and  he  advised  all  (Deer.  S. 
Congr.Concil.,  20  Dec,,  1905)torec«veHoly  Commun- 
ion frequently  and,  if  possible,  doily,  dispensing  the  sick 
from  the  obligation  M  fasting  to  the.  extent  of  enabling 
them  to  receive  Holy  Communion  twice  each  month, 
and  even  oftener  (Deer,  S.  Congr,  Rit,,  7  Dec,,  1906). 
Finally,  by  the  Decree  "Quam  Singulari"  (15  Aijg., 
1910),  he  recommended  that  the  first  Communion 
of  children  should  not  be  deferred  too  long  after  they 
had  reached  the  age  of  discretion.    It  was  by  lus  desiis 


pnj8  138    ,  PIU8 

that  the  Eucharistic  'Congress  of  1905  was  held  at  liturgy,  and  difldpline,  and  shows  the  contradiction 
Rome,  while  he  enhanced  the  solemnity  of  subsequent  between  that  innovation  and  the  ancient  faith;  and, 
Eucharistic  congresses  hy  sending  to  them  cardinal  &ially,  it  establishes  rules  by  which  to  combat  effi- 
legates.  The  fiftieth  anmversary  of  the  proclamation  ciently  the  pernicious  doctrines  in  question.  Among 
of  the  dogma  of  the  Inunaculate  Conception  was  an  the  means  suggested  mention  should  be  made  of  the 
occasion  of  which  he  took  advantage  to  enjoin  devo-  establishment  of  an  official  body  of  "censors"  of 
tion  to  Mary  (Encyclical  ''Ad  iUum  diem''.  2  Feb-  books  and  the  creation  of  a  ''Conmiittee  of  Vigi- 
ruary,  1904) ;  and  the  Marian  Congress,  together  with    lance''. 

the  coronation  of  the  image  of  the  Immaculate  Con-  Subsequently,  by  the  Motti  Proprio  "Sacrorum 
ception  in  the  choir  of  St.  Peter's,  was  a  worthy  cul-  Antistitum",  Pius  A  called  attention  to  the  injuno- 
mmation  of  that  solemnity.  As  a  simple  chaplain,  tions  of  the  Encyclical  and  also  to  the  provisions  that 
a  bishop,  and  a  patriarch,  Giuseppe  Sarto  was  a  pro-  had  already  been  established  imder  Leo  XIII  on 
moter  oi  sacred  music;  as  pope,  he  published^  22  preaching,  and  prescribed  that  all  those  who  exercised 
November,  1903,  a  Motu  Propno  on  sacred  music  in  the  holy  ministry  or  who  taught  in  ecclesiastical  insti- 
churches,  and  at  the  same  time  ordered  the  authentic  tutions,  as  well  as  canons,  the  superiors  of  the  regular 
Gregorian  Chant  to  be  used  evenrwhere.  while  he  clerfrr.  and  those  serving  in  ecclesiastical  bureaux 
cau^  the  choir  books  to  be  printed  with  the  Vatican  shomd  take  an  oath,  bindmg  themselves  to  reject  the 
font  of  type  under  the  supervision  of  a  special  com-  errors  that  are  denounced  in  the  Ikicyclical  or  in  the 
mission.  In  the  Encychcal  ''Acerbo  nimis"  (16  Decree ''Lamentabili".  Pius  X  reverted  to  this  vital 
April,  1905)  he  treated  of  the  necessity  of  catechismal  subject  on  other  occasions,  especially  in  those  Encyo- 
instruction,  not  only  for  children,  but  also  for  adults,  licals  that  were  written  in  commemoration  of  St. 
givins  detailed  rules,  especially  in  relation  to  suitable  Anselm  (21  April,  1909)  and  of  St.  Charles  Borromeo 
schools  for  the  religious  instruction  of  students  of  (23  June,1910),  in  the  latter  of  which  Reformist  Mod- 
the  public  schools,  and  even  of  the  universities.  He  exxdsm  was  especially  condenmed.  As  the  study  of  the 
caused  a  new  catechism  to  be  published  for  the  Dio-  Bible  is  both  the  most  important  and  the  most 
cese  of  Rome.  dangerous  study  in  theology,  Pius  X  wished  to  found 

As  bishop,  his  chief  care  had  been  for  the  formation  at  Rome  a  centre  for  these  studies,  to  give  assurance 
of  the  clergy,  and  in  harmony  with  this  purpose,  an  at  once  of  unquestioned  orthodoxy  and  scientific 
Encyclical  to  the  Italian  episcopate  (28  July,  1906)  worth;  and  so,  with  the  assistance  of  the  whole  Catho- 
en joined  the  greatest  caution  in  the  ordination  of  lie  world,  there  was  established  at  Rome  the  Biblical 
priests,  calling  the  attention  of  the  bishops  to  the  Institute,  imder  the  direction  of  the  Jesuits, 
tact  that  there  was  frequently  manifested  among  A  need  that  had  been  felt  for  a  long  time  was  that 
the  younger  clergy  a  spirit  of  independence  that  was  of  the  codification  of  the  Canon  Law,  and  with  a  view 
a  menace  to  ecclesiastical  discipline.  In  the  interest  to  effecting  it,  Pius  X,  on  19  March,  1904,  created  a 
of  Italian  seminaries,  he  ordered  them  to  be  visited  special  congregation  of  cardinals,  of  which  Mgr 
by  the  bishops,  and  promulgated  anew  order  of  stud-  Gasparri,  now  a  cardinal,  became  the  secretary.  The 
ies,  which  haa  been  in  use  for  several  years  at  the  most  eminent  authorities  on  canon  law,  throughout 
Roman  Seminary.  On  the  other  hand,  as  the  dioceses  the  world,  are  collaborating  in  the  formation  of  the 
of  Central  and  of  Southern  Italy  were  so  small  that  newcode,  some  of  the  provisions  of  which  have  already 
their  respective  seminaries  could  not  prosper,  Pius  been  published,  as,  for  example,  that  modifying  the 
X  established  the  regional  seminary  which  is  common  law  oi  the  Council  of  Trent  on  secret  marriages,  the 
to  the  sees  of  a  ^ven  region;  and,  as  a  consequence,  new  rules  for  diocesan  relations  and  for  episcopal 
many  small,  deficient  seminaries  were  closed.  For  visits  odlimtna,  and  the  new  organization  of  the  Roman 
the  more  efficient  guidance  of  souls,  by  a  Decree  of  Curia  (Constitution  "Sapienti  Consilio",  29  June, 
the  Sacred  O)ngregation  of  the  Consistory  (20  August.  1908).  Prior  to  that  time,  the  Congregations  for 
1910),  instructions  were  given  concerning  the  removal  Relics  and  Indulgences  and  of  Discipune  had  been 
of  parish  priests,  as  administrative  acts,  when  such  suppressed,  while  the  Secretariate  of  Briefs  had  been, 
procedure  was  required  by  grave  circumstances  that  umted  to  the  Sec^tariate  of  State.  The  characteristic* 
might  not  constitute  a  canonical  cause  for  the  re-  of  the  new  rule  is  the  complete  separation  of  the  ju- 
moval.  At  the  time  of  the  jubilee  in  honour  of  his  dicial  from  the  administrative;  while  the  functions  of 
ordination  as  a  priest,  he  addressed  a  letter  full  of  aff ec-  the  various  bureaux  have  been  more  precisely  deter- 
tion  and  wise  council  to  all  the  clergy.  By  a  recent  mined,  and  their  work  more  equalized.  The  offices  of 
Decree  (18  Nov.,  1910),  the  clergy  have  been  barred  the  Curia  are  divided  into  Tribunals  (3),  Congrega- 
from  the  temporal  administration  of  social  organiza-  tions  (11),  and  Offices  (5).  With  regard  to  the  fint, 
tions,  which  was  often  a  cause  of  grave  difficulties.        the  Tribunal  of  the  Simature  (consisting  of  cardinals  ^ 

The  pope  has  at  heart  above  all  things  the  purity  of  only)  and  that  of  the  Rota  were  revived;  to  the  Tri- 
the  faith.  On  various  occasions,  as  in  the  Encyclical  bunal  of  the  Penitentiary  were  left  only  the  cases  of 
regarding  the  centenary  of  Saint  Gregory  the  Great,  the  internal  forum  (conscience).  The  Congregations 
Plus  X  had  pointed  out  the  dangers  of  certain  new  remained  almost  as  they  were  at  first,  with  the  excep- 
theological  methods,  which,  basea  upon  Agnosticism  tions  that  a  special  section  was  added  to  that  of  the 
and  upon  Immanentbm,  necessarily  divest  the  doo-  Holy  Office  of  the  Inquisition,  for  indulgences;  the 
trine  of  the  faith  of  its  teachings  of  objective,  absolute.  Congregation  of  Bishops  and  Regulars  received  the 
and  immutable  truth,  and  aU  the  more,  when  those  name  of  Congregation  of  the  ReBgious»  and  has  to 
methods  are  associated  with  subversive  criticism  of  deal  only  with  the  affairs  of  religious  congregations, 
the  Holy  Scriptures  and  of  the  origins  of  Christianity,  while  the  affairs  of  the  secular  clergy  are  to  be  re- 
Wherefore,  in  1907^  he  caused  the  publication  of  the  ferred  to  the  Congregation  of  the  Consistory  or  of  that 
Decree  "Lamentabili "  (called  also  the  Syllabus  of  Pius  of  the  Council;  from  the  latter  were  taken  the  matri- 
X),  in  which  sixty-five  propositions  are  condemned,  monial  causes,  which  are  now  sent  to  the  tribunals  or 
The  greater  number  of  these  propositions  concern  the  to  the  newly-created  Congregation  of  the  Sacraments. 
Holy  Scriptures,  their  inspiration,  and  the  doctrine  of  The  Congregation  of  the  Consistory  has  increased 
Jesus  and  of  the  Apostles,  while  others  relate  to  dogma,  greatly  in  importance,  since  it  has  to  decide  questions 
the  sacraments,  and  the  primacy  of  the  Bishop  of  of  competence  between  the  various  other  Q)ngrega- 
Rome.  Soon  after  that,  on  8  Sept.,  1907.  there  ap-  tions.  The  Conmgation  of  Propaganda  lost  much  of 
peared  the  famous  Encyclical  ''Pascenoi",  which  its  territory  in  Europe  and  in  America,  where  reU- 
expounds  and  condemns  the  system  of  Modernism  gjous  conditions  have  become  regular.  At  the  same 
(q.  v.).  It  points  out  the  danger  of  Modernism  in  time  were  published  the  rules  andf  regulations  for  em- 
r^tion  to  philosophy,  apologetics,  exegesis,  history,    ployees  and  those  for  the  various  bureaux.    AnoUier 


! 

\ 

1 

<1 

1 

■^ 

■ 

I*''      % 

1 

1 

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■ 

I 


PIUSyBRUN 


139 


PIUBVSBIIN 


recent    Gmstitution    relates   to   the  suburbioaiian 


The  Catholic  hierarchy  has  greatly  increased  in 
numbers  during  these  first  years  of  the  pontificate  of 
Pius  X.  in  whi<3i  twenty-eight  hew  dioceses  have  been 
createOj  mostly  in  the  United  States,  Brazil,  and  the 
Philippme  Islands;  also  one  abbey  nulUus,  16  vica- 
riates Apostolic,  and  15  prefectures  Apostolic. 

Leo  XIII  brought  the  social  question  withiir  the 
range  of  ecclesiastical  activity.  Pius  X,  also,  wishes 
the  Church  to  co-operate,  or  rather  to  play  a  leading 
part  in  the  solution  of  the  social  question;  his  views 
on  this  subject  were  formulated  in  a  syllabus  of  nine- 
teen propositions,  taken  from  different  Encyclicals 
and  other  Acts  of  Leo  XIII,  and  published  in  a  Motu 
Proprio  (18  Dec.,  1903),  especially  for  the  guidance  of 
Italv,  where  the  social  question  was  a  thorny  one  at 
the  beginning  of  his  pontificate.  He  sought  especiallv 
to  repress  certain  tendencies  leaning  towards  Social- 
ism and  promoting  a  spirit  of  insubordination  to  eccle- 
siastical authority.  As  a  result  of  ever  increasing 
diverp;encie8,  the  ''Opera  dei  Congressi",  the  great 
association  of  the  Catholics  of  ItaJ^,  was  dissolved. 
At  once,  however,  the  Encyclical  "II  fermo  iiropo- 
sito^'  (11  June,  1905)  brought  about  the  formation  of 
a  new  organization  consisting  of  three  great  unions, 
the  Popolare,  the  Eksonomica,  and  the  Elettorale.  The 
firmness  of  Pius  X  obtained  the  elimination  of,  at 
least,  the  most  quarrelsome  elements,  making  it  pos- 
sible now  for  Catholic  social  action  to  prosper,  al- 
thou^  some  friction  still  remains.  The  desire  of 
Pius  X  is  for  the  economical  work  to  be  avowedly  Cath- 
olic, as  he  e?roressed  it  in  a  memorable  letter  to  Count 
Medolago-Aloani.  In  France,  also,  the  Sillon,  after 
promising  well,  had  taken  a  turn  that  was  little  reassur- 
ing to  orUiodox^;  and  dangers  in  this  connexion  were 
made  manifest  in  the  Encyclical  "Notre  charge  apos- 
tolique"  (15  Aug.,  1910),  in  which  the  Sillonists  were 
ordered  to  place  their  organizations  under  the  author- 
ity of  the  bishops. 

In  its  relations  with  Governments,  the  pontificate 
of  Pius  X  has  had  to  carry  on  painful  struggles.  In 
IVance  the  pope  had  inherited  quarrels  and  menaces. 
The  "Nobis  nominavif  question  was  settled  through 
the  condescension  of  the  pope;  but  the  matter  of  the 
appointment  of  bishops  proposed  by  the  Government, 
the  visit  of  the  president  to  the  King  of  Italy,  with  the 
subsequent  note  of  protestation,  ana  the  resignation  of 
two  French  bishops,  which  was  desired  by  the  Holy 
See,  became  pretext^  for  the  Government  at  Paris  to 
break  6ff  diplomatic  relations  with  the  Court  of  Rome. 
Meanwhile  the  law  of  Separation  had  been  already 
prepared,  despoiling  the  Church  of  France,  and  also 
prescribing  for  the  Church  a  constitution  wmch,  if  not 
openly  contrary  to  her  nature,  was  at  least  full  of 
danger  to  her.  Pius  X.  paying  no  attention  to  the 
counseb  of  short-sighted  opportunism,  firmly  refused 
his  consent  to  the  formation  of  the  aasocUUions  cvUvr 
eUea,  The  separation  brought  some  freedom  to  the 
French  Qiurch,  especiidly  in  the  matter  of  the  selec- 
tion of  its  pastors.  Pius  X,  not  looking  for  reprisals, 
still  recognizes  the  French  right  of  protectorate  over 
Catholics  in  the  East.  Some  phrases  of  the  Encyclical 
"EditsD  Seepe**,  written  on  the  occasion  of  the  cen- 
tenary of  St.  Charles,  were  misinterpreted  by  Prot- 
estants, especially  in  Germanv,  and  Pius  X  made  a 
declaration  in  refutation  of  them,  without  belittling 
the  authority  of  his  high  office.  At  present  (Dec, 
1910)  complications  are  feared  in  Spain,  as,  also,  sep- 
aration and  persecution  in  Portugal;  Fius  X  has  al- 
ready taken  opportune  measures.  The  new  Govern- 
ment of  Turkey  has  sent  an  ambassador  to  the  Pope. 
The  relations  of  the  Holy  See  with  the  republics  of 
Latin  America  are  good.  The  delegations  to  Chile  and 
to  the  Ai|^ntine  Riepublic  were  raised  to  the  rank  of 
intemuntiatures,  ana  an  Apostolic  Delegate  was  sent 
to  CeAtral  America, 


Naturally,  the  solicitude  of  Pius  X  extends  to  his 
own  habitation,  and  he  has  done  a  great  deal  of  work 
of  restoration  in  the  Vatican,  for  example,  in  the  quar- 
ters of  the  cardinal-secretary  of  State,  the  new  palace 
for  employees,  the  new  picture-gallery,  the  Specola, 
etc.  Fmally,  we  must  not  forget  nis  generous  charity 
in  public  misfortunes:  during  the  great  earthquakes 
of  Calabria,  he  asked  for  the  assistance  of  Catholics 
throughout  the  world,  with  the  result  that  they  con- 
tributed, at  the  time  of  the  last  earthquake,  nearly 
7,000,000  francs,  which  served  to  supply  the  wants  of 
those  in  need,  and  to  build  churches,  schools,  etc.  His 
charity  was  proportionately  no  less  on  the  occasion  of 
the  eruption  of  Vesuvius,  and  of  other  disasters  out- 
side of  Italy  (Portugal  and  Ireland).  In  few  years 
Pius  X  has  secured  great,  practical,  and  lasting  results 
in  the  interest  of  Catholic  doctrine  and  disciphne,  and 
that  in  the  face  of  great  difficulties  of  all  kinos.  Ev^i 
non-Catholics  recognize  his  apostolic  spirit,  his 
strength  of  character,  the  precision  of  his  decisions, 
and  Sa  pursuit  of  a  dear  and  expUcit  programme. 

Cf.  the  biographies  by  Marchesan  (EinriedelD.  1908)  trans- 
lated into  various  languages;  db  Waal,  tr.  Bero  (Milwau- 
kee, 1904);  Daelu  (Bergamo,  1906);  Brunnee  (Ratisbon, 
1908) ;  ScHMiouN  (1903) ;  Giacomello,  Pio  X  ela  eiU6  e  dioeeti 
d%  Padova  (Padua.  1908);  Life  of  Pope  Pint  X  (with  sketch  of 
Pope  Leo  XIII,  and  a  history  of  the  conclave)  with  preface  by 
Cardinal  Gibbons  (New  York,  1904);  Uopera  di  Pio  X  in 
La  Civiltd  CaUoliea,  IV  (1908),  613;  Acta  Pii  PP,  X  and  Acta 
Apottolieas  Sedia  (Vatican  press). 

U.  Bbnigni. 

PiUBTerein,  the  name  given  to  Catholic  associa- 
tions i^  various  countries  of  Europe. 

I.  The  Pius  Association  of  Germany,  named 
after  Pius  IX,  was  founded  at  Mainz  in  IS48  by  the 
cathedral  canon,  Adaip  Franz  Lennig  (d.  1866),  and 
Professor  Caspar  Riff  el  (d.  1856),  to  organize  the  Cath- 
olics of  Germany  in  defence  of  their  reUgious  freedom 
and  civil  rights.  The  platform  and  by-laws  were  pub- 
Ushed  in  the  '*Kathohk"  (Mainz,  1848).  The  organ- 
izers of  the  association  called  a  congress  of  the  Catho- 
lic societies  of  Germany  which  met  at  Mainz,  3-6 
October,  1848.  At  this  assembly  38  societies  were 
represented,  and  all  the  Catholic  associations  of  Geiv 
many  founded  to  protect'  reli^ous  interests  were 
united  into  the  ''Catholic  Association  of  Germany". 
The  annual  congresses  of  this  association  led  to  other 
efficient  organizations;  in  1848  the  Society  of  St. 
Vincent  de  Paul  and  the  Association  of  St.  EHizabeth; 
in  1849  the  Association  of  St.  Boniface:  in  1850  the 
Society  for  Christian  Art;  in  1851  the  Catholic  Jour- 
neymen's Union :  these  assemblies  were  the  precursors 
of  the  "General  Congress  of  the  Catholics  of  Ger- 
many" that  is  held  annually. 

II.  The  Piub  Association  of  Switzerland. — 
This  was  founded  in  1855  b^  Coimt  Theodore  Scherer- 
Boccard  who  remained  at  its  head  until  his  death  (d. 
1885).  Its  aim  is  to  develop  and  centralize  Cathqlic 
associational  life  in  Switzerland.  It  is  directed  by  two 
central  committees^  and  the  general  meetings  are  held 
nearly  every  year;  m  addition,  there  are  also  cantonal 
and  district  assemblies.  Many  of  the  local  associa- 
tions have  branches  for  women.  Since  1899  the  so- 
ciety was  called  the  ''Swiss  Catholic  Association";  it 
then  contained  225  groups  with  35,000  members.  On 
22  November,  1904,  it  combined  with  the  "United 
Societies  of  Catholic  Men  and  Workingmen"  and  the 
"F6d6ration  Romande"  to  form  the  "Swiss  Catholic 
Peoples  Union  " .  (See  the  "Yearbook  "  of  the  Union, 
Stans,  1907.) 

III.  The  Pius  Association  for  Promoting  the 
Catholic  Press  of  Austria,  named  after  Pius  X,  was 
founded  at  the  Fifth  Catholic  Congress  held  at  Vienna 
in  1905  after  the  presentation  of  a  convincing  report 
by  the  Jesuit,  Father  Victor  Kolb,  in  order  to  offset 
the  demoralizing  Liberal  daily  Press  with  an  equally 
able  Christian  Press.  This  end  was  to  be  gained 
largely  by  developing  the  Catholic  daily  newBpi^)enof 


PIZABBO  U 

Tioms.  The  preaidentof  the  associatian  since  iiafonnd- 
iag  has  been  Count  Fnuu  Waltecskirchen-WklfBtal. 
In  January,  ISll,  the  Pius  Awociatioa  incUided  840 
local  groups  with  a  memberHhip  of  more  than  63,000, 
and  headquart«ni  at  Vienna.  The  annual  fee  ie  one 
krone  (twenty  cents).  In  1910  the  annual  income  was 
126,000  Kr.  ($25,200);  of  ttus  amount  40,000  Kr. 
(SSOOO)  went  to  two  daily  newepapen  of  Vienna,  the 
"Reichapost"  and  the  "Vaterland";  25,000  Kr. 
(S5000)  for  campaign  purpoaes  and  associational 
periodicals;  5000  Kr.  (SIOOO)  for  the  support  of 
Catholic  newBpaper  writers;  27,000  Kr.  ($5400)  for  a 
preaa  and  correspondence  bureau.  The  bureau  sends 
daily,  Sundays  excepted,  the  "PiuavereinskorrM- 
pondeni ",  which  is  six  to  eight  pages  in  mie,  to  about 
fifty  ChristiaB  newspapers.  Since  1910  it  has  also  is- 
sued a  BUK>lement  for  use  in  different  papers  and  thus 
contribute*  largely  to  the  inteUectual  and  religiouH 
development  of  the  CathoUc  provincial  Frees  in  Aus- 
tria. There  are  12  diocesan  subsidiary  councils,  be- 
Mdes  an  Italian  section  at  Triest,  and  a  Czech  section 
at  Prague.  The  money  collected  outside  of  Vienna  ia 
partially  used  for  the  local  Preaa.  Since  the  founding 
of  the  PiuB  Association  there  has  been  a  very  notice- 
able development  of  the'  Catholic  Press  of  Austria, 
due  largely  to  writings  in  behalf  of  the  cause  and  to  the 
holding  of  meeting,  of  which  there  are  about  700 
yearly;  but  the  desired  aim  is  stJU  for  from  bang  real- 
ued. 

IV,  Academic  Pica  Associations  in  Germany,  for 
promoting  religious  intereste  and  attachment  to  the 
Church  among  Catholic  students  and  training  them 
both  socially  and  scientificallv,  were  greatly  weakened 
by  the  KTMurkampf.  In  SiDuthem  Gennany  they 
have  recently  been  organiied  as  the  "Unio  Piana"  or 
"Union  of  the  Academic  Pius  Associations";  this 
union  has  9  branch  associations  with  about  1300 
members,  of  whom  800  are  regular  membera.  Since 
1909  the  onran  of  the  aaeociation  has  been  "Der 
Akademiker   . 

M*T.  Otich.  der  JTolAiilUAiKriainnluivAi  (Frelbuia, 

Palatiht7S,  BnltUhima  dtr  Otneraltrtammtunetn  (3nd  «d., 

burg,  1864):  JaJuabrririU  il«  KuiHrniu  CVieruu.  1910); 
KRascXiVcAlirAci  HsndtaxA.lSOr-S.I  (Fniburg,  190B),  290  iq. 


D  nzuBO 

his  expedition  to  the  southem  part  of  PanMna,  bring- 
ing news  of  the  countries  situated  along  the  shore  of 
the  ocean  to  the  south,  fired  him  with  enthuaiasm. 
With  the  approbation  of  Pedrarias  he  formed  ti^ether 
with  Di^  de  Ahnagro,  a  soldier  of  fortune  w^  was 
at  that  time  in  Panama,  and  Hernando  de  Luque,  a 


BO  dtterly  unattainable  that  the  people  of  Par 

called  them  the  "company  of  lunatics  .  Having  col- 
lected the  neceasary  funifc  Kiarro  placed  himself  at 
the  head  of  the  expedition ;  Almagro  was  entrusted 
with  the  equipping  and  proviaiomng  of  the  ships;  and 
Luque  wasto  remain  behind  to  look  after  their  mutual 
interests  and  to  keep  in  Pedrarias's  favour  so  that  he 
might  continue  to  support  the  enterprise.  In  Novem- 
ber, 1524,  Hzarro  set  aail  from  Panama  with  a  party 
of    one    hundred 


o  fol- 


Pls&rro,  Francisco,  b.  in  Trujillo,  Estreroadura, 
Spun,  probably  in  1471j  d.  at  Lima,  Peru,  26  June, 
'  1541,  He  was  the  illegitunate  son  of  Goncalo  Pitarro 
and  Francisca  GonE&lea,  who  piud  little  attention  to 
his  education  and  he  grew  up  without  learning  how  to 
read  or  write.  His  father  was  a  captiun  of  infantry 
and  had  fought  in  the  Neopolitan  wars  with  el  Gran 
Capit&n  GoDEalo  de  OSrdoba.  Filled  with  enthusiasm 
at  the  accounts  of  the  exploits  of  his  countrymen  in 
America,  Pisarro  set  sail  (10  Nov.,  1509)  with  Alonio 
de  Ojeda  from  Spain,  on  the  latter's  expedition  to 
UrabA,  where  Ojeda  founded  the  city  of  San  Sebastian, 
and  left  it  in  Piiarro'a  care  when  he  returned  to  the 
ship  for  provisions.  Hardships  and  the  cUmate  having 
thinned  the  ranks  of  his  companions,  Piaarro  sailed  to 
the  port  of  Cartagena.  There  he  joined  the  fleet  of 
Martin  Femindei  de  Endso,  and  later  attached  him- 
self to  the  expedition  of  Nufiei  de  Balbo^  whom  he 
accompanied  on  his  journey  across  the  Isthmus  of 
Panama  to  discover  the  Pacific  Ocean  (29  Sept.,  1513). 
When  Balboa  was  beheaded  by  his  succewor.  Pedra- 
rias DA  Vila,  Piaarro  followed  the  fortunes  of  the  latter 
until  1515  when  Dlivila  sent  him  to  trade  with  the 
natives  along  the  Pacific  coast.  When  the  capital  was 
transferred  to  Panama  he  helped  Pedrarias  to  subju- 
gate the  warhke  tribes  of  Veraguas,  and  in  1520  accom- 
panied Eepinosa  on  his  expedition  into  the  territory  of 
the  Cacioue  Urtaca,  situated  in  the  present  Republic 
of  Costa  Rica. 

In  1522  the  accounts  of  the  achievements  of  Hemdn 
Cort^  and  the  return  of  Pascual  de  Andagoya  from 


ship  Just 
as  soon  as  it  could 
be  made  ready. 
The  result  of  this 
first  expedition 
was  dishearten- 
ing. Hiarro  went 
no  further  than 
Punta  Quemada, 
on   the  coast  of 


went  to  Chicami, 
a  short  distance 
from     Panama.  FaiBciaoo  PauBO 

From  here  he  sent  *'^  ""  ^??t,'!!^ii^Z'^^^  '**''" 
his  treasurer,  with  «!«oyi. 

the  small  quantity  of  gold  which  he  had  obtained,  to  the 
governor  to  give  an  account  of  the  expedition.  Mean- 
while Almamv  had  followed  him,  going  as  far  as  the 
Rio  de  San  Juan  (Cauca,  Colombia),  and,  not  finding 
him,  returned  to  rejoin  him  at  Chicami. 

A  second  request  to  obtain  Pedrarias's  permismon 
to  recruit  volunteers  for  the  expedition  was  met  with 
hostility,  because  the  governor  himself  was  planning 
an  eiroedition  to  Nicaragua.  Luque,  howev*,  eon- 
trived  t^  change  his  attitude,  and  the  new  governor, 
D.  Pedro  de  loe  Rios,  was  from  the  beginning  favour^ 
ably  dispraed  towards  the  cicpedition.  On  10  March, 
15^thethree  partners  Mgned  a  contract,  whereby  they 
agreed  to  diviae  equally  all  the  territory  that  uiould 
be  conquered  and  all  the  gold,  silver,  and  precious 
stones  that  should  be  found.  They  purchased  two 
ships,  and  PiEturo  and  Almagro  directed  their  course 
to  the  mouth  of  the  San  Juan  River,  where  they  sep- 
arated. Pizarro  remained  with  a  portion  of  the  sol- 
diers to  explore  the  mainland;  Alm^^o  returned  to 
Panama  to  get  reinforcements;  aniTthe  other  ship 
under  the  command  of  Ruiz  set  sail  for  the  south. 
He  went  as  far  as  Punta  de  Pasadoe,  half  a  decree 
south  of  the  equator,  and  after  making  observations 
and  collecting  an  abundance  of  information,  returned 
to  join  niarro,  who  in  the  meantime,  together  with 
his  companions,  hod  suffered  severely.  Shortly  after- 
wards AJmagro  arrived  from  Panama,  bringing  soldiers 
and  abundant  provisions.  Once  more  re-enforced  they 
started  together  taking  a  southerly  route  until  th^ 
reached  Tacamei,  the  extreme  south  of  Colombia. 
They  then  decided  that  Almagro  should  return  to 
Panama,  and  Piiarro  should  remain  on  the  Island  dd 
Gallo  to  await  further  re-enforcements.  The  arrival  of 
Almagro  and  the  news  of  the  sufferings  of  the  ezplor- 


nZARBO  141  PIZABBO 

ers  alarmed  Pedro  de  los  Rios,  who  sent  two  ships  to  15  Nov.,  after  a  long,  distressing  journey  and  without 
the  Island  del  Gallo  with  orders  to  bring  back  aQ  the  opposition  from  the  Indians,  he  entered  the  city  of 
members  of  the  expedition.  Pizarro  and  thirteen  of*  Caxamalca  (now  Caxamarca).  Treacherously  invited 
his 


was 

lested -^  .„                                       «          „              . 

number,  they  built  a  raft  and  squght  refuge  on  the  iards  rushed  upon  the  unsuspecting  Indians,  mas- 
Island 'of  Gorgona  on  the  coasts  of  Colombia.  sacred  them  in  the  most  homble  manner,  and  took 
Meanwhile  Almagro  and  Luque  endeavoured  to  possession  of  their  chief.   Deprived  of  its  leader  the 

gadf y  the  governor  who  at  last  consented  that  a  ship  great  army  that  was  encamped  near  Caxamalca,  not 

e  sent,  but  only  with  a  sufficient  force  to  man  it,  and  knowing  what  to  do,  retreated  into  the  interior.    As 

with  positive  orders  to  Pizarro  to  present  himself  at  the  price  of  his  release  the  Inca  monarch  offered  his 

Panama  within  six  months.    When  the  ship  arrived  captives  gold  enough  to  fill  the  room  (22  by  17  feet) 

without  reinforcements  Rzarro  determined,  with  the  in  which  he  was  held  captive.    In  a  few  months  the 

aid  of  the  few  nien  that  he  stiU  had  with  him,  to  under-  promise  was  fulfilled.    Gold  to  the  amount  of  4,605,- 

take  an  expedition  southward.    Skirting  the  coast  of  670  ducats  (15,000,000  pesos),  according  to  Garcilaso 

the  present  Republic  of  Ecuador,  he  directed  his  course  de  la  Vega,  was  accumulated  and  Atahuallpa  claimed 

towards  the  city  of  Tumbez  in  the  north  of  what  is  his  freedom.    At  this  juncture  Ahnagro  arrived  with 

now  Peru.     Seeing  that  the  natives  were  friendly  soldiers  to  strengthen  their  position,  and  naturally 

towards  him,  he  continued  his  voyage  as  far  as  Payta,  insisted  that  they  too  should  snare  in  the  booty.   This 

doubled  the  point  of  Aguja,  and  sailed  along  the  coast  was  agreed  to  and  after  the  fifth  part,  the  share  of 

as  far  as  the  point  where  the  city  of  Trujillo  was  later  the  king,  had  been  set  apart  an  adequate  division 

founded.    He  was  everywhere  well  received,  for  the  was  made  of  the  renudnder,  a  share  of  $52,000  falling 
Spaniards  in  obedience  to  his  strict  orders  had  re-  -  to  the  lot  of  each  soldier,  even  those  who  had  oome 

frained  from  any  excesses  that  might  have  incurred  at  the  end.   Notwithstanaing  Atahuallpa  was  accused 

the  enmity  of  the  Indians  and  endangered  the  ultimate  and  executed  24  June,  1534. 

result  of  the  expedition.  Finally  after  an  absence  of  From  Caxamalca  he  passed  to  the  capital  of  the 
eighteen  months  Pizarro  returned  to  Panama.  Not-  Incas,  while  his  heutenants  were  obtaining  possession 
withstanding  the  gold  he  brought  and  the  glowing  of  all  the  remaining  territonr.  In  order  to  keep  the 
accounts  he  gave,  the  governor  withdrew  his  supmrt  Indians  to{;ether  Rzarro  had  Manoo  Capac,  an  Inca, 
and  permission  to  continue  the  eirolorations.  The  crowned  king,  and  on  6  Jan.,  1535^  founded  the  city 
three  partners  then  determined  that  Pizarro  should  go  '  of  Lima,  ae  obliged  Pedro  de  Alvarado,  who  had 
to  Spain  and  lay  his  plans  before  Charles  V.  come  from  Guatemala  in  search*  of  adventure,  to  re- 
He  landed  in  Seville  in  1538  and  was  well  recdved  turn  to  his  own  territory,  and  sent  his  brother  Her- 
by  the  emperor,  then  in  Toledo,  who  was  won  by  the  nando  to  Spain  to  give  an  account  to  the  Court  of  the 
account  of  the  proposed  expedition,  and,  26  June,  new  empire  he  had  united  to  the  Crown.  He  was  well 
1529,  signed  the  memorable  agreement  (capitulacion),  receivea  by  the  emperor,  who  conferred  on  Pizarro 
in  which  the  privileges  and  powers  of  Pizarro  and  his  the  title  of  marquess  ana  extended  the  limits  of  his 
associates  were  set  forth.  On  the  former,  Charles  con-  territory  seventy  leagues  further  along  the  southern 
ferred  the  order  of  Knight  of  St.  James,  the  titles  of  coast.  The  title  of  AddatUado,  besides  that  of  Gover- 
^(2e2antoc2o,  Governor  and  Captun  General,  withabso-  nor  of  Chile,  which,  however,  had  not  yet  been  con* 
lute  authority  in  all  the  territories  he  might  discover  quered,  was  conferred  on  Diego  de  Almagro.  Luque 
and  subjugate.  A  government  independent  of  that  of  was  no  longer  living.  Almagro  at  once  s^  about  the 
Pantfma  was  granted  to  him  in  perpetuity,  extending  conquest  ofChile,  toking  with  him  all  those  who  were 
two  hundred  leagues  to  the  south  of  the  River  San{i-  willing  to  follow. 

ago,  the  boundary  between  Colombia  and  Ecuador.  Manco  Capac  was  meanwhile  trying  to  foment  an 

He  had  the  privilege  of  choosing  the  officers  who  were  uprising  in  tne  whole  of  Peru,  actually  besieging  the 

to  serve  under  him,  of  administering  justice  as  chief  cities  of  Lima  and  Cuzco.    The  arrival  of  Abnso  de 

constable  (al^uaeil),  and  his  orders  were  revocable  Alvarado,  brother  of  the  companion  of  Cort^,  saved 

only  by  the  Cons^o  Real,    Pizarro  agreed  to  take  250  Lima,  but  Cuzco,  where  the  tnree  brothers  of  Pizarro 

soldiers  and  provide  the  boats  and  ammunition  indis-  were,  was  only  saved  by  the  return  of  Almagro  from 

pensable  for  such  an  expedition.  He  sailed  from  Seville  his  expedition  to  Chile  and  his  claim  that  the  city  of 

18  January,  1530,  takme  with  him  his  brothers.  Her-  Cuzco  was  situated  in  the  territory  which  had  been 

nando,  who  was  the  only  legitimate  son,  Juan,  and  assigned  to  him  in  the  royal  decrees.    The  Indians 

Gonzalo,  all  of  whom  were  to  play  an  important  part  were  put  to  ffight,  >Umagro  took  forcible  possession 

in  the  histpry  of  Peru.   Arrived  in  Panama  he  had  the  of  the  city,  April,  1537,  and  made  Hernando  and 

task  of  pacifying  his  two  associates  who  were  dissatis-  Gonzalo  prisoners,  Juan  having  died.    Troops,  how- 

fied  with  the  scant  attention  he  had  secured  fot  them  ever,  were  hurrying  from  Lima  to  the  rescue;  Almacro 

from  the  Court.    Early  in  January,  1531,  Pizarro  set  was  defeated,  taken  prisoner,  and  executed,  JiD^. 

sail  from  the  port  of  Panama  with  3  ships,  180  men,  1538.    Hernando  went  to  Spain  but  was  not  received 

and  27  cavaliers.    Almagro  and  Luque  remained  be-  well  at  the  Court;  he  was  imprisoned  until  1560,  and 

hind  to  procure  further  assistance  and  send  reinforce-  died  at  the  age  of  one  hundred  almost  in  dire  poverty* 

ments.    He  landed  in  the  Bay  of  San  Mateo  near  the  Gonzalo  launched  on  his  intrepid  expedition  to  explore 

mouth  of  the  Santiago  River,  and  started  to  expk>re  the  Amazon,  returning  to  find  that  his  brother  Fran- 

the  coast  on  foot.   The  three  boats  were  sent  back  to  cisco  was  no  more.  The  followers  of  Almagro,  offended 

Panama  for  reinforcements.  by  the  arrogant  conduct  of  Pizarro  and  his  followers 

The  explorers  passed  by  Puerto  Viejo  and  came  as  after  the  defeat  and  execution  of  Almagro,  organized 

far  as  the  city  of  Tumbez,  where  they  embarked  in  a  conspiracy  which  ended  in  Pizarro's  assassination  of 

some  Indian  rafts  and  passed  over  to  the  Island  of  the  conqueror  of  Peru  in  his  palace  at  Lima. 

Puna  in  the  Gulf  of  Guayaquil.    Here  they  were  hard  Pizarro  had  four  children:  a  son  whose  name  and 

pressed  by  the  attacks  of  the  islanders,  when  relief  the  name  of  his  mother  are  not  known,  and  who  died 

came  in  the  form  of  two  vessels  with  a  hundred  men  in  1544;    Gonzalo  by  an  Indian  girl,  In^s  Huaillas 

and  some  horses  commanded  by  Hernando  de  Soto.  Yupanqui,  who  was  legitimized  in  1537  and  died  when 

Thus  reinforced  and    knowing   that  the  brothers  he  was  fourteen;   by  the  same  woman,  a  daughter, 

Atahuallpa  and  Huascar  were  at  war  with  each  other,  Francisca^  who  su|}sequently  married  after  having 

Pizarro  determined  to  penetrate  into  the  interior  of  been  leratimized  by  imperial  aecree,  together  with  her 

the  empire  and  left  Tumbes  early  in  May,  1532.   On  unde  Hernando  Piiarroi  10  Oct.,  1537;  and  a  mm, 


B^tT?ri!^i^  y™  '?vr£?"  °{J!^&°'^'^°°--^^^1  -perorHoiiorius'by  King  Waller,  and  in  416  went  to 
SS2ii^Li';«iSi:;;^1ci?<B^toS!!"U)^^  tSe  Coun  d  lUveimr  N«t  ConBUntiu«.  the  E^ 

Biagn/ia  it  Aiahuatpa,  AiakuaUiia,  Aiaiaiiia,  i  Aiaiaiifa  (M«i-    perors  cluef  general  and  later  Palriciut  of   Gaul. 

iso,  laW):  Bancho.  Rf  .       .        .  ■ 


Rahdiio,  Spsoub  tr 


PlMBt.     See  Ex- 

■qCATDB. 

PUoldi^  Galla, 
Queen  of  Rome,  b. 
■in  393;  d.  27  Nov., 
450;  the  daughter  of 
TheodoBius  the  Great 
^  hifi  second  wife 
Galla,  whom  he  mar- 
ried in  388  and  for 
whom  he  afterwards 
took  the  (icld  against 
the  usurper  M  ax i  m  us 
and  conquered  Italy, 
which  he  restored  to 
hifl  wife's  brother 
Valentin  ian.  The 
death  of  the  latter 
put  an  end  to  the  last 
imperial    dynas'" 


to  many 

her.  Neoessity  forced 
her  consent  (417) 
te  the  marriage,  the 
fruits  of  which  were 
a  daughter,  Justa 
Grata  Honoris,  and 
later  a  son,  Placidus 
Valentinianus. 

In421CoDBtantiuB 
was  made  emperor 
and  Placidia  received 
the  title  of  Augusta. 
ConstantiuB  died 
this  same  year.  Fear- 
ful of  new  disturb- 
ances in  Ravenna, 
Honorius  sent  her 
to  Constantinople. 
When  the  latter  died 
,(423),  Johannes  took 
possession  of  Italy 
by  force.  Placidia, 
with  her  SOD  Valen- 


corted  by  an  E^ast- 


iHTBBioR  or  Tax  MicKiuuK  Or  Oalla  Placidia.  Rat; 

V  Cestuiy.    (Hea  Artlels,  Puatinc,  RsligiouA.) 

'o!  the  Western  Roman  Empire  and  Theodouus  be-  em  Roman  army,  left  for  Aquila,  and  thence  to 

came  the  sole  ruler  of  the  Roman  Empire.    He  was  Ravenna.     Johannes  was  conquered  and  captured, 

succeeded  (395)  by  Arcadius  and  Honorius,  two  sona  Valentinian  III  was  called  to  the  throne  in  Rome, 

by  his  first  marriage.    Stilicbo  conducted  t^e  govern-  Pladdia  conducted  the  government  as  regent  with 

roent  in  Wesl«m  Rome  for  Honoriua.    In  his  house  skill  and  foresight,  her  advisers  being  the  faithful 


Galla  Placidia  grew 
\xp  to  maturity  at  the 
side  of  his  wife 
Serena.  When,  after 


the   ( 


n  of 


Boniface,  Prefect  of 
the  Province  of 
Africa,  and  thePatri-' 
cius  Aetius.  In  her 
children  she  had  lit- 
tle pleasure.  Placidia 
deserves  great  praiae 
for  her  services  to  the 
Church,  she  used 
her  influence  to  fur- 
ther the  plans  of  Leo 
I  when  be  pleaded 
with  TheododuB  II 
to  put  an  end  to  the 
heresy  of  Eutyches. 


Stilicho,  Alaric,  mui 
bia  army  of  Goths, 
bore  down  on  Italy 
and  Rome,  the  wrath 
of  the  people  against 
Serena  became  in- 
tense. The  opinion 
prevailed  that  her 
vengeance  had  bid- 
den this  invasion. 
She  was  condemned 
to  death  by  the  Sen- 
ate, which  compelled 
the  consent  of  Pla- 
cidia to  its  sentence 
r'nst  her.  With 
act  of  desper- 
ation, Placidia  makes 
her  appearance  on 
the  world's  stage. 
After  the  second 
storming  of  Rome  by 
the  Goths,  she  was 
taken  a  hostage  by 

Alaric  on  his  return  to  Calabria.  After  the  lat-  churches  gave  a' 
tor's  death  Ataulf  became  king,  and,  uived  by  Pla-  fifth  centurv. 
cidia,  began  peace  negotiations  with  HonoriuB  at  n>^f°ii3  J^"  '"  *"*" 
Ravenna.  These  bang  fruitless,  he  traversed  the  (P">""sm,  ibos), 
Italian  peninsula  with  his  Goths,  closed  the  Alps 
and  established  himself  in  Southern  Gaul  where  he  Flftddui,  Saint,  disciple  of  St.  Benedict,  the  son 
and  Placidia  were  married  at  Narbo  (417).  In  spite  of  the  patrician  Tertullus,  was  bioi^ht  as  a  child  to 
of  the  opposition  of  her  enemies,  Atautf  yielded  to  her  St.  Benedict  at  Sublaq^ueum  (Subiaco)  and  dedicated 
influence  in  negotiating  peace  with  Honorius.  In  to  God  as  provided  for  in  chapter  Ixix  of  St.  Benedict's 
Barcelona,  Placidia  gave  birth  to  a  son,  Theodosius,  Rule.  Here  too  occurred  the  incident  related  by  St. 
who  died  soon  afterwards.  Death  also  overtook  her  Gregory  (Dialogues,  II,  vii)  of  his  rescue  from  drown- 
husband,  who  died  a  victim  of  revenge.    Singerich,     ing  when  his  f^ow  monk,  Maurus,  at  St.  Benedict'! 


venna,  Rimini,  and 
Rome,  restored 
others,  or  adorned 
them  with  mosaics. 
Among  these  are  the 
church  of  St.  John 
the  Evangelist  and 
that  of  Sts.  Naiaro 
and  Celso  in  Ra- 
venna- Her  zeal  in 
the  building  and 
beautifying  of 
H  Stimulus  to  Christian  art  m  the 

r  atick.  d.  AtlwUim:  II.  S 

Karl  Hoebeh. 


PLACITUM                              143  PliAOUES 

order  ran  across  the  surface  of  the  lake  below  the  enon  was  produced  similar  to  the  red  discoloration  of 

monastery  and  drew  Placidus  safely  to  shore.  It  ap-  the  Nile  during  its  annual  rise,  which  gave  the  water 

pears  certain  that  he  accompanied  St.  Etenedict  when,  the  appearance  of  blood.    The  latter  view  is  now  com- 

about  529|  he  removed  to  Monte  Cassino,  which  was  monly  accepted.    It  should  be  noted,  howev^  that 

said  to  have  been  made  over  to  him  by  the  father  of  the  red  discoloration  is  not  usual  in  Lower  Kni)t, 

Placidus.   Of  his  later  life  nothing  is  Known,  but  in  and  that,  when  so  discoloured^  the  water  is  not  uimt  to 

an  ancient  paaUerium  at  Vallomorosa  his  name  is  drink,  though  it  is  during  the  first,  or  green,  stage  of  the 

found  in  the  Litany  of  the  Saints  placed  among  the  rise.  Besides,  the  change  did  not  take  place  during  the 

confessors  immediately  after  those  of  St.  Benedict  and  inundation  (cf .  Ex.,  vii,  15).    The  second  plague  came 

St.  Maurus;  the  same  occurs  in  Codex  CLV  at  Sub-  seven  days  later.    Aaron  stretched  his  hand  upon  the 

iaco,  attributed  to  the  ninth  century  (see  B&umer,  waters  and  there  appeared,  an  immense  number  of 

''Johannes  Mabillon".  p.  199,  n.  2).                      ,  frogs,  which  covered  the  lan(l  and  penetrated  into  the 

There  seems  now  to  be  no  doubt  that  the"  PassioS.  houses  to  the  great  discomfort  of  the  inhabitants. 
Placidi ",  purporting  to  be  written  by  one  Gordianus,  Pharao  now  promised  to  let  the  Israelites  go  to  sacrifice 
a  servant  of  the  saint,  on  the  strength  of  which  he  is  in  the  desert  if  the  frogs  were  removed,  but  broke  his 
usually  described  as  abbot  and  mart3rr,  is  realty  the  promise  when  this  was^done.  The  third  plague  con- 
work  of  Peter  the  Deacon,  a  monk  of  Monte  Cassmo  iir  sisted  of  swarms  of  gnats  which  torment^  man  and 
the  twelfth  century  (see  Delehaye,  op.  cit.  infra).  The  beast.  The  magicians  who  in  some  way  had  imitated 
writer  seems  to  have  begun  by  confusing  St.  Placidus  the  first  two  wonders  could  not  imitate  this,  and  were 
with  the  earlier  Placitus,  who,  with  Euticius  and  thirty  forced  to  exclaim  "This  is  the  finger  of  God''.  The 
companions,  was  martyred  in  Sicily  under  Diocletian,  fourth  was  a  pest  of  flies.  Pharao  now  agreed  to  allow 
their  feast  occurring  in  the  earlier  martyrologies  on  5  the  Israelites  a  three  davs'  journey  into  the  desert,  but 
October.  Having  thus  made  St.  Placidus  a  martyr,  he  when  at  the  prayer  of  Moses  the  flies  were  taken  awajr, 
proceeds  to  account  for  this  by  attributing  his  mart3rr-  he  failed  to  keep  his  promise.  The  fifth  was  a  murrain 
dom  to  Saracen  invaders  from  Spain — an  utter  an-  or  cattle-pest,  which  Killed  the  beasts  of  the  Egyptians, 
achronism  in  the  sixth  century  but  ouite  a  possible  while  sparing  those  of  the  IsraeUtes.  The  sixth  con- 
blunder  if  the  "Acta"  were  composed  after  the  Mos-  sisted  m  boils  which  broke  out  both  on  men  and 
lem  invasions  of  Sicily.  The  wnole  question  is  dis-  beasts.  The  seventh  was  a  fearful  hailstorm.  "The 
cussed  by  the  BoUandists  (infra),  hail  destroyed  through  all  the  land  of  Egypt  all  things 

iiote  55.,  Ill  Oct.  (Bruisela,  1770).  ft5-i47;  Mabillon.  Acrfa  that  were  m  the  field,  both  man  and  beast:  and  the 

55.  0. 5.  B.,  I  (Pans,  1668),  45;  Idem,  AnnaUi  0. 5.  fi..  I  (Paru.  u^:]  -•^nfj.  nvf^rv  hprh  of  thf*  fipW    and  it  hmkn  pvprv 

1703);  iDBii,  Iter  italicum  (Paris.  1687).  125;  Greqoht  the  ?"'  ®?\v®  every  nero  oi  tnc  neiQ,  »ia  II  oroKC  every 

Orxat,  Dial.,  II.  ui.  v,  vU,  in  P.  L..  LXV,  140, 144. 146;  Pirri,  tree  of  the  country.  Only  m  the  land  of  Gessen.  where 

Sieiiiaaaera  (Palermo.  1733).  359.  379.  432.  ii»;  Abbatima.  the  children  of  Israel  Were,  the  hail  fell  not.^'    The 

Kitodftt.  P(acMio  (Measina.  1654);  Avo.  VUa  5.  i>2aad»  (Vemoe,  friahtpnuH    Inner   furain    nmmiapH    iLf\t\   Afrnin    hAnamp 

i583):Comp«uiwdeHo»itod»«.  Piocido  (Monte  Caasino,  1895):  ingnt^eJ^ea  King  agsjn  promiseo  ana  again  oecame 

Drlbbatb,  LeoeruU  oftht  SairUt,  tr.  Crawford  (London.  1907).  obstinate  when  the  storm  was  Stopped.   At  the  threat 

72, 106.                                 /^    Ti           TT  of  an  unheard  of  plague  of  locusts  (the  eighth)  the  serv- 

G.  Roger  Hudleston.  ants  of  Pharao  interceded  with  him'  and  he  consented 

PUdtumaeglum.  See Ex«..axcb.  T^^fl^Z^^A^'^^^fZl^Z.t^'^^i 
Plagues  of  Xgsrpt,  ten  calamities  inflicted  on  the  brought  innumerable  locusts  which  devoured  what  the 
Egyptians  to  overcome  Pharao's  obstinacy  and  force  hailstorm  had  left.  The  ninth  plague  was  a  horrible 
him  to  let  the  Israelites  leave  Egypt  (Ex.,  vii,  ^xii,  darkness  which  for  three  days  covered  all  Egypt  except 
30;  Ps.  Ixxvii,  42-51:  civ,  2&-36).  Moses's  notifica-  the  land  of  Gessen.  The  immediate  cause  of  this 
tion  of  God's  will  to  Pnarao  only  produced  an  aggrava-  plague  was  probably  the  hamsin.  a  south  or  south- 
tion  of  the  condition  of  the  Israelites,  and  the  wonder  west  wind  charged  with  sand  ana  dust,  which  blows 
of  changing  Aaron's  rod  into  a  serpent,  which  was  about  the  spring  equinox  and  at  times  produces  dark- 
wrought  in  proof  of  Moses's  Divine  mission,  made  no  ness  rivalling  that  of  the  worst  London  fogs.  As 
impression,  as  it  was  imitated  by  the  Egyptian  magi-  Pharao,  though  willing  to  allow  the  departure,  in- 
cians  (Ex.,  v;  vii,  ^13).  A  series  of  afflictions,  sisted  that  the  flocks  should  be  left  behind,  the 
culminating  in  the  destruction  of  all  the  first-bom  of  final  and  most  painful  blow  (the  tenth)  was  struck — 
Egypt,  was  required  before  Pharao  yields.  Of  the  ten  the  destruction  in  one  night  of  all  the  first-bom  of 
plagues  seven  were  produced  through  the  agency  of  Egvpt. 

Moses  and  Aaron  or  of  Moses  alone,  and  three,  namely  As  the  plagues  of  Egjrpt  find  parallels  in  natural 
the  fourth,  fifth,  and  tenth,  by  the  direct  action  of  God  phenomena  of  the  country,  many  consider  them  as 
Himself.  The  interval  of  time  within  which  they  merely  natural  occurrences.  The  last  evidently  does 
occurred  cannot  be  stated  with  certainty.  The  last  not  admit  of  a  natural  explanation,  since  a  pesti- 
four  miist  have  followed  in  close  succession  between  lence  does  not  select  its  victims  according  to  method, 
the  beginning  of  March  and  the  first  days  of  April.  The  others,  howsoever  natural  they  may  oe  at  times, 
For  when  the  hail  fell  barley  was  in  the  ear  and  flax  in  must  in  this  instance  be  considered  miraculous  bv 
bud,  which  in  Lower  Egypt  happens  about  March,  reason  of  the  manner  in  which  they  were  produced, 
and  the  IsraeUtes  left  on  the  14th  of  Nisan,  which  falls  They  belong  to  the  class  of  miracles  which  the  theo- 
in  the  latter  part  of  March  or  the  early  part  of  April,  logians  call  preternatural.  For  not  to  mention  that 
The  first  six  seem  also  to  have  succeecfea  one  another  they  were  ofextraordinary  intensity,  and  that  the  first 
at  short  intervals,  but  the  interval,  if  any,  between  occurred  at  an  unusual  time  and  place  and  with  un- 
them  and  the  last  four  is  uncertain.  The  Scriptural  usual  effects,  they  happened  at  the  exact  time  and  in 
accoimt  produces  the  impression  that  the  ten  places  the  exact  manner  predicted.  Most  of  them  were  pro- 
were  a  series  of  blows  in  quick  succession,  ana  this  is  duced  at  Moses's  command,  and  ceased  at  his  prayer, 
what  the  case  would  seem  to  have  required.  The  in  one  case  at  the  time  set  by  Pharao  himself.  Purely 
scene  of  the  interviews  of  Moses  and  Aaron  with  natural  phenomena,  it  is  clear,  do  not  occur  under 
Pharao  was  Tanis  or  Soan  in  Lower  Egypt  (Ps.  Ixxvii,  such  conditions.  Moreover,  the  ordinary  phenomena, 
12,  43).  which  were  well  known  to  the  Egyptians,  would  not 
In  the  first  plague,  the  water  of  the  river  and  of  all  have  produced  such  a  deep  impression  on  Pharao  and 
the  canab  ana  pools  of  Egypt  was  turned  to  blood  and  his  court, 
became  conrupted,  so  that  the  Egyptians  could  not  ViaopRoux,  La  BibU  et  let  dicouv.  wwd.,  II  (Paria,  1889),  285 

drink  if     anH  pvph  fhp  finhM  HiaH    rR»     vii    14-QKi^  ■***>•  I  Hummelaubr,  Comm«ni.  tn  ^xoci.  et  LerU.  (Pans.  1897),  83 

OnnK  It,   ana  even  tne  nsnes  ai«l  px.,  Vll,  14-Ja;.  ^^.  sblbbt,  Handbuch  tur  b%bl%»ch.  Gesehichte  (Freiburg,  1910). 

Commentators  are  divided  as  to  whether  the  water  was  405  sqq. 

really  changed  into  blood,  or  whether  only  a  phenom-  F.  Bschtiil. 


PLAIN                                 144  PLAIN 

Plain  Cbaait. — ^By  plain  chant  we  understand  the  Milan  in  386,  and  it  was  adopted  soon  afterwards  in 

church  music  of  the  early  Middle  Ages,  before  the  ad-  nearlv  all  the  Western  churches.    Another  importa- 

vent  of  polyphony.    Having  ^wn  up  (sradualiy  in  tion  from  the  Eastern  to  the  Western  Church  m  this 

the  service  of  Chnstian  woiihip.  it  remamed  the  ex-  century  was  the  Alleluia  chant.    This  was  a  peculiar 

elusive  music  of  the  Church  till  the  ninth  century,  kind  of  responsorial  singing  in  which  an  ^ekua 

when  polyphony  made  its  first  modest  appearance,  formed  the  responsorium  or  refrain.    This  Alleluia, 

For  centuries  again  it  held  a  place  of  honour,  being,  which  from  the  beginning  appears  to  have  been  a  lon^, 

on  the  one  hand,  cultivated  siae  by  side  with  the  new  mehsmatic  composition,  was  heard  by  St.  Jerome  in 

music,  and  serving,  on  the  other  hand,  as  the  founda-  Bethlehem,  and  at  his  instance  was  aaopted  in  Rome 

tion  on  which  its  rival  was  built.    By  the  time  vocal  by  Pope  Damascus  (36&-84).    At  first  its  use  there 

polyphony  reached  its  cuhninating  point,  in  the  six-  appears  to  have  been  confined  to  Easter  Sunday,  but 

teenth  century,  plam  chant  had  Tost  greatly  in  the  soon  it  was  extended  to  the  whole  of  Paschal  time, 

estimation  of  men,  and  it  was  more  and  more  neg-  and*  eventually,  by  St.  Gregory,  to  all  the  year  except- 

lected  during  the  following  centuries.    But  all  along  ing  the  period  of  Septuagesima. 

the  Church  ofiicially  looked  upon  it  as  her  own  music.  In  the  fifth  centuiy  antiphony  was  adopted  for  the 

and  as  particularly  suited  for  ner  services,  and  at  last.  Mass,  some  psalms  being  suns  antiphonally  at  the 

in  our  own  days,  a  revival  has  come  which  seems  beginning  of  the  Mass,  during  the  oblations,  and  dur- 

destined  to  restore  plain  chant  to  its  ancient  position  ing  the  distribution  of  Holy  Communion.    Thus  all 

of  glory.    The  name.  carUus  T^Umtu,  was  first  used  by  the  tvpes  of  the  choral  chants  had  be^  established 

theorists  of  the  twelfth  or  thirteenth  .century  to  dis-  and  from  that  time  forward  there  was  a  continuous 

tinguish  the  old  music  from  the  musica  mensiarata  or  development,  which  reached  something  like  finality 

mensurabUiSy  music  using  notes  of  different  time  value  in  the  time  of  St.  Gregory  the  Great.    During  this 

in  strict,  mathematical  proportion,  which  began  to  be  period  of  development  some  important  changes  took 

developed  about  that  time.    The  earliest  name  we  P}<^<^-  Oneof  these  was  the  shortening  of  the  Gradual, 

meet  is  cantilena  romana  (the  Roman  chant) ,  probably  This  was  orisinally  a  psalm  sung  responsorially.  It  had 

used  to  designate  one  form  of  the  chant  having  its  a  place  in  tne  Mass  from  the  very  beginning.    The 

origin  in  Rome  from  others,  such  as  the  Ambrosian  alternation  of  readings  from  scripture  with  Tesponao- 

chant  (see  Gregorian  Chant).    It  is  also  commonly  rial  singing  is  one  of  the  fundamental  features  of  the 

called  Gregorian  chant,  bdng  attributed  in  some  way  Liturgy.    As  we  have  the  responses  after  the  lessons 

to  St.  Gregory  I.  of  Matins,  so  we  find  the  Gradual  responses  after  the 

History. — ^Although  there  is  not  much  knovm  lessons  of  Mass,  during  the  singing  of  which  all  sat 

about  the  church  music  of  the  first  three  centuries,  down  and  listened.     They  were  thus  distinguished 

and  although  it  is  clear  that  the  time  of  the  presecu-  from  those  Mass  chants  that  merely  acoompani^  other 

tions  was  not  favourable  to  a  development  of  solemn  f unctioi^.     As  the  refrain  was  originally  sung  by  the 

Liturgy,  there  are  plenty  of  allusions  in  the  writmgs  people,  it  must  have  been  of  a  simple  kind.    But  it 

of  contemporary  authors  to  show  tl^t  the  early  Chru-  appears  that  in  the  second  half  of  the  fifth  century,  or, 

tians  used  to  sinp  both  in  private  and  when  assembled  at  latest,  in  the  first  half  of  the  sixth  century,  the  re- 

for  public  worship.   We  also  know  that  they  not  only  frain  was  taken  over  by  the  achola.  the  body  of 

took  their  texts  from  the  psalms  and  canticles  of  the  trained  singers.     Hand  m  hand  witn  this  went  a 

Bible,  but  also  composed  new  things.   The  latter  were  greater  elaboration  of  the  melody,  both  of  the  psalm 

generally  called  hymns,  whether  they  were  in  imita-  verses  and  of  the  refrain  itself,  probably  in  imitation 

tion  of  the  Hebrew  or  of  the  classical  Greek  poetic  of  the  Alleluia. 

forms.  There  seem  to  have  been  from  the  beginning,  This  elaboration  then  brought  about  a  shortening 
or  at  least  very  early,  two  forms  of  singing,  the  respon-  of  the  text,  until,  by  the  middle  of  the  sixth  century, 
serial  and  the  antiphonal.  The  responsorial  was  solo  we  have  only  one  verse  left.  There  remained,  how- 
singing  in  which  the  congregation  joined  with  a  kind  ever,  the  repetition  of  the  response  proper  after  the 
of  refrain.  The  antiphonal  consisted  in  the  altema-  verse.  This  repetition  gradually  ceased  only  from 
tion  of  two  choirs,  it  is  probable  that  even  in  this  the  twelfth  century  forward,  until  its  omission  was 
early  period  the  two  methods  caused  that  differentia-  sanctioned  generally  for  the  Roman  usage  by  the 
tion  in  the  style  of  musical  composition  which  we  ob-  Missal  of  the  Council  of  Trent.  The  repetition  of  the 
serve  throughout  the  later  history  of  plain  chant,  the  refrain  b  maintained  in  the  AUeluia  chant,  except 
choral  compositions  being  of  a  simple  kind,  the  solo  when  a  second  Alleluia  chant  follows,  from  the  Satur- 
compositions  more  elaborate,  using  a  more  extended  day  after  Easter  to  the  end  of  Paschal  time.  The 
compass  of  melodies  and  longer  groups  of  notes  on  Tract,  which  takes  the  place  of  the  Alleluia  chant 
single  syllables.  One  thing  stands  out  very  clearly  in  during  the  period  of  Septuagesima,  has  presented 
this  period,  namely,  the  exclusion  of  musical  instru-  some  difficulty  to  liturgists.  Prof.  Wagner  (Intro- 
ments  from  Christian  worship.  The  main  reason  for  duction  to  the  Gregorian  Melodies,  i,  78,  86)  holds 
this  exclusion  was  perhaps  the  associations  of  musical  that  the  name  is  a  translation  of  the  Greek  term 
instruments  arising  from  their  pagan  use.  A  similar  c^a^*,  which  means  a  melodic  type  to  be  applied  to 
reason  may  have  militated  in  the  West,  at  least,  several  texts,  and  he  thinks  that  the  Tracts  are  really 
against  metrical  h3rmns,  for  we  learn  that  St.  Ambrose  Graduals  of  the  older  form,  before  the  melody  was 
was  the  first  to  introduce  these  into  public  worship  in  made  more  daborate  and  the  text  shortened.  The 
Western  churches.  In  Rome  they  do  not  seem  to  have  Tracts,  then,  would  represent  the  form  in  which  the 
been  admitted  before  the  twelfth  century.  (See,  how-  Gradual  verses  were  sung  in  the  fourth  and  fifth  cen- 
ever,  an  article  by  Max  Springer  in  ''Gregorianische  turies.  Of  the  antiphonal  Mass  chants  the  Introit 
Rundschau '^  Graz,  1910,  nos.  5  and  6.)  and  Communion  retained  their  form  till  the  eighth 

In  the  fourth  century  church  music  developed  con-  century,  when  the  psalm  began  to  be  shortened, 
siderably ^particularly  m  the  monasteries  of  Syria  and  Nowadays  the  Introit  has  only  one  verse,  usually  the 
^Sypt-  Here  there  seems  to  have  been  introduced  first  of  the  psalm,  and  the  Doxology,  after  whicn  the 
about  this  time  what  is  now  generally  called  antiphon,  Antiphon  is  repeated.  The  Communion  has  lost 
i.  e.,  a  short  melodic  composition  sung  in  'connexion  psalm  and  repetition  completely,  only  the  requiem 
with  the  antiphonal  rendering  of  a  psalm.  Thisantii^  Mass  preserving  a  trace  of  the  original  custom.  But 
phon,  it  seems,  was  repeated  after  every  verse  of  the  the  Offertory  underwent  a  considerable  change  before 
psalm,  the  two  choir  sides  uniting  in  it.  In  the  West-  St.  Gregory;  the  psalm  verses,  instead  of  bemg  sung 
em  Cnurch  where  formerly  the  responsorial  method  antiphonafly  by  the  choir,  were  ^ven  over  to  the 
seems  to  have  been  used  alone,  the  antiphonal  method  soloist  and  accordingly  received  nch  melodic  treat- 
was  introduced  by  St.  Ambrose.    He  first  used  it  in  ment  like  the  Gradual  verses.    The  antiphon  itself 


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alao  participated  to  some  extent  in  this  melodic  en- 
richment. The  Offertory  verses  were  omitted  in  the 
late  Middle  Ages,  and  now  only  the  Offertorv  of  the 
requiem  Mass  shows  one  verse  with  a  partial  repeti* 
tion  of  the  antiphon. 

After  the  time  of  St.  Gr^ory  musical  composition 
suddenly  began  to  flag.  For  the  new  feasts  that  were 
inUt>duced,  either  existing  chants  were  adopted  or  new 
texts  were  fitted  with  existing  melodies.  Only  about 
twenty-four  new  melodies  appear  to  have  been  com- 
poeed  in  the  seventh  century :  at  least  we  cannot  prove 
that  they  existed  before  tne  year  600.  After  the 
seventh  century,  composition  of  the  class  of  chants 
we  have  discussed  c^ised  completely,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  some  Alleluias  which  did  not  gain  general 
acceptance  till  the  fifteenth  century,  when  a  new 
Alleluia  was  composed  for  the  Visitation  and  some 
new  chants  for  the  Mass  of  the  Holy  Name  (see 
''The  Sarum  Gradual  and  the  Gregorian  Antiphonale 
Missarum''  by  W.  H.  Frere,  London,  1895.  pp.  20, 30). 
It  was  different,  however,  with  another  claes  of  Mass 
chants  comprised  under  the  name  of  "Ordinarium 
Missse".  Of  theae  the  Kyrie,  Gloria,  and  Sanctus 
were  in  the  Gregorian  Liturgy,  and  are  of  very  ancient 
origin.  The  Agnus  Dei  appears  to  have  been  insti- 
tuted bv  Sergius  I  (687-701)  and  the  Credo  appears 
in  the  Roman  Liturgy  about  the  year  8(X).  but  only 
to  disappear  again,  until  it'  was  finally  adopted  for 
special  occasions  by  Benedict  VIII  (1012-24).  All 
tnese  chants,  however,  were  originally  assigned,  not 
to  the  schoUif  but  to  the  clergy  and  people.  Accord- 
ingly their  melodies  were  very  simple,  as  those  of  the 
Ciedo  are  still.  Later  on  they  were  assigned  to  the 
choir,  and  then  the  singers  began  to  compose  more 
elaborate  melodies.  The  chants  now  found  in  our 
books  assigned  to  Ferias  may  be  taken  as  the  older 
forms. 

Two  new  forms  of  Mass  music  were  added  in  the 
ninth  century,  the  Sequences  and  the  Tropes  or 
Proses.  Both  had  their  origin  in  St.  Gall.  Notker 
gave  rise  to  the  Sequences,  which  were  originally 
meant  to  supply  words  for  the  lon^issinuB  mdodus 
sung  on  the  final  syllable  of  the  Alleluia.  These  *  *  very 
long  melodies''  do  not  seem  to  have  been  the  melis- 
mata  which  we  find  in  the  Gregorian  Chant,  and 
which  in  St.  Gall  were  not  longer  uian  elsewhere,  but 
special  melodies  probably  imported  about  that  time 
from  Greece  (Wagner,  op.  cit.,  I,  222).  Later  on  new 
melodies  were  invented  for  the  Sequences.  What 
Notker  did  for  the  Alleluia,  hb  contemporarv  Tuotilo 
did  for  other  chants  of  the  Mass,  especially  the  Kyrie, 
which  b^r  this  time  had  got  some  elaborate  melodies. 
The  Kvrie  melodies  were,  in  the  subsequent  centuries, 
generally  known  by  the  initial  words  of  the  Tropes 
composed  for  them,  and  this  practice  has  been  adopted 
in  the  new  Vatican  edition  of  the  "Kyriale".  Se- 
quences and  Tropes  became  soon  the  favourite  forma 
of  expression  of  medieval  piety,  and  innumerable 
compositions  of  the  kind  are  to  oe  met  with  in  the 
medieval  service  books,  until  the  Miasal  of  the  Council 
of  Trent  reduced  the  sequences  to  four  (a  fifth,  the 
Stabat  Mater,  being  added  in  1727)  and  abolished  the 
Tropes  altogether.  Aa  regards  the  Office.  Gevaert 
(La  M61op^  Antique)  holds  that  one  whole  class  of 
antiphons,  namely  those  taken  from  the  '^Gesta 
Mart3rrum",  belong  to  the  seventh  century.  But  he 
points  out  also  that  no  new  melodic  type  is  found 
amongst  them.  So  here  again  we  find  the  ceasing  of 
mekxuc  invention  after  St.  Gregory.  The  responses 
of  the  Office  received  many  changes  and  additions 
after  St.  Gregory,  especially  in  Gaul  about  the  ninth 
century,  when  the  old  Roman  method  of  repeating  the 
whole  response  proper  after  the  verses  was  repukced 
by  a  repetition  of  merely  the  second  half  of  tne  re- 
sponse. This  GaUican  method  eventually  found  its 
way  into  the  Roman  use  and  is  the  common  one  now. 
But  as  the  changes  affected  only  the  verses,  which 
XII.— 10 


have  fixed  formul®  easily  applied  to  different  texts, 
the  musical  question  was  not  much  touched. 

St.  Gr^ory  compiled  the  lAtnrgy  and  the  music  for 
the  local  Roman  use.  He  had  no  idea  of  extending  it 
to  the  other  Churches,  but  the  authority  of  his  name 
and  of  the  Roman  See,  as  well  as  the  intrinsic  value 
of  the  work  itself,  caiised  his  Liturgy  and  chant  to 
be  adopted  gradually  by  practically  the  whole  Western 
Church.  During  hb  own  lifetime  they  were  intro- 
duced into  England  and  from  there,  by  the  earlv 
missionaries,  into  Germany*  (Wagner^  "Einfuhrung* , 
IL  p.  88).  They  conquered  Gaul  mainlv  through  the 
efforts  of  Pepin  and  Charlemagne,  and  about  the  same 
time  they  besan  to  make  their  way  into  Northern 
Italy,  where  the  Milanese,  or  Ambrosian,  Liturgy  had 
a  finn  hold,  and  into  Spain,  although  it  took  centuries 
before  they  became  universal  in  these  regions.  While 
the  achola  founded  by  St.  Gregory  kept  the  tradition 
pure  in  Rome,  they  also  sent  out  singers  to  foreign 
parts  from  time  to  time  to  check  the  tradition  there, 
and  copies  of  the  authentic  choir  books  kept  in  Rome 
helped  to  secure  uniformity  of  the  melodies.  Thus  it 
came  about  that  the  MS.  in  neumatic  notation  (see 
Neum)  from  the  ninth  century  forward,  and  those  in 
staff  notation  from  the  eleventh  to  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury, present  a  wonderful  uniformity.  Only  a  few 
slight  changes  seem  to  have  been  introduced.  The 
most  important  of  these  was  the  change  of  the  reciting 
note  of  the  3rd  and  8th  modes  from  b  to  c,  which  seema 
to  have  taken  place  in  the  ninth  century.  A  few  other 
slight  changes  are  due  to  the  notions  of  theorists 
during  the  ninth  and  following  centuries. 

These  notions  included  two  things:  (1)  the  tone 
system,  which  comprised  a  double  octave  of  naturaL 
tones,  from  A  to  a'  with  G  added  below,  and  allowing 
only  one  chromatic  note,  namely  h  flat  instead  of  the 
second  &;  and  (2)  eight  modes  theory.  Aa  some  of  the 
Gregorian  melodies  did  not  well  fit  in  with  this  theo- 
retic system,  exhibiting,  if  ranged  according  to  the 
mode  theory,  other  chromatic  notes,  such  as  e  flat,  / 
sharp,  and  a  lower  B  flat,  some  theorists  declared  them 
to  be  wrong,  and  advocated  their  emendation.  Fortu- 
nately the  singers,  and  the  scribes  who  noted  the  tradi- 
tional melodies  in  staff  notation,  did  not  all  share  this 
view.  But  the  difficulties  of  expressing  the  melodies 
in  the  accepted  tone  system,  with  h  flat  as  the  only 
chromatic  note,  sometimes  forced  them  to  adopt 
curious  expedients  and  slight  changes.  But  as  the 
scribes  did  not  ail  resort  to  the  same  method,  their 
differences  enable  us,  as  a  rule,  to  restore  the  original 
version.  Another  ^ght  change  regards  some  m^xlic 
ornaments  entailing  tone  steps  smaller  than  a  semi- 
tone. The  older  chant  contained  a  good  number  of 
these,  especially  in  the  more  elaborate  melodies.  In 
the  staff  notation,  which  was  based  essentially  on  a 
diatonic  system,  these  ornamental  notes  could  not  be 
expressed,  and,  for  the  small  step,  either  a  semitone 
or  a  repetition  of  the  same  note  had  to  be  substituted. 
Simultaneously  these  non-diatonic  intervals  must  have 
disappeared  from  the  practical  rendering,  but  the 
transition  was  so  gradual  that  nobody  seems  to  have 
been  conscious  of  a  change,  for  no  writer  alludes  to  it. 
Wagner  (op.  cit.,  II,  paanm),  who  holds  that  these 
ornaments  are  of  Oriental  origin  though  they  formed  a 
genuine  part  of  the  sixth-century  melodies,  sees  in 
their  disappearance  the  complete  latinisation  of  the 
plain  chant. 

A  rather  serious,  though  fortunately  a  singular, 
interference  of  theory  with  tradition  is  found  in 
the  form  of  the  chant  the  Cist^cians  arranged  for 
themselves  in  the  twelfth  century  (Wagner,  op.  cit., 
II,  p.  286).  St.  Bernard,  who  had  been  deputed  to 
secure  uniform  books  for  the  order,  took  as  his  adviser 
one  Guido,  Abbot  of  Cherlieu,  a  man  of  very  strons 
theoretical  views.  One  of  the  things  to  which  he  hela 
firmlv  was  the  rule  that  the  compass  of  a  melody 
should  not  exceed  the  octave  laid  down  for  each  nuxle 


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by  more  than  one  note  above  and  below.  This  rule  is 
broken  bv  many  Gregorian  melodies.  But  Guido  had 
no  scruple  in  applying  the  pruning  knife,  and  sixty- 
three  Graduate  and  a  few  other  melodies  had  to  un- 
dergo considerable  alteration.  Another  systematic 
change  affected  the  Alleluia  verse.  The  long  meUsma 
regularly  found  on  the  final  Syllable  of  this  verse  was 
considered  extravagant,  and  was  shortened  consider- 
ably. Similarly  a  few  repetitions  of  melodic  phrases 
in  a  melismatic  group  were  cut  out,  and  finally  the  idea 
that  the  fundamental  note  of  the  mode  should  begin 
and  end  every  piece  caused  a  few  changes  in  some 
intonations  and  m  the  endings  of  the  Introit  psalmody. 
Less  violent  changes  are  found  in  the  chant  of  the 
Dominicans,  fixed  m  the  thirteenth  century  (Wagner, 
op.  cit.,  p.  305).  The  main  variations  from  the  gen- 
eral tradition  are  the  shortening  of  the  meUsma  on  the 
final  syllable  of  the  Alleluia  verse  and  the  omission  of 
the  repetition  of  some  melodic  phrases. 

From  the  fourteenth  century  forward  the  tradition 
begins  to  go  down.  The  growing  interest  taken  in 
polyphony  caused  the  plain  chant  to  be  neglected. 
The  Dooks  were  written  carelessly;  the  forms  of  the 
neums,  so  important  for  the  rhythm,  began  to  be  dis- 
regarded, ana  shortenings  of  melismata  became  more 
general.  No  radical  changes,  however,  are  found  until 
we  come  to  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century.  The  re- 
form of  Missal  and  Breviary,  initiated  by  the  Council 
of  Trent,  gave  rise  to  renewed  attention  to  the  litur- 
gical chant.  But  as  the  understanding  of  its  peculiar 
language  had  disappeared,  the  results  were  disastrous. 
Palestnna  was  one  of  the  men  who  tried  their  hands, 
but  he  did  not  carry  his  work  through  (see  P.  R. 
•Molitor,  "Die  Nach-Tridentinische  Choral  Reform", 
2  vols.,  Leipzig,  1901-2).  Early  in  the  seventeenth 
century^  however,  Raimondi,  the  head  of  the  Medi- 
oean  pnnting  establishment,  took  up  again  the  idea  of 
publishing  a  new  Gradual.  He  commissioned  two 
musicians  of  name,  Felice  Anerio  and  Francesco  Su- 
riano.  to  revise  the  melodies.  This  they  did  in  an  in- 
credibly short  time,  less  than  a  vear,  and  with  a  simi- 
larly incredible  recklessness,  and  in  I6I4  and  1615  the 
Medicean  Gradual  appeared.  This  book  has  consider- 
able importance,  because  in  the  second  half  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  the  Congregation  of  Rites,  believ- 
ing it  to  contain  the  true  chant  of  St.  Gregory,  had  it 
republished  as  the  official  chant  book  of  the  Church, 
which  position  it  held  from  1870  to  1904.  During  the 
seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries  various  other 
attempts  were  made  to  reform  the  Gregorian  chant. 
They  were  well  intentioned,  no  doubt,  but  only  em- 

?hasized  the  downward  course  things  were  tsddng. 
'he  practice  of  singing  became  worse  and  worse,  and 
what  had  been  the  glory  of  centuries  fell  into  general 
contempt  (see  P.  R.  Molitor,  "Reform-Choral  ,  Frei- 
burg, 1901). 

i%m  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  dates 
a  revival  of  the  interest  taken  in  plain  chant.  Men 
began  to  study  the  question  seriously,  and  while  some 
saw  salvation  in  further  "reforms",  others  insisted  on 
a  return  to  the  past.  It  took  a  whole  centurv  to  bring 
about  a  complete  restoration.  France  has  the  honour 
of  having  done  the  principal  work  in  this  great  under- 
taking (see  P.  R.  Molitor,  "Restauration  des  Grego- 
rianischen  Chorales  im  19.  Jahrhundert"  in  "His- 
torisch-politische  Blatter",  CXXXV,  nos.  9-11).  One 
of  the  best  attempts  was  a  Gradual  edited  about  1851 
by  a  conmiission  for  the  Dioceses  of  Reims  and  Cam- 
brai,  and  published  by  Lecoffre.  Being  founded  on 
limited  critical  material,  it  was  not  perfect;  but  the 
worst  feature  was  that  the  editors  had  not  the  courage 
to  go  the  whole  way.  The  final  solution  of  the  difficiut 
question  was  to  come  from  the  Benedictine  monastery- 
of  Solesmes.  Gu^ranger,  the  restorer  of  the  Liturgy.  ^\ 
also  conceived  the  idea  of  restoring  the  liturdcalr 
chant.  About  1860  he  ordered  two  of  his  monks,  Dom  ^If 
Jausiops  and  Dom  Pothier,  to  make  a  thorough  exam-@ 


ination  of  the  codices  and  to  compile  a  Gradual  for  the 
monastery.  After  twelve  years  of  close  work  the 
Gradual  was  in  the  main  completed,  but  another 
eleven  years  elapsed  before  Dom  Pothier,  who  on  the 
death  of  Dom  Jausions  had  become  sole  editor,  pub- 
.. lished  his ' '  Liber  Gradualis  " .  It  was  the  Gnt  attempt 
to  return  absolutely  to  the  version  of  the  MSS.,  and 
though  capable  of  improvements  in  details  sohred  the 
Question  substantially.  This  return  to  the  version  of 
the  MSS.  was  illustrated  happily  by  the  adoption  of 
the  note  forms  of  the  thirteenth  century,  which  show 
clearly  the  groupings  of  the  neums  so  important  for 
the  rh3rthm.  Since  that  date  the  work  of  investigating 
the  MSS.  was  continued  by  the  Solesmes  monks,  who 
formed  a  regular  school  of  critical  research  under  Dom 
Mocquereau,  Dom  Pothier's  successor.  A  most  valu- 
able outcome  of  their  studies  is  the  "  Pal6ographie 
Musicale",  which  has  appeared,  since  1889,  in  quar- 
terly volumes,  giving  photographic  reproductions  of 
the  principal  MSS.  of  plain  chant,  togetner  with  scien- 
tific dissertations  on  the  subject.  In  1903  they  pub- 
lished the  "Liber  Usualis",*an  extract  from  the  Grad- 
ual and  antiphonary,  in  which  they  embodied  some 
melodic  improvements  and  valuable  rhythmical  direc- 
tions. 

A  new  epoch  in  the  history  of  plain  chant  was  inau- 
gurated by  Pius  X.  By  his  Motu  Proprio  on  church 
music  (22  Nov.,  1903)  he  ordered  the  return  to  the 
traditional  chant  of  the  Church  and  accordingly  the 
Congregation  of  Rites,  by  a  decree  of  8  Jan.,  1904, 
withdrawing  the  former  decrees  in  favour  of  the  Ratia- 
bon  (Medicean)  edition,  commanded  that  the  tradi- 
tional form  of  plain  chant  be  introduced  into  all 
churches  as  soon  as  possible.  In  order  to  facilitate 
this  introduction,  Pius  X,  by  a  Motu  Proprio  of  25 
April,  1904,  established  a  commission  to  prepare  an 
edition  of  plain  chant  which  was  to  be  brought  out  by 
the  Vatican  printing  press  and  which  all  publishers 
should  get  permission  to  reprint.  Unfortunately  dif- 
ferences of  opinion  arose  between  the  majority  of  the 
members  of  the  commission,  including  the  Solesmes 
Benedictines,  and  its  president,  Dom  Joseph  Pothier, 
with  the  result  that  the  pope  gave  the  whole  control  of 
the  work  to  Dom  Pothier.  The  consequence  was  that 
magnificent  MS.  material  which  the  Solesmes  monks, 
expelled  from  France,  had  accumulated  in  their  new 
home  on  the  Isle  of  Wight,  first  at  Appuldurcombe 
afterwards  at  Quarr  Abbey,  remained  unused.  The 
Vatican  edition,  however,  though  it  is  not  all  that 
modem  scholarship  could  have  made  it,  is  a  great 
improvement  on  Dom  Pothier's  earlier  editions  and 
represents  fairly  well  the  reading  of  the  best  MSS. 

Tone  System  and  Modes. — ^The  theory  of  the  plain 
chant  tone  system  and  modes  is  as  yet  somewhat 
obscure.  We  have  already  remarked  that  the  current 
medieval  theory  laid  down  for  the  tone  system  a 
heptatonic  diatonic  scale  of  about  two  octaves  with 
the  addition  of  b  flat  in  the  higher  octave.  In  this  sys- 
tem four  notes,  d,  e,/,  and  p,  wefe  taken  as  fundamen- 
tal notes  (tonics)  of  modes.  Each  of  these  modes  was 
subdivided  according  to  the  compass,  one  class,  called 
authentic,  having  the  normal  compass,  from  the  fun- 
damental note  to  the  octave,  the  other,  called  plM^al, 
from  a  fourth  below  the  fundamental  note  to  a  mth 
above.  Thus  there  result  eight  modes.  These,  of 
course,  are  to  be  understood  as  differing  not  in  abso- 
lute pitch,  as  their  theoretical  demonstration  and  also 
the  notation  might  suggest,  but  in  their  internal  con- 
struction. The  notation,  therefore,  refers  merely  to 
relative  pitch,  as  does,  e.  g.,  the  tonic  sol-fa  notation. 
Not  being  hampered  by  instrumental  accompaniment, 
singers  and  scribes  did  not  bother  about  a  system  of 
transposition,  which  in  ancient  Greek  music,  for  in- 
stance, was  felt  necessary  at  an  early  period. 

The  theoretical  distinction  between  authentic  and 
plagal  modes  is  not  borne  out  by  an  analysis  of  the 
exiting  melodies  and  their  traditional  classification 


PLAIN 


147 


PLAIN 


(see  Ft.  Krasuakiy  "Ueber  den  Ambitus  der  rt^o- 
rianischen  Messgesfinge"^  Freiburg,  1903).  MelocGes 
of  the  fourth  mode  having  a  constant  h  flat  fall  in 
badly  with  the  theoretic  conception  of  a  fourth  mode 
having  b  natural  as  its  normal  note,  and  some  antiphon 
melodies  x>f  that  mode,  although  thev  use  no  b  flat  but 
have  a  as  their  highest  note,  e.  g.  the  Easter  Sunday 
Introit,  are  out  of  joint  with  the  psalmody  of  that 
mode.  It  would,  therefore,  seem  certain  that  the  ei^t 
mode  theory  was,  as  a  ready  made  system,  imposed  on 
the  existing  stock  of  plain  chant  melodies.  Historically 
the  first  mention  of  tne  theory  occurs  in  the  writings  of 
Alcuin  (d.  804),  but  the  "Pal6ographie  Musicale"  (IV, 
p.  204)  points  out  that  the  existence  of  cadences  in  the 
Introit  psalmody  based  on  the  literary  cursua  plamu 
tends  to  show  that  an  ei^ht  mode  theory  was  current 
already  in  St.  Gregory's  time.  From  the  tenth  centurv 
forward  the  four  modes  are  also  known  bv  the  Greek 
terms,  Dorian,  Phrygian,  Lydian,  and  Mixolydian, 
the  plagals  being  indicated  by  the  prefix  Hypo.  But 
in  the  ancient  Greek  theory  these  names  were  applied 
to  the  scales  e-e^  d-d,  <Xj  b-b  respectively.  The  trans- 
formation of  the  theory  seems  to  have  come  to  pass, 
by  a  complicated  and  somewhat  obscure  process,  in 
Bvsantine  music  (see  Riemann,  "Handbuch  der  Mu- 
sikgeschichte",  I,  §31).  The  growth  of  the  melodies' 
themselves  ma}r  have  taken  place  partly  on  the  basis 
of  Hebrew  (Syrian)  elements,  partly  under  the  influ- 
ence of  the  var3ring  Greek  or  Byzantine  theories. 

Rhtthm. — Iractically,  the  most  important  ques- 
tion of  plain  chant  theory  is  that  of  the  rnvthm.  Mere 
again  opinions  are  divided.  The  so-callea  equalists  or 
oratorists  hofd  that  the  rhythm  of  plain  chant  is  the 
rhythm  of  ordinary  prose  Latin;  that  the  time  value 
of  all  the  notes  is  the  same  except  in  as  far  as  ^eir 
connexion  with  the  different  syllables  ms^es  slight 
differences.  They  hold,  however,  the  prolongation  of 
final  notes,  mora  vUima  vocis,  not  only  at  the  end  of 
sentences  and  phrases  but  also  at  the  minor  divisions 
of  neum  groups  on  one  syllable.  In  the  Vatican  edi- 
tion the  latter  are  indicated  by  vacant  spaces  after  the 
notes.  The  mensuralists,  on  the  other  hand,  with 
Dechevrens  as  their  principal  representative,  hold 
that  the  notes  of  plain  cnant  are  subject  to  strict  meas- 
urement. They  distinguish  three  values  correspond- 
ing to  the  modem  quavers,  crotchets,  and  minims. 
They  have  in  their  favour  numerous  expressions  of 
medieval  theorists  and  the  manifold  rhytnmical  indi- 
cations in  the  MSS.,  especially  those  of  the  St.  Gall 
School  (see  Nsum).  But  their  rhythmical  translations 
of  the  MS.  readings  do  not  give  a  satisfactory  result, 
which  they  admit  themselves  by  modifying  them  for 
practical  purposes.  Moreover,  their  interpretation  of 
the  MS.  indications  does  not  seem  correct,  as  has  been 
shown  by  Baralli  in  the  ''Rassegna  Gregoriana'', 
1905-8.  We  may  mention  here  also  the  theory  of 
Riemann  (Handbuch  der  Musikgeschichte,  I,  viii). 
who  holds  that  plain  chant  has  a  r^^ar  rhythm  bauaea 
on  the  accents  of  the  texts  and  forming  two-bar 
phrases  of  four  accents.    He  transcribes  the  antiphon 

Apud  Dominum"  in  this  way: 

r  I   I   u-u— - 


|Mg 


:P2: 


-^-l"^       !     >    -f 


:tr=q 


A  -  pad   Do-mi-num    mi 


M  -  ri  -  oor  -  di  -  a. 


CO  -  pi  •  o 


A  •  pud  e-am  i««dempti-a 


This  looks  quite  plausible.  But  he  has  to  admit 
that  this  antiphon  suits  his  purposes  particularly,  and 
when  he  comes  to  more  complicated  pieces  the  result 
is  altogether  impossible,  and  for  the  long  final  neumata 
of  Graduals  he  has  even  to  suppose  tnat  they  were 
sung  on  an  added  Alleluia,  a  supposition  which  has  no 
historical  foundation.   Posnbly  the  melodies  of  Office 


antiphons,  as  they  came  from  Syria,  had  orispnally 
some  such  rhythm,  as  Riemann  states.  But  m  the 
process  of  adaptation  to  various  Latin  texts  and  under 
the  influence  of  psaknodic  singing  they  must  have  lost 
it  at  an  early  period.  A  kind  of  mtermediate  position 
between  the  oratorists  and  the  mensuralists  is  ti^en 
up  by  the  school  of  Dom  Mocc^uereau.  With  the 
onitorists  they  hold  the  free  combination  of  duple  and 
triple  note  groups.  With  the  mensuralists  they  state 
various  time  values  ran^ng  from  the  normal  duration 
of  the  short  note,  which  is  that  of  a  syllable  in  ordinary 
recitation,  to  the  doubling  of  that  duration.  Their 
system  \a  based  on  the  agreement  of  the  rhvthmical 
indications  in  the  MSS.  of  St.  Gall  and  Metz,  and 
recentl3r  Dom  Beyssac  has  pointed  out  a  third  class  of 
rhj^hmical  notation,  which  he  calls  that  of  Chartres 
("Revue Gr6gorienne",  1911.  no.  1).  Moreover,  they 
find  their  theories  supported  by  certain  proceedings  in 
a  large  number  of  other  MSS.,  as  has  been  shown  in 
the  case  of  the  "Quilisma"  by  Dom  Mocquereau  in 
the  "Rassegna  Gr^oriana'',  1906,  nos.  6-7.  Their 
general  theory  of  rhythm,  according  to  which  it  ioon- 
suts  in  the  succession  of  arsis  and  thesis,  i.  e.,  one  part 
leading  forward  and  a  second  part  marking  a  pomt  of 
arrival  and  of  provisional  or  final  rest,  is  suostantially 
the  same  as  Riemann's  (see  his  "  S>rstem  der  musikali- 
schen  Rhythmik  und  Metrik'',  Leipzig,  1903),  and  is 
becoming  more  and  more  accepted.  But  their  special 
feature,  which  consists  in  placing  the  word  accent  by 
preference  on  the  arsis,  has  not  found  much  favour 
with  musicians  generally. 
Forms. — Plain  chant  has  a  large  variety  of  forms 

groduced  by  the  different  purposes  of  the  pieces  and 
y  the  varying  conditions  of  rendering.  A  main  dis- 
tinction is  that  between  responsorial  and  antiphonal 
chants.  The  responsorial  are  primarily  solo  chants 
and  hence  elaborate  and  difficult;  the  antiphonal  are 
choral  or  congregational  chants  and  hence  simple  and 
easv.  Responsorial  are  the  Graduals,  Alleluia  verses, 
and  Tracts  of  the  Mass,  and  the  responses  of  the  Office. 
The  antiphonal  type  is  most  clearly  shown  in  the  Office 
antiphons  and  their  psalmody.  The  Mass  antiphons. 
especially  the  Introit  and  Commimion,  are  a  kind  of 
idealized  antiphon  type,  preserving  the  general  sim- 
plicit3r  of  antiphons,  but  being  slightty  more  elabo- 
rated in  accorojEmce  with  their  being  assigned  from  the 
beginning  to  a  trained  body  of  singers.  The  Offerto- 
ries approach  more  closely  to  the  responsorial  style, 
which  is  accoimted  for  by  the  fact  that  their  verses 
were  at  an  early  period  assipied  to  soloists,  as  ex- 
plained above.  Another  distinction  is  that  between 
psalmodic  and  what  we  may  call  hymnodic  melodies. 
The  psalmody  is  founded  on  the  nature  of  the  Hebrew 
I>oetry,  the  psalm  form,  and  is  characterized  by  recita- 
tion on  a  unison  with  tne  addition  of  melodic  formule 
at  the  beginning  and  at  the  end  of  each  member  of  a 
psalm  verse.  Tnis  type  is  most  clearly  recognized  in 
the  Office  psalm  tones,  where  only  the  melodic  formula 
at  the  beginning  of  the  second  part  of  the  verse  is 
wanting.  A  slightly  more  ornamental  form  is  found  in 
the  Introit  psalmody,  and  a  yet  richer  form  in  the  ver- 
ses of  the  Office  responses.  But  the  form  can  also  still 
be  recognized  in  the  responsorial  forms  of  the  Mass 
and  the  body  of  the  Office  responses  (see  Pal.  Mus., 
III).  Of  a  psalmodic  nature  are  various  other  chants, 
such  as  the  tones  for  the  prayers,  the  Preface,  some  ot 
the  earlier  compositions  of  the  Ordinary  of  the  Mass, 
etc.  The  hymnodic  chants,  on  the  other  hand,  show 
a  free  development  of  melody;  though  there  may  be 
occasionally  a  little  recitation  on  a  monotone,  it  is  not 
employed  methodically.  They  are  more  like  hymn 
tunes  or  folk  songs.  This  style  is  used  for  the  anti- 
phons, both  of  the  Office  and  of  the  Mass.  Some  of 
these  show  pretty  regular  melodic  phrases,  often  four 
in  number,  corresponding  like  the  lines  of  a  hymn 
stanza,  as,  e.  g.,  the  ''Apud  Dominum"  quoted  afclove. 
But  oftentimes  the  correspondence  of  the  melodic 


PLANTAOINIT  148  PLAKTIN 

phrases,  which  is  always  of  great  importance,  is  of  a  of  the  later  Middle  Ages,  reflects  the  character  of  con« 

freer  kind.  gregational  singing.   The  Introit,  Offertory,  and  Com« 

A  marked  feature  in  plain  chant  is  the  use  of  the  munion  are  each  wonderfully  adapted  to  tne  particu- 

same  melody  for  various  texts.    This  is  quite  typical  lar  ceremonies  they  accompany,  and  the  Graduals 

for  the  ordinary  psalmody,  in  which  the  same  formula,  display  the  splendour  of  their  elaborate  art  at  the 

the  ''psalm  ton^ '',  is  usea  for  all  the  verses  of  a  psalm,  time  when  all  are  exjiected  to  listen,  and  no  ceremony 

just  a6  in  a  h3r]im  or  a  folk  song  the  same  melody  is  interferes  with  the  full  dOfect  of  the  music, 
used  for  the  various  stanzas.    But  it  is  also  used  for        The  revival  of  religious  l^e  about  the  middle  of  the 

the  more  complicated  psalmodic  forms,  Graduals,  nineteenth  century  gave  the  impetus  for  a  renewed 

Tracts  etc.,  though  oftentimes  with  considerable  lib-  cultivation  of  plain  chant.   The  extended  use  and  per- 

erty.    Again  we  find  it  in  the  case  of  the  Office  anti-  fected  rendering  of  plain  chant,  so  ardently  desiiea  by 

phons.    In  all  these  cases  great  art  is  shown  in  adapt-  Pope  Pius  X,  will  in  its  turn  not  only  raise  the  level  of 

mg  the  melodic  tvpe  to  the  rhythmical  structure  of  the  religious  music  and  «ihance  the  di^piitv  of  Divine 

new  texts,  and  oftentimes  it  can  be  observed  that  care  worship,  but  also  inten^y  the  spiritual  life  of  the 

ia  taken  to  brin^  out  the  sentiments  of  the  words.   On  Christian  community. 

the  other  hand  it  seems  that  for  the  Mass  antlphons  ,«y?^°f"»»  Bin/lihruna  indU  gregonanueKtn  Mdoditn  (Leipnc, 

^').*^>SiT4'^'y  '^  own  melody.  The  p«e«.t  fi^'\^^^y,  "fei^lft;  '^rX  d£S'?5rS?"(^ 

Gradual,  mdeed,  shows  some  instances  where  a  melody  IQOT)  ,  Rixmann,  Handbueh  der  MunkgetchichU,  I  (Leipiig.  1905) ; 

of  one  Mass  antiphon  has  been  adapted  to  another  of  WuNMAifN,  History  of  Ckurek  liune  (Ratubon,  i9io);  moblbr 

thp   fULmp  WnH     Kilt    f  h<»v  nrtk   u\\    nf   nnmnai-AtivAlv  ^^^  Gaum,  Compendium  der  kaihoUtchen  Kirchenmuaik  (Raven«- 

ine  flame  jana,  out  tney  are  all  oi  comparatively  ^       1Q09).  jacobsthal.  Die  chromatxsche  AUeration  im  litw- 

late  date   (seventh  century  and  after).      Among  the  gif^m  Oeeang  der  abendklndieehen  Kirehe  (Berlin,  IdOT);   Ntkel, 

earliest  examples  are  the  Offertory,  ''  Posuisti  *'  (Com-.  Oewhichte  der  kaikoliecken  Kirehenmueik,  I  (Brwiau,  1908) ;  Lett- 

mon  of  a  Martyr  Non-Pontiff),  taten  from  the  Offe.-  5»^-  ^S^^;;^)':'^^Zil^t:tSi:in''ESSl^ 

tory  of  Easter  Monday,  "  Angelus  Domim",  and  the  Plain  Chant  in  /rwA  Eedeeiaetical  Record  (Jan.,  May,  and  Nov., 

Introit,  "Salve  sancta  Parens",  modelled  on  "Ecoe  1906);    Mocqusrbau,  Le  nomin-e  miuieal  grtgorien,  I  (Tournai, 

advenit"  of  the  Epiphany.  The  ^laotation  of  a  melo-  '^ii.^T^B^J.^I^AG^J^^t^lZ^'^ 

die  type  to  different  texts  seems  to  have  been  a  char-  ter,  1905);   Pothier,  Lee  mHodiee  grigoriennee  (Touraai,  1880); 

actenstic  feature  of  antique  composition,  which  looked  Jobnsb,  I^eue  Sekvle  dee  gregorianiechen  Choralge»on4fee  (Ratiflbon,  , 

primarily  for  beauty  of  form  an<t^d  le*  attention  to  i2^'^.:JSSSa^SS^:t£„»l&.i27^^^ 

the  distinctive  representation  of  sentunent.     In  the  Mueihanechauung  dee  MittelaUere  (Halle,  1905). 

Mass  antiphons,  therefore,  we  may,  in  a  sense,  see  the  H.  Bewbbungb. 
birth  of  modem  music,  which  aims  at  individual  ex- 
pression. Plmntagwiety  Hbnkt  Beaufort,  cai%iinal,  Bishop 
^Esthetic  Value  and  Litubgical  Fitness. —  of  Winchester,  b.c.  1377;  d.  at  Westminster,  11  April. 
There  is  little  need  to  insist  on  the  sesthetic  beauty  of  1447.  He  was  the  second  illegitimate  son  of  John  of 
plain  chuit.  Melodies,  that  have  outlived  a  thousand  Gaunt,  and  Katherine  Swynford,  later  legitimised  by 
jrears  and  are  at  the  present  day  attracting  the  atten-  Richard  II  (13^7).  After  his  oidination  he  rec^ved 
tion  of  so  many  artists  and  schohurs,  ne^  no  apol-  much  preferment,  becoming  successively  dean  of 
ogy.  It  must  be  kept  in  mind,  of  course,  that  smce  Welb  (1397),  Bishop  of  Lincoln  (13d6),  Chancellor  of 
the  lang;uage  of  plain  chant  is  somewhat  remote  from  Oxford  Universitv  (1399),  Chancellor  of  England 
the  musical  lan^age  of  to-day,  some  little  familiarity  (1403-4),  and  Bishop  of  Winchester  (1404).  He  was 
with  its  idiom  is  required  to  appreciate  its  beauty,  much  in  favour  with  Henry,  Prince  of  Wales,  and  on 
Its  tonality,  its  rhythm,  as  it  is  generally  understood,  his  accession  as  Henry  V,  Beaufort  again  became 
the  artistic  reserve  of  its  utterance,  dl  cause  some  diffi-  chancellor  (1413).  He  attended  the  Council  of  Con- 
culty  and  demand  a  willing  ear.  Again  it  must  be  stance  (1417),  and  it  was  due  to  him  that  the  Emperor 
insisted  that  an  adeauate  performance  is  necessary  to  Sigismund  in  alliance  with  Henry  V  withdrew  his  op- 
reveal  the  beauty  01  plain  chant.  Here,  however,  a  position  to  the  plan  of  electing  a  new  pope  before 
great  difference  of  standard  is  required  for  the  various  measures  for  Church  reform  had  been  taken.  This 
classes  of  melodies.  While  the  simplest  forms  are  election  ended  the  unhappy  Western  Schism.  The 
quite  fit  for  congregational  use,  and  forms  like  the  new  pope,  Martin  V,  created  Beaufort  a  cardinal, 
Introits  and  Communions  are  within  the  range  of  though  the  king  forbade  him  to  accept  this  dignity, 
average  choirs,  the  most  elaborate  forms,  like  the  On  Henry's  death  he  was  left  guardian  of  the  infant 
Graduals,  reauire  for  their  adequate  performance  Henry  VI  and  a^ain  acted  as  chancellor  (1424-26). 
highly  trainea  choirs,  and  soloists  that  are  artists.  He  was  created  cardinal-priest  of  St.  Eusebius  in  1426, 
As  to  the  hturgical  fitness  of  plain  chant  it  may  be  and  was  employed  as  papal  legate  in  Germany,  Hun- 
said  without  hesitation  that  no  other  kind  of  music  gary,  and  Bohemia,  where  he  assisted  the  pope  in  the 
can  rival  it.  Having  grown  up  with  the  Liturgy  itself  Hussite  War.  Employed  in  French  affairs  m  1430-31, 
and  having  influence  its  development  to  a  large  he  crowned  Henry,  as  King  of  France,  in  Paris  (1431). 
extent,  it  is  most  suitable  foritsreqmrements.  The  gen-  The  following  year  he  defeated  the  Duke  of  Glouces- 
eral  expression  of  the  Gregorian  melodies  b  in  an  emi-  ter's  effort  to  deprive  him  of  his  see  on  the  ground 
neAt  degree  that  of  liturgical  prayer.  Its  very  remote*  that  a  cardinal  could  not  hold  an  English  bishopric, 
ness  from  modem  musical  language  is  perhaps  an  When  war  broke  out  with  France  he  assisted  the  war- 
additional  element  to  make  the  chant  suitable  for  the  partv  with  large  financial  advances.  He  completed 
purpose  of  religious  music,  whidi  above  all  things  the  Duilding  of  Winchester  cathedral,  where  he  is 
should  be  separated  from  all  mundane  associations,  buried. 

Then  the  vanous  forms  of  plain  chant  are  all  particu-  ,^^^^^  HenruBeaufort,hiehop,  eharieeaor,  cardined  (London. 

larljr  appropriate  to  their  several  objects.    K^r  the  S^'^.^F^^-.te^*riKiy;SkV'&S.SlS^ 

singing  of  the  psalms  m  the  Office,  for  instance,  no  TON'str.  (London.  1894-1900);  Chiuqhtoh,  History  of  the  Pavaey 

other  art  form  yet  invented  can  be  compared  with  the  ^^^  ^55^**:7^V?iiIf  **A^v\?f  ^?^^ ;  Calet  m  Archrologia 

Gr^rian  ton^    The  FaUiBordoni  of  the  sixteenth  iTli^^'l^  (&?S;  ^^y,*\iv^^mS"'SJl^£^: 

century  are  doubtless  very  fine,  but  their  COntmuOUS  with  reference  to  contemporary  aouroee;  8.  ▼.  Beau^mrt. 

use  would  soon  become  tedious,  while  the  Anglican  Edwin  Burton. 

chants  are  but  a  poor  substitute  for  the  everlasting 

vigour  of  the  plain  chant  formulee.    No  attempt  even        PiMltin,  Chribtohb,  book-binder  and  publisher 

has  been  made  to  supply  a  substitute  for  the  antiphons  of  Antwerp,  b.  1514,  at  or  near  Tours  (France);  d. 

that  accompany  this  singing  of  the  psalms.    At  the  1  July,  1589,  at  Antwerp.    The  son  of  a  servant,  ha 

Mass,  the  Ordinary,  even  in  the  most  elaborate  forma  learned  the  art  of  book-binding  and  printing  (1636- 


40)  with  the  prototypcwrepher,  Rob«^  Mwrf  II  at 
Cken.  At  tu)  early  age  fie  had  already  learned  Latin 
and  shown  a  pronounced  taste  for  scientific  books. 
After  a  short  reaideoce  in  Paris,  he  nent  to  Antwerp 
(15*8-9),  where  he  opened  a  book-bindery  and  soon 
became  famous  for  his  beautiful  inlaid  bindings  and 
hook  oovers.  In  1555  he  opened  his  publishing  house 
which,  notwithstanding  keen  competition,  soon  pros- 
pered. Within  five  yeara,  he  attuned  the  highest 
n^  among  typographers  of  his  time,  surpassing  his 


rivals  in  the  Netherlands  by  the  perfection,  beauty, 
and  number  of  his  publications.  In  1562,  charged 
with  holding  intercourse  with  two  religious  reformers 
(Niclaes  ana  Barrefelt),  he  was  obliged  to  flee  from 
Antwerp.  He  succeeded,  however,  in  dismpating  the 
suspicions  against  him,  and  it  was  only  after  two  cen- 
times that  hia  relations  with  the  Familista,  or  "Pb- 
miite  de  la  Charity"  came  to  light,  and  also  that  he 

frinted  the  works  of  Barrefeit  and  other  heretics. 
a  1563,  having  returned  to  Antwerp,  Plantin  formed 
bu^ess  OBSocialions  with  prominent  citizens  with 
whom  he  conducted  a  printing  establishment  for 
three  years.  In  1566  we  first  hear  of  Plantin's  scheme 
to  reprint  the  Polyglot  Bible  of  Cardinal  Ximenes. 
His  beautiful  proofs  secured  the  support  of  King 
Philip  II,  and  the  eight  volumes  of  the  "Biblia 
Regia"  were  completed  in  1573  {see  Polioixit 
Bibles).  Immediately  after  the  kioK  appointed  him 
Royal  Archi typographer,  in  charge  o7  the  printing  of 
the  newly-edited  breviaries,  missals,  psalters,  and 
other  liturgical  texts  which  were  sent  to  Spain  in 
great  numbers  at  the  expense  of  the  king.  Hantin 
also  published  many  new  editions  of  the  clasMCs, 
works  on  jurisprudence,  and  the  "Index  Expurgsto- 


L9  PLAim 

published  over  aizteen  hundred  works,  eighty-thiea 
m  1575  alone.  His  press  room  at  this  time  contained 
twenty-two  presses.  His  editions,  as  a  rule,  consisted 
of  from  twelve  to  fifteen  hundred  copies,  in  some  cases 
considerably  more;  thus  thirtv-nine  hundred  copies 
of  his  Hebrew  Bible  were  puolished.  His  emblem 
shows  a  band  reaching  out  of  the  clouds  holding  a 
pair  of  compasses;  one  point  is  fixed,  the  other  marks 
a  line.  The  motto  is  "Lahore  et  Constantia".  He 
was  justly  considered  the  first  typographer  of  his  time. 
Moreover,  money  was  not  his  onlv  object.  He  thor- 
ou^y  appreciated  the  ethical  side  of  his  profession, 
as  IS  proved  by  his  publishing  useful  works,  excelling 
in  scientific  value  and  artistic  worth.  The  astonishing 
number  of  his  publications,  the  extreme  care  which  he 
devoted  to  the  simplest  as  well  as  to  the  greatest  of 
his  publications,  the  monumental  character  of  a  whole 
series  of  his  books,  his  good  taste  in  their  adornment, 
his  correct  judgment  in  the  choice  of  subjects  to  be 

Eubliahed,  and  his  success  in  gaining  the  sympathy  of 
is  assistants  prove  that  his  fame  was  well  deserved. 
There  is  but  one  blot  on  Plantin's  reputation,  his  rela- 
tions with  the  "Famille  de  la  Charity",  which  can 
only  be  explained  as  due  to  the  unsettled  conditions 
of  the  times.  His  Antwerp  business  remained  in  the 
possearaon  of  his  second  daughter,  Martina,  wife  of 
Johannes  Moerentorf  (Latinised  Moretus),  who  wsa 
his  assistant  for  many  years.  Their  son,  Balthasar, 
a  friend  of  Rubens  in  his  youth,  was  the  most  famous 
of  the  Moretus  name,  and  a  worthy  successor  to  his 
grandfather.  After  the  death  of  BsJthasar  in  1641, 
his  heirs  made  a  great  fortune  out  of  their  monopoly 
of  Liturgical  books.  Unfortunately  thw  abandoneo 
almost  entirely  the  pubhcation  of  scientific  books.  It 
was  onl^  at  the  beginning  of  1800  that  the  privilege 
ceased  m  consequence  of  the  decree  of  the  King  of 
Spain,  forbidding  the  importation  of  forei^  books  and 
this  practically  put  an  end  to  the  printmg  house  of 
Plantin.  In  1867,  after  three  hundred  and  twelve 
years,  the  firm  of  Plantin  ceased  to  exist.  The  City 
of  Antwerp  and  the  Government  of  Belgium  in  1876 
purchased  from  the  last  owner,  Eklward  Moretus,  all 
the  buildings,  as  well  as  the  printing  house  with  its 
appurtenuices  and  collections  for  1,200,000  florins. 


Wars  stopped  the 


of  the  kmg^ 


uc.a  for  the  new  titur^cal  formularies:  but  Kantin 
had,  long  before,  obtamcd  privilege  for  this  work 
from  Rome.  Tms  exclusive  privilege,  possessed  by 
Plantin's  successors  for  two  hundred  years,  became  a 
source  of  great  profit  and  balanced  the  extensive  losses 
incurred  by  the  "Biblia  Regia".  In  1583,  leaving 
his  business  at  Antwerp  to  his  two  nephews,  Moretus 
and  Raphelingen,  Plantin  settled  in  Leyden,  where  he 
conducted  a  second-hand  book  store  and  a  small 
printing  office  with  three  presses,  but  sought  prin- 
cipally for  quiet  and  the  restoration  of  his  failing 
health.  In  1585  Raphelingen  took  chaise  of  the 
printing  office  at  Leyden,  and  Plantin  returned  to 
Antwerp,  where,  until  his  death,  he  endeavoured  by 
the  sale  of  bis  Bible  to  indemnify  himself  for  the  loss 
of  the  twen^  thousand  florins  which  the  king  still 
owed  him.  These  losses  were  finally  made  gooaafter 
hia  death.  ' 

The  extenmve  character  of  Plantin's  undertakings 
ia  shown  by  the  fact  that  between  1^  and  lfl89  h« 


converted   into  the  PlantiO' 


Hbinrich  Wilh.  Wallau. 

FluiU  in  the  Bibl«.— When  Moses  spoke  to  the 
people  about  the  Land  of  Promise,  he  described  it  as  a 
land  of  hills  and  plains"  (Deut.,  id,  11),  "a  good 
land,  of  brooks  and  of  waters,  and  of  fountains:  in 
the  plains  of  which  and  the  hills  deep  rivers  break  out  I 


a  Und  of  vheat,  and  barlej',  and  vineyards,  wherrin 
fig-trees  and  pomeKraiiates,  and  oUveyardx  grow:   a 

'  land  of  oil  and  honey"  (Deut.,-viii,  7-8).  Thia  ^low-" 
iag  description,  sketched  exoIunvBlj;  from  an  utilita- 
rian point  of  Tien,  was  far  from  doing  justice  to  the 
wonderful  variety  of  the  country's  productions,  to 
which  several  causes  contributecf.  First  the  differ- 
ences of  elevation;  for  between  Lebanon,  10,000  feet 
above  sea  level,  and  the  shores  of  the  Dead  Sea,  1285 
feet  below  the  Mediterranean,  every  gradation  of  alti- 
tude is'to  be  found,  within  less  than  200  miles.  Sinuous 
valleys  furrow  the  highland,  cauang  an  incredible  vari- 
ation in  topography ;  hence,  cultivated  land  lies  almost 
side  by  side  with  patches  oi  desert ,  The  soil  is  now  of 
ctay,  now  of  clay  mixed  with  lime,  farther  on  of  sand; 
the  surface  rock  is  soft  limestone,  and  basalt.  In  addi- 
tion to  these  factors,  variations  of  climate  consequent 
on  change  of  altitude  and  geographical  positioD  cause 
forms  of  vegetation  which  elsewhere  grow  far  apart 
,to     thrive    side    by  _      .     _  _         — 

side  within  the  nar- 
row limits  of  Pales- 
tine. The  vegeta- 
tion along  the  west 
coast,  like  that  of 
Spain,  southern 
Italy,  Sicily,  and 
Algeria,  is  composed 
of  characteristic 
species  of  Mediter- 
ranean flora.  Near 
the  perennial  snows 


the 


rtbei 


PATtxtn  aaowiHa  o 


peaks  grow  the  fa- 
miliar plants  of 
Alpine  and  sub- 
Alpine  re^ons:  the 
highlands  of  Pales- 
tine and  the  eastern 
slopte  of  the  north- 
ern raj>ges  produce 
the  Oriental  vegeta- 
tion of  the  steppes; 
whereas  the  peculiar 
climatic    conditions 

S-evailing  along  the 
h6r  and  about  the 
Dead  Sea  favour. a 
sub-tropieoJ  flora, 
characterised  by  spedee  resembling  those  which 
thrive  in  Nubia  and  Abyssinia. 

Over  3000  species  of  Palestinian  flora  are  known  to 
exist,  but  the  Holy  Land  of  our  day  can  give  only  an 
impofect  idea  of  what  it  was  in  Biblical  times.  The 
hill-country  of  Juda  and  the  Negeb  are,  as  formerly, 
the  grazing  lands  of  the  Judean  herds,  yet  groves, 
woods,  and  forest  flourished  everywher^  few  traces 
of  which  remain.  The  cedar-forests  of  Leoanon  had  a 
world-wide  reputation;  the  slopes  of  Hermon  and  the 
mountains  of  Galaad  were  covered  with  luxuriant  pine 
woods;  oak  forests  were  the  distinctive  feature  of 
Basan ;  throughout  Gphr^m  clumps  of  terebinths  dot- 
ted the  land,  while  extensive  palm  groves  were  both 
the  ornament  and  wealth  of  the  Jordan  Valley.  The 
arable  land,  much  of  which  now  hes  fallow,  was  all  culti- 
vated and  amply  rewarded  the  tiller.  _  The  husband- 
man derived  from  his  orchards  and  vineyards  abun- 
dant crops  of  olives,  figs,  pomeRranates,  and  grapes. 
Nearly  every  Jewish  peasant  had  his  "garden  of 
herbs  ,  funushing  in  season  vegetables  and  fruits  for 
the  table,  flowers,  and  medicinal  plants.  Only  some 
130  plants  are  mentioned  in  Scripture,  which  is  not 
surprising  since  ordinary  people  are  interested  only  in 
a  few,  whether  ornamental  or  useful.  The  first  at- 
tempt to  classify  this  flora  is  in  Gen.,  i,  11-12,  where 
it  is  divided  into:  (1)  deshe,  signifying  all  low  plants, 
e.  g.,  crypt^iamia;    (2)  'es^h,  including  herbaceous 


0  TLAXm 

plants;  fS)  'e*  pen,  embracing  all  trees.    In  the  oourrc 

of  time,  the  curiosity  of  men  was  attracted  by  the 
richesof  Palestinian  vegetation ;  Solomon,  in  particular, 
is  said  to  have  treated  about  the  trees  (i.  e.,  plants) 
from  the  lofty  cedar  "unto  the  hyssop  that  cometh 
out  of  the  wall"  (III  Kings,  iv,  33).  Of  the  planta 
mentioned  in  the  Bible,  the  most  common  varieties 
may  be  identified  either  with  certainty  or  probability; 
but  a  large  proportion  of  the  biblical  plant-names  are 
generic  rather  than  specific,  e.  g.,  briers,  grass,  nettles, 
etc, ;  and  jusl  what  plants  are  meant  in  some  cases  is 
impossible  to  determine,  e,  g.,  algum,  cockle,  gall,  etc. 
A  oomplete  alphabetical  list  of  the  plant-names  found 
in  the  English  Versions  is  here  ^ven,  with  an  attempt 
at  identification. 
Acaeia.  See  Setim. 
Aeantk.     See  Brier. 

Alifum  (A.  v.,  II  Chron..  ii,  8;  D.  V  ix,  10,  II, 
"thyme  trees",  "fir  trees  ),  written  "alroug  in 
A.V.,IKinKS,x,  11, 
12).  No  doidit  the 
same  tree  is  signified, 
the  double  name  be- 
ing due  t«  a  mere 
accidental  transpo- 
sition of  the  letters; 
if  linguistic  analogy 
may  be  trusted  in, 
almvf  is  correct  (cf. 
Tamil,  valguka). 
The  i^gum  tree  is 
snoken  of  as  a  valu- 
anle  exotic  product 
imported  to  Pales- 
tine by  Hiram's  and 
Sokimon's  fleets  (III 
Kings,  X,  11;  II  Par., 
ii,  8;  ix,  10),  suitable 
for  fine  joinery  and 
making  musical  in- 
Btruments  (III 
Kings,  X,  12;  II 
Par.,  IX,  11).  Jose- 
phus  (Ant.,  VIH, 
vii,  1)  says  it  was 
somewhat  like  the 
wood  of  the  fig  tree, 
but  whiter  and  more 
B^«  o.  TH.  A»*po.  glittering.     Accord- 

ing to  most  modem  scholars  and  certain  rabbis, 
the  rod  sandal -wood,  Pt«roearjm*  aantalina,  is  in- 
tended, though  some  ot  the  uses  made  of  it  appear  to  re- 
quire a  stouter  material.  The  identification  proposed 
by  Vulg.  (see  Thyint)  is  much  more  satisfacton*. 

Almond  free,  Heb.  lui  (Gen.,  xxx,  37:  "haiel"  in 
A.  V.  is  a  mistranslation;  cf.  Arab,  lauz),  apparently 
anold  word  later  supplanted  by  sAajjed  (Gen.,  xliii,  11; 
Num.,  xvii,  8;  Ecclea.,  xii,  5);  which  alludes  to  the 
early  blossoming  of  the  tree.  Almonds  are  (Gen., 
xliii,  11)  consideredoncof  the  beat  fruits  in  the  Orient, 
and  the  tree,  Amygdalua  communu,  has  always  been 
cultivated  there.  Several  varieties,  A.  ortenfouf,  Ait., 
or  A.  argenlea,  A,  lycioida,  Spach,  A.  spartioidet, 
Spach,  grow  wild  in  districts  such  as  Lebanon, 
Carmel,  Moab. 

Atmvg.     See  Alaum. 

Aloa  (Prov.,  vii,  17;  Cant,  iv,  U;  John,  xix,  39; 
A.  v.,  Ps.  xlv,  8)  is  reckoned  amongf  "the  chief  per- 
fumes". In  A.  v.,  Num.,  xxiv,  6("lipaloe8";D.  v., 
"tabernacles"  is  an  erroneous  translation),  a  tree  is 
clearly  intended.  The  officinal  aloes,  Liiujcea,  is  not 
alluded  to;  the  aloes  of  the  Bible  is  the  nroduct  of  a 
tree  of  the  genus  Aqailaria,  perhaps  A.  asaiUnJux, 
Roxb.,  a  native  of  northern  India;  at  a  certwn  stage  ot 
decay,  the  wood  develops  a  fragrance  well  known  to 
the  ancients  (Dioscorides,  i,  21),  and  from  it  &  rm 
perfume  was  obtained. 


PLANTS                                151  PLANTS 

Amomum  (Apoc,  xviii,  13,  neither  in  the  Greek  "Ant.".  IX,  i,  2;  Jerome,  ''Qwest,  in  Gen.",  xiv,  7; 

New  Testament,  Vulg.,  A.  V.,  nor  D.  V.,  but  found  in  Pliny,  ''Nat.  hist.",  xii,  26,  etc.).    The  word  ^  is 

critical    editions,    such    as    Griesbach,    Lachmann,  also  applied  to  the  gum  from  the  mastic  tree,  or  lentisk 

Tischendorf,  Nestle),  a  perfume  well  known  in  antiq-  {Piatacia  lentiiciis,  cf.  Arab,  daru),  and  that  from 

uity  (Dioecor.,  i,  14;  Theophr.,  "Hist,  plant.",  ix,  7;  BdUmUes  cegypiiaca,  Del.,  falsely  styled  "balm  of 

"De  odor.",  32;   etc.).    The  Assyrian  variety  was  Galaad".    The  meaning  of  pannag,  mentioned  in 

particularly  prised  (Vir^.,  Eclog.,  iv,  25;  Josephus,  Ezech.,  xxvii,  17,  is  not  Imown  with  certainty;  modem 

**  Ant.",  X5C,  ii,  3;  Martial.,  "Epigr.".  vii,  77;  Ovid.,  commentators  agree  with  R.  V.  (marginal  gloss)  that 

"Heroid.",  xxi,  166;    etc.).  and  probably  obtained  it  is  "a  kind  of  confection", 

from  CiMU8  vUigeneaf  a  climbing  plant  native  of  India  Balsam^  Aromatxcal,    See  AspalaikuB, 

but  found  also  in  Armenia,  Media,  and  Pontus  (Pliny,  Barley  (Heb.  8eorahf  "hairy",  an  allusion  to  the 

"Nat.  hist.",  xii,  13).  length  of  the  awns)  was  cultivated  through  the  East 

Anise  (Matt.,  xxiii,  23),  not  the  anise,  PimpineUa  as  provender  for  horses  and  asses  (III  Kings,  iv,  28), 

anisumy  but  ratner  the  diU,  Anethum  graveolens,  ska-  also  as  a  staple  food  among  the  poor,  working  men, 

hath  of  the  Talmud,  ahibiih  of  the  Arabs,  is  meant,  and  the  people  at  large  in  times  of  distress.   The  grain 

Dill  has  always  been  m^ch  cultivated  in  Palestine;  was  either  roasted  (Lev.,  ii,  14;  IV  Kings,  iv,  43)  or 

its  seeds,  leaves,  and  stems  were  subject  to  tithe,  milled,  kneaded  and  cooked  in  ovens  as  bread  or  cake, 

according  to  Rabbi  Eliezer  (Maasaroth,  i,  1 ;    cf .  Barley,  being  the  commonest  grain,  was  considered  a 

Matt.,   xxiii,   23),   which   opinion,  however,  others  tjrpe  of  wortMess  things,  hence  the  contemptuous  force 

thought  excessive  (Schwab,  "Talmud  de  Jems.",  Ill,  of  Ezech.,  xiii,  19;  Judg^ee,  vii,  13;  and  Osee,  iii,  2. 

182).  Hordeum  ithaburensef  Boiss.,  grows  wild  in  many  dis- 

Apple  tree.  Heb.  thappuakh  (cf.  Arab,  tiffah;  "Egypt,  tricts  of  Palestine;  cultivation  has  developed  the  two 

dapihf  "apple")  and  the  description  of  the  tree  and  (H.  distichum)^  four  (H,  tetra8tichuin)t  and  six-rowed 

its  fruit   indicate  the   common   apple  tree,  Malus  (H.  hexastichum)  barley.    The  harvest  begins  in  Aprit 

communis,  which  is  beautiful,  affording  shade  for  in  the  Gh6r,  and  continues  later  in  higher  altitudes; 

a  tent  or  a  house  (Cant^  ii,  3;  viii,  5),  and  bears  a  a  sheaf  of  the  new  crop  was  offered  in  oblation  on  the 

sweet  fruit,  the  aroma  (Cant.,  vii,  8)  of  which  is  used  "sabbath  of  the  Passover". 

in  the  East  to  revive  a  fainting  person  (cf .  Cant.,  ii,  5).  Bay  tree,  so  A.  V.  in  Ps.  xxxvii,  35;  D.  V.  (xxxvi) 

Apple  groves  flourished  at  an  early  date  (Ramses  II)  "cedar  of  Libanus",  which  renderings  are  erroneous, 

in  bjgypt  (Loret,  "Flore  pharaonique".  p.  83);  place-  The  correct  meaning  of  the  Heb.  text  is:  "as  a  green 

names  like  Tappuah  (Jos.,  xii,  17)  or  Betn-tappuan  A.  V.  tree  ",  any  kind  of  evergreen  tree,  "  in  its  native  soil ". 

(Jos.,  XV,  53)  indicate  that  they  were  a  distmct  feature  Bdellium  (Gen.,  ii,  12;   Num.,  xi,  7),  either  a  pre- 

of  certain  districts  of  Palestine.  cious  stone  or  the  aromatic  gum  of  Amyris  agaUochum, 

Arum.    See  Cockle.  a  small  resinous  tre^  of  northern  India,  found  also,  ac- 

Ash  tree.    Is.,  xliv,  14  (A.  V.  for  Heb.  *oren;  D.  V.  cording  to  Plinjr,  in  Arabia,  Media,  and  Babylonia, 

"pine")  depicts  a  planted  tree,  watered  only  by  rain.  Beans  (II  Kings,  xvii,  28;  Ezech.,  iv,  9),  the  horse- 

whose  wooa  is  suitable  to  be  carved  into  images  and  bean  {Faha  vulgaris;  cf.  Heb.  pol  and  Arab,  ful),  an 

used  as  fuel  (Is.,  xliv,  15).   Probably  the  tree  intended  ordinary  article  of  food,  extensively  cultivated  in  the 

is  Pintis  pinea,  the  maritime  or*stone  pine,  rather  East.    The  string-bean,  Vigna  sinensis,  kidneyAyesji, 

than  the  ash,  as  the  various  species  of  Fraxinus  grow  Phaseolus  vulgaris,  and  Phaseolus  moUiflorus,  also 

only  in  the  mountains  of  Syria,  outside  Palestine.  grow  in  Palestine. 

Aspalathus    (Ecclus.,   xxiv,  20;  Greek,  xxiv,  20:  Blackthorn.    See  Bur. 

D.  V.  "aromatical  balm")  is  quite  frequently  alluded  Blasting.    See  Mildew. 

to  by  ancient  writers  (Theognis  Hippocrates,  Theo-  Borith,  a  Heb.  word  transliterated  in  Jer.,  ii.  22,  and 

phrastes,  Plutarch,  Pliny  etc.)  as   a  thorny  plant  translated  in  Mai.,  iii,  2  by  "fuller's  herb"  (A.  V. 

yielding  a  costly  perfume.    It  is  impossible  to  identify  "soap!')*    St.  Jerome  in  his  Commentary  on  Jer.,  ii, 

it  with  certainty,  but  most  schclars  believe  it  to  be  22,  identifies  borith  with  the  "fuller's  weed",  which 

Convolmdus  scoparius,   also  called  Lignum  rhodium  was  not  used,  like  the  Dipsacus  fuUonum.  Mill.,  to 

(rose-scented  wood).  dress  cloth,  but  to  wash  it;  St.  Jerome  ados  that  the 

Aspen.    See  Mulberry.  plant  grew  on  rich,  damp  soil,  which  description 

Astragalus  a  genus  of  Papilionaceous  plants  of  the  applies  to  a  species  of  Saponaria;  yet  many  modem 

tribe  Lotea,  several  species  of  which  yield  the  gum  scholars  think  he  refers  to  some  vegetable  alkali  pro- 

tragacanth  (Heb.  nekoth,  ArSfb*  neka'at)  probably  cured  by  burning  plants  like  SaUola  kali  and  the 

meant  in  Gen.,  xxxvii,  26;  xliii,  11  (D,  V.  "spices'*;  Salicomias  (S.  fructicosa;  S,  herhacea)  abundant  on 

" storax ") .   In  IV  Kings,  xx,  13,  and  Is.,  xxxix.  2,  Heb.  the  coast. 

nekothoth  has  been  mistaken  for  the  plural  oi  riek'oth  Boxtham.    See  Bramble. 

and  mistranslated  accordingly  "aromatical  spices";  Box  tree  (Is.,  idi,  19;  Ix,  13;  in  D.  V.,  Ezech..  xxvii, 

A.  V.  and  R.  V.  give,  in  margin,  "spicery";   A.  V.  6,  instead  of  "ivory  and  cabins",  we  should  read: 

"precious  things"  is  correct.    The  gum  spoken  of  in  "ivory   inlain   in  boxwood")^   probably   the  Heb. 

Gen.  was  probably  gathered  from  the  species  found  ihe^ashshur.    The  box  tree  does  not  grow  in  Palestine, 

in  Palestine,  A.  gummifer,  A.  rousseaunus,  A.  kurdicus,  and  indeed  the  Bible  nowhere  intimates  this,  but  it 

A.  stromatodes.  mentions  the  box  tree  of  Lebanon,  Buxiu  longifolia. 

Balm,  Balsam,  the  regular  translation  of  Heb.  fori  Boiss.,  and  that  imported  from  the  islands  of  the 

(Gen.,  xxxvii,  25;  xliii,  11 ;  Jer..  viii,  22;  xlvi,  11 ;  Ii.  8),  Mediterranean. 

except  in  Esech..  xxvii,  17  (Heb.  pannag)  and  Ecclus.,  BrarMe,  translated  from  Heb.  'atod  in  Judges,  ix, 

xxiv,  20a  (Greek  do-irdXtt^f;  see  AspaUiihus)',  xxiv,  14-15,  also  rendered  "thorn",  in  Ps.  Ivii,  10.    The 

20b  (Greek  viiipva).    The  ^mi  b  described  as  coming  Latin  version  has  in  both  places  rhamnus,  "buck- 

from  Galaad  (Jer.,  viii,  22;    xlvi,  11)  and  having  thorn";  of  which  several  species  grow  in  Palestine  and 

medicinal  properties  (Jer.,  Ii,  8).    It  is  obtained  from  Syria,  but  Arabic  writers  nold  that  the  various  kinds 

Balsamodendron  opohalsamum,  Kunth,  which  is  extant  of  Lyeium  or  boxthom  are  meant, 

in  tropical  recons  of  east  Africa  and  Arabia  and  Briers.     (1)  Heb.  kharul  rendered  "burning"  in 

yields  the  "bahn  of  Mecca";  and  Amyris  gileadensis,  D.  V.,  Job,  xxx,  7,  "thorns"  in  Prov.,  xxiv,  31  and 

a  variety  of  the  former,  which  gave  the  more  extrav-  Sophon.,  ii,  9,  according  to  which  texts  it  must  be 

agantly  prised  "balm  of  Judea",  and  is  now  extinct;  lar^e  enough  for  people  to  sit  under,  and  must  develop 

it  was  extensively  cultivated  around  the  Lake  of  rapidly  in  uncultivated  lands.     Its  translation  as 

Tiberias,  in  the  Jordan  Valley,  and  on  the  shores  of  "thistles"  or  "nettles"  is  unsuitable,  for  theee  plants 

the  Dead  Sea  (Talm.  Babyl.  Shabbath,  26*;  Josephus,  do  not  reach  the  proportions  required  by  Job,  xxx,  7, 


VLAlXn 


152 


PLANTS 


hence  it  is  generally  believed  to  be  either  the  aeanth. 
AcarUhus  spinosuSj  or  rest-harrow,  two  species  ot 
which.  Ononis  anliquorum,  and  particularly  0.  leio- 
spermoj  Boiss.,  are  very  cominon  in  the  Holy  Land.  (2) 
Heb.  harqanim  (Judges,  viii,  7,  16)  probably  corre- 
sponds to  the  numerous  species  of  Rubus  which  abound 
in  Palestine;  according  to  Mojjre  (Judges,  ad  loc,)f 
Phaceopappua  scoparitu,  Boiss.,  is  intended.  (3)  Heb. 
khedeq  (Mich.,  vii,  4).  See  Madrapple.  (4)  Heb. 
ahamir  (Is.,  v,  6;  ix,  18;  x,  17;  xxxii,  13),  the  flexible 
Paliurus  aculeatuSt  Lam.,  Arab.  «amiir,  the  supposed 
material  of  Christ's  crown  of  thorns.  (5)  Heb.  shayth 
(Is.,  vii,  23-5),  a  word  not  found  outside  of  Isaias,  and 
possibly  designating  prickly  bushes  in  general. 

Broom,    See  Juniper, 

Buckthorn,    See  Bramble. 

Bulruah  represents  three  Heb.  words:  (1)  gome 
(Ex.,  ii,  3;  Is.,  xviii,2;  xxxv,  7),  Cyperus  papyrus,  is 
now  extinct  in  Egypt  (cf.  Is.,  xix,  &-7),  where  it  was 
formerly  regarded  as  the  distinctive  plant  of  the 
coimtry  (Strab.,  xvii.  15)  and  the  Nile  was  styled 
"the  papyrus-bearer''  (Ovid.,  "Metam.",  xv,  753), 
but  still  grows  aroimd  the  Lake  of  Tiberias,  Lake 
Huleh.  (2)  'Agman  (A.  V.,  Is..  Iviii^  5;  D.  V.  "circle") 
is  variously  rendered  (D.  V.  Is.,  xix.  15;  Job,  xl,  21). 
The  plant  whose  flexibility  is  alludea  to  in  Is.,  Iviii,  5, 
A.  V.  appears  to  be  either  the  common  reed,  Arundo 
donax,  or  some  kind  of  rush:  Junais  communis,  J. 
mariUmus,  Lam.,  J,  acutus  are  abundant  in  Palestine. 
(3)  Suph  (Is.,  xix,  6;  A.  V.  "flag";  etc.),  Egypt,  tiif. 
probably  designates  the  various  kinds  of  rush  and 
sea-weeds  (Jon.,  ii,  6) .  Yam  Suph  is  the  Hebrew  name 
for  the  Red  Sea. 

Bur,  so,  D.V.,  Os.,  ix,  6;  x. 8,  translating  Vulg.  lappa, 
"burdock",  for  Heb.  khoakh  and  qosh,  Khoakh  recurs 
in  Prov.,  xxvi,  9;  Cant.,  ii,  2  (D.  V.  "thorns");  IV 
Kings,  xiv,  9:  II  Par.,  xxv,  18;  Job,  xxxi,  40  (D.  V. 
"thmle");  "thorn"  is  the  ordinary  meanmg  of  9o«A. 
If  burdock  is  the  equivalent  of  khoakh,  then  Lappa 
major,  D.  C,  g^wing  in  Lebanon  is  signing,  as  Lappa 
minor,  D.  C,  is  unknown  in  Palestine;  however,  the 
many  kinds  of  thistles  common  in  the  East  suit 
better  the  description.  Yet,  from  the  resemblance  of 
Arab,  khat^  with  Heb.  khoakh,  some  species  of  black- 
thorn or  sloe  tree  Prunus  ursina,  and  others,  Arab. 
khaukh  airdib  might  be  intended. 

Burnet.    See  ThisOe  (5). 

Bush,  Burning^  Heb.  seneh,  "thorny"  (Ex..  iii, 
2-4;  Deut.,  xxxiu,  16),  probably  a  kind  of  whitetnom 
of  goodly  proportions  (CratcBffus  sinaitica,  Boiss.) 
common  throughout  the  Sinaitic  Peninsula.  Arab. 
sanna  is  applied  to  all  thorny  shrubs. 

Calamus,  Heb.  aaneh  (Ex.,  xxx,  23;  Ezech.,  xxvii,  19; 
Cant.,  iv,  14,  and  Is.,  xliii^  24;  D.  V.  "sweet  cane": 
Jer.,  vi,  20:  "sweetHsmelling  cane"),  a  scented  reed 
yielding  a  perfume  entering  into  the  composition  of 
the  spices  burned  in  sacrifices  (Is.,  xliii,  24;  Jer.,  vi, 
20)  and  of  the  oil  of  unction  (Ex.,  xxx,  23-5).  The 
qaneh  is,  according;  to  some,  Andropogon  schomanthus, 
which  was  used  m  Egypt  for  mating  the  Kyphi  or 
sacred  perfume ;  according  to  others,  Acorus  aromaticus. 

Cane,  Sweet  (Cant.,  iv,  14:  Is.,  xliii,  24).  See 
Calamus. 

Cane,  Sweel-smMing  (Jer.,  vi,  20).    See  Calamus, 

Camphire  (A.  V.,  Song  of  Sol.,  i,  14;  D.  V.  iv,  13; 
"cypress ") .  From  Heb.  kopher.  The  modem  " cam- 
phor" was  unknown  to  the  ancients.  Pliny  identifies 
<;3rprus  with  the  ligvstrum  of  Italy,  but  the  plant  is  no 
other  than  the  henna  tree  (Lawsonia  alba)  the  Orientals 
are  so  fond  of.  Its  red  sweet-scented  spikes  (D.  V., 
Cant.,  i,  13:  "clusters")  yield  the  henna  oil;  from  its 
powdered  leaves  is  obtained  the  reddish-orange  paste 
with  which  Eastern  women  stain  their  finger  and  toe 
nails  and  dye  their  hair.  Ascalon  and  Engaddi  were 
particularly  renowned  for  their  henna. 

Caper,  Heb.  abiyyonah  (D.  V.,  Eccl.,  xii,  5),  the 
fryit  of  the  ci^)er  tree,  probably  Capparis  spinosa} 


C,  herbacea,  and  C.  cegyptiaca  are  also  found  in  Pales- 
tine. 

Carob,  Greek  Ktpdriow  (Luke,  xv,  16),  translated 
V husks'^  (A.  v.;  D.  V.).  the  coarse  pods  of  the  locust 
tree,  Ceratonia  siliqua,  "St.  John's  bread-tree". 

Cassia,  Heb.  qiddah  (Ex.,  xxx,  24;  Ezech.,  xxvii.  19: 

D.  V.  "stacte'O-  Egypt,  qad,  the  aromatic  bark  of 
Cinnamomum  cassia,  Bi,,  of  India,  an  ingredient  of 
the  oil  of  unction  (Ex.,  xxx,  24),  and  the  Egyptian 
Kyphi.  In  Ps.  xliv  (A.  V..  xlv,  8)j  9,  jcfioA.  the 
Aramaic  equivalent  of  ^iddoA,  is  possiblv  an  expianar 
tion  of  'ahaloth.  There  is  no  Bibfical  reference  to  the 
cassia,  from  which  the  senna  of  medicine  is  obtained. 

Cedar,  indiscriminatdy  appUed  to  Cedrus  Ubani, 
C,  '  \mmuden»is,  Juniperus  virginiana,  and  Cu- 
pressus  thyoides,  as  Heb.  *erez  was  used  for  three 
different  trees:  (1)  The  cedar  wood  employc^d  in 
certain  ceremonies  of  purification  (Lev.,  xiv,  4,  6; 
49-52;  Num.,  xix,  6)  was  either  Juniperus  phemicea, 


(Nat!' Hist.,  kill  i,  30).  (2)  The  tree  growing  "by 
the  water  side"  (Num.,  xxiv,  6)  appears  from  Es.,  xxxi, 
7,  to  be  the  Cedrus  libani,  which  usually  thrives  on  dry 
mountain  slopes.  (3)  In  most  of  the  other  passages 
of  Holy  Writ,  Cedrus  libani,  Barr,  is  intended,  which 
"  prince  of  trees  ",  by  its  height  (Is.,  ii,  13 ;  Eaech.,  xxxi, 
3, 8;  Am.,  ii,  9),  appropriately  figured  the  mighty  East- 
ern empires  (Ezech.,  xxxi,  3^18,  etc.).  From  its  trunk 
ship-masts  (Ezech..  xxvii,  5),  pillars,  beams,  and  boards 
for  temples  and  palaces  (III  ICings,  vi,  9;  vu,  2)  were 
made;  its  hard,  close-grained  wood,  capable  of  re- 
ceiving a  hi^h  polish,  was  a  suitable  material  for  carved 
ornamentations  (III  Kings,  vi,  18)  and  images  (Is., 
xliv,  14-5) .  Cedar  forests  were  a  paradise  of  aromatic 
scent,  owing  to  the  fragrant  resm  exuding  from  every 
pore  of  the  bark  (Cant.,  iv.  11 ;  Osee,  xiv,  7) ;  they  were 
"the glory  of  Libanus"  (Is.,  xxxv,  2;  Ix,  13),  as  well 
as  a  source  of  riches  for  their  possessors  (III  Kings, 
V,  6  sqq.;  I  Par.,  xxii,  4)  and  an  object  of  envy  to 
the  powerful  monarchs  o&  Nineveh  (Is.,  xxxvii,  24; 
inscr.  of  several  Assyrian  kinm). 

Cedrat,  Citrus  medica,  or  G,  cedra  is.  according  to 
the  Syriac  and  Arabic  Bibles,  the  "Targum'^  of 
Onkelos,  Josephus  (Ant.  Ill,  x,  4)  and  the  Talmud 
(Sukka,  iii,  5),  the  hadar  (D.  V.  "the  fairest  tree") 
spoken  of  in  Lev.,  xxiii,  40,  in  reference  to  the  feast  of 
Tabernacles. 

Centaurea.    See  Thistles. 

Charlock,    See  Mustard, 

Chestnutrtree.    See  Plane-tree. 

Cinnamon,  Heb.  qinnamon  (Ex.,  xxx,  23;  Prov., 
vii,  17;  Cant.,  iv,  14;  Ecclus.,  xxiv,  20;  Apoc.,  xviii, 
13),  the  inner  aromatic  bark  of  Cinnamomum  zeylan- 
icum,  Nees,  an  ingredient  of  the  oil  of  imction  and  of 
the  Kyphi. 

Citron^  Citrus  limonum,  supposed  by  some  Rab- 
bis to  be  intended  in  the  text  of  Lev.,  xxiii,  40: 
"boughs  of  hadar",  used  regularlv  in  the  service  of  the 
synagogue  and  hardly  distinguiaaable  from  cedrat. 

Codde.  A.  V.,  Job,  xxxi,  40,  for  Heb.  be^osha:  D.  V. 
"thorns''.  The  marginal  renderings  of  A.  V.  and 
R.  V.  "stinkingweeds",  "noisome  weeds",  are  much 
more  correct.  X).  V-,  Matt.,  xiii,  24-30,  truislates  the 
Greek  ^^dvta  by  cockle.  The  two  names  used  in  the 
original  text  point  to  plants  of  quite  different  char- 
acters: (1)  According  to  etymology,  be^osha  must 
refer  to  some  plant  of  offensive  smell;  besides  the 
stink-weed  (Datura  stramonium)  and  the  ill-smdl- 
ing  goose-weeds  (Solanum  nigrum)  there  are  several 
fetid  arums,  henbanes,  and  mandrakes  in  Palestine, 
hence  be^osha  appears  to  be  a  general  term  applicable 
to  all  noisome  and  harmful  plants.  In  the  Enslish 
Bibles,  Is.,  v,  2,  4,  the  plural  form  is  translated  by 
"wild  grapes  ",  a  weak  rendering  in  view  of  the  terrible 
judpnent  pronounced  apainst  tne  vineyard  in  the  Qon- 


PLANTS 


153 


PLANT8 


text;  be'iUkim  may  mean  stinking  fruits,  as  be'oaha 
means  stinking  weeds.  (2)  ^^ii'ta,  from  Aram,  sonirif 
stands  for  LoUum  temvlenium^  or  bearded  darnel, 
the  only  grass  with  a  poisonous  seed,  ''entirely  like 
wheat  till  the  ear  appears''.  The  rendering  of  both 
versions  is  tiierefore  inaccurate. 

Colocynth,  CUruUtts  colocyrUhis,  Schr.,  Cucumis  c, 
probably  the  "wild  gourd '^  of  iV  Kings,  iv,  38-40, 
common  throughout  the  Holy  Land.  In  III  Kincs, 
vi,  18;  vii.  24,  we  read  about  carvings  around  the 
inside  of  tne  Temple  and  the  brasen  sea,  probably 
representing  the  ornamental  leaves,  stems,  tendrils, 
and  fruits  of  the  colocynth. 

Coriander  seed  (Ex.,  xvi,  31;  Num.,  xi,  7),  the  fruit 
of  Coriandrum  sativum,  allied  to  aniseed  and  caraway. 

Com,  a  general  word  for  cereals  in  English  Bibles, 
like  dagan  in  Heb.  Wheat,  barley,  spelt  (fitches), 
vetch,  millet,  pulse;  rye  and  oats  are  neither  men- 
tioned in  Scripture  nor  cultivated  in  the  Holy  Land. 

Com,  Winter,  Heb.  kussemetk  (D.  V.,  Ex.,  ix,  32; 
A.  V.  "rye") J  rendered  "spelt"  in  Is.,  xxviii,  25,  yet 
the  close  resemblance  of  Arab,  kirsanah  with  Heb. 
suggests  a  legiuninous  plant,  Vicia  ervUia. 

CoUon,  Heb.  or  Persian  karpas,  Gossypium  herb' 
aceum,  translated  "green".  Frobably  the  shesh  of 
Egypt  and  the  Imf  of  Syria  (Esech.,  xxvii,  7, 16,  "fine 
linen")  were  also  cotton. 

Cticumber.  Heb.  ^hshuHm  (Num.,  xi,  5;  Is.,  i,  8), 
evidently  the  species  Cucumis  chate  (cf.  Arab,  qith- 
tha),  inmgenous  in  E^rpt;  C.  salums  is  also  exten- 
sively cultivated  in  Puestine. 

Cummin,  Heb.  kammon,  Arab,  kammun,  the  seed  of 
Cwninum  cyminum  (Is.,  xxviii,  25,  27;  Matt.,  xxiii, 
23). 

CyvresSf  in  D,  V.,  Cant.,  i,  16  (A.  V.,  17)  a  poor 
translation  of  Heb.  eg  shemen  (see  OU  tree) ;  elsewhere 
Heb.  berosk  is  rendered  "  fir  tree  " ;  in  Ecclus.,  xxiv,  17, 
the  original  word  is  not  known.  Among  the  identinca- 
tions  proposed  for  herotk  are  Pinus  halepensiSf  Miel., 
and  Cupressus  sempervirens,  the  latter  more  probable. 

Cyprus  (Cant.,  i,  13;  iv,  13).    See  Camphire. 

Darnel,  bearded.    See  Cockle  (2). 

DiU  (R.  v..  Matt.,  xxiii,  23).    See  Anise. 

Ear  of  com  translates  three  Heb.-  words:  (1) 
shibboleth,  the  ripe  ear  readv  for  harvest;  (2)  meliiah, 
the  ears  that  one  may  pluck  to  rub  in  the  hands,  ana 
eat  the  grains  (Deut.,  xxiii,  25;  Matt.,  xii,  1;  Mark, 
ii,  23;  Luke,  vi,  1);  (3)  abib,  the  green  and  tender  ear 
of  com. 

Ebony,  Heb.  hobnim,  Arab,  ebnus  (Esech.,  xxviL 
15),  the  black  heart  wood  of  Diospyros  ebenum,  ana 
allied  species  of  the  same  genus,  imported  from  coasts 
of  Indian  Ocean  by  merchantmen  of  Tyre. 

Elecampane.    See  Thistles  (6). 

Elm  translates:  (1)  Heb.  thidhar  (D.  V.,  Is.,  xli,  19; 
Is.,  Ix,  13:  "pine  trees"),  possibly  Ulmiis  campeetris, 
Sm.  (Arab,  derdar);  (2)  Heb.  *elah  (A.  V.,  Hos.,  iv,  13; 
D.  V.  "turpentine  tree").    See  Terebinth. 

Figs  (Heb.  te^inim),  the  fruit  of  the  fig  tree  (Heb. 
t^inah),  Ficus  carica,  erowing  spontaneoudy  and 
cultivated  throughout  the  Holy  Land.  The  fruit 
buds,  which  appear  at  the  time  of  the  "latter  rains" 
(spring),  are  called  "green  fies"  (Cant.,  ii,  13:  Heb. 
pap,  cf.  Beth-phage),  which,  "late  in  spring"  (Matt., 
XXIV,  32),  ripoi  under  the  overshaaowing  leaves, 
hence  Mark,  xi,  13,  and  the  parable  of  the  barren 
fi{^  tree  (Matt.,  xxi,  19,  21;  Mark,  xi,  20-6;  Luke, 
xiii,  6-9).  Precociously  ripening  fi^  (Heb.  bikkurah) 
are  particularly  relished;  the  ordinary  ripe  fruit  is 
eaten  fresh  or  dried  in  compressed  cakes  (Heb. 
d^tdah:  I  Kings,  xxv,  18,  etc.).  Orientids  still  re- 
gard figs  as  the  best  poultice  (IV  Kings,  xx,  7;  Is., 
xxxviii,  21;  St.  Jerome,  "In  Isaiam",  xxxviii,  21,  in 
P.  L.,  XXIV,  396). 

Fir,  applied  to  all  coniferous  trees  except  the  cedar, 
but  should  be  restricted  to  the  genera  Abus  and  Picea, 
meant  by  Heb.  siakh  (Gen.,  xxi,  15;  D.  V.  "trees";  cf. 


Arab,  shvkh).  Among  these,  Abies  dUciOf  Kotsch, 
and  Picea  orienlaUs  are  found  in  the  Ld>anon,  Amanus 
and  ^lorthward. 


Flag,  Heb.  akhu  (A.  V.,  Gen.,  xU,  2, 18:  "meadow"; 
D.  V.  "marshy  places",  "oreen  places  in  a  marshy 
pasture";  Job,  viii,  11:  D.  Y.  "sedge-bush"),  a  plant 
growing  in  nutrshes  and  good  for  cattle  to  feed 
upon,  probably  Cyperus  esculentus. 

Flax.  Heb.  pistah  (Ex.,  ix,  31;  Deut.,  xxii,  11: 
"linen";  Prov.,  xxxL  13),  Linum  usitaiissimum,  very 
early  cultivated  in  E^pt  and  Palestine. 

Flower  of  the  fieldj  Heb.  khabbacgdeth  (Is.,  xxv.  1), 
kh.  sharon  (Cant.,  u,  1),  like  Arab.  biUeU,  oy  wnich 
Narcissus  iazetta  is  designated  bv  the  Palestinians. 
Possibly  N.  serotinus,  or  fall  Narcissus,  was  also 
meant  by  Heb.,  which  some  suppose  to  mean  the 
meadow-saffron  (Colchicum  variegatum,  C.  steveni), 
abundant  in  the  Holy  Land. 

Forest  translates  five  Heb.  words:  (1)  Ya'ar,  forest 
proper;  (2)  horesh,  "wooded  hei^t";  (3)  gebak.  a 
clump  of  trees;  (4)  'abhim,  thicket;  (5)  paraeg, 
orchard.  Among  the  numerous  forests  mentioned  in 
the  Bible  are:  Forest  of  Ephraim,  which,  in  the 
Canaanite  period,  extended  from  Bethel  to  Bethsan; 
that  between  Bethel  and  the  Jordan  (IV  Kings,  ii, 
24) ;  Forest  of  Hareth,  on  the  western  slopes  of  the 
Judean  hills;  Forest  of  Aialoxi^  west  of  Bethoron; 
Forests  of  Kmath  Yearim;  the  forest  where  Joatham 
built  castles  and  towers  (II  Par.,  xxvii,  4)  in  the  moun- 
tains of  Juda;  that  at  the  edge  of  the  Judean  desert 
near  Ziph  (I  Kings,  xxiii,  15);  Forest  of  the  South 
(Ezech.,  XX,  46, 47); and  those  of  Basan  (Is.,  ii,  13)  and 
Ephraim  (II  Kings,  xviii,  6).  Lebanon,  Carmel,  Her- 
mon  were  also  covered  with  luxuriant  forests. 

Frankincense  (Heb.  lebonc^)  should  not  be  con- 
founded with  incense  (Heb.  getoroA),  which  confusion 
has  been  made  in  several  passages  of  the  English 
Bibles,  e.  g..  Is.,  xliii,  23;  Ix,  6  (A.  V.);  Jer.,  vi,  20. 
Incense  was  a  mixture  of  franldncense  and  other 
^ices  (Ex.,  XXX,  34-5).  Arabian  frankincense,  the 
frankincense  par  excellence,  is  the  aromatical  resin  of 
BosweUia  sacra,  a  tree  which  grows  in  southern  Arabia 
(Arab,  luban) ;  B.  pa-Dyrifera  of  Abyssinia  yields 
African  frankincense,  wnich  is  also  good. 

FvUei^s  herb  (Mai.,  iii,  2).    See  Borith. 

OaJbanum,  Heb.  kkelbenah  (Ex.,  xxx,  34;  Ecclus., 
xxiv.  21),  a  gum  produced  by  Ferula  aalbaniflua, 
Boiss.  and  other  umbelliferous  plants  of  the  same 
genus.  Its  odour  is  pungent,  and  it  was  probably 
used  in  the  composition  of  incense  to  drive  away  in- 
sects from  the  sanctuary. 

GaU  translates  two  Heb.  words:  (1)  mererah,  which 
stands  for  bile;  (2)  rosh,  a  bitter  plaiit  associated  with 
wormwood,  and  growing  "in  the  furrows  of  the  field" 
(Osee,  X,  4;  D.  V.  "bitterness"),  identified  with: 
poison  hemlock  (A.  V.,  Hos.,  x,  4),  Conium  maculatum, 
not  grown  in  the  fields;  colocynth,  CitruUus  coUh 
cynthis,  not  found  in  ploughed  nound;  and  darnel, 
Lolium  temulentum,  not  bitter.  Probably  the  poppy, 
Papaver  rheas,  or  P.  somniferum,  Arab,  ras  elhishnashf 
b  meant. 

Garlic,  Allium  sativum,  Heb.  shum  (cf.  Arab. 
thUm),  a  favourite  article  of  food  in  the  East.  The 
roecies  most  commonly  cultivated  b  the  shallot, 
AUium  ascalonicum, 

GHh,  Heb.  ouefdbA  (Is.,  xxviii,  25,  27),  NigeOa 
sativa;  A.  V.  "fitches"  is  wrong,  nor  does  quegakh 
stand  for  the  nutm^  flower,  as  G.  E.  Post  suggests. 

Goose^iveed.    See  CockU. 

Gopher  wood  (Gen.,  vi,  14;  D.  V.  "timber  planks"), 
a  tree  suitable  for  shipbuilding:  cypress,  cedar,  and 
other  resinous  trees  have  been  proposed,  but  inter- 
preters remain  at  variance. 

Gourd,  Heb.  qigayou  (Jon.,  iv,  6-10;  D.  V.  "ivy"). 


PLANTS 


154 


PLANTS 


the  bottle-gourd,  CucurbUa  lagenaria,  frequently  used 
to  overahaaow  booths  or  as  a  screen  along  trellises. 

Gourd,  Wild,    See  Coloqfnth, 

Grape,    See  Vine,  ' 

Grape,  Wild,    See  Cockle, 

Grose  translates  four  Heb.  words:  (1)  deehe,  pasture 
or  tender  grass,  consisting  mainly  of  forage  plants; 
(2)  yerekf  verdure  in  genersd;  (3)  khagir,  a  good  equiv- 
alent for  grass;  (4)  'esebh,  herbage,  including  vege- 
tables suitable  for  human  rood.  It  occurs  frequently 
in  the  ^ible,  as  in  Gen.,  xlvii,  4;  Num.,  xxii,  4;  Job, 
yi,  5;  xxx.  4  (see  Mallowe);  xl,  15;  Matt.,  vi,  30;  etc. 

Grove,  English  rendering  of  two  Hebrew  words:  (1) 
asherah,  a  sacred  pole  or  raised  stone  in  a  temple 
enclosure,  which  ''groves''  do  not  concern  us  here; 
(2)  'eshel,  probably  the  tamarisk  tree  (q.  v.;  cf.  Arab. 
'aihl),  but  translated  ''groves"  in  Gen.,  xxi,  33,  and 
rendered  elsewhere  by  "wood",  as  in  I  Kings,  xsdi, 
6;  xxxi,  13. 

Hay,  Heb.  haaae  (Prov.,  xxvii,  25),  a  dried  herb  for 
cattle.  "Stubble"  in  Is.,  v,  24;  xxxiii  11,  also 
translates  haaae. 

Hazel.    See  Almond  tree. 

Heath,  Heb.  *ar  ar  aroer  (A.  V.,  Jer.,  xvii,  6:  xlviii, 
6;  D.  V.  "tamaric",  "heath"),  a  green  bush  bearine 
red  or  pink  blossoms,  and  native  of  the  Cape  of  Gooa 
Hope.  The  only  species  in  Palestine  is  the  Eri4M 
verticiUata,  Forskal.  The  E,  muUiflora  is  abtmdant 
in  the  Mediterranean  region. 

Hemlock,  Heb.  rosh  (A.  V.,  Hosea,  x,  4;  Amos,  vi, 
12:  D.  V.  "bitterness";  13,  "wormwood"),  an  um- 
belliferous plant  from  which  the  poisonous  alkaloid, 
conia,  is  derived.  Conium  maematum  and  Mihuea 
cynapium  are  found  in  Syria.  The  water-hemlock 
is  found  only  in  colder  zones.    See  GdU, 

Henna.    See  Camphire. 

Herb.    See  Grass. 

Herbs,  Bitter,  Heb.  meorim  (Exod.,  xii,  8;  Num., 
ix,  11;  D.  V.  "wild  lettuce"),  comprise  diverse 
plants  of  the  family  of  Compositse,  which  were  eaten 
with  the  paschal  lamb.  Five  species  are  known: 
wild  lettuce,  Heb.  hazeret;  endive,  idsin;  chicory, 
tamka;  harkabina  and  maror,  whose  traxislation  is 
variously  rendered  a  kind  of  millet  or  beet,  and  the 
bitter  coriander  or  horehound. 

Holm  (Dan.,  xiii,  58;  Is.,  xliv,  14;  A.  V.  "cypress") 
probably  Heb.  tirzah.  a  kind  of  evergreen-oak. 

Husks.    See  Card), 

Hyssop,  Heb.  'ezob,  Arab,  zufa,  an  aromatic  herb 
forming  a  dwarf  bush.  The  nysoppus  oficinalis, 
Linn6  (Exod.,  xii,  22;  Lev.,  xiv,  4,  6,  49,  61-2; 
Num.,  xix,  6;  Ps.,  1,  9;  Heb.,  ix,  19),  was  used  in 
aspersion.  In  III  Kings,  iv,  33,  hyssop  is  a  species  of 
moss  (Orthotricum  saxattle;  PoUia  tnmcuUUa)  spoken 
of  in  contrast  to  the  grandeur  of.  the  cedar.  The 
"hyssop"  mentioned  in  John,  idx,  29,  is  written 
"reed"  in  Matt.,  xxvii,  48,  and  Mark,  xv,  36. 

Ivy  (Jon.,  iv,  6-10;  see  Uourd).  the  Hedera  helix, 
(II  Mach.,  vi,  7).  which  grows  wild  in  Palestine. 

Juniper  (D.  v..  Ill  Kings,  xix.  4-5;  Job,  xxx,  4; 
A.  v.,  Ps.  cxx,  4;  D.  V.,  cxix,  ''that  lay  waste",  a 
mistranslation),  an  equivalent  of  Heb.  rothem,  a  sort 
of  broom  (Retama  retem,  cf.  Arab,  ratam). 

Knapweed.    See  Thistles. 

Ladanum,  Heb.  lot  (D.  V.  "stacte",  A.  V.  "myrrh", 
in  Gen.,  xxxvii,  25;  xliii,  11),  a  gum  from  several 
plants  of  the  genus  Cistus  (rock-rose):  C,  viUosus 
and  C.  saJmifolius  are  very  abundant.  In  Ecclus., 
xxiv,  21,  "storax",  Heb.  libneh,  is  the  equivalent  of 
Greek  draicTiJ.  used  by  Septuagint  in  the  above 
passages  of  Cren.;  whether  ladanum  was  meant  is 
not  clear,  as  it  is  frequently  the  Greek  rendering  of 
Heb.  nataf. 

Leeks.  Heb.  khagir  (Num.,  xi,  5),  also  rendered 
"grass",  a  vegetable,  AUium  porrum. 

Lentils,  Heb.  *adashim  (Gen.,  xxv,  34;  II  Kings, 
xvii,  28;  Ezech.,  iv,  9),  Arab,  adas,  Ervum  lens,  or 


Lens  esctdenta,  Moench.,  an  importaht  article  of  diet. 

Lentisk.    Bee  Balm;  Mastic  tree. 

Lion  aloes.    See  Aloes, 

Luy.  (1)  Heb.  shushan,  Arab,  susan,  a  generioal 
term  applicable  to  many  widely  different  flowers,  not 
only  of  the  order  LUiacece,  but  of  Iridacea,  Amaryllis 
daceos,  and  others.  Lilium  candidum  is  cultivated 
everywhere;  Gladiolus  iUyricus,  Koch,  G,  se^um, 
Gawl,  G,  airoviolaceus,  Boiss.,  are  indigenous  m  the 
Holy  Land;  Iris  sari,  Schott,  /.  pcdesHna,  Baker,  /. 
lorteti,  Barb.,  /.  helence,  are  likewise  abundant  in  pa&- 
tures  and  swampy  places.  (2)  The  "lilies of  the  field " 
surpassing  Solomon  in  glory  were  lily  like  plants; 
needless  to  suppose  that  any  .others,  e.  g.  the  wind- 
flower  of  Palestme,  were  intended. 

LUy  of  the  valleys,  Heb.  khaiha^gdeth.  See  Flower 
of  the  field. 

Locust  tree.    See  Carcb. 

Lotus,  (1)  A  water  plant  of  the  order  NymphcB* 
acecB,  the  white  species  of  which,  Nymphoea  lotus,  was 
call^  in  Egvptian  seshni,  suskin,  like  the  Heb. 
shushan,  which  may  have  been  applied  to  water-lilies, 
but  the  lotus  was  pit>bably  intended  in  III  Kings, 
vii,  19,  22,  26,  49.  (2)  A  tree,  Heb.  ge  'dim  (aTV. 
Job,  xl,  21,  22;  D.  V.,  16,  17:  "shadow",  "shades"), 
Zizyphus  lotus,  very  common  in  Africa  xm  the  river 
banks. 

Mad-^pple,  Heb.  khedeq  (Prov..  xxvi,  9:  D.  V. 
"thorn";  Mich.,  vii,  4:  "briers  ),  Arab,  khadaq, 
Solanum  coagvlans,  Forskal^  of  the  same  genus  as  our 
mad  apple,  found  near  Jericho.  Solanum  cordatum, 
Forskal,  may  also  b^  intended. 

Mallows,  a  mistranslation  in  A.  V.,  Job,  xxx,  4,  for 
the  orache  or  sea-purslain,  A  triplex  haiimu^,  from  Heb. 
maUuakh,  derived  from  melakh,  "salt",  as  halimus 
from  AXt.  According  to  Galen.,  the  extremities  are 
edible;  the  Talmud  tells  us  that  the  Jews  working 
in  the  re-construction  of  the  Temple  (520-15  b.  c.) 
ate  it  {Kiddushim,  iii.  fol.  66^). 

Mandrake,  from  Heb.  duda*,  meaning  "love  plant", 
which  Orientals  believe  ensures  conception.  All  in- 
terpreters hold  Mandragora  officinarum  to  be  the  plant 
intended  in  Gen.,  xxx,  14,  and  Cant.,  vii,  13. 

Manna  of  commerce  is  a  sugary  secretion  of  various 
Oriental  plants,  Tamarix  mannifera,  Ehr.,  Alhagi 
camelorum,  Fish.,  Cotoneaster  nummtdaria,  Fraxinus 
omiu,  and  F.  rotundifolia;  it  has  none  of  the  qualifica- 
tions attributed  to  the  manna  of  Ex.,  xvi. 

Mastic  tree,  an  alliteration  of  the  Greek  0'x^'^* 
0'X<«rei^  Aram,  vistheqarpesaq  (Dan.,  xiii,  54),  the  lent- 
isk, Fistacia  lentiscus,  common  in  the  Elast,  which 
exudes  a  fragrant  resin  extensively  used  to  flavour 
sweetmeats,  wine,  etc.    See  Bcdm. 

Meadow.  A.  V.,  Gen.,  xii,  2,  18  (D.  V.  "marshy 
places"),  zor  Heb.  akhu.    See  Flag;  Sedge-bush. 

Meadow  saffron.    See  Flower  of  the  field. 

Melon,  Heb.  *dbhattikhim  (Num.,  xi,  5),  like  Arab. 
bpttikh,  old  Egypt.  buUuqa,  seems  to  have  a  generic 
connotation,  yet  it  designated  primarily  the  water-  ^ 
melon  (Citrullus  vulgaris,  Shrad . ) ,  and  secondarily  other 
melons.  The  passage  of  Numbers  refers  only  to  the 
melons  of  Egypt,  and  there  is  no  mention  in  the  Bible 
of  melons  of  Palestine,  yet  they  were  in  old  times  cul- 
tivated as  extensively  as  now. 

MUdew,  Heb.  yeraqon,  occurs  three  times  in  D.  V. 
and  with  it  is  mentioned  shiddaphon,  variously  ren- 
dered (II  Par.,  vi,  28:  "blasting":  Amos,  iv.  9: 
"burning  wind  ,  Agg..  ii,  18:  "blasting  wind"). 
In  Deut.,  xxviii,  22,  ana  III  Kings,  viii.  37,  yeraqon 
is  translated  "blasting"  (A.  V.  "mildew"),  and 
shiddaphon,  "corrupted  air".  Translators  evidently 
had  no  dennite  idea  of  the  nature  and  difference  of 
these  two  plagues.  Yeraqon,  or  mildew,  is  caused  by 
parisitic  fungi  like  Puccinia  graminis  and  P.  straminis 
which  suck  out  of  the  grain,  on  which  they  develop  on 
account  of  excessive  moisture.  Shiddaphon,  or  smut, 
manifests  itself,  in  periods  of  excessive  drought,  and 


PLANTS 


155 


PLANTS 


Ib  caused  by  fungi  of  the  genus  UsHlago,  which,  when 
fully  developed,  with  the  aid  of  the  khainHn  wind, 
"blast'' the  pain.    ' 

Mill^f  Heb.  dokhan  (Esech.,  iv,  9),  Arab,  dokhn,  is 
applied  to  Panicum  miliaceumf  and  Seiaria  ttoZioa, 
Ktn.  The  rendering  "millet",  in  D.  V.,  Is.,  xxviii,  25, 
is  not  justified,  as  Heb.  nisman,  found  here,  means 
"put  in  its  place". 

Mint  (Matt.,  xxiii,  23:  Luke,  xi,  42).  Various 
species  are  found  in  Palestine:  Mentha  syhestris^ 
tne  horse-mint,  with  its  variety  M,  viridis,  the 
spear-mint,  pow  everywhere;  M,  wlioa^  the  garden- 
mint,  is  cultivated  in  all  gardens;  M,  pipeniaf  the 
peppermint,  M,  aquaticay  the  water-mint,  M,  puU^ 
giumf  the  penn^rroyal,  are  also  found  in  abundance. 
Mint  is  not  mentioned  in  the  Law  among  tithable  things, 
but  the  Pharisaic  opinion  subjecting  to  tithe  all  ed- 
ibles acquired  force  of  law. 

MvXberryy  Heb.  beka  im  (A.  V.,  II  Kings,  v,  23-4; 
I  Par.,  xiv,  14-6;  D.  V.  "pear  tree"),  a  tree,  two 
species  of  which  are  cultivated  in  Palestine:  Monu 
<ubaj  M,  nigra.  Neither  this  nor  peaivtree  is  a 
likely  translation;  the  context  rather  suggests  a  tree 
the  leaves  of  wluch  rustle  like  the  aspen,  Popultu 
tremtda.  In  D.  V.  Luke,  xvii,  6,  "mulberry  tree"  is 
probably  a  good  translation. 

Mustard,  Several  kinds  of  mustard-plant  @pw  in 
the  Holy  Land,  either  wild,  as  the  chariock,  ainapis 
arvennSf  and  the  white  mustard,  S,  atbat  or 
cultivated,  as  S,  nigraf  which  last  seems  the  one 
intended  in  the  Gospel.  Our  Lord-compaies  the  king- 
dom of  God  to  a  mustard  seed  (Matt.,  xiii,  31-2).  a 
familiar  term  to  mean  the  tiniest  thins  possible  (cf . 
Taknud  Jems.  Peah,  7;  T.  Babyl.  Kethub.,  iiib), 
"which  a  man  .  .  .  sowed  in  his  field"  and  which 
"when  it  is  grown  up,  it  is  greater  than  all  herbs"; 
the  mustard  tree  attains  in  Palestine  a  heieht  of  ten 
feet  and  is  a  favourite  resort  of  linnets  and  nnches. 

Myrrh  truudates  two  Heb.  words:  (1)  mor  (cf. 
Arab,  morr),  the  aromatic  resin  produced  by  Baham- 
odendron  myrrha,  Nees,  which  grows  in  Arabia  and 
subtropical  east  Africa,  was  extensively  used  among  the 
ancients,  not  onl;^  as  a  perfume  (Ex.,  xxx,  23;  Ps. 
xliv,  9;  Prov.,  vii,  17;  Cant.,  i,  12;  v,  5),  but  also 
for  embalming  (John,  xix,  39)  and  as  an  anodyne 
(Mark,  xv,  23);  (2)  toL  see  Ladanum, 

MyrOe,  Heb.  hadas  (Is.,  xli,  19;  Iv,  13;  Zach.,  1,  8, 
10,  11),  Myrius  communis^  Arab,  hadasy  an  ever- 
green shrub  especially  prized  for  its  fragrant  leaves, 
and  found  in  great  abundance  in  certain  districts  of 
Palestine.  Its  height  is  usually  three  to  four  feet, 
attaining  to  eight  feet  in  moist  soil,  and  a  variety  cul- 
tivated m  Damascus  reaches  up  ten  to  twelve  feet; 
hence  an  erroneous  translation  in  almost  all  the  above 
Scriptural  passages. 

Nordy  tnatic  (It.  V.  margin,  Mark,  xiv,  3).  See 
Spikenard, 

Nettles  translates  two  Heb.  words:  (1)  khand.pliiT, 
kharvhm  (A.  V.,  Job,  xxx,  7;  D.  V.  "briers"-  Soph., 
ii,  9;  Prov..  xxiv,  31;  D.  V.  "thorns"),  see  Bramble; 
(2)  qimmoeny  qimmeshonim  (Prov.,  xxiv,.  31;  A.  V. 
"thorns";  Is.,  xxxiv.  13;  Osee,  ix,  6):  correctly  ren- 
dered "nettles"  (Urtica  vrensy  U,  diaica,  U. 
pUuUferay  U,  membranaceay  Poir.),  which  are  round 
everywhere  on  neslected  patches,  whilst  the  deserts 
abound  with  ForJkahiea  tenacienma,  a  phmt  akin  to 
the  Urtica, 

NtUy  equivalent  of  two  Heb.  words :  (1)  'egat  (Cant., 
vi,  10).  Anb.jattZy  the  widnut  tree,  umversally  cul- 
tivated in  the  East;  (2)  hatnim  (A.  V.,  Gen.,  xliu,  11), 
probably  the  pistachio  nut,  Arab.  htdm.  See  Pis- 
iaehio. 

Oaky  Heb.  *ayly  *daky  'elany  'aUah.  'aUon  are  thus 
indiscnminately  translated.  From  (Jsee  iv,  13,  and 
Is.,  yi,  13,  it  appears  that  the  'elah  is  different  from 
the  'culon;  in  fact,  'ayl,  'elahy  'elon,  are  understood 
by  some  to  be   the   terebinth  'cilah   and   *aUon 


representing  the  oak.  The  genus  Quercue  is  largely 
represented  in  Palestine  and  Syria,  as  to  the  number 
of  individuals  and  species,  seven  of  which  have  been 
found:  (1)  Quercus  rcmw  is  represented  by  two 
varieties:  Q.  cedrorum  and  Q,  pinnatifida;  (2)  Q. 
infedaria;  (3)  Q,  Hex;  (4)  Q,  cocciferOy  or  holm 
oak,  of  which  there  are  three  varieties:  Q.  oaUiprinas, 
Q.  wdeatina,  and  Q.  pseudo-cocdfera^  Ails  latter,  a 

Erickly  evergreen  oak  with'  leaves  like  very  small 
oily,  most  common  in  the  land,  especially  as  brush- 
wood; (5)  Q.  cerria;  (6)  Q,  asgylopay  the  Valonia 
oak,  aJso  very  common  and  of  which  two  varieties 
are  knovm:  Q.  ithciureneie  and  Q.  looky  Ey.;  (7)  Q, 
libaniy  Oliv. 

Oil  tree,  Heb.  'ea  ehemen  (Is.,  xli,  19;  III  Kings, 
vi,  23,  31-3;  II  Esd.,  viii,  15),  the  olive-tree  in 
D.  v.,  the  oleaster  in  R.  V.^  and  variously  rendered  in 
A.  v.:  "oil  tree",  "oUve  tree"  and  "pine".  To  meet 
the  requirements  of  the  different  passages  where  the 
'es  ehemen  is  mentioned,  it  must  oe  a  fat  tree,  pro- 
ducing oil  or  resin,  an  emblem  of  fertility,  capable  of 
furnishing  a  block  of  wood  out  of  which  an  image  ten 
feet  high  may  be  carved,  it  must  grow  in  mountains 
near  .^rusalem,  and  have  a  dense  foliage.  Wild 
olive,  oleaster,  Elasagnue  anguetijdtiue  (Arab.  haleph)y 
Balanites  cegyptiacay  Del.  (Arab,  zaqqum),  are  there- 
fore excluded:  some  kind  of  pine  is  probably  meant. 

Olive  tree.  Olea  europcsay  one  of  the  most  character- 
istic trees  of  the  Mediterranean  region,  and  imiversally 
cultivated  in  the  Holy  Land.  Scriptural  allusions  to 
it  are  very  numerous,  and  the  ruins  of  oil-presses  mani- 
fest the  extensive  use  of  its  enormous  produce:  olives, 
the  husbandman's  only  relish:  oil  which  serves  as 
food,  medicine,  unguent,  and  luel  for  lamps;  finally 
candles  and  soap.  The  olive  tree  was  considered  the 
symbol  of  fruitfulness,  blessing,  and  happiness,  the 
emblem  of  peace  and  prosperity. 

Olivey  Wild  (Rom.,  xi,  17,  24),  not  the  oleaster, 
EUEognus  angustifoliaj  common  throughout  Pales- 
tine, out  the  seedling  of  the  olive,  on  which  the  Olea 
euro^posa  is  grafted. 

Oriiany  Heb.  be^im  (Num.,  xi,  5),  Allium  cepa, 
universally  cultivated  and  forming  an  important  and 
favourite  article  of  diet  in  the  East. 

Orache.    See  Mallows. 

Palm  tree,  Heb.  thamar  (Ex.,  xv,  27),  tamer 
(Judges,  iv,  6),  Phomiz  dactylifera,  the  date  palm. 
The  palm  tree  flourishes  now  only  in  the  maritime 
plain,  but  the  Jordan  Valley,  Engaddi,  Mount  Olivet, 
and  many  other  localities  were  renowned  in  antiquity 
for  their  palm  groves.  In  fact,  the  abundance  of  palm 
trees  in  certain  places  suggested  their  names:  rhoe- 
nicia  (from  Greek  ^otrc^),  E^ngaddi,  formerly  named 
Hazazon  Thamar,  i.  e.,  "Palm  grove",  Jericho,  sur- 
named  "the  City  of  Palm  trees",  Bethany,  "the 
house  of  dates",  are  among  the  best  known.  Dates 
are  a  staple  article  of  food  among  the  Bedouins;  un- 
like figs,  they  are  not  dried  into  compressed  cakes,  but 
separately  J  date  wine  was  known  throughout  the 
East  ancl  is  still  made  in  a  few  places;  date  honey 
(Heb.  debash;  cf.  Arab,  dibs)  has  always  been  one  of 
the  favourite  sweetmeats  of  the  Orientals.  There  are 
many  allusions  in  Scripture  to  palm  trees,  which  are 
also  prominent  in  architectural  ornamentation  (Heb. 
timmorahf  III  Kings,  vi,  29).  ' 

Paper  reedy  Heb.  aroth  (A.  V.,  Is.,  xix,  7)  preferably 
rendered  "the  channel  of  the  river"  (D.  Y.),  as  the 
allusion  seems  to  be  to  the  meadows  on  the  banks  of 
the  Nile. 

Pear  tree.    See  Mulberry, 

PeUy  in  Ps.  xliv,  2  (A.  V.,  xiv,  1);  Jer.,  viii,  8,  is 
probably  the  stalk  of  Arundo  donax,  which  tne  ancients 
used  for  writing,  as  do  also  the  modem  Orientals. 

Pennyroyal,    See  Mint, 

Peppermint,    See  Mint, 

Pine  tree  translates  the  Heb.  words:  (1)  'aren  (Is., 
xliv,  14;  A.  V.   "ash",  possibly  Pinus  pvnea;   (2) 


PLANTS 


156 


PLANTS 


thidhar(h.,  Ix,  13;  Is.,  xU,  19;  D.  V.  "elm")i  the  elm 
(q.  V.)  rather  than  pine.  / 

Pitiachio,  Heb.  botnim  (Gen.,  xliii,  11),  probably 
refers  to  the  nut-fruits  of  Pistacia  veraj  very  common 
in  Palestine;  yet  Arab,  bidm  is  apphed  to  PUtada 
terebinthus. 

Plane  tree^  Heb.  armon  (Gen.,  xxx,  37;  £zech.,  xxxi, 
8;  A.  V.  "chestnut  tree";  Ecclus., xxiv,  19).  PUUanus 
arienialiSf  found  throughout  the  East,  fulfills  well 
the  condition  implied  in  the  Heb.  name  (''peeled ")i  as 
the  outer  layers  of  its  bark  peel  off.  A.  V.  translation 
is  erroneous,  for  the  chestnut  tree  does  not  flourish 
either  in  Mesopotamia  or  Palestine. 

Pomegranate,  the  fruit  of  Punica  granalum,  a 
great  favourite  in  the  Orient,  and  very  plentiful  in 
Palestine,  hence  the  many  allusions  to  it  in  the  Bible. 
Pomegranates  were  frequently  taken  as  a  model  of 
ornamentation;  several  places  of  the  Holy  Land  were 
named  after  the  tree  (Heb.  rimmon):  Rimmon,  Geth- 
Remmon,  En-Bimmon,  etc. 

Poplar.  Heb.  libneh  (Gen.,  xxx,  37;  Osee.,  iv,  13). 
Arab.  2u6na,  Styrax  ojpcinalisy  certainly  identified 
with  the  tree,  from  the  mner  layer  of  whose  bark  the 
officinal  storax  is  obtained. 

Poppy.    See  Gall. 

Pulse  renders  two  Heb.  words:  (1)  qali  occurs  twice 
in  II  Kings,  xvii,  28,  and  is  translated  by  ''parched 
com"  and  ''pulse'' ;  the  allusion  is  to  cereals,  the  seeds 
of  peas,  befms,  lentils,  and  the  like,  which,  in  the 
Eastf  are  roasted  in  the  oven  or  toasted  over  the  fire; 
(2)  zeroimy  zeronim  <Dan.,  i,  12,  16)  refer  to  no  spe- 
cial plants,  but  possibly  to  all  edible  simmier  vege- 
tables. 

Reedy  a  f^eneral  word  translating  several  Heb.  names 
of  plants:  agmony  gomey  ^pA  (see  Bulrush)  and  qaneh 
(see  Ccdamus). 

Rest-harrow.    See  Brtere. 

Rock-rose.    See  Ladanum. 

Rose.  (1 )  Heb.  khabbaggeUth  (A.  V.,  Song  of  Sol.  ii,  1 ; 
Is.,  XXXV,  1)  is  probably  the  narcissus  (see  Flower  oj 
thefM).  (2)  Wis.,  ii,  8,  seems  to  indicate  the  ordi- 
nary rose,  though  roses  were  known  in  Egypt  only  at 
the  epoch  of  the  Ptolemies.  (3)  The  rose  plant 
mentioned  in  Ecclus..  xxiv,  18;  xxxix.  17,  is  rather  the 
oleander,  Nerium  oieandery  very  abundant  around 
Jericho,  where  it  is  doubtful  whether  roses  ever 
flourished  except  in  gardens,  although  seven  different 
species  of  the  genus  Rosa  grow  in  Palestine. 

Rue  (Luke,  xi,  42),  probably  Ruta  chalepensis, 
slightly  different  from  R.  graveolensy  the  officinal 
rue.  St.  Luke  implies  that  Pharisees  regarded  the 
rue  as  subject  to  tithe,  although  it  was  not  mentioned 
in  the  Law  among  tithable  things  (Lev.,  xxvii,  30; 
Num.,  xviii,  21 ;  Deut.,  xiv,  22).  This  opinion  of  some 
overstrict  Rabbis  did  not  prevail  in  the  course  of  time, 
and  the  Talmud  {Shebiithy  ix,  1)  distinctly  excepts  the 
rue  from  tithe. 

Rush  (Job,  viii,  11).    See  BiUrush. 

RySy  Heb.  kussemeth  (A.  V.,  Ex.,  ix,  32;  Is., 
xxviii,  25)  like  Arab,  kirsanahy  which  suggests  a 
leguminous  plant,  Vicia  erviliay  Septuagint  ren- 
ders it  "spelf ;  rye  is  unknown  in  Bible  lands  and 
thrives  only  in  colder  climates,  hence  a  wrong  trans- 
lation. 

Saffroriy  Heb.  karkom  (Cant.,  iv,  14),  cf.  Arab. 
kurkutHy  a  fraprant  plant.  Crocus  sativuSy  grown  in 
the  East  and  m  Europe  for  seasoning  dishes,  bread, 
etc. 

Sandalr^jDOod.    See  Algum. 

Sea-pur  slain.    See  Mallows. 

Sedgey  Heb.  suph  (D.  V.,  Ex.,  ii,  3),  a  generic 
name  for  rush.    See  Bulrush. 

Sedge^jushy  Heb.  *akhu  (D.  V.,  Job,  viii,  11:  Gen., 
xli.  2,  18 J  "marshy  places'';  A.  v.,  "meadow")  prob- 
ably designates  all  kinds  of  ^reen  plants  living  in 
marshes  (cf*  ^K^p^-  okhah),  in  particular  Cyperus 
esculentus,    Qeerlag. 


Setim  woody  the  gum  arable  tree,  Acacia  S^aly  Del., 
which  abounds  in  the  oasis  of  the  Sinaitic  Peninsula 
and  in  the  sultry  Wadys  about  the  Dead  Sea.  The 
wood  is  light,  though  hard  and  close-grained,  of  a  fine 
orange-brown  hue  darkening. with  age,  ana  was  re- 
puted incorruptible. 

Shruby  Heb.  ndagug  (D.  V.,  Is.,  vii,  19;  Iv,  13),  a 
particular  kind  of  shrub,  probably  some  jujube  tree, 
either  Zizyphus  vulgaris,  Lam.,  or  Z.  spinorchristi, 
Willd. 

Sloe.    See  Bur. 

Smut.    See  Mildew. 

Soap.    See  Borith. 

Sodomy  Vine  of  (Deut.,  xxxii,  32).    See  Vine. 

Spear-^nt.    See  Mint. 

SpeUy  A.  V.  and  R.  V.  for  kussemslh  (Ezech.;  iv,  9). 
See  Fitches.  R.  V.  for  qe^kh  (Ex.,  ix,  32;  Is.,  xxviii, 
25).     See  Gith. 

Spices  translates  three  Heb.  words:  (1)  sammuny  a 
generic  word  including  galbanum  onycha,  the  opercu- 
lum of  a  strombus,  and  stacte  (2)  basamy  another  generic 
term  under  which  come  myrrh,  cinnamon,  sweet  cane, 
and  cassia  (3)^  neko  'othy  possibly  the  same  substance 
as  Arab,  nekdaih.     See  Astragalus. 

SpiceSy  Aromatical  (IV  Kings,  xx,  13:  Is.,  xxxix,  2), 
a  mistranslation  for  "precious  things  .  See  Astra- 
galus. 

Spikenard  (A.  V.  Songof  Sol.,  i,  12;D.V.,  ll;iv,  14; 
Mark,  xiv,  3;  John,  xii,  3),  a  fragrant,  essential  oil  ob- 
tained from  the  root  of  Nardoslaehysjatamansiy  D.  C, 
a  small  herbaceous  plant  of  the  Himalayas,  which  is 
exported  all  over  the  East,  and  was  known  even  to  the 
Romans;  the  perfume  obtained  from  it  was  very 
expensive. 

Stacte  translates  four  Heb.  words:  (1)  nataph  (Ex., 
xxx,  34),  a  fragrant  gum  identified  with  the  storax 
(see  Poplar) y  and  with  myrrh  in  drops  or  tears;  (2) 
ahaloih  (D.  V.,  Ps.  xliv^  9;  A.  V.,  jdv,  8:  "aloes", 
|.  v.);  (3)  lot  (Gen.,  xxxvii,  25;  xliii,  11),  see  Ladanum; 
4)  qiddah  (Eaech.,  xxvii,  19),  see  Cassia. 

Storax.  (1)  G«i.,  xliii,  11:  see  Astragalus;  (2) 
Ecclus.,  xxiv,  21:  see  Poplar;  Stacte  (1). 

Sweet  cane.    See  Cane. 

Sycamine  (A.  V.,  Luke,  xvii,  6;  D.  V.  "mulberry 
tree").  As  St.  Luke  distinguishes  ^itdfupot  (here) 
from  (rvK0fji»p4a  (xix,  4),  they  probably  differ;  0-vxAv/i>ot 
is  admitted  by  scholars  to  be  the  black  mulbeny, 
Morus  nigra. 

Sycamore  or  SycomorCy  Heb.  shiqmim  or  shigmoUi 
(III  Kings.  X,  27;  Ps.  bocviii,  47^  D.  V.,  Ixxvu,  47, 
"mulberry";  Is.,  ix,  10;  A.  V.  Amos.,  vii,  14),  not  the 
tree  commonly  called  by  that  name,  Acer  pseudo-pUUa^ 
nuSy  but  Ficus  sycomoruSy  formerly  more  plentiful 
in  Palestine. 

Tamarisk.  Heb.  'eshel  (Gen.,  xxi,  33:  "grove"; 
I  Kingp,  xxii,6;  xxxi.  13:  D.  V.  "wood^',  A.  V.  "tree"), 
Arab,  athly  a  tree  of  which  eight  or  nine  species  grow 
in  Palestine. 

Teil  tree  (A.  V.,  Is.,  vi,  13),  a  mistranslation  of  Heb. 
^etahy  which  is  probably  the  terebinth. 

Terebinth  (D.  V.,  Is.,  vi.  13),  Pistacia  tereibinthuSy 
the  turpentine  tree,  for  Heb.  'avly  'elahy  *elon  (see  Oak) ; 
it  grows  in  dry  localities  of  south  and  eastern  Palestine 
where  the  oak  cannot  thrive.  The  turpentine,  dif- 
ferent from  that  of  the  pine  trees,  is  a  kind  of  pleasant- 
smelling  oil.  obtained  by  making  incisions  in  the  bark, 
and  is  widely  used  in  the  East  to  flavour  wine,  sweet- 
meats, etc. 

ThistleSy  or  numerous  prickly  plants,  are  one  of  the 
special  features  of  the  flora  of^the  Holy  Land;  hence 
tney  are  designated  by  various  Hebrew  words,  incon- 
sistently translated  by  the  versions,  where  guess-work 
seems  occasionally  to  have  been  employed  although 
the  general  meaning  is  certain:  (1)  barqanim,  see 
Briers;  (2)  dardar,  Arab,  shaukat  ed-niardary  poasibly 
CentaureaSy  star-thistles  and  knapweeds;  (3)  kh«ka, 
see  Madrapple;  (4)  khoakh  (see  Bur),  a  plant,  whica 


I 


PLA8DIN 


167 


PLA8INCI4 


pows  amidst  ruins  (Is.,  xxiv,  13),  in  fallow-lands  (Osee, 
ix;  6),  with  lilies  (Cant.,  ii,  2),  and  in  fields  where  it  is 
harmful  to  com  (Job,  xxxi,  40)^  all  which  features  suit 
well  the  various  kinds  of  thistles  {Carduus  pycno- 
cephcdta,  C.  argentatuSf  Cirdum  lanceolatum,  C,  ar- 
venWf  AUradilis  camosa,  Carlhamus  oxyacatUha,  Sco- 
Ijfmus  maculatus),  most  abundant  in  ralestine;  (5) 
sirim,  the  various  star-thistles,  or  perhaps  the  thomv 
bumet^  plentiful  in  ruins;  (6)  nrpad,  from  the  Greek 
rendenng,  probablv  the  elecampane.  Inula  viacosat 
common  on  the  hills  of  the  Holy  Land;  (7)  qimmeah" 
onim,  see  NeUlea;  (8)  ahayith  and  (9)  ahamir,  see 
Briers, 

ThomSj  used  in  the  English  Bibles  to  designate 
plants  like  thistles,  also  includes  thomv  plants,  such 
as:  (1)  'atad,  see  Bramble;  (2)  meaukakf  the  general 
name  given  to  a  hedge  of  any  kind  of  thorny  shrubs; 
(3)  naaguff  see  Shrub;  (4)  siu&n  (cf .  Arab.  «ula),  some 
kind  of  strong  thorns;  (5)  aarabhinif  tangled  thorns 
forming  thickets  impossible  to  clear;  (6)  ginnim,  an 
unidentified  thorny  plant;  (7)  qog,  a  generic  word  for 
thomy  bushes;  (8)  aikkim  (cf.  Arab,  shauk),  also  a 
generic  name. 

Thyine  tvoodf  probably  Thuya  ariiculata,  Desf., 
especially  in  Apoc.,  xviii,  12.    See  Algum, 

Turpentine  tree.    See  Terebinth. 

Vetches  (D.  V.^  Is.,  xxviii,  25).    See  Fitches. 

Vine,  the  ordma^  grape-vine^  Vitis  vinifera,  of 
which  many  varieties  are  cultivated  and  thrive  in 
the  Holy  Land.  In  Old  Testament  times  vine  and 
wine  were  so  important  and  popular  that  in  it  they 
are  constantly  mentioned  and  alluded  to,  and  a 
relatively  large  vocabulary  was  devoted  to  expressing 
varieties  of  plants  and  produce.  In  Ezech .,  xv,  6,  Heb. 
cafgafcJi  is  rendertW  "vine",  see  WiUow., 

Vine,  Wild  (IV  Kings,  iv,  39),  probably  a  wild 
gourd-vine,  most  likely  the  Colocynth. 

Vine  of  Sodom  (Deut.,  xxxii,  32),  possibly  the  well 
known  shmb,  "Apple  of  Sodom",  Calotrovis  procera. 
Willd.,  which  pecmiar  plant  grows  round  the  Dead 
Sea  and  produces  a  fruit  of  the  size  of  an  apple.-  and 
"fair  to  behold",  which  bursts  when  touched  ana  con- 
tains only  white  silky  tufts  and  small  seeds,  "dust 
and  ashes"  (Josephus). 

Walnut.    See  Nut. 

Water^mint.    See  Mint. 

Wheal,  from  Heb.  bar  and  dagan,  also  translated 
"com"  and  applicable  to  all  cereals,  is  properly  in 
Hdb.  khittah  (cf.  Arab,  khintah),  of  which  two  varieties 
are  especially  cultivated  in  Palestine:  Triticum  CBsiir 
vum,  summer  wheat,  and  T.  hybemum,  winter  wheat; 
the  harvest  takes  place  from  May  (Gh6r)  to  June 
(highlands).  Com  is  threshed  bv  cattle  or  pressed 
out  with  a  sledge^  and  winnowed  with  a  shovel,  by 
throwing  the  gram  against  the  wind  on  thresning 
floors  upon  breezy  hills. 

WHlcw.  (1)  Heb.  gafgafah  (A.  V.,  Esech..  xvii.  6;  D. 
v.,  "vine"),  Arab. «a/w^^, probably  willow tnougn some 
prefer  Ekeagnus  hortensis,  Marsh.^  from  Arab,  zaiza- 
fun.  (2)  Heb.  *arabim  (Lev.,  xxiii,  40;  Job,  xl,  17; 
Ps.  cxxxvi,  2,  A.  V.  cxxxvii;  Is.,  xuv,  4),  like  Arab. 
gharab,  hence  the  willow.  'Arabimy  used  only  in  the 
plur.,  probably  designates  all  willows  in  general  (Salix 
safsaf,  S.  alba,  S.  fragilis,  S.  babyUmica,  or  weeping 
willow,  are  frequent  in  the  Palestinian  Waays), 
whereas  gafgafah  may  point  out  some  particular  spe- 
cies possibly  the  weeping  willow. 

Wheel  (Ps.  Ixxxii,  14)  probablv  refers  to  some  kind 
of  Centaurea,  as  does  "wnirlwind"  (Is.,  xvii,  13). 

Wormwood,  Heb.  Idanah  (Apoc,  viii,  11),  plants  of 
the  genus  Artemisia,  several  species  of  which  (A. 
monos-perma,  Del.,  A.  herborolba,  Asso.,  A.  judaica, 
A.  anniM,  A.  aiboreseens)  are  common  in  Palestine, 
notably  on  tablelands  and  in  deserts.  The  charac- 
teristic bitterness  of  the  Ariemisias,  coupled  with  thdr 
usual  drc^ness  of  habitat,  aptly  tsrpified  f  of  Eastern 
minds  calamity,  injustice,  and  uie  evil  results  of  sin. 


Balfovb,  The  PlanU  of  the  Bible  (London.  1885);  Bonatia,  Tk» 
Flora  ofthe  AMj/rMn  Monuments  and  ita  Ouleomee  (WMtminater, 
1894) ;  DimB,  Biblical  Natural  Science,  being  the  «xpl.  of  all  refer- 
ences  in  Holy  Scripture  to  geology ,  botany ,  etc.  (London,  1863-6) ; 
Gbossb,  TAe  Treee  and  Plants  mentioned  in  the  Bible  (London, 
1895);  HooKKji  and  Tristram.  PlanU  ofthe  Bible,  with  the  chief 
aUueione  collected  and  explained  'm  Aide  to  tfie  l^udent  of  tke  Holy 
Bible  (London);  Kniort,  Bible  Plants  and  Animals  (London, 
1889) ;  Post,  Flora  of  Syria,  Palestine  and  Sinai,  from  the  Taurue 
to  the  Ras  Muhammad,  and  from  the  Mediterranean  Sea  to  the  Syrian 
desert  (Beirut,  1896) ;  Smith,  Bible  Plants,  their  history,  with  a  re- 
eiew  of  the  opinions  of  variotis  writers  regarding  their  idimtification 
(London,  1878) ;  Tristram,  The  Natural  History  of  the  Bible  (Lon- 
don, 1889);  loEM,  The  Fauna  and  Flora  of  Palestine  (London, 
1884);  ZsLLBR,  Wild  Flowers  ofthe  Holy  Land  (London,  1876); 
BoiasiBR,  Flora  Orientalis  (Bale  and  Genera,  1867-88) ;  CsuiitB, 
Hierobotanicon,  sive  de  plantis  Sacra  Scriptures  dissertationes  brevee 
(Upoala,  1745-7);  Forskal,  Flora  JSgyptiaeo-Arabica  (Copen- 
kagen,  1776) ;  Hillxr,  Hierophyticon,  sive  Commdntarius  in  loca 
SeripturtB  Sacra  qua  plantarum  faeiunt  mentionem  (Treves,  1725); 
Lbmnius,  Similitudinum  ac  parabolarum,  qua  in  BiMiis  ex  herbie 
desumurUur,  diltieida  explicatio  (Frankfort,  1626) ;  Linnr,  Flora 
Pale^ina  (Upsala,  1756);  Urbiitus,  Arboretum  biblieum  (Nureni- 
berg,  1699) ;  Iobm,  Arboreti  biblici  amtinu<Uioi  (Nuremberg,  1699); 
CuLTRERA,  Bolanique  biblique  (Geneva,  1861);  Filuon,  Atlas 
d'histoire  naturelle  de  la  BibU  (Paris,  1884) ;  Gandoger,  Plantee 
de  Judis  in  Btdletin  ds  la  SociM  botanique  ds  France,  XXXIII, 
XXXV,  XXXVI  (Pans);  Iosm,  articles  on  several  plants  in 
ViGOUROUx,  Dictionnaire  de  la  Bible  (Paris,  1895 — ) ;  Hamilton, 
La  botanique  de  la  Bible  (Nice,  1871);  Levesquk,  articles  on  vari- 
ous plants  in  Vio.,  Diet.  Bibl.;  Lorxt,  La  flare  pharaonique, 
d'aprks  lee  documents "  hiiroglyphiques  et  les  spieimens  dicouverts 
dans  Us  tombes  (Paris,  1892) ;  Fonck,  StreifzUgs  durch  die  Biblische 
Flora  (Freiburg,  1900);  Kinslkr,  Biblische  Naturgeseh.  (Calw 
and  Stuttgart,  1884) ;  L5w,  Aramdische  Pflanzennamen  (Leiptig, 
1881);  Oeomann,  Vermischte  Sammlungen  aus  der  Naturkunde 
tur  Erkldrung  der  Heiligen  Schrift  (Leipsig,  178^95);  Rosbn- 
Mt^LLBR,  Handbufih  der  Biblischen  Altertumskunde,  IV,  1:  Bi- 
hlisiAs  Naturgeseh,  (Leipsig,  1830);  Woenio,  Die  Pflansen  im 
alten  JSgypten  (Leipsig,  1886);  Cultrbra,  Flora  Biblioa,  onero 
spiegeuione  delle  plante  memionate  n^la  Sacra  SeriUura  (Palermo, 
1861). 

Charles  L.  Souvay. 

Plasden,  Poltdore,  Vei^erable.  See  White, 
Eustace,  Venerable. 

Plueneia,  Diocese  of  (Placentina),  comprises 
the  civil  provinces  of  Cdceres,  SaJamanca,  and  Bada- 

J'oz.  Its  capital  has  a  population  of  8044.  The  city  of 
i'lasencia  was  founded  by  Alfonso  VIII  on  the  site  of 
Ambroz,  which  he  had  conquered  from  the  Moors. 
He  gave  it  the  name  of  Placentia,  ''that  it  may  be 

E leasing  to  God  and  man''  (ut  Deo  placeat  et  homini- 
us),  and  sought  to  have  it  made  a  see  by  the  pope, 
which  Clement  III  did  in  1189.  In  1190,  the  see  was 
occupied  by  Bricio  and,  at  his  death  in  1211,  by  Do- 
mingo, a  native  of  Beja,  who  was  more  warrior  than 
shepnerd,  fightins  at  Las  Navas  de  Tolosa  at  the  head 
of  ue  men  of  PGusencia,  and  subsequently^  directing 
his  movements  against  Jaen,  conquering  Priego,  Doja, 
Montejo,  and  other  towns.  He  assisted  at  the  Lat- 
eran  Council  of  1215,  with  Archbishop  Rodrigo  Jime- 
nez de  Rada,  whom  he  served  as  vicar  when  the 
archbishop  became  legate  in  Spain.  Dying  in  1235, 
Domingo  was  succeeded  by  Adan,  third  Bishop  of  Pla- 
sencia,  a  no  less  warlike  prelate,  who  with  four  other 
bishops  accompanied  St.  Ferdinand  to  the  conquest  of 
C6rdoba,  where  the  five  consecrated  the  mosque  as  a 
Christian  cathedral.  His  successors,  Ximeno  Simon, 
and  two  Pedros.  devoted  themselves  mainly  to  the 
government  of  tneir  diocese;  Juan  Alonso  assisted  at 
the  Cortes  of  1288,  where  he  obtained  from  Sancho 
confirmation  of  the  privileges  already  granted  to 
Plasencia.  His  successor  Diego  spent  much  time  at 
Valladolid  with  the  king. 

The  cathedral  was  originally  built  on  a  lofty  site, 
near  the  citadel,  afterwards  occupied  by  the  Church  of 
St.  Vincent  the  Martyr,  then  by  that  of  St.  Anne  and 
lastly  by  the  Jesuit  college,  now  an  almshouse.  An- 
other cathedral  was  begun  early  in  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury;  this  edifice,  in  the  Early  Spanish  Gothic  style,  is 
now  the  parish  church  of  Santa  Maria.  At  the  end  of 
its  cloister  are  seen  the  arms  of  Bishop  Gonzalo  de  Sta. 
Maria,  in  whose  time  the  cloister  was  finished,  and  the 
first  solemn  procession  was  held  there,  26  March,  1348. 
This  cathedral  had  hardly  been  built  when  it  be^an  to 
seem  too  poor  for  the  see — one  of  the  richest  in  Spam.  In 
1498|  in  the  episcopate  of  Gutierre  Alvarez  de  Toledo, 


PLATA  ,                              158  FLATIMA 

the  twenty-fourth  bishop,  another  cathedral  wds  be-  b.  at  Piadena,  near  Mantua,  in  1421;  d.  at  Rome, 

sun  in  Late  Crothic,  and  completed  in  Renaissancd.  1481.    He  first  enlisted  as  a  soldier,  and  was  then 

The  high  altar  is  the  work  of  Uregorio  HemiUideK,  a  appointed  tutor  to  the  sons  of  the  Marquis  Ludovioo 

famous  sculptor  of  Valladolid;  the  choir  grille  was  Gonzaga.    In  1457  he  went  to  Florence,  and  studied 

made  by  Juan  Bautista  Celma  in  1604;  the  stalls  are  under  the  Greek  scholar  Arj^rropulos.    In  1462  he 

noteworthy,  rivalling  those  of  the  cathedral  of  Bada-  proceeded  to  Rome,  probably  m  tne  suite  of  Cardinal 

]oz.   In  the  sanctuary,  on  the  Gospel  side,  is  the  tomb  Francesco  Gonzaga.    After  Pius  II  had  reorganised 

of  Bishop  Pedro  Ponce  de  Le6n,  inquisitor  general,  the  College  of  Abbreviators  (1463),  and  increased  its 

who  died  at  Jaraycedo,  18  January,  1573.    In  the  number  to  seventy,  Platina  in  May,  1464,  was  elected 

winter  chapter  house  are  a  "Nativity"  bv  VeUzquez  a  member.   When  Paul  II  abolished  the  ordinances  of 

and  a," St.  Augustine"  by  Espafioleto.    Tne  adjoining  Pius,  Platina  with  the  other  new  members  was  de- 

college  was  founded  in  1554  by  Bishop  Gutierre  de  prived  of  his  office.    Angered  thereat,  he  wrote  a 

Varagas  de  Carvajal,  a  native  of  Madrid,  one  of  the  pamphlet  insolently  demanding  from  the  pope  the 

most  notable  occupants  of  the  see.   The  parish  Church  recall  of  his  restrictions.   When  called  upon  to  justify 

of  St.  Nicolas,  also  at  Plasencia,  contains  the  tombs  of  himself  he  answered  with  insolence  and  was  im- 

Heman  P^rez  de  Monroy,  the  champion  of  King  Pe-  prisoned  in  the  Castle  of  Sant'  Angelo,  being  released 

dro  I,  and  Pedro  de  Carvajal,  Bishop  of  Coria.    The  after  four  months  on  condition  tnat  he  remain  at 

Church  of  S.Juan  Bautista,  outside  the  walls,  has  been  Rome.    In  February,  1486,  with  about  twenty  other 

converted  into  a  match  lactorv.     The  noteworthy  Humanists,  he  was  aj^ain  imprisoned  on  suspicion  of 

church  of  S.  Vicente  formerly  belonged  to  the  Do-  heresy  and  of  conspinng  against  the  Hfe  of  tne  pope, 

minicans;  in  its  chapel  of  St.  John  is  the  ma^piificent  but  the  latter  charge  was  dropped  for  lack  of  evidence 

tomb  with  kneeting  effigy  of  Martin  Nieto,  knight  while  they  were  acquitted  on  the  former.    But  not 

commander  of  the  nine  towns,  in  the  Order  of  St.  even  Platina  denies  that  the  members  of  the  Roman 

John,  and  camendador  of  Yebenes.  Academy,  imbued  with  half-pagan  and  materialistic 

The  episcopal  palace  was  rebuilt  at  the  expense  of  doctrines,  were  found  guilty  of  immorality.     The 

Bishop  Francisco  Laso  de  La  Vega  (1737),  on  the  site  story  about  his  constancy  under  trial  and  torture  is 

of  one  that  dated  from  the  fifteenth  century.    Besides  unfounded. 

the  almshouse  already  mentioned,  there  are  the  hos-  After  his  release,  7  July,  1469,  he  escpected  to  be 

pital  of  Sta.  Maria,  popularly  known  as  Dofia  Engra-  again  in  the  employ  of  Paul  II,  who,  however,  de- 

cia  de  Monroy,  which  was  restored  by  Bishop  Laso;  cuned  his  services.     Platina  threatened  vengeance 

and  the  hospital  of  La  Merced,  known  as  Las  Llagas  and  executed  his  threat,  when  at  the  suggestion  of 

(The  Wounds),  intended  for  persons  suffering  from  Sixtus  IV  he  wrote  his  "Vit»  Pontificum  Plattns 

wounds  or  acciaental  injuries.   The  concUiar  seminary  historici  liber  de  vita  Christi  ac  omnium  pontificum 

of  Purisima  Concepci6n  was  founded  in  1670  by  Bishop  qui  hactenus  ducenti  f uere  et  XX  "  fVenice,  1479) .   In 

Diego  Sarmiento  Valladares  and,  later  on.  reorgan-  it  he  paints  his  enemy  as  cruel,  and  an  archenemy  of 

ized  by  Bishops  Antonio  Carillo  Mayoral  and  Ci-  science.   For  centuries  it  influenced  historical  opimons 

prianoVarela.   In  1853  Bishop  Jos6  A vila  y  Lamas  in-  until  critical  research  proved  otherwise.      In  other 

stalled  it  in  the  convent  of  S.  Vicente.  places  party  spirit  is  evident,  especially  when  he 

The  Diocese  of  Plasencia  was  formerly  suffragan  of  treats  of  the  condition  of  the  Church.  Notwith- 
Santiago,  but  ^nder  the  last  concordat  (1851)  it  be-  standing,  his  "Lives  of  the  Popes"  is  a  work  of  no 
came  suffragan  of  Toledo.  In  this  diocese  is  the  fa-  small  merit,  for  it  is  the  first  systematic  handbook  of 
mous  Hieronymite  monastery  of  Yuste,  *<>  which  papal  history.  Platina  felt  the  need  of  critical  re- 
Charles  V  retired  after  his  abdication.  The  ancient  search,  but  shirked  the  examination  of  details.  By 
monastery  itself  has  been  destroyed,  but  the  dwelling  the  end  of  1474  or  the  beginning  of  1475  Platina 
built  for  the  emperor  is  preserved,  as  well  as  the  offered  his  manuscript  to  Sixtus  IV;  it  is  still  preserved 
church.  In  1547  the  Count  and  Countess  of  Oropesa  in  the  Vatican  Library.  The  pope's  acceptance  may 
caused  this  monastery  to  be  rebuilt  in  Renaissance  cause  surprise,  but  it  is  probable  he  was  isnorant 
architecture.  The  vaultings  of  the  church  were  recon-  of  its  contents  except  in  so  far  as  it  concerned  his  own 
stnicted  in  1860;  above  them  are  white-washed  walls  pontificate  up  to  November,  1474.  After  the  death 
with  the  emperors  arms,  on  one  side,  and  on  the  other,  of  Giandrea  Bussi,  Bishop  of  Aleria,  the  pope  ap- 
a  black  wooden  casket  which  contained  the  body  of  pointed  Platina  librarian  with  a  yearly  salary  of  120 
Charles  V,  in  a  leaden  case,  until  1574,  when  it  was  re-  ducats  and  an  oflficial  residence  in  the  Vatican.  He 
moved  to  the  Escorial.  Plasencia  has  had  many  dis-  also  instructed  him  to  make  a  collection  of  the  chief 
tinguished  sons:  among  them  Juan  de  Carvajal,  ere-  privileges  of  the  Roman  Cftiurch.  This  collection,  whose 
ated  a  cardinal  by  Eugene  IV,  filled  many  important  value  is  acknowledged  by  all  the  annalists,  is  still 
posts  under  the  Holy  See  and  rendered  important  ser-  preserved  in  the  Vatican  archives.  In  the  preface 
vices  at  the  Council  of  Basle  and  in  the  war  against  Platina  not  only  avoids  any  antagonism  towards  the 
the  Turks,  while  his  cousin,  Bernardino  de  Carvajal,  Church  but  even  refers  with  approbation  to  the  pun- 
presided  in  the  conclaves  which  elected  Adrian  VI  and  ishmg  of  heretics  and  schismatics  by  the  popes, 
Clement  VII  (see  Carvajal).  Among  others  were  which  is  the  best  proof  that  Sixtus  IV,  by  his  marks 
the  jurists,  Alfonso  de  Acevedo  and  Juan  Gutti^rrez;  of  favour,  had  won  Platina  for  the  interests  of  the 
the  chroniclers  Lorenzo  Galfndez  de  Carvajal  and  Church.  Besides  his  principal  work  Platina  wrote 
Alonso  FemAndez;  and  Diego  de  Chaves,  confessor  5«Xeral  ,  others  of  wnallCT  importance,  notably: 
to  Philip  II.  Within  this  diocese  is  the  native  home  1^^^™  mchta  urbis  Mantuae  et  serenisams 
of  the  conquerors  of  America:  Hernando  Cort^,  a  fanuh«  Gonzagae".  The  new  Pmacotheca  yaticana 
native  of  the  vUlage  of  Medellln;  and  the  Pizarros,  contains  the  magnificent  fresco  by  Melozzo  da  Forta. 
natives  of  Trujillo.  The  bishops  of  Plasencia  were  I*  reprints  Sixtus  IV  surrounded  by  his  Court  and 
lords  of  Jaraycejo,  the  town  of  Miajadas,  and  other  appomtmg  Platma  prefect  of  the  Vatican, 
domains.  As  a  paragraph  from  Platina's  "Vitse  Pontificum", 

FsrnXndbi,  Hist,  y  AntOf  rf«  .  .  .  Pliumeia  (Madrid,  1627);  first  gave  rise  to  the  legend  of  the  excommunication 

Poke,  Viajt  de  B»paika,  viT  (2nd  ed.,  Madrid,  1784);  Aldshvtb,  of  Halley's  comet  by  Callistus  III,  we  here  give  the 

^i^'^i^%f^'^,i^r'iT^,i^^;^:^.Sli:^;l:.  l«r>'^  briefly,  ^ter  r««dHng  «,ine^ri«d  f«5t^ 

•t««ffMmum«nio«vortea  (Barcelona.  1887).  After  the  fall  of  Constantinople  (1463),  Nicolas  V 

Ram6n  Ruts  Amado  appealed  in  vain  to  the  Christian  princes  for  a  cm* 

m.4-*   T  A     Q«^  T  *  T>T  A«*   r\,^^^^  ^-  saae-    Callistus  III  (1455-58),  immediately  after  his 

Plata,  La.    See  La  Plata,  Diocese  of.  succession,  sent  legates  to  the  various  Courts  for  the 

Platina,  Bartolomeo,  originally  named  Sagchi,  same  purpose;  and,  meeting  with  no  response,  pro- 


PLATO 


159 


PLATO 


mulgated  a  Bull  29  June,  1456,  prescribing  the  follow- 
ing:. (1)  all  priests  were  to  say  during  Mass  the 
''oratio  contra  paganos";  (2)  daily,  between  noon 
and  vespers,  at  the  ringing  of  a  bell,  eveiybody  had  to 
say  three  Our  Fathers  and  Hail  Manrs:  (3)  proces- 
sions were  to  be  held  by  the  clergy  and  tne  faithful  on 
the  first  Sunda^r  of  each  month,  and  the  priests  were 
to  preach  on  Faith,  patience,  and  penance;  to  expose 
the  cruelty  of  the  Turks,  and  urge  all  to  pray  for  their 
deliverance.  The  first  Sunday  of  July  (4  July),  the 
first  processions  were  held  in  Rome.  On  the  same  day 
the  Turks  began  to  beside  Belgrade.  On  14  July 
the  Christians  Kained  a  small  advantage,  and  on  the 
twenty-first  and  twentynsecond  the  Turks  were  put 
to  flight. 

In  the  same  year  Halley's  comet  appeared.  In 
Italy  it  was  first  seen  in  June.  Towards  the  end  of  the 
month  it  was  still  visible  for  three  hours  after  sunset, 
causing  great  excitement  evenrwhere  by  its  extraor- 
dinary splendour.  It  natural^  attracted  the  atten- 
tion of  %Btrologer8  as  may  appear  from  the  long 
"judicium  astrologicum"  by  Avogario^  of  Ferrara, 
dated  17  June,  1456;  it  was  found  again  by  Celoria 
among  the  manuscripts  of  Paolo  Toscanelli^  who  had 
copied  it  himself.  The  comet  was  seen  till  8  July. 
It  is  evident,  from  all  the  documents  of  that  time, 
that  it  had  disappeared  from  sight  several  days  before 
the  battle  of  Bel^ade.  These  two  simultaneous 
facts— the  publication  of  the  Bull  and  the  appear- 
ance of  the  comet — were  connected  by  Platina  in  the 
following  manner:  '^Apparente  deinde  per  aliquot 
dies  cometa  crinito  et  rubeo :  cum  mathematici  ingen- 
tempestem:  charitatem  annonse:  magnam  aliquam 
cladem  futuram  dicerent:  ad  avertendam  iram  Dei 
Catistus  aliquot  dierum  supplicationes  decrevit:  ut  si 
quid  hominibus  immineret,  totum  id  in  Thurcos  chris- 
tiani  nominis  hostes  converteret .  Mandavit  prseterea 
ut  assiduo  rogatu  Deus  flecteretur  in  meridie  campanis 
signum  dari  fidelibus  omnibus:  ut  orationibus  eos 
juvarent:  qui  contra  Thurcos  continuo  dimicabant" 
(Amaned  and  fiery  comet  appearingfor  several  days, 
while  scientists  were  predicting  a  great  plague,  dear^ 
ness  of  food,  or  some  great  disaster,  Callistus  de- 
creed that  supplicatory  pravers  be  held  for  some  days 
to  avert  the  anser  of  Crod,  so  that,  if  any  calamity 
threatened  mankind,  it  might  be  entirely  diverted 
against  the  Turks,  the  foes  of  the  Christian  name. 
He  likewise  ordered  that  the  bells  be  rung  at  midday 
as  a  signal  to  all  the  faithful  to  move  God  with  as- 
siduous petitions  and  to  assist  with  their  prayers 
those  engaged  in  constant  warfare  with  the  Turlu). 

Platina  has,  generally  speaking,  recorded  the  facts 
truly.;  but  is  wrong  at  one  point,  viz.,  where  he  says 
that  the  astrologers'  predictions  of  great  calamities 
induced  the  pope  to  prescribe  public  prayers.  The 
Bull  does  not  contain  a  word  on  the  comet,  as  the 
present  writer  can  testify  from  personal  examination 
of  the  autiienticated  document. — ^A  careful  investi- 
gation of  the  authentiicated  ''Regesta''  of  Callistps 
III  (about  one  hundred  folios),  in  the  Vatican  archives, 
shows  that  the  comet  is  not  mentioned  in  any  other 
papal  document.  Nor  do  other  writers  of  the  time 
refer  to  any  such  prayers  against  the  comet,  though 
many  speak  both  of  the  comet  and  of  the  prayers 
against  the  Turks.  The  silence  of  St.  Antoninus, 
^jtshbishop  of  Florence  (1446-59),  is  particularly 
significant.  In  his  "Chronicorum  libn  tres"  he 
enumerates  accurately  all  the  prayers  prescribed  by 
Callistus;  he  also  mentions  the  comet  of  1456  in  a 
chapter  entitled,  ''De  oometis,  unde  causentur  et 
quid  si^poificent'' — ^but  never  refers  to  prayers  and 
processions  against  the  comet,  although  all  papal 
decrees  were  sent  to  him.  Aeneas  Sylvius  and  St. 
John  Capistrano,  who  preached  the  crusade  in  Hun- 
gary, '  considered  the  comet  rather  as  a  favourable 
omen  in  the  war  against  the  Turks. 

Henee  it  is  clear  that  Platina  has  looked  wrongly 


upon  the  Bull  as  the  outcome  of  fear  of  comets.  The 
historians  of  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries 
contented  themselves  with  quoting  Platina  more  or 
less  accurately  (Calvisius  1605,  Spondanus  1641, 
Lubienietski  1666).  Fabre  (1726)  in  nis  continuation 
of  the  ''Histoire  Eccl^astique"  by  Fleury  gave  a 
somewhat  free  paraphrase.  Bruys  (1733),  an  apos- 
tate (who  afterwards  entered  tne  Church  again), 
copies  Fleury-Fabre  adding  ''c|ue  le  Pape  profita  en 
habile  homme  de  la  superstition  et  de  la  crfidulit^ 
des  peuples''.  It  is  only  when  we  come  to  Laplace's 
''  Exposition  du  Svst^me  du  monde  *\  that  we  find  the 
expression  that  the  pope  ordered  the  comet  and  the 
Turks  to  be  exorcized  (canjuri),  which  expression  we 
find  again  in  Daru's  poem  ^'L' Astronomic".  Arago 
rOes  Com^tes  en  g^n^ral  etc.  Annuaire  du  Bureau 
des  Lon^tudes  1832,  244)  converts  it  into  an  excom- 
munication. Arago's  treatise  was  soon  translated 
into  all  the  European  languages,  after  which  time  the 
appearance  of  the  comet  (1456)  is  hardly  ever  men- 
tioned, but  this  historical  lie  must  be  repeated  in 
various  shapes.  Smyth  (Cycle  of  celestial  objects) 
speaks  of  a  special  protest  and  excommunication 
exorcizing  the  Devil,  the  Turks,  and  the  comet. 
Grant  (History  of  phvsicdi  astronomy)  refers  to  the 
publication  of  a  Bull,  in  which  Callistus  anathema- 
tized both  the  Turks  and  the  Comet.  Babinet  (Revue 
des  deux  mondes,  23  ann.,  vol.  4,  1853,  831)  has  the 
pope  "lancer  un  timide  anathdme  sur  la  com^te  et 
sur  les  ennemis  de  la  Chr6tient^",  whilst  in  the  battle 
of  Belgrade  "les  Fr^res  Mineurs  aux  premiers  rangs, 
invoquaient  Texorcisme  du  pape  contre  la  comdte". 
In  dinerent  ways  the  legend  is  repeated  by  Chambers. 
Flammarion,  Draper,  Jamin,  Dickson  White,  ana 
others.  However,  the  truth  is  gaining  ground  and  it 
is  hoped  the  story  of  the  excommunicated  comet  will 
soon  be  relegated  to  the  realm  of  fables. 

Pastob,  GeachidUe  d.  Pdptle,  I,  II,  patnm;  Muratori,  Rer. 
italic,  9criplore$,  XX  (1731),  477.  611-14;  Bibsolati.  Vite  di  du4 
illtutri  crenumesi  (Milan.  1856);  Dslbavlx,  CalixU  III  ti  la 
eomke  d«  Hailey:  ColUetion  de  pride  hiHoriqiiee  (Bn^wels,  1859). 
301-5;  Gerard.  Of  a  Bull  and  a  comet  is  The  Month  (Feb., 
1007) ;  Tbirion.  La  comite  de  HaUey.  Son  hiatoire  et  la  Ugende 
de  eon  excommunieation  in  Revue  dee  queet.  §c.»  Srd  series,  XVI 
(Bnxssols),  670-05;  Stxin,  CalixU  III  et  la  comHe  de  HaUey  in 
Specola  aetronomiea  Vaticana^  II  (1000);  Hagen.  Die  Fabel  ton 
d.  KometeninMe  in  Stimmen  aue  MariarLaach,  LXVIII  (1010), 
413. 

J.  Stbin. 

Plato  and  Platoniflm. — I.  Life  or  Plato. — Plato 
(IlXdrwr,  the  broad-shouldered)  was  bom  at  Athens  in 
428  or  427  b.  c.  He  came  of  an  aristocratic  and 
wealthy  family,  although  some  writers  represented 
him  as  having  felt  the  stress  of  poverty.  I)oubtless 
he  profited  by  the  educational  facilities  worded  young 
men  of  his  class  at  Athens.  When  about  twenty  years 
old  he  met  Socrates,  and  the  intercourse,  which  lasted 
eight  or  ten  years,  between  master  and  pupil  was 
the  decisive  influence  in  Plato's  philosophical  career. 
Before  meeting  Socrates  he  had,  very  likely,  developed, 
an  interest  in  the  earlier  philosophers,  ana  in  schemes 
for  the  betterment  of  political  conditions  at  Athens. 
At  an  early  age  he  devoted  himself  to  poetry.  All 
these  interests,  however,  were  absorbed  in  the  pursuit 
of  wisdom  to  which,  under  the  guidance  of  Socrates, 
he  ardently  devoted  himself.  After  the  death  of 
Socrates  he  ioined  a  group  of  the  Socratic  disciples 

fathered  at  Megara  under  the  leadership  of  Euclid, 
later  he  travelled  in  Egypt,  Magna  Grsecia,  and 
Sicily.  His  profit  from  these  journeys  has  been  exag- 
gerated by  some  biographers.  There  can,  however,  be 
no  doubt  that  in  Iti3y  he  studied  the  doctrines  of  the 
Pythagoreans.  His  thiee  journeys  to  Sicily  were, 
apparently,  to  influence  the  older  and  younger  Dion- 
ysius  in  favour  of  his  ideal  system  of  government. 
But  in  this  he  failed,  incurring  the  enmity  of  the  two 
rulers,  was  cast  into  prison,  and  sold  as  a  slave.  Ran- 
somsa  by  a  friend,  he  returned  to  his  school  of  phil- 
osophy at  Athens.    This  differed  from  the  Socratic 


PLATO 


160 


PLATO 


School  in  many  respects.  It  had  a  definite  location 
in  the  groves  near  the  g3rmna8ium  of  Academus,  its 
tone  was  more  refined,  more  attention  was  given  to 
literary  form,  and  there  was  less  indulgence  in  the  odd, 
and  even  vulgar  method  of  illustration  which  charac- 
terized the  Socratic  manner  of  exposition.  '  After  his 
return  from  his  third  journey  to  Sicily  he  devoted 
himself  unremittinglv  to  writmg  and  teaching,  until 
his  eightieth  year,  when,  as  Cicero  tells  us,  he  died  in 
the  midst  of  his  intellectual  laboiurs  (^'scribens  est 
mortuus")  ("De  Senect.",  v,  13). 

II.  Works. — It  is  practically  certain  that  all 
Plato's  genuine  works  have  come  down  to  us.  The 
lost  works  ascribed  to  him,  such  as  the  "Divisions'' 
and  the  ''Unwritten  Doctrines",  are  certainly  not 
genuine.  Of  the  thirty-six  dialogues,  some — ^the 
^'PhjBdrus'?,  "Protagoras",  "Ph»do",  "The  Repub- 
lic", "The  Banquet"  etc. — are  undoubtedly  genuine; 
oUiers — e.  g.  the  "Minos" — ^may  with  equal  certainty 
be  considerod  spurious;  while  still  a  third  group — the 
"Ion",  "Greater  Hippias",  and  "First  Alcibiades"— 
is  of  doubtful  authenticity.  In  all  his  writings  Plato 
uses  the  dialogue  with  a  skill  never  since  equalled. 
That  form  permitted  him  to  develop  the  Socratic 
method  of  question  and  answer.  For,  while  Plato 
elaborated  to  a  high  degree  the  faculty  by  which  the 
abstract  is  understood  and  presented,  he  was  Greek 
enough  to  follow  the  artistic  instinct  in  teaching  by 
means  of  a  clear-cut  concrete  type  of  philosophical 
excellence.  The  use  of  the  m3rth  in  the  dialogues  has 
occasioned  considerable  difiicmty  to  the  conunentators 
and  critics.  When  we  try  to  put  a  value  on  the  con- 
tent of  a  Platonic  myth,  we  are  often  bafiied  by  the 
suspicion  that  it  is  all  meant  to  be  subtly  ironical,  or 
that  it  is  introduced  to  cover  up  the  inherent  contra- 
dictions of  Plato's  thought.  Ih  any  case,  the  myth 
diould  never  be  taken  too  seriously  or  invoked  as  an 
evidence  of  what  Plato  reidly  believed. 

III.  Philosophy.— (1)  The  StaHing-Poinl.— The 
immediate  starting-point  of  Plato's  philosophicfd 
speculation  was  the  Socratic  teaching.  In  his  attempt 
to  define  the  conditions  of  knowledge  so  as  to  refute 
sophistic  scepticism,  Socrates  had  taught  that  the 
only  true  knowledge  is  a  knowledge  by  means  of  con- 
cepts. The  concept,  he  said,  represents  all  the  reality 
of  a  thing.  As  used  by  Socrates,  this  was  merely  a 
principle  of  knowledge.  It  was  taken  up  by  Plato  as  a 
principle  of  Being.  If  the  concept  represents  all  the 
reality  of  things,  the  reality  must  be  something  in  the 
ideal  order,  not  necessarily  in  the  thixigs  themselves, 
but  rather  above  them,  in  a  world  by  itself.  For  the 
concept,  therefore,  Plato  substitutes  the  Idea.  He 
completes  the  work  of  Socrates  by  teaching  that  the 
objectively  real  Ideas  are  the  foundation  and  justifi- 
cation of  scientific  knowledge.  At  the  same  time,  he 
has  in  mind  a  problem  which  claimed  much  attention 
from  pre-Socratic  thinkers,  the  problem  of  change. 
The  Eleatics,  following  Parmenides,  held  that  there 
is  no  real  change  or  multiplicity  in  the  world,  that 
reality  is  one.  Beraclitus,  on  the  contrary,  regarding 
motion  and  multiplicity  as  real,  maintained  that  per- 
manence is  only  apparent.  The  Platonic  theory  of 
Ideas  is  an  attempt  to  solve  this  crucial  question  by  a 
metaphysical  compromise.  The  Eleatics,  Plato  said, 
are  nght  in  maintaining  that  reality  does  not  change; 
for  the  Ideas  are  inunutable.  Still,  there  is,  as  Hera- 
clitus  contended,  change  in  the  world  of  our  expe- 
rience, or,  as  Plato  terms  it,  the  world  of  phenomena. 
Plato,  then,  supposes  a  world  of  Ideas  apart  from  the 
world  of  our  experience,  and  immeasurably  superior 
to  it.  He  imagines  that  all  human  souls  dwelt  at  one 
time  in  that  higher  world.  When,  therefore,  we  behold 
in  the  shadow-world  around  us  a  phenomenon  or 
appearance  of  anything,  the  mind  is  moved  to  a  re- 
membrance of  the  Idea  (of  that  same  phenomenal 
thing)  which  it  formerly  contemplated.  In  its  delight 
it  wonders  at  the  contrasti  and  by  wonder  is  led  to 


recall  as  perfectly  as  i)088ible  the  intuition  it  enjoyed 
in  a  previous  existence.  This  is  the  task  of  philosophy. 
Philosophy,  therefore,  consists  in  the  effort  to  rise 
from  the  knowledge  of  phenomena,  or  appearances,  to 
the  naumenaf  or  realities.  Of  all  the  Ideas,  however, 
the  Idea  of  the  beautiful  shines  out  through  the 
phenomenal  veil  more  clearly  than  any  other;  nence, 
the  b^inning  of  all  philosophical  activity  is  the  love 
and  a(uniration  of  the  Beautiful. 

(2)  DwiHon  of  Philosophy. — The  different  parts 
of  philosophy  are  not  distinguished  by  Plato  with  the 
same  formal  precision  found  in  Aristotelean  and  post* 
Aristotelean  systems.  We  may,  however,  for  con- 
venience, distinguish:  (a)  Dialectic,  the  science  of  the 
Idea  in  itself;  (b)  Physics,  the  knowledge  of  the  Idea 
as  incorporated  or  incarnated  in  the  world  of  phenom- 
ena, and  (c)  Ethics  and  Theory  of  the  State,  or  the 
science  of-  the  Idea  embodied  in  human  conduct  and 
human  society. 

(a)  Dialectic. — This  is  to  be  understood  as  synony- 
mous not  with  logic  but  with  metaphysics.  It  sig- 
nifies the  science  of  the  Idea,  the  science  of  reality, 
science  in  the  only  true  sense  of  the  word.  For  the 
Ideas  are  the  only  reahties  in  the  world.  We  observe, 
for  instance,  just  actions,  and  we  know  that  some  men 
are  just.  But  both  in  the  actions  and  in  the  persons 
designated  as  just  there  exist  many  imperfections; 
they  are  only  partly  just.  In  the  world  above  us 
there  exists  justice,  absolute,  perfect,  unmixed  with 
injustice,  eternal,  unchangeable,  immortal.  This  is 
the  Idea  of  justice.  Similarly,  in  that  world  above  us 
there  exist  the  Ideas  of  greatness,  goodness,  beauty, 
wisdom,  etc.,  and  not  only  these,  but  also  the  Ideas  of 
concrete  materid  objects  such  as  the  Idea  of  man,  the 
Idea  of  horse,  the  Idea  of  trees,  etc.  In  a  word,  the 
world  of  Ideas  is  a  counterpart  of  the  world  oi  our 
experience,  or  rather  the  latter  is  a  feeble  imitation 
of  the  former.  The  Ideas  are  the  prototypes,  the 
phenomena  are  ectypes.  In  the  allegory  of  the  cave 
(Republic,  VII,  514  d)  a  race  of  men  are  described 
as  chained  in  a  fixed  position  in  a  cavern,  able  to 
look  only  at  the  wall  m  front  of  them.  When  an 
animal^  e.  g.  a  horse,  passes  in  front  of  the  cave,  they, 
beholding  the  shadow  on  the  wall,  imagine  it  to  be  a 
reality,  and  while  in  prison  they  know  of  no  other 
reality.  When  they  are  released,  and  go  into  the  li^t 
they  are  dazzled,  but  when  they  succeed  in  distin- 
guishing a  horse  among  the  objects  around  them,  their 
first  impulse  is  to  take  that  for  a  shadow  of  the  being 
which  tney  saw  on  the  wall.  The  prisoners  are  "like 
ourselves  ,  says  Plato.  The  world  of  our  experience, 
which  we  take  to  be  real,  is  only  a  shadow-world. 
The  real  world  is  the  world  of  Ideas,  which  we  reach, 
not  by  sense-knowledge,  but  by  intuitive  contempla- 
tion. The  Ideas  are  participated  by  the  phenomena; 
but  how  this  participation  takes  place,  apd  in  what 
sense  the  phenomena  are  imitations  of  the  Ideas,  Plato 
does  not  fully  explain;  at  most  he  invokes  a  negative 
principle,  sometimes  called  "Platonic  Matter",  to 
account  tor  the  "falling-off"  of  the  phenomena  from 
the  perfection  of  the  Idea.  The  limitating  principle 
is  the  cause  of  all  defects,  decay,  and  change  in  the 
world  around  us.  The  just  man,  for  instance,  fidls 
short  of  absolute  justice  (the  Idea  of  Justice),  because 
in  men  the  Idea  of  justice  is  fra^entated,  debased, 
and  reduced  by  the  principle  of  limitation.  Towards 
the  end  of  his  life,  Plato  leaned  more  and  more 
towards  the  Pythagorean  number-theory,  and,  in  the 
''Timseus"  especially,  he  is  inclined  to  interpret  the 
Ideas  in  terms  of  mathematics.  His  followers  em- 
phasized this  element  unduly,  and,  in  the  course  of 
neo-Platonic  speculation,  the  Ideas  were  identified 
with  numbers.  There  was  much  in  the  theory  of  Ideas 
that  appealed  to  the  first  Christian  philosophers.  The 
emphatic  affirmation  of  a  supermundane,  spiritual 
oroer  of  reality  and  the  equally  emphatic  assertion  of 
the  caducity  of  things  material  ntted  in  with  the 


PLATO                                  161  PLATO 

esBentially  Christian  contention  that  spiritual  in-  is  the  absolutely  highest  good  in  general,  Goodneos 
terests  are  supreme.  *  To  render  the  world  of  Ideas  itself,  or  God.  The  means  oy  which  this  highest  good 
more  acceptable  to  Christians,  the  Patristic  Plato-  is  to  be  attained  is  the  practice  of  virtue  and  the 
nists  from  Justin  Mart^rr  to  St.  Augustine  maintained  acquisition  of  wisdom.  So  far  as  the  body  hinders 
that  that  world  exists  in  the  mind  of  God,  and  that  these  pursuits  it  should  be  brought  into  subjection, 
this  was  what  Plato  meant.  On  the  other  hand,  Here,  however,  asceticism  should  be  moderated  in  the 
Aristotle  understood  Plato  to  refer  to  a  world  of  Ideas  interests  of  harmony  and  synmietry — Plato  never 
self-subsisting  and  separate.  Instead,  therefore,  of  went  the  length  of  condemning  matter  and  the  human 
picturing  to  ourselves  the  world  of  Ideas  as  existing  bodv  in  particular,  as  the  source  of  all  evil — for  wealth, 
m  God,  we  should  represent  God  as  existing  in  the  health,  art,  and  innocent  pleasures  are  means  of 
world  of  Ideas.  For,  among  the  Ideas,  the  hierarchical  attaining  happiness,  though  not  indispensable,  as 
supremacv  is  attributed  to  the  Idea  of  God,  or  Abso-  virtue  is.  Virtue  is  order,  harmony,  the  health  of  the 
lute  Goo<me8S,  which  is  said  to  be  for  the  supercelestial  soul :  vice  is  disorder,  discord,  disease.  The  State  is, 
universe  what  the  sun  in  the  heavens  is  for  this  for  Plato,  the  highest  embodiment  of  the  Idea.  It 
terrestrial  world  of  ours.  should  have  for  its  aim  the  establishment  and  cultiva- 
(b)  Physics. — ^The  Idea  incorporated,  so  to  speak,  tion  of  virtue.  The  reason  of  this  is  that  man,  even 
in  the  phenomenon  is  less  real  than  the  Idea  m  its  in  the  savage  condition,  could,  indeed,  attain  virtue, 
own  world,  or  than  the  Idea  embodied  in  human  con-  In  order,  however,  that  virtue  may  be  established 
duct  and  human  society.  Physics,  i.  e.,  the  knowledge  systematically  and  cease  to  be  a  matter  of  chance  or 
of  the  Idea  in  phenomena,  is,  therefore,  inferior  in  dig-  liaphazard,  education  is  necessary,  and  without  a 
nity  and  importance  to  Dialectic  and  Ethics.  In  fact,  social  organization  education  is  impossible.  In  his 
the  world  of  phenomena  has  no  scientific  interest  for  .''Repubhc''  he  sketches  an  ideal  state,  a  polity  which 
Plato.  The  knowledge  of  it  is  not  true  knowledge,  nor  should  exist  if  rulers  and  subjects  would  aevote  them- 
the  source,  but  only  the  occasion  of  true  knowledge,  selves,  as  they  ought,  to  the  cultivation  of  wisdom. 
The  phenomena  stimulate  our  minds  to  a  recollection  The  iaoU  state  is  modelled  on  the  individual  soul.  It 
of  the  intuition  of  Ideas,  and  with  that  intuition  scien-  consists  of  three  orders:  rulers  (corresponding  to  the 
tific  knowledge  begins.  Moreover,  Plato's  interest  in  reasonable  soul),  producers  (corresponaing  to  desire), 
nature  is  dominated  bv  a  teleolomcal  view  of  the  and  warriors  (corresponding  to  courage).  The  char- 
world  as  animated  with  a  World-Soul,  which,  con-  acteristic  virtue  of  the  producers  is  tlmft,  that  of  the 
scious  of  its  processes,  does  all  things  for  a  useful  soldiers  bravery,  and  that  of  the  rulers  wisidom.  Since 
puipose,  or,  rather,  for  ''the  best",  morally,  intellec-  pl^losophy  is  the  love  of  wisdom,  it  is  to  be  the 
tuaUy,  and  aesthetically.  This  conviction  is  apparent  dominant  power  in  the  state:  "Unless  philosophers 
especially  in  the  Platonic  account  of  the  origin  of  the  become  rulers  or  rulers  become  true  and  thorough 
universe,  contained  in  the  "Timseus",  although  the  students  of  philosophv,  there  shall  be  no  end  to  the 
details  regarding  the  activity  of  the  demiurgos  and  the  troubles  of  states  andf  of  humanity"  (Rep.,  V,  473), 
created  gods  should  not,  perhaps^  be  taken  seriously,  which  is  only  another  way  of  saying  that  those  who 
Similarly,  the  account  of  the  origin  of  the  soul,  in  the  govern  should  be  distinguished  by  quaUties  which  are 
same  dialogue,  is  a  combination  of  philosophy  a^d  distinctly  intellectual.  Plato  is  an  advocate  of  State 
myth,  in  which  it  is  not  easy  to  distingubh  the  one  absolutism,  such  as  existed  in  his  time  in  Sparta, 
from  the  other.  It  is  clear,  however,  that  Plato  holds  The  State,  he  maintains,  exercises  unlimited  power, 
the  spiritual  nature  of  the  soul  as  against  the  material-  Neither  private  property  nor  family  institutions  have 
istic  Atomists,  and  that  he  believes  the  soul  to  have  any  place  ih  the  Platonic  state.  The  children  belong 
existed  before  its  union  with  the  body.  The  whole  to  the  State  as  soon  as  they  are  bom,  and  should  be 
theory  of  Ideas,  in  so  far,  at  least,  as  it  is  applied  to  taken  in  charge  by  the  State  from  the  beginning,  for 
human  knowledge,  presupposes  tne  doctrine  of  pre-  the  purpose  of  education.  They  should  be  educated 
enstence.  ''All  knowledge  is  recollection"  has  no  by  officials  appointed  by  the  State,  and^  according  to 
meaning  except  in  the  hypothesis  of  the  soul's  pre-  the  measure  of  ability  which  they  exhibit,  they  are  to 
natal  intuition  of  Ideas.  It  is  equally  incontrovertible  be  assigned  by  the  State  to  the  order  of  producers, 
that  Plato  held  the  soul  to  be  immortal.  His  convic-  to  that  of  warriors,  or  to  the  governing  class.  These 
tion  on  this  point  was  as  unshaken  as  Socrates's.  His  impractical  schemes  reflect  at  once  Plato's  discontent 
attempt  to  ground  that  conviction  on  unassailable  with  the  demagogy  then  prevalent  at  Athens  and  his 
premises  is,  indeed,  open  to  criticism^  because  his  personal  predilection  for  the  aristocratic  form  of 
ari^ments  rest  either  on  the  hypothesis  of  previous  government.  Indeed,  his  scheme  is  essentially  aris- 
existenoe  or  on  his  general  theory  of  Ideas.  Never-  tocratic  in  the  original  meaning  of  the  word;  it 
theless,  the  considerations  which  he  offers  in  favour  of  advocates  government  by  the  (intellectually)  best, 
immortality,  in  the  ''Phsedo",  have  helped  to  The  unreahty  of  it  all,  and  the  remoteness  of  its 
strengthen  all  subsequent  generations  in  the  belief  in  chance  to  be  tested  by  practice,  must  have  been  evi- 
a  future  life.  His  description  of  the  future  state  of  the  dent  to  Plato  liimself .  For  in  his  "  Laws  "  he  sketches 
soul  is  dominated  by  the  Pythagorean  doctrine  of  a  modified  scheme  which,  though  inferior^  he  thinks, 
transmigration.  Here,  again,  the  ofetails  are  not  to  be  to  the  plan  outlined  in  the  ''Republic",  is  nearer  to 
taken  as  seriously  as  the  main  fact,  and  we  can  well  the  level  of  what  the  average  state  can  attain. 
imagine  that  the  account  of  the  soul  condemned  to  IV.  The  Platonic  School. — Plato's  School,  like 
return  in  the  body  of  a  fox  or  a  wolf  is  introduced  Aristotle's,  was  organized  by  Plato  himself  and  handed 
chiefly  because  it  accentuates  the  doctrine  of  rewards  over  at  the  time  of  his  death  to  his  nephew  Spcu- 
and  punishments,  which  is  part  of  Plato's  ethical  sys-  sippus,  the  first  scholarch,  or  ruler  of  the  school.  It 
tem.  Before  passing  to  his  ethical  doctrines  it  is  was  then  knovm  as  the  Academy,  because  it  met  in 
necessary  to  indicate  one  other  point  of  his  psychol-  the  groves  of  Academus.  The  Academy  continued, 
The  soul,  Plato  teaches,  consists  of  three  parts:  with  varying  fortunes,  to  maintain  its  identity  as  a 


le  rational  soul,  which  resides  in  the  head;  the  iras-  Platonic  school,  first  at  Athens,  and  later  at  Alex- 

dble  soul,  the  seat  of  courage,  which  resides  in  the  andria  until  the  first  century  of  the  Christian  era. 

heart;    and  the  appetitive  soul,  the  seat  of  desire.  It  modified  the  Platonic  system  in  the  direction  of 

which  resides  in  the  abdomen.    These  are  not  three  mysticism  and  demonology,  and  underwent  at  least 

faculties  of  one  soul,  but  three  parts  really  distinct.  one  period  of  scepticism.    It  ended  in  a  loosely  oon- 

(c)  Ethics  and  Theory  of  the  State. — ^Like  all  the  structed    eclecticism.  ^  With    the    advent    of    neo- 

Greeks,   Plato  took  for   granted  that  the  hi^est  Platonism  (q.  v.),  founded  by  Ammonius  and  devel- 

cood  of  man,  subjectively  considered,  is  happiness  oped  by  Plotinus,  Platonism  definitively  entered  the 

{MaittoHa),    Objectively,  the  highest  good  of  man  cause  of  Paganism  against  Christianity.    Neverthe- 

XII.— 11 


PLAT 


162 


PLAT 


ien,  the  fcreat  majority  of  the  Christian  philosopheni 
down  to  St.  Augustine  were  Platonists.  They  appre- 
ciated the  uplifting  influence  of  Plato's  psychology 
and  metaphysics,  and  recognised  in  that  influence  a 
powerful  ally  of  Christianity  in  the  warfare  against 
materialism  and  naturalism.  These  Christian  Plato- 
nists imderestimated  Aristotle,  whom  they  generally 
referred  to  as  an  "acute''  logician  whose  philosophy 
favoured  the  heretical  opponents  of  orthodox  Chris- 
tianity. The  Middle  Ages  completely  reversed  this 
verdict.  The  first  scholastics  knew  only  the  lodcal 
treatises  of  Aristotle,  and,  so  far  as  they  were  psychol- 
Ofpsts  or  inetaphysicians  at  all,  they  drew  on  the  Plato- 
msm  of  Sti.  Augustine.  Their  successors,  however,  in 
the  twelfth  century  came  to  a  knowledge  of  the 
psychology,  metaphyncs,  and  ethics  of  Aristotle,  and 
adopted  the  Aristotelean  view  so  completely  that 
before  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century  tne  Stagyrite 
occupied  in  the  Christian  schools  the  position  occu- 
pi«i  in  the  fifth  century  by  the  founder  of  the  Acad- 
emy. There  were,  however,  episodes,  so  to  speak,  of 
Platonism  in  the  nistory  of  Scholasticism — e.  g.,  the. 
School  of  Chartres  in  the  twelfth  century — and 
throughout  the  whole  scholastic  period  some  prin- 
ciples of  Platonism,  and  especially  of  neo-Platonism. 
were  incorporated  in  the  Aristotelean  system  adopted 
bv  the  schoolmen.  The  Renaissance  brought  a  re- 
vival of  Platonism,  due  to  the  influence  of  men  like 
Bcflsarion,  Plethon,  Rcino,  and  the  two  Mirandolas. 
The  Cambridge  Platonists  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
such  as  Cudworth,  Henry  More,  Cumberland,  and 


)rinciple8  mtmtionaiiy 
independent  of  self-interest.  Outside  the  schoola  of 
philosophy  which  are  described  as  Platonic  there  are 
many  philosophers  and  groups  of  philosophers  in 
modem  times  who  owe  much  to  the  inspiration  of 
Plato,  and  to  the  enthusiasm  for  the  higher  pursuits 
of  the  mind  which  they  derived  from  the  study  of  his 
works. 

The  itandard  printed  edition  of  Plald'a  works  iff  that  of  Ste- 
PKANT78  (Paris,  1678).  Among  more  recent  editions  are  Bekkbb 
(Beriin.  1816-23),  FimnN-DiDor  (Paris,  1866-^).  The  best  Eng- 
lish tr.  is  Jowmrr,  The  DiaioovM  of  Plato  (Oxford.  1871;  3rd  ed.. 
New  York.  1802).  For  exposition  of  Plato's  aystem  cf.  Zbllbr. 
Plato  and  the  Older  Academy,  tr.  Alubtnb  and  Goodwin  (London, 
1888) ;  G-BXTPK.  Plato  and  the  Other  Companione  of  Socratee  (Lon- 
don, 1885):  Patbb,  Plato  and  Platonum  (London,  1803); 
TuRNSR,  Hietory  of  Philoaophy  (Boston,  1003),  03  sq.; 
FouiLLix,  La  philoeophU  de  Platon  (Paris,  1802) ;  Huit,  Lavieet 
Vemvre  de  Platan  (Paris,  1803) ;  Windelband,  Platon  (Stuttgart, 
1001) ;  LxrrosLAWSKi,  Origin  and  Growth  of  Plato' •  Logic  (London, 
1807).  For  history  of  Platonisin  cf.  Bussci^  The  School  of  Plato 
(London,  1806) :  Huit,  Le  pUUonieme  d  Byeance  et  en  Italie  A  la  fin 
du  ntoyen-Age  (Brxissels,  1804) :  articles  in  Annalee  de  philoMojJiie 
'chrMienne,  new  series,  XX-aXII;  Taroszi,  La  tradieione  pUtr- 
toniea  net  medio  evo  (Trani  Vecchi,  1802). 

William  Turner. 

Play,  PiERRB-GuiLLAtJMB-FRAD^Ric,  Lb,  French 
economist,  b.  at  La  Riviere  (Calvados).  1 1  April,  1806: 
d.  at  Paris,  6  April,  1882.  His  childhood  was  spent 
among  Christian  people,  with  a  poor  widowed  mother. 
From  the  college  of  Havre  he  went  (1824)  to  Paris, 
where  he  followed  the  scientific  courses  of  the  College 
St.  Louis,  the  polytechnic  school,  and  the  school  of 
mines.  At  the  polytechnic  school  he  had  as  fellow- 
pupib  the  economist  Michel  Chevalier,  P^re  Gratry, 
and  the  philosopher  Jean  Re3maud.  In  1829  with  Key- 
naud  he  made  a  journey  on  foot  through  the  Rhine 
provinces,  Hanover,  Brunswick,  Prussia,  and  Bel^um 
to  study  mining,  customs,  and  social  institutions. 
On  his  return  an  accident  in  the  course  of  a  chem- 
ical experiment  caused  him  eighteen  months  of  suffer- 
ing and  deformed  his  hands  for  life.  He  became  secre- 
tary of  the"Annales  des  mines"  and  oC  "Statistique 
de  rindustrie  min^rale",  and  professor  of  metallurgy 
at  the  school  of  mines  (1840).  Each  year  he  travelled 
six  months,  studying  metallurgy  and  social  problems, 
and  questioning  traders,  workmen,  owners,  and  peas- 
ants.   He  spoke  five  languages  and  understood  eight. 


His  life  may  be  divided  into  two  periods:  from  183^ 
55  he  invented,  applied,  and  perfected  his  method ;  from 
1855-82  he  eimliuned,  developed,  and  perfected  his 
doctrine.  In  1833  he  visited  Spain:  in  1835  and  1846. 
Belgium;  1836  and  1842,  Great  Britain;  1837  and 
1844,  Russia;  1845,  Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Norway; 
1844  and  1845,  Germany;  1846,  Austria,  Hungary, 
and  Northern  Italy.  Extracts  from  his  correspond- 
ence with  his  wife  and  mother  during  his  travels 
were  published  in  1809.  During  his  sojourns  in  Russia 
he  was  consulted  by  Nicholas  I  on  various  projects  of 
reform,  and,  having  undertaken  at  the  instance  of 
Prince  Anatol  Demidoff  a  scientific  expedition  into 
the  coal  regions  of  Donetz,  the  prince  entrusted  him 
with  the  superintendence  of  his  gold,  silver,  platinum, 
copper,  ana  iron  mines,  which  employed  45,000  men 
in  tne  Ural  region. 

His  conversations  with  Comte  de  Rayneval, 
French  ambassador  at  Madrid,  to  whom  he  had  been 
recommended  by  Boieldieu,  convinced  him  that  the 
forced  division  of  inheritances  established  by  the  Code 
Napolton  had  evil  social  consequences.  His  visit  to 
the  Baron  de  Tamm,  who  directed  2300  workmen  at 
Osterby,  near  Upsala,  showed  him  what  might  be 
done  by  resident  ovmers  anxious  for  the  welfare  of 
their  people,  and  his  theory  of  '^ social  authorities" 
slowly  took  form  in  his  mind.  Among  the  peasants 
and  blacksmiths  of  the  Ural  region  he  observed  a  social 
condition  very  similar  to  the  ancient  French  feudal 
regime,  and  his  statements  regarding  the  comfort  of 
these  people  coincided  with  those  of  Gu6rard  and 
Leopold  Delisle  concerning  the  prosperous  condition 
of  tne  French  agricultural  classes  during  the  early 
centuries  of  feudalism.  He  thus  formed  ideas  quite 
at  variance  with  the  juridical  and  historical  concep- 
tions propagated  by  the  men  of  the  French  Revolu- 
tion. His  "  method  of  observation  ",  the  rules  of  which 
he  ^adually  formulated,  was  in  contradiction  to  the  in- 
dividualism of  the  French  Revolution.  It  consisted 
in  studying,  not  the  individual,  but  the  f amilv  (which 
is  the  real  social  unit) ,  and  in  studying  types  of  families 
among  the  stationary  element  of  the  population  whose 
meml^rs  lead  uniform  lives  and  faithfully  preserve 
their  local  customs. 

From  1848,  during  the  months  he  spent  in  Paris, 
Le  Play  held  weekly  gatherings  of  persoils  of  various 
opinions  interested  in  the  social  question;  among 
them  were  Jean  Reynaud,  Lamartine,  Francois  Arago, 
Camot,  Lanjuinais,  Tocqueville,  Montalemb^, 
Sainte-Beuve,  Ag6nor  de  Gasparin.  Abb^  Dupanloup, 
Thiers,  Auguste  Cochin,  and  Charles  Dupin.  During 
the  social  troubles  which  followed  the  Revolution  of 
1848  these  men  besought  Le  Play  to  abandon  his  teach- 
ing at  the  school  of  mines  and  to  devote  himself  ex- 
clusively to  the  exposition  of  his  social  system.  But 
Le  Play,  ever  scrupulous,  considered  it  necessary  to 
make  further  journeys  to  Switzerland,  the  Danube 
provinces,  and  Central  Turkey  (1848),  Auvergne 
(1850),  England  and  Western  Germany  (1851),  Aus- 
tria and  Russia  (1853).  However,  in  1855  he  pub- 
li^ed  "Les  ouvriers  europ^ens",  describing  the  ma- 
terial and  moral  life  of  thirty-six  families,  among 
widely  different  races,  which  he  had  studied  at  close 
range.  The  School  of  Le  Play  continues  this  series  of 
valuable  monographs  in  a  periodical  entitled  ''Les 
ouvriers  des  deux  mondes".  The  English  economist 
Higgs  declared  that  Le  Play's  monographs  on  four 
En^sh  families  are  the  b^t  avulable  account  of 
English  popular  life  from  the  economic  point  of  view. 
Tame,  the  French  historian,  after  studying  the  origins 
of  contemporary  France  for  his  great  work,  wrote: 
"By  his  methodical,  exact,  and  profound  researches, 
Le  Play  has  done  a  great  service  to  politics  and,  in 
consequence,  to  history."  Luzzatti,  a  Jew  who  later 
became  president  of  the  Italian  ministry,  wrote  to 
Le  Play :  "After  drinking  at  all  sources,  I  draw  inspira- 
tion for  my  studies  from  your  method  alone. "   And  it 


PLAT                                 163  PLAT 

was  in  oonformitv  with  Le  Play's  method  that  Carroll  effort  to  win  over  five  senators  to  this  view,  but  this 

D.  Wright,  head  of  the  Boston  Bureau  of  Statistics  attempt,  also,  was  unsuccessful, 

and  later  Commissioner  of  Labour  at  Washington,  Itwas  at  the  emperor's  sug^tetion  that,  in  January, 

had  6000  monographs  dealing  with  labour  problems  1870,  Le  Play  in  his  ''L'organisation  du  travail"  gave 

compiled;  in  acknowledging  the  influence  of  the  study  a  rdsum^  of  the  principles  expounded  in ''  La  R^forme 

of  Le  Play,  he  says,  **  I  received  from  it  a  new  inspira-  sociale".    The  emperor  also  asked  him  to  present  to 

don  wMcn  completelv  changed  the  trend  of  my  two  of  his  ministers  the  conclusions  of  this  book  as 

tiiou^ts/'    Le  Play  had  intended  to  add  to  ''Les  expressing  the  imperial  opinion,  but  further  action 

ouvnerseuroptois"  a  final  chapter  setting  forth  cer-  was  prevented  by  the  outbreak  of  war  and  the  fall  of 

tain  doctrinal  oondusions,  but  at  the  last  he  held  them  the  empire.   In  187 1,  after  the  war  and  the  Commune, 

back  to  let  them  mature,  and  simply  wrote:    "If  Le  Plav  published  his  book  "L'organisation  de  la 

required  to  point  out  the  force  which,  operatlnjg  at  famille    and  his  pamphlet  on  "La  paix  sociale  apr^s 

each  extremity  of  the  social  scale,  suffices,  strictly  le  d^sa8tre'\  and  to  propagate  his  ideas  he  founded 

speaking,  to  render  a  people  prosperous,  we  should  in  France  "Unions  de  la  paix  sociale''.   His  ideas  met 

unhesitating^  answer:  at  the  bottom,  foresight;  at  with  little  political  success;  the  project  laid  before  the 

the  top,  reJuaon.    In  analysing  facts  and  comparing  National  Assembly,  25  June,  1871,  for  the  modifica- 

figjares,  social  science  alwa3rs  leads  real  observers  to  the  tion  of  the  laws  of  inheritance  was  without  result, 

principles  of  the  Divine  law."     In  1856  Le  Play  Le  Pla^  grouped  about  him  eminent  economists  such 

founded  the  Soci4t6  d'Economie  Sociale  with  the  as  Focillon,  Claudio  Jannet,  Cheysson,  and  Rostand, 

intention  of  preparing  public  opinion  to  accept  his  In  1875  he  published'  "La  Constitution  de  TAngle- 

conclusions.  terre" ;  in  1876,  "  La  r^forme  en  Europe  et  le  salut  de 

In  1855  (second  period)  Napoleon  III  ^pointed  la  France";   in  1877-70,  the  second  edition  of  his 

Le  Play  councillor  of  State  and  reposed  in  him  a  con-  "Ouvriers  europ^ns",  which,  enriched  with  new  de- 

fidence  which  steadily  increased.    He  also  requested  tails,  is  a  sort  of  compendium  of  the  social  history 

Le  Plav  to  write  a  book  on  the  social  principles  which  of  Ehirope  from  1855;  and  in  1881,  "  La  Constitution 

seemea  to  him  reouisite  for  the  prosperity  of  society,  essentidle  de  i'humanitd".   In  1881  also  appeared  the 

Le  Play  consentea  and,  in  1864,  published  his  "It^  review,  "La  r^forme  sociale",  which,  even  to-day, 

forme  sociale  en  France,  dMuite  de  ^observation  propagates  Le  Play's  ideas. 

compart  des  peuples  europ6ens".    In  the  first  chap**  The  social  doctrine  elaborated  in  his  works  is  as 

ter.    La  religion",  he  defends  the  relisious  idea  against  follows:   In  all  prosperous  nations  there  are  certain 

Darwinism  and  Scepticism,  but  at  that  date  the  va-  institutions  whicn  accompany  and  explain  this  pros- 

rious  relif^ons  seemed  to  him  but  external  forms,  perity.    These  institutions  are  (1)  the  observance  of 

equally  respectable  and  inspired  by  the  same  religious  the  I>ecalogue;  (2)  public  worship — on  Uiis  point  Le 

sentiment;  he  does  not  decide  in  favour  of  any.    He  Play  devotes  some  beautiful  passages  to  the  r61e  of 

defends  God,  respects  Jesus  Christ,  but  fails  to  appre-  the  Catholic  clergy  in  the  United  States  and  in  Canada 

ciate  the  Church.   From  his  observations  he  concluded  (which  he  calls  the  model  nation  of  our  time),  ex- 

that  the  doctrine  of  the  original  pfoodness  of  man  is  presses  his  fear  that  the  conoordatory  regime  in  France 

false,  that  the  tendency  to  evil  is  ingrained  in  human  will  produce  a  Church  of  bureaucrats,  and  dreams  of  a 

nature,  that,  therefore,  a  law  is  needed  to  compel  man  liberty  such  as  exists  in  America  for  the  Church  of 

to  do  good  in  order  to  attain  happiness,  and  ne  hails  France;  (3)  testamentary  freedom,  which  according 

this  law  in  the  Decalogue  but  makes  little  account  of  to  him  distinguishes  peoples  of  vigorous  expansion 

the  Gospel.    The  work  was  a  sort  of  social  apoloeetic  while  the  compulsory  division  of  iimeritances  is  the 

for  the  I>ecalogue:  "the  errinff",  he  writes,  "on  whom  system  of  conquered  races  and  inferior  classes.    It  is 

the  traditional  truths  have  no  longer  any  influence,  are  only,   he  asserts,   under  the  former  system   that 

led  back  by  the  facts  which  the  method  of  observation  famiUea^souchea  can  develop,  which  are  established 

brings  to  Ught."    The  book  met  with  great  success,  on  the  soil  and  are  not  afraid  of  being  prolific;   (4) 

Sainte-Beuve  proclaimed  him  "a  rejuvenated  Bonald,  legislation  punishing  seduction  and  permitting  the 

progressive  and  scientific".     Montalembert  wrote:  investigation  of  patemit3r;   (5)  institutions  founded 

Le  Play  has  produced  the  most  original,  most  use*  by  large  land  owners  or  industrial  leaders  to  uplift 

ful,  most  courageous,  and,  in  every  respect,  the  strong-  the  condition  of  the  workman.    Le  Play  feared  the 

est  book  of  the  century.    He  not  only  possesses  more  intervention  of  the  State  in  the  labour  system  and 

eloquence  than  the  illustrious  Tocqueville,  but  much  considered  that  the  State  should  encourage  the  social 

more  practical  perspicacity  and  above  all  ipeater  authorities  to  exercise  what  he  calls  "patronage",  and 

motal  courage.    I  repeat,  what  I  admire  most  m  him  should  reward  the  heads  of  indust^  who  founded 

is  the  courage  which  impels  him  to  fight  with  raised  philanthropic  institutions.     The  'League  for  Social 

visor  against  most  of  the  dominant  prejudices  of  his  Service,  organized  at  New  York  in  1898  by  Mr. 

time  and  country.   In  this,  even  more  than  in  his  pro-  Tolman,  applied  these  ideas  of  Le  Play;  (6)  liberty 

digious  knowledge  of  facts,  will  consist  his  true  great-  of  instruction,  i.  e.  freedom  from  State  control;   (7) 

ness  in  the  intellectual  history  of  the  nineteenth  cen-  decentralization  in  the  State.   He  greatly  admired  the 

tury. "    Napoleon  III  entrusted  the  organisation  of  English  ideas  of  self-government.    In  his  latest  works 

the  EnxMitibn  Universelle  of  1867  to  Le  Play,  whom  the  Catholic  tendency  becomes  more  and  more  clearly 

he  maae  commissary  general,  and,  at  his  request,  the  defined.     Le  Play  desired  to  collaborate  with  the 

emperor  created  a  new  order  of  reward  in  favour  of  clersy  in  the  worK  of  sociiJ  reform;  he  believed  that 

"establishments  and  localities  throughout  the  world  fidelity  to  God's  law,  an  essential  need  of  societies, 

whidi  give  the  best  examples  of  social  peace".    But  could  not  be  better  guaranteed  than  by  the  doctrines, 

despite  public  opinion  and  the  sympathy  of  the  em-  sacraments,  and  worship  of  the  Catholic  Chureh. 

peror,  the  jurists  opposed  Le  Play's  ideas  regard-  One  of  his  last  public  acts  was  a  proceeding  in  behalf 

mg  testamentary  liberty.     As  early  as  1865  Baron  of  the  Chureh's  ridht  to  teach,  which  was  mreatened 

de  Vdauoe,   a  member  of  the  corps  Ugialatiff  pro-  by  the  projects  of  M.  Jules  Ferry.    He  obtained  from 

posed  that  the  Government  should  study  the  modifi-  his  friend  St.  George  Mivart  a  statement,  signed  by 

cation  of  the  laws  of  inheritance,  but  his  proposal  Gladstone,  Lord  Rosebery,  and  numerous  professors 

reoeived  the  votes  of  only  forty-one  deputies.    The  of  Oxford.  Cambridge,  and  London,  regarding  the 

onperor,  however,  on  two  occasions  had  investiga-  English  iaea  and  practice  of  liberty  of  instruction, 

tions  made  with  a  view  to  the  establishment  of  tes-  Tje  Play  was  very  influential  in  Catholic  cireles.    In 

tamentary  freedom  in  favour  of  small  holdingH,  but  his  Lenten  pastoral  for  1881,  Cardinal  de  Bonnechose 

the  project  was  opposed  by  the  jurists  and  failed.    In  compared  him  to  "those  ancient  sages  of  Greece  who 

Novembn*,  1869,  he  urged  Le  rlay  to  make  another  went  to  Egypt  and  the  most  remote  countries  of  the 


PLEOMUND                               164  PLENARY 

« 

Onent,  to  glean  from  sanctuary  to  sanctuaiy  the  narium''  came  into  use.    Early  vestiges  of  it  may  be 

primitive  traditions  of  the  human  race".    The  future  found  in  the  ninth  century,  and  in  the  eleventh  or 

Cardinal  Lavigcrie  wrote  to  him,  "You  are  one  of  the  twelfth  century  the  "Missaie  plenarium"  was  found 

men  whom  I  most  respect  and  admire."    Although  everywhere  and  contained  all  necessary  prayers  for 

the    "OEuvre    des    cercles    catholiques    ouvriers  ,  the  celebration  of  the  Holy  Sacrifice,  which  until  then 

founded  in  1870  by  the  Comte  de  Mun  and  the  had  to  be  taken  from  different  books,  the  "Sacramcn- 

Marquis  de  la  Tour  du  Pin,  held  on  the  subject  of  the  tary  ".   "Lectionary  ",   "Evangelistary",   "  Antipho- 

State  8  intervention  in  the  labour  system  very  differ-  nary   ,   and   "Gradual"    (Zaccaria,    "Bibl.   rit.  ,  1 

ent  ideas  from  those  of  Le  Play,  the  marquis  claimed  [Rome,  1876],  50).    In  Germany  the  name  Plenarium 

Le  Play  as  one  of  his  masters,  oecause  of  the  latter's  denotea  a  popular  book,  giving  the  German  transla- 

attacks  on  Rousseau's  theory  of  the  original  goodness  tion  of  the  Epistles  and  Gospek  for  the  Sundays  and 

of  man  and  on  the  juridical  and  social  ideas  of  the  men  festivals  of  the  entire  year  together  with  a  short  expo- 

of  the  French  Revolution.  sition  and  instruction.    Later  editions  add  also  the 

.,>^^  ^hJ^v  ^T^"  ^  ^li'*^?f-."if™^.  ^,^  ^°^ffSS^^  Introit,  Gradual  etc.,  of  the  Masses.    The  last  book 

^^^T^tr^uT^y  (?^S*r5.ilflS?''i^r'SfiB'.'°2Vp£;  of  the  kind  bearing  the  title  Plenarium  wa8  printed 

(Parifl,  1906);    Dimier,  Les  maitrea  de  la  eontre  rivoluti&n  au  19>  m  1522  at  Basle. 

tiktie  (Paris,  1907) ;  Filett  du  eentenaire  de  Le  Play  et  XXV*  eongria  Alsoq,  Die detdschen  Plenarien  im  15.  und  m anfang  de*  16.  jh, 

de  la  sociiU  internationale  d'iconomie  sociale  (Paria,  1907);   Bau-  (Freiburg,  1874),  and  the  commentaries  on  the  work  in  Theol, 

NARD.  La  foi  ei  sea  victoires,  II  (Paris.  1884),  chapter  on  Le  Play's  QuartaUchri/l  (1874),  690,  and  Hist^-polil.  BUUter  (1876).  17. 

religious  attitude.  '                                            FrANCIS  MershMAN. 

Georges  Goyau. 

Plenary   Council,  a  canonical  term  applied  to 

Plegmund,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  d.  2  Aug.,  various  kinds  of  ecclesiastical  synods.     The  word 

914.    He  was  a  Mercian,  and  spent  his  early  life  near  itself,  derived  from  the  Latin  plenarium  (complete 

Chester  as  a  hermit  on  an  islana  called  after  him  Pleg-  or  full),  indicates  that  the  council  to  which  the  term  is 

mundham  (the  present  Plemstall).     His  reputation  applied  (concilium  plenarium,  concilium  plenum)  rep- 

for  piety  and  learning  caused  King  Alfred  to  summon  resents  the  whole  number  of  bishops  of  some  given 

him  to  court,  where  he  helped  the  king  in  his  liter^y  territory.    Whatever  is  complete  in  itself  is  plenary, 

work.    In  890  he  was  chosen  Archbishop  of  Canter-  The  oecumenical  councils  or  synods  of  the  Universal 

bury  and  went  to  Rome  to  receive  the  pallium  from  Church  are  called  plenary  councils  by  St.  Augustine 

Pope  Formosus.    When  the  acts  and  ordinations  of  (C.  ilia,  xi,  Dist.  12),  as  they  form  a  complete  repre- 

Formosus  were  condemned  in  897  and  the  condemna-  sentation  of  the  entire  Church.    Thus  also,  in  eccle- 

tion  was  confirmed  in  905,  the  position  of  Plegmund  siastical  documents,  provincial  councils  are  denomi- 

became  questionable,  and  in  908  he  paid  a  second  nated  plenary,  because  all  the  bishops  of  a  certain 

visit  to  Rj)me,  probably  to  obtain  confirmation  by  Ser-  ecclesiastical  province  were  represented.    Later  usage 

gius  III  of  his  acts  as  archbishop,  and  to  arrange  a  has  restricted  the  term  plenary  to  those  councils 

subdivision  of  the  West  Saxon  episcopate.    This  was  which  are  presided  over  by  a  delegate  of  the  Apostolic 

carried  out  the  following  year,  when  Plegmund  conse-  See,  who  has  received  special  power  for  that  purpose, 

crated  seven  bishops  on  one  day,  five  for  Wessex  and  and  which  are  attended  by  all  the  metropolitans  and 

two  others.   He  died  in  extreme  old  £ige  and  was  bmied  bishops  of  some  commonwealth,  empire,  or  kingdom, 

in  his  cathedral  at  Canterbury.  or  by  their  duly  accredited  representatives.     Such 

Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle,  ann.  890,  891  and  923,  gives  the  last-  plenary  synods  are  frequently  called  national  coun- 

named  year  as  the  date  of  his  death,  which  is  certainly  wrong,  and  cils,  and  this  latter  term  has  always  been  in  common 

confounds  mm  with  Archbishop  iGthelbelmm /2o<^  5er»e«(  1861);  ,.'„«.«.,»„  ♦!»«  Tr««.i;«K     T4oi;«n     1?i^««/»k     anA   ^fkai* 

WiLUAM  OF  Malmesbuby.  Oesta  Poruificum  in  R.  s.  (1870)!  u«e  among  the  Enghsh,  ItaUan,  l^rench,  and  other 

Idem,  Gesta  Regum  in  R.  S.  (1887-89) ;  Gervabe  or  Canterburt,  peoples. 

Historical  Worke'xix  R.  s.  (}879-80) ;  Kemblb,  Codex  Diplomatics  I.  Plenary  councils,  in  the  sense  of  national  synods, 

tZiU^nTJrio'^riidumtl:TX'^iii^l':in^T.  '^re  included  under  the  terth  particular  councils  a. 

don,   1862-71);   Hook,  Live*  of  the  Archbishops  of  Canterbury  opposed  to  universal  COUncils.     They  arc  Of  the  samc 

ll^I?^J?il'  ij?60-84);  Birch,  Cartu^rium  Saxonicum  (London,  nature  as  provincial  councils,  with  the  accidental 

(S?;;brilige''u90)iHSt;2n-««Vt'"«J;^^^^  difference  that  several  ecclesiastical  pro^^nces  are 

(London,  1885).  represented  m  national  or  plenary  synods.    Provincial 

Edwin  Burton,  councils,   strictly  so-called,   date   from   the   fourth 

century,  when  the  metropolitical  authority  had  be- 

Plenarium,  a  book  of  formulae  and  texts.    Plena-  come  fully  developed.     But  synods,   approaching 

rium  or  Plenarius  (Liber)  is  any  book  that  contains  nearer  to  the  modem  signification  of  a  plenary  coun- 

completely  all  matlers  pertaining  to  one  subject  other-  cil,  are  to  be  recognized  in  the  synodical  assemblies 

wise  found  scattered  in  several  books.    Thus,  in  the  of  bishops  under  primatial,  exarchal,  or  patriarchal 

life  of  Bishop  Aldrich  (Baluze,  **Miscell.",  I,  iii,  29)  authority,  recorded  from  the  fourth  and  fifth  cen- 

we  read  of  a  Plenarium,  or  Breviarium,  which  seems  to  turies,  and  possibly  earUer.    Such  were,  apparently, 

be  a  book  of  church  rents  (Binterim,  "Denkwiirdig-  the  synods  held  in  Asia  Minor  at  Iconium  and  S^^i- 

keiten",  IV,  i,  239).    The  efttire  mortuary  office,  Ves-  nada  in  the  third  century,  concerning  the  re-baptism 

pers,  Matins,  Lauds,  and  Mass,  is  called  Plenarium.  of  heretics;    such  were,  certainly,  the  councils  held 

A  complete  copy  of  the  four  Gospels  was  called  an  later  in  the  northern  part  of  Latin  Africa,  preside*! 

"Evangeliarium  plenarium*'.    Under  this  heading  we  over  by  the  Archbishop  of  Carthage,   Primate  of 

mightclassthe"Bookof  Gospels  "at  Lichfield  Cathe-  Africa.     These  latter  councils  were  officially  desig- 

dral,  and  the  "Book  of  Gospels"  given  by  Athelstan  nated  plenary  councils  (Concilium  Plenarium  lotius 

to  Christ  church  in  Canterbury,  now  in  the  library  of  Africcp).    Their  beginnings  are  without  doubt  to  he 

Lambeth  Palace  (Rock,  "Church  of  our  Fathers'^,  I,  referred,  at  least,  to  the  fourth,  and  possibly  to  the 

122).    Some  Plenaria  gave  all  the  writings  of  the  New  third  century.    Synods  of  a  somewhat  similar  nature 

Testament,  others  those  parts  of  the  Sacred  Scriptures  (though  approaching  nearer  to  the  idea  of  a  general 

that  were  commonly  read  in  the  Divine  service  and  council)  were  the  Council  of  Aries  in  Gaul  in  314 

bore  the  name  "Lectionarium  plenarium"  (Becker,  (at  which  were  present    the  Bishops  of   London, 

"Catal.  bibl.  ant.",  1885,  28,  no.  237;   68,  no.  650,  York,  and  Caerleon),  and  the  Council  of  Sardica  in 

659).    When  priests  in  their  missionary  labours  began  343  (whose  canons  were  frequently  cited  as  Nioene 

to  be  scattered  singly  in  different  places,  and  when,  in  canons).    To  these  we  might  add  the  Greek  Council  in 

consequence,  co-celebration  of  the  Sacred  Mysteries  Trullo  (692).    The  popes  were  accustomed  in  former 

was  rendered  impossible,  and  private  Masses  became  ages  to  hold  synods  which  were  designated  Councils 

more  frequent,  the  complete  Missal  or  "Missale  pie-  of  the  Apostolic  See.    They  might  be  denominated, 


PLESSIS 


165 


PLE8S1S 


to  a  certfdn  extent,  emergency  synods,  and  though 
they  were  generally  composed  of  the  bishops  of  Italy, 
yet  bishops  of  other  ecclesiastical  provinces  took  part 
m  them.  Pope  Martin  I  held  such  a  council  in  649, 
and  Pope  Agatho  in  680.  These  synods  were  imitated 
by  the  patriarchs  of  Constantinople  who  convoked, 
on  special  occasions,  a  aynodiis  endemousaf  at  which 
were  present  bishops  from  various  provinces  of  the 
Greek  worid  who  happened  to  be  sojourning  in  the 
imperial  city,  or  were  summoned  to  give  counsel  to 
the  emperor  or  the  patriarch  concerning  matters  that 
required  special  episcopal  consultation.  Still  further 
narrowed  down  to  our  present  idea  of  plenary  councils 
are  the  synods  convoked  in  the  Prankish  and  West- 
Gothic  kmgdoms  from  the  end  of  the  sixth  century, 
and  designated  national  councils.  The  bishops  m 
these  synods  were  not  gathered  together  because 
they  belonged  to  certain  ecclesiastical  provinces,  but 
because  they  were  under  the  same  civu  government, 
and  consequently  had  common  interests  which  con- 
cerned the  Kingdom  in  which  they  lived  or  the  people 
over  whom  they  ruled. 

II.  As  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  is  necessary  for  the 
person  who  presides  over  a  plenary  or  national  synod, 
this  name  has  been  refused  to  the  assemblies  of  the 
bishops  of  France,  which  met  without  papal  authori- 
zation in  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries. 
These  comilia  deri  QaUicani  were  not  really  plenary 
councils.  The  more  noted  among  them  were  those 
held  at  Paris  in  1681  and  1682  (Collect.  Lacens.,  I, 
793  sq.).  Convocations  of  eccfesiastics  (Assemblies 
du  Clergi)  were  frequent  in  France  before  the  Revo- 
lution of  1789.  They  consisted  of  certain  bishops 
deputed  by  the  various  ecclesiastical  provinces  of  the 
kingdom,  and  of  priests  elected  by  their  equals  from 
the  same  provinces,  to  deliberate  on  the  temporal 
affairs  of  the  French  churches,  and  more  particularly 
on  the  assistance,  generally  monetary,  to  be  accorded 
to  the  Government.  After  the  establishment  of  the 
empire.  Napoleon  I  held  a  great  convention  of  bishops 
at  Paris,  and  is  said  to  nave  been  much  incensed 
because  Pius  VII  did  not  designate  it  a  national 
council  (Coll.  Lacens.,  VI,  1024).  Similarly,  mere 
congresses  of  bishops,  even  of  a  whole  nation,  who 
meet  to  discuss  conunon  ecclesiastical  affairs,  with- 
out adhering  to  synodal  forms,  are  not  to  be  called 
national  or  plenary  Councils,  because  no  one  having 
the  proper  jurisdiction  has  formally  summoned  them 
to  a  canonical  synod.  Such  episcopal  conventions 
have  been  praised  by  the  Holy  See,  because  they 
showed  unity  among  the  bishops  and  zeal  for  assort- 
ing the  rights  of  the  Church  and  the  progress  of  the 
Catholic  cause  in  their  midst,  in  accordance  with  the 
sacred  canons  (Coll.  Lacens.,  V,  1336),  but,  as  the 
requisite  legal  forms  and  proper  hierarchical  authority 
are  wanting,  these  congresses  of  bishops  do  not  con- 
stitute a  plenary  council,  no  matter  how  full  the 
representation  of  episcopal  dignitaries  may  be. 

III.  A  plenary  or  national  council  may  not  be 
convoked  or  celebrated  without  the  authority  of 
the  Apostolic  See,  as  was  solemnly  and  repeatedly 
declared  by  Pius  IX  (Coll.  Lacens.,  V,  995,  1336). 
This  has  always  been  the  practice  in  the  Church,  if 
not  explicitly,  at  least  from  the  fact  that  recourse 
could  always  be  had  to  the  Holy  See  against  decisions 
of  such  councils.  Now,  however,  express  and  special 
papal  authorization  is  required.  He  who  presides 
over  the  council  must  have  the  necessary  jurisdiction, 
which  is  accorded  by  special  Apostolic  delegation. 
In  the  United  States,  the  presidency  of  such  synods  has 
always  been  accorded  by  the  Holy  See  to  the  archbishops 
of  Baltimore.  In  their  case,  a  papal  delegation  is  nec- 
essary, for  iilthough  they  have  a  precedence  of  honour 
over,  all  the  other  American  metropolitans,  yet  they 
have  no  primatial  or  patriarchal  jurisdiction.  It  is 
not  uncommon  for  the  pope  to  send  from  Rome  a 
special  delegate  to  preside  over  plenary  councils. 


IV.  Summons  to  a  national  or  plenary  council  is  to 
be  sent  to  all  archbishops  and  bishops  of  the  nation, 
and  they  are  obliged  to  appear,  unless  prevented  by  a 
canonical  hindrance;  to  all  administrators  of  dioceses 
s€(ie  plena  or  vacua,  and  to  vicars  capitular  sede  vticante; 
to  vicars  Apostolic  possessed  of  episcopal  jurisdiction; 
to  the  representatives  of  cathedral  chapters,  to  abbots 
having  quasi-episcopal  jurisdiction.  In  the  United 
States,  custom  has  sanctioned  the  summoning  of  auxil- 
iary, coadjutor,  and  visiting  bishops;  provincials  of 
roligious  orders;  all  mitred  abbots;  rectors  of  major 
seminaries^  as  well  as  priests  to  serve  as  theologians 
and  canonists. 

V.  Only  those  who  have  a  right  to  a  summons  have 
also  a  right  to  ca^t  a  decisive  vote  in  councils.  The 
Others  may  give  only  a  consultive  vote.  The  fathers 
may,  however,  empower  auxiliary,  coadjutor,  and 
visiting  bishops,  as  well  as  procurators  of  absent 
bishops  to  cast  a  decisive  vote.  The  Third  Plenary 
Council  of  Baltimore  allowed  a  decisive  vote  also  to 
a  general  of  a  religious  congregation,  because  this  was 
done  at  the  Vatican  Council.  At  the  latter  council, 
however,  such  vote  was  granted  only  to  generals  of 
regular  orders,  but  not  to  those  of  religious  congre- 

§ations   (Nilles,  part  I,  p.  127).     At  Baltimore,  a 
ecisive  vote  was  refused  to  abbots  of  a  single  monas- 
tery, but  conferred  on  arch-abbots. 

VI.  In  particular  councils,  the  subject-matter  to  be 
treated  is  what  concerns  discipline,  the  reformation 
of  abuses,  the  repression  of  crimes,  and  the  progress 
of  the  Catholic  cause.  In  former  times,  such  councils 
often  condemned  incipient  heresies  ana  opinions  con- 
trary to  sound  morals,  but  their  decisions  became 
dogmatic  only  after  solemn  confirmation  by  the 
Apostolic  See.  Thus,  the  Councils  of  Milevis  and 
Carthage  condemned  Pelagianism,  and  the  Council 
of  Orange  (Arausicanum)  Semipelagianism.  Such 
latitude  is  not  allowed  to  modem  synods,  and  the 
Fathers  are  warned;  moreover,  that  they  are  not  to 
restrict  opinions  which  are  tolerated  by  the  Catholic 
Church. 

VII.  Decrees  of  plenary  councils  must  be  sub- 
mitted, before  promulgation,  for  the  confirmation, 
or  rather  recognition  and  revision  of  the  Holy  See. 
Such  recognition  does  not  imply  an  approval  of  all 
the  regulations  submitted  by  the  council,  and  still 
less  of  all  the  assertions  contained  in  th^  synodal  acts. 
Many  things  are  merely  tolerated  by  the  Apostolic 
See  tor  the  time  being.  The  submi^ion  to  Home  is 
mainly  for  the  correction  of  what  is  too  severe  or 
inaccurate  in  the  decrees.  Bishops  have  the  power 
of  relaxing  decrees  of  a  plenary  council  in  particular 
cases  in  their  own  dioceses,  unless  the  council  waa 
confirmed  in  forma  specifica  at  Rome.  In  like  manner, 
when  no  specific  confirmation  of  the  decrees  has  been 
aceorded,  it  is  lawful  to  appeal  from  these  councils. 
In  modem  times,  it  b  not  usual  for  the  Holy  See 
to  confirm  councils  in  forma  specifica^  but  only  to 
accord  them  the  necessary  recognition.  If,  conse- 
quently, anything  be  found  in  their  acts  contrary 
to  the  common  law  of  the  Church,  it  would  have  no 
binding  force  unless  a  special  apostolic  derogation 
were  made  in  its  favour.  Mere  recognition  and  revi- 
sion would  not  suffice. 

Smith,  Element*  of  Eedetiaatical  Law,  I  (New  York,  1805); 
Nilles,  Commentaria  in  Cone.  Plen.  Ball.  Ill  (Innabruck,  1888) ; 
Craibson,  ManuaU  Totiua  Juri*  Canonici,  III  (Paris,  1899); 
Bouix,  De  Concilio  (Paris,  1884). 

William  H.  W.  Fanning. 

PlesBifl,  Joseph-Octave,  Bishop  of  Quebec,  b.  at 
Montreal,  3  March,  1763;  d.  at  Quebec,  4  Dec.,  1822. 
He  studied  classics  at  Montreal  and  philosophy  at 
Quebec,  was  appointed  in  1783  secretary  to  Bishop 
Briand,  and  was  ordained  priest  in  1786.  In  1797  he 
was  named  vicar-general  and  chosen  for  coadjutor. 
The  bulls  having  been  delayed  by  the  imprisonment 
and  death  of  Pius  VII,  Plessis  was  only  consecrated  in 


PLE8SIS                                166  FLOCK 

1801.  He  assumed  the  greater  part  of  the  adininistr»-  tal  mysticism  and  magic  which  he  demgnated  as 
tion,  his  superior  remaining  at  Longueuil:  by  the  Zoroastrianism.  It  was  due,  no  doubt,  to  these  ten- 
tatter's  deatn  in  1806  he  b^same  Bishop  of  Quebec,  dencies  of  thought  that  he  openly  abandoned  Chris- 
The  programme  of  the  oligarchy  then  in  power  com«  tianity  and  sought  to  substitute  paganism  for  it  as  a 
prised  the  organisation  of  an  exclusively  Protestant  standard  of  life.  When  he  was  about  fifteen  years  old 
school  system;  and  the  subjection  of  ecclesiastical  he  visited  Western  Europe  in  the  train  of  the  Eknperor 
influence  to  the  royal  supremacy  and  the  governor's  JohnPalaeologus.  After  nis  return  to  Greece,  he  settled 
good  pleasure,  in  the  erection  of  parishes  and  the  nomi*  at  Misithra  in  the  Peloponnesus,  the  site  of  ancient 
nation  of  pastors.  Plessis's  aim  was  to  obtain  the  civil  Sparta,  and  there  he  spciit  the  grater  part;  of  his  life, 
recognition  of  bishop  and  cleigv,  without  forfeiting  any  In  1438,  although  he  was  then  in  his  agnty-third  year, 
ri^^t  or  privilege  of  the  Church.  His  title  of  Bishop  of  he  again  accompanied  the  Emperor  to  Ital^,  where  he 
Quebec,  assumed  by  all  his  predecessors  before  and  was  designated  as  one  of  the  six  champions  of  the 
smoe  the  Coiu][uest,  was  odious  to  the  officials  and  to  Orthodox  Church  in  the  Council  of  Florence.  His 
the  An^ican  bishop.  Plessis,  by  his  firm  yet  deferen-  interest  in  ecclesiastical  matters  was,  however,  very 
tial  attitude,  his  prudence  and  moderation,  and  his  slight.  Instead  of  attending;  the  Council,  he  spent  his 
^loyalty  to  tne  Crown,  removed  all  opposition.  He  time  discoursing  on  Platomsm  and  Zoroastrianism  to 
"wisely  resisted  every  offer  of  temporal  betterment  to  the  Florentines.  It  was  his  enthusiasm  for  Platonism 
maintain  the  fulness  of  his  spiritual  jurisdiction,  that  influenced  Cosimo  de  Medici  to  found  a  Platonic 
When  the  American  Congress  m  1812  declared  war  'Academy  at  Florence.  In  1441  Plethon  had  returned 
with  England,  Plessis  aroused  the  loyalty  of  the  to  the  Peloponnesus,  and  there  he  died  and  was  buried 
French  Canadians,  who  by  remarkable  victories,  nota-  at.  Misithra  in  1450.  In  1465  his  remains  were  carried 
bly  at  CMteauguay,  saved  Canada  to  Great  Britain,  to  Rimini  and  placed  in  the  church  of  St.  Francis, 
The  bishop  was  honoured  with  a  seat  in  the  Legislative  where  an  inscription,  curiously  enou^,  styles  him 
Council,  his  title  and  dignity  officially  recognised,  and  "Themistius  Bysantinus".  Among  his  disciples  was 
the  creation  of  vicariates  Apostolic  in  Upper  Canada,  the  learned  Cardinal  Bessarion.  flethon's  most  im<- 
Nova  Scotia,  and  Prince  Edward  Island  approved  of.  portant  works  are  the  ''Laws"  written  in  imitation 
He  succeed^  in  preventing  the  applicatioii  of  the  of  Plato's  "Laws",  which  was  condemned  bv  Gen- 
.odious  monopolizing  educational  law  called  the  "Royal  nadios.  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  and  "On  the 
Institution".  An  energetic  and  enlightened  patron  of  Differences 'between  Plato  and  Aristotle",  in  which 
education,  he  redeemed  Nicolet  College,  generously  he  attacks  the  Aristotelian  philosophy  and  asserts 
contributing  to  reorganize,  enlarge,  and  endow  it;  he  the  superiority  of  Platonism.  He  also  composed  a 
likewise  favoured  the  foundation  of  St-Hyacinthe  Col-  work  in  defence  of  the  Greek  doctrine  of  tne  lYo- 
lege^  whose  regulations  he  wrote,  and  established  a  cession  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  In  his  philosophical  sys- 
Latin  school  at  St-Roch  to  prepare  students  for  semi-  tem  he  borrows  largely  from  the  Neo-Platonist, 
nary  or  college.  Proclus,  and  mingles  with  the  traditional  Neo- 
lliree  times  after  his  consecration  he  visited  every  Platonic  mysticism  many  popular  Oriental  supersti- 
parish  in  Lower  Canada;  in  1811  and  1812  he  trav-  tions.  His  influence  was  chieny  negative.  His  attack 
eUed  through  the  Maritime  Provinces,  and  in  1816  to  on  Aristotelianism  was  to  some  extent  effective,  al- 
Upper  Canada.  Long  since  convinccKi  of  the  necessity  though  opposed  to  him  were  men  of  equal  ability  and 
of^  dividing  his  immense  diocese,  he  strove  to  create  power,  such  as  Gennadios,  Patriarch  of  Constanti- 
new  sees.  Nova  Scotia  was  separated  in  1817.  To  nople.  He  was  honoured  by  the  Italian  Platonists  as 
realize  the  formation  of  other  dioceses  in  Upper  Can-  the  restorer  of  the  Academy,  and  as  a  martyr  for  the 
ada,  in  the  North- West,  in  Prince  Edward  Island,  and  cause  of  Platonism. 

at  Montreal,  Plessis  crossed  the  Atlantic  in  1810  to  The  £o«r«.  written  about  1440,  was  printed  at  Pari*,  IMlaad 

negotiate  with  Rome  and  England.     Anticipating  the  (in.Latin  tr.)  at  Baale.  1674.    The  oompariaon  «f  Pl»to  "d  Arj*. 

conclusion  of  the  case  pending  before  the  Bi^tishTov-  ^^^  ''Z^^^^  :i6^^r'GLk^i'^i!i  S  PiithJ'^'JiS! 

emment,  Rome  had  made  Quebec  a  metropolitan  see,  Latin  tr.    The  best  work  on  Plethon  is  a  dissertation  by  Fun 

with  two  of  the  above-named  for  suffragans.   The  new  Schultib   Oeoivw*  OemifM  PUthmi   (Jen^  i87i).  iBee  also 

anAbishop  successfully  counteracted  English  suseepti-  I't^^^SLl'L^iriSSty. ^^"Sfiir  yX'imsJ/R^I 
bilities,  alarmed  at  his  promotion,  and  obtained  the  Cbeigbton.  Hiat. «/  Papacy,  IV  (London,  looi),  41-46. 
other  two  dioceses  he  had  in  view.  He  likewise  sue-  Wiluam  Turneb. 
ceeded  in  preventing  the  Sulpicians  from  losing  by  ex- 
propriation their  seigniory  of  the  Island  of  Montreal.  Plock,  Diocbbe  of  (Plocbnsib),  in  Russian  Po- 
Public  opinion  had  improved  since  Briand's  time.  On  land,  suffragan  of  Warsaw,  includes  the  district  of 
his  return  vovaoe.  Plessis,  at  the  request  of  Propa-  Plock  and  parts  of  the  districts  of  Lomza  and  War- 
sanda,  visited  Philadelphia  and  Baltimore.  When  in  saw.  Apparently  the  diocese  was  founded  about  1087, 
1822  the  House  of  Commons  proposed  a  bill  for  the  through  the  efforts  of  the  legates  sent  to  Poland  by 
legislative  Union  of  the  two  Canadas,  whereby  the  Gregory  VII;  the  first  certain  notice  of  it  is  of  the  year 
French  Catholic  province  would  have  been  the  suf-  1102,  when  Duke  Ladislaus  Hermann  was  buried  in  the 
ferer,  Plessis^  though  stricken  with  the  disease  that  cathedral  of  Plock.  The  diocese  included  the  region 
was  to  end  his  life,  undertook  an  active  campaign  by  between  the  rivers,  Vistula,  Narew,*  and  Bug,  and 
letter  to  avert  the  disaster.  His  advice  and  influence  extended  as  far  as  the  northern  and  eastern  boundaries 
strengthened  the  delegates  who  had  been  sent  to  Eng-  of  the  Kingdom  of  Poland  of  that  era.  At  a  later  date 
land  to  prevent  the  passing  of  the  bill.  the  strip  ofland  north  of  the  Drewens  River  was  added 
Ttru,Le9BJiq^€•d€Quibec  (Quebec.  1889);  Fbrland,  Joseph-  to  it.    It  therefore  included  the  greater  part  of  the 

2S  cfiS.^  Sm^Hlf^i^jiQ^^'"**  ^r'  •^'•r**^  ^"^  ^"^  Duchy  of  Masovia  and  the  northern  part  of  Podlachia; 

land  Capttvf  (Cambridge,  1897).  LlONEL  LiNDSAY.  u..*  JL u  -ii«-  ♦!,-«  ♦u-.  ♦-,^^*u-..  ^i,....^ 


_^_      .    _,  -  ^   _  ^  but  was  much  smaller  than  the  two  other 

Pleuiad'Argentre,  Charles  DU.  SeeABOENTRfi.  Gnesen  and  Posen— then  existing  in  Pohmd.     Its 

Plethon,  Georqius  Gemibtus,  b.  in  Constantinople  bishops  were  under  the  metropolitan  authority  of 

about  1355,  d.  in  the  Peloponnesus,  1450.   Outofvene-  Gnesen.    The  endowment  of  the  bishopric  was  very 

ration  for  Plato  he  changed  his  name  from  Gemistos  to  large;    according  to  a  charter  of  Duke  Conrad  of 

Plethon.     Althou^  he  wrote  commentaries  on  Aris-  Masovia,  in  1239  the  episcopal  landed  property  in- 

totle's  logical  treatises  and  on  Porphyry's  ''Isagoge",  eluded  240  viUa  and  at  a  later  date  also  20  pradia. 

he  was  a  professed  Platonist  in  philosophy.    Owing,  In  the  thirteenth  century  these  estates  were  divided 

most  probably,  to  the  influence  of  Mohammedan  between  the  bishop  and  the  cathedral  chapter.    The 

teachers,  he  combined  with  Platonism,  or  rather  with  Partitions  of  Poland  gave  the  greater  part  of  the  dio- 

Neo-Platonism,  the  most  extraordinary  kind  of  Orien-  ces^to  Russia,  and  a  smaller  portion  to  Prussia;  since 


PLOTINUS  167  PLOWDIN 

the  publication  by  Pius  VII  of  the  Bull  "Dq  salute  ity  and  virtue,  "he  promoted  the  credit  and  welfare  of 
animarum  "  of  1821 ,  the  Prussian  section  of  the  diocese  that  institution  "  (Oliver) .  Richard  Lalor  Shiel.  who 
has  been  incorporated  in  the  Diocese  of  Kulm.  In  the  had  been  his  pupil,  speaks  of  him  as  "  a  perfect  Jesuit 
readjustment  of  ecclesiastical  conditions  in  Poland,  of  the  old  school".  After  the  restoration  of  the  Soci* 
Warsaw  was  raised  to  an  archdiocese,  by  the  Bull  ety  in  England,  he  was  the  first  master  of  novices,  at 
"  Militantis  ecclesise"  of  12  March,  1817,  and  the  other  Hodder.  In  1817,  he  was  declared  Provincial,  and.  at 
Russo-Polish  dioceses  were  made  suffragan  to  it  by  the  the  same  time.  Rector  of  Stonyhurst,  holding  the  lat- 
Bull  "Ex  impensa  nobis"  of  30  June,  1818.  Conse-  ter  office  till  1819.  Summoned  to  Rome  for  the  dec- 
quently  Plock  also  was  transferred  from  its  metropoli-  tion  of  the  general  of  the  Society,  he  died  suddenly  on 
tan  of  Gnesen  to  Warsaw;  at  the  same  time  five  dean-  his  journey  homeward,  and,  throu^  mistaken  infor- 
eries  were  taken  from  it,  thereby  reducing  the  diocese  mation  as  to  his  mission  and  identity,  he  was  buried 
to  its  present  size.  Those  estates  of  the  bishopric  that  with  full  military  honours.  His  attendant  had  gath- 
had  not  been  secularized  before  this  date  were  taken  ered  the  information  that  he  had  been  at  Rome  in  con- 
one  after  the  other  by  the  Russian  Government.  The  nexion  with  business  concerning  a  "general",  and  the 
Diocese  of  Plock  shared  in  the  sufferings  of  the  Cath-  town  authorities,  mixing  things,  concluded  that  he 
olic  Chiu*ch  of  Rustia.  The  episcopal  see  remained  was  a  general  of  tne  British  army, — Whence  the  military 
Vacant  during  the  years  1853-63  and  1885-90;   of  funeral. 

late  years  the  sect  of  the  Mariavites,  with  the  aid  of        In  addition  to  his  many  administrative  activities 

the  uovemment,  has  spread  in  the  diocese.    Among  and  occupations,  Father  Plowden  was  a  prolific  writer, 

the  bishops  of  the  present  era,  Geor^  Szembek  Sommervogel  gives  a  list  of  twenty-two  publications 

(1901-03)    and   Apolunaris   Wnukowski    (1904-08)  of  which  he  was  the  author,  besides  several  works  in 

were  elevated  to  the  Archdiocese  of  Mohilefif;    the  manuscript  which  have  been  preserved.    He  was  a 

present  bishop  is  Anthony  Julian  Nowowiejski,  con-  lifelong  correspondent  of  Bishop  Carroll  and  wrote  a 

secrated  6  December,  19G^.    The  cathedral  of  Plock  beautiful  eulogy  on  the  death  of  his  friend  in  1815.    A 

was  rebuilt  after  a  fire  in  the  years  1 136-44,  and  thor-  large  collection  of  the  letters  which  they  interchanged, 

oughly  restored  in  1903.  originals  or  copies,  exists  at  Stonyhurst  and  George- 

The  diocese  is  divided  into  12  deaneries  and  at  the  town   Colleges,   as  also  in  the  Baltimore  diocesan 

end  of  1909  included,  besides  the  cathedral,  249  archives.    Hi^  was  a  protaronist  in  the  polemics  that 

parish  churches,  31  dependent  churches,  275  secular  distracted  the  Catholic  boc^  in  England,  in  relation  to 

priests,  5  regular  priests,  794,100  Catholics.    As  early  the  Oath  proposed  as  a  preliminary  to  the  Catholic 

as  1207  the  chapter  consisted  of  5  dignitaries  and  10  Relief  Bill.    It  was  "  a  desperate  life  and  death  strug- 

canons;  since  tne  publication  of  the  imperial  decree  ^le  of  Catholicism  in  England,  during  one  of  the  most 

of  1865  it  has  consisted  of  4  prelates  (provost,  dean,  insidious  and  dangerous  assaults  upon  its  liberties  to 

archdeacon,  and  a  "scholasticus")  and  8   canons,  which  it  had  ever  been  exposed".    Writers  on  both 

There  is  also  a  collegiate  chapter  at  Pultusk  consisting  sides,  in  the  heat  of  controversy,  employed  language 

of  3  prelates  and  4  canons.    The  diocesan  seminary  whicii  subsequently  necessitated  explanation,  apolo- 

for  priests  has  been  in  existence  since  1708;  it  has  10  gies,  and  retractions.   Plowden  was  too  outspoken  and 

professors  and  72  clerics,  and  there  are  also  4  clerics  perfervid  in  some  of  his  utterances,  but  his  spirit  was 

in  the  Roman  Catholic  Academy  at  St.  Petersburg,  that  of  loyalty  to  the  vicars-Apostolic  and  to  Catholic 

The  only  houses  of  the  orders  in  the  diocese  are:  a  traditions. 

Carmelite  monastery  at  Obory,  with  5  fathers  and  1  ^^F^v^X'.^.^f*'*^  **^«'.^  Bnplwh  Provinee  5.  /.,  IV  (London, 

lay  brother;  a  convent  of  the  6aris8e8  at  Przasnys,  }|IV^-,2v"o^'?^  iSSi2S^'i5'fa'c^p2j/^  ^jS^^^^i 

With  9  Bisters:    5  houses  of  the  Sisters  of  Mercy  with  (Paris.  1895),  903;  Gillow,  Biog.  Diet,  ofthf  Enoli*h  Catholica,  y 

25  sisters,  who  have  charge  of  4  hospitals  and  1  (^''^^^^^^S^^v^^u^^  ^^^.?^'^*o^?'*^*\r5!?'^  **.*'^~' 

orohanAire  (London,  1909);  Hcqhxb,  HtaUry  5.  J,  tn  North  America  (Lon- 

RsBPiNBKi*  ritopra«Jum  Potoniff,  II  (Wareaw,  1762),  203-72;  ^on.  1910).  doc.  I.  u.  nwvTin» 

Thkinkb,  Vetera  monumenta  Polonia,  I  (Rome,  1860);  Lb8c<su«,  *'•  *•  -^"V**** 

L*igliM€  dath,  en  Poiogne  aoua  la  domination  rutee  (2  vols.,  Paria,  _,        .         -_  i««.«»«Aji*-r        «        y»v^i 

1876);   BncylOoptdia  Koseielna,  XIX  (Warsaw,  1893).  669-622;  PlOWdan,  EDMTJND,b.  1517-8:  d.mLondon,6Feb., 

CataioQua  eeeUetarum  et  utriutque  eleri  etc.  (Plock,  1909).  1584-5.     SoU    of    Humphrey   Plowden    of    Plowden 

Joseph  Linb.  Hall,  Shropshire,  and  Elizabeth  his  wife;  educated  at 

Plotlnus.    See  Neo-Platonibm.  F^Xxfe^^J^"^^  ?""  "l^^^u   !»  3^,»»e  was  called 

to  the  Middle  Temple  where  he  studied  law  so  closely 

Plowden,  Charles,  b.  at  Plowden  Hall,  Shrop-  that  he  became  the  greatest  lawver  of  his  age,  as  is 
shire,  1743;  d.  at  Jougne,  Doubs,  France,  13  June,  testified  by  Camden,  who  says  that  ''as  he  was  sin- 
1821.  He  was  lineally  descended  from  Edmund  Plow-  gularly  well  learned  in  the  common  laws  of  England, 
den,  the  celebrated  lawyer.  The  family  adhered  whereof  he  deserved  well  by  writing,  so  for  inte^tv 
steadily  to  the  Catholic  faith,  contributed  ten  members  of  life  he  was  second  to  no  man  of  his  profession 
to  the  Society  of  Jesus,  and  numerous  subjects  to  Tan-  (Annals,  1635,  p.  270).  He  also  studied  at  Oxford  for 
ous  female  orders  (see  Foley,  ''Records  of  the  English  a  time,  and  brides  his  1^^  studies,  qualified  as  a 
Province".  Plowden  Pedigree,  IV,  537).  Educated  at  surgeon  and  physician  in  1552.  On  Mary's  accession 
dt.  Omer's,  he  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  in  1759,  and  he  became  one  of  the  council  of  the  Marches  of  Wales, 
was  ordained  priest,  at  Rome,  in  1770.  At  the  sup-  In  1553  he  was  elected  member  of  Parliament  for 
pression  of  the  Society,  in  1773,  he  was  minister  of  tne  Waliingford  and  in  the  following  year  was  returned  for 
English  College  at  Bruges:  the  Austro-Belgic  govern-  two  constituencies,  Reading  and  Wootten-Bassett; 
ment.  in  its  execution  of  the  decree  of  suppression,  but  on  12  Jan.,  1554-5,  he  withdrew  from  the  House, 
kept  nim  imprisoned  for  some  months  alter  tne  closing  dissatisfied  Vith  the  proceedings  there.  Succeeding 
of  the  college.  He  wrote  an  account  of  its  destruction,  to  the  Plowden  estat^  in  1557,  he  lectured  on  law  at  ^ 
After  his  release  from  confinement,  he  was  for  a  time  Middle  Temple  and  New  Inn;  in  1561  he  became 
at  the  Academy  of  Li^ge,  which  the  prince-bishop  had  treasurer  of  Middle  Temple  and  during  his  treasurer- 
offered  to  the  English  ex-Jesuits.  Returning  to  Eng-  ship  the  fine  hall  of  that  inn  was  begun.  His  fidelity 
land,  he  became  a  tutor  in  the  family  of  Mr.  Weld,  and  to  the  Catholic  faith  prevented  any  further  promotion 
chaplain  at  Lulworth  Castle,  where  he  assisted  at  the  under  Elizabeth,  but  it  is  a  family  tradition  that  the 
consecration  of  Bishop  Carroll,  in  1790.  He  preached  c][ueen  offered  him  the  Lord  Chancellorship  on  condi- 
the  sermon  on  the  occasion,  and  published  an  acccount  tion  of  his  joining  the  Anglican  Church.  He  success- 
of  the  establishment  of  the  new  See  of  Baltimore,  fullv  defended  Bishop  Bonner  against  the  Anglican 
Father  Plowden  had  a  large  share  in  the  direction  of  Bishop  Home,  and  helped  Catholics  by  his  legal 
Stonyhurst  College,  founded  in  1794,  and  by  his  abil-  knowledge.   On  one  occasion  he  was  defending  a  gen* 


PLOWDKH  If 

tletnim  charged  with  hearing  Mass,  and  detected  that 
the  Bervice  hod  been  performed  by  a  layman  for  the 
purpose  of  informiiig  against  those  who  were  present, 
whereon  he  exclaim^,  "The  case  is  altered;  no  prieat, 
no  Mass",  and  thus  secured  an  acquittal.  This  inci- 
dent gave  rise  to  the  commoc  legal  proverb,  "The  case 
ia  altered,  quoth  Flowden  ".  He  hinoself  was  required 
to  give  ADond  in  1569  to  be  of  good  behaviour  m  re- 
Ugioua  matters  for 
ayear,  and  in  1580 
he  was  delated  to 
the  Privy  Council 
for  refusing  to  at- 
tend  the  Anglican 
service,  though  no 


have  been  taken 
against  him.  His 
works  were:  "Les 
Gomentariea  ou  les 
reportcs  de  Ed- 
munde  Plowden" 
(Ixindon,  1571), 
often  reprinted 
and  translated  into 
English;  "Les 
Quarea  del  Mon- 
sieur Plowden" 
(London,  no  date), 
included  in  some 
editions  of  the  Re- 
porte;  "  A  Treatise 
on  Succession",  MSS.  preserved  among  the  family 
papers.  Its  object  was  to  prove  that  Mary,  Queen  of 
Scots,  was  not  debarred  from  her  right  to  the  English 
throne  by  her  foreign  birth  or  the  will  of  Henry  VIIL 
Several  MSS.  legal  opinions  are  preserved  in  the 
British  Museum  and  the  Cambridge  University  Libra- 
ries. He  married  Catherine  Sheldon  of  Beoley  and  by 
her  had  three  sons  and  three  daughters.  Tnere  is  a 
portrait  effigy  on  his  tomb  in  the  Temple  Church,  and 
a  bust  in  the  Middle  Temple  Hall  copied  from  one  at 
Plowden. 

Pu)«DEN.  Btcordi  cf  Pliradta  (privsleLy  printed.  ISS7); 
CoorKR,  Atlitna  Cantabngieniu  (Ctiattridge,  ISiSj:  IWoon.ed. 
Bun*.  Aihena  Oxtmimm  ILondon,  l8l3-20);  »odd,  Ckwch 
IhHory,  I  (BrutKli.  ttre  Wolverhunplon.  1 737-421;  Fo»,  Jadaa 
of  Eneland.V  (London,  lMa-«t) ;  Folkt,  Rtamlt  Bng.  Pm.S.  J. 
(giviiiB  Plowden  pedirree).  IV  (Lo^n,  1B7S);  CooMR  in  Did. 
Nat.  Bioe.:  Oillow,  S<M.  Diet  E-nf.  Catk. 

En  WIN  BCKTON. 

Plovdan,  Francis,  son  of  William  Plowden  of  Plow- 
den Hall,  b.  at  Shropshire,  8  June,  1749:  d.  at  Paris, 
4Jan.,  1819.  Hewaeeducat«datSt.Omersandentered 
the  Jesuit  novitiate  at  Watten  in  1766.  When  the 
Society  was  suppressed,  he  was  teaching  at  the  College 
at  Bruges.  Not  being  in  Holy  Orders  he  was,  by  the 
terms  of  suppression,  relieved  of  his  first  vows,  and 
eoon  afterwards  married  Dorothea,  daughter  of  George 
Phillips  of  Carnarvonshire.  He  entered  the  Middle 
Temple  and  practised  as  a  conveyancer,  the  only 
department  of  the  legal  profession  open  to  Catholics 
under  the  Fcna]  Laws.  After  the  Helief  Act  of  1791 
he  was  called  to  the  Bar.  His  first  great  work,  "Jura 
Ai^lorum",  appeared  in  1792.  It  was  attacked  in  a 
pamphlet  by  his  brother  Robert,  a  priest  under  the  title 
of  "  A  Roman  Catholic  Cler^man  " .  The  book  was  so 
highly  thought  of  that  the  University  of  Oxford  pre- 
sented him  with  the  honorary  Degree  of  D.C.L.,  a 
unique  distinction  for  a  Catholic  of  those  days.  His 
improvidence,  extreme  views,  and  untractable  dispo- 
Ution  made  his  life  a  troubled  one.  Having  fallen  out 
with  the  Lord  Chancellor,  he  ceased  to  practise  at  the 
bar  and  devoted  himself  to  writing. 

His  "Historical  Review  of  the  state  of  Ireland" 
(1S(^)  was  written  at  the  request  of  the  Government; 
but  it  was  too  outspoken  a  condemnation  to  meet  their 
views,  and  was  attacked  by  Sir  Richard  Musgrave  in 


the  "Historical  Review"  and  also  by  the  "British 
Critic",  Plowden  answered  by  a"  Postliminious  Pref- 
ace", giving  an  account  of  his  communications  wiUi 
Addington,  and  also  by  a  "Historical  Letter"  to  Sir 
Richard  Musgrave.  While  m  Dublin  (1811),  he  pub- 
lished his  work  "Ireland  since  the  Union",  which  led 
to  a  prosecution  on  the  part  of  the  Government  for 
libel,  resulting  in  a  verdict  of  £5000  damages.  Plow- 
den considered  that  this  had  been  awarded  by  a 
packed  jury  and  was  determined  not  to  pay  it.  He 
escaped  to  Paris  where,  he  spent  the  remaimng  years 
of  his  life  in  comparative  poverty.  He  continued  to 
write  at  intervals,  his  "  Historical  Letters"  to  Sir  John 
Cox  Hippisley  (1815)  containing  important  matter 
connected  with  the  question  of  Catholic  emancipa- 
tion. Hisotherworksare:  "TheCaseStated"  (Cath. 
Relief  Act,  1791);  "Church  and  State"  (London, 
1795);  "Treatige  on  Law  of  Usury"  {London,  1796); 
"TheConstitutionof  the  United  Kingdom"  (London, 
1802};  "Historical Lettpr to Rev.C.O'Conor"  (Dub- 
lin, 1812);   "Human  Subornation"  (Paris,  1824). 

Cooper  in  Oicl.  Kal,  Bina..  b.  v.:  Gillow,  Bibl.  Diet.  Stia. 
Cash.,  a.  v.;  Kiiiii,  Bioeraphui:  Foltt,  Rtardi  Eng.  Prat.  S.  1.. 
IV.  Vlld-ondon,  187S-80),Dvin£pwiiarMotP1owdBn.;  WaBD, 
Da-Mm  el  Calh.  Rairai  (Loniion,  IBM) ;  Sc»l'i  MaponrK  I182«). 

Bernard  Ward. 

Plowdon,  Robert,  elder  brother  of  Charles  («u- 
pra),  b.  27  Jan.,  1740;  d.  at  Wappenbury,  27  June, 
1823.  He  entered  the  Society  of  Jesua  in  1756,  and 
was  ordained  in  1763.  After  some  years  spent  at 
Hoogstraet  in  Belgium,  as  director  of  the  Carmelite 
Nuns,  he  retumca  to  Ei^Iand,  and  was  stationed  at 
Arlington,  Devon,  from  1777  to  1787.  Appointed  to 
Bristol,  he  had  a  wider  field  for  his  leal  and  ability:  at 
his  coming,  the  Catholics  had  only  one  wretched  room 
in  a  back  alley  for  a  chapel;  Father  Plowden's  exer- 
tions resulted  in  the  erection  of  St.  Joseph's  Church, 
together  with  a  parochial  residence  and  schools.  His 
activity  was  extended  to  the  mission  of  Swansea  and 
the  South  Wales  District,  of  which  he  may  be  consid- 
ered the  principal  founder.  He  remained  at  Bristol 
for  nearly  thirty  years,  beloved  by  his  flock,  and  es- 
teemed by  all  for  his  frank  character,  disinterested  la- 
bours, and  bounty  to  the  poor.  Removed  from  Bris- 
tol in  1815,  he  became  chaplain  to  the  Fitzherbert 
family  at  Swynnerton  until  1820,  when  he  retired  to 
Wappenbury,  where  he  died.  He  was  a  keen  theolo- 
gian, "a  more  solid  divine  than  his  brother  Charles", 
according  to  Bishop  Carroll — an  unflinching  defender 
of  Catholic  principles  and  practices,  and  a  firm  sup- 
porter of  Bishop  Milner  in  trying  circumstances.  The 
inscription  on  his  tomb  commemorates  his  candour, 
Keal,  and  learning.  He  translated  from  the  French: 
"The  Elevation  of  the  Soul  to  God",  which  passed 
throudi  several  editions  in  England;  American  edi- 
tions, Philadelphia,  1817,  and  New  York,  1852. 

POUT,  Rcarrdi  o/  lAi  En«l»A  Prmnce  tf  lAc  Soatly  af  Jnul, 
IV,  W:  OuvtR.  CnUnlieni  5.  J. 

E.  I.  Devitt. 

nowdsn  (aliat  Salisbcrt),  Tbouab,  b.  in  Oxford- 
shire, England  1594;  d.  in  London,  13  Feb.,  1664; 
grandson  of  Edmund  Plowden,  the  great  lawyer;  en- 
tered the  Society  of  Jesus,  1617;  sent  on  the  English 
Mission  about  1622.  He  was  seised,  with  other  fath- 
ers, by  the  pursuivants  in  1628,  at  Clerkenweli,  the 
London  residence  of  the  Jesuits.  He  filled  various  re- 
sponsible offices  of  the  order,  and  laboured  on  the 
perilous  English  Mission  until  his  death.  He  trans- 
lated from  the  Italian  of  D.  Bartoli  "The  Learned 
Man  Defended  and  Reformed  "  (London,  1660). 

" "      -dt  of  lilt  Ennliilt  Prati<tc€  a/ Iht  Sedtlii  ef  Jaui.  I, 


VII. 


E.  I.  Dbvitt, 


PlowdWki  Tbowas  Pbrct,  b.  at  Shiplake,  Oxford- 
shire, England,  1672;  d.  at  Watten,  21  Sept.,  1745; 
joined  the  Society  of  Jesus  in  1693.    He  was  rectorof 


pluhhb                      169  plunket 

the  English  College.   Rome,   1731-34;  superior  at  (Amsterdam,  1755-60),  containing  262  plates.    Plu- 

Ghent,  1735-39;  ana  rector  of  St.  Omers,  1730-42.^  mier  also  wrote  treatises  for  the  ''Journal  des  Sa- 

He  translated  Father  S<^eri's  " Devout  Client  of  the'  vants"  and  for  the  " M^moires  de  Tr6voux".    By  his 

Blessed  Virgin",  and  wrote  the  preface  to  it.    He  died  observations  in  Martinique,  Plumier  proved  that  the 

at  the  novitiate  of  Watten.  cochineal  belongs  to  the  animal  kingdom  and  should 

FoLBT,  RuortU  of  the  English  Pronnee  of  the  Society  of  Jeatu,  ]}q  classed  among  the  insectS. 

IV.  VII.                                                               T^     T    T%  Hallsr,  Bibliotheea  botanica,  II  (Zurich,  1772);    Sfbengbl, 

£.   I.   DEVITT.  GeechuMe  der  Botanik,  II  (Leipiig,  1818);    Jbsssn.  Botanik  d. 

Oeoenwart  u,  Voneit  (Leipsig,  1864). 

Pluxnlar ,  Charles  (botanical  abbreviation,  Plum . ) , 

French  botanist,  b.  at  Marseilles,  20  April,  1646;  d.  at  Plunket,  Oliver,  Venerable.  Archbishop  of  Ai^ 

Puerto  de  8ta  Maria  near  Cadbs,  20  November,  1704.  magh  and  Primate  of  all  Ireland,  b.  at  Loughcrew 

At  the  age  of  sixteen  he  entered  the  order  of  the  near  Oldcastle,  County  Meath,  Ireland,  1629;  d.  11 

Minims.    He  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  mathe-  juiy^  legl.     His  is  the  brightest  name  in  the  Irish 

matics  and    physics,   made    physical    instruments.  Church  throughout  the  whole  period  of  persecution, 

and  was  an  excellent  draughtsman,   painter,   and  He  was  connected  by  birth  with  the  families  which 

turner.    On  being  sent  to  the  French  monastery  of  had  just  then  been  ennobled,  the  Earls  of  Roscommon 

Trinity  dei  Monti  at  Rome,  Plumier  studied  botany  and  Fingall,  as  well  as  with  Lords  Louth  and  Dunsany. 

with  great  zeal  under  two  members  of  the  order,  and  Till  his  sixteenth  year,  his  education  was  attended  to 

especially  under  the  well-known  Cistercian  botanist,  by  Patrick  Plunket,  Abbot  of  St.  Mary's.  Dublin, 

Paolo  Boccone.    After  his  return  to  France  he  became  brother  of  the  first  Earl  of  Fingall,  afterwards  Bishop, 

a  pupil  of  Toumefort,  whom  he  accompanied  onbotan-  successively,  of  Ardagh  and  Meath.    He  witnessed  the 

ical  excursions.    He  also  explored  the  coasts  of  Pro-  firgt  triumphs  of  the  Irish  Confederates,  and,  as  an 

vence  and  Languedoc.    His  work,  of  permanent  value  aspirant  to  the  priesthood,  set  out  for  Rome  in  1645, 

for  the  science  of  botany,  began  in  1689.  when,  by  under  the  care  olFather  Scarampo,  of  the  Roman  Orar 

order  of  the  government,  he  accompanied  Surian  to  tory.   As  a  student  of  the  Irish  Cx)llege  of  Rome,  which 

the  French  Antilles.    As  this  first  journey  proved  very  some  twenty  years  before  had  been  founded  by  Cardi- 

successful,  Plumier  was  appoint^  royal  Dotanist;  in  nal  Ludovisi,  his  record  was  particularly  brilliant. 

1693,  by  command  of  Louis  XIV,  he  made  his  sec-  The  Rector,  in  after  years,  attested  that  he  "devoted 

ond  journey,  and  in  1695  his  third  journey  to  the  An-  himself  with  such  ardour  to  philosophy,  theology,  and 

tilles  and  Central  America.    While  m  the  West  Indies  mathematics,  that  in  the  Roman  College  of  the  Society 

he  was  greatly  aided  in  his  work  by  the  Dominican  of  Jesus  he  was  justly  ranked  amon^  the  foremost 

Labat.    In  1704,  when  about  to  start  on  his  fourth  in  talent,  diligence,  and  progress  in  his  studies^  and  he 

journey,  intending  to  visit  the  home  of  the  true  cin-  pursued  with  abundant  fruit  the  course  of  civil  and 

chona  tree  in  Peru,  he  was  taken  ill  with  pleurisy  and  canon  law  at  the  Roman  Sapienza,  and  everywhere,  at 

died.     He  is  the  most  important  of  the  botanical  all  times,  was  a  model  of  gentleness,  integrity,  and 

explorers  of  his  time.     All  natural  scientists  of  the  piety."    Promoted  to  the  priesthood  in  1654,  Dr. 

eighteenth  century  spoke  of  him  with  admiration.  Plunket  was  deputed  by  the  Irish  bishops  to  act  as 

According  to  Cuvier  he  was  "perhaps  the  most  indus-  their  representative  in  Rome.    Throughout  the  period 

trious  investigator  of  nature",  while  Haller  said,  "  vir  of  the  Cromwellian  usurpation  and  the  first  years  of 

ad  incrementum  rei  herbarise  natus"  (a  man  bom  to  Charles  IPs  reign  he  most  effectually  pleaded  the 

extend  the  knowledge  of  botany).    Toumefort  and  cause  of  our  suffering  Church,  whilst  at  the  same  time 

Linnsus  named  in  his  honour  the  genus  Plumeria,  he  discharged  the  duties  of  theological  professor  at 

which  belongs  to  the  family  of  the  Apoq/naceoB  and  is  the  College  of  Propaganda.    In  the  Congregation  of 

indigenous  in  about  forty  species  to  Central  America;  ^x>paganda,  9  July,  1669,  he  was  appoint^  to  the 

it  is  now  called  Plumieraj  with  the  name  of  Plumieroi-  primatial  see  of  Armagh,  and  was  consecrated,  30 

dea  for  its  first  sub-family.    Plumier  accomplished  all  Nov.,  at  Ghent,  in  Belgium,  by  the  Bishop  of  Ghent, 

that  he  did  in  fifteen  years  (1689-1704) ;  his  labours  assisted  by  the  Bishop  of  Ferns  and  another  bishop, 

resulted  in  collections,  descriptions,  and  drawings.  The  pallium  was  granted  him  in  Consistory  28  July, 

His  first  work  was,  "Description  des  plantes  de  1670. 
TAm^rique"  (Paris,  1693);  it  contained  108  plates,  Dr.  Plunket  lingered  for  some  time  in  London, 
half  of  which  represented  ferns.  This  was  followed  by  using  his  influence  to  mitigate  the  rigour  of  the  admin- 
"Nova  plantarum  americanamm  genera"  (Paris,  istration  of  the  anti-Catholic  laws  m  Ireland,  and  it 
1703-04),  with  40  plates;  in  this  work  about  one  hun-  was  only  in  the  middle  of  March,  1670,  that  he  entered 
dred  genera,  with  about  seven  hundred  species,  were  on  his  apostolate  in  Armagh.  From  the  very  outset 
redescribed.  At  a  later  date  Linmeus  adopted  in  his  he  was  most  zealous  in  the  exercise  of  the  sacred  min- 
svstem,  almost  without  change,  these  and  other  newlv  istry.  Within  three  months  he  had  administered  the 
clescribed  genera  arranged  by  Plumier.  Plumier  left  Sacrament  of  Confirmation  to  about  10,000  of  the 
a  work  in  French  and  Latin  readv  to  be  printed  en-  faithful,  some  of  them  being  sixty  years  old,  and, 
titled  "Traits  des  foug^res  de  1  Am^rique"  (Paris,  writing  to  Rome  in  December,  1673,  he  was  able  to 
1705),  which  contained  172  excellent  plates.  The  announce  that  "during  the  past  four  years",  he  had 
publication  "Filicetum  Americanum"  (Paris,  1703),  confirmed  no  fewer  than  48,655  people.  To  bring 
with  222  plates,  was  compiled  from  those  already  this  Sacrament  within  the  reach  of  the  suffering  faith- 
mentioned.  Plumier  also  wrote  another  book  of  an  ful  he  had  to  undergo  the  severest  hardships,  often 
entirely  different  character  on  turning,  " L'Art  de  with  no  other  food  than  a  little  oaten  bread;  he  had  to 
toumer"  (Lyons,  1701;  Paris,  1749);  this  was  trans-  seek  out  their  abodes  on  the  mountains  and  in  the 
lated  into  Russian  by  Peter  the  Great;  the  manu-  woods,  and,  as  a  rule,  it  was  under  the  broad  canopv 
script  of  the  translation  is  at  St.  Petersburg.  At  his  of  heaven  that  the  Sacrament  was  administered,  both 
death  Plumier  left  thirty-one  manuscript  volumes  flock  and  pastor  being  exposed  to  the  wind  and  rain, 
containing  descriptions,  and  about  6000  drawings.  He  made  extraordinary  efforts  to  bring  the  blessings 
4000  of  which  were  of  plants,  while  the  remainder  of  education  within  the  reach  of  the  Catholic  youth. 
reproduced  American  animals  of  nearly  all  classes,  In  effecting  this  during  the  short  interval  of  peace  that 
especially  birds  and  fish.  The  botanist  Boerhave  had  hiarked  the  beginning  of  his  episcopate  his  efforts 
506  of  these  drawings  copied  at  Paris;  these  were  were  most  succ^sful.  He  often  refers  in  his  letters  to 
published  later  by  Burmann,  Professor  of  Botany  at  the  hif^  school  which  he  opened  at  Drogheda,  at  this 
Amsterdam,  under  the  title:  " Plantamm  americana-  time  the  second  city  in  the  kingdom.  He  invited 
rum,  quas  olim  Carolus  Plumiems  detexit",  fasc.  I-X  Jesuit  Fathers  from  Rome  to  take  charge  of  it,  and 


PLTIHEIT  1 

very  bood  it  had  ODe-hundred-and-fifty  boye  on  the 
roll,  of  whom  no  fewer  than  forty  were  Bong  of  the 
Protestant  gentry.  He  held  frequent  ordinations, 
celebrated  two  Provincial  Synods,  and  wM  untiring  in 
rooting  out  abuses  and  promoting  piet^. 

One  incident  of  his  episcopate  ments  epecial  men- 
tion: There  was  a  considerable  number  of  so-called 
Tories  BCftttered  through  the  province  of  Ulster,  most 
of  whom  had  been  despoiled  of  their  property  under 
the  Act  of  Settlement.     They  banded  themselves  to- 
gether in  the  shelter  of  the  mountain  fastnesses  and, 
aa  outlaws,  lived  by  the  plimdcr  of  those  around  them. 
Anyone  who  sheltered  them  incurred  the  penaltv  of 
death  from  the  Government,  anyone  who  refused  tnem 
such  shelter  met  with  death  at  their  hands.    Dr. 
Plunket,  with  the  sanction  of  the  Lord  Lieutenant, 
went  in  search  of  them,  not  without  great  risk,  and 
reasoning  with  them  in  a  kind  and  paternal  manner 
induced  them  to  renounce  their  career  of  plundering. 
He  moreover  obtained  pardons     _ 
for  them  so  that  they  were  able 
to  transfer  themselves  to  other 
countries,  and  thus  peace  was 
restm^  throughout  the  whole 
province.      The  coatenyxirary 
Archbishop  of  Cashel,  Dr.  Bren- 
nan,  who  was  the  constant  com- 
pamon  of  Or.    Plunket,  in  a 
few  words  sketches  the  fruitful 
seal  of  the  primate:  "During 
the  twelve  years  of  his  residence 
here   he   proved   himself  vigil- 
ant, lealous,  and  indefatigable, 
nor  do  we  find,  within  the  mem- 
ory of  those  of  the  present  cen- 
tury, that  any  primate  or  met- 
ropolitan   visited    his    diocese 
and  province  with  such  soUci- 
tude  and  pastoral  Eeal   as  he 
did, — benefitting,  as  far  as  was 
in  his  power,  the  needy;  where* 
fore  he  was  applauded  and  hon- 
oured by  both  clergy  and  peo- 

The  storm    of    persecution 
buret  with    renewed    fury  on 
the  Irish  Church  in  1673;  the    Fnoi tba ori^nai portnit 
schools    were     scattered,    the  '"'  mnfioeniB- 

chapels  were  closed.  Dr.  Plunket,  however,  would 
not  forsake  his  flock.  His  palace  thenceforward  was 
eome  thatched  hut  in  a  remote  part  of  his  diocese. 
As  a  rule,  in  company  with  the  Archbishop  of  Cashel, 
he  lay  concealed  in  the  woods  or  on  the  mounttuns, 
and  with  such  scanty  shelter  that  tlirough  the  roof 
they  could  at  ni^t  count  the  stars  of  the  sky.  He 
tells  their  hardships  in  one  of  his  letters:  "The  snow 
fell  heavily,  mixed  with  hailstones,  which  were  very 
hard  and  large.  A  cuttinn  north  wind  blew  in  our 
faces,  and  the  snow  and  haD  beat  so  dreadfully  in  our 
eyes  that  up  to  the  present  we  have  scarcely  been  able 
to  see  with  them.  Often  we  were  in  danger  in  the 
valleys  of  being  lost  and  suffocated  in  the  snow,  till  at 
length  we  arrived  at  the  house  of  a  reduced  gentleman 
who  had  nothing  to  lose.  But,  for  our  misfortune,  he 
had  a  stranger  in  his  house  by  whom  we  did  not  wish 
to  be  recoiled,  hence  we  were  placed  in  a  garret 
without  chimney,  and  without  fire,  where  we  have 
been  for  the  past  eight  days.  May  it  redound  to  the 
glory  of  God,  the  salvation  of  our  souls,  and  of  the 
flock  entrusted  to  our  charge." 

Writs  for  the  arrest  of  Dr.  Plunket  were  repeatedly 
issuedby  the  Government.  Atlengthhewasseiiedand 
cast  into  prison  in  Dublin  Castle,  6  Dec.,  1679,  and  a 
whole  host  of  perjured  informers  were  at  hand  to 
BweiU'  his  life  away.  In  Ireland  the  character  of  those 
witnesses  was  well  known  and  no  iur^  would  listen 
to  their  perjured  tales,  but  in  London  it  was  not  so, 


0  PLTIHEIT 

and  accordinEly  his  trial  was  transferred  to  London. 
In  fact,  the  Sbaftesbuiv  Conspiracy  against  the  Cath- 
olics in  England  could  not  be  sustained  without  the 
supposition  that  a  rebellion  was  being  onaniied  in 
Ireland.     The  primate  would,  of  course,  be  at  the 
head  of  such  a  rebellion.    His  visite  to  the  Tories  of 
Ulster  were  now  set  forth  aa  part  and  parcel  of  such  a 
rebellion.     A  French  or  Spanish  fleet  was  chartered 
by  him  te  land  an  army  at  Carlingford  Bay,  and  other 
such  accusations  were  laid  to  his  charge.     But  there 
was  no  secret  as  to  the  fact  that  his  being  a  Catholic 
bishop  was  his  real  crime.     Lord  Broi^^am  in  "  Lives 
of  the  Chief  Justices  of  England"  brands  Chief  Jus- 
tice Pemberton,  who  presided  at  the  trial  of  Dr,  Plun- 
ket, as  betraying  the  cause  of  justice  and  brin^nf 
disgrace  on  tiie  English  Bar.    This  Chief  Justice  set 
forth  from  the  bench  that  there  could  be  no  greater 
crime  than  te  endeavour  to  propagate  the  Catholic 
Faith,  "than  which  (he  declared)  there  is  not  any- 
thing more  displeasing  ta  God 
or  more  pernicious  to  mankind 
in  the  world,"  Sentence  of  death 
was  pronounced  as  a  matter  of 
course,  to  which   the  primate 
replied  in  a  joyous  and  emphatic 
voice :"  Deo  Gratias  " . 

On  Friday,  1 1  July  {old  style 
the  1st),  1681,  Dr.  Plunket, 
surrounded  by  a  numerous 
guard  of  military,  was  led  to 
Tyburn  tor  execution.  Vast 
crowds  assembled  along  the 
route  and  at  Tyburn.  As  Dr. 
Brennan,  Archbishop  of  Cashel, 
in  an  official  letter  to  Prop»< 
ganda,  attests,  all  were  edified 
and  filled  with  admiration,  "be- 
cause  he  displayed  such  a  se- 
renity of  countenance,  such  a 
tranquillity  of  mind  and  eleva- 
tion of  soul,  that  he  seemed 
rather  a  spouse  hastening  to  the 
nuptial  feast,  than  a  culprit  led 
forth  te  the  scaffold".  From 
the  scaffold  he  delivered  a  dis- 

_______^    course  worthy  of  an  apostle  and 

On  enyou)  ukm  duiina  martyr.  An  eye-witness  of 
t  in  Nngitd  the  eitecution  declared  that  by 

his  discourse  and  by  his  heroism  in  death  he  gave  more 
glory  to  religion  than  he  could  have  won  for  it  by  many 
years  of  a  fruitful  apoetolate.  His  remans  were  gathered 
with  loving  care  and  interred  apart  in  St.  Giles  churoh- 
yard.  In  tne  first  monthsofltiS*  they  were  transferred 
to  the  Benedictine  monastery  at  L^bspring  in  Ger- 
many, whence  after  200  years  they  were  with  due 
veneration  translated  and  enshrined  in  St.  Gregory's 
College,  Downside,  England.  The  head,  in  excellent 
preservation,  was  from  the  first  enshrined  apart,  and 
since  1722  has  been  in  the  care  of  the  Dominican  Nuns 
at  their  Siena  Convent  at  Drogheda,  Ireland.  Pil- 
grims come  from  all  parts  of  Ireland  and  from  distant 
countries  to  venerat«  this  relic  of  the  glorious  martyr, 
and  many  miracles  are  recorded. 

The  name  of  Archbishop  Plunket  appears  on  the 
list  of  the  2G4  heroic  servants  of  God  who  shed  their 
blood  tor  the  Catholic  Faith  in  England  in  the  six- 
teenth and  seventeenth  ceniuries,  which  was  officially 
submitted  for  approval  to  the  Holy  See,  and  for  which 
the  Decree  was  signed  by  Leo  Xlll  9  Dec.,  1886,  au- 
thoriiing  their  Cause  of  Beatification  to  be  submitted 
to  the  Congregation  of  Rites.  The  Venerable  Oliver 
Piunket's  martyrdom  closed  the  long  series  of  deaths 
tor  the  Faith,  at  Tyburn.  The  very  next  day  after 
his  execution,  the  bubble  of  conspiracy  burst.  Lord 
Shaftesbury,  the  chief  instigator  of  the  persecution. 
was  consigned  to  the  Tower,  and  his  chief  j-~'' — 
witness  'fitusOates  was  thrown  intn  gaol. 


Fori 


PLUSGABDIM 


171 


PLYMOUTH 


yean  the  bleemngs  of  comparative  peace  were  restored 
to  the  Church  in  Ireland. 

Writings. — The  Martyr's  disoouTBe  at  lybom  was 
repeatedly  printed  and  translated  into  other  lan- 
guages. Dr.  Plunket  published  in  1672  a  small 
octavo  of  fifty-six  pages  with  the  title  **  Jus  Prima- 
tiale";  or  the  Ancient  Pre-eminence  of  the  See  of 
Armagh  above  all  other  archbishoprics  in  the  kingdom 
of  Ireiandi  asserted  by  "O.  A.  T.  H.  P.",  which 
initials  represent  "Oliverus  Armacanus  Totius  Hiber- 
nis  Primas  ",  i.  e.  "  Oliver  of  Armagh,  Primate  of  All 
Ireland  ". 

MoB4N.  Memoir  of  th«  Ven,  Oliver  PiunkeU  (Dublin.  1861); 
Idcm.  Life  of  OUter  PlunkeU  (Dublin.  1895) ;  Idsm,  Spicileo,  Of 
eorienee  (3  vols..  Dublin,  1874-86) ;  Idkii,  CanonimUion  of  the 
Ven,  (Hieer  FlunkeU  in  Iriek  Bed,  Record,  XII  (1902).  386-415; 
O'Srba.  Martyrdom  of  Primate  PlunkeU  in  American  Cath.  CNiar- 
ferty.  XXIX  (1904).  377-94:  Hobnk.  Beatification  of  the  Ven, 
Oii9er  Plwikett  in  Downeide  Renew.  21  M*roh.  1908.  pace  16; 
Camm  in  Heroee  of  Faith  CSew  York,  1910);  Doroan.  The  Laet 
Martyr  for  the  Faith  in  Bngland  in  Am  Maria  (18  Feb..  1911), 
193  tqq.;  Tablet  (London.  10  Feb.,  1883); 

Patbick  Francis  Cardinal  Moran. 

Pluioarden  Priory  was  founded  in  1230  by  Alex- 
ander III,  King  of  Scotland,  six  miles  from  Elgin, 
Morayshire,  for  monks  of  tne  Valliscaulian  Order, 
whose  mothe]>house  was  that  of  Val-des-Choux,  Bur- 
gundy. Pluscarden  was  the  first  of  the  three  Scottish 
monasteries  of  the  order  whose  observance  was  a  com- 
bination of  the  Carthusian  and  Cistercian  rule.  In 
1454  Nicholas  V  transferred  the  two  surviving  monks 
of  the  Benedictine  prioiy  of  Urquhart  to  form  one 
community  with  the  six  monks  of  Pluscarden,  the 
latter  assuming  the  Benedictine  rule  and  habit,  rlus- 
carden  thus  became  a  dependency  of  Dunfermline 
Abbey,  whose  sacrist,  William  de  Bovis^  was  appointed 
prior.  Mr.  Macphail,  a  non-Cathohc,  retutes  the 
calumny  that  the  union  was  due  to  the  "very  licen- 
tious "  hves  of  the  Valliscaulian  monks.  The  last  prior, 
'Alexander  Dunbar  died  in  1560,  and  Alexander  Seton, 
later  Eari  of  Dunfermline,  a  secret  Catholic,  became 
eommendator;  in  consequence,  the  monks  were  never 
dispersed.  They  numbered  thirteen  in  1 524 ;  in  1586  one 
sttU  survived.  After  various  vicissitudes  the  property 
was  acquired  by  John,  third  Marquess  of  Bute,  who 
partially  restored  the  buildinn.  The  nave  of  the 
church  was  never  completed.  The  aisleless  choir  (56 
feet  long),  and  the  transepts  (measuring  02  feet),  are 
roofless.  In  the  north  wall  of  the  chancel  is  a ''sacra- 
ment house" — ^the  stone  tabernacle  occasionally  met 
with  in  Scottish  churches.  Stone  steps  connect  the 
transept  with  the  dormitory.  Consecration  crosses 
and  the  remains  of  interesting  frescoes  are  still  visible. 
A  northern  chapel  was  addedf  by  Prior  Dunbar;  with 
this  exception  the  architecture  is  chiefly  Early  English. 
East  of  the  cloister  garth — 100  feet  square — stands 
the  calefactory,  its  vaulted  roof  upheld  by  two  pillars; 
this  long  served  for  a  Presbyterian  kirk.  The  well- 
preserved  chapter-house  has  stone  benches  round  the 
walls,  and  a  central  pillar  supports  the  groining.  The 
dormitoiy  above  was  formerly  used  as  a  tenants'  ball- 
room. The  buildings,  stancung  in  lovely  surround- 
ings, are  full  of  charm.  Some  holly  trees  in  the  garden 
are  probably  relics  of  monastic  days. 

BncB,  OrdinaU  Coneentue  Vallie  Catdium  (London.  1900); 
Macphaiu  Hietory  of  the  Relioiotu  Houee  of  Plueeardyn  (1881); 
SKBira,  The  Book  of  FluecanUn  in  Hietoriane  of  Scotland  Mfiet 
(Edinburgh.  1880). 

Michael  Barrett. 

Pljmouth,  Diocese  or  (Pltmuthensis,  Plt- 
muthjb),  conosts  of  the  County  of  Dorset,  which 
formed  a  portion  of  the  old  patiiolic  Diocese  of  Salis- 
bury, whose  last  ruler,  Cardinal  Peto,  died  in  March. 
1558;  also  of  the  Counties  of  Devon  and  Cornwall 
with  the  Scilly  Isles,  which  formed  the  ancient  Dio- 
cese of  Exeter,  whose  last  Catholic  bishop,  James 
Turfoerville,  died  on  1  November,  1570.  Since  the  Ref- 
ormation these  counties  have,  with  more  or  less  of 
the  rest  of  England,  been  governed  by  three  arch- 


priests  and  fourteen  vicars  Apostolic,  the  last  of 
whom,  called  Vicar  Apostolic  of  the  Western  District 
(1848),  was  William  Hendren,  Bishop  of  Uranopolis. 
In  the  Brief  ''Universalis  Ecclesis"  (20  September, 
1850),  Pius  IX  separated  the  three  counties  Irom  the 
Western  District  and  formed  them  into  the  new  Dio- 
cese of  Plymouth:  the  rest  of  the  district  to  be  the  new 
Diocese  of  Clifton,  to  which  Bishop  Hendren  was 
forthwith  translate!!,  and  the  Diocese  of  Plymouth 
was  placed  under  his  temporary  administration. 

Reverend  George  Errington  (1804-86)  of  St.  John's 
Church,  Salford,  was  appointed  by  the  Holy  See  first 
Bishop  of  Plymouth,  and  on  25  July,  1851,  conse- 
crated there,  together  with  the  first  Bishop  of  Salford. 
by  Cardinal  Wiseman.  On  7  August  he  was  installed 
at  St.  Mary's  church,  East  Stonehouse,  Devon,  which 
mission  included  its  neighbour^  Plymouth,  wherein  no 
Catholic  place  of  woruiip  existed.  In  this  UUima 
thitU  and  poor  district  he  lound  17  secular  and^  regu- 
lar priests,  and  23  missions  including  three  institutes 
of  nuns.  No  railways  had  reached  the  diocese  except 
the  Great  Western  to  Plymouth,  and  a  short  mining 
railway  established  between  Truro  and  Pensance  at 
the  extreme  of  Cornwall.  A  goodly  number  of  the 
clergy  did  not  belong  to  the  diocese  but  were  tempo- 
rariKr  accepted.  On  26  November,  1853^  the  bishop 
established  his  cathedral  chapter,  consisting  of  a  pro- 
vost and,  by  permission  from  Rome  under  the  above 
difficulties,  seven  instead  of  ten  canons  for  the  time. 
In  February,  1854,  he  held  a^nod  at  Ugbrooke  Park, 
the  seat  of  Lord  Clifford  of  Chudleigh,  and,  amongst 
his  synodal  acts,  established  a  clerical  conference 
with  Its  dean  for  each  county.  By  30  March,  1855^  he 
had  traversed  the  whole  diocese  for  purpose  of  visita- 
tion and  conferring  confirmation,  when  bulls  from 
Rome  of  that  date  appointed  him  Archbishop  of  Tre- 
bisond  and  Coadjutor  cum  jure  auccestionia  to  Cardi- 
nal Wiseman  of  Westminster.  William  Vaughan 
(1814-1902),  Canon  of  the  Clifton  Diocese,  was  nomi- 
nated second  Bishop  of  Plymouth,  and  on  16  Septem- 
ber, 1855,  consecrated  by  Cardinal  Wiseman  in  Clif- 
ton pro-cathedral.  Encouraged  by  generous  offers  of 
assistance  from  Edmund  Polifex  Bastard  of  Kitley, 
Yealmpton,  Devon,  and  from  Miss  Letitia  Trelawny 
of  Cornwall,  Bishop  Vaughan  on  28  June,  1856,  laid  the 
foundation  stone  of  the  Cathedral  of  Our  Immaculate 
Lady  and  St.  Boniface,  Apostle  of  Germany  (b.  at 
Crediton.  Devon),  solemnly  opened  it  on  25  March, 
1858,  and  on  22  September,  1880,  in  the  twenty-fifth 
year  of  his  episcopate,  he  consecrated  the  Cathedral. 
He  attended  the  Vatican  Council  throughout,  in  1869- 
70.  Between  10-12  March,  1888,  the  diocese,  by  a 
triduum  of  prayer,  celebrated  the  bishop's  Golden 
Jubilee  of  fifty  years'  priesthood.  By  the  end  of  1891 
the  Diocese  of  Plymouth,  through  me  bishop's  ener- 
getic supervision,  Decame  well  established.  It  had  49 
secular  and  48  rq^ular  clergy,  52  public  churches,  and 
15  chapels  of  communities,  as  well  as  ten  orders  of 
men  and  sixteen  of  nuns.  Early  in  1891  Bishop 
Vaughan  requested  from  Rome  a  coadjutor-bishop. 
Leo  AlII  elected,  from  the  Plymouth  Chapter's  temoy 
Charles  Graham  (1834),  canon  of  Plvmouth,  on  25 
September,  1891.  On  28  October  foUowing  he  was 
consecrated  titular  Bishop  of  Cisamos,  with  ri^t  of 
succession,  by  Bishop  Clifford  of  Clifton,  in  the  Plym- 
outh cathewtl.  Bishop  Vaughan  retired  to  St. 
Augustine's  Priory,  Newton  AbDK)t,  Devon,  where,  on 
24  October,  1902,  ne  died  in  his  eightv-ninth  year,  and 
was  buried  in  the  priory  cemetery.  In  October,  1902, 
Dr.  Graham  became  third  Bishopof  Plymouth.  Be- 
tween  19  and  21  December.  1907,  the  diocese  cele- 
brated with  a  triduum  the  nf  tieth  anniversary  of  his 
priesthood:  on  this  occasion  he  added  a  fresh  member 
to  the  cathedral  chapter.  After  a  sevwe  illness  in 
1910,  Bishop  Graham  tendered  his  resignation  of  the 
see,  which  was  accepted  9  Feb.,  1911. 

The  recent  expulsion  of  religious  from  France  has. 


PLTMOUTH 


172 


PLTMOUTH 


during  1910,  ridsed  the  number  of  communities  of 
nuns  m  this  diocese  to  twenty-nine.  The  Catholic 
population  is  about  one  in  a  hundred,  that  is,  12,000, 
most  of  whom,  being  employed  in  the  Government 
Army  and  Navy  establishments^  reside  in  Plymouth, 
Stonehouse,  and  Devonport.  It  is  worthy  of  note  that 
Bishop  John  Carroll  of  Baltimore,  founder  of  the 
Hierarchy  of  the  Church  in  the  United  States  of 
America,  was  on  15  August,  1790,  consecrated  in  Lul- 
worth  Church,  Dorset,  oy  Bishop  Walmesley,  Vicar 
Apostolic  of  the  Western  District.  The  Faith  never 
failed  during  the  Reformation  at  Lanheme.  Cornwall, 
and  at  Chideock,  Dorset,  through  the  fidelity  of  the 
Lords  Arundell.  Blessed  Cuthbert  Mayne  (q.  v.),  the 
protomartyr  of  pontifical  seminarists,  was  a  native  of 
Devon. 

OuvBR,  CoUeetiont  (1857):  Brothkr  Folst,  Records  of  the 
Bnglish  Province  S.  J.  (London,  1877-83) ;  Challoner,  Memoire 
of  Miuionary  Priests;  Bradt,  English  Hierarchy  (London, 
1877).     • 

C.  M.  Graham. 

Plymouth  Brethren,  the  name  given  to  a  wide- 
spread Protestant  sect  originally  called  by  its  own 
members  "The  Brethren",  which  came  into  being  by 
gradual  development  in  the  early  part  of  the  nine- 
teenth century.  The  members  themselves  protest 
against  the  name: — "Who  are  these  *  Plymouth 
Brethren'?  I  do  not  own  the  name.  I  am  a  brother 
of  every  believer  in  the  Lord  Jesus,  and,  if  I  lived  in 
Plymouth,  the  Elder  might  call  me  a  *  Plymouth 
Brother';  but  I  do  not  live  there,  hence  I  do  not  own 
the  name"  (Davis,  "Help  for  Enquirers",  p.  20). 
Several  influences  concurred  towards  the  ri^  of  the 
bodv,  and  it  is  not  possible  to  point  to  any  one  name 
as  that  of  the  founder.  Its  first  origin  seem  to  have 
been  in  Dublin  where,  in  1828,  an  Englishman, 
Anthony  Norris  Groves,  then  a  student  of  Trinity 
College,  was  a  member  of  a  small  body  of  churchmen 
who  met  for  prayer  and  conference  on  the  Scriptures 
and  spiritual  subjects.  The  members  were  profoundly 
impressed  by  the  necessity  of  a  visible  union  of  Chris- 
tendom, the  centre  of  which  they  conceived  to  be  the 
death  of  Christ  as  set  forth  in  the  Rite  of  the  Lord's 
Supper.  At  first  the  members  did  not  withdraw  from 
their  respective  communions,  but  the  first  step  in  that 
direction  was  suggested  by  Groves,  who  advanced  the 
view  "that  believers  meeting  together  as  disciples  of 
Christ  were  free  to  break  bread  together,  as  their  Lord 
had  admonished  them ;  and  that,  in  so  far  as  the  apos- 
tles served  as  a  guide,  every  Lord's  Day  should  be  set 
apart  for  thus  remembering  the  Lord's  death  and 
obeying  His  parting  command. "  This  view,  that  the 
ministration  of  the  sacraments  and  the  preaching  of 
the  Gospel  was  the  common  right  of  alt  Christians, 
became  the  distinguishing  feature  of  the  assemblies  of 
The  Brethren  which  now  began  to  spring  up  in  other 
places  besides  Dublin.  An  important  development 
was  soon  brought  about  by  one  of  the  leaders  of  the 
Dublin  Assembly,  John  Nelson  Darby,  an  ex-barrister 
who  had  taken  orders  in  the  Episcopalian  Church  of 
Ireland  and  then  seceded  therefrom.  Having  always 
advocated  entire  separation  from  all  bther  communi- 
ties as  the  only  effective  way  of  procuring  true  unity, 
he  at  length  succeeded  in  attainmg  this  purpose^  ana 
is  accordingly  by  some  considered  as  the  founder  of 
the  Plymouth  Brethren,  a  distinction  which  others 
claim  for  Groves. 

The  growth  of  the  Brethren  had  been  largely  helped 
by  the  spread  of  Darby's  first  pamphlet,  "The  Nature 
and  Unity  of  the  Church  of  Christ"^. which  he  had 
published  in  1828,  and  in  1830  a  public  assembly  was 
opened  in  Aungier  St.,  Dublin.  Darby  then  started 
on  a  tour  with  the  view  of  propagating  his  ideas, 
visiting  Paris,  Oxford,  and  Cambridge.  At  Oxford  he 
met  Benjamin  Wills  Newton,  an  English  clergyman, 
who  first  invited  him  to  Plymouth,  where  Newton  was 
the  chief  member  of  an  assembly  of  Brethren  which 


was  very  active  in  the  neighbourhood.  From  this 
assembly  came  the  name  "  Brethren  from  Plymouth" 
or  more  shortly  "Plymouth  Brethren",  by  which  the 
body  was  subsequently  known.  From  1830  to  1838 
the  movement  spread  rapidly,  and  assemblies  were 
opened  in  most  of  the  large  towns  in  England.  In 
1838  Darby  went  to  Switzerland,  where  he  spent 
seven  years  in  propagating  the  views  of  the  sect  with 
considerable  success.  At  the  present  day  the  canton 
of  Vaud  is  the  stronghold  of  the  "Brethren"  on  the 
continent,  and  scattered  assemblies  are  also  found  in 
France,  Germany,  and  Italy.  In  1845  the  revolution 
in  Vaud  caused  Darby  to  return  to  England,  but  he 
proved  a  very  disturbing  element,  and  from  his  reap- 
pearance must  be  dated  the  unending  quarrels  and 
dissensions  which  have  ever  since  been  a  marked 
feature  of  Plymouth  Brethrenism.  In  1845  having 
quarrelled  with  Newton  on  the  interpretation  of  cer- 
tain prophecies,  he  accused  him  of  denying  the  au- 
thority of  the  Holy  Ghost  by  assuming  even  a  limited 
presidency  over  tne  assembly.  This  resulted  in  the 
secessioii  of  Darby  with  a  hundred  followers.  In  1848 
there  was  another  cleavage — into  Neutrals  and  Ex- 
clusives.  The  Neutral  Brethren,  also  known  as  Open 
Brethren,  supported  the  action  of  the  Bethesda  con- 
gregation at  Bristol  which  received  Newton's  followers 
into  communion.  The  Exclusive  Brethren  or  Darby- 
ites,  who  included  the  majority  of  the  members,,  held 
aloof.  These  have  undergone  further  divisions  since 
then,  so  that  at  the  present  time  there  are  several  dif- 
ferent bodies  of  Pljrmouth  Brethren.  As  these  bodies 
differ  amon^  themselves  on  doctrinal  as  well  as  on  dis- 
ciplinary pomts,  it  is  only  possible  hereto  outline  their 
teaching  in  a  very  broad  way,  passing  over  the  points 
of  difference  between  the  warring  sections. 

Doctrine. — The  underlying  principle  of  the  teach- 
ing of  the  Plymouth  Brethren,  and  one  which  explains 
their  action  in  endeavouring  to  attract  to  themselves' 
"the  saints  in  the  different  systems  and  to  teach  them 
to  own  and  act  upon  the  true  principles  of  the  assem- 
bly of  God"  (Mackintosh,  "Assembly  of  God",  p.  24), 
is  that  the  Church  described  in  the  New  Testament 
has  fallen  into  utter  corruption,  so  that  it  is  con- 
demned by  God  to  extinction.  This  corruption  was 
due  to  the  Church  admitting  good  and  evil  alike 
within  her  pale,  and  admitting  an  ordained  ministry 
to  exist.  Tney  hold  that  the  Church  was  intended  to 
contain  the  righteous  only,  and  that  all  official  minis- 
try is  a  denial  of  the  spiritual  priesthood  which  belongs 
to  all  believers  and  a  rejection  of  the  guidance  of  the 
Holy  Ghost.  From  this  it  follows  that  entire  separa- 
tion from  all  other  Christian  churches  and  denomina- 
tions is  necessary  as  a  first  condition  of  salvation. 
But  some  principle  is  needed  to  unite  those  who  have 
thus  separated  themselves  from  other  believers.  This 
principle  is  union  with  Christ  effected  by  the  power  of 
the  Holy  Ghost.  The  Holy  Ghost  is  said  to  preside  in 
the  assembly  and  to  select  from  those  present,  who 
all  have  an  equal  right  to  minister,  the  person  or  per- 
sons who  are  to  be  His  mouthpiece.  Ihe  will  of  the 
Holy  Ghost  is  recognized  by  the  existence  of  His  gjfts, 
that  is  the  power  to  exhort  or  to  comfort  or  to  teach. 
Whoever  possesses  these  gifts  is  bound  to  use  them  for 
the  common  good,  but  the  assembly  selects  from  the 
gifted  persons  the  particular  one  who  is  to  be  the  rhin- 
ister  for  the  time  being.  Such  an  election  is  considered 
as  inspired  by  God.  It  is  employed  to  ascertain  both 
who  is  to  lead  the  worship  and  who  is  to  preach,  but 
women  are  debaired  from  ministering  in  either  way. 
The  chief  act  of  worship  is  the  Lord's  Supper,  which 
is  given  precedence  over  all  prayer  and  preaching: 
"  Beware  of  thinking  anything  can  oe  of  equal  moment 
with  duly  showing  forth  the  Lord's  death.  The  Sup- 
per of  the  Lord  claims  an  unequivocal  prominence  m 
the  worship  of  the  Saints."  (Kelly,  op.  cit.  inf.,  lec- 
ture iii)  The  weekly  celebration  of  the  Lord's  Supper 
is  incumbent  on  all,  and  no  member  is  flowed  to 


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173 


PLYMOIJTB 


neglect  this  and  remain  in  the  society.  Evil  living  or 
erroneous  doctrine  ore  also  visited,  first  by  remon- 
strance, then  by  judicial  condemnation  and  expulsion. 
Infant  baptism  is  an  open  question  among  them,  but 
the  majority  of  assemblies  practise  the  baptism  of 
believers  by  immersion  without  regard  to  previous 
baptism.  They  reject  confirmation  altogether. 
Though  they  disown  an  ordained  ministry,  yet  they 
admit  a  distinction  between  those  teachers  whose 
ministry  is  to  the  church  and  those  whose  ministry  is 
to  outsiders.  The  latter  are  regarded  by  them  as 
evangelists  given  to  the  world  by  Christ  and  qualified 
by  the  Holy  Ghost.  They  may  devote  their  lives  to 
preaching  the  Gospel,  and  must  not  request,  though 
they  may  accept,  contributions.  Their  theology  is 
Calvinistic,  laying  great  stress  on  original  sin  and  pre- 
destination, and  with  regard  to  morals  exhibiting 
marked  Antinomian  tendencies. 

In  their  doctrine  of  justification  they  attach  great 
importance  to  establishing  a  close  connexion  between 
that  gift  of  God  and  tne  resurrection  of  Christ. 
Darby  in  his  treatise,  "The  Resurrection  as  the  Fim- 
damental  Truth  of  the  Gosper*,  writes:  "The  saints 
are  regarded  by  God,  as  risen  in  Christ,  and  conse- 
quently as  perfectly  justified  from  all  their  sins:  but 
how  does  the  Saint  actually  now  participate  in  bless- 
ings so  great?  It  is  by  partaking  of  that  life  in  the 
power  of  "which  Christ  has  risen."  And  a  little  later, 
"I  share  in  the  righteousness  of  God  b^  being  quick- 
ened with  that  life  in  the  power  of  which  Christ  was 
raised  from  the  dead  coming  up  out  of  the  grave,  all 
our  trespasses  being  forgiven.''  It  has  been  stated 
that  the  general  doctrine  of  the  brethren  on  justifica- 
tion was  influence  by  the  teaching  of  Newman  (Brit- 
ish Quarterly  Review,  Oct.,  1873),  but  the  resemblance 
is  merely  superficial  and  the  differences  are  fundamen- 
tal. The  Brethren  claim  that  once  the  gift  of  justifi- 
cation is  received  it  can  never  be  lost,  and  they  carry 
this  view  to  such  lengths  that  some  of  their  writers 
hold  that  a  Christian  ought  not  to  pray  for  the  for- 

?;ivene6s  of  sins,  as  to  do  so  would  imply  doubt  of  the 
ullness  of  mercy  already  received.  They  also  consider 
Justification  as  entirely  independent  from  Baptism, 
which  is  regarded  as  an  ordinance  of  Christ  binding 
on  believers  but  destitute  of  spiritual  efficacy  in  itself. 
The  majority  of  Plymouth  Brethren  hold  millena- 
rian  views  respecting  the  Second  Advent  of  Christ. 
From  the  beginning  they  attached  great  importance 
to  the  study  of  prophecy,  and,  though  they  are  strong 
believers  in  the  literal  and  verbal  inspiration  of  Scrip- 
ture, they  have  always  made  a  point  of  mystical  inter- 
pretation. The  result  has  been  that  they  have  arrived 
at  several  strange  conclusions,  peculiar  to  their  own 
party.  Thus  they  distinguish  two  advents  of  Christ 
yet  to  come,  the  rapowla^  when  He  will  receive  the 
Church,  and  the  irtipdveta^  when  He  will  finally  come 
to  take  possession  of  the  earth  in  glory.  The  former 
may  be  expected  at  any  time  and  ma^  even  be  secret, 
but  the  latter  will  be  heralded  by  signs.  When  the 
former  occurs  all  true  beUevers,  living  and  dead,  will 
be  carried  to  heaven,  an  event  described  as  the 
"Rapture",  and  then  the  judgments  of  God  as  fore- 
told m  the  Apocalypse  will  fall  upon  the  earth.  The 
Roman  Empire  (identified  with  the  Beast)  is  to  be 
revived  as  a  special  agency  of  Satan,  and  its  head  will 
ultinmtely  claim  4ivine  honours  and  be  received  by 
the  Jews,  then  restored  to  Palestine,  as  their  Messias. 
A  faithful  remnant: of  the  chosen  people  alone  will 
remain  in  the  world  as  a  witness  to  God,  but  this 
remnant  looks  forward  only  to  earthly  glory  under 
Christ  when  He  shall  come  to  take  possession  of  the 
earth.  When  this  happens  Christ's  empire  on  earth 
will  be  established  visioly  with  Jerusalem  as  its  capital. 
'Ilie  saints  of  the  Rapture  will  reign  above  the  earth, 
the  Jewish  remnant  will  rule  on  the  earth  and  will 
enjoy  great  power  and  material  prosperity.  At  the 
end  of  the  millennium  there  will  be  a  great  rebellion 


against  Christ,  headed  by  Satan,  and  then  will  come 
the  final  judgment  as  described  in  the  Apocalypse, 
though  it  follows  that  this  will  be  of  a  different  nature 
from  that  which  the  Catholic  Church  teaches  us  to 
expect.  For  the  saints  will  not  be  judged  at  all,  their 
resurrection  having  taken  place  more  than  a  thousand 
years  before  that  of  the  wicked.  When  the  wicked 
have  been  sent  to  their,  doom,  the  new  Jerusalem  • 
including  the  saints  of  the  Old  Testament,  the  saints 
of  the  lUipture,  and  the  martyrs  of  the  Jewish  Rem- 
nant, will  descend  out  of  heaven  from  God,  and  from 
that  time  forth  the  tabernacle  of  God  shall  be  with 
men.  This  fantastic  interpretation  involves  a  break 
with  all  Christian  tradition  and  necessitates  a  novel 
exegesis  of  much  of  the  Scriptures,  especially  the 
Apocalypse  and  Isaias. 

One  feature  of  Plymouth  Brethrenism  which  calls 
for  remark  is  the  special  aversion  in  which  it  is  held  by 
other  Protestant  sects.  This  is  doubtless  due  primarily 
to  its  methods  of  proselytism,  which  are  peculiar.  An 
An^Ucan  writer  (Dictionai^yof  Religion,  cit.  inf.)  com- 
plains that  "  the  body  has  in  the  main  always  directed 
its  propagandist  efforts  far  less  towards  the  large  re* 
siduum  which  unhappily  lies  outside  of  all  churches 
than  to  those .  professing  Christianity  in  Churches 
already  existing.  Some  of  them  have  gone  so  far  as 
to  openly  avow  that  their  mission  is  '  to  the  awakened 
in  the  Churches'  and  such  efforts  as  they  do  make  in 
mission  work  or  city  evangelization  are  as  a  rule  sin- 
gularly unsuccessful.  It  is  this  which  has  brought 
upon  them  the  common  reproach  of  being  'sheep- 
stealers  rather  than  shepherds.' "  In  their  proselytism 
they  have  made  large  use  of  the  Press.  In '1834  the 
Brethren  established  a  quarterly  periodical  called 
"The  Christian  Witness",  carried  on  after  1849  as 
the  "The  Present  Testimony".  This  is  now  supple- 
mented by  several  other  periodicals  and  a  large  num- 
ber of  pamphlets  and  tracts  which  are  offered  for  sale 
at  the  depots  they  have  established  in  most  large 
towns.  Their  chief  writers,  besides  Darby  himseu, 
whose  collected  works  fill  thirty-two  volumes,  are  C. 
H.  Mclnto^  and  William  Kelly  who  have  written  a 
large  number  of  commentaries  on  various  parts  of  the 
Bible,  and  Charles  Stanley  who  wrote  on  Justification 
in  the  Risen  Christ,  the  Sabbath  question  and  similar 
topics.  One  scripture  scholar  of  distinction,  Dr. 
Samuel  Prideaux  Tregelles,  severed  his  connexion 
with  them  before  his  death.  But  their  theological 
literature  has  not  produced  any  work  of  value,  and, 
though  voluminous,  has  already  passed  into  oblivion. 
It  is  chiefly  remarkable  for  the  virulence  of  the  inter- 
necine controversies  which  they  have  carried  on  inces- 
santly, for  in  separating  themselves  from  other  bodies 
the  Plymouth  Brethren  have  si^ally  failed  to  find 
union  m  their  midst,  and  the  bitter  quarrels  which 
have  marked  the  eighty  years  of  their  existence  have 
become  a  distinctive  feature  of  the  sect.  This  their 
own  writers  have  admitted,  and  it  was  one  of  Darby's 
followers,  W.  H.  Dorman,  who  on  separating  from  him 
wrote:  "No  religious  movement,  perhaps,  ever  so 
thoroughly  succeeded  in  defeating  its  own  ends;  in- 
stead of  union  it  has  produced  the  most  hopeless  and 
heartless  contentions  and  divisions  that  perhaps  ever 
passed  cuhrent  under  the  specious  pretence  of  zeal  for 
Christ  and  care  for  the  truth."  It  is  difficult  to  ascer- 
^n  particulars  as  to  the  present' condition  of  the  body 
as  they  do'  not  publish  anything  in  the  nature  of  a  yea^'^ ., 
book  and  refrain  from  collecting  or  furnishing  returns.  ^   ^ 

MiLLKR,  The  Brethren:  their  origin,  proffreea  and  tettimonu. 
(London,  1879) ;  Teulon,  History  and  Doctrines  of  the  Plymoum 
Brethren  (London.  1883);  Reid.  PlynunUh  Brethrenism  unveiUi 
and  refuted  (Edinburgh,  1875) ;  Dabbt,  Collected  works  (32  vols.. 
Ixmdon,  1867-83);  Kellt,  Lectures  on  Fundamental  Truths  eon- 
nected  with  the  Church  of  God  (London,  1869) ;  Groves.  Memoir  of 
Anthony  Norris  Groves;  Anom,  Plymouth  Brethrenism,  reprinted 
from  British  Quarterly  Review  of  Oct.,  1873  (London,  1874); 
RooBRB.. CAurcA  Systems  of  the  Nineteenth  Century  (London,  1881); 
Benham,  Diet,  of  Religion  (Ixindon,  1887);  Nbatbt.  HiMt.  oftht 
Plymouth  Brethren  (London.  1902).  EdWIN   BuRTON. 


PNBUMATQMAGfiX 


174 


FOBTBT 


Pntmnatcyinachi  (Macedonians),  a  heretical 
sect  which  flourished  in  the  countries  adjacent  to  the 
Hellespont  during  the  latter  half  of  the  fourth,  and  the 
beginmng  of  the  fifth  century.  They  denied  the 
divinity  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  hence  the  name  Pneu- 
matomachi  (vptvftarefidxoi)  or  Combators  against  the 
Spirit*  Macedonius,  their  founder,  was  intruded 
•  into  the  See  of  Constantinople  by  the  Arians  (342 
A.  D.)i  And  enthroned  by  Constantius,  who  had  for 
tiie  second  time  expelled  Paul,  the  Catholic  bishop. 
He  is  known  in  history  for  his  persecution  of  Novatians 
and  CaUiolics:  as  both  maintained  the  consubstan- 
tiality  of  the  oon  with  the  Father.  He  not  only  ex- 
pelled those  who  refused  to  hold  communion  with 
nim,  but  imprisoned  some  and  brought  others  before 
the  tribimak.  In  many  cases  he  used  torture  to 
compel  the  unwilling  to  communicate,  forced  bap- 
tism on  unbaptixed  women  and  children  and  de- 
stroyed many  churches.  At  last  his  cruelty  provoked 
a  rebellion  of  the  Novatians  at  Mantinium,  in 
Paphlagonia,  in  which  four  imperial  cohorts  were  de- 
feated and  nearly  all  slain.  His  disinterment  of  the 
bodv  of  Constantine  was  looked  upon  as  an  indignity 
to  the  Protector  of  the  Council  of  Nicsea,  and  led  to  a 
conflict  between  Arians  and  anti-Arians,  which  filled 
the  church  and  neighbourhood  with  carnage.  As  the 
disintennent  had  tsJcen  place  without  the  emperor's 
sanction,  Macedonius  fell  into  disgrace,  ana  Con- 
stantius caused  him  to  be  deposed  by  the  Acacian 
part^  and  succeeded  by  Eudoxius  in  360.  This  de- 
position, however,  was  not  for  doctrinal  reasons,  but 
on  the  ground  that  he  had  caused  much  bloodshed 
and  had  admitted  to  comm\mion  a  deacon  guilty  of 
fornication.  Macedonius  continued  for  some  time  to 
live  near  Constantinople  and  cause  trouble.  He  died 
about  364.  It  is  thought  that  during  these  last  years 
he  formulated  his  rejection  of  the  Divmity  of  the  Holv 
Ghost  and  founded  his  sect.  His  intimacy  with 
Eleusius  of  Cysicus  makes  this  probable.  Some 
scholars,  however,  reject  the  identification  of  Mace- 
donians and  Pneumatomachians,  apparently  on  in- 
sufficient grounds  and  against  the  authority  of 
Socrates,  a  contemporaiy  nistorian  living  at  Con- 
stantinople. The  Council  of  Nicsa  had  used  all  its 
energies  in  defending  the  Homoousion  of  the  Son  and 
with  regard  to  the  Spirit  had  already  added  the  words: 
"We  believe  in  the  Holjr  Ghost"  without  any  quali- 
fication. The  Macedonians  took  advantage  oi  the 
vagueness  and  hesitancy  of  expression  in  some  of  the 
early  Fathers  to  justify  and  propagate  their  error. 
The  majority  of  this  sect  were  clearly  orthodox  on 
the  Consubstantiality  of  the  Son;  they  had  sent  a 
deputation  from  the  Semi-Arian  council  of  Lampacus 
(364  A.  D.)  to  Pope  Liberius.  who  after  some  hesita- 
tion acknowledged  the  soundness  of  their  faith;  but 
witib  regard  to  the  Third  Person,  both  pope  and 
bishops  were  satisfied  with  the  phrase:  "We  oelieve 
in  the  Holy  Ghost."  While  hidmg  in  the  desert  dur- 
ing his  third  exile,  Athanasius  learned  from  his  friend 
S^pion  of  Thumis  of  a  sect  acknowledging  Nicsea. 
and  yet  declaring  the  Holy  Ghost  a  mere  creature  ana 
a  ministering  angel  (on  the  stren^h  of  Heb.,  i,  14). 
Athanasius  wrote  at  once  to  Serapion  in  defence  of  the 
true  Doctrine,  and  on  his  return  from  exile  (362  a.  d.) 
held  a  council  at  Alexandria  which  resulted  in  the 
first  formal  condemnation  of  the  Pneimoatomachl.  A 
^yxiodal  letter  was  sent  to  the  people  of  Antioch  ad- 
vising them  to  require  of  all  converts  from  Arianism 
a  condemnation  against  "those  who  say  that  the 
Holy  Spirit  is  a  creature  and  separate  from  the  essence 
of  Chnst.  For  those  who  wnile  pretendinic  to  cite 
the  faith  confessed  at  Nicsa,  venture  to  blaspheme 
the  Holy  Spirit,  deny  Arianism  in  words  only,  while 
in  thou^t  they  return  to  it.''  Nevertheless,  during 
the  following  decade  the  heresy  seems  to  have  gone 
on  almost  unchecked  except  in  the  Patriarehate  of 
Antioch  where  at  a  synod  neld  in  363  Meletius  nad 


proclaimed  the  orthodox  faith.  In  the  East  the  mov- 
mg  spirit  for  the  repression  of  the  error  was  Amphi- 
lochius  of  Iconium,  who  in  374  besought  St.  Basfl  of 
CflBsarea  to  write  a  treatise  on  the  true  doctrine  con- 
cerning the  Holy  Ghost.  This  he  did,  and  his  treatise 
is  the  classical  work  on  the  subject  (ircpl  roO  dyiov  n. 
M.  32).  It  is  possible  that  he  influenced  his  brother 
Gregory  of  Nyssa  to  write  his  treatise  against  the 
Macedonians,  of  which  only  a  part  has  come  down 
to  us  and  which  appean  to  be  based  on  the  words: 
"Lord  and  life-giver  who  proceeds  from  the  Father". 
These  words,  apparently  taken  from  the  Creed  of 
Jerusalem,  had  oeen  used  by  St.  Epiphanius  of 
Salamis  in  his  '^Ancoratus"  when  combating  this 
error  (374  a.  d.)-  Amphilochius  of  Iconium,  as 
Metropolitan  of  Lycaonia,  wrote  in  concurrence 
with  his  bishops  a  synodal  letter  to  the  bishops  of 
Lycia,  which  contains  an  excellent  statement  of  the 
true  doctrine  (377  a.  d.)-  In  Constantinople  (379) 
Gregory  of  Nazianzus  pronounced  his  brilliant  theo- 
logdcal  oration  on  this  subject.  The  West  likewise 
upheld  the  truth  in  a  synod  held  in  I]l3rria  and  men- 
tioned by  Theodoret  (H.  E.,  IV,  8)  and  by  POpe 
Damasus  in  his  letter  to  Paulinus  of  Antioch.  The 
heresjr  was  condemned  in  the  First  Coimcil  of  Con- 
stantmople,  and  internal  divisions  soon  led  to  its 
extinction.  Socrates  (H.  E.,  V,  24)  states  that  a  cer- 
tain Macedonian  presbyter,  Eutropius,  held  con- 
venticles of  his  own  while  others  followed  Bishop 
Carterius.  Eustathius  of  Sebaste,  Sabinus,  and  Eleu- 
sius of  Cyricus  seem  to  have  been  leaders  whom  the 
sect  repudiated  (for  Eustathius,  see  Basil,  Ep., 
CCLXIII,  3).  In  June  383  Theodosius  tried  by 
means  of  a  conference  to  bring  the  Arian  factions  to 
submission.  Eleusius  handed  in  his  symbol  of  faith 
as  representing  the  Macedonians,  as  he  had  repre- 
sented them  with  Marcianus  of  Lampsacus  at  the 
Council  of  Constantinople.  After  Uiis  fruitless  at- 
tempt at  reconciliation  the  Maoedonians  with  other 
heretics  incurred  all  the  severities  of  the  Theodoeian 
code  and  within  a  generation  disappeared  from  his- 
tory. Socrates  and  Sosomus  mention  a  certain 
Marathonius,  made  Bishop  of  Nicomedia  by  Mace- 
donius, who  obtained  such  a  leading  position  in  the 
sect  that  they  were  often  styled  ^ter  him  Mara- 
thonians.  Through  St.  Jerome,  St.  Augustine,  St. 
Damasus,  and  Rufinus,  the  name  Macedonians  be- 
came the  customary  designation  in  the  West.  No 
writings  of  Macedonius  are  extant,  but  Pneumato- 
machian  writings  are  mentioned  by  Didymus  the 
Blind,  who  wrote  an  excellent  treatise  on  the  Holy 
Ghost  in  thirty-six  chapters  (translated  into  Latin  by 
St.  Jerome  at  the  command  of  Pope  Damasus),  and 
who  refers  in  his  later  work  (379)  on  the  Trinity  (II, 
7,  8,  10)  to  some  "Brief  Expositions"  of  Macedonian 
doctrines  which  he  possessed. 

LooFS,  Su9tathiu$  ton  StbatU  (Halle.  1898):  ScBBRiiAinr. 
OoUheU  d,  H.  GeUt,  n.  d,  oHeeh.  VdUm  d,  IV  Jakrh.  (Leipsic. 
1901):  FuLLEB  in  Diet,  Ckrt$l.  Biogr.,  ■.  y.;  HBsaBxxoBTim, 
Hutoire  de  VBglit,  II  (Pwis,  1901).  99. 

J.  P.  Arbndobn. 

Podlaohia.    See  Lublin,  Diocese  of. 

Poetrj,  Hebrew,  of  the  Old  Testament. — Since 
the  Bible  is  divinely  inspired,  and  thus  becomes  the 
"written  word  "  of  God,  many  devout  soub  are  averse' 
from  handling  it  as  literature.  But  such  a  view  tends 
to  lose  mght  of  the  second  causes  and  human  constit- 
uents without  which,  in  fact.  Holy  Scripture  has  not 
been  given  to  us.  The  Bible,  as  a  concrete  whole,  is 
somethinff  definite  in  make,  origin,  time,  and  circum- 
stiudoes,  ful  of  which  must  be  ta^ken  into  account  if  ^ 
desire  to  reach  its  true  meaning.  It  is  history  and  it  is 
literature;  it  lies  open  consequently  to  investi^tion 
under  these  li^^ts,  and  if  they  are  n^lected  miscon- 
ceptions will  follow.  The  fact  that  spiritual  or  super- 
natural influences  have  moulded  phenomena  does  not 
withdraw  from  scientific  inquiries  anything  which  is 


POXTBY 


175 


POXTBT 


properly  amenable  to  them.  ''God  speaks  to  man- 
kind", said  medieval  Jewish  commentators,  ''in  the 
language  of  the  children  of  men/'  This  observation, 
wh3e  it  justifies  verbal  criticism,  points  out  the  way  to 
it.  Literature  demands  a  special  study;  and  Hebrew 
literature,  because  it  is  sacred,  all  the  more,  inasmuch 
as  the  outcome  of  misunderstandings  in  regard  to  it 
has  ever  been  disaster.  No  one  can  read  attentivelv 
the  poorest  version  of  the  Old  Testament  without  feel- 
ing now  strong  a  vein  of  poetry  runs  through  its  pages. 
We  need  not  venture  on  a  definition  of  what  poetry 
means ;  it  is  a  peculiar  form  of  imagination  and  expres- 
sion which  bears  witness  to  itself.  Verse  has  been 
called  by  Ernest  Hello,  "that  rare  splendour,  bom  of 
music  and  the  word" ;  now  assuredly  in  writings  such 
as  many  of  the  Psalms,  in  the  Prophets,  the  fix)k  of 
Job,  and  Proverbs  we  recognize  its  presence.  On  the 
other  hand,  from  the  great  collection  of  documents 
which  we  term  Chronicles  {Paralipomena)^  Ezra,  and 
Nehemias,  this  quality  is  almost  entirely  absent;  mat- 
ter and  style  announce  that  we  are  dealing  with  prose. 
We  open  the  Hebrew  Bible,  and  we  find  our  judgment 
confirmed  by  the  editors  of  the  Massora — the  received 
and  vocalized  text.  Conspicuously,  where  the  title 
indicates  "songs"  {Bhirimf  Ex.,  xv,  1;  Num.,  xxi,  17), 
the  lines  are  parted  into  verse;  for  instance,  Deut., 
xxxii,  Judges,  v,  II  Kings,  xxii.  But  more.  As  Gins- 
burg  tells  us,  "In  the  b^  M.S.S.  the  lines  are  poeti- 
cally divided  and  arranged  in  hemistichs"  throughout 
the  Psalter,  Proverbs,  and  Job.  And  this  was  enioined 
by  the  Synagogue.  Yet  again,  the  punctuation  by  the 
period  {8oph  pasuk),  which  marks  a  complete  state- 
ment, coincides  with  a  rhythmical  pause  in  nearly  all 
such  passages,  demonstrating  that  the  ancient  redactors 
between  200  and  600  a.  d.  agreed  as  to  sense  and  sound 
with  the  modems  who  take  the  same  citations  for 
poetry.  So  emphatic  indeed  is  this  impression  that, 
however  we  print  either  text  or  rendering,  the  disjecta 
membra  poetce  will  be  always  visible.  Hebrew  forms  of 
verse  have  been  much  disputed  over;  but  the  com- 
bination of  a  lively  picturesque  meaning  with  a  defi- 
nite measure  is  beyond  denial  in  the  places  alleged. 
Such  are  the  "Songs  of  Sion"  (Ps.  cxxxvii,  3).  This 
was  known  and  felt  from  the  earliest  times.  Josepl;ius 
describes  the  Hebrew  poets  as  writing  in  "hexameter" 
(Antiq.,  II,  xvi);  St.  Jerome  speaks  of  their  "hexam- 
eters and  pentameters";  while  in  his  own  transla- 
tions he  has  constantly  succeeded  in  a  happy  rhythm, 
not,  however,  giving  verse  for  verse.  He  is  markedly 
solemn  and  musical  in  the  Latin  of  the  Book  of  Job. 
The  Enslish  A.  V.  abounds  in  magnificent  effects  of  a 
similar  kind.  Given,  in  short,  the  original  structure, 
it  would  be  almost  impossible^  not  in  some  degree  to 
reproduce  it,  even  in  our  Western  versions. 

But  on  what  system  was  the  poetry  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament composed?  Rabbi  Kimchi  and  Eben  Ezra  had 
caught  sight  of  an  arrangement  which  they  termed 
haful,  or  doubling  of  enunciation.  But  to  bring  this 
out  as  a  principle  was  reserved  for  Bishop  R.  Lowth, 
whose  lectures  "De  sacra  poesi  Hebrajomm"  (1741 
be^un,  finally  published  1753)  became  the  starting 

Kmt  of  all  subsequent  inquiries.  In  his  Preface  to 
uah  (1778,  German  1779)  he  gave  fresh  illustrations, 
which  led  on  to  Herder's  more  philosophical  handling 
of  the  subject  (1782-3).  Lowth  Convinced  scholars 
that  Hebrew  verse  moved  on  the  scheme  of  parallelism, 
statement  revolving  upon  statement,  by  antiphon 
or  return,  generally  in  double  members,  one  of 
which  repeated  the  other  with  variations  of  words  or 
some  deflection  of  meaning.  Equal  measures,  more  or 
less  identical  sense,  these  were  its  component  parts. 
Degrees  in  likeness,  and  the  contrast  which  attends  on 
likeness,  gave  rise,  said  Lowth,  to  synonymous,  anti- 
thetic, or  synthetic  arrangement  of  members.  Modern 
research  inclines  to  take  the  maahal  or  similitude  as  a 
primitive  norm  for  Hebrew  verse  in  general;  and 
Prov.,  X,  is  quoted  by  way  of  showing  the  three  varie- 


ties indicated  by  Lowth.  Evidently,  given  a  double 
measure,  it  admits  of  combinations  ever  more  subtle 
and  involved.  We  will  speak  of  other  developments 
later.  But  the  prevailing  forms  were  exhibited  in 
Lowth's  "Preelections".  Recent  comparisons  of  this 
device  with  similar  structures  in  Babylonian,  Assyrian 
and  Egyptian  poetical  remains  discover  its  extreme 
antiqmty  (see  for  the  first  Schrader:  for  ^gyvt^  W. 
Max  MtlUer,  1899:  and  on  the  whole,  C.  A.  Bnggs, 
"Gen.  Introd.  to  H.  Script.",  1899).  It  mi|;ht  seem 
fanciful  to  call  the  type  from  which  parallelism  orig- 
inates "echo-music  ,  yet  nothing  is  more  likelv  thim 
that  the  earliest  rhythm  was  a  kmd  of  echo,  wherebv 
the  object  of  expression  became  fixed  and  emphasized. 
See  the  remarkable  instances  in  Deborah's  chant 
(Judges,  v,  26r-30)  etc.  Here  we  must  observe  how  the 
logic  of  feeling,  as  distinguished  from  the  logic  of 
reasoning,  controls  the  poet's  mind.  That  mind,  until 
a  late  period,  was  not  individual,  but  collective:  it  was 
the  organ  of  a  tribe,  a  public  worship,  a  national  belief; 
hence,  it  could  shape  its  ideas  only  into  concrete  forms, 
real  yet  symbolical;  it  expressed  emotions,  not  ab- 
stractions, and  it  was  altogether  concerned  with  per- 
sons, human  or  superhuman.  Poetry,  thus  inspired, 
glances  to  and  fro,  is  guided  by  changmg  moods,  darts 
upon  living  objects,  and  describes  them  from  its  own 
centre.  .It  is  essentially  subjective,  and  a  l3rrical 
outcry.  It  does  not  argue;  it  pleads,  blames,  praises, 
breaks  into  cursing  or  olessing,  and  is  most  effective 
when  most  excited.  To  such  a  temperament  repeti- 
tion becomes  a  potent  weapon,  a  divine  or  deadly 
rhetoric  of  which  the  keynote  is  passion.  Its  tense  is 
either  the  present  (including  the  future  perceived  as 
though  here  and  now),  or  a  moving  past  seen  while  it 
moves.  « 

Passion  and  vision — ^let  us  take  these  to  be  the 
motive  and  the  method  of  all  such  primitive  poetry. 
We  may  compare  II  Kin^s,  xxiii,  2,  David's  last  words, 
"The  sweet  Psalmist  of  Israel,  said  'The  spirit  of  the 
Lord  spake  by  me,  and  His  word  was  on  my  tongue ' " ; 
or  Ps.  xliv,  2,  "My  heart  bursts  out  with  a  goodly 
matter,  my  tongue  is  the  pen  of  a  ready  writer";  or 
Job,  xxxii,  18,  "I  am  full  of  words,  the  spirit  within 
constraineth  me";  but  especially  Num.,  xxiv,  4,  "He 
hath  said,  the  man  who  heard  the  words  of  God,  who 
saw  the  vision  of  the  Almighty,  falling  into  a  trance, 
but  having  his  eyes  open".  These  declarations  lead 
up  to  impassioned  metrical  utterances,  while  they  be- 
token the  close  relation  which  unites  Hebrew  poetry 
with  prophecy.  Both  alike  are  a  pouring  forth  of  feel- 
ings too  violent  to  be  held  in,  aroused  by  contemplation 
not  of  the  abstract  or  the  general,  but  of  persons  and 
events,  in  their  Uvin^  power.  To  this  belongs  the  idea 
of  recurrence.  Curtius  observes  acutely,  "The  grad- 
ual realization  and  repetition  of  an  action  are  regarded 
by  language  as  nearly  akin."  (Elucidations,  143, 
quoted  by  Driver,  "Treatise  on  the  Use  of  Tenses  in 
Hebrew",  xv.)  The  whole  being  moves  as  the  object 
impresses  it;  speech,  music,  dancing,  gesture  leap  out, 
as  it,  were,,  to  meet  the  friend  or  enemy  who  draws 
nigh.'  The  Semites  term  their  religious  festivals  a 
"hag",  i.  e.  a  dance  (Ex.,  xii,  14:  xxxii,  5,  19;  Deut., 
xvi,  10, 12;  and  frequently),  of  which  the  reminiscence 
is  vividly  shown  in  the  whirling  motion  and  repeated 
acclamations  practised  by  dervishes  among  Moham- 
medans to  this  day.  We  may  thuis  connect  the  lyrical 
drama  out  of  which  in  due  course  the  Hebrews  devel- 
oped their  temple-liturgy  and  the  Psalms,  with  Greek 
dithyrambs,  the  chorus  of  the  Athenian  stage,  and  the 
anapaestic  strophes  danced  thereon  to  a  lively  musical 
accompaniment.  When  past  or  future  is  caught  up 
after  tnis  manner,  made  present  as  though  seen,  and 
flung  into  a  series  of  actions,  the  singer  prophesies. 
For  what  else  is  prophecy  than  the  vision  of  things 
absent  in  space  or  time,  or  hidden  from  common  eyes? 
The  state  of  mind  corresponding  is  "trance"  ("deep 
deep".  Gen.,  xv,  12;  Job,  iv,  13;  Ezech.,  viii,  1).  The 


1 


POXTBY 


176 


POETBT 


literary  form,  then,  in  which  primitive  reli^on  and 
law,  custom  and  public  life,  were  embodied,  implies  a 
poetic  heightening  of  the  ordinary  mood,  with  effects 
m  speech  that  may  fall  at  length  under  deliberate 
rules;  but  as  rules  multiply,  the  spirit  either  evaporates 
or  is  diffused  pretty  equally  over  an  eloquent  prose. 
That  all  human  language  was  once  poetical  appears 
ever3rwhere  probable  from  researches  into  folk-lore. 
That  repetition  of  phrase,  epithet,  sentiment  came 
earlier  tnan  more  elaborate  metres  cannot  well  be 
denied.  That  religion  should  cleave  to  ancient  forms 
while  policy,  law,  and  social  intercourse  move  down 
into  the  ''cool  element  of  prose",  we  understand  with- 
out difficulty.  Why  the  mediating  style  belongs  to  the 
historian  we  can  also  perceive;  and  how  the  ''epic  of 
gods''  is  transformed  by  slow  steps  into  the  chronicle 
and  the  reasoned  narrative. 

It  does  not  seem,  indeed,  that  the  Israelites  ever 
possessed  a  true  epic  poetry,  although  their  kinsfolk, 
the  Babylonians,  have  left  us  well-known  specimens, 
e.  g.,  in  the  Gilgamesh  tablets.  But  this  extensive 
form  of  Assjrrian  legend  has  not  been  imitated  in  the 
Old  Testament.  G .  d'Eichthal,  a  Catholic,  first  under- 
took in  his  "Texte  prim,  du  premier  r^it  dela  Crea- 
tion'' (1875)  to  show  that  Genesis,  i,  was  a  poem. 
The  same  contention  was  urged  by  Bishop  Clifford 
("Dublin  Review",  1882).  and  C.  A.  Briggs  ventures 
on  resolving  this  narrative  into  a  five-tone  measure. 
Of  late,  other  critics  would  oerceive  in  the  song  of 
Lamech,  in  the  story  of  the  flood  and  of  Babel,  frag- 
ments of  lost  heroic  poems.  It  is  common  knowledge 
that  the  so-called  "creation-epic"  of  Assurbanipal  is 
written  in  four-line  stanzas  with  a  caesura  to  each  line. 
But  of  this  no  feature  seems  really  discernible  in  the 
Hebrew  Genesis  (consult  Gunkel,  "Genesis",  and 
* '  Schopfung  und  Chaos  ") .  There  is  no  distinct  metre 
except  an  occasional  couplet  or  quatrain  in  Gen.,  i-x. 
But  Ps.  civ,  on  the  wonders  of  God's  works;  Ps.  cv, 
cvi,  on  His  dealings  with  Israel;  Job,  xxxviii-xlii,  on 
the  mysteries  of  nature  and  Providence;  Prov.,  viii, 
22-32,  on  creative  wisdom,  might  have  been  wrought 
by  genius  of  a  different  type  into  the  narrative  we  de- 
fine as  epical.  Why  did  Israel  choose  another  way? 
Perhaps  because  it  sought  after  religion  and  cared 
hardly  at  all  for  cosmogonies.  The  imagination  of 
Hebrews  looked  forward,  not  into  the  abysses  of  past 
time.  And  mythology  was  condemned  by  their  belief 
in  monotheism.  Psalms  are  comprehended  under  two 
heads, — "Tehillim",  hymns  of  praise,  and  "Tephil- 
loth",  hymns  of  prayer,  arranged  for  chanting  in  the 
Temple-services.  They  do  not  include  any  very  an- 
cient folk-songs;  but  neither  can  we  look  on  them  as 
private  devotional  exercises.  Somewhat  analogous 
are  the  historic  blessings  and  cursings,  of  a  very  old 
tradition,  attributed  to  Jacob  (Gen.,  xlix)  and  Moses 
(Deut.,xxviii,  xxxii-iii).  Popular  poetry,  not  connect- 
ing itself  with  priestly  ritual,  touches  life  at  moments  of 
crisis  and  pours  out  its  grief  over  death.  Much  of  all 
this  Holy  Scripture  has  handed  down  to  us.  The 
Book  of  Lamentations  is  founded  on  the  Kinahj  the 
wailing  chant  improvised  by  women  at  funerals  in  a 
measure  curiously  broken,  one  full  verse  followed  by 
one  deficient,  which  reminded  St.  Jerome  of  the  penta- 
meter. It  seems  to  be  aboriginal  among  Semites  (cf . 
Amos,  V,  2;  Jer.,  xlviii,  36;  Ezech.,  xix,  1;  Ps.  xix, 
8-10).  Martial  songs,  of  which  Judges,  v;  Num.,  xxi; 
Jos.,  x;  I  Kings,  xviii,  are  specimens,  formed  the  lost 
"  Book  of  the  Wars  of  the  Lord  ".  From  another  lost 
roll,  the  "Book  of  Jashar",  i.  e.,  of  the  Upright  or  of 
Israel,  we  derive  the  lament  of  David  over  Saul  and 
Jonathan,  as  well  as  in  substance  Solomon's  pn^er  at 
the  dedication  of  the  Temple  (II  Kings,  i,  3;  III  Kings, 
viii,  53).  However  we  interpret  Canticles,  it  is  cer- 
tainly a  round  of  wedding-songs  and  is  high  poetry; 
Ps.  xlv  is  an  epithalamium  of  the  same  character. 
The  song  of  the  \nneyard  may  be  added  to  our  list 
(Is.,  V,  1).    Historically,  at  all  events,  the  Book  of 


Psalms  is  late  and  supposes  prophecy  to  have  gone 
before  it. 

A  second  stage  is  attained,  the  nearest  approach  in 
the  Hebrew  Testament  to  philosophy,  when  we  reach 
the  gnomic  or  "wisdom"  poetry.  Proverbs  with  its 
two  line  antitheses  gives  us  the  standard,  plissing 
into  larger  descriptions  marked  by  numerals  and  end- 
ing  in  the  acrostic  or  alphabetical  praise  of  the  "val- 
iant", i.  e.,  the  "virtuous"  woman.  Job  takes  its 
{>lace  among  the  great  meditative  poems  of  the  world 
ike  "Hamlet"  or  "Faust",  and  is  by  no  means  of 
early  date,  as  was  once  believed.  In  form  it  may  be 
assigned  to  the  same  type  as  Prov.,  i-x;  but  it  rises 
almost  to  the  level  of  drama  with  its  contrasted  speak- 
ers and  the  interposition  of  Jahweh,  which  serves  to  it 
as  a  denouement.  Notwithstanding  its  often  corrupt 
text  and  changes  conseqjuent  on  re-editing  at  later 
times,  it  remains  unquestionably  the  highest  achieve- 
ment of  inspired  Hebrew  verse.  E^clesiastes,  with  its 
mingled  irony  and  sadness,  falls  into  a  purely  didactic 
style;  it  has  traces  of  an  imperfect  lyrical  mood,  but 
belongs  to  the  prose  of  reflection  quite  as  much  as 
Seneca  or  Marcus  Auretius.  The  Hebrew  text  of  Ben 
Sira,  thus  far  recovered,  is  of  a  loftier  kind,  or  even  a 
prelude  to  the  New  Testament.  As  regards  the 
Prophets,  we  can  scarcely  doubt  that  oracles  were 
uttered  in  verse  at  Shiloh  and  other  ancient  shrines, 
just  as  at  Delphi;  or  that  inspired  men  and  women 
threw  their  announcements  commonly  into  that  shape 
for  repetition  by  their  disciples,  to  whom  they  came  as 
the  "word  of  the  Lord".  To  prophe^  was  to  sing 
accompanied  by  an  instrument  (Iv  Kings,  iii,  15). 
The  prophetic  records,  as  we  now  have  them,  were 
made  up  from  comparatively  brief  poems,  declaring 
the  mind  of  Jahweh  in  messages,  "burdens",  to  thoee 
whom  the  seer  admonished.  In  Amos,  Osee,  Micheafi. 
Isaias,  the  original  chants  may  still  be  separated  ana 
the  process  of  joining  them  together  is  comparatively 
slight.  Prophecy  at  first  was  preaching;  but  aa 
it  Decame  literature  its  forms  passed  out  of  verse 
(which  it  always  handled  somewhat  freely)  into  prose. 
The  Book  of  Ezechiel,  though  aboimding  in  symbol 
and  imagery,  cannot  be  deemed  a  poem.  Yet  from 
the  nature  of  their  mission  the  Prophets  appealed  to 
that  in  man's  composition  which  transcends  the  finite, 
and  their  works  constantly  lift  us  to  the  r^ons  of 
poetic  idealism,  however  fluctuating  the  style  between 
a  strict  or  a  looser  measure  of  time.  Divine  oracles 
given  as  such  fall  into  verse;  expanded  or  commented 
on,  they  flow  over  into  a  less  regular  movement  and 
become  a  sort  of  rhythmical  prose.  Our  Latin  and 
English  translations  often  render  this  effect  admi- 
rably; but  attentive  readers  will  note  in  the  English 
A.  V.  many  nnconscious  blank  verses,  sometimes  the 
five  foot  iambic,  and  occasionally  classic  hexameters, 
e.  g.,  "How  art  thou  fallen  from  heaven,  O  Lucifer, 
son  of  the  morning!"  (Is.,  xiv,  12).  There  is  likewise 
in  Hebrew  a  recognized  poetical  vocabulary,  though 
some  critics  deny  it,  and  the  grammar  keeps  a  few 
archaic  forms.  We  can  distinguish  popular  unwritten 
prophecy  as  lasting  from  unknown  periods  down  to 
Amos.  From  Amos  to  Esdras  the  prophets  all  write, 
still  under  poetic  influences,  but  their  singing  has  de- 
clined into  a  metaphor.  Tne  rhapsodists  (moshelim) 
give  place  more  and  more  to  the  rabbim.  We  hear 
the  last  echoes  of  Hebrew  sacred  poetry  in  St.  Luke's 
Gospel;  for  the  "Benedictus",  the  "Magnificat",  the 
"Nunc  Dimittis",  though  in  Greek,  are  songs  of  Is- 
rael, moulded  on  Old  Testament  reminiscences. 

Now  we  come  into  a  debatable  land,  where  critics 
dispute  endlessly  over  the  essence  and  make  of  Bib- 
licfd  versification,  beyond  the  lines  drawn  by  Lowth. 
What  metrical  system  does  Hebrew  follow?  Take  the 
single  line:  does  it  move  by  ouantity,  as  Latin  and 
Greek,  or  by  accent,  as  English?  If  by  accent,  how 
is  that  managed?  Should  we  reckon  to  each  kind  of 
verse  a  definite  number  of  syllables,  or  allow  an  in* 


POGGIO 


177 


POGGIO 


definite?  Since  no  Jewish  "Poetics"  have  been  pre- 
served from  any  a^e  of  the  Bible,  we  have  onlv  the 
text  itself  upon  which  to  set  up  our  theories.  But  if 
we  consider  how  many  fragments  of  divers  periods 
enter  into  this  literature,  and  how  all  alike  have  been 
passed  through  the  mill  of  a  late  uncritical  recension, 
— we  mean  the  Massora — can  we  suppose  that  in 
every  case^  or  even  in  seneral,  we  enjoy  so  much  evi- 
dence as  IS  required  tor  a  solid  judgment  on  this 
matter?  Infinite  coniecture  is  not  science.  One  re- 
sult of  which  we  may  be  certain  is  that  Hebrew  verse 
never  proceeded  by  quantitv;  in  this  sense  it  has  no 
metre.  A  second  is  that  the  poetical  phrase,  be  it 
lon^  or  short,  is  governed  by  tone  or  stress,  rising  and 
failms  naturally  with  the  speaker's  emotion.  A  third 
would  grant  in  the  more  antique  forms  a  freedom  which 
the  development  of  schools  and  the  fixedness  of  liturgy 
could  not  but  restrain  as  years  went  on.  At  all  times, 
it  has  been  well  said  by  W.  Max  Miiller^  "the  lost 
melody  was  the  main  thing";  but  how  little  we  do 
know  of  Hebrew  music?  Under  these  complicated 
difficulties  to  fix  a  sc^e  for  the  lines  of  verse,  beyond 
the  rhythm  of  passionate  utterance,  can  scarcely  be 
attempted  with  success. 

G.  Bickell,  from  1879  onwards,  undertook  in  many 
volumes  to  reduce  the  anarchy  of  Old  Testament 
scansion  by  applying  to  it  the  rules  of  Syriac,  chiefly 
as  found  in  St.  Epm^m.  He  made  the  penultimate 
tonic  for  ^Ilables,  counted  them  regularly,  and  held 
all  lines  of  even  syllables  to  be  trochaic,  of  uneven 
iambic.  On  such  a  Procrustean  bed  the  text  was  tor- 
tured into  uniformity,  not  without  ever  so  many 
changes  in  word  and  sense,  while  the  traditional  reaa- 
ings  were  swept  aside  though  supported  by  the  ver- 
sions (see  his  Metrices  bibhcse  regulse  exemplis  illus- 
trat«",  1879,  "Carmina  Vet.  Test,  metrice",  1882; 
Job,  Ecclesiastes,  Proverbs).  This  dealing,  at  once 
arbitrary  and  fanciful,  leaves  us  with  so  uncertain  a 
text  that  our  problem  is  utterly  transformed,  and  the 
outcome  is  scepticism.  Yet  BickcU  has  indicated  the 
true  poetic  measure  by  his  theory  of  main  accents, 
such  as  travellers  note  in  the  modem  songs  of  Pales- 
tine. Julius  Ley  constructs  a  system  on  the  tone- 
syllable  which,  preceded  by  unaccented  syllables  and 
lollowed  by  one  that  has  a  dying  fall",  constitutes 
the  metre.  His  unit  is  the  verse  formea  by  parallel 
lines;  he  admits  the  coesura;  with  regard  to  text 
and  vocalization  he  is  conservative  ("Grundztige  d. 
Rhy  thmus,  d.  Vers.  u.  Strophenbau  in  d.  hebr.  Poesie  ", 
1876;^  "Leitfaden  d.  Metnk  Der  heb.  Poesie",  1887). 
A  third  writer,  Grimme,  while  not  discarding  the 
received  vowel-signs,  gives  them  a  new  value,  and 
combines  quantity  with  accent.  Probably,  our  con- 
clusion should  be  that  none  of  these  ingenious  theories 
will  explain  all  the  facts;  and  that  we  had  better  let 
the  text  alone,  marking  only  where  it  seems  to  be 
corrupt. 

Another  amusement  of  Hebrew  scholars  has  been 
the  discovery  and  delimitation  of  "strophes" 
(Kdster,  1831).  or  of  larger  units  embracing  several 
verses.  Bickell  and  many  recent  critics  allow  the 
fouMine  combination.  Anything  more  is  very  doubt- 
ful. In  Ps.  xlii,  and  elsewhere,  a  sort  of  refrain  occurs, 
which  corresponds  to  the  people's  answer  in  Catholic 
litanies;  but  this  does  not  enter  into  the  verse-struc- 
ture itself.  C.  A.  Briggs,  who  clings  resolutely  to  the 
idea  of  pomplex  Hebrew  metre,  extravagates  on  the 
subject,  by  taking  the  "whole  of  sense"  for  a  rhyth- 
mical whole.  We  must  obey  the  plain  law  of  parallel- 
ism, and  allow  a  three-line  arrangement  where  the 
woras  themselves  demand  it.  But  much  of  what  is 
now  written  concerning  the  hidden  links  of  Old  Testa- 
ment poetry  is  Uke  the  Cabbala,  perversely  and  need- 
lessly wrong.  The  lamentation  verse  lends  itself  to 
strophe;  and  bep:innings  of  it  may  well  exist,  provided 
we  ao  not  assimilate  this  hard  and  severe  language  to 
tho  gracious  flexures  which  were  native  in  HeUenio 
XII.— 12 


compoBitio^.  There  is  a  species  of  "canon"  or  fugue 
in  the  fifteen  chants  called  "Songs  of  Ascent" — our 
"Gradual"  Psalms — ^an  ambiguous  title  referring  per 
haps  to  this  feature  as  well  as  to  the  pilgrim  journey 
they  denoted.  Various  poems  and  especially  the 
great  Ps.  cxviii  (Hebrew  cxix)  are  arranged  alphabeti- 
cally; so  the  Book  of  Lamentations;  Prov.  xxxi; 
Ecclus.,  li,  13-29.  In  Talmudic  and  Rabbinical  writ- 
ings the  Psalms  cxiii-cxviii  (Hebrew)  are  taken  as  one 
composition  and  known  as  the  "Hallel  of  Egypt", 
intended  to  be  sung  on  the  feast  of  Hanukkah  or  ot 
Machabees  (I  Macn.,  iv,  59).  Ps.  cxxxvi,  Hebrew 
(Vulgate  cxxxv)  "Confitemini  Domino",  is  the  "Great 
Hallel",  and  Ps.  cxlvi-cxlviii  make  up  another  collec- 
tion of  these  "Alleluia"  hymns.  In  Hebrew  poetry 
when  rhymes  occur  they  are  accidental;  alliteration, 
assonance,  word-play  belong  to  it.  We  find  in  it 
everywhere  vehemence  of  feeting,  energetic  and  abrupt 
expression,  sudden  changes  of  tense,  person,  and  fig- 
ure, sometimes  bordering  on  the  grotesque  from  a 
Western  point  of  view.  It  reveals  a  fine  sense.of  land- 
scape and  abhors  the  personification  familiar  to 
Greeks,  whereby  things  lower  than  man  were  deified. 
In  sentiment  it  is  by  turns  sublime,  tender,  and  ex- 
ceedingly bitter,  full  of  a  yearning  after  righteousness, 
which  often  puts  on  the  garb  of  hatred  and  vengeance. 
"From  Nature  to  God  and  from  God  to  Nature"  has 
been  given  by  Hebrews  themselves  as  the  philosophy 
which  underlies  its  manifestations.  It  glorifies  the 
Lord  of  Israel  in  His  counsels  and  His  deeds.  In 
prophecy  it  judges;  in  psahnody  it  prays;  in  lamenta- 
tion it  meditates  on  the  sufferings  which  from  of  old 
the  chosen  people  have  undergone.  Though  it  com- 
poses neither  an  epic  nor  a  tragedy,  it  is  the  voice 
of  a  nation  that  has  counted  its  heroes  in  every  age, 
and  that  has  lived  through  vicissitudes  unequalled  in 
pathos,  in  terror,  in  a  never  defeated  hope.  By  all 
these  elements  Hebrew  poetry  is  human;  by  some- 
thing more  mysterious,  but  no  less  real,  breathed  into 
its  music  from  on  high,  it  becomes  divine. 

Meier,  D.  Form  d.  hdrr,  Poesie  (TQbinsen,  1853)  seems  to 
anticipate  Ley's  theory  of  verse;  Belleruan*  Vertueh  Hber  d, 
Mfirik  d.  Hebr.  (Berlin,  1813);  Zuns,  SynagoQaU  Poeeie  d.  M.  A, 
(Berlin,  1853);  Ewald,  D.  DicfUer  d.  A.  B.,  I  (Sod  ed.,  Leipiic, 
1866) ;  Nbtbler.  GrundxOae  d.  Melrikd,  Pealmen  (Manster,  1870); 
BRiaas.  Biblical  Studies  (1883)  and  other  works;  Buddb.  D.  VoUtS' 
lied  laraels  im  Munde  d.  Propheten  in  Preuae,  Jahrb.,  Sept.,  1893; 
Dec,  1895;  Idem  in  Hasting,  Diet,  of  the  Bible,  s.  v.  Poelry^ 
Hebrew:  MOllbr,  Z>.  Propheten  in  ihrer  uraprHngliehen  Form 
(Vienna,  1896);  Zenker,  D.  Chorgeednge  im  Buck  d.  Pealmen 
(Freiburg,  1896);  KdNio.  StillHik,  Rhetorik,  Poetik  etc,  in  A,  7. 
(Leipiig,  19(X));  modem  views  in  Bncy,  Biblica,  1902,  older  in 
Hamburger,  Realency.  of  Judaism,  1896;  medieval  and  late  Heb. 
poetry,  see  Jewish  Ency, 

William  Barrt. 

Poggio  Braceiolini,  Giovanni  Francesco,  Ital« 
ian  humanist  and  historian;  b.  at  Terranuova,  near 
Arezzo,  in  1380;  d.  at  Florence,  10  Oct.,  1459.  He 
studied  at  Florence  and  went  to  Rome  about  1402. 
Boniface  IX  made  him  one  of  the  Apostolic  secretaries, 
which  position  he  held  under  Innocent  VII,  Gregory 
XII,  Alexander  V,  and  John  XXIII.  The  deposition  of 
John  XXIII  and  the  delays  of  the  Council  of  Con- 
stance afforded  him  leisure  to  search  the  Ubraries  of  the 
monasteries  of  Germany  and  France.  In  1415 
he  discovered  at  Cluny  a  manuscript  containing 
the  following  discourses  of  Cicero:  "Pro  Cluentio  , 
"Pro  S.  Roscio".  "Pro  Murena",  "Pro  Milone", 
and  "Pro  Caelio  .  This  manuscnpt  was  sent  to 
Florence  where  Francesco  Barbaro  deciphered  it 
with  great  difficulty.  Later  Poggio  discovered  at 
St.  Gall's  the  first  complete  text  of  Quintilian's 
"Institutio  Oratoria",  of  which  Petrarch  had  known 
only  fragments,  a  portion  of  Valerius  Flaccus 
(I-IV,  317),  commentaries  on  Cicero,  among  others 
that  of  Asconius,  a  commentary  of  Priscian  ' 
on  twelve  verses  of  Virgil,  and  a  manuscript  of 
Vitruvius.  During  another  search  through  the  mon- 
asteries, probably  Einsiedeln,  Reichenau  on  Lak« 


POOGIO 


178 


P0ITII&8 


Coiutanoe,  and  Weingarten,  he  discovered  Veeetiua, 
already  known  by  Petrarch,  Fcatus  ia  the  abridg- 
ment of  Paul  the  Deacon,  Lucretius,  Maniliua,  Silius 
Italicus,  AmmianUB  Marcellinus,  the  gnunmari&nB 
Caper,  Eutychea,  and  PnibuB.  It  was  during  this 
journey  or  the  next  that  Poggio  diaoovered  the 
''Silvm"  of  Statius.  In  1417  he  went  as  far  as  Langrefl, 
France,  where  he  recovered  seven  diacourees  of  Cicero, 
three  on  the  agrarian  law,  "Pro  Rabirio"^  "Pro 
RoBcio  ComtEdo  ,  and  "In  Pisonem".  This  journey 
also  resulted  in  the  discovery  of  a  manuscript  of 
Columella.  Unfortunately  most  of  these  manuecripta 
exist  now  only  in  copies.  One  in  his  own  hand  at 
Madrid  (Bib.  Nat.,  X,  SI]  contains  Asconius  and  the 
first  part  of  Valerius  Flaccus.  After  tlie  Council  of 
Constance  Poggio  accompanied  Martin  V  to  Italy  and 
■l«yed  with  him  at  Mantua  (1418).  In  1423  he  be- 
came his  secre- 
tary. On  his  re- 
turn from  a  joui~ 
oey  to  England 
Poggio  discovered 
an  incomplete 
Petroniufl  at  Co- 
logne and  Nonius 
Marcellus      at 


with  regard  to  the 
"History"  of 
Tacitus,  of  which 
he  made  a  secret. 
He  shared  in  the 
discovery  of  the 
leaser  writings  of 
Tacitus  by  Enoch 
of  Ascoli,  in  that 
of  AuluB  Gellius, 
of  Quintus  Cur- 
tius  and  the  last 
twelve  works  of 
Plautus  by  Nich- 
olas of  Cusa.  In  1429  he  made  a  copy  of  uie  "De 
atjufe  ductibua"  of  Frontinus.  In  1429  be  published 
his  dialogue  on  avarice,  in  which  he  attacked  especially 
the  professors  of  law  and  the  Mendicant  Friars. 

Shortly  after  the  death  of  Martin  V  (20  Februaiy, 
431)  he  began  to  write  the  four  books  of  his  "De 
Varietate  Fortune",  in  the  first  of  which  he  describes 
the  ruins  of  Home,  Indeed  it  may  be  said  that  he  was 
the  first  to  practise  archceology  systematic^y.  He 
brought  from  Switzerland  the  valuable  booklet  of  a 
ninth-century  pilgrim,  the  Anonymous  Einsicdlensis, 
and  be  preceded  J.  B.  de  Rossi  in  studying  it.  He 
oompu^  the  ruins  which  he  saw  with  the  texts  of 
writers  and  endeavoured  to  decipher  the  inscriptions. 
He  collected  some  of  his  letters  and  in  1440  issued  a 
dialoKue  on  nobility.  In  1450  an  outbreak  of  the  pest 
sent  Nicholas  V  to  Fabriano  and  Pc^gio  to  his  birth- 
place where  he  completed  the  compilation  of  the 
''Facetiee".  This  is  a  collection  of  witty  .sayings, 
anecdotes,  quidproquos,  and  insolence,  mingled  with 
obscenities  and  impertinent  jesting  with  relinous  sub- 
jects. In  1451  Poggio  dedicated  to  CardinaTProspero 
Colonna  his  "Historia  disceptativa  convivalis  ,  in 
three  books,  of  which  the  third  alone  is  interestmg, 
Poggio  maintains  against  Leonardo  Bruni  of  Areico 
that  there  was  only  one  languase  spoken  at  Rome  by 
the  people  and  the  educated  classes.  This  question 
had  a  practical  bearing  for  the  Italians  upon  whom  it 
was  incumbent  to  create  their  literary  language,  but 
Poggio's  sole  ideal  was  Latin  literature.  Poggio  him- 
BelfwTote  only  in  Latin,  into  which  tongue  ne  trans- 
lated the  history  of  Diodorus  Siculus  and  the  "Cyro- 
ptedia"  of  Xenophon.  In  June,  14S3,  Poggio  was 
summoned  by  the  Medicis  to  Florence  where  he  was 


E'ven  charge  of  the  chancerv  of  the  republic.  Here 
i  composed  his  last  works,  tne  dialogue  "De  Mieeriis 
humane  condicionis",  a  translation  of  Lucian's 
"Golden  Ass",  and  the  ten  books  of  his  history  of 
Florence  from  1350  to  1455,  a  work  much  admired  by 
contemporaries,  but  written  in  a  diffuse  style,  and 
partial.  No  mention  has  been  made  of  his  occasional 
writinp,  eulogies,  discourses,  invectives,  but  reference 
must  be  made  to  his  numerous  quarrels  with  other 
humanists,  Filelfo.  George  of  'Tiebizond,  Tonunaao 
Rieti,  Lorenio  Valla  (author  of  "Antidotus  in  Pog- 
gium").  In  all  these  disputes  Poggio  showed  the 
same  fecundity  of  low  insidts  and  calumnies  as  his 
opponents.  Pog^o's  works  were  collected  at  Basle 
(m  folio,  1513).  His  letters  were  issued  in  a  special 
edition  by  Tonelli  (3  vols.,  1832-61). 

Shiphmd,  lAIm  aj  Pamio  Bracciolim  (LoEdoo,  1802);  VOIBT, 
D.  WifderbtUmne  d.  JUatntehm  AUtrlumi.  ard  ed.,  I.  235  «.: 
STUaxH,  Tlu  Jf<nai.una  in  Ilaly.  II  (LddcIod.  IBZS-M),  % 
■q.;  Sandib,  a  Aubirv  "/  ClottisaJ  Stholarihip,  I.  26.  38,  102: 
Sabbadini,  Ciemnicnitaw,  20;  Idbu,  Lt  tagxrit  dri  codid  latint 
•  arm  fu'  •wli  XlVtXV  (FlonnH,  1905).  76;  Cum.  Axrcdita 
Oamiemia.  X  (ISOS). 

Paul  Lejat. 

PpKgio  Hirtvto,  Diocese  of  (Mandelenbis),  in 
the  province  of  Perugia,  central  Italy.  The  dty  is 
utuated  on  a  pleasant  heieht,  by  the  River  Sole,  u  a 
fertile  region,  where  pot-herDs,  cereals,  grapee,  and 
pastures  are  cultivate,  and  where  ancient  ruins  of 
villas  and  of  aqueducts  are  numerous:  the  villa  of 
Terentius  Varro  was  in  this  neighbourhood.  Poggio 
Mirteto  was  under  the  iurisdictioD  of  the  Abbot  of 
Farfa,  and  the  preeent  home  of  the  bishop  was  the 
abbot's  reaidence.  The  Abbey  of  Farfa,  however,  like 
that  of  San  Salvatore  Msfgiore,  passed  to  the  Diocese 
of  Sabina,  from  which  the  territory  of  the  See  of 
Pog^o  Mirteto  was  taken  in  1841;  uie  old  colle^ate 
church  became  the  cathedral,  and  a  seminary  was 
established.  The  first  bishop  was  Nicolo  Crispigni. 
The  diocese  has  38  parishes,  with  32,600  inhabitants, 
2  reli^ous  houses  of  men,  and  8  of  sisters,  under  whose 
direction  are  the  schools  for  girls  in  several  communcK 
(See  Fabfa,  Abbey  or.) 

U.  Benioni. 

Po^  (ri  HQyXa.),  titular  see  in  PamphyUa  secunda. 
Pogia  is  mentioned  only  by  Ptolemy.  V,  5,  possibly 
by  Hierocles,  "Synecdemua",  680,  4,  but  the  name  is 
written  Socla  and  it  refers  without  doubt  to  another 
locality.  Money  was  c<uned  with  the  pagan  JlwrX^r 
(Head,  "Histona  numorum",  691).  At  present  it  is 
the  town  of  Foughla.  sandjak  of  Adalia,  vilayet  of 
Koniah.  Le  Quien  (Oriens  christianus,  I,  1027)  men- 
tions two  bishops  Paul,  present  at  the  Council  of 
Chalcedon  (451)  and  Nicephorus  at  the  Council  of 
Ninea  (787).  The  "Notitis  Episcopatuum "  con- 
tinue to  mention  the  see  among  the  suffragans  .of 
Perge  as  late  as  the  thirteenth  century. 

Hadet,  Thi  CtltM  of  Pitidta,  citnwt  from  ths  Rnut  AreU- 
tiainv"  (Pu^,  ISS3).  p.  13. 

S.    PiTBIDks, 


Poltlen,  Diocese  or  (Pictavensis),  includes  the. 
Departments  of  Vienne  and  Deux-Sivree,  and  is  suf- 
fracan  of  Bordeaux.     The  Concordat  of  1802  added 

to  the  see  betddes  the  ancient  Diocese  of  PolUers  a  part 
of  the  Dioceses  of  La  Rochelle  and  Saintes  (see  La 
Rotbellb).  Mgr  Duchesne  holds  that  its  earliest 
episcopal  catalogue  represents  the  ecclesiastical 
tradition  of  Poitiers  in  the  twelfth  century.  The 
catalogue  reckons  twelve  predecessors  of  St.  Hilary, 


Mgr  Duchesne  does  not  doubt  the  ejdstence  of  these 
saints  but  questions  whether  they  were  bishops  of 
Poitiers.  According  to  him,  St.  Hilaiy  (3W-67  or  8) 
is  the  first  bishop  of  whom  we  have  historical  evidenoe. 


;.  PienttuB  (c.  544-60); 


In  1540,  at  the 


by  William  IX,  Count  of  Poitiers,  whose  divorce  he  whom  Gregory  XIII  called  in  later  years  the  torch 
refused  to  sanction;  Gilbert  de  la  Porr^  (1142-54);  and  the  pillar  of  the  Roman  SchooL  hod  a  chair. 
Blessed  William  Tempier  (1184-97),  who,  as  Mgr  The  famous  Jesuit  Maldon&tus  and  five  of  his  con- 
Baibier  de  Montault  has  shown,  was  irregularly  ven-  fr^ree  neat  ia  1570  to  Poitiers  to  establish  a  Jesuit 
erated  as  a  sunt  in  , college  at  the  request 


certain  parts  of  the 
diooeoe  since  he  died 
subsequent  to  the 
declaration  of  Alex- 
ander III  which  re- 
served canonisations 
to  the  Holy  See; 
Blessed  Oauthier  de 
Bruges  (1278-1306); 
Amauld  d'Aux  (1306 
-12),  made  cardinal 
in  1312;  Guy  de 
Malsec  (1371-6),  who 
became  cardinal  in 
137S;  Simon  de 
Cramaud  (1385-91), 
indefatigable  op- 
ponent of  the  Buti-- 
pope,  Benedict  XIII, 
and  who  again  ad- 
ministered the  dio- 
cese (1413-23)  and 
became  cardinal  in 
1413;  Louis  de  Bar  (1394-6),  cardinal  in  1397:  Jean 
de  la  Ti^mouille  (1505-7),  cardinal  in  1507;  Gabriel 
de  Gramont  (1532-^),  cardinal  in  1507;  Claude  de 
Longwy,  Cardinal  de  Givry  (1538-52),  became  cai^ 
(hnsJ  in  1533;  Antonio  Barberini  (1052-7),  cardinal 
in  1627;  Abb«  de  Pradt  (1805-0),  afterwards  Arch- 
bishop of  Mechlin, 
Pie  (1849-80),  car- 
dinal in  1879.  St. 
Emmeram  (q.  v.) 
was  a  native  of 
Poitiers,  but  accord- 
ing to  the  Elollandiste 
and  Mgr  Duchesne 
the  documents  which 
make  him  Bishop  of 
of  Poitiers  (c.  650) 
are  not  trustworthy: 
on  the  other  hand 
Bernard  Sepp  (Ana- 
lec.  Boll.,  Vni)  and 
Dom  Chamard  claim 
that  he  did  bold  the 
■ee,  and  succeeded 
Didon,  bishop  about 
666  or  668  according 
to  Dom  Chamard. 

As  early  as  312 
the  Bishop  of 
Poitiers  established 
a  school  near  his 
cathedral;  among  its 


of  some  of  the  in- 
hi^itanta.  After  two 
unsuccessful  at- 
tempts, they  were 
given  the  College  Bte. 
Marthe  in  160S. 
Pin  Garage,  weU 
known  for  hu  vio- 
lent polemics  and 
who  died  of  the 
plague  at  Poitiers  in 
1637,  was  professor 
ther«  (1607-8),  and 
had  as  a  pupil  the 
great  French  prose 
writer,  Gues  de  Bal- 
lac.  Among  other 
students  at  Poitiers 
were  Achille  de  Har- 
lay.  President  de 
Thou,  the  poet 
Joachim  du  B^y, 
the  chronicler,  Bran- 
tome  Descartes,  ViMe  the  mathematician,  and  Bacon, 
afterwards  Chancellor  of  England.  In  the  seven- 
teenth century  the  Jesuits  sou^t  affiliation  with  the 
university  and  in  spite  of  the  lively  opposition  of  the 
faculties  of  theology  and  arts  their  request  was 
granted.  Jesuit  ascendancy  grew;  they  united  to 
Ste.  MarUie  the  Od- 
1^  du  Puvgareau. 
Friction  between 
them  and  the  um- 
versity  was  continu- 
ous, and  in  1762  the 
general  laws  against 


ichola 
Hihuy,    I 


.    s  St. 
Maxen- 


thei 


thri 


led  to  the 
Society  leaving  Poi- 
tiers. Moreover, 
from  1674  the  Jesuits 
had  conducted  at 
Poitiers  a  college  for 
clerical  students  from 
Ireland.    In  1806  the 


(Merovin^ao,  IV  Ciotuty) 


1896.    From  1872  to 
1875     Canlinal     He 
was  eni^ged  in  r©. 
establishing  the  fac- 
brothers     ulty  of  theology.    As  a  provisional  effort  he  called  to 
teach  in  hia  Grand  S^miimre  three  piofeesortfromthfl 
CoUegio  Romano,  among  them  P^Schrader,  the  com- 
mentator of  the  Syllabus,  who  died  at  Poitiers  in  1875. 
At  lAgiig6  in  the  diocese,  St.  Martin  founded  the 
first  monaeteo'  in  Gatil,  to  which  were  attached  a 


St.  Paulinus,  Bishop  of  Trier,  and  the  poet  Ausonius. 
In  the  sixth  century  Fortunatus  taught  there,  and  in 
the  twelfth  century  intellectual  Europe  flocked  to 

Poitiers  to  sit  at  the  feet  of  Gilbert  de  la  Porrfe.  first  monaeteiy  ■"  uaui.  <aj  viw^u  hoc  obUKum  > 

Charles  VII  erected  a  university  at  Poitiers,  in  op-  catechetical  school  and  a  baptistery.    This  monastery, 

podtion  to  Paris,  where  the  majority  of  the  faculty  afterwards  echpsed  by  that  of  MarmoutieiB  founded 

had  hailed  Henry  VI  of  England,  and  by  Bull  of  28  by  St.  Martin  near  Tours,  was  destroyed  by  the  Nor- 

May,  1431,  Eugene  IV  approved  the  new  university,  mans  in  865,  and  was  later  a  simple  priory  df^iending 

In  the  r«gn  of  Louis  XII  there  were  in  Poitiers  no  on  the  Abbey  of  Mailletais,  and  still  later  bdoneed  to 

r  thousand  students— French,  Italians,  the  Jesuits.    In  1853  the  Benedictines  settled  in 

,   and   Germans.    There   were  t«a  Ligugi  and  ia  1856  it  became  an  abbey.    The  Bew 


LmTu? 


dictines  of  LiguE^,  driven  out  in  1880,  took  reruge  at 
Siloe  in  Sp&in;  the  abbey  in  after  years  became  once 
more  a  relicious  centre,  but  the  Ateociationa  Law  of 
1001  a^D  forced  the  monks  into  exile  at  ChevctoRne 
in  be^ium.  Another  important  monast^'n'  waa  that 
of  Ansion,  or  St.  Jouln  of  Mame.  founded  before  50<), 
and  Bubeequently  placed  under  the  Rule  of  St.  Bene- 
dict. St.  GeneroBus,  Kt.  Patemua  (Pur),  afterwards 
Bishop  of  Avranchee,  his  friend  St.  Scubilio,  and  8t, 
Aichard,  afterwards  Abbot  of  Jumi^Bcs,  were  all 
monks  of  Ansion.  A  Benedictine  abbey  founded  in 
78S  by  Roger,  Count  of  Limogea,  and  his  wife  Eu- 
phrasia, was  the  origin  of  the  town  of  Chairoux,  and 
was  enriched  with  many  gifts  by  Cbarlemagne.    The 


BiLtlH  POKTII,    or  TBE  ClTHIDKAL  OF    BaIKT-PiIIUIB.    PoIDEBB 

FouDded  by  Elennor  of  Aquitune  dd  ttg  Ruioa 
of  s  itamBD  Builic*.  XU  C«nlui> 
Abb^  of  St.  Savin-sur-Gartempe  was  founded  by 
Charlemagne,  Its  chureh  and  ciVpt,  studied  in  IS36 
by  Prosper  Merim6e,  dates  from  the  eleventh  century, 
and  posecsaea  a  aeries  of  frescoes  of  the  eleventh  and 
twelfth  centuries  representing  the  history  of  the  world 
from  the  creation  until  Moses,  and  the  martyrdom  of 
SS.  Savinus  and  Cyprian,  which  are  unique  in  the 
history  of  French  mural  painting.  The  chureh  of  St. 
Peter  of  Chauvigny  (eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries) 
has  some  admirable  sculpture  work;  and  the  town  of 
Poitiers  is  a  veritable  museum  of  religious  art.  Parts 
of  the  baptistery  of  St,  John,  recently  studied  with 
care  by  the  Jesuit  archamlogist,  P.  de  la  Croix,  date 
from  the  fourth  century;  and  there  is  evidence  that  in 
tiie  time  of  Constantine  baptism  by  ilnmersion  was 
practised  in  Poitiers. 

The  chureh  founded  in  the  fourth  century  by  St. 
Hilary  in  honour  of  SS.  John  and  Paul,  martyrs  and 
where  St.  Hilary  waa  buried,  was  afterwards  dedicated 
to  St.  Hilary,  and  reconstructed  in  the  elevcnUi  cen- 
tury by  Emma,  Queen  of  England  and  mother  of 
Edward  the  Confessor,  and  by  her  architect  Gautier 
Coorland.  The  vaulting  of  the  seven  naves  of  this 
building,  known  to-day  as  St,  Hilary  the  Great,  re- 
minds one  of  Byzantine  cupolas,  and  is  an  imposing 
nght.  The  church  of  St,  Radegunde,  which  has  a 
Roman  apse  (eleventh  centuiy)  and  a  Gothic  nave 
(twelfth  century),  riseson  the  site  of  a  church  founded 
in  the  sixth  century  in  honour  of  the  virgin  queen  St. 
Radegunde,  who  retired  to  the  monastery  of  Ste, 
Croix.  In  the  crypt  is  her  tomb,  and  facing  it  a 
statue  of  the  saint,  an  "ex  voto"  of  Anne  of  Austria 
in  1658,  tor  the  cure  of  her  eon  I^uia  XIV.  The 
church  of  Notie  Dame  la  Grande  has  a  twelfth-cen- 
tury fagade,  which,  to  a  height  of  fifty-six  and  a 
breadth  of  forty-eight  feet,  is  completely  covered  with 
Romanesque  carvings  at  one  time  polychrome.  The 
cathedral,  St.  Peter  a,  ia  a  beautiful  Gothic  building 
begun  in  the  second  half  of  th<;  twelfth  century  under 


the  mgn  of  Henry  II  Plantagenet  of  England  &nd 
Eleanor  of  Aquitaine  and  consecrated  18  October, 
1379.  The  Hotel  de  Vilte  of  Poitiers  contains  some 
frescoes,  masterpieces  of  Puvia  de  Chavannejt;  they 
represent  the  victorious  arrival  of  Charles  Martel  at 
Poiliers,  and  Fortunatus  reading  his  poems  to  St. 
Radegunde.  Among  councils  held  at  Poitiers  are 
those  of:  590,  in  which  the  Prankish  princess  and  nun, 
Chrodielda,  was  excommunicated  for  revolt  agtunst 
her  abbess;  1074,  which  dealt  with  the  matrimonial 
affaira  of  William,  Count  of  Poitiers,  and  to  which 
the  Biahop  of  Poitiers,  laambert,  came  with  a  troop 
of  soldiers  and  dispersed  the  members;  1075,  whicb 
dealt  with  the  heresy  of  Berengarius,  and  at  which 
Giraud  was  papal  legate;  1078,  in  which  the  papal 
legate  Hugues  passeo  laws  against  simony;  1100,  in 
which  Bishop  Norgaud  of  Autun  was  deposed  for 
simony,  Philip  I  of  France  and  his  concubine  Bertrade 
were  excommunicated,  and  the  bishops  narrowly 
escaped  being  stoned  by  the  order  of  the  Count  of 
Poitiers,  who  was  displeased  with  their  decision: 
1106,  at  which  a  cruwade  was  proclaimed.  The  Synoa 
of  1868,  assembled  to  celebrate  the  fifteenth  centenary 
of  St.  Hilary's  death,  was  attended  by  representatives 
from  every  part  of  the  ecclesiastical  province  of 
Bordeaux.  Five  councils  were  held  at  Charroux  in  the 
diocese;  thatof  1027  legislated  against  the  spread  of 
Manichwism,  and  waa  concerned  with  the  "Pax  Dei ", 
or  Truce  of  God, 

Poitiers  is  rich  in  historical  souvenirs.  The  neigh- 
bourhood of  Poitiers  waa  the  scene  of  two  famous 
battles,  that  of  October,  732,  in  which  Charles  Martel 
defeated  Abd-el-Raman  and  definitively  saved  France 
from  Saracen  invasion,  and  that  of  September,  1356, 
in  which  the  King  of  France,  John  II,  the  Good,  was 
made  prisoner  by  the  English.  In  the  convent  of  the 
Cordeliers  at  Poitiers  dwelt  for  sixteen  months  (June, 
1307-8)  Pope  Clement  V,  while  Philip  IV,  the  Fair,  of 
France  dwelt  with  the  Jacobins.  Jacoues  Molay  and 
seventy-two  Templars  were  questioned  by  Clement  V 
at  Poitiers.  In  1428  when  the  English  held  the 
country  north  of  the  Loire,  Poitiers  was  more  or  less 
the  headquartera  of  Charles  VII,  and  thither  in  March, 
1429,  went  Blessed  Jeanne  d'Arc  to  see  Charles  VII 
and  be  questioned  concerning  her  mission.  The  con- 
vent of  the  Calvarians  was  founded  in  1617  by 
Antoinette  d'Orl^ans,  under  the  inspiration  of  the 
Capuchin  Francis  Le  Clere  du  Tremblay.  "Poitiera, 
a  town  full  of  priests  and  monks",  wrote  La  Fontaine 
in  1633,  durins  a  journey  throush  Poitou,  The 
portion  of  the  diocese  which  lies  in  the  Department  of 
Deux-SSvres  waa  greatly  diaturbed  during  the  six- 
teenth century  by  the  Wars  of  Religion  and  under  the 
French  Revolution  by  the  Wara  of  La  Vendue.  Among 
natives  of  the  diDcese  are:  Cardinal  Jean  Balue;  the 
Sajnte-Marthes  (see  Gallia  Christiana);  Filleau  de 
la  Bouchetterie  (1600-82),  who,  in  1654,  accused 
Saint-Cyran,  Jansenius,  and  four  other  Jansenists, 
with  having  at  a  meeting  in  1621,  di»oussed  the  means 
of  substituting  Deism  for  Catholiciam;  Mme  de 
Maintcnon;  the  Protestant  theologiu),  Isaac  Beau- 
aobre  (1659-1738),  the  historian  of  Manichietsm. 
Urbain  Grandier  was  curf  of  Loudun  in  the  diocese 
and  after  a  famous  trial  was  burned  to  death  there  (18 
August,  1634)  on  the  charge  of  having  bewitched  the 
Ursulinea  of  Loudun.  Besides  St.  Radegunde,  the 
great  stunt  of  the  diocese,  and  the  saints  already 
named  the  diocese  especially  venerates:  St.  Abra, 
daughter  of  St.  Hilary;  St.  Leonius  (Litoe),  friend  of 
St,  Hilary;  St.  Justus,  priest,  who  was  designated  as 
his  successor  by  St.  Hilary,  but  who  refused  the 
honour  (fourth  century);  SS.  Savinus  and  Cyprian, 
apostles  of  Poitou,  martyred  by  the  Huns  in  43S;  St. 
Maxentius  (d.  515),  founder  of  a  monastery  between 
Niort  and  Poitiers,  whence  arose  the  town  of  St. 
M^xent;  St.  Fridolinus,  an  Irishman  abbot  of  St. 
Hilary's  of  Poitiers  (d.  c.  540);  St.  Lubin,  Bishop  of 


POLA 


181 


POLAND 


Chartres,  native  of  Poitou  (d.  556);  St.  Junianus, 
director  of  St.  Rad^unde,  founder  and  first  abbot  of 
the  monastery  of  Mair^rEvescault  (d.  587);  St. 
Agnes  (d.  588) ;  St.  Disciola  (d.  583),  abbess  and  nun 
of  Ste.  Croix;  St.  L6ger,  Abbot  of  St.  Maxentius  and 
afterwards  Bishop  of  Autun  (616-678);  St.  Adeleknus 
(All^ume),  Abbot  of  La  Chaise-Dieu,  Prior  of  Burgos 
(d.  1097),  a  native  of  Loudun;  St.  William  of  Aqui- 
taine,  Count  of  Poitiers  (1099-1137),  excommunicated 
as  a  partisan  of  the  Schism  of  Anacletus,  and  con- 
verted by  St.  Bernard:  and  Blessed  Francis  d' Amboise 
(d.  1485),  whose  father  was  Viscount  de  Thouars; 
Blessed  'rhdophane  V6nard,  missionary,  martyred  in 
Tonkin  in  1861,  bom  at  St.  Loup^ur-Thouet  in  the 
Diocese  of  Poitiers;  Yen.  Charles  Comay,  mission- 
ary in  China,  martjrred  in  1839,  a  native  of  Loudun. 

The  chief  shrines  of  the  diocese  are:  Notre-Dame 
la  Grande,  or  Notre-Dame  des  Clefs  at  Poitiers,  a 
place  of  pilgrimage  since  the  thirteenth  century; 
Notre-Dame  de  TAgenouill^e  at  Azay-sur-Thouet,  a 
place  of  pilgrimage  since  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth 
century;  Notre-Dame  de  Piti^,  near  the  Chapelle  St. 
Laurent,  a  celebrated  place  of  pilgrimage  during  the 
Middle  Ages;  Notre-Dame  de  Beauchdne,  at  Cerizay, 
a  place  of  pilgrimage  since  the  twelfth  century.   Many 

Eilgrims  are  also  drawn  by  the  chapel  built  at 
iigug6  on  the  site  of  the  cell  of  a  catechumen  whom 
St.  Martin  brought  to  life  in  order  to  baptize  him,  by 
the  crypt  of  St.  Radegunde  at  Poitiers,  and  by  the 
church  at  Margay,  built  in  1884,  the  first  church  to  be 
dedicated  to  St.  Benedict  Labre.  Before  the  applica- 
tion of  the  Associations  Law  of  1901  there  were  in  the 
Diocese  of  Poitiers,  Augustinians  of  the  Assumption, 
Jesuits,  Dominicans,  Canons  Regular  of  St.  Augustine 
and  many  congregations  of  teaching  brothers,  a  house 
of  Picpus  Fathers,  who  were  found^  at  Poitiers  early 
in  the  nineteentn  century  by  the  Venerable  P^re 
Coudrin,  and  who  afterwards  changed  their  parent- 
house  to  Paris.  Many  important  con^gations  of 
women  originated  in  the  diocese:  The  Daughters  of 
the  Cross  known  as  Sisters  of  St.  Andrew  (mother- 
house  at  La  Puye),  a  nursing  and  teaching  order, 
established  in  1807  by  Ven.  Andr6-Hubert  Foumet, 
pastor  of  St.  Pierre-de-Maill6.  and  his  penitent, 
Elisabeth  Bichier  des  Ages;  this  congregation  has 
houses  in  Spain  and  Italy;  the  Sisters  of  the  Immacu- 
late Conception,  a  teaching  order  founded  in  1854  by 
P^re  P^cot  with  mother-house  at  Niort;  the  Sisters  of 
St.  Philomena,  a  teaching  order  founded  in  the  middle 
of  the  nineteenth  century  by  Abb^  Gaillard  with 
mother-house  at  Sal  vert.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
twentieth  century  the  religious  congregations  in  the 
diocese  had  charge  of  44  nurseries,  1  school  for  the 
blind,  2  schools  for  deaf  and  dumb,  1  orphanage  for 
boys,  7  orphanages  for  girls,  13  hospitals,  1  home  for 
incurables,  1  lunatic  asylum,  2  houses  of  retreat,  and 
6  district  nursing  homes.  In  1905,  at  the  breach  of  the 
Concordat,  the  Diocese  of  Poitiers  had  684,808  in- 
habitants, 69  parishes,  574  auxiliary  parishes,  and  97 
curacies  maintained  by  the  State. 

GaUia  Chriaiiana,  nova,  II  (1720).  113&-1221:  inatr.  325-80; 
Chamard,  Hisi,  BccUaitutique  du  Poitou  (3  vola.,  Poitiers.  1874. 
1880,  1890);  AuBer,  Hiai.  gin.  civile  religieuae  et  liUiraire  du 
Poitou  (8  vols.,  Poitiers,  1885-8) ;  CheroA,  Lm  viei  de*  saints  du 
Poitou  (Poitiers.  1856);  Barrier  de  Montault,  (Eutres  eomr- 
pUUs,  IX  (Poitiers.  1894) ;  Beauchbt-Filleau,  Pouilii  du  Dio" 
cUe  de  Poitiers  (Poitiers,  1869);  Chamard,  St  Martin  et  son 
monaathre  de  Ligugi  (Poitiers,  1873) ;  Botle,  Tfu  Irish  College  in 
Paris  with  a  brief  recount  of  other  Irish  Colleges  in  France  (London, 
1901);  RoBUCRON.  Payaages  et  monuments  du  Poitou  (2  vols., 
Paris,  1903);  Richard.  Hiat.  des  eomUs  de  PoiUm  (2  vols.,  Paris, 
1903);  DE  LA  Croix,  Ettide  sommaire  du  baptisUre  5<.  Jean  de 
Poitiers  (Poitiers,  1903) ;  Idem.  Lea  origines  des  aneiens  monuments 
reiigieux  de  Poitiers  (1906) :  Idem,  La  ChapeUe  St,  Sixte  et  les  ca- 
thSdrales  de  Poitiers  (1907);  LefAvrb  Pontaus.  St.  Hilaire  de 
Poitiers,  Hude  arehioiogique  (Caen,  1905) ;  MiRiMis,  Notes  d'un 
voyage  dana  Vouest  de  la  Prance  (Paris,  1836) ;  de  la  M AUviNiibRE, 
Poitiers  et  Angoulime,  St.  Savin,  Chauvigny  (Paris,  1908);  Four- 
NIER,  Statute  des  Univeraitis  francaiaes,  III  (Paris,  1892).  283-335; 
PiLOTELLB,  Baaai  histor.  sur  Vancienne  univeraiti  de  Poitiers  in 
Mhnoires  de  la  SociiU  des  antiquaires  de  Vouest,  XXVII  (1863); 
DAJmoss,  Not9«  eur  P  University  de  Poitiers  id  Bulletin  de  la  facuUi 


des  leUres  de  Poitiers  (1883) ;    Delfoub,  Les  Jituiles  d  Poitiers 

ieo4-i7et  (Paris,  1902).  Georges  Goyau. 

Pola.    See  Parbnzo  and  Pola,  Diocese  of. 

Poland. — I.  Geography. — The  western  part  of 
the  Sannatian  Plain  together  with  the  northern  slopes 
of  theOarpathians,  i.  e.  the  territory  included  between 
lat.  46**  and  59**  N.,  and  between  long.  32**  and  53°  E. 
of  Ferro,  with  an  area  of  about  435,200  square  miles 
(twice  as  large  as  Germany),  constituted  the  former 
Kingdom  of  Poland.  Very  likely  Poland  received  its 
name  on  account  of  its  extensive  plains  (in  Polish  the 
word  for  "field",  or  "plain",  is  pcle),  which  are  the 
characteristic  feature  of  its  topography.  As  an  inde- 
pendent country  (i.  e.,  until  the  year  1772),  Poland 
was  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Baltic  Sea,  on  the 
east  by  the  Russian  Empire,  on  the  south  by  the  do- 
minions of  the  Tatars  and  Hungary,  on  the  west  by 
Bohemia  and  Prussia.  The  rivers  of  Poland  flow 
either  to  the  north  and  west,  and  empty  into  the  Baltic, 
or  flow  south  into  the  Black  Sea.  The  rivers  that 
empty  into  the  Baltic  are  the  Oder,  Vistula,  Niemen, 
and  the  western  DUna;  those  that  empty  into  the 
Black  Sea  are  the  Dniester,  Boh  (Bug),  and  Dnieper. 
The  climate  is  universally  temperate,  and  the  four 
seasons  are  sharply  defined.  The  chief  industry  has 
always  been  agriculture,  and  little  account  has  ever 
been  made  of  either  commerce  or  manufactures,  al- 
though the  country  was  situated  on  the  direct  line  of 
communication  between  Europe  and  Asia. 

The  various  divisions,  by  the  union  of  which  the 
Kingdom  of  Poland  was  formed,  still  bear  their  orig- 
inal names.  They  are:  (1)  Great  Poland,  in  the  basin 
of  the  Warthe.  Cities:  Gnesen,  Posen  on  the  Warthc; 
(2)  Kujavia,  north  of  Great  Poland,  at  the  foot  of  the 
Baltic  ridge  to  the  left  of  the  Vistula.  City:  Brom- 
berg;  (3)  Little  Poland,  the  basin  of  the  upper  and 
middle  Vistula.  Cities:  Cracow,  Sandomir,  Czen- 
stochowa,  Radom;  (4)  Silesia,  at  the  headwaters  of 
the  Vistula  and  on  the  upper  Oder,  belonged  to 
Poland  only  until  the  year  1335.  Capital:  Breslau; 
(5)  Masovia,  in  the  basin  of  the  middle  Vistula. 
Capital:  Warsaw;  (6)  Pomerania,  between  the  Baltic 
Sea,  the  Vistula  and  Netze.  Cities:  Kolberg  and 
Danzig;  (7)  Prussia,  originally  the  country  between 
the  Baltic,  the  Vistula,  the  Niemen  and  the  Drewenz. 
Cities:  Thorn,  Marienburg,  and  Konigsberg;  (8) 
Podlachia,  on  the  rivers  Narew,  and  Bug.  City: 
Bjelsk;  (9)  Polesia,  in  the  valley  of  the  Pripet.  City: 
Pmsk;  (1())  Volhynia,  in  the  basin  of  the  rivers  Styr, 
Horyn,  and  Slucz.   Cities:  Vladimir  and  Kamenetz; 

(11)  Red  Russia,  on  the  Dniester,  San,  Bug,  and  Prut. 
Cities:    Sanok,  Przemysl,  Lemberg,  and  Kolomyia; 

(12)  Podolia,  in  the  basin  of  the  Strypa,  Seret,  Sbrucz, 
and  upper  Boh.  Cities:  Kamenetz,  on  the  Smotiycz, 
Mohileff,  on  the  Dniester,  Buczacz;  (13)  The 
Ukraine,  east  of  the  Dniester  in  the  basin  of  the  Bug 
and  Dnieper.  Cities:  Kieff,  Zhitomir,  Poltava, 
Oczakow,  and  Cherson;  (14)  White  Russia,  on  the 
upper  Dnieper,  Duna,  and  Niemen.  Cities:  Minsk, 
Vitebsk,  and  Polotsk;  (15)  Lithuania,  on  the  middle 
Niemen,  extending  to  the  DUna.  Cities:  Vilna, 
Grodno,  Kovno;  (16)  Samland,  to  the  right  of  the 
lower  Niemen.  City:  Worme;  (17)  Courland,  on  the 
Gulf  of  Riga,  with  the  city  of  Mitau,  belonged  to 
Poland  only  indirectly;  (18)  Livonia,  on  the  Gulf  of 
Riga,  and  Esthonia,  on  the  Gulf  of  Finland,  belonged 
to  Poland  for  a  short  time  only. 

Poland  was,  for  the  most  part,  populated  by 
Poles:  after  the  union  of  Lithuania  with  Poland  were 
added  Ruthenians  and  Tatars,  and  furthermore,  though 
in  no  considerable  numbers,  Jews,  Germans,  Ar- 
menians, Gipies,  and  Letts.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
the  Poles  inhabited  the  whole  of  Great  Poland,  Lit- 
tle Poland,  and  a  part  of  Lithuania,  as  well  as  part 
of  the  Ruthenian  territory.  Moreover,  the  nobility, 
the  urban  population,  and  the  upper  and  better  edu- 


POLAND 


182 


POLAND 


cated  classes  in  general  throughout  the  whole  country 
were  either  Poles  or  thoroughly  Polonised.  The  total 
population  was  generally  given  as  nine  millions.  The 
Ruthenians  inhabited  the  eastern  (White  and  Red 
Russia),  and  the  south-eastern  provinces  (Red  Russia 
and  the  Ukraine).  The  Lithuanians  formed  the  bulk 
of  the  population  in  Samland  and  the  wa3rwodeehips  of 
Wilna  and  Troki.  A  political  distinction  was  made 
between  "Crown  Poland "  and  Lithuania.  These  two 
divisions,  which  united  after  1569,  differed  more  par- 
ticularly in  that  each  country  had  its  own  officials. 
After  1569,  also,  the  designation  "Republic  of  Po- 
land" became  customary  to  denote  not  any  definite 
polity,  but  a  league  of  states  (Lithuania  and  Crown 
Poland).  Crown  Poland  was  called  a  kingdom; 
Lithuania,  a  grand-duchy.  In  1772,  1793,  and  1795 
the  territory  of  Poland  was  divided  among  the  three 
adjoining  states:  Lithuania  and  Little  Russia  were 
floven  to  Russia;  the  purely  Polish  territories,  to 
Prussia  and  Austria.  The  new  boundary  between 
these  states  was  formed  by  the  Pilica  ana  the  Bug. 
Thus  Russia  received  8500  square  miles  and  6,500,0& 
inhabitants;  Prussia,  2700  square  miles  and  3,000,000 
inhabitants;  Austria,  2100  square  miles  and  4,275,000 
inhabitants. 

Napoleon  took  from  Prussia  the  Polish  territories 
annexed  in  1793  and  1795  and  out  of  them  formed 
what  he  called  the  Duchy  of  Warsaw.  New  territorial 
chan^  were  effected  by  the  Congress  of  Vienna: 
Prussia  received  a  part  of  the  Duchy  of  Warsaw  as  the 
Grand  duchy  of  Poeen;  Russia  received  the  rest  of 
the  Duchy  of  Warsaw  as  a  separate  Kingdom  of 
Poland  (Congress  Poland);  Austria  retained  the  terri- 
tories previously  acquirea,  under  the  name  of  the 
Kingdom  of  Galida  and  Lodomeria.  Galicia  now 
has  a  population  of  more  than  seven  millions,  of  whom 
somewhat  less  than  four  millions  are  Poles,  and 
3j074,000,  Ruthenians.    Grouped  according  to  reli- 

fion  there  are  3,350.000  Catholics  of  the  Latin  Rite, 
,104,000  Greek  Umats,  and  811,000  Jews. 
The  San,  a  tributary  of  the  Vistula,  divides  Galicia 
into  an  eastern  and  western  part.  The  latter  is  occu- 
pied by  the  Poles,  the  former  by  the  Ruthenians, 
though  there  are  also  many  Poles.  For  administrative 
purposes  GaUcia  is  divided  into  seventy-nine  dis- 
tricts. The  intellectual  centre  of  the  country  is 
Cracow  (150,000  inhabitants),  but  the  actual  capital 
is  Lemberg  (250,000  inhabitants).  There  are  two 
universities,  one  at  Cracow  and  one  at  Lemberg,  one 
poljrtechnic  institute  at  Lemberg,  and  one  commercial 
academy  in  each  of  these  two  cities.  In  the  Polish 
provinces  belonging  to  Prussia  there  are  approx- 
imately four  million  Poles.  In  Silesia  they  constitute 
two-thirda  of  the  population^  they  are  also  found  on 
the  Baltic  and  in  tne  provmces  of  East  and  West 
Prussia,  being  most  numerous  (more  than  1,500,000) 
in  the  Grand  duchy  of  Posen.  The  capital,  Posen, 
numbers  about  150,000  inhabitants.  Among  the 
Poles  the  Catholic  religion  predominates.  The  Poles 
under  Russian  rule  are  found  chiefly  in  Congress 
Poland;  also,  in  small  numbers,  in  Lithuania,  Volhy- 
nia,  Podolia,  and  the  Ukraine.  The  total  probably 
amounts  to  nine  millions.  The  capital  of  Russian 
Poland  is  Waraaw,  with  800,000  inhabitants.  The 
Greek  Uniat  Bishopric  of  Chelm  (Kholm),  situated 
within  the  boundanes  of  the  Kingdom  of  Poland,  was 
compelled  by  force  to  accept  the  schism  in  1875;  how- 
ever, since  1905,  a  large  majority  of  the  former  Uniats 
have  returned  to  the  Catholic  Church. 

II.  PouTiCAL  History. — At  the  period  when  the 
authentic  history  of  Poland  begins,  tne  Germans  had 
already  become  the  most  powerful  nation  of  Europe, 
and  their  kings  sought  to  extend  their  dominion  to 
the  Slavic  tribes  beyond  the  Elbe.  The  latter  were 
very  soon  partly  exterminated,  partly  subjugated. 
The  eastern  boundary  of  Grermany  was  advanced  as 
far  as  the  Oder;   beyond  this  was  Polish  territory. 


But  the  German  armies  did  not  halt  there;  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  where  Frankfort  now  stands  they 
crraised  the  Oder  and  attacked  the  Polish  strongholda. 
Mieszko,  the  Polish  ruler  of  Posen  (962-92),  a^owl- 
edged  the  German  Emperor  as  his  lord  paramount, 
promisini;  to  pav  a  yearly  tribute,  and  upon  demand 
to  aid  him  with  an  armed  force.  In  M3  Mieszko 
bound  himself  and  his  people  to  embrace  Christianity. 
Christian  missionaries  were  at  once  sent  to  Poland: 
the  first  bishopric  was  that  of  Poeen,  which  was  placed 
under  the  supervision  of  the  German  archbishop  at 
Magdeburg.  This  was  the  first  contact  of  the  Poles 
with  European  civilization.  From  Germany  and 
Bohemia  numerous  missionaries  entered  the  country 
to  baptize  the  people,  while  from  all  the  Western 
countries  came  immiflrants  and  monks,  and  convents 
began  to  be  built.  The  spread  of  Christianity  was 
greatly  furthered  by  the  two  wives  of  Prince  Mieszko: 
first,  Dabrowska,  a  sister  of  the  King  of  Bohemia, 
and  then  Oda,  formerly  a  nun  whom  Mieszko  haa 
married  after  the  death  of  Dabrowska.  Prince 
Mieszko  considered  himself  a  vassal  of  the  pope,  and 
as  such  paid  him  tribute.  From  this  time  on,  the 
Church  contributes  so  much  to  the  national  develop- 
ment that  it  will  be  impossible  to  trace  intelligently 
the  political  history  of  Poland  without  at  the  same 
time  following  its  ecclesiastical  development. 

Poland  haa  hardly  begun  to  play  a  part  in  history 
when  it  acquired  extraordinary  power.  This  was  m 
the  reign  of  the  famous  Boleslaw  Chrobry  (992-1025), 
the  eldest  son  of  the  first  Polish  ruler.  His  dominions 
included  all  the  lands  from  the  Baltic  to  the  country 
beyond  the  Carpathians,  and  from  the  River  Oder  to 
the  provinces  beyond  the  Vistula.  He  had  at  his 
command,  ready  for  instant  service,  a  well-equipped 
army  of  20,000  men.  In  spite  of  his  great  power, 
Boleslaw  continued  to  pay  the  customary  tribute  to 
Germany.  By  his  discreet  diplomacy  he  was  Buocessi 
f  ul  in  obtaining  the  consent  of  the  pope,  as  well  as  of 
the  German  emperor,  to  the  erection  of  an  archiepis- 
copal  see  at  Gnesen,  and  thus  the  Polish  Churdi  was 
reueved  of  its  dependence  upon  German  archbishops. 
To  emphasize  Poland's  independence  of  Grermany, 
Boleslaw  assumed  the  title  of  King,  beinp;  crowned  by 
the  newly  created  archbishop  of  Gnesen  m  1024.  The 
cler|^  in  Poland  were  at  that  time  exclusively  of 
foreign  birth;  intimate  relations  between  them  and 
the  people  were  therefore  impossible.  The  latter  did 
not  Decome  enthusiastic  about  the  new  religion,  nor 
yet  did  they  return  to  paganism,  for  severe  penalties, 
such  as  knocking  out  the  teeth  for  violating  the  pre- 
cept of  fasting,  maintained  obedience  to  the  clergy 
among  the  people. 

After  the  death  of  Chrobry  disaster  befell  the  Poles. 
Their  neighbours  attacked  them  on  all  sides.  The 
son  of  Boleslaw,  Mieczyslaw  II  (1025-34),  unable  to 
cope  with  his  enemies,  yielded  ^legiance  to  the  em- 
peror, and  lost  the  title  of  king.  After  his  death  there 
was  an  interregnum  (1034-40)  marked  by  a  series  of 
violent  revolutions.  Hosts  of  rebellious  peasants 
traversed  the  country  from  end  to  end,  furiously 
attacked  castles,  churches,  and  convents,  and  mur- 
dered noblemen  and  ecclesiastics.  In  Masovia  pagan- 
ism was  re-established.  Casimir,  a  son  of  Mieczjyslaw 
II,  sumamed  the  Restorer,  recovered  the  reins  of 
government,  with  the  aid  of  Henry  VIII,  restored  law 
and  order,  and  rooted  out  idolatry.  At  his  death  the 
sovereignty  devolved  upon  his  son,  Boleslaw  II, 
Smialy  (105S-79).  This  ruler  was  favoured  by 
fortune  in  his  warlike  undertakings.  His  success  at 
last  led  him  to  enter  upon  a  conflict  with  the  emperor. 
Conditions  at  the  time  were  favourable  to  his  securing 
political  independence.  The  Emperor  Henry  IV  was 
engaged  in  a  struggle  for  supremacy  with  Pope 
Gregory  VII,  who  allied  himself  with  the  vassal 
princes  hostile  to  the  emperor,  among  them  Boleslaw 
Smialy,  to  whom  he  sent  the  kingly  crown.    Poland 


POUND  If 

revolted  from  the  empire,  and  the  Polish  Chunth 
began  a  reTonn  in  accordance  with  Gregory's  decrees. 
By  the  leading  noblee  Bolealaw  was  thoroughly  hated 
Be  a  deapot;  ^e  maesea  of  the  people  murmured  under 
Se  burden  of  incessant  ware;  the  clergy  opposed  the 
energetic  reformation  of  the  Church,  which  the  king 
was  canying  on,  their  opposition  being  particularly 
direet«d  against  Gi^ory  s  decree  enforcing  the  celi- 
bacy of  the  clergy.  The  dissatisfied  elementa  rose  and 
placed  themselves  under  the  protection  of  Bohemia, 
Bishop  Stanislaw  even  placed  the  king  under  the  ban 
of  the  Church,  while  the  king  declared  the  bishop 
guilty  of  high  treason  for  allying  himself  with  Bohemia 
and  the  emperor.  The  king's  eentence  was  terribly 
executwl  at  Cracow,  where  the  bishop  was  done  to 
death  and  hewn  in  pieces.  In  the  civil  war  which 
ensued  Bolealaw  was  worsted  and  compelled  to  take 
refuge  in  Hungary. 

After  his  death  Poland  had  to  pass  through  severe 
and  protracted  strugsles  to  mfuntam  its  independence. 
"Towards  the  end  of  the  eleventh  century  its  power  was 
broken  by  the  Bohemians  and  Germans,  and  it  was 
once  more  reduced  to  the  condition  of  an  inrignificant 
principality,  under  the  incompetent  Wladielaw  Her- 
man  (108L-110I).  At  this  period  the  clei^  consti- 
tuted the  only  educated  class  of  the  entire  population, 
but  they  were  foreigners,  and  the  natives  joined  their 
nuiks  hut  slowly.  At  all  events  they  are  entitled  to 
extraordinary  credit  for  the  diffusion  of  learning  in 
Polam],  The  convents  were  at  that  time  the  centres 
of  learning:  the  monks  taught  the  people  improved 
methods  of  cultivating  the  soil,  and  built  inns  and 
hospitals.  During  the  whole  of  the  twelfth  and  thir- 
teenth centuries  Poland  was  in  a  most  unfortunate 
condition.  Boleslaw  III,  Kraywousty  (1112-39),  at 
bis  death  divided  the  country  into  principalities, 
which  were  bequeathed  to  his  sons  as  hereditary 
poeeeesions.  The  eldest  son  was  to  receive  the  tem- 
tory  of  Cracow,  with  his  capital  at  Cracow,  and  to  be 
the  overlord  of  the  whole  country.  In  course  of  time 
the  other  sons  again  divided  their  lands  among  their 
children,  and  thus  Poland  was  epUt  up  into  smaller 
and  smaller  priucipaUties — a  process  which  proved 
fatal.  The  overlords  were  unable  to  effect  permanent 
reforms;  WladialawII  (1139-46),  Boleslaw  the  Curly- 
haired  (1146-73),  Mieciyslaw  the  Old  (1173-77), 
Casimir  II  the  Just  (1177-94),  MieMysIaw  the  Old 
(supreme  for  the  second  time,  1194-1202),  Wladielaw 
III  (1202-06).  The  only  spiritual  bond  that  held  the 
dismembered  parts  of  Poland  together  was  the 
Church.  With  this  in  mind  Lescek  the  Wise  (1206- 
27)  increased  popular  respect  for  the  clergv  by  ^ving 
them  the  right  to  elect  their  bishops,  and  temtorial 
jurisdiction  over  church  lands.  His  brother,  Prince 
Conrad  of  Masovia,  about  this  time  summoned  the 
knights  of  ilie  Teutonic  Order.  The  heathen  tribes 
on  the  borders  of  Poland — Jazygians,  Lithuanians, 
and  Prussians — were  constantly  making  predatory  in- 
clusions into  the  country.  Tne  Prussians,  who  had 
settled  east  of  the  Vistula,  were  active  in  these  raids. 

To  put  an  end  to  this  state  of  things  a  knightly  order 
established  by  Germans  in  Palestine  was  summoned 
by  Conrad  for  the  conquest  and  Christianization  of 
Prussia.  These  Knights  of  the  Cross,  so  called  from 
the  black  cross  upon  their  white  cloaks,  established 
themselves  on  the  Vistula  in  1228.  They  were  also 
known  as  the  Teutonic  Knights  (Deutschen  Ritter). 
In  a  short  time  they  exterminate!  the  Pnissians^  to 
replace  whom  German  colonists  were  brought  into 
the  land,  forming  a  powerful  state  controlled  by 
tlie  order,  a  state  of  strictly  German  character, 
which  soon  directed  its  attacks  against  Poland.  The 
conditi<m  of  Poland,  meanwhile,  was  disastrously 
affected  by  another  cause:  it  was  subdivided  into 
about  thirty  small  states,  and  the  supreme  princes, 
Henry  I  the  Bearded  (1232-38),  Henry  II  the  Pious 
(1238-41),   Boleslaw   (1243-78),    Lesiek  the  Black 


(1290-05),  and  Waclaw  II  (1290-1305),  could  find  no 
remedy  for  the  evil.  Moreover,  in  the  years  1241  and 
1259  the  Tatars  invaded  the  countiy.  completely 

devastated  it,  and  carried  off  vast  multitudes  into 
captivity.  The  territories  thus  depopulated  were 
then  occupied  by  well  organized  colonies  from  Ger- 
many. In  the  early  thirteenth  and  late  fourteenth 
centuries  these  coloniats  became  possessed  with  a  de- 
sire to  seiiethcsovereign  power  in  the  State,  weakened 
as  it  was  by  sub-division.  But  the  magnates  of 
Poluid  decided  to  oppose  this  scheme  resolutely.  The 
clersy  issued  instructions  at  synods  ag^nst  the  ad- 
mission of  Germans  to  chureh  benefices,  the  church 
being  the  only  power  that  could  supply  any  means  of 
firm  national  or- 
ganisation. The 
Archbishop  of 
Gnesen  was  the 
supreme  religious 
head  of  aU  the  Pol- 
ish principalities. 
.The  clei^  of  the 
time,  having  been 
for  fully  a  century 
native  roles,  culti- 
vated the  Polish 
language  in  the 
churches  and 
schools.  It  was 
among  the  cler^ 
that  the  opposi- 
tion to  the  Ger- 
man influence  first 
took  form.  Above 
all,itwa8theclei^ 
who  took  active 
measures  to  bring 
about  the  union  ol 

the  various  divi-    By  Vrit  8»«.  in  theC.U 
dons  of  Poland  into  one  great  kingdom. 

Circumstances  favoured  this  plan.  For  during  thia  < 
period  of  incessant  civil  wars,  Tatar  invasions,  fam- 
ine, contagious  diseases,  conflagrations,  and  floods, 
the  piety  of  the  common  people  was  remarkable. 
Never  before  or  after  was  the  number  of  hermtta  and 
pilgrims  BO  large,  never  was  the  building  of  convents 
carried  on  so  extensively.  Princes,  princesses,  nobles, 
and  knights  entered  the  various  orders;  large  sums 
of  money  were  given  for  religious  foundations.  To 
this  period  belongthc  Polish  s^nts  whom  the  Church 
has  recognized.  The  clergy  gained  extraordinary  in- 
fluence. In  the  convent-schools  singing  and  preaching 
was  henceforth  carried  on  in  the  Polish  language. 
Germans  were  not  admitted  to  the  higher  dignities  of 
the  Church.  At  the  same  time  the  Polish  clergy  pre- 
pared to  bring  about  a  union  of  the  several  states  into 
which  the  country  was  divided.  This  was  accom- 
plished after  many  years  of  war  by  the  energetic 
princeWladisIawsumamedtheShort  (1305-33).  He 
determined,  furthermore,  to  have  himself  crowned 
]dng.  After  receiving  the  kingly  crown  from  the  pope, 
he  crowned  himself  in  the  city  of  Cracow  (1320).  His 
whole  reign  was  spent  in  warfare;  in  a  way,  he  re- 
stored Poland  and  preserved  it  from  foreign  domina- 
tion. His  eon  and  successor,  Casimir  the  Great 
(1333-70),  undertook  to  restore  order  in  the  internal 
affwrs  of  the  realm,  demorahzed  by  a  century  of  al- 
most uninterrupted  warfare.  He  promoted  agricul- 
ture, the  trades,  and  commerce;  he  built  fortresses 
and  cities,  constructed  highways,  drained  marshes, 
founded  vill^es,  extended  popular  education,  de- 
fended the  laws,  made  them  known  to  the  people  by 
collecting  them  into  a  code  (13'17),  established  a 
supreme  court  at  Cracow  (1366),  and  offered  a  refuge 
in  Poland  to  the  Jews,  who  were  then  everywhere  per- 
secuted.    He  also  founded  a  univer«ty  at  Cracow 


POLAND 


184 


POLAND 


(1364)  and  organized  a  militia.  When  he  inherited 
the  Principality  of  Halicz  (Galicia)^  a  part  of  Little 
Russia,  he  Drought  this  district  to  a  high  degree  of  pros- 
perity by  his  policies.  Casimir  died  without  issue, 
and  with  him  the  Piast  dynasty  became  extinct. 

During  Casimir's  reign  the  clergy,  on  account  of 
their  services  in  bringing  about  the  unification  of  the 
kingdom,  gained  extraordinary  popularity,  all  the 
more  because  they  were  the  only  educated  element 
of  the  nation.  There  were  seven  religious  orders: 
Benedictines,  Templars,  Cistercians,  Dominicans, 
Franciscans,  Lateran  Canons,  and  Praemonstraten- 
sians.  Libraries  and  schools  were  to  be  found  only 
in  the  convents,  where,  also,  the  poor,  the  sick,  and 
the  crippled  received  comfort  and  help.  Besides  pro- 
moting retigion,  some  of  the  convents,  especially  those 
of  the  Cistercians,  sought  to  promote  agriculture  by 
clearing  forests,  laying  out  gardens,  and  introducing 
new  varieties  of  fruits,  etc.  The  Cistercians  em- 
ployed the  lay  members  attached  to  their  order  in 
manual  labour,  under  strict  regulations,  in  their  fields, 
gardens  and  workshops.  The  Norbertine,  Cistercian, 
Dominican,  Franciscan,  and  Benedictine  nuns  de- 
voted themselves  more  particularly  to  the  education 
of  girls.  Laymen  despised  learning  as  something  un- 
worthy of  them.  On  the  other  hand,  the  clergy  only 
unwilUngly  admitted  lasrmen  into  their  schools,  which 
they  regarded  as  preparatory  institutions  for  those 
intending  to  take  orders.  The  first  schools  were  estab- 
lished by  the  Benedictines  at  Tyniec,  but  as  early  as 
the  thirteenth  century  this  order,  composed  for  the 
most  part  of  foreign-bom  members,  ceased  teaching. 
The  secular  clergy  established  schools  in  the  cathe- 
dral, collegiate,  and  parish  churches. 

While  Casimir  still  lived  the  nobilitv  elected  as  his 
successor  Louis,  King  of  Hungar3r  (1370-82).  who 
assumed  the  regency  without  opposition  immediately 
after  Casimir's  death.  Under  him  the  relations  exist- 
ing between  the  people  and  the  Crown  underwent 
substantial  changes.  Louis  had  no  sons,  only 
daughters,  and  he  was  anxious  that  one  of  these 
should  occupy  the  Throne  of  Poland.  With  this 
object  in  view  he  began  to  treat  with  the  Polish  nobles. 
The  nobles  assented  to  his  plan  and  in  return  received 
numerous  privileges.  Thereafter  there  was  bargaining 
and  haggling  with  each  new  kin^,  a  course  which 
finally  resulted  in  the  complete  limitation  of  the  royal 
power.  On  the  other  hand,  the  despotism  of  the 
aristocracy  increased  in  proportion  as  the  power  of  the 
kings  declined,  greatly  to  the  detriment  of  the  other 
estates  of  the  re^m.  Louis  was  succeeded,  after  much 
hesitation  on  her  part,  by  Queen  Hedwig  (Jadwiga), 
in  the  year  1384.  The  Poles  urged  her  marriage  to 
Jagiello,  or  Jagellon,  the  Prince  of  Lithuania,  but  on 
condition  that  he  and  all  his  people  should  embrace 
Christianity.    As  soon  as  Jagiello  had  accepted  this 

Sroposal  and  had  been  baptized,  he  was  crowned 
:ing  of  Poland  (1386-1434)— on  the  strength  of  being 
the  consort  of  Queen  Hedwig.  Soon  after  the  close  of 
the  coronation  festi\dties  at  Cracow  a  large  body  of 
ecclesiastics  crossed  into  Lithuania,  where,  after  a 
short  resistance  on  the  part  of  the  heathen  priests,  the 
people  were  baptized  in  vast  multitudes.  One  ot  the 
most  important  tasks  of  the  united  kingdom  of 
Poland  and  Lithuania  was  the  final  reckoning  with 
the  Teutonic  Knights,  whose  power  still  threatened 
both  countries.  In  1409  began  a  war  which  was  sig- 
nalized by  the  crushing  defeat  of  the  order  at  Tannen- 
berg-Griinfelde.  The  battle  of  Tannenberg  broke  for 
all  time  the  power  of  the  order,  and  placed  Poland 
among  the  great  powers  of  Europe.  .  Until  then 
Poland  had  been  looked  upon  as  a  semi-civilized  coun- 
try, where  the  natives  were  little  better  than  savages, 
ana  culture  was  represented  by  the  German  clergy 
and  colonists.  With  the  battle  at  Tannenberg  this 
period  of  disrepute  was  at  an  end. 
The  influence  of  the  Polish  clergy  was  still  further 


increased  after  the  union  of  Poland  and  Lithuania. 
The  royal  chancery  was  administered  by  clerics.  The 
clergy  now  (1413-16)  caused  the  adoption  of  a  whole 
series  of  enactments  jagainst  heresy  with  especially 
severe  provisions  against  apostates.  In  the  general 
svnods,  in  which  the  Polish  clergy  had  former^  been 
classed  as  German,  its  representatives  in  the  course  of 
time  received  even  greater  attention,  and  the  candi- 
dacy of  Polish  church  dietaries  for  the  papal  Throne 
was  considered  in  all  seriousness.  Polish  ecclesiastics 
brought  it  about  that  the  adherents  of  the  Eastern 
Schism  in  the  Province  of  Halicz  (Galicia)  made 
their  submission  to  the  Holy  See  at  Florence  in 
1439.  Jagiello's  son,  Wladislaw  (1434r-44)  in  the  year 
1440  accepted  the  Hungarian  Crown  also,  in  order 
that,  with  the  united  forces  of  the  two  Kinedoms, 
he  mi^ht  successfully  resist  the  power  of  the  Turks. 
He  gained  a  brilliant  victory  over  the  Turks  (1443), 
but,  continuing  the  war  at  the  pope's  instance,  in 
spite  of  the  treaty  of  peace,  met  with  disaster,  and  feU 
in  the  battle  of  Varna.  His  successors,  Casimir  the 
Jagellon  (1447-92),  John  Albert  (1492-1601),  and  Al- 
exander (1501-06),  wrought  for  the  welfare  of  theState 
with  varying  success.  The  son  of  Alexander,  Sigismund 
I  (1506-48),  sought  to  consolidate  his  military  power 
and  replenish  his  treasury.  He  succeeded  in  redeeming 
the  mortgaged  estates  of  the  Crown,  but  could  not  ob- 
tain the  consent  of  the  nobility  to  the  formation  of  a 
standing  army  and  the  payment  of  regular  taxes.  Sigi»- 
mund  also  carried  on  several  wars — with  the  Russians, 
the  Tatars,  and  the  WsJlachians.  In  his  reign,  too, 
the  secularization  of  the  domains  of  the  Teutonic 
order  took  place.  The  grand  master,  Albert,  with  the 
whole  chapter  and  a  majority  of  the  knights,  abjured 
their  allegiance  to  the  emperor,  and  adopted  Luther- 
anism,  an  example  followed  by  a  large  part  of  the 
Prussian  nobility  and  all  the  commonalty.  At  the 
same  time  the  land  which  had  heretofore  belonged  to 
the  order  was  proclaimed  as  a  secular  Prussian  prin- 
cipality. Poland,  desirous  of  continuing  its  suzerainty 
over  Prussia,  sanctioned  these  changes  (1525),  on  con- 
dition, however,  that  Albert  should  swear  allegiance 
to  the  Polish  kin^.  Albert  accepted  these  terms, 
and  Prussia  accordmgly  became  a  fief  of  the  Jagellons. 
Towards  the  end  of  Sigismund's  reign,  between  1530 
and  1540,  a  powerful  tendency  towards  reform  in  reli- 
gious matters  manifested  itself  throughout  Poland. 
This  reform  was  indeed  neces8ar3r.  At  the  close  of  the 
fifteenth  and  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century  the 
clergy  were  thoroughly  depraved.  As  a  memorial, 
presented  to  the  papal  nuncio  by  the  better  elements, 
proves,  the  bishops  were  concerned  only  about  the 
attainment  of  new  dignities  and  the  collection  of  their 
revenues;  they  oppressed  the  labourers  on  church 
lands,  keeping  them  at  work  even  on  Sundays  and 
holy  days;  the  priests  were  uneducated  and  in  many 
cases  were  only  half-grown  youths;  the  clergy  were 
venal;  monks  dressed  in  silken  robes  often  shared  in 
the  carousals  of  the  nobility.  The  nobles  envied  the 
flourishing  estates  of  the  clergy.  Thus  a  fruitful  soil 
was  provided  for  the  spread  of  heresies  in  Poland. 
The  spread  of  Hussite  doctrines  was  not  arrested  until 
as  late  as  1500.  The  aristocracy,  especially  the 
>rounger  members,  who  had  attended  foreign  univer- 
sities, now  began  to  turn  more  and  more  to  Calvinism, 
because  this  religion  gave  laymen  a  voice  in  matters 
affecting  the  church.  Complete  freedom  of  speech 
and  belief  was  introduced.  From  all  sides  the  Re- 
formers, driven  from  other  countries  on  account  of 
theic  teachings,  migrated  to  Poland,  bringing  with 
them  a  multiplicity  of  sects.  The  depraved  clergy 
were  unable  to  maintain  their  supremacy.  Zebrzy- 
dowski,  Bishop  of  Cracow,  was  wont  to  say  openly: 
"You  may  believe  in  what  you  will,  provided  you 
pay  me  the  tithe".  Moreover,  many  of  the  clergy 
married.  The  aristocracy  regarded  the  new  doctrines 
as  an  advance  upon  the  old,  drove  the  Catholic 


POUND 


1^ 


POIAHD 


priesta   from    the   villages,    Bubatituted    ProteaUot  Catholic.    The  plan  of  creating  a  national  Church 

preachers,  and  ordered  their  dependents  to  attend  the  loert  ground,  and  at  last  was  entirely  abandoned 

Calvinistic  or  Huasite  devotiona.    But  the  rommon  (1570). 

people  opposed  this  propaganda.  Sigismund  Auguattm  endeavoured  to  bring  the  na- 

The  Reformation  failed  in  Poland;  but  it  Mtimulated  tiona  under  his  away  into  cloaer  relatione  with  one 

the  intellectual  activity  of  the  Polea  and  contributed  another,  and  he  suorceded  in  etTecting  the  union  of 

very  largely  to  the  creation  of  a  national  Polish  litera-  Poland  with  Little  Ruaaia  and  Lithuania  at  the  Diet 

ture  in  place  of  the  hitherto  prevalent  Latin  litera-  of  LubUn  (1569),  after  which  these  three  countries 

lure.     The  sectarians  were  compelled  to  employ  the  formed  what  was  called  the  Republic  (see  above,  un- 

vemacular  in  their  addreaees,  if  their  teachings  were  der  I).     With  Sigismund  the  Mouse  of  Jagieilo  came 

to  be  dTecrive  with  the  masses.     The  Reformation  to  an  end.     After  his  death  the  Archbishop  of  Gnesen, 

Siiined   momentum  and  growth  especially  after  the  Primate  of  Poland,  ansumed  the  reins  of  sovemment 

aath  of  Sigismund  I,  when  his  son  Bigismuml  Augua-  during  the  interregnum.     Aa  early  aa  the  reign  of 

tUH  (154^72)  sucfteeiled  him.     There  was  at  the  time  Sigismund  the  Old,  the  nobility  had  secured  a  funda- 

much  discussion  aa  to  convoking  a  national  synod  and  mental  law  in  virtue  of  which  the  king  was  to  be 

establishing  a  national  Church,  independent  of  Rome,  elected  not  by  the  Senate  but  by  the  entire  nobility. 

The  representatives  of  various  denominations  in  1550  After  the  dealhof  Sigismund  the  nobles  elected  Henry 

demanded  the  aboUtion  of  the  eccleaiastical  courts  of  Valois  king  (1574).     But  after  five  months,  upon 

and  complete  reUgioua  liberty;  they  furthermore  pro-  receiving  newa  of  his  brother's  death,  he  secretly  left 

poaed  the  confiscation  of  church  lands,  the  permission  Poland  to  assume  the  Crown  of  France.     Stephen 

of  marriage  to  the  clergy,  and  communion  in  both  Bathori,  Prince  of  Tnmsylvania,  was  next  chosen 


mands.  The  diet 
even  passed  strin- 
gent laws  agunst  the 
Protestant  agitators, 

Silacing  them  on  the 
ooting  of  perscms 
guilty  of  hign  trea- 
son. Nevertheless  a 
decree  was  iaaued 
forbidding  the  pay- 
ment of  any  and  all 
tribute  to  the  pope; 
at  the  same  time  the 
ecclesiastical  courts 
were     deprived     of 

of  heresy,  and  the 
civil  power  was  no 
longer  obliged  to  ex- 
ecute their  aentencea. 
The  heretics,  how- 
ever, (lid  not  Rain 
mplet«       equality 


His  wise  administration  (i57fk86)  had  many 
good  reqplts,  more 
particularly  in  ex- 
tending the  boun- 
daries of  the  kii^- 
dom.  After  his  death 
the  Swedish  princCj 
Sigiamund  llli  of 
the  House  of  Vasa 
(1587-1632),  was 
elected.  Thia  king 
was  one  of  the  most 
sealous  champions 
of  Catholicism.  His 
main  object  was,  be- 
sides completely 
checking  the  propa- 
ganda of  the  Refor- 
mation, to  give  Po- 
land a  stable  form 
of  government.  In 
the  very  firet  years 
of  his  reign  Cathol- 

J. , ^  IB  CMtts  froni  ihu  E«t  icism  gained  consid- 

oT  nghts  under  the  law.  This  curtailment  of  their  erably.  At  this  time,  also,  the  Jesuits  came  into 
Hberty  was  because  the  sects  were  at  variance  with  Poland  in  laif;er  numbers  and  very  soon  made 
one  another  and  because,  furthermore,  the  Refor-  their  influence  felt  among  the  entire  population, 
mation  was  hardly  more  than  a  matter  of  fashion  Their  schools,  founded  at  enormous  expense  of 
with  the  magnates,  while  the  gentry  and  common  energy  and  capital,  were  soon  more  numeroualy 
people  remained  true  to  the  Church;  so  that  the  attended  than  the  schools  of  the  heretics.  Jesuit 
Heretics  were  unable  to  secure  a  majority  in  any  part  confessors  and  chaplains  became  indispensable  in 
of  Poland.  great  families,  with  the  result  that  the  nobles  gradu- 

Still  the  number  of  Catholic  churches  converted  to  ally  returned  to  Catholicism.  Among  the  masses  the 
Protestant  uses  amounted  to  240  in  Great  Poland  and  Jesuits  enjoyed  great  esteem  as  preachers  and  also  be- 
more  than  400  in  Little  Poland,  in  addition  to  which  cause  of  their  self-sacrifioe  in  the  time  of  the  plague. 
the  various  sects  had  built  SO  new  churches,  while  in  Lastly,  they  pointed  out  to  the  nobility  the  exalted 
Lithuania,  where  Calvinisn)  was  particularly  prcv-  miaaion  of  Poland  aa  a  bulwark  ag^nst  the  Turks  and 
alent,  there  were  3'M  Reformed  churches.  As  many  Muscovites.  After  the  influence  of  the  heretics  in 
as  2000  families  of  the  nobility  had  abandoned  the  Poland  had  been  destroyed,  the  Society  of  Jesua  re- 
Faith.  But  the  Prot«stanta,  although  a  very  con-  solved  to  reclaim  from  the  Greek  schism  the  milhons 
aiderable  portion  of  the  population,  were  rendered  of  inhabitants  of  Little  Ruaaia.  To  these  efforts  of 
incapable  of  auccessful  effort  by  endless  dissensions,  the  Jesuits  must  be  ascribed  the  important  reunion  of 
while  the  Catholics,  led  by  Hoaiua,  Bishop  of  Ermland  the  Ruthenian  bishops  with  Rome  in  1596.  Eccle- 
(see  Ermlakd),  sought  to  strengthen  their  position  siastioally,  the  Polish  dominions  were  at  this  time 
more  and  more.  The  latter  took  advantage  of  all  the  divided  mto  two  Latin  archbishoprics  with  fifteen 
blunders  committed  by  the  sectarians,  orgaiuied  the  suffragan  dioceses,  while  the  Uniat  Greeks  had  three 
better  part  of  the  Polian  clergy,  and  with  great  energy  archbishoprics  with  five  bishoprics.  The  achismati- 
carried  into  effect  the  reforming  decrees  of  the  Council  cal  Greeks  hod  the  same  number  of  archbishoprics 
of  Trent.  Furthermore,  the  Catholics  adopted  ail  (Metropolin),  besides  four  bishoprics, 
that  was  good  in  the  policy  of  the  heretics.  Polish  Under  Sigiamund  III  Poland  waged  wars  of  self- 
works  no  longer  appeared  in  Latin  but  in  Pohah,  and  defence  with  Sweden,  Ruaaia,  the  Tatars,  and  the 
it  was  even  decided  to  translate  the  Holy  Scriptures  Turks.  Poland's  power  at  that  time  was  so  great  that 
into  Polish.  In  the  field  of  science  the  Jesuits  also  the  Ruaaian  boyara  requested  a  Polish  prince,  the  son 
developed  great  activity  after  the  year  1595.  As  a  of Sigismundlll, tobe theirruler;but thekingrefused 
result  of  these  measures,  the  disudents  steadily  lost  his  consent.  Sigismund  transferred  the  royal  resi- 
pound;  the  Senate  and  the  I^et  were  exclusively    dencc  from  Cracow  to  Warsaw.     Aft«r  his  death  the 


/ 


POLAND 


186 


POLAND 


nobility  elected  Wladislaw  IV  king  (1632-48). 
Towards  the  end  of  this  reign  the  warlike  Cossacks,  a 
tribe  of  Little  Russia  on  the  River  Dnieper  in  the 
Ukraine,  who  defended  the  southeastern  frontier  of 
Poland  against  the  Turks  and  Tatars,  revolted,  joined 
forces  with  the  Tatars,  and  with  their  combined  armies 
inflicted  a  severe  defeat  upon  the  Poles.  But  even 
worse  times  were  in  store  for  Poland  imder  the  suc- 
ceeding rulers,  John  Casimir  (1648r-68)  and  Michael 
Chorybut  Wisniowiecki  (166»-73).  The  Cossacks 
and  Tatars  made  terrible  ravages  on  the  eastern 
frontiers  of  Poland.  Then  the  Swedes,  under  Charles 
Gustavus,  conquered  (1665)  almost  the  whole  of  Po- 
land; King  Casimir  was  compelled  to  flee  to  Silesia. 
After  that  the  Russians  invaded  the  country  and  oc- 
cupied Kieff,  Smolensk,  Polotsk,  and  Vilna.  In  the 
autumn  of  1655  the  State,  as  such,  ceased  to  exist. 
Lithuania  and  the  Ukrune  were  under  the  power  of 
the  Czar;  Poland  had  been  conouered  by  the  Swedes; 
Prussia  was  occupied  by  the  Brandenburgers.  No 
one  dared  offer  any  refflstance.  But  when  the  Paulite 
monks  of  Czenstochau  repelled  an  attack  of  2000 
Swedbh  troops,  the  spirit  of  the  nobles  and  magnates 
revived.  The  clergy  made  this  a  religious  war,  the 
victory  of  Czenstochowa  was  ascribed  to  the  interces- 
sion of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  whose  gracious  image  was 
venerated  in  that  convent;  she  was  proclaimed  "  Queen 
of  the  Crown  of  Poland",  and  Jolm  Casimir,  at  Lem- 
berg  (1656),  devoutly  placed  himself  and  the  entire 
kingdom  under  her  protection.  In  the  event^  the 
Sw^es  were  'soon  routed.  The  wars  almost  smiul- 
taneously  conducted  against  Lutheran  Swedes,  the 
schismatic  Muscovites,  and  Mohammedan  Tatars 
intimately  associated  Catholicism  with  patriotism  in 
the  minds  of  the  Poles.  "  For  Faith  and  Fatherland '' 
became  their  watchword. 

Overwhelmed  by  so  many  reverses,  John  Casimir 
abdicated  in  1668.  He  was  succeeded  by  Michael 
Wisniowiecki,  during  whose  reign  anarchy  steadily 
increased.  The  Cossacks  and  Tatars  again  invaded 
Poland,  as  did  a  large  army  of  Turks.  The  latter  were 
defeated,  however,  by  Sobieski,  at  Chotin,  when 
barely  4000  out  ot  10,000  escaped  death.  In  grati- 
tude for  this  glorious  achievement  the  nation,  after 
the  death  of  Wisniowiecki,  elected  John  Sobieski  king 
(1674-96).  An  excellent  general  and  pious  Chrii^tian 
knight,  Sobieski,  immediately  after  ms  accesdon  to 
the  throne,  entered  upon  a  struggle  with  the  Turks. 
He  aimed  at  the  complete  annihilation  of  the  Turkish 
power,  and  for  this  purpose  zealously  endeavoured  to 
combine  the  Christian  Powers  against  the  Turks;  he 
also  entered  into  a  defensive  and  offensive  alliflUQoe 
with  the  German  Emperor.  When  the  grand  vizier. 
Kara  Mustafa,  at  the  nead  of  about  200^000  men,  had 
crossed  the  German  frontier  and  was  besieging  Vienna, 
Sobieski  with  a  Polish  army  hastened  to  its  relief, 
united  his  forces  with  the  emperor's,  and  utterly  de- 
feated the  Turks  (1683).  Tnis  campaign  was  the 
beginning  of  a  series  of  struggles  between  Poland  and 
Turkey  in  which  the  latter  was  finally  worsted.  Un- 
der Augustus  II,  Elector  of  Saxony,  Sobieski's  im- 
mediate successor  (1697-1733),  Poland  b^an  to  de- 
cline. Charles  XII,  King  of  Sweden,  invaded  Poland 
and  occupied  the  most  important  cities.  The  Elector 
of  Brandenburg,  a  former  vassal  of  Poland,  took  ad- 
vantage of  the  internal  dissensions  to  make  himself 
King  of  Prussia  with  the  consent  of  Augustus  II, 
Uiereby  increasing  the  number  of  Poland's  enemies  by 
the  addition  of  a  powerful  neighbour.  Charles  XII 
deposed  Augustus  II,  and  a  new  king,  Stanislaus 
Leszczynski  (1704-09),  waa  elected  by  the  nobility. 
Civil  war  followed,  and  the  Swedes  and  Russians  took 
advantage  of  it  to  plunder  the  country,  pillaging 
churches  and  convents,  and  outraging  the  cler^. 
Augustus  II  resumed  the  throne  under  the  protection 
of  Kusman  troops,  and  Leszczynski  fled  to  France. 

From  that  time  on  Russia  constantly  interfered  in 


the  internal  affairs  of  Poland.  The  next  king,  Augus- 
tus III,  of  Saxony  (1733-63),  was  chosen  throush  the 
influence  of  Rusoa.  The  political  parties  of  Inland 
endeavoured  to  introduce  reforms,  but  Russia  and 
Prussia  were  able  to  thwart  them.  The  kin^  pro- 
moted learning  and  popular  education;  he  was  in- 
spired with  the  best  intentions  but  was  weak  towards 
Russia.  From  the  very  beginning  Russia  had  the 
I>artition  of  Poland  in  view,  and  for  that  reason  fo- 
mented discord  among  the  Poles,  as  did  Prussia, 
especially  by  stirring  up  the  magnates  and  the  here- 
tics. As  early  as  1733  the  Diet  deprived  non-CatJio- 
lics  of  political  and  civil  rights,  and  Russia  made  use 
of  this  fact  to  stir  up  open  revolt.  The  question  of 
equal  ri|;ht8  for  dissidents  was  discussed,  it  is  true,  at 
one  session  of  the  Diet,  but  in  1766  the  protest  of  the 
papal  nuncio  resulted  in  the  rejection  of  the  proposed 
change.  At  the  same  time  a  keen  agitation  was  car- 
ried on  against  even  the  slightest  concession  in  favour 
of  non-Catholics.  The  Latter,  tosether  with  some  of 
the  aristocracy,  who  were  dissatisfied  with  the  abrosar 
tion  of  several  aristocratic  prerogatives,  altogether 
80,000  in  number,  placed  themselves  imder  the  pro- 
tection of  Russia,  with  the  express  declaration  that 
they  regarded  the  Empress  Catherine  II  as  protec- 
tress of  Poland,  binding  themselves  to  use  tiieir  efforts 
towards  securing  equu  rights  for  the  dissidents,  and 
not  to  change  the  PoUsh  laws  without  the  consent  of 
Russia.  But  the  patriotic  elements  could  not  submit 
to  so  disgraceful  a  dependence  on  Russia:  they  com- 
bined, in  the  Confederation  of  Bar  (in  Podolia),  in 
defence  of  the  Catholic  Faith  and  the  rights  of  inde- 
pendence under  republican  institutions.  At  the  same 
time,  through  the  efforts  of  the  Carmelite  monk 
Marcus,  the  religious  brotherhood  of  the  Knights  of 
the  Holy  Cross  was  organized. 

The  confederation,  therefore,  was  of  a  relinous 
character:  it  desired,  on  the  one  hand,  to  free  Poland 
from  its  dependence  on  Russia,  on  the  other,  to  reject 
the  demands  of  tJie  dissidents.  After  it  had  declared 
an  interregnum,  the  king's  Polish  regiments  and  the 
Russian  forces  took  the  neld  against  it.  The  confed- 
eration had  hardly  been  disoersed  when.  Austria, 
Russia,  and  Prussia  occupied  the  Polish  frontier 
provinces  (altogether  about  3800  square  miles  with 
more  than  four  miUion  inhabitants).  The  manifesto 
of  occupation  set  forth  as  reasons  for  the  partition: 
the  increasing  anarchy  in  the  republic;  the  necessity 
of  protecting  the  nei^bouring  states  against  this 
lawlessness;  the  necessity  of  readjusting  conditions  in 
Poland  in  harmony  with  the  views  and  mterests  of  its 
neighbours.  Prussia  received  West  Prussia  and 
Ermland;  White  Russia  fell  to  Russia;  Galida  was 
given  to  Austria,  In  the  coimtries  thus  annexed  each 
state  began  to  pursue  its  own  policies.  In  White 
Russia  there  were  many  Ruthenian  Uniats:  the  Rus- 
sian government  at  once  took  active  measures  to  sever 
their  union  with  Rome,  and  bring  them  into  the 
schism.  The  parishes  of  the  Uniats  were  suppressed, 
and  their  projlerty  confiscated.  A  e^tematic  course 
of  oppression  compelled  them  to  adopt  the  schism. 
Austria  and  Prussia,  in  their  turn,  sought  to  repress 
the  Polish  national  spirit;  in  particular,  colonization 
of  Polish  territory  with  German  colonists  was  begun 
systematically,  and  on  a  vast  scale.  The  Poles  were 
excluded  from  all  official  positions,  which  were  now 
filled  by  Germans  imported  for  that  purpose  in  large 
numbers.    TTie  state  schools  became  wholly  German. 

Such  treatment  by  the  neighbouring  states  roused 
all  Poland  to  energetic  action,  so  as  to  prevent  a 
second  partition.  The  Poles  now  learned  the  value  of 
popular  education,  and  their  ablest  men  zealously 
applied  themselves  to  improve  the  schools.  The  Four 
Years  Diet  (so  called  because  its  deliberations  lasted 
four  years  without  interruption)  busied  itself  with 
reform,  on  3  May,  1791,  the  Constitution  was  pro- 
claimed.    Acoonung  to  this  fundamental  law  the 


POLAND 


187 


POLAHD 


Catholic  remiuiied  the  dominant  relijpon,  but  the  wesUriy  part,  with  Posen,  fei!  to  PruHHia;   Ctmow, 

duridaits  were  granted  eatnplel«  civil  equality  and  withtheterhtory  under  its  juriadictioD,  became  a  free 

the  proleeUon  of  the  law.   The  new  ordimmcea  curbed  state,  and  the  rest  of  the  crand'ducby,  with  Warsaw, 

lioentiouenesB,  and  thua  caused  dissatisfaction,  eape-  ae  the  autonomous  Kingdom  of  Poland,  came  under 

(nally  among  the  higher  nobihty,  who  formed  the  Con-  RuBsian  dominion.    The  new  Kingdom  of  Poland  (or 

fedwation  ^  Tai^witi  for  the  purpose  of  annulling  Congress  Poland)  was  taken  by  the  Caar  Alexander  I, 

the  Constitution  which  had  just  been  granted,  and  who  had  himself  crowned'  as  its  king  in  the  year  1816. 

called  Russian  troops  to  their  assistance.    The  king  In  the  territory  annexed  to  Pruaua  the  Poles  received 

sided  with  this  deluded  faction.     Thus  Russia  and  completeeiguality  of  rights,  and  Polish  was  recognised 

I^useia  had  another  opportunitv  of  making  annexa-  aa  the  ofhcial  language.    But  from  the  veiy  beginning 

tionB;oncemoretheybothBeizea  large  tracts  of  Polish  adiflerence  was  apparent  in  the  treatment  accorded  to 

territory  and  thua  was  consummated  the  second  parti-  diatricte  whose  inhabitants  were  Poles  and  those  in 

tion  of  Poland  (1793).    The  Poles,  resolved  to  defend  which  the  population  was  mixed.    In  the  latter  re^ona 

their  independence,  rose,  under  the  leadership  of  German  omcials  were  appointed:  schools  and  courts 

Tadeuss   Koeciusiko,    against   Russia   and   Prussia.  wereconductedinGerman,  and  the  process  of  gennan- ' 

VjctoriouB  over  the  Russians  at  Raclawice  (4  April,  iiing  the  Polish  minority  was  begun.    A  policy  mmilar 


1704),  he  occupied  Warsaw,  but  was  defeated  and 
taken  prisoner  at  Maciejowiee  (10  October,  1794). 
The  revolt  had  miscarried;  Rusda,  Prussia,  and 
Austria  divided  among  them  the  rest  of  the  Polish 


ttat  of  Prussia  was  adopted  dv  the  Russian  Gov- 
ernment in  Congress  Poland,  wnere  Polish  culture 
was  in  a  particularly  flourishing  condition.    The  new 

.       .    _ _     _      __     Kingdom  of  Poland  was  connected  with  RUBwa  only 

1.    The  king  abdicated.    And  thua  the  third     through  its  rulers,  who  belonged  to  the  reigning  dy- 
partition  of  Poland  was  effected  (1795).    The     nasty  of  the  latter  state.    The  governor  was  the  kingfs 


occupation  by  hos- 
tile armies  of  the 
territory  thus  di- 
vided proceeded 
without  reeiatance  on 
the  part  of  the  in- 
habitants. The  Pol- 
ish people  were  ex- 
hausted by  wars  and 
so  humbled  by  nu- 
merous defeats  that 
they  seemed  to  look 
on  with  unconcern. 

After  Poland  had 
disappeared  from  the 
political  map  of  Eu- 
rope,  each  of  the 
three  states  which 
hadabsorbed  itbegan 
to  carry  out  its  own 
policy  m  the  annexed 
territory.  In  Pnu- 
■ia  all  church  lands 
were  confisca 


brother,  the  Grand- 
duke  Constantioe. 
His  government  of 
Poland  was  despotie 
in  the  extreme^  he 
paid  not  the  slii^teat 
r^ard  to  the  Con- 
stitution, which  had 
been  confirmed  by 
the  king,  but  ruled  as 
in  a  bari>arian  coun- 
try. This  despotism 
growing  still  worae 
after  the  death  of 
Alexander  I,  when 
Nicholas  I  succeeded 
him  upon  the  Rus- 
sian throne,  provok- 
ed, on  29  November, 


in  Congress  Poland, 
which  was  put  down, 
however,  by  the 
overwhelming  mili- 
tary force  of  Russia  (endof October,  1831).  There       " 


Just  as  after  the  first  partition,  and  the  clergy  i_     ., , , „ ^ — 

a  body  were    made    answerable    for    the  political  the  Ctar  Nicholas  slmliahed  the  Diet  and  the  Polish 

crimes  of  individuals.      In  Austria,   likewise,  the  army,  and  assigned  the  ^vemment  of  Poland  tj> 

policy  of  germaniiation  prev^ed.      Under  Russian  Russia,  whose  administration  was  characterised  bv 

rule  oBiciarhostility  to  the  Polish  national  spirit  was  harsh  peraecution  of  the  Catholic  faith  and  the  Polisn 

not  entirely  open,  but  the  persecution  of  the  Uniats  nationality.     While  the  Russian  Government  pre- 

oontinued.     In  1796  all  the  Umat  dioceses,  except  served  at  least  the  semblance  of  justice  in  Congress 

Plotsk  and  Chelm,  were  suppreascd.    Poland  had  loet  Poland,  it  did  not  deem  it  necessary  to  restrict  itself 

ita  independence,  but  libertv-loving  patriots  did  not  in  this  respect  in  Lithuania  and  Little  Russia.    All  the 

loMoourMe.fortheycountea  on  foreign  aid.  Dabrow-  Polish   schools  were    closed,    and   Russian  schools 

■Id  and  I&iaziewici  organiied  in  Italy  a  force  com-  founded  in  their  stead.     Even  the  clergy  were  sub- 

posed  of  Polish  emigrants,  the  "Polish  L^ona",  jected  to  manifold  restraints:  the  church  lands  were 

which  served  Napoleon  in  the  hope  that,  out  olgrati-  confiscatod,  admittance  to  the  seminaries  for  the  train- 

tude,  he  would  re-estabhah  the  Polish  Kingdom,  ing  of  priests  was  made  more  difficult,  and  communi- 

These  expectations  came  to  nought.    Napoleon  did  cation  with  Rome  fort>idden. 

not  re-estB,blish  the  Kingdom  of  Poland,  but,  after  the  The  suppression  of  the  revolt  in  Congress  Poland 

defeat  of  Prussia,  he  created  the  independent  "Qrand-  involved  a  severe  defeat  of  Polish  nationahty  in  all 

duchy  of  Warsaw"  which  continued  m  existence  from  the  three  neighbouring  states.    In  Galicia  the  system 

1807  to  1815  out  of  the  Polish  territories  that  were  of  germaniEation  grew  more  and  more  oppressive.    In 

affected  by  the  second  and  third  partitions.     This  the   Grand-duchy   of   Posen  the  use   ol   the   Polish 

small  state  had  an  area  of  1860  square  miles,  with  language  was  restricted,  German  teachers  were  ap- 

2,400,000  inhabitants.    Frederick  Augustus,  King  of  pointed  in  the  schools,  and  the  prerogatives  of  the 

Saxony,  became  grand-duke.     After  the  war  with  Poles  were  cuituled.    In  1833  provision  was  made  for 

Austnain  1809,  the  Grand-duchy  of  Warsaw  became  the  purchase  of  Polish  lands,  tne  monev  for  this  pur- 

a.  factor  which  the  European  diplomats  could  not  pose  being  supplied  from  a  special  puolic  fund.    At 

afford  to  overlook  in  their  calculations.  this  time  also  the  last  of  the  surviving  convents  were 

After  the  fall  of  Napoleon,  the  Ciar  Alexander,  in  suppressed,  and  their  revenues  applied  to  the  sup- 

the  Congress  of  Vienna,  clamed  the  grand  ducby  for  port  of  religious  schools.    The  Prussian  Government 

toBiBelf.    At  first  there  was  some  opposition  to  this  ventured    even    to    lay  violent    hands   upon    the 

demaod,  but  an  agreement  was  finally  reached,  with  clergy.     In    the    year    1838  the   government  en- 

tite  result  that  the  grand-duchy  was  divided:    the  gag^  in  a  dispute  with  Archbishop  Dunin  concern- 


ing  mixed  marriages,  and  the  archbishop,  fearleaaly    which  Rusaian  troope  entered  the  churches  and  m^ 
delendiDg  the  podtion  of  the  Church,  waa  impruoned.     rested,  not  without  violence,  eeveral  thousands  of  the 


language;  a  large  number  of  schools  were  closed.    At  n<:iv  >.ii>ncu.    m  uiumaij',  miu,  uii  iiuiuiit:i.-i.uiu  ueukc 

the  same  time  an  attempt  was  made  to  introduce  out  which  was  doomed  to  pitiful  fsilure.    About  10,000 

Rusaian  settlers  into  PoloJid,  but  proved  a  complete  men  were  involved,  scattered  in  very  ematl  bands 

failure.     Id  Lithuania  the  persecution  of  the  Uniats  throughout  the  whole  country,  and  wretchedly  armed, 

had  indeed  the  desired  effect,  but  it  brought  discredit  Opoosed  to  them  was  an  army  of  30,000  regular  troops 

upon  the  Russian  Government;   in  1838,  at  the  in-  with  108  field-pieces.    In  March,  1864,  to  keep  the 

stance  of  Bishop  Siemiaszko,  1300  Uniat  priests  signed  peasants  from  joining  the  insurrection,  the  Russian 

A  document  announcing  their  desertion  to  the  schism.  Government   aSolished    serfdom,    and    the   uprising 

The  Polisli  nation,  unable  to  accomplish  anything  by  collapsed  in  May  of  the  same  year, 
fair  means,  had  recourse  to  conspiracies.    A  national        The  Government  now  exerted  all  its  energy  to  blot 

uprising  in  all  the  territories  that  had  tx^n  Polish  was  out  Polish  nationality,   especially   in  Lithuania  and 

planned  for  February,  184fi,  but  the  insurrection  was  Little  Russia:    Russian  became  the  official  language 

not  general,  and  wherever  it  made  its  appearance  it  in  all  scEiools  and  public  offices;  Poles  were  deprived 

was  promptly  crushed.    Cracow,  where  me  manifesto  of  their  employments,  and  all  societies  were  sup- 

of  the  insurrection  was  published,  was  permanently  pressed.     Confiscated  lands  were  distributed  among 

occupied  by  the  Austrians;  the  Austrian  Government  Russians,  and  every  pretext  was  seised  to  expropriate 

incited  the  peasants  agMDSt  the  insurgents,  and,  ss  a  the  Poles.    A  decree  was  even  issued  forbiading  the 

bounty  was  furthermore  offered  for  every  corpse,  the  use  of  the  PoUsh  language  in  public  places.    Peculiarly 

peasants  attacked  the  residences  of  the  nobility,  set  energetic  measures  were  taken  against  the  Catholic 

them  on  fire,  and  inhumanly  massacred  "the  lords"  Church  in  Lithuania.    Obstacles  rmsed  bj[  the  Gor- 

(altogether  2000  nobles).  emment  to  hinder  vocations  were  so  effective  that  in 

In  the  year  1S48,  when  the  long-expected  revolution  the  seven  years  immediately  following  1863  not  more 
broke  out  in  almost  the  whole  of  Western  Europe,  the  than  ten  priests  were  ordained  in  Litnuaiiia.  Public 
Poles  under  Prussian  rule  also  revolted,  but  without  devotions,  processions,  the  erection  of  wayside 
success.  In  April,  1848,  serfdom  was  abolished  in  crosses,  and  the  repair  of  places  of  worship  were  for- 
Galicia  (in  Prussia  as  early  as  1823),  and  suitable  com-  bidden;  convents  were  suppressed;  large  numbers  of 
pensation  out  of  the  public'treasurv  was  granted  to  the  people  forced  t«  accept  the  schism.  An  attempt 
the  nobility.  After  1848  the  Polish  aistricts  in  Prussia  was  even  made,  though  unsuccessful,  to  introduce  the 
and  Austria  received  the  Constitution,  as  did  the  use  of  Russian  in  some  of  the  popular  devotions.  To 
other  districts  subject  to  those  Governments.  In  remove  all  traces  of  Polish  nationality  in  Lithuania 
Galicia  conditions  began  to  improve,  especially  after  and  the  Ukr^ne,  the  Polish  place-names  were 
the  year  I860,  when  it  was  granted  a  certain  d^ree  of  changed  to  Russian;  in  the  cities,  inscriptions  and 
autonomy  and  its  own  diet.  In  Prussia,  too,  the  Con-  notices  in  the  Polish  language  were  forbidden;  the 
Btitution  gave  the  Polish  inhabitants  opportunity  to  cabmen  were  obliged  to  wear  Russian  clothing  and 
develop  their  national  resources  independently.  The  drive  Great-Russian  teams.  In  the  Kingdom  of 
educated  clergy  devoted  themselves  with  whole-  Poland  conditions  were  the  same.  Pupils  were  for- 
hearted  zeal  to  elevating  the  morals  of  the  people,  and  bidden  to  speak  even  a  single  Polish  word  in  school, 
in  this  way  helped  to  form  a  middle  class  that  was  In  addition.  Congress  Poland  wss  completely  stripped 
both  well-to-do  and,  from  a  national  point  of  view,  of  its  administrative  independence, 
well  instructed.  The  most  unfortunately  situated  In  1865  diplomatic  relations  were  inteitupted  be- 
Poles  were  those  under  the  Rusaian  Government,  tween  Russia  and  Pius  IX,  who  was  favourably  dis- 
Russian  was  the  language  heard  in  all  the  pubhc  posed  towards  the  Poles.  The  Uniat  Church  was 
offices,  to  fill  which  natives  of  Russia  were  introduced  attacked,  and  then  the  Government  sought  to  organise 
into  the  country  in  ever-increasing  numbers.  Under  a  national  Polish  Church  independent  of  Rome.  The 
these  adverse  conditions  Congress  Poland  steadily  de-  bishops  were  strictly  forbidden  to  entertain  relations 
clined;  in  ten  years  (1846-56),  the  number  of  inhab-  of  any  kind  with  Rome.  A  college  of  canons  of  the 
itants  was  diminished  by  one  million.  The  Govern-  most  various  dioceses  was  formed  at  St.  Petersburg, 
ment,  during  the  long-continued  state  of  war  (not  to  be  the  chief  governing  body  of  the  Polish  Church, 
suspended  until  1856),  was  of  a  despotic  character,  in  all  Rueaia,  but  the  bishops  as  well  as  the  deans  and 
The  clei^,  however,  constituted  a  force  not  to  be  chapters  in  Lithuania  and  Poland  opposed  this 
neglected/forit  amounted  to  2218  priests,  1803  monks,  measure.  Recourse  was  then  hod  to  violence  and 
and  521  nuns,  in  191  convents,  while  the  teachers  and  some  of  the  hiph  dignitaries  of  the  Church  were  de- 
professors  of  every  sort  numbered  1800.  The  clergy  ported  to  Russia.  The  elei^y,  however,  courageously 
ejteroised  a  vast  influence  over  the  people,  and  all  the  held  their  ground  and  refused  to  yield.  Aft«r  Qie  last 
more  so  because  the  long  struggle  between  the  Gov-  defeat  of  1863-64,  a  strong  reaction  set  in  among  the 
emment  and  the  Catholic  Church  hod  given  the  clergy  Poles  of  all  of  the  three  neighbouring  states.  The 
the  character  of  an  opposition  party.  clergy  were  active  in  inspiring  the  people  with  new 

Conditions  in  Poland  generally  improved  after  the  courage.     In  Prussia  the  Polish  cler^fy  worked  dili- 

year   185G,   after  Russia  hod  bicen  defeated  in  the  gently  to  establish  and  maintiun  social  and  agricul- 

Crimean  War.    The  Government  of  Congress  Poland  tural  organisations,  as  well  as  societies  and  loan  offices 

was  entrusted  to  the  Pole  Wielopolski,  who,  with  the  for   artisans   and    labourers,   industrial  associations, 

best  intentions,  attempted  to  check  the  revolutionary  etc. 

activity  of  the  Polish  youth  by  too  severe  meaaurea.         The  oppression  of  the  Poles  continued,  especially 

It  was  the  purpose  of  the  younger  Poles  to  awaken  the  after  Bismarck  became  chancellor.     The  schools  had 

national  spirit  by  means  of  pageants  in  commemora-  to  serve  a^  instruments  in  the  process  of  germaniia- 

tion  of  national  events  and  by  great  parades  of  the  tion;   the  Polish  towns  and  villages  received  German 

people  to  give  utterance  to  their  protests.     These  names.     Bismarck  also  began  his  conflict  with  the 

manifestations  ac(|uired  a  religious  character  from  Catholic  Church  (see  Kclturicaupf).   Onthemotion 

their  association  with  practices  of  piety,  an  association  of  Bismarck,  the  Prussian  Diet,  in    the  year   1886, 

permitted  by  the  clergj-,  who  were  hostile  to  the  Gov-  granted  the  Government  one  hundred  million  marks 

emment.     Prayers  were  continually  offered  in  the  for  the  purpose  of  buying  up  Polish  lands  and  cokra- 

'■■liP3  "for  the  welfare  of  the  fatherland".     The  ising  them  with  German  peasants  and  labourers.    In 

■,  with  Archbishop  Fijatkowski  at  their  head,  1905  Congress  Poland  was  again  the  scene  of  an  insur- 

red  these  manifestations,  upon  the  repetition  of  rection,  imich  was  set  on  foot  largely  by  workingmen, 


POLAND 


189 


POLAND 


and  the  Govprnmeat,  compellod  by  aecesoty,  eome-  ment  of  tJthcs,  and  tb«  masses  attacked  the  churchu 

what  niitigated  the  existing  hardahim.  and   the   eatatcs  of   the   aristocracy.      Bisbopa   and 

III.  Ecci.B8iAeTicAi<  History. — Even  before  Po-  priests  were  massacred,  and  the  cathedrals  of  Gneeen 

land  became  Christian  under  Prince  Mieczyslaw   I  and  Posen  were  destroyed. 

(962-92),  there  were  Christians  jn  Polish  territory.  Aftersixyearsof  suchdisturbanceaCasimirl  (1040- 
Thifl  explains  the  comparatively  peaceful  acceptance  58),  having  ascended  the  throne,  restored  Christianity 
by  the  people  of  a  new  futh  and  a  new  code  of  morals,  and  respect  for  the  clergy;  he  also  built  churches  and 
It  may  be  assumed  that  Che  Faith  reached  Poland  convents.  His  activity  was  continued  bvBolealaw  II 
from  the  neighbouring  country  of  Moravia  when,  afl«r  the  Bold  (1058-80),  so  persistently  that  tie  number  of 
the  Hungarian  invasion,  numerous  Christians  found  a  Polish  bishoprics  had  risen  to  fifteen  by  the  year  1079. 
refuge  in  Poland,  so  that  there  must  have  been  a  AsearlyasthisreignnativePolesattoinedtheepiscopal 
cert^nnumberof ChristiansamongtheheathenPoles,  dignity.  The  question  of  heathen  marriages,  which 
though  no  organized  Church  existed.  Definite  con-  were  condemned  by  Bishop  Stanislaus  of  Cracow,  gave 
elusions,  however,  as  to  tl^c  prepress  of  Christianity  rise  to  a  quarrel  between  the  king  and  the  bi^op. 
before  the  accession  of  Mieczyslaw  I  are  impossible.  The  latter,  having  formed  a  conspiracy  with  the 
This  prince,  having  married  the  Catholic  Dabrowka,  magnates,  who  were  incensed  at  the  despotic  rule  of 
a  daughter  of  the  King  of  Bohemia,  embraced  Chris-  the  king,  was  slain  by  the  king  himself.  A  revolt, 
tianity,  with  all  his  subjects,  in  966.  He  did  this  caused  by  this  act,  drove  Boleelaw  to  seek  an  asylum 
partly  because  he  wished  to  protect  himself  gainst  in  Hungary.  The  church  thereupon  gained  in  esteem 
the  Germans.  Priests  for  the  new  Christian  parishes  and  influence  even  in  politiral  matters.  Bishops  were 
were  obtained  from  Bohemia  and  Germany.  As  early  elected  by  the  chapters,  and  consecrated  by  the  arch- 
as  970  a  Polish  bishopric  was  established  at  Poaen,  bishops  of  Gnesen  as  metropolitans.    IJnder  the  next 


under  the  jurisdi 
tion  of  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Mt^de- 
buin-  In  1000  the 
Emperor  Otto  III 
and  Pope  Sylvester 
II  erected  the  me- 
tropolis of  Gnesen  for 
the  bishoprics  of 
Posen,  Plotsk,  Cra- 
cow, Lebus,  Breslau, 
and  Koiberg. 

The  formation  of 
this  ecclesiastical 
hierarchy  for  Poland 
was  effected  by  a 
clever  poUtical  move 
on  the  part  of  Boles- 
law  the  Great  (992- 
1025),  and  had  im- 
IKirtant  results.  For 
since  that  time  the 
Church     of    Poland 


ruler,  Wladislaw 
Herman  (lOSO- 
1102),  the  clei^  took 
a  lively  interest  in 
public  affairs.  Boles- 
faw  Krzywousty 
(1102-39)  showed  hiB 
great  concern  for  the 
welfare  of  Church 
and  clergy  by  vari- 
o  u  s  benefactions, 
founding  new  con- 
vents and  embellish- 
ing those  already  in 
-"'—       At  t"-'- 


period,  too,  (>)unt 
Piotr  Wlast  Dunin 
(d.  1153)  is  said  to 
have  built  forty 
places  of  worship. 
All   of    these  works 

Kriahed  when  Boles- 
v'b  will  stirred  up 
has  ceased  to  be  dependent  on  Germany,  and  has  a  aeries  of  terrible  wars  that  raged  for  almost  two 
been  under  the  protection  and  patronage  of  the  hundred  years  throughout  Poland,  (See  above: 
Polish  princes,  with  whose  history  its  own  is  most  11.)  During  these  struggles  the  Church  alone  pre- 
intimat«ly  connected.  The  Polish  ruler  thus  obtfuned  served  the  national  homogeneity,  and  this  circum- 
the  right  to  found  and  endow  churches,  to  take  the  stance,  more  than  any  other,  increased  the  influence  of 
same  important  part  in  the  establishment  of  dioceses  the  clergy  in  political  matters.  It  was  at  this  time 
and  the  appointment  of  bishops  as  the  emperor  took  in  that  Henry,  Duke  of  Sandomir,  with  a  numerous 
Germany.  Poland  did  not  cease  to  be  a  German  fief,  retinue  of  Polish  nobles  undertook  a  crusade  to  the 
but  in  ecclesiastical  matters  it  became  absolutely  in-  Holy  Land  and  spent  an  entire  year  there.  Upon 
dependent.  Henceforth  Boleslaw  the  Great  assOmed  their  return  to  Poland  these  pilgrims  introduced  the 
the  supervidon  of  the  Polish  church,  and  the  Church,  knightly  orders  of  the  Templars,  of  St.  John,  and  of 
founded  and  organized  with  the  co-operation  of  the  the  Holy  Sepulchre.  The  clergy,  now  more  numerous, 
rulers,  was  placed  in  the  service  of  the  State.  Al-  heldsynodsin  which,  among  other  matters,  education 
though  Boleslaw  exercised  his  right  of  supervision  was  aealt  with.  At  the  instance  of  the  bishops, 
rather  arbitrarily,  he  nevertheless  always  enl*rt^ned  schools  were  established  in  connexion  with  the 
a  great  respect  for  the  clergy.  The  first  bishops  were  churches  and  convents.  The  first  provincial  synod  of 
appointed  by  the  pope;  canons  regular  were  ap-  this  kind,  at  Leczyca  (1180),  decreed  excommunica- 
pointed  to  assist  them.  The  Camaldolesc  Order  also  tion  as  the  punishment  for  the  robbery  if  church 
came  (997)  and  settled  in  Great  Poland,  but  being    property. 

attacked  by  robbers,  who  expected  to  obtain  a  laree  The  clergy  now  began  more  and  more  ta  rarry  into 
amount  of  oqoty  from  them,  they  came  to  a  terrible  effect  the  plans  of  the  murdered  Bishop  Stanislaus  by 
end  in  1005.  In  1006  the  Benedictines  came  to  Poland  their  efforts  to  secure  the  supremacy  of  the  Church, 
and  settled  in  three  places.    They  cleared  forests  and    The  Church  succeeded  in  freeing  ilseif  from  the  fetters 

Sread  religion  and  civilization.  Boleslaw  granted  the  with  which  the  temporal  rulers  had  bound  her.  For 
urches  tithes,  which  the  nobility  were  unwilling  to  the  reform  for  which  Gregory  had  striven  had  not  been 
pay;  the  resulting  disturbances  (1022)  were  soon  carried  out  in  Poland.  While  it  had  long  been  oub- 
Buppressed.  The  king  also  procured  for  the  churches  toraary  in  the  West  for  cathedral  chapters  to  elect  the 
valuable  gifts,  such  as  vessels  of  silver  and  gold.  After  bishops,  so  that  the  Church  was  in  this  reepect  no 
the  death  of  his  son  Miec^^aw  II  (1025-34).  a  strong  longer  dependent  on  the  temporal  power,  in  Poland 
feeling  agwnst  Christianity  and  its  teachers  mani-  the  bishops  were  still  appointed  by  the  sovereign,  who 
fest«d  itself  among  the  people ;  many  even  relapsed  furthermore  claimed  for  the  state  treasury  certain  fees 
into  paganism.    The  nobility  discontinued  the  pay-    from  the  lands  held  by  the  clergy.    The  pope's  do- 


POLAND 


190 


POLAND 


mand  for  the  cefibacy  of  the  cleigy  had  also  been  dis- 
regarded. Pope  Innocent  III  first  undertook  to  free 
the  Polish  clergy  from  dependence  upon  the  temporal 
Boverdgn;  he  found  an  active  supporter  in  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Gnesen,  Henry  Kiettics.  The  latter  en- 
foroea  the  celibacy  of  the  clergr^  imder  him  and  ob- 
tained for  the  decrees  of  the  ecclesiastical  courts  both 
force  and  validity;  he  also  excommunicated  the  senior 
prince,  Wladislaw  Laskonogi  (1202-06),  for  trying  to 
keep  me  Church  in  its  condition  of  dependence  and 
recusing  to  give  up  the  old  royal  prerogatives  of  ap- 
pointment of  bishops,  jurisdiction  over  the  church 
lands,  and  the  exaction  of  fees  and  other  payments 
from  them.  From  that  time  a  growing  movement  for 
the  deliverance  of  the  Church  from  oppression  by  the 
State  is  manifest,  a  relief  which  had  already  been 
secured  in  the  neighbouring  kingdoms  to  the  west. 
The  Church,  now  treed  from  the  guardianship  of  the 
State,  made  an  energetic  stand  against  the  encroach- 
ments of  the  princes  and  the  inmiorality  of  the  people. 
At  the  synods  held  at  this  time  severe  penalties  were 
imposed,  by  the  direction  of  the  papal  legates^  upon 
those  laymen  who  claimed  for  themselves  the  right  of 
granting  benefices.  From  thai  time  bishop  and 
prince  were  considered  titles  of  equal  rank  in  Poland. 
In  1210  two  Polish  princes  jointly  conferred  privi- 
leges upon  the  clergy,  thereby  recognizing^  the  inde- 
pendence of  the  Oburch^  not  only  within  its  own 
organisation,  but  sdso  (within  the  confines  of  church 
lands)  over  lul  its  own  subjects,  together  with  exemp- 
tion from  taxation.  The  Church  of  Poland  was  now 
organised  in  conformity  with  the  canon  law;  its  juris- 
diction covered,  not  only  the  clergy,  'but  also  the 
inhabitants  domiciled  on  the  church  lands  and,  in 
many  matters,  tiie  whole  CathoUc  community  as  such. 
The  Church  wielded  the  powerful  weapons  of  inter- 
dict and  excommunication.  Church  and  clergy  to- 
gether formed  an  independent  political  division  of  the 
population,  endowed  with  complete  power  of  self- 

govemment.  Not  only  had  the  dependence  of  the 
ishops  on  the  princes  ceased,  but  the  lesser  clergy, 
too,  no  longer  sought  the  favour  of  the  prince:  it  was 
well  known  to  them  that,  if  they  preserved  the  spirit 
of  the  Church  and  guarded  its  interests,  distinction 
and  honours  awaited  them  within  its  domain.  Thanks 
to  their  really  enormous  financial  resources  and  their 
influence  in  the  domain  of  morals,  the  clergy  repre- 
sented -a  power  with  which  temporal  rulers  had  to 
reckon.  The  highest  legislative  bodies  of  the  Cath- 
olic Church  in  Poland,  the  synods,  provided  for  the 
independence  of  the  Church,  and  occupied  themselves 
in  strengthening  its  influence  over  the  laity.  Litera- 
ture and  all  that  pertained  to  education  were  wholly 
in  the  hands  of  the  clergy,  the  members  of  the  various 
religious  orders,  in  particular,  rendering  great  service 
in  this  direction. 

In  this  period,  also,  religious  life  developed  to  a 
high  degree  among  the  people,  as  a  result  of  the  severe 
afflctions  caused  by  the  wars  and  invasions  of  the 
Tatars  (1241,  1260,  1287).  The  horrors  of  the  time 
acted  as  a  powerful  stimidant  upon  the  general  piety. 
which  revealed  itself  in  religious  endowments  ana 
privileges  conferred  upon  the  clergy.  In  the  next 
period  (from  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  to  the 
end  of  the  fifteenth  century)  churches  and  convtrnts 
were  especially  numerous.  The  clergy  added  to  its 
populanty  by  striving  for  the  union  of  the  Polish 

?nncipalities  into  a  great  kingdom.  Archbishop 
^elka,  for  instance,  in  1257  ordered  that  the  people 
should  learn  the  Lord's  Prayer  in  Polish,  and  the 
synod  under  Archbishop  Swinka  (1285)  forbade  the 
granting  of  benefices  to  foreigners  or  the  appointment 
as  teacher  of  any  person  who  was  not  master  of  the 
national  tongue.  The  consolidation  of  Poland  having 
been  effected  under  Lokietek  (1306-33),  the  clergy 
were  dissatisfied  with  him  because  he  would  not 
exempt  them  from  taxation.    This  grievance  gave 


rise  to  a  quarrel  between  the  clergy  and  Lokietek's 
successor,  Casimir  the  Great  (1333-79).  Casimir's 
life  was  far  from  faultless,  and  Bodianta,  Bishop  of 
Cracow,  after  admonishing  him  without  effect,  placed 
him  under  excommunication.  The  cathedral  vicar. 
Martin  Baryczka,  notified  Casimir  of  this  censure,  ana 
the  king  had  him  drowned  in  the  Vistula  (1340). 
Casimir  sought  to  make  amends  for  the  murder  by 
lavish  alms  giving,  pious  bequests,  and  privileses 
granted  to  the  clergy.  At  Cracow  he  founded,  under 
the  patronage  of  the  bishop,  a  more  advanced  school 
or  university — the  first  in  Northern  Europe  (1364)— 
which  was  approved  by  Pope  Urban  V.  He  sJso 
brought  order  into  ecclesiastical  affairs  in  Little  Rus- 
sia by  establishing  the  archiepiscopal  See  of  Halics, 
in  1367,  with  Chelm,  Turow,  Praemysl  and  Wlod- 
zimiesz  for  its  suffragans.  The  Archbishopric  of 
Halicz  was  afterwards  transferred  to  Lemberg.  Th^ 
archbishops  of  Gnesen  became  the  foremost  princes  of 
the  realm,  and  the  clergy  were  hereafter  relieved  of  all 
taxes.  This  displeaseathe  nobility,  who,  moreover, 
had  to  pay  the  tithes  to  the  clergy,  with  the  altemar 
tive  of  exclusion  from  the  Church. 

Under  Louis  of  Hungary  (1370-82)  the  clergy  re- 
ceived new  privileges,  but  in  the  same  reign  theoish- 
ops  of  Poland  began  to  be  nominated  by  the  State: 
the  kings,  having  established  the  bishopncs,  believed 
that  they  had  the  right  of  patronage.  Beginning  with 
the  reign  of  Jagiello  (1386-1434),  the  Church  of  Po- 
land worked  in  a  new  field,  spreading  religion  among 
the  neighbouring  heathen  peoples.  The  Lithuanians 
accepted  Christianity,  and  Jagiello  caused  many 
churches  to  be  built.  But  the  morals  of  the  clers^ 
were  declining.  The  Church  of  Poland  took  part,  it 
is  true,  in  the  Synod  of  Constance,  at  which  Hus  waa 
burnt,  but  had  not  the  strength  to  oppose  effectively 
the  reactionary  tendency  of  the  nobility,  which  sought 
to  use  heresy  as  a  counterpoise  to  the  influence  of  the 
Church,  lliat  influence,  attaining  its  maximum 
when  the  Cardinal  Bishop  of  Cracow,  Zbigniew 
Olesnicki,  wielded  political  power  at  (Dourt,  roused  the 
emulation  of  the  seaular  lords.  With  the  appearance 
of  Hus  in  Bohemia  there  arose  in  Poland  an  anti- 
church  party  composed  of  Hussites.  The  ecclesiasti- 
cal synods  issued  severe  decrees  against  these  heretics, 
whom  Jagiello,  in  1424,  also  adjudged  guilty  of  high 
treason.  The  Inquisition  became  active  against 
them. 

It  was  clerical  influence,  too,  that  led  King  Wladis- 
law III  (1434-44)  to  take  the  field  against  the  Turks 
in  defence  of  Christendom.  During  the  reign  of  his 
brother,  Casimir  the  Jagellon  (144&-92).  the  Church 
of  Poland  produced  a  number  of  saintly  men,  and 
was  so  highly  esteemed,  even  in  Bohemia,  that  it  was 
the  general  wish  there  that  the  Pole  Dlugosz  should 
be  made  their  archbishop.  Nevertheless,  the  tem- 
poral power  sought  to  free  itself  from  the  domination 
of  the  spiritual.  The  nobility  insisted  more  and  more 
on  the  taxation  of  the  clergy.  With  the  death  of 
Cardinal  Olesnicki  the  political  power  of  the  Church 
in  Poland  was  at  an  end.  During  the  succeeding 
periods  the  Reformation  made  ominous  progress.  It 
found  a  soil  prepared  for  it  by  the  moral  decune  of  the 
clergy  and  the  indifference  of  the  bishops.  In  1520 
a  E^minican  named  Samuel  rose  against  the  Roman 
Church  at  Posen;  in  1530  Latatski,  Bishop  of  Posen, 
appointed  a  Lutheran  preacher:  in  1540  John  LaskL 
a  priest  of  Gnesen,  renounced  the  Catholic  faith  and 
openly  married,  as  did  many  others;  under  Modrzew- 
ski  efforts  were  made  to  establish  an  independent 
state  church.  King  Sigismund  I  the  Old  (1506-48), 
a  zealous  Catholic,  was  opposed  to  a  reformation  of 
that  nature;  he  issued  rigorous  edicts  against  the 
preaching  of  the  new  doctrines  and  the  introduction 
of  heretical  writings  (1523,  1526).  The  populace  re- 
mained indifferent  to  the  Reformation,  only  the  nobil- 
ity took  part  in  it.    The  clergy  adopted  precautionary 


POLAND 


es:  the  primate  put  all  sectari&na  under  the  ban 

of  the  Church,  and  it  was  decided  Ui  eat&blieh  an  eccle- 
siastical court  of  inquisition.  Catholic  congreeees 
were  also  aoaembled.  But  all  these  means  were  in- 
effectual to  check  the  Reformation,  which  was,  in 
fact,  favoured  by  some  of  the  bishops. 

In  1552,  at  the  Diet  of  Piotrkow,  it  was  proposed  to 
summon  a  Polish  national  synod  both  for  Catholics 
and  for  heretics,  and  in  1555  a  resolution  was  adopted, 
by  which  heretics  were  not  to  be  prosecuted  on  ac- 
count of  their  beUef  until  the  holding  of  this  synod. 
The  Protestant  preachers  returned  to  Poland  and  the 
sectarians  formed  a  union  against  Catholicism.  Re- 
lipous  WOT  first  broke  out  in  all  its  violence  under 
Sigismund  Augustus  (1548-72),  who  did  not  defend 
Catholicism  with  the  same  conviction  and  firmness 
as  his  father.  His  vacillating  conduct  inspired  the 
heretics  with  courB«e.  In  1550  demands  were  made 
for  the  abolition  of  celibacy,  celebration  of  Mass  in 
the  vernacular,  and  communion  under  both  forms. 
Bishops  were  deprived  of  the  right  to  sit  in  judgment 
on  heresy.  Monks  were  eipelled;  churcnes  were 
seised.  Tho  confusion  in*  the  land  grew  steadily 
worse.  The  herotics,  themselves  of  the  most  varied 
creeds,  quarrelled  with  one  another.  Alarmed  by 
the  progress  of  the  Reformation  in  Poland,  Rome  sent 
Luigi  Lippomano  thither  as  nuncio.  At  this  time, 
too,  the  first  Jesuits  came  to  Poland.  The  papal 
legate,  Commendone,  carried  out  the  reform  of  the 
Catholic  Church,  and  in  this  way  deprived  the  Re- 
formers of  their  pretext.  He  was  also  able  to  secure 
from  the  king  two  decrees  (1564);  one  against  non- 
Catholic  aliens,  the  other  against  native  Poles  who 
ao^dit  in  any  way  to  injure  the  Catholic  Church. 

"nte  Jesuits,  introduced  into  Poland  in  1564  by 
Hosius.  Bishop  of  Ermland,  opened  their  schools  in 
manjr  places,  successfuUv  conducted  debates  with  the 
heretics,  and  eneimtically  contended  against  heresy 
both  from  the  pulpit  and  in  writing.  Under  their 
influence  the  families  of  the  magnatee  b^an  to  return 
to  the  Catholic  Church.  In  1571 — the  year  when  the 
Conference  of  Warsaw  secured  freedom  of  belief  for 
the  dissidents — the  Jesuit  houses  in  Poland  were 
organized  into  a  separate  province.  The  heretics  still 
continued  to  cause  disturbances,  but  fortune  deserted 


86).  ITie  latter  openly  supported  the  Jesuits  in  their 
endeavours,  and  under  his  protection  they  founded  a 
very  large  number  of  new  schools.  The  next  king, 
also,  Si^smund  III  Vasa  (15S$-1632),  gave  no  sup- 
port to  the  dissidents;  on  the  contrary,  he  confirmed 
the  rights  of  the  Catholic  Church  (1588)  and,  as  a 

Cd  Catholic,  so  influenced  many  of  his  magnates  by 
pious  life  that  thc^  returned  to  the  religion  of  their 
fathers.  The  reconciliation  of  the  Ruthenian  Church 
was  effected  in  1595:  and  the  Armenians,  who  were 
domiciled  here  and  there  in  Poland,  also  united  with 
the  Catholic  Church.  Wladistaw  IV  (1632-48)  in- 
troduced into  Poland  the  Piarists,  who  established 
numerous  schools.  In  his  dealings  with  the  mutually 
hostile  sects  this  king  pursued  a  policy  of  duplicity, 
by  which  a  horrible  war  was  brou^t  upon  a  later 
generation..  At  this  time  there  were  in  Poland  750 
convent*,  representing  20  male  and  15  female  orders. 
He  was  succeeded  on  the  throne  by  John  C^imir 
(1648-68),  who  had  previously  been  a  Jesuit  (1643) 
and  then  a  Cardinal  (1645).  To  the  general  distress 
of  this  reign  the  dissidents  contributed  not  a  little. 
For  this  reason,  the  Socinians  (1658),  the  Arians 
(1661),  and  other  sects  were  driven  out  of  Poland. 
In  return  the  king  received  from  the  pope  the  title 
Sex  Orlhodozus.  Bowed  down  by  his  misfortunes,  he 
rengned  the  crown  and  took  up  his  residence  in  Paris, 
where  he  lived  until  1672  as  titular  Abbot  of  St.  (ler- 
main.  Under  his  successors  upon  the  Polish  thrxinc, 
Michael  Wisniowieclii  (1669-72)  and  John  III  tkibic- 


ski,  the  solicitude  of  the  people  for  the  Faith  and  theAi 
efforts  to  repress  heresy  st^dily  increased. 

When,  after  the  death  of  John  Sobieski,  Frederick 
11,  Elector  of  Saxony^  assumed  the  Government  (1697- 
1733).  he  affirmed  in  his  coronation  oath  that  he 
would  not  confer  any  high  offices  on  the  dissidents, 
although  toleration  was  assured  them.  This  king  haa 
abandoned  Protestantism  and  become  a  Catholic; 
although  a  lukewarm  Catholic,  and  leading;  a  repre- 
hensible life,  he  nevertheless  restricted  the  hbertiea  of 
the  heretics  (1716),  and  they  were  removed  from 
public  office  (1743).  At  the  same  time  violent  dis- 
putes were  carried  on  with  the  clergy  over  appoint- 
ment* to  bishoprics,  ecclesiastical  courts,  payment  of 
taxes,  etc.  The  endless  wars  during  the  reign  of  this 
king  led  U  ' 
iressior 

poverishment 
and  deteriora- 
tion of  the 
churches,  and, 
among  the  no- 
bility,   ■ 


death  penalty  tor  kilUng  a  peasant.  Frederick  Augus- 
tus III  (1733-63)  confirmed  the  decrees  issued  during 
the  lifetime  of  his  father  agtunst  the  dissidents,  but 
beyond  this  he  was  wholly  unconcerned  about  diurch 


t\rx-a^j,nt^»  uioiiui  uuibUTf]  ouu  im;  Lively  pnjuiuiou 

ipular  education,  but  the  evil  conditions  had  grown 
beyond  his  control.  During  his  reign  the  bonds  of 
matrimony,  the  very  baas  of  all  society,  became  so 
loosened,  and  the  number  of  divorces  reached  such 
an  alarming  total,  that  Benedict  XIV  was  compelled 
to  address  the  Polish  bishops  in  three  Bulls  (1741, 
1743,  1748)  in  reference  to  this  evil.  In  addition  to 
this  the  neighbouring  states  began  to  interfere  in 
behalf  of  the  non-Catholics  in  Poland,  demanding 
that  they  should  be  given  the  same  right*  as  Catholics 
(1766);  this,  however,  was  denied.  Thereupon  the 
dissidents  formed  a  confederation  at  Radom  (1767), 
and  the  Diet  was  compelled  to  grant  them  all  the 
rights  enjoyed  by  Catholics  except  the  right  to  the 
Crown.  Independentlv  of  this,  the  right  to  convoke 
BjTiods  was  granted  tnem;  mixed  courts,  generally 
with  a  majority  of  non-Catholic  members,  were  ap- 
pointed to  decide  questions  involving  reli^on.  In 
mixed  marriages  the  sons  were  to  follow  the  relinon 
of  the  father,  the  daughters  that  of  the  mother.  Un- 
restricted permission  was  also  Erantcd  the  dissidents 
to  build  places  of  warship.  Meanwhile  Rome  re- 
minded the  Poles  that,  as  knights  in  the  service  of 
Christ,  it  wBs  their  duty  to  breat  a  lance  for  CathoU- 
cism.  Indefenseiif  the  Faith  the  Conf<4liTntion  of  Bar 
v/oA  formed  (l7(iS-72),  hut  it  iinly  a^ldi^l  to  the  confu- 
sion and  misfortune  of  the  country.     Coming  from 


POLAND                                 192  POLAND 

France  to  Poland,  freemasonry  spread  especially  in  and  conduct  of  seminaries  for  the  training  of  priests, 
the  higher  circles  of  society,  where  French  literature  and  prescribed  the  character  and  method  of  instruc- 
had  done  its  work  of  corruption.  Atheism  was  tion  in  theology.  In  1782  the  convents  of  the  con- 
preached  openly  and  acknowledged.  New  palaces  templative  orders  were  suppressed^  and  their  property 
arose  while  the  churches  fell  into  decay;  theTheatines  converted  to  the  fund  tor  religious  purposes.  At 
left  the  country  (1785) ;  at  this  time  too  the  Society  present,  however,  the  Church  is  free  from  state  re- 
of  Jesus  was  suppressed  (1773),  and  its  possessions  strictions  in  the  Polish  provinces;  and  as  a  result 
converted  to  the  use  of  popular  education;  a  com-  Catholicism  is  here  making  progress, 
mission  on  education  was  created.  With  the  consent  IV.  The  Religious  Orders  in  Poland. — ^The 
of  Pius  VI,  several  church  holvdays  were  abolished,  Augustinian  Hermits  were  introduced  into  Poland  in 
the  number  of  those  retained  being  only  seventeen,  the  second  half  of  the  thirteenth  century,  and  at  one 
besides  Sundays.  Further  attacks  on  the  property  of  time  had  more  than  thirty-five  convents  there.  At 
the  bishops,  and  especially  of  the  richly  endowed  present  there  remains  but  one  Augustinian  convent  in 
orders,  followed.  all  the  territory  that  was  Poland:  that  at  the  Church 
At  the  first  Diet,  after  the  coronation  of  King  of  St.  Catherine,  Cracow.  A  convent  for  nuns  of  the 
Stanislaus  Augustus  (1764).  the  Polish  Church  was  same  order,  connected  with  the  same  church  since  the 
represented  by  two  archbishops  and  fifteen  bishops,  seventeenth  century,  now  serves  for  the  training  and 
The  external  splendour  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  education  of  girls. 

Poland  had  reached  its  zenith.    But  the  political  dis-  The  Basilians  (see  Basil,  Rxtle  of  Saint),  perse- 

turbances  and  wars,  the  repeated  passage  of  armies,  cuted  by  the  Greek  Iconoclasts,  migrated  in  large  num- 

continued  for  perhaps  a  year  without  interruption,  the  bers  to  the  Slavic  countries  and  founded  convents  and 

conflict  with  the  dissidents,  were  extremely  disastrous  schools.    In  Poland,  particularly,  they  rendered  great 

to  the  Church.    After 'the  three  partitions  (1773^  1793,  services  in  the  most  varied  fields  of  ecclesiastical  activ- 


were  forced  into  apostasy;  convents  were  suppressed,  schools,  seminaries,  and  universities  were  recruited, 
churches  closed.  Even  harsher  measures  were  Many  of  them  became  famous  in  science  as  well  as  by 
adopted  after  1863:  by  a  cabinet  order  of  1864,  the  their  virtuous  and  self-sacrificing  life.  The  common 
property  of  the  Church  was  confiscated,  the  convents  people  held  this  order  in  high  esteem  and  gJAdly  f re- 
still  in  existence  suppressed;  in  1867  the  clergy  were  quented  the  devotions  in  their  convents.  The  Basil- 
placed  imder  the  authority  of  a  commission  at  St.  ians  devoted  themselves  to  the  schools  with  a  zeal 
Petersburg,  without  any  regard  to  the  wishes  of  the  that  shrank  from  no  sacrifice,  expecially  after  the  re- 
Apostolic  See.  The  liturgical  books  and  devotions  of  form  of  1743.  Eveiy  convent  had  its  elementary 
the  schismatics  were  forcibly  introduced  into  the  school,  but  they  also  founded  more  advanced  schools, 
churches  of  the  Uniats.  Peasants  who  tried  to  prevent  particularly  for  students  of  divinity.  Their  schools 
the  schismatical  popes  from  entering  the  churches  were  attenaed  for  the  most  part  by  the  children  of  the 
were  simply  shot  down;  the  christening  of  children  as  wealthy.  In  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  it 
Catholics  and  the  solemnization  of  matrimony  in  had  as  many  as  two  hundred  convents  in  the  Polish 
Catholic  churches  were  forbidden.  Not  until  after  dominions.  After  the  fall  of  Poland  these  convents 
the  war  with  Japan  was  an  edict  of  toleration  pro-  were  suppressed  in  Russia  j  only  eleven  of  them  sur- 
claimed  in  Russia,  making  it  permissible  for  schis-  viv^  in  Galicia.  The  Basilian  nuns  were  established 
matics  to  be  reconciled  with  Rome.  The  Prussian  in  Extern  Poland.  They  were  suppressed  at  the  same 
Government  treated  the  Catholic  Poles  no  better  than  time  as  the  Basilian  monks.  At  present  only  two  con- 
did  the  Russian.  The  Catholic  clergy  in  Prussian  vents  are  in  existence  in  Galicia. 
Poland  was  subordinated  to  the  temporal  power.  The  The  Benedictines  began  their  activity  in  Poland 
election  of  bishops,  prelates,  and  superiors  of  religious  during  the  period  of  the  reorganization  of  Cluny. 
societies,  in  view  of  the  extensive  right  of  veto^  was  They  were  the  first  missionaries  of  Poland;  whwice 
made  to  depend  upon  the  decision  of  an  admimstra-  they  came  it  is  impossible  to  determine,  no  historical 
tive  council,  wMch  receives  the  oath  of  allegiance  from  records  of  the  earhest  Benedictines  in  Poland  having 
the  cler^  and  gives  them  instructions  for  the  celebra-  come  down  to  us.  The  first  historically  authenticated 
tion  of  German  national  anniversaries.  In  civil  and  houses  of  the  order  date  from  the  reign  of  Boleslaw  I 
criminal  proceedings,  too,  the  clergy  is  subject  to  the  Chrobry  (eleventh  century).  This  ruler,  desiring  to 
civil  authorities.  The  ecclesiastical  courts  have  juris-  free  the  Church  in  Poland  from  German  influence,  in- 
diction  only  in  matters  of  a  purely  religious  character;  troduced  Benedictines  from  Italy.  The  order  soon 
but  they  have  not  the  right  to  order  temporary  or  exercised  an  incalculable  influence  upon  the  education 
permanent  divorce  in  the  case  of  mixed  marriages,  of  the  Poles,  as  well  as  strengthening  the  position 
The  properties  of  the  Catholic  clergy  as  such  were  con-  taken  by  the  Polish  Church  within  its  own  organiza- 
fiscated;  for  the  support  of  the  clergy  a  part  of  the  tion.  With  the  twelfth  century^  however,  their  bene- 
income  of  the  confiscated  estates  and  the  mterest  on  ficent  influence  began  to  decline.  Their  manifold 
capital,  which  belongs  to  ecclesiastical  corporations,  activities  ceased  in  the  schools,  and  became  confined 
but  haa  been  lent  to  private  individuals,  was  set  aside,  to  the  immediate  interests  of  the  convents  themselves. 
In  addition  to  this  the  Government  granted  the  clergy  Amon^  the  causes  of  their  decay  were  the  enormous 
permission  to  accept  payment  at  a  fixed  rate  for  the  matenal  wealth  of  the  order,  the  consequent  excesses 
performance  of  services  attached  to  their  office.  In  of  the  lay  abbots,  and  the  discord  between  abbots  and 
Galicia  (Austrian  Poland)  the  patent  of  toleration  of  subordinates  within  the  order.  A  contributing  cause 
Joseph  II,  granted  in  1781,  admitted  Protesjants,  Cd-  was  the  arbitrary  exemption  of  abbeys  from  the  super- 
vinists  and  schismatics  to  official  positions,  secured  vision  of  the  abbots-general  of  Tyniez.  Five  of  the 
for  them  freedom  of  religious  belief,  and  even  the  largest  abbeys  became  absolutely  independent  of  one 
permission,  where  there  were  about  100  Protestant  another,  both  in  finance  and  in  internal  organization, 
families  in  a  community,  to  build  churches,  etc.  (but  Prosperity  brought  tepidity  and  relaxation  of  monas- 
without  steeples  and  bells,  and  with  entrances  at  the  tic  cUscipline.  The  Benedictines  allowed  themselves 
side).  Although  Catholicism  was  recognized  as  the  to  be  outstripped  in  the  social  work  of  the  Church  by 
dominant  religion,  the  Church  was  nevertheless  sub-  the  other  religious  orders  that  had  been  introduced 
iect  to  the  control  of  the  State.  Without  the  placet  into  Poland.  Several  attempts  at  reform,  undertaken 
of  the  State  papal  Bulls  and  pastoral  letters  were  at  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century,  did  not 
invalid.    The  Government  assumed  the  supervision  achieve  the  desired  result.    The  Partition  of  Poland 


POLAHB  1! 

undemuDed  the  existence  of  the  Polish  Benedictines. 
First  the  ponesrioiu  of  the  abbota  were  confiacated 
and  then  the  convraita  suppressed.  The  Benedictine 
Duns  had  convents  in  Foland  in  the  Middle  Ages. 
Their  rules  were  strict;  they  were  permitted  to  eat 
only  two  meals  a  da^i  the  enUre  day  was  spent  in 
prayer,  meditation,  spiritual  reading,  and  heanng  two 
Masses,  the  Divine  OfGce,  and  work.  Tliey  made 
beautiful  church  vestments  and  also  occupied  them- 
selves with  the  copying  of  books.  Strict  discipline 
prevailed  in  the  congregation. 

The  Demardines,  made  famous  by  St.  Jolm  Capi' 
stran  (1386-1456),  the  pupil  of  St.  Bemardine  of 
Siena,  were  much  sought  everywhere.  Convents  were 
gladly  built  for  them  in  Poland,  where  they  were  in- 
troduced by  John  Caainur  and  Sbif[niew  Olesniiki. 
This  order,  the  largest  in  Poland  with  membera  of 
Polish  descent,  rendered  distinguished  service  to  the 
fatherland.  When  the  Franciscans  established  them- 
selves in  Poland  about  the  year  1232,  and  later  also, 
the  Order  of  Tertiaries  began  to  gain  more  and  more 
members  here.  The  Tertiary  Sisters,  members  of  the 
laity,  formed  them- 
selves into  religious 
organisations  for 
prayer  and  good 
woru.  From  these 
societies  tJiere  arose 
in  Poland  in  the  year 
1514  an  order  of 
women,  the  so-called 
Bemardine  Nuns. 

The  Brothers  of 
Mercy  were  intro- 
duced Into  Poland  in 
the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury. Many  of  them 
died  in  the  odour  of 
sanctity,      Whereas 

the  care  of  the  sick 
in  general  was  en- 
trusted to  the  reli- 
S'lous,  in  Poland  they 
evoted  themselves 
to  the  care  of  the 
insane.  Erected  by 

The  Camaldolese  came  to  Poland  in  the  year  1605 
from  the  coT^regation  of  Monte  Corona  near  Perugia. 
They  were  dependent  on  the  mother-house ;  not  until 
after  the  partition  ol  Poland  did  this  dependence 
cease.  Of  the  five  convents  established  in  Poland 
only  the  hermitage  at  Bielany,  near  Cracow,  is  still  in 


TlieCanonsR^larof  St.  JohnLateran,  one  of  the 
oldest  congregations  in  Poland,  were  suppressed  in 
1782  by  Joseph  11;  there  are,  however,  six  convents 

at  present  in  Austria. 

The  Capuchins. — As  early  as  1596  King  Sigismund 
had  memorialized  the  Apostolic  See  to  introduce  this 
order  into  Poland,  but  permission  to  introduce  it 
there  was  first  granted  to  King  John  Sobleski.  In 
16SI  some  Capuchins  came  to  Warsaw  and  Cracow. 
Gradually  the  number  of  foreigners  in  the  convents 
Erev  smaller;  the  novices  were  mostly  Poles,  so  thai 
^e  Apostolic  See,  in  1738,  transferred  the  supervision 
of  the  Polish  Capuchins  to  the  Bohemian  provincials. 
When  the  order  had  as  many  as  9  convents,  129 
fathers,  31  novices,  and  73  brothers,  Benedict  XIV 
established  a  separate  Polish  province.  The  Capu- 
chins in  Poland,  as  elsewhere,  won  for  themselves  hiEh 
esteem  and  exerted  a  wholesome  influence  upon  the 
awakening  of  the  rehgious  sentiment  among  the 
people.  In  Gslicia  there  are  at  present  nine  Capu- 
chin convents.     In  Russian'  Poland  all  their  convents 


3  POLAND 

latter  part  of  the  fourteenth  century.  Here,  as  elBO< 
where,  some  of  their  convents  observed  the  milder 
rule  t^  Eugene  IV,  while  others  observed  the  more 
severe  rule  of  John  Soreth.    Before  the  partition 

there  were  58  Carmelite  convents  and  9  redaences  in 
Poland.  After  the  partition  those  in  the  Polish  prov- 
inces of  Prussia  were  all  suppressed ;  this  happened  in 
Russia  also,  some  being  suppressed  in  1832,  the  rest 
somewhat  later.  Under  Austrian  rule  Joseph  II  re- 
tained only  six  convents,  which  formed  the  Galician 
Srovince  of  the  order.  There  were  also  in  Poland 
alced  Carmelite  Nuns. 

The  Carmeli1«B  (Discalced)  whOj  at  the  pope's  re- 
quest, went  3a  missionaries  to  Persia,  passed  through 
Poland  on  their  way.  The  Poles  then  for  the  first  titoc 
saw  members  of  this  order,  and  it  at  once  found  general 
favour.  In  the  next  year  it  was  introduced  and  in 
time  became  widespread.  Several  convents  of  the 
Discalced  Carmelite  nuns  are  still  in  existence. 

The  Carthosians. — The  time  of  their  first  settle- 
ment in  Poland  is  unknown.  It  is  probable  that  the 
first  superiors  were  foreignerB,  powibly  also  the  major- 
"~    of  the  mottks. 


into  their  convents, 
and  in  this  way  they 
were  gradually  Polo- 
nised.  They  ob- 
served the  general 
rule  of  the  order,  and 
devoted  themselves 
to  prayer  and  man- 
ual labor,  especially 
to    the    copying    of 

The     Cistercians, 
the  I 
ofTshc 

dictin 

about  iiui^jcoi  iiTu, 
when  the  order  had 
been  sanctioned  only 
about  twenty  years. 
From  the  very  bc- 
1835  ginning  they  proved 
i  order,  devoted  to  man- 
ual louiii,  1  ciiuci  1111^  (^cm  service  to  agriculture  by 
clearing  forests,  bringing  the  land  under  cultivation, 
and  encouraging  the  various  industries.  Forthisreason 
the  order  received  the  hearty  support  of  bishops  and 
magnates.  In  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries 
it  spread  through  Poland  with  extraordinary  rapidity, 
and  was  richly  endowed  with  landed  property.  The 
Cistercians  having  come  to  Poland  from  Germany, 
France,  and  Italy,  their  convents  as  late  as  the  six- 
teenth century  preserved  the  individualities  corre- 
sponding to  the  various  nationality  of  their  first 
inmates  respectively.  The  Germans  even  introduced 
German  colonists  into  their  convent  villages.  >Sigis- 
mund  I  was  the  first  to  forbid  this  seclusion  by  the 
decrees  of  1511  and  1538.  To  the  final  Polomiation 
of  the  Cistercian  convents  Lutheranism  was  a  con- 
tributing cause;  for  many  German  monks,  infected 
by  the  teaching  of  Luther,  left  the  convents,  while 
the  rest  cared  little  for  the  rules  of  the  order  or  for 
propriety.  The  places  vacated  by  Germans  were 
filled  by  Poles.     The  reform  of  the  order,  acoom- 

filishcd  in  the  year  1580,  purified  and  elevated  the 
ratemal   spirit   of  the   Polish   Cistercians.     In   the 
course  of  the  eighteenth  century  they  had  to  endure 
of  fortune;  indeed,  they  lived  in  pov- 
of  the  partition  of 


flb'iM  Snt  visit  toWusI 

themselves  a  conteihplK 
ual  labor,  rendering  great 


POLAND 


194 


POLAND 


in  Galicia,  while  under  Prussian  and  Russian  rule  they 
have  aU  been  suppressed. 

The  Dominicans  were  introduced  into  Poland  by 
the  Bishop  of  Craeow,  I  wo  Odrowasch  (1223).  Thev 
had  no  great  successes  to  record  until  the  fourteenth 
century,  in  the  reign  of  Casimir  the  Great,  when  they 
gained  a  firm  footing  in  Little  Russia  and  to  -aome  extent 
also  in  Lithuania.  As  an  order  intended  to  combat 
heresy,  however,  they  were  of  no  great  importance  in 
Polana,  for  the  reason  that  most  of  them  were  Ger- 
mans who  did  not  understand  the  Polish  character. 
As  a  result  their  missionary  work  was  not  very  suc- 
orasfid.  The  sixteenth  century,  the  period  of  the 
Reformation,  was  unfavourable  to  the  further  der 
velopment  of  the  Dominican  houses,  and  later,  when 
the  counter-Reformation  began,  not  Dominican  but 
Jesuit  houses  were  founded  expressly  to  combat  the 
Reformation.  Not  until  the  seventeenth  century  were 
any  new  Dominican  convents  founded.  The  Polish 
province  of  the  order,  in  the  year  1730.  had  43  con- 
vents for  men  and  10  for  women :  Ihe  Russian  prov- 
ince, 69  and  3,  the  province  of  Lithuania  numoered 
38  convents  and  4  so-called  residences.  But  one 
Dominican  convent  now  remains,  at  Cracow. 

The  Felician  nuns  are  an  offshoot  of  the  women's 
Society  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  which  is  so  hif^y 
esteemed  to-day  for  its  charitable  work.  In  Warsaw 
there  was  formed  in  1855  a  purely  Polish  congregation, 
under  the  patronage  of  St.  Fehx  and  the  rule  of  St. 
Francis.    (See  Fbuciax  Sisters,  O.  S.  F.) 

The  Franciscans  have  left  comparativelyf ew  traces 
of  their  activity  in  the  Polish  countries.  The  time  of 
their  introduction  into  Poland  is  uncertain;  the  year 
is  probably  1231.  Certain  it  is  that  the  Franciscans 
were  in  Cracow  in  1237.  Kindly  received,  they  soon 
obtained  reco^tion  from  the  Polish  people,  for  most 
of  them  were  Poles  bv  birth.  Conformably  with  the 
rule  of  their  order,  they  developed  gp^at  activity  in 
the  missionary  field  amon^  the  Lithuanians  and 
Ruthenians.  Thanks  to  their  labours  the  subsequent 
organization  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  Lithuania  and 
little  Russia  was' made  possible.  In  1832  twenty- 
nine  Franciscan  convents  were  suppressed  in  Lithu- 
ania; in  1864,  all  those  in  Congress  Poland  with  the 
single  excei>tion  of  the  convent  at  Kalisch. 

The  Jesuits  were  introduced  into  Poland  by  Car- 
dinal Hodus,  in  1564,  to  combat  heresy.  After  Uieir 
arrival,  Poland,  where  32  Protestant  sects  had  been 
committing  all  sorts  of  excesses,  witnessed  a  return  to 
»  Cathoticism.  To  root  out  heresy  public  debates  were 
arranged,  which  opened  the  eyes  of  many  of  the  here- 
tics. The  Jesuits  oegan  their  labours  in  Lithuania,  at 
Vilna,  which  was  most  seriously  threatened  by  the 
heretical  teachings.  Li  a  short  time  Jesuit  com- 
munities arose  throughout  the  land.  Because  of  their 
extraordinarv  successes  in  the  missionary  field,  schools 
were  founded  for  them  by  every  zealous  bishop.  The 
example  of  the  bishops  was  followed  by  the  kings  and 
the  magnates.  After  the  suppression  of  the  Society, 
its  possessions  were  devoted  to  the  support  of  public 
education.  Of  the  Jesuit  priests  some  let^nea  their 
positions  at  the  former  Jesuit  schools,  the  rest  ob- 
tained emplo^ent  in  famiUes  of  the  higher  nobility 
in  the  capacity  of  chaplains,  secretaries  or  tutors. 
They  were  also  employed  in  cathedral  churches  and 
in  we  parishes.  In  Poland,  as  eversrwhere,  the 
Jesuits  fought  heresy  with  its  own  weapons — ^with 
sermons,  disputations,  education  of  the  youth.  They 
answered  the  polemical  pamphlets  of  the  dissidents  with 
polemical  pamphlets;  they  appeared  in  pubUc  with 
S3rstematic  courses  of  excellently  prepared  sermons 
of  apolitico-dogmatic  character.  They  also  furnished 
distinguished  confessors.  They  attracted  many  by 
means  of  devotions  conducted  with  great  pomp  and 
by  the  or|(anization  of  religious  brotherhoods.  For 
the  pupils  m  their  schools  they  introduced  the  Sodality 
of  the  Biased  Virgin.    They  distinguished  themselves 


particularly  as  preachers  in  the  parochial  missionB. 
But  they  were  also  not  unmindful  of  the  sick^  the 
prisoners  and  the  soldiers.  The  position  of  mihtary 
chaplain  was  for  the  most  part  filled  by  a  Jesuit. 
There  was  no  field  of  church-activity  or  of  science  in 
which  the  Jesuits  did  not  labour  successfully  for  the 
benefit  of  mankind.  At  present  the  Jesuit  Order  does 
not  exist  in  any  of  the  Polish  lands  except  Galioia, 
where  it  forms  a  separate  province  of  the  order  at- 
tached to  the  German  Assistance.  Part  also  of  the 
Jesuits,  expelled  from  White  Russia,  came  to  Galicia 
in  1820.  When,  as  a  result  of  the  Revolution  of  1848, 
thev  were  banished  thence  also,  they  went  to  Silesia 
and,  the  Grand  duchy  of  Posen,  whence  a  part  of  them, 
in  1852,  returned  to  their  former  homes,  when  the 
order  was  rehabilitated  throughout  the  Austrian  do- 
minions. When  again,  in  1862,  the  Jesuits  were  ban- 
ished from  Prussia,  some  went  to  Galicia,  others 
undertook  missions  to  Germany,  Denmark,  and 
America.  Since  1852  there  has  been  a  continuous 
development  of  the  province  of  the  Societv  in  Galicia; 
at  the  beginning  of  1906  it  numbered  473  mem- 
bers, among  them  215  priests,  119  clerics,  and  139 
brothers. 

The  Priests  of  the  Mission  (Lazarista)  were  intro- 
duced into  Poland  by  the  wife  of  King  John  Casimir, 
Maria  Ludwika  Gonzaga,  who  had  personally  known 
and  hif^iilv  esteemed  their  foimder,  St.  Vincent  de 
Paul,  in  France.  At  her  request  he  sent  memben  of 
hi^  congregation  to  Poland  m  1651.  Their  introduc- 
tion was  at  first  resented  by  the  Jesuits,  whose  con- 
fessors at  the  royal  court  were  replaced  by  members 
of  the  new  order.  Queen  Maria  Ludwika  wished  the 
Priests  of  the  Mission  employed  not  onlv  for  the 
instruction  of  the  common  people  in  the  yillages  and 
parishes^  but  particularly  for  the  organi^sation  and 
supervision  of  the  diocesan  seminaries  and  for  the 
spiritual  improvement  of  the  priesthood  in  the  coun- 
try. Devout  Polish  ma|;nates  were  anxious  to  have 
them  upon  their  estates.  There  is  scarcelv  a  spot 
anywhere  in  Poland  where  the  Lazarists  have  not 
conducted  a  mission.  For  this  reason  their  services 
in  the  care  of  souls  are  truly  extraordinary.  During 
the  first  twenty-seven  years  the  Priests  of  the  Mission 
came  from  France  and  native  Poles  entering  the  con- 
gregation had  to  go  to  France  for  probation  and  train- 
ing, an  arrangement  which  continued  until  the  found- 
ing of  a  seminary  at  Warsaw.  After  the  partition  the 
convents  suffered  many  hardships:  imder  Russian 
rule  the  congregation  was  disbanded  in  1842  and  1864, 
the  Lazarist  houses  in  Galicia  were  suppressed  b> 
Joseph  II,  and  the  same  fate  overtook  the  Priests  of 
the  Mission  in  Prussia  at  the  beginning  of  the  Kultur- 
kampf  in  1876. 

The  PauUtes  came  to  Poland  from  IJunganr  in  1382, 
sixteen  in  number.  Undoubtedlv  these  Hungarian 
monks  were  not  unacquainted  with  the  Polish  nation- 
ality, for  they  were  chosen  from  the  Slovaks  and  Poles, 
who  were  at  that  time  well  represented  in  the  con- 
vents of  Hungary.  The  first  convent  was  that  of 
Czentochowa  on  the  Klarenberg  (Clams  Mons,  Jasna 
G6ra),  and  the  picture  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  there,  said 
to  be  the  work  of  the  Evangelist  St.  Luke,  at  once 
became  famous  because  of  numerous  miracles,  so  that 
Czentochowa  surpassed  aJl  other  places  of  pilgrimage 
in  Poland.  As  a  restilt,  the  convent  became  very 
wealthy.  In  1430  it  was  attacked  by  the  Hussites. 
In  the  part  of  Poland  which  fell  to  Austria  after  the  / 
first  partition  the  Paulite  convents  were  suppressed 
in  1783  by  the  Emperor  Joseph.  Only  the  Galician 
convents,  which  at  the  last  partition  came  under  the 
dominion  of  Austria,  survived.  In  other  parts  of 
Poland  one  convent  after  another  went  out  of  exis- 
tence, and  since  1892  the  Paulite  Order  has  had  onlv 
two  convents:  Czentochowa  and  Cracow.  The  Paul- 
ites  in  Poland  devoted  themselves  for  the  most  part  to 
parochial  work.    Piurishes  were  connected  with  all 


POLAND 


195 


POLAND 


their  convents,  and  in  these  parishes  all  the  pastoral 
work  was  done  by  members  of  the  order. 

The  Piarists. — In  1642  the  first  thirteen  Piarists 
came  from  Rome  to  Warsaw  at  the  request  of  King 
Ladislaus  IV.  The  Poles  readily  entered  this  order, 
and  it  soon  spread  throuj^  the  whole  country.  The 
first  monies  were  Bohenuans,  Moravians,  and  Ger- 
mans by  birth.  The  schools  founded  by  them  were 
organized  in  accordance  with  the  constitutions  of  St. 
Joseph  Calasanctius.  In  the  first  hundred  years  the 
schools  of  the  Piarists,  so  far  as  excellence  is  concerned, 
were  in  no  way  different  from  the  others.  Not  until 
the  reform  of  Konarski  was  there  an  improvement  in 
the  instruction  and  training.  This  monk,  during  a 
journey  through  Italy,  France,  and  Germany,  studied 
the  foreign  educational  systems  and  undertook  the  re- 
form of  the  Piarist  schools  on  a  basis  more  in  con- 
formity with  the  requirements  of  the  time.  He  carried 
out  the  reform  not  only  by  the  living  word  in  the 
schools,  but  by  writing  educational  treatises.  The 
3iethoa  of  instruction  as  systematized  by  him  stimu- 
lated every  faculty  of  the  mind,  it  made  demands  on 
the  reason  rather  than  on  the  memory,  it  led  the  pupil 
to  a  consideration  of  the  main  points  and  to  clearness 
of  expression.  A  further  aim  of  his  schools  was  the 
education  of  the  pupil's  heart,  in  order  that  as  men 
they  mi^t  be  useful  members  of  society  and  be  qual- 
ified to  bring  up  others  to  a  religious  life.  This  reform 
of  the  Piarist  schools  had  its  successes  in  other  schools 
as  well,  for  the  Jesuits  adopted  the  new  method  of 
instruction,  and  other  schools  did  the  same.  The 
beneficial  efficacy  of  this  school-reform  at  once  became 
apparent  in  the  general  advance  of  culture.  The  Pia- 
rist convents  were  suppressed  in  GaUcia  after  the  parti- 
tion of  Poland,  and  in  Russian  Poland  in  1864.  Only 
one  Polish  convent  of  this  congregation,  that  of 
Cracow,  is  still  in  existence. 

The  Order  of  the  Reformed  Franciscans  was  intro- 
duced into  Poland  at  the  time  of  the  beatification  of 
St.  Peter  of  Alcdntara  (1622  under  Gregory  XV).  The 
first  members  of  tliis  new  order  were  recruited  from 
the  Bemardines  and  Franciscans;  they  were  at  first 
persecuted  and  even  banished.  But  when  the  news  of 
their  piety  reached  the  Court,  King  Sigismund  III 
himself  made  an  appeal  to  the  pope  for  permission  to 
introduce  the  order  into  Poland.  The  Holy  Father 
did  not  refuse  him,  and  the  Bishop  of  Cracow  had 
hardly  issued  the  decree  of  their  admission  (29  May, 
1622),  when  foundations  of  Reformat!  were  at  once 
begun,  the  number  rising  to  fifty-seven.  The  Re- 
format! in  Poland  lived  entirely  on  alms;  they  gave 
themselves  up  exclusively  to  religious  exercises.  Their 
convents  were  suppressed  at  various  times:  in  Austria, 
partly  between  1796  and  1809,  in  Congress  Poland  in 
1834  and  1864,  lastly  m  Russian  Poland  in  1875. 

The  Templars  are  supposed  to  have  been  introduced 
into  Poland  as  early  as  1155,  but  this  date  is  not  abso- 
liit<?ly  certain.  However,  the  account  of  a  Templar 
foundation  at  Gnesen  before  1229  is  reliable.  When 
the  order  was  suppressed  throughout  Europe,  in  1312, 
all  their  possessions  in  Poland  were  transferred  to  the 
Knights  of  St.  John. 

The  Theatines  were  in  Poland  from  1696  to  1785; 
their  place  of  residence  was  Warsaw.  They  had  as 
pupils  at  their  lectures  the  sons  of  the  wealthiest 
families,  but  their  instruction  was  inadequate,  and 
ignored  the  Polish  tongue.  There  was  no  fixed  curri- 
culum, no  advanced  method  of  instruction,  no  system 
of  classes,  arranffed  according  to  the  degree  of  pro- 
gress of  the  pupils.  The  main  subjects  of  instruction 
were  the  Latin,  Italian,  and  French  languages,  with 
architecture,  painting,  and  music.  There  were  no 
class  rooms,  the  teacher  giving  instruction  in  his  own 
dwelling  to  one  or  more  pupils  in  his  own  specialty. 
The  subjects  taught  followed  one  another  in  accord- 
ance with  no  uniform  plan,  but  in  accordance  with 
the  wishes  and  choice  of  the  teacher  or  pupil.    When 


tired  of  teaching,  the  teachers  not  infrequently  went 
visiting  with  their  pupils  to  some  ac(|uaintance  or 
relative.  Not  until  later  did  they  begin  to  pay  any 
regard  to  the  principles  of  pedagogy  relative  to  joint 
instruction  by  classes.  Failing  in  energy  and  in  the 
ability  to  adapt  themselves  to  thd  demands  of  their 
time,  they  were  compelled  to  leave  Poland  in  the 
year  1785. 

The  Trappists,  driven  out  of  France  as  the  result  of 
the  French  Revolution,  stopped  for  a  while  in  White 
Russia  and  Volhynia.  The  Russian  Emperor  Paul 
welcomed  them  within  the  boundaries  of  his  empire 
and  gave  them  refuge  and  support.  The  first  eighteen 
Trappists  came  in  1798  and  settled  in  White  Russia. 
However,  they  did  not  remain  there  long,  for  as  early 
.as  the  beginmng  of  the  year  1800  they  left  their  new 
homes  and  went  to  England  and  America. 
The  Trinitarians  (Ordo  Coelestis  SS.  Trinitatis  de 
V  Redemptione  Captivorum). — King  John  Sobieski, 
*  after  the  deliverance  of  Vienna  (12  September,  1683), 
sent  Bishop  Denhof  to  Rome  to  Innocent  XI  with  the 
captured  Turkish  flag,  which  the  pope  caused  to  be 
placed  in  the  Lateran  on  7  October  of  the  same  year. 
While  in  Rome,  Denhof  frequently  visited  the  convent 
church  of  the  Trinitarians,  and  this  order  pleased  him 
so  much  that  he  decided  to  introduce  it  into  Poland. 
He  succeeded  in  doing  this  in  April,  1685.  The  Trini- 
tarians were  installed  at  Lemberg,  because  this  city, 
being  near  the  Turkish  frontier,  was  more  favourably 
situated  than  Warsaw  for  the  negotiations  necessary 
for  the  ransom  of  prisoners.  A  second  convent  of  the 
Trinitarians  was  at  Cracow;  the  third,  at  Stanislaw, 
was  suppressed  by  the  Austrian  government  in  1783; 
the  fourth,  in  Volhynia  (Beresczek),  in  1832.  The 
eighteen  convents  in  Poland  constituted  a  separate 

Erovince.  In  Austria  they  were  suppressed  in  1783 
y  Joseph  II,  in  Russian  Poland,  in  1832  and  1863. 
The  discalced  Trinitarians  led  a  rigorous  life;  no  mem- 
ber of  the  order  was  permitted  to  have  any  property, 
and  as  a  result  great  poverty  prevailed  among  them. 
In  addition  to  the  daily  prayer  of  the  Breviary,  they 
had  meditations  and  prayers  lasting  two  hours  and  a 
half;  they  kept  silence  and  fasted  on  all  days  of  the 
week  except  Sunday;  furthermore,  there  were  fre- 
quent disciplines.  The  Trinitarians  in  Poland  re- 
garded it  as  their  chief  task  to  ransom  prisoners  from 
the  Turks  and  Tatars,  for  which  purpose  they  de- 
voted, according  to  the  rule  of  their  order,  one-third 
of  all  they  received.  They  also  collected  alms  for  the 
deliverance  of  prisoners?  ecclesiastical  as  well  as 
secular  lords  contributed  large  sums  of  money  for  this 
purpose.  Two  years  after  their  arrival  in  Poland 
(1688)  the  Trinitarians  ransomed  8  prisoners;  13  in 
1690;  43  in  1691;  45  in  1694  j  25  in  1695;  43  in  1699; 
55  in  1712;  49  in  1723;  70  in  1729;  33  in  1743. 
Among  those  ransomed  were  not  only  Poles  but  also 
members  of  other  nationalities,  particularly  Hunga- 
rians. 

The  Ursulines  entered  Poland  only  in  the  nine- 
teenth century,  but  they  have  rendered  great  8er\nce 
to  the  country  by  training  and  instructing  the  girls. 
Expelled  by  the  Prussian  Government,  they  found  a 
remge  in  Austria. 

The  Vincentian  Sisters,  or  Sisters  of  Charity,  ob- 
serving the  rule  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  came  to  Poland 
during  his  lifetime  (1660).  Besides  nursing  the  sick, 
they  devoted  themselves  to  the  training  of  orphans 
and  poor  girls.  They  have  survived  in  all  the  prov- 
inces of  the  former  Kingdom  of  Poland,  except 
Lithuania,  where  they  were  suppressed  in  1842  and 
1864. 

V.  Present  Position  of  the  Church. — At  the 
present  time  the  Polish  people  are  closely  bound  to 
the  heads  of  their  Church  by  ties  of  love  and  con- 
fidence. In  Russian  Poland  it  is  not  probable  that 
any  enemy  could  alienate  the  Catholic  part  of  the 
population  from  the  bishops;  in  Austria  the  relations 


1 


POLAND                               196  POLAND 

between  the  Polish  episcopate  and  the  peo])le  under  body  of  blasphemous  doctrines  tending  to  exalt  the 
them  in  no  way  justify  the  hopes  of  the  enemies  of  the  personality  of  Maria  Kozlowska.  Thev  were,  accord- 
Church  that  exceptional  laws  of  any  kind  directed  in^»  placed  imder  excommunication  by  Rome.  In 
against  the  orders  could  be  passed;  in  Prussian  Poland  190d  the  number  of  Mariavite  priests  amounted  to 
the  Poli^  archbishop  has  not  yet  exhausted  all  his  about  50  in  some  20  odd  pari^es,  claiming  a  following 
resources  in  his  struggle  for  the  rights  and  the  freedom  of  500,000  souls.  By  the  spring  of  the,  following  year 
of  the  Church.  their  numbers  had  already  fallen  to  60,000.  Public 
There  are  at  present  in  Poland  four  ecclesiastical  opinion  in  all  parts  of  Poland  almost  unanimously 
provinces:  at  Gnesen,  Lemberg,  Mohileff,  and  War-  condemned  the  new  body,  which  had  been  recognised 
saw.  In  the  year  ICXX)  Poland  had  five  bishoprics;  by  the  Russian  Government  as  a  religious  sect.  It 
this  number  increased  to  thirty-three  in  1818.  The  now  (1910)  numbers  among  its  adherents  40  priests 
head  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  Poland  was  the  Arch-  and  22  parishes,  with,  it  is  said,  20,000  adherents, 
bishop  of  Gnesen,  primate  of  the  kingdom  and  legalus  The  Mariavites  have  recently  adopted  an  entirely 
natu8.  In  the  ecclesiastical  hierarchy  the  following  Polish  liturgy.  The  sect  appeared  in  Poland  at  a 
order  of  precedence  was  established:  after  the  primate  time  when  the  country  began  to  revive  under  the  im- 
came  the  Archbishop  of  Lemberg,  then  the  Bishops  pulse  of  freedom,  and  when  the  hostility  between 
of  Cracow,  Wladislaw  (Lesslau),  Posen,  Vilna,  PIock,  Poles  and  Russians  appeared  to  be  on-  the  point  of 
Ermland,  Lutzk,  Przemysl,  Samland,  iCulm,  Chelm,  dying  out:  a  reconciliation  of  the  two  nations  might 
Kiefif,  Kamenets.  Livonia,  and  Smolensk.  The  Uni-  possibly  prepare  the  way  for  a  religious  union, 
ats  had  two  archoishops,  at  Kieff  and  Polotzk,  besides  Emigration  from  Poland  to  the  New  World  did  not 
the  Bishoprics  of  Lutzk.  Chelm,  Lember^-Kamenets  begin  to  assume  an^  considerable  proportions  until 
and  Przemysl-Pinsk.  At  present  Austrian  Poland  the  middle  of  the  mneteenth  century.  The  impulse 
has  a  Latin  archbishop  at  Lemberg  and  the  Bishops  which  resulted  in  this  movement  may  be  traced  to  the 
of  Cracow,  Tamow,  and  Przem^rsl,  with  about  unfavourable  conditions,  not  only  economic,  but  also 
4,000,000  laity  and  about  2,000  priests,  besides  an  political  and  religious,  which  prevailed  in  Poland, 
archbishop  of  the  Greek  Rite  at  Lemberg  and  bishops  The  United  States,  Brazil,  Canada,  Uruguay,  and 
at  Przemysl  and  Stanislawow.  In  Prussian  Poland  Australia  have  received  an  accession  of  population 
the  Archbishop  of  Gnesen  has  under  him  the  suffragan  amounting  to  more  than  3,000,000,  chiefly  from  the 
Dioceses  of  Posen  and  Kulm,  while  the  Bishops  of  labouring  classes  of  the  population.  (See  Pol&s  in 
Breslau  and  Ermland  are  immediately  subject  to  the  the:  United  States.) 

Apostolic    See.     Russian    Poland   has    the    following  in  English:   Van  Nobman,  Poiand,  the  Knight  amono  Natiofu 

sees:  Warsaw  (archbishopric),  Plock,  Kielce,  Lublin,  (New  York.  1908);  l^dok^  TheExtindiano/Ptfand,  ipa-m,  in 

Sandomir,  .Sejny  aad  Augustowo    and  Wladislaw  ?^^  a^i/i??!;/ J.'5il^SS^"^c«^^^^ 

(Lesslau):   m   the   dlStnctS   of    Llthuama  and  Little  bridge.    1907).  445-74;    Montalbmbbrt,    The   Ituurreaum  of 

Russia,    Mohileff    (archbishopric),    Vilna,    Samland,  Poland  (London.  1863) :  Bhandm,  Pofanrf,  A  study  of  the  Land. 

Minalr   anH  T  iifwlr  TtViifYim^r      ThtLt*  fKirti^n  HionAo^a  P^P^  «»»<'  LxtertUure  (London,  1903);  Parsoks,  The  Later  tMx- 

MinsK,  ana  LrUtZK-^mtomir.      l  nese  tmrteen  dioceses  ^v»tM  MaHyrdom  of  Poland  in  Am.  Cath.  Q.  Rm.,  Xin  (Philadel- 

number    about    4.500    priests    and    over    12,000.000  phiH,189S),7l-9Q,  McSwwmr,  The  Cath.  Church  in  Poland  under 

Catholics.    The  Polish  clergy  is  working  in  the  fore-  <*•  .'^"f'fe*  fe^S*f^i.J°^**  ^^'*^,^?°^^!l^'J^}y*r.^^-^ 

r«^««4^   :.«   A-.*A-,r  4iMx^A     a^f «;««»«»   <..«lA«.r);J^A«>o«»«^lA>  U  Sept.,  1876),  296,  430;   MacCaffrry,  Hiet.  of  the  Cath.  Church 

front  in  every  field,  setting  a  splendid  example,  it  ^^^1,^^  Ninet^h  Centl^  (Dublin,  1910);  Bain,  Slavonic  Burope 

unites  Polish  patnotism  with  Cathohcism.     An  infal-  (Cambridge.  1908) ;  Saxton,  Fall  of  Poland  (New  York,  1851); 

lible  sign  of  its  powers  of  development  is  undoubtedly  ^^f^^^^*"^-  «/  Poland  (London.  1831). 

seen  in  the  growth  of  religious  hWture  in  the  Pea  uL"  N^StlSii.  ^ii^pS^t  ^JlS^a^S^,^:^^^. 

language.     This   movement    clearly   shows   that   the  1891):  Buussxi,  Bedeeiaelteal  Hietory  of  Poland  (Ctuoow,  IS73- 

Polish  cleigy  is  receiving  a  thorough  education  and  Tliuv^*^^"'^^'  ^»«'*««'»?»  o/ the  Church  in  PWomi  (Lemberg, 

contributing  much  to  the  advancement  of  culture  and  'SS^^  i&„"xx'?!  (^Tr^wl^oSf"!  &&1S^: 

religion  m  Polish  society.     Every  Polish  province  has  relioieuae  dee  peuplee  elavee  (Pans,  1853);  FoBSTKB.  La  Pologne 

at  least  one  periodical  of  a  religious-social  character.  (Pa™».  ^^O);  FifiBLiNo,  Bathom  akd  Foimyni,Doeument» 

(See  PEBIOD.CAL  Literature,  CArnouc.-Poland.)  b"^o;?.iS:£?i5^»lS^'j;i,*J^',SS?iri«^S^(aj^ 

The  clergy  everywhere  enioy  an  extraordinary  esteem  Idem,  Hist,  popuiaire  de  la  Pologne;  Bbandxnbubgbr,  Polnieche 

and  large  sections  of  tn*   people    are    very  reli-  ^"cj-  (Leipzig.  1907);  Kbomer.  Pojonio,  ei^deeitu,  popuiis, 

•              **                                            r     M-                         0  morunut  et  repuMica  regnt  Polonte%  (Cracow,  1001);  Idbii,  LttM 

^  vT^*  ..            «                           ..L                ii'i'i  acres  geeta  inter  Polonoa  ordinemque  erueiferorum  (2  vols.,  Posen, 

One  instance,  however,  must  be  recorded  in  which  a  1890). 

defection  from  the  true  faith  has  taken  place  in  the  Edmund  Kolodziejczyk. 
bosom  of  the  Polish  Church.    In  Russian  Poland  the 

sect  of  Mariavites,  during  the  years  1905-08  attracted  PousH  Literaturb. — ^The  subject  will  be  divided, 

much  attention.    About  1884  Casimir  Przyjemski,  a  for  convenience  of  treatment,  into  historical  periods, 

priest,  came  to  Plock,  seeking  to  establish  an  associa-  First  Period. — Of  the  literature  of  Poland  before  the 

tion  of  priests  in  connexion  with  the  Third  Order  of  advent  of  Christianity  (965)  very  few  traces  indeed 

St.  Francis,  for  mutual  edification  and  the  promotion  are  extant.    Even  when  converted,  the  country  long 

of  asceticism.    After  he  had  become  acquamted  with  remained  uncivilized.    The  laity  were  engaged  in  per- 

Felicya  Kozlowska,  a  i)oor  seamstress,  and  a  tertiary,  petual  wars;  and  a  few  schools  fotmded  by  the  clergy 

he  informed  her  of  his  plan.    On  2  August,  1893,  were  wrecked  when  (1138-1306)  the  country^  after 

Kozlowdui  claimed  to  have  had  a  revelation  from  suffering  from  a  divided  sovereignty,  was  again  and 

God,  according  to  which  she  was  to  found  an  asso-  again  invaded  by  the  Tatars.    "Hie  schools,  however, 

ciation  of  priests  and  pious  women  under  the  name  were  restored,  and  Casimir  the  Great  fotmded,  in 

of  Mariavites,  and  thus  to  regenerate  the  world.  1364,  the  academy  which  was  destined  to  become  the 

The  association,  which  took  its  name  from  the  words  University  of  Cracow  in  1400.    Chroniclers,  writing 

"HaU  Mary'',  gathered  a  large  number  of  followers,  in  medieval  Latin,  appeared:  Gallus,  Kadluoek.  and 

Kozlowska.    generally    called    "mateczka"     (little  Martinus  Polonus,  in  the  thirteenth  century;  John  of 

mother),  plac^  herself  at  the  head  of  both  the  male  Czamkow,  in  the  fourteenth.    In  the  fifteenth  cen- 

and  female  branches  of  the  association;  she  was  re-  tury  the  University  of  Cracow  was  famous  and  at- 

garded  as  a  saint,  and  her  followers  even  ascribed  tracted  many  students;  Poles  began  to  study  abroad, 

miracles  to  her.    Tbe  Sacred  Congregation  of  the  and  came  back  Humanists  and  men  of  the  Renais- 

Inquisition  havins  decided  that  the  alleeed  visions  of  sanoe.    But  though  both  Dlugosz  (Longinus),  the 

Kozlowska  were  nallucinations,  ordered  the  society  first  great  historian  of  Poland,  and  John  Ostrorog,  an 

to  disband.    The  Mariavites  refused  to  submit  to  excellent  pohtical  writer,  flourished  at  this  time,  they 

this  decision,  and,  moreover,  continued  to  preach  a  wrote  in  Latin.    The  national  language,  though  it 


POLAND 


197 


POLAND 


was  being  gradually  formed  by  aennons  and  tranHla- 
tions,  was  not  mature  for  such  work  until  the  second 
half  of  the  sixteenth  century,  circumstances  favour- 
able to  its  development  having  arisen  only  in  the 
be^nning  of  that  century.  Books  printed  in  Polish 
— translations  or  paraphrases — date  from  1520;  from 
this  time,  too,  the  influence  of  Italian  culture,  fostered 
by  Queen  Bona,  increased  notablv.  Latin  versifica- 
tion became  fashionable,  books  on  historical  and  polit- 
ical subjects  appeared,  as  well  as  the  earlv  attempts 
of  some  writers  (Rey,  Orzechowski,  and  Modrzewski) 
Vho  fJterwards  became  famous. 

Second  Period  (/5^-/tfO0).— More  political  treat- 
ises, together  with  books  of  relisious  controversy,  fol- 
lowed in  and  after  the  days  ofSigismund  Augustus 
(1550-70).  Catholic  literatureT-represented  by  the* 
Jesuit  Wujek,  who  translated  the  Bible  into  Polish, 
by  Hosius,  the  great  theologian  who  wrote  ''Confessio 
fidei  Christians"  and  presided  at  the  Council  of 
Trent,  by  Kromer,  and  others,  increased  in  volume 
and  importance.  Nor  was  there  less  activity  in  the 
opposite  camp,  where  Budny,  Krowicki,  and  the 
preacher  Gregory  of  Zamowiec  were  distinguished. 
Poetrsr  in  the  vernacular  now  first  appeued:  Hey  and 
Bielski  produced  didactic  poems  and  satires;  John 
Kochanowski,  in  1557,  wrote  the  first  of  his  poems,  the 
beauty  of  which  has  not  been  suipassed  by  any  save 
those  of  Mickiewicz.  Towards  the  close  of  the  cen- 
tury the  political  tractates  of  Comicki  and  of  Wars- 
sewicki  were  written,  also  many  works  of  history, 
notably  Heidensteins  ''Rerum  polonicarum  libri 
XII''.  At  this  period,  too,  the  Jesuit  Skuga,  the 
purest  embodiment  of  Polish  patriotism  in  Uterature, 
preached  and  wrote,  calling  upon  all  Poles  to  save 
their  country,  though  that  country  was  then  so  power- 
ful that  his  cry  of  alarm  was  like  the  voice  of  a  prophet. 
Rey  and  K^hanowski,  and  many  another,  had  the 
like  misgivings,  but  none  felt  them  so  deeply,  or  could 
express  them  with  such  eloquence. — ^Tnis  was  the 
Golden  Age  of  Polish  literature.  Kochanowski,  in- 
deed, can  scarcely  be  called  versatile,  thou^  as  a 
l^c  poet  he  excels,  and  did  much  for  his  country's 
literature,  adding  beauty  to  its  poetry,  which,  until 
then,  had  been  onlv  mediocre.  Historical  and  polit- 
ical writing  flourished,  and  the  Polish  controversiid 
writers  were  excellent  on  both  sides. 

Third  Period  (t600'4S).--A  decided  falUng-ofif 
took  place  after  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth 
century.  Poets  merelv  imitated  John  Kochanowski, 
badly -set  phrases  often  taking  the  place  of  in- 
spiration. Those  who  aspired  to  bring  about  a  new 
departure  (if  we  except  Peter  Kochanowski,  the  trans- 
lator of  Tasso  and  Ariosto)  were  not  sufficiently  tal- 
ented, while  most  writers  were  careless,  though  often 
brilliant,  amateurs  who  felt  no  such  need.  Szymon- 
owicz,  indeed,  was  a  humanist  of  the  old  school  and  a 
true  artist;  so  were  his  disciples,  the  brothers  Zimo- 
rowicz;  but  of  these  two,  the  one  died  young,  having 
produced  very  Uttle.  while  the  other,  though  he  main- 
tained the  good  traditions  for  a  long  time,  was  unable 
to  raise  the  level  of  Polish  poetry.  Szymonowicz's 
idyls,  perfect  as  they  are,  show  the  poverty  of  a  period 
that  can  boast  of  nothing  else.  Sarbiewski,  a  con- 
temporary poet  of  great  talent,  unfortunately  wrote 
only  in  Latin.  The  prose  writers  of  this  period  are 
also  inferior  to  their  predecessors,  the  histonans  being 
the  best,  and  the  best  among  the  historians,  Lubien- 
ski  and  Biasecki,  were  perhaps  worthy  successors  to 
thoM  oi  former  times.  Memoirs  began  to  abound, 
curious  and  important  as  sources  of  lustory,  the  best 
of  them  being  those  of  Stanislaus  Olbracht  Radziwiil 
and  Zolkiewski.  As  a  political  essayist  similar  to 
tho8e  of  the  former  period,  but  less  eminent  because 
not  BO  original,  Starowolski  deserves  mention;  nor 
must  we  forget  Birkowski's  sermons,  which,  though 
often  in  bad  taste  and  full  of  hterary  shortcomings, 
are  strikingly  representative  of  the  ideal  of  religious 


chivalry  admired  in  Poland  when  patriotism  and  piety 
vied  with  each  other. 

Fourth  Period  (1648-96).— The  writers  of  thii 
period  lack  originality  and  interest;  they  mereljr 
tread  in  the  beaten  track.  Morsztyn  and  Twardowski 
translated  some  medieval  romances  and  Italian  tales, 
which  might  have  proved  mines  of  fresh  interest,  but 
were  not  adequately  worked.  One  form  of  literature 
then  becoming  effete  while  no  other  was  developed, 
decay  set  in.  French  and  Italian  authors  were  studiea 
to  the  detriment  of  the  ancients,  badly  exploited,  and 
imitated  amiss;  conceits  were  sought  after^  bad  taste 
became  fashionable,  the  Baroque  style  obtained  vogue 
everywhere,  the  pest  of  '* macaronics"  raged.  Never 
had  there  been  so  many  writers,  never  so  few  earnest 
literary  artists;  most  wrote  merely  to  divert  them- 
selves and  friends,  and  did  not  even  care  to  print  their 
own  slovenly  work.  Much  of  it  was  lost,  or  was  only 
recovered  generations  later,  in  manuscript — ^like 
Pasek's  '"Nfemoirs",  found  m  1836,  and  Potocki's 
"War  of  Choeim",  in  1849,  and  many  other  works 
invaluable  to  the  historian.  Translations  from  French 
and  Italian  writers  appeared,  some  original  novels, 
some  good  poems — e.  g.  those  of  Kochowski,  instinct 
with  patriotic  feeling,  of  Wenceslaus  Potockij  whose 
epics  nave  the  true  heroic  ring,  the  pleasant  idyls  of 
Gawinski,  Opalinski's  satires,  which,  thoush  very  in- 
ferior in  style,  were  extremely  bitter  ana  often  hit 
their  mark,  Andrew  Morsst^ni's  "Psyche",  also  his 
"  Cid ",  translated  from  Com^e.  In  prose,  eloquence, 
both  religious  and  secular,  was  blighted  by  the  same 
affectation  and  bad  taste.  History  remained  what  it 
had  been,  a  mere  chronicle  of  facts;  the  political 
essays  were  woefully  inferior  to  those  of  former  times. 
In  short,  at  4he  end  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
Polish  literature  was  in  full  decay,  the  only  worthy 
representative  of  the  national  spirit  being  Kochowski, 
in  a  few  of  his  lyrical  productions,  and  W.  Potocki. 

Fifth  Period  (1696-1763).— It  was  fated  to  fall  still 
lower — so  low,  indeed,  that  it  scarce  deserved  the 
name  of  literature.  Among  the  writers  of  this  time, 
Jablonowski.  Druzbacka  (the  first  Polish  authoress), 
Rzewuski,  Zaiuski,  and  Minasowics  were  the  least 
wretched:  history  was  represented  only  by  the  "Mem- 
oirs" of  Otwinowski.  Yet  even  at  this  lowest  ebb  we 
find  everjrwhere  a  spirit  of  sincere,  unaffected  piety, 
untouched  as  yet  by  French  flippancy  and  unbe- 
tief,  together  with  a  feeUng  of  disoontent  with  ex- 
isting conditions  and  a  desire  for  reform.  Karwicki, 
Leszczynski  (King  Stanislaus),  and  Konarski  were 
thinkers  who  did  noble  work  in  the  sense  of  pohtical 
regeneration.  The  tide  was  now  at  its  lowest,  and 
about  to  turn. 

Sixth  Period  (1763-96). — ^As  to  the  necessity  of  re- 
form, the  nation  was  divided  into  two  parties.  The 
reforming  party  was  considerably  strengthened  after 
the  first  partition  of  Poland,  and  the  Four  Years' 
Diet  followed  with  a  most  liberal  constitution,  to 
which  Russia  and  Prussia  replied  by  dividing  Poland 
a  second  time.  Kosciuszko  took  up  arms  for  his  coun* 
try,  but  failed;  the  third  partition  took  place,  and 
Poland,  as  a  separate  polity,  e^fisted  no  more.  Mean- 
while, though  the  nation  itself  was  tottering  to  its  fall, 
its  literature  had  already  begun  to  revive.  New  ten- 
dencies, new  forms,  new  talents  to  realize  them,  were 
appearing,  the  very  humiliation  of  belonging  to  a 
people  barren  of  literary  creations  stirred  up  patriots 
to  write.  The  influence  of  French  letters,  which  had 
originated  with  Marie  Louise  Gonzaga,  queen  of  John 
Casimir,  continued  and  increased,  not  indeed  without 
injury  to  faith  and  morals;  Voltaire's  Deism,  Rous- 
seau s  false  sentimentality,  the  materialism  of  Diderot 
and  his  followers,  had  their  echoes  in' Poland.  Every 
form  of  Liberalism  too,  from  its  first  parliamentary 
shape  to  the  sanguinary  terrorism  of  later  times,  was 
in  turn  adopted  from  French  patterns.  But  during  all 
this  time  public  opinion  was  ripening.    Konarud's 


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POLAND 


labours  had  already  doomed  Jbhe  "liberum  veto"  (the 
right  of  any  one  member  of  the  Diet  to  prevent  a  bill 
from  becoming  law);  Stazic,  followed  by  Kollataj, 
iattacked  the  system  of  elected  kings.  A  lively  dis- 
cussion followed,  and  matfy  pamphlets  were  published 
on  either  side;  but  at  last  the  reformers'  ideas 
triumphed  in  the  Four  Years'  Diet.  At  the  same  time 
poetry  was  making  great  strides  forward,  though  aa 
yet  inadequate  to  the  utterance  of  Poland  s  sorrow. 

The  contemporary  poets,  Krasicki  and  TremUcki 
especially,  were  men  of  their  time,  sober,  sensible, 
humourous,  witty,  aiming  at  perfection  of  language 
and  clearness  of  style;  what  tney  produced  was  not 
unworthy  of  an  enlightened  nation,  but  in  no  wise 
truly  great  work.    Kniaznin,  however,  and  Karpinski 
have  left  us  productions  more  lyrical  in  tone,  in  which 
scenes  of  peasant  Ufe,  together  with  religious  senti- 
ments, are  often  to  be  found.    About  this  time,  too, 
a  multitude  of  songs  without  any  claim  to  style  began 
to  express  the  sorrows  of  the  nation;  these  were  the 
seeds  which  later  produced  fruit  in  the  poems  of 
Mickiewicz  and  his  contemporaries.    The  drama  had 
hitherto  been  barren  in  Poland;  it  now  ^owed  signs 
of  fruitfulness  in  the  comedies  of  Bohomolec,  of  Czar- 
toryski,  and  especially  of  Zablocki,  a  comic  writer  of 
no  mean  powers.    Science,  too,  law,  philosophy,  art- 
criticism,  geography,  grammar,  and  philology  now 
found  exponents  in  Sniadecki,   Poczubut,   Czacki, 
Nagurczewski,  Dmochowski,  Wjrrwicz,  and  Kopczyn- 
ski.    History  was  completely  transformed  by  Narus- 
zewicz,  less  great  indeed  than  Dlugosz,  but  the  only 
historian  at  all  comparable  to  him  until  after  the  fall  of 
Poland.     If  the  former  laid  the  foundations  of  her  ' 
history^  the  latter  rebuilt  it  with  his  critical  studies 
and  stnct  investigation  of  sources.    Inpthe  same  field, 
Albertrandi,  Loyko,  and  Czacki  were  also  able  work- 
ers; nor  should  we  omit  to  notice  man>  memoirs,  not 
all  equally  valuable^  but  for  the  most  part  very  im- 
portant and  instructive.  During  this  penod  then  there 
was  rapid  progress.   The  direction  of  studies  was  com- 
pletely changed .   The  li teratxire  run  wild  of  the  former 
era  was  succeeded  by  good,  sensible,  carefully  written 
work;    the  imruly  nobility  of  former  Diets  was  re- 
placed by  men  like  Niemcewicz.  Wybicki,  Andrew 
Zamoyski.  Ignatius  Potocki,  and  Bishop  Krasinski. 
No  wonder  that  their  achievement,  the  Constitution 
of  the  Third  of  May,  was  proclaimed  by  Burke  and 
Sifey^s  the  best  in  Europe.    In  a  word,  this  period  may 
be  judged  by  its  results — the  realization  of  Poland  as 
a  true  political  organization,  the  notion  of  equality 
before  the  law,  a  culture  higher  than  any  since  the 
sixteenth   century,    a  literature   both   serious   and 
worthy  of  respect,  great  examples  of  strenuous  work, 
and  an  intense  sentiment  of  patriotic  duty. 

Seventh  Penod  (1796-1 8^2). —The  silent  stupefac- 
tion of  the  first  few  years  after  Poland's  downfall  was 
followed  by  an  awakening  prompted  by  the  instinct 
of  self-preservation,  which  in  the  first  place  made  for 
the  preservation  of  the  national  language  and  litera- 
ture. This  sentiment  became  strong,  ardent,  imiver- 
sal.  The  Society  of  the  Friends  of  Learning  was  then 
founded  in  Warsaw.  Of  its  members,  many  have  al- 
ready been  named  as  men  of  *ote  in  the  sixth  period. 
It  did  admirable  work,  and  was  not  dissolved  until 
1831.  Prince  Adam  Czartoryski,  having  become  min- 
ister to  Alexander  I,  prevailed  upon  him  to  sanction 
a  vast  plan  for  public  education  in  Lithuania  and 
Ruthenia,  embracing  all  studies  from  the  most  ele- 
mentary to  those  of  the  University  of  Vilna,  whence 
Mickiewicz  was  one  day  to  come  forth  and  endow  the 
national  poetry  with  new  life.  And  as  Vilna  Univer- 
sity was  inadequate  to  the  needs  of  so  vast  a  country, 
the  Volhjmian  Lyceum  was  founded  in  1805.  During 
this  period,  the  general  course  of  literature  was  very 
like  that  of  the  preceding  epoch,  but  more  strongly 
marked  with  patriotic  sadness  as  became  a  generation 
imbued  with  the  constitutional  ideas  of  the  Four 


Years'  Diet,  but  grown  up  under  the  shadow  of  A 
great  catastrophe.  To  keep  the  memories  of  the  past 
and  the  love  of  the  fatherland  was  now  the  aim  evi- 
dently pursued  by  Niemcewicz  in  his  "songs",  by 
Woronicz  in  his  "Sybil "  (an  anticipation  of  the  poetry 
that  was  soon  to  come)^  by  Kozmian  in  his  "Odes' , 
by  Wezyk  and  Felinski  in  their  tragedies;  but  the 
form  was  still  French.  Poles  had  come  to  be  i^orant 
of  any  other  hterature^  and  the  pseudo-classic  taste 
of  the  time,  together  with  the  glamour  of  Napoleon's 
victories,  had  an  excessive  influence  upon  both  Utera- 
ture  and  politics,  upon  language  and  social  Ufe. 

It  was  through  the  French  themselves  that  the 
Poles  came  to  know  the  existence  of  other  sources  of 
inspiration.  But  this  revelation  once  made,  though 
Kozmian  and  Osins^  still  held  exclusively  to  Latm 
models  and  the  ideas  of  Laharpe,  Wezyk  began  to 
study  German  sesthetic  writers,  Niemcewicz  imitated 
Scott  and  pre-Byronic  Enghsh  poets,  and  Morawski 
translated  Byron.  The  drama  especially,  though  still 
following  French  models,  was  making  great  andmuch 
needed  progress.  Felinski's ' '  Barbara '  deserves  men- 
tion as  a  successful  play,  and  the  actors  who  played  it 
were  better  than  haa  ever  been  seen  in  Poland.  Ro- 
manticism was  yet  to  come,  but  it  had  a  forerunner 
in  Brodzinski,  who,  though  somewhat  stereotyped  in 
his  diction,  was  nevertheless  famihar  with  German 
poetry  and  tended  to  simphcity  of  thought,  seeking 
his  inspiration  where  the  Romantics  were  wont  to 
seek  it.  In  the  fields  of  science  and  scholarship,  also, 
we  meet  with  great  names — Lelewel,  Sniadecki, 
Bandtkie.  linde,  Ossolinski,  Betkowski,  Surowiecki, 
Szaniawski,  Goluchowski,  and  others  already  men- 
tioned. In  a  word,  this  period  presents  a  steady  and 
continual  upward  trend  in  every  direction. 

Eighth  Period  {18£2'^0).—Thia  period,  though 
brief,  is  the  most  brilUant  in  Potish  Uterature.  It  may 
be  divided  into  two  parts:  before  1831,  the  search 
after  new  and  independent  paths;  after  1831,  the 
splendid  efflorescence  of  poetical  creations  resulting 
from  this  search.  What  gave  its  tone  to  all  the  poetry 
of  the  time  was  the  downof all  of  Poland,  an  innueuce 
that  was  patriotic,  political,  and  at  the  same  time 
mystical.  But  this  factor  alone,  strong  as  it  was,  was 
not  enough;  other  elements  co-operated.  There  was 
the  great  Romantic  movement  of  revolt  (in  England 
and  Germany  especiidly)  against  the  French  Classical 
school.  In  Poland  the  first  efforts  to  cast  ofif  the  yoke 
were  feeble  and  timid,  but  little  by  little  the  new  forms 
of  beauty  kindled  interest,  while  the  idea  of  a  return 
to  the  poetry  of  the  people  proved  particularly 
attractive.  Both  external  influences  and  popular 
aspirations  now  tended  in  the  same  direction:  there 
was  needed  only  a  man  able  to  lead  the  movement. 
The  needed  pioneer  appeared  in  Adam  Mickiewicz, 
after  whom  the  Romantic  period  of  Polish  Uterature 
should  rightly  be  called.  From  the  outset  his  verse 
marked  the  opening  of  a  new  poetical  epoch.  It  was 
hailed  with  delight  oy  the  younger  generation.  New 
talents  sprang  up  around  him  at  once — ^the  "  Uknune  " 
school,  whose  most  characteristic  exponents  were 
Zaleski,  his  friend  Goszczynski.  whose  best  poem  was 
"The  Castle  of  Kaniow",  and  Malczewski,  whose  one 
narrative  poem,  "  Marya",  made  him  famous.  Hith- 
erto the  prevailing  tone  in  Mickiewicz's  poems  had 
been  purdy  literary  and  artistic;  but  he  was  exiled  to 
Russia,  and  wrote  there  his  celebrated  "Sonnets"  and 
his  "  Wallenrod  " .  The  latter  work  shows  him  for  the 
first  time  inspired  by  the  history  and  the  actual  polit- 
ical state  of  Poland.  Patriotism  apart,  the  character- 
istics of  his  school  were  the  substitution  of  simpler 
methods  of  expression  for  the  old  conventional  style 
and  vivid  delineation  of  individuals  instead  of  abstract 
general  tjrpes.  National  feeling,  present  from  the 
nrst,  predominated  only  after  the  calamitous  insurrec- 
tion of  1831.  Among  the  pioneers  of  the  movement 
were  many  men  of  talent,  but  only  one  of  genius,  and 


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POLAND 


two — ^Zaleski  and  Malczewski — whose  talents  were 
really  eminent.  For  the  drama  in  this  period  we  must 
notice  Fredro,  most  of  whose  excellent  comedies  were 
written  between  1820  and  1830,  and  Joseph  Korzen- 
niowski's  first  dramatic  attempts.  Prose  literature 
had  changed  but  little  as  yet^  though  in  one  beautiful 
historical  novel  by  Bematowicz,  "Pojata",  Scott's  in- 
fluence is  distinctly  traceable.  History  continued  to 
be  represented  by  Lelewel. 

Among  the  most  important  consequences  of  the 
insurrection  of  1831  must  be  reckoned  an  emigration 
unparalleled  in  history  for  numbers,  which  continued 
until  1863  to  be  a  factor  of  the  highest  importance  in 
the  destinies  of  the  nation,  both  political  and  literary. 
Men  of  ihe  highest  talent  emigrated  to  coimtries 
where  literature  was  free  and  untrammeled,  and  where 
the  nationsd  sorrows  and  aspirations  might  be  uttered 
with  impunity.  Poetry  was  the  only  fitting  outlet  for 
the  emotions  which  then  stirred  the  spirit  of  the 
nation;  poetry,  therefore,  p}ayed.a  part  in  the  life  of 
the  people  greater,  perhaps,  than  has  ever  been  the 
case  elsewhere.  There  were  few  poems  of  that, 
time  but  called  to  mind  Poland's  past,  present,  or 
impending  woes.  This  patriotic  element  stamped  its 
character  upon  the  whole  period.  Poets  endeavoured 
to  answer  two  questions  in  particular:  Why  had  this 
doom  fallen  on  the  nation? — What  was  its  future  to 
be? — Now  essaying  to  treat  the  philosophv  of  history, 
now  endeavouring  to  raise  the  veil  of  the  future,  how- 
ever feebly  a  versifier  might  write,  he  wa#sure  to 
attempt  some  answer  to  these  questions. 

Ana  here  writers  were  influenced  by  the  two  con- 
trary currents  of  Catholicism  and  Messianism.  The 
st|t)ng  revival  of  religion  in  France  could  not  but 
influence  the  men  of  the  Polish  emigration.  Until 
1^31  Poland  had  been  outside  of  that  movement. 
Most  Poles  were  traditionally  Catholic,  but  not  all 
Poli^  Catholics  possessed  deeply  grounded  convic- 
tions; some  lived  in  eighteenth-century  indifference; 
some  were  influenced  by  the  opinion,  as  common  as 
it  is  baseless,  that  Rationalism  is  the  first  condition 
of  progress.  Under  the  stress  of  conflicting  tendencies 
in  France,  some  Polish  refugees  entirely  abandoned 
religion.  Others  learned  that  religiosity  and  practical 
religion  are  not  the  same  thing;  that  Poland  had  in 
latter  days,  to  a  great  degree,  lost  touch  with  the  essen- 
tials of  the  Catholic  Faith,  throush  sheer  ignorance, 
torpor,  and  thoughtlessness,  and  that  ere  its  political 
regeneration  could  be  thought  of,  the  nation  must  be 
bom  again  by  a  return  to  truly  religious  life.  The 
men  who  thought  thus — Zalenski,  Witwicki.  Stanis- 
laus. John  Kozmian,  and  others — rallied  round 
Mickiewicz,  whose  idea  that  a  new  religious  congre- 
gation, consisting  of  refugees,  was  necessary  to  set 
them  all  on  the  right  path,  became  the  germ  of  the 
Congregation  of  Our  Lord's  Resurrection.  This  con- 
gregation was  founded  by  two  priests  who  had  been 
soldiers  in  the  rising  of  1831,  Kajsiewicz  and  Seme- 
nenko.  Their  example  did  much  for  pulpit  eloquence 
in  Poland.  Exceptmg  Skaiga.  Father  Jerome  Kaj- 
siewicz was  the  greatest  of  Polish  pulpit  orators;  he 
was  also  a  ^at  writer.  His  inspired  utterances,  the 
truth  and  wisdom  of  his  judgments  in  matters  of  learn- 
ing, proceeded  from  his  love  for  God,  for  the  Church, 
and — though  he  well  knew  her  faults  and  blamed 
them  with  much  severity — for  his  country  too.  He 
was  one  of  the  greatest  figures  in  the  Church  and  in 
the  literature  of  Poland. 

In  France,  together  with  the  revival  of  Catholicism, 
there  were  also  movements  in  another  direction;  that 
of  Saint-Simon,  for  example,  and  that  of  Lamennais, 
and  these  had  affected  the  Poles  of  the  emigration 
when  the  Lithuanian,  Andrew  Towianski,  preached  to 
them  his  new  creed  of  Messianism.  Readily  explic- 
able as  a  result  of  false  conditions  of  existence,  and 
the  contrast  between  laws  of  conscience  and  facts  of 
life,  this  outbreak  was  none  the  less  deplorable  on 


account  of  those  whom  it  misled.  But  Messianism 
never  had  much,  if  any,  weight  with  the  emigrants; 
unfortunately,  Mickiewicz  was  entrapped  by  the  sect, 
and  the  beauty  of  his  utterances  gave  its  errors  some 
appearance  of  truth.  The  national  literature  had  now 
reached  its  zenith;  Mickiewicz  now  produced  his  great 
national  epic.  ''Pan  Tadeusz'';  and  it  was  now  that 
Stowacki  and  Krasinski,  lesser  names  indeed,  yet  of 
the  first  rank,  wrote  all  their  works.  All  three  were 
intensely  patriotic,  and  in  some  d^jree  m3rstic8. 
With  them  the  idea  of  Poland  as  God's  chosen 
nation,  the  martyr  among  nations  largely,  prevails 
and  is  strongly  emphasized  in  the  ''Dziady"  of 
Mickiewicz,  though  earlier  poets  were-  not  without 
some  traces  of  this  doctrine.  Of  course  Poles  at  the 
present  day  repudiate  it  as  an  exaggeration;  but  it  was 
the  first  beginning  of  the  error  into  which  Mickiewicz 
fell  later;  and  it  was  the  only  stain  upon  the  immacu- 
late splendour  and  highnsouled  patriotism  of  Polish 
poetry. 

Mickiewicz,  after  "Pan  Tadeusz"  was  published, 
gave  up  poetxV  as  a  vanity.  But  Stowacki  wrote  his 
magnificent  '^Kordyam",  followed  by  many  other 
poems  of  a  still  hidber  flight,  as  "Anhelli",  "Cjcleo 
Zadzumionych",  "W.  Szwajcarij".  "Lilla  Weneda", 
"Beniowski";  and  his  tragedies,  though  not  perfect, 
are  still  the  b^st  in  Polish  literature.  Zaleski  produced 
his  religious  idyl.  "The  Holy  Family'',  and  an  attempt 
towards  the  solution  of  many  a  problem  in  "The 
Spirit  of  the  Steppe".  Gosczzynski,  Garczjmski, 
Witwicki,  and  Siemienski.  not  to  mention  a  great 
number  of  other  poets  ot  less  renown,  surrounded 
Mickiewicz  in  his  exile.  Sigismund  Krasinski  pub- 
lished his  "Nieboska  Komedya"  (The  Not-Divine 
Comedy)  and  "Iridyon",  both  full  of  deep  philosoph- 
ical and  Christian  tHought,  showing  the  contradic- 
tions of  European  civilization,  and  the  supremacy  of 
God's  law  over  nations  as  over  individuals.  His 
"Przedswit"    (The   Dawn)    told   Poland   that   her 

{)resent  condition  was  a  trial  to  purify  her,  which 
esson  was  repeated  in  his  "Psalms  of  the  Future", 
together  with  a  warning  against  acts  that  might  cali 
down  a  yet  greater  calamity. 

In  Poland  itself,  the  literary  movement,  though 
cramped,  still  existed.  Vincent  Pol  wrote  his  pleasing 
"Songs  of  Janusz"  and  the  "Songs  of  Our  Land''! 
marked  by  much  originality  of  feefing  and  a  faithful 
portraiture  of  the  national  character.  There  were  also 
some  poets  who  exaggerated  Romanticism  with  all  its 
defects;  Ma|;nuszewski,  for  instance,  Zeglinski,  Nor- 
wid,  Zmorski,  and  Zielinski.  Of  another  type  were 
Lenartowicz,  whose  first  poems  now  appeared,  and 
Ujejski,  who  won  fame  by  nis  "Lamentations  of  Jere- 
mias",  so  well  suited  to  the  actual  state  of  Poland. 
Prose,  particularly  prose  fiction,  now  began  to  flou> 
^ish.  As  early  as  1829  Kraszewsld  had  b^un  to  pour 
forth  the  multitudinous  and  varied  stream  of  works 
which  was  to  continue  for  more  than  fifty  years.  His 
first  novels  were  feeble,  his  best  are  open  to  much 
criticism;  but  there  is  a  great  deal  of  truth  and  of 
merit  in  his  work,  taken  as  a  whole,  with  all  its  wpnder- 
ful  variety.  Korzenniowski,  a  very  different  kmd  of 
talent,  a  serious  artist  and  a  correct  writer,  less  satir- 
ical in  tone  and  of  a  merrier  turn  of  wit,  was  another 
good  novelist;  he  also  wrote  some  dramas,  chiefly 
with  a  comic  tendency,  which  were  successfully  pro- 
duced at  Warsaw  during  the  darkest  days  of  the  cen- 
sure. His  novels,  fewer  than  KraszewskL's,  were 
written  with  much  care.  In  the  historical  novel 
Rzewuski  was  supreme,  with  his  "Memoirs  of 
Soplica"  and  "Listopad"  (November).  Chodzko, 
however,  in  his  "Lithuanian  Pictures",  was  not  very 
far  behind  him. 

Science  and  learning  progressed,  in  spite  of  great 
difficulties.     Of  all  the  umversities  on  Polish  soil' 
Cracow  alone  remained  open  and  taught  in  Polish. 
Yet  here  the  struggle  for  culture  was  succewf ul .   His- 


POLAND 


200 


POLAND 


tory  broke  with  the  last  of  the  eighteenth  century  and 
took  its  stand  upon  the  principle  of  severe  research. 
The  best  historian  then  living,  after  Lelewel,  was 
Bielowski.  Mickiewicz,  as  a  lecturer  in  the  "College 
de  France '^  sketched  the  history  of  Polish  literature 
with  a  master  hand,  while  Wiszniewski  collected  and 
studied  vast  stores  of  material  of  which  he  was  able 
to  exploit  only  a  part.  In  science,  both  physical  and 
medical,  many  names  of  distinguished  men  might  be 
quoted.  Philosophy  was  now  more  studied  than  ever: 
Gbtuchowski,  Libclt,  Cieszkowski,  Trentowski,  ana 
Kremer  all  tended  towards  the  establishment  of 
a  Polish  school  of  metaphysics,  removed  equally 
from  German  Transcendentausm  and  French  Empir- 
icism, and  founded  on  the  harmony  of  all  our  faculties 
(not  on  reason  alone)  and  on  a  true  reconciliation  be- 
tween science  and  religion.  But  all  took  the  cue  from 
German  teachers,  some  from  Schelling,  others  from 
Hegel,  whom,  however,  they  often  contradicted;  and 
they  failed  to  produce  any  distinct  system  of  phi- 
losophy. 

Nimk  Period  (1850  to  the  present  time). — ^A  short 
interval  of  transition,  following  the  brilliant  outburst 
of  the  eighth  period,  lasted  until  1863.  Newspapers 
and  periodicals  began  to  be  very  widely  read;  they 
sowed  broadcast  the  seeds  of  culture,  but  with  the  in- 
evitable shortcomings  of  inadequate  criticism  and 
superficiality.  Vincent  Pol  continued  to  write;  "The 
Senatorial  Agreement''  and  "Mohort"  came  from  his 
pen  during  this  period.  Syrokomla,  an  author  re- 
sembling Pol  in  simplicity  and  originality  of  tone,  was 
decidedhr  his  inferior  in  other  respects.  Lenartowicz. 
too,  still  wrote  with  much  talent,  but,  like  Pol  ana 
Zaleski,  with  a  certain  monotony  of  diction  and  ideas. 
Two  women  should  be  mentioned  here:  Narcyza 
Zmicowska  (Gabirela)  and  Hedwi^e  Luszczewska 
(Deotyma).  The  former  had  strong  imagination  and 
great  audacity;  the  latter,  while  yet  yery  young, 
astonished  Warsaw  with  the  brilliancy  and  facility  of 
her  poetical  improvisations.  In  later  years  she  set 
about  writing  seriously,  and  produced  much  good  and 
scholarly  work.  The  old  classics,  Cajetan  Kozmian, 
Wezyk,  and  Morawski,  still  lived  and  wrote  on,  poss- 
ibly even  with  more  spirit  than  in  their  young  days. 
Ocfyniec,  another  relic  of  expiring  Romanticism,  made 
his  mark  about  this  time;  his  translations  of  Scott, 
Moore,  and  Byron  are  Excellent.  Contemporary  with 
these  are  Siemienski's  translations  of  Homer  and 
Horace,  and  Stanislaus  Kozmian's  of  Shakespeare. 
Romanowski  gave  great  promise  as  a  poet,  but  he 
died  in  1863;  and  Joseph  Szujski,  destined  to  be  one 
of  the  great  historians  of  the  present  time,  had  already 
come  forward  as  a  narrative,  dramatic,  and  lyric  poet. 
In  prose  literature  Kraszewski  and  Korzenniowski 
still  held  their  places,  and  Kaczkowski.now  stood  by 
their  side.  In  history,  besides  the  men  already  named, 
we  find  Maciejowski,  Hube,  and  Helcel;  these  last, 
with  Dzialynski  and  Bielowski,  also  did  good  work  by 
editing  ancient  sources.  Szajnocha,  who  with  modem 
strictness  of  research  united  a  most  brilliant  style^  and 
Frederick  Skarbek  came  to  the  front.  Wojcicki's 
"History  of  Polish  Literature"  is  a  very  good  work; 
and  Lukasiewicz  Bartoszewicz,  Mecherzjmski,  Przy- 
borowski,  Tyszynski,  Malecki,  Klaczko,  and  Kalinka 
wrote  excellent  tractates  and  essays  on  literary,  polit- 
ical and  aesthetic  subjects. 

A  great  change  in  political  conditions  supervened 
after  1863.  While  Austria  granted  autonomy  to  her 
Polish  subjects,  Russia  attempted  by  a  long  and  fero- 
cious persecution  to  stamp  out  every  vestige  of  national 
life,  and  in  Prussian  Poland,  under  Bismarck's  rule, 
even  the  Catechism  was  taught  in  German.  Thus 
Austrian  Poland,  having  two  universities  (Cracow  and 
Lemberg)  besides  an  a^demy  of  sciences,  became  an 
important  factor  in  Polish  culture.  The  awful  conse- 
auences  of  the  rising  of  1863  had  taught  the  nation 
that,  instead  of  fighting,  it  must  employ  peaceful 


means,  increasing  the  national  wealth,  raising  the 
level  of  culture,  manoeuvring  dexterously  to  get  what 
political  advantages  could  be  got,  and  strengthening 
religious  convictions  among  the  people.  The  former 
mystical  ideas  of  patriotism,  together  with  all  the 
hopes  of  a  prompt  restoration,  now  disappeared;  in 
their  place  came  truth — ^the  knowledge  of  former,  and 
of  present,  shortcomings  and  errors  which  had  con- 
tributed to  the  national  ruin — and  the  firm  hope  that 
Poland  might  live  on,  but  at  the  cost  of  incessant  and 
heroic  struggles.  No  wonder  that  with  such  disposi- 
tions, prosehad  the  upper  hand.  Poetry  had  had  its 
day,  though  its  stimulating  effects  still  remained;  its 
action  upon  the  national  imagination  had  been  great; 
now  was  the  turn  of  prose^  with  its  appeal  to  the  under- 
standingand  the  will.  History  flourished:  Szajnocha, 
Helcel,  Bielowski,  Szujski,  Kalinka,  Liske,  Pawinski, 
Jarochowski,  Wegner,  Bobrzynski,  Zakrsewski, 
Smolka,  Kubala,  Likowski,  Korytkowski,  Korzon. 
whose  works  are  too  numerous  to  be  even  noticea 
'  here,  were  all  historians  of  ^reat  merit.  In  the  history 
of  Polish  law,  Pickosinski,  Balzer,  and  Ulanowslu 
must  be  named,  besides  others  among  those  men- 
tioned above.  Estreicher  published  his  extremely  valu- 
able and  useful  "Bibliografia  Polska'^  in  eighteen 
vols.;  Malecki  and  Kallenbach  respectively  wrote  the 
Uves  of  Stowacki  and  of  Krasinski;  Nehring,  Tretiak. 
and  Kallenbach  took  Mickiewicz  for  their  theme,  ana 
Spasowicz,  Tamowski,  Chmielowski,  and  Bruckner 
ail  publiihed  histories  of  Polish  literature  in  several 
volumes,  whilst  Klaczko  wrote  in  French  his  "Caus- 
eries  Florentines",  a  very  beautiful  and  serious  study 
on  Dante. 

In  the  philological  field,  p^|*ticularly  in  the  study  of 
Polish  and  the  other  Slavonic  languages,  Malinowski, 
Baudoin  de  Courtenay.  Karlowicz,  Krynski,  Kalina, 
and'Hanusz  did  most  oistin^uished  work.  Oepkow- 
ski,  Luszkiewicz,  Sokolowski,  Mycielski,  ana  many 
others  laboured  successfully  for  the  advancement  of 
archseology  and  the  history  of  art,  as  also  did  Kolberg, 
for  ethnography.  Klaczko,  already  mentioned,  wrote 
in  French  two  political  works,  "Deux  Etudes  de  diplo- 
matic contemporaine",  and  "Les  deux  clumceliers". 
Bishop  Janiszewski's  "The  Church  and  the  Christian 
State  is  a  remarkable  work.  In  philosophy,  Swig- 
tochowski  and  Marbui]g  represented  the  modem 
Positivist  tendency,  while  the  contrary  attitude  of 
thought  was  taken  by  Struve,  and  Fathers  PawUcki 
and  Morawski,  Straszewski,  Ilaciborski,  Twardowski, 
Wartenberg,  and  others.  Pawlicki  wrote  his  "His- 
tory of  Greek  Philosophy",  and  Straszewidd  is  the 
author  of  a  work  on  Smaaecki  and  another  on  Indian 
philosophy.  Poetry,  as  has  been  said,  no  longer 
occupies  the  same  lofty  position  as  formerly.  A  few 
dainty  verses  distinguisned  by  nobility  of  thought 
and  grace  of  diction  nave  come  from  Falenski's  pen. 
The  ufcte  Adam  Asnyk  published  many  poems  under 
the  nom  de  plume  of  "El .  .y ".  They  were  singularly 
melodious  and  graceful,  melancholy  and  sad  in  tone. 
Marya  Konopnicka  is  a  poet  of  the  younger  genera- 
tion and  possesses  a  really  fine  talent.  Lucyan  Rydel 
has  shown  much  lyrical  and  also  dramatic  talent: 
"Na  Zawsze"  (For  ever)  and  "The  Polish  Bethle- 
hem" are  fine  plays.  Casimir  Tetmajer  has  ^"eat 
command  of  language,  a  stormy,  passionate  lyricism; 
he  is  at  war  with  the  world  and  with  himself. 

Patriotism  is,  as  a  rule,  differently  manifested  in  the 
poets  of  our  days:  there  being  no  hope  of  victory  by 
insurrection,  the  life  of  the  people,  its  fortunes  and  its 
sufferinoB  have  now  the  first  place.  Poets,  too,  write 
more  willingly  for  the  drama.  Many  have  produced 
very  successml  plays — ^Anczyc,  for  instance,  "Peas- 
ants and  Aristocrats"  and  "Kosciuszko  at  Rac- 
lawice".  Balucki  has  made  good  hits  in  his  petiU 
bourgeoisie  comedies;  Fredo  the  younger,  Blizinski  and 
Gawalewicz  are  also  good  comedy-writers.  In  fiction, 
a  great  and  unexpected  step  forward  has  been  taken. 


POLDINO 


201 


POLE 


Krassewski  was  still  continuing  to  write  with  uncom- 
mon power  (thoi^  at  lus  age  progress  was  out  of  the 
question)  when  H^nryk  Sienkiewicz  came  to  the  front. 
After  a  few  short  tales  and  sketches  he  took  the  field 
with  his  immortal  trilogy:  ''With  Fire  and  Sword 'S 
"The  Flood",  "Pan  Wolodyjowski".  To  these  he 
added  "Without  Principle",  and  "The  Polaniecki 
Family",  novels  of  contemporary  life.  He  then  pub- 
lished "Quo  Vadis"  and,  reverting  to  national  themes, 
brought  out  "The  Teutonic  Knights"  and  "On  the 
Fielcu  of  Glory  " .  Around  him  sprang  up  many  another 
author  of  very  considerable  talent.  There  were  Eliza 
Orzeszko  (On  the  Niemen),  Prus  ("The  Outpost", 
"TheDolr')*  Szymanski  (Sketches),  Rodziewicz  (De- 
waitys),  Ladislaus  Lozin^  (The  Madonna  of  Buso- 
wisk).  Among  the  most  recent  are  Zeromski  ("The 
Homeless  Ones",  "Ashes",  "The  History  of  a  Sin"), 
Rejmont  (Peasants),  and  Przybyszewski  (Homo 
Sapiens).  At  the  end  of  the  nineteenth  century  there 
came  a  decided  change,  especially  in  the  drama,  under 
the  influence  of  Impressionists  and  Symbolists — of 
Maeterhnck,  Ibsen,  Hauptmann,  and  Sudermann: 
the  prose  drama,  often  coarselv  realistic,  endeavoured 
to  solve  problems  of  real  Ufe;  the  poetical  and  tragical 
drama  tried  to  create  new  forms  and  a  symbolic  at- 
mosphere. Stanislaus  Wyspianski,  who  died  lately, 
is  the  principal  and  most  successfiu  exponent  of  this 
latter  school,  but  John  Kasprowicz  has  at  the  same 
time  produced  beautiful  plays  of  his  own  and  fine 
translations  of  Shakespeare  and  iEschylus. 

Such  is.  in  brief,  the  history  of  Polish  literature — 
remarkable  in  that,  during  the  last  century,  and  in 
spite  of  the  cruel  disasters  which  overtook  the  nation, 
it  not  only  maintained  itself,  but  showed  a  most  won- 
derful and  consoling  vitality  of  development;  remark- 
able, too,  for  the  high  ideal  of  uprightness  and  nobility 
of  mind  which  the  nation,  notwithstanding  many 
shortcomings,  constantly  set  up  for  itself  from  the 
time  of  Dlugosz  down  to  our  own.  It  has  fully  under- 
stood, even  when  it  has  failed  to  fulfil,  the  idea  of 
Christian  civilisation. 

Cbmiblowski,  HiUorya  LiUratury  PoUkiej  (Warsaw,  1900); 
Brucknbr,  HUlorya  Liieraiury  PoUkiej  (Waraaw,  1896) ;  Tar- 
NOW8KI,  Wypisy  PoUkie  (Cracow,  1910);  Idem,  HUtorya 
LUerairiry  PoUkiff  (Cracow,  1905);  Idem,  Kaiadt  WaU- 
ryan  Kalinka  (Cracow,  1887);  N— ,  Stanislaw  Kozmian 
(Cracow,  1885);  Porebowicz,  Si.  Koxmian  %  jjigo  przeklady 
$Mtk»p%ra  (Warsaw,  1885) ;  Anon.,  Jan  Kotmian  (Cracow,  1877) ; 
KRAaiBWBKi,  Zywot  %  dziela  ig.  Krofickiego  (Warsaw,  1879); 
Nbhrino,  Poexye  Krcuiekiego  (Posen,  1884);  Chmirlowbki, 
Charakteryttyka  Ig.  Kranckiego  (Cracow,  1886);  Trbtiak. 
Knuieki  jako  t^exyderU  trybunalu  (Cracow,  1855);  Idem,  O 
tatyrach  Kranekiego  (Cracow,  1896);  Kurpiel,  Przekonania 
religijne  Kratickiego  (Cracow,  1893);  Klaczko,  La  poisie 
polona%9€  au  XIX*  tiiele  H  U  poite  anonyme  in  Revue  dee  Deux 
Moruiee  (Jan.,  1862);  Nehrino.  Nieboska  Komedya  i  Irydion 
(Posen,  1884);  Crmielowbki,  Kobiety  Miekiewicxa,  SUnoackiego 
i  Kraeinekiego  (St.  Petersburg  and  Cracow,  1884);  HOsicr, 
Miloto  w  tycia  Kraeinakiego  (Warsaw,  1899) ;  Trbtiak,  Z.  Kraain- 
$k%  w  pienoexq  dohie  nUodoeci  (Lembers.  1884);  Tarnowski, 
Z.  Kraeineki  (Cmcow,  1892) ;  Kallenbach,  Mlodoeo  Z.  Kraein- 
ekiego  (Cracow,  1892);  Krsycki,  Weclewaki,  Opoezyach  Andreaja 
Krtyekiego  (Cracow,  1874);  Droba,  Andrsej  Krzycki  (Cracow, 
1879);  MoRAWBKi,  Corpua  antiquiaaimorum  poetarum  Polonia 
Laiinorum  (Cracow,  1888),  Preface;  Wlaotblaw  Mickiewicz, 
Zywoi  Adatna  Miekiewicxa  (Posen,  1890-95);  Cbmiblowski, 
Adam  Miekievnex  (Warsaw,  1886) :  Kallenbach,  Adam  Mickie- 
wiex  (Cracow,  1897);  Trctiak,  Miekiewiex  w  Wilnie  i  Koumie 
(Cracow,  1884);  Gobtombki,  Areydxie  poexyi  polakiej  (Warsaw, 
1898).  and  many  others. 

St.  Tarnowski. 

Folding,  John  Bede,  Archbishop  of  Sydney,  b.  at 
Liverpool,  18  Oct.,  17M;  d.  at  Sydney,  16  March, 
1877.  In  1805  he  was  sent  to  school  at  the  Benedic- 
tine Monastery  of  St.  Gr^oiy  at  Acton  Bumell  near 
Shrewsbury  (now  Downside  Abbey  near  Bath) .  In 
1810  he  received  the  Benedictine  habit  and  made  his 
vows  the  year  following.  He  was  ordained  in  1819  and 
filled  in  turn  the  offices  of  parish  priest,  prefect,  novice- 
master,  and  sub-prior  in  his  monastery.  In  1833  Prop- 
aganda selected  Folding  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Madras, 
Bishop  of  Hiero-CsBsarea.  It  was  pointed  out,  however, 
that  his  health  could  not  stand  the  climate  of  Madras, 


and  the  Holy  See  accepted  this  excuse  as  sufficient. 
About  this  time  an  appeal  was  made  to  the  pope  to  send  i 
a  bishop  to  New  South  Wales.  Folding  was  appointed 
to  this  newly-created  vicariate  which,  besides  New 
South  Wales,  included  the  rest  of  New  Holland  and 
VaaDieman^s  Land  (now  Tasmania).  The  consecra- 
tion took  place  in  London,  29  June,  1834. 

Bishop  Folding  reached  Sydney  in  September,  1835, 
and  at  once  set  to  work  to  organize  his  vast  diocese. 
He  found  only  three  priests  in  New  South  Wales  and 
one  in  Tasmania;  these  with  the  three  or  four  Bene- 
dictine monks  whom  he  had  brought  with  him  consti- 
tuted the  entire  force  at  his  disposal.  Then,  and  for 
many  years  afterwards,  he  worked  like  one  of  his 
priests,  saying  Mass  daily  in  various  stations,  often  in 
the  convict  prisons,  teaching  the  Catechism,  hearing 
the  confessions  of  multitudes,  and  attending  the  sick 
and  dying.  He  obtained  permission  to  give  retreats  in 
the  prison  establishments,  and  between  1836  and  1841 
no  less  than  7(XX)  convicts  made  at  least  ten  days'  retreat 
imder  his  guidance.  The  authorities  soon  reused  the 
good  effect  his  influence  was  having,  and  arranged 
that,  on  the  arrival  of  every  ship-loaa  of  convicts,  all 
the  Catholics  should  be  placed  at  his  disposal  for 
some  days,  during  which  the  bishop  and  his  assistants 
saw  each  prisoner  personally  and  did  all  they  could 
for  them  before  they  were  drafted  off  to  their  various 
destinations.  In  1841  Bishop  Folding  revisited  Eng- 
land and  thence  went  on  to  Rome  to  report  on  his 
vicariate  and  petition  for  the  establishment  of  a 
hierarchy,  which  was  granted  in  1842,  the  vicar 
Apostolic  becoming  first  Archbishop  of  Sidney  and 
Frimate  of  all  Australia.  During  this  visit  he  was 
sent  on  a  special  diplomatic  mission  to  Malta,  and 
In  recognition  of  his  success  therein  was  made  a 
Count  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire  and  an  assistant 
at  the  pontifical  throne.  In  1843  he  returned  to 
Sydney,  taking  with  him  a  band  of  Christian  Brothers, 
four  Fassionists,  and  some  Benedictines.  His  return 
as  archbishop  aroused  a  violent  storm  among  the 
Church  of  England  party  in  the  colony,  but  his  gentle- 
ness and  tact  disarmed  ill  opponents. 

Two  provinci^  synods  were  held,  at  Sydney  in 
1844  ana  at  Melbourne  in  1859;  he  founded  the  Uni- 
versity College  of  St.  John  at  Sidney  and  the  College 
of  St.  Mary,  Lyndhurst.  He  visited  Europe  in  1846- 
48,  in  1854-56,  and  in  1865-68,  returning  on  each  oc- 
casion with  new  helpers  in  hb  work.  In  1870  he 
started  for  Rome  to  take  part  in  the  Vatican  Council, 
but  his  health  failed  on  the  journey  and  he  returned  to 
Sydney.  In  1873  the  Holy  See  appointed  Dom  Roger 
Bede  Vaughan,  another  Downside  monk,  as  his  coad- 
jutor with  right  of  succession,  and  from  this  time  he 
gradually  withdrew  from  active  work. 

Snow,  Necrology  of  the  English  Benedietinea  (London.  188d)» 
171;  BiRT.  HiHoryof  Downaide  School  (London,  1002),  169, 198, 
212.  273,  326:  Idkm.  Benedictine  Pioneera  in  Auatralia  (2  vols., 
London.  1911) ;  Orthodox  Journal^  III  (London,  1834),  14;  The  Tab' 
lei,  XLIX  (London.  1877),  406,  727;  Catholie  Timea  (London,  29 
March,  1877);  Melbourne  Argue  (Melbourne,  17  March,  1877); 
Doumaide  Review,  L  (London,  1882),  91-102, 165-175.  241-249. 

G.  Roger  Httdlebton. 

Pole,  Reginald,  cardinal,  b.  at  Stourton  Castle, 
Staffordshire,  England,  in  March,  1500:  d.  at  Lmn- 
beth  Palace,  17  Nov.,  1558;  third  son  of  Sir  Richard 
t  Pole,  Kni^t  of  the  Garter,  and  Margaret^aughterof 
George,  Duke  of  Clarence,  brother  of  Edward  IV. 
From  the  beginning  of  his  reign  Henry  Vill  recog- 
nized him  as  a  near  kinsman  and  showed  him  special 
favour,  while  in  1513  he  created  his  widowed  mother 
Countess  of  Salisbury,  an  act  of  tardy  reparation  for  . 
the  attainder  and  execution  under  Henry  VII  of  her 
only  brother  Edward,  Earl  of  Warwick.  She  was  also 
made  governess  to  the  Princess  Mary  in  1516  and 
we  may  assume  that  Pole's  intimacy  with  the  royal 
mistress  whom  he  was  afterwards  to  serve  so  de- 
votedly began  before  he  left  England.  The  boy 
received  his  early  education  in  the  Charterhouse  at 


Sheen,  where  he  nient  five  yean.   He  went  to  Oxford  M  before  to  pay  his  allowancea  out  of  the  royal  ex 

at  the  age  of  twelve  or  thirteen,  and  took  hia  degree  chequer.    Reauming,  eventually,  hia  peaceful  life  in 

soon  after  he  was  fifteen.    Hewas,  it  seems,  intended  Padua,  Pole   renewed  or   estwliahed  an   intunaey 

for  the  Church,  a  choice  to  which   he  witlingly  as-  with  the  leaders  in  the  world  of  letters,  men  like 

sented.  and  though  he  had  received  no  orders  and  Sadolet  (then  Binhop  of  Caipentraa),  Contarini,  and 

was  atill  hardly  more  than  a  lad,  benefices  were  Ludovico  Friuli,    The  two  or  three  years  which  fol- 

showered  upon  nim,  amongst  others  a  prebend  bear-  lowed  were  probably  the  happiest  he  was  fated  ever 

ins  with  it  the  title  of  dean  in  the  collegiate  church  of  to  know, 
mmbome  (15  Feb.,  1518).  Meanwhile  events  were  moving  rapidly  in  England. 

Throughout  all  his  career  Pole's  attraction  fot  a  The  last  strands  which  bound  England  to  Rome  had 

studious  life  was  most  pronounced.    At  his  own  wish  been  severed  by  the  king  in  1534,    The  situation  was 

and  with  the  approval  and  pecuniarv  help  of  Henry  desperate,  but  many  seemed  to  think  that  it  whs  in 

VIII  he  set  out  in  Feb.,  1521,  for  Padua,  at  that  time  Pole'spower  to  render  aid.  On  the  sideof  Princess  Mary 

a  great  centre  of  learning,  and  in  the  coterie  of  scholars  and  her  cousin  Charles  V  advances  were  made  to  him 

which  he  found  there  the  young  Idnsman  of  the  King  in  June,  1535,  and  after  some  demur  he  agreed  to  msJce 

of  England  became  a  great  favourite.     Men  like  Long-  an  attempt  at  mediation.     On  the  other  hand  Henry 

oliuB  (de  Longueil),  who,  dying  shortly  afterwards,  seemed  still  to  cling  to  the  idea  of  gainiug  him  over  to 

left  Pole  his  library,  Leonicus,  wno  taught  him  Greek,  support  the  divorce,  and  through  Uie  intermediary  t^ 

Bembo  the  humanist,  and  later  Cardinal  Contarini,  Pole's   chaplain,   Starkey,   who   happened   to  be  in 

also  one  day  destined  to  adorn  the  Sacred  College,  England  at  the  close  of  1534,  Pole  nad  been  preseed 

and  the  English  scholar  Lupset.  all  sought  hie  inti-  by  the  king  to  write  Ijis  opinion  on  the  lawfulness  >'ur> 

macy,  while  at  a  later  period  and  under  other  circum-  dwino  of  marriage  with  a  deceased  brother's  widow, 

stances  he  acquired  the  friendship  and  won  the  liigh  and  also  upon  the  Divine  institution  of  the  papal 

esteem  of  Erasmus  and  More.    All  these  were  not  supremacy.    Pole  reluctantly  consented,  and  Us  reply 

only  learned  but  large-minded  men,  and  the  mere  after   long    delay   eventually   took    the   form  ol    a 

fact  of  his  chooung  such  associates  would  suffice  to  treatise,      Pro   ecclesiastics    Unitatie   defenaione'*. 

prove  that  Pole  was  not  the  bigot  he  has  been  some-  It  was  most  uncompromising  in  language  and  argu- 

times  represented.     Pole  rerawned  in  Italy  until  1527.  ment^  and  we  cannot  doubt  that  events  in  Engltuid. 

After  a  visit  to  Rome  in  1526,  and  on  his  return  he  still  especially  the  tragedy  of  the  execution  of  Fisher  and 

pursued  his  studies,  residing  within  the  enclosure  of  More  and  of  his  friends  the  Carthusians,  had  con- 

the  Carthuaians  at  Sheen.     Even  at  this  date  he  had  vinced  Pole  that  it  was  his  duty  before  Ood  to  speak 

not  yet  received  minororders,but  he  was  nevertheless  plainly,  whatever  the  cost  might  be  to  himself  and  his 

elected  Deanof  Exeter  (12Aug,,  1527).  family.    The  book,  however,  was  not  made  pubho 

Shortly  after   this  the  great  matter  of  the  king's  uatil  a  later  date.     It  was  at  first  sent  off  privat«ly 

divorce    came    to    a    bead,    and    Pole,   to    avoid  to  the  king  (27  May,  1536),  and  Henry  on  glancinc 

having   to   take  sides  in   a   complication  in   which  through  it  at  once  dispatched  the  messenger,  who  had 

conscience,    friendship,   and  gratitude   to  his  royal  brought  it,  back  to  Pole,  demanding  his  attendance  in 

kinsman  were  inextricably  entangled,  obtained  per-  England  to  explain  certain  difficulties  in  what  he  had 

misdon  to  continue  his  studies  in  Paris.    But  he  written.    Pole,  however,  while  using  courteous  and 

did    not   thus  escape   from   his  embarrassment,    for  respectful   language   to   the   kins,    and   craving   his 

his  aid  was  asked  oy  the  king  to  obtain  from  the  mother's  pardon  in  another  letter  for  the  action  he  felt 

university  an  opinion  favourable  to  the  divorce,  bound  to  take,  decided  to  disobey  the  summons. 

When  the  young  studentplesded  inexperience.  Fox  At  this  juncture  he  was  called  to  Rome  by  command 

was  sent  to  assist  him.     The  situation  was  a  delicate  of  Paul  III.      To  accept  the  papal  invitation  was 

one  and  Pole  probably  did  httic  to  forward  a  cause  so  clearly  and  before  the  eyes  of  all  men  to  side  with  the 

(Ustasteful  to  his  own  feeUng  (the  effective  pressure,  pope  against  the  king,  his  benefactor.     For  a  while 

as  we  know,  was  really  applied  by  Francis  I),  but  he  Pole,  wno  was  by  turns  coaxed  and  threatened  in  let- 


6^3,  6505).     None  the  less,  Henry  required  his  kins-  his  advisers,  men  like  Ghiberti,  Bishop  of  Verona, 

man  to  return  to  England,  and  when  shortly  after-  and  CaraSa,  the  founder  of  the  Theatines,  afterwards 

wards  Wolsey's  di^jace  was  followed  by  his  death,  Paul  IV,  uived  that  God  must  be  obeyed  rather  than 

Pole  was  invited  to  succeed  him  as  Archbishop  of  man.    So  the  papal  invitation  was  accepted,  and  bv 

York,  or  to  accept  the  See  of  Winchester.     That  this  the  middle  of  November,   1536,   Pole,   though  still 

was  merely  a  bribe  to  obtun  Pole's  support  was  not  without  orders  of  any  kind,  found  himself  lodged  in 

so  obvious  then  as  it  must  seem  to  us  now  iu  the  light  the  Vatican. 

of  subsequent  developments.  He  hesitated  and  asked  The  summons  of  Paul  III  had  reference  to  the  com- 
for  a  month  to  make  up  his  mind.  Finally  he  ob-  mission  which  he  had  eonvened  under  the  presidency 
tained  an  interview  with  the  kinc  and  seems  to  have  of  Contarini  to  draw  upa  scheme  for  the  internal  re- 
expressed  hia  feelings  on  the  divorce  question  so  form  of  the  Church.  The  pope  wished  Pole  to  take 
boldly  that  Henry  in  his  fury  l^d  his  hand  upon  his  part  in  this  commission,  and  shortly  afterwards 
dagger.  To  explain  his  position  he  subsequently  sub-  announced  his  intention  of  making  him  a  carding. 
mitted  a  memorial  on  the  subject  which,  even  accord-  To  this  proposal  Pole,  influencea  in  part  by  the 
ing  to  the  unfriendly  testimony  of  Cranmer,  was  a  thought  of  the  sinister  construction  likely  to  be  put 
masterly  document  (Strype,  Cranmer",  Ap,  1),  '  upon  his  conduct  in  England,  made  an  energetic  and, 
moderately  and  tactfully  worded.  "The  king",  so  undoubtedly,  sincere  reostance,  but  his  objections 
Pole  pleaded— it  was  in  the  early  part  of  1531^  were  overborne  and,  after  -receiving  the  -tonsure,  he 
"standeth  even  upon  the  brink  of  the  water  and  he  was  raised  to  the  purple  along  with  Sadolet,  Cartiffa, 
may  yet  saveallhishonour,  butif  heputforthhisfoot  and  nine  others  on  22  Dec,  1536.  The  commission 
but  one  step  forward,  all  (us  honour  is  drowned."  must  have  finished  its  sittinajs  by  the  middle  of  Feb- 
The  course  of  subsequent  history  fully  justified  ruary  (Pastor,  "Geschichte  der  Pftpste",  V,  118),  and 
Pole's  prescience,  and  indeed  for  a  moment  the  king  Pole  was  despatched  upon  a  mission  to  the  north 
■eems  to  have  wavered,  but  evil  counsels  urged  him  for-  on  18  Feb.,  with  the  title  of  legate,  as  it  was  hoped  that 
ward  on  the  road  todestruction.  Still.as  Pole  had  not  the  rising  known  as  the  "Pilgrimage  of  Grace''  might 
tv"-'  lodilion  pubhc,  Henry  was  magnanimous  have  created  a  favourable  opportunity  for  int«rven- 
i^sttgetatpvehimpermissionin January,  tion  in  England.  But  the  rivalry  between  Charles 
^                       Iraw  to  the  continent,  while  continuing  V  and  Franm  I  robbed  Pole's  mission  of  any  little 


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POUS  206  POLKS 

Within  the  past  two  decades  a  great  change  has  grants  have  been  d^awn  into  the  movement  in  good 

come  over  the  character  of  Polish  immigration.    The  udth.    The  fact  that  the  Poles  from  an  aggregation 

Pioneers  who  came  from  Silesia,  the  Grand  Duchy  of  of  units,  frequently  lacking  efficient  spiritual  leader- 
osen,  and  West  Prussia  came  with  their  families, .  ship,  torn  bv  dissensions^  led  astray  by  a  Liberal 
were  mostly  men  of  early  middle  age,  and  came  with  press,  have  slowly  and  pamf  ully  arisen  to  a  position 
no  thought  of  ever  returning.    The  Prussian  Poles  commanding  respect  is  the  most  splendid  tribute 
,took  readily  to  farming.    They  were  resourceful,  dis-  that  can  be  paid  them.    The  failure  of  certain  classes 
inclined  to  hazard  health  and  life,  and  not  intent  upon  of  immigrants  to  come  to  the  material  support  of 
making  money  in  a  very  short  time.    The  Prussian  the  Church  is  most  frequently  explained  by  adducing 
Poles  and  their  children  constitute  much  the  greater  the  fact  of  a  statensupported  Church  in  the  mother 
part  of  the  rural  Polish  population  in  the  Middle  country.    Since  in  most  parts  of  Poland  the  Church 
West  and  North-west.    Polish  immigration  from  Rus-  is  supported  by  indirect  taxation,  the  generosity  of 
sian  Poland  and  Galicia  has  been  so  great  that  many  the  American  Poles  is  brought  out  into  stronger 
of  the  older  parishes  founded  by  Prussian  Poles  in  the  relief,  and  their  willingness  to  build  and  maintain 
industrial  regions  are  made  up  almost  wholly  of  their  their  magnificent  churches  and  institutes  is  deservina 
numbers.     The   Russian    Poles   constituted    about  of  the  unbounded  praise  accorded  them.    Coupled 
53  per  cent,  those  from  Galicia  about  43  per  cent,  with  their  deep  faith,  their  intense  nationalism  acts 
and  the  Prussian  Poles  about  4  per  cent  of  the  total  as  an  incentive  to  their  generosity. 
Polish  immigration  from  1895  to  1911.    The  recent        Unfortunately  the  immigrant  tide  pours  into  our 
Polish    immigrants    are    mostlv    young    men.     The  great  cities  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  our  Polish  immi- 
vast  majority  are  unskilled  labourers  from  the  vil-  grants    are    almost    solidly    from    the    agricultural 
lages;    the  few  skilled  labourers  and  mechanics  are  villages.     What  has  been  said  concerning  the  neces- 
for  the  most  part  from  Russian  Poland,  and  these  sityof  intelligent  colonization  in  the  article  on  Italians 
latter  are  employed  in  the  textile  industries  and  sugar  in  the  United  States  holds  with  equal  force  .when 
refineries,  with  which  work  they  are  familiar.     Those  speaking   of   the   Polish   immigration.     The  settle- 
from  Qalicia  come  in  many  instances  to  earn  enough  ment  of  the  Poles  in  lower  New  England  is  evidence 
money  to  clear  their  small  plot  of  land  of  debt.     They  of  the  need  of  intelligent  colonization.     The  move- 
come  to  mill  and  mine,  and  seem  utterly  indifferent  ment  to  the  farms,  at  first  confined  to  the  Prussian 
to  hardship   and   danger.     The  percentage  of  illit-  Poles,  is  now  spreading  and  extending  to  the  other 
erates  among  the  immigrants  from  Prussian  Poland,  classes,  who  are  even  entering  Canada.     The  settle- 
never  very  high,  is  now  insignificant,  while  their  ment  of  the  Poles  in  the  Connecticut  Valley,  whither 
knowledge  of  German  is  a  valuable  asset.    The  per-  more   than   5000  went  in  1910,  dates  from  about 
centage  of  illiterates  from  Poland  for  the  fiscal  year,  1895.     The  Poles  saved  th€4r  money  and  succeeded. 
1910,  was  30' 1  per  cent.     The  small  number  of  Poles  In  time  they  bought  the  land  of  their  employers, 
becoming   public   charges  would   be  much  smaller  Hundreds  of  abandoned  farms  in  New  England  have 
but  for  the  laws  making  little  or  no  provision  for  the  passed  into  their  hands,  and  they  are  now  invading 
workmen  and  compelling  them  to  unciertake  expensive  Long  Island.    Their  industry  and  thrift  are  shown 
litigation  in  case  of  accident.   The  records  of  our  penal  by   their   success   on   these   abandoned   farms,    on 
andeleemosynaryinstitutionsfailtoshow  that  the  Poles  which  women  and  children  share   the  toil  of  the 
constitute  a  lawless  element.    The  very  loV  death-  father. 

rate  among  the  Poles,  in  spite  9i  abnormal  conditions  Customs. — The  Poles  in  America  cling  tenaciously 
of  living  (high  infant  mortality,  and  the  heavy  death-  to  their  quaint  customs,  which  are  in  nearly  every 
rate  in  the  mines  and  mills),  is  striking  proof  of  their  instance  quite  as  much  religious  as  national  in  charac- 
morality.  It  is  not  unusual  to  see  Polish  churehes  ter.  Poland  was  but  Uttle  affected  by  the  religious 
in  the  United  States  filled  with  congregations  in  rebellion  of  the  sixteenth  century  and  hence  the 
which  the  men  far  outnumber  the  women.  This  Catholic  medieval  spirit  is  still  that  of  the  Poles, 
is  largely  explained  by  tho  character  of  recent  immi-  The  Christmas  and  Easter  carols  heard  in  the  Polish 
gration,  but  it  may  nevertheless  be  asserted  that  no  churches  are  exact  counteiparts  of  those  sung  by  the 
other  class  of  American  Catholics  can  boast  of  a  peasants  of  pre-Reformation  England,  and  are  the 
greater  percentage  of  church-going  men.  expression  of  the  childlike  faith  oi  the  people.  The 
Historically  the  Poles  have  l^n  so  circumstanced  most  beautiful  custom  and  the  one  that  bids  to  out- 
that  their  racial  and  religious  sympathies  completely  live  all  others  among  the  American  Poles  is  that  of 
coincide.  So  fused  and  intensified  are  these  senti-  the  oplaiki  (wafers).  Shortly  before  Christmas* the 
ments  that  it  has  been  well  said  that  the  soul  of  Po-  parish  organist  distributes  wafers  resembling  those 
land  is  naiuraliter  Christiana.  Conditions  leading  used  for  Holy  Mass,  and  at  this  distribution  each 
to  ruptures  with  ecclesiastical  authorities  have  been  parishioner  makes  a  slight  offering  to  the  organist  or 
many  and  it  would  be  exceedingly  unjust  to  place  altar-boys  who  bring  the  wafers.  These  are  sent  to 
all  blame  upon  the  masses  of  the  Polish  people.  The  friends  and  relatives  in  Europe,  and  the  latter  do 
Poles  are  easily  led  by  a  fiery  eloquence,  and  "in-  not  forget  those  in  America.  On  Christmas  Eve  the 
dependence"  among  them  was  the  result  of  deliberate  family  gathers  to  partake  first  of  all  of  the  wafer  in 
deception  on  the  part  of  rebellious  priests  who  to  token  of  continued  love,  mended  friendship,  and  good- 
carry  on  their  deception  more  successfully  had  some  will  to  all  men.  During  the  Octave  of  the  Epiphany 
of  their  number  consecrated  bishops  by  the  Old  the  priests  bless  the  homes  of  the  people,  and  the 
Catholic  bishops  in  Europe.  The  "Independents"  doors  are  marked  witji  the  initials  of  the  names  of  the 
are  possessed  of  no  unity,  and  represent  no  heretical  Wise  Men,  with  chalk  blessed  on  the  feast  of  the 
or  schismatic  movement  in  the  real  sense.  The  move-  Epiphany.  On  Holy  Saturday  the  priest  blesses  the 
ment  was  strongest  from  1895  to  1900,  and  spread  baskets  of  food  prepared  for  the  morrow.  Very 
with  astonishing  rapidity,  becoming  most  destructive  early  on  Easter  morning  Holy  Mass  js  celebrated 
in  Chicago,  Detroit,  Cleveland,  and  throughout  and  after  the  Mass  the  priest  and  the  laity  go  in 
Pennsylvania,  in  which  state  it  still  continues  a  solemn  procession  thrice  around  the  chureh,  inside 
demoralizing  factor.  It  is  impossible  to  estimate  or  outside,  according  to  circumstances.  This  is 
•with  any  degree  of  accuracy  the  numerical  strength  called  the  Resurekcya. 

of  the  movement  at  its  height,  but  to-day  the  total        During  the  Easter  season  the  priests  issue  con- 

«umber  cannot  exceed  30,000.     Protestants,  notably  fession    cards,    on   which    are    printed    the   words: 

Baptists,   Presbyterians,    and    Episcopalians,    have  Signum    Communionis     Paschalis.     Each     card     is 

fratomized  with  the  "Independents"  and  given  them  numbered,  and  a  record  is  kept  of  the  numbers  and 

a  respectabitity.    In  recent  years  many  of  the  immi-  names  of  those  to  whom  cards  are  issued.    These 


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207 


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icardB  are  returned  by  penitents  in  the  confessional 
and  the  names  are  cancelled.  Thus  a  record  is  kept 
of  all  those  who  have  satisfied  their  Paschal  obliga- 
tion. While  the  custom  is  liable  to  misinterpreta- 
tion and  even  abuse,  the  Polish  clergy  are  loath  to 
abolish  it  because  of  many  excellent  features.  In  no 
other  way  in  the  large  city  parishes  where  the  popula- 
tion is  constantly  sMf  ting  can  the  clergy  meet  many 
of  their  people.  On  the  feast  of  the  Assumption 
the  fakmul  bring  flowers  and  greenery  to  the  chiutsh 
to  be  blessed,  and  the  day  is  called  the  feast  of  Our 
Ladv  of  the  Greenery.  Polish  women  are  careful 
in  their  observance  of  the  custom  of  being  churched 
after  childbirth.  It  is  not  uncommon  for  the 
brides  to  come  to  church  very  soon  after  marriage 
to  receive  the  blessing  navce  nupia.  Seldom  does  a 
Polish  marriage  take  place  except  with  a  nuptial 
Mass. 

Name-da3rs,  not  birthdays,  are  celebrated,  and 
sponsors  are  regarded  as  relatives  by  the  interested 
families.  On  the  death  of  a  parishioner  the  church 
bell  is  tolled  ,each  day  immediately  after  the  Angelus 
until  after  tlie  funeral,  at  which  veryfreouently  the 
Office  of  the  Dead  is  chanted.  The  Poles  love 
their  own  vernacular  songs,  and  in  most  of  their 
churches  one  may  hear  them  chant  the  ''Little 
Hours"  before  High  Mass  on  Sunday  mornings.  Nor 
is  Latin  popular  with  Poles,  who  frequently  sing 
all  parts  of  the  High  Mass  except  the  responses  in 
Polish. 

Hospitality  ceases  to  be  a  virtue  with  the  Poles. 
Generous  to  a  fault,  they  turn  a  deaf  ear  to  no  peti- 
tion for  assistance,  especially  if  the  object  appeius  to 
national  or  religious  sympathies.  Poles  are  lovers 
of  processions,  flags,  banners,  uniforms,  and  marshals' 
batons.  A  Polish  church  on  festal  days  resembles  some 
national  fane  whither  the  battle-flags  of  nations 
have  been  brought  from  fields  of  glory.  The  Pole 
is  not  utilitarian,  and  all  this  to  him  is  more  than 
useful,  serving  as  it  does  to  bind  him  more  closely 
to  the  Church,  whose  feasts  are  given  added  solem- 
nity. The  observance  of  national  festivab  is  reli- 
giously kept.  May  recalls  the  adoption  of  Poland's 
famous  Constitution;  November,  tne  Revolution  of 
1830;  and  January,  Poland's  last  war  for  freedom, 
the  Revolution  of  1863.  The  various  organizations 
vie  with  one  another  in  preparing  these  celebrations, 
which  serve  the  useful  purpose  of  affording  instruction 
in  Poland's  history  to  the  younger  generation  and  to 
the  invited  Americans. 

Polish  Charitable  InstittUiona, — Besides  contribu- 
ting to  the  support  of  the  various  diocesan  charities 
the  Poles  maintain  a  growing  number  of  such  in- 
stitutions for  those  of  their  own  nationality.  Only 
the  more  important  are  noted:  Felician  Sisters, 
orphanages,  5,  orphans,  585;  Sisters  of  the  Third 
Order  of  St.  Francis,  orphanages,  1,  orphans,  105; 
Bemardine  Sisters,  ori>hanages,  1,  orphans,  120; 
Sisters  of  the  Holy  Family  of  Nazareth,  orphanages, 
1,  orphans,  160. 

A  very  large  oiphan  asylum  is  now  building  in 
Chicago,  which  will  be  supported  by  all  the  Polish 
parishes  of  the  archdiocese  and  will  be  placed  in 
chaive  of  the  Felician  Sisters.  There  are  three 
Polish  homes  for  the  aged  in  which  200  are  provided 
for.  In  1009  St.  Felix's  Home  for  Polish  working 
girls,  Detroit,  conducted  by  the  Felician  Sisters, 
assiflted  202  girls;  another  such  institution  in  East 
Buffalo,  New  York,  conducted  by  the  same  com- 
munity, assisted  267  girls;  in  the  Polish  day  nurser- 
ies of  Chicago  and  Milwaukee  nearly  20,000  children 
were  cared  for;  St.  Mai^s  Hospital.  Chicago,  con- 
ducted by  the  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Family  of  Nazareth, 
cared  for  2,150  patients.  The  Immigrant  Home, 
East  Buffalo,  New  York,  aided  8978  immigrants. 
St.  Joseph's  Home  for  Polish  and  Lithuanian  Immi- 
grants, New  York,  has  since  its  foundation  in  1896 


given  aid  to  86,912  immigrants.    Both  homes  are 
now  in  charge  of  the  Felician  Sisters. 

One  of  the  most  notable  of  the  early  Pplish  emi- 
grants was  the  patriot -poet,  Julian  Niemcewicz, 
who  came  to  America  in  1796.  He  had  been  Secre- 
tary to  the  Polish  Senate,  adjutant-general  of  Kos- 
ciuszko  in  the  latter's  struggles  for  Polish  inde^  . 
pendence  and  his  companion  in  captivity  in  St. 
Petersburg.  He  became  an  American  citizen  and 
remained  in  the  United  States  until  the  formation 
by  Bonaparte  of  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Warsaw,  when 
he  returned  to  Poland  and  was  actively  engaged  in 
Poland's  cause  until  his  death  in  1841.  The  leading 
spirit  of  aU'  movements  amon^  the  Poles  in  America 
throu^out  the  period  of  pohtical  immigration  was 
Henry  Corvinus  Kalusowski,  the  son  of  one  of  the 
chamberlains  of  Stanislaus  Poniatowski,  the  last 
Kin^  of  Poland.  He  came  to  America  in  1834.  Re- 
tummg  to  Poland  he  represented  a  Polish  con- 
stituency in  the  Prussian  Parliament,  and  upon  his 
expulsion  by  the  Prussian  Government  again  came  to 
the  United  States.  During  the  Civil  War  he  or< 
sanized  the  Thirty-first  New  York  Regiment.  Later 
held  positions  in  the  State  Department  in  Washing- 
ton, and  translated  all  official  Russian  documents 
relating  to  the  purchase  of  Alaska  by  the  United 
States.    He  died  m  1894. 

Other  political  immigrants  were:  Tyssowski,  the 
''Dictator  of  Cracow";  the  learned  Adaqci  Gurowski, 
who  in  his  "Diary  of  1861-1865"  betrayed  a  keen 
insight  into  the  conditions  of  the  Civil  War  period; 
Lieutenant  Bielawslq^  Paul  Sobolewski,  trainslator 
of  the  Polish  poets  mto  English;  Leopold  Julian 
Boeck,  soldier,  statesman,  scholar,  who  had  been 
Professor  of  Higher  Mathematics  in  the  Sorbonne 
before  coming  to  New  York,  where  he  founded  the 
Pol3i;echnic  Institute,  said  to  be  the  first  of  its  kind 
in  America.  He  later  occupied  chairs  in  the  Uni- 
versities of  Virginia  and  Pennsylvania.  He  was 
appointed  American  Educational  Commissioner  at 
the  Universal  ExpNOsition  in  Vienna  by  President 
Grant,  and  served  in  a  similar  capacity  at  the  Cen- 
tennial Exposition  in  Philadelphia.  The  quality 
of  the  Polish  immigrants  previous  to  1870  was  such 
as  to  give  them  a  prominence  out  of  proportion  to 
their  numbers,  and  the  record  of  the  Poles  in  the 
Civil  War  was  a  really  brilliant  one.  although  there 
were  not  more  than  a  few  hundred  Poles  in  the  various 
divisions  of  the  Union  Army.  The  most  prominent 
of  these  was  General  Krzyzanowski,  who  gained  his 
military  title  in  this  war  serving  under  Carl  Schurz, 
who  in  his  memoirs  speaks  very  favourably  of  his 
services.  Others  who  served  with  distinction  were 
Louis  ZychUnski,  Henry  Kalusowski,  Peter  Kiol- 
bassa,  Joseph  Smolinski,  the  youngest  cavalry  officer 
in  the  Umon  Army,  and  Edmund  Louis  Zaiinski) 
who  served  on  General  Miles's  staff,  and  after  the 
war  .occupied  the  chairs  of  military  science  at  the 
Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology  and  other 
institutions  of  a  similar  nature,  and  became  an  au- 
thority on  military  science  and  an  inventor  of  military 
appliances.  The  most  commanding  figure  among 
the  American  Poles  was  Father  Vincent  Barz3mski, 
C.R.  As  a  leader  of  men,  whose  vision  extended  far 
into  the  future,  he  stands  unique.  He  was  the  central 
figure  of  the  most  dramatic  chapters  in,  the  history 
of  the  Poles  in  America.  He  gave  the  Poles  St. 
Stanislaus  College,  their  first  orphanage,  their  first 
Catholic  paper  (the  ''Gazeta  Katoltcka*').  their  first 
daily  paper  ("Dziennik  Chicagoski"),  he  lormed  the 
first  teaching  corps  of  Polish  nuns,  and  brought  into 
being  the  Polish  Koman  Catholic  Union.  The  most 
typical  of  the  Polish  American  laymen  to  achieve 
distinction  was  Peter  Kiolbassa,  through  whose  ef- 
forts the  Resurrectionist  Fathers  came  to  Chica0>. 
He  served  as  captain  in  the  Union  Army  during  the 
Ci>dl  War,  and  utter  served  the  State  of  Illinois  and 


POLES 


208 


POLKS 


the  city  of  Chicago  in  various  and  very  important 
positions. 

The  name  of  Father  Joseph  Dabrowski  will  long 
be  held  in  grateful  remembrance.  Besides  found- 
ing the  Polish  Seminary  at  Detroit  he  brought  the 
fiiit  group  of  Felician  Sisters  to  the  United  States, 
lind  later  established  them  in  Detroit,  where  in  1882 
they  established  their  first  American  mother-house. 
Of  Polish  American  women  one  of  the  most  prominent 
was  Dr.  Mary  Zakrzewska,  who  came  to  America 
in  1853  and  founded  the  New  York  Infirmary  for 
Indigent  Women  and  Childsen.  and  the  New  Eng- 
land Hospital  for  women  ana  children.  Poland  s 
contribution  to  the  development  of  musical,  dramatic, 
and  plastic  art  has  been  a  notable  one.  In  1876  a 
little  band  of  Polish  intellectuals,  among  whom  was 
HeoTV  Sienkiewicz,  attempted  to  found  a  sort  of 
Brook -Farm  conununity  m  Calif omia.  The  at- 
tempt failed  but  gave  to  America  Helena  Modjeska 
(Modrsejewska),  who  from  the  night  of  her  American 
d^but  in  San  Francisco  in  1877  until  her  retirement 
thirty  years  later  was  among  the  foremost  artists  on 
the  American  stage.  Others  who  became  more  or 
less  identified  with  American  national  life  were  the 
sculptors  Henrv  Dmochowski,  whose  busts  of  Kos- 
ciussko  and  Pulaski  adorn  the  national  capitol, 
and  Casimir  Chodzinski,  creator  of  the  Kosciuszko 
monument  in  Chicago  and  the  Pulaski  monument  in 
Washington.  Prominent  in  the  Polish  commimity 
of  to-day  are:  Ralph  Modjeski,  one  of  the  foremost 
engineers  in  the  United  States;  John  Smulski^  ex- 
state  treasurer  of  Illinois;  Dr.  F.  Fronczak,  health 
commissioner  of  Buffalo;  Bishop  Paul  Peter  Rhode, 
the  first  Pole  to  be  raised  to  the  episcopate  in  the 
United  States;  Felix  Borowski,  composer  and 
critic. 

Every  Polish  parish  has  its  mutual  aid  societies, 
affiliated  in  neany  everjr  instance  with  one  of  the 
major  national  organizations,  all  of  which  are  con- 
ducted on  a  basis  of  fraternal  insurance.  These 
societies  do  a  great  amount  of  good  among  the  poor, 
caring  for  such  of  their  members  as  are  visited  by 
misfortune,  giving  the  Poles  desirable  solidaritv,  and 
makingfor  the  social,  religious,  and  economic  advance 
of  the  Polish  community.  Most  frequently  they  are 
parish  organizations,  and  partake  of  the  character 
of  confraternities,  whose  public  appearance  at  Divine 
SM^ices  on  national  and  religious  festivals  lends 
solemnity  to  the  occasions  and  constitutes  an  open 
profession  of  the  Faith  of  the  Polish  masses.  In  the 
larger  Polish/  communities  there  are  associations  of 
physicians,  dentists,  druggists,  journalists,  merchants, 
and  military,  dramatic,  and  singing  societies,  nearly 
idl  of  which  are  affiliated  with  the  major  organiza- 
tions. The  many  building,  loan,  and  savings  as- 
sociations among  the  Poles  have  received  high  praise 
from  state  officials. 

From  1866  to  1870  various  local  organizations  were 
forming  in  Philadelphia,  Pittsburg^  Chicago,  New 
York,  Milwaukee,  and  in  San  Francisco,  where  there 
had  existed  a  Polish  colony  since  the  Civil  War.  The 
most  important  Polish  Catholic  organization,  Zjed- 
noczenie  Polsko-Rzymsko  Katolickie  pod  Opiek^ 
Boskiego  Serca  Jezusa  (The  Polish  Roman  Catholic 
Union  under  the  Protection  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of 
Jesus),  was  organized  in  1873,  but  it  was  not  until 
1886  that  it  assumed  its  present  character,  although 
the  spirit  of  the  Union  has  always  been  staunchly 
Catholic.  Its  first  organ  was  the  ''Gazeta  Kato- 
licka":  the  present  official  organ  is  the^  "Nar6d 
Polski "  (The  Polish  Nation) .  The  Union  has  a  mem- 
bership of  52,000,  in  550  councils,  all  of  which  are 
puish  organizations;  its  assets  are  $666,708.  In 
1910  the  increase  in  membership  was  13,000,  and  the 
increase  in  its  assets  $175,815.  In  the  same  year 
it  assisted  fifty-six  students,  children  of  its  members, 
by  distributing  among  them  $4268.    It  has  assisted 


crippled  members  by  voluntary  gifts  amounting 
to  $1455  in  the  same  period.  Its  educational  fundi 
the  interest  of  which  supports  indigent  students,  is 
$31,051. 

The  Zwi^zek  Narodowy  Polski  (Polish  National 
Alliance)  was  founded  in  Philadelphia  in  18$0,  and  in 
the  same  year  the  head-quarters  of  the  organization 
were  established  in  Chicago,  where  they  have  since 
remained.  In  its  first  constitution  the  Alliance  pro- 
fessed '^  obedience  to  the  Roman  Catholic  faith,  smce 
that  is  the  faith  of  the  vast  majority  of  the  Polish 
nation",  but  further  committed  itself  to  a  programme 
of  *' toleration  of  all  creeds  in  the  spirit  of  Poland's 
ancient  constitution''.  Socialists  were  barred.  All 
official  religious  services  were  to  be  conducted  accord- 
ing to  Catholic  rites.  Succeeding  conventions  grad- 
uiuly  eliminated  all  reference  to  religion,  ana  the 
bar  to  admission  of  Socialists  was  removed.  "Anar- 
chists and  criminals"  are  still  excluded.  Recently 
the  Alliance  is  waging  open  war  with  the  Socialistic 
element,  with  whose  cloctrine  of  internationalism 
the  exaggerated  nationalism  of  the  Alliance  is  at 
variance.  At  first  many  of  the  clergy  belonged  to 
the  Alliance,  but  with  the  development  of  the  anti- 
clerical programme  of  the  organization  the  number 
has  become  insignificant.  The  Alliance  has  a  mem- 
bership of  71,000  men  and  women,  in  1118  councils. 
The  Zwi^zek  Spiewak6w  (Alliance  of  Singers),  the 
Zwi4zek  Wojsk  Polskich  (Alliance  of  Polish  MiUtarv 
Societies),  and  the  Zwi^zek  Soko}6w  (Athletic  Al- 
liance), while  maintaining  autonomy,  are  federated 
with  the  Alliance,  and  their  memberuiip  is  included 
in  the  number  given  for.  the  National  Alliance,  with 
slight  exceptions.  There  is  likewise  an  independent 
Turners'  Alliance  with  a  membership  of  3000.  The 
assets  of  the  National  Alliance  are  pLsu;ed  at  $1,150,- 
000,  but  including  as  it  does  the  Alliance  Hoq^e,  etc., 
are  probably  in  excess  of  the  actual  assets.  The 
organ  of  the  Alliance  is  the  "Zgoda"  (Harmony). 
Except  in  its  attitude  towards  the  Church  the  Alliance 
closely  resembles  the  Polish  Roman  Catholic  Union. 
The  Catholic  Order  of  Foresters  has  62  Polish  courts, 
with  a  membership  of  8166,  and  the  number  of  Polish 
members  in  other  courts  exceeds  1000.  The  order 
furnishes  the  Polish  co^rts  with  constitutions  and 
rituals  printed  in  Polish,  and  all  business  of  these 
courts  is  transacted  in  Polish.  Zwi^zek  Polek  (Al- 
liance for  Polish  Women)  has  a  memberdiip  of  8000. 
It  closely  resembles  the  Polish  National  Alliance, 
but  since  a  society  of  Polish  women  cannot  thrive 
except  as  a  piuish  organization,  much  of  the  offi- 
cial indifferentism  of  the  national  body  is  counter- 
acted by  the  priests  who  act  as  chaplains  of  the  local 
branches. 

Of  Catholic  organizations  besides  the  Polish  Roman 
Catholic  Union  the  following  are  important:  Stowar- 
zyszenie  Polak6w  w  Ameryce  (Association  of  Poles  in 
America),  Milwaukee,  memberslup,  7332;  Macierz 
Polska,  Chicago,  membership,  4500;  more  than  any 
other  Catholic  organization  it  is  concerned  with  the 
social  welfare  of  the  young.  It  is  confined  almost 
entirely  to  the  parishes  in  charge  of  the  Resurrec- 
tionist Fathers;  Unia  Polska  (The  Polish  Union), 
Wilkes -Barre,  rennsylvania,  membership,  9000.  A 
schism  occurred  in  the  organization  in  1008.  and 
one  faction,  with  head-quarters  in  Buffalo,  nas  a 
membership  slightly  smaller  than  the  first.  A  Catho- 
lic Union  in  Winona,  Minnesota,  has  a  membership 
of  1400. 

Excepting  the  numerically  insignificant  Socialistic 
group  none  of  the  nationalistic  organizations  have 
dared  to  attack  the  Church  as  such,  however  much 
their  organs  may  attack  individual  members  of  the 
clergy  and  certain  religious  congregations.  The 
younger  element  does  not  take  kindly  to  these  at- 
tacks, and  the  indications  are  that  the  crisis  has 
passed.    The  spread  of  the  spirit  of  independence 


POLES 


209 


POLES 


occasioned  the  first  Polish  Congress,  held  in  Buffalo 
in  1896.  A  second  was  held  in  the  same  city  in  1901, 
and  a  third  in  Pittsburg  in  1904.  These  congresses 
sought  to  find  remedies  for  the  sad  conditions  then 

{)revailing,  and  the  efforts  of  the  promoters  were 
argely  confined  to  inducing  the  Holy  See  to  give  the 
American  Poles  bishops  of  their  own  nationality. 
A  fourth  congress,  differing  radically  from  the  three 
preceding,  inasmuch  as  its  spirit  was  purely  secular, 
was  convened  under  the  auspices  of  the  Polish  Na- 
tional Alliance  on  the  occasion  of  the  unveil|ng  of  the 
Pulaski  and  Kosciuszko  monuments  in  Washington. 
12  May,  1910.  The  congress,  which  was  ignored 
by  the  clergy  and  the  Catholic  organizations,  declared 
itself  in  favour  of  educational  institutions  for  the 
Polish  youth  which  ^ould  be  utterly  removed  from 
''clerical"  influence.  Many  attempts  have  been 
made  to  federate  the  various  Polish  organizations, 
but  thev  have  invariably  failed.  Bishop  Rhode  has 
fathered  the  last  attempt  at  federation,  which  seems 
likelv  to  succeed  because  unity  is  being  sou^^t  along 
purely  Catholic  lines. 

The  growth  in  niynbers  and  efficiency  of  the  Polish 
parochial  schools  is  a  story  of  faith,  patriotism,  un- 
paralleled generosity,  and  supreme  endeavour  on  the 
Eart  of  Polish  clergy,   religious  communities,  and 
uty,  who  came  with  no  asset  but  their  willing  Lands 
and  the  faith  of  their  fathers.    The  Poles  t^e  care  of 
themselves.    Where  they  have  contributed  to  the 
building  of  non-Polish  churches  and  schools,  they  are 
quick  to  establish  schools  for  their  own  children  as 
soon  as  their  numbers  warrant  the  attempt,  which 
with  them  is  much  earlier  than  witih  those  of  any  other 
nationality.    The  Poles  realized  very  earlv  that  their 
children  who  attended  schools  other  than  Poli^, 
however  much  they  succeeded,  ceased  to  be  an  asset 
to  the  Polish  community  in  its  endeavours  to  lift 
itself  above  its  present  condition.    The  Polish  schools 
in  America  are  a  distinctly  new  world  product.    Con- 
sidering the  shortness  of  their  American  history  the 
Poles  have  a  larger  proportion  of  native  clergy  and 
teaching  nuns  than  any  other  class  of  American 
Catholics.    Fully  95  per  cent  of  the  teachers  in  the 
Polish  parochial  schools  are  American  by  birth  or 
training.    The  Poles  cannot  be  satisfied  with  teachers 
other  than  Polish.    Hence  their  Americanization  is 
a  development  and  not  a  veneer.    This  factor  of  a 
native  clergy  and  teaching  corps  thoroughly  American 
in  thought  and  speech,  and  thoroughly  Poush  in  their 
sympathies  with  the  incoming  thousands,  maJkes  for 
a  healthy  conservatism,  and  precludes  violent  rup- 
tures   with    traditions'   of    the    past.    The    Polish 
parochial  schools  are  performing  a  task  which  could 
not,  because  of  a  multitude  of  circumstances,   be 
satisfactorily    performed    by    any    other,    however 
superior  from  a  purely  scholastic  standpoint.    The 
most  formidable  obstacle  to  more  rapid  progress  is 
the  ever-increasing  tide  of  immigrants.    Clergy  and 
teachers  must  contend  with  parents  whose  poverty 
and  old-world  viewpoint  are  factors  in  keeping  the 
children  at  home  upon  every  pretext,   and  with- 
drawing them  for  ever  on  the  day  of  their  First  Com- 
munion.   The  constant  increase  in  the  number  of 
children  necessitates  the  erection  of  new  schools,  in 
spite  of  the  parents'  inability  to  contribute  to  their 
support,  increases  the  shortage  of  teachers,  makes  for 
overcrowding  and  inefficiency,  because  the  religious 
communities,  to  satisfy   the  demands  made  upon 
them,  must  send  into  the  class-room  the  young  nun 
to  wnom  it  has  been  impossible  to  give  a  thorough 
training.    These  hardships  fall  with  double  force 
upon    the    newly-organized    parishes.    The    older 
reli^ous  oommumties,  several  of  which  have  reached 
a  hi^  degree  of  efficiency,  cannot  supply  the  in- 
creasmg  demand  in  the  schools  already  under  their 
charge,  and  hence  the  new  parishes  must  content 
themselves  with  teachers  such  as  the  more  recently- 
XII.— 14 


established  communities  can  afford.  The  presence 
of  lay  teachers  in  the  Polish  schools  is  evidence  of  the 
inadequacy  in  the  number  of  the  Polish  nuns.  The 
necessity  of  teaching- in  two  languages  doubles  the 
work  of  the  teachers,  and  yet  it  is  this  very  system 
which  will  most  intelligently  adjust  the  Poles  to  their 
American  surrolmdings.  The  establishment  of  Polish 
.  schools,  espjecially  in  the  Middle  West,  nearly  always 
coincides  with  the  organization  of  the  parishes.  The 
first  building  erectea  is  usuaUy  made  to  serve  as 
school  and  cnurch  for  some  years  until  a  church  can 
be  built,  when  the  first  building  is  used  entirely  for 
school  purposes. 

The  first  Polish  school  in  the  United  States  is  that 
in  Panna  Maria,  Texas,  established  by  Father 
Bakanowski,  CH.,  in  1866.  The  first  teacher  was 
Peter  Kiolbassa.  The  second  school  was  that  of 
St.  Stanislaus's  Parish,  Milwaukee,  which  dates  from 
1867.  St.  Stanislaus's  School  in  Chicago  was  placed 
in  charge  of  the  School  Sisters  of  Notre  Dame  in 
1873.  The  accompanying  list  of  statistics  affords 
striking  evidence  of  the  growth  in  numbers  of  the 
Polish  schools  since  that  time. 

Besides  the  parochial  schools  the  Poles  nmintAin 
the  following  institutions  of  higher  education:   SS. 

Soil  and  Methodius's  Seminary,  Orchard  Grove, 
ichigan,  founded  by  Fathers  Leopold  Moczygemba 
^d  Joseph  D^browski.  The  seminary  was  established 
m  Detroit  in  1887,  and  was  transferred  to  Orchard 
Grove  in  1909.  Professors^  17;  students,  350. 
St.  Stanislaus's  College^  Chicago,  founded  by  the 
Resurrectionist  Fathers  m  1891,  a  day  and  boarding 
school,  professors,  15:  students,  210.  St.  Bonaven- 
ture's  Coll^,  Pulaski,  Wisconsin,  founded  by  the 
Franciscan  Fathers  in  1889,  professors,  7;  students, 
45.  St.  John  Cantius's  College,  Brookland,  Wash- 
ington, D.  C,  founded  in  1909,  embraces  scholasticate 
for  the  Missionaries  of  the  Divine  Love  of  Jesus,  and 
is  affiliated  with  the  Catholic  University  of  America. 
St.  John  Cantius's  College,  Erie,  Pennsylvania; 
founded  in  1909,  maintains!  by  the  Society  of  St. 
John  Cantius,  which  is  composed  of  Polish  priests  and 
laymen.  Pennsylvania  Polish  College  of  St.  John, 
Philadelphia,  founded  in  1908  by  Rev.  John  Godrycz, 
D.D.,  Ph.D..  J.U.D.  The  Academy  of  the  Holy 
Family  of  Nazareth.  Chicago,  founded  in  1887  by 
the  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Family  of  Nazareth.  Twenty 
nuns  form  the  teaching  sta^;  students,  150.  The 
number  of  Polish  students  at  various  other  insti- 
tutions is  yery  considerable,  especially  in  day-schools 
in  our  large  cities.  Nearly  one-third  of  the  student 
body  at  St.  Francis's  Senunary,  St.  Francis,  Wiscon- 
sin, are  Poles.  Several  of  our  non-Potish  Catholic 
institutions,  notably  the  University  of  Notre  Dame 
and  St.  Francis's  Seminary,  have  introduced  the 
study  of  the  Polish  language,  literature,  and  history 
into  their  curricula.  The  teaching  of  Polish  has 
Ukewise  been  introduced  in  the  public  schools  of 
several  of  our  large  cities  in  which  there  is  a  large 
Polish  population. 

One  hundred  of  the  Polish  clergy  are  members  of 
religious  communities.  Of  this  number  65  are  mem- 
bers of  Polish  communities  or  provinces. — (a)  Fran- 
ciscan Fathers  (O.F.M.),  Commissariate  of  the 
Assumption  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary,  Pulaski, 
Wisconsin:  fathers,  8;  professed  clerics,  7;  novice 
clerics,  4;  professed  brothers,  18;  novice  lay  brothers, 
1;  brothers  of  the  Third  Order,  3.  (b)  Franciscan 
Fathers  (O.M.C.),  Province  of  St.  Anthony  of  Padua, 
Buffalo,  New  York:  fathers,  20;  clerics  and  students, 
44;  lay  brothers,  16.  (c)  Fathers  of  the  Resurrec- 
tion: priests,  33,  of  whom  27  are  Poles;  brothers,  21. 
(d)  Missionaries  of  the  Divine  Love  of  Jesus,  Wash- 
ington, D.  C,  1.  (e)  Vincentian  Fathers  (CM.), 
Polish  Province  of  the  Congregation  of  the  Mission, 
Chicago:  fathers,  8. 

Polish  priests,  memboii  of  other  congregations  and 


POLSS 


210 


POLES 


orders: — ^Holy  Ghoet  Fathers,  10;  Benedictines,  2; 
Augustinian,  1;  Jesuits,  5;  Fathers  of  the  Holy  Cross, 
10;  Redemptorists,  2;  Carmelite,  1;  Servites,  2;  Pas- 
sionist,  1;  Capuchin,  1;  Society  of  the  Divine  Sa- 
viour, 1. 

Communities  of  Women. — (a)  Bemardine  Sisters 
of  St.  Francis,  Reading,  Pennsylvania:  sisters,  70. 
(b)  Sisters  of  the  Third  Order  of  St.  Francis,  under 
the  Patronage  of  St.  Cunegunde,  Chicago:  professed 
sisters,  98;  novices,  6^  candidates,  26.  (c)  Polish 
Franciscan  School  Sisters,  St.  Louis,  Missouri: 
professed  sisters,  29;  novices,  18;  postulants.  4; 
aspirants,  2.  (d)  Felician  Sisters,  O.S.F.  The  Com- 
munity is  divided  into  three  provinces,  with  mother- 
houses  at  Detroit,  Buffalo,  and  Milwaukee.  (1) 
Western  Province  of  Presentation  of  the  B.  V.  M.. 
mother-house  at  Detroit,  established  1882:  professed 
sisters,  273;  novices,  30;  postulants,  55;  in  preparatory 
course,  65.  (2)  North-western  Province  of  tne  Pres- 
entation of  the  B.  V.  M.,  Milwaukee:  profeGoed  sis- 
ters, 170;  novices,  17;  postulants,  27.  (3)  Eastern 
Province,  Buffalo:  professed  choir  sisters,  278;  nov- 
ices, 32;  postulants,  93;  lay  sisters,  professed,  66; 
novices,  6;  postulants,  21;  candidates  in  pre- 
paratory course,  73.  These  were  the  statistics  of 
the  province  just  prior  to  the  establishment  of  the 
new  province,  with  mother-house  in  Milwaukee,  to 
which  203  professed  sisters  and  novices  were  trans-, 
ferred  (August,  1910).  Eastern  Province,  Buffalo, 
New  York:  professed  sisters,  240;  novices,  50;  postu- 
lants, 87;  professed  lay  sisters,  61;  novices,  3;  postu- 
lants, 14;  candidates,  52.  (e)  Sisters  of  the  Holy 
Family  of  Nazareth,  Desplaines,  Dlinois:  orofessed 
sisters,  350;  novices,  90;  postulants,  45.  (f)  Polish 
Sisters  of  St.  Joseph,  Stevens  Point,  Wisconsin: 
professed  sisters,  191;  novices,  60;  candidates,  40. 
(^)  Sisters  of  the  Resurrection,  Chicago:  professed 
sisters,  50;  novices,  13;  candidates.  19.  Total  num- 
ber in  commimities  distinctively  Polish,  2180.  There 
are  upwards  of  eight  hundred  Polish  sisters  in 
the  various  non-Polisn  communities.  Of  this  number 
412  are  members  of  the  Community  of  the  School 
Sisters  of  Notre  Dame  (Milwaukee);  30  belong  to  the 
Holy  Cross  conununitv  (Notre  Dame,  Indiana); 
73  to  the  Sisters  of  St.  francis  (La  Fayette,  Indiana), 
20  to  the  Sisters  of  St.  Francis  (St.  francis,  Wiscon- 
sin). 

Since  1900  the  efficiency  of  the  various  census  and 
immigration  bureaux  has  been  greatly  improved,  and 
statistics  of  Polish  immigration  are  thoroughly  re- 
liable. Government  Census  Reports  have  hitherto 
been  inadeauate,  partly  because  of  the  indifference  of 
the  Poles  tnemsetves,  who  frequently  were  satisfied 
to  be  enumerated  as  Germans,  Russians,  and  Au»- 
trians;  the  classification  '^ natives  of  Poland"  em- 
bracing a  large  non-Polish  element,  and  the  migratory 
character  of  a  large  part  of  the  Polish  population 
all  added  to  the  confusion.  The  followmg  tables 
from  the  "Report  of  the  Twelfth  (Census",  1900,  are 
not  without  interest: 


41 


natives  of  Poland"  Census,  1900,  are  classified  ae 
follows: 

From  Cjerman  Poland 150,237 

From  Russian  Poland 154,424 

From  Austrian  Poland 58,503 

Poland,  unknown 20,436 


Years  Endimq 

30  JVNB 

Immiorants 

EmOSAMTS 

NcT  Gain 

1899 

28,446 
46,938 
43,617 
69,620 
82,343 
67,757 

102,437 
95,835 

138,033 
68,105 
77,565 

128,348 
45,448 

• 

46,727 
19,290 
16,884 

1900 

1901 

1902 

1903 

1904 

1905 

1906 

1907 

1908 

21,378 

1909 

58,276 
111,464 

1910 

1910  (July-Dec.) 

Ybar 

PouBH  Born 

POREIQN 

Population 

Percentagb  of 

Total  Foreign 

Population 

I860 

7,298 

14,436 

48,557 

147,440 

383,510 

0.2 

1870 

0.3 

1880 

0.7 

1890 .. 

1900 

1.6 
3.7 

Since  July,  1907,  the  Bureau  of  Immigration  has 
recorded  the  number  of  departing  aliens.  The  period 
embraces  the  financial  depression  of  1907-08,  which 
sent  so  many  of  other  nationalities  to  Europe  as  to 
cause  a  marked  decrease  in  their  American  numbers. 
Basing  an  estimate  upon  the  record  of  the  year  end- 
ing 30  June,  1910,  during  which  year  the  United 
States  had  resumed  an  almost  normal  condition, 
we  may  safely  assume  that  the  net  increase  in  the 
number  of  Poles  in  the  United  States  was,  for  the 
period  1899  to  1  Jan.,  1911,  not  less  than  750,000. 
In  the  period  19(X>-07  the  outward  movement  was 
very  slight.  The  birth-rate  in  many  of  our  parishes 
in  which  the  Galician  element  predominates  is  almost 
50  per  cent  of  the  niunber  of  families.  Statistics 
given  in  the  accompanying  table  are  based  upon  the 
following  sources,  viz: — the  "Official  Catholic  Direc- 
tory" (1911);  manuscript  information  received  from 
Polish  clergy  and  non-Pohsh  priests  labouring  among 
the  Poles;  information  received  from  officials  or 
various  Polish  organizations:  reports  (several  based 
upon  special  census  taken  tor  this  aiticle)  sent  by 
46  archbishops  and  bishops,  in  whose  diocese  are 
more  than  90  per  cent  of  the  Polish  clerry;  recent 
reports  of  the  Bureau  of  Immigration,  which  give  the 
intended  destination  of  the  immigrants.  Where  dis- 
crepancies occur  in  the  various  reix)rts,  averages  have 
not  been  struck,  but  an  effort  was  made  to  learn  the 
method  used  in  making  an  estimate  in  t3rpical  dis- 
tricts. Allowance  should  be  made  for  the  recent 
natural  increase  and  enormous  immigration,  the  vast 
floating  population,  the  800  small  settlements  neither 
constituting  Polish  parishes  nor  having  Polish  pas- 
tors, the  '  Independents '^  those  indifferent  to  the 
Faith,  the  single  men.  A  nimiber  of  the  reports  were 
based  upon  a  census  taken  in  1907.  Taking  all  these 
factors  mto  consideration  it  may  be  safely  assumed 
that  there  are  no  fewer  than  2,800,000  Poles  in  the 
United  States. 


Persons  in  the  United  States  having  both  parents 
bom  in  Poland,  668,536.  Native  white  persons 
having  one  parent  bom  in  Poland,  290,912.  Total 
white  persons  having  fathers  bom  in  Poland,  704,405; 
having    mothers    bom    in    Poland,    683,572.     The 


Archdiocbsb 


Baltimore . . . 

BoBton 

Chicago 

Cincinnati. . . 
Milwaukee.. 
New  York.. 
Oregon  City 
Philadelphia 

St.  Tx>uis 

St.  Paul 


h 

a 

s 

2 

J 

3 

M 

s 

u 

25 

5 

S9 

o 

0 

5 

1 

3 

•      •      •      ■ 

u 

1.616 

8 

8 

3 

7 

2 

414 

81 

36 

28 

362 

•   •  •   • 

23.283 

2 

2 

2 

•   ■  • 

2 

95 

44 

18 

17 

148 

7 

9.232 

11 

0 

4 

•   •  •  ■ 

5 

553 

1 
28 

1 
19 

11 

61 

6 

3.470 

7 
9 

6 
9 

6 
5 

840 
1.275 

23 

2 

g 

i 


16.700 

18.747 

223.304 

981 

59.182 

30.000 

1,600 

66,000 

12.700 

11.500 


POLES 


211 


POLES 


DiOCMIll 


Albany 

Altoona 

Belleville 

Brooklyn 

Buffalo 

Burlinston. . . . 

Cheyenne 

Cleveland 

Cblumbua 

Crooluion 

UaJlas 

Denver....;.. . 

Detroit 

Duluth 

Erie 

Fall  River 

Fargo 

Fort  Wayne... 

Galveston 

Grand  Rapids. 
Green  Bay. . . . 
Harrisburg. . . . 

Hartford 

Kansas  City.., 

Ija  Croeee 

I^avenworth.. 

Linopln 

Little  Rock... 

Louisville 

\f  anchester. . . , 

\f  arquette 

Mobile 

Monterey  and 
Los  Angeles. 

Newark 

Ogdensburg — 

Omaha 

Peoria 

Pittsburg 

Providence. . . . 

Rochester 

Rockford 

St.  Cloud 

St.  Joseph 

Salt  Lake 

San  Antonio. . 

Scranton 

Seattle 

Sioux  City. . . . 

Sioux  Falls 

Sprin^eld 

Superior 

Svracuse 

Trenton 

Wheeling 

WichiU 

Wilmington.... 
Winona 


>* 

a 

< 
7 

a 

o 

g 

s 

8 

m  J 

8 

sa 

a 

o 

9 

H 

5 

15 

15 

M 

1,541 

8 

7 

4 

5 

504 

6 

5 

4 

10 

1 

375 

14 

11 

6 

25 

2 

1.285 

41 

21 

21 

141 

1 

8,308 

2 

2 

1 

2 

64 

1 
24 

1 
18 

12 

56 

10 

4,927 

4 

4 

4 

5 

2 

325 

2 

1 

1 

33 

2 

1 

1 

18 

16 

138 

8.028 

7 

7 

2 

3 

390 

8 

7 

5 

18 

1.610 

4 

4 

2 

6 

1 

372 

5 

18 

5 
13 

12 

55 

1 

3.031 

8 

8 

4 

,  5 

5 

329 

19 

17 

14 

81 

4 

4.418 

33 

28 

19 

47 

2 

2,344 

6 

4 

4 

21 

1,800 

16 

11 

10 

14 

i9 

1,740 

1 

1 

1 

1 

40 

13 

12 

8 

18 

3 

797 

1 

1 

1 

3 

86 

1 
1 
2 
3 

I 
1 

2 

1 

5 

184 

7 

8 

2 

4 

1 

283 

1 

1 
15 

1 

1 
11 

7 

39 

"i 

2,570 

1 
15 

1 
12 

7 

47 

1,613 

6 

6 

5 

26 

2 

1.429 

40 

33 

19 

74 

18 

4.913 

6 
3 

1 
17 

5 
3 

3 

11 

496 

14 

6 

18 

4 

639 

1 

1 

1 

4 

190 

1 
8 

10 

10 

32 

1,071 

33 

32 

12 

23 

4 

1,842 

3 

1 

3 

1 

1 

3 

67 

2 

1 

1 

2 

90 

9 

8 

4 

45 

1,437 

8 

8 

3 

13 

493 

4 

4 

2 

6 

2 

455 

13 

8 

7 

25 

2 

1,687 

4 

4 

1 

1 

78 

1 
1 

1 
1 

1 

8 

•  •  •  • 

500 

8 
702 

7 
517 

3 
330 

18 

■  •  •  • 

925 

1,678 

134 

104,143 

o 

3  On 
O  O 
P4A4 


13.200 

17.516 
5.491 

46.000 

88.759 

2.200 

838 

51,990 

3,216 

1,100 

700 

2.400 

49,000 
5.470 

13.200 
6.200 
7.200 

29,000 
7.205 

40,200 

23,231 
9.544 

39.000 
900 

11.032 
1.100 
1,400 
1,550 
400 
1,900 
9.500 
400 

1,200 

50,550 

1,100 

16,000 

12.140 

77,309 

5,500 

4,700 

600 

12,076 

1,700 

600 

6,042 

52.200 

2.800 

1.100 

1.250 

28.580 

7,200 

4,500 

23,000 

6.000 

1,100 

4.200 

6,420 


1,244,428 


AncaDIOCBSB,   DiOCBSB,   OB  POUBB 
VlCARXATB  AfOSTOUC                                                              POPULATION 

Dubuoue 800 

New  OrleaoB 700 

San  Francisco 3,000 

Santa  Fe 550 

Alexandria 400 

Alton 410 

Baker  City .' 500 

Bismarck 600 

Boise 700 

Concordia. ; . ; 300 

Covington — 450 

Davenport 550 

Helena i>t 800 

Indianapolis. ; 900 

Lead 300 

Nashville 600 

Natchez 350 

Oklahoma 700 

Portland 1,600 

Richmond 900 

Sacramento 800 


Arcbdiocbsk,  Diocsbb,  or  Pousb 

VXCABIATB  ApOSTOUC  POPULATION 

St.  Augustine 250 

Savannah 1,200 

Tucson 300 

Brownsville 350 

North  Carolina 420 

Alaska,  Hawaii,  etc 400 

Total 18,830 

The  Polish  Press  in  the  United  States.—Smce  the 
appearance  of  the  first  issue  of  the  ''Echo  ^  Polski'' 
(Echo  from  Poland),  1  June,  1863^  in  New  York  the 
Polish  Press  has  been  a  faithful  mirror  of  the  condi* 
tions  obtaining  among  the  Poles  in  the  United  States. 
No  fewer  than  one  hundred  and  forty  papers  have 
been  established  since  1863,  but  of  tms  number  not 
more  than  seventy  have  survived,  and  the  number 
is  constantly  fluctuating,  although  there  is  a  steady 
average  increase  from  year  to  year.  The  first  paper 
was  (&voted  entirely  to  a|gitation  in  favour  of  the 
mother  country.  Its  publication  was  discontinued  in 
1865.  Not  until  1870  was  another  attempt  made, 
when  the  "Orzel  BiaJy"  (The  White  Eagle),  made  its 
appearance  at  Wasmngton,  Missouri,  a  promising 
Polish  colony.  The  paper  was  issued  at  irregular 
intervals  until  1875,  and  difiFered  from  the  "Echo", 
inasmuch  as  it  was  devoted  entirely  to  the  affairs  of 
the  Poles  in  America.  A  third  paper  was  established 
at  Union,  Missouri,  by  John  Barzynski,  for  many 
years  after  a  prominent  figure  among  the  American 
Poles.  This  third  paper  was  the  "Pielgrzym" 
(Pilgrim),  which  later  became  "Gazeta  Polska 
Katolicka",  published  at  Detroit  until  1875,  since 
when  it  has  been  published  at  Chicago  and  has  borne  • 
the  name  ''Gazeta  Katolicka".  For  many  years  it 
was  the  organ  of  Father  Vincent  Barzynski  and  the 
Resurrectionist  Fathers,  and  its  strong  militant  spirit 

Eassed  into  the  ''Dziennik  Chicagosfi",  established 
ythemin  1890.  Until  1880the"Gazeta"  was  edited 
by  John  Barzynski,  who  was  succeeded  by  Ladis* 
laus  Smulski.  Both  were  men  of  no  mean  ability  and 
stei'ling  Catholicity.  The ''  Gazeta  Katolicka  "  passed 
into  the  control  of  Ladislaus  Smulski,  and  is  still 
published  by  the  Smulski  estate.  It  has  always  pre- 
served its  splendidly  Catholic  tone,  and  still  ranks 
as  the  foremost  among  the  Polish  Catholic  weeklies. 
The  ''Gazeta  Polska"  was  founded  by  Ladislaus 
Dyniewicz  at  Chicago  in  1873,  and  for  many  veare 
the  "Gazeta  Katolicka"  and  the  "Gazeta  Polska" 
were  avowed  champions  of  two  factions,  the  Catholic 
Conservatives  and  the  Nationalists.  Tne  circulation 
of  the  two  papers  is  about  20,000. 

Of  the  seventy  PoUsh  papers  now  published,  nine- 
teen are  published  at  Chicago.  Not  more  than 
twenty  are  really  as  well  as  professedly  Catholic. 
About  twenty-five  are  "neutral  ,  while  the  rest  range 
from  the  merely  neutral  to  the  "yellow"  anti-cleri(»d 
daily  papers  published  at  Chicago  and  Milwaukee, 
and  the  two  Socialistic  papers.  The  latter  are  less 
harmful  to  the  Polish  masses  than  the  sensational 
papers  claiming  to  be  Catholic  but  countenancing 
ope^  opposition  to  ecclesiastical  authority.  It  is 
remarkable  testimony  to  the  faith  of  the  Poliw  masses 
that  this  campaign  of  vilification  has  not  been 
fraught  with  greater  harm,  and  that  it  must  be  car- 
ried on  under  the  pretence  of  the  reformation  of  the 
Polish  clergy.  With  the  exception  of  the  avowedly 
Socialistic  Press,  which  lays  no  claim  to  being  Polish 
in  spirit,  none  of  the  papers  are  professedly  atheistic 
qr  irreligious.  Of  the  nine  Polish  daily  papers  four 
are  published  at  Chicago,  two  at  Buffalo,  two  at  Mil- 
waukee, and  one  at  Detroit.  Their  combined  cir- 
culation is  nearly  80,000;  that  of  the  "Dziennik 
Chicagoski"  is  over  16,000.  Three  of  the  daily 
papers,  "Dziennik  Chicagoski",  "Nowiny  Polskie" 
("The  Polish  News",  MUwaukee),  and  the  "PoUk 


POLICASTRO 


212 


POUTI 


w  Amenrce"  ("The  Pole  in  America",  Buffalo),  are 
thoroughly  Catholic;  one  published  at  Chicago  is 
Socialistic;  one,  the  ''Zgoda"  (Harmony),  pub&hed 
at  Chicago,  is  ''neutral"  and  openly  anti-olerical. 
The  sensational  Press,  daily  and  weekly,  constitutes 
the  most  demoralizing  factor  among  ue  Ameiican 
Poles,  brazenly  defying  every  law  of  journalistic 
ethics,  publishmg  every  scandal  under  heavy  display 
lines,  bitterly  attocking  clergy,  religious  communities, 
and  parochial  schools,  comparable  only  to  the  lowest 
type  of  journalism  of  the  Latin  coimtries. 

Of  the  Polish  daily  papers,  the  oldest  is  the  "  Dzien- 
nik  Chicagoski",  a  valiant  defender  of  the  Faith 
throughout  the  twenty  years  of  its  publication.  With 
but  short  interruption,  its  guiding  spirit  from  the  be- 
ginning has  been  Stanislaus  Szwajkart,  one  of  the 
ablest  Catholic  journalists  in  the  United  States. 
Another  dailv,  a  tower  of  strength  in  the  Catholic 
cause,  is"  PoIakwAmeryce",  for  many  years  edited 
by  Stanislaus  Slisz,  whose  brilliant  mind  was  eaualled 
only  by  his  uncompromising  Catholicism.  Tne  cir- 
culation^is  14,000. 

FoBD,  Century  Maoagine  (Feb.,  1902) ;  OffieidlCaihoUe  Directory 
(Milwaukee,  1911);  Modjsska,  Memories  and  Impreseiont,  an 
AtUobioaraphy  (New  York,  1010);  American  Calholie  Hietorical 
Heeearekee  (January  and  April,  1910) ;  Van  Norman,  Poland,  the 
Knigkl  among  Nations  (New  York,  1907);  Balch,  Our  Slavic 
FeUowCitisene  (New  York,  1910);  Stcinkb,  Oh  the  Trail  of  the 
Immiorant  (New  York,  1906);  Idbii,  The  Immigrant  Tide,  ite 
Bbb  and  Flow  (New  York.  1909);  Mato-Smith,  Emigration  and 
Immigration  (New  York,  1908);  Reports  of  the  Commissioner 
Oeneral of  Immigration  (Washington,  1908,  1909.  1910);  Twelfih 
Census  of  the  United  States  (Washinston,  1901-04);  Hall,  Im- 
migration and  its  Effects  upon  the  United  StaUs  (New  York.  1908) ; 
Statesman's  Year  Book  (London,  1910);  Dorbey,  letters  in  the 
Chicago  Tribune  (Oct.  and  Nov.,  1910) :  Wetl,  The  Outlook  (April. 
1910);  Warne,  The  Slav  Invasion  (Philadelphia,  1904);  Kru- 
uka,  Hislorya  Polska  w  Ameryce  (Milwaukee,  1905-08) ;  Osaoa, 
'  Historya  Zwiasku  N.  P,  (Chicago,  1905);  Zahajkibwics.  Zlota 
Ksiega  (Chicago.  1897);  Dunikowbri,  Wsrod  Polonii  w  Ameryce 
(Lemberg,  1893);  Bujak,  Oalieya  (Lemberg,  1910);  Sscze- 
PANOW8KI,  Nedza,  Oalicyi  w  Cyfrach  (Lemberg,  1888) ;  Karbow- 
lAK,  Dzieje  Sdukacyfne  PoUxk&u>  na  Obczysnie  (Lemberg^  1911); 
OsADA,  O  Stronnietwie  Demokratyctno-Narodowym  %  Lidse 
Narodoum^ — lAga  Narodowa  a  Polacy  w  Ameryce— Sokolstwo 
Polskie  (CiucsLgo,  1905) ;  Sibnkiewicz,  Listy  *  Podroty  (Warsaw. 
1894);  Pamiatka  Srebrnego  Jubileussu  Parafii  Sw,  SUinislawa 
Kostki  uf  Pittsburgu  (Pittsburg,  1901);  Dsieje  Parafii  Sw.  Tro- 
icy  (Chicago,  1898);  Pamiatka  Srebrnego  Jubileussu  Parafii 
Sw.  Josefa  w  Manistee  (Manistee,  1909);  Hislorya  Parafii  Sw, 
Jaeka  (La  Salle,  Illinois,  1900);  Bernard,  Die  Polenfrage 
(Leipsig.  1910);  Idem,  Die  Stadtpolitik  in  Gd>iet  des  deutschpol- 
nischen  nationalilatenkamj^fes  (Leipsig,  1909) :  Serocztnski,  Con- 
fessions  cfa  Polish  Priest  in  Catholic  Standard  and  Times. 

Feldc  Thomas  Serocztnski. 

Policaatro.  Diocese  of  (Poucastrensis),  in  the 
province  of  Salerno,  Southern  Italv.  The  city  is 
situated  on  a  hill  that  overlooks  that  gulf  of  the 
T^henian  Sea,  to  which  Policastro  gives  its  name. 
It  is  the  ancient  Pituntia,  and  may  be  regarded  as  the 
continuation  of  the  Diocese  of  cuxentum.  the  first 
known  bishop  of  which  was  Rusticus  (5()l)y  while 
another,  Sabbadius,  is  mentioned  in  649.  San  Pietro 
Poppa  Carbone  (1079),  a  Benedictine  of  Cavd,  re- 
signed ^ter  governing  the  diocese  for  a  short  while, 
and  was  succeeded  by  Amaldo.  In  1211  the  Emperor 
Frederick  II,  disregarding  the  candidate  of  the  chap- 
ter, wished  to  give  this  see  to  his  physician,  Jacopo, 
but  Innocent  III  appointed  the  regularly  elected 
bishop.  Other  bishops  of  Policastro  were:  Gabriele 
Atilio  (1471),  a  Latin  poet;  Urbano  Felicio  (1(530), 
who  held  a  synod,  and  was  the  author  of  several  excel- 
lent works;  Filippo  Jacobio  (1652)  remodelled  the 
episcopal  palace  ol  Orsaca,  where  the  bishops  usually 
reside;  Vincenzo  de  Sylva,  O.P.  (1672),  remodelled  the 
episcopal  palace  of  Policastro;  he  was  besieged  in  his 
palace  of  Orsaca  by  Count  Fabrizio  Carafa,  on  ac- 
count of  his  firmness  in  maintaining  the  rights  of  his 
Church;  Tommaso  della  Rosa  (1679)  restored  the 
cathedral;  Antonio  della  Rosa  (1705)  restored  the 
seminary.  In  the  Diocese  of  S.  Giovanni  a  Piro  there 
was  a  Basilian  monastery.  Policastro  is  a  suffragan  of 
Salerno;  it  has  38  parishes,  with  64,(XX)  inhabitants; 
2  religious  houses  of  men,  and  3  of  women;  207  sec^ 


ular,  9  regular  pnests;  234  churches  or  chapels.   Mgr 
Vescia  is  the  present  bishop. 

Cappellstti,  Le  Chieee  d^ItdUa,  XXL 

U.  Benigni. 

Polignac,  Melcbiob  db,  cardinal,  diplomatist, 
and  writer,  b.  of  an  ancient  family  of  Auveigne,  at 
Le  Puy,  France,  11  October,  1661 ;  d.  m  Paris,  3  April, 
1742.  He  studied  with  great  distinction  at  the  GoUi^ 
de  Clermont  and  the  Sorboime.  While  still  a  young 
man,  he  was  present  at  the  conclave  which  eiect^ 
Pope  Alexander  VIII  in  1689;  and  he  took  part  in  the 
negotiations  at  Rome  concerning  the  Declaration  of 
1682.  In  1691  he  assisted  at  the  election  of  Innocent 
XII,  and  in  1693  was  appointed  ambassador  extraor- 
dinary to  Poland.  Here  he  won  the  favour  of  John 
Sobi^i,  and  succeeded  in  having  the  Prince  de  Conti 
chosen  as  Sobieski's  successor.  Through  Conti's 
dilatoriness,  the  election  proved  ineffectual,  and  Louis 
XIV,  blaming  Polignac,  ordered  him  to  return  to  his 
Abbey  of  Bon-Port.  In  1702,  however,  he  was  granted 
two  new  abbeys  and-  in  1706  sent  to  Rome,  with 
Cardinal  de  la  Tr^moille,  chaned  to  settle  the  affairs 
of  France  with  Clement  XI.  Between  1710  and  1713 
he  energetically  supported  French  interests  at  the 
Conferences  of  Gertruydenberg  and  the  Congress  of 
Utrecht,  and  in  1713  was  made  cardinal.  Com- 
promised m  Cellamare's  conspiracy^  he  was  ban- 
ished, in  1718,  to  his  abbey  of  Aucmn,  in  Flanders. 
In  1724  he  was  again  placed  in  charge  of  French  in^ 
terests  at  Rome  and  assisted  at  the  conclave  which 
elected  Benedict  XIII.  For  eight  years  he  repre- 
sented his  country  at  the  Court  of  Home,  occupied 
with  the  difficulties  arising  out  of  the  Bull  ''Unigeni- 
tus".  and  returned  to  France  in  1730,  having  been 
Archbishop  of  Auch  since  1724. 

Devoted  to  art  and  literature,  and  the  collection  of 
medals  and  antiques,  Polignac  became  a  member  of 
the  Academy  in  1704,  succeeding  Bossuet.  His 
addresses,  sometimes  delivered  in  Latin  as  correct  and 
fluent  as  his  French,  were  much  adiicdred.  His  great 
work,  ''Anti-Lucretius",  a  poem  in  nine  books  (Paris, 
1745),  offers  a  refutation  of  Lucretius  and  of  Bayle,  as 
well  as  an  attempt  to  determine  the  nature  of  the 
Supreine  Good,  or  the  soul,  of  motion,  and  of  space. 
His  philosophical  views^— generally  similar  to  tiiose 
of  Descartes — are  questionable,  but  the  poem  is,  in 
form,  the  best  imitation  of  Lucretius  and  Virgil 
extant. 

CHARLETOnc  in  Mimoires  de  TrSvoux  (June,  1742) ;  Faucheii, 
Vie  du  card,  de  Polignac  (Paris,  1777) ;  de  Boib,  Hietoire  de  VAoa^ 
dhnie  des  inscriptions. 

J.  Latastb.' 

Politi,  Lancelot,  in  religion  Ambrosius  Catha- 
RiNus,  b.  at  Siena,  1483;  d.  at  Naples,  1553.  At 
sixteen  he  became  Doctor  of  Civil  and  Canon  Law 
(J.U.D.)  in  the  academy  of  Siena.  After  visiting 
many  academies  in  Italy  and  France  he  was  ap- 
pointed (1508)  a  professor  at  Siena,  and  had  among 
his  pupils  Giovanni  del  Monte,  afterwards  Pope 
Julius  III,  and  the  celebrated  Sixtus  of  Siena,  a  con- 
verted Jew  who  esteemed  his  master,  yet  severely 
criticized  some  of  his  Stings.  About  1513  be  entered 
the  Order  of  St.  Dominic  in  the  convent  of  St.  Mark, 
at  Florence.  He  studied  Scripture  and  theology  with- 
out a  master.  This  may  account  for  his  independence, 
and  his  defence  of  opimons  which  were  singular,  espe- 
cially in  regard  to  predestination,  the  certitude  of 
possessing  grace,  the  residence  of  Inshops  in  their  dio- 
ceses, and  the  intention  required  in  the  minister  of  a 
sacrament.  He  was  a  strenuous  defender  of  the  Faith 
against  Luther  and  his  followers;  and  was  prominent 
in  the  discussions  of  the  Coimcil  of  Trent,  to  which  he 
was  called  by  his  former  pupil,  Cardinal  del  Monte, 
legate  of  Paul  III.  In  the  third  public  session  (4  Feb- 
ruary, 1546),  Catharinus  pronounced  a  notable  die* 
course,  later  published  ["Oratio  ad  Patres  Cone. 


POUTUN  2] 

Trid."  (Louvun,  1667;  P&ria,  1672)].  NotwithsUnd- 
iDS  attacks  upon  his  teaching  he  was  appointed 
Mabop  of  Minori  in  1546,  and,  in  1552,  Archbiehop  of 
Conw,  Province  of  Naples.  Pope  Julius  III,  huc- 
oeaaor  of  Paul  III,  called  Politi  to  Rome,  intending, 
■aye  Echard,  to  elevate  liim  to  the  cardinalate,  but  he 
<UedbeforereachingRoine.  Historians  and  theologians 
generally  have  regarded  Catharinus  as  a  brilliant,  ec- 
oottiio  genius,  who  did  much  ^ood,  was  frequently 
accused  of  teaching  false  doctrines,  yet  alwajra  kept 
within  the  bounds  of  orthodoxy.  Pal^vicini  and  other 
authorities  deolara  podtively  that  the  Council  of  Trent 
did  not  condemn  hia  singular  opinions.  His  leal  and 
activity  are  nniveraally  praised;  he  defended  the  Im- 
tnaci^ate  Conception  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  and  sub- 
mitted all  his  writings  to  the  judgment  of  the  Church, 
fKTetting  to  wards  the  end  o  f  his  life  the  vehemence  with 
wuch  henad  combatted  Cardinal  Cajetan  and  Father 
Dominic  Soto  (Echard).  Hia  principal  works  (foi 
complete  list  see  Echard)  are:  "Apolo^apro  veritate 
eatholics  et  apostolica  fidei  ac  docmns,  adversus 
impia  ac  pestifera  Martini  Lutheri  dogmata"  (Flor- 
ence, 1520);  " Speculum h»reticorum"  (Lyons,  1541), 
witti  two  c^uscula  on  original  sin  and  justification; 
"  Annotationee  in  commentaria  C-ajetani  super  eacram 
Scripturam"  (Lyons,  1542);  "Tractatus  qufestionis 
quo  jure  epiBCO{>orum  residentia  debeatur  (Venice, 
1547);  "Defensio  cathoUcorum  pro  possibili  certi- 
tudine  ^tia"  (ibid.,  1547);  "Summa  doctrinie  de 
pmdestmatione"  (Rome,  1550);  "Commentaria  in 
omnes  D.  Pauli  epistolas  et  ahas  septem  canonicaa" 
(Venice,  1551);  ''Disputatio'pro  veritate  immacu- 
Uts  conoeptionis  B.  Vir^nis  (Rome,  1551).  He 
also  pid>litdied  numerous  opuscula,  e.  a.,  on  Providence 
utd  predati nation,  on  the  stat«  of  children  dying 
without  baptism:  on  givinx  communion  to  young 
<^dren;  on  celibacy;  on  the  Scriptures  and  their 
translation  into  the  vernacular. 

qn«nr-EcHABD.  Script.  Ord.  Prod..  II  (Piru,  IT31).  144; 
TocBos.  Hia.  du  hommtt  iUutru  dt  rOrin  d,  S.  Dom..  IV 
tPKii,  17*7),  IK;   PiLLAvieiNi,  Hia.  Cant.  7WJ..-  D«  *  ' 


D.  J.  Kennedt. 

Polltlan  (Angiou)  de  'Ahbrobini  da  Monte 
PuLClAKo),  Italian  Humanist,  b.  at  Mont«  Pulciano 
in  1454;  d.  at  Florence  in  1494.  At  the  age  of  ten  he 
went  to  Florence,  where  he  followed  the  courses  of  I^an- 
dino,  ArgyropouloH,  Andronicus  Callistus,  and  Mar- 
dlio  Ficino.  In  1477  he  was  tutor  to  the  children  of 
Lorenio  the  Magnificent,  and  became  one  of  the  Acca- 
demia  which  I^reoxo  had  grouped  about  him,  in 
which,  with  Marsilio  Ficino,  were  associated  Landino, 
Hco  della  Mirandola,  and  Hermolaua  Barbarus.  Poli- 
tian  was  professor  of  Greek  and  Latin  literature  at 
Florence  from  1480;  among  his  pupik  were  the  Eng- 
lishmen, Grocyn  and  linacre,  and  the  German 
Reuchlin.  He  was  rather  a  master  and  interpreter  of 
the  ancient  spirit  than  a  philolo^t.  His  lessons  on 
each  author  were  preceded  by  an  introduction,  often 
in  verse,  with  a  poetic  title:  "Nutritia"  for  the 
nneral  eulogy  of  poetry,  "Ruaticus"  for  Hesiod  and 
UwGeorgksof  Virgil,  Manto"  for  Virgil,  "Ambra" 
for  Aimer.  His  discourses  or  preUminary  poems  form 
a  collection  called  "Frslectiones".  ,  Pohtion  was  one 
of  Uie  firat  ItaUan  Humanists  who  succeeded  in  rival- 
ling the  Greek  scholarship  of  the  native-born  Hel- 
lenes. At  eighteen  he  translated  Books  I  to  V  of  the 
"Iliad"  and  won  the  surname  of  Homencus  j-uvenis. 
SubsequenUy  he  translated  CalUmacus.  the  historian 
Herodien,  Epictotus,  the  "CharmideB  of  Plato,  the 
"Eroticus"  of  Plutarch,  treatises  of  Hippocrates  and 
Galian,  and  selections  from  Moechus  and  the  "An- 
thology", He  read  many  other  authon,  which  for 
a  long  time  existed  only  in  manuscript,  e.  a,,  the 
"Months"  of  John  Lydus  which  Scbow  made  known 


3  POLITICAL 

only  in  1794.  His  most  important  pHilolo^cal  work 
is  his  collection  of  "Miscellanea"  (1489),  wherein  he 
treats  various  scholarly  subjects;  ttie  employment  of 
breathings  in  Greek  and  Latin,  the  chronology  of 
Cicero's  familiar  letters,  the  orthography  of  the  name 
of  Virgil,  which  he  fixed  under  the  form  VergtiivM, 
the  discoverv  of  purple,  the  difference  between  the 
aorist  and  tne  imperfect  in  the  si^ature  of  Greek 
sculptors.  He  was  a  modern  philoI<^ist  in  his  efforts  to 
recover  the  best  manuscripts  and  Ut  procure  collations. 
He  thus  contributed  towards  improving  the  jtext  or 
preserved  intact 
theljatinelesiacs, 
the  "Silvffi^  of 
Statins,  Terence, 
Lucretius,  Ovid, 
Celsus,  QuintiUan, 
FestuB,  AuBonius. 
the  agricultural 
treatises.  The  i 
critical  editions  I 
of  these  authors 
place  his  name  in 
the  history  of 
manuscripts,  but 
he  made  a  special 
study  of  the  Pan- 
dects' '  on  therixth 
century  M8S. 
brought  from  Pisato  Florence  in  1411.  Asa  Humanist, 
Politian  is  a  Latin  writer  of  poetry  and  prose,  a  poet 
of  Latin  sentiment  in  Italian.  He  does  not  share  the 
Ciceronian  purity  of  Valla,  but  endeavours  to  create 
a  personal  style.  He  had  to  defend  these  ideas 
against  the  Latin  secretary  of  Florence,  Bartolomeo 
Scala  and  against  Paolo  Cortesi.  He  was  one  of  the 
earUest  to  attract  attention  to  the  Latin  writers  of 
the  Silver  Age.  His  Latin,  Uke  his  ItaUan,  versFs  are 
full  of  grace  and  sentiment.  He  wrote  in  Latin  a 
histon'  of  the  conspiracy  of  the  Pazzi  in  which  he 
took  aallust  as  a  model.  His  letters  together  with 
those  of  Bembo  were  long  oonadered  as  realising  the 
ideal  of  style. 

BlNDTX.  A  Ilia,  of  Clatiiral  Sclmlarihip,  II  (Cunbridte.  10D8). 
S3:  Makli.  At^  ^tlnnui.  Eit  CalnirbiU  am  d.  StnaiHana 
:  BEHHaTB,  (Ittammrllt  Ablus'ulluag'n.  II  (Betlin, 
uaNPH,  Thr  Rtnaiitaiur  in  ftoJv.  II  rLondon.  1875- 
BADiNi.  rinrrmwJiw™  (Turin,  1886),  34;  Idiw, 
caliti  <Flor«icr,  1B05).  151. 

ptnx  (Veol™.  H9S;   Floreooc,  HDO;   Bulc,  15M): 
e.  \l>22;    Anvcn.  15U7);   0pm.  Epi^iAa.  Mitett- 


(Loipiig 


□  (Flonact,  1867). 


Paul  Lejay. 


Political    Iconomr,    Science    of. — I.  DEnNi- 

TjoNs.— Political  economy  (Greek,  6ucen>ida, — the 
management  of  a  household  or  family,  roXiruoj — per- 
taining to  the  state}  or  economics  (T<i  oUer«iu^ — the 
art  of  household  management)  is  the  social  science 
which  treats  of  man's  activities  in  providing  the 
material  means  to  satisfy  his  wants.  Economy  orig- 
inally means  the  management  b^  regulation  of  t^e 
resources  of  the  household;  that  is,  of  the  immediate 
family  with  its  slaves  and  dependents.  Political  econ- 
omy originaUv  meant  the  management  of  the  house- 
hold of  the  State.  It  was  so  used  as  late  as  Adam 
Smith  (Wealth  of  Nations,  1776),  who  defined  it  thus; 
"Political  economy  considered  as  a  branch  of  the 
science  of  a  statesman  or  legislator  proposes  two 
distinct  objects,  first,  to  supply  a  plentiful  revenue  or 
subsistence  for  the  people,  or  more  property  to  enable 
them  to  provide  such  a  revenue  or  submstence  for 
themselves;  and  secondly,  to  supply  the  state  or 
~.™„.,™™„.i.u  _;.! sufficient  for  the  public 


commonwealth  with  a 


sovereign.  _..  

the  menibers  of  the  household  in  acquiring  the  means 
to  satisfy  their  wants  may  be  designated  as  the  econ- 


POLITICAL 


214 


POLITICAL 


omy  of  the  household.  Where  a  household  is  not 
economically  self-sufficing,  that  is,  where  households 
are  economically  interdependent,  we  have  a*  broader 
economy.  Where  this  interdependence  is  state-  or 
nation-wide,  there  exists  a  national  economy  or 
poUtical  economy.  The  term  political  economy  is 
used  in  yet  a  third  sense.  It  is  the  name  of  the  science 
which  treats  of  this  nation-wide  complexus  of  eco- 
nomic activities. 

II.  Method  and  Scope. — ^English  economists  in 
the  early  pai^jb  of  the  nineteenth  century,  beginning 
with  Malthus  and  Ricardo,  hoped  to  establish  a 
science  of  poUtical  economy  independent  of  the  art  of 
the  statesman,  which  would  vie  with  the  natural 
sciences  in  the  exactness  of  its  conclusions.  They 
narrowed  the  field  as  conceived  by  Adam  Smith  by 
variously  defining  political  economy  as  the  science  of 
wealth,  the  science  of  value,  or  the  science  of  ex- 
changes. But  along  with  this  narrowing  of  the  field 
and  the  attainment  of  scientific  precision  in  the  use  of 
terms  went  a  divorce  of  their  science  from  the  eco- 
nomic realities  of  life.  Their  method  was  strictly  deduc- 
tive. Beginning  with  three  or  four  principles  for 
which  they  claimed  universal  validity,  they  proceeded 
to  deduce  a  complete  system  without  further  appeal  to 
the  facts  of  Ufe.  These  English  writers,  known  as  the 
Classical  or  Orthodox  School,  held  that  political  econ- 
omy must  not  concern  itself  with  ethical  or  practical 
considerations.  To  do  so,  in  their  opinion,  would 
degrade  it  to  an  art,  for  the  science  of  political  econ- 
omy was  concerned  merely  with  the  explanation  of 
the  causal  relations  existing  among  economic  phe- 
nomena. It  was  their  business  as  economists  simply 
to  explain  the  existing  economic  system,  not  to  defend 
or  condemn  it,  nor  to  show  how  it  might  be  replaced 
by  a  better  one.  To  them  good  and  bad  were  con- 
cepts which  concerned  morausts  and  not  economists. 

In  opposition  to  this  narrow  and  non-ethical  view  of 
the  Classical  School,  there  arose  in  Germany  in  the 
middle  of  the  nineteenth  century,  the  Historical 
School,  holding  that  political  economy  is  an  inductive 
and  an  ethical  science.  They  derided  the  abstractions 
of  the  Orthodox  School,  some  extremists  even  going  so 
far  as  to  contend  that  the  time  was  not  yet  ripe  for 
a  science  of  political  economy.  The  business  or  their 
generation,  they  held,  was  to  gather  from  observation 
and  history  and  to  classify  the  economic  facts  upon 
which  future  economists  might  construct  a  science. 
After  a  bitter  struggle  of  half  a  century  the  opposition 
between  the  schools  has  almost  disappeared,  and  it  is 
now  generallv  recognized  that  the  economist  must  use 
both  the  deductive  and  the  inductive  methods,  using 
now  one  predominantly  and  now  the  other,  according 
to  the  nature  of  the  problem  upon  which  he  happens 
to  be  engaged.  The  best  usage  of  the  present  time 
is  to  make  pohtical  economy  an  ethical  science,  that  is, 
to  make  it  include  a  discussion  of  what  ought  to  be  in 
the  economic  world  as  well  as  what  is.  This  has  all 
along  been  the  practice  of  Cathohc  writers.  Some  of 
them  even  go  so  far  as  to  make  political  economy  a 
branch  of  ethics  and  not  an  independent  science.  (See 
Devas,  "Principles  of  Political  Economy".)  For  a 
further  discussion  of  the  relationship  between  the  two 
sciences,  see  Ethics. 

For  purposes  of  exposition  the  field  of  political  econ- 
omy is  often  divided  into  four  parts:  production,  con- 
sumption, distribution,  and  exchange.  Some  authors 
omit  one  or  another  of  these  divisions,  treating  its 
problems  under  the  remaining  heads.  The  depart- 
ment of  production  is  concerned  with  the  creation  of 
wealth  through  the  united  efforts  of  land,  labor,  and 
capital.  The  creation  of  wealth  involves  the  bringing 
into  existence  of  utilities,  that  is,  of  capacities  to 
satisfy  wants.  Utilities  are  created  by  changes  in  form 
of  ^oods,  or  in  their  location,  or  by  keeping  them  from 
a  time  of  less  demand  to  a  time  of  greater  demand. 
Consumption  is  concerned  with  the  d^estruction  of 


utilities  in  goods.  It  is  the  utilization  of  wealth,  the 
carrying  out  of  the  purpose  for  which  wealth  is  pro- 
duced. The  department  of  distribution  considers  the 
manner  in  which  the  wealth  which  has  been  produced 
is  divided  among  the  agents  which  have  produced  it. 
The  shares  in  distribution  are:  rent,  which  is  paid  to 
the  landlord  for  the  use  of  the  limd;  wages,  which  is 
the  return  to  the  labourer;  interest,  which  goes  to  the 
capitaUst  for  the  use  of  his  capital;  and  profit,  which 
is  the  reward  of  the  entrepreneur  or  undertaker  of  the 
business.  Finally,  exchange  has  to  do  with  the  trans- 
fer of  ownership  of  wealth.  Under  this  head  are  dis- 
cussed monev  and  credit  and  international  exchanges. 
Outside  of  these  four  divisions  separate  chapters  are 
usually  devoted  to  a  consideration  of  taxation, 
monopolies,  transportation,  economic  progress,  and 
other  problems.  Adam  Smith  and  ms  immediate 
followers  were  more  closely  concerned  with  the  prob- 
lems of  production.  Owin^  to  the  world's  remarsable 
prepress  in  that  direction  m  the  last  century,  the  in- 
equaUties  of  distribution  have  come  more  and  more 
into  prominence,  and  this  is  now  the  favourite  field  of 
the  economist. 

III.  HisTORT. — Ancient, — In  ancient  Greece  and 
Rome  there  was  Uttle  likelihood  of  the  emergence  of 
a  science  of  political  economy.  Their  industrial  sys- 
tem was  foimded  on  slavery,  the  great  estates  were  for 
the  most  part  self-sufficient  economic  units,  leaving 
comparatively  Uttle  room  for  commerce,  and  labour 
was  held  in  contempt  by  the  thinking  element.  How- 
ever, fragmentary  discussions  on  economic  subjects, 
mingled  with  ethical  anc  poUtical  considerations,  are 
to  be  found.  Xenophon  has  a  rather  extensive  treat- 
ment of  household  economy.  Plato,  in  the  "Repub- 
Uc",  advocates  an  ideal  communistic  State#  Aristotle 
presents  a  defense  of  private  property,  and  writes 
against  the  taking  of  interest  on  the  ground  that 
money  is  barren.  He  defends  warmly  the  institution 
of  slavery.  Among  the  Romans  there  was  not  much 
originaUty.  We  find  frequent  discussions  of  the  rela- 
tive merits  of  large  and  small  farms.  Cicero,  PUny 
the  Elder,  and  other  writers  deplored  the  introduction 
of  gold  as  a  medium  of  exchange  and  preferred  the  age 
of  barter.  Seneca  wrote  upon  the  ethics  of  poUtical 
economy  and  pleaded  for  tne  simple  life. 

Pairistic  Writers. — Under  Christian  influence  labour, 
which  had  been  held  in  contempt  by  the  Pagans,  came 
to  be  respected  and  honoured.  The  rigors  of  slavery 
were  mitigated  and  the  milder  form  of  serfdom  grew 
up,  which  later  gave  way  to  free  labour.  The  Roman 
law  had  insisted  on  the  rights  of  property;  the  early 
Fathers,  on  the  other  hand,  insisted  on  the  rights  of 
man.  Some  even  went  to  the  extent  of  advocating 
a  system  of  communism  as  the  ideal  state,  merely 
tolerating  private  property.  "The  soil,"  says  St. 
Ambrose,  was  given  to  nch  and  poor  in  common." 
St.  Gr^ory  the  Great,  St.  Augustine^  St.  Basil  the 
Great,  St.  John  Chrysostom,  and  St.  Jerome  write  in 
similar  vein.  The  taking  of  usury  was  universaUy 
condemned. 

Middle  Ages. — By  the  end  of  the  Middle  Ages  there 
was  developed  a  complete  and  systematic  economic 
doctrine.  This  doctrine  differed  from  modem  poUtical 
economy  in  two  important  aspects.  In  the  first  place 
it  was  made  to  fit  the  economic  institutions  of  that 
day,  and  would  be  inadequate  if  appUed  to  ours;  and 
secondly,  the  emphasis  was  placea  upon  the  ethically 
desirable  rather  than  upon  the  actually  existent. 
However,  this  latter  distinction  is  now  very  much  less 
marked  than  it  was  in  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  Such  questions  as  property,  wealth,  con- 
sumption, value,  price,  money,  loans,  monopol>^  and 
taxation  were  treated  in  detail.  To  the  medieval 
theologian,  the  "just  price"  of  an  article  included 
enough  to  pay  fair  wages  to  the  worker,  that  is,  enou^ 
to  enable  him  to  maintain  the  standard  of  Uving  of  his 
class.    In  a  Uke  manner,  a  reasonable  profit  was  de- 


POUTICAL                              215  POLITICAL 

fended  as  the  wages  of  the  merchant.  With  certain  Physiocrats  in  making  labour  as  well  as  land  pro- 
limitations,  the  taking  of  interest  for  money  loans  ductive.  Among  the  followers  of  Smith  are  to  be 
was  forbidden.  On  the  other  hand,  there  were  certain  noted  Malthus  ("  Essay  on  Population '',  1798) ,  author 
classes  of  productive  investments,  such  as  the  buying  of  the  startling  statement  that  population  tends  to 
of  rent-charges,  where  interest  was  allowed.  Among  increase  in  a  geometrical  ratio  while  subdstence  tends 
the  writers  of  the  period  on  economic  subjects,  St.  to  increase  in  an  arithmetical  ratio,  and  Ricardo 
Thomas  Aquinas  takes  first  place.  Other  writers  of  ('' Principles  of  Political  Economy  and  Taxation'', 
importance  were  Henry  of  Ghent,  iBgidius  Colonna,  1817),  wnose  name  is  associated  with  the  differential 
Petrarch,  Nicholas  Oresme,  Bishop  of  Lisieux,  who  rent  theory,  the  subsistence  theory  of  wages,  and  the 
wrote  a  work  on  money  for  his  pupil  Charles  V,  and  labour  theory  of  value.  Other  writers  of  the  English 
finally  St.  Antoninus,  Archbishop  of  Florence,  and  Classical  School,  who  followed  closely  in  the  footsteps 
St.  Bemardine  of  Siena.  of  Malthus  and  Ricardo,  were  James  MilL  Mac- 

MercanlUe  System. — In  the  sixteenth  and  seven-  Culloch   Senior,  and   John  Stuart  Mill.     Tne  last 

teenth  centuries  a  revolution  in  industrial  activities  named  in  his  later  Ufe  renounced  the  individualism  of 

was  taking  place  which  had  a  profound  influence  upon  the  Orthodox  School  in  favour  of  socialistic  views, 

the  economic  Uterature.    The  great  geographical  dis-  Hiatarical  School. — ^About  the  middle  of  the  nine- 

coveries,  the  invention  of  gunpowder  and  printing,  teenth  century  there  began  in  Germany  under  the 

the  decay  of  feudalism  and  the  rise  of  modem  states,  leadership  of  Wilhelm  Roscher,  Karl  Knies,  and  Bruno 

the  increase  in  the  supply  of  the  precious  metals,  ana  Hildebrand.  a  reaction  against  the  Orthoaox-English 

the  growing  use  of  credit, — all  these  united  to  furnish  School.    Tnese  writers  insisted  on  the  relativity  of 

problems  for  endless  discussion.    Statesmen,  feeling  economic  theory,  that  is,  they  did  not  believe  that 

the  need  of  money  to  support  war,  adopted  various  economic  principles,  good  foi*  ail  times  and  plaices,  and 

restrictive  measures  to  obtain  it.    The  economic  writ-  all  degrees  of  economic  development,  could  be  estab- 

ers  who  defended  these  restrictions  are  usually  classed  lished.    Moreover,  they  insistoi  strongly  on  the  need 

together  as  the  Mercantile  School.    Sometimes  the  of  the  study  of  economic  histoi^  and  upon  the  ethical 

attempt  was  made  to  keep  money  in  the  country  by  and  practical  character  of  political  economy.    They 

prohibiting  its  exportation  or  by  debasing  the  coinage,  were  soon  in  complete  control  of  the  economic  teach- 

Another  way  was  to  encourage  the  exportation  of  ing  of  Germany.     They  differ  radically  from  the 

finished  commodities  and  the  importation  of  raw  Physiocrats  and  Adam  Smith  in  their  repudiation  of 

material  in  order  to  secure  a  balance  of  trade.    Mer-  the  doctrine  of  natural  liberty.    In  fact  many  of  them 

cantilism  reached  its  highest  perfection  under  Colbert,  have  gone  so  far  in  the  opposite  direction  as  to  be 

the  Minister  of  Finance  under  Louis  XIV,  and  is  designated   Kaihedersozialisten    (Professorial   Social- 

sometimes  referred  to  as  Colbertism.    Later  imitators  ists),  because  of  their  reliance  on  state  help  in  acoom- 

of  Colbert  were  less  successful,  and  Mercantilism  often  phshing  social  reforms. 

degenerated  into  a  system  of  special  privileges  and  Attstrian  School. — Since  1871  there  has  sprown  up  in 

exemptions,  without  any  adequate  advantage  to  the  Austria  a  group  of  writers  who  make  of  political  eoonr 

nation.    Prominent  among  tne  Mercantilist  writers  omy  a  deductive  and  psychological  science  of  value, 

were  Jean  Bodin  (d.  1596),  Giovanni  Botero  (d.  1617),  They  oppose  to  the  oost-of-production  explanation  of 

Juan  Mariana  (d.  1623),  Antonio  Serra  (published  in  value  of  the  Classical  School,  a  theory  of  value  based 

1613),  Antoine  de  Montchr^tien  (Traits  d'^onomie  upon  marginal  utility.    It  is  a  well  known  psycholog- 

politique,  1615),  who  was  the  originator  of  the  term  ical  fact  that  the  utilities  of  additional  units  of  a  com- 

politicial   economy,   and   Thomas   Mun    (d.    1641),  modity  to  a  consumer  diminish  as  the  supply  in- 

author  of  ''England's  Treasure  by  Foreign  Trade''.  creases.    Now  it  is  the  utility  of  the  last  or  marginal 

System  of  Natural  Liberty. — During  the  Mercantile  unit  consumed,  says  the  Austrian  School,  which  deter- 

period  statesmen  had  interested  themselves  in  industry  mines  value.     Menger,  Wieser,   Boehm-Bawerk,  in 

principally  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  on  war;  in  the  Austria,  the  late  W.  Stanley  Jevons,  in  England,  and 

toUowmg  period  wars  were  carried  on  m  the  interest  of  J.  B.  Clark,  in  America,  are  the  leading  representa- 

industry  and  commerce.    Under  Mercantile  influence,  tives  of  this  school. 

the  attitude  of  governments  had  been  decidedly  pater-  aSocuiZmw.— Sociahsm  (q.  v.)  represents  the  extreme 

nalistic.    In  the  eighteenth  century  those  who  speak  of  reaction  against  laissezfaire  or  the  system  of  natural 

for  commerce  and  industry  demand  that  these^  be  liberty  of  the  Physiocrats  and  Adam  Smith.    Laisaeg 

allowed  to  develop  freely,  unhampered  by  the  guiding  faire  professes  to  believ<9  in  the  identity  of  the  interests 

strings  of  government.    In  France  there  grew  up  a  of  the  different  industrial  classes  and  hence  decries 

school  of  economic  writers  later  known  as  the  Phys-  the  need  of  restrictive  le^lation,  while  socialism  em- 

iocrats,  who  protested  against  the  balance  of  trade  phatically  denies  that  this  solidarity  exists  under  ou^ 

doctrine  of  the  Mercantile  School  and  summed  up  present  system  and  seeks  to  develop  a  "class  con- 

the  duties  of  the  government  towards  industry  and  sciousness"  among  the  workers  that  will  overthrow 

commerce  in  the  famous  phrase   ^^laiseez  faire  et  the  influence  of  the  dominant  class.    Economic  social- 

Imseez  passer^*.    They  believed  in  a  beneficent  "order  ism  borrowed  the  labour  theory  of  value  from  Ricardo 

of  nature"  which  should  be  allowed  free  play.    To  and  gave  it  an  ethical  interpretation,  holding  that 

them,  agriculture  alone  was  productive.    The  Phys-  since  labour  is  the  sole  producer  of  wealth,  the  labourer 

iocrats  had  been  strongly  influenced  by  such  Enghsh  should  receive  the  entire  product.    Accordin^y,  the 

writers  as  Locke,  Petty,  and  Hume,  and  they  in  turn  socialists  deny  the  right  of  the  capitalist  to  mterest 

were  destined  to  further  influence  English  poUtical  and  of  the  landlord  to  rent,  and  would  make  capital 

economy.    Adam  Smith  (1723-90),  "the  father  of  and  land  common  property.   According  to  Karl  Marx 

political  economy",  was  a  result  of  the  combination  ("Das  Kapital",  1867),  the  founder  of  so-called  scien- 

of  both  the  En^lisn  and  the  French  currents.    His  tific  socialism^  the  labourer  under  the  present  system 

work,  "An  Inquiry  into  the  Nature  and  Causes  of  the  does  not  receive  more  than  a  bare  subsistence.    The 

Wealth  of  Nations"  (1776),  gained  immediate  popu-  "surplus  value"  which  he  produces  above  this  amount 

larity  and  exercised  profoimd  political  influence  in  is  appropriated  by  landlords  and  capitalists.    Another 

the  next  generation.   Smith  held  that  while  the  indi-  contribution  of  Marx  to  socialism  is  the  materialistic 

yidual  selfishhr  seeks  his  private  gain,  he  is  led  by  an  conception  of  history,  according  to  which  such  factors 

invisible  hand  to  promote  the  public  good,  and  that  in  history  as  religion,  ethics,  and  the  family,  undergo 

since  the  individual  and  social  interests  are  identical,  changes  corresponding  to  tne  changes  in  the  under- 

the  sphere  of  state  action  should  be  narrowed.    He  lying  economic  organization  of  which  they  are  a 

thus  followed  up  the  attack  on  the  Mercantile  system  product, 

begun  by  the  Physiocrats.     He  differed  from  the  Christian  Democracy. — The  movement  which  has 


rOLLJUUOLO 


miwlljifcwiintfri  nnfTirinlinn  tTniitiKwii     This 


DOMof  the  •D-eaDed  Omatun  ao- 
ti»E0U  h«M  to  the  fundMiwntal 
principle  of  aoaa^aa,  namely  the 
abofiauDBit  of  privUc  ownerahip 
in  tfae  means  of  prodnetioii.  Tbe 
ProteaUnt  wiilcn  in  tbiaBekl  have 
iMtaralhr  fawked  an  authority  whidi 
wouU  htrid  them  together.  In  ' 
England  their  adoption  of  co-oper^ 
atire  avooatians  as  a  mibetitule 
for  oompethion  has  gtren  than  a 
nnitjr  which  they  have  not  attained 
tiaewbae.  The  Catholic  SchooJ 
anea  irith  the  socaa&sta  in  much 
of  their  criticism  of  tbe  competitive 
nslan,  but  parts  company  with 
them  by  inastinc  on  the  place  of 
relipon,  tbe  famifr,  property,  and 
tbe  anpiayer  system  in  the  social 
scheme.  In  tbe  matto-  (tf  state 
interroition,  there  are  ammiK 
Ca^iotic  wntets  two  cenCTsI  ten- 
dencies. The  Tootv  "l^CTal"  winje,  led  by  such 
omute  as  Le  Flay,  Pftin,  and  Victor  Brants,  would 
reduce  state  action  to  a  mininmni,  while  otben,  look- 
ing to  Bishop  Kettelo',  Cardinal  Manning,  and  Count 
de  Mun,  wookl  invoke  a  consideraUe  measure  of  so- 
cafled  State  socialism.  Astron^impubetowardflunity 
of  effort  amcmg  Calhdia  waa  given  by  the  publication 
of  the  encyclicals  of  Pope  Leo  XIII,  "R^nm  Nora- 
ram",  of  IS  May,  ISOl,  and  "Graves  de  Communi", 
of  18  Janoary,  1901. 

!■  addHiaB  to  the  wiiun  Bunol  *I«TB.  cooaidt:  iBoaua.  BtiC 
laOT);   Co»i.  Ao  In-  -  .  - 


6  POLLUnOLO 

Fodfttiulo,  Amtokio  Aim  Pi^h)  Bexci,  doired 
thtir  snmame,  according  to  Florentine  costMU,  from 
the  trade  of  Ifaor  fatbs,  who  waa  a  dealer  in  poahrr. 
Both  wtn  bom  at  Flonnce,  Antooio  about  1432, 
Piero  in  1443;  both  died  in  Rome^  the  yxxa^a  in 
"in  1496,  and  both  were  buried  m  tfae 
same  tomb  in  San  PSetro  in  \  mcoh- 
Antonio  studied  painting  under 
L'cceUo,  and  waa  infiuenced  by  Bal- 
flovinetti.  AnMmg  bis  individual 
Minting,  arc:  "David"  (Betlin 
Museum) ;  "  Fi^t  of  Hercules 
witbAutsuH",  "ri^t  of  Hercules 
with  tbe  Hydra",  two  bquJI  paitels 
(Vffiri);  "Hercules  and  Neasus" 
(Jarves  cotWtioo,  New  Bavm, 
Coon.);  "ConuuimioD  of  Mary 
Ma(Edalen"(nevedeS 
PoggibMKi).  The  • 
of  the  brothers  began  in  1465. 
I^ero,  fcew^ht  up  in  his  faroUwr's 
studio,  received  lenmis  fram  CaB- 
tagno,  Uceello,  and  BaldovinrttL 
He  painted  tfae  altarpiece  represent- 
ing "Sts.  James,  ViDcait,  and  En- 
slachiua"(rfliii);  "Tobias  and  the 
Angd"  (Museum  of  TuHn);  and 
tbe  ".Wiundatiou"  (Museum 
of  Bobn).  Both  brothers  drew 
depicting  the  life  c^  St-  Jcrfm  Baptist,  from 
which  were  made  tbe  embroideriee  for  the  San 
Giovanni  bspttstery  {!kluseum  of  the  Duomo,  Flor- 
ence). In  1475  tl>ey  finished  tbe  altar  pwce  rep- 
resenting the  "Atartyrdom  of  St.  Sebastian"  (Na- 
tional GaDery,  London). 

Tbe  PoUajuoli  were  likewise  portrait  painten  of  le- 
Down,  but  these  works  have  nearly  all  periabed.  Tbe 
portraitof  tbe  wife  of  Giovanni  Bardi  (Museum  Poldi- 
Praaoli,  Milan)  has  been  ascribed  to  Antonio.  To 
I^ero  aie  credited:  tfae  "Galeaxio  ^orsa"  (I'fGsi), 
sii  of  tbe  cardinal 
and   theologie 


is% 


I>nB  HjooAoOm 


MMiocTsptiy) :  Kiriin. 


Knr.  Xcmt.  HiM.  o-d 
rknrv  (N«r  York  mud 
LoadoB.  ISM):    Mab- 

■wnic*  (LoodDO.  ISONl- 

Pnl.  Bern..  U.  nn 
OiDdonudNi 


jEIP«?f!f;^v 


"Vir 


(Mer 


a  of  Floirace, 
14t>»).  sitting  in 
marble  nicben,  irith 


IBOS);  ELT.OtfIt 


ISOII^Beuohui. /Vin. 

otilconomic,  (N«.  Anl 

York.  [xnbdoDuifl  Bom- 
twy.  IMS): Wtun/W.S«i«.(Vew York.  18)ffi):RTA^,j1L>nrHi 
Waot  (Nc«  York.  1S0A}:  PewtH.  Lttifbwk  drr  Satittnaakonimil 
(Prdburf  ud  St.  Ima.  190S-I909) :  Wiokeb.  Grund/wuns  drr 
paUHtdun  (ktmomif  (IS92-1894I:  9CHHOUCII.  firundri.!  drr 
aOetmtiium  VeUrmrUc>iaJUUkri  (Lcipiis.  I900-I9MI;  CnaH, 
OrvdUviaiti^  Katimilofl,>nomie<StatttMn.  1R35-1S98I;  Pn. 
urrtmcB.  Onrndriti  drr  p^iluchm  Oriiairmir  (Tahiatra.  1904); 
LnOT-Br.lCUEC.  TVniU  iT^wimu  psfilifiu  (Psria.  1910):  GiDE. 
"  "'  «  paiili^tu  (Puifc  1909):    Sat,   TraiU  •TtCB'urmit 

.  1803);   jAHinr.  /.*  SocialUmt  rTtlal  «  la  »y.™--H 
18W1):    Hmi.  Oit  ArtnlrrfTatt  (Betlin.  19001; 

I  iTlnimaiKK  loaaU  (Pmrifc  18991 ;  Ratuhqee.  Dtr 
H  riaUdlrK   Orundittm   (Frribuis.    1881); 
Jimr*  Qf  Pit.  ««■-    (I»odoo   End   Nrw   York. 
1SM-1S99):     Co^tBAD.   kandxOTlrrfniiJi  drr   Slaal"ri,,mrrlmfl'K 


n.  lWilt-1897). 


Frank  O'Hara. 


titm.  and  rhaia«- 
teriied  by  nobility 
and  nvvitv.  and 
the  "Coronation of 
theVirjrin"  (Church 
of  San  Gimignano, 
14S3).  a  mcdiorre 
ahar  piece. 

chiefly  a  goldsmith 
and  sculptor.  As 
a  goldsmith  be 
worked  in  the  stu- 
,     -    .-  w^^^^^i     *'■''    •*    CtibeHi. 

;«t™  IV  •  His    two    marten 

,  9t.  Pettr-fc  Rone  P"e««  m  tbe  Bap- 

tisteryare  the  bas- 
relief  of  the"Nativity"  (Museum  of  the  Duomo)  and 
the  large  siK-er  crass  which  he  executed  in  coUabora- 
lion  with  Betto  di  Franncaco  Betti.  As  a  sculptor  he 
was  the  pupil  of  Donatello  and  excelled  in  the  treat- 
ment of  bronze.  Heexecuted  the  small  groupof  "Her- 
cules and  Cacus",  several  bust«.  and  (1493)  the  tomb 
of  SixtusfV,  ordered  by  Innocent  VIII.  Tliismagiufl- 
cent  bronse  tomb  is  in  St.  Peter's,  in  the  chapel  irf  the 
Blessed  Sacrament.  The  head  is  a  remarkable  por- 
trait, made  from  a  cast  and  crowned  with  tbe  tiara, 
on  which  Antonio  expended  all  the  delicacy  of  his 
talent  aa  a  goldsmith.  Al  the  sides  the  liberal  and 
prospective  arta  are  represented  as  half-nude  women. 


TOBIAS  AND  THE  ANGEL 

PIEBO  BENCI  POLLjUUOLO,  MDSECU,  TURIN 


POLO 


217 


POLO 


refined  and  elegant,  but  pagan.  The  monument  to 
Innocent  VIII  at  St.  Peter  s  was  also  executed  by 
Pollajuolo.  In  the  lower  part  the  pope  is  represented 
as  d^td,  while  above  he  is  depicted  as  in  life,  seated 
on  his  throne  and  giving  his  blessing.  The  ornamental 
female  figures  of  Virtues  are  charming  but  profane. 
Antonio  Pollajuolo  also  carried  his  passion  for  anatomy 
and  the  nude  into  painting,  even  m  religious  pictures 
such  as  the  '' Martyrdom  of  St.  Sebastian'',  where  it 
is  quite  offensive.  He  was  ''the  first  of  those  great 
pagan  artists  of  the  Italian  Renaissance  for  whom  the 
human  form,  living  or  dead,  and  the  study  of  anatomy 
and  the  nuae  became  the  sole  aim  and  irresistible 
passion''  (A.  P^rat6). 

Vabari.  Le  viU  de*  piit  eecellenU  piUori  .  .  .,  ed.  Miiankbi, 
III  (Florence,  1878),  289-301  (tr.  London,  1885);  Cbowb  and 
Cavalcassllb,  a  new  hittcry  of  painting  in  IUuu%  II  (London, 
1869),  382;  Blanc,  BeoU  fiarerdxne  in  HisUnre  det  peintret  d« 
ioiUf  lea  SeeiUe  (Parifl,  1869--77) ;  Lt^BKB,  Qeeek.  der  italieniecKen 
Malerei,  I  (Stuttoart.  1878),  313:  M«ntz,  Hietoire  de  Vart  pendant 
la  Renaiteance/n  (Paris,  1891),  471-3,  607-11,  674-6,  661-9; 
Cbuttwbll,  AiUonio  Pctiajtuio  (London,  1907);   PiiUTi,  Pein- 


1909).  pt.  i,  139-47. 


Gaston  Sortais. 


Polo,  Marco,  traveller:  b.  at  Venice  in  1251; 
d.  there  in  1324.  His  fatner  Nicolo  and  his  uncle 
Matteo,  sons  of  the  Venetian  patrician,  Andrea  Polo, 
had  established  a  house  of  busmess  at  Constantinople 
and  another  at  Sudak  on  the  shore  of  the  Black  Sea, 
in  the  southeast  of  the  Crimea.  About  1255  they 
left  Constantinople  with  a  consignment  of  jewels  and 
after  reaching  Sudak  went  to  the  residence  on  the 
l)anks  of  the  Volga  of  Barka  (Bereke),  Mongol  Khan 
of  Kiptchakj  who  welcomed  them  and  paid  them 
well  for  their  wares.  But  war  having  broken  out 
between  Bereke  and  Hulagu^  the  Mongol  conaueror 
of  Persia,  and  Bereke  having  been  defeated,  the 
Venetians  were  at  a  loss  how  to  return  to  their  own 
country.  Leaving  Kiptchak  they  continued  their 
journey  towards  the  east,  thus  reaching  Bokhara, 
where  they  staved  three  years.  Envoys  from  Hulagu 
to  the  Great  Khan  of  Tatary  passing  tlurough  this 
town  and  finding  these  ''Latins'  who  spoke  the  Tatar 
language  induced  them  to  accompany  them  to  the 
residence  of  the  great  khan,  which  they  reached  only 
after  a  year's  journey.  Kublai,  the  great  khan,  was 
the  most  powerful  of  the  descendants  of  Jenghiz 
Khan.  While  his  brother  Hulagu  had  received  Iran, 
Armenia,  and  Egypt  Kublai  was  master  of  Mon- 
golia, Northern  China,  and  Tibet,  and  was  to  con- 
3uer  Southern  China.  This  intelligent  prince  en- 
eavoured  to  maintain  intercourse  with  the  West  and 
favoured  the  Christians,  whether  Nestorians  or 
Catholics.  Hence  Nicolo  and  Matteo  Polo  were  well 
received  by  him,  he  questioned  them  with  regard  to 
the  Christian  states,  the  emperor,  the  pope,  princes, 
knights,  and  their  manner  of  figntine  and  confided 
to  Uiem  letters  to  the  pope  in  which  he  asked  for 
Christian  missionaries. 

Accompanied  by  a  Mongol  ''baron",  the  two 
brothers  set  out  in  1266  and  after  thrc^  years  of 
travel  reached  St -Jean  d'Acre  in  1269.  There  the 
papal  legate,  Teobaldo  Visconti,  informed  them  that 
Clement  IV  was  dead  and  they  returned  to  Venice 
to  await  the  election  of  a  new  pope.  The  cardinals 
not  having  reached  a  decision  at  the  end  of  two  years 
the  brothers  Polo  determined  to  return,  but  this  time 
they  brought  with  them  the  youthful  Marco,  son  of 
Nicolo,  then  aged  eighteen.  All  three  went  to  Acre 
to  see  the  legate  ana  request  of  him  letters  for  the 
peat  khan,  but  th^y  had  scarcely  left  Acre  when  they 
learned  that  this  same  legate  had  been  elected  pope 
under  the  name  of  Gregory  X  (1  Sept.,  1271).  Over- 
joyed, they  returned  to  Acre  and  tne  new  pope  gave 
them  letters  and  appointed  two  Friars  Preachers  to 
accompany  them.     But  while  going  through  Armenia, 


they  fell  amid  troops  of  the  Mameluke  Sultan  Bibars 
the  Arbelester,  the  monks  refused  to  go  further,  and 
the  Venetians  continued  their  ioumey  alone.  It  was 
only  after  three  years  and  a  half  that,  after  having 
escaped  all  kinds  of  dangers,  they  reached  the  dwelling 
of  Kublai,  who  received  them  probi^ly  at  Yen  King 
near  the  present  Peking  (1275).  The  great  khan 
was  deUghted  to  see  them  once  more;  they  present^ 
him  with  the  letters  from  the  pope  and  some  oil  from 
the  lamp  at  the  Holy  Sepulchre. 

Kublai  conceived  a  great  affection  for  the  youthful 
Marco  Polo,  who  readily  adopted  the  Tatar  custom 
and  soon  learned  the  four  languages  as  well  as  the 
four  writings  of  which  they  made  use  (probably 
Mongolian,  Chinese,  Persian,  and  Uighur).  The 
great  khan  sent  him  on  a  mission  six  months'  journey 
from  his  residence  (probably  to  Annam)  and  the  in- 
formation he  brought  back  with  regard  to  the  coun- 
tries he  traversed  confirmed  him  in  the  good  will  of 
the  sovereign.  For  three  years  he  was  ^vemor  of 
the  city  of  Yang-chow  (Janguy),  on  which  twenty- 
seven  cities  were  dependent.  The  question  of  his 
share  in  the  siege  of  Siang-yAng  and  the  engines  of  war 
constructed  under  his  supervision  are  much  more 
doubtful.  According  to  Chinese  historians  the  re- 
duction of  this  city  took  place  in  1273.  prior  to  Marco 
Polo's  arrival  in  China  j  on  the  other  nand  the  details 
which  he  raves  ooncemmg  Kublai's  expedition  against 
the  Kingdom  of  Mien  (Burma,  1282)  leave  it  to  be 
supposed  that  he  participated  therein.  He  was  also 
charged  with  several  missions  to  the  Indian'  seas, 
Ceylon,  and  Cochin  China.  At  last  after  having 
journeyed  through  almost  the  whole  of  Western 
Asia  the  three  Venetians  obtained ^  but  not  without  dif- 
ficulty, the  great  khan's  permission  to  return  to 
their  own  country.  They  set  sail  with  a  fleet  of 
fourteen  four-masted  ships  and  were  charged  with 
the  escort  of  an  imperial  princess  betrothed  to 
Arghun,  Khan  of  Persia.  After  a  perilous  voyage 
through  the  Sonda  Strait  and  the  Indian  Ocean,  they 
landed  at  Ormuz  and  after  having  delivered  the  prin- 
cess to  the  son  of  the  lately  deceased  Arj^un  they 
continued  their  journey  by  land  as  far  as  Tirebixond, 
where  they  took  ship  for  Constantinople,  finally 
reaching  Venice  in  1295  after  an  absence  of  twenty- 
four  years. 

In  costume  and  appearance  they  resembled  Tatars; 
thev  had  almost  forgotten  their  native  tongue  and 
haa  much  difficulty  in  making  themselves  recognized 
by  their  friends.  Their  wealth  speedily  aroused 
admiration,  but  their  marvellous  accounts  were  sus- 
pected of  exaggeration.  Maroo^  who  was  constantly 
talking  of  the  great  khan's  millions,  was  nicknamed 
"Messer  Millioni"  and  in  the  sixteenth  centurv 
their  dwelling  was  still  called  the  "CJorte  dei  mil- 
lioni". War  having  broken  out  between  Genoa  and 
Venice,  Marco  Polo  was  placed  in  command  of  a 
galley  (1296),  but  the  Venetian  fleet  having  been 
destroyed  in  the  Gulf  of  Lajazzo  he  was  taken  pris- 
oner to  Genoa.  There  he  became  associated  with 
Rusticiano  of  Pisa,  an  adaptor  of  French  romances, 
who  wrote  down  at  his  dictation  the  account  of  his 
travels.  On  his  release  from  prison  Marco  Polo 
became  a  member  of  the  Great  Council  of  Venice 
and  lived  there  till  his  death. 

The  "Book  of  Marco  Polo"  dictated  to  Rusticiano 
was  compiled  in  French.  A  more  correct  version, 
revised  by  Marco  Polo,  was  sent  by  him  in  1307  to 
Thibaud  of  Cepoy,  the  agent  of  Charles  of  Valois 
at  Venice,  to  be  presented  to  that  prince,  who  was  a 
candidate  for  the  Oown  of  Constantinople  and  the 
promoter  of  a  crusading  movement.  The  Latin, 
Venetian^  and  Tuscan  versions  are  merely  transla- 
tions which  are  often  faulty^  or  abridgments  of  the 
first  two  texts.  The  compilation  of  his  book  may 
be  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  important  events  in 
the   history   of   geographical   discoveriefl.     Hitherto 


Occidentals  knew  almoat  nothing  of  Asia:    in  hia  which  he  penetrated  a.  distance  of  five  d&ys*  waSc, 

"Tresor"  Brunetto  Latini  (1230-04)  merely  repro-  Sunnan,  the  Kingdom  of  Mien  (Burma),  Benital, 

of  C.  Julius  Annam,  and  Southeast  China. 

Book  of  At  the  beginning  of  Book  III  he  relates  the  great 


duoes  in  this  respect   the   cflmpilationa  o 


Maroo  Polo",  on  the  other  hand,  contains  an  exact 
description  by  an  intelligent  and  well-informed 
iritness  of  all  the  countries  of  the  Far  East.  It  is 
characterized  by  the  exactness  and  veracity  of 
Venetian  statesmen,  whose  education  accustomed 
them  to  secure  information  with  r^ard  to 


f^. 


modern  taste  finds  almost  too  impersonal.  The 
author  rarely  appears  on  the  scene  and  it  19  regret- 
table that  he  dia  not  give  more  ample  details  con- 
cerning the  missions 
with  which  he  wss 
charged  by  the  great 
khan.  Otherwise  noth- 
ing could  be  more  life- 
Uke  than  the  pictures 
and  descriptions  which 
adorn  the  account,  and 
the  nalvetS  of  the  old 
French  enhances  their 
literary  chu-m. 

In  a  prologue  the  au- 
thor briefly  relates  the 
first  journey  of  his 
Father  and  uncle,  their 
return  to  Venice,  theur 
second  joumev,  their 
sojourn  with  the  great 
khan,  and  their  final 
return.  The  remainder 
of  the  work,  which  in 
the  editions  is  divided 
into  three  books,  com- 
prises the  description 
of  all  the  countries 
through  which  Marco 
Polo  travelled  or  con- 
cerning which  he  was 
able  to  secure  informa- 
tion. The  first  book 
treats  hither  Asi&,  Ar- 

Georgia,  the  Kini^om 
of  Mossul,  the  Caliph- 
ate of  Bagdad,  Per- 
«a,  Beluchistan,  etc. 
Curious  details    are 

S'ven    concerning    the 
ity   of    Bagdad   and 
the   fate   of   the    last 


expedition  which  Kubloi  I^an  attempted 
against  Zipangu  (Japan)  and  which  ended  in  defeat. 
Then  he  enters  the  IniHan  seas  and  describes  the 
great  island  of  Java  and  that  of  the  lesser  Java 
(Sumatra),  Ceylon,  in  connexion  with  which  he  speaks 
of   the    Buddhists   and    their   reformer   '"" 


description    of   India.     He   mentions   the   i 

of  the  island  of  Socotra  and  the  large  i^and  of 
Madagascar,  in  connexion  with  which  he  speaks  of 
the  regular 
currents  of 
the  Strait 
of  Mozam- 
bique and 
relates  the 


then 


,  the 


B;)ngru>i6cn)« 

h^  »in«.in>i«.tms. 

'"'  •'  cfojS.'jlaTgymft 

(2n>mi6goi»qc- 

g-ccmrtS  iStmfum*  tcslamic" 
I  ^  U*  wualte  XX6  WBCterf 
I  o;to1l.Toumotlr)^.^tp^^1fc^o^ 

incMMiius.iics  giaittbiAiJrf 
Wl^jianw  lasmimifc'in^fic. 


Polo"  was  soon  trans- 
lated into  all  European 
languages  and  exer- 
cised an  important  in- 
fluence on  the  geo- 
graphical discoveries  of 
the  fifteenth  century. 
Christopher  Columbus 
had  read  it  attentively 
and  it  was  to  reach  the 
western  route  to  the 
lands  described  by 
Marco  Polo  that  he  un- 
dertook the  expedition 
which  resulted  in  the 
discovery  of  America. 

B„.,.*..  N..i....,  P.H.  »V  C..,„,  «,e'ar£iSSh°J 

cahph,  who  died  of  hunger  amid  his  treasures,  and  important  differences  are  known.  They  may  be  ranged 

concerning  the  Old  Man  of  the  Mountain  and  his  into  four  types;    (1)  Paris,  Bib.  Nat.,  MS.  Tr.  1116, 

Assassins.     He  mentions  the  recoUeceiona  in  Bactria  edited   by   the  Soci£t6  de   Gtographie   in   1824;    it 

of  Alexander  the  Great,  whom  the  kings  of  the  country  is  regarded  as  the  original  MS.  of  Rusticiano  of  Pisa, 

regarded  as  their  ancestor.    Subsequently  he  describes  at  least  as  its  exact  copy,     (2)  Bib.  Nat.,  MS.  Tr. 

Kashmirand  the  deserts  of  the  plateau  of  Hindu  Kush  2S10.     Under   the   name  of   "Livre   des   merveilles 

and  Chinese  Turkc«tan,  "Great  Turkey"  and  its  capi-  du  monde"  it  is  a  collection  of  accounts  of  the  Orient 

tal,  Kashgar.    He  mentions  the  Ncstorian  communi-  compiled  in  1351   by  the  Benedictine  Jean  Leiong 

ties  of  Samarkand  and  ^ter  crossing  the  desert  of  Gobi  of  Ypres  and  copied  at  the  end  of  the  fourteenth 

reaches  Karakoram,  the  old  Mongol  capital,  which  century  for  Philip  the  Bold,  Duke  of  Burgundy.     It 

the  opportunity  for  an  important  digres-  contains  the  text  of  Marco  Polo  accordmg  to  the 

■      origin  and  customs  of  the  Tatars,  copy  sent  to  Thibaud  of  Cepoy  and  is  enriched  with 


fabulo__ 
bud  of  the 
voyages  of 

o-;i u_ 


Zaniibu,  the  people  of 
the  coast  of  Zanguebor, 
Abyssinia,  the  Prov- 
ince of  Aden,  and  the 
northern  regions  where 
the  sun  d' '" 


■  Mahi 


affords 

sion  regarding 

Bookllintroducesusto  theCourt  of  KublaiKhanand 
we  are  given  most  curious  information  with  regard 
to  his  capital,  Ktunbalik  (Peking),  his  magnificence, 
and  the  organization  of  his  Government.  We  are 
shown  with  what  facility  the  Mongols  adopted  Chinese 
etiquette  and  civilization.  Then  follows  a  descrip- 
tion of  the  provinces  of  China,  first  of  China  north 
of   Hwang-ho  or  Cathay,  where   there 

which   burned    hke    wool    (coal),    ther_    „. 

the  ancient  capita!  of  Th.'ing  (Shen-si),  Tibet, 


miniatures.     To  the  s 

af  the  Bib.  Nat.  5631,  . 

M.S.  (Bib,  canton.  125).     (3)  Latin  version  executed 

in   the  fourteenth   century  by   Francesco   Pipino,   a 

Dominican  of  Bologna,  according  to  an  Italian  oopv. 

The  Latin  version  putlished  b>|  Grynieus  at  Basle 

in  1532   in  the  "Novus  orbia"  is  indirectly  derived 

stones    from  this  version.     (4)  Italian  version  prepared  for 

■ngan-fu,     printing  by  Giovanni  Ramusio  and  published  m  the 

second  volume  of  his   "Navigazioni  e  visggi"    (3 


POLONUS  219  POLYCARP 

vols,    fol.,   Venice,    1559).     Chief   editions. — ^There  had  any  show  ot  plausibility  (it  was  sometimes  used 

are  more  than  fifty-six  of  these  in  various  languages,  icgainst  the  genuineness,  and  sometimes  against  the 

French  text,  ed.  Pauthier  (Paris,  1865);   Italian  ver-  early  date  of  St.  Polycarp's  Epistle)  was  based  on  a 

sion,  ed.  Baldelli  (Florence,  1827);  English  tr.  with  passage  in  which  it  might  at  first  sight  seem  that 

commentary  by  Sir  Henry  Yule,  revised  by  JBLenri  Marcion  was  denounced:  "For  every  one  who  doth 

Gordier  (London,  1903).  not  confess  that  Jesus  Christ  has  come  in  the  flesh  is 

Cahun.  Irur^.  d  /'Awjotrc  de  VAaie  (Paria.  1896);  Curtin,  antichrist;  and  whosoever  does  not  confess  the  testi- 

The  ManooU  (Boaton.  1908).  Br^hier  "^^^^  ^^  ^^^  ^^^*  ^  *  ^^^'  ^^  whosoever  pervert- 

eth  the  oracles  of  the  Lord  (to  serve)  his  own  lusts,  and 

Polonus,  Martinub.    See  Martin  op  Troppau.  "^*^  .*^^^  H  "^i^^er  re«^"«J;tigf  S^^i  i^^^ment,  this 

«v«vuM«,  xMAAA^^vo.    Kj^  i.  AAM^xM.x^  wr  ^n^MTiTAXj.  ^^^  ^  ^  first-bom  of  Ssjtan."  St.  Polycarp  wrote  his 

Polyandry.    See  Marriage,  History  of.  epistle  before  he  had  heard  of  St.  Ignatius's  martyr- 

Polybotus,  titular  see  in  Phrygia  Salutaris,  Buff^  ^«"- ufi'r' JiyP?Mif  JnS  n!^l"li'Z*!?i«i!* 

gan  of  Synnada.    This  town  is  mentioned  only  in  the  ^''^  ^°,f'^ii**H^tI!  5t^  P^W^.^  ^^^^T,L 

^^*u  »..»«. «.^r  u„  it:a»»^i^   «(3,r«.<^^A«»..a'>   RTT   1 A  M  we  shall  presently  see,  ot.  rolycarp  called  to  his 

^t^owa'iiS'^^SWtlre'^aS^^^  face'^thefi«?bomo?8at;n"),the^choi'celiesbetween 

E^r;:^tTn  fnl^r  Atetek^  ^^-  s  ^?a w^Tts^^r^d  k^/di'j^ 

are  some  ruins  oi  no  mterest.    Lie  v^uien  (Unens  cnns-  ^f  q.   t.^«+:,,o»«  ««^a^<.r^^,»  *^  a  -^    ioa_i>ia  »,k»« 

tianus,  I,  841)  mentions  two  bishops:  Straterius,  pres-  ^  ^^:  ^«^'^  »  "^^if"  w±   V^^^  7^^ 

pnt  at  fhp  Council  of  Chalcedon  r451V  Sfc    Tohn  Marcion  became  promment.    Hamack  seems  at  one 

ent  at  tne  youncii  oi  ynaiceaon   i,»oi;,  oc.  jonn,  ..        .     ,         ^a^^*.^  *\.^  io*4^,  ^u^^^^i.,^*  k«*  \.^ 


was  represented  by  the  priest  Gregory.    The  earliest  o\     t-  uxr  •*  *i."    u-t  *           4.-^           u  t:  '    '      j 

Greek  "Notitia  Episcopatuum"  ^  the  seventh  cen-  §>•    Lightfoot  thought  a  negative  could  be  proved, 

tury  places  the  see  among  the  suffragans  of  Synnada,  Marcion  accordmg  to  lum,  cannot  be  referred  to  he- 

and  it  is  still  attached  to  this  metropolis  as  a  titular  ^^.P^Hl^S?  ^.^t  ^""^  *?  '^J^^^^^^^'^.iT^"! 

see  by  the  Curia  Romana.    But  from  the  ninth  cen-  f:  K^**!,®  r^^"^^^^  between  the  God  of  the  Old  and 

tury  until  its  disappearance  as  a  residential  see,  it  was  JP®  ^?^  ?'  **^®    -^J^^^^V  ^u  *^®^?^  **^®,??- 

a  suffragan  of  Amorium.    See  the  " Basilii  Notitia"  in  tinonuamsm  ascribed  to    the  first-born  of  Satan    is 

Gelzer,  "Georgii   Cyprii  descriptio   orbis  romani"  mapphcable  to  the  austere  Marcion  (Lightfoot,  St.  Ig- 

(Leipzig,  1890);  26.  f^^lf^  ^nd  St.  Polycarp,  1, 585 ;  all  references  to  Light- 

Lbam.  il«a  Minor,  63;  Ramsat,  Asia  Minor,  232.  lOot  (L),  unless  Otherwise  Stated,  Will  be  to  this  work). 

S.  P^TRinisB.  When.Lightfoot  wrote  it  was  necessary  to  vindicate 

the  authenticity  of  the  Ignatian  epistles  and  that  of 

Polyeaxp,   Saint,   martyr  (a.  d.  69-155).  —  Our  St.  Polycarp.    If  the  former  were  forgeries,  the  latter, 

chief  sources  of  information  concerning  St.  Polycarp  which  supports — ^it  might  almost  be  said  presupposes 

are:  (1)  the  Epistles  of  St.  Ignatius;  (2)  St.  Polycarp's  —them,  must  be  a  forgery  from  the  same  hand.    But 

own  Epistle  to  the  PhiUppians:  (3)  sundry  passages  in  &  comparison  between  Ignatius  and  Polycarp  shows 

St.  Irenffius ;  (4)  the  Letter  of  tne  SmymsDans  recount-  that  this  is  an  impossible  hypothesis.    The  former  lays 

ing  the  martjnrdom  of  St.  Polycarp.  every  stress  upon  episcopacy,  the  latter  does  not  even 

(1)  Four  out  of  the  seven  genuine  epistles  of  St.  mention  it.  The  former  is  full  of  emphatic  declara- 
Ignatius  were  written  from  Smyrna.  In  two  of  these  tions  of  the  doctrine  of  the  Incarnation,  the  two 
— Magnesians  and  Ephesians— he  speaks  of  Polycarp.  natures  in  Christ,  etc.  In  the  latter  these  matters  are 
The  seventh  Epistle  was  addressed  to  Polycarp.  hardly  touched  upon.  ''The  divergence  between  the 
It  contains  little  or  nothing  of  historical  interest  two  writers  as  regards  Scriptural  Quotations  is  equally 
in  connexion  with  St.  Polycarp.  In  the  opening  remarkable.  Though  the  seven  Ignatian  letters  are 
words  St.  Ignatius  gives  glory  to  God  "that  it  hatL  many  times  longer  than  Polycarp's  Epistle,  the  quota- 
been  vouchsiafed  to  me  to  see  thy  face''.  It  seems  tions  in  the  latter  are  incomparably  more  numerous, 
hardly  safe  to  infer,  with  Pearson  and  Lightfoot,  from  as  well  as  more  precise,  than  m  the  former.  The  obli- 
these  words  that  the  two  had  never  met  before.  gations  to  the  New  Testament  are  wholly  different  in 

(2)  The  Epistle  of  St.  Polycarp  was  a  reply  to  one  character  in  the  two  cases.  The  Ignatian  letters  do, 
from  the  Philippians.  in  which  they  had  asked  S(.  indeed,  show  a  considerable  knowledge  of  the  writing 
Polycarp  to  address  tnem  some  words  of  exhortation;  included  in  our  Canon  of  the  New  Testament;  but  this 
to  forward  by  his  own  messenger  a  letter  addressed  by  knowledge  betrays  itself  in  casual  words  and  phrases, 
them  to  the  Chureh  of  Antioch;  and  to  send  them  any  stray  metaphors,  epigrammatic  adaptations,  and  iso- 
cpistles  of  St.  Ignatius  which  he  might  have.  The  sec-  lated  coincidences  of  thought.  ...  On  the  other 
ond  request  should  be  noted.  St.  Ignatius  had  asked  hand  in  Polycarp's  Epistle  sentence  after  sentence 
the  Churehes  of  Smyrna  and  Philadelphia  to  send  a  is  frequently  maae  up  of  passages  from  the  EvangeU- 
messenger  to  congratulate  the  Chureh  of  Antioch  on  cal  and  Apostolic  writings.  .  .  .  But  this  divergence 
the  restoration  of  peaoe^*  presumably,  therefore,  when  forms  only  part  of  a  broader  and  still  more  decisive 
iX  Philippi,  he  gave  similar  instructions  to  the  rhiHp-  contrast,  affecting  the  whole  style  and  character  of  the 
plans.  This  is  one  of  the  many  respects  in  which  there  two  writing^.  The  profuseness  of  quotations  in  Poly- 
is  such  complete  harmony  between  the  situations  re-  carp's  Epistle  arises  from  a  want  of  originality.  .  .  . 
vealed  in  the  Epistles  of  St.  Ignatius  and  the  Epistle  On  the  other  hand  the  letters  of  Ignatius  have  a 
of  St.  Polycarp,  that  it  is  hardly  possible  to  impugn  marked  individuality.  Of  all  early  Chiistian  writings 
the  genuineness  of  the  former  without  in  some  way  they  are  pre-eminent  in  this  respect"  (op.  cit.,  595-97). 
trying  to  destroy  the  credit  of  the  latter,  which  hap-  (3)  In  St.  IrensBUs,  Polycarp  comes  before  us  pre- 
pens  to  be  one  of  the  best  attested  documents  of  an-  eminently  as  a  link  with  tne  past.  Irensus  mentions 
tiquity.  In  consequence  some  extremists,  anti-epis-  him  four  times:  (a)  in  connection  with  Papias;  (b)  in 
copalians  in  the  seventeenth  century,  and  members  of  his  letter  to  Florinus;  (c)  in  his  letter  to  Pope  Victor; 
the  Tubingen  School  in  the  nineteenth,  boldly  rejected  (d)  at  the  end  of  the  celebrated  appeal  to  the  potior 
the  Epistle  of  Polycarp.    Others  tried  to  make  out  prtna>ah'to«  of  the  Roman  Church. 

that  the  passages  which  told  most  in  favour  of  the  (a)  From  "Adv.  HsBr.",  V,  xxxiii,  we  learn  that 

Ignatian  epistles  were  interpolations.  Papias  was  "a  hearer  of  John,  and  a  companion  of 

These  theories  possess  no  interest  now  that  the  Polycarp". 

igenuineness  of  the  Ignatian  epistles  has  practically  (b)  Florinus  was  a  Roman  presbyter  who  lapsed 

ceased  to  be  questioned.    The  only  point  raised  which  into  heresy.    St    Irenjous  wrote  him  a  letter  of  re 


POLTCABP  220  POLTCABP 

monstrance  (a  long  extract  from  which  is  preserved  by  sible  to  learn  "by  word  of  mouth  what  the  Apostles 
Eusebius,  H.  £.,  V,  xx),  in  which  he  recalled  their  taught  from  those  who  had  been  their  hearers.  In 
common  recollections  of  Poly  carp:  ''These  opinions  Rome  the  Apostolic  Age  ended  about  a.  d.  67  with  the 
.  .  .  Moiinus  are  not  of  sound  judgment  ...  I  saw  martyrdom  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul,  and  the  sub- 
thee  when  I  was  still  a  boy  in  Lower  Asia  in  company  Apostolic  Age  about  a  quarter  of  a  centurv  later  when 
with  Polvcarp,  while  thou  wast  faring  prosperously  in  St.  Clement,  ''who  haa  seen  the  blessed  Apostles", 
the  royal  court,  and  endeavouring  to  stand  well  with  died.  In  Asia  the  Apostolic  Age  lingered  on  till  St. 
him.  For  I  distinctly  remember  the  incidents  of  that  John  died  about  a.  d.  100;  and  the  sub- Apostolic  Age 
time  better  than  events  of  recent  occurrence.  ...  I  till  155,  when  St.  Polycarp  was  martyred.  Inthethinl 
can  describe  the  very  place  in  which  the  Blessed  Poly-  book  of  his  treatise  "Against  Heresies"  St.  Irenieus 
carp  used  to  sit  when  he  discoursed  ...  his  per-  makes  his  celebrated  appeal  to  the  "successions"  of 
Bonal  appearance  .  .  .  and  how  he  would  describe  his  the  bishops  in  all  the  churches.  He  is  arguing  against 
intercourse  with  John  and  with  the  rest  who  had  seen  heretics  who  professed  to  have  a  kind  of  esoteric  tra- 
the  Lord,  and  how  he  would  relate  their  words  ...  I  dition  derived  from  the  Apostles.  To  whom^  de- 
can  testify  in  the  sight  of  God,  that  if  the  blessed  and  mands  St.  Irenseus,  would  the  Apostles  be  more  likely 
apostolic  elder  had  heard  anything  of  this  kind,  he  to  commit  hidden  mysteries  than  to  the  bishops  to 
would  have  cried  out,  and  stopped  his  ears,  and  said  whom  they  entrusted  the  churches?  In  order  then  to 
after  his  wont,  'O  gooid  God,  for  what  times  hast  thou  know  what  the  Apostles  taught,  we  must  have  recourse 
kept  me  that  I  should  endure  such  things?'  .  .  .  This  to  the  "successions"  of  bishops  throughout  the  world, 
can  be  shown  from  the  letters  which  he  wrote  to  the  But  as  time  and  space  would  fail  if  we  tried  to  enu- 
neishbouring  Churches  for  their  confirmation  etc.".  merate  them  all  one  by  one,  let  the  Roman  Churchy 
Lightfoot  (op.  dt.,  448)  will  not  fix  the  date  of  the  time  speak  for  the  rest.  Their  agreement  with  her  is  a 
when  St.  Irensus  and  Florinus  were  fellow-pupils  of  manifest  fact  by  reason  of  the  position  which  she 
St.  Polycarp  more  definitely  than  somewhere  between  holds  among  them  ("for  with  this  Church  on  account 
135  and  150.    There  are  in  fact  no  data  to  go  upon,  of  its  jioli4jr  principalitas  the  whole  Church,  that  is, 

(c)  The  visit  of  St.  Polycarp  to  Rome  is  described  by  the  faithful  from  every  quarter,  must  needs  agree", 
St.  Irensus  in  a  letter  to  Pope  Victor  written  under  eto.). 

the  following  circumstances.    The  Asiatic  Christians        Then  follows  the  list  of  the  Roman  bishops  down  to 

differed  from  the  rest  of  the  Church  in  their  manner  Eleutherius,  the  twelfth  from  the  Apostles,  the  ninth 

of  observing  Easter.    While  the  other  Churches  kept  from  Clement,  "who  had  both  seen  and  conversed 

the  feast  on  a  Sunday,  the  Asiatics  celebrated  it  on  with  the  blessed  Apostles".  From  the  Roman  Church, 

the  14th  of  Nisan,  whatever  day  of  the  week  this  might  representing  all  tne  churches,  the  writer  then  passes 

fall  on.    Pope  Victor  tried  to  establish  uniformity,  on  to  two  Churches,  that  of  Smyrna,  in  which,  m  the 

and  when  the  Asiatic  Churches  refused  to  comply,  person  of  Polycarp,  the  sub-Apostolic  Age  had  been 

excommunicated  them.    St.   Irenseus  remonstrated  carried  down  to  a  time  still  within  living  memory,  and 

with  him  in  a  letter,  part  of  which  is  preserved  by  the  Church  of  Ephesus,  where,  in  the  person  of  St. 

Eusebius  (H.  E.,  V,  xxiv),  in  which  he  particularly  con-  John,  the  Apostolic  Age  had  been  prolonged  till  "the 

ta'asted  the  moderation  displayed  in  regard  to  Poly-  times  of  Trajan".    Of  Polycarp  he  says,  "he  was  not 

carp  by  Pope  Anicetus  with  the  conduct  of  Victor,  only  taught  by  the  Apostles,  and  Uvea  in  famiUar 

"Among  these  (Victor's  predecessors)  were  the  ores-  intercourse  with  many  that  had  seen  Christ,  but  also 

byters  before  Soter.    The^  neither  observed  it  Cl4th  received  his  appointment  in  Asia  from  the  Apostles  as 

Nisan)  themselves,  nor  did  they  permit  those  after  Bishop  in  the  church  of  Smvma".   He  then  goes  on  to 

them  to  do  so.  And  yet,  though  not  observing  it,  they  speak  of  his  own  personal  acquaintance  with  Polv- 

were  none  the  less  at  peace  with  those  who  came  to  carp,  his  martyrdom,  and  his  visit  to  Rome,  where  he 

them  from  the  parishes  in  which  it  was  observed.  .  .  .  converted  manV  heretics.    He  then  continues,  "there 

And  when  the  blessed  Polycarp  was  at  Rome  in  the  are  those  who  necuti  him  tell  how  John,  the  disciple 

time  of  Anicetus,  and  they  disagreed  a  little  about  of  the  Lord,  when  he  went  to  take  a  bath  in  Ephesus, 

certain  other  things,  they  immediately  made  peace  and  saw  Cerinthus  within,  rushed  away  from  the  room 

with  one  another,  not  caring  to  quarrel  over  this  mat-  without  bathing,  with  the  words  'Let  us  flee  lest  the 

ter.    For  neither  could  Anicetus  persuade  Polycarp  room  should  fall  in,  for  C^inthus,  the  enemv  of  the 

.  .  .  nor  Polycarp  Anicetus.  .  .  .  But  though  mat-  truth,  is  within'.    Yea,  and  Polycarp  himself,  also, 

ters  were  in  this  shape,  they  communed  together,  when  on  one  occasion  Marcion  confronted  him  ana 

and  Anicetus  conceded  the  administration  of  the  gsud  'Recognise  us',  replied,  'Ay,  ay,  I  recognise  the 

Eucharist  in  the  Church  to  Polycarp,  manifestly  as  a  first-bom  of  Satan'  ". 

mark  of  respect.  And  they  partea  from  each  other  (4)  Polycarp's  martyrdom  is  described  in  a  letter 
in  peace",  etc.  from  the  Church  of  Smyrna  to  the  Church  of  Philo- 
There  is  a  chronological  difiiculty  connected  with  metium  "and  to  all  the  brotherhoods  of  the  holy  and 
this  visit  of  Polycarp  to  Rome.  According  to  the  universal  Church",  etc.  The  letter  begins  with  an  ac- 
Chronicle  of  Eusebius  in  St.  Jerome's  version  (the  count  of  the  persecution  and  the  heroism  of  the  mar- 
Armenian  version  is  quite  untrustworthy)  the  date  of  tyrs.  Conspicuous  among  them  was  one  Germanicus, 
Anicetus's  accession  was  a.  d.  156-57.  Now  the  prob-  who  encourag[ed  the  rest,  and  when  exposed  to  the 
able  date  of  St.  Polycarp's  martyrdom  is  February,  wild  beasts,  incited  them  to  slay  him.  His  death 
155.  The  fact  of  the  visit  to  Rome  is  too  well  attested  stirred  the  fury  of  the  multitude,  and  the  cry  was 
to  be  called  into  question.    We  must,  therefore,  either  raised  "  Away  with  the  atheists;  let  search  be  made  for 

f've  up  the  date  of  the  martyrdom,  or  suppose  that  Polycarp".    But  there  was  one  Quintus,  who  of  his 

usebius  post-dated  by  a  year  or  two  the  accession  of  own  accord  had  given  himself  up  to  the  persecutors. 

Anicetus.    Hiere  is  nothing  unreasonable  in  this  When  he  saw  the  wild  beasts  he  lost  heart  and  apos- 

latter  hvpothesis,  in  view  of  the  uncertainty  which  so  tatized.     "Wherefore",  comment  the  writers  of  the 

generally  prevails  in  chronological  matters  (for  the  epistle,  "we  praise  not  those  who  deliver  themselves 

date  of  the  accession  of  Anicetus  see  Lightfoot,  "St.  up,  siiice  the  Gospel  does  not  so  teach  us".    Polycarp 

Clement  I",  343).  was  persuaded  by  his  friends  to  leave  the  city  and  con- 

(d)  We  now  come  to  the  passage  in  St.  Irenseus  cealnimself  in  a  farm-house.  Here  he  spent  nis  time  in 
(Adv.  Haer.,  Ill,  3)  which  brings  out  in  fullest  relief  St.  prayer,  "and  while  praying  he  faJIeth  into  a  trance 
Polycarp's  position  as  a  link  with  the  past.  Just  three  aays  before  his  apprehension;  and  he  saw  his  pil- 
as  St.  John's  long  life  lengthened  out  the  Apostolic  low  burning  with  fire.  And  he  turned  and  said  unto 
Age,  so  did  the  four  score  and  six  years  of  Polycarp  those  that  were  with  him,  'it  must  needs  be  that  I 
extend  the  sub- Apostolic  Age,  during  which  it  was  pos-  shall  be  burned  alive'."    When  his  pursuers  were  on 


POLTCABPUS            221  POLYCABPUS 

his  track  he  went  to  another  farm-house.  Fmdinghim  was  erected  to  him  while  he  was  governing  Asia,  and 
gone  they  put  two  slave  boys  to  the  torture,  and  one  of  he  pointed  out  that  as  the  birth  of  Aristides  was  either 
them  betrayed  his  place  of  concealment.  Herod,  head  in  1 17  or  129,  the  government  of  Macrinus  must  have 
of  the  police,  sent  a  body  of  men  to  arrest  him  on  Fri-  been  either  in  170-71,  or  182-83,  and  he  has  shown  that 
day  evening.  Escape  was  still  possible,  but  the  old  the  later  date  is  impossible''.  (Ramsay  in  '^The  Ex- 
man  refused  to  fly,  saying,  "  the  will  of  God  be  done",  pository  Times",  Jan.,  1907.) 

He  came  down  to  meet  his  pursuers,  conversed  affably  (2)  Aristides  mentions  a  Julianus  who  was  procon- 

with  them,  and  ordered  food  to  be  set  before  them,  sul  of  Asia  nine  years  before  Quadratus.    Now  there 

While  thev  were  eating  he  prayed,  "  remenibering  all,  was  a  Claudius  Julianus,  who  is  proved  by  epigraphic 

high  and  low,  who  at  any  time  had  come  in  his  wav,  and  numismatic  evidence  to  have  been  Proconsul  of 

and  the  Catholic  Church  throughout  the  world   .  Asia  in  145.    Schmid  produced  a  Salvius  Julianus  who 

Then  he  was  led  away.  was  consul  in  148  and  might,  therefore,  have  been 


Herod  and  Herod's  father,  Nicetas,  met  him  and    the  Proconsul  of  Asia  named  by  Aristides.    But  an  in- 


with  such  haste  that  he  bruised  his  shin.    He  foUoweid  anus  never  governed  Asia,  for  he  was  Proconsul  of 

on  foot  till  they  came  to  the  Stadium,  where  a  great  Africa,  and  it  was  not  permitted  that  the  same  person 

crowd  had  assembled,  having  heard  the  news  of  his  shoula  hold  both  of  these  high  offices.   The  rule  is  well 

apprehenmon.    ''As  Potycarp  entered  into  the  Sta-  known;  and  the  objection  is  final  and  insurmountable 

dium  a  voice  came  to  hun  from  heaven:  'Be  strong,  (Ramsay,  "Expos.  Times",  Feb..  1904.    Ramsay  re- 

Polycarp,  and  play  the  man'.    And  no  one  saw  the  fers  to  an  article  by  Mommsen,  "Savigny  Zeitschrift 

speaker,  but  those  of  our  people  who  were  present  fUr  Rechtsgeschichte",  xxiii,  54).     Schmid's  system, 

heiurd  tne  voice. "    It  was  to  the  proconsul,  wnen  he  therefore,  disappears,  and  Waddington's,  in  spite  ot 

urged  him  to  curse  Christ,  that  Poiycarp  made  his  cele-  some  very  real  difficulties  (Quadratus's  proconsulship 

brated  reply:  "  Fourscore  and  six  years  have  I  served  shows  a  tendency  to  slip  a  year  out  of  place),  is  in  pos- 

Him,  and  He  has  done  me  no  harm.    How  then  can  I  session.     The  possibility  of  course  remains  that  the 

curse  my  King  that  saved  me. "    When  the  proconsul  subscription  was  tampered  with  by  a  later  hand, 

had  done  with  the  prisoner  it  was  too  late  to  throw  But  155  must  be  approximately  correct  if  St.  Poiycarp 

him  to  the  beasts,  for  the  sports  were  closed.    It  was  was  appointed  bisnop  by  St.  «fohn. 

decided,  therefore,  to  bum  him  alive.     The  crowd  There  is  a  life  of  St.  Poiycarp  by  a  pseudo-Pionius, 

took  it  upon  itself  to  collect  fuel,  "the  Jews  more  cs-  compiled  probably  in  the  middle  of  the  fourth  cen- 

pecially  asaisting  in  this  with  zeal,  as  is  their  wont"  tury.    It  is  "altogether  valueless  as  a  contribution  to 

(cf.  the  Martjrrdom  of  Pionius).     The  fire,  "like  the  our  knowledge  of  Poiycarp.    It  does  not,  so  far  as  we 

sail  of  a  vessel  filled  by  the  wind,  made  a  wall  round  know,  rest  on  any  tradition,  early  or  late,  and  may 

the  body"  of  the  martyr,  leaving  it  unscathed.    The  probablv  be  regarded  as  a  fiction  of  the  author's  own 

executioner  was  ordered  to  stab  him,   thereupon,  brain"  (Li^tfoot,  op.  cit.,iii,  431).   The  postscript  to 

"there  came  forth  a  quantity  of  blood  so  that  it  ex-  the  letter  to  the  Smymseans:  "This  account  Gains 

tinguished  the  fire".    (The  story  of  the  dove  issuing  copied  from  the  papers  of  Irenseus  .  .  .  and  I,  So- 

from  the  body  probablv  arose  out  of  a  textual  corrup-  crates,  wrote  it  down  in  CJprinth  .  .  .  and  I,  Pionius 

tion.    See  Lightfoot,  Funk,  Zahn.    It  may  also  have  again  wrote  it  down",  etc.,  probably  came  from  the 

been  an  interpolation  by  the  pseudo-Pionius.)  pseudo-Pionius.    The  very  copious  extracts  from  the 

The  officials,  urged  thereto  by  the  Jews,  burned  the  Letter  of  the  Smymseans  given  b^  Eusebius  are  a 

body  lest  the  Christians  "should  abandon  the  wor-  guarantee  of  the  fidelity  of  me  text  in  the  MSS.  that 

ship  of  the  Crudfied  One,  and  begin  to  worship  this  have  come  down. 

man".     The  bones  of  the  martyr  were  collected  by  The  Letter  to  the  Philippiana  wan  first  published  in  the  Latin 

the  Christians,  and  interred  in  a  suitable  place.  "  Now  je™""  ^y  ^A«^:^olT^^%f  "*??*  'S  his  edition  of  the  Ignatian 

*u^  U1.W....WI  T>Ji.,«^.-.  -„««  ».«-i..,..^j  ^^  *vrl 1  J   —  Epiatlca  (Pana,  1408).    The  Greek  text  first  appeared  in  Hav- 

the  ble»ed  Poiycarp  was  martyred  on  the  second  day  ^oix,  lUuat.  BecUa.  OHeni.  Script.  (Douai.  1633) ;  Bollandus  in 

of  the  first  part  of  the  month  of  XanthlCUS,  on  the  the  XctoiS.S.,  26  Jan.,  published  in  1643  a  Latin  translation  of  the 

seventh  day  before  the  Kalends  of  March,  on  a  great  9^^  ****  **'  **J«,t®*^'  ^^  ^^9  SmyrnsBans,  together  with  the  old 

a.KU.>4U  <i4  4-Va  A:»k«l«  l«^»«      XJ«  -r««  ^^^JLu^^A^  u,,  •  Latin  version  of  the  same  epistle.     Both  Greek  and  Latin  were 

gabbath  at  the  eiglith  hour.    He  was  apprehended  by  published  by  Usshbr  in  1641.    The  substance  of  the  peeudo- 

Herodes  .   .   .  m  the  proconsulship  of  Statins  Quad-  Pionius  Life  was  given  by  Halloix  in  the  work  referred  to  above, 

ratus  etc."     This  subscription  ^ves  the  following  ¥i***T^**i5*'S?u**i^'°°w'L^"P2*'4"**^iH5°K^^ 

f»^..  *u^  ^«.4-,,wl^».  ♦rwvlr  «!-««>  Jz^  «  G«^,,.J«,r  »,u:»u  ^S-,  Jau.  26.    The  Greek  text  was  first  published  by  Duche«nb, 

facts,  the  mwrtyrdoni  took  place  on  a  Saturday  which  vita  s.  Poiyearpi  .  .  .  auctore  Pionio  (Paris.  1881). 

lell  on  23  February.  Now  there  are  two  possible  years  The  best  modern  editions  and' commentaries  are  LiGRTFOOT*B 

for  this,  155  and  166.   The  choice  depends  upon  which  ^P*»»'*^^,^"f*«'*/,P»^^  "•  Jo^^  ^^  Poivearpiz  vols.,  2nd  ed., 

rvf  4^1><k«»^0«,.^*<.fi,a  «r«<i,>^^^««a„l  Jf  A  «;«     ^„  .«.»„no  Loudou,  1889) ;  Gkbhardt.  Harnack.  and  Zahn,  Patrum  Apot- 

of  the  two  Quadratus  wasprOCOnsul  of  Asia.     By  means  ioUeorum  opera,  fasc.  Ill  (Leipsig.  1876):  Funk,  Patres  ApogtoUei. 

of  the  chronological  data  supplied  by  the  rhetorician  A  good  account  of  St.  Poiycarp  will  be  found  in  LiGHTrooT, 

.£lius  Aristides  in  certain  autobiographical  details  St^j^rruUnrni  Rdtgitm  (London,  18S9)^ 

«»k:«k  u«.  t,Mw^:^u*^    xxr^AA:^^^^    ^.u.^  :«  f^ii^^.^  u...  tjrrdom  the  discussions  found  in  LioHrrooT  and   Harnack, 

WhlCh.he  furnishes,  Waddmgton,  who  is  followed  by  Chronologie,  l,  324  sq.  should  be  supplemented  by  CoRasBN,  Z>o« 

lidltfoot   ("St.   Ignatius  and  St.   Poiycarp",   I,   646  Todetjahr  Polykarp*  m  ZeiUchHflf.d.  N.T.Wwenachaft,  ill,  Q2, 

sqO,  arrived  at  the  conclusion  that  Quadratus  was  pro-  ^^  **»«  articles  of  Ramsat  referred  to  above, 

consul  in  154-55  (the  proconsuPs  year  of  oflBce  b^an  ^'  '^'  oacchus. 
in  May).   Schmid,  a  full  account  of  whose  system  will 

be  found  in  Hamack's  "Chronologie",  arguing  from  PoljrcarpUB,  title  of  a  canonical  collection  in  eight 

the  same  data,  came  to  the  conclusion  that  Quadra-  books  composed  in  Italy  by  Cardinal  Gregonus.   It  is 

tus's  proconsulship  fell  in  165-66.  borrowed  chiefly  from  the  collections  of  Anselm  and 

For  some  time  it  seemed  as  if  Schmid's  system  was  from  the  '^  Anselmo  Dedicata".  Writers  generally  date 

likely  to  prevail,  but  it  has  failed  on  two  points:  (1)  it  about  1 124,  because  it  includes  a  decretal  of  Callistus 

Aristides  tells  us  that  he  was  bom  when  Jupiter  was  in  II  (d.  1124),  but  some  place  it  prior  to  1120  or  1118, 

Leo.    This  happened  both  in  117  and  129.    Schmid's  date  of  the  death  of  Bishop  Didacus,  to  whom  the 

2 stem  requires  the  later  of  these  two  dates,  but  the  collection  is  dedicated,  and  regard  the  Callistus  de- 

kte  has  been  found  to  be  impossible.    Aristides  was  cretal  as  an  addition.    The  dedicatory  epistle  and  the 

fifty-three  years  and  six  months  old  when  a  certain  titles  were  published  by  .the  Ballerini  (^Be  antiguis 
Macrinus  was  governor 
Austrian  'Jahreshefte^ 
inscription  recording 


POLTOABCT 


222 


POLTOLOT 


onum  et  deoretalium  collectiones",  Rome,  1836,  356 
saq.).  Extracts  from  Book  IV  were  published  by 
Mai,  "Nova  bibliotheca  patrum'',  VII,  iii,  1-76 
(Rome,  1852-88). 

Philups,  Kirdienreehi,  IV  (Ratisbon,  1851).  135-6;  Scbsbxb, 
KirehenreefU,  IV  (Grati,  1886).  240;  Wbbne,  Ju9  DeereUUium,  1 
(2iid  ed.,  RoiDA.  1905).  331.  333. 

A.  Van  Hove. 


printed  edition  of  the  Greek  Old  Testament,  the  one 
which  was  commonly  used  and  reproduced  before  the 
appearance  of  the  eoition  of  Sixtus  V,  In  1587.  It  is 
followed,  on  the  whole,  in  the  Septuiupnt  columns  of 
the  four  great  Polyglots  edited  oy  Montanus  (Ant- 
werp. 156^72);  Bertram  (Heidelberg,  1586-1616); 
Wolder  (Hamburs,  1596);  and  Le  Jay  (Paris,  1645). 
Ximenes  Greek  New  Testament,  printed  in  1614,  was 
not  published  until  six  years  after  the  hastily  edited 
Greek  New  Testament  of  Erasmus,  which  was  pub- 


Polygamy.    See  Mabbiage,  History  of. 

Polyglot  Bibles.— The  first  Bible  which  m^  be 
consioered  a  Polyglot  is  that  edited 
Complutum,  hence  the  name 

Spain,  in  1502-17,  under  the ^ ^ 

expense  of  Cardinal  Ximenes,  by  scholars  of  the  univer^  text  is  generally  recognized 

sity  founded  in  that  city  by  the  same  great  Cardinal.  The  "Antwerp  Bible",  just  mention*jd,  sometimes 

It  was  published  in  1520,  with  the  sanction  of  Leo  X.  called  the  "Biblia  R^a",  because  it  was  issued  under 

Ximeneswished,  he  writes,  "to  revive  the  languishing  the  auspices  of  Phifip  II,  depends  largely  on  the 

study  of  the  Sacred  Scriptures";  and  to  achieve  this  "Compiutensian"  for  the  texts  which  the  latter  had 

CAP.     IT. 

I  r\  Vtmt  4MUm  udtHi  effetfefihuM  m  Betb- 
^^  UcbtqiU  eftJiboitJaiC  m  dubus  Heron- 
Ms  regit yMumtrit  Mdgt  db  Onentt  dJOtt- 

%  rifchu.  *  St  mqmunt.  Vbi  Hdtut  efi  ilk  rex 
JibouiUoritm  f  yulimus  entmJlelUm  euu  in 
Ortente^  n/tnlmijqueyt  ddoremuseum. 

I  *  j^Mt  qnum  dudtffet  rex  Htroudes  fef" 
terrttus  efi^totiqi^e  OurifcbUm  cum  eo. 

4  *  Ei  congregdtit  omnibHt  frmcipibmfL 
cerdetum ,  o*  firtbit  fofmU^  ftrcontdtut  efi 
db  eu  n/biMeJchicho  ndfieretHK 


\]ioai^9  )iaJ^  tASj::^  ^oa^  t^^l  ^?  t^  * 

^JlbO  IaO,,^0  oil  .]^\n  £090901     ' 


Uxii^  qaA  — «i^1o  *    >£;^'ot]  Ujap  , 


ax>?09ai  ^9  ^^A  *    .ai^  ts^^ih^  ^]o 

••«•§•  •      "  ••  •        • 

pD^^  Ir^iDo  \ja\b  s^9  %^ai^  also  * 

••  • 


POLTOLOT   BXBLB    OT   MONTANUS    (BlBXJA   ReGIa) 

Reduced  facsimile  of  the  opening 
Th^  oolumne,  from  left  to  right,  present:  the  Peahito  (9yriao)  Text;  ^.literal  Latin  translation  of  the 


object  he  undertook  to  furnish  students  with  accurate 
printed  texts  of  the  Old  Testament  in  the  Hebrew, 
Greek,  and  Latin  languages,  and  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment in  the  Greek  and  Latin.  His  Bible  contains  also 
the  Chaldaic  Targum  of  the  Pentateuch  and  an  inter- 
linear Latin  translation  of  the  Greek  Old  Testament. 
The  work  is  in  six  large  volumes,  the  last  of  which  is 
made  up  of  a  Hebrew  and  Chaldaic  dictionary,  a 
Hebrew  grammar,  and  Greek  dictionary.  It  is  said 
that  only  six  hundred  copies  were  issued;  but  they 
found  their  way  into  the  principal  libraries  of  Europe 
and  had  considerable  influence  on  subsequent  editions 
of  the  Bible.  Vigouroux  made  use  of  it  in  the  very 
latest  of  the  Polyglots.  Cardinal  Ximenes  was,  he 
assures  us,  eager  to  secure  the  best  manuscripts  accessi- 
ble to  serve  as  a  basis  of  his  texts;  he  thanks  Leo  X 
for  lending  him  Vatican  MSS.  Traces  of  such  MSS. 
are.  indeed,  discernible,  particularly  in  the  Greek  text; 
and  there  is  still  a  copy  at  Madrid  of  a  Venetian  MS. 
which  he  is  thought  to  have  used.  He  did  not,  how- 
ever, use  any  of  what  are  now  considered  the  best; 
appreciation  of  the  worth  of  the  MSS.,  and  of  their 
variant  readings,  had  still  much  progress  to  make; 
but  the  active  work  of  many  years  produced  texts 
sufficiently  pure  for  most  purposes. 
The  "Complutensian  fiible"  published  the  first 


published.  It  adds  to  them  an  interlinear  translation 
of  the  Hebrew,  the  Chaldaic  Targums  (with  Latin 
translation)  of  the  books  of  the  Hebrew  Bible  which 
follow  the  Pentateuch,  excepting  Daniel,  Esdras,  Ne- 
hemias,  and  Paralipomenon,  and  the  Peshito  text  of 
the  Synac  New  Testament  with  its  Latin  translation. 
This  work  was  not  based  on  MSS.  of  very  great  value; 
but  it  was  carefully  printed  by  Christophe  Plantin,  in 
eight  magnificent  volumes.  The  last  two  contain  an 
apparaitLS  criticuSf  lexicons  and  grammatical  notes. 

The  "Paris  Polyglot "  in  ten  volumes,  more  magnifi- 
cent than  its  Antwerp  predecessor,  was  edited  with 
less  accuracy^  and  it  lacks  a  critical  apparatus.  Its 
notable  additions  to  the  texts  of  the  "Antwerp  Bible  ", 
which  it  reproduces  without  much  change,  are  the 
Samaritan  Pentateuch  and  its  Samaritan  version 
edited  with  Latin  truislation  by  the  Oratorian,  Jean 
Morin,  the  Syriac  Old  Testament  and  New  Testament 
Antilegomena,  and  the  Arabic  version  of  the  Old  Tes^ 
tament. 

The  "London  Polyglot"  in  six  volumes,  edited  by 
Brian  Walton  (1654-7),  improved  considerably  on  the 
texts  of  its  predecessors.  Besides  them,  it  has  the 
Ethiopic  Psalter,  Canticle  of  Canticles,  and  New 
Testament,  the  Arabic  New  Testament,  and  the  Gos- 
pdb  in  Persiaii.    All  the  texts  not  Latin  are  accom- 


P0LT8TYLUM 


223 


POLTTHEISM 


panied  by  Latin  translations,  and  all,  sometimes  nine 
m  number,  are  arranged  side  by  side  or  one  over 
another  on  the  two  pages  open  before  the  reader. 
Two  companion  volumes,  the  '^  Lexicon  Heptaglot- 
ton"  ot  Edmund  Ciossel,  appeared  in  1669.  The  Bible 
was  also  published  in  several  languages  b^  Elias 
Hutter  (Nuremberg,  1599-1602),  and  by  Chnstianus 
Reineccius  (Leipsic,  1713-51). 

Modem  Polyglots  are  much  less  imposing  in  appear- 
ance than  those  of  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  cen- 
turies; and  there  is  none  which  gives  the  latest  results 
of  scientific  textual  criticism  as  fully  as  did  Brian 
Walton's  in  its  day.  We  may  cite,  however,  as  good 
and  auite  accessible: — Bagster,  "Polyglot  Bible  in 
eight  languages"  (2  vols.,  London,  2nd  ed.  1874).  The 
languages  are  Hebrew,  Greek,  English,  Latin,  German, 
Italian,  French,  and  Spanish.   It  gives  in  appendix  the 


MABCH-Lsxx>Ka.  Bibliolheoa  Sacra,  I  (Halle,  1778),  331-434. 
In  each  Polyglot  is  found  some  hustorical  information  about  itself 
and  its  predecessors.  Vigourodx,  Manuel  biblique  (Paris,  1005), 
260  sqq.  Individual  texts  of  the  Polyglots  are  dealt  with  in  Bibli- 
cal introductions.  Swete,  Introd.  to  tht  O.  T.  in  Greek  b  particu- 
larly useful.  ViCK,  Hietory  of  printed  editioru  .  .  .  and  Poly 
glot  Bibles  in  Heitraica,  IX  (1892-3),  47-116. 

W.  S.  Reillt. 

Polystyluxn,  titular  see  of  Macedonia  Secunda, 
suffragan  of  Philippi.  When  Philippi  was  made  a 
metropolitan  see  Polystylum  was  one  of  its  suffragans 
(Le  Quien,  "Oriens  christ.",  II,  65).    It  figures  as  such 


episcopat. 
1900,  558);  the  "Nova  Tactica'*^  about  940  (Gelaer; 
"  Georgii  Cyprii  dascr.  orbis  romani ",  Leipzig,  1890, 
80) ; "  Notices  '*  3  and  10  of  Parthey,  which  belong  to  the 


7. 


CAP.    II. 

J^Vmcigonatus  cflct  Icfus  in  Bcth- 
^Ichcm  lud?  in  dicbus  Hcrodis  regis, 
cccc  Magi  ab  Oriencc  vencrunc  Icrofo- 
lymam, 

'dicentes :  Vbicft  qui  natus  eft  rex  ^ 
Iad(onun?  vidimus  enim  ftcliam  eius  in 
OiicDte^&  venimus  adoiate  cum. 

*  Audicns  aucem  Hcrodes  rex^turba- ' 
cus  cft>&  omnis  Hietofolyma  cum  illo. 

*  Et  congrcgans  omncs  prindpes  fa-  ^ 
ccrdonim  &  kribaspopuli^fcifcicaba- 
tur  ab  cis  vbi  Chriftus  nafcerecur. 


m' 


PUBUBHSD    AT   AMTWBBP,    1    FSB.,    1571 

venes  of  Matt.,  ii,  in  vol.  V 

Peohito;  the  Vulgat«;  the  Greek  Text.    The  Hebrew  Venbn  occupies  the  lower  part  of  both  pases 


Syriac  New  Testament,  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch, 
and  many  variants  of  tne  Greek  text.  This  Bible  is 
printed  in  very  small  tjrpe.  It  is  a  new  edition,  on  a 
reduced  scale,  of  Bagster's  ''Bibha  Sacra  Polvglotta" 
(6  vols,.  London,  1831).  **  Polyglotten-Bibel  zum 
praktiscnen  Handgebrauch'',  by  Stier  and  Theile,  in 
lour  auarto  volumes  (6th  ed.,  Bielefeld,  1890).  This 
Polyglot  contains  the  Hebrew,  Greek,  Latin,  and  Ger- 
man texts.  "  Biblia  Triglotta ",  2  vols.,  being,  with  the 
omission  of  modem  languages,  a  reissue  of  the  '*  Biblia 
Hexaglotta",  edited  by  de  Levante  (London,  1874-6). 
It  contains  the  Hebrew,  Greek,  and  Latin  texts  of  the 
Old  Testament,  and  the  Greek,  Latin,  and  Syriac 
texts  of  the  New  Testament.  Published  by  Dicken- 
son, London,  1890.  "La  Sainte  Bible  Polyglotte" 
(Paris,  1890-98),  by  F.  Vigouroux,  S.S.,  first  secretary 
of  the  Biblical  Commission,  is  the  only  modem  Poly- 
glot which  contains  the  deuterocanonical  books,  and 
the  only  one  issued  under  Catholic  auspices.  Vigou- 
roux haq  secured  the  correct  printing,  in  convenient 
Suarto  volumes,  of  the  ordinary  Massoretic  text,  the 
ixtine  Septuagint,  the  Latin  Vulgate,  and  a  French 
translation  of  the  Vulgate  by  Glaire.  Each  book  of 
the  Bible  is  preceded  by  a  brief  introduction;  impor- 
tant variant  readings^  textual  and  exegetical  notes, 
and  illustrations  are  given  at  the  foot  of  the  pages. 


thirteenth  century.  In  1212  Innocent  III  mentions 
it  among  the  suffragans  of  the  Latin  Archdiocese  of 
Philippi  (P.  L.,  CCXVI,  685).  In  1363  the  Greek 
bishop  Peter  became  Metropolitan  of  Christopolis  and 
the  see  was  imited  to  the  Archdiocese  of  Maronia  (Mi- 
klosich  and  Milller,  ''ActapatriarchatusConstantino- 
polit",  L  474,  475,  659;  Petit,  "Actes  du  Panto- 
crator ",  Petersburg,  1903,  p.  x and  vii).  About thesame 
time  the  city  was  restored  and  fortified  by  the  Em- 
peror Cantacuzenus  (Caiitacuz,  III,  37,  46;  Niceph. 
Gregoras,  XII,  161).  Cantacuzenus  says  that  Poly- 
stylum was  the  ancient  Abdera;  this  statement  also 
occurs  in  a  Byzantine  list  of  names  of  cities  published 
by  Parthey  (Hierocles,  "Synecdemus",  Berlin,  1866, 
314).  This  is  not  absolutely  correct.  Polystylum  is 
the  modem  village  of  Bouloustra  in  the  villayet  of 
Salonica,  situated  in  the  interior  of  the  country  north 
of  Kara  A^atch  where  the  ruins  of  Abdera  are  found, 
but  it  is  doubtless  because  of  this  approximate  iden- 
tification that  the  see  of  Abdera  is  placed  among  the 
titular  sees,  although  such  a  residential  see  never 
existed. 

Pauly-Mibsowa,  Realencyk.,  s.  v.  Abdera. 

S.   PiTRIDis. 

PolsrthaiBxn,  the  belief  in,  and  consequent  worship 
of,  many  gods.    See  the  various  articles  on  national 


telkions  such  ae  the  AMyrian,  Babyloaian,  Hindu, 
aadthe  ancient  religions  of  Egypt,  Orwpo,  and  Rome; 
see  also  Aniuisu,  Fetishism,  Totem lau,  God, 
MoNomeieM,  Fantheisu,  Tueibm  ct«. 

Pomuitt,  titular  see  in  Mauretania  Csesares.  It  is 
north  of  Tlemcen  (capital  of  an  arrondiBBcment  in  the 
department  of  Oran,  Algeria)  and  in  view  of  the  ruins 
of  Agadir,  which  waa  built  itself  on  the  ruins  of 
PoDiaria.  Named  after  its  orchards,  Pomaria  waa 
formed  under  the  shadow  of  the  Roman  camp.  At 
Agadir  and  in  the  outxkirtB  may  be  found  numerous 
Latin  inscriptions  principally  from  the  Christian 
epoch,  the  most  recent  from  tlie  seventh  century,  and 
manv  with  the  abbreviation  D&IS,  whid)  had  evi- 
dently lost  all  pagan  meaning.  We  know  of  but  one 
bishop,  Longinus,  mentioned  in  the  list  of  bishops  of 
Mauretania  Cssarea,  who  waa  summoned  by  King  Hu- 
neric,  returned  to  Carthage  in  484  and  waa  condemned 
to  exile.  He  was  praised  by  Victor  of  Vita,  Gregory 
of  Tours,  and  Fredegarius ',  the  martyrolon'  of  Usuard 
inaerts  hia  name  on  1  Feb.  At  the  end  of  the  eighth 
century  Idris  I  founded  Agadir  on  the  site  of  Pomaria; 
an  the  fall  of  the  Idrisite  dynasty,  Agadir  was  the 
capital  of  the  Beni-Khazer  and  Beni-Yala,  emirs  of  a 
Berber  tribe,  vassals  of  the  Ommiads  of  Spain. 
Tlemoen,  founded  at  the  end  of  the  eleventh  century 
by  Yussef  ben  TashSn,  waa  reunited  to  Agadir  and 
finally  supplanted  it. 

TouLOTTE,  Clofaphu  di  I'A/ritut  eArttitnnc,    Maurflaniri, 

m.  8.  PiTRiDis. 

Pombil,  SkbastiSo  Jo3£  deCarvalho  e  Mello, 
Marquis  de,  the  aon  of  a  country  gentleman  of  mod- 
eet  means,  b.  in  Usbon,  13  May,  1699;  d.8  August, 
1782.  Hewaasaid 
to  have  been  edu- 
cated at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Coim- 
bra  and  served  for 
a  time  in  the 
army.  After  a 
turbulent  life  in 
the  capital,  he 
carried  off  and 
married  the  niece 
of  the  Conde  dos 
Arcos,     and     his 

nobility  origi- 
nated perhaps 
with  the  opposi- 
tion offered  by  her 
family  to  what 
they  deemed  a 
mesalliance.  Pom- 
bal    then   retired 

estate  near  Soure, 
and  in  his  thirty- 
ninth  year  rc- 
crived  his  first  public  iqtpointment,  beii^  sent  as 
minister  to  London  in  1738.  In  1745  he  was  trans- 
ferred to  Vienna,  where  hia  work  was  to  effect  a  recon- 
ciliation between  the  pope  and  the  empress;  there  in 
the  same  year  he  married  as  his  second  wife  the 
daughter  of  Field  Marahal  Daun,  a  union  brought 
about  bv  the  influence  of  John  V'h  Austrian  wife,  who 
befriended  him  more  than  once,  thimgh  the  king  dLi- 
liked  him  and  recalleil  him  in  174<).  John  di»i  31 
July,  1760,  and  on  3  August,  1750,  the  new  monarch, 
Joseph,  named  Pombal  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs, 
liie  distinguished  diplomat,  D.  Luis  da  Cunha,  had  re- 
commended Pombal  to  Joseph  when  the  latter  was  only 
prince,  but  it  waa  the  favour  of  the  queen-mother  and 
perhaps  also  of  a  Jesuit,  Father  Moreira,  that  secured 
nim  tne  coveted  post.  His  superior  intelligence  and 
maaterf  ul  will  enabled  him  in  a  short  time  to  dominate 


4  POHBU. 

bis  colleagues,  who  were  dismissed  or  made  inugnifi- 
cant,  and  with  the  acquiescence  of  his  royal  master  he 
became  thcfirst  power  in  the  State.  Some  years  later 
the  English  ambassador  said  of  him,  "with  all  his 
faults,  he  is  the  sole  man  in  this  kingdom  capable  of 
being  at  the  head  of  affairs".  His  energy  futer  the 
earthquake,  1  Nov.,  1755,  confirmed  his  ascendancy 
over  the  kins,  and  he  became  succeasively  first  Minis- 
ter, Count  oT  Oceras  in  1759,  and  Marquis  of  Pombal 
in  1770.  Tlie  mysterious  attempt,  3  Sept.,  1758,  on 
the  king's  life  gave  him  a  pretext  Ui  crush  the  inde- 
pendence of  the  nobility.  He  magnified  an  act  of 
private  vengeance  on  the  part  of  the  Duke  of  Aveiro 
mto  a  widespread  conspiracy,  and  after  a  trial  which 
waa  a  mockery,  the  duke,  members  of  the  Tavora 
family  and  their  servants  were  publicly  put  to  death 
with  horrible  cruelties  at  Belem,  13  Jan.,  1759.  No 
penalty  was  considered  too  severe  for  lite  majaU  and 
there  is  some  evidence  that  Joseph  himself  oraered  the 
prosecution,  indicated  the  Tavoras  for  punishment, 
and  charged  Pombal  to  show  no  mercy.  If  true,  this 
explmns  m  part  the  leniency  shown  him  after  his  fall 

S  Joseph's  daughter  and  successor.  Queen  Maria. 
,e  so-called  Porobolinc  terror  dates  from  these  exe- 
cutions. The  people  were  effectively  cowed  when  they 
saw  that  perpetual  imprisonment,  exile,  and  death  re- 
warded the  enemies  or  even  the  critics  of  the  dictator. . 
He  was  bound  to  come  into  conflict  with  the 
Jesuits,  who  exercised  no  small  influence  at  Court  and 
in  the  country.  They  appear  l«  have  blocked  hia 
projects  to  marry  the  heiress  presumptive  to  the 
notestant  Duke  of  Cumberland  and  to  grant  privi- 
leges to  the  Jews  in  return  for  aid  in  rebuilding 
Lisbon,  but   the  first  open   dispute  arose  c —  " — 


regulating  Sjianish  and  Portuguese  jurisdictio: 
River  Plate.  'When  the  Indians  declined  to  leave 
their  houses  in  compliance  with  its  provisions  and 
had  to  be  coerced,  Pombal  attributed  their  refusal 
to  Jesuit  machinations.  Various  other  difficulties  of 
the  Government  were  Imd  to  their  charge  and  by  the 
cumulative  effect  of  these  accusations,  the  minister 
prepared  kin^  and  public  for  a  campmgn  against  the 
Society  in  which  he  was  inspired  by  the  JanHcnint  and 
Itegalist  ideas  then  current  in  Europe.  He  had  begun 
his  open  attack  by  havii^  the  Jesuit  confessors  dis- 
missed from  Court,  20  Sept.,  1757,  but  it  was  (he 
Tavora  plot  in  which  he  implicated  the  Jesuits  on  the 
ground  of  their  friendship  with  some  of  the  supposed 
conspirators  that  enabled  him  to  take  decisive  action. 
On  19  Jan.,  1759,  he  issued  a  decree  sequestering  the 
property  of  the  Society  in  the  Portuguese  dominions 
and tJiefollowingSeptember  deported  the  Portuguese 
fatJiers,  ^out  one  thousand  in  number,  to  the  Pon- 
tifical States,  keeping  the  foreianera  in  prison.  The 
previous  year  he  had  obtained  from  Benedict  XIV 
the  appointment  of  a  creature  of  his,  Cardinal  Sal- 
danha,  aa  visitor,  with  power  to  reform  the  Society, 
but  events  proved  that  his  real  intention  was  to  end  it. 
Still  not  content  with  his  victory,  he  determined  to 
humiliate  it  in  the  person  of  a  conspicuous  member, 
and  himself  denounced  Father  Gabriel  Malagrida  to 
the  Inquisition  for  crimes  against  the  Faith.  He 
caused  the  old  missionary,  who  had  lost  his  wits 
through  suffering,  to  be  strangled  and  then  bumt. 
He  entered  inh>  negotiations  with  the  Courts  of  Sp^n, 
France,  and  Naples  to  win  from  the  pone  by  joint 
action  the  suppression  of  the  Society,  ana  having  no 
success  with  Clement  XIII,  he  expelled  the  Nuncio 
17  June,  1760,  and  broke  off  relations  with  Rome. 
The  bishops  were  compelled  to  exercise  functions  re- 
served to  the  Holy  See  and  the  Portuguese  Church 
came  to  have  Pombal  as  its  effective  head.  The  reli- 
gious autonomy  of  the  nation  being  thus  complet«,  he 
sought  to  justify  his  action  by  issumg  the  '"  DeduofSo 
Chronologica",in  which  the  Jesuits  were  made  reapon- 
eible  for  oil  the  calamities  of  Portugal.     In  1773^ 


POimRANIA 


225 


POMERANIA 


Clement  XIV,  to  prevent  a  schism,  yielded  to  the 

gressure  brought  to  bear  on  him  and  suppressed  the 
ociety.  As  soon  as  he  was  sure  of  success,  Pombid 
made  peace  with  Rome  and  in  June,  1770,  admitted  a 
nuncio,  but  the  ecclesiastical  system  of  Portugal  re- 
mained henceforth  a  sort  of  disguised  Anglicanism, 
and  many  of  the  evnls  from  which  the  Church  now 
suffers  are  a  legacy  from  him. 

In  the  political  sphere  PombaFs  administration  was 
marked  by  boldness  of  conception  and  tenacity  of 
purpose.  It  differed  from  the  preceding  in  these  par- 
ticulars: (1)  he  levelled  all  classes  before  the  royal 
authority;  (2)  he  imposed  absolute  obedience  to 
the  law,  which  was  largely  decided  by  himself,  b6- 
cause  the  Cortes  had  long  ceased  to  meet;  (3)  he 
transformed  the  Inquisition  into  a  mere  department 
of  the  State.  In  the  economic  sphere,  impressed  by 
British  commercial  supremacy,  he  sou^t  and  with  suc- 
cess to  improve  the  material  condition  of  Portugal. 
Nearly  all  the  privileged  companies  and  monopolies 
he  founded  ended  in  financial  failure  and  helped 
the   few  rather    than    the    many,    yet    when    the 

g>pulace  of  Oporto  rose  in  protest  against  the  Alto 
ouro  Wine  Company,  they  were  punished  with  ruth- 
less severity,  as  Was  the  fishing  village  of  Trafaria, 
which  was  burnt  by  the  minister's  orders  when  it 
sheltered  some  unwilling  recruits.  His  methods  were 
the  same  with  all  classes.  Justice  went  by  the  board 
in  face  of  the  reason  of  state;  nevertheless  he  cor- 
rected many  abuses  in  the  administration.  His 
activity  penetrated  every  department.  His  most  not- 
able legislative  work  included  the  abolition  of  Indian 
slavery  and  of  the  odious  distinction  between  old  and 
new  Christians,  a  radical  reorganization  of  the  finances, 
the  reform  of  the  University  of  Coimbra,  the  army  ana 
navy,  and  the  foundation  of  the  College  of  Nobles,  the 
School  of  Commerce,  and  the  Royal  Press.  He  started 
various  manufactures  to  render  Portugal  less  depend- 
ent on  Great  Britain  and  his  Chartered  Companies 
had  the  same  object,  but  he  maintained  the  old  po- 
litical alliance  between  the  two  nations,  though  lie 
took  a  bolder  attitude  than  previous  ministers  had 
dared  to  do,  both  as  regards  England  and  other  coun- 
tries, and  left  a  full  treasury  when  the  death  of  King 
Joseph,  on  24  Feb.,  1777,  caused  liis  downfall.  He 
died  in  retirement,  having  for  years  suffered  from 
leprosy  and  the  fear  of  the  punishment  he  had  meted 
out  to  others.  The  Bishop  of  Coimbra  presided  at 
his  funeral,  while  a  well-known  Benedictine  delivered 
the  panegyric.  Even  to  the  end  Pombal  had  many 
admirers  among  the  clergy,  and  he  is  regajxied  by  the 
Portuguese  as  one  of  their  greatest  statesmen  and  called 
the  great  Marquis. 

Carnota,  Marquis  de  Pombal  (London,  1871);  da  Lue  So- 
riano, Hiatoria  do  reinado  de  el  ret  D.  JoeS  (Lisbon.  1867) ;  Gokias, 
Le  Marquit  de  Pombal  (Lbbon,  1869);  d'Azxvbdo.O  Af argue*  de 
Pombal  e  a  »ua  epoea  (Lisbon,  1909) ;  Duhr,  Pombal,  Sein  Char' 
rakteru.  aeine  Politik  (Freiburg,  1891);  CoUeeeOo  doe  Neoocios  de 
Roma  no  reinado  de  el  Rey  Dom  Joei  /.  3  pt«.  and  supplement 
(Lisbon,  1874-76) ;  The  Bismarck  of  the  BighUenth  Century  in  Am. 
Cath.  Quart.  Rev.,  II  (Philadelphia,  1877),  51;  Pombal  in  Catholic 
World,  XXX  (New  York),  312;  Pombal  and  the  Society  of  Jesus 
(London.  Sept.,  1877).  86. 

Edqar  Prestaqe. 

Pomerania,  a  Prussian  province  on  the  Baltic  Sea 
situated  on  both  banks  of  the  River  Oder,  (^vided 
into  Hither  Pomerania  (Vorpommern),  the  western 
part  of  the  province,  and  Farther  Pomerania  (Hinier- 
pammern),  the  eastern  part.  Its  area  is  11, 628  square 
miles,  and  it  contains  1,684,345  inhabitants. .  In  the 
south-east  Pomerania  is  traversed  by  a  range  of  low 
hills  (highest  point  fourteen  miles),  otherwise  it  is  a  low 
plain.  Farming  and  market-gardening  take  55-2  per 
cent  of  the  soil,  grass-land  10*2  per  cent,  pasturage  6*5 
per  cent,  and  woodland  20-2  per  cent.  The  chief 
occupations  are  farming,  cattle-raising,  the  shipping 
trade,  and  fishing.  There  is  no  manufacturing  of  any 
importance  except  in  and  near  Stettin.  The  earliest 
XIL— 16 


inhabitaiics  were  German  tribes,  among  them  Goths^ 
Scirri,  Rugians,  Lemovier,  Burgundians,  Semnoniana 
(Tacitus,  ''Germania").  About  the  middle  of  the 
second  century  these  tribes  began  to  migrate  towards 
the  south-east;  they  were  replaced  by  others  who  also 
soon  left,  and  Slavs  (Wends),  entering  from  the  east, 
gradually  gained  possession  of  the  province.  Conse- 
quently the  name  Pammem  is  Slavonic,  Po  moref  Po 
maran  signifying  ^' along  the  sea".  Charlemagne 
compelled  the  acknowledgment  of  his  suzerainty  as 
far  as  the  Oder,  but  his  successors  limited  themselves 
to  the  defensive.  In  the  reigns  of  Henry  I  and  Otto 
the  Great,  the  Wends  were  again  obliged  to  pay  tribute. 
However,  German  supremacy  remained  uncertain  and 
the  Danish  influence  was  greater,  imtil  the  Poles  con- 
quered Pomerania  about  995.  As  suffragan  of  their 
new  Archdiocese  of  Gnesen,  established  m  1000.  the 
Poles  founded  the  Diocese  of  Kolberg,  which,  now- 
ever,  existed  apparently  only  in  the  parchment  deed. 
It  is  doubtful  whether  the  bishop  Reinbem  ever 
stayed  at  Kolberg;  he  died  about  1015  while  on  an 
embassy  to  Kiev. 

In  the  following  era  there  were  wars  with  varying 
results  between  the  Poles,  Danes,  and  Germans  for 
the  possession  of  Pomerania.  Finally  after  a  long  and 
bloody  struggle  the  Poles  were  victorious  (1132),  and 
Duke  Boleslaw  earnestly  endeavoured  to  conveit  the 
inhabitants  to  Christianity.  The  task  was  given  to 
Bishop  Otto  of  Bamberg  who  accomplished  it  during 
two  missionary  journeys.  At  this  period  appears  the 
name  of  the  firat  well  known  Duke  of  Pomerania, 
Wratislaw.  Otto  had  the  supervision  of  the  Pome- 
ranian Church  until  his  death,  but  could  not  found  a 
diocese  to  which  to  appoint  the  chaplain  Adalbert. 
After  Otto's  death.  Innocent  II  by  a  Bull  of  14  Oct., 
1140,  made  the  church  of  St.  Adalbert  at  Julin  on  the 
Island  of  Wollin  the  see  of  the  diocese,  and  Adalbert 
was  consecrated  bishop  at  Rome.  The  difficulty  as  to 
which  archdiocese  was  to  be  the  metropolitan  of  the 
new  bishopric  was  evaded  by  placing  it  directly  under 
the  papal  see.  Duke  Ratibor  of  Pomerania  founded 
the  first  monasteries:  in  1153  a  Benedictine  abbey  at 
Stolp,  and  later  a  Premonstratensian  abbey  at  Grobe 
on  the  island  of  Usedom.  Before  1176  the  see  was 
transferred  to  Kammin,  where  a  cathedral  chapter  was 
founded  for  the  Cathedral  of  St.  Jolm.    The  western 

Eart  of  the  country  belonged  to  the  Diocese  of 
chwerin.  The  founding  of  the  Cistercian  monasteries 
at  Dargun  (1172)  and  at  Kolbatz  east  of  the  Oder 
(1173)  were  events  of  much  importance.  The  Cister- 
cians greatly  promoted  the  development  of  religion 
and  civilization  by  engaging  in  agricultural  under- 
tidcings  of  all  kinds.  About  1179  the  Premonstra- 
tensians  obtained  a  new  monastery  at  Gramzow  near 
Prenzlau,  and  in  1180  at  Belbuk  in  Farther  Pome- 
rania. In  1181  Duke  Bogislaw  received  his  lands  in 
fief  from  Emperor  Frederick  I,  and  thus  became  a 
prince  of  the  German  Empire.  This  was  followed  by 
a  large  immigration  of  Germans. 

The  ecclesiastical  organization  also  progressed.  Cis^ 
tercian  monasteries  were  established  at:  Eldena  (c. 
1207);  Neuenkamp  (c.  1231);  of  the  latter  a  branch 
on  the  Island  of  Hiddensee  (1296);  Bukow  (c.  1253); 
Bergen  on  the  island  of  RUgen  (1193);  near  Stettin 
(1243);  at  Marienfliess  (1248);  near  Kolberg  (1277); 
near  Kdshn  (1277);  at  Wollin  (1288).  A  Premon- 
stratensian convent  was  founded  near  Treptow  on  the 
Rega  (1224).  The  Augustinians  had  monasteries  at: 
Uckermtinde  (1260),  later  transferred  to  Jasenitz; 
Pyritz  (c.  1255);  Anklam  (1304);  Stargaid  (1306); 
Gartz  (1308).  The  Franciscans  had  foundations  at: 
Stettin  (1240);  Greifswald  (1242);  Prenzlau  (before 
1253);  Stralsund  (1254);  Pyritz  (before  1286): 
Greifenberg  (before  1290);  Dramburg  (after  1350); 
the  Dominicans  at:  Kammin  (about  1228);  Stral- 
sund (1251);  Greifswald  (1254);  Stolp  (1278);  Pase- 
walk  (1272);  Prenzlau  (1275);  Soldin  (about  1289); 


P0MPEI0P0U8  226  P0MPEZ0P0LI8 

NQrenbers  (fourteenth  century).   Finally  the  Duchess  the  empire.    The  dukes  were  obh^  to  accept  the 

Adelheid  founded  the  Carthusian  convent  of  Marien-  Interim,  and  after  Suawe  resignea,  Martin  Weiher 

kron  near  Koelin  in  1304;  it  was  first  transferred  to  became  bi^op  in  1549.  was  recognized  by  Julius  III, 

Schlawe,  then  in  1407  to  Rugenwalde;  in  1421  the  5  Oct.,  1551,  and  tooK  his  place  as  a  prince  of  the 

Brigitine  convent  of  Marienkron  was  established  at  empire.   In  1555  the  Peace  of  Augsburg  gave  the  final 

Stralsund.      All    these    establishments    contributed  victory  to  the  evangelical  party  in  Pomerania.    After 

greatly  to  the  extension  of  Christian  and  German  Weih^sdeath  in  1^6  the  diocese  came  under  the  con- 

civitization,  as  did  also  the  orders  of  knights,  e.  g.,  the  trol  of  the  ruling  princes,  who  filled  the  seewith  membezB 

Knights  of  St.  John.    Foundations  for  canons  were  of  their  family.    The  Evangelical  cathedral  chapter 

made  about  1200  at  Kolberg,  and  in  1261  at  Stettin,  with  thirteen  positions  for  worthy  officials  of  the 

In  1295  Dukes  Otto  and  Bogislaw  divided  the  coun-  province  and  the  CSiurch  continued  to  exist  until  1810. 
try  into  the  two  Duchies  of  Stettin  and  Wolgast;  at  The  last  duke,  Bogislaw  XIV,  who  from  1625  had 
later  dates  there  were  further  divisions.  The  victory  ruled  over  the  united  Duchies  of  Stettin  and  Wolgast, 
of  German  civilization  in  Pomerania  was  assured  in  the  died  childless  10  March,  1637;  the  country  then 
fourteenth  century  .and  the  diocese  became  dependent  passed  to  Brandenburg,  which  by  old  treaties  had  the 
upon  the  dukes.  The  bishop  was  merely  the  first  in  right  of  succession,  but  by  the  Treaty  of  Westphalia 
the  social  order  of  prelates;  and  there  were  constant  (1648)  had  to  ^e  content  with  Farther  Pomerania; 
quarrels  over  the  possession  of  the  diocese  and  of  the  Hither  Pomerania  and  Rtigen  were  given  to  Sweden, 
episcopal  castles.  In  the  fifteenth  century  conditions  The  Lutheran  bidiop,  Duke  Ernest  Bogislaw  of  Croy, 
were  in  peat  disorder.  Durins  the  years  1437^3  the  gave  the  Diocese  of  Kammin  to  Brandenburg  in  1650. 
University  of  Rostock,  founded  in  1419,  withdrew  By  the  Treaty  ofStockholm  of  1720,  Hither  Pomerania 
from  Rostock  on  account  of  quarrels  between  the  as  far  as  the  Peene  was  given  to  Brandenburg- 
council  and  the  citizens,  and  settled  at  Greifswald.  Prussia;  the  rest  of  the  province  and  the  island  of 
The  mayor.  Heinrich  Rubenow,  urged  DukeWratislaw  Rtigen  were  obtained  by  Prussia  in  the  treaty  of 
IX  to  ^taolish  a  university  at  Greifswald,  to  which  4  June,  1815. 

the  duke  agreed,  gave  some  of  his  revenues  for  its        In    1824    the   seven   hundredth    anniversary    of 

sufmort,  and,  aided  by  the  abbots  of  the  monasteries  Pomerania's  conversion  to  Christianity  was  cele- 

in  Hither  Pomerania,  obtained  from  Callistus  III  a  brated,  and  a  monument  was  erected  to  Bishop  Otto 

Bull  of  foundation,  29  May,  1456.    In  the  first  se-  of  Bamberg  at  Pyritz.    Catholic  parishes  have  devd- 

mester  173  students  matriculated.    At  the  same  time  oped  since  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century  from  the 

a  foundation  for  twenty  canons,  intended  to  furnish  military  chaplaincies  in  the  larger  garrison  towns.   At 

maintenance  for  new  teachers^  was  united  with  the  the  begizming  these  parishes  were  under  the  care  of 

church  of  St.  Nicholas.  The  umversity  continued  with  the  Vicariate  of  the  North  German  Missions.   In  1821 

increasing  prosperity.  they  were  placed  under  the  Prince  Bishop  of  Breslau, 

About  1400.  heresy,  caused  by  the  Waldebsians,  who  gave  their  administration  to  the  provost  of  St. 
developed  in  the  province;  Peter  the  Celestine  came  Hed wig's  at  Berlin  as  episcopal  delegate.  At  present 
to  Stettin  to  investigate  the  matter,  and  scattered  the  (1911)  there  are  two  arch-presb^rteiies,  Kosun  and 
heretics  in  1393.  The  sect  of  the  ''Putzkeller",  con-  Stettin-Stralsund.  Koslin  has  mne  parishes:  Ams- 
oeming  which  there  are  only  confused  reports,  appears  walde,  Griinhof ,  Koslin,  Kolberg,  Neustettin,  Poll- 
also  to  be  traceable  to  the  Waldensians.  Diocesan  now,  Schivelbein,  Stargard,  Stolp.  Stettin-Stralsund 
Snods  were  held  in  1433,  1448  (at  Stettin^,  1454  (at  has  eleven:  Anklam,  Bergen,  Demmin,  Greifswald, 
ttlzow  and  Kammin),  1492,  and  1500.  Tlie  statutes  Hoppenwalde,  Louisental.  Pasewalk^  Stettin,  Stral- 
show  a  disorderly  condition  of  morals,  but  earnest  sund,  Swinemlinde,  Viereck.  The  rehgious  orders  are 
attempts  to  improve  conditions.  The  first  traces  of  represented  only  by  the  Sisters  of  St.  Charles  Borro- 
Lutheranism  appeared  at  Strabund,  and  in  the  monas-  meo  at  Grunhof,  Misdroy,  Stettin,  and  Stralsund. 
tery  of  Belbuk,  where  Johannes  Bugenhagen  (Po-  The  Catholics  of  the  govemlment  district  of  Lauen- 
meranus),  rector  of  the  town-school  and  teacher  of  the  burg-Btitow,  that  formerlv  belonged  to  the  Kingdom 
monks,  became  acquainted  with  Luther's  writing  ''De  of  Poland,  form  five  parishes  of  the  Diocese  of  Kulm; 
captivitate  Babylonica''  j  he  won  over  many  priests  the  provostship  of  Tempelburg  in  the  government  dis- 
to  the  new  doctrine  and  m  1521  went  to  Wittenberg,  trict  of  Koslin  belongs  to  the  Archdiocese  of  Posen. 
Preachers  from  other  regions,  and  monks  who  had  left  At  the  last  census  (1905)  the  Catholics  of  Pomerania 
their  monasteries,  foimd  ready  attention  throudiout  numbered  50,206.  The  largest  Catholic  parishes  are 
the  coimtry,  on  accoimt  of  the  great  social  and  eco-  Stettin  (8635  souls),  Lauenburg  (1475),  Stargard 
nomic  discontent,  and  especially  the  freedom  from  taxes  (1387),  Kolberg  (1054),  Greifswald  (951),  and  Stolp 
of  the  clergy  and  the  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction.  In  (951). 
1525  Stralsund  adopted  Lutheranism,  while  Greifs-       Babthoi^  Oetch.  vonpammemu.  Afl^en.  l-v  (Hambjuj. 

wald  and  Stargard  remained  true  to  the  Faith,  and  oef^^pLm^^.^.^^'t^rAJJdeii^  T\M8tettin.  iWioos); 

other  towns  were  divided  between  passionately  con-  Gemeinddexikon  far  das  Kltnioreich  Preutsm,  IV  (Berlin.  1908); 

tending  parties.    When  Duke  Barmm  XI  of  Stettin,  ffc»^^  **«•  ^^^"^  ^7^^^'  seines  DeUgaturb^rkt  (Breslau. 

who  ha5  been  a  student  at  Wittenberg,  and  hi^  Jolol'piiS^"''         ^^  "      ""^^  ""'  ^ 

nephew,  Philip  of  Wolsast,  joined  the  Lutheran  party,  '  Klemens  LOffleb. 

its  victory  was  assured. 

A  basis  for  the  Lutheran  Church  of  Pomerania  was        Pompelopolifl,  titular  see  in  Paphlagonia.     The 

prepared  b^  the  Diet  at  Treptow  on  the  Rega  in  1534  ancient  name  of  the  town  is  unknown;  it  may  have 

with  the  aid  of  the  rules  drawn  up  by  Bugenhagen.  been  Eupatoria  which  Pliny  (VI,  ii,  3),  followed  by 

The  prelates  and  some  of  the  nobuity  protested  and  Le  Quien  and  Battandier,  wronsly  identifies  with  the 

left  tne  diet;   the  towns  gnulually  abandoned  their  Eupatoria  of  Mithridates.     The  latter  was  called 

opposition    and    accepted    Bugenhagen's    propoNsi-  Magnopolis  by  Pompey.     Pompeiopolis  was,  with 

tions,  and  Bishop  Erasmus  Manteunel,  who  main-  Andrapa-Neapolis,  in  64  b.  c.  included  by  Pompey  in 

tained  his  protest,  died  in  1544.    TTie  monasteries  the  Province  of  Pontus,  but  the  annexation  was  prema- 

were  suppressed   (1535-6)  and  in  1539  the  nobil-  ture,  as  the  town  (which  ranked  as  a  metropolis)  was 

ity  gave  up;  the  dukes  joined  the  Smalkaldic  League  restored  to  vassal  princes  of  eastern  Paphla^nia  and 

but  maintained  an  ambiguous  position.    The  later  definitively  annexed  to  the  Roman  Empire  m  6  b.  c. 

church  ordinance  of  1563  established  the  strictest  Strabo  (XIII,  iii,  48)  says  that  in  the  neighbourhood 

form  of  Lutheranism,  and  the  first  bishop  was  Bar-  was  a  mine  of  realgar  or  sulphuret  of  arsenic^  which 

tholom&us  Suawe  (1546).   In  1548  Emperor  Charles  V  was  worked  by  criminals.    As  early  as  the  middle  of 

ckimed  the  diocese,  as  it  belonged  to  the  estates  of  the  seventh   century  the   ''Ecthesia"   of   Paeudo- 


POHPONAZZI  2! 

Gpiphanius  (ed.  Gelser,  635)  ranks  it  as  an  autocepha- 
loiu  archdioceBe,  which  title  it  probably  received  when 
Jiutinian  (Novells,  xxix)  reorganiied  the  province  of 
Paphlagonia.  In  the  eleventh  ceaturv  Pompeiopolia 
became  a  metropolitan  see  <Pvtbey,  "HierociuSynec- 
demus",  97)  and  it  waa  still  such  in  the  fourteenth 
century  (Gelzer,  "  Ungedruckte-Texte  der  Notitia 
episcopatuum",  60S].  Shortly  afterwards  the  diocese 
was  Buppreflsed.  Le  Quien  (Oriens  ohriat.,  I  557-60) 
mentions  fourteen  titulars  of  this  diocese,  the  last  of 
whom.  Gregory,  Uved  about  1350.  Among  them  were 
PhiladoIphuB,  at  the  Council  of  Niuea  (325) ;  Sophro- 
nius,  at  that  of  Seleucia;  ArginuB,  at  Ephesus  (431); 
fitherius,  at  Chalcedon  (451);  Severus,  Constanli-- 
nople  (553);  Theodore,  Constantinople  (680-1); 
Maurianua,  Nictea  (787);  and  John,  Constantinople 
(8S9),  Pompeiopolis  is  now  called  Tach-Keupru 
(bridge  of  stone),  because  of  an  ancient  bridge  over  the 
Tatai-Tchai  or  Oueul-Irmak,  the  ancjent  Ammias, 
and  is  in  the  sandjak  and  vilayet  of  Kastamoum 
twenty-five  miles  north-east  of  that  town.  It  has 
about  7000  inhabitants,  of  whom  700  are  Christiaas, 
the  maiority  Armenian  schismatics. 

RiusiT.  ataamplia  of  Atia  Minor  (Londoo.  ISOO).  192.  318; 
Andeuoh,  Stadia  Poriiiea  (BnuHle,  1903),  93;  CmHiiT,  La 
Turtuii  d'Aiit.  IV  (Puia.  1394).  4S4-7. 

S.  VailhA. 
Pompon&Ksl  (PoupoNATius),  Pietro  (also  known 
as  Perstto  on  account  of  hia  small  stature),  philos- 
opher and  founder  of  the  Aristotelean-Averroistio 
School,  b.  at  Mantua,  1482;  d.  at  Bologna,  1525. 
He  taught  philosophy  at  Padua,  Ferrara,  and  Bologna. 
Hie  pupils  included  eminent  laymen  and  ecclesiastics, 
many  of  whom  afterwards  opposed  him.  At  Padua, 
since  1300,  the  chairs  of  philoaophy  were  dominated  by 
Averroism-introducedthereespeciallybythephysician 
Pietro  d'Albanb  and  represented  then  by  Nicoletto 
VemiasandAlessandroAchillini.  Pomponaizi opposed 
that  system,  relying  on  the  commentanes  of  Alexander 
Aphrodisias  for  the  defence  of  the  Aristotelean  doc- 
trines on  the  soul  and  Providence.  His  chief  works 
are:  "Tractatus  de  immortalital«  aninue"  (Bologna, 
1518),  in  defence  of  which  he  wrote  "Apologia"  (1517) 
and  "  Def ensorium "  (1S19)  against  Contarini  and 
AgoBtino  Nito;  "De  fato,  libero  arbitrio,  de  pras- 
■  destinatione  et  de  providentia  libri  quinquc"  (1523), 
where  he  upholds  the  traditional  opinion  about  fate; 
"De  naturalium  eflectuum  admirandorum  cauais,  sive 
de  incantationibus"  (1520),  to  prove  that  in  Aris- 
totle's philosophy  miracles  are  impossible.  In  oppo- 
sition to  the  Averroista,  Pomponaiii  denied  that  the 
inteUedu*  posHbilit  is  one  and  the  same  in  all  men; 
but,  with  AleUinder,  he  asserted  that  the  intelUclut 
agetu  is  one  and  the  same^  beii^;  God  Himself,  and 
consequently  immortal,  while  the  intellective  soul  is 
identical  with  the  sensitive  and  consequently  mortal. 
BO  that,  when  separated  from  the  bodv  and  deprived 
of  the  imagination  which  Hupplies  its  object,  it  can  no 
longer  act  and  hence  must  perish  with  tne  body;  fur- 
thermore, the  soul  without  ite  vegetative  and  sensitive 
elements  would  be  imperfect;  apparitions  of  departed 
souls  are  fables  and  hallucinations.  If  religion  and 
human  law  presuppose  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  it 
is  because  this  deception  enables  men  more  easily  to 
refrun  from  evil.  Sometimes,  however,  Pomponaiii 
proposes  this  thesis  as  doubtful  or  problematic, 
or  only  contends  that  immortality  cannot  be  demon- 
strated philosophically,  faith  alone  affording  us  cer- 
tainty; and  even  on  tins  point  he  expresses  his  willing- 
ness to  submit  to  the  Holy  8ee.  In  controversy  with 
Contarini  he  expressly  declares  that  reason  apodieti- 
caUy  proves  the  mortality  of  the  soul,  and  that  faith 
alone  assures  us  of  the  contrary,  immortality  being, 
therefore,  undue  and  gratuitous,  or  supernatural. 
Fomponazii's  book  was  publicly  consigned  to  the 
Sames  at  Venice  by  order  of  the  doge;  hence  in  book 
III  of  bis  "Apologia"  he  defends  himself  against  the 


7  PONCE 

stigma  of  heresy.  The  refutation  by  Nifo,  already 
im  Averroist,  was  written  by  order  of  Leo  X.  In  the 
Fifth  Lateran  Council  (1513;  Sess.  VIII,  Const. 
"ApoBt.  Ref^minis")  when  the  doctrine  was  con- 
demned, Pomponaisi's  name  was  not  mentioned,  hia 
book  having  not  yet  been  published.  He  was  de- 
fended by  Cardinal  Bembo,  but  was  obliged  by  Leo  X 
in  1518  to  retract.  Nevertheless,  he  publirfied  his 
"Defensorium"  against  Nifo,  which,  like  his  second 
and  third  apologies,  contains  the  most  bitter  invective 
'   his  opponents,  whereas  Nifo  and  Contarini 


ideas.  Notable  among  his  disciples  and  defenders  are 
the  Neapolitan  Simon e  Porta  and  Jul.  Cesar  Scaliger; 
the  latter  is  best  known  as  an  erudite  philosopher. 


I.  Piitro  PoMpimiuri  (Florecec,   isas); 

8):    Rbhin.  AtBTTw  K  C  ■ 

r,  CmuiMdui  Hittaria  pliiie*otli\ 


(Boloank.  1S6S):    Rbh 


fully  erpoui  ' 

uTb 


Benioni. 


PouM,  Jobn,  philosopher  and  theologian,  b. 
at  Cork,  1603,  d,  at  Pans,  1670.  At  an  early  age 
he  went  to  Belgium  and  entered  the  novitiate  of  the 
Irish  Franciscans  in  St.  Antony's  College,  Louvain. 
He  studied  philosophy  at  Cologne,  began  the  study  of 
theology  in  Lou- 
vtun,  under  Hugh 
Ward  and '  John 
Colgan,  was 
called  by  Luke 
Wadding  to 
Rome,  and  ad- 
mitted 7  Sept., 
1625,  into  the 
CoU^e  of  St.  Isi- 
dore which  had 
f'  ust  been  founded 
or  the  education 
of  Irish  Francis- 
cans. After  re- 
ceiving his  de- 
grees he  was  ap- 
pointed to  teach 
Ehilosophy  and, 
iter,  theology  in 
St.  ludore's.  He 
lectured  after- 
wards at  Lyons 
and  Paris,  where 
he  WBB  held  in 
great  repute  for 
his  learning.  In 
1643    he  published  in  Rome   his  "Curaus  philoso- 

Ehiie".  Some  of  his  opinions  were  opposed  by 
lastrius,  and  Ponce  replied  in  "Appendix  apolo- 
Keticus"  (Rome,  1645),  in  which  he  says  that  although 
ne  accepts  all  the  conclusions  of  Duns  Scotus,  he  does 
not  feel  called  upon  to  adopt  all  Scotus's  proofs. 
Mastrius  acknowledged  the  force  of  Ponce's  reasoning 
and  admitted  that  he  had  shed  light  on  many  philo- 
sophical problems.  In  1652,  Ponce  published  "In- 
teger cutBus  theologiffi"  (Paris).  These  two  works 
explain  with  great  clearness  and  precision  the  teaching 
of  the  Scotistic  eshool.  In  1661,  he  published  at 
Paris  his  great  workj  "Commentarii  theologici  in 
quatuor  libroB  sententiarum",  called  by  Hurler  opu* 
rari»nmum.  Ponce  also  assisted  Luke  Wadding  in 
editing  the  works  of  Scotus,  Wadding  sa^s  that  he 
was  endowed  with  a  powerful  and  subtle  mtellect,  a 
great  facility  of  communicating  knowledge,  a  graceful 
s^Ie,  and  that  though  immersed  in  the  severer  studies 
of  philoBophyi  and  theology  he  was  an  ardent  student 
of  the  cfaBsicB.  Ponce  succeeded  Father  Martin 
Walsh  in  the  government  of  the  Ludovisian  College 
at  Rome  for  the  education  of  Irish  secular  priests;  and 
for  some  time  be  filled  the  position  of  superior  of  St. 


PONCE 


228 


PONDICHERRT 


Isidore's.  He  had  a  passionate  love  of  his  country 
and  was  an  active  asent  in  Rome  of  the  Irish  Confed- 
erate Catholics.  When  dissensions  arose  among  the 
Confederates,  and  when  Richard  Bellings,  secretarv 
to  the  Supreme  Council,  published  his  "Vindiciae 
(Paris,  1652),  attacking  the  Irish  Catholics  who  re- 
mained faithful  to  the  nuncio,  Father  Ponce  promptly 
answered  with  his  "Vindiciae  Eversae"  (Pans,  1652). 
He  had  already  warned  the  (Confederates  not  to  trust 
the  Royalists.  In  a  letter  (2nd  July,  1644)  to  the 
agent  of  the  Catholics,  Hugo  de  Burgo,  he  sa^s:  ''the 
English  report  that  the  king  will  not  give  satisfaction 
to  our  commissioners  (from  the  CJonfederates)  though 
he  keepe  them  in  expectation  and  to  delaie  them  for 
his  own  interest".  His  works  besides  those  men- 
tioned are  ''Judicium  doctrinse  SS.  Augustini  et 
Thomae",  Paris,  1657;  "Scotus  Hibemiae  restitutus" 
[in  answer  to  Father  Angelus  a  S.  Francisco  (Mason), 
who  claimed  Scutus  as  an  Englishman];  "Deplorabilis 
populi  Hibcmici  pro  religionc,  rcge  et  libertate status" 
(Paris,  1651). 

Waddingub-Sbabalea,  Seriptareji  Ordtnui  (Rome,  1806); 
Joannes  a  8.  Antonio,  Bihliotheea  univtraa  Franciaeana  (Madrid, 
1732);  Ware's  Works,  ed.  Harris  (Dublin,  1764);  Smith.  The 
A  HcietU  and  Present  Stale  of  the  County  and  City  of  Cork  (Cork, 
1815);  Brenan,  The  Erclesiastical  History  of  Ireland  (Dublin, 
1864) ;  HuRTER,  Nomenelator;  Contemporary  History  of  Affairs  in 
Ireland^  etc.,  ed.  Gilbert  (Dublin,  1880) ;  History  ofihe  Irish  Con- 
federation and  War  in  Ireland,  ed.  Gilbert  (Dublin,  1891) ;  Hol- 
iapfel,  Geechichte  det  Franeiskanerordens  (Freiburg.  1908);  Pa- 
TREM,  Tableau  synoj^ique  de  Vhistoire  de  VOrdre  Siraphique  (Paris, 


1879) ;  Alubonb,  Dictionary  of  Authors  (PhiHtdejphia) ;    M8S. 

libranr  of  Fi 
tb^  Irish  College  of  S.  Isidore,  Rome. 


preserved  in  the  librai 


Yanciflcan  Convent,  Dublin,  and  in 


Greoort  Cleart. 


Ponce  do  Lo6n,  Juan,  explorer,  b.  at  San  Servas 
in  the  province  of  Campos,  1460;  d.  in  (Duba,  1521. 
He  was  descended  from  an  ancient  and  noble  family; 
the  surname  of  Le6n  was  acquired  through  the  mar- 
riage of  one  of  the  Ponces  to  Dofia  Aldonza  de  Le6n, 
a  daughter  of  Alfonso  IX.  As  a  lad  Ponce  de  Le6n 
served  as  page  to  Pedro  Nufiez  de  Guzmdn.  later  the 
tutor  of  the  brother  of  Charles  V,  the  Inlante  Don 
Fernando.  In  1493,  Ponce  sailed  to  Hispaniola  (San 
Domingo)  with  Columbus  on  his  second  vo>age,  an 
expedition  which  included  many  aristocratic  young 
men,  and  adventurous  noblemen  who  had  been  left 
without  occupation  after  the  fall  of  Granada.  When 
Nicole  Ovando  came  to  Hispaniola  in  1502  as  gov- 
ernor, he  found  the  natives  in  a  state  of  revolt,  and 
in  the  war  which  followed.  Ponce  rendered  such  valu- 
able services  that  he  was  appointed  Ovando's  lieu- 
tenant with  headquarters  in  a  town  in  the  eastern 
part  of  the  island.  While  here,  he  heard  from  the 
Indians  that  there  was  much  wealth  in  the  neigh- 
bouring Island  of  Boriquien  (Porto  Rico),  and  he 
asked  and  obtained  permission  to  \dsit  it  in  IdDS, 
where  he  discovered  many  rich  treasures;  for  his 
work  in  this  expedition  he  was  appointed  Adelantado 
or  Governor  of  Boriquien.  Having  reduced  the 
natives,  he  was  soon  afterward  removed  from  office, 
but  not  until  he  had  amassed  a  considerable  fortune. 
At  this  time  stories  of  Eastern  Asia  were  prevalent 
which  told  of  a  famous  spring  the  waters  of  which 
had  the  marvellous  virtue  of  restoring  to  youth  and 
vigour  those  who  drank  them.  Probably  the  Span- 
iards heard  from  the  Indians  tah"^  that  reminded 
them  of  this  Fon^  JweniuiiSy  and  they  got  the  idea 
that  this  fountain  was  situated  on  an  island  called 
Bimini  which  lay  to  the  north  of  Hispaniola. 

Ponce  obtained  from  Charles  V,  23  February,  1512, 
a  patent  authorizing  him  to  discover  and  people  the 
Island  of  Bimini,  giving  him  jurisdiction  over  the 
island  for  life,  and  bestowing  upon  him  the  title  of 
Adelantado,  On  3  March,  1513,  Ponce  set  out  from 
San  German  (Porto  Rico)  with  three  ships,  fitted 
out  at  his  own  expense.  Setting  hb  course  in  a 
northwesterly  direction,  eleven  days  later  he  reached 
Guanahani,  where  Columbus  first  saw  land.    Continu- 


ing his  way,  on  Easter  Sunday  (Pascua  dc  Flares) ^ 
27  March  J  he  came  within  sight  of  the  coast  w^hich  he 
named  Florida  in  honour  of  the  day  and  on  account 
of  the  luxuriant  vegetation.  On  2  April  he  landed 
at  a  spot  a  little  to  the  north  of  the  present  site  of  St. 
Augustine  and  formally  took  possession  in  the  name 
of  the  Crown.  He  now  turned  back,  following  the 
coast  to  its  southern  extremity  and  up  the  west 
coast  to  latitude  27^  30',  and  then  returned  to  Porto 
Rico.  During  this  trip  he  had  several  encounters 
with  the  natives,  who  showed  great  courage  and  deter- 
mination in  their  attacks,  which  probably  accounts 
for  the  fact  that  Ponce  did  not  attempt  to  found  a 
settlement  or  penetrate  into  the  interior  in  search  of 
the  treasure  which  was  believed  to  be  hidden  there. 
Although  his  first  voyage  had  been  without  result 
as  far  as  the  acquisition  of  gold  and  slaves,  and  the 
discovery  of  the  fountain  of  youth  "  were  concerned, 
Ponce  aetermined  to  secure  possession  of  his  new 
discovery.  Through  his  friend,  Pedro  Nufiez  de 
Guzmdn,  he  secured  a  second  grant  dated  27  Septem- 
ber, 1514,  which  gave  him  power  to  settle  the  Island 
of  Bimini  and  the  Island  of  Florida,  for  such  he 
thought  Florida  to  be.  In  1521  he  set  out  with  two 
ships  and  landing  upon  the  Florida  coast,  just  where, 
it  18  not  known,  he  was  furiously  attacked  by  the 
natives  while  he  was  building  houses  for  his  settlers. 
Finally  driven  to  ro-cmbark,  he  set  sail  for  Cuba, 
where  he  died  of  the  wound  which  he  had  received. 

Herrara,  Dieada  Primera  (Madrid,  1726);  Oviedo,  Historia 
General  y  Natural  de  las  Indiaa  (Madrid,  1851) ;  Shea,  The 
Catholic  Church  in  Colonial  Days  (New  York,  1886);  Idem, 
AncierU  Florida  in  Narr.  and  Crit.  Hist.  Am.  (New  York.  1889) ; 
Harribsb,  Discovery  of  North  America  (London,  1892);  Fise, 
Discovery  of  America  (New  York,.  1892);  Lowbrt,  Spanish 
SetUemenU  in  the  U.  S.  (New  York.  1901). 

Ventura  Fubntbs. 

Poneet,  Joseph  Anthony  de  la  Rivi&re,  mission- 
ary, b.  at  Paris,  7  May,  1610;  d.  at  Martinique,  18 
June,  1675.  He  entered  the  Jesuit  novitiate  in  Paris 
at  nineteen,  was  a  brilliant  student  in  rhetoric  and 
philosophy,  pursued  his  studies  at  Clermont,  Roitie, 
and  Rouen,  and  taught  at  Orleans  (1631-4).  In  1638 
he  met  Madame  de  la  Pettrie  and  accompanied  her  and 
Marie  de  Tlncamation  to  Canada  in  the  following 
year.  He  was  sent  immediately  to  the  Huron  mission 
and  had  no  further  relations  with  Marie  de  Tlncama- 
tion.  In  1645  he  founded  an  Algonquin  mission  on 
the  Island  of  St.  Mary.  After  returning  to  Quebec  he 
was  seized  by  the  Iroquois:  he  was  being  tortured 
when  a  rescue  party  arrived  in  time  to  save  his  life. 
His  companion,  Mathurin  Franchelot,  was  burned  at 
the  stake.  In  1657,  as  he  became  involved  in  eccle- 
siastical disputes,  he  was  sent  back  to  France.  He 
held  the  position  of  French  penitentiary  at  Lorelo 
and  later  was  sent  to  the  Island  of  Martinique,  where 
he  died. 

Jetuil  Relations,  ed.  Thwaitbs  (73  vols.,  Cleveland.  1896- 
1901);  Campbell,  Pioneef  Priests  of  North  America,  I  (New 
York.  1909).  61-74. 

J.  Zevely. 

Pondieherry,  Archdiocese  of  (Pondicheriana 
OR  Pudicheriana),  in  India,  is  bounded  on  the  east  by 
the  Bay  of  Bengal,  divided  on  the  north  from  the  Dio- 
ceses of  Madras  and  San  Thom6  (Mylap6rc)  by  the 
River  Palar,  on  the  west  from  the  Diocese  of  Mysore 
by  the  River  Chunar  and  the  Mysore  civil  boundaries, 
and  from  the  Diocese  of  Coimbatore  by  the  River 
Cauvery;  on  the  south  by  the  River  Vellar  from  the 
Diocese  of  Kumbakonam.  Besides  Pondieherry  itselt , 
and  the  portion  of  British  India  contiguous  to  it,  the 
archdiocese  includes  all  the  smaller  outlying  French 
possessions,  namely  Karikal  and  Yanaon  on  the  east 
coast,  Mahe  on  the  west  coast,  and  Chanderhagore  in 
Bengal.  The  total  Catholic  population  in  French 
territory  is  25,859,  the  rest,  out  of  a  total  of  143,125, 
belonging  to  the  North  and  South  Arcot,  Chingleput 
and  Sfidem  districts,  all  in  British  confines.   There  are 


PONTECOBVO 


229 


PONTIAN 


78  churches  and  210  chapelfi,  served  by  102  priests  (78 
European  and  24  native).  The  diocese  ia  under  the 
charge  of  the  Society  of  Foreign  Missions,  Paris.  The 
archbishop's  residence,  cathedral  and  diocesan  semi- 
naries are  at  Pondicherry.  The  Fathers  are  assisted 
by  four  congregations  of  women,  viz.,  of  the  Carmelite 
Order,  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Mary,  of  St.  Joseph,  and 
of  St.  Aloysius  Gonzaga. 

The  districts  covered  by  the  Pondicherry  Archdio- 
cese were  originally  comprised  within  the  padroado 
jurisdiction  of  San  Thom6,  but  mission-work  did  not 
extend  beyond  the  north-west  comer  near  San  Thom4, 
and  a  small  portion  in  the  south  which  lay  within  the 
limits  of  the  Madura  mission.  Pondicherry  itself  was 
only  a  village  till  some  shipwrecked  Frenchmen  under 
Francis  Martin  settled  there  in  1674  and  afterwards 
purchased  it  from  the  Raja  of  Vijayapur.  About  this 
time  some  French  Capuchins  arrived  to  take  care  of 
Uie  Europeans  in  the  new  settlement,  and  a  few  years 
later  (in  1690)  some  French  Jesuits  followed  and  began 
to  work  among  the  natives — ^both  under  Propaganda 
jurisdiction.  From  Pondicherrv  the  Jesuits  graaually 
proceeded  inland  and  founded  what  was  called  the 
Camatic  mission  about  1700.  On  the  suppression  of 
the  Jesuits  in  1773  the  whole  field  was  entrusted  to  the 
Paris  Seminary  for  Foreign  Missions,  including  the 
Madura  districts,  where  the  disbanded  Jesuits  con- 
tinued to  work  under  the  new  regime  till  they  grad- 
ually died  out.  In  1836  (Brief  of  Gregory  XVI,  8 
July)  the  mission  of  Pondicherry  was  made  into  the 
Vicariate  Apostolic  of  che  Coromandel  coast.  At  the 
same  time  the  Jesuits  (who  had  been  restored  in  1814) 
were  placed  once  more  in  charge  of  the  Madura  mis- 
sion, excepting  the  portion  north  of  the  Cau very  River, 
which  was  retains  by  Pondicherry.  In  1850  the 
Vicariate  of  the  Coromandel  coast  was  divided  and 
two  new  vicariates  erected — those  of  Mysore  and 
Coimbatore.  On  the  establishment  of  the  hierarchy 
in  1886,  Pondicherry  was  elevated  into  an  archbishop- 
ric with  Mysore  and  Coimbatore  as  suffragan  bishop- 
rics as  well  as  the  Diocese  of  Malacca  outside  India. 
Finally  in  1899  the  southern  portion  of  the  archdiocese 
was  separated  £Lnd  made  into  the  (suffragan)  Diocese 
of  Kumbakonam — the  whole  province  remaining  un- 
der the  same  missionary  Society. 

Among  its  prelates  were:  Pierre  Brigot,  1776-91 
(superior  with  episcopal  orders);  Nicholas  Cham- 
penois,  1791-1810;  Louis  Charles  Auguste  Herbert, 
1811-36;  Clement  Bonnand,  1836-61  (first  vicar 
Apostolic);  Joseph  Isidore  Godelle,  1861-67:  Francis 
Jean  Laouenan,  1868-92  (became  first  archbishop  in 
1886);  Joseph  Adolphus  Gandy,  1892-1909;  EliaB 
Jean  Joseph  Morel,  present  archbishop  from  1909. 
Its  educational  institutions  consist  of  the  Theological 
Seminary  at  Pondicherry  with  40  students  and  Fetii 
Seminaire  with  1102  pupils;  St.  Joseph's  High  School, 
Cuddalore,  founded  186iB,  with  819  students,  including 
250  boarders,  with  branch  school  at  Tirupapulijrur 
(founded  1883),  with  289  pupils;  at  Tindavanam,  St. 
Joseph's  Industrial  School,  under  the  Brothers  of  St. 
Gabriel,  with  50  pupils.  Eighty  other  schools,  mostly 
elementary,  in  various  parts.  Congregation  of  Sisters 
of  St.  Joseph  (80  European  and  48  native  sisters)  have 
for  girls,  boarding-  and  day-schools,  orphanages,  and 
asylums  at  Pondicherry,  Karikal,  Mahe,  Chander- 
nagore,  Yercaud,  Tindivanum,  Ami,  Cheyur,  and 
AUadhy.  Native  Carmelite  nuns  have  convents  at 
Pondicherry  and  Karikal  with  45  sisters.  Native 
nuns  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Mary,  established  1844 
under  the  rules  of  the  Third  Order  of  St.  Francis  of 
Assisi,  with  23  professed  nuns,  have  schools  at  Pondi- 
cherry, Cuddalore,  Karikal,  Salem,  and  eleven  other 
places,  with  total  of  1626pupils.  The  Native  Nuns  of 
St.  Louis  or  Aloysius  Gonzaga,  40  sisters,  have  a 
school  and  orphanage  at  Pondicherry  and  orphan- 
age at  Vellore.  Its  charitable  institutions  include  alto- 
gether 20  orphanages  for  boys  and  girls  with  534 


orphans,  besides  100  orphans  in  care  of  Christian 
families;  4  asylums  for  Eurasians,  etc.  2  hospitals 
(Pondicherry  aiid  Karikal),  besides  homes  for  the 
aged. 

Madras  CathoUc  DireeUtry  (1010) ;  Launat,  HitMre  OhUraU  d« 
la  SociUl  de»  Miaaiont  Etrangirea;  Idem,  Atlaa  de»  MUaions, 

Ernest  R.  Hull. 

Ponteconro.  See  Aquino,  Sora  and  Pontb- 
coRvo,  Diocese  of. 

Pontafract  Priory,  Yorkshire,  England,  a  Clu- 
niac  monastery  dedicated  to  St.  John  the  Evangelist, 
founded  about  1090  by  Robert  de  hacyr,  as  a  depend- 
ency of  the  Abbey  of  la  Charit6-sur-Loire,  which  sup- 
plied the  first  monks.  Two  charters  of  the  founder  are 
given  in  Dugdale.  In  a  charter  of  Henry  de  Lacy,  son 
of  Robert,  the  church  is  spoken  of  as  dedicated  to  St. 
Mary  and  St.*  John.  These  donations  were  finally  con- 
firmed to  the  monastery  by  a  Bull  of  Pope  Celestine 
(whether  II  or  III  is  uncertain),  which  also  conferred 
certain  ecclesiastical  privileges  on  the  priory.  In  the 
Visitation  Records  it  had  sixteen  monks  in  1262,  and 
twentynseven  in  1279.  At  the  latter  date  a  prior  of  ex- 
ceptional ability  was  in  charge  of  the  house,  and  he  is 
commended  for  his  zeal  during  the  twelve  years  of  his 
rule,  which  had  resulted  in  a  reduction  of  the  monas- 
tery's debts  from  3200  marks  to  350.  A  later,  un- 
dated, visitation  return  gives  the  average  number  of 
monks  at  twenty.  Ducket t  prints  a  letter  from  Ste- 
phen, Prior  of  Pontefract  in  1323,  to  Pierre,  Abbot  of 
Cluny,  explaining  that  he  had  been  prevented  from 
making  a  visitation  of  the  English  Uluniac  houses, 
owing  to  the  presence  of  the  king  and  court  at  Ponte- 
fract, which  prevented  his  leaving  home.  In  the  pre- 
vious year  (1322)  Thomas,  Earl  of  Lancaster,  nad 
been  beheaded  at  Pontefract,  and  his  body  buned  in 
the  priory  church  "on  the  right  hand  of  the  high  al- 
tar'\  «  Rumour  declared  that  miracles  had  been 
wrought  at  the  tomb.  This  attempt  to  regard  the  earl 
as  a  martyr  aroused  the  anger  o^  Edward  II,  who  im- 

g>unded  the  offerings  (Rymer,  Foedera^  II,  ii,  726). 
owever,  not  long  after,  a  chantry  dedicated  to  St. 
Thomas  was  built  on  the  site  of  the  execution  and,  in 
1343,  license  was  given  to  the  prior  and  Convent  of 
Pontefract  "to  allow  Masses  and  other  Divine  Ser- 
vices" to  be  celebrated  there. 

In  the  vcUor  ecdesiasticus  of  26  Henry  VIII,  the 
yearly  revenue  of  the  priory  is  entered  as  £472 
16s.  lO^d.  gross,  and  £337  14s.  S^d.  clear  value. 
The  last  prior,  James  Thwavts,  with  seven  brethren 
and  one  novice  surrendered  the  monastery  to  the  king, 
23  November,  1540,  the  prior  being  assigned  a  pen* 
sion  of  fifty  pounds  per  annum.  The  Church  and 
buildings  have  been  completely  destroyed^  but  the 
site  is  still  indicated  by  the  name  of  Monk-hill. 

DuoDALS,  Monasticon  Anglieanumt  V  (London,  1846),  118-31; 
DucKKTT^  Charters  and  Records  ,  .  .  of  the  Ahbey  of  Cluni  (pri* 
vately  pnnted,  1888),  passim,  esp.  II,  150-54;  Iosm,  Record  En- 
dences  .  .  .  o/<A6i46&0yo/C2unft  (privately  printed,  1886);  Idem, 
VisUations  of  English  Clunieie  Foundations  (London,  1890) » 
BooTHROTD,  History  of  Pontefract  (Pontefract,  1807);  Fox,  Wia- 
tory  of  Pontefract  (Pontefract.  1827). 

G.  Roger  Hudlsston. 

Pontian,  Saint,  pope,  dates  of  birth  and  death  un- 
known. The  "Liber  Pontificalis''  (ed.  Duchesne,  I, 
145)  gives  Rome  as  his  native  citv  and  calls  his  father 
Cidpumius.  With  him  begins  the  brief  chronicle  of 
the  Roman  bishops  of  the  third  centurv,  of  which  the 
author  of  the  Liberian  Catalogue  of  the  popes  made 
use  in  the  fourth  century  and  which  gives  more 
exact  data  for  the  lives  of  the  popes.  According  to 
this  account  Pontian  was  made  pope  21  July,  230, 
and  reigned  until  235.  The  schism  of  Hippolytus  con- 
tinued during  his  episcopate;  towards  the  end  of  his 
pontificate  there  was  a  reconciliation  between  the 
schismatic  party  and  its  leader  with  the  Roman 
bishop.  After  the  condemnation  of  Origen  at  Alexan- 
dria (231-2),  a  synod  was  held  at  Rome,  according 


% 


P0NTIAHU8 


23U 


PONTIFICAL 


to  Jerome  (Epist.  XXXII^  iv)  and  Rufinus  (Apol. 
contra  Hieron.,  II,  xx),  which  concurred  in  the  deci- 
sionB  of  the  Alexandrian  83mod  against  Origen;  with- 
out doubt  this  s3niod  was  held  by  Pontian  (Hefele, 
Konziliengeschichte,  2nd  ed.,  I,  106  sq.).  In  235  in 
the  reign  of  Maximinus  the  Thracian  began  a  perse- 
cution directed  chiefly  agiunst  the  heads  of  the 
Church.  One  of  its  fiirst  victims  was  Pontian,  who 
with  Hippolytus  was  banished  to  the  unhealthy  island 
of  Sardmia.  To  make  the  election  of  a  new  pope 
possible,  Pontian  resigned  28  Sept..  235,  the  Liberian 
Catalogue  says  ''discinctus  est  .  Consequently 
Anteros  was  elected  in  his  stead.  Shortly  before  this 
or  soon  afterwards  Hippolytus,  who  had  been  ban- 
ished with  Pontian,  became  reconciled  to  the  Roman 
Church,  and  with  this  the  schism  he  had  caused  came 
to  an  end.  How  much  longer  Pontian  endured  the 
sufferings  of  exile  and  harsh  treatment  in  the  Sardin- 
ian mines  is  unknown.  According  to  old  and  no 
lonser  existing  Acts  of  martyrs,  used  by  the  author 
of  the  "Liber  Pontificalis",  he  died  in  conseouence  of 
the  privations  and  inhuman  treatment  he  haa  to  bear. 
Pope  Fabian  (236-50)  had  the  remains  of  Pontian 
and  Hippolytus  brought  to  Rome  at  a  later  date  and 
Pontian  was  buried  on  13  August  in  the  papal  ciypt 
of  the  Catacomb  of  Callistus.  In  1909  the  original 
epitaph  was  found  in  the  crypt  of  St.  Cecilia,  near  the 
papal  crypt.  The  epitaph,  agreeing  with  the  other 
known  epitaphs  of  the  papal  crypt,  resHcia :  nONTIANOC. 
BniCK.  MAPTTP  (Pontianus,  Bishop,  Martyr).  The 
word  fidpTvp  was  added  later  and  is  written  in  ligature 
[cf.  Wilpert.  "Die  Papstgr&ber  unddie  Cficiliengruft 
in  der  Katakombe  des  hi.  Kalixtus''  (FYeiburg,  1909), 
1  sq.,  17  so.,  Plate  II  ].  He  is  placed  under  13  Aug.  in 
the  list  of  the  "  Depositiones  martyrum''  in  the  chron- 
ographia  of  354.  The  Roman  Martyrology  gives  his 
feast  on  19  Nov. 

Liber  PojitifiealU,  ed.  Duchbsnb,  I,  Introd.,  xciv  sq.,  145  sq.; 
Db  Rosai,  Roma  ioUerranea^  II,  73  sqq. 

J.   P.   KiRSCH. 

Pontianiu,  Catacomb  of.  See  Cemetery, 
sub-title.  Early   Roman    Christian  Cemeteries. 

Pontifical  Colleges. — In  earlier  times  there  existed 
in  Europe  outside  of  the  city  of  Rome  a  large  num- 
ber of  colleges,  seminaries,  and  houses  of  the  regu- 
lar orders  which,  in  one  form  or  other,  were  placed 
under  the  Holy  See  or  under  the  Sacred  Con- 
gregation de  propaganda  fide.  Of  these  only  a  few 
remain.  A  list  of  these  institutions  is  given,  with 
emphasis  on  the  fact  that  their  object  was  to  maintain 
the  Faith  in  England,  Ireland,  and  Scotland: 
The  English  College  of  St.  Albans  at  Valladolid 
(1589);  the  English  College,  Lisbon  (1622);  the 
Scotch  College,  Valladolid  (1627);  the  Irish  College, 
Paris  (1592):  the  English  colleges  at  Douai  (1568- 
1795),  Madrid-Seville  (1592-1767),  San  Lucar 
(1517)  '  Saint^mer  (1594-1795),  Esguerchin  (1750- 
93),  Paris  (1611);  the  Benedictine  institutions 
at  Douai  (1605-1791).  Saint-Malo  (1611-61), 
Paris  (1615-1793).  Lambsprug  (1643-1791);  the 
house  of  the  Discalced  Carmelites  at  Tongre8*(1770- 
93);  the  convent  of  the  Carthusians  at  Nieuport 
(1559  at  Bruges,  1626-1783  at  Nieuport);  the 
Dominican  monasteries  at  Bomheim  (1658-1794) 
and  at  Lou  vain  (1680-1794);  the  monastery  of  the 
Franciscan  Recollets  at  Douai  (1614-1793);  the 
Jesuit  houses  at  Saint-Omer  (1583-1773),  Watten 
(1570,  or  perhaps  1600,  to  1773),  Li^ge  (1616-1773), 
Ghent  (1622-1773).  Two  of  the  Jesuit  institutions, 
Saint-Omer  and  Li^ge,  existed  as  secular  colleges  up 
to  1793.  Most  of  the  other  monastic  foundations 
emigrated  later  to  England,  where  several  still 
exist. 

At  the  present  time  the  matter  is  essentially  dif- 
ferent. In  speaking  of  pontifical  colleges  the  dis- 
tinction must  be  made  between  those  which  have 


explicitly  received  the  honorary  title  Pontifical  and 
those  which  can  be  included  in  such  only  in  a  general 
sense,  because  they  are  directly  dependent  upon  a 
central  authority  at  Rome.  It  is  a  .matter  of  in- 
difference whether  the  institutions  are  called  semina- 
ries or  colleges,  as  no  material  difference  exists.  There 
are  only  three  institutions  with  the  title  pontifical: 

(1)  The    Pontifical    Seminary   of   Kandy,    Ceylon; 

(2)  The  Pontifical  Seminary  of  Scutari  (Collegium 
Albaniense);  (3)  The  Pontii&cal  College  Josephinum 
at  Columbus,  Ohio,  U.  S.  A.  The  remaining  sixteen 
colleges  at  present  under  consideration  do  not  possess 
this  designation,  which  is  a  merely  honorary  title. 
The  clergy  are  trained  for  the  regular  cure  of  souls 
at:  the  American  colleges  at  Columbus  (Ohio)  and 
Lou  vain;  the  English,  Irish,  and  Scotch  institu- 
tions at  Lisbon,  Valladolid,  and  Paris;  the  seminary 
at  Athens;  and  the  college  at  Scutari;  the  re- 
maining eleven  institutions  are  employed  in  training 
missionaries.  There  are  in  Europe  the  Leonine 
Seminary  of  Athens;  the  Albanian  College  of  Scutari; 
the  English  colleges  at  Valladolid  and  Lisbon;  the 
Scotch  College,  Valladolid:  the  Irish  College,  Paris; 
the  Seminary  for  Foreign  Missions.  Paris;  the  semi- 
nary at  Lyons;  All  Hallows  College,  Dublin;  St. 
Joseph's  Seminary,  Mill  Hill,  London;  St.  Joseph's 
Rosendaal,  Holland:  the  American  College  at 
Louvain;  St.  Joseph's  at  Brixen,  in  the  Tyrol;  the 
missionanr  institute  at  Verona;  the  Seminary  for 
Foreign  Missions  at  Milan;  and  the  Brignole-Sale 
College  at  Genoa.  In  America  there  is  the  Jose- 
phinum College  at  Columbus,  Ohio,  and  in  Asia  the 
seminary  at  Kandy,  Ceylon,  and  the  General  College 
at  Pulo-Pinang.  Formerly  all  these  institutions 
were  imder  the  supreme  direction  of  the  Propaganda 
even  when,  by  an  agreement  or  by  the  terms  of 
foundation,  the  appointment  of  the  rectors  of  some 
institutions  belonged  to  some  other  authority. 
Since  the  publication  of  the  Constitution  "Sapienti 
consilio"  (  29  June,  1908),  which  considerably  limited 
the  powers  of  the  Propaganda,  it  still  has  under  its 
chaise,  according  to  the  letter  of  the  under-secre- 
tary  of  the  Propaganda  of  11  January,  1911,  ipso 
jure  the  institutions  at  Kandy,  Athens,  Genoa,  and 
Pulo-Pinang;  later  decisions  of  the  Consistorial 
Congregation  have  added  to  these  the  seminary  for 
foreign  missions  at  Paris,  as  well  as  the  seminaries  at 
Milan  and  Lyons.  All  other  houses,  seminaries,  and 
colleges  are,  therefore,  placed  under  the  regular 
jurisdiction  either  of  the  bishops  of  the  country,  or  of 
a  committee  of  these  bishops,  or  of  the  diplomatic 
representative  of  the  Holy  See  in  the  respective 
country,  when  the  cardinal  secretary  of  state  has  not 
reserved  to  himself  the  immediate  supervision  of 
certain  institutions.  Some  of  the  institutions  men- 
tioned no  longer  belong,  strictly  speaking,  in  the 
present  category;  but  it  seems  advisable  not  to 
exclude  them,  bEecause  the  transfer  is  of  recent  date 
and  they  are  generally  regarded  as  p&paX  institutions 
in  a  broader  sense.  Their  former  dependence  upon 
the  Propaganda  is  best  shown  by  the  detailed  men- 
tion of  them  in  the  last  handbook  of  this  congrega- 
tion, ''Missiones  Catholics  cura  S.  Congregationis 
de  Propaganda  Fide  descriptse  anno  1907"  (Rome, 
1907),  pp.  831-49.  This  is  also  explicitly  stated  in 
the  letter  referred  to  above.  Ten  of  these  institu- 
tions are  in  charge  of  secular  priests.  The  genend 
seminary  at  Pulo-Pinang  is  unaer  the  care  of  a  con- 
gregation of  secular  priests  located  at  Paris,  the  Paris 
Society  for  Foreign  Missions.  The  Congregation 
of  the  Mission  (Lazarists)  conduct  the  Irish  Q>llege 
at  Paris,  All  Hallows  at  Dublin,  and  the  Brignole- 
Sale  College  at  Genoa;  the  Society  of  St.  Joseph  haa 
char^  of  the  institutions  at  Mill  Hill.  Rozendaal. 
and  Brixen;  the  Pontifical  Seminary  ot  Kandy  ana 
the  Pontifical  College  of  Scutari  were  transferred 
to  the  Society  of  Jesus;   the  Veronese  Institute  iB 


PONTIFICALE                           231  PONTIFICALIA 

under  the  care  of  the  Sons  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  with  great  success  in  Africa.    The   Brignole-Sale 

JesuB,  for  African  Missions.  College,  founded  in  1855  by  the  Marquis  Antonio 

Pontifical  College  Josephinum  at  Columbus,  Ohio,  Brignole-Sale  and  his  wife  Arthemisia,  was  confirmed 

founded  at  Ponunery  (1875)  by  Joseph  Jessins  as  an  by   Pius   IX.    It   has   eight   free   scholarships   for 

or^an  asyliun,   was  transferred   to  Columbus  in  students  from  the  dioceses  of  Liguria,  and  is  con- 

1877.    In  1888  a  high-school,  in  which  the  sons  of  ducted  by  the  Lazarist  Fathers  for  the  training  of 

poor  parents  of  German  descent  could  be  prepared  missionaries.    The  Seminary  of  Paris,  founded  in 

for  philosophical  and  theological  studies,  was  added.  1663,  for  training  men  for  the  foreign  mission  field, 

The  philosophical  faculty  was  establisned  the  fol-  is  carried  on^by  an  organization  of  secular  priests, 

lowing  year,  and  later  the  theological  faculty.    In  It  is  the  largest  institution  of  this  kind,  and  at  the 

1892  Jessing  transferred  his  college  to  the  Holy  present  time  (1011)  nearly  1500  of  its  graduates  are 

See,  and  it  became  a  pontifical  institution  on  12  missionaries.    The  General  College  at  Pulo-Pinang  for 

December,  18d2.    The  college  has  developed  rapidly  training  a  native  clergy  for  Eastern  Asia  was  founded 

and  its  fiiiancial  basis  is  substantial  and  steadily  in-  by  the  seminary  at  Paris.    The  Veronese  Institute 

creasing.    The   priests   educated   there   are   under  at  Verona  founded  in  1867  for  missons  among  the 

obligation  to  engage  in  diocesan  parish  work  in  the  negroes  is  at  present,  after  many  misfortunes  and 

United  States.    The  entire  training  of  the  students  disappointments,  in  a  fairly  flourishing  condition, 

is  at  the  expense  of  the  institution  and  is  bilingucd,  For  the  sake  of  completeness  there  might  be  added  to 

German  and  English.    The  number  of  scholarsliips  this  list  the  seminary  of  the  Fathers  of  the  Immaculate 

is  now  one  hundred  and  eighteen,  but  it  is  not  com-  Heart  of  Mary  at  Scheut  near  Brussels,  the  Maison- 

plete.    By  a  decree  of  the  Congregation  of  the  Con-  Carr6e  of  the  White  Fathers,  in  Algiers,  and  the  in- 

sistory  (29  Jul^,  1909),  the  institution  was  to  remain  stitutions  of  the   Missionaries  of  Steyl  at  Steyl, 

under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Propaganda  only  for  Heiligkreuz,  St.  Wendel,  St.  Gabriel  (and  Rome), 

matters  relating  to  property,  etc.  otherwise  being  These,  however,  are  to  be  regarded  rather  as  monastic 

dependent  upon  the  Congregation  of  the  Consistory,  novitiates  than  as  seminaries.    The  seminaries  es- 

By  a  decree  of  the  same  congregation,  18  June,  1910,  tablished  in  earlier  times  at  Naples,  Marseilles,  and 

all  priests  ordained  in  .future  in  the  Josephinum  are  other  places  for  the  Asiatic  peoples  have  either  dis- 

to  be  assigned  to  the  various  dioceses  by  the  ApostoUo  appeared  or  the  foundations  have  been  <li verted  to 

Delegate  in  Washington,  fi.  C.    For  the  American  other  purposes. 

College  of  the  Immaculate  Conc^tion,  see  AmeRICAX  Of  the  large  biblio^phy  for  the  English,  Irish,  and  Scotch 

CoLLBGE,  The,  At  Louvain.    For  the  Irish  College  »°"i»*"i?<«V^  TV^^  cite  the  importimt  work  by  Potb.  NotieeM 

Z^n     •      '     T   -  -,r^t^rv        J.-_Vi    ^                 rnC  of  the  Engluh  CoUeoea  and  Convenis,  B$tabluhed  on  the  Continent^ 

at  Fans  see  Irish  COLLEOESON  the  CoNTINBNT.     The  after  theDUaolution  of  Rdigwue  Houeee  in  Bngland,  ed,  Husbn- 

English  College  at  Valladolid  (St.  Albans)  was  founded  bbtb  (Norwich,  1849),  issued  for  private  circulation  onlv.    For 

throughthec^perationof  thecelebratedJ^^^^  riaf're*^*rtS.''tSe  '^Sll^'Irc'J^;:^^^^^^^ 

FersonswithFhllipII.     1  ts  purpose  was  to  aid  m  saving  articles  in  works  of  a  general  character.     Cataloffue  omnium 

the  Catholic  Church  in  England.      Clement  VIII  con-  canolnorum  pertinentium  ad  mbdUoa  Regie  Anglia  in  Belgio  in 

firmed  the  foundation  by  a  Bull  of  25  April,  1592.  Bojanus, /nm>aj^  X/.  5a  corrwpcmdaf^^ 

T^   tfa^  au     -ci      1'  u       11  X   x if   J  'J        J  a      '11  I,  221-2,  gives  the  most  complete  details  concerning  names  and 

In  1767  the  till^h  COUe^  at  Madrid  and  Seville  personnel  of  the  English  colleges.     Ca»pbllo.  De  Curia  Romana 

were    united    with     this    institution.     The     English  jwOa  Reformation  em  a  Pio  X  eapientieeimo  indwiam,  I  (Rome. 

College  at  Lisbon  was  established  by  a  Portuguese  1911).24»-63,  where  aU  the  new  rules  are  discussed  at  length. 

nobleman  Pedro  do  Continho  before  1622  and  was  con-  P^^^  Makia  Baumgarten. 
firmed  on  22  September,  1622,  by  Gregory  XV,  and 

on  14  October,  1627,  by  Urban  VIII.  The  Scotch  Pontificale  (Pontificale  Romanum),  a  liturgical 
College  at  Valladolid  was  first  established  in  1627  at  book  which  contains  the  ntes  for  the  performance  of 
Madnd,  where  the  Scotch  founder,  WilUam  Semple,  episcopal  functions  (e.  g.  conferring  of  confirmation 
and  his  Spanish  wife  Maria  de  Ledesma  lived.  In  and  Holy  orders),  with  the  exception  of  Mass  and 
1767  the  property  of  the  college  fell  to  the  Irish  Col-  Divine  Office.  It  is  practically  an  episcopal  ntual, 
lege  at  Alcales  de  Henares,  but  in  1771  was  restored  to  containing  formularies  and  rubrics  wWch  existed  in 
the  Scotch  College,  which  got  a  new  lease  of  life  by  ^^e  old  Sacramentanes  and  "Ordines  Romam",  and 
its  transfer  to  Valladolid.  ^ere  gradually  collected  together  to  form  one  volume 
For  the  College  of  All  Hallows  at  Dublin,  see  All  for  ^^^  greater  convenience  of  the  officiating  bishop. 
Hallows  College.  St.  Joseph's  Seminary  at  Such  collections  were  known  under  the  names  of 
Mill  Hill,  London,  founded  by  Cardinal  Vaughan  in  ** Liber  Sacramentorum",  "Liber  Officialis",  "Liber 
1886,  belongs  to  the  Society  of  St.  Joseph;  it  pre-  Pontificalis",  "Ordinarium  Episcopale",  "Benedic- 
pares  missionaries  for  the  foreign  field.  Connected  tionale",  etc.  Among  these  medieval  manuscript  vol- 
with  it  are  the  two  institutions  at  Rozendaal  in  ^naes  perhaps  the  most  ancient  and  most  important 
Holland  and  at  Brixen  in  the  Tyrol.  The  Papal  ^ot  liturgical  study  is  the  Pontificale  of  Egbert,  Areh- 
Seminary  at  Kandy,  Ceylon,  a  general  seminary  for  bishop  of  York  (732-6),  which  in  many  respects  re- 
training native  Indian  priests,  was  founded  and  sembles  the  present  Pontifical.  The  first  printed  edi- 
endowed  by  Leo  XIII  in  1893,  and  is  under  the  im-  tion,  prepared  by  John  Burehard  and  Augustine 
mediate  supervision  of  the  delegate  Apostolic  for  Patrizi  Piccolomini,  papal  masters  of  ceremonies,  was 
Eastern  India.  The  Papal  Albanian  College  at  published  (1485)  in  the  pontificate  of  Innocent  VIII. 
Scutari  was  founded  in  1858  with  money  given  by  the  Clement  VIII  published  a  corrected  and  official  edi- 
Austrian  Government,  which  had  inherited  from  the  tio^  ^^  159Q.  In  his  constitution  "Ex  quo  in  Ecclesia 
Venetian  Republic  the  duty  of  protecting  the  Chris-  Dei"  he  declared  this  Pontifical  obligatoiy,  forbade 
tians  in  Albania.  Soon  after  its  erection  it  was  de-  t^e  use  of  any  other,  and  prohibited  any  modification 
Btroyed  by  the  Turks.  The  new  building  (ready  for  or  addition  to  it  without  papal  permission.  Urban 
use  in  1862)  served  also  for  training  ^rvian  and  VIII  and  Benedict  XIV  had  it  revised  and  made  some 
Macedonian  candidates  for  the  priesthood.  The  additions  to  it,  and  finally  Leo  XIII  caused  a  new 
Austrian  Government  has  endowed  twenty-four  typical  edition  to  be  published  in  1888.  (See  LrruR- 
scholarahips  and  the  Propaganda  ten.  The  Leonine  oical  Books.) 
Seminary  of  Athens  was  founded  by  Leo  XIII  on  ,^5lJjtJ:t?^.*'7^^f^^S^r'"  i?f^i'-  ^?S?>l:,*°i^P?'**^* 

fu\  XT            1-         irkTki     X      X*      r^       ^      r       xl      tx*  Commentary;  Zaccaria,  Bxbltotheea  Rxtualte  (Rome,  1781). 

20  November,  1901,  to  tram  Greeks  for  the  Latin  J    F.  Goggin 

Sriesthood.    The  Seminary  at  Milan  for  Foreign 

lissions  was  founded  in  1850.    The  Seminary  at  Pontiflcalia  (Pontificals),  the  collective  name 

Lyons  for  African   Missions,   founded  in   1856,   is  given  for  convenience  sake  to  those  insignia  of  the 

connected  with  four  Apostolic  schools;  it  has  laboured  episcopal  order  which  of  right  are  worn  by  bi^opa 


PONTIFICAL                            232  PONTIFICAL 

alone.    In  its  broader  sense  the  term  mav  be  taken  to  Mass  (ibid.,  268).  To  the  Prior  of  Winchester,  on  the 

include  ail  the  items  of  attire  proper  to  bishops,  even  other  hand,  only  'three  years  later,  the  same  pope, 

those  belonging  to  their  civil  or  choir  dress,  for  exam-  Innocent  IV,  granted  a  much  more  ample  concession 

pie  the  cappa  rruigna^  or  the  hat  with  its  green  cord  and  in  virtue  of  which  he  might  use  mitre,  ring,  tunic, 

lining.    But  more  strictly  and  accurately,  rubricians  dalmatic,  gloves,  and  sandals,  might  bless  chalices, 

limit  the  pontificals  to  those  ornaments  which  a  prel-  altar  cloths,  etc.,  might  confer  the  nrst  tonsure  as  well 

ate  wears  in  celebrating  pontifically .    The  pontincals  as  the  minor  orders  of  ostiarius  and  lector,  and  bestow 

common  to  all  are  enumerated  by  Pius  VII  m  his  con-  the  episcopal  benediction  at  High  Mass  and  at  table 

Btitution  ^'Decet  Romanos''  (4  July,  1823),  and  are  (ibid.,  395).    It  will  be  noticed  that  the  crosier  is  not 

eight  in  number:  buskins,  sandab,  gloves,  aalmatic,  here  included.    But  it  was  included  in  a  grant  to  the 

tunicle,  ring,  pectoral  cross,  and  mitre.   When  abbots.  Abbot  of  Selby  by  Alexander  IV  in  1256  (ibid.,  331). 

prothonotaries  apostolic,  and  in  some  cases  canons,  re-  In  many  of  these  indults  a  restriction  was  imposed 

ceive  by  indult  from  the  Holy  See  the  privilege  of  that  pontifical  ornaments  were  not  to  be  worn  in  the 

celebrating  cum  poniijwalibuSf  these  eight  ornaments  presence  of  the  bishop  of  the  diocese,  but  even  here 

are  meant.    The  use  of  them  is  ordinarfly  restricted —  distinctions  were  maae.     For  example  Urban  V,  in 

for  abbots  to  their  own  monastery  or  places  within  1365,  allowed  the  Prior  of  Worcester  to  wear  the  plain 

their  jurisdiction,  for  canons  to  their  own  church,  and  mitre  and  ring  in  presence  of  the  bishop,  and  in  his 

for  prothonotaries  to  those  places  for  which  the  ordi-  absence  to  wear  the  precious  mitre  and  ring  and  epis- 

nary  ^ves  his  consent.     Moreover,  while  bishops  and  copal  vestments,  and  to  give  his  solemn  benediction, 

cardinals  may  wear  most  of  these  things  in  all  solemn  (Bliss,  IV,  48.)    Not  unfrequently  it  was  specified 

ecclesiastical  functions,  those  who  enjoy  them  by  that  such  pontificals  might  be  worn  m  parliaments  and 

papal  indult  mav  only  exercise  this  privilege  in  the  councib  "whenever  any  prelates  below  bishops  wear 

celebration  of  Mass.    Several  other  restrictions  dis-  their  mitres '\    One  most  extraordinary  series  of  con- 

tinguish  the  pontifical  Mass  of  such  inferior  prelates  cessions,  to  which  attention  has  recently  been  called 

from  that  of  bishops  or  cardinals.    The  former  are  not  in  the  English  Historical  Review  (Jan.,  19U,  p.  124), 

allowed  to  bless  the  people  as  they  pass  througli  the  where  the  documents  are  printed,  first  bestows  upon 

church;  they  have  no  right  to  a  seventh  candle  on  the  the  Abbot  of  St.  Osyth  the  right  to  use  the  mitre  and 

altar;  they  vest  in  the  sacristy  and  not  in  the  sanctu-  other  pontificals  (Bliss,  V,  334),  and  then  gives  power 

ary;  they  do  not  use  f aid-stool,  or  hugia,  or  gremiaUf  to  comer  not  only  the  minor  orders  and  subdiaconate 

or  crosier,  or  Canon,  and  they  are  attended  by  no  but  the  diaconate  and  priesthood.    This  grant  made 

assistant  priest;  they  do  not  say  "Pax  vobis'^  and  by  Boniface  IX,  in  1397,  during  the  great  Schism,  was 

they  only  wash  their  hands  once,  i.  e.  at  the  offertory,  cancelled  by  the  same  pope  six  years  afterwards  at  the 

The  legislation  upon  this  subject  is  to  be  found  in  the  request  of  the  Bishop  of  London. 

above-mentioned  constitution   of   Pius   VII,    supple-  BnkVif,  LiturgiachtOeunndung  (FTeih\iTg,1907);  Barbierdb 

mented  by  the  "Apostolic®  Sedis  officium"  of  Pius  M°*FAH.^T'  i^Coatumeetl^  Usages EcdMMtuii^, 2 voIb^^^^ 

IX  (26  Aug.,  1872)  Wi  the  MotU  Proprio  of  Pius  X,  IS^^-lOOl);    Rohault  d>  Fleurt.^  Meiae  (J*™.  1884). 

"Inter  multiplices"  (21  Feb.,  1905).  With  regard  Herbert  Thurston. 
to  the  ornaments  just  mentioned  and  other  such  pon- 
tificals or  quasi-pontificals  as  the  manteletta,  moz-  Pontifical  Mass. — Pontifical  Mass  is  the  solemn 
setta,  ralionalef  rochet,  etc.  nearly  all  will  be  found  Mass  celebrated  by  a  bishop  with  the  ceremonies 
separately  treated  in  their  alphabetical  order.  The  bus-  prescribed  in  the  ' '  Csremoniale  Episcoporum  " .  I  and 
kins  (caligai)  are  large  silk  leg-coverings  put  on  over  the  II .  The  full  ceremonial  is  carried  out  when  the  bishop 
ordinary  stocking  and  gaiters  and  tied  with  a  ribbon,  celebrates  the  Mass  at  the  throne  in  his  own  cathedral 
The  gremiale  is  simply  an  apron  of  silk  or  linen  which  church,  or  with  permission  at  the  throne  in  another 
is  spread  over  a  bishop's  lap  when  he  is  seated  or  using  diocese.  The  "CaBremoniale"  supposes  that  the 
the  holy  oils.  The  "Canon"  is  a  liturgical  book  con-  canons  are  vested  in  the  vestments  of  their  order,  the 
taining  nothing  but  the  Canon  of  the  Mass,  which  is  dignitaries,  of  whom  the  first  acts  as  assistant  priest, 
used  instead  of  the  altar  cards  when  a  bishop  pon-  in  copes,  those  of  the  sacerdotal  order  in  chasubles, 
tificates.  The  pallium  and  the  archiepiscopal  cross  those  of  the  diaconal  order,  of  whom  the  first  two  act 
may  also  be  mentioned,  but  they  form  ordinarily  the  as  assistant  deacons,  in  dalmatics,  and  the  subdeacons 
special  insignia  of  an  archbishop.  in  tunics  over  the  amice  and  the  surplice  or  the  rochet. 
The  practice  of  conceding  the  use  of  certain  of  the  In  addition  a  deacon  and  subdeaoon  in  their  regular 
pontificals  to  prelates  of  inferior  rank  is  one  of  ancient  vestments  and  a  master  of  ceremonies  assist  the 
date.  A  grant  of  dalmatic  and  sandab  to  the  Abbot  bishop.  Nine  acolytes  or  clerics  minister  the  book, 
of  Metz  is  recorded  in  the  year  970  (JaiT^,  "Regesta".  bugia,  mitre,  crosier,  censer,  two  acolyte  candles, 
374).  In  the  eleventh  century  Pope  Leo  IX  granted  ip^miale,  and  cruets,  and  four  minister  in  turn  at  the 
the  use  of  the  mitre  to  the  Canons  of  Besan^on  and  of  washing  of  the  bishop's  hands.  Mention  is  also  made 
Bamberg  ( JafT^,  4240  and  4293) .  The  earliest  known  of  a  tram-bearer  and  of  at  least  four  and  at  most  eight 
concession  of  the  mitre  to  the  ruler  of  a  monastic  torch-bearers  at  the  time  of  the  Elevation.  All  these 
house  is  that  made  to  Abbot  Egelsinus  of  St.  Angus-  clerics  should  wear  surplices  except  the  four  who 
tine's,  Canterbury,  in  1603.  At  a  somewhat  later  attend  to  the  washing  of  the  bishop's  hands;  the  first 
date  the  grants  of  pontifical  insignia  to  monastic  four  may  also  wear  copes.  The  ornaments  worn  or 
superiors  and  other  prelates  are  of  constant  occurrence  used  by  the  bishop,  besides  those  ordinarily  required 
in  the  papal  "Regesta".  To  obtain  such  distinctions  for  Mass,  are  the  buskins  and  sandals,  pectoral  cross, 
became  a  point  of  rivalry  among  all  the  greater  abbeys,  tunic,  dalmatic,  gloves,  pallium  (if  he  has  a  right  to 
the  more  so  that  such  concessions  were  by  no  means  use  it),  mitre,  ring,  crosier,  gremiale,  basin  and  ewer, 
always  made  in  the  same  form  or  with  the  same  am-  canon,  and  bugia.  A  seventh  candle  is  also  placed  on 
plitude,  while  subsequent  indults  often  extended  the  the  altar  besides  the  usual  six. 

terms  of  previous  grants.     Thus  while,  as  noticed  The  bishop  vested  in  the  cappa  magna  enters  the 

above,  the  concession  of  the  mitre  to  St.  Augustine's,  cathedral,  visits  the  Blessed  Sacrament,  and    then 

Canterbury,  is  one  of  the  earliest  instances  on  record,  goes  to  the  chapel,  called  the  aecretariumf  where  he 

the  use  of  the  tunicle  and  dalmatic  at  High  Mass  was  assists  at  terce.    During  the  singing  of  the  psalms  he 

only  granted  to  the  same  abbey  by  Gregory  IX  in  reads  the  prayers  of  preparation  for  Mass  and  puts 

1238  (Bliss,   "Papal  Registers '^^^  I,   170).     In  1251  on  the  vestments  for  Mass  as  far  as  the  stole,  then 

Innocent  IV  conceded  to  the  Pnor  of  Coventry  and  vested  in  the  cope  he  sings  the  prayer  of  terce,  after 

his  successor  the  use  of  the  ring  only.     It  might  be  which  the  cope  is  removed,  and  he  puts  on  the  rest  of 

worn  at  all  times  and  in  all  places  except  in  celebrating  the  vestments.    The  procession  headed  by  the  cenfier- 


PONTIQNT 


233 


PONTIGNT 


6earer,  croas-bearer.  and  acolytes  then  goes  to  the 
main  altar.  The  bisnop  recites  the  prayers  at!  the  foot 
of  the  altar,  puts  on  the  maniple,  and  aiter  kissing  the 
altar  and  (he  book  of  gospels  and  incensine  the  altar, 
goes  to  the  throne,  where  he  officiates  until  the  Offer- 
tory. His  gloves  are  then  removed;  having  washed 
his  hailds,  he  ^oes  to  the  altar,  and  continues  the  Mass. 
The  ceremomes  are  practically  the  same  as  for  a 
solemn  Mass;  however,  the  bishop  sings  Pax  vobis 
instead  of  Dominus  vobiscum  after  the  Gloria;  he 
reads  the  Epistle,  Gradual,  and  Gospel  seated  on  the 
throne;  gives  the  kiss  of  peace  to  each  of  lus  five  chief 
ministers;  washes  his  hands  after  the  ablutions;  sings 
a  special  formula  of  the  episcopal  blessing,  making 
three  signs  of  the  cross  in  giving  it,  and  begins  the  last 
Gospel  of  St.  John  at  the  altar  and  finishes  it  while 
returning  to  the  throne  or  to  the  vesting-place.  In 
pontifical  Requiem  Mass  the  buskins  and  sandals, 
gloves,  crosier,  and  seventh  candle  are  not  used.  The 
bishop  does  not  read  the  preparation  for  Mass  and 
vest  during  terce,  £md  he  puts  on  the  maniple  before 
Mass  begins. 

A  titular  bishop  usually  officiates  at  the  faldstool. 
He  has  no  assistant  deacons,  their  duties  being  per- 
formed by  the  deacon,  subdeacon.  and  master  ofcere- 
monies;  there  is  no  seventh  candle  on  the  altar,  and 
ordinarily  the  crosier  is  not  used;  he  vests  in  the 
sacristy  or  at  the  faldstool;  he  recites  the  entire 
Gospel  of  St.  John  at  the  altar.  The  same  parts  of  the 
Mass  are  said  at  the  faldstool  as  at  the  throne.  Some- 
times the  ordinary  celebrates  pontifical  Mass  at  the 
faldstool,  without  assistant  deacons.  Solemn  Mass 
celebrated  with  some  of  the  pontifical  ornaments  and 
ceremonies  by  abbots  and  prothonotaries  is  also 
called  pontifical.  That  of  abbots  is  similar  to  .a 
bishop's  Mass  celebrated  at  the  throne.  Certain 
points  of  difference  are  explained  in  theTDecree  of  the 
Sacred  Congregation  of  lUtes  of  27  September,  1659. 
The  privileges  and  limitations  in  the  use  of  the  pon- 
tifical insignia  by  the  different  classes  of  prothono- 
taries are  set  forth  in  the  Constitution  of  Pius  X, 
"Inter  multipUces  curas"  (21  February,  1905). 

The  solemn  pontifical  Mass  celebrated  by  the  pope 
in  St.  Peter's  has  some  peculiar  ceremonies.  In  the 
papal  Mass  a  cardinal-bishop  acts  as  assistant  priest, 
cardinal-deacons  are  assistant  deacons  and  deacon  of 
the  Mass,  an  auditor  of  the  Rota  b  subdeacon,  there 
is  a  Greek  deacon  and  a  subdeacon,  and  the  other 
offices  are  filled  by  the  assistants  to  the  pontifical 
throne,  the  members  of  the  prelatical  colleges,  etc. 
The  procession  of  cardinals,  bishops,  prelates,  and 
those  who  compose  the  cappella  porUificia  vested  ac- 
cording to  their  rank  and  in  the  prescribed  order  pre- 
cedes the  Holv  Father  into  St.  Peter's.  The  pope, 
wearing  the  falda,  amice,  alb,  cincture,  pectoral  cross, 
stole,  cope  (mantum),  and  tiara  is  carried  into  the 
basilica  on  the  sedia  gestatoria  under  the  canopy  and 
with  the  iwoflabella  borne  on  either  side.  Seven  acolytes 
accompany  the  cross-bearer.  The  pope  is  received  at 
the  door  by  the  cardinal-priest  and  the  chapter,  visits 
the  Blessed  Sacrament,  and  goes  to  the  smalt  throne  for 
terce,  where  he  receives  the  obedience  of  the  cardinals, 
bishops,  and  abbots.  While  the  psalms  are  being 
chantea,  he  reads  the  prayers  of  the  preparation  for 
Mass,  during  which  his  buskins  and  sandals  are  put 
on,  and  then  he  sings  the  prayer  of  terce.  After  that 
the  vestments  are  removed  as  far  as  the  cincture,  and 
the  pope  washes  his  hands,  and  puts  on  the  succinct- 
orium,  pectoral  croes^  fanon^  stole,  tunic,  dalmatic, 
gloves,  chasuble,  palhum,  nutre,  and  ring.  He  does 
not  use  the  crosier  or  the  bugia.  He  then  gives  the 
kiss  of  peace  to  the  last  three  of  the  cardinal-priests. 

The  Epistle  is  sung  first  in  Latin  by  the  Apostolic 
subdeacon  and  then  in  Greek  by  the  Greek  sub- 
deacon, and  likewise  the  Gospel  first  in  Latin  by  the 
cardinal-deacon  and  then  in  Greek  by  the  Greek 
deacon.    While  elevating  the  Host  and  the  chalice 


the  pope  tiiiiis  in  a  half  circle  towards  the  Epistle  and 
Gospel  sides.  After  he  has  given  the  kiss  of  peace  to 
the  assistant  priest  and  assistant  deacons,  he  goes  to 
the  throne,  and  there  standing  receives  Gonununion. 
The  deacon  elevates  the  paten  containing  the  Host 
covered  with  the  asterisk,  and  places  it  in  the  hands 
of  the  subdeacon,  which  are  covered  with  the  lirUeum 
pectoralej  so  that  the  subdeacon  can  bring  it  to  the 
throne,  then  the  deacon  elevates  the  chalice  and  brings 
it  to  the  p>ope  at  the  throne.  The  pope  consumes  the 
smaller  part  of  the  Host,  and  communicates  from  the 
chalice  through  a  little  tube  called  the  fistula.  He 
then  divides  the  other  part  of  the  Host,  gives  Com- 
munion to  the  deacon  and  subdeacon,  and  gives  them 
the  kiss  of  peace,  after  which  he  receives  the  wine  of 
the  purification  from  another  chalice  and  purifies  his 
fingers  in  a  little  cup.  The  deacon  and  subdeacon, 
having  returned  to  the  altar,  partake  of  the  chalice 
through  the  fistula,  the  subdeacon  consumes  the 
particle  of  the  Host  in  the  chalice,  and  both  the  deacon 
and  the  subdeacon  consume  the  wine  and  the  water 
used  in  the  purification  of  the  chalice.  The  pope  re- 
turns to  the  altar  to  finish  the  Mass.  After  tne  bless- 
ing the  assistant  priest  publishes  the  plenary  indul* 
gence.  At  the  end  of  the  last  Gospel  the  pope  goes  to 
the  sedia  gestaloriaf  puts  on  the  tiara,  and  returns  in 
procession  as  he  had  entered. 

Caremoniale  episcoporum  (Ratisbon,  1902} ;  Catalanub,  Core' 
moniale  epiteoooruTft  commentariit  iUustratum  (Rome,  1714); 
Martinucci,  AianitnU  aacrarum  etgremoniarum  (Rome,  1879); 
Lb  Vavasssur,  Lea  fondiona  pontifioalea  (ParU,  1904) ;  Favrin, 
Praxia  aoUmnium  funelionum  epiacoporum  cum  appendidbua  pro 
abbatibtu  mitralia  et  protonoiariia  apostolicia  (Ratiabon,  1906) ;  Da 
Herot,  Praxia  pontificalia  (Louvain,  1904);  Saraiva,  Cctremo' 
niaU  pro  miaaa  et  veaperia  pontificaltbua  ad  faldiatorium  (Rome, 
1898);  Menohini,  Ritua  %n  porUifiealibua  ceMfrandia  a  proto- 
notariia  apoatolieia  aervandtu  (Rome,  1909);  Idem,  Le  aolenni 
eeremonie  delta  meaaa  poTUifioale  celebrata  dal  aommo  porUefico 
(Rome,  1904) ;  Rinaldi-Bdcci,  Cctremoniale  miaaa  qwa  a  aummO 
pontifiee  eelebratur  (Ratisbon,  1889) ;  GsoRai,  De  liiwifia  romani 
pontificia  in  aolemnt  ceMtrationa  miaoarum  (Rome,  1731). 

J.   F.   GOGGIN^. 

Pontigny,  Abbey  of.  second  daughter  of  Ctteaux, 
was  situated  on  the  banks  of  the  Serain,  present  Dio- 
cese of  Sens,  Department  of  Yonne.  Hildebert  (or 
Ansius),  a  canon  of  Auxerre,  petitioned  St.  Stephen  of 
Ctteaux  to  found  a  monastery  in  a  place  he  nad  se- 
lected for  this  purpose.  St.  Stephen  in  1114  sent 
twelve  monks  under  the  guidance  of  Hugh  of  Macon, 
a  friend  and  kinsman  of  St.  Bernard.  The  sanctity  of 
their  lives  soon  attracted  so  great  a  number  of  sub- 
jects that  during  the  lifetime  of  the  first  two  abbots, 
Hugh  and  Guichard,  twenty-two  monasteries  were 
founded.  So  great  an  array  of  episcopal  sees  in  France 
were  filled  by  men  taken  from  its  members,  and  to  such 
a  number  of  renowned  personages  did  it  offer  hospi- 
tality, that  it  was  called  the  ''cradle  of  bishops  and 
the  asy luifi  for  great  men ' ' .  Amonsst  the  former  must 
be  mentioned  particularly  Blessed  Hugh  of  Macon, 
Bishop  of  Auxerre  (d.  1151);  Gerard,  Cardinal  Bishop 
of  Prseneste  (d.  1202);  Robert,  Cardinal  Titular  of 
St.  Pudentiana  (d.  1294);  amon^t  the  latter  are 
mentioned  especially  three  Archbishops  of  Canter- 
bury, St.  Thomas,  Stephen  Langton,  and  St.  Edmund, 
who  was  interred  there.  Discipline  gradually  became 
relaxed,  especially  from  1456,  when  the  abbey  was 
given  in  commentknn.  In  1569  the  monastery  was 
pillaged  and  burnt  by  the  Huguenots,  nothing  being 
saved,  except  the  relics  of  St.  Edmund.  Partly 
restored,  it  continued  in  existence  until  suppressed  at 
the  French  Revolution.  It  is  now  in  charge  of  the 
Fathers  of  St.  Edmund,  established  there  l}y  J.-B. 
Muard  in  1843. 

JoNOBUNUB,  Notitia  Abbatiarum  0.  Ciai.  (Cologne,  1640); 
Manriqub,  Annalea  Ciater.  (Lyons,  1642);  Ls  Nain.  Saaai  <U 
VHiat.  de  VOrdre  de  CUeaux  (Pam,  1696);  Mabt^nb  and  Du- 
RAND,  Voyage  litt.  (Paria,  1716);  Koblxr,  Kldater  d.  MiUelaUert 
(Ratisbon.  1867);  Henrt,  Hiat.  de  Pontignv  (Auxerre,  1839); 
Mabillon,  Anrialea  O.  S.  Beriedicti,  V  (Luoques,  1740);  OalUa 
Chrialiana,  XII;  Janaubchek,  Orioinum  (Vienna,  1877). 

Edmond  M.  Obrecht. 


< 


PONTIUS 


234 


PONTUS 


Pontius  Carbonell,  b.  ^t  Barcelona,  c.  1250;  d. 
c.  1320.  Pontius  and  Carbonell  are  names  frequently 
met  with  in  Spain,  especially  in  Catalonia.  Hence  it 
is  difficult  to  (ustin^uish  between  the  different  persons 
bearing  this  name  m  the  same  century.  Pontius  en- 
tered me  Franciscan  Order  and  resided  principally  in 
the  convent  at  Barcelona,  where  he  was  teacher  and 
confessor  to  St.  Louis,  Bishop  of  Toulouse,  during  his 
seven  years'  captivity.  He  was  also  confessor  to  the 
Inifant  Juan  of  Aragon,  Archbishop  of  Saragossa,  to 
whom  he  dedicated  some  of  his  works.  Probably 
Pontius  was  superior  in  1314.  On  25  Sept.  of  that 
year  he  was  sent  by  King  James  II  to  his  brother, 
Frederic  II,  King  of  Sicily,  to  entreat  him  not  to  give 
protection  to  the  Fraticelli.  On  12  Jan.,  1316,  and 
aeain  on  25  Feb.,  Pontius  wrote  concerning  the  result 
of  his  mission.  Finke  has  published  several  of  these 
documents.  In  a  calendar  of  Franciscan  saints  drawn 
up  about  1335  at  Assisi,  Pontius  is  mentioned  as 
"master  and  confessor  of  our  holy  brother  Louis, 
Archbishop  of  Toulouse";  and  Fr.  Antony  Vincente, 
O.P.,  registers  him  among  the  saints  of  Catalonia. 
He  wrote  commentaries  on  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ment, and  quotes  largely  from  the  Fathers  and  Doc- 
tors of  the  Church.  Several  writers  hold  that  he  com- 
posed the  "Catena  Aurea  Evang.'',  usuallv  published 
amopg  the  writing  of  St.  Thomas.  In  defence  of  this 
opinion  Fr.  Martm  Peres  de  Guevara  wrote  in  1663 
a  book  entitled  "  Juizio  de  Salomon  etc.'',  but  which 
waB  placed  on  the  Index  two  years  later.  Not  all  his 
works  have  been  published.  Nine  large  folio  volumes 
in  MS.  are  preserved  in  the  library  of  S.  Juan  de  los 
R^es  at  Toledo. 

Wadding,  AnruUet,  I,  V  (Rome.  1733);  Waddino-Sbaralba 
(Rome,  1806);  Joannes  a  S.  Antonio,  Bibliolheca  Univem 
Francucana  (Madrid,  1732) ;  Puanus,  lAher  Conformitatum  (ed. 
Quaraccbi,  190/) ;  ok  Alva  t  Astoboa,  Indiadua  BuUarii  Seraph, 
(Rome,  1665):  Fabricius,  Bibliolheea  Med.  JSvi,  (Florence, 
1734) ;  Cou.,  Chronieon  Catiahnia;  Sixtus  Sbnvnsis,  BibliotKeea 
(Naples,  1742);  Antonio,  Bibliotheea,  Hiep.  Vet,  (1798);  Am  at, 
Mtcrit  CaUU.  (1836);  Annalecta  BoUandiana,  IX  (Bnissels,  1890); 
Catalogue  Sanctorum  Fratrum^  ed.  Lemmens  (Rome,  1903); 
FiNKB,  QudUn  (Berlin.  1908). 

Gregobt  Cleart. 

Pontius  Pilate.    See  Pilate. 

Pontremoli,  Diocese  of  (Apuan),  in  Tuscanv, 
central  Italv.  The  city  rises  on  the  skirts  of  the 
AppenninoaellaCisa,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Macra 
and  the  Torrente  Verde.  It  has  a  beautiful  cathedral 
and  a  notable  tower,  Torre  del  Comune,  erected  in 
1322  by  Castruccio  Uastracane.  The  earliest  histor- 
ical mention  of  Pontremoli  is  of  1077.  In  1110  it  was 
taken  by  Henry  V.  In  1167  it  opposed  the  progress 
of  Frederick  Barbarossa.  As  a  Gmbelline  commune, 
it  acclaimed  the  former  Lord  of  Lucca,  Castruccio 
degli  Antelminelli,  its  lord,  in  1316.  There^ter. 
It  was  successively  under  the  rule  of  the  Rossi  ot 
Parma,  of  Mastino  della  Scala  (1336),  of  the  Visconti 
(1339) ;  and  from  the  latter  date,  with  the  exception 
of  a  few  intervals,  it  belonged  to  the  Duchy  of  Milan. 
In  1650  the  Spaniards  sold  it  to  the  Grand  Duke  of 
Tuscany,  and  m  1847  it  was  united  to  the  Duchy  of 
Parma.  Charles  VIII  burned  the  city.  In  1700 
there  was  a  battle  there  between  the  French  and  the 
Austro-Russian  armies,  and  in  1814  the  Austrians 
drove  the  French  from  the  town.  Pontremoli  was 
the  birthplace  of  the  soldier  Girolamo  Reghini,  who 
distinguisned  himself  in  the  service  of  Spain  in  the 
fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries:  also  of  the  painter 
Pedroni  (eighteenth  century),  oirector  of  the  Acca- 
demia  di  Belle  Arti  of  Florence.  The  episcopal  see, 
suffragan  of  Pisa,  was  erected  in  1797,  its  fiist  prelate 
being  Girolamo  Pavesi.  Mgr  Fiorini  is  the  present 
bishop.  It  has  126  parishes,  with  60,000  inhabitants; 
204  secular,  9  regular  priests;  361  churches  or  chapels; 
3  religious  houses  of  men,  and  6  of  women;  2  educa^ 

tional  institutes  for  boys  and  3  for  girls. 
Cappbllbtti,  Le  Chieee  <l  Italia, 

U.  Benigni. 


PontOBt  in  ancient  times,  was  the  name  of  the 
north-eastern  province  of 'Asia  Minor,  a  lone  and 
narrow  strip  of  land  on  the  southern  coast  of  theBlack 
Sea  (Ponius  Euxinus),  from  which  the  designation  was 
later  transferred  to  the  country.  Before  this  the 
province  was  called  Cappadocia  on  the  Pontus.  The 
country  was  shut  in  by  high  and  wild  mountain 
ranges,  but  was  exceedingly  fertile  in  the  lower  parts 
on  tne  coast,  in  the  intenor,  and  on  the  plateaux.  It 
yielded  fruit  of  all  kinds,  especially  cherries,  which 
LucuDus  is  said  to  have  brought  into  Europe  from 
Pontus  72  B.  c.j  also  wine,  grain,  wood,  honey, 
wax,  etc.,  besides  iron,  steel,  and  salt.  It  was  inhab- 
ited by  a  number  of  petty  tribes;  among  these  were 
the  Cnalybes  or  Chaloffians,  held  in  high  repute  by  the 
Greeks  as  the  first  smiths.  All  belonged  to  the  Persian 
empire,  but  in  Xenophon's  day  (about  400  b.  c.)  were 
to  a  considerable  degree  independent  of  the  Persians. 
At  this  date,  however,  these  different  countries  had  no 
common  name.  Greeks  settled  early  on  the  coast, 
and  founded  flourishing  commercial  cities,  as  Tra- 
pezus  (Trebizond),  Cerasus,  Side,  later  called  Pole- 
monium,  Cotyora,  Amisus,  and  Apsarus.  The 
founder  of  the  Kingdom  of  Pontus  was  Mithradat^  I, 
son  of  Prince  Mitlu'adates  of  Cius  on  the  Piopontis, 
who  was  murdered  302  b.  c.  Mithradates  I,  takkig 
advantage  of  the  confusion  caused  by  the  Diadochian 
Wars,  came  to  Pontus  with  only  six  horsemen  and  was 
able  to  assume  the  title  of  king  296  b.  c;  he  died 
in  266  after  a  reign  of  thirty-six  years.  He  was  fol- 
lowed by  Ariobarzanes  (d.  about  258b.  c),  Mithradates 
II  (to  about  210  B.  c),  Mithradates  III  (to  about  190 
B.  c),  Phamades  (to  170  b.  c),  Mithradates  IV  (to 
about  150  B.  c),  Mithradates  V  (to  121  b.  c),  and 
then  Mithradates  VI  Eupator,  or  the  Great.  The 
kings,  PersiaoLby  descent,  formed  relations  early  with 
Greece  and  trom  the  beginning  Hellenistic  culture 
found  an  entrance  into  Pontus.  The  religion  was  a 
mixture  of  Greek  worships  with  the  old  native  cults. 
From  the  time  of  Phamaces  the  kings  were  allied  with 
the  Romans.  Mithradates  VI  became  involved  in 
three  wars  with  the  Romans  (88-84,  83-81,  74-64), 
and  finally  his  kingdom,  which  he  had  increased  by 
the  conquest  of  Colchis,  the  Crimea,  Paphlagonia,  and 
Cappadocia,  was  lost  to  the  Romans  (63).  The  terri- 
toi^  west  of  the  River  Halys,  the  coast  of  Paphla- 
gonia, and  the  valley  of  the  Amniaa  became  a  part 
of  Roman  territory  and  with  Bithynia  were  umted 
into  the  double  Province  of  Bithynia  and  Pontus.  The 
other  parts  were  made  into  principalities  and  free 
cities,  and  it  was  not  until  7  b.  c,  a  d.  18,  and  a.  d.  63 
that  they  were  gradually  absorbed  by  Rome.  Under 
Diocletian  (284-305)  Pontus  became  a  diocese  of  the 
empire.  The  Pontus  mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament 
of  the  Vulgate  in  Gen.,  xiv,  1,  9,  is  a  mistaken  transla- 
tion, according  to  Symmachus,  for  the  district  of 
EUasar  (Larsa  in  southern  Babylonia). 

In  Apostolic  times  Christianity  found  an  entrance 
into  Pontus.  The  First  Epistle  of  Peter  is  addressed 
.  to  the  Christians  in  Pontus  among  others,  showing  that 
Christianity  had  spread  to  some  extent  in  this  prov- 
ince. The  author  in  his  exhortations  presupposes 
relations  between  the  faithful  and  the  non-Chnstian 
population.  For  the  years  111-13  we  have  the  im- 
portant testimony  of  Pliny,  then  Governor  of  Bith- 
ynia and  Pontus  (Ep.  xcvi).  Pliny  did  not  mention 
the  cities  or  villages,  and  it  is  uncertain  whether 
Amastris,  or  Amasia,  or  Comana,  was  the  place  where 
Christians  were  tried  by  him.  As  concerns  Amisus, 
Ramsay  has  proved  from  Christian  sources  that  it 
contained  Christians  about  the  year  100.  Later 
Amastris  was  the  chief  Christian  community.  Euse- 
bius  mentions  (IV,  xxiii)  a  letter  written  by  Bishop 
Dionysius  of  Corinth  (about  170)  to  Amastris,  "and 
the  other  churches  in  Pontus".  There  was,  there- 
fore, at  this  era  a  metropolitan  with  several  churches. 
About  240  Gregory  Thaumaturgus  was  consecrated 


Bishop  of  Neo-C£e8area  by  PhiedimuB,   Bishop  of 

Ainaaia.  It  is  said  that  at  that  time  there  were  only 
seventeen  Cbristiajis  ia  the  city  and  ita  vicinity,  and 
that  at  his  death,  shortly  before  270,  only  the  same 
number  of  heathens  could  be  found  in  the  city.  The 
able  bishop  converted  the  people  by  apposing  Chris- 
tian to  heathen  miraclea  and  by  changing  the  old 
feasts  into  Christian  festivals.  In  the  Decian  persecu- 
tion he  made  concessions  to  human  weakncaa,  advised 
the  faithful  to  be  lees  aggressive,  and  fled  himself. 
Comana  received  a  bisbup  from  Gregory.  Christian- 
ity obtained  a  foothold  also  in  the  Greek  cities  of  the 
coast  of  eastern  Pontua  before  325.    In  or  about  the 

Smr  315  a  ^-eat  synod  was  held  at  Neo-Cteaarea  by 
isfaop  Longinus.  At  the  Council  of  Nictea  there  nere 
present  among  others  the  Bishops  of  Amastris,  Pom- 
pejopolis,  Jonopolis,  Amasia,  Comana,  Zeta,  Trebi- 
Eond^  and  Pityus.  Towards  the  end  'of  the  fourth 
century  Neo-Cteaarea  became  itself  a  Church- 
province,  having  as  suffr^ans  Trebizond,  Cerasus, 
Polemonium,  Comana,  Rhizsum,  and  Pityus. 

Meteb,  GacK  rf.  Kmigrticku  PotOoi  (Leipiiic.  1879):  Kucrr- 
Hn.  D.  BriifKichttl  inritclun  Pliniiu  u.  Trajan  (Paderborn. 
1907);  P*PllIlCHALOPULC».  UtpinTn-rif  .«  rti.  Uimr  (Athan., 
1903):  Li  Qoieh.  OrUm  cAriilumu,  I  (Pirii.  1740).  400-6211: 
tUui:kT.  The  Church  ix  ihi  Boman  Bmpirt  (London.  1893).  211. 
23S;  U*HHAGi,D^3fi»tanu.  Auibrnlimtfd.  C'AniMFUumiinihn 
■rKcn  drti  Jahrhundertm,  II  (2nd  hL,  Lsipiis.  1000).  73.  1G7-S. 
172-7. 

Eleuens  LOftler. 

Pools  in  Scripture. — In  the  English  Biblea,  the 
word  "pool  "stands  for  three  Hebrew  words:  {lyagam 
means  properly  a  pond  of  stagnant  wat«r;  m  Ex., 
vii,  IB:  viii,  5,  it  designates  probably  sheets  of  water 
left  in  1owi>lacee  by  the  Nile  from  the  inundation;  (2) 
miqveh  signifies  ori^nally  "the  gathering  together"  of 
the  waters  (Gen.,  i,  10),  hence  a  place  where  waters 
flowing  from  different  directions  are  collected  to- 
gether, a  reservoir  being  usually  formed  by  damming 
up  the  valley;  (3)  herekah  (comp,  Arab,  oirkei)  is  an 
entirely  artificial  reservoir  generally  excavated  in  the 
ruck  and  covered  inside  with  a  linmg  of  masonry  to 
prevent  leaking.  These  three  words  convey  a  f^r 
idea  of  the  way  the  natives  of  Palestine  and  neigh- 
bouring re^ons  have  at  all  times  secured  a  sufficient 
supply  of  water,  a  precaution  by  no  means  unim- 
portant in  countries  where  dry  weather  prevwls  for 
the  greater  part  of  the  year.  Natural  pools  of  the 
kind  described  in  Scripture  by  the  name  'itgam  are 
practically  unknown  in  Palestine.  If  importance  be 
attached  to  the  vocabulary  of  the  sacred  writers,  we 
might  be  justified  in  supposing;  that  most  poob  were 
wholly  artificial,  for  all  are  indiscriminately  styled 
bertkak  in  the  Hebrew  Bible.  Yet  there  can  be  no 
douht  that  some  were  reservoirs  obtained  by  building 
adamacross  valleys;  such  was,  at  any  rate,  the  Lower, 
or  Old,  Pool  {Birket  el-Hamra,  south  of  Jerusalem), 
which,  before  the  Upper  Pool  (Ain  Stixnan)  was  con- 
structed, was  filled  from  the  Gihon  (the  Virpn's 
Fountain)  by  a  surface  conduit,  along  the  eastern 
slope  of  the  spur  of  Ophel,  and  later  was  fed  from  the 
sunptuB  water  overflowing  from  the  Upper  Pool. 

The  other  pools  in  or  about  the  Holy  City  were  all 
entirely  artificial,  being  excava(«d  in  the  rock.  Those 
mentioned  in  Scripture  are;  (1)  the  Pool  of  Siloe  (A.  V. 
Siloah:  II  Bsd.,  lii,  15;  John,  ix,  7),  or  Upper  Pool 
(IV  Kin»,  ;cviu,  17;  la.,  yii,  3;  xjocvi,  2),  or  the  Kr    ' 


5  POOHA 

made")  of  Neh.  <II  Eed.),  iii,  16;  others  finally  think  it 
should  be  sought  some  distance  north  of  the  Birket 
Israilandwestof  St.  Ann'eCburch  and  recognized  there 
in  old  constructions  still  suggestinK  the  form  of  porti- 
coes; (3)  the  Berekah  'atuyah  of  11  Esd.  has  just  been 
mentioned;  it  was  the  reservoir  of  the  intermittent 
spring  of  Uihon;  (4)  we  should  perhaps  cite  also  the 
Dragon  Fountain  of  II  Esd,,  ii,  13,  which  lay  between 
the  Valley  Gate  (practically  the  modem  Jaffa  Gate) 
and  the  Dung  Gate  (about  due  west  of  the  southem 
end  of  the  Birket  M-SuUan) ;  probably  connected  with 
the  Dragon  Fount^n  was  the  Serpent's  Pool  men- 
tioned by  JosephuB  (Bell.  Jud.,  V,  iii,  2),  but  the  mte 
of  both  18  now  a  mere  matter  of  conjecture.  Despite 
the  historical  interest  attached  to  them,  it  is  neecDess 


(iV  Kings,  ;cvm,  17;  Is.,  vu,  3;  xjocvi,  2),  or  the  Kmg's 
Pool  (II  Esd.,  ii,  H),  built  by  Eiechias  "between  the 


of  Gihon;  (2)  the  Pool  of  Betha^da  (A.  V.  Bethesda, 
John,  V,  2);  the  exact  location  of  this  pool  is  to  this 
day  an  object  of  dispute ;  commonly  but  quite  ground- 
lessly  it  is  identified  with  the  Birket  Isnul,  norUi  of  the 
Temple  and  south-westof  St.  Stephen's  Gate  (BobStUi 
Uaryam) ;  others  (Conder,  Paton  etc.)  see  it  in  the  pool 
at  the  Fountun  of  Gihon  ('Ain  Silti  Maryam),  south- 
east of  the  Haram — the  bertkah  'agu}/ah  (i.  e.  "well 


to  recall  here  the  various  pools  of  the  Holy  Land  more 
or  less  incidentally  mentioned  in  Scripture ;  the  Pool  of 
Gabaon,  which  witnessed  the  bloody  encounter  of  the 
servants  of  David  with  the  defenders  of  Saul's  dyn- 
asty;  the  Pools  of  Hesebon,  and  finally  the  pools  al- 
luded to  in  Eecl.,  ii,  6  as  being  the  work  of  Solomon. 
These  are  supposed  by  some  to  be  the  famous  Pools 
of  Solomon  (Jmut  eight  miles  south  of  Jerusalem)  from 
which  several  winding  aqueducto,  one  forty-seven 
miles  long,  brought  the  water  into  the  city. 

BAEDEKEH-BiHiiaEH,    PoUtlim  and   Syna   (I«iP>iS.    lOOS); 

r^a  Pad  ofBUhnda  in  Bihlicoi  World  (F«b.',  1905);  Pal.  Eirum.' 
Fhhd,  Quart.  SlateBunl  (Oct.,  1S06;  Jul..  1897);  Ideu,  ycnunlnn; 
Pi.-TOv.TI\€  MeamnaoflheErpraaion"Bau!rm  Iht  Tico  WaUi"  ia 
Joum.  o[  Bihlic.  Literature,  I  (19001 ;  Idek.  JmiMltm  in  BibUcal 
Timti.  psrtiiiularly  o.  iii.  T**'  Sprintt  and  PaoU  of  AncierU  Jtru- 
jnJAn  (Chiciao.  1908);  Heidet.  Bithmfde  in  Vio.,  Ditt  de  la 
BibU;  MaDU.  La  punu  di  BttheKla  d  Jtnuatrm  (E>ng.  ISSS); 
ViHCTEHT.  Let  murj  di  Jlnuaitm  d'aprie  Nlhlmie  in  Rem  Bibliqiu 
(1004).  56-74. 

Chabuss  L.  Soutat. 

Poon&,  DiocKaEOF(PuNENsiB),inIndia,  comprises 
that  portion  of  the  Bombay  Presidency  which  bes  on 
the  Deccan  plateau  as  far  north  as  the  Tapti  River, 
that  iatoaay  thecollectorateaof  Poona,  Ahmednagar, 
Na«k,  Kandeish,  Sholapur,  Bijapur,  Sataraj  Dharwar, 
a  portion  of  Belgaum,  and  the  Native  States  of  Kolha- 
pur,  Miraj,  Sangli,  and  others  of  less  note,  but  exclud- 
ing Savantwadi,  a  portion  of  the  coUeclorate  of  Bel- 
gaum and  the  whole  of  North  Canara,  which  belong 
to  the  Archdiocese  of  Goa.  It  is  bounded  on  the  east 
by  the  Dioceses  of  Nagpur,  Hyderabad,  and  Madras: 
on  the  north  it  touches  the  Prefecture  Apostolic  oi 
Rajputana;  on  the  west  the  hue  of  the  Western 
ghauts  divides  it  from  the  Diocese  of  Damaun  and  the 
Archdiocese  of  Goa;  and  on  the  south  it  is  contiguous 
to  the  Mocese  of  Mysore.    It  includes  one  detached 

Srtion  of  territory  at  Barai  Town  surrounded  by  the 
ocese  of  Hyderabad,  while  at  Foona  there  is  o 


ttie  jitrifldi<'.tion  of  the  bishop,  omitU^  those  who  are 


POOR                                 236  POOR 

attached  to  the  "padroado'' church  at  Poona.    There  poor  is  a  branch  of  charity.    In  the  narrow  sense 

are  twenty-two  churches  and  twenty  chapels  served  charity  means  any  exercise  of  mercy  towards  one's 

by  twenty-one  Fathers  of  the  German  province  of  the  fellowman  rooted  m  the  love  of  God.    While  numer- 

Society  of  Jesus  and  twelve  secular  pdests  assisted  by  ous  cjasses  of  persons  are  fit  objects  for  charity,  the 

the  Nuns  of  Jesus  and  Mary  and  the  Daughters  of  the  chief  class  is  constituted  by  the  poor.     By  the  poor 

Cross.     3^des  military  stations   (Poona,   Kirkee,  are  meant  persons  who  do  not  possess  and  cannot 

Ahmednagar,  Deolali)  and  churches  for  railway  people  acquire  the  meaps  of  supporting  hfe,  and  are  thus  de- 

(Lanowli,  Igatpuri,  Bhusaval,  Sholapur,  HubU,  Dhar-  pendent  on  the  assistance  of  others.    In  accordance 

war)  there  are  three  mission  fields:  the  Ahmednagar  with  Christ's  conunand  (Matt.,  xxv,  40),  the  care  of 

groiip  founded  in  1878  with  a  total  of  5880  Christians;  the  poor  is  the  duty  of  all  the  members  of  the  Chris- 

the  Gada^  group  founded  in  1868  with  300  recent  con-  tian  body,  so  that  by  the  works  of  each  the  welfare 

verts  besides  other  Christians  of  old  standing;   the  of  the  whole  community  may  be  promoted.    As,  how- 

newly  established  mission  at  Kuna  near  Khandalla.  ever,  success  is  most  readily  attained  by  the  sys- 

The  bishop's  residence  and  cathedral  are  at  Poona.  tematic  co-operation  of  many,  we  find,  since  the 

There  is'  no  diocesan  seminary,  candidates  for  the  earhest  days  of  Christianity,  side  by  siae  with  the 

priesthood  being  sent  to  the  papal  seminary  at  Kandy,  private  exercise  of  charity,  strictly  concerted  meas- 

C^on.  ures  taken  by  the  Church  for  the  care  of  the  poor. 

From  1637  to  1854  the  districts  comprised  in  the  dio-  The  Church's  care  of  the  poor  is  by  no  means  a  sub- 

oese  formed  part  of  the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  the  stitute  for  private  efforts;    on  the  contranr,  it  is 

Great  Mogul,  which  in  1720  became  the  Vicariate  intended  to  supplement,  extend,  and  complete  the 

Apostolic  of  Bombay.     But  except  for  occasional  '  work  of  individuals.    Modem  moralists  distinguish, 

attendance  on  the  followers  of  the  Sultan's  Court  at  according  to  the  degree  of  need,  three  kinds  of  poverty : 

Bijapur.  no  missionary  work  seems  to  have  been  at#  (1)  ordinary,  such  as  that  of  the  hired  labourer,  who 

tempted  ini  these  parts — the  only  Christian  stations  lives  from  hand  to  mouth,  has  no  property,  but  whose 

known  to  exist  in  tne  eighteenth  centuiy  being  those  of  wages  suffices  to  afford  him  a  livelihcxxl  becoming  hia 

Tumaricop  in  the  south  (ministered  to  by  Carmelite  station;  as  applied  to  this  class,  the  care  of  the  poor 

tertiaries  from  Goa);  Poona  (where  a  cfaiaplain  from  is  confined  to  preventive  measures  to  keep  them  from 

Goa  was  paid  by  the  peshwa),  and  it  is  said  Bagal-  falling  into  real  poverty;   (2)  real  want,  or  besgary, 

hot,  once  visited  by  tne  Jesuits  of  Pondicherry(?).  is  the  condition  of  those  who  do  not  possess  andcan- 

There  was  also  a  Goan  chapel  at  Satara  in   the  i^ot  earn  sufficient  means  to  support  life,  and  depend 

early  part  of  the  nineteenth  centuiy,  and  perhaps  one  on  charity  for  what  is  lacking;   (3)  extreme  want,  or 

or  two  besides,  but  none  of  them  worked  by  the  Vicar  destitution,  is  a  state  in  which  the  means  of  support 

ApostoUc  of  Bombay.   The  gradual  growth  of  stations  ^  lacking  to  such  a  de^^ree  that,  without  extraneous 

for  British  troops  in  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  &id,  existence  is  impossible.    The  latter  two  clacees 

century,  and  the  laying  of  railways  later  chiefly  caused  ore  the  object  first  of  curative,  and  then  of  preventive 

the  growth  of  stations  within  this  district.    When  in  remedies. 

1854  the  Carmelites  resigned  the  Vicariate  of  Bom-  .  The  object  of  ecclesiastical  provision  for  the  poor 
bay,  the  mission  was  divided  into  two  halves  (Bombay  isy  first  the  removal  of  their  immediate  need,  then  the 
and  Poona),  and  the  Poona  portion  was  t^en  over  nullification  of  the  demoralizing  effects  of  poverty, 
by  the  German  Jesuits.  In  1858  the  Capuchins,  who  encouragement,  the  fosterine  <h  a  desire  for  work 
had  received  the  Bombay  portion,  also  resigned,  and  aiid  independence,  and  thus  the  exercise  of  an  educa- 
thuB  the  whole  of  the  Bombay-Poona  district  was  tive  influence  on  the  soul:  ''the  care  of  souls  is  the 
taken  over  by  tJie  Jesuits  and  re-united  into  one  Boul  of  the  care  of  the  poor".  There  is  in  addition 
mission.  Although  the  two  vicariates  remained  nom-  the  social  object  of  promoting  the  public  welfare  and 
inally  distinct,  no  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Poona  was  ever  of  procuring  for  the  greatest  possible  number  of 
appointed,  the  administration  being  in  the  hands  of  persons  a  share  in  the  goods  of  material  and  in- 
the  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Bombay.  In  1886,  when  the  tellcctual  civilization.  From  this  object  arise  the 
hierarchy  was  established.  Poona  became  a  diocese,  general  duties  of  ecclesiastical  relief  of  the  poor:  to 
suffragan  to  Bombay.  Tne  boundaries  between  the  prevent  those  able  to  earn  their  living  from  falling 
two  vicariates  were  then  readjusted,  and  afterwards  mto  poverty,  to  assist  with  alms  the  sick  and  the 
those  of  Poona  were  curtailed  by  the  transfer  of  part  poor,  to  raise  the  religious  and  moral  condition  of  the 
of  the  Belgaum  coUectorate  to  Goa,  since  when  the  poor,  and  to  render  social  life  a  blessing  for  needy  man- 
arrangement  has  been  stable.  kind.  The  relief  of  the  poor  includes  also  to^lay  a 
For  administrators  from  1854  to  1886,  see  Bombay,  number  of  important  taaks  arising  from  the  injurious 
The  first  bishop  was  Bernard  Beider-Linden,  S.J.,  influences  of  capitalistic  forms  of  production,  the 
1886-1907;  the  present  bishop,  Henry  Doering,  S.J.,  modem  system  of  interest  and  usuiy  in  general,  and 
from  1907.  Among  its  educational  institutions  are:  the  neglect  of  the  moral  foundations  of  social  Ufe 
St.  Vincent's  High  School,  Poona  (matriculation,  Bom-  based  on  Christianity.  The  Church  seeks  to  fulfil 
bay),  with  296  day-scholars;  St.  Joseph's  convent  the  objects  and  duties  of  poor-relief  by  means  of  the 
school,  Poona,  under  eleven  nuns  of  Jesus  and  Mary,  corporal  and  spiritual  works  of  mercy  usually  in- 
with  192  pupils^  also  European  oiphanage  and  St.  cluaed  under  the  name  of  alms. 
Anne's  school  with  16  boarders  ana  36  day-scholars;  B.  The  object  of  ecclesiastical  poor-relief  deter- 
convent  school  at  Igatpuri  with  76  pupils  and  a  poor  mines  its  relations  to  social  politics  and  state  pro- 
school  with  47  children;  also  a  convent  school  at  vision  for  the  poor.  Social  politics  and  ecclesias- 
Panchgani  with  40  pupils,  both  under  the  Daughters  tical  reUef  of  the  poor  have  both  for  their  object  the 
of  the  Cross;  English-speaking  schools  at  Bhusavcd,  removal  of  the  material,  intellectual,  and  moral 
Igatpuri,  Lanowli,  Sholapur,  ^mednagar,  Dharwar,  needs  of  the  poorer  classes  of  the  community.  They 
and  Hubli,  with  a  total  of  483  pupils.  In  the  Ahmed-  are  essentially  distinct  in  three  jpoints:  (1)  .the  chief 
nagar  mission  districts  80  village  schools  attended  by  motive  of  social  politics  is  justice,  the  chief  motive 
2400  children;  in  the  Gadag  mission  districts  5  ele-  of  ecclesiastical  relief  is  Christian  charity;  ^2)  social 
mentary  schools  with  110  children.  politics  considers  whole  groups  or  great  classes  of 
Jdadnu  Catholic  Diredorv  (1910);  Church  HUtory  of  the  Bom^  the  people;  ecclesiastical  relief  concems  itself  es- 
bajf  Poona  MUnon  in  TJ^e  Examiner  (1905  aq.).  sentially  with  the  needs  of  the  individual^  the  object 

Ernest  R.  Hull.  ^  the  former  is  to  abolish  pauperism,  while  the  latter 

aims  at  removing  individual   poverty;     (3)   social  * 

Poor,  Care  of,  by   the  Church. — I.  Objects,  politics  aims  rather  at  prophylactic  measures,  seeking 

History,  and  Orqanjzation.— A.  The  care  of  the  to  prevent  the  continuation  and  increase  of  poverty, 


POOB                                  237  POOR 

while  ecclesiastical  relief,  althou^  also  prophylactic,  the  poor  among  the  teachers  of  the  Church  peremp- 
is  mainly  curative,  since  it  reheves  and,  as  far  as  torily  insist  upon  order  and  distinction  being  em- 
possible,  removes  existing  need.  Both  ecclesiastical  ployed  in  relieving  the  poor,  warn  against  the  en- 
relief-work  and  social  politics  are  indispensable  for  couragement  bf  lazy  beggars,  and  declare  that  one 
society;  they  act  and  react  on  each  other.  Justice  may  as  little  support  laziness  as  immorality;  un- 
without  charity  would  lead  to  rigidity,  and  leave  the  justly  received  poor-relief  must  be  restored.  Eo- 
bitterest  cases  of  need  uncared  for;  charity  without  clesiastical  relief  of  the  poor  has  from  the  very 
justice  would  allow  thousands  to  suffer  destitution,  bepnning  been  very  well  organized,  the  organization 
and  save  but  a  few.  The  man  who  is  capable  of  bemg  changed  in  every  centur^r  to  suit  the  changing 
earning  his  own  livelihood  needs  not  alms,  but  work  conditions  of  the  times.  Not  in  those  places  where 
and  just  wages.  the  Church  has  controlled  poor-relief^  but  in  those 

Between  State  provision  for  the  poor  and  ecclesias-  where  the  State  or  other  powers  have  interfered  with 

tical  relief  the  relation  is  as  follows:  the  State  should  its  administration,  have  disorder  and  a  want  of  dis- 

by  its  social  politics  prepare  the  way  for  the  develop-  crimination  been  apparent. 

ment  of  voluntary  poor-relief,  and  should  put  these  The  latest  opponents  of  ecclesiastical  poor-relief  are 
politics  into  practice  against  lazy  individuals;  on  the  the  extreme  Individualists  and  Socialists.  Denying 
other  hand,  the  provision  for  the  really  poor  is  in  the  a  future  existence,  professing  an  extreme  Evolu- 
first  place  the  business  of  the  private  person  and  the  tionism  and  Relativism,  upholding  in  the  moral 
Church,  in  the  second  place  ot  the  community,  and  sphere  the  autonomy  of  the^  individual,  and  pro- 
in  the  last  place  also  of  the  State.  Liberal  economics  elaiming  war  on  rank  (i.  e.  a  class  war),  the^  condemn 
as  represented  by  Adam  Smith,  Richard  Malthus,  all  benefactions  as  prejudicial  to  the  digmty  of  man 
and  David  Ricardo,  is  based  on  the  ancient  Roman  and  to  the  welfare  of  the  community.  Friedrich 
view  of  life,  and  claims  exclusively  for  the  State  the  Nietzsche,  as  an  extreme  Individualist,  sees  in  bound- 
task  of  relieving  the  poor,  since  this  relief  does  not  less  competition — a  battle  of  all  against  all,  which 
lessen  but  rather  increases  the  amount  of  poverty,  necessarily  means  the  downfall  of  the  weak  and  the 
imposes  huge  expenditure  on  the  State,  and  inclines  poor — the  means  of  securing  the  greatest  tXMsihle 
the  lower  classes  to  laziness.*  On  the  other  hand,  personal  welfare.  Socialism,  as  represented  by  Carl 
it  must  be  remembered  that  the  State  should  support  Marx  and  Carl  Kautsky,  proclaims  a  war  of  the 
the  unalienable  human  rights  of  the  helpless,  and  propertyless  against  the  propertied  classes,  a  war 
promote  the  common  wetu  bv  uplifting  the  needy  whose  energy  is  paralyzed  and  impaired  (they  assert) 
classes.  It  is  therefore  bound  not  only  to  interest  by  charitable  activity.  In  a  criticism  of  Nietzsche's 
itself  in  the  politics  of  pauperism  (i.  e.  to  wage  war  teaching,  it  must  be  emphasized  that  the  superman 
on  professional  beggars  and  all  malevolent  exploi-  is  a  mere  phantasy  without  any  philosophical  or  his- 
tation  of  charity),  but  also  in  the  private  care  of  the  poor,  torical  foundation  whatever.  Even  tne  strongest 
especially  to-day.  when  the  voluntary  ecclesiastical  man  is  dependent  on  the  civilization  of  the  past  and 
and  private  relief  of  the  poor  cannot  possibly  satisfy  present,  and  on  the  social  organization.  Against  the 
all  the  demands  made  upon  it.  The  Church  has  in-  forces  of  nature,  against  the  accumulated  treasures 
deed  at  all  times  emphasized  the  duties  of  the  State  of  civilization,  against  the  combination  of  adverse 
in  promoting  the  welfare  of  the  people.  Leo  XIIFs  circumstances,  he  is  powerless.  Even  the  strongest- 
Encyclical  on  the  question  of  the  working  man  (1891)  willed  man  may  be  in  the  next  moment  the  most 
assigns  to  the  State  tasks  which  come  under  the  pro-  piteous  mortal  in  extreme  need  of  charity.  If  a 
gramme  of  poor-relief.  The  part  played  by  the  State  man  make  himself  the  centre  of  all  his  objects,  he 
should  however  be  onlv  subsidiary;  the  chief- r61e  challenges  all  men  to  battle.  The  theory  of  tne  rights 
should  be  regularly  filled  by  voluntary  relief  and  of  the  strong  has  as  its  final  consequence  the  reduo- 
neighbourly  charity,  since  thus  alone  will  the  prin-  tion  of  maxudnd  to  a  horde. of  warring  barbarians, 
ciple  of  spontaneous  generosity  and  individuality  Christian  morality,  on  the  other  hand,  distinguishes 
be  retained,  inasmuch  as  State  relief  rests  on  com-  between  just  love  of  self,  which  includes  love  of 
pulsory  taxation  and  always  remains  bureaucratic,  neighbour,  and  the  self-love  which  it  combats  and 
The  Church  therefore  asserts  her  innate  right  to  care  condemns.  In  appraising  the  value  of  the  socialistic 
for  the  poor  together  and  in  conjunction  with  the  theory  which  declares  poor-reUef  a  disgrace  alike 
State,  and  condemns  the  agitation  for  a  state  mo-  to  society  and  the  receiver  of  alms,  we  may  observe: 
nopoly  of  poor-relief  as  a  violation  of  a  principle  of  Even  if  we  were  disposed  to  grant  tnat  in  the  socialis- 
justice.  The  political  side  of  pauperism  does  inde^  tic  state  of  the  future  all  moral  defects  and  their 
pertain  to  the  State;  in  the  actual  relief  of  the  poor,  consequences  will  be  removed  (for  which  there  is 
however,  Church  and  community  should  co-operate,  not  the  least  proof),  the  physical  causes  of  povertv 
While  the  institutions  founded  by  the  Church  are  to  would  be  still  present.  Even  in  the  future  there  will 
be  administered  by  the  ecclesiastical  authorities  the  be  orphans,  invalids,  and  the  helpless  aged;  to  these 
Church  must  be  allowed  to  exercise  also  in  State  in-  no  bureaucratic  central  authority,  but  sympathetic 
stitutions  her  educative  and  nloral  influence.  Close  charity  can  afiford  a  sufficient  help^  The  acceptance 
co-operation  between  ecclesiastical,  public,  and  private  of  alms  on  the  part  of  the  guiltless  poor  is  indeed  for 
poor-relief  effectually  prevents  its  exploitation  oy  dh-  these  a  certain  mortification,  but  m  no  way  a  dis- 
worthy  individuals.  grace.    Otherwise  it  would  be  a  disgrace  to  accept 

C.  Ecclesiastical  relief  of  the  poor  is  condemned  \>y  the  gifts  of  nature  and  civilization,  which  we  our- 

Protestants  (e.  g.  in  recent  times  by  Dr.  Uhlhom).  selves  have  not  earned,  and  which  form  the  greater 

who  assert  that  it  is  unmethodical,  uncritical,  eLtia  part  of  our  material  and  spiritual  possessions.    It 

without  organization,  and  consequently  fosters  bcg^  is  however  a  shame  and  bitter  injustice  to  replace 

ging  and  exercises  a  harmful  influence.    To  this  ^e  just  wages  by  alms.    This  is  so  far  from  bein^  the 

may  reply:    Christianity  disapproves  of  everything  object  of  Chnstian  relief  o^Hhe  poor,  that  Christian 

irrational,  and  therefore  also  a  priori  of  disorganized  morality  expressly  condemns  it  as  a  sin  againsiiAis- 

and  uncritical  care  of  the  poor.    But  the  surveil-  tributive   justice.    But   all   objections   against  ''«c- 

lance  must  not  be  injurious  or  degrading  to  the  poor,  clesiastical  pdor-relief  will  be  most  easily  met  by  a 

Without  transgressing  the  boundaries  of  charity  and  glance  at  its  history. 

respect  for  the  dignity  of  man,  the  New  Testament  D.  The  history  of  ecclesiastical  poor-relief  is  dif- 

rlistinctly  demands  discretion  in  the  giving  of  alms,  ficult,  because,  in  accordance  with  the  command  of 

and  condemns  professional  begging   (I  Thess.,   iv,  Christ  (Matt.,  vi,  3),  it  for  the  most  part  avoids 

II;    I  Tim.,  v.  13  sqq.).    The  whole  range  of  ec-  publicity,  deals  with  individuals,  and  is  to  a  great 

clesiastical  literature  and  even  the  greatest  friends  of  extent  influenced  by  social  institutions.    We  will  con- 


POOR  238  POOB 

I 

fine  ourselves  to  brief  notices  of  the  most  important  and  later  by  the  deacons,  poor-relief  received  a  public 

historical  phenomena.  character.    The  public  relief  of  the  poor  was  to  be 

(1)  Afl  a  natural  characteristic  of  man,  human  oompletedbyprivatecharity  (ITim.,  v,  14).  Private 
83rmpathy  was  active  even  among  the  pagans,  who,  individuals  had  to  care  first  for  memoers  of  their  own 
however,  recognized  no  moral  obligation  to  render  as-  families,  the  neglect  of  whom  was  likened  with 
sistanoe,  since  the  knowledge  of  a  common  origin  and  apostasy  (I  Tim.,  v,  4,  8,  16),  then  for  needy  mem- 
destiny  and  of  the  equality  of  men  before  God  was  bers  of  their  community,  then  for  the  Christians  of 
wanting.  Isolated  suggestions  of  the  Christian  other  communities,  and  finally  for  non-Christians 
doctrine  of  neighbourly  charity  are  found  in  the  writ-  (Gid..  vi,  10).  The  Apostles  proclaimed  the  hiich 
ings  of  Cicero,  Seneca,  Epictetus,  and  Marcus  Aure-  moral  dignity  and  the  obligation  of  work:  ''If  any 
lius,  but  these  writers  were  powerless  to  convert  wide  man  will  not  work,  neither  let  him  eat"  (II  Thess., 
circles  to  more  humane  sentiments.  Consequently,  iii,  10);  forbade  intercourse  with  the  lazy  Ooc.  cit., 
a  public  and  general  care  of  the  poor  existed  nowhere  11),  who  are  unworthy  of  the  Christian  community 
in  antiquity  J  but  only  isolated  suggestions  thereof.  (6  soq.);  and  forbade  the  support  of  \Axy  beggars 
In  Athens  Pisistratus  made  provision  for  needy  war-  (I  Thess.,  ii,  9;  iv^  11;  Ephes.,  iv,  28;  I  Tim.,  v,  3, 
invahds  and  citizens,  and  the-  application  of  this  13).  Almsgiving  is  for  the  propertied  peisons  an 
provision  was  later  extended  to  all  residents  whom  obligation  of  merciful  charity;  the  poor,  however, 
mfirmity  rendered  unable  to  work.  Special  officials,  have  no  chum  thereto;  they  should  be  modest  ana 
the  sitarchs,  were  also  appointed  to  prevent  a  short-  thankful  (I  Tim.,  vi,  6,  8,  10,  17). 

age  of  com.  Similar  institutions  existed  in  other  (5)  In  sub-Apostolic  times,  especially  during  the 
Greek  towns.  In  Rome  the  poor  regulations  from  persecutions,  the  bishop  continues  to  be  the  ad- 
the  time  of  Julius  Caesar,  and  the  donations  of  corn  ministrator  of  the  churdi  property  and  the  director 
especially  after  the  time  of  Csesar  and  Augustus  must  of  poor-relief.  His  assistants  were  the  deacons  and 
be  regarded  as  simply  political  measures  designed  to  deaconesses  (q.  v.).  To  the  office  of  deaconess  at 
soothe  the  Roman  proletariat  clamouring  for  bread  first  only  widows,  but  later  also  elderly  spinsters 
and  games.  The  same  may  be  said  of  the  children's  were  admitted  (Rom.,  xvi,  1;  I  Cor.,  ix,  5;  I  Tim., 
alimeTUaturia  founded  bv  Nerva  and  Hadrian  and  v^  0).  In  addition  to  assisting  at  the  Divine  ser- 
perfected  by  Trajan,  of  the  institutions  for  providing  vices  and  at  giving  instruction,  they  had  to  visit  the 
for  orphans  in  numerous  towns  in  Italv,  supported  sick  and  prisoners,  to  care  for  poor  widows,  etc. 
from  the  imperial  purse,  and  of  the  later  private  Individual  provision  for  the  poor  and  visitation  of  the 
foundations  of  the  same  kind  under  State  supervision  poor  in  their  houses  in  accordance  with  a  special 
to  be  found  in  Italy  and  in  the  different  provinces,  list  {matricyla)  were  strictly  practised  in  every  Chris- 
Under  the  Empire  the  colleges  of  artisans  were  bound  tian  community.  Alms  were  given  only  after  close 
to  provide  for  their  impoverished  colleagues.  The  examination  into  the  conditions,  and  the  abuse  of 
efforts  of  Julian  the  Apostate  to  plant .  Christian  charity  by  strangers  was  prevented  by  obliging  new- 
poor-relief  on  pagan  soil  with  the  assistance  of  the  comers  to  work  and  demanding  letters  of  recommenda- 
pagan  high-oriestj  Arsatinus,  met  with  scant  success,  tion.    No  lazy  beggar  might  oe  supported  (Didache, 

(2)  The  Mosaic  Law  established  a  preventive  XI,  xii;  Constit.  ^)ost.,  II,  iv;  III,  vii.  6).  It  was 
poor-relief,  contained  numerous  provisions  in  favour  sought  to  make  the  poor  independent  by  assigning 
of  needy  Jews,  and  expressly  commands  the  giving  them  work,  procuring  them  positions,  giving  them 
of  aims  (Deut.,  xv,  11).  These  precepts  of  the  tools  etc.  Orphans  and  foundlings  were  entrusted 
Law  were  strongly  inculcated  by  the  prophets.  The  to  Christian  famiUes  for  adoption  and  education 
Divine  command  of  charity  towards  one  s  neighbour  (Const.  Apost.,  IV,  i);  poor  boys  were  entrusted  to 
is  clearly  expressed  in  the  Law  (Lev.,  xix,  18),  but  master  artisans  for  instruction  (loc.  cit.^  ii).  The 
the  Jews  regarded  as  their  neighbour  only  the  mem-  sources  from  which  the  Church  derived  its  receipts 
bers  of  their  race  and  strangers  living  in  their  terri-  for  poor-relief  were:  the  surplus  of  the  oblations  at 
tories.  The  Pharisees  further  intensified  this  narrow  the  Offertory  of  the  Mass,  the  offerings  of  alms 
interpretation  into  scorn  for  heathens  and  hatred  for  (CoUecta)  at  the  beginning  of  the  service,  the  alms- 
personal  enemies  (Matt.,  v,  37;  Luke,  x,  33).  Meas-  box,  the  firstlinss  for  the  support  of  the  clergy,  the 
ures  of  preventive  poor-relief  were  the  decisions  of  tithes  (Const.  Apost.,  VIII,  xxx),  the  yield  of  the 
the  Law  concerning  the  division  of  the  land  among  mone^  collections  made  regularly  on  fast  days  and 
the  tribes  and  families,  the  inalienableness  of  landed  also  in  times  of  special  need,  and  finally  the  free 
property,  the  Sabbath  and  Jubilee  ^ear,  usury,  the  contributions. 

gathering  of  grapes  and  com,  the  third  tithe,  etc.  (6)  After  the  time  of  Constantine,  who  granted 

(3)  Jesus  Qinst  compared  love  of  neighbour  with  the  Church  the  right  to  acquire  property,  the  eccle- 
the  love  of  God;  proclaimed  as  its  prototvpe  the  love  siastical  possessions  grew,  thanks  to  the  numerous 
of  the  Heavenly  Father  and  His  own  reclaiming  love  gifts  of  land,  foundations,  and  the  tithes  which 
for  all  mtuikind;  and  taught  the  duties  of  the  prop-  graduallv  became  established  (from  the  sixth  cen- 
ertied  classes  towards  the  poor.  His  own  life  of  tury)  also  in  the  West.  The  defects  of  Roman 
poverty  and  want  and  the  principle,  ''As  long  as  you  legislation  in  this  respect,  the  incessant  wars,  the 
did  it  to  one  of  these  my  least  Brethren,  you  did  it  crowding  of  the  poor  into  the  Church,  made  the  task 
to  me'',  conceded  to  worlcs  of  mercy  a  claim  to  eternal  of  relievmg  the  poor  ever  more  difficult.  The  bishop 
reward,  and  to  the  needy  of  every  description  the  administered  the  church  property,  being  assisted 
hope  of  kindly  relief.  In  the  doctrine  and  example  in  the  superintendence  of  poor-relief  by  the  deacons 
of  Jesus  Christ  lie  the  germs  of  all  the  charitable  and  deaconesses,  and  in  many  places  by  special 
activity  of  the  Church,  which  has  appeared  ever  in  (xamomi  or  by  the  archpresbyters  or  archdeacons.  In 
new  forms  throughout  the  Christian  centuries.  the  West  the  division  of  the  ecclesiastical  income  into 

(4)  In  Apostolic  times  poor-relief  was  closely  con-  four  parts  (for  the  bishop,  the  other  clergy,  church 
nected  with  the  Eucharist  through  the  oblations  and  building,  and  poor-relief)  began  in  the  fourth  cen- 
agapse  and  through  the  activity  of  the  bishops  and  tiuy.  In  addition  to  the  provision  for  the  poor  in 
deacons  (Acts,  vi,  11  sqq.).  Among  the  Chnstiana  their  homes,  the  increasing  mass  of  poverty  demanded 
of  Jerusalem  there  was  voluntary  community  of  a  new  institution — ^the  hospital.  It  was  to  serve  for 
the  use  of. goods,  though  probably  not  community  a  special  class  of  the  needv,  and  was  the  regular 
of  property  (Acts,  iv,  37;  xii,  12).  The  care  of  the  completion  of  the  general  charitable  activity  of  the 
poor  was  such  that  no  one  could  be  said  to  be  in  need  district.  Such  institutions  for  the  collective  care  of 
(Acts,  ii,  34,  44,  45;  iv,  32  sqq.).  By  the  institution  the  poor  were:  the  diaconuB^  great  store-houses  near 
of  a  common  purse,  administered  first  by  the  Apostles  the  church,  where  the  poor  daily  enjoyed  meals  io 


POOR  239  POOR 

oomxnon;   the  henodochicBf  for  strangers;    the  no8o~  Beguines  and  Be^iards,  and,  since  the  thirteenth 

comicB  for  the  sick;   the  orphanatropnuB  and  brepko'  century,  the  mendicant  orders,  especially  the  Fran- 

tropkitB   for   orphans  and  foundlings;    the  geronlo'  {siscans.    The  pawn -offices  {monies  pietalis)  estab- 

eamuB  for  the  aged.    Of  special  importance  was  the  lished  in  Itfdy,  and  the  loan  societies  founded  by 

hospital  BoffiKlat  erected  by  St.  Basil  m  Cssarea  about  Bishop  Giberti  of  Verona  (1528),  served  as  repressive 

369  for  all  classes  of  the  needy.     At  the  end  of  the  poor-reUef. 

sixth  century  hospitals  and  poorhouses  existed  in        It  is  false  to  assert  that  municipal  regulations  in 

great  numbers  in  all  the  divisions  of  the  ecclesiastical  aid  of  the  poor  were  a  fruit  of  the  Reformation;  the 

territories.    They  were  all  under  the  bishop,  and  medievcd  municipal  magistrates,  in  conjunction  with 

managed  bv  a  special  spiritual  director.    The  sick  the  clergy,  alreadv  made  extensive  provision  for  the 

were  nursed  by  aeaconesses<  widows,  and  attendants  poor,  endeavoiu^d  to  stop  begging  by  ordinances  and 

under  them  (see  Hospitals).  poUce-regulations,    supportea    the    real    poor    and 

(7)  After  Gregory  the  Great  (d.  604),  who  or-  municipsu  institutions,  and  fostered  the  education 
sanized  poor-relief  on  a  model  basis  in  Rome  and  urged  of  oiphans,  in  so  far  as  this  was  not  provided  for  by 
bishops  and  secular  rulers  to  rational  works  of  pro-  relations  and  the  guilds.  In  general,  medieval  pooiv 
vision  for  the  needy,  the  spread  of  ChrisGanity  to  relief  was  in  no  wav  lacking  in  organization;  in  the 
the  country  parts  and  to  the  Germanic  and  Anglo-  country  districts  the  organization  was  indeed  per- 
Saxon  nomadic  tribes  led  to  the  gradual  extension  feet;  m  the  towns  the  clergy,  monasteries,  magis- 
of  the  parish  system,  which  dates  from  the  fourth  trates,  guUds,  confraternities,  and  private  individuals 
century;  this  movement  was  accompanied  by  the  vied  with  one  another  in  providing  for  the  poor  with 
decentralization  of  poor-relief.  The  bishop  retained  such  discrimination  and  practical  adaptability  that 
the  direction  of  the  poor-relief  of  hb  city,  and  the  in  normal  times  the  provision  satisfied  all  demands, 
dealing  with  special  crises  of  need  in  his  diocese;  on  extraordinary  calamities  alone  overtaxing  it.  The 
the  other  hand,  first  in  Gaul  and  afterwards  in  wider  frightful  growth  of  beggary  at  the  close  of  Uie  Middle 
circles,  the  parishes  were,  in  accordance  with  the  Ages  arose,  not  from  the  failure  of  ecclesiastical  poor- 
decrees  of  the  Council  of  Tours  (567),  to  maintain  reUef,  but  from  the  relative  over-population  oi  the 
their  poor  at  their  own  cost,  in  order  that  these  mi^t  European  civilized  countries  and  other  economical 
not  wander  into  other  communities.  Since  the  early  conditions  of  the  time.  The  lack  of  a  central  ad- 
Middle  Ages  new  centres  of  ecclesiastical  poor-relief  ministration  exercised  by  the  bishop,  after  the  model 
were  found  in  the  monasteries,  first  those  of  the  of  the  early  Christian  relief,  constituted  indeed  a 
Benedictines,  later  those  of  the  Cistercians,  Preemon-  defect  in  organization. 

stratensians  etc.  These  constituted  the  main  factor  (11)  The  Reformation  destroyed  the  monasteries 
in  the  preventive  and  curative  poor-relief;  gave  an  and  ecclesiastical  foundations,  which  were  for  the 
example  of  work;  taught  the  uncivilized  peoples  most  part  applied  to  secular  objects.  The  terrible 
agriculture,  handicrafts,  and  the  arts;  trained  the  wars  of  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries  ag- 
youth;  erected  and  maintained  hospices  for  strangers  gravated  the  miserv  caused  by  the  secularization  of 
and  hospitals  for  the  sick.  A  mif^ty  spiur  to  eccle-  the  property  which  had  midntained  poor-relief  to 
siastical  and  private  poor-relief  was  supplied  by  the  such  an  extent  tJiat  poverty,  begging,  crime,  want, 
replacing  of  canonicsu  penances  by  prayer,  fasting,  and  public  insecurity  grew  unchecked.  The  poor- 
and  the  devoting  of  whole  or  part  of  one's  fortune  regulations  of  the  towns  were  almost  entirely  in- 
to the  poor,  pious  legacies  for  one's  own  soul  or  for  effectual,  and  the  State  governments  entered  on  a 
that  of  another.                              ^        ^                  ^  warfare  with  poverty  and  vagabondage  by  inflicting 

(8)  From  the  days  of  Constantine  civil  legislation  severe  punishments,  and,  in  Exigland  and  France, 
supported    ecclesiastical    poor-relief    by    sranting  the  penalty  of  death.    In  opposition  to  the  Christian 

gnvileges  in  favour  of  pious  foundatioiJB,  legacies,  tradition,  the  Reformers  championed  public  relief 

ospitals  etc.    The  State  also  adopted  from  the  time  of  the  poor,  administered  by  the  secular  community 

of  Emperors  Gratian,  Valentinian  II,  and  Justinian,  and  the  State,  and  substituted  for  the  principle  of 

measures  against  lazy  beggars.    The  later  Merovin-  charitable  institutions  the  home  principle.    In  Ger- 

pians  diverted  to  some  QXtent  church  property  from  many  the  secularization  of  poor-relief  began  with 

its  proper  objects  and  disorganized  poor-relief.    In  the  imperial  police  regulations  of  1530;   in  France 

his  capitularies  Charlemagne  created  a  state-eccle-  Francis  II  extended  the  compulsory  obligation  of  the 

siastical  organization  for  providing  for  the  poor,  communitv  to  give  and  the  nght  of  the  poor  to  claim 

and  strictly  forbade  vagaDondfuge   (806).    His  or^  support,  decreed  by  Francis  I  for  Pans,  to  all  his 

ganization  was  revived  by  King  St.  Louis  (d.  1270),  territories.    It  was  but  to  be  expected  that  poor- 

who  sought  to  make  the  communities  responsible  relief  should  be  secularized  also  in  England  (1536); 

for  the  support  of  parochial  poor-relief.  this  provision  was  followed  in  1575  by  the  lesal  in- 

(9)  Dunng  the  Middle  Ages  properly  so-called  stitution  of  poorhouses^  and  in  1601  by  the  celebrated 
there  is  an  important  distinction  between  poor^  Poor  Law  of  Queen  Elhzabeth.  This  state  continued 
relief  in  the  city  and  in  the  country.  The  feudal  until  1834,  when  the  reform  which  had  been  found 
system,  which  Had  become  established  in  the  tenth  absolutely  indispensable  was  effected. 

century,  threw  the  care  of  impoverished  servants  and        (12)  The  Council  of  Trent  renewed  the  ancient 

serfs,  and  thus  of  the  greater  number  of  the  poor  of  precepts  concerning  the  obligations  of  the  bishops 

the  country  districts,  on  the  lord  of  the  manor.    In  to  provide  for  the  poor,  especially  to  supervise  the 

addition  the  parish  priest  worked  for  the  poor  of  his  hon>itals  (Sees.  VII  de  Kef.,  cap.  xv;  Sess.  XXV  de 

flock,    and   the   monasteries  and    foundations    for  Ret.,  cap.  viii)  and  the  employment  of  the  income 

strangers  and  the  sick.  from  ecclenastical  prebends   (Sess.  XXV  de  Ref., 

(10)  Provision  for  the  poor  was  splendidly  developed  cap.  i).  In  accordance  with  these  decrees,  numerous 
in  the  cities  of  the  Middle  Ages.  Its  administrators  provincial  synods  laboured  to  improve  ecclesiastical 
were — in  addition  to  the  parish  cleixy,  the  mona»-  poor-relief.  St.  Charles  Borromeo,  Archbishop  of 
teries,  and  the  hospital»~the  guilds  (q.  v.),  corpora-  Milan  (d.  1584),  worked  with  special  zeal  and  great 
tions,  and  confraternities.  The  Hospitallers  cared  ability.  Simultaneously  there  ar6se  especialljr  for  the 
for  the  sick,  the  poor  in  their  houses,  and  travellers:  care  of  the  poor  and  the  sick  and  for  the  training  of 
the  guilds,  for  sick  and  impoverished  members  and  poor  children  a  number  of  new  orders  and  congre- 
their  families;  the  distress  guilds,  for  pilgrims  and  mtions — e.  g.:  the  Order  of  Brothers  of  Mercy,  the 
travellers.  Special  religious  congregations  cared  for  Clerics  Regular  of  St.  Camillus  of  Lellis,  the 
the  sick  and  prepared  medicines — e.  g.  the  Humiliati,  Somaschans,  the  Order  of  St.  Hippolsrtus  in  Mexico, 
the  Jesuati,  the  Brothers  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  the  the  Bethlemites,  the  Hospitaller  Sisters,  the  Piarista. 


POOB 


240 


POOB 


Fundamental  and  exemplary  was  the  activity  of  St. 
Vincent  de  Paul  (d.  1660).  In  1617  he  founded  the 
Confririe  de  la  ChariU,  a  women's  association  which, 
under  the  guidance  of  the  parish  priest,  was  to  provide 
•  for  the  poor  and  the  sick;  in  1634  ne  founaed  the 
Congregation  of  the  Sisters  of  Mercy,  a  visiting  in- 
stitute under  religious  discipline,  which  has  for  cen- 
turies proved  its  efficacy  in  caring  for  the  sick  and  in 
making  provision  for  the  poor;  it  combines  centraliza- 
tion and  strict  discipline  in  administration  with 
decentralization  and  adaptability  in  the  relief  of  the 
poor. 

(13)  The  secularization  of  church  property  durine 
the  French  Revolution  and  the  succeeding  period 
(1S04)  dealt  a  severe  blow  to  ecclesiastical  poor- 
relief.  Comprehensive  poor-laws  were  passea  by 
several  European  states,  but  in  no  case  were  they  sucn 
as  to  make  ecclesiastical  poor-relief  dispensable. 

(14)  Since  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century 
the  development  of  industries,  the  growth  of  cities 
and  freedom  of  emi^ation  have  reduced  large  num- 
bers of  the  population  to  poverty,  and  necessitated 
gigantic  expenditure  on  the  part  of  the  community 
and  State.  The  States  sought  by  the  legal  protec- 
tion of  labour  in  the  form  of  workmen's  insurance, 
factory  laws,  and  commercial  regulations,  to  prevent 
poverty  and  to  render  stricter  and  perfect  the  poor- 
regulations.  Legislation  is  obliged  to  return  to  the 
old  Christian  principle  of  charitable  institutions. 
In  Germany  and  the  neighbouring  countries  the 
"Elberf elder  System"  was  adopted  for  the  public 
care  of  the  poor;  this  is  based  on  personal  contact 
between  the  almoner  and  the  impoverished  family, 
and  combines  the  communal  and  private  charitable 
activities.  In  South  Germany,  Austria,  and  Switzer- 
land, the  communities  employ  more  than  formerly 
private  bodies  in  their  poorhouses  and  orphanages, 
religious  congregations — e.  s.,  the  Sisters  of  Mercy 
founded  by  Father  Theodosius  Florentini  (1844, 
1852) — ^being  entrusted  with  the  internal  adminis- 
tration of  such  State  institutions.  Regulations  con- 
cerning the  communities  and  establishments  for 
poor-relief  have  been  inaugurated  widely  tcMlay  in 
districts,  provinces,  countries,  and  states. 

(15)  In  addition  to  this  state  provision  for  the 
poor,  ecclesiastical  poor-relief  has  developed  in  re- 
cent times  not  merely  in  the  parishes  and  religious 
orders,  but  also  in  an  incalculable  number  of  chari- 
table institutions.  We  shall  name  only  the  crhches, 
schools  for  young  children,  institutions  for  orphans, 
weaklings,  the  deaf  and  dumb,  the  blind,  cnpples,  ^ 
unprotected  children,  protectories,  Sunday-schools, 
protectorates  for  apprentices,  the  International  As- 
sociation for  the  Protection  of  Girls,  the  Railway  Mis- 
sion, hospices  for  servants,  workwomen,  fallen  women, 
and  women  exposed  to  danger,  the  provision  for 
liberated  criminals,  for  emigrants,  and  the  aged; 
women's  charitable  associations  (e.  g.,  The  Elizor 
belhen — ^and  Ludwigsvereine);  the  men's  associations 
for  poor-relief,  including  the  Society  of  St.  Vincent  de 
Paul  (founded  1833),  the  Charitable  Students'  Circles, 
the  legal  bureaux,  the  colonies  of  workmen,  the  tem- 
perance movement,  and  the  inebriate  asylums. 

(16)  While  politico-religious  Liberalism  destroys 
ecclesiastical  charitable  institutions  and  persecutes 
the  charitable  congregations,  the  Christian  love  of 
neighbour  continues  to  find  new  ways  of  providing  for 
the  poor.  The  necessity  of  securing  unanimity  of 
purpose  among  the  various  ecclesiastical  institutions 
tor  the  relief  of  the  poor  has  called  into  life  various 
diocesan  and  national  unions  for  the  organization 
of  charity—^,  g.:  The  Caritasverhand  fur  Deutsch" 
la.id  (1897),  the  Austrian  Reichsverband  der  kath- 
olischen  WohUdtigskeitsorganisation  (1900),  the  Cari- 
iasfaktion  der  schiueizerische  Katholikenvereins  (1899). 
On  the  Protestant  side,  the  ecclesiastical  care  of  the 
poor  is  organized  especially  by  the  Home  Missions. 


E.  The  organization  of  ecclesiastical  poor-relief 
is  necessary  to-day  to  bind  together,  after  tne  fashion 
of  the  early  Christian  charitable  activity  for  the  re- 
pression and  prevention  of  poverty,  all  religious, 
monastic,  private,  corporate,  state,  and  communal 
forces  aiming  at  this  object;  while  the  varying  na- 
tional and  local  conditions  demand  a  great  diversity 
in  organization,  in  general  the  following  must  be  the 
guiding  principles : 

(1)  For  ecclesiastical  poor-relief  the  bishop  must 
be  the  soul  and  centre  of  the  diocesan  organization. 
He  directs  undertakings  affecting  the  entire  or  a 
great  portion  of  the  diocese,  and  regulates  and  super- 
vizes  the  general  charitable  activity  of  the  parisnes; 

(2)  The  local  pastor  is  the  immediate  director 
of  the  ecclesiastical  poor-relief  of  his  parish.  Monas- 
tic orders  labouring  in  the  parish,  cnaritable  lay  as- 
sociations, orphanages  and  institutes  for  the  poor 
and  sick  are  all  under  his  direction.  The  pansh- 
priest  should  endeavour  to  co-operate  as  far  as  pos- 
sible with  the  secular  and  private  poor-relief  of^his 
district,  and  also  with  the  local  authorities,  so  as  to 
secure  regular  and  uniform  action; 

(3)  The  local  provision  for  the  poor  should  be  as 
far  as  possible  confined  to  the  home,  promoting  per- 
sonal contact  between  the  helper  and  the  poor;  the 
assistance  should  be  as  a  rule  given  in  goods,  the  abuse 
of  gifts  of  money  being  guarded  against  as  far  as 
practical; 

(4)  Ecclesiastical  poor-relief  embraces  all  classes 
of  the  needy,  consideration  being  shown  for  feelings 
of  mortification  and  family  pride.  Hie  keeping  of  a 
list  of  the  poor  is  indispensable; 

(5)  The  means  are  to  be  obtained  from  the  income 
from  foundations,  from  the  regular  and  voluntary  con- 
tributions of  the  parishioners,  and,  in  case  of  neces- 
sity, from  extraormnary  collections.  Sometimes  local 
poor-relief  is  combined  with  the  charitable  organiza- 
tions of  the  neighbourhood; 

(6)  Repressive  provision  for  the  poor  concerns  it- 
self in  the  first  place  with  those  able  to  work,  es- 
pecially with:  (a)  children,  who  are  placed  for  train- 
mg  either  with  relatives,  ^^ith  trustworthy  families, 
or  in  orphanages.  While  maintenance  in  a  family 
is  preferable,  no  general  rule  can  be  laid  down  on  this 
point.  A  new  task  is  the  charitable  provision  for 
children,  who  are  uncared  for  by  their  parents,  and 
who  are  morally  unprotected  (cf.  The  Prussian 
Fursorgeerziehungsgesetz  of  1897);  (b)  sick  and  de- 
crepit persons,  who  are  assisted  either  with  gifts  of 
pocKls,  food,  medicine  etc.  in  their  homes,  or  are  placed 
m  poor-houses  or  hospitals.  Repressive  provision 
for  the  poor  is  also  directed  towards  persons  able  to 
workj  who  can  earn  their  hvelihood  and  do  not  do  so. 
If  this  is  the  result  of  obstinate  laziness,  and  an  in-  • 
clination  to  begging  and  vagabondage,  the  State 
should  confine  the  offenders  in  institutions  of  com- 
pulsory labour,  or  engage  them  on  useful  works,  pay- 
mg  them  wages  and  supporting  them.  Should, 
however,  it  arise  from  inability  to  find  employment, 
the  State  should  interfere  by  inaugurating  relief- 
works,  comprehensive  organization  of  information 
as  to  labour  conditions,  fostering  private  relief  meas- 
ures, workers'  colonies  etc. 

(7)  Preventive  poor-relief  seeks  to  prevent  the 
fall  into  poverty.  This  is  never  entirely  successful, 
but  it  may  become  partially  so  by  the  combination 
of  the  Church,  State,  trade  organizations,  and  private 
charitable  agencies  along  the  following  lines:  (a) 
by  educating  the  youth  to  thrift,  estcJblishment  of 
school  savings  banks  and  especially  fostering  economy 
among  the  working  classes;  (b)  by  state  and  volun- 
tary insurance  against  illness;  (c)  by  making  the 
employer  responsible  for  accidents  befalling  his  em- 
ployees; (d)  insurance  against  old  age  and  incapacita- 
tion, organized  on  trades  union  or  State  principles; 
(e)  by  the  express  inculcation  of  the  mutual  obliga^ 


POOR 


241 


POOR 


lions  of  members  of  the  same  family  and  relatives 
according  to  the  precepts  of  Christianity;  (f)  war 
ajBcainst  the  passion  for  pleasure  and  a  social  legisla- 
tion guided  by  Christian  principles. 

De:vab,  Poliiioal  Bconomy  (London,  1802);  Manning,  Ser- 
moru  on  BcdentutieeU  Subjects  (London,  1873);  Idem,  The 
Eternal  Prieethood  (8th  ed.,  London.  1883);  Glen,  The  Poor 
Law  (London,  1883);  Ratzinqkr,  Oeeeh.  der  kirehl,  Armenpflego 
(Freiburg,  1884);  Schaub,  Die  kaihol,  Caritae  u.  ihre  Uegner 
(1909);  Ehrlb,  BeUrdge  zur  Oeeeh,  u.  Reform  der  Armenpflege 
(Freiburg.  1881):  Uhlhobn.  Z)t0  ehrxail,  LM>eeUtiokeU  in  der 
alien  Kirche  (2nd  ed.,  Stuttgart,  1882);  Idem,  Die  chrisll.  L. 
im  MiUelalter  (1884);  Idem,  Die  ehrim.  L.  aeit  der  Re/ormatiftn 
(1890);  MCnstkrbbrg,  Die  Annenpflege  (Berlin,  1897); 
PoBCRBR,  System  der  Armenpflege  u.  ArmenpiUitik  (3rd  ed., 
Stuttgart,  1906);  Sallbmamd,  Hist,  de  la  ehariU  (Paria,  1902;. 

T.  J.  Beck. 

II .  In  Canada. — ^The  Church  of  Canada  has  numer- 
ous charitable  institutions.  As  early  as  1638  the 
Duchesse  d'Aiguillon  founded,  at  the  instance  of  the 
missionaries,  tne  H6tel-Dieu  of  Quebec^  where  the 
Hospitallers  of  the  Mercy  of  Jesus  nave  since  devoted 
themselves  to  the  care  of  the  sick  poor.  They  have 
alHo  care  of  the  General  Hospital  of  Quebec  (1693), 
the  Sacred  Heart  Hospital  (1873),  and  the  H6tel- 
Dieu  of  Chicoutimi  (1884).     In  1642  Jeanne  Mance 


COMMUNITIBB 

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Brothers  of  Charity .  . . 

Brothers  of  St.  Gabriel. 

Brothers  of  St.  Francis 

ReffM 

Brothers  of  N.  D.  des 
Champ* . .  -  - .  T  -  r  -  - 

Fathers  of  St.  Vincent 
de  Paul 

Hospitallers      of       the 
Mercy  of  Jesus. .. 

Grey      Nuns  .    .    .    .    r    r    r    .    -    -    t 

5 
28 

9 
10 

26 

•  ■ 

28 

•  • 

•  • 

35 

2 
26 

•  • 

•  • 

1 

•  • 

1 
3 

•  • 

1 

1 

»  • 

2 

1 

2 

*i 

1 

2 

1 
4 

1 
4 

Hospitallers      of      St. 
Joseph 

Sisters  of  Providence. 
Sisters  of  Good  Shep- 
herd  

4 

Sisters  of  Mercy 

Sisters     of     the     Con- 
gregation    of     St. 
Joseph 

1 

1 

1 

3 
2 

1 

Sisters  of  St.  Joseph . . 
Suiters    of    Charity    of 

Providence 

Sisters  of  Charity  (St. 

John,  N.  B.) 

Sisters  of  Our  Lady  of 

Charity  of  Refuge 
Sisters    of    St.    Joseph 

(London) 

Daughters  of   Wisdom 
Little  Servants  of  the 

Poor 

«    a 

•  • 

•  • 

3 

•  • 

•  • 

Dominican    Sisters    of 
the    Infant    Jesus 

Little    Franciscan    Sis- 
ters of   Mary .... 

Franciscan  Missionaries 
of  Mary 

•  • 

Sisters     of     Perpetual 
Succour 

1 

1 

1 

•   • 

63 

29 
15 

6 
13 

63 

2 

•  ■ 

•  • 

•  ■ 

65 

53 

7 

2 
3 

1 
1 

■    • 
•   • 

78 

58 
6 

5 
9 

•  • 

•  ■ 

5 
5 

•  ■ 

5 

7 

4 
2 

•    • 

1 
7 

5 

2 
1 

2 
5 

Daughters    of    Jesus .  ^ 

Sisters   of   St.    Francis 

of  Assisi 

*  • 

Special  Associations. . . 

Total 

Province  of  Quebec . . . 
Province  of  Ontario .  .  . 
Prince    Edward,     New 
Brunswick,  Halifax 
West  Canada 

«  « 

8 

3 
2 

2 
1 

Total 

65 

78 

2,12 

8 

founded  the  Hdtel-Dieu  of  Montreal,  which  in  1659 
was  confided  to  the  Hospitallers  of  St.  Joseph.  Mgr 
de  Saint- Vallier  (who  had  already  founded  the  Gen- 
eral llosoital  of  Quebec,  and  whose  will  contained 
the  words:    "Forget  me,   but  do   not  forget  my 

Cr'')  in  1607  requested  the  Ursulines  to  found  a 
pital  at  Three  Kivers.  This  hospital  was  placed 
in  charge  of  the  Sisfers  of  Providence  in  1886.  The 
General  Hospital  of  Montreal  (founded  1694)  was 
entrusted  in  1747  to  Mme  d'Youville,  foundress  of 
the  Grey  Nuns.  This  congregation,  whose  object 
is  the  care  of  foundlings,  oi^ans.  the  sick,  the  aeed, 
and  the  infirm,  was  the  origin  or  other  independent 
communities  engaged  in  the  same  work,  namely  the 
Grey  Nuns  at  St.  Hyacinthe  (1840),  the  Grey  Nuns 
of  the  Cross  at  Ottawa  (1845),  the  Grey  Nuns  of 
Charity  at  Quebec  (1849),  and  the  Grey  Nuns  at 
Nicolet  (1886).  These  communities,  which  are 
spread  throughout  Canada,  accomplish  wonderful 
works  of  chanty  in  behalf  ot  the  poor.  More  recent 
foundations  are  allied  with  them,  among  the  most 
important  being  the  Sisters  of  Providence  (founded 
at' Montreal  in  1843  by  Mme  Gamelin).  who  devote 
themselves  to  the  spiritual  and  temporal  relief  of  the 
poor  and  sick,  orphans  and  aged,  the  visitation  and 
care  of  the  sick  in  their  homes,  dispensaries,  refu^, 
and  workrooms.  They'  have  ei^tv-five  establish- 
ments. At  Montreal,  Ottawa,  and  Quebec  thete  is  a 
society  for  the  Protection  of  Young  Girls,  as  also  the 
Layette  Society,  an  association  of  charitable  women 
which  assists  poor  families  at  the  period  of  the  birth 
of  children.  The  above  table,  though  necessarily  in- 
complete, affords  an  idea  of  the  number  and  variety 
of  charitable  activity  in  Canada. 

The  Church  carries  out  these  undertakings,  at 
least  in  the  Province  of  Quebec,  almost  entirely  with 
the  assistance  of  private  charity.  In  19(K2  the 
H6tel-Dieu  of  Quebec  received  free  1052  sick  poor, 
whose  stay  at  the  hospital  represented  30,892  days 
of  board  and  treatment.  The  sisters  receive  from 
the  Government  an  annual  allowance  of  $448,  but 
nothing  from  the  city,  and  they  pay  the  water  tax. 
In  1910  the  Sisters  of  Charity  of  Quebec  had  538 
old  men  and  women  and  1704  orphans;  they  received 
$1498  from  the  Government  and  paid  to  the  city 
$1050  for  water.  In  191 1  the  Government  of  Quebec 
granted  a  subsidy  of  $56,875.75  to  charitable  in- 
stitutions, Protestant  as  well  as  Catholic.  In 
Ontario  the  Government  pavs  20  cents  a  day  for 
120  days  and  7  cents  a  day  for  subsequent  days  for 
each  patient  admitted  to  a  hospital:  the  cities  also 
pay  their  quota.  In  1909  the  subsidies  paid  by  the 
provincial  Government  to  hospitals,  infinnaries,  and 
orphanages  amounted  to  $257,813.53.  The  Society 
of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  was  established  at  Quebec  in 
1846  by  Dr.  Joseph  Padnchaud.  Conferences  were 
formed  at  Montreal  (1848),  Toronto  (1850),  Ottawa 
(1860),  and  Hamilton  (1866).  The  superior  council 
for  all  Canada  is  located  at  Quebec.  In  1896  it 
numbered  104  conferences;  its  receipts  for  the  year 
equalled  $64,000  and  its  expenses  $53,000.  Dimng 
the  past  fifty  years  the  Quebec  conferences  have  ex- 
pended $577,069.98  on  the  poor.  In  1909  the  society 
numbered  97  French  conferences  with  4228  members 
and  59  English  conferences  with  1039  members. 
The  receipts  equalled  $162,199.46  and  the  expendi- 
tures $126,316.12.  Relief  was  given  to  2900  families, 
composed  of  11,524  individuals.  Besides  visiting 
the  poor  in  their  homes,  the  society  has  organized 
patronages  for  the  instruction  of  poor  children  and 
night  shelters  for  the  homeless,  and  finds  homes  with 
families  for  orphaned  apprentices.  In  recent  years 
it  has  been  assisted  by  tne  Guignol6e  collection  made 
for  the  poor  on  Christmas  Eve  by  t-he  Association  of 
Commercial  Travellers.  In  1910  this  collection 
amounted  to  more  than  $8000. 

Le  Canada  •e«Uaiattiq^§  (1910);   Annitaire  de  VHUtl-Ditu  d§ 


XII.— 16 


POOR                                242  POOR 

QuSbM  (1900);  Annuaire  de  VHdjriial  St-Jo$eph  (Three  Rivera,  cases  secured  the  appointment  of  CathoUc  00-opted 

ifto^^°^'%^«^o*5t2??i9in^'!yJS/  members   upon   the   education  committees,  consid- 

VineetS'dr^ul,'dQuibee/me-iei^becriS97)',  Rapport  g&-  ^rate  treatment  for  Catholic   chikhren   in   the   ad- 

nSral  du  conaeU  aupirieur  de  la  SoeiUi  st-Vineent  de  Paul  du  mmistration  of  the  Provision  of  Meals  (Education) 

Canada  (1910).  Act,  in  the  medical  treatment  and  inspection  of 

Stanislas-A.  Lobtib.  school  children,  in  the  work  of  the  Children's  Care 

Conmiittees,  and  in  the  carrying  out  of  the  Indus- 
Hi.  In  Great  Britain  AND  Ireland. — In  the  Brit-  trial  Schools  Acts:  they  have  also  in  many  cases 
ish  Isles  two  different  types  of  organizations  deal  obtained  satbfactory  provision  for  religious  ob- 
with  the  care  of  the  poor:  (a)  public  statutory  bodies;  servances  for  Catholic  inmates  of  lunatic  asylums, 
(b)  voluntary  associations.  Under  the  former  may  remand  homes,  inebriate  homes,  and  the  like.  The 
be  included  rarhament,  which  makes  laws  affecting  efforts  of  the. Catholic  Guardians  have  gained  great 
the  care  of  the  poor,  ana  local  bodies,  such  as  county,  advantages  for  Catholic  in  many  districts,  sucn  as 
borough,  town,  ana  district  councils,  and  more  par-  the  appointment  of  CathoUc  religious  instructors 
ticidarly  the  boards  of  ^luardians  which  administer  in  worKhouses  and  infirmaries,  facilities  for  Mass 
them.  The  tendency  of  modem  legislation  has  been  and  the  sacraments  for  the  inmates  of  poor  law  in- 
to transfer  certain  scions  of  work  affecting  the  poor  stitutions  either  within  or  without  these  establish- 
from  boards  of  guardians  to  other  local  bodies.  As  ments,  arrangements  for  recognized  Catholic  visitors 
education,  pubuc  healthy  pension,  and  asylum  to  worldiouses  and  in&rmaries.  and  the  safeguarding 
authorities,  municipal  bodies  other  than  boards  of  of  the  faith  of  Catholic  children  by  securing  their 
guardians  now  deal  with  feeding  necessitous  school  transfer  to  Catholic  poor  law  schools.  Indeed,  be- 
children,  medical  inspection  and  treatment  of  chil-  yond  the  benefits  to  their  own  coreligionists,  to  the 
dren  attending  the  elementary  schools,  the  after-  influence  of  Catholic  guardians  may  be  attributc^l 
care  of  school  children,-  scholarships,  schools  for  in  no  small  decree  the  improved  administration  of 
defective  children,  inspection  of  laundries,  work-  the  Poor  Law  m  recent  years.  A  striking  witness 
shops,  common  lodging  houses,  and  houses  let  in  to  the  value  of  their  efforts  in  this  respect  tnay  be 
tenements,  the  allocation  of  old  age  pensions,  and  the  found  in  the  axudety  shown  by  those  interested  in  the 
provision  and  management  of  all  forms  of  asylums  reports  of  the  recent  Royal  Commission  on  the  Poor 
tor  the  insane  and  epileptic.  All  public  statutoi^  Law  to  secure  the  support  of  Catholics  for  their 
bodies  dealing  with  the  care  of  the  poor  obtain  theur  particular  views. 

funds  from  taxes  or  rates,  to  which  Catholic  as  Catholics  influence  the  care  of  the  poor  throu^ 

citizens  contribute  either  directly  or  indirectly.    In  voluntary  organizations,  either  by  participating  m 

Great  Britain  until  recentlv  Catholics  had  few  or^  the  work  of  general  agencies  or  b^  tneir  own  efforts 

ganizations  for  securing  Catholic  representation  upon  on   Catholic   lines.     The  more  important   philan- 

public  bodies.    Within  the  last  few  years,  however,  thropic  bodies,  such  as  the  Charity  Organization 

the   Catholic   Federation  movement  has  spread  in  Society,  the  National  Societjr  for  the  ftevention 

different  parts  of  the  country.    This  urns  at  en-  of  Cruelty  to  Children,  the  Children's  Country  Holi- 

couraging  Catholics  to  take  their  share  in  public  dav  Fimd,  or  the  public   hospitals  supported  by 

affairs  by  becoming  candidates  for  public  office  (not  voluntary  funds,  all  include  many  Catholics  amon^t 

necessarily  as  Catholics,  but  as  ordinary  citizens),  their  members,   with  the  result  that  these  bodies 

and  to  safeguard  Catholic  interests  by  putting  test  usually  willingly  co-operate  with  recognized  Catholic 

questions   to   all   candidates  on  matters  affecting  or^amzations,    whenever    Catholic    applicants    for 

Catholics  in  order  to  afford  guidance  to  Catholic  relief  have  to  be  considered. 

voters.  By  these  efforts,  and  notably  by  the  exer-  In  the  absence  of  official  statistics,  it  is  difficult 
tions  of  individuals.  Catholics  have  secured  some  to  estimate  accurately  the  extent  of  charitable 
representation  upon  public  bodies,  though  not  in  work  amongst  the  poor  by  Catholics  themselves  as 
proportion  to  tneir  numbers.  In  the  House  of  Catholics.  Every  Catholic  mission,  with  a  resident 
Commons  elected  in  January,  1910,  there  were  9  priest,  serves  as  a  centre  for  such  work.  Poor 
Catholic  members  out  of  495  for  constituencies  in  Catholics  in  distress  instinctively  turn  to  the  priest, 
England  and  Wales,  but  none  out  of  72  in  Scotland,  who,  if  he  has  no  suitable  charitable  organization  at- 
No  figures  for  municipal  bodies  are  available,  but  in  tached  to  his  church,  usually  acts  as  almoner  him- 
many  of  the  larger  towns  in  Great  Britain  Catholics  self.  Some  approximate  idea  of  the  extent  of  such 
have  representation  (for  example,  the  London  County  work  may  be  gathered  from  the  fact  that  in  England 
Council  has  5  CathoUc  members  out  of  137).  Catho-  and  Wales  there  are  1773  churehes,  chapels,  and 
lies  have  greatest  representation  upon  boards  of  stations  with  3747  priests,  the  corresponding  figures 
guardians  which  exist  directly  for  the  care  of  the  for  Scotland  bein^  394  and  555,  and  for  Ireland 
poor.  This  is  due  mainly  to  the  efforts  of  the  2468  and  3645.  Smiilarly,  an  extraordinary  amount 
Catholic  Guardians  Association  (founded  in  1894),  of  charitable  work  is  regularlv  carried  out  by  the 
which  forms  a  centre  for  Catholic  guardians,  holds  religious  communities,  especially  bv  those  of  women 
an  annual  conference,  gives  legal  ^vice,  conducts  who  devote  their  lives  to  personal  service  amongst 
negotiations  with  (government  departments,  and  the  poor,  such  as  the  Sisters  of  Charity,  the  Sisters 
assists  in  various  ways.  Out  of  24,000  members  of  of  Mercy,  the  Sisters  of  Nazareth,  the  Little  Sisters 
boards  of  guardians  in  England  and  Wales  640  are  of  the  Poor,  the  Sisters  of  the  Good  Shepherd,  the 
Catholics.  In  Ireland,  of  course,  except  in  a  few  Little  Company  of  Mary,  and  others.  Almost  every 
districts  in  the  north,  a  large  proportion  of  the  possible  form  of  charitable  assistance  is  undertaken 
members  of  all  public  bodies  are  Catholics:  out  of  by  these  communities  in  different  parts  of  the  three 
103  members  of  Parliament,  for  example,  74  are  countries.  Orphanages  for  boys  and  girls,  poor  law 
Catholics.  schools,  industrial  schools,  homes  for  physically  and 
In  legislation  affecting  the  poor.  Catholic  members  mentidly  defective  children,  homes  for  the  aged, 
of  Parliament  by  their  influence  have  safeguarded  night  refuges  for  the  destitute,  reformatories,  train- 
Catholic  interests.  In  acts,  for  example,  dealing  ing  homes  for  servants,  homes  for  working  boys 
with  defective  children,  provisions  have  been  in-  and  girls,  hospitals,  hospices  for  the  dying,  con- 
serted  which  secure  to  Catholic  parents  the  right  valescent  homes,  holiday  homes  in  the  country  and  at 
under  certain  conditions  to  have  their  children  sent  the  seaside,  working  girls'  clubs,  homes  for  penitents, 
to  Catholic  schools:  in  the  recent  Children's  Act  refuges  for  fallen  women,  homes  for  inebriates,  visit- 
similar  restrictions  have  also  been  inserted.  Catho-  ing  the  sick,  nursing  the  sick  poor,  iiMtructing  the 
lie  members  of  municipal  councils  have  in  many  deaf  and  dumb  in  their  religion,  are  all  amongst  the 


POOB  '  243  POOR 

charitable  works  under  the  care  of  religious.    Some  bv    placing   them   in    CathoUc    voluntary   homes, 

of  these  have  deservedly  gained  a  national  reputation  Chiloren  of  Catholic  parents  are  sometimes  by  mis- 

for  the  standard  of  excellence  reached — for  example,  take  entered  in  non-Catholic  poor  law  schools.    The 

St.  Vincent's  Industrial  School  for  boys;  Dartfora  rescue  societies  watch  carefully  all  such  cases,  recti- 

(under  the  Presentation  Brothers);  the  Home  for  fying  any  mistakes  made.    The  children  of  neglectful 

the   Aged    Poor;    Nazareth   House,    Hammersmith  Catholic  parents  are  not  infrequently  brought  to  the 

(under  Sisters  of  Nazareth);  and  the  Blind  Asylum,  notice    of    non-Catholic    organizations,    which    are 

Merrion^  Dublin  (under  the  Irish  Sisters  of  Charity),  willing  to  assist  them,  if  Catholic  societies  fail  to  do 

tu  mention  only  a  few.    The  religious  communities,  so;  in  such  cases  the  rescue  societies  are  always  too 

wliose  work  is  not  directly  charitable,  nevertheless,  ready  to  proffer  their  aid.    In  Great  Britain,  eight 

are,  like  the  clergy,  regularly  called  upon  to  act  the  dioceses  have  organized  rescue  societies,  whicn  deal 

part  of  almoners.    The  number  of  religious  houses  with  many  hundreds  of  children  each  year,  but  every 

of  women,  including  branch  houses,  in  the  three  diocese  has  its  poor  law  school,  or  its  industrial 

countries  must  exceed  1000,  but  this  number  does  school,  in  which  Catholic  children  can  be  received, 

not  afford  any  criterion  of  the  extent  of  the  work  ao-  As  an  outcome  of  the  work  of  the  rescue  societies, 

complished  by  them.    A  good  example,  admittedly  a  Catholic  Emigration  Association  has  been  in  exis- 

well  above  the  average,  taken  from  one  of  the  lal]gest  tence  in  England  for  some  years  past,  which  arranges 

towns,  will  serve  as  an  illustration.    Situated  in  a  for  the  emigration  of  Catholic  children  to  Canada 

very  poor  district,  with  twenty  sisters  in  the  com-  after  leaving  the  rescue  institutions  in  order  to  re- 

munity,  a  Convent  of  Mercy,  besides  supplying  nine  move  them  conlpletely  from  any  danger  of  falling 

sisters  as  teachers  in  two  elementary  schoob,  has  back  into  their  earl^  evil  surroundings.    This  as- 

charge  of  a  night  refuge  for  nearly  300  men,  women,  sociation  has  a  receivmg  home  in  Ottawa,  whence  the 

and  children,  a  servants'  home,  a  home  for  young  young  emigrants  are  placed  out  with  Catholic  farmers, 

working  women,  and  a  soup  kitchen,  and  its  reli-  and  their  progress  is  watched  until  they  come  oi 

gious  regularly  visit  the  sick  in  a  large  hospital  and  age. 
the  Catholic  poor  in  the  district.  Certain  other  Catholic  societies,  which  flourish 

The  principal  charitable  voluntary  organization  in  some  form  or  other  in  the  three  coimtries,  carry 
for  Catnolic  men  is  the  Society  of  St.  Vincent  de  on  very  useful  social  work:  the  Catholic  Prij9oners' 
Paul,  which  flourished  both  in  Great  Britain  and  Ire-  Aid  Society  (with  branches  in  London,  Dublin, 
land:  in  England  and  Wales,  it  has  274  local  con-  Glasgow,  and  other  large  towns,  not  necessarily  con- 
ferences with  3523  active  members:  in  Scotland,  95  nected,  but  working  on  similar  lines),  which  assists 
conferences  with  1316  active  members;  in  Ireland,  Catholic  prisoners  on  leaving  prison,  and  endeavours 
200  conferences  with  3134  active  members.  By  per-  to  start  them  in  life  again;  the  Catnolic  Needlework 
fional  service  amongst  the  Catholic  poor,  the  society  Guild,  whose  members  bind  themselves  each  year  to 
unostentatiously  carries  on  a  considerable  amount  provide  a  certain  number  of  useful  garments  for  the 
of  charitable  work.  It  practises  many  forms  of  poor;  and  the  Catholic  Boys'  Brigade,  whose  aim 
assistance,  including  feedinp;  the  hungry,  visiting  is  to  unite  Catholic  bo^s  as  they  leave  the  elementary 
the  sick  in  their  homes  and  in  the  public  infirmaries  schools,  to  keep  them  in  touch  with  the  Church,  and 
and  hospitals,  visiting  the  imprisoned,  attending  to  provide  in  various  ways  for  their  spiritual,  physical, 
the  children's  courts  to  watch  Catholic  cases,  finding  and  social  well-being. 

employment  for  those  out  of  work,  actine  as  cate-        The  great  drawback  to  all  Catholic  social  efforts 

chists  for  poor  boys  in  Sunday  schools  and  bringing  is,  undoubtedly^  the   lack   of    intercommunication 

them  to  Mass  and  the  sacraments,  asdsting  in  the  between  Catholic  workers  in  different  parts.    Two 

formation    and   management    of   boys'  iclubs   and  organizations  have,  however,  recently  been  started, 

brigades,  and  the  like.    The  local  conferences  are  wmch  as  they  spread  will  probably  tend  to  remove 

grouped  into  councils  which  hold  quarterly  meetings  this  defect:  the  Catholic  Women's  League,  which  has 

of  all  members  to  discuss  topics  of  general  interest,  already  in  London  established  a  social  information 

No  general  society  for  Catholic  women  correspond-  bureau^   and   has   succeeded   in   bringing   together 

ing  to  the  Society  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  flourishes  Cathohc  women  workers  from  all  parts  of  the  coun- 

throughout   the   three  countries,   but  kindred   or-  try^    and  the  Catholic  Social  Guild,  for  Catholic 

p^anizations,  whose,  objects  are  similar  in  scope,  thrive  social  study,  which  many  hope  will  eventuallv  develop 

m  different  parts,  such  as  St.  Elizabeth's  Society,  into  a  Catholic  Institute  of  Social  Service  for  Great 

the  Ladies  of  Charity,  and  Ladies'  Settlements.    All  Britain  and  Ireland,  upon  lines  which  have  already 

these  resemble  the  Society  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  in  proved  so  useful  in  other  countries, 

aiming  primarily  at  the  personal  edification  of  the  ,^5»^~*?®*  ff  ^^^  ^^^^i*^ ?;!^^.^^.^^i*,^l^'^^^ 

worker,  as  well  as  at  tne  spintuai  ana  temporal  ^^  (f)ublm.  1910);  CathoUc  Social  Yw  Book  (London,  lOiO). 
benefit  of  those  assisted.    These  orgamzations.  how-  John  W.  Gilbbst. 

ever,  do  not  confine  their  efforts  to  women  ana  girls, 

but  take  a  large  part  in  work  amongst  boys.    A        IV.    In  thb  Unitbo   States. — ^This  description 

ladies'  settlement  in  London^  for  example,  includes  is  confined  to  methods  followed  in  serving  the  poor 

in  its  scheme  of  work   visitmg  the  sick  and  poor,  outside  of  institutions  strictly  so  called,  and  does  not 

instruction  for  the  sacraments,  mothers'  meetings,  include  institutional  works  conductea  by  religious 

a  men's  club,  a  girls'  club,  a  clothins  club,  a  sewing  communities,  which  are  described  elsewhere  under 

class,  the  provision  of  free  meals  for  children,  evening  appropriate  headings,  nor  relief  given  by  individuals 

classes  etc.  to  individuals,  as  the  spirit  and  method  in  Catholic 

One  of  the  most  striking  developments  of  Catholic  charity  come  to  best  expression  through  organiza- 

work  amongst  the  poor  in  recent  years,  especially  in  tion.    Furthermore,  the  need  of  organization  and  the 

England,  has  been  the  organization  of  rescue  societies  approval  of  it  become  daily  more  and  more  pro- 

to  safeguard  the  faith  of  Catholic  children  in  dan-  nounced.    Individuals    contribute    with    increasing 

ger.    Mixed  marriages,  poverty,  misfortune,  neglect,  generosity  to  organizations,  and  refer  to  them  the 

evil  livingj  are  amongst  the  many  causes  which,  par-  applications  for  relief  which  they  meet.    A  sense  of 

ticularly  m  the  larger  towns,   contribute  towards  responsibility  toward  the  poor  will  be  found  in  the 

placing  in  jeopardy  the  faith  of  little  ones.    The  parish,  the  city  as  such,  the  diocese,  and  the  religious 

children  of  a  mixed  marris^e,  in  which  the  father  is  a  conmiunity  whether  of  men  or  of  women,  and  each 

non-CathoUc,  who  seek  admission  to  a  poor  law  in-  accordingly  engage  in  relief  work.    In  our  greater 

Btitution,  are  held  at  law  to  be  of  the  same  relidon  cities  a  tendency  is  found  to  establish  central  offices 

<i8  the  father.    The  rescue  societies  save  such  children  through  which  idl  Catholic  charities  may  be  oo- 


POOR 


244 


POOR 


ordinatcd.  A  similar  movement  toward  co-ordina- 
tion of  diocesan  charities  is  also  found.  General 
meetings  of  charitable  organizations  of  all  kinds  for 
purposes  of  discut^ion  and  improvement  of  methods 
occur  with  increasing  frequency.  Finally,  there  are 
organizations  which  undertake  particular  works  and 
gradually  expand  activity  until  they  include  repre- 
sentation from  a  large  number  of  cities  and  states  in 
their  organization. 

The  combination  of  all  Catholic  charities  in  the 
United  States  into  one  vast  national  conference  has 
just  been  begun  under  the  name  "The  National 
Conference  of  Catholic  Charities".  The  aims  of  the 
Conference,  much  like  .those  of  all  similar  charitable 
organizations,  are  the  following:  (1)  to  bring  about 
exchange  of  views  amon^  experienced  Catholic  men 
and  women  who  are  active  m  the  work  of  charity; 

(2)  to  collect  and  publish  information  concerning  or- 
ganization, problems,  and  results  in  Catholic  charity; 

(3)  to  bring  to  expression  a  general  policy  toward  dis- 
tinctive modem  questions  in  relief  and  prevention 
and    towards    methods    and    tendencies    in    them; 

(4)  to  encourage  further  development  of  a  literature 
in  which  the  religious  and  social  ideals  of  charity 
shall  find  dignified  expression.  Relief  problems  will 
differ  somewhat  with  the  locality  and  with  the 
character  of  those  in  need.  This  is  particularly  the 
case  in  the  United  States  where  city  population  is  so 
heterogeneous.  It  is  necessary,  therefore,  to  confine 
this  description  to  typical  methods,  excluding  those 
peculiar  to  any  locality.  Furthermore,  no  attempt 
IS  made  to  indicate  quantities  in  relief  work  or  extent 
in  organization.  Tne  methods  described  are  the 
methods  actually  found  in  Catholic  circles,  which 
are  to  a  large  extent  like  those  followed  in  organized 
charity  generally,  but  differ  in  motive  and  spirit  and 
the  degree  in  which  certain  principles  are  followed  or 
certain  factors  emphasized. 

Information  concerning  the  needs  of  the  poor 
reaches  the  organization  through  many  channels. 
Application  may  be  made  directly  by  those  in  want. 
Members  of  an  organization  while  working  among  the 
poor  whom  they  know  are  constantly  discovering  new 
cases.  Other  charitable  organizations,  whether  secu- 
lar or  religious,  will  usually  notify  a  Catholic  society 
when  they  discover  Catholics  m  want.  Teaching 
sisters  in  parochial  schools  are  frequently  able  to 
render  most  efficient  service  through  the  knowledge 
.  which  they  obtain  of  the  needs  of  poor  families. 
Policemen  report  cases  of  which  they  learn.  The 
ministrations  of  the  parish  priest  among  the  poor, 
and  the  prompt  instinctive  turning  of  these  to  the 
priest  when  distress  comes,  enable  the  latter  to  place 
mformation  concerning  every  conceivable  plight  of 
the  needy  in  the  hands  of  the  charitable  organization. 
We  thus  find  a  fairly  complete  network  of  factors 
through  which  relief  agencies  are  enabled  to  obtain 
early  knowledge  and  give  prompt  assistance.  No 
doubt  the  tendency  in  many  poor  families  to  hide 
their  suffering  and  bear  privation  in  silence  baffles 
the  watchfulness  of  all  agencies,  but  on  the  whole 
thesQ  factors  in  the  work  of  relief  are  extremely 
helpful. 

Once  it  is  discovered  that  relief  is  needed  an  ex- 
perienced member  of  an  organization  is  directed  to 
take  charge  of  the  case  immediately.  If  an  emer- 
gency is  found  immediate  relief  is  given  without 
question,  otherwise  such  inouiry  is  instituted  as  will 
bring  out  the  cause  of  the  aistress  together  with  the 
kind  and  degree  of  relief  needed.  Relatives  are 
sought  out  if  there  are  any  in  position  to  take  care  of 
the  case,  former  employers  or  even  friends  who  might 
be  willing  to  assist  are  looked  for,  and  appieal  is  made 
to  them.  If  there  are  no  such  relations  discovered, 
the  charitable  organization  assumes  charge  of  the 
case  and  accepts  full  responsibility  for  it.  From  that 
moment,  personal  attention  and  service  will  be  given 


to  the  family  or  individual  as  long  as  may  be  needed 
Spirit  ahd  practice  in  Catholic  circles  strongly  favour 
most  delicate  regard  for  the  feelings  and  privacy  of 
the  poor.  In  fact,  organizations  usually  make  pro- 
vision for  exceptional  cases  by  placing  funds  at  the 
disposal  of  the  priests  or  some  officer  of  the  society, 
no  account  of  which  will  be  rendered  even  to  the 
organization  itself.  No  knowledge  of  the  names  of 
those  relieved  or  of  the  nature  of  their  need  is  given 
even  to  any  officer  in  the  organization. 

The  result  of  an  inquiry  into  the  condition  of  a 
family,  full  account  of  the  relief  given,  and  all  the 
salient  facts  in  the  condition  and  history  of  the 
family  or  individual  are  made  a  matter  of  record 
in  the  minutes  of  the  society's  meetings.  These 
minutes  are  accessible  to  the  menibers  of  the  or- 
ganization and  to  no  one  else  unless  definite  necessity 
require  it.  The  impression  that  records  are  a  matter 
of  indifference  in  Catholic  circles  is  to  some  extent 
inexact.  The  card  index  method  with  its  elaborate 
details  is  not  used  as  widely  as  in  other  circles,  but 
substantial  records  found  in  the  minutes,  supple- 
metited  by  definite  personal  knowledge  of  the  poor, 
serve  practically  every  purpose  at  which  any  matter 
of  record-keeping  can  aim.  Cases  are  thoroughly 
discussed  in  the  regular  meetings  of  the  charitable 
society.  Reports  are  made  by  those  in  charge  and 
judgment  in  governing  a  case  is  based  on  thorough 
but  confidential  discussion.  Every  stage  of  relief- 
giving  IS  made  a  matter  of  direct  personal  concern 
to  a  member  of  the  society,  who  Iooks  upon  his  work 
as  an  organic  part  of  his  religious  activity.  This 
service  of  the  poor  is  associated  with  the  work  of 
prayer  and  fasting  in  the  religious  life  of  an  individual. 
The  bond  of  spintual  union  in  charity,  which  results 
from  this  commonly  shared  estimate  of  its  spiritual 
character,  paves  the  way  for  a  certain  drapee  of  co- 
ordination which  adds  greatly  to  the  efficiency  of 
Catholic  charities. 

We  may  take  for  illustration  an  average  poor 
family  and  study  the  process  of  relieving  it.  If 
housing  conditions  are  bad,  they  are  corrected,  or  a 
new  house  found.  If  the  neighbourhood  contains 
elements  of  moral  danger,  the  family  is  moved  to  a 
new  environment  in  another  section  of  the  city  as  a 
first  step  in  its  reconstruction.  If  housing  conditions 
are  satisfactory  and  the  family  is  unable  to  pay  rent, 
provision  is  made  for  it.  The  resources  of  the  family 
are  studied,  and  for  members  who  are  capable  of  wage- 
earning  activity,  emplojrment  is  unfailingly  found. 
This  constitutes  one  of  the  most  important  and  help- 
ful features  of  relief  work.  If  the  mother  is  compelled 
to  labour,  provision  is  made  for  the  care  of  her  young 
children,  as  described  below.  If  conditions  do  not 
warrant  the  mother  in  working,  she  is  kept  at  home  to 
care  for  her  family  and  provision  is  made  for  her  sup- 
port. The  family  may  be  able  to  earn  part  but  not 
all  of  the  income  needed,  or  it  may  need  complete 
relief  temporarily.  W^hatever  the  condition,  effort 
is  made  to  adjust  the  kind  and  degree  of  relief  to  the 
needs  and  outlook  of  the  family.  At  all  times  the 
primary  aim  is  to  draw  out  their  resources,  to  do 
nothing  which  will  stifle  them,  but  to  do  everything 
which  will  lead  the  family  to  believe  in  itself  and 
effect  its  own  salvation. 

The  standard  of  adequate  relief  cannot  be  a  uni- 
versally determined  quantity.  The  judgment  of 
those  in  immediate  charge  of  the  case  is  usually  ac- 
cepted as  final,  under  the  general  policy  of  not  doing 
too  much  nor  quite  all  that  may  be  needed.  The 
family  is  made  to  realize  that  self-help  is  in  all  cases 
better  than  relief  from  outside.  The  relief  needed 
may  be  given  in  money  t^  be  expended  by  the  family 
or  in  tickets  on  which  are  described  the  items  and  the 
quantities  to  be  obtained.  These  tickets  are  pre- 
sented to  a  selected  retailer  or  to  the  storekeeper  of 
the  organization  itself  when  the  latter  keeps  stand* 


POOR 


245 


POOB 


ard  supplies.  We  find  many  charitable  associations 
which  make  a  specialty  of  furnishing  one  particular 
kind  of  relief.  Thus,  for  instance,  one  society  may 
provide  shoes  and  books  for  school  children;  an- 
other, outfits  for  newly-born  infants  or  for  First  CJom- 
munion  children;  another  assumes  the  r61e  of  Santa 
Claus  and  makes  provision  to  answer  the  hopeful 
letters  which  the  children  of  the  poor  write  asking  for 
Christmas  gifts.  Certain  orgamzations,  like  sewing 
circles,  will  meet  regularly  throughout  the  year  or 
during  a  given  period  to  make  garments  for  later  dis- 
tribution. An  interesting  modification  in  relief 
work  which  is  the  outgrowth  of  the  beautiful  Christ- 
mas sentiment  is  found  in  the  practice  of  furnishing 
well-supplied  baskets  of  provisions  for  Christmas 
dinners.  This  practice  is  rapidly  assuming  large 
proportions,  and  appears  to  have  a  high  educational 
value.  Many  who  appear  indifferent  to  the  needs  of 
the  poor  are  won  over  to  an  interest  in  them  by  the 
spirit  of  Christmas  giving,  and  numbers  remain  faith- 
ful contributors  to  charity  work  from  that  time  on. 

If  the  resources  of  a  familv  are  temporarily  sus- 
pended, a  loan  rather  than  formal  charity  may  be 
needed,  or  redemption  from  the  bondage  of  the  loan 
shark.  In  such  cases  the  required  loan  is  found,  the 
loan  shark  forcefullv  dealt  with,  or  his  claims  taken 
and  carried  by  the  charitable  society.  The  high  s«jse 
of  honour  frequently  found  among  the  poor  in  re- 
paying such  loans  or  even  money  ^ven  in  charity 
IS  worthy  of  mention.  If  the  family  has  need  of 
legal  assistance  as  may  occur  in  cases  of  wife-deser- 
tion, non-support,  cruelty,  or  injustice,  the  need  is 
met  by  attorneys  who  are  active  members  of  a  chari- 
table organization,  or  by  legal  aid  societies  made  up  of 
attorneys  united  for  the  purpose  of  giving  legal  aid 
to  the  poor.  If  the  family  has  sufficient  income  to 
meet  its  wants  and  its  plight  is  clue  rather  to  mis- 
management than  to  need,  efforts  are  made  to  give 
assistance  in  the  management  of  things.  Small 
debts  are  gathered  up  into  one  sum,  the  time  and 
manner  of  paying  them  are  agreed  upon  and  followed 
out,  the  purchase  of  necessaries  is  studied  by  the 
friendly  visitor  and  the  mother  or  father,  with  a  view 
to  intelligent  economy  and  protection  against  fraud. 
The  most  intimate  details  in  household  management 
are  regulated.  If  the  father  has  carried  insurance 
and  is  then  unable  to  pay  his  dues,  the  society  makes 
the  payments.  Such  services  make  up  the  work  of 
the  friendly  visitor.  The  aim  is  to  bring  to  the 
family  the  services  of  a  real  and  helpful  friend  ren- 
dered in  a  natural  and  friendly  spirit,  thus  introducing 
into  the  family  circle  the  strength,  intelligence,  and 
moral  support  that  come  into  normal  lives  through 
normal  friendships.  If  the  mother  is  a  poor  house- 
keeper, she  is  instructed;  if  she  lacks  intelligence  in 
trainini^  her  children,  assistance  is  offered.  There 
is  no  difficulty  or  defect  in  the  whole  economy  of  the 
home  to  which  the  friendly  visitor  will  not  direct 
attention  in  the  hope  of  awakening  the  latent  in- 
telligence and  resources  of  the  little  group. 

Though  every  poor  family  must  be  looked  upon  in- 
dividually and  should  be  relieved  according  to  its 
individual  constitution,  the  presence  of  large  num- 
bers of  poor  families  subjected  to  practically  the  same 
environment  and  manifesting  typical  forms  of  weak- 
ness and  inefficiency  will  present  conditions  which 
may  be  best  dealt  with  collectively.  The  following 
are  typical  methods  of  collective  relief:  When  a 
number  of  poor  mothers  are  compelled  to  work,  pro- 
vision for  the  care  of  their  young  children  is  mad^  in 
what  is  known  as  the  day  nursery.  A  central  house 
is  rented  or  purchased,  where  the  mothers  bring  their 
children  in  the  morning,  and  call  for  them  after  the 
day's  work  is  done.  The  day  nursery  may  be  in 
charge  of  either  religious  or  lay  women.  The  children 
are  taught,  amused,  fed,  and  clothed.  The  mothers 
are  instructed  as  to  the  care  of  their  children  when 


occasion  arises.  In  some  cases  a  nominal  charge  of 
five  or  ten  cents  per  day  is  made;  in  other  cases  there 
is  no  charge  whatever.  The  policy  is  determined 
not  from  the  standpoint  of  revenue  but  from  that  of 
sustaining  the  self-respect  of  the  family  and  hinder- 
ing possible  abuses  of  the  generosity  of  the  organiza- 
tion. A  second  form  of  collective  service  is  found  in 
what  is  known  as  the  social  settlement.  The  chari- 
table society  selects  a  house  in  a  poor  neighbour- 
hood and  makes  it  a  centre  of  social  activities  for  the 
poor  famiUes  about  it.  Hither  come  mothers  for 
their  club  meetings,  instruction  in  sewing,  house- 
keeping, and  care  of  children;  boys  and  girls,  for  their 
club  meetings,  play,  or  evening  study.  Old  and 
young  find  an  adequate  library  where  the  whole 
range  of  their  approved  tastes  in  reading  may  be 
satisfied.  At  such  times  and  in  such  manner  as  suit 
conditions  instruction  is  given  in  religion,  the  ele- 
ments of  character,  and  simpler  trades;  particular 
attention  is  directed  to  the  work  of  teachins  girls 
to  make  their  own  clothes.  The  social  settlement 
furnishes  for  the  poor  as  wide  a  range  of  opportunity 
for  inspiration  and  self -development  as  the  wealthy 
find  in  their  clubs. 

Collective  relief  is  found  also  in  what  is  known 
as  Fresh  Air  Work.  A  home  is  provided  in  the  coun- 
trv  to  which  the  children  of  the  poor  are  taken  in 
relatively  large  numbers  and  remain  from  seven  to 
fourteen  days.  A  well-balanced  diet  is  given  to  them 
during  their  stay,  and  their  phvsi(»il  condition, 
moral,  and  spiritual  needs  are  looked  into.  When 
the  fresh  air  home  is  completely  equipped,  all  phys- 
ical defects  are  carefully  noted  and  cases  requiring 
attention  are  referred  to  charitable  organizations 
for  attention  after  the  child's  return  home.  These 
homes  are  under  the  direction  of  either  religious  or 
lay  women.  A  modification  of  this  work  \a  found  in 
the  single  day  excursions  which  are  provided  at  fre- 
quent intervals  during  the  summer  for  the  children 
of  the  poor  and  for  chUdren  in  institutions.  Another 
form  of  collective  service  is  that  of  encouraging 
thrift.  The  typical  method  of  doing  this  is  to  send 
collectors  among  the  poor  who  gather  their  nickels 
and  dimes  which  would  otherwise  be  wasted,  giving 
in  return  some  form  of  receipt  such  as  a  stamp  p&^tcd 
into  a  book  used  for  the  purpose.  The  money  thus 
collected  is  held  to  the  credit  of  the  saver  and,  is  re- 
turnable on  demand.  In  this  way,  families  very  fre- 
quently save  sufficient  during  the  summer  to  make 
provision  for  times  of  idleness  or  for  the  severer  de- 
mands of  the  winter. 

The  care  of  the  sick  poor  in  their  homes  is  a  matter 
of  supreme  concern.  Aside  from  the  service  rendered 
by  the  friendly  visitor  whose  function  extends  to  all 
the  members  of  the  family,  whatever  their  condition, 
there  are  communities  of  sisters  and  associations  of 
lay  women  which  aim  to  nurse  the  sick  and  supply 
medicine,  food,  and  clothing  without  remuneration 
of  any  kind.  Physicians  are  found  in  fair  numbers 
among  our  charitable  organizations,  and  their  ser- 
vices are  uniformly  given  in  the  work.  Religious 
communities  thus  engaged  make  no  distinction  as  to 
cre^  or  colour.  The  associations  aim  to  supply  defi- 
nite needs  of  the  sick  poor.  If  a  change  of  climate 
is  required  for  an  individual,  the  means  and  direc- 
tions necessary  are  forthcoming;  if  tubercular  pa- 
tients require  a  special  diet  or  dfelicate  infants  need 
a  certifiecl  milk,  provision  is  made;  surgical  appliances, 
artificial  limbs,  crutches,  etc.  are  supplied  whenever 
called  for.  Provision  for  the  decent  burial  of  the 
poor  b  found  in  practically  all  Catholic  charitable 
organizations;  traditionally,  the  cemetery  corpora- 
tions furnish  lots  without  expense.  The  hospital 
dispensary  which  is  found  widely  among  Catholic 
hospitals  provides  the  services  of  physicians  in  special, 
as  well  as  in  general,  practice  for  every  type  of  ail- 
ment which  may  be  brought  to  notice  and  furnishes 


POOB 


246 


POOB 


medicines.  All  types  of  religious  communities,  except 
those  cloistered,  perform  every  variety  of  service  for  the 
sick  poor  as  conditions  invite  and  circumstances  per- 
mit. The  activities  of  sisters  in  every  form  of  re- 
lief work  concurrently  with  those  of  lay  organizations 
merit  notice  for  their  efficiency  as  well  as  their  extent. 
Thus,  for  instance,  a  community  of  sisters  engaged  in 
hospital  work  will  carry  on  systematicallv  the  work 
of  giving  relief  to  poor  families,  friendly  visitins, 
conducting  sewing  circles,  instructing  children,  feed- 
ing destitute  adults  under  certain  conditions,  nndinjg 
employment,  and  making  provision  which  the  exi- 
gencies of  illness  may  require. 

Hospitals  furnish  free  wards  for  the  poor  whether 
adults  or  children.  Convalescent  Homes  make 
provison  for  the  sick  poor  who  are  necessarily  dis- 
missed from  hospit^  before  their  final  recovery  from 
illness  or  operations.  Separate  hokies  are  found  for 
chronic  and  incurable  cases  such  as  those  afflicted  with 
cancer  or  tuberculosis.  Homes  for  those  temporarily 
out  of  employment,  homea  for  working  girls  where 
food  and  lodgmg  are  obtained  at  a  cost  proportionate 
to  income,  homes  for  newsboys,  shelters  for  homeless 
children,  and  industrial  schools  where  the  children 
of  the  pDor  may  learn  trades,  are  tdso  found.  The 
lay  charitable  organizations  include  in  their  range  of 
normid  activities  the  visitation  of  inmates  in  such 
institutions  and  very  frequently  assistance  of  a  most 
vaJuable  kind  is  rendered.  Visitors  go  to  these 
institutions  for  the  purpose  of  chatting  with  inmates 
and  cheering  the  lonely  monotony  which  tends  to 
develop  in  spite  of  the  best  will  and  most  careful 
management.  Reading  matter  is  brou^t  and  the 
homely  comfort  that  may  be  found  in  a  piece  of  fancy 
work  or  supply  of  chewing  tobacco  is  not  deemed  un- 
worthy of  tne  visitor's  attention.  We  find  lay  men 
and  women  constituting  boards  of  directors  to  act  in 
conjunction  with  the  management  of  institutions  and 
acting  on  auxiliary  boards  for  the  more  remote  but 
equally  necessary  purpose  of  raising  money  or  further- 
ing the  interests  of  tne  institutions  with  the  public. 
For  instance,  ladies  auxiliary  work  in  conjunction 
with  hospitals.  Good  Shepherd  Homes,  or  orphan 
asylums,  and  raise  money  or  provide  linens  of  all  kinds 
which  are  needed  in  the  normal  work  of  such  in- 
stitutions. The ' '  linen  shower  "  is  a  picturesque  illus- 
tration of  thb  method  of  work.  Annual  social  events 
of  one  kind  or  another  are  inaugurated  for  the  purposes 
of  directing  attention  of  the  public  toward  institu- 
tions and  to  raise  money  for  their  general  work.  The 
tendency  is  marked  to  forget  differences  of  creed  in 
these  larger  events.  One  finds  Catholics  and  non- 
Catholics  working  side  by  side  in  the  spirit  of  a  com- 
mon purpose.  Seminarians  will  at  some  time  form 
organizations  whose  members  devote  one  afternoon 
a  week  to  the  visitins  of  these  institutions,  doing 
the  work  of  the  friendly  visitors  or  good  Samaritans 
in  the  spirit  of  Christian  friendship. 

Various  types  of  child  life  in  our  large  cities  pre- 
sent extremely  distressing  problems  to  the  charitable 
society.  Newsboy,  half-orphans,  friendless  chil- 
dren, who  are  entirely  neglected  by  their  parents  and 
wander  away  from  home,  are  found  in  distressingly 
large  numbers  in  our  ^at  cities.  All  such  types 
are  kept  in  mind  and  either  lay  or  religious  associa- 
tions idm  to  discover  them  and  to  provide  tem- 
porary or  permanent  homes  for  them.  Usually 
those  working  in  this  manner  act  as  emplo3rment 
agencies,  and  endeavour  to  find  work  for  the  children 
if  they  are  of  le^al  age,  or  to  restore  them  to  their 
homes  and  obtam  for  them  the  attention  and  pro- 
vision to  which  they  have  a  natural  right.  When  a 
boy  leaves  an  indiistrial  school  the  authorities  will 
find  board  and  lodging  without  cost  to  him  until  he 
secures  work.  When  woric  is  found  a  representative 
of  the  school  selects  a  safe  boarding  place  for  the  boy, 
•ncourages  him  to  save  his  money,  and  keeps  in  touch 


with  him  either  personally  or  by  correspondence  as 
long  as  there  is  need. 

Homes  for  the  aged  under  the  care  of  sisters  are 
numerous,  though  Catholics  are,  of  course,  often 
found  in  public  poor-houses.  The  visitation  of  in- 
mates of  all  such  institutions  is  well-organized. 
Homes  are  found  for  friendless  women  of  good  charac- 
ter and  destitute  mothers  with  infants,  where  pro- 
tection may  be  had  until  employment  is  found  or 
provision  made  for  whatever  relief  the  circumstances 
demand.  Lodging  and  food  are  furnished  for  friend- 
less and  destitute  men  during  periods  of  enforced  idle- 
ness. This  is  done  entirely  without  cost  or  possibly 
on  the  pa3rment  of  a  nominal  charge  of  ten  or  fifteen 
cents  per  day.  Lodging-houses  in  the  larse  cities 
contain  vast  numbers  of  men  of  every  kind  and  charac- 
ter. The  danger  in  these  places  is  more  or  less  great 
because  of  their  tendency  to  develop  an  atmosphere 
of  vulgar  abandon.  Li  the  largest  cities  Catholic 
charitfikble^  societies  provide  halls  and  offer  weekly 
entertainments  exclusively  to  this  type  of  friendless 
men.  Volunteers  are  found  who  furnish  musical 
or  literary  entertainment,  and  all  are  encouraged  to 
sing.  Lectures  are  given,  usually  by  a  priest  on  some 
moral  or  spiritual  topic.  Appeal  is  made  gently  but 
strongly  to  the  better  element  of  these  homeless  and 
friendless  men,  with  the  result  that  in  large  numbers 
they  reform  and  return  home  or  feel  a  renewal  of 
spiritual  vigour  and  helpfulness.  Much  temperance 
work  is  done  among  them,  with  results  which  are  en- 
couraging in  the  extreme. 

A  notably  large  percentage  of  delinquents  come 
from  among  the  poor,  hence  the  normal  range  of 
activity  of  Cathohc  charitable  organizations  extends 
to  those  upon  whom  the  hand  of  the  law  has  de- 
scended. The  work  of  rescuing  fallen  women  is  nota- 
bly well  developed  through  the  activity  of  religious. 
Little  girls  in  danger  of  moral  perversion  are  received 
by  such  homes  where  they  have  opportunity  to  learn 
a  trade  and  arrive  safely  at  maturity.  Youthful  of- 
fenders who  come  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
Juvenile  Court  are  committed  to  reformatories  or 
industrial  schools  or  placed  on  probation.  Catholic 
charitable  societies  and  individual  Catholics  are 
active  in  co-operating  with  the  probation  feature  of 
the  court.  Sometimes  an  association  pays  the  salary 
of  a  Catholic  probation  officer  who  wiO  be  recognized 
by  the  court,  or  Catholics  in  a  position  to  do  so  offer 
their  services  as  volunteer  probation  officers  without 
compensation.  The  orgamzation  of  Catholics  thus 
engaged  is  now  under  way  in  the  formation  of  Catho- 
hc Probation  Leagues.  This  service  is  rendered  by 
both  men  and  women.  Araociations  provide  truant 
officers  whose  dutv  is  to  follow  up  cases  of  truancy 
in  parochial  schools  and  report  on  them.  The  work 
of  the  big  brother,  in  which  an  adult  ti^es  personal 
charge  of  a  juvenile  delinquent  or  of  a  poor  boy  and 
establishes  informal  friendly  relations  with  him,  is 
taking  on  hopeful  proportions.  The  visiting  of 
prisoners  plays  a  considerable  part  in  the  life  of  nearly 
all  important  Catholic  charitable  societies.  The 
visitors  call  in  a  friendly  way,  encourage  the  prisoners 
to  take  hopeful  outlook,  induce  them  to  resume  cor- 
respondence with  their  famiUes,  and  lead  them  to  the 
promise  of  amended  life  which  in  manv  cases  effects 
striking  reforms.  Reform  schools  for  boys  and  girls 
are  regularly  visited  in  the  same  manner. 

Practically  all  activitv  related  to  the  care  of  de- 
fectives is  concentrated  in  institutions.  Provision 
for  the  deaf  and  dumb,  blind,  insane,  epileptic,  feeble- 
minded, and  crippled  is  made  by  religious  communi- 
ties to  such  an  extent  as  resources  permit.  The  in- 
terests of  dependents,  defectives,  and  ddinquents 
of  the  Cathohc  Faith  who  are  inmates  of  public  in- 
stitutions are  provided  for  in  a  general  way  by  the 
public  policy  found  throughout  the  United  States. 
There  are  State  Boards  of  Charity  under  whose 


POOB  2' 

juriadicUon  in  one  way  or  another  all  such  inatitu- 
tions  fall.  Much  of  the  energy  and  resources  of 
Catholic  cbaritsble  BSSOciatiotiB  is  taken  up  in  the 
work  of  representing  and  protecting  the  interests  of 
Catholic  inmates  in  public  institutions.  Catholics 
are  found  in  numbers  among  the  members  of  such 
boards,  or  they  appear  before  boards  in  the  interests 
of  Catholic  in^itutions  with  which  the  Stat«  deals, 
or  of  Catholic  inmates  of  public  inatitutiona. 

It  is  impractical  to  attempt  to  describe  within  the 
limits  of  this  exposition  the  numbers  of  CathoUcs 
nigaged  in  this  work,  or  to  measure  it  in  terms  of 
money.  Practically  all  of  the  activities  described  are 
carried  on  by  men  and  women  who  are  busy  at  their 
daily  otcupationfl  and  who  give  their  time,  energy, 
and  largely  of  their  means  to  these  works  of  charity, 
without  compensation.     Ono  finds  throughout  tlua 


7  POOB 

whole  ron^e  of  relief-giving  the  um  of  sinritnaJ 
strcngthemng  and  r^eneratmg  of  the  poor.     This 

spiritual  complement  of  modem  relief  is  developed 
because  of  the  conviction  that  ftuth  is  the  fimnda^ 
tion  of  character  and  the  one  source  from  which  any 
correct  attitude  toward  the  mysteries  of  life  may  be 
found.  Throughout  the  range  of  Catholic  charities 
one  finds  a  spirit  of  tolerance  for  human  nature  and 
ita  failings  and  a  comprehensivenees  of  sympathy 
wluch  reaches  low  enough  to  think  of  homely  com- 
forts and  high  enough  to  accompany  the  victim  of 
distress  t«  the  temple  of  God  for  purposes  of  worship. 

RrpaH  d/  Iht  Pint  Nalinai  Cimterma  o!  CaOvAic  Claritiei, 
held  It  the  CuthoUc  Uuvsnity.  WuhiiiKlOD,  1910:  RtporU  af 
Ihe  Naiiolvd  CoTi/erenea  of  the  SaeiHv  of  SI.  Vincmt  di  Pa<J, 
held  >t  Rt.  Louu,  1003,  Rialmiotid.  1008,  BoMon,  1911:  SI. 
ViaceM  dt  Paul  Quarterly  (New  York)  fiJea:  nporta  of  oriuiit- 
tion,  «Hl  iulituti-n..  p««n..  yf^    J,  KiBBT. 


Statibtics 

OP  Catholic  iNBTrrunoM 

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248 


POOR 


STATisTica  OF  Catholic  Institutions  for  Care  of  Poor  in  the  United  States 


DiOCKSBS 


Rochester. . . . 
Rockford. . . . 
Sacramento. . 
St.  Augustine. 

St.  Cloud 

St.  Joseph.... 

Salt  Lake 

San  Antonio. . 
Savannah . . . . 

Scranton 

Seattle 

Sioux  City... 
Springfield. .. 

Superior 

Syraouse 

Toledo 

Trenton.^.... 

Tuceon 

Wheeling 

Wichita 

Wilmington. . 
Winona 


ViCARIATB  ApOSTOLIO 


North  Carolina. 


I 


6 
1 

2 
1 
1 
1 
1 
2 
2 
1 
6 
1 
4 


5 
3 

4 
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3 
2 
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51 

ll 


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a? 

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■a«-3 
i    - 


Orphanages 

Iniant  Asylums • 

Orphanages  for  Coloured  Children 

Homes  for  the  Aged 

Homes  for  Women  and  Girls 

Homes  for  Boys 

Homes  for  Destitute  Children 

Homes  for  Destitute  Coloured  Children 

Institutions  for  the  Blind 

Institutions  for  Deaf-mutes 

Institutions  for  the  Feeble-minded 

T>Ksr  Nurseries 

Emigrant  Homes 

Industrial  and  Reform  Schools 

Industrial  and  Reform  Schools  for  Coloured  and  Indian  Children. 
Communities  nursing  the  poor  in  their  homes 


Total  Number 

OF  iNSTITUTIONa 


252 
32 

9 

103 

60 

14 

25 

1 

5 
13 

2 
29 

7 
64 
24 
25 


Inmates 


45.910 

12.834 

675 

3.714 

3.916 

2.309 

5.252 

151 

128 

1.243 

79 

300.681 

31.326 

11.05) 

2.796 


PERaONB  IN 

Charge 


2.863 
442 

54 

1.266 

327 

131 

317 

13 

13 
113 

26 
110 

41 
637 
169 


Poor,  Little  Sisters  of  the,  an  active,  unen- 
closed religious  congregation  founded  at  St  Servan, 
Brittany,  1839,  through  the  instrumentality  of  Abb^ 
Augustin  Marie  Le  Pailleur.  To  two  of  his  penitents, 
in  whom  he  discerned  an  unusual  aptitude  for  spiritual 
things,  he  had  given  a  rule  of  life,  and  had  placed  one 
of  them,  Marie  Jamet,  in  the  position  of  superior  to 
her  companion,  Virjginie  Tr^daniel.  These  young 
workwomen,  at  the  instance  of  their  director,  added 
to  their  dsuly  duties  the  personal  care  and  support  of 
a  poor  blind  woman.  While  in  search  of  a  lodging  for 
this  aged  woman  ihe  Abb4  Le  Pailleur  formed  the 
acquuntance  of  Jeanne  Jugan,  who  was  bom  at 
Cancale,  15  May,  1793.  She  was  soon  eager  to  share 
in  the  charitable  work,  and  on  15  October,  1840,  Marie 
Jamet  and  Virmnie  Trddaniel,  with  their  charge,  went 
to  live  in  her  house.  The  three  young  women  went 
out  daily  to  their  work,  bringing  home  their  earnings 
for  their  oonmion  support  and  that  of  the  blind  woman. 
In  course  of  time  they  were  joined  by  Madeleine 
Bourges  and  gave  shelter  to  other  helpless  old  people. 
The  zeal  displayed  by  Jeanne  Jugan  in  securing  the 
means  to  support  those  in  their  care  has  caused  her 
to  be  regarded  as  the  real  foundress  of  the  order. 

The  congregation  is  included  in  the  class  of  hospital- 
lers. Its  constitutions  are  based  on  the  Rule  of  St. 
Augustine,  and  the  sisters  take  simple  and  perpetual 
vows  of  poverty,  chastity,  and  obedience,  to  which 
they  add  a  fourth,  hospitality.  They  receive  into 
theu*  houses  aged  men  and  women  who  have  no  other 
shelter.  Sixty  is  the  youngest  age  at  which  they  are 
admitted,  after  which  they  are  members  of  what  is 
known  as  the  "Little  Family",  the  superior  being 
called  by  all  the  "Good  Mother".    To  the  best  of 


their  ability  they  assist  the  sisters  in  the  work  of  the 
home.  For  the  support  of  their  foundation  the  sisters 
are  dependent  absolutely  on  charity,  having  no  fixed 
income  or  endowments,  and  most  of  what  they  receive 
they  procure  by  b^^ging.  The  constitution  was  defin- 
itively approved  by  Pius  X,  7  May,  1907.  The 
mother -house  and  novitiate  are  at  La  Tour  St 
Joseph,  St.  Pern,  Ile-et-Vilaine,  France;  there  are 
also  novitiates  in  Italy,  Spain,  Belgium,  and  the 
United  States.  The  total  number  of  foundations 
(1911)  is  307;  in  R-ance  there  are  more  than  100 
houses,  seven  of  them  being  in  Paris;  there  are  thirty 
in  England,  fifteen  in  Bekium,  fifty-two  in  Spain, 
sixteen  in  Italy,  four  in  Sicuy,  forty-nine  in  America, 
three  in  Australia,  one  in  New  Zealand,  one  in  New 
Caledonia,  etc.  The  order  numbers  more  than  5400 
members.  On  19  January,  1911,  the  sisters  in  charge 
of  the  refuge  of  Campolide,  Lisbon,  where  they  cared 
for  329  inmates,  were  ordered  to  leave,  their  places  to 
be  supplied  by  lay  attendants.  In  Rome  the  sisters 
have  a  house  near  S.  Pietro  in  Vincoli.  In  Kimberley, 
South  Africa,  they  are  known  as  Sisters  of  Naaareth. 

Heimbucheb.  Orden  und  Kongregaixonen,  III  (Paderborn, 
1908).  388:  Steele,  Convenia  of  Great  Britain  (St.  Louia.  1902),  244 ; 
Lerot.  Au  pau8  de  la  CharitS  (AbWville,  1903) ;  Meaaenger  of  the 
Sacred  Heart  (February,  1890).  103-12;  Tablet  (Oct.  24,  18Cte), 
647;   Ram.  Little  Sietera  cf  the  Poor  (London,  1894). 

Blanche  M.  Kbllt. 

Poor  Brothers  of  St.  Francis  Seraphieus,  a 

congregation  ofi  lay  brotners  of  the  Third  Order  of  St. 
Francis,  instituted  for  charitable  work  among  orphan 
hovs  and  for  educating  the  youth  of  the  poorer  classes. 
The  founder  was  Philip  Hoever,  b.  at  Obersthohe, 
near  Cologne,  Germany,   1816;   a  schoolmaster  at 


POOR  240  POOB 

Breidt  and  Aachen.  Through  the  influence  of  Mother  began  to  study  the  Sacred  Scriptures  and,  not  having 
Frances  Schervier,  foundress  of  the  Little  Sisters  the  proper  religious  guidance,  soon  regarded  them  as 
of  the  Poor  of  St.  Francis,  Hocvcr,  at  Christmas,  1857,  their  sole  authority.  They  practised  religion  accord- 
dedicated  himself  with  four  others  to  t  he  service  of  ing  to  their  conception  of  the  Gospel  and  preached  the 
God  and  of  the  abandoned  men.  In  1860  the  same  openly  to  tneir  fellow-men,  beiieving  this  to  be 
Brothers  obtained  a  home  at  Aachen.  In  the  following  in  conformity  with  the  teaching  of  Christ.  Still,  they 
year  (5Jan.)  Cardinal  GeiBsel,  Archbishop  of  Cologne,  tried  to  live  up  to  the  laws  and  regulations  of  the 
approved  the  new  congregation.  When  Hoever  died  Church  but,  bemg  told  by  the  pope  to  stop  preaching 
ill  1864,  it  had  twenty-six  members  and  some  postu-  until  they  had  conferred  with  the  pjoper  author- 
lants.  In  1809  the  institution  received  a  Catholic  ities,  they  disobeyed,  continuing  to  preach  as  usual, 
orphanage  at  Moabit,  Berlin,  and  since  1866  it  has  attacking  the  scandalous  life  of  the  clergy,  and  finally 
spread  in  the  United  States  (Teutopolis,  Illinois;  becoming  antagonistic  to  the  Church  itselt.  Although 
JSetroit,  Michigan;  Thenville,  Kentucky;  and  Cin-  at  war  with  the  Church,  they  vigorously  fought  its 
cinnati,  Ohio).  Although  in  the  Austro-Prussi an  war,  most  diui^erous  enemy,  the  Albigenses,  whom  they 
1866,  and  in  the  Franco-Prussian  war,  1870-71,  the  regarded  m  the  beginning  as  equally  dangerous  to 
Poor  Brothers  were  helpful  in  the  field  hospitals,  the  themselves.  The  position  of  the  Church  was  critical, 
Prussian  Kidlurkampf  did^not  spare  them;  in  1876-77  yet  not  hopeless.  Having  thus  far  feuled  in  its  at- 
they  had  to  give  up  all  their  houses  in  Prussia.  They  tempts  to  suppress  the  heresy,  on  account  of  the  in- 
retired  to  Blyerheide  on  the  Dutch  fcontier,  where  adequate  methods  of  its  missionaries,  it  now  adopted 
the  new  mother-house  was  erected.  After  1888  the  a  new  method,  which  consisted  in  meeting  the  enemy 
Brothers  were  allowed  to  return  to  Prussia,  and  differ-  with  its  own  weapons:  fearlessly  preaching  the  word 
ent  houses  were  founded;  Hohenhof  in  Upper  Silesia,  of  God  and  leading  a  life  of  resignation  and  evangelical 
1891 ;  Dormagenon  the  Rhine,  1902,  etc. ;  in  Belgium  at  poverty.  Those  who  already  practised  this  life  were, 
Voelkerich,  1900;  in  Holland  at  Roermond,  1903.  In  of  course,  considered  the  fittest  men  for  this  work, 
the  United  States  the  Poor  Brothers  possess  ^  house  The  Church  saw  that  the  Waldenses,  who  constituted 
of  education  at  Mt.  Alvemo  near  Cincinnati;  and  St.  the  masses,  were  gradually  drifting  away.  Its  plan 
Vincent's  in  Cincinnati.  In  1907  the  members  of  the  was  to  bring  these  still  harmless  but  sealoua  workers 
Congregation  were  230,  of  whom  50  werein  the  United  back  to  the  fold  in  reorganizing  them  according  to 
States.  The  constitutions  of  the  Poor  Brothers  were  theur  former  practice  of  studying  the  Sacred  Scrip- 
approved  by  Pius  X  in  1910.  tures,  preaching  the  word  of  Uod,  and  following  the 
,«fe  m'^'  -  ^^'S^/ST^  "J^ir'^i!  ^Hi^tyA^A^  rule  of  absolute  poven.y  and  resignation.  Once  re- 
ro?2!\S?5r."r/^''BriS^^                          '^^^"^^  united,  they  would  thJform  a  pEalanx  of  enenjetic 

LrvARins  Ougeb.  soldiers  fit  to  oppose  the  Albigenses. 

Through  the  missionary  activities  of  Bishop  Diego 

Poor  Catholiea  (Pauperea  Catholiei),  a  religious  of  Osma  and  St.  Dominic,  a  small  nx)up  of  Waldenses, 

mendicant  order,  organized  in  1208,  to  reunite  the  under  the  leadership  of  Duran  of  Huesca  (Spain),  was 

Waldenses  with  the  Church  and  combat  the  current  won  back  to  the  Church  during  a  religious  discussion . 

heresies,  especially  the  Albigensian.     The  recruits  at  a  meeting  held  at  Pamiers  (France)  towards  the 

were  taken  from  the  "  Pauperos  Lugdimenses"  (orig-  end  of  1207.   These  new  converts,  desirous  of  continu- 

inal  name  of  the  Waldenses) ;  however,  to  distinguish  ing  their  religious  activity,  went  the  same  year  to 

them  from  the  latter,  Innocent  III  gave  them  the  Rome,  where  they  were  welcom^  by  Innocent  III. 

name  of  "Pauperes  CathoUci".  Ainxious  to  realize  his  plan,  the  pope  gave  the  young 

The  hereticsJ  movement  of  the  Albigenses  had  taken  band,  seven  in  number,  a  constitution  by  which  they 
such  enormous  proportions  in  the  beginning  of  the  coula  retain  their  former  rule  of  life,  and  which 
thirteenth  century  that  they  were  justly  called  by  pointed  out  to  them  a  definite  plan  they  were  to  follow 
Innocent  III  a  greater  peril  to  the  Church  than  the  m  preaching  against  the  Albigenses.  Aside  from  this 
Saracens.  Their  doctrine  was  dualistic.  They  be-  they  had  to  make  a  profession  of  faith  which  repre- 
li^ved  and  taught  that  the  visible  and  invisible  world  sented  the  doctrine  of  the  Church  relative  to  all  cur- 
emanated  from  two  separate  and  distinct,  coetemal  rent  heresies,  and  which  was  intended,  not  only  to  free 
principles,  one  essentially  bad,  which  created  the  their  minds  from  all  heretical  tendencies  and  subject 
material  world,  and  the  other  essentially  good,  author  them  to  th^  authority  of  the  Church,  but  also  to  ofifer 
of  the  spiritual  world.  This  doctrine  led  logically  to  them  a  puide  according  to  which  they  could  enter  upon 
the  renunciation  of  all  things  material.  Hence  they  their  missionary  activities  wiUi  a  series  of  formulated 
rejected  marriage,  the  use  of  animal  food,  hell,  purga-  truths  giving  them  a  clear  outline  of  their  faith  and 
tory  etc.,  and  advocated  a  life  of  self-denial  and  re-  absolute  certainty  in  their  work.  After  having  prom- 
nunciation  of  all  material  pleasures.  The  systematic  ised  allegiance  to  the  pope  and  the  doctrines  of  the 
teaching  of  these  doctrines,  as  well  as  the  abstemious  Church,  they  entered  upon  their  mission  in  the  begin- 
life  of  the  sectaries^  rapidly  influenced  the  richer  ning  of  1208.  Innocent  III  recommended  them  to  the 
classes,  especially  the  nobility,  of  whom  it  is  said  that  bishops  of  Southern  France  and  Spain.  They  seemed 
they  preferred  sending  their  children  for  education  to  to  be  successful,  for  we  soon  find  them  busy,  not  only 
the  heretics  rather  than  to  Catholic  schools.  The  through  Southern  France,  but  even  as  far  as  Milan. 
Waldenses,  on  the  other  hand,  formed  a  religious,  where  they  founded  a  school  in  1209  to  gather  ana 
social  movement  among  the  common  people,  who  had  educate  recruits  for  their  order.  Three  years  later, 
become  dissatisfied  with  their  economic  and  social  1212,  a  group  of  penitents  placed  themselves  under 
conditions  and  estranged  from  religion  on  account  of  their  spirituaS  direction.  Within  four  years  of  their 
the  scandalous  neglect  of  the  clergy.  The  latter,  un-  foundation  they  extended  their  activities  over  the  Dio- 
fortunately,  took  more  interest  in  the  adminbtration  ceses  of  B6ziers,  Uz^,  Ntmes,  Carcassonne,  Narbonne, 
of  their  temporal  affairs  than  in  administering  to  the  Taragon,  Marseilles,  Barcelona,  Huesca,  and  Milan, 
spiritual  needs  of  the  faithful.  Innocent  III  com-  However,  in  spite  of  their  apparent  success,  the 
plains  bitterly,  in  a  letter  to  the  bishops,  saying  that  undertaking  of  the  Poor  Catholics  was  doomed  from 
the  people  are  hungry  for  the  Bread  of  Life,  but  that  the  beginning.  They  became  a  victim  of  the  unfavour- 
there  is  no  one  to  break  it  for  them.  Public  preaching,  able  conditions  under  which  they  originated.  After 
exclusively  in  the  hands  of  the  bishops,  had  become  a  1212  they  began  to  disintegrate.  Innocent  III  stood 
rare  event.  by  them  for  four  years,  m^ng  concession  after  oon- 

The  result  was  that  the  common  people,  who  needed  cession,  repeatedly  urging  the  bishops  to  support 

spiritual  help  in  a  time  of  religious  and  social  disturb-  them,  recommending  them  to  the  King  of  Taragon; 

ance,  looked  for  religious  support  elsewhere.    They  he  even  went  so  far  as  to  exempt  them  from  tiSing 


POOB  250  POOR 

the  oath  of  allegianoe,  as  this  waa  contrary  to  the  pppe.     ^^  through   Lombardy,  he  propagated 

teachings  of  the  Waldenses,  and  finally  placed  them  nis  ideas.    The  lay  people  readily  accepted  his  views 

under  the  protectorate  of  St.  Peter,  but  all  in  vain,  on  religion  and  formed  an  economic,  religious  body 

They  did  not  show  any  positive  results  and,  for  this  known    by  the    name    of    Humiliates   (kumiliati), 

reason,  the  pope  abanaoned  them  in  1212  and  gave  Some  of  them  appeared  in  Rome  with  him  the  fol- 

his  attention  to  the  Preaching  Friars  of  St.  Dominic  lowing  year,  1179,  and  asked  Aleicander  III  to  sanc- 

and  the  Friars  Minor  of  St.  Francis,  whose  labours  tion  uieir  rule  or  form  of  life,  which  consisted  in 

promised  better  results.     In  1237  Gr^ry  IX  se-  leading  a  religious  life  in  their  separate  homes,  ab- 

ouested  the  provincial  of  the  Preaching  friars  to  visit  staining  from  the  oath,  and  defending  the  Catnolio 

the  provinces  of  Narbonne  and  Taragon  and  compel  doctrine  by  public  preaching.    The  pope  Kranted 

the  roor  Catholics  to  adopt  one  of  the  approved  rules,  them  permission  to  lead  a  religious  life  in  tneirhomes, 

which,  if  we  consider  the  similarity  of  purpose,  jus-  but  forbade  them  to  preach.    Unmindful  of  the  pon- 

tifies  the  supposition  that  the  Poor  Catholics  in  tnese  tiff's  answer  and  continuing  their  former  life,  they. 

grovinces  were  affiliated  with  the  friars.    In  Milan  we  were  excommunicated  by  Lucius  III  about  the  vear 

nd  them  till  1256  when,  by  a  Decree  of  Innocent  IV,  1184.    In  this  state  they  remained  until  1201,  when, 

th^  were  united  with  the  Au^ustinian  Hermits.  upon  presentation  of  their  constitution.  Innocent 

The  principal  causes  of  their  failure  were  the  oi^  III  reconciled  them  with  the  Church,  and  reorganised 

panisation  adopted  from  the  WaJdenses,  and  the  ob-  them  in  conformity  with  their  economic  and  reli- 

lect  of  their  foundation.    The  whole  entcnrprise  was  gious  customs,  also  approving  of  the  name  '^Humi- 

looked  upon  as  an  innovation  contrary  to  all  estab-  Uati".    Thb  brought  most  of  them  back  to  the 

lished  rignts  and  privileges  of  the  clergy,  and  naturally  Church;    but  a  number  peraevered  in  t^e  heresy 

called  forth  a  severe  opposition  by  these.    Their  chieif  and  continued  their  former  life  under  the  direction 

occupation  remained,  as  it  was  before  their  reconciHa-  of  the  Poor  of  Lyons,  with  whom  they  were  naturally 

tion,  the  preaching  of  the  word  of  God  directed  affiliated.    Economic  and  religious  oifficulties,  how- 

against  the  heretics.   To  be  successful  in  realizing  Ids  ever,  aggravated  long-felt  dissensions  between  the 

plan  Innocent  III  placed  himself  as  sole  director  at  two  groups  and.  in  1205,  these  non-reconciled  Humi- 

the  head  of  the  organization,  thus  replacing  the  liates  separated  from  the  Lyoneee  and  formed  a 

maioralis,  leader  of  the  Waldenses.   He  save  them  the  distinct  group,  adopting  the  name  of  Poor  Lombards, 

nameof  ''Pauperes  Catholici",  to  show  that  they  prao-  "  Pauperes  Lombardi". 

tised  poverty  in  common  with  the  "Pauperes  Lug-        In  order  to  bring  the  Poor  Lombards  back  to  the 

dunenses"  but  were  separated  from  them  m  enjoying  Church,   Innocent  III  founded  and  organized  in 


the  benefits  and  s^rmpathy  of  the  Church.    The  divi-  1210  the  order  of  the  Reconciled  Lombards,  imder 

sion  into  "perfecti''  and  "credentes"  remained  the  the  immediate  supervision  of  the  supreme  pontiff, 

same,  only  the  names  were  changed  into  "fratres"  Tlie  recruits  were  taken  from  the  ranks  of  the  Poor 
and  "amid".    In  their  activity  the  Waldenc 


sion  into  "perfecti''  and  "credentes"  remained  the    the  immediate  supervision  of  the  supreme  pontiff. 

hanged  into  "fratres"     Tlie  recruits  were  taken  from  the  ranks  of  the  Poor 
bv  the  Waldenses  were    Lombards.    Their  first  superior  was  Bernard  Primus, 


divided  into  three  classes:  the  "sandaliati",  who  had  a  former  Lombard  leader,  who,  with  a  few  followers, 

received  sacred  orders  and  the  especial  office  to  con-  had  given  the  impetus  for  the  foimdation  of  the  order 

fute  the  heresiarchs;  the  "doctores",  who  had  charge  by  presenting  a  rule  of  life  to  the  pope.    Innocent 

of  the  instructing  and  training  of  the  missionaries;  III  did  not  entrust  the  reconciliation  of  the  Poor 

and  the  "novellani",  whose  cmef  work  consisted  in  Lombards  to  the  Poor  Catholics  on  account  of  thdr 

Preaching  to  the  common  people.  The  work  of  the  divergent  views  on  the  subject  of  labour.  The 
'oor  Catholics  had  the  same  division;  however,  the  latter  had  abolished  all  manual  labour  for  the  mis- 
names "sandaliati".  "doctores'\  and  "noveUani"  sionaries.  The  Lombards  and  the  Humiliates,  on 
were  changed  into  "doctiores",  "honestiores''.  and  the  contrary,  gave  manual  labour  the  first  place, 
"idonei''.  The  habit,  a  light  gray,  remained  un-  Every  member,  irrespective  of  position  or  talent, 
changed,  except  the  buckles  on  the  sandals,  by  which  had  to  leam  a  trade  in  order  to  make  his  living, 
the  Waldenses  were  known  as  heretics.  Manual  This  predominance  of  manual  labour  we  also  find  a 
labour  was  forbidden  as  before.  The  only  means  of  deciding  factor  in  the  reorganization  of  the  Reconciled 
support  were  the  daily  offerings  of  the  faithful.  It  Lombards.  Two  years  later,  however.  Innocent 
was  thought  that,  by  giving  the  Poor  Catholics  this  III  gave  them  a  new  constitution,  in  which  he  re- 
organization, the  W^denses  could  be  won  back  easily  tain^  manual  labour  for  all  the  members  of  the 
to  the  Church.  However,  the  danger  existed  that,  order,  but  declared  it  only  of  secondary  value  for 
with  their  former  customs  and  habits,  they  would  also  the  missionaries  or  friars  to  whom  he  assigned  the 
retain  their  heretical  tendencies.  This  proved  only  study  of  Holy  Scripture  and  preaching;  as  main 
too  true  and  gave  rise  to  frequent  complaints  by  the  occupation.  He  also  makes  a  more  defimte  division 
bishops.  The  fact,  however,  that  simple  laymen,  of  tiie  members  into  three  classes,  or  orders,  oom- 
although  they  had  received  the  tonsure  and  were  re-  prising  respectively  the  miasionanes  or  friars,  the 
garded  as  clerics,  publicly  preached  the  doctrine  of  women  who  took  the  vows,  and  the  married  people, 
the  Church,  ana  this  under  the  protection  of  the  The  object  of  this  second  constitution  was  to  bnng 
supreme  pontiff  himself,  was  unhetuxi  of  and  looked  order  into  the  chaos  of  social  and  religious  agita- 
upon  as  a  usurpation  ot  episcopal  powers  and  rights  tion  among  the  different  classes  of  members  and,  at 
and,  naturally,  occasioned  severe  opposition  on  the  part  the  same  time,  to  bring  the  better  elements  to  the 
ofthe  higher  clergy.  The  latter  even  went  so  far  it  seems  front  to  train  them  for  missionary  work  against 
as  to  curtail  the  offerings  of  the  faithful,  the  only  sup-  the  Cathari.  The  Reconciled  Lombards,  like  the 
port  of  the  Poor  Catholics.  Under  these  conditions  Poor  Catholics,  did  not  meet  with  the  expectations 
it  was  impossible  for  them  to  prosper.  Still,  the  great  of  the  Roman  Curia;  both  fidled  for  the  same  reasons, 
work  of  reformation  was  begun  and,  althou^  they  They  succumbed  in  preparing  and  initiating  the  great 
were  sacrificed  by  introducing  it,  it  was  continued  and  work  of  reform  so  successfully  carried  out  by  the 
successfully  carried  out  by  the  Preaching  Friars  and  Dominicans  and  Franciscans, 
the  Friars  Minor.  CAarRO,  BiUioUoa  e»|xifto2a/n  (Madrid,  1786);  Dwnc  ahd 

Reconciled    Lombards. — ^An    article    on    Poor  VAi8flftTB.^M(.0M.d«£«fiotM9doe.Vl(Toulouae.  l870):OviBAnD. 

Catholics  would  be  incomplete  without  some  account  ^t^f^  <*')yj.  f.^t^^':^^?u.^.^J?^ '  j^'SS?*  pSi 

of  the  Re«>nciled  Lombards.     Peter  Waldes  had  ^5??.  ilI({iii>MS?^^^^^ 

not  confined  his  teaching  to  Lyons  alone,  where  he  (New  York,  a.  d.);  Mandonnbt,  Le»  originet  d$  rOrdo  de  prnni- 

set  the  Waldensian  movement  on  foot.    When  he  gS?^  (^b?^'«ii?J8) ?  L^cha»«.  ^""^  "^,t^!u^'  iSa?! 

was  expelled  from  that  city,  he  decided  to  go  to  pibrron.  Die  kath,  Armen  (Fribourg.  I9ii). 

Rome  and  make  a  personal  plea  for  his  cause  to  the  Souroefl.*^lNNoc.  Ill  in  p.l..CCaV,CCXVI;  Tobblu.^moIi 


POOR 


251 


POOR 


Aff09tin%ani,  IV  (Bologna.  1675),  645,  607;  Wiluam  or  Pur- 
Laubsnt  in  Reeueil  de»  hist,  des  Gatdea  etdela  France,  XIX,  200; 
Peter  of  .Vattx-Cemay,  iWd.,  XIX,  10;  Chron.  Urepergenae  in 
Mon.  Oerm.  Hiet.:  Script.,  XXIII,  367.  ad  an.  1212. 

J.  B.  PlERROX. 

Poor  Child  Jesus,  Sisters  of  the,  a  congregation 
founded  at  Aachen  in  1844  for  the  support  and  educa- 
tion of  poor,  orphan,  and  destitute  children,  especially 
girls;  approved  by  Fius  IX  in  1862  and  1869,  and  by 
Leo  Xni  in  1881  and  1888.  Clara  Fey,  Leocadla 
Startz,  WiUielmina  Istas,  and  Aloysia  Vossen  were  at 
school  together  at  Aachen;  they  were  the  co-foun- 
dresses of  the  congregation.  The  home  of  Clara  Fey 
was  a  rendezvous  for  priests  and  earnest-minded  laity 
for  the  discussion  of  religious  and  social  questions.  In 
Februafy,  1837.  Clara  and  some  companions  rented  a 
house,  gatherea  together  some  children,  fed,  clothed, 
and  taught  them.  Soon  the  old  Dominican  convent 
was  seciSed  and,  with  other  houses,  opened  as  schools. 
After  seven  years  of  rapid  progress  the  four  foundresses 
entered  upon  community  life  2  Feb.,  1844,  under  the 
rule  and  direction  of  Clara  Fey  0).  11  April,  1815;  d.  8 
May,  1894).  Fifty  children  were  housed  with  the  com- 
munity, and  several  hundreds  attended  the  day  schools. 
In  1845  Card.  Geissel  of  Cologne  approved  the  rules 
and  obtained  recognition  from  the  Holy  See,  whilst  the 
Prussian  Government  also  authorized  the  foundation. 
An  old  convent  in  Jakobstrasse  became  the  first 
mother-house  of  the  new  order.  The  growth  was 
rapid,  and  in  quick  succession  houses  were  opened  at 
Bonn,  Derendorf,  DUsseldorf,  Neuss,  Cologne,  Co- 
blenz,  Landstuhl,  Luxemburg,  Stolberg,  and  Vienna. 

The  need  of  providing  funds  for  the  original  work 
of  rescue,  as  well  as  the  entreaties  of  bishops,  led  to 
other  activities  being  undertaken,  e.  g.  hi^  schools 
for  girls,  training  of  domestics,  homes  for  girls  in  busi- 
ness, modelling  of  wax  figures  for  statues,  and  notably 
church  embroidery.  For  the  latter,  designs  were 
furnished  by  Pugin  at  the  instance  of  Mrs.  Edgar,  an 
Englbh  resident  of  Aachen,  and  the  exquisite  needle- 
painting  of  the  sisters  became  famed  throughout  Ger- 
many and  the  neighbouring  countries.  The  house  at 
Burtacheid  (Aachen)  became,  and  still  remain^  the 
German  secretariate  of  the  society  of  the  Holy  Child- 
hood. In  twenty  years  the  nuniber  of  houses  had 
grown  to  twenty-five,  with  450  sisters.  Invaluable 
advice  and  assistance  were  afforded  the  order  by 
Bishop  Laurent,  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Luxemburg,  and 
by  Pastor  Sartorius  of  Aachen,  who  with  father 
Andreas  Fey,  a  brother  of  Clara,  acted  as  spiritual 
(Urector  ana  confessor.  After  the  Franco-Prussian 
war,  the  devotion  of  the  sisters  in  nursing  the  sick  and 
wounded  was  rewarded  by  an  autograpn  letter  from 
the  emperor  and  decorations  for  many  sisters.  The 
influence  of  the  empress  delayed  the  expulsion  of  the 
congregation  during  the  Kulturkampf  until  1875, 
when  steps  were  taken  to  close  the  houses  in  Prussia; 
but  not  until  1878  was  the  mother-house  at  Aachen 
transferred  to  Simpelveld,  a  few  miles  over  the  Dutch 
frontier.  There  Bishop  Laurent,  who  had  resigned  his 
see,  took  up  his  residence,  and  remained  as  counsellor 
until  his  death  in  1884.  The  exiles  found  refuge  in 
Holland.  Bavaria,  Belgium,  Luxemburg,  and  Austria. 
In  England  a  house  was  established  in  1876  at 
Southam,  where  an  orphanage  was  immediately 
opened  by  the  ten  exiles  who  arrived  there.  This 
community  now  numbers  over  forty  sisters  with 
orphanage,  day  and  boarding  schools,  and  a  school  of 
embroidery. 

The  reliucation  of  the  Falk  Laws  enabled  the  congre- 
gation in  1887  to  regain  manv  of  its  convents.  At  the 
present  time  (1911)  the  total  number  of  houses  is  38, 
with  over  2000  sisters  engaged  in  a  variety  of  chari- 
table and  educational  occupations,  with  thousands  of 
children  of  every  class. 

The  range  of  work  is  wide:  seminaries  for  teachers 
as  at  Maastricht,  Ehrenfeld,  Brussels ;  high  schools 


(boarding  and  day),  Godesberg,  Dtisseldorf,  Vienna, 
Roermond,  Maastricht,  Brussels,  Borsbeeck,  Antwerp, 
Plappeville  etc.:  domestic  training  at  many  houses; 
embroidery  at  Simpelveld,  Aachen,  Brussels,  Land- 
stuhl, Southam,  Vienna  (Ddbling);  elementary 
schools  and  orphanages  at  most  houses.  The  mother 
general  resides  at  Simpelveld,  the  mother-^ouse  and 
chief  novitiate,  with  provincials  for  Austria  and  Hol- 
land. The  constitutions  aim  at  promoting  a  simplicity 
of  character  and  joyful  spirit  in  imitation  of  the  Child 
Jesus  bom  in  poverty.  The  twenty-fifth  of  ea|Ch 
month  is  a  day  of  special  devotion  before  the  Crib, 
the  nineteenth  in  honour  of  St.  Joseph,  the  chief 
patron,  Guardian  of  the  Poor  Child;  and  the  secon- 
dary patron  is  St.  Dominic. 

PrOLT,  Mutter  Clara  Fey  Vom  Armen  Kinde  Jetua  (Freiburg, 
1907) ;  MuUer  Clara  (Simpelveld,  1910) ;  Hbimbuchsr,  Die  Orden 
und  Kongregationen  (Paderbom,  1897). 

WAiyrsB  H5FLER. 

Poor  Clares  (Poor  Laddbs,  Sisters  of  St. 
Clare),  the  Second  Order  of  St.  Francis.  The'  sub- 
ject will  be  treated  here  under  the  following  heads:  I. 
beginnings  at  San  Damiano;  II.  Rule  of  Ugolino;  III. 
Definitive  Rule  of  St.  Clare;  IV.  Spread  of  the  Order; 
V.  Colettine  Reform;  VI.  In  England  and  America; 
VII.  Mode  of  Life;  VIII.  Saints  and  Blessed  of  the 
Order;  IX.  Present  Status. 

I.  In  the  great  Franciscan  movement  of  the  thir- 
teenth centui^  an  important  part  was  played  b^  this 
order  of  religious  women,  which  had  its  beginning  in 
the  convent  of  San  Damiano,  Assisi.  When  St.  Clare 
(q.  V.)  in  1212,  followingthe  advice  of  St.  Francis  (q. 
v.),  withdrew  to  San  Damiano,  she  was  soon  sur- 
roimded  by  a  number  of  ladies  attracted  by  the  holi- 
ness of  her  life.  Among  the  first  to  join  her  were  sev- 
eral immediate  relatives^  including  her  sister  Agnes, 
her  mother,  aunt,  and  mece.  Thus  was  formed  the 
nucleus  of  tne  new  order.  Here  St.  Clare  became  the 
counsellor  of  St.  Francis  and  after  his  death  remuned 
the  supreme  exponent  of  the  Franciscan  ideal  of  pov- 
erty. "This  ideal  was  the  exaltation  of  the  beggar's 
estate  into  a  condition  of  spiritual  liberty,  wherein 
man  would  live  in  conscious  dependence  upon  the 
providence  of  God  and  the  gooa  will  of  his  fellow- 
men"  (Cuthbert,  ''The  Life  and  Legend  of  the  Lady 
St.  Clare",  p.  4).  At  the  outset  St.  Clare  received 
from  St.  Francis  a  "formula  vitse  "  for  the  growing  com- 
munity. Hiis  was  not  a  formal  rule,  but  simply  a  di- 
rection to  practise  the  counsels  of  the  Gospel  (Sera- 
phic® legislatioms  textus  ori^inales,  p.  62).  "Vivere 
secundum  perf  ectionem  sancti  Evangelii "  was  the  key- 
note of  St.  Francis's  message.  On  behalf  of  the  sisters. 
St.  Clare  petitioned  Innocent  III  for  the  "privilege'' 
of  absolute  poverty,  not  merely  for  the  mdividual 
members  but  for  the  community  as  a  whole.  Highly 
pleased  with  the  unusual  request  he  granted  it.  says 
the  saint's  biographer,  with  his  own  hand  "  cum  nilari- 
tate  magna"  ("R6m.  Quartalschrift",  1902,  p.  97; 
see.  however,  Robinson,  "Life  of  St.  Clare",  note  114). 

II.  In  1217  an  event  occurred  which  proved  to  be  of 
first  importance  in  the  development  of  the  new  com- 
munity. In  tiiat  year  Ugolino,  Cardinal -Bishop  of 
Ostia,  was  sent  to  Tuscany  as  Apostolic  delegate;  he 
formed  a  warm  attachment  for  St.  Francis,  and  soon 
became  the  confidant  and  adviser  of  the  seraphic  doc- 
tor in  all  things  relating  to  the  second  Order  ("  Ana- 
lecta  Franciscana",  III,  p.  686).  Concerning  the 
manner  of  life  of  the  religious  who  gathered  in  various 
^aces  imitating  the  example  of  the  community  at  San 
Damiano  we  have  only  the  account  given  by  Jacques 
de  Vitry  in  1216  and  the  letters  of  Ugolino  to  Hono- 
rius  III  in  1218.  The  former  speaks  of  women  who 
dwell  in  hospices  in  community  life  and  support  them- 
selves by  their  own  labour.  Ugolino  writes  that  many 
women  have  renounced  the  world  and  desired  to  es- 
tablish monasteries  where  they  would  live  in  total 
poverty  with  no  possessions  except  their  houses.    Fm 


this  purpoee  estates  were  often  donated,  but  the  ad- 
mi  nutration  of  these  prrsontiHl  (lilTi(-iiltip»>.  Tlio  pope 
decided  that  Ugolino  should  accept  these  e&latcs  in  tnc 


Anoo  br  BiiDoiu  MftTtini 

name  of  the  Church  and  that  the  houses  established 
thereon  should  be  immediately  subject  to  the  pope. 
About  1219  Ugolino  drew  up  a  rule  for  these  groups  of 
women,  taking  the  Rule  of^St.  Benedict  as  a  groutiii 
work,  with  severe  regulations  having,  however,  no  dis- 
tinctively FranciBcan  element  in  them,  Hia  first 
foundation  was  the  monastery  of  Monticello  near 
Florence  (1219).  This  rule  was  soon  adopted  by  the 
monasteries  at  Perugia,  Siena,  Gattajola,  and  else- 
where. There  is  no  evidence  that  it  was  ever  accepted 
at  San  Damiano.  It  is  noteworthy  that  it  does  not 
raise  the  question  of  the  ownership  of  property  by  the 
various  monasteries.  This  was  a  point  on  which  St. 
Francis  and  UgoUno  did  Dot  agree.  The  subsequent 
modifications  which  this  rule  underwent  at  the  hands 
of  Innocent  IV  in  1247,  and  of  Urban  IV  in  12G3,  re- 
sulted in  the  triumph  of  Ugolino's  view,  while  St. 
Francis's  ideal  of  utter  poverty  found  expression  in  a 
definitive  rule,  the  confiirtiation  of  which  St.  Clare  se- 
cured in  12;i3,  The  opening  words  of  I'golino's  Rule, 
"  Regulam  beatissimi  Benedicti  vobis  tradimus  obser- 
vandam",  have  been  taken  to  indicate  that  the  Poor 
Clares  were  an  offshoot  of  the  Benedictines.  This 
conclusion,  however,  is  unwarranted.  The  Lateran 
Council,  a  few  years  earlier,  had  decreed  that  new 
orders  ^ould  adopt  a  rule  already  approved.  The 
new  order  was  not  bound  to  the  observance  of  the 
older  rule,  except  in  resard  to  the  three  customary 
vows.  Thie  was  Ugolino  s  intention  in  drawing  up  the 
rule,  and  it  is  confirmed  by  a  letter  of  Innocent  IV  to 
Agnes  of  Bohemia,  in  which  he  explains  the  meaning 
of  the  words  in  question  (Sharalea,  I,  p.  31.51. 

After  the  death  of  St.  Francis  (1226)  and  the  eleva- 
tion of  Ugolino  to  the  papal  chair  as  Gregorv  IX 
(1227),  certain  changes  were  introduced  in  the  practi- 
cal direction  of  conventual  life.  The  pope  offered  to 
bestow  possessions  on  the  convent  of  San  Damiano 
over  which  St.  Clare  prpsided.  She  firmly  refused  the 
offer  and  petitioned  to  tie  permitted  to  continue  in  the 


)2  POO& 

spirit  of  St.  Francis.  In  rteponse  to  this  request, 
Gregory  granted  her  (17  September,  1228)  the  "privi- 
lege of  mowt  high  poverty",  namely,  "ut  recipere  poe- 
sessiones  a  nullo  compelli  possitia".  The  conventsof 
Peru^a  and  Florence  followed  the  example  of  Sui 
Damiano.  Other  convents,  however,  gladly  availed 
themselves  of  the  possessions  which  the  pope  offered 
them,  "propter  eventus  t«mporum  et  pericula  Bseeu- 
lorum".  Thus  were  laid  the  foundation  of  the  two 
observances  which  obtain  among  the  daughten  of  St. 
Clare.  The  plea  of  Agnes  of  Bohcniia  for  a  new  rule  was 
rejected  by  Gregory  IX  in  1238,  and  again  by  Inno- 
cent IV  in  1243.  la  1247  Innocent  IV,  to  secure  unity 
of  observance  and  peace  of  conscience  for  the  sisters, 
modified  the  original  rule  in  two  points.  In  place  of 
the  reference  to  llie  Itule  of  St.  Benedict  he  inserted  a 
reference  to  the  It  ulc  of  St.  Francis,  which,  in  the  mean- 
time, had  been  approved,  and  he  embodied  in  the  rule 
regulations  covermg  certain  changes  already  intro- 
duced in  various  convents  by  his  predecessor  or  by 
himself.  Thus,  the  direction  of  the  communities  of 
the  order  was  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  general  and 
provincial  of  the  Franciscans.  The  sisters  were  di- 
rected to  recite  the  Divine  Office  according  to  the  cus- 
tom of  the  Friars  Minor.  The  regulations  concerning 
silence  and  abstinence  were  modified.  The  length  of 
novitiate  was  fixed  at  one  year.  The  most  notable 
change  is  to  be  found  in  the  express  permission  granted 
to  every  convent  to  hold  possessions,  for  the  adminis- 
tration of  which  a  prudent  procurator  was  to  be  se- 
cured by  each  house.  In  the  year  1263  the  original 
rule  undemcnt  a  final  modification  at  the  bands  of 
Urban  IV.  On  18  October  of  that  year  the  sovereign 
pontiff  issued  the  rule  which  is  in  the  most  general  ob- 
servance among  the  Poor  Clares  and  which  has  given 
the  name  "Urbanist"  to  a  large  divisioa  of  the  order. 
It  is  noteworthv  that  in  Urban's  Rule  the  new  com- 
mimity  receivea  for  the  first  time  the  official  title  of 


"Order  of  St.  Clare".  In  a  few  particulois  the  new 
rc'gulations  were  less  severe  than  in  the  rule  of  1247. 
For  instance,  the  abbess  was  empowered  to  dispense 
with  the  obligation  of  silence  during  certain  hours  of 
the  day  at  her  good  pleasure.   The  sections  of  the  rule 


POOR 


253 


POOB 


are  arranged  in  a  new  order  and  are  divided  into 
twenty-six  chapters.  For  the  most  part  the  very 
words  of  the  previous  rule  are  employed.  One  impor- 
tant change  must  be  noted.  Innocent  IV  had  left  the 
Second  Oraer  in  charge  of  the  general  and  provincial 
of  the  Friars  Minor.  Urban  I.V  withdrew  from  these 
officials  practicaJly  all  their  authority  over  the  Second 
Order  and  bestowed  it  on  the  cardinal  protector.        * 

III.  Meanwhile,  St.  Clare  had  secured  from  Inno- 
cent IV  the  confirmation  of  a  new  rule  differing  widely 
from  the  original  rule  drawn  up  by  Ugolino,  and  modi- 
fied by  his  successors  on  the*  papal  throne.  For  forty 
years  she  had  been  the  living  rule  from  which  the  com- 
munity at  San  Damiano  had  imbibed  the  spirit  of  St. 
Francis.  A  few  days  before  her  death  she  placed  the 
convent  under  a  rule  which  embodied  that  spirit  more 
perfectly  than  did  Ugolino's  Rule.  The  Bull  "Solet 
annuere",  9  August,  1253,  confirming  St.  Clare's  Rule, 
was  directed  to  the  Sisters  of  San  Damiano  alone. 
The  new  rule  was  soon  adopted  by  other  convents  and 
forms  the  basis  of  the  second  grand  division  of  the 
Poor  Clares.  It  is  an  adaptation  of  the  Franciscan 
Rule  to  the  needs  of  the  Second  Order.  Its  twelve 
chapters  correspond  substantially  to  those  of  the 
Franciscan  Rule,  and  in  large  sections  there  is  a  verbal 
agreement  between  the  two  rules.  In  a  few  instances 
it  borrows  regulations  from  the  original  rule  and  from 
the  modified  form  of  that  rule  pubUshed  by  Innocent 
IV.  The  most  important  characteristic  of  St.  Clare's 
Rule  is  its  express  declaration  that  the  sisters  are  to 
possess  no  property,  either  as  individuals  or  as  a  com- 
munity, in  this  regulation  the  new  rule  clearly 
breathes  the  spirit  of  the  seraphic  founder.  It  is  im- 
probable, however,  that  St.  Francis  was  the  author  of 
it  or  that  it  was  approved  by  Gregory  IX,  as  is  some- 
times asserted.  With.the  data  obtainable  no  categori- 
cal answer  can  be  given  to  the  question  of  authorship, 
though  the  compiler  may  well  have  been  St.  Clare  her- 
self (Lemmens  in  "Rdm.  Quartalschr.'',  I,  page  118). 
The  original  Bull  of  Innocent  IV  confirming  the  Rule 
of  St.  Clare  was  discovered  in  1893  in  a  mantle  of  the 
saint  which  had  been  preserved,  amon^  other  relics, 
at  the  monastery  of  St.  Clare  at  Assisi  (Robinson, 
"Inventariumdocumentorum",  1908). 

IV.  While  the  rule  was  undergoing  these  various 
modifications,  the  order  was  rapidly  spreading 
throughout  Europe.  At  San  Damiano,  St.  Clare's 
sister,  Agnes,  and  her  aunt,  Buona  Guelfuccio  (in  re- 
ligion Sister  racifica),  played  a  large  part  in  its  early 
development. .  In  1318  permission  was  obtained  from 
the  Bishop  of  Perugia  for  the  establishment  of  a  mon- 
astery in  tnat  city.  The  following  year  Agnes  founded 
at  Florence  a  community  which  became  the  centre  of 
numerous  new  foundations,  namely,  those  at  Venice, 
Mantua,  and  Padua.  Monasteries  of  the  order  were 
soon  to  be  found  at  Todi,  Volterra,  Foligno,  and  Be- 
ziers.  St.  Clare's  niece,  Agnes,  introduced  the  new 
order  into  Spain.  The  cities  of  Barcelona  and  Burgos 
became  thriving  communities.  The  first  foundation 
in  Belgium  was  effected  at  Bruges  by  Sister  Ermen- 
trude,  who,  after  the  death  of  St.  (31are.  displayed  great 
zeal  in  spreading  the  order  through  Bel^um  and  north- 
em  France.  The  earliest  community  in  France,  how- 
ever, was  planted  at  Reims  in  1229  at  the  request  of 
the  archbishop  of  that  see.  The  monasteries  at  Mont- 
pelier,  Cahors,  Bordeaux,  Metz,  and  Besan^on  sprang 
trom  the  house  at  Reims;  and  that  of  Marseilles  was 
foundod  from  Assisi  in  1254.  The  Royal  Abbey  at 
Longchamp,  which  enjoyed  the  patronage  of  Bl.  Isa- 
bel, daughter  of  Louis  VlII  ana  Blanche  of  Castile, 
is  usually  though  with  some  Question  counted  as  a 
branch  of  the  Poor  Clares.  (See  article  Isabel  of 
France.)  Among  the  earliest  foundations  in  Ger- 
many was  that  of  Strasburg,  where  Innocent  I  V's  re- 
vision of  the  rule  was  accepted  in  1255.  In  Bohemia 
the  order  had  an  illustrious  patroness,  Princess  Agnes 
(Blessed  Agnes  of  Prague),  a  cousin  of  St.  Elizabeth  of 


Hungary.  Agnes  was  but  one  of  the  ladies  of  high  rank 
who,  attracted  to  the  new  order,  put  aside  the  vani- 
ties of  their  social  position  to  embrace  a  life  of  poverty 
and  seclusion  from  the  world. 

V.  For  a  centurv  after  the  death  of  St.  Clare  com- 
paratively few  of  the  convents  had  adopted  the  Rule  of 
1253.  Most  of  them  had  availed  themselves  of  the 
permission  to  hold  property  in  the  name  of  the  com- 
munity. Moreover,  in  the  fourteenth  century  the 
order  suffered  very  much  during  the  Great  Western 
Schism,  which  was  responsible  for  the  general  decline 
of  discipline  (Manuale  Histories  Ordinis  Fratrum  Mi- 
norum,  p.  586) .  At  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury, however,  the  spirit  ofutter  poverty  was  revived 
through  the  instrumentality  of  St.  Colette  (d.  1447). 
who  instituted  the  most  vigorous  reform  the  Second 
Order  has  ever  experienced.  Her  desire  to  restore  or 
introduce  the  practice  of  absolute  poverty  was  put  on 
a  fair  way  to  realization  when,  in  1406,  Benedict  XIII 
appointed  her  reformer  of  the  whole  order  and  gave 
her  the  officio  of  Abbess  General  over  all  convents  she 
should  establish  or  reform.  In  1412  St.  Colette  es- 
tablished a  monastery  at  Besan^on.  Before  her. death 
(1447)  she  had  founded  17  new  monasteries,  to  which, 
in  addition  to  the  Rule  of  St.  Clare,  she  gave  constitu- 
tions and  regulations  of  her  own.  These  Constitutions 
of  St.  Colette  were  confirmed  by  Pius  II  (Seraphic® 
Legislationis  Textus  Originales,  99-175).  After  the 
death  of  St.  Colette  her  reform  continued  to  spread  »jRd 
by  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century  reformed  convents 
were  to  be  found  throughout  France,  Flanders,  Bra- 
bant, Savoy,  Spain,  and  Portugal.  The  number  of 
sisters  at  that  time  exceeded  35,000  and  they  were 
everywhere  commended  by  the  austerity  of  their  lives 
(Pidoux^  "Sainte  Colette",  p.  158).  From  the  year  1517 
the  spintual  direction  of  the  Poor  Clares,  the  Colet- 
tines  not  excepted,  was  given  to  the  Observants.  This 
was  a  return  to  the  condition  existing  before  the  yeai 
1263,  at  which  time  the  Friars  Minor,  under  the  lead- 
erslup  of  St.  Bonaventure,  at  the  General  Chapter  of 
Pisa  sought  to  resign  the  spiritual  care  of  the  Second 
Order  (Archivum  ftanciscanum  Historicum,  October, 
1910,  66^79).  The  first  quarter  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury witnessed  a  widespread  revival  of  the  Urbanist 
Rule.  Towards  the  end  of  the  same  century,  though 
the  religious  wars  had  destroyed  many  monasteries, 
there  were  about  six  hundred  houses  in  existence. 
Subsequently  the  order  experienced  a  rapid  growth 
and  the  extemd  development  of  the  Poor  Clares  ap- 
pears to  have  reached  its  culmination  about  1630  in 
925  monateries  with  34,000  sisters  under  the  direction 
of  the  minister  general.  If  we  can  credit  contempo- 
rary chroniclers,  there  were  still  more  sisters  under  the 
direction  of  the  bishops,  making  the  entire  number 
about  70,000.  After  the  opening  years  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century  the  order  declinea  and  the  French 
Revolution  and  the  subsequent  policy  of  seculariza- 
tion almost  totally  destroyed  it,  except  in  Spain,  where 
the  monasteries  were  undisturbed. 

VI.  In  1807  a  Poor  Clare  community  of  the  Urban- 
bt  Observance,  fleeing  from  the  terrors  of  the  French 
Revolution,  took  refuge  in  England  and  founded  a 
monastery  at  Scorton  Hall  in  Yorkshire.  They  were 
the  first  of  their  order  to  establish  themselves  in  that 
country  since  the  religious  changes  of  the  sixteenth 
century.  Fifty  years  after  their  arrival  they  removed 
to  their  present  home,  the  Monastery  of  St.  Clare  at 
Darlington,  also  in  Yorkshire.  Refugees  from  the 
French  Revolution  likewise  found  their  way  to  Amer- 
ica. In  1801  a  community,  presided  over  by  Abbess 
Marie  de  la  Marche,  purchased  property  in  George- 
town, D.  C,  and  opened  a  school  for  their  support. 
Their  efforts  met  with  little  success  and  they  returned 
to  Europe.  The  suppression  of  the  religious  in  Italy 
was  the  occasion  of  the  first  permanent  settlement  of 
the  Poor  Clares  in  the  United  States.  In  August,  1875, 
two  sisters  by  blood  as  well  as  in  religion,  Maria  Mad- 


POOB  254  POOR 

delena,  and  Maria  Coetanza  Bentivoglio,  from   the  Hitt,  (1910),  faao.  iv;  Sabatibr,  Speculum  Per/eeUonu;  Leoenda 

cclebrat^i  Monastenr  of  San  Ix>renEo-m-Pam8perma,  S.%^ir.S^^^^  STST  aJJSS 

canje  to  Amenca  by  direction  of  Pius  IX  m  response  to  Fratrim  Minomm,  tr.   (1909);  Idmi.  Handbueh  der  OesSTd. 

a  petition  presented  by  Mother  Ignatius  Hayes  of  the  Franeiteantrordnu   (Freiburg,    1909) ;   BOhmbr,   AnaUkten  Mur 

TfcniOrderRegulaisofSt  Francis   i^^  gg^e^P^'i'i^T^'fe^ 

ing  to  found  convents  in  New  York,  Cincinnati,  and  huno  u.  AuAreitung  d,  Klarifsenarderu^beaonders  in  den  deuteehen 

Philadelphia,  they  went  to  New  Orleans,  but  soon  re-  Minoritenpronneen  (Leipsic  1906). 
moved  to  Cleveland,  Ohio,  where  they  were  joined  by  a  Edwin  V.  O'Hara. 

community  of  German  Poor  Clares  to  whom  they  rehn- 

quished  the  convent.    The  new  German  community       Poor  Handmaids  of  JesuB  ChrlBt,  a  community 

remained  in  Cleveland  and  have  since  founded  an-  founded  by  Catherine  Kasper,  a  native  of  Dembach, 

other  convent  in  Chicago;  they  follow  the  reform  of  St.  Germany.    She  was  bom  26  May,  1820,  of  humble 

Colette.    Meanwhile  the  Italian  sisters  found  a  per-  parents,  and  at  an  early  age  resolved  to  consecrate 

manent  home  in  Omaha,  thanks  to  the  munificence  of  her  life  to  God.    She  was  animated  with  the  spirit 

Mri  John  Creighton.   On  14  July.  1882,  the  canonical  of  Mary  and  the  activity  of  Martha  and  wished  to 

enclosure  was  established  in  tne  new  monastery,  combine  the  contemplative  and  the  active  life  in  the 

f)x)m  the  monastery  of  St.Clare  in  Omaha  have  sprung  service  of  her  Master.    She  and  two  companions  took 

directly,  or  indirectly,  the  foundations  of  the  order  at  vows  and  professed  themselves  Poor  Handmiuds  of 

New  Orleans;  Evansville,  Ind.;  Boston;  and  Borden-  Jesus  Christ,  on  15  August,  1851.    Sister  Mary  (Cath- 

town,  N.  J.  erine  Kasper)  was  chosen  mother-general  of  the  newly 

VII.  The  daily  life  of  the  Poor  Clares  is  occupied  founded  community  and  continued  as  such  until  her 
with  both  work  and  prayer.  It  is  a  life  of  penance  and  death,  2  Feb.,  1898,  when  the  community  had 
contemplation.  The  rule  says  that  the  sisters  shall  branches  throughout  Germany,  Austria,  England, 
fast  at  all  times  except  on  the  Feast  of  the  Nativity.  Holland,  and  North  America. 

The  constitutions  explain  that  meat  may  not  be  used  Mother  Mary  Kasper  had  at  first  simply  desired 
even  on  Christmas.  The  ''great  silence"  is  from  Com-  that  her  community  be  devoted  to  the  sick  and  needy 
pline  until  after  the  conventual  Mass.  During  the  day  and  especiallv  the  orphan;  but  it  soon  engaged  in  the 
there  is  one  hour  of  recreation  except  on  Friday,  work  of  teaching  and  began  to  conduct  in  Germany 
Meals  are  taken  in  silence.  The  Divine  Office  is  re-  parochial  schools,  academies,  boarding  schools,  kin- 
cited,  not  sung.  The  Franciscan  breviary  is  used,  dergartens,  and  industrial  schools.  The  KvUurkampf 
The  habit  is  a  loose  fitting  garment  of  gray^  frieze;  the  compelled  the  sisters  to  abandon  their  parochial 
cord  is  of  linen  rope  about  one-half  inch  m  thiclmess  schools,  but  they  continued  the  other  works  of  charitv. 
having  four  knots  representing  the  four  vows;  thesan-  The  constitution  of  the  community  was  temporarily 
dais  are  of  cloth.  approved  by  Pius  IX  in  1870  and  finally  confirmed  by 

VIII.  Among  the  saints  of  the  order  may  be  men-  Leo  XIII. 

tioned:  the  founder,  Clare  of  Assisi  (d.  1253);  Agnes        Through  Bishop  Luers  and  Rev.  Edward  Koenig, 

of  Assisi  (d.  1253);  Collette  of  Coibie  (d.   1447)  j  pastor  ofSt.  Paurs  Church  at  Fort  Wayne,  the  com- 

Catharine  of  Bologna  (d.  1463) ;  Veronica  GiuUam  munity  began  to  labour  at  Hesse  Cassel  in  tne  Diocese 

(d.  1727).    Holzapfel  enumerates  seventeen  Blessed  of  Fort  Wayne  on  3  August,  1863.    From  this  place 

of  the  order  (Maniiale,  638),  of  whom  the  following  are  three  sisters  were  called  to  Chicago  in  1869  bv  the 

the  more  important:  Agnes  of  Bohemia  (d.  1280) ;  Isa-  Very  Rev.  Peter  Fischer,  vicar  general,  to  take  charge 

bel  of  France  (d.  1270) ;  Margaret  Colonna  (d.  1284) ;  of  the  German  orphan  ae^lum,  which  opened  with 

Cunegundis  of  Hungary  (d.  1292);  Antonia  of  Flor-  twelve  children,  but  now  shelters  more  than  six  hun- 

ence  (d.  1472).  dred  orphans.    On  9  May,  1869,  the  RockhUl  property 

IX.  Accon&ng  to  the  census  of  the  Poor  Clares,  at  Fort  Wc^ne  was  purchased  and  converted  into  a 
taken  in  Octob«*,  1909,  the  following  is  the  present  hospital.  To  this  was  added  a  convent  and  chapel  in 
status  of  the  order:  Italy,  Houses  108,  Members  1816;  1883  at  a  cost  of  $32,000.  The  convent  is  the  pro- 
Sardinia,  H.  3,  M.  40;  Corsica,  H.  1,  M.  24;  Palestine,  vincial  mother-house  of  the  community  in  Amer- 
H.  2,  M.  64;  Tyrol,  H.  1,  M.  50;  Dalmatia,  H.  1,  M.  ica. 

15;  Prussia,  H.  4,  M.  126;  Bavaria,  H.  3,  M.  100;  The  first  parochial  school  conducted  by  the  sister- 
Holland,  H.  4,  M.  112;  Belgium,  H.  39,  M.  870;  Ire-  hood  in  this  country  was  St.  Paul's  in  Fort  Wayne, 
land,  H.  9,  M.  178;  England,  H.  11,  M.  129;  France,  H.  of  which  they  took  charge  on  6  October,  1869.  Now 
31,  M.  760;  Spain,  H.  247,  M.  5543;  Portugal,  H.  3,  the  community  is  represented  in  the  Dioceses  of  Fort 
M.  40  (now  dispersed);  Peru,  H.  1,  M.  34;  Columbia,  Wayne,  Belleville,  Alton^  Superior,  and  in  the  Arch- 
H.  5,  M.  136;  Ecuador,  H.  5,  M.  155;  Bolivia,  H.  2,  dioceses  of  St.  Paul,  Chicago,  Philadelphia,  and  St. 
M.  36;  Argentina.  H.  1,  M.  36;  Brazil,  H.  2,  M.  3(7);  Louis.  The  sisters  are  engaged  in  teaching,  and 
Mexico,  H.  14,  M.  204:  Canada,  H.  1,  M.  20;  United  nursing  the  sick  in  hospitals  and  private  homes.  Of 
States,  H.  7,  M.  125;  Total  H.  505,  M.  10,586.  the  3500  members  which  the  community  now  num- 
Tromas  or  Cblano,  Viia  S.  Clara  in  Acta  ss.»  II.  Aug.  (ed.  bers,  500  labour  in  the  United  Sti^es. 

ftfj?  1|®7).  764-«7;  Robinson.  W«  of  St.  Clare  (Philadclpjiia.  MoTHER  M.  SecUNDA. 

1910);  SeraphtccB  UgtaUUionxe  textua  or%g%n€Uee  (Quaracchi,  1897) 

oontaining  of  interest  to  the  Second  Order  the  following  docu-  «.  • 

ments:  the  Bull  "Solet  annuere"  with  the  Rule  of  1253  (49-70),        Poor  LawB  are  those  legal  enactments  which  have 

/'cS^S*®W°'*~"P?"°"i''*'}^'*?^"l'  ^^^  K  9'?«°?;,  ^^  been  made  at  various  penods  of  the  world's  history 

(97-8),    Textua  originalea  Conatitutionum  Colete     m  fifteen  •      ^^^„ «x«:^     r *i i*  r  ^e       _:^       r  *> 

chapters,  with  the  Bull  of  confirmation  by  Pius  II  (99-175),  ^  many  countnes  for  the  rehef  of  various  forms  of 

"Testamentum  8.  Clane"  (273),  "Benedietio  8.  ciarsR"  (281),  distress  and  Sickness  prevailing  amongst  the  destitute. 

»?d*he"Te8tan^tum8.C^^  In  England  this  is  not  strictly  accurate,  as  certain 

SteCJavre  (ChamMry.  1693);  Francois  du  Puia,  La  vxe  el  ligende  *„    i  ^   ^  u.^^  ^ *^j  c auJ:  •   i  u        ci.     i^ 

de  Madame  Ste  Clave  (ed..  Paris,  1902);  CniRANc*.  ste  Claire  l»ws  have  been  enacted  for  the  spjecial  benefit  of  the 

d'A»8i»eiFznB,iwi);BALroxm,TheLi/eandLeoeridoftheLady  poor,  which  have  not  been  classified  as  poor  laws, 

fivft?'''  ^^iT'S2^i?^^^\®"''i^5f^i.  fcf*v  t^^^  ^  order  to  avoid  classifying  the  recipients  of  relief 

I-IV  (Rome,  1759-68),  continued  by  IPuocf,  V-VII  (Rome,  1898- .     u  j^i-i    j  x  xi. 

1904):  Anal.  Franeisc,  MV  (Quaracchi,  1885-1906) ;  Waddino,  m  paupers,  a  name  mtich  disliked  amongst  the  poor. 

Annatee  Minorum  (Rome,  1731-6) ;  Db  Gubehnatis,  Orbie  Sera-  A  person  of  seventy  years  of  age  in  receipt  of  relief 

Uue  de  Corbie  (Pane.  1904) ;  Ubald  d'Albncon,  Documenie  $ur  la  pauper,  but  If  the  rehef  were  granted  under  the  Old 

lUforme  de  Ste  CoUeUe  en  France  in  Archiv.  Francis.  Hist.,  II,  447;  Age  Pension  Act  SUCh  WOuld  not  be  the  case,  as  the 

Lbmmbns,  Die  Anf&nge  de«  Klarieeenardene  in  ROm.  QuartaUchr  g^ant  WOUld  be  made  Up,  to  a  large  extent,  from  im- 

XVI,  pts.  l-u:  Lbiipp,  Brtegere  ZeUechr.  fw  Kxrehengesch.,  XII  ^     •   i  *         .  •        •    _a      j     *  i        i      ^  j  ai.  j* 

(I893)j  181 ;  i XIII,  626;  Labibbi,  Doeumenta  cantrovereiam  inter  penal  taxation  instead  of  local  rates  and  the  guardians 

FF,  Minoree  el  Clarieeae  epedantia  (069-97)  in  Arehiv,  Francie,  of  the  pOOr  WOUld  have  nO  control  OVer  its  distribution. 


p6or 


255 


POOB 


The  English  poor  law  system  is  the  most  oompre* 
hensive  and  is  the  result  of  nearly  four  centuries  of 
experiment;  even  now  it  is  receiving  the  most  careful 
consideration  with  a  view  to  further  l^islation  in 
consequence  of  the  report  of  the  Royal  Commission 
on  the  Poor  Laws  issued  in  1909.  This  commission 
sat  for  three  years,  held  over  two  hundred  meetings, 
took  evidence  from  over  one  thousand  three  hundred 
witnesses,  and  the  conunissioners  made  upwM*ds  of 
eight  hundred  personal  visits  to  Unions,  meetings  of 
Boards  of  Guardians,  and  institutions  in  England, 
Scotland,  and  Ireland.  The  volume  containing  the 
report  consists  of  one  thousand  two  hundred  and  fifty 
folio  pagjes,  six  hundred  and  forty  of  which  are  signed 
by  a  majority  of  fourteen  out  of  eighteen  of  the  com- 
missioners, and  over  five  hundred  by  a  minority  of 
four.  The  two  reports  are  the  subject  of  much  dis- 
cussion, and  rival  associations  are  formed  to  further 
their  respective  recommendations.  That  more  mod- 
em European  systems  can  show  many  points  of 
improvement  upon  the  English  system  as  a  whole  is 
obvious. 

The  system  in  Denmark  is  considered  by  many 
to  be  vastly  sufierior  to  the  English  system,  in  that 
infinite  trouble  is  taken  to  prevent  any  person  who 
deserves  a  better  fate  from  becoming  a  pauper  owing 
to  misfortune,  temporary  distress,  illness,  or  accident. 
In  England  no  one  would  ever  think  of  applying  to  a 
poor  law  officer  for  advice,  or  for  a  loan  or  gift  to 
help  him  over  evil  days,  but  in  Denmark  this  is  often 
done.  At  the  same  time  those  who  receive  poor  law 
relief  in  Denmark  are*  subject  to  penalties  which 
would  not  be  tolerated  in  England.  In  Austria  and 
,  Russia  great  interest  is  taken  in  homes  for  the  aged 
poor  and  the  inmates  always  seem  much  brisditer 
and  happier  than  the  average  poor  person  in  an  Eng- 
lish workhouse.  In  Belgium  there  is  no  poor  rate, 
but  large  endowments  exist.  In  Fnmce  there  are 
hospices  cwiles  for  indoor  relief,  and  bureaux  de 
hien/aisance  for  outdoor  relief,  but  the  relief  of  the 

Cr  is  not  compulsory  except  for  foundlings  and 
itics.  The  same  may  be  said  of  Italy,  but  the 
charitable  foundations  tnere  amount  to  more  than 
thirty  millions  sterling.  The  poor  laws  of  the  United 
States  are  in  many  respects  like  the  Endish  poor 
laws,  although  not  so  comprehensive,  and  they  are 
not  universally  adopted  in  all  states.  Every  man  is 
entitled  by  law  to  relief  from  the  town  of  his  settle- 
ment, the  rate  being  assessed  on  whole  towns  and  not 
on  parishes.  These  areas  bear  the  burden  of  the 
settled  poor;  the  unsettled  poor,  including  Indians, 
are  a  cnaige  upon  the  state.  In  New  York  one 
year's  residence  is  sufficient  to  constitute  a  settle- 
ment. In  some  states  outdoor  relief  is  considered 
more  economical  than  relief  in  a  workhouse.  The 
idle  and  the  vagrant  may  be  conmiitted  to  the  work- 
house and  forced  to  labour  as  in  a  house  of  correction. 
The  administration  is  in  the  hands  of  overseers,  but 
the  coimties  elect  superintendents,  holding  office  for 
three  years,  who  are  again  responsible  to  a  Board 
of  Supervisors.  Generally  the  American  system  is 
marked  by  a  high  degree  of  classification,  variety  of 
work,  special  education,  and  liberal  treatment  in  the 
matter  of  diet.  In  Canada  and  Australia  there  are 
practically  no  poor  laws,  but  many  Catholic  chari- 
table institutions  exist  tor  dealing  with  the  various 
forms  of  destitution  and  sickness. 

The  history  of  the  poor  laws  in  England  practically 
had  its  banning  with  the  abolition  of  the  monas- 
teries by  Henry  VIII.  A  curious  act  of  Edward  VI 
(1551)  enacted  that  everyone  should  give  alms  to  the 
oollectors  on  Sunda3r8,  and  that  if  any  one  refused  the 
bisliop  should  admonish  him.  This  form  of  ''moral 
suasion"  was  not  sufficient  for  the  congregations  of  the 
new  worship;  and  a  few  ^ears  later  another  act 
directed  the  bishop  to  commit  those  who  did  not  ^ve 
sufficient  alms  to  the  justices,  who  were  to  levy  on 


them  whatever  rate  they  thought  fair.  The  establish- 
ment of  an  official  poor  fund  led  to  the  establishment 
of  an  official  register  of  the  poor;  and  an  early  act 
of  Elizabeth  caused  dwellings  to  be  built,  overseers 
to  be  appointed  and  ''stuff"  to  be  provided  to  set  the 
sturdv  paupers  to  work.  In  1604  the  act  of  43 
EUzabetn,  c.  2,  crystallized  the  whole  arrangement, 
leaving  the  main  administrative  power  in  the  hands 
of  ]>arochial  authorities,  annually  appointed.  Among 
other  things  it  provided  for  setting  to  work  children 
of  parents  unable  to  maintain  them;  also  for  setting 
to  work  all  such  persons,  married  or  unmarried,  who 
had  no  ordinary  daily  occupation  to  obtain  a  hving. 
It  provided  for  the  relief  of  the  lame,  impotent, 
and  blind,  and  those  poor  who  were  unable  to 
work. 

This  and  other  acts  were  renewed  in  the  reign  of 
James  I  and  made  perpetual  in  the  reign  of  Charles 
I.  Each  renewal  saw  some  new  development.  In 
the  eighteenth  century  many  experimental  acts  were 
passed,  some  of  which,  were  completely  opposite  in 
policy.  In  1772  the  workhouse  test  was  introduced 
and  no  one  who  refused  to  be  lodged  and  kept  in 
such  houses  was  entitled  to  parochial  relief.  In 
1782  by  an  act  known  as  Gilbert's  Act  power  was 
given  to  adjacent  parishes  to  unite  into  a  union  and 
to  build  workhouses  for  combined  parishes.  Section 
29  of  this  act  provided  that  no  person  should  be  sent 
to  the  poorhouse  except  such  as  were  become  in- 
digent Dy  old  age,  sickness,  or  infirmities,  and  were 
unable  to  acquire  a  maintenance  by  their  labour,  and 
orphan  children.  For  the  able-bodied  the  guardians 
were  ordered  to  find  suitable  employment  near  their 
own  homes.  Poor  law  expenditure  was  beginning  to 
grow  and  by  1785  it  amounted  to  £2,000,000.  In 
1796  an  act  (36  Geo.  Ill,  c.  23)  was  passed,  repealing 
an  act  of  1722  which  restricted  out-relief.  This 
reversal  of  policy  encouraged  out-relief  to  poor  per- 
sons in  their  own  homes  and  the  cost  of  relief  rose 
with  frightful  rapidity  until  it  reached  in  1818  the 
sum  of  £7,870,000..  This  was  looked  upon  as  an 
intolerable  burden  and  many  petitions  were  pre- 
sented to  Parlisunent  for  its  alleviation. 

In  1832  a  royal  commission  was  appointed  to  in- 
vestigate the  workin|;  of  the  poor  laws  and  the  report 
issued  by  the  commissioners  in  1834  presents  a  very 
unsatisfactory  state  of  things.  It  was  reported  that 
funds  collected  were  applied  to  purposes  opposed  to 
the  letter  and  still  more  to  the  spirit  of  the  law,  and 
the  morals  and  welfare  of  the  people  were  being  de- 
stroyed. It  was  found  that  in  many  places  not  only 
the  rates  .due  from  the  people  were  being  paid  from 
poor  funds,  but  their  house  rent  as  well;  consequently 
paupers  became  a  very  desirable  class  of  tenant. 
In  many  districts  it  was  the  custom  to  make  up  the 
earnings  of  a  family  to  what  was  considered  a  uving 
wage,  which  enabled  employers  of  labour  to  pay  low 
wages,  knowing  the  earnings  would  be  8upt>Iemented 
from  the  poor  funds.  To  provide  employment  in 
return  for  relief  granted  was  most  unusual  and  even 
where  any  attempt  to  do  so  was  made,  it  was  of  a 
most  unsatbfactory  nature.  The  men  were  usually 
paid  at  a  hi^er  rate  of  wage  than  the  indepen- 
dent labourer  and  were  required  to  work  fewer 
hours.  Wives  of  independent  labourers  were  often 
heard  regretting  that  their  husbands  were  not  pau- 
pers. 

The  method  of  collecting  rates  for  the  poor  fund  was 
found  to  be  as  bad  as  its  distribution.  No  general 
method  existed:  sometimes  tradespeople  would  be 
called  upon  to  pay  the  rates  and  in  audition  compelled 
to  give  employment  where  it  was  not  required;  at 
another  time  and  place  farmers  would  have  to  bear 
the  burden.  An  instance  ia  given  of  a  farmer  with 
five  hundred  acres  having  to  pay  ten  per  cent  per 
acre  and  to  employ  four  or  five  more  la]i)ourers  than 
he  required,  costing  him  another  £100,  to  say  noth- 


POOB 


256 


POOR 


ing  of  tho  damage  done  by  worthless  labour.  The 
evils  existing  in  the  workhouses  were  absence  of 
classification,  discipline,  and  employment,  and  the 
extravagance  of  allowances.  Children  were  herded 
with  older  people  and  soon  acquired  their  bad  habits; 
particularly  was  this  the  case  with  young  girls  who 
were  obliged  to  associate  with  the  many  women  of 
evil  repute  who  came  in  to  recruit  their  health  and 
then  return  to  their  trade:  paupers  were  allowed  to 
leave  the  workhouse  one  day  a  week  and  return  in- 
toxicated without  punishment.  Only  in  a  very  few 
instances  were  things  found  to  be  in  the  least  degree 
satisfactory  and  these  particular  instances  were  due 
to  the  extraordinary  ener^  and  wisdom  of  a  few  in* 
dividuals.  It  is  not  difficult  to  imagine  the  disas- 
trous effect  these  abuses  had  upon  all  classes  of  the 
community.  The  independent  labourers,  the  em- 
ployers of  labour,  the  owners  of  property,  were  all 
seriously  affected.  The  foregoing  evils  were  to  a 
large  extent  due  to  the  administrative  machinery, 
upon  which  the  commissioners  were  no  less  severe 
in  their  report.  Overseers,  assistant  overseers,  open 
vestries,  representative  vestries,  self-appointed  ves- 
tries, and  magistrates,  were  the  chief  administrators 
of  the  poor  funds.  Some  of  these  had  to  serve  com- 
pulsoriiy  without  payment  and  much  against  their 
will;  others  were  paid  euid  were  of  a  most  illiterate 
class,  many  not  being  able  to  read  or  write,  and  a 
final  appeal  for  the  pauper  against  the  overseers  or 
vestries  was  with  the  magistrate,  who  not  having 
the  time  nor  inclination  to  go  into  the  details  of  the 
cases  brought  to  his  notice  would  invariably  give 
a  wrong  decision,  against  which  there  was  no 
appeal. 

One  portion  of  the  report  is  not  without  interest 
to  Catholics,  viz.,  that  m  which  the  commissioners 
refer  to  the  large  number  of  Roman  Catholic  children 
who  ^ere  illegitimate  in  consequence  of  the  priest 
alone  having  married  the  parents.  A  magistrate 
said  that  as  many  as  a  dozen  of  these  cases  h^  come 
under  his  notice  in  a  single  day.  The  remedial  meas- 
ures proposed  by  the  commissioners  fill  two  hundred 
and  thirty-six  quarto  pages  of  close  print,  and  the 
result  of  their  report  was  the  passing  of  the  Poor  Law 
Amendment  Act  of  1834  (4  &  5  William  IV,  c. 
76).  The  act  consists  of  one  hundred  and  ten  clauses, 
the  first  fifteen  of  which  deal  with  the  appointment  and 
duties  of  ''The  Poor  Law  Conmiissioners  for  England 
and  Wales'',  three  in  number,  afterwards  called  the 
Local  Government  Board.  The  future  administra- 
tion of  the  poor  laws,  power  to  make  rules  and  regula- 
tions for  the  management  of  the  poor,  and  the  govern- 
ment of  workhouses,  were  placed  in  the  hands  of 
the  new  commissioners.  They  are  required  to  make 
an  annual  report  to  be  placed  before  Parliament  and 
to  give  the  Secretary  of  State  any  information  re- 
specting their  proceedings  he  may  require.  The 
succeedmg  sections  of  the  act  deal  with  the  altera- 
tion and  building  of  workhouses;  the  union  and  dis- 
solution of  unions  of  parishes;  the  number,  duties, 
and  qualifications  of  guardians  and  their  elections; 
expenditiu*e  and  assessment;  qualifications,  duties, 
and  salaries  of  officers;  making  of  contracts;  regu- 
lation of  relief  to  the  able-bodied  and  their  families; 
raising  of  money;  audit  of  accounts;  and  appren- 
ticeship of  children.  The  Roman  Catholic  Relief 
Bill,  passed  in  1829,  gave  courage  and  hope  to  a  cer- 
tain number  of  Catholics,  who  soon  b^an  to  bestir 
themselves  in  the  interests  of  their  poorer  brethren 
in  the  workhouses,  and  the  result  of  their  efforts  was 
Been  in  section  19  of  the  Act  of  1834.  This  section 
provides  that 

"No  Rules,  Orders  or  Regulations  of  the  said 
Commissioners,  nor  any  By-Laws  at  present  in 
force,  or  to  be  hereafter  made,  shall  oblige  any 
inmate  of  any  workhouse  to  attend  any  religious 
service  which  may  be  celebrated  in  a  mode  con- 


trary \o  the  reli^ous  principles  of  such  inmate, 
nor  shall  authonze  the  education  of  any  chila 
in  such  workhouse  in  any  reUgious  creed  other 
than  that  professed  by  the  parents  or  surviving 
parent  of  such  child,  and  to  which  such  parents 
or  parent  shall  object,  or,  in  the  case  of  an  or- 
phan, to  which  the  godfather  or  godmother  of 
such  orphan  shall  so  object:  provided  also,  that 
it  shall  and  may  be  lawful  for  any  licensed  minis- 
ter of  the  religious  persuasion  of  any  inmate  of 
such  workhouse,  at  all  times  in  the  day,  on  the 
request  of  such  inmate,  to  visit  such  workhouse 
for  the  purpose  of  affording  religious  assistance 
to  such  inmate,  and  also  for  the  purpose  of  in- 
structing his  child  or  children  in  the  principles 
of  their  religion." 
Section  55  provides  for  masters  of  workhouses  and 
overseers  keeping  a  register  of  all  relief  given,  and  sub- 
sequent orders  of  the  Poor  Law  Board  provide  for 
the  entry  in  this  register  of  the  religious  creed  of 
those  receiving  indoor  relief. 

Although  the  Act  of  1834  was  the  beginning  of 
religious  freedom  for  Catholics  under  the  poor  laws, 
it  was  not  without  considerable  difficulty,  and  in  some 
cases  legal  action,  before  the  Catholic  clergy  and  the 
inmates  were  able  to  obtain  the  benefit  o?  that  act. 
Some  Boards  of  Guardians  refused  to  admit  a  priest 
into  the  workhouse  even  when  an  inmate  had  made 
a  request  for  him  to  visit,  and  others  wouldgive  him 
no  facilities  for  finding  those  who  were  Catholics. 
The  creed  register  was  therefore  instituted  in  1868 
by  the  Poor  Law  Amendment  Act,  31  and  32  Vict., 
c.  122.  Sections  16,  17,  and  19  provide  for  a  separate 
register  to  be  kept  in  every  workhouse^  district,  or 
other  pauper  school,  into  which  the  religious  creed  of 
everv  inmate  shall  be  entered:  the  religious  creed  of  a 
child  under  twelve  shall  be  entered  as  that  of  his 
father  if  it  can  be  ascertained,  if  not,  as  that  of  his 
mother.  The  religious  creed  of  an  illegitimate 
child  shall  be  deemed  to  be  that  of  his  mother. 
Should  the  father  be  a  Protestant  and  wish  his  child 
educated  as  a  Catholic,  he  is  entitled  to  have  his  wish 
carried  out,  but  the  entry  in  the  creed  register  must 
be  that  of  the  father's  religion.  Such  register  is  to 
be  opened  to  the  inspection  of  any  minister  of  any 
denomination,  nearest  the  workhouse  or  school,  or 
any  rate-payer  of  any  parish  in  the  Union,  at  any  time 
of  the  day  between  ten  and  four  o'clock,  except 
Sunday.  Section  18 .  provides  for  any  Question  as  to 
correctness  of  entry  being  settled  only  by  the  Local 
Government  Board.  Section  20  provides  for  the 
minister  visiting  and  instructing  those  who  are  of  the 
same  religion  as  himself.  Although  the  act  pro- 
vides for  the  child  being  instructed  according  to  the 
entry  in  the  creed  register,  the  act  of  William  IV 
referred  to  above  in  some  instances  contradicts  it. 
A  child  may  be  entered  as  a  Roman  Catholic,  that 
being  the  religion  of  his  father,  but  he  being  dead,  the 
Protestant  mother  can  object  to  the  child  being  in- 
structed in  the  Catholic  Faith.  Section  22  provides 
for  a  child  above  the  age  of  twelve  years  altering  his 
religion  if  the  Local  Government  Board  consider  him 
competent  to  exercise  a  judgment  upon  the  subject. 
Those  for  whom  no  religious  service  is  provided  in 
the  workhouse  are  allow^  by  section  21  to  attend  a 
place  of  worship  of  their  own  denomination  within  a 
convenient  distance  of  the  workhouse.  Many  guar- 
dians have  refused  to  allow  inmates  under  sixty  years 
of  age  to  go  out  to  Mass  on  Sundays,  Good  Friday, 
and  Cluristmas  Day,  but  this  is  not  legal  and  can  be 
remedied  by  applying  to  the  local  Government 
Board  (Order  1847,  Art.  126).  This  right  can  only 
be  stopped  if  abused  and  then  the  guardians  must 
enter  the  cause  in  the  minutes.  The  Jjocal  Govern- 
ment Board  have  permitted  the  appointment  of  a 
considerable  number  of  priests,  with  stipends,  to 
attend  to  the  spiritual  interests  of  Catholic  inmates  of 


POOR 


257 


POOB 


workhouses;  they  oannot  be  called  chapluns.  but  are 
known  as  Roman  Catholic  instructors.  Mass  is 
rmilarly  said  in  many  workhouses  and  in  some  the 
Bfeesed  Sacrament  is  reserved.  Benediction  is  also 
given  in  several  workhouses. 

By  the  act  to  provide  for  the  maintenance  and  educa- 
tion of  pauper  children,  1862  (25  and  26  Vict.,  c. 
43),  guaraians  are  empowered  (section  1)  to  send  any 
poor  child  to  any  school  certified  by  the  Local  Govern- 
ment Board,  and  supported  wholly  or  partially  by 
voluntary  subscriptions,  and  to  pay  out  of  the  funcis 
in  their  possession  the  expenses  of  maintenance, 
clothing,  and  education.  By  an  act  of  1882  (45  ana 
46  Vict.,  c.  58,  8.  13),  the  rate  of  payment  is  sanc- 
tioned by  the  Local  Government  Board  and  it  varies 
from  five  to  seven  shillings  a  week.  The  amount  of 
the  payment,  within  this  limit^  will  be  a  matter  of 
agreement  between   the  guardians  and  the  school. 

Certified  schools  are  inspected  by  the  Local  Govern- 
ment Board  inspector;  and  guardians  who  have  sent 
a  child  to  any  such  school  may  from  time  to  time 
appoint  one  of  their  body  to  visit  and  inspect.  A 
child  cannot  be  sent  to  a  certified  school  without  the 
consent  of  its  parents  or  surviving  parent,  unless  it 
be  an  orphan  or  a<;hild  deserted  by  its  parents  or 
Burvivins  parent.  This  regulation  is  neither  rec- 
ognised by  the  guardians  nor  enforced  by  the  Local 
uoyemment  Board  in  London.  A  child  cannot  be 
sent  to  a  school  conducted  on  the  principles  of  a 
reliffion  to  which  the  child  does  not  belong  (25  & 
26  Vict.,  c.  43,  s.  9).  Should  a  Board  of  Guardians 
refuse  to  send  a  child  to  a  certified  school,  the  course 
to  adopt  to  compel  them  to  do  so  is  to  apply  to  the 
Local  Government  Board.  Orphan  and  deserted 
children,  and  children  adopted  bv  the  guardians  under 
the  acts  of  1889  and  1898  may  be  boarded  out  under 
very  strict  regulations  compiled  in  the  orders  of 
1905  and  1909,  but  in  no  case  may  a  child  be  boarded 
out  with  a  foster-parent  of  a  relinous  creed  different 
from  that  to  which  the  child  oelongs.  Formerly 
if  a  child  were  adopted  and  taken  off  the  rates  al- 
together, the  jurisdiction  both  of  the  guardians  and 
of  the  Local  Government  Board  was  at  an  end;  now, 
however,  the  Poor  Law  Act  1899  provides  that  where 
a  child  maintained  by  guardians  is  with  their  consent 
adopted  by  any  person,  the  guardians  must,  during  a 
period  of  three  years  from  the  date  of  the  adoption, 
cause  the  child  to  be  visited  at  least  twice  in  each 
year  by  some  competent  person  appointed  by  them 
tor  the  purpose,  who  is  to  report  to  them.  And  the 
guardians  may,  if  they  think  fit,  at  any  time  during 
the  three  years  revoke  their  consent  to  the  adoption 
and  the  child  must  thereupon  be  returned  tO  them 
by  the  person  having  the  custody  of  him.  Efforts 
are  now  being  made  to  have  all  such  children  placed 
under  the  regulations  of  the  boarding  out  orders. 
Guardians  are  authorized  to  bury  Catholics  in  a 
Catholic  burial  ground  and  a  Catholic  priest  may 
officiate  and  be  paid  a  reasonable  sum  for  his  ser- 
vices. 

Fowls,  Th»  Poor  Law  (London.  1800) ;  Glbn,  The  Poor  Law 
Order*  (11th  ed.,  London,  1900);  Aschroit,  The  EnglUh  Poor 
Law  SyaUm^  POat  and  Prewnt,  English  tr.  by  Prbston-Thomab 
(London,  1888):  Mauds,  The  Poor  Law  Handbook  (London, 
1003);  loBii.  The  Religioua  Right*  of  the  Catholic  Poor  (2nd  ed., 
London,  1010);  Reprint  of  the  Poor  Law  Commisaioner**  Report 
of  1834CLonaon);  Royal  Commiesion  on  the  Poor  Law*,  1906-9 
Report  (London) ;  Ssllbrs,  Foreign  SoltUiona  of  Poor  Law  Proln 
Urn*  (London,  1904):  Idbm,  The  Danish  Poor  Law  Relief 
Syeiem  (London,  1904) ;  Cowbn,  The  Poor  Law*  of  the  State  of 
New  York  (Albany,  1887) ;  Report*  of  Poor  Law  in  Foreign  Coun- 
Uriee  in  PariiammUary  Paper*,  LXV  (1875). 

Thomas  G.  Kino. 

Poor  of  8t.  Ttaaeif ,  Sisters  of  the.  a  Congrega- 
tion, founded  by  the  Venerable  Mother  Frances  Scher- 
vier  at  Aachen  in  the  year  1845,  whose  mem- 
ben  observe  the  Rule  of  the  Third  Order  of  St. 
Francis,  as  given  by  Leo  X  for  Tertiaries  living  in 
XIL— 17 


community,  and  Constitutions  adapted  to  theif 
special  work,  care  of  the  sick  poor,  dependent  upon 
charity. 

Foundation. — ^Frances  Schervier,  b.  in  Aachen,  3 
January,  1819,  was  the  child  of  John  Henry  Caspar 
Schervier,  proprietor  of  a  needle  manufactory  and 
associate  magistrate  of  the  city,  and  Maria  Louisa 
Mlgeon,  descendant  of  a  wealthy  French  family. 
Frances's  education  was  thorough,  and  it  was  always 
her  desire  to  serve  the  sick  and  poor.  She  began  by 
giving  them  food  and  clothing,  labouring  for  them, 
and  visiting  them  in  their  homes  and  hospitab.  In 
1840  she  joined  a  charitable  society,  in  order  to  exer- 
cise this  charity  more  actively.  In  1844  she  and  four 
other  young  ladies  (Catherine  Daverkosen,  Gertrude 
Frank,  Joanna  Bruchhans,  and  Catherine  Lassen)  be- 
came members  of  the  Third  Order  of  St.  Francis.  The 
following  year,  with  the  permission  of  a  priest,  they 
went  to  hve  together  in  a  small  house  beyond  St. 
James's  Gate,  and  Frances  was  chosen  superior  of  the 
community.  The  life  of  the  sisters  was  conventual, 
and  the  time  spent  in  religious  exercises,  household 
duties,  and  caring  for  the  sick  poor.  In  1848  the  com- 
munity number^  thirteen  members. 

Development. — In  the  latter  part  of  1848  a  mild 
form  of  cholera  broke  out  in  Aachen,  followed  by  an 
epidemic  of  small  pox,  and  an  infirmary  was  opened  in 
an  old  Dominican  building,  the  property  of  the  city. 
The  Sbters  offered  their  services  as  nurses  and  they 
were  authorized  to  take  up  their  abode  in  the  building 
(1849).  New  members  were  admitted  in  1849,  when 
they  were  called  to  take  charge  of  an  infirmary  for 
cholera  patients  in  Burtscheid.  In  1850  they  estab- 
lished a  hospital  for  incurables  in  the  old  Dominican 
building,  and  the  home  nursing  and  charity  kitchens 
in  different  parishes  were  entrusted  to  them.  In  1850 
the  "Constitutions"  were  compiled  and  submitted  to 
the  Archbishop  of  (Cologne.  They  were  approved,  and 
on  12  August,  1851,  Mother  Frances  ana  her  twenty- 
three  associates  were  invested  with  the  habit  of  St. 
Francis.  On  13  June,  1850,  they  took  charge  of  a  hos- 
pital in  Juelich  (later  abandoned).  In  1851  a  founda- 
tion was  established  at  Bonn  and  also  at  Aachen  for  the 
care  of  the  female  prisoners  in  the  House  of  Deten- 
tion. When  the  home  of  the  Poor  Clares,  before  their 
suppression  in  1803,  was  offered  for  sale  in  the  summer 
of  1852,  Mother  Frances  purchased  the  spacious  build- 
ing for  a  convent — the  first  mother-house.  The  con- 
gregation  grew  steadily  and  rapidly.  In  1852  two 
ouses  were  founded  in  Cologne^  and  a  hospital  was 
opened  at  Burtscheid.  Foundations  were  established 
in  Ratingen,  Mayence,  Coblenz  (1854);  Kalserswerth, 
Crefeld,  Euskirchen  (1855);  Eschweiler  (1858);  Stol- 
berg  and  Erfurt  (1863),  etc.  The  number  of  institu- 
tions in  Europe  at  time  of  present  writing  (1911)  is 
about  49. 

Congregation  in  America. — ^The  year  1858  marks  an 
important  epoch  in  the  development  of  the  con^p^a- 
tion,  namely:  the  transplanting  of  the  congregation  to 
America.  Mrs.  Sarah  Peter,  a  convert  of  Cincinnati, 
O.,  received  a  commission  from  the  archbishop 
in  that  city  to  bring  German  Sisters  to  America 
to  care  for  the  destitute  poor  of  German  nationality, 
and  Irish  Sisters  for  the  Irish  poor.  While  in  Rome  m 
1857  she  submitted  the  plan  to  the  Holy  Father,  who 
advised  her  to  apply  for  German  Sisters  to  some  Aus- 
trian bishop.  CJardinal  Von  Geissel,  the  Archbishop 
of  Cologne,  earnestly  recommended  the  Congregation 
of  Mother  Frances  for  the  purpose.  In  Ireland  she 
succeeded  in  obtaining  the  Sisters  of  Mercy.  Mother 
Frances  resolved  to  found  a  house  in  Cincinnati,  and 
on  24  August,  1858,  the  six  sisters  chosen  by  her  set 
sail  for  America.  Upon  their  arrival  in  Cincinnati,  the 
Sisters  of  the  Crood  Shepherd  kindly  gave  them  hospi- 
tality. Soon  they  received  the  offer  of  the  gratuitous 
use  of  a  vacated  orphanage  for  their  patients.  The 
following  year  three  more  sisters  arrived  from  Europe, 


POOB                           258  POPI 

and  in  March  they  purchased  several  lots  at  the  comer  Popaj&n,  Archdiocese  of  (Popatanensib),  lies 

of  Linn  and  Betta  Streets  (the  present  site  of  St.  Mary's  approximately  between  1^  20'  and  3°  2'  north  latitude, 

|Iospital),  and  began  constructing  a  hospital.    More  and  78^  4'  and  80°  3'  east  longitude.    Since  the 

sisters  soon  arrived  from  the  mother-house,  and  in  1860  Decree  of  the  Sacred  Congregation  of  the  Consistory 

they  were  able  to  establish  a  branch-house  in  Coving-  (7  July,  1910),  the  bound^es  of  the  archdiocese  are, 

ton,  Ky.  on  the  north,  the  Diocese  of  Cali,  along  the  Rivers 

In  the  spring  of  1861  Mrs.  Peter  offered  her  resi-  Sohk)  and  Rio  Claro;  on  the  west,  the  same  diocese, 

dence  to  the  sisters  for  a  novitiate,  and  home  for  the  along  the  mountain  chain  of  the  Cordillera  Occidental; 

Clarisses  or  recluses,  a  contemplative  branch  of  the  on  the  south,  the  Diocese  of  Pasto,  along  the  Rivers 

congregation,  for  whose  coming  she  had  long  been  Patfa  and  Juanambti,  and  on  the  east,  the  Diocese  of 

negotiating  with  Mother  Frances.    In  October,  1861.  Gar26n,  along  th^  Cordillera  Central.    The  archdio- 

three  recluses  came  to  America,  and  from  their  arrival  oese  comprises  the  entire  Department  of  del  Cauoa. 

up  to  the  present  time  perpetual  adoration  of  the  and  portions  of  the  Departments  of  Narifio  and  El 

Most  Blessed  Sacrament  has  been  carried  on  without  Valle.     The  diocese  was  established  by  Paul  III 

interruption  in  this  novitiate  convent  of  St.  Clara.  1  Sept.,  1546;  the  see,  however,  was  not  erected  until 

Mrs.  Peter  reserved  for  herself  the  use  of  several  tooms,  8  Sept.,  1547.  when  the  first  bishop  named  to  the  see, 

wherein  she  lived  a  life  of  retirement  until  her  death  in  Don  Juan  ael  Valle,  performed  the  ceremony  by 

Feb.,  1877.    The  congregation  owed  much  of  its  rapid  Apostolic  delegation  at  Aranda  del  Duero,  in  the  Dio- 

progress  in  the  New  World  to  the  influence  of  tnis  cese  of  Osma.  Spain.   The  diocese  became  a  suffragan 

noble  lady.    Hospitals  have  been  founded  in  the  fol-  of  Lima,  ana  so  remained  until  1573,  in  which  year 

lowing  cities  of  the  United  States:  Cincinnati  (1858);  Bogota  became  a  metropolitan  see  and   received 

Covington,  Ky.  (1860);  Columbus,  O.  (1862);  Hobo-  Popayin  among  its  suffragans.    The  Sacred  Congre- 

ken,  N.  J.  (1863);  Jersey  City,  N.  J.  (1864);   Brook-  gation  of  the  Consistory,  however,  by 'its  Decree  of 

lyn,N.  Y.  (1864);  5th  St.,  N.  Y.City  (1865);  Quincy,  20  June,  1900,  made  PopayAn  an  archdiocese,  with 

111.  (1866);  Newark,  N.  J.  (1867);  Dayton,  O.  (1878);  Pasto,  Garz6n,  and  Cali  for  suffragans,  its  first  arch- 

N.  Y.  City  (1882);  Kansas  Citv,  Kan.  (1887);  Fair-  bishop  being  Don  Manuel  Jos^  de  Cayzedo.    Among 

mount,  Cin.,  O.  (1888);  Columbus,  O.  (1891);  142nd  the  Bishops  of  Popay^  special  mention  should  be 

St.,  N.  Y.  City  (1906).    In  1896  the  novitiate  was  made  of  Agustin  de  la  Corufia  (1509-89),  an  Au^us- 

removed  to  Harwell,  O.,  where  the  congregation  pos-  tinian,  who  was  a  student  under  St.  Thomas  of  Villa- 

sesses  a  large  convent,  church,  and  grounds,  the  centre  nova.    He  suffered  vexations,  and  even  banishment, 

of  activity  of  the  Province  in  America.  for  his  activity  in  d^ence  ot  the  Indians.    Bishop 

^^}i^^^' ^"^"^j^ff^  ^  tf  Sf'  iSM<«r.  in  Catholie  Carlos  BermtidcE  (1827-86)  restored  th^  seminary, 

World  Maganne,  LXIII  (New  York).  261  ^nd  Suffered  banishment  through  his  firm  defence  ol 

oiSTBR  ANTONiA.  ^^^  ^  ;  ^  ^^  pnvU^es  of  the  Church.    The  Bishop 

Poor   Servants   of    the   Mother   of    God,   a  Juan  Buenaventura  Ortiz  (1840-94)  wrote  a  history 

reUgious  congregation  founded  in  1808  by  Mother  of  the   Diocese  of   PopayAn  (Historia  de  la^  Di6- 

Mary  Magdalen  Taylor  in  conjunction  with  Lady  cesis)  and  a  treatise  on  religion  for  colleges  (Religi6n 

Georgiana  FuUerton  (q.  v.).    M!other  M.  Magdalen  para  1<»  Colegios). 

was  ttie  daughter  of  a  Church  of  England  clergyman.  M.  Antonio  Arbouda. 

As  one  of  Miss  Nightingale's  band  of  nurses  m  the  .  ««         .      t^ 

Crimea  she  became  acquidnted  with  the  Catholic  Pope,  Alexander,  poet,  son  of  Alexander  Pope 

Faith  as  manifested  by  many  of  the  soldiers,  and  on  and  his  second  wife,  Edith  Turner,  b.  in  London, 

her  return  to  England  entered  the  Church.    Her  sub-  England,  22  May,  1688;  d.  at  Twickenham.  England, 

sequent  intimacy  with  Lady  Georgiana  FuUerton  led  30  May,  1744.    His  parents  were  both  Catholics,  and 

to  the  foundation  of  a  congregation  for  work  among  the  son  Uved  and  died  in  the  profession  of  the  faith  to 

the  poor  of  London,  then  inf^equately  served  by  a  which  he  was  bom.   The  poet  s  father  was  a  linen  mer- 

singte  convent.    At  first  an  affiliation  with  the  Little  chant  in  Lombard  Street,  London,  who  before  the  end  of 

Sisters  of  Mary  (Archduchy  of  Poeen)  was  conudered,  the  seventeenth  century  retired  on  a  moderate  fortune 

but  this  was  found  to  be  impracticable,  and  the  new  first  to  Kensington,  then  to  Binfield,  and  finally  to 

order  was  placed  under  the  direction  of  its  own  Chiswick,  where  he  died  in  1717.    Soon  after  this 

superior  general  (Mother  M.  Magdalen).    From  the  event  Pope  with  his  mother  removed  to  the  viUa  at 

first  it  was  approved  and  encouraged  by  Cardinal  Twickenham,  which  became  his  permanent  abode, 

Manning,  its  spiritual  training  being  committed  to  and  which,  with  its  five  acres,  its  gwdens,  and  ita 

the  Fathers  of  the  Society  of  Jesus,  near  whose  church  grotto,  will  be  forever  associated  with  his  memory, 

in  Farm  St.,  London,  its  existence  began.    Its  Consti-  As  a  child  he  was  very  dehcate,  and  he  retained  a  con- 

tutions  are  based  on  the  Rule  of  St.  Augustine,  and  stitutional  weakness  as  well  as  a  deformity  of  body 

the  congregation  was  approved  by  Leo  XIIl  in  1886.  all  through  his  life,  whUe  in  stature  he  was  very 

The  members  devote  themselves  to  visiting  the  poor,  diminutive.    His  early  education  was  spasmodic  and 

teaching  in  parochial  schools,  nursing,  and  conducting  irregular,  but  before  he  was  twelve  he  had  picked  up 

institutions  of  refuge  and  rescue  for  women.    To  the  a  smattering  of  Latin  and  Greek  from  vanous  tutors 

mother-house  in  Rome  are  attached  two  schools  and  and  at  sundry  schools,  and  subseouently  he  acquired 

the  public  church  of  St.  George  and  the  English  a  similar  knowledge  of  French  and  Italian.    Fronahis 

Martyrs.    In  this  church  on  Good  Friday,  1887,  the  thirteenth  year  onwitfd  he  was  self-mstructed  and  he 

Three  Hours  was  preached  for  the  first  time  in  English  was  an  extensive  reader.    Barred  from  a  pohtical  and 

by  Father  Lucas,  S.J.    Other  houses  are  in  Florence;  to  a  great  extent  from  a  professional  career  by  the 

London  (2);    Brentford:   Roehampton;   Streatham;  penal  laws  then  m  force  against  Catholics,  he  did  not 

St.  Helen's,  Lancashire,  where  the  sisters  conduct  the  feel  the  restramt  very  acutely,  for  his  earliest  aspira- 

only  free  hospital  in  the  town ;  Liverpool ;  Brighton ;  tion  wm  to  be  a  poet,  and  at  an  exception^ly  youthful 

Dublin  (2) ;  Carrightowhill,  Co.  Cork;  Youghal,  Co.  penod  he  was  engaged  m  wntmg  verses.    His  firet  idc^ 

Cork.    The  congregation  is  under  the  direction  of  a  was  tp^  compose  a  great  epic,  the  subject  that  pre- 

superior  general.    A  black  habit  is  worn,  with  a  blue  sented  itseU  beme  a  mythological  one,  with  Alcander, 

scapular  and  a  black  veil.    There  are  no  lay  sisters,  a  prmce  of  Rhodes,  as  hero;  and  perhaps  he  never 

Taylor,  Inntr  Liff  o/  Lady  G.  PvlUrton  (London,  1899) ;  Idbm,  wholly  relinquished  his  intention  of  producing  such  a 

Memoir  of  Father  Dignam,  S.J.  (London.  0.  d.);  Craven,  Lady  poem,  for  after  his  death  there  was  found  among  his 

CkorgiafM  Futterton  (Prtu,    1888);    Strblb,   ConvenU  of  Great  ^nru^ra  a  nltLn   for  jin   onin  on    Rnifiifi    thp  mvthic&l 

Britain  (London.  1901);    Meeeenger  of  the  Sacred  Heart  (April.  Papers  a  plan  tor  an  epiC  on  lirutUS,  tne  mytmcai 

IQOl).  neat-grandson  of  JSneas  and  reputed   founder  of 

Blanchb  M.  Ksllt.  Britain.    The  Alcander  epic,  which  had  readhed  as 


many  as  4000 lines,  was  laid  aside  aod  never  completed. 


Pope's  first  publication  was  the  "Pastorals"; 

uuy  and  May",  the  latter  a  version  of  CL 

"Merchant^B  Taje";  and  the  "Episode  of  Sarpedor 


from  the  "Iliad",  These  appeared  in  1709  in  Ton- 
son's  "PoeticaJ  Miscellanies  .  His  "Essay  on  Criti- 
cism" appeared  in  May,  1711,  and  some  months  later 
was  warmly,  if  not  enthusiaetically,  commended  by 
Addison  in  the  "Spectator"  (No.  253,  20  Dec,  1711). 
Steele  was  eager  to  get  hold  of  the  rising  poet  to  con- 
tribute to  the  paper,  and  eventually  succeeded,  for 
practically  the  entire  literary  portion  of  one  issue  of 
the  "Spectator"  (No,  378,  14  May,  1712)  is  given  over 
to  Pope's  "Messiah:  A  Sacred  Eclogue".  In  1712 
the  firet  edition  of  "The  Rape  of  the  Lock",  in  two 
cantos,  cameoutinlJntot'a  "Miscellany".  Later  Pope 
extended  the  work  to  five  cahtos,  and  by  introducing 
the  supernatural  machinery  of  sylphs  and  gnomes 
and  all  the  li^t  militia  of  the 
lower  sky,  he  gave  to  the  world 
in  1714  one  of  its  airiest,  most 
dehghtful,  and  most  cherished 
specimens  of  the  mock-heroic 
poem.  In  the  April  of  the 
preceding  vear  (1713),  Addi- 
son's tragedy  of  "Cato"  was 
producea  with  almost  unparal- 
leled success  at  Drury  Lane 
Theatre  and  the  prologue,  a 
dignified  and  spirited  com- 
position, as  Macaulay  describee 
it,  was  written  by  Pope.  It 
was  published  with  the  play 
and  also  m  No.  33  of  the 
"Guardian".  To  the  "Guar- 
dian" also  Pope  contributed 
eight  papers  in  1713.  In  the 
same  year  he  published  his 
"  Windsor  Forest "  and  the 
"Ode  on  St.  Cecilia's  Day". 
"The  Wife  of  Bath",  from 
Chaucer,  and  two  translations 
from  the  "Odyssey  " — the  "Ar- 
rival of  Ulysses  at  Ithaca" 
and  the  "Garden of  Alcinous" 
—came  out  in  1714  ih  a  vol- 
ume of  miscellanies  edited  by 
Steele  for  Tonson,  the  pub- 
lisher. "TheTemple  of  Fame",  in  which  Steele  said 
there  were  a  thousand  beauties,  was  separately  pub- 
lished in  the  following  year,  1716. 

In  November  of  1713  a  turning  point  was  reached 
in  Pope's  fortunes.  He  issued  proposals  for  the  pub- 
lication, by  subscription,  of  a  translation  of  Homer's 
"Iliad"  into  English  verse,  with  notea.  The  matter 
was  warmly  taken  up,  and  subscriptions  poured 
in  apace.  His  friends  stood  by  him,  Swift  m  pai^ 
ticular  obtaining  a  long  list  ol  influential  patrons. 
Work  was  at  once  begun  on  the  undertaking,  and 
the  first  four  books  appeared  in  1715,  the  remain- 
ing volumes  coming  out  at  intervals  in  1716,  1717, 
1718,  and  1720,  when  the  task  was  completed.  Three 
years  later  he  undertook  the  translation  of  the 
"Odyssey",  which,  with  the  aid  of  Broome  and  Fen- 
ton  as  collaborators,  he  completed  by  1726.  Pope's 
eiftct  share  was  twelve  books;  the  rest  were  by  his 
assistants.  By  Homer  Pope  made  close  on  £9000, 
which,  added  to  what  his  father  had  left  him,  placed 
him  in  a  podtion  of  independence  for  the  reminder 
of  his  lite.  While  engaged  on  his  great  trans- 
lation Pope  found  time  for  other  fonns  of  literary 
work,  and  in  1717  be  published  two  of  the  very  best 
of  his  lyrics,  namely  the  "  Elegy  to  the  Memory  of  an 
Unfortunate  Lady''  and  Ihc  "Epistle  of  Elolsa  to 
Abelard",  and  he  joined  with  Gay  and  Arbuthnot  in 
writing  and  producing  the  unsuccessful  farce  "Three 
Hours  after  Marriage^'.    He  also  undertook  for  Ton- 


id  POPE 

son,  the  publisher,  an  annotated  edition  of  Shake- 
speare, whichappekredin  1725,  a  task  for  which  Pope's 
powers  were  unequal,  for  he  was  not  sufficiently 
versed  in  the  literature  of  the  Elizabethan  and 
Jacobean  period,  and  although  the  preface  is  very 
fine  and  many  shrewd  emendations  were  made  in 
the  text,  Pope's  Shakespeare  was  on  the  whole  far 
from  beuig  a  success.  It  was  at  once  attacked  by 
Theobald,  who  thus  exposed  himself  to  the  character- 
istic vengeance  which  Pope  waa  shortly  to  take  by 
makinghimthefirstheroof  the  "Dunciad".  In  1713-14 
Pope,  with  Swift,  Arbuthnot,  and  other  leaders  of  the 
Tory  Pa^t3^  had  formed  a  sort  of  literary  Society 
called  the  Scriblerus  Club,  and  bad  amused  Ihcm- 
eelves  by  burlesquing  the  vagaries  of  literature  in  the 
"MemoirsofMartinus  Scriblerus",  which, although  in- 
cluded in  the  edition  of  Pope's  proee  works  in  1741, 
was  mainly  the  composition  of  Arbuthnot.  Arising 
partly  out  of  the  performance 
of  "Scriblerus",  Pope  and 
Swift  published  in  1727-28 
three  volumes  of  their  "  Miscel- 
lanies", which  contained 
tL  __,_ 

the  Bathos,  i 
the  Art  of  Sinking  in  Poetry", 
illustrated  by  examples  from 
the  inferior  poets  of  the  day. 
These"  Miscellanies",  and  par- 
ticularly the  "Bathos",  liiew 
down  upon  the  authors  a  tor- 
rent of  abuse  from  cverv  quill- 
driver  and  poetaster  who  had 
been  in  reality  attacked  or  fan- 
cied himself  ridiculed.  Ihe 
"Dunciad"  was  in  turn  Ihe 
outcome  of  these  invceiives. 
This  cclebrcted  satire  first  ap- 
peared, in  three  books,  in 
May,  1728,  and  an  enlarged 
edition  followed  in  1729.  In 
1742  a  further  issue  ai)pcared 
with  the  addition  of  a  fourth 
book,  and  in  1743  the  poem 
came  out  in  its  final  form  nith 
Theobald  dethroned  and  Colley 
Cibber  installed  in  his  room 
"  ""  as  King  of  the  Dunces.    The 

publication  of  this  swingeing  satire  naturally  increased 
the  fury  against  Pope,  who  was  roundly  abused  in  all 
the  moods  and  tenses.  Nor  did  he  shrink  from  the  fray. 
He  gave  back  blow  for  blow  tor  eight  years,  1730-37, 
in  a  weekly  sheet,  the"  Grub  Street  Journal ",  as  well  as 
paying  off  old  scores  when  opportunity  offered  in  his 
avowed  and  more  ambitious  publications. 

While  thus  engaged  Pope  came  more  directly  than 
ever  before  under  the  influence  of  Bolingbroke,  with 
whom  he  had  been  on  intimate  terms  in  the  palmy 
pre-Georgian  days.  Bolingbroke  undoubtedly  indoc- 
trinated Pope  with  the  tenete  of  his  own  system  of 
metaphysics  and  natural  Ihcologj^,  and  the  fruit  was 
seen  in  the  "Essay  on  Man",  in  four  "Epistles" 
(1732-34),  and  in  the  "Moral  Essays",  also  in  four 
"Epistles''  (1731-35).  The  fifth  Epistle— "To  Mr. 
Addison,  occasioned  by  his  'Dialogues  on  Medals' " — 
placed  arbitrarily  enough  by  Warburton  in  this 
eeriea  of  "Moral  Essays  ,  was  actually  written  in 
1715,  and  has  appeared  in  Tickell's  edition  of  Addi- 
son's works  in  1720.  Bolingbroke,  in  another  con- 
nexion, once  s^d  of  Pope  that  he  was  "a  very  great 
wit,  but  a  very  indifferent  philosopher";  and  in  these 
"Essays",  especially  in  the  "Essay  on  Man",  he  was 
endeavouring  to  expound  a  system  of  philosophy 
which  he  but  imperiectly  understood.  The  result  la 
that  the  tendency  of  his  principal  theories  is  towards 
fatalism  and  naturalism,  and  the  consequent  reduc- 
tion of  man  to  a  mere  puppet.    This  position  Pope 


POPE 


260 


POPE 


never  had  the  intention  of  taking  up.  and  he  shrank 
from  it  when  it  was  forcibly  expoeea  by  Crousas  as 
logically  leading  to  Spinozism.  To  clear  himself  of 
the  chak-ge  of  a  denial  of  revealed  religion  and.  in 
Johnson's  celebrated  phrase,  of  representing  *^the 
whole  course  of  things  as  a  necessary  concatenation  of 
indissoluble  fatalit}^',  he  wrote,  in  1738,  the  "Uni- 
versal Prayer'',  which  is  now  generally  appended  to 
the  "Essa^  on  Man",  but  which,  despite  the  piety  it 
displays,  is  not  entirely  convincing.  From  1732  to 
1738  he  was  busy  with  the  composition  and  publica- 
tion of  his  ''Imitations  of  Horace",  which,  in  diction 
and  versification  at  least,  some  critics  consider  his 
masterpieces.  He  also  at  this  period  published  two  of 
the  ''Satires  of  Dr.  Donne",  which  be  had  versified 
earlier  in  life.  In  1735  appeared  the  "Epistle  to  Dr. 
Arbuthnot,  or  Prologue  to  the  Satires",  and  in  1738 
the  "Epilogue  to  the  Satires,  in  Two  Dialogues".  In 
1737  he  piu>lished  an  authorised  and  carefully  pre- 
pared edition  of  his  "Correspondence",  which  nad 
been  brought  out  in  1735  by  Curll  in  what  Pope 
alleged  to  be  a  garbled  form. 

With  the  publication  of  the  "Dunciad",  in  1743, 
Pope's  literary  activity  ceased.  He  indeed  set  about 
the  collection  of  his  works  with  a  view  to  an  authori- 
tative edition;  but  he  was  obliged  to  abandon  the 
attempt.  His  health,  always  poor,  began  rapidly  to 
fail.  He  always  expressed  undoubting  confidence  in 
a  future  state,  and  when  his  end  was  obviously  ap- 
proaching he  willingly  yielded  to  the  representations 
of  a  CathoUc  friend  that  he  should  see  a  priest.  It 
was  noticed  by  those  about  him  that  after  he  had 
received  the  last  sacraments  his  frame  of  mind  was 
very  peaceable.  He  died  calmly  the  next  day,  30  May, 
1744,  in  the  fifty-seventh  year  of  his  age.  He  was 
buried  near  the  monument  which  he  had  raised  to  the 
memory  of  hb  father  and  mother  at  Twickenham. 

Probably  no  writer,  as  such,  ever  made  more  ene- 
mies than  Pope.  Not  only  did  he  lash  Bufo  and 
Sporus,  Sappho  and  Atossa,  and  scores  of  others  by 
their  own  names  or  under  thin  disguise,  but  he  boasted 
that  he  made  a  hundred  smart  in  Timon  and  in 
Balaam.  Herein  indeed  he  over-reached  himself, 
for  the  great  majority  of  the  victims  of  his  satire  would 
have  been  long  ago  forgotten  but  that  he  has  em- 
balmed them  for  all  time  in  the  "Dunciad"  and  els^ 
where.  But  if  he  had  the  fatal  gift  of  arousing 
enmity  and  the  fault  of  vindictiveness  in  the  per- 
secution of  those  who  had  incurred  his  wrath,  it  must 
be  put  to  the  credit  side  of  his  account  that  scattered 
throughout  his  works  there  are  many  ^nerous 
tributes  to  worth  among  his  contemporanes.  He 
possessed  beyond  question  a  deep  fund  of  affection. 
He  was  a  loving  and  devoted  son,  a  loval  and  con- 
stant friend.  His  happy  relations  with  Arbuthnot 
and  Swift,  with  Atteroury  and  Oxford,  with  Pamell 
and  Prior,  with  Bolingjbroke  and  Gay,  with  Warbur- 
ton  and  Spence,  and  with  many  others  of  his  acquain- 
tances were  interrupted  only  by  death.  His  friend- 
ship with  Addison,  which  augured  so  auspiciously  at 
first,  was  unfortunately  soon  clouded  over.  The 
question  of  their  estranoement  has  been  so  volumi- 
nously discussed  by  Johnson,  Macaulay,  Ward,  and 
others  that  it  is  unnecessary,  as  it  would  be  improfit- 
able,  to  pursue  it  here  in  detail.  It  will  perhaps  be 
sufilcient  to  say  that  there  were  probably  faults  on 
both  sides.  If  Pope  was  unduly  suspidous,  Addison 
was  certainly  too  partial  to  the  members  of  his  own 
immediate  little  coterie.  And  if  for  real  or  fancied 
slights  or  wrongs  Pope  took  an  exemplaiy  vengeance 
in  his  celebrated  character  of  Atticus  (Epistle  to 
Dr.  Arbuthnot,  II,  103-214),  it  must  always  be  borne 
in  mind  that  he  has  taken  care  in  many  passages  to 
pay  compliments  to  Addison,  and  not  empty  com- 

Sliments  either,  but  as  handsome  as  they  were  well 
eserved.    A  reference,  for  example,  to  Epistle  I 
of  the  Second  Book  of  Horace,  will  simiciently  prove 


the   truth   of   this   statement.    Regarding   Pope's 

C'tion  in  the  literature  of  his  country,  there 
been  an  extraordinary  amount  of  controversy; 
some  critics  going  the  length  of  'denying  him 
the  right  to  be  called  a  poet  at  all.  Opinion  has 
fluctuated  remarkably  on  his  merits.  By  his  contem- 
poraries he  was  regarded  with  a  sort  of  reverential 
awe.  To  his  immediate  successors  he  was  the  grand 
exemplar  of  what  a  poet  should  be.  His  standing  was 
first  assailed  by  Joseph  Warton,  in  1756,  in  his 
"Essay  on  the  Genius  and  Writings  of  Pope",  but 
Johnson  gave  the  great  weight  of  his  authority  to  the 
other  side.  During  the  Romantic  reaction  of  the  last 
part  of  the  eighteenth  century  he  lost  caste  to  some 
extent,  and  his  reputation  was  very  seriously  jeop- 
ardised in  the  height  of  ^e  Romantic  movement  from 
about  1820  onwud.  He  was,  however,  warmly  de- 
fended by  Campbdl,  Bjrron,  and  others.  Nor  is  he 
without  stalwart  champions  in  our  own  day.  At 
present  opinion  appeare  to  have  crystallised  in  the 
direction  of  recognizing  him  as  among  the  really  great 
names  of  English  literature.  Johnson's  criticism  may, 
on  the  whole,  be  regarded  as  sound.  His  opinion,  ex- 
pressed in  his  biography  of  the  poet,  is  that  Pope  had 
m  proportions  very  nicely  adjusted  to  one  another  all 
the  qualities  that  constitute  genius,  invention,  im- 
agination, judgment,  rare  power  of  expression,  and 
melody  in  metre;  and  he  replies  to  the  question  that 
had  been  raised,  as  to  whether  Pope  was  a  poet,  by 
asking  in  return :  If  Pope  be  not  a  poet,  where  is  poetry 
to  be  found?  To  treat  this  subject  fully  would  lead 
to  a  discussion  of  two  very  vexed  questions,  namely 
what  poetiy  really  is,  and  what  the  proper  subjects 
of  poetry  are.  It  will  perhaps  serve  the  purpose 
if  the  opmion  be  indicated  that,  when  detraction  has 
done  its  worst.  Pope  will  still  stand  out,  not  perhaps  as 
a  master-genius,  but  as  the  typical  man  of  letters  and 
as  the  great  representative  English  poet  of  the  first 
half  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

DxKins.  ReJleeiion$  upon  a  laU  Rhapaodu  eaUed  an  Bnay  upon 
Critieiam  (London.  1711);  Idbm,  True  CharacUr  of  Mr,  Pope 
(London,  1716);  Idem,  Remarke  upon  Mr.  Pope**  TraneUOion  of 
Horner^  with  i\Do  Letters  concerning  Windeor  Poreet  and  the  Temjne 
of  Fame  (London,  1717) ;  Spbncb,  An  Beeay  on  Pope*"*  TVaiulaltoii 
of  Homer  $  Odyeeey  (London,  1727) ;  Idem,  Anecdotee,  ObeervoHone, 
and  Charaetere  of  Book*  and  Men,  collected  from  the  Convereaiion 
of  Mr,  Pope  and  othera  (London,  1820) ;  Atrb,  Memoire  of  the 
l/ife  and  Writings  of  Alexander  Pope  (London,  1746):  Wabton, 
Bteay  on  the  Oeniue  and  Writings  of  Pope,  I  (London.  1766), 
II  (London,  1782) ;  Johnson,  Life  of  Pope  (London,  1781) ;  Earl 
OP  Caeuslb,  Two  Lechtree  on  the  Poetry  of  Pope  (London,  1861) ; 
Ward,  Introduetoru  Memoir  prefixed  to  the  Globe  ed.  of  The 
Poetical  Works  of  Alexander  Pope  (I^ondon,  1860);  Edwin 
Abbott,  A  Concordance  to  the  Works  of  Alexander  Pope,  with  an 
Introductionby  E.  A.  Abbott  (London,  1876) ;  SrsraxN,  Alexander 
Pope  in  "Bngliah  Men  of  Letters"  series  (London  and  New  York, 
1880) ;  Bmilt  Morbb  Stmondb,  Mr.  Pope,  His  Life  and  Times 
(liondon,  1900) ;  eds.  of  Pope's  Works  by  Warbubton  (London, 
1751,  reprinted  1760.  with  Life  by  RcrrraBAD):  Bowles,  with 
Life  (London.  1806,  new  ed.,  1847);  Roscoe,  with  Life  (London. 
1824,  new  ed..  1847);  CABBtrrBBRS,  with  Life  (London.  1863. 
second  ed.  of  the  Life,  1857);  and  Elwin  and  Ck>imTHOP£,  with 
Life  by  Courthope  (London,  1871-1880). 

P.  J.  Lknnox. 

Pope,  Election  of  thb.  See  CJonclave; 
Papal  Elbction 

Pope  (eccles.  Lat.,  pajxi  from  Gr.  rdr at ,  a  variant 
of  rdwwat,  father;  in  classical  Latin  pappa9--Juvenal, 
''Satires",  vi,  633),  Thb.  The  title  pope,  once  used 
with  far  greater  latitude  (see  below,  section  V),  is  at 
present  employed  solely  to  denote  the  Bishop  of  Rome, 
who,  in  virtue  of  his  position  as  successor  of  St.  Peter, 
is  the  chief  pastor  of  the  whole  Church,  the  Vicar  or 
Christ  upon  earth.  Besides  the  bishopric  of  the 
Roman  Diocese,  certain  other  dignities  are  held  by 
the  popte  as  well  as  the  supreme  and  universal  pastor- 
ate: he  is  .Aj*chbishop  of  the  Roman  Province,  ramate 
of  Italy  and  the  adjacent  islands,  and  sole  Patriarch 
of  the  Western  Church.  The  Church's  doctrine  as 
to  the  pope  was  authoritatively  declared  in  the  Vati- 
can CounciJ  in  the  Constitution  ''Pastor  JBtemus". 
The  four  chapters  of  that  Constitution  deal  reapeo- 


POPl 


261 


POPl 


lively  with  the  office  of  Supreme  Head  oonf  erred  on 
St.  Peter,  the  perpetuity  of  this  office  in  the  person  of 
the  Roman  pontiff,  the  pope's  jurisdiction  over  the 
faithful,  and  his  supreme  authoritv  to  define  in  aJi 
questions  of  faith  and  morals.  This  last  point  has 
been  sufficiently  discussed  in  the  article  Infalubil- 
ITT,  and  will  be  only  incidentallv  touched  on  here. 
The  present  article  is  divided  as  foUows:  I.  Institution 
of  a  Supreme  Head  by  Christ:  II.  Primacy  of  the 
Roman  See;  III.  Nature  and  Extent  of  the  Papal 
Power;  IV.  Jurisdictional  Rights  and  Prerogatives  of 
the  Pope;  V.  Primacy  of  Honour:  Titles  and  Insi^a: 
VI.  Election  of  the  ropes;  VII.  Chronological  List  ot 
the  Popes. 

I.  Institution  of  a  Supreme  Head  by  Christ. — 
The  proof  that  Christ  constituted  St.  Peter  head  of 
His  Church  is  found  in  the  two  famous  Petrine  texts, 
Matt.,  xvi,  17-19,  and  John,  xxi,  15-17.  In  Matt., 
xvi,  17-19,  the  office  is  solemnly  promised  to  the 
Apostle.  In  response  to  his  profession  of  faith  in  the 
Divine  Nature  of  his  Master,  Christ  thus  addresses 
him:  '*. Blessed  art  thou,  Simon  Bsu^Jona:  because 
flesh  and  blood  hath  not  revealed  it  to  thee,  but  my 
Father  who  is  in  heaven.  And  I  say  to  thee:  That 
thou  art  Peter;  and  upon  this  rock  I  will  build  my 
church,  and  the  ^tes  of  hell  shall  not  prevail  against 
it.  And  I  will  nve  to  thee  the  keys  of  the  kingdom 
of  heaven.  And  whatsoever  thou  snalt  bind  on  earth 
it  shall  be  bound  also  in  heaven:  and  whatsoever  thou 
shalt  loose  on  earth,  it  shall  be  loosed  also  in  heaven.^' 
The  prerogatives  here  promised  are  manifestly  per- 
sonal to  Peter.  His  profession  of  faith  was  not  made, 
as  has  been  sometimes  asserted,  in  the  name  of  the 
other  Apostles.  This  is  evident  from  the  words  of 
Christ.  He  pronounces  on  the  Apostle,  dbtinguish- 
ing  him  by  his  name  Simon  son  of  «fohn,  a  peculiar  and 
personal  blessing,  declaring  that  his  knowledge  regard- 
ing the  Divine  Sonship  sprang  from  a  special  revela- 
tion granted  to  him  by  the  Father  (cf.  Matt.,  xi,  27). 
He  further  proceeds  to  recompense  this  confession  of 
His  Divinity  by  bestowing  upon  him  a  reward  proper 
to  himself:  ''Thou  art  Peter  [Cepha.  transliterate 
also  Klphd]  and  upon  this  rock  [Cepha]  1  will  build 
my  Church."  The  word  for  Peter  and  for  rock  in  the 
onginal  Aramaic  is  one  and  the  same  (KGD) ;  this  renders 
it  evident  that  the  various  attempts  to  explain  the 
term  ''rock"  as  having  reference  not  to  Peter  himself 
but  to  something  else  are  mifflnterpretations.  It  is 
Peter  who  is  the  rock  of  the  Church.  The  term 
ecdetia  (iKKkriffta)  here  employed  is  the  Greek  render- 
ing of  the  Hebrew  q&hsl  (^Dp)*  the  name  which  denoted 
the  Hebrew  nation  viewed  as  God's  Church  (see 
Church,  The.  I). 

Here  then  (Jhiist  teaches  plainly  that  in  the  future 
the  Church  wiU  be  the  society  of  those  who  acknowl- 
edge Him,  and  that  this  Church  will  be  built  on  Peter. 
The  eroressidn  presents  no  difficulty.  In  both  the 
Old  and  New  Testaments  the  Church  is  often  spoken 
of  under  the  metaphor  of  God's  house  (Num.,  xii,  7; 
Jer.,  xii,  7;  Osee,  viii,  1;  ix,  15;  I  Cor.,  iiij  9-17,  Eph., 
ii,  20-2;  I  Tim.,  iii,  6;  Heb.,  iii,  5;  I  Peter,  li,  5).  Peter 
is  to  be  to  the  Church  what  the  foundation  is  in  re- 
gard to  a  house.  He  is  to  be  the  principle  of  unity, 
of  stability,  and  of  increase.  He  is  the  principle  of 
unity,  since  what  is  not  joined  to  that  foundation  is 
no  part  of  the  Church;  of  stability,  since  it  is  the 
firmness  of  this  foundation  in  virtue  of  which  the 
Church  remains  unshcJcen  by  the  storms  which  buffet 
her;  of  increase,  since,  if  she  grows,  it  is  because  new 
stones  are  laid  on  this  foundation.  It  is  throucdi  her 
.union  with  Peter,  Christ  continues,  that  the  Cnurch 
will  prove  the  victor  in  her  long  contest  with  the  Evil 
One:  "The  gates  of  hell  shall  not  prevail  against  it." 
There  can  be  but  one  explanation  of  this  striking 
metaphor.  The  only  manner  in  which  a  man  can 
stana  in  such  a  relation  to  anycorporate  body  is  by 
possessing  authority  over  it.    The  supreme  head  of  a 


body,  in  dependence  on  whom  all  subordinate  author- 
ities hold  their  power^  and  he  alone,  can  be  said  to  be 
the  principle  of  stability,  unity,  and  increase.  The 
promise  acquires  additional  solemnity  when  we  re- 
member that  both  Old  Testament  prophecy  (Is., 
xxviii,  16)  and  Christ's  own  words  (Matt.,  vii,  24) 
had  attributed  this  office  of  foundation  of  tJie  Church 
to  Himself.  He  is  therefore  A«rigning  to  Peter,  of 
course  in  a  secondary  degree^  a  prerogative  whicn  is 
His  own,  and  thereby  associating  the  Apostle  with 
Himself  m  an  altogether  singular  manner. 

In  the  following  verse  (Matt.,  xvi,  10)  He  promises 
to  bestow  on  Pet^  the  keys  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven. 
The  words  refer  evidently  to  Is.,  xxii,  22,  where  God 
declares  that  Elliacim,  the  son  or  Helcias,  shall  be  in- 
vested with  office  in  place  of  the  worthless  Sobna: 
"And  I  will  lay  the  key  of  the  house  of  David  upon 
his  shoulder:  and  he  shall  open,  and  none  shall  shut: 
and  he  shall  shut  and  none  shall  open.''  In  idl 
countries  the  key  is  the  symbol  of  authority.  Thus, 
Christ's  words  are  a  promise  that  He  will  confer  on 
Peter  supreme  power  to  govern  the  Church.  Peter 
is  to  be  His  vicegerent,  to  rule  in  His  place.  Further, 
the  character  and  extent  of  the  power  thus  bestowed 
are  indicated.  It  is  a  power  to  " bind "  and  to  "loose " 
— ^words  which,  as  is  shown  below,  denote  the  grant 
of  legislative  and  judicial  authority.  And  this  power 
is  granted  in  its  fullest  measure.  Whatever  Peter 
binds  or  looses  on  earth,  his  act  will  receive  the  Divine 
ratification.  The  meaning  of  this  passage  does  not 
seem  to  have  been  challenged  by  any  writer  until  the 
rise  of  the  sixteenth-century  heresies.  Since  then  a 
great  variety  of  interpretations  have  been  put  forward 
by  Protestant  controversialists.  These  agree  in  little 
save  in  the  rejection  of  the  plain  sense  of  Christ's 
words.  Recent  Anglican  controversy  tends  to  the 
view  that  the  reward  promised  to  St.  Peter  consisted 
in  the  prominent  part  taken  by  him  in  the  initial 
activities  of  the  Church,  but  that  he  was  never  more 
than  primuB  inter  pares  among  the  Apostles  (see 
Lightfoot,  "Apost.  Fathers",  II,  480;  Gore,  "Roman 
Cath.  Claims'',  y;  Puller,  "  Primitive  Samts,  etc.", 
lect.  3).  It  is  manifest  that  this  is  quite  insufficient 
as  an  explanation  of  the  terms  of  Christ's  promise. 
For  a  more  detailed  consideration  of  the  passage  the 
following  works  may  be  consulted:  Knabenbauer, 
"In  Matt.",  ad  loc:  Passaglia,  "De  Prsrog.  B.  Petri.", 
II,  iii-x;  Paknieri  ^*  De  Rom.  Pont.",  226-78. 

The  promise  made  by  Christ  in  Matt.,  xvi,  16-19, 
received  its  fulfilment  after  the  Resurrection  in  the 
scene  described  4n  John,  xxi:  Here  the  Lord,  when 
about  to  leave  the  earth,  places  the  whole  flock — ^the 
sheep  and  the  lambs  alike — ^in  the  charge  of  the 
Apostle.  The  term  employed  in  xxi^  16,  "Be  the 
shepherd  [volftaim]  of  my  sheep",  mdicates  that 
his  task  is  not  merely  to  feed  but  to  rule.  It  is 
the  same  word  as  is  used  in  Ps.  ii,  0  (Sept.):  "Thou 
shalt  rule  Woi/tamh]  them  with  a  rod  of  iron".  The 
scene  stands  in  striking  parallelism  with  that  of  Matt., 
xvi.  As  there  the  reward  was  given  to  Peter  after  a 
profession  of  faith  which  singled  him  out  from  the 
other  eleven,  so  here  Christ  demands  a  similar  pro- 
testation, but  this  time  of  a  yet  higher  virtue: 
"Simon,  son  of  John,  lovest  thou  Me  more  than  these"? 
Here,  too,  as  there.  He  bestows  on  the  Apostle  an 
office  which  in  its  mghest  sense  is  proper  to  Himself 
alone.  There  Cluist  nad  promised  to  make  Peter  the 
foundation-stoneof  the  house  of  God:  here  He  makes  . 
him  the  shepherd  of  God's  flock  to  take  the  place  of 
Himselfj  the  Good  Shepherd.  The  passage  reoeives 
an  admirable  comment  from  St.  Chrysostom:  "He 
saith  to  him,  'Feed  my  sheep'.  Why  does  He  pass 
over  the  others  and  speak  of  the  sheep  to  Peter?  He 
was  the  chosen  one  of  the  Apostles,  tne  mouth  of  the 
disciples,  the  head  of  the  choir.  For  this  reason  Paul 
went  up  to  see  him  rather  than  the  others.  And  also 
to  show  him  that  he  must  have  confidence  now  that 


POPE  262  POPE 

his  denial  had  been  purged  away.    He  entrusts  him  that  office  is  essential  to  the  very  being  of  the  Church, 

with  the  rule  {rpoffTaffUi]  over  the  brethren.  ...  If  It  must  now  be  established  that  it  belongs  of  right  to 

anyone  should  say  'Why  then  was  it  James  who  re-  the  Roman  See.    The  proof  will  fall  into  two  parts: 

ceived  the  See  of  Jerusalem?',  I  should  reply  that  He  (1)  that  St.  Peter  was  Bishop  of  Rome,  and  (2)  that 

made  Peter  the  teacher  not  of  that  see  but  of  the  whole  those  who  succeed  him  in  that  see  succeed  him  also  in 

world"  ["Hom.  Ixxxviii  (Ixxxvii)  in  Joan.",  i,  in  P.  G.,  the  supreme  headship. 

LIX.  478.    Cf.  Origen,  "In  Ep.  ad  Rom.",  v,  10,  in        (1)  It  is  no  longer  denied  by  any  writer  of  weight 

P.  G..  XIV,  1053;    Ephraem  Syrus,  "Hymn,  in  B.  that  St.  Peter  visited  Rome  and  simered  ifiartyrdom 

Petr."  in  "Bibl.  Orient.  Assemani",  I,  95;    Leo  I,  there  (Hamack,  "Chronol.",  1,244,  n.  2).  Some,  how- 

"Serm.  'v  de  natal.",  ii,  in  P.  L.,  LIV,  ISi.  etc.].  Even  ever,  of  those  who  admit  that  he  taught  and  simered 

c^ain  Protestant  commentators  (e.  g.  Blengstenberg  in  Rome,  deny  that  he  was  ever  bishop  of  the  city — 

and  recently  VVeizsacker)  frankly  own  that  Christ  e.  g.  Lightfoot,  "Clement  of  Rome",  II,  501;   Har- 

undoubtedlv  intended  here  to  confer  the  supreme  nack,  op.  cit.,  I,  703.    It  is  not,  however,  difficult  to 

pastorate  on  Peter.     On  the  other  hand  Dr.  Gore  show  that  the  fact  of  his  bishopric  is  so  well  attested 

(op.  cit.,  79;  and  Mr.  Puller  (op.  cit.,  119),  relying  on  a  as  to  be  historically  certain.     In  considering  this 

passage  of  St.  Cyril  of  Alexandria  ("In  Joan.",  XII,  point,  it  will  be  well  to  begin  with  the  third 'century, 

1,  in  r.  G.,  LXX.IV,  750),  maintain  that  the  purpose  when  references  to  it  become  frequent,  and  work  back- 

of  the  threefold  charge  was  simply  to  reinstate  St.  wards  from  this  point.    In  the  middle  of  the  third 

Peter  in  the  Apostolic  conmiission  which  his  threefold  century  St.  Cypnan  expressly  terms  the  Roman  See 

denial  might  be  supposed  to  have  lost  to  him.    This  the  Chair  of  St.  Peter,  saying  that  Cornelius  has  suo- 

interpretation  is  devoid  of  all  probability.    There  is  oeeded  to  "the  place  of  Fabian  which  is  the  place  of 

not  a  word  in  Scripture  or  in  patristic  tradition  to  Peter"  (Ep.  Iv,  8;  cf.  lix,  14).    Firmilian  of  Csesarea 

suggest  that  St.  Peter  had  forfeited  his  Apostolic  notices  that  Stephen  claimed  to  decide  the  contro- 

oonmiission ;    and  the  supposition  is  absolutely  ex-  versy  regarding  rebaptism  on  the  ^und  that  he  held 

eluded  by  the  fact  that  on  the  evening  of  the  Resur-  the  succession  from  Peter  (Cypnan,  Ep.  Ixxv,  17). 

rection  he  received  the  same  Apostolic  powers  as  the  He  does  not  deny  the  claim:   yet  certamly,  had  he 

others  of  the  eleven.    The  solitary  phrase  of  St.  Cyril  been  able,  he  would  have  done  so.    Thus  in  250  the 

is  of  no  weight  against  the  overwhelming  patristic  Roman  episcopate  of  Peter  was  admitted  by  those 

authority  for  the  other  view.    That  such  an  interpre-  brat  able  to  know  the  truth,  not  merely  at  Rome  but 

tation  should  be  seriously  advocated  proves  now  in  the  churches  of  Africa  and  of  Asia  Minor.    In  the 

great  is  the  difficulty  experienced  by  Protestants  re-  first  quarter  of  the  century  (about  220)  Tertullian 

garding  this  text.  (De  Pud.,  xxi)  mentions  Callistus's  claim  that  Peter's 

The  position  of  St.  Peter  after  the  Ascension,  as  power  to  forgive  sins  had  descended  in  a  special  man- 
shown  m  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  realizes  to  the  full  ner  to  him.  Had  the  Reman  Church  been  merely 
the  great  commission  bestowed  upon  him.  He  is  from  founded  by  Peter,  and  not  reckoned  him  as  its  first 
the  first  the  chief  of  the  Apostohc  band — not  primus  bishop,  there  could  have  been  no  ground  for  such  a 
inter  pares f  but  the  undisputed  head  of  the  Church  contention.  Tertullian,  like  Firmilian,  had  every 
(see  UHURCH.  The^  III).  If  then  Christ,  as  we  have  motive  to  deny  the  claim.  Moreover,  he  had  himself 
seen,  establisned  His  Church  as  a  society  subordinated  resided  at  Rome,  and  would  have  been  well  aware  if 
to  a  single  supreme  head,  it  follows  from  the  very  the  idea  of  a  Roman  episcopate  of  Peter  had  been,  as 
nature  of  the  case  that  this  office  is  perpetual,  and  is  contended  by  its  opponents,  a  novelty  dating  from 
cannot  have  been  a  mere  transitory  feature  of  eccle-  the  first  years  of  the  third  century,  supplanting  the 
siastical  Ufe.  For  the  Church  must  endure  to  the  end  older  tradition  according  to  which  Peter  and  Paul  were 
the  very  same  organization  which  Christ  established,  co-founders,  and  Linus  first  bishop.  About  the  same 
But  in  an  organized  society  it  is  precisely  the  constitu-  period,  Hippolytus  (for  Lightfoot  is  surely  right  in 
tion  which  is  the  essential  feature.  A  change  in  con-  holding  him  to  be  the  author  of  the  first  part  of  the 
stitution  transforms  it  into  a  society  of  a  different  "Libenan  Catalogue" — "Clement  of  Rome",  I,  259) 
kind.  If  then  the  Church  should  adopt  a  constitution  reckons  Peter  in  the  list  of  Roman  bishops, 
other  than  Christ  gave  it,  it  would  no  longer  be  His  We  have  moreover  a  poem,  "Ad  versus  Mardonem", 
handiwork.  It  would  no  longer  be  the  Divine  king-  written  apparently  at  the  same  period,  in  which  Peter 
dom  established  by  Him.  As  a  societv .  it  would  have  is  said  to  have  passed  on  to  Linus  "  the  chair  on  which 
pa£»ed  through  essential  modifications,  and  thereby  he  himself  had  sat"  (P.  L.,  II.  1077).  These  witnesses 
would  have  become  a  human,  not  a  Divine  institution;  bring  us  to  the  beginning  of  tne  third  century.  In  the 
None  who  believe  that  Christ  came  on  earth  ^x>  found  second  century  we  cannot  look  for  much  evidence, 
a  Church,  an  organized  society  destined  to  endure  for  With  the  exception  of  Ignatius,  Polycarp,  and  Clem- 
ever,  can  admit  the  possibility  of  a  change  in  the  or-  ent  of  Alexandria^  all  the  writers  whose  works  we 
ganization  given  to  it  by  its  Founder.  The  same  con-  possess  are  apologists  against  either  Jews  or  pagans, 
elusion  also  follows  from  a  consideration  of  the  end  In  works  of  such  a  character  there  was  no  reason  to 
which,  by  Christ's  declaration,  the  supremacy  of  Peter  refer  to  such  a  matter  as  Peter's  Roman  episcopate, 
was  intended  to  effect.  He  was  to  give  the  Church  Irenseus,  however,  supplies  us  with  a  cogent  argument, 
strength  to  resist  her  foes,  so  that  the  gates  of  hell  In  two  passages  (Adv.  hser.,  I,  xxvii,  1,  and  III,  iv,  3) 
should  not  prevail  against  her.  The  contest  with  the  he  speaks  of  Hyginus  as  ninth  Bishop  of  Rome,  thus 
powers  of  evil  does  not  belong  to  the  Apostolic  age  employing  an  enumeration  which  involves  the  inclu- 
alone.  It  is  a  permanent  feature  of  the  (Jhurch's  life,  sion  of  Peter  as  first  bishop  (Lightfoot  was  undoubt- 
Hence,  throughout  the  centuries  the  office  of  Peter  edly  wrong  in  supposing  that  there  was  any  doubt  as 
must  be  realized  in  the  Church,  in  order  that  she  may  to  the  correctness  of  the  reading  in  the  first  of  these 
prevail  in  her  age-long  struggle.  Thus  an  analysis  of  passages.  See  "Zeitschrift  f(ir  kath.  Theol.",  1902. 
Christ's  words  shows  us  that  the  perpetuity  of  the  In  III.  iv,  3,  the  Latin  version,  it  is  true,  gives  "oo- 
office  of  supreme  head  is  to  be  reckoned  among  the  tavus'j  but  the  Greek  text  as  cited  by  Eusebius 
truths  revealed  in  Scripture.  His  promise  to  Peter  reads  crarot).  Irenseus  we  know  visited  Rome  in 
conveyed  not  merely  a  personal  prerogative,  but  es-  177.  At  this  date,  scarcely  more  than  a  century 
tablished  a  permanent  office  in  the  Church.  And  in  after  the  death  of  St.  Peter,  he  may  well  have  come 
this  sense,  as  will  appear  in  the  next  section,  His  words  in  contact  with  men  whose  fathers  had  themselves 
were  understood  by  Latin  and  Greek  Fathers  alike.  spoken  to  the  Apostle.    The  tradition  thus  supported 

II.  Primacy  of  the  Roman  See. — ^We  have  shown  must  be  regarded  as  beyond  all  legitimate  doubt, 

in  the  last  section  that  Christ  conferred  upon  St.  Peter  Lightfoot's  suggestion  (Clement,  I,  64),  maintained  as 

the  office  of  chief  pastor,  and  that  the  permanence  of  certain  by  Mr.  Puller,  that  it  had  its  origin  in  the 


POPE 


263 


POPE 


Clementine  romance,  has  proved  singularly  unfor^ 
tunate.  For  it  is  now  recognized  that  this  work  be- 
k)ng8  not  to  the  second,  but  to  the  fourth  century. 
Nor  is  there  the  slightest  ground  for  the  assertion 
that  the  language  of  Iremeus,  III,  iii,  3,  implies  that 
Peter  and  Paul  enjoyed  a  divided  episcopate  at  Rome 
— an  arrangement  utterly  unknown  to  the  Church  at 
any  period.  He  does,  it  is  true,  speak  of  the  two 
Apostles  as  together  nanding  on  the  episcopate  to 
Lmus.  But  this  expression  is  explained  by  tne  pur- 
pose of  his  argument^  which  is  to  vindicate  against 
the  Gnostics  the  validity  of  the  doctrine  taught  m  the 
Roman  Church.  Hence  he  is  naturally  led  to  lay 
stress  on  the  fact  that  that  Church  inherited  the  teach- 
ing of  both  the  great  Apostles.  Epiphanius  ("Hser.", 
xxvii,  6,  in  P.  G..  XLI,  372)  would  indeed  seem  to  sug- 
gest the  divided  episcopate;  but  he  has  apparently 
merely  misunderstood  tne  words  of  Iremeus. 

(2)  History  bears  complete  testimony  that  from  the 
very  earliest  times  the  Roman  See  has  ever  claimed  the 
suflreme  headship,  and  that  that  headship  has  been 
freely  acknowledgBd  by  the  universal  Church.  We 
shall  here  confine  ourselves  to  the  consideration  of  the 
evidence  afforded  by  the  first  three  centuries.  The 
first  witness  is  St.  Clement,  a  disciple  of  the  Apostles, 
who,  after  Linus  and  Anacletus,  succeeded  St.  Peter 
aa  the  fourth  in  the  list  of  popes.  In  his  ''Epistle  to 
the  Corinthians",  written  m  95  or  96,  he  bids  them 
receive  back  the  bishops  whom  a  turbulent  faction 
among  them  had  expelled.  "If  any  man",  he  savs, 
''should  be  disobedient  unto  the  words  spoken  by 
God  through  us,  let  them  understand  that  they  wiU 
entangle  themselves  in  no  slight  transgression  and 
danger "  (Ep.  n.  59) .  Moreover,  he  bids  them  "render 
obedience  unto  the  things  written  by  us  through  the 
Holy  Spirit".  The  tone  of  authority  which  inspires 
the  latter  appears  so  clearly  that  Lightfoot  dici  not 
hesitate  to  speak  of  it  as  "the  first  step  towards  papal 
domination"  (Clement,  I,  70).  Thus,  at  the  very 
commencement  of  church  history,  before  the  last  sur- 
vivor of  the  Apostles  had  passed  away,  we  find  a 
Bishop  of  Rome,  himself  a  disciple  of  St.  Peter,  inter- 
vening in  the  affairs  of  another  Church  and  claiming 
to  settle  the  matter  by  a  decision  spoken  under  the 
influence  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  Such  a  fact  admits  of 
one  explanation  alone.  It  is  that  in  the  days  when  the 
Apostolic  teaching  was  yet  fresh  in  men's  minds  the 
universal  Church  recognized  in  the  Bishop  of  Rome 
the  office  of  supreme  head. 

A  few  years  later  (about  107)  St.  Ignatius  of  An- 
tioch,  in  the  opening  of  his  letter  to  the  Roman 
Church,  refers  to  its  presiding  over  all  other  (Churches. 
He  addresses  it  as  "presiding  over  the  brotherhood 
of  love  [wpoKaBiittdnf  t^j  dydw7is\J'  The  expression, 
as  Funk  rightly  notes,  is  grammatically  incompatible 
with  the  translation  advocated  by  some  non-Catholic 
writers,  "preeminent  in  works  of  love".  The  same 
century  gives  us  the  witness  of  St.  Irensus — a  man 
who  stands  in  the  closest  connexion  with  the  age  of 
the  Apostles,  since  he  was  a  disciple  of  St.  Polycarp, 
who  had  been  appointed  Bishop  of  Smyrna  oy  St. 
John.  In  his  work  "Adversus  Hsreses  (III,  iii,  2) 
he  brings  against  the  Gnostic  sects  of  his  day  the 
argument  tluit  their  doctrines  have  no  support  m  the 
Apostolic  tradition  faithfully  preserved  by  the 
Cnurches,  which  could  trace  the  succession  of  their 
bishops  back  to  the  Twelve.  He  writes:  "Because  it 
would  be  too  long  in  such  a  volume  as  this  to  enumer- 
ate the  successions  of  all  the  churches,  we  point  to  the 
tradition  of  that  very  great  and  very  ancient  and 
universally  known  Church,  which  was  founded  and 
established  at  Rome,  by  the  two  most  glorious  Apos- 
tles, Peter  and  Paul:  we  point.  I  say,  to  the  tradition 
which  this  Church  has  from  the  Apostles,  and  to  her 
faith  proclaimed  to  men  which  comes  down  to  our 
time  tnrough  the  succession  of  her  bishops,  and  so  we 
put  to  shame    .    .    .    all  who  assemble  in  unauthor- 


iied  meetings.  For  with  this  Church,  because  of  its 
superior  authority,  every  Church  must  agree — that  is 
the  faithful  everywhere — in  communion  with  which^ 
Church  the  tradition  of  the  Apostles  has  been  always 
preserved  by  those  who  are  everywhere  [Ad  hanc 
enim  ecclesiam  propter  potentiorem  pnncipalitatem 
necesse  est  omnem  convenire  ecclesiam,  hoc  est  eos 
qui  sunt  undique  fideles,  in  quA  semper  ab  his  qui 
sunt  undique^  conservata  est  ea  qusD  est  ab  apostoiis 
traditio]".  He  then  proceeds  to  enumerate  the 
Roman  succession  from  Linus  to  Eleutherius,  the 
twelfth  after  the  Apostles,  who  then  occupied  the  see. 
Non-Catholic  writers  have  souc^t  to  rob  the  passage 
of  its  importance  by  translating  the  word  convenire 
"to  resort  to",  and  thus  imders^mding  it  to  mean  no 
more  than  that  the  faithful  from  every  side  (undique) 
resorted  to  Rome,  so  that  thus  the  stream  of  doctrine 
in  that  Church  was  kept  immune  from  error.  Such 
a  rendering,  however^  is  excluded  by  the  construction 
of  the  argument,  which  is  based  entirely  on  the  con- 
tention that  the  Roman  doctrine  is  pure  by  reason  of 
its  derivation  from  the  two  great  Apostohc  founders 
of  the  Church,  Sts.  Peter  and  Paul.  The  frequent 
visits  made  to  Rome  by  members  of  other  Chi^tian 
Churches  could  contribute  nothing  to  this.  On  the 
other  hand  the  traditional  rendering  is  postulated  by 
the  context,  and,  though  the  object  of  innumerable 
attacks,  none  other  possessing^  any  real  degree  of 
probability  has  been  su^ested  m  its  place  <see  Dom. 
J.  Chapman  in  "R^vue  b^nddictine",  1895,  p.  48). 

Dunng  the  pontificate  of  St.  Victor  (189-^8)  we 
have  the  most  explicit  assertion  of  the  supremacy  of 
the  Roman  See  in  regard  to  other  Churches.  A  dif- 
ference of  practice  between  the  Churches  of  Asia 
Minor  and  the  rest  of  the  Christian  world  in  regard 
to  the  day  of  the  Paschal  festival  led  the  pope  to  take 
action.  There  is  some  ground  for  supposing  that  the 
Montanist  heretics  maintained  the  Asiatic  (or  Quarto- 
deciman)  practice  to  be  the  true  one:  in  this  case  it 
would  be  undesirable  that  any  body  of  Catholic 
Christians  should  appear  to  support  them.  But,  un- 
der any  circumstances,  such  a  oiversity  in  the  eccle- 
siastical life  of  ^different  countries  may  well  have 
constituted  a  regrettable  feature  in  the  Church,  whose 
very  purpose  it  was  to  bear  witness  by  her  unity  to 
the  oneness  of  God  (John,  xvii,  21).  Victor  bade  the 
Asiatic  Churches  conform  to  the  custom  of  the  re- 
mainder of  the  Church,  but  was  met  with  determined 
resistance  by  Polycrates  of  Ephesus,  who  claimed  that 
their  custom  denved  from  St.  John  himself.  .Victor 
replied  by  an  excommunication.  St.  Irensus,  how- 
ever, intervened,  exhorting  Victor  not  to  cut  off  whole 
Churches  on  account  of  a  point  which  was  not  a  matter 
of  faith.  He  assumes  that  the  pope  can  exercise  the 
power,  but  urges  him  not  to  do  so.  Similarly  the 
resistance  of  the  Asiatic  bishops  involved  no  aenial 
of  the  supremacy  of  Rome.  It  indicates  solely  that 
the  bishops  believed  St.  Victor  to  be  abusing  his  power 
in  bidding  them  renounce  a  custom  for  which  they 
had  Apostolic  authority.  It  was  indeed  inevitable 
that,  as  the  Church  spread  and  developed,  new  prob- 
lems should  present  themselves,  and  that  questions 
should  arise  as  to  whether  the  supreme  authority 
could  be  legitimately  exercised  in  tnis  or  that  case. 
St.  Victor,  seeing  that  more  harm  than  good  would 
come  from  insistence^  withdrew  the  impo^  penalty. 

Not  many  years  smce  a  new  and  important  piece 
of  evidence  was  brought  to  light  in  Asia  Minor  dating 
from  this  period.  The  sepulchral  inscription  of 
Abercius,  Bishop  of  Hieropolis  (d.  about  200),  con- 
tains an  account  of  his  travels  couched  in  allegorical 
language  (see  Abercius,  Inscription  of).  He  speaks 
thus  of  the  Roman  Church:  "To  Rome  He  [sc.  Cnrist] 
sent  me  to  contemplate  majesty:  and  to  see  a  queen 
golden-robed  and  goldennsandalled.''  It  is  difficult 
not  to  recognize  in  this  description  a  testimony  to  the 
supreme  position  of  the  Roman  See.    TertuUian's 


POPE 


264 


POPS 


bitter  polemic,  "De  Pudicitia"  (about  220),  was 
called  forth  by  an  exercise  of  papal  prerogative.  Pope 
« Callistus  had  decided  that  the  rigid  discipline  which 
had  hitherto  prevailed  in  many  Churches  must  be  in 
a  large  measure  relaxed.  Tertullian,  now  lapsed  into 
heresy,  fiercely  attacks  "the  peremptory  edict", 
which  ''the  supreme  pontiff,  the  bishop  of  bishops", 
has  sent  forth.  The  words  are  intended  as  sarcasm: 
but  none  the  less  they  indicate  clearly  the  position  of 
authority  claimed  by  Rx)me.  And  the  opix>6ition 
comes,  not  from  a  Catholic  bishop,  but  from  a  Mon- 
tanist  heretic. 

The  views  of  St.  C)^rian  (d.  258)  in  regard  to  papal 
authority  have  given  rise  to  much  discussion  (see 
Cypman  of  Carthage,  Saint).  He  undoubtedly 
entertained  exaggerated  views  as  to  the  independence 
of  individual  bishops,  which  eventually  led  him  into 
serious  conflict  witn  Rome.  Yet  on  the  fundamental 
principle  his  position  is  clear.  He  attributed  an  ef- 
fective primacy  to  the  pope  as  the  successor  of  Peter. 
He  makes  communion  with  the  See  of  Rome  essential 
to  Catholic  communion,  speaking  of  it  as  "the  prin- 
cipal Church •  whence  episcopal  unity  had  its  rise" 
(ad  Petri  cathedram  et  ad  ecclesiam  principalem  unde 
unitas  sacerdotalis  exorta  est).  The  force  of  this  ex- 
pression becomes  clear  when  viewed  in  the  light  of 
his  doctrine  as  to  the  unity  of  the  Church.  This  was, 
he  teaches,  established  by  Christ  when  He  foundea 
His  Church  upon  Peter.  By  this  act  the  unity  of  the 
Apostolic  college  was  ensured  through  the  unity  of  the 
foundation.  The  bishops  through  all  time  form  a 
similar  college,  and  are  bound  in  a  like  indivisible 
unity.  Of  this  unity  the  Chair  of  Peter  is  the  source. 
It  fulfils  the  verv  office  as  principle  of  union  which 
Peter  fulfilled  in  his  lifetime.  Hence  to  communicate 
with  an  antipope  such  as  Novatian  would  be  scbdsm 
(Ep.  Ixviii,  1).  He  holds,  also,  that  the  pope  has 
authority  to  depose  an  heretical  bishop.  When 
Marcian  of  Aries  fell  into  heresy,  Cjrprian,  at  the  re- 
quest of  the  bishops  of  the  province,  wrote  to  urge 
rope  Stephen  ''to  send  letters  by  which,  Marcian 
having  been  excommunicated,  another  may  be  sub- 
stituted in  his  place"  (Ep.  Ixviii,  3).  It  is  manifest 
that  one  who  regarded  the  Roman  See  in  this  light, 
believed  that  the  pope  possessed  a  real  and  effective 
primacy.  At  the  same  time  it  is  not  to  be  denied  that 
his  views  as  to  the  right  of  the  pope  to  interfere  in  the 
government  of  a  diocese  already  subject  to  a  legiti- 
mate and  orthodox  bishop  were  inadequate.  In  the 
rebaptism  controversy  his  language  in  regard  to  St. 
Stephen  was  bitter  and  intemperate.  His  error  on 
this  point  does  not,  however,  detract  from  the  fact 
that  he  admitted  a  primacy,  not  merely  of  honour, 
but  of  jurisdiction.  Nor  should  his  mistake  occasion 
too  much  surprise.  It  is  as  true  in  the  Church  as  in 
merely  human  institutions  that  the  full  implications 
of  a  general  principle  are  only  realized  gradually. 
The  claim  to  apply  it  in  a  particular  case  is  often  con- 
tested at  first,  though  later  ages  may  wonder  that 
such  opposition  was  possible. 

Contemporary  with  St.  Cyprian  was  St.  Dionysius 
of  Alexandria.  Two  incidents  bearing  on  the  present 
question  are  related  of  him.  Eusebius  (Hist,  eccl., 
VII,  ix)  gives  us  a  letter  addressed  by  him  to  St. 
Xystus  II  regarding  the  case  of  a  man  who,  as  it  ap- 
peared, had  been  invalidly  baptized  by  heretics,  but 
who  for  many  years  had  been  frequenting  the  sacra- 
ments of  the  Church.  In  it  he  says  that  he  needs  St. 
Xystus's  advice  and  begs  for  his  decision  (yvdfiiip)^ 
that  he  may  not  fall  into  error  {StSt^s  fi)i  Apa  <r<pd\\<afjuii) . 
Again,  some  years  later,  the  same  patriarch  occasioned 
anxiety  to  some  of  the  brethren  by  making  use  of  some 
expressions  which  appeared  hardly  compatible  with  a 
full  belief  in  the  Divinity  of  Christ.  They  promptly 
had  recourse  to  the  Holy  See  and  accused  him  to  his 
namesake,  St.  Dionysius  of  Rome,  of  heretical  lean- 
ings.   The  pope  replied  by  laying  down  authorita- 


tively the  true  doctrine  on  the  subject.  Both  events 
are  instructive  as  showing  us  how  Rome  was  recog- 
nized bv  the  second  see  in  Christendom  as  empowered 
to  speak  with  authority  on  matters  of  doctrine.  (St. 
Athanasius,  "De  sententia  Dionysii"  in  P.  G.,  XaV, 
500).  Equally  noteworthy  is  the  action  of  Emperor 
Aurelian  in  270.  A  synod  of  bishops  had  oondenmed 
Paul  of  Samosata,  Patriarch  of  Alexandria,  on  a  charge 
of  heresy,  and  had  elected  Domnus  bishop  in  his  place. 
Paul  renised  to  withdraw,  and  appeal  was  made  to  the 
civil  power.  The  emperor  decreed  that  he  who  was 
acknowledged  by  the  bishops  of  Italy  and  the  Bishop 
of  Rome,  must  be  recognized  as  rightful  occupant  of 
the  see.  The  incident  proves  that  even  the  pagans 
themselves  knew  well  that  communion  with  the 
Roman  See  was  the  essential  mark  of  all  Christian 
Churches.  That  the  imperial  Government  was  well 
aware  of  the  position  of  the  pope  among  Christians 
derives  additional  confirmation  from  the  saying  of  St. 
Cyprian  that  Decius  would  have  sooner  heard  of  the 
proclamation  of  a  rival  emperor  than  of  the  election 
of  a  new  pope  to  fill  the  place  of  the  martyred  Fabian 
(Ep.  Iv.  9).  '^  V 

The  limits  of  the  present  article  prevent  us  from 
carrying  the  historical  argument  further  than  the  year 
300.  Nor  is  it  in  fact  necessary  to  do  so.  From  the 
beginring  of  the  fourth  century  the  supremacy  of 
Rome  is  writ  large  upon  the  page  of  history.  It  is 
only  in  regard  to  the  nrst  age  of  the  Church  that  any 
question  can  arise.  But  the  facts  we  have  recounted 
are  entirely  sufficient  to  prove  to  any  unprejudiced 
mind  that  the  supremacy  was  exercised  and  acknowl- 
edged from  the  days  of  the  Apostles.  It  was  not  of 
course  exercised  in  the  same  way  as  in  later  times. 
The  Church  was  eis  yet  in  her  infancy:  and  it  would  be 
irrational  to  look  for  a  fully  developed  procedure  gov- 
erning the  relations  of  the  supreme  pontiff  to  the 
bishops  of  other  sees.  To  establish  such  a  system  was 
the  work  of  time,  and  it  was  only  gradually  embodied 
in  the  canons.  There  would,  moreover,  be  little  call 
for  frequent  intervention  when  the  Apostolic  tradi- 
tion was  still  fresh  and  vigorous  in  eveiy  part  of 
Christendom.  Hence  the  papal  prerogatives  came 
into  play  but  rarely.  But  when  the  Faith  was 
threatened,  or  the  vital  welfare  of  souls  demanded 
action,  then  Rome  intervened.  Such  were  the  causes 
which  led  to  the  intervention  of  St.  Dionysius,  St. 
Stephen,  St.  Callistus,  St.  Victor,  and  St.  Clement, 
and  their  cl^dm  to  supremacy  as  the  occupants  of  the 
Chair  of  Peter  was  not  disputed.  In  view  of  the  pur- 
poses with  which,  and  with  which  alone,  these  early 
popes  employed  their  supreme  power,  the  contention, 
so  stoutly  msdntained  by  Protestant  controversialists, 
that  the  Roman  primacy  had  its  origin  in  papal  am- 
bition, disappears.  The  motive  which  inspired  these 
men  was  not  earthly  ambition,  but  zeal  for  the  Faith 
and  the  consciousness  that  to  them  had  been  commit- 
ted the  responsibiUty  of  its  guardianship.  The  con- 
troversialists in  question  even  claim  that  they  are 
justified  in  refusing  to  admit  as  evidence  for  the  papal 
primacy  any  pronouncement  emanating  from  a  Roman 
source,  on  the  ground  that,  where  the  pecsonal  in- 
terests of  anyone  are  concerned,  his  statements  should 
not  be  admitted  as  evidence  (cf .,  for  example.  Puller, 
op.  cit.,  99,  note).  Such  an  objection  b  utterly 
fallacious.  We  are  dealing  here,  not  with  the  state- 
ments of  an  individual,  but  with  the  tradition  of  a 
Church— of  that  Church  which,  even  from  the  earliest 
times,  was  known  for  the  purity  of  its  doctrine,  and 
which  had  had  for  its  founders  and  instructors  the  two 
chief  Apostles,  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul.  That  tradi- 
tion, moreover,  is  absolutely  unbroken,  as  the  pro- 
nouncements of  the  long  senes  of  popes  bear  witness. 
Nor  does  it  stand  alone.  The  utterances,  in  which 
the  popes  assert  their  claims  to  the  obedience  of  aV 
Christian  Churches,  form  part  and  parcel  of  a  greaV 
body  of  testimony  to  the  Petrine  privileges,  issuing 


POPS 


265 


POPE 


not  merely  from  the  Western  Fathers  but  from  those 
of  Greece,  Syria,  and  Egypt.  The  claim  to  reject  the 
evidence  which  comes  to  us  from  Rome  may  be  skilful 
as  a  piece  of  special  pleading,  but  it  can  claim  no  other 
value.  The  first  to  employ  this  argument  were  some 
of  the  Gallicfms.  But  it  is  deservedly  repudiated  as 
fallacious  and  unworthy  by  Bossuet  in  his  ''  Defensio 
cleri  gallic&ni"  (II,  1.  XI,  c.  vi). 

The  primacy  of  St.  Peter  and  the  perpetuity  of  that 
primacy  in  the  Roman  See  are  dogmatically  defined  in 
the  canons  attached  to  the  first  two  chapters  of  the 
Constitution  *^  Pastor  iEtemus  " :  (a)  *'  If  anyone  shall 
say  that  Blessed  Peter  the  Apostle  was  not  constituted 
hy  Christ  our  Lord  as  chief  of  all  the  Apostles  and  the 
visible  head  of  the  whole  Church  militant:  or  that  he 
did  not  receive  directly  and  immediately  from  the 
same  Lord  Jesus  Christ  a  primacy  of  true  and  proper 
jurisdiction,  but  one  of  honour  only:  let  him  be  ana- 
thema.'' (b)  "  If  any  one  shall  say  that  it  is  not  by  the 
institution  of  Christ  our  Lord  Himself  or  by  divinely 
established  right  that  Blessed  Peter  has  peipetual 
successors  in  his  primacy  over  the  universal  Church: 
or  that  the  Roman  Pontiff  is  not  the  successor  of 
Blessed  Peter  in  this  same  primacy: — let  him  be 
anathema"  (Denzinger-Bannwart,  ^'Eiichiridion",  nn. 
1823,  1825). 

(3)  A  question  may  be  raised  as  to  the  precise  dog- 
matic value  of  the  clause  of  the  second  canon  in  which 
it  is  asserted  that  the  Roman  pontiff  is  Peter's  succes- 
sor. The  truth  is  infallibly  defined.  But  the  Church 
has  authority  to  define  not  merely  those  truths  which 
form  part  of  the  original  deposit  of  revelation,  but  also 
such  as  are  necessarily  connected  with  this  deposit. 
The  former  are  held  fide  divinaj  the  latter  fide  infaUp' 
bill.  Although  Christ  established  the  perpetual  office 
of  supreme  head,  Scripture  does  not  tell  us  that  He 
fixed  the  law  according  to  which  the  headship  should 
descend.  Granting  that  He  left  this  to  Peter  to  deter- 
mine, it  is  plain  that  the  Apostle  need  not  have  at- 
tached the  primacy  to  his  own  see:  he  might  -have 
attached  it  to  another.  Some  have  thought  that  the 
law  establishing  the  succession  in  the  Roman  episco- 
pate became  Imown  to  the  Apostolic  Church  as  an 
Historic  fact.  In  this  case  the  dogma  that  the  Roman 
pontiff  is  at  all  times  the  Church  s  chief  pastor  would 
DC  the  conclusion  from  two  premises — the  revealed 
truth  that  the  Church  must  ever  have  a  supreme  head, 
and  the  historic  fact  that  St.  Peter  attached  that  office 
to  the  Roman  See.  This  conclusion,  while  necessarily 
connected  with  revelation,  is  not  part  of  revelation, 
and  is  accepted  fide  infaUibUi,  According  to  other 
theologians  the  proposition  in  question  is  part  of  the 
deposit  of  faith  itself.  In  this  case  the  Apostles  must 
have  known  the  law  determining  the  succession  to  the 
Bishop  of  Rome,  not  merely  on  human  testimony,  but 
also  by  Divine  revelation,  and  they  must  have  taught 
it  as  a  revealed  truth  to  their  disciples.  It  is  this  view 
which  is  commonly  adopted.  The  definition  of  the 
Vatican  to  the  effect  that  the  successor  of  St.  Peter  is 
ever  to  be  found  in  the  Roman  pontiff  is  almost  uni- 
versally held  to  be  a  truth  revealed  by  the  Holy  Spirit 
to  the  Apostles,  and  by  them  transmitted  to  the 
Church. 

III.  Nature  and  Extent  of  the  Papal  Power. — 
This  section  is  divided  as  follows:  (1)  the  pope's  uni- 
versal coercive  jurisdiction;  (2)  the  pope's  immediate 
and  ordinary  jurisdiction  in  regard  of  all  the  faithful, 
whether  singly  or  collectively;  (3)  the  right  of  enter- 
taining appeals  in  all  ecclesiastical  causes.  The  rela- 
tion of  the  pope's  authority  to  that  of  oecumenical 
councils,  and  to  the  civil  power,  are  discussed  in  sep- 
arate articles  (see  CouNciia,  General;  Civil  Alle- 
giance). 

(1)  Popes, — Not  only  did  Christ  constitute  St.  Peter 
head  of  the  Church,  but  in  the  words,  "Whatsoever 
thou  shalt  bind  on  earth,  it  shall  be  bound  also  in 
heaven;  and  whatsoever  thou  shalt  loose  on  earth,  it 


shall  be  loosed  in  heaven, "  He  indicated  the  scope  of 
this  headship.  The  expressions  binding  and  loosing 
here  employed  are  derived  from  the  current  terminol- 
o^  of  the  Rabbinic  schools.  A  doctor  who  declared  a 
thing  to  be  prohibited  by  the  law  was  said  to  bind 
(iDK)i  for  thereby  he  imposed  an  obligation  on  the 
ponscience.  He  who  declared  it  to  be  lawful  was  said 
to  loose  (I'^nn,  Aramaic  811^).  In  this  way  the  terms 
had  come  respectively  to  signify  official  commands  and 
permissions  in  general.  The  words  of  Christ,  there- 
fore, as  understood"  bv  His  hearers,  conveyed  the 
promise  to  St.  Peter  of  legislative  authority  i/dthin  the 
kingdom  over  which  He  had  just  set  him,  and  legisla- 
tive authority  carries  with  it  as  its  necessary  accom- 
paniment judicial  authority.  Moreover,  the  powers 
conferred  in  these  regards  are  plenary.  This  is  plainlv 
indicated  by  the  generality  of  the  terms  employee!: 
"Whatsoever  thou  shalt  bind  .  .  .  Whatsoever 
thou  shalt  loose";  notliing  is  withheld.  Further, 
Peter's  authority  is  subordinated  to  no  earthly  supe- 
rior. The  sentences  which  he  gives  are  to  be  forthwith 
ratified  in  heaven.  They  do  not  need  the  antecedent 
approval  of  any  other  tnbunal.  He  is  independent  of 
all  save  the  Master  who  appointed  him.  The  words 
as  to  the  power  of  binding  and  loosing  are,  therefore, 
elucidatory  of  the  promise  of  the  keys  which  imme- 
diately precedes.  They  explain  in  what  sense  Peter  is 
governor  and  head  of  Chnst's  kingdom,  the  Church, 
y  promising  him  legislative  and  judicial  authority  in 
the  fullest  sense.  In  other  words,  Peter  and  his  succes- 
sors have  power  to  impose  laws  both  preceptive  and 
prohibitive,  power  likewise  to  grant  dispensation  from 
these  laws,  and,  when  needful,  to  annul  them.  It  is 
theirs  to  judge  offences  against  the  laws,  to  impose 
and  to  remit  penalties.  This  judicial  authority  will 
even  include  the  power  to  pardon  sin.  For  sin  is  a 
breach  of  the  laws  of  the  supernatural  kingdom,  and 
falls  under  the  cognizance  of  its  constituted  judges. 
The  gift  of  this  particular  power,  however,  is  not  ex- 
pressed with  full  clearness  m  this  passage.  It  needed 
Christ's  words  (John,  xx.  23)  to  remove  all  ambiguitv. 
Further,  since  the  Church  is  the  kingdom  of  the  trutn, 
so  that  an  essential  note  in  all  her  members  is  the  act 
of  submission  by  which  they  accept  the  doctrine  of 
Christ  in  its  entirety,  supreme  power  in  this  kingdom 
carries  with  it  a  supreme  magieterium — authoritv  to 
declare  that  doctrine  and  to  prescribe  a  rule  of  faith 
obligatory  on  all.  Here,  too,  Peter  is  subordinated  to 
none  save  his  Master  alone;  he  is  the  supreme  teacher 
as  he  is  the. supreme  ruler.  However,  the  tremendous 
powers  thus  conferred  are  limited  in  their  scope  by 
their  reference  to  the  ends  of  the  kingdom  and  to  them 
only.  The  authority  of  Peter  and  his  successors  does 
not  extend  beyond  this  sphere.  With  matters  that  are 
altogether  extrinsic  to  the  Church  they  are  not  con- 
cerned. 

Protestant  controversialists  contend  strenuously 
that  the  words,  "Whatsoever  thou  shalt  bind  etc' , 
confer  no  special  prerogative  on  Peter,  since  precisely 
the  same  gift,  they  allege,  is  conferred  on  all  the  Apos- 
tles (Matt.,  xviii,  18).  It  is,  of  course,  the  case  that  in 
that  passage  the  same  words  are  used  in  regard  of  all 
the  Twelve.  Yet  there  is  a  manifest  difference  be- 
tween the  gift  to  Peter  and  that  bestowed  on  the 
others.  In  his  case  the  pft  is  connected  with  the 
power  of  the  keys,  and  this  power,  as  we  have  seen, 
signified  the  supreme  authority  over  the  whole  king- 
dom. That  gift  was  not  bestowed  on  the  other 
eleven :  and  the  gift  Christ  bestowed  on  them  in 
Matt.,  xviii,  18,  was  received  by  them  as  members  of 
the  kingdom,  and  as  subject  to  the  authority  of  him 
who  should  be  Christ's  vicegerent  on  earth.  There  is 
in  fact  a  striking  parallelism  between  Matt.,  xvi,  19, 
and  the  words  employed  in  reference  to  Christ  Himself 
in  Apoc,  iii,  7:  "He  that  hath  the  key  of  David;  he 
that  openeth,  and  no  man  shutteth ;  shutteth,  and  no 
man  openeth."    In  both  cases  the  second  clause  de- 


POPE    .  266  POPE 

Clares  the  meaning  of  the  fint,  and  the  power  signified  and  salutary  pezialties'  (from  the  brief  'Ad  aasiduas' 

in  the  first  clause  by  the  metaphor  of  the  keys  is  (1755)  of  Benedict  XTV].  leads  to  a  system  already 

supreme.   It  is  worthy  of  note  that  to  no  one  else  save  condemned  as  heretical. "    Nor  may  it  be  held  that 

to  Christ  and  His  chosen  vicegerent  does  Holy  Scrip-  the  pope's  laws  must  exclusively  concern  spiritual 

ture  atUibute  the  power  of  the  ke^s.  objects,  and  their  penalties  be  exclusively  of  a  spiritual 

Certain  patristic  passages  are  further  adduced  by  character.     The  Church  is  a  perfect  society   (see 

non-Cathoucs  as  adverse  to  the  meaning  given  by  the  Chubch,  XIII).    She  is  not  dependent  on  the  per- 

Church  to  Matt.,  xvi,  10.     St.  Augustine  in  several  mission  of  the  State  for  her  existence,  but  holds  her 

places  tells  us  that  Peter  received  the  keys  as  repre-  charter  from  God.   As  a  perfect  society  she  has  a  ri^t 

senting  the  Church — e.  g.  "  In  Joan.",  tr.  1^  12,  in  P.  to  all  those  means  which  are  necessary  for  the  attam- 

L.,  XaXV,  1763:  "Si  hoc  Petro  tantum  dictiun  est,  ing  of  her  end.    These,  however,  will  mdude  far  more 

non  facit  hoc  Ecclesia    .     .     .     ;    si  hoc  ergo  in  than  spiritual  objects  and  spiritual  penalties  alone: 

Ecclesia  fit,  Petrus  auando  claves  accepit,  Eccleoam  for  the  Church  requires  certain  material  possessions, 

sanctam  significavit"  (If  this  was  said  to  Peter  alone,  such,  for*  example,  as  churches,  schools,  seminaries, 

the  Church  cannot  exercise  this  power    .     .     .  ;  if  together  with  the  endowments  necessary  for  their  sua- 

this  power  is  exercised  in  the  Church,  then  when  Peter  tentation.   The  administration  and  the  due  protection 

received  the  keys,  he  simified  the  Holy  Church);  cf.  of  these  goods  wiU  require  legislation  other  than  what 

tr.  cxxiv,  5,  in  F.  L.,  XXXV,  1973;  ''Serm.'',  ccxcv,  is  limited  to  the  spiritual  sphere.    A  large  body  of 

in  P.  L.,  XaVIII,  1340.    It  is  argued  that,  according  canon  law  must  inevitably  be  formed  to  determine  the 

to  Augustine,  the  power  denoted  by  the  keys  resides  conditions  of  their  management.    Indeed,  there  is  a 

primarily  not  in  reter,  but  in  the  whole  Church,  fallacy  in  the  assertion  that  the  Chiurch  is  a  spiritual 

Christ's  gift  to  His  people  was  merely  bestowed  on  Peter  society;  it  is  spiritual  as  rc^gards  the  ultimate  end  to 

as  representing  the  whole  body  of  the  faithful.    The  which  all  its  activities  are  directed,  but  not  as  regards 

right  to  forgive  sins,  to  exclude  from  commimion,  to  its  present  constitution  nor  as  reggrds  the  means  at 

exercise  buy  other  acts  of  authority,  is  really  the  pre-  its  disposal.    The  question  has  been  raised  whether 

rojgative  of  the  whole  Christian  congregation.    If  the  it  be  lawful  for  the  Church,  not  merely  to  sentence  a 

mmister  performs  these  acts  he  does  so  as  delegate  of  delinquent  to  physical  penalties,  but  itself  to  inflict 

the  people.    The  argument,  which  was  formerly  em-  these  penalties.   As  to  this,  it  is  sufficient  to  note  that 

ployed  by  Gallican  controversialists  (cf.Febronius,"De  the  right  of  the  Church  to  invoke  the  aid  of  the  dvil 

statu  eccl.",  i,  §  6),  however,  rests  on  a  misunderstand-  power  to  execute  her  sentences  is  expressly  asserted 

ing  of  the  passages.    Augustine  is  controverting  the  oy  Boniface  VIII  in  the  Bull  "Unam  Sanctam".  This 

Novatian  heretics,  who  affirmed  that  the  power  to  declaration,  even  if  it  be  not  one  of  those  portions  of 

remit  sins  was  a  purely  personal  gift  to  Peter  alone,  the  Bull  in  which  the  pope  is  defining  a  point  of  faith, 

and  had  disappeared  witn  him.    He  therefore  asserts  is  so  clearly  connected  with  the  parts  expressly  statea 

that  Peter  received  it  that  it  misht  remain  for  ever  in  to  possess  such  character  that  it  is  held  bv  theologians 

the  Church  and  be  used  for  its  benefit.    It  is  in  that  to  oe  theologically  certain  (Palmieri,  ''^De  Romano 

sense  alone  that  he  says  that  Peter  represented  the  Pontifice",  thes.  xxi).    The  question  is  of  theoretical, 

Church.    There  is  no  foundation  whatever  for  saying  rather  than  of  practical  importance,  since  civil  Gov- 

that  he  desired  to  affirm  that  the  Church  was  the  true  emments  have  long  ceased  to  own  the  obligation  of 

recipient  of  the  power  conferred.    Such  a  view  would  enforcing  the  decisions  of  any  ecclesiastical  authority. 

be  contrary  to  the  whole  patristic  tradition,  and  is  This  indeed  became  inevitable  when  large  sections  of 

expressly  reprobated  in  the  Vatican  Decree,  cap.  i.  the  population  ceased  to  be  Catholic.    The  state  of 

It  appears  from  what  has  been  said  that,  when  the  things  supposed  could  only  exist  when  a  whole  nation 

popes  legislate  for  the  faithful,  when  they  try  offenders  was  thorou^y  Catholic  in  spirit,  and  the  force  of 

by  juridical  process,  and  enforce  their  sentences  by  papal  decisions  was  recognized  by  all  as  binding  in 

censures  and  excommunications,  they  are  emplo3dng  conscience. 

powers  conceded  to  them  bv  Christ.  Their  authority  (2)  In  the  Constitution  ''Pastor  ^Etemus",  cap. 
to  exercise  jurisdiction  in  this  way  is  not  founded  on  iii,  the  pope  is  declared  to  possess  ordinary,  immediate, 
the  grant  of  any  civil  ruler.  Indeed  the  Church  has  and  episcopal  jurisdiction  over  all  the  faithful:  ''We 
claimed  and  exercised  these  powers  from  the  very  first,  teach,  moreover,  and  declare  that,  by  the  disposition 
When  the  Apostles,  after  the  Council  of  Jerusalem,  of  God,  the  Roman  Church  possesses  supreme  ordi- 
sent  out  their  decree  as  vested  with  Divine  authority  nary  authority  over  all  Churches,  and  that  the  juris- 
(Acts,  XV,  28),  they  were  imposing  a  law  on  the  faith-  diction  of  the  Roman  Pontiff,  which  is  true  episcopal 
ful.  When  St.  Paul  bids  Timothy  not  receive  an  jurisdiction,  is  immediate  in  its  character"  (Enchir., 
ac9Usation  against  a  presbyter  unless  it  be  supported  n.  1827).  It  is  further  added  that  this  authority  ex- 
by  two  or  three  witnesses,  he  clearly  supposes  mm  to  tends  t6  all  alike,  both  pastors  and  faithful,  whether 
be  empowered  to  jud^e  him  in  foro  extemo.  This  sin^v  or  collectively.  An  ordinary'  jurisdiction  is  one 
claim  to  exercise  coercive  jurisdiction  has,  as  might  which  is  exercised  b^  the  holder,  not  by  reason  of  anv 
be  expected,  been  denied  by  various  heterodox  writ-  delegation,  but  in  virtue  of  the  office  which  he  himself 
ers.  Thus  Marsilius  Patavmus  (Defensor  Pads,  II,  hol(£.  All  who  acknowledge  in  the  pope  any  primacy 
iv),  Antonius  de  Dominis  (De  rep.  eccl.,  IV,  vi.  vii,  of  jurisdiction  acknowledge  that  jurisdiction  to  be 
ix).  Richer  (De  eccl.  et  pol.  potestate,  xi-xii),  and  later  ordinary.  This  point,  therefore,  does  not  call  for  dis- 
the  Synod  of  Pistoia,  all  alike  maintained  that  coer-  cussion.  That  tne  papal  authority  is  likewise  imme- 
cive  jurisdiction  of  every  kind  belongs  to  the  civil  diate  has,  however,  been  called  in  question.  Jurisdio- 
power  alone,  and  sought  to  restrict  the  Church  to  the  tion  is  immediate  when  its  possessor  stands  in  direct 
use  of  moral  means.  This  error  has  alwaya  been  relation  to  those  with  whose  oversight  he  is  charged, 
condemned  by  the  Holy  See.  Thus,  in  the  Bull  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  supreme  authority  can  only 
"Auctorem  Fidei",  Pius  VI  makes  the  following  pro-  deal  directly  with  the  proximate  superiors,  and  not 
nouncement  regarding  one  of  the  Pistoian  proposi-  with  the  subjects  save  through  their  intervention,  his 
tions:  ''[The  aloresaid  proposition]  in  respect  of  its  power  is  not  immediate  but  mediate.  That  the  pope's 
insinuation  that  the  Church  does  not  possess  author-  jurisdiction  is  not  thus  restricted  appears  from  the 
ity  to  exact  subjection  to  her  decrees  otherwise  than  analysis  already  given  of  Christ's  words  to  St.  jPeter. 
by  means  dependent  on  persuasion:  so  far  as  this  It  has  been  shown  that  He  conferred  on  him  a  primacy 
signifies  that  the  Church  'nas  not  received  from  God  over  the  Church,  which  is  universal  in  its  scope,  ex- 
power,  not  merely  to  direct  by  counsel  and  persuasion,  tending  to  all  the  Church's  members,  and  whion  needs 
but  further  to  command  by  laws,  and  to  coerce  ana  the  sup]X)rt  of  no  other  power.  A  primacy  such  as  this 
compel  the  delinquent  and  contumacious  by  external  manifestly  gives  to  him  and  to  his  successors  a  direct 


POPS  267  POPE 


N 


authority  over  all  the  faithful.  This  is  also  implied  in  the  supreme  judge  of  the  faithful,  and  that  to  him 
the  words  of  the  pastoral  commission,  ''Feed  my  appeal  may  be  made  in  all  ecclesiastical  causes.  The 
sheep''.  The  shepherd  exercises  immediate  authority  ngnt  of  appeal  follows  as  a  necessary  corollarv  from 
over  all  the  sheep  of  his  flock.  Every  member  of  the  the  doctrine  of  the  primacy.  If  the  pope  really  pos- 
Church  has  been  thus  committed  to  Peter  and  those  sesses  a  supreme  jurisdiction  over  the  Church,  every 
who  follow  him.  This  inmiediate  authority  has  been  other  authority,  whether  episcopal  or  synodal,  being 
always  claimed  by  the  Holy  Sec.  It  was,  however,  subject  to  him,  there  must  of  necessity  be  an  i^peu 
denied  by  Febronius  (op.  cit.,  vii,  §  7).  That  writer  to  him  from  all  inferior  tribunals.  This  question,  now- 
contended  that  the  duty  of  the  pope  was  to  exercise  ever^  has  been  the  subject  of  much  controversy.  The 
a  general  oversight  over  the  Church  and  to  direct  the  Gallican  divines  de  Marca  and  Quesnel,  and  in  Ger- 
bishops  by  his  counsel ;  in  case  of  necessity,  where  the  many  Febronius,  sought  to  show  that  the  risht  of  appeal 
legitimate  pastor  was  guilty  of  grave  wrong,  he  could  to  the  pope  was  a  mere  concession  derived  from  eccle- 
pronounoe  sentence  of  excommunication  against  him  siastical  canons,  and  that  the  influence  of  the  pseudo- 
and  proc^od  against  him  according  to  the  canons,  but  Isidorean  decretals  had  led  to  many  unjustifiable 
he  could  not  on  his  own  authority  depose  him  (op.  exaggerations  in  the  papal  claims.  The  arguments  of 
cit.,  ii,  §§  4,  9).  The  Febronian  doctrines,  though  de-  these  writers  are  at  the  present  day  employed  by 
void  of  any  historical  foimdation,  yet,  through  their  frankly  anti-Catholic  controversialists  with  a  view  to 
appeal  to  the  spirit  of  nationalism,  exerted  a  powerful  showinf^  that  the  whole  primacy  is  a  merely  human 
influence  for  h&nn  on  Catholic  life  ih  Germany  during  institution.  It  is  contended  that  the  rieht  of  appeal 
the  eighteenth  and  part  of  the  nineteenth  century,  was  first  granted  at  Sardica  (343),  and  that  each  step 
Thus  it  was  imperative  that  the  error  should  be  of  its  subsequent  development  can  be  traced.  His- 
definitively  condenmed.  That  the  pope's  power  is  tory,  however,  renders  it  abundantly  clear  that  the 
truly  episcopal  needs  no  proof.  It  follows  from  the  right  of  appeal  had  been  known  from  primitive  times, 
fact  that  he  enjoys  an  ordinary  pastoral  authority,  and  that  the  purpose  of  the  Sardican  canons  was 
both  legislative  and  judicial,  and  immediate  in  rela-  merely  to  give  conciliar  ratification  to  an  already 
tion  to  its  subjects.  Moreover,  since  this  power  re-  existing  usage.  It  will  be  convenient  to  speak  first  of 
gards  the  pastors  as  well  as  the  f^thful,  the  pope  is  the  Sardican  question,  and  then  to  examme  the  evi- 
rightly  termed  Pastor  pastorunif  and  Ejnscopus  epis-  denoe  as  regards  previous  practice. 
coporum.                                              .  In  the  years  immediately  preceding  Sardica,  St. 

It  is  frequently  objected  by  writers  of  the  Anglican  Athanasius  had  appealed  to  Rome  against  the  decision 
school  that,  by  declaring  the  pope  to  possess  an  im-  of  the  Council  of  Tyre  (335).  Pope  Julius  had  an- 
mediate  episcopal  jurisdiction  over  all  the  faithful,  nulled  the  action  of  that  council,  and  had  restored 
the  Vatican  Council  destroyed  the  authority  of  the  Athanasius  and  Marcellus  of  Ancyra  to  their  sees, 
diocesan  episcopate.  It  is  further  pointed  out  that  The  Eusebians,  however,  had  contested  his  right  to 
St.  Gregory  the  Great  expressly  repudiated  this  title  call  a  conciliar  decision  in  question.  The  fathers  who 
fEp.  vii,  27;  viii,  30).  To  this  it  is  replied  that  no  met  at  Sardica,  and  who  included  the  most  eminent 
difficulty  is  involved  in  the  exercise  of  immediate  of  the  orthodox  party  from  East  and  West  alike,  de- 
jurisdiction  over  the  same  subjects  by  two  rulers,  pro-  lired  by  their  decrees  to  afiirm  this  right,  and  to 
vidkl  only  that  these  rulers  stand  in  subordination,  establisn  a  canonical  mode  of  procedure  for  such 
the  one  to  the  other.  We  constantly  see  the  system  appeals.  The  principal  provisions  of  the  canons  which 
at  work.  In  an  army  the  regimental  ofiicer  and  the  deal  with  this  matter  are:  (1)  that  a  bishop  condemned 
general  both  possess  immediate  authority  over  the  by  the  bishops  of  his  province  may  appeal  to  the  pope 
soldiers;  yet  no  one  maintains  that  the  inferior  au-  either  on  his  own  initiative  or  through  his  judges;  (2) 
thority  is  thereby  annulled.  The  objection  lacks  ail  that  if  the  pope  entertains  the  appeal  he  shall  appoint 
weight.  The  Vatican  Council  says  most  justly  (cap.  a  court  of  second  instance  drawn  from  the  bishops  of 
iii):  "This  power  of  the  supreme  pontiff  in  no  way  the  neighbouring  provinces;  he  may,  if  he  thinlos  fit, 
derogates  from  the  ordinary  immediate  power  of  epis-  send  judges  to  sit  with  the  bishops.  There  is  nothing 
copal  jurisdiction,  in  virtue  of  which  the  oishops,  who,  whatever 4^o  suggest  that  new  privileges  are  being  cOn- 
appointed  by  the  Holy  Spirit  [Acts,  xx,  28],  have  sue-  ferred.  St.  Julius  had  recently,  not  merely  exercised 
ceed^  to  the  place  of  the  Apostles  as  true  pastors,  the  right  of  hearing  appeals  in  the  most  formal  man- 
fe«i  and  rule  tneir  several  flocks,  each  the  one  which  ner,  but  had  severely  censured  the  Eusebians  for 
has  been  assigned  to  him:  that  power  is  rather  main-  neglecting  to  respect  the  supreme  judicial  rights  of  the 
tained,  confirmed  and  defended  by  the  supreme  Roman  See:  "for",  he  writes,  "if  they  [Athanasius 
pastor"  (Enchir.,  n.  1828).  It  is  without  doubt  true  and  Marcellus]  really  did  some  wrong,  as  you  say,  the 
that  St.  Gregorv  repudiated  in  strong  terms  the  title  judgment  ought  to  have  been  given  according  to  the 
of  universal  bishop,  and  relates  that  St.  Leo  rejected  ecclesiastical  canon  and  not  thus.  .  .  .  Do  you  not 
it  when  it  was  ofi^red  him  by  the  fathers  of  Chalce-  know  that  this  has  been  the  custom  first  to  write  to 
don.  But,  as  he  used  it,  it  has  a  different  signification  us,  and  then  for  that  which  is  just  to  be  defined  from 
from  that  with  which  it  was  employed  in  the  Vatican  hence?"  (Athanasius,  "Apol.",  35).  Nor  is  there  the 
Council.  St.  Gregory  imderstood  it  as  involving  the  smallest  ground  for  the  assertion  that  the  pope's 
denial  of  the  authority  of  the  local  diocesan  (Ep.  v,  action  is  hedged  in  within  narrow  limits,  on  the  Eround 
21).  No  one,  he  maintains,  has  a  right  so  to  term  that  no  more  is  permitted  than  that  he  should  order 
himself  universal  bishop  as  to  usurp  that  apostolic-  a  rehearing  to  take  place  on  the  spot.  The  fathers  in 
ally  constituted  power.  But  he  was  himself  a  stren-  no  way  disputed  the  pope's  right  to  hear  the  case  at 
uous  asserter  of  that  immediate  jurisdiction  over  all  Rome.  But  their  object  was  to  deprive  the  Eusebians 
the  faithful  which  is  sonified  by  this  title  as  used  in  of  the  facile  excuse  that  it  was  idle  for  appeals  to  be 
the  Vatican  Decree,  'fiius  he  reverses  (Ep.  vi,  15)  a  carried  to  Rome,  since  there  the  requisite  evidence 
sentence  passed  on  a  priest  by  Patriarch  John  of  could  not  be  forthcoming.  Thev  therefore  provided  a 
Constantinople,  an  act  which  itself  involves  a  claim  canonical  procedure  which  should  not  be  open  to  that 
to  universal  authority,  and  explicitly  states  that  the  objection. 

Church  of  Constantinople  is  subject  to  the  Apostolic  Having  thus  shown  that  there  is  no  ground  for  the 

See  (Ep.  ix,  12).    The  title  of  umversal  bishop  occurs  assertion  that  the  right  of  appeal  was  first  granted  at 

as  earl^  as  the  eighth  centmy;  and  in  1413  the  faculty  Sardica,  we  may  now  consider  the  evidence  for  its 

of  Pans  rejected  the  proposition  of  John  Hus  that  the  existence  in  earlier  times.    The  records  of  the  second 

pope  was  not  universal  bishop  (Natalis  Alexander,  century  are  so  scanty  as  to  throw  but  little  light  on  the 

"Hist,  eccl.",  sflBC.  XV  and  XVI,  c.  ii,  art.  3,  n.  6).  subjoct.    Yet  it  would  seem  that  Montanus,  Prisca, 

(3)  The  Council  goes  on  to  amrm  that  the  pope  is  and  Maximilla  appealed  to  Rome  against  the  decision 


POPE  268  POPE 

of  the  Phrygian  bishops.    Tertullian  (Con.  Prax.,  i)    all  (Western)  bishops  had  the  right  of  appeal  from 

pope 
should 

whenlfurther  information  led  him  to  recall  the  letters    think  fit  (Cod.  Theod.  Novell.,  tit.  xxiv,  De  episoo- 
of  peace  which  he  had  issued.  The  fact  that  the  pope's    porum  ordin.) .    These  ordinances  were  not,  however. 


Cyprian's  correspondence  we  find  clear  and  unmis-  sanctions  enabling  the  pope  \ 
takableevidenceof  a  system  of  appeals.  Basilidesand  civil  machinenr  of  the  empire  in  discharging  the  duties 
Martial,  the  bishops  of  Leon  ancf  Merida  in  Spain,  had  of  his  ofiice.  What  Pope  Nicholas  I  said  of  the  synodal 
in  the  persecution  accepted  certificates  of  idolatry,  declarations  regarding  the  privile^  of  the  Holy  See 
They  confessed  their  gmlt,  and  were  in  consequence  holds  ^ood  here  iJso:  '^Ista  privilegia  huic  sanctse 
deposed,  other  bishops  bemg  appointed  to  the  sees.  Eksclesue  a  Christo  donata,  a  sjmodis  non  donata,  sed 
In  the  hope  of  havmg  themselves  reinstated  they  jam  solummodo  venerata  et  celebrata"  (These  privi- 
appealed  to  Rome^  and  succeeded,  by  misrepresenting  leges  bestowed  by  Christ  on  this  Holy  Chureh  have 
the  facta,  in  imposmg  on  St.  Stephen,  who  oraered  their  not  been  granted  her  by  synods,  but  merely  pro- 
restoration.    It  has  been  objected  to  the  evidence  claimed  and  honoured  by  them)  (  £p.  ad  Michaelem 


writers  of 
.  ,  426by 
to  the  sentence  of  deix)8ition  (Ep.  Ixvii,  6).  But  the  the  African  bishops  to  Pope  St.  Celestine  at  the  close 
objection  misses  the  point  of  St.  Cyprian's  letter.  In  of  the  incident  relating  to  the  priest  Apiarius.  As  the 
the  case  in  question  there  was  no  room  for  a  legitimate  point  is  discussed  in  a  special  article  (Apiarius  of 
appeal,  since  the  two  bishops  had  confessed.  An  ao-  Sicca),  a  brief  reference  will  sufiice  here.  Protestant 
qmttal  obtiuned  after  spontaneous  confession  could  controversialists  maintain  that  in  this  letter  the  Afri- 
not  be  valid.  It  has  further  been  urged  that,  in  the  can  bi^ops  positivel]^  repudiate  the  claim  of  Rome  to 
case  of  Fortunatus  (Ep.  lix,  10),  Cyprian  denies  his  an  appellate  jurisdiction,  the  repudiation  being  conse- 
right  of  appeal  to  Rome,  and  asserts  the  sufficiency  of  quent  on  the  fact  that  they  had  in  419  satisfied  them- 
tiie  African  tribunal.  But  here  too  the  objection  rests  selves  that  Pope  Zosimus  was  mistaken  in  claiming  the 
upon  a  misunderstanding.  Fortunatus  had  procured  authority  of  Nicsea  for  the  Sardican  canons.  Tms  is 
consecration  as  Bishop  of  Carthage  from  a  heretical  an  error.  The  letter,  it  is  trUe,  urses  with  some  dis- 
bishop,  and  St.  Cyprian  asserts  the  competency  of  the  play  of  irritation  that  it  would  be  both  more  reason- 
local  synod  in  his  case  on  the  ground  that  he  is  no  true  able  and  more  in  hannony  with  the  fifth  Nicene  canon 
bishop — a  mere  paeudo-episeopus.  Juridically  consid-  regarding  the  inferior  clergy  and  the  laity,  if  even  epis> 
ered  he  is  merely  an  insubordinate  presbyter,  and  he  copal  cases  were  left  to  the  decision  of  the  African 
must  submit  himself  to  his  own  bishop.  At  that  period  synod.  The  pope's  authority  is  nowhere  denied,  but 
the  established  custom  denied  the  right  of  appeal  to  the  sufficiency  of  the  local  tribunals  is  ass^ted.  In- 
the  inferior  clergy.  On  the  other  hand,  the  action  of  deed  the  right  of  the  pope  to  deal  with  episcopal  cases 
Fortunatus  indicates  that  he  based  his  claim  to  bring  was  freely  acknowledged  by  the  African  Chureh  even 
the  question  of  his  status  before  the  pope  on  the  after  it  faiad  been  diown  that  the  Sardican  canons  did 
KTound  that  he  was  a  legitimate  bishop.  Privatus  of  not  emanate  from  Nicsea.  Antony,  Bishop  of  Fussala, 
Lambese,  the  heretical  consecrator  of  Fortunatus  who  prosecuted  an  app^  to  Rome  against  St.  Augustine 
had  previously  been  himself  condenmed  by  a  sjrnod  of  m  423,  the  appeal  being  supportra  by  the  Primate  of 
ninety  bishops  (Ep.  lix,  10),  had  appealed  to  Rome  Numidia  (Ep.  ccix).  Moreover,  St.  Augustine  in  his 
without  success  (Ep.  xxxvi,  4).  letter  to  Pope  Celestine  on  this  subject  urges  that  pre- 
The  difficulties  at  Carthage  which  led  to  the  Dona-  vious  popes  have  dealt  with  similar  cases  in  the  same 
tist  schism  provide  us  with  another  instance.  When  manner,  sometimes  by  independent  decisions  and  some- 
the  seventy  Numidian  bishops,  who  had  condemned  times  by  confirmation  of  the  decisions  locally  ^ven 
Cfficilian,  invoked  the  aid  of  the  emperor,  the  latter  (ipsa  sede  apoetolica  judicante  vel  aliorum  judicata 
referred  them  to  Rome,  that  the  case  might  be  decided  firmante),  and  that  he  could  cite  examples  either  from 
by  Pope  Miltiades  (313).  St.  Augustine  makes  fre-  ancient  or  from  more  recent  times  (Ep.  ccix,  8).  These 
quent  mention  of  the  circumstances,  and  indicates  facts  appear  to  be  absolutelyoonclusive  as  to  the  tra- 
plainly  that  he  holds  it  to  have  been  Cscilian's  un-  ditional  African  practice.  That  the  letter  ''Optare- 
doubted  right  to  claim  a  trial  before  the  pope.  He  mus"  did  not  result  in  any  change  is  evinced  by  a 
says  that  Secundus  should  never  have  dared  to  con-  letter  of  St.  Leo's  in  446,  directing  what  is  to  be  done 
demn  Csecilian  when  he  declined  to  submit  his  case  to  in  the  case  of  a  certain  Lupicinus  who  had  appealed  to 
the  African  bishops,  since  he  had  the  rieht  **  to  reserve  him  (Ep.  xii,  13) .  It  is  occasionally  argued.that  if  the 
his  whole  case  to  the  judgment  of  other  colleagues,  pope  really  possessed  jure  divino  a  supreme  jurisdio- 
especially  to  that  of  ApostoUcal  Churehes"  (Ep.  xliii,  tion,  the  African  bishops  would  neither  have  raised 
7).  A  httle  later  (367)  a  council,  held  at  T^ana  in  any  question  in  410  as  to  wheUier  the  alleged  canons 
Asia  Minor,  restored  to  his  see  Eustathius,  bishop  of  were  authentic,  nor  again  have  in  426  requested  the 
that  city,  on  no  other  sround  than  that  of  a  successful  pope  to  take  the  Nicene  canon  as  the  norm  of  his 
appeal  to  Rome.  St.  Basil  (Ep.  ccbdii,  3)  tells  us  that  action,  lliose  who  reason  in  this  way  fail  to  see  that, 
they  did  not  know  what  test  of  orthodoxy  Liberius  where  canons  have  been  establishea  prescribing  the 
had  required.  He  brought  a  letter  from  the  pope  de-  mode  of  procedure  to  be  followed  in  the  Church,  right 
manding  his  restoration,  and  this  was  accepted  as  reason  demands  that  the  supreme  authority  should 
decisive  by  the  council.  It  should  be  observed  that  not  alter  them  except  for  some  grave  cause;  and,  as 
there  can  be  no  question  here  of  the  pope  employing  long  as  they  remain  the  recognised  law  of  the  Chureh, 
preroeatives  conferred  on  him  at  Sardica^  for  he  did  should  observe  them.  The  pope  as  Grod's  vicar  must 
not  follow  the  procedure  there  indicated.  Indeed  there  govern  according  to  reason,  not  arbitrarily  nor  capri* 
is  no  good  reason  to  believe  that  the  Sardicanpro-  dously.  TUs,  however,  is  a  veiy  different  thing  from 
oedure  ever  came  into  use  in  either  East  or  West,  saying,  as  did  the  Galhcan  divmes.  that  the  pope  is 
In  378  the  api>ellate  jurisdiction  of  the  pope  received  subject  to  the  canons.  He  is  not  subject  to  them,  be- 
civil  sanction  from  Emperor  Gratian.  Any  charge  cause  he  is  competent  to  modify  or  to  annul  them  when 
af^ainst  a  metropolitan  was  to  come  before  the  pope  he  holds  this  to  be  best  for  the  Chureh. 
hmiself  or  a  court  of  bishops  nominated  by  him,  while  IV.  Jurisdictional  Riobts  and  Prerooatives  of 


POFB  269  POPl 

THB  Pope. — In  virtue  of  his  office  as  supreme  teacher  tions,  to  confirm  its  acts,    (c)  He  has  full  authority  to 

and  ruler  of  the  faithful,  the  chief  control  of  every  de-  interpret,  alter,  and  abrogate  both  his  own  laws  and 

partment  of  the  Churches  life  belong^  to  the  pope.    In  those  established  by  his  px^deoessors.  He  has  the  same 

this  section  the  rights  and  duties  wmch  thus  fail  to  his  plenitude  of  power  as  they  enjoyed,  and  stands  in  the 

lot  wiU  be  briefly  enumerated.    It  will  appear  that,  in  same  relation  to  their  laws  as  to  those  which  he  him- 

regard  to  a  considerable  number  of  points^  not  merely  self  has  decreed;  (d)  he  can  dii^nse  individuals  from 

the  supreme  control,  but  the  whole  exercise  of  power  the  obli^tion  of  all  purely  ecclesiastical  laws,  and  can 

is  reserved  to  the  Holy  See,  and  is  only  granted  to  grant  privileges  and  exemptions  in  their  regard.    In 

others  by  express  delegation.   This  system  of  reserva-  this  connexion  may  be  mentioned  (e)  his  power  to 

tion  is  possible,  since  the  pope  is  Uie  universal  source  dispense  from  vows  where  the  greater  glory  of  God 

of  all  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction.    Hence  it  rests  with  renders  it  desirable.   Considerablepowersof  dispensa- 

him  to  determine  in  what  measure  he  will  confer  juris-  tion  are  granted  to  bishops,  and,  in  a  restricted  meas- 

diction  on  bishops  and  other  prelates.  ure,  also  to  priests:  but  there  are  some  vows  reserved 

(1)  As  the  supreme  teacher  of  the  Church,  whose  it  altogether  to  the  Holy  See. 

is  to  prescribe  what  is  to  be  believed  by  all  the  faithful,  (4)  In  virtue  of  his  supreme  judicial  authority  (a) 
and  to  take  measures  for  the  preservation  and  the  causa  majores  are  reserve  to  him.  By  this  term  are 
propagation  of  the  faith,  the  following  are  the  rights  signified  cases  dealing  with  matters  of  great  moment, 
which  pertain  to  the  pope:  (a)  it  is  his  to  set  forth  or  those  in  which  personages  of  eminent  dignity  are 
creeds,  and  to  determme  when  and  by  whom  an  ex-  concerned,  (b)  His  appellate  jurisdiction  has  oeen  dis- 
plicit  profession  of  faith  shall  be  made  (cf .  Council  of  cussed  in  the  previous  section.  It  should,  however,  be 
Trent,  Sess.  XXIV,  cc.  i.  xii) ;  (b)  it  is  lus  to  prescribe  noted  (c)  that  the  pope  has  full  ri^t,  should  he  see  fit, 
and  to  command  books  for  the  religious  instruction  of  to  deal  even  with  cauam  tninares  m  the  first  instance, 
the  faithful;  thus,  for  example,  Clement  XIII  has  and  not  merely  by  reason  of  an  appeal  (TVent,  Sess. 
recommended  the  Roman  Cateiuiism  to  all  the  bish-  XXIV,  cap.  xx).  In  what  concerns  punishment,  (d) 
ops.  (c)  The  pope  alone  can  establish  a  university^  he  can  inflict  censures  either  by  judicial  sentence  or 
possessing  the  status  and  privileges  of  a  canonicaliy  by  general  laws  which  operate  without  need  of  such 
erected  Catholic  university;  (d)  to  him  also  belongs  sentence,  (e)  He  further  reserves  certain  cases  to  his 
the  direction  of  Catholic  missions  throu^^out  the  own  tribunal.  All  cases  of  heresy  come  before  the  Con- 
world;  this  charge  is  fulfilled  throu^  the  Con^rega-  gregation  of  the  Inquisition.  A  similar  reservation 
tion  of  the  Propaganda,  (e)  It  is  his  to  prohibit  me  covers  the  cases  in  which  a  bishop  or  a  rmgning  prince 
reading  of  such  books  as  are  injurious  to  faitii  or  is  the  accused  party. 

morals,  and  to  determine  the  conditions  on  which        (5)  As  the  supreme  governor  of  the  Chureh  the  pope 

certain  classes  of  books  may  be  issued  by  Catholios;  has  authority  over  all  appointments  to  its  pubuc 

(f)  his  is  the  condemnation  of  given  proi>ositions  as  oflices.    Thus  (a)  it  is  his  to  nominate  to  bishoprics, 

being  either  heretical  or  deserving  of  some  minor  de-  or,  where  the  nomination  has  been  conceded  to  others, 

pee  of  censure,  and  lastly  (g)  he  has  the  ri|^t  to  to  sive  confirmation.    Further,  he  alone  can  translate 

mterpret  authentically  the  natural  law.    Thus,  it  is  biwops  from  one  see  to  another,  can  accept  their 

his  to  say  what  is  lawful  or  unlawful  in  regard  to  social  resignation,  and  can,  where  grave  cause  exists,  sen- 

and  family  life,  in  regard  to  the  practice  of  usury,  etc.  tence  to  deprivation,    (b)  He  can  establish  dioceses, 

(2)  With  the  pope's  office  of  supreme  teacher  are  and  can  annul  a  previouisly  existing  arrangement  in 
closely  connected  his  rights  in  regard  to  the  worship  favour  of  a  new  one.  Similarly,  he  alone  can  erect 
of  God :  for  it  b  the  law  of  prayer  that  fixes  the  law  of  cathedral  and  collegiate  chapters,  (o)  He  can  approve 
belief.  In  this  sphere  very  much  has  been  reserved  to  new  religious  orders,  and  (d)  can,  if  he  sees  fit.  exempt 
tlie  sole  regulation  of  the  Holy  See.  Thus  (a)  the  them  from  the  authority  of  local  ordinaries,  ^b) 
pope  alone  can  prescrifaNB  the  fiturgical  services  em*  Since  his  office  of  supreme  ruler  imposes  on  him  tiie 
ployed  in  the  Cnurch.  If  a  doubt  dliould  occur  in  duty  of  enforeing  the  canons,  it  is  requisite  that  he 
reffurd  to  the  ceremonial  of  the  liturgy,  a  bishop  may  should  be  kept  informed  as  to  the  state  of  the  various 
not  settle  the  point  on  his  own  authority,  but  must  dioceses.  He  may  obtain  this  information  by  legates 
have  recourse  to  Rome.  The  Holy  See  likewise  or  by  summoning  the  bishops  to  Rome.  At  tJie 
prescribes  rules  in  regard  to  the  devotions  used  by  the  present  day  this  jua  rdationum  is  exereised  through 
taithful.  and  in  this  way  checks  the  growth  of  what  the  triennial  visit  ad  limina  required  of  all  bishops, 
is  novel  and  unauthorised,  (b)  At  tne  present  day  This  system  was  introduced  by  Sixtus  V  in  1685 
the  institution  and  abrogation  of  festivals,  which  was  (Constitution.  ''Rom.  Pontifex'O)  and  confirmed  by 
till  a  comparatively  recent  time  free  to  all  bishops  as  Benedict XI V  in  1740  (Constitution,  ''Quod  Sancta"). 
rmurds  their  own  dioceses,  is  reserved  to  Rome,  (c)  (f)  It  is  to  be  further  observed  that  the  pope's  office 
The  solemn  canonisation  of  a  saint  is  proper  to  the  of  chief  ruler  of  the  Church  carries  with  it  jure  dwino 
pope.  Indeed  it  is  commonly  held  that  this  is  an  the  right  to  free  intercourse  with  the  pastors  and  the 
exercise  of  the  papal  infallibility.  Beatification  and  faithful.  The  ^lacitum  regiutn.  by  which  this  inter- 
every  permission  tor  the  public  veneration  of  any  of  course  was  limited  and  impeaed,  was  therefore  an 
the  servants  of  God  is  likewise  reserved  to  his  deci«  infringement  of  a  sacred  rignt,  and  as  such  was  sol- 
sion.  (d)  He  alone  gives  to  anyone  the  privily  of  a  emnly  condemned  by  the  Vatican  Council  (Constitu- 
private  chapel  where  Mass  may  be  said,  (e)  He  dis-  tion,  "Pastor  ^temus",  cap.  iii).  To  the  pope  like- 
penses  the  treasury  of  the  Chureh,  and  the  grant  of  wise  belongs  the  supreme  aoministration  of  the  goods 
plenary  indulgences  is  reserved  to  him.  While  he  has  of  the  Chureh.  He  alone  (k)  can,  where  there  is  just 
no  authority  m  regard  to  the  substantial  rites  of  the  cause,  alienate  any  considerable  quantity  of  sudi 
sacraments,  and  is  boimd  to  preserve  them  as  they  prepay.  Thus,  e.  g.,  Julius  III,  at  the  time  of  the 
were  given  to  the  Chureh  by  Christ  and  His  Apostles,  restoration  of  religion  in  England  under  Queen  Mary, 
certain  powers  in  their  regard  belong  to  him;  (f)  he  validated  the  title  of  those  laymen  who  had  acquired 
can  give  to  simple  priests  the  power  to  confinn,  and  Chureh  lands  during  the  spoliations  of  the  previous 
to  bless  the  oil  of  the  sick  and  the  oil  of  catechumens,  reigns,  (h)  The  pope  has  further  the  right  to  impose 
and  (g)  he  can  establish  diriment  and  impedient  im-  taxes  on  the  clergy  and  the  faithful  for  ecclesiastical 
pediments  to  matrimony.  purposes  (cf.  Trent,  Sess.  XXI,  cap.  iv  de  Ref.). 

(3)  The  legislative  power  of  the  pope  carries  with  it  Though  the  power  of  the  pope,  as  we  have  described  it, 
the  following  rights:  (a)  he  can  legislate  for  the  whole  is  very  great,  it  does  not  follow  that  it  is  arbitrary 
Chureh,  with  or  without  the  assistance  of  a  general  and  unrestricted.  "The  pope",  as  Cardinal  Hergen- 
council;  (b)  if  he  legislates  with  the  aid  of  a  council,  rGther  well  says,  "is  circumscribed  by  the  conscious- 
it  is  his  to  convoke  it,  to  preside,  to  direct  its  delibera-  ness  of  the  necessity  of  making  a  righteous  and  benefi- 


POPS 


270 


POPE 


cent  use  of  the  duties  attached  to  his  privileges.  .  .  . 
He  is  also  circumscribed  by  the  spirit  and  practice  of 
the  Church,  by  the  respect  due  to  General  Councils 
and  to  ancient  statutes  and  customs,  by  the  rights  of 
bishops,  by  his  relation  with  civil  powers,  by  the  tra- 
ditional mild  tone  of  government  indicated  by  the  aim 
of  the  institution  of  the  papacy — to  *f«Bd* — and 
finally  by  the  respect  indispensable  in  a  spiritual  power 
towards  the  spirit  and  mind  of  nations''  (^'Cath. 
Church  and  Christian  State",  tr.,  I,  197). 

V.  Primacy  of  Honour:  Titles  and  Insignia. — 
Certiun  titles  and  distinctive  marks  of  honour  are 
assigned  to  the  pope  alone;  these  constitute  what  is 
termed  his  primacy  of  honour.  These  prerogatives  are 
not,  as  are  his  jurisdictional  rights,  attached  jure 
dwino  to  his  oflfice.  They  have  grown  up  in  the  course 
of  history,  and  are  consecrated  by  the  usaj^e  of  cen- 
turies; yet  they  are  not  incapable  of  modification. 

(1)  TiiJUs. — The  most  noteworthy  of  the  titles  are 
Papa,  Summua  PonlifeXf  Pontifex  Maximu8j  Senms 
servarum  Dei.  The  title  pope  (papa)  was,  as  has  been 
stated,  at  one  time  employed  with  far  more  latitude. 
In  the  East  it  has  always  been  used  to  designate 
simple  priests.  In  the  Western  Church,  however,  it 
seems  from  the  beginning  to  have  been  restricted  to 
bishops  (Tertullian,  **De  Pud.",  xiii).  It  was  appar- 
ently in  the  fourth  century  that  it  began  to  become  a 
distmctive  title  of  the  Roman  Pontiff.  Pope  Siricius 
(d.  398)  seems  so  to  use  it  (Ep.  vi  in  P.  L.,  XIII. 
1164),  and  Ennodius  of  Pavia  (a.  473)  employs  it  still 
more  clearly  in  this  sense  in  a  letter  to  Pope  Sym- 
machus  (P.  L.,  LXIII,  69).  Yet  as  late  as  the  seventh 
century  St.  Gall  (d.  640)  addresses  Desiderius  of 
Cahors  as  papa  (P.  L.,  LXXXVII,  265).  Gregory 
VII  finally  prescribed  that  it  should  be  confined  to 
Uie  successors  of  Peter.  The  terms  Pontijfex  Maxi- 
mu8j  Summits  PonlifeXf  were  doubtless  ori^nally  em- 
ployed with  reference  to  the  Jewish  high-pnest,  whose 
place  the  Christian  bishops  were  regarded  as  holding, 
each  in  his  own  diocese  (I  Clem.,  xl).  As  r^ards  the 
title  Ponlifex  MaximuSy  especially  in  its  application  to 
the  pope,  there  was  further  a  reminiscence  of  the  dig- 
nity attached  to  that  title  in  pagan  Rome.  Tertullian, 
as  has  already  been  said,  uses  the  phrase  of  Pope 
Callistus.  Though  his  words  are  ironical,  they  prob- 
ably indicate  that  Catholics  already  applied  it  to  the 
pope.  But  here  too  the  terms  were  once  less  narrowly 
restricted  in  their  use.  Pontifex  summus  was  used  of 
the  bishop  of  some  notable  see  in  relation  to  those  of 
less  importance.  Hilary  of  Aries  (d.  449)  is  so  styled 
by  Eucherius  of  Lyons  (P.  L.,  L,  773),  and  Lanfranc 
is  termed  '^primas  et  pontifex  summus"  by  his  biog- 
rapher, Milo  Crispin  (P.  L..  CL,  10).  Pope  Nicholas 
I  is  termed  '' summus  pontifex  et  universalis  papa"  by 
his  legate  Arsenius  (Hardouin,  "Cone",  V,  280),  and 
subsequent  examples  are  common.  After  the  eleventh 
century  it  appears  to  be  only  used  of  the  popes.  The 
phrase  Servus  servorum  Dei  is  now  so  entirely  a  papal 
title  that  a  Bull  in  which  it  should  be  wanting  would 
be  reckoned  unauthentic.  Yet  this  designation  also 
was  once  applied  to  others.  Augustine  ("Ep.  ccxvii 
a.  d.  Vitalem"  in  P.  L.,  XXXIII,  978)  entitles  himself 
"servus  Christi  et  per  ipsum  servus  servorum  Ipsius". 
Desiderius  of  Cahors  made  use  of  it  (Thomassin, 
"Ecclesise  nov.  et  vet.  disc",  pt.  I,  I.  I,  c.  iv,  n.  4): 
so  also  did  St.  Bonifac9.<740),  the  apostle  of  Germany 
(P.  L.,  LXXIX,  700).  The  first  of  the  popes  to  adopt 
it  was  seemingly  Gregory  I;  he  appears  to  have  done 
so  in  contrast  to  the  claim  put  forward  by  the  Patri- 
arch of  Constantinople  to  the  title  of  universal  bishop 
(P.  L.,  LXXV,  87).  The  restriction  of  the  term  to  the 
pope  alone  began  in  the  ninth  century. 

(2)  Insignia  and  Marks  of  Honour. — The  pope  is 
distinguished  by  the  use  of  the  tiara  or  triple  crown 
(see  Tiara).  At  what  date  the  custom  of  crowning 
the  pope  was  introduced  is  unknown.  It  was  cer- 
tainly previous  to  the  forged  donation  of  Constantino, 


which  dates  from  the  commencement  of  the  ninth 
century,  for  mention  is  there  made  of  the  pope's 
coronation.  The  triple  crown  is  of  much  later  origin. 
The  pope  moreover  does  not,  like  ordinary  bishops, 
use  the  bent  pastoral  staff,  but  only  the  erect  cross. 
This  custom  was  introduced  before  the  reign  of  In- 
nocent III  (1198-1216)  (cap.  un.  X  de  sacra  unctione. 
I,  15).  He  further  uses  the  pallium  (a.  v.)  at  all 
ecclesiastical  functions,  and  not  under  tne  same  re- 
strictions as  do  the  archbishops  on  whom  he  has  con- 
ferred it.  The  kissing  of  the  pope's  foot — the 
characteristic  act  of  reverence  by  wnich  all  the  faith- 
ful do  honour  to  him  as  the  vicar  of  Christ — ^is  found 
as  early  as  the  eighth  century.  We  read  that  Em- 
peror Justinian  II  p^d  this  respect  to  Pope  Constan- 
tine  (703-16)  (Anastasius  Bibl.  in  P.  L.,  CXXVIII. 
949).  Even  at  an  earlier  date  Emperor  Justin  had 
prostrated  himself  before  Pope  Jolm  I  (523-6;  op. 
cit.,  515),  and  Justinian  I  before  Agapetus  (535-6; 
op.  cit.,  551).  The  pope,  it  may  be  added,  ranks  as 
the  first  of  Christian  princes,  and  in  Catholic  coun- 
tries his  ambassadors  have  precedence  over  other 
members  of  the  diplomatic  body. 

VI.  Election  of  the  Popes. — The  supreme  head- 
ship of  the  Church  is,  we  have  seen,  annexed  to  the 
office  of  Roman  bishop.  The  pope  becomes  chief 
pastor  because  he  is  Bishop  of  Rome:  he  does  not  be- 
come Bishop  of  Rome  because  he  has  been  chosen  to 
be  head  of  the  universal  Church.  Thus,  an  election 
to  the  papacy  is,  properly  speaking,  primarily  an 
election  to  the  local  bishopric.  The  right  to  elect 
their  bishop  has  ever  belonged  to  the  members  of  the 
Roman  Church.    They  possess  the  prerogative  of 

§iving  to  the  imiversal  Church  her  chief  pastor;  they 
o  not  receive  their  bishop  in  virtue  of  his  election  by 
the  universal  Church.  This  is  not  to  say  that  the 
election  should  be  by  popular  vote  of  the  Romans. 
In  ecclesiastical  affairs  it  is  always  for  the  hierarchy 
to  guide  the  decisions  of  the  flock.  The  choice  of  a 
bishop  belongs  to  the  clergy:  it  may  be  confined  to  the 
leading  members  of  the  clergy.  It  is  so  in  the  Roman 
Church  at  present.  The  electoral  college  of  cardinals 
exercise  their  office  because  thev  are  the  chief  of  the 
Roman  clergy.  Should  the  college  of  cardinals  ever 
become  extinct,  the  duty  of  choosing  a  supreme  pastor 
would  fall,  not  on  the  bishops  assembled  in  council, 
but  upon  the  remaining  Roman  clergy.  At  the  time 
of  the  Council  of  Trent  Pius  IV,  thinking  it  possible 
that  in  the  event  of  his  death  the  council  nught  lay 
some  claim  to  the  right,  insisted  on  this  point  in  a 
consistorial  allocution  (Phillips,  "Kirchenrecht",  V,  p. 
737  n.) .  It  is  thus  plain  that  a  pope  cannot  hominate 
his  successor.  History  tells  us  of  one  pope — Bene- 
dict II  (530) — who  meditated  adopting  this  course. 
But  he  recognized  that  it  would  be  a  false  st^,  and 
burnt  the  document  which  he  had  drawn  up  for  the 
purpose.  On  the  other  hand  the  Church's  canon  law 
(10  D.  79)  supposes  that  the  pope  may  make  provision 
for  the  needs  of  the  Church  by  suggesting  to  the  car- 
dinals some  one  whom  he  regards  as  fitted  for  the 
office:  and  we  know  that  Gregory  VII  secured  in  this 
way  the  election  of  Victor  III.  Such  a  step,  however, 
does  not  in  any  wav  fetter  the  action  of  the  cardinals. 
The  pope  can.  further,  legislate  regarding  the  mode  in 
.Which  the  subsequent  election  shall  be  carried  out, 
determining  the  composition  of  the  electond  college, 
and  the  conditions  requisite  for  a  definitive  choice. 
The  method  at  present  followed  is  the  result  of  a  series 
of  enactments  on  this  subject. 

A  brief  historical  review  will  show  how  the  princi- 
ple of  election  by  the  Roman  Church  has  been  inain- 
tained  through  all  the  vicissitudes  of  papal  elections. 
St.  C3rprian  tells  us  in  regard  to  the  election  of  Pope 
St.  Cornelius  (251)  that  the  comprovincial  bishops, 
the  clergy,  and  the  people  all  took  part  in  it:  "He  was 
made  bishop  by  the  decree  of  God  and  of  His  Church, 
by  the  testimony  of  nearly  all  the  clergy,  by  the  col- 


'  POPl  271  POPE 

1^  of  aged  bishops  [sacerdotum],  and  of  good  men  "  tion  of  the  scandal  impossible  it  was  decreed  that  only 
(£p.  Iv  ad  Anton.,  n.  8).  And  a  precisely  similar  members  of  the  sacred  college  were  eligible  for  elec- 
ground  is  alleged  by  the  Roman  priests  in  their  letter  tion.  The  part  of  the  laity  was,  moreover,  reduced 
to  Emperor  Honorius  regarding  the  validity  of  the  to  a  mere  right  of  acclamation.  Under  Chaxlemagne 
election  of  Boniface  I  (a.  d.  ^18:  P.  L.,  XX.  750).  and  Louis  the  Pious  the  Church  retained  her  freedom. 
Previous  to  the  fall  of  the  Western  Empire  interference  Lothair,  however,  claimed  more  ample  rifl^ts  for  the 
b^  the  civil  power  seems  to  have  been  inconsiderable,  civil  power.  In  824  he  exacted  an  oatn  from  the 
donstantius,  it  is  true,  endeavoured  to  set  up  an  Romazui  that  none  should  be  consecrated  pope  with- 
antipope,  Felix  II  (355)  ^ut  the  act  was  univereally  out  the  permission  and  the  presence  of  his  ambas- 
regarded  as  hereticiEd.  Honorius  on  the  occasion  of  sadors.  This  was,  in  fact,  done  at  most  of  the 
the  contested  election  of  418  decreed  that,  when  the  elections  diuing  the  ninth  century,  and  in  898  the 
election  was  dubious,  neither  party  should  hold  the  riots  which  ensued  upon  the  death  of  Pope  Stephen  V 
papacy,  but  that  a  new  election  should  take  place,  led  John  IX  to  give  ecclesiastical  sanction  to  this 
This  method  was  applied  at  the  elections  of  Conon  system  of  imperial  control.  In  a  council  held  at 
(686)  and  Sergius  I  (687).  The  law  is  found  in  the  Rome  in  that  year  he  decre^  that  the  election  should 
Church's  code  (c.  8,  d.  LXXIX),  though  Gratian  de-  be  made  by  bishops  (cardinal)  and  clergy,  regard 
clares  it  void  of  force  as  having  emanated  from  civil  being  had  to  the  wishes  of  the  people,  but  that  no  con- 
and  not  ecclesiastical  authority  (d.  XCVI,  proem.;  d.  secration  should  take  place  except  in  the  presence  of 
XCVII.  proem.).  After  the  barbarian  conquest  of  the  imperial  legate  (Mansi.  XVIil,  225). 
Italyj  tne  Church's  rights  were  less  carefully  observed.  The  due  formalities  at  least  of  election  appear  to 
Basihus,  the  prefect  of  Odoacer,  claimed  the  right  of  have  been  observed  through  the  wild  disorders  which 
supervising  the  election  of  483  in  the  name  of  his  followed  the  collapse  of  the  Carlovingian  Empire:  and 
master,  allc^ng  that  Pope  Simplicius  had  himself  the  same  is  true  as  regards  the  times  of  Otto  the  Great 
requested  him  to  do  so  (Hard.,  II,  977).  The  dis-  and  his  son.  Under  the  restored  empire,  however, 
turbances  which  occurred  at  the  disputed  election  of  the  electors  enjoyed  no  freedom  of  choice.  Otto  I 
Symmachus  (498)  led  that  pope  to  hold  a  council  and  even  compelled  the  Romans  to  swear  that  they  would 
to  decree  the  severest  penalties  on  all  who  should  be  never  elect  or  ordain  a  pope  without  his  or  ms  son's 
guilty  of  canvassing  or  bribery  in  order  to  attiun  the  consent  (963;  cf.  Liutprand,  "Hist.  Ott.",  viii).  In 
pontificate.  It  was  moreover  decided  that  the  ma-  1046  the  scandals  of  the  preceding  elections,  in  which 
jori^  of  votes  should  decide  the  election.  Theodoric  the  supreme  pontificate  had  become  a  prise  for  rival 
the  Ostrogoth,  who  at  this  period  ruled  Italy,  became  factions  entirely  regardless  of  what  means  they  em« 
in  his  later  years  a  persecutor  of  the  Church.  He  even  ployed,  led  cler^  and  people  to  leave  the  nomination 
went  so  far  as  to  appoint  Felix  III  (IV)  in  526  as  the  to  Henry  III.  Three  popes  were  chosen  in  this  man- 
successor  of  Pope  John  I,  whose  death  was  due  to  the  ner.  But  Leo  IX  insisted  that  the  Church  was  free 
incarceration  to  which  the  king  had  condenmed  him.  in  the  choice  of  her  pastors,  and,  until  he  was  duly 
Felix,  however,  was  personally  worthy  of  the  office,  elected  at  Rome,  decuned  to  assume  any  of  the  state 
and  the  appointment  was  confirmed  by  a.  subsequent  of  his  office.  Tne  party  of  reform,  of  which  Hilde- 
,  election.  The  precedent  of  interference  set  by  brand  was  the  moving  spirit,  were  eager  for  some 
Theodoric  was  fruitful  of  evil  to  the  Church.  After  measure  which  should  restore  an  independent  choice 
the  destruction  of  the  Gothic  monarchy  (537),  the  to  the  Church.  This  was  carried  out  by  Nicholas  II. 
Byzantine  emperors  went  even  farther  than  the  In  1059  he  held  a  coimcil  in  the  Lateran  and  issued 
heretical  Ostrogoth  in  encroaching  on  ecclesiastical  the  Decree  ''In  Nomine".  This  document  is  found 
rights.  Visilius  (540)  and  Pelagius  I  (553)  were  in  two  recenaons,  a  papal  and  an  imperial,  both  of 
forced  on  the  Church  at  imperial  dictation.  In  the  early  date.  There  is  however  Uttle  doubt  that  the 
case  of  the  latter  there  seems  to  have  been  no  election:  papal  recension  embodied  in  the  "Decretum  Gra- 
his  title  was  validated  solely  throu^  his  recognition  tiaoi"  (o.  1.  d.  XXIII)  is  genuine,  and  that  the  other 
as  bishop  by  derpy  and  people.  The  formahties  of  was  altered  in  the  interest  of  the  antipope  Guibert 
election  at  this  time  were  as  follows  (Lib.  Diumus  (1080;  Hefele,  "Concilieneesch.",  IV,  800,  899).  The 
Rom.  Pont.,  ii,  in  P.  L.,  CV.  27).  After  the  pope's  right  of  election  is  confined  to  the  cardinals,  the 
death,  the  archpriest,  the  archdeacon,  and  the  pnmi-  effective  choice  being  placed  in  the  hands  of  the 
cerius  of  the  notaries  sent  an  official  notification  to  cardinal  bishops:  clergy  and  people  have  a  right  of 
the  gxarch  at  Ravenna.  On  the  third  day  after  the  acclamation  only.  The  right  of  confirmation  is 
decease  the  new  pope  was  elected,  being  invariably  granted  to  the  Emperor  Henry  IV  and  to,  such  of  his 
chosen  from  among  the  presbyters  or  deacons  of  the  successors  as  should  personally  request  and  receive 
Roman  Church  (cf.  op.  cit.,  u,  titt.  2,  3.  5),  and  an  the  privilege.  The  pope  need  not  necessarily  be  taken 
embassy  waJs  despatched  to  Constantinople  to  request  from  the  number  at  cardinals,  though  this  should  be 
the  official  confirmation  of  the  election.    Not  until  the  case  if  possible. 

this  had  been  received  did  the  consecration  take  place.  This  decree  formed  the  basis  of  the  present  legis- 
The  Church  acquired  greater  freedom  after  the  Lom-  lation  on  the  papal  election,  though  the  system  under- 
bid invasion  of  568  had  destroyed  the  prestige  of  went  considerable  development.  The  first  important 
Byzantine  power  in  Italy.  Pelagius  II  (578)  and  modification  was  the  Constitution"  Licet  deVitanda" 
Gregory  I  (590)  were  the  spontaneous  choice  of  the  [c.  vi,  X,  "De  elect."  (1, 6)]  of  Alexander  III,  the  first 
electors.  And  in  684,  owing  to  the  long  delays  in-  of  the  decrees  passed  by  the  Third  (Ecumenical 
volved  m  the  journey  to  Constantinople,  Constantine  Coimcil  of  the  Lateran  (1179).  To  prevent  the  evils 
IV  (Pogonatus)  acceded  to  Benedict  Il's  re€|uest  that  of  a  disputed  election  it  was  established  by  this  law 
in  future  it  should  not  be  necessary  to  wait  for  con-  that  no  one  should  be  held  duly  elected  until  two- 
firmation,  but  that  a  mere  notification  of  the  election  thirds  of  the  cardinals  should  have  given  their  votes 
would  suffice.  The  loss  of  the  exarchate  and  the  for  liim.  In  this  decree  no  distinction  is  made  be- 
iconoclastic  heresy  of  the  Byzantine  court  completed  tween  the  rights  of  the  cardinal  bishops  and  those  of 
the  severance  between  Rome  and  the  Eastern  Empire,  the  rest  of  the  Sacred  College.  The  imperial  privilege 
and  Pope  Zachiuias  (741)  dispensed  altogether  with  of  confirming  the  election  had  already  become  obso- 
the  customary  notice  to  Constantinople.  lete  owing  to  the  breach  between  the  Church  and  the 
In  769  a  council  was  held  under  Stephen  III  to  Empire  under  Henry  IV  and  Frederick  I.  Between 
rectify  the  confusion  caused  by  the  intrusion  of  the  the  death  of  Clement  IV  (1268)  and  the  coronation 
antipope  Constantine.  This  usurper  was  a  layman  of  Gregory  X  (1272)  an  interregnum  of  nearly  three 
hurriedly  raised  to  priest's  orders  to  render  his  nomi-  years  intervened.  To  prevent  a  repetition  of  so  great 
nation  to  the  pontincate  possible.    To  make  a  repeti-  a  misfortune  the  pope  m  the  Coimcil  of  Lyons  (1179) 


POPE 


272 


POPE 


lasued  the  Decree  ''Ubi  periculum''  [c.  iii,  "De 
elept.",  in  60  (I,  6)],  by  which  it  was  ordained  that 
durinff  the  election  of  a  pontiff  the  cardinals  should  be 
seclui&d  from  the  world  under  exceedingly  stringent 
resulaUons,  and  that  the  seclusion  should  continue 
till  they  had  fulfilled  their  duty  of  providing  the 
Church  with  a  supreme  pastor.  To  this  electoral 
session  was  given  tne  name  of  the  Conclave  (q.  v.). 
This  system  prevails  at  the  present  day. 

VII.  Chronological  List  of  the  Popes. — ^The 
historical  lists  of  the  popes,  from  those  drawn  up  in 
the  second  century  to  those  of  the  present  day,  form 
in  themselves  a  considerable  body  of  literature.  It 
would  be  beyond  the  scope  of  the  article  to  enter  upon 
a  discussion  of  these  catalogues.  For  an  account  of 
the  most  famous  of  them  alL  the  article  Liber  Pontifi- 
CALis  may  be  consulted.  It  appears,  however,  desir- 
able to  indicate  verv  briefly  what  are  our  authorities 
for  the  names  and  the  durations  in  office  of  the  popes 
for  the  first  two  centuries  of  the  Church's  existence. 

IrensBus,  writing  between  175  and  190,  not  many 
years  after  his  Roman  sojourn,  enumerates  the  series 
from  Peter  to  Eleutherius  (Adv.  Hser.,  Ill,  iii,  3; 
EusebiuB,  ''Hist,  eccl.'^,  V,  vi) .  His  object,  as  we  have 
already  seen,  was  to  establish  the  orthodoxy  of  the 
traditional  doctrine,  as  opposed  to  heretical  novelties, 
bv  showing  that  the  bishop  was  the  natural  inheritor 
of  the  Apostolic  teaching.  He  gives  us  the  names 
alonCj  not  the  length  of  the  various  episcopates.  This 
need  is  supplied  by  other  witnesses.  Most  important 
evidence  is  furnished  by  the  document  entitled  the 
"  Liberian  Catalogue" — so  called  from  the  pope  whose 
name  ends  the  list.  The  collection  of  tracts  of  which 
this  forms  a  part  was  edited  (apparently  by  one  Furius 
Dion^sius  Philocalus)  in  354.  The  catalogue  consists 
of  a  hst  of  the  Roman  bishops  from  Peter  to  Liberius, 
with  the  length  of  their  respective  episcopates,  the 
consular  dates,  the  name  of  the  reigning  emperor,  and 
in  many  cases  other  detidls.  There  is  the  strongest 
ground  for  believing  that  the  earlier  part  of  the  cata- 
logue, as  far  as  Pontian  (230-35),  is  the  work  of  Hippo- 
lytus  of  Portus.  It  is  manifest  that  up  to  this  point 
the  fourth-century  compiler  was  making  use  of  a  dif- 
ferent authority  from  tnat  which  he  employs  for  the 
subsequent  popes:  and  there  is  evidence  rendering  it 
almost  certain  that  Hippolytus's  work  "Chronica'* 
contained  such  a  list.  The  reign  of  Pontian,  moreover, 
would  be  the  point  at  which  that  list  would  have 
stopped:  for  Hippolytus  and  he  were  condemned  to 
servitude  in  the  Sardinian  mines — a  fact  which  the 
chronographer  makes  mention  when  speaking  of 
Pontian's  episcopate.  Lightfoot  has  argued  that 
this  list  originally  contained  nothing  but  the  names 
of  the   bishops  and  the  duration  of  their  episco- 

I)ates.  the  remaining  notes  being  additions  by  a 
ater  hand.  The  list  of  popes  is  identical  with  that  of 
Ireiueus,  save  that  Anacletus  is  doubled  into  Cletus 
and  Anacletus,  while  Clement  appears  before,  instead 
of  after,  these  two  names.  The  order  of  Popes  Pius 
and  Anicetus  has  also  been  interchanged.  There  is 
every  reason  to  regard  these  differences  as  due  to  the 
errors  of  copyists.  Another  witness  is  Eusebius.  The 
names  and  episcopal  years  of  the  bishops  can  be  gath- 
ered alike  from  his  "History"  and  his  "Chronicle". 
The  notices  in  the  two  works  can  be  shown  to  be 
in  agreement,  notwithstanding  certain  corruptions  in 
many  texts  oif  the  "Chronicle".  This  Eastern  list  in 
the  hands  of  Eusebius  is  seen  to  have  been  identical 
with  the  Western  list  of  Hippolytus,  except  that  in  the 
East  the  name  of  Linus's  successor  seems  to  have  been 

S'ven  as  Anencletus,  in  the  original  Western  list  as 
letUB.  The  two  authorities  presuppose  the  following 
list:  (1)  Peter,  xxv;  (2)  Linus,  xii;  (3)  Anencletus 
[Cletus].  xii;  (4)  Clement,  ix;  (5)  Evarestus,  viii;  (6) 
Alexander^  x;  (7)  Sixtus,  x;  (8)  Telesphorus,  xi;  (9) 
Hyginus,  iv;  (10)  Pius,  xv;  (11)  Anicetus,  xi;  (12) 
Soter,  viii;  (13)  Eleutherius,  xv;  (14)  Victor,  x;  (15) 


ZephyrinuB,  xviii:  (16)  Callistus,  v;  (17)  Urban,  viii; 
(18)  Pontian,  v  (Hamack,  "Chronologie",  I,  152). 

We  learn  from  Eusebius  (Hist,  eccl.,  IV,  xxii)  that 
in  the  middle  of  the  second  century  Hegesippus,  the 
Hebrew  Christian,  visited  Rome,  and  that  he  drew  up 
a  list  of  bishops  as  far  as  Anicetus,  the  then  pope. 
Eusebius  does  not  quote  his  catalogue,  but  Laghtfoot 
sees  ground  for  holdmg  that  we  possess  it  in  a  passage 
of  Epiphanius  (Hser.,  xxvii,  6),  in  which  the  bishops 
as  far  as  Anicetus  are  enumerated.  This  list  of  H^^ 
sippus.  drawn  up  less  than  a  century  after  the  martyr- 
dom or  St.  Peter,  was,  he  believes,  the  foundation  alike 
of  the  Eusebian  and  Hippolytan  catalogues  (Clement 
of  Rome,  I,  325  sg.).  His  view  has  been  accepted  by 
many  scholars.  Even  those  who,  like  Hamack  (Chro- 
nologic. L  184  sq.),  do  not  admit  that  this  list  is  really 
that  ot  Hegesippus,  recognize  it  as  a  catalo^pe  of 
Roman  origin  and  of  very  early  date,  furnishins 
testimony  independent  alike  qf  the  Eusebian  ana 
Liberian  lists. 

The  "Liber  Pontificalis",  long  accepted  as  an  au- 
thority of  the  highest  value,  is  now  acknowledged  to 
have  been  originally  composed  at  the  beginning  of  the 
fifth  century,  and,  as  regards  the  early  popes,  to  be 
dependent  on  the  '^ Liberian  Catalogue". 

In  the  numbering  of  the  successors  of  St.  Peter^  cer- 
tain differences  appear  in  various  lists.  The  two  forms 
Anacletus  and  Cletus,  as- we  have  seen,  very  early 
occasioned  the  third  pope  to  be  reckoned  twice.  There 
are  some  few  cases,  also,  in  which  it  is  still  doubted 
whether  particular  individuals  should  be  accounted 
genuine  popes  or  intruders,  and,  according  to  the  view 
taken  by  the  compiler  of  the  list,  they  willbe  included 
or  excluded.  ^  In  the  accompanying  list  the  Stephen 
immediately  following  Zacharias  (752)  is  not  num- 
bered, since,  though  duly  elected,  he  died  before  his 
consecration.  At  that  period  the  papal  dignity  was 
held  to  be  conferred  at  consecration,  and  hence  he  is 
excluded  from  all  the  early  lists.  Leo  VIII  (963)  is  in- 
cluded, as  the  resignation  of  Benedict  V,  thou^  en- 
forced, may  have  been  genuine.  Boniface  VII  is  also 
ranked  as  a  pope,  since,  in  984  at  least,  he  would  seem 
to  have  been  accepted  as  such  by  the  Roman  Church. 
The  claim  of  Benedict  X  (1058)  is  likewise  recognised. 
It  cannot  be  affirmed  that  his  title  was  certainly 
invalid,  and  his  name,  though  now  sometimes  ex- 
cluded, appears  in  the  older  catalogues.  It  should  be 
observed  that  there  is  no  John  Xa  in  the  catalo^e. 
TMs  is  due  to  the  fact  that,  in  the  "  Liber  Pontificalia  ", 
two  dates  are  given  in  connexion  with  the  life  of  John 
XIV  (983).  This  introduced  confusion  into  some  of 
the  papal  cat£dogues,'and  a  separate  pope  was  assigned 
to  each  of  these  dates.  Thus  three  popes  named  John 
were  made  to  appear  between  Benedict  VII  and  Greg- 
ory V.  The  error  led  the  pope  of  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury who  should  have  been  called  John  XX  to  style 
himself  John  XXI  (Duchesne.  "Lib:  Pont.",  II,  xvii). 
Some  only  of  the  antipopes  nnd  mention  in  the  list. 
No  useful  purpose  would  oe  served  by  giving  the  name 
of  every  such  claimant.  Many  of  them  possess  no 
historical  importance  whatever.  From  Gregory  VII 
onward  not  merely  the  years  but  the  precise  days  are 
assigned  on  which  the  respective  reippis  commenced 
and  closed.  Ancient  authorities  furmsh  these  details 
in  the  case  of  most  of  the  foregoing  popes  also:  but, 
previously  to  the  middle  of  the  eleventh  century,  the 
information  is  of  uncertain  value.  With  Gregory  VII 
a  new  method  of  reckoning  came  in.  The  papal  dig- 
nity was  held  to  be  conferred  by  the  election,  and  not 
as  previously  by  the  coronation,  and  the  commence- 
ment of  the  reign  was  computed  from  the  day  of  elec- 
tion. This  point  seems  therefore  a  convenient  one  at 
which  to  introduce  the  more  detailed  indications. 

List  or  the  Popes. — 

(1)  St.  Peter,  d.  67(?) 

(2)  St.  Unus,  67-79(?) 


POPE 


273 


POPl 


(3)  St.  Anacletus  I,  79-90(?) 

(4)  St.  Clement  I,  90-99(7) 

(5)  St.  EvaristUB,  99-107  (?) 

(6)  St.  Alexander  I,  107-16(?) 

(7)  St.  Sixtus  (XygtUB)  I,  llfr-25(?) 

(8)  St.  Telesphorus,  125-36(?) 

(9)  St.  Hyginufl,  13fr-40(?) 

(10)  St.  Pius,  140-54(7) 

(11)  St.  Anicetua,  154-65(?) 

(12)  St.  Soter,  165-74 

(13)  St.  Eleutherius,  174-89 

(14)  St.  Victor,  18&-98 

(15)  St.  Zephyrinus,  198-217 

(16)  St.  Callistus  I,  217-22 

(17)  St.  Urban  I,  222-30 

(18)  St.  Pontian,  230-36 

(19)  St.  Anterus,  235-36 

(20)  St.  Fabian,  236-50 

(21)  St.  Ck)meliu8,  251-53 
Novatianua,  251-58(7) 

(22)  St.  Lucius  I,  253-54 

(23)  St.  Stephen  I,  254^57 

(24)  St.  Sixtua  (Xystus)  II,  257-68 

(25)  St.  Dionysius,  259-68 

(26)  St.  Felix  I,  269-74 

(27)  St.  Eutychian,  275-83 

(28)  St.  Caius,  283-96 

(29)  St.  Marcellinus,  296-304 

(30)  St.  Marcellus  I,  308-09 

(31)  St.  Eusebius.  309(310) 

(32)  St.  Melchiades  (Miltiades),  311-14 

(33)  St.  Sylveater  I,  314-35 

(34)  St.  Marcus,  336 

(35)  St.  Julius  I,  337-52 

(36)  St.  Liberius,  352-66 
Felix  II,  355-65 

(37)  Damasus  I,  360-84 

(38)  St.  Siricius,  384^98 

(39)  St.  Anastasius  I,  398-401 

(40)  St.  Innocent  I,  402-17 

(41)  St.  ZosimuB,  417-18 

(42)  St.  Boniface  I,  418-22 

(43)  St.  Celestine  I,  422-32 

(44)  St.  Sixtus  (Xystus)  III,  431^-40 

(45)  St.  Leo  I,  440-61 

(46)  St.  Hilarius,  461-68 

(47)  St.  Simplicius,  468-83 

(48)  St.  Felix  II  (III),  483-92 

(49)  St.  Gelasius  I,  492-96 

(50)  St.  Anastasius  II,  496-98 

(51)  St.  Symmachus,  498-514 

(52)  St.  Hormisdas,  514-23 
(63)  St.  John  I,  623-26 

(54)  St.  Felix  III  (IV),  526-30 
(66)  Boniface  II,  530-32 

(56)  John  II,  633-35 

(57)  St.  Agapetus  I,  535-36 

(68)  St.  Silverius,  536-38(7) 

(69)  Vigilius,  638(7)-55 

(60)  Pelagius  I,  550-61 

(61)  John  III,  561-74 

(62)  Benedict  I,  675-79 

(63)  Pelagius  II,  579-90 

(64)  St.  Gregory  I,  690-604 

(65)  Sabinianus,  604-06 

(66)  Boniface  III,  607 

(67)  St.  Boniface  IV,  608-15 

(68)  St.  Deusdedit,  615-18 

(69)  Boniface  V,  619-25 

(70)  Honorius  I,  625-38 

(71)  Severinus,  63^-40 

(72)  John  IV,  640-2 

(73)  Theodore  I,  642-49 

(74)  St.  Martin  I,  641^56 

(75)  St.  Eugene  I,  654^57 

(76)  St.  VitaUan,  657-72 

(77)  Adeodatus.  672-76 

XII.— 18 


(78)  Dbnus,  676-78 

(79)  St.  Agatho,  678-81 

(80)  St.  Leo  II,  682-83 

(81)  St.  Benedict  II,  684-^ 

(82)  John  V,  685-86 

(83)  CJonon,  686-87 

(84)  St.  Serdus  I,  687-701 

(85)  John  VI,  701-05 

(86)  John  VII,  705-07 

(87)  Sisinnius,  708 

(88)  Constantine,  708-15 

(89)  St.  Gregory  II,  715-31 

(90)  St.  Gregory  III,  731-41 

(91)  St.  Zachanas,  741-52 
Stephen  (//),  752 

(92)  Stephen  II  (III),  752-57 

(93)  St.  Paul  I,  767-67 
Conatantine.  767-68 

(94)  Stephen  III  (IV),  768-72 

(95)  Adrian  L  772-96     • 

(96)  St.  Leo  III.  795-816 

(97)  Stephen  IV  (V),  816-17 

(98)  St.  Paschal  I,  817-24 

(99)  Eugene  II,  824-27 

(100)  Vatentine,  827 

(101)  Gregory  IV,  827-44 

(102)  Sernus  II,  844-47 

(103)  St.  Leo  IV,  847-55   * 

(104)  Benedict  III,  85&-58 
Ana8Ui9iu8f  855 

(105)  St.  Nicholas  I,  858-67 
;i06)  Adrian  11,  867-72 
107)  John  VIII,  872-«2 

;i08)  Marinus  I  (Martin  II),  882-8$ 

(109)  Adrian  III,  884-85 

(110)  Stephen  V  (VI),  885-91 

(111)  Formosus,  891-96. 

(112)  Boniface  VI,  896 

(113)  Stephen  VI  (VII),  896-97 

(114)  Romanus,  897 

(115)  Theodore  II,  897 
;il6)  John  IX,  898-900 
117)  Benedict  IV,  900-03 
;il8)  Leo  V,  903 

(119)  Christopher,  903-04 

(120)  Sergius  III,  904-11 

(121)  Anastasius  III,  911-13 

(122)  Lando,  913-14 

(123)  John  X,  914-28 

il24)  Leo  VI  928 
125)  Stephen  VII  (VIII),  92&-31 

(126)  John  XI,  931-36 

(127)  Leo  VII,  936-39 

(128)  Stephen  VIII  (IX),  939-42 

(129)  Marinus  II  (Martin  III),  942-46 

(130)  Agapetus  II,  946-55 

(131)  John  XII,  956-64 

(132)  Leo  VIII,  963-06 

(133)  Benedict  V,  964 

(134)  John  XIII,  966-72 

(135)  Benedict  VI,  973-74 
Boniface  VII,  974 

(136)  Benedict  VII,  974rS3 

(137)  John  XIV,  983-84 

(138)  Boniface  VII,  984-86 

(139)  John  XV,  985-96 

(140)  Gregory  V,  990-99 
John  XV L  997-98 

(141)  Silvester  II,  999-1003 

(142)  John  XVII.  1003 

(143)  John  XVIII,  1003-09 

(144)  Sergius  IV,  1009-12 

(145)  Benedict  VIII,  1012-24 

(146)  John  XIX.  1024-32 

(147)  Benedict  IX  (a),  1032-45 
8ih>e%ter  III,  1045 

(148)  Gregory  VI,  1045-46 


POPE 


274 


POPE 


\ 


(149) 

(150) 
(181) 
(152) 
(153) 
(154) 
(155) 
(156) 

(157) 

(158) 
(159) 
(160) 

(161) 

(162) 
(163) 

(164) 


(165) 
(166) 

(167) 
(168) 

(169) 
(170) 


(171) 
(172) 
(173) 

iSi 

(176) 
(177) 
(178) 
(179) 
(180) 
(181) 
(182) 
(183) 
(184) 
(185) 
(186) 
(187) 
(188) 
(189) 
(190) 
(191) 
(192) 
(193) 
194) 
(195) 
(196) 

(197) 
(198) 
(199) 
(200) 
(201) 
(202) 

(203) 

(204) 
(205) 
(206) 
(207) 
(208) 


Clement  II,  1046-47 

Benedict  IX  (b),  1047-48 

DamasuB  II,  1048 

St.  Leo  IX,  1049-64 

Victor  II,  1055-57 

Stephen  IX  (X),  1057-58 

Benedict  X,  105&-59 

Nicholas  II,  1059-61 

Alexander  II,  1061-73 

H<mariu8  II,  1061-64 

St.  Gregory  VII,  22  Apr.,  1073-25  May,  1085 

Clement  III,  1084-1100 

Victor  III,  9  May,  1087-16  Sept.,  1087 

Urban  II,  12  March,  1088-29  July,  1099 

Paschal  II,  13  Aug.,  1099-21  Jan.,  1118 

Sylvester  77,  1105-11 

Gelasius  II,  24  Jan.,  1118-28  Jan.,  1119 

Gregory  VIII,  1118-21 

C^tus  11,  2  Feb.,  1119-13  Dec.,  1124 

Honorius  II,  15  Dec;,  1124r-13  Feb.,  1130 

CeUetine  IL  1124 

Innocent  II,  14  Feb.,  1130-24  Sept.,  1143 

Anadetus  II,  1130-38 

Victor  IV,  1138 

Celestine  II,  26  Sept.,  1143-8  March,  1144 

Lucius  II,  12  March,   1144    (cons.)-15   Feb., 

1145 
Eugene  III,  15  Febr.,  1145-8  July,  1153 
Anastasius  IV,  12  July,  1153  (cons.)-3  Dec, 

1154 
Adrian  IV,  4  Dec.,  1154-1  Sept.,  1159 
Alexander  III,  7  Sept.,  1159-30  Aug.,  1181 
Vict^yr  IV,  1159-64 
P(MC^///,  1164-68 
CaUistus  III,  1168-78 
Innocent  III,  1179-80 
Lucius  III,  1  Sept.,  1181-25  Nov.,  1185 
Urban  III,  25  Nov.,  1185-20  Oct.,  1187 
Gregory  VIII,  21  Oct.-17  Dec.,  1187 
Clement  III,  19  Dec,  1187-March,  1191 
Celestine  III,  30  March,  1191-8  Jan.,  1198 
Innocent  III,  8  Jan.,  1198-16  July,  1216 
Honorius  III,  18  July.  1216-18  March,  1227 
Gregory  IX,  19  March,  1227-22  Aug.,  1241 
Celestine  IV,  25  Oct.-lO  Nov.,  1241 
Innocent  IV,  25  June,  1243-7  Dec,  1254 
Alexander  IV,  12  Dec,  1254-25  May,  1261 
Urban  IV,  29  Aug.,  1261-2  Oct.,  1264 
Clement  IV,  5  Feb.,  1265-29  Nov.,  1268 
St.  Gregory  X,  1  Sept.,  1271-10  Jan.,  1276 
Innocent  V,  21  Jan.-22  June,  1276 
Adrian  V,  11  July-18  Aug.,  1276 
John  XXI,  8  Sept.,  1276-20  May,  1277 
Nicholas  III,  25  Nov.,  1277-22  Aug.,  1280 
Martin  IV^  25  Feb.,  1281-28  March,  1285 
Honorius  IV,  2  Apr.,  1285-3  Apr.,  1287 
Nicholas  IV,  22  Feb.,  1288-4  Apr.,  1292 
St.  Celestine  V,  5  July-13  Dec,  1294 
Boniface  VIII,  24  Dec,  1294r-ll  Oct.,  1303 
Benedict  XI,  22  Oct.,  1303-7  July,  1304 
Clement  V,  5  June,  1305-20  Apr.,  1314 
John  XXII,  7  Aug.,  1316-4  Dec,  1334 
NichoUu  V,  1328-30 

Benedict  XII,  20  Dec,  1334-25  Apr.,  1342 
Clement  VI,  7  May,  1342-6  Dec,  1352 
Innocent  VI,  18  Dec,  1352-12  Sept.,  1362 
Urban  V,  6  Nov.,  1362  (cons.)-19  Dec,  1370 
Gregory  XI,  30  Dec,  1370-27  March,  1378 
Urban  VI.  8  Apr.,  1378-15  Oct.,  1389 
Clement  VII,  1378-94 
Boniface  IX,  2  Nov.,  1389-1  Oct.,  1404 
Benedici  XIII,  1394-1424 
Innocent  VII,  17  Oct.,  1404-6  Nov.,  1406 
Gregory  XII,  30  Nov.,  1406-4  July,  1415 
Alexander  V,  26  June,  1409-3  May,  1410 
John  XXIII,  17  May,  1410-29  May,  1415 
Martin  V,  U  Nov.,  1417-20  Feb.,  1431 


ClemenX  VIII,  1424-29 
Benedict  XIV,  1424 

(209)  Eugene  IV,  3  March,  1431-23  Feb.,  1447 
Feliz  V  1439-49 

(210)  Nicholafl  V,  6  March,  1447-24  March,  1455 

(211)  Callistus  III,  8  Apr.,  1455-6  Aug.,  1458 

(212)  Pius  II,  19  Aug.,  1458-15  Aug.,  1464 

(213)  Paul  11,  31  Aug.,  1464-26  July,  1471 

(214)  Sixtus  IV,  9  Aug.,  1471-12  Aug.,  1484 

(215)  Innocent  VIII,  29  Aug.,  1484-25  July,  1492 

(216)  Alexander  VI,  11  Aug.,  1492-18  Aug.,  1503 

(217)  Pius  III,  22  Sept.-18  Oct.,  1603 

(218)  Julius  II,  1  Nov.,  1503-21  Feb.,  1513 

(219)  Leo  X,  11  March,  1513-1  Dec,  1521 

(220)  Adrian  VI,  9  Jan.,  1522-14  Sept.,  1523 

(221)  Clement  VII,  19  Nov.,  1523-25  Sept.,  1534 

(222)  Paul  III,  13  Oct.,  1534r-10  Nov.,  1549 

(223)  Julius  III,  8  Feb.,  1550-23  March,  1555 

(224)  Marcellus  II,  9-30  Apr.,  1555 

(225)  Paul  IV,  23  May,  1555-18  Aug.,  1559 

(226)  Pius  IV,  25  Dec,  1559-9  Dec,  1565 

(227)  St.  Pius  V,  7  Jan.,  1566-1  May,  1572 

(228)  Gregory  XIII,  13  May,  1572-10  Apr.,  1585 

(229)  Sixtus  V.  24  Apr.,  1585-27  Aug.,  1590 

(230)  Urban  VII,  15-27  Sept.,  1590 

(231)  Gregory  XIV,  5  Dec,  1590-15  Oct.,  1591 

(232)  Innocent  IX,  29  Oct.-30  Dec,  1591 

(233)  Clement  VIII,  30  Jan.,  1592-5  March,  1605 

(234)  Leo  XI,  1-27  Apr.,  1605 

(235)  Paul  V,  16  May,  1605-28  Jan.,  1621 

(236)  Gregory  XV,  9  Feb.,  1621-8  July,  1623 

(237)  Urban  VIII,  6  Aug.,  1623-29  July,  1644 

(238)  Innocent  X,  15  Sept.,  1644-7  Jan.,  1655 

(239)  Alexander  VII,  7  Apr.,  1655-22  May,  1667 

(240)  Clement  IX,  20  June,  1667-9  Dec,  1669 

(241)  Clement  X,  29  Apr.,  1670-22  July,  1676 

(242)  Innocent  XI,  21  Sept.,  1676-11  Aug.,  1689 

(243)  Alexander  VIII,  6  Oct.,  1689-1  Feb.,  1691 

(244)  Innocent  XII,  12  July,  1691-27  Sept.,  1700 

(245)  Clement  XL  23  Nov.,  1700-19  March,  1721 

(246)  Innocent  XIII,  8  May,  1721-7  March,  1724 

(247)  Benedict  XIII,  29  May,  1724-21  Feb.,  1730 

(248)  Clement  XII,  12  July,  1730-6  Feb.,  1740 

(249)  Benedict  XIV,  17  Aug.,  1740-3  May,  1758 

(250)  Clement  XIII,  6  July,  1758-2  Feb.,  1769 

(251)  Clement  XIV,  19  May,  1769-22  Sept.,  1774 

(252)  Pius  VI,  15  Feb.,  1775-29  Aug.,  1799 

(253)  Pius  VII,  14  March,  1800-20  Aug.,  1823 

(254)  Leo  XII.  28  Sept.,  1823-10  Feb.,  1829 

(255)  Pius  VIII,  31  March,  1829-30  Nov.,  1830 

(256)  Gregory  XVL  2  Feb.,  1831-1  June,  1846 

(257)  Pius  IX,  16  June,  1846-7  Feb.,  1878 

(258)  Leo  XIII,  20  Feb.,  187&-20  July,  1903 

(259)  Pius  X,  4  Aug.,  1903- 

RocABBBTi,  BUbl,  Maxima  Pontifida  (21  vols.,  Rome.  1695« 
09);  RoskovInt,  Romanua  Pontifex  tanquam  Prima*  Bcd^ 
sia  et  princepa  civilit  e  MonumerU,.  omnium  aaetdorum  demmutro' 
tua  (16  vols.,  Neutra.  1867-70).  The  collection  of  Rocabbrti 
embraces  the  works  of  more  than  a  hundred  authors  (from  the 
ninth  to  the  seventeenth  century)  on  the  primacy.  RoskovInt'b 
work  is  a  collection  of  documents  dealing  with  the  primacy,  the 
civil  principality,  infallibility,  the  Vatican  Council,  etc.  A  valu- 
able feature  of  the  work  is  a  vast  bibliography  of  books  and 


Controverna,  1  (Ingolstadt,  1601);  Ballerini,  De  primatu 
romani  pon/t/IcM  in  Miqne,  Themunu^  III,  006;  Palmibri,  Db 
romano  porUifUx  (Rome,  1877);  PAsaAOLiA,  De  pnerogativia  b. 
Petri  apaatolorum  principia  (Ratisbon,  1850);  HbrgsnrOthbb, 
Catholie  Chiareh  and  Christian  StaU  (London,  1876).  On  the 
primacy  in  the  primitive  Church:  Rivington,  The  Primitive 
Church  and  the  See  of  Peter  (London,  1804) ;  Idem.  The  Roman 
Primacy  130-4^1  (London,  1899);  Chapman,  Bithop  Oore  and 
the  Catholic  Claims  (London,  1905),  vi-viL 

On  the  right  of  the  pope  to  receive  appeals:  Lttpub,  Divinum 
ti  immutabiXe  3,  Petri  circa  omnium  miU>  ealo  fidelium  cut  Ro» 
manam  ejus  Cathedram  AppeUationea  in  Opera,  VIII  (Venice, 
1726);  Alexander  Nataub,  Hist,  eccl.t  amc.  IV,  dissertatio 
nviii:  De  Jure  Appellationum;  Ballebini,  AnnoteUionea  in 
Diaaert.,  V.  QueaneUii  in  Mione,  P.  L.,  LV,  534;  Hefblb- 
Lbclbrcq.  Hiat.  dea  eoncilea,  I  (2),  p.  759  sq.  (Paris.  1907). 
On  the  primacy  of  honour:  Philups,  Kirchenrecht  (Ratisbon, 
1854) :  mNBCHiUB.  Syatem  dea  kathoL  KirchrnirechU  (Berlin,  ISOOlu 


POPISH  275  POPULAR 

On  papal  elections:  Philups,  op.  eU.;  Hinschius,  op.  cU.;  by  which  the  devotion  of  the  faithful  finds  life  and  ex- 

Thomamin,    VHua  el  nova   eeeletia   diteipliTM    (Lyons.    1706);  Tn-pooion    ThppffinAPvnf  fhAflPnnu>tipAflinf»1irifinirrAo1 

s<  iiKKFER-BoicHOBOT.  Dw  Neuordnunff  der  Papstwahi  durch  P"»8ion-   ineemcacy  01  wiesepracucesineucuingieei- 
A^ifoZaiM  //  (Stnwburg,  1879).   On  the  chronology  of  the  popes:  mgs  o»  devotion  IS  denved  from  fouT  principal  sources, 

Duchesne.  Liber  pontif.  (Paris,  1892);  Gams,  Ser%e»  episcoporutn  either  (1)  by  the  Strong  appeal  which  they  make  tO 

(Ratisbon.  1873).  nian»g  emotional  instincts,  or  (2)  by  the  simplicity  of 

u.  n.  joYcm.  fonjj  ^^^^^  ^^^  ^j^^^  within  the  reach  of  all,  or  (3)  by 

Popish  Plot*    See  Oates's  Plot.  the  stimulus  of  association  with  many  others  in  the 

Poppo  S^NT,abbot^b.977;  d.atMa^^^^^^^^  ri^p^'f  ;&  pri^L'^^^^^^^^ 

January,  1048.    He  belonged  to  a  noble  family  of  j^^lin^.    N^  doufct  other  reasons  besides  these  might 

r  landers;   his  pajente  were  Tizekinus  and  Adalwif.  be  found  why  this  or  that  exercise  brings  with  it  aSr- 

w^H*i.^ft^ft^  ^^Ifyfj'.nA^^^  ^nn  ^^/r  ^^"^  «P^*^^^  ^^^^ion  which  stimulatTand  comforts 

I  and  with  two  others  of  his  countrymen.    Soon  after  the  soul  in  the  practice  of  virtue,  but  the  pomts  just 

this  he  also  went  on  a  pilgnmage  to  Rome.    He  was  mentioned  are  the  most  noteworthy,  and  iTthe  more 

about   to   marry   a   lady   of   noble   family,    when  familiar  of  our  popular  devotions  ali  these  four  influ- 

an  impressive  expenence  led  him  to  seek  another  g^ces  wUl  be  found  united, 
mode    of    life.     As    he    was    journeying    late    at        Historically  speaking,  our  best  known  devotions 

'''5wti^''Tir""J  f^^i^?  ""  w""  ^Hv^''^  ^^^  ^'^1^°^''  ^ave  nearly  all  originated  from  the  imitation  of  some 

radiated  a  bnlliant  li^t.    He  believed  this  to  be  an  practice  peculiar  to  the  religious  orders  or  to  a  specially 

Jlumination  of   the  Holy   Spmt,  and   soon  after  privilegeS^lass,  and  cons^uently  owe  most  bfthefr 

1005,  he  entered  the  mont^^^      of  St    Thierry  at  ^ogue  to  the  folirth  of  theinfiuences  just  mentioned. 

Reims,    About  1008  Abbot  Richard  of  St.  Vanncs  at  The  Rosary,  for  instance,  is  admitted  by  all  to  have 

\  erdun,  who  was  a  zealous  reformer  of  monastenes  in  been  known  in  its  eariiest  form  as  "Our  Lady's  Psal- 

the  spint  of  the  reform  of  Cluny,  took  Poppo  with  ter".    At  a  time  when  the  recitation  of  the  whole 

him  to  his  monastery.    Richard  made  Poppo  prior  of  hundred  and  fifty  Psalms  was  a  practice  inculcated 

^k.  y ^i*  ^  4"^'  '^  ***!i  ?.*^^^^  r  Cambrai.  about  upon  the  religious  orders  and  upon  persons  of  educa- 

1013.   Here  Poppo  prpved  himself  to  be  the  nght  man  ^ion,  simpler  folk,  unable  to  read,  or  wanting  the  neces- 

for  the  position,  reclaimed  the  lands  of  the  monastery  gary  leisure,  recited  instead  of  the  Psahns  a  hundred 

from  the  rapacious  vassals,  and  ^cured  the  posses-  and  fifty  Pater  nosters  or  supplied  their  place  more 

sion  of  the  monastery  by  deeds.    Before  1016  he  was  expeditiously  still  by  a  hundred  and  fifty  Hail  Marys 

appointed  to  the  same  position  at  VaslogesC^etoocMm,  gafd  as  salutations  of  Our  Lady.    The  Rosary  is  thus 

Beauheu)  in  the  Diocese  of  Verdun.    In  1020  the  Em-  a  miniature  Psalter.    Again,  at  a  time  when  the  most 

peror  Henjy  II,  who  had  become  acquainted  with  ardent  desires  of  Christendom  centred  in  the  Holy 

Poppo  in  1016,  made  him  abbot  of  the  royal  Abbevs  of  Land,  and  when  lovers  of  the  Crucified  gladly  faced  all 

Stablo  (m  Lower  Lorraine,  now  Belgium)  and  Mai-  hardships  in  the  attempt  to  visit  the  scenes  of  the 

medy.     Richard  was  ,XS!7.,."^Tu    ^  /2.  xf  •  ™*  Saviour^s  Passion,  those  unable  to  accomplish  such  a 

Poppo  also  received  m  1023  the  Abbey  of  St.  Maximm  journey  strove  to  find  an  equivalent  by  foUowing 

at  Tner,  and  his  miportence  became  still  greater  dur-  Christ's  footsteps  to  Calvary  at  least  in  spirit.    The 

mg  the  reim  of  Conrad  II.    From  St.  Maximm  the  exercise  of  the  Stations  of  the  Cross  thus  formed  a 

Cluniac  reform  now  found  its  way  into  the  German  miniature  pilgrimage.    Similarly,  the  wearing  of  a 

monastenes.    The  emperor  placed  one  royal  monaa-  scapular  or  a  girdle  was  a  form  of  investiture  for  peo- 

tery  after  another  under  Poppo's  control  or  super-  pleliving  in  the  worid,  by  which  they  might  put  on  the 

vision,  as  Limburg  an  der  Hardt,  Echtemach,  St.  fjvery  of  a  particular  religious  institute:    in  other 

Gislen,  Weiwenburg,  St.  Gall,  Herafeld,  Waulsort,  and  ^onfc,  it  was  a  miniature  habit.   Or  again,  those  who 

Hosti^res.    In  the  third  decade  of  the  centun^  Ppppo  coveted  the  merits  attaching  to  the  recitation  of  the 

gave  these  positions  as  abbot  to  his  pupils.    Thebish-  day  and  night  hours  of  the  clergy  and  the  monks 

ops  and  laymen  who  had  founded  monastenes  placed  supplied  their  place  by  various  miniature  Ofllices  of 

a  series  of  other  monasteries  under  his  care,  as  St.  devotion,  of  which  the  Little  Office  of  the  Blessed 

Laurence  at  Liftge,  St.  Vincent  at  Metz,  St.  Euchanus  Virgin  and  the  Hours  of  the  Passion  were  the  most 

at  Tner,  Hohorst,  Brauweiler,  St.  Vaast,  Marchi-  familiar. 

ennes,  etc.    However,  the  Clumac  reform  had  at  the        Even  devotions  which  at  first  sight  suggest  nothing 

time  no  permanent  success  in  Germany,  because  the  of  imitation  prove  on  closer  scrutiny  to  beiUustrations 

monks  were  accustomed  to  a  more  independent  and  of  the  same  principle.    The  triple  Hail  Mary  of  the 

individual  way  of  action  and  raised  oppomtion.    After  Angelus  probably  owes  its  actual  form  to  the  Tres 

1038  the  German   court  no  longer  supported  the  prece«  said  by  the  monastic  orders  at  Prime  and  Com- 

reform.  .     ,   ,  plin  as  far  back  as  the  eleventh  century,  while  our 

Personally  Poppo  practised  the  most  severe  asceti-  familiar  Benediction  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament  has 

cism.      He    had    no    interest    in    literary   affairs,  ahnost  certainly  developed  out  of  an  imitation  of  the 

and  also  lacked  the  powers  of  organization   and  musical  rendering  of  the  antiphons  of  Our  Lady, 

centralization.    Neither  was  he  particularly  promi-  notably  the  Salve  Regina,  which  to  the  popular  taste 

nent  in  politics,  and  in  the  reign  of  Henry  III  he  was  were  the  most  attractive  feature  of  the  monastic  office, 

no  longer  a  person  of  importance.    Death  overtook  To  classify  these  practices  of  piety,  and  especially 

him  while  he  was  on  a  journey  on  behalf  of  his  efforts  those  others  which  concern  the  observance  of  special 

at  monastic  reform.    His  funeral  took  place  in  the  times  and  seasons,  for  example,  the  consecration  of  the 

presence  of  a  great  concourse  of  people  at  Stablo.  month  of  May  to  Our  Lady,  or  of  the  month  of  June 

1894),  174-79. 244-§i,  292-96;  Hauck,  Kirchenoeachickie  Deutach-  gcnuity  of  the  faithful  IS  fertile  in  new  devices,  and  it 

lamU,  3rd  and  4th  eds..  Ill  (Leipiig,  1906),  49»-5i4.  ig  difficult  to  decide  what  degree  of  acceptance  war- 

Klemens  LdFFLER.  rants  us  in  regarding  a  new  devotion  as  legitimately 

established.    The  dedication  of  May  and  June  just 

Popular  DevotioziB. — Devotion,  in  the  language  referred  to,  and  that  of  November  to  the  Holy  Souls, 

of  ascetical  writers,  denotes  a  certain  ardour  of  affec-  is  recognized  everywhere,  but  there  is  far  less  una- 

tion  in  the  things  of  God,  and  even  without  any  quali-  nimity  about  the  consecration  of  October,  for  example, 

f3ing  prefix  it  generally  implies  that  this  ardour  is  of  a  to  the  honour  of  the  Guardian  Angels.    This  devotion 

sensible  character.    On  the  other  hand,  by  the  term  is  no  doubt  indicated  in  many  prayer  books,  but  it  has 

"devotions''  in  the  plural,  or  "  popular  devotions '',  we  been  in  a  measure  obscured  of  late  years  by  the  special 

commonly  understuid  those  external  practices  of  piety  papal  commendation  of  the  Rosary  in  October^  while 


POPULATION 


276 


P0PUL4n0M 


InduIgenoeB  are  also  granted  for  the  novena  and  other 
exercises  in  honour  ot  St.  Francis  of  Assisi  during  the 
same  month.  We  may  note  that  the  consecration  of 
March  to  St.  Joseph,  of  September  to  the  Seven 
Dolours,  and,  less  directly,  that  of  July  to  the  Precious 
Blood,  are  also  recognized  by  the  grant  of  indulgences. 
Again,  there  are  other  devotions  whose  popularity 
hasbeen  limited  to  certain  periods  or  certain  localities. 
For  example,  the  various  sets  of  '^Little  Offices"  (e.g.  of 
the  Passion  or  of  the  Blessed  Trinity),  which  occupy 
so  much  space  in  the  printed  Horse  and  Primers  of  the 
early  sixteenth  century,  are  hardly  heard  of  at  present. 
The  "Seven  Blood-Sheddings"  or  the  "Seven  Falls" 
of  Our  Blessed  Lord,  once  so  much  honoured,  have  now 
passed  out  of  recollection.  Similarly  the  exercise  of 
the  Jesus  Psalter,  which  was  incredibly  dear  to  our 


ancestors  in  the  old  penal  davs,  seems  never  to  have 
spread  beyond  Engush-e^eaKing  countries  and  has 
never  been  indulgenoed.  On  the  other  hand,  the  prev- 
alence of  more  frequent  Communion  since  the  six- 
teenth century  has  mtroduced  many  newpractices  of 
devotion  unknown  in  the  Middle  Ages.  The  Six  Sun- 
days of  St.  Aloysius,  the  Five  Sundays  of  St.  Francis's 
Stig^mata,  %he  Seven  Sundays  of  the  Immaculate  Con- 
ception, the  Seven  Sundays  of  St.  Joseph,  the  Ten 
Sundays  of  St.  Francis  Xavier,  the  Ten  Sundays  of 
St.  Igpatius  Loyola,  and  especially  the  Nine  Fri- 
days in  honour  of  the  Sacred  Heart  are  all  in 
various  degrees  authorized  and  familiar.  And,  as'these 
last  examples  suggest,  there  is  everywhere  a  tendency 
to  multiply  imitations.  We  have  now  not  one  Rosary, 
but  many  rosaries  or  chaplets  (of  which  imitations 

Surhaps  the  best  known  is  the  Rosary  of  the  Seven 
olours),  not  one  scapular  but.  many  scapulars,  not 
one  "miraculous  Inedal"  but  several.  Neither  must 
we  always  expect  to.  find  consistency.  In  the  thir- 
teenth and  fourteenth  centuries,  the  Seven  Dolours 
and  Seven  Joys  of  Our  Lady  were  commonly  Five 
Dolours  and  Five  Joys  (see  "Ansdecta  Bollandiana". 
1893,  p.  333),  while  this  last  reckoning  probably  owed 
much  to  the  great  popularity  of  the  devotion  to  the 
Five  Wounds.  On  the  other  hand,  indulgences,  which 
may  be  found  in  the  Raccolta,  have  been  granted 
to  certun  prayers  in  honour  of  the  Seven  Sorrows 
and  Seven  Joys  of  St.  Joseph. 

It  must  not,  however,  be  supposed  that  devotional 
extravagances  are  sufifered  to  multiply  unchecked. 
Althougn  the  Holy  See  as  a  rule  refrains  from  inter- 
vention, except  when  abuses  are  directly  denounced  to 
it  (the  practice  being  in  such  matters  to  leave  the 
repression  of  what  is  unseemly  or  fantastic  to  the  local 
ordinary)^  still,  every  now  and  a^ain^  where  some  theo- 
logical pnncipje  is  involved,  action  is  taken  by  one  of 
the  Roman  Uon^^reffations,  and  some  objectionable 
practice  is  prohibited.  Not  very  long  since,  for  exam- 
ple, the  propagation  of  a  particular  form  of  prayer  was 
loroidden  in  connexion  with  the  so-called  "  Brief  of  St. 
Anthony ' ' .  The  history  of  the  slow  recognition  by  the 
Church  of  the  devotion  to  the  Sacred  Heart  mig[ht 
vei^  well  serve  as  an  illustration  of  the  caution  with 
which  the  Holy  See  proceeds  in  matters  where  there  is 
question  of  any  theological  principle.  The  precise 
number  of  Christ's  blood-shedoings,  or  of  Mary  s  joys, 
the  fashion  or  colour  of  scapulars,  medals,  or  badges, 
the  veneration  of  Our  Lady  under  one  particular  invo- 
cation rather  than  another,  are  obviously  matters  of 
subordinate  importance  in  which  no  great  harm  can 
result  if  some  measure  of  freedom  is  allowed  to  the  pious 
imagination  of  the  faithful. 

No  good  purpose  would  be  served  by  attempting  a 
catalogue  of  approved  Catholic  devotions.  It  may  be 
sufficient  to  note  that  the  list  of  indulgenced  prayers 
and  practices  provided  in  the  Raccolta  or  in  the  larger 
works  of  Beringer  and  Mocchegiani  afford  a  sufficient 
practical  indication  of  the  measure  in  which  such  prac- 
tices are  recognized  and  recommended  by  the  Church. 
Most  of  the  principal  devotions  are  dealt  with  sep- 


aratelv  in  Thb  Cathouc  Enctclopbdia,  whether  we 
regard  different  objects  and  motives  of  devotion— such 
as  the  Blessed  Sacrament  (see  Eucharist),  the  Pas- 
sion, the  Five  Wounds,  the  Sacred  Heart,  the  Seven 
Dolours,  and,  in  a  word,  the  principal  mysteries  and 
festivals— or,  again,  devotional  practices — e.  g.,  the 
Angelus,  Benediction  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament,  the 
Rosai^,  the  Stations  of  the  Cross — or,  asain,  confra- 
ternities and  associations  identified  with  particular 
forms  of  devotion — e.  g.,  the  Confratonity  of  the 
Bona  Mors  or  that  of  the  Holy  Family. 

There  seems  to  be  no  authoritative  senenu  work  on  popular 
devotions,  but  for  the  Indulgences  and  some  historical  details 
connected  with  them  see  Mocchbgiani.  ColUctio  Jndulo^mUarum 
(Quaracchi,  1897);  Bbringbr,  Die  AbldaM  (many  editions  and  ia 
French  and  Italian  translation) ;  Upicibr,  Indvio^nee*^  tr.  (Lon- 
don,' 1006).  Several  of  the  more  familiar  popular  devotions  have 
been  treated  historically  by  the  present  writer  in  Tht  Month 
(1900  and  1901). 

Herbert  Thurston. 

Population,  Theories  of. — Down  to  the  end  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  very  little  attention  was  given  to 
the  relation  between  increase  of  population  and  in- 
crease of  subsistence.  Plato  (De  republica^  V)  and 
Aristotle  (De  republica^  II,  vi)  maintained,  in- 
deed, that  in  a  communistic  society  marriage  and 
the  birth  of  children  ought  to  be  regulated  and  re- 
stricted by  law,  lest  the  means  of  support  should  be 
insufficient  for  all  the  citizens;  and  in  some  of  the 
city-states  of  ancient  Greece,  abortion,  unnatural 
love,  and  infanticide  were  deliberately  recommended 
and  practised  for  the  same  general  end.  As  a 
rule,  however,  the  nations  of  antiauit^  as  well  as  those  of 
the  medieval  pneriod  regarded  tne  mdefinite  increase 
of  the  population  as  a  public  good,  since  it  multi- 
plied the  number  of  the  country's  fighting  men.  In 
the  words  of  Frederick  the  Great,  "the  number  of  the 

S^pulation  constitutes  the  wealth  of  the  State", 
efore  his  time  over-population  had  not  occurred 
in  any  civilized  country,  or  at  least  it  had  not  been 
recognized  as  such.  It  was  prevented  or  disguised 
by  disease,  places,  wars,  and  various  forms  of 
economic  hardship;  by  fixed  and  simple  standards  of 
living;  and  by  customs  which  adjusted  the  marriage 
rate,  and  consequently  the  rate  of  reproduction,  to 
the  contempora^  planes  of  living  and  supplies  of 
food.  The  Mercantilists,  whose  opinions  on  economic 
matters  were  widely  accepted  in  the  sixteenth, 
seventeenth,  and  eighteenth  centuries,  agreed  with  the 
military  statesmen  that  increase  of  population  was 
an  unouaUfied  blessing;  while  the  raysiocrats  of 
the  ei^teenth  century  were  less  confident,  some  of 
them  insisting  that  shorta^  of  food  was  a  possibility 
that  ought  to  be  taken  into  account  by  a  nation, 
none  of  them  conceived  the  problem  as  of  pressing 
importance,  or  dealt  with  it  in  an  extended  and  sys- 
tematic way.  Several  other  writers,  such  as  Monte»> 
quieu,  Hume,  Steuart,  Wallace,  Arthur  Young,  and 
Julius  Moser,  who  haa  recognized  the  existence  and 

general  nature  of  the  problem,  likewise  failed  to 
iscuss  it  thoroughly.  This  was  true  even  of  Adam 
Smith.  Although  he  noted  the  fact  that  increase 
of  population  among  the  poorer  classes  is  checked  by 
scarcity  of  subsistence  (Wealth  of  Nations",  Lon- 
don. 1776,  I,  viii),  he  did  not  develop  the  thought 
or  oraw  any  practical  conclusions  therefrom.  Writ- 
ing when  the  great  industrial  inventions  were  just 
beginning  to  indicate  an  enlargement  of  the  means 
of  living,  when  the  new  political  and  economic  free- 
dom seemed  to  promise  the  release  and  expansion 
of  an  immense  amount  of  productive  energy,  and 
under  the  influence  of  a  philosophical  theory  which 
held  that  the  ''unseen  hand"  of  Frovidence  would  se 
direct  the  new  powers  and  aspirations  that  all  classes 
would  have  abundant  sustenance,  Smith  was  an  un- 
qualified optimist.  He  believed  that  the  pressure  of 
population  upon  subsistence  had  become  a  thing 
of  the  past. 


POPULATION 


277 


POPULATION 


The  first  author  to  deal  systematically  with  the 
problem  was  Giamnaria  Ortes,  a  Venetian  friar,  in 
a  work  entitled,  ''Reflessioni  sulla  populazione  per 
rapporto  all'  eoonomia  nazionaie."  It  appea^red  in 
1790,  eight  vears  before  the  first  edition  ot  Maithus's 
famous  work.  According  to  Nitti:  "Some  pages  of 
Ortes  seem  auite  similar  to  those  of  Malthus;  he  com- 
prehended the  entire  question,  the  geometrical  pro- 
gression of  the  population,  the  arithmetical  pro- 
gression of  the  means  of  subsistence,  the  preventive 
action  of  man,  and  the  repressive  action  of  nature" 
(Population  and  the  Social  S3rstem,  p.  8).  However, 
his  book  lacked  the  confident  tone  and  the  statistical 
arguments  of  Malthus:  consequently  it  was  soon 
overshadowed  by  the  latter's  production,  and  the 
Anglican  divine  mstead  of  the  Venetian  friar  became 
the  sponsor  of  the  world's  best-known  and  most 
pessimistic  theory  of  population. 

The  Thbobt  of  Mai/thijs. — ^In  the  twenty-two 
years  that  had  intervened  between  the  appearance 
of  Adam  Smith's  ''Wealth  of  Nations"  and  the 
''Essay  on  the  Principle  of  Population"  (London, 
1798)  of  the  Rev.  Thomas  Malthus  (1766-1834). 
the  French  Revolution  had  caused  the  downfall  or 
the  old  social  system,  without  improving  the  condi- 
tion of  the  French  people;  a  succession  of  bad 
harvests  had  impoverished  the  agricultural  districts 
of  England,  while  her  credit  had  becoma  so  impaired 
by  the  recent  wars  as  to  render  very  difficult  the  im- 
portation of  supplies  from  abroad.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  rapid  development  of  the  textile  and  other 
industries  tmt)Ugh  the  recent  mechanical  inventions 
had  called  new  towns  into  existence,  and  greatly 
stimulated  the  increase  of  population;  the  system 
of  public  allowances  of  money  to  all  pauper  children 
encouraged  improvident  marriases  among  the  poorer 
classes.  Although  there  had  been  a  considerable 
increase  in  the  national  wealth  as  a  whole,  the  work- 
ing classes  had  received  none  of  the  benefit.  In- 
creased production  seemed  to  mean  a  disproportionate 
increase  in  population,  and  a  decrease  in  the  sub- 
sistence of  the  po6r.  The  obvious  objection,  that 
this  condition  was  attributable  to  bad  distribution 
rather  than  to  insufficient  production,  had  indeed  come 
to  the  attention  of  Malthus.  In  some  detpree  his 
book  was  an  answer  to  that  very  objection.  William 
Godwin,  a  disciple  of  the  French  revolutionary 
philosophers,  chiefly. in  his  work  "Political  Justice", 
had  been  defending  the  theory  that  all  the  evils  of 
society  arose  from  defective  socisd  institutions,  and 
that  there  was  more  than  enough  wealth  for  all»  if 
it  were  only  distributed  equally.  Malthus  replied 
to  this  position  with  his  "Essay  on  the  Principle  of 
Population".  His  thesis  was  that  population  con- 
stantly tends  to  outrun  subsistence,  but  that  it  is 
held  in  check  by  vice — abortion,  infanticide,  prostitu- 
tion, and  by  misery  in  the  form  of  war,  plague,  famine, 
and  unnecessary  disease.  If  all  persons  were  pro- 
vided with  sufficient  sustenance,  and  these  checks  re- 
moved, the  relief  would  be  only  temporary;  for  the 
increase  of  marriages  and  births  would  soon  produce 
a  population  far  in  excess  of  the  food  supply. 

The  first  edition  of  Malthus's  work  had,  therefore, 
a  definite  polemical  purpose,  the  refutation  of  a  com- 
munistic scheme  of  society.  Its  arguments  were 
general  and  popular  rather  than  systematic  or  scien- 
tific. They  were  based  upon  facts  easily  observed, 
and  upon  what  the  average  man  would  expect  to 
happen  if  vice  and 'misery  ceased  to  operate  as  checks 
to  population .  As  a  popular  refutation  of  the  theories 
of  Godwin,  the  book  was  a  success,  but  its  author 
soon  beoan  a  deeper  inquiry  into  the  facts  from  whicH 
he  had  £rawn  his  conclusions.  The  result  of  his  labours 
was  the  appearance  in  1803  of  a  second  edition  of  the 
"Essay",  which  differed  so  much  in  size  and  content 
from  the  first  as  to  constitute,  in  the  words  of  Malthus 
himself,  "a  new  work".    In  the  first  chapter  of  the 


new  edition  he  declared  that  "the  constant  tendency 
of  all  animated  life  to  increase  beyond  the  nourish- 
ment prepared  for  it"  (p.  2)  had  not  hitherto  received 
sufficient  attention.  Before  attempting  to  prove  the 
existence  of  this  tendency,  he  inquired  what  would 
be  "the  natural  increase  of  population  if  left  to 
exert  itself  with  perfect  freedom  .  .  .  under  the  most 
favourable  circumstances  of  human  industry"  (p. 
4).  On  the  basis  of  the  history  of  North  Aitnerica 
during  the  century  and  a  half  preceding  1800,  and 
from  the  opinions  of  some  economists,  he  concluded 
that  "population  when  unchecked  ^oes  on  doubling 
itself  every  25  years,  or  increases  m  a  geometries 
ratio"  (p.  6).  A  brief  examination  of  the  possi- 
bilities of  food  incriease  convinced  him  that  this 
could  never  be  "faster  than  in  an  arithmetical  ratio"  ' 
(p.  10).  Appl3ring  these  conclusions  to  England 
with  its  11,000,000  inhabitants  in  1800,  he  found  that 
the  natural  result  at  the  end  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury would  be  a  population  of  176,000,000,  and  sub- 
sistence for  only  55,000,000  (ibid.).  The  remainder 
of  the  first  volume  is  occupied  with  an  account  of  the 
positive  checks,  that  is,  vice  and  misery,  which  had 
hitherto  concealed  this  disastrous  discrepancy  be- 
tween population  and  subsistence  in  the  various 
countries  of  the-  world.  Ii^  the  second  volume  he 
discusses  the  means  which  have  been  proposed  to 
prevent  an  undue  increase  of  population,  and,  there- 
fore, to  render  unnecessary  the  action  of  the  positive 
checks.  Some  of  the  means  that  he  recommended 
were  abstention  from  public  provision  for  the  en- 
couragement of  population  increase  and  for  the  relief 
of  the  poor,  and  abolition  of  existing  laws  of  this  kind, 
especially  the  Poor  Law  of  En^^land.  But  his  chief, 
recommendation  was  the  practice  of  what  he  called 
"moral  restraint".  That  is,  persons  who  were  un- 
able to  maintain  a  family  properly  should  live  in 
chaste  celibacy  imtil  such  time  as  they  had  overcome 
this  economic  disability  (bk.  IV,  passim).  In  the 
new  edition  of  his  worK,  conseauently,  Malthus  not 
merely  pointed  out  a  new  check  to  population,  but 
advocated  it,  in  order  to  prevent  and  forestall  the 
operation  of  the  cruel  and  immoral  checks  auto- 
matically set  in  motion  by  vice  and  misery. 

Criticism  of  the  MaUhusian  Theory, — ^The  theory 
may  be  briefly  characterized  thus:  In  its  most  ex- 
treme and  abstract  form  it  is  false;  in  its  more 
moderate  form  it  never  has  been  and  never  can  be 
demonstrated;  even  if  true,  it  is  so  hypothetical, 
and  subject  to  so  many  disturbing  factors,  that  it  is 
of  no  practical  value  or  importance.  It  is,  of  course, 
abstractly  or  theoretically  possible  that  population 
may  exceed  subsistence,  either  temporarily  and 
locally,  or  permanently  and  universally.  This 
possibility  has  been  freauently  realized  among  savage 
peoples,  and  occasionally  among  civilized  peoples,  as 
m  tne  case  of  famine.  But  the  theory  of  Malthus 
implies  something  more  than  an  abstract  possibility 
or  a  temporary  and  local  actuality.  It  asserts  that 
population  shows  a  constant  tendency  to  outrun  the 
food  supply,  a  tendency,  therefore,  that  is  always 
about  to  pass  into  a  reality  if  it  is  not  counteracted. 
In  all  the  six  editions  of  his  work  that  appeared  dur- 
ing Malthus's  lifetime,  this  tendency  is  described 
in  the  formula  that  population  tends  to  increase  in 
geometrical  progression,  as,  2,  4,  8,  etc.,  while  the 
utmost  increase  in  subsistence  that  can  be  expected 
is  according  to  an  arithmetical  ratio,  as,  2,  3,  4,  etc. 
So  far  as  we  know,  population  has  never  increased 
in  geometrical  ratio  through  any  considerable  period; 
but  we  cannot  show  that  such  an  increase,  by  nat- 
ural means,  is  phyuologically  impossible.  All  that 
it  implies  is  that  eveiy  married  couple  should  have 
on  the  average  four  children,  who  would  themselves 
marry  and  have  the  same  nimiber  of  children  to  each 
couple,  and  that  this  ratio  should  be  kept  up  indefi- 
nitely.   It  is  not,  however,  true  that  the  means  of 


POPULATION            278  POPULATION 

tiring  can  be  increaaed  only  in  an  arithmetical  ratio,  additional  resourcM  upon  new  lands  than  upon  the 
During  the  nineteenth  century  tfiiB  ratio  was  cod-  old,  it  ia  also  true  that  we  can  aet  no  definite  limita 
odeiably  exceeded  in  many  countries  (cf.  Wells,  to  the  inventive  power  of  man,  nor  to  the  potential 
"Recent  Eoooomic  Changee").  Malthus'a  view  fertility  of  nature.  Absolutely  speaking,  no  one  is 
on  this  point  was  based  u6on  a  rather  limited  knowl-  warrant«d  in  asserting  that  these  two  forces  will  not 
edge  of  what  had  been  happening  before  his  time,  be  able  to  modify  indefinitely  the  conditions  in  which 
He  did  not  foresee  the  great  improvements  in  prt>-  the  law  of  diminishing  returns  operates,  so  that  sub- 
duction  and  transportation  which,  a  tew  years  later,  siatence  will  keep  pace  with  population  as  long  as  men 
ao  greatly  augmented  the  means  of  subsistence  in  have  standing  room  upon  the  earth.  On  tne  other 
every  civilized  country.  In  other  words  he  compared  hand,  we  cannot  prove  that  if  population  were  to 
the  potenti^  fecundity  of  man,  the  limits  of  which  increase  up  to  the  full  limit  of  its  physiological  poesi- 
were  fairiy  well  known,  with  the  potential  fertility  bilities,  it  would  always  be  sufficiently  provided  for 
C^  the  earth  and  the  potential  achievements  of  human  by  the  fertility  of  nature  and  the  inventiveneaa  of 
invention,  neither  of  which  was  known  even  approxi-  man.  Wo  are  dealing  here  with  three  unknown 
mately.  This  was  a  bad  method,  and  its  outrame  in  quantities.  Upon  such  a  basis  it  is  impossible  either 
'  the  hands  of  MaJthua  was  a  false  theory.  to  establish  a  social  law,  or  conclusively  to  refute 
Even  if  we  discard  the  mathematical  formula-  any  particular  generalization  that  may  be  set  up. 
tion  of  the  theory,  and  examine  it  in  its  more  moderate  In  the  third  place,  the  Malthusian  theory,  even  if 
form,  as  merely  asaertinK  that  population  tends  to  true,  is  of  no  practical  use.  The  assurance  that 
outrun  subifltence,  we  find  that  the  theory  cannot  population,  if  unchecked^  will  inevitably  press  upon 
be  proved.  The  facts  adduced  by  Malthas  in  support  subsistence  does  not  temfy  us,  when  we  realize  that 
of  nis  contention  related  to  the  insufficiency  of  the  italway8hasbeencheckod,Dycelibacy,late marriages, 
food  supply  in  many  countries  at  many  different  war,  natural  calamities,  and  other  forces  which  are 
times.  Now  it  is  tnie  that  barbarous  peoples  and  not  due  to  scarcity  of  subsistence.  The  practical 
peoples  dependent  upon  fishing  and  hunting  for  a  question  for  any  people  is  whether  these  non-scarcity 
Uving  have  frequently  lacked  subsistence,  especially  checks  are  likely  to  keep  population  within  the  limit« 
when  they  were  unable  or  unwilling  to  emigrate;  of  that  people's  productive  resources.  So  tar  as  the 
but  such  has  not  often  been  the  case  for  any  consider-  nations  of  the  Western  world  are  concerned,  this 
able  time  among  civilized  nations.  Want  of  food  question  may  be  answered  in  the  affirmative, 
among  the  latter  has  usually  been  due  to  a  bad  in-  The  use  of  preventive  checks,  such  as  postpone- 
dustml  organisation  and  a  bad  distribution,  rather  ment  of  mamage,  abortion,  and  artificial  sl^lity 
than  to  the  poverty  of  nature,  or  the  unproductive-  have  become  so  common  that  the  birth-rate  has  al- 
neas  of  man.  Even  to-day  a  large  proportion  of  the  most  everywhere  decreased  within  the  last  half- 
inhabitants  of  every  country  is  inBufflciently  nour-  century,  and  there  ia  no  indication  of  a  reaction  in 
ished,  but  no  intelligent  person  attributes  this  con-  the  near  future.  During  the  same  period  the  rate  of 
dition  to  an  absolute  excess  of  population  over  sub-  food  production  has  considerably  increased.  More- 
Bist«nee  or  product! venesa.     Since   Malthus  did  not  over,   the  decline  in  the  birth-rate  has  been  most 

Eve  sufficient  attention  to  the  evils  of  distribution,  pronounced  among  those  classea  whose  subaiatence 
:  tiuled  to  prove  that  bis  theory  was  generally  true,  is  most  ample,  thus  suggesting  the  probability  that  it 
even  of  the  time  before  he  wrote;  since  he  did  not  will  become  equally  prevalent  among  the  poorer 
suspect  the  great  improvements  in  production  that  classes  as  aoon  aa  their  plane  of  living  is  raised.  The 
were  soon  to  take  place,  he  was  still  leas  able  to  show  contingency  that  men  may  some  day  become  ao  care- 
that  it  would  be  univeisally  vahd.  While  admitting  less  of  the  higher  standards  of  comfort  aa  to  give 
the  weakness  of  his  argument,  some  of  his  later  -  up  the  present  methods  of  restriction  is  too  remote 
toUowera  insist  that  the  theory  is  tnie  in  a  general  to  justify  anxiety  on  the  part  of  this  generation, 
way.  Population,  it  unchecked  by  a  f)ruaential  Let  us  assume,  however,  that,  under  the  influence  of 
regulation  of  marriages  and  births,  can  and  in  all  religion  and  moral  teaching,  all  the  immoral  preven- 
probability  often  will  out  *  '  "  -■...■  .  .  -  ,.  .  ,  t^ 
the  law  of   diminishing  r 

nnmica"!.  as  virtuous  celibacy  both  temporary  and  permanent, 

had  some  knowl-  and   the  decrease  of   fecundity   that  aeems   to  be  a 

^ ..„—.., , a  the  basis  of  hia  necessary   incident   of   modem   life,    particularly   in 

conclusions.  Now  the  "law  of  diminishing  returns"  cities,  would  be  sufficient  to  keep  the  world's  inhabi* 
is  simply  the  phrase  by  which  economists  describe  tanta  well  within  the  bounds  of  its  productive  powers. 
the  well-known  tact  that  a  man  cannot  go  on  in-  So  far  aa  we  can  see  at  present,  the  MaJthuaian 
definitely  increasing  the  amount  of  capital  and  labour  theory,  even  if  true  in  the  abstract  and  hypothetically, 
that  he  expends  upon  a  piece  of  land,  and  continue  ia  ao  hypothetical,  aaamnea  the  absence  of  so  many 
to  get  profitable  returns.  Sooner  or  later  a  point  factors  which-  are  always  likely  to  be  present,  that  it 
is  reached  where  the  product  of  the  latest  increment  is  not  deserving  of  serious  attention,  except  as  a 
of  expenditure  is  less  than  the  expenditure  itself,  means  of  intellectual  exercise.  As  a  law  of  popula- 
This  point  has  already  been  reached  in  many  re-  tion,  it  is  about  as  valuable  aa  many  of  the  other  laws 
gions,  whence  a  part  of  the  population  is  compelled  handed  down  by  the  classical  economists.  It  is 
to  move  to  other  land.  When  it  has  been  reached  about  aa  remote  from  reaUty  as  the  "economic  man", 
everywhere,  population  will  universally  exceed  And  yet,  this  theory  met  with  immediate  and  al- 
aubaiatence.  Stated  in  this  form,  Malthuaianism  most  univers^  acceptance.  The  book  in  which  it 
seems  to  be  irrefutable.  Nevertheless  the  law  of  was  expounded  went  through  six  editions  while 
diminishing  returns,  hke  all  economic  laws,  is  true  Malthus  was  living,  and  exerted  a  remarkable  in- 
only  in  certain  conditions.  Change  the  condi-  fluence  upon  economics,  sociology,  and  legislation 
tions,  in  this  case,  the  methods  of  production,  and  the  during  the  fiist  half  of  the  nineteenth  century.  Aaide 
law  M  no  longer  operative.  With  new  productive  from  a  section  of  the  Socialists,  the  most  important 
KB,  further  expenditures  of  labour  and  capital  group  of  writers  rejecting  the  Malthusian  theory 
B  profitable,  and  the  point  ot  diminishing  re-  have  been  Catholic  economists,  such  as  Liberatore, 
IS  moved  farther  away.     This  tact  has  received  Devas,   Peach,   Antoine   <ct.   Pesch,   "Lehrbuch   der 

II'.  -i.'rh.n  in  the  history  of  wricultureand  Nationaiokonomie",     II.     598).     Being    pessimistic 

'^  it  b  true  that  new  methods  are  not  and  individualistic,  the  teaching  of  Malthus  a^«ed 

red  as  soon  aa  they  are  needed,  and  thoroughly  with  the  temper  and  ideas  of  his  time, 

find  it  more  profitable  to  expend  thai  Distress  was  deep  and  general,  and  the  political  and 


POPULATION           279  POPULATION 

economic  theories  of  the  day  favoured  the  policy  paid  workers  may  be  made  scarce  and  dear.  Some 
of  laissez  faire.  To  him  perhaps  more  than  to  any  of  the  Neo-Malthusian  leaders  in  England  main- 
other  writer  is  due  Uie  evil  repute  of  the  orthodox  tained  that  they  were  merely  recommending  to  the 
economists,  as  opponents  of  legislation  in  the  in-  poor  what  the  nch  denounced  but  secretly  practised, 
terests  of  the  poorer  classes.  In  the  words  of  Devas,  In  common  with  the  older  theory  from  which  it 
'' Malthusianism  in  practice  has  been  a  grave  dis-  derives  its  name.  Neo-Malthusianism  assumes  that 
couragement  to  all  works  of  social  reform  and  humane  population  if  unchecked  will  exceed  subsistence)  but 
legislation,  which  appeared  as  foolish  sentiment  de-  by  subsistence  it  means  a  liberal,  or  even  a  progres- 
featini;  its  kind  aims  by  encouraging  population"  sively  rising,  standard  of  comfort.  In  aU  prob- 
(PoUtical  Economy,  2nd  ed..  p.  198).  Malthus  de-  ability  this  contention  is  correct,  at  least,  in  the  htter 
clared  that  the  poor  created  their  own  poverty  by  form;  for  all  the  indications  are  against  the  supposi- 
marrying  improvide^tly,  and  that  any  general  sy&-  tion  that  the  earth  can  furnish  an  indefinitely  rising 
tem  of  poor  relief  only  increased  and  prolonged  the  standard  of  comfort  for  a  jpopulation  that  contin- 
root  evil,  overpopulation,  from  which  they  suffered  ues  to  increase  up  to  the  full  measure  of  its  physio- 
(Essay  bk.  IV,  passim).  Although  he  had  a  genuine  logical  capacity.  On  the  other  hand,  the  practices 
s^pathy  for  the  poor,  and  believed  that  the  prac-  and  the  consequences  of  the  system  are  uur  more 
tice  of  ''moral  restraint"  in  postponing  or  foregoing  futile,  deceptive,  and  disastrous  than  those  of 
marriage  was  the  one  means  of  bettering  their  condi-  Malthusianism.  The  practices  are  intrinsically  im- 
tion  permanently,  his  teaching  received  the  cordial  moral,  implying  as  they  do  either  fceticide^  or  the 
approbation  of  the  wealthier  plasses,  because  it  tended  perversion  of  natural  faculties  and  fimctions,  to 
to  relieve  them  of  ''responsibility  for  the  condition  say  nothins  of  their  injurious  effect  upon  physical 
of  the  working  classes,  by  showing  that  the  latter  had  health.  The  condition  aimed  at,  namely,  the  small 
chiefly  themselves  to  blame,  and  not  either  the  negli-  family  or  no  children  at  all,  fosters  a  de^^ee  of  ego- 
gence  of  their  superiors  or  the  institutions  of  the  tism  and  enervating  self-indulgence  whidh  lessens 
country"  (Ingram,  "History  of  Political  Economy",  very  considerably  the  capacity  for  social  service, 
p.  121).  His  more  recent  followers  among  theecono-  altruism,  and  every  form  of  industrial  and  intellec- 
mists  realize  that  an  improvement  in  the  condition  of  tual  achievement.  Hence  the  economists,  sociolo- 
the  masses  is  apt  to  encourage  a  lower  birth-rate,  con-  gists,  and  physicians  of  France  condemn  the  low 
sequently  they  are  not  opposed  to  all  measures  for  im-  birth-rate  and  the  smaU  family  as  a  p&ve  national 

grovement  by  legislation.  Many  of  them^  however,  and  social  evil.  On  the  industrial  side,  Neo-Mal- 
ave  exaggerated  the  social  and  moral  benefits  of  a  thusianism  soon  defeats  its  own  end;  for  increased 
low  birth-rate,  and  have  implicitly  approved  the  im-  selfishness  and  decreased  stimulus  to  labour  are 
mor^  and  destructive  practices  upon  which  it  depends,  naturally  followed  by  a  smaller  output  of  product. 
The  irony  of  the  situation  is  that  preventive  checks,  If  the  restriction  of  offspring  were  confined  to  the 
moral  and  immoral,  have  been  adopted  for  the  most  poorer  classes,  their  labour  would  indeed  become 
part  by  the  rich  and  comfortable  classes,  who,  in  scarce  relatively  to  the  higher  kinds  of  labour,  and 
the  opinion  of  Malthus^  were  not  called  upon  to  their  wages  would  rise,  provided  that  their  pro- 
make  any  personal  contnbution  to  the  limitation  of  ductivity  were  not  diminisned  through  deterioration 
population.  of  character.  As  a  fact,  however,  the  comfortable 
The  most  notable  results  of  the  work  and  teaching  classes  adopt  the  method  much  more  generally  than 
of  Malthus  may  be  summed  up  as  follows:  he  con-  do  the  poor,  with  the  result  that  the  excessive  supply 
tributed  absolutely  nothing  of  value  to  human  of  unsluUed  labour  is  increased  rather  than  dinun- 
knowledge  or  human  welfare.  The  facts  which  he  ished.  Where  all  classes  are  addicted  to  the  practice, 
described  and  the  remedies  which  he  proposed  had  the  oversupply  of  unskilled  labour  remains  relatively 
long  been  sufficiently  obvious  and  sufficiently  known,  imchanged.  The  wages  of  all  classes  in  France  are 
While  he  emphasized  and  in  a  striking  way  drew  at-  lower  uian  in  Germany,  England,  or  the  United 
tention  to  the  possibility  of  general  overpopulation  States  (cf.  Fifteenth  Ajmual  Report  of  the  Com- 
he  greatly  exaggerated  it,  and  thus  misled  and  mis-  missioner  of  Liabour).  Finally,  a  constantly  rising 
directed  public  opinion.  Had  he  been  better  in-  standard  of  comfort  secured  by  the  practices  and 
formed,  and  seen  the  facts  of  population  in  their  in  the  moral  atmosphere  of  Neo-Malthusianism 
true  relations,  he  would  have  realiz^  that  the  proper  means  not  a  higher  but  a  lower  plane  of  life;  not  more 
remedies  were  to  be  sought  in  better  social  and  in-  genuine  culture  or  loftier  morals,  but  more  abundant 
dustrial  arrangements,  a  better  distribution  of  wealth,  physical  enjoyments  and  a  more  refined  materialism, 
and  improved  moral  and  religious  education.  As  Other  Theories  of  PopuUUion. — Rodbertus,  Marx, 
things  have  happened,  his  teaching  has  directly  or  Engels,  Bebel,  and  possibly  a  majority  of  the  Social- 
indirectly  led  to  a  vast  amount  of  social  error,  negli-  ists  who  have  considered  the  problem,  either  den^r  a 
gence,  suffering,  and  immorality.  general  tendency  to  excessive  population,  or  main- 
Neo-MaUhusianism. — In  a  sense  this  system  is  the  tain  that  it  is  realized  onlv  in  capitalistic  society, 
extreme  logical  outcome  of  Malthusianism  proper.  Under  Socialism  there  would  be  ample  sustenance  for 
While  Malthus  would  have  turned  in  horror  from  the  the  greatest  possible  increase  in  population,  or,  at  any 
practices  of  the  newer  theory,  his  own  recommenda-  rate,  for  whatever  increase  that  form  of  society  would 
tions  were  much  less  effective  as  a  means  to  the  com-  decide  to  have.  Now  it  is  quite  unlikelv  that  a 
mon  end  of  both  systems.  The  Neo-Malthusians  Socialistic  organization  of  production,  with  its  les- 
realize  better  than  he  did,  that  if  population  is  to  be  sened  incentives  to  inventive  and  productive  energy, 
deliberatelv  restricted  to  the  desired  extent,  other  would  be  able  to  provide  means  of  living  adequate  to 
methods  than  chaste  abstention  from  or  postpone-  the  full  capacity  of  human  fecundity;  and  a  univer- 
ment  of  marriage  are  necessary.  Hence  they  urge  saUy  and  continuously  rising  standard  of  comfort 
married  couples  to  use  artificial  and  immoral  devices  would  be  subject  to  all  the  pnysical,  moral^  and  in- 
for  preventing  conception.  Some  of  the  most  tellectual  hindrances  and  consequences  which  beset 
prominent  leaders  of  this  movement  were  Robert  the  suicidal  system  of  Neo-Malthusianism. 
Dale  Owen,  John  Stuart  Mill,  Charles  Bradlaugh,  A  respectable  minority  of  economists  (in  this  con- 
and  Annie  Besant.  With  them  deserve  to  be  as-  nection  frecmently  known  as  "optimists")  have  re- 
sociated  many  economists  and  sociologists  who  im-  jected  the  Malthusian  theory  from  the  berinning. 
plicitly  advocate  the  same  practices,  inasmuch  as  Among  the  most  prominent  are,  Bastiat  in  France, 
they  glorify  an  indefinitely  expanding  standard  of  List  (1789-1846)  m  Germany,  and  Henry  C.  Carey 
comfort,  and  urge  limitation  of  offspring  as  the  one  in  America.  In  a  |;eneral  way  they  all  maintained 
certain  means  whereby  the  labour  of  the  poorest  that  in  proper  social  and  industrial  arrangements 


POEDIHONK            280  POROENONX 

population  will  never  exceed  subsistence.  This  was  those  considered  in  this  arUcle,  and  does  not  grcstl; 
ukewise  the  position  of  Henry  George,  whose  attack  difFer  from'tltat  of  the  Catholic  economiata. 
upon  the  theory  of  Malthus  is  piobaSlv  more  familiar  The  latter,  as  we  have  already  noted,  reject  the 
to  Americans  than  that  of  any  otner  writer  (cf.  Malthusian  theory  and  the  interpretation  of  social 
Progress  and  Poverty).  Carey,  whose  father,  facts  upon  which  it  is  founded.  Taking  as  typical 
Mattlfltw  Carev,  the  I^adelphia  publisher,  was  a  the  views  of  Devaa  in  England,  Antoine  in  France, 
Catholic,  based  his  view  partly  upon  his  beUef  in  Perin  in  Belgium.  Liberatore  m  Italy,  and  Pesch 
Providence,  and  partly  upon  the  assumption  that  in  in  Germany  (see  works  cil«d  below)  we  may  describe 
every  country  the  richest  lands  and  land  powers  re-  their  views  in  the  following  tennfl.  Where  produ<>- 
main  undeveloped  longest;  List  pointed  out  that  tion  is  effectively  oiganized,  and  wealth  justly  dia- 
thickly-populated  lands  are  froauently  more  pros-  tributed;  where  the  morals  of  the  people  render  them 
perous  than  those  with  relatively  few  inhabitants,  industrious,  frugal,  averse  to  debilitating  comforts, 
and  that  we  have  no  good  reason  to  set  limits  to  the  and  willing  to  refrain  from  all  immoral  practices 
capacity  of  the  earth,  which  could  undoubtedly  in  the  conju^  relation;  where  a  considerable  pro- 
support  many  times  its  present  population;  and  portion  of  the  people  embrace  the  condition  of  ro- 
Buitiat,  who  had  already  observed  the  artificial  re-  li^ous  ceUbacy,  others  live  chastely  and  yet  defer 
Btriction  of  the  birth-rate  in  his  own  countrv.  seemo  marriage  for  a  longer  or  shorter  period,  and  many 
to  have  concluded  that  the  same  thing  would  oappen  emigrate  whenever  the  population  of  any  te^on  ba- 
in other  countries  whenever  subsiHtence  tended  to  comes  congested — undue  pressure  of  population 
fall  below  the  exiating  standards  of  living.  Al-  upon  subsistence  will  never  occur  eioept  locally  and 
though  there  is  some  exaggeration  and  uncertainty  tempmiarily.  Probably  this  is  as  comprehensive, 
in  all  these  positions,  they  are  undoubtedly  nearer  and  at  the  same  time  as  correct  a  generalization  as 
Ute  truth  than  the  assumptions  of  Malthus.  can  be  formulated.  It  may  be  reduced  to  the  sum- 
What  may  be  called   the  evolutionist   theory  of  mary    statement    of    Father    Pesch:      "Where    the 

Eopulation  was  ori^nated  and  incompletely  stated  quality  of  a  people  is  saf^uarded,  there  need  be  no 

y    Charles    Darwin,    and    developed    by    Herbert  fear  for  its  quantity"  (op.  cit.,  II,  624).     Take  care 

Spencer.    In  the  latter  form  it  has  been  adopted  of  the  quality,  says  the  learned  Jesuit,  and  the  quan- 

substantially  by  many  biologists  and  sociologists,  tity  will  take  care  of  itself.     Be  anxious  about  the 

Although  it  was  a  chance  reading  of  Malthus's  work  quantity,  say  the  Malthusiana  and  all  the  advocates 

that  suggested  to  Darwin  the  idea  of  the  struggle  for  of  the  small  family,  lest  the  quality  deteriorate.     It 

existence,  the  Spencerian  theory  of  population  is  on  ig  less  than  eighty  years  since  Malthus  died,  and 

the  whole  opposed  to  the  Malthusian.    According  &  considerably  shorter  time  has  elapsed  since  the 

to  Spencer,  the  process  of  natural  selection,  which  restriction  of  births  became  in  any  sense  general: 

involves  the  destruction  of  a  larxe  proportion  of  the  yet  the  number  is  rapidly  increasing  everywhere  of 

lower    organisms,    increases    indlvidusJily    and    de-  thoughtful  men  who  see  that  the  Western  world  is 

creases  fecundity  in  the  more  developed  species,  confronted  by  "a  problem  not  of  excessive  fecundity, 

especially  in  man.    At  length,  population  becomes  but    of    race    suicide"    (Seligman,   "Principles    of 

automatically  adjusted  to  sjibsiBtence  at  that  level  Economics",  65). 

which  is  consonant  with  the  highest  progress.      With  Mjlthci,  Aa  Bttay  m  tht  PrinripU  a/  Populalun  (London, 

reiBud  Ij  th.  tut™,  Ihi.  Ihwry  a  .Brnn.ly  opli-  }»•  f.'Si.'TSX,"*  KSeSST,  'Si.^Si 

mistic,  but  it  IS  not  more  probable  or  any  more  ismJ;  Detib,  PtiiUirai  Samrmu  (iJinduD,  i90t|;  Hidlet, 

capable  of  proof  than  his  prophecy  conoermng  the  Eanamia  iNtw  Yorlt.  lSSS):Btuauts.  Pn^-eipla  of  Eanomia 

future  identification,  of  egoism  anS  altruism.  SS•lo'L°doi,'!^li^'^^"^c™^/i::;i«^°';^^ 

On  the  basis  of  painstaking  reaeareh  and  abundant  is»B);  Pkuh,  Prmirrj  prtncifiu  rTfrmimie  patitivut  (Puis, 

statistics,  M.  Arsine  Dumont  concluded  that  Malthu-  ISM):  Pmcb.  Lchrlmdi  drr  NationaUkonmii  (Freibuiy,  1909): 

sianism  is  theoretically  false  and  practically  worth-  f^™h|^*^""'"™'"  ""  ""^"^"^  1^'  ^™^™— 

less,  and  that  the  only  valuable  generalizations  about  '                '                                     John  A.  Rtan. 
the  relation  of  papulation  to  subsistence  are  those 

which  concern  a  particular  counti^,  epoch,  civiliia-  Pordenono,  GiovArmi  Antonio,  Italian  piuntcr, 
tion,  or  form  of  society  (of.  Nitti,  op.  cit.).  In  a  b.  at  Pordenone,  1483;  d.  at  Ferrara,  January,  1639. 
democratic  society,  he  says,  the  real  danger  is  ex-  He  is  occasionally  referred  to  by  his  family  name 
cessive  limitation  of  the  birth-rate  by  all  classes,  Licinio,  at  times  as  Regillo,  but  usually  as  Poraenone, 
even  the  lowest.  When  privileged  elaasea  and  so-  from  his  birthplace,  and  by  that  name  some  of  his 
cial  stratifications,  have  disappeared,  the  members  of  works  are  signed.  He  is  bcheved  to  have  been  a  pupil 
every  class  strive  to  raise  Uiemselves  above  their  of  Pellegrino  da  San  Daniello.  Most  of  the  informa- 
preseot  condition  by  restricting  the  number  of  their  tion  respecting  him  is  derived  from  Carlo  Ridolfi,  who 
offspring.  So  far  as  it  goes,  this  theory  is  a  correct  states  that  Pordenooe's  first  commission  was  given 
explanation  of  certain  existing  tendencies,  but,  as  him  by  a  grocer  in  his  native  town,  to  try  his  Bosst 
Father  Pesch  observes  in  reply  to  P.  Leroy-Beaulieu,  that  he  could  pwnt  a  picture  as  the  priest  commenced 
the  true  remedy  for  the  French  conditions  is  not  High  Mass,  and  complete  it  by  the  time  Mass  was 
monarchy  but  the  Christian  religion  and  moral  over.  He  is  said  to  have  executed  the  given  corn- 
teaching  (op.  cit.,  II,  639).  mission  in  the  required  time.    Most  of  his  early  work 

The  theory  of  Nitti  has  a  considerable  similarity  is  to  be  found  in  the  form  of  fresco  decoration  in  the 

to  that  of  Spencer,  but  the  Italian  sociologist  expects  churches  around  Pordenone,  where  he  spent  most  of 

the  deliberate  action  of  man,  rather  than  any  decrease  his  time.    There  he  married  twice.    His  work  was  in 

in  human  fecundity,  to  conform  population  to  sub-  great   demand   in   Mantua,  Cremona,  Treviso,  and 

sistence   in   any  society   in   which   wealth  is  justly  Spilimbergo.  where  his  rich  and  elaborate  fresco  woric, 

distributed,    individuality   strongly   developed,   and  as  well  as  decorations  for  the  fronts  of  organs,  and 

individual  activity   maintained    at   a  high   level   of  altar-pieces,   are   found.      About    1529    he   went   to 

efficiency  (op.  cit.).    He  repudiates,  however,  the  ego-  Venice,  but  little  of  his  work  remiuns  in  that  city,  save 

tistic   and   socially  demoralising   "prudence"  which  the  two  panels  representing  St.  Christopher  and  St. 

is  so  generally  practised  to-day  tor  the  limitation  Martin  in  the  church  of  Saint  Rocco.    He  then  jour- 

of  the  siie  of  families.     Nevertheless,   it  is  utterly  neyed  to  Piacenxa,  Genoa,  Ferrara,  and  other  places, 

unlikely  that   tlie  sane  regulation  which   he  desires  doing  freeco  decoration,  and  receiving  warm  welcome 

^rill  be  nJitiinsd  without   the  active  and  universal  at  each  place.     Returning  to  his  native  city,  he  re- 

indt'-                  igion.     With  this  condition  added,  ceived  the  honour  of  knighthood  from  King  John  of 

his                      a  to  be  the  moat  reasonable  of  all  Hungary,  and  from  that  time  was  frequently  styled 


i 


"Re^Uo".    In  1536  he  wee  again  in  Venice,  conyinK 
out  some  comnuBsions  for  the  Council  of  Ten,  and 


given  liim  by  the 
Senate,  but  unfor- 
tuna'ttiy  every- 
thing carried  out 
by.Pordenone  at 
that  time  has  per- 
iehed.  Fron)\r:n- 
ice    he    went    to 

ecute  certain  com- 
missione  for 
Ercole  II,  Duke 
of  Ferrara,  but  he 
was  there  a  short 
time  when  he 
died. 

Rumours  were 
that  he  had  been 
poisoned  by  one 
of  the  Feirateae 
artists,  who  was 
iealouH  of  his  rep- 

. utation,     but 

PoaDiHOHi  (Palntinc  br  biniMlO  other  reports 
state  that  he  caught  a  severe  chill  after  eating, 
and  a  third  statement  says  that  he  died  from  an 
epidemic  at  that  time  rs^ng  in  the  city.  A  con- 
temporary artist,  however,  Kivee  his  family  name  as 
Cuticello  and  not  Licinio.  He  states  definitely  that 
the  artist  was  poisoned  by  Ferrarese  artists  at  the 
Angel  Inn,  Ferrara.  Hia  tomb  is  in  the  church 
of  Bbji  Paolo  in  Ferrara.  Better  than  most  of  his 
contemporaries,  he  was  acqutunted  with  the  laws 
of  perspective,  and  his  fresco  work  is  always 
int.    He 


11  POKDIHOHI 

of  Asia.  Among  the  missionaries  sent  there  were  John 
Piano  Carpini,  William  Rubniquis,  and  John  ot 
Montecorvino.  Odoric  was  called  to  follow  theni,  and 
in  April,  1318,  started  from  Fadua,  cnwsed  the  Black 
Sea  to  Trcbizond,  went  through  Peraa  by  way  ot  the 
Tauris,  Sultaniah,  where  in  1318  John  XXII  had 
erected  an  archbishopric,  Kaaham,  Yeid,  and  Persepo- 
lis;  he  also  visited  Farsistan  Khuziatan  a.ad  Chal- 
dea,  and  then  went  back  to  the  Persian  Gulf.  From 
Hormut  he  went  to  Tana, on  the  Island  of  Salsette, 
north  of  Bombay.  Here  he  gathered  the  remains  of 
Thomas  of  Tokntino,  Jacopo  of  Padua,  Ketro  of 
Siena,  and  Demetrius  of  Tiflis,  Franciscans  who,  ft 
short  time  before,  had  suffered  martyrdom,  and  took 
them  with  him  so  as  to  bury  them  m  China.  I^rom 
Salsette  he  went  to  Malabar,  Fondaraina  (Flandrina) 
that  lies  north  of  Calicut,  then  to  Cranganore  that 
is  south  of  Calicut,  along  the  Coromaadel  Coast, 
then  to  Meliapur  (Madras)  and  Ceylon.  He  then 
passed  the  Nicobar  Islands  on  his  way  to  Lamori,  a 


Tslompa  (Champa)  in  the  southern  part  of  Cochin 
China,  and  finallv  reached  Canton  in  China.  From 
Ci^ton  he  travelled  to  Zaitoum,  the  largest  Chinese 
seaport  in  the  Middle  Ages,  and  Chc-kian^,  and  went 
overland   by   way   of   Fu-cheu,   the   capital   of   the 

ainc8  of  Fokien,  to  Quinsay  (Hangcneufu),  cele- 
xl  by  Marco  Polo.  He  remajiied  in  China  and 
went  to  Nanking,  Yangchufu,  and  finally  travelled  by 
the  great  canal  and  the  Hwangho  River  to  Khan-balig 
or  Peking,  the  capital  of  the  Great  Khan.  At  that 
time  the  aged  Mont«corvino  was  still  archbiidiop  in 
Pekimt.  where  Odoric  remsjned  three  vears.  On 
1   journey   he   went   overland   by  way  of 


drawn,   learned,   ai^able,   and  pleasant.         .   .  .  . 
great    facility    and    considerable    power   of 


!  pos- 


originsJity,  and  being  a  man  of  strong  and  very 
determined  religious  opinions,  devoted  himself  heart- 
ily to  church  decoration,  and  carried  it  out  with 
exceedingly  fine  results.  There  was  a  strong  com- 
petition Tjetween  him  and  Titian  in  Venice,  and 
there  are  statements  in  Venetian  MSS.  of  the  time 
which  imply  that  certain  works  of  Pordenone's  were 
intentionally  destroyed  by  persona  who  were  jealous 
of  the  honour  and  position  of  Titian.  At  the  present 
day,  to  understand  his  painting,  it  is  necessary  to 
visit  the  various  churches  round  Pordenone,  as  the 
quality  of  his  workmanship  cannot  be  appreciated 
from  the  few  frescoes  which  remain  in  Venice,  nor 
from  the  small  number  of  eaael  pictures  which  can  be 
attributed  to  him  with  any  d^nite  authority.  He 
had  many  pupils  who  copied  his  work  cleverly,  and 
who  probably  did  most  of  the  smaller  pictures  at- 
tributed to  hun.  Perhaps  his  finest  are  those  in  the 
cathedrals  of  San  Daniele,  SpiUmbergo,  Trcviso,  and 
Cremona;  in  Munich  there  is  a  portrait  of  himself 
with  his  pupils^  and  there  is  another  of  himself  in  a 
private  gallery  m  Rome.  He  appears  to  have  founded 
his  ideas  in  Venice  very  much  on  those  ot  Giorpone 
and  Titian,  but  in  the  cathedrab  already  mentioned 
his  work  is  more  natural  and  original. 

RiDOLn,  U  M'-riiiflit  dtIC  Artt  (Veoi«,  IMS),  lud  the  MM- 
Imti  MS.,  in  the  Vcni«  Library. 

George  Charles  Willi aubon.  ' 

Pordanone,  Odoric  of,  Franciscan  missionary  of 
a  Czech  family  named  Mattiussi,  b,  at  Villanovanear 
Pordenone,  Friuli,  Italy,  about  1286;  d.  at  Udine,  14 
Jan.,  1331,  About  13(X)  he  entered  the  Franciscan 
Order  at  Udine.  Towards  the  middle  ai  the  thirteenth 
centunr  the  Franciscans  were  commissioned  by  the 
Holy  See  to  undertake  missionary  work  in  the  interior 


Brother  William  of  Solagna  whUe  at  the  monastery  erf 
St.  Anthony  at  Padua.  According  ta  another  version 
Henry  of  Glatx,  who  was  at  that  time  staying  at  the 
papal  court  at  Avignon,  made  notes  ol  the  accounts 
given  by  Odoric's  travelling  companions  and  wrote 
them  out  at  Prague  in  1340.  Unfortunately  Odoric 
accepted  many  f  Aulous  stories  and  for  a  long  period 
it  was  doubted  whether  he  had  really  seen  all  the 
places  and  regions  he  described.  Hisnarrative,thoudt, 
IB  veracious,  and  he  is  the  first  European  traveller 
from  whom  are  learned  many  pecuharitiea  of  the 
Chinese  people  and  country  which  Marco  Polo  did 
not  mention,  because  he  had  grown  accustomed  to 
them.  It  is  to  be  r^retted  that  he  does  not  give  a 
more  detailed  account  of  Tibet  and  Lhasa,  the  capital 
of  the  Dai^-Lama,  which  he  was  the  first  European 
io  enter.  Ttie  account  of  his  travels  was  widely  spread 
by  Mandeville's  plagiarisms  from  them,  Mandeville's 
work  being  exceedingly  popular  in  the  later  Middle 
Ages  and  much  used  as  a  manual  by  geographers  of 
that  period.  Numerous  manuscripts  of  Odoric's 
travels  were  current  in  Italy,  France,  Germany,  and 
England.  They  were  first  printed  at  Pesaro.  A  Latin 
version  appeared  in  Marcellino  da  Civexia's  "Storia 

universale  delle  miaaioni  Franceacane",  III  (Rome, 
1859),  739-81;  an  English  translation  was  made  by 

Yule  in  his  work  "Cathay  and  tlje  Way  Thither",  1 
(London,  1866),  1-162;   a  French  version  with  very 

good  notes  was  made  by  Henri  Cordier  ' '  Lea  voyages 

en  Asie  au  XIV*  sifecle  du  bienheureux  frfire  Odoric  de 

Pordenone"  (Paris,  1891). 

BMidM  (he  editioiu  slrewly  eivbh  nwy  be  numtioiwd:  AMmm, 
Vita  cnonni'cIB.  OdoriniJa  t7dini  lUdine,  173T):  KcwmuvH. 

IHtMiH\mnnl<^imu.Chi7iainX3V.  Jahrk.  in  HiMtr.'pM. 

BUuirr.  XXXVIII  (MuDieh.  18M).  £07^7;  RicnTHOriH,  Ckina, 

I  (Berlin,  1877),  flIT-S:  Douenichelu,  Sopmla  Dim  *i  tuwidW 

italo  Odoria  ia  Ptrdtmme  deW  ordvu  dt*  Minori  (Pnto,  IS8I); 

GHAtrcK.  OJarich  nn  Panlmont.  ria  Orimlnittmltr  d.  XIV. 

Jahrh.  (Leipiic.  189S).  OttO  HarTIO. 


Porznort,  Thomas,  Venebablb.  English  martyr,  dedicated  to  the  Blessed  Virgin,  was  not  built  by 

b.  at  Hull  about  1559;  d.  at  St.  Paur 8  Churchyard,  20  Justinian  II  but  by  Justinian  I  (Procopius,  "De 

Feb.,  1502.    He  was  probably  related  to  the  family  of  iEdificiis",   V,  ix;    "Historia  arcana",  xxx).     The 

Pormort  of  Great  Grimsby  and  Saltfletbv,  Lincoln-  ruins  of  Poiphyreon  should  be  found  near  Belus,  the 

shire.   George  Pormort,  Mayor  of  Grimsby  in  1565,  'Stiii  Namein,  in  the  sands  of  which  may  still  be  seen 

had  a  second  son  Thomas  baptized,  7  February,  1566,  the  murex  brandaria  and  the  murex  trunctUus  (thorny 

but  this  can  hardly  be  the  martyr.    After  receiving  shell  fish),  from  which  is  extracted  the  famous  purple 

some  education  at  Cambridge,  he  went  to  Rheims,  15  dye  of  Tyre,  and  which  has  given  its  name  to  Porphy- 

January,  1581,  and  thence,  20  March  following,  to  reon. 
Rome,  where  he  was  ordained  priest  in  1587.    He  en-  .  S.  VailhA. 

r5tt.':r^°K5VriW9b'?&^''S^^       Porph^u..    See  N«.Px.«,mB«. 
prefect  of  studies  in  the  Swiss  college  at  Milan.    He        Porahyrius,  Saint,  Bishop  of  Gaza  in  Palestine, 

was  relieved  of  this  office,  and  started  for  En^and,  15  b.  at  "niessalonica  about  347 ;  d.  at  Gaza.  26  February, 

September,  without  waiting  for  his  faculties.    Cross-  420.    After  five  years  in  the  Egsrptian  desert  of  Scete 

ing  the  St.  Gotthard  Pass,  he  reached  Brussels  before  he  lived  five  years  in  a  cave  near  the  Jordan.    In 

29  November.    There  he  became  man-servant  to  Mrs.  spite  oi  his  impaired  he^Llth,  he  frequently  visited  the 

Geoffrey  Pole,  under  the  name  of  Whitg^  the  Prot-  scene  of  the  Kesmrection.     Here  he  met  the  Asiatic 

estant  archbishop  being  his  godfather.    With  her  he  Mark,  at  a  later  date  a  deacon  of  his  church  and  his 

went  to  Antwerp,  intending  to  proceed  to  Flushing,  biographer.    To  effect  the  sale  of  the  property  still 

and  thence  to  England.    He  was  arrested  in  London  owned  by  Porphyrins  in  his  native  city,  Mark  set  out 

on  St.  James's  Day  (25  July),  1591,  but  he  managed  to  for  Thei^omca  and,  upon  his  return,  the  proceeds 

escape.    In  August  or  September.  1591,  he  was  again  were  distributed  among  the  monasteries  of  Egypt  'and 

taken,  and  committed  to  Bridewell,  whence  he  was  re-  among  the  necessitous  in  and  aroimd  Jerusalem.    In 

moved  to  Topcliffe's  house.   He  was  repeatedly  racked  392  Porphyrins  was  ordained  to  the  priesthood,  and 

and  sustained  a  rupture  in  consequence.   On  8  Febru-  the  relic  of  the  Holy  Cross  was  intrusted  to  his  care, 

ary  following  he  was  convicted  oi  high  treason  for  be-  In  395  he  became  Bishop  of  Gaza,  a  stronghold  of 

ing  a  seminary  priest,  and  for  reconciling  John  Bar-  paganism,  with  an  insignificant  Christian  community, 

wys,  or  Burrows,  haberdasher.    He  pleaded  that  he  The  attitude  of  the  pagan  population  was  hostile  so 

had  no  faculties:  but  he  was  found  guilty.   At  the  bar  that  the  bishop  appealea  to  the  emperor  for  protection 

he  accused  Topcliffe  of  having  boasted  to  him  of  inde-  &xid  pleaded  repeatedly  for  the  destruction  of  pag^an 

cent  familiarities  with  the  queen.   Hence  Topcliffe  ob-  temples.    He  finally  obtained  an  imperial  rescript 

tained  a  mandamus  to  the  sheriff  to  proceea  with  the  ordering  the  destruction  of  pagan  sanctuaries  at  Gaza, 

execution,  though  Archbishop  Whitgin  endeavoured  to  A  Christian  church  was  erected  on  the  site  of  the 

delay  it  and  m^e  his  godson  conform,  and  though  (it  temple  of  Mamas.    In  415  Porphyrins  attended  the 

is  said)  Pormort  would  have  admitted  conference  with  Council  of  Diospolis.    The  "Vita  S.  Porphyrii"  of 

Protestant  ministers.    The  gibbet  was  erected  over  Mark  the  Deacon,  formerly  known  only  m  a  Latin 

against  the  haberdasher?s  shop,  and  the  martyr  was  translation,  was  published  in  1874  by  M.  Haupt  in 

kept  standing  two  hours  in  his  shirt  upon  the  ladder  on  its  original  Greek  text;  a  new  edition  was  issued  in 

a  very  cold  day,  while  Topcliffe  vainly  urged  him  to  1895  by  the  Bonn  Philological  Society, 

withdraw  his  accusation.  ..^^.  ^?-.  !«*>..  ill  (Paris.  JM5).  64^^;  Nure.  p«  Mar^ 

cnacont  vUa   "orphj/nt  epitcopt  Oiuenns  muB^tonet  htstcneet  €t 

PoLLWi,  Bnaliah  Martyra  1684-1003  (London,  1908),  187-190.  grammatica  (Bonn.  1897) ;  Butleb,  Livea  of  the  SainU,  26  Feb. 
2XX>-2,  20^10,  292;,  Acts  of  the  Bnglith  Martyra  (London,  IS91),  N    A    Whsricr 

118-20;    Challoneb.  Miaaionary  Prieata,  I.  no.  95;    Gillow.  in.  a.  wkbibk. 

Bibl.  Diet,  Eng.  Cath.,  a.  v.;   Harleian  Society  Publicaiiona,  LII  ^  ^         ^  .       .,  ^ 

(London.  1904).  790;    Knox,  Douay  Diariea  (London.  1878),  Porroetai     SbRAFINO,     family     name      CapPONI, 

174-7.  John  B.  Wainewbiqht.  called  a  Porregta  from  the  place  of  birth^  theolosian, 

b.  1536;  d.  at  Bologna,  2  Jan.,  1614.    He  Joineof  the 

.  Porphyreon,   titular  see,  suffragan  of  Tyre  in  Dominican  Order  at  Bologna  in  1552.    His  life  was 

Phoemcia  Prima.     It  is  described  m  the  ''Notitia  devoted  entirely  to  study,  teaching,  writing,  and 

Episcopatuum''  of  Antioch  as  belonging  to  the  sixth  preaching.    He  is  best  known  as  a  commentator  on 

century  (Echos  d'Orient,  X,  1907,  145),  but  does  not  the  ''Summa"  of  St.  Thomas;  he  also  wrote  valuable 

appear  in  that  of  the  tenth  century  (op.  cit.,  97).  commentaries  on  the  books  of  the  Old  and  New 

I^ouien  (Oriens  christ.,  II,  829-32)  mentions  five  of  Testaments.    His  duties  as  a  professor  prepared  him 

its  bishops:  Thomas,  451;  Alexander,  at  the  end  of  well  for  work  of  this  kind,  for  he  taught  philosophy, 

the  fifth  century;  Theodore,  518;  Christophorus,  536;  theology  (dogmatic  and  moral),  ana  Sacred  Scrip- 

and  Paul  (contemporary  of  Justinian  ll),  565-78.  ture.    in  1606,  Father  Capponi  was  invited  to  teach 

There  were  two  Porphyreons  in  this  province,  one,  theology  and  Sacred  Scripture  to  the  Carthusians  in  a 

described  by  Scylax  (civ,  ed.  MOller)  north  of  Sidon  monastery  near  Bologna.    He  accepted  the  invitation, 

and  also  by  Palerin  of  Bordeaux  (Itinera  hierosoly-  but  two  years  later  he  was  recalled  to  Bologna,  where 

mitana,  ed.  Gever,  18)  eif^ht  miles  from  Sidon,  is  now  he  died.    Fr.  Michcle  Pio.  who  wrote  his  life,  states 

the  village  of  El-Djiyeh,  in  the  midst  of  the  beautiful  that  on  the  last  day  of  his  life  Porrecta  completed  his 

fardens  between  Saida  and  Beirut,  near  the  Khan  en-  explanation  of  the  last  verse  of  the  Psalms.    The 

Tebi  Yun^;  a  second  Porphyreon,  according  to  the  people  of  Bologna  venerated  him  as  a  saint;  miracles, 

Pseudo- Antoninus    (Itinera    hierosoljrmitana,    161),  att^ted  by  the  ordinary,  are  said  to  have  been 

may  be  located  six  or  seven  miles  north  of  Carmel.  wrought  through  his  intercession  and  his  body  was 

Historians  of  the  Crusades  (William  of  Tyre  and  taken  (1615)  mm  the  community  burying-ground 

James  of  Vitry)  confound  this  town  with  the  modem  to  be  deposited  in  the  Dominican  church.    It  is  al- 

Caipha.    The  latter  corresponds  to  our  see.    In  fact  most  imiversally  admitted  that,  until  the  Leonine 


Saint  Simeon  Stylite  the  Young,  contemporary  of    edition  of  St.  Thomas's  works  appeared,  there  were 


the  Samaritans.    Now,  in  the  same  epoch  the  Pseudo-  distinguishing  features  of  these  commentaries  are 

Antoninus  (op.  cit.,  160)  locates  the  ^'Castra  Samari-  weU  set  forth  in  the  title  of  the  Venice  edition  of 

tanorum  a  Sucamina  (Caipha)  milliario  subtus  monte  1612.    His    principal    works    are:     ^'Elucidationes 

Carmelo''  south  of  Porphyreon.    The  identification  formales   in  summam    theologicam    S.  Thomae   de 

IB  therefore  incontestible.   The  church  of  Porphyreon,  Aquino''    (Venice,    1588,    1596);     ''Summa   totiufi 


POBTA 


283 


PO&t 


cheoIogUB  D.  ThonuB  . .  .  cum  elucidationibfts  fonna- 
libus  ..."  (Venice,  1612;  Padua,  1698;  Borne, 
1773).  To  the  first  volume  were  added:  (a)^De 
altitudine  doctrinse  .Thomisticee;  (b)  RegulsB  ad 
lectorem;  (c)  Five  indices.  Echani  censures  the 
addition  of  Fr.  Javelii's  ''Expositio  in  primam 
partem"  and  "Tractatus  de  prssscientia  et  prsedes- 
tinatione";  "Veritates  auress  supra  totam' legem 
veterem.  .  .  ."  (Venice,  1590);  "Commentaries  on 
St.  Matthew"  (Venice,  1602);  "St.  John"  (Venice, 
1604);  those  on  St.  Mark  and  St.  Luke  were  not 
published;  "Scholia  super  comp.  theologies  veri- 
tatis  Alberti  Magni"  (Venice,  1588,  1590).  Echard 
says  the  compendium  was  not  by  Albertus  Mag- 
nus (I,  p.  176);  "Tota  theologia  S.  Th.  Aquin.  m 
compendium  redacta"  (Venice,  1597);  "CJommen- 
tarii  in  psalmos"  (one  volume  published,  Bologna, 
1692). 

QuiriF  AND  EcBABO,  Script,  Ord.  Prod.,  II  (Paria,  1721), 
392;  MiCHELB  Pio,  Vita  e  morte  dd  ven.  P.  M,  Fr.  Serafino  dma 
Porrecta  (Bologna,  1616). 

D.  J.  Kennedy. 

Porta,  Carlo,  poet,  b.  at  Milan  in  1775;  d.  there, 
5  Januarv,  1821 ;  educated  by  the  Jesuits  at  Monza 
and  in  the  seminary  at  Milan.  Finding  uncongenial 
the  mercantile  pursuits  for  which  his  family  had 
destined  him,  he  obtained  posts  in  the  treasury  de- 
partment first  at  Venice  and  later  at  Milan.  He 
served  under  the  government  of  the  Cisalpine  Re- 
public and,  without  ceasing  to  be  an  Italian  patriot, 
welcomed  the  return  of  the  Austrian  rule,  since  it 
seemed  to  promise  peace  and  prosperity.  At  Milan 
he  enjoyed  the  companionship  of  noted  men  of  letters, 
among  them  Foscolo  and  Monti.  His  fame  is  based 
upon  his  felicitous  use  of  the  Milanese  dialect  for 
poetical  purposes.  He  was  a  Romanticist  and  argued 
m  favour  of  the  doctrines  of  his  friends  Manzoni  and 
Grossi  in  the  cantica  "El  Romanticism",  the  "Dodes 
Sonittal'abaaGiavan"  (i.  e.  Giordani),  the  "  Meneghin 
Classegh  * ' ,  and  others.  Some  of  his  views  are  opposed 
to  the  French,  who  had  brought  so  much  misery  into 
Italy.  He  is  most  successfm  in  humorous  composi- 
tions, in  which  he  truly  delineates  Milanese  types, 
especially  in  "Le  desgrazi  de  Giovannin  Bongee  ana 
"Le  olter  desgrazi  de  Giovannin  Bongee".  In  his 
use  of  dialect  Porta  evinces  the  greatest  skill;  his 
language  is  the  language  of  the  people  adapted  in  a 
most  masterly  way  to  the  purposes  of  literary  ex- 
pression. 

Babbxbra,  Poesie  edite,  inedits  e  rare,  aeette  e  iUtutraU  (Flor- 
ence, 1887) ;  Poetie  rivedute  uugli  originali  (Milan,  1887,  with  a 
bibliograi>hy  by  Robbccbi);  Lbttembrini,  II  Meli,  il  Cardone 
il  Porta  in  Morandi,  Antolooia;  D'Ovidio  ane  Sailbb,  Porta 
«  il  Mamoni  in  Diacuaaioni  Manzoniane  (CittA  di  Caatello,  1886). 

J.  D.  M.  Ford. 

Porta*  GiACOMO  della,  architect  and  sculptor,  b. 
at  Porlizza  on  Lake  Lugano  1541 ;  d.  1604.  He  was  a 
pupil  of  Michelangelo  and  succeeded  Vignola  as  archi- 
tect of  St.  Peter's.  Here  he  removed  the  temporary 
choir  built  hy  Bramante  and  with  the  aid  of  Domenico 
Fontana  finished  the  dome  and  lantern  by  1590  or 
1592.  He  completed  the  plan  of  II  Gesill,  the  ground- 
plan  and  other  chief  architectural  features  of  which 
are  the  work  of  Vignola,  departing  somewhat  from  his 
predecessor.  Della  Porta's  fagaoe  was,  in  connexion 
with  Vignola's  work,  an  authoritative  model  for  large 
numl)ers  of  buildings  in  the  Baroque  style.  The 
fagade,  fairly  simple  in  design,  is  built  in  two  stories, 
is  topped  by  a  gaole,  and  divided  by  half-pillars  and 
pilasters,  panels  and  niches.  It  can  hardly  be  said  to 
possess  a  clearly  defined  ecclesiastical  character;  the 
windows  and  entrances  recall  rather  the  style  of  a 
palace.  In  Santa  Maria  ai  monti,  he  followed  the 
ground-plan  of  the  church  of  II  Gesii.  He  made  the 
fagade  of  San  Luigi  de'  franoesi  a  piece  of  decorative 
work  entirely  independent  of  the  body  of  the  struc- 
ture, a  method  much  copied  later.   Another  architec- 


tural work  is  Santa  Catarina  de'  funari  at  Rome. 
With  Carlo  Madema  he  built  the  church  of  San  Gio- 
vanni de'  Fiorentini  from  the  designs  of  Sansovino. 
Sometimes  the  Sapienza  at  Rome  is  ascribed  to  MicJiel- 
angelo;  however,  della  Porta  had  charge  of  the  erec- 
tion and  work  on  the  interior  of  the  building  although 
he  did  not  complete  it.  In  constructing  an  addition 
to  Maria  Maggdore  he  altered  the  plans  of  Michel- 
angelo. He  had  something  of  the  spirit  of  this  great 
master,  although  he  had  neither  the  abilitv  nor  the 
desire  to  follow  him  in  everything;  yet  he  did  not  fall 
into  the  uncouth  exaggerations  ofthe  later  period.  In 
the  Palazzo  Famese  his  work  is  associatea  with  that 
of  Sangallo  and  M iohelangelo.  The  Villa  Aldobrandini 
with  its  superb  gardens  shows  what  beautiful  work 
della  Porta  could  construct  when  free  to  follow  his 
own  ideas.  At  Genoa  he  built  the  Annunziata,  not 
with  pilasters,  a  method  much  admired  in  the  Baroque 
style,  but  as  a  colunmed  basilica,  without,  however, 
infringing  on  the  spacious  width  customary  in  this 
style.  This  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  churches  of 
the  period.  As  a  sculptor  della  Porta  worked  on  the 
Certosa'of  Pavia.  He  has  loft  some  fine  groups  for 
fountains,  especially  the  fountains  at  the  Capitol  and 
on  the  Piazza  Mattel.  In  sculpture  his  teacher  was 
il  Gobbot 


UTT,  Qeach,  d.  BaroekaUU  in  lUUien  (Stuttgart,  1887). 

G.  GiBTMANN.. 

Portable  Altar.  See  Altar,  sub-title  Pobt- 
ABLB  Ai;rAB. 

Portalegre,  Diocesb  of,  suffragan  of  Lisbon, 
Portugal,  established  by  Pope  Julius  III  in  1550. 
Its  mat  bishop  was  Julian  d'  Alva,  a  Spaniard,  who 
was  transferred  to  Miranda  in  1557.  ^^  17  July, 
1560,  Andiz'  de  Noronha  succeeded  to  the  diocese,  but 
he  was  promoted  to  Placencia  in  1581.  Frei  Amador 
Arraes,  the  next  bishop,  was  the  author  of  a  cele- 
brated book  of  ''Dialogues'';  he  resigned  in  1582,  and 
retired  to  the  collej^e  of  his  order  in  Coimbra,  where 
he  remained  till  his  death.  Lopo  Soares  de  Alber- 
garia  and  Frei  Manoel  de  Gouvea  died  before  re- 
ceiving the  Bulls  confirming  their  nomination.  Diego 
Conra,  nephew  of  the  Venerable  Bartholomew  of  the 
Martjrrs  and  Bishop  of  Ceuta,  became  bishop  in 
1598,  and  died  on  9  October,  1614.  Among  the  bish- 
ops of  Portalegre  during  the  seventeenth  centurv 
was  Ricardo  Kussell,  an  Englishman,  who  took 
possession  of  the  see  on  17  September,  1671,  and  was 
subsequently  transferred  to  Vizeu.  The  present 
bishop  is  Antonio  Mutinho,  transferred  from  Ca- 
boverae  in  1909.  The  diocese  contains  197,343 
Catholics,  16  Protestants,  14§  parishes,  286  priests, 
447  churches  and  chapels. 

Port  Augusta,  Diocese  of  (Portaugustana), 
suffragan  of  Adelaide,  South  Australia,  created  in 
1887.  Its  boundaries  are:  north,  the  twenty-fifth 
degree  of  S.  latitude;  east,  the  States  of  Queensland 
and  New  South  Wales;  west,  the  State  of  West 
Australia;  south,  the  counties  Musgrave,  Jervois, 
Daly,  Stanley,  Li^ht.  Eyre,  and  the  River  Murray. 
As  the  limits  originalty  fixed  were  found  insuflUcient, 
the  counties  of  Victona  and  Burra  were  added.  At 
its  inception  the  diocese  was  heavily  burdened  with 
debt  and  the  Catholic  population,  numbering  about 
11,000,  became  much  diminished  owing  to  the  period- 
ical droughts  to  which  a  large  portion  of  the  diocese 
is  subject.  The  town  of  Port  Augusta  commands  a 
splendid  position  at  the  head  of  Spencer's  Gulf, 
overlooking  which  is  the  cathedral,  a  fine  stone  edifice. 
Its  Catholic  population  is  still  small,  but  is  bound  to 
increase  when  the  great  overland  railways  to  West 
Australia  and  to  Port  Darwin  in  the  far  Northern 
Territoiy  become  linked  together. 


POBT-AU-PBINCB 


284 


POBTER 


Right  Rev.  John  O'Reily,  D.D.  (to-day  Arch- 
bishop of  Adelaide),  consecrated  by  Cardinal  Moran 
at  Sydney  1  May,  1888,  was  the  first  Bidiop  of  Port 
Augusta.  His  cluef  work  was  liquidating  the  dio- 
cesan debts,  especially  that  of  the  cathedral.  He 
introduced  the  Sisters  of  the  Good  Samaritan  from 
Sydney  to  Port  Pirie  in  1890.  On  5  January,  189S, 
he  was  transferred  to  Adelaide  as  archbishop.  The 
second  bishop,  Right  Rev.  James  Maher,  D.D.  (d.  at 
Pekina,  20  December,  1905),  first  vicar-genersd,  then 
administrator  sede  vacarUe,  y^aa  consecrated  at  Ade- 
laide, 26  April.  1896.  His  episcopate  was  marked  by 
a  succession  of  fully  nine  years  of  drought,  which  ex- 
tended over  the  larger  portion  of  the  diocese.  Owing 
to  this  disaster  it  was  impossible  to  make  much 
material  progress,  but  the  finances  of  the  see  were 
kept  steadily  in  view.  The  third  bishop  and  present 
occupant  of  the  see,  Right  Rev.  John  Henry  Norton, 
D.D.  (b.  at  Ballaratj  Victoria,  31  Dec.,  1855),  was 
consecrated  at  Adelaide,  9  December,  1906.  He  is 
the  first  native  of  Ballarat  to  be  ord^ed  priest,  the 
first  Victorian,  and  the  third  Australian,  native  to  be 
raised  to  the  episcopate.  He  received  his  early  edu- 
cation in  that  city  and  afterwards  engajp;ed  m  the 
study  and  practice  of  architecture  for  lour  years. 
In  1872  he  entered  St.  Patrick's  College,  Melbourne, 
became  an  undergraduate  of  Melbourne  University, 
and.  on  10  June,  1876,  received  minor  orders  from 
Archbishop  Goold.  Early  in  1878  he  became  affili- 
ated to  the  then  Diocese  of  Adelaide  under  Right  Rev. 
C.  A.  Reynolds,  D.D.,  and  was  sent  by  him  to  Europe 
to  finish  his  studies.  After  a  year  at  St.  Kieran's 
College,  Kilkenny,  Ireland,  he  was  admitted  to 
Propaganda  College,  Rome,  and  was  ordained  by 
Cardinal  Monaco  la  Valetta  in  St.  John  Lateran's, 
8  April,   1882.     Returning  to  Adelaide,  February, 

1883,  he  was  engaged  at  the  cathedral  until  January, 

1884,  when  he  was  appointed  first  resident  priest  of 
the  new  district  of  Petersburg,  where  he  has  resided 
ever  since.  He  was  made  diocesan  consiiltor  in  1894, 
vicar-general  under  Dr.  Maher,  2  May,  1896,  admin- 
istrator sede  vacarUe  on  the  latter's  death,  and  ap- 
pointed bishop^8  August,  1906.  He  was  consecrated 
m  St.  Francis  Xavier  s  Cathedral,  Adelaide,  by  Most 
Rev.  Michael  Kelly,  D.D.,  Coadjutor  Archbishop  of 
Sydney  on  9  December,  1906.  As  parish  priest  he 
erected  a  church,  presbytery,  school,  and  convent  at 
Petersburg,  also  churches  at  Dawson,  Nackara,  Lan- 
celot, Yongala,  Teetulpa,  Renmark,  Farina,  and  other 
I>laces.  He  published  three  ''Reports  on  the  liabili- 
ties of  the  Diocese''.  He  has  recently  completed  a 
successful  campaign  for  the  final  liquidation  of  the 
cathedral  and  Kooringa  church  debts.  During  his 
episcopate  churches  have  been  erected  at  Wamer- 
town,  Hanmiond,  and  Wilmington,  and  convents  at 
Caltowie,  Jamestown,  and  Georgetown. 

The  (Uocese  is  divided  into  nine  districts  (not 
including  the  West  Coast  from  Talia  to  West  Aus- 
tralia, which  is  visited  from  Port  Lincoln  in  the  arch- 
diocese), namely.  Port  Augusta,  Carrieton,  Hawker, 
Georgetown,  Jamestown,  Kooringa^  Pekina,  Peters- 
burg, and  Port  Pirie.  There  are  10  diocesan  priests,  34 
churches,  two  religious  orders  of  women — tlie  Sisters 
of  St.  Joseph,  numbering  33,  and  the  Sisters  of  the 
Good  Samaritan,  numbenng  9.  The  former  have  con- 
vents and  primary  schools  in  Port  Augusta,  Gladstone, 
Jamestown,  Caltowie,  Kooringa,  Pekina,  Quom, 
Georgetown,  and  Petersburg;  tne  latter  are  estab- 
lished at  Port  Pirie  only,  where  they  manage  two  pri- 
mary schools,  including  a  boardins  and  select  school. 
The  children  in  these  thirteen  schools  number  754. 
The  Society  of  Jesus  had  resident  missionary  priests 
at  Port  Pine,  Kooringa,  Georgetown,  and  Jamestown, 
long  before  the  formation  of  the  territory  into  a  new 
diocese.  As  circumstances  permitted,  they  relin- 
quished Port  Pirie  in  November,  1890.  Kooringa  in 
September,  1899,  and  Jamestown  ana  Georgetown 


in  September,  1900.  Schools  are  maintained  in  24 
dififerent  places,  the  aggregate  cost  of  salaries  and 
general  maintenance  b«mg  estimated  at  £27,500  in 
the  last  twenty  years,  the  original  cost  of  the  build- 
ings at  £18(250,  or  a  total  expenditure  of  £45,750  by 
the  Cathohc  population,  which,  according  to  the 
census  of  1901,  is  estimated  at  11,953. 

Austrdltuian  Catholie  Directory ;  0'RKn.T.  Marbx,  Norton, 
Repcrtt  on  the  liainlitie*  of  the  Dtoeeee  of  Port  Auguata  (published 
between  1889-1907). 

John  H.  Nobton. 

Port-au-Prineei  Abchdiocesb  of  (Pobtus  Prin- 
cipis),  comprises  the  western  part  of  the  Republic  of 
Haiti.  Its  population  numbers  about  668,700,  mostly 
Catholics,  the  greater  part  of  whom  have  but  a  slight 
knowledge  of  their  rehgion,  and  are  scattered  over  a 
surface  of  about  3080  sq.  miles.  The  archdiocese  was 
created  by  the  Bull  of  3  June,  1861,  and  has  ever  since 
had  a  clergy  almost  exclusively  French.  In  the  eigh- 
teenth century  the  territory  of  the  present  archdiocese 
was  served  by  the  Dominicans,  and  after  the  French 
Revolution  was  left  in  the  hands  of  unworthy  clergy, 
who  were  driven  out  after  the  Concordat  of  1860. 
The  archdiocese  has  had  five  archbishops:  Mgrs 
Testard  du  Cosquer  (1863-69);  Guilloux  (1870-86); 
Hillion  (1886-90);  Tonti  (1894-1902);  Conan(1903). 
In  Januaiy,  1906,  Most  Rev.  Julian  Conan  held  the 
first  provmcial  council  of  Haiti  whose  acts  were 
approved  by  the  Congregation  of  the  Council,  3 
August,  1907.  Fourteen  diocesan  ssmods  have  also 
been  held  and  their  acts  and  statutes  have  regularly 
been  published.  The  seminary  for  senior  students  is 
in  France  (St.  Jacques,  Finist^re),  and  there  is  a 
seminary-college  at  Port-au-Prince  directed  by  the 
Fathers  of  the  Holv  Ghost  with  500  pupils.  About 
an  equal  number  of  boys  receive  their  instruction  at 
the  Institution  St.  Louis  de  (jonzague,  kept  by  the 
Brothers  of  Christian  Instruction.  Tliere  are  two 
secondary  establishments  for  girls:  Ste  Rose  de  Lima, 
directed  by  the  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  de  Cluny,  ana 
Notre  Dame  du  Sacr6-C<Bur,  directed  by  the  Filles  de  la 
Sa^esse.  The  province  has  a  monthly  religious  bul- 
letm  published  at  Port-au-Prince.  Archbishop  Guil- 
loux has  left  a  valuable  work  for  the  history  of  the 
archdiocese  and  of  the  province,  ''Le  Concordat 
d'Haiti,  ses  rdsultats'',  a  pamphlet  of  twentjr-eight 
pages  relating  to  the  origin  of  the  different  diocesan 
works.  The  metropolitan  church  has  honorary 
canons,  not  constituting  a  chapter,  and  named  by  the 
archbishop.  The  archdiocese  (1911)  has  24  panshes, 
140  rural  chapels;  priests,  55  secular,  42  regular;  67 
Brothers  of  Instruction;   192  sisters. 

A.  Cabob. 

Port  de  la  Pais.    See  Cap  Haitzen,  Diocssb  or. 

Porter,  doorkeeper  {osHaritia,  Lat.  ostium^  a  door}, 
denoted  among  the  Romans  the  slave  whose  duty  it 
was  to  guajrd  the  entrance  of  the  house.  In  the  Roman 
period  all  houses  of  the  better  class  had  an  oaiiarius, 
or  ostiary,  whose  duties  were  considered  very  in- 
ferior. When,  from  the  end  of  the  second  century, 
the  Christian  commimities  began  to  own  houses  for 
holding  church  ^rvices  and  for  purposes  of  admin- 
istration, church  ostiaries  are  soon  mentioned,  at  least 
for  the  larger  cities.  They  are  first  referred  to  in  the 
letter  of  Pope  (Domelius  to  Bishop  Fabius  of  Antioch 
written  in  251  (Eusebius,  "H.  E.",  VI,  43),  where  it 
is  said  that  there  were  then  at  Home  46  priests,  7 
deacons,  7  subdeacons,  42  acolytes,  and  52  exorcists, 
lectors,  and  ostiaries,  or  doorkeepers.  According  to 
the  statement  of  the  "Liber  Pontificalis"  (ed. 
Duchesne,  1, 155)  an  ostiary  named  Romanus  suffered 
martyrdom  in  258  at  the  same  time  as  St.  Lawrence. 
In  Western  Europe  the  office  of  the  ostiary  was  the 
lowest  grade  of  the  minor  clergy.  In  a  law  of  377  of 
the  Codex  Theodosianus  (Lib.  XVI,  tit.  II,  num. 


PORTEB 


285 


PORTEB 


XXIV;  ed.  Gothofredi,  VI,  I,  57)  intended  for  the 
Vicariate  of  Italy,  the  ostiariee  are  aJso  mentioned 
among  the  clersy  who  have  a  right  to  personal  im- 
munity. In  hifl letter  of  1 1  March,  494,  to  the  bishops 
of  southern  Italy  and  Sicily  Pope  Gelasius  savs  that 
for  admission  into  the  clergy  it  was  necessary  that  the 
candidate  could  read  (must,  therefore,  have  a  certain 
amount  of  education),  for  without  this  prerequisite  an 
applicant  could,  at  the  most,  only  fill  the  office  of  an 
ostiary  (P.  L.,  LVI,  691).  in  Rome  itself  this  office 
attuned  to  no  particiilar  development,  as  a  large  part 
of  these  duties,  namely  the  actual  work  necessarv  in 
the  church  building,  what  is  now  probably  the  duty 
of  the  sexton,  was  at  Rome  performed  by  the  nuxn- 
Honarii,  The  clergy  of  the  three  lower  grades  (minor 
orders)  were  unitea  at  Rome  into  the  Sckola  cantorum 
and  as  such  took  part  in  the  church  ceremonies.  There 
are  no  special  prayers  or  ceremonies  for  the  ordination 
of  the  lower  clergy  in  the  oldest  liturgical  books  of  the 
Poman  Church.  For  the  Galilean  Rite,  short  stat^ 
ments  concerning  the  ordination  of  the  lower  orders, 
among  them  that  of  the  ostiaiies,  are  found  in  the 
''Statuta  ecclesise  antiqua",  a  collection  of  canons 
which  appeared  at  Aries  about  the  beginning  of  the 
sixth  century  (Maassen,  "Quellen  des  Kirchen- 
rechts",  1, 382).  The  " Sacramentarium  Gelasianum" 
and  the  ''Missale  Francorum^'  contain  the  same  rite 
with  the  prayers  used  on  this  occasion. 

Accordm;;  to  these  the  ostiaries  are  first  instructed 
in  their  duties  by  the  archdeacon;  after  this  he  brings 
them  before  the  bishop,  who  takes  the  keys  of  the 
church  from  the  altar  and  hands  them  to  the  candidate 
for  ordination  with  the  words:  ''Fulfil  thine  office  to 
show  that  thou  knowest  that  thou  wilt  give  account  to 
God  concerning  the  things  that  are  locked  away  under 
these  keys."  Then  follows  a  prayer  for  the  candidate 
and  a  prayer  for  the  occasion  that  the  bishop  pro- 
nounces over  him.  This  ceremony  was  also  at  a  later 
date  adopted  by  the  Roman  Church  in  its  liturgy  and 
has  contmued  with  slight  changes  in  the  formulae 
until  now.  In  Latin.  Western  Europe,  outside  of 
Rome,  in  the  late  Roman  era  and  the  one  following,  , 
the  ostiaries  were  still  actually  employed  as  guardians 
of  the  church  buildinss  and  of  their  contents.  This  is 
shown  by  the  epitaph  of  one  Ursatius,  an  ostiary  of 
Trier  (Corpus  inscr.  latin..  XIII,  3789).  An  ostiary 
of  the  church  of  Ssdona  is  also  mentioned  in  an  epitaph 
(Corous  inscr.  latin.,  IIL  13142).  Later,  however,  in 
the  Latin  Church  the  office  of  ostiary  universally  re- 
mained only  one  of  the  degrees  of  ordination  and  the 
actual  work  of  the  ostiary  was  transferred  to  the  laity 
(sacristans,  sextons,  etc.).  In  the  ordination  of 
ostiaries  at  the  present  day  their  duties  are  thus 
enumerated  in  the  Pontifical:  ''Percutere  cymbalum 
et  campanam,  aperire  ecclesiam  et  sacrarium.  et 
librum  ei  aperire  qui  prsdicat''  (to  ring  the  bell,  to 
open  the  church  and  sacristy,  to  open  the  book  for 
the  preacher) .  The  forms  of  prayer  for  the  ordination 
are  similar  to  those  in  the  old  Galilean  Rite.  In  the 
East  there  were  also  doorkeepers  in  the  service  of  the 
^Church.  They  are  enumerated  as  ecclesiastical  per- 
sons by  the  CJouncil  of  Laodicea  (343-81).  Like  the 
acolytes  and  exorcists,  they  were  only  appointed  to 
serve  the  church,  but  received  no  actual  ordination, 
and  were  not  regarded  as  belonging  to  the  ecclesias- 
tical hierarchy.  According  to  the  ''Apostolic  Con- 
stitutions", belondng  to  the  end  of  the  fourth  century, 
the  guarding  of  the  door  of  the  church  during  the 
service  was  the  duty  of  the  deacons  and  subdeacons. 
Thus  the  doorkeepers  exercised  their  office  only  when 
service  was  not  being  held. 

DucnsNS.  Oriffinei  du  euiU  ehrltim  (5th  ed..  Paris,  1909).  349 
■q.;  WiKiAND.  D.  gtnetuche  BntwielUuiw  d.  togen.  Ordine* 
minarn  in  den  drei  ertttn  Jahrhuiulerten  (Rome,  1897),  54  aqq., 
161  eqc].;  Thomabsxnus.  Vetut  ei  nova  eccUtia  dueiplind  circa 
hfn^ieia  ei  beneficiarioe,  pt.  i,  lib.  I,  cap.  xzz-zxxiii,  I  (Lyons,  ed. 
1706),  319  aqq. 

J.  P.  KlRBCH. 


Porter,  Francis,  controversialist  and  historian, 
b.  at  Kingston,  near  Navan,  L*eland,  1622;'  d.  at 
Rome,  7  April.  1702.  He  was  descended  from  the 
Norman  family  of  Le  Porter,  which  had  been  settled 
in  Ireland  from  the  time  of  Henry  IL  and  were  great 
benefactors  of  the  Franciscans.  While  still  very 
young,  Porter  went  to  Rome,  entered  the  Fran- 
ciscan Order,  took  degrees  in  philosophy  and 
theology,  and  for  several  years  tauuit  controversiai 
theolo^,  ecclesiastical  histdry  and  dogmatic  the- 
ology m  St.  Isidore's  College.  King  James  II  ap- 
pointed him  his  theologian  and  hi8toriop;rapher.  In 
1679  he  published  in  Rome  his  "Secuns  evangelica 
ad  hffiresis  radices  posita'^,  an  able  controversial 
work  in  which  he  confutes  the  fimdamental  prin- 
ciples of  Protestantism  and  its  several  sects.  In  the 
same  year  he  published  at  Rome  his  '^PaUnodia  Re- 
li|;ionis  prsetensse  reformatae",  in  which  he  proves 
with  solid  and  convincing  arguments  that  the 
Catholic  Church  is  the  Church  founded  by  Jesus 
Christ.  To  it  is  prefixed  a  "Prspfatio  apologetica" 
— a  noble  appeal  to  the  princes  and  state  councillors 
of  Protestant  countries  to  abolish  the  infamous  laws 
promulgated  in  their  respective  states  against  the 
Catholic  Church.  His  compendium  of  the  ecclesias- 
tical annals  of  the  Kingdom  of  Ireland  was  published 
in  Rome  in  1690,  and  dedicated  to  Pope  Alexander 
VIII.  After  a  brief  outline  of  the  civil  histoiy  of 
Ireland,  the  author  gives  a  summary  account  of  the 
foundations  of  the  several  dioceses  and  religious  houses 
pointing  out  the  constancy  of  the  Irish  people  in 
preservmg  the  Faith,  and  the  persecutions  they  suf- 
fered for  their  religion. 

Besides  the  works  mentioned  above,  he  published 
"Systema  decretorum  dogmaticorum'^  Avignon, 
1693;  "Disquisitio  theologica  de  prseservando 
fcedere  inito  cum  Principe  Duriaoo  hseretico  invasore 
regis  oorome  ac  dictionum  Jacobi  II,  legitimi  et 
Catholici  principis.  Prsemittitur  facti  historia", 
Rome,  1683 ;  De  abolitione  oonsuetudinis  prse- 
standi  juramentum  reis^',  Rome,  1696;  ''Refutatio 
Prophetiarum  falso  attributarum  S.  Malachiae", 
Rome,  1698. 

JoAKNBS  A  S.  Antonio,  BiblioOieca  Univeraa  Franeiteana 
(Madrid,  1764);  Brxnan.  Bed.  History  of  Ireland  (Dublin.  1864): 
Webb.  Compendium  of  Iri^h  Biography  (Dublin,  1878) ;  Cooan, 
Dioceee  of  Meath,  Ancieni  and  Modem  (Dublin,  1870);  da. 
CxvEZKA,  Storia  dette  Miasioni  Franeescane,  VII  (Prato,  1883); 
MS8.  in  Franciscan  Convent,  Dublin. 

Gregory  Cleart. 

Porter,  George.  Archbishop  of  Bombay,  b.  1825 
at  Exeter,  Ekigland;  d.  at  Bombay,  28  September, 
1889.  Of  Scotch  descent,  he  was  educated  at  Stony- 
hurst  and  joined  the  Society  of  Jesus  in  1841.  After 
making  his  novitiate  at  Hodder,  and  devoting  three 
jrears  to  philosophy  at  Stonyhurst,  he  was  employed 
m  teaching  at  Stonyhurst  and  at  St.  Francis  Xavier's 
College,  Liverpool,  becoming  prefect  of  studies  at  the 
former  college  in  1849.  In  1853  he  went  to  St. 
Beuno's  College,  North  Wales,  for  theology,  and  in 
1856  was  ordained  priest.  His  theological  studies 
were  completed  in  Rome  under  Passaclia  and  Schra- 
der.  After  two  years  more  spent  at  Stonyhurst  and 
a  year  at  Liesse,  near  Laon,  Father  Porter  returned 
to  St.  Beuno's,  where  for  four  years  he  occupied  the 
chair  of  dogmatic  theology.  He  was  then  appointed 
rector  at  Overpool,  but  was  moved  to  London  in 
1871,  becoming  master  of  novices  two  years  later. 
In  1881  he  was  appointed  rector  of  Farm  Street, 
London,  but  he  was  soon  called  to  Fiesole  as  assistant 
to  the  general.  In  December,  1886,  he  was  made 
Archbishop  of  Bombay  (q.  v.).  Father  Porter's 
collected  "Letters"  (London,  1891)  reveal  the  ver- 
satility of  his  mind  and  his  skill  in  direction.  He 
translated  or  wrote  prefaces  for  a  number  of  spiritual 
books  and  compiled  "The  Priest's  Manual  for  the 
Holy   Sacrifice   of   the   Mass'-    (Liverpool,    1858). 


PORTIO 


286 


PORTHINCULA 


Some  of  his  meditationfl  and  considerations  have  been 
printed  for  private  circulation. 

GiLLOW,  Bud,  Die,  Eng.  Calk.,  a.  v. 

Charles  Plater. 

Portio  CoBgrua.    See  CoNOBnA. 

Portiuncula  (Porzioncula  or  Porziuncola),  a 
town  and  parish  situated  about  three-quarters  of  a 
mile  from  Assisi.  The  town,  numbering  about  2000 
inhabitants  and  officially  known  as  Santa  Maria  degli 
Angeh,  has  srown  up  around  the  church  (basihca)  of 
Our  Lady  ofthe  Angels  and  the  adioining  Franciscan 
monastery.  It  was  here  that  on  24  Feb.,  1208,  St. 
Francis  of  Ascdsi  recognized  his  vocation;  here  was 
for  the  most  part  his  permanent  abode,  after  the  Bene- 
dictines (of  tne  Cluny  Congregation  from  about  1200) 
had  presented  him  (about  1211)  with  the  little  chapel 
Portiuncula,  i.  e.  a  little  oortion  (of  land) ;  here  also 
he  died  on  Saturday,  3  Oct.,  1226.  According  to  a 
legend,  the  existence  of  which  can  be  traced  back  with 
certainty  only  to  1645,  the  little  chapel  of  Portiuncula 
was  erected  under  Pope  Liberius  (352-66)  by  hermits 
from  the  Valley  of  Josaphat,  who  had  brought 
thither  rehcs  from  the  grave  oi  the  Blessed  Virgin. 
The  same  legend  relates  that  the  chapel  passed  into 
the  possession  of  St.  Benedict  in  516.  It  was  known 
as  Our  Lady  of  the  Valley  of  Josaphat  or  of  the  Angels 
— the  latter  title  referring,  according  to  some,  to  Our 
Lady's  ascent  into  heaven  accompanied  by  angels 
(Assumption  B.  M.  V.) ;  a  better  founded  opmion  at- 
tributes the  name  to  the  singing  of  angels  which  had 
been  frequently  heard  there.  However  this  may  be, 
here  or  in  this  neighbourhood  was  the  cradle  of  the 
Franciscan  Order,  and  on  his  death-bed  St.  Francis  rec- 
ommended the  chapel  to  the  faithful  protection  and 
care  of  his  brethren.  Concerning  the  form  and  plan  of 
the  first  monastery  built  near  the  chapel  we  have  no  in- 
formation, nor  is  the  exact  form  of  the  loggia  or  plat- 
forms built  round  the  chapel  itself,  or  of  the  chou*  for 
the  brothers  built  behind  it,  known.  Shortly  after 
1200,  the  chapel,  which  measured  only  about  twenty- 
two  feet  by  tnirteen  and  a  half,  became  entirel>r  in- 
adequate to  accommodate  the  throngs  of  pilgrims. 
The  altar  piece,  an  Annunciation,  was  painted  by  the 
priest,  Hilarius  of  Viterbo,  in  1393.  The  monastery 
was  at  most  the  residence,  only  for  a  short  time,  of 
the  ministerfr-general  of  the  order  after  St.  Francis. 
In  1415  it  first  became  associated  with  the  Regular 
Observance,  in  the  care  of  which  it  remains  to  the 
present  day.  The  buildings,  which  had  been  grad- 
ually added  to,  around  the  shrine  were  taken  down  by 
order  of  Pius  V  (1566-72),  except  the  cell  in  which  St. 
Francis  had  died,  and  were  replaced  by  ^  a  large 
basilica  in  contemporary  style.  The  new  edifice  was 
erected  over  the  cell  lust  mentioned  and  over  the 
Portiuncula  chapel,  which  is  utuated  immediately 
under  the  cupola.  The  basilica,  which  has  three  naves 
and  a  circle  of  chapels  extending  along  the  entire 
length  of  the  aisles,  was  completed  (156^^78)  accord- 
ing to  the  plans  of  Jacob  Barozzi,  named  Vignola 
(1507-73),  assisted  by  Alessi  Galeazzo  (1512-72).  The 
Doric  order  was  chosen.  The  basilica  forms  a  Latin 
cross  416  feet  lon^  by  210  feet  wide;  above  the  middle 
of  the  transept  rises  the  magnificent  cupola,  flanked 
by  a  single  siae-tower,  the  second  never  having  been 
finished.  In  the  night  of  15  March.  1832,  the  arch 
of  the  three  naves  and  of  the  choir  fell  in,  in  conse- 
quence of  an  earthquake,  but  the  cupola  escaped  with 
a  big  crack.  Gregory  XVI  had  all  restored  (1836- 
40),  and  on  8  Sept.,  1840,  the  basilica  was  recon- 
secrated by  Cardinal  Lambruschini.  By  Brief  of  11 
April,  1909,  Pius  X  raised  it  to  a  "patriarchal 
basilica  and  papal  chaper\  The  high  altar  was 
therefore  immediately  rebuilt  at  the  expense  of  the 
Franciscan  province  of  the  Holy  Cross  (also  known 
as  the  Saxon  province),  and  a  papsJ  throne  added. 


The  new  altar  was  solemnly  consecrated  by  Car- 
dinal De  Lai  on  7  Dec.,  1910.  Under  the  bay  of 
the  choir,  resting  agunst  the  columns  of  the  cupola, 
is  still  preserved  the  cell  in  which  St.  Francis  died, 
while,  a  little  behind  the  sacristy,  is  the  spot  where 
the  saint,  during  a  temptation,  is  said  to  have 
rolled  in  a  briar-bush,  which  was  then  changed  into 
thomless  roses.  During  this  same  ^ht  the  saint 
received  the  Portiuncula  Indulgence.  The  representa- 
tion of  the  reception  of  this  Indulgence  on  the  facade 
of  the  Portiuncula  chapel,  the  work  of  Fr.  Overbeck 
(1829),  enjo3rs  great  celebrity. 

The  Portiuncula  Indulgence  could  at  first  be  gained 
only  in  the  Portiuncula  chapel  between  the  afternoon 
of  1  AujK.  and  simset  on  2  Aug.  On  5  Aug.,  1480  (or 
1481),  Sixtus  IV  extended  it  to  all  churches  of  the 
first  and  second  orders  of  St.  Francis  for  Franciscans; 
on  4  July,  1622,  this  privilege  was  further  extended  by 
Gregory  XV  to  all  the  faithful,  who,  after  confession 
and  the  reception  of  Holy  Communion,  visited  such 
churches  on  the  appointed  day.  On  12  Oct.,  1622, 
Gregorygranted  the  same  privilege  to  all  the  churches 
of  the  Capuchins;  Urban  VIII  granted  it  for  all 
churches  of  the  regular  Third  Order  on  13  Jan.,  1643, 
and  Clement  X  for  all  churches  of  the  Conventuals 
on  3  Oct.,  1670.  Later  popes  extended  the  privilege 
to  all  churches  pertaining  in  any  way  to  the  Franciscan 
Order^  even  to  churches  in  which  the  Third  Order 
held  its  meetings  (even  parish  churches  etc.),  pro- 
vided that  there  was  no  Franciscan  church  in  the 
district,  and  that  such  a  church  wafi  distant  over  an 
ItaUan  mile  (1000  paces,  about  1640  yards).  Some 
districts  and  countnes  have  been  granted  special  priv- 
ileges. On  9  July.  1910,  Pius  X  (only,  however,  for 
that  year)  granted  the  privilege  that  bishops  could 
appoint  any  public  churches  whatsoever  for  the  gain- 
ing of  tJie  rortiuncuia  Indulgence,  whether  on  2  Aug. 
or  the  Sunday  following  (Acta  Apostolicse  Sedis,  II, 
1910,  443  sq.;  Acta  Ord.  Frat.  Min.,  XXIX,  1910, 
226).  This  privilege  has  been  renewed  for  an  in- 
definite time  by  a  decree  of  the  S.  Cong,  of  Indul., 
26  Maroh.  1911  (Acta  Apostolicse  Sedis,  III,  1911, 
233-4) .  The  Indulgence  b  toties-quoties^  that  is.  it  may 
be  gained  as  often  as  one  wishes  (i.  e.  visits  the  church) ; 
it  is  also  applicable  to  the  souls  in  purgatory. 

While  the  declarations  of  the  popes  have  rendered 
the  Portiimcula  Indulgence  certain  and  indisputable 
from  the  juridico-canonistic  standpoint,  its  historical 
authenticity  (sc.  origin  from  St.  Francis)  is  still  a  sub- 
ject of  dispute.  The  controversy  arises  from  the  fact 
that  none  of  the  old  legends  of  St.  Francis  mentions 
the  Indulgence,  and  no  contemporaxy  document  or 
mention  of  it  has  come  down  to  us.  The  oldest  docu- 
ment dealing  with  the  Indulgence  is  a  notary's  deed 
of  31  Octol^,  1277,  in  which  Blessed  Benedict  of 
Arezzo,  whom  St.  Francis  himself  received  into  the 
order,  testifies  that  he  had  been  informed  by  Brother 
Masseo,  a  companion  of  St.  Francis,  of  the  granting 
of  the  Indulgence  by  Honorius  III  at  Perugia.  Then 
follow  other  testimonies,  for  example,  those  of  Jacob 
CappoU  concerning  Brother  Leo,  of  Fr.  Oddo  of  Aqua* 
sparta,  Peter  Zalfani,  Peter  John  Olivi  (d.  1298,  who 
wrote  a  scholastic  tract  in  defence  of  this  Indulgence 
about  1279),  Blessed  John  of  Lavema  (Fermo;  d. 
1322),  Ubertinus  of  Casale  (d.  after  1335),  Blessed 
Francis  of  Fabriano  (d.  1322),  whose  testimony  goes 
back  to  the  year  1268,  etc.  In  addition  to  these 
rather  curt  and  concise  testimonies  there  are  others 
which  relate  all  details  in  connexion  with  the  grant- 
ing of  the  Indulgence,  and  were  reproduced  in  num- 
berless books:  e.  g.  the  testimony  of  Michael  Ber- 
nardi,  the  letters  of  Bishop  Theobald  of  Assisi 
(1296-1329)  and  of  his  successor  Conrad  Andres 
(1329-37).  All  the  testimonies  were  collected  by  Fr. 
Francesco  Bartholi  della  Rossa  in  a  special  work. 
"Tractatus  de  Indulgentia  S.  Maris  de  Portiuncula' 
(ed.  Sabatier,  Paris,  1900).    In  his  edition  of  this 


PORTLAND  287  PORTLAND 

work,  Sabatier  defends  the  Indulgence,  although  in  From  Ste  -  Croix  Island  on  12  *  September,  1605, 
his  world-famous  "Vie  de  S.  Frangois"  (Paris,  1894),  Champlain  set  out  on  a  voyage  of  discovery.  He 
he  had  denied  its  historicity  (412  sqq.);  he  explains  sailed  west  along  the  coast  as  far  as  the  Penobscot 
the  silence  of  St.  Francis  and  his  companions  and  River,  which  he  ascended  to  the  mouth  of  the  Ken- 
biographers  as  due  to  reasons  of  discretion  etc.  duskeag  Stream,  the  present  site  of  Bangor.  The 
Others  seek  to  accord  more  weight  to  the  later  testi-  falls,  a  mile  above,  prevented  further  progress.  De- 
monies  by  accentuating  their  connexion  with  the  scending  the  Penobscot  Rivei*,  Champlain  sailed  west 
first  generation  of  the  order;  others  again  find  al-  to  the  mouth  of  the  Kennebec  and  then  returned  to  the 
lusions  to  the  Indulgence  in  the  old  legends  of  St.  Island  of  Holv  Cross.  No  doubt  Holy  Mass  was 
Francis.  On  the  other  hand,  the  opponents  regard  offered  up  on  this  voyage.  This  was  the  first  foothold 
the  gap  between  1216  and  1277  as  unbridgable,  and  of  France  and  Catholicism  in  the  North.  Potrincourt 
hold  that  the  grounds  brought  forward  by  the  de-  who  succeeded  De  Mont,  after  receiving  a  blessing  on 
fenders  to  explain  this  silence  had  vanished  long  his  labours  from  the  popNe,  applied  himself  to  the  work 
before  the  latter  date.  No  new  documents  have  of  colonization  and  Christianizing  the  natives.  Two 
been  found  recently  in  favour  of  tHe  authenticity  of  Jesuits,  Fathers  Peter  Biard  and  Enemond  Mass^, 
the  Indulgence.  who  were  sent  to  him  after  some  work  among  the 
ViTAus.  Paradiaus  teraphicus:  PoHiuncula  Mcra  (Milan,  1645);  Micmacs  of  Nova  Scotia,  Came  to  Maine,  and  began 

S.TTrien'l.rsl^.'it/o^r^Sfsqt:*'*??^  their  very  succ^ul  labours  among  the  AUaW.  .In 

Disaeriationes  critico-historiccB  (Rome,  1784);  Amedeo  da  Solero.  a  vessel  imder  the  command  of  La  Saussaye,  having 

Gloria  delta  sacra  Porziunnda,  otsia  compendioatorico  diS.  Maria  on  board  also  Fathers  Qucntiu  and  Lalemant,  and  the 

tlU.'ff'p^!:^  J^tll,:  i'^.'jSiri'S i^ffZei'f^^:  J»y  bn>ther  Du  Thet,  who  had  lately  come  from 

1SS4).  ital.  tr.  (FoiiRno.  18S4);  German  tr.  (Rixheim.  Alsace.  France,  they  sailed  to  the  west  and  Came  to  Mt. 

y|H4);   new  Ital.  ©d.  Sta  Maria  degii  Ayeii  (1895);  Sabatier.  Desert  Island,  where  they  landed,  and  having  erected 

Ktiuie  crttxqtte  aur    la   concession  dc  I  Itutulgetice  de  la    Port,  m  „  «-«aa    «*>♦  .iJL  «««  oU«»  "o«r1     nf^-JL.  ^«P<>»:»»  *u«  IT^I.. 

Revue  hinL,  LXII  (Paris.   1896).  282-318  ^or  the  authenticity  g  ^^0^,  SCt  Up  811  altar,  and,  after  Offering  the  Holy 

of  the  origin  of  the  Indulgence) ;  Padlus,  Die  BniHiiguvg  des  Sacnnce  of  the  Mass,  founded  a  settlement  which  they 

Por/*u»»rute-^6/a«se«  in  Die  K<uhoiik,  I  (Main*.  1899).  97-125  called  St.  Sauvcur,  or  Holy  Redeemer.    This  settle- 

(for);    Idem,  76uf.,  II  (1901),  185-7  (against  the  authenticity  of  «.««!  WM  destrovpd  hv  Arcrall    who  camp  from  Vir- 

the  ongin  ot  the  Indulgence);    Sattjrnino  (Mencherini)  da  *^^^^  was  arairoyea  oy  J\rgau,  wno  came  irom  yir- 

Caprese.  L'addio  di  s.  Francesco  alia  Verna  etc.  (Prato,  1901),  ginia.    The  Fathers  Were  taken  pnsoners,  and  after 

with  documents;  D'ALENgoN  in  E/t^€«/ran««c..  XI  (Parw^  many  hardships  Were  finally  returned  to  France. 

X(F'3feo^*il^'.  t  ^■^."87^/729';;,^?  i6i'^"q:/K^'„-:  Brother  Du  Thet  wa«  killed  and  buried  on  this  island. , 
Die  Portiuncuia-AbU&s  m    Theoiog.  QuartaUchr.,  Lxxxvill        Some  Capuchins  Were  afterwards  stationed  along. 

(Tttbingcn.  1906),  81-101;  211-ji.  published  aeparately  (TO-  the  coast  in  the  French  posts,  and  had  a  convent  at 

n"'iTih'!S!k{:^^i^S^S;^'y^^^^  Castme  ^d  some  Bettlements  along  the  Kennebec. 

XXI  (1902),  372-80,  doubtful;  XXVI  (1907),  140-1,  against;  In  1646,  Father  Gabnel  Dnullettes  was  sent  to  the  • 

LBMMENa,  DitaUesten  Zeugnisse/iir  d.  Portiunkulaablass  m  Die  Kennebec  and  established  the  mission  of  the  Assump- 

Kalholik,  I  (1908),  169-84.  253-67.  for;    Holsapfel,  Die  ErUste-  *•   ^  ^^^^„  ♦!,«  AK^.^cU:    y%K4o;«i;«^»  «r^««^A^i.1  ,»>«..U. 

hung  d.  Port.  Ablasses  in  Archiv.  franeisc.  hist.,  I  (QuaJacchi.  1908).  J^^^  among  the  Abenaki,  obtaining  wonderf ul  results 

31-46,  for;  Bihl  in  iircAtv. /rancMc.  Ami.,  I.  653  sqq.;  Fierxnb,  from  this  docile  people.    In  1652,  he  returned  to 

De  OesehiMundige  Ooraprprio  wn  het  A/iaat  van  PoHiunhUa  Canada,  but  in  1656  and  1657,  came  again  and  con- 

^"Sii  {;?^SU^!1^h15'c'^'^^,  ^J^^S^^'^"'^  ""■  tinued  his  work     Rev.  I^ur^t  Moljn,  a  Franciscan, 

MiCHABL  BiHL.  laboured  at  Pentagoet.    In  1667,  Father  Moram  was 

successful  with  the  Penobscots  and  Passamaquoddy 

Portlandi  Diocese  of,  in  the  State  of  Maine,  Indians.    In  1667,  Father  Thurv,  a  secular  priest, 

suffragan  of  Boston,  estabhshed  by  Pius  IX^  8  Dec.,  came  to  the  Penobscots  and  laboured  successfully 

1854.    When  erected  it  included  the  territonal  limits  among  them  to  the  close  of  his  life.    In  1668,  he  estab- 

of  the  present  States  of  Maine  and  New  Hampshire,  lished  the  mission  at  Panawaniski,  at  Oldtown.    He 

Previous  to  that  time  it  was  under  the  jurisdiction  was  succeeded  by  Fathers  Gaudin  and  Rageot,  who 

of  the  Bishop  of  Baltimore  and  later  of  the  Bishop  remained  among  the  Penobscots  until  1703.    In  1668, 

of  Boston.    In  1884  the  diocese  was  divided,  New  Father  Bigot  erected  a  chapel  at  Narantsouac,  now 

Hampshire  being  made  a  separate  diocese  and  the  Norridgewock,  restoring  the  mission.    The  Jesuits, 

episcopal  see  located  at  Manchester  (q.  v.).    The  Fathers   Joseph   de   la   Chasse,    Julian   Binn6teau, 

present  Diocese  of  Portland  includes  all  the  State  of  Joseph  Aub6ry.  Sebastian  Rasle,  Sebastian  Lauvergat 

Maine.    It  has  an  area  of  29,895  square  miles,  and  a  and  Loyard,  laooured  in  turn.    Of  these  Father  Rasle 

Catholic  population  of  125,000,  or  one-sixth  of  the  is  the  best  known.    He  came  to  Norridgewock  in 

total  population.    The  diocese  is  oreanized  in  the  1695.    There  he  found  a  chapel  and  had  the  Indians 

form  of  a  corporation  sole,  the  title  of  which  is  instructed.     In  1705,  the  English  destroyed  the  chapel 

"Roman  Catholic  Bishop  of  Portland".  and  village.    They  were  rebuilt  in  1722,  were  once 

•  Early  His^ry. — The  earUest  attempts  at  Cath-  more  destroy^ed,  and  Father  Rasle's  treasures  were 

olic  colonization  in  the  north  or  east  of  wnat  is  known  carried  ofif,  mcluding  his  dictionary  of  the  Abenaki 

as  the  United  States  took  place  in  Southern  Maine,  language,  now  in  Harvard  College.    Father  Rasle 

In  1604,  sixteen  years  before  the  Pilgrims  landed  at  was  muraer^  and  scalped  on  23  August,  1724,  and  his 

Plymouth,  Henry  IV,  King  of  France,  gave  authority  scalp  carried  to  Boston.    His  body  was  buried  on  the 

to  Pierre  au  Gaust,  Sieur  de  Monts,  to  establish  colo-  spot  where  the  altar  had  stood.    Father  James  de 

nies  between  the  4()th  and  46th  degrees  of  north  lati-  Sirenne  restored  the  mission  at  Norridgewock  in  1730. 

tude.    He  landed  at  Cape  La  Heve,  on  the  southern  For  a  long  period  during  the  wars  the  Indians  were 

part  of  the  Nova  Scotian  coast,  and  aiter  making  without   missionaries,   yet  they  remained   faithful, 

several  expeditions  to  the  north  in  the  vicinitv  of  the  Numbers  of  the  Abenaki  fought  for  the  Colonies  dur- 

St.  Lawrence,  sailed  south  and  discovered  and  named  ing  the  War  of  Independence.     After  the  war,  when 

the  River  St.  John,  thence  south  to  an  island  which  Bishop  Carroll  was  consecrated  first  Bishop  of  the 

he  named  Ste-Croix,  or  Holy  Cross,  and  now  called  United  States,  the  Indians  sent  a  deputation  to  him 

De  Monts  Island.    The  Ste-Croix  River  derived  its  for  a  priest.    Father  Ciouard,  a  priest  of  St.  Sulpice, 

name  from  this  island,  and  to-day  flows  by  the  east-  was  sent  in  answer  to  this  appeal  and  remained  for 

emmost  part  of  the  United  States.    A  colony  was  ten  years,  until  1794.    In  1797,  the  Rev.  John  Chev- 

established  on  this  island,  and  in  their  chapel  in  July,  ems,  then  a  missionary  at  Boston,  came  to  visit  the 

1 604,  Holy  Mass  was  offered  for  the  first  time  in  New  Indians  and  remained  three  months,  and  while  priest 

England  by  the  Rev.  Nicholas  Aubray  of  Paris.    The  and  first  Bishop  of  Boston,  visited  them  evenr  year 

hardships  of  the  severe  winter  were  such  that  seventy-  until  1804,  built  them  a  church  and  gave  them  Father 

nine  of  the  colonists  died  befor*^  the  ooening  of  spring.  Romagne  as  their  pastor.    The  latter  devoted  him- 


PORTLAND                              288  PORTLAND 

self  for  twenty  years  to  the  Penobecots  and  Passa-  He  also  cauaed  to  be  built  on  the  same  grounds  a 
mfiM]uoddys  and  to  the  scattered  Catholic  missions,  home  for  aged  women,  and  a  neat  chapel  to  serve  the 
Bishop  Fenwick  was  consecrated  in  1825^  and  con-  needs  of  the  CathoUcs  in  the  vicinitv.  In  1887,  St. 
tinuea  the  work.  Father  Ffrench,  a  Dominican,  was  Elizabeth's  Orphan  Asylum,  which  had  been  trans- 
stationed  at  Eastport,  and  from  that  place  visited  the  ferred  to  Nortn  Whiteneld,  shortly  after  his  acoes- 
Indian  missions.  In  July,  1827,  Bishop  Fenwick  sion,  was  re-established  in  Portland.  The  Sacred 
visited  them  and  at  intervals  later.  In  1833,  109  Heart  School  for  boys  was  established  by  him  in  1803. 
years  after  the  destruction  of  the  mission  at  Norridge-  Bishop  Healy  died  5  August,  1900,  respected  and  be- 
wock,  Bishop  Fenwick  erected  a  monument  to  tne  loved  oy  priests  and  people,  as  a  scholar,  a  master  of 
memory  of  Father  Rasle.  Father  Demilier  continued  oratory,  and  a  man  of  sanctity, 
the  work  until  his  death  23  July,  1843.  Bishop  .The  third  Bishop  of  Portland  was  liVilIiam  Henry 
Fitzpatrick,  the  successor  to  Bishop  Fenwick,  gave  O'Connell  (see  Boston). 

over  the  Abenaki  mission  to  the  Society  of  Jesus,  and,  Louis  Sebastian  Wai^h,  fourth  bishop,  b.  at 
in  1848,  Father  John  Bapst  was  sent  to  Oldtown  and  Sklem.  Mass^  2^  Jan.,  1858,  son  of  Patrick  Walsh 
became  a  zealous  missionary  to  both  whites  and  and  Honora  Foley.  He  was  educated  for  the  priest- 
Indians.  The  Indians  of  Maine  are,  as  a  result  of  the  hood  at  the  Grand  Seminanr,  Montreal,  and  St- 
careful  teaching  and  self-sacrificing  labours  of  the  Sulpice  Seminary,  Paris,  and  later  made  profounder 
missionaries,  Catholics.  studies  of  canon  law  and  theology  at  Rome.    Or- 

In  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century,  some  dained  in  St.  John  Lateran,  Rome,  23  Dec.,  1882,  by 
immigrants  from  Ireland  came  to  Maine  and  settled  Cardinal  La  VsJletta,  he  was  appointed  assistant 
in  the  towns  of  Newcastle,  Damarisootta.  and  Noble-  pastor  at  St.  Joseph's  Church,  Boston,  and  professor 
boro.  Seven  Catholic  families  had  settled  at  Dam-  and  director  at  St.  Joseph's  Seminary,  Briuiton,  at 
ariscotta  Bridge,  and  for  them  Father  Cheverus  said  its  opening  in  1884,  where  for  thirteen  years  he  taught 
Mass  in  the  bam  of  Matthew  Cottrill.  Later  Mr.  church  h£tory,  canon  law,  and  liturgy.  In  Sept., 
James  Kavanaugh,  a  merchant  of  the  town,  had  fitted  1897,  he  was  appointed  supervisor  of  Catholic  schools 
up  a  neat  chapel  and  Mass  was  celebrated  there  on  in  the  archdiocese.  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
the  visitations  of  the  priest.  In  1800,  Mr.  Kavanaugh  "New  En^and  Catholic  Historical  Society",  also  of 
and  his  partner,  Mr.  Cottrill,  subscribed  SIOOO  each  for  the  "Catholic  Educational  Association".  He  was 
the  new  church,  which  was  dedicated  17  July,  1808,  appointed  Bishop  of  Portland  in  Aug.,  1906.  and  con- 
Father  Cheverus  officiating.  This  was  the  second  secrated  in  the  cathedral  at  Portland  on  18  Oct.,  1906, 
Catholic  church  in  New  England,  and  the  first  built  by  Rt.  Rev.  Matthew  Harkins  of  Providence.  New 
by  English-speaking  Catholics  in  Maine.  In  1822,  parishes  and  schools  were  soon  established,  and  the 
Bishop  Cheverus  came  to  Portland  at  the  request  of  mother-house  of  the  Diocesan  Sisters  of  Mercy  was 
some  Catholics,  and  said  the  first  Mass  in  Portland,  erected  in  the  Deering  district  of  Portland.  Bishop 
Bishop  Fenwick  succeeded  Bishop  Cheverus  and  ruled  Widsh  opened  in  Sept.,  1909,  the  Catholic  Institute 
the  New  England  province  from  1825  to  1845.  The  in  the  former  mother-house  of  the  Sisters  of  Mercy, 
work  of  Bishop  Cheverus  among  the  Indians  was  con-  wherein  are  taught  200  boys,  also  the  Holy  Innocents 
tinned  by  Bishop  Fenwick,  and  he  established  in  July,  Home  for  Infants  and  St.  Anthony's  Guild  for  Work- 
1834,  the  Cathohc  colony  at  Benedicta  in  Northern  ing  Girls.  At  Damariscotta  in  Aug.,  1908,  a  oelebra- 
Maine  and  to-day  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  township  tion  was  arranged  to  commemorate  the  hundredth 
are  Catholics.  In  1853  the  Holy  See  divided  the  anniversary  of  the  dedication  of  the  parish  church, 
diocese  of  Boston  and  erected  a  new  see  at  Portland,  and  on  this  occasion  was  formed  the  '*  Maine  Catholic 
and  named  its  first  bishop,  David  William  Bacon  Historical.  Society".  At  Norridgewock  the  monu- 
(see  Bacon,  David  William).  ment  erected  by  Bishop  Fenwick  to  the  memory  of 

James  Augustins  Healy,  second  bishop,  b.  at  Father  Rasle,  S.  J.,  was  replaced  and  re-dedicated. 
Macon,  Ga.,  6  April,  1830.  He  entered  Holy  Cross  On  Mt.  Desert  Island  in  the  town  of  Bar  Harbor  the 
College,  1844,  and  graduated,  1849.  His  theological  arrival  of  the  first  missionaries,  in  1604,  was  corn- 
education  was  received  at  the  Grand  Seminary,  memorated;  and  a  beautiful  church  dedicated  under 
Montreal,  where  he  spent  three  years,  then  two  years  the  name  given  to  the  island  by  them,  that  of  St- 
at St-Sulpice,  Paris.  He  was  ordained  in  the  Cathe-  Sauveur  or  Holy  Redeemer,  was  erected.  The  char- 
dral  of  Notre  Dame,  Paris,  by  Archbishop  Sibour,  10  ities  of  the  diocese  have  been  arranged  on  a  |>ermanent 
June,  1854.  He  began  his  priestly  labours  in  Boston  basis.  In  generid  it  may  be  said  that  there  is  a  splen- 
as  Secretary  to  Bishop  Fitzpatrick,  and  became  the  did  advance  in  all  that  pertains  to  the  Church, 
first  chancellor  of  the  diocese.  In  March,  1866,  he  Statistics. — ^Within  the  limits  of  the  diocese,  com- 
was  named  pastor  of  St.  James'  Church  by  Bishop  prising  the  State  of  Maine,  there  are  (1911)  125,000 
Williams.  A  papal  bull  dated  12  Feb.,  1875,  desig-  Catholics.  They  are  carea  for  by  12$  seculars  and 
nated  him  as  second  Bishop  of  Portland.  He  was  22  priests  of  religious  orders.  There  are  70  churches 
consecrated  in  the  Cathedral  of  the  Immaculate  Con-  with  resident  pastors  and  49  mission  churches,  36 
ception,  Portland,  2  June,  1875.  When  he  assumed  chapels  and  67  stations.  There  is  one  college.  St. 
the  cares  of  the  diocese  he  found  the  Church  well  Mfuy's,  Van  Buren,  conducted  by  the  Marist  Fathers, 
established  in  the  cities  of  Maine  and  New  Hampshire.  Nine  academies  have  an  enrolhnent  of  500  pupils. 
In  the  small  towns,  however,  little  was  known  of  St.  Joseph's  Academy  of  Maine,  conducted  by  the 
Catholic  doctrine.  Bishop  Healy  estabUshed  many  Sisters  of  Mercy,  is  the  largest  and  best,  and  furnishes 
missions  and  new  parishes  and  the  Catholic  name  be-  instruction  to  100  pupils.  There  are  two  schools  for 
came  known  in  all  parts  of  the  state.  He  introduced  Indians  caring  for  132  pupils;  tYi^ee  Catholic  hospitids 
the  Dominicans  ana  Marists  and  some  religious  orders  and  one  home  for  aged  women.  The  orphans  under 
of  women,  and  was  instnmiental  in  establishing  the  Catholic  care  nyml^r  415.  Total  of  young  people 
hospital  and  Healy  Asylum  in  Lewiston.    In  February,  under  Catholic  care,  12,274. 

1877,  the  school  begun  in  Portland  by  Bishop  Bacon  Religious  Communities. — ^The  Dominican  Fathers 
was  completed  at  a  cost  of  $23,000.  It  is  named  the  are  established  in  Lewiston  and  the  Marists  at  Van 
Kavanaugh  School  in  honour  of  Miss  Kavanaugh,  a  Buren  and  Lower  Grand  Isle.  The  Diocesan  Sis- 
sister  of  Governor  Edward  Kavanaugh.  In  1881,  ters  of  Mercy  have  their  mother-house  in  Portland 
Bishop  Healy  purchased  a  splendid  estate  in  Deering,  and  number  185.  The  following  Sisters  and  congre- 
then  a  separate  town,  but  now  a  part  of  Portland,  and  gations  are  engaged  in  various  parts  of  the  state: 
opened  a  boarding  school  for  girls,  under  the  care  of  The  Sisters  of  Charity;  Grey  Nuns;  Dominican  Sis- 
the  Sisters  of  Mercy.  It  is  known  as  St.  Joseph's  ters;  Little  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Family;  Little  Fran- 
Aoademy,  and  has  an  enrollment  of  about  100  pupils,  ciscan  Sisters  of  Mary;  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Rosary j 


PORT 


289 


PORTO 


Congregation  of  Notre  Dame;  Sister  Sery^ts  of  the 
Immaculate  Heart  of  Mary;  Daughters  of  Wisdom; 
Sisters  of  the  Presentation;  Ursuhne  Sisters;  Sisters 
of  St.  Joseph. 

Clarkb,  Deceased  Bishopa  (New  York,  1872);  Shka.  History  of 
the  CatKolie  Ch.  in  U,  8,  Qlew  York,  1888);  Youko.  Dioene  of 
Portland  (Boston.  1899);  WiLTnus,  QfficiaL  Directory,  1910. 

John  W.  Houlihan. 

Port  Louis»  Diocese  of  (Pohtus  Ludovici).  com- 
prises the  islands  of  Mauritius,  Rodriguez,  Chagos, 
and  Diego  Garcia.  The  Island  of  Mauritius  was  dis- 
covered by  the  Portuguese  about  1507,  but  no  settle- 
ment was  formed.  The  Dutch  who  visited  it  in  1598 
called  it  Mauritius  in  honour  of  the  Stadtholder, 
Maurice  of  Nassau;  they  sent  a  colony  there  in  1644, 
but  abandoned  the  island  in  1710  or  1712.  When  the 
French  took  possession  in  1715  they  changed  the  name 
to  He  de  France.  It  was  long  a  French  trading  centre, 
and  in  1789  became  the  seat  of  the  French  Govern- 
ment in  the  East.  It  was  captured  by  the  English  in 
1810,  being  formally  ceded  to  Great  Britain  by  the 
Treaty  of  Paris  in  1814.  The  French  language  and 
law  have  been  preserved,  but  the  ancient  name  was 
restored  by  the  Britbh  Government.  Port  Louis,  the 
capital,  onthenorthjwest  coast,  is  the  seat  of  the  Cath- 
olic and  Anglican  bishoprics,  and  also  the  residence  of 
the  colonial  govemor^t  present  (1911)  Sir  Cavendish 
Boyle,  K.  C.  M.  G.  The  census  of  1901  gave  the  total 
population  of  the  island  as  373,336,  of  whom  113^244 
were  Catholics,  and  that  of  the  town  of  Port  Louis  as 
52,740.  There  are  Government  schools  and  denomina- 
tional schools  aided  by  the  State;  Catholics  constitute 
64.71  per  cent  of  the  pupils. 

In  1712  a  prefecture  Apostolic,  including  the  islands 
of  Madagascar^  Reunion  (then  Bourbon),  Mauritius 
etc.,  was  established  in  the  Indian  Ocean  and  confided 
to  the  Congregation  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul.  By  a 
Brief  of  6  October,  1740,  Benedict  XIV  made  the  mis- 
sion dependent  on  the  Archdiocese  of  Paris.  After  the 
British  occupation  of  Mauritius  a  vicariate  Apostolic 
was  established  which,  by  a  Decree  of  21  January, 
1819;  was  confided  to  Rt.  Rev.  Edward  Bede  Slater, 
Vicar  Apostolic  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  the 
Island  of  Madagascar;  shortly  afterwards  the  region 
of  New  Holland  was  annexed  to  the  vicariate.  In  1829 
the  Island  of  Madagascar  was  separated  from  the 
vicariate,  and  in  1834  the  district  of  New  Holland  was 
suppressed.  The  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  the  Island  of 
St.  Helena,  and  the  Seychelles  Islands  were  cut  off 
from  the  mission  of  Mauritius  in  1837,  1851,  and  1852 
respectively,  the  Diocese  of  Port  Louis  having  been 
erected  by  a  Decree  of  1  December.  1847.  The  pres- 
ent bishop,  Rt.  Rev.  James  R.  Bilsoorrow,  elected  to 
the  see  on  13  Sept.,  1910,  succeeded  the  Rt.  Rev. 
Peter  Augustus  O^Neill  (b.  at  Liverpool  22  Dec.,  1841; 
made  his  profession  as  a  Benedictine  at  Douai  10  Dec, 
1861;  was  ordained  6  April,  1867;  elevated  to  the 
episcopate  22  May,  1896,  consecrated  29  June  of  that 
year).  The  present  CathoUc  population  of  the  dio- 
cese is  119,000;  there  are  52  priests,  27  churches, 
and  40  chapels.  Religious  orders  include  Jesuits  ana 
Fathers  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  Loreto  Sisters,  Sisters  of  . 
Charity  of  Perpetual  Help,  and  the  Daughters  of 
Mary. 

MissiONES  CATHOUcjg;    Annuaire  poniif.  (1911);    Kellsr, 
Jladoi^tMcor,  Mauritius,  and  other  Bast  African  Islands  (London). 

Blanche  M.  Kellt. 

Porto.    See  Oporto,  Diocese  of. 

Porto  Alegre,  Archdiocese  of  (Portaleoren- 
bis),  in  Eastern  Brazil.  Porto  Alegre,  the  capital 
and  chief  port  of  the  State  of  Rio  Grande  do  Sul, 
is  built  on  the  northern  extremity  of  Lagoa  dos 
Patos  and  on  the  eastern  shore  of  the  estuary  called 
Rio  Guahyba.  It  was  founded  in  1742  by  a  colony 
of  immigrants  from  the  Azores,  and  was  first  known 
as  Porto  dos  Cazaes.  In  1770  Governor  Jose  Mar- 
XII.— 19 


cellino  de  Figuereido  selected  it  as  his  official  red- 
dence,  and  in  1773  the  town  received  its  present 
name.  '  Raised  to  the  rank  of  a  city  in  1822,  it  was 
given  in  1841  in  recognition  of  its  loyalty  the  title 
^*leal  e  valorosa".  The  city  is  the  chiet  commercial 
centre  of  the  state,  and  has  a  harbour  accessible  to 
vessels  of  not  more  than  ten  feet  draught.  The 
principal  industry  of  the  state  is  stock-raising,  which 
was  first  organized  by  the  Jesuit  missionaries  in  the 
seventeenth  century.  The  muntcipio  has  an  area 
of  931  so.  miles;  the  latest  census  returns  assign  the 
city  (including  several  districts  not  within  the  munici- 
pal boimdaries)  a  population  of  73,574  inhabitants, 
for  the  most  part  of  German  and  Italian  extraction. 
The  climate,  while  cool  and  bracing  in  winter,  is 
intensely  hot  during  the  sunmier;  the  average  annual 
rainfall  exceeds  thirty  inches.  Porto  Alegre  has 
four  newspapers,  including  the  Catfiolic  "Deutsches 
Volksblatf ;  the  state  institutions  include  the  mu- 
nicipal palace,  the  governor's  palace,  the  school  of 
ngmeering,  the  military  college,  school  of  medicine, 


eni 


and  four  general  schools.  Christianity  was  .first 
introduced  into  the  country  by  the  Jesuits  in  the 
early  part  of  the  seventeenth  century,  after  the 
Indian  slave  hunters  of  S&o  Paulo  had  forced  them  to 
abandon  their  missions  in  Upper  Parand.  In  1848 
the  state,  which  has  an  area  of  about  91^300  sq.  mil(», 
was  formed  into  the  Diocese  of  Sfto  Pedro  do  Rio 
Grande  do  Sul.  On  4  March,  1910,  Pius  X  divided 
the  territory  of  the  state  between  this  see  (which  he 
raised  to  metropolitan  rank  with  the  title  of  Porto 
Alegre,  now  appointed  its  seat),  and  its  newly 
created  suffragans,  Pelotas,  Santa  Maria,  Uruguayana, 
and  Florianopolis.  The  religious  statistics  at  the 
time  of  the  division  were:  1,400,000  Catholics, 
115,000  Protestants  (including  5,000  Methodists), 
134  parishes  and  parochial  charges,  245  priests  (in- 
cluding 225  regular),  68  brothers,  58  seminarians, 
nearly  iOO  sisters,  6  gymnasiums ^  2  normal  schools. 
1  agricultural  school^  and  more  than  500  schoob  and 
colleges.  The  principal  religious  orders  of  the  arch- 
diocese are  the  Jesuits  (St.  Joseph's  Church,  gym- 
nasium etc.),  the  Pallottini  Fathers,  the  Sisters  of 
St.  Francis,  the  Sisters  of  St.  Catherine,  the  Sisters 
of  St.  Joseph,  the  Evangelical  School  Brothers,  the 
Capuchins  (who  have  charge  of  the  episcopal  semi- 
nary). Nearly  all  the  hospitals  are  managed  by 
nuns.  The  chief  churches  are  the  Cathedral  of  Our 
Lady  Madre  de  Deus,  the  church  of  Nossa  Senhora 
des  Dores,  and  the  (Jesuit)  church  of  St.  Joseph. 
The  present  archbishop  is  the  Most  Reverend  Claoudi 
Jose  Gonial ves  Ponce  de  Leao  (b.  21  Feb.,  1841), 
transferred  from  the  Diocese  of  Goyaz  to  the  former 
Diocese  of  Rio  Grande  on  13  May,  1881.  On  21 
February.  1906,  Mgr  Jofto  Antonio  Pimenta,  titular 
Bishop  of  Pentacomia,  was  appointed  coadjutor  with 
right  of  succession. 

See  list  of  general  works  in  bibliography  of  article  on  Bbaxiu 
Annuaire  pontif.  Cathol,  (Paris,  1011). 

MOIRA  K.   COYLE. 

Porto  Alegre,  Diocese  of  (Portalegren.) com- 
prises the  southern  part  of  the  State  of  Minas  Geraes, 
and  part  of  the  State  of  Sfto  Paulo,  Republic  of  Bra- 
ail.  It  was  created  a  bishopric  b^  Brief  of  4  August, 
1900;  the  see  is  located  at  the  city  of  Porto  Alegre, 
State  of  Minas  Geraes.  The  first  bishop  was  Mgr 
G.  Bathista  Correa  Nery,  succeeded  by  Mgr  Antonio 
Augusto  de  Assis.  The  diocese  proper  has  62  parishes 
with  120  secular  priests  and  6  regular  priests  and  a 
total  Catholic  population  of  800,000  souls. 

For  the  education  of  young  men  in  the  ecclesiastical 
career  there  b  in  Porto  Alegre  a  theological  seminary, 
founded  in  August,  1902,  by  Mgr  Correa  Nery. 
There  is  also  an  excellent  high  school  known  as  the 
Diocesan  College  of  San  Jos^,  and  founded  in  1899  by 
Mgr  de  Andrade.  For  the  conversion  of  infidels 
there  are  the  Diocesan  Missionaries  of  the  Heart  of 


PORTO 


290 


PORTO 


Mary,  an  order  founded  in  1902  by  Mgr.  Correa  Nery, 
and  composed  of  six  priests  under  a  superior. 

The  official  organ  of  the  diocese  is  the  **  Mensageiro 
Ecclesiastico",  a  monthly  review  of  about  32  pages, 
whose  present  editor  is  Father  Octavia  Chagas  de 
Miranda.  There  is  besides  another  Catholic  publica- 
tion, "O  Estudo",  issued  by  the  College  of  San  Jos6. 

Annuaire  Pontifical  CcUholique  (Paris,  1911),  s.  v.  Pou9o-Alegre. 

Julian  Moreno-Lacalle. 

Porto  and  Saata-Ruflna,  Diocese  of  (Portuen- 
BI8  BT  Sancta  Rufinjb),  formed  from  the  union  of 
two  suburbicarian  sees.  Porto,  now  a  wretched  vil- 
lage, was  in  ancient  times  the  cnief  harbour  of  Rome. 
It  owes  its  oiiran  to  the  port  built  by  Claudius  on  the 
right  of  the  Tiber,  opposite  Ostia;  Trajan  enlarged 
the  basin,  and  in  a  short  time  there  grew  around  it  a 
city  whicn  soon  l^ame  independent  of  Ostia.  It  was 
near  Porto  that  Julius  Nepoe  compelled  Emperor 
Glycerins  to  abdicate  (474).  During  the  Gothic  War 
the  town  served  the  Goths  (537  and  649)  and  the 
Byzantines  (546-52)  as  a  base  of  operations  against 
Rome.  In  the  ninth  and  tenth  centuries  it  was  sacked 
on  several  occasions  by  the  Saracens.  In  849  Leo  IV 
fortified  it  and  established  there  a  colony  of  Corsicans 
for  the  defence  of  the  coast  and  the  neighbouring  terri- 
tory; but  the  city  continued  to  decay.  Naturally. 
Christianity  was  early  established  there.  Several 
martyrs  of  Porto  are  known,  including  Herculanus, 
Hyacinthus,  Martialis,  Satuminus  Epictetus,  Maprilis 
and  Felix.  The  place  was  also  famous  as  the  probable 
see  of  St.  Hippolytus  (q.  v.).  In  314  Gregorius  was 
bishop.  The  great  xenodochiumf  or  hospice,  of  Pam- 
machius  was  built  about  370.  Among  the  other  bish- 
ops should  be  mentioned  Donatus  (date  uncertain), 
who  built  the  basilica  of  St.  Eutropius;  Felix,  a  con- 
temporary of  St.  Gregory  the  Great;  Joannes,  legate 
to  tne  Sixth  General  Council  (680);  Gregorius,  who 
accompanied  Pope  Constantino  to  Constantinople 
(710);  Gregorius  II  (743-61);  Citonatus,  present  at 
the  consecration  of  the  antipope  Constantme  (767); 
Radoaldus,  who  acted  contrary  to  his  instructions  on 
the  occasion  of  the  difficulties  with  Photius  at  Con- 
stantinople (862),  and  who  was  deposed  for  having 
frevaricated  in  connexion  with  the  divorce  of  Lothair 
I  of  Lorraine;  Formosus,  who  became  pope  (891); 
Benedictus  (963),  who  consecrated  the  antipope  Leo 
VIII;  Gregorio  (c.  991),  who  built  the  irrigation  sys- 
tem of  the  territorv  of  the  diocese;  Benedict  VIII  and 
Benedict  IX  were  bishops  of  Porto;  Mauritius  (1097), 
sent  by  Paschal  II  to  establish  order  in  reUgious  aifairs 
in  the  Holy  Land;  Callistus  II  (1119-24),  who  united 
to  the  See  of  Porto  the  other  suburbicarian  See  of 
Silva  Candida  or  Santa  Rufina. 

Santa  Rufina  grew  up  ai  ound  the  basilica  of  the  Holy 
Martyrs  Sts.  Rufina  and  Secunda  on  the  Via  Aurelia, 
fourteen  miles  from  Rome;  the  basilica  is  said  to  have 
been  begun  by  Julius  I,  and  was  finished  by  Saint  Dama- 
sus.  In  the  ninth  century  this  town  was  destroyed  by 
the  Saracens,  and  the  efforts  of  Leo  IV  and  Sergius  III 
werqamable  to  save  it  from  total  ruin :  all  that  remains 
are  tne  remnants  of  the  ancient  basilica  and  a  chapel. 
The  first  notice  of  it  as  an  episcopal  see  dates  from  the 
fifth  century^  when  its  bishop  Adeodatus  was  present 
at  the  councils  held  by  Pope  Symmachus;  its  bishop 
St.  Valentinus,  Vicar  of  Rome  during  the  absence  of 
Vigilius,  had  his  hands  cut  off  by  Totila.  Among  its 
other  bishops  mention  should  be  made  of  Tiberius 
(594),  Ursus  (680),  Nicetas  (710),  Hildebrand  (906), 
and  Peter  (1026),  whose  iurisdiction  over  the  Leonine 
City,  the  Trastevere,  and  the  Insula  Tiberina  (island 
in  the  Tiber)  was  confirmed.  The  residence  of  the 
bishops  of  Silva  Candida  was  on  the  Insula  Tiberina 
beside  the  church  of  Sts.  Adalbert  and  Paulinus,  while 
that  of  the  bishops  of  Porto  was  on  the  same  island 
near  the  church  of  San  Giovanni.  The  bishops  of 
Silva  Candida,  moreover,  enjoyed  great  prerogatives 


in  relation  .with  the  ceremonies  of  the  basilica  of  St. 
Peter.  The  most  famous  of  these  prelates  was  Car- 
dinal Humbertus,  who  accompanied  Leo  IX  from 
Burgundy  to  Rome;  he  was  appointed  Bishop  of 
Sicily  by  that  pope,  but,  having  been  prevented  by  the 
Normans  from  landing  on  the  island,  he  received  the 
See  of  Silva  Candida,  and  later  was  sent  to  Constanti- 
nople to  settle  the  controversies  aroused  by  Michael 
Caerularius.  He  wrote  against  the  errors  of  the 
Greeks  and  against  Berengarius  (1051-63).  The  last 
Bishop  was  Mainardus.  Historically,  therefore,  the 
Bishop  of  Porto  became  the  second  cardinal^  Ostia 
being  the  first,  and  officiated  on  Mondays  m  the 
Lateran  Basilica;  he  obtained,  moreover,  the  other 
rights  of  the  Bishop  of  Santa  Rufina,  but  lost  jurisdic- 
tion over  the  Leonine  City  and  its  environs,  when  they 
were  united  to  the  city  of  Rome.  Among  its  better 
known  cardinal-bishops  are:  Peter  (1119),  a  partisan 
of  Anacletus  II;  Theodevinus  (1133),  a  German,  sent 
on  manv  missions  to  Germany  and  to  the  Holy  Land; 
Bemardus  (1159),  who  exerted  himself  to  bring  about 
peace  between  Adrian  IV  and  Barbarossa;  Theodinus 
(1177),  who  examined  the  cause  of  St.  Thomas  k 
Becket;  Cencio  Savelli  (1219) ;  Conrad  (1219),  a  Cis- 
tercian; Romano  Bonaventura  (1227),  who  obtained 
the  confirmation  of  all  the  rights  of  his  see;  Ottbne 
Candido  (1243),. of  the  house  of  the  marchesi  di  Mon- 
f  errato,  sent  on  several  occasions  as  legate  by  Innocent 
IV  to  Frederick  II ;  Robert  Kilwardly ,  formerly  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  poisoned  at  Viterbo  (1280); 
Matteo  da  Acquasparta  (1290),  a  former  general  of  the 
Franciscans  and  a  renowned  theologian;  Giovanni 
Minio  (1302),  a  general  of  the  Franciscans;  Giacomo 
Amaldo  d'Euse  (1312),  who  became  Pope  John  XXII; 
Pietro  Corsini  (1374).  who  adhered,  later,  to  the  West- 
em  Schism;  Louis,  Duke  of  Berry,  created  in  1412  by 
John  XXIII. 

During  the  incumbency  of  Francesco  Condulmer, 
Nicholas  V  separated  the  sees  of  Porto  ahd  Silva  Can- 
dida, and  gave  the  latter  to  John  Kemp,  Archbishop 
of  Canterbury,  at  whose  death  (1445)  the  sees  were 
reunited.  Then  came  Guillaume  d'Estouteville(1455) ; 
Rodrigo  Borgia  (1476),  who  became  Pope  Alexander 
VI;  Raffaele  Riario  (1508);  Gian  Pietro  Carafa 
(1553),  vho  became  Pope  Paul  IV;  Giovanni  Morone 
(1565);  CristoforoMaaruzzi  (1570);  Alessandro  Far- 
ilese  (1578);  Fulvio  Comeo  (1580);  Francesco  M. 
Brancati  (1666);  Ulderico  Carpegna  (1675),  who  left 
a  legacy  to"  defray  the  expenses  of  quadrennial  mis- 
sions; Carlo  Rossetti  (1680);  Alderano  Cibo  (1683); 
Pietro  Ottoboni  (1687),  who  became  Pope  Alexander 
VIII;  Flavio  Chigi  (1693),  who  enlarged  the  cathedral 
and  richly  furnished  it;  Nicol6  Acciaiuolo  (1700); 
Vicenzo  M.  Orsini  (1715),  who  became  Pope  Benedict 
XIII;  Giulio  della  Soma^lia  (1818);  Barfolommeo 
Pacca  (1821).  In  1826,  Civitavecchia  was  separated 
from  the  Diocese  of  Viterbo  and  Toscanella  ana  united 
mih  that  of  Porto,  but  in  1854,  with  Cometo,  it  was 
made  an  independent  see.  Mention  should  be  made 
of  the  Cardinal  Bishop  of  Porto  Luigi,  Lambriischini 
(1847),  who  restored  the  cathedral  and  the  episcopal 
palace.  FVom  the  sixteenth  century,  the  incumbency 
of  prelates  of  this  see  was,  as  a  rule,  of  short  duration, 
because  most  of  the  cardinal-bishops  preferred  the  See 
of  Ostia  and  Velletri,  which  they  exchanged  for  their 
own  as  soon  as  possible.  The  Diocese  of  Csere,  ndw 
Cervetri,  has  been  united  with  that  of  Porto  since  the 
twelfth  century.  Caere  was  an  ancient  city,  called  at 
first  Agylla,  where  the  sanctuaries  of  Rome  and  the 
Vestals  were  hidden  during  the  invasion  of  the  Gauls; 
the  Etruscan  tombs  scattered  about  its  territory  are 
important  archaeologically.  Cer\'etri  had  bishops  of 
its  own  until  the  eleventh  centurj';  the  first  was 
Adeodatus  (499),  assuming  that  he  was  not  the  Adeo- 
datus who  signed  himself  Bishop  of  Silva-Candida  in 
the  third  synod  of  Pope  Symmachus  (501).  The  last 
known  was  Benedictus,  referred  to  in  1015  and  1029. 


PORT  2! 

The  Diocese  of  Porto  and  SantaRufina  has  18  parishes, 
with  4600  inhabitants. 

PlAUA,  Qtrarckia  eantinaliria;  CAPraLLBTn,  Lt  ChitM 
inialia.  i:  b»  ttoui  in  BtJltUiw  dTanJitaUit^  rritl.  (ISeai,  37; 
ToHUAUnn  in  Arelkino  dtUa  Sot.  Kan.  di  Stona  Patria,  XXUl 
(1900).  143:  B^TTAHDIEB,  Anniiaira  Ponti/leal  CiMoliqiH  (Puia. 

U.  Bbnioni. 

Port  of  SpaiH)  Archdioce8B  of  (Portds  Hia- 
PakIjE),  an  archiepiscopaJ  and  metropolitan  see,  in- 
cluding the  Islands  of  Trinidad,  ToDaeo,  Grenada, 
the  Grenadines,  St.  Vincent,  and  St.  Lucia.  The 
Catholic  population  is  about  200,000.  Christianity 
was  introduoed  by  the  Spanish  discoverers,  and 
missions  establiBhed  in  those  islands  where  permanent 
settlements  were  effected.  The  first  preacoere  of  the 
Faith  in  Trinidad  were  Fathers  Francisco  de  Cordova 
and  Juan  Gu-c£e,  both  Dominicans,  who  died  at  the 
hands  of  the  Indians  in  1513.  The  Franciscans 
arrived  in  1590,  and  maintuned  their  conaexion  with 
Trinidad  until  the  British  occupation  in  the  beginning 
,  of  the  nineteenth  century.  Fathers  Esteban  de  San 
Felix,  Marco  de  Vique,  and  a  lay-brother,  Ramon  de 
Figuerola,  Francis- 
cans, were  slaugh- 
tered by  the  nativee 
in  1699.  Theirbodiee 
were  interred  in  the 
parish  church  of  San 
Jds£  de  OruCa,  then 
the  chief  town  of  the 
cobny,  and  they 
were  venerated  aa 
martyrsoftheFuth. 
The  Governor  of  the 
colony,  DonJoaS  de 
Leon,  and  a  Domini- 
can, Father  Juan  de 
Moein  Sotomayor, 
lost  Ihur  lives  de- 


other     religious    la-  Auchbishop's  Homr.    P< 

boured    in  Grenada 

and  the  other  islands,  but  as  these  colonies  fill  into 
British  hands  they  were  replaced  by  the  secular 
clergy.  When  in  1797  Trinidad  was  surrerdered 
to  Great  Britain  the  status  of  the  Catholic  re- 
ligion underwent  no  change,  aa  stipulated  in  the 
terms  of  capitulation  granted  by  Sir  Ralph  Aber- 
crombie.  The  new  authorities  undertook  to  eon- 
tribute  to  the  maintenance  of  the  cler^  and  continue 
to  do  90.  In  1820  at  the  instance  of  Governor  Sir 
Ralph  Woodford,  the  Trinidad  Catholics  were  with- 
drawn from  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Bishop  of  Guayana, 
Veneiuela,  and  Mgr.  James  Buckley  was  appointea 
the  first  bishop.  The  cathedral  of  Port  of  Kpain  wafi 
built  during  his  administration.  He  was  succeeded 
by  Mgr.  McDonnell,  whose  successor  was  Mgr. 
Fuchard  Smith,  the  first  archbishop.  Mgr  Vincent 
Spaccapietra,  his  successor,  is  held  in  veneration  for 
bis  heroic  exertions  during  an  epidemic  of  cholera. 


On  Mgr  Spaccapietra' 6  transfer  to  the  Sec  of  Smyi 
Terdinand  English  was  mipointed  to  PoM 

IS  succeeded  by  Mgr.  J,  L.  Gonin,  O.P. 


Mgr.  Ferd 


ipointed  to  Port  ol 
'  '    Honin,  O.P., 

__  in  Trinidad 
earl^  Spanish 


who  requested  the  Dominicans  to 
the  work  begun  by  their  predeeeas  ^     , 

days.  A  email  number  arrived  in  1864;  their  numb< 
increased  under  Mgr.  Patrick  Vincent  Flood,  O.P., 
and  th«r  wort  extended  to  Grenada.  On  Mgr. 
Flood's  death  in  1907,  during  an  extended  vacancy 
of  the  see,  the  name  of  a  Canadian  Dominican, 
Father  Albert  Knapp,  unaccountably  api>eared  as 
Archbishop  of  Port  M  Spun  in  many  new!(ua|>ers  and 
a  vear  book.  The  Holy  See  appointed  the  -present 
archbishop,  Mgr.  Dowling.  b.  m  County  Kilkenny, 
Ireland,    in    1880,    consecrated    1909.      Before  his 


1  PORTO 

elevation  to  the  episcopate  he  held  important  offices 
in  his  order,  havmg  been  professor,  novice-master, 
and  previous  to  his  coming  to  Trinidad  as  vicar-, 
general  of  the  archdiocese,  rector  of  the  well-known' 
College  of  Sui  Clemente,  Borne.  Most  of  the 
clergy  are  from  France,  England,  and  Ireland, 
only  a  few  are  natives  of  the  diocese.  English  is 
taught  exclusively  in  the  schools  and  most  generally 
spoken,  though  Creole  patois  is  widely  used  by  the 
lower  claases  except  in  Tob^o  and  St.  Vincent. 
Spanish  is  spoken  in  some  parishes  of  Trinidad  and 
by  Venesuelan  residents  of  Port  of  Spain.  There 
are  altpo  many  Portuguese,  Confessors  with  a  knowl- 
edge of  these  languages  are  provided  and  sermons 
preached  in  English,  Frpnch,  Spanish,  and  Portu- 
guese. Work  amongst  the  East  Indian  immigrants 
makes  a  knowledge  of  the  dialects  of  Hindustan 
needful.  Number  of  parishes,  48;  secular  clergy,  20; 
Order  of  Preachers,  40;  Congregation  oF  the  Holy 
Ghost,  15;  Fathers  of  Mary  Immaculate,  20;  and  a 
few  members  of  the  Order  of  St.  Augustine.  Higher 
schools  for  boys,  2,  for  girls,  4;  1  orphanage  and  2 
alms-houses.  The  Leper  Asylum  and  the  municipal 
alms-house  are  under 
thecareof  theSistera 
of  St.  Dominic,  and 
many  of  the  elemen- 
tary schools  under 
that  of  the  Sisters 
of  St.  Joseph. 

ill  la  Trinidad  (Pirii. 
1S82);  CoTBONtv.  Tri- 
nidad (Parii,  1X03): 
Fhabeii,  Miilvrvii/TWn- 


MichaelO'Byrne. 

Porto     Rico 

(POBRTO  Rico),  the 
smallest    and    most 
iBT  o»  Smw  T««tD*D  easterly    of    the 

Greater  Antilles,  rec- 
tangular in  shape,  with  an  area  oF  ^70  square  miles. 
and  the  most  densely  inhabited  country  n  America, 
having  a  population  of  1,118,012,  over  304  to  the 

Suare  mile,  according  to  the  census  of  1910;  a  growth 
125,769  the  last  ten  years. 

On  16  Nov.,  1493,  on  his  second  voyage,  the  moun- 
tain El  Yunque,  on  the  north-east  coast  of  the  island 
then  known  as  Boriquen,  was  seen  by  Columbus, 
whose  fleet  anchored  in  the  port  near  Aguadilla.  A 
monument  erected  in  the  fourth  century  ol  the  dis- 
covery marks  the  site  between  Aguada  and  Aguodifla, 
where  presumably  the  admiral  took  possession  of  the 
newly  disco  ve"   ■•-    '■  —  ■—■'..  '•  ■ 

The  island  wt 
the  Baptist. 

Among  those  who  accompanied  Columbus  was 
Vincent  Yafiez,  the  younger  of  the  brothers  Pinzon, 
who  had  commiuid«l  the  ill-fated  "Niila"  on  the 
voyage  of  the  year  previous.  In  1499  a  royal  permit 
was  granted  him  to  fit  out  a  fleet  to  explore  the  region 
south  of  the  lands  discovered  by  Columbus.  After 
coasting  along  the  shores  of  Brazil  and  advancing  up 
the  River  Amazon,  then  called  MaraAon,  he  returned 
by  way  of  Ilispaniola,  to  be  driven  for  refuge  from 
storm  into  the  port  of  Aguada. 

Prom  the  natives,  who  received  him  kindly,  it  was 
learned  that  there  was  considerable  gold  in  the  island. 
On  hiH  return  (o  Spain,  Pinzon  sought  to  obtain  rer- 
tiun  privilegeH  to  colonize  San  Juan  de  Boriquen.  It 
was  only  after  the  death  of  Isabella  that  he  obtaiiieil 
a  royal  permit  from  Ferdinand  tbe  Catholic,  dated  24 
April.  1505,  authorising  him  to  colonixe  the  island  of 
San  Juan  de  Boriquen,  without  intervention  on  th» 


PORTO 


292 


PORTO 


part  of  Columbus,  on  condition  that  he  would  secure 
means  of  transportation  within  one  year.  Failing  to 
do  so  his  permit  was  without  effect. 

The  colonizer  and  first  governor  of  the  island  w«b 
another  companion  of  ColumbuSi  Juan  Ponce,  sur- 
named  de  Leon  aJtter  his  birth-place  in  Spain.  The 
eastern  portion  of  the  Island  t)f  Hispaniola  (Haiti), 
separated  from  Porto  Rico  by  the  Mono  Channel,  was 
at  this  time  under  his  command. 

In  1508  he  secured  permission  to  leave  his  command 
in  the  province  of  Higuey,  in  Hispaniola,  and  to  ex- 
plore San  Juan  de  Boriquen.  With  fifty  chosen 
followers,  he  crossed  the  cnannel,  landing  in  Porto 
ftico  12  Aug.,  1508,  and  was  received  bv  a  friendly 
native  cacique,  who  informed  him  of  the  existence 
of  the  harbour  of  San  Juan  on  the  north  coast,  then 
unknown  to  Europeans,  which  de  Leon  named 
"Puerto  Rico'*  on  account  of  the  strategic  and  com- 
mercial advantages  it  off^ed  for  the  colonization  and 
civilization  of  the  island.  Having^  explored  its  in- 
terior, de  Leon  returned  to  his  command  in  Hispan- 
iola, now  the  eastern  portion  of  Santo  Domingo,  to 
arrange  with  King  Ferdinand  and  Orando  to  leaa  an 
expedition  for  the  conquest  and  colonization  of  Bori- 
quen. He  made  special  request  to  have  a  body  of 
priests  assigned  for  his  assistance. 

In  March,  1509,  he  sailed  direct  to  the  north  coast 
for  the  harbour  which  he  had  named  Puerto  Rico, 
now  known  as  San  Juan.  Anchoring  about  one  mile 
from  the  entrance  he  established  the  first  European 
settlement  at  a  place  then  known  as  Caparra^  now 
Pueblo  Viejo,  which  remained  capital  of  the  island 
until  it  was  officially  transferred  to  the  present  site 
of  San  Juan  in  1519. 

Erection  of  the  First  Dioceses  in  the  New 
World.— On  15  Nov.,  1504,  Julius  II  by  Bull 
'^Illius  fulciti"  erected  in  the  Island  of  Hispaniola 
the  first  ecclesiastical  province  in  the  New  World, 
comprising  the  archiepiscopal  See  of  Hyaguata, 
dedicated  to  the  Blessed  Virgin,  under  the  title 
of  Our  Ladv  of  the  Annunciation^  with  two 
suffragans  of  Magna  and  Bayuna.  This  Bull,  how- 
ever, remained  without  effect,  on  account  of  incon- 
veniences attending  the  sites  selected,  and  of  the 
opposition  of  King  Ferdinand,  who  objected  to  the 
concession  <to  the  first  prelates  of  the  New  World  the 
right  to  participate  in  the  diezmos  (tithes)  upon  gold, 
silver,  and  precious  stones  then  being  discovered 
within  the  territory.  This  rendered  the  Bull  inopera- 
tive, because  in  1501  Alexander  VI  had  granted  to  the 
Crown  of  Spain  in  perpetuity  the  right  of  collecting 
diezmos  in  her  transoceanic  colonies. 

Seven  years  later,  8  Aug.,  1511,  the  same  pope  by 
the  Bull  ^'Pontifex  Romanus''  declared  as  suppressed 
and  extinguished  in  perpetuity  the  aforementioned 
ecclesiastical  province,  with  the  three  sees  comprised 
therein,  and  by  the  same  Bull  erected  three  new  dio- 
ceses: two  in  Hispaniola  (Santo  Domingo  and  Con- 
cepcion  de  la  Vega) ;  the  third  was  in  the  Island  of  San 
Juan,  the  name  now  given  solely  to  the  chief  city  of 
Porto  Rico,  but  which  then  applied  to  the  whole 
island.  The  new  dioceses  were  ms^e  suffragans  of  the 
Province  of  Seville,  Spain,  and  the  three  prelates  pre- 
viously designated  to  rule  the  extinct  sees  of  1504  were 
assigned  by  this  later  Bull  to  the  new  dioceses  without 
the  right,  however,  of  sharing  the  diezmoa  upon  any 
gold,  silver,  or  precious  stones  that  might  be  discov- 
ered within  the  limits  of  their  jurisdiction. 

Father  Alonso  Manso,  canon  of  the  cathedral  of 
Salamanca,  who  had  been  elected  Bishop  of  the  See  of 
Magna,  was  transferred  by  the  Bull  of  1511  to  the 
newly-erected  See  of  San  Juan,  of  which  he  took  pos- 
session two  years  later  in  1513,  arriving  at  a  time 
when  the  island  possessed  only  two  European  settle- 
ments, some  two  nundred  white  people  and  about  five 
hundred  native  Christians.  According  to  a  letter 
which  this  prelate  addressed  later  to  the  Spanish  mon- 


arch, he  was  the  first  bishop  to  reach  the  New  World,  a 
statement,  however,  that  is  at  variance  with  the  opin- 
ion that  Father  Bartholomew  de  las  Casas  had  oeen 
ordained  priest  in  1510  in  Santo  Domingo,  though  it 
may  be  that  he  only  sang  his  first  Mass  in  America,  as 
there  is  no  record  of  the  presence  of  any  bishop  there 
to  ordain  him  at  that  early  date. 

•  Bishop^anso  was  the  first  Inquisitor  General  of 
the  Indies,  appointed  in  1519  by  Cardinal  Adrian  de 
Utrecht,  afterwards  Pope  Adrian  VI  (1522).  The  car- 
dinal made  this  appomtment  in  the  name  of  the 
Regent  of  Castile,  whom  he  represented  while  Bishop 
of  Tortosa.  Juan  de  Quevedo,  Bishop  of  Darien,  is 
credited  with  having  planted  the  Inquisition  in  Amer- 
ica in  1515,  but  Bishop  Manso  was  the  first  to  be  en- 
titled ''  General  Inquisitor  of  the  Indies,  Islands  and  the 
Mainland'',  with  authority  to  act  outside  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  his  oiocese  in  union  with  the  Vice-Provincial  of 
the  Dominicans,  Pedro  de  Cordoba,  who  resided  in 
Santo  Domingo,  until  the  establishment  in  1522  of  the 
Convent  of  St.  Thomas  Aquinas,  the  first  religious 
community  in  Porto  Rico.  There  is  no  evidence  that 
this  tribunal  interfered  in  matters  appertaining  to  the 
Holy  Office  outside  the  Diocese  of  San  Juan.  At  least 
it  did  not  interfere  with  the  various  bishops  in  their 
respective  dioceses,  who  either  sui  juris  or  as  delegates 
of  the  Holy  Office  exerciseid  their  fimctions  in  this  re- 
gard. 

It  also  has  been  stated  that  to  the  bishop,  Manso, 
was  assigned  a  number  of  Indians  in  the  repartimiento 

'made  by  the  Crown,  and  that  successive  bishops  had 
retainea  a  number  of  natives  as  Encomiendas  to  care 
for  the  cathedral;  but  the  aborigines  in  Porto  Rico 
were  always  well  treated  by  the  early  missionaries, 
who  included  Las  Casas.  In  fact  Paul  III,  as  early  as 
1537,  declared  excommunicated  all  who  dared  to  en- 
slave the  Indians  in  the  newly-discovered  lands,  de- 
prive them  of  their  lands  or  fortunes,  or  disturb  their 
tranquillity  on  the  pretext  that  they  were  heathens. 

In  1519,  at  the  request  of  Bishop  Manso,  who^com- 
plainefl  that  the  revenue  derived  from  San  Juan  was 
insufficient  for  his  support,  the  Crown  obtained  from 
the  Holy  See  an  extension  of  territory  for  the  diocese, 
so  as  to  include  all  the  Windward  Islands  of  the  Lesser 
Antilles  from  Santa  Cruz  to  Dominica,  thus  rendering 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  bishop  coextensive  with  the 
ci^  and  military  sway  of  the  first  governor  and  colon- 
izer, Juan  Ponce  de  Leon.  The  Islands  of  Maivarita 
and  Cubagua  were  also  added  to  the  diocese  ouring 
the  episcopate  of  Rodrigo  de  Bastidas,  who  was  trans- 
ferred in  tne  Consistory  of  6  July,  1541,  from  the  See 
of  Coro,  Venezuela,  to  succeed  Manso.    On  the  ap- 

S ointment  of  Nicolas  Ramos,  12  Feb.,  1588,  fifth 
ishop  of  San  Juan,  the  diocese  was  further  extended 
to  embrace  the  Island  of  Trinidad,  and  that  tract  of 
mainland  in  Venezuela  which  comprises  Cumana  and 
^e  region  between  the  Amazon  and  the  Upper  Ori- 
noco reaching  almost  to  the  present  city  of  Bogota. 
Gradually  the  various  islands  were  severed  from  the 
Spanish  Crown  and  were  made  independent  of  the  See 
of  San  Juan,  which,  on  the  erection  of  the  Diocese  of 
Guyana  in  Venezuela  (1791),  was  restricted  wholly  to 
the  limits  of  the  Island  of  Porto  Rico.  At  present  the 
two  small  islands  of  Vieques  and  Culebra  (the  latter 
now  a  United  States  naval  station)  remain  part  of  the 
See  of  Porto  Rico.  Over  this  ancient  diocese,  now 
within  the  territory  of  the  United  States,  fifty  prelates 
have  ruled,  several  of  whom  were  bom  in  tne  New 
World,  one  in  the  city  of  San  Juan  itself,  Arizmendi, 
co-founder  of  the  conciUar  seminary,  who  died  on  t>ne 
of  the  arduous  visitations  of  his  diocese. 

The  first  church  was  erected  in  1511  at  Caparra,  and 
by  order  of  King  Ferdinand  was  dedicated  to  St.  John 
the  Baptist.  The  edifice  was  a  temporary  structure, 
which  fell  into  ruin  on  the  transfer  of  the  capitid.  In 
1512  a  like  structure  was  erected  for  the  innabitanta 
on  the  southern  coast  at  a  point  known  as  San  Cler- 


PORTO 


293 


PORTO 


man,  some  distance  from  the  actual  site  of  the  town  of 
that  name.  For  many  years  the  Diocese  of  Porto  Rico 
had  only  these  two  centres  of  worship,  with  little  in- 
crease in  population,  owing  to  the  larger  opportuni- 
ties then  found  in  Mexico  and  South  America. 

The  location  of  the  actual  cathedral  of  San  Juan 
marks  the  site  of  the  first  church  there  erected  in  1520 
or  1521  by  Bishop  Manso.  This  wooden  structure 
was  replaced  by  Bishop  Bastidas,  who  began  the  work 
in  1543,  and  in  the  year  following  informed  the  king 
that  the  building  was  still  imfinished  for  lack  of  funds; 
that  he  "was  assisted  by  the  new  dean,  by  foiu*  bene- 
ficiaries, some  clerics,  parish  priests,  chaplains,  and  an 
able  pro  visor  * ' .  Again  in  1 549  the  bishop  informed  the 
same  sovereign  that  the  cathedral,  upon  which  had  al- 
ready been  spent  more  than  six  thousand  castellanoSf 
was  still  unfinished;  that  he  had  celebrated  a  synod, 
and  that  the  diezmos  amounted  to  six  thousand  pesos 
payable  every  four  years  on  instalments.  Successive 
structures  have  been  destroyed  by  cyclones,  earth- 
quakes, and  foreign  invaders,  to  be  replaced  by  others, 
each  surpassinp;  in  beauty  the  former  and  continuing 
for  fouF  centuries  on  this  spot  the  hallowed  sanctuary 
of  the  mother  church  of  the  diocese. 

The  present  cathedral,  which  is  comparatively  mod- 
em in  its  principal  part,  dates  back  to  the  early  part 
of  the  eighteenth  century.  The  rear  portion,  however, 
gives  evidence  of  a  distinct  style  of  architecture  of  a 
much  more  remote  period.  On  12  August,  1908,  the 
remains  of  Don  Juan  Ponce  de  Leon  were  solemnly 
conveyed  from  the  church  of  San  Jos6  to  the  ca- 
thedral, where  a  suitable  monument  now  marks  the 
resting  place  of  the  intrepid  soldier  and  Christian 
cavalier. 

CmTRCH  AND  State. — On  the  withdrawal  of 
Spain  from  Porto  Rico,  and  the  assumption  by  the 
United  States  of  control  over  the  island,  many  prob- 
lems arose  affecting  the  welfare  of  the  Catholic 
Church.  For  four  centuries  the  civil  and  religious  au- 
thorities had  been!  intimately  associated,  first  by  reason 
of  the  right  of  patronage  over  the  Church  of  the  Indies 
conferred  on  the  kings  of  Spain  by  Julius  II  in  1508, 
and  then  by  reason  of  the  existing  concordat. 

Three  distinct  concordats  or  solemn  agreements 
between  the  Holy  See  and  the  kings  of  Spain  had  been 
drawn  up  at  various  times  relative  to  the  mutual  in- 
terests of  Church  and  State  in  Porto  Rico.  The  first 
was  dated  13  May,  1418,  between  Martin  V  and  John 
II  of  Castile.  The  second,  between  Philip  V  and 
Innocent  XIII,  may  be  regarded  as  the  forerunner  of 
the  agreement  made  2  January,  1753,  by  Benedict 
XIV  and  Ferdinand  VI,  which  remained  the  basis  of 
the  union  of  Church  and  State  in  Spain  and  her  colo- 
nies until  the  death  of  Ferdinand  VII  in  1833. 

That  concordat  recognized  in  a  solemn  manner  the 
right  of  patronage  as  appertaining  to  the  Crown,  the 
Church  in  consequence  reserving  to  itself  fifty-two 
benefices  for  its  own  appointment  without  any  inter- 
vention of  the  State. 

On  the  accession  of  Isabella  II  her  adherents  seemed 
to  assume  that  Rome  was  unfavourable  to  the  new 
dynastyr,  and,  together  with  a  vast  portion  of  the 
Spanish  clergy,  was  leaning  towards  the  pretender 
EJon  Carlos.  Eventually  there  followed  a  complete 
rupture  with  the  Holy  Siee.  In  the  subsequent  civil 
war  opportunitv  was  afforded  the  Isabellists  to  de- 
spoil the  Churcn  of  her  rights  and  suspend  the  allow- 
ances guaranteed  by  the  Crown  for  tne  maintenance 
of  reli^n. 

Porto  Rico  felt  in  a  very  special  manner  the  effects 
of  this.  In  1833  the  saintly  Bishop  Pedro  Gutierrez 
de  Cos  had  died,  leaving  the  diocese  vacant  until  the 
nomination  in  1846  of  Bishop  Francisco  de  La  Puente, 
O.S.D.  During  this  interval  the  Church  was  sub- 
jected to  violent  measures  on  the  part  of  the  governors 
of  the  island,  who,  taking  advantage  of  its  unsettled 
condition  and  of  the  Laws  of  Confiscation  (applicable 


only  to  Spain),  despoiled  the  Church  of  much  property 
and  disbandecl  the  only  two  communities  of  religious 
men,  the  Dominicans  and  Franciscatis,  appropriating 
to  the  State  their  convents  and  properties. 

On  8  May,  1849,  the  Cortes  authorized  the  Govern- 
ment to  conclude  a  new  concordat  with  the  Holy  See. 
This  was  done,  17  Oct.,  1851,  and,  with  modifications 
duly  admitted  in  amendments  (1850,  1867),  was  the 
law  of  Porto  Rico  at  the  time  when  it  passed  under 
American  rule.  The  Spanish  captain-general,  besides 
being  civil  and  militaiy  governor  of  the  island,  was 
also  vice  patron  of  the  Catholic  Church. 

The  question  of  the  patronage  previously  exercised 
by  the  Crown  of  Spain  seemed  to  offer  little  difficulty ; 
on  the  part  of  the  United  States,  there  was  no  disposi- 
tion to  avail  itself  of  this  privilege,  nor  did  the  Church 
desire  to  have  the  civil  or  military  government  inter- 
vene in  matters  spiritual.  The  continuance  of  the 
concordat  as  to  the  support  of  Divine  worship  and 
its  ministers  was  not  claimed  b^  the  Church  from  the 
new  government.  It  was  tacitly  admitted  by  both 
parties  that  the  nature  of  the  American  Government 
made  such  continuance  impossible.  With  this  under- 
standing the  Catholic  Church,  through  its  Apostolic 
Delegate,  Archbishop  Chapelle,  proceeded.  But  it 
was  urged  that  the  new  government,  in  extending 
its  authority  over  Porto  Rico,  should  fulfil  all  obliga- 
tions of  justice  towards  the  Catholic  Church. 

The  maintenance  of  religion  and  its  ministers  in 
Spain  and  her  colonies  was  not  an  act  of  mere  piety 
or  generosity  towards  the  Church,  but  a  partial  and 
mec^re  compensation  to  the  Church  for  repeated 
spoliations,  particularly  during  the  last  century.  On 
the  acceptance  by  the  Spanish  Government  of  its 
obligation  to  support  relision  and  its  ministers,  the 
popes,  particularly  Pius  lA,  had  condoned  many  past 
acts  of  spoliation.  In  view  of  this  act  of  the  pope 
the  Church  in  Porto  Rico  could  not  reclaim  anytning 
from  the  American  Government.  But  there  were  cer- 
tain church  properties,  particularly  the  former  pos- 
sessions of  the  now  suppr^sed  communities  of  re- 
ligious men,  which,  by  the  distinct  an-eement  between 
the  Holy  See  and  the  Crown,  should  have  been  sur- 
rendered to  the  diocese;  these,  however,  still  remain 
in  possession  of  the  government.  Both  in  Cuba  and 
in  Porto  Rico  claims  were  made  for  properties  which 
in  every  sense  of  law  and  justice  oelonged  to  the 
Church,  though  administered  by  the  government, 
which  was  repeatedly  pledged  by  the  terms  of  the 
concordat  to  restore  the  same  to  the  Church. 

The  support  of  religion  was  the  only  title  whereby 
in  the  past  usufruct  of  these  properties  bv  the  Crown 
of  Spain  could  have  been  condoned;  the  failure  of  the 
American  Government  to  assume  this  obligation  de- 
prived it  of  all  title  or  pretext  to  these  holdings. 

Hence  the  Apostolic  Delegate,  Archbishop  Cha- 

Selle,  and  the  then  Bishop  of  Porto  Rico,  Right  Rev. 
ames  H.  Blenk,  made  claim  to  the  United  States 
Government  for  the  devolution  of  these  properties  or 
their  equivalent,  together  with  a  rental  of  the  edifices 
from  the  date  of  the  American  occupation  of  Porto 
Rico,  as  well  as  a  small  amount  of  censos.  The  United 
States  military  government  in  Cuba  had  speedily  ad- 
justed a  similar  claim  involving  a  much  larger  amount, 
through  the  appointment  of  a  commission.  The 
prompt  establishment  of  civil  government  in  Porto 
Rico  obliged  Bishop  Blenk  to  appeal  to  the  civil  tri- 
bunals on  account  of  a  special  act  of  the  l^slature 
(12  March,  1904)  confemng  original  jurisdiction  upon 
the  Supreme  Court  of  the  island  to  determine  all  ques- 
tions at  issue  with  the  bishop  of  the  diocese.  This 
measure  immediately  led  to  a  series  of  civil  suits  which 
involved  the  claim  here  mentioned  as  well  as  the  own- 
ership of  the  properties  of  the  diocese,  the  episcopal 
residence,  the  seminary  building,  the  cathedral,  sev- 
eral parish  churches,  and  the  hospital.  By  the  people 
of  Porto  Rico  the  claims  of  the  Church  were  not  ais- 


PORTOVIEJO 


294 


PORTRAITS 


puted,  except  the  properties  formerly  belonging  to  the 
suppressed  communities,  which  Spain  had  held  for 
the  last  half  century,  allowing  the  suits  in  other  cases 
to  pass  by  default  in  favour  of  the  Church.  The 
Church  property  question  was  therefore  dul^r  brought 
before  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  island,  which,  after 
a  long  delay,  handed  down  a  decision  by  a  vote  ot  three 
to  two,  sustaining  in  principle  the  claims  of  the 
Church.  From  this  decision  an  appeal  was  made  to 
the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States. 

Meanwhile  the  municipality  of  Ponce,  unwilling 
to  be  guided  bv  the  policy  of  the  insular  Government, 
insisted  upon  fa3ring  claim  to  the  two  parish  churches 
of  that  city,  alleging  that  a  goodly  portion  of  the  cost 
of  the  said  edifices  had  been  paid  for  with  its  funds. 
This  suit  was  presented  to  the  Supreme  Court  of  the 
island,  where  judgment  was  given  in  favour  of  the 
bishop^  and  then  carried  immediately  to  Washington 
for  a  nnal  decision.  The  importance  of  this  matter 
was  far  in  excess  of  the  value  of  the  propertite  at  issue, 
for  it  involved  not  only  ownership  of  neariy  every 
church  in  the  island,  but  also  was  bound  largely  to 
determine  the  outcome  of  the  suit  still  pending  before 
the  same  court  in  reference  to  all  other  church  prop- 
erties. The  question  of  the  bearing  of  the  Concordat 
of  1851  upon  the  actual  situation  was  most  serious,  in- 
volving the  future  security  of  the  Church  in  the  island. 

In  June,  1908,  Chief  Justice  Fuller  handed  down  a 
decision  confirming  the  sentence  obtained  by  the 
Catholic  Church  before  the  Supreme  Court  of  the 
island  agidnst  the  municipality  of  Ponce,  which  was 
greatly  enhanced  by  the  lummous  declaration  con- 
tained in  his  opinion,  upholding;  the  force  of  the  Con- 
cordat as  an  ancient  law  of  the  island  and  establishing 
beyond  doubt  the  judicial  personality  of  the  head  df 
the  Catholic  Church  in  Porto  Rico,  without  being 
required  to  register  under  the  laws  governing  business 
corporations. 

This  decision  was  accepted  by  the  Porto  Rican 
Government  as  a  forerunner  of  a  favourable  outcome 
for  the  Church  in  its  appeal  then  pending  before  the 
same  court  in  reference  to  the  properties  in  question. 
As  the  United  States  Government,  both  at  Washing- 
ton and  in  Porto  Rico,  was  concerned  in  this  decision, 
it  was  agreed  by  all  parties  interested  to  abide  by  the 
sentence  of  a  commission  appointed  by  President 
Roosevelt,  composed  of  two  members  for  the  United 
States,  two  for  the  Church,  and  two  for  the  Porto 
Rican  Government. 

Under  the  presidency  of  Robert  Bacon,  then  as- 
sistant secretaiy  of  state,  an  agreement  was  speedily 
reached  by  the  commission  in  August,  1908,  by  which 
the  settlement  of  eleven  claims  at  issue  between  the 
Catholic  Church  on  one  side  and  the  United  States 
and  Porto  Rican  Government  on  the  other  was  made 
on  a  basis  of  equity,  whereby  the  Church  was  assured 
the  sum  of  about  $300,000  for  the  release  to  the  State 
of  the  properties  involved  in  litigation. 

More  than  one-half  this  sum  was  paid  from  insular 
funds,  for  which  the  approval  of  the  Porto  Rican 
Government  was  obtained  in  the  following  month. 
The  part  of  the  total  sum  that  was  apportioned  to  the 
Federal  Government  for  properties  utilized  by  the 
United  States  Arqay  was  likewise  ratified  by  Congress 
in  the  following  session,  and  approved  by  the  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States,  thus  terminating  in  an 
amicable  manner  a  vexed  (question  agitated  for  more 
than  ten  years  and  involving  the  only  livailable  in- 
come for  the  impoverished  diocese. 

The  Diocese  of  Porto  Rico  at  present  is  comprised 
of  78  parishes,  which  with  few  exceptions  have  resi- 
dent clerpy,  a  large  number  of  whom  are  members  of 
the  religious  bodies.  The  Lazarists,  Augustinians, 
and  Capuchins  from  Spain,  the  Dominicans  from 
Holland,  the  Redemptonsts  from  Baltimore,  are  each 
doing  invaluable  service  for  the  preservation  of  the 
Faith.  The  people  are  poor  and  unaccustomed  to  con- 


tribute to  the  support  of  their  religion  and  its  minis- 
ters. The  amount  received  from  the  Government  is 
invested  so  as  to  provide  a  limited  annuity  for  aiding 
priests  in  the  poorer  missions,  and  assisting  in  the  sup- 
port of  educational  and  charitable  institutions.  About 
300  women  belonging  to  the  different  relisious  com- 
munities are  located  in  the  diocese,  engaged  chiefly  in 
the  schools  and  hospitals. "  The  Carmelite  nuns,  Sis- 
ters of  Chari^,  Reugious  of  the  Sacrod  Heart,  and 
Servants  of  Maiy  were  established  in  Spanish  times: 
since  the  American  occupation  the  Mission  Helpers  of 
the  Sacred  Heart  have  erected  an  asylum  fbr  the  deaf 
and  dumb,  and  taken  charae  of  the  chapel  of  Perpetual 
Adoration  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament;  the  Sisters  of  St. 
Francis,  from  Buffalo,  New  York,  have  founded  two 
parish  schools  and  a  novitiate  for  the  reception  of 
postulants.  The  Sisters  of  St.  Dominic,  of  Brooklyn, 
New  York,  are  in  charge  of  the  parish  school  at  Baya- 
mon,  having  been  sent  to  the  island  by  the  Bishop  of 
Brooklyn  at  the  personal  request  of  Pius  X.  By  the 
Brief  Actum  Prseclarce  of  20  Feb.,  1903,  the  Diocese 
of  Porto  Rico  was  severed  from  tne  province  of  San- 
tiago de  Cuba,  and  made  immediately  subject  to  the 
Holy  See,  the  two  islands  still  continuing  under  the 
direction  of  the  one  Apostolic  delegate. 

On  8  Aug..  1911,  the  Diocese  of  San  Juan  will  have 
completed  the  fourth  centenary  of  its  foundation. 
Extensive  plans  are  devised  for  the  proper  celebra- 
tion of  this  event.  Apart  from  the  contemplated 
renovation  of  the  cathedral,  it  ia  hoped  to  estaolish  a 
beneficent  institution  which  will  include  a  manual, 
training  school  for  both  boys  and  girls. 

Bull  niiua  fulcUi  in  Archiw  de  Inditu  (Seville);  Bull  Ptm- 
Hfex  Romanu*  in  Arehito  de  Simanoae:  documenta  in  Episoopal 
Archives,  San  Juan  and  Porto  Rioo;  Bbau,  La  Colohiaaeidn  de 
Puerto  Rico  (San  Juan,  1007) ;  Anoulo  in  Pbbujo,  Dieeionario  de 
Cieneuu  EcUeidsticae;  America  in  Consifltorial  Ck>nn«gation*8 
Acta,  ReeordB  Amer.  Caih.  Hist,  Soc  (Philadelphia,  1889-90),  X, 
XI;  U,  S.  Ceneue  Report  for  Porto  Rico  (1910). 

W.  A.  JONBS. 

Portoviejo,  Diocbsb  of  (Portus  Veterib),  a 
suffragan  see  of  the  Archdiocese  of  Quito,  Republic  of 
Ecuador.  It  was  erected  in  1871  and  its  jurisdiction 
extends  over  the  poUtical  provinces  of  Manabi  and  Es- 
meraldas,  with  a  Catholic  population  fl909)  of  78,000 
souls,  and  fortynsix  parishes.  Besides  the  secular 
priests' of  the  diocese,  there  are  the  following  religious 
orders:  Capuchins,  in  charge  of  the  missions  in  the 
northern  taction  of  the  Province  of  Esmeraldas;  Ob- 
lates  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus,  engased  in  secon- 
dary instruction.  The  religious  oitlers  of  women  are : 
Benedictines,  Franciscans,  and  Sisters  of  Charity,  all 
devoted  to  the  education  of  girls.  The  Seminario 
Mayor  is  situated  at  Portoviejo^he  see  of  the  diocese, 
and  was  organized  in  1888.  There  are  also  several 
schoob  and  colleges,  prominent  among  which  is  the 
College  of  Sui  Jc«j^  conducted  b^  the  Oblates  of  the 
Sacred  Heart.  Tne  present  bishop  is  Mp  Juan 
Maria  Riesa,  a  Domimcan,  whose  consecration  took 
place  19  Dec.,  1907. 

Annuaire  PoiUifieal  Caiholique  (Paria.  1911),  a.  v. 

JuuAN  Mobbno-Lacallb. 

Portraits  of  the  Apottles.— The  earliest  fresco 
representing  Christ  surrounded  by  the  Apostles  dates 
from  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  century.  It  was  dis- 
covered in  the  cemetery  of  Domitilla,  under  a  thick 
covering  of  stalactites.  Christ  is  seated  on  a  throne. 
His  feet  resting  on  a  footstool,  and  His  right  hand 
raised  in  the  oratorical  gesture.  Six  other  frescoes  of 
this  subject,  Christ  instructing  the  Apostles,  have  been 
found  in  the  Roman  catacombs.  Besides  these  groups, 
showing  the  entire  Apostolic  college,  portions  of  two 
other  frescoes  which  originally  represented  onl^r  the 
two  chief  Apostles,  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul,  on  either 
side  of  Christ,  have  been  discovered.  In  one  of  these 
frescoes  the  figure  of  St.  Peter  and  a  small  portion  of 
Christ's  are  preserved;  no  trace  of  St.  Paul  remaina 
The  second  iresco,  on  the  other  hand,  preserves  St. 


PORT-BOTAL 


295 


PORT-BOYM. 


Paul's  figure  entire.  A  third  fresco  of  particular  in- 
terest, in  the  cemetery  of  Ptiscilla,  exhibits  a  subject 
frequently  represented  on  sculptured  sarcopha^, 
namely,  Christ  giving  the  law  to  St.  Peter.  Christ  is 
standing  on  the  globe,  His  right  hand  raised  and  ex- 
tended, while,  with  His  left,  He  is  handing  to  St. 
Peter  a  roll  which  the  Apostle  receives  with  veiled 
hands.  The  author  of  this  scene,  which  dates  from 
about  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century,  evidently  re- 
garded the  Prince  of  the  Apostles  as  holding  an  office 
under  the  New  Law  the  counterpart  of  that  of  Moses 
under  the  Old.  A  fresco  of  the  cemetery  At/  duos 
lauros,  dating  from  the  middle  of  the  third  century, 
appears  to  have  been  inspired  by  the  same  idea:  St. 
Peter  is  represented,  seated  on  a  low  chair,  with  an 
open  roll  which  he  is  carefully  studying. 

Such  are  the  earliest  painteid  representations  of  the 
Apostles  still  in  existence.  With  the  exception  of  St. 
Peter  and  St.  Paul^  according  to  Wilpert,  the  Apostles 
show  no  specially  mdividuahstic  traits,  some  are  por- 
trayed with  beajrd,  some  without,  but  merely  for  the 
sake  of  variety.  The  two  chief  Apostles,  on  the  other 
hand,  are  always  easily  recognizea  and  are  of  marked 
individuality.  St.  Peter  appears  as  a  man  of  great 
energy,  with  a  short,  thick  beard,  and  close  cut,  curly 
hair,  which  in  the  earlier  frescoes  is  partly,  in  the  later 
wholly,  gray.  St.  Paul  is  represented  as  the  Apostle 
of  intelleet,  bald,  and  with  long,  pointed  beard,  dark 
brown  in  colour.  With  slight  changes  this  type  of  the 
two  Apostles  was  always  represented  in  cemeterial 
frescoes,  mosaics  and  sculptured  sarcophagi,  and  in 
fact  persists  to  the  present  day.  Indeed  so  familiar 
were  Roman  Christians  with  the  conventional  appca> 
ances  of  their  favourite  Apostles  that,  save  in  a  few 
cases,  the  artists  never  thought  it  necessary  to  in- 
scribe their  names  underneath  their  pictures,  even 
when  represented  with  other  saints  whose  names  are 
^ven.  From  this  persistence  of  t3rpe  Wilpert  regards 
It  as  probable  that,  if  the  Romans  did  not  actually 
possess  portraits  of  Sts.  Peter  and  Paul,  at  least  a 
tradition  existed  as  to  their  general  appearance,  and 
that  catacomb  representations  of  them  conform  to  this 
tradition.  The  nistorian  Eusebius  informs  us  that 
he  has  heard  of  ''likenesses  of  the  Apostles  Peter  and 
Paul"  as  well  as  of  Our  Lord,  bemg  preserved  in 
paintings  (Hist,  eccl.,  VII,  xvi). 

The  most  perfect  of  the  ancient  representations  of 
St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul  are  those  of  the  well-known 
bronze  medal,  dating  from  the  second  century,  dis- 
covered by  Boldetti  in  the  catacomb  of  Domitilla  and 
now  in  the  Christian  museum  of  the  Vatican.  The 
types  of  the  catacomb  frescoes  are  here  readily  recog- 
nized: the  close  cut,  ciu'ly  hair  and  ^ort  beard  of  St. 
Peter,  and  the  longer  beard  and  fine  head  of  St.  Paul. 
Portraits  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul  exist  also  on  a  num- 
ber of  the  gold  glasses  found  in  the  catacombs;  on 
these  the  familiar  t3rpe  is  reproduced,  but  the  work- 
manship is  of  inferior  order.  Allusions  to  the  office 
of  St.  Peter  as  head  of  the  Church,  besides  the  iraditio 
Ugis  pictur^  mentioned  above,  are  seen  in  those 
montunents  in  which  Peter  takes  the  place  of  Moses 
as  the  miracle-worker  striking  the  rocK  in  the  wilder- 
ness, and  also  in  several  jparsJlel  scenes  on  sarcophagi 
contrasting  Moses  with  Peter.  In  catacomb  frescoes 
of  the  third  and  fourth  centuries  Christ  b  frequently 
represented  performing  miracles  by  means  of  a  wand. 
Peter  is  the  only  Apostle,  in  early  Christian  monu- 
ments, who  is  shown  with  a  st^  or  wand,  apparently 
as  a  symbol  of  his  superior  position.  The  keys  are 
seen  for  the  first  time  on  sarcophagi  of  the  fifth  cen- 
tury; from  this  date  on  these  attrioutes  of  St.  Peter 
appear  with  increasing  frequency  on  the  monuments, 
until,  from  the  end  of  the  sixth  century,  they  become 
the  rule.  The  oldest  fresco  of  the  giving  of  the  keys 
to  the  Prince  of  the  Apostles  is  in  the  crypt  of  Sts. 
Felix  and  Adauctus;  it  is  attributed  to  the  beginning 
of  the  sixth  centurv. 


The  famous  bronze  statue  of  St.  Peter  in  the  basilica 
of  this  Apostle  in  Rome  is  by  some  regarded  as  a  work 
of  the  fifth  or  sixth  century,  by  others  as  pertaining 
to  the  thirteenth.  The  latter  date  is  adopted  by 
Kraus  and  Kaufmann  among  others;  Lowrie,  however, 
maintains  that  ''no  statue  of  the  Renaissance  can  be 
compared  with  this  for  genuine  understanding  of  the 
classic  dress '^  and,  therefore,  this  writer  holds  for  the 
more  ancient  date.  The  marble  statue  of  St.  Peter 
taken  from  the  old  basilica,  now  in  the  crypt  of  the 
Vatican,  was  originally,  in  all  probability,  an  ancient 
consular  statue  which  was  transformed  mto  a  repre- 
sentation of  the  Prince  of  Apostles.  The  now  f  amiUar 
symbol  of  St.  Paul,  the  sword,  made  its  first  appear- 
ance in  Christian  art  in  the  tenth  century.  St.  Peter 
and  St.  Paul  quite  naturally  appear  much  more  fre- 
quently im  Roman  and  western  monuments  than  the 
other  Apostles;  as  founders  of  the  Roman  Church,  and 
one  of  them  as  head  of  the  universal  church,  their 
memory  was  revered  in  the  centre  of  Christianity.  In 
all  representations  also  they  occupy  the  place  of 
honour,  to  the  right  and  left  of  Cbrist.  Curiously 
enough,  St.  Paul  is  generally,  thoug;h  not  invariably, 
on  the  right  and  St.  Peter  on  the  left.  De  Rossi, 
however,  regards  this  arnuigement  as  a  matter  of  no 
particular  moment,  and  points  out  that  in  some  classic 
representations  Juno,  the  wife  of  Jupiter  and  queen 
of  the  gods,  appears  on  the  le^t  of  her  spouse,  while 
Minerva  occupies  the  right. 

Wilpert,  Matereien  der  Kataeomben  Ronu  (Freiburg,  1903); 
Kra.178  in  RealeneyklopOdie  f.  Chritll.  AUerihUmer  b.  v.  Fdrua  u. 
Paulut  (Frctburg,  1896) ;  KrOlx^  ibid.,  s.  v.  Apoatel;  KAUncAMN, 
Ilandbttch  der  ehrisUiehen  Arehdotoaie  (Paderbom,  1905) ;  Lowbib, 
Monument*  of  the  Early  Church  (New  York,  1901). 

Mauricb  M.  Hassbtt. 

Port-Royal,  a  celebrated  Benedictine  abbey  which 
profoundly  influenced  the  religious  and  literary  life  of 
France  during  the  seventeenth  century.  It  was 
founded  in  1^  by  Mathilde  de  Qarlande,  wife  of 
Mathieu  de  Montmorency,  in  the  valley  of  Chevreuse, 
six  leagues  (between  sixteen  and  seventeen  miles)  from 
Paris,  where  the  village  of  Ma^y-les-Hameaux,  in 
Seine-et-Oise,  now  stands.  Subject  first  t6  the  Rule 
of  St.  Benedict  and  then  to  that  of  Ctteaux,  it  suffered 
greatly  during  the  English  invasions  and  the  wars  of 
religion.  At  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century 
its  discipline  was  completely  relaxed,  but  in  1608  it 
was  reformed  by  Mdre  Ang^lique  Arnauld,  aided  by 
the  advice  and  encouragement  of  St.  Francis  de  Sales. 
Nuns  trained  at  Port-Royal  then  spread  all  oyer 
France,  working  for  the  reform  of  thle  other  monasteries. 
In  1626  Port-Royal,  besides  being  very  unhealthful, 
no  longer  afforded  adequate  accommodation,  and  the 
community  migrated  to  Paris,  settling  in  the  Fau- 
bourg St-Jacoues.  Renouncing  the  ancient  privileges 
granted  by  tne  popes,  the  new  abbey  placed  itself 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Archbishop  of  Paris;  the 
nuns,  devoted  henceforth  to  the  worship  of  the  Holy 
Eucharist,  took  the  name  of  Daughters  of  the  Blessed 
Sacrament.  In  1636  the  Abb6  ae  St-Cyran  became 
the  spiritual  director  of  the  monastery,  which  he  soon 
made  a  hotbed  of  Jansenism.  He  gathered  around 
him  the  Abb^  Singlin,  the  two  brothers  of  M^e 
Ang^lique,  Arnauld  d'Andilly  and  Antoine,  the  great 
Arnauld,  their  three  nephews,  Antoine  Lemkttre, 
Lemattre  de  Lacy,  and  Lemattre  de  S^ricourt,  Nicole, 
Lancelot,  Hamon,  Le  Nain  de  Tillemont,  and  others, 
who,  urged  by  a  desire  for  solitude  and  study,  with- 
drew to  the  monastery  "of  the  fields*'. — ^There  was 
then  a  Port-Royal  of  Paris,  and  a  Port-Royal  "of  the 
fields". — In  1638  they  opened  what  they  called  the 
veliles  icoleSf  in  which  Lancelot,  Nicole,  Guyot,  and 
M.  de  Selles  taught  the  nephews  of  St-Cyran  and  some 
other  children.  They  were  transferred  to  Paris  in 
1647,  then  brought  back  to  the  country  to  Les 
Granges,  near  Port-Royal,  to  Trous,  at  the  home  of 
M.  de  Bagnols,  to  Le  Chesnay,  at  the  residence  of  M, 
de  Buni&^ 


PORTSMOUTH           296  POBTSMOVTR 

The  Jansenist  dispute  was  then  being  vigorously  Bruy^rej  St-Simon  is  devoted  to  them,  and  Bossuet 
waged.  In  1639  St-Qyran  had  been  arrested  by  Riche-  himself  is  not  sdtogether  a  stranger  to  their  influence, 
lieu's  order  and  cast  mto  prison,  from  which  he  was  What  contributed  most  to  the  power  of  these 
not  set  free  till  1643,  dying  a  little  later.  In  1640  the  '^  Messieurs''  was  the  petites  icoles  ana  their  pedagogy. 
"  Augustinus"  of  Jansenius  had  appeared,  and  in  1643  Their  educational  principle  was:  that  human  knowl- 
Amauld's  work,  ''La  frdquente  communion",  which  edge,  science  itself,  is  not  an  end,  but  a  means;  it 
gave  rise  to  violent  discussions.  Port-Royal  was  then  should  serve  onlv  to  open  and  develop  the  mind,  and 
the  heart  and  soul  of  the  opposition.  The  women  raise  it  above  tne  matter  of  teaching.  In  teaching 
there  were  as  stubborn  as  the  men,  and  all  the  parti-  they  adopted  an  openly  Cartesian  and  rationalistic 
sans  of  the  new  teaching  in  Paris  and  in  France  turned  method;  they  strove  to  cultivate  the  intellect  and  the 
towards  the  monastery  for  light  and  support.  Solita-  reasoning  faculty  mireh  more  than  the  memory,  and 
ries  and  nuns  flocked  thither.  The  convpnt  in  Paris,  they  appealed  constantly  to  personal  reflection, 
in  its  turn,  became  too  small  to  contain  their  numbers,  Breaking  with  the  trttditions  of  the  Jesuits  and  the 
and  a  multitude  settled  once  more  in  the  cotintry.  University,  who  taught  in  Latin,  they  taught  in 
Unfortunately,  in  1653  and  1656.  five  propositions  ex-  French.  The  child  learned  the  dphabet  in  French, 
tracted  from  the  "Augustinus' ,  which,  though  not  and  was  instructed  in  the  mother  ton|^e  before  study- 
found  in  it  verbatim,  were,  according  to  Bosiuet,  "the  ing  the  dead  languages.  He  wrote  m  French  before 
soul  of  the  book'',  were  condemned  by  the  Sorbonne,  writing  in  Latin.  He  had  to  compose  short  dialogues, 
the  bishops,  and  two  papal  Bulls.  From  that  time  stories,  letters,  the  subject  of  which  he  chose  from 
began  the  persecution  of  Port-Royal  which  the  plead-  among  the  things  he  had  read.  Translation,  and 
ing  of  Amauld^  the  famous  distinction  of  fact  and  law,  especially  vcurbal  translation,  took  precedence  over 
and  the  "Provinciales"  of  Pascal  only  increased.  Port-  written  themes.  Finally,  Greek,  of  which  they  were 
Royal,  having  refused  to  subscribe  to  the  formulanr  unrivalled  teachers,  received  more  attention  and  a 
drawn  up  by  the  Assembly  of  the  Clergv  in  1657,  aU  more  important  place.  Even  in  matters  of  discipline 
the  petiUa  icoles  were  successively  closed,  the  novices  they  introduced  reforms:  they  endeavoured  to  oom- 
were  driven  out  from  the  abbey,  and  the  confessors  bine  severity  with  gentleness.  Punishment  was  re- 
expelled.  But  in  vain;  the  doctors,  even  the  Arch-  duced  to  a  minimum,  and  the  school  was  likened  to 
bishop  of  Paris,  Hardouin  de  P^r^fixe,  endeavoured  by  the  home  as  far  as  possible.  They  suppressed  in  the 
their  learning  and  their  patience  to  bring  the  recalci-  pupil  the  desire  to  surpass  a  fellow-pupil,  and  devel- 
trants  to  reason.  "They  are  as  pure  as  angels ",  said  oped  in  him  only  that  natural  attraction  of  the  interest 
the  latter,  "but  proud  as  demons."  Only  a  few  con-  presented  by  the  subjects.  These  admirable  teachers 
sented  to  sign;  the  more  obstinate  were  finally  sent  to  and  educationists  have  left  us  sever^  school  books  of 
the  country  or  dispersed  in  different  conununities.  In  the  highest  merit,  some  of  which  have  remained  classics 
1666  the  director,  Lemattre  de  Lacy,  was  imprisoned  for  nearly  two  centuries — ^the  "Grammaire",  edited 
in  the  Bastille.  by  Lancelot,  but  in  reality  the  work  of  Amauld;  the 

At  length,  after  interminable  negotiations,  in  1669,  "Logique"  of  Amauld  and  Nicole,  the  "Jardin  des 

what  was  called  "The  Peace  of  the  Church"  was  racines  grecques"  of  Lancelot;  the  "M^thodes"  for 

signed;  Port-Royal  became  again  for  some  yean  an  learning  Greek,  Latin.  Italian,  Spanish,  etc.    Not 

intellectual  and  rehgious  centre,  shining  on  all  that  was  everything  in  their  books  or  in  their  system  of  educa- 

most  intelligent  and  noble  in  the  city  and  at  the  Court,  tion  is  worthy  of  admiration,  but  it  is  incontestable 

But  the  fife  was  smouldering  beneath  the  ashes.    In  that  they  contributed  to  the  progress  of  pedagogy 

1670  Amauld  was  obliged  to  fly  to  the  Low  Countries,  against  the  older  Scholastic  methods, 

and  Louis  XIV,  who  had  begun  to  suspect  and  hate  „  C»^"»n"^' ^•^^^^^.J'f '»^  ^«Z^'^^ 

the  stubborn  Port-Royal  community,  resolved  to  sub-  ^^^^'Ji^^^^^  i\*t:S.>t  .f^^SXiT'J^^^^^^^^ 

due  them.     In  1702  the  quarrel  broke  out  anew  on  the  Gebbebon,  Hiatoire  du  JanUniame  (AmstercUm.  1700);    ^B- 

condemnation  by  the  Sorbonne  of  a  celebrated  "  case  of  Bbuvb,  Fo»^-floyaZ(Parifl,  i840-4«)  (the  most  importaiit  work 

<.,^.«„«:^^^»H       T^  iTfkii  o^^  "D^^.a!  Ar^  m«a»»«va  f'O^'m*  OD  thc  subject);   Fu«ibt,  Le*  Jantentstet  el  leur  dernier  hiiUonen 

conscience' .    In  1704  Port-Royal  des  ChamM  (Port  rp^^  igTC);  Hallats.  PihHnage  d  Port-Royal  (Paris,  1908): 

Royal  of  the   Fields)    was  suppressed  by   a  Bull  of  Romanes,  story  of  Port  Royal  (London.   1907);    Cadet,  Port 

Clement  IX.  In  1709  the  last  twenty-five  nuns  were  ^<»v<^  Education,  tr.  (New  York,  1898). 
expelled  by  the  pubUc  authorities.  Finally,  in  1710,  ^'  Latastb. 
to  olot  out  all  traces  of  the  centre  of  revolt,  the  build- 
ings of  Port-Royal  were  razed,  the  site  of  the  chapel  Portsmouth,  Dioobse  of  (Portus  Magnus,  or 
turned  into  a  majsh,  and  even  the  ashes  of  the  dead  Portehutheksis).  This  diocese  was  created  by  a 
were  dispersed.  Port-Royal  was  destroyed,  but  its  Brief  of  Leo  XIII,  dated  19  May,  1882,  and  was 
spirit  lived  on,  especially  in  the  Parliament  and  the  formed  out  of  the  western  portion  of  the  Diocese  of 
University,  and  during  almost  all  the  eighteenth  cen-  Southwark  as  constituted  at  the  re-establishment  of 
tury  France  was  distracted  by  the  ever-recurring  the  English  Hierarchy  in  1850.  It  comprises  the 
struggle  between  its  heirs  and  its  adversaries.  (See  Counties  of  Hampshire  and  Berkshire,  on  the  main- 
Jansenicjs  and  Jansenism.)  land,  the  Isle  of  Wight,  and  the  Channel  Islands,  and 
B^  the  rigour  of  its  moral  code,  which  carried  the  is  thus  almost  coterminous  with  the  Umits  of  the  old 
Christian  ideal  to  extremes,  by  the  intense  effort  Catholic  See  of  Winchester.  However,  according 
which  it  demanded  of  the  human  will,  by  the  example  to  its  consistent  policy  in  England,  the  Holy  See 
with  which  it  illustrated  its  teaching,  by  the  writings  avoided  the  old  centre  of  government  and  fixed 
which  it  issued  or  inspired — St-Cyran's  and  M^re  upon  Portsmouth — the  great  naval  port — as  the 
Ang^lique's  *'Lettres  spirituelles",  Amauld's  "Fr6-  cathedral  city  for  the  new  diocese.  John  Virtue 
quente  communion",  Lb  Nain  de  Tillemont's  "His-  (1826-1900)  was  named  its  first  bishop,  and  upon 
toire  eccl^siastique",  Pascal's  "Provinciales"  and  him  devolved  the  task  of  organizing  the  new 
*'Pens6es";  the  '* Logique" — Port-Royal  produced  a  diocese.  He  had  about  seventy  priests  and  forty 
great  impression  on  the  seventeenth  century.  Almost  missions.  In  Portsmouth  there  was  a  portion  of  a 
all  the  ^at  writers  felt  its  influence.  Two  were  its  large  church,  newly  built,  which  would  serve  as  a 
direct  product:  Racine,  its  pupil,  and  Pascal,  its  most  cathedral.  With  this  he  made  a  start,  and  the 
distinguished  champion.  The  others  were  more  or  eighteen  years  of  his  episcopate  was  a  slow  and  steady 
less  indebted  to  it.  Boileau  remained  till  the  end  united  growth  in  every  department  of  diocesan  life — the 
in  heart  and  soul  with  it  (cf.  "Epttre  sur  Vamour  de  founding  of  new  missions,  the  establishment  of 
Dieu").  Mme  de  S^vign^  was  passionately  fond  of  religious  communities,  and  the  gradual  increase  in 
Nicole's  ''Essais".  La  Rochefoucauld's  pessimism  is  the  ranks  of  the  clergy.  He  enlarged  the  cathedral 
closely  related  to  theirs,  as  is  that  of  the  gentler  La  and  completed  its  interior  decorations.     He  built  an 


PORTaOAL  2< 

epiecopa]  reeidence  and  a  large  hall  ad|oiiuiig,  which, 
with  the  cathedral,  form  a  group  of  buildings  artistic 
in  demgn,  and  architecturally,  the  moat  noteworthy 
Btructure,  among  the  ecclesiastical  buildings  in  the  Bor- 
ough of  Portamouth.  The  Diocesan  college  at  Woot- 
hampton  was  extended  ae  resards  accommodation, 
fnd  the  buildings  reconstructca  through  the  generosity 
of  a  benefactress.  The  bishop's  influence  id  Ports- 
mouth was  great.  He  was  well  known  in  all  branches 
of  public  life,  and  at  his  de^th  the  esteem  in  which  he 
was  held  by  the  people  of  the  borough,  was  attested 
by  their  liberal  Bubscriptions  to  his  memorial  chapel 
in  the  cathedral.  He  whs  succeeded  by  his  auxiliary 
bishop  and  vicar-general,  John  Baptist  Cahill  (1841- 
1910),  a  man  of  exceptional  administrative  ability. 

Bishop  Cahill  had  been  Rector  of  R:^de  unce  186i{, 

and  vicar-general  of  the  diocese  since  its  foundation, 

'    he  was  consecrated  coadjutor   (titular  of  Thagora) 

only  three  weeks  before  the  death  of  Bishop  Virtue. 

The  ten  years  of  his 

marked  oy  the  same 
steady  progress  that 
characteriied      h  i  8 

completed  the  cathe- 
dral by  adding  the 
west  front,  and  car- 
ried  out  several  im- 
portant changes  in 
the     interior.       His 


the  influx  of  reh- 
gious  communities, 
owing  to  the  French 
persecutions.  It  was 
thus  that  the  diocese 
was  enriched  by  the 
presence  of  such  con- 
gregations as  the 
Benedictines  of  So- 
lesmes,  both  monks 

borough,  Ryde,  . 
founded  in  the  diocese.  The  good  which  they  and 
.the  other  exiled  reU^ous  are  doing  should  alone 
suffice  to  perpetuate  the  memory  of  Bishop  Cahill. 
He  died  2  August,  1910,  and  was  succeeded  by  hisfriend 
and  auxiliary,  Wilham  Timothy  Cotter  (1866)  who 
was  educated  at  Maynooth  for  the  Diocese  of  tjloyne 
(Ireland),  but  afterwards  came  to  the  English  Mis- 
sion. He  was  consecrated  auxiliary  to  Bishop  Cahill, 
'  19  March,  1905,  as  titular  Bishop  of  Clazomcnic,  and 
was  transferred  to  Portsmouth,  24  November,  1910. 
The  statistics  of  1910  were:  churches,  100;  secular 
clei^,  70;  regulars,  203;  communities  of  men,  21; 
of  women,  43.  The  estimated  Catholic  population, 
45,000. 

John  Hbnst  King. 

PortugaL — I.  Gboorapht  and  Phtbical 
Characteribticb. — Portugal  is  situated  on  thf  west 
of  the  Iberian  Peninsula,  being  bounded  on  the  north 
and  east  by  Spain  and  on  the  west  and  south  by  the 
Atlantic  Ocean.  It  lies  between  latitudes  37  and  42 
north,  and  longitudes  6H  and  9H  west  of  Greenwich. 
The  form  is  approximately  rectangular,  with  a  maxi- 
mum length  of  362  miles,  a  maximum  breadth  of  140 
miles,  and  an  area  of  35,490  square  miles.  For 
purposes  of  administration  it  is  officially  divided  into 
districts,  but  the  old  division  into  provinces  (which 
originated  in  the  differences  of  soil,  climate,  and 
character  of  the  population)  has  not  lost- its  meaning 
and  is  stilt  employed  in  common  parlance.  The 
names  of  these  provinces  are  Entre-Douro-e-Minho. 
Tnu-os-MoDtes,  Beira,  Estremadura,  Alemtejo,  and 


board  of  nearly  500  miles  and  a  land  frontier  of  about 
620  miles,  the  greater  part  of  which  is  marked  by 
rivers  or  mountains.  But  though  only  a  small  por- 
tion of  this  frontier  is  conventional,  Portugal  and 
Spain  are  not  separated  by  a  strongly  marked  natural 
boundary  such  as  divides  Bome  countries;  indeed  they 
are  geographically  one. 

As  regards  the  nature  of  the  soil,  Portugal  may  be 
roughly  divided  into  three  wines:  (1)  the  northern, 
which  is  mountainous  and  rises  from  1800  to  6000 
feet,  including  the  Serra  do  Gercz,  notable  for  its 
vegetation  and  thermal  springs;  (2)  the  central,  a 
zone  of  extensive  plains  divided  by  mountain  ranges, 
among  the  latter  being  the  Serra  da  Estrella  (6540 
feet),  the  highest  and  largest  in  the  country;  (3) 
the  southern,  the 
moat  extensive  of  the 
thrfee,  almost  entire- 
ly composed  of  low- 
lyit^  plains  and 
plateaus  of  small 
altitude.  In  all  these 
repons  the  moun- 
tains ore  usually  pro- 
longations of  Spui- 
ish  systems.  The 
only  independent 
range  of  importance 
is  the  Serra  de  Mon- 
chique.  Briefly,  in 
the  north,  Portugal 
has  many  chuna  of 
mountains,  plateaus 
of  considerable 
height,  and  deep 
narrow  valleys;  in 
the  centre,  together 
with  high    and  ex- 

■  -   -  -  tensive    mountuns, 

we  find  broad  valleys  and  large  plains.  Lastly,  south 
of  the  Tagus,  the  country  is  one  of  plaina  throughout 
the  Alemtejo,  but  in  the  Algorve  it  again  becomes  hilly, 
thou^  the  altitudes  are  rarely  considerable.  The  chief 
rivers  are:  (a)  the  Minho,  which  forma  the  northern 
frontier;  (b)  the  Douro,  which  risee  in  Spain  and  enters 
the  sea  near  Oporto,  about  one-third  of  its  course 
being  in  Portugal:  (c)  the  Mondeso,  the  largest  river 
rising  in  Portugal,  which  enters  the  sea  at  Figueira 
after  a  course  of  140  miles;  (d)  the  Tagua,  which 
rises  in  Spain,  forms  above  Lisbon  a  gulf  more  than 
eight  miles  wide,  and  enters  the  sea  below  that  city, 
after  a  total  course  of  nearly  500  miles,  about  one- 
third  in  Portugal;  (e)  the  Sado,  which  flows  out  in 
a  large  estuary  at  Setubal;  (f)  the  Guadiona,  which 
serves  in  part  as  frontier  between  the  two  countriea. 
The  T^us  is  navigable  for  small  vessels  as  far  as 
Santarem:  the  Guadiana,  as  far  as  Mcrtola.  There 
are  no  lakes  worthy  of  mention,  the  ria  at  Aveiro 
connecting  with  the  sea. 

Portugal  has  few  good  natural  harbours.  That  of 
Lisbon  is  the  best,  and  indeed  one  of  the  largest  in 
Europe,  and  is  of  easy  access  at  all  times.  The  bar 
of  the  Douro  is  shallow  and  difficult;   a  fine  artificial 

girt  has  therefore  been  built  at  LeixOes  to  serve 
porto.  Setubal  is  a  foirharbour,  as  is  Villa  Realdc 
S.  Antonio,  in  the  Algarve,  wJiile  Lagos  B^,  in  the 
same  province,  affords  a  secure  anchorage  for  a  nu- 
merous fleet.  The  other  ports  are  only  suitable  for 
small  craft  and  are  continually  being  blocked  by  sand. 
Portugal  is  rich  in  metalliferous  deposits,  including 
antimony,  copper,  mangancHc,  uranium,  lead,  tin, 
and  iron,  Coiil  is  scarce  and  of  poor  quality.  The 
country  butt  more  than  a  hundred  mineral  springs, 


'  FOBTUOAL  2{ 

of  which  the  moat  important  are  Gerei  and  Viiella 
(Minho),  Vidago,  Pedraa  Salgadas,  and  Moled* 
(TtAt-OB-Montcs),  S.  Pedro  do  Sul  and  Felsueira 
(BeiraAlta),  CaldasdaR^nha  (EBtremadura),  Moura 
(Alemteio),  and  Moachique  (Aigarve).  A  branch  of 
the  Gulf  Stream  runa  down  the  West  Coast  and  the 
climate  is  temperate,  but  it  difCera  from  province  to 
province  according  to  soil,  distance  from  tae  sea,  etc.; 
while  equable  on  the  coasto,  it  is  subject  to  sudden 
changes  inlejid.  The  plateatix  of  TraaHis-Montee 
and  Beira  are  cold  and  hareh,  while  the  Aigarve 
littoral  is  hot,  but  even  where  the  temperature  is 
moat  extreme,  the  thermometer  rarely  rises  to 
3  Fahrenheit  or  deecenda  to  2  below  freezing.  Snow 
only  falls  in  winter  in  the  high  mountains  and  in 
the  north.  The  r^nfall  is  more  abundant  in  the 
North  than  the  South,  and  on  the  littora!  than  in- 
land. The  humidity  produces  toga  which  render  the 
coasts  dangerous  to  shipping.  The  most  usual  winds 
B  north-west,  north,  and  north-cast,  but  in  winter 


south-west  winds  pravml,  accompanied  by  storms. 
The  norlada  and  the  east  wind  are  dry  and  disagree- 
able.    Generally  speaking,  the  climate  is  healthy. 


temperature  bemg  61  Fahrenheit.  In  the 
eighteenth  century 
Li^Kin  was  mucn 
recommended  by 
English  physicians 
Be  a  health  resort, 
and  Mont'  Estoril, 
on  the  sea  outside 
the  estuary  of  the 
TagUB,  is  now  in- 
creasing in  favour  as 
a  winter  residence. 

The  vegetation  is 
rich,  including  near- 
ly all  the  vegetable 
species  of  temperate 
climates  and  a  large 
number  of  those 
found  in  hot  coun- 
tries. Among  tre«e 
the  pine  is  the  most 
characteristic,  but  it 
does  not  grow  south 
of  the  Sado.  The 
pinkal    of     L  e  i  r  i  a 

61a n ted  by  King 
enis  is  the  largest  ' 

forest  and  the  malo  of  Busaco  is  famous  for  the  size 
and  variety  of  its  trees.  Fruit  trees  abound,  especially 
on  the  Upper  Douro,  and  in  Beira.  Olives  and  oranges 
are  everywhere,  the  AlRsrve  produces  figs,  and  Trai- 
OB-Montcs  almonds.  The  vine  is  universal  and  forms 
Portugal's  principal  wealth.  'The  chief  wines  are 
port,  which  comes  from  the  Douro  region,  and  the 
wines  of  Beira  and  the  Peninsula  of  Lisbon  (Collsi^ 
and  Caroavellos),  but  the  lai^eat  vineyaJd  is  found 
just  south  of  the  Tagus  and  is  a  recent  creation.  The 
cereals  most  grown  are  wheat,  maize  (Indian  com), 
and  rye,  but  Portugal  still  has  to  depend  on  foreign 
countries  for  a  portion  of  Its  bread  supply.  Wine' 
oil,  fruit,  v^etables,  cattle,  and  cork  are  exported 
in  large  quantities,  and  the  chief  manufactures  are 
cotton,  wool,  gold  and  silver  work,  lace,  and  pottery. 
The  fisheries  are  the  main  occupation  of  the  coast 
population,  and  the  sardine  industry  at  Setubal  is  a 
flourishing  one. 

II.  HiSTORT. — The  lifework  of  Alfonso  Henriques 
first  King  of  Portugal  (1128-85)  consisted  in  his  asser- 
tion, by  fighting  and  diplomacy^  of  the  political 
independence  of  the  country,  and  m  his  enlan^ement 
of  its  boundaries  by  conquest*  from  the  Moors  who 
occupied  more  than  half  the  present  kingdom  when  he 
began  to  rule.  Though  he  hod  assumed  the  govern- 
ment in  1128,  it  was  only  after  a  period  of  fift<^n 


8  POBT0OAL 

years,  during  irtiich  he  suflu^  a  series  of  reverses, 
that  he  was  able  to  obtain  recognition  of  hie  king- 
ship from  Alfonso  VII  of  Leon,  to  which  kingdom 
the  territory  of  Portugal  had  formerly  belonged. 
Alfonso  Henri<iues  early  resolved  to  protect  himself 
agmnst  the  claims  of  his  powerful  neighbour  and  over> 
lord,  and  in  1142  he  offered  his  kingdom  to  th& 
Church,  declared  himself  the  pope's  vassal,  and 
promised,  for  himself  and  his  successom,  to  pay  an 
annual  feudal  tribute  of  four  ounces  of  gold.  Lucius 
II  ratiSod  the  agreement,  taking  Portugal  under  his 
protection  and  recognizing  its  independence,  and  in 
1179  another  pope,  Alexander  III,  confirmed  Alfonso 
Henriques  in  his  royal  dignity.  The  latter  now  gave 
up  all  idea  of  extending  his  dominions,  beyond  the 
Minho  and  the  Douro,  which  rivers  formed  its  boun- 
daries to  the  north  and  east,  and  endeavoured  to  in> 
crease  them  to  the  south.  He  carried  on  a  persistent 
warfare  against  the  infidel  by  sudden  incursions  into 
Moorish  territory  and  by  midnight  assaults  on 
Moorish  towns,  and  on  the  whole  he  was  successful, 
in  1147  he  took  the  almost  impregnable  city  of 
Santarem.     In  the  same  year,  after  a  four  months' 


siege,  the  great  city  of  Lisbon, 


'154,000 
men,  besides  women 
and  children",  fell 
to  his  arms  assisted 
by  a  Northern  fleet 
of  164  ships  which 
was  on  its  way  to  the 
Second  Crusade. 
The  king  thereupon 
moved  his  capital 
to  the  Tagus,  ap- 
pointed Gilbert,  an 
Englishman,  its  bish- 
op, transported  the 
body  of  St.  Vincent 
tu  the  cathedral, and 
perpetuated  the 
Bent's  memory  in 
the  arms  he  gave  to 
Lisbon,  vie,  a  ship 
and  two  crows,  in 
allusion  to  the  man- 
ner in  which  the 
relics  were  trans- 
ported from  Cape 
„         .      ■  St.  Vincent  and  to 

^•"'^^  the  birds  which  were 

said  to  have  accompanied  them  during  the  whole 
journey. 

The  reduction  of  the  neighbouring  strongholds 
followed,  but  the  king  had  to  wait  for  the  arrival 
of  another  crusading  fleet  before  he  could  take  Alcocer 
do  Sol,  in  1168.  The  cities  of  Evora  and  Beja  fell 
into  his  hands  soon  afterwaids,  but  he  could  not  hold 
so  extensive  a  territory,  and  the  country  south  of  the 
Tagus  was  taken  and  retaken  more  than  once.  At  the 
end  of  his  life  an  unwarrantable  attack  on  Badajoi 
placed  him  in  the  power  of  King  Ferdinand  of  Leon, 
and  his  last  years  were  full  of  defeats  and  humilia- 
tions. .  Nevertheless,  when  he  died  the  independence 
of  Portugal  had  been  secured,  its  area  doubled,  and 
the  name  of  the  little  realm  was  famous  throughout 
Europe  for  its  persistent  struggle  against  the  enemiea 
of  the  Cross.  A  rough  warrior,  an  astute  politician, 
and  a  loose  liver,  Alfonso  Henriques  was  yet  a  man  of 
strong  faith.  He  corresponded  with  St.  Bernard  and 
put  his  country  under  the  protection  of  the  Blessed 
Vimn,  decreeing  that  an  annual  tribute  should  be 
paid  to  the  abbey  of  Clairvaux.  For  the  Cislereian 
Order,  to  whose  prayers  he  attributed  the  capture  of 
Santarem,  he  founded  the  great  monastery  of  Alco- 
ba^a,  the  most  famous  in  Portugal,  and  endowed  it 
handsomely,  so  that  its  lands  stretched  to  the  ocean 
and  contained   thirteen  towns  in  which  the  monlM 


PORTUGM.  299  PORTUGM. 

csxercised  authority  and  levied  taxes.    Th^  oorre-  help  he  hoped  to  have  when  he  came  to  annul  the 

sponded  to  such  generosity  by  reducing  that  great  large  bequests  of  land  which  Sancho  had  made  to  his 

territoiy  to  cultivation,  and  Alooba^a  oecame  the  children.    In  this  he  was  disappointed,  for  the  po{)e 

mother  of  numerous  daughter  monasteries,  while  intervened  as  arbiter,  and  Alfonso's  sisters  Kot  their 

its  chartulary  served  in  early  times  as  that  of  the  legacies,  but  they  idl  took  the  veil,  and  his  oroliierB 

kingdom.    The  Abbot  of  Alooba9a  had  tne  post  of  never  obtained  the  estates  which  had  been  left  to 

chief  almoner  and  sat  in  the  Royal  Council  and  the  them. 

Cortes  with  the  honours  of  a  bieuiop.    Furthermore,        This  was  a  victorv  for  the  king,  who  now,  on  the 

Alfonso  Henriques,  in  1132,  established  for  the  Augus-  advice  of  his  chancellor,  sent  a  commission  of  enquiry 

tinian  Canons  the  monastery  of  Santa  Cms  at  throu^  the  kingdom  to  ascertain  the  titles  to  land 

Coimbnij  which  rivalled  Aloooaga  in  its  wealth  and  and  either  confirm  or  revoke  them,  as  seemed  to  him 

social  mission,  and  for  the  same  order  he  built  S.  just.    So  far  he  had  kept  on  good  terms  with  the 

Vicente  in  lasooni  which  is  now  the  residence  of  the  clergy,  but  Alfoftso's  determination  to  increase  the 

Patriarch.  power  of  the  Crown  and  fill  His  treasury  i^ected  their 

Sancho  I  (1185-1211)  continued  the  work  of  reoon-  immunities,  and  his  action  in  a  dispute  between  the 

quest,  and  a  large  part  of  the  Algarve  fell  into  his  Bishop  of  Lisbon  and  his  dean  showed  that  the  king's 

hands,  but  a  frosh  invading  wave  of  Moors  from  attitude  towards  the  Church  had  changed.    By  12^1 

Africa  ultimatelv  pushed  the  Christian  frontier  back  the  old  differences  had  appeared  again,  and  in  an 

totheTagus.    In  the  intervals  of  peace  allowed  him,  acute  form:    AUTonso  haa  seized  church  property, 

the  kin|s  was  active  in  building  towns  and  settling  compelled  ecclesiastics  to  plead  before  secular  jus- 

his  territory.  th«s  deserving  his  name  of  "The  Peo-  ticos  and  to  serve  in  the  wars.    The  learned  and  nolv 

pier",  and,  being  a  thrifty  man,  he  amassed  a  large  Archbishop  of  Braga  convoked  an  assembly  of  prel- 

treasure.    On  his  accession,  he  asked  and  obtain^  ates  in  wmch  he  accused  the  kinc  of  his  breaches  of 

the  papal  cozifirmation  of  his  title,  which  protected  faith  and  scandalous  life.    The  latter  met  this  by 

him  against  his  Christian  neighbours,  and  after  some  confiscating  the  goods  of  the  prelate,  who  fled  to 

delay  paid  the  tribute  to  the  Holy  See.    This  was  Rome.    Honorius  dispatched  three  Spanish  bishops 

contmued  b]^  his  immediate  successors,  but  after-  to  remonstrate  with  Auonso,  and,  as  this  had  no  effect, 

wards    fell    into    abeyance.    Sancho    imitated    his  they  excommunicated  him  a  year  later.    The  pope 

father's  liberalitv  to  the  Church  and  gave  further  then  threatened  to  absolve  the  king's  subjects  irom 

endowments  to  bishoprics  and  abbeys;   he  likewise  their  allegiance  and  hand  over  the  realm  to  any 

favoured  the  military  Orders  of  the  Temple  of  Hos-  prince  who  cared  to  take  it.    A  further  papal  Brief, 

pitallera  of  Aviz,  and  of  S.  Thiagc.  which,  besides  m  1222,  insisting  on  reparation,  together  with  an  at- 

their  pious   works,   supplied   the   best   disciplined  tack  of  leprosy  induced  Alfonso  to  enter  into  negotia- 

Boldiers  for  the  war  against  the  Moors  and  garrisoned  tions  for  peace,  and  these  were  in  progress  when  he 

the  frontier  towns  and  castles.    But  he  was  a  man  died. 

of  irascible  temperament,  and  his  superstition  led        The  reign  of  this  excommunicated  king  witnessed 

1^  to  keep  a  ''wise  woman"  in  his  company  whom  a  religious  revival  which  was  rendered  necessary  by 

he  used  to  consult  on  his  enterprises.    His  disputes  the  general  laxity  of  both  clergy  and  laity.    The 

with  the  clergy  and  the  violent  measures  he  dealt  Franciscans  were  mtroduced  by  the  king's  sister  and, 

out  to  them  are  explained  p&rtly  by  his  character  and  although  they  soon  won  the  affection  of  the  people, 

Eartly  by  the  influence  of  his  chancellor  Julian,  who  they  were  received  with  little  cordiality  on  the  part 

ad  studied  Roman  Law  at  Bologna  and  aimed  at  of  the  secular  clergy  and  the  other  orders,  who  saw 

increasing  the  royal  authority.    Sancho  intervened  their  pecuniary  interests  damaged.    In  a  Bull  of 

m  a  question  between  the  Bishop  of  Oporto  and  Gregory  IX  (1233)  the  pope  complains  of  the  hos- 

the  citizens  and  ignored  the  interdict  with  which  tility  shown  to  the  friars  bv  bishops  and  clergy. 

Innocent  III  punished  his  high-handed  proceedings.  At  Oporto  the  bishop  ordered  them  out  of  the  city, 

He  also  came  in  conflict  with  the  Bishop  of  Coim-  sacked  their  convent,  and  burned  it.  but  the  citizens 

bra,  whom  he  imprisoned  and  treated  with  great  sided  with  them,  and  in  the  end  tney  were  able  to 

cruelty.  return.    The  order  soon  spread  over  the  country. 

&uichopersistedininvadingtherighteof  theChurch  convents  were  built  for  them,  members  of  the  royal 

and  in  particular  refused  to  recognize  the  ecclesiastical  family  chose  their  churches  as  burial  places,  and  the 

forum  and  clerical  immunity  from  militarv  service,  popes  bestowed  bishoprics  on  friars  and  charged 

Though  he  made  some  concessions  before  his  death,  them  with  delicate  missions.    It  was  the  custom  for 

the  conflict  he  had  opened  lasted  through  the  next  testators  to  leave  a  part  of  their  property  to  the 

two  reigns,  and  for  nearly  a  century  the  clergy  and  the  Church,  and  Bishop  Sueiro  of  Lisbon  promulgated  a 

Crown  were  involved  in  a  strugsle  over  the  limits  of  statute  that  one-third  should  be  so  bequeathed  under 

their  respective  powers.    All  the  early  kings  were  pain  of  refusal  of  the  sacraments  and  canonical  burial, 

wont  to  reward  services  by  extensive  grante  of  lands.  The  citizens  appealed  to  the  pope  against  this  vio- 

and  in  these  lands  they  gave  up  the  royal  jurisdiction,  lence,  and  Honorius  condemned  it^  and  charged  the 

In  time,  so  large  a  part  of  the  country  was  held  in  superiors  of  the  Dominicans  and  Franciscans  to  see 

mortmain,  or  had  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  nobles,  that  the  practice  was  discontinued.    The  Dominicans 

that  the  rest  did  not  produce  enough  revenue  to  meet  had  entered  Portugal  between  1217  and  1222,  and. 

the  increasing  expenses  of  government.    The  mon-  by  virtue  of   their  austere  morals,   poverty,   and 

archs  then  tned   to  overcome  the  difficulty  by  a  humility,  they  obtained  a  welcome  second  only  to 

revocation  of  grants,  which  naturally  met  with  re-  that  given  the  Franciscans.    Sancho  II   (1223-48) 

sistance  from  the  nobility  and  clergy.    Denis,  though  was  still  only  a  boy  when  he  succeeded  his  father. 

BO  generally  favourable  to  the  Church,  employed  a  His  ministers  bound  him  to  make  satisfaction  for 


to  be  modified.    The  evil  was  a  great  and  growing  respected,  but  tht>se  responsible  for  the  outrages  of 

one  and,  had  there  been  no  other  cause  of  discord,  the  last  reign  remained  in  power,  and  the  king  had 

would  have  sufficed  to  set  the  Crown  and  landowning  small  control  over  them. 

cksses  at  issue.    Alfonso  II  (1211«-23)  took  care  to  The  bbhops  showed  as  little  desire  for  peace  as  the 

obtain  the  confirmation  of  his  title  from  the  Holy  nobles,  and  vied  with  them  in  vexing  the  monasteries 

See,  and  at  the  Cortes  of  Coimbra  he  sanctioned  the  by  their  monetary  exactions.    With  each  succeeding 

concessions  made  by  his  father  to  the  Church,  whose  year  a  state  of  anarchy  increased  over  the  kingdom 


it- 


PORTVQAL  3( 

rbfl  bellicose  Bishop  of  Oporto,  Martinho  Rodrigues, 
prewnted  to  the  pope  a  long  list  of  accusations  against 
the  monarch,  in  reply  to  which  Cardiiial  John  de 
Abavila  was  dispatched  to  Portugal  on  a  reforming 
misaon,  but  though  he  did  much  good  he  was  unable 
to  end  the  discorda.  Bishop  Suciro  then  put  himself 
at  the  head  of  the  malcontents  and  painted  in  dark 
•oloure  the  condition  of  the  Church.  The  clergy 
were  blackmailed  and  deprived  of  their  property, 
the  king  and  nobles  despised  ecclesiastical  cenaures, 
public  oflicee  were  given  to  Jews,  and  ho  on.  Pope 
Gregory  thereupon  sent  a  commiMion  to  require 
the  King  to  correct  abuses  under  threat  of  penalties, 
but  at  firat  tiiere  were  some  difficulties  in  the  way  of 
reform.  The  bishops  too  often  abused  their  immuni- 
tiee,  they  admitted  men  to  orders  who  were  only 
anxious  to  evade  military  service,  and  sometimes  to 
avoid  answering  to  the  secular  courts  for  their  crimes. 
The  pope  rem^ied  these  evils,  but  the  Government 
failea  to  repress  those  which  were  charged  against 
it.  Yet  the  Holy  See  was  averse  to  eiitreme  measures, 
because  it  appreciated  Sancho's  crusading  energy — 
for,  though    a    bad     __^ 


I  and  an  indo 
lent  administrator, 
he  was  a  bold  sol- 
dier. An  ancient 
dispute  between 
bianop  and  citizens 
as  to  jurisdiction 
over  the  Oty  of 
Oporto  revived 
^^n,  and  bishop 
and  king  were  soon 
at  issue.  Further 
more,  the  latter 
rouBed  strong  appn 
sition  by  refusing  to 
allow  ecclesiastical 
bodies  or  individ 
uals  to  accept  gifts 
of  land,  or  to  pur 
chase  it,  and,  not 
content  with  rob- 
bing and  profaning 
churches,  ne  slew 
some  priests.  He 
brought  matters  to  a  climax  when  he  intervened  in  a 
disputed  succession  to  the  bishopric  of  Lisbon  ind 
US0I  the  most  brutal  methods  t«  enforce  his  will  and 
Gregory  IX,  who  had  previously  threatened,  now 
confirmed  a  sentence  of  interdict. 

Sancho  gave  way  for  the  moment,  and  peace  was 
made,  the  King  turning  his  arms  against  ttie  Moors, 
but  in  an  interval  between  his  successful  campaigns 
be  became  enamoured  of  a  widow.  Dona  Mecia 
Lopes  dc  Haro,  whom  he  met  during  a  viut  to  the 
Court  of  Castile,  and  under  her  influence  his  charac- 
ter deteriorated.  The  bishops  renewed  their  com- 
plaints of  the  disorders  in  Portugal,  and  in  1245,  by 
the  Bull  "Grandi  non  immerito  ,  Innocent  IV  com- 
mitted the  government  to  Sancho's  brother  Alfonso 
who  was  living  in  France.  The  latter  undertook 
to  remedy  the  ills  of  the  kingdom  and  grievances  of 
the  Church,  and  on  his  arrival  the  greater  nart  of  the 
country  accepted  him  for  regent  in  accordance  with 
the  papal  directions.  Sancho,  finding  resistance  hope- 
less, passed  into  Spain,  where  he  died  a  year  later.  In 
the  reign  of  Alfonso  III  (1248-79)  Portugal  attained 
its  farthest  European  limits  by  th«  conquest  of  the 
Algarve  from  the  Moors,  but  Alfonso  X  of  Castile 
claimed  the  kin^om,  and  the  Portuguese  king  was 
forced  to  recogmie  Caatilian  suzerMnty  and,  though 
already  marriMi,  to  further  purchase  his  possessions 
by  agreeing  to  wed  Beatrice,  hLi  brother  monarch's 
ill^timate  daughter.  Fortunately,  the  first  wife 
of  Alfonso  III  died  shortly  afterwards,  and  the  king's 


0  FOBTUQAL 

bigamous  union  with  Beatrice  and  their  issue  were 
Intimated  by  Urbfin  IV  at  the  request  of  the 
bishops. 

So  far  there  had  been  peace  between  king  and 
clergy,  but  the  former  did  not  intend  to  keep  the  prom- 
ises on  tflo  strength  of  which  he  had  ascended  the 
throne,  and  the  latter  would  not  abate  their  claims. 
In  1258  Alfonso  sent  a  commissioD  of  inquiry  through 
the  kingdom  to  determine  the  royal  rights  and  we 
fiscal  obligations  oF  his  subjects,  and  as  a  result  he 
revoked,  in  1265,  many  of  the  crown  grants  of  land. 
Seven  of  the  biraiops  took  up  the  challenge,  and  in 
1267  appealed  to  Clement  IV.  They  alleged  that  the 
king,  braides  seizing  their  possessions,  deprived  them 
of  their  liberty  of  action,  refused  to  pay  tithee, 
exacted  forced  loans,  compelled  ladies  to  marry  men 
of  no  birth,  and  men  of  family  to  wed  low  women, 
or  those  of  Moorish  or  Jewish  race.  The  abuses 
of  civil  administration  were  dealt  with  in  five  articles, 
ecclesiastical  grievances  occupied  forty-three.  The 
charges  were  true  in  the  main,  but  tbe  king  met  them 
by  presenting  to  the  pope  a  petition  signed  by  all 
the  eaneelhot  in  fa- 
vour of  his  rule,  and, 
to  defeat  the  bishops 
by  a  poUcyof  delay 
he  took  the  Cross  for 
a  crusade  led  by  St 
Louis  but  never 
went  Moreover 
the  pope  and  some 
of  the  protesting 
bi^ops  died  while 
certain  abuses  were 
remedied  Relying 
on  his  good  fortune 
he  became  mote  op- 
pressive than  ever 
usurping  the  reve- 
nues of  four  sees  and 
in  1273  Grepiry  X 
ordered  the  heads 
of  the  Franciscan  and 
Dominican  Ordera  in 
Lisbon  to  remon- 
strate with  the  king. 


Cortes  at  Santarem  and  had  a  committee  appointed 
to  correct  everything  done  "without  reason  .  This 
committee  was  composed  of  his  friends  so  that  the 
concession  was  illusory.  On  hearing  of  the  king's 
duplicity,  the  pope  sent  bim  a  strongly-worded  Biul, 
dated  4  Sept.,  1275,  reminding  him  of  what  he  owed 
the  Church  and  requiring  him  to  keep  the  agre»> 
ment  made  in  Paris  under  pain  of  censure  and,  in  iba 
last  resort,  of  losing  the  realm. 

Again,  however,  time  favoured  the  king,  for 
Gregory  and  his  two  successors  all  died  in  1276,  and, 
though  the  Portuguese  John  XXI  took  the  matter 
up,  the  king  would  do  nothing  until  the  terms  of 
Gregory's  Bull,  which  he  called  ordijuttic  diabolica, 
were  softened.  An  interdict  was  therefore  pronounced 
on  the  realm,  and  Alfonso's  subjects  were  absolved 
from  their  allegiance,  but  without  effect,  for  the  king 
had  a  stronger  position  than  Sancho  11.  However, 
he  relented  when  death  approached;  he  promised 
restitution  to  the  Church  and  made  his  heir  swear 
to  perform  what  he  himself  had  promised.  His 
understanding  with  the  municipabties  enabled  Al- 
fonso III  to  consohdate  the  power  of  the  Crown  by 
hmiting  that  of  the  nobility,  both  lay  and  clericu, 
and  even  to  brave  the  censures  of  the  Chureh,  which 
by  constant  repetition  had  lost  some  of  their  effect. 
E)enis  (1279-1325),  a  cultured  man,  abstained  from 
foreign  wars  and  devoted  himself  to  developing  the 
resources  of  the  country,  his  care-of  agriculture  wiit- 


POBTUaMi                             301  POBTUQAL 

ning  him  the  title  of  ' 'the  Cultivator".    He  favoured  some  of  which  received  attention.    As  regards  the 

commerce,  founded  the  royal  navy,  and  above  all  admission  of  papal  letters,  the  king  promised  to  see 

gave  peace  to  the  Church.    After  long  negotiations  a  them  and  order  their  publication  in  so  far  as  was 

concordat  of  forty  articles  was  signed  in  1289,  and  right.     It  was  a  shuffling  reaffirmation  of  the  bene- 

this  was  followed  by  two  others.    The  heneplaeiium  placUum    regium.    Ferdmand    (1367-^)    had    his 

reaium   was   abandoned,    the   property   seized   bv  father's  generosity  without  his  strength,  and,  though 

Alfonso  III  was  restored,  and  the  kmg  bound  himself  he  deserves  the  credit  for  wise  laws  encouragiAg 

to  respect  ecclesiastical  privileges  and  immunities,  navigation  and  agriculture,  and  for  the  fortification 

and  to  observe  the  old  laws  and  customs  of  the  realm,  of  Lisbon,  he  feu  a  victim  to  animal  passion  and 

The  free  election  of  bishops  was  secured,  and  the  foolish   ambition.    His   first   attempt    to   win   the 

extortions  practised  b}^  lay  patrons  of  churches  and  Throne   of   Castile   against   Henry   of   Trastamara 

monasteries  were  prohibited.  failed,  and  in  1371  the  Peace  of  Alcoutim  was  made 

The  long  strugi^le  between  Church  and  Crown  under  the  auspices  of  Gregory  XI,  Ferdinand  agree- 
terminated;  but  if  the  first  gained  most  of  the  ing  to  marry  Henry's  dau^ter.  But  he  could  never 
points  contended  for,  its  commanding  position  ceased,  keep  a  treaty,  and,  having  fallen  in  love  with  Dofia 
The  times  were  different.  With  the  increasing  weak-  Leonor  Telles,  the  wife  of  one  of  his  nobles,  he 
ness  of  the  pap^y,  the  clergy  became  more  dependent  married  her,  notwithstanding  the  angry  protest  of 
on  the  monarch.  Moreover,  the  complete  na-  the  citizens  of  Lisbon.  Moreover,  he  entered  into 
tionalization  of  the  military  orders  effected  by  an  agreement  to  assist  John  of  Gaunt,  who  claimed 
Denis  also  tended  to  increase  the  central  power,  and  the  crown  of  Castile.  Henry  thereupon  invaded 
it  was  said  of  him  'Hhat  he  did  all  he  wished''.  On  Portugal,  in  1373,  and  would  have  captured  Lisbon, 
the  initiative  and  at  the  expense  of  the  Priors  of  had  not  Cutiinal  Guy  de  Bologne,  the  papal  legate. 
Santa  Cruz  at  Coimbra,  S.  Vicente  at  Lisbon,  and  forced  him  to  retire  and  make  peace  witn  Ferdinand 
Santa  Maria  at  Guimaraens  and  the  Abbot  of  «A1-  at  Vallada.  Leonor  now  entirely  dominated  her 
coba9a,  a  university  was  established  at  Lisbon  and  vacillating  and  indolent  husband,  and  by  obtaining 
confirmed,  in  1290,  by  pap^  Bull,  with  faculties  of  honours  and  lands  for  her  kinsfolk  and  friends  pro- 
arts,  canon  and  civil  law,  and  medicine,  but  itot  vided  against  the  time  when  he  should  die.  Losing 
theology,  which  was  studied  in  the  monasteries,  all  scruples,  she  engineered  the  murder  of  her  own 
The  king  showed  great  liberality  to  the  new  founda-  sister,  and  betrayed  the  king  by  an  intrigue  with 
tion,  which  was  subsequently,  by  papal  permission,  the  Galician  noble,  Andeiro,  whom  she  persuaded 
moved  to  Coimbra.  When  the  Templars  were  sup-  him  to  create  Count  of  Ourem.  A  few  years  later 
pressed,  John  XXII  'allowed  their  property  to  go  to  Lisbon  was  again  besieged  unsuccessfully  by  a  Castil- 
the  new  Order  of  Christ  established  in  1319.  ian  army,  and  in  1381  Ferdinand  undertook  a  war  of 

If  Denis  proved  a  wise  and  just  ruler,  some  of  the  revenge  with  the  help  of  an  English  force  under  the 

credit  is  due  to  his  wife,  St.  Isabel.    She  intervened  Duke  of  Cambridge.    He  invaded  Castile,  but  when 

successfully  more  than  once  to  end  the  rebellions  of  in  the  presence  of  the  enemy  took  fright  and  made 

his  son.    Alfonso  IV,  (1325-57)  continued  his  father's  peace  with  King  John,  one  of  the  terms  being  that 

policy.    He  lived  on  good  terms  with  the  other  the  latter  should  wed  Ferdinand's  heiress  Beatrice, 

peninsular  sovereigns,  but  when  his  daughter  was  which  would  have  led  to  the  union  of  Portugal  ana 

ill  treated  by  her  husoand,  Alfonso  XI,'  he  invaded  Castile. 

Castile.  Once  more  St.  Isabel  intervened.  Leaving  At  the  beginning  of  the  Great  Schism  it  was  only 
her  convent  of  Poor  Clares  at  Coimbra,  she  came  be-  the  firmness  of  the  bishops  that  kept  Portugal  true 
tween  the  opposing  armies  at  Estremoz  and  settled  to  Urban  YI  and  prevented  the  king  from  offering 
the  dispute  so  effectually  that  when,  in  1340,  the  King  his  obedience  to  the  anti-pope,  Clement  YII.  The 
of  Morocco  cr(»Bsed  into  Spain  to  aid  the  King  oi  resistance  of  Lisbon  to  two  Castilian  sieges  had  saved 
Granada  against  the  Christians,  Alfonso  IV  obeyed  Portuguese  independence,  and  by  a  Bull  of  Boniface 
the  papal  summons  and  led  a  contingent  which  helped  IX  its  see  was  raised  to  metropolitan  rank.  The 
Alfonso  XI  to  win  the  great  battle  of  the  Salado.  people  would  not  submit  to  a  foreign  king,  and 
His  later  years  were  clouded  by  the  Black  Death  and  shortly  after  Ferdinand's  death  the  citizens  of  Lisbon 
by  the  rebellion  of  his  son  Pedro,  who,  though  mar-  rose  against  Leonor;  Andeiro  and  the  archbishop  were 
ried,  had  become  enamoured  of  the  beautiful  Dofia  slain,  and  John,  Grand  Master  of  Aviz,  illegitimate 
Ines  de  Castro.  To  end  this  infatuation,  Alfonso  son  of  Pedro  I,  became  defender  of  the  realm.  The 
was  unfortunately  persuaded  to  consent  to  her  King  of  Castile  laid  seige  to  Lisbon,  but  a  pestilence 
assassination,  whereupon  the  prince  rose  in  arms  compelled  him  to  retire,  and  in  April.  1385,  thanks 
against  his  father  and  devastated  the  country,  to  the  eloouence  of  the  ^^t  lawyer  John  das  Regras, 
^nedict  XII  exacted  the  payment  of  the  tribute  the  Grand  Master  of  Aviz  was  elected  king  (1385- 
promised  by  Alfonso  Henriques  and  took  measures  1433)  at  the  Cortes  of  Coimbra.  On  14  August 
against  the  incontinency  of  the  clergy  (a  recurring  he  totally  defeated  the  Castilians  at  Aljubarrota, 
evil  in  Portuguese  history),  while  ClemenV  VI  an-  and  this,  together  with  the  victories  gained  by  Nuno 
Bwered  the  complaints  of  the  Kings  of  Portugal  and  Alvares  Pereira,  "the  Holy  Constable",  secured 
Castile  as  to  the  appointment  of  foreigners  to  ec-  Portuguese  independence.  The  king  erected  on  the 
clesiastical  benefices.  The  chief  characteristic  of  field  of  battle  the  great  monastery  of  Bataiha  and 
Pedro  I  (1357-67).  was  the  pleasure  he  took  in  seek*-  there  he  and  his  sons  were  buned.  On  9  May, 
ing  out  and  punishing  lawbreakers,  whether  laymen  1388,  he  made  the  Treaty  of  Windsor  with  England 
or  clerics;  hence  hb  title,  "the  Doer  of  Justice",  and.  though  a  cleric,  sealed  the  alliance  by  wedding 
Allying  himself  with  Pedro  the  Cruel  of  Castile,  he  Philippa,  daughter  of  John  of  Gaunt.  In  1391 
took  summary  vengeance  on  the  murderers  of  his  Boniface  IX  legitimated  the  marriage, 
mistress.  He  repressed  the  violence  of  the  nobles  Portugal  now  turned  her  face  to  the  ocean  and  !»:©• 
and  the  usury  of  the  Jews,  and  this  with  his  generosity  pared  to  become  a  great  maritime  power.  The  over- 
earned  him  the  respect  of  the  people,  savage  despot  sea  conquest  began  with  the  capture  of  Ceuta,  in 
though  he  was.  It  is  noteworthy  that  though  an  1415,  and  under  the  auspices  of  Prince  Henry  the 
especial  avenger  of  adulteries,  a.s  well  as  of  witch^  Navigator  the  voyages  were  organized  which  ulti- 
craft,  he  himself  lived  an  immoral  life  and  had  several  mately  led  to  the  discovery  of  the  road  to  India 
bastards,  one  of  whom  became  King  John  I.  round  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.    The  pope  encouraged 

The  chief  ecclesiastical  interest  of  this  uneventful  these  efforts,  which  had  for  their  object  the  spread 

reign  b  centred  in  the  Cortes  of  Elvas,  in  which  the  of  Christianity  aa  well  as  of  commerce,  and,  by  a  Bull 

clergy  submitted  a  list  of  thirty-three  grievances,  of  4  April,  1418,  confirmed  to  the  king  all  the  lands 


he  should  tak«  from  the  Moots.  Id  the  previous 
year  Ceuta  had  been  created  a  diocese^tmd  it  was  the 
first  of  the  many  aees  erected  in  non-Chriatian  coun- 
tries where  the  Portuguese  carried  their  faith  and 
flag.  John  made  two  conoordate  with  the  Church, 
the  first  at  the  Cortes  of  Elvae,  the  second,  in  1427, 
at  the  Cortee  of  Santarem,  but  he  did  not  abandon 
(be  benepladtum  rtffium.  He  had  beea  compelled 
to  make  large  grants  of  lands  to  the  nobles  as  the 


Tas  Ndk**  WiHDoir,  TnoHAB 


Sice  of  their  support  in  the  War  of  Indep^dence. 
ne  of  the  first  acta  of  his  son  Edward  (in  Portuguese 
Duarte — 1433-38)  was  to  promulgate  the  "  Ld 
MeDtal"  which  enacted  that  these  properties  should 
only  descend  in  the  direct  male  line  ol  the  granten, 
on  the  failure  of  which  they  reverted  to  the  Crown. 
The  ill  result  of  the  expedition  uainst  Tangier,  which 
was  undertaken  against  the  advice  of  EuseniuB  IV 
and  ended  in  the  captivity  of  the  Infanta  Ferdinand. 
hastened  the  end  of  the  crowned  philosopher,  ana 
Alfonso  V  (143S-81)  succeeded  to  the  throne  in  child- 
hood. Tlie  people  would  not  accept  his  mother, 
Queen  Leonor,  as  regent,  and  that  office  was  eou- 
^  ferred  on  the  Iii fan ta  Pedro,  Edward's  brother.  The 
queen  and  her  party  never  forgave  this  act;  they 
stirred  up  Alfonso  against  hia  unde,  who  whs  defeated 
and  slain  at  the  battle  of  Alfairoeira.  The  authors 
of  this  traaedy  were  excommunicated  by  the  pope,  and 
relations  between  Portugal  and  Rome  ceased,  but 
were  reestablished  in  1451,  and  from  1452  onwards 
became  very  close. 

Alfonso,  a  typical  medieval  knight,  full  of  the 
crusadin|t  spirit,  was  beat  on  fighting  the  Moors,  and 
he  received  every  encouragement.  Nicholas  V. 
by  a  Bull  of  8  January,  1454,  conceded  to  him  alt 
conquests  in  Africa  from  Cape  Non  to  Guinea,  with 

Swer  to  build  churches  the  patronage  of  which  should 
his,  and  prohibited  any  vessels  from  sailing  to 
those  parts  without  leave  from  the  King  of  PortuKal. 
By  another  Bull  of  the  same  date  the  pope  extended 
Portuguese  dominion  over  all  the  seas  from  Africa  to 
India.  A  subsequent  Butt  granted  to  the  Order  of 
Christ  authority  in  spirituals  ov«'  the  peoples  sub- 
dued by  the  Portuguese  as  far  as  India,  and  provided 


)2  POBTUQAL 

that  no  one  but  the  King  of  Portugal  should  be  on- 
titled  to  send  expeditions  of  diaoovery  to  those  parta. 
Finally,  in  I4S1,  Sixtus  IV  confirmed  to  the  Kings 
of  Portugal  all  islands  and  territoriee  discovered  now 
or  in  fbe  future  from  Cape  Non  to  India.  The 
voyagee  continued  during  Alfonso's  rd|p,  and  the 
equator  was  passed  in  1471.  But  the  kmg  thou^t 
ipore  of  land  oonqueats  in  North  Africa,  where  oe 
made  three  sucoeeaful  expeditions,  and  continued  to 
covet  the  throne  of  the  neighbouring  country  until 
he  was  defeated,  in  1476,  at  the  battle  of  Toro.  His 
reign  was  rendered  notable  by  the  pubUcation,  in 
1446,  of  the  Alfonsine  Code. 

John  II  (1481-95)  showed  great  energy  in  the  work 
of  discovery,  which  had  been  somewhat  n^lected 
mnce  the  death  of  Prince  Henry,  and  under  his  aus- 

S'cea  Bartholomew  Dioi  passed  the  Cape  of  Good 
ope  in  1486,  and  in  1498  Vasco  da  Gama  reached 
India.  A  firm  beUever  in  absolute  government  and 
a  man  of  inflexible  will,  John  broke  the  power  of  the 
nobihty,  which  had  become  enormous  through  the 
unwise  liberality  of  his  father,  following  on  the  dona- 
tions of  John  1.  Ho  deprived  them  of  their  right  to 
adsiinisler  justice  on  their  estates,  and  when  they 
resisted,  led  by  the  Duke  of  Bragania,  the  king  bad 
him  arrested  and  beheaded,  and  completed  his  work 
by  himself  stabbing  the  Duke  of  Viseu  and  ordering 
the  execution  of  the  Bishop  of  Evora  and  others.  A 
great  confiscation  of  estates  followed  and  enriched 
the  Crown,  which  now  became  the  one  power  of  the 
realm.  John  maint^ned  good  relations  with  Castile 
and,  \a  1494,  made  the  Treaty  of  Torde«illas,  con- 
firmed by  the  Bull  of  Alexander  VI,  by  which  the 
limits  of  the  posseesions  of  Spain  and  Portugal  in 
the  re^ons  discovered  by  their  seamen  were  fixed 
by  an  ima^nary  line  drawn  at  360  leagues  west  of 
Ukpe  Verde,  the  Spaniards  acquiring  the  right  to  all 
lands  lying  to  the  west  and  the  Pwtuguese  gettins 
those  to  the  east.  Under  this  division  of  the  world 
most  of  the  coastline  of  Braiil  found  in  1500  fell  t^ 
Portugal,  and  the  reet  of  America  and  the  West 
Indies  to  Spain. 

Provindid  and  diocesan  synods  had  become  lees 
frequent  with  each  sucoeeding  oentury  (in  tho 
fifteenth  century  not  one  provincial  synoa  was  held) 
with  the  result  that  ecclesiastical  discipline  declined. 
The  bishops  of  the  best-endowed  sees  were  almost 
invariably  chosen  from  noble  famiUee  and  some  of 
them  lived  away  from  their  diocese.  This  was  the 
esse  with  those  of  Ceuta  and  Tanker.  By  a  Brief 
of  13  October,  1501,  issued  at  the  instanoe  of  King 
Emanuel,  the  bishops  were  ordered  to  fulfil  their 
duty  of  visitation,  which  they  seem  to  have  generally 
n^Iected.  From  the  b^innins,  the  monastic  orders 
and  the  chapters  had  attracted  the  best  talents,  and 
the  parochial  clergy  were  usually  as  ignorant  as  they 
were  poor.  Innocent  VIII  had  to  issue  a  Bull  in 
1435,  providing  that  no  one  unable  to  construe  Latin 
well  shduld  be  ordained.  The  prevailing  laxity  had 
affected  the  monasteries,  but  the  orders  themselves 
responded  to  the  deures  of  the  king  and  the  Holy 
See.  A  reform  of  the  Dominican  monasteries  bocan 
at  Bemfica  and  spread  to  the  other  houses.  The 
seal  of  the  Franciscans  was  equally  marked,  no  less 
than  twenty-three  convents  of  Observants  were 
founded  within  a  century,  and  these,  despite  the  op- 
position of  the  Conventuals,' restored  the  order  to  its 
pristine  purity. 

King  Emanuel  (1495-1521)  reaped  the  harvest 
sown  by  his  predeceBsors,  and  every  year  of  his  reign 
witnessed  some  new  discovery,  some  great  deed.  The 
genius  of  Albuquerque  gave  him  the  maritime  keys 
of  Asia,  and  the  monopoly  of  the  Eastern  trade  made 
him  the  richest  king  in  Christendom.  In  1514  the 
monarch  sent  his  splendid  embassy  to  Rome  to  offer 
the  tribute  of  India  at  the  feet  of  Leo  X,  to  urge  the 
pope  to  proceed  with  the  reform  of  the  Church,  and 


POBTXraAI,  3( 

to  secure  a  letwue  of  Christian  princes  a^nst  the 
Turks.  Thou^  these  objects  failed,  the  king  ob- 
tained many  personal  faTours,  including  the  amplifica- 
tion of  the  Padroado,  or  right  of  patronage  over 
churches  in  non-Christian  countries.  The  pope 
received  the  submission  of  the  Abyssinian  Church 
through  Emanuel  and,  recognizing  the  king  as  the 
chief  protector  and  propagator  of  the  Faith,  twice 
Mnt  him  the  Golden  Rose.  Emanuel  was  especially 
anxious  to  add  Castile  to  his  world-wide  dominions, 
and  he  made  three  marriages  to  that  end,  but  all 
in  vain.  It  was  a  condition  of  his  first  marriage 
(to  the  eldest  daughter  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella) 
that  he  should  expel  the  Jews  and  unconverted 
Moors.  The  Jews  had  enjoyed  the  protection  of 
previous  kings  and  liad  supplied  them  with  trusted 
servants,  but,  as  both  the  cler^  and  people  hated 
them  for  their  usury,  and  envied  their  talents  and 
wealth,  Emanuel  sacrificed  Ihem,  against  the  ph>- 
tests  of  some  of  his  best  councillors.  They  were 
given  the  choice  of  conversion  or  exile,  and  naturally, 
from  worldly  motives,  the  greater  part  accepted  the 
former  alternative  and  became  known  as  "new 
Christians",  intermarrying  with  old  Christians. 
Many  of  these  converts  went  back  to  Judaism  and  be- 
came the  victims  of  bitter  and  continual  persecution, 
when  the  Inquisition  was  established. 

King  Emanuel  and  his  son,  John  III,  were  great 
builders;  the  former  erected  the  Hieronymite  church 
and  monastery  at  Belem,  to  commemorate  Vasco 
da  Gama's  discovery,  and  the  latter  made  great  addi- 
tions to  the  superb  convent  of  Christ  at  Thomar. 
Though  the  Golden  Age  apparently  continiied,  Por- 
tugal began  to  decline  in  the  reign  of  John  111  (152t~ 
87).  Emigration  drained  the  b^t  blood  of  the  coun- 
try; the  East  corrupted,  while  it  enriched,  its  con- 
querors; the  cultivation  of  the  soil  was  left  to  slaves; 
commerce  was  blighted  by  the  Inquisition,  which 
drove  capital  abroad.  The  Government  could  not 
make  .both  ends  meet,  and  the  wealth  of  the  Hebrews 
invited  their  spoliation.  The  king,  a  nerious,  con- 
scientious man,  but  of  small  education,  satisfied  the 
ooraplaints  of  the  people  against  that  race  by  petition- 
ing the  Holy  See  m  1531  to  establish  the  Inquisition. 
After  a  twenty  years'  struggle  at  Rome  with  the 
Hebrews,  marked  by  diseraceful  bribery  on  both 
sides,  John  forced  the  pope  s  consent  in  1547,  and  the 


tic^ly  destroyed  Judaism,  but  its  methods  divided 
the  nation  into  spies  and  victims,  enoourajjed  black- 


3  POSTUGAL 

in  the  Coundl  of  Trent.  On  John's  death,  bis  widow 
became  regent  for  htrgTEUideon  Sebastivn  (1557-78), 
who  was  a  minor.  The  latter  grew  up  an  exalted  ' 
mystic  and  knight  errant  of  the  Cross,  without  in- 
terest in  the  work  of  government.  Though  pressed 
by  St.  Pvi&  V,  he  refused  to  marry  and  oOstmat«1y 
insisted  on  attempting  to  conquer  North  Africa 
without  sufficient  men  or  money.  His  rout  and  death 
at  the  battle  of  AJcacer  decided  the  fate  of  Portugal, 
(or  Cardinal  Henry  (157S-80)  lived  lees  thaa  two 


mail   and   false 


ntnbuted   1 


weapon  into  the  hands  of  the  monarch,  who  now  had 
no  check  on  his  rule,  for  the  Cortes  had  lost  their 
power  by  the  end  of  the  preceding  century.  In  1540 
the  first  Jesuits  came,  and  the  king  became  a  warm 

Etron  of  their  early  missionary  labours  in  the  East. 
addition  to  the  ministry  of  the  confessional  and 
the  pulpit,  the  Society  devot«d  itself  to  teaching  and 
opened  coll^;es  which  were  crowded  by  youths  of 
the  better  classes.  The  university,  which  since  its 
foundation  had  moved  to  and  fro  between  Lisbon  and 
Coimbra,  was  fixed  at  the  latter  place  in  1537,  and 
distinguished  professors,  Portuguese  and  foreign, 
raised  its  intellectual  level.  Experience  proved  how- 
ever that  their  learning  was  superior  to  their  ortho- 
doxjr  and  morals,  and  they  were  replaced  by  the 
Jesuits,  who  by  degrees  obtained  that  control  of 
higher  education  which  they  held  for  two  centuries. 

John  deserves  credit  for  his  policy  of  peace  abroad 
and  for  the  coioniiation  of  Braiil,  in  which  he  had  the 
assistance  of  the  Jesuits,  who  civilized  the  natives 
and  prot«cted  them  from  the  European  settlers.  A 
number  of  new  colonial  dioceses  were  founded  in  this 
reign,  and  Portuguese  theologians,  among  them  Ven. 
bartholumew  of  the  Martyrs,  t.ook  a  prominent  part 


years,  and  in  1580  Philip  II  of  Spain  claimed  the 
throne  as  next  heir.  Partly  by  force  and  partly 
by  bribery,  he  secured  election  as  Philip  I  of  Portugal 
(1580-98)  at  the  Cortes  of  Thomar  in  1581,  and  for 
sixty  years  the  Crowns  of  Portugal  and  Sp^n  were 
unitecl.  If  Philip  I  and  II  {1598-1621)  ruled  well, 
the  period  was  none  the  less  a  disastrous  one  from  a 
religious,  as  fromi,a   political  point  of  view,   and 


Portugal  suffered  heavily  in  the  duel  between  the 
Protestant  Powers  and  Spain.  Her  Eastern  posses- 
sions fell  into  the  hands  of  the  English  and  Dutch, 


and  the  latter  seized  a  large  part  of  the  coastline  of 
Brazil.  The  monetary  exactions  of  Philip  III 
(1621-40)  ^d  the  determination  of  his  minister, 
Olivares,  to  destroy  the  liberties  of  Portugal,  aroused 
in  all  classes  a  fierce  hostility  to  foreign  rule.  The 
lower  clergy  and  religious  onlcrs  embrsiced  the  popu- 
lar cause.  The  tolerance  shown  to  the  Jews,  who 
were  permitted  to  return,  and  the  expulsion  of  the 
papal  nuncio,  Castracani,  outraged  their  feehngs, 
and  the  increasing  burden  of  taxation  pressed  them 
hard,  so  that  they  encouraged  their  flocks  to  look  for 
a  deliverer  in  the  Duke  of  Bragansa  and  greatly  con- 
tributed to  the  issue. 

The  revolution  of  1640  raised  John  IV  (1540-56) 
to  the  throne,  and  liberated  Portugal  and  her  re- 
maining possessions  from  a  foreign  yoke,  but  it  led 
to  an  exhausting  war  with  Spain  which  lasted  twenty- 
eight  years.  Moreover,  owing  to  Spanish  pressure, 
the  popes  refusnl  to  recognize  the  new  monarch;  see 
aifter  see  fell  vacant  and  remained  so,  and  ecclesias- 
tical  disciphne   became   relaxed.     I'hese   evils   con- 


POBTUGAL 


304 


POBTUGAL 


tinued  during  the  reign  of  Alfonso  VI  (1656-83), 
an  imbecile  youth  of  criminal  tastes,  who  was  de- 
posed in  1667,  his  brother  Pedro  becoming  regent  and, 
on  Alfonso's  death,  ascending  the  throne.  The 
reign  of  Pedro  (168^-1706)  is  marked  by  the  dis- 
covery *  of  gold  in  Brazil,  by  the  signature  of  the 
Methuen  Treaty  with  Elndand,  and  by  the  par- 
ticipation of  Portugal  in  the  War  of  the  Spanish 
Succession,  when  an  Anglo-Portuguese  army  entered 
Madrid.  Though  the  Portuguese  had  lost  most  of 
their  possessions  in  the  East,  their  missionaries  con- 
tinued to  spread  the  Faith  in  pagan  countries  and 
actually  defended  remote  possessions  like  Timor 
against  the  Dutch.  In  1690  the  Bishoprics  of  Pekin 
and  Nankin  were  established  by  Alexander  VIII, 
and,  after  a  conflict  with  the  Propaganda,  the  claim 
of  Portugal  to  nominate  prelates  for  all  sees  in  the 
East  was  allowed. 

In  1691  the  Cortes  met  for  the  last  time  previous 
to  the  Revolution  of  1820.  The  leading  ecclesiastical 
figure  of  the  age  was  Father  Antonio  Vieira,  preacher, 
protector  of  the  Indians  of  Brazil,  and  confidential 
agent  of  John  IV.  The  relations  between  the  Jesuits 
and  the  Inquisition  had  never  been  cordial,  and  the 
tribunal,  aware  of  Vieira's  sympathy  for  the  converted 
Jews,  and  anxious  to  humble  the  Society,  condemned 
certain  propositions  taken  from  his  writings,  sen- 
tenced hinVto  seclusion  in  a  college,  and  deprived  him 
of  the  right  to  preach.  Thereuix)n  Vieira  went  to 
Rome  and  presented  a  memorial  to  the  pope,  who 
ordered  an  inquiry  into  the  methods  of  the  Inquisi- 
tion and  suspended  it  until  reforms  should  be  intro- 
duced. It  submitted  after  a  struggle^  and,  when 
Innocent  XI  revoked  the  suspension  m  1681,  the 
tribunal  had  to  adopt  a  milder  procedure.  The  gold 
and  diamonds  of  Brazil  enabled  John  V  (1706-50) 
to  imitate  Louis  XIV  in  magnificence.  To  licentious 
habits  he  united  a  taste  for  ecclesiastical  pomp. 
He  displayed  his  piety  by  building  an  enormous  pile, 
church,  monastery,  and  palace  in  one,  at  Mafra,  by 
providing  the  large  sums  required  in  connexion  with 
the  canonization  of  various  saints,  and  bv  obtaining 
from  the  pope  the  elevation  of  the  Archbishopric  of 
Lisbon  to  the  dignity  of  a  patriarchate,  together  with 
the  title,  for  himself  and  his  successors,  of  ''Most 
Faithful  Majesty '\  Except  in  the  case  of  the  Lis- 
bon aqueduct,  the  country  reaped  small  benefit  from 
the  vast  sums  expended  by  the  artistic,  pleasure- 
loving  monarch;  and  if  religion  waa  outwardly 
honoured,  the  bad  example  set  by  John  helped  to 
lower  the  already  impaured  national  standard  of 
morals.  The  nobility  had  by  this  time  ceased  to 
visit  their  estates  and  degeneratec^into  a  race  of  mere 
courtiers.  The  interests  of  the  common  people  were 
neglected  by  the  Government,  almost  their  only 
friends  being  the  religious  orders.  At  the  pope's 
bidding,  John  sent  a  fleet  against  the  Turks  which 
helped  to  win  the  battle  of  Matapan  in  1717. 

The  reign  of  Joseph  (1750-77)  is  made  famous  by 
the  administration  of  the  Marquess  of  Pombal,  the 
real  ruler  of  Portueal  for  over  twenty  years.  The 
energy  he  displayed  at  the  time  of  the  great  earth- 
quake of  1755  confirmed  his  hold  over  the  king,  and 
with  royal  support  he  was  able  to  use  the  suleged 
"Tavora  Conspiracy"  to  humble  the  nobility  and  to 
continue  the  campaign  he  was  directing  against  the 
Jesuits,  whom  he  was  determined  to  master.  His. 
accusations  against  them  of  seditious  conduct  in  the 
missions  and  of  illicit  trading  were  merely  pretexts. 
He  had  already  dismissed  them  from  Court,  delated 
them  to  Rome  and  secured  the  appointment  of  a 
friend  of  his,  Cardinal  Saldanha,  as  their  reformer, 
and  when  an  attempt  was  made  on  the  king's  life 
he  attributed  it  tq  Jesuit  machinations,  confiscated 
the  property  of  the  company  in  the  Portuguese 
dominions  and  expelled  the  Portuguese  Jesuits,  re- 
taining the  foreigners  in  prison.    The  pope  had  re- 


fused to  incriminate  the  whole  company  for  the  faults 
of  individuals,  and  Pombal's  reply  was  to  dismiss  the 
nuncio  and  break  off  relations  with  Rome.  Hence- 
forth the  real  head  of  the  Church  in  Portugal  was  the 
Minister.  He  heaped  ignominy  on  the  Jesuits  by 
securing  the  burning  of  Father  Malagrida  by  the 
Inquisition,  and  his  work  was  completed  when,  under 
pressure  from  the  Catholic  Powers,  Clement  XIV  sup- 

?ressed  the  Society  in  1773.  Pombal's  ruin  of  the 
'oreign  Missions  was  perhaps  his  greatest  crime  and 
was  by  no  means  compensated  for  by  his  abolition 
of  slavery  and  of  the  distinction  between  old  andnew 
Christians.  He  undoubtedly  made  great  and  neces- 
sary reforms  in  internal  administration  and  freed 
Portugal  for  the  time  from  its  subservience  to  England, 
but  his  commercial  policy  was  a  failure,  and  the  harm 
he  did  far  outweighed  the  good.  Above  all  he  forged 
those  fetters  for  the  Church  which  still  paralyse  her 
action. 

The  death  of  Joseph  brought  about  the  fall  of  the 
minister,  but  the  new  sovereigns  Pedro  and  Maria 
(1777-1816),  while  opening  the  prisons  which  Pombal 
had  fiHed  with  his  opponents,  left  much  of  his  work 
untouched.  The  king  died  early,  tiie  queen  lost  her 
reason,  and  their  son  John,  a  sympathetic  but  weak 
man,  was  named  regent.  French  ideas — ^those  of  the 
Encyclopedists  and  of  the  Revolution — ^were  kept 
out  of  tne  country  as  Ions  as  possible,  but  the  am- 
bition of  Napoleon  gave  little  nope  of  security  to^  a 
small  kingdom  which  was  regarded  as  the  dependent 
of  England.  The  Treaty  of  Fontainebleau  divided 
the  country  between  France  and  Spain;  the  famous 
proclamation  was  issued,  stating  that  the  House  of 
Braganza  had  ceased  to  reign,  and  Junot  with  a 
French  army  occupied  Lisbon  in  1807.  The  royal 
family  fled  to  Brazil,  and  Portugal  was  governed  from 
there  imtil  1820.  Queen  Maria  died  at  the  close  of 
the  Peninsular  War,  which  led  to  the  overthrow  of 
the  Napoleonic  power,  and  John  VI  (1816-26)  came 
to  the  throne.  The  Revolution  of  18^  forced  him 
to  return  home,  and  he  had  to  accept  a  constitution 
of  a  most  radical  character,  for  which  the  country  was 
entirely  unfitted.  One  calamity  succeeded  another. 
The  opening  of  the  ports' of  Brazil  to  foreign  ship/ 
ruined  Portugese  conunerce,  the  separation  of  tne 
colony  diminished  the  prestige  of  the  mother  coun- 
try, which  was  reduced  to  a  miserable  plight  by  the 
long  war,  and  internal  feuds  were  added  to  external 
troubles.  On  the  death  of  John,  his  son  Pedro  IV 
gave  a  new  constitution,  called  ^Hhe  Charter'],  and 
then  resigned  the  throne  in  favour  of  his  infant 
daughter  Maria  II,  naming  his  brother  Miguel  re- 
gent. The  Conservatives,  or  Absolutist  Party,  how- 
ever, who  hated  the  Charter  as  the  work  of  Liberals 
and  Freemasons,  desired  him  as  king,  and  he  sum- 
moned a  Cortes  of  the  old  type  which  placed  him  on 
the  throne  in  1828.  The  Radicals  and  Chartists 
at  once  organized  resistance  to  what  they  called  the 
usurpation  and,  after  a  long  civil  war,  were  successful. 
By  the  Convention  of  Evora  Monte,  Miguel  had  to 
abandon  his  claims  and  leave  the  country.  The 
victorious  Liberals  initiated  an  era  of  persecution 
and  robbery  of  the  Church,  the  effects  of  which  are 
still  felt.  The  religious  orders  were  the  first  to  go. 
The  orders  of  men  were  suppressed,  and  their  prop- 
erty confiscated,  nominally  to  enrich  the  treasury, 
but  private  individuals  reaped  the  benefit.  The 
orders  of  women  were  allowed  to  die  out,  further 
professions  being  prohibited.  The  people,  deprived 
of  the  monks  and  friars,  who  were  their  teachers, 
.preachers,  and  confessors,  gradually  lost  their  knowl- 
edge of  religious  truths,  because  the  secular  clergy 
were  unprepared  to  take  the  place  of  the  orders: 
besides  which,  the  bishops  and  clergy  were  bound 
hand  Und  foot  to  the  State. 

The  last  half-century  of  the  Portuguese  Monarchy, 
embracing  the  reigns  of  Pedro  V  (1853-61),  Louis 


POBTUGAL                             305  POBTUGAL 

I  (1861-^9)  I  and  Charles  I  (1889-1908),  was  one  of  are    authorized    to    correspond    officially    by    mail 

internal   peace  and  increasing  material  prosperity,  with  the  public  authorities  only,  and  not  with  one 

But  only  in  the  last  few  years  have  Portuguese  another '\ 

Catholics  begun  to  emerge  from  a  state  of  lethargv.  A  Constituent  Assembly,  elected  early  in  the  sum'* 
Modem  Portuguese  statesmen,  usually  CathoUc  only  mer  of  1911,  on  19  June  of  that  year  formally  decreed 
in  name,  have  interested  themselves  in  ecclesiastical  -^  the  abolition  of  the  Portuguese  monarchy, 
affairs  to  preserve  old  privileges,  such  as  the  Padroado  III.  Actual  Conditions. — A.  EccUsiaaiicdl  Or- 
in  the  East,  but  hardly  elver  to  assist  the  Church  in  ganizaiion, — By  the  Constitutional  Charter  Catholi- 
the  performance  of  her  Divine  mission.  The  Con-  cism  was,  prior  to  the  Republic,  the  religion  of  the 
cordat  of  1886  regulated  man^r  of  the  questions  in  State,  but  all  other  religions  were  tolerated,  so  long 
dispute  with  the  State  and  Hmtze  Ribeut)'8  decree  as  they  were  not  practised  in  a  building  having  the 
of  1896  authorized  the  existence  of  religious  orders  exterior  form  of  a  church.  Continental  Portugal 
under  certain  conditions.  The  prospect  of  better  is  divided  ecclesiastically  into  three  metropolitan 
conditions  for  the  Church  vanished,  however,  with  provinces,  containing  twelve  dioceses  (nine  suffragan), 
the  coming  of  the  Revolution  in  1910,  which  dr^ve  The  Patriarehate  of  Lisbon  has  for  suffragan  sees 
the  Braganza  dynasty  from  the  throne,  and  delivered  Guarda  and  Portalegre;  the  Archbishopric  of  Braga 
Portugal  into  the  hands  of  the  Radicals,  whose  has  those  of  Braganca,  I^amego,  Coimbra,  Oporto, 
hostility  to  the  Catholic  religion  was  made  evident  and  Vizeu;  the  Arcnbishopric  of  Evora,  those  of 
by  the  adverse  course  of  the  F^visional  Government  Beja  and  Faro.  The  Patriarch  of  Lisbon  is  con- 
set  up  by  the  Revolutionists.  On  1  February,  1908.  sidered  to  be  entitled  to  a  cardinal's  hat,  and  the 
King  Charles  and  the  Crown  Prince  were  assassinatea  archbishop  of  Braga  bears  the  title  of  **  Primate  of 
in  the  streets  of  Lisbon.  The  murder  was  perpe-  the  Spains",  an  honour  which,  however,  is  dis- 
tratcd  by  a  man  named  Buica  and  several  associates,  puted  by  Toledo.  The  Azores  and  Madeira  each 
and  was  applauded  by  the  Republican  press.  The  contain  an  episcopal  see  and  the  colonial  sees  include 
succession  devolved  on  the  second  son,  who  ascended  those  of  Cape  Verde,  Angola,  Goa  (a  patriarchate), 
the  throne  as  Emanuel  II.  His  reign  was,  however.  Damfto,  Cochin,  Mylapur,  Macao,  Mozambique,  and 
brief.    On  3  October,  1910,  a  revolution,  which  had  St.  Thomas  (S.  Thom^). 

been  arranged  for  10  October,  broke  out  prematurely,  According  to  the  Concordat  of  1886,  bishops  were 
and  Emanuel  fled  from  the  capital  to  Gibraltar,  where  nominated  b3r  the  Government,  appointed  oy  the 
he  shortly  afterwards  embarked  for  England.  A  pope,  and  paid  by  the  State.  Parish  priests  were 
provisional  government,  repubhcan  in  form,  was  pro-  appointed  by  the  minister  of  justice,  after  informa- 
claimed,  with  Theophilus  Braga.  a  native  of  the  tion  as  to  their  fitness  supplied  by  the  bishops,  so 
Azores,  as  President.  He  immediately  set  to  work  that  they  were  State  functionaries,  and  often  owed 
to  carry  out  the  radical  measures  of  the  repubhcan  their  positions  to  political  influence.  To  qualify 
programme,  the  first  of  which  was  the  summary  and  for  any  ecclesiastical  post,  they  had  to  obtain  ago vem- 
violent  expulsion  of  the  religious  congregations,  the  ment  license  before  taking  orders.  In  the  Islands  the 
seizure  of  their  property  by  the  State,  the  abolition  parish  priests  were  paid  by  the  State,  but  on  the  Con- 
of  the  Senate  and  all  hereditary  privileges  and  titles,  tinent  their  income  was  derived  partly  from  a  fund 
The  separation  of  Church  and  State  was  also  arbi-  called  Congrwa,  which  consisted  of  contributions 
trarily  decreed  by  the  provisional  government.  levied  on  the  parishioners,  and  partly  from  stole  fees. 
On  20  April,  1911,  a  second  decree,  in  196  articles.  There  were  twelve  seminaries  for  the  education  of 
was  promulgated,  regulating  in  detail  the  previously  the  clergy  on  the  Continent,  two  in  the  Islands,  and 
sweeping  enactments.  Article  38  of  this  decree  pro-  tour  in  other  colonies.  There  is  also  a  Portu- 
hibits  any  minister  of  religion,  under  the  penalties  g^ese  College  in  Rome  and  one  for  Foreign  Mis- 
of  article  137  of  the  Criminal  Code  and  the  loss  of  the  sionaries  in  Portugal.  The  seminaries  were  sup- 
material  benefits  (pensions)  of  the  State,  from  criti-  ported  partly  by  their  own  funds  and  partly  by  the 
cizing  "in  the  exercise  of  his  ministry  and  on  the  Junta  Gerai  da  Bulla  da  Cruzada,  an  ancient  in- 
occasion  of  any  act  of  worship,  in  sermons  or  in  stitution  which  derived  its  income  from  offerings 
public  writings,  the  public  authority  or  any  of  its  made  for  dispensations,  etc.  The  clergy  were  exempt 
acts,  or  the  form  of  the  government  or  the  laws  of  the  from  military  and  jury  service,  and  were  ineligible 
Republic,  or  den3ring  or  calling  into  question  the  rights  for  any  adjninistrative  position,  except  the  Parish 
of  the  State  embodied  in  this  decree  or  in  other  Council  {Junta  da  Parochia),  of  which  the  parish 
legislation  relative  to  the  Churches''.  Chapter  iv  priest  is  the  president.  These  councils  administered 
devotes  twenty-seven  articles  to  the  ownership  and  the  property  of  the  parish  church  and  taxed  the 
administration  of  church  buildings  and  property,  parishioners  for  the  construction  and  repair  of  church 
Churches,  chapels,  lands,  and  chattels,  hitherto  ap-  and  presbytery,  the  expenses  of  worship,  church  oma- 
plied  to  the  public  worship  of  the  Catholic  religion  ments  and  vestments,  etc.  The  confrarias  and 
are  declared  property  of  the  State,  unless  bona  fide  irmandades,  which  numbered  about  9000,  were  in- 
ownership  by  some  private  individual  or  corpora-  dependent  oodies,  ruled  by  their  own  statutes, 
tion  can  be  proved.  Chapter  v,  in  twenty-four  B.  Religious  Orders. — How  the  Jesuits  were  ex- 
articles,  provides  for  boards  of  laymen  (after  the  man-  pelled  by  Pombal,  and  how,  in  1834,  the  reUgious 
ner  of  the  French  Law  of  Associations)  to  take  charge  orders  of  men  were  suppressed  and  their  property 
of  and  administer  the  temporalities  needed  for  Catho-  seized  by  the  State,  has  been  told  above.  At  the 
lie  worship.  This  arrangement  is,  however,  revo-  same  time  the  orders  of  women  were  prohibited  from 
cable  at  tne  pleasure  of  the  grantor  (the  State),  taking  novices  and  were  allowed  to  die  out,  after 
Buildings  intended  for  religious  purp)08es,  but  not  which  their  convents  also  passed  to  the  State,  but 
yet  utilized,  whether  in  course  of  construction  or  by  the  Decree  of  18  April,  1901,  religious  congrega- 
completed;  buildings  which  for  a  year  have  not  been  tions  were  permitted  to  exist  when  they  were  dedi- 
used  for  religious  purposes  and  such  as  by  31  Decern-  cated  exclusively  to  instruction  or  good  works,  or  to 
ber,  1912,  shall  have  no  board  of  laymen  to  adminis-  spreading  Christianity  and  civilization  in  the  colonies, 
ter  them,  shall  be  taken  by  the  State  for  some  social  Long  before  this  decree,  the  Jesuits  had  returned  and 
purpose.  Only  Portuguese  citizens  who  have  made  opened  colleges  for  the  education  of  youth,  and  a 
their  theological  studies  in  Portugal  may  officiate,  number  of  orders  and  religious  institutes  were  even- 
Chapter  vi  deals  with  the  question  of  pensions  for  tually  established  in  Portugal  These  included 
the  ministers  of  the  Catholic  religion,  and  permits  Missionaries  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  Benedictines, 
them  to  marry.  Article  175,  chapter  vii,  stipulates  Franciscans,  Irish  Dominicans,  L  ittle  Sisters  of  the 
that  "ministers  of  religion  enjoy  no  privileges  and  Poor,  Sisters  of  the  Third  Order  of  St.  Dominic, 
XII.— 20 


POBTUaAL  3( 

(iVutciscaii  Sisters,  Servite  Sisters,  DorotheoDB, 
Sifters  of  the  Mis«ons.  SaleaiHiiB,  Sisters  of  St. 
John  of  God,  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  of  Cluny,  Mariat 
Sisters,  Sisters  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  and  Por- 
tueueae  Sisters  of  Ch&rity  (Trinan). 

C.  SUUistics  of  PopukUion. — The  population  of 
Portugal,  according  to  the  census  of  1900,  was 
5,423,132,  the  greater  portion  (68  per  cent)  being 
niral.    The  Nort^  is  more  thiddy  populated  than 


the  South,  the  maximum  of  density  being  reached 
between  the  riven  Douro  and  Ave,  Emigration  is 
increasing.  In  1907,  45,000  individuals  left  their 
homes.  24,000  of  these  for  Brazil  and  6000  for  North 
America. 

D.  Education. — The  first  modem  law  providing 
for  the  general  instruction  of  the  people  was  that  of 
the  Marquess  of  Pombal,  dated  6  November,  1772. 
But  this  law  remained  a  dead  letter,  and,  thoujth  the 
Constitutional  Charter  guaranteed  free  primary 
instruction  to  all  citizens,  and  a  multitude  of  statutes 
dealins  with  the  question  have  been  subsequently 
passed,  at  least  70  per  cent  of  the  population  can 
neither  read  nor  write.  The  direction  of  primary 
education  was  formerly  exercised  by  the  University 
of  Coimbra,  but  it  now  belongs  to  the  Home  Office, 
the  cost  being  borne  partly  by  the  Concelhoa,  partly 
by  the  State.  At  the  end  of  1904  there  were  49G8 
lUimary  schools  on  the  Continent  and  the  adjacent 
islands,  29.53  being  for  boys,  1549  for  girls  and  466 
mixed,  but  some  of  these  only  exist  on  paper,  and 
some  hundreds  of  parishes  have  no  school.  More- 
over, the  conditions  of  a  large  proportion  of  the  schools 
are  not  good,  while  the  teachers  are  ill-prepared  and 
ill-paid.  The  backward  condition  of  Portugal  is 
tamely  attributable  to  its  lack  of  instruction,  and  in 
view  of  the  want  of  interest  shown  b^  the  Govern- 
ment in  no:i-|iolilical  questions,  pnvate  societies 
are  endc-avmiri^i);  to  a])]>ly  the  remetly-   Among  these 


>6  POBTUQAL 

are  the  Moveable  Schools  which  teadt  according  to 
the  methods  of  the  poet  JoSo  de  Deus,-  the  recently 
formed  National  League  of  Instruction  and  other 
bodies,  most  of  which  are  Freethinking  in  character. 
Before  the  Revolution  the  Republicans  had  identified 
thenwelvea  with  a  movement  for  lay-teaching,  and 
their  various  centres  had  free  schools  attached,  for 
the  instruction  of  the  children  of  their  members. 

Secondary  instruction  is  given  in  the  lyeeos,  which 
are  found  in  all  the  principal  towns,  and  in  technical 
Bchoo1s|  but  the  boys  of  the  better  classes,  prior  to  the 
Republic,  were  lareely  confided  to  the  care  of  the 
Jesuits,  and  the  girb  to  one  of  the  many  educational 
convents  which  then  existed.  There  are  also  many 
pavate  Hchoola,  some  conducted  by  foreigners,  where 
an  ordinary  business  education  can  be  had.  The 
religious  instruction  of  the  people  was  far'  from  satis- 
factory, and  since  the  advent  of  the  Republic  is  less 
so.  Catechism  used  to  be  included  in  the  ciuriculum 
of  the  (government  primary  schools,  but  under  the 
Repubhcan  regime  is  altogether  excluded.  There  is 
no  religious  teacliing  in  the  lyceoa,  which  are  day 
schools,  without  proper  discipline  or  any  attempt  at 
the  formation  of  character.  Higher  education  is 
given  in  the  Univerwty  of  Coimbra  (with  alMtut  H.^O 
students)  and  in  various  establishments  of  a  special 
character,  such  as  the  Curso  Superior  das  Letras, 
the  Medical,  Army,  Navy,  and  Polytechnic  Schools, 
in  Lisbon  and  Oporto.  The  university  has  a  theo- 
logical faculty,  with  but  very  few  students,  owini^  to 
its  unorthodox  character.  Ignorance  of  religion 
and  of  church  history,  and  the  reading  of  bad  litera- 
ture go  far  to  explain  the  anti-clerical  feeling  whiiih 
prevdis  among  the  people  generally  in  the  towns, 
and  especially  in  the  capital.  The  Press  is  intel- 
lectually of  little  account,  and  its  moral  tone  is  low, 
especially  in  the  case  of  the  Republican  organs, 
Bomi  of  the  most  circulated  of  which  are  not  fit  for 
perusal  by  women.  The  Catholic  organs,  "Portu- 
gal" of  Lisbon  and  "Palavra"  of  Oporto,  before 
they  were  suppressed  by  the  Republic,  enjoyed  an 
increasing   circulation,    but    an    avowedly    religious 

Siper  is  suspected  by  the  great  majority  of  educated 
atholics,  who  fear  to  be  dubbed  reactionary.  It  is 
the  oommoneat  ambition  to  be  considered  Liberal, 
though  the  word  is  a  misnomer  in  Portugal,  where 
it  stands  for  many  ide-as  and  aspirations  essentially 
illiberal.  The  Republicans,  though  many  of  them 
profess  Catholicism,  have  always  been  an  anti- 
clerical party.  They  claim  to  defend  the  native 
secular  cler^  against  religious  orders  who  are  mostly 
composed  ^  foreigoers,  and  especially  against  the 
Jesuits.  They  generally  favour  civil  marriage,  a 
divorce  law,  the  abolition  of  religious  proces^ons  in 
the  streets  etc.  The  Socialists  go  further  and  are 
frankly  godless. 

D.  Lawa  AfeetiTtg  Rdigion. — Previous  to  the  Revo- 
lution of  1910,  a  testator  might  only  dispose  freely 
of  a  third  fart  of  his  property  by  will;  this  is 
called  the  terta.  The  remaining  two-thirds  go  to 
form  the  leaiiima  of  his  heirs  in  the  ascending  and 
descending  line.  A  testator  may  not  bequeath  more 
than  a  third  of  his  terfo  to  be  spent  in  prayers  and 
masses  for  his  soul,  and  ecclesiastical  corporations 
may  not  benefit  under  bis  will  to  an  amount  ex- 
ceeding the  third  of  his  (erfa.  The  testamentary  dis- 
positions of  a  sick  person  in  favour  of  his  confessor, 
except  such  as  are  merely  remunerative,  are  void  if 
he  dies  of  the  illness  during  which  he  has  made  them. 
Professed  religious  women  cannot  make  wilts  until 
they  become  secularized  or  their  communities  are 
BUpprcAsed,  nor  can  they  acquire  anything  by  will, 
except  by  way  of  aliment,  or  money  legacy,  or  other 
moveables.  The  Civil  Code  makes  no  mention  of 
men  bound  by  religious  vows,  because  the  law  doefl 
not  know  them. 

There  was,  under  the  Monarchy,  no  divorce  law 


POBTUQAL                             307  PORTUGAL 

in  Portugal,  but  a  marriage  could  be  declared  null  for  abbreviated  as  French,  but  learned  writers,  in  their 

reasons  allowed  by  the  Chur(;h.    The  canonical  im-  passion  for  antiouity,  re-approxima^  the  vocabillary 

])ediments  were  recognize  by  the  Code.    Civil  mar-  to  Latin.    The  Kenaissance  commenced  a  separation 

riage  and  interment  were  permitted,  but  made  small  between  literary  men  and  the  people,  between  the 

he^way,  and  the  parish  registers  continued  to  be  written  and  spoken  tonsuCj  which  witn  some  excep- 

almost  universally  used,  though  there  was  a  civil  tions  lasted  until  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth 

register  of  births,  marriages,  and  deaths.    The  courts  century.    Then  the  Romanticists  went  back  to  tradi- 

could  decree  separation  ot  persons  and  goods  (1)  tion  and  drew  on  the  poetry  and  every  day  speech  of 

in  case  of  adultery  by  the  wife,  (2)  in  case  of  adultery  the  people,  and,  thanks  to  the  writings  of  such  men  as 

and  desertion  by  the  husband,  or  public  scandal;  Almeida-Garrett  and  Camillo  Castello  Branco,  the 

(i)  when  one  of  the  parties  was  conaenmed  to  a  life  literarv  language  became  national  once  again, 

penalty,  or  (4)  when  one  of  the  parties  had  been  I.  Early  Vebse. — ^An  indigenous  popular  poetry 

guilty  of  outrageous  cruelty  to  the  other.    Children  existed  at  the  be^ning  of  Portuguese  nistory,  but  the 

bom  out  of  w^lock  were  legitimated  by  the  subse-  first  literary  activity  cune  frona  Provence.    It  was 

quent  marriage  of  their  parents,  when  the  latter  quickened  by  the  accession  of  King  Alfonso  III,  who 

formally  recognized  them,  or  when  the  children  them-  had  been  educated  in  France,  and  the  productions  of 

selves  obtain^  a  judicial  sentence  in  their  favour.  his  time  are  preserved  in  the  *'  Cancioneiro  de  Ajuda", 

Cemeteries  were  provided  and  controlled  by  the  tlie  oldest  collection  of  peninsular  verse.   But  the  most 

municipalities  in  the  chief  places  of  each  district,  brilliant  period  of  Court  poetry,  represented  in  the 

Outside  of  these,  they  were  established  at  the  ex-  ''Cancioneiro  da  Vaticana",  comcided  with  the  reign 

pense  of  the  parishioners  by  the  parish  council,  to  of  King  Denis,  a  cultivated  man,  who  welcomed 

which  they  belonged.    The  death  penalty  has  long  singers  from  all  parts  and  himself  wrote  a  large  num- 

boen  abolished  in  Portugal,  which  may  account  in  ber  of  erotic  songs,  charming  ballads,  and  pastorals, 

part  for  the  large  number  of  murders.    Criminals  This  thirteenth  century  Court  poetry,  which  deals 

sentenced  to  long  terms  of  imprisonment  were  sent  mainly  with  love  and  satire,  is  usually  copied  from 

tu  the  Penitenciaria  in  Lisbon  and  there  are  casas  Provengal  models  and  conventional,  but,  where  it  has 

de  correcgdOy  or  reformatories,  for  small  boys  and  a  popular  form  and  origin,  it  gains  in  sincerity  what  it 

girls.    Good  Shepherd  homes  for  fallen  women  ex-  loses  in  culture.    By  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  cen- 

i^ted  at  Lisbon  and  Oporto,  but  were  suppressed  by  tury  troubadour  verse  was  practically  dead,  but  the 

the  Provisional  Government  at  the  time  oi  the  Revo-  names  of  some  few  bards  have  survived,  among  them 

lution.    Charitable  institutions  abounded,  and  Por-  Vasco  Peres  de  Camoens,  ancestor  of  the  great  epic 

tugal  had,  under  the  Monarchy,  some  370  Miaerir  poet,  and  Macias ''the  enamoured".    Meanwhile  the 

cordiaa  and  hospitals.    In  the  various  districts  of  Lis-  people  were  elaborating  a  ballad  poetry  of  their  own, 

ban,  the  cozinhas  eamomicas^  an  institution  founded  the  body  of  which  is  known  as  the  Romanceiro,    It 

and  largely  supported  by  the  late  Duchess  of  Pal-  consists  of  lyrico-narrative  poems  treating  of  war, 

mella,  provided  cheap  meals  for  the  poor,  and  Queen  chivalry,  adventure,  religious  legends,  and  the  sea, 

Amelia  s  crusade  against  tuberculosis  led  to  the  estab-  many  of  which  have  great  beauty  and  contain  traces 

lishment  of  free  consulting  hospitals  and  sanatoria  of  the  varied  civilizations  which  have  existed  in  the 

in  different  parts  of  the  country.  peninsula.    When  the  Court  poets  had  exhausted  the 

As  a  result  of  the  encyclicals  of  Leo  XIII  on  Chris-  artifices  of  Proven9al  lyricism,  they  imitated  iAie 

tian  democracy,  the  movement  for  the  establishment  poetiy  of  the  people,  giving  it  a  certain  vogue  which 

of  Catholic  circles  for  workingmen  was  inaugurated  fast^  until  the  Classical  Renaissance.    It  was  then 

in  Portugal,  and  these  mutual-aid  societies  existed  thrust  into  the  background,  and  thou^  cultivated  by 

in  the  principal  centres  of  population,   furnished  a  few,  it  remained  unknown  to  men  of  letters  until  the 

education  to  the  workmen  and  their  children,  and  nineteenth  century,  when  Almeida-Garrett  began  his 

kept  them  together  hy  conferences,   concerts,  and  literary  revival  and  collected  folk  poems  from  the 

excursions.    The  associations  of  Catholic  youth  in  moutlis  of  the  peasantry. 

Lisbon  and  Oporto  also  deserve  mention.  But  the  II.  Early  Prose. — -Prose  developed  later  than 
sweeping  measures  inaugurated  by  the  Republican  verse  and  first  api>eared  in  the  fourteenth  century  in 
Government  effected  a  complete  rupture  of  the  the  shape  of  short  chronicles,  lives  of  saints,  and  gen- 
former  relations  between  Church  and  State,  and  the  ealogical  treatises  called  "Livros  de  linhagens''. 
status  of  the  various  Catholic  organizations,  aside  Portugal  did  not  elaborate  her  own  chansonea  de  geateSt 
from  the  religious  congregations  (which  'were  im-  but  gave  prose  form  to  foreign  m^eval  poems  of 
mediately  dissolved),  has  become  very  uncertain.  romantic  adventure:  for  example,  the  "History  of  the 

CBAwrrao,  Pariuoal,  ^^f""^,  Hv^  ^^°*^?2iuJ^^ •   ^^^^*  Holy  Grail"  and  "  Amadis  of  Gaur*.    The  first  three 

f::fS^''id^\^)':'^SS^.^^^  »x>ots  of  the  lat^r  probaWy  i^iyed  their  preynt 

Portugal,  4th  ed.  (Lisbon,  1894);  Idbm.  PoHugal  ConUmporaneo  shape  from  Jofto  Lobeira,  a  trOUbadoUT  of  the  end  of 

(Lisbon,  1881) ;  Hbrculano,  HUtoria  de,  Portugal  (Lisbon) ;  Da  the  thirteenth  century,  though  this  original  has  been 

SouzA,  HiHona  Genealogica  da  Caaa  Real  Portuguexa  (Lisbon,  i-„x    __j    __,i„    av-    g-!„«:„u    „«-^^-,    J^^^^i,,-        Ti^^ 

1735-18):  Db  AU.BIDA.  i/Mtorio  da /are;a  m  Part«iai  I  (Coiml  J?8t  and  only  the  Spanish  yermon  rranains.     The 

bra.  1910);  Db  Avdradb,  Portugal  Bconomieo  (Lisbon.  1902);  Book  of  iEsOp'alsO  belongs  tO  this  penod.     Though 

Da  Costa  and  De  Castro,  Le  Portuaai  aupciru  de  vue  agricoU  the  cultivated  taste  of  the  Renaissance  affected  to 

&«•  hT>i,I^^t/^Vv^'S^  iW  M  despise  the  medieval  8tori«.,  it  adopted  .them  with 

Cinl;  Codigo  Adminiatrativo,  alterations  as  a  homage  to  classical  antiouity .    Hence 

Edqar  Prbstage.  came  the  cycle  of  the  "  Palmerins ''  and  tne  "  Chronica 

doEmperadorClarimimdo''  of  Jofto  de  Barros.  The 
PoRTUQUESB  LITERATURE. — ^The  Portuguese  Ian-  medieval  romance  of  chivalry  gave  place  to  the  pas- 
guage  was  developed  gradually  from  the  lingua  toral  novel,  the  first  example  of  which  is  the  "Sau- 
rustica  spoken  in  the  countries  which  formed  part  of  dades''  of  Bemardim  Ribeiro,  followed  by  the 
the  Roman  Empire  and,  both  in  morphologjr  and  "Diana''  of  Jorge  de  Montem6r,  which  had  a  nu- 
syntax,  it .  represents  an  organic  transformation  of  merous  progeny.  Later  in  the  sixteenth  ceatury 
Latin  without  the  direct  intervention  of  any  foreign  Gongalo  Femandes  Trancoso,  a  fascinating  story- 
tongue.  The  sounds,  grammatical  forms,  and  syn-  teller,  produced  his  "Historias  de  Proveito  e 
tactical  types,  with  a  few  exceptions,  are  derived  Exemplo". 

from  Latin,  but  the  vocabulary  has  absorbed  a  num-  III.  Fifteenth    Centurt. — A.     Prase. — ^A    new 

ber  of  Germanic  and  Arabic  words,  and  a  few  have  epoch  in  literature  dates  from  the  Revolution  of 

Celtic  or  Iberian  origin.    Before  the  close  of  the  mid-  1383-5.    King  John  wrote  a  book  of  the  chase,  his 

die  &zes  the  language  threatened  to  becoine  almost  as  sons,  King  Duarte  and  D.  Pedro,  composed  moral 


POBTUGAL  3( 

treatises,  and  an  anonytnouB  scribe  told  with  charming 
nosheti  the  story  of  the  heroic  Nuno  Alvares  Pereira 
in  the  "Chronica  do  CondcBtavd".  The  line  of 
cbroniclera  which  ia  one  ol  the  boasts  of  Portuguese 
literature  began  with  FemSo  Lopea,  who  compiled  the 
chronicles  of  the  reigna  of  Kings  Pedro,  Fernando,  and 
John  I.  He  combined  a  paesioa  for  accurate  state- 
ment with  an  especial  talent  for  descriptive  writing 
and  portraiture,  and  with  him  a  new  epoch  dawns. 
Azurara,  who  succeeded  him  in  the  post  of  official 
chronicler,  and  wrote  the  "Chronicle  of  Guinea"  and 
chronicles  of  the  African  wars,  is  an  equally  reliable 
historian,  whose  stylo  is  marred  by  pedantry  and 
moraUzing.  His  successor,  Ruy  de  Pina,  avoids  these 
defects  and,  though  not  an  artist  like  Lopes,  givesause- 
ful  record  of  the  reigns  of  Kings  Duarte,  Alfonso  V,  and 
John  11.  His  history  of  the  latter  monarch  was  appro- 
priated by  the  poet  Garcia  da  Hesende,  who  adomCHl 
It,  adding  many  anecdotes  he  had  learned  during  his 
intimacy  with  John,  and  issued  it  under  his  own  name. 

B,  Foe-iry. — The  introduction  of  Italian  poetry, 
espei^ially  that  of  Petrarch,  into  the  peninsula  led  to 
a  revival  of  Spanish  verse  which,  owing  to  the  superi- 
ority of  its  cultivators,  dominated  Portugal  througnout 
thefifteenth  century.  Constable  Dom  Pedro,  friend  of 
Marquis  de  Santillana,  wrote  almost  entirely  in  Cas- 
tilian  and  is  the  first  representative  of  the  Spanish 
influence  which  imported  from  Italy  the  love  of 
allegory  and  jeverence  for  classical  antiquity.  The 
court  poetry  of  some  throe  hundred  knights  and  gen- 
tlemen of  the  time  of  Alfonso  V  and  John  11  is  con- 
tained in  the  "Cancloneiro  Geral",  compiled  by 
Resende  and  inspired  by  Juan  de  Mcna,  Jorge 
Manrique,  and  other  Spaniards.  The  subjecl«  of 
thetie  mostly  artificial  verses  are  love  and  satire. 
Among  the  few  that  reveal  special  talent  and  genuine 
poetical  feeling  are  Rescnde's  lines  on  the  death  of 
D.  Ignez  de  Castro,  the  "Finaimento  de  Amores"  of 
Diogo  Brandt,  and  the  "Coplas"  of  D.  Pedro.  Three 
names  appear  in  the  "Cancioneiro"  which  were  des- 
tined )o  create  a  literary  revolution,  those  of  Bemar- 
din  Ribeiro,  Gil  Vicento,  and  Si  de  Miranda. 

IV.  Early  Sixteenth  Cbnturt. — A.  Patlond 
Poetry. — Portuguese  pastoral  poetry  is  more  natural 
andsincere  than  that  of  other  nations  because  Ribeiro, 
the  founder  of  the  bucolic  school,  sought  inspiration 
in  the  national  Berranilha).  but  his  eclogues,  despite 
their  feeling  and  rhythmic  harmony,  are  surpassed  by 
the  "Crisfal"  of  ChristovSo  Falcfio.  These  and  the 
eclogues  and  sententious  "Cartas"  of  Si  de  Miranda 
are  written  in  versos  de  arte  mayor,  and  the  popular 
medida  velha  (as  the  national  metre  was  afterwards 
called  to  distinguish  it  from  the  Italian  endecasyllabte). 
continued  to  be  used  by  Camoens  in  his  so^alled 
minor  works,  by  Bandarra  for  his  prophecies,  and  by 
Gil  Vicente. 

B.  Drama. — Though  Gil  Vicente  did  not  originate 
dramatic  representations,  he  is  the  father  of  the  Por- 
tuguese stage.  Of  his  forty-four  pieces,  fourteen  are 
in  Portugu^e,  eleven  in  Costilian,  the  remainder  bi- 
lingual, and  they  consist  of  autos,  or  devotional  works, 
tragicomedies,  and  farces.  Beginning  in  1502  with 
religious  pieces,  conspicuous  among  them  being  "Auto 
da  Alma  and  the  famous  trilogy  of  the  "Barcas",  he 
soon  introduces  the  comic  and  satirical  element  by 
way  of  relief  and  for  moral  ends,  and,  before  the  close 
of  his  career  in  1536,  baa  arrived  at  pure  comedy,  as  in 
"Igne»  Ppreira"  and  the  "FloreetadeEnganos",  and 
developed  the  study  of  character.  The  plota  are  sim- 
ple, the  dialogue  spirited,  the  lyrics  often  of  finished 
beauty,  and  while  Gil  Vicente  appeared  too  early  to  be 
a  great  dramatist,  his  plays  mirror  to  perfection  the 
^rpes,  customs,  language,  and  daily  life  of  all  classes. 
The  playwrights  who  followed  him  had  neither  su- 
perior talents  nor  court  patronage  and,  attacked  by 
the  clansical  school  for  their  lock  of  culture  and  by  the 
Inquisition  for  their  grossnesa,  they  were  reduced  to 


entertaining  the  lower  class  at  country  tain  and  fe»> 

V.  Thb  Renaibsancb  produced  a  pidad  of  din- 

ipuished  poets,  "-■-' — '■ —  --:•:—  — • :—  *i- — 

gians,  and  mc 
centun"  a  golden    „ 

A.  Lyric  and  epic  poelry. — Si  de  Miranda  intro- 
duced Italian  forms  of  verse  and  rtused  the  tone  of 
poetry.  He  was  followed  by  Antonio  Ferreira,  a 
supenor  stylist,  by  Diogo  Bemardes,  and  Andrade 
Caminha,  but  the  Quinhentiatat  tended  to  lose  spon- 
taneity in  their  imitation  of  clas^cal  models,  though 
the  verse  of  Frei  Agostinho  da  CruE  is  an  exception. 
The  genius  of  Carooens  (q.  v.)  led  him  to  fuse  the  best 
elements  of  the  Italian  and  popular  muse,  thus  creat- 
ii^  a  new  poetry,  Imitatota  arose  in  the  following 
centuries,  but  most  of  their  epics  are  little  more  thai) 


drama  and,  shap- 
ing   himself   on 
Italian    models, 
wrote  the 
trani 

Vasconcelloshad 

irod  uced  in  "Eu - 

'rosina"  the  first 

prose  play,  but 

the  comedies  of 

SfSi  and  Antonio  Ferreira  are  artificial  and  stillbora 

productions,  though  the  latter's  tragedy,  "Iniei  de 

Castro",  if  dramatically    weak,    has   sometiiing   of 

Sophocles  in  the  spirit  and  form  of  the  verse. 

C.  Proge. — The  best  prose  work  of  the  sixteenth 
century  is  devoted  to  history  and  travel.  JoSo  de 
Barros  in  his  "Deoftdas",  continued  by  Diogo  do 
Couto,  described  with  mastery  the  deeds  achieved  by 
the  Portuguese  in  the  discovery  and  conijuest  of  the 
lands  and  eeaa  of  the  Orient.  Dami&o  de  Goes, 
humanist  and  friend  of  Erasmus,  wrote  with  rare  in- 
dependence on  the  reign  of  King  Manuel  the  Fortu- 
nate. Bishop  Osorio  treated  of  the  some  subject  in 
Latin,  but  his  interesting  "Cartas"  are  in  the  vulgar 
tongue.  Among  others  who  dealt  with  the  Kast  are 
Castanheda,  Antonio  GalvAo,  Caspar  Correia,  Bras 
de  Albuquerque,  Frei  Caspar  da  Crui,  and  Frei  Jo&o 
doB  Santos.  The  chronicles  of  the  kingdom  were  coo- . 
tinued  by  Francisco  de  Andrade  and  Frei  Bernardo  da 
Cruz,  and  Miguel  Leitfio  de  Andrade  compiled  an 
interesting  volume  of  "Miscellanea".  The  travel 
literature  of  the  period  is  too  lai^  for  deUuled  men- 
tion: Persia,  Syria,  Abysunia,  Florida,  and  Bracil 
were  visited  and  described  and  Father  LHcena  com- 
piled a  classic  life  of  St.  Francis  Xavier.  but  the 
"Peregrination  "of  Mendes  Pinto,  a  typical  Conquis- 
tador, is  worth  al\  the  story  books  put  together  for 
its  extraordinary  adventures  told  in  a  vigorous  style, 
full  of  colour  and  life,  while  the  "Historia  Tragico- 
Maritima",  a  record  of  notable  shipwrecks  between 
1552  and  1604,  has  good  specimens  of  simple  anony  - 


moiu  narrative.  The  dialogues  of  Samuel  Usque,  a 
lisboD  Jew,  also  deserve  mention.  Reli^ous  sub- 
jects were  usually  treated  in  Latin,  but  among  moral- 
lata  who  used  the  vernacular  were  Frei  Heitor  Pinto, 
Bishop  Arraei,  aod  Frei  Thom£  de  Jesus,  whose 
"Traoalboe  do  Jesus"  has  appeared  in  many  lan- 
guages. 

Vl.  Seventeenth  Century. — The  general  inferi- 
ority of  seventeenth-century  literature  to  that  of  the 
preceding  age  has  been  charged  to  the  new  royal 
absolutism,  the  Inquisition,  the  Index,  and  the  exag- 
gerated humanism  of  the  Jesuits  who  directed  higher 
education;  neverthdeas,  had  am '  — ■ ' 


shared  in  the  national  decline.  The  taint  of  Gon- 
gorism  and  Marinism  attacked  all  the  SeUcenlisUu,  as 
may  be  seen  in  the  "Fenix  Renascida",  and  rhetoric 
conquered  style.  The  Revolution  of  1640  liberated 
Portugal,  but  oould  not  undo  the  effects  ol  the  sixty 
jrears'  union  with  Spiun.  The  use  of  Spanish  con- 
tinued among  the  upper  class  and  was  preferred  by 
many  atithors  who  demred  a  larger  audience.  Spain 
had  given  birth  to  great  writers  for  whom  the  Por- 
tuguese forgot  the 
earlier  ones  of 
their  own  land. 
The  foreign  influ- 
ence was  strong- 
est in  the  drama. 
The  leading  Por- 
tuguese  play- 
wrights wrote  in 
Spanish.andinthe 
national  tongue 
only  poor  re- 
Ugious  pieces  and 
a  witty  comedy 
by  D.  Francisco 
Manuel  de  Mello, 
"Autodo  Fidalgo 
Aprendii",  were 
produced.       The 


Leu  DB  Cahobnb 

with  exotic  names  aimed  at  n 
but  they   spent   themselves  v 


which 


IK  the  level  of  letters, 

,    _, _       discussing  ridiculous 

theses  and  determined  the  triumph  of  pedantry 
and  bad  taste.  Yet  though  culu^anianw  and  eon- 
eepligmo  infected  nearly  everyone,  the  century  did  not 
lack  its  big  names. 

A.  Lffric  Poeirj;.— MclodioTis  verses  relieve  the  dull- 
ness of  the  pastoral  romances  of  Rodriguez  Lobo,  while 
his  "Corte  na  Aldea"  is  a  book  of  varied  interest  in 
elegant  proee.  The  versatile  D.  Francisco  Manuel  de 
Mello,  in  addition  1^  his  sonnets  on  moral  subjects, 

'wrote  pleasing  imitations  of  popular  romances,  but 
is  at  his  best  in  a  reasoned  but  vehement  "Me- 
morial to  John  IV",  in  the  witty  "ApologoaDialogss", 
and  in  the  homely  philosophy  of  the  "  Carta  de  Guia 
de  Caaados",  prose  classics.  Other  poets  of  the 
period  are  Soror  Violante  do  Ceo,  and  I^rei  Jeronymo 
VtAia,  convinced  Gongorists,  Frei  Bernardo  de  Brito 
with  the  "Sylvia  de  Lizardo",  and  the  satirists,  D, 
Thomas  de  Noronha  and  Antonio  SerrSo  de  Castro. 

B.  Prose,— The  century  had  a  richer  output  in 
prose  than  in  verse,  and  history,  biography,  sermons, 
and  epistolary  correspondence  all  flourished.  Writers 
on  historical  subjects  were  usually  friars  who  worked 
in  their  cells  and  not,  as  in  the  sixteenth  century, 
travelled  men  and  eye-witnesses  of  the  events  they 
describe.  They  occupied  themselves  largely  with 
questions  of  form  and  are  better  stylists  than  his- 
torians. Among  the  five  contributors  to  the  ponder- 
ous "Monorchia  Lusitana",  only  the  conscientious 
Frei  Antonio  BrandSo  fully  realized  the  importance 
of  documentary  evidence.  Frei  Bernardo  de  Brito 
begins  his  work  with  the  creation  and  ends  it  where 


he  should  have  begun;  he  constantly  mistakes  legend 
for  fact,  but  was  a  |mtient  investigator  and  a  vigorous 
narrator.     Frei    Luii    de   Sousa,    a   famous   stylist, 


and  "Annacs  d'el  Rei  D.  Jo&o  III".  Manoel  de 
Foria  y  Sousa,  historian  and  arch-commentator  of 
Camoens,  by  a  strange  irony  of  fate  chose  Sponi^  as 
his  vehicle,  as  did  Mello  for  his  classic  account  of  the 
Catalonian  War,  while  Jacintho  Freire  de  Andrade 
told  in  grandiloquent  laneu^  thestory  of  Uie  justice- 
loving  viceroy,  D.  Jo4o  de  Castro. 

Ecclesiastical  eloquence  was  at  its  best  in  the  seven- 
teenth century  and  the  pulpit  filled  the  pla^  of  the 
press  of  to-day.  The  ori^nality  and  imaginative 
power  of  his  sermons  are  said  to  have  won  for  Father 
Antonio  Vieira  in  Rome  the  title  of  "Prince  of  Cath- 
olic Orators"  and  though  they  and  his  letters  exhibit 
some  of  the  prevailing  faults  of  taste,  he  is  none  the 
less  great  both  in  ideas  and  expression.  The  dis- 
courses and  devotional  treatises  of  the  Oratorian 
Manuel  Bemardes,  who  was  a  recluse,  have  a  calm 
and  sweetness  that  we  miss  in  the  writinss  of  a  man 
of  action  like  Vieira  and,  while  equally  rich,  are  purer 
models  of  classic  Portuguese  prose.  He  is  at  his  best 
in  "Lui  e  Color"  and  the  "Nova  Floresta".  Letter 
writing  is  represented  by  such  master  hands  as  D. 
Francisco  Manuel  de  Mello  in  familiar  epistles,  Frei 
Antonio  das  Chargas  in  spiritual,  and  by  five  short 
but  eloquent  documents  of  human  anection,  the 
"Cartas  de  Marianna  Alcoforada". 

VIII.  Eighteenth  Century. — Affectation  contin- 
ued to  mark  the  literature  of  the  first  half  of  the 


mation  known  as  the  Romantic  Movement.  Distin- 
guished men  who  fled  abroad  to  escape  the  prevailing 
despotism  did  much  for  intellectual  progress  by  en- 
couragement and  example.  Vemey  criticized  the 
obsolete  educational  methods  and  exposed  the  literary 
and  scientific  decadence  in  the  "Verdadeiro  Methodo 
de  Estudar",  while  the  various  Academies  and 
Arcadias,  wiser  than  their  predecessors,  worked  for 

fiurity  ot  style  and  diction,  and  translated  the  best 
□reign  classics. 

A.  The  Academies. — The  Academy  of  Histoiy, 
established  by  John  V  in  1720  in  imitation  of  the 
French  Academy,  published  fifteen  volumes  of  learned 
"Memoirs"  and  laid  the  foundations  for  a  critical 
study  of  the  annals  of  Portugal,  among  its  members 
being  Caetano  de  Sousa,  author  of  the  voluminous 
"Historia  da  Casa  Real",  and  the  bibliographer 
Barbosa  Machodo.  The  Royal  Academy  of  Sciences, 
founded  in  1780,  continuea  the  ,work  and  placed 
literary  criticism  on  a  sounder  basis,  but  the  prmcipal 
exponents  of  belles-lettres  belonged  to  the  Arcadias. 

B.  The  Arcadias, — Of  these  the  most  important 
was  the  Arcadia  Ulitiponense  established  in  1756 
by  the  poet  Cruz  e  Silva— "to  form  a  school  of  good 
example  in  eloquence  and  poetiy" — and  it  included 
the  most  considered  writers  of  the  time.  Gar^ 
composed  the  "Cantata  de  Dido",  a  classic  gem,  and 
many  excellent  sonnets,  odes,  and  epistles.  The  . 
bucolic  verse  of  Quita  has  the  tenderness  and  sim- 
plicity of  that  of  Bernardin  Ribeiro,  while  in  the 
mock-heroic  poem,  "Hyssope",  Cruz  e  Silva  satirizes 
ecclesiastical  jealousies,  local  types,  and  the  prevailing 
gallomania  with  real  humCur.  Intestine  disputes  led 
to  the  dissolution  of  the  Arcadia  in  1774,  but  it  had 
done  good  service  by  rising  the  standard  of  taste  and 
introducing  new  poetical  forms.  Unfortunately  its 
adherents  were  too  apt  to  content  themselves  with 
imitating  the  ancient  classics  and  the  Quinkentislas 
and  they  adopted  a  cold,  reasoned  style  of  expression, 
without  emotion  or  colouring.  Their  whole  outlook 
was  painfully  academic.  Many  of  the  Arcadians  fol- 
towed  the  example  of  a  latter-day  Mscenas,  the  Conde 


PORTUGAL 


310 


PORTUGAL 


de  Ericeira,  and  endeavoured  to  nationalize  the 
pseudo-classicism  which  obtained  in  Fnmce.  In  1790 
the  ''New  Arcadia''  came  into  being  and  had  in 
Bocaffe  a  man  who,  under  other  conditions,  might 
have  Deen  a  great  poet.  His  talent  led  him  to  react 
against  the  general  mediocrity  and  though  he  achieved 
no  sustain^  flights,  his  sonnets  vie  with  those  of 
Camoens.  He  was  a  master  of  short  improvised 
Ivrics  as  of  satire,  which  he  used  to  efifect  in  the  **  Pena 
de  Talifto''  against  Agostinho  de  Macedo. 

Tlus  turbulent j>riest  constituted  himself  a  literary 
dictator  and  in  ''Os  Burros"  surpassed  all  other  bards 
in  invective,  moreover  he  sought  to  supplant  the 
Lusiads  by  a  tasteless  epic,  "Oriente".  He,  how- 
ever, introduced  the  didactic  poem,  his  odes  reach  a 
high  level,  and  his  letters  and  political  pamphlets 
display  learning  and  versatility,  but  his  influence  on 
letters  was  hurtful.  The  only  other  Arcadian  worthv 
of  mention  is  Curvo  Semedo,  but  the  "Dissidents  , 
a  name  given  to  those  poets  who  remained  outside 
the  Arcadias,  include  thSree  men  who  show  indepen- 
dence and  a  sense  of  reality.  Jos6  Anastado  da  Cunha, 
Nicolao  Tolentino,  and  francisco  Manoel  de  Nas- 
cimento.  better  known  as  FiUnto  Elysio.  The  first 
versifiea  in  a  philosophic  and  tender  strain,  the  second 
sketched  the  custom  and  follies  of  the  time  in  ^in- 
tilhas  of  abundant  wit  and  realism,  the  third  spent  a 
long  life  of  exile  in  Paris  in  reviving  the  cult  of  the 
sixteenth -century  i>oets,  ])urified  the  language  of 
Gallicisms  and  enrichea  it  by  numerous  works, 
original  and  translated.  Though  lacking  imagina- 
tion, his  canioSf  or  scenes  of  Portuguese  lue,  strike  a 
new  note  of  reality,  and  his  blank  vers^  translation  of 
the  "Mart3rrs''  of  Chateaubriand  is  a  high  perform- 
ance. Shortly  before  his  death  he  became  a  convert 
to  the  Romantic  Movement,  for  whose  triumph  in  the 
person  of  Almeida-Garrett  ne  had  prepared  the  way. 

C.  Brazilian  Poetry, — During  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury the  colony  of  Brazil  began  to  contribute  to 
Portuguese  letters.  Manoel  da  Costa  wrote  a  num- 
ber of  Petrarchian  sonnets,  Manoel  Ignacio  da  Silva 
Alvarenga  showed  himself  an  ardent  lyricist  and 
cultivator  of  form,  Thom^  Antonio  Gonzaga  became 
famous  by  the  harmonious  verses  of  his  love  poem 
'^Marilia  do  Dirceu",  while  the  "Poesias  sacras''  of 
Sousa  Caldas  have  a  certain  mystical  charm  though 
metrically  hfurd.  In  epic  poetry  the  chief  name  is  that 
of  Basilio  da  Gama.  whose  "Uruguay"  deals  with  the 
struggle  between  tne  Portuguese  and  the  Paraguay 
Indians.  It  is  written  in  blank  ver^e  and  has  some 
notable  episodes.  The  "Caramuru"  of  Santa  Rita 
Durfto  begins  with  the  discovery  of  Bahia  ^d  con- 
tains, in  a  succession  of  pictures,  the  history  of  Brazil. 
The  passages  descriptive  of  native  customs  are  well 
written  and  these  poems  are  superior  to  anything  of 
the  kind  produced  contemporaneously  by  the  mother 
country. 

'  D.  Prose. — ^The  prose  writing  of  the  century  is 
mainly  dedicated  to  scientific  subjects,  but  the  letters 
of  Antonio  da  Costa,  Antonio  Ribeiro  Sanches,  and 
Alexandre  de  GusmSo  have  literary  value  and  those 
of  the  celebrated  Cavalheiro  d'Oliveira,  if  not  so  cor- 
rect, are  even  more  informing. 

E.  Drama. — ^Though  a  Court  returned  to  Lisbon 
in  1640,  it  preferred,  for  one  hundred  and  fifty  years, 
Italian  opera  and  French  plays  to  vernacular  repre- 
sentations. Early  in  the  eighteenth  century  several 
authors  sprung  from  the  people  vainly  attempted  to 
found  a  national  drama.  Their  pieces  mostly  belone 
to  low  comedy.  The  "Operas  Portuguezas"  oT 
Antonio  Jos6  dfa  Silva,  proauced  between  1733  and 
1741,  have  a  real  comic  strength  and  a  certain  original- 
ity, and,  like  those  of  Ni«oIau  Luiz,  exploit  with  wit 
the  faults  and  foibles  of  the  age.  The  latter  divided 
his  attention  between  heroic  comedies  and  comedies 
de  capa  y  espada  and,  though  wanting  in  ideas  and 
taste,  they  enjoyed  a  long  popularity.    At  the  same 


time  the  Arcadia  endeavoured  to  raise  the  standard 
of  the  stage,  drawing  inspiration  from  the  contem- 
porary French  drama,  but  its  members  lacked 
dramatic  talent  and  achieved  little.  Gar^fio  wrote 
two  bright  comedies,  Quita  some  stillborn  tragedies, 
and  Manuel  de  Figueredo  compiled  plays  in  prose  ana 
verse  on  national  subjects,  which  fill  th&teen  volumes, 
but  he  could  not  create  cnaracters. 

IX.  The   Nineteenth  Century. — ^A.   Poetry. — 
The  early  nineteenth  century  witnessed  a  literary 
reformation  which  was  commenced  by  Almeida-Gar- 
rett  ;vh6  had  become  acquainted  with  Englii^  and 
French  Romanticism  in  exile  ancf  based  his  work  on 
the   national   traditions.    In   the   narrative   poem 
"CamoSs"  (1825)  he  broke  with  the  established  rules 
of  composition  and  followed  it  with  "Flores  sem 
Fructo    and  a  collection  of  ardent  love  poems  "  Folhaa 
Cahidas'',  while  the  clear  elegant  prose  of  this  true 
artist  is  seen  in  a  miscellany  of  romance  and  criticism, 
"Viagens   na  minha   terra".    The   poetry   of   the 
austere  Herculano  has  a  religious  or  patriotic  motive 
and  ifl  reminiscent  of  Lamennais.    The  movement 
initiated  by  Garrett  and  Herculano  became  ultra- 
Romantic  with  Castilho,  a  master  of  metre,  who 
lacked  ideas,  and  the  verses  of  Joao  de  Lemos  and  the 
melancholy  Soares  de  Passos  record  a  limited  range  of 
personal  emotions,  while  their  imitators  voice  senti- 
ments which  they  have  not  felt  deeply  or  at  all. 
Thomas  Ribeiro,  author  of  the  patriotic  poem  "D. 
Ja3rme".  is  sincere,  but  belongs  to  thi&same  school 
which  tnought  too  much  of  form  and  melody.    In 
1865  some  young  poets  led  by  Anthero  de  Quental  and 
Theophilo  Braga  rebelled  ag^nst  the  domination  over 
letters  which  Castilho  had  assumed,  and,  under  foreign 
influences,  proclaimed  the  alliance  of  philosophy  with 
poetry.    A  fierce  pamphlet  war  heralded  the  down- 
fall of  Castilho  and  poetiy  gained  in  breadth  and 
reality,  though  in  many  instances  it  became  non- 
Christian    and    revolutionary.    Quental    produced 
finely  wrought,  pessimistic  sonnets  inspired  by  neo- 
Buddhistic  ana  German  agnostic  ideas,  while  Braga, 
a  Positivist,  compiled  an  epic  of  humanity,  the  "  Viefio 
dos  Tempos".    Guerra  Junqueiro  is  mainly  ironical 
in  the  "Morte  de  D.  Jofio",  in  "Patria"  he  evokes 
and  scourges  the  Braganza  kings  in  some  powerful 
scenes,  and  in  "Os  Simples"  interprets  nature  and 
rural  life  by  the  light  of  a  pantheistic  imagination. 
Gomes  Leal  is  merely  anti-Christian  with  touches  of 
Baudelaire.    JoSo  de  Deus  belonged  ta  no  school;  an 
idealist,  he  drew  inspiration  from  religion  and  women, 
and  the  earlier  verses  of  the  "Campo  de  Flores"  are 
marked,  now  by  tender  feeling,  now  by  sensuous 
mysticism,  all  very  Portuguese.    Other  true  poets 
are  the  sonneteer  JoSjo  Penha,  the  Parnassian  Gon*^ 
calves  Crespo,  and  the  symbolist  Eugenio  de  Castro. 
The  reaction  against  the  use  of  verse  for  the  propa-  * 
ganda  of  radicalism  in  religion  and  politics  has  suc- 
ceeded and  the  most  considered  poets  of  to-day. 
Corr^a  de  Oliveira  and  Lopes  Vieira,  are  natiu^ 
singers  with  no  extraneous  purpose  to  serve.    They 
owe  much  to  the  "S6"  of  ^tonio  Nobre,  a  book  of 
true  race  poetry. 

B.  Drama. — ^After  producing  some  classical  trag- 
edies, the  best  of  which  is  "Cato",  Garrett  undertook 
the  reform  of  the  stage  on  independent  lines,  though 
he  learnt  something  from  the  Anglo-German  school. 
Anxious  to  found  a  national  drama,  he'  chose  subjects 
from  Portuguese  history  and,  beginning  with  "An 
Auto  of  Gil  Vicente",  produced  a  series  of  prose  pla3r8 
which  culminated  in  "Brother  Luiz  de  Sousa",  a 
masterpiece.  His  imitators,  Mendes  Leal  and  Pi- 
nheiro  Chagas,  fell  victims  to  ultra-Romanticism,  but 
Fernando  Caldeira  and  Gervasio  Lobato  wrote  life- 
like and  witty  comedies  and  recently  the  regional 
pieces  of  D.  Jo&o  da  Camara  have  won  success,  even 
outside  Portugal.  At  the  present  time,  with  the 
historical  and  social  plays  of  Lopes  de  Mendon9ay 


POBTUQUESE 


311 


POBTUOUBSE 


Julio  Dantasi  Marcellino  Mesc^uita,  and  Eduardo 
Schwalbach,  drama  is  more  flounahins  than  ever  be- 
fore and  Garrett's  work  has  fructified  fifty  years  after 
his  death. 

C.  The  Novd  is  really  a  creation  of  the  nineteenth 
century  and  it  began  with  historical  romances  in  the 
style  of  Walter  Scott  by  Herculano,  to  whom  suc- 
ceeded Rebello  da  Silva  with  ''A  Mocidade  de  D. 
Jofio  V",  Andrade  Corvo,  and  others.  The  romance 
of  manners  is  due  to  the  veisatile  Camillo  Castello 
Branco,  a  rich  impressionist  who  describes  to  per- 
fection the  life  of  the  early  part  of  the  century  in 
"Amor  de  Perdi^fto",  "Novellaa  do  Minho",  ana 
other  books.  Gomes  CJoelho  (Julio  Diniz),  a  roman- 
tic idealist  and  subjective  writer,  is  known  best  by 
"As  Pupillas  do  Snr  Reitor'\  but  the  great  creative 
artist  was  E^a  de  Queiroz,  founder  of  the  Naturalist 
School,  and  author  of  "Pnmo  Basilio",  "CJorrespon- 
dencia  de  Fradioue  Mendes'\  "A  Cidade  e  as  Serras". 
HLb  characters  nve  and  many  of  his  descriptive  a^ 
satiric  passages  have  become  classical.  Among  the 
lesser  novelists  are  Pinheiro  Chagas,  Amaldo  Gama, 
Luiz  de  Magalhftes,  Teixeirade  Queiroz,  and  Malheiro 
Dias. 

D.  Other  vroae, — History  became  a  science  with 
Herculano  wnose  "Historia  de  Portugal''  is  also  valu- 
able for  its  sculptural  style  and  Oliveira  Martins 
ranks  high  as  a  painter  of  scenes  and  characters  in 
"Os  Filhos  de  D.  Jofto"  and  "  Vida  de  Nun'  Alvares". 
A  strong  gift  of  humour  distinguishes  the  "Farpas" 
of  Ramalho  OrtigSo,  as  well  as  the  work  of  Fialho 
d' Almeida  and  Julio  Cesar  Machado,  and  literary 
criticism  had  able  exponents  in  Luciano  Cordeiro  and 
Moniz  Barreto.  The  "Panorama"  under  the  editor- 
ship of  Herculano  exercised  a  sound  and  wide  influence 
over  letters,  but  since  that  time  the  press  has  become 
less  and  less  Uterary  and  now  treats  of  little  save 
politics. 

X.  Brazilian  Literature. — ^The  literature  of  in- 
dependent Brazil  really  began  with  the  Romantic 
Movement,  which  was  introduced  in  1836  by  Domingos 
de  Magalhftes,  whose  "Suspiros  Poeticos"  reveal  the 
influence  of  Lamartine.  This  religious  phase  was 
immediately  followed  by  that  of  Indianism  suggested 
by  Chateaubriand  and  Fenimore  Cooper,  which  had 
its  chief  exponent  in  Gongalves  Dias,  a  melodious 
lyricist.  Byron  and  Musset  were  the  fathers  of  the 
next  phase  of  Romanticism  and  its  interpreters  in- 
cluded Alvares  de  Azevedo,  the  introducer  of  humour, 
and  Casimiro  de  Abreu,  two  poets  whose  popularity 
has  endured.  Lucindo  Rebello  belongs  to  the  same 
epoch,  but  shows  a  more  spontaneous  inspiration,  and 
tne  verse  of  Fagundes  Varella  forms  a  link  with  a  new 
school  in  which  the  ardour  and  humanitarianism  of 
Hugo  inspired  the  patriotic  muse  of  Tobias  Barreto, 
an  objective  poet  of  wide  sympathies,  imagination, 
and  feeling,  and  of  Castro  Alves,  who  sanp  the  horrors 
of  slavery  while,  later  still,  Pamassiamsm  overran 
the  whole  of  poetry. 

Brazil  has  yet  to  produce  drama,  but  in  the  romance 
she  has  acknowledged  masters  in  Jos^  de  Alencar 
whose  "  Guarany  "  and  "  Iragema"  are  standard  books, 
and  in  the  psychologist,  Machado  de  Assis.  The  Ro- 
tnanticists  mostly  addressed  themselves  to  the  emo- 
tions rather  than  to  the  intelligence,  but  Machado  de 
Assis  rises  to  a  more  general  conception  of  life,  both  in 
prose  and  verse.  In  "Bras  Cubaa"  he  has  tne  irony 
of  Sterne,  and  the  pure,  simple  diction  and  distin- 
guished style  of  Garrett,  together  with  a  reserve  rarely 
found  in  a  modem  Latin  writer.  Brazil  has  now 
emancipated  herself  from  mere  imitation  of  foreign 
models  and  her  novelists  and  critics  of  to-day  show 
an  originality  and  strength  which  promises  much  for 
the  future  of  a  literature  still  in  its  youth. 

Prsstaob,  Portuguese  Literature  to  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  een- 
tury  (London,  1909) ;  Idem,  Portuguese  Literature  in  the  nineteenth 
C^ury  in  Sautisbubt,  Periods  of  European  Literature,'  Ipem,  Th§ 


Later  Nineteenth  Century  (London,  1007);  Silva  and  AhanbA| 
Diecionario  BihliograjAieo  Portuguez  (19  vols.,  Lisbon*  186^ 
1909);  Braga,  Historia  da  LiUeraJtura  Portugueaa  (32  vols.. 
Oporto);  Rembdios,  Historia  da  Litteratura  Portuguem  (3rd  ed., 
Coimbra,  1908);  Vasconcellos,  Oesch.  der  Portugieaischen  Lit' 
teratur  in  OrObeb,  Qrundrisa  der  Rom.  PhUciogie  (1893-4); 
RoiCBBO,  Bistoria  da  Litteratura  Brasileira  (2  vols.,  Rio  de  Jar 
neiro,  1903). 

Edgab  Pbestage. 

Portuguese  East  Africft  consists  of  the  Province 
of  Mozambique.  Portuguese  activity  on  that  coast 
began  in  1505  with  the  foundation  of  the  Captaincy 
of  Dofala,  and  in  1558  a  fortress  was  built  at  Mozam- 
bique, the  port  of  call  for  ships  bound  to  and  from 
India,  and  the  centre  from  which  the  discoverers 
penetrated  into  the  interior,  over-running  the  native 
empire  of  Monomotapa  in  quest  of  gold.  For  cen- 
turies these  territories  were  ruled  from  Goa,  but  in 
1752  they  became  an  independent  government, 
though,  until  recently,  Portuguese  authority  was  al- 
most Umited  to  the  coast  Une.  While  much  dimin- 
ished in  size  by  virtue  of  the  Anglo-Portuguese  Treaty 
(11  June,  1891),  which  settled;  a  serious  boimdary 
quarrel  with  England,  the  province  comprises  1428 
miles  of  coast  Une  from  Cape  Delgado  to  the  southern 
limit  of  the  district  of  Lourengo  Marques,  with  a 
superficial  area  of  292,631  square  miles.  The  greater 
part  of  the  sea  coast  is  low  lying,  with  coral  reefs,  sand 
dunes  and  swamps,  and  the  climate  is  hot  and  un- 
healthful.  but  the  ninterland  has  mountainous  dis- 
tricts ana  elevated  table  lands  which  are  suitable  for 
European  colonization.  The  mean  annual  temi>er- 
ature  is  high.  The  rainy  season  lasts  from  November 
to  March,  the  cool,  from  April  to  August.  The  prov- 
ince is  served  by  a  number  of  fine  harbours,  including 
Louren90  Marques,  the  best  in  south-east  Africa, 
which  is  connected  with  the  Transvaal  l^  a  railway. 
Beira,  the  outlet  for  the  produce  of  the  Mashona  gola 
fields  and  joined  to  them  by  rail,  Inhambane,  Chinde, 
Quilimane,  Ibo,  and  Moza^lbique.  Besides  the  river 
i&ambesi  and  its  ;tributaries,  other  large  rivers  give 
conmiunication  to  the  interior,  such  as  the  Incomati 
and  the  Limpopo,  and  Lake  Nyassa^  with  an  area  of 
11,551  square  miles,  is  on  the  frontier  between  Por- 
tuguese and  British  territory.  Mozambique  is  con- 
nected with  Europe  by  several  hnes  of  steamers, 
English,  German,  and  Portuguese. 

For  administrative  purposes  the  province  is  divided 
into  the  following  districts,  Mozambique,  Zamb^zia, 
Tete^  Inhambane,  Louren^o  Marques  and  the  military 
distnct  of  Gaza,  each  having  a  goveri^or,  while  there 
is  also  a  governor-general  for  the  province  who  resides 
in  Lourengo  Marques.  Major  Freire  de  Andrade, 
the  late  governor-general,  dia  much  for  the  progress 
of  the  colony  wmch  of  late  has  been  rapid.  Its 
commercial  movement  in  1892  was  valued  at  4951 
conios  de  reis,  but  in  1901  it  had  reached  21,542  cantos. 
and  that  of  the  Port  of  Lourengo  Marques  increasea 
tenfold  between  1892  and  1899.  Since  then  the  rate 
of  progress  has  been  well  maintained.  Inland  trade 
is  chiefly  in  the  hands  of  Indians  (Banyans),  while 
that  of  the  coast  is  done  by  English  houses.  The 
system  of  ^vemment  by  chartered  companies,  which 
succeeded  in  neighbouring  British  colonies,  has  been 
tried  here  and  the  Mozambioue  and  Nyafisa  Com- 
panies have  jurisdiction  over  large  territories,  unde- 
veloped for  lack  of  funds.  It  is  only  recently  that  the 
Portuguese  Government  has  completed  the  occupa- 
tion of  the  province.  Mozambique  is  rich  in  minerals, 
and  among  vegetable  products  sugar  is  raised  in  in- 
creasing quantities,  while  the  extensive  forests  have 
valuable  timber  trees.  The  native  population  is  of 
Bantu  race  and  numbers  about  three  millions.  The 
whites  number  only  a  few  thousand.  For  purposes 
of  justice  the  province  is  divided  into  seven  comarcas 
and  Uie  town  of  Mozambique  has  a  Tribunal  of 
Second  Instance  composed  of  three  judges;  for  eccle- 
eiastical  purposes  it  has  a  prelacy  with  jurisdiction 


POBTUGUBSE 


312 


POSITIVISM 


over  the  city  but  subordinate  to  the  Patriarch  of  the 
East  Indies  at  Goa.  A  force  of  2730  men  of  the  first 
line  form  the  colonial  army  and  the  policing  of  the 
rivers  and  harbours  is  done  by  flotillas  of  gunboats. 
The  custom  houses  are  subordinate  to  that  of  Lou- 
rengo  Marques.  Primary  schools  exist  in  the  principal 
centres,  but  very  little  has  been  done  for  education. 

Mauqham,  Portuifxteae  East  Africa  and  Zambettia  (Txjndon, 
1010);  Vabconcsllob,  Aa  Coloniaa  Portuauezaa  (2nd  cd.,  Lisbon, 
1003). 

Edgar  Prestage. 

Portuguese  West  Africa,  the  name  usually  given 
to  the  Province  of  Angola.  It  has  a  coast  line  of 
1015  miles  from  the  Congo  to  the  Cunene  Rivers  and  an 
area  of  490,525  sq.  miles,  including  the  territories  of 
Cabinda,  Molendo,  and  Massabi,  on  the  coast  north  of 
the  Congo.  These  are  surrounded  by  the  French 
Con^o,  while  the  rest  of  the  province  is  bounded  by 
Belgian,  British,  and  German  territory.  The  Congo 
was  first  enterea  by  Diego  Cam  in  1484,  who  erected 
a  pillar  in  token  of  occupation,  and  with  him  was 
Martin  Behaim  the  cosmographer.  Ever  since  it  has 
belonged  to  Portugal,  except  for  a  period  of  Dutch 
domination  (1640-48),  the  Hollanders  being  expelled 
by  Admiral  Correa  de  Sd  e  Benevides.  Only  in  recent 
years  has  this  great  territory  been  explored,  and  even 
now  the  whole  of  it  is  not  effectively  occupied,  though 
military  expeditions  from  the  mother-country  have 
conquered  the  most  warlike  tribes,  and  a  chain  of 
fortified  posts  keeps  them  in  subjection.  The  coast  is 
low,  and  a  sandy,  barren  plain  stretches  some  way 
inland;  beyond  this  the  province  is  mountainous  and 
very  fertile.  St.  Paul  de  Loanda,  the  capital,  has  an 
anchorage  ground  of  1700  acres;  Benguella,  Mossa- 
medes,  and  Porto  Alexandre  are  good  ports;  while  the 
only  drawback  to  Lobito,  the  terminus  of  the  new  rail- 
way, is  that  it  lacks  potable  water,  as  does  the  Bahia 
dos  Tigres,  which  could  otherwise  shelter  5000  vessels 
in  'lis  63,000  acres  of  water,  as  deep  as  117  feet.  The 
province  is  irrigated  by  the  Rivers  Chiloango,  Congo, 
and  Cuanza,  while  the  Zambesi  skirts  its  south-east 
frontier.  The  coast  abounds  in  fish,  and  the  territory 
in  minerals,  such  as  malachite,  iron,  petroleum,  salt, 
lead,  and  sulpftir,  but  its  principal  wealth  lies  in  coffee 
(of  which  Loanda  exported  4112  tons  in  1894),  india- 
rubber,  gum,  wax,  egad  ivory,  which  are  sent  to  Portu- 
gal ana  exchanged  for  cotton  and  woollen  goods  and 
wine.  Formerly  Angola  depended  for  its  prosperity 
almost  entirely  on  the  slave  trade,  and  during  the 
seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries  many  thousands 
of  natives  were  transported  annually  to  Brazil.  The 
native  population  is  reckoned  at  four  millions;  their 
religion  is  Fetichism,  and  they  include  a  great  variety 
of  races.    There  is  only  a  small  proportion  6i  whites. 

For  administrative  purposes  the  province  is  divided 
into  six  districts,  and  then  into  concelhos.  Their  names 
are  Congo,  Loanda,  Benguella,  Mossamedes,  Huilla. 
and  Lunda.  The  governor-general  possesses  civil  and 
military  attributes  and  resides  at  Ix)anda,  while  each 
district  has  a  subordinate  governor.  For  purposes  of 
justice  there  are  five  comarcaSf  each  with  a  judge;  and 
a  tribunal  of  second  instance,  composed  of  five  judges, 
sits  at  Loanda.  Each  camarca  has  a  commercial  tri- 
bunal of  first  instance,  and  each  parish  a  judge  of  the 
people,  appointed  annually.  The  military  establish- 
ment consists  of  an  army  of  3200  men,  partly  Euro- 
pean, partly  native.  For  ecclesiastical  purposes  the 
province  is  subject  to  the  Bishop  of  Loanda,  and  be- 
longs to  the  Lisbon  Province. 

Tiie  Province  of  Guinea,  another  West  African 
possession  of  Portugal,  comprising  4450  sq.  miles,  is 
surrounded  by  French  possessions,  and  its  coast  is  cut 
up  by  innumerable  inlets.  It  is  a  low-lying  and  well- 
watered  territory,  the  chief  rivers  being  the  Cacheo, 
Mansoa,  and  Geba.  The  climate  is  unhealthful  for 
Europeans.  The  soil  is  generally  of  great  fertility,  and 
the  province  is  fit  for  plantations  on  a  large  scale.    Its 


{)roducts  are  tobacco,  sugar,  india-rubber,  wax,  and 
eather,  which  are  exported  through  the  commercial 
centres  of  Geba,  Bissau,  Farin,  and  Bolama. 

The  population  numbers  about  67,000  and  belongs 
to  ten  races,  subdivided  into  many  tribes.  There  are 
very  few  whites  resident.  The  country  has  one  con^ 
cdhoy  that  of  Bolama,  the  seat  of  government,  and  is 
diviaed  otherwise  into  four  military  commands.  It  is 
generally  in  a  state  of  war,  the  natives  being  turbulent. 
A  vicar-general  and  six,  missionary  rectors  form  the 
religious  staff  of  the  province,  and  these  latter  are  also 
professors  of  primary  instruction. 

De  Vabconcsllos,  Aa  Coloniaa  Partugueaaa  (2nd  ed.,  Lisbon, 
1903) ;  CoucEiRO,  Angola  (Lisbon,  1010). 

Edgar  Prestage. 

Port  Victoria  (Australia).  See  Northern  Ter- 
ritory, PRErBCTURE  APOSTOLIC  OF. 

Port  \^ctoria,  Diocese  op  (Po^tus  VictorijE 
Seychellarum),  comprises  the  Seychelles  Islands 
iii^  the  Indian  Ocean.  With  their  dependencies, 
these  eighty-nine  islands,  the  principal  of  which  are 
Mah6,  Praslin,  Silhouette,  .Curieuse,  and  La  Digue, 
cover  an  area  of  148 H  sq.  miles.  The  French  oc- 
cupied the  islands  about  1742,  but  they  were  captured 
by  the  British  in  1794,  and  were  formally  ceded  to 
Great  Britain  in  1^48.  Port  Victoria,  the  capital  of 
Mah6  and  situated  on  the  north-eastern  side  of  the 
island,  is  the  seat  of  the  colonial  government,  the 
present  governor  being  Walter  Edward  Davidson, 
C.M.G.  In  December,  1909,  the  estimated  popida- 
tion  of  the  islands  was  22,409.  Both  Catholic  and 
Church  of  England  primary  schools  are  aided  by  t^e 
State.  The  principal  exports  are  vanilla,  cocoa- 
nuts,  cocoar-nut  oil,  tortoise-shell,  soap,  and  guano. 
The  double  cocoa-nut  known  as  Coco  de  Mer  is  grown 
in  Mah6  and  Praslin,  while  Aldabra,  a  dependency 
about  680  miles  from  Mah6,  is  famous  for  enormous 
land  tortoises.  By  a  Papal  Decree  of  26  November, 
1852,  the  Seychelles  were  separated  from  the  Diocese 
of  Port  Louis  and  made  a  prefecture  Apostolic,  to 
which  a  Decree  of  6  December,  1854,  joined  the 
Amirantes  and  Agalega  Islands,  likewise  separated 
from  Port  Louis.  The  first  prefect  Apostelic  was' the 
Right  Reverend  Jeremias  Ps^glietti,  who  as  a  mission- 
ary had'  laboured  successfully  in  the  region  for  many 
years.  In  1863  the  mission  was  confided  to  the 
Capuchins,  and  was  made  a  vicariate  Apostolic  on 
31  Aug.,  1880.  As  the  Diocese  ol  Port  Victoria 
(erected  14  July,  1892),  it  was  a  suffragan  of  Colombo, 
Ceylon,  but  by  a  Decree  of  3  June,  1899,  it  became 
directly  subject  to  the  Holy  See.  The  present  bishop 
is  the  Right  Reverend  Bernard  Thomas  Clarke, 
O.M.Cap.  (b.  at  London,  12  November,  1856: 
made  titular  Bishop  of  Tingis,  19  March,  1902,  ana 
Vicar  Apostolic  of  Arabia).  On  10  June,  1910,  he 
was  transferred  to  Port  Victoria,  where  he  succeeded 
Bishop  Marc  Hudrisier  (b.  at  Faverges,  France,  27 
July,  1848;  became  Bishop  of  Port  Victoria,  21 
July,  1892;  d.  Feb.,  1910).  Besides  Capuchins 
there  are  in  the  diocese  Marist  Brothers  and  Sisters 
of  St.  Joseph  of  Cluny.  There  are  18  ecclesiastical 
residences,  18  churches  or  chapels,  1  infirmarv,  24 
schools  with  2170  pupils,  2  colleges  with  215  students, 
2  orphanages  with  67  orphans. 

Mtaaionea  Catheiicca  (Rome,  1907);  Statesman' a  Ysar  Book 
(1011);  Battandibb,  Ann.  pont  (Paris,  1011). 

Blanche  M.  Kelly. 

Posen.    See  Gnesen-Posen,  Archdiocese  of. 

Positiyiflm,  a  system  of  philosophical  and  re- 
ligious doctrines  elaborated  by  Auguste  Comte.  As 
a  philosophical  system  or  method.  Positivism  denies 
the  validity  of  metaphysical  speculations,  and  main- 
tains that  the  data  of  sense  experience  are  the  onlv 
object  and  the  supreme  criterion  of  human  knowl- 
edge; as  a  religious  system,  it  denies  the  existence 
of  a  personal  God  and  takes  humanity,  ^'the  great 


POSlWnsU                          313  POSITIVISM 

being",  as  the    object    of  its  veneration  and  cult,  and  the  religious  teaching  of  Positivism  with  its  cult, 

We  G^all  give  a  brief  historical  sketch  of  Positivism,  sacraments,  and  ceremonies.     Other  orthodox  groups 

an  exposition  of    its  fundamental    principles,   and  were  formed  in  England  with  Harrison  as  its  leader 

a  criticism  of  them.  and  Congreve,  Elliot,  Hutton,  Morrison  etc.  as  its 

I.  History  of  Positivism. — ^The  founder  of  Posi-  chief  adherents;   in  Sweden  with  A.  Nystrom.    An 

tivism  was  Auguste  Comte  (b.  at  Montpellier,  19  active  and  influential  group  was  also  foimded  in 

Jan.,  1798;  d.  at  Paris,  5  Sept.,  1857).    He  entered  Brazil  and  Chile  with  Benjamin  Constant  and  Miguel 

the  Ecole  polytechnique  at  Paris  in  1814,  was  a  dis-  Lemos^as  leaders,  and  a  temple  of  humanity  was  built 

ciple  of  Samt-Simon  until  1824,  and  began  to  publish  at  Rio  Janeiro  in  1891.    The  principles  of  Positivism 

his  course  of  philosophy  in  1826.    About  this  period  as  a  philosophical  system  were  accepted  and  applied 

he  became  temporarily  deranged-  (1826-27).    After  in  England  by  J.  Stuart  Mill,  who  had  been  in  cor- 

recovering,  he  was  appointed  instructor  (1832-52)  respondence  with  Comte  (cf .  "  Lettres  d'Aug.  Comte 

and    examiner    in    mathematics    (1837-44)    at    the  k    John    Stuart    Mill,    1841-1844"     Paris,    1877), 

Ecole  polytechnique,  giving  meanwhile  a  course  of  Spencer,   Bain,  Lewes,  Maudsley,  Sully,  Romanes, 
public  lectures  on  astronomy.    The  unhappiness  of  •  Huxley,  Tyndall  etc.;   in  France  by  Taine,    Ribot, 

nis   married    life   and   his   strange   infatuation   for  deRoberty  etc.;  in  Germany  by  DUhring,  Avenarius 

Mme  Clotilde  de  Vaux  (1845-46)  greatly  influenced  etc.     Thus,  the  principles  and  spirit  of  Positivism 

his   naturally   sentimental    character.    He   realize  pervaded  the  scientific  and  philosophical  thought  of 

that  mere  intellectual  development  is  insufficient  for  the  nineteenth  century  ana  exercised  a  pernicious 

life,  and,  having  presented  Postivism  as  the  scien-  influence  in  every  sphere.    They  had  their  practical 

tific  doctrine  and  method,  he  aimed  at  making  it  a  consequences  in  the  systems  of  positive  or  so-called 

religion,  the   religion  of  humanity.    Comte's  chief  sci«ntific  moraUty  and  utilitarianism  in  ethics,  of 

works    are    his    '^Cours    de    philosophic    positive''  neutrality  and  naturalism  in  religion, 

[6  vols.:   Philosophie  math^matique  (1830),  astrono-  Principles    op    Posftivism. — ^The    fundamental 

mique  et  physique  (1835),  chimioue  et  biologique  principle  of  Positivism  is,  as  already  said,  that  sense 

(1838),  partie  <logmatique  de  la  philosophie  sociale  experience  is  the  only  object  of  human  knowledge  as 

(1839),  partie  historique  (1840),  complement  de  la  well  as  its  sole  and  supreme  criterion.    Hence  ab- 

philosophie  sociale  et  conclusions  (1842) ;  translated  stract  notions  or  general  ideas  are  nothing  more  than 

by   Harriet   Martineau    (London,    1853)  ]   and   his  collective  notions;    judgments  are  mere  empirical 

''Cours  de  politique  positive"  (3  vols.,  Paris,  1815-^  colligations  of  facts.     Reasoning  inclddes  induction 

54).    Various  influences  concurred  te  form  Comte's  and  the  syllogism:   induction  has  for  its  conclusion 

system  of  thought:  the  Empiricism  of  Locke  and  the  a  proposition  which  contains  nothing  more  than  the 

Scepticism  of  Hume,  the  ^nsism  of  the  eighteenth  collection  of  a  certain  number  of  sense  experiences, 

century  and  the  Criticism  of  Kant,  the  Mysticism  of  and  the  syllogism,  taking  this  conclusion  as  its  major 

the  Middle  Ages,  the  Traditionalism  of  De  Maistre  proposition,  is  necessarily  sterile  or  even  results  in  a 

and    de  Bonald,  and    the  Philanthropy  of   Saint-  vicious  circle.    Thus,  according  te  Positivism,  science 

Simon.    He  maintains  as  a  law  manifested  by  his-  cannot  be,  as  Aristotle  conceived  it,  the  knowledge 

tory  that  every  science  passes  through  three  sue-  of  things  through  their  ultimate  causes,  since  mate- 

c^Ssive  stages,   the    theological,   the  metaphysical,  rial  and  formal  causes  are  unknowable,  final  causes 

and  the  positive;  that  the  positive  stage,  which  re-  illusions,  and  efiicient  causes  simply  invariable  ante- 

jects  the  validity  of  metaphysical  speculation,  the  cedents,  while  metaphysics,  under  any  form,  is  ille- 

existence  of  final  causes,  and  the  knowableness  of  the  gitimate.     Positivism  is  thus  a  continuation  of  crude 

absolute,  and  confines  itself  to  the  study  of  experi-  Empiricism,  Associationism,  and  Nominalism.    The 

mental  facts  and  their  relations,  represents  the  per-  arguments  advanced  by  Positivism,  besides  the  as- 

fection     of     human     knowledge.     Classifying     the  sertion  that  sense  experiences  are  the  only  object 

sciences  according' to  their  degree  of  increasing  com-  of  human  knowledge,  are  chiefly  two:  the  first  is  that 

plexity,  he  reduces  them  to  six  in  the  following  order:  psychological  analysis  shows  that  all  human  knowl- 

mathematics,  astronomy,  physics,  chemistry,  biology,  edge  can  be  ultimately  reduced  to  sense  experiences 

/and  sociology.    Religion  has  for  its  object  the  '^ great  and  empirical  associations;  the  second,  insisted  upon 

being"    (humanitv),  the   "gr^at  medium"   (world-  by  Comte,  is  historical,  and  is  based  on  his  famous 

space),  and  the  "great  fetich"  (the  earth),  which  "law  of  the  three  stages",  according  to  which  the 

form  the  positivist  trinity.    This  Religion  has  its  human  mind  in  its  progress  is  supposed  to  have  been 

hierarchical    priesthood,    its   positive    dogmas,    its  successively  influenced  by  theological  preoccupations 

organized  cult,  and  even  its  calendar  on  the  model  and  metaphysical  speculation,  and  to  have  finally 

of  Catholicism  (cf.  Comte,  "Cat^^chisme  positiviste").  reached  at  the  present  time  the  positive  stage,  which 

At  the  death  of  Comte,  a  division  arose  among  the  marks,  according  to  Comte,  its  full  and  periect  de- 

Positivists,  the  dissident  group  being  formed  with  velopment  (cf.  "Coursde  philosophie  positive",  II,  15 

Littr6  as  its  leader,  and  the  orthodox  group  under  the  sqq.;. 

direction  of  Pierre  Laffitte.    Emile  Littr6   (q.  v.)  Criticism.  —  Positivism  asserts  that  sense   expe- 

accepted  Positivism  in  its  scientific  aspect:   for  him  riences  are  the  only  object  of  human  knowledge,  but 

Positivism  was  essentially  a  method,  viz.  that  method  does  not  prove  its  assertion.     It  is  true  that  all  our 

which  limits  human  knowledge  to  the  study  of  ex-  knowledge  has  its  starting  point  in  sense  experience, 

perimental  facts  and  neither  affirms  nor  denies  any-  but  it  is  not  proved  that  knowledge  stops  there, 

thing  concerning  what  may  exist  outside  of  experience.  Positivism  fails  to  demonstrate  that,  above  particular 

He  rejected  as  unreal  the  religious  organization  and  facts  and  contingent  relations,  there  are  not  abstract 

cult  of  Positivism.     He  considered  all  religions  from  notions,  general  laws,  universal  and  necessary  prin- 

the  philosophical  point  of  view,  to  be  equally  vain,  ciples,  or  that  we  cannot  know  them.     Nor  does  it 

while  he  confessed  that,  from  tne  historical  point  of  prove  that  material  and  corporeal  things  constitute 

view,  Catholicism  was  superior  to  all  other  religions,  the  whole  order  of  existing  beings,  and  that  our  knowl- 

The  true  end  of  man,  he  maintained,  was  to  work  for  edge  is  limited  to  thiem.     Concrete  beings  and  in- 

the  progress  of  humanity  by  studying  it  (science  and  dividual  relations  are  not  only  perceptible  by  our 

education),  loving  it  (religion),  beautifying  it  (fine  senses,  but  they  have  also  their  causes  and  laws  of 

arts),  and  enriching  it  (industry).    The  official  sue-  existence    and    constitution;     they    are    intelhgible. 

cessor  of  Comte  and  leader  of  the  orthodox  group  of  These  causes  and  laws  pass  beyond  the  particulamess 

Postivists  was  Pierre  Laffitte,  who  became  professor  and  contingency  of  individual  facts,  and  are  elements 

of  the  general  history  of  sciences  in  the  College  de  as  fundamentally  real  as  the  individual  facts  which 

FVance  in  1892.    He  maintained  both  the  scientific  they  produce  and  control.    They  cannot  be  per- 


POSITIVISM 


314 


POSITIVISM 


ceived  by  our  senses,  but  why  can  they  not  be  ex- 

Clained  by  our  intelligence?  Again,  immaterial 
eings  cannot  be  perceived  by  sense  eimerience,  it  is 
true,  but  their  existence  is  not  contramctory  to  our 
intelligence,  and,  if  their  existence  is  required  as  a 
cause  and  a  condition  of  the  actual  existence  of  ma- 
terial things,  they  certainlv  exist.  We  can  infer  their 
existence  and  know  something  of  their  nature.  They 
cannot  indeed  be  known  in  the  same  way  as  material 
things,  but  this  is  no  reason  for  declaring  them 
unknowable  to  our  intelligence  (see  Agnosticism; 
Analooy).  According  to  Positivism,  our  abstract 
concepts  or  general  ideas  are  mere  collective  rep- 
resentations oil  the  experimental  order — ^for  example, 
the  idea  of  "man''  is  a  kind  of  blended  image  of  all 
the  men  observed  in  our  experience.  This  is  a  funda- 
mental error.  Every  image  bears  individual  charao- 
ters;  an  image  of  man  is  always  an  image  of  a  par- 
ticular man  and  can  represent  only  that  one  man. 
What  is  called  a  collective  image  is  nothing  more 
than  a  collection  of  divers  images  succeeding  one 
another,  each  representing  an  individual  and  concrete 
object,  as  may  be  seen  by  attentive  observation. 
An  idea,  on  the  contrary,  abstracts  from  any  concrete 
determination,  and  mav  be  applied  identically  to 
an  indefinite  number  of  objects  of  the  same  class. 
Collective  images  are  more  or  less  confused^  and  are 
the  more  so  as  the  collection  represented  is  larger; 
an  idea  remains  alwajrs  clear.  There  are  objects 
which  we  caimot  imagme  (e.  g.  a  myriagon,  a  sub- 
stance, a  principle),  and  which  we  can  nevertheless 
distinctly  conceive.  Nor  is  the  general  idea  a  name 
substituted  as  a  sign  for  all  the  individual  objects  of 
the  same  class,  as  stated  by  Taine  (De  rintellieence, 
I,  26).  If  a  certain  perception,  says  Taine,  always 
coincides  with  or  follows  another  perception  (e.  g. 
the  perception  of  smoke  and  that  of  fire,  the  smell 
of  a  sweet  odour  and  the  sight  of  a  rose),  then  the  one 
becomes  the  sign  of  the  other  in  such  a  way  that, 
when  we  perceive  one,  we  instinctively  anticipate  the 
presence  of  the  other.  So  it  is,  Taine  adds,  with 
our  general  ideas.  When  we  have  perceived  a  num- 
ber of  different  trees,  there  remains  in  our  memory 
a  certain  image  made  up  of  the  characters  common  to 
till  trees,  namely  the  image  of  a  trunk  with  branches. 
We  call  it  "tree",  and  thia  word  becomes  the  ex- 
clusive sign  of  the  class  "tree'';  it  evokes  the  image 
of  the  individual  objects  of  that  class  as  the  percep- 
tion of  every  one  of  these  evokes  the  image  of  the  sign 
substituted  for  the  whole  class. 

Cardinal  Mercier  rightly  remarks  that  this  theory 
rests  upon  a  confusion  between  experimental  analogy 
and  abstraction  (Crit^riologie  g^n^rale,  1,  III,  c. 
iii,  §  2,  pp.  237  sqq.).  Experimental  analogy  plays 
ind^sd  a  large  part  in  our  practical  life,  and  is  an 
important  factor  in  the  education  of  our  senses 
(cf.  St.  Thomas,  "Anal.  post. ",  II,  xv).  But  it  should 
be  remarked  that  experimental  analogy  is  limited 
to  the  individual  objects  observed,  to  particular  and 
similar  objects;  its  generality  is  essentially^  relative. 
Again,  the  words  which  designate  the  objects  cor- 
respond to  the  characters  of  these  objects,  and  we 
cannot  speak  of  "abstract  names"  when  only  in- 
dividual objects  are  given.  Such  is  not  the  case  with 
our  general  ideas.  They  are  the  result  of  an  abstrac- 
tion, not  of  a  mere  perception  of  individual  objects, 
however  numerous;  they  are  the  conception  of  a  type 
applicable  in  its  unity  and  identity  to  an  indefinite 
number  of  the  objects  of  which  it  is  the  tjrpe.  They 
thus  have  a  generality  without  limit  and  independent 
of  any  concrete  determination.  If  the  words  which 
signify  them  can  be  the  si^  of  all  the  individual  ob- 
jects of  the  same  class,  it  is  because  that  same  class 
has  first  been  conceived  in  its  type;  these  names  are 
abstract  because  they  signify  an  abstract  concept. 
Hence  mere  experience  is  insufficient  to  account  for 
our  general  ideas.    A  careful  study  of  Taine's  theory 


and  the  illustrations  given  shows  that  the  ap- 
parent plausibility  of  this  theory  comes  precisely 
from  the  fact  that  Taine  unconsciously  introduces 
and  employs  abstraction.  Ag^,  Positivisin,  and 
this  is  the  point  especially  developed  by  John  Stuart 
Mill  (following  Hume),  maintains  that  what  we  call 
"necessary  truths"  (even  mathematical  truths, 
axioms,  principles)  are  merely  the  result  of  experience, 
a  generalization  of  our  experiences.  We  are  con- 
scious, e.  g.  that  we  cannot  at  the  same  time  affirm 
and  deny  a  certain  proposition,  that  one  state  of  mind 
excludes  the  other;  then  we  generalize  our  observa- 
tion and  express  as  a  general  principle  that  a  proposi- 
tion cannot  be  true  and  false  at  the  same  time. 
Such  a  principle  is  simply  the  result  of  a  subjective 
necessity  based  on  experience.  Now,  it  is  true  that 
expmence  furnishes  us  with  the  matter  out  of  which 
our  judgments  are  formed,  and  with  the  occasion  to 
formulate  them.  But  mere  eiroerience  does  not  af- 
ford either  the  proof  or  the  oonnrmation  of  our  certi- 
tude concerning  their  truth.  If  it  were  so,  our  cer- 
titude should  mcrease  with  every  new  experience, 
and  such  is  not  the  case,  and  we  could  not  account  for 
the  absolute  character  of  this  certitude  in  all  men, 
nor  for  the  identical  application  of  this  certitude  to 
the  same  propositions  by  all  men.*^  In  reaUty  we 
affirm  the  truth  and  necessity  of  a  proposition,  not 
because  we  cannot  subjectively  deny  it  or  conceive 
its  contradictory,  but  because  of  its  objective  evi- 
dence, which  is  the  manifestation  of  the  absolute, 
universal,  and  objective  truth  of  the  proportion, 
the  source  of  our  certitude,  and  the  reason  of  the 
subjective  necessity  in  us. 

As  to  the  so-called  "law  of  the  three  stages",  it 
is  not  borne  out  by  a  careful  study  of  history.  It  is 
true  that  we  meet  with  certain  epochs  more  par- 
ticularly characterized  by  the  influence  of  faith,  or 
metaphysical  tendencies,  or  enthusiasm  for  natural 
science.  But  even  then  we  do  not  see  that  these 
characteristics  realize  the  order  expressed  in  Comte's 
law.  Aristotle  was  a  close  student  of  natural  science, 
while  after  him  the  neo-Platonic  School  was  almost 
excluBively  given  to  metaphysical  speculation.  In 
the  sixteenth  century  there  was  a  great  revival  of  ex'- 
perimental  sciences;  yet  it  was  followed  by  the  meta- 
physical speculation  of  the  German  idealistic  school. 
The  niaeteenth  centuiy  beheld  a  wonderful  develop- 
ment of  the  natural  sciences,  but  we  are  now  witness- 
ing a  revival  of  the  study  of  metaphysics.  Nor  is  it 
true  that  these  divers  tendencies  caimot  exist  during 
the  same  epoch.  Aristotle  was  a  metaphysician  as 
well  as  a  scientist.  Even  in  the  Middle  Ages,  which 
are  so  generally  considered  as  exclusively  p;iven  to  a 
priori  metaphysics,  observation  and  experiment  had 
a  large  place,  as  is  shown  by  the  works  of  Roger 
Bacon  and  Albertus  Magnus.  St.  Thomas  himself 
manifests  a  remarkably  keen  spirit  of  piisychological 
observation  in  his  "Commentaries"  and  in  his 
"Summa  theologica",  especially  in  his  admirable 
treatise  on  the  passions.  Finally,  we  see  a  harmo- 
nious combination  of  faith,  metaphysical  reasoning, 
and  experimental  observation  in  such  men  as  Kepler, 
Descartes,  Leibniz,  Paschal  etc.  The  so-called  law 
of  the  three  stages"  is  a  gratuitous  assumption,  not 
a  law  of  history. 

The  positivist  religion  is  a  logical  consequence  of  the 
principles  of  Positivism.  In  recdity  human  reason 
can  prove  the  existence  of  a  personal  Grod  and  of 
His  providence,  and  the  moral  necessity  of  revelation, 
while  history  proves  the  existence  of  such  a  revelation. 
The  establishment  of  a  religion  by  Positivism  simply 
shows  that  for  man  religion  is  a  necessity. 

RoBiNST,  Notice  nir  Vauvre  HlavU  d'A.  ComU  (Paris,  1860); 
Testament d* A.  Camte  (PariB,  1884) ;  Mill,  A.  ComUand Poeitiviem 
(London.  1867. 1882);  Care,  LiUri  et  le  pontivisme  (Paria,  1883); 
Cairo,  The  Social  Philosophy  and  Religion  of  Comle  (Giaasow, 
1885) ;  Laurent.  La  philoa.  de  StuaH  Mill  (Paris,  1886);  Qbubkr. 
A  Comte,  der  Begrunder  d.  Pontiviemut  (Freiburg,  1889) ;    loBii, 


POSSESSION 


316 


POSSESSION 


Der  Pontiviemus  wm  Tode  A.  ConUe*8  bis  auf  utuere  Tage  (Frei- 
bu»,  1891):  Stimmen  au»  Maria-Loach,  supplements  xlv  and 
lii;  Rataibson,  La  philoa,  en  France,  au  XIX*  Sikde  (Paris,  1894); 
MxBcnsR,  Pftfchologie  (6th  ed.,  Louvain,  1894);  Idbic, 
Critirioloffxe  ginirale  (4th  ed.,  Louvain,  1900);  Pkillaube,  La 
tfUarxe  dea  concepts  (Paris.  1895);  Piat,  L'idSe  (Paris,  1901); 
Mahkb,  Peycholoau  (5th  ed.,  London,  1903);  Balfour,  Defense 
of  Philosophic  Doubt  (London,  1895) ;  Tumieb,  Hist,  of  Philos, 
(3o«ton,  1903);  Dehebmb,  A.  Comie  et  sonJBunre  (Paris,  1909). 

George  M.  Sauvaqe. 

PoBSaBsion,  Demoniacal. — Man  is  in  various  ways 
subject  to  the  influence  of  evil  spirits.  By  original  sin 
he  brought  himself  into  "captivity  under  the  power  of 
him  who  thence  [from  the  time  of  Adam's  transgression] 
had  the  empire  of  death,  that  is  to  say,  the  Devil" 
(Council  of  Trent,  Sess.  V,  de  pecc.  orig.,  1),  and  was 
throng  the  fear  of  death  all  his  lifetime  suoject  to  servi- 
tude (Heb. ,  ii,  1 5) .  Even  though  redeemed  by  Christ,  he 
is  subject  to  violent  temptation:  *'for  our  wrestling  is 
not  against  flesh  and  blood;  but  against  principalities 
and  powers,  against  the  rulers  of  the  world  of  this  dark- 
ness, against  the  spirits  of  wickedness  in  the  high  places ' ' 
(Eph.,  vi,  12).  But  the  influence  of  the  demon,  as  we 
know  from  Scripture  and  the  history  of  the  Church, 
goes  further  stiU.  He  may  attack  man's  body  from 
without  (obsession)  f  or  assume  control  of  it  from  within 
(possession).  As  we  gather  from  the  Fathers  and  the 
theologians,  the  soul  itself  can.  never  be/ 'possessed" 
nor  deprived  of  liberty,  though  its  ordinary  control 
over  the  members  of  the  body  may  be  hindered  by  the 
obsessing  spirit  (cf.  St.  Aug.,  ''De  sp.  et  an.",  27;  St. 
Thomas,  "In  II  Sent.",  d.  VIII,  Q.  i;  Ribet,  "La 
mystique  divine",  Paris,  1883,  pp.  190  sqcj.). 
•  Cases  of  Possession. — Among  the  ancient  pagan 
nations  diaboUcal  possession  was  frequent  (Maspero, 


"Hist.  anc.  des  peuples  de  TOrient",  41^   Lenor- 
mant,  "La  magie  chez  les  Chald6ens"),  as  it  is  still 

A1 :_       -. /WT^^A  HTT'    4.^^,       ^c      4.U« 


The  histoiy  of  the  early  Church  is  filled  with  tu- 
stances  of  sunilar  diabohcal  agency.  A  quotation 
from  TertuUian  will  suffice  to  bring  before  us  the 
prevalent  conviction.  Treating  of  true  and  false 
divinity,  he  addresses  the  pagans  of  his  time:  "Let  a 
person  be  brought  before  your  tribunals  who  is 
plainly  under  demoniacal  possession.  The  wickcxl 
spirit,  bidden  speak  by  the  followers  of  Christ,  will  as 
readily  make  the  truthful  confession  that  ne  is  a 
demon  as  elsewhere  he  has  falsely  assorted  that  he  is 
a  god"  (Apolog.,  tr.  Edinburgh,  p.  23).  The  facts  asso- 
ciated with  possession  prove,  he  says,  beyond  question 
the  diaboli(4l  source  of  the  influence — "What  clearer 
proof  than  a  work  like  that?  What  more  trustworthy 
than  such  a  proof?  The  .simplicity  of  truth  is  thus 
set  forth:  its  own  worth  sustains  it;  no  ground  remains 
for  the  least  suspicion.  Do  you  say  that  it  is  done 
by  magic  or  by  some  trick  of  the  sort?  You  will  not 
say  anything  of  the  sort  if  you  have  been  allowed  the 
use  of  your  ears  and  eyes.  ,For  what  argument  can 
you  bring  against  a  thing  that  is  exhibited  to  the  eve 
m  its  naked  redity?"  And  the  Christians  expel  by 
a  word:  "All  the  authority  and  power  we  have  over 
them  is  from  our  naming  of  the  name  of  Christ  and 
recalling  to  their  memones  the  woes  with  which  God 
threatens  them  at  the  hands  of  Christ  as  Judge  and 
which  they  expect  one  da3r  to  overtake  them.  Fear- 
ing Christ  in  God  and  God  in  Christ^they  become  sub- 
ject to  the  servants  of  God  and  Christ.  So  at  our 
touch  and  breathing,  overwhelmed  by  the  thought 
and  realization  of  those  judgment  fires,  they  leave  at 
command    the    bodies    they   have    entered." 


our 


Chinese").  In  the  Old  Testament  we  have  onlv  one 
instance,  and  even  that  is  not  very  certain.  We  are 
told  that  "an  evil  spirit  from  the  Lord  troubled"  Saul 
(I  Kings,  xvi,  14).  The  Hebrew  word  rCUih  need  not 
imply  a  i>ersonal  influence,  though,  if  we  mav  judge 
from  Josephus  (Ant.  Jud.,  VI,  viii,  2;  ii,  2),  the  Jews 
were  inclined  to  give  the  word  that  meaning  in  this 
very  case.  In  New-Testament  times,  however,  the 
phenomenon  had  become  very  common.  The  victims 
were  sometimes  deprived  of  sight  and  speech  (Matt., 
xii,  22),  sometimes  of  speech  alone  (Matt.,  ix,  32; 
LuJce,  xi,  14).  sometimes  afflicted  in  ways  not  clearly 
specified  (Luke,  viii,  2),  while,  in  the  greater  number 
of  cases,  there  is  no  mention  of  any  bodilv  affliction 
beyond  the  possession  itself  (Matt.,  iv,  24;  viii,  16; 
XV,  22;  Mark,  i,  32,  34,  39j  iii,  11;  vii,  26;  Luke, 
iv,  41;  vij  18;  vii,  21;  viii,  2).  The  effects  are 
described  m  various  passages.  A  young  man  is 
possessed  of  a  spirit "  who,  wheresoever  he  taketh  him, 
dasheth  him,  and  he  foameth,  and  gnasheth  with  his 
teeth,  and  pineth  away,  .  .  .  and  oftentimes  hath  he 
[the  spirit]  cast  him  into  the  fire  and  into  waters  to 
destroy  him"  (Mark,  ix,  17,  21).  The  possessed  are 
sometimes  gifted  with  superhuman  powers:  "a  man 
with  an  unclean  spmt,  who  had  his  dwelling  in  the 
tombs,  and  no  man^now  could  bind  him,  not  even 
with  cnains.  For  having  been  often  bound  with  fetters 
and  chains,  he  had  burst  the  chains,  and  broken  the  fet- 
ters in  pieces,  and  no  one  could  tame  him"  (Mark,  v, 
2-4).  Some  of  the  unfortunate  victims  were  con- 
trolled by  several  demons  (Matt.,  xii,  43,  45;  Mark, 
xvi,  9;  Luke,  xi,  24-26) ;  in  one  case  by  so  many  that 
their  name  was  Legion  (Mark,  v,  9;  Luke,  viii,  30). 
Yet,  evil  as  the  possessing  spirits  were,  they  could  not 
help  testifying  to  Christ's  Divine  mission  (Matt,, 
viii,  29;  Mark,  i,  24, 34;  iii,  12;  v,7;  Luke,  iv,  34, 41 ; 
viii,  28).  And  they  continued  to  do  so  after  His 
Asoonsion  (Acts,  xvi,  16-18). 


Statements  of  this  kind  embody  the  views  of  the 
Church  as  a  whole,  as  is  evident  f rom^the  facts,  that 
various  councils  legislated  on  the  proper  treatment 
of  the  possessed,  that  parallel  with  tne  public  penance 
for  catechumens  and  fallen  Christians  there  was  a 
course  of  disciphne  for  the  energumens  also,  and, 
finally,  that  the  Church  established  a  special  oider  of 
exorcists  (cf.  Martigny,  "Diet,  des  antiq.  chr^t.", 
Paris,  1877,  p.  312). 

All  through  the  Middle  Ages  councils  continued  to 
discuss  the  matter:  laws  were  passed,  and  penalties 
decreed,  against  all  who  invitea  the  influence  of  the 
Devil  or  utilized  it  to  inflict  injury  on  their  fellowmen 
(cf.  the  Bulls  of  Innocent  VIII,  1484;  Julius  II,  1504; 
and  Adriaiv  VI,  1523) ;  and  powers  of  exorcism  were 
conferred  on  every  priest  of  the  Church.  The  phe- 
nomenon was  accepted  as  real  by  all  Christians.  The 
records  of  criminal  investigations  alone  in  which 
charges  of  witchcraft  or  diabolical  possession  formed 
a  prominent  part  would  fill  volumes.  The  curious 
znay  consult  such  works  as  Des  Mousseaux.  "Pra- 
tiques des  demons"  (Paris,  1854),  or  Thiers,  "Super- 
stitions". Ij  or,  from  the  Rationalistic  point  of  view, 
Leckv,  "Rise  and  Influence  of  Rationalism  in  Eu- 
rope", I,  1-138,  and,  for  later  instances,  Constans. 
"Relation  sur  une  ^pidemie  d'hyst^ro-d^monopathie" 
(Paris,  1863).  And  though  at  the  present  day  among 
civilized  races  the  cases  of  diabolical  possession  are 
few,  the  phenomena  of  Spiritism,  which  offer  many 
striidng  points  of  resemblance,  have  come  to  take 
their  place  (cf.  Pauvert,  "La  vie  de  N.  S.  J^us- 
Christ^',  I, p.  226;  Raupert,  "The Dangersof  Spiritual- 
ism", Lonaon,  1906;  Lepicier,  "The  Unseen  World", 
London,  1906;  Miller,  "Sermons  on  Modem  Spiritual- 
ism", London,  1908).  And  if  we  may  judge  from  the 
accotmts  furnished  by  the  pioneers  of  the  Faith  in 
missionary  countries,  the  evidences  of  diabolical  agency 
there  are  almost  as  clear  and  defined  as  they  were  in 
Galilee  in  the  time  of  Christ  (cf.  Wilson,  "Western 
Africa",  217;  Waffelaert  in  the  "Diet,  apol.de  la  foi 
cath.",  Paris,  1889,  s.  v.  Possession  diaboL). 

II.  Reality  of  the  Phenomenon. — ^The  infidel 
policy  on  the  question  is  to  deny  the  possibility  of 
possession  in  any  circumstances,  either  on  the  sup- 
position, that  there  are  no  evil  spirits  in  existence. 


POSSESSION 


316 


POSSESSION 


or  that  they  are  powerless  to  influence  the  human 
body  in  the  manner  described.  It  was*  on  this  prin- 
ciple that,  according  to  Lecky.  the  world  came  to  dis- 
beUeve  in  witchcraft:  men  dia  not  trouble  to  analyse 
the .  evidence  that  could  be  produced  in  its  favour; 
they  simply  decided  that  the  testimony  must  be  mis- 
taken because  **  they  came  gradually  to  look  upon  it 
as  absurd''  (op.  cit.,  p.  12).  And  it  is  by  this  same 
a  priori  principle,  we  oeUeve,  that  Christians  who  try 
to  explain  away  the  facts  of  possession  are  uncon- 
sciously influenced.  Though  put  forward  once  as  a 
commonplace  by  leaders  of  materialistic  thought, 
there  is  a  noticeable  tendency  of  late  years  not  to 
insist  upon  it  so  strongly  in  view  of  the  admission 
made  by  competent  scientific  inquirers  that  many  of 
the  manifestations  of  Spiritism  cannot  be  explained 
by  human  agency  (cf.  Miller,  op.  cit.,  7-9).  But 
whatever  view  Rationahsts  may  ultimately  adopt, 
for  a  sincere  believer  in  the  Scriptures  there  can 
be  no  doubt  that  there  is  such  a  thing  as  possession 
possible.  And  if  he  is  optimistic  enough  to  hold  that 
m  the  present  order  of  things  God  would  not  allow 
the  evil  spirits  to  exercise  the  powers  they  naturally 
possess,  he  might  open  his  eyes  to  the  presence  of  sin 
and  sorrow  in  the  world,  and  recognize  that  God 
causes  the  sun  to  shine  on  the  just  and  the  unjust  and 
uses  the  powers  of  evil  to  promote  His  own  wise  and 
mysterious  purposes  (cf.  Job,  passim;  Mark  v,  19). 

That  mistakes  were  often  made  in  the  diagnosis  of 
cases,  and  results  attributed  to  diabolical  agency  that 
were  really  due  to  natural  causes,  we  need  have  no 
hesitation  in  admitting.  But  it  would  be  illogical  to 
conclude  that  the  whole  theory  of  possession  rests  on 
imposture  or  ignorance.  The  abuse  of  a  system  gives 
us  no  warrant  to  denounce  the  system  itself.  Strange 
phenomena  of  nature  have  been  wrongly  regarded  as 
miraculous,  but  the  detection  of  the  error  has  left 
our  belief  in  real  miracles  intact.  Men  have  been 
wrongly  convicted  of  murder,  but  that  docs  not  prove 
that  our  reliance  on  evidence  is  essentially  unreason- 
able or  that  no  murder  has  ever  been  committed.  A 
Cathohc  is  not  asked  to  accept  all  the  cases  of  diabol- 
ical possession  recorded  in  the  history  of  the  Church, 
nor  even  to  form  any  definite  opinion  on  the  historical 
evidence  in  favour  of  any  particular  case.  That  is 
primarily  a  matter  for  historical  and  medical  science 
(cf.  Delrio,  ''Disq.  mag.  libri  sex",  1747;  Alexander, 
'*  Demon.  Possession  in  the  N.  T.",  Edinburgh,  1902). 
As  far  as  theory  goes,  the  real  question  is  whether 
possession  has  ever  occurred  in  the  past,  and  whether 
it  is  not^  therefore,  possible  that  it  may  occur  again. 
And  while  the  cumulative  force  of  centuries  of  experi- 
ence is  not  to  be  hghtly  disregarded,  the  main  evidence 
will  be  found  in  the  action  and  teaching  of  Chiist 
Himself  as  revealed  in  the  inspired  pages  of  the  New 
Testament,  from  which  it  is  clear  that  any  attempt 
to  identify  possession  with  natural  disease  is  doomed 
to  failure. 

In  classical  Greek  Saifwpqip,  it  is  true,  means  ''to  be 
mad"  (cf.  Eurip.,  "Phoen.",  888;  Xenophon,  "Me- 
mor.",  I,  i^  ix;  Plutarch,  "Marc",  xxiii),  and  a  sim- 
ilar meamng  is  conveyed  by  the  (iospel  phrase 
5aifi6vioP  l^x^iiff  when  the  Pharisees  use  it  of  Christ 
(Matt.,  xi,  18;  John,  vii,  20;  viii,  48),  especially  in 
John,  X,  20, 'where  they  say  *'He  hath  a  devil,  and  is 
mad"  {SoufiSvtov  $x^h  '^^  A<a£yerac);  deu/ioy$y,  however, 
is  not  the  word  used  by  the  sacred  writers.  Their 
word  is  8aifju)vlf»r0€Uj  and  the  meanings  given  to  it 
previously  by  profane  writers  ("to  be  subject  to  an  ap- 
pointed fate":  Philemon,  "Incert.",  981;  "to  be  dei- 
fied"; Sophocles,  "Fr.",  180)  are  manifestly  excluded 
by  the  context  and  the  facts.  The  demoniacs  were 
often  afflicted  with  other  maladies  as  well,  but  there 
is  surely  nothing  improbable  in  the  view  of  Cathohc 
theologians  that  the  demons  often  afllicted  those  who 
were  aJready  diseased,  or  that  the  very  fact  of  ob- 
session or  possession  produced  these  diseases  as  a 


natural  conseauence  (cf.  Job,  ii,  7;  GSrres,  "Die 
Christ,  mystik  ,  iv;  LesStre  in  "Diet,  de  la  Bible", 
s.  V.  D^moniaques).  Natural  disease  and  possession 
are  in  fact  clearly  distinguished  by  the  Evangelists: 
"He  cast  out  the  spirits  with  his  word:  and^  that 
were  sick  he  heaied"  (Matt.,  viii,  16).  "They  brou^t 
to  him  all  that  ^ere  ill  and  that  were  possessed  with 
devils  .  .  .  and  he  healed  many  that  were  troubled 
with  divers  diseases;  and  he  cast  out  many  devils" 
(Mark  i,  32,  34);  and  the  distinction  is  shown  more 
clearly  in  the  Greek:  xdrrat  rods  icaKQs  $x^^^^  i^^  '''^ 
SaifWPi^fUvovt. 

A  favourite  assertion  of  the  Rationalists  is  that 
lunacy  and  paralysis  were  often  mistaken  for  posses- 
sion. St.  Matthew  did  not  think  so,  for  he  tells  us 
that  "they  presented  to  him  all  sick  people  that  were 
taken  with  divers  diseases  [roucCKeut  vdaoit]  and  tor- 
ments [Paadvoit]^  and  such  as  were  possessed  by  devils 
[daifMvil;ti/jJvovs]f  and  lunatics  [tf-eXiyrtofb/i^wi/f],  and 
those  who  had  the  palsy  [xopaXvrurotft],  and  he  cured 
them  "  (iv,  24) .  And  the  circumstances  that  attended 
the  cures  point  in  the  same  direction.  In  the  case  of 
ordinary  diseases  they  were  effected  quietly  and  with- 
out violence.  Not  so  always  with  the  possessed.  The 
evil  spirits  passed  into  lower  animals  with  dire  results 
(Matt.,  viii,  32),  or  cast  their  victim  on  the  ground 
(Luke,  iv,  35)  or,  "crjrine  out,  and  greatly  tearing 
him,  went  out  of  him,  and  ne  became  as  dead,  so  that 
many  said:  He  is  dead"  (Mark,  ix,  25;  cf.  Vigouroux, 
"  Les  livres  saints  et  la  crit.  rationahste  ",  Paris,  1891). 

Abstracting  altogether  from  the  fact  that  these 
passages  are  themselves  inspired,  they  prove  that  the 
Jews  of  the  time  regarded  tnese  particular  muiifesta- 
tions  as  due  to  a  diabolical  source.  This  was  surely 
a  matter  too  closely  connected  with  Christ's  own 
Divine  mission  to  be  lightly  passed  over  as  one  on 
which  men  might,  without  much  inconvenience  from 
the  religious  ^point  of  view,  be  allowed  to  hold  erro- 
neous opinions.  If,  therefore,  possession  were  merely 
a  natural  disease  and  the  general  opinion  of  the  time 
ba^ed.on  a  delusion,  we  might  expect  that  Christ 
would  have  proclaimed  the  correct  doctrine  as  He  did 
when  His  followers  spoke  of  the  sin  of  the  man  bom 
blind  (John,  ix,  2,  3),  or  when  Nicodemus  misunder- 
stood His  teaching  on  the  necessity  of  being  born 
again  in  Baptism  (ibid.,  iii,  3, 4).  So  far  from  correct- 
ing the  prevalent  conviction.  He  approved  and  en- 
couragea  it  by  word  and  action.  He  addressed  the 
evil  spirits,  not  their  victims;  told  His  disciples  how 
the  evil  spirit  acted  when  cast  out  (Matt.,  xii.  44,  45; 
Luke,  xi,  24-26),  taught  them  why  they  had  tailed  to 
exorcize  (Matt.,  xvii,  19);  warned  the  seventy-two 
disciples  against  glorying  in  the  fact  that  the  demons 
were  subject  to  them  (Luke,  x,  17-20).  He  even  con- 
ferred express  powers  on  the  Apostles  "over  imclean 
spirits,  to  cast  them  out,  and  to  heal  all  manner  of 
diseases,  and  all  manner  of  infirmities"  (Matt.,  x,  1; 
Mark,  vi,  7;  Luke,  ix,  1),  and,  immediately  before  His 
Ascension,  enumerated  the  signs  that  would  proclaim 
the  truth  of  the  revelation  His  followers  were  to 
preach  to  the  world:  " (n  my  name  they  shall  cast  out 
devils :  they  shall  speak  with  new  tongues.  They  shall 
take  up  serpents;  and  if  they  shall  drink  any  deadly 
thing  it  shall  not  hurt  them:  tlyy  shall  lay  hands  on 
the  sick  and  they  shall  recover  (Mark,  xvi,  17-18). 
Thus  does  the  expulsion  of  demons  become  so  closely 
bound  up  with  other  miracles  of  the  Christian  dispen- 
sation as  to  hardly  permit  of  separation. 

The  problem,  therefore,  that  confronts  us  is  this: 
If  a  belief  so  intimately  connected  in  Christ's  own 
mind  with  the  mission  He  came  to  accomplish  was 
based  on  a  delusion,  why  did  He  not  correct  it?  Wh^ 
rather  encourage  it?  Only  two  answers  appear  possi- 
ble. Either  He  was  ignorant  of  a  religious  truth,  or 
He  deliberately  gave  instructions  that  He  knew  to  be 
false — instructions  that  misled  His  followers,  and  that 
were  eminently  calculated,  as  indeed  the  issue  proved, 


P088EVINU8 


317 


P088EVXNU8 


to  have  very  serious  consequences,  often  of  a  most 
painful  and  deplorable  kind,  in  the  whole  subseciuent 
history  of  the  Church  He  founded.  No  CathoUc  can 
dream  of  admitting  either  of  the  explanations.  The 
theory  of  acoommcSation  formulated  by  Winer  (''Bi- 
bHsches  Realworterbuch",  Leipzig,  1833)  may  at  once 
be  dismissed  (see  Demoniacs).  Accommodation  un- 
derstood as  the  toleration  of  harmless  illusions  having 
little  or  no  connexion  with  religion  might  perhaps  be 
allowed;  in  the  sense  of  deliberate  inculcation  of  reU- 
gious  error,  we  find  it  very  hard  to  associate  it  with 
high  moral  principle,  and  entirely  impossible  to  rec- 
oncile it  with  the  sanctitv  of  Chnst. 

Why  possession  should  manifest  itself  in  one  coun- 
try rather  than  another,  why  it  should  have  been  so 
common  in  the  time  of  Christ  and  so  comparatively 
rare  in  our  own.  why  even  in  Palestine  it  should  have 
been  confined  almost  entirely  to  the  province  of  GaU- 
lee.  are  questions  on  which  theologians  have  specula- 
tea  but  on  which  no  sure  conclusion  can  ever  be 
reached  (cf.  Delitzch,  "Sys.  der  biblis.  Psychol.", 
Leipzig,  1861 ;  Lesdtre,  op.  cit.;  Jeiler  in  ''Kirchenlexi- 
kon",  II,  s.  v.  ^'Besessene";  St.  Aug.,  X,  xxii,  De  civ. 
Dei,  10,  22).  The  phenomenon  itself  is  preternatural; 
a  humanly  scientific  explanation  is,  therefore,  impos- 
sible. But  it  might  fairly  be  expected,  we  think,  that 
since  Christ  came  to  overthrow  the  empire  of  Satan, 
the  efforts  of  the  powers  of  darkness  should  have  been 
concentrated  at  the  period  of  His  earthly  Ufe,  and 
should  have  been  felt  especially  in  the  province  where, 
with  the  exception  of  a  few  brief  visits  to  neighbouring 
lands.  His  private  and  public  life  was  pasMd.  >  (See 
Exorcism,  Exorcist.) 

In  addition  to  the  works  mentioned  above,  see  Persons,  De  deo 
crtalore^  p.  I,  c.  v,  prop,  i,  ii;  Bintbrim,  DenkwQrdigkeiten,  VII 
(Mains.  1841);  Maubt,  La  magie  et  Vastrologte  (Paru.  0000).  p. 
II.  c.  ii;  Tylor.  Primitive  Culture  (London.  1891).  cc.  xiv,  xv; 
Spxncsr.  Principlee  of  Sociology,  I. 

M.   J.   O'DONNELL. 

PoaaevinuB,  Antgnius,  theologian  and  papal  en- 
vov,  b.  at  M^tua  in  1533  or  1534;  d.  at  Ferrara,  26 
Feb.,  1611.  At  sixteen  years  of  age  he  went  to  Rome 
to  study,  familiarized  himself  with  many  languages, 
and  became  secretary  to  Cardinal  Ercole  Conzaga. 
In  1559  he  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus,  and  in  1560 
was  sent  to  preach  against  heresy  in  Savoy.  Passing 
on  to  France,  he  was  ordained  priest  in  1561,  ana 
preached  at  Paris,  Bayonne,  B^uen,  and  elsewhere, 
converting  many  Calvinists.  He  became  rector  of  the 
colleges  of  Avignon  and  of  Lyons,  and  in  1573  was  sec- 
retary to  the  general  of  the  Society,  Everardo  Mer- 
curiano.  Gregory]  XIII  himself  was  among  those  who 
learned  to  appreciate  his  merit  while-  he  occupied  the 
last-named  position.  When  John  III  of  Sweden  ex- 
pressed his  desire  to  become  a  Catholic,  the  pope,  in 
1577,  made  Possevinus  his  special  legate  to  that 
Court,  and  Possevinus  also  had  to  negotiate  with  the 
Courts  of  Bavaria  and  Bohemia  to  secure  support  for 
John  in  the  event  of  political  complications.  The 
Jesuit  envoy,  attired  as  a  secular,  was  received  with 
great  honour  in  Sweden,  and  the  king  made  his  pro- 
fession of  the  Catholic  Faith. 

Many  difficulties  arose  when  measures  for  the  con- 
version of  Sweden  were  debated.  Possevinus  returned 
to  Rome  with  proposals,  some  of  which  were  judged 
inadmissible.  Through  his  constant  efforts  several 
colleges  (the  German  College  at  Rome,  those  of  Brauns- 
berg,  Fulda,  Olmtttz,  Prague,  and  others)  received 
Sw^ish  youths,  with  the  object  of  forming  a  national 
Catholic  clergy.  At  the  close  of  1578  he  returned  to 
Sweden  as  nuncio  and  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Scandinavia. 
On  his  way,  he  again  visited  the  Duke  of  Bavaria,  the 
King  of  Poland,  and  the  emperor.  Disconcerted  by 
the  refusal  of  Rome  to  accept  the  King's  terms,  ana 
thwarted  by  the  sectariaas,  who  hail  the  advantage  in 
numbers  and  influence,  Possevinus  could  do  nothing 
but  comfort  and  encourage  the  few  Catholics  remain- 


ing in  Sweden.  He  displayed  the  greatest  devotion  on 
the  occasion  of  an  epidemic,  when  the  sick  were  left 
helpless  by  the  Protestant  ministers. 

In  1580  he  i^tumed  to  Rome.  In  the  meantime  the 
Tsar  Ivan  IV  sou^t  the  pope's  mediation  with 
Stephen  Bdthori,  King  of  Poland,  in  the  cause  of 
peace.  Possevinus  was  sent  as  papal  legate  (1581)  to 
negotiate  the  re-union  of  the  Russian  Church  with 
Rome.  The  negotiations  made  with  the  Russian  en- 
voys in  Poland  proved  nugatonr,  as  the  King  of 
Poland  insisted  upon  profiting  by  his  successes  in  war, 
and  Possevinus  went  to  Russia  to  treat  with  the  Tsar. 
He  wisely  laid  down  as  preliminary  conditions  of  peace 
with  Poland  the  liberty  of  Catholic  worship  for  for- 
eigners in  Russia  and  free  passage  for  pontifical 
legates.  These  were  granted  j/ro  forma.  His  over- 
tures of  reconciliation  with  Rome  were  met  only  with 
reassuring  words.  In  1582  the  Tsar  signed  a  treaty  of 
peace,  compelled  by  Polish  victories.  Possevinus  left 
Moscow  laden  with  honours,  but  not  deceived  as  to 
the  success  of  his  eflforts:  Ivan  the  Terrible  had  nego- 
tiated with  the  pope  only  to  mislead  both  Rome  and 
Poland.  Having  returned  to  Rome,  Possevinus  was 
immediately  sent  back  to  Poland  as  nuncio,  to  induce 
the  king  to  combat  heresy  in  Livonia  and  Transyl- 
vania. He  himself  visited  these  countries,  preaching 
and  arguiiig  with  the  heretics. 

At  the  Diet  of  Warsaw,  in  1583,  he  obtained  the 
passage  of  resolutions  favourable  to  Catholicism.  His 
efforts  were  ineffectual  in  the  treaties  between  Poland 
and  the  emperor,  on  which  business  he  went  twice  to 
the  Court  of  Rudolph  II.  He  still  stayed  in  the  North, 
preaching  in  Livonia,  Saxony,  Bohemia,  and  Transyl- 
vania, writing  treatises  against  the  innovators  and 
distributing  books  on  Catholic  doctrine.  He  did  much 
towards  the  reconciliation  of  the  Ruthenians,  and  had 
a  large  share  in  founding  the  college  of  the  Jesuits  at 
Vilna.  He  also  wrote  treatises  against  the  adversaries 
of  the  re-union.  Through  his  exertions  the  Collegium 
Hosianum  of  Braunsberg  w§s  enlarged  for  the  recep- 
tion of  Swedes  and  Ruthenians;  at  OlmUtz  and 
Claudiopolis,  in  Transylvania,  colleges  were  estab- 
lished for  similar  purposes.  In  1587  he  was  invited 
to  teach  theology  at  Padua,  where  he  remained  for 
four  years.  Among  his  dflciples  there  was  St.  Francis 
of  Sales.  Returning  to  Rome,  he  devoted  his  time 
to  theological,  historical,  and  philosophical  studUes. 
Having  plafed  an  important  role  in  the  recognition 
of  Henry  IV  of  France,  he  was  expelled  from  Rome  by 
the  Spanish  party.  He  then  made  extended  tours  to 
visit  the  libraries  of  Italy  in  ouest  of  books,  as  on. 
former  oocasions,  in  which  task  he  was  generously 
aided  by  Paul  V. 

Antonius  Possevinus  represented  the  literary,  scien- 
tific, and  diplomatic  type  of  Jesuit,  performing  im- 
portant pohtical  missions,  establishing  schools  of 
science  and  letters,  and  applying  himself  to  diplo- 
matic protocols  and  classical  authors  with  equal 
assiduity.  Had  he  not  met  with  insurmountable 
difficulties  in  Sweden  and  Russia,  and  in  negotiating 
the  treaties  between  Poland  and  the  empire,  he  would 
have  left  a  still  deeper  trace  on  the  political  history  of 
the  Church  and  of  Europe.  His  writings  include 
"Moscovia"  (Vilna,  1586),  an  important  authority  on 
Russian  history;  ''Del  sacrificio  della  Messa'',  fol- 
lowed by  an  appendix,  "  Risposta  a  P.  Vireto"  (Lyons, 
1563);  ''II  soldatocristiano"  (Rome,  1569);  "Not« 
Verbi  Dei  et  Apostolicae  Ecclesia"  (Posen,  1586).  His 
most  celebrated  works  are  the  "Apparatus  sacer  ad 
Scripturam  Veteris  et  Novi  Test."  (Venice,  1603-06), 
where  he  records  and  analyzes  more  than  8000  books 
treating  of  Sacred  Scripture;  and  the  "Bibliotheca 
Selecta"  (Rome,  1593),  treating  of  the  metiiod  of 
study,  teaching,  and  practical  use  of  various  sciences; 
the  second  part  contains  a  critical  bibliograpny  of 
various  sciences.  (Several  chapters  of  this  book  have 
been  published  separately.)    Part  of  his  letters  were 


POTHINUS 


322 


POUSSIN 


PothinuB,  Saint.    See  Gaul,  Christian. 

POUgat,     jEAN-FRANgOIS-ALBERT     DU,     MaRQUIS 

DE  Nadaillac,  b.  in  1817;  d.  at  Rougemont,  Cloyes, 
1  October,  1904;  the  scion  of  an  old  French  family, 
and  one  of  the  most  distinguished  among  modern 
men  of  anthropolorac  science.  He  devoted, his  earlier 
years  to  pubhc  affairs,  and  served  in  1871  and  1877 
respectively  as  prefect  of  the  Departments  of  Basses- 
Pyr6n6es  and  Indre-et-Loire,  proving  himself  an  able 
and  sympathetic  administrator.  On  completing  his 
term  of  office  he  retired  into  private  life  and  devoted 
himself  to  scientific  research,  chiefly  in  the  Unes  of 
palseontology  and  anthropology,  giving  particular  at- 
tention to  American  questions,  upon  which  he  was  a 
leading;  authority.  He  had  much  to  do  with  the  ex- 
ploration of  the  caves  of  southern  France,  being  es- 
pecially interested  in  the  evidence  of  artistic  develop- 
ment m  the  primitive  occupants.  He  was  probably 
the  foremost  authority  on  cave  drawings.  He  studied 
deeply  the  relation  of  science  to  faith,  and  was  one 
of  the  first  to  warn  the  French  nation  of  the  impend- 
ing danger  of  race  suicide.  To  a  di^fied  presence 
he  united  an  exquisite  politeness  which  sprang  from 
a  kind  heart.  Of  a  spiritual  temperament,  he  was  an 
earnest  Catholic.  He  died  at  his  ancestral  chateau  of 
Rougemont,  near  Cloyes,  Department  of  Eure-et-Loir. 
in  his  87th  year,  and,  as  officially  announced,  "fortified 
by  the  sacraments  of  the  Church '',  combining  in 
himself  the  highest  type  of  Christian  gentleman  and 
profound  scientist.  He  was  a  member  of  learned 
societies  in  every  part  of  the  world,  including  several 
in  the  United  States,  and  he  held  decorations  from 
half  a  dozen  Governments,  besides  being  a  chevalier 
of  the  Legion  of  Honour.  He  was  also  a  correspond- 
ent of  the  Institute  of  France. 

His  published  volumes  and  shorter  papers  cover  a 
remarkably  wide  range  of  interest.  In  this  country 
he  18  probably  best  known  for  his  great  work  on 
Prehistoric  America  (in  French),  published  in  Paris 
in  1883,  and  in  English  at  New  York  in  1884. 
Among  other  important  papers  may  be  noted 
those  on  "Tertianr  Man''^  (1886);  "Decline  of 
the  Birthrate  in  France"  (1886);  "The  Glacial 
Epoch"  (1886);  "Manners  and  Monuments  of 
Prehistoric  Peoples"  (Paris,  1888);  "Origin  and  De- 
velopment of  Life  upon  the  Globe"  (1888);  "Pre- 
historic Discoveries  and  Christian  Beliefs"  (1889); 
"Most  Ancient  Traces  of  Man  in  America"  (1890); 
"The  First  Population  of  Europe"  (1890);  "The 
National  PerU''^  (1890);  "The  Progress  of  Anthro- 
pology" (1891):  "Intelligence  and  Instinct"  (1892); 
.  '*The  Depopulation  of  France"  (1892);  '''The 
Lacustrine  Population  of  Europe"  (1894);  "Faith 
and  Science"  (1895);  "Evolution  and  Dogma" 
(1896);  "Unity  of  the  Human  Species"  (1897): 
"Man  and  the  Ape"  (1898);  "Painted  or  Incised 
Figures  ...  of  Prehistoric  Caverns"  (1904).  Most 
of  these  appjeared  first,  either  in  the  journal  of  the 
Institute  or  in  the  Revue  des  Questions  Scientifiques 
of  Louvain  and  Brussels. 

Gaudrt.  in  VAnihropoloffie,  XV,  No.  6  (Paris.  Scnst.,  1904); 
McOuiRE,  in  Am.  AnthropUogittt  N.  S.,  VII,  No.  I  (Lancaster, 
Jan.,  1905). 

James  M coney. 

Pounde,  Thomas,  lay  brother,  b.  at  Beaumond  (or 
Belmont),  Farlington.  Hampshire,  29  May,  1538  or 
1539;  d.  there,  26  Feb.,  1612-13;  eldest  son  of  Wil- 
liam Pounde  and  Helen,  sister  or  half-sister  to  Thomas 
Wriothesley,  Earl  of  Southampton.  He  is  reported  to 
have  been  educated  at  Winchester  College.  He  was 
admitted  to  Lincoln's  Inn  16  Feb.,  1559-60,  and  his 
father  dying  in  the  same  month,  he  then  succeeded  to 
Beaumond,  and  soon  after  was  appointed  esquire  of 
the  body  to  Queen  Elizabeth.  He  acted  the  part  of 
Mercury  in  Gascoigne's  Masque,  performed  before  the 
queen  at  Kenil worth  in  1565.    During  the  revelries  of 


Christmastide,  1569,  after  dancing  before  the  queen, 
he  received  a  public  affront  from  her,  which  induced 
him  to  retire  from  the  court. 

Shortly  afterwards  he  was  reconciled  to  the  Church, 
probably  by  Father  Henry  Alway,  and  after  some 
time  of  seclusion  at  Beaumond,  began  an  active  career 
as  proselytizer.  He  was  in  the  Marshalsea  for  six 
months  in  1574;  in  Winchester  Gaol  for  some  months 
In  1575-6;  and  in  the  Marshalsea  again  from  9 
March.  1575-76,  to  18  Sept.,  1580,  being  made  a 
Jesuit  lay-brother  by  a  letter  dated  1  Dec,  1578,  from 
the  Father-General  Mercurian,  sent  at  the  instance  of 
Father  Thomas  Stevens,  S.J.,  the  first  Englishman  to 
go  to  India.  From  the  Marshalsea  Pounde  was  re- 
moved to  Bishop's  Stortford  Castle,  and  thence  to 
Wisbech.  Then  he  was  in  the  Tower  of  London  13 
Aug.,  1581,  to  7  Dec.,  1585.  He  was  in  the  White 
Lion,  Southwark,  from  1  Sept.,  1586,  till  he  was  sent 
back  to  Wisbech  in  1587,  where  he  remained  nearly 
ten  years.  He  was  again  in  the  Tower  of  London  from 
Feb.,  1596-7,  to  the  autumn  of  1598,  when  he  was 
again  committed  to  Wisbech.  From  Wisbech  he  was 
rdegated  to  the  Wood  Street  Counter,  where  he  re- 
mained for  six  weeks  from  19  Dec.,  1598.  After  that 
he  was  in  the  Tower  again  until  7  July,  1601.  He 
was  then  in  Framlingham  Castle  for  a  year.  In  1602 
he  was  in  Newgate,  and  in  the  following  year  he  was 
indicted  at  York.  Afterwards  he  was  in  the  Gate- 
house, Westminster,  for  some  time,  then  in  the  Tower 
(for  the  fourth  time)  for  four  months,  and  lastly  in  the 
Fleet  for  three  months.  He  was  finally  Uberated  late 
in  1604  or  early  in  1605,  having  spent  nearlv  thirty 
years  in  prison.  These  facts  are  but  the  dry  bones  of 
the  career  of  an  heroic  man,  whose  real  biography  has 
yet  to  be  written.  The  "life"  by  Father  Matthias 
Tanner,  S.J.,  is  full  of  inaccuracies. 

Tanneb,  Socielaa  Jetu  Apoatolorum  Itnitatrix  (Prague,  1694), 
450;  FoLET,  ReeardM  Engliah  Protince  S.J.  (London,  1877-^); 
NoUt  and  Queriw,  10th  series,  IV  and  V  (London,  1905-06) ;  Coi- 
endara  of  Domestic  State  Papers;  Dasent,  AcU  of  the  Privy  Coun- 
cil; Catholic  Record  Society's  Pvhiieationa;  Morris,  TrotMee  of  our 
Catholic  Pore/athera  (London,  1872-77) ;  Simpsok  in  The  Rambler, 
VIII,  25-38,  94-106. 

John  B.  Wajnewriqht. 

Pousflin,  Nicolas,  French  painter,  b.  at  Les 
Andelys  near  Rouen  in  1594;  d.  at  Rome,  19  Novem- 
ber. 1666.  His  early  history  is  obscure;  his  father 
haa  been  a  soldier,  his  mother  was  a  peasant.  In 
1612,  Varin,  a  wandering  painter,  brought  him  to 
Paris^  where  he  experienced  great  distress.  In  despair 
he  tried  his  fortune  in  the  provinces  but  nothing  re- 
mains of  what  he  did  at  that  time  in  Poitou  and  later 
with  the  Capuchins  at  Blois,  as  well  as  the  six  pictures 
he  painted  in  eight  days  for  the  Jesuit  college  at  Paris. 
He  studied  under  Varin,  Lallemand,  and  Ferdinand 
Elle,  but  they  had  no  share  in  his  development.  The 
French  school  was  then  in  a  languid  condition.  The 
religious  wars  of  the  time  rendered  abortive  the  at- 
tempt of  Francis  I  to  inaugurate  the  Renaissance,  and 
Henry  IV  had  other  things  to  engross  his  attention 
besides  the  arts.  His  successor  sought  rather  such 
foreign  artists  as  John  of  Bolo^a,  Pourbus,  and 
Rubens.  At  this  juncture  Poussm  learned  of  some 
engravings  by  Marc  Antonio  after  Giulio  Romano  and 
Raphael.  This  was  his  road  to  Damascus.  Antique 
beauty  was  revealed  to  him  through  the  works  of 
these  sons  of  Ital^  and  thenceforth  he  lived  in  the 
past.  All  modem  civilization  seemed  barbarous  to  him. 
bis  experience  was  an  illumination,  a  veritable  con- 
version. Henceforth  he  had  no  rest  until  he  found 
the  fatherland  of  his  heart  and  his  ideas.  Three  at- 
tempts he  made  to  reach  Rome.  Compelled  to  return 
to  Paris  he  there  encountered  Marini,  the  famous 
author  of  the  "Adonis",  who  contracted  a  warm 
friendship  for  the  enthusiastic  boy:  "Che  ha",  said 
he,  "una  furia  di  diavolo".  With  him  he  finally 
reached  Rome  in  1624;  but  Marini  died  within  a  few 
months  and  Poussin  was  alone  in  a  strange  city,  help- 


cook  Du^et,  who  took  pity  on  him,  Bheltered  and 
cured  him,  and  nboee  daughter  he  married  (1629). 

At  the  time  of  his  arrival  at  Rome  the  school  was 
divided  into  two  parties,  that  of  the 
followed  Guido,  and  that  of  the 
brutal  naturalista  who  followed 
Csravag^o,  both  in  Pouaun'a 
opinion  quackery,  equally  dis- 
honest and  remote  from  reality. 
He  detested  the  aSected  airs  of 
the  faahionable  painters,  their 
sentimentality,  their  insipidity, 
thrir  ecstasy.  Nor  was  he  less 
hard  on  the  affectation  of  the 
"natuTalista  and  their  partiality 
for  ugliuess  and  vulgarity".  He 
CBlled  Caravaggio's  art  "paint- 
iiiB  for  lackeys",  and  added: 
"Thia  man  is  come  to  destroy 
painting".  Both  schools  sought 
to  execute  more  beautifully  or 
more  baselv  than  nature ;  Art  was 
ondaDgered  for  lack  of  rule,  con- 
science, and  discipline.  It  was 
time  to  escape  from  caprice  and 
anarchy,  from  the  despotism  of 
tastes  aiuT  temperaments.  And 
this  was  what  Foussiu  sought 
to  achieve  by  his  docti' 


Toir 


tetheai 


(AKer  t  paiDli 


tique  was  to  approach  nature,  to 
learn  conformity  with  reality,  to  recover  lifein  its  most 
lasting,  noble,  and  human  forms.  Such  at  least  was  the 
doctrine  and  faith  which  he  practised  unceasingly  in 
his  works  and  letters.  For  this  he  became  an  archte- 
olopat,  a  numismatist,  a  scholar.  He  used  scientific 
methods,  measuring 
statues,  consulting 
bas-reliefs,  studying 
painted  vases,  sar' 
cophagi,  and  mo- 
saics.   Every  point 

thentic  document. 
Id  this  be  was  doubt- 
less influenced  by  a 

and  misunderstand- 
ing of  the  claims  of 
realism.  To  a  cer- 
tain extent  his  art 
is  for  the  initiated, 
the  taste  for  it  re- 
quires culture.  More, 
this  pure  ideal  im- 
pUea  a  singular  an- 
achronism. Poussin 
presents  the  strange 

caseof aman isolat^  munu  i«>.>n 
in  the  past  and  who  J^-  Poamio- 
never  descended  in  history  lower  than  the  Antonines. 
By  his  turn  of  mind  this  man  of  austere,  virtue  was 
scarcely  Christian.  He  rarely  pwntod  scenes  from  the 
Gospel.  His  Christ  is  certainly  one  of  his  weakest  types. 
Let  me  dare  to  say  it ;  as  an  artist  Poussin  thinks  some- 
what like  a  Leconte  de  Lisle  or  Hke  the  Renan  of  the 
"PriSre  sur  I'Acropole".  Poussin  had  no  desire  to  see 
the  modern  world.  He  left  but  a  single  portrait,  his 
own.     He  is  wholly   eitpressed   ■"   " ■'■■ '"■ 


"Veramente  quest' 
grande  favol^j^atore ' 
great  teller  of  fables,  a 
most  of  his  time  and  o 
His  works  arc  very 


i  stato  grandt 
He  was  a  sreat  historian,  a 
pic  poet,  in  a  wont  the  fore- 
of  the  foremost  of  iitl  lime. 
The  first  group ' 


tains  subjects  borrowed  from  sacred  and  profane 


the  Philistine^"  (1630,  Louvre):  "The  Testament  oi 
Eudamidas"  (Copenhagen);  Hebrews  Gathering 
Manna"  (1639);  ''Moses  Rescued  from  the  Waters" 
(1647);  "Elieier  and  Rebecca"  (1648);  "The  Judg- 
ment of  Solomon  "  (1649);  "The 
Blind  Men  of  Jericho"  (1650); 
"The  Adulteress"  (1653);  all 
these  last-named  pictures  are  at 
the  Louvre.  To  these  must  be 
added  the  important  double 
series  of  pictures  known  as  the 
"Seven  Sacraments".  The  first, 
painted  (1644-8)  for  Cavaliere 
del  Pozzo,  is  now  at  the  Bridge- 
water  Gallery,  London.  The 
second  is  a  very  different  varia- 
tion of  the  former  and  was  (lainted 
for  M.  de  Chantelou,  his  cor- 
respondent and  active  protector. 
It  IS  now  in  the  collection  of  the 
Duke  of  Rutland  at  Belvoir 
Castle.  This  historical  portion 
of  his  work  seems  to  have  been 
most  in  favour  with  his  contem- 
poraries. It  immediately  became 
classic  and  it  is  cert^nly  filled 
with  the  highest  beauty.  Despite 
their  hig^  and  strong  qualities, 
however,  these  works  no  kmser  at- 
''"i^l'"    in  tract  us,  for  we  often  find  therein 

«  by  liim»ll)  ^  intellectual   affront,  a  some- 

thing too  literary  or  too  rationalistic  which  seems  to 
us  foreign  to  the  genius  of  painting.  But  that  this  was 
relished  by  the  French  of  the  seventeenth  century  is 
shown  by  thi^ir  commentaries  on  these  works.  The 
description  of  the  two  nictures,  "Elieser"  and  the 
"  Manna  ",  fills  fort^ 
quarto  pages  in  F^h- 
mcD.  Apart  from 
these  historical 
scenes  which  "re- 
late" and  "prove" 
there  is  a  purely 
lyric  side.  In  it  are 
evident  the  wonder 
ful  skill  of  the  de- 
signer and  the  poet 
detached  from  an} 
attempt  at  anecdote 

Such  were  the  "Bac- 
chanalia", the  "Tri- 
umph of  Flora",  the 
"Ctiildhood  of  Jupi- 
ter", which  do  little 
more  than  repeat  the 
theme  of  the  joy  and 
beauty  of  living, 
-non  THE  KivEH  Here   Poussin's   ge- 

The  Louvre  niuB  freed  of  all  re- 

straint can  only  be  compared  t«  that  of  great  musicians 
such  OS  Rameau  or  Gluck.  Properly  speaking  it  is  the 
genius  of  rhythm.  Thisis  his  true  sphere,  osoriginal  as 
that  of  any  master,  and  the  inexhaustible  source  of  his 
emotion  and  poetry.  In  a  sense  his  work  may  be  con- 
sidered as  a  ballet.  This  was  his  idea  in  his  famous 
letter  on  the  modes  of  the  ancients,  who  distinguished 
as  many  as  seven,  the  Dorian,  Phrygian,  Lydian,  Hy- 
polydianetc.  "Ideaire,",  he  added,  "before  another 
year  to  compose  a  picture  in  the  Phrygian  manner". 
This  phrase  would  have  aroused  less  amusement  if 
Whistler's  works,  with  his  "symphonies",  "harmo- 
nies", "noct urns",  and  "«oniitttfl",  had  been  known. 
But  this  musicof  painting  which  Whistler  made  chiefly 
a  matter  of  colour  seemed  to  Poussin  a  question  of 


POVERTY  324  POVERTir 

movement.  For  him  it  meant  life  understood  as  a  He  8ays,  arc  the  thorns  that  choke  up  the  good  seed 
dance  which  the  Greeks  made  a  science.  of  the  word  (Matt.,  xiii,  22).  Because  of  His  poverty 
Finally  the  landscape  becomes  more  and  more  im-  as  well  as  of  His  constant  joume3ring,  necessitated  by 
portant  in  this  l^rrical  or  poetical  side  of  his  work,  persecution,  He  could  say: ''The  foxes  have  holes,  and 
Nature  accompanies  with  its  profound  harmony  the  the  birds  of  the  air  nests:  but  the  son  of  man  hath  not 
human  sentiments  which  transpire  on  its  surface,  the  where  to  lay  his  head''  (Matt.,  viii,  20).  and  to  the 
persons  are  merely  a  melodious  figure  outlined  against  young  man  who  came  to  afik  Him  what  ne  should  do 
the  chorus  of  things.  As  a  landscape  artist  he  is  with-  that  he  might  have  life  everlasting.  He  gave  the  coun- 
out  a  peer,  unless  it  be  Titian.  Constable  finds  some-  sel,  "  If  thou  wilt  be  perfect,  go  sell  what  thou  hast, 
thing  religious  in  his  landscapes;  in  fact  when  con-  and  give  to  the  poor  (Matt.,  xix,  16-21).  The  re- 
templating  his  *' Polyphemus  or  his  "Cacus"  (St.  nunciation  of  worldly  possessions  has  long  been  a 
Petersbufg),  it  is  easy  to  understand  (what  no  one  part  of  the  practice  of  Christian  asceticism;  the  Chris- 
since  Virgil  has  felt)  the  naturalistic  and  mysterious  tian  community  of  Jerusalem  in  their  first  fervour  sold 
origin  of  myths.  Beyond  doubt  this  is  something  far  their  goods  "and  divided  them  to  all,  according  as 
removed  from  the  pious  Franciscan  tenderness  as  it  every  one  had  need"  (Acts,  ii,  45),  and  those  who  em- 
finds  expression  in  the  *' Canticle  of  creatures";  it  is  braced  the  state  of  perfection  understood  from  the 
rather  the  religion  of  Epicurus  or  Lucretius,  which  first  that  they  must  choose  poverty, 
teaches  conformity  with  the  ends  of  the  universe  and  Does  this  mean  that  poverty  is  the  object  cf  a 
as  supreme  wisdom  counsels  harmony  with  the  rhythm  special  virtue?  Gury  (Theolog.  moralis  II,  n.  155) 
of  nature.  Towards  the  end  of  his  life  Poussin  seems  answers  the  question  in  the  affirmative,  and  many 
to  have  renounced  the  personal  or  dramatic  element,  religious  writers  favour  the  same  opinion,  which  \a 
His  last  works,  the  "Four  Seasons"  of  the  Louvre  supported  by  the  ordinary  conventual  and  ascctical 
(1664-65),  are  simply  four  landscapes  which  please  by  literature;  what  is  prescribed  by  the  vow  of  poverty 
variety  of  sense.  Like  the  ancient  sage  the  master  is  compared  therein  with  the  virtue  of  poverty,  just 
leaves  history  and  psychology,  and  devotes  himself  as  we  compare  the  vows  of  obedience  and  chastity 
simply  to  music.  Between  1624  and  his  death  he  with  the  corresponding  virtues.  But  this  is  erroneous; 
was  absent  from  Rome  only  once  (1641-2)  at  the  for  the  object  of  a  virtue  must  be  something  honour- 
coi^mand  of  Richelieu,  who  summoned  him  to  Paris  able  or  praiseworthy  in  itself:  now  poverty  has  no  in- 
to superintend  the  work  at  the  Louvre  with  the  title  of  trinsic  goodness,  but  is  good  only  because  it  is  useful 
painter  to  the  king.  This  journey  was  otherwise  un-  to  remove  the  obstacles  which  stand  in  the  way  of  the 
fortimate.  The  artist  was  misunderstood  by  the  pursuit  of  spiritual  perfection  (St.  Thomas,  "Contra 
painters,  who  soon  succeeded  in  driving  him  away.  Gentiles",  III,  cxxxiii;Suarez,"DereliKione".tr.  VII, 
All  that  remains  of  this  period  are  two  large  pic-  1.  VIII,  c.ii.n.6;Bucceroni,"^Inst.theoT.mor.",II,75, 
tures,  a  "Last  Supper",  very  mediocre,  painted  for  n.  31).  The  practice  of  poverty  derives  its  merit 
St.  Germain  en  Laye,  a  "Miracle  of  St.  Francis  from  the  virtuous  motive  ennobling  it,  and  from  the 
Xavier".  painted  for  the  Jesuit  novitiate,  and  a  ceil-  virtues  which  we  exercise  in  regard  to  the  privations 
ing,  the  "Triumph  of  Truth",  painted  for  Richelieu's  and  sacrifices  accompanying  it.  As  every  vow  has 
chateau  at  Rueil.  These  three  canvas^  are  at  the  for  its  object  the  worship  of  God,  poverty  practised 
Louvre.  On  his  return  to  Rome  Poussin  found  his  under  a  vow  has  the  merit  of  the  virtue  of  religion,  and 
authority  much  increased  by  his  official  title.  He  its  public  profession,  as  enjoined  by  the  Church,  forms 
lived  not  far  from  the  Trinity  dh  Monti  in  a  little  side  a  part  of  the  ritu^  of  the  Catholic  religion, 
street  where  he  had  as  neighbours  Claude  Lorrain  and  The  ancients  understood  the  nobility  of  making 
Salvator.  Amone  artists  he  exercised  a  singular  in-  themselves  independent  of  the  fleeting  things  of  earth, 
fluence.  Nearly  all  the  Frenchmen  who  came  to  Rome  and  certain  Greek  philosophers  lived  in  voluntary 
to  study,  from  Mignard  to  Le  Brun  and  Sebastien  penury;  but  they  prided  themselves  on  being  superior 
Bourdon,  not  to  mention  his  brother-in-law  Gaspard  to  the  vulgar  crowd.  There  is  no  virtue  in  such  pov- 
Dughet  (called  "Guaspre ").  imitated  him  and  claimed  erty  as  this,  and  when  Diogenes  trampled  Plato's 
him  as  master;  but  as  usual  none  of  them  understood  carpet,  saying  as  he  did  so:  Thus  do  I  trample  on 
him.    In  his  century  he  was  an  isolated  genius,  but  his  Plato's  pride",  "Yes",  answered  Plato,  "but  only 

f[lory  has  not  been  useless  to  us;  it  shone  more  bril-  through  your  own  pride."     Buddhism  also  teaches  the 

iantly  in  the  decadence  of  the  Italian  school  and  it  contempt  of  riches;  in  China  the  tenth  precept  of  the 

gave  to  the  French  school  what  it  had  hitherto  lacked  novices  forbids  them  to  touch  gold  or  silver,  and  the 

— titles  and  an  ancestor.  second  precept  of  female  novices  forbids  .them  to  pos- 

I.  PouseiN'B  oorreBpondence  in  Bottaw.  KaccoUadi  Leti^e  gegg  anything  of  their  own;  but  their  ignorance  of  a 

^rvi'p*oliiMV^§;f8™4)"defective'^rt^^^^  personal  God  prevent?  the  Buddhist  monks  from 

is  in  press.    II.  Biographies:  Bellobi,  Viu  de'  piuori  (Rome,  having  any  higher  motive  for  their  renunciation  than 

1672);  FJuBiBN,  Jnirrti«M  »ttr  ia  ri«  de»  plua  ^celUntapeintres  the  natural  advantage  of  restraining  their  desires  (cf. 

(2nd  ed..  Pans,  1688) ;   ilrcA»t««  dcr  Art /roncow  (Pans,  1854  sq.),  Txr:^„««     uti«,.jju;«^«  «u;«^:«»»     «•»     iro     ike     ioo 

1. 1-11,  HO-M;  II.  224-31;  III.  1-18;  VI.  241-54.  III.  Studies  wi^er,      Bouddhisme  chinois   ,  pp.  153,  155,  183, 

on  Poussin:  db  Saint  Qebuain,  Vie  de  N.  Poutsin  (Paris,  1806) ;  185) .    If  voluntary  poverty  IS  ennobled  by  the  motive 

gRAHAM,  Memoira  o^  the  life  of  N.  PmuHn  (London,  1820);  which  inspires  it,  the  poverty  which  puts  aside  tem- 

Bouchittb.  Le  Poueetn,  «a  vie  et  eon  eeuvre  (Pans.  1858);  Dela-  _^_„i  «^««'1«„:^«„  r^«  4U«  „«..„r«^  «,r  n^A  ««J  ♦'U«.  ««i..» 

CROIX.  Le  PouBMin  in  pIbon.  Eug,  Delaeroix.  ea  vie  et  i^  auin-ea  I^ral  possessions  for  the  service  of  God  and  the  sal va- 

(Paris,  1865);  Joms,  Confirencea  deVAeadimie  de  peinture  et  de  tion   of   SOUls    IS    the   most   noblc   Of   all.      It    IS   the 

eculpture  (Paris.  1883);  Dbnio.  JVicoto.  Poi««n  (Leip*^,  1898);  apostolic  poverty  of  the  Christian  religion,  which  is 

Advielle.  Recherchee  »ur  Ntcolae  Potuain  (Pans,  1902);    Deb-  ^t.^^**  ^j    -^    xu^  u:»u^«4.    J^-,^^^   u^,  .^;,.«;JL*««^»«   :« 

4ARDIN8,  Pousein  (Paris,  8.  d.).  practised  »  the  highest  degree  by  missionaries  m 

Louis  Gillbt.  pagan  countnes,  and  to  a  certain  degree  by  all  priests: 

all  these  voluntarily  give  up  certain  possessions  and  ad- 
Poverty.    I.  The  Moral  Doctrine  op  Povertt.  vantages  in  order  to  devote  themselves  entirely  to  the 
— Jesus  Christ  did  not  condemn  the  possession  of  service  of  God. 

worldly  goods,  or  even  of  ^eat  wealth ;  for  He  himself        Voluntary  poverty  is  the  object  of  one  of  the  evan* 

had  rich  friends.    Patristic  tradition  condemns  the  getical   counsels.    The  question  then  arises,   what 

opponents  of  private  property;  the  texts   on  which  poverty  is  reouired  by  the  practice  of  this  coimsel  or. 

such  persons  rely,  when  taken  in  connexion  with  their  in  other  woros,  what  poverty  suffices  for  the  state  of 

context  and  the  historical  circumstances,  are  capable  perfection?    The  renunciation  which  is  essential  and 

of  a  natural  explanation  which  does  not  at  all  support  strictlv  required  is  the  abandonment  of  all  that  is 

their  contention  (cf.  Vermeersch,  "Quaest.  de  jus-  superfluous,  not  that  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  give 

titia",  n.  210).     Nevertheless  it  is  true  that  Christ  up  thejownership  of  all  property,  but  a  man  must  be 

constantly  pointed  out  the  danger  of  riches,  which^  contented  with  what  is  necessary  for  his  own  use.  Then 


POVERTY 


325 


POVERTY 


only  is  there  a  real  detachment  which  sufficiently 
mortifies  the  love  of  riches,  cuts  off  luxury  and  vain 
glory,  and  frees  from  the  care  for  worldly  goods. 
Cupidity,  vain  glory,  and  excessive  solicitude  are, 
according  to  St.  Thomas,  the  three  obstacles  which 
riches  put  in  the  way  of  acquiring  perfection  (Summa, 
II-II,  9.  clxxxviii,  a.  7).  This  abandonment  of 
superfluities  was  the  only  way  in  which  voluntary 
poverty  could  be  understood  biBfore  the  introduction 
of  the  common  life.  The  state  of  perfection,  under- 
stood in  its  proper  sense,  requires  also  that  the  renun- 
ciation should  DC  of  a  i)ermanent  character;  and  in 
practice  this  stability  follows  as  the  result  of  a  per- 
petual vow  of  povertv.  The  warnings  and  counsels 
of  Jesus  Christ  are  valuable  even  to  those  who  are  not 
vowed  to  a  state  of  perfection.  They  teach  men  to 
moderate  their  desire  for  riches,  and  accept  cheerfully 
the  loss  or  deprivation  of  them;  and  they  inculcate 
that  detachment  from  the  things  of  this  world  which 
our  Lord  taught  when  He  said,  '^Everyone  of  you  that 
doth  not  renounce  all  that  he  possesseth,  cannot  be 
my  disciple"  (Luke,  xiv,  33). 

II.  The  Canonical  Discipline  of  Poverty. — 
Among  the  followers  of  perfection,  the  spirit  of 
poverty  was  manifested  from  the  first  bjr  giving  up 
temporal  possessions;  and  among  those  living  in  com- 
munity, the  use  of  goods  as  private  property  was 
strictly  forbidden,  being  contrary  to  that  common  life 
which  the  patriarchs  of  monasticism,  St.  Pachomius 
and  his  disciple  Sch6noudi,  St.  Basil,  and  St.  Benedict, 
imposed  upon  their  followers.  But  there  was  at  that 
time  no  express  vow  of  poverty,  and  no  legal  disabil- 
ity; the  monastic  profession  required  nothing  but  the" 
rigorous  avoidance  of  all  that  was  unnecessary  (cf .  De 
Buck,  "Pe  soUemnitate  votorum,  praecipue  pauper- 
tatis  religiosse  epistola",  x).  Justinian  ordained 
that  the  goods  of  religious  should  belong  to  the  mon- 
astery (Novel.  5,  iv  sqq. ;  123,  xxxviii  and  xlii).  This 
law  gradually  came  into  force,  and  in  time  created  a 
disability  to  acquire  property,  although  in  the  twelfth 
century,  and  even  later,  there  were  religious  in  pos- 
session of  property.  The  rule  of  French  law,  under 
which  a  religious  waa  considered  as  civilly  dead,  con- 
tributed to  establish  a  necessary  connexion  between 
the  vow  of  poverty  and  the  idea  of  disability. 

The  express  vow  of  renunciation  of  all  private  prop- 
erty was  introduced  into  the  profession  of  the  Friars 
Minor  in  1260.  About  the  same  time  another  change 
took  place;  hitherto  no  limit  had  been  placed  on  the 
oommon  possessions  of  religious,  but  the  mendicant 
orders  in  the  thirteenth  century  forbade  the  posses- 
sion, even  in  common,  of  all  immovable  property  dis- 
tinct from  the  convent,  and  of  all  revenues;  and  the 
Friars  Minor  of  the  strict  observance,  desiring  to  go 
one  step  further,  assigned  to  the  Holy  See  the  owner- 
ship of  all  their  property,  even  the  most  indispensable. 
FoUowing  the  example  of  St.  Francis  and  St.  Dominic, 
many  founders  established  their  orders  on  a  basis  of 
oommon  poverty,  and  the  Church  saw  a  large  increase 
in  the  number  of  the  mendicant  orders  until  the  foun- 
dation of  the  clerks  regular  in  the  sixteenth  century; 
even  then,  many  orders  united  common  povertv  with 
the  regular  clerical  life:  such  were  theTheatines  (1524), 
whose  rule  was  to  live  on  alms  and  contributions 
spontaneously  given;  and  the  Society  of  Jesus  (1540). 
It  soon  became  evident  that  this  profession  of  poverty 
which  had  so  greatly  edified  the  thirteenth  century 
was  exposed  to  grave  abuses,  that  a  certain  state  of 
destitution  created  more  cares  than  it  removed,  and 
was  not  conducive  either  to  intellectual  activity  or  to 
strict  observance;  and  that  mendicity  might  become 
an  occasion  of  scandal.  Consequently  the  Council 
of' Trent  (Sess.  XXV.  c.  iii.  de  reg.)  permitted  all 
monasteries,  except  tnose  of  the  Friars  Minor  Ob- 
servantines  and  the  Capuchins,  to  possess  immovable 

J»roperty,  and  consequently  the  income  derived  there- 
rom;  but  the  Carmelites  and  the  Society  of  Jesus,  in 


its  professed  houses,  continue  to  practise  the  common 
poverty  which  forbids  the  possession  of  assured  in- 
comes. 

Congregations  with  simple  vows  were  not  bound  by 
the  canonical  law  forbidding  the  private  possesf^ion  or 
acquisition  of  property  by  members  of  approied  or- 
ders: the  disaDility  of  private  possession  was  thus 
considered  as  an  effect  of  the  solemn  vow  of  poverty: 
but  this  bond  between  the  incapacity  to  possess  ana 
the  solemn  vOw  is  neither  essential  nor  indissoluble. 
So  far  as  the  effect  of  the  vow  on  private  possession  is 
concerned,  the  vow  of  poverty  taken  by  the  formed 
coadjutors  of  the  Society  of  Jesus  has  the  same  effect 
as  the  solemn  vow  of  the  professed  fathers.  St. 
Ignatius  instituted  in  his  order  a  simple  profession 
preparatory  to  the  final  one  with  an  interval  between 
them  during  which  the  religious  retains  his  capacity 
to  possess  property.  A  similar  rule  has  been  extended 
to  all  orders  of  men  by  Pius  IX  and  to  orders  of  women 
by  Leo  XIII  (see  Profession,  Religious).  On  the 
other  hand,  since  the  Rescript  of  the  Penitentiary  of 
1  Dec.,  1820,  confirmed  by  the  declaration  to  the 
bishops  of  Belgium  dated  31  July,  1878,  the  solemn 
profession  of  religious  in  Belgium  (and  Holland  ap- 
pears to  enjoy  the  same  privilege)  does  not  prevent 
them  from  acquiring  property,  or  keeping  and  admin- 
istering it,  or  disposmg  of  it:  they  are  oound,  however, 
in  the  exercise  of  their  rights,  to  observe  the  submis- 
sion they  owe  to  their  legitimate  superiors. 

The  Vow  0/  Poverty  in  ueneral. — Tne  vow  of  pov- 
erty may  generally  be  defined  as  the  promise  made 
to  God  of  a  certain  constant  renunciation  of  temporal 
goods,  in  order  to  follow  Christ.  The  object  of  the 
vow  of  poverty  is  anything  visible,  material,  appre- 
ciable at  a  money  value.  Reputation,  personal  ser- 
vices, and  the  application  of  the  mass,  do  not  fsdl 
under  this  vow;  relics  are  included  only  on  account  of 
the  reliauary  which  contains  them,  and  (at  least  in 
practice)  manuscripts,  as  such,  remain  the  propertv 
of  the  religious.  1  he  vow  of  poverty  entirely  forbids 
the  independent  use,  and  sometimes  the  acquisition 
or  possession  of  such  property  as  falls  within  its  scope. 
A  person  who  has  made  this  vow  gives  up  the  right  to 
acquire,  possess,  use,  or  dispose  of  property  except  in 
accordance  with  the  will  of  his  superior.  Neverthe- 
less certain  acts  of  abdication  are  sometimes  left  to 
the  discretion  of  the  religious  himself,  such  as  the  ar- 
rangements for  the  administration  and  application  of 
income  which  professed  religious  under  simple  vows 
are  required  to  make;  and  the  drawing  up  of  a  will,  by 
which  the  religious  makes  a  disposition  of  his  property  ^  . 
to  take  effect  after  his  death,  may  be  permitted  with- 
out any  restriction.  This  license  with  regard  to  wills 
is  of  great  antiquity.  The  simple  fact  of  refusing  to 
accept,  for  example,  a  personal  legacy,  may  be  con- 
trary to  charity,  but  cannot  be  an  offence  against 
the  vow  of  poverty.  The  vow  of  poverty  does  not 
debar  a  religious  from  administering  an  ecclesiastical 
benefice  which  is  conferred  upon  him,  accepting  sums 
of  money  to  distribute  for  pious  works,  or  assuming 
the  administration  of  property  for  the  benefit  of  an- 
other person  (when  this  is  consistent  with  his  religious 
state),  nor  does  it  in  any  way  forbid  the  fulfilment  of 
obligations  of  justice,  whether  they  are  the  result  of 
a  voluntary  promise — for  the  religious  may  properly 
engage  to  offer  a  Mass  or  render  any  personal  service 
— or  arise  from  a  fault,  since  he  is  bound  in  justice  to 
repair  any  wrong  done  to  the  reputation  of  another 
person. 

Submission  to  a  superior  (as  we  call  the  person 
whose  permission,  by  the  terms  of  the  vow,  is  required 
for  all  acts  disposing  of  temporal  goods)  does  not 
necessarily  call  for  an  express  or  formal  permission. 
A  tacit  permission,  which  may  be  inferred  from  some 
act  or  attitude  ana  the  expression  of  some  other  wish, 
or  even  a  reasonable  presumption  of  permission,  will 
be  BufiScient.    There  is  no  violation  of  the  vow,  when 


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326 


POVERTY 


the  religious  can  say  to  himself,  ''the  superior,  who  is 
acquainted  with  the  facts,  will  approve  of  my  actins 
in  this  way  without  beins  informed  of  my  intention  . 
The  case  is  more  difhcult,  when  he  knows  that  the 
superior  would  expect  to  be  informed,  and  asked  for 
permission,  even  though  he  would  willingly  have 
given  his  consent:  if  it  seems  probable  that  he  regards 
the  request  for  permission  as  a  condition  of  his  ap- 
proval, the  inferior  offends  against  the  vow  of  poverty, 
if  he  acts  without  asking  leave;  but  there  is  no  offence 
if  he  knows  that  the  superior  and  himself  are  agreed 
as  to  the  essential  nature  of  the  act;  and  the  ouestion 
whether  the  prestunption  is  reasonable  or  otherwise 
may  depend  on  the  customs  of  different  orders,  the 
importance  of  the  object,  the  frequent  necessity  of  the 
act,  the  age  and  prudence  of  the  inferior,  his  relations 
with  his  superior,  the  facihty  of  obtaining  access  to 
him,  and  other  mmilar  considerations.  Any  admission 
of  luxury  or  superfluity  in  daily  life  is  derogatory  to 
the  religious  state  and  the  first  conception  of  voluntary 
poverty;  but  it  is  not  clear  that  this  want  of  strictness 
IS  necessarily  contrary  to  the  vow.  To  decide  this, 
regard  must  be  had  to  the  manner  in  which  each  par- 
ticular vow,  with  all  its  circumstances,  is  generally 
understood. 

A  sin  against  the  vow  of  poverty  is  necessarily  an 
offence  against  the  virtue  of  religion,  and  when  com- 
mitted in  connexion  with  religious  profession  it  is  even 
a  sacrilege.  It  may  be  a  grave  or  a  slight  offence.  The 
question,  what  matter  is  grave,  causes  great  difficulty 
to  moral  theologians;  and  w^hile  some  regard  the  ap- 
propriation of  one  franc  as  a  grave  matter,  others  are 
more  lenient.  Most  theologians  are  inclined  to  com- 
pare the  sin  against  the  vow  of  poverty  with  the  sin  of 
theft,  and  say  that  the  same  amount  which  would  make 
theft  a  mortal  sin  would,  if  appropriated  contrary  to 
the  vow,  constitute  a  grave  offence  against  poverty. 
With  the  exception  of  Palmieri  (Opus  morale,  tr.  IX, 
c.  i,  n.  123)  and  G^nicot  (Theol.  mor.,  II,  n.  98)  moral- 
ists admit  that  as  in  the  case  of  sins  against  justice, 
so  here  circumstances  may  be  oonsiofered.  While 
many  persons  consider  the  importance  and  the  wealth 
or  poverty  of  the  community  in  which  the  offence  is 
committed,  we  are  of  opinion  that  it  is  rather  the 
extent  of  the  vow  that  should  be  considered,  since  the 
act  does  not  violate  the  vow  by  reason  of  the  harm  it 
causes,  but  by  its  being  a  forbidden  appropriation.  If 
the  fault  is  aggravated  by  injustice  it  must,  as  an  un- 
just act,  be  judged  according  to  the  usual  rules;  but 
when  considered  as  an  offence  against  the  vow,  its 
gravity  will  be  measured  by  the  condition  of  the  per- 
son who  commits  it.  Thus  a  sum  which  would  be 
very  large  for  a  beggar  will  be  insignificant  for  a  man 
who  had  belonged  to  a  higher  class.  The  social  posi- 
tion should  be  considered;  is  it  that  of  the  poor  or 
mendicant  class?  One  cannot  without  grave  fault 
dispose  independently  of  a  sum  which  without  grave 
fault  one  could  not  take  away  from  a  beggar.  For 
many  existing  congregations,  the  matter  will  be 
that  of  a  mortal  sin  of  theft  committed  to  the  detri- 
ment of  a  priest  of  honourable  condition.  It  fol- 
lows that  in  the  case  of  incomplete  appropriation, 
we  must  consider  the  economical  value  of  the  act  in 
question;  whether,  for  example,  it  is  an  act  of  simple 
use  of  administration;  and  when  the  rehgious  does 
nothing  but  give  away  honourably  goods  of  which  he 
retains  the  ownership,  the  amount  must  be  very  large 
before  the  reasonable,  disposal  of  it  can  be  regarded 
as  a  grave  sin  for  want  of  the  required  authorization. 
If  the  sin  consists,  not  in  an  independent  appropria- 
tion, but  in  a  life  of  too  great  luxury,  it  will  oe  neces- 
sary to  measure  the  gravity  of  the  fault  by  the  oppo- 
sition which  exists  between  luxury  and  the  poverty 
which  is  promised  by  vow. 

Variety  in  the  Vows  of  Poverty, — ^The  vow  of  poverty 
is  ordinarily  attached  to  a  religious  profession;  a 
person  may  however  bind  himself  to  a  modest  and 


frugal  life,  or  even  to  follow  the  direction  of  an  adviser 
in  the  use  of  his  property.  The  vow  may  be  perpetuiJ 
or  temporary.  It  may  exclude  private  possession,  or 
even  to  a  certun  point  possession  in  common.  It  m^ 
entail  legal  disability  or  be  simply  prohibitive.  It 
may  extend  to  all  goods  possessed  at  present,  or  ex- 
pected in  the  future;  or  it  may  be  limited  to  certain 
classes  of  property;  it  may  require  the  complete  re- 
nunciation of  rights,  or  simply  forbid  the  application 
to  personal  profit,  or  even  tne  independent  use  of  the 
property.  According  to  the  present  discipline  of  the 
Church,  the  vow  of  poverty  taken  by  rehgious  always 
involves  a  certain  renunciation  of  rights:  thus  the 
religious  is  understood  to  give  up  to  lus  order  for  ever 
the  fruit  of  his  work  or  personal  industry,  stipends  of 
Masses,  salary  as  professor,  profits  of  any  pubUcation 
or  invention,  or  savings  from  money  allowed  him  for 
personal  expenses.  The  independent  disposal  of  any 
of  these  would  be  contrary  not  only  to  the  vow,  but 
also  to  justice.  We  have,  moreover,  to  distinguish  in 
the  reUgious  life  between  the  solemn  vow  of  poverty 
and  the  simple  vow.  The  latter  may  be  a  step  towaroa 
the  solemn  vow,  or  it  may  have  a  final  character  of  ite 
own. 

The  Solemn  Vow  of  Poverty, — ^The  solemn  vow  by 
common  law  has  the  following  special  characteristics: 
it  extends  to  all  property  and  nghts;  it  renders  one 
incapable  of  possessing  property,  and  therefore  of 
transferring  it;  it  makes  all  gifts  or  legacies  which  a 
religious  receives,  as  well  as  the  fruit^of  his  own  work, 
the  property  of  the  monastery;  and  in  case  prop- 
erty is  inherited,  the  monastery  succeeds  in  place  of 
the  professed  religious,  in  accordance  with  the  maxim: 
Quicquid  monachue  acquirit  monasterio  acquirit.  Some 
orders  are  incapable  of  inheriting  on  such  occasions, 
e.  g.,  the  Friars  Minor  Observantmes,  the  Capuchins, 
and  the  Society  of  Jesus.  The  inheritance  then  passes  to 
those  who  would  succeed  under  the  civil  law  in  default 
of  the  professed  religious.  Sometimes  before  solemn 
vows  are  made  by  a  religious,  his  monastery  gives  up 
its  right  of  inheritance  by  arrangement  with  the  fam- 
ily, and  sometimes  the  religious  is  allowed  to  dispose 
of  his  share  in  anticipation.  (As  to  these  arran^ 
ments  and  their  effect,  see  Vermeersch,  "De  relig. 
instit.  et  pers.",  II,  4th  ed.,  supp.  VI,  70  sqq.)  As 
long  as  monasteries  were  independent,  the  monastery 
which  inherited  in  place  of  the  professed  monk  was 
the  house  to  whicli  he  was  bound  oy  his  vow  of  stabil- 
ity; but  in  more  recent  orders,  the  rehgious  often 
chfl^ges  his  house,  and  sometimes  his  province,  and 
has  therefore  no  vow  of  stability,  except  as  to  the 
entire  order;  in  such  cases,  the  monastery  according 
to  the  common  usage  is  the  whole  order,  unless  some 
arrangement  is  made  for  partition  among  provinces  or 
houses.  (See  Sanchez,  ''In  decalogum'',  VII,  xxxii 
sqq.;  De  Lugo,  ''De  iustitia  et  iure^',  d.  iii,  nn. 
226  sqq.)  We  have  already  said  that  the  reUgious  of 
Belgium  preserve  their  capacity  to  acquire  property 
and  dispose  of  it:  their  acts  therefore  are  vaho,  but 
they  win  only  be  Hcit  if  done  with  the  approval  of  their 
superior.  It  will  be  the  duty  of  the  latter  to  see  that 
the  rigour  of  observance  and  especially  the  common 
life  do  not  suffer  by  this  concession,  which  is,  indeed, 
in  other  respects  most  important  tor  their  own  civil 
security. 

The  Simple  Vow  of  Religious  Poverty,— The  ample 
vow  of  poverty  has  these  common  chiuracteristics:  it 
leaves  tne  capacity  to  acquire  intact,  and  permits  the 
religious  to  retain  certain  rights  of  ownership.  In  ex- 
ceptional cases  the  simple  vow  may  involve  incapac- 
ity, as  is  characteristic  of  the  last  simple  vows  of  the 
Society  of  Jesus.  We  have  now  to  distinguish  between 
the  simple  vow  which  is  preparatory  to  the  solenm 
vow,  and  the  final  simple  vow. 

(a)  The  simple  vow  in  preparation  for  the  solemn 
vow.— The  Decree  "Sanctissimus"  of  12  June,  1858, 
with.  the.  subsequent  declarations,  constitutes  the 


POVERTY 


327 


POVERTY 


common  law  on  the  subject  of  this  simple  vow.  (See 
Vermeerach,  ^'De  religiosis  institutis  etc.",  II,  4th  ed., 
nn.  61  sqq.y  pp.  178  sqq.)  This  vow  permits  the  reli- 
gious to  retam  the  ownerahip  of  property  possessed  at 
the  time  of  his  entrance  mto  refigion,  to  acquire 
property  by  i^eritance,  and  to  receive  gifts  and  per- 
sonal legacies.  The  administration  and  usufruct  and 
the  use  of  this  property  must  before  the  taking  of  the 
vow  pass  either  to  the  order  (if  it  is  able  and  willing 
to  approve  of  the  arrangement),  or  into  other  hands, 
at  the  choice  of  the  religious.  Such  an  arrangement 
is  irrevocable  as  long  as  the  reUgious  remains  under 
the  conditions  of  the  vow,  and  ceases  should  he  leave 
the  order;  he  seems  authorized  also  to  make  or  com- 
plete the  resignation  which  he  may  have  omitted  to 
make  or  complete  previously.  Except  so  far  as  he  is 
affected  by  the  decree  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  which 
forbids  novices  to  make  any  renunciation  which  would 
interfere  with  their  Uberty  to  leave  their  order,  the 
religious  who  is  bound  by  this  simple  vow  may,  with 
the  permission  of  his  superior,  dispose  of  his  propertv 
bv  a  donation  inter  vivoSf  and  apparently  has  full 
liberty  to  make  a  will.  But  the  Etecree  "Perpensis" 
of  3  May,  1902,  which  extends  to  nuns  the  simple 
profession  of  orders  of  men,  without  mentioning  a 
will,  declares  simply  that  women  are  not  permitted 
to  make  final  disposition  of  their  property  except 
during  the  two  months  immediately  preceding  their 
solemn  profession. 

(b)  The  final  simple  vow. — ^With  the  exception  of 
the  Society  of  Jesus,  in  which  the  simple  vow  of 
formed  coadjutors  entails  the  same  personal  obliga- 
tions and  the  same  disabiUty  as  the  solemn  vow,  the 
final  simple  vow  is  known  only  in  religious  congrega- 
tions, and  the  practice  differs  in  different  congrega- 
tions (cf.  Lucidi,  "De  visitatione  SS.  liminum  ,  ll, 
V,  sec.  8,  nn.  319  sqq.),  and  very  often  resembles  that  of 
the  vow  preparatoiy  to  the  solemn  vow;  but  accord- 
ing to  the  Regulations  (Normas)  of  28  June,  1901,  the 
transfer  of  property  by  donations  inter  vivos  cannot  be 
licitly  made  before  the  perpetual  vows;  after  these 
vows,  the  complete  renunciation  requires  the  per- 
mission of  the  Holy  See,  which  reserves  to  itself  also 
the  right  to  authorize  the  execution  or  modification 
of  a  will  after  profession.  Any  arrangements  made 
before  profession  for  the  administration  of  property 
and  the  application  of  the  revenues  mav  be  subse- 

?uently  mcMdified  with  the  consent  of  the  superior, 
n  diocesan  institutes,  there  is  no  question  of  the 
capacity  of  the  religious;  but  the  bishops  generally 
reserve  to  themselves  the  right  of  approving  the  more 
important  acts  of  administration. 

The  Pecidium. — Certain  goods,  for  example  sums  of 
money,  independent  of  the  common  stock,  and  made 
over  to  the  religious  to  be  ased  without  restriction  for 
their  private  wants,  form  what  is  called  the  peculium. 
Only  that  which  is  irrevocably  put  out  of  the  power 
of  the  superior  is  contrary  to  the  vow  of  poverty;  but 
all  peculium  is  an  injury  to  that  common  life,  which 
since  the  earliest  times  was  considered  so  important 
by  the  founders  of  religious  communities.  The  Holy 
See  constantly  uses  its  efforts  to  abolLsh  it,  and  to 
establish  that  perfect  common  life  which  provides  that 
there  shall  be  in  the  convent  one  common  treasury  for 
the  personal  needs  of  all. 

Possession  in  Common. — ^The  vow  of  poverty  does 
not  necessarily  or  as  a  general  rule  exclude  the  capacity 
to  possess  in  common,  that  is  to  say,  to  have  a  common 
stock  of  property  at  the  common  disposal  of  the 
possessors,  provided  that  they  do  not  dispose  of  it  in 
any  manner  contrary  to  the  accepted  rules  and  cus- 
toms. It  is  a  great  mistake  to  argue  from  the  vow  of 
poverty  that  it  is  just  to  deny  to  religious  this  real 
common  possession. 

SonitcCA. — I.  HisUffieal. — ^BtrrLXR,  The  Latuxae  Historic  of  Pal- 
ladiua  (Cambridse,  1899),  a  critical  discussion  together  with  notes 
on  early  Egyptian  moflachism;  Carri^rb,  De  iuMlitia  el  iure 
(Louvam,  1^5),  19.'>  sqq.;    Dc  Buck,  De  eoUemniUite  voCorum, 


prfrcipue  paupertatxa  religiostr  epietola,  (Brussels,  1862) ;  Ladeuzb« 
Etutie  tur  le  cfnobttisme  Pakhdmien  pendant  le  IV*  aiide  et  la 
premihe  moitii  du  V*  (Louvain,  1898);  MARTibNR,  Commmd.  in 
reg.  S.  P.  Benedicti;  Schiwiistz,  Dae  oriental,  MOnchtum  (Mains, 
1904) ;  THOUAsaiNtrs,  Vetus  et  nova  eedea.  diecip.t  I  ill. 

II.  Doctrtno/.— Bastibn,  Diredoire  eanonique  d  Vtuage  dee  eon^ 
origationa  d  venue  eimplee  (Maredsous,  1911) ;  Battandibr,  Guids 
canonique  pour  lee  eonetitutione  dee  eeewe  d  ventx  eimplee  (Paris, 
1908);  Bomx,  Tract,  de  jture  regulariutn  (Paris,  1858);  De  Lugo, 
De  iuditia  et  ittre,  d.  ill,  s.  4  sa(i.;  Moccheociiani,  JuriepntdenHa 
eecUeiaetiea  ad  ueum  el  commodUatem  tUriueaue  deri,  I  (Quaraoehi, 
1904) ;  Passerini,  De  hominutn  etatibue,  I,  inQ.  clxzxvi,  art.  7, pp. 
519 saq. ;  Pblusarius,  Mantude  regtdarium,  tr.  IV,  o.  ii;  tr.  VI,  oc 
iz  andziv;  Piat.  Praledionee  iurie  regvlarie,  I  (Toumai,  1898), 
239-69;  Sanchex,  In  Decalogum,  I.  Vll,  especially  co.  zviii- 
zzi;  SuARBZ,  De  reliffione,  tr.  VII,  1.  VIII;  St.  Thomas.  IMI.  Q. 
clzxxiv.  a.  3;  Q.  dxxzv,  a.  6.  ad  !>■>:  Q.  jclxxxvi,  aa.  3  and  7;  Q. 
clxxxviii,  a.  7,  c;  Vermebrsch,  De  reiigioeit  inatitutie  et  pereonie, 
I  (Bruges.  1907),  nn.  237  sqq.;  II  (4th  ed.,  1910),  suppl.  vi 

A.  Vermesrsch. 

Poverty  and  Pauperism. — In  alc^al  and  technical 
sense,  pauperism  denotes  the  condition  of  persons 
Who  are  supported  at  public  expense,  whether  within 
or  outside  of  almshouses.  More  commonly  the  term 
is  applied  to  all  persons  whose  existence  is  dependent 
for  any  considerable  period  upon  charitable  assist- 
ance, whether  this  assistance  oe  public  or  private. 
Not  infrequently  it  denotes  an  extreme  degree  of 
poverty  among  a  large  group  of  persons.  Thus,  we 
speak  of  the  pauperism  of  the  most  abject  classes 
in  the  large  cities.  Poverty  is  even  less  definite,  and 
more  relative.  In  Cathohc  doctrinal  and  ascetical 
treatises  and  usage,  it  indicates  merety  renunciation 
of  the  right  of  private  property;  as  m  speaking  of 
the  vow  of  poverty,  or  the  poverty  of  the  poor  in 
spirit  recommended  in  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount. 
Apart  from  this  restricted  and  technical  signification, 
poverty  means  in  general  a  condition  of  insufficient 
subsistence,  but  dinerent  persons  have  different  con- 
ceptions of  sufficiency.  At  one  extreme  poverty  in- 
cludes paupers,  while  its  upper  limit,  at  least  in 
common  language,  varies  with  the  plane  of  living 
which  is  assum^  to  be  normal.  As  used  by  econo- 
mists and  social  students,  it  denotes  a  lack  of  some  of 
the  requisites  of  physical  efficiency;  that  is,  normal 
health  and  working  capacity.  Like  pauperism,  it 
implies  a  more  or  less  prolonged  condition;  for  to  be 
without  sufficient  food  or  clothing  for  a  few  days  is 
not  necessarily  to  be  in  poverty.  Unlike  pauperism, 
poverty  does  not  always  suppose  the  receipt  ot 
charitable  assistance.  As  the  definition  just  gdven 
sets  up  a  purely  material  and  utilitarian  standard, 
namely,  productive  efficiency,  wa  shall  in  this  article 
substitute  one  that  is  more  consonant  with  human 
dignity,  yet  which  is  substantially  equivalent  in 
content  to  the  economic  conception. — Poverty,  then, 
denotes  that  more  or  leas  prolonged  condition  in 
which  a  person  is  without  some  of  those  goods  essen- 
tial to  normal  health  and  strength,  an  elementary 
degree  of  comfort,  and  right  moral  life. 

One  question  which  at  once  suggests  itself  is: 
whether  the  amount  of  poverty  and  pauperism  exist- 
ing tonday  is  greater  or  less  than  that  of  former  times. 
No  general  answer  can  be  given  that  will  not  be  mis- 
leadmg.  Even  the  partial  and  particular  estimates 
that  are  sometimes  made  are  neither  certain  nor 
illuminating.  Economic  historians  like  Rogers  and 
Gibbins  declare  that  during  the  best  period  of  the 
Middle  A^^es — say,  from  the  thirteenth  to  the  fifteenth 
century,  inclusive — there  was  no  such  grinding  and 
hopeless  poverty,  no  such  chronic  semi-starvation 
in  any  class,  as  exists  to-day  among  larae  classes  in 
the  great  cities  (cf.  "Six  Centuries  of  Work  and 
Wages",  and  "Industry  in  England'')*  Probably 
this  is  true  as  regards  the  poorest  of  the  poor  at  these 
two  periods.  In  the  Middle  Ages  there  was  no  class 
resembling  our  proletariat,  which  has  no  security, 
no  definite  place,  no  certain  claim  upon  any  organiza- 
tion or  institution  in  the  socio-economic  organism. 
Whether  the  whole  number  of  persons  in  poverty  in 
the  earlier  period  was  relatively  larger  or  smaller 


P0VE&T7  328  POVKRTY 

than  at  present,  we  have  no  means  of  knowing.    The  of  the  intermediate  causes  have  operated  as  mere  in- 

proportion  of  medieval  i)ersons  who  lacked  what  are  struments,  and  contributed  no  special  influence  of 

to-day  regarded  as  requisites  of  elementary  comfort  their  own.    As  a  rule,  each  case  of  poverty  is  due  to 

was  probably  larger,  while  the  proportion  that  had  more  than  one  distinct  factor,  and  it  is  not  possible 

to  f>o  without  adequate  food  and  dothins  for  long  to  measure  the  precise  contribution  of  each  factor 

penods  of  time  was  not  improbably  snudler.    One  to  the  general  result.    In  an^  particular  situation, 

of  the  great  causes  of  poverty — ^namely,  insecurity  the  most  satisfactory  method  is  to  enumerate  all  the 

of  employment,  of  residence,  and  of  shelter — ^was  cer-  chief  causes  and  to  state  which  seems  to  be  the  most 

tainly  much  less  frequent  in  the  older  time.    If  we  potent.    Professor  Warner  applied  this  method  to 

compare  the  povertv  of  to-day  with  that  of  one  cen-  more  than  110,000  cases  which  nad  been  investigated 

tury  ago,  we  find  all  authorities  agreeing  that  it  has  in  London,  in  five  American  cities,  and  in  seventv- 

decrea»sd  both  absolutely  and  relatively.    Against  six  German  cities  ("American  Charities",  1st  ed., 

this  general  fact,  however,  we  must  note  one  or  two  22-58).    He  found  the  principal  cause  to  be:    in 

circumstances  that  are  less  gratifying.    Both  the  21.3  per  cent  of  the  whole  number  of  instances,  mi»- 

intensity  and  the  extent  of  the  lowest  grade  of  poverty  conduct,  such  as  drink,  immorality,  inefiiciency,  and 

are  probably  quite  as  great  now  as  they  were  at  the  a  roving  disposition;  in  74.4  per  cent,  misfortune, 

beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century;   and  there  are  under  which  head  he  included  such  factors  as  lack 

some  indications  that   the   improvement  occurring  of  normal  support,  matters  of  employment,  and  in- 

during  the  last  twenty-five  years  has  been  leas  than  dividual  incapacity  as  distinguished  from  individual 

in  the  preceding  half-century.  fault.    Misfortune  was,  therefore,  the  predominant 

Owing  to  lack  of  statistical  data,  it  is  impossible  cause  in  three  and  one-half  times  as  many  cases  as 
to  estimate,  even  approximately,  the  proportion  of  misconduct.    Among    the   particular    chief    factors 
the  people  of  any  country  that  is  in  pK)verty.   On  the  drink  was  credited  with  11  per  cent,  lack  of  employ- 
basis  of  unemployment  statistics,  eviction  statistics,  ment  with  17.4,  no  male  support  with  8,  sickness  or 
cases  of  charity  relief,  and  other  evidences  of  distress,  death  in  family  with  23.6,  old  age  with  9.6,  insuffi- 
Robert  Hunter  declared  that  the  number  of  persons  ciency  of  employment  with  6.7,  poorly  paid  employ- 
in  poverty  in  the  United  States  in  1904  was  ten  ment  with  4.4,  and  inefficiency  and  shiftlessness  with 
millions;  that  is,  they  were  ''mudi  of  the  time  un-  8.26.    In  a  general  w^  these  figures  support  the 
derfed,   poorly    clothed,    and   improperly   housed"  contention  of  Dr.  E.  T.  Devine,  that  poverty  "is 
("The  New  Encyclopema  of  Social  Reform",  940;  economic,  the  result  of  maladjustment,  that  defective 
cf.  also  his  work  on  Poverty).    Ten  millions  repre-  personidity  is  only  a  halfway  explanation,  which 
sented  at  that  time  about  one-eighth  of  our  total  itself  residts  directlv  from  conditions  which  society 
population.    Professor  Bushnell  estimated  the  num-  may  largely  control    (Misery  and  its  Causes,  11). 
Der  of  persons  known  to  be  in  receipt  of  public  or        It  must  be  noted,  however,  that  Professor  Warner 
private   relief  at  three  millions  (Modem  Methodjs  aims  to  state  the  immediate  causes  only.    In  a  large 
of  Charity,  385-90).    Of  course  the  total  number  m  proportion  of  cases  these  are  the  result  of  some  other 
persons  who  received  charitable  aid  was  much  larger,  cause  or '  causes.    Thus,  disease,  accident,  or  unem- 
for  a  larse  proportion  of  such  cases  do  not  come  to  ployment  might  be  due  to  immorality  or  intem- 
the  knowleage  of  statisticians  or  social  students.    On  peranoe  in  the  more  or  less  distant  past;  and  what 
the  other  hand,  not  all  who  are  charitably  assisted  is  now  classified  as  culpable  inefficiency  or  shiftless- 
are  paupers,  nor  strictly  speaking  in  poverty.    Mr.  ness  might  be  ultimately  traceable  to  prolonged  un- 
Hunter's  estimate  is  perhaps  too  high.    After  a  very  employment.    The  important  lesson  conveyed  by 
careful  and  thorough  investigation  of  the  poor  in  this  and  every  other  attempt  to  estimate  the  oom- 
London,  completed  in  1902,  Charles  Booth  found  that  parative  influence  of  the  various  causes  of  poverty 
nearly  thirty-one  per  cent  of  the  pec^le  of  that  city  is  that  we  must  never  regard  our  estimates  as  more 
were  in  poverty  (cf.  "Life  and  Labor  of  the  People  than  very  rough  approximations.    Certain  factors 
in  London").    This  estimate  was  fully  and  remark-  are  known  to  be  veiy  important  everywhere.    They 
ably  confirmed  by  the  studies  of  Seebohm  Rowntree  are:    intemperance,  sexual  immorality,  crime,  im- 
in  the  City  of  York,  where  the  proportion  of  the  in-  providence,  inefficiency,  heredity  and  associations, 
habitants  in  poverty  appeared  as  twenty-eight  per  insufficient  wages  and  employment,  congenital  de- 
cent (cf.  "Poverty:  aStudy  of  Town  Life").    There  .  fects,  injurious  occupations,  sickness,  accident,  and  . 
are  good  reasons  for  thinkmg  that  both  these  esti-  old  age.    Every  one  of  these  is  not  only  capable  of 
mates  are  under-statements,  ifpoverty  be  understood  producing  poverty  on  its  own  account,  but  of  in- 
according  to  the  definition  adopted  in  this  article,  ducing  or  supplementing  one  of  the  other  causes. 
For  example,  Rowntree  placed  above  the  poverty  Intemperance  leads  to  sickness,  accident,  inefficiency, 
line  all  persons  who  were  in  a  condition  of  present  immorality,  and  unemployment;  on  the  other  hand, 
physical  efficiency,  even  though  many  of  them  were  it  often  appears  as  the  effect  of  these.    Almost  all 
unable  to  make  any  outlay  for  carfare,  amusement,  of  the  other  factors  may  properly  be  regarded  in  the 
recreation,    newspapers,    religion,    societies,    or   in-  same  light,  as  causes  and  as  effects  reciprocally, 
surance  sigainst  old   age.    Evidently,   physical  ef-        Among  the  principal  effects  of  poverty  are  physical 
ficiency  in  such  circumstances  can  oe  maintained  suffering,    through   want    of   sufficient   sustenance, 
only  for  a  few  years.    At  any  rate,  this  condition  through   sickness,   and   other   forms   of   disability; 
is   not   elementary   comfort   nor  decent   existence,  moral  degeneration  and  immorality  in  many  forms; 
Since  wages  and  their  purchasing  power  are  quite  intellectual  defects  and  inefficiency;    sociaJ  injury 
as  high  in  England  as  in  any  other  country  of  Europe,  through  diminished  productive  efficiency,  and  un- 
the  proportion  of  poverty  is  probably  as  great  in  the  necessary  expenditures  for  poor  relief:   finally,  more 
latter  as  in  the  former.  poverty  through  the  vicious  circle  of  many  of  the 

The  causes  of  poverty  are  very  numerous  and  very  effects  just  enumerated.    For  example,  intemperance, 

difficult  to  classify  satisfactorily.    While  the  division  improvidence,  sickness,  and  inefficiency  are  at  once 

of  them  into  social  and  individual  causes  is  useful  affects  and  causes.    In  a  word,  the  effects  of  poverty 

and  suggestive  it  is  not  strictly  logical;  for  each  of  are  sufficiently  numerous  and  sufficiently  destruc- 

these  is  often  to  some  extent  responsible  for  the  other,  tive  to  elicit  the  fervent  wish  that  this  condition 

Where  both  causes  affect  the  same  person,  it  is  fre-  niidht  be  totally  abolished. 

quently  impossible  to  say  which  is  the  more  important.        The  relief  of  poverty,  especially  under  the  direction 

A  better  classification  is  that  of  immediate  and  origi-  of  the  Chureh,  has  been  discussed  at  length  in  the 

nal  causes:  but  it  is  not  always  possible  to  deter-  article  Charfty  and  CHARrriES.    Here  we  merely 

mine  whicn  is  the  title  original  cause,  nor  how  many  note  the  fact  that  the  poor  are  now  assisted  by  the 


POVERTY 


329 


POVE&TY 


public  authorities,  by  churches,  by  religious  and 
secular  associations,  and  by  private  individuals. 
All  these  methods  are  subject  to  abuses,  but  all  are 
necessary.  In  many  countries  old-age  pensions  and 
insurance,  housing  activities,  and  insurance  against 
sickness  and  other  forms  of  disabilitv,  prevent  a 
considerable  amount  of  poverty,  and  thus  relieve  it 
in  the  most  effective  fasnion.  At  present  poor-relief 
is  to  a  much  greater  extent  carried  on  by  the  State, 
and  to  a  miich  less  extent  by  the  Church,  than  in  the 
period  before  the  Protestant  Reformation.  The 
remedies  and  preventives  of  poverty  are  as  numerous 
and  various  as  the  causes.  Persons  who  attribute 
it  almost  wholly  to  social  influences  propose  social 
correctives,  such  as  legislation,  and  freauently  some 
simple  form  of  social  reconstructing — ^for  example, 
the  un^e  tax  or  Socialism.  Persons  who  believe  that 
the  individual  is  almost  always  responsible  for  his 
poverty  or  for  the  poverty  of  his  natural  dependents 
reject  social  remecues  and  insist  upon  the  supreme 
and  sufficient  worth  of  reformation  of  chsuracter 
through  education  and  religion.  In  times  past  the 
latter  attitude  was  much  more  conunon  than  to-dav, 
when  the  tendency  is  strongly  and  quite  generally 
toward  the  soci^  viewpoint.  Both  are  exaspera- 
tions, and  lead,  therefore,  to  the  use  of  onensided  and 
inefficient  methods  of  dealing  with  poverty.  While 
a  large  proportion  of  the  individual  causes  of  poverty 
are  mtimately  traceable  to  social  causes,  to  congenital 
defects,  or  to  pure  misfortune,  many  of  them  never- 
theless exert  an  original  and  independent  influence. 
This  is  clearly  seen  in  the  case  of  two  persons  who 
have  had  preciselv  the  same  opportunities,  environ- 
ment, and  natural  endowments,  onlv  one  of  whom  is 
in  poverty.  For  such  cases  individual  remedies  are 
obviously  indispensable.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is 
only  the  crassly  ignorant  who  can  honestly  think 
that  all  poverty  is  due  to  individual  defects,  whether 
culpable  or  not.  Individual  remedies,  such  as  re- 
generation of  character,  cannot  lift  out  of  poverty 
the  wage-earner  who  is  without  employment.  In- 
dividual and  social  causes  originate,  produce  re- 
spectively their  own  speciflc  influences,  and  can  be 
effectively  counteracted  only  by  measures  that  affect 
them  directly. 

Of  the  individual  causes  that  must  be  prevented 
in  whole  or  in  part  by  individual  rc^neration,  the 
principal  are  intemperance,  immorality,  indolence, 
and  improvidence.  All  these  would  be  responsible 
for  many  cases  of  poverty  even  if  the  environment  and 
the  social  arrangements  were  ideal.  Each  of  them 
is,  indeed,  frequently  affected  by  social  forces,  and 
consequently  is  preventible  to  some  extent  by  social 
remedies.  Thus,  intemperance  can  be  diminished 
by  a  better  regulation  of  the  liquor  traffic,  and  bv 
every  measure  that  makes  better  provision  for  fooa, 
clothing,  housing,  security,  and  opportunity  among 
the  poor.  Inmiorality  can  be  lessened  by  more 
strineent  and  effective  methods  of  detection  and 
punishment.  Indolence  can  be  discouraged  and  to 
some  extent  prevented  by  compulsory  labour  colonies, 
as  well  as  by  penalties  Infficted  upon  persons  who  re- 
fuse to  provide  for  their  natural  dependents.  Im- 
{)rovidence  can  be  greatly  lessened  by  laws  providing 
arger  economic  opportunities,  insurance  against 
disability,  and  better  methods  of  saving.  Yet,  in 
every  one  of  these  cases,  the  remedy  which  aims  at 
improvement  of  character  will  be  beneficial;  and  in 
many  cases  it  will  be  indispensable.  The  chief 
causes  of  poverty  to  be  removed  oy  social  methods  are : 
unemployment,  low  wages,  sickness,  accident,  old 
age,  improper  woman  labour  and  child  laix)ur, 
unsanitary  and  debilitating  conditions  of  employ- 
ment, refusal  of  head  of  family  to  provide  for  support 
of  family,  and  industrial  inefficiency.  The  necessary 
social  remedies  must  be  applied  by  individuids,  by 
voluntary  associations  ana  by  the  State;   and  the 


greater  part  of  them  will  fall  under  the  g;eneral  head 
of  larger  economic  opportunity.  If  this  were  at- 
tained to  a  reasonable  degree,  persons  who  are  at  or 
below  the  poverty  line  woula  enjoy  adequate  in- 
comes and  better  conditions  of  employment  generally, 
and  thus  would  be  enabled  to  protect  themselves 
against  most  of  the  other  causes  of  poverty  which 
have  just  been  enumerated.  In  great  part,  this 
larger  economic  opportunity  will  have  to  come 
through  legislation  directed  towards  a  better  or- 
ganization of  production  and  distribution,  and 
towards  an  efficient  system  of  industrial  education. 
Legal  provision  must  also  be  made  for  insurance 
against  sickness,  accident,  unemployment,  and  old 
age.  and  for  the  coercion  and  punishment  of  negligent 
husbands  and  fathers.  Since,  however,  many  of 
these  social  causes  of  poverty  are  frequently  due,  in 
part  at  least,  to  individual  delinquencies,  the^r  are 
curable  to  a  considerable  extent  by  individual 
remedies.  Sickness,  accident,  inefficiency,  and  un- 
employment are  often  the  results  of  intemperance, 
immorality,  and  indolence.  Whenever  this  is  the 
case,  the  reformation  of  character  must  enter  into 
the  remedv.  In  a  word,  we  may  say  that  the  cor- 
rectives of  some  causes  of  poverty  must  be  domi- 
nantl^  social,  of  others  dominantly  individual;  but 
that  m  nearly  all  cases  both  methods  will  be  to  some 
extent  effective. 

The  abolition  of  all  poverty  which  is  not  due  to 
individual  fault,  congenital  defect,  or  unusual  mis- 
fortune is  one  of  the  ideals  of  contemporajy  philan- 
thropy and  social  reform.  It  is  a  noble  aim,  and  it 
ought  not  to  be  impossible  of  realization.  Against 
it  are  sometimes  quoted  the  words  of  Christ:  ''The 
poor  you  have  always  with  you";  but  this  sentence 
IS  in  the  present  tense,  and  it  was  obviously  addressed 
to  the  Disciples,  not  to  the  whole  world.  Until 
the  words  have  been  authoritatively  given  a  universal 
application,  the  repetition  of  them  as  an  explanation 
of  current  poverty,  or  as  an  argument  apainst  the 
abolition  of  poverty,  will  be  neither  convincing  nor 
edifying.  Equally  irrelevant  is  the  fact  that  poverty 
is  highnr  honoured  in  ascetical  life  and  literature. 
In  the  nrst  place,  there  is  (]^uestion  here  of  the  aboli- 
tion of  the  poverty  that  is  involuntary,  not  that 
which  is  freely  embraced.  In  the  secona  place,  re- 
ligious poverty  generally  includes  those  things  the 
hwk  of  which  makes  the  other  kind  of  poverty  so 
undesirable,  namely,  the  requisites  of  elementary 
health  and  comfort,  and  decent  living.  Nor  should 
we  oppose  the  abolition  of  poverty  on  the  ground 
that  this  would  lessen  the  opportunities  of  the  poor 
to  practise  humility,  and  of  the  rich  to  exercise 
benevolence.  At  present  the  majority  of  the  people 
are  not  in  poverty,  yet  no  one  urges  that  they  should 
descend  to  that  condition  for  the  sake  of  the  greater 
opportunity  of  humility.  There  would  still  be  abun- 
dant room  for  the  exercise  of  both  these  virtues  after 
all  involuntary  poverty  had  disappeared,  for  there 
would  be  no  lack  of  suffering,  misfortune,  and  genuine 
need.  On  the  other  hand,  those  who  had  escaped 
poverty,  or  been  lifted  out  of  it,  would  be  better  able 
to  practise  many  other  virtues  more  beneficial  than 
compulsory  humility. 

Poverty  has,  indeed,  been  a  school  of  virtue  for 
many' persons  who  otherwise  would  not  have  reached 
such  heights  of  morid  achievement,  but  these  are  the 
exceptions.  The  vast  majority  of  persons  are  better 
off,  physically,  mentally,  and  morally,  when  they  are 
above  the  line  which  marks  the  lower  limit  of  ele- 
mentary health,  comfort,  and  decency.  For  the 
great  majority,  the  wish  of  the  Wise  Man.  "neither 
poverty  norTiches",  represents  the  most  favourable 
condition  for  right  and  reasonable  life.  If  any  per- 
son sees  in  poverty  better  opportunities  for  virtuous 
living,  let  him  embrace  it,  but  no  man  ought  to  be 
compelled  to  take  this  course.    After  all,  the  proposal 


POWXL 


330 


POZZO 


to  abolish  inyoluntary  poverty  is  merely  the  proposal 
(O  enable  every  person  to  have  a  decent  livelihood, 
and  enjoy  that  reasonable  and  frugal  comfort  which 
Leo  Xill  declared  to  be  the  natimJ  right  of  every 
wage-earner,  and  which,  consequently,  is  the  normal 
condition  of  every  human  being.  It  merely  seeks  to 
lift  the  lowest  and  weakest  classes  of  the  communitv 
to  that  level  which  Father  Pesch  believes  is  both 
desirable  and  practicable:  ''Permanent  security  in 
living  conditions  which  are  in  conformity  with  the 
contemporary  state  of  civilization,  and  in  this  sense 
worthy  of  human  beings''  (op.  cit.  infra.,  II,  276). 

HuNTBB,  Poverty  (New  York,  1904) ;  Devine,  Miaery  and  lU 
Caiuea  (New  York,  1909);  Warxer,  American  CharUiet  (New 
York,  1894) ;  Booth,  Life  and  Labour  of  the  People  in  London 
(London,  1889-1902);  Rowntrbe,  Poverty:  A  Study  of  Town 
Life  (London,  1901);  Hobson,  Problenu  of  Poverty  (London, 
1899) ;  Adams  and  Sumkbb,  Lai>or  Problevu  (New  York,  1905) ; 
Sbuom AN,  Principlea  of  Beonomica  (New  York,  1905) ;  Dkvab, 
Political  Economy  (London,  1901);  Antoine,  Coure  d*ieonomie 
Boeiode  (Paris,  1899);  Pssch,  Lehrbudi  der  Nationaldkonomie 
(Freiburg,   1909). 

John  A.  Ryan. 

Powel,  Philip,  Venerable  (alias  Morgan,  alias 
Prosser),  mart3rr,  b.  at  Tralon,  Brecknockshire, 
2  Feb.,  1594:  d.  at  Tyburn  30  Ju^e,  1646.  He 
was  the  son  of  Roger  and  Catharine  Powel,  and  was 
brought  up  to  the  law  by  David  Baker,  afterwards 
Dom  Augustine  Baker,  0.3-B.  At  the  age  .of  sixteen 
he  became  a  student  in  the  Temple,  London,  but  went 
to  Douai  three  or  four  years  later,  where  he  received 
the  Benedictine  habit  in  the  monastery  of  St.  Gregory 
(now  Downside  Abbey,  Bath).  In  1618  he  was  or- 
dained priest  and  in  1622  left  Douai  for  the  English 
mission.  About  1624  he  went  to  reside  with  Mr. 
Poyiitz  of  Leighland,  Somersetshire,  but,  when  the 
Civil  War  broke  out,  in  1645,  retired  to  Devonshire, 
where  he  stayed  for  a  few  months  with  Mr.  John 
Trevelyan  of  Yamscombe  and  then  with  Mr.  John 
Coffin  of  Parkham.  He  afterwards  served  for  six 
months  as  chaplain  to  the  Catholic  soldiers  in  General 
Goring's  army  in  Cornwall,  and,  when  that  force  was 
disbanded,  took  ship  for  South  Wales.  The  vessel 
was  captured  on  22  February,  1646;  Father  Powel 
was  recognized  and  denounced  as  a  priest.  On  11 
Mav  he  was  ordered  to  London  by  the  Earl  of  War- 
wick, and  confined  in  St.  Catherine  s  Gaol,  Southwark, 
where  the  harsh  treatment  he  received  brought  on  a 
severe  attack  of  pleurisy.  His  trial,  which  had  been 
fixed  for  30  May,  did  not  take  place  till  9  June,  at 
Westminster  Hall.  He  was  found  guilty  and  was 
hanged,  drawn,  and  quartered  at  Tyburn.  At  the 
instance  of  the  Common  Council  of  London  the  head 
and  Quarters  were  not  e5cpo8ed,  but  were  buried  in  the 
old  churchyard  at  Moorfields.  The  martyr's  crucifix, 
which  had  formerly  belonged  to  Feckenham,  last 
Abbot  of  Westminster,  is  preserved  at  Downside,  with 
some  of  his  hair  and  a  cloth  stained  with  his  blood. 

Relation  du  martyre  de  Philippe  Powel,  autremerU  dit  le  Phe 
Morgan,  Rdigieux  Binididin  (Paris,  1647);  Challonbb,  Afem- 
oire  of  Mieeionary  Priests,  11  (Ix>ndon,  1742).  297;  Ouvbr,  Coir- 
lections  Illustrating  the  History  of  the  Catholic  Religion  in  ComwaU^ 
Devon,  etc.  (London,  1857),  20,  386;  Weldon,  ed.  Dolan,  Chron- 
dogieal  Notes  on  the  English  Congregation  of  the  Order  of  St. 
Benedict  (Worcester,  1881),  186;  Stanton,  Mendogy  of  England 
and  Wales  (London,  1887),  295;  Doumside  Review  (London.  1882), 
I,  346-52;  XII.  239-48;  Spillmann,  Geschichte  der  Katholiken- 
verfolgung  in  England,  1635-1681,  IV  (Freiburg  1905),  309-13. 

G.  Roger  Hudleston. 

Powell,  Edward,  Blessed.  See  Thomas  Abel, 
Blessed. 

Poynter,  William,  b.  20  May,  1762,  at  Peters- 
field,  Hants;  d.  26  Nov.,  1827,  in  London.  He  was 
educated  at  the  English  College  at  Douai,  where  he 
was  ordained  in  1786.  He  remained  as  professor, 
and  afterwards  prefect  of  studies  till  the  college  came 
to  an  end  during  the  Terror.  After  undergoing, 
eighteen  months  imprisonment,  the  collegians  were 
set  free,  and  returned  to  England  in  March,  1795. 
Poynter  with  the  students  from  the  South  went  to 


Old  Hall,  where  he  took  a  leading  part  in  the  foundar 
ticn  of  St.  Edmund's  College,  bemg  first  vice-presi- 
dent, then  (1801-13)  president.  In  1803,  Bishop 
Douglass  of  the  London  district  being  in  declining 
health.  Dr.  Poynter  was  consecrated  his  coadjutor, 
remaining  at  the  same  time  president  of  the  college. 
On  the  death  of  Bishop  Douglass  in  1812,  Bishop 
Poynter  succeeded  as  vicar  Apostolic.  His  position 
was  rendered  difficult  bv  the  persistent  attacks  of 
Bishop  Milner  in  pamphlets  and  even  in  his  pas- 
torals (see  Milner,  John).  Dr.  Poynter  endured  all 
Milner's  accusations  in  silence,  having  the  support  of 
all  the  other  English  and  Scotch  bishops;  but  when 
in  May,  1814,  on  the  issue  of  the  famous  Quarantotti 
Rescript,  which  sanctioned  all  the  '^ security''  re- 
strictions, Milner  went  to  Rome  to  obtain  its  re- 
versal, Dr.  Poynter  followed  him  there  and  wrote 
his  ''Apologetical  Epistle"  defending  himself  to 
Propaganda.  Quarantotti's  Rescript  was  with- 
drawn, and  in  its  place  was  substituted  a  "Letter  to 
Dr.  Pojmter",  dated  from  Genoa,  where  the  pope  had 
taken  refuge.  A  limited  veto  was  sanctioned,  but 
the  exequatur  was  refused.  Milner  was  directed  to 
abstain  from  publishing  pastorals  or  pamphlets 
against  Dr.  Poynter.  He  obeyed  this  injunction, 
but  continued  his  attacks  in  letters  to  the  "Ortho- 
dox Journal"  until  he  was  peremptorily  prohibited 
by  order  of  the  pope,  under  pain  of  being  deposed. 
During  his  episcopate  Dr.  Poynter  paid  four  visits 
to  Paris  of  several  months  each  (1814,  15,  17,  and 
22),  with  the  object  of  reclaiming  the  property  of  the 
colleges  at  Douai  and  elsewhere,  which  had  been  con- 
fiscated during  the  Revolution.  He  received  the 
support  of  the  Duke  of  Wellin^n  and  Lord  Castle- 
reagh,  and  of  the  British  commissioners  appointed  to 
deal  with  the  claims.  He  succeeded  eventually,  in 
recovering  the  colleges  themselves  and  about  £30,000 
which  had  been  kept  in  the  names  of  the  bishops, 
but  the  main  claim  amoimting  to  £120,000  was  lost. 
The  French  indeed  paid  it  to  the  British  commission- 
ers, but  these  refused  to  hand  it  over,  on  the  plea 
that  it  would  be  applied  to  purposes  considered  by 
English  law  as  "superstitious".  The  final  de- 
cision was  given  in  November,  1825.  It  is  said  that 
the  disappointment  of  the  failure  of  his  long  labours 
notably  shortened  the  bishop's  life.  His  principal 
works  are:  "Theological  Examinations  of  (Dolum- 
banus"  (London,  1811);  "Epistola  Apologetica", 
tr.  by  Butler  (London,  1820),  also  appeared  in  Butler, 
"Hist.  Mem.",  3rd  edition;  "Prayerbook  for  Catho- 
lic Sailors  and  Soldiers  "  (London,  1858);  "Evidences 
of  Christianity"  (London,  1827);  "New  Year's 
Gift"  in  Directories  (1S13-2S);  numerous  pamphlets, 
pastorals  etc.  There  is  a  portrait  of  him  by  Ramsay 
(1803)  at  St.  Edmund's  College,  another  m  "Catholic 
Directory"  for  1829;  also  a  bust  by  Tumerelli  and 
another  at  Moorfields. 

Cooper  in  IHct.  Nat.  Biog,;  Gillow,  Did.  Eng.  Cath.;  Kihk, 
Biographies  (London,  1909);  Bradt,  Episcopal  Succession 
(London,  1877);  Amherst,  Cath.  Emancipatum  (London,  1886); 
Ward,  Hist,  of  St.  Edmund^s  Colleae  (London,  1893);  Idem, 
Catholic  London  a  Century  Ago  (London,  1905) ;  Idem,  Dawn  of 
Catholic  Revival  (London,   1909);  Husenbeth,  Life  of  Milner 

Sublin.  1862);  Butler.  Hist.  Mem.  (3rd  ed.,  London,  1822); 
ity*8  Directory   (1829);  Cath,    Miscellany ;  Orthodox  Journal, 
etc. 

Bernard  Ward. 

PoBSO  (PxTTEus),  Andreas,  Italian  painter  and 
architect  of  the  Baroque  period,  b.  at  Trent^  1642; 
d.  at  Vienna,  1709.  The  greater  part  of  his  bfe  was 
spent  at  Genoa.  Rome,  Turin,  and  Vienna.  After 
his  literary  stuaies,  he  devoted  himself  to  painting, 
and  at  twenty-four  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  as  a 
lay  brother.  After  his  death  he  was  commemorated 
by  a  memoir  and  a  medal.  Pozzo  was  an  unrivalled 
master  of  perspective;  he  used  light,  colour,  and  an 
architectural  background  as  means  of  creating  illu- 
sion.   In  the  Rarv>rjTio  period,  instead  of  employing 


poazoMi 


331 


PRADE8 


panels  ornamented  with  stucco  work,  painting  was 
used  not  only  to  cover  the  domes  and  semi-domes  but 
also  the  ceiling  and  vaultings.  Michelangelo  had 
painted  the  ceiling  of  the  Sistine  Chai>el,  but  Bra- 
mante  did  not  follow  him  in  treating  the  main  vault- 
ing of  St.  Peter's.  It  had  begun  to  be  customary  to 
fill  the  sunken  panels  or  large  cartouches,  and  finallv 
the  entire  vault,  as,  for  example,  the  domes,  with 
perspective  paintings  in  the  advanced  style  of  Cor- 
reggio.  Michelangelo's  device  of  painting  in  archi- 
tectural framework  to  divide  the  different  portions 
of  the  painting  was  no  longer  in  vogue,  nor  even 
actual  architectural  members.  Poszo  was  a  master 
in  this  new  st}rle  of  painting:  he  gives  full  instructions 
concerning  this  method  in  his  manual.  His  frescoes 
on  the  ceiling,  dome,  and  apse  of  the  church  of  San 
Ignazio  at  Rome  are  greativ  admired.  By  the  skilful 
use  of  linear  perspective,  light,  and  shade,  he  made  the 
peat  barrel-vault  of  the  nave  of  the  church  into  an 
idealized  aula  from  which  is  seen  the  reception  of  St. 
Ignatius  into  the  opened  heavens.  About  the  paint- 
ing there  is  a  wonderful  effect  of  supernatural  maj- 
esty, but  the  whole  composition  is  more  a  feat  of 
skill  than  a  work  of  art.  Only  the  Baroque  era  could 
regard  it  as  a  genuine  devotional  picture.  Pozzo  exe- 
cuted a  similar  work  in  San  Bartolommeo  at  Modena. 
In  the  Abbey  of  the  Cassinese  at  Arezzo  and  in  the 
Pinaootheca  at  Bologna  the  magical  effect  is  produced 
by  the  architectural  perspective  alone.  Importance 
is  laid  on  the  profiles  of  the  ornamental  architectural 
members,  not  in  the. life  and  movement.  According 
to  his  theory,  columns  must  be  twisted;  they  can  even 
be  bent  and  cracked.  Coloured  stones  and  metals 
must  also  aid  in  securing  the  pictorial  effect.  An 
extraordinary  increase  in  bulk,  therefore,  would  be 
required  to  ootain  the  necessary  constructive  stren^h. 
In  makins  the  altar  for  the  Jesuit  church  at  Venice, 
he  erected  for  the  plastic  work  of  the  centre  a  temple 
of  ten  columns,  with  twisted  entablature.  He  also 
constructed  the  high  altar  of  Gli  Scalzi  at  Venice. 
The  altar  of  St.  Ignatius  in  the  Gesii  at  Rome  is  an 
example  of  the  greatest  magnificence.  His  manual 
gives  directions  tor  making  all  kinds  of  church  furni- 
ture. Pozzo's  decorative  work,  logically  systema- 
tized, shows  his  great  talent  which  perfectly  suited 
the  characteristic  taste  of  the  perioa  and  the  pomp 
then  customary  in  religious  services. 

Pono,  Perapediva  pietorum  ei  arehitectorum  (2  vols.,  Rome, 
1093;  1700),  text  in  Italian  and  Latin  and  226  plates;  tr.  into 
Enzliah.  Jamss  (London.  1893):  Lansi.  Storia  jnUoriea  deW  Italia 
(Baasanor  1789) ;  de  Qvin ct,  tHd.  d' architecture, 

G.   GlE'mANN. 

Possoni,  DoMENico.  See  Honq-Kono,  Vicariatb 
Apostolic  of. 

PoBSUOli,  Diocese  of  (Puteolana). — ^The  city  of 
Pozzuoli  in  the  province  of  Naples,  southern  Italy, 
on  the  gulf  of  tne  same  name,  was  founded  by  the 
Cumsans,  whose  port  it  became,  under  the  name  of 
Dicsearchia.  It  was  used  by  the  Carthaginians  in  the 
Second  Punic  War.  The  Romans  took  possession  of 
it,  fortified  it,  and  gave  it  the  name  of  Puteoli.  Han- 
nibal sought  in  vain  to  take  this  place,  which  became 
a  Roman  colony  in  194  b.  c.  and  was  thereafter  the 
most  important  port  of  Italy,  enjoying  exceptional 
municipal  liberties.  The  harbour  was  set  off  from  the 
sea  by  a  line  of  pilasters  supporting  a  long  arcade, 
which  was  restored  later  by  Antonius  Pius.  Caligula 
connected  the  ports  of  Pozzuoli  and  of  Baise  w^ith  a 
pontoon  bridge.  In  the  third  century  Pozzuoli  fell 
into  decadence.  In  410,  it  was  besieged  and  sacked 
by  Alaric,  in  545  by  Totila,  and  in  715  by  Grimoaldo 
II,  Duke  of  Benevento,  who,  however,  did  not  succeed 
in  taking  it  from  its  Byzantine  masters;  in  the  tenth 
centuiy,  it  was  several  times  the  object  of  Saracen 
incursions.  In  1014  Pozzuoli  was  taken  by  the  Nea- 
politans, and  later  passed,  with  Naplos,  into  the  King- 


dom of  the  Two  Sicilies.  In  1448  and  1538,  it  suffered 
from  severe  earthquakes;  in  1550  the  Turks  landed 
and  wrought  frightful  havoc  in  the  town.  Abundant 
ruins  of  villas  and  temples  attest  its  ancient  splendour. 
Amongthe  temple  ruins,  the  most  important  are  those 
of  the  Temple  of  Serapis,  which  was  at  once  a  temple 
and  an  establishment  of  therapeutic  baths;  there  re- 
main the  cella  and  many  of  its  columns,  also  sixteen 
bath-rooms  for  baths  in  the  mineral  water  that  flows 
near  by.  The  work  of  excavation  (1838)  exposed  the 
ruins  of  an  amphitheatre  that  had  a  capacity  of 
30,000;  there  are  also  the  ruins  of  a  theatre,  and 
of  therm®  or  hot  baths,  where  was  foimd,  among  other 
objects,  the  Venus  Anadyomene  of  the  Naples  Museum. 
The  object  of  greatest  interest  at  Pozzuoli,  however, 
are  the  sulphur  caves,  the  "forum  Vulcani ''  of  the  an- 
cients, which,  through  crevices  in  the  earth,  exude 
sulphuretted  hydrogen  and  sulphurous  acid.  In  1190 
there  was  a  severe  volcanic  eruption  from  these  caves. 
There  are  also  four  mineral  springs,  and  two  caverns, 
known  as  the  '^Grotta  del  Cane'',  which  exudes  car- 
bonic acid,  and  the  ''Grotta  dell'  Ammoniaca''. 

On  his  voyage  to  Rome,  St.  Paul  landed  at  Pozzuoli, 
where  he  met  some  "brothers"  (Acts,  xxviii,  13,  14), 
and  among  these  Jews  there  mav  have  been  Chris- 
tians; no  doubt  the  Apostle  took  advantage  of  the 
opportunity  to  preach  to  his  countrymen  the  mystery 
of  the  Messiah  already  come.  That  St.  Patrobas,  a 
disciple  of  St.  Paul,  was  first  Bishop  of  Pozzuoli  is  a 
fabrication  of  the  notorious  Dositheos;  on  the  other 
hand,  the  Bishops  St.  Celsus  and  St.  Joannes  governed 
the  diocese  before  the  fourth  century.  Proculus, 
Acutius,  Eutyches,  and  St.  Artemas  were  martyrs  of 
Pozzuoli,  and  St.  Januarius  of  Benevento  and  his  com- 
panions suffered  martyrdom  here.  In  the  fourth  cen- 
tury the  bishop  of  this  see  was  Florentius.  against 
whom  Pope  Damasus  was  compelled  to  seek  the  assist- 
ance of  tne  emperors.  Bishop  St.  Theodonis  died  in 
435;  Julianus  was  i>ontifical  legate  to  the  Robber 
Council  of  Ephesus  in  449;  the  Bishop  Stephanus, 
whom  Cappelletti  names  at  this  period,  should  be  re- 
ferred to  the  seventh  century,  or  later.  Other  bishops 
were  Gaudicsus  (680) ;  St.  Leo  (about  1030),  later  a 
hermit;  Ludovico  di  Costanzo,  who.  with  the  assist- 
ance of  Alfonso  of  Aragon,  was  at  nrst  a  usurper  of 
this  see,  but  was  later  recognized  by  Nicholas  V; 
Carlo  Borromeo  (1537),  a  relative  of  the  saint  of  the 
same  name;  Gian  Matteo  Castaldi  (1542),  who  rebuilt 
thecathedral;  Lorenzo Mongevio  (1617),agoodorator, 
formerly  Auxiliary  Bishop  of  Salzburg  and  of  Va- 
lencia (he  was  a  Franciscan),  unjustly  accused, 
and  held  prisoner  in  Castel  Sant'  Angelo;  Martin 
Leon  y  Cardenas  (1619),  to  whom  apubuc  monument 
was  erected,  in  recognition  of  his  many  merits. 
The  cathedral  rises  on  the  ruins  of  the  Temple  of 
Augustus;  it  contains  some  good  pictures,  among 
them  the  Martirio  di  San  Gennaro  by  Guido  Reni. 
The  churches  of  Santa  Maria  delle  Grazie  and  of 
Santa  Croce  are  worthy  of  note.  The  diocese  is  a 
suffragan  of  Naples;  has  10  parishes,  with  57,100 
inhabitants,  1  religious  hou'se  of  men,  and  3  of  women, 

and  1  educational  establishment  for  girls. 
Cappelletti,  Le  Chieee  d'ltaliat  XX. 

U.  Bbniqni. 

Prades,  Jean-Martin  de,  theologian,  b.  about 
1720  at  Castelsarrasin  (Diocese  of  Montauban)^  d. 
in  1782  at  Glogau^  famous  throu^  an  irreligious 
thesis.  Having  finished  his  prelimmary  studies,  he 
went  to  Paris,  where  he  lived  in  many  seminaries, 
especially  in  that  of  St-Sulpice.  He  very  soon  be- 
came acquainted  with  the  principal  publishers  of  the 
'' Encyclopedic '',  and  supplied  them  with  the  article 
on  " Certitude  ".  About  the  end  of  1751,  he  presented 
himself  for  the  doctorate,  driven,  as  a  mhnoire  of 
that  time  says,  "by  the  incredulous,  who,  in  order 
to  justify  his  blasphemies,  wanted  to  have  his  doc- 


PRADO  332  PRJBLATUS 

trine  approved  by  the  Faculty''.  Prades  wrote  a  second  part  of  the  second  volume  goes  into  a  det^ed 
very  lon^  thesis,  which  the  examiners  accepted  with-  archsBological  study  of  the  Temple.  The  third  volume 
out  readmg.  The  defence,  which  took  place  on  18  of  this  commentary  on  Ezechiel  is  entitled ''Apparatus 
November,  was  very  sharp,  and  the  scandal  broke  urbis  ac  tempU  I&erosolymitani ''  (fol.  pp.  xvi,  603: 
out.  On  15  December  following,  the  Faculty  de-  Rome,  1604).  There  are  two  parts  to  the  volume,  ana 
clared  several  propositions  to  be  "worthy  of  blame  both  are  the  joint  work  of  Rrado  and  Villalpando. 
and  censures".  On  15  January  following,  the  cen-  Commentaries  on  Isaias,Zachaiy,MicheaB,  the  Epistle 
sure  was  published.  According  to  Abb4  ae  Prades,  to  the  Hebrews,  together  with  a  book  on  Biblical 
the  soul  IS  an  unknown  substance;  sensations  are  chronolc^  are  among  the  MSS.  works  leftby  Prado, 
the  soitfce  of  oiu*  ideas;  the  origin  of  civil  law  is  several  ofwhich  are  in  the  National  Library  of  Madrid, 
might,  from  which  are  derived  all  notions  of  just  and  The  volumes  published  by  VUlalpando  were  dedicated 
of  unjust,  of  good  and  evil;  natural  law  is  empiric;  to  PhiUp  II,  at  whose  request  and  cost  the  work  begun 
revealed  religion  is  only  natural  religion  in  its  evolu-  by  Prado  was  brought  to  a  successful  completion, 
tionj  the  chronology  of  Moses's  books  is  false;  the  lliese  three  volumes  have  always  been  highly  es- 
healmgs  operated  oy  Jesus  Christ  are  doubtful  teemed  for  their  thorough  and  scientiBc  study  of  Jew- 
miracles,  since  those  operated  by  Esculapius  present  ish  coins,  weights,  and  measures;  likewise  for  the  care 
the  same  characteristics.  The  archbishop  of  Paris  with  which  the  Temple  and  City  of  Jerusalem  are 
and  several  bishops  approved  the  censure;  after-  reconstructed  from  the  very  few  data  then  at  hand, 
wards,  on  the  2  March,  Benedict  XIV  condemned  the  Cardinal  Wiseman  found  the  work  of  Prado  to  be 
thesis;  at  last  the  Parliament  of  Paris  issued  a  decree  ''still  the  great  repertory  to  which  eveiy  modem 
against  the  author;  further,  Stanislas.  Duke  of  scholiast  must  recur,  in  explaining  the  dimculties  of 
I^rraine,  incited  the  Faculty  against  tne  Abb4.  the  book"  (Science  and  Revealed  Religion,  II,  Lon- 
The  latter  found  a  refuge  in  Holland,  where  he  pub-  don,  1851 ,  1^) .  The  younger  Rosenmiuler  calls  these 
lished  his  "Apology"  (1752).  It  consists  of  two  parts:  volumes  "a  work  replete  with  varied  erudition,  and 
a  third  part  contaming  "reflexions  upon  the  Pastoral  most  useful  to  the  study  of  antiquity"  ("Ezechielis 
Letter  of  the  bishop  of  Montauban  and  the  Pastoral  Vaticinia",  I,  Leipzig,  1826,  32,  in  Wiseman,  1.  c). 
Instruction  of  the  bishop  of  Auxerre"  as  written  by  Among  those  whom  Prado  inspired  with  his  thorough- 
Diderot.  Le  P6re  Brotier  published  "the  Survey  ness  and  enthusiasm  in  the  studv  of  the  Bible  were  his 
of  the  Apology  of  the  Abb4  de  Prades"  (1753).  The  pupils  John  Pineda  and  Louis  ae  Alcazar, 
question  is  whether  the  Abb6  de  Prades  is  not  the  «Hf»??»»  Ninnen^atar,!  annBbruck,iS92),M;  Sommbbvoobi^ 
author  of  an  "Apology  of  the  Abb6  de  Prades"  in  ^»«»«<^^*«««  ^^  ^  c<mpagme  de  JUu,.  VI.  1149^ 
verse.    Upon  the  recommendation  of  Voltaire  and  of  w         r     rum. 

FrIdS  o?  pJu^^^i  winfto  B^Ur^Fffic^k        '^*"«  ^^^  (';  «••  R^e^eo,),.  preUte  who 

.ave  him  a  pejudon  a«d  two  ^onri«,  the  one  at  ^^n^prf^':^'"di<='''TSe  '^inT^Z 

Oppeln,  the  other  at  Glogau.     From  the  year  1753,  "iri-TL,  must  neceaaarilv  bTmuffht  in  tfe  Anoetolio 

neitotiatioiw  were  entered  upon  between  the  Abb4  P"*'*"*  ™"*^  necerearuy  De  eougni  m  ine  Apoetouo 

de  IWes  and  the  Bishop^  Bredau,  PhUip  von  P|Jiri?5«,  for  on^^ 

Schaffgotsch,  with  a  view  to  a  recantation.    Fr^erick  ^^^Jj/M^PIH  "^mS^^^n  ^ffJ^fn^^S^?^ 

himeeff  induced  the  AbW  to  return  to  "the  bosom  of  }^,tl  t^n^^^f  ri?hu  ^f  nS,SS  ^mL^^ 

the  Church".    Benedict  XIV  and  the  Carduial  of  ^I^T^^JT:J^fu^Af°J^''^^f,^^Z 

Vencin  wrote  the  formula  of  recantation  which  was  2"^:Z^S.t; ,  w  te;?n*2^^^t^^P^SS^W 

'StJ^^\^.Ai^'^^k'^  MUUr  te^Xm  b^\*aSa'a;!^Whrth^1^v^ 

%Ta^  Sr^pt^i  Wa^  *h»  .i^H^l^^^te  not  f^ceived  episcopal  consecration,  such  prelat^  may 
The  Abb6  dePtadM  became  the  wcMeaoon  of  the        ^       j     ^^  ^^       but  they  have  the  privilege 

^te«  ♦h^'^^^'rl,?  n^nf  J    wf  I.^t   an   "  I  W<wi  ("  ^^ey  are  abbots  and  priests)  of  advancing  canS- 

I  ^i.?Jf  :i   „  !rigL^.*2,^?»^»   mll!t "    .,    ^t  dates  to  tonsure  and  minor  orders.    If  not  con^rated 

de  1  hwtoire   ecclAiiastique  de   FTeury   .tf-   Berne  gpiscopally,  they  have  not  the  power  to  exercise  those 

(Berim,  1767),  II  ^«'8'*>th  a  violently  anti-«itholic  fi„ctiins  o  coi^ecrating  oik,  etc.,  which  are  referred 

preface  written  by  Frederick  II.    This  would  make  .^  ^.u^  «»v;««^^„i  «>«!«- ^«i„  «««i^»^i,oKr      T>,^ia^^»a 

m  doubt  the  sincerity  of  the  recantation  of  the  Abb6  ^J^^  T^^.  ^i.^L  T^^^Lil^^^ 

J   ^   1         rn   u'-.;^-., -.,iK.  «-««;u.,vj  "i^T'^-^u^...,  nuUius  may  take  cognizance  of  matnmomai  causes 

1"  ^^  yJ^^^^^ZT*^^  ^^  JtJn^^s  within  the  ^ame  limit!  as  a  bishop;  they  may  dispense 
de  la  Sorbonne'  translated  from  Latin  (1782).  ^^^  ^y^^  proclamation  of  matrliionid  banns,  Sant 
Accordmg  to  Qudrard,  he  left  m  manus^^^^  a  com-  j  j^j  ^  ^^^  confessions  and  preachiiift  re- 
plete translation  of  Tacitus,  which  remains  unpub-  ^^^  ^^^^ain  cases  to  themselves,  publiSi  induli^ces. 

ion  over  the  enclo- 
to  confirm  in  their 

Ar'kF«:«ii':^^.iir«.r^.i:"iC*«\p;^^^  quad-cUocese.     These  prelat^  mav  not,  however. 

CHIBL4ND.  Souvenirt  de  Berlin  (3rd  ed.,  IV.  368);  Fbbbt,  La  Without  Special  permission  of  the  Holy  See,  convoke  a 

PaetiUi  de  iUoioQie  de  Paris,  VI  XPari».  1909),  183-193.  svnod  or  institute  synodal  examiners.    Neithv  may 

Joseph  Dbdibu.  they  confer  parochial  benefices.   They  are  not  allowed 

iw.^^^    T»»^w.  ,>x,    .«.^«^»  K   «♦  n»^.»  ;«  a^«:«  to  grant  indulgences,  or  absolve  from  the  reserved 

^^^^A'l^n^J^^'-^^T    \^^^^^  ^^  ^^  ^^^  irr^arities  whose  absolution  is 

S^   eV  o?  jSrin''l57'2r^S^^   U^^^ ^1  ^"tv^le^t^rKFI^^^^^^^^^ 

^n^  $^%l'^l^l'±T^^^^^  rn^Co^rd^T^^^ 

teen  years.     His  great  work  is      lomus  pnmus  m  „„x-  „  ««,.««.™;-«;,?l;„^;«*;^«  «„«^^«.«i«^flo  A«rv«_ 

Ezechlel"  (fol.  pp.V  Rome,  1596).    After  sixteen  KeC^     P?Jl^S^  I^  ^^er  1^^ 

j:TJs^s*.x*«t!iSfo?  u'^He  teJM:  ^''.^di  to  p^hih:  wr«iTf'&to  iffTSj 

rw^nS^VtpterThereLiSer'rfE^^^^  i^Zl°^^^^tae*"nS^bo*^n^ifo'^to^^^^ 

interpreted  by  John  Baptist  Villalpando  S.J.,  of  Coi-  ^.T^^oTZir  nn«S^^^^  "^h^nSlv  S^«f^ 

?„7£"„'^h&io^um'fceH^n=t^^  ^'J^'in  the  UnUed^S^- Ab^t  ofta^tl^ 

intwopartsil.    ExplanationumEzechielusprophetae,  Belmont,  North  Carolina.    (See  Abbot.) 

pars  pnma,  in  tredecim  capita  sequentia     (fol.  pp.        s*NooiNETn.  Art.  BcdmaHiaB  InuatOimeM  (Rome,  1898); 

104;     Rome,    1604):    II.  "De   postrema   Ezechielis  Tavhtoh,  The  Law  ciftii*Churek  (hondon,i9M),».  v.  Pnhtt*. 

prophetic  visione"  (fol.  pp.  655;  Rome,  1605).    This  Wiu4am  H.  W.  FANNtNO. 


PRAPOSITUS                            333  PRAGMATISM 

Pr»po8itUB.    See  Provost.  forcement  of  the  sanction.    Leo  X  effected  its  an- 

Pr»textatus,  Catacomb  of.    See  Cemetery,  sub-  J^^i^sfg^^  ""^^  °^  ""  Concordat  made  with  Francis 

title,  Early  Roman  Christian  Cemeteries.  m    yj^  ^^^^  Pragmatic  Sanction  of  14S9.^At 

Pragmfttic  Sanction  (pragmatica  sanction  lexj  jus-  the  Diet  of  Frankfort  held  in  March,  1438.  the  Ger- 

siOf  also  pragnuUica  or  pragmaticum)  meant  in  the  man  ruling  princes  also  declared  their  neutrality  in  the 

latter  period  of  the  Roman  Empire  an  edict  formally  struggle  between  Eugenius  IV  and  the  Council  of 

issued  by  the  emperor.    They  were  called  pragmatic,  Basle.    A  new  diet  was  held  for  further  discussion  of 

from«'pa7Aia,  the  affair  or  matter  of  sanction.    In  later  the  matter  in  March,  1439,  at  Mainz,  and  this  diet 

times  the  best  known  are: —  also  accepted  a  series  of  the  Basle  decrees  of  reform 

I.  The  Sanctio  Pragmatica  said  to  have  been  issued  with  modifications  in  individual  cases.  The  diet  re- 
fey  Si.  Louis  IX  of  Prance  in  1269. — Its  purpose  was  to  served  to  itself  the  right  to  make  other  changes,  and 
oppose  the  extension  of  papal  power,  the  demands  of  at  a  convenient  time  the  council  was  to  pass  decisions 
trioute  made  by  Rome, .  and  the  increase  of  papal  on  such  points.  This  is  the  substance  of  the  ^'  Instru- 
reservations  in  regard  to  the  filling  of  oflices.  I'he  mentum  acceptationis"  of  26  March,  1439.  The 
rights  of  prelates,  patrons,  and  the  regular  collators  of  designation  pragmatic  sanction  is,  however,  mislead- 
benefices  were  protected  against  papal  collation  of  ing,  for  it  was  not  confirmed  by  the  emperor, 
benefices.  Free  elections,  promotions,  and  collations  IV.  The  Pragmatic  Sanction  of  the  Emperor  Charles 
were  guaranteed  to  the  cathedrals  and  other  churches.  VI. — This  edict,  issued  by  the  last  German  male 
This  was  directed  against  the  papal  right  of  reserva^  member  of  the  House  of  Hapsburg  regulating  the 
tion  and  presentation,  not  against  the  nlling  of  offices  succession  to  his  hereditary  lands,  was  read  19  April, 
by  the  king.  It  was  further  laid  down  that  all  promo-  1713,  before  the  ministers  and  councillors,  but  was 
tions,  collations,  and  bestowals  of  Church  offices  must  temporarily  kept  secret.  The  law  ordained  that  all 
be  in  accordance  with  the  common  law,  the  early  coun-  the  Austrian  hereditary  lands  should  always  remain 
oils  and  the  ancient  regulations  of  the  Fathers.  Simony  united,  and  that  on  the  failure  of  male  descendants 
was  forbidden.  Papal  taxes  and  imposts  were  permitted  they  should  pass  to  the  daughters  that  might  be  bom 
only  in  case  of  necessity,  and  with  the  permission  of  the  to  Ae  emperor;  and  not  until  their  descendants  died 
king  and  the  French  Church.  The  liberties  and  privi-  out  should  the  right  of  succession  revert  to  the  daugh- 
Icges  f^ranted  to  churches,  monasteries,  and  priests  by  ters  of  his  brother,  the  Emperor  Joseph  I  (1705-11), 
the  kings  were  guaranteed.  The  investigations  of  and  to  their  male  and  female  descendants.  Thisprag- 
Thomas^  (1844),  G6rin  (1869),  Viollet  (1870),  and  matic  sanction  was  accepted  by  the  estates  oi  the 
Scheffer-Boichorst  (1887),  have  proved  that  it  is  a  Austrian  lands  in  1720-4'  then  in  the  course  of 
forgery  which  appeared  between  1438  and  1452.  time  it  was  sdso  recognized  and  guaranteed  by  the 

n.  The  Pragmatic  Sanction  of  Bourges. — The  Coun-  Powers  of  Europe,  so  that  Itf  ter  the  death  of  Charles 

cil  of  Basle  (1431-7)  had  issued  many  useful  decrees  VI  his  daughter  Maria  Theresa  could  succeed, 

concerning  reform,  but  finally  came  into  conflict  with  V.  The  Pragmatic  Sanction  of  Charles  III  of  Spmn, 

Eugenius  IV  and  was  suspended  by  him.    Both  par-  — Charles  III  was  King  of  Naples  and  Sicily  until  he 

ties,  poi>e  and  council,  now  sought  the  support  of  the  succeeded  his  brother  Ferdinand  upon  the  throne  of 

secular  powers.    It  was  to  the  interest  of  these  to  pre-  Spain  in  1759.   The  pragmatic  sanction  that  he  issued 

vent  a  new  schism  and  not  to  permit  the  complete  6  Oct.,  1759,  before  ne  left  Naples,  is  also  an  edict  of 

failure  of  the  reforms  of  Basle.   The  position  of  France  succession.    As  earlier  treaties  forbade  the  union  of 

in  regard  to  these  questions  was  to  be  discussed  at  a  Spain  and  N^les,  he  transferred  Naples  and  Sicily  to 

national  council  that  King  Charles  V II  commanded  to  his  third  son  Ferdinand.    Up  to  Ferdinand's  sixteenth 

meet  at  Bourses  in  May,  1438.    This  council  declared  year  Naples  was  to  be  administered  by  a  regency.   The 

itself  neutral  in  the  dispute  between  the  pope  and  the  eldest  son,  Philip,  was  weak-minded;  the  second  son 

synod,  but  accepted  the  greater  part  of  the  Basle  de-  Charles  was  to  receive  Spain.    Charles  lU  also  pro- 

crees  on  reform,  modifying  some  on  account  of  the  vided  that  in  case  Ferdinand's  line  should  become 

special  conditions  in  France;  these  changes  were  made  extinct  his  brothers  Philip  and  Louis  were  to  have  the 

with  the  expectation  that  the  council  would  ratify  the  succession.    The  union  of  Naples  and  the  Two  Sicilies 

modifications.    On  7  July,  1438,  the  king  issued  a  was  expressly  forbidden  in  the  edict. 

decree,  the  Pragmatic  Sanction,  in  which  he  accepted  HsBOENB^yrHKB,  Handbuch  der  allgemeinen  Kirehengetch.,  ed. 

the  decisions  and  ordered  the  observance  of  them.  Kibsch.  II  C4th  ed.,  Freiburg,  1904),  (joo-oi,  931;  Hefbu:, 

Fjaapntiallv  if  rnntAinn  thp  t^npf^  of  thp  Riinrpm5i/>v  nf  Korunlxengetchtchte,     VII     (Freiburg,     1869),     762-70;      Koch, 

iliSSennaiiy  11  COniains  me  leneiS  OI  me  supremacy  OI  ganctio   pragmatica   Germanorum   illuttrata    (Strwburg,    1789): 

an  cecumemcal  council  over  the  pope,  of  the  regular  St.  Louia  and  the  Pragmatic  Sanction  in  The  Month  (London.  Oct., 

holding  of  general  councils,  and  of  the  limitation  of  1869).  366. 

papal  reservations  and  demands  of  tribute.    The  sup-  •                                              Klemens  L^ffler. 

Eression  of  annates  by  the  Council  of  Basle  was  added, 

ut  with  the  modification  that  a  fifth  of  the  former  tax  Pragmatism,  as  a  tendency  in  philosophy,  signifies 

was  conceded  to  the  papal  see.  the  insistence  on  usefulness  or  practical  consequences 

By  this  edict  the  French  king  issued  a  law  of  the  as  a  test  of  truth.    In  its  negative  phase,  it  opposes 

secular  legislative  authority  in  purely  ecclesiastical  what  it  styles  the  formalism  or  rationalism  of  Intellec- 

affairs.   The  recognition  of  the  authority  of  the  Coun-  tualistic  philosophy.    That  is,  it  objects  to  the  view 

cil  of  Basle  was  only  formal,  for  the  validity  of  its  deci-  that  concepts,  judgments,  and  reasoning  processes  are 

sions  in  France  rested  solely  upon  the  edict  of  the  representative  of  reality  and  the  processes  of  reality, 

king.  As  the  law  was  recorded  in  the  Parliaments  these.  It  considers  them  to  be  merely  symbols,  hypotheses 

especially  the  Parliament  of  Paris,  received  the  right  oi  and  schemata  devised  by  man  to  facilitate  or  render 

interfering  in  the  internal  affairs  of  the  Church.    In  possible  the  use,  or  experience,  of  reality.    This,  use, 

addition,  no  attention  had  been  paid  to  the  pope,  conse-  or  experience,  is  the  true  test  of  real  existence,    m  its 

quently  every  effort  was  made  at  Rome  to  have  the  law  positive  phase,  therefore.  Pragmatism  sets  up  as  the 

set  aside.    Pius  II  (1458-64)  declared  it  an  infringe-  standard  of  truth  some  non-rational  test,  sucn  as  ac* 

ment  of  the  rights  of  the  papal  see,  and  called  upon  the  tion,  satisfaction  of  needs,  realization  in  conduct,  the 

P'rench  bishops  to  aid  in  its  suppression.    Charles  VII  possibility  of  bein^  lived,  and  judges  reality  by  this 

appealed  against  this  to  a  general  council.    His  sue-  norm  to  the  exclusion  of  all  others, 

cessor  Louis  XI  promised  the  pope  to  repeal  the  sane-  I.  The  Origins  of  Pragmatism. — Although  the 

tion,  but  the  Parliament  of  Paris  and  the  university  Pragmatists  themselves  proclaim  that  Pragmatism  is 

resisted,  and  the  kin^  let  the  matter  drop.   In  1499  but  a  new  name  for  old  ways  of  thinking,  they  are  not 

Louis  XII  by  explicit  declaration  renewed  the  en-  agreed  as  to  the  immediate  sources  of  the  Pragmatic 


PRAGMATISM 


334 


PRAGMATISM 


movement.  Nevertjielese,  it  is  clear  that  Kant,  who  is 
held  responsible  for  so  many  of  the  recent  develop- 
ments in  philosophy  and  theology^  has  had  a  deciding 
influence  on  the  origin  of  Pragmatism.  Descartes,  by 
reason  of  the  emphasis  he  laid  on  the  theoretical  con- 
sciousness, ^*  I  think,  therefore  I  exist'',  may  be  said  to 
be  the  father  of  Intellectualism.  From  Kant's  substi- 
tution of  moral  for  theoretical  consciousness,  from  his 
insistence  on  "I  ought"  instead  of  "I  think  ,  came  a 
whole  progeny  of  Voluntaristic  or  non-rational  philos- 
ophies, especially  Lotze's  philosophy  of  "  value  instead 
of  validity",  which  were  not  without  influence  on  the 
founders  of  Pragmatism.  Besides  the  influence  of 
Kant,  there  is  also  to  be  reckoned  the  trend  of  scien- 
tific thought  during  the  last  half  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury.. In  ancient  and  medieval  times  the  scientist 
aimed  at  the  discovery  of  causes  and  the  establishment 
of  laws.  The  cause  was  a  fact  of  experience,  ascertain- 
able by  empirical  methods,  and  the  law  was  a  general- 
ization from  facts,  representing  the  real  course  of 
events  in  natu^'e.  With  the  advent  of  the  evolution 
theory  it  was  found  that  an  unproved  hypothesis  or 
hypothetical  C!\usc,  if  ij^  explains  the  facts  observed, 
fulfils  the  same  puipose  and  serves  the  same  ends  as  a 
true  cause  or  an  established  law.  Indeed,  if  evolution, 
as  a  hypothesis,  explains  the  facts  observed  in  plant 
and  animal  life,  or  if  a  hypothetical  medium,  like  ether, 
explains  the  facts  observed  in  regard  to  light  and  heat, 
there  is  no  reason,  say  the  scientists,  why  we  should 
concern  ourselves  further  about  the  truth  of  evolution 
or  the  existence  of  ether.  The  hypothesis  functions 
satisfactorily,  and  that  is  enough.  From  this  equaliza- 
tion of  hvpothesis  with  law  and  of  provisional  explana- 
tion with  proved  fact  arose  the  tendency  to  equalize 
postulates  with  axioms,  and  to  regard  as  true  any  prin- 
ciple which  works  out  well,  or  functions  satisfactorily. 
Moreover,  evolution  had  familiarized  scientists  with 
the  notion  that  all  progress  is  conditioned  by  adjust- 
ment to  new  conditions.  It  was  natural,  therefore,  to 
consider  that  a  problem  presented  to  the  thinking  mind 
calls  for  the  adjustment  of  the  previous  content  of  the 
mind  to  the  new  experience  in  the  problem  pondered. 
A  principle  or  postulate  or  attitude  of  mind  tnat  would 
bnng  about  an  adjustment  would  satisfy  the  mind  for 
the  time  bein^,  and  would,  therefore,  solve  the  prob- 
lem. This  satisfaction  came,  consequently,  to  be  con- 
sidered a  test  of  truth.  This  account,  however,  would 
be  incomplete  without  a  mention  of  the  temperamen- 
tal, racial,  and,  in  a  sense,  the  environmental  deter- 
minants of  Pragmatism.  The  men  who  represent 
Pragmatism  are  of  the  motor-active  type;  the  coun- 
try, namely  the  United  States,  in  which  Pragmatism 
has  flourished  most  is  pre-eminently  a  country  of 
achievement,  and  the  age  in  which  Pragmatism  has 
appeared  is  one  which  bestows  its  highest  praise  on 
successful  endeavour.  The  first  of  the  Pragmatisto 
declares  that  Pragmatism  rests  on  the  axiom  ''The  end 
of  man  is  action'  ,  an  axiom,  he  adds,  which  does  not 
recommend  itself  to  him  at  sixty  as  forcibly  as  it  did 
when  he  was  thirty. 

II.  The  Praqmatists. — In  a  paper  contributed  to 
the  "Popular  Science  Monthly"  in  1878  entitled 
"How  to  make  our  Ideas  clear",  Mr.  C.  S.  Peirce  first 
used  the  word  Pragmatism  to  designate  a  principle  put 
forward  by  him  as  a  rule  to  guide  the  scientist  and  the 
mathematician.  The  principle  is  that  the  meaning  of 
any  conception  in  the  mind  is  the  practical  effect  it 
will  have  in  action.  "Consider  what  effects  which 
might  conceivably  have  practical  bearinjgs  we  consider 
the  object  of  our  conception  to  have.  Then  our  con- 
ception of  these  effects  is  the  whole  of  our  conception 
of  the  object."  This  rule  remained  unnoticed  for 
twenty  years,  until  it  was  taken  up  by  Professor  Wil- 
liam James  in  his  address  delivered  at  the  University  of 
California  in  1898.  "Pragmatism",  according  to 
James,  "is  a  temper  of  mind,  an  attitude;  it  is  also  a 
theory  of  the  nature  of  ideas  and  truth;  and  finally,  it 


is  a  theory  about  reality"  (Journal  of  Phil.,  V,  85). 
As  he  uses  the  word,  therefore,  it  designates  (a)  an 
attitude  of  mind  towards  philosophy,  (b)  an  episte- 
mology,  and  (c)  a  metaphvsics.  James's  epistemology 
and  metaphysics  will  be  described  in  sections  III  and 
IV.  The  attitude  which  he  calls  Pragmatism  he  de- 
fines as  follows:  "The  whole  function  of  philosophy 
ought  to  be  to  find  out  what  definite  difference  it  will 
make  to  you  and  me,  at  definite  instants  of  bur  lives, 
if  this  world-formula  or  that  world-formula  be  the  true 
one"  (Pragmatism,  p.  50).  Thus,  when  one  is  con- 
fronted with  the  evidence  in  favour  of  the  formula 
"the  human  soul  is  immortal",  and  then  turns  to  the 
considerations  put  forward  by  the  sceptic  in  favour  of 
the  formula  "the  human  soul  is  not  immortal",  what 
is  he  to  do?  If  he  is  a  Pragmatist,  he  will  not  be  con- 
tent to  weigh  the  evidence,  to  compare  the  case  for 
with  the  case  against  immortality;  he  will  not  attempt 
tc  fit  the  aflirmative  or  the  negative  into  a  "closed 
system"  of  thought;  he  will  work  out  the  conse- 
quences, the  definite  differences,  that  follow  from  each 
alternative,  and  decide  in  that  way  which  of  the  two 
"works"  better.  The  alternative  which  works  better 
is  true.  The  attitude  of  the  Pragmatist  is  "the  atti- 
tude of  looking  awav  from  first  thines,  principles, 
categories,  supposed  necessities;  and  of  looking 
tow^s  last  things,  fruits,  consequences,  facts"  (op. 
cit.,  55). 

Tlus  view  of  the  scope  and  attitude  of  philosophy  is 
sustained  in  Professor  James's  numerous  contributions 
to  the  literature  of  Pragmatism  (see  bibliography),  in 
lectures^  articles,  and  reviews  which  obtained  for  him 
the  distinction  of  being  the  most  thorough-goingand 
the  most  eminent,  if  not  the  most  logical,  of  the  Prag- 
matists.  Next  in  importance  to  James  is  Professor 
John  Dewey,  who  in  lus  "Studies  in  Logical  Theory" 
and  in  a  number  of  articles  and  lectures,  defends  the 
doctrine  known  variously  as  Instrumentalism,  or  Im- 
mediate Empiricism.  According  to  Dewey,  we  are 
constantly  acquiring  new  items  of  knowledge  which 
are  at  first  unrelated  to  the  nrevious  contents  of  the 
mind;  or,  in  moments  of  reflection,  we  discover  that 
there  is  some  contradiction  among  the  items  of  knowl- 
edge already  acquired.  This  condition  causes  a  strain 
or  tension,  the  removal  of  which  gives  satisfaction  to 
the  thinker.  An  idea  is  "a  plan  of  action",  which  we 
use  to  relieve  the  strain;  if  it  performs  that  function 
successfully,  that  is,  satisfactorily,  it  is  true.  The 
adjustment  is  not,  however,  one-sided.  Both  the  old 
truths  in  the  mind  and  the  new  truth  that  has  just 
entered  the  mind  must  be  modified  before  we  can  have 
satisfaction.  Thus  there  is  no  static  truth,  much  less 
absolute  truth;  there  are  truths,  and  these  are  con- 
stantly being  made  true.  This  is  the  view  which, 
under  the  names  Personalism,  and  Humanism,  has 
been  emphasized  by  Professor  F.  S.  Schiller,  the  fore- 
most of  the  English  exponents  of  Pragmatism.  "  Hu- 
manism", and  "Studies  in  Humanism"  are  the  titles 
of  his  principal  works.  Pragmatism,  Schiller  thinks, 
"is  in  reality  only  the  application  of  Humanism  to 
the  theory  of  knowledge"  (Humanism,  p.  xxi),  and 
Humanism  is  the  doctrine  that  there  is  no  absolute 
truth,  but  only  truths,  which  are  constantly  bdng 
made  true  by  the  mind  working  on  the  data  of  expe- 
rience. 

On  the  Continent  of  Europe,  Praflxnatism  has  not 
attained  the  same  prominence  as  in  English-speaking 
countries.  Nevertheless,  writers  who  favour  Prag- 
matism see  in  the  teachings  of  Mach,  Ostwald,  Avena- 
rius,  and  Simmel  a  tendency  towaras  the  Pragmatic 
definition  of  philosophy.  James,  for  instance,  quotes 
Ostwald,  the  illustrious  Leipzig  chemist,  as  saying,  "I 
am  accustomed  to  put  questions  to  my  classes  in  this 
way:  in  what  respects  would  the  world  be  different  if 
this  alternative  or  that  were  true?  If  I  can  find  nothing 
that  would  become  different,  then  the  alternative  has  no 
sense"  (Pragmatism,  p.  48).   Avenarius'a  "Criticism 


PRAGMATISM 


335 


PRAGMATISM 


of  Experience",  and  Simmel's  "Philosophie  des 
Geldes''  tend  towards  establishing  the  same  criterion. 
In  France,  Rcnouvier's  return  to  the  point  of  view  of 
practical  reason  in  his  neo-Criticism,  the  so-called 
''new  philosophy  "  which  minimizes  the  value  of  scien- 
tific categories  as  interpretations  of  reality,  and  which 
has  its  cluef  representative  in  Poincar^,  who,  as  James 
says,  *' misses  Pragmatism  only  by  the  breadth  of  a 
hair'',  and,  finally,  Bergson,  whom  the  Pragmatists 
everywhere  recognize  as  the  most  brilliant  and  logical 
of  their  leaders,  represent  the  growth  and  develop- 
ment of  the  French  School  of  I^agmatism.  Side  by 
side  with  this  French  movement,  and  not  iminfluenced 
by  it,  is  the  school  of  Catholic  Inmianent  Apologists, 
beginning  with  Oll^Laprune  and  coming  down  to 
Blondel  and  Le  Roy,  who  exalt  action,  life,  sentiment, 
or  some  other  non-rational  element  into  the  sole  ana 
supreme  criterion  of  higher  spiritual  truth.  In  Italy, 
Giovanni  Papini,  author  of  '' Introduzione  al  prag- 
matismo",  takes  his  place  among  the  most  advancS 
exponents  of  the  principle  that  "the  meaning  of 
theories  consists  uniquely  in  the  consequences  which 
those  who  believe  them  true  may  expect  from  them" 
(Introd.,  p.  28).  Indeed,  he  seems  at  times  to  go  far- 
ther than  the  American  and  English  Pragmatists: 
when,  for  instance,  in  the  "Popular  Science  Monthly" 
(Oct.,  1907),  he  writes  that  Pragmatism  "is  less  a 
philosophy  than  a  method  of  doing  without  philos- 
ophy". 

III.  Pragmatic  Theory  of  Knowledge. — In  fair- 
ness to  the  Pragmatists  it  must  be  recorded  that,  when 
they  claim  to  shift  the  centre  of  philosophic  inquiry 
from  the  theoretical  to  the  practical,  they  explain  that 
by  "practical"  they  do  not  understand  merely  the 
"bread  and  butter"  consequences,  but  include  also 
among  practical  consequences  such  considerations  as 
logical  consistency,  intellectual  satisfaction,  and  har- 
mony of  mental  content;  and  James  expressly  affirms 
that  by  "practical"  he  means  "particular  and  con- 
crete". Individualism  or  Nominalism  is,  therefore, 
the  starting-point  of  the  Pragmatist.  Indeed  Dr. 
Schiller  assures  us  that  the  consequences  which  are 
the  test  of  truth  must  be  the  consequences  to  some  one, 
for  some  purpose.  The  Intellectualism  against  which 
Pragmatism  is  a  revolt  reconiizes  logical  consistency 
among  the  tests  of  truth.  But  while  Intellectualism 
refers  the  truth  to  be  treated  to  imiversal  standards, 
to  laws,  principles,  and  to  established  generalizations, 
Pragmatism  uses  a  standard  which  is  particular,  indi- 
vidtud,  personal.  Besides,  realistic  Intellectualism, 
such  as  was  taught  by  the  Scholastics,  recognizes  an 
order  of  real  things,  independent  of  the  mind,  not 
made  by  the  mind,  but  given  in  experience,  ana  uses 
that  as  a  standard  of  truth,  conformity  to  it  being  a 
test  of  truth,  and  lack  of  conformity  being  a  proof  of 
falseness.  Pragmatism  regards  this  realism  as  naive, 
as  a  reUc  of  primitive  modes  of  philosophizing,  and  is 
obliged,  therefore,  to  test  newly-accjuired  truth  by  the 
standard  of  truth  already  in  the  mind,  that  is,  bv  per- 
sonal or  individual  experience.  Again,  there  underlies 
the  pragmatic  account  of  knowledge  a  Sensist  psy- 
chology, latent,  perhaps,  so  far  as  the  consciousness 
of  the  Pragmatist  is  concerned.  For  the  Pragmatist, 
although  he  does  not  affirm  that  we  have  no  knowledge 
superior  to  sense  knowledge,  leaves  no  room  in  his 
philosophy  for  knowledge  that  represents  universally 
and  necessarily  and,  at  the  same  time,  validly. 

Knowledge  begins  with  sense-impressions.  At  this 
point  the  Ftagmatist  falls  into  his  initial  error,  an 
error,  however,  of  which  the  idealistic  Intellectualist 
is  also  guilty.  What  we  are  aware  of,  say  both  the 
Pragmatist  and  the  Idealist,  is  not  a  thin^,  or  a  quality 
of  an  object,  but  the  state  of  self,  the  subjective  condi- 
tion, the  "sensation  of  whiteness",  the  "sensation  of 
sweetness"  etc.  This  error,  fatal  as  it  is,  need  not 
detain  us  here,  because,  as  has  been  said,  it  is  common 
to  Idealists  and  Pragmatists.    It  is,  in  fact,  the  luck- 


less Cartesian  legacy  to  all  modern  systems.  Next,  we 
come  to  percepts,  concepts,  or  ideas.  Incidentally,  it 
may  be  remarked  that  the  Pragmatist,  in  common 
with  the  Sensist,  this  time,  fails  to  distinguish  between 
a  percept,  which  is  particular  and  contingent,  and  an 
idea  or  concept,  which  is  universal  and  necessary!  Let 
us  take  the  word  concept,  and  use  it  as  he  does,  with<^, 
out  distinguishing  its  specific  meaning.  What  is  th^ 
value  of  the  concept?  The  Realist  answers  that  it  is  a 
representation  of  reality,  that,  as  in  the  case  of  the  im- 
pression, so  here^  too,  there  is  a  something  outside  the 
mind  which  the  concept  represents  and  which  is  the 
primary  test  of  the  truth  of  the  concept.  The  Prag- 
matist rejects  the  notion  that  concepts  represent 
reality.  However  the  Pragmatists  may  differ  later  on, 
they  are  all  agped  on  this  point:  James,  Schiller, 
Bergson,  Papini,  the  heo-Critics  of  science  and  the 
Immanentists.  What,  then,  does  the  concept  do? 
Concepts,  we  are  told^  are  tools  fashioned  by  the 
human  mind  for  the  manipulation  of  experience. 
James,  for  example,  says  "The  notions  of  one  Time, 
one  Space  .  .  .  th^distinctions  between  thoughts 
and  tnings  .  .  .  the  conceptions  of  classes  with 
subclasses  within  them  .  .  *.  surely  all  these  were 
once  definite  conquests  made  at  histonc  dates  by  our 
ancestors  in  their  attempts  to  get  the  chaos  of  their 
crude  individual  experiences  into  a  more  shareable  and 
manageable  shape.  They  proved  of  such  sovereign 
use  as  DenkmiUd  that  they  are  now  a  part  of  the  very 
structure  of  our  mind"  (Meaning  of  Truth,  p.  62). 

A  concept,  therefore,  is  true  if,  when  we  use  it  as  a 
tool  to  manipulate  or  handle  our  experience,  the  re- 
sults, the  practical  results,  are  satisfactory,  it  is  true 
if  it  functions  well;  in  other  words,  if  it  "works". 
Schiller  express^  the  same  notion  in  almost  identical 
words.  Concepts,  he  tells  us,  are  "tools  slowly  fash- 
ioned by  the  practical  intelligence  for  the  mastery  of 
experience"  (Studies  in  Humanism,  p.  64).  They  are 
not  static  but  dynamic;  their  work  is  never  done. 
For  each  new  experience  has  to  be  subjected  to  the 
process  of  manipulation,  and  this  process  implies  the 
read j ustment  of  all  past  eimerience.  Hence,  as  Schiller 
says,  there  are  truths  but  there  is  no  truth ;  or,  as  James 
expresses  it,  truth  is  not  transcendent  but  ambulatory; 
that  is  to  say,  no  truth  is  made  and  set  aside,  or  out- 
side experience,  for  future  reference  of  new  truth  to 
it ;  experience  is  a  stream  out  of  which  we  can  never 
step;  no  item  of  experience  can  ever  be  verified  defi- 
nitely and  irrevocably;  it  is  verified  provisionally 
now,  but  must  be  verified  again  to-morrow,  when  I 
acquire  a  new  experience.  Verificability  and  not 
verification  is  the  test  of  experience;  and,  therefore, 
the  function  of  the  concept,  of  any  concept  or  of  all 
of  them,  goes  on  indefinitely. 

Professor  Dewey  agrees  with  James  and  Schiller  in 
his  description  of  the  meaning  of  concepts.  He  ap- 
pears to  aiffer  from  them  merely  in  the  greater  em- 
phasis which  he  lays  on  the  strain  or  stress  which  the 
concept  relieves.  Our  first  experience,  he  says,  is  hot 
knowledge  properly  so-called.  When  to  this  is  added 
a  second  expenence  there  is  likely  to  arise  in  the  mind 
a  sense  of  contradiction,  or,  at  least,  a  consciousness  of 
the  lack  of  coordination,  between  the  first  and  the 
second.  Hence  arises  doubt,  or  uneasiness,  or  strain, 
or  some  other  form  of  the  throes  of  thinking.  We  can- 
not rest  until  this  painful  condition  is  remedied. 
Therefore  we  inquire,  and  continue  to  inquire  until 
we  obtain  an  answer  which  satisfies  by  removing  the 
inconsistency  which  existed,  or  by  brinpng  about  the 
adjustment  which  is  required.  In  this  inquiry  we  use 
the  concept  as  a  "plan  of  action  " ;  if  the  plan  leads  to 
satisfaction,  it  is  true,  if  it  does  not,  it  is  false.  For 
Dewey,  as  for  James  and  Schiller,  each  adjustment 
means  a  going  over  and  a  doing  over  of  aU  the  previous 
contents  of  experience,  or,  at  least,  of  those  contents 
which  are  in  any  way  relevant  or  referrable  to  the 
newly-acquired  item.    Here,  therefore,  we  have  once 


PRAGMATISM  336  PRAGMATISM 

more  the  doctrine  that  the  concept  is  not  static  but  there  may  be  in  some  remote  region  of  space  a  country 

dsmamic,  not  fixed  but  fluent;  its  meaning  is  not  its  where  two  and  two  are  five,  and  a  thing  can  be  and  not 

content  but  its  function.  The  same  doctrine  is  brought  be  at  the  same  time. 

out  very  forcibly  by  Bergson  in  his  criticism  of  the  cat-  IV.  Pragmatic  Theory  op  Reautt. — ^The  atti- 
egories  of  science.  The  reality  which  science  attempts  tude  of  Pragmatism  towards  metaphysics  is  some- 
tointerpretisastream,  aoorUiniiiini,  morelikealivmg  what  ambiguous.  Professor  James  was  quoted  above 
organism  than  a  mineral  substance.  Truth  in  the  (Sec.  II)  as  sajring  that  Pragmatism  is  ''finally,  a 
mind  of  the  scientist  is,  therefore,  a  vital  stream,  a  sue-  theory  of  reality ",  Schiller,  too,  although  he  con- 
cession of  concepts,  each  of  which  flows  into  its  sue-  siders  metaphysics  to  be  ''a  luxury  ",  and  believes  that 
cessor.  To  say  uiat  a  given  concept  represents  things  "neither  Priu^atism  nor  Humanism  necessitates  a 
as  they  are  can  be  true  only  in  the  fluent  or  functional  metaphysics  ,  yet  decides  at  last  that  Humanism 
sense.  A  concept  cut  out  of  the  continuum  of  expe-  "implies  iiltimately  a  voluntaristic  metaphysics", 
rience  at  any  moment  no  more  represents  the  reality  Papmi,  as  is  well  known,  puts  forward  the  corridor- 
of  science  than  a  cross-section  of  a  tissue  represents  theory",  according  to  wnich  Pragmatism  is  a  method 
the  specific  vital  function  of  that  tissue.  When  we  through  which  one  may  pass,  or  must  pass,  to  enter 
think  we  cut  our  concepts  out  of  the  continuum:  to  use  the  various  apartments  indicated  by  th^  edgns  "  Mate- 
our  concepts  as  they  were  intended  to  be  used,  we  must  rialism  ",  "Idealism  ",  etc.,  althou^  he  confesses  that 
keep  them  in  the  stream  of  reality,  that  is,  we  must  the  Pra^atist  "will  have  an  antipathy  for  all  forms 
live  them.  of  Monism"  (Introduzione,  p.  29).    As  a  matter  of 

If  we  pass  now  from  the  consideration  of  concepts  fact,  the  metaphysics  of  the  Pragmatist  is  distinctly 
to  that  of  judgment  and  reasoning,  we  find  the  same  anti-Monistic.  It  denies  the  fundamental  unity  of 
contrast  between  the  intellectual  Realist  and  the  reality  and,  adopting  a  word  which  seems  to  have 
Prasmatist  as  in  the  case  of  concepts.  The  intellectual  been  first  used  by  Wolff  to  designate  the  doctrines  of 
Realist  defines  judgment  as  a  process  of  the  mind,  in  the  Atomists  and  the  Monadism  of  Leibniz,  it  styles 
which  we  pronounce  the  agreement  or  difference  be-  the  Pragmatic  view  of  reality  Pluralistic.  Pluralism, 
tween  two  things  represented  by  the  two  concepts  of  the  doctrine^  namely,  that  reality  consists  of  a  plural- 
the  judgment.  The  things  themselves  are  the  stand-  ity  or  multiplicity  of  real  things  which  cannot  be 
ard.  Sometimes,  as  in  self-evident  judgments,  we  do  reduced  to  a  basic  metaphysical  unity,  claims  to  offer 
not  appeal  to  experience  at  the  moment  of  judging,  but  the  most  consistent  solution  of  three  most  important 
perceive  the  agreement  or  difference  after  an  analysis  problems  in  philosophy.  These  are:  (1)  The  possi- 
of  the  concepts.  Sometimes,  as  in  empirical  judg-  oility  of  real  change;  (2)  the  possibility  of  real  variety 
ments,  we  turn  to  experience  for  the  evidence  that  or  (ustinction  among  thingsj  and  (3)  the  possibility 
enables  us  to  judge.  Self-evident  truths  are  axiomatic,  of  freedom  (see  art.  "Pluralism"  in  Baldwm,  "Diet, 
necessary,  and  universal,  such  as  "All  the  radii  of  a  of  Plulosophy  and  Psychology").  It  is  true  that 
siven  circle  are  eoual",  or  "The  whol%  is  greater  than  Monism  fails  on  these  points,  smce  (1)  it  cannot  con- 
its  part".  Trutns  that  are  not  self-evident  may  sistently  maintain  the  reality  of  chan^;  (2)  it  tends 
change,  if  the  facts  change,  as,  for  instance,  "The  pen  to  the  Pantheistic  view  that  all  distinctions  are  merely 
Iholdinmy  handis  six  inches  long".  There  are  neces-  limitations  of  the  one  beins;  and  (3)  it  is  inevitably 
sary  truths,  which  are  a  legitimate  standard  by  which  Deterministic,  excluding  the  possibility  of  true  in- 
to test  new  truths;  and  there  are  truths  of  fact,  dividual  freeaom  (see  art.  Monism). 
which,  as  long  as  thev  remain  true,  are  also  legitimate  At  the  same  time.  Pluralism  i^oes  to  the  oppomte 
tests  c'  new  truth.  Thus,  systems  of  truth  are  built  extreme,  for:  (1)  while  it  explains  one  term  in  the 
up,  and  part  of  the  83r8tem  may  be  axiomatic  truths,  problem  of  change,  it  eliminates  the  other  term, 
wmch  ne^  not  be  re-made  or  made  over  when  a  new  namely  the  original  causal  unity  of  all  things  in  God, 
truth  is  acciuired.  the  F&st  Cause;  (2)  while  it  accounts  for  variety,  it 

All  this  is  swept  aside  by  the  Pragmatist  with  the  cannot  consistently  explain  the  cosmic  harmony  and 

same  contempt  as  the  naive  realism  which  holds  that  the  multitudinous  resemblances  of  things;  and  (3) 

concepts  represent  reality.    There  are  no  necessary  while  it  strives  to  maintain  freedom,  it  does  not  dis- 

truths,  there  are  no  asdoms,  says  Prajgmatism,  but  tinguish  with  sufficient  care  between  freedom  and 

only  postulates.    A  judgment  is  true  if  it  functions  in  causaJism.    James,  the  chief  exponent  of  Pragmatic 


parts  are 
long-established  habit  of  the  race.  The  essentiiJiy  and  externally  co-implicated.  In  the  each- 
reason  why  I  cannot  help  thinking  that  two  and  two  form,  on  the  contrary,  a  thing  may  be  connected  by 
are  four  is  the  habit  of  so  thinking,  a  habit  besun  by  intermediate  things,  with  a  thing  with  which  it  has 
our  ancestors  before  they  were  human  and  indulged  in  no  immediate  or  essential  connexion.  ...  If  the 
by  all  their  descendants  ever  since.  All  trutli^  are,  each-form  be  the  eternal  form  of  reality  no  less  than 
therefore,  empirical :  they  are  all  "man-made";  hence  the  form  of  temporal  appearance,  we  still  have  a 
Humanism  is  only  another  name  for  Pragmatism,  coherent  world,  and  not  an  incarnate  incoherence,  as 
Our  judgments  bemg  all  personal,  in  this  sense,  and  is  charged  by  so  many  absolutists.  Our  'multiverse' 
based  on  our  own  experience,  subject  to  the  limita-  still  m^es  a  'universe';  for  every  part,  though  it  may 
tions  imposed  by  the  habits  of  the  race,  it  follows  that  not  be  in  actual  or  immediate  connexion,  is  neverthe- 
the  conclusions  which  we  draw  from  them  when  we  less  in  some  possible  or  mediate  connexion  with  every 
reason  are  only  h3rpothetical.  They  are  valid  only  other  part^  however  remote"  (A  Pluralistic  Universe, 
within  our  experience,  and  should  not  be  carried  be-  324).  This  type  of  union  James  calls  the  "strung- 
yond  the  region  of  verifiable  experience.  Pragmatism,  along  type",  the  type  of  continuity,  conti^ity,  or 
as  James  pointed  out,  does  not  look  backward  to  axi-  concatenation,  as  opposed  to  the  co-implication  or  in- 
oms,  premises,  systems,  but  forward  to  consequences,  tegration  type  of  unity  advocated  by  the  absolute 
results,  fruits.  In  point  of  fact,  then,  we  are,  if  we  Monists.  If  one  prefers  a  Greek  name,  he  says,  the 
believe  the  Pragmatist,  obliged  to  subscribe  to  the  unity  may  be  called  synechism.  Others,  however, 
doctrine  of  John  Stuart  Mill  that  all  truth  is  hypo-  prefer  to  call  this  tychinn,  or  mere  chance  succession, 
thetical.  that  "can  be"  and  "cannot  be"  have  refer-  Peirce,  for  instance,  holds  that  the  impression  of 
ence  only  to  our  experience,  and  that,  for  all  we  know,  novelty  which  a  new  occurrence  produces  is  explicable 


PRAGMATISM  337  PRAGMATISM 

only  on  the  theory  of  chance,  and  Bergson  seems  to  be  religions  are  proved  jdf  not,  they  have  approved  them- 

in  no  better  case  when  he  tries  to  explcon  what  he  calls  selves  to  the  Pragmatist  (Vaneties  of  Religious  Ex- 

the  devenir  rSel.  perience,  p.  331).    They  should  be  judged  by  their 

The  gist  of  Pluralism  is  that  '^Things  are  'with'  mtent  and  not  merely  by  their  content.  James  says 
one  another  in  many  ways,  but  nothing  includes  eveiy-  expressly : ''  On  Pragmatic  principles,  if  the  hypothesis 
thing  or  dominates  over  everything  (ibid.,  p.  321).  of  God  works  satisfactorily  in  the  widest  sense  of  the 
One  of  the  consequences  of  this  view  is  that,  as  Schil-  word,  it  is  true''  (Pragmatism,  p.  299).  Tliis  is  open 
lersays  ("Personal  Idealism",  p.  60),  "the  world  is  to  two  objections.  .  In  the  first  place,  what  functions 
what  we  make  if.  "Sick  souls",  and  "tender-  or  "works  satisfactorily"  is  not  the  existence  of  God, 
minded"  people  may,  as  James  says,  be  content  to  but  belief  in  the  existence  of  God.  In  the  struggle 
take  their  places  in  a  world  already  made  according  with  Agnosticism  and  religious  scepticism  the  tufiEof 
to  law,  divided  off  into  categories  by  an  Absolute  the  Christian  apoloj^t  is  not  to  prove  that  men  be- 
Mind,  and  ready  to  be  represented  in  the  mind  of  the  lieve  in  God  but  to  justify  that  belief  by  proving  that 
beholder,  just  as  it  is.  This  is  the  point  of  view  of  the  God  exists;  and  in  this  task  the  assistance  which  he 
Monist.  JBut,  the  "strenuous",  and  the  "tough-  receives  from  the  Pragmatist  is  of  doubtful  value.  In 
minded"  will  not  be  content  to  take  a  ready-made  the  second  place,  it  will  be  remembered  that  the 
world  as  they  find  it;  they  will  make  it  for  theroselves,  Pragmatist  makes  experience  synonymous  with  r^- 
overooming  all  difficulties,  filling  in  the  gaps,  so  to  ity.  The  consequences,  therefore,  which  follow  from 
speak,  and  smoothing  over  the  rough  places  by  estab-  the  "hypothesis  of  God"  must  fall  within  actual  or 
hshing  actual  and  immediate  connexions  among  the  possible  human  experience,  not  of  the  inferential  or 
events  as  they  occur  in  experience.  The  Monistic  deductive  kind,  but  experience  direct  and  intuitionid. 
view,  James  confesses,  has  a  majesty  of  its  own  and  a  But  it  is  clear  that  if  we  attach  any  definite  meaning 
capacity  to  yield  religious  comfort  to  a  most  respect-  at  all  to  the  idea  of  God,  we  must  mean  a  Being  whose 
able  class  of  minds.  "But^  from  the  human  (prag-  existence  is  not  capable  of  direct  intuitional  experi- 
matic  Pluralist)  point  of  view,  no  one  can  pretend  ence,  except  in  the  supernatural  order,  an  order  which, 
that  it  does  not  suffer  from  the  faults  of  remoteness  it  need  hardly  be  said,  the  Pragmatist  does  not  admit, 
and  abstractness.  It  is  eminently  a  product  of  what  We  do  not  need  the  Pragmatist  to  tell  us  that  belief  in 
I  have  ventured  to  call  the  Rationalistic  temper.  God  functions  for  good,  that  it  brings  order  into  our 
.  .  .  It  is  dapper,  it  is  noble  in  the  bad  sense,  in  intellectual  chaos,  that  it  sustains  us  by  confidence  in 
the  sense  in  which  it  is  noble  to  be  inapt  for  humble  the  rationality  of  things  here,  and  buoys  us  up  with 
service.  In  this  real  world  of  sweat  and  dirt,  it  seems  hope  when  we  look  towards  the  thin^  that  are  be- 
to  me  that  when  a  view  of  things  is  'noble',  that  yond.  What  we  need  is  assistance  m  the  task  of 
ought  to  count  as  k  presumption  against  its  truth,  and  showing  that  that  belief  is  founded  on  inferential 
as  a  philosophic  disqualification'  (Pragmatism,  pp.  evidence,  and  that  the  "hypothesis  of  God"  may  be 
71  and  72).    Moreover,  Monism  is  a  species  of  spirit-  proved  to  be  a  fact. 

ual  laziness,  of  moral  cowardice.  "They  [the  Mo-  VI.  Estimate  of  Pragmatism. — In  a  well-known 
nists]  mean  that  we  have  a  right  ever  and  anon  to  passage  of  his  work  entitled  "Pragmatism",  Professor 
take  a  moral  holiday,  to  let  the  world  wag  its  own  way.  James  sums  up  the  achievements  of  the  Pragmatists 
feeling  that  its  issues  are  in  better  hands  than  ours  and  and  outlines  the  future  of  the  school.  "  The  centre  of 
are  none  of  our  business"  (ibid.^  p.  74).  Pluralistic  gravity  of  philosophy  must  alter  its  place.  The  earth 
strenuositv  suffers  no  such  restramts;  it  recognizes  no  of  things,  long  thrown  into  shadow  by  the  glories  of 
obstacle  that  cannot  be  overcome.  The  t^t  of  its  the  upper  ether,  must  resume  its  rights.  ...  It 
audacity  is  its  treatment  of  the  idea  of  God.  For  the  will  be  an  alteration  in  the  'seat  of  authority'  that 
Pluralist,  "God  is  not  the  absolute,  but  is  Himself  a  reminds  one  almost  of  the  Protestant  Reformation, 
part.  .  .  .  His  functions  can  be  taken  as  not  And  as,  to  papal  minds.  Protestantism  has  often 
wholly  dissimilar  to  those  of  the  other  smaller  parts —  seemed  a  mere  mess  of  anarchy  and  confusion,  such, 
as  similar  to  our  functions,  consequently,  having  an  no  doubt,  will  Pragmatism  often  seem  to  ultra- 
environment,  being  in  time,  and  working  out  a  history  Rationalist  minds  in  philosophy.  It  would  seem  so 
iust  like  ourselves.  He  escapes  from  the  foreignness  much  trash,  philosopnically.  But  life  wags  on,  all 
trom  all  that  is  human,  of  the  static,  timeless,  perfect  the  same,  and  compasses  its  ends,  in  Protes&at  coun- 
absolute"  (A  Pluralistic  Universe,  p.  318).  God,  tries.  I  venture  to  think  that  philosophic  Protes- 
then,  is  finite.  We  are,  indeed,  internal  parts  of  Grod,  tantism  will  compass  a  not  dissimilar  prosperity" 
and  not  external  creations.  God  is  not  identical  with  (Pragmatism,  p.  123).  It  is,  of  course,  too  soon  to 
the  universe,  but  a  limited,  conditioned,  part  of  it.  judge  the  accuracy  of  this  prophecy. '  Meantime,  to 
We  have  here  a  new  kind  of  Pantheism,  a  Pantheism  minds  papal,  though  not  ultra-Rationalistic,  the 
of  the  "strung-along"  type,  and  if  James  is  content  parallel  nere  drawn  seems  quite  just^  historiocrily  and 
to  have  his  philosophical  democratic  strenuosity  philosophically.  Pragmatism  is  Individualistic.  De- 
judged  by  this  result,  he  has  very  effectivel^r  con-  spite  the  disclaimers  of  some  of  its  exponents,  it  sets 
demned  his  own  case,  not  only  in  the  estimation  of  up  the  Protagorean  principle,  "Man  is  the  measure  of 
aristocratic  Absolutists  but  also  in  that  of  every  all  things".  For  if  Pragmatism  means  anything,  it 
Christian  philosopher.  means  that  human  consequences,  "consequences  to 

V.  Pragmatism  an^  Religion. — It  has  been  you  and  me",  are  the  test  of  the  meaning  and  truth 
pointed  out  that  one  of  the  secrets  of  the  popularity  of  our  concepts,  judgments,  and  reasonings.  Prag- 
of  Pragmatism  is  the  belief  that  in  the  wan  are  be-  matism  is  Nominalistic.  It  denies  the*  validity  of 
tween  religion  and  Agnosticism  the  Pragmatists  have,  content  of  universal  concepts,  and  scornfully  rejects 
somehow,  come  to  the  rescue  on  the  side  of  religious  the  mere  possibility  of  universal,  all-including;  or  even 
truth  (Pratt.  "What  is  Pragmatism",  p.  175).'  It  many-including,  reality.  It  is,  by  implication.  Sen- 
should  be  aamitted  at  once  that,  by  temperamental  sistic.  For  in  aescribing  the  functional  value  of  con- 
disposition,  rather  than  bv  force  of  logic,  the  Pxtig-  cepts  it  restricts  that  function  to  immediate  or  remote 
matist  is  inclined  to  uphold  the  vital  ana  social  im-  sensenexperience.  It  is  Idealistic.  For,  despite  its 
portance  of  positive  rehgious  faith.  For  him,  religion  disclaimer  of  agreement  with  the  intellectual  Idealism 
18  not  a  mere  attitude  of  mind,  an  illumination  thrown  of  the  Bradley  type,  it  is  guiltv  of  the  fundamental 
on  facts  already  ascertainea,  or  a  state  of  feeling  error  of  Idealism  when  it  makes  reality  to  be  co- 
which  disposes  one  to  place  an  emotional  value  on  the  extensive  with  experience,  and  describes  its  doctrine 
truths  revealed  by  science.  It  adds  new  facts  and  of  perception  in  terms  of  Cartesian  Subjectivism.  It 
brings  forward  new  truths  which  make  a  difference,  is,  in  a  sense.  Anarchistic.  Discarding  Intellectual- 
and  lead  to  differences,  especiidly  in  conduct.  Whether  istic  logic,  it  oiscards  principles,  and  has  no  substitute 
XII.— 22 


paAoiTK  3; 

for  them  except  individual  experience.  Like  the 
Reformers,  who  niiBunderetood  or  niiBrepreBenled  tic 
theology  of  the  Schoolmen,  it  has  never  grasped  the 
true  meaning  of  Scholastic  Realism,  always  confound- 
ing it  with  Intellectual  Realism  or  the  Absolutist  type. 
Finally,  by  bringing  all  the  problems  of  life  within 
the  scope  of  Pragmatism,  which  ctiums  to  be  a  system 
of  philosophy,  it  introduces  confusion  into  the  rela- 
tions between  philosophy  and  theology,  and  still 
worse  confusion  into  the  relations  between  philosophy 
and  religion.  It  consistently  appeals  to  future  pros- 
perity as  a  Pragmatic  test  of  its  truth,  thus  leaving 
the  verdict  to  time  and  a  future  generation.  But 
with  the  elements  of  error  and  disorganisation  which 
it  has  embodied  in  its  method  and  adopted  in  its 
^nthesis,  it  has  done  much,  so  the  Intellectualist 
thinks,  to  prejudge  its  case. 

Jameh.  Vixrirliti  0/  Ke/iKiom  Experitnu  (New  York,  1802); 
ISEU,  Pragmalum  (New  York,  lOOS);  Iniu,  A  PtuTatillie  Vni- 
HTK  (New  York.  1909);  Idiu.  Thf  McamaffTnUh  (Hew  Hoik, 
ISIO);  Dcvi^r.  Onllinca  of  EihicafChictao.ViBl):  Ideu.  SlWirt 
in  Logical  Tlirort  (Cbicago.  1U03);  uticlei  in  Journal  of  Flii- 
latapAv.  etc.:  Scbiller.  Ptnonal  Idtaliim  (Londaa.  1902);  Idbh, 
Humanum  (LoodoD.  1903);  Ideh.  Slixftu  in  Humanitm  <N«w 
York. 1907):  Dbbosoh.  ffiwiuliDncT*iIricr  (P.rb.  1907);  Idem, 
Mmiirt  el  mlmoirt  (Parin.  1897);   Bawden.  Pnacipki  of  Praa- 

Aali'PntrDxlat:  Pritt,  WhU  it  PraomalUmr  (N«w  York, 
1909):  SCHiMl.  AnH-pTonmaitm  (New  York,  1909);  W*liir, 
TKiaHtt  of  KnoaiidQt  (N«w  York.  1910) :  Fahoeh.  La  crue  di  la 
etriitude  (Paris,  1907):  LeclJere,  Profrnaiiimt,  nodrmume. 
unlaUmUmt  (Puu,  1909). 

Article*:  RitutadifiloaoAineo-aciilaMlicafApnluidOct.,  1910); 
Rout  ntD-icoIniOfUC  (1907),  pp.  220  eq.  (1909),  pp.  4S1  sq.: 
Retuidaicifiatpliil.ai'iiol.  (1907).  pp.  loaeq.,  give  in  up-to- 
date  bibJiasr^by  of  Pragmatieni.  Of  the  many  articles  whieh 
appeared  on  the  lubipct  from  the  CstboUc  pami  of  view,  ct. 
Turner,  Ntui  Cont  Hencic  (1906):  Smanihah  io  Catluilic  Uni- 
ftriitKBuUetin{lM»—):  BAUvAoE.iMd,  (1906— );  Moore. Ca<*. 
ohc  World  (Dec.,  1909).     Articles  criticiiinc  Pnomatism  have 

appeaiwi  in  the  P&iioiopAicoJ  fill      -   ■- '-   "'" 

XV,  XVII;    Hire--  '    "" 


8  PBAOUl 

saint.  The  struggle  between  pagan  and  Christian 
divided  even  the  ducal  family.  On  28  September, 
935,  Wenceslaus  was  murdered  by  his  brother  Bole- 
slaw  and  his  accomplices  at  the  door  of  the  church  in 
Altbunzlau.  Yet  Boleslaw  found  himself  obliged  to 
rule  in  a  manner  favourable  to  the  Christian-German 
party.  Much  was  done  for  the  Christian  civihtation 
of  Eiohemia  by  his  children,  Boleslaw  II  the  I4ous, 
Milada,  and  Dubravka,  Boleslaw  II  desired  to  be 
independent  of  Germany  in  ecclesiastical  matters  and 
Bou^t  to  have  Prague  made  a  bishopric.  Otto  II  of 
Germany  aided  this  effort,  for  he  regarded  it  as  a  pro- 
tection against  Hungary.  John  Xlll  consented  on 
condition  that  the  Latin  Rite  should  be  used.  Milada, 
sister  of  the  duke,  who  lived  in  a  Benedictine  abbey  at 
Rome,  was  appointed  by  the  pope  under  the  name  of 


Pf^luil.ttl 

Ret.  de  pSii.  (Apiil.  1910). 


XVII;    Baeeweu.  in  vol.  XVII; 

"  JournaJ  0/  P*ff 

-- ,he  French  School 

mtitled  Lt  yraematiame  de  VicoU  frart^Que  in 


appeared  b 


William  Tdknbb. 


Prafua,  Aschdiocebb  of  (Praobnbis),  in  Bohemia. 
From  about  the  middle  of  the  sixth  century  Slavonic 
tribes  advancing  into  Bohemia  drove  the  Mar- 
comanni  to  the  twrdera  of  the  country.  The  Slavs 
soon  came  under  the  influence  of  the  Carolingian 
civilization.  In  845  Czech  princes  and  their  warriois 
appeared  at  the  Court  of  Louis  the  German  at  Ratis- 
bon,  where  they  were  baptised  on  the  octave  of 
Epiphany  (13  January)  b)[  the  Bishop  of  Ratisbon. 
Although  manv  German  priests  now  came  into  Bohe- 
mia to  aid  in  the  spread  of  Christianity,  the  land  soon 
fell  under  the  dominion  of  Moravia,  which  was  natu- 
rally followed  by  the  appearance  of  Slavonic  priests 
from  Great  Moravia.  It  is  supposed,  though  it  can- 
not be  proved,  that  tlie  Bohemian  Duke  BoHwoi 
woe  baptized  by  Methodius,  the  apostle  to  the  Slavs. 
The  first  Duke  of  Bohemia  of  whom  there  is  historic 
certainty  that  he  was  a  Christian  is  Bofiwoi'a  son, 
Spitignicw,  who  in  895  allied  himself  to  Carlmann's 
SOD,  Amulf  of  Carinthia.  Spitigniew's  brother  and 
BUCcesBOr,  Wratislaw  I,  built  the  church  of  St.  Geonce 
upon  the  Hradschin  (caatle  hill)  at  Prague.  His  wife 
Drahomira.  who  belonged  to  a  pagan  Slavonic  family, 
though  probably  baptized,  waa  not  Chri-itian  at  heart. 
Their  sons,  St.  Wcnci'slaus  and  Bolealaw  1  the  Cruel, 
were  still  minors  at  the  death  of  their  father.  The 
most  important  factor  in  the  history  of  Bohemia  at 
this  time  was  the  opposition  between  the  pagan  or 
national  party  and  the  Christian  or  German  party. 
Wenceslaus  hoped  to  gain  everything  from  the  Ger- 
mans. During  to  build  a  church  upon  the  Hrad- 
schin he  requested  permission  from  the  diocesan 
bishop  who  came  to  the  consecration.  The  church 
was  dedieot^Hl  to  St.  Vitus,  as  Henry  I  the  Saxon  of 
Germany  had  sent  a  present  of  a  precious  relic  of  this 


Maria  abbess  of  the  Abbey  of  St.  George  on  the 
Hradschin,  the  first  monastic  foundation  in  Bohemia. 
Bohemia  then  formed  a  part  of  the  Diocese  of  Ratis- 
bon, suffragan  of  Salibuif .  St.  Woligaog  drew  up 
the  charter  for  the  new  diocese  and  it  was  made  a  suf- 
frwan  of  Mainz. 

Tbietmar,  a  monk  from  Magdeburg  who  hod  a 
thorough  knowledge  of  the  Slavonic  language,  was 
appointed  (973)  the  first  Bishop  of  Prague.  The  new 
diocese  included:  Bohemia,  Silesia  including  Cracow, 
and  Lusatia;  Moravia,  western  Hungary  as  far  as  the 
Waag  and  Danube  Rivers;  Lower  Austria  between 
Taja  and  Kamp.  In  Moravia,  Vraccn  was  appointed 
bishop.  St.  Adalbert,  second  Bishop  of  Pnigue,  ap- 
pointed by  Otto  II  at  Verona,  was  consecrated  by 
Willigis  of  Mains.  He  proved  in  Bohemia  and 
Moravia  a  stem  censor  of  morals,  striving  to  suppreaa 
concubinage  among  the  clergy,  polygamy,  and  heathen 
practices,  but,  obliged  to  withdraw,  took  refuge  in  a 
monastery  at  Rome.  At  the  request  of  the  Bohe- 
mians he  returned  with  twelve  monks  from  Mont« 
Caaaino,  among  them  Christinus,  Benedictus,  and 
Matthceus.  In  993  Adalbert  founded  for  these 
monks  the  first  monastery  for  men  in  Bohemia,  that 
of  Bfewnow  near  Prague  (St.  Margaret),  and  ap- 
pointed his  teacher  Radia  (Anaataeius)  abbot.  Two 
years  lat«r  Adalbert  was  again  obliged  to  flee.    The 


PRAaUC                               339  PRAGUE 

pope  now  dissolved  his  connexion  with  Prague  and  bishop  and  bestowed  on  him  the  right  to  have  a  mint. 
Adalbert  died  (997)  a  martyr  in  Prussia.  Severus,  Lucius  II  invited  Zdik  to  Rome.  On  the  way  he  was 
sixth  Bishop  of  Prague,  was  one  of  the  retinue  of  Duke  attacked  and  robbed  near  Boscowicz,  and  escaped  to 
Bfetislaw  Achilles,  who  brought  (1039)  the  relics  of  Leitomischl.  In  1143,  Bishop  Otto  settled  Cister- 
St.  Adalbert  from  Gnesen  to  Prague.  The  ambitious  cians  from  Waldsassen  at  Sedlek.  When  the  Second 
Bf etislaw  wished  to  be  independent  of  Germany.  It  Crusade  was  preached  Bishop  Henry  of  Olmtltz  was 
was  his  intention  to  make  use  of  the  Benedictine  the  subdelegate  of  St.  Bernard  for  Bohemia  and 
monastery  of  Sazawa,  founded  in  1037,  with  a  Greek-  Moravia.  Henry  himself  went  to  Pomerania.  but 
Slavonic  liturgy,  as  a  national  church;  he  appointed  soon  returned  unsuccessful.  In  1156,  the  Oraer  of 
St.  Procopius  the  first  abbot  of  this  monasterv.  A  St.  John  of  Jerusalem  was  introduced  in  the  hospice 
part  of  his  plan  was  that  Bishop  Severus,  as  the  lawful  of  St.  Mary  near  the  Prague  bridge.  Frederick  I 
successor  of  St.  Methodius,  should  receiye  the  pallium.  Barbarossa  in  1158  made  Wladislaw  a  king  in  retui:n 
As,  however,  the  Polish  Church  complained  of  the  for  his  aid  against  Lombardy.  The  right  to  crown  the 
robbery  of  tne  relics  of  St.  Adalbert,  the  duke  and  king  was  assimed  to  the  Bishops  of  Prague  and  01- 
bishop  became  involved  in  an  investigation  and  they  miitz.  The  Bohemian  king  and  Bishop  Daniel  I 
were  oondenmed  to  found  a  monastery  as  penance.  *  supported  Frederick  in  his  bitter  struggle  with  Alex- 
Bi^etislaw  established  the  collegiate  chapter  of  Alt-  ander  III.  The  king  and  bishop  were  excommuni- 
bunzlau  in  1096  and  two  years  later  founded  Raigem.  cated  and^  when  in  1167  the  bishop  died  the  clergy 
the  first  monasteiy  in  Moravia.  Raigem  was  umted  of  Prague' refused  to  recite  the  Office  for  the  Dead, 
with  Bi^ewnow.  The  next  duke,  Spitihnew,  founded  It  was  durins  the  quarrel  between  Duke  Pfemysl 
(1058)  the  collegiate  church  of  St.  Stephen  at  Leit-  Ottokar  I  ana  Bishop  Henry  Bi^etislaw  that  Kacim, 
meritz.  The  Slavonic  monks,  who  were  replaced  by  '  Bishop  of  Olmiltz,  ordained  deacons  and  priests  at 
Latin  monks,  were  transferred  to  the  monasteries  of  Prague  in  1193  but  forgot  the  laying  on  of  hands. 
Vesprim,  VySehrad,  Csanad,  and  Arad.  Nicholas  II  Two  years  later  his  successor,  Engelbert,  performed 
granted  the  duke  the  honour  of  "the  mitre''  (a  cloak)  this  part  of  the  rite,  but  the  cardinal  legate  Peter 
for  an  annual  payment  of  one  hundred  marks;  this  suspended  the  ordination  and  in  1197  the  entire  ordi- 
honour  was  regsjxled  as  a  sign  of  royal  dignity,  nation  had  to  be  repeated.  At  the  renewed  ordina- 
Spitihnew's  brothers.  Wratislaw  II,  who  succeeded  tion  the  cardinal  legate  insisted  positively  upon  the 
hmi,  and  Jaromir  (Gebhard),  who  was  appointed  vow  of  chastity.  The  candidates  rebelled  at  this  and 
Bishop  of  Prague,  were  men  very  different  in  charac-  Peter  had  to  leave  the  church.  Not  lon^  after,  the 
ter.  in  1063  the  duke  gave  his  consent  to  the  estab-  legate  succeeded  in  making  a  synod  pass  his  demands, 
lishment  of  the  Diocese  of  OlmUtz.  The  Bishop  of  and  the  prosperity  of  the  Bohemian  Church  rapidly 
Prague  received  compensation  for  what  he  lost  in  increased.  About  this  time  St.  Hrozata  founded  the 
tithes  and  fiefs,  and  a  monk  named  John,  belonging  to  Premonstratensian  Abbey  of  Tepl,.  which  he  entered, 
the  monastery  of  Bi^ewnow,  was  appointed  first  Pfemysl  Ottokar  I  made  Bohemia  a  hereditary 
Bishop  of  Olmtltz.  The  new  bishop  had  much  to  kingdom,  imd  independent  of  Germany;  hence  the 
suffer  from  Jaromir,  who  attacked  and  ill-treated  him  Bishops  of  Prague  and  Olmiltz  no  longer  received  in- 
in  his  episcopal  residence.  Alexander  II  sent  to  vestiture  from  the  emperor  but  from  the  King  of 
Prague  the  legate  Rudolphus,  who  held  there  a  synodal  Bohemia.  The  cathedral  chapter  was  to  elect  the 
diet  at  which,  however,  Jaromir  did  not  appear.  Jaro-  bishop.  Ottokar  wished  to  make  Prague  an  arch- 
mir  was  declared  to  be  deposed;  Gregory  VII  sum-  bishopric  with  Olmutz  as  its  suffragan.  Innocent  III, 
moned  the  contending  bishops  to  Rome.  At  the  however,  had  all  the  less  reason  to  be  gracious  to  the 
Easter  synod  of  1074,  Jaromir  expressed  his  regret  for  Bohemian  king  as  Ottokar  had  just  changed  his  po- 
his  ill-usage  of  John  but  was  unwilling  to  yield  the  litical  adherence  from  Otto  IV  to  Philip  of  Swabia, 
fief  of  Podvin.  The  pope  now  wrote  to  Wratislaw  against  the  wishes  of  the  pope.  The  £urst  king  who 
that  if  necessary  he  should  drive  Jaromir  away  by  received  Bohemia  by  inhentance  desired  to  annul  the 
force.  inmiunity  of  the  clergy  and  take  the  church  tithes  for 
In  the  struggle  over  Investitures  Wratislaw  II  and  himself,  while  Bishop  Andreas  wished  to  enforce  the 
Jaromir  supported  Henry  IV.  After  the  death  of  decrees  of  the  fourth  Synod  of  Labemo.  The  king 
Bishop  John,  Jaromir  secured  the  union  of  Olmtitz  would  not  permit  this.  Andreas  placed  Bohemia  un- 
with  Prague  (1085-91),  as  his  brother  had  received  der  an  interdict,  the  king  cut  off  all  the  bishop's 
the  title  of  king  from  Henry  IV  and  consequently  was  revenues.  The  pope  commanded  that  Robert  of  Ol- 
entirely  on  the  king's  side.  Wratislaw  soon  deserted  miitz,  who,  in  spite  of  the-  interdict,  had  celebrated 
the  emperor  and  gave  OlmUtz  to  his  court  chaplain  Mass  at  Prague,  should  be  punished.  With  the  aid 
We6el  (Andreas  I),  who  was  made  bishop.  Jaromir  of  a  legate  a  fairly  satisfactory  agreement  was  reached 
died  at  Gran,  where  he  was  preparing  to  fight  his  rival.  (Concord  of  Skadenze,  1220).  One  of  Ottokar's 
After  We6el  s  death  Heniy  IV  invested  the  canon  daughters,  St.  Agnes,  corresponded  with  St.  Clare  of 
Andreas  at  Mantua  with  the  ring  and  crozier,  but  he  Assisi,  and  founded  the  convent  of  St.  Clare,  called 
was  not  consecrated  until  two  years  later.  At  Easter  later  St.  Agnes,  in  1234  at  Prague;  as  sorer  major 
(1138)  Bishop  Henry  of  Olmutz,  called  Zdik  after  his  Agnes  was  the  head  of  it.  She  also  aided  the  founda- 
native  town,  entered  the  Premonstratensian  Order  in  tion  of  the  Order  of  the  Kni^ts  of  the  Cross  of  the 
the  church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  at  Jerusalem.  On  Red  Stu*  at  Prague.  While  on  his  journey  to  Poland 
his  retium,  he  persuaded  tne  Bishop  of  Prague,  John  St.  Hyacinth  brought  Dominicans  to  Prague,  who 
I,  to  bring  Premonstratensians  from  SteiiJiof  near  established  themselves  in  the  monastery  of  St. 
Cologne  and  establish  them  at  Strahow.  Bitter  con-  Clement.  Wenceslaus  granted  to  the  Franciscans 
tention  arose  between  Zdik  and  his  clergy  when  the  the  monastery  of  St.  James  in  the  Altstadt,  Prague, 
rainces  of  Moravia  rebelled  against  Wladislaw  II,  Bohemian  nobles  who  went  to  France  became  ao- 
Duke  of  Bohemia.  Zdik  adhered  to  the  duke,  and  (]uainted  there  with  the  Knights  Templars.  They 
was,  therefore,  obliged  to  flee  to  Prague;  after  giving  introduced  them  into  Bohemia  and  the  order  flour- 
warnings  in  vain  he  placed  the  rebels  and  the  land  ished  to  such  extent  that  in  1240  Bohemia  became  a 
under  bann  and  interdict,  which  were  later  removed  national  priory  and  Prague  had  two  commanderies. 
by  the  legate  Guido.  He  deposed  ecclesiastics  who  the  Temple  and  St.  Laurence.  Church  life  flourished 
had  concubines.  Ordinations  were  only  permitted  in  Bohemia  at  this  era;  the  country  seemed  ''to 
on  definite  conditions.  Wladislaw  supported  the  breathe  nothing  but  holiness".  King  Wenceslaus 
legate  so  vigorously  that  it  was  said  of  him  that  he  remained  a  firm  adherent  of  Frederick  II  even  after 
had  enforced  clerical  chastity  throughout  Bohemia,  his  deposition  by  the  Council  of  Lyons.  An  interdict 
Wladislaw  sdso  granted  Podvin  in  perpetuity  to  the  was  pronounced  over  Bohemia  and  Bishop  Nicholas 


PRAaUC                                340  PRAOUC 

of  Bohemia  was  suspended.    Mass  was  only  cele-  Clement  VI.    It  was,   therefore,  not  difficult  for 

brated  in  the  monasteries  and  there  behind  closed  Charles  to  obtain  from  him  in  1344  a  BuU  raising 

doors  without  the  ringing  of  bells.    For  some  time,  Prague  to  an  archbishopric,  with  the  suffragan  Dio- 

the  Teutonic  Knights  had  been  fighting  against  the  cesesofOlmutzandof  the  newly  founded  Leitomischl. 

natives  of  Prussia.     In  1225  Pfemysl  Ottokar  II  as-  The  archbishop  was  to  anoint  and  crown  the  Bohe- 

Bumed  the  cross;  he  wished  to  gain  the  favour  of  the  mian  kinns;  thus  he  was  the  Primate  of  Bohemia.    The 

pope  and  Christendom.    The  name  of  the  city  of  first  archbishop  was  St.  Ernst  of  Pardubitz,  the  ad- 

Kdnigsberg  preserves  the  memory  of  the  king,  who  visor  of  Charles  IV  in  his  great  imdertakings.   Charles 

was  called  not  only  the  Golden  but  also  the  Iron,  brought  Matthias  of  Airas  from  Avignon  to  Prague 

About  this  time  (1256)  the  first  heresy  appeared  in  so  that,  with  the  aid  of  Peter  Parler  of  GmUnd  (in 

Bohemia;  the  Flagellants  came  from  Gennanv  (see  Suabia),  he  might  build  the  beautiful  Cathedral  of 

Flagellants).    In  gratitude  for  the  successful  issue  St.  Vitus,  the  comernstone  of  which  had  been  laid 

of  his  struggle  with  B61a  IV  (battle  of  Kressenbrunn)  by  the  emperor's  father.    It  is  yet  unfinished.    The 

Pfemysl  Ottokar  II  in  1263  founded  the  Cistercian  emperor  even  included  his  crown  among  the  treasures 

monastery  of  GoMenkron,  so  named   because  of  a  witn  which  he  thought  to  enrich  the  cathedral;  frdm 

relic  of  the  Crown  of  Thorns  set  in  ^old  that  had  been  •  that  time  it  adorned  the  head  of  St.  Wenceslaus.    The 

given  by  St.  Louis.    Ottokar's  viceroy  in  Austria,  crown  jewels  were  kept  in  the  Castle  of  Karlstein 

Peter  of  Rosenberg,  founded  the  monastery  of  Hohen-  built  by  Arras.    The  chapel  of  Castle  Karlstein  was 

furt  in  expiation  of  his  sins  and  for  the  salvation  of  the  built  in  the  shape  of  a  cross;  its  walls  were  inlaid  with 

souls  of  his  ancestors.    Bishop  John  III  of  Bohemia  Bohemian  garnets  on  a  gold  ground,  so  that  the  lights 

attended  the  Council  of  Vienna  in  1276,  which  had  of  the  altar  were  reflected  many  hundred  times.    At 

been  summoned  by  the  king.    The  council's  nineteen  Emaus  Charles  founded  an  abbey  for  Benedictines, 

canons  treat  of  the  behaviour  of  the  clergy,  of  the  who  were  to  use  the  Glagolitic  Liturgy  in  celebrating 

penal  power  of  bishops  and  abbots,  and  the  relations  Mass.    The  foundation  in  which  Charles  was  most 

between  Christians  and  Jews.    The  Jews  were  to  be  interested  was  the  University  of  Prague,  established 

distinguished  by  pointed  hats,  and  on  Good  Friday  in  1348,  the  oldest  German  university.    The  arch- 

they  were  not  to  appear  in  puolic.    Bishop  Bruno  of  bishop  was  to  be  its  chancellor  (Protector  sludiorutn  et 

Olmiltz  had  brought  to  Ottokar  ^from  the  Council  of  Cancdlarius).    In  1349  Archbishop  Ernst  held  the 

Lyons  a  letter  written  by  the  pope  calling  upon  him  celebrated  provincial  synod  that  defined  the  rights  and 

to  support  the  election  of  Rudolph  of  Hapsburg  as  duties  of  the  clergy.    Correctores  Cleri  were  provided 

Emperor  of  Germany.    When  Ottokar  recommenced,  who  were  to  supervise  the  carrying  out  of  the  StatiUa 

he  was  excommunicated;  consequently  it  was  not  until  Emesti  and  to  supply  what  was  lacking, 

eighteen  years  after  he  had  been  killed  in  battle  that  Now  began  a  religious  movement  that  plunged 

he  was  buried  in  consecrated  ground  in  the  Cathedral  Bohemia  and  the  surrounding  countries  into  war, 

of  Prague.    During  this  time,  it  is  said,  there  were  seriously  retarded  the  growth  of  the  Church,  and  left 

not  less  than  twenty-one  thousand  Beghards  in  Bo-  the  See  of  Prague  vacant  for  one  hundred  and  forty 

hemia.    The  country  was  also  disturbedf  by  off-shoots  years  (1421-1561).    For  details  of  this  period,  see 

of  the  Waldensians  who  called  themselves  "Apostolic  Hus  and  Hussites;  Constance,  Council  of:  III. 

Brethren",  and  "  Brethren  of  the  Holy  Spirit".   They  The  Repression  of  Hereby.    These  hundred  years 

even  wished  to  have  wives  and  property  in  common  of  religious  unrest  had  prepared  a  fruitful  soil  for  the 

and  sought  to  live  underground.    They  claimed  that  Reformation.    Matthias  preached  Luther's  doctrines 

God  did  not  trouble  Himself  about  what  happened  openly  on  the  public  roads;    Thomas  Munzer  and 

under  the  earth  and  so  have  been  called  Uruber^  Gallus  Cahera  preached  them  in  Prague.    KingFer- 

heimer.  dinand,  who  had  taken  up  his  residence  on  the  Hrad- 

Bishop  John  IV  of  Pra^e  had  taken  part  in  pre-  schin,  checked  the  growtn  of  Protestantism,  but  the 

Saring  the  decrees  concemmg  the  dispute  between  the  war  over  the  Hungarian  throne  and  the  strugjgle  with 

ienoicant  Orders  and  the  secular  priests,  which  were  the  Turks  imped^  his  efforts.    The  Utraquist  Ck>n- 

drawn  up  at  Vienna.    After  his  retiim,  he  desired  to  sistory  of  Prague  obtained  in  Mistopol  an  adminis- 

execute  these  decrees.    The  Mendicants  were  only  trator  who  was  even  inclined  to  Lutheranism.   During 

to  preach  in  their  own  churches  and  not  there  during  the  Smalkaldic  war  the  Bohemian  Brethren  united 

the  service  at  the  parish  church;  they  were  not  in  any  with  the  Protestants.    After  the  battle  of  Mtihlberg 

way  to  encroach  upon  the  pastoral  work,  and  must  (1547),  the  religious  reformers,  driven  out  of  the  cities 

have  episcopal  authority  to  hear  confessions.    The  of  Bohemia,  went  to  Poland  and  Prussia,  which  were 

Mendicants  appealed  to  their  exemption  and  made  added  by  the  Bohemian  Brethren  as  a  tlurd  province 

loud  complaint  that  the  bishop  denied  the  validity  of  to  Bohemia  and  Moravia.    The  greatest  aid  received 

confessions  heard  bv  them.    The  parish  priests  of  by  the  Catholic  Church  came  from  the  Jesuits.    In 

Prague  announced  that  they  would  publish  the  deci-  1556,  Peter  Canisius  brought  the  first  twelve  Jesuits 

sions  of  the  Council  of  Vienna  in  their  churches.    The  to  St.  Clement's  at  Prague;  their  college  there,  called 

Mendicants  also  made  their  preparations.    Bishop  Clementinum,  ranked  with  the  Carolinum.    In  1561. 

John  established  the  Court  of  the  Inquisition  as  the  Prague  apain  received  an  archbishop,  Anton  Bnis  ot 

council  had  desired.    When  in  the  course  of  a  year,  MUglitz  m  Moravia.    At  the  Council  of  Trent  the 

however,  this  court  delivered  to  the  State  fourteen  archbishop  sought  to  gain  the  cup  for  the  laity,  which 

heretics  who  were  bumed  at  the  stake,  the  bishop  sent  Pius  IV  granted  in  1567  for  the  countries  ruled  by 

the  Inouisitors  away  and  opened  their  prisons.    Com-  Ferdinand.    As.  however,  the  result  expected  from 

plaint  naving  been  made  against  him,  ne  had  to  go  to  this  concession  did  not  appear,  the  Utraquists  becom- 

Avignon,  and  after  an  investigation  of  eleven  years  ing  more  largely  Lutheran,  Pius  V  recalls  the  permis- 

he  mially  returned  home.    After  the  suppression  of  sion.    Maximilian  II  was  more  favourable  to  Ptotes- 

the  Knights  Templar,  their  lands  were  given  by  Kins  tantism.    In  1567  he  annulled  the  Compacta  for  the 

John  of  Luxemburg  to  other  orders  of  knights,  and  benefit  of  the  Utraquists.    Not  only  the  Utraquistic 

he  substituted  religious  houses  founded  by  him.    He  Catholics,  but  also  all  Utraquists  (Protestants)  were 

also  established  the  first  Carthusian  monastery  in  to  be  tolerated.  At  the  Diet  of  Prague  they  demanded 

Bohemia,  Maria  Garten  am  Smichow,  and  at  RAud-  the  introduction  of  the  Augsburg  Confession.    The 

nits  a  monastery  of  Augustinian  Canons.    The  in-  "Bohemian  Confession ''was  drawn  up  in  twenty-five 

creasing  prospenty  of  the  Church  reached  its  most  articles;   it  maintained  Luther's  teachings,  but  was 

flourishing  period  during  the  reign  of  Charles  IV.  indefinite  on  the  doctrine  of  the  Eucharist.    The  ad- 

The  emperor  had  been  educated  at  the  French  court;  ministrator  of  the  consistory  was  to  ordain  their 

his  teacher  and  friend  Peter  de  Rosi^res  was  now  priests  also,  while  fifteen  defenders  were  to  be  added 


.^ 


PRAGUE 


841 


PRAGUE 


to  the  consistory.  Thus  the  imperial  cities  which  had 
been  Utraquistic  rapidly  became  Lutheran.  At  Prague 
three  Lutheran  parishes  were  soon  formed.  When 
Rudolph  II  shut  himself  up  in  the  castle  on  the 
Hradschin  the  archdukes  of  Austria  selected  Matthias 
as  the  head  of  the  Hapsburg  dvnasty.  The  Bohemian 
estates,  taking  advantage  of  the  family  quarrel  of  the 
Hapsburgs,  elected  a  directory  and  raised  an  army. 
They  remained  indeed  loyal  to  Rudolph,  but  forced 
from  him  in  1609  the  royal  charter  (MajestOUhrief), 
which  confirmed  the  Bohemian  Confession,  opened  the 
university  to  the  evangelical  estates,  granted  them  the 
right  to  elect  defensors,  and  also  permitted  the  three 
secular  estates  of  lords,  knights,  and  imperial  cities  to 
build  F^testant  churches  and  schoob.  Rudolph 
finally  abdicated  and  in  161 1  Cardinal  Dietrichstein  of 
Olmtitz  crowned  Matthias  King  of  Bohemia  (1611-9). 
Contrary  to  the  regulations  of  the  royal  charter 
nanted  by  Rudolph,  subjects  of  the  Archbishop  of 
rra^e  bmlt  a  Protestant  church  at  Klosterarab  and 
subjects  of  the  Abbot  of  Braunau  one  at  firaunau. 
The  archbishop  commanded  these  to  be  closed,  and 
when  the  Emperor  Matthias  sanctioned  this  order  the 
result  was  the  Third  Defenestration  of  Prague,  with 
which  the  Tlurty  Years'  War  began.  A  government  of 
thirty  directors  was  formed,  and  the  head  of  the  Prot- 
estant Union  and  of  the  German  Calvinists,  Frederick 
V,  Elector  of  the  Palatinate,  was  elected  King  of 
Bohemia.  The  Cathedral  of  league  was  arran^eaf  for 
Calvinistic  services;  altars  were  torn  down,  pictures 
and  statues  destroyed.  The  court  preacher  Scultetus 
drew  up  an  independent  liturgy  for  Bohemia. 

A  sovereign  has  seldom  besun  his  reign  under  greater 
difficulties  than  Ferdinand  II  (1619-37).  The  insur- 
gents under  Thum  were  at  the  gates  of  Vienna;  within 
the  city  the  non-Catholic  estates  made  common  cause 
with  the  besiegers.  Ferdinand,  however,  never  yielded. 
After  the  battle  of  the  White  Mountain  (1620)  he  took 
more  severe  measures  against  the  disturbers;  they 
were  driven  out  of  the  country,  the  royal  charter  that 
had  been  the  source  of  so  much  disorder  was  annulled, 
and  a  system  of  government  introduced  in  1627  that 
among  other  things  made  the  clergy  the  first  estate. 
It  granted  the  bishops,  prelates,  and  abbots  seats  and 
votes  in  the  diet  (the  ecclesiastical  bench)  and  the  title 
of  PrimoB  regni  to  the  archbishop.  Only  the  Catholic 
religion  was  to  be  permitted.  An  imperial  commission 
of  reform  ("dragonnades",  "saviours*')  was  to  tra- 
verse the  country  purging  it  of  preachers,  heretical 
schoolmasters  and  books.  Thirty-six  thousand  fami- 
lios  were  welcomed  in  neighbouring  countries,  but  with 
all  this  the  country  was  not  made  thoroughly  Cath- 
olic. Many  conformed  only  externally  and  the  vary- 
ing phases  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  for  which  in  the 
end  religion  wasmerely  theexcuse,  constantly  favoured 
Protestantism.  In  the  Peace  of  Westphalia  (1648), 
however,  Ferdinand  III  did  not  allow  himself  to  be 
dictated  to.  During  the  period  when  princes  were 
absolute  rulers,  events  protected  the  Church  against 
fresh  attacks.  Pastoral  care,  instruction,  and  eccle- 
siastical administration  were  improved.  The  Mont- 
seratines,  Piarists,  Theatines,  and  Ursuline  nuns  were 
introduced  into  the  country,  the  clerical  seminary  was 
founded,  and  the  new  Dioceses  of  Leitmeritz  (1655) . 
and  Kdniggratz  (1665)  were  erected.  The  old  Univer- 
sity of  Prague  and  the  Clementinum,  the  Jesuit  col- 
lege, were  united  into  the  Caroline-Ferdinand  Univer- 
sity. The  tax  of  fifteen  kreuzers  on  salt,  either  mined 
in  Bohemia  or  imported,  was  apptied  to  Church 
purposes,  the  St.  Wenceslaus  fund  was  used  to  dis- 
tribute good  books,  and  the  Emeritus  fund  was  em- 
ployed to  aid  poor  priests.  For  two  years  from 
1712  the  churches  even  in  Prague  were  closed  on 
account  of  the  plague.  In  1729  the  canonization  of 
St.  John  Nepomucene  was  celebrated  with  great  festivi- 
ties. The  power  of  the  sovereign  over  the  Church  was 
introdu<^  by  Protestantism.   The  Catholic  rulers  at 


first  only  assumed  this  position  as  regards  their  Prot- 
estant subjects.  In  the  course  of  time,  however,  they 
began  to  exercise  this  power  also  as  regards  their  Cath- 
oUc  subjects.  As  the  maintenance  of  religion  (the 
Counter-Reformation)  was  their  work  and  they  ob- 
tained the  chief  patronage  of  the  Church,  a  State 
Church  was  the  natural  consequence.  Even  in  the 
reign  of  Maria  Theresa  edicts  were  issued  concerning 
ecclesiastical  matters.  No  one  could  take  the  vows  ot 
an  order  until  fully  twenty-four  (1770);  monastic 
prisons  were  to  be  suppressed  (1771).  As  the  basis  of 
theological  instruction  were  to  be  used:  Sagan's 
Catechism  (1772),  Rieggo^s  "Ii^titutiones  jurispru- 
dentise  ecclesiasticse",  and  Rautenstrauch's  ''Synopsis 
juris  ecclesiastici''.  Trumpets  and  drums  could  no 
longer  be  used  in  the  churcnes;  in  the  lessons  of  the 
Breviary  for  the  feast  of  St.  Gregory  VII  the  places 
concemm^  the  power  of  the  pope  to  depose  kings  were 
to  be  omitted.  Parish  pnests  were  expresdy  for- 
bidden to  speak  abusively  of  the  laws  of  the  country. 
Within  ten  years  Joseph  II  issued  sixty-two  hundred 
laws,  orders  of  the  court,  and  ordinances.  Even  what 
was  good  showed  marks  of  haste;  laws  and  ordinances 
contradicted  one  another.  When  in  1781  the  patent  of 
toleration  was  issued  quite  a  number  who  nad  been 
Prptestants  in  secret  now  appeared  as  such  openly. 
The  Bull  "In  cccna  Domini"  and  "Unigenitus"  were 
to  be  suppressed.  It  was  forbidden  to  study  theolosy 
at  Rome,  Roman  dirties  and  titles  could  only  be 
assumed  after  obtaining  permission  of  the  ruler.  A 
general  seminary  was  established  at  Prague,  where 
both  secular  priests  and  candidates  for  the  orders  were 
to  be  educated.  Even  the  number  of  Masses  to  be 
held  in  a  church  and  the  number  of  candles  that  could 
be  used  at  such  services  were  prescribed  by  law;  the 
litany  of  the  Trinity  was  forbidden  "on  account  of 
varioys  additions".  Many  monasteries  were  sup- 
pressed, the  remaining  ones  were  regulated  by  the 
State,  and  fell  into  decay.  One  good  measure  of  the 
emperor  was,  that  he  formed  a  fund  for  the  mainte- 
nance of  religion  from  the  property  of  the  suppressed 
monasteries  and  used  it  to  increase  the  number  of 
parishes.  In  this  way  Joseph  II  founded  eighty-one 
parishes  and  three  hundrea  and  fourteen  dependent 
churches  in  Bohemia.  He  also  established  theDiocese 
of  Budweis. 

Joseph's  brother  Leopold  II  soon  changed  condi- 
tions. The  general  seminaries  were  aboli^ed,  there 
was  no  further  suppression  of  monasteries,  and  books 
for  theological  instruction  were  submitted  to  the  cen- 
sore^p  of  the  bishop.  Francis  II  was  a  pious  ruler^  who 
took  a  serious  view  of  his  duty  in  regard  to  conscience 
and  religious  duties,  but  for  nearly  a  generation  the 
war  with  France  claimed  all  the  strength  and  energy 
of  the  Government.  In  the  meantime  both  laity  and 
clergy  grew  more  and  more  accustomed  to  the  Jose- 
phine reforms  of  the  Church.  Were  any  ecclesiastical 
concessions  made  the  Josephinists  raised  a  cry  over 
the  unjustifiable  demands  of  the  Church  and  the  un- 
heard of  concessions  of  the  Government.  One  of  the 
results  of  the  French  war  was  the  demand  of  the  Gov- 
ernment for  the  silver  plate  in  1806,  1809  etc.,  when 
all  the  Church  silver  not  absolutely  necessary  went  to 
the  mint.  In  return,  the  churches  received  from  the 
Government  an  acknowledgment  of  the  indebted- 
ness. During  this  period  the  priest,  Bemhard  Bol- 
zano, a  philosophical  writer  and  professor  of  theology 
at  the  University  of  Prague,  wrote:  "Lehrbuch  der 
Religionswissenschaft"  (4  vols.);  "Wissenschafts- 
lehre";  "Logic"  (4  vols.);  "Athanasia  oder  die 
GrOnde  fOr  die  Unsterblichkeit  der  Seele";  "Erbau- 
ungsreden  an  die  akademische  Jugend"  (4  vols.); 
"Ueber  die  Perfektibilitat  des  Katholizismus".  The 
authorities  were  suspicious  of  him  on  account  of  his 
teaching,  but  his  archbishop,  Prince  von  Salm,  pro- 
tected him.  In  1820  he  was  removed  from  his  profes- 
sorship and  died  in  1848.    In  1848  Alois,  Freiherr  von 


PRAGUE 


342 


PRAGUE 


Schrenk  became  Prince  Archbishop  of  Prague.  On  15 
March,  the  emperor  announced  his  intention  of  grant- 
ing a  constitution.  Schrenk  may  have  thought  that 
"freedom  is  a  great  good  for  those  who  know  how  to 
use  it".  On  22  March  he  issued  a  censure,  as  some 
priests,  forgetting  their  sacred  caUing,  turned  the  pul- 
pit into  a  pohtical  platform.  The  freedom  gained 
should  rather  be  the  signal  for  greater  activity.  His 
address  at  the  Easter  festival,  posted  on  the  streets  in 
CzfBch  and  German,  sought  to  allay  the  hostility  to  the 
Jewish  population.  A  meeting  of  thirty-five  ecclesias- 
tics, parish  priests,  members  of  orders,  cathedral 
canons,  professors,  and  prelates,  called  together  with- 
out asking  the  consent  of  the  archbishop  oy  F.  Nah- 
lowsky,  principal  of  the  seminary  for  Wends,  Upper 
Lusatia,  was  held  at  the  seminary  on  18  and  22  May. 
In  his  address  Nahlowsky  e^ressed  his  opinion  con- 
cerning the  unsuitability  of  the  unessential  system  of 
cetibacy;  the  monasteries  should  be  thoroughly  re- 
formed. The  proceedings  of  this  assembly  even  ap- 
Ssared  in  print.  Naturally  both  the  archbishop  and 
ishop  Hiile  of  Leitmeritz,  of  which  diocese  Na}ilow- 
sky  was  a  priest,  expressed '  *  their  deep  sorrow ' ' .  Late 
in  August  the  pamphlet  issued  by  the  Bohemian  epis- 
copate appeared.  The  contents  discussed  the  two 
Questions :  What  is  the  position  of  the  Church  towards 
tne  State  in  general  ana  what  are  the  special  rights  of 
the  Church  in  dogma,  liturgy,  and  administration. 
Hie  strain  he  had  undergone  shattered  the  health  of 
the  archbishop  and  he  di^  in  March,  1849,  at  the  age 
of  forty-seven.  His  successor  was  Cardinal  Schwara- 
enberg.  The  present  prince  archbishop  is  Leo  Cardi- 
nal von  Skrbensky. 

The  Archdiocese  of  Prague  (1911)  has  a  population 
of  2,228,750  Catholics,  63,475  Protestants,  51,016 
Jews.  There  are:  570  parishes;  1348  seciilar,  258 
regular  priests;  1517  nuns  in  76  orders.  (See  Bohe- 
mia; Moravia.) 

DoBNBB,  Man.  hisi.  Bamioe  (6  vols.,  Prague,  1764-85) ;  Fonte» 
rerum  hohemicarum  (4  vols.,  Prague,  1871-84);  Gikdelt,  Mon, 
hist.  Bohemica  (5  vola.,  Prague,  1864-00);  Mon.  VeU.  res  6oAe- 
micas  iUutlrantia,  1S4£-1404  (5  vola.,  Prague,  1903-05);  Pelsbl 
AND  DOBROWBKY,  ScTtptores  rerutn  Bohemiearum  (2  vols.,  Prague, 
1783-).  Works  on  Bohemia:  Bachmann,  Gesch.  Bdhmen»,  I 
(1899)  to  1400.  II  (1905)  to  1526;  Frind.  Die  KirchertgeBeh, 
Bdhmeru  (4  vols.,  Prague,  1864-78);  Die  Oeach.  d.  Biachd/e  u. 
ErMbieehd/e  ton  Ptag  (Prague,  1873);  Palacxt,  Geech.  ton  Bdh- 
men  (9  vols.,  Prague,  1836-67);  Scbindleb,  D.  aoziale  Wirken 
d.  Kath.  Kirche  in  d.  Prager  Erzdidzese  (Vienna,  1902) ;  Watten- 
BACB,  Beitrdge  tur  Geech.  d.  Ckriat.  Kirche  in  Mdhren  u.  Bdhmen 
(Vienna,  1849);  Von  Lutzow  (non-Catholic),  Bohemia^  A  His- 
torical Sketch  (London,  1896);  Denis,  La  Bohime  depuie  la 
Monlagne  Blanche  (Paris,  1903). 

C.   WOLFSQRUBER. 

Universfty  of  Praoue,  founded  by  Charles  IV 
with  the  consent  of  the  Estates  on  the  model  of  the 
universities  of  Paris  and  Bologna  and  confirmed 
at  the  emperor's  request  by  Clement  VI  as  a  studium 
generate.  It  was  established  by  the  Golden  Bull 
of  7  April,  1345,  and  received  imperial  sanction  14 
September,  1349.  Archbishop  i^nst  of  Pardilbitz 
took  an  active  part  in  the  foundation  by  obliging  the 
clergy  to  contribute.  Its  official  title  is  ''Imperial 
and  Royal  Franz  Ferdinand  University";  at  the 
present  time  it  is  divided  into  two  completely  sepa- 
rated universities,  one  German  and  the  other  Bone- 
mian  or  Czech,  each  having  four  faculties  (namely, 
theology,  jurisprudence,  philosophy,  and  medicine), 
each  its  own  rector  and  lour  deans.  Both  universi- 
ties are  national  and  are  under  the  immediate  control 
of  the  Imperial  and  Royal  Ministry  of  Education  at 
Vienna.  All  professors  are  appointed  by  the  State, 
even  the  theological  professors;  these  latter  are  ap- 
pointed in  agreement  with  the  Archbishop  of  Prague, 
who  is  chancellor  of  both  theological  faculties. 

I.  History. — From  the  time  of  its  founding  the 
University  of  Prague  was  equipped  with  four  facmties, 
of  which  each  came  gradually  to  elect  its  dean  for 
one  half-year,  and  jointly  the  rector,  at  first  for  a  year, 
then  later  for  a  half-year.    On  account  of  a  dispute 


about  an  inheritance  the  facult^r  of  law  separated 
from  the  rest  of  the  university  m  April,  13/2,  and 
from  that  time  on,  with  the  consent  of  the  kin^, 
formed  what  might  be  called  an  independent  um- 
versity  under  the  direction  of  a  dean  of  its  own; 
the  chancellor  was  the  only  official  whose  authority 
extended  to  all  the  faculties;  this  office  was  held 
in  perpetuity  b}^  the  Archbishop  of  Prague.  The 
list  of  matriculations  from  1372  to  1418  of  the  faculty 
of  law  is  still  in  existence.  The  lectures  were  held  in 
the  colleges,  of  which  the  oldest  was  the  Carolinum. 
The  chapel  of  the  Carolinum  still  stands  and  serves 
as  the  chapel  of  the  universitjr  for  the  ceremony  of 
piving  degrees.  Theological  instruction  was  given 
m  the  Carolinum  and  in  the  monasteries.  For  the 
administration  of  its  affairs  the  university  was  divided 
into  four  ''nations",  according  to  the  native  land 
of  the  teachers, and  students,  namely:  the  Bohemian, 
including  Bohemians,  Moravians,  southern  Slavs, 
and  Himgarians;  the  Bavarian^  including  Austrians, 
Swabians,  natives  of  Franconia  and  of  the  Rhine 
provinces;  the  Polish,  including  Silesians,  Poles, 
Russians;  the  Saxon,  including  mhabitants  of  the 
Margravate  of  Meissen,  Thuringia,  Upper  and  Lower 
Saxony^  Denmark,  and  Sweden.  Each  nation  had 
a  vote  m  all  deliberations  regarding  the  affairs  of  the 
university.    This  was  changed  in  1409. 

Althoiigh  in  1403  the  university  had  forbidden  its 
members  to  follow  the  teachings  of  Wyclif,  vet  his 
doctrine  constantly  gained  adherents  in  the  Bohemian 
nation,  the  most  conspicuous  being  the  magister. 
Jerome  of  Prague,  and  John  Hus.  The  latter  had 
translated  Wyclif's  "Trialogus"  into  Czech.  In 
1401-02  Hus  had  been  dean  of  the  faculty  of  arts,  in 
1402-03  rector  of  the  university;  he  had  also  been  an 
exceedingly  popular  preacher  at  the  Bethlehem 
chapel.  The  majority  of  the  other  three  nations  of 
the  university  had  declared  themselves,  together  with 
the  Archbishop  of  league,  on  the  side  of  Gregonr 
XII,  to  whom  King  Wenceslaus  IV  was  opposed, 
and  Hus  knew  Iiow  to  make  use  of  the  king  s  dis- 
pleasure at  this  to  obtain  from  him  what  is  called 
the  "Kuttenberg  Decree"  of  18  January,  1409. 
This  gave  the  Bohemian  nation  three  votes  m  all  the 
affairs  of  the  university  and  only  one  vote  to  all  the 
other  nations  together;  the  residt  of  this  decree  was 
the  emigration  of  the  German  professors  and  students 
to  Leipzig  in  May,  1409.  In  1408  the  university 
had  about  200  doctors  and  magisters,  500  bachelors, 
and  30,000  students;  it  now  lost  a  large  part  of  this 
number,  accounts  of  the  loss  varying  from  5000  to 
20,000  including  46  professors.  This  was  the  be- 
ginning of  the  decline  of  the  university,  from  now  on 
a  national  Bohemian  institution,  which  sank  to  a 
very  low  status.  For  the  faithfulness  of  Hus's  op- 
ponents led  to  a  far-reaching  division  between  the 
theologiciJ  and  the  secular  faculties,  as  the  latter 
held  firmly  to  his  teachings  even  after  he  was  burnt 
by  the  Council  of  Constance  (1414).  The  faculty 
of  arts  became  a  centre  of  the  Hussite  movement, 
and  the  chief  doctrinal  authority  of  the  Utrac^uists. 

On  account  of  the  part  taken  by  the  university  in 

ecclesiastico-political  affairs,  its  position  as  a  centre 

.of  learning  suffered.    No  degrees  were  given  in  the 

years  1417-30;  at  times  there  were  only  eight  or  nine 

{)rofe8sors,  as  in  1419  the  faculties  of  theology  and 
aw  disappeared,  and  only  the  faculty  of  arts  remained 
in  existence.  There  were  also  very  few  students,  for 
many  were  unwilling  to  study  under  the  Calixtine 
faculties  and  therefore  went  into  foreign  countries. 
The  holdings  of  the  university  were  taken  by  the 
Emperor  Sigismund  as  his  personal  property.  Under 
the  impulse  of  Humanism  some  progress  was  made 
by  the  philosophical  faculty  when  the  Emperor 
Rudolf  II  (1612)  took  up  his  residence  in  Prague,  but 
it  did  not  last  long.  The  only  thing  to  the  credit 
of  the  university  was  what  it  did  in  directing  the  school 


PRAGUE 


343 


PRAGUE 


system  of  the  country.  In  the  meantime  the  Em- 
peror Ferdinand  I  had  called  the  Jesuits  to  Prague, 
m  1556,  and  these  had  opened  an  academy  near  St. 
Clement's,  the  imperial  letter  of  foundation  being 
dated  1562.  This  academy  comprised  a  gjfmnasium 
of  six  classes  as  well  as  an  institute  for  teaching  the- 
ology and  philosophy  arranged  according  to  the 
"PKn  of  Study"  {Ratio  sindiorum)  of  the  Society. 
At  first  there  was  only  one  teacher  for  each  of  the  two 
departments  of  theology  and  philosophy.  In  addi- 
tion, a  large  college  was  built  near  St.  Clement'Si 
which  on  this  account  was  called  the  Clementina, 
or,  after  its  founder,  the  Ferdinandea.  The  right 
of  giving  degrees,  which  it  received  from  the  emperor 
in  1562,  was  sharply  contested  by  the  old  university, 
the  Carolina. 

After  the  battle  of  the  White  Mountain,  the  Jesuits, 
who  had  been  expelled  in  the  years  1618-21,  came 
to  have  a  predominant  influence  over  the  emperor 
in  matters  concerning  instruction  on  account  of  their 
"Plan  of  study",  and  the  great  work  they  did  for 
Catholicism.  An  imperial  decree  of  19  September, 
1622,  gave  them  the  supreme  control  of  the  entire 
school  system  of  Boheoua,  Moravia,  and  Silesia.  In 
November  of  the  same  year,  after  the  resignation  of  the 
remaining  four  professors,  they  were  also  given  con- 
trol of  the  Carolma  together  with  nine  colleges,  and  all 
the  rights  and  revenues  of  these,  so  that  whoever 
was  rector  of  the  Jesuit  college  was  the  future  rector 
of  the  Carolo-Ferdinandea.  The  right  of  giving  de- 
^;rees,  of  holding  the  chancellorship,  and  of  appoint- 
ing the  secular  professors  was  also  granted  to  the 
Jesuits.  Cardinal  Ernst,  Count  von  Harrach,  who 
opposed  this  union  of  the  university  with  another 
institution  and  the  withdrawal  of  the  archiepiscopal 
right  to  the  chancellorship,  prevented  the  drawing-up 
of  the  imperial  Golden  Bull  for  the  confirmation  of 
these  grants.  He  also  founded  an  archiepiscopal 
seminary  of  his  own,  the  Collegium  Adalbertinum, 
in  order  to  secure  his  influence  over  the  students  in 
training  for  the  priesthood.  In  1638  Ferdinand  III 
limited  the  monopoly  of  teaching  enjoyed  by  the 
Jesuits  by  taking  from  them  the  rights,  properties, 
and  archives  of  the  Carolina,  the  faculties  of  law  ana 
medicine,  and  making  these  once  more  independent 
under  an  imperial  protector.  During  the  last  year 
of  the  Thirty  Years'  War  the  Karls  Bridge  of  Prague 
was  courageously  defended  against  the  Swedes  by  the 
students  of  the  Carolina  and  Clementina  under  the 
leadership  of  the  Jesuit  Father  George  Plach^.  After 
this  war  the  university  received  its  permanent  con- 
stitution and  by  a  formal  ceremony  (4  March,  1654) 
the  Carolo-Ferdinandca  was  again  united  and  placed 
under  a  chancellor,  the  Archbishop*  of  Prague,  and 
an  imperial  superintendent.  The  Jesuits  retained 
all  the  professorships  in  the  philosophical  and  theo- 
logical faculties  up  to  1757,  when  a  Dominican  and  an 
Augustinian  were  also  appointed  to  give  theological 
instruction.  In  the  two  secular  faculties  the  number 
of  lay  professors  increased  after  the  abolition,  in 
1612,  oi  the  obligatory  ceHbacy  of  the  professors. 
The  secular  professors  were  appointed  by  the  em- 
peror, the  Jesuit  professors  were  merely  presented  to 
him.  They  held  closely  to  the  Ratio  studiorum  of 
the  Society  and,  in  regard  to  discipline  and  juris- 
diction, they  were  entirely  their  own  masters.  The 
theological  faculty  had  four  regular  professorships; 
that  of  law,  four  to  six;  the  philosophical,  three  to 
five;  the  medical,  five. 

The  dilapidated  Carolinum  was  rebuilt  in  1718 
by  Max  Kanka  at  the  expense  of  the  State.  The 
university  was  strictly  Catholic:  the  profession  of 
faith  that  had  to  be  made  on  receiving  a  degree  before 
the  chancellor,  the  Archbishop  of  ftague,  excluded 
non-Catholics  from  the  professorships;  the  rector 
granted  the  degrees  for  the  ecclesiastical  chancellor 
{pro  canceUario) .  The  laws  of  the  university  prescribed 


that  the  whole  teaching  corps  should  receive  Commu^ 
nion  on  Maundy  Thursday,  and  (after  1602)  should 
take  part  as  a  bodv  in  the  Corpus  Christi  procession. 
From  1650  those  who  received  degrees  took  An  oath  to 
maintain  the  Immaculate  Conception  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin  as  long  as  the  Church  did  not  decide  against  it, 
and  this  oath  was  annually  renewed  on  8  December  by 
all  the  dvea  academici.  Such,  on  the  whole^  was  the 
status  which  continued  until  the  bureaucratic  reform 
of  the  universities  of  Austria  in  1752  and  1754.  This 
reform  deprived  the  universities  of  many  of  their 
corporate  rights,  and  rectors  appointed  by  the  State 
were  placed  at  the  head  of  the  faculties;  as  neither 
the  rectors  nor  the  deans  so  appointed  were  pro- 
fessors, the  Senate  was  little  more  than  an  ornamental 
body.  Matters  remained  thus  until  1849.  A  great 
change  was  brought  about  in  the  entire  school 
system  of  Austria  by  the  suppression  of  the  Jesuits 
in  1773:  secular  priests  now  received  positions  in  the 
theological  faculty,  and  laymen  were  appointed  to 
the  philosophical  faculty.  In  1781  the  prevailing 
Josephinism  opened  acaaemic  officer  to  non-Catho- 
Ucs,  and  this  was  followed,  in  1785,  by  the  appoint- 
ment of  the  first  Protestant  as  professor  in  the  philo- 
sophical faculty;  in  1781  Jews  were  permitted  to 
study  at  the  imiversity,  and  in  1790  they  were  allowed 
to  receive  degrees.  The  juramentum  de  Immacvlata 
Concepiione  and  the  profession  of  faith  on  receiving 
a  de^^e  were  dropped  in  1782.  The  new  regula- 
tions concerning  studies  (1784)  increased  the  number 
of  professorships  and  teiaching  positions  in  all  the 
faculties;  German  was  made  the  language  of  in- 
struction, only  pastoral  theology  and  obstetrics  were 
tau^t  in  Czech.  In  1784  the  professors  dropped  the 
dress  peculiar  to  the  university,  which  has  been  re- 
tained to  the  present  only  by  the  five  proctors,  the 
upper  proctor  and  the  proctors  for  the  four  faculties. 
The  university  was  completely  under  the  guardian- 
ship of  the  state,  which  prescribed  the  text-books, 
themes  for  disputation,  semi-annual  examinations 
and  fees;  in  making  all  these  changes,  practical  train- 
ing was  kept  in  view.  It  was  not  until  the  revolu" 
tionary  year  of  1848  in  which  the  students  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Prague  took  up  arms  that  a  radical  change 
was  made. 

The  "regulation  respecting  study"  of  1  October, 
1850,  is  based  upon  freedom  of  teaching  and  learning. 
Bjy  this  law  and  that  "concerning  the  organization 
of  academic  boards  of  control"  the  early  autonomy 
of  the  university  with  its  independent  election  of 
rectors  and  deans  was  restored.  The  religious 
limitations  upon  academic  degrees  and  positions  were 
to  be  entirely  removed;  although  as  late  as  1863 
a  Protestant  elected  dean  of  the  philosophical  faculty 
failed  of  confirmation  by  the  State.  Since  that  time 
the  election  of  non-Catholics  as  deans  and  rectors 
has  been  of  common  occurrence.  Jews,  also,  have 
held  the  office  of  dean,  but  not,  so  far,  that  of  rector, 
two  who  were  elected  having  declined  the  position. 
Great  difficulties  have  arisen  from  the  national  condi- 
tions. One  indication  of  the  constitutional  tendency 
was  a  constant  development  of  the  national  and 

S)litical  consciousness  of  the  Czech  majority  of  the 
ohemian  people.  The  university  recognized  this 
to  a  limited  degree  by  founding  parallel  Czech  pro- 
fessorships. Thus,  in  1863,  out  of  187  lecture 
courses  22  were  in  Czech;  the  number  was  increased 
but  even  this  did  not  satisfy  the  Czechs.    Conse- 

Suentlv,  after  long  negotiations,  the  Carolo-Fer- 
inandca  was  divided  into  a  German  and  a  Bohemian 
Karl-Ferdinand  University,  by  the  law  of  28  Feb- 
ruary, 1882.  The  academic  authorities  and  institu- 
tions of  each  section  are  entirely  independent  of 
the  other  section ;  only  the  auta  in  the  Carolinum  and 
the  university  library  are  in  common.  The  separa- 
tion came  into  effect  in  the  winter  semester  of  1882- 
83,  but  it  did  not  include  the  theological  facultyt 


PRATO 


344 


PRAXBDES 


where  lectures  are  generally  given  in  Latin,  on  ac- 
count of  the  opposition  of  Cutiinal  Schwarsenburg. 
Under  Schwarzenburg's  successor,  Cardinal  Count 
Schonbom,  this  faculty  was  also  divided  in  the  winter 
semester  of  1891-2,  while  the  archiepiscopal  semi- 
nary for  priests  remained  mixed  in  nationality.  The 
sum  of  93,000  kronen  is  required  tor  the  maintenance 
of  the  150  students  of  this  seminary — i.  e.  about  620 
kronen  apiece  (a  krone  is  twenty  cents).  Of  this 
amount  32,043  kronen  come  from  the  revenues  of 
the  seminary;  the  rest  is  granted  by  the  State.  The 
separation  and  the  constantly  increasing  needs  of 
the  work  of  teaching  make  new  buildings  necessary. 
Two  new  university  buildings  to  replace  the  inade- 
quate Carolinum  are  in  course  of  construction. 

II.  Present  CoNDmoN. — In  the  winter  semester 
of  1909-10  the  German  Karl-Ferdinand  University 
had  1778  students;  these  were  divided  into:  58  theo- 
loflpoal  students,  for  both  the  secular  priesthood  and 
religious  orders;  755  law  students;  376  medical; 
589  philosopHical.  Among  the  students  were  about 
80  women.  The  professors  were  divided  as  follows:, 
theology,  7  regular  professors,  1  assistant  professor, 
1  docent;  law,  12  r^ular  professors,  2  assistant  pro- 
fessors, 4  docents;  medicme,  15  r^i^ar  professors, 
19  assistant,  30  docents;  philosophy,  30  regular 
professors,  8  assistant,  19  docents,  7  lecturers.  The 
budget  for  the  year  (not  including  building  expenses) 
was:  1,612,246  kronen  ($322,450)  for  regular  ex- 
penses, 94,534  kronen  for  extraordinary  expenses. 
The  student  associations,  copied  from  those  in  the 
German  Empire,  are  highly  developed.  The  prin- 
cipal ones  are:  the  ''Reading  and  ifebatin^  Club  of 
the  German  Students"  founded  in  1848.  with  about 
500  members;  the  "Germania",  founcted  in  1892, 
with  600  members  (both  Liberal  associations);  the 
Catholic  association.  "Academia'',  founded  in  1909, 
with  over  a  hundrea  members.  In  the  face  of  over 
twenty  student  corps  which  haVe  colours  of  their 
own  and  favour  duelling,  the  three  Cathohc  corps  with 
about  a  hundred  active  members  have  a  oifficuJt 

rition;  yet  they  continually  increase  in  number, 
aid  of  the  students  there  is  a  German  students' 
home  with  a  hundred  rooms  and  a  students'  commons. 
The  Bohemian  Karl-Ferdinand  University  in  the 
winter  semester  of  1909-10  included  4319  students; 
of  these  131  were  theological  students  belonging  both 
to  the  secular  and  regular  clergy;  1962  law  students; 
687  medical;  1539  philosophical;  256  students  were 
women.  The  professors  were  divided  as  follows: 
theological  faculty,  8  regular  professors,  2  docents; 
law,  12  regular,  7  assistant  professors,  12  docents; 
medicine,  16  regular  professors,  22  assistant,  24 
docents;  philosophy,  29  regular,  16  assistant,  35 
docents,  11  lecturers.  The  annual  budget  amounts 
to  1,763,790  kronen  ($352,758)  for  re^iSar  expendi- 
tures, and  117,760  kronen  for  extraordmary  expendi- 
tures, without  including  building  expenses.  The 
theological  faculty  is  temporarily  housed  in  a  private 
residence.  The  ''Academic  Reading  Society" 
(Akademick^  iten^k^  spolek)  is  Liberal  in  religion, 
the"Svaz  cesko-slovanas-k^ho  studentstva**  is  more 
radical  still.  In  comparison  with  these  the  Catholic 
associations  are  comparatively  weak.  They  are: 
"Druistvo  AmoSta  z  Pardubie"  (100  to  200  mem- 
bers), "Ceska  akademicka  Liga",  and  the  Slavonic 
"Dan".  In  addition  to  the  Hlaska  house  of  studies 
for  students,  there  is  a  Catholic  home  for  students 
founded  by  Ernst  von  Pardlibitz.  The  library  com- 
mon to  both  universities,  and  to  which  the  public 
is  also  admitted,  contains  375,630  volumes;  among 
these  are  3921  manuscripts,  and  1523  early  printed 
books.  The  expenses  ot  the  library  for  1910  were 
178,509  kronen  ($35,702). 

ToiiAX,GetcA.  dsr  Pragtr  UniveraiUU  (Praffue,  1849) ;  Idem,  GetcA. 
9on  Prag  (12  yola.,  Prague,  I85&-1901),  in  Bohemian;  Zscbokka. 
Thtologische  Studien  und  Arutalten  im  Osterreich  (Vienna,  1894). 
167-219;    Ebmann-Horn,    Bibliographia    der   deutechen    Uni- 


verntaun,  II  (Leipnc,  1904).  nn.  14790  sqq.;  Die  Karl^Fwrdi- 
nandt-Univm-ntdl  %n  Prag  1843-1898  (Prague.  1898);  Png  aU 
deutaeher  HochaehuUtadt  (2nd  eid.,  Prague,  1910) ;  RAflRDALL.  Uni- 
verntiea  of  tkt  MiddU  Aget,  II  (Oxford,  1895). 

Kabl  Hilgenreiner. 
Prato.    See  Pibtoia  and  Prato,  Diocese  of. 


K,  an  early  anti-Montanist,  is  known  to  us 
only  by  Tertullian's  book  "Adversus  Praxean''. 
His  name  in  the  list  of  heresies  appended  to  the  "  De 
Prsescriptionibns "  of  that  writer  (an  anonymous 
epitome  of  the  lost  ''Syntag^''  of  Hippoljrtus)  is  a 
correction  made  by  some  ancient  diorthotes  for  Noetus. 
Praxeas  was  an  Asiatic,  and  was  inflated  with  pride 
(says  Tertullian)  as  a  confessor  of  the  Faith  because 
he  had  been  for  a  short  time  in  prison.  He  was 
well  received  at  Rome  (c.  190-98)  by  the  pope 
(Victor,  or  possibly  Zephyrinus) .  The  latter  pope  had 
decided  to  acknowledge  the  prophetic  gifts  of  Mon- 
tanus,  PriscsL  and  MaximiUa  (if  we  may  believe 
Tertullian).  -^he  intention  had  been  sufficiently 
public  to  bring  peace  to  the  Churches  of  Asia  and 
Fhrygia — so  much  depended  on  the  papal  sanction; 
but  Praxeas  prevailed  upon  the  pope  to  recall  his  , 
letter.  He  came  to  Carthage  before  TertiQlian  had 
renounced  the  Catholic  communion  (c.  206-8). 
He  taught  Monarchian  doctrine  there,  or  at  least 
doctrine  which  Tertullian  regarded  as  Monarchian: 
"Patrem  cruci  fixit;  Paraclitum  fugavit" — "Havinjg 
driven  out  the  Paraclete  [Montanus],  he  now  cruci- 
fied the  Father  ".  He  was  refuted,  evidently  by  Ter- 
tullian himself,  and  gave  an  explanation  or  recanta- 
tion in  writing,  which,  when  Tertullian  wrote  several 
years  afterwamis,  was  still  in  the  hands  of  the  au- 
thorities of  the  Carthaginian  Church,  the  ''carnal", 
as  he  affects  to  call  them.  When  Tertidlian  wrote 
he  himself  was  no  longer  in  the  Church;  Monarchian- 
ism  had  sprung  up  again,  but  he  does  not  mention 
its  leaders  at  Rome,  and  directs  his  whole  argument 
against  his  old  enemv  Praxeas.  But  the  arguments 
which  he  refutes  are  doubtless  those  of  Epigonus  and 
Cleomenes.  There  is  little  reason  for  thinking  that 
Praxeas  was  a  heresiarch,  and  less  for  identifying  him 
with  Noetus,  or  one  of  his  disciples.  He  was  very 
likely  merely  an  adversary  of  the  Montanist^  who 
used  some  quasi-Monarchian  expressions  when  at 
Carthage,  but  afterwards  withdrew  them  when  he  saw 
they  might  be  misunderstood.  On  the  identification 
by  Hageman  of  Praxeas  with  Caliistus,  see  Monar- 
ch! ans. 

For  bibliography  aee  Monarchianb;    also  D'AUbs.  La  thSo- 
logie  de  TertuUien  (Paris,  1908). 

John  Chapman. 

Prazedes  and  Pudentiana,  martyrs  of  an  un- 
known era.  The  seventh-century  itineraries  to  the 
graves  of  the  Roman  martyrs  mention  in  the  catacomb 
of  Priscilla  two  female  martyrs  caUed  Potentiana 
(Potenciana)  and  Praxedis  (Praxidis).  They  occupied 
adjoining  graves  in  this  catacomb  (De  Rossi,  "Roma 
sott.",  I,  176-7).  Of  the  various  MSS.  of  the  "Mar- 
tyrologium  Hieronymianum"  only  the  Echtemach 
Codex  (Cod.  Eptem.)  gives  the  name  of  St.  Praxedes 
on  21  July  ("Martyrol.  Hieronym.",  ed.  De  Roesi- 
Duchesne,  94),  but  it  looks  like  a  later  addition,  and 
not  as  if  it  came  from  the  fourth-century  Roman 
Martyrology.  St.  Potentiana's  name  is  found  under 
19  May  in  the  Martyrology  of  Reichenau.  Praxedes 
and  Pudentiana  were  venerated  as  martyrs  at  Rome. 
Later  legends  connect  them  with  the  founder  of  the 
old  title-church  of  Rome,  ^'titulus  Pudentis",  called 
also  the  "ecclesia  Pudentiana".  Legend  makes 
Pudens  a  pupil  of  St.  Peter,  and  Praxedes  and  Poten- 
tiana, his  daughters.  Later  Potentiana  became  cus- 
tomarily known  as  "Pudentiana",  probably  because 
the  "ecclesia  Pudentiana"  was  designated  as  "eccl. 
sanctse  Pudentianse"  and  Pudentiana  was  identified 
with  Potentiana.  The  two  female  figures  offering 
their  crowns  to  Christ  in  the  mosaic  of  the  apse  in  St 


PBAT 


345 


P&ATIS 


Pudentiana  are  probably  Potentiana  and  Praxedes. 
The  veneration  of  these  martyrs  therefore  was  in  the 
fourth  century  connected  in  a  particular  manner  with 
the  ''Titulus  Pudentis''.  About  that  time  a  new 
church,  'Hitulus  Praxedis",  was  built  near  Santa 
Maria  Maggiore.  and  the  veneration  of  St.  Praxedes 
was  now  especially  connected  with  it.  When  Paschal 
I  (817-824)  rebuilt  the  church  in  its  present  form  he 
translated  to  it  the  bones  of  Sts.  Praxedes,  Poten- 
tiana, and  other  martyrs.  St.  Pudentiana's  feast  is 
observed  on  19  May,  St.  Praxedes's  on  21  July. 

iieto  SS.,  IV  May.  299  sq.;  BihL  hagiogr.  lat.,  II.  1007.  1017; 
DuFOURCQ,  Le»  Otsta  tnartyrum  romairu,  I  (Paria,  1900).  127-30: 
Ds  Waal,  Der  Titulua  PmxedU  in  ROm.  QuartaUekri/i,  XIX 
(1905),  Arch.,  169  aqq.;  Db  Rossi.  Muaaiei  deUe  ehiete  di  Roma 
(Rome,  1899),  plate  X  (SanU  Pudenxiana),  plate  XXV  (SanU 
PrasBede) ;  Mabucchi,  BaaUiquM  H  igliaes  de  nome  (Rome,  1909), 
323  sqq..  364  sqq. 

J.   P.   KiRSCH. 

Pray,  Gborge,  abbot,  canon,  librarian  of  the  Uni- 
versity library  of  Buda,  and  important  Hungarian  his- 
torian, b.  at  Ersekuj vir.  11  Sept.,  1723;  d.  in  Pesth,  23 
Sept.,  1801.  His  family  came  from  the  Tvrol.  He 
studied  in  Pozsony,  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  in 
1745,  spent  two  years  in  the  Jesuit  college  (St.  Ann's) 
in  Vienna,  and  completed  his  higher  studies  at  Nagy- 
Szombat.  He  taught  at  Nagy-^M&rad,  Trencs^n,  Nagy- 
Ssombat,  and  Pozsony.  In  1754  he  was  ordained  and 
continued  teaching  in  Rozsny6  and  in  the  Theresianum 
at  Vienna,  where  he  was  professor  of  political  science 
and,  at  the  same  time,  tutor  to  the  Princes  of  Salm. 
He  was  professor  in  Gyor  (1758),  Nagy-Szombat 
(1759),  and  Buda  (1760),  where,  among  other  subjects, 
he  lectured  on  moral  theology.  After  the  suppression 
of  the  Jesuits  (1773).  he  went  to  the  Archdiocese  of 
Gran,  and  Maria  Theresa  appointed  him  imperial 
historiographer,  with  a  yearly  mcome  of  400  florins. 
When  the  University  of  Nagy-Szombat  was  transferred 
to  Pesth  (1777),  Pray  was  given  charge  of  the  library; 
he  resigned  this  position  in  1780,  but  resumed  it  m 
1784.  During  this  year  he  surrendered  his  manuscripts 
and  collection  of  documents  to  the  university  library 
for  a  life  annuity  of  400  florins.  He  became  canon  in 
Grosswardein  (1790),  and  was  sent  by  the  chapter  as 
its  representative  to  the  Hungarian  Reichstag.  Later 
he  became  Abbot  of  Tormowa.  His  literary  activity 
embraced  the  history  of  Hungary,  especially  the  earlier 
centuries,  the  history  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  Hun- 
gary, and  editing  the  sources  of  Hungarian  history.  He 
was  the  first  to  draw  attention  to  the  oldest  coherent 
text  in  the  Hungarian  languaj^,  "Oratio  funebris'', 
dating  probably  m>m  1199,  which  was  called  after  him 
''Thel^y-oodex''.  Among  his  works  maybe  men- 
tioned: ''Annales  veteres  Hunnorum,  Avarorum  et 
Hungarorum,  210  ad  997''  (Vienna,  1761);  "Annales 
regum  Hungarise,  997-1564"  (5  vols.,  Vienna,  1763- 
70);  "ViteS.  Ehsabethae"  (Vienna,  1770);  "Specimen 
Hierarchias  Hungarian"  (2  vols.,  Presburg,  177&-9). 

SuNNTBi  in  Magyar  irdk  iUU  U  munkdi  (We  and  worka  of 
Hungarian  writers).  XI,  where  the  bibliography  of  hia  works  and 
matter  concerning  him  are  collected. 

A.  AldXst. 

Prajer,  Apostleship  of.  See  Apostlbship  of 
Prater. 

Pnjor  (Gr.  etfxw"^**,  Lat.  precarif  Fr.  pner^  to 
plead,  to  beg,  to  ask  earnestly),  an  act  of  the  virtue 
of  religion  which  consists  in  asking  proper  gifts  or 
graces  from  God.  In  a  more  general  sense  it  is  the 
triplication  of  the  mind  to  Divme  things,  not  merely 
to  acquire  a  knowledge  of  them  but  to  make  use  of 
fluch  knowledge  as  a  means  of  union  with  God.  This 
may  be  done  by  acts  of  praise  and  thanksgiving,  but 
petition  is  the  principal  act  of  prayer.  The  words 
used  to  express  it  in  Scripture  are:  to  call  upon  (Gen., 
iv,  26);  to  intercede  (Job,  xxii,  10);  to  meditate  (Is., 
liii,  10);  to  consult  (I  Kings,  xxviii,  6);  to  beseech 
(Ex.,  xxxii,  11);  and,  very  commonly,  to  cry  out  to. 
The  Fathers  speak  of  it  as  the  elevation  of  the  mind 


to  God  with  a  view  to  asking  proper  thin^  from  Him 
(St.  John  Damascene,  *'De  fide",  HI,  xxiv,  in  P.  G.. 
XCIV,  1090);  communing  and  conversing  with  Goa 
(St.  Gregory  of  Nyssa,  "De  oratione  dom.  ,  in  P.  G., 
XLIV,  1125);  talking  with  God  (St.  John  Chrysoa- 
torn,  "Hom.  xxx  in  Gen.",  n.  5,  in  P.  G.,  LIII,  280). 
It  is  therefore  the  expression  of  our  desires  to  God 
whether  for  ourselves  or  others.  This  ejopression  is 
not  intended  to  instruct  or  direct  God  what  to  do, 
but  to  appeal  to  His  goodness  for  the  things  we  need; 
and  the  appeal  is  necessary,  not  because  He  is  igno- 
rant of  our  needs  or  sentiments,  but  to  give  definite 
form  to  our  desires,  to  concentrate  our  whole  attention 
on  what  we  have  to  recommend  to  Him,  to  help  us 
appreciate  our  close  personal  relation  with  Him.  The 
expression  need  not  be  external  or  vocal;  internal 
or  mental  is  sufficient. 

By  prayer  we  acknowledge  God's  power  and  good- 
ness, our  own  neediness  and  dependence.  It  is  uiere- 
fore  an  act  of  the  virtue  of  religion  implying  the  deep- 
est reverence  for  (xod  and  habituating  us  to  look  to 
Him  for  everything,  not  merely  because  the  thing 
asked  be  good  in  itself,  or  advantageous  to  us,  but 
chiefly  because  we  wish  it  as  a  gift  of  God.  and  not 
otherwise,  no  matter  how  good  or  desirable  it  may 
seem  to  us.  Prayer  presupposes  faith  in  God  and 
hope  in  His  goodness.    By  both,  God,  to  whom  we 

Eray,  moves  us  to  prayer.  Our  knowledge  of  God 
y  the  light  of  natural  reason  also  inspires  us  to  look 
to  Him  for  help,  but  such  prayer  lacks  supernatural 
inspiration,  and  though  it  may  avail  to  keep  us  from 
losing  our  natural  knowledge  of  God  and  trust  in 
Him,  or,  to  some  extent,  from  offending  Him,  it  cannot 
poeitiyely  dispose  us  to  receive  His  graces. 

Objects  of  Prayer. — Like  every  act  that  makes  for 
salvation,  grace  is  required  not  only  to  dispose  us  to 
pray,  but  also  to  aid  us  in  determining  what  to  pray 
for.  In  this  "the  spirit  helpeth  our  infurmity.  For  we 
know  not  what  we  should  pray  for  as  we  ought;  but 
the  Spirit  himself  asketh  for  us  with  unspeakable 
groanings"  (Rom.,  viii,  26).  For  certain  objects  we 
are  always  sure  we  should  pray,  such  as  our  salvation 
and  the  general  means  to  it,  resistance  to  temptation, 
practice  of  virtue,  final  perseverance;  but  constantly 
we  need  light  ana  the  guidance  of  the  Spirit  to  know 
the  specialmeans  that  will  most  help  us  in  any  par- 
ticular need.  That  there  may  be  no  possibility  of 
misjudnnent  on  our  part  in  such  an  essential  obliga- 
*  tion,  Christ  has  taught  us  what  we  should  ask  for  in 
prayer  and  also  in  what  order  we  should  ask  it.  In 
response  to  the  request  of  His  disciples  to  teach  them 
how  to  pray.  He  repeated  the  prayer  commonly, 
spoken  of  as  the  Lord  s  Prayer  (q.  v.),  from  which  it 
appears  that  above  all  we  are  to  pray  that  God  may 
be  glorified,  and  that  for  this  purpose  men  may  be 
worthy  citizens  of  His  kingdom,  living  in  conformity 
wiUi  His  will.  Indeed,  this  conformity  is  implied  in 
every  prayer:  we  should  ask  for  nothing  unless  it  be 
strictly  in  accordance  with  Divine  Providence  in  our 
regard.  So  much  for  the  spiritual  objects  of  our 
prayer.  We  are  to  ask  also  lor  temporal  things,  our 
daily  bread,  and  dl  that  it  implies,  nealth,  strength, 
and  other  worldly  or  temporal  goods,  not  material 
or  corporal  only,  but  mental  and  moral,  every  accom- 
plishment that  may  be  a  means  of  serving  God  and 
our  fellow-men.  Finally,  there  are  the  evils  which 
we  should  pray  to  escape,  the  penalty  of  our  sins,  the 
dangers  of  temptation,  and  eveiy  manner  of  physical 
or  spiritual  affliction,  so  far  as'  these  might  impede 
us  in  God's  service. 

To  whom  may  we  pray, — ^Although  God  the  Father 
is  mentioned  in  this  prayer  as  the  one  to  whom  we 
are  to  pray,  it  is  npt  out  of  place  to  address  our 
prayers  to  the  other 'Divine  persons.  The  special 
appeal  to  one  does  not  exclude  the  others.  More 
commonly  the  Father  is  addressed  in  the  beginnmg 
of  the  prayers  of  the  Church,  though  they  close  with 


PIlAYBIt 


846 


tnATML 


the  invocation,  "Through  Our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  Thy 
Son  tvho  with  Thee  livcth  and  reigneth  in  the  unity 
of  the  Holy  Ghost,  world  without  end".  If  the  prayer 
be  addressed  to  God  the  Son.  the  conclusion  is:  "Who 
livest  and  reignest  witJi  God  the  Father  in  the  unity 
of  the  Holy  Ghost,  God,  world  without  end  " ;  or, "  Who 
with  Thee  liveth  and  reigneth  in  the  unity,  etc.". 
Prayer  may  be  addressed  to  Christ  as  Man^  because 
He  is  a  Divine  Person,  not  however  to  His  human 
nature  as  such,  precisely  because  prayer  must  always 
be  addressed  to  a  person,  never  to  something  im- 
personal or  in  the  aostract.  An  appeal  to  anything 
impersonal,  as  for  instance  to  the  Heart,  the  Wounds, 
Uie  Cross  of  Christ,  must  be  taken  figuratively  as  in- 
tended for  Christ  Himself. 

Who  can  pray. — ^As  He  has  promised  to  intercede 
for  us  (John,  xiv,  16),  and  is  said  to  do  so  (Rom.,  yiii, 
34;  Heb.,  vii,  25),  we  may  ask  His  intercession, 
though  this  is  not  customary  in  public  worship.  He 
prays  in  virtue  of  His  own  merits;  the  saints  inter- 
cede for  us  in  virtue  of  His  merits,  not  their  own.  Con- 
sequently when  we  pray  to  them,  it  is  to  ask  for  their 
intercession  in  our  behalf,  not  to  expect  that  they  can 
bestow  gifts  on  us  of  their  own  power,  or  obtain  them 
in  virtue  of  their  own  merit.  Even  the  soub  in 
purgatory,  according  to  the  common  opinion  of  theo- 
logians, pray  to  God  to  move  the  faithful  to  offer 
prayers,  sacrifices,  and  expiatory  works  for  them .  They 
also  pray  for  themselves  and  for  souls  still  on  earth. 
The  fact  that  Christ  knows  the  future,  or  that  the 
saints  may  know  many  future  things,  does  not  pre- 
vent them  from  praying.  As  they  foresee  the  futilre, 
so  also  they  foresee  how  its  happenings  may  be  in- 
fluenced by  their  prayers,  and  they  at  least  by  prayer 
do  all  in  their  power  to  bring  about  what  is  best, 
though  those  for  whom  they  pray  may  not  dispose 
themselves  for  the  blessings  thus  invoked.  The  just 
can  pray,  and  sinners  also.  The  opinion  of  Quesnel 
that  the  prayer  of  the  sinner  adds  to  his  sin  was  con- 
demned by  Clement  XI  (Denzinger,  10  ed.,  n.  1409). 
Though  there  is  no  supernatural  merit  in  the  sinner's 
praver,  it  may  be  heard,  and  indeed  he  is  obliged  to 
make  it  just  as  before  he  sinned.  No  matter  how  hard- 
ened he  may  become  in  sin,  he  needs  and  is  bound  to 
pray  to  be  delivered  from  it  and  from  the  temptations 
which  beset  him .  H is  prayer  could  offend  God  only  if  it 
were  hypocritical,  or  presumptuous,  as  if  he  should 
ask  God  to  suffer  him  to  continue  in  his  evil  course. 
It  goes  without  saying  that  in  hell  prayer  is  impos-' 
sible;  neither  devils  nor  lost  souls  can  pray,  or  be  the 
object  of  prayer. 

For  whom  we  may  fray. — For  the  blessed  prayers 
may  be  offered  not  with  the  hope  of  increasing  tneir 
beatitude,  but  that  their  glory  may  be  better  es- 
teemed and  their  deeds  imitated.  In  praying  for  one 
another  we  assume  that  God  will  bestow  His  favours  in 
consideration  of  those  who  pray.  In  virtue  of  the 
solidarity  of  the  Church,  that  is,  of  the  close  relations 
of  the  faithful  as  members  of  the  mystical  Body  of 
Christ,  any  one  may  benefit  by  the  good  deeds,  and 
especially  by  the  prayers  of  the  others  as  if  par- 
ticipating in  them.  This  is  the  ground  of  St.  PauPs 
desire  that  supplications,  prayers,  intercessions,  and 
thanksgivings  be  made  for  all  men  (Tim.,  ii,  1),  for 
all,  without  exception,  in  high  or  low  station,  for  the 
just,  for  sinners,  for  infidels;  for  the  dead  as  well  as 
for  the  living;  for  enemies  as  well  as  for  friends. 
(See  Communion  op  Saints.) 

Effects  of  Prayer.— ^In  hearing  our  prayer  God  does 
not  change  His  will  or  action  in  our  regard,  but  simply 
puts  into  effect  what  He  had  eternally  decreed  in  view 
of  our  prayer.  This  He  may  do  directly  without  the 
intervention  of  any  secondary  cause  as  when  He  im- 
parts to  us  some  supernatural  gift,  such  as  actual 
grace,  or  indirectly,  when  He  bestows  some  natural 
gift.  In  this  latter  case  He  directs  by  His  Provi- 
dence the  natural  causes  which  contnbute  to  the 


effect  desired,  whether  they  be  moral  or  free  agenta, 
such  as  men;  or  some  moral  and  others  not,  but 
physical  and  not  free;  or,  again,  when  none  of  them 
IS  free.  Finally,  by  miraculous  intervention,  and 
without  einplo3ang  any  of  these  causes,  He  can  pro- 
duce the  effect  prayed  for. 

The  use  or  habit  of  prayer  redounds  to  our  ad- 
vantage in  many  ways.  Besides  obtaining  the  gifts 
and  graces  we  need,  the  veiy  process  elevates  our 
mind  and  heart  to  a  knowledge  and  love  of  Divine 
thin^,  greater  confidence  in  God,  and  other  precious 
sentiments.  Indeed,  so  numerous  and  so  helpful 
are  these  effects  of  prayer  that  they  compensate  us, 
even  when  the  special  object  of  our  prayer  is  not 
granted.  Often  they  are  of  far  greater  benefit  than 
what  we  ask  for.  Nothing  that  we  might  obtain  in 
answer  to  our  prayer  could  exceed  in  value  the 
familiar  converse  with  God  in  which  prayer  consists. 
In  addition  to  these  effects  of  prayer,  we  may  (de 
congruo)  merit  by  it  restoration  to  grace,  if  we  are  in 
sin;  new  inspirations  of  grace,  increase  of  Banctif3ring 
grace,  and  satisfy  for  the  temporal  punishment  due 
to  sin.  Signal  as  all  these  benefits  are,  they  are  only 
incidental  to  the  proper  effect  of  prayer  due  to  its 
impetratory  power  based  on  the  infallible  promise 
of  God,  ''Ask,  and  it  i^idl  be  given  you;  sedc,  and 
you  Ediall  find:  knock,  and  it  shall  be  opened  to  you" 
(Matt.,  vii,  7);  "Therefore  I  say  tmto  you,  all  things 
whatsoever  you  ask  when  ye  pray,  beueve  that  you 
shall  receive"  (Mark,  xi,  24— -see  also  Luke,  xi,  11; 
John,  xvi,  24,  as  well  as  innumerable  assurances  to 
this  effect  in  the  Old  Testament). 

Conditions  of  Prayer, — Absolute  though  Christ's 
assurances  in  regard  to  prayer  would  seem  to  be, 
they  do  not  exclude  certain  conditions  on  which  the 
efficacy  of  prayer  depends.  In  the  first  place,  its 
object  must  be  worthy  of  God  and  good  for  the  one 
who  prays,  spiritually  or  temporally.  This  condi- 
tion IS  always  implied  in  the  prayer  of  one  who  is 
resigned  to  God's  will,  ready  to  accept  any  spiritual 
favour  God  may  be  pleased  to  grant,  and  desirous 
of  temporal  ones  only  in  so  far  as  they  may  help 
to  serve  God.  Next,  faith  is  needed,  not  only  the 
general  belief  that  God  is  capable  of  answering  prayer 
or  that  it  is  a  powerful  means  of  obtaining  His  favour, 
but  also  the  implicit  trust  in  God's  fidelity  to  His 
promise  to  hear  a  prayer  in  some  particular  instance. 
This  trust  implies  a  special  act  of  faith  and  hope  that  if 
our  request  be  for  our  good,  God  will  grant  it,  or  some- 
thing else  equivsdent  or  better,  which  in  His  Wisdom 
He  deems  oest  for  us.  To  be  efficacious  prayer 
should  be  humble.  To  ask  as  if  one  had  a  binding 
claim  on  God's  goodness,  or  title  of  whatever  colour 
to  obtain  some  favour,  would  not  be  prayer  but 
demand.  The  parable  of  the  Pharisee  and  the 
Publican  illustrates  this  very  clearly,  and  there  are 
innumerable  testimonies  in  Scripture  to  the  power 
of  hilmility  in  prayer.  "A  contrite  and  humbled 
heart,  O  God,  thou  wilt  not  despise"  (Ps.  1,  19). 
"The  prayer  of  him  that  humbieth  himself  shall 
pierce  the  clouds"  (Eccl.,  xxxv,  21).  Without 
sacrifice  of  humility  we  may  and  should  try  to  be 
sure  that  our  conscience  is  good,  and  that  there  is 
no  defect  in  our  conduct  inconsistent  with  prayer; 
indeed,  we  may  even  appeal  to  our  merits  so  far  as 
they  recommend  us  to  God,  provided  always  that 
the  principal  motives  of  one's  confidence  are  God^s 
goodness  and  the  merits  of  Christ.  Sincerity  is 
another  necessary  quality  of  prayer.  It  would  be 
idle  to  ask  favour  without  doing  all  that  may  be  in 
our  power  to  obtain  it;  to  beg  for  it  without  really 
wishing  for  it;  or,  at  the  same  time  that  one  prays, 
to  do  anything  inconsistent  with  the  prayer. 
Earnestness  or  fervour  is  another  such  quality,  pre- 
cluding all  lukewarm  or  half-hearted  petitions.  To 
be  resigned  to  God's  will  in  prayer  does  not  imply 
that  one  ^ould  be  indifferent  in  the  sense  that  one 


PRAYER                                 347  PRATER 

does  not  care  whether  one  be  heard  or  not,  or  should  less  one  finds  in  it  some  suggestion  or  helpful  thought 

as  lief  not  receive  as  receive;   on  the  contrary,  true  or  sentiment,  but  then  stopping  to  reflect  as  long  as 

re8i)piation  to  God's  will  is  possible  only  after  we  have  ^  one  finds  proper  food  for  thought  or  emotion,  and, 

desured  and  earnestly  expressed  our  desire  in  prayer  '  when  one  has  dwelt  sufficiently  on  any  passage, 

for  such  things  as  seem  needful  to  do  God's  will,  finishing  the  prayer  without  further  dehberate  re- 

This  earnestness  is  the  element  which  makes  the  flection   (see  Distraction). 

persevering  prayer  so  well  described  in  such  parables  Necessity  of  Prayer. — Prayer  is  necessary  for  sal- 

as  the  Friend  at  Midnight  (Luke,  xi,  5-8),  or,  the  vation.    It  is  a  distinct  precept  of  Christ  in  the 

Widow  and  the  Unjust  Judge   (Luke,  xviii,  2-5),  Gospels  (Matt.,  vi,  9;  viij  7;  Luke,  xi,  9;  John,  xvi, 

and  which  ultimately  obtains  the  precious  gift  of  26;   Col.,  iv,  2;   Rom.,  xii,  12;    I  Pet.,  iv,  7).    The 

perseverance  in  grace.  precept  imposes  on  us  only  what  is  really  necessary 

Attention  in  Prayer. — Finally,  attention  b  of  the  as  a  means  of  salvation.     Without  prayer  we  cannot 

very  essence  of  prayer.    As  an  expression  of  senti-  resist  temptation,  nor  obtain  God's  grace,  nor  grow 

ment  emanating  from  our  intellectual  faculties  prayer  and  persevere  in  it.    TTiis  necessity  is  incumbent  on' 

requires  their  application,  i.  e.  attention.     As  soon  all  according  to  their  different  states  in  life,  especiallv 

as  this  attention  ceases,  prayer  ceases.    To  begin  on  those  who  by  virtue  of  their  office,  of  priesthood, 

praying  and  allow  the  mind  to  be  wholly  diverted  or  for  instance,  or  other  special  religious  obligations, 

distracted   to   some   other   occupation   or   thought  should  in  a  special  manner  pray  for  their  own  welfare 

necessarily  terminates  the  prayer,  which  is  resumed  and  for  others.    The  obligation  to  pray  is  incumbent 

only  when  the  mind  is  withdrawn  from  the  object  on  us  at  all  times.     ''And  he  spoke  also  a  parable. 


the  subject  of  prayer,  provided  it  be  done  without  it  we  cannot  overcome  some  obstacle  or  perform  some 

irreverence,  to  any  other  proper  subject.    This  is  obligation;    when,   to  fulfil   various  obligations  of 

all  very  simple  when  applied  to  mental  prayer;  but  charity,  we  should  pray  for  others;   and  when  it  is 

does  vocal  prayer  require  the  same  attention  as  men-  specially  implied  in  some  obligation  imposed  by  the 

tal, — in  other  wordsj  when  pra3dng  vocally  must  one  Church,  sucn  as  attendance  at  Mass,  and  the  ob- 

attend  to  the  meanmg  of  words,  and  if  one  should  servance  of  Sundays  and  feast-days.    This  is  true 

cease  to  do  so,  would  one  by  that  very  fact  cease  to  of  vocal  prayer,  and  as  regards  mental  prayer,  or 

pray?    Vocal  prayer  differs  from  mental  precisely  meditation,  this,  too,  is  necessary  so  far  as  we  may 

m  this  that  mentisd  prayer  is  not  possible  without  need  to  apply  our  mind  to  the   study   of   Divine 

attention  to  the  thoughts  that  are  conceived  and  ex-  things  in  order  to  acquire  a  knowledge  of  the  truths 

pressed  whether  internally  or  externally.    Neither  necessary  for  salvation. 

18  it  possible  to  pray  without  attending  to  thought  The  obligation  to  pray  is  incumbent  on  us  at  all 
and  words  when  we  attempt  to  express  our  sentiments  times,  not  that  prayer  should  be  our  sole  occupation, 
in  our  own  words;  whereas  all  that  is  needed  for  as  the  Euchites,  or  Messalians  (q.  v.),  and  similar 
vocal  prayer  proper  is  the  repetition  of  certain  words,  heretical  sects  professed  to  believe.  The  texts  of 
usually  a  set  form  with  the  intention  of  using  them  Scripture  bidding  us  to  pray  without  ceasing  mean 
in  prayer.  So  long  as  this  intention  lasts,  i.  e.  so  that  we  must  pray  whenever  it  is  necessary,  as  it  so 
long  as  nothing  is  done  to  terminate  it  or  wholly  frequently  is  necessary;  that  we  must  continue  to 
inconsistent  with  it,  so  long  as  one  continues  to  re-  pray  until  we  shall  have  obtained  what  we  need, 
peat  the  form  of  prayer,  with  proper  reverence  in  dis-  Some  writers  speak  of  a  virtuous  life  as  an  uninter- 
position  and  outward  manner,  with  only  this  general  rupted  prayer,  and  appeal  to  the  adage  "to  toil  is 
purpose  of  praying  according  to  the  prescribed  form,  to  pray  '  (laborare  est  orare).  This  does  not  mean  that 
BO  long  one  continues  to  pray  and  no  thought  or  ex-  yirtae  or  labour  replaces  the  duty  of  prayer,  since 
temal  act  can  be  considered  a  distraction  unless  it  it  is  not  possible  either  to  practise  virtue  or  to 
terminate  our  intention,  or  by  levity  or  irreverence  labour  properly  without  frequent  use  of  prayer, 
be  wholly  inconsistent  with  the  prayer.  Thus  one  The  Wyclifites  and  Waldenses,  according  to  Suarez, 
may  pray  in  the  crowded  streets  wnere  it  is  impossible  advocated  what  they  called  vital  prayer,  consisting 
to  avoid  sights  and  sounds  and  consequent  imagina-  in  good  works,  to  the  exclusion  even  of  all  vocal 
tions  and  uioughts.  prayer  except  the  Our  Father.  For  tiiis  reason 
Provided  one  repeats  the  words  of  the  prayer  and  Suarez  does  not  approve  of  the  expression,  though 
avoids  wilful  distractions  of  mind  to  things  in  no  St.  Francis  de  Sales  uses  it  to  mean  prayer  reinforced 
wa^  pertaining  to  prayer,  one  may  through  mental  by  work,  or  rather  work  which  is  inspired  by  prayer, 
inumity  or  inadvertence  admit  numerous  thoughts  Ine  practice  of  the  Church,  devoutly  followed  by  the 
not  connected  with  the  subject  of  the  prayer,  without  faithful,  is  to  begin  and  end  the  aay  with  prayer: 
irreverence.  It  is  true,  this  amount  of  attention  does  and  thou^  morning  and  evening  prayer  is  not  or 
not  enable  one  to  derive  from  prayer  the  full  spiritual  strict  obligation,  the  practice  of  it  so  well  satisfies 
advantage  it  should  bring;  nay.  to  be  satisfied  with  our  sense  of  the  need  of  prayer  that  neglect  of  it, 
it  as  a  rule  would  result  in  aomitting  distractions  especially  for  a  long  time,  is  regarded  as  more  or 
quite  freely  and  wrongfully.  For  this  reason  it  is  less  sinful,  according  to  the  cause  of  the  neglect, 
advisable  not  only  to  keep  the  mind  bent  on  praying  which  is  commonly  some  form  of  sloth, 
but  also  to  think  of  the  purport  of  the  prayer,  and  Vocal  Prayer. — Prayer  may  be  classified  as  vocal 
as  far  as  possible  to  think  of  the  meaning  of  some  at  or  mental,  private  or  public.  In  vocal  prayer  some 
least  of  tne  sentiments  or  expressions  of  the  prayer,  outward  action,  usually  verbal  expression,  accom- 
As  a  means  of  cultivating  the  habit,  it  is  recommended,  Pjuiies  the  internal  act  implied  in  every  form  of  prayer, 
notably  in  the  spiritual  exercises  of  St.  Ignatius,  often  This  external  action  not  only  helps  to  keep  us  at- 
to  recite  certain  familiar  prayers,  the  Ix>rd's  Prayer,  tentive  to  the  prayer,  but  it  also  adds  to  its  intensity, 
the  Angelical  Sidutation,  the  Creed,  the  Confiteor,  Examples  of  it  occur  in  the  prayer  of  the  Israelites 
slowly  enoug^h  to  admit  the  interval  of  a  breath  be-  in  captivity  (Ex.,  ii,  23);  again  after  their  idolatry 
tween  the  principal  words  or  sentences,  so  as  to  have  among  the  Chanaanites  (Judges,  iii,  9) ;  the  lord's 
time  to  think  of  their  meaning,  and  to  feel  in  one's  Prayer  (Matt.,  vi,  9);  Christ  s  own  prayer  after  re- 
heart  the  appropriate  emotions.  Another  practice  suscitating  Lazarus  (John,  xi,  41) ;  and  the  testimonies 
strongly  recommended  by  the  same  author  is  to  ioke  in  Heb.,  v,  7,  and  xiii,  15,  and  frequently  we  are  rec- 
each  sentence  of  these  prayers  as  a  subject  of  re-  ommended  to  use  hymns,  canticles,  and  other  vocal 
flection,  not  delaying  too  long  on  any  one  of  them  un-  forms  of  prayer.    It  nas  bieen  common  in  the  Church 


PRATER 


348 


PRATIR 


from  the  beginning;  nor  has  it  ever  been  denied, 
except  by  the  Wyclifites  and  the  Quietists.  The 
fonner  objected  to  it  as  unnecessary,  as  God  docs 
not  need  our  words  to  know  what  goes  on  in  our 
souls,  and  prayer  being  a  spiritual  act  need  be  pei*- 
formed  by  the  soul  alone  without  the  body.  The 
latter  regarded  all  external  action  in  prayer  as  an 
untoward  disturbance  or  interference  with  the 
passivity  of  the  soul  required,  in  their  opinion,  to 
pray  properly.  It  is  obvibus  that  prayer  must  be 
the  action  of  the  entire  man,  body  as  well  as  soul; 
tiiat  God  who  created  both  is  pleased  with  the  service 
of  both,  and  that  when  the  two  act  in  unison  they 
help  instead  of  interfering  with  one  another's  activi- 
ties. The  Wyclifites  objected  not  only  to  all  ex- 
ternal expression  of  prayer  generally,  but  to  vocal 
prayer  in  its  proper  sense,  viz.  pi'ayer  expressed  in 
set  form  of  words,  excepting  only  the  Our  Father. 
Hie  use  of  a  variety  of  such  forms  is  sanctioned  by 
the  prayer  over  the  first-fruits  (Deut.,  xxvi,  13).  If 
it  be  right  to  use  one  form,  that  of  the  Our  Father, 
why  not  otJiers  also?  The  Litany,  Collective  ana 
Eucharistic  prayers  of  the  early  Church  were  surely 
set  forms^  and  the  familiar  daily  prayers,  the  Our 
Father,  Hail  Mary,  Apostles'  Creed,  Confiteor,  Acts 
of  Faith,  Hope,  and  Charity,  all  attest  the  usage  of 
the  Church  in  this  respect  and  the  preference  of  the 
faithful  for  such  approved  forms  to  others  of  their 
own  composition. 

Postures  in  Prayer. — Postures  in  prayer  are  also 
an  evidence  of  the  tendency  in  human  nature  to  ex- 
press inward  sentiment  by  outward  sign.  Not  only 
among  Jews  and  Christians,  but  among  pagan  peoples 
also,  certain  postures  were  considered  appropriate 
in  prayer,  as,  for  instance,  standing  with  arms  raised 
among  the  Romans.  The  Orante  (see  Orans)  in< 
dicat^  the  postures  favoured  by  the  early  Chris- 
tians, stimdin^  with  hands  extjended,  as  Christ  on  the 
Cross,  according  to  TertuUian;  or  with  hands  raised 
towards  heaven,  with  bowed  heads,  or,  for  the  faith- 
ful, with  eyes  raised  towards  heaven,  and,  for  cate- 
chumens, with  eyes  bent  on  the  earth;  prostration, 
kneeling,  genuflexion  (q.  v.),  and  such  gestures  as 
striking  the  breast  are  all  outward  signs  of  the  rev- 
erence proper  for  prayer,  whether  in  public  or  private. 

M^Ual  Prayer. — Meditation  is  a  form  of  mental 
prayer  consisting  in  the  application  of  the  various 
faculties  of  the  soul,  memory,  imagination,  intellect, 
and  will,  to  the  consideration  of  some  mystery, 
principle,  truth,  or  fact,  with  a  view  to  exciting  proper 
spiritual  emotions  and  resolving  on  some  act  or  course 
of  action  regarded  as  God's  will  and  as  a  means  of 
union  with  Him.  In  some  degree  or  other  it  has 
always  been  practised  by  God-fearing  souls.  There 
is  atrundant  evidence  of  this  in  the  Old  Testament, 
as,  for  instance,  in  Ps.  xxxviii,  4;  Ixii,  7;  Ixxvi^  13; 
cxviii  throughout;  Ecclus.,  xiv,  22;  Is.,  xxvi,  9; 
Ivii,  1;  Jer.,  xii,  11.  In  the  New  Testament  Christ 
gave  frequent  examples  of  it,  and  St.  Paul  often  re- 
fers to  it,  as  in  Epn.,  vi,  18;  Col.,  iv,  2;  I  Tim., 
iv,  15;  I  Cor.,  xiv,  15.  It  has  always  been  practised 
in  the  Church.  Amone  others  who  have  recom- 
mended it  to  the  faithfulare  Chrysostom  in  his  two 
books  on  prayer,  as  also  in  his  ''Hom.  xxx  in  Gen." 
and  '^  Hom.  vi.  in  Isaiam" ;  Cassian  in  ''Conference  ix" : 
St.  Jerome  in  ''Epistola  22  ad  Eustochium'' ;  St.  Basil 
in  his  ''Homily  on  St.  Julitta,  M.",  and  "In  regula 
breviori",  301;  St.  Cyprian,  "In  expositione  ora- 
tionis  dominicalis";  St.  Ambrose,  "De  sacramentis", 
VI,  iii;  St.  Augustine.  "Epist.  121  ad  Probam", 
cc.  V,  vi,  vii;  Boetius,  De  spiritu  et  anima",  xxxii; 
St.  Leo,  "Sermo  viii  de  jeiunio";  St.  Bernard, 
"De  consecratione",  I,  vii;  ot.  Thomas,  II-II,  Q. 
Ixxxiii,  a.  2. 

The  writings  of  the  Fathers  themselves  and  of 
the  great  theologians  are  in  large  measure  the  fruit 
of  devout  meditation  as  well  as  of  study  of  the  mys- 


teries of  religion.  There  is,  however,  no  trace  of 
methodical  meditation  before  the  fifteenth  century. 
Prior  to  that  time,  even  ip  monasteries,  no  regulation 
seems  to  have  existed  for  the  choice  or  arrangement 
of  subject,  the  order,  method,  and  time  of  the  con- 
sideration. From  the  beginning,  before  the  middle 
of  the  twelfth  century,  the  Carthusians  had  times  set 
apart  for  mental  praver,  as  appears  from  Gui^o's 
"Consuetudinary",  but  no  turther  regulation. 
About  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century  one 
of  the  Brothers  of  the  Common  Life,  Jean  Mombaer 
of  Brussels,  issued  a  series  of  subjects  or  points  for 
meditation.  The  monastic  rules  generally  prescribe 
times  for  common  prayer,  usually  the  recitation  of 
the  Office,  leaving  it  to  the  individual  to  ponder  as  he 
might  on  one  or  other  of  the  texts.  Early  in  the  six- 
teenth century  the  Dominican  chapter  of  Milan 
prescribed  mental  prayer  for  half  an  hour  morning 
and  evening.  Among  the  Franciscans  there  is  record 
of  methodical  mental  prayer  about  the  middle  of  that 
century.  Among  the  Carmelites  there  was  no  regu- 
lation for  it  until  Saint  Theresa  introduced  it  for 
two  hours  daily.  Although  Saint  Ignatius  reduced 
meditation  to  such  a  definite  method  in  his  spiritual 
exercises,  it  was  not  made  part  of  his  rule  until 
thirty  years  after  the  formation  of  the  Society.  His 
method  and  that  of  St.  Sulpice  have  helped  to  spread 
the  habit  of  meditating  beyond  the  cloister  among 
the  faithful  eve^where. 

Methods  of  MeditaHon. — In  the  method  of  Sit. 
Ignatius  the  subject  of  the  meditation  is  chosen  before- 
hand, usually  the  previous  evening.  It  may  be  any 
truth  or  fact  whatever  concerning  God  or  the  human 
soul,  God's  existence.  His  attributes,  such  as  justice, 
mercy,  love,  wisdom.  His  law,  providence,  revelation, 
creation  and  its  purpose,  sin  and  its  penalties,  death, 
judgment,  hell,  redemption,  etc.  The  precise  aspect 
of  the  subject  should  be  determined  very  definitely, 
otherwise  its  consideration  will  be  general  or  super- 
ficial and  of  no  practical  benefit.  As  far  as  possible 
its  application  to  one's  spiritual  needs  should  be  fore- 
seen, and  to  work  up  interest  in  it,  as  one  retires  and 
rises,  one  should  recall  it  to  mind  so  as  to  make  it  a 
sleeping  and  a  waking  thought.  When  ready  for 
meditation,  a  few  moments  should  be  given  to  recol- 
lecting what  we  are  about  to  do  so  as  to  begin  with 
quiet  of  mind  and  deeply  impressed  with  the  sacred- 
ness  of  prayer.  A  brief  act  of  adoration  of  God 
naturally  follows,  with  a  petition  that  our  intention 
to  honour  Him  in  prayer  may  be  sincere  and  persever- 
ing, and  that  every  uuiulty  and  act,  interior  and  ex- 
terior, may  contribute  to  His  service  and  praise.  The 
subject  of  the  meditation  is  then  recalled  to  mind,  and 
in  order  to  fix  the  attention,  the  imagination  is  here 
employed  to  construct  some  scene  appropriate  to  the 
subject,  e.  g.  the  Garden  of  Paradise,  if  the  medita- 
tion be  on  Creation,  or  the  Fall  of  Man;  the  Valley  of 
Jehosaphat,  for  the  Last  Judgment;  or,  for  Hell,  the 
bottomless  and  boundless  pit  of  fire.  This  is  called  the 
composition  of  place,  and  even  when  the  subject  of 
meditation  has  no  apparent  material  associations,  the 
imagination  can  always  devise  some  scene  or  sensible  ' 
imago  that  will  help  to  fix  or  recall  one's  attention  and 
appreciate  the  spiritual  matter  under  consideration. 
Thus,  when  considering  sin,  especially  carnal  sin,  as 
enslaving  the  soul,  the  Book  ot  Wisdom,  ix,  15,  sug- 
gests the  similarity  of  the  body  to  the  prison  house  of 
the  soul:  "The  corruptible  body  is  a  load  upon  the 
soul,  and  the  earthly  habitation  presseth  down  the 
mind  that  museth  upon  many  things." 

Quite  often  this  initial  step,  or  prelude  as  it  is 
called,  might  occupy  one  profitably  the  entire  time 
set  apart  for  meditation;  but  ordinarily  it  should  be 
made  in  a  few  minutes.  A  brief  petition  follows  for  the 
special  grace  one  hopes  to  obtain  and  then  the  medita- 
tion proper  begins.  The  memory  recalls  the  subject 
as  definitely  as  possible,  one  point  at  a  time,  repeating 


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it  over  if  necessary,  always  as  a  matter  of  intimate 
personal  interest,  and  witn  a  strong  act  of  faith  until 
the  intellect  naturally  apprehends  the  truth  or  the 
import  of  the  fact  under  consideration,  and  begins  to 
conceive  it  as  a  matter  for  careful  consideration, 
reasoning  about  it  and  studying  what  it  implies  for 
one's  welfare.  Gradually  an  intense  interest  js 
aroused  in  these  reflections,  until,  with  faith  quicken- 
ing the  natural  intelligence,  one  begins  te  perceive 
applications  of  the  truth  or  fact  to  one's  condition 
and  needs  and  to  feel  the  advantage  or  necessity  of 
acting  upon  the  conclusions  drawn  from  one's  reflec- 
tions. This  is  the  important  moment  of  meditation. 
The  conviction  that  we  need*  or  should  do  something 
in  accordance  with  our  consideration  begets  in  us 
desires  or  resolutions  which  we  long  to  accomplish. 
If  we  are  serious  we  shall  admit  of  no  self-deception 
either  aa  to  the  propriety  or  possibility  of  such  resolu- 
tions on  our  part.  No  matter  what  it  may  cost  us 
to  be  consistent,  we  shall  adopt  them,  and  the  more 
we  appreciate  their  difficulty  and  our  own  weakness 
or  incapacity,  the  more  we  shall  try  to  value  the 
motives  which  prompt  us  to  adopt  them,  and  above 
all  the  more  we  shall  pray  for  grace  to  be  able  to 
carry  them  out. 

If  we  are  in  earnest  we  shall  not  be  satisfied  with 
a  superficial  process.  In  the  light  of  the  truth  we  are 
meditating,  our  past  experience  will  come  to  mind 
and  confront  us  perhaps  with  memory  of  failure  ia 
previous  attempts  similar  to  those  we  are  considering 
now,  or  at  least  with  a  keen  sense  of  the  difficulty  to 
be  apprehended,  making  us  more  solicitous  about  the 
motives  animating  us  and  humble  in  petitioning  God's 
grace.  These  petitions,  as  well  as  all  the  various 
emotions  that  anse  from  our  reflections,  find  expression 
in  terms  of  prayer  to  God  which  are  called  colloquies, 
or  conversations  with  Him.  They  may  occur  at 
any  point  in  the  process,  whenever  our  thoughts  in- 
spire us  to  call  upon  God  f6r  our  needs,  or  even  for 
light  to  perceive  and  appreciate  them  ana  to  know  the 
means  of  obtaining  them.  This  general  process  is 
subject  to  variations  according  to  the  character  of 
the  matter  under  consideration.  The  number  of 
preludes  and  colloquies  may  vary,  and  the  time  spent 
in  reasoning  may  be  greater  or  less  according  to  our 
familiarity  with  the  subject.  There  is  nothing  me- 
chanical in  the  process;  indeed,  if  analysed,  it  is 
clearly  the  natural  operation  of  each  faculty  and  of  all 
in  concert.  Roothaan,  who  has  prepared  the  best 
summary  of  it,  recommends  a  remote  preparation  for 
it,  so  as  to  know  whether  we  are  properly  disposed  to 
enter  into  meditation,  and^  after  each  exercise,  a  brief 
review  of  each  part  of  it  m  detail  to  see  how  far  we 
may  have  succeeded.  It  is  also  strongly  advised  to 
select  as  a  means  of  recalling  the  leading  thought  or 
motive  or  affection  some  brief  memorandum,  prefer- 
ably couched  in  the  words  of  some  text  of  Scrip- 
ture, the  "Imitation  of  Christ",  the  Fathers  of  the 
Church,  or  of  some  accredited  writer  on  spiritual 
things.  Meditation  made  regularly  according  to  this 
method  tends  to  create  an  atmosphere  or  spirit  of 
prayer. 

The  method  in  vogue  among  the  Sulpicians  and 
followed  by  the  students  in  their  seminaries  is  not 
substantially  different  from  this.  According  to 
Chenart,  companion  of  Olier  and  for  a  long  time 
director  of  the  Seminary  of  St.  Sulpice,  the  medita- 
tion should  consist  of  three  parts:  the  preparation, 
the  prayer  proper,  and  the  conclusion.  By  way  or 
preparation  we  should  begin  with  acts  of  adoration 
of  Almighty  God.  of  self-humiliation,  and  with  fervent 
petition  to  be  directed  by  the  Holy  Spirit  in  our 
prayer  to  know  how  to  make  it  well  and  obtain  its 
fruits.  The  prayer  proper  consists  of  considerations 
and  the  spiritual  emotions  or  affections  that  result 
from  such  considerations.  Whatever  the  subject  of 
the  meditation  may  be,  it  should  be  considered  as  it 


may  have  been  exemplified  in  the  life  of  Christ,  In 
itself,  and  in  its  practical  importance  for  ourselves. 
The  simpler  these  consideration  are  the  better.  A 
long  or  intricate  course  of  reasoning  is  not  at  all  desir- 
able. When  some  reasoning  is  needed,  it  should*  be 
simple  and  always  in  the  light  of  faith.  Speculation, 
subtlety,  curiosity  are  all  out  of  place,  rlain,  prac- 
tical reflections,  always  with  an  eye  to  self-examina- 
tion, in  order  to  see  how  well  or  ill  our  conduct  con- 
forms to  the  conclusions  we  derive  from  such  reflec- 
tions, are  by  all  means  to  be  sought.  The  affections 
are  the  main  object  of  the  meditation.  These  are  to 
have  charity  as  their  aim  and  norm.  They  should  be 
few,  if  possible,  one  only  of  such  simplicity  and  inten- 
sity that  it  can  inspire  the  soul  to  act  on  the  conclu- 
sion derived  from  the  consideration  and  resolve  to  do 
something  definite  in  the  service  of  God.  To  seek  too 
many  affections  only  distracts  or  dissipates  the  atten- 
tion of  the  mind  and  weakens  the  resolution  of  the 
will.  If  it  be  difficult  to  limit  the  emotions  to  one, 
it  is  not  well  to  make  much  effort  to  do  so,  but  better 
to  devote  our  energies  to  deriving  the  best  fruit  we 
can  from  such  as  arise  naturally  and  with  ease  from 
our  mental  reflections.  As  a  means  of  keeping  in  mind 
during  the  day  the  uppermost  thought  or  motive  of  the 
medite^on  we  are  advised  to  cull  a  spiritual  nosegay, 
as  it  is  qliaintly  called,  with  which  to  refresh  the  memory 
from  time  to  time. 

Meditation  carefully  followed  forms  habits  of 
recalling  and  reasoning  rapidly  and  with  some  ease 
about  &vine  things  in  such  a  manner  as  to  excite 
pious  affections,  which  become  very  ardent  and  which 
attach  us  very  strongly  to  God's  will.  When  prayer  is 
made  up  chiefly  of  sudi  affections,  it  is  called  by  Alvarez 
de  Paz,  and  other  writers  since  his  time,  affective 
pfayer,  to  denote  that  instead  of  having  to  labour  men- 
tally to  admit  or  grasp  a  truth,  we  have  grown  so  famil- 
iar with  it  that  almost  the  mere  recollection  of  it  fills 
us  with  sentiments  of  faith,  hope,  charity;  moves  us  to 
practise  more  generously  one  or  other  of  the  moral 
virtues;  inspires  us  to  make  some  act  of  self-sacrifice 
or  to  attempt  some  work  for  the  ^lory  of  God.  When 
these  affections  become  more  simple,  that  is,  less 
numerous,  less  varied,  and  less  interrupted  or  im- 
peded by  reasoning  or  mental  attempts  to  find  ex- 
pression either  for  considerations  or  affections,  they 
constitute  what  is  called  the  prayer  of  simplicity  by 
Bossuet  and  those  who  follow  his  terminology,  of 
simple  attention  to  one  dominant  thought  or  Divine 
object  without  reasoning  on  it,  but  simply  letting  it 
recur  at  intervals  to  renew  or  strengthen  the  senti- 
ments which  keep  the  soul  united  to  God. 

These  deuces  of  prayer  are  denoted  by  various 
terms  by  writers  on  spiritual  subjects,  the  prayer  of 
the  heart,  active  recollection,  and  by  the  paradoxical 
phrases,  active  repose,  active  quietude,  active 
silence,  as  opposed  to  similar  passive  states;  St. 
Francis  de  Sales  called  it  the  prayer  of  simple  com- 
mittaJ  to  God,  not  in  the  sense  of  doing  nothing  or 
of  remaining  inert  in  His  sight,  but  doing  all  we  can 
to  control  our  own  restless  and  aberrant  faculties 
so  as  to  keep  them  disposed  for  His  action.  By  what- 
ever name  these  degrees  of.  prayer  may  be  called,  it 
is  important  not  to  confuse  them  with  any  of  the 
modes  of  Quietism  (see  Guyon,  Molinos,  Quiet- 
ism), as  also  not  to  exaggerate  their  importance,  as 
if  they  were  absolutely  different  from  vocal  prayers 
and  meditation,  since  they  are  only  degrees  of  or- 
dinary prayer.  With  more  than  usual  attention  to 
the  sentiment  of  a  set  form  of  prayer  meditation 
begins;  the  practice  of  meditation  develops  a  habit 
of  centring  our  affections  on  Divine  things;  as  this 
habit  is  cultivated,  distractions  are  more  easily 
avoided,  even  such  as  arise  from  our  own  varied  and 
complex  thoughts  or  emotions,  until  God  or  any 
truth  or  fact  relating  to  Him  becomes  the  simple 
object  of  our  undisturbed  attention,  and  this  atten- 


PRATER-BOOKS        "  350  PRATER-BOOKS 

tion  is  held  steadfast  by  the  firm  and  ardent  affection  meant  to  be  used  in  church,  and  there  is  nothing  in 

it  excites.    St.  Ignatius  and  other  masters  iii  the  art  the  nature  of  things  which  could  render  it  improbable 

of  prayer  have  provided  suggestions  for  passing  from  that  individuals  may  have  copied  these  and  otiier 

meditation  proper  to  these  further  degrees  of  prayer,  more  liturgical  prayers  into  a  volume  as  an  aid  to 

In  the  "Spiritual  Exercises"  the  repetition  of  previous  piety.    Thus  one  or  two  prayers  or  h3mms  of  the 

meditations  consists  in  affective  prayer,  and  the  ex-  third  or  fourth  century  have  been  recovered  from 

ercises  of  the  second  week,  the  contemplations  of  buried  papyri  (see  Wesselv,  "  Les  plus  anciens  Monu- 

the  life  of  Christ,  are  virtually  the  same  as  the  prayer  ments  du  Christianisme' ,  Paris,  1906,  pp.  195  and 

of  simplicity,  which  is  in  its  last  analysis  the  same  205).    An  ostracon  from  a  Coptic  monastery  at  De 

as  the  orduiary  practice  of  contemplation.    Other  reli-Bahri  preserves  in  Greek  what  amounts  prac- 

modes  of  prayer  are  described  under  Contempla-  tically  to  a  sixth-century  equivalent  of  the'Hul  Mary, 

HON;  Quiet,  Prayer  of.  though  this  may  be  liturgical  (see  Crum,  "Coptic 

The  classification  of  private  and  public  prayer  is  Ostraca'',  1902,  p.  3),  while  two  long  prayers  formerly 
made  to  denote  distinction  between  the  prayer  of  the  attributed  to  St.  C^rian,  but  probably  of  the  fifth 
individual,  whether  in  or  out  of  the  presence  of  others,  century,  are  especially  worthy  of  remark  on  account 
for  his  or  for  others'  needs,  and  all  prayer  offered  of  the  light  they  throw  upon  certain  early  develop- 
officially  or  hturgically  whether  in  pubhc  or  in  secret,  ments  of  Christian  art  (see  K.  Michel,  '*  Debet  imd 
as  when  a  priest  recites  the  Divine  Office  outside  of  Bild  in  frilhchristUcher  Zeit",  1902,  pp.  3-7).  But 
G^oir.  All  the  Uturgical  prayers  of  the  Church  are  on  the  whole  the*  Christians  in  the  nrst  centuries 
public,  as  are  all  the  prayers  which  one  in  sacred  probably  found  that  the  Psalms  sufficed  for  Hie  needs 
orders  offers  in  his  ministerial  capacity.  These  of  private  as  well  as  public  devotion  (cf .  Cassian, 
public  prayers  are  usually  offered  in  places  set  apart  "De  ccenob.  inst.",  Iff^v,  P.  L.,  XLIX,  34;  Euse- 
for  this  purpose,  in  churches  or  chapels,  just  as  in  bins,  ''In  Psalm."  in  r,  G.,  XXIII,  647),  and  the 
the  Old  Law  they  were  offered  in  the  Temple  and  in  fact  is  significant  that  a  large  proportion  of  the 
the  synagogue.  Special  times  are  appointed  for  surviving  books  of  piety  belonging  to  the  early 
them:  the  hours  for  the  various  parts  of  the  daily  Middle  Ages  which  were  copied  for  private  use  are 
Office,  days  of  rogation  or  of  vigil,  seasons  of  Advent  simply  psalters,  to  which  devotional  supplements  of 
and  Lent^  and  occasions  of  special  need,  affliction,  various  kinds,  for  example  the  litanies,  the  Gloria, 
thanksgivmg,  jubilee,  on  the  part  of  all,  or  of  large  Credo,  Athanasian  Creed  etc.,  were  added  with  in- 
numbers  of  the  faithful.    (See  Union  of  Prater.)  creasing  frequency. 

St.  Thomab,  II-ii,  Q- ixxxv;  SuAMa.  De  oratione,^  in  De  Some  few  of  these  psalter  prayer-books  have  been 

'^^»r'''iJl!^-S^f^S:S:auSSrt::^.^  X'SS;.  \)^P^y  P'**^"!  ^  ««.  P«>bably  on  account  of  th«r 

gufltioie  under  the  title  of  Secda  paradiei  in  volume  IX  among  hia  illuminations.   Ornamentation,   or  bmoing,  while  the 

works;  Roothaan,  rj«  Method  of  Meditation  (New  York,  1858);  plainer  copies  belonging  to  less  exalted  owners  have 

Suipice  (Pari,  1903) :   Catechim  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  tr.  entirely    penshwl.     The    psalter    of    the    £.mperor 

Donovan  (Dublin,  0.  d.) ;  Pouuiin.  The  Oracea  of  Interior  Prayer  Lothair  (c.  845)  IS  One  of  the  earliest  and  mOSt  f amOUS 

(St.  Louia.  1911);  Causadb.  Progrees  in  /Voyer.  tr.  Shbehax  of  these,  but  there  is  also  a  similar  manuscript  which 

(St.  Louifl);FwHBii.  A  rr«i<w«  on  Pytiyer  (London.  1885):  EooBR,  KAlnncrAH     *^    PfiarlM    iht^    RaW    now    nrnflPrvAri    at 

Are  Our  Pravere  Heardf   (London,  1910) ;  »r.  Fbancib  Dji  s albs,  Dciongea  to  i^haries  the   iJaia  now  preservea  at 

Treatiee  of  the  Love  of  God  (tr.  London,  1884);    St.  Petbr  or  Pans  and  tWO  very  fine  Dsalters  Of  Ot.  Uall.  One  Of 

Alcantara.  A  Golden  Treatiee  on  Menial  Pmyer  (tr.  Oxford,  t'lem  known  as  the  ''psalterium  aureum",  the  WOrk 

JS!S=  b^Ef'Sf'^t^SoSISnotet'-ni^t  ^S^t  of  the.famou8  scribe  pdram  and  belongW  to  the 

AvANCiNi.    Viia  et  doctrina   Jeau   Chriali  ex  quatuor  evanaeliis  beginning   Of   the   tenth   CCntury,     blimlar   COOKS   Of 

eoUeeue  (Paris,  1850);  db  Ponte.  Meiitationea  de  pr(ecipuis  fiiH  devotiou  are  to  be  found  in  English  libraries.    The 

IJX^iJTwo'fV.lSTLol^/*?^);"  ^^^of  ^^<S!  ??<=ient  psalter   in   the   British   Mu^m   (Cotton 

tiona  and  Contemplations  (New  York,  1879);    Lancicius.  Piiue  M.S.  Vespas.,  A.  1),  formerly  supposed  tO  be  one  Of 

Affeetiona  towarda  Oodand  the  SainU  ihondon,  1883);   Sejonkui.  ^he  books  brought  by  St.  AugUStine  from  Rome  but 

The  Manna:  of  the  Soul  (London,  1892);  St.  Johx  Baptist  deLv  «^„ii„  „r^+A«,,  ;^T^r%«lo«/^  aK^nf  7nn    ia  nrnKo^Klv  f/^ 

Sallb,  MediUUiona  for  Sundaya  and  FeativaU  (New  York,  18^2);  feally  Wntten  in  ll^ngland  abOUt  700,  IS  probably  tO 

Bbllord.   Meiitationa   (London);    Luck.   Meditationa:  Ciai/-  be  accounted  hturgical.    It  IS  not  a  manual  for  private 

lONBR.   CoiMiderationa   wpon  Christian  Trutha  and  Chri*'iin  ^igvotion,  although  in  the  eleventh  ccutury  a  number 

Dodrxnea  (Philadelphui,  1863);  Clarke,  Med%UU\ona  on  the  Lxfs,  f            uinwrJoftl  nravo«»  w«»r*»  uAAf^  ii\  if       On  thp 

Teaching  and  Passion  of  Jesus  Christ  (New  York.  1901);  Ham^n,  Of  non-Uturglcal  prayers  Were  aaaca  U)  It.      KJU  lUe 

Meditations  foraUthe  Days  in  the  Year  (New  York,  1894);   M4-  other  hand,  the  volume  m  the  same  COUcctlOn,  known 

DAiLLB.  Meditations  on  the  Gospds,  tr.EvRB  (New  York,  1037);  ag  King  Athelstan's  psalter  (ninth  century),  seems  to 

Nbwman.  Meditations  and  Devotions  (New  York,  1893)^    Wi^->  i»«„^  K«««  ;n*»nrlo/l  Z^,.  o  t^mxvai-  Krvnir    Koincr  aTna.l1  in 

MAN.  Daily  Meditations  (Dublin.  1868);  VBRCRurasB,  PraciicU  havc  been  intended  for  a  prayer-book,  bemg  small  in 

Meditations  (London).  Size  and  supplemented  with  a  number  of  prayers  in  a 

John  J.  Wynne.  later  but  tenth-century  script.    And  here  be  it  sud 

that  down  to  the  time  of  the  invention  of  printing, 
Prayer-Booloi. — By  "prayer-books"  usage  g?n-  the  Psalter,  or  at  least  a  volume  containing  psalms 
erally  understands  a  collection  of  forms  of  prayer  and  portions  of  the  Office  with  a  supplement  of  mis- 
intended  for  private  devotion,  and  in  so  far  distinct  cellaneous  prayers,  remained  the  type  of  the  devo- 
from  the  "service  books"  which  contain  the  liturni^al  tional  manuals  most  favoured  by  the  laity.  After 
formularies  used  in  public  worship.  In  the  Church  King  Alfred,  at  the  age  of  twelve  or  thirteen  (861). 
of  England,  of  course,  the  official  liturgy  is  entitled  as  Asser  tells  us,  had  learned  to  read,  "he  carried 
"The  Book  of  Common  Prayer"  or  more  com'>cn-  about  with  him  everywhere,  as  we  ourselves  have 
diously  the  "Prayer  Book",  but  this  is  an  exception,  often  seen,  the  daily  Office  (cursum  diumum),  that 
Of  prayer-books  in  the  sense  defined,  the  earl'/  Chris-  is,  the  celebrations  of  the  hours  (celebrationes  horarum), 
tian  centuries  have  left  us  no  specimen,  ncMlhorcan  and  next  certain  psalms  and  a  number  of  prayers, 
we  be  certain  that  any  such  existed.  The  work  some-  all  collected  into  one  book  which  he  kept  as  an  in- 
times  known  as  "Bishop  Serapion's  Prayer-book"  separable  companion  in  his  bosom  to  help  him  to 
(Eng.  tr.  by  J.  Wordsworth,  1899)  and  compiled  pray  amid  all  the  contingencies  of  life".  Similarly 
probably  by  an  Egyptian  bishop  of  that  name  in  we  read  in  the  life  of  St.  Wenceslaus  (tenth  century) 
the  fourth  century  should  rather  be  described  as  a  of  the  dog-eared  prayer-book  (codiceUum  manuaU 
Pontifical  or  Euchologium  than  as  a  prayer-book,  and  frequentia  rugosum)  which  he  carried  about  with  him 
was  certainly  not  intended  for  private  devotion.  On  while  he  continuously  recited  the  Psalms  and  other 
the  other  hand  we  do  find  traces  of  isolated  composi-  prayers.  These  descriptions  seem  to  apply  accurately 
tions,  sometimes  in  prose,  sometimes  in  a  motriral  enough  to  a  number  of  devotional  manuals  still 
form  which  entitles  them  perhaps  to  be  regardcHl  surviving  in  manu8(Tipt,  though  often  enough  the 
rather  as  hymns,  which  in  all  probability  were  not  whole  Psalter  was  transcribed  and  not  merely  select 


PRAYER-BOOKS 


351 


PRAYER-BOOKS 


portions  of  the  Office.  Many  of  those  thus  pre- 
served must  have  been  intended  for  the  use  of  great 
personages  and,  like  the  famous  ^* Utrecht  Psalter'', 
for  example,  in  the  ninth  century,  or  the  psalter  of 
Archbishop  Egbert  of  Trier  (d.  993),  were  elaborately 
illustrated,  and,  as  in  the  last  case  at  least,  very 
considerably  enlarged  by  devotional  additions.  At 
least  five  psalters  of  this  kind  are  still  in  existence, 
which  seem  to  have  belonged  to  St.  Louis  of  France, 
more  than  one  of  them  being  clearly  of  English 
workmanship,  which  in  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth 
centuries  was  very  famous.  One  of  these,  now  pre- 
served at  Leyden,  was  used  by  the  saint  in  his  boy- 
hood as  an  elementary  reading-book^  a  fact  which 
brings  us  very  near  the  origin  of  the  English  name 
"primer".  Moreover,  to  pass  from  the  complete 
book  of  psalms  to  a  collection  of  offices,  of  which  the 
principal  was  the  Little  Office  of  Our  Lady,  was  the 
most  natural  of  transitions,  and  we  thus  arrive  at 
the  manual  which  is  universally  recognized  as  being 
the  great  prayer-book  of  the  laity  during  the  close  of 
the  Middle  Ages  (see  Primer,  The). 

The  psalter  type,  however,  was  not  the  only  form 
of  manual  of  private  devotions  which  existed  in  the 
Carlovingian  period.  Several  collections  of  mis- 
cellaneous prayers,  often  with  extracts  from  the 
Gospels  ana  more  especially  the  Passion  according 
to  the  four  Evangelists,  still  survive  from  the  eighth 
and  ninth  centuries.  The  codex  known  as  "the 
Book  of  Cerne",  written  apparently  for  Bishop 
iEdeluald  of  Lickfield  (81S-30)  and  now  preserved 
in  the  University  Library,  Cambridge,  is  one  of  the 
most  famous  of  these,  and  it  has  recently  been  rendered 
aocessible,  with  valuable  notes  by  Mr.  Edmund 
Bishop,  in  the  edition  of  Dom  Kuypers  (Cambridge, 
1902).  The  traces  of  Celtic  influences  and,  as  Mr. 
Bishop  points  out,  of  "Spanish  symptoms",  are  very 
marked  in  this  book,  but  it  is  difficult  not  to  admit 
that  such  a  prayer  as  the  "Lorica"  (breastplate), 
which,  while  resembling  that  attributed  to  St.  Patrick, 
is  different  from  it  ana  ascribed  to  a  certain  Loding, 
partakes  in  some  respects  of  the  nature  of  an  in- 
cantation. There  are  also  in  the  "Book  of  Ceme" 
and  some  similar  collections  forms  of  general  accusa- 
tion for  confession,  embracing  almost  every  iman- 
nable  crime,  which  were  probably  intended  to  help 
the  penitent,  much  as  a  modem  examination  of  con- 
science might  do.  Closely  resembling  the  "  Book  of 
Ceme"  is  the  eighth-centurv  Book  of  Nunnaminster 
(MS.  Harl.  2965).  This  also  contains  the  Passion 
according  to  the  four  Evangelists  and  a  miscellaneous 
collection  of  non-liturgical  prayers  (many  of  them  con- 
nected with  the  Passion  of  Chnst),  and  also  the 
"Lorica''  of  Loding.  Irish  and  Gallican  charac- 
teristics are  much  in  evidence,  in  spite  of  the  book 
coming  from  Winchester.  This  is  still  more  the  case 
with  Harl.  MS.  7053,  a  fragmentary  "book  of  private 
devotions  written  by  an  Insh  lady  probably  a  nun ", 
and  with  MS.  Reg.  2,  A.  XX.,  compiled  probably  at 
Lindisfame  in  the  eighth  century.  In  all  of  them, 
despite  much  genuine  piety,  there  is  a  pronounced 
tendency  to  faU  occasionally  to  the  level  of  magical 
incantations  and  spells.  Even  on  the  Continent  these 
collections  of  prayers  for  private  use  were  apt  to 
wear  an  Irish  colouring,  as,  for  example,  may  be 
observed  in  the  tenth-century  "Libellus  Precum" 
of  Fleury  (printed  by  Mart^ne,  "De  antio.  ecc. 
ritibus".  Ill,  234),  though  prayers  extracted  from 
the  Fatners,  e.  g.  St.  Augustine  and  St.  Ephrsem. 
predominated.  Alcuin  in  his  "De  Psalmorum  Usu 
and  "Officia  per  Ferias"(P.  L.,  CI,  465-612)  also  made 
similar  collections.  His  arrangement  of  such  de- 
votions according  to  days  of  the  week  was  especially 
noteworthy,  since  it  was  conspicuously  revived  by 
Simon  Verepceus  and  other  prayer-book  compilers 
of  the  sixth  century. 

The  idTection  for  the  Psalms,  even  when  dissociated 


from  any  form  of  Office,  was  always  a  conspicuous 
feature  in  the  early  devotional  books  of  the  laity; 
see,  for  example,  the  "Liber  Orationum"  of  Charles 
the  Bald  (ninth  century,  edited  at  Ingolstadt,  1583), 
in  which,  after  the  example  of  Alcuin,  selections  of  the 
Psalms  are  made  for  various  spiritual  needs,  e.  g. 
"Psalmi  pro  tribulatione  et  tentatione  camis",  "Pro 
gratiarum  actione",  etc.  When,  however,  some  few 
centuries  later,  it  had  become  the  custom  in  most 
of  the  monastic  orders  to  supplement  the  Divine 
Office  with  various  "cursus"  of  the  Blessed  Virgin, 
of  All  Saints,  of  the  Holy  Cross,  etc.,  those  excres- 
cences upon  the  official  prayer  of  the  Church  acquired 
great  popularity  with  the  laity  also,  and  in  the  long 
run  it  seems  to  have  been  felt  that  the  psalms  in- 
cluded in  these  little  offices,  with  the  Gradual  and 
Penitential  Psalms,  sufficed  for  the  needs  of  the  ordi- 
nary layman.  Hence  the  "Book  of  Hours",  or 
"Primer"  (q.  v.),  as  it  was  called  in  England,  gradu- 
ally replaced  the  Psalter  in  popular  use.  At  the 
same  time  an  immense  variety  of  prayers  came  to  be 
added  to  the  Office  of  Our  Lady,  which  formed  the 
kernel  of  these  " Horse",  so  that  haixily  any  two  manu- 
script copies  of  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries 
are  identical  in  their  contents.  In  the  case  of 
books  written  for  the  devotion  of  royal  and  noble 
personages,  the  most  exquisite  artistic  skill  was  often 
lavished  upon  the  illuminations  and  miniatures  with 
which  they  were  adorned.  Be  it  noted  also  that  in 
course  of  time  a  certain  traditional  order  of  subjects 
established  itself  in  the  full-page  miniatures  which 
commonly  preceded  each  of  the  Little  Hours,  the 
Penitential  Psalms,  the  Office  for  the  Dead,  and  the 
other  elements  of  which  these  Books  of  Hours  were 
made  up,  but  to  give  details  would  be  impossible 
here.  A  brief  description  of  some  of  the  most  famous 
of  these  artistic  treasures,  e.  g.  the  "Horae"  of  Bona 
of  Luxemburg  (1327)  and  that  of  Catherine  of  Cleves, 
wife  of  Duke  Arnold  of  Gelders,  is  given  by  Father 
Beissel  in  the  "Stimmen  aus  Maria-Laach"  (Aug., 
1909)  and  a  more  general  account  by  Dr.  M.  R.  James 
in  his  catalogue  of  the  MSS.  of  the  FitzwilUam 
Museum  (especially  pp.  xxv-xxxviii). 

Upon  the  introduction  of  printing  an  immense 
stimulus  was  ^ven  to  the  production  of  manuals  of 
popular  devotion.  Apart  from  a  relatively  quite 
small  and  unimportant  class  of  booklets  (the  "Fifteen 
O's"  in  English,  "printed  by  command  of  Princess 
Elizabeth,  Queen  of  Englana",  at  Caxton's  press  in 
1490,  may  be  cited  in  illustration),  the  books  issued 
from  1475  to  about  1530,  though  the  names  differed, 
varied  hardly  at  all  in  type.  In  France  and  England 
the  "Horse"  held  undisputed  sway.  As  explained 
in  the  article  Pkimer,  certain  elements  were  constant, 
and  the  supplementary  matter  exhibited  a  constant 
tendency  to  increase  in  bulk  and  we  may  add  also  in 
extravagance.  In  Germany  the  book  known  as  the 
"Hortulus  Animffl"  (the  little  garden  of  the  soul), 
which  seems  first  to  have  appeared  in  1498.  enjoyed 
most  popularity.  But  though  the  "Horse  and  the 
"Hortulus"  were  apt  to  differ  somewhat  in  arrange- 
ment, their  contents  in  substance  ^vvere  identical,  and, 
moro  particularly  after  the  "Hortulus"  was  brought 
out  at  Lyons  in  1504,  the  various  publishers  of  the 
one  book  made  no  scruple  about  appropriating  any 
feature  in  the  other  which  took  their  fancy.  Both 
in  the  "Horse"  and  the  "Hortulus"  we  find,  at  any 
rate  in  the  later  copies,  almost  without  exception, 
after  the  Calendar,  the  Office  of  the  Blessed  Virgin, 
extracts  from  the  four  Gospels  (either  the  beginnings 
or  the  narratives  of  the  Passion),  the  Penitential 
Psalms,  the  Litany  of  the  Saints,  a  long  series  of 
pravers  to  the  Holy  Trinity  and  the  Divine  Persons, 
to  Our  Lady  and  to  different  saints,  mostly  with  an 
antiphon,  versicle,  and  respond  taken  from  liturgical 
books,  also  prayers  for  the  principal  feasts  borrowed 
from  the  Missal,  and  particularly  the  Office  for  the 


PRAYER-BOOKS 


352 


PRAYER-BOOKS 


Dead  and  prayers  for  the  dyinc.  Both  the  ''Horse" 
and  the  "Hortulus''  appeared  in  innumerable  edi- 
tions. Even  as  early  as  the  period  1487  to  1498 
more  than  sixty-five  editions  of  the  different  "Horse" 
are  known  to  have  been  printed  in  France  alone. 
For  the  adornment  of  these  volumes,  which  were  often 
printed  upon  vellum,  the  best  art  of  the  wood  en- 
graver was  called  into  requisition.  The  editions  of 
the  "Horse"  by  Du  Pr6,  V^rard,  Pigouchet,  and 
Geoffroy  Tory,  especially  those  produced  between 
1488  and  1502,  may  rank  amon^  the  most  beautiful 
specimens  of  the  printing  press  m  the  first  hundred 
years  of  its  existence,  while  the  German  cuts  of  the 
engravers  Schaufelein  and  Springinklee  have  also 
a  charm  of  their  own.  It  was  also  a  common  prac- 
tice to  employ  hand  illumination  to  add  further 
lustre  to  many  of  the  copies  printed  upon  vellum. 
In  regard  to  the  contents,  the  devotional  extrava- 
gance of  the  age  and  the  competition  between  pub- 
lisher and  publisher  to  push  their  wares  and  attract 
purchasers  led  to  many  regrettable  abuses.  Spuri- 
ous indulgences  and  fantastic  promises  of  all  kinds 
abound,  and  even  prayers  which  in  themselves  are 
full  of  piety  and  absolutely  unobjectionable — for 
example  the  prayers  in  honour  of  the  Pa^on  pre- 
viously referred  to,  which  were  attributed  to  St. 
Bridget  and  were  known  in  England  as  the  "Fifteen 
0*8  " — are  not  exempt  from  these  disfigurements.  A 
deplorable  example  of  such  extravagance  is  presented 
by  a  Sarum  "Horse"  of  Thielman  Kerver  printed  at 
Paris  in  1510,  in  which  we  find  such  assertions  as  the 
following:  "Alexander  the  VI  pope  of  Rome  liath 
granted  to  all  them  that  say  tnis  prayer  devoutly 
m  the  worship  of  St.  Anne  and  Our  Ladv  and  her 
Son  Jesus  V  thousand  years  of  pardon  for  deadlv 
sins  and  XX  years  for  venial  sins  totiens  quotiens", 
or  again,  "This  prayer  our  Lady  showed  to  a  devout 
person,  saying  that  this  golden  prayer  is  the  most 
sweetest  and  acceptablest  to  me,  and  in  her  appear- 
ing she  had  this  salutation  and  prayer  written  with 
letters  of  gold  on  her  breast"  (Hoskins,  "Horse", 
124-5).  Again,  for  a  certain  prayer  to  be  said  before 
a  picture  of  Cnrist  crucified,  Pope  Gregory  III  (I) 
is  declared  to  have  granted  an  inaulgence  of  so  many 
days  as  there  were  wounds  in  our  Saviour's  sacred 
Body.  In  another  supposed  grant  of  Boniface  VIII 
an  indulgence  of  eighty  thousand  years  is  mentioned. 
In  the  case  of  other  devotions  again  the  pious  reader 
is  assured  that  if  he  practise  them  he  snail  not  die 
without  confession,  that  Our  Lady  and  her  Divine 
Son  will  come  to  warn  him  before  his  death,  etc. 
Of  course  it  must  be  remembered  that,  practically 
speaking,  no  censorship  existed  in  the  early  years  of 
tne  sixteenth  century.  The  Congregation  of  the 
Index  did  not  come  into  existence  until  after  the 
Council  of  Trent.  Hence  the  booksellers  in  pre- 
Tridentine  days  were  free  to  publish  almost  any  ex- 
travagance which  might  help  to  sell  their  wares. 
After  Trent  things  in  this  respect  were  very  different. 
Besides  the  "Horse"  and  the  "Hortuli"  a  few  col- 
lections of  private  prayers,  generally  connected  with 
some  special  subject,  also  saw  the  hght  before  Refor- 
mation times.  There  were  books  on  the  art  of  how 
to  die  well,  books  on  the  Rosary  copiously  inter- 
spersed with  meditations  and  prayers  (of  these  the 
volumes  of  the  Dominican  Castillo,  with  a  picture  for 
each  of  the  one  hundred  and  fifty  Hail  Marys,  is 
perhaps  the  best  known),  books  on  various  forms  of 
devotion  to  the  Passion,  for  example,  the  seven 
Bloodsheddings  and  the  seven  Falls — spiritual  pil- 
grimages which  eventually  took  a  more  permanent 
shape  in  the  exercise  of  the  Stations  of  the  Cross.  A 
more  important  work,  issued  about  1498,  was  the  col- 
lection of  prayers  called  "Paradisus  Animse".  In 
England  there  is  evidence  that  the  devotion  long  dear 
to  the  English  Catholics'  forefathers  in  the  days  of  per- 
secution under  the  name  of  "The  Jesus  Psalter"  was 


printed  and  sold  separately  as  early  as  1520,  though 
no  copy  is  now  known  to  survive.  The  author  of 
this  most  touching  prayer  is  believed  to  have  been 
Richard  Whitford,  the  Brigittine  monk  who  loved 
to  call  himself  "the  Wretch  of  Sion".  He  has  also 
left  a  spiritual  little  volume  compiled  for  the  use  of 
communicants,  and  has  been  sometimes  named  as 
the  true  author  of  "The  Fruyte  of  Redemcyon", 
a  collection  of  prayers  which  professes  to  have  been 
composed  by  "Simon  the  Anker  [Anchoret]  of  Lon- 
don Wall".  But  this  last  work  is  a  duU  performance 
and  quite  unworthy  of  Whitford.  In  all  probability 
there  must  have  been  many  more  of  tnese  devo- 
tional books  than  our  libraries  have  preserved  traces 
of,  for  such  works  when  they  are  not  protected  by 
the  abundance  or  beauty  of  their  illustrations  (as  was 
the  case  with  many  of  the  "Hone")  are  apt  to  dis- 
appear completely  without  leaving  any  trace.  The 
preface  of  an  early  "Reforming"  English  prayer- 
book  (Certeine  Prayers  and  godly  meditacyons,  1533)  • 
while  speaking  contemptuously  of  this  devotional 
literature,  implies  that  even  in  England  it  was  large 
and  varied.  "These  bokes,  (though  they  abounded 
in  every  place  with  infinite  errours  and  taught  prayers 
made  with  wicked  folysshenesse  both  to  God  and  also 
to  his  sayntes)  yet  by  cause  they  were  gamyshed 
with  glorious  tytles  and  with  redde  letters,  promis- 
inge  moche  grace  and  pardon  (though  it  were  but 
vanyte)  have  sore  deceyved  the  unlemed  multitude. 
One  is  called  the  Garden  of  the  Soule,  another  the 
Paradyse  of  the  Soule,  and  by  cause  I  will  be  short, 
loke  thou  thy  sylfen  whate  dyvers  and  tryfeling 
names  be  gyven  vnto  them." 

We  are  not  concerned  here  with  the  prayer-books 
of  tlie  Reformers,  but  it  may  be  worth  while  to  notice 
that,  just  as  in  Germany  the  Lutherans  produced  a 
modified  version  of  the  "Hortulus  Animse",  so  in 
England  it  was  the  first  care  of  Henry  VIII  and  his 
vicar-general,  Thomas  Cromwell,  after  the  breach 
with  Rome,  to  bring  out  a  new  set  of  primers  adapted 
to  the  new  condition  of  things,  indeed  even  in 
1532  Sir  Thomas  More  in  his  "Confutacion  of  Tyn- 
dale's  Answer"  could  write  of  the  devotional  works 
produced  by  heretics:  "And  lest  we  should  lack 
prayers,  we  have  the  Primer  and  the  Ploughman's 
Prayer  and  a  book  of  other  small  devotions  and  then 
the  whole  Psalter  too".  These,  however,  we  can- 
not identify.  Better  known  were  the  emended 
Primers  of  Marshall  and  Hilsey  (1534  and  1538), 
followed  in  1545  by  "The  King's  Primer",  which 
Henry  VIII  supervised  himself.  Of  course  the  great 
bulk  of  this  material  was  entirely  Catholic  and  imi- 
tated in  arrangement  that  of  the  "Horse".  Other 
Primers  appeared  under  Edward  VI  in  1551  (in  this 
the  HaU  Mary  was  for  the  first  time  omitted)  and  1553 , 
(which  last,  omitting  all  references  to  the  Hours,  is 
simply  a  book  of  private  prayers  for  each  day  of  the 
week  beginning  with  Sunday),  but  imder  Elizabeth 
in  1559  the  arrangement  of  the  Hours  was  restored 
and  even  the  Office  for  the  Dead  or  "Dirige"  (see 
Clay,  "Private  Prayers",  Parker  Society).  But 
the  transformations  of  these  forms  of  private  de- 
votional books  are  very  intricate,  and  they  were 
alternately  adapted  to  suit  Catholic  and  Protestant 
taste.  For  example,  the  book  called  the  "  Pomander 
of  Prayer",  which  was  printed  towards  the  close 
of  Henry  VIII's  reign^  with  a  strong  Protestant 
colouring,  appeared  agam  under  Mary  m  a  form  in 
which  it  could  well  be  used  by  Cathohcs.  One  point 
may  be  noted  as  of  some  importance,  and  it  is:  that 
down  to  the  breach  with  Rome  Latin  predominated, 
even  in  those  books  published  for  the  use  of  the 
laity.  The  Pater,  Ave,  and  Creed,  and  the  Psalms 
were  commonly  said  by  the  people  in  Latin  and  no 
printed  edition  of  the  Office  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  or 
m  other  words  no  entirely  English  Primer,  is  known 
to  have  been  issued  before  1534.    But  the  books  of  the 


.  1  ;r 


PRATER-BOOKS 


353 


PRAYER-BOOKS 


last  fifteen  yean  of  Henry's  reign  accustomed  the 
people*  to  pray  in  English,  and  under  M&ry  we  have 
printed  Catholic  Primers  ootk  in  Latin  and  English, 
and  in  English  alone.  It  may  probably  be  said  that 
from  this  time  forth'  the  uneducated  laity,  even 
though  Catholics,  prayed  almost  exclusively  in 
£ngl^. 

Although  a  similar  change  m  the  direction  of  the 
vernacular,  due  in  large  measure  to  the  same  cause, 
1.  e.  the  influence  of  the  Reformers,  was  taking  place 
in  Germanv,  France,  and  the  Netnerlands.  still  the 
most  widely  known  and  popular  prayer-Dooks  in- 
troduced in  the  sixteenth  centiuy  made  their  ap- 
pearance first  in  Latin.  The  reforms  initiated  by  the 
Council  of  Trent  took  practical  effect  in  the  Bull  of 
St.  Pius  V,  11  March,  1571,  which  enjoined  a  rigor- 
ous censorship  of  the  ''Horse''  and  ''Hortuli"  con- 
taining the  Office  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  forbade  the 
extravagant  accretions  and  spurious  indulgences 
often  found  in  these  books,  prescribed  a  imiform 
text  for  the  Office  itself  and  torbade  it  to  be  printed 
in  the  vernacular.  We  may  suppose  that  this  ac« 
tion,  while  occasioning  the  publication  of  revised  and 
corrected  editions  (though  these  do  not  seem  to  have 
been  numerous),  aJso  occasioned  or  at  least  marked 
a  certain  revulsion  of  feelincr  against  the  type  of 
devotional  manual  thus  condemned.  In  any  case 
we  note  the  appearance  at  this  same  period  of  a  num- 
ber of  new  prayer-books,  which  seem  in  several  cases 
to  have  been  designed  to  serve  as  manuals  for  the 
sodalities  of  the  Blessed  Vit-sin  which  were  now 
springing  up  in  Germany  and  elsewhere  as  one  of 
tne  first  fruits  of  the  Counter-Reformation  and  the 
educational  activity  of  the  Society  of  Jesus.  With 
this  new  tvpe  of  prayer-book  must  be  connected  in 
the  first  place  the  name  of  Blessed  Peter  Canisius. 
Hb  activity  in  this  matter  cannot  be  discussed  in 
detail  (cf.  ^*  Zeitschrif t  f.  kat.  Theol.",  1890,  XIV, 
pp.  727  sq.),  but  we  may  note  that  to  his  widely 
popular,  short  Catechism  a  collection  of  prayers  was 
appended,  that  he  produced  in  1556  his  ''Lectiones 
et  pf^ationes  ecclesiasticsc"  for  the  use  of  students, 
and  in  1587  his  ^'Manuale  Catholicorum '%  Other 
books  of  prayers  specially  intended  for  the  use  of 
sodalists  were  published  by  Fathers  Sailly  and  Veron. 
8.J.,  and  they  have  since  been  often  reprinted  ana 
imitated.  A  similar  purpose  seems  to  have  been 
dominant  in  the  mind  of  Simon  Verepseus,  a  priest  of 
Mechlin,  who  in  1565  brought  out  a  little  work  en- 
titled ''Precationum  piarum  Enchiridion"  founded 
in  part  upon  materials  left  by  Cornelius  Liadanus. 
Verep»us8  "Enchiridion"  was  frequently  reprinted 
and  several  editions  appeared  in  German.  Of  other 
foreign  works  it  will  be  sufficient  to  mention  here  two 
famous  prayer-books  of  German  origin  both  belong- 
ing to  tne  seventeenth  century  and  both  appearing 
in  the  vernacular  before  they  were  published  in  Latin 
editions.  The  earlier  of  these  was  the  "Paradisus 
Animffi"  compiled  by  Merlo  Horstius,  a  parish  priest 
of  Cologne,  tne  first  (German)  edition  of  whicn  ap- 
peared in  1644.  The  later  was  the  still  more  famous 
collection  of  Father  William  Nakatenus,  S.J.,  knOwn 
as  the  "Coeleste  Palmetum".  In  the  case  of  both  of 
these  works  their  popularity  seems  to  have  been 
largely  due  to  the  very  wide  range  of  devotions  which 
thev  included,  adapted  to  every  occurrence  of  life 
and.  including  many  litanies,  little  offices,  and  pious 
instructions.  In  France  during  the  sevente^th 
century  we  may  note  the  introduction  of  the  "  Parois- 
sien",  a  book  which  contained  a  large  proportion  of 
liturgical  matter  connected  with  Mass  and  Vespers 
for  the  Sundays  and  feasts,  as  also  the  Epistles  and 
Gospels,  and  often  a  great  deal  of  musical  notation, 
but  not  excluding  private  devotions,  methods  of 
hearing  Mass,  preparation  for  Confession  and  Com- 
munion etc.  The  popularity  of  this  work  (though 
its  contents  have  varied  a  good  deal  at  different 
XII.— 23 


periods  and  in  different  localities)  has  lasted  on  down 
to  modem  times. 

For  the  use  of  English  Catholics  during  the  days  of 
persecution  two  forms  of  praver-book  long  held  an 
unchallenged  supremacy.  The  first  of  these  was 
simply  a  revision  of  the  old  pre-Reformation  Primer. 
An  important  edition  of  this,  the  first  since  Queen 
Mary's  time,  was  issued  by  that  energetic  scholar 
Richard  Verstegan  at  Antwerp  in  1599  "for  the  more 
utility '^  as  he  said,  "of  such  of  the  English  nation 
and  others  using  our  language  as  understand  not  the 
Latin  tongue".  With  this  object  the  Office  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin  was  printed  both  in  Latin  and  English 
and  the  book  contained  a  selection  of  h3rmns  rather 
rudely  translated  into  English  verse  probably  by 
Verstegan  himself.  In  other  respects  the  main  fea- 
tures of  the  old  Primer  reappear.  We  have  the 
Office  for  the  Dead,  Offices  of  the  Holy  Cross  and  of 
the  Hol^  Ghost,  the  Litanies  of  the  Saints,  Seven 
Penitential  Psalms  etc.,  but  the  extravagant  prayers 
of  the  early  editions  were  eliminated  and  devotione 
of  a  more  practical  kind,  e.  g.  for  Confession  and 
Communion  etc.,  substituted  in  their  place.  A  con- 
siderable number  of  editions  appeared  subsequently 
and  the  book  was  in  favour  down  to  the  close  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  Another  noteworthy  revision 
of  the  Primer  took  place  in  King  James  II's  reign  and 
later  in  1706  the  rude  renderings  of  the  hymns  were  re- 
placed by  a  version  perhaps  executed  by  John  Dryden. 
The  other  prayer-biook  was  the  "Manual  of  devout 
Prayers  ana  Exercises,  collected  and  translated  out  of 
divers  authors'',  which  seems  to  have  been  printed 
for  the  first  time  in  1583.  If  we  may  accept  tne  con- 
clusions of  Mr.  Joseph  Gillow  (The  Ushaw  Maga- 
zine, 1910)  this  book  also  was  translated  by  Verste- 
gan and  then  printed  by  Flinton  at  Father  Persons' 
Eress  at  Rouen.  The  onginal  work  upon  which  it  was 
ased  was,  Mr.  Gillow  maintains,  the  prayer-book  of 
Verepseus,  from  which  it  borrowed  its  arrangement 
according  to  the  seven  days  of  the  week.  This 
compilation  became  very  popular.  Already  in  1584 
we  nnd  it  mentioned  among  a  list  of  Catholic  books 
seized  at  Hoxton,  an4  it  seems  to  have  been  reprinted 
with  certain  modifications  in  1595,  1596^  1599,  and 
1604.  The  history  of  the  subsequent  impressions 
has  been  minutelv  traced  by  Mr.  Gillow,  who  claims 
to  have  identified  seventy-two  different  editions,  but 
whose  list  is  nevertheless  not  entirely  exhaustive. 
An  important  revision  of  the  work  appeared  imder 
Jesuit  auspices  in  1652  (St.  Omer's)  and  another  pub- 
lished by  command  of  His  Majesty,  James  II,  in 
1686.  In  1729  it  came  out  in  London  in  two  parts, 
and  in  1744  an  edition  was  printed  which  professed 
to  have  been  corrected  and  enlarged  by  Bishop 
Challoner,  but  the  changes  made  were  relatively 
slight.  It  appeared  also  in  1811  and  1819  and  for  the 
last  time  in  1847.  The  attraction  of  the  book  ap- 
pears to  have  lain  in  the  variety  of  its  contents,  and 
in  the  course  of  years  it  departed  a  good  deal  from 
the  type  of  a  collection  of  extracts  from  the  Fathers 
and  other  devout  writers,  which  was  its  leading 
characteristic  in  the  sixteenth  century. 

Still  more  famous  than  the  "Manual  of  Prayers'' 
is  the  work  compiled  by  Bishop  Challoner  in  1740 
under  the  title  of  "The  Garden  of  the  Soul".  TTie 
purpose  aimed  at  in  this  new  work  is  indicated  in  its 
subneading  "a  Manual  of  Spiritual  Exercises  and 
Instructions  for  Christians  who,  living  in  the  World, 
aspire  to  devotion",  and  although,  as  Dr.  Burton 
notices  (Life  of  Challoner,  I,  127),  the  book  "after 
170  years  has  been  edited  out  of  all  recognition" 
its  popularity  was  originally  acquired  while  it  still 
remained  "a  brief  guide  to  the  spiritual  life,  con- 
taining not  prayers  onl^,  but  information,  instruc- 
tions, and  much  practical  advice".  The  seventh 
edition  of  "The  Garden  of  the  Soul",  which  appeared 
in  1757,  was  "corrected  and  enlarged  by  the  Author" 


PRATIB 


354 


PREACHERS 


and  this  is  the  final  shape  in  which  he  left  it;  in- 
numerable modifications  to  which  it  has  since  been 
subjected  have  been  made  entirely  according  to  th6 
caprice  of  the  different  publishers.  Both  before  and 
after  the  issue  of  ''The  Garden  of  the  Soul'^  a  large 
nufliber  of  other  Catholic  manuals  of  devotion  have 
enjoyed  more  or  less  popularity.  In  1617  and  1618 
we  have  "A  new  Manual  of  Old  Christian  Catholic 
Meditations  and  Prayers"  and  ''A  Manual  of  Prayers 
used  by  the  Fathers  of  the  Primitive  ChiUTh'\  both 
compiled  by  Richard  Broughton,  a  divine  of  Douai. 
The  "Devotions  in  the  Ancient  Way  of  Offices", 
which  was  drawn  up  b^  John  Austin  before  1670,  had 
the  compliment  paid  it  of  being  imitated  and  prac- 
tioUly  putted  by  Anslicans.  The  "libellus  Prebum" 
was  a  work  produced  by  the  English  Jesuits  in  the . 
eighteenth  century  for  the  use  of  the  sodalists  in  their 
colleges  and  has  continued  in  use  down  to  the  present 
day.  Of  the  crowd  of  works  bearing  such  titles  as  the 
"Key  of  Heaven",  "The  Path  to  Paradise",  the 
"Golden  Manual",  the  "Path  to  Heaven"  etc., 
some  of  them  reproducing  names  already  in  use  in 
the  seventeenth  century,  it  would  be  impossible  to 
speak  in  detail.  As  regards  the  censorship  of  praver- 
books,  something  has  already  been  said  of  the  Nlotu 
Proprio  of  St.  Kus  V  (11  March,  1571).  The  most 
important  legislation  since  then  is  that  of  the  Con- 
stitution "Officiorum  et  Mimerum",  25  Jan.,  1897 
(see  Censorship  of  Bookb).  Paragraph  20  of  this 
document  in  very  concise  terms  enacts  that  no  one 
is  to  publish  "hbros  vel  libellos  precum"  (prayer- 
books  or  booklets)  as  well  as  works  of  devotion  or 
religious  instruction  etc.,  even  though  they  may  seem 
calculated  to  foster  piety,  "without  the  permission 
of  lawful  authority",  a  somewhat  vague  phrase  which 
is  genendly  interpreted  to  mean  without  the  im- 
primat.ur  of  the  ordinary:  "otherwise",  adds  the 
decree,  "such  a  book  must  be  held  to  be  forbidden". 
Special  restrictions  have  also  been  imposed  in  the 
same  Constitution  (§  19)  upon  the  publication  of.  new 
litanies  without  the  revision  and  approbation  of  the 
ordinary.  Moreover,  it  has  since  been  decided  that 
even  then  litanies  which  have  only  an  episcopal 
approval  of  this  kind  cannot  be  used  for  public 
devotions  in  churches  (see  Hilge]:s,  "Der  Index  der 
verbotenen  Bticher".  Freiburg,  1904;  Vermeersch, 
"De  prohibitione  et  oensura  librorum",  4th  ed., 
Tournai,  1906). 

Beisskl  in  Slimmen  aua  Maria- Loach  LXXVII  (July  to 
October,  1900) ;  Bdbton,  Life  of  Bi»hop  Challoner^  I  (London, 
1907),  130  sq.;  Gillow  in  The  Tablet  (27  Dec,  1884;  10  Jan., 
1886) ;  Idem  in  The  Ushaw  MagatiM  (1910) ;  Linqard  in  Tht 
Catholic  MUcellany  (1830) ;  Kutpkbs  and  Bishop  in  The  Book 
of  Ceme  (Cambridge,  1902). 

Herbert  Thurston. 

Prayer  of  Christ,  Feast  of  the,  occurs  on  the 
Tueeday  after  Septuagesima  (double  major).  Its  ob- 
ject is  to  commemorate  the  p)rolonged  prayer  which 
Christ  offered  in  Gethsemane  in  our  behalf  in  prepa- 
ration for  His  Sacred  Passion.  The  Office  insists  on  the 
eneat  importance  of  prayer.  The  feast  is  placed  at  the 
beginning  of  Lent  to  remind  us  that  the  penitential 
season  is  above  all  a  time  of  prayer.  The  Office  prob- 
ably was  composed  by  Bishop  Struzzieri  of  Todi,  at 
the  suggestion  of  St.  Paul  of  the  Cross  (d.  1775),  and, 
together  with  the  other  six  offices  by  which  the  mys- 
teries of  Christ's  Passion  are  celebrated  (see  Passion  of 
Christ,  Feast  of  the)  ,  was  approved  by  Pius  VI .  The 
hymns  were  composed  by  Fatati  (Schulte,  "Hjrmncn 
des  rom.  Brev.").  Outside  of  the  Congregation  of  St. 
Paul  this  feast  was  adopted  later  than  any  of  the  other 
feasts  of  the  Passion.  It  is  not  found  in  the  proprium 
of  Salerno  (1793)  nor  in  that  of  Livomo  (1809) .  Other 
dioceses  took  it  up  only  after  the  city  of  Rome  had 
adopted  it  (1831).  It  has  not  yet  been  inserted  in  the 
Baltimore  Ordo. 

NiLUtt,  Kal,  manudU  uirituque  tcdeeia  (Innsbruck.  1892). 

F.   G.   HOLWECK. 


Prayen  for  the  Dead.  See  Dead,  Pratbbb  fob 
the;  Purgatory. 

Preacher  (Concionator).    See  Ecclesiastes. 

Preacher  ApoBtolic,  a  dignitary  of  the  pontifical 
household.  As  a  regular  function,  under  special 
regulations,  this  office  was  established  by  Paul  IV, 
in  1555,  and  formed  a  part  of  the  great  scheme  of 
reforms  which  that  pope  was  anxious  to  carry  out. 
The  innovation  was  somewhat  unpopular  among  the 
prelates,  as  the  preacher  Apostolic  had  to  expound 
wholesome  truths  before  the  papal  Court,  and  remind 
them  of  their  respective  duties.  Before  1555  several 
members  of  the  regular  clergy,  especially  of  the 
Franciscans,  had  preached  in  presence  of  the  Roman 
Court.  In  the  period  followmg,  among  those  who 
filled  the  office  of  preacher  Apostolic  were  Alonso 
Salmer6n,  companion  of  Saint  Ignatius^  Francis 
Toleto,  S.J.,  wno  held  the  position  durmg  seven 
pontificates,  Anselmus  Marzatti,  Francis  Cassini, 
and  Bonaventure  Barberini,  Minor  Capuchins; 
Toleto,  Marzatti,  and  Cassini  were  elevated  to  the 
cardinalate.  By  the  Brief  of  2  March,  1753,  directed 
to  Father  Michael  Aneelo  Franceschi,  then  preacher 
Apostolic,  Benedict  XlV  conferred  the  said  dignity 
in  perpeiuum  upon  the  Capuchin  Order,  because  of 
'Hhe  example  of  Christian  piety  and  religious  per- 
fection, the  splendour  of  doctrine  and  the  Apostolic 
zeal"  to  be  found  in  their  institute.  Two  of  the 
preachers  Apostolic  durins  the  past  century  deserve 
special  mention:  Lewis  Micara  of  Frasciiti,  who  be- 
came Cardinal-Vicar  of  Rome,  and  Lewis  of  Trent, 
chosen « to  deliver  the  discourse  at  the  first  session  of 
the  Vatican  Council.  At  present  the  office  is  held 
by  Father  Luke  of  Padua,  the  former  titular,  Father 
Pacific  of  Sejano,  having  been  elected  Minister  Gen- 
eral of  the  order. 

The  preacher  is  chosen  by  the  pontiff,  though  gen- 
erally presented  by  the  predecessor,  or  by  the  supe- 
rior general  of  the  Capuchins.  He  is  notified  by  a 
Rescript  of  the  Cardinal  of  the  Apostolic  Palace; 
and  be^mes  ipso  f ado  a  Palatine  prelate  and  a  member 
of  the  papal  household,  enjoying  all  the  privileges  at- 
tached to  his  title.  The  sermons  are  delivered  in 
Advent  on  the  Feasts  of  St.  Andrew,  St.  Nicholas,  St. 
Lucy,  and  St.  Thomas;  and  on  Fridays  in  Lent,  except 
in  Holy  Week,  when  the  Passion  Sermon  is  preached 
on  Tuesday. 

The  papal  Court  meets  in  the  throne-room  in  the 
Vatican;  the  pulpit  occupies  the  place  of  the  throne. 
Beside  it  is  placed  the  bussoUif  a  perforated  wooden 
partition,  covered  with  silver  hangings,  behind  which 
IS  the  seat  of  the  pontiff.  On  the  appointed  day, 
the  preacher  with  his  '^socius''  is  taken  to  the  Vatican 
in  a  pontifical  carriage,  and  enters  the  throne-room ; 
when  notified  by  the  master  of  ceremonies,  he  draws 
near  the  bussola,  takes  off  his  mantle,  asks  the  pope's 
blessing,  and  ascends  the  pulpit.  The  sermon  begins 
with  an  "Ave  Maria",  recitea  aloud  and  answered  by 
the  audience.  The  pontiff  is  assisted  bv  his  major- 
domo  and  the  master  of  the  camera.  The  cardinals 
occupy  the  front  seats:  behind  them  are  the  bishops, 
prelates,  and  general  heads  of  the  Mendicant  Orders. 
Nobody  else  is  admitted  without  a  special  permission 
of  the  pope.  At  the  close  of  the  sermon,  the  preacher 
returns  to  the  pontiff,  kisses  his  feet,  takes  leave  of 
him,  and  is  driven  back  to  his  convent. 

\paUda  Ord.  Cap.;  Bull,  Cap.;  Babonicb,  Anal,  ted.; 
Pallavxcino,  Hiti.  cone.  Trid. 

F.  Candidb. 

Preachers,  Order  of. — As  the  Order  of  the 
Friars  Preachers  is  the  principal  part  of  the  entire 
Order  of  St.  Dominic,  we  shall  include  under  this 
title  the  two  other  parts  of  the  order:  the  Dominican 
Sisters  (Second  Order)  and  the  Brothers  of  Penitence 
of  St.  Dominic  (Third  Order).  First,  we  shall  study 
the  legislation  of  the  three  divisions  of  the  order, 


PBXACHEBS 


355 


PREACHERS 


and  the  nature  of  each.  Secondly,  we  shall  give  an 
historical  survey  of  the  three  branches  of  the  order. 

I.  Lboiblation  and  Naturiu — In  its  formation 
and  development,  the  Dominican  l^islation  as  a 
whole  is  closely  bound  up  with  historical  facts  rela- 
tive to  the  ongin  and  progress  of  the  order.  Hence 
some  reference  to  these  is  necessary,  the  more  so  as 
this  matter  has  not  'been  sufficiently  studied.  For 
each  of  the  three  groups,  constituting  the  ensemble 
of  the  Order  of  St.  Dominic,  we  shall  examine:  A. 
Formation  of  the  L^islative  Texts;  B.  Nature  of 
the  Order,  resulting  from  legislation. 

A.  Formation  of  Uie  Legislative  Texts. — In  regard  to 
their  legislation  the  first  two  orders  are  closely  con- 
nected, and  must  be  treated  together.  The  preach- 
ing of  St.  Dominic  and  his  first  companions  in  Lan- 
guedoc  led  up  to  the  pontifical  letters  of  Innocent  III, 
17  Nov.,  1205  (Potthast,  "Reg.^  Pont.,  Rom.'', 
2912).  They  created  for  the  first  time  in  tne  Church 
of  the  Middle  Ages  the  type  of  apostolic  preachers, 
patterned  upon  the  teaching  of  the  Gospel.  In 
the  same  year,  Dominic  founded  the  Monastery 
of  Prouille,  in  the  Diocese  of  Toulouse,  for  the 
women  whom  he  had  converted  from  heresy,  and  he 
made  this  establishment  the  (centre  of  union  of  his  mis- 
sions and  of  his  apostolic   works    (Bulinc-Lelaidier, 


gave  to  the  new  monastery  the  Rule  of  St.  Augustine, 
and  also  the  special  Institutions  which  regulated 
the  life  of  the  Sisters,  and  of  the  Brothera  who  lived 
near  them,  for  the  spiritual  and  temporal  adminis- 
tration of  the  community.  The  Institutions  are 
edited  in  Balme,  "Cart.'^'  II,  425;  "Bull.  Ord. 
Praed.",  VII,  410;  Duellius,  "Misc.",  bk.  I  (Augs- 
burg, 1723),  169;  "Urkundenbuch  der  Stadt.",  I 
(Fribouig,  Leipzig,  1883),  6(*.  On  17  Dec,  1219, 
HonoriuB  III,  with  a  view  to  a  general  reform  among 
the  religious  of  the  Eternal  City,  granted  the  mon- 
astery of  the  Sisters  of  St.  Sixtus  of  Rome  to  St. 
Dominic,  and  the  Institutions  of  Prouille  were  given 
to  that  monastery  under  the  title  of  lastitutions  of 
the  Sisters  of  St.  Sixtus  of  Rome.  With  this  designa- 
tion they  were  granted  subsequently  to  other  monas- 
teries and  congregations  of  religious.  It  is  also  under 
this  form  that  we  possess  the  primitive  Institutions  of 
Prouille,  in  the  editions  already  mentioned.  St. 
Dominic  and  his  con^panions,  having  received  from 
Innocent  III  authorization  to  choose  a  rule,  with 
a  view  to  the  approbation  of  their  order,  adopted 
in  1216,  that  of  St.  Augustine,  and  added  thereto  the 
"Gonsuetudines",  which  regulated  the  ascetic  and 
canonical  life  of  the  religious.  These  were  borrowed 
in  great  part  from  the  Constitutions  of  Pr4montr6, 
but  with  some  essential  features,  adapted  to  the 
purposes  of  the  new  Preachers,  who  also  renounced 
private  possession  of  property,  but  retained  the  reve- 
nues. The  "Consuetudmes^'  formed  the  first  part 
(prima  distinctio)  of  the  primitive  Constitutions  of 
tae  order  (Qu^tif-Echard.  "Scriptores  Ord.  Pnpd.", 
L  12-13;  Denifle,  "Archiv.  flir  Literatur  unci  Kirch- 
engeschichte",  I,  194;  Balme,  "Cart.",  II,  18). 
The  order  was  solemnly  approved,  22  Dec,  1216. 
A  first  letter,  in  the  style  of  those  granted  for  the 
foundation  of  regular  canons,  gave  the  order  canonical 
existence;  a  second  determine<i  the  special  vocation 
of  the  Order  of  Preachers  as  vowed  U)  teaching  and 
defending  the  "truths  of  faith.  "Nos  iittendcntes 
fratres  Ordinis  tui  futuros  pugiles  fidei  et  vera  mundi 
lumina oonfirmamus Ordinem  tuum"  (Balme,  "Cart." 
II,  71-88;  Potthast.  5402-5403).  (Expecting  the 
brethren  of  your  order  to  be  the  champions  of  the 
Faith  and  true  lights  of  the  world,  we  confirm  your 
order.) 

On  15  Aug.,  1217,  St.  Dominic  sent  out  his  com- 
panions from  Prouille.    They  went  through  France, 


Spain,  and  Italy,  and  established  as  principal  centres, 
Toulouse,  Paris,  Madrid,  Rome,  and  Bologna. 
Dominic,  by  constant  joumeyings,  kept  watch  over 
these  new  establishments,  and  went  to  Rome  to 
confer  with  the  Sovereign  Pontiff  (Balme,  "Cart." 
II,  131;  "Annales  Ord.  Prsed.",  Rome,  1756,  p.  411; 
Guu-aud,  "St.  Dominic",  Paris,  1899,  p.  95).  In 
May,  1220,  St.  Dominic  held  at  Bologna  the  first 
general  chapter  of  the  order.  This  assembly  drew 
up  the  Constitutions,  which  are  complementary  to 
the  "Consuetudines"  of  1216  and  form  the  second 
part  (secunda  distinctio).  They  regulated  the  or- 
ganization and  hfe  of  the  order,  and  are  the  essential 
and  original  basis  of  the  Dominican  legislation.  In 
this  chapter,  the  Preachers  also  gave  up  certain 
elements  of  the  canonical  life;  they  relinquished  all 
possessions  and  revenues,  and  adopted  the  practice 
of  strict  poverty;  they  rejected  the  title  of  abbey  for 
the  convents,  and  substituted  the  rochet  of  canons 
for  the  monastic  scapular.  The  regime  of  annual 
general  chapters  wa^  established  as  the  regulative 
power  of  the  order,  and  the  source  of  legislative  au- 
thority. ("Script.  Ord.  Pncd.",  I,  20;  Denifle, 
"Archiv.",  I,  212;  Balme,  "Cart.^',  Ill,  575).  Now 
that  the  legislation  of  the  Friars  iH-eaehcrs  was  fully 
established,  the  Rule  of  the  Sist/crs  of  St.  Sixtus  was 
Jound  to  be  very  incomplete.  The  order,  however, 
supplied  what  was  wanting  by  compiling  a  few  years 
after,  the  Statutay  which  borrowed  from  the  Constitu- 
tions of  the  Friars,  whatever  might  be  useful  in  a 
monastery  of  Sisters.  We  owe  the  preservation  of 
these  StatutOt  as  well  as  the  Rule  of  St.  Sixtus,  to  the 
fact  that  this  legislation  was  applied  in  1232  to  the 
Penitent  Sisters  of  St.  Mary  Magdalen  in  Germany, 
who  observed  jt  without  further  modification.  The 
StatiUa  are  edited  in  Duellius,  "Misc.",  bk.  I,  182. 
After  the  legislative  work  of  the  general  chapters 
had  been  added  to  the  Constitution  of  1216^20, 
without  changing  the  general  ordinance  of  the  primi- 
tive text,  the  necessity  was  felt,  a  quarter  of  a  century 
later,  of  giving  a  more  logical  distribution  to  the 
legislation  in  its  entirety.  The  great  canonist, 
Raymond  of  Penaforte,  on  becoming  master  general 
of  the  order,  devoted  himself  to  this  work.  The 
general  chapters,  from  1239  to  1241,  accepted  the 
new  text,  and  gave  it  the  force  of  law.  In  this  form 
it  has  remain^  to  the  present  time  as  the  official 
text,  with  some  modification,  however,  in  the  way  of 
suppressions  and  especially  of  additions  due  to  later 
enactments  of  the  general  chapters.  It  was  edited 
in  Denifle,  "Archiv.",  V,  553;  "Acta  Capitulorum 
Generalium",  I  (Rome,  1898),  II,  13, 18,  in  "Monum. 
Ord.  Prsed.  Hist.",  bk.  III. 

The  reorganization  of  the  Constitutions  of  the 
Preachers  called  for  a  corresponding  reform  in  the 
legislation  of  the  Sisters.  In  his  letter  of  27  Aug., 
1257,  Alexander  IV  ordered  Humbert  of  Romans, 
the  fifth  master  general,  to  unify  the  Constitutions  oi 
the  Sisters.  Humbert  remodelled  them  on  the  Con- 
stitutions of  the  Brothers,  and  put  them  into  effect 
at  the  General  Chapter  of  Valenciennes,  1259. 
The  Sisters  were  henceforth  characterized  as  Sorores 
Ordinis  Prasdicalorum.  The  Constitutions  are  edited 
in  "Analeeta,  Ord.  Pr»d."  (Rome,  1897),  338; 
Finke,  "Ungedruckte  Dominicanerbriefe  des  13 
Jahrhunderts"  (Paderbom,  1891),  p.  53;  "Litteras 
Encvclica;  magistrorum  generalium"  (Rome,  19(X)), 
in  "  *Mon.  Ord.  Pned.  Hist.",  V ,  p.  513.  To  this  legisla- 
tion, the  provincials  of  Germany,  who  had  a  large 
number  of  religious  convents  under  their  care,  added 
certain  admonitiones  by  way  of  completing  and  def- 
initely settling  the  Constitutions  of  the  Sisters. 
They  seem  to  be  the  work  of  Herman  of  Minden. 
Provincial  of  Ten  ton  ia  (1286-90).  He  drew  up  at 
first  a  concise  admonition  (Denifle,  "Archiv.",  II, 
549);  then  other  series  of  admonitions,  more  im- 
portant,   which    have    not    been    edited    (Rome, 


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PREACHERS 


ArchiveB  of  the  Order,  Cod.  Ruten,  130-139).  The 
legislation  of  the  Friars  Preachers  is  the  firmest  and 
most  complete  among  the  systems  of  law  by  which 
institutions  of  this  sort  were  ruled  in  the  thirteenth 
century.  Hauck  is  correct  in  saying:  "We  do  not 
deceive  ourselves  in  considering  the  organization 
of  the  Dominican  Order  as  the  most  perfect  of  all 
the  monastic  organizations  produced  by  the  Middle 
Ages''  ("Kirchengeschichte  Deutschlands'',  part  IV, 
Leipzig;  1902,  p.  390).  It  is  not  then  surprising  that 
the  majority  of  the  religious  orders  of  the  thirteenth 
century  should  have  followed  quite  closelv  the 
Dominican  legislation,  which  exerted  an  influence 
even  upon  institutions  very  dissimilar  in  aim  and 
nature.  The  Church  considered  it  the  typical  rule 
for  new  foundations.  Alexander  IV  thought  of 
making  the  legislation  of  the  Order  of  Preachers 
into  a  special  rule  known  as  that  of  St.  Dominic, 
and  for  that  purpose  conmiissioned  the  Dominican 
cardinal^  Hugh  of  St.  Cher  (3  Feb.,  1255),  but 
the  project  encountered  many  obstacles,  and  noth- 
ing came  of  it.  (Potthast,  n.  1566;  Humberti  de 
Romanis,  "Opera  de  vita  regulari",  ed.,  Berthier, 
I,  Rome,  1888,  p.  43). 

B.  Nature  of  the  Order  of  Preachers,  (X)  Its 
Object. — ^The  canonical  title  of  ** Order  of  Preachers", 
^ven  to  the  work  of  St.  Dominic  by  the  Church,  is  in 
itself  significant,  but  it  indicates  only  the  dominant 
feature.  The  Constitutions  are  more  explicit: 
"Our  order  was  instituted  principally  for  preaching 
imd  for  the  salvation  of  souls."  The  end  or  aim  of 
the  order  then  is  the  salvation  of  souls,  especially  b^ 
means  of  preaching.  For  the  attainment  of  this 
purpose,  the  order  must  labour  with  the  utmost 
zeal — "Our  main  efforts  should  be  put  forth,  earn- 
estly and  ardently,  in  doing  good  to  the  souls  of  our 
fellow-men." 

(2)  Its  Organization. — ^The  aim  of  the  order  and 
the  conditions  of  its  environment  determined  the  form 
of  its  organization.  The  first  organic  group  is  the 
convent,  which  may  not  be  founded  with  less  than 
twelve  religious.  At  first  only  large  convents  were 
allowed  and  these  were  located  in  important  cities 
(Mon.  Ger.  Hist.:  SS.  XXXII,  233,  236),  hence  the 
Baying: 

Bemardus  valles,  montes  Benedictus  amabat, 

Oppida  Franciscus,  celebres  Dominicus  urbes. 

(Bernard  loved  the  valleys,  Benedict  the  mountains, 
Francis  the  towns,  Dominic  the  populous  cities). 

The  foundation  and  the  existence  of  the  convent 
required  a  prior  as  governor,  and  a  doctor  as  teacher. 
The  Constitution  prescribes  the  dimensions  of  the 
church  and  the  convent  buildings,  and  these  should 
be  quite  plain.  But  in  the  course  of  the  thirteenth 
century  the  order  erected  large  edifices,  real  works 
of  art.  The  convent  possesses  nothing  and  lives  on 
alms.  Outside  of  the  choral  office  (the  Preachers  at 
first  had  the  title  of  canonici)  their  time  is  wholly 
employed  in  study.  The  doctor  gives  lectures  in 
theology,  at  which  all  the  religious,  even  the  prior, 
must  be  present,  and  which  are  open  to  secular 
clerics.  Tne  religious  vow  themselves  to  preaching, 
both  within  and  without  the  convent  walls.  The 
"general  preachers"  have  the  most  extended  powers. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  order,  the  convent  was 
called  vradiccUiOf  or  sancta  pradicatio.  The  con- 
vents aivided  up  the  territory  in  which  they  were 
established,  and  sent  out  on  preaching  tours  religious 
who  remained  for  a  longer  or  shorter  time  in  the 
principal  places  of  their  respective  districts.  The 
Preachers  did  not  take  the  vow  of  stability,  but  could 
be  sent  from  one  locality  to  another.  Each  convent 
received  novices,  these,  according  to  the  0)nstitu- 
tions,  must  be  at  least  eighteen  years  of  age,  but  this 
rule  was  not  strictly  observed.  The  Preachers  were 
the  first  among  religious  orders  to  suppress  manual 
labour,  the  necessary  work  of  the  interior  of  the  house 


being  relegated  to  lay  brothers  called  corwem, 
whose  nuniber  was  limited  according  to  the  needs  of 
each  convent.  The  prior  Was  elected  by  the  religious, 
and  the  doctor  was  appointed  by  the  provmciat 
chapter.  The  chapter,  when  it  saw  fit,  relieved  them 
from  office. 

The  grouping  of  a  certain  number  of  convents 
forms  the  province,  which  ih  administered  bv  a 
provincial  prior,  elected  by  the  prior  and  two  dele- 
gates from  each  convent.  He  is  confirmed  by  the 
general  chapter,  or  by  the  master  eeneral.  who  can 
also  remove  him  when  it  is  found  e3q)eaient.  He 
enjoys  in  his  province  the  same  authority  as  the 
master  general  in  the  order;  he  confirms  the  election 
of  conventual  priors,  visits  the  province,  sees  to  it 
that  the  Constitutions  and  the  ordinances  are  ob- 
served and  presides  at  the  provincial  chapters.  The 
provincial  chapter,  which  is  held  annually,  discusses 
the  interests  of  the  province.  It  is  composed  of  a 
provincial  prior,  priors  from  the  convents,  a  dele^te 
from  each  convent,  and  the  general  preachers.  The 
capitulants  (memoers  of  the  chapter),  choose  from 
among  themselves,  four  counsellors  or  assistants, 
who,  with  the  provinci^  regulate  the  affairs  brought 
before  the  chapter.  The  chapter  appoints  those 
who  are  to  visit  annually  each  part  of  tne  province. 
The  provinces  taken  together  constitute  the  order, 
which  has  at  its  head  a  master  general,  elected  by  the 
provincial  priors  and  by  two  dele^tes  from  each 
province.  For  a  long  time  his  position  was  for  life; 
Pius  VII  (1804),  reduced  it  to  six  years,  and  Pius 
IX  (1862)  fixed  it  at  twelve  years.  At  first  the  master 
general  had  no  permanent  residence^  since  the  end 
of  the  fourteenth  century,  he  has  lived  usually  at 
Rome.  He  visits  the  order,  holds  it  to  the  observance 
of  the  laws,  and  corrects  abuses.  In  1509,  he  was 
granted  two  associates  (socii);  in  1752,  four;  in 
1910,  five.  The  general  chapter  is  the  supreme  au- 
thority within  the  order.  From  1370,  it  was  held 
every  two  years;  from  1553,  every  three  vears: 
from  1625,  every  six  years.  In  the  eighteenth  ana 
at  the  beginnins  of  the  nineteenth  century,  chapters 
were  rarely  held.  At  present  they  take  place  every 
three  years.  From  1228,  for  two  years  in  succession, 
the  general  chapter  was  composed  of  definitors  or 
delegates  from  the  provinces,  each  province  sending 
one  delegate;  the  following  year  it  was  held  by  the 
provincial  priors.  The  chapter  promulgates  new 
constitutions,  but  to  beoome  law  they  must  be  ac- 
cepted by  three  constitutive  chapters.  The  chapter 
deals  with  all  the  ^neral  concerns  of  the  oitier, 
whether  administrative  or  disciplinary.  It  corrects 
the  master  general,  and  in  certain  cases  can  depose 
him.  From  1220  to  1244,  the  chapters  were  held 
alternately  at  Bologna  and  Paris;  subsequently, 
they  passed  round  to  all  the  principal  cities  of  Europe. 
The  generalissimo  chapter  acknowledged  by  the 
Constitution  and  composed  of  two  dennitors  from 
each  province,  also  of  provincials,  i.  e.  equivalent 
to  three  consecutive  i^neral  chapters^  was  held 
only  in  1228  and  1236.  The  characteristic  feature 
of  government  is  the  elective  system  which  pre- 
vails throughout  the  order.  ''Such  was  the  simple 
mechanism  which  imparted  to  the  Order  of  Friars 
Preachers  a  powerful  and  regular  movement,  and 
secured  them  for  a  Ions  time  a  real  preponderance  in 
Church  and  in  State"  (Delisle,  "Notes  et  extraits 
des  mss.  de  la  Bibl.  Nat."^  Paris,  xxvii,  1899,  2nd 
part,  p.  312.  See  the  editions  of  the  ^Constitutions 
mentioned  above:  "Const.  Ord.  Fr.  Prsed.",  Paris, 
1888;  "ActaCapit.  Gen.  Ord.  Fr.  Prsed.",  ed.,  Reichert, 
Rome,  1898,  sq.  9  vols.;  Lo  Cicero,  Const.,  "Declar. 
et  Ord.  Capit.  Gen.  O.  P.'*,  Rome,  1892;  Humberti 
de  Romanis,  "Opera  de  vita  regulari",  ed.  Berthier, 
Rome,  1888;  Reichert.  "Feier  und  Gesch&ftsordung 
der  provincialkapitel  aes  Dominikanerordens  im  13 
Jahrhundert"  in  "Rfimische  Quart.",  1903,  p.  101). 


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357 


PREACHERS 


(3)  Fonns  of  its  Activity.— The  forms  of  life  or 
activity  of  the  Order  of  Preachers  are  many,  but  they 
are  all  duly  subordinated.  The  order  assimilated 
the  ancient  forms  of  the  religious  life,  Jthe  monastic 
and  the  canonical,  but  it  made  |hen^  subservient  to 
the  clerical  and  the  apostolic  sfe  which  are  its 
peculiar  and  essential  aims.  The  Preachers  adopted 
from  the  monastic  life  the  three  traditional  vows  of 
obedience,  chastity,  and  poverty;  to  them  they  added 
the  ascetic  element  known  as  monastic  observances: 
perpetual  >  abstinence,  fasting  from  14  Sept.  until 
Easter  and  on  all  the  Fridays  throughout  the  year, 
the  exclusive  use  of  wool  for  clothing  and  for  the  bed, 
a  hard  bed,  and  a  common  dormitory,  silence  almost 
perpetual  in  their  houses,  public  acknowledgment  of 
faults  in  the  chapter,  a  graded  list  of  penitentisd 
practices,  etc.  The  Preachers,  however,  did  not  take 
these  observances  directly  from  the  monastic  orders 
but  from  the  regular  canons,  especially  the  reformed 
canons,  who  had  already  adopted  monastic  tfules. 
The  Preachers  received  from  the  regular  canons  the 
choral  Office  for  morning  and  evening,  but  chanted 
quickly.  The^  added,  on  certain  days,  the  Office 
of  the  Holy  Virgin,  and  once  a  week  the  Office  of  the 
Dead.  The  haoit  of  the  Preachers,  as  of  the  regular 
canons,  is  a  white  tunic  and  a  black  cloak.  The 
rochet,  d^tinctive  of  the  regular  canons,  was  aban- 
doned by'  the  Preachers  at  the  General  Chapter  of 
12^,  and  replaced  by  the  scapular.  At  the  same 
time  they  gave  up  various  canonical  customs,  which 
they  had  retain^  up  to  that  period.  Thev  sup- 
pressed in  their  order  the  title  of  abbot  for  the  head  of 
the  convent,  and  rejected  all  property,  revenues,  the 
carrying  of  money  on  their  travels,  and  the  use  of 
horses.  The  title  even  of  canon  which  they  had 
borne  from  the  beginning  tended  to  disappear  about 
the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  centiur,  and  the  General 
Chapters  of  1240-1251  substituted  the  word  dericua 
for  canonicus  in  the  article  of  the  Constitutions 
relatin^l  to  the  admission  of  novices;  nevertheless, 
the  designation,  ''canon''  still  occurs  in  some  parts  of 
the  Constitutions.  The  Preachers,  in  factj  are  pri- 
marily and  essentially  clerics.  Tne  pontifical  let- 
ter of  foundation  said:  "These  are  to  be  the 
champions  of  the  Faith  and  the  true  lights  of  the 
world."  This  could  apply  only  to  clerics.  The 
Preachers  consequently  made  study  their  chief  oc- 
cupation, which  was  the  essential  means,  with  preach- 
ing and  teaching  as  the  end.  The  apostolic  character 
of  the  order  was  the  complement  of  its  clerical 
character.  The  Friars  had  to  vow  themselves  to 
the  salvation  of  souls  through  the  ministry  of  preach- 
ing and  confession,  under  the  conditions  set  down 
by  the  Gospel  and  by  the  example  of  the  Apostles: 
ardent  zeal,  absolute  poverty,  and  sanctity  of  life. 

The  ide^  Dominican  life  was  rich  in  the  multi- 
plicity and  choice  of  its  elements,  and  was  thoroughly 
unffi^  by  its  well-considered  principles  and  enact- 
ments; but  it  was  none  the  less  complex,  and  its 
full  realization  was  difficult.  The  monastic-canonical 
element  tended  to  dull  and  paralyze  the  intense 
activity  demanded  by  a  clerical-apostolic  life.  The 
l^^atois  warded  off  the  difficulty  by  a  system  of 
dispensations,  quite  peculiar  to  the  order.  At  the 
head  of  the  Constitutions  the  principle  of  dispensa- 
tion appears  jointly  with  the  very  definition  of  the 
order's  purpose,  and  is  placed  before  the  text  of  the 
laws  to  show  that  it  controls  and  tempers  their  ap- 
plication. ''The  superior  in  each  convent  shall  have 
authority  to  ^ant  dispensations  whenever  he  may 
deem  it  expedient,  especially  in  regard  to  what  may 
hinder  study,  or  preaching,  or  the  profit  of  souls, 
since  our  order  was  originally  established  for  the  work 
of  preaching  and  the  salvation  of  souls",  etc.  The 
system  of  dispensation  thus  broadly  understood, 
while  it  favoured  the  most  active  clement  of  the 
order,  displaced,  but  did  not  wholly  eliminate,  the 


difficulty.  It  created  a  sort  of  dualism  in  the  in- 
terior life,  and  permitted  an  arbitrariness  that  might 
easily  disquiet  the  conscience  of  the  religious  and  of 
^he  superiors.  The  order  warded  oflF  this  new  dif- 
nculty  by  declaring  in  the  generalissimo  chapter  of 
1236,  that  the  Constitutions  did  not  oblige  under 
pcuA  of  sin,  but  under  pain  of  doing  penance  (Acta 
Cap.  Gen.  I,  8.)  This  measure^  however,  was  not 
heartily  welcomed  by  everyone  m  the  order  (Hum- 
berti  de  Romanis,  Op.,  II.  46),  nevertheless  it  stood. 
This  dualism  proaucea  on  one  side,  remarkable 
apostles  and  doctors,  on  the  other,  stern  ascetics  and 
great  mystics.  At  all  events  the  interior  troubles  of 
the  order  grew  out  of  the  difficulty  of  maintaining 
the  nice  equilibrium  which  the  firist  legislators  es- 
tablished, and  which  was  preserved  to  a  remarkable 
degree  during  the  first  century  of  the  order's  existence. 
The  logic  of  things  and  historical  circumstances  fre- 
quently disturbed  this  equilibrium.  The  learned 
and  active  members  tended  to  exempt  themselves 
from  monastic  observance,  or  to  moderate  its  strict- 
ness; the  ascetic  members  insisted  on  the  monastic 
life^  and  in  pursuance  of  their  aim,  suppressed  at 
different  times  the  practice  of  dispensation,  sanc- 
tioned as  it  was  by  the  letter  and  the  spirit  of 
the  Constitutions  ["Const.  Ord.  Pned.",  passim; 
Denifie,  "Die  Const,  des  Predigerordens"  in  "Ai^ 
chiv.  f.  Litt.  u.  Kirchengesch",  I,  165;  Mandonnet, 
"Les  Chanoines-Pr^cheurs  ae  Bologne  d'aprte 
Jacc^ues  de  Vitry"  in  "Archives  de  la  soci^t^ 
d'histoire  du  canton  de  Fribourg",  bk.  VIII,  15; 
Lacordaire,  "M^moire  pour  la  restauration  des 
Frdres  Prficheurs  dans  la  Chr6tient6",  Paris^  1852; 
P.  Jacob,  "Memoires  sur  la  canonicit6  de  I'lnstitut 
de  St.  Dominic",  B^ziers,  1750,  tr.  into  Italian  under 
the  title;  "Difesa  del  canonicato  dei  FF.  Predicatori", 
Venice,  1758;  Laberthbni,  "Esroos^  de  I'^tat,  du  re- 
gime, de  la  legislation  et  des  obligations  des  Fr^res  * 
mcheurs",  Versailles,  1767  (new  ed.,  1872)  ]. 

(4)  Nature  of  the  Order  of  the  Dominican  Sisters. — 
We  have  indicated  above  the  various  steps  by 
which  the  legislation  of  the- Dominican  Sisters  was 
brought  into  conformitv  with  the  Constitutions  of 
Hunibert  of  Romans  (1259).  The  primitive  t3rpe 
of  reli^ous  established  at  Ptouille  in  1205  by  bt. 
Dominic  was  not  affected  by  successive  legislation. 
The  Dominican  Sisters  are  strictly  cloistered  in  their 
monasteries;  they  take  the  three  religious  vows, 
recite  the  canonical  Hours  in  choir  and  engage  in 
manual  labor.  The  emdilio  liUerarum  inscnbed  in 
the  Institutions  of  St.  Sixtus  disappeared  from  the 
Constitutions  drawn  up  by  Humo^  of  Romans. 
The  ascetic  life  of  the  Sisters  is  the  same  as  that  of 
the  Friars.  Each  house  is  ^vemed  by  a  prioress, 
elected  canonically,  and  assisted  by  a  sub-prioress, 
a  mistress  of  novices,  and  various  other  officers. 
The  monasteries  have  the  right  to  hold  property  in 
comnion;  they  must  be  provided  with  an  income 
sufficient  for  the  existence  of  the  community;  they 
are  independent  and  are  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
provincial  prior,  the  master  general,  and  of  the  gen- 
eral chapter.  A  subseque^t  para^aph  will  deal 
with  the  various  phases  of  the  question  as  to  the  re- 
lation existing  between  the  Sisters  and  the  Order  of 
Preachers.  Whilst  the  Institutions  of  St.  Sixtus 
provided  a  ^up  of  brothers,  priests,  and  lay  servants 
for  the  spiritual  and  temporal  administration  of  the 
monastery,  the  Constitutions  of  Humbert  of  Romans 
were  silent  on  these  points.  (See  the  legislative  texts 
relating  to  the  Sisters  mentioned  above.) 

(5)  The  Third  Order. — St.  Dominic  did  not  write 
a  rule  for  the  Tertiaries,  for  reasons  which  are  given 
further  on  in  the  historical  sketch  of  the  Third  CSder. 
However,  a  large  body  of  the  laity,  vowed  to  piety, 
grouped  themselves  about  the  rising  Order  of  Preach- 
ers, and  constituted,  to  all  intents  and  purposes,  a 
Third  Order.    In  view  of  this  fact  and  of  some  cir- 


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358 


PREACHERS 


cumstanoes  to  be  noted  later  on,  the  seventh  master 
general  of  the  order,  Munio  de  Zamora,  wrote  (1285) 
a  rule  for  the  Brothers  and  Sisters  of  Penitence  of  St. 
Dominic.  The  privilege  granted  the  new  fraternity, 
28  Jan.,  1286|  by  Honorius  IV,  gave  it  a  canonical 
existence  (Potthast,  22358).  The  rule  of  Munio  was 
not  entirely  original;  some  points  being  borrowed 
from  the  Rule  of  the  Brothers  of  Penitence,  whose 
origin  dates  back  to  St.  Francis  of  Assisi;  but  it 
was  distinctive  on  all  essential  points.  It  is  in  a 
sense  more  thoroughly  ecclesiastical;  the  Brothers 
and  Sisters  are  ^uped  in  different  fraternities; 
their  government  is  immediately  subject  to  ecclesias- 
tical authority;  and  the  various  fraternities  do  not 
form  a  collective  whole,  with  legislative  chapters,  as 
was  the  case  among  the  Brothers  of  Penitence  of 
St.  Francis.  Thie  Dominican  fraternities  are  local 
and  without  any  bond  of  union  other  than  that  of 
the  Preaching  Brothers  who  govern  them.  Some 
characteristics  of  these  fraternities  may  be  gathered 
from  the  Rule  of  Munio  de  Zamora.    The  Brothers 

'  and  Sisters,  as  true  children  of  St.  Dominic,  should 
be,  above  all  thingS;  truly  zealous  for  the  Catholic 
Faith.  Their  habit  is  a  wnite  tunic,  with  black  cloak 
and  hood,  and  a  leathern  girdle.  After  making  pro- 
fession, tney  cannot  return  to  the  world,  but  may 
enter  other  authorized  religious  orders.  They  recite 
a  certain  number  of  Paters  and  Aves,  for  the  canonical 
Hours;  receive  conmiunion  at  least  tour  times  a  year, 
and  must  show  great  respect  to  the  ecclesiastical 
hierarchy.  They  fast  durmg  Advent,  Lent,  and  on 
all  the  Fridays  during  the  year,  and  eat  meat  only 
three  days  m  the  week,  Sunday,  Tuesday,  and 
Thursday.  They  are  allowed  to  carry  arms  only  in 
defence  of  the  Christian  Faith.  They  visit  sick 
members  of  the  community,  give  them  assistance 

,  if  necessary,  attend  the  burial  of  Brothers  or  Sisters 
and  aid  them  with  their  prayers.  The  head  or  spirit- 
ual director  is  a  priest  of  the  Order  of  Preachers, 
whom  the  Tertiaries  select  and  propose  to  the  master 
general  or  to  the  provincial;  he  may  act  on  their 
petition  or  appoint  some  other  religious.  The 
director  and  the  older  members  of  the  fraternity 
choose  the  prior  or  prioress,  from  among  the  Brothers 
and  Sisters,  and  their  office  continues  until  they  are 
relieved.  The  Brothers  and  the  Sisters  have,  on 
different  days,  a  monthly  reunion  in  the  church  of  the 
Preachers,  when  they  attend  Mass,  listen  to  an  in- 
struction, and  to  an  explanation  of  the  rule.  The 
prior  and  the  director  can  grant  dispensations;  the 
rule,  like  the  Constitutions  of  the  Preachers,  does  not 
oblige  under  pain  of  sin. 

The  text  of  the  Rule  of  the  Brothers  of  the  Peni- 
tence of  St.  Dominic  is  in  ''Regula  S.  Augustini 
et  Constitutiones  FF.  Ord.  Praed."  (Rome,  1690), 
2nd  pt..  p.  39;  Federici.  "Istoria  dei  cavalieri  Gau- 
dent"  (Venice,  1787),  bk.  II,  cod.  diplomat.,  p.  28; 
Mandonnet,  ''Les  ingles  et  le  gouvemement  do 
rOrdo  de  Poenitentia  au  XIII®  si^cle"  (Paris,  1902); 
Mortier,  "Histoire  des  Mattres  G6n6raux  des  Frdres 
Pr^cheurs",  II  (Paris,  1903).  220. 

II.  History  op  the  Order. — ^A.  The  Friars 
Preachers. — Their  history  may  be  divided  into  three 
periods:  (1)  The  Middle  Ages  (from  their  founda- 
tion to  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century) ;  (2) 
The  Modem  Period  up  to  the  French  Revolution; 
(3)  The  Contemporaneous  Period.  In  each  of  these 
periods  we  shall  examine  the  work  of  the  order  in  its 
various  departments. 

(1)  The  Middle  Ages. — ^The  thirteenth  century  is 
the  classic  age  of  the  order,  the  witness  to  its  brilliant 
development  and  intense  activity.  This  last  is 
manifested  especiallv  in  the  work  of  teaching.  By 
preaching  it  reached  all  classes  of  Christian  society, 
fought  heresy,  schism,  paganism,  by  word  and  book, 
and  by  its  missions  to  the  north  of  Europe,  to  Africa, 
and  Ajsia,  passed  beyond  the  frontiers  of  Christendom. 


Its  schools  spread  throughout  the  entire  Church; 
its  doctors  wrote  monumental  works  in  all  branches  of 
knowledge^  and  two  among  them,  Albertus  Masnus. 
and  especially  Thomas  Aquinas,  founded  a  ^ool 
of  philosophy  and  Aeolo^  which  was  to  rule  the  agea 
to  come  m  the  InB  of  the  Church.  An  enormous 
number  of  its  members  held  offices  in  Church  and  State 
— as  popes,  cardinals,  bishops,  legates,  inquisitors, 
confessors  of  princes,  ambassadors,  and  padarii 
(enforcers  of  the  peace  decreed  by  popes  or  councils). 
The  Order  of  Preachers,  which  should  have  remained 
a  select  body,  developed  beyond  bounds  and  absorbed 
some  elements  unfitted  to  its  form  of  hfe.  A  period 
of  relaxation  ensued  during  liie  fourteenth  century 
owing  to  the  general  decline  of  Christian  society. 
The  weakening  of  doctrinal  activity  favoured  the 
development  here  and  there  of  the  ascetic  and  con- 
templative life  and  there  sprang  up,  especially  in 
Germany  and  Italy,  an  intense  and  exuberant 
mystSbism  with  which  the  names  of  Master  Eckhart, 
Suso,  Tauler,  St.  Catherine  of  Siena  are  associated. 
This  movement  was  the  prelude  to  the  reforms  un- 
dertaken, at  the  end  of  the  centuiy,  by  Raymond  of 
Capua,  and  continued  in  the  following  centuiy. 
It  assumed  remarkable  proportions  in  the  congre- 
gations of  Lombardy  and  of  Holland,  and  in  the  re- 
forms of  Savonarola  at  Florence.  At  the  same  time 
the  order  found  itself  face  to  face  with  the  Renais- 
sance. It  struggled  against  pagan  tendencies  in 
Humanism,  in  Italy  through  Dominici  and  Savon- 
arola, in  Crermany  through  the  theologians  of  Cologne ; 
but  it  also  furnished  Humanism  with  such  advanced 
writers  as  Francis  Colonna  (PoUphile)  and  Matthew 
Brandello.  Its  members,  in  great  numbers,  took 
part  in  the  artistic  activity  of  the  age,  the  most 
prominent  being  Fra  Angelico  and  Fra  Bartolomeo. 
(a)  Development  and  Statistics. — When  St.  Domi- 
nic, in  1216,  asked  for  the  official  recognition  of  his 
order,  the  first  Preachers  numbered  only  sixteen.  At 
the  general  Chapter  of  Bologna,  1221,  the  year  of 
St.  Dominic's  death,  the  order  already  counted  some 
sixty  establishments,  and  was  divided  into  eight 
provinces:  Spain,  Provence,  France,  Lombardy, 
Rome,  Teutonia,  England,  and  Hungary.  The 
Chapter  of  1228  added  four  new  provinces:  the  Holy 
Land,  Greece,  Poland,  and  Dacia  (Denmark  and 
Scandinavia).  Sicily  was  separated  from  Rome 
(1294),  Ara^n  from  Spain  (1301).  In  1303  Lom- 
bardy was  divided  into  Upper  and  Lower  Lombardy; 
Provence  into  Toulouse  and  Provence;  Saxony  was 
separated  from  Teutonia,  and  Bohemia  from  Poland, 
thus  forming  eighteen  provinces.  The  order,  which 
in  1277  counted  404  convents  of  Brothers,  m  1303 
numbered  nearly  600.  The  development  of  the  order 
reached  its  height  during  the  Middle  Ages;  new 
houses  were  established  during  the  fourteenth  and 
fifteenth  centuries,  but  in  relatively  small  numbers. 
As  to  the  nu^iber  of  religious  only  approximate  state- 
ments can  be  given.  In  1256,  according  to  the  con- 
cession of  suffrages  granted  by  Humbert  of  Romans 
to  St.  Louis,  the  order  numbered  about  5000*priesta; 
the  clerks  and  lay  brothers  could  not  have  b^n  leas 
than  2000.  Thus  towards  the  middle  of  ^lie  thir- 
teenth century,  it  must  have  had  about  7000  members 
(de  Laborde,  "Layette  du  tr6sor  des  charte8'\  Paris, 
1875.  Ill,  304).  According  to  Sebastien  de  Olmeda, 
the  Preachers,  as  shown  by  the  census  taken  under 
Benedict  XII,  were  close  on  to  12,000  in  1337. 
(Fontana,  "Monumenta  Dominicana",  Rome,  1674, 
pp.  207-8).  This  number  was  not  surpassed  at  the 
close  of  the  Middle  Ages;  the  Great  Plague  of  1348, 
and  the  general  state  of  Europe  preventing  a  notable 
increase.  The  reform  movement  begun  m  1390  by 
Raymond  of  Capua  established  the  principle  of  a 
twofold  arrangement  in  the  order.  For  a  long  time. 
it  is  true,  the  reformed  convents  were  not  separated 
from  their  respective  provinces;  but  wit^  the  founda* 


\ 


PBXACHBBS 


359 


PBXACHBB8 


tion  of  the  oongregation  of  Lombardy,  in  1459,  a 
new  order  of  things  began.  The  congregations  were 
more  or  less  self-governing,  and,  acconfing  as  they 
developed,  overl^ped  several  provinces  and  even 
several  nations.  There  were  established  successively 
the  congregations  of  Portugal  (1460),  Holland  (1464), 
Aiagon,  and  Spain  (1468),  St.  Mark  in  Florence 
(1493),  France  (1497),  the  GaUican  (1514).  About 
the  same  time  some  new  provinces  were  also  estab- 
lished:  Scotland  (1481),  Ireland  (1484),  B^tigue  or 


Andalusia  (1514),  Lower  Germany  (1515).  (Qu^tif- 
Echard,  "Script.  Ord.  Praed.".  1,  p.  1-15;  '^Anal. 
Ord.    Praed.",  1893,  jpassim;   Mortier,    "Hist,   des 


Mattres  Gr4n6raux",  I-y,  passim), 

(b)  Administration. — ^The  Preachers  possessed  a 
number  of  able  administrators  among  their  masters 
general  during  the  Middle  Ages,  especially  in  the 
thirteenth  centuzy.  St.  Dominic,  the  creator  of  the 
institution  (1206-1221),  showed  a  keen  intelligence 
of  the  needs  of  the  age.  He  executed  his  plans 
with  sureness  of  insight,  finnness  of  resolution,  and 
tenacity  of  purpose.  Jordan  of  Saxonv  (1222-1237) 
sensitive,  eloquent,  and  endowed  with  rare  powers 
of  persuasion,  attracted  numerous  and  valuable  re- 
cruits. St.  Raymond  of  Penaforte  (1238-1240),  the 
greatest  canonist  of  the  a^,  ruled  the  order  only 
long  enough  to  reorganize  its  legislation.  John  the 
Teuton  (1241-1252),  bishop  and  linguist,  who  was 
associated  with  the  greatest  personalities  of  his  time, 
pushed  the  order  forward  along  the  line  of  develop- 
ment outlin^  by  its  founder.  Humbert  of  Romans 
(1254-1263),  a  genius  of  the  practical  sort,  a  broad- 
minded  and  moderate  man,  raised  the  order  to  the 
height  of  its  glory,  and  wrote  manifold  works,  setting 
forth  what,  in  his  eyes,  the  Preachers  and  (christian 
society  ought  to.be.  John  of  Vercelli  (1264-1283), 
an  energetic  and  prudent  man,  during  his  long  govern- 
ment maintained  the  order  in  all  its  vigour.  The 
successors  Of  these  illustrious  masters  did  their  ut- 
most in  the  discharge  of  their  duty,  and  in  meeting 
tiie  situations  which  the  state  of  the  Church  and  of 
society  from  the  close  of  the  thirteenth  century  ren-r 
dered  more  and  more  difficult.  Some  of  them  did  no 
more  than  hold  their  high  office,  while  others  had  not 
the  genius  of  the  masters  general  of  the  golden  age 
[Balme-Lelaidier,  "Cart,  de  St.  Dominic";  Guiraud, 
"  St.  Dominic"  (Paris,  1899) ;  Mothon, "  Viedu  B.  Jour- 
dain  de  Saxe"  (Paris,  1885) ;  Reichert,  "Das  Itinerar 
des  zweiten  Dominikaner-generals  Jordanis  von  Sach- 
sen"  in  "Festschrift  des  Deutschen  Campo  Santo  in 
Rom"  (Freiburg,  1897).  153;  Mothon,  "Vita  del  B. 
Giovanini  da  Vercelli"  (Vercelli,  1903);  Mortier, 
"  Histoire  des  Mattres  Gr4n6raux",  1-V] .  The  general 
chapters  which  wielded  supreme  power  were  the  ^at 
regulators  of  the  Dominican  life  during  the  Middle 
Ages.  They  are  usually  remarkable  for  their  spirit  of 
decision,  and  the  firmness  with  which  thev  ruled. 
They  appeared  even  imbued  with  a  severe  character 
which,  taking  no  account  of  persons,  bore  witness  to 
the  importance  they  attached  to  the  maintenance  of 
discipline.  (See  the  Acta  Cap.  Gen.  already  referred 
to.) 

(c)  Modification  of  the  Statute. — We  have  already 
spoken  of  the  chief  exception  to  be  taken  to  the  Con- 
stitution of  the  order,  the  difficult3r  of  maintaining 
an  even  balance  between  the  monastic  and  canonical 
observances  and  the  clerical  and  apostolical  life. 
The  primitive  regime  of  poverty,  whicn  left  the  con- 
vents without  an  assured  income,  created  also  a 
permanent  difficulty.  Time  and  the  modifications 
of  the  state  of  Christian  society  exposed  these  weak 
points.  Already  the  General  Chapters  of  1240- 
1242  forbade  the  changing  of  the  general  statutes 
of  the  order,  a  measure  which  would  indicate  at  least 
a  hidden  tendency  towards  modification  (Acta,  I, 
p.  14-^).  Some  clumge  seems  to  have  been  con- 
templated also  by  the  Holy  See  when  Alexander  IV, 


4  February,  1255,  ordered  the  Dominican  cardinal, 
Hugh  of  Saint  Cher,  to  recast  the  entire  legisla- 
tion of  the  Preachers  into  a  rule  which  should  be 
called  the  Rule  of  St.  Dominic  (Potthast,  156-69). 
Nothing  came  of  the  project,  and  the  Question  was 
broached  again  about  1270  (Humberti  ae  Romania, 
"Opera".  I,  p.  43).  It  was  during  the  pontificate 
of  Benedict  All,  (1334-1342),  who  undertook  a  gen- 
eral reform  of  the  religious  orders,  that  the  Preach- 
ers were  on  the  point  of  undergoing  serious  modifica- 
tions in  the  secondary  elements  of  their  primitive 
statute.  Benedict,  desiring  to  give  theorder  greater 
efficiency,  sought  to  impose  a  regime  of  propertv- 
holding  as  necessary  to  its  security,  and  to  reduce  the 
number  of  its  members  (12,000)  oy  eliminating  the 
unfit  etc. ;  in  a  word,  to  lead  the  order  back  to  its  prim- 
itive concept  of  a  select  apostolic  and  teaching  Dody. 
The  order,  ruled  at  that  time  by  Hugh  de  Vansseman 
(1333-41),  resisted  with  all  its  strength  (1337-40). 
This  was  a  mistake  (Mortier.  op.  cit..  Ill,  115).  As  the 
situation  grew  worse,  the  oraer  was  obliged  to  petition 
Sixtus  rV  for  the  right  to  hold  property,  and  this  was 
granted  1  June,  1475.  Thence  forward  the  convents 
could  acQuire  property,  and  perpetual  rentals  (Mortier, 
IV,  p.  495).  This  was  one  of  the  causes  which 
quickened  the  vitality  of  the  order  in  the  sixteenth 
century. 

The  reform  projects  of  Benedict  XII  having  failed, 
the  master  general,  Raymond  of  Capua  (1390). 
sought  to  restore  the  monastic  observances  which  had 
fallen  into  decline.  He  ordered  the  establishment 
in  each  province  of  a  convent  of  strict  observance, 
hoping  that  as  such  houses  became  more  numerous, 
the  reform  would  eventually  permeate  the  entire 
province.  This  was  not  usually  the  case.  These 
nouses  of  the  observance  formed  a  confederation 
among  themselves  under  the  jurisdiction  of  a  special 
vicar.  However,  they  did  not  cease  to  belong  to 
their  original  province  in  certain  respects,  and  this 
naturally  gave  rise  to  numerous  conflicts  of  govern- 
ment. During  the  fifteenth  centurv,  several  groups 
made  up  congregations,  more  or  less  autonomous; 
these  we  have  named  above  in  giving  the  statistics 
of  the  order.  The  scheme  of  reform  proposed  by 
Raymond  and  adopted  b^  nearly  all  who  subse- 
quently took  up  with  his  ideas,  insisted  on  the  ob- 
servance of  the  (Constitutions  ad  uriQuem,  as  Ray- 
mond, without  further  explanation,  expressed  it. 
By  this,  his  followers,  and,  perhaps  Ra3rmond  him- 
self, understood  t^e  mippression  of  the  rule  of  dis- 
pensation which  governed  the  entire  Dominican 
legislation.  "In  suppressing  the  power  to  grant  and 
the  right  to  accept  dispensation,  the  reformers' in- 
verted the  e<bnomy  of  the  order,  setting  the  ^  part 
above  the  whole,  and  the  means  above  the  end" 
(Lacordaire,  ''M^moire  pour  la  restauration  des  Frdres 
Prteheurs  dans  la  chr6tienit6",  new  ed.,  Dijon. 
1852^  p.  18).  The  different  reforms  which  originatea 
withm  the  order  up  to  the  nineteenth  century,  began 
usually  with  principles  of  asceticism,  which  exceeded 
the  letter  and  the  spirit  of  the  original  constitutions. 
This  initial  exaggeration  was,  under  pressure  of 
circumstances,  toned  down,  and  the  reforms  which 
endured,  like  that  of  the  congregation  of  Lombiuxlv, 
turned  out  to  be  the  most  effectual.  Generally 
speaking,  the  reformed  communities  slackened  the 
intense  devotion  to  study  prescribed  by  the  Con- 
stitutions; they  did  not  produce  the  great  doctors 
of  the  order,  and  their  literary  activity  was  directed 
preferably  to  moral  theology,  history,  subjects  of 
piety,  and  asceticism.  They  gave  to  the  fifteenth 
century  many  holy  men  (Thomae  Antonii  Senesis, 
"Historia  disciplinse  regularis  instaurats  in  Casao- 
biis  Venetis  Ord.  Praed."  in  Fl.  (Domelius,  "EcclesisB 
Venet»",  VII,  1749,  p.  167;  Bl.  Raymond  of  Capua, 
"Opusculaet  Litterae",  Rome,  1899;  Meyer,  "Buch 
der   Reformacio  Predigerordens"in  "Quellen   und 


PBXACHBB8 


360 


PBXAGHBB8 


Fonehungen  sur  Geschichte  des  Dominikanerordens 
in  Deutachland",  11.  Ill,  Leipzig,  1908-9;  Mortier, 
"Hist,  des  Maltrea  G^ndraux'\  Til,  IV). 

(d).  Preaching  and  Teaching. — Independently  of 
their  official  title  of  Order  of  Preachers,  the  Roman 
Church  especially  delegated  the  Preachers  to  the  office 
of  preaching.  It  is  in  fact  the  only  order  of  the  Middle 
Ages  which  the  popes  declared  to  be  specially  charged 
with  this  office  (Bull.  Ord.  Praed..  VIII,  p.  768). 
Conformably  to  its  mission,  the  oraer  displayed  an 
enormous  activity.  The  "Vit»  Fratrum"  (1260) 
(Lives  of  the  Brothers)  informs  us  that  many  of  the 
brothers  refused  food  until  they  had  first  announced 
the  Word  of  God  (op.  cit.,  p.  150).  In  his  circu- 
lar letter  (1260),  the  Master  General  Humbert  of 
V,  Romans,  in  view  of  what  had  been  accomplished  by 
his  religious,  could  well  make  the  stateifient:  ''We 
teach  the  people,  we  teach  the  prelates,  we  teach  the 
wise  and  the  unwise,  religious  and  seculars,  clerics 
and  laymen,  nobles  and  peasants,  lowly  and  ffre&t. " 
(Monum.  Ord.  Prsed.  Historia,  V, 'p.  53).  Rightly, 
too,  it  has  been  said:  ''Science  on  one  hand,  num- 
bers on  the  other,  placed  them  [the  Preachers] 
ahead  of  their  competitors  in  the  thirteenth  century 
(Lecoy  de  la  Marcne,  "La  chaire  francaise  au  Moyen 
A^e'^  Paris,  1886,  p.  31).  The  order  maintained 
this  supremacy  during  the  entire  Middle  Ages  (L. 
Pfleger,  "Zur  Geschichte  des  Predigtwesens  in 
Strasburg",  Strasburg.  1907^  p.  26:  F.  Jostes,  "Zur 
Geschichte  der  Mittelalterlichen  Predigt  in  West- 
falen",  MOnster,  1885,  p.  10).  During  the  thirteenth 
century,  the  Preachers  in  addition  to  their  regular 
apostolate,  worked  especially  to  lead  back  to  the 
Qiurch  heretics  and  renegade  Catholics.  An  eve- 
witness  of  their  labours  (1233)  reckons  the  number 
of  their  converts  in  Lombardy  at  more  than  100,000 
("Annales  Ord.  Prnd.'',  Rome,  1756,  col.  128). 
This  movement  grew  rapidly,  and  the  witnesses  could 
scarcely  believe  their  eyes,  as  Humbert  of  Romans 
(1255)  informs  us  (Opera,  II,  p.  493).  At  the  becpn- 
ning  of  the  fourteenth  century,  a  celebrated  piupit 
orator,  Giordano  da  Rivalto,  declared  that,  owmg  to 
the  activity  of  the  order,  heresy  had  almost  entirely 
disappeared  from  the  Cnurch  ("Prediche  del  Beato 
Fra  Giordano  da  Rivalto'',  Florence,  1831,  I,  p. 
239). 

The  Friars  Preachers  were  especially  authorused 
by  the  Roman  Church  to  preach  crusades,  against 
the  Saracens  in  favour  of  the  Holy  Land,  i^ainst 
Livonia  and  Prussia,  and  against  fVederick  II,  and 
his  successors  (Bull.  O.  P.,  XIII,  p.  637).  This 
preaching  assumed  such  importance  that  Humbert 
of  Romans  composed  for  the  purpose  a  treatise 
entitled,  "Tractatus  de  pnedicatione  contra  9aracenos 
infideles  et  paganos"  (Tract  on  the  preaching  of  the 
Cross  {gainst  the  Saracens^  infidels  and  pagans). 
This  still  exists  in  its  first  edition  in  the  Paris  bibli- 
oth^que  Masarine,  incunabula^  no.  259;  Lecoy  de  la 
Marche,  "La  predication  de  la  Croisade  au  XIIP 
si^de''  m  "Rev.  des  questions  historiques",  1890,  p. 
5).  In  certain  provinces,  particularly  in  Germany  and 
Italy,  the  Dominican  preaching  took  on  a  peculiar 
quality,  due  to  the  influence  of  the  spiritual  direction 
which  the  religious  of  these  provinces  gave  to  the 
numerous  convents  of  women  confided  to  their  care. 
It  was  a  mystical  preaching;  the  specimens  which 
have  survived  are  in  the  vernacular,  and  are 
marked  by  simplicity  and  strength  (Denifle,  "t)ber  die 
Anf&nge  der  Predigtweise  der  deutschen  Mystiker" 
in  "Archiv.  f.  Litt.  u.  Kirchengesch",  II,  p.  641; 
Pfeiffer,  "Deutsche  Mystiker  des  vierziehnten  Jahr- 
himdert'',  Leipzig,  1845;  Wackemagel,  "Altdeutsche 
Predigten  imd  Gebete  aus  Handschriften'\  Basle, 
1876).  Among  these  preachers  may  be  mentioned: 
St.  Dominic,  the  founder  and  model  of  preachers 

id.  1221);  Jordan  of  Saxony  (d.  1237)  (Lives  of  the 
irothers,  pts.  II.  Ill);  Giovanni  di  Vincenza,  whose 


popular  eloquence  stirred  Northern  Italy  during  the 
year  1233  >- called  the  Age  of  the  Alleluia  (Sitter, 
"  Johann  von  Vincenza  una  die  Italiensche  Friedens- 
bewegung'',  Freiburg,  1891);  Giordano  da  Rivalto, 
the  foremost  pulpit  orator  in  Tuscany  at  the  be^^inning 
of  the  fourteenth  century  [d.  1311  (Galletti,  "Fra 
Giordano  da  Pisa",  Turin,  1899)] ;  Johann  Eckhart  of 
Hochheim  (d.  1327),  the  celebrated  theorist  of  the 
mystical  life  (Pfeiffer  "  Deutsche  Mystiker",  IL  1857; 
Buttner,  "Meister  Eckharts  Schnften  una  Predig- 
ten". Leipzig,  1903);  Henri  Suso  (d.  1366),  the  poet- 
ical lover  of  Divine  wisdom  (Bihlmeyer,  "Heinrich 
Sense  Deutsche  Schriften",  Stuttgart,  1907):  Johann 
Tauler  (d.  1361),  the  eloquent  moralist  ('  Johanna 
Taulers  Predig;ten".  ed.  T.  Hamberger,  Frankfort, 
1864);  Venturmo  aa  Bergamo  (d.  1345),  the  fiery 
popular  agitator  (Clementi,  "Un  Santo  Patriota, 
11  B.  Venturino  da  Bergamo",  Rome,  1909);  Jacopo 
Passavanti  (d.  1357),  the  noted  author  of  the  "Mirror 
of  Penitence"  (Carmini  di  Pierro,  "Contributo  alia 
Bio^p'afia  di  Fra  Jacopo  Passavanti"  in  "Giomale 
stonco  della  letteratura  italiana",  XLVII.  1906. 
p.  1);  Giovanni  Dominici  (d.  1419),  the  oelovea 
orator  of  the  Florentines  (Gallette,  "Una  Raccolta 
di  Prediche  volgari  del  Cardinale  Giovanni  Dominici" 
in  "  Miscellanea  di  studi  critici  publicati  in  onore  di 
G.  Mazzoni",  Florence,  1907,  I);  Alain  de  la  Roche 
(d.  1475),  the  Apostle  of  the  Rosary  (Script.  Ord. 
Prsed.,  I,  p.  849) ;  Savonarola  (d.  1498),  one  of  the 
most  powerful  orators  of  all  times  (Luotto,  "II 
vero  Savonarola",  Florence,  p.  68). 

(e)  Academic  Organisation. — ^The  first  order  institu- 
ted by  the  Church  with  an  academic  mission  was  the 
Preachers.  The  decree  of  the  Fourth  Lateran  Coun- 
cil (1215)  requiring  the  appointment  of  a  master  of  the- 
ology for  each  cathedral  school  had  not  been  effectual. 
The  Roman  Church  and  St.  Dominic  met  the  needs 
of  the  situation  by  creating  a  reli^ous  order  vowed 
to  the  teaching  of  the  sacred  sciences.  To  attain 
their  purpose,  the  Preachers  from  1220  laid  down  as 
a  fundamental  principle,  that  no  convent  of  their 
order  could  be  founded  without  a  doctor  (Const., 
Dist.  II,  cog.  I).  From  their  first  foundation,  the 
bishops,  likewise,  welcomed  them  with  expressions 
like  those  of  the  Bishop  of  Metz  (22  April,  1221): 
"Cohabitatio  ipsorum  non  tantum  laicis  m  prsedica- 
tionibus,  sed  et  derids  in  sacris  lectionibus  esset 
pl'urimum  profutura,  exemplo  Domini  Papae,  (^ui 
eis  Homffi  domum  contulit,  et  multorum  archiepis- 
coporum  ac  episcoporum"  etc.  (Annales  Ord.  Prsed.. 
I,  append.,  col.  71).  (Association  with  them  would 
be  of  great  value  not  only  to  laymen  bv  their 
preachins,  but  also  to  the  cler^  bv  Uieir  lectures 
on  sacred  science,  as  it  was  to  the  Lord  Pope  who  gave 
them  their  house  at  Rome,  and  to  many  archbiwops 
and  bishops.)  This  is  the  reason  why  the  second 
master  general,  Jordan  of  Saxony,  defined  the  voca- 
tion of  the  order:  "honeste  vivere,  discere  et  docere", 
i.  e.  upright  Uving,  learning  and  teaching  (Vitse 
Fratrum,  p.  138);  and  one  of  his  successors,  John 
the  Teuton,  declared  that  he  was  "ex  ordine  Pnedica- 
torum,  quorum  proprium  esset  docendi  munus" 
(Annales,  p.  644).  (Of  the  Order  of  Preachers,  whose 
proper  function  was  to  teach.)  In  pursuit  of  this  aim 
the  Preachers  established  a  very  complete  and 
thoroughly  organized  scholastic  system,  which  has 
caused  a  writer  of  our  own  times  to  say  that  "Dom- 
inic was  the  first  minister  of  public  instruction  in 
modem  Europe"  (Larousse,  '^  Grand  Dictionnaire 
Universel  du  XIX«  Sidcle",  s.  v.  Dominic). 

The  general  basis  of  teaching  was  the  conventual 
school.  It  was  attended  by  the  religious  of  the 
convent,  and  by  clerics  from  the  outside:  the  teach- 
ing was  public.  The  school  was  directed  by  a  doctor, 
cafied  later,  though  not  in  all  cases,  lector.  His 
principal  subject  was  the  text  of  Holy  Scripture, 
which  he  interpreted,  and  in  connexion  with  which 


PREACHBB8  361  PREACHBBS 

he  treated  theological  questions.    The  "Sentences''  pecially  at  Paris  and  Bologna,'  it  was  easy  to  make  a 

of  Peter  Lombard,  the  ''History"  of  Peter  Comestor,  stand  against  this  private  teaching.    However,  the 

the  "Sum"  of  cases  of  conscience,  were  also,  but  development  of  the  order  and  the  rapid  intellectual 

secondarily,  used  as  texts.    In  the  large  ootivents,  progress  of  the  thirteenth  century  soon  caused  the 

which  were  not  called  8tvdia  generalia,  but  were  in  organisation — ^for  the  use  of  religious  only — of  reg- 

the  language  of  the  times  Btuiia  wiUtnnia,  the  teach-  ular  schools  for  the  study  of  the  liberal  arts.    Towards 

ing  Stan  was  more  complete.    There  was  a  second  the  middle  of  the  century  the  provinces  established 

master  or  sub-lector,  or  a  bachelor:  who^  dutv  it  was  in  one  or  more  of  their  convents  the  study  of  logic; 

to  lecture  on  the  Bible  and  liie  "Sentences   .    This  and  about  1260  the  Btudia  ncUuraliuiny  i.  e.  courses  in 

organization  somewhat  resembled  that  of  the  studia  natural  science.    The  General  Chapter  of  1315  com- 

generalia.    The  head  master  held  public  disputations  manded  the  masters  of  the  students  to  lecture  on  the 

every  fortnight.    Each  convent  possessed  a  magister  moral  sciences  to  all  the  religious  of  their  convents; 

atudentiumf  charged  with  the  superintendence  of  the  i.  e.  on  the  ethics^  politics,  and  economics  of  Aristotle, 

students,  and  usually  an  assistant  teacher.    These  From  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century  we 

masters  were  appointed  by  the  provincial  chapters,  find  also  some  religious  who  gave  special  courses 

and  the  visitors  were  obliged  to  report  each  year  to  in  philosophy  to  secular  students.     In  the  fifteenth 

the  chapter  on  the  condition   of  academic  work,  century  the  Preachers  occupied  in  several  universities 

Above  the  conventual  schools  were  the  stiuiia  gen^  chairs    of    philosophy,    especially    of    metaphysics. 

araUa,    The  first  studium  generale  which  the  order  Coming  in  contact  as  it  did  with  barbaric  peoples — 

possessed  was  that  of  the.  Convent  of  St.  Jacques  at  principallv  with  the  Greeks  and  Arabs — the  order  was 

Paris.    In  1229  they  obtained  a  chair  incorporated  compelled  from  the  outset  to  take  up  the  study  of 

with  the  university  and  another  in  1231.    Tnus  the  foreign  languages.    The  Chapter  Generalissimo  of 

Preachers  were  the  first  religious  order  that  took  part  1236  ordered  that  in  all  convents  and  in  all  the  prov- 

in  teaching  at  the  University  of  Paris,  and  the  only  inoes  the  religious  should  learn  the  languages  of  the 

one  possessing  two  schools.     In  the  thirteenth  cen-  neighbouring  countries.    The  following  year  Brother 

tury  the  order  did  not  recognize  any  mastership  of  Phulippe,  Provincial  of  the  Holy  Luid,   wrote  to 

theology  other  than  that  received  at  Paris.    Usually  Gregoi^  IX  that  his  religious  had  preached  to  the 

the  masters  did  not  teach  for  any  length  of  time,  people  in  the  different  languages  of  the  Orient,  es- 

After  receiving  their  degrees,  they  were  assigned  to  pecially  in  Arabic,   the  most  popular  tongue,  and 

different  schools  of  the  order  throughout  the  world,  that  the  study  of  laziguages  had  been  added  to  their 

The  schools  of  St.  Jacques  at  Paris  were  the  principal  conventual  course.    The  province  of  Greece  furnished 

scholastic  centres  of  the  Preachers  during  the  Middle  several  Hellenists  whose  works  we  shall  mention 

Ages.  later.    The  province  of  Spain,  whose  population  was 

In  124S  the  development  of  the  order  led  to  the  a  mixture  of  Jews  and  Arabs,  opened  special  schools 

erection  of  four  new  studia  aeneraUa — at  Oxford,  for  the  studv  of  languages.    About  the  middle  of 

Cologne,  Montpellier,  and  Bologna.     When  at  the  the  thirteenth  century  it  also  established  a  atttdium 

end  of  the  thirteenth  and  the  beginning  of  the  four-  arabicum  at  Tunis;   in  1259  one  at  Barcelona;   be- 

teenth  century  several  provinces  of  the  order  were  tween  1265  and  1270  one  at  Murcia;  in  1281  one  at 

divided,  other  studia  were  establish^  at  Naples,  Valencia.    The  same  province  also  established  some 

Florence,  Genoa,  Toulouse,  Barcelona,  and  Salamanca,  schools  for  the  study  of  Hebrew  at  Barcelona  in  1281, 

The  studium  generak  was  conducted  by  a  master  or  and  at  Jativa  in  1291.    Finally,  the  General  Chapter 

regent,   and  two  bachelors  who  tau^t  under  his  of  1310  commanded  the  master  general  to  estaJDiish, 

direction.    The  master  taught  the  text  of  the  Holy  in  several  provinces,  schools  for  the  study  of  Hebrew, 

Scriptures  with  commentaries.    The  works  of  Albert  Greek,  and  Arabic,  to  which  each  province  of  the 

the  Great  and  St.  Thomas  Aquinas  show  us  the  nature  order  should  send  at  least  one  student.    In  view  of 

of   Uiese  lessons.    Every  nfteen  days    the  master  this  fact  a  Protestant  historian.  Molinier,  in  writing 

held  a  debate  upon  a  theme  chosen  by  himself,  of  the  Friars  Preachers,  remarks:    "They  were  not 

To  this  class  of  exercises  belong  the  "Qiuestiones  content  with  professing  in  their   convents   all  the 

Disputatffi"  of  St.  Thomas,  while  his  "Qusestiones  divisions  of  science,  as  it  was  then  understood;  they 

Quodlibeticee"  represent  extraordinary  disputations  added  an  entire  order  of  studies  which  no  other  Chris- 

which  took  place  twice  a  year  during  Advent  and  Lent,  tian  schools  of  the  time  seem  to  have  taught,  and 

and  whose  subject  was  proposed  by  the  auditors,  in  which  they  had  no  other  rivals  than  the  rabbis  of 

One  of  the  bachelors  read  and  commentated  the  Book  Languedoc    and    Spain"     ("Guillem    Bernard    de 

of  Sentences.    The   commentaries   of   Albert   and  Gaillac   et  I'enseignement   chez   les   Dominicains'', 

Thomas  Aquinas  on  the  Lombard. are  the  fruit  of  Paris,  1884,  p.  30). 

their  two-year  baccalaureate  course  as  senterUiarii,        This  scholastic  activity  extended  to  other  fields. 

The  biblieus  lectured  on  the  Scriptures  for  one  year  particularly  to  the  universities  which  were  establishea 

before  becoming  a  serUerUiarius.    He  did  not  com-  throughout  Europe  from  the  beginning  of  the  thir- 

mentate,  but  read  and  interpreted  the  glosses  which  teenth  century;  the  Preachers  took  a  prominent  part 

preceding  ages  had  added  to  the  Scriptures  for  a  in   university  life.    Those  universities,   like   Paris, 

better  understanding  of  the  text.    The  professors  Toulouse  etc.,  which  from  the  beginning  had  chairs 

of  the  studia  generalia  were  appointed  by  the  general  of  theology,  incorporated  the  Dominican  conventual 

chapters,  or  by  the  master  general,  delegated  for  that  school  which  was  patterned  on  the  schools  of  the 

purpose.    Those  who  were  to  t^h  at  Paris  were  studia  generalia.    When  a  university  was  established 

taken  indiscriminately  from  the  different  provinces  in  a  city — ^as  was  usually  the  case — after  the  founda- 

of  the  order.  tion  of  a  Dominican  convent^  which  always  possessed 

The  conventual  schools  taught  onlv  the  sacred  a  chair  of  theology,  the  pontifical  letters  granting  the 

sciences,  i.  e.  Holy  Scripture  and  theologv.    At  the  establishment  oP  the  university  made  no  mention 

beginning;  of  the  thirteenth  century  neither  priests  whatever  of  a  faculty  of  theology.    The  latter  was 

nor  religious  studied  or  taught  the  profane  sciences,  considered  as  alreadv  existing  by  reason  of  the  Domin- 

As  it  could  not  set  itself  against  this  general  status,  lean  school  and  otners  of  we  mendicant  orders,  who 

the  order  provided  in  its  constitutions,  that  the  master  followed  the  example  of  the  FVeachers.    For  a  time 

general,  or  the  general  chapter,  might  allow  certain  the  Dominican  theological  schools  were  simplv  in 

religious  to  take  up  the  study  of  the  liberal  arts,  juxtaposition    to    the    universities,    which    had    no 

Thus,  at  first,  the  study  of  the  arts,  i.  e.  of  philosophy,  facultv  of  theolognr.    When  these  universities  peti- 

was  entirely  individual.    As  numerous  masters  of  tioned  the  Holy  See  for  a  faculty  of  theology,  and 

arts  entered  the  order  during  the  early  years,  ea-  their  petition  was  granted,  they  usually  incorporated 


PBXACHEBS 


362 


PBXACHE&S 


the  Dominican  school,  which  thus  became  a  part  of 
the  theological  faculty.  This  transformation  began 
towards  the  dose  of  the  fourteenth  and  lasted  until 
the  first  years  of  the  sixteenth  century.  Once  es- 
tablished, this  state  of  thin^  lasted  until  the  Ref- 
ormation in  the  countries  which  became  Protestant, 
and  until  the  French  Revolution  and  its  spread  in 
the  Latin  countries. 

The  archbishops,  who  according  to  the  decree  of 
the  Fourth  Lateran  Council  (1215)  were  to  establish 
in  eac^  metropolitan  church  a  master  of  Geology, 
considcnred  themselves  dispensed  from  this  obliga- 
tion by  reason  of  the  creation  of  Dominican  schools 
open  to  the  secular  clergy.  However,  when  they 
thought  it  their  duty  to  apply  the  decree  of  the 
council,  or  when  later  they  were  obliged  by  th6 
Roman  Church  to  do  so.  they  frequently  called  in  a 
Dominican  master  to  ml  the  chair  of  their  metro- 

E[>Utan  school.  Thus  the  metropolitan  school  of 
yons  was  intrusted  to  the  Preachers,  from  their  es- 
tablishment in  that  city  until  the  beginning  of  the 
sixteenth  century  (Forest,  "L'^cole  cathddrale  de 
Lyon",  Paris-Lyons,  1885,  pp.  238, 3fi8:  Beyssac,  '* Les 
Prieurs  de  Notre  Dame  ae  Confort",  Lyons,  1909; 
'*  Chart.  Univer.  Paris ",  III,  p.  28).  Thesame  arrange- 
ment, thoudi  not  so  permanent^  was  made  at  Toulouse, 
£k>rdeaux,  Tortosa,  Valencia.  Urgel,  Milan  etc.  The 
popes,  who  believed  themselves  morallv  obligated  to 
set  an  example  regarding  the  execution  of  the  scholastic 
decree  of  the  Lateran  Council,  usually  contented  them- 
selves during  the  thirteenth  century  with  the  establish- 
ment of  schools  at  Rome  by  the  Dominicans  and  other 
religious  orders.  The  Dominican  masters  who 
taught  at  Rome  or  in  other  cities  where  the  sovereign 
pontiffs  took  up  their  residence,  were  known  as 
ledorea  cwrice.  However,  when  the  popes,  once 
settled  at  Avignon^  began  to  require  from  the  arch- 
bishops the  execution  of  the  decree  of  Lateran,  they 
instituted  a  theological  school  in  their  own  papal 
palace;  the  initiative  was  taken  by  Clement  V  (1305- 
1314).  At  the  request  of  the  IJominican,  Cardinal 
Nicolas  Albert!  de  Prato  (d.  1321),  this  work  was 
permanently  intrusted  to  a  Preacher,  bearing  the 
n^jne  of  Magister  Sacri  Palatii,  The  first  to  hold  the 
position  was  Pierre  Godin,  who  later  became  cardinal 
(1312).  The  office  of  Master  of  the  Sacred  Palace, 
whose  functions  were  successively  increased,  remains 
to  the  present  day  the  special  privilege  of  the  Order 
of  Preachers  (Catalani,  ^'  De  Magistro  Sacri  Palatii 
Apostolici",  Rome,  p.  175). 

Finally,  when  towards  tne  middle  of  the  thirteenth 
centurv  the  old  monastic  orders  began  to  take  up 
the  scnolastic  and  doctrinal  movement,  the  Cister- 
cians, in  particular,  applied  to  the  Preachers  for 
masters  of  theology  in  their  abbevs  ("Chart.  Univ. 
Paris",  I,  p.  184).  During  the  last  portion  of  the 
Middle  Ages,  the  Dominicans  furnished,  at  intervals, 
professors  to  the  different  orders,  not  themselves 
consecrated  to  study  (Denifle,  ''Quellen  zur 
(jrelehrtengeschichte  des  Predigerordens  im  13.  und 
14.  Jahrhundert"  in  "Archiv.".  R,  p.  165;  Mandonnet, 
"Les  Chanoines  Pr^cheurs  de  Bologne",  Fribourg, 
1903 ;  Douais,  "  Essai  sur  Torganisation  des  Etudes  dans 
I'OrdredesFrferes-Prficheurs,  Paris,  1884;  Mandonnet, 
"De  I'incorporation  des  Dominicains  dans  I'ancienne 
University  de  Paris"  in  "Revue  Thomiste",  IV.  1896, 
p.  139;  Denifle,  "  Die  Universitaten  des  Mittelalters", 
Berlin,  1885:  1,  passim;  Denifle-Chatelain,  "Chart. 
Univ.,  Paris".  1889,  passim;  Bernard,  "Les  Domini- 
cains dans  r University  de  Paris",  Paris,  183; 
Mandonnet.  "Siger  de  Brabant  et  Taverroisme  Latin 
au  Xllle  si^le^  Louvain,  1911,  I,  p.  30-95).  The 
legislation  r^arding  studies  occurs  nere  and  there 
in  the  constitutions,  and  principally  in  the  "Acta 
Capitularium  Generalium",  Rome,  1898,  sq.  and 
Douais,  "Acta  Capitulorum  Provincialium"  (Tou- 
louse, 1894). 


The  teaching  activity  of  the  order  and  its  scholastic 
organization  placed  the  Preachers  in  the  forefront 
of  the  intellectual  life  of  the  Middle  Ages.  They 
were  the  pioneers  in  all  directions  as  one  may  see 
from  a  subsequent  paragraph  relative  to  their  literary 
productions.  We  speak  only  of  the  school  of  philos- 
ophy and  of  theology  created  by  them  in  the  thir- 
teenth century  which  has  been  the  most  influential 
in  the  history  of  the  Church.  At  the  beginning  of 
the  thirteenth  century  philosophical  teaching  was 
confined  practically  to  the  logic  of  Aristotle  and 
theology,  and  was  under  the  influence  of  St.  Augustine; 
hence  the  name  Augustinism  generally  given  to  the 
theological  doctrines  of  that  age.  The  mst  Domini- 
can doctors,  who  came  from  the  universities  into  the 
order,  or  wno  taught  in  the  universities^  adhered  for 
a  long  time  to  tne  Augustinian  doctrme.  Among 
the  most  celebrated  were  Roland  of  Cremona,  Hugh 
of  Saint  Cher,  Richard  Fitzacre,  Moneta  of  Cremona, 
Peter  of  Tarentaise,  and  Robert  of  Kilwardby.  It 
was  the  introduction  into  the  Latin  world  of  the  great 
works  of  Aristotle,  and  their  assimilation,  throu^the 
action  of  Albertus  Magnus,  that  opened  up  m  the 
Order  of  Preachers  a  new  line  of  philosophical  and 
theological  investigation.  The  work  oegun  by 
Albertus  Magnus  (1240-1250)  was  carried  to  com- 
pletion by  his  disciple,  Thomas  Aquinas  (q.  v.),  whose 
teaching  activity  occupied  the  last  twenty  years  of  his 
life  (1245-1274).  The  system  of  theology  and 
philosophy  constructed  by  Aquinas  is  the  most  com- 
plete, the  most  original,  and  the  most  profound, 
which  Christian  thought  has  elaborated,  and  the 
master  who  designed  it  surpasses  all  his  contem- 
poraries and  his  successors  in  the  grandeur  of  his 
creative  genius.  The  Thomist  School  developed 
rapidly  both  within  the  order  and  without.  The 
fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries  witnessed  the 
struggles  of  the  Thomist  School  on  various  points 
of  doctrine.  The  Council  of  Vienne  (1311)  declared 
in  favour  of  the  Thomistic  teaching,  according  to 
which  there  is  but  one  form  in  the  human  composi- 
tion, and  condemned  as  heretical  any  one  who  should 
deny  that  "the  rational  or  intellective  soul  is  per  se 
and  essentially  the  form  of  the  human  body".  This 
is  also  the  teaching  of  the  Fifth  Lateran  Council 
(1515).  See  Zigliara,  "De*Mente  Concilii  Vien- 
nensis",  Rome,  1878,  pp.  88-89. 

The  discussions  between  the  Preachers  and  the 
Friars  on  the  poverty  of  Christ  and  the  Apostles  was 
also  settled  by  John  XXII  in  the  Thomistic  sense 
[(12  Nov.,  1323),  Ehrle,  "Archiv.  f.  Litt.  u  Kirchen- 
gesch.".  Ill,  p.  517;  Tocco,  "La  Questione  della 
povertH  nel  Secolo  XIV",  Naples.  1910].  The  ques- 
tion regcuding  the  Divinity  of  tne  Blood  of  Christ 
separated  from  His  Body  during  His  Passion,  raised 
for  the  first  time  in  1351,  at  Barcelona,  and  taken  up 
again  in  Italy  in  1463,  was  the  subject  of  a  formal 
debate  before  Pius  II.  The  Dominican  opinion  pre- 
vailed; although  the  pope  refused  a  sentence  prop- 
erly so  called  (Mortier,  "Hist,  des  Maitres  G^n^raux", 
III,  p.  287,  IV,  p.  413;  G.  de^li  Agostini,  "Notizie 
istonco-critiche  intomo  la  vita  e  le  opere  degli 
scrittori  Viniziani",  Venice,  1752,  I,  p.  401.  During 
the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries  the  Thomist 
School  had  to  make  a  stand  against  Nominalism,  of 
which  a  Preacher  had  been  one  of  the  protagonists. 
The  repeated  sentences  of  the  universities  and  of 
princes  slowly  combatted  this  doctrine  (De  Wulf, 
"Histoire  de  la  philosophic  m^i6vale",  Louvain- 
Paris,  1905,  p.  453). 

The  Averroism  against  which  Albert  the  Great, 
and  especially  Aquinas  had  fought  so  energetically  did 
not  disappear  entirely  with  the  condemnation  of 
Paris  (1277),  but  survived  under  a  more  or  less  at- 
tenuated form.  At  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth 
century  the  debates  were  renewed,  and  the  Preachers 
found  themselves  actively  engaged  therein  in  Italy 


PREACHERS 


363 


PREACHERS 


where  the  Averroist  doctrine  had  reappeared.  The 
General  of  the  Dominicans,  Thomas  de  Vio  (Cajctan). 
had  published  his  commentaries  on  the  ''De  Anima'' 
of  Aristotle  (Florence,  1509),  in  which,  abandoning 
the  position  of  St.  Thomas,  he  contended  that 
Anstotle  had  not  tau^^ht  the  individual  immortality 
of  the  soul,  but  aflSrmmg  at  the  same  time  that  this 
doctrine  was  philosophically  erroneous.  The  Council 
of  Lateran,  by  its  Decree,  19  Dec,  1513,  not  only 
condenmed  the  Averroistic  teaching,  but  exacted  still 
further  t|iat  professors  of  philosophy  should  answer  the 
opposing  arguments  advanced  by  philosophers — a 
measure  which  Cajetan  did  not  approve  (Mansi, 
"Councils".  I,  32,  col.  842).  Pietro  Pomponazzi, 
having  published  at  Bologna  (1516)  his  treatise  on 
th<?  immortality  of  the  soul  in  the  Averroistic  sense, 
while  making  an  open  profession  of  faith  in  the  Chris- 
tian doctrine,  raised  numerous  polemics,  and  was 
held  as  a  sukpect.  Chrysostom  Javelli,  regent  of 
theologjr  at  the  Convent  of  St.  Dominic,  in  agree- 
ment with  the  ecclesiastical  authority,  and  at  the 
reciuest  of  Pomponazzi,  sought  to  extricate  him  from 
this  difficulty  oy  drawing  up  a  short  theological 
expos^  of  the  question  whidi  was  to  be  added  in  the 
future  to  the  work  of  Pomponazzi.  But  this  dis^ 
cussign  did  not  cease  all  at  once.  Several  Dominicans 
entered  the  lists.  Girolamo  de  Fomariis  subjected  to 
examination  the  polemic  of  Pomponazzi  with  Augus- 
tin  Nifi  (Bologna,  1519) ;  Bartolommeo  de  Spina  at- 
tacked Ca}etan  on  one  article,  and  Pomponazzi  in  two 
others  (Venice,  1519);  Isidore  of  Isolanis  also  wrote 
on  the  immortality  of  the  soul  (Milan,  1520);  Lucas 
Bettini  took  up  the  same  theme,  and  Pico  della  Miran- 
dola  published  his  treatise  (Bologna,  1523);  finally 
Chrysostom  Javelli  himself,  in  1523,  composed  a 
treatise  on  immortality  in  which  he  refuted  the  point 
of  view  of  Cajetan  and  of  Pomponazzi  (Chrysostomi 
Javelli,  "Opera",  Venice,  1577,  I-III.  p.  52). 
Cajetan,  becoming  cardinal,  not  only  held  his  posi- 
tion regarding  the  idea  of  Aristotle,  but  further  de- 
clared that  the  immortality  of  the  soul  was  an  article 
of  faith,  for  which  philosophy  could  ofiFer  only  prob- 
able reasons  C'ln  Ecclesiasten",  1534,  cap.  iv; 
Fiorentino,  "Pietro  Pomponazzi",  Florence,  1868). 

(f )  Literary  and  Scientific  Productions. — During  the 
Middle  Ages  the  order  had  an  enormous  literary 
output,  its  activity  extending  to  all  spheres.  The 
works  of  its  writers  are  epoch-making  in  the  various 
branches  of  human  knowledge. 

(i)  Works  on  the  Bible. — The  studv  and  teaching 
of  the  Bible  were  foremost  among  the  occupations 
of  the  Preachers,  and  their  studies  included  every- 
thing pertaining  to  it.  They  first  undertook  corrcc- 
tories  (carredoria)  of  the  Vulgate  text  (1230-36), 
under  the  direction  of  Hugh  of  Saint  Cher,  professor 
at  the  University  of  Paris.  The  collation  with  the 
Hebrew  text  was  accomplished  under  the  sub-prior 
of  St-Jacques,  Theobala  of  Sexania,  a  converted 
Jew.  Two  other  correctories  were  made  prior  to 
1267,  the  first  called  the  correctory  of  Sens.  Again 
under  the  direction  of  Hugh  of  Saint  Cher  the  Preach- 
ers made  the  first  concordances  of  the  Bible  which 
were  called  the  Concordances  of  St-Jacques  or  Great 
Concordances  because  of  their  development.  The 
English  Dominicans  of  Oxford,  apparently  under  the 
direction  of  John  of  Darlington,  made  more  simplified 
concordances  in  the  third  quarter  of  the  thirteenth 
century.  At  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury a  German  Dominican,  Conrad  of  Halberstadt. 
simplified  the  English  concordances  still  more;  ana 
John  Fojkowich  of  Ragusa,  at  the  time  of  the  Council 
of  Basle,  caused  the  insertion  in  the  concordances  of 
elements  which  had  not  hitherto  been  incorporated 
in  them.  The  Dominicans,  moreover,  composed 
numerous  commentaries  on  the  books  of  the  Bible. 
That  of  Hugh  of  Saint  Cher  was  the  first  complete 
commentary  on  the  Scriptures  (last  ed.,  Venice,  1754, 


8  vols,  in  fol.).  The  commentaries  of  Bl.  Albertus 
Magnus  and  especi^ly  those  of  St.  Thomas  Aquinas 
are  still  famous.  With  St.  Thomas  the  interpretation 
of  the  text  is  more  direct,  simply  literal,  and  theolog- 
ical. These  great  Scriptural  commentaries  repre- 
sent theological  teaching  in  the  siudia  generaUa. 
The  leciurce  on  the  text  of  Scripture,  also  composed 
to  a  large  extent  by  Dominicans,  represent  Scrm- 
turaJ  teaching  in  the  other  studia  of  theology.  St. 
Thomas  undertook  an  "Expositio  continua  of  the 
four  Gospels  now  called  the  "Catena  aurea",  com- 
poaed  of  extracts  from  the  Fathers  with  a  view 
to  its  use  by  clerics.  At  the  beginning  of  the  four- 
teenth century  Nicholas  of  Trevet  did  the  same  for 
all  the  books  of  the  Bible;  The  Preachers  were  also 
engaged  in  translating  the  Bible  into  the  vernacular. 
In  aU  probability  they  were  the  translators  of  the 
French  Parisian  Bible  during  the  first  half  of  the 
thirteenth  century,  and  in  the  fourteenth  century 
they  took  a  very  active  share  in  the  translation  of  the 
celebrated  Bible  of  King  John.  The  name  of  a 
Catalonian  Dominican,  Romeu  of  Sabru^era,  is  at- 
tached to  the  first  translation  of  the  Scriptures  into 
Catalonian.  The  names  of  Preachers  are  also  con- 
nected with  the  Valencian  and  Castilian  translations, 
and  still  more  with  the  Italian  (F.  L.  Mannoci, 
"Intomo  a  un  volgarizzamento  della  Biblia  attri- 
buita  al  B.  Jacom  da  Voragine"  in  "Giomale  storico 
e  lettcrario  delta  Liguria^  V,  1904,  p.  96).  The 
first  pre-Lutheran  German  translatio^i  of  the  Elible, 
except  the  Psalms,  is  due  to  John  Rellach,  shortly 
after  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century.  Finally 
the  Bible  was  translated  from  Latin  into  Armenian 
about  1330  by  B.  Bartolommeo  Parvi  of  Bologna,  mis- 
sionary and  bishop  in  Armenia.  These  works  en- 
abled Vercellone  to  write:  "To  the  Dominican  Order 
belongs  the  glory  of  having  first  renewed  in  the 
Church  the  illustrious  example  of  Origen  and  St. 
Augustine  by  the  ardent  cultivation  of  sacred  criti-  • 
cism  "  (P.  Mandonnet.  "  Travaux  des  Dominicains  sur 
les  Saintes  Ecritures  *  in  "Diet,  de  la  Bible",  II, 
col.  1463;  Saul,  "Das  Bibelstudium  im  Predigeror- 
den"  in  "Der  Katholik".  82  Jahrg,  3  f.,  XXVII, 
1902,  a  repetition  of  the  foregoing  article). 

(ii)  Philosophical  works. — The  most  celebrated 
philosophical  works  of  the  thirteenth  century  were 
those  of  Albertus  Magnus  and  St.  Thomas  Aquinas. 
The  former  compiled  on  the  model  of  Aristotle  a 
vast  scientific  encyclopedia  which'  exercised  great 
influence  on  the  last  centuries  of  the  Middle  Ages 
("Alberti  Magni  Opera",  Lyons,  1651,  20  vols, 
in  fol.;  Paris,  1890,  38  vols,  in  40;  Mandonnet, 
"Siger  de  Brabant",  I,  37,  n.  3).  Thomas  Aquinas, 
apart  from  special  treatises  and  numerous  philosoph- 
ical sections  in  his  other  works,  commentated  in 
whole  or  in  part  thirteen  of  Aristotle's  treatises,  these 
being  the  most  important  of  the  Stagyrite's  works 
(Mandonnet,  "Des  Merits  authentiques  de  St. 
Thomas  d'Aquin",  2nd  ed.,  p.  104,  Opera,  Paris, 
1889.  XXII-XVI).  Robert  of  Kilwardby  (d.  1279). 
a  holder  of  the  old  Augustinian  direction,  produced 
numerous  philosophical  writings.  His  "De  ortu  et 
divisione  philosophise"  is  regarded  as  "the  most 
important  introduction  to  Philosophy  of  the  Middle 
Ages"  (Baur.  "  Dominicus  Gundissalinus  De  divisione 
philosophi®  '*,  Munster,  1903, 368) .  At  the  end  of  the 
thirteenth  and  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury, Dietrich  of  Vriberg  left  an  important  philosoph- 
ical and  scientific  work  (Krebs,  Meister  Dietrich, 
sein  Leben,  seine  Werke,  seine  Wissenschaft". 
Mtinster,  19<)6).  At  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  and 
the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century  the  Donaini- 
cans  composed  numerous  philosophical  treatises, 
many  of  them  bearing  on  the  special  points  whereon 
the  Thomistic  School  was  attacked  by  its  adver- 
saries ("Archiv  f.  Litt.  und  Kirchengesch.",  II, 
226  sqq.). 


PREACHERS 


364 


PREACHERS 


(iii)  Theological  works. — In  importance  and  num- 
ber theologicsJ  works  occupy  the  foreground  in  the 
literary  activity  of  the  oraer.  Most  of  the  theolo- 
gians composed  commentaries  on  the  ''Sentences'' 
of  Peter  Lombard,  which  was  the  classical  text  in 
theological  schools.  Besides  the  "Sentences''  the 
usual  work  of  bachelors  in  the  Universities  included 
Disputatianes  and  Quodlibetaf  which  were  always 
the  writings  of  masters.  The  theological  aumnuB 
set  forth  the  theological  matter  according  to  a  more 
complete  and  well-ordered  plan  than  that  of  Peter 
Lomoard  and  especially  with  solid  philosophical 
principles  in  which  the  books  of  the  "Sentences" 
were  wanting.  Manuals  of  theology  and  more  es- 
peciallv  manuals,  or  aummce,  on  penance  for  the  use 
of  confessors  were  composed  in  great  ntmibers.  The 
oldest  Dominican  commentaries  on  the  "Sentences" 
are  those  of  Roland  of  Cremona,  Hush  of  Saint  Cher, 
Richard  Fitzacre,  Robert  of  Kilwardby,  and  Albertus 
Magnus.  The  series  begins  with  the  year  1230  if 
not  earlier  and  the  last  are  prior  to  the  middle  of  the 
thu1;eenth  century  (Mandonnet,  "Siger  de  Brabant", 
I,  53).  Thfe  "Summa"  of  St.  Thomas  (1266^75) 
is  still  the  masterpiece  of  theology.  The  monu- 
mental work  of  Albertus  Magnus  is  unfinished.  The 
"Summa  ie  bono"  of  Ubich  of  Strasburg  (d.  1277), 
a  disciple  of  Albert,  is  still  unedited,  but  is  of  para- 
mount interest  to  tne  historian  of  the  thought  of  the 
thirteenth  century  (Grabmann,  "Studien  ufeber 
Ulrich  von  Strassburg"  in  "Zeitschrift-  ftir  Kathol. 
TheoL",  XXIX^  1905. 82).  The  theological  summa  of 
St.  Antoninus  is  hignl;^  esteemed  by  moralists  and 
economists  (Ilgner,  "Die  Volkswirtschaftlichen  Ans- 
chaimgen  Antonins  von  Florenz",  Paderbom,  1904). 
The  '^Compendium  theologies  veritatis"  of  Hu^ 
Ripelin  of  Strasburg  (d.  1268)  is  the  most  widespread 
and  famous  manual  of  the  Middle  Ages  (Mandonnet, 
"Des  6crits  authentiques  de  St.  Thomas",  Fribourg, 
1910,  p.  86).  The  chief  manual  of  confessors  is  that 
of  Paul  of  Hungary  composed  for  the  Brothers  of  St. 
Nicholas  of  Bologna  (1220-21}  and  edited  without 
mention  of  the  author  in  the  "  Bibliotheca  Casinensis  " 
(IV,  1880,  191)  and 'with  false  assignment  of  author- 
ship by  R.  Duellius,  "Miscellan.  Lib."  (Augsburg, 
1723,  59).  The  "Summa  de  Poenitentia"  of  Ray- 
mond of  Pennafort,  composed  in  1235,  was  a  classic 
during  the  Middle  Ages  and  was  one  of  the  works 
of  which  the  MSS.  were  most  multiplied.  The 
"Summa  Confessorum"  of  John  of  Freiburg  (d. 
1314)  is,  according  to  F.  von  Schulte,  the  most  perfect 
product  of  this  class  of  literature.  The  Pisan  Bar- 
tolommeo  of  San  Concordio  has  left  us  a  "Summa 
Casuum"  composed  in  1338,  in  which  the  matter  is 
arranged  in  alphabetical  order.  It  was  very  success- 
ful in  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries.  The 
manuals  for  confessors  of  John  Nieder  (d.  1438),  St. 
Antoninus,  Archbishop  of  Florence  (d.  1459),  and 
Girolamo  Savonarola  (d.  1498)  were  much  esteemed 
in  their  time  (Qu^tif-Echard,  "Script.  Ord.  Prsed.", 
I,  passim;  Hurter,  "Nomencl^tor  literarius;  aetaa 
media",  Innsbruck,  1906,  paastm;  F.  von  Schulte, 
"(jresch.  der  Quellen  und  Liter atur  des  canonischen 
Rechts",  Stuttgart.  II,  1877,  p.  410  sqq.;  Dietterle, 
"Die  Summffi  confessorum  .  .  .  von  ihren  An- 
f&ngen  an  bis  zu  Silvester  Prierias"  in  "Zeitschrift 
fttr  Kirchengesch.",  XXIV,  1903;  XXVIII,  1907). 

(iv)  Apologetic  works. — ^The  Preachers,  bom  amid 
the  Albigensian  heresy  and  founded  especially  for 
the  defence- of  the  Faith^  bent  their  literary  efforts 
to  reach  all  classes  of  dissenters  from  the  Catholic 
Church.  They  produced  by  far  the  most  powerful 
works  in  the  spnere  of  apologetics.  The  "Summa 
contra  Catharos  et  Valdenses"  (Rome,  1743)  of  Mo- 
neta  of  Cremona,  in  course  of  composition  in  1244, 
is  the  most  complete  and  solid  work  produced  in  the 
Middle  Ages  against  the  Cathari  and  Waldenses. 
The  "Summa  contra  Gentiles"  of  St.  Thomas  Aquinas 


is  one  of  that  master's  strongest  creations.  It  is 
the  defence  of  the  Christian  Faith  against  Arabian 
philosophy.  Raymond  Marti  in  his  "Fugio  fidei",  in 
course  of  composition  in  1278  (Paris,  1642;  1651;  Leip- 
zig, 1687),  measures  arms  with  Judaism.  This  work, 
to  a  large  extent  based  on  Rabbinic  literature,  is  the 
most  important  medieval  monument  of  Orientalism 
(Neubauer,  "Jewish  Controversy  and  the  Pugio 
Fidei"  in  "The  Expositor",  1888.  p.  81  sqq.;  Loeb, 
"La  controverse  religieuse  entre  les  chr^tiens  et  les 
Juifs  au  moyen-dge  en  France  et  en  Espagne"  in 
"Revue  de  I'histoire  des  religions",  XVIHT  136).- 
The  Florentine,  Riccoldo  di  Monte  Croce,  a  mission* 
ary  in  the  East  (d.  1320),  composed  his  "Propugna- 
culum  Fidei"  against  the  doctrine  of  the  Koran.  It 
is  a  rare  medieval  Latin  wbrk  based  directly*  on 
Arabian  literature.  Demetrius  Cydonius  translated 
the  "Propugnaculum"  into  Greek  in  the  fourteenth 
century  and  Luther  translated  it  into  German  in  the 
sixteenth  (Mandonnet,  "Fra  Riccoldo  di  Monte 
Croce,  p^lerin  en  Terre  Sainte  et  missionnaire  en 
Orient"  in  "Revue  Biblique",  I,  1893,  44;  Grab- 
mann, "Die  Missionsidee  bei  den  Dominikaner- 
theologien  des  13.  Jahrhunderts"  in  "Zeitschrift  ftir 
Missionswissenschaft",  I,  1911,  137). 

(v)  Educational  literature. — Besides  manu{^ls  of 
theology  the  Dominicans  furnished  a  considerable 
literary  output  vnth  a  view  to  meeting  the  various 
needs  of  all  social  classes  and  which  may  be  called 
educational  or  practical  literature.  They  composed 
treatises  on  preaching,  models  or  materials  for 
sermons,  and  collections  of  discourses.  Among  the 
oldest  of  these  are  the  /'Distinctiones"  and  the 
"Dictionarius  pauperum"  of  Nicholas  of  Biard 
(d.  1261).  the  "Tractatus  de  diversis  materiis  pr»di- 
cabilibus*'  of  Stephen  of  Bourbon  (d.  1261).  the  "De 
eruditione  praKiicatorum"  of  Humbert  ot  Romans 
(d.  1277),  the  "Distinctiones"  of  Nicholas  of  Goran 
(d.  1295).  and  of  Maurice  of  England  [d.  circa  1300; 
(Qu6tif-Echard,  "Script.  Ord.  Pr»d.",  II,  968;  970; 
Lecoy  de  la  Marche,  ''Lachaire  fran^aise  au  moyen- 
fijge",  Paris,  1886;  Crane,  "The  exempla  or  illustra- 
tive stories  from  the  'Sermones  vulgares'  of  Jacques 
de  Vitry",  London,  1890)].  The  fteachers  led  the 
way  in  the  composition  of  comprehensive  collections 
of  the  lives  of  the  saints  or  legendaries,  writiius  at 
once  for  the  use  and  edification  of  the  faithful. 
Bartholomew  of  TVent  compiled  his  "Liber  epilo- 
gorum  in  Gesta  Sanctorum"  in  1240.  After  the 
middle  of  the  thirteenth  century  Roderick  of  Cerrate 
composed  a  collection  of  "  Vitae  Sanctorum"  (Madrid, 
University  Library,  cod.  146).  The  "Abbreviatio 
in  gestis  et  miracuhs  sanctorum",  composed  in  1243 
according  to  the  "Speculum  historiale"  of  Vincent 
of  Beauvais,  is  the  work  of  Jean  de  Mailly.  The 
"Legenda  Sanctorum"  of  Jacopo  de  Voragine  (Vor- 
azze)  called  also  the  "Golden  Lesend",  written  about 
1260,  is  universally  known.  '^The  success  of  the 
book,"  writes  the  BoUandist,  A.  Poncelet,  "was  pro- 
digious; it  far  exceeded  that  of  all  similar  compila- 
tions." It  was  besides  translated  into  all  the  ver^ 
naculars  of  Europe.  The  "Speculum  Sanctorale" 
of  Bernard  Guidonis  is  a  work  of  a  much  more  schol- 
arly character.  The  first  three  parts  were  finished  in 
1324  and  the  fourth  in  1329.  About  the  same  time 
Peter  Calo  (d.  1348)  undertook  under  the  title  of 
"Legenda  sanctorum"  an  "immense  oompUation" 
which  aimed  at  being  more  complete  than  its  pre- 
decessors (A.  Poncelet,  "Le  l^endier  de  Pierre  Calo" 
in  "Analecta  BoUandiana",  XXIX,  1910,  5-116). 

Catechetical  literature  was  also  early  taken  in 
hand.  In  1256-7  Raymond  Marti  composed  his 
"Explanatio  s3rmboli  ad  institutionem  fideliiun" 
("Revue  des  Biblioth^ques",  VI,  1846,  32;  March, 
"La  'Explanatio  Svmboli',  obra  inedita  de  Ramon 
Marti,  autor  del  Tugio  Fidei'",  in  "Anuari  des 
Institut  d'Estudis  Catalans",  1908,  and  Barcelona, 


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1910).  Thomas  Aquinas  wrote  four  small  treatises 
which  represent  the  contents  of  a  catechism  as  it  was 
in  the  Middle  Ages:  "De  articulis  fidei  et  E^cclesi® 
Sacramentis'';  ''E^^XMitio  symboli  Apostolorum " ; 
*'De  decern  prseceptis  et  lege  amoris'';  "Expositio 
orationis  dominies '^  Several  of  these  writings 
have  been  collected  and  called  the  catechism  of  St. 
Thomas.  (Portmann-Kunz,  ''Katechismus  des  hi. 
Thomas  von  Aquin'^  Lucerne.  1900.)  In  1277 
Laurent  d'Orl^ans  composed  at  tne  request  of  Philip 
the  Bold,  whose  confessor  he  was,  a  real  catechism 
in  the  vernacular  known  as  the  ''Somme  le  Roi'' 
(Mandonnet,  '^Laurent  d'Orl^ans  Tauteur  de  la 
Somme  le  Roi'^  in  "Revue  des  langues  romanes", 
1911;  "Diet,  de  th^l.  cath.",  II,  1900).  At  the 
beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century  Bernard  Guidonis 
oomposea  an  abridgment  of  Christian  doctrine  which 
he  revised  later  when  he  had  become  Bishop  of 
Lod^ve  (1324-31)  into  a  sort  of  catechism  for  the 
use  ttf  his  priests  in  the  instruction  of  the  faithful 
("Notices  et  extraitsde  la  Bib.  Nat.",  XXVII,  Paris, 
1879,  2nd  part,  p.  362;  C.  Douais,  "tin  nouvel  dcrit 
de  Bernard  Gui.  Le  synodal  de  Loddve, "  Paris,  1944, 
p.  vii).  The  "Discipulus"  of  John  H^lt  was  mucn 
esteemed  in  its  day  (Paulus,  "Johann  H^rolt  und 
seine  Lehre.  Ein  Beitrag  zur  Gesch.  des  religiosen 
Volksunterichte  am  Ausgang  des  Mittelalters"  in 
"Zeitsch.  ftir  kath.  Theol.^',  XXVI,  1902,  417). 

The  order  also  produced  pedagogical  works. 
William  of  Toumai  composed  a  treatise  "De  Modo 
docendi  pueros"  (Paris,  Bib.  Nat.  lat.  16435)  which 
the  General  Chapter  of  1264  recommended,  as  well 
as  one  on  preaching  and  confession  for  school  children. 
("Act.  Cap.  Gen?'  I,  125;  "Script.  Ord.  Pr»d.", 
I,  345).  Vincent  of  Beauvais  wrote  especiallv  for  the 
education  of  princes.  He  first  composed  nis  "De 
eruditione  filiorum  re^alium"  (Basle,  1481),  then 
the  "De  eruditione  principum'',  published  with  the 
works  of  St.  Thomas,  to  whom  as  well  as  to  Guillaume 
Perrault  it  has  been  incorrectly  ascribed;  finally 
(c.  1260)  the  "Tractatus  de  morali  princi]}is  in- 
stitutione'',  which  is  a  general  treatise  and  is  still 
unedited  ("Script.  Ord.  Praed. ' ',  I,  239;  R.  Fried- 
rich,  "Vincentius  von  Beauvais  als  P&dagognach 
seiner  Schrift  De  eruditione  filiorum  regalium'', 
Leipzig,  1883).  Early  in  the  fifteenth  century 
(1405)  John  Dominici  composed  his  famous  "Lucula 
noctis'',  in  which  he  deals  with  the  study  of  pagan 
authors  in  the  education  of  Christian  youth.  This 
is  a  most  important  work,  written  against  the  dangera 
of  Humanism  ("B.  Johannis  Dominioi  Cardinalis  S. 
Sixti  Lucula  Noctis'',  ed.  R.  Coulon,  Paris,  1908). 
Dominici  is  also  the  author  of  a  much  esteemed  work 
on  the  government  of  the  family  ("R^ola  del 
l^ovemo  <&  cura  familiare  dal  Beato  Giovanm  Domin- 
ici", ed.  D.  Salve,  Florence,  1860).  St.  Antoninus 
composed  a  "Regola  a  ben  vivere"  (ed.  Palermo, 
Florence,  1858).  Works  on  the  government  of  coun- 
tries were  also  produced  by  members  of  the  order; 
among  them  are  the  treatises  of  St.  Thomas  "De 
rege  et  regno",  addressed  te  the  King  of  C3rprus 
(finished  by  Bartolommeo  of  Lucca),  and  the  "De 
regimine  subditorum",  composed  for  the*  Countess 
of  Flanders.  At  the  request  of  the  Florentine 
Government  Girolamo  Savonarola  drew  up  (1493) 
his.  "Trattati  circa  il  reggimento  e  govemo  della 
cittd  di  Firenze"  (ed.  Audin  de  Rians,  Florence, 
1847)  in  which  he  shows  great  political  insight. 

(vi)  Canon  law. — St.  Rasrmond  of  Pennafort  was 
chosen  by  Gregory  IX  to  compile  the  Decretals 
( 1230-^4) ;  to  his  credit  also  belong  opinions  and  other 
works  on  canon  law.  Martin  of  Troppau,  Bishop 
of  Gnesen,  composed  (1278)  a  "Tabula  decreti" 
commonly  cfdlea  "Margarita  Martiniana",  which 
received  wide  circulation.  Martin  of  Fano,  pro- 
fessor of  canon  law  at  Arezzo  and  Modena  and 
pode8t&  of  Genoa  in  1260-2,  prior  to  entering  the 


order,  wrote  valuable  canonical  works.  Nicholas  of 
Ennezat  at  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century 
composed  tables  on  various  parts  of  canon  law. 
During  the  pontificate  of  Gregorv  XII  John  Dominici 
wrote  copious  memoranda  in  d.efence  of  the  rights 
of  the  legitimate  pope,  the  two  most  important  being 
still  im^ted  (Vienna,  Hof-bibliothek,  lat.  5102, 
fol.  1-24).  About  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury Jolm  of  Torquemada  wrote  extensive  works 
on  the  Decretals  of  Gratian  which  were  very  influen- 
tial in  defence  of  the  pontifical  rights.  Important 
works  on  inquisitorial  law  also  emanated  from  the 
order,  the  first  directories  for  trial  of  heresy  being 
composed  by  Dominicans.  The  oldest  is  the  opinion 
of  St.  Rajrmond  of  Pennafort  [1235  (ed.  in  Bzovius, 
"Annal.  eccles.''  ad  ann.  1235;  "Monum.  Ord. 
Pr»d.  Hist."  IV,  fasc.  II,  41;  "Le  Moyen  Age", 
2nd  series  III,  305)].  The  same  canonist  wrote 
(1242)  a  directory  for  the  inquisitions  of  Aragon 
(C.  Dpuais,  "L 'Inquisition",  Paris,  I,  1906,  p.  275). 
About  1244  another  directory  was  composed  by  the 
inquisitors  of  Provence  ("  Nouvelle  revue  historique 
du  droit  francais  et  6tranger",  Paris^  18^,  670; 
E.  Vacandard,  "L* Inquisition",  Paris,  1907,  p. 
314).  But  the  two  classical  works  of  the  Middle 
Ages  on  inquisitorial  law  are  that  of  Bernard  Guidonis' 
composed  m  1321  under  the  title  of  "Directorium 
Inquisitionis  heretics  pravitatis"  (ed.  C.  Douais, 
Paris,  1886)  and  the  "Directorium  Inquisitorum" 
of  Nicholas  Eymerich  [(1399)  "  Archiv  fttr  Literatur- 
und  Kirchengeschechte " ;  Grahit,  "El  inquisidor  F. 
Nicholas  Ejrmerich",  Girona,  1878;  Schulte,  "Die 
Ges^h.  der  Quellen  und  Literatur  des  Canonischen 
Rechts'\  II,  pa«8tm]. 

(vii)  Historical  Writings.— The  activity  of  the 
Preachers  in  the  domain  of  history  was  considerable 
during  the  Middle  Ages.  Some  of  their  chief  works 
incline  to  be  real  general  histories  which  assured  them 
great  success  in  their  day.  The  "Speculum  Ks- 
toriale"  of  Vincent  of  Bieauvais  (d.  circa  1264)  is 
.  chieflv,  like  the  other  parts  of  the  work,  of  the  nature 
of  a  documentary  compilation,  but  he  has  preserved 
for  us  sources  which  we  could  never  otherwise  reach 
(E.  Boutarie,  "Examen  des  sources  du  Speculum 
historiale  de  Vincent  de  Beauvais",  P^is.  1863). 
Martin  the  Pole,  called  Martin  of  Troppau  (a.  1279), 
in  the  third  quarter  of  the  thirteenth  century  com- 
posed his  chronicles  of  the  popes  and  emperors  which 
were  widely  circulated  and  had  many  continuators 
("Mon.  Germ.  Hist. :  Script.",  XXII).  The  anonv- 
mous  chronicles  of  Colmar  in  the  second  half  of  the 
thirteenth'  century  have  left  us  valuable  historical 
materials  which  constitute  a  sort  of  history  of  con- 
temporary civilization  (Mon.  Germ.  Hist.:  Script., 
XVlI).  The  chronicle  of  Jacopo  da  Voragme. 
Archbishop  of  Genoa  (d.  1298)  is  much  esteemed 
("Rer.  Ital.  Script.":  Mannucci,  "La  Cronaca  di 
Jacopo  da  Voragine",  Genoa,  1904).  Ptolemy  of 
Lucca  and  Bernard  Guidonis  are  the  two  great 
ecclesiastical  historians  of  the  early  fourteenth  cen- 
tury. The  "Historia  ecclesiastica  nova"  of  the 
former  and  the  "Flores  croniconim  seu  cathalogus 

Eontificum  romanorum  "  of  the  latter  contain  valuable 
istorical  information. 

But  the  historical  activity  of  Bernard  Guidonis 
far  exceeded  that  of  Ptolemy  and  his  contemporaries; 
he  is  the  author  of  twenty  historical  publications, 
several  of  which,  such  as  his  historical  compilation 
on  the  Order  of  Preachers,  are  very  important  in 
value  and  extent.  Bernard  Guidonis  is  the  first 
medieval  historian  who  had  a  wide  sense  of  his- 
torical documentation  ("Rer.  Ital.  Script.",  XI' 
K.  Krttger,  "Des  Ptolemaus  Lucensis  Leben  una 
Werke",  Gottingen,  1874;  D.  Kdnig,  "Ptolem&us 
von  Lucca  und  die  Flores  Chronicorum  des  B. 
Guidonis",  Wttrzburg,  1875;  Idem,  "Tolomeo  von 
Lucca",  Harburg,   1878;    Delisle,  "Notice  but  lee 


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maniLBcrits  de  Bernard  Gui"  in  "Notices  t?t  manu- 
scrits  de  la  Bib.  Nat.",  XVII,  pt.  II,  1G9-455; 
Douais,  ''Un  nouveau  manuscrit  de  Bernard  Gui  et 
de  sea  chroniques  des  papes  d' Avignon"  in  ''M6m. 
sdc.  Archil.  Midi",  XIV,  1889,  p.  417,  Paris,  1889; 
Arbellot,  ''Etude  biographique  et  bibliographique 
Bur  Bernard  Guidonis,  raris-Limoges,  1896).  The 
fourteenth  century  beheld  a  galaxy  of  Dominican 
historians,  the  chief  of  whom  were:  Francesco  Pipini 
of  Bologna  (d.  1320),  the  Latin  translator  of  Marco 
Polo  and  the  author  of  a  "Chronicon"  which  began 
with  the  history  of  the  Franks  (L.  Manzoni,  *'Di  frate 
Francesco  Pipini  da  Bologna,  storico,  geografo, 
viaggiatore  del  sec.  XIV",  Bologna,  1896);  Nicholas 
of  Butrinto  (1313),  author  of  the  ''Relatio  de  Henrici 
VII  imperatoris  itinere  italico"  (ed.  Heyck,  Inns- 
bruck, 1888);  Nicholas  Trevet,  compiler  of  the 
''Annides  sex  regum  Angliae"  (ed.  T.  Hog,  London, 
1845);  Jacopo  of  Acqui  and  his  "Chronicon  imaginis 
mundi  [(1330);  Monumonta  historise  patriaj,  socipt.", 
Ill,  Turin,  1848] ;  Galvano  Fiamma  (d.  circa  1340) 
composed  various  works  on  the  history  of  Milan 
(Ferrari,  "Le  cronache  di  Galvano  Fiamma  e  le 
fonti  della  Galvagnana"  in  '^Bulletino  dell'  Istituto 
Storico  Italiano",  Rome,  1891);  John  of  Colonna 
(c.  1336)  is  the  author  of  a  '^De  viris  illustribus"  and 
a  "Mare  Historiarum"  (Mandonnet,  "Des  6crits 
authentiques  de  St.  Thomas  d'Aauin",  Fribourg, 
2nd  ed.,  1910,  p.  97).  In  the  second  half  of  the  four- 
teenth century  Conrad  of  Halberstadt  wrote  a  "  Chro- 
nographia  siunmorum  Pontificum  et  Imperatorum 
romanorum  (Menck,  "Die  Chronoeraphia  Konrads 
von  Halberstadt"  etc.  in  "Forsch.  deutsch.  Gescii.", 
XX,  1880,  279);  Henry  of  Hervordia  (d.  1370) 
wrote  a  "Liber  de  rebus,  memorabilibus"  (ed. 
Potthast,  Gdttingen,  1859);  Stefanardo  de  Vico- 
mercato  is  the  author  of  the  rhythmical  poem  "De 
eestis  in  civitate  Mediolani"  (in  "Script.  Her.  Ital.", 
IX;  G.  Calligaris.  "Alcune  osservazioni  sopra  un 
passo  del  poema  ^De  gestis  in  civitate  Meaiolani' 
di  Stefanardo"  in  "Nlisc.  Ceriani",  MUan,  1910). 
At  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century  Hermann 
of  Lerbeke  composed  a  "Chronicon  comitum  Schauen- 
burgensium"  and  a  "Chronicon  episcoponun  Min- 
densium"  (Eckmann,  "Hermann  von  Lerbeke  mit 
besonderer  BerUcksichtigung  seines  Lebens  und  der 
Abfassimgszeit  seiner  Schriftcn"  (Hamm,  1879); 
Hermann  Komer  left  an  important  "Chronica 
noveUa"  (ed.  J.  Schwalm,  Gdttingen.  1895;  cf. 
Waitz,  "Ueber  Hermann  Korner  und  die  Liibecker 
Chronikon",  Gdttingen,  1851).  The  "Chronicon" 
or  "Summa  Historialis"  of  St.  Antoninus^  Arch- 
bishop of  Florence,  composed  about  the  middle  of 
the  nfteenth  century  is  a  useful  compilation  with 
original  data  for  the  author's  own  times  (Schaube, 
"Die  Quellen  der  Weltchronik  des  heil.  Antonin, 
Erzbischofs  von  Florenz"  Hirschberg,  1880).  Felix 
Fabri  (Schmid,  d.  1502)  left  valuable  historical  works; 
his  "Evagatonum  in  Terree  Sanctae,  Arabise  et 
Mgypti  peregrinationem "  (ed.,  Hassler,  Stuttgart, 
1843)  is  the  most  instructive  and  important  work  of 
this  kind  during  the  fourteenth'  century.  He  is  also 
the  author  of  a  "Descriptio  Suevise"  ("Quellen  zer 
Schweizer  Gesch.",  Basle,  1884)  and  a  "Tractatus 
de  civitate  Ulmensi"  (Litterarischesverein  in  Stutt- 
gart, no.  186,  Tubingen,  1889,  ed.  G.  Veesenmeyer; 
cf.,  under  the  names  of  these  writers,  Qu^tif-Echard, 
"Script.  Ord.  Pr®d";-  Chevalier,  "It^pertoire  .  .  . 
du  moyen-Age;  Bio-Bibl.*',  Paris,  1907;  Potthast, 
"Bib.  Hist.  Medii  iEvi",  Beriin,  1896;  Hurter, 
"Nomenclator  Lit.",  II,  1906). 

(viii)  Miscellaneous  works. — Being  unable  to  de- 
vote a  section  to  each  of  the  different  spheres  wherein 
the  Preachers  exercised  their  activity,  we  shall  men- 
tion here  some  works  which  obtained  considerable 
influence  or  are  narticularly  worthy  of  attention.  The 
''Specula"  ("Naturale",  '^doctrinale",  "historiale"; 


the  "Si>cculum  morale"  is  apocryphal)  of  Vinceiit 
of  Bcauvais  constiiute  the  largest  encyclopedia  of  the 
Middle  Ages  and  furnished  materials  for  many  sub- 
sequent writers  (Vogel,  "Liter&r-historischen  No- 
tizen  uber  den  mittelalterlichen  Gelehrten  Vincens 
von  Beau vais",Freibure,  1843;  Bourgeat.  "Etudes 
sur  Vincent  de  Beauvais",  Paris,  1856).  The  work  of 
Humbert  of  Romans,  "  De  tract^dis  in  concilio  gen- 
erali",  composed  in  1273  at  the  request  of  Gregory  X. 
and  which  served  as  a  programme  to  the  General 
Council  of  Lyons  in  1274^  contains  the  most  remark- 
able views  on  the  condition  of  Christian  society  and 
the  reforms  to  be  undertaken  (Mortier,  "Hist,  dea 
Mattres  g6n6raux  de  Tordre  des  Fr^res  Prficheurs", 
I,  88).  The  treatise  is  edited  in  full  only  in  Brown, 
"Appendix  ad  fasc.  rerum  expectandarum  et  fugen- 
darum"  (London,  1690,  p.  185).  Burchard  of  Mount 
Sion  with  his  "Descriptio  Terr®  Sanct®"  written 
about  1283,  became  the  classic  geographer  of  Pfdes- 
tine  during  the  Middle  Ages  (J.  C.  M.  Laurent, 
"  Peregrinatores  medii  aevi  quatuor",  Leipzig,  1873). 
William  of  Moerbeke,  who  died  as  Archbishop  of 
Corinth  about  1286,  wat;  the  rcvisor  of  translations  of 
Aristotle  from  the  Greek  and  the  translator  of  por- 
tions not  hitherto  translated.  To  him  are  also  due 
translations  of  numerous  philosophical  and  scien- 
tific works  of  ancient  Greek  authors  (Mandonnet, 
"Siger  de  Brabant",  I,  40).  The  "Catholicon"  of 
the  Genoese  John  Balbus,  completed  in  1285,  is 
a  vast  treatise  on  the  Latin  tongue,  accompanied  by 
an  etymological  vocabulary.  It  is  the  /nrst  work 
on  profane  sciences  ever  printed.  It  is  also  famous 
because  in  the  Mainz  edition  (1460)  John  Guttenberg 
first  made  use  of  movable  type  ("Incimabula'xylo- 
m-aphica  et  typographica",  1455-1600,  Joseph  Baer, 
Frankfort,  1900,  p.  11).  The  "Philobiblion"  edited 
under  the  name  ot  Richard  of  Bury,  but  composed  by 
Robert  Holcot  (d.  1349),  is  the  first  medieval  treatise 
on  the  love  of  books  (ed.  Cocheris,  Paris,  1856;  tr. 
Thomas,  London,  18i88).  John  of  Tambach  (d. 
1372),  first  professor  of  theolo^  at  the  newly-founded 
University  of  Prague  (1347)^  is  the  author  of  a  vidu- 
able  work,  the  "Consolatio  Theologi«"  (Denifle, 
"Magister  Johann  von  Dambach"  in  "Archiv  far 
Litt.  u.  Kirchengesch"  III,  640).  Towards  the  end 
of  the  fifteenth  century  Frederico  Frezzi,  who  died 
as  Bishop  of  Foligno  (1416),  composed  in  Italian  a 
poem  in  the  spirit  of  the  "Divina  Commedia"  and 
entitled  "II  Quadriregio"  (Foligno,  1725);  (of. 
Canetti,  "II  Quadriregio",  Venice,  1889:  Filippini, 
"Le  edizioni  .del  Quadriregio"  in  "Biblionfia", 
VIII;  Florence,  1907).  The  Florentine  Thomas 
Sardi  (d.  1517)  wrote  a  long  and  valued  poem, 
"L'anima  peregrina",  the  composition  of  which 
dates  from  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century  (Romag- 
noli.  "Frate  Tommaso  Sardi  e  il  suo  poema  inedito 
dell  anima  peregrina"  in  "II  propugnatore",  XVIII, 
1885,  pt.  II,  289). 

(ix)  Liturgy. — Towards  the  middle  of  the  thir- 
teenth century  the  Dominicans  had  definitely  es- 
tablished the  liturgy  which  they  still  retain.  The 
final  correction  (1256)  was  the  work  of  Humbert  of 
Romans.  It  was  divided  into  fourteen  sections  or 
volumes.  The  prototvpe  of  this  monumental  work 
is  preserved  at  Kome  in  the  general  archives  of  the 
order  ("Script.  Ord.  Prced."  I,  143;  "Zeitschr. 
f.  Kathol.  Theol.",  VII,  10).  A  portable  copy  for 
the  use  of  the  master  general,  a  beautiful  specimen 
of  thirteen th-century  book-making,  is  preserved  in  the 
British  Museum,  no.  23,935  (J.  W.  Legg,  "Tracts 
on  the  Mass",  Bradshaw  Society,  1904;  Bar^e^  "Le 
Chant  liturgique  dans  I'Ordre  de  Saint-Dommique" 
in  "L'Ann^e  Dominicaine",  Paris,  1908,  27;  Gagin, 
"Un  manuscrit  liturgique  des  Fr^res  Prdcheura  ant^r- 
ieur  aux  r^glements  (f  Humbert  de  Romans  "  in  "  Revue 
des  Biblioth^ques",  1899,  p.  163;  Idem,  "Domini- 
cains  et  Teutoniques,  conflit  d'attribution  du  'Liber 


PREACHERS 


367 


PREACHERS 


Choralis'".  no.  182  du  catalogue  120  de  M.  Ludwig 
Rosenthal''  in  'Revue  des  Bibliothdques",  1908). 
Jerome  of  Moravia,  about  1250,  composed  a  ''Trac- 
tatuB  de  Musica''  (Paris,  Bib.  Nat.  lat.  16,663), 
the  most  important  theoretical  work  of  the  thir- 
teenth century  on  liturgical  chant,  some  fragments  of 
which  were  placed  as  preface  to  the  Dominican 
liturgy  of  Humbert  of  Romans.  It  was  edited  b^ 
Coussemaker  in  his  '^Scriptores  de  musica  medii 
aevi".  I  (Paris,  1864).  (Cf.  Kommuller  "Die  alten 
Musiktheoretiker  XX.  Hieronymus  von  Mfihren'' 
in  "  Kirchenmusikalisches  Jahrbuch'',  IV,  1889,  14.) 
The  Preachers  also  left  numerous  liturgical  composi- 
tions, among  the  most  renowned  being  the  Office  of 
the  Blessed  Sacrament  by  St.  Thomas  Aouinas,  one 
of  the  masterpieces  of  Catholic  liturgy  (Mandonnet, 
"Des  6crit8  authentiques  de  S.  Thomas  d'Aquin", 
2nd  ed.  p.  127).  Armand  du  Prat  (d.  1306)  is  the 
author  of  the  beautiful  Office  of  St.  Louis,  Kins 
of  France.  His  work,  selected  by  the  Court  ox 
Philip  the  Bold,  came  into  universal  use  in  France 
("Script.  Ord.  Praed."  I,  499;  "Notices  et  extraite 
des  manuscrits  de  la  Bib.  Nat.",  XXVII,  11th  pt., 
369,  n.  6).  The  "Dies  Irae"  has  been  attributecf  to 
Cardinal  Latino  Malabranca  who  was  in  his  time 
a  famous  composer  of  ecclesiastical  chants  and  offices 
("Scritti  vari  di  Filologia",  Rome,  1901,  p.  488). 

(x)  Humanistic,  works. — The  order  felt  more  than 
is  commonly  thought  the  influence  of  Humanism, 
and  furnished  it  with  noteworthy  contributions. 
This  influence  was  continued  during  the  following 
period  in  the  sixteenth  century  and  reacted  on  its 
Biblical  and  theological  compositions.  Leonardo 
Giustiniani,  Archbishop  of  Mytilene,  in  1449,  com- 
posed a^inst  the  celebrated  ro^io  a  treatise  "De 
vera  nobilitate ",  edited  with  Poggio's  "  De  nobilitate  " 
(Avellino,  1657).  The  Sicilian  .Thomas  Schifaldo 
wrote  commentaries  on  Perseus  about  1461  and  on 
Horace  in  1476.  He  is  the  •author  of  a  "De  viris 
illustribus  Ordinis  Prsdicatorum",  written  in  human- 
istic style,  and  of  the  Office  of  St.  Catherine  of  Siena, 
usually  but  incorrectly  ascribed  to  Pius  II  (Cozzuli, 
"Tommaso  Schifaldo  umanista  siciliano  del  sec.  XV", 
Palermo,  1897,  in  "Documenti  per  servire  alia  storia 
di  Sicilia",  VI).  The  Venetian  Francesco  Colonna 
is  the  author  of  the  celebrated  work  "The  Dream 
of  Poliphilus"  ("Poliphili  Hypnerotomachia,  ubi 
humana  onmia  non  nisi  somnium  esse  docet",  Aldus, 
Venice,  1499;  cf.  Popelin,  "Le  songe  de  Poliphile 
ou  hypnerotomachia  de  Fr^re  Francesco  Colonna", 
Paris,  1880).  Colonna's  work  aims  to  condense 
in  the  form  of  a  romance  all  the  knowledge  of  antiq- 
uity. It  gives  evidence  of  its  author's  profound 
classical  learning  and  impassioned  love  for  Grseco- 
Roman  culture.  The  work,  which  is  accompanied 
by  the  most  perfect  illustrations  of  the  time,  has  been 
called  "the  most  beautiful  book  of  the  Renaissance" 
(Ug,  "Ueber  den  kunsthistorisches  werth  der 
Hypnerotomachia  Poliphili",  Vienna,  1872*  Ephrusi, 
"Etudes  sur  le  songe  de  Poliphile"  in  " Bulletin  de 
Bibliophile".  1887;  Paris,  .1888;  Dorez,  "Desorig- 
ines  et  de  la  diffusion  du  songe  de  Poliphile"  m 
"Revue  des  Biblioth^ques",  VI,  1896,  239;  tinoU. 
"II  sopio  di  Polifilo'^  in  "Bibliofila^',  1900,  190; 
Fabrini,  "Indagini  sul  PoMfilo"  in  "Giom.  Storico 
dellaletteraturaltaliana",  XXXV,  1900,  I;  Poppel- 
reuter,  "Der  anonvme  Meister  des  Polifilo  in 
"Zur  Kunstgesch.  des  Auslandes",  XX,  Strassburg, 
1904;  Molmenti,  "Alcuni  documenti  concementi 
Tautore  della  (Hypnerotomachia  Poliphili)"  in 
"Archivio  storico  ftaliano",  Ser.  V,  XXXVIII 
(906^  291).  Tommaso  Radini  Todeschi  (Radinus 
Todischus)  composed  under  the  title  "Callipsychia" 
(Milan,*  1511)  an  allegorical  romance  in  the  manner  of 
Apuleius  and  inspired  by  the  "Dream  of  Poliphilus". 
The  Dalmatian,  John  Polycarpus  Severitanus  of 
Sebenioo,  commentated  the  eight  parts  of  the  dis- 


course of  Donatus  and  the  Ethics  of  Seneca  the 
Younger  (Perugia,  1517;  Milan,  1520;  Venice,  1522) 
and  composed  "Gramatices  histories,  methodicse 
et  exegeticae  "  (Perugia,  1518) .  The  Bologpiese  Leandro 
Alberti  (d.  1550)  was  an  elegant  Latinist  and  his  "De 
viris  illustribus  ordinis  praedicatorum"  (Bologna, 
1517),  written  in  the  humanistic  manner,  is  a  beau- 
tiful specimen  of  Bolognese  publishing  ("Script. 
Ord.  Prsed.",  II,  137;  Campori.  "Sei  lettere  ineoite 
di  Fra  Leandro  Alberti"  in  "Atti  e  memorie  della 
Deput.  di  Storia  patria  per  le  prov.  Modenesi  e 
Parmensi",  I,  1864.  p.  413).  FmaUy  Matteo  Ban- 
dello  (d.  1555),  wno  was  called  the  "Dominican 
Boccacio",  is  fegarded  as  the  first  novelist  of  the 
Italian  Cinquecento  and  his  work  shows  what  an  evil 
influence  the  Renaissance  could  exert  on  churchmen 
(Masi  "  Matteo  Bandello  o  vita  italiana  in  im  novel- 
liere  del  cinquecento",  Bologna,  1900). 

(^)  The .  Ireachers  and  Art. — ^The  Preachers  hold 
an  unportant  place  in  the  history  of  art.  They  con- 
tributed in  manv  ways  to  the  artistic  life  of  the 
Middle  Ages  ana  the  Renaissance.  Their  churches 
and  convents  offered  an  extraordinary  field  of  ac- 
tivity to  contemporary  artists,  while  a  large  number 
of  the  Preachers  themselves  aid  important  work  in 
the  various  spheres  of  art.  Finally  by  their  teaching 
and  religious  activitv  they  often  exercised  a  pro- 
found ixmuence  on  the  direction  and  inspiration  of 
art.  Primarily  established  under  a  regime  of  evan- 
gelic poverty,  the  order  took  severe  measures  to  avoid 
m  its  churches  all  that  might  suggest  luxury  and 
wealth.  Until  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century 
its  constitutions  and  general  chapters  energetically 
le^lated  against  anything  tending  to  suppress  the 
evidence  of  poverty  ("Archiv.  f.  Litt.-und  Kirch- 
|»sch.",  I,  225;  "Acta  Cap.  Gen.",  I^  passim). 
But  the  onier's  mtense  activity,  its  establishment  in 
large  cities  and  familiar  contact  with  the  whole 
general  movement  of  civilization  triumphed  over  this 
state  of  thiiy^.  As  early  as  1250,  churches  and 
convents  api^ared  called  optts  sumpttiosum  (Finke, 
"Die  Freiburger  Dominikaner  ima  der  MUnster- 
bau",  Freiburg,  1901,  p.  47;  Potthast,  op.  cit., 
22,426).  They  were,  however,  encouraged  by  eccle- 
siastical authority  and  the  order  eventually  re- 
linquished its  early  uncompromising  attitude. 
Nevertheless  ascetic  and  morose  minds  were  scan- 
dalized by  what  thev  called  royal  edifices  (Matthew 
Paris,  "Hist,  maj.",  ad.  ann.  1243;  d'Ach^ry, 
"Spicelegium",  Paris,  1723,  II,  634;  Cochera, 
"PhilobibUon",  Paris,  1856,  p.  227).  The  second 
half  of  the  thirteenth  century  saw  the  beginning  of  a 
series  of  monuments,  manv  of  which  are  still  famous 
in  history  and  art.  "The  Dominicans,"  says 
Cesare  Canttl,  "soon  had  in  the  chief  towns  of  Ital^ 
magnificent  monasteries  and  superb  temples,  ven- 
table  wonders  of  art.  Among  others  may  be  men- 
tioned:'the  Church  of  Santa  Maria  Novella,  at  Flor- 
ence; Santa  Maria  Sopra  Minerva,  at  Rome;  St.  John 
and  St.  Paul,  at  Venice;  St.  Nicholas,  at  Treviso: 
St.  Dominic,  at  Naples,  at  Perugia,  at  Prato,  ana 
at  Bologna,  with  the  splendid  tomb  of  the  founder, 
St.  Catherine,  at  Pisa;  St.  Eustorgius  and  Sta  Maria 
delle  Grazie,  at  Milan,  and  several  others  remarkable 
for  a  rich  simplicity  and  of  which  the  architects  were 
mostly  monks"  ("Les  H^r^tiques  de  I'ltalie",  Paris, 
1869,  I,  165;  Berthier,  "L'6glise  de  Salnte  Sabine  k 
Rome",  Rome,  1910;  Muirooly,  "St.  Clement,  Pope 
and  Martyr,  and  his  Basilica  in  Home",  Rome, 
1873;  Nolan,  "The  Basilica  of  St.  Clement  in  Rome". 
Rome,  1910;  Brown,  "The  Dominican  Church  or 
Santa  Maria  Novella  at  Florence,  An  historical, 
architectural  and  artistic  study",  Edinbui^,  1902; 
Berthier,  "L'^glisede  la  Minerve  &  Rome  ,  Rome^ 
19 10 1  Marchese,  "San  Marco  oonvento  dei  Padn 
Predicatori  in  Firenze",  Florence;  1853;  Mada^zzi, 
"La  chiesa  e  il  convento  di  S.  Domenico  a  Bologna 


PBIACHIB8 


368 


PREACHBR8 


aeoondo  nuove  richerche''  in  '^Repertorium  ftbr 
KunstwiflBenachaft",  XX,  1897^  174:  Caffi,  ''Delia 
chieaa  di  Sant'  Eustormo  in  Milano'',  Milan.  1841; 
Valle,  ''S.  Domenioo  Msumore  di  Napoli",  Naples, 
1854:  Milanese,  ''Le  CBesa  monumentaJe  di  S. 
NicoW  in  Treviso",  Treviso,  1889;  Mortier,  "Notre 
Dame  de  la  Guercia".  Paris,  1904;  Ital.  tr.  Ferretti, 
Florence^  1904;  Orlandini,  "Descrizione  storica 
della  chiesa  di  S.  Domenioo  di  Perugia",  Perugia, 
1798;  Biebrach,  "Die  holzgedeckten  Franziskaner 
und  I>ominikanerkirchen  in  Umbrien  und  Toskana'', 
Berlin,  1908). 

France  followed  in  Italy's  footsteps.  Here  men- 
tion must  be  made  of  the  Jacobins  ox  Toulouse 
(Carrie,  "Les  Jacobins  de  Toulouse",  2nd  ed., 
Toulouse,  s.  d.);  St.  Jacqties  de  Paris  (Millin, 
"Antiquity  nationales"  Paris,  1790,  III,  1);  St. 
Maximin  in  Provence  (Roetan,  "Notice  sur  I'dglise 
de  Saint-Maximin",  Brignoles,  1859);  Notre-Dame- 
de-Confort  at  Lyons  (Cormier,  "L'ancien  couvent  des 
Dominicains  de  Lyon",  Lyons,  1898).  A  compre- 
hensive account  of  the  architectural  work  of  the 
Dominicans  in  France  may  be  found  in  the  magnifi- 
cent i>ublication  of  Roluiult  de  Fleury,  "Gallia 
Dominicana,  Les  couvents  de  Saint-Dommique  en 
France  au  moyen-^"  (Paris,  1903,  2  vols,  m  4*^). 
Spain  was  also  covered  with  remarkable  monuments: 
St.  Catherine  of  Barcelona  and  St.  Thomas  of  Madrid 
were  destroved  by  fire;  S.  Esteban  at  Salamanca, 
S.  Pablo  and  S.  Grregorio  at  Valladolid,  Santo  Tomas 
at  Avila,  San  Pablo  at  Seville  and  at  Cordova.  S. 
Cms  at  Granada,  Santo  Domingo 'at  Valencia  and 
Saragoflsa  (Martine«-Vigil,  "La  orden  de  Predica- 
dores",  Barcelona,  1886).  Portugal  also  had  beau- 
tiful buildings.  The  chureh  and  convent  of  Batalha 
are  perhaps  the  most  splendid  ever  dwelt  in  by  the 
order  (Miuphy,  "Plans,  elevations,  sections  and  views 
of  the  Chureh  of  Batalha",  London.  1795;  de  Con- 
deixa,  "O  mosteiro  de  Batalha  em  Portugal",  Paris, 
1892;  Vascoucedloe.  "Batalha.  Convento  de  Santa 
Maria  da  Victoria",  Porto,  1905).  Cermany  had 
beautiful  churehes  and  convents,  usually  remarkable 
for  their  simplicity  and  the  puritv  of  their  lines 
(Scherer,  "Kutshen  und  Kloster  der  Franziskaner 
und  Dominikaner  in  Thuringen",  Jena,  1910: 
Schneider,  "Die  Kirehen  der  Dominikaner  ima 
Karmeliten"  in  "Mittelalterliche  Ordensbauten  in 
Mains",  Mainz,  1879;  "Zur  Wiederherstellung  der 
Dominikanerkirehe  in  Augsburg"  in  "Augsburger 
Postzeitung",  12  Nov.,  lS)9;  "Das  Dominikaner- 
kloster  in  Eisenach",  Eisenach,  1857;  Ingold, 
"  Notice  sur  r6glise  et  le  couvent  des  Dommicains  de 
Colmar",  Colmar,  1894;  Burckhardt-Rifl^'enbachy 
"Die  Dominikaner  Klosterkirche  in  BaseP^  Basle, 
1855;  Stammler,  "  Die  ehemalige  Predigerkirehe  in 
B^n  und  ihre  Wandmalerein "  in  "Beraer  Kunst- 
denkm&ler".  III,  Bern,  1908). 

Whatever  may  be  said  to  the  contrary  the  Domini- 
cans as  well  as  other  mendicant  orders  created  a 
special  architectural  art.  The]^  made  use  of  art  as 
tney  found  it  in  the  course  of  their  history  and  adapted 
it  to  their  needs.  They  adopted  Gothic  art  and 
assisted  in  its  diffusion,  but  they  accepted  the  art  of 
the  Renaissance  when  it  had  sup»planted  the  ancient 
forms.  Their  churches  varied  in  dimensions  and 
richness,  according  to  the  exigencies  of  the  place. 
They  built  a  number  of  churehes  with  double  naves 
and  a  larger  number  with  open  roofs.  The  distinct 
characteristic  of  their  churehes  resulted  from  their 
sumptuary  legislation  which  excluded  decorated  arehi- 
tectural  work,  save  in  the  choir.  Hence  the  pre- 
dominance of  single  lines  in  their  buildings.  This 
exdusivism^  which  often  went  as  far  as  the  suppres- 
sion of  capitals  on  the  columns,  ^ves  great  ligntness 
and  elegance  to  the  naves  of  their  churehes.  While 
we  lack  direct  information  concerning  most  of  the 
arehitects  of  these  monuments,  there  is  no  doubt  that 


many  of  the  men  who  supervised  the  construction 
of  its  churehes  and  convents  were  members  of  the 
order  and  they  even  assisted  in  works  of  art  outside 
of  the  order.  Thus  we  know  that  Brother  Diemar 
built  the  Dominican  church  of  Ratisbon  (1273r-77) 
(Sighart.  "Gesch.  d.  bildenden  Ktinste  im  Kgn. 
Bayem",  Munich,  1862).  Brother  Volmar  exer- 
cised his  activity  in  Alsace  about  the  same  time  and 
especially  at  Colmar  (Ingold,  op.  cit.).  Brother 
Humbert  was  the  architect  of  the  chureh  and  con- 
vent (tf  Bonn,  as  well  as  of  the  stone  bridge  across 
the  Aar^  in  the  Middle  Ages  the  most  beautiful  in  the 
city  (Howald,  "Das  Dominikaner-Kloster  in  Bern 
von  126^1400",  Bern,  1857).  In  Italy  arehitects 
of  the  order  are  known  to  fame,  especiallv  at  Florence, 
where  they  erected  the  chureh  and  cloisters  of  S. 
Maria  Novella,  which  epitomi^  the  whole  history  of 
Florentine  art  (Davidsonn,  "Foischungen  zur  G<»ch. 
von  Florenz",  Berlin^  1898,  466;  Marchese,  "Me- 
morie  dei  piii  insigm  pittori,  scultori  e  arehitetti 
domenicani  ,  Bologna,  1878,  I).  At  first  the  order 
endeavoured  to  banish  sculpture  from  its  churehes, 
but  eventually  accepted  it  and  set  the  example  by 
the  construction  of  the  beautiful  tomb  of  St.  Dom- 
inic at  Bologna,  and  of  St.  Peter  of  Verona  at 
the  Chureh  of  St.  Eustorgius  at  Milan.  A  Domini- 
can, William  of  Pisa,  worked  on  the  former  (Berthier, 
"Le  tombeau  de  St.  Dominique",  Paris,  1895; 
Beltrani,  "La  cappella  di  S.  Pietro  Martire  presso  la 
Basilica  di  Sant  Eustorgio  in  Milano"  in  "Arehivio 
storico  dell'  arte",  V,  1892).  Brother  Paschal  of 
Rome  executed  interesting  sculptural  works,  e.  g. 
his  sphinx  of  Viterbo,  signed  and  dated  (12^),  and 
the  paschal  candlestick  of  Sta.  Maria  in  Cosmedin, 
Rome  ("ROmische  Quartalschiift",  1893,  29). 

There  were  many  miniaturists  and  painters  among 
the  Preachers.  As  early  as  the  thirteenth  century 
Hugh  Ripelin  of  Strasburg  (d.  1268)  was  renowned 
as  a  painter  (Mon.  Germ.  Hist.:  SS.,  XVII,  233). 
But  the  lengthy  list  is  dominated  by  two  mastere 
who  overshadow  the  others,  Fra  Angelico  and 
Fra  Bartolommeo.  The  work  of  Fra  Giovanni 
Angelico  da  Fiesole  (d.  1455)  is  regarded  as 
the  highest  embodiment  of  Christian  inspiration 
in  art  (Marehese,  "Memorie",  I,  245;  Tumiati, 
"Frate  Angelico",  Florence,  1897;  Supino.  "Beato 
Angelico",  Florence,  1898;  Langton  Dou^as,  "Fra 
Angelico",  London,  1900;  Wurm,  "Meister  und 
Sclmlerarbeit  in  Fra  Angeiicoi  Werk",  Strasburg^ 
1907;  Cochin,  "Le  Bienheureux  Fra  Giovanm 
AngcOico  da  Fiesole",  Paris,  1906;  Schottmuller, 
"Fra  Angelico  da  Fiesole",  Stuttgart  and  Leipzig, 
1911  (Fr.  ed.,  Paris,  1911).  Fra  Bartolommeo  be- 
long^ to  the  golden  age  of  the  Italian  Renaissance. 
He  is  one  of  the  great  masters  of  drawing.  His  art 
b  scholarly,  noble^  and  simple  and  imbued  with  a 
tranquil  ana  restramed  piety  (Marehese,  "Memorie", 
II,  1;  Franz,  "Fra  Bartolommeo  della  Porta", 
Ratisbon,  1879;  Gruyer^  "Fra  Bartolommeo  della 
Porta  et  Mariotto  Albertmelli".  Paris-London,  s.  d.; 
Knapp,  "Fra  Bartolommeo  aella  Porta  imd  die 
SchuX  von  San  Marco",  Halle,  1903).  The  order 
also  produced  remarkable  painters  on  glass:  James 
of  Ulm  (d.  1491),  who  worked  chiefly  at  Bologna  and 
William  of  Maroillat  (d>1529),  who  in  the  opinion 
of  his  first  biographer  was  perhaps  the  greatest 
punter  on  dass  who  ever  lived  (Marchese, 
"Memorie",  II;  Mancini,  "Gugliehno  de  Mardllat 
francese  insuperato  pittore  sul  vetro",  Florence, 
1909).  As  early  as  the  fourte^pth  century  Domini- 
can churehes  and  convents  began  to  be  covered  with 
mural  decorations.  Some  of  these  edifices  became 
famous  sanctuaries  of  art,  such  as  S.  Maria  Novella 
and  S.  Marco  of  Florence.  But  Uie  phenomenon 
was  general  at  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century,  and 
thus  the  order  received  some  of  the  works  of  the  greats 
est  artists,  as  for  instance  the  "Last  Supper"  of 


PREACHIRS 


368a 


PREACHERS 


Leonardo  da  Vinci  (1497-98)  in  tlie  refectory  of  S. 
Maria  delle  Grazie  at  Milan  (Bossi,  ''Del  cenacolo 
di  Leonardo  da  Vinci",  Milan,  1910;  Sant'  Ambro^o. 
''Note  epigrafiche  ed  artisticne  intomo  alia  sala  del 
Cenacolo  Si  al  tempio  di  Santa  Maria  delle  Grazie 
in  Milano"  in  "Arcnivio  Storico  Lombardo",  1892). 
The  Breachers  exercised  a  marked  influence  on 
painting.  The  order  infused  its  apostolic  zeal  and 
theolomcal  learning  into  the  objects  of  art  under  its 
control,  thus  creating  what  may  be  called  theological 
painting.  The  decoration  of  the  Campo  Santo  of 
Pisa,  Orcagna's  frescoes  in  the  Strozzi  chapel  and  the 
Spanish  chapel  at  S.  Maria  Novella,  Florence,  have 
long  been  famous  (Michel,  "Hist,  de  I'art  depuis 
les  premiers  temps  "chr^tiens  jusqu'^  nos  jours", 
Paris,  II,  1908;  Hettner,  "Die  Dominikaner  in  der 
Kun8^esch.de8l4.und  15.  Jahrhimderts"  in  "Italien- 
ische  Studien  zur  Gesch.  der  Renaissance",  Bruns- 
wick, 1879,  99;  "Renaissance  und  Dominikaner 
Kunst"  in  '^Hist.-polit.  Blatter",  LXXXXIII,  1884; 
Perate,  "Un  Triomphe  de  la  Mort  de  Pietro  Loren- 
zetti",  Paris,  1902;  Bacciochi,  "II  chiostro  verde  e 
la  cappella  degli  SpagAuoli",  Florence ;  Endres,  "Die 
Verherrlichung  des  Dominikanerordens  in  der  Span- 
ischen  Kapelle  an  S.  Maria  Novella  zu  Florenz  in 
"Zeitschr.  f.  Christliche  Kunst",  1909,  p.  323). 
To  the  same  causes  were  due  the  numerous  triumphs 
of  St.  Thomas  Acminas  (Hettner,  op.  cit.;  Berthier, 
"  Le  triomphe  de  Saint  Thomas  dans  la  chapelle  des 
Espagnols  A  Florence",  Fribourg,  1897;  Ucelli,  "Deir 
iconografia  di  s.  Tommasb  d' Aquino",  Naples,  1867). 
The  influence  of  Savonarola  on  the  artists  and  the  art 
of  his  time  was  profound  (Gruyer,  "Les  illustrations 
des  ^rits  de  J6r6me  Savonarole  et  les  paroles  de 
Savonarolesur  I'art",  Paris,  1879;  Lafenestre,  "Saint 
Fran9ois  d' Assise  et  Savonarole  inspirateurs  de  Tart 
Italien",  Paris,  1911).  The  Dominicans  also  fre- 
quently furnished  libretti,  i.  e.  dogmatic  or  symbolic 
themes  for  works  of  art.  They  also  opened  up  an 
important  source  of  information  to  art  with  their 
aanctoriattx  and  their  popularizing  writings.  Artistic 
works  such  as  the  dances  of  death  and  svbils  allied 
with  the  prophets  are  greatly  indebtea  to  them 
(Neale,  "L'art  religieux  du  Allle  sidcle",  Paris, 
1910:  Idem,  "L'art  religieux  de  la  fin  du  mo^.en-dge 
en  France",  Paris,  1910).  Even  the  mystical  life 
of  the  order,  in  its  way,  exercised  an  influence  on 
contemporary  art  (Peltzer,  "Deutsche  Mystik  und 
deutsche  Kunst",  Strassbur|5,  1899;  Hintze,  "Der 
Einfluss  des  mystiken  auf  die  altere  Kolner  Maler- 
schule",  Breslau,  1901).  Its  saints  and  its  con- 
fraternities, especially  that  of  the  Rosary,  inspired 
many  artists  (Neuwbam,  "Die  Verherrlichung  des 
hi.  Dominictis  in  der  Kimst",   1906). 

(h)  The  Preachers  and  the  Roman  Church. — The 
Order  of  Preachers  is  the  work  of  the  Roman  Church. 
She  foimd  in  St.  Dominic  an  instrument  of  the  first 
rank.  But  it  was  she  who  inspired  the  establishment 
of  the  order,  who  loaded  it  with  privileges,  directed 
its  general  activity,  and  protected  it  against  its  ad- 
versaries. From  Honorius  III  (1216)  till  the  death 
of  Honorius  IV  (1287)  the  papacy  was  most  favourable 
to  the  Preachers.  Innocent  IV's  change  of  attitude 
at  the  end  of  his  pontificate  (10  May,  1254),  caused 
by  the  recriminations  of  the  clergy  and  perhaps  also 
by  the  adhesion  of  Arnold  of  Trier  to  Frederick 
II's  projects  of  anti-ecclesiastical  reform,  was  speedily 
repaired  by  Alexander  IV  [22  Dec,  1254;  (''Chart. 
Univ.  Paris",  I,  263,  276;  Winckehnann,  "Fratris 
Amoldi  Ord.  Praed.  De  correctione  Ecclesiae  Epis- 
tola",  1863;  "Script.  Ord.  PrsBd.",  II,  821  b)].  But 
as  a  general  thing  during  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth 
'  centuries  the  popes  remained  much  attached  to  the 
order,  displasnng  great  cpnfidence  in  it,  as  is  made 
manifest  DV  the  "BuUarium"  of  the  Preachers. 
No  other  religious  order,  it  would  seem,  ever  received 
eulogies  from  the  papacy  like  those  addressed  to  it 
XII.— 23}i 


by  Alexander  IV,  23  May,  1257  (Potthast,  op.  cit.i 
16,847).  The  order  co-operated  with  the  Church 
in  every  way,  the  popes  finding  in  its  ^anks  assistants 
who  were  both  competent  and  devoted.  Beyond 
doubt  through  its  own  activity,  its  preaching  and  in  ^ 
instruction,  it  was  already  a  powerful  agent  of  the' 
papacy;  neverthel^  the  popes  requested  of  it  a 
universal  co-operation.  M^atthew  Paris  states  in 
1250:  "The  Friars  Preachers,  impelled  by  obedience, 
are  the  fiscal  agents,  the  nuncios  and  even  the  legates 
,  of  the  pope.  They  are  the  faithful  collectors  of  the 
pontifical  money  by  their  preaching  and  their  crusades 
and  when  they  have  nnished  they  begin  again. 
They  assist  the  infirm,  the  dying,  and  those  who  make 
their  wills.  Diligent  negotiators,  armed  'with  powers^ 
of  every  kind,  wiey  turn  all  to  the  profit  of  the 
pope"  (\Iatthew  Paris,  "Hist.  Angl.",  111,317,  in. 
*Ker.  Brit.  Med.  Mv.  Script.").  But  the  commis- 
sions of  the  Church  to  the  Preachers  far  exceeded 
those  enumerated  by  Matthew  Paris,  and  among 
the  weightiest  must  be  mentioned  the  vis^itation  of 
monasteries  and  dioceses,  the  administration  of  a 
lar^e  number  of  convents  of  nuns  and  the  inquisi- 
torial office.  The  order  attempted  to  withdraw  from 
its  multifarious  occupations,  wnich  distracted  it  from 
its  chief  end.  Gregory  IX  partially  yielded  to  their 
demands  (25  Oct.,  1239;  cf.  Potthast,  op.  cit., 
10,804),  but  the  order  never  succeeded  in  wholly 


Potthast,  "Regest.  Pont.  Rom.",  Papal  Register 
of  the  XIII  cent,  in  "Bib.  des  Ecoles  Frangaises 
d'Ath^nes  et  de  Rome").     '  - 

The  Dominicans  gave  to  the  Church  many  noted 
personages:  among  them  during  the  Middle  Ages 
were  two  popes,  Innocent  V  (1276)  and  Benedict  XI 
[1303-4;  (Mothon,  "Viedu  B.  Innocent  V",  Rome, 
1896;  Fietta,  "Nicol6  Boccasino  di  Trevigi  e  il  suo 
tempo",  Padua,  1875;  Funk,  "Papst  Benedikt  XI", 
Miinster,  1891;   Grandjean,  "Benott  XI  avant  son 

Esntificat "  (1240-1303)  in  "  Melanges  archiv.-Hist.  de 
'6cole  fran^aise  de  Rome",  VHI,  219;  Idem« 
"Recherches  sur  ^administration  financi^re  du  pape 
Benolt  XI",  loc.  cit.,  Ill,  1883,  47;  Idem,  "La  date 
de  la  mort  de  Benott  XI",  loc.  cit.,  XIV,  1894,  241; 
Idem,  "Registre  de  Benott  XI",  Paris,  1885)].  Ther« 
were  twenty-eight  Dominican  cardinab  during  thft 
first  three  centuries  of  the  order's  existence.  Some 
of  them  were  noted  for  exceptional  services  to  the 
papacy.  The  earliest  of  them,  Hugh  of.  Saint  Cher, 
had  the  delicate  mission  of  persuading  Germany  to 
accept  William  of  Holland  after  the  deposition  of 
Freaerick  II  (Sassen,  "Hugh  von  St.  Cher  em  Seine 
Tatifi^eit  als  Kardmal,  1244-1263",  Bonn,  1908). 
Cardinal  Latino  Malabranca  is  famous  for  his  le^ 
tions  and  his  pacification  of  Florence  (1280;  David- 
sohn,  "Gesch.  von  Florenz",  II,  Berlin,  1908,  p.  152; 
Idem,  "Forsch.  zur  Gesch  von  Florenz",  IV,  1908, 
p.  226).  Nicholas  Albertini  of  Prato  (1305-21)  also 
*  undertook  the  pacification  of  Florence  (1304;  Ban- 
dini,  "Vita  del  Cardinale  Nicol6  da  Prato",  Leghorn, 
1757 ;  Fineschi,  "  Supplemento  alia  vitta  del  Cardinale 
Nicol6  da  R*ato",  Lucca,  1758;  Perrens,  "Hist,  de 
Florence",  Paris,  III,  1877,  87).  Cardinal  Giovanni 
Dominici  (1408-19)  was  the  staunchest  defender  of 
the  legitimate  pope,  Gregory  XII,  at  the  end  of  the 
Great  Schism;  and  in  the  name  of  his  master  resigned 
the  papacy  at  the  Council  of  Constance  (Rossler, 
"Cardinal  Johannes  Dominici,  O.Pr.,  1357-1419", 
Freiburg,  1893;  Mandonnet,  "Beitrage  zur.  Gresch. 
des  Kardinals  Giovanni  Dominici"  in  "Hist.  Jahr- 
buch.",  1900;  HoUerbach,  "Die  Gregorianische 
Partei,  Sigisraund  und  das  Konstanzer  Konzil"  i» 
"Romische  Ouartalschrif t ",  XXI II-XXIV,  1909- 
10).  Cardinal  John  de  Tortjuemada  (Turrecremata, 
1439-68),  an  eminent  theologian ,  was  one  of  the  strong- 


368B 


PBKA( 


h:i  rt 


eat  defendereof  the  pontifical  rights  at  the  time  of  the 
Council  of  Basle  (Lederer. '' Johaim  von  Torquemada, 
sein  hebea  wad  seine  Schriften",  FreibuTg,  1879: 
Hefele,  ''Conciliengesch.",  VIII). 

Many  important  officials  were  furnished  to  the 
Church:  Masters  of  the  Sacred  Palace  (Catalamus, 
■*De  magistro  sacri  palatii  apostolici''.  RomeJ[751); 
pontifical  penitentiaries  (Fontona,  Sacr.  Theatr. 
Dominic",  470;  esi:  "BuU.  O.  P.",  VIII,  765,  Poeni- 
tentiarii:  Goller,  "Die  pSpstliche  Ponitentiarii  von 
ihrem  Ursprung  bis  zu  mrer  Umgestaltung  imter 
Pius  VII",  Rome,  1907-11);  and  specially  pontificsJ 
inquisitors.  The  defence  of  the  Faith  ana  the  re- 
pression of  heresy  is  essentially  an  apostolic  and 
pontifical  work.  The  Preachers  also,  furnished  many 
delegate  judges  holding  their  powers  either  from  the 
bishops  or  from  the  pope,  but  the  order  as  such  had 
DO  mission  properlv  so  called,  and  the  legislation 
for  the  repression  of  heresy  was  in  particular  aMolutely 
foreign  to  it.  The  exb^me  oan^ers  run  by  the 
Church  at  the  beginning  of  the  thnieenth  century, 
owinff  to  the  progress  of  the  Albigensians  and  Cathari, 
impelled  the  papac^r  to  labour  for  their  repression. 
It  first  urged  the  bishops  to  act,  and  the  establish- 
ment of  synodal  witnesses  was  destined  to  make  their 
mission  more  effective,  but  the  insufficiency  of  this 
arrangement  induced  Gregory  IX  to  advise  the 
bishops  to  make  use  of  the  Preachers  and  finally, 
doubtless  owing  to  the  lack  of  zeal  displaved  by  many 
bishops,  to  create  inquisitorial  judges  by  pontifical 
delegation.  The  Preachers  were  not  chosen  de  jure, 
but  de  facto  and  successively  in  the  variotis  provmces 
of  the  order.  The  pope  usuaUy  charged  the  Domini- 
can provincials  witn  the  nommation  of  inquisitorial 
officers  whose  jiuisdiction  ordinarily  coincided  with 
the  territory  of  the  Dominican  province.  In  their 
office  the  inquisitors  were  removed  from  the  authority 
of  their  order  and  dependent  only  on  the  Holy  8^. 
The  first  pontifical  inquisitors  were  invariably  chosen 
from  the  Order  eH  Preachers,  the  reason  being  the 
scarcity  of  educated  and  zealous  clerics.  The 
Preachers,  being  vowed  to  study  and  preaching,  were 
alone  prepared  for  a  ministry,  which  required  both 
learning  and  courage.  The  order  received  this, 
like  many  other  pontifical  commissions,  only  with 
regret.  The  master  general,  Humb^t  of  Romans, 
declared  that  the  friars  should  flee  all  odious  offices  ana 
especially  the  Inquisition  (Opera,  ed.  Berthier.  II,  36). 

The  same  solicitude  to  remove  the  order  from  the 
odium  of  the  inquisitorial  office  impelled  the  provin- 
cial chapter  of  Cahors  (1244)  to  foroid  that  anything 
should  accrue  to  the  friars  from  the  administration 
of  the  Inquisition,  that  the  order  might  not  be 
slandered.  The  provincial  chapter  of  Bordeaux 
(1257)  even  forbade  the  religious  to  eat  with  the  in- 
ouisitorB  in  places  where  the  order  had  a  convent 
(Douais,  "Les  Fr&res  Prdcheurs  en  Oascogne",  Paris- 
Auch,  1885,  p.  64).  In  countries  where  heresy  was 
powerful,  for  instance  in  the  south  of  France  and  the 
north  of  Italy,  the  order  had  much  to  endure,  pillape, 
temporary  expulsion,  and  assassination  of  the  m- 
quisitors.  After  the  putting  to  death  of  the  in- 
quisitors at  Avignonet  (28  May,  1242)  and  the  assas- 
smation  of  St.  Peter  of  Verona  (29  April,  1242) 
(" Vit»  fratrum",  ed.  Reichart,  231;  Perdn,  "Monu- 
menta  Conventus  Tolosani",  Toulouse,  1603,  II, 
108^  Acta  SS.,  20  April)  the  order,  whose  adminis- 
tration had  much  to  suffer  from  this  war  against 
heresy,  immediately  requested  to  be  relieved  of  the 
inquisitorial  office.  Innocent  IV  refused  (10  April, 
1243;  Potthast,  11,083),  and  the  following  year  the 
bishops  of  the  south  ojf  France  petitioned  tne  pope 
that  ne  would  retain  the  Preachers  in  the  Inquisition 
C'Hist.  g^.  du  Languedoc",  III,  ed.  in  folio,  proof 
OCLEX.  Vol.  CCCCXLVI).  Nevertheless  the  Holy 
See  unaerstood  the  desire  of  the  Preachers;  several 
provinoes  of  Christendom  ceased  to  be  administered 


by  them  and  were  confided  to  the  Friars  MQnor,  vis., 
the  Pontifical  States,  Apulia,  Tuscany,  the  March 
of -Trevisa  and  Slavonian  and  finally  Provence  (Pott- 
hast, 11,003.  15,330,  15,400,  15,410,  18,805,  20,160; 
Tanon,  "Bust,  dee  tnbunaux  de  Tinquisiticm  en 
France"  Paris,  1803^  Idem,  ''Documents  pour  servir 
a  rhist.  de  rtnquisition  wob  le  Languedoc",  Paris, 
1000;  Vacandard,  "L'ln/iuiaition",  Paris,  1007; 
Lea,  "Hist,  of  the  Inquisition  in  the  Middle  Ages", 
New  York-London,  1888,  French  tr.,  Paris,  1000; 
Fr^dricq,  "Corpus  documentorum  Inquisitionis 
hsereticse  pravitatis  Neerlandicse",  Ghent,  1000;  Ama- 
bile,  "n  santo  officio  della  Inquirione  in  Napoli", 
atta  di  Castello,  1802;  Cansons,  "Hist,  de  I'In- 
qiuation  en  France",  Paris,  1000;  Jordan,  "La  re- 
fiponsabilit^  de  TEgLuse  dazis  la  repression  de  rh6- 
r^e  au  moyen-^e"  in  "Annates  de  Philosophie 
chrgt.",  (3LlV,  1007,  p.  225).  The  suppression  of 
heresy  whiph  had  been  especially  active  in  certain 
more  affected  parts  of  Christendom,  dimhiished 
notify  in  the  second  half  of  the  thirteenth  oentuiv. 
The  particular  conditions  prevailing  in  Spiun  brou^t 
about  the  re-establishment  of  the  Inquisition  with 
new  duties  for  the  inquisitor  general.  These  were 
exerdsed  from  1483  to  1408  by  Thomas  of  Torque- 
mada,  who  reorganized  the  whole  scheme  of  sup- 
pression, and  by  Diego  de  Deza  from  1408  ttf  1507. 
These  were  the  first  and  last  Dominican  inquisitors 
general  in  Spain  (Lea,  "Hist,  of  the  Inquisition  of 
Spain",  New  York,  1006:  Cotarelo  y  Valledor, 
"Fray  Digro  de  Desa",  Madrid,  1005). 

(i)  The  Friars  Preachers  and  the  Secular  Clergy. — 
The  Preachers,  who  had  been  constituted  from  the 
beginning  as  an  order  of  clerics  vowed  to  ecclesias- 
tical duties  with  a  view  to  supplementing  the  in- 
sufficiency of  the  secular  clergy,  were  univeraally 
accepted  by  the  episcopate,  which  was  unable  to 
provide  for  the  pastoral  care  of  the  faithful  and  the 
instruction  of  clerics.  It  was  usually  the  bishops 
who  summoned  the  Preachers  to  tiieir  dioceses. 
The  confficts  which  broke  out  here  and  tiiere  during 
the  thirteenth  century  were  not  generally  due  to  the 
bishops  but  to  the  parochial  clergy  who  conadered 
themselves  injured  m  their  temporal  rights  because 
of  the  devotion  and  generosity  of  the  futhfid  towards 
the  order.  As  a  general  thing  compromises  were 
reached  between  the  convents  and  the  parishes  in 
which  thev  were  situated  and  peaceful  results  fol- 
lowed. The  two  great  contests  between  the  order  and 
the  secular  clergy  broke  out  in  France  during  the 
thirteenth  centiuy.  Hie  first  took  place  at  the 
Univermty  of  Pans,  led  by  William  of  Saint-Amour 
(1252r-50),  and  was  complicated  by  a  scholastic 
question.  The  episcopate  had  no  share  in  this, 
and  the  church  supported  with  all  its  strength  the 
ri^ts  and  privileges  of  the  order,  which  emerged 
victorious  (Mandonnet,  "Siger  ae  Brabant",  I, 
70,  00;  Perrod,  "Etude  sur  la  vie  et  les  ceuvres  de 
Guillaume  de  Saint-Amour"  in  "M^moires  de  la 
BOci6t6  d'6mulation  de  Jura",  Lons-le-Saunier,  1002, 
p.  61;  Seppelt,  "Der  Kampf  der  Bettelorden  an  der 
Universit&t  Paris  in  der  Mitte  des  13.  Jahrhunderts '* 
in  "]^irchengeschichtliche  Abhandlungen",  Breslau, 

III,  1005;  VII,  1000).  The  strife  broke  out  anew 
in  the  north  of  France  after  the  privilege  of  Martin 

IV,  "Ad  fructus  uberes"  (13  Dec.,  1281),  and  lasted 
until  the  Council  of  Paris  in  1200.  It  was  to  a  large 
extent  conducted  by  Guillaume  de  Flavacourty 
Bishop  of  Amiens,  but  in  this  instance  also  the  two 
great  mendicant  orders  triumphed  over  their  adyei^ 
saries,  thanks  to  the  energetic  assistance  of  two  cardinal 
legates  (Denifle-Chatelain,  "Chart.  Unit.  Paris". 
I,  passim;  Finke,  "Das  Pariser  National  Konzil 
1290"  in  "Romische  Ouartalschrift",  1805,  p.  171; 
Paulus,  "Welt  und  Ordenscrerus  beim  Ausnuige  dea 
XIII.  Jahrhunderts  in  Kampfeum  die  PfanHEtedite"9 
Easen-Ruhr,  1900). 


PBIAi 


H:i4 


368c 


PREACHEBS 


Tlie  order  gave  many  of  its  members  to  the  epi»- 
eopate,  but  endeayoured  to  prevent  this.  fits. 
Dominic  and  Francis  seem  to  have  disapproved  of 
the  accession  of  their  reli^pous  to  ecclesiastical  digni- 
ties ("Speculum  perfectionis",  ed.  Sabatier,  Paris, 
1898.  p.  76  2  Thomas  of  Gelaoo,  "Legenda  secunda 
S.  Francisoi",  III,  lxx3cvi).  Jordanus  of  Saxony, 
^e  immediate  succeasor  of  St.  Dominic,  forbade  all 
acceptance  of  election  or  postulation  to  the  episcopate, 
under  pain  of  excommunication,  without  special  per- 
mismon  of  the  pope,  the  general  chapter,  and  the 
master  genanl  C'Acta  Cap.  Gen."^  ed.  Reichert,  4). 
During  lus  administration  he  resisted  with  all  his 
strength  and  declared  that  he  would  rather  see  a 
friarburied  than  reused  to  the  episcopate  ("VitflB 
Fratrum",  ed.  Reichert,  141,  143,  209).  Everyone 
knows  the  eloquent  letter  which  Humbert  of  Romans 
wrote  to  Albertus  Magnus  to  dissuade  him  from  ac- 
cepting the  nomination  to  the  See  of  Ratisbon 
(1260;  Peter  of  Prussia,  "Vita  B.  Albert!  Ma^", 
Antwerp,  1621,  p.  253).  But  all  this  opposition 
could  not  prevent  the  nomination  of  a  great  many 
to  high  eccledastical  dignities.  The  worth  of  many 
religious  made  them  so  prominent  that  it'  was  im- 
possible that  they  should  not  be  suggested  for  the 
episcopate.  Princes  and  nobles  who  had  sons  or 
kinsmen  in  the  order  often  laboured  for  this  result 
with  interested  motives,  but  the  Holy  See  especially 
saw  in  the  accession  of  Dominicans  to  the  episcopate 
the  means  of  infusinK  it  with  new  blood.  From  the 
accession  of  Gregory  IX  the  appointment  of  Domini- 
cans to  dioceses  ana  archdioceses  became  an  ordinary 
thing.  Hence  until  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century 
about  fifteen  hundred  Preachers  were  either  appointed 
or  translated  to  dioceses  or  archdioceses,  among 
them  men  renuukable  for  their  learning,  their  com- 
petent administration,  their  zeal  for  souls^  and  the 
holiness  oi  their  lives.  (Ehibel,  "Hierarchia 
cathoUca",  I-II;  "Bull  Ord.  Pr»d.",  I-IV;  "Script. 
Ord.  Prsed.'\  I,  p.  xxi;  Cavalieri,  "(jkuleria  de'  sommi 
Pontefid,  Patnarchi,  Arcivescovi,  e  Vescovi  dell' 
ordine  de'  Predicatori",  B^ievento,  1696:  Yi^^na, 
"I  vescovi  domen^cani  liguri  owero  in  liguna",^ 
Genoa,  1887.) 

(i)  The  Preachers  and  Civil  Sodety. — ^During  the 
Middle  A^  the  Preachers  influenced  princes  and 
communities.  Princes  found  them  to  be  prudent 
advisers,  expert  ambassadors,  and  enlightened  con- 
fessors. The  French  monarchy  was  much  attached 
to  them.  As  early  as  1226  Jordanus  of  Saxony  was 
able  to  write,  in  speaking  of  Blanche  of  Castile: 
"The  queen  tenderly  loves  the  friars  land  she  has 
spoken  with  me  peraonally  and  famiharty  about  her 
main"  (Bayonne,  "Lettres  du  B.  Joiirdam  de  Saxe'', 
Paiis-Lvons.  1865,  p.  66).  No  prince  was  more 
devoted  to  the  order  than  St.  Louis,  nor  did  any  grant 
it  more  favours.  The  French  monarchy  sought  most 
of  its  confessors  during  the  Middle  Ages  n^m  the 
Order  of  Preachers  (Chapotin,  "A  travers  Fhistoire 


caine  de  France".  Paris,  1890,  p.  128).    It  was  the 


entrance  of  Humoort  11,  Daupnin  o^  Vienna,  into 
the  order,  which  gained  Dauphmy  for  France  (Guif- 
frey,  ^'Hist.  de  la  reunion  du  Dauphin6  k  la  France", 
Paris,  1878).  The  Dukes  of  Bunrundy  also  sought 
their  confessors  from  the  order  (Chapotin,  op.  dt., 
190).  The  kings  of  England  did  likewise  and  fre- 
quently employed  its  members  in  their  service 
(Pahner,  ^'Tlie  Kings'  Confessors"  in  "The  Anti- 
quary", London,  1890,  p.  114;  Tarett,  "Friars  Con- 
fessors of  the  English  Kings"  in  "The  Home  Coun- 
ties Magaane",  XII,  1910,  p.  100).  Several  Ger- 
man emperors  were  much  attached  to  the  order, 
nevertheless  the  Preachers  did  not  hesitate  to  enter 
into  conflict  with  Frederick  U  and  Louis  of  Bavaria 


when  these  princes  broke  with  the  Church  (Opladen, 
"Die  Stellung  der  deutschen  Kdnige  su  den  Orden 
im  dreisethnten  Jahrhundert",  Bonn,  1906;  Paulus, 
"Thomas  von  Strassburg  und  Kudolph  von  Sachsen. 
Dure  Stellung  sum  Intei^ikt"  in  "Hist.  Jahrbuch.", 
XIII,  1892,  1;  "Neues  Archiv.  der  Geschellschaft 
fUr  altere  deutsche  Geschictskunde",  XXX,  1905, 
447).  The  kings  of  Castile  and  Spain  invariably 
chose  their  confessors  from  among  the  Preachers 
("Catalogo  de  los  reli^osos  dominicos  qui  han  servido 
a  los  Sefiores  de  CastillfL  de  Aragon,  y  de  Andalucia, 
en  d  empleo  de  sus  Coniessores  de  Estado",  Madrid, 
1700).  The  kings  of  Portugal  likewise  sought  their 
directors  from  the  same  source  (de  Sousa,  "  Historia 
de  S.  Domingos  particulor  de  jRdno,  e  conquistas 
de  Portugal".  Lisbon,  1767;  Gr^ire,  "Hist,  des 
confesseurs  aes  empereurs,  des  rois  et  d'autres 
princes",  Paris.  1824). 

The  first  to  be  established  in  the  centres  of  cities, 
the  Dominicans  exercised  a  profound  influence  on 
munidpal  life,  especially  in  Italy.  A  witness  at  the 
canonisation  of  St.  Dominic  in  1233  expresses  the 
matter  when  he  says  that  nearly  all  the  dties  of 
Lombardy  and  the  Marches  placed  their  affairs  and 
their  statutes  in  the  hands  of  the  Preachers,  that  they 
might  arrange  and  alter  them  to  thdr  taste  and  as 
seemed  to  them  fitting.  The  same  was  true  of  the 
extirpation  of  wars,  the  restoration  of  peace,  restitu- 
tion for  usury,  hearing  of  confessions  and  a  multi- 
tude of  benefits  which  would  be  too  long  to  enumerate 
("Aimales  Ord.  Pried.",  Rome,  1756,  append.,  col. 
128).  About  thb  time  the  celebratea  John  of  Vi- 
cenza  exercised  powerful  influence  in  the  north  of 
Italy  and  was  himself  podeet^  of  Verona  (Sutter, 
"  Johann  von  Vicensa  und  die  italienische  Friedens- 
bewegung  Sm  Jahre  1233",  Frdburg,  1891;  Ital.  tr., 
Vicenza,  1900;  Vitali.  "I  Domenicani  nella  vita 
itaUanadd  secoloXIlt",  Milan,  1902;  .Hefele,  "Die 
Bettdorden  und  das  rebgidee  Volkdeben  Ober-und 
MittditaliensimXIII.  Jahrhundert",  Leipzig-Berlin, 
1910).  An  idea  of  the  penetration  of  the  order  into 
all  social  classes  may  be  formed  from  the  declaration 
of  Herre  Dubois  in  1300  that  the  Preachers  and  the 
Minors  knew  better  than  anyone  else  the  condition 
of  the  world  and  of  all  sodal  classes  ("De  recupera- 
tione  Terre  Sancte",  ed.  Langlois,  Paris,  1891,  pp. 
51,  74,  84).  The  part  played  oy  Catherine  of  Siena 
in  the  paofication  of  the  towns  of  Central  Italy  and 
the  return  of  the  papacy  from  Avignon  to  Rome  is 
well  known.  "She  was  the  great^t  figure  of  the 
second  half  of  the  fourteenth  century,^  an  Italian, 
not  only  a  saint,  a  mystic,  a -miracle-worker,  but  a 
statesman,  and  a  great  statesman,  who  solved  for 
the  welfare  of  Italy  and  all  Christendom  the  most 
.difficult  and  tragic  question  of  her  time"  (Gebhart. 
"Une  saante  homme  d'6tat,  Ste  Catherine  de  Sienne" 
in  "Revue  Hebdomadaire",  16  March,  1907,  257). 
It  was  the  Dominican  Bishop  of  Geneva.  Ad^mar  de 
la  Roche,  who  granted  that  town  its  liberties  and 
franchise  in  1387  (Mallet,  "Libert^,  franchises, 
immunity,  us  et  coutumes  de  la  ville  de  Gendve 
promul^  par  I'^vdque  Ad^mar  Fabri  le  23  Mai, 
1387"  m  "M^moires  et  documents  de  la  soci^t^ 
d'histoire  et  d'archtologie  de  Gendve",  Geneva,  II, 
1843,  p.  270).  Finally  reference  must  be  made  to  the 
profound  influence  exerdsed  by  Girolamo  Savonarola 
(1498)  on  the  political  life  of  Florence  during  the  last 
years  of  the  mteenth  century  (Vilari,  "La  Storia  di 
Girolamo  Savonarola  e  d6  suoi  tempi",  Florence, 
1887;  Luotto,  "II  vero  Savonarola",  llorencej  1897). 

(k)  The  Preachers  and  the  Faithful. — Dunng  the 
thirteenth  century  the  faithful  were  almost  wiSbout 
pastoral  care  and  preaching.  The  coming  of  the 
Preachers  was  an  innovation  which  won  over  the 
people  eager  for  religious  instruction.  What  a 
chronicler  rdates  of  Thuringia  was  the  case  almost 
everywhere:     "Before   the   anival   of   the   Friani 


.  PREACHIBa 


368D 


PREACHERS 


Preachers  the  word  of  God  was  rare  and  preciotis  and 
very  rarely  preached  to  the  people.  The  Friars 
Preachers  preached  alone  m  every  section  of  Thurin- 

S'a  and  in  Che  town  of  Erfurt  and  no  one  hindered 
lem"  (Koch,  "Graf  Elger  von  Holmatein",  Gotha, 
1865.  pp.  70.  72).  About  1267  the  Bishop  of  Amiens, 
Guillaume  ae  Flavacourt,  in  the  war  against  heresy 
already  mentioned,  declared  that  the  people  refused 
to  hear  the  word  oi  God  from  any  save  the  Preachers 
and  Minors  (Bibl.  de  Grenoble,  MS.  639,  fol.  119). 
The  Preachers  exercised  a  special  influence  over  the 
piously  inclined  of  both  sexes  among  the  masses,  so 
numerous  in  the  Middle  Ages,  and  they  induced  to 
penance  and  continence  a  great  many  people  living 
m  the  world,  who  were  conmionly  called  Beguins, 
and  who  lived  either  alone  or  in  more  or  less  populous 
communities.  Despite  the  order's  attraction  for 
this  devout,  half-lay,  half-religious  world,  the  Preach- 
ers refused  to  take  it  under  their  jurisdiction  in  order 
not  to  hamper  their  chief  activity  nor  distort  their 
ecclesiastical  ideal  by  too  close  contact  with  lay  piety. 
The  General  Chapters  of  1228  and  1229  forbade  the 
religious  to  give  the  habit  to  any  woman  or  to  re- 
ceive her  profession,  or  to  give  spiritual  direction 
to  any  community  of  women  not  strictly  subject  to 
some  authority  other  than  that  of  the  «rder  ("  Archiv. 
f.  Litt.  a  Kirchengesch.",  I,  27;  Bayonne,  "Lettres 
du  B.  Jourdain  de  Saxe",  110).  But  the  force  of  cir- 
cumstances prevailed,  and,  despite  ever3rthing,  these 
clients  furnished  the  chief  elements  of  the  Peniten- 
tial Order  of  St.  Dominic,  who  received  their  own 
nUe  in  1285,  and  of  whom  more  has  been  said  above 
(Mosheim,  ''De  Beghardis  et  Beguiniabus'\  Leipzig, 
1720;  Le  Grand,  ^Les  B^guines  de  Paris",  1893; 
Nimal,  "Les  B^guinages",  Nivelles,  1908).  The 
Order  especially  encourag^  congregations  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin  and  the  saints,  which  developed 
greatly,  espec^lly  in  Italy.  Many  of  them  had  their 
headquarters  m  convents  of  the  Preachers,  who  ad- 
ministered them  spiritually.  After  the  Penitential 
movement  of  12^  confraternities  were  formed  com- 
monly caJled  Disciplinaiij  BdUutif  etc.  Many  of 
them  originated  in  Domimcan  churches  (there  is  no 

§eneral  historical  work  on  this  subject).  In  1274, 
uring  the  Council  of  Lyons,  Gregory  X  confided  to 
the  Dominicans  the  preaching  of  the  Holy  Name  of 
Jesus,  whence  arose  confraternities  of  that  name 
(Bull.  Ord.  Pr»d.,  VIII,  624).  Finally  the  second 
half  of  the  fifteenth  century  saw  the  rapid  develop- 
ment of  confraternities' of  the  Holy  Rosary  under 
the  influence  of  the  Preachers  ("Acta  Sanctae  Sedis 
nee  non  magistrorum  et  capitulonim  generalium  sacri 
ordinis  Prs^catorum  pro  Societate  SS.  Rosarii'', 
Lyons,  1890).    With  the  object  of  developing  the 

Eiety  of  the  faithful  the  Preachers  allowed  them  to, 
e  buried  in  the  habit  of  the  order  (Cantimpratanus,  * 
"De  bono  universali  apum",  lib.  II,  viii,  n.  8). 
From  the  time  of  Jordanus  of  Saxony  they  issued  let- 
ters of  participation  in  the  spiritual  goods  of  the  order. 
The  same  general  established  at  Paris  the  custom  of 
the  evening  sermon  (collalio)  for  the  students  of  the 
University,  in  order  to  turn  them  aside  from  dissipa- 
tion, which  custom  passed  to  all  the  other  universi- 
ties ("Vita  fratrum'^  ed.  Reichert,  327). 

(1)  The  Preachers  and  the  Foreign  Missions. — 
During  the  Middle  Ages  the  Order  of  Preachers  ex- 
ercised considerable  activity  within  the  boundaries 
of  Christendom  and  far  beyond.  The  evangelization 
of  heathen  countries  was  confided  to  the  nearest 
Dominican  provinces.  At  the  be^nning  of  the  four- 
teenth century  the  missions  of  Asia  became  a  special 
group,  the  congregation  of  Friars  Pilgrims  for  Christ. 
Some  of  the  remote  provinces,  especially  those  of 
Greece  and  the  Holy  Land,  were  recruited  from 
volunteers  throughout  the  order.  Besides  the  work 
of  evangelization  the  religious  frequently  assumed  the 
miasioii  of  ambassador  or  agent  to  schismatic  or 


pagan  princes,  and  Friars  l^reachers  frequently 
occupied  sees  in  vartibua  infidelium,  A  number  of 
them,  faithful  to  tne  order's  doctrinal  vocation,  com- 
posed works  of  all  kinds  to  assist  their  apostolate, 
to  defend  the  Christian  Faith,  to  inform  the  Roman 
Church  or  Latin  princes  concerning  the  condition 
of  the  East,  and  to  indicate  measures  to  be  taken 
against  the  dangers  threatening  Christianity.  Finally 
they  frequently  shed  their  blood  in  these  inhospitable 
and  unfruitful  coimtries.  The  province  of  Spain 
laboured  for  the  conversion  of  the  Arabs  of  the 
Peninsula,  and  in  1256  Humbert  of  Romans  described 
the  satisfactory  results  (H.  de  Romanis,  "Opera'^  ed. 
Berthier,  II,  502).  In  1225  the  first  Spanish  Domini- 
cans evangelized  Morocco  and  the  head  of  the  mission, 
Brother  Dominic,  was  consecrated  in  that  year  firet 
Bishop  of  Morocco  (Analecta  Ord.^PrjBd.,  Ill,  374 
sqq.) .  Some  years  later  they  were  already  established  at 
Tunis  ["Mpn.  Ord.  Praed.:  Hist.",  IV  (Barmusidiana), 
fasc.  II,  29].  In  1256  and  the  ensuing  years  Alexan- 
der IV,  at  the  instance  of  St.  Raymond  of  Pennafort, 
gave  a  vigorous  impulse  to  this  mission  (Potthast, 
16,438:  17,187:  17.929). 

In  the  north  oi  Europe  the  province  of  England 
or  that  of  Dacia  carried  its  establishments  as  far  as 
Greenland  (Teli6,  "L'^vangelization  de  I'Am^rique 
avant  Christophe  Colomb"  in  "Compte  rendu  du 
congrds  scient.  intern,  des  Catholiques",  1891,  sect, 
hist.,  1721).  As  early  as  1233  the  province  of  Ger- 
many promoted  the  crusade  against  the  Prussians 
and  the  heretical  Stedingers,  and  brought  them  to  the 
Faith  (Schomberg.  "Die  Dominikaner  im  Erzbistum 
Bremen",  Brunswick,  1910,  14;  "Bull.  Ord.  Praed.", 
I,  61;  H.  de  Romanis,  ''Opera",  II,  502).  The 
province  of  Poland,  founded  by  St.  Hyacinth  (1221), 
extended  its  apostolate  by  means  of  this  saint  as  far 
as  Kiefif  and  Dantizig.  In  1246  Brother  Alexis  re- 
sided at  the  Court  of  the  Duke  of  Russia,  and  in 
1258  the  Preachers  evangelized  the  Ruthenians 
(Abraham,  "Powstanie  organiza(^  Ko6cio  laciib- 
kiego  na  Kusi",  Lemberg,  1904;  Kainaldi,  "Aimal. 
eccl.",  ad  ann.  1246,  n.  30;  Potthast,  17,186;  Baracz, 
"Rys  dziej6w  Zakonn  Kaznodzie  jskie^o  w  Polsce", 
Lemberg,  1861;  Comtesse  de  Flavigny,  "Siunt 
Hyacinthe  et  ses  compagnons"^  Paris,  1899).  The 
province  of  Hungary,  founded  m  1221  by  Bl.  Paul 
of  Hungary,  evangelized  the  Cumans  and  the  people 
of  the  Balkans.  As  early  as  1235-37  Brother 
Richard  and  his  companions  set  out  in  quest  of 
Greater  Hungary — the  Hungarian  pagans  still 
dwellingon  the  Volga  (" Vitse  Fratrum",  ed.  Reichert, 
305;  "De  iifventa  Hungaria  Magna  tempore  Gre- 
gorii  IX",  ed.  Endlicher,  in  "Rerum  Hungaricarum 
Monumenta",  248;  Ferrarius,  "De  rebus  Htrngarics 
ProvinciflB  S.  Ord.  Prfied.V,  Vienna,  1637). 

The  province  of  Greece,  foimded  in  1228,  occupied 
those  territories  of  the  empire  of  the  East  which  nad 
been  conouered  by  the  Latins,  its  chief  centre  of 
activity  oeing  Constantinople.  Here  also  the 
Preachers  laboured  for  the  return  of  the  schismatics 
to  ecclesiastical  unity  ("Script.  Ord.  Praed.",  I,  pp. 
i,  xii,  102,  136,  156,  911;  Potthast.  3198:  "Vitaa 
fratrum",  1218).  The  province  of  the  Holy  Land, 
established  in  1228,  occupied  all  the  Latin  conquest 
of  the  Holy  Land  besides  Nicosia  and  Tripoli.  Its 
houses  on  the  Continent  were  destroyed  one  aft^  the 
other  with  the  defeat  of  the  Christians^  and  at  the 
beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century  the  province  was 
reduced  to  the  three  convents  on  the  Island  of 
Cyprus  ("Script.  Ord.  Prsed.",  I,  pp.  i,  xii;  Balme, 
"La  Province  dominicaine  de  Terre-Sainte  de  1277 
k  1280"  in  "Archives  de  I'Orient  Latin";  Idem, 
"  Les  franciscains  et  les  dominicains  k  Jerusalem  au 
treizi^me  et  au  quatorzi^me  si^cle".  1890,  p.  324). 
The  province  of  the  Holy  Land  was  tne  starting  point 
for  the  evangelization  of  Asia  during  the  thirteenth 
century.    As  early  as  1237  the  provincial,  Philip, 


PREACHEBS            368E  PREACHERS 

reported  to  Gregory  IX  extraordinary  results  ob-  Eckhart  were,  from  different  standpoints,  the  greatest 

tamed  by  the  reUgious;   the  evangelization  reached  medieval   theorists   concerning   the   mystical   state 

Jacobites  and  Nestorians,  Maronites  and-  Saracens  (GifTre  de  Rechac,  **  Les  vies  et  actions  mdmorables 

(Script.  Ord.  Praed.,  I,  104).    About  the  same  time  des  saints  canonists  de  Tordre  des  Frdres  Prficheurs  et 

the  FViars  established  themselves  in  Armenia  and  in  de  plusieurs  bienheiu'eux  et  illustres  personnages  du 

Georgia  ("Bull.  Ord.  Praed.",  I,   108,   "Script.  O.  mtoe  ordre",  Paris,  1647;   Marchese,  "Sagro  diarid 

P.",  I,    122;    H.'de   Romanis,  ''Opera"    II,   502;  domenicano",  Naples,  1608,  6  vols,  in  fol.;   Manoel 

Vine.   Bellovacensisj    "Speculum  historiale".   1.   b.  de  Lima,   "Agiologio  dominico"^  Lisbon,   1709-54, 

XXI,  42;   Tamarati,  "L^E^ise  G^rgienne  aes  ori-  4  vols,  in  foL;  "Annde  dominicame",  Lyons.  1883- 

gines  jusciu'll  nos  jours",  Rome,  1910,  430).  1909^  12  vols,  in  4;  Imbert-Gourbeyre,  "La  Stigma- 

The  missions  of  Asia  continuea  to  develop  through-  tisation",    Clermont-Ferrand,     1894;    Thomas    de 

out  the  thirteenth  century  and  part  of  the  fourteenth  Vallgormera,     "Mystica    thcologia    D.     Thomae", 

and  missionaries  went  as  far  as  Bagdad  and  India  Barcelona,  1662;    Turin,  1911,  re-ed.  Berthier). 

[Mandonnet,   "Fra  Ricoldo   de    Monte  Croce"    in  (2)  Modem  Period. — ^The  modem  period  consists 

"Revue  bib.",  I,  1893;  Balme,  "Joiu'dain  Cathalade  of  the  three  centuries  between  the  religious  revolu- 

Sdv^rac,  Ev^ue  de  Coulain"  (Quilon).  Lyons,  1886].  tion  at  the  beginningof  the  sixteenth  centurjr  (ProJ- 

In  1312  the  master  general^  Bdranger  ae  Landore,  or-  est^antism)  and  the  French  Revolution  with  its  con- 

ganized  the  missions  of  Asia  into  a  special  cbngrega-  sequences.    The  Order  of  Preachers,  like  the  Church 

tion  of  "Friars  Pilgrims",  with  FrancQ  of  Perugia  as  itself,  felt  the  shock  of  these  destructive  revolutions, 

vicar  general.    As  a  base  of  evangelization  they  had  but  its  vitality  enabled  it  to  withstand  them  success- 

the  convent  of  Pera  (Constantinople),  Capha,  Treb-  fully.    At  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  centiuy 

izond,  and  Negropont.    Thence  tney  branched  out  the  order  was  on  the  way  to  a  genuine  renaissance 

into   Armenia  and   Persia.    In    1318  John    XXII  when  the  Revolutionary  upheavals  occurred.    The 

appointed  Franco  of  Perugia  Archbishop  of  Sultanieh,  progress  of  heresy  cost  it  six  or  seven  provinces  and 

with  six  other  Dominicans  as  suffragans.    During  the  several  hundreds  of  convents,  but  the  discovery  of 

first  half  of  the  fourteenth  century  the  Preachers  oc-  the  New  World  opened  up  a  fresh  field  of  activity, 

cupied  many  sees  in  the  East.     When  the  missions  Its  gains  in  America  and  those  which  arose  as  a  con- 

of  Persia  were  destroyed  in  1349,  the  Preachers  pos-  sequence  of  the  Portuguese  conquests  in  Africa  and 

sessed   fifteen   monasteries  there,   and  the   United  the  Indies  far  exceeded  the  losses  of  the  order  in 

Brethren  (see  below)  eleven  monasteries.    In  1358  Europe,  and  the  seventeenth  century  saw  its  highest 

the  Congregation  of  Pilgrims  still  had  two  convents  numerical  development.    The  sixteenth  century  was 

and  eight  residences.    This  movement  brought  about  a  great  doctrinal  century,  and  the  movement  lasted 

the  foundation,  in  1330,  of  the  United  Brethren  of  beyond  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth.    In  modem 

St.  Gregory  the  Illuminator.     It  was  the  work  of  Bl.  times  the  order  lost  much  of  its  influence  on  the  polit- 

Bartolommeo  Petit  of  Bologna,  Bishop  of  Maragha,  ical  powers,  which  had  universally  ^fallen  into  ab- 

assisted   by   John   of   Kemi.    It   was   formed   by  solutism  and  had  little  83rmpathy  for  the  democratic 

Armenian  religious  who  adopted  the  Constitution  of  constitution  of  the  Preachers.    The  Bourbon  Courts 

the  Dominicans  and  were  incorporated  with  the  order  of  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries  were 

after  1356.    Thirty  years  after  their  foundation  the  particularly  unfavourable  to  them  until  the  suppres- 

United  Brethren  had  in  Armenia  alone  50  monas-  sion  of  the   Society  of  Jesus.    In   the   eighteenth 

teries  ¥nth  700  religious.    This  province  still  existed  century  there  were  numerous  attempts  at  reform 

in  the  eighteenth  century  [Eubelj  "Die  wS.hrend  des  which  created,  especially  in  France,  geographical  con- 

14.  Jahrhunderts  im  Missionsgebiet  der  Dominikaner  fusion  in  the  administration.     During  the  eighteenth 

und  Franziskaner  errichteten  Bisttlmer"  in  "Ferst-  century  the  tjrrannical  spirit  of  the  European  Powers 

cfajrift  des  deutschen  Campo  Santo  in  Rom",  Frei-  and,  still  more,  the  spirit  of  the  age  lessened  the  num- 

bur^  i.  Br.,  1897,  170;    Heyd,  "Die  Kolonien  der  ber  of  recruits  and  the  fervour  of  religious  life.    The 

romisohen    Kirche,    welche    die    Dominikaner   imd  French  Revolution  ruined  the  order  in  France,  and 

Franzifidcaner  im  13.  und  14.  Jahrhundert  in  dem  von  the  crises  which  more  or  less  rapidly  followed  consider- 

der    Tataren    beherrschten    L&ndem    Asiens    und  ably  lessened  or  wholly  destroyed  numerous  provinces. 

Europas  gregrtindet  haben"  in  "Zeitschrift  fiir  die  (a)  Geographical    Distribution   and   Statistics. — 

historische   Theologie",    1858;    Toumebize,    "Hist.  The  modem  period  saw  a  great  change  in  the  geo- 

politique  et  religieuse  de  I'Arm^nie",  Paris,  s.  d.  graphical  distribution  of  provinces  and  the  number  of 

^1910).  320;    Andr^Marie,  "Missions  dominicaines  religious  in  the  order.    The  establishment  of  Protes- 

dans  rExtri^me  Orient",   Lyons  and   Paris,    1865;  tantism  in  Anglo-Saxon  countries  brought  about. 

Mortier,  "Hist,  des  maitres  g6n6raux  de  I'ordre  des  during  the  sixteenth  century,  the  total  or  partial 

Frdres  Prficheurs",  I,  IV].  disappearance  of  certain  provinces.    The  provinces 

(m)  The  Preachers  and  Sanctity. — It  is  characteris-  of  Saxony,  Dacia,  England,  and  Scotland  com- 
tic  of  Dominican  sanctity  that  its  saints  attained  pletely  disappeared;  that  of  Teutonia  was  mutilated; 
holiness  in  the  apostolate,  in  the  pursuit  or  promotion  that  of  Ireland  sought  refuge  in  various  houses  on  the 
of  learning,  administration,  foreign  missions,  the  Continent.  The  discovery  and  evangelization  of 
papacy,  the  cardinalate,  and  the  episcopate.  Until  America  opened  up  vast  territories,  where  the  first 
the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century  the  order  in  its  Dominican  missionaries  established  themselves  as 
three  branches  gave  to  the  Church  nine  canonized  early  as  1510.  The  first  province,  with  San  Domingo 
saints  and  at  least  seventy-three  blessed.  Of  the  and  the  neighbouring  islands  for  its  territory,  was 
fibrst  order  (the  Preachers)  are  St.  Dominic,  St.  Peter  erected,  under  the  name  of  the  Holy  Cross,  in  1530. 
of  Verona,  martyr,  St.  Thomas  Aquinas,  St.  Raymond  Others  followed  quickly — ^among  them  St.  James  of 
of  Pennafort,  St.  Vincent  Ferrer,  St.  Antoninus  of  Mexico  (1532),  St.  John  Baptist  of  Peru  (1539), 
Florence.  Among  the  Dominican  saints  in  general  St.  Vincent  of  Chiapa  (1551),  St.  Antoninus  of  New 
there  is  a  predominance  of  the  intellectual  over  the  Granada  (1551),  St.  Catherine  of  Quito  (1580), 
emotional  qualities;  their  mystical  life  is  more  sub-  St.  Lawrence  of  Chile  (1592).  In  Europe  the  order 
jective  than  objective;  and  asceticism  plays  a  strong  developed  constantly  from  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth 
part  in  their  holiness.  Meditation  on  the  sufferings  century  till  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth.  New 
of  Christ  and  His  love  was  common  among  them,  provinces  or  congregations  were  formed.  Under  the 
Mystic  states,  with  the  phenomena  which  accompany  government  of  Serafino  Cavalli  (1571-78)  the  order 
them,  were  ordinary,  especially  in  convents  of  women  had  thirty-one  provinces  and  five  congregations, 
in  German  countnes.  Many  received  the  stigmata  In  1720  it  had  forty-nine  provinces  and  four  con- 
in  various  forms.    St.  Thomas  Aquinas  and  Meister  gregations.    At  the  former  date  there  were  about 


368r 


000  convents;  at  the  latter,  1200.  During  Cayalli's 
time  the  cntler  had  14,000  religious,  and  in  1720  more 
than  20,000.  It  seems  to  have  reached  its  greatest 
numerical  development  during  the  seventeenth 
centiuy.  Mention  is  made  of  30,000  and  40,000 
Dominicans;  perhaps  these  figures  include  nuns; 
it  does  not  seem  probable  that  the  number  of  Preach- 
ers fdone  ever  exceeded  25,000.  The  secularization 
in  Austria-Hungary  under  Joseph  II  be^an  the  work 
of  partial  suppression  of  convents^  which  was  con- 
tinued in  France  by  the  Committee  of  Regulars 
(1770)  until  the  Convention  (1793)  finally  destroyed 
all  religious  life  in  that  country.  The  Napoleonic 
conquest  overthrew  many  provinces  and  houses  in 
Europe.  Most  of  them  were  eventually  restored; 
but  the  Revolution  destroyed  partially  or  wholly 
the  provinces  of  Portugal  (1834),  Spain  (1834),  and 
Italy  (1870).  The  political  troubles  brought  about 
by  the  revolt  of  Latin  America  from  the  mother- 
tx>untry  at  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century 
partially  or  wholly  destroyed  several  provinces'of;the' 
New  World  ("Script.  Ord.  Praed.",  II,  p.  I;  "  Analecta 
Ord.  Prsed.  ,  I  sqq.^  "Dominicanus  orbis  descrip- 
tus";  Mortier,  "Hist,  des  mattres  g^n^raux'',  V 
sqq.;  Chapotin, '  "Le  dernier  prieur  du  dernier 
convent",  Paris,  1893;  Rais,  "Historia  de  la  prov- 
incia  de  Arag6n,  orden  de  Predicadores,  desde  le 
ano  1803  hasta  el  de  1818",  Saragossa,  1819;   1824). 

(b)  Administration  of  the  Order. — During  the  mod- 
em period  the  Preachers  remained  faitMul  to  the 
spirit  of  their  organization.  Some  modifications  were 
necessitated  by  the  general  condition  of  the  Church 
and  civil  society.  Especially  noteworthy  was  the 
attempt,  in  1569,  of  St.  Pius  V,  the  Dominican  pope, 
to  restrict  the  choice  of  superiors  by  inferiors  and  to 
constitute  a  sort  of  administrative  aristocracy  (Acta 
Cap.  Gener.,  V,  94).  The  frequent  intervention  of 
popes  in  the  government  of  the  order  and  the  pre- 
tensions of  civil  powers,  as  well  as  its  great  develop- 
ment, diminished  the  frequency  of  general  chapters; 
the  rapid  succession  of  masters  general  caused  many 
chapters  to  be  convened  during  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury; in  the  eighteenth  century  chapters  again 
became  rare.  The  effective  administration  passed 
into  the  hands  of  the  general  assisted  by  pontifical 
decrees.  During  these  three  centuries  the  order 
had  man^r  heads  who  were  remarkable  for  their  energy 
and  administrative  abUity,  among  them  Thomas  de 
Vio  (1508-18),  Garcia  de  Loaysa  (1518-24),  Vincent 
Giustiniani  (1558-70).  Nicolo  Ridolfi  (1629-44), 
Giovanni  Battista  de  Marini  (1650-69),  Antonin 
Cloche  (1686-1720),  Antonin  Br^mond  (1748-55), 
John  Thomas  de  Boxadors  (Mortier,  "Hist,  des 
mattres  K^n^raux",  V  sq.;  "Acta  cap.  gen.",  IV 
sq.;  "Chronicon  magistrorum  generauum"*  "Re- 
gula  S.  Augustini  et  Constitutiones  Ord.  Fraed.", 
Rome,  1695;  Paichelli,  "Vita  del  Rnio  p.  F.  Giov. 
Battista  de'  Marini "j  Rome,  1670;  Messin,  "Vita 
del  Rnao  P.  F.  Antonmo  Cloche",  Benevento,  1721; 
" Vita  Antonini  Bremondii"  in  "Annales  Ord.  Prsed.", 
Rome,  1756,  I,  p.  LIX). 

(c)  Scholastic  Organization. — ^The  scholastic  or- 
ganization of  the  Dominicans  during  this  modem 
period  tended  to  concentration  of  studies.  The 
conventual  school  required  by  the  Constitutions  dis- 
appeared, at  least  in  its  essentials,  and  in  each  prov- 
ince or  congregation  the  studies  were  grouped  in 
particular  convents.  The  studia  genercdia  multi- 
plied, as  well  as  convents  incorporated  with  uni- 
versities. The  General  Chapter  of  1551  designates 
27  convents  in  university  towns  where,  and  where 
only,  the  religious  might  take  the  degree  of  Master 
in  Tneology.  Through  the  generosity  of  Dominicans 
in  hi^  ecclesiastical  offices  large  cofieges  for  higher 
education  were  also  established  for  the  benefit  of 
certain  provinces.  Among  the  most  famous  of  these 
were  the  College  of  St.  Gregory  at  VaUadolid,  founded 


in  1488  by  Alonzo  of  Butkos,  adviser  and  oonfeflBOr 
of  the  kings  of  Castile  (BiUl.  O.  P.,  IV,  38) :  that  of 
St.  Thomas  at  Seville,  established  in  1515  by  Arch- 
bishop \Diego  de  Deza  ("Historia  del  colegb  major 
de  Ste  Tom^  de  Sevilla",  Seville,  1890).  rAie 
Preachers  also  established  universities  in  their  chief 
provinces  in  America — San  Domingo  (1538),  Santa 
F^  de  Bogota  (1612),  Quito  (1681)7Havana  (1721>— 
and  even  in  uie  Philippines,  where  the  University 
of  Manila  (1645)  is  still  flourishing  and  in  their  hands. 
During  the  sixteenth  and  following  -centuries  the 
schedule  of  studies  was  more  than  once  revised,  and 
the  matter  extended  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  tunes. 
Oriental  studies  especially  received  a  vigorous  im- 
pulse imder  the  generalship  of  Antonin  Br^mond 
(Fabricy,  "Dee  titres  prinutifs  de  la  R^v^lation", 


Rome,  1772.  II,  132;  ''Acta.  Cap.  Gen.",  IV-VII; 
"Bull.  O.  P.",  passim;  V.  de  la  Fuente,  "Laensef&anza 
Tomistica  en  Espafia",  Madrid^  1874;  Contarini, 
"Notizie  storiche  circa  gli  public!  professori  nello 
studio  di  Padova  scelti  dafl'  ordine  di  San  Domenico", 
Venice,  1769). 

(d)  Doctrinal  Activity. — ^The  doctrinal  activity 
of  the  Preachers  continued  during  the  modem  period. 
The  order,  closely  connected  with  the  events  of  the 
Reformation  in  German  coimtries,  faced  the  rev- 
olutionary movement  as  best  it  ooula,  and  by  preach- 
ing and  writing  deserved  what  'Dr.  Paulus  has  said 
of  it:  "It  may  well  be  said  that  in  the  difficult  con- 
flict through  which  the  Catholic  Church  had  to  pass 
in  Germany  in  the  sixteenth  century  no  other  reli- 
gious order  furnished  in  the  literary  sphere  so  many 
champions,  or  so  well  equipped,  as  the  Order  of  St. 
Dommic"  ("Die  deutschen  Dominikaner  in  Kampfe 
gegen  Luther,  1518-1563",  Freiburg  i.  Br.,  1903). 
The  order  was  conspicuous  by  the  number  and  in- 
fluence of  the  Dominican  bishops  and  theologians 
who  took  part  in  the  Coimcil  of  iVent.  To  a  certain 
extent  Thomistic  doctrine  predominated  in  the  dis- 
cussions and  decisions  of  the  coimcil,  so  that  Clement 
VII,  in  1593,  could  say.  when  he  desired  the  Jesuits 
to  follow  St.  Thomas,  tnat  the  council  approved  and 
accepted  his  works  (Astrain,  "Historia  ae  la  Com- 

Safiia  de  J^sus  en  la  asistencia  de  Espafia",  III, 
fadrid,  1909,  580).  The  "Catechismus  ad  Par- 
ochos",  the  composition  of  which  had  been  or- 
dered by  the  council,  and  which  was  published  at  the 
command  of  Pius  V  (1566),  is  the  work  of  Dominican 
theologians  (Reginaldus,  "De  catechismi  romani 
auctqntate  dissertatio  ",  Naples,  1765).  The  Spanish 
Dominican  School  of  the  sixteenth  century,  inau-^ 
gurated  by  Francisco  de  Vitoria  (d.  1540).  produced' 
a  series  of  eminent  theologians:  Melcnior  Cano 
(1560),  the  celebrated  author  of  "De  locis  theolo- 
gicis";  Domingo  Soto  (1500);  Bartolom6  de  Medina 
(1580);  Domingo  Bafiez.  This  line  of  theologians 
was  continued  by  Tom^  de  Lemos  (1629);  Diegp 
Alvarez  (1635);  Juan  de  S.  Tom^  (1644):  ["Script. 
O.  P.".  II,  s.  w.;  P.  Getino,  "Historia  de  un  con- 
vento"  (St.  Stephen  oi  Salamanca),  Vergara,  1904; 
Ehrle^  "Die  Vatikanischen  Handschriften  der  SiUa- 
manticenser  Theologen  des  sechszehnten  Jahrhun- 
derts"  in  "Der  Katholik",  64r-65,  1884^-  L.  G. 
Getino,  "El  maestro  Fr.  Francisco  de  Vitoria" 
in  "La  Ciencia  tomista",  Madrid,  I,  1910,  1;  Cabal- 
lero,  "Vida  del  lUmo.  dr.  D.  Fray  Melchor  Cano", 
Madrid,  1871;  Alvarez,  "Santa  Teresa  y  el  P. 
Bafiez",  Madrid,  1882]. 

Italy  furnished  a  contingent  of  Dominican  theo- 
logians of  note,  of  whom  Thomas  de  Vio  Cajetan 
(oT  1534)  was  incontestably  the  most  famous  (Cossio, 
"n  cardinale  Gaetano  e  la  riforma",  Cividale,  1902). 
Francesco  Silvestro  di  Ferrara  (d.  1528)  left  a'^uable 
commentary  on  the  "Summa  contra  Gentiles" 
(Script.  O.  P.,  II,  59).  Chrysostom  JaveUi,  a  dis- 
senter from  the  Thomistic  School,  left  very  remark- 
able writings  on  the  moral  ana  politioal  soienoea 


368a 


(op.  cit.,  104).  Catlmriniui  (1553)  is  a  famous  polem- 
icist, but  an  imreliable  theolc^pan  (Schweiser, 
''Ambroeius  Gatharinus  Pol'tus,  1484-1553,  ein 
Theologe  des  Refonnations-zeitalters".  Mdnster, 
1910).  Franca  likewise  produced  excellent  theolo- 
OS — ^Jean  Nioolai  (d.  1673);  Vincent  de  O>ntenson 
1674);  Antoine  R^inald  (d.  1676);  Jean-Baptiste 

met  (d.  1081):  Antome  Gondin  (d.  1695);  Antonin 
ManouliS  (d.  1706);  Noel  Alexandre  (Natalis  Alexan- 
der) (d.  1724);  Hyacinthe  de  Graveson  (d.  1733); 
HyacintheSoryCd.  1738)  ("Script. O. P.", II;  Hurter, 
"Nomenclator",  IV;  H.  Serry,  "Opera  omnia'',  I, 
Lyons,  1770,  p.^ .  From  the  sixteenth  century  to  the 
eighteenth  the  Thomistic  School  upheld  by  the  author- 
ity of  Dominican  ffeneral  chapters  and  theolo- 
gians, the  official  adhesion  of  new  religious  orders 
and  various  theological  faculties,  but  above  all  by 
the  Holy  See,  enjoyed  an  increasing  and  undiluted 
authority. 

The  disputes  concerning  moral  theology  which  dis- 
turbed the  Church  during  the  seventeenth  and  dgh- 
teenth  centuries,  originated  in  the  theory  of  probabin^ 
advanced  by  the  Spanish  Dominican  Bartolom6  de 
Medina  in  1577.  Several  theologians  of  liie  order 
adopted,  at  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
the  theory  of  moral  probability;  but  in  consideration 
of  the  abuses  which  resulted  from  these  doctrines, 
the  General  Chapter  of  1656  condemned  them,  ana 
after  that  time  there  were  no  more  Probabilists 
among  the  Dominicans.  The  condemnations  of 
Alexander  VII*  (1665,  1667),  the  famous  Decree  of 
Innocent  XI,  and  various  acts  of  the  Roman  Church 
combined  to  make  the  Preachers  resolute  opponents 
of  Probabiliam.  The  publication  of  Concina's 
"Storia  del  probabiliamo^'  in  1743  renewed  the  con- 
troversy. He  displayed  enormous  activity,  and  his 
friend  and  oisciple,  Giovanni  Vicenzo  Patuzzi  (d. 
1769).  defended  fdm  in  a  series  of  vigorous  writings. 
St.  Alphonsus  Liguori  felt  the  consequences  of  these 
disputes,  and,  in  consideration  of  the  position  taken 
by  the  wAy  See,  greatly  modified  his  tneoretical  sys- 
tem of  probability  and  expressed  his  desire  to  adhere 
to  the  doctrine  of  St.  Thomas  Aquinas  (Mandonnet, 
"Le  ddcret  d'Innocent  XI  contre  le  probabilisme", 
in  "Revue  Thomiste"  1901-03;  Ter  Haar.  "Das 
Decret  des  Papstes  Innocenz  XI  tiber  den  Prooabilis- 
mus",  Paderbom,  1904;  Concina,  "Delia  storia  del 
Probaubilismo  e  del  Ri^orismo''^  Lucca,  1743;  Mon- 
dius, "  Studio  storico-cntico  sul  sistema  morale  di  S.  Al- 
fonso M.  de  Liguori  **,  Monza^  191 1 ;  DdUinger-Reusch, 
"Gesch.  der  Moralstreiti^eiten",  Nordlingen,  1889). 

(e)  Scientific  productions. — The  literary  activitv 
of  tne  Preachers  of  the  sixteenth  and  eii^teenth 
centuries  was  not  confined  to  the  theological  move- 
ment noticed  above,  but  shared  in  the  general  move- 
ment of  erudition  in  the  sacred  sciences,  .^ong  the 
most  noteworthy  productions  were  the  works  of 
Pagnini  (d.  1541)  on  the  Hebrew  text  of  Scripture; 
his  lexicons  and  grammars  were  famous  in  their  day, 
and  exercised  a  Tasting  influence  (Script.  O.  P.,  U, 
114);  Sixtus  of  Siena  (d.  1569),  a  converted  Jew. 
created  the  science  of  introduction  to  the  Sacred 
Books  with  his  "Bibliotheca  Sancta"  (Venice,  1566; 
op.  cit.,  206) ;  Jacques  Goar,  liturgist  and  Orientalist, 
published  the  "Euchologium  sive  rituale  Grsecorum'' 
(Paris,  1647),  a  work  which,  according  to  Renaudot, 
was  unsurpassed  by  anjrtfaing  in  its  time  (Hurter, 
"Nomenclat.  Utt.".  Ill,  1211).  Francis  Combefis 
(d.  1679)  issued  editions  of  the  Greek  Fathers  and 
writers  (op.  cit.,  IV,  161).  Michel  le  Quien,  Orien- 
talist, produced  a  monumental  work  in  his  "Oriena 
Christianus".  Vansleb  (d.  1679)  was  twice  sent  by 
Cdl^ert  to  the  Orient,  whence  he  brought  a  large  num- 
"her  of  MSS.  for  the  Bibliothdque  du  Roi  (Pougeois, 
"Vansleb",  Paris,  1869).  Thomas  Mammaclu  (d. 
1792)  left  a  lar^  unfinished  work,  "Ori^nes  et 
Antiquitates  Chnstians''  (Rome^  1753-^7), 


In  the  historical  field  mention  must  be  made  of 
Bartholomew  de  Las  Casas  (d.  1566)  who  left  s 
valuable  "Historia  de  las  Indias''  (Madrid^  1875)# 
Noel  Alexandre  (d.  1724)  left  an  ecclesiastical  hifik 
tor^  which  was  long  held  in  esteem  [Paris,  1676-89; 
(Diet,  de  Th^l.  Cath.,  I,  769}].  Joseph  Augustin 
Orsi  (d.  1761)  wrote  an  "Histona  eclesiastica"  which 
was  continued  by  his  confr^  Filippo  Angelo  Beo- 
chetti  (d.  1814).  The  last  edition  (Rome,  1838) 
numbers  50  volumes  (Kirchenlex.,  IX,  1087).  Nico- 
las Coeffeteau  was,  according  to  Vaugelas,  one  of  the 
two^  greatest  masters  of  the  French  language  at  the 
beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century  fUrbain,  "Nico- 
las Coeffeteau,  dominicain,  ^v^ue  de  Marseille,  un 
des  fondateurs  de  la  prose  francaise.  1574-1623", 
Paris,  1840).  Thomas  CampaneUa  (d.  1639)  won 
renown  by  his  numerous  writmgs  on  philosophy  and 
sociology  as  well  as  by  the  boloness  of  his  ideas  and 
his  eventful  life  (Diet,  de  th^ol.  cath..  II.  1443). 
Jacques  Barelier  (d.  1673)  left  one  of  tne  foremost 
botanical  works  of  his  time,  which  was  edited  by  A. 
de  Jussieu,  "Icones  plantarum  per  Galliam,  Hi»- 
paniam  et  Italiam  observatamm  ad  vivum  exhibi- 
tarum"  [Paris,  1714;  (Script.  O.  P.,  II,  645)]. 

(f )  The  Preachers  and  (Jhristian  Society. — ^Dmnng 
the  modem  period  the  order  performed  countless 
services  for  the  Church.  Their  importance  may  be 
gathered  from  the  fact  that  during  tnis  period  it  gave 
to  the  Church  two  popes,  St.  Pius  V  (1560-72)  and 
Benedict  XIII  (1724-30),  forty  cardinals,  and  more 
than  a  thousand  bishops  ana  archbishops.  From 
the  foimdation  of  the  Roman  Congregations  in  the 
sixteenth  century  a  special  place  was  reserved  for  the 
Preachers;  thus  the  titulars  of  the  Commissariat 
of  the  Holy  Office  and  the  secretary  of  the  Index  were 
always  chosen  from  this  order.  The  title  of  Con- 
suitor  of  the  Holy  Office  also  belonged  by  right  to  the 
master  general  and  the  Master  of  the  Sacred  Palace 
(Gams,  "Series  episcoporum  ecclesiffi  cathotics", 
Ratisbon,  1873;  Falloux,  "Histoire  de  Saint  Pie  V", 
Paris,  1858;  Borgia,  "Benedicti  XIII  vita'',  Rome, 
1741:  Catalano,  "De  secretario  Indicis",  Rome, 
1751 ) .  The  influence  of  the  Preachers  on  the  political 
powers  of  Europe  was  imequally  exercised  during  this 
period:  they  remained  confessors  of  the  kings  of 
Spain  until  1700;  in  France  their  credit  decreased, 
especially  imder  Louis  XIV.  from  whom  they  haa 
much  to  suffer  ("Catalogs  de  los  relifldosos  domini- 
canos  confessores  de  Estado,  1700  ;  Chapotin, 
"La  guerre  de  succession  de  Poissy,  1660-1707", 
Paris,  1892). 

(g)  The  Preachers  and  the  Missions. — ^The  mis- 
sions of  the  Preachers  reached  their  greatest  develop- 
ment during  the  modem  period.  They  were  fostered, 
on  the  one.  hand,  by  the  Portuguese  conquests  in 
Africa  and  the  Eost  Indies  and,  on  the  other,  by  the 
Spanish  conquests  in  America  and  Western  Asia. 
M  early  as  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century  Portuguese 
Domimcans  reached  the  West  Coast  of  Africa  ahd, 
accompanying  the  explorers,  rounded  the  Cape  of 
Cxood  Hope  to  settle  on  the  coast  of  East  Africa. 
They  founded  temporary  or  permanent  missions  in 
the  Portuguese  African  settlements  and  went  in 
succession  to  the  Indies,  Ceylon,  Siam,  and  Malacca. 
They  made  Goa  the  centre  of  these  missions  which  in 
1548  were  erected  into  a  special  mission  of  the  Holy 
Cross,  which  had  to  suffer  from  the  British  conquest, 
but  continued  to  flourish  till  the  beginning  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  The  order  gave  a  great  many 
bishops  to  these  regions  [Jofto  dos  Santos,  "Ethiopia 
oriental",  Evora,  1609;  re-edited  Li^n,  1891; 
Caceg^us-de  Sousa,  "Historia  de  S.  Domingo partidor 
do  reino  e  oonquistas  de  Portiu»l",  Lisbon,  1767 
(Vol.  rV  by  Lucas  de  Santa  Catharina);  Andr6 
Marie,  "Missions  dominicaines  dans  I'extrtoie 
Orient",  Lyons-Paris,  1865].  The  discovery  of 
America  soon  brought  Dominican  evangelixation  in 


PREACHERS 


368H 


PREACHERS 


the  footsteps  of  the  conquistadores;  one  of  them, 
Diego  de  Deza,  was  the  constant  defender  of  Chris- 
topher Columbus,  who  declared  (letter  of  21  Dec.. 
1504)  that  it  was  to  him  the  Sovereigns  of  Spain  owed 
the  possession  of  the  Indies  (Mandonnet,  "Les 
dominicains  et  la  d^couverte  de  TAm^rique",  Paris, 
1893).  The  first  missionaries  reached  the  New 
World  in  1510,  and  preaching  was  quickly  extended 
throughout  the  conquered  countries,  where  thev  or- 

?;anized  the  various  provinces  already  mentioned  and 
ound  in  Bartolom^  de  las  Casas,  who  took  the  habit 
of  the  order,  thei»  most  powerful  assistant  in  the  de- 
fence of  the  Indians. 

St.  Louis  Bertrand  (dr-lSSl)  was  the  great  apostle 
of  New  Granada,  and  St.  Rose  of  Lima  (d.  1617)  the 
fir»t  flower  of  sanctity  in  the  New  World  (Kemesal, 
"Historia  de  la  provincia  de  S»  Vicente  de  Chiapa 
y  Guatemala'',  Madrid,  1619;  Davila  Padilla, 
'^Historia  de  la  fundacion  y  discorso  de  la  provincia 
de  Santiago  de  Mexico",  Madrid,  1592;  Brussels, 
1625 j  Franco,  ''Segunda  parte  de  la  historia  de  la 
provmcia  de  Santiago  de  Mexico'',  1645,  Mexico; 
rened.  Mexico,  1900 1  Melendez,  *^Tesores  verdaderos 
de  la  Indias  en  la  historia  de  la  gran  provincia  de  S. 
Juan  Bautista  del  Peru",  Rome,  1681;  Alonso  de 
Zamora,  "Historia  de  la  provincia  de  San  Antonio 
del  nuevo  reyno  de  Granada",  Barcelona,  1701; 
Helps,  "Life  of  las  Casas,  the  Apostle  of  the  Indies", 
London,  1883;  Gutierrez,  "Fray  Bartolom^  de  las 
sCasas  sus  tiempos  y  su  apostolado",  Madrid,  1878; 
Fabie,  "Vida  y  escritos  de  Fray  Bartolom^  de 
las  Casas",  Madrid,  1879;  Wilberforce,  "Life  of 
Louis  Bertrand",  Fr.  tr.  Folghera^  Paris,  1904; 
Masson,  "Sainte  Rose,  tertiaire  dominicaine,  patronne 
du  Nouveau  Monde  ,  Lyons,  1898).  Dominican 
evangelization  went  from  America  to  the  Philippines 
(1586)  and  thence  to  China  (1590),  where  Caspar  of 
the  Holy  Cross,  of  the  Portuguese  Congregation  of  the 
Indies,  had  already  begun  to  work  in  1559.  The 
Preachers  established  themselves  in  Japan  (1601),  in 
Tonkin^  (1676),  and  in  the  Island  of  Formosa.  This 
fiourishmg  mission  passed  through  persecutions,  and 
the  Church  has  raised  its  numerous  martyrs  to 
her  altars  [Ferrando-Fonseca,  "Historia  de  los  PP. 
Dominicos  a  las  islas  Filipinas,  y  en  sus  misiones  de 
Jap6n,  China,  Tungkin  y  Formosa",  Madrid,  1870; 
Navarrete.  "Tratados  historicos,  politicos,  ethicos  y 
rdigiosos  ae  la  monarquia  de  China",  Madrid,  1676- 
1679^  tr.,  London,  1704;  Gentili,  "Memorie  di  un 
missionario  domenicano  nella  Cina",  1887;  Orfanel, 
"Historia  eclesiastica  de  los  succesos  de  la  christian- 
dad  de  Jap6n  desde  1602  que  entr6  en  el  la  orden  de 
Predicadores,  hasta  el  a&o  de  1620",  Madrid,  1633: 
Guglielmotti,  "  Memorie  delle  missioni  cattoliche  nel 
regno  del  Tunchino",  Rome,  1844;  Arias,  "El  beato 
Sanz  y  companeros  martires",  Manila,  1893;  "I 
martin  annamiti  e  chinesi  (1798-1856) ",  Rome,  1900j 
dementi,  "Gli  otto  martiri  tonchinesi  dell'  ordine  di 
S.  Domenico",  Rome,  1906].  In  1635  the  French 
Dominicans  began  the  evangelization  of  the  French 
Antilles,  Guadaloupe,  Martinique  etc.,  which  lasted 
imtil  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century  (Du  Tertre, 
"Hist,  g^n^rale  des  Antilles",  Paris,  1667-71;  Labat, 
"Nouveau  voyage  aux  isles  de  I'Am^rique",  Paris. 
1742).  In  1750  the  Mission  of  Mesopotamia  and 
Kurdistan  was  founded  by  the  Italian  religious;  it 
passed  to  the  Province  of  France  (Paris)  in  1856 
(Goormachtigh,  "Hist,  de  la  mission  dominicaine  en 
M6sopotamie  et  Kurdistan",  in  "Analecta  O.  P.", 
Ill,  271). 

(h)  Dominican  Saints  and  Blessed. — From  the  be- 
ginning of  the  sixteenth  century  members  of  the  Order 
of  St.  Dominic  eminent  for  sanctity  were  the  subjects 
of  twenty-one  canonizations  or  beatifications.  Some 
of  the  beatifications  included  a  more  or  less  lai]ge 
number  at  one  time:  such  were  the  Annamite 
martyrs,  who  formed  a  group  of  twenty-eix  beaH 


canonized  21  May,  19(X),  by  Leo  Aiil,  and  the 
martyrs  of  Tonking,  who  numbered  eight,  the  last 
of  whom  died  in  186},  and  who  were  canonized  by 
Pius  X,  28  Nov.,  1905.  Five  saints  were  canonized 
during  this  period;  St.  John  of  Gorkum  (d.  1572), 
mart3rr;  St.  Pius  V  (d.  1572),  the  last  pope  canonized; 
St.  Louis  Bertrand  (d.  1581),  missionanr  in  the  New 
World;  St.  Catherine  de'  Ricci  (d.  1589),  of  the 
second  order,  and  St.  Rose  of  Lima  (d.  1617).  tertiary, 
the  first  American  saint.  (See  general  bibliography 
of  saints  in  section  Middle  Ages  above.) 

(3)  C(mtemporaneou8  Period, — The  contempora- 
neous period  of  the  history  of  the  Pretu;hers  begins 
with  the  different  restorations  of  provinces  imder- 
taken  after  the  revolutions  which  had  destroyed  the 
order  in  several  countries  of  the  Old  World  and  the 
New.  This  period  begins  more  or  less  early  in  the 
nineteenth  century,  and  it  cannot  be  traced  down  to 
the  present  day  without  naming  reUgious  who  are 
still  living'  and  whose  activity  embodies  the  present 
life  of  the  order.  The  revolutions  not  having  totally 
destroyed  certain  of  the  provinces,  nor  decimated 
them,  simultaneously,  the  Preachers  were  able  to 
take  up  the  laborious  work  of  restoration  in  coimtries 
where  the  civil  legislation  did  not  present  insurmount- 
able obstacles.  During  this  critical  period  the  num- 
ber of  Preachers  seems  never  to  have  sunk  below  3500. 
The  statistics  for  1876  give  3748  religious,  but  500 
of  these  had  been  expelled  from  their  tonvents  and 
were  engaged  in  parochial  work.  The  statistics  for 
1910  give  a  total  of  very  nearlv  4472  religious  both 
nominallv  and  actually  engaged  in  the  proper  activ- 
ities of  the  order.  They  are  distributed  in  28  prov- 
inces and  5  congregations,  and  possess  nearly  400 
convents  or  secondary  establishments. 

In  the  revival  movement  France  held  a  foremost 
place,  owing  to  the  reputation  and  convincing  power 
of  the  inunortal  orator,  Henri-Dominique  Lacordaire 
(1802-61).  He  took  the  habit  of  a  Friar  Preacher 
at  Rome  (1839),  and  the  province  of  France  was 
canonically  erected  in  1850.  From  this  province 
were  detached  the  province  of  Lyons,  called  Occitania 
(1862),  that  of  Toulouse  (1869),  and  that  of  Canada 
(1909).  The  French  restoration  likewise  furnished 
many  labourers  to  other  provinces,  to  assist  in  their 
organization  and  progress.  From  it  came  the  master 
general  who  remained  longest  at  the  head*  of  the  ad- 
ministration during  the  nineteenth  century,  P^re 
Vincent  Jandel  (1850-72) .  Here  should  be  mentioned 
the  province  ot  St.  Joseph  in  the  United  States. 
Founded  in  1805  by  Father  Dominic  Fenwick,  after- 
wards first  Bishop  of  Cincinnati,  Ohio  (1821-32), 
this  province  has  developed  slowly,  but  now  ranks 
among  the  most  fiourishmg  and  £k;tive  provinces  of 
the  order.  In  1910  it  numbered  17  convents  or 
secondary  houses.  In  1905  it  established  a  large 
house  of  studies  at  Washington. 

The  province  of  France  (Paris)  has  produced  a  large 
number  of  preachers,  several  of  whom  became  re- 
nowned. The  conferences  of  Notre-Dame-de-Paria 
were  inaugurated  by  P^e  Lacordaire.  The  Domini- 
cans of  the  province  of  France  furnished  most  of  the 
orators:  Lacordaire  (1835-36,  1843-^51),  Jacques 
Monsabr^  (1869-70,  1872-90),  Joseph  Olhvier  (1871, 
1897),  Thomas  Etoumeau  (1898-1902).  Since  1903 
the  pulpit  of  Notre  Dame  has  a^ain  been  occupied 
by  a  Dominican.  Fkre  Henri  Didon  (d.  1900)  was 
one  of  the  most  esteemed  orators  of  his  time.  The 
province  of  France  displays  greater  intellectual  and 
scientific  activity  than  ever,  the  chief  centre  being 
the  house  of  studies  at  present  situated  at  Kain, 
near  Toumai,  Belgium,  where  are  published  "L'Annde 
Dominicaine"  (founded  1859),  "La  Revue  des 
Sciences  Philosophiques  et  Th^logiques"  (1907),  and 
"La  Revue  de  la  Jeunesse"  (1909). 

The  province  of  the  Philippines,  the  most  populous 
in  the  order,  is  recruited  from  SpaiDj  where  it  has 


PREACHERS            369  PREACHERS 

several  preparatory  houses.     In  the  Philippines  it  of  Teutonia.    The  statistics  for  1303  give  149  oon- 

has  charge  of  the  University  of  Manila,  recognized  vents  of  Dominican  nuns,  and  these  figures  increased 

by  the  Government  of  the  United  States,  two  col-  during   the  succeeding   centuries.    .Nevertheless,    a 

leges,  and  six  establishments;  in  China  it  administers  certain  number  of  monasteries  passed  under  the 

the  missions  of  North  and  South  Fo-Kien:   in  the  jurisdiction   of   bishops.    In   the   list   of   convents 

Japanese  Empire,  those  of  Formosa  and  Shikoku,  drawn  up  during  the  generalship  of  Serafino  Cavalli 

besides  establishments  at  New  Orleans,  at  Caracas  (1571-78)  there  are  onl^r  168  monasteries.    But  the 

(Venezuela),  and  at  Rome.   The  province  of  Spain  has  convents  of  nuns  are  not  indicated  for  most  provinces, 

seventeen  establishments  in  the  Peninsula  and  the  and  the  number  should  really  be  much  higner.    The 

Canaries,  as  well  as  the  missions  of  Urubamba  (Peru).  Coimcil  of  Trent  placed  all  the  convents  of  nuns 

Since  1910  it  has  published  at  Madrid  an  important  under  the  jurisdiction  of  bishops,  but  the  Preachers 

review,   ''La  Ciencia  Tomista'^     The  provmce  of  frequently  pnTOvided  these  houses  with  chapbuns  or 

Holland   has   a  score  of  establishments,   and   the  almoners.    The  statistics  for  1770  give  180  monas- 

missions  of  Curasao  and  Porto  Rico.   Other  provinces  teries,  but  they  are  incomplete.    The  revolutions, 

also  have  their  missions.     That  of  Piedmont  has  which  affected  the  ecclesiastical  situation  in  most 

establishments  at  Constantinople  and  Smyrna;  that  Catholic  coimtries  from  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  oen- 

of  Toulouse^  in  Brazil;  that  of  Lyons,  in  Cuba;  that  tury,  brought  about  the  suppression  of  a  great  many 

of  Ireland,  m  Australia  and  Trinidad;  that  oi  Bel-  monasteries;    several,  however,  survived  these  dis- 

gium,  in  tne  Belgian  Congo,  and  so  on.  turbances,  and  others  were  re-established.    In  the 

Doctrinal  development  has  had  an  important  place  list  for  1895  there  are  more  than  150  monasteries, 

in  the  restoration  of  the  Preachers.    Several  institu-  including  some  of  the  Third  Order,  which  are  cloistered 

tions  besides  those  ahread^  mentioned  have  played  like  the  Second  Order.    These  monasteries  are  most 

important  parts.     Such    is  the  Biblical  school  at  ntmierous  in  Spain.    In  Germany  the  convents  of 

Jerusalem,  open  to  the  religious  of  the  order  ^and  to  nuns   in   the   thirteenth   and   fourteenth   centuries 

secular  clerics,   and  which  publishes  the   ''Revue  witnessed  the  development  of  an  intense  mystical  life, 

Biblique",  so  highly  esteemea  in  the  learned  world,  and  several  of  these  houses  have  preserved  accounts 

The  faculty  of  theology  of  the  University  of  Frei-  of  the  life  of  the  sisters,  usually  in  the  vernacular, 

bui^,  confided  to  the  care  of  the  Dominicans  in  1890,  The  Dominican  sisters,  instructed  and  directed 

is  nourishing  and  has  about  250  students,     llie  bv  an  order  of  preachers  and  teachers,  were  remark- 

CoUe^um  Angelicum,  established  at  Rome  (1911)  b^  able  not  only  for  spiritual  but  also  for  intellectual 

Hyacmth  Connier '  (master  general  since  1902),  is  culture.    In  the  course  of  seven  .centuries  various 

open  to  regulars  and  seculars  for  the  study  of  the  nuns  have  left  literary  and  artistic  works  which 

sacred  sciences.     To  the  reviews  mentioned  above  bear  witness  to  the  culture  of  some  of  these  monas- 

must  be  added  the  "Revue  Thomiste".  founded  by  teries  ("Script.  O.  P.",  I,  pp.  i~xv;  II,  pp.  i-xix, 

P^reThomasCoconnier(d.  1908),  and  the"  Analecta  830;    "Bull.  O.   P.",  poMtm;    Mortier,  "Hist,   des 

OrdinisPrsedicatorum"  (1893).   Among  the  numerous  mattres  g^n^raux",  oawtm;    Dansas,  "Etudes  sur 

writers  of  the  order  in  this  period  are:    Cardinals  les  temps  primitifs  ae  Tordre  de  St.  Dominique", 

Thomas  Zigliara  (d.  1893)  and  Zephirin  Gonzilez  IV,  Poitiers-Paris  (1877);  "AnalectaO.  P.",  ixumm; 

(d.  1894),  two  esteemed  philosophers;  Father  Alberto  Greith,  /'Die  deutsche  Mystik  im  Prediger  Orden", 

Guillelmotti  (d.   1893),  historian  of  the  Pontifical  Freiburg  i.  Br.,  1861;    de  Villermont,  "Un  groupe 

Navy,  and  Father  Heinrich  Denifle,  one  of  the  most  mystimie  allemand",  Brussels,  1907). 

famous  writers  on  medieval  history  (d.  1905).  C.  The  Third  Order. — Neither  St.  Dominic  nor  the 

In  1910  the  order  had  twenty  archbishops  or  bish-  early  Preachers  wished  to  have  under  their  jurisdie- 

ops,   one  of  whom,   Andreas   Frilhwirth,   formerly  tion — and  consequently  imder  their  responsibility — 

master  general  (1892-1902),  is  Apostolic  nuncio  at  either  religious  or  lay  associations.    We  have  seen 

Munich  (Sanvito.  "Catalogus  omnium  provinciarum  their  efforts  to  be  relieved  of  the  government'  of 

sacriordinisprsMiicatorum",  Rome,  1910;  "Analecta  nuns  Who,  nevertheless,  were  following  the'  rule  of 

O.    P.'',  Rome,   1893 — :    "L'Ann^  Dominicaine",  the  order.    But  numerous  la^nnen,  and  especially 

Paris.  1859—).    In  the  last  two  publications  will  be  lay  women,  who  were  leading  in  the  world  a  life  of 

found  historical  and  biblio^aphical  information  con-  penance  or  observing  continence,  felt  the  doctrinal 

ceming  the  history  of  the  Preachers  during  the  con-  mfluence  of  the  order  and  grouped  themselves  about 

temporaneous  period.  its  convents.    In   1285  the  need  of  more  firmly 

B.  The  Second  Order;    Dominican  Sisters. — ^The  uniting  these  lay  dements  and  the  idea  of  bringing 

circumstances  under  which  St.  Dominic  established  imder  the  direction  of  the  Preachers  a  portion  of  the 

the  first  convent  of  nuns  at  Prouille  (1206)  and  the  leg-  Order  of  Penance  led  the  seventh  master  general, 

islation  given  the  second  order  have  been  related  above.  Mufion  de  Zamora,  at  the  instance  of  HonoriUG  IV. 

As  early  las  1228  the  question  arose  as  to  .whether  to  draw  up  the  rule  known  as  that  of  the  Penance  of 

the  Oraer  of  Preachers  would  accept  the  govern-  St.    Dommic.    Inspired   by   that   of   the   Brothers 

ment  of  convents  for  women.    The  order  itself  was  of  Penance,  this  rule  had  a  more  ecclesiastical  charac- 

strongly  in  favour  of   avoiding  this  ministry  and  ter  and  firmly  subordinated   the  conduct   of   the 

struggled  long  to  maintain  its  freedom.    But  the  brothers  to  the  authority  of  the  Preachers.    Honorius 

sisters  found,  even  among  the  Preachers,  such  ad-  IV  confirmed  the  foimdation  by  the  collation  of  a 

vocates  as  the  master  general,  Jordanus  of  Saxony  privilege    (28    Jan.,     1286).    The    former    master 

(d.  1236),  and  especially  the  Dominican  cardinal,  general  of  the  Friars  Minor,  Jerome  d' Ascoli,  having 

Hugh  of  St.  Cher  (d.  1263),  who  promised  them  that  become  pope  in  1288  under  the  name  of  Nicholas 

they  would  eventually  be  victorious  (1267).    The  'IV,  regarded  the  action  of  his  raedecessor  and  of 

incorporation  of  monasteries  with  the  order  con-  the  master  general  of  the  Friars  Preachers  as  a  kind 

tinned  through  the  latter  part  of  the  thirteenth  of  defiance  of  the  Friars  Minor  who  considered  them- 

and  during  me  next  centuiy.    In  1288  the  papal  selves    the  natural  protectors  of   the    Brothers  of 

legate,  Giovanni  Boccanazzi,  simultaneously  placed  Penance,  and  by  his  letters  of  17  August,  1289,  he 

aJl  the  Penitent  Sisters  of  St.  Mary  Magdalen  in  sought  to  prevent  the  desertion  of  the  Brothers  of 

Germany  under  the  government  of  the  provincial  Penance.     Mufi6n  de  Zamora  discha^ed  his  office 

of  the  Preachers,  but  this  step  was  not  final.    The  of  master  general  as  it  had  been  confided  to  him  by 

convents  of  sisters  incorporated  with  the  order  were  Martin  IV.    The  Order  of  Preachers  protested  with 

^ipeciaUy  numerous  in  the  province  of  Germany,  all  its  might  against  what  it  regarded  as  an  injustice. 

Tne  statistics  for  1277  show  58  monasteries  already  These  events  retarded  the  development  of  the 

incorporated,  40  of  which  were  in  the  single  province  Dominican  Third  Order,  a  portion  of  the  Preachers 

XII.— 24 


PREACHZNO 


\370 


PREADAMITES 


remaining  unfavourable  to  the  institution.  Never- 
theless, the  Third  Order  continued  to  exist;  one  of  its 
fraternities,  that  of  Siena,  was  especially  flourishing, 
a  list  of  its  members  from  1311  being  extant.  The 
sisters  numbered  100  in  1352,  among  them  she  who 
was  to  become  St.  Catherine  of  Siena.  They  num- 
bered 92  in  1378.  The  reforming  movement  of 
Rajrmund  of  Capua,  confessor  and  historian  of  St. 
Catherine,  aimed  at  the  spread  of  the  Third  Order; 
in  this  Thomas  Caffarini  of  Siena  was  especially 
active.  The  Dominican  Third  Order  received  new 
approbation  from  Boniface  IX,  18  January,  1401, 
and  on  27  April  of  the  following  year  the  pope  pub- 
lished its  rule  in  a  Bull,  whereupon  its  development 
received  a  fresh  impetus.  It  never  became  very 
widespread,  the  Preachers  having  sought  quality 
rather  than  number  of  tertiaries.  St.  Catnerine 
of  Siena,  canonized  in  1461,  is  the  patroness  of  the 
Third  Order,  and,  following  the  example  of  her  who 
has  been  called  the  Joan  of  Arc  of  the  papacy,  the 
Dominican  tertiaries  have  always  manifested  special 
devotion  to  the  Roman  Church.  Also  in  imitation 
of  their  patroness,  who  wrote  splendid  mystical 
works,  they  endeavoured  to  acauire  a  special  knowl- 
edge of  their  religion,  as  befits  Christians  in- 
corporated with  a  great  aoctrinal  order.  The  Third 
Order  has  given  several  blessed  to  the  Church,  be- 
sides St.  Catherine  of  Siena  and  St.  Rose  of  Lima. 
For  several  centuries  there  Have  been  regular  con- 
vents and  congregations  belongin^^  to  tne  Third 
Order.  The  nineteenth  century  witnessed  the  es- 
tablishment of  a  large  number  of  regular  congrega- 
tions of  tertiaries  devoted  to  works  of  charity  or 
education.  In  1895  there  were  about  55  congrega- 
tions, with  about  800  establishments  and  20,000 
members.  In  the  United  States  there  are  flourishing 
convents  at  Sinsinawa  (Wisconsin),  Jersey  City, 
Traverse  ^Michigan),  Columbus  (Ohio),  Albany 
(New  York),  and  San  Francisco  (California).^ 

In  1852  Pdre  Lacordaire  foimded  in  France  a 
congregation  of  priests  for  the  education  of  youth 
called  the  Thira  Teaching  Order  of  St.  Dominic. 
It  is  now  regarded  as  a  special  province  of  the  Order 
of  Preachers,  and  had  flourishing  and  select  colleges 
in  France  at  Oullins  (1853),  Sor^ze  (1854),  Arceuil 
(1863),  Arcachon  (1975),  Paris  (Ecole  Lacordaire. 
1890).  These  houses  have  ceased  to  be  directed 
by  Dominicans  since  the  persecution  of  1903.  The 
teaching  Dominicans  now  have  the  College  Lacor- 
daire at  Buenos  Aires,  Champittet  at  Lausanne 
(Switzerland),  and  San  Sebastian  (Spain).  During 
the  Paris  Commune  four  martyrs  of  the  teaching 
order  died  in  company  with  a  priest  of  the  First 
Order,  25  Ma^,  1871.  One  of  them,  Pdre  Louis- 
Raphael  Captier,  was  an  eminent  educator  (Man- 
donnet,  *'Les  regies  et  le  gouvemement  de  Tordo  de 
Poenitentia  au  XlII®  siftcle"  in  ''Opuscules  de  cri- 
tique historique",  IV,  Paris,  1902;  Federici, 
''Istoria   de'  Cavalieri   Gaudenti",  Venice,    1787). 

P.  Mandonnbt. 

Preaching.    See  Homilbtics. 

Preadaxnites,  the  supposed  inhabitants  of  the 
barth  prior  to  Adam.  Strictly  speaking,  the  ex- 
l^ression  ought  to  be  limited  to  denote  men  who  had 
perished  before  the  creation  of  Adam;  but  commonly 
&ven  Coadamites  are  called  Preadamites,  provided 
they  spring  from  a  stock  older  than  Adam.    The 

Question  whether  we  can  admit  the  existence  of 
^eadamites  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  word,  i.  e. 
the  existence  of  a  human  race  (or  human  races)  ex- 
tinct before  the  time  of  Adam  or  before  the  Divine 
action  described  in  Gen.,  i,  2  sqq.,  is  as  little  con- 
nected with  the  truth  of  our  revealed  dogmas  as  the 
question  whether  one  or  more  of  the  stars  are  in- 
habited by  rational  beings  resembling  man.    Palmieri 


("De  Creatione",  Prato,  1910,  p.  281,  thes.  xxx) 
does  not  place  any  theological  censure  on  the  opinion 
maintaining  the  past  existence  of  such  Preadamites, 
and  Fabre  d'Envieu  ("Les  Origines  de  la  terre  et 
de  Thomme",  Paris,  1873,  lib.  Xl,  prop.  1)  defends 
the  theory  as  probable.  But  the  case  is  quite  dif- 
ferent with  regsuxi  to  the  view  upholding  the  existence 
of  Preadamites  taken  in  the  common  acceptation 
of  the  term.  It  maintains  that  the  men  existing 
before  Adam  continued  to  coexist  wath  Adam  and 
his  progeny,  thus  destroying  the  imity  of  the  human 
race.  Palmieri  (loc.  cit.)  brands  it  as  heretical,  and 
Father  Pesch  ("DeDeo  creante  et  elevante",  Frei- 
burg, 1909,  n.  154)  endorses  this  censure;  Esser 
'  (Kirchenlex.,  s.  v.  Praadamiten)  considers  it  as  only 
theologicidly  certain  that  there  were  no  Coadamit^ 
who  were  not  the  progeny  of  Adam  and  Eve.  Ac- 
cording to  the  nature  of  the  arguments  advanced 
in  favour  of  the  heretical  Preadamite  theory,  we  may 
divide  it  into  scientific  and  Scriptural  Preadamism. 

I.  Scientific  Preadamism. — There  are  no  scien- 
tific Arguments  which  prove  directly  that  the  progeny 
of  a  Preadamite  race  coexisted  with  the  descendants 
of  Adam.  The  direct  conclusion  from  scientific 
premises  is  either  the  great  antiquity  of  the  human 
race  or  its  multiplicity.  In  either  case,  or  even  in 
the  combination  of  both,  the  existence  of  Preadamites 
depends  on  a  new  non-scientific  premise,  which  is  at 
best  only  an  assumption.  From  the  great  number  of 
men,  from  their  racial  varieties,  from  the  ofifference 
of  languages,  we  cannot  even  infer  that  all  men  can- 
not spring  from  a  common  stock,  while  the  ancient 
national  traditions  of  the  Oriental  nations,  and  the 
palseontological  finds  do  not  even  show  that  tne  human 
race  existed  before  our  Biblical  timpsj  much  less  do 
these  premises  furnish  any  solid  basis  for  the  Pre- 
adamite theoj^y.  (For  the  unity  of  the  human  race 
and  its  antiquity  see  Race,  Human.) 

II.  Scriptural  Preadamism. — Pesch  (loc.  cit.) 
considers  it  doubtful  whether  Origen  adhered  to  the 
Preadamite  theory,  but  leaves  no  room  for  doubt 
as  to  Julian  the  Apostate.  But  these  opinions* are 
only  a  matter  of  historical  interest.  In  1555,  how- 
ever, Isaac  de  La  Peyr^re,  a  Calvinist  of  a  noble 
family  of  Bordeaux  and  a  follower  of  the  Prince  of 
Cond^,  published  in  close  succession  two  works: 
'^  Prteaidamitfie,  seu  Exercitationes  super  versibus 
12,  13,  et  14  ep.  Pauli  ad  Romanos",  and  "Systema 
theolofldcum  ex  Prseadamitarum  h3rpothe8i.  Pars 
prima^.  He  maintained  that  Adam  is  not  the  father 
of  the  whole  human  race,  but  only  of  the  Chosen 
People.  The  Jews  spring  from  Adam  and  Eve, 
while  the  Gentiles  are  the  descendants  of  ancestors 
created  before  Adam.  The  creation  of  these  latter 
took  place  on  the  sixth  day,  and  is  related  in  Gen., 
i,  26  sqq.,  while  Adam  was  formed  after  the  rest  on 
the  seventh  day  as  narrated  in  Gen.,  ii^  7.  Adam 
and  his  progeny  were  to  live  and  develop  m  Paradise, 
but  they  were  to  observe  the  law  of  Paradise.  The  sin 
of  Adam  was  more  grievous  than  the  sins  of  the  Gen- 
tiles: for  he  sinned  a^inst  the  law,  while  the  Gen- 
tiles sinned  only  against  nature.  This  distinction 
the  writer  bases  on  St.  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Romans, 
V,  12-14:  "Until  the  law  [given  to  Adiun]",  so  La 
Pejrr^re  explains  the  passage,  "sin  [committed  by  the 
Gentiles)  was  in  the  world*  but  sin  [of  the  Gentiles] 
was  not  iihputed,  when  tne  law  was  not  [^ven  to 
Adam]".  Again,  those  "who  have  not  sinned  after 
the  similitude  of  the  transgression  of  Adam"  are 
the  Preadamite  Gentiles.  La  Peyr^re  confirmed  his 
hypoth^is  by  an  appeal  to  other  Scriptural  [passages: 
Cain's  fear  of  being  killed  (Gen.,  iv,  14),  his  flight, 
his  marriage,  his  building  of  a  city  (Gen.,  iv.  15,  16), 
are  pointed  out  as  so  many  indications  of  tne  exist- 
ence of  other  men  than  Adam  and  Eve.  The  author 
also  claims  that  ancient  Jewish  and  Mohammedan 
tradition  favours  his  Preadamite  theory. 


PBBBBND 


371 


But  La  Peyrdre's  proofs  are  not  solid.  (1)  Scrip- 
ture itself  points  out  that  the  creation  of  man  in 
Gen.,  i^  26  sqq.,  is  identical  with  that  mentioned  in 
Gen.,  h,  7,- for  accoxxling  to  Gen.,  ii,  6,  "there  was  not 
a  man  to  till  the  earth";  according  to  Gen.,  ii,  20, 
"for  Adam  there  was  not  found  a  helper  like  him- 
self''; according  to  iii,  20,  "Adam  callea  the  name  of 
his  wife  Eve:  because  she  was  the  mother  of  all  the 
living".  Scripture,  therefore,  knows  of  no  men 
created  before  Adam.  (2)  The  appeal  to  the  inci- 
dents in  the  history  of  Cain  loses  its  foree,  if  we  re- 
member that  thev  happened  about  130  years  after 
Adam  had  been  oriven  from  Paradise:  at  that  time, 
the  progeny  of  Adam  must  have  amounted  to  several 
thousand  souls,  so  that  Cain's  fear  and  flight  and  his 
building  of  a  primitive  city  are  easily  expired.  (3) 
The  difficulty  arising  from  Cain's  marriage  was  satis- 
factorily explained  by  St.  Augustine  ("De  civit. 
dei",  XV,  xvi;  cf.  Epiphanius,  "Hser.",  xxxix,  6), 
who  points  out  that  necessity  compelled  the  im- 
mediate offspring  of  Adam  and  Eve  to  marry  even 
their  sisters.  (4)  The  context  renders  La  Peyrfere's 
explanation  of  Rom.,  v,  12-14,  impossible.  If  the 
law  mentioned  in  the  passage  refers  to  the  law  given 
to  Adam  in  Paradise,  and  not  to  the  Mosaic  Law,  the 
phrase  "but  death  reigned  from  Adam  unto  Moses" 
IS  meaningless,  and  the  whole  force  of  the  Apostle's 
argument  is  destroyed.  (5)  Finally.  La  Peyr^re's 
appeal  to  the  traditions  of  the  Kabbalists,  Chaldeans 
etc.,  has  been  investigated  and  found  wanting  by 
R.  Simon  ("Lettres  choisies",  II,  Amsterdam,  1730, 
ii,  xxvii).  It  is,  therefore,  not  astonishing  that  La 
Peyrfere's  Preadamism  proved  to  be  a  nine  days' 
wonder  and  did  not  survive  its  author.  The  theory 
was  strongly  opposed  from  the  beginning  by  such 
scholars  as  Maresius,  Hoombeek,  and  Voetius  on  the 
part  of  the  Reformed  Church,  and  by  the  Lutheran 
theologians  Calovius,  Quenstedt,  and  HoUazius. 
The  author  himself  renounced  his  error,  and  became 
a  Catholic,  and  a  member  of  the  Oratory.  In  more 
recent  times  a  political  or  social  Preadamism  has 
been  introduced  by  Dominic  M'Causland  ("Adam  and 
liie  Adamite,  or  the  Harmony  of  Scripture  and 
£thnoloKy^",  London,  1864)  and  Reginald  Stuart 
Poole  ('TThe  Genesis  of  the  Earth  and  of  Man". 
London,  1860),  who  follow  the  ethnolodcal  views  ot 
such  authorities  as  Morton,  Nott,  Gliddon,  and 
Agassiz.    They  maintain  that  Adam  is  the  pro- 

Senitor  of  the  Caucasian  race,  while  the  other  races 
escend  from  Preadamite  ancestry,  having  either 
a  common  or  various  parentage.  The  pro-slavery 
sentiment  prevalent  in  certain  parts  of  America  in- 
directly supported  such  Preadamite  theories.  But 
their  truth  must  be  judged  in  the  light  of  what  has 
been  said  about  scientific  and  Scriptural  Preadamism. 

,  Nataus  Albxandeb,  Hist,  eedet.,  I  (Bingen,  1785),  103  Bqq.. 
diM.  iii,  De  Adam  el  Eva.  As  to  Scriptural  Preadamiam,  see  the 
▼anoua  dogmatic  treatises  on  Creation  (Pescr,  Paluieri, 
Pebronb  etc.).  where  they  treat  of  the  unity  of  the  human  race. 
For  scientific  Preadamism  see  G  la.  Repertorium  der  kiUhol. 
theol.  Literatiir,  I,  i  (Paderbom.  1895),  218  sqq.;  for  Preadamism 
.n  the  strietsense:  Rbubch,  Bibel  u,  Natur  (4th  ed..  Bonn,  1876), 
437;  Rauch,  EinheU  dee  MeneehenoeediUt^Uee  (Augsburg,  1873)  r 
HBTnNOER,  Apologie,  II,  i  (4th  ed..  Freiburg.  1872).  221-304; 
WiNCHBLL,  Preadamttee,  or  a  Demonttration  of  Ezitlence  of  Men 
before  Adam  (Chicago,  1880). 

A.  J.  Maas. 

Prebend,  the  right  of  a  member  of  a  chapter  to 
his  share  in  the  revenues  of  the  cathedral;  also  the 
share  to  which  he  is  entitled;  in  general,  any  portion 
of  the  cathedral  t^venues  set  aside  for  the  support 
of  the  clergy  attached  to  it  (semi-prebends)  even  for 
those  who  are  not  members  of  the  chapter.  They 
are  regarded  as  benefices  (q.  v.)  and  governed  by  the 
same  Taws.    (See  Chapter.) 

Preearla  (Precea,  prayers)  is  a  contract  granting 
to  a  petitoner  the  use  and  usufruct  of  a  revenue-bear- 
ing •ecclesiastical  property  for  a  specified  time,  or  dur- 


ing the  life  of  the  grantee,  and  principally  for  services 
rendered  the  Church.  This  contract  (tit.  XIV,  lib. 
Ill  of  the  Decretals)  is  based  on  the  ''precarium"  of 
the  Roman  Law  (De  precario,  XLIII,  xxvi);  it 
differed  from  it  inasmuch  as  the  ''precarium"  could 
have  for  its  object  either  moveable  or  fixe^  ^oods 
and  was  revocable  at  the  pleasure  of  the  propnetor. 
Both  contracts  left  to  the  owner  the  proprietorship  of 
the  goods.  This  contract,  beside  depriving  the 
Church  of  its  revenues,  threatened  the  extinction  of 
her  proprietary  rights,  especially  when  she  was  com** 
pell^  to  grant  the  precaria,  at  roy&l  request,  or 
rather  order  (precaria  verbo  regis).  The  Council  of 
Meaux  (825)  prescribed  for  this  reason  the  renewal  of 
these  concessions  every  five  years.  It  ceased  at  the 
death  of  the  grantee,  or  at  the  expiration  of  the  allot- 
ted period,  after  which  it  ooula  be  revoked  at  the 

desire  of  the  erantor. 

See  Fbanks;  Laicisation;  Pbopbbtt,  Ecclesiastical;  also 
the  eanonista  on  De  Precario,  lib.  III»  Ut.  sdv. 

A.  BOUDINHON. 

Preoedence  (Lat.  pnBcedere,  to  go  before  another) 
signifies  the  right  to  enjoy  a  prerogative  of  honour 
before  other  persons;  e.  g.  to  have  the  most  dis- 
tinguished place  in  a  procession,  a  ceremony,  or  an 
assembly,  to  have  the  nght  to  express  an  opinion,  cast 
a  vote,  or  append  a  si^ature  before  others,  to  perform 
the  most  honourable  offices.  Questions  of  precedence 
sometimes  give  rise  to  controversies.  In  both  civil  and 
ecclesiastical  legislation  they  are  regulated  by  laws  and 
rules.  In  canon  law  the  general  rule  is  that  precedence 
is  determined  by  rank  in  the  hierarchy  both  of  juris- 
diction and  of  order.  Where  rank  is  equal  it  is  aeter- 
mined  by  priority  of  foundation:  Qui jpricr  est  tempore, 
potior  est  jure  (R^gala,  juris  54,  in  VP).  With  regani 
to  colleges  (cdlegia),  precedence  is  determined  by  the 
quality  of  the  person  to  whom  the  college  is  attached. 
The  order  of  precedence  is  refl;ulated  as  follows:  the 
pope  always  takes  first  rank,  after  him  come  cardinals, 
patriarchs,  archbishops,  exempt  bishops,  suffragan 
bishops,  titular  bishops,  and  prelates  nuUius,  In 
these  categories  prionty  of  oroination  and  promo- 
tion determines  precedence,  among  bishops  or  arch- 
bishops the  date  of  their  first  promotion  to  the  epis- 
copal or  archiepiscopal  dignity.  Custom  or  privilege 
may  derogate  from  this  rule.  A  Decree  of  Propaganda 
(15  Aug.,  1858)  grants  to  the  Archbishop  of  Baltimore 
the  right  of  precedence  in  the  United  States  (Collectio 
Lacensis,  III,  572).  In  their  own  diocese  bishops 
have  precedence  before  strang;e  bishops  and  arch- 
bishops, but  not  before  their  own  metropolitan. 
Metropolitan  chapters  have  precedence  before  cathe- 
dral chapters,  and  the  latter  before  collegiate  chapters. 
The  secular  clergy  according  to  the  importance  ot  their 
office  or  the  date  of  their  ordination  precede  the  regu- 
lar clergy.  Canons  regular  take  the  first  place  among 
the  re^ar  clergy,  then  come  clerics  regular,  the 
monastic  orders,  and  the  mendicant  orders.  Among 
the  mendicants  the  Dominicans  take  first  place  ou^ 
side  of  processions;  in  processions,  the  acquired  right 
of  precedence  or  that  appertaining  to  prioritjr  of  estab- 
lishment in  a  town  must  be  respected.  This  last  rule 
applito  also  to  confraternities,  but  in  processions  of 
the  Blessed  SaCTament  the  Confraternity  of  the 
Blessed  Sacrament  has  precedence.  The  Third  Orders 
have  pr^edence  of  confraternities.  Questions  of 
precedence  at  funerals  have  given  rise  to  numerous 
decisions  of  the  Congregation  of  Rites  (see  "Decreta 
S.  S.  Rituum  Congregationis",  Rome,  1901,  V;  Index 
generalis,  V°  PrcBcedentia),  The  provisory  solution  of 
questions  of  precedence  in  processions  arising  between 
regulars  belongs  to  the  diocesan  bishop.  The  Con- 
gregation of  Rites  decides  concerning  those  with  re- 
gard to  liturgical  ceremonies:  the  Congregatio  Caere- 
monialis  regulates  the  preceaence  of  the  papal  court. 

FKRRARfs,  Prompla  BHAiotheea  (Paris,  1861),  V*  Praeedentia, 
yi,  550  sq.;  HiNScmus,  Syetem  d.  kath.  KirehenrecJUe,  II  (Berlin, 


PRECENTOR 


372 


PRECIOUS 


1809-05),  376;  Samti.  PraUelunu*  jurit  eanoniei,  I  (lUtiabon. 
1806),  378-80;  CHAMANEtra,  Catoloffu»  otoria  mimdi,  txcMmUia* 
€i  pnwiinneni«(M  omniutn  ftre  Uaiuum  eontineus  (Paria,  1527); 
Ceusius,  De  prenminentia,  Betsione,  praeedentia  (Bremen.  1665) ; 
Baabt,  Le0<tl  Formulary  (New  York,  1808);  Taunton,  The  Law 
ofth§  Church  (London.  1906). 

A.  Van  Hove. 

Precentor  (L.  PrcBcentoTf  from  prcB,  before-oarUor. 
ainger),  a  word  describiDg  sometimes  an  ecclesiastical 
dignitaiy,  sometimes  an  administrative  or  ceremonial 
officer.  Anciently,  the  precentor  had  various  duties: 
he  was  the  first  or  leading  chanter,  who  on  Sundays  and 
greater  feasts  intoned  certain  antiphonsjpsalms,  h3rmns, 
responsories  etc.;  gave  the  pitch  or  tone  to  the  bishop 
and  dean  at  Mass  (the  succentor  performing  a  similar 
office  to  the  canons  and  clerks) ;  recruited  and  taught 
the  choir,  directed  its  rehearsals  and  supervised  its 
official  functions;  interpreted  the  rubrics  and  explained 
the  ceremonies,  ordered  in  a  general  wav  the  Divine 
Office  and  sometimes  composed  desired  hymns,  se- 
quences, and  lessons  of  saints.  He  was  variously 
styled  capiscol  (capiU  scHoUe,  head  of  the  choir-school) . 
prior  sckoUEf  maguter  acholcBf  and  primicerius  (a  wora 
of  widely  different  implications).  Victor  of  St.  Hugo 
tells  us  that  in  the  care  of  the  primicerius  were  placed 
the  acolytes,  exorcists,  lectors,  and  psalmists  (chant- 
ers). In  the  Middle  Ages  the  principal  dignitaries  of 
cathedrab,  collegiate  chapters,  and  monastic  orders, 
imitated  the  example  of  St.  Gregory  the  Great  in  acting 
as  directors  of  chantnschools.  The  schola  was  always 
in  attendance  when  the  bishop  officiated  in  his  cathe- 
dral, and  to  the  precentor  was  assigned  a  place  near 
the  bishop  and  high  in  dignity.  His  office  was  ob- 
viously one  demanding  much  learning  and  executive 
ability,  and  his  dignity  corresponded  with  his  duties. 
In  the  catheckals  of  England,  France,  Spain,  and  Ger- 
many, he  ranked  sometimes  next  to  the  dean,  some- 
times next  to  the  archdeacon.  In  some  instances  his 
Sphere  of  activity  was  much  broader,  including  the 
uty  of  installing  deans,  canons,  and  other  dignitaries: 
and  in  some  monasteries,  the  duties  of  hbrarian  ana 
registrar.  But  from  the  fourteenth  century  his  title 
and  dignity  were  largelv  handed  over  to  incumbents 
whose  musical  knowledge  did  not  fit  them  for  the 
duties  to  which  the  name  of  precentor  owed  its  origin; 
the  dignities  remained,  but  the  duties  became  ob- 
scured. ''In  France,  some  chapters  retain  traces  of 
the  dignity  of  Precentor,  and  one  mav  see  sometimes 
an  archdeacon,  sometimes  a  titular  or  honorary  canon, 
carrying  the  baton  cantoral,  the  insignia  of  his  office 
(Migne,  "Diet,  de  Droit  Canon",  s.  v.  Chantre).  This 
"baton  cantoral"  is  a  silver  or  white  staff.  "In  the 
dioceses  of  Aix,  Carcassonne,  Coutances^  Diion.  Metz, 
Orleans,  the  dignity  of  Precentor  is  still  the  highest 
in  the  chapter.  .  .  .  Some  chapters  have  sub-chant- 
ers, those  of  Arras  being  among  the  honorary  resident 
canons"  (Migne,  "Diet,  de  Jurisprudence",  s.  v. 
Grand  Chajitre,  where  also  the  quoted  statutes  of  the 
Bishop  of  Dijon  may  serve  to  illustrate  the  modem 
idea  of  the  office  of  precentor:  "The  Pr^centeur  or 
Grand  Chantre  is  the  head  of  the  choir  and  .  .  . 
brings  the  antiphon  to  the  bishop  when  officiating 
pontifically.  Sacristans,  chanters,  choir4)03r8,  and 
employ^  of  the  Cathedral  are  placed  under  his  sur- 
veillance. He  will  also  preserve  order  and  silence  in 
the  sacristy  ") .  In  the  Anglican  Church  the  precentor 
directs  the  choir,  his  stall  in  the  cathedral  correspond- 
ing with  that  of  the  dean. 

CuBWEN.  Studies  in  Worship  Music  (London.  1888),  141-8, 
170-2,  ^ve0  interesting  details  of  the  duties  of  precentor  in  the 
Scotch  Presbyterian  Churches;  for  Prvcentrix,  Preoentorioaa, 
etc.,  see  Du  Cangb,  Olossarium,  s.  ▼.  PraeerUor;  Vknablbs  in 
Diet.  ChrisL  Antiq.,  s.  v. 

H.  T.  Henrt. 

Precept  (Lat.  proBceptum  from  priBcipere,  to  com- 
mand), Canonical,  in  its  common  acceptation,  is 
opposed  to  counsel,  inasmuch  as  the  former  imposes 
an  obligation,  while  the  latter  is  a  persuasion.    In 


ecclesiastical  jurisprudence,  the  word  precept  is  used: 
(1)  In  opposition  to  law. — ^A  law  is  alwa^  binding^ 
even  after  the  death  of  the  legi.slator,  until  it  is  re- 
voked," a  precept  is  obli^tory  only  auring  the  life- 
time or  office  of  the  precipient.  A  law  directly  affecta 
the  territory  of  liie  legislator,  and  thence  passes  to  the 
subjects  dwelling  in  it;  a  precept  directly  affects  the 
persons  of  the  imeriors  and  is  independent  of  locality. 
Finally,  a  law  is  promulgated  for  a  whole  community, 
present  and  future,  while  a  precept  is  directed  to  incu- 
viduals  and  ceases  with  them.  (2)  As  a  term  in  extra- 
judicial processes. — ^Whenagrave  fault  has  been  com* 
mitted  by  a  cleric,  it  is  the  duty  of  the  bishop,  after 
making  an  informal  inquiry  into  the  matter,  to  give 
the  ddinquent  two  successive  monitions  or  warn- 
ings. If  he  does  not  thereupon  amend,  the  bishop 
proceeds  to  the  issuance  of  a  canonical  precept,  as 
■  directed  by  the  Decree  "Cum  Magnopere"  (1884), 
The  precept,  under  pain  of  nullity,  must  be  in  writing, 
state  plainly  what  is  to  be  done  or  avoided  by  the 
delinquent,  and  mention  the  specific  punishment  to  be 
infficted  if  the  precept  go  unheeded.  The  accused  is 
then  dted  before  the  chancellor  of  the  episcopal  court, 
and  the  latter,  in  presence  of  the  vicar-genenil  or  two 
witnesses,  ecclesiastical  or  lav,  must  serve  the  precept 
upon  him.  An  official  record  of  this  fact  is  then  to  be 
drawn  up  and  signed  by  all  concerned,  including  the 
delinauent  if  he  so  wishes.  The  witnesses  may  be 
bouna  by  oath  to  observe  secrecy  as  to  the  proceed- 
ings. If  the  accused  contumaciously  refuses  to  ap- 
pear, the  precept  may  be  served  upon  him  by  a  trust- 
worthy  person  or  sent  by  registered  mail.  If  even 
these  measures  are  not  possible,  the  precept  may  be 
posted  publicly  as  an  intimation  to  the  delinquent.  If 
ne  fails  to  amend  after  receiving  the  precept,  a  formal 
trial  may  then  be  instituted. 

Smitb,  Blemenis  of  BccUsiasHad  Law,  III  (New  Yoric.  1888); 
FuttABxa,  Bibliotheea  Canonioa.Y  (Rome,  1889),  s.  ▼.  Lex,  art.  1: 
Baabt,  Le^o/  Formulary  (New  York,  1898). 

William  H.  W.  Fanninq. 

Precepts  of  the  Church.  See  CoiofANDifBNTB 
OF  THB  Church. 

PreciouB  Blood,  the  blood  of  our  Divine  Saviour. 
Jesus,  at  the  Last  Supper,  ascribes  to  it  the  same  life- 
giving  power  that  belongs  to  His  flesh  (see  Eucha- 
rist). The  Apostles,  St.  Peter  (I  Peter,  i,  2,  19). 
St.  John  (I  John,  i,  7;  Apoc.  i,  5  etc.),  ana  above  all 
St.  Paul  (Rom.,  iii,  25;  Eph.,  i,  7;  Hebr.^  ix,  x) 
regard  it  as  synonymous  with  Jesus's  Passion  and 
D^th,  the  source  of  redemption.  The  Precious 
Blood  is  therefore  a  part  of  the  Sacred  Humanity 
and  hvpostatically  united  to  the  Second  Person  of 
the  Blessed  Trinity.  In  the  fifteenth  century  some 
theologians,  with  a  view  of  determining  whetner  the 
blood  shed  by  the  Saviour  during  His  Passion  re- 
mained united  to  the  Word  or  not,  raised  the  point 
as  to  whether  the  Precious  Blood  is  an  essential  part 
or  only  a  concomitant  of  the  Sacred  Humanity.  '  If 
an  essential  part,  they  argued,  it  could  never  be  de- 
tached from  the  Word;  if  a  concomitant  only,  it 
could.  The  Dominicans  held  the  first  view,  and  the 
Franciscans  the  second.  Pius  II,  in  whose  presence 
the  debate  took  place,  rendered  no  doctrinal  decision 
on  the  point  at  issue.  However,  chiefly  since  the 
Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  XIII,  c.  3)  called  the  body 
and  blood  of  Jesus  "partes  Christi  Domini",  the 
trend  of  theological  thought  has  been  in  favour  of  the 
Dominican  teaching.  Suares  and  de  Lugo  look 
askance  at  the  Franciscans'  view,  and  Faber  writes: 
"It  is  not  merely  a  concomitant  of  the  flesh,  an  in- 
separable accident  of  the  body.  I^e  blood  itself, 
as  blooci,  was  assumed  directly  by  the  Second  Person 
of  the  Blessed  Trinity"  (Precious  Blood,  i).  The 
blood  shed  during  the  triduum  of  the  Passion  wae 
therefore  reunited  to  the  body  of  Christ  at  the  Ree- 
urrection,  with  the  possible  exception  of  a  few  par- 


\ 


PRECIOUS 


373 


PRECIOUS 


tides  which  instantly  lost  their  union  to  the  Word 
and  became  holy  relics  to  be  venerated  but  not 
adored.  Some  such  particles  may  have  adhered  and 
yet  adhere  to  the  instruments  of  the  Passion,  e.  g. 
nails,  scourging  pillar,  Scala  Sanda.  Several  places 
like  Siuntes,  Bruges,  Mantua  etc.  claim,  on  the 
strength  of  ancient  traditions,  to  possess  relics  of 
the  ftedous  Blood,  but  it  is  often  difficult  to  tell 
whether  the  traditions  are  correct,  yiewed  as  a 
put  of  the  Sacred  Humanity  hypostatically  united 
to  the  Word,  the  Precious  Blood  aeserves  latreutical 
worship  or  adoration.  It  may  also,  like  the  Heart 
or  the  Wounds  from  which  it  flowea,  be  singled  out 
for  special  honour,  in  a  way  that  special  honour  was 
rendered  it  from  the  beginning  by  St.  Paul  and  the 
Fathers  who  so  eloquently  pri^^sed  its  redeeming 
virtue  and  rested  on  it  the  Christian  spirit  of  self- 
sacrifice.  As  Faber  remarks,  the  lives  of  the  saints 
are  replete  with  devotion  to  the  Precious  Blood. 
In  due  course  of  time  the  Church  gave  shape  and 
sanction  to  the  devotion  by  approving  societies  like 
the  Missionaries  of  the  Precious  Blood;  enriching 
confraternities  like  that  of  St.  Nichplas  in  Carcere, 
in  Rome,  and  that  of  the  London  Oratory;  attaching 
indulgences  to  pravers  and  scapulars  in  honour  of 
the  ftecious  Blood;  and  establishing^  commemora- 
tive feasts  of  the  Precious  Blood,  Friday  after  the 
fourth  Sunday  in  Lent  and,  since  Pius  lA,  the  first 
Sunday  of  JiiJy. 

Bkmxdxct  XIV.  De  Menorum  Dei  Beatifieatione,  II,  30:  IV, 
ii,  10,  de  Fe«<M.  I.  8  (Rome,  1747) ;  Faber,  The  Precious  Blood 
(Baltimore,  s.  d.):  Humtbr,  OuUinet  of  Dogm.  Theol,  (New  York, 
1806);  loz,  Die  Rdiquim  det  Koatb.  BltUea  (LuxemburK,  1880); 
Bkrxnobb,  Die  Abldeee  (12th  ed..  Paderbom,  1000). 

J.  F.  SOLLIEB. 

Feabt  oi:  the  Most  Precious  Blood. — For  many 
dioceses  there  are  two  days  to  which  the  Office  of  the 
Precious  Blood  has  been  assigned,  the  office  being 
in  both  cases  the  same.  The  reason  is  this:  the  office 
was  at  first  granted  to  the  Fathers  of  the  Most 
Precious  Bloodonly .  Later,  as  one  of  the  offices  of  the 
Fridays  of  Lent,  it  was  assigned  to  the  Friday  after 
liie  fourth  Sunday  in  Lent.  In  many  dioceses  these 
offices  were  adopted  also  by  the  fourth  Provincial  Coun- 
cil of  Baltimore  ( 1840) .  When  Pius  IX  went  into  exile 
at  Gaeta  (1849)  he  had  as  his  companion  the  saintly 
IX)n  Giovanni  Merlini,  third  superior  general  of  the 
Fathers  of  the  Most  Precious  Blood.  Arrived  at 
Gaeta,  Merlini  suggested  that  His  Holiness  make  a 
vow  to  extend  theTeast  of  the  Precious  Blood  to  the 
entire  Qiurch.  if  he  would  again  obtain  possession 
of  the  papal  aominions.  The  pope  took  the  matter 
under  consideration,  but  a  few  aa^s  later  sent  his 
domestic  prelate  Jos.  Stella  to  Merlini  with  the  mes- 
sage: ''The  pope  does  not  deem  it  expedient  to  bind 
himself  by  a  vow;  instead  His  Holiness  is  pleased  to 
extend  the  feast  immediately  to  all  Christendom". 
This  was  30  June,  1849,  the  day  the  French  con- 
Quered  Rome  and  the  republicans  capitulated.  The 
thirtieth  of  June  had  been  a  Saturday  before  the  first 
Sunday  of  July,  wherefore  the  pope  decreed  (10 
August,  1849)  that  henceforth  every  first  Simday 
of  July  should  be  dedicated  to  the  Most  Precious 

Blood. 

Ulrich  F.  Mueller. 

PredouB  Blood,  Archconfraternitt  of  the 
Most. — Confraternities  which  made  it  their  special 
object  to  venerate  the  Blood  of  Christ  first  arose  in 
Spain.  In  the  life  of  the  Carmelite  lay  brother, 
Francis  of  the  Infant  Jesus  (d.  1601),  mention  is  made 
of  such  a  confraternity  as  existing  in  Valencia.  A 
few  years  later  they  must  have  been  quite  numerous, 
for  it  is  said  of  the  Carmelite  Anna  of  St.  Augustine 
(d.  1624),  that  "she  received  with  hospitality  those 
who  went  about  collecting  alms  for  the  confraternities 
of  the  Precious"  Blood  erected  in  many  places". 


Ravenna,  Italy,  possessed  one  at  a  very  early  date. 
Another  was  erected  in  Rome  under  Gregory  XIII  and 
confirmed  by  Sixtus  V,  but  merged  later  on  with  the 
Gonfalour.  The  archconfratemity  as  it  now  exists 
owes  its  origin  to  Mgr  Albertini,  then  priest  at  San 
Nicola  in  Carcere,  Rome,  where  since  1708  devotions 
in  honour  of  the  Precious  Blood  had  been  held. 
Deeply  moved  by  the  temporal  and  spiritual  misery 
caused  by  the  French  Revolution,  he  united,  8  Decem- 
ber, 1808,  into  a  society  such  as  were  willing  to  medi- 
tate fre<iuently  on  the  Passion  and  to  oner  up  to 
the  Di\dne  Father  the  Blood  of  His  Son,  in  expiation 
of  their  sins,  for  the  conversion  of  sinners,  for  the  great 
wants  of  tne  Church,  and  the  souls  in  purgatory. 
He  composed  for  them  the  "Chaplet  of  the  Precious 
Blood"  which  they  were  to  recite  during  his  daily 
Mass.  The  confraternity  was  canonically  erected  by 
Pius  VII  through  his  cardinal  vicar,  27  February, 
1809,  raised  to  the.  rank  of  an  archconfratemity,  26 
September^  1815,  and  enriched  with  numerous  indul- 
gences. Pius  IX  increased  the  privileges,  19  January, 
1850,  and  30  September,  1852.  In  England  it  was 
erected  in  the  church  of  St.  Wilfrid,  Stafifordshire, 
1847,  but  was  transferred  to  the  church  of  the  London 
Oratory  (12  Aug[ust,  1850).  Previous  to  this  it  had 
been  introducied  into  America  by  the  Passionists,  and 
canonically  erected  in  the  numerous  houses  and  jmli^ 
ishes  founded  by  them  after  their  arrival  (1844).  As 
a  rule,  they  enroll  such  as  desire  it  at  t^e  end  of  their 
missions. 

Sbxbsrgbr,  Keujo  the  spiritual  Treaewe  (Collegeville,  Ind.), 
1-11,  372-^80, 462;  Bkhbingeb.  DieAbUleae  (Faderborn).  607-10. 

Ulrich  F.  Musllbr. 

PreciouB  Blood,  Congregation  of  the  Most, 
an  association  of  secular  priests  living  in  community, 
whose  principal  aim  is  to  give  missions  and  retreats. 
The  members  take  no  vows  but  are  held  together  by 
the  bond  of  charity  only  and  by  a  i)romi8e  "not  to 
leave  the  community  without  permission  of  the  lawful 
superior''.  The  congregation  was  founded  at  the 
desire  of  Pius  VII  after  his  return  from  exile  by 
Blessed  Gaspare  del  Bufalo.  Distressed  at  the 
spiritual  condition  of  Rome,  the  pope  determined 
that  missions  should  be  hela  throu^out  the  Papal 
States  and  selected  del  Bufalo  and  a  ^w  other  zealous 
priests  to  undertake  the  task  (1814),  assigning  to 
them  the  convent  of  San  FeUce  at  Giano,  where  a 
foundation  was  made  15  Au^j.,  1815.  New  houses 
were  opened,  and  in  1820  six  missions  were  established 
in  liie  Campagna  for  the  conversion  of  the  banditti. 
The  growth  of  the  society  was  checked  at  the  election 
of  L^  XII  (1823),  who,  misinformed  as  to  the  work 
of  the  congregation  and  its  founder,  was  unfavourable. 
He  objected  to  the  proposed  name,  "Congregation 
of  the  Most  Precious  Blood'',  as  a  novelty;  but  the 
society  was  finally  cleared  of  all  accusations  and  P. 
Bctti  justified  the  name  fronr  Scripture  and  the 
Fathers.  Blessed  Gaspare  was  succeeded  by  Don 
Biagio  Valentini,  a  member  of  the  society  since  1817. 
His  successor,  the  Yen.  Giovanni  Merlini  (the  process 
of  whose  beatification  has  been  be^un  in  Rome),  was 
a  native  of  Spoleto  and  a  friend  of  Pius  IX,  whose  exile 
at  Gaeta  he  shared.  Through  the  influence  of  the 
pope,  several  new  houses  were  opened  in  Italy,  and 
one  each  in  Alsace  and  Bavaria.  The  mother-house 
was  established  in  the  convent  of  the  Crociferi,  Maria 
in  Trivio.  Merlini  died  13  January,  1873^  and  was 
succeeded  by  Don  Enrico  Rizzoli.  Under  his  rule  the 
Italian  Government  (I860,  1866,  1870)  confiscated, 
among  others,  Maria  in  Trivio,  since  when  the  fathers 
who  are  in  charge  of  this  church  have  to  rent  a  few 
rooms  in  their  own  house.  In  the  convent  garden  a 
Methodist  church  was  erected,  but  owine  to  the 
scanty  attendance  it  was  soon  closed  and  is  now 
used  as  a  theatre.  The  Government  confiscated  the 
revenues  of  the  seminary  at  Albano  and  suppressed 


PRECIOUS                              374  PRECIOUS 

altogether   twenty-five  houses.    The  Kulturkampf  girls,  and  the  care  of  the  sick.   They  wear  a  red  girdle, 

closed  the  houses  in  Alsace  and  Bavaria.    Rizzoli  was  and  on  a  red  ribbon  a  cross  with  the  initials  F.  P.  S. 

succeeded   by   Mgr  Caporali,  in  1890  consecrated  (FiUa  Pretiosi  Sanguinis — daughter  of  the  Precious 

Archbishop  of  Otranto;  Mgr  Salvatore  Palmieri,  to  Blood).    Leo  XIII  appointed  Cardinal  Mazzella  as 

whom  the  Government  refused  the  exequatur  when  he  their  cardinal  protector.     The  mother-house  is  in 

was  named  Archbishop  of  Rossano,  but  later  ac-  Koningbosch,  Diocese  of  Roermond.     They  assist  es- 

Suiesced    in    his    preconization    as    Archbishop    of  pecially  the  Missionary  Fathers  of  the  Holy  Ghost  in 

irindisi  (1893);  Aloysius  BiaschcUi;  the  present  gen-  German  East  Africa.    As  yet  they  have  made  no 

eral  is  Very  Rev.  Hyacinthe  Petroni.  foundation  in  the  United  States. 

The  congregation  was  introduced  into  America  Ulrich  F.  Mueller. 
(1844)  at  the  request  of  Bishop  Puroell  of  Cincin- 
nati, by  Rev.  Francis  de  S.  Brunner  (q.  v.).  It  con-  III.  Sisters  Adorers  of  the  Precious  Blood,  a 
ducts  a  college  (Colle^eville,  Ind.)  and  parishes  in  congregation  of  nuns  established,  14  September,  1861, 
Ohio  (Dioceses  of  Cincinnati,  Cleveland,  Toledo),  In-  by  Right  Rev.  Joseph  La  Rocque,  then  Bishop  of  St. 
diana^I^iocese  of  Fort  Wayne).  Missouri  (Diocese  of  Hyacinthe  (Prov.  Quebec,  Canada),  with  the  co-oper- 
St.  Joseph  and  Kansas  City),  Illinois  (Archdiocese  of  ation  of  Mgr.  J.  S.  Raymond,  then  superior  of  the 
Chicago),  Nebraska  (Diocese  of  Lincoln).  The  chief  seminary  of  St.  Hyacmthe.  The  foundress,  M^re 
work  of  the  order  is  the  giving  of  missions  and  assist-  Catherine- Aur61ie  du  Pr^cieux  Sang^  commonly  called 
ing  the  secular  parish  clergy  on  occasions  such  as  tridua,  M^re  Caouette  or  Mother  Catherme^  died,  6  July, 
Forty  Hours  devotions,  retreats  etc.  The  novitiate  1905,  at  the  mother-house  in  St.  Hyacmthe,  of  which 
is  at  Burkettsville,  Ohio.  she  was  then  superioress.    The  object  of  the  institu- 

In  America  candidates  pass  througji  ^  year  of  pro-  tion  i^  two-fold :  the  glorification  of  the  Precious  Blood, 

bation,  after  which  they  are  admitted  either  as  brothers,  and  the  salvation  of  souls.    "To  adore,  to  repair,  to 

and  then  take  the  promise  of  fidelity,  or  as  students,  suffer'',  is  the  watch-word  given  to  the  sisters  by  the 

to  follow  a  six  years'  course  in  classical  studies.   Sucn  foundress.    She  was  joined  by  Sister  Euphrasie  de 

of  the  students  as  receive  the  degree  A.B.  enter  the  Joseph,  her  cousin.  Sister  Sophie  de  Tlncamation, 

seminary,  and  after  the  first  year  of  philosophy  give  niece  of  Monsignor  Ka3rmond,  and  Sister  Elizabeth  de 

the  promise  of  fidelity.  After  five  years  more  of  study,  Tlmmacul^e  Conception,  a  convert.  The  constitutions 

they  are  ordained,  and  a  year  later  become  eligible  to  of  the  institute  were  approved  by  Leo  XIII,  20  Octo- 

fuU  memberslup.    If  the  ballot  is  favourable,  they  are  ber^  1896.    The  order  is  contemplative,  and  the  sisters 

admitted  and  invested  with  the  missionary's  insignia  maintain  perpetual  adoration  of  the  Blessed  Sacra- 

(a  large  ebony  crucifix  with  brass  figure  and  brass  ment.    The  Office  is  recited  daily:  on  Thursday,  the 

chain,  worn  over  the  heart).    In  Europe  the  method  Office  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament^  which  is  also  chanted 

of  adopting  members  is  somewhat  different,  since  there  when  the  Blessed  Sacrament  is  exposed:  eveiy  first 

none  are  admitted  before  they  are  at  least  students  Sunday  of  the  month,  and  during  the  Forty-Hours 

of  philosophy ;  often  priests  join  the  congregation.  devotion,  which  by  a  special  privilege  of  Pius  DC  is  held 

The  present  statistics  for  the  congregation  are:  four  times  yearly.    On  Saturday  the  Office  of  the 

lUdyf  3  provinces,  15  houses,  the  principalones  being  Blessed  Virgin  is  sidd,  and  on  all  other  days  that  of  the 

at  Rome  (Santa  Maria  in  Trivio;,  Albano,  and  San  Precious  Blood.    Matins  and  Lauds  are  recited  at 

Paolo;  Spairif  1  province,  2  houses;  North  America,  1  midnight.    The  institute  is  governed  by  the  mother 

province  with  a  seminary  at  Carthagena,  Ohio,  seat  of  superior,  aided  by  her  councillors,  and  in  certain  cases 

the  provincial;  a  college  at  Collegeville,  Ind.,  with  300  by  the  chapter  of  the  community.    The  councillors 

stuaents;  novitiate  at  Burkettsville,  Ohio;  parishes  and  the  mother  superior  are  elected  for  a  term  of  five 

and  missions:   Ohio,  19;    Indiana,  4;    Missouri,  6;  years.    Houses  are  independent  of  one  another  in 

Nebraska,  2.    The  house  at  Shellenberg  (Liechten-  government,  recruiting,  and  training  their  members, 

stein)  belongs  to  the  American  province.    There  are  The  novitiate  lasts  two  years.    The  choir  and  lay 

in  the  American  province  110  pnests,  20  seminarians,  sisters   make  perpetual  vows:   the   Umrikres   (out- 

75  collegians,  70  lay-brothers,  35  novices,  17  convents,  sisters)  pronounce  their  vows  lor  a  year  only,  being 

and  44  missions  and  stations.  allowed  \p  renew  them  afterwards  on  the  Feast  of  the 

Precious  Blood,  Knightb  of  the. — At  Mantua  Precious  Blood.    The  choir  sisters  dress  in  white, 

in  1608  a  knight-order  of  the  Precious  Blood,  which  with  a  red  scapular  and  cincture  on  which  are  painted 

received  the  approval  of  Paul  V,  was  founded  by  in  white  the  instruments  of  the  Passion;  for  Com- 

Vincente  del  Gonza^a,  Duke  of  Mantua.    1\a  sum  was  munion,  and  before  the  Blessed  Sacrament  when  ex- 

their  popu- 
sisters  have  the 
The  costume 

three  drops  of  blood.    The  Dukes  of  Mantua  were  of  the  Umrikres  is  all  black,  as  their  functions  call 

Grandmasters,  until  Emperor  Joseph  I  declared  the  them  out  of  the  cloister.    The  institute  subsists  on 

ukedom  abolished ;  the  order  was  then  dissolved.   The  alms  and  on  the  work  of  some  of  the  sisters,  who  make 

sacred  relic  is  said  to  have  disappeared  since  1848.  everything  requisite  for  the  service  of  the  altar,  and 

There  is  no  bibliomphy  for  the  European  provinces;  for  other  pious  articles.     The  institute  also  directs  the 

i^'^'alTe^lS^rtZ^^  Confraternity  and  the  Guard  of  Honour  of  the  Pre- 

d€M  P,  F,  S,  Brunner,  II  (Carthagena,  1882).    Aa  to  the  lives  of  ClOUS  Blood,  and  spintual  retreats  for  ladieS. 

sonieof  the  early  meml^rs  in  Italy,  BreriCertfun*^  From  the  mother-house  at  St.  Hyacinthe  have 

nrtiH  d%  tilcunt  Membn  deUa  CongregaMxone  del  Preztoao  Sangue  .^«..««  ^„«„  u«.«i»«v.»fl.  'T'**«w*«+-rx  /f\^4-0%Ji^    r^A««A^a\ 

(1880);  on  the  activity  of  the  American  priests.  Nuntiwi  Aula,  ?P"i^8  ™^y  branches:  Toronto  (Ontano,  Cajiada), 

I-X.  1867;   Montreal   (Quebec,   Canada),   1874;  Ottawa 

Ulbich  F.  Mueller.  (Canada),  1887:   Three  Rivers  (Quebec,  Canada), 

1889;  Brooklyn  (New  York),  1890;  Portland  (Orc^gon), 

Precious  Blood,  CoNGREGATiONB  OF  THE. — I.  Ber-  1891:  Sherbrooke  (Quebec,  Canada),  1895;  Nioolet 

NADiNES  OF  THE  Precioub  Blood,  a  Congregation  (Quebec,  Canada),  1896;  Manchester  (N.  H.),  1898; 

of  nuns,  no  longer  in  existence,  founded  by  Mother  Havana  ((Duba),  1902;  Levis  (Quebec,  Canada),  1906; 

Bailou  with  the  assistance  of  St.  Francis  de  Sales,  as  and  Joliette  (Quebec,  Canada),  1907. 

an  offshoot  of  the  reformed  Cistercianesses.  Sister  Aim£e  de  Marie. 

II.  Daughters  of  the  Precious  Blood,  were 

founded  by  Maria  Seraphina  Spiehermans  at  Sittard,  IV.  Sisters  of  the  Precious  Blood,  a  congrega- 

HoUand,  1862,  and  approved  by  a  Decree  of  Leo  XIII,  tion  of  nuns  founded  at  Gurtweil.  Baden.    In  1857 

12  July,  1890.   Their  main  object  is  the  education  of  Rev.  Herman  Kessler,  the  pastor,  wno  had  long  desired 


PRECIPIANO 


375 


PBECIPIANO 


to  establish  a  home  for  destitute  children  and  a  nor- 
mal school  for  the  training  of  religious  teachers,  asked 
for  six  members  of  the  community  of  the  Sisters  of  the 
Precious  Blood  from  Ottmarsheim,  Alsace.  Thev 
responded  and  began  their  work  with  twelve  poor  chil- 
dren under  the  direction  of  Father  Kessler.  Under  the 
auspices  of  Archbishoo  von  Vicari  of  Freiburg,  a 
novitiate  and  normal  school  were  established;  the  lat* 
ter  was  affiliated  with  the  educational  department  of 
Karleoruhe.  Other  schools  and  academies  were  opened. 
In  1869  Bishop  Junker  of  Alton,  111.,  asked  for  sisters 
for  his  diocese.  In  1870  a  number  of  sisters  sailed  for 
Belle  Prairie  (now  Piopolis)  in  the  Diocese  of  Alton. 
Meantime  Bishop  Baltes  succeeded  Bishop  Junker;  he 
entrusted  to  them  several  parochial  schools  and  prom- 
ised further  assistance  on  condition  that  the  commu- 
nit>r  should  establish  itself  permanently  in  his  diocese 
subject  to  his  authority.  Mother  Augustine,  superior 
of  the  mother-house  at  Gurtweil,  apprehended  a  pre- 
mature separation  from  Gurtweil,  and  was  also  op- 
posed to  limiting  the  sisters'  activity  to  one  diocese 
only.  She  went  to  St.  Louis  where  tmough  the  efforts 
of  Father  Muehlsiepen,  Vicar-General  of  St.  Louis,  the 
Sisters  of  the  Precious  Blood  were  received  into  the 
Archdiocese  of  St.  Louis  (1872)  and  obtained  charge 
of  a  number  of  schools  in  Missouri  and  Nebraska,  in 
1873  the  Kulturkampf  had  reached  ite  climax  and  the 
entire  community  was  expelled;  some  went  to  Rome, 
others  settled  in  Bosnia,  Hungary,  while  the  greater 
number  joined  their  sisters  in  America.  A  mother- 
house  was  established  in  O'Fallon,  St.  Charles  County, 
Mo.,  completed  in  1875.  News  arrived  that  Mother 
Clementine,  mistress  of  novices,  with  a  few  professed 
sisters  and  the  entire  novitiate  nad  resolved  to  follow 
the  dictates  of  Bishop  Bidtes  and  establish  a  motheiv 
house  in  his  diocese.  Consequently  a  new  novitiate 
was  begun  in  O'Fallon.  The  novitiate  of  Mother 
Clementine's  branch  was  established  at  Ruma  in  1876. 
They  conduct  schools  in  the  Archdiocese  of  St.  Loiiis, 
the  Diocesesof  Alton,  Belleville,  Oklahoma,  St.  Joseph, 
and  Wichita.  They  number  (191 1) :  professed  sisters, 
230;  novices,  20;  candidates,  30;  schools,  51;  orphans, 
150;  pupils.  49,430.  The  O'Fallon  community  was 
incorporated  (1878)  under  the  laws  of  the  State  of 
Missouri  with  the  right  of  succession,  under  the  l^al 
title  of  St.  Mary's  Institute  of  O'Fallon,  Mo.  The 
sisters  conduct  schools  in  the  Archdiocese  of  St.  Louis, 
and  in  the  Dioceses  of  Alton,  Kansas  City,  Lincoln, 
and  Omaha.  They  number  (1911):  professed  sisters, 
179;  novices,  17;  candidates,  11;  academy,  1; 
schools,  20;  pupils,  2943. 

Ulrich  F.  Mueller. 

V.  Sisters  of  the  Precious  Blood,  founded  in 
the  canton  of  Grisons,  Switzerland,  in  1833,  by  Maria 
Anna  Brunner,  and  her  son  Rev.  Francis  de  Sales 
Brunner  (q.  v.).  They  were  inspired  to  the  undertak- 
ing by  a  visit  to  Rome,  during  which  they  were  much 
impressed  by  the  devotion  to  the  Most  Rrecious  Blood 
as  practised  bv  the  congregation  of  Blessed  Gaspare 
del  Bufalo.  The  rule  was  founded  on  that  of  St.  Biene- 
dict  and  approved  by  the  Bishop  of  Chur,  the  object 
of  the  community  being  the  adoration  of  the  Most 
Precious  Blood  and  the  education  of  youth^  including 
the  care  of  orphans  and  homeless  or  destitute  girls. 
The  sisters  became  affiliated  with  the  Society  of 
Priests  of  the  Precious  Blood,  of  which  Father  Brun- 
ner was  a  member,  and  on  his  being  sent  to  America 
to  establish  his  congregation  there  he  enabled  the 
sisters  also  to  make  a  foundation,  first  at  St.  Alphon- 
sus,  near  Norwalk,  and  permanently  at  New  Riegel, 
Ohio.  In  1886  Archbishop  Elder  found  it  advisable 
to  revise  the  rule  drawn  up  by  Father  Brunner  in  order 
to  adapt  it  to  altered  conditions,  and  this  revision,  be- 
sides extending  the  time  of  adoration  through  the  clay 
as  well  as  the  night,  increased  the  teaching  force  of  the 
community,  who  were  thus  enabled  to  take  charge  of  a 


larger  number  of  parochial  schools.  In  this  year,  also, 
the  sisters  were  separated  from  the  society  of  priests, 
with  which  it  had  hitherto  been  affiliated,  and  made  a 
separate  congregation  with  a  superior  general  under 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  Archbishop  of  Cincinnati.  The 
present  mother-house  is  at  Maria  Stein,  Ohio.  They 
conduct  schools  in  the.  Archdiocese  of  Cincinnati,  and 
in  the  Dioceses  of  Cleveland,  Ft.  Wayne,  Kansas  City, 
Nashville,  St.  Joseph,  and  Tucson.  The  statistics  for 
191 1  are:  professed  sLsters,  592;  novices,  48;  postu- 
lants, 26;  pupils,  6954. 

Hexmbucbeb,  Dm  Orden  u.  Kongregationen  der  ktUhoL  Kvxh€, 
III  (Paderborn.  1908),  399,  476. 

SisTEB  Mart  Victoria. 

Preeipiano,  Humbert-Guillaume  db.  Count, 
b.  at  Besancon,  1626;  d.  at  Brussels,  7  June,  1711. 
Having  stuciied  the  classics  at  Constance,  philosophy 
in  his  native  town,  and  theology  in  the  Jesuit  college, 
Louvain.  he  graduated  as  Licenciate  in  Law  and  Doc- 
tor of  Theology  at  the  Universitv  of  D61e.  He  was 
named  successively  canon,  archoeaoon,  and  dean  of 
the  metropolitan  chapter  of  Besancon;  commenda- 
tory Abbot  of  Bellevaux  in  Burgunoy;  and  was  then 
appointed  ecclesiastical  councillor  at  the  Court  of 
I>61e  by  Philip  IV  of  Spain,  La  Franche-Comt^ 
being  a  Spanisn  dependency.  In  1667  Philip  sent 
him  to  the  imperial  Diet  of  Ratisbon  as  plenipoten- 
tiary for  Burgundy.  After  1672  he  resided  at  Madrid 
as  chief  councillor  for  the  affairs  of  the  Netherlands 
and  Burgundy.  Ten  years  later  he  was  raised  to 
the  See  of  Bruges,  and  consecrated  on  21  March, 
1683.  For  seven  years  he  laboured  zealously  to 
maintain  the  purity  of  the  Faith  and  the  rights  of  the 
Church,  and  to  check  the  spread  of  Jansenism.  In 
1690  he  was  offered  the  Archbishopric  of  Mechlin, 
which  he  accepted  only  upon  the  express  order  of  the 
pope.  At  Mechlin  his  nfe  was  a  constant  strugde 
af^ainst  the  doctrines  which  were  being  activ^v 
disseminated  by  the  Fi^nch  refugees^  Amauld, 
Quesnel,  and  others  (see  Jansenius  and  Jansenism). 
In  union  with  his  siiffragans,  the  archbishop  began 
by  insisting  on  the  oath  formulated  b3r  Alexander 
Vll  as  a  necessary  condition  for  admission  to  Holy  ^ 
orders,  benefices,  and  ecclesiastical  positions.  Three 
episcopal  assemolies  held  under  his  presidency  at 
Brussels  in  1691,  1692,  and  1697,  confirmed  this 
r^ulation.  The  second  (1692)  moreover,  to  prevent 
all  subterfuges  regarding  the  distinction  of  law  and 
fact,  had  made  certiun  additions  to  the  formulary. 
Through  Dr.  Hennebel,  the  Jansenists  lodged  a  pro- 
test at  Rome,  and  succeeded  in  having  tneir  claim 
upheld  by  Innocent  XII.  The  pope  ordered  the 
adoption  of  the  precise  words  of  the  Alexandrine 
oath,  as  being  quite  sufficient  since  it  condemned 
the  five  propositions  "in  the  obvious  sense  which  the 
words  of  the  propositions  express,  and  which  our 
predecessors  condemned".  Tnereupon,  men  of  bad 
faith  declared  that  the  Constitution  of  Alexander  VII 
and  the  obligations  it  imposed  had  been  changed, 
&nd  that  it  was  no  longer  necessary  to  reject  the 
propositions  '4n  sensu  auctoris".  The  bishops  com- 
municated with  Rome  to  obtain  a  more  drastic  and 
efficacious  remedy:  and  the  pope,  now  better  in- 
formed, authorized  them  to  proceed,  not  only  in 
virtue  of  their  own  authority  out  also  as  deleg^ates 
of  the  Holy  See,  against  all  who  by  word  or  wnting 
opposed  the  well-known  decisions  of  the  sovereign 
authority.    The  archbishop  at  once  censured  and 

Srohibited  seventy-one  defamatory  pamphlets  of 
ansenistic  origin;  but,  as  the  propaganda  m  favour 
of  the  "Augustinus"  continued  and  moral  suasion 
proved  entirely  ineffectual,  he  sought  the  interven- 
tion of  the  secular  power.  Ouesnel,  Gerberon,  and 
Brigode,  the  distributor  of  their  writings,  were  ar- 
reted at  Brussels,  by  order  of  Philip  V,  and  con- 
fined to  the  archiepiscopal  palace  (1703).  Quesnel 
escaped  to  Holland,  but  nis  vast  correspondence  was 


PBECONIZATZON 


376 


PREDESTINAaiANISM 


Bdsed  and  judicial  proceedines  against  him  besun.  two  fundamental  propomtions  which  bear  to  each 

AH  the  documents  connected  herewith  were  pubuah-  other  the  relation  of  cause  and  effect:  (a)  the  absolute 

ed  under  the  title  "  Causa  Quesnelliana"  (Brussels,  will  of  God  as  the  sole  cause  of  the  salvation  or  damn»- 

1705).    They  form  one  of  the  most  valuable  sources  tion  of  the  individual,  without  regard  to  his  merits 

of  the  authentic  history  of  Jansenism.    In   1705,  or  demerits;  (b)  as  to  the  elect,  it  denies  the  freedom 


the  Archbishop  of  Mechlin  was  one  of  the  first  to 

Sublish  in  his  diocese  the  BuU  "Vineam  Domini 
abbaoth",  in  which  Clement  XI  condemned  the 
theory  of  respectful   silence    (see  Jansenius   and 


of  the  will  under  the  influence  of  efficacious  grace 
while  it  puts  the  reprobate  under  the  necessity  of 
committing  sin  in  consequence  of  the  absence  of 
grace.    The  system  in  its  general  outlines  may  thus 


Jansenism),  and  his  action  elicited  the  congratula-  Be  described:  the  question  why  some  are  saved  while 

tions  of  the  sovereign  pontiff.    At  Mechlin  as  at  others  are  damned  can  only  be  answered  by  assuming 

Bruges.  Precipiano  hfui  to  fight  in  defence  of  the  right  an  eternal,  absolute,  and  unchangeable  decree  of  God. 

of  asylum  attached  to  certain  places  or  religious  The  salvation  of  the  elect  and  tne  damnation  of  the 

houses,  and  at  Mechlin  his  efforts  were  at  first  com-  reprobate  are  simply  the  effect  of  an  unconditional 

pletely  thwarted  by  the  civil  power.    As  a  last  resort  Divine  decree.    But  if  those  who  are  predestined  for 

ne  was  forced  to  excommunicate  the  procurator-  eternal  life  are  to  attain  this  end  with  metaphysical 

general  and  the  members  of  the  Grand  ConseU;  the  necessity,  and  it  is  only  such  a  necessity  tnat  can 

magistrates  replied  by  imposing  on  him  an  enormous  guarantee  the  actual  accomplishment  of  the  Divine 


fine,  and  the  heavy  penalty  of  "aqiue  et  ignis  in- 
teraictio".  Through  the  personal  intervention  of 
Philip  V,  %rho  esteemed  the  prelate  highly,  the  quarrel 
was  ended  without  encroachment  on  the  rights  of  the 
Church,  or  dishonour  to  their  doughty  champi 

Dc  Ram,  ajmodicum  Bdgiemn,  I  (Mechlin.  IS28) ;  Db  Be 


pion. 

eCHBCTEL 


will,  God  must  give  them  during  their  lifetime  ef- 
ficacious graces  of  such  a  nature  that  the  possibility 
of  free  resistance  is  systematically  excluded,  while, 
on  the  oliier  hand,  the  will,  under  the  influence  of 
pace,  is  borne  along  without  reluctance  to  do  what 
IS  rig^t  and  is  forced  to  persevere  in  a  course  of 


de»  areheUquM  deMalinM  (Louvain.  1881);    Pboowt.  Hist,  du     ngnWJOUatteSS  lO  inc  noUT  01   Oeacn.     IJUt  irom  aU 


drmt  (TanU  «n  BeloiqM  (Ghent,  1870). 


J.  FOBdBT. 


Preconixfttion  (Lat.  prcKonimref  to  publish,  from 
prcBCOf  herald,  public  crier).  This  word  means:  (1)  in 
its  strict  jurioical  sense  the  ratification  in  a  public  con- 


eternity  God  l^as  also  made  a  decree  not  less  absolute 
whereby  he  has*  positively  predestined  the  non-elect 
to  eternal  torments.  God  can  accomplish  this  design 
only  by  denying  to  the  reprobate  irresistibly  ef- 
ficacious graces  and  impelling  their  will  to  sin  con- 
tinually, thereby  leading  them  slowly  but  surely,  to 
sistoryofthe  choice  made  by  a  third  person  of  a  titular  eternal  damnation.  As  it  is  owing  to  the  will  of 
of  a  consistorial  benefice,  for  example  a  bishopric.  God  alone  that  heaven  is  to  be  filled  with  saints, 
The  pope  approves  the  election  or  postulation  of  the  without  any  regard  to  their  merits,  so  also  it  is  owing 
titular  made  by  a  chapter,  or  ratifies  the  presentation  to  that  same  \^of  God  that  hell  is  to  be  filled  with 
of  a  candidate  made  by  the  civil  power.  This  precon-  the  reprobate,  without  any  regard  to  their  foreseen 
ization  is  preceded  by  an  informative  process,  which  sins  and  demerits  and  with  such  only  as  God  has 
according  to  the  present  discipline  is  raised  by  the  eternally,  positively,  and  absolutely  destined  for 
Consistorial  Connnegation  for  the  countries  not  under  this  sad  lot.  In  any  case  sin  is  the  most  eflacacious 
Congregation  of  Propaganda,  but  the  mformation  is  means  of  infallibly  bringing  to  hell,  with  some  appear- 
furnished  by  the  Secretary  of  State  if  the  question  at  ance  of  justice,  those  who  are  positively  destined  for 
handreferstoseessituatedoutsideof  Italy;  (2)  some  reprobation.  In  its  further  development  Predes- 
authors  define  preconization  as  the  report  made  in  the  tinarianism  admits  of  a  harsher  and  of  a  milder  form 
above-mentioned  informative  process  by  the  cardinals  according  as  its  adherents  by  insisting  exclusively 
at  the  consistory  (Bargilliat,  "  Prselectionas  juris  ca-  on  the  salvific  will  of  God  push  positive  reprobation 
nonici".  I,  Paris,  1907,  467);  (3)  again,  preconization  into  the  background  or  endeavour  to  hide  under  a 
is  considered  the  announcement  to  the  pope  that  in  an  pious  phraseology  what  is  most  offensive  in  their 
approaching  consistory  a  cardinal  will  propose  in  the  doctrine,  i.  e.  God's  supposed  relation  towards  sin. 
name  of  the  head  of  a  State  the  candidate  whom  the  And  yet  this  element  forms  the  keystone  of  the  whole 
latter  himself  has  designated  for  a  see  (Andr6,''Cours  ^stem.  For  the  all-important  question  is:  Can 
de  droit  canon",  s.  v.  Preconization,  V,  Paris,  1860,  God  the  all  just  absolutely  and  positively  predestine 
340);  (4)  finally,  preconization  is  also  the  act  by  which  anyone  to  hell?  Can  the  all  holy  incite  and  force 
the  pope  ratines,  in  a  consbtory,  a  nomination  of  a  anyone  to  sin  with  the  intention  of  consigning  him 
bishopwhichhasbeenmadepreviously  by  adecreeof  to  eternal  damnation?  The  denial  of  the  uni- 
the  Consistorial  Congregation.  According  to  a  Decree  versality  of  the  salvific  will  of  God  and  the  restriction 
of  the  Congregation  of  Rites,  8  June,  1910  ("Acta  of  the  merits  of  Christ's  passion  to  the  elect  are  only 
Apostolicse  Sedis",  1910;  586)  the  date  of  the  anni-  natund  consequences  of  the  fundamental  principles 
versary  of  the  election  of  a  bishop  is  no  longer  that  of    of  this  heresy. 

bis  preconization  in  the  consistory,  but  that  of  the  de-        The  history  of  dogma  shows  that  the  origin  of 

cree  or  letter  by  which  he  is  appointed.  heretical  Predestinarianism  must  be  traced  back  to 

8kQuOruM&,L€hrbuch  dea  hatholuchm  Kirchenrechu  (Frei-    f^y^^  misunderstanding  and  misinterpretation  of  St. 

burg,    1900),  264;    Hinbchius,   SyMlem  dea  katoliachen   Kveh-     "i  ^   **J4o«M««ov««^"fe   «**^   uuouxv^.  P^^i.»vivpu   vi    ^v. 

tnrtchu,  II  (Berlin,  1878),  673;  and  canonists  generally,  apropos    Augustme  s  Views  relating  to  eternal  election  and 
of  the  nomination  of  bishops.  __      __  reprobation.    But  it  was  only  after  the  death  of  this 

great  doctor  of  the  Church  (430)  that  this  heresy 
sprang  up  in  the  Church  of  the  West,  whilst  that  of 
tne  East  was  preserved  in  a  remarkable  manner  from 
these  extravagances.  Beginning  from  the  anony- 
mous author  of  the  second  part  of  the  so-called 
''Prsedestinatus''  (see  below), up  to  Calvin,  we  find 


A.  Van  Hovb. 

Preoursor,  The.    See  John  the  Baptist,  Saint. 

Prodellft.    See  Altar,  sub-title,  Altab-steps. 

Predostinariaiiism  is  a  heresy  not  unfrequently 
met  with  in  the  course  of  the  centuries  which  reduces 

the  eternal  salvation  of  the  elect  as  well  as  the  eter-  that  all  the  adherents  of  this  heresy  have  taken  ref- 
nal  damnation  of  the  reprobate  to  one  cause  alone,  uge  behind  the  stout  shield  of  Augustinism.  The 
namely  to  the  sovereign  will  of  God,  and  thereby  ex-    question  therefore  to  be  answered  at  present  is  this: 


dudes  the  free  co-operation  of  man  as  a  secondary 
factor  in  bringing  aoout  a  happy  or  unhappy  future 
in  the  life  to  come. 

I.  Character  and  Origin. — The  essence  of  this 
heretical  predestinarianism  may  be  expressed  in  these 


Did  St.  Augustine  teach  this  heresy?  We  do  not 
wish  to  gainsav  that  St.  Augustine  in  the  last  years 
of  his  life  fell  a  victim  to  an  increased  rigorism 
which  may  find  its  psvchological  explanation  in  the 
fact  that  he  was  called  to  be  the  champion  of  Chris- 


PBlDESTDVABIiLNISM 


377 


PBIDKSTDVARIANISM 


tian  ^race  against  the  errors  of  Pelagianism  and  Semi- 
pelaguuusm.  Still  the  point  at  issue  is  whether  he, 
m  order  to  establish  the  predestination  of  the  just, 
gave  up  his  former  position  and  took  refuge  in  the  so- 
called  ^'irresistible  grace"  {gratia  irresislioilia)  which 
in  the  just  and  in  those  who  persevere  destroys  free 
will.  Not  only  Protestant  historians  of  dog^na  (as 
Hamack)  but  also  a  few  Catholic  scholars  (Rott- 
manner,  Kolb)  even  up  to  the  present  time  have 
thought  that  they  found  in  his  works  evident  indica- 
tions of  such  a  strange  view.  But  among  most  of  the 
modem  students  of  St.  Augustine  the  conviction  is 
constantly  gainine  ground  that  the  African^  Doctor 
at  no  time  of  his  me,  not  even  shortly  before  his  death, 
embraced  this  dangerous  view  of  grace  which  Jansen- 
ism claims  to  have  inherited  from  him.  Even  the 
Protestant  writer  £.  F.  K.  MUller  emphasizes  the 
fact  that  St.  Augustine,  with  regard  to  tne  liberty  o^ 
the  will  in  all  conditions  of  life,  "never  renounced 
his  repudiation  of  Manichsism.  a  step  which  had 
causea  him  so  severe  a  struggle"  (Realencyk.  fOr 
prot.  Theologie,  Leipzig,  1904,  XV,  590). 

The  only  ambiguous  passage  containing  the  ex- 
pressions '  'unavoidable  and  invincible  "  (De  corrept.  et 
gratia  XII,  xiocviii:  indeclinabiUter  et  insuperabiliter) 
oes  not  refer,  as  is  dear  from  the  context,  to  Divine 
^race  but  to  the  weak  will  which  by  means  of  grace 
IS  made  invulnerable  against  all  temptations,  even 
to  the  point  of  being  unconquerable,  without,  however, 
thereby  Josing  its  native  freedom.  Other  difficult 
passages  must  like¥nse  be  explained  in  view  of  the 
general  fundamental  principles  of  the  saint's  teachiig 
and  especially  of  the  context  and  the  logical  connex- 
ion of  his  thoudits  (df.  J.  Mausbach,  "Die  Ethik  des 
hi.  Augustinus  ,  II,  25  sq.;  Freiburg.  1909).  Hence 
St.  Augustine,  when  towards  the  end  of  his  life  he 
wrote  his  "  Retractations '',  did  not  take  back  any- 
thing in  this  matter,  nor  had  he  any  reason  for  doing 
so.  But,  as  to  God's  relation  to  sin,  nothing  was 
further  from  ^he  thoughts  of  the  great  doctor  than 
the  idea  that  the  Most  Holy  could  in  any  way  or 
for  any  purpose  force  the  human  will  to  commit  sin. 
It  is  true  that  God  foresees  sin,  but  He  does  not  will 
it;  for  He  must  of  necessity  hate  it.  St.  Augustine 
draws  a  sharp  distinction  between  prcBscire  and 
prcedestinaref  and  to  him  the  infallible  foreknowled^ 
of  sin  is  bv  no  means  synonymous  with  a  necessi- 
tating predestination  to  sin.  Thus  he  says  of  the 
fall  of  Adam  (De  corrept.  et  gratia,  12.  37),  "Deo 
ciuidem  prsesciente,  quia  esset  Adam  tacturus  in- 
iuste;  pnesciente  tamen,  non  ad  hoc  oogente"  (cf. 
Mausbach,  ibid.  208  sq.).  The  question  whether 
and  in  how  far  St.  Augustine  assumed,  in  connexion 
with  the  absolute  pr^estination  of  the  elect,  what 
was  later  on  known  as  the  negative  reprobation  of  the 
damned,  is  c[uite  distinct  frorn^  our  present  question 
and  has  nothing  to  do  with  heretical  Predestinarianism. 
II.  The  Wobk  "Piledestinatus". — ^That  the 
Pelagians  after  their  condemnation  by  the  Church 
had  a  great  interest  in  exaggerating  to  their  ultimate 
heretical  consequences  those  ideas  of  St.  Augustine 
which  mav  easily  be  misunderstood,  that  thereby  they 
might  under  the  mask  of  orthodoxy  be  enabled  to  com- 
bat more  effectually  not  only  the  ultra-Augustinian 
but  also  the  whole  Catholic  doctrine  on  grace,  is 
clearly  proved  bv  a  work  written  by  an  anonymous 
author  of  the  fifth  century.  This  work,  edited  by 
Sirmond  for  the  first  time  in  1643  in  Paris  under  the 
title  of  "Praedestmatus"  (P.  L.,  LIII,  579  sq.),  is 
divided  into  three  parts.  The  first  part  contains  a 
catalogue  of  ninety  heresies  (from  Simon  Magus  to 
the  Haresis  ProBdestinaioTum)  and  is  nothing  less  than 
a  barefaced  plagiarism  from  St.  Augustine's  work 
"De  Hseresibus  and  original  only  in  those  passages 
where  the  writer  touches  on  personal  experiences  and 
Roman  local  traditions  (cf.  A.  Faure,  "Die  Wider- 
legung  der  Haretiker  im  I.  Buch  des  Prsedestinatus", 


Leipzig,  1903).  The  second  part  is  according  to  the 
assertion  of  the  author  of  the  work  a  treatise  circulat- 
ed (lihough  falsel^r)  under  the  name  of  St.  Augustine 
which  feU  into  his  hands;  this  treatise,  under  ^e 
form  of  a  violent  polemic  against  the  Pelaeians,  puts 
forward  ultra-Augustinian  views  on  predestination 
and  thus-  affords  a  welcome  opportumty  to  a  Pela- 
gian to  attack  both  the  one-sidea  exaggerations  of  the 
pseudo-Augustine  and  the  Catholic  doctrine  on  grace 
of  the  true  St.  Augustine.  As  a  matter  of  fact  this 
favourable  opportimity  is  seized  upon  by  the  author 
in  the  third  and  last  part,  where  he  reveals  his  real 
purpose.  Adhering  closely  to  the  text  of  the  second 
part  he  subtlely  endeavours  to  refute  not  only  Pre- 
destinarianism but  also  (and  this  is  the  main  point), 
St.  Augustine's  doctrine  on  grace,  although  K>r  the 
sake  of  appearances  and  to  protect  himself  from  at-  ^ 
tack,  Pelagianism  is  nominally  condemned  in  four 
anathemata  (P.  L.,  LIII,  665).  All  the  older 
literature  concerning  this  inferior  compilation  may 
now  be  considered  as  superseded  by  the  recent 
scholarly  work  of  Schubert,  "Der  sop.  Prsedestinatus, 
dn  Beitrag  zur  Geschichte  des  Pelaguinismus  "  (Leip- 
zig, 1903).  We  need  not,  however,  entirely  accede  to 
the  opinion  of  Schubert  that  tne  whole  pseudo- 
Augustine  produced  in  the  second  part  is  nothing 
but  a  clumsy  forgery  of  liie  anonymous  Pelagian 
author  himself,  who  put  up  a  straw  man  in  order  the 
more  easily  to  overthrow  nim.  But  there  can  be  no . 
doubt  as  to  the  meaning,  the  spirit,  and  purpose  of 
this  manoeuvre.  We  have  to  do  with  a  skiuul  de- 
fence of  Pelagianism  against  the  doctrine  on  grace 
as  taught  by  St.  Augustine.    And  the  authorship 

Eoints  rather  to  Rome  than  to  southern  Gaul  (per- 
aps  Amobius  the  Younger).  This  work,  written  . 
probably  about  a.d.  440,  emanated  from  tne  group 
of  Pelagians  closely  associated  with  Julian  of  Ecliuium. 
It  is  not  impossible  that  a  friend  pf  Julian  living  in 
Rome  conceived  the  hope  of  maJang  the  pope  more 
favourable  to  Pelagianism  by  means  of  this  work. 
III.  LuciDus  AND  GoTTBCHALK. — ^Towaid  the 
middle  of  the  fifth  century  heretical  Predestinarian- 
ism in  its  harshest  form  was  defended  by  Lucidus, 
a  priest  of  Gaul,  about  whose  life  in  idl  other  respects 
history  is  silent.  According  to  his  view  God  posi- 
tively and  absolutely  predestined  some  to  eternal 
death  and  others  to  eternal  life,  in  such  a  manner 
that  the  latter  have  not  to  do  anything  to  secure 
their  eternal  salvation,'  since  Divine  grace  of  itself 
carries  them  on  to  their  destiny.  As  the  non-elect 
are  destined  for  hell,  Christ  did  not  die  for  them. 
When  Faustus,  Bishop  of  Riez,  ordered  Lucidus  to 
retract,  he  tkbandoned  his  scandalous  propositions 
and  even  notified  the  Provincial  Synod  of  Aries 
(c.  473)  of  his  submission  (cf.  Mansi,  "Concil.  Col- 
lect.", VII,  1010).  It  seems  that  within  half  a  cen- 
tury the  Ftedestinarian  heresy  had  completely  died 
out  in  Gaul,  since  the  Second  Synod  of  Orange  (529). 
although  it  solemnly  condemns  this  heresy,  still 
speaks  only  hypothetically  of  its  adherents;  "si 
sunt,  qui  tantum  malum  credere  velint"  (cf.  Den- 
zinger,  "Enchirid.",  tenth  ed.,  Freiburg,  1908,  n. 
20()).  The  controversy  was  not  renewed  till  the 
ninth  century  when  Gottschalk  of  ^bais,  appealing 
to  St.  Augustine,  aroused  a  long  and  animated  dis- 
pute on  predestination,  which  aJffected  the  whole 
Prankish  Empire.  Rabanus  Maurus  (about  840) 
wrote  a  refutation  of  Gottschalk's  teaching  and  clear- 
ly summed  it  up  in  the  following  proposition  (P. 
L.,  CXII,  1530  sqq.):  As  the  elect,  predestined  by 
the  Divine  foreknowledge  and  absolute  decree,  are 
saved  of  necessity,  so  in  the  same  way  the  eternally 
reprobate  become  the  victims  of  predestination  to 
hell. 

Through  the  efforts  of  Hincmar,  Archbishop  of 
Reims,  the  Synod  of  Quierzy  (849)  compelled  CJotts- 
chalk,  whose  enfon^ed  stay  in  the  Onler  of  St.  Bene- 


PREDESTINATION 


378 


PREDESTINATION 


diet  had  cost  him  dearly,  to  bum  hk  writingis  with  his 
own  hand,  and  silenced  him  by  imprisoning  him 
for  life  in  the  monastery  of  Hautvilliera  near  B^ims. 
At  the  present  time,  however,  scholars,  because  of 
two  extant  professions  of  faith  (P.  L.,  CXXI,  347 
sq.))  are  inclined  to  free  the  eccentric  and  obscure 
Gottschalk  from  the  charge  of  heresy,  and  to  in- 
terpret in  an  orthodox  sense  his  ambiguous  teaching 
on  "double  predestination"  (gemina  prcedestinatio). 
It  was  an  unhappy  thou^t  of  Hincmar  to  ask  the 
pantheistic  John  Scotus  Enugena  to  write  a  refutation 
of  Gottschalk,  as  this  only  served  to  sharpen  the  con- 
troversy. To  the  great  sorrow  of  Charles  the  Bald 
the  whole  Western  part  of  the  Prankish  Empire  re- 
sounded with  the  disputes  of  bishops,  theologians, 
and  even  of  some  synods.  The  Canons  of  the  Pro- 
'  vincial  Synod*  of  Valence  (855)  may  be  taken  as  an 
expression  of  the  then  prevailing  views  on  this  sub- 
ject; they  emphasize  the  fact  that  God  has  merely 
foreseen  from  eternity  and  not  foreordained  the  sins 
of  the  reprobate,  although  it  remains  true  that  in 
consequence  of  their  foreseen  demerits  he  has  de- 
creed from  eternity  the  eternal  punishment  of  hell 
(cf.  Denzinger,  loc.  cit..  nn.  320-25).  It  was  es- 
sentially on  tlus  basis  tnat  the  bishops  of  fourteen 
ecdesiajstical  provinces  finally  came  to  an  agreement 
and  made  peace  in  the  Synod  of  Tousy  held  in  860 
(cf.  Schrors,  "Hinkmar  von  Reims '\  66  sq.,  iYeiburg, 
1884).  The  teaching  of  the  Middle  Ages  is  genotdly 
characterized  on  the  one  hand  by  the  repumation  of 
positive  reprobation  for  hell  and  of  predestination  for 
sin,  on  the  other  by  the  assertion  of  Divine  predestina- 
tion of  the  elect  for  heaven  and  the  co-operation  of 
free  will;  this  teaching  was  only  for  a  short  time  ob- 
scured by  Thomas  Bradwardine.  and  the  so-called 
precursors  of  the  Reformation  (Wyclif,  Hus,  Jerome 
of  Prague,  John  Wesel). 

IV.  The  REFqi^MATioN.  —  Heretical  Predestinari- 
anism  received  a  new  and  vigorous  impulse  at  the 
outbreak  of  the  Reformation.  Luther  having  denied 
the  freedom  of  the  will  in  sinful  man  as  also  freedom 
in  the  use  of  grace,  logically  placed  the  eternal  destiny 
of  the  individual  solely  and  entirely  in  the  hands  of 
God,  who  without  any  regard  to  merit  or  demerit 
metes  out  heaven  or  hell  just  as  He  pleases.  Zwingli 
endeavoured  to  obviate  the  grave  consequences  that 
this  principle  necessittily  produces  in  the  moral  order 
by  the  vam  excuse  that  ^'just  as  God  incited  the 
robber  to  conmiit  murder,  so  also  He  forces  the  judge 
to  impose  the  penalty  of  death  on  the  murderer" 
(De  provid.  Dei,  m  "Opera",  ed.  Schuler,  IV,  113). 
Melanchthon  taught  expressly  that  the  treason  of 
Judas  was  just  as  much  the  work  of  God  as  was  the 
vocation  of  St.  Paul  (cf.  Trident.,  Sess.  VI,  can.  vi,  in 
Denzinger,  n.  816).  Calvin  is  the  most  logical  ad- 
vocate of  Predestinarianism  pure  and  simple.  Ab- 
solute and  positive  predestination  of  the  elect  for 
eternal  life,  as  well  as  of  the  reprobate  for  hell  and 
for  sin,  is  one  of  the  chief  elements  of  his  whole  doc- 
trinaJ  system  and  is  closely  connected  with  the  all- 
pervading  thought  of  "the  glory  of  God".  Strongly 
religious  by  nature  and  with  an  instinct  for  sys- 
tematizing, but  also  with  a  harsh  unyielding  character, 
Calvin  was  the  first  to  weave  the  soatt^«d  threads 
which  he  thought  he  had  found  in  St.  Paul,  St. 
Augustine,  Wvcuf,  Luther,  and  Bucer,  into  a  strong 
network  wMcn  enveloped  his  entire  system  of  prac- 
tical and  theoretical  Christianity.  Thus  he  became 
in  fact  the  systematizer  of  the  dread  doctrine  of  pre- 
destination. Although  Calvin  does  not  deny  that 
man  had  free  will  in  paradise,  still  he  traces  back  the 
fall  of  Adam  to  an  absolute  and  positive  decree  of 
God  (Instit.,  I,  15,  8;  III,  23,  8). 

Original  sin  completely  destroyed  the  freedom  of 

will  in  fallen  man;  nevertheless,  it  is  not  the  motive 

of  the  decretum  horribilej  as  he  himself  calls  the  de- 

c/iee  or  reproh&iiGn.    Calvin  is  an  uncompromising 


Supralapsapian.  God  for  His  own  glorification,  and 
without  any  regard  to  original  sin,  has  created  some 
as  "vessels  of  mercy",  others  as  "vessels  of  wrath". 
Those  created  for  hell  He  has  also  predestined  for 
sin,  and  whatever  faith  aixd  righteousness  they  may 
exhibit  are  at  most  only  apparent,  since  all  graces 
and  means  of  salvation  are  efficacious  only  in  those 
predestined  for  heaven.  The  Jansenistic  doctrine  on 
redemption  and  grace  in  its  principal  features  is  not 
essentially  different  from  Calvinism.  The  unbear- 
able harshnesR  and  cruelty  of  this  system  led  to  a 
reaction  among  the  better-minded  Calvinists,  who 
dreaded  setting  the  "glory  of  God"  above  .his 
sanctity.  Even  on  so  strictly  Calvinistic  a  soil  as 
HoUana,  Infralapsarianismj  i:  e.  the  connexion  of 
reprobation  with  original  sm,  gained  ground.  Eng- 
land also  refused  to  adhere  to  the  strictly  Calvinistic 
Lambeth  Articles  (1595),  althoush  in  later  years  their 
essential  features  were  embodied  in  the  famous 
Westminster  Confession  of  1647,  which  was  so  stren- 
uously defended  by  the  English  Puritans.  On  the 
other  hand  the  Presb3rterian  Church  in  the  United 
States  has  endeavoured  to  mitigate  the  undeniable 
harshness  of  Calvinism  in  its  revision  of  its  Con- 
fession in  May,  1903,  in  which  it  also  emphadzes 
the  universality  of  the  Divine  love  and  even  aoes  not 
deny  the  salvation  of  children  who  die  in  infancy. 

BeaideB  works  already  quoted,  cf.  WbuuXcxbr,  Da»  Dogma 
ton  der  gdttUchen  Vorherbeatimmung  im  9.  Jahrhunderi  in 
Jahrh^icher  fHx  deuUche  Theologie  (1859).  627  sq.;  Dibckhoff, 
Zur  Lekre  von  der  Bekehrung  und  ton  der  Frdde$t\natia%  (Roetoek, 
1883);  Jacquin,  La  aueetion  de  la  prideetination  au  V*  el 
y^  nkde  in  Revue  de  VhiaUrire  eccUeiaetique  (1004),  265  sq.,  725 
sq.;  (1006).  269  sq.  KOstun,  Luthera  Thealooie  (2nd  ed., 
Leipiif^,  lOOl) ;  Dxxckhoff,  Der  minourucKe  PrOdeeiinianiamue 
una  die  Coneordienformel  (Rostock,  1885);  Schsibb,  Calvine 
PrOdeetinatumeUhre  (Halle,  1897);  Yan  Oppknbaau,  La  m^- 
deetination  de  Vigliee  rlformie  dea  Paya-Baa  (Louvain,  1906); 
MOllbr,  Die  Bekenntniaaehriflen  der  rtformierten  Kir^en, 
B.  V.  Brwdhlung  (Leipsig,  1903);  for  further  references  see 
Realeneyklopadie  /Or  prot.  Theol,  XV.  586  sq.  (Leipsig,  1904); 
Grisab,  Luther^  I  (Freiburg,  1911),  149  sq. 

J.  PoHIiB. 

Predestination  (Lat.  pro?,  destinare),  taken  in  its 
widest  meaning,  is  every  Divine  decree  by  which  God, 
owing  to  His  mfaUible  prescience  of  the  future,  has 
appointed  and  ordained  from  eternity  all  events  occur- 
nng  in  time,  especially,  those  which  directly  proceed 
from,  or  at  least  are  influenced  by,  Dean's  free  will.  It 
includes  all  historical  facts,  as  for  instance  the  appear- 
ance of  Napoleon  or  the  foundation  of  the  United 
States,  and  particularlv  the  turning-points  in  the  his- 
tory ot  supernatural  salvation,  as  the  mission  of  Mosea 
and  the  Irophets,  or  the  election  of  Mary  to  the  Divine 
Motherhood.  Taken  in  this  general  sense,  predestina- 
tion clearly  coincides  with  Divine  Providence  and  with 
the  government  of  the  world,  which  do  not  fall  within 
the  scope  of  this  article  (see  Providence,  Divine). 

I.  Notion  op  Predestination. — Theology  re- 
stricts the  term  to  those  Divine  decrees  which  have 
reference  to  the  supernatural  end  of  rational  b^ngs, 
especially  of  man.  Considering  that  not  all  men  reach 
their  supernatural  end  in  heaven,  but  that  many  are 
eternally  lost  through  their  own  fault,  there  must  exist 
a  twofold  predestination :  (a)  one  to  heaven  for  all  those 
who  die  in  the  state  of  grace;  (b)  one  to  the  pains  of 
hell  for  all  those  who  depart  in  sin  or  under  God's  dis- 
pleasure. However,  according  to  present  usage^  to 
which  we  shall  adhere  in  the  course  of  the  article,  it  ia 
better  to  call  the  latter  decree  the  Divine  "  reproba- 
tion'^  so  that  the  term  predestination  is  reserved  for 
the  Divine  decree  of  the  happiness  of  the  elect. 

A.  The  notion  of  predestination  comprises  two 
essential  elements:  God's  infaUible  foreknowledge 
(pr(B8cienlia)f  and  His  immutable  decree  (decretum)  of 
eternal  happiness.  The  theologian  who,  following  in 
the  footsteps  of  the  Pelagians,  would  limit  the  Divine 
activity  to  the  eternal  foreknowledge  and  exclude  the 
Divine  will,  would  at  once  fall  into  Deism  (q.  v.)» 
which  asserts  that  God.  having  created  ail  t 


q.  V.;, 
bhingSy 


PBXOESTZNATION  379  PBEDSSTINATION 

leaves  man  and  the  universe  to  their  fate  and  refrains  only  from  the  fact  that  the  depths  of  the  eternal  coun- 

from  all  active  interference.    Thou^  the  purely  nat-  sel  cannot  be  fathomed,  it  is  even  externally  visible 

ural  gifts  of  God,  as  descent  from  pious  parents;  good  in  the  inequality  of  the  Divine  choice.     The  unequal 

education,  and  the  providential  guidance  of  man's  ex-  standard  by  which  baptismal  grace  is  distributed 

temal  career,  may  also  be  called  effects  of  predestina-  among  infants  and  efficacious  graces  amons  adults 

tion,  still,  strictly  speaking,  the  term  implies  only  those  is  hidden  from  our  view  by  an  impenetrable  veil, 

blessings  which  lie  m  the  supernatural  sphere,  as  sane-  Could  we  gain  a  glimpse  at  the  reasons  of  this  inequal- 

tifying  grace,  all  actual  graces,  and  among  them  in  par-  ity,  we  should  at  once  hold  the  key  to  liie  solution  of 

ticular  those  which  carry  with  them  .final  perseverance  the  mystery  itself.    Why  is  it  that  this  child  is  bap- 

and  a  happy  death.    Since  in  reality  only  those  reach  tized,  but  not  the  child  of  the  neighbour?    Whv  is  it 

heaven  who  die  in  the  state  of  justification  or  sanctify-  that  Peter  the  Apostle  rose  again  after  his  fall  and 

ing  grace,  all  these  and  only  these  are  numbered  among  persevered  till  his  death,  while  Judas  Iscariot,  his 

the  predestined;  strictly  so  called.    From  this  it  fol-  fellow-Apostle,  hanged  himself  and  thus  frustrated  his 

lows  that  we  must  reckon  among  them  also  all  children  salvation?    Though  correct,  the  answer  that  Judas 

who  die  in  baptismal  grace,  as  well  as  those  adults  who,  went  to  perdition  of  his  own  free  will,  w]^le  Peter 

after  a  life  stained  with  sin,  are  converted  on  their  faithfully  co-operated  with  the  grace  of  conversion 

death-beds.    The  same  is  true  of  the  numerous  pre-  offered  him,  does  not  clear  up  the  enigma.    For  the 

destined  who,  though  outside  the  pale  of  the  true  question  recurs:  Why  did  not  God  give  to  Judas  the 

Church  of  Christ,  yet  depart  from  this  life  in  the  state  same  efficacious,  infallibly  successful  grace  of  con- 

of  ^race,  as  catechumens,  Protestants  in  good  faith,  version  as  to  St.  Peter,  whose  blasphemous  denial  of 

schismatic^  Jews,  Mahommedans,  and  pagans.   Those  the  Lord  was  a  sin  no  less  grievous  than  that  of  the 

fortunate  Catholics  who  at  the  close  of  a  long  life  are  traitor  Judas?    To  all  these  and  similar  questions  the 

still  clothed  in  their  baptismal  innocence,  or  who  after  only  reasonable  reply  is  the  word  of  St.  Aup;ustine 

many  relapses  into  mortal  sin  persevere  till  the  end,  (loc.  cit.,  21):  '^ Inscrutabilia  sunt  judicia  Dei"  (the 

are  not  inaeed  predestined  more  firmly,  but  are  more  judgments  of  God  are  inscrutable), 
signally  favoured  than  the  last-named  categories  of        B.  The  counterpart  of  the  predestination  of  the 

persons.  good  is  the  reprobation  of  the  wicked,  or  the  eternal 

But  even  when  man's  supernatural  end  alone  is  decree  of  God  to  cast  all  men  into  hell  of  whom  He 
taken  into  consideration,  the  term  predestination  is  foresaw  that  they  would  die  in  the  state  of  sin  as  hia 
not  alwavs  used  by  theologians  in  an  unequivocal  enemies.  This  plan  of  Divine  reprobation  may  be 
sense.  This  need  not  astonish  us,  seeing  thifllt  predesti-  conceived  either  as  absolute  and  unconditional  or  as 
nation  may  comprise  whollv  diverse  things.  If  taken  h3rpothetical  and  conditional,  according  as  we  con- 
in  its  adequate  meaning  (prcedestinatio  (ukequata  or  sider  it  as  dependent  on,  or  independent  of,  the 
compfeto),  then  predestination  refers  to  both  grace  and  infallible  foreknowledge  of  sin,  the  real  reason  of 
gloiy  as  a  whole,  including  not  only  the  election  to  reprobation.  If  we  imderstand  eternal  condemnation 
glory  as  the  end,  but  also  the  election  to  grace  as  the  to  be  an  absolute,  unconditional  decree  of  God,  its 
means,  the  vocation  to  the  faith,  justification,  and  theological  possibility  is  affirmed  or  denied  according 
final  perseverance,  with  wMch  a  happy  death  is  insep-  as  the  (question  whemer  it  involves  a  positive,  or  only 
arably' connected.  This  is  the  meaning  of  St.  Angus-  a  negative,  reprobation  is  answered  in  the  affirmative 
tine's  words  (DedonoperBever.,xxxv):''Prsedestinatio  or  in  the  negative.  The  conceptual  difference  be- 
nihH  est  aliud  quam  prsescientift  et  prseparatio  bene-  tween  the  two  kinds  of  reprobation  lies  in  this,  that 
ficiorum,  quibus  certissime  liberantur  [i.  e.  salvantur],  negative  reprobation  merely  implies  the  absolute  will 
auicunque  liberantur"  (Predestination  is  nothing  else  not  to  grant  the  bliss  of  heaven,  while  positive  repro- 
tnan  the  foreknowledge  and  foreordaining  of  those  bation  means  the  absolute  will  to  condemn  to  hell, 
gracious  gifts  which  make  certain  the  salvation  of  all  In  other  words,  those  who  are  reprobated  merely 
who  are  saved).  But  the  two  concepts  of  grace  and  negatively  are  numbered  among  the  non-predestined 
glory  may  be  separated  and  each  of  them  be  made  the  from  all  eternity:  those  who  are  reprobated  positively 
object  of  a  special  predestination.  Thd  result  is  the  are  directly  predestined  to  hell  from  all  eternity  and 
so-called  inadequate  predestination  {prcBdealinatio  have  been  created  for  this  very  purpose.  It  was 
inadcequata  or  incompleta),  either  to  grace  alone  or  to  Calvin  who  elaborated  the  repulsive  doctrine  that  an 
glory  alone.  Like  St.  Paul,  Augustine,  too,  speaks  of  absolute  Divine  decree  from  all  eternity  positively 
an  election  td  grace  apart  from  the  celestial  glory  (loc.  predestined  part  of  mankind  to  hell  and  in  order  to 
cit.,  xix) :  **  Prffidestinatio  est  gratisB  prseparatio,  gratia  obtain  thi»end  effectually,  also  to  sin.  The  Catholic 
vero  jam  ipsa  donatio."  It  is  evident,  however,  that  advocates  of  an  unconditional  reprobation  evade  the 
this  (inadequate)  predestination  does  not  exclude  the  charge  of  heresy  only  by  imposing  a  twofold  restric- 
poflsibility  tnat  one  chosen  to  grace,  faith,  and  justifi-  tion  on  their  hypothesis:  (a)  that  the  punishment  of 
cation  goes  nevertheless  to  hell.  Hence  we  may  dis-  hell  can,  in  time,  be  infficted  only  on  account  of  sin, 
regard  it,  since  it  is  at  bottom  simply  another  term  for  and  from  all  eternity  can  be  decreed  only  on  account 
the  universality  of  God's  salvific  will  and  of  the  distri-  of  foreseen  malice,  while  sin  itself  is  not  to  be  regarded 
bution  of  grace  among  all  men  (see  Grace).  Similarly  as  the  sheer  effect  of  the  absolute  Divine  will,  but 
eternal  election  to  glory  alone,  that  is,  without  regard  only  as  the  result  of  God's  permission;  (b)  that  the 
to  the  preceding  merits  through  grace,  must  be  desig-  eternal  plan  of  God  can  never  intend  a  positive 
nated  as  (inadequate)  predestination.  Though  the  reprobation  to  hell,  but  only  a  negative  reprobation, 
possibility  of  the  latter  is  at  once  clear  to  the  reflecting  that  is  to  say,  an  exclusion  from  heaven.  These  re- 
mind, yet  its  actuality  is  strongly  contested  by  the  strictions  are  evidently  demanded  by  the  formulation 
majority  of  theolo|dans,  as  we  shall  see  further  on  of  the  concept  itself,  since  the  attributes  of  Divine 
(under  secl^.  III).  FVom  these  explanations  it  is  plain  sanctity  and  justice  must  be  kept  inviolate  (see  God). 
that  the  real  dogma  of  eternal  election  is  exclusively  Consequently,  if  we  consider  that  God's  sanctity  will 
concerned  with  adequate  predestination,  which  em-  never  allow  Him  to  will  sin  positively  even  though 
braces  both  grace  and  glory  and  the  essence  of  which  He  foresees  it  in  His  permissive  decree  with  infallible 
St.  Thomas  (I,  Q.  xxiii,  a.  2)  defines  as:  '' Praeparatio  certainty,  and  that  His  justice  can  foreordain,  and  in 
^^tiseinprsesentietgloriseinfuturo"  (the  foreordina-  time  actually  inflict,  hell  as  a  punishment  only  by 
tion  of  grace  in  the  present  and  of  glory  in  the  future),  reason  of  the  sin  foreseen,  we  understand  the  definition 

In  order  to  emphasize  how  mysterious  and  unap-  of  eternal  reprobation  given  by  Peter  Lombard  (I. 

proachable  is  Divine  election,  the  Council  of  Trent  Sent.,  dist.  40):  "Est  prsescientia  iniquitatis  (]Uorun- 

calls  predestination  a  "hidden  mystery".    That  pre-  dam  et  prsparatio  damnationis  eorundem"  (it  is  the 

destination  is  indeed  a  sublime  mystery  appears  not  foreknowledge  of  the  wickedness  oC  «i;yK!k!^\S!k!e^%xv^'^s^ 


PREDSSTINATION 


380 


PBkOKSTINATION 


f preordaining  of  their  damnation).  Cf.  Scheeben, 
''Mysterien  des  Chnstentums^'  (2nd  ed.,  Freiburg, 
1898),  98-103. 

II.  The  Catholic  Dogma. — Reserving  the  theo- 
logical controversies  for  the  next  section,  we  deal  here 
omy  with  those  articles  of  faith  relating  to  predestina- 
tion and  reprobation,  the  denial  of  which  would  involve 
heresy. 

A,  The  Predestination  of  the  Elect, — He  who  would 
place  the  reason  of  predestination  either  in  man  alone 
or  in  God  alone  would  inevitably  be  led  into  heretical 
conclusions  about  eternal  election.  In  the  one  case 
the  error  concerns  the  last  end,  in  the  other  the  means 
to  that  end.  Let  it  be  noted  that  we  do  not  speak  of 
the  "cau^e"  of  predestination,  which  would  be  either 
the  efficient  cause  (God),  or  the  instrumental  cause 
(grace),  or  the  final  cause  (God's  honour),  or  the  pri- 
mary meritorious  cause,  but  of  the  reason  or  motive 
which  mduced  (}od  from  all  eternity  to  elect  certiun 
definite  individuals  to  grace  and  glory.  The  principal 
question  then  is:  Does  the  natural  merit  of  man  exert 
perhaps  some  influence  on  the  Divine  election  to  grace 
and  glory?  If  we  recall  the  dogma  of  the  absolute 
(P^tuity  of  Christian  grace,  our  answer  must  be  out- 
right negative  (see  Grace).  To  the  further  question 
whether  Divine  predestiniition  does  not  at  least  take 
into  account  the  supernatural  good  works,  the  Church 
answers  with  the  doctrine  that  heaven  is  not  given  to 
the  elect  bv  a  purely  arbitrary  act  of  God's  will,  but 
that  it  is  also  tne  reward  of  the  personal  merits  of  the 
justified  (see  Merit).  Those  wno,  like  the  Pelagians, 
seek  the  reason  for  predestination  only  in  man's 
naturally  ^ood  works,  evidently  misjudge  the  nature 
of  the  Cnnstian  heaven,  which  is  an  absolutely  super- 
natural destiny.  As  Pelagianism  puts  the  whole  econ- 
omy of  salvation  on  a  purely  natural  basis,  so  it  re- 
gards predestination  in  particular  not  as  a  special 
grace,  much  less  as  the  supreme  grace,  but  only  as  a 
reward  for  natural  merit. 

The  Semipelagians,  too,  depreciated  the  gratuity 
and  the  strictly  supernatural  cnaracter  of  eternal  hap- 
piness by  ascribing  at  least  the  beginning  of  faith 
(initium  fidei)  and  final  perseverance  (donum  per- 
severantioB)  to  the  exertion  of  man's  natural  powers, 
and  not  to  the  initiative  of  preventing  grace.  This  is 
one  class  of  heresies  which,  slighting  God  and  His 
grace,  makes  all  salvation  depend  on  man  {done.  But 
no  less  grave  are  the  errors  into  which  a  second  group 
falls  by  making  God  alone  responsible  for  everything, 
and  abolishing  the  free  co-operation  of  the  will  in 
obtaining  eternal  happiness.  This  is  done  by  the 
advocates  of  heretical  Predestinarianism  (a.  v.),  em- 
bodied in  its  purest  form  in  Calvinism  and  Jfansenism. 
Those  who  seek  the  reason  of  predestination  solely  in 
the  absolute  Will  of  God  are  logically  forced  to  admit 
an  irresistibly  efficacious  grace  (gratia  irreeistibUis), 
to  deny  the  freedom  of  the  will  when  influenced  by 
grace  and  wholly  to  reject  supernatural  merits  (as 
a  secondary  reason  for  eternal  happiness).  And  since 
in  this  system  eternal  damnation,  too,  finds  its  only 
explanation  in  the  Divine  will,  it  further  follows  that 
concupiscence  acts  on  the  sinful  will  with  an  irresist- 
ible force,  that  there  the  will  is  not  really  free  to  sin. 
and  that  demerits  cannot  be  the  cause  of  eternal 
damnation. 

Between  these  two  extremes  the  Catholic  dogma  of 
predestination  keeps  the  golden  mean,  because  it  re- 
gards eternal  happiness  primarily  as  the  work  of  God 
and  His  grace,  but  secondarily  as  the  fruit  and  reward 
of  the  meritorious  actions  of  the  predestined.  The 
process  of  predestination  consists  ot  the  following  five 
steps:  (a)  the  first  grace  of  vocation,  especially  faith 
as  the  beginning,  foundation,  and  root  of  justification; 
(b)  a  number  of  additional,  actual  graces  for  the  suc- 
cessful accomplishment  of  justification;  (c)  justifica- 
^  as  the  beginning  of  the  state  of  grace  and 
final  perseverance  or  at  least  the  grace  of  a 


ti^ 


happy  death:  (e)  lastly,  the  admission  to  eternal  blim. 
If  it  IS  a  trutn  of  Revelation  that  there  are  many  who, 
following  this  path,  seek  and  find  their  eternal  sal- 
vation with  infallible  certainty,  then  the  existence  of 
Divine  predestination  is  proved  (cf:  Matt.,  xxv,  34; 
Apoc,  3K,  15).  St.  Paul  says  quite  explicitly  (Rom., 
viii,  28  sq.):  "we  know  that  to  them  that  love  God, 
all  things  work  together  unto  good,  to  such  as,  accord- 
ing to  his  purpose,  are  called  to  be  saints.  For  whom 
he  foreknew,  he  also  predestinated  to  be  made  con- 
formable to  the  image  of  his  Son;  that  he  might  be  the 
first  bom  amongst  many  brethren.  And  whom  he 
predestinated,  them  he  also  called.  *  And  whom  he 
called,  them  he  also  justified.  And  whom  he  justified, 
them  he  also  glorified."  (Cf .  Eph. ,  i,  4-1 1 .)  Besides 
the  eternal  'Hforeknowledge"  and  foreordaining,  the 
Apostle  here  mentions  the  various  steps  of  predestina- 
tion: "vocation",  "justification",  and  "glorifica- 
tion". This  belief  has  been  faithfully  preserved  by 
Tradition  through  all  the  centuries,  especially  since 
the  time  of  Augustine. 

There  are  three  other  qualities^  of  predestination 
which  must  be  noticed,  because  they  are  important 
and  interesting  from  the  theological  standpomt:  its 
immutability,  the  definiteness  of  the  number  of  the 
predestined,  and  its  subjective  uncertainty. 

(1)  The  first  ouality,  the  immutability  of  the 
Divine  decree,  is  oased  both  on  the  infallible  fore- 
knowledge of  God  that  certain,  quite  determined  in- 
dividuals will  leave  this  life  in  the  state  of  grace,  and 
on  the  immutable  will  of  God  to  give  precis^  to  these 
mega  and  to  no  others  eternal  happiness  as  a  reward 
for  their  supernatural  merits.  Consequently,  the 
whole  future  membership  of  heaven,  down  to  its 
minutest  details,  with  all  the  different  measures  of 
pace  and  the  various  degrees  of  happiness,  has  been 
irrevocably  fiixed  from  all  eternity.  Nor  could  it  be 
otherwise.  For  if  it  were  possible  that  a  predestined 
individual  should  after  all  be  cast  into  hell  or  that  one 
not  predestined  should  in  the  end  reach  heaven,  then 
God  would  have  been  mistaken  in  his  foreknowlsdge 
of  future  events;  He  would  no  longer  be  omniscient. 
Hence  the  Good  Shepherd  says  of  his  sheep  (John,  x. 
28) :  "And  I  give  them  life  everlasting;  ana  they  shall 
not  perish  forever,  and  no  man  shall  pluck  them  out 
of  my  hand. "  But  we  must  beware  or  conceiving  the 
immutability  of  piedestination,  either  as  fatalistic  in 
the  sense  of  the  Mahommedan  kismet  or  as  a  con- 
venient pretext  for  idle  resignation  to  inexorable  fate. 
God's  infallible  foreknowledge  cannot  force  upon  man 
unavoidable  coercion,  for  the  simple  reason  that  it  is 
at  bottom  nothing  else  than  the  eternal  Vision  of  the 
future  historical  actuality.  God  foresees  the  free 
activity  of  a  man  precisely  as  that  individual  is  will- 
ing to  shape  it.  Whatever  may  promote  the  work 
of  our  salvation,  whether  our  own  prayers  and  good 
works,  or  the  prayers  of  others  in  our  behalf,  is  eo  ipeo 
included  in  the  infallible  foreknowledge  of  God  and 
consequently  in  the  scope  of  predestination  (cf.  St. 
Thomas,  I,  Q.  xxiii,  a.  8).  It  is  in  such  practical 
considerations  that  the  ascetical  maxim  (falsely 
ascribed  to  St.  Augustine)  originated:  "Si  non  es 
prsedestinatus,  fac  ut  praedestineris"  (if  you  are  not 
predestined,  so  act  that  you  may  be  predestined). 
Strict  theology^  it  is  true,  cannot  approve  this  bold 
saying,  except  m  so  far  as  the  original  decree  of  pre^ 
destination  is  conceived  as  at  first  a  hypothetical 
decree,  wMch  is  afterwards  changed  to  an  absolute 
and  irrevocable  decree  by  the  prayers,  good  works, 
and  perseverance  of  him  who  is  predestined,  according 
to  the  words  of  the  Apostle  (II  Pet.,  i.  10):  "Where- 
fore, brethren,  labour  the  more,  that  by  good  works 
you  may  make  sure  your  calling  and  election.'' 

God's  unerring  foreknowledge  and  foreordaining  is 
designated  in  the  Bible  by  the  beautiful  figure  of  the 
"Book  of  Life"  (liher  vita:,  rb  /3i/5X(pr  t^  ^**). 
This  book  of  life  is  a  list  which  contains  the  names  of 


PREDS8TINATI0N 


381 


PBEDESTINATZON 


^  > 

all  the  elect  and  admits  neither  additions  nor  erasures. 
From  the  Old  Testament  (of.  Ex.,  xxxii,  32;  Ps.  Ixviii, 
29)  this  symbol  was  taken  over  into  the  New  by  Christ 
and  His  Apostle  Paul  (cf.  Luke,  x,  20;  Heb.,  xii,  23), 
and  enlarged  upon  by  the  Evangelist  John  in  his 
Apocalypse  [cf.  Apoc.,  xxi,  27:  ''There  shall  not 
enter  mto  it  anythins  defiled  .  .  .  but  thev 
that  are  written  in  the  book  of  life  of  the  Lamb'^Ccf. 
Apoc,  xiii,  8 ;  XX,  15) ].  The  correct  explanation  of  this 
mnbolic  book  is  given  by  St.  Augustine  (De  civ.  Dei, 
XX,  xiii) :  "  Praescientia  Dei.  qu»  non  potest  falli,  liber 
vitsD  est"  rthe  foreknowleage  of  Goa,  which  cannot 
err,  is  the  book  of  life).  However,  as  intimated  by 
the  Bible,  there  exists  a  second,  more  voluminous 
book,  in  which  are  entered  not  only  the  names  of  the 
elect,  but  also  the  names  of  all  the  faithful  on  earth. 
Such  a  metaphorical  book  is  supposed  wherever  the 
possibility  is  hinted  at  that  a  name,  thou^  entered, 
mi^t  agiun  be  stricken  out  [cf.  Apoc.,  iii,  5:  "and 
I  mUl  not  blot  out  his  name  out  of  the  book  of  life" 
(cf.  Ex.,  xxxii,  33)1.  The  name  will  be  mercilessly 
cancelled  when  a  Christian  sinks  into  infidelity  or 
godlessness  and  dies  in  his  sin.  Finally  there  is  a 
third  class  of  books,  wherein  the  wicked  deeds  and  the 
crimes  of  individual  sinners  are  written,  and  by  which 
the  reprobate  will  be  judged  on  the  last  dav  to  be  cast 
into  hell  (cf.  Apoc.,  xx,  12):  "and  the  books  were 
opened;  .  .  .  and  the  dead  were  judged  by  those 
things  which  were  written  in  the  books,  according  to 
their  works  ",  It  was  this  grand  ssrmbolism  of  Divine 
onmiscience  and  justice  that  inspired  the  soul-stirring 
verse  of  the  Dies  tree,  according  to  which  we  shall  all 
be  judged  out  of  a  book:  "Liber  scriptus  proferetur: 
in  quo  totum  continetur".  Regarding  the  book  of 
life,  cf .  St.  Thomas,  I Jj.  xxiv,  a.  1-3,  and  Heinrich- 
Gutberlet,  "Dogmat.  Theologie",  VIII  (Mainz,  1897), 
§453. 

(2)  The  second  quality  of  predestination,  the  defi- 
niteness  of  the  number  of  the  elect,  follows  naturally 
from  the  first.  For  if  the  eternal  counsel  of  God  re- 
garding the  predestined  is  unchangeable,  then  the 
number  of  the  predestine  must  likewise  be  imchange- 
able  and  definite,  subject  neither  to  additions  nor  to  can- 
cellations. Anything  indefinite  in  the  number  would 
eo  ipso  imply  a  lack  of  certitude  in  God's  knowledge 
and  would  destroy  His  onmiscience.  Furthermore, 
the  very  nature  of  omniscience  demands  that  not  only 
the  abstract  number  of  the  elect,  but  also  the  indi- 
viduals with  their  names  and  their  entire  career  on 
earth,  should  be  present  before  the  Divine  mind  from 
all  eternity.  Naturally,  human  curiosity  is  eager 
for  definite  information  about  the  absolute  as  well  as 
the  relative  number  of  the  elect.  How  high  should  the 
absolute  nimiber  be  estimated?  But  it  would  be  idle 
and  useless  to  undertake  calculations  and  to  guess  a^ 
80  and  so  many  millions  or  billions  of  predestined.  St. 
Thomas  (I,  (^.  xxiii,  a.  7)  mentions  the  opinion  of 
Bome  theoloraans  that  as  many  men  will  be  saved  as 
there  are  ffulen  angels,  while  others  held  that  the 
number  of  predestined  will  equal  the  number  of  the 
faithful  angels. 

Lastly^  there  were  optimists  who,  combining  these 
two  opimons  into  a  thinl,  made  the  total  of  men  saved 
equal  to  the  unnumbered  myriads  of  created  spirits. 
But  even  granted  that  the  pnnciple  of^ur  calculation 
is  correct,  no  mathematician  would  be  able  to  figure 
out  the  absolute  number  on  a  basis  so  vague,  since  the 
number  of  angels  and  demons  is  an  unknown  quantity 
to  us.  Hence,  "the  best  answer",  rightly  remarks  St. 
Thomas,  "is  to  say:  God  alone  knows  the  number  of 
his  elect".  By  relative  number  is  meant  the  numeri- 
cal relation  between  the  predestined  and  the  reprobate. 
Will  the  majority  of  the  human  race  be  saved  or  will 
they  be  damned?  Will  one-half  be  damned,  the  other 
half  saved?  In  this  question  the  opinion  of  the  ripor- 
ists  is  opposed  to  the  milder  view  of  the  optimists. 
Pointing  to  several  texts  of  the  Bible  (Matt.,  vii,  14; 


xxii,  14)  and  to  sayings  o^  great  spiritual  doctors,  the 
rigorists  defend  as  probable  the  tnesis  that  not  only 
most  Christians  but  also  most  Catholics  are  doomed  to 
eternal  damnation.  Almost  repulsive  in  its  tone  is 
Massillon's  sermon  on  the  small  number  of  the  elect. 
Yet  even  St.  Thomas  (loc.  cit.,  a.  7)  asserted:  "Pauci- 
ores  sunt  qui  salvantur"  (only  the  smaller  number  of 
men  are  saved).  And  a  few  years  ago,  when  the  Jesuit 
P.  Castelein  ("  Le  rigorisme,  le  nombre  des  ^lus  et  la 
doctrine  du  salut",  2nd  ed.,  Brussels,  1899)  impugned 
this  theory  with  weighty  arguments,  he  was  sharply 
opposed  by  the  Redemptorist  P.  Goats  ("De  pauci- 
tate  salvandorum  quid  docuerunt  sancti'V  3ra  ed., 
Brussels,  1899).  That  the  number  of  the  elect  cannot 
be  so  very  small  is  evident  from  the  Apocalypse  (vii,  9) . 
When  one  hears  the  rigorists,  one  is  tempted  to  repeat 
Dieringer's  bitter  remark:  "Can  it  be  that  the  Church 
actually  exists  in  order  to  people  hell? ''  The  truth  is 
that  neither  the  one  nor  the  other  can  be  proved  from 
Scripture  or  Tradition  (cf.  Heinrich-Gutberlet,  "Dog- 
mat.  Theologie",  Mainz,  1897,  VIII,  363  sq.).  But 
supplementing  these  two  sources  by  iu*guments  drawn 
from  reason  we  may  safely  defend  as  probable  the 
opinion  that  the  majority  of  Christians,  especially  of 
Catholics.  wiU  be  saved.  If  we  add  to  this  relative 
number  tne  overwhelming  majority  of  non-Christians 
(Jews,  M^ommedans,  heathens),  then  Gener  ("Theol. 
dogmat.  Bcholast.",  Rome,  1767,  II,  242  sq.)  is 
probably  right  when  he  assumes  the  salvation  of  half 
of  the  human  race,  lest  "it  should  be  said  to  the  shame 
and  offence  of  the  Divine  majesty  and  clemency  that 
the  [future]  Kingdom  of  Satan  is  larger  than  the  King- 
dom of  Christ  (cf.  W.  Schneider,  "Das  andere 
Leben"  9th  ed.,  Paderbom,  1908,  476  sq.). 

(3)  The  third  quality  of  predestination,  its  subjec- 
tive uncertainty,  is  intimately  connected  with  its 
objective  immutability.  We  know  not  whether  we  are 
reckoned  among  tne  predestined  or  not.  All  we  can 
say  is:  God  alone  knows  it.  When  the  Reformers, 
confounding  predestination  with  the  absolute  cer- 
tainty of  Ovation,  demanded  of  the  Christian  an 
unshaken  faith  in  his  own  predestination  if  he  wished 
to  be  saved,  the  Council  of  Trent  opposed  to  this  ore- 
sumptuous  belief  the  canon  (Sees.  Vl,  can.  xv):  "o.  q. 
d.,  hominem  renatum  et  justificatum  teneri  ex  fide  ad 
credendiun,  se  certo  esse  m  numero  prsedestinatorum, 
anathema  sit"  (if  any  one  shall  say  that  the  regener- 
ated and  justified  man  is  bound  as  a  matter  of  faith  to 
believe  that  he  is  surely  of  the  number  of  the  predes- 
tined, let  him  be  anathema).  In  truth,  such  a  pre- 
suiqption  is  not  only  irrational,  but  also  unscriptural 
(cf/I  Cor.,  iv,  4;  ix,  27;  x,  12;  Phil.,  ii,  12).  Only  a 
private  revelation,  such  as  was  vouchsafed  to  the  peni- 
tent thief  on  the  cross,  could  give  us  the  certainty  of 
faith:  hence  the  Tridentine  Council  insists  (loc.  cit., 
cap.,  xii) :  "  Nam  nisi  ex  special!  revelatione  sciri  non 
potest,  quos  Deus  sibi  elegmt "  (for  apart  from  a  special 
revelation,  it  cannot  be  known  whom  God  has  chosen) . 
However,  the  Church  condemns  only  that  blasphemous 
presumption  which  boasts  of  a  faithlike  certainty  in 
matters  of  predestination.  To  say  that  there  exist 
probable  signs  of  predestination  which  exclude  all 
excessive  anxiety  is  not  against  her  teaching.  The 
following  .are  some  of  the  criteria  set  down  by  the 
theologians:  purity  of  heart,  pleasure  in  prayer,  pa- 
tience in  suffering,  frequent  reception  of  the  sacra- 
ments, love  of  Clmst  and  His  Chureh,  devotion  to  the 
Mother  of  God,  etc. 

B.  The  Reprobation  of  the  Damned. — An  uncondi- 
tional and  positive  predestination  of  the  reprobate  not 
only  to  hell,  biit  also  to  sin,  was  taught  especially  by 
Calvin  (Instit..  Ill,  c.  xxi,  xxiii,  xxiv).  His  followers 
in  Holland  split  into  two  sects,  the  Supralapsarians 
and  the  Infralapsarians  (q.  v.),  the  latter  of  whom 
regarded  original  sin  as  the  motive  of  positive  con- 
demnation, while  the  former(with  Calvin]  diasftsebs^'eA. 
this  factor  and  derived  \?Rfe  \yvN\xvt  ^i^^^fe  ^V  x^^^^^^"^ 


PREDESTINATION                       382  PREDESTINATION  * 

tion  from  God's  inacnitable  will  alone.    Infralapsa-  Though  God  preordained  both  eternal  happiness  and 

rianism  was  also  held  by  Jansenius  (De  gratia  Chnsti,  the  good  works  of  the  elect  (Denz.,  n.  322),  yet,  on  the 

I.  X,  c.  ii|  xi  sq.))  who  taught  that  God  had  preor-  other  hand,  He  predestined  no  one  positively  to  hell, 

dained  from  the  maasa  damnata  of  mankind  one  part  much  less  to  sin  (Denz.,  nn.  200^  816).    Consequently, 

to  eternal  bliss,  the  other  to  eternal  pain,  decreeing  at  just  as  no  one  is  saved  aigainst  his  will  (Denz.,  n.  1363), 

the  same  time  to  deny  to  those  positively  damned  the  so  the  reprobate  peiiSi  solely  on  account  of  their 

necessary  graces  by  which  they  might  be  converted  wickedness  (Denz.,  nn.  318,  321).    God  foresaw  the 

and  keep  the  commandments;     for  this  reason,  he  everlasting  pains  of  the  impious  from  all  eternity,  and 

said,  Christ  died  only  for  the  predestined  (cf .  Denzin-  preordained  this  punishment  on  account  of  their  sins 

ger, '' Enchiridion '',n.  1092-6).  Against  siiphblasphe-  (Denz.,  n.  322),  though  He  does  not  fail  therefore  to 

mous  teachings  the  Second  Synod  of  Orange  in  529  and  hold  out  the  grace  of  conversion  to  sinners  (Denz.,  n. 

again  the  Council  of  Trent  had  pronounced  the  eccle-  807),  or  pass  over  those  who  are  not  predestined 

siastical  anathema  (cf.  Denzinger,  nn.  200, 827).  This  (Denz.,  n.  827).    As  long  as  the  reprobate  live  on 

condemnation  was  perfectly  justified,  because  the  earth,  they  may  be  accounted  true  Christians  and 

heresy  of  Predestinananism,  m  direct  opposition  to  the  members  of  the  Church,  just  as  on  the  other  hand  the 

clear^  texts  of  Scripture,  denied  the  universality  of  predestined  may  be  outside  the  pale  of  Christianity 

God's  salvific  will  as  well  as  of  redemption  through  and  of  the  Church  (Denz*.,  nn.  628, 631).     Without 

Christ  (cf.  Wis.,  xi,  24  sq.;  I  Tim.,  ii,  1  sq.),  nullified  special  revelation  no  one  can  know  with  certainty  that 

God's  mercy  towards  the  hardened  sinner  (Ezech.,  he  belongs  to  the  number  of  the  elect  (Denz.,  nn. 

xxxiii,  11;  Rom.,  ii,  4:  II  Pet.,  iii.  9),  did  away  with  805  sq.,  825  sq.). 

the  freedom  of  the  will  to  do  ^xxi  or  evil,  and  hence  III.  Theological  Controversies. — Owing  to  the 

with  the  merit  of  good  actions  and  the  guilt  of  the  infallible  decisions  laid  down  by  the  Church,  every 

bad.  and  finally  destroyed  the  Divine  attributes  of  orthodox  theory  on  predestination  and  reprobation 

wisdom,  justice,  veracity,  goodness,  and  sanctity,  must  keep  within  the  limits  marked  out  by  the  follow- 

The  very  spirit  of  the  Bible  should  nave  sufficed  to  ing  theses:  (a)  At  least  in  the  order  of  execution  in 

deter  Cadvin  from  a  false  explanation  of  Rom.,  ix,  and  time  (in  ordine  executionis)  the  meritorious  works  of 

his  successor  Beza  from  the  exegetical  maltreatment  the  predestined  arc  the  partial  cause  of  their  eternal 

of  I  Pet.,  ii,  7-8.     After  weighing  all  the  Biblical  texts  happiness;    (b)  hell  cannot  even  in  the  order  of  inten- 

bearing  on  eternal  reprobation,  a  modem  Protestant  ex-  tion  (in  ordine  intentiania)  have  been  poatively  de- 

egete  arrives  at  the  conclusion: ''There  is  no  election  to  creed  to  the  damned,  even  though  it  is  inflicted  on 

hell  parallel  to  the  election  to  grace:  on  the  contrary,  them  in  time  as  the  just  punishment  of  their  misdeeds; 

the  judgment  pronounced  on  the  impenitent  supposes  (c)  there  is  absolutely  no  predestination  to  sin  as  a 

human  guilt.    .    .    .    It  is  only  after  Christ's  salva-  means  to  eternal  damnation.    Guided  by  these  prin- 

tion  has  been  rejected  that  reprobation  follows"  ciples.  we  shall  briefly   sketch  and  examine  three 

("Realencyk.  fUr  prot.  Theol.",  XV,  586,  Leipzig,  theones  put  forward  by  Catholic  theologians. 

1904).     As  regards  the  Fathers  of  the  Church,  there  A.  The  Theory  of  Predestination  ante  prcansa  merita, 

is  only  St.  Augustine  who  might  seem  to  cause  difii-  — ^This  theory,  championed  by  all  Thomists  and  a 

culties  in  the  proof  from  Tradition.    As  a  matter  of  fewMolinists(as  Bellarmine,  Suarez,  Francis  de  Lugo), 

fact  he  has  been  claimed  by  both  Calvin  and  Jansenius  asserts  that  God,  by  an  absolute  decree  and  without 

as  favouring  their  view  of  the  cjuestion.    This  is  not  regard  to  any  future  supernatural  merits,  predestined 

the  place  to  enter  into  an  examination  of  his  doctrine  from  all  eternity  certain  men  to  the  gloiy  of  heaven, 

on  reprobation;  but  that  his  works  contain  expres-  and  then,  in  consequence  of  this  decree,  decided  to  give 

sions  which,  to  say  the  least,  might  be  interpreted  in  them  all  the  graces  necessary  for  its  accomplishment, 

the  sense  of  a  negative  reprobation,  cannot  be  doubted.  In  the  order  of  time,  however,  the  Divine  decree  is 

Probably  toning  down  the  sharper  words  of  the  master,  carried  out  in  the  reverse  order,  the  predestined  re- 

his  "best  pupil'',  St.  Prosper,  in  his  apology  agunst  ceiving  first  the  graces  preappointed  to  them,  and 

Vincent  of  Lerin  (Resp.  ad  12  obj.  Vincent.),  thus  lastly  the  glory  of  heaven  as  the  reward  of  their  good 

explained  the  spirit  of  Augustine  I'Voluntateexierunt,  works.     Two  qualities,  therefore,  characterize  this 

voiuntate  ceciderunt,  et  quia  pnesciti  sunt  casuri^  theory:  ^rst,  the  absoluteness  of  the  eternal  decree, 

non  sunt  prsedestinati;  essent  autem  prs&destinati,  si  and  second,  the  reversing  of  the  relation  of  ^ace  and 

essent  reversuri  et  in  sanctitate  remansuri,  ac  per  hoc  glory  in  the  two  different  orders  of  eternal  intention 

prssdestinatio  Dei  multis  est  causa  standi,  nemini  est  {ordo  irUentionis)  and  execution  in  time  (ordo  execu- 

causa  labendi"  (of  their  own  will  they  went  out;  of  lionis).    For  while  grace  (and  merit),  in  the  order  of 

their  own  will  they  fell,  and  because  their  fall  was  fore-  eternal  intention,  is  nothing  else  than  the  result  or 

known,  they  were  not  predestined;  they  would  how-  effect  of  glory  absolutely  decreed,  yet,  in  the  order  of 

ever  be  predestined  if  they  were  going  to  return  and  execution,  it  becomes  the  reason  and  partial  cause  of 

persevere  in  holiness;  hence,  God's  predestination  is  eternal  happiness,  as  is  required  by  the  dogma  of  the 

formany  the  cause  of  perseverance,  for  none  the  cause  meritorioushess  of  good  works  (see  Merit).    Again, 

of  failing  away).    Regarding  Tradition  cf.  Petavius,  celestial  glory  is  the  thing  willed  first  in  the  order  or 

"De  Deo",  X.  7sq.;   Jacquin  in  "Revue de  I'histoire  eternal  intention  and  then  is  made  the  reason  or 

eccldsiastique",  1904.  266  sq.;  1906,  269  sq.;  725  sq.  motive  for  the  graces  offered,  while  in  the  order  of 

We  may  now  briefly  summarize  the  whole  Catholic  execution  it  must  be  conceived  as  the  result  or  effect 

doctrine,  which  is  in  harmony  with  our  reason  as  well  of  supernatural  merits.   This  concession  is  important, 

as  our  moral  sentiments.    According  to  the  doctrinal  since  without  it  the  theory  would  be  intrinsiciEdly  im- 

decisions  of  general  and  particular  synods,  God  infalli-  possible  and  theologically  untenable, 

bly  foresees  and  immutably  preordains  from  eternity  But  what  about  the  positive  proof?   The  theory  cmi 

ail  future  events  (cf .  Denzinger,  n.  1784),  all  fatalistic  find  decisive  evidence  in  Scripture  only  on  the  suppoei- 

necessity,  however,  being  barred  and  human  liberty  tion  that  predestination  to  heavenly  glory  is  unequiyo- 

remaining  intact  (Denz.,  n.  607).  Consequently  man  is  cally  mentioned  in  the  Bible  as  the  Divine  motive 

free  whether  he  accepts  ^ace  and  does  good  or  whether  for  the  special  graces  granted  to  the  elect.    Now,  al- 

'    he  rejects  it  and  does  evil  (Denz.,  n.  797).    Just  as  it  is  though  there  are  several  texts  (e.  g.  Matt.,  xxiv,  22 

God's  true  and  sincere  will  that  all  men,  no  one  ex-  sq.;  Acts,  xiii,  48,  and  others)  which  might  without 

cepted,  shall  obtain  eternal  happiness,  so,  too,  Christ  straining  be  interpret^  in   this  sense,   yet  these 


^/leiniialves  Of  the  beneBta  of  redemption  (Denz.,  n.  795).    chapter  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans  in  particular  ia 


PBEDE8TINATZ0N 


38a 


PBXOE8TINATION 


claimed  by  the  advocates  of  absolute  predeQtination 
as  that  '* classical"  passage  wherein  St.  Paul  seems  to 
represent  the  eternal  happiness  of  the  elect  not  only 
as  the  work  of  God's  purest  mercy,  but  as  an  act  of  the 
most  arbitrary  will,  so  that  grace,  faith,  justification 
must  be  regarded  as  sheer  effects  of  an  absolute. 
Divine  decree  (cf.  Kom.,  ix,  18:  ''Therefore  he  hath 
mercy  on  whom  he  will;  and  whom  he  will,  he  hard- 
eneth  ").  Now,  it  is  rather  daring  to  quote  one  of  the 
most  difficult  and  obscure  passages  of  the  Bible  as  a 
''classical  text"  and  then  to  base  on  it  an  argument 
for  bold  speculation.  To  be  more  specific,  it  is  im- 
possible to  draw  the  details  of  the  picture  in  which  the 
Apostle  compares  God  to  the  potter  who  hath  "power 
over  the  clay,  of  the  same  lump,  to  make  one  vessel 
unto  honour,  and  another  unto  aishonour"  (Rom.,  ix, 
21),  without  falling  into  the  Calvinistic  blasphemy 
that  God  predestined  some  men  to  hell  and  sin  just  as 
positively  as  he  pre-elected  others  to  eternal  life.  It 
IS  not  even  admissible  to  read  into  the  Apostle's 
thought  a  ne^^ative  reprobation  of  certain  men.  For 
the  primary  mtention  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans 
is  to  insist  on  the  gratuity  of  the  vocation  to  Christian- 
ity and  to  reject  the  Jew^ish  presumption  that  the 
possession  of  the  Mosaic  Law  and  the  carnal  descent 
from  Abraham  gave  to  the  Jews  an  essential  prefer- 
ence over  the  heathens.  But  the  Epistle  has  nothing 
to  do  with  the  speculative  Question  whether  or  not  the 
free  vocation  to  grace  must  be  considered  as  the  neces- 
sary result  of  eternal  predestination  to  celestial  glory 
[cf.  Franzelin,  "De  Deo  uno",  thes.  Ixv  (Rome,  1883)]. 

It  is  just  as  difficult  to  find  in  the  writinc^  of  the 
Fathers  a  solid  argument  for  an  absolute  predestina- 
tion. The  only  one  who  might  be  cited  with  some 
semblance  of  truth  is  St.  Augustine,  who  stands,  how- 
ever, idmost  alone  among  his  predecessors  and  suc- 
cessors. Not  even  his  most  faithful  pupils,  Prosper 
and  Fulgentius,  followed  their  master  in  aU  his  exag- 
gerations. But  a  problem  so  deep  and  mysterious, 
which  does  not  belong  to  the  substance  of  Faith  and 
which,  to  use  the  expression  of  Pope  Celestine  I  (d. 
432),  is  concerned  with  profundiores  difficUioreaque 
partes  incurrentiumqucBstionum  (cf.  Denz.,n.  142),  can- 
not be  decided  on  the  sole  authority  of  Augustine. 
Moreover,  the  true  opinion  of  the  African  doctor  is  a 
matter  of  dispute  even  among  thtt  best  authorities,  so 
that  all  parties  claim  him  for  their  conflicting  views 
[cf.  O.  Rottmanner,  "Der  Augustinismus"  (Munich, 
1802);  Pfulf;  "Zur  Pradestinationslehre  des  hi.  Au- 
ffustinus"  in  "Innsbrucker  2ieitschrift  filr  kath. 
Theologie",  1893,  483  sq.].  As  to  the  unsuccessful 
attempt  made  by  Gonet  and  Billuart  to  prove  absolute 
predestination  ante  prcevisa  merila  "by  an  argument 
from  reason",  see  Pohle,  "Dogmatik",  II,  4th  ed., 
Paderbom,  1909,  443  sq. 

B.  The  Theory  of  the  Negative  Reprobation  of  the 
Damned. — What  deters  us  most  stronglv  from  em- 
bracing the  theory  just  discussed  is  not  the  fact  that 
it  cannot  be  dogmatically  proved  from  Scripture  or 
Tradition,  but  the  logical  necessity  to  which  it  binds 
us,  of  associating  an  absolute  predestination  to  glory, 
w^ith  a  reprobation  just  as  absolute,  even  though  it  be 
but  negative.  The  well-meant  efforts  of  some  theo- 
logians (e.  g.  Billot)  to  make  a  distinction  between  the 
tw^o  concepts,  and  so  to  escape  the  evil  consequences 
of  negative  reprobation,  cannot  conceal  from  closer 
inspection  the  helplessness  of  such  logical  artifices. 
Hence  the  earlier  partisans  of  absolute  predestination 
never  denied  that  thdr  theory  compelled  them  to 
assume  for  the  wicked  a  parallel,  negative  reprobation 
— that  is,  to  assume  that,  though  not  positively  pr^ 
destined  to  hell,  yet  they  are  absolutely  predestined 
not  to  go  to  heaven  (cf.  above,  I,  B).  While  it  was 
easy  for  the  Thomists  to  bring  this  view  into  logical 
harmony  with  their  pramwtio  physical  the  few  Molin- 
ists  were  put  to  straits  to  harmonize  negative  reproba- 
tion with  their  ecierUia  media.   In  order  to  disguise  the 


harshness  and  cruelty  of  such  a  Divine  decree,  the 
theologians  invented  more  or  less  palliative  e]q)res- 
sions,  saying  that  negative  reprobation  is  the  absolute 
will  of  God  to  "pass  over"  a  priori  those  not  predes- 
tined, to  "overlook"  them,  "not  to  elect"  them,  "by 
no  means  to  admit"  them  into  heaven.  Only  Gonet 
had  the  courage  to  call  the  thing  by  its  right  name: 
"exclusion  from  heaven"  {exdusio  a  gloried 

In  another  respect,  too,  the  adherents  of  negative 
reprobation  do  not  a^ree  amon^  themselves,  namely, 
as  to  what  is  the  motive  of  Divme  reprobation,  llie 
rigorists  (as  Alvarez,  Estius,  Sylvius)  regard  as  the 
motive  the  sovereign  will  of  God  who,  without  taking 
into  account  possible  sins  and  demerits,  determined  a 
priori  to  keep  those  not  predestined  out  of  heaven, 
though  He  did  not  create  them  for  hell. 

A  second  milder  opinion  (e.  g.  de  Lemos,  Gotti, 
Gonet),  appealing  to  the  Au^ustinian  doctrine  of  the 
masaa  damnata,  finds  the  ultimate  reason  for  the  ex- 
clusion from  heaven  in  original  sin,  in  which  God 
could,  without  being  unjust,  leave  as  many  as  He 
saw  nt.  The  third  and  mildest  opinion  (as  Goudin, 
Graveson,  Billuart)  derives  reprobation  not  from  a 
direct  exclusion  from  heaven,  but  from  the  omission 
of  an  "effectual  election  to  heaven";  they  represent 
God  as  having  decreed  ante  prcansa  merUa  to  leave 
those  not  predestined  in  their  sinful  weakness,  without 
denying  them  the  necessary^  sufficient  graces;  thus 
they  would  perish  infallibly  (cf.  "Innsbrucker 
Zeitschrift  fUr  kath.  Theologie^',  1879^  203  ex\.), 

Wliatever  view  one  may  take  regarding  the  internal 
probabiUty  of  negative  reprobation,  it  cannot  be 
harmonized  with  the  dogmatically  certain  universality 
and  sincerity  of  God's  salvific  will.  For  the  absolute 
predestination  of  the  blessed  is  at  the  same  time  the 
absolute  will  of  God  "not  to  elect"  a  priori  the  rest  of 
mankind  (Suarez),  or  which  comes  to  the  same,  "to 
exclude  them  from  heaven"  (Gonet),  in  other  words, 
not  to  save  them.  While  certain  Thomists  (as  Bafiez, 
Alvarez,  Gonet)  accept  this  conclusion  so  far  as  to 
degrade  the  "voluntas  salvifica"  to  an  ineffectual 
"velleitas",  which  conflicts  with  evident  doctrines  of 
revelation,  Suarez  labours  in  the  sweat  of  his  brow  to 
safeguard  the  sincerity  of  God's  salvific  will,  even 
towards  those  who  are  reprobated  negatively.  But 
in  vain.  How  can  that  will  to  save  be  called  serious 
and  sincere  which  has  decreed  from  all  eternity  the 
metaphysical  impossibility  of  salvation?  He  who  has 
been  reprobated  negativel]^.  may  exhaust  all  his  efforts 
to  attain  salvation:  it  avails  him  nothing.  Moreover, 
in  order  to  realize  infallibly  his  decree,  God  is  com- 
pelled to  frustrate  the  eternal  welfare  of  all  excluded  a 
priori  from  heaven,  and  to  take  care  that  thev  die  in 
their  sins.  Is  this  the  language  in  which  Holy  Writ 
speaks  to  us?  No;  there  we  meet  an  anxious,  loving 
father,  who  wills  not  "that  any  should  perish,  but 
that  all  E^ould  return  to  penance"  (II  Pet.,  iii,  9). 
Lessius  rightly  says  that  it  would  be  indifferent  to  him 
whether  he  was  numbered  among  those  reprobated 
positively  or  negatively;  for,  in  either  case^his  eternal 
damnation  womd  be  certain.  The  reason  for  this  is 
that  in  the  present  economy  exclusion  from  heaven 
means  for  adults  practically  the  same  thing  as  damna- 
tion. A  middle  state,  a  merely  natural  happiness,  does 
not  exist. 

C.  The  Theory  of  Predestination  post  proBvisa 
merita. — ^This  theory,  defended  by  the  earlier  Scho- 
lastics (Alexander  of  Hales,  Albertus  Magnus),  as  well 
as  by  the  majority  of  the  Molinists,  and  warmly 
recommended  b}r  St.  Francis  de  Sales  "as  the  truer 
and  more  attractive  opinion",  has  this  as  its  chief  dis- 
tinction, that  it  is  free  from  the  logical  necessity  of 
upholding  negative  reprobation.  It  differs  from  pre- 
destination ante  prcansq  merita  in  two  points:  first,  it 
rejects  the  absolute  decree  and  assumes  a  hypothetical 
predestination  to  glory;  secondly ^  it  does  not  revewA 
the  succession  of  grace  and  ^orj  vB."Oafc  V«^  ot^^sr^^ 


PBITACK 


384 


PBirACE 


sternal  intention  and  of  execution  m  time,  but  makes 
glory  depend  on  merit  in  eternity  as  well  as  in  the 
order  of  time.  This  hypothetical  decree  reads  as 
follows:  Just  as  in  time  eternal  happiness  depends  on 
merit  as  a  condition,  so  I  intendea  heaven  from  all 
eternity  only  for  foreseen  merit. — It  is  only  by  reason 
of  the  infallible  foreknowledge  of  these  merits  that  the 
hypothetical  decree  is  changed  into  an  absolute:  These 
and  no  others  shall  be  saved. 

This  view  not  onlv  safegjuards  the  universality  and 
sincerity  of  Qod's  safvific  will,  but  coincides  admirably 
with  the  teachings  of  St.  Paul  (cf .  II  Tim.,  iv,  8),  who 
knows  that  there  ''is  laid  up"  (rejwsita  esty  dirdmircu) 
in  heaven  "a  crown  of  justice '^  w^ich  ''the  just  judge 
will  render"  {reddet,  dvoBtbcti)  to  him  on  the  day  of 
judgment.  Clearer  still  is  the  inference  drawn  from 
the  sentence  of  the  universal  Judge  (Matt.,  xxv,  34 
sq.):  "Come,  ye  blessed  of  my  Father,  possess  you 
the  kingdom jprepared  for  you  from  the  foundation  of 
the  world.  For  I  was  hun^,  and  you  gave  me  to 
eat"  ete.  As  the  "possessing"  of  the  Kingdom  of 
Heaven  in  time  is  here  linked  to  the  works  of  mercy  as 
a  condition,  so  the  "preparation"  of  the  Kingdom  of 
Heaven  in  eternity,  that  is,  predestination  to  glory  is 
conceived  as  dependent  on  the  foreknowledge  that 
good  works  will  oe  performed.  The  same  conclusion 
follows  from  the  parallel  sentence  of  condemnation 
(Matt.,  XXV,  41  sq.):  "Depart  from  me,  you  ciu-sed. 
into  everlasting  fire  which  was  prepared  for  the  devil 
and  his  angels.  For  X  was  hungry,  and  you  gave  me 
not  to  eat  etc.  For  it  is  evident  that  the  "everlast- 
ing fire  of  hell"  can  only  have  been  intended  from  all 
eternity  for  sin  and  demerit,  that  is,  for  ne^ect  of 
Christian  charity,  in  the  same  sense  in  which  it  is  in- 
flicted in  time.  Concluding  a  pari,  we  must  say  the 
same  of  eternal  bliss.  This  explanation  is  splendidly 
confirmed  by  the  Greek  Fathers.  Generally  speaking, 
the  Greeks  are  the  chief  authorities  for  conditional 

Eredestination  dependent  on  foreseen  merits.  The 
patins,  too,  are  so  unanimous  on  this  Question  that  St. 
Augustine  is  practically  the  onl^r  adversary  in  the 
Occident.  St.  Hilary  (In  Ps.  Ixiv,  n.  6)  expressly 
describes  eternal  election  as  proceeding  from  "the 
choice  of  merit"  (ex  meriti  ddectu),  and  St.  Ambrose 
teaches  in  his  paraphrase  of  Rom.,  viii,  29  (De  fide, 
V,  vi^  83):  "N'on  enim  ante  prsdestinavit  quam 
prsscivit,  sed  quorum  merita  prsescivit,  eorum  prsmia 
prsedestinavit  (He  did  not  predestine  before  He  fore- 
knew, but  for  those  whose  merits  He  foresaw.  He  pre- 
destined tiie  reward).  To  conclude:  no  one  can  accuse 
us  of  boldness  if  we  assert  that  the  theory  here  pre- 
sented has  a  firmer  basis  in  Scripture  and  Tradition 
than  the  opposite  opinion. 

Beades  the  works  quoted,  cf.  I^stbr  Lombard,  Sent.,  I,  dist. 
40-41:  &r.  Thomas.  I,  Q.  xxiii;  Ruix,  De  prctdut,  tt  reprobations 
(Lyons,  1628);  RamIbu,  De  prced.  el  reprob,  (2  vols.,  Alcal&, 
1702);  Pbtatiub,  De  Deo,  IX-A;  Idem,  De  ineamatione,  XIII; 
Lbbsxub,  De  per/ectionibtu  moribiuque  divinie,  XIV,  2;  Idem, 
De  prod,  el  reprob.,  Opuee.  II  (Paris,  1878);  Tournblt,  De 
Deo,  qq.  22-23;  Schbadbr.  Commentarii  de  j^tBde^incUione 
(Vienna,  1865);  Hoass,  De  notionibtu  pronderUia  pradeetino' 
tioniemte  in  ifea  Sacra  Seriptura  exhibitie  (Bonn,  1868) ;  Baltzbb, 
Dee  M.  AumuUnua  Lehre  Hber  Prddeatination  uhd  Reprobation 
('Vienna,  1871);  MANNBNa,  De  vdunlate  Dei  ealvifica  et  pradee- 
Unaiione  (Louvain,  1883) ;  Weber,  Kritieche  Geech,  der  Exegeee 
d\  J  0  Kap,  dee  ROmerbriefea  (WQrsburK,  1889).  Besides  these 
mpnographs  df.  Fbankbun,  De  Deo  uno  (Rome,  1883) ;  Oswald, 
Die  Lehre  von  der  Onade,  d.  i.  Gnade,  Recht/ertigung,  GnadenwahX 
(Paderborn,  1886);  Simab,  Dogmatik,  II,  fl26  (Freiburg.  1899); 
T&VB,  Inetitui.  theol..  Ill  (Paris,  .1896);  Schbbben-Atsberoer. 
Doamaiik,  IV  (Freiburg,  1903);  Pescr.  Pral.  Dogmat.,  II  (Frei- 
burg,  1906) ;  van  Noobt.  De  gratia  Chrieti  (Amsterdam,  1908) ; 
PoBiLB,  DogmaHk,  II  (Paderbem,  1909). 

J.   POHLE. 

Proface  (Lat.  Prafatio),  the  first  part  of  the  Eu- 
charifltic  prayers  (Anaphora  or  Canon)  in  all  rites, 
now  separated  from  the  rest  by  the  singing  of  the 
"Sanctus". 

I.  HisTORT. — According  to  the  idea  of  thankwiving 
which,  after  the  example  of  the  Last  Supper  (Matt., 
zxvi,  27';  Mark,  xiv,  23;  Luke,  xxii,  17. 19;  I  Cor.,  xi, 


24),  fonps  a  fundamental  element  of  the  Eucharistio 
service,  all  liturgies  be^  the  Anaphora,  the  consecra- 
tion-prayer, by  thanking  God  for  His  benefits.  Al- 
most everv  account  we  have  of  the  eauly  liturgy 
mentions  this  (Didacheix,  2-^3:  x,  2-4;  xiv,  1;  Justin, 
"IApol.",LXV,iii,5;  LXVII,v).  Clement  of  Rome 
quotes  a  lon^^  example  of  such  a  thanksgiving-prayer 
(I  Cor.,  Ix-ba).  So  prominent,  was  this  idea  ittat  it 
has  supplied  the  usual  name  for  the  whole  service 
(Eucharist,  e^opMrla).  The  thanksgiving-prayer 
enumerated  the  benefits  for  which  we  thank  God, 
beginning  generally  with  the '  creation,  continuing 
through  the  orders  of  nature  and  grace,  mentioning 
much  of  Old  Testament  historv,  and  so  coning  to  the 
culminating  benefit  of  Christ  s  Incarnation,  His  life 
and  Passion,  in  which  the  story  of  the  Last  Supper 
brings  us  naturally  to  the  words  of  institution.  In 
most  of  the  earliest  liturgies  this  enumeration  is  of 
considerable  length  (e.g.  Ai>ost.  Const., VIII;  XII, 
iv-xxxix;  Alexandria,  -see  Brightman,  infraf  125-33; 
Antioch,  ibid.,  50-2).  It  is  invariably  preceded  by 
an  invitation  to  the  people:  "Lift  up  your  hearts  , 
and  then:  "Let  us  give  thanks  to  the  Lord'',  or  some 
such  formula.  The  people  having  answered:  "It  is 
right  and  just",  the  celebrant  continues,  taking  up 
their  word:  "It  is  truly  right  and  just  first  of  all  to 
pruse  [or  to  thank]  thee'-' ;  and  so  the  thanksgiving 
Begins. 

Such  is  the  scheme  eversnvhere.  It  is  also  universal 
that  at  some  moment  before  the  recital  of  the  words 
of  institution  there  should  be  a  mention  of  the  angels 
who,  as  Isaias  said,  praise ^God  and  say:  "Holy,  holy, 
holy"  etc.,  and  the  celebrant  stops  to  allow  the  people 
to  take  up  the  angels'  words  (so  already  Clem.,  "I 
Cor.",  xxxiv,  6-7,  and  all  liturgies).  He  then  con- 
tinues hb  thanksgiving-prayer.  But  the  effect  of  this 
interruption  is  to  cut  off  the  part  before  it  from 
the  rest.  In  the  Eastern  rites  tne  separation  is  less 
marked;  the  whole  prayer  is  still  counted  as  one  thing 
— ^the  Anaphora.  In  the  West  the  Sanetus  has  cut  the 
old  Canon  completely  in  two;  the  part  before  it,  once 
counted  part  of  the  (Janon  (see  Canon  of  the  Mass), 
is  now,  since  about  the  seventh  century  (Ord. 
Rom.,  I,  16),  considered  a  separate  prayer,  the 
F^face.  The  dislocation  of  the  rest  of  the  Canon 
which  no  longer  continues  the  note  of  thanks^ving, 
but  has  part  of  its  Intercession  (Te  igitiar)  imme- 
diately after  the  Sanetus.  and  its  silent  recital,  whereaE 
the  Preface  is  sung  idoua,  have  still  more  accentuated 
this  separation.  Nevertheless,  historically  the  Preface 
belongs  to  the  Canon;  it  is  the  first  part  of  the  Eu- 
charistio prayer,  the  only  part  that  has  kept  clearly 
the  idea  of  giving  thanks.  The  name  "Prsefatio" 
(from  prmfari)  means  introduction,  preface  (in  the 
usual  sense)  to  the  Canon.  In  the  Leonine  and  Gela- 
maa  books  this  part  of  the  Canon  has  no  special 
title.  It  is  recognized  by  its  first  words:  "Vere  dig- 
num"  (Leonine)  or  the  initials  "V.  D."  (Gelasianl. 
In  the  Gregorian  Sacramentary  it  is  already  consid- 
ered a  separate  prayer  and  is  headed  "Pnefatio". 
Walafrid  Strabo  calls  it  "prsefatio  actionis"  ("actio" 
for  Canon;  "De  eccl.  rerum  exord.  et  increm."  in 
P.  L.,  CXIV,  948).  Sicardus  of  Cremona  says  it 
is  "sequentis  canonis  prs&locutio  et  prs&paratio" 
(Mitrale  in  P.  L.,  CCXIII,  122).  Durandus  writes 
a  whole  chapter  about  the  Preface  (De  div.  off., 
IV,  xxxiii).  He  explains  its  name  as  meaning  that 
it  "precedes  the  principal  sacrifice". 

The  first  Roman  Prefaces  extant  are  those  in  the 
Leonine  Sacramentwy.  They  already  show  the  two 
characteristic  qualities  that  distinguish  the  Roman 
Preface  from  the  corresponding  part  of  other  rites,  its 
shortness  and  changeableness.  The  old  thanks^ving 
(before  the  Sanetus)  contained  a  long  enumeration  of 
God's  benefits,  as  in  Clement  of  Rome  and  the  Apos- 
tolic Constitutions.  It  is  so  still  in  the  Eastern  ntes. 
At  Rome,  before  the  Leonine  book  was  written,  this 


PBITACE                               885  PREFACE 

enumeration  was  ruthleBfilv  curtMled.    Nothing  is  left  is  a  variant  of  the  first  form.    All  end  with  the  woid: 

of  It  but  a  most  general  allusion:  "always  and  every-  "dicentes"  (which  in  the  first  and  second  form  refere 

where  to  thank  thee".    But  the  mention  of  the  angels  to  us,  in  the  third  form  to  the  angels),  and  the  people 

which  mtroduces  the  Sanctus  had  to  remain.    This,  (choir)   continue  the  sehtence:  "Sflictus,  Sanctus, 

comparatively  detailed,  stiU  gives  the  Roman  Preface  Sanctus",  etc. 

the  character  of  a  prayer  chiefly  about  the  angels  and  There  are  many  prayers  for  other  occasions  (chiefly 

makes  it  all  seem  to  lead  up  to  the  Sanctus,  as  the  blessings  and  consecrations)  formed  on  the  model  of 

medieval  conmientators  notice  (e.  g.  Durandus^  ibid.),  the  Preface,  with  the  "Sursum  corda"  dialogue,  be- 

The  corresponding  prayer  ih  Apost.  Const.  (VIII)  ginning  "Vere  dignum"  etc.    From  their  form  one 

contains  two  references  to  the  angels,  one  at  the  bepn-  would  call  them  Prefaces,  though  not  Eucharistic  ones, 

ning  where  theydccur  as  the  first  creatures  (VIII,  viii).  Such  are  the  ordination  prayers,  two  at  the  consecra- 

the  other  at  the  end  of  the  commemoration  of  Old  tion  of  a  church,  the  blessing  of  the  font,  of  palms  (but 

Testament  history  (ori^nally  written  in  connexion  this  was  once  a  Mass  Preface),  part  of  the  prceconium 

with  Isaias's  place  m  it)  where  they  introduce  the  paschale.    They  are  imitations  of  the  Eucharistic  F^ef- 

Sanctus  (XII,  xxvii).   It  seems  probable  that  at  Rome  ace,  apparently  because  its  solemn  form  (perhaps  its 

with  the  omission  of  the  historical  allusions  these  two  chant)  made  it  seem  suitable  for  other  specially  solemn 

references  were  merged  into  one.   The  "Et  ideo"  then  occasions  too.    The  Leonine,  Gelasian,  and  Gregorian 

would  refer  to  the  omitted  list  of  favours  in  the  Old  Sacramentaries  have  our  ordination  prayers,  but  not 

Testament  (at  present  it  has  no  special  point) .   So  we  yet  cast  into  this  Preface  form.   But  through  the  Mid- 

should  have  one  more  connexion  oetween  the  Roman  •  die  Ages  the  Preface  form  was  very  popular,  and  a 

Rite  and  the  Apost.  Const,  (see  Mass,  Liturgt  of).  great  number  of  blessinss  are  composed  in  it.   This  is 

The  other  special  note  of  oui  Preface  is  its' change-  only  one  more  case  of  tne  common  medieval  practice 

ableness.   Here,  too,  the  East  is  immovable,  the  West  of  modelling  new  prayers  and  services  on  otners  al- 

changes  with  tne  calendar.    The  Preface  was  origi-  ready  well-known  and  popular  (compare  the  hymns 

naUy  as  much  part  of  the  variable  Proper  as  the  Col-  written  in  imitation  of  older  ones,  etc.). 

lect.   The  Leonme  book  supplies  Prefaces  all  through  II.  The  Preface  in  Other  Rftes. — ^The  name 

for  the  special  Masses;  it  has  267.    The  Gelasian  has  "Prsefatio"  is  peculiar  to  Rome  and  to  Milan,  which 

64;  liie  Gregorian  has  10  and  more  than  100  in  its  has  borrowed  it  from  Rome.   In  no  other  rite  is  there  a 

appendix.    In  these  varied  Prefaces  allusions  to  the  special  name;  it  is  simply  the  opening  clauses  of  the 

feast,  the  season,  and  so  on,  take  the  place  of  the  old  Anaphora.   In  the  Syrian-Byzantine-Armenian  group, 

list  of  Divine  favours.  though  this  part  of  the  Eucharistic  prayer  is  still 

The  preface  after  the  ekphonens  of  the  Secret  {Per  longer  than  the  Roman  Preface  and  has  kept  some  list 

omnia  scBciUa  sceculorum — here  as  alwajrs  merely  a  of  benefits  for  which  we  thank  God,  it  is  comparatively 

warning)  begins  with  a  little  dialogue  of  which  the  short.    TheByzantineLiturpyof  St.  Basil  has  a  fairly 

versicles  or  equivalent  forms  are  found  at  this  place  in  long  form.    As  usual,  there  is  a  much  shorter  form  in 

evCTy  liturgy.    First  "Dominus  vobiscum"  with  its  that  of  St.  Chrysostom.    The  Armenian  form  is  the 

answer.    The  Eastern  rites,  too,  have  a  blessing  at  shortest  and  mentions  only  the  Incarnation.    But  in 

this  point.     "Sursum  corda"  is  one  of  the  oldest  the  Egjrptian  group  of  liturgies  the  whole  Intercession 

known  liturgical  formulas  (St.  (Cyprian  ouotes  it  and  prayer  is  included  m  what  we  should  call  the  Preface, 

its  answer,  "De  Orat.  Dom.",  xxxi,  in  "P.  L.",  IV,  so  that  this  part  is  very  long.    This  is  the  most  con- 

539;  Apost.  Const.:  'Am»  rbv  yoOy).    It  is  an  invita-  spicuous  characteristic  of  the  Alexandrine  type.    The 

tion  to  the  people  eminently  suitable  just  before  the  prayer  begins  in  the  usual  way  with  a  list  of  favours 

Eucharistic  prayer  begins.    Bri^tman  (tn/ra,  556)  (creation  of  the  world  and  of  man,  the  Prophets, 

quotesasitssourceLun.,  iii,  41.  ^aually  old  and  uni-  Christ).     Then   abruptly   the   Intercession   begins 

versal  is  the  people's  answer:  ^'Habemus  [corda]  ad  (''And  we  pray  and  entreat  thee  .  .  .");  joined  to  it 

Dominum",  a  C&eek  construction:  'Exo/ttp  rp6s  rbw  are  the  memory  of  the  saints  and  the  diptychs  of  the 

K^/Mor,  meaning:  "we  have  them  [have  placed  them]  dead,  and  then,  equally  abruptly,  the  thanksgiving  is 

before  liie  Lord  "•    Then  follows  the  invitation  to  give  resumed  and  introduces  the  Sanctus  (Crightman,  125- 

thanks,  which  very  early  included  the  technical  idea  132).   It  is  clear  that  this  represents  a  later  amalgama- 

of  "making  the  Eucharist ":  "Gratiasagamus  Domino  tion:  the  two  quite  different  prayers  are  joined  awk- 

Deo  nostro".    So  with  verbal  variations  in  all  rites,  waraly,  so  that  the  seams  are  still  obvious.    In  all 

The  Jewish  form  of  ^race  before  meals  contains  the  Eastern  rites  the  Preface,  or  rather  what  corresponds 

same  form:  "Let  us  give  thanks  to  Adonai  our  Cjod"  to  it,  is  said  silently  after  the  first  dialogue,  ending 

(in  the  Mishna,  "Berachoth  ",  6).  The  people  answer  with  an  ekphonesis  to  introduce  the  Sanctus  (the  Alex- 

with  an  expression  that  a^ain  must  come  from  the  andrine  Liturgy  has  another  eA:p/ione8i8  in  its  Interces- 

earliest  age:*'Dignum  et  lustum  est",    lliis,  too,  b  sion).    This  accounts  for  its  being  less  important  an. 

universal  (Apost.  Const. :  'Mtov  xal  dlKtuov),    Its  redu-  element  of  the  service  than  in  the  West. 

glication  suggests  a  Hebrew  parallelism.  The  cele-  The  Gallican  Rite  had  a  great  number  of  Prefaces  for 
rant  takes  up  their  word  and  begins  the  Preface  al-  feasts  and  seasons.  Even  more  than  in  the  old  Roman 
ways:  "Vere  dignum  et  lustum  est"  (Apost.  0>nst.:  Liturgy  this  prayer  was  part  of  the  Proper,  like  the 
'A^toy  &t  dXuOQf  Ktd  dUau>9).  The  beginning  of  the  Collects  and  Lessons.  But  it  was  not  called  a  Preface. 
Roman  Preface  is  approached  among  the  others  most  Its  heading  in  the  Gallican  books  was  "Contestatio" 
nearly  by  Alexandria.  Our  present  common  Preface  or  "Immolatio";  the  Mozarabic  title  is  "Inlatio". 
represents  the  simplest  type,  with  no  aJlusions;  all  the  These  names  really  apply  to  the  whole  Eucharistic 
old  list  of  benefits  is  represented  by  the  words  "per  prayer  and  correspond  to  our  name  Canon  (Inla- 
Christimi  Dominum  nostrum  "  only.  This  is  the  Pref-  tio — •' Awx^opd) .  But  as  later  parts  had  special  names 
ace  given  in  liie  Canon  of  the  Gelasian  book  (ed.  Wil-  ("Vere  Sanctus",  "Post  sanctus",  "Post  pridie", 
son,  p.  234).  Most  of  the  others  are  formed  by  an  in-  etc.),  these  general  titles  were  eventually  understood 
tercaiation  after  these  words.  But  there  are  three  as  meaning  specially  the  part  before  the  Sanctus. 
types  of  Preface  distinguished  by  their  endings.  The  Now  the  Mozarabic  ^'  Inlatio  "  may  be  taken  as  equiv- 
nrst  and  commonest  introduces  the  angels  thus:  "per  alent  to  the  Roman  "Pnefatio".  The  Ambrosian Rite 
quem  maieetatem  tuam  laudant  angeli";  the  second  has  adopted  the  Roman  name.  Both  Mozarabic  and 
(e.  g.  for  Christmas,  Epiphany,  Easter,  Ascension,  AmbrosianRites  keep  the  Gallican  peculiarity  of  a  vast 
Apostles)  begins  that  clause:  "et  ideo  cum  angelis";  number  of  Prefaces  printed  each  as  part  of  the  Proper, 
the  third  and  rarest  (now  only  the  Whit-Sunday  Pref-  III.  Present  Use.— The  Roman  Missal  now  con- 
ace)  has:  "Quapropter  .  .  .  s^  et  supemse  virtu-  tains  eleven  Prefaces.  Ten  are  in  the  Gregorian  Sac- 
tcs".  The  Trinity  mface  ("quam  laudant  angeli")  ramentary,  one  (of  the  Blessed  Virgin)  was  added 
XIL— 25 


PBSnCT 


386 


PBELATI 


UDder  Urban  II  (1088-99).    The  pope  himself  is  re- 
ported to  have  composed  this  Preface  and  to  have 
suns  it  first  at  the  Synod  of  Guastalla  in  1094.    The 
Prefaces  form  a  medium  between  the  unchanging  Or- 
dinary and  the  variable  Proper  of  the  Mass.    They 
vary  so  Uttle  that  they  are  printed  in  the  Ordinary, 
first  with  their  solemn  chants,  then  with  the  ferial 
chants,  and  lastly  without  notes  for  Low  Mass.    The 
appendix  of  the  new  (Vatican)  Missal  gives  a  third 
"more  solenm"  chant  for  each,  merely  a  more  ornate 
form  of  the  solenm  chant,  to  be  uised  ad  libitum. 
Otherwise  the  solemn  chant  is  to  be  used  for  semi- 
doubles  and  all  days  above  that,  the  simple  chant  for 
simples,  ferias.  and  requiems.    The  Preface  is  chosen 
according  to  tne  usual  rule  for  all  proper  parts  of  the 
Mass.    If  the  feast  has  one,  that  is  used ;  otnerwise  one 
takes  that  of  the  octave  or  season.    All  days  that  do 
not  fall  under  one  of  these  classes  have  the  conuDos 
Preface,  except  that  Sundays  that  have  no  spws&i 
Preface  have  that  of  the  Holy  Trinity  (so  the  deat*  oc\ 
Clement  XIII,  3  Jan.,  1759).     Requiems  hav^^  ^>r 
common  Preface,  as  also  votive  Masses,  unkas  t^jA^ 
latter  come  under  a  category  that  has  a  proper  ooe  t»^ 
g..  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  the  Holy  Ghost,  etc,>.  Vvx;ve 
Masses  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament,  like  Corpa$  C^n^i* 
hate  the  Christmas  Preface.    There  are  oii>fr  «pxt«H 
sions  of  use  (the  Preface  of  the  Holy  Gross  for  the  Sa- 
cred Heart,  etc.).  all  of  which  are  noted  in  the  Flopers 
of  the  Miasal  ana  in  the  Calendar. 

At  High  Mass  after  the  last  Secrrt  tlM^  cWehrant  at 
the  middle  of  the  altar,  resting  his  haacb  on  it.  sings: 
"Per  omnia  ssecula  sseculorum**  eff^*-  the  ehoir  an- 
swers each  versicle.  He  lifts  up  the  hjtfiKb  *t  **  Sursum 
corda";  at  "Gratias  agamus'  he  v'^o^  them,  and  at 
*•  Deo  nostro  "  looks  up  and  then  K^«^  At  "  Vere  dig- 
num  "  he  lifts  the  hands  again  auM  5\^  ^^^  ti^©  Preface 
through.  After  *' dicentee"  he  \^  v^  5^*»u  and  bowing 
says  the  Sanctus  in  a  low  \x»kv.  »  '  ^'  5^><;^  ^^ovc  sings  it. 
The  deacon  and  subdeact«  ?£a-^5  ui  hue  behind  him 
all  the  time,  bow  with  him  a^  i>.^  %vy\U  **  Deo  nostro  ", 
and  come  to  either  side  n^  «v  ^i^"  J^AUctus  with  him. 
At  Low  Mass  all  is  sakL  ti»e  *«^a*  answering  the  dia- 

loKue  at  the  b^dnniitf  .,.^v    ^ 

BmoBTM^,  sSun  ioL^--^  v^'^^^?^?:  ^5J?<*^5  ^?^*t'?*^7*»- 

^'**>^^»num  UifUanwm  K>-^'^^'  "^  '  WiuiON,  TheQdanan 
SaeromiuUaru  rOvfwsTvl'^  v^s  v«<.<%*«N*-Hhim  Grmorianum  and 
OrdU^JoSaniinPi  \V>  -  vUhh. /)o«  ^W  Jf«aaop/«r 
(Fr»ibur«  1897^  w  ^  ^  "^^  \x^yy»^vk%i^  Uhrbuchder  Liturgik, 
I  ^Berlin. 'i90A>^^'\  !ss.       ^  ^  w  ^^uruiVH.  Manuel  de  Litttrgie,  I 


,-v    -        -  1900).  ^^-Vo^ 
(P»na,  1910),  7^^  >*N  -^^  *^ 


Adrian  Fortbscus. 


Pt«foct  A|i^<»?>ft  V^'^^^-  praifectus^  one  put 
over  or  in  v^h^vy^  vh  *MiuHhlng).  Dunng  the  last 
few  centuri^  **  ^^^  ^'^'**  '^^*'  practice  of  the  Holy 
J^  to  gi»\^^  ^H^.V>*^  t)\iH>\igh  prefects  Apostolic, 
or  throujtK  >»<>**^  AiHv*tolio  (q.  v),  many  of  the 
terntori<yi  ^^'^v  ih^  iliootiM^  with  resident  bishops 
exist.  '11hv^  ^><uHv»it^  an<  called  respectively  pre- 
fectures .Vvsv**s^iw  Hiul  vituiriatos  Apostolic.  This 
had  bw^^"**^'  Kv  tht*  Jloly  See  when,  owing  to 
local  (iii\H4U^>v.4U^Hvi,  Huoh  OS  the  character  and  cus- 
toms ii  ^  ^>*4^^*S  \\u>  hoHtility  of  the  civil  powers 
mod  thv  ^^^  ^^  NviM  doubtful  whether  an  episcopal 
Me  wmXi  sv  iMMuuMitmtly  established.  ,The  e&- 
labU«t^.2^^  ^  UMMo  proftu)luro  A)K)Btolic  in  a  place 
■0PI'*1f*k  \  ^^*"  <'luiroh  hiuj  attained  there  only 
a  •!«•**>  ^^'^r**l' "''**' ^"  A.  fulW  development  leads 
to  ^^^  »J^^^^»Htliiu  of  a  vUuirittto  AiKistolio,  i,  e.,  the 
ln<,iu'4*»s^*^***    tttiimi    bntwtMUi    a   prt^fecture   and   a 

4'*^iM  I  *'**'^""<'  Apnutollo  is  of  lower  rank  than  a 
v«'*'\jr*  lj»»>viii«  ,4,.,,  „jj,r^,  UiuitcMl,  nor  has  he,  as  a 

W*^».kW*'  r'''*'l»'*^  ohi4riMitor,  as  is  ordinarily  the 
^JN^yyy^MMr  AiMmUilid.    11)o  dutlra  of  a  prefect 
^^  \H  tlifooling  the  work  of  the  mission 
|mi  «iurit;    hlH  poworn  are  in  general 
V  (uiniitMittMl  with  the  oniinary  ad- 
Miiuli  tin  oOioo,  tut,  for  insUvnoe,  the 
*Mi(tiuM'i(tM,  tho  making  of  regulations 


for  the  good  management  of  the  affairs  of  his  mis- 
sion, and  the  like.    Moreover,  he  has  extraordinary 
faculties  for  several  cases  reserved  otherwise  to  the 
Apostolic  See,  such  as,  for  instance,    absolutions 
from  censures,  dispensations  from  matrimonial  im- 
pediments.   He  has  also  the  facultv  of  consecrat- 
ing chahces,  patens,  and  portable  altars,  and  some 
prefects  Apostolic  have   the  power  to  administer 
Oonfirmation.    The    pl^fects    Apostolic    we    have 
described  so  far  have  mdei>endent  territories  and  are 
subject  only  to  the  Holy  See.    Sometimes,  when  a 
vicariate  or  a  diocese  extends  over  a  very  large 
teR7tory,  in  which  the  CathoUc  population  is  un- 
eqfs&Uy"  distributed,  the  Holy  See  places  a  portion 
tt  «ch  territorv  in  charge  of  a  prefect  ApostoUc; 
ja  which  case  the  faculties  of  the  prefect  are  more 
diouted,  and  in  the  exercise  of  his  office  he  depends 
<Mi  the  vicar  Apostolic  or  the  bishop,  whose  consent 
he  needs  for  the  exercise  of  many  of  his  fimctions, 
and    to    whose    supervision    his   administration    is 
subject.    With  a  view  to  still  better  protecting  the 
authority  of  the  local  vicar  Apostolic  or  bishop,  it 
was  proposed  in  the  Vatican  Council  to  abolish  this 
second  class  of  prefects  Apostolic  having  jurisdic- 
tion over  districts  within  the  limits  of  a  vicariate  or 
dioc^  of  the  Latin  Rite;    but  the  existing  order 
remained  unchanged  owing  to  the  interruption  of 
that  Council.    As  to  the  same  class  of  prefects 
Apostolic  within  the  limits  of  territories  subject  to 
Oriental  Churches,  Leo  XIII  abolished  them  by  a 
Decree  of  the  Propaganda  (12  Sept.,  1896),  and  sub- 
stituted superiors  with  special  dependence  on  the 
delegates  Apostolic  (q.  v.)  of  the  respective  places. 
There  are  (1911)  66  prefectures  Apostolic:  £fuh)pe, 
5;  Asia,  17;  North  America,  3;  South  America,  11; 
Africa,  23;   Oceania,  7. 

Baart,  The  Rcnnan  Court  (New  York),  nn.  367-8;  Bouix, 
De  curia  romana  (Paria.  1880) ,  648;  Collectanea  S.  Congr.  de  Prop, 
Fide  (Rome,  1893).  nn.  15.  243-60;  Oerarchia  eattoliea  (Rome, 
1911);  PuTZBR,  Comment.  in/acuU.  apost.  (New  York,  1898),  n. 
246;  ScHNKEicANN.  Coll.  Laceneia,  VII  (Freiburg.  1870-90),  684. 
693;  ZiTKLU.  Apparat.  jur.  eed.  (Rome,  1888),  138. 

Hector  Papi. 

Prelate,  real,  the  incumbent  of  a  prelature,  i.e., 
of  an  ecclesiastical  office  with  special  and  stable 
jurisdiction  in  Joro  extemo  and  with  special  prece- 
dence over  other  ecclesiastical  offices ;  or,  honorary,  with 
distinctions  of  this  ecclesisstical  disnity  without  the 
corresponding  office.  The  original  prelates  are  the 
bishops  as  possessors  of  jurisdiction  over  the  members 
of  the  Church  based  on  Divine  institution.  Apart 
from  the  bishops,  the  real  prelates  include:  (1)  those 
who  have  quasi-episcopal,  independent  jurisdiction 
over  a  special  territory  separated  from  the  territory 
of  a  diocese  (prcelaliui  nuUiuSy  sc.  duBceseos),  as  is  the 
case  with  the  abbeys  and  provostships  of  monasteries 
(Monte  Cassino,  Mnsiedeln,  St.  Maurice  in  the  Can- 
ton of  Wallis,  etc.) ;  (2)  those  who  have  offices  in  the 
administration  of  dioceses,  and  enjoy  an  independent 
and  proper  jurisdiction  (e.g.,  the  earlier  archaeacons, 
the  provosts  and  deans  ot  cathedral  and  collegiate 
churches,  in  so  far  as  these  still  exercise  a  regular,  per- 
sonal jurisdiction;  (3)  abbots  and  provosts  of  mon- 
asteries, even  when  they  administer  no  territory  with 
episcopal  powers,  but  have  merely  the  permanent, 
supreme  oistinction  of  the  monastery;  (4)  titular 
bishops,  both  those  who  in  the  vicariates  Apostolic 
and  other  territories  have  supreme  ecclesiastical  ad- 
ministration, and  those  who  have  simply  received  epis- 
copal consecration  without  jurisdiction  over  a  special 
district,  such  as  certain  officials  in  Rome,  consecrating 
bishops,  etc.  J  (5)  the  highest  officials  of  the  Roman 
offices,  who,  m  addition  to  the  cardinals,  have  a  prom- 
inent share  in  the  direction  of  the  Roman  Church,  and 
thus  have  a  special  relation  to  the  person  of  the  pope. 
In  consequence  of  the  extent  of  the  government  of  the 


PSClfABl 


387 


PRBMONSTBATEMSIAN 


Church,  prelates  are  especially  numerous  in  Rome. 
The  most  important  real  prelates  of  the  papal  curia 
are:  the  three  highest  officials  of  the  Camera  Apos- 
tolica  (vice-camerlengo,  general  auditor,  and  treas- 
urer) and  the  Majordomo  of  the  Vatican,  who  are 
called  prelati  di  fioccheUi;  the  secretaries  of  the  con- 
gregations of  cardinals,  the  regent  of  the  papal  chan- 
cery, the  regent  of  the  Apostolic  Penitentiaiy,  and 
certain  other  high  officials- of  the  congreuktions  of 
the  Curia;  the  members  of  the  College  of  Prothono- 
taries  Apostolic  de  numero  participanlium,  the  audi- 
tors of  the  Rota,  the  clerics  of  the  Apostolic  Chamber, 
the  referendaries  of  the  SiaruUura  justiticB.  In  the 
.  Constitution  "Inter  ceteras^'  of  11  June,  1659.  Alex- 
ander VII  laid  down  the  conditions  under  whicn  these 
real  prelatures  might  be  accepted.  The  dignity 
granted  by  the  pope  with  mention  of  these  conditions 
IS  called  "pnelatura  iustitiss'';  when  the  conditions 
are  not  imposed  in  tne  granting  of  the  dignitv,  the 
latter  is  called  "prselatura  gratis  *'.  To  the  real  prel- 
ates belong,  therefore,  although  no  jurisdiction  in 
foro  extemo  is  attached  to  their  offices,  all  the  hi^- 
est  palace  officials,  who  perform  a  constant  service 
in  the  retinue  of  tne  pope  and  in  the  offices  created 
for  that  purpose.  The  appointment  to  these  offices 
confers  of  itself  the  prelature.  Such  officials  are  the 
Papal  Almoner,  the  Secretary  of  Latin  Briefs  and 
Bnefs  to  the  Princes,  the  substitute  of  the  Cardinal 
Secretary  of  State,  the  four  real  Privy  Chamberlains, 
the  real  Privy  Chaplains  of  the  Pope. 

A  second  class  of  prelates  are  tnose  on  whom  the 
title  and  rank  of  the  prelature  are  conferred  with  the 
corresponding  dress  and  privileges,  but  without  the 
office  or  court  service  otherwise  attached  to  it.  These 
are:  (1)  the  prothonotaries  Apoerf^lic  other  than  the 
real  ones  (see  Prothonotart  Apostolic);  (2)  the 
papal  domestic  prelates  (ArUistes  tir&antM,  PraiUUuB 
urbanust  PtcbUUils  dofneBticu8)f  who  are  appointed  to 
this  dignity  by  papal  Brief.  They  have  the  rig^t  of 
wearing  the  garb  of  a  prelate  and  of  using  in  Solemn 
High  Mass  tne  special  candle  ('pdlrnatoria)^  but  not 
the  other  episcopal  insignia  (Motu  Propno  "Inter 
multiplices"  of  PiusX,  21  February.  1905,  in  "Acta  S. 
Sedis  ,  XXXVII,  491,  sq.);  (3)  tne  supernumerary 
privy  chamberlains  (Camerieri  aegreti  8oprar-numer~ 
arti),  honorary  chamberlains  and  chaplains,  who  ma^ 
on  special  occasions  wear  the  same  garb  as  the  offi- 
ciatins  chamberlains  of  the  pope.  AH  prelates  have 
the  tiUe  "  Monsignore  **  and  a  special  costume  (purple) 
corresponding  to  their  rank:  the  higher  prelates  en- 
joy in  addition  other  special  privileges. 

Tamburxni,  De  tun  aibaium  et  aliorum  pralatorum  tarn  regtJof 
Hum  q[uam  tcscufarium  tvUcopU  inferiorum  (3  vols.,  Lyona,  1640) ; 
Banqen,  Die  RdmUche  Aurte,  ihre  gegenxodrUge  ZtuammerueUung 
u.  iPwe  Oeseha/Ugang  (MQnster,  1854);  Hiluno.  Z)m  Rdmiache 
ICurM  (Paderbom,  1006);  Battandier,  Annuaire  pmUifiecU  ccUho- 
lique  (Parifl,  1808 — );  Tboicbctta,  De  iuribuM  HjanvilegiU  prcBla- 
lorum  Romana  Curia  (Sorrento,  1006) ;  Baabt,  The  Rmnan  Court 
(Milwaukee,  1805);  Taxtmton,  The  Law  of  the  Church  (London, 
.  1006). 

J.   P.   KiRSCH. 

'  Prteum,  Joseph  Henri  Marie  de,  missionary 
and  sinologist,  b.  at  Cherbourg,  17  July,  1666;  d.  at 
Macao,  17  Sept.,  1736 ^  enter^  the  Society  of  Jesus 
17  Sept.,  1683,  and  departed  for  China  in  1698.  He 
labourea  as  missionary  chiefly  in  the  province 
Kwang-«i.  When  the  Christian  faith  was  proscribed 
by  Emperor  Yong-tching,  in  Janiiary,  1724,  Plr^mare 
was  confined  with  his  colleagues  in  Canton.  A  still 
more  rigorous  edict  banished  him  to  Macao.  In 
his  retirement  he  studied  profoundly  the  language 
and  literature  of  China,  and  in  the  opinion  of  sin- 
olomsts  he,  of  all  the  older  missionaries,  best  suc- 
ceeded in  grasping  their  peculiarities  and  beauties. 
His  principal  work  is  entitled:  ''Notitia  linguie  sini- 
csi**;  in  simple  form  it  explains  the  rules  and  usage 
of  the  vulgar  Chinese  language  (aiao  ahitejf  and  the 
style  of  the  written,  literary  language  (wen  tchang). 


The  famous  English  sinolo^pst,  James  Legge,  calls  it 
"an  invaluable  work,  of  which  i^  could  hairaUy  be  pos- 
sible to  speak  in  too  hi^h  terms ''.  Father  de  Pi^mare 
is  one  of  the  missionanes  who  furnished  Father  Jean- 
Baptiste  du  Halde  with  the  material  for  his  "  Descrip- 
tion de  la  Chine"  (Paris,  1735).  We  owe  him,  in  par- 
ticular, the  translation  of  the  mATimif  taken  from  the 
Shu-King  (Du  Halde,  II,  298) ;  of  ei^t  odes  of  the 
Shi-King  (II,  308);  of  the  "Orphan  of  the  House  of 
Tchao'',  a  Chinese  tragedy  (lu,  341);  the  notes  on 
the  course  of  studv,  literary  degrees  and  examinations 
of  the  Chinese  (II,  251);  etc.  In  "Letties  Edifiantee 
et  Curieuses'^  we  find  many  letters  from  Father 
Pr^mare.  A  much  greater  numl)er  of  his  writings  are 
unedited,  preserved,  chiefly,  at  the  National  Ldbrary 
(Paris).  Many  undertake  the  defence  of  figurism, 
the  name  of  a  singular  system  of  interpreting 
ancient  Chinese  books,  the  mventor  of  which  was 
Father  Joachim  Bouvet.  Following  Bouvet,  Pr6mare 
thought  he  discovered  in  the  Chinese  Kinq  (see 
China)  suggestions  of  Christian  doctrines  and  allu- 
sions to  the  mysteries  of  Christianity.  The  written 
Chinese  words  and  characters  are  to  nim  but  symbols 
that  hide  profound  senses.  The  three  or  four  mission- 
aries who  adopted  these  ideas  of  Bouvet  were  never 
authorized  to  publish  them  in  book  form.  The  most 
important  work  which  Father  de  Pr^mare  wrote  in 
their  defence  has  only  recently  appeared,  translated 
from  the  Latin  by  M.  Bonnetty,  director  of  the 
''Annales  de  philosophic  chr6tienne'',  aided  by  Abb^ 
Pemyj  formerl^r  missionary  to  China.  It  is  entitled: 
"Vestiges  choisis  des  principaux  dogmes  de  la  religion 
chr^tienne,  e^raits  des  anciens  livres  chinois"  (Paris, 
1878). 

Db  BACXXB-SoifMravoGBL,  Bibliothique  dee  ieritaine  de  la 
Comjxumie  de  Jisua,  VI.  1106-1201;  IX.  784;  Cokdikr,  Biblic 
theea  Sinioat  I;  Bbttcker.  Btudee  reti^ieiMM.  6  0er.,  III.  425 
(1S77). 

Joseph  Bruckxb. 

PremoDBtrftteiuiian  Canoiui  (CANomci  Rbgu- 
LABES  PiLBMONSTRATENSEs),  fouuded  in  1120  by 
St.  I*Torbert  at  Pr^montr^,  near  Laon.  France.  At 
first  they  were  not  bound  b^  any  fixed  rule,  charity 
being  the  bond  of  their  umon,  and  the  example  of 
their  founder  tlvcir  rule  of  life.  After  a  while  Norbert 
unfolded  his  mind  to  his  disciples  on  the  special  regu- 
lations which  they  should  adopt.  He  tola  them  that 
he  had  alreadv  consulted  learned  bishops  and  holy 
abbots;  that  bv  some  he  was  advised  to  lead  an 
eremitical  life,  by  others  a  monastic  life,  or  else  to 
join  the  Cistercian  Order.  He  added  that>  if  he  had 
to  follow  his  own  inclinations,  he  preferred  the  canoni- 
cal life  of  the  Apostles,  but  that,  before  alL  they  must 
pray  to  know  and  do  the  will  of  God.  It  was  then 
that  St.  Augustine,  Bishop  of  Hippo,  appeared  to  him 
and  gave  mm  his  rule,  saying:  ''I  am  Augustine, 
Bishop  of  Hippo :  behold  here  the  rule  which  I  have 
written;  if  your  fellow-brethren,  mjr  sons,  shall  have 
observed  it  well,  they  shall  stand  without  fear  in  the 
presence  of  Christ  on  the  terrible  day  of  the  last  judg- 
ment''. As  all  agreed  to  the  choice  of  a  canonical 
institute,  Norbert  composed  a  formulary  of  their  pro- 
fession, which  they  pronounced  on  the  Feast  of 
Christmas,  1121.  To  this  formulary  St.  Norbert 
added  fastings,  abstinence,  and  other  works  of  morti- 
fication, together  with  some  pious  customs  and  prac- 
tices peculiar  to  monastic  oniers,  whereby  his  order 
became,  as  it  were,  monastico-canonical. 

The  five  particular  ends  of  the  Norbertine  Order 
are:  Laua  Dei  in  charo  (the  singing  of  the  Divine 
Office);  Zelua  animarum  (zeal  for  the  salvation  of 
souls);  Spiritus  jugie  paniierUus  (the  spirit  of  habitual 
penance) ;  CuUus  Eucharieticua  (a  special  devotion  to 
the  Holy  Eucharist):  Ctdtus  Marianua  (a  special  de- 
votion to  the  Blessed  Virgin,  mostly  to  her  Immacu- 
late Conception) .  The  two  nrst  arise  from  the  nature 
of  a  canomcal  order,  which  is  both  contemplathre  anr* 


nUEHOHSTK&TEHSUN 


bequeathed  by  the  founder. 

chapter  of  the  "Statuta",  "De  treraendo  altaris  Sac- 
ramento", Beemfi  to  indicate  that  devotion  to  the 
Holy  Euctuuist  as  a  sacrifice  and  sacrament  should 
have  the  first  place  in  the  heart  of  a  bod  of  St.  Norb^. 


F^ 


t,  Norbert  wrote  an 
Office  in  honour  of 
ihe  Immaculate  Con- 
oeptioa  which  con- 
tamed  these  wortb: 
"Ave,  Viijo  quffi  Spi-. 
ritu  Sancto  prsser- 
vante,  de  tanto  primi 
parentia  peccato  tri- 
umphasti  innoxia  I " 
The  third  chapter  of 
the  "Statuta"  begins 
with  these  words: 
"Hone  Deipars  Vir- 
pnis  Maris,  candid! 
oidinis  noetri  patro- 
nie  ringulariB,  etc." 
GiterenuB  writes  in  his 
commentaries  on  the 
Cantjcle  of  Canticles : 

"St.    Norbert,    with  a»et  op  Mo 

his  holy  Order,  was 

nused  up  by  Divine  Providence  to  render  conspicuous 
in  his  day  two  mysteries,  the  Blessed  Sacrament  of  the 
Holy  Eucharist  and  the  Immaculate  Conception  of 
Our  La»iy". 

As  to  the  second  end,  leal  for  souls,  the  preface  to 
the  "Statuta"  says:  "Our  order  is  the  propagation  of 
God's  glory  i  it  is  seal  for  souls,  the  administration  of 
the  sacraments,  service  in  the  Church  of  God.  Our 
order  is  to  preach  the  Gospel,  to  teach  the  ignorant, 
to  have  the  direction  of  parishes,  to  perform  pastoral 
duties,  etc."  At  the 
time  of  8t,  Norbert 
the  clergy  were  not 
numerous,  often  badly 
prepared  for  their 


vil- 

tages  without  church 
or  prieet.  What  was 
needed  was  clerical 
training  to  impart 
piety  and  leaming. 
The  order  has  had  its 
share  in  the  carrying 
out  of  this  good  work, 
and  the  Norljertine 
Abbeys  have  been 
called,  by  popes  and 
bishops,  seminaries  of 
missionaries  and  par- 
ish priests.  From  its  beginning  the  order  has  acceptad 
parishes  which  were,  and  are  still,  in  many  cases  ad- 
ministered  by  Norbertine  priests.  That  the  Order  of 
Pr^montr^  may  obtain  benefices  and  administer  par- 
ishes  was  again  decided  by  Benedict  XIV  by  the 
Bull  "OneroBo"  of  1  Sept.,  1750. 

Composition  of  the  Order. — The  order  is  com- 
posed of  three  classes:  (1)  priests  and  clerics  under  an 
abbot  or  provost;  (2)  nuns  who  embrace  the  Rule  of 
St.  Norbert;  (3)  members  of  the  Third  Order  of  St. 
NorlKot.  Both  priests  and  nuns  have  a  two  years' 
novitiate  and  make  solemn  vows.  In  some  countries 
Norbertine  nuns  are  now  bound  by  idmple  vows  only. 
In  the  monasteries  there  are  laybrotners  and  lay- 
BiBt«m  who  likewise  make  their  vows.  The  members 
a/"  iS£0  72/ni  Order,  originally  called /roJrEa  el  Mtrorei  a<j 


IS  PBKMOHBTBATINSUM 

succurrendum,  wear  the  white  scapular  under  their 
secular  dress  and  have  certain  prayers  to  say.  The 
spirit  of  the  Third  Order  must  evidently  be  the  sfnrit 
of  the  order  itself.  The  members  should  pomen  leal 
for  souls,  love  mortification,  and  practiae  and  pro- 
mote an  enlightened  devotion  to  the  Holy  Eucharist 
and  to  the  Immaculate  Conception.  As  a  modem 
author  (Duhayon,  S.J.,  "La  Mine  d'or",  o.  v)  sa^: 
"By  the  institution 
of  the  Third  Order  in 
the  midst  of  th« 
stream  of  temporal 
amdeties  St.  Norbert 
has  introduced  the  re- 
ligious life  into  the 
family  circle.  No- 
body before  St.  Noi^ 
bert  had  conceived 
the  idea  of  realinng 
in  the  Church  a  state 
of  life  which  should 
be  midway  between' 
the  cloisler  and  the 
world,  or  in  other 
words  a  rehgious  or- 
der which  shouldpen- 
etrate  into  the  Chris- 
tian homes.  .  .  . 
After  his  death  it  was 
imitated  by  other 
founders,  especially  by  St.  Francis  and  St.  Dominic  ". 
Propagation  of  thk  Order. — The  order  increased 
very  rapidly  and,  in  the  words  of  Adrian  IV,  it  spread 
its  branches  from  sea  to  sea.  Before  the  death  of 
Hugh  of  Fosse,  the  first  abbot  general,  a  hundred 
ana  twenty  abbots  were  present  at  the  general  cha]>- 
ter.  Of  the  first  disciples,  nearly  all  b^ame  abbota 
of  new  foundations,  and  several  were  raised  to  the 
episcopal  dignity.  Development  was  chiefly  effected 
tnrough  the  foundation  of  new  abbeys,  but  sevCTal 
reUgioua  communitieB 
alrea<W  in  existence 
wished  to  adopt  the 
constitutions  of  Pr*- 
montr^  and  were  affil- 
iated to  and  incorpo- 
rated with  the  oraer. 


of  abbeys  founded  in 
France,  Belgium,  and 
Germany,  but  colo- 
nies of  the  sons  of  St. 
Norbert  were  sent  to 
nearly  every  country 
of  Europe  and  even 
toAeia.  InI130King 
Stephen  gave  them 
his  castle  on  the  River 
Keres,  and  thus  was 
founded  the  Abbey  of 
St.  Stephen,  the  first  of  numerous  monaateriM  in  Hun- 
gary. Almaric,  who  had  shsred  in  St.  Norbert's  apos- 
tolate,  a  famous  preacher  in  aid  of  the  Crusades,  was 
requested  by  Innocent  H  to  preach  in  Palestine.  At 
the  head  of  a  chosen  band  of  Norbertinee  be  set  out  in 
1136  for  the  Holy  Land,  where  he  was  hospitably  re- 
ceived by  Fuloo  of  Anjoii,  King  of  Jerusalem,  and  by 
William,  Patriarch  of  the  Holy  City.  In  the  following 
year  Almaric  founded  the  Abbey  of  St.  Abacuc. 
Henry  Zdik,  Bishop  of  Olmiltz,  made  a  pilgrimage  to 
Jerusalem.  He  visited  St.  Abacuc  and  was  so  much 
touched  by  what  he  saw  that  he  asked  to  be  received 
into  the  order.  Havinc  obtained  some  reli^ous,  he 
retiuned  to  Bohemia  ana  founded  the  Abbey  of  Mount 
Sion  at  Strahov,  Prague.  This  abbey  flourish«d  m 
much  that  it  wm  called  the  semioary  of  bishops,  hav- 


tklUONSTBATBNaUK 


PBXH0NSTBAT1N8UH 


log  given  eight  bishops  to  Prague,  t«n  to  OlmOts,  and  abbey.    In  ceitaio  matters  he  has  to  obttun  the  oon- 

some  to  other  dioceses ;  a  patriarch  (John  of  LuJtem-  aeat  of  the  majorei  de  domo.  The  abbeys  were  divided 

burg)  to  Aquileia,  and  a  cardinal  (John  of  Prague)  to  into  circaries  (pmviDcee),  named  after  the  countries  in 

the  Church.    In  1141  the  Abbey  at  St.  Samuel,  near  which  they  were  situated.    Each  circary  bad  a  visitor, 

JerUB^em,  was  founded,  and  in  1145  another  at  Beth-  and  the  most  important  had  also  a  vieaivgeneral 

khem.    The  abbeys  were  destroyed  in  1187,  when  named  by  the^bot  general.    Hugoin  his  "A^iales" 

many  of  the  religious  were  put  to  the  sword  or  perished  givee  the  name  of  each  abbey  anaconvent  and  of  the 

'n  the  fire.    Those  who  escaped  founded  a  new  com-  dreary  to  which  thejr  belonged.    The  four  large  vol- 


munity  at  Acre;  but 
in  1291  this  place,  the 
last  BtroDghold  of  the 
ChristiaoB  in  the  Holy 
Land,  was  taken  t^ 
the  Sidtan  Saraf ,  wbo 
cut  to  pieces  the  ab- 
bot, Egide  de  Marie, 
and  put  the  religious, 
twenty-six  in  num- 
ber, to  death. 

In  11 47  Abbot  Wal- 
ter of  Laon  led  a  col- 
ony to  Portugal  and 
founded  the  Abbey  of 
St.  Vincent,  near  Lis- 
bon. 


Abbbt  or  ToHaiBLOo.  Baaam 


umes  trftbe ' '  Annale^' 


each  abbey  and  hence 
tbey  Bup|>ly  vtcry  im- 
portant information 
to  the  student  of  the 
history  of  the  order. 
Hugo  had  also  pie- 
pared  and  nearly  com- 
pleted, when  he  died 
in  1739,  two  more 
volumes,  the  first  of 
which  was  to  treat  of 
learned  persons  of  the 
order  and  of  the  books 
they  had  written ;  the 
second  was  to  give 
the  Uvea  of  sons  and 
daughters  of  St.  Nor- 
bert  who  had  been 
who  were  deemed  to  have 


Two  yoi 

Spanish   noblen. , 

Sanchei   de   Assures    | 

and   Dominic,  while 

travelling  in  France, 

had  heard  of  St.  Norbert.    They  went  to  Primontr^  canoniEed  or  beatified,  l_  .  __     . 

and  were  admitted  to  the  order  Dy  St.  Norbert.    Or-  had  the  note  of  sanctity.    The  Rev.  Leo  Goovaerts,  of 

d^ned  prieet«,  they  were  sent  to  preach  in  Spain,  and  the  Norbertine  Abb^  of  Averixxie,  Belgium,  has  unce 

having  obtained  a  few  rehgious  from  La  Cose-Dieu,  published  a  "Dictiommre  bio4)ibliogranhique",  io 

an  abbey  in  Gascony,  th^  founded  in  1143  the  Abbey  which  he  gives  the  names  of  over  three  thousand  au- 

.of  Retorta,  the  first  in  Spain.    In  1149  the  mother-  thora,  a  notice  of  their  lives,  and  a  descrintion  of  the 

house  sent  some  of  its  reli^ous  to  found  the  Abbey  books  they  had  written.    George  Lienhardt,  Abbot  of 

of  St.  Samuel  at  Barletta,  m  Apulia,  Italy.     At  the  RogEensburg,  gives  in  his  "Ha^ologia"  the  names  of 

same  time  sous  of  St.  Norbert  went  forth  from  one  hunoreds  of  persons  whose  holiness  of  life  constitutes 

abbey  or  another  to  found  new  houses  in  Great  the  brightest  ornament  of  the  Order  of  St.  Notbert. 

Britain  and  Ireland,  Poland,  Denmark,  Norway,  and  Loss  op  Pirbt  Fervour;  Cauhxb  and  Rkukdibb. — 

T.- .!._  i.i  The  spiritual  fervour. 


n  Riga  on  the  B^- 
tic  Sea.  In  addition, 
sixteen  cathedral 
chapters  were  com- 
posed of  Norbertine 

bishop  elected  by 
them.  One  of  these 
was  Candida  Casa  or 
Whithorn,  in  Scot- 
land. Itisimpos^ble 
to  give  the  exact  num- 
ber of  obbeysi  prioriee, 
and  convents  of  nuns, 
so  much  do  the  vari- 
ous lists  differ  from 
one  another.  Perhaps 
the  oldest  list  known 
'  I  that  which 


made  for  the  general  chapter  of  1320,  and  given  bv  Le     detriment  of  these  communities. 


__  remarkable  and 
edifying  in  the  first 
two  centuries,  had 
gradually  been  grow- 
mg  cold.  A  number 
of  religious  communi- 
ties were  no  lonper 
animated  by  the  spirit 
of  St.  Norbert.  With 
the  gradual  disap- 

^arance  of  manual 
t>our,  intettectual 
activity,  and  certain 
observan  ces,  spiritual 
progress  was  retarded 
and  even  a  kind  of 
spiritual  stagnation 
to  the  great 


iplete  haa  been  { 


e  of  this  weakness.    The  first  rehgious  had 


that  there  were  1300  abbeys  and  500 
without  counting  the  smaller  residences,  but  these  fig- 
ures seem  to  be  much  exaggerated.  However,  what- 
ever these  lists  may  mean,  they  show  the  prodi^ous 
fecundity  of  the  order  during  tHe  first  two  centuries  of 
its  existence. 


order.     Some  authors  say     cleared  part  of  the  forests,  and  by  majdng  the  land 


productive  had  created  more  resources,  while  the 

charity  of  benefactors  had  also  increased  the  revenues, 
and  with  this  affluence  arose  also  a  spirit  of  worldliness; 
but  another  evil  was  that  this  affluence  excited  the 
rapacity  of  covetous  men  in  Church  and  State.  The 
superiors  of  some  houses  had  become  more  lax  in 


Oroanizatton.— The  highest  authority  of  the  order  abolishing  abuses,  and  so  irregularities  had  gradually 

is  centred  in  the  general  chapter.    The  abbot  general  crept  in.   Owing  to  the  distance  of  many  houses  from 

preddes  over  it,  out  he  owes  obedience  to  it.     The  the  mother-house  at  Pr£montr£  and  also  to  national 

abbot  general  has  the  power  to  make  the  canonical  aspirations,  cohesion,  the  strength  of  any  society,  had 

visitationof  any  abbey,  but  his  abbey  is  visited  by  the  been  weakened  in  the  order;  f^ready  in  Saxony,  Eng- 

three  principal  abbots  of  the  order,  viz.  by  the  Abbots  land,  and  Spain  a  tendency  was  obs^ved  to  form  se^ 

of  Laon,  Floreffe,  and  Cuissy,    The  abbots  are  elected  rate  congregations  with  regulations  of  their  own.   mth 

for  life  in  a  manner  prescribed  by  the  "Slatuta".  the  approval  of  the  popes  the  austere  rule,  especially 

The  abbot  names  his  prior  and  other  officials  of  his  with  regard  to  perpetual  abstinence  fromflaeLiasM}^ 


the  tune  of  £ 


PBXKONSTKATBHUAH  31 

WEW  mitigated  first  in  1200,  then  in  the  conetitutiona 
of  1605,iHidaguninthoseof  1630,  but  in  spite  of  theee 
miti|^tuins,the"StatUtB"  compoeed  and  approved  in 

4U_  • 1  g)._  fjorbett  have  renmined  BUMtantially 

__..  _j  they  were  in  the  beginning.  At  the  be- 
ig  of  the  seventeenth  century  &  new  spirit  aeemed 
mate  the  whole  order,  but  especially  in  Lorraine, 
where  the  venerable  Abbot  Lairveli  succeeded  in  re- 
fonning  forty  abbeys  and  in  introducing  into  them  the 
observances  of  the  primitive  constitutions.  It  was 
fleen  that  the  order  was  full  of  vitahty  and  doing  good 
and  useful  work.  To  encourage  the  studies  ol  tbeir 
rdigious,  colleges  were  established  near  eame  univer- 
nty,  as  at  Rome,  Louvain,  Paris,  Cologne,  Prague, 
Madrid,  Salamanca,  and  elsewhere.  To  these  colleges 
and  universities  young  religious  were  sent.  After  the 
completion  of  their  studies  they  returned  to  the  abbey, 
where  they  taught  philosophy  and  theology. 

CouuEKDATORT  Abbots.— To  speak  of  one  country 
only,  the  concordat  between  Leo  X  and  Francis  I  in 
1616,  which  gave  power  to  the  King  of  France  t "  " 


abbeys  alone,  bishops,  secularpriests,  and  even  laymen 
were  put  at  the  head  of  an  abbey,  and  sometimes  of- 
two  or  more  abbeys.  They  took  poesesnon  ot  all  the 
temporalities,  and 
frequently  cared  notii- 
ing  Cor  tine  material 
and  spiritual  welfare 
of  the  abbey.  And 
all  this  wBsdonewhen 
Lutherans  and  Cal- 
vinists  were  making 
the  fiercest  attacks 
on  the  Catholic  reli- 
gion, and  when  ear- 
nest men  were  plead- 
ing for  reform  in 
Catholic  institutions. 
Hugo,  the  annalist  of 
the  order,  who  gives 
the  lists  of  abbeys 
and  of  the  abbots 
elected  by  the  order 
or  commendatory,  shows  how  far  the  evil  had  pre- 
vailed for  more  than  two  hundred  yeare.  TalSe  (vol. 
IJ,  195)  in  his  "Etude  sur  Pr^montt*"  {ljion,1874), 
writes  that  in  1770,  of  the  92  Norbertine  abbeys  and 
priories  in  France,  67  were  given  in  ccmmendam  and 
only  25  had  abbots  or  priors  of  the  order. 

Loss  OF  Abbbtb. — Owing  to  a  decree  of  the  general 
chapter  numerous  convents  ot  nuns  had  already  dis- 
appeared before  the  end  of  the  twelfth  century.  As  to 
ftDDeys  and  prioriee  the  continuous  wars  in  many 
countries,  ana  in  the  East  the  inva«ons  of  Tatars  and 
Turks,  made  community  life  almost  impossible  and 
ruined  many  abbeys.  The  wars  and  the  heresies  of 
Hus  and  Luther  destroyed  several  abbeys.  The 
Abbey  of  Episcopia  in  th6  Isle  of  Cyprus  was  taken 
by  Islam  in  1571.  The  Hussites  took  possession  of 
several  houses  in  Moravia  and  Bohemia;  the  Luther- 
ans, in  Saxony,  Prussia,  Denmark,  and  Sweden;  the 
Calvinists,  in  Holland;  and  Henry  VIII  in  England 
and  Ireland.  In  Hungary  many  were  destroyed  by 
Solyman.  With  all  these  losses  the  order  had  still  in 
1627  twenty-two  provinces  or  circaries,  and  Lieohardt 

Sives  a  list  of  240  houses  still  in  existence  in  1778. 
Dseph  II  of  Austria  suppreaed  many  houses  and  put 
others  under  commendatory  abbots,  but  Leopold, 
Joseph's  successor,  restored  nme  abbeys  and  with  these 
he  incorfiorated  others.  The  French  Revolution  sup- 
preaeed  in  1790  all  reUgious  houses  in  France,  in  1796 


_a  Bel^um,  and  afterwards  all  those  in  the  occupied 
provinces  of  the  Rhine.  Only  a  few  houses  were  still 
ensting  (9  in  the  Austrian  Empire,  3  in  Russian 
'^-^'~£  And  IS  in  Spun),  but  the  abbeys  in  Sptun  were 


0  PBXKOMSTa&TKiraUN 

suppressed  by  the  revolution  which  convulsed  that 
country  in  1833.  The  dispersed  relipous  ot  the  Bel- 
^an  Province  had  long  wished  to  reassemble  and  form 
new  communities,  but  they  were  not  allowed  to  do  so 
under  the  Dutch  Government  (1815-30).  When  Bel- 
gium was  separated  from  Holland  and  made  into  a 
separate  kingdom,  freedom  of  religion  was  grantod, 
and  the  surviving  reli^ous,  now  well  advanced  in 

Stars,  revived  commumty  liJFe  and  reconstituted  five 
orbertine  houses  in  Belgium  (see  Backx). 
The  religious  of  the  confiscated  abbey  ot  Berne  in 
Holland  founded  a  new  abbey  at  Hecewijk.  The 
Abbey  of  Beme-Heeswijk  has  founded  St.  Norbert's 
Priory  at  West  De  Pere,  Wisconsin,  U.  S.  A. 
To  the  priory  is  attached  a  6ourishing  classical  and 
commercial  college.  The  Abbey  of  Grimbergen  in 
Belgium  obtained  possession  of  the  former  Norbertine 
Abbey  of  Mondaye  in  France,  and  founded  a  new 
abbey.  Mondaye  in  turn  founded  the  priories  of  St. 
Joseph  at  Balarin  (Department  of  Gera)  and  of  St. 
Pet^  at  Nantes.  The  Abbey  of  Tongerloo  has  founded 
three  priories  in  England,  VIZ.:  Crowle,  Spalding,  and 
Manchester,  The  same  abbey  has  also  sent  mission- 
aries to  Belgian  Congo,  Africa,  where  the  Prefecture  of 
Quelle  (WelK)  has  been  confided  to  them.  The  pre- 
fecture has  four  chief  centres:  Ibembo,  Amadi,  Gom- 
bari,  and  Djabir,  with 
many  stations  served 
from  each  centre. 
The  Abbey  of  Aver- 
bode  founded  three 
Priories  in  Bracil 
(Pirapora,  Jaguar&o, 
and  Petropoli^,  with 
a  colle^  attached  to 
eachpnory.  ThoAb* 
bey  of  the  Park,  near 
Louvain,  has  also  sent 
to  Brasil  several 
priests  who  have 
charge  of  parishes 
and  do  mlsaionary 
work.  The  Abbey  of 
Grimbergen  founded 
a  house  of  the  order 
at  Wetaskiwin,  in  Alberta,  Canada.  The  IMory  of 
West  De  Pere  has  been  made  independent,  with  a 
novitiate  ot  its  own.  The  other  priories  are  attached 
to  the  abbey  by  which  they  were  founded. 

In  1856  a  new  congregation  of  Norbertine  canons, 
since  incorporated  with  the  order,  was  formed  at 
Frigolet.  Frigolet  founded  Conques  and  St^ean 
de  Cole  in  France,  and  Btorrington  and  Weaton- 
Bedworth  in  England.  The  abbeys  in  Hungary  have 
jointly  founded  at  Budapest  a  college  wh^  young 
religious  of  these  abbeys  study  under  Norbertine  pro- 
fessors, and  also  follow  the  umversity  lectures  in  order 
to  obtain  the  diploma  required  to  beosme  professors 
in  one  of  the  six  colleges  conducted  by  these  abbeys. 
The  order  also  possesses  a  college  in  Rome  (Via  di 
Monte  Tarpeo)  lor  Norbertine  students  at  the  Grego- 
rian University.  The  procurator  of  the  order  resides  at 
this  college,  of  which  he  is  also  the  rector.  At  the 
death  of  L6cuy  in  1834,  the  Ust  Abbot  General  ot 
Pr^montnS,  the  order  was  left  without  a  spiritual  head. 
In  1867  Jerome  Zeidler,  Abbot  of  Str&hov,  was  elected, 
but  he  died  in  Rome  during  the  Vatican  Council.  At 
a  general  chapter  held  in  Vienna  in  1883  Si^ismond 
Stary,  Abbot  of  Strohov,  was  elected.  At  his  death 
he  was  succeeded  by  Norbert  Schachinger,  Abbot  of 
Schlagl,  in  Austria. 

Statistics. — The  following  statistics  show  the  pres- 
ent state  of  the  order  in  each  circary.  Particulars  are 
also  given  having  reference  to  some  convents  of  nuns 
who,  though  no  longer  under  the  jurisdiction  ot  the 
order,  are  or  have  been  related  to  it.  The  fisures  have 
been  taken  from  printed  catalogues  piuliahed  in 


PREHONSTRATKHSUH  3f 

December,  1910,  or  from  letteis  Bince  received.  When 
the  desired  information  had  not  arrived  in  time,  a 
catalogue  of  a  former  year  has  been  consulted, 

dreary  of  Brabant  (Belgium  and  Holland). — Aver- 
bode  Abbey:  prieeta,  82;  clerics  and  novices,  20;  lay 
brothers,  30;  of  these,  27  priests  and  31  lay  brothers 
have  been  s(>nt  to  Braiil,  and  2  prieata  and  3  lay  broth- 
ers to  Veile  in  Denmark.  Grimbergen  Abbey:  priests, 
37;  clerics,  5;  lay  brothers,  7;  of  these,  4  priests  are 
in  Canada.  Park-Louvain  Abbey;  prieata,  44;  cler- 
ics, 4;  of  these,  S  priests  in  Brasil.  Fostel  Abbey: 
priests,  25^  clerics,  2;  of  these,  1  priest  in  Belgian 
'i  Branl.    Tongerloo  Abbey:  priests, 


uid  1 


FREM0NSTEATIN8UH 


380).     Wilten  A&bey,  Tyrol:   priests,  45;    clerics,  i 
lay  brothers,  3. 

dreary  of  Hwwary. — Csoma  Abbey;  priests,  38; 
clerics,  12;  the  abbey  conducts  and  supplies  profeaaors 
to  the  gymnasium  of  Kessthely  (15  pTofesMrs,  326 
students),  Sxonibathely  (16  professors,  400  students). 
Jaszo  Abbey;  priests,  73;  clerics,  37;  the  abbey  con- 
ducts the  folloiving  gymnasia  and  supplies  the  pro- 
fessors: Kas^a,  50  students;  another  at  Kaesa,  460 
students;  Grosswardein  (Nagy-Vbad),  660  students; 
Roisnyo,  200  students.    These  two  abbeys  have  a 


77;  clerics,  19;  lav  brothers,  29;  of  these,  14  pripsts 
and  5  lay  brothers  are  in  Bnitland;  10  priests  and  10 
lay  brothers  in  Belgian  Congo.  Ben)e-Hee«wijk 
Abbey:  priests,  41;  clerics,  12;  W  brothers,  9;  a 
flourishing  college  with  100  students  is  attached  to  the 
abbey.  St.  Norbert's  Priory,  West  De  Pere,  Wiscon- 
(dn,  U.  8.  A.:  priests,  19:  clerics,  3;  lay  brothers,  4; 
and  a  college  conducted  by  the  fathers. 

Circary  of  France. — The  Abb^  of  Mondaye  and 
other  houses  are  confiscated.  Some  of  the  dispersed 
reli^ous  formed  a  new  house  at  Bois-Beigneur-Isaao, 
near  Nivelles,  Belgium;  priests,  27;  clerics,  7;  lay 
brothers,  4. 

dreary  of  Prooma. — The  Abbey  of  Frigolet  and  all 
other  houses  ve  confiscated.  The  dispersed  religious 
bought  the  former  Norbertine  Abbey  of  Leff  e,  Dinant, 
Belgium;  priests,  38;  clerics,  7;  lay  brothers, '8;  of 
these,  4  priests  in  Prance;  8  priests  and  2  clerics  in 
Enjp^d;  and  2  priests  in  Madagascar. 


11;  clerics,  2.  Schlftgl;  priests,  43;  clerics,  3.  Sellau 
Abbey,  Bohemia;  priests,  20:  clerics,  H.  Strahov 
Abbey,  Prague:  priests,  67;  clerics,  8.    Tepl  Abbey, 


college  for  their  religious,  who  study  at  the  Univerrity 
of  Budapest:  17  students  are  at  Budapest,  and  six 
clerics  at  the  University  of  Fribourg. 

Corwentt  of  Norbertirte  ^un«  [the  Second  Order). — 
Oosterhout  Prioiy,  Holland,  48  nuns.  Neerpelt 
Priory,  Belgiuin,  23  nuns.  Bonlieu  Abb^,  nims  ex- 
pelled from  Prance^  reassembled  at  Grimbergen, 
BelEiuro,  36  nuns.  Le  Meanil-St-Denis  Priory,  Seine 
et  Owe,  France,  31  nuns.  Abbey  of  St.  Sophia,  Toro, 
SoMn,  22  nuns.  Abbey  of  St.  Maria  near  Zamora, 
Villona  de  Orbigo,  Spain,  16  nuns.  Zwieriyniec,  near 
Cnwow,  Austrian  Poland,  47  nuns.  Imbramowioe 
Abbey,  Russian  Poland;  lor  a  great  many  years  the 
nuns  were  not  allowed  to  admit  novices,  out  some 
years  ago  leave  was  given  with  great  restrictions  by 
the  Russian  government  to  admit  a  few.  The  Abbey 
of  Cierwinsko,  where  there  were  only  six  very  old 
nuns,  was  suppressed  and  the  nuns  sent  to  Imbra- 
mowice.  Several  novices  were  admitted,  and  at  pres- 
ent there  are  at  this  convent  9  nuns.  Priory  of  Bwg 
Sion,  near  Utmach,  in  the  Diocese  of  St.  Gall,  Swit- 
serUuid,  30  nuns.  Convent  of  Norbertine  Nuns, 
Third  Order  St.  Joseph's  at  Heiligenberg,  near  01- 
mUts,  with  bran^  house  St.  Norbert's,  at  Pratju. 


pREMOKSTItATXKSXAMS 


3d2 


PBESBTTERIANISM 


Congregation  of   Norbertine  Sisters;   mother-house  PreddergaBt,  Edmund.   See  Philadelphia,  Abcb* 

at  Duffel,  Belsium,  with  branch  houses.  diocese  of. 

HszMBUCBKB,  Ordm  und  Kongreffoiionerf  {PmAerhamt  1007). 

F.  M.  Geudens.  Preparation,  Dat  of.    See  Pakabgsvb. 


Pramonitrateiiaiani.  See  Pbemonstratenbian 
Canonb. 

Primontri,  Abbey  of,  about  twelve  miles  west  of 
Laon,  Department  of  Aisne,  France;  founded  by  St. 
Norbert.  The  land  had  belonged  to  the  Abbey  of 
St.  Vincent,  to  whom  it  had  been  given  by  a  former 
Bishop  of  Laon.  Religious  of  St.  Vincent's  had  tried 
in  vam  to  cultivate  it.  As  shown  in  the  charter  of 
donation  the  place  was  called  ProBmonalraius,  or 
pratum  monsiratum,  Pri-^morUr^f  probably  from  a 
clearing  made  in  the  forest,  but  the  name  has  easily 
lent  itmlf  to  the  adapted  meaning  of  lociia  prcemon' 
stratuSf  a  place  foreshown,  as  for  example  in  the  life 
of  St.  Godfrey,  one  of  St.  Norbert's  nrst  disciples 
(1127):  ^'Venit  ad  locum  vere  juxta  nomen  suum,  a 
Domino  praemonstratum,  electum  et  prsedestinatum" 
(Acta  SS.,  II  January).  A  venerable  tradition  says 
that  the  Bishop  of  Laon  and  St.  Norbert  visited 
Pngmontr^  about  the  middle  of  January  and  that  the 
bishop  gave  the  white  habit  to  St.  Norbert  on  25 
January,  the  feast  of  the  Ck)nversion  of  St.  Paul.  At 
the  conclusion  of  the  (Council  of  Li^e  (1131),  Inno- 
cent II  and  St.  Norbert  came  to  Laon  and  remained 
with  Qishop  Bartholomew.  They*  also  visited  the 
Abbey  of  Pr^montr^  and  were  rejoiced  to  see  some 
five  himdred  religious — ^priests,  clerics,  and  lay- 
brothers — all  united  in  the  observance  of  their  duties 
under  Abbot  Hugh  of  Fosse.  In  the  general  chapter 
of  1141  it  was  decided  to  remove  the  convents  of  nuns 
to  at  least  one  league's  distance  from  the  abbeys  of 
men.  Hugh  died  on  10  Feb.,  1 161,  and  was  succeeded 
by  Philip,  then  Abbot  of  Belval  in  Argonne.  John  II 
founded  in  1252  a  college  or  house  of  studies  for  Nor- 
bertine clerics  at  the  University  of  Paris.  f 

At  the  death  of  Virgilius,  forty-third  Abbot  General 
of  Pr^montrd.  Cardinal  Francis  of  Pisa  had  intrigued 
so  much  at  tne  Court  of  Rome  that  he  succeed^  in 
being  named  commendatory  Abbot  of  Pr6montr6,  and 
in  1535  took  possession  of  the  abbey  and  all  its  rev- 
enues. Cardinal  Francis  was  succeeded  by  Cardinal 
d'Este,  the  pope's  legate  in  France,  who  held  the  ab- 
bey in  commendam  until  he  died  in  1572.  Tal^e 
("Etude  sur  Pr6montr6",  Laon,  1874,  210)  calls  these 
two  cardinals  les  fiSaux  de  Pr^marUri.  After  the 
death  of  Cardinal  d'Este  a  free  election  was  held  and 
Jean  Des  Pruets,  Doctor  of  the  Sorbonne.  an  earnest 
and  zealous  priest,  was  elected,  and  his  election  con- 
firmed by  Gregory  XIII,  14  Dec.,  1572.  With  ad- 
mirable zeal  and  prudence  Des  Pruets  undertook  the 
difficult  task  of  repidring  the  financial  losses  and  of 
promoting  conventual  discipline  at  Pr^montr^  and 
other  houses  of  the  order.  He  died  15  May,  1596^ 
and  was  succeeded  by  two  zealous  abbots,  Longpr6 
and  Gosset;  but  the  latter  was  succeeded  by  Carding 
Richelieu,  as  commendatory  abbot.  The  last  abbot 
general,  L'Ecuy,  was  elected  in  1781.  At  the  French 
Revolution  the  confiscated  Abbey  of  Pr^montr6  was 
bought  by  a  certain  Cagnon,  who  demolished  several 
buildings  and  sold  the  material.  Having  passed 
through  several  hands,  the  property  was  bought  by 
Mgr  de  Garsignies,  Bishop  of  Laon  and  Soissons, 
whose  successor  sold  it  to  the  Department  of  Aisne, 
by  whom  ihe  buildings  were  converted  into  an  asylum. 
Of  the  old  abbey  as  it  was  from  the  twelfth  to  the  six- 
teenth century  hardly  anything  remains,  but  three 
large  buildings  of  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth 
centuries  are  still  standing.  A  part  of  one  of  these 
buildings  is  used  as  a  church,  dedicated  to  St.  Norbert. 

Huoo,    AnnaUa    PrctmorutrtUerueM     (Nancy);      Madblaine, 
Hi9loire  de  St' Norbert  (Lille.  1886);  Geudens,  Life  of  St,  NorbeH 
(London,  1886);    TAtXE.  Prtnumtri,  Etude  nor  VAbbaye  (Laon,. 
1872);    Madelaihb.  L*Ahhay§  de  Prhnontri  en  1889  (Caen); 
Yauuumt,  Hiatoire  de  PrirrunUri  (Laon.  1876). 

F.  M.  Geudkns.    l 


Presaactified,  Mass  of  thb.  See  Good  Fridat; 
Holy  Week. 

Prosbyterlanism  in  a  wide  sense  is  the  system 
of  church  government  by  representative  assemblies 
called  presbyteries,  in  opposition  to  government  by 
bishops  (episcopal  system,  prelacy),  or  by  congrega- 
tions (Congregationalism,  independency).  In  its 
strict  sense,  Piesbyterianism  is  the  name  given  to  one 
of  the  groups  of  ecclesiastical  bodies  that  represent 
the  features  of  Protestantism  emphasized  by  Calvin. 
Of  the  various  churches  modelled  on  the  Swiss  Ref- 
ormation, the  Swiss,  Dutch,  and  some  German  are 
known  as  the  Reformed;  the  French  as  Huguenots 
(q.  v.);  those  in  Bohemia  and  Hungary  by  their 
nation^d  names;  the  Scotch,  Eng^lish,  and  derived 
churches  as  I^iesb3rterian.  There  is  a  strong  family 
resemblance  between  all  these  churches,  and  many  of 
them  have  ^ven  their  adherence  to  an  ''Alliance  of  the 
Reformed  Churches  throughout  the  World  holding 
the  Plresbyterian  Sjrstem",  formed  in  1876  with  the 
special  view  of  securing  interdenominational  co- 
operation in  general  church  work. 

I.  DisTiNcrnvB  Principles. — ^The  most  important 
standards  of  orthodox  Presbyterianism  are  the  ''West- 
minster Confession  of  Faith"  and  "Catechisms" 
of  1647  (see  Faith,  Protestant  Confessions  of). 
Their  contents,  however,  have  been  more  or  less 
modified  bv  the  various  churches,  and  many  of  the 
formulas  of  subscription  prescribed  for  church  officials 
do  not  in  practice  require  more  than  a  qualified  ac- 
ceptance of  the  standards.  The  chief  distinctive 
features  set  forth  in  the  Westminster  declarations 
of  belief  are  Presb3rterian  church  government, 
Calvinistic  theology,  and  absence  of  prescribed  forms 
of  worship. 

A.  Polity, — Between  the  episcopal  and  conjgrega- 
tional  83n3tems  of  church  government,  Presbyterianism 
holds  a  middle  position^  which  it  claims  to  be  the 
method  of  churcn  organization  indicated  in  the  New 
Testament.  On  the  one  hand,  it  declares  against 
hierarchical  government,  holding  that  all  clergymen 
are  peers  one  of  another,  and  that  church  authority 
is  vested  not  in  indiviauab  but  in  representative 
bodies,  composed  of  lay  (rulins)  elders  and  duly 
ordained  (ruling  and  teaching  elders).  On  the  other 
hand,  Presbjrtenanism  is  opposed  to 'Congregational 
independencv  and  asserts  tne  lawful  authority  of  the 
larger  church.  The  constitutions  of  most  of  the 
churches  provide  for  four  grades  of  administrative 
courts:  the  Session,  which  governs  the  congregation; 
the  Presbytery,  which  governs  a  number  of  congrepi^ 
tions  within  a  limited  territory;  the  Synod,  which 
governs  the  congregations  within  a  larger  territory; 
and  the  General  Assembly,  which  is  the  highest  court. 
Generally  the  church  officers  include,  besides  the 
pastor,  ruling  elders  and  deacons.  These  officers 
are  elected  by  the  congregation,  but  the  election  of 
the  pastor  is  subject  to  the  approved  of  the  presbytery. 
The  elders  with  the  pastor  as  presiding  officer  form 
the  session  which  supervises  the  spiritual  affairs  of 
the  congregation.  Tne  deacons  have  charge  of  cer- 
tain temporalities,  and  are  responsible  to  the  session. 

B.  Theology, — ^The  Westminster  Confession  gives 
sreat  prominence  to  the  question  of  predestination,  and 
favours  the  infralapsanan  view  of  reprobation.  It 
teaches  the  total  depravity  of  fallen  man  and  the  ex- 
clusion of  the  non-elect  from  the  benefits  of  Christ's 
atonement.  But  within  the  last  thirty  years  there 
has  been  a  tendency  to  mitigate  the  hajrsher  features 
of  Calvinistic  theology,  and  nearly  all  the  important 
Presbyterian  churches  have  officially  disavowed  the 
doctrines  of  total  depravity  and  limited  redemption. 


PBE8BTTEUANISM  393  PBESBTTBRIAMISM 

Some  have  even  gone  so  far  as  to  state  a  belief  that  ment  its  Confession  of  Faith.    With  the  restoration 

all  who  die  in  infancy  are  saved.    Such  passages  of  of  the  monarchy  (1660).  the  State  Church  became 

the  standards  as  proclaim  the  necessity  of  a  union  once  more  episcopal.    English  Presbyterianism  now 

between  Church  and  State  and  the  duty  of  the  civil  be^an  to  decline.    Its  principle  of  government  was 

magistrate  to  suppress  heresy  have  also  to  a  great  ex-  qmte  generally  abandoned  for  independent  admini»- 

tent  been  eliminated  or  modified.    In  its  doctrine  tration,  and  during  the  eighteenth  century  most  of 

on    the    Sacraments    the  Pfesbvterian  Church    is  its  churches  succumbed  to  rationalism.    But  during 

thoroughly  Calvinistic.    It  holds  that  baptism  is  the  latter  part  of  the  nineteenth  century  there  was  a 

necessarv  to  salvation  not  as  a  means  (necessitate  revival  of  Presbyterianism  in  England.    Those  who 

medii)f  but  only  as  something  that  has  been  com-  belonged  to  the   United   Presb:^rian   Church  of 

manded     (necessitate    pr€ecepii).    It    teaches    th^t  Scotland  coalesced  in  1876  with  the  En^ish  Presby- 

Christ  is  present  in  the  Lord's  Supper  not  merely  terian  Synod  (an  independent  organization  since  the 

symbollicaUy,  as  Zwingli  held,  nor,  on  the  other  hand,  Scotch  disruption  of  1843),  forming  the  Presbyterian 

substantially,  but  dynamically  or  effectively  and  for  Church  of  ^dand,  which  is  a  very  active  body, 
believers  only.  B.  WdUs.-^e    "Welsh    Calvmistic    Methodist 

C.  Worship, — No  invariable  forms  are  recognized  Church"  had  its  origin  prior  to,  and  independent  of, 

in  the  conduct  of  public  services.    Directories  of  woiv  English  Methodisn.    Its  &st  organization  was  ef- 

ship  have  been  adopted  as  aids  to  the  ordering  of  the  fected  in  1736,  and  it  shared  the  enthusiasm  of  the 

various  offices  but  their  use  is  optional.    The  ser-  Methodists  of  England  under  the  Wesleys,  but  dif- 

vices  are  generally  characterized  by  extreme  sim-  fared  from  them  in,  doctrine  and  polity,  the  English 

plicity  and  consist  of  hymns,  prayers,  and  readings  being  Arminian  and  episcopal,  the  Welsh,  Calvmis- 

trom  the  Scriptures.    In  some  of  the  churches  in-  tic  and  presbyterian.    A  Confession  of  Faith  adopted 

strumental  music  is  not  allowed  nor  the  use  of  any  in  1823  follows  the  Westminster  Confession,  but  is 

other  sonm  than  those  contained  in  the  Book  of  silent  as  to  election  and  the  asperities  of  the  Cal- 

Psalms.    The  communion  pte  is  administered  at  vinistic  doctrine  of  reprobation.    In  1864  a  Genenil 

stated  intervals  or  on  days  appointed  by  the  church  Assembly  was  organized.    The  Welsh  Presbyterians 

officers.    Generally  the  sermon  is  the  principal  part  give  great  attention  to  home  and  foreign  missions, 
of  the  services.    In  Europe  and  in  some  Ajnencan        C.  Ireland. — ^The  -  history  of  Presbyterianism  in 

churches  the  minister  wears  a  black  gown  while  in  Ireland  dates  from  the  Ulster  plantation  during  the 

the  pulpit.    Of  recent  years  certain  Presbyterian  reign  of  James  I.    The  greater  part  of  Ulster  had 

missionary  societies  in  the  United  States  and  Canada  bc^n  confiscated  to  the  crown,  and  thither  emigrated 

have  used  a  form  of  Mass  and  other  services  accord-  a  large  numbn*  of  Scotch  Iresbyterians.    At  first 

ing  to  the  Greek  liturgy  in  their  missions  for  Ruthe-  they  received  special  consideration  from  the  Govem- 

nian  imihigrants  ment,  but  this  policy  was  reversed  whilst  William 

II.  History. — ^The  Presbyterian,  like  the  Reformed  Laud  was  Archbishop  of  Canterbury.  The  indepen- 
churches,  trace  their  origin  to  Calvin.  The  claims  dent  life  of  Presbytenanism  in  Ireland  began  with  the 
to  historical  continuity  from  the  Apostles  through  the  formation  of  the  Presbytery  of  Ulster  in  1642,  but  its 
Waldenses  and  the  Scotch  Culdees  have  been  refuted  growth  was  checked  for  a  time  after  the  Stuart  res- 
by  Presbyterian  scholars.  It  was  in  the  ecclesiastical  toration  in  1660.  During  the  eighteenth  and  early 
republics  of  Switzerland  that  the  churches  holding  the  part  of  the  nineteenth  century  there  was  a  general 
PKsbyterian  polity  were  first  established.  John  departure  from  the  old  standards  and  Umtarian 
Knox  (q.  v.),  who  had  lived  with  Calvin  at  Geneva,  tendencies  caused  various  dissensions  among  the 
impressed  upon  the  Scottish  Reformation  the  ideas  Ulster  Presbyterians.  There  are  still  two  Fresby- 
of  nis  master,  and  may  be  regarded  as  the  father  of  terian  bodies  in  Ireland  that  are  Unitarian.  The 
Presbyterianism  as  distinct  from  the  Reformed  disruption  in  the  Scottish  churches  and  other  causes 
churches.  In.  1560  a  Confession  of  Faith  which  he  produced  further  divisions,  and  to-day  there  are,  ex- 
drew  up  was  sanctioned  by  the  Scotch  Parliament,  elusive  of  the  two  mentioned  above,  five  Pr^y- 
which  also  ratified  the  junsdiction  exercised  by  the  terian  bodies  in  Ireland,  the  most  important  of  which 
General  Assembly  of  the  Presbyterian  Church.  This  is  the  Presbyterian  Church  of  Ireland, 
was  the  beginning  of  the  Kirk  or  the  Scotch  Establish-  D.  CoUmiid  and  Missionary  Churches. — Presby- 
ment.  There  have  been  many  divisions  among  the  terianism  in  Canada  dates  its  origin  from  1765,  when 
Pre8b3rterians  of  Scotland^  but  to-day  nearly  all  the  a  military  chaplain  began  regular  ministrations  in 
elements  of  Presb3rterianism  in  that  country  have  Quebec.  There  was  very  little  gro?^h,  however, 
been  collected  into  two  n-eat  churches:  the  Es-  until  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century,  when 
tablished  Church  and  the  United  Free  Church  (see  British  immigration  set  in.  Before  1835  there  were 
Scotland,  Estabushed  Church  op).  After  Scot-  six  independent  organizations.  The  dimiption  of 
land  the  important  centres  of  Presbyterianism  are  1843  in  Scotland  had  its  echo  in  Canada,  and  seoes- 
England,  Ireland,  Wales,  the  British  colonies,  and  sionist  bodies  were  formed,  but  during  the  sixties 
the  United  States.  four  organic  unions  prepared  the  way  for  the  con- 

A.  England. — ^There  was  a  strong  Presbyterian  solidation  in  1875  of  all  the  important  bodies  into  one 

tendency  among  certain  English  Reformers  of  the  denomination,  the  Presbyterian  Chiirch  in  Canada, 

sixteenth  century.    For  a  time  men  like  Cranmer,  There  remain  only  two  small  organizations  not  af- 

Latimer,  and  Hooper  would  have  reconstructed  the  filiated  with  this  main  body.    The  Canadian  Church 

church  after  the  manner  of  Geneva  and  Zurich,  but  maintains  many  educational  institutions  and  carries 

during  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  the  "prelatical"  system  on  extensive  mission  work.    Its  doctrinal  standards 

triumphed  and  was  firmly  maintained  by  the  sover-  are  latitudinarian.    Canada  has  the  largest  of  the 

eign.    This  policy  was  opposed  by  the  I*uritans  who  colonial  churches,  but  there  are  important  Prejsby- 

mcluded  both  Presbyterians  and  Congregationalists.  terian  organizations  in  the  other  British  possessions. 

Towards  the  close  of  Elizabeth's  reign,  the  Presby-  In  Australia  Presbyterianism  msLV  be  dated  from  the 

terians  secretly  formed  an  organization  out  of  which  formation  of  the  Presbytery  of  New  South  Wales 

grew  in  1572  the  first  English  presbytery.    During  in  1826.    There  have  been  several  divisions  smce 

the  rei^of  James  I  and  Charles  I  the  struggle  be-  then,  but  at  present  all  the  churches  of  the  six  proy- 

tween  the  Established  Church  and  Presbytenanism  inces  are  federated  in  one  General  Assembly.    In 

continued.    In  1647  the  Long  Parliament  abolished  New  Zealand  the  church  of  North  Island,  an  offshoot 

the  prelacy    and    Presbyterianism   was  established  of  the  Scottish  Kirk,  organized  1856,  and  the  church 

as  the  national  religion.    In  the  same  year  the  West-  of  South  Island  (founded  by  Scottish  Free  Chmrcbr 

minster  Assembly  of  divines  presented  to  Parlia-  men,  1854)  have  coMo\\d«4fiA^  Sa.  ^aswi  Q«as8c^  Mr 


PBXSBTTERIANI8M 


394 


PBK8BYTIBUNIS1C' 


sembly.  There  is  a  confdderable  number  of  Scotch 
and  English  Presbyterians  in  S.  Africa.  In  1909  they' 
proposed  a  basis  of  unian  to  the  Wesleyan  Methodists, 
CongregationaliBts,  and  Baptists,  but  thus  far  with- 
out result. ,  In  Southern  India  a  basis  of  union  was 
a^eed  on  by  the  Congregationalists,  Methodists, 
and  IVesbyterians  in  July,  1908.  There  are  Presby- 
terian churches  organized  by  British  and  American 
missionaries  in  various  parts  of  Asia,  Africa,  Mes^ico, 
S.  America,  and  the  West  Indies. 

E.  United  States. — In  tracing  the  history  of  Pres- 
byterianism  in  the  United  States,  the  chimshes  may 
be  divided  into  three  m)ups:  (1)  the  American 
churches,  which  largely  discarded  foreign  influences; 
(2)  the  Scottish  churches,  directly  descended  from 
Presbyterian  bodies  in  Scotland;  (3)  the  Welsh 
church,  a  descendant  of  thi^  Calvinistic  Methodist 
church  of  Wales. 

(1)  The  American  Churches. — The  earliest  Amer- 
ican Presbyterian  churches  weve  established  in  Vir- 
ginia, New  England,  Maryland,  and  Delaware  during 
the  seventeenth  century  and  were  chiefly  of  Eng- 
lish origin.  The  man  who  brou(];ht  the  scatter^ 
churches  into  Organic  unity,  and  who  is  considered  as 
the  apostle  of  American  Pre8b3rterianiBm,  was  Rev. 
Francis  Makennie  from  the  Presbytery  of  Laggan, 

'Ireland.  With  six  other  ministers  he  organized  in 
1706  the  ftesbytery  of  Philadelphia,  which  ten  years 
later  was  constituted  a  ^ynod.  Between  1741  and 
1758  the  synod  was  divided  into  two  bodies,  the 
''Old  Side"  and  the  ''New  Side'',  because  of  disagree- 
ments as  to  the  reqmrements  for  the  ministry  and 
the  interpretation  of  the  standards.  During  this 
period  of  separation  the  College  of  New  Jersey,  later 
Princeton  University,  was  established  by  the  "New 
Side",  with  Rev.  John  Witherspoon,  afterwards  a 
signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Inaependence,  as  first 
president.  In  1788  the  synod  adopted  a  constitu- 
tion, and  a  general  assembly  was  established.  The 
dissolution  of  the  Cumberland  Presbsrtery  by  the 
Synod  of  Kentucky  led  to  the  formation  in  1810  of 
the  Cumberland  Presbyterian  Church.  From  con- 
troversies regarding  missionary  work  and  doctrinal 
matters  two  independent  branches  resulted  (1837), 
the  "Old  School"  and  the  "New  School".  Both 
lost  most  of  their  southern  presbyteries  when  anti- 
slavei^  resolutions  were  passed.  The  seceders 
united,  to  form  a  southern  church  known  since  1865 
as  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United  States. 
Fraternal  relations  exist  between  the  northern  and 
the  southern  churches,  who  are  kept  apart  especially 
by  their  different  policies  as  to  the  races.  In  the 
Cfumberland  church  the  coloured  members  were  or- 
ganized into  a  separate  denomination  in  1869.  That 
same  year  the  "Old  School"  and  the  "New  School" 
reunited,  forming  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  the 
United  States  of  America,  the  largest  and  most  in- 
fluential of  the  Presbyterian  bodies  in  America. 
Since  then  its  harmony  has  been  seriously  threatened 
only  by  the  controversy  as  to  the  sources  of  authority 
in  religion,  and  the  authority  and  credibility  of  the 
Scriptures  (1891-4).  This  difficulty  terminated  with 
the  trials  of  Prof.  Charles  A.  Briggs  and  Prof.  H.  P. 
Smith,  in  which  the  court  declar^  its  loyalty  to  the 
views  of  the  historic  standards.  In  1903  the  church 
revived  the  Confession  of  Faith,  mitigating  "the 
knotty  points  of  Calvinism".  Its  position  became 
thereby  essentially  the  same  as  that  of  the  Cumber- 
land church  (white),  and  three  years  later  (1906) 
the  two  bodies  entered  into  an  organic  union.  A 
part  of  the  Cumberland  church,  however,  repudiated 
the  action  of  its  general  assembly  and  still  under- 
takes to  perpetuate  itself  as  a  separate  denomination. 

(2)  The  Scottish  Churches.— (a)  Seceders.  The 
second  secessionist  body  froiti  the  established  church 
Ar«aM||^d,  the  Associated  Synod   (Seceders),  or- 

^Kbrougb  its  miasJoAAries  in  1753  the  As- 


sociate Presbytery  of  Pennsylvania.  Not  long  after 
another  separatist  body  of  Scotland,  the  Old  Cove- 
zianter  Church  (Cameronians),  foimded  a  daughter 
church  in  America  known  as  the  Reformed  Presby- 
tery (1774).  In  1782  these  new  seoeder  and  covenan- 
ter bodies  united  under  the  name  of  Associate  Re- 
formed Presbyterian  Church.  Some  members  of  the 
former  body  refused  to  enter  this  union  and  con- 
tinued, the  Associate  Presbytery  of  Pennsylvania. 
There  were  secessions  from  the  united  organization 
in  1801,  and  1820.  In  1858  nearly  all  these  various 
elements  were  brou^t  together  in  the  United  lYes- 
byterian  Church  of  North  America.  Two  bodies  that 
remain  outside  this  union  are  the  Associate  Reformed 
Presbyterian  Church,  which  since  1821  has  main- 
tained an  independent  existence,  a^d  the  Associate 
Synod  of  North  America)  a  lineal  descendant  of  the 
Aissociate  Presbytery  of  Pennsylvania,  founded  in 
1858  by  those  who  preferred  to  continue  their  own 
organization  rather  than  enter  into  the  union  effected 
that  year,  (b)  Cameronians  or  (Covenanters. — 
The  Reformed  Presbytery,  which  merged  with  the 
Associa1;ie  Presbytery  \ji  1782,  was  renewed  in  an  in- 
dependent existence  in  1798  by  the  isolated  covenan- 
ters who  had  taken  no  part  in  the  union  of  1782. 
This  renewed  presbytery  expanded  into  a  synod  in 
1809.  In  1833  there  was  a  division  into  two  branches, 
the  "Old  Lights"  (synod)  and  the  "New  lights'^ 
(general  synod),  caused  by  disagreements  as  to 'the 
attitude  the  church  should  take  towards  the  Con- 
stitution of  the  United  States.  In  1840  two  minis- 
ters, dissatisfied  with  what  they  considered  laxity 
among  the  "Old  li^ts",  withdrew  from  the  synoa. 
and  formed  the  ^'Covenanted  Reformed  Church" 
which  has  been  several  times  disorganized  and  counts 
only  a  handful  of  members.  In  1883  dissatisfaction 
with  a  disciplinary  decision  of  the  general  synod 
(New  Lights)  caused  the  secession  of  a  small  number 
of  its  members,  who  have  formed  at  Allegheny,  Pa., 
the  Reformed  Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United 
States  and  Canada.  Negotiations  for  a  union  of  the 
general  synod  and  the  synod  were  made  in  1890,  but 
were  unsuccessful. 

(3)  The  Welsh  Church.-— The  first  organization 
of  a  Welsh  Calvinistic  Methodist  church  in  tne  United 
States  was  at  Remsen,  N.  Y.,  in  1824«  Four  years 
later  a  presbytery  was  established,  and  the  growth 
of  the  denommation  has  Jcept  pace  with  the  increase 
in  the  Welsh  population.  The  English  language  is 
fast  gaining  control  in  the  church  services. 

III.  Statistics.  The  Presbyterian  denomina- 
tion throughout  the  world,  exclusive  of  the  Reformed 
churches,  numbers  over  5,000,000  communicants. 
Of  these  the  United  States  has  1,897,534  (12  bodies); 
Scotland,  1,233,226  (6  bodies):  (Canada,  289,556 
(3  bodies);  Wales,  195,000:  Ireland,  112,481  (4 
bodies);  England,  90,808  (2  bodies);  Australia, 
50,000:  New  Zealand,  28,000;  Jamaica,  12,017: 
S.  Afnca,  11,323. 

Bbnson,  Noiv-Catholie  DenomiruUiont  (New  York,  1910), 
01-117;  Lton.  a  Studv  of  the  Sect*  (Boaton,  1891),  90-109; 
New  Schaff-Hertog  Encye,  of  Religunu  KnowUdge,  IX  (New  York. 

1911).    B.  V. 

I.— A. — HoDOB,  Duaunona  in  Church  Polttu  (New  York, 
1878) ;  Idem,  What  is  Presbyterian  Law  at  D^ned  by  the  Churdi 
Courier  (Philadelphia.  1882);  Thompbok,  The  Hutarie  Bpie^ 
eopate  (Philadelphia,  1910).  B.— Schaft.  The  Creeds  of  CAri*- 
tendom  (New  York.  1905),  I,  669-817;  III.  600-76;  Hodob, 
Syatemaiic  Theology  (3  vols..  New  York,  1885);  Smith.  The 
Creed  of  the  Presbyterians  (New  York,  1901);  Encye,  of  Religum 
and  Ethics,  III  (New  York,  1911).  w&t  Confessions.  C. — Bairo, 
Eutaxiat  or  the  Presbyterian  LUurgies  (New  York,  1856) ;  Srielos, 
Liturgia  Expurgata  (New  York,  1844);  The  Book  of  Comm&n 
Worship  (Philadelphia.  1906). 

II. — Kerr,  7*^0  People's  History  of  Presbyterianism  (Rich- 
mond, 1888)*^  Broadley,  The  Rise  and  Progress  of  PresbytO' 
rianism:  Drysdalx,  History  of  Presbyterianism  in  England  (Loo- 
don,  1889);  Reid,  A  History  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  Ireland 
(3  vols..  Belfast.  1867);  Patton,  Popular  History  of  the  Presby- 
terian Church  in  the  United  States  (New  York,  19(X));  THOifPSON, 
A  History  of  the  Presbyterian  Churches  in  the  United  States  (New 
York.  1895)  in  Am.  Church  HiH.  Ser.,  VI,  bibUojg.,  xi-X3ni: 
Amer,  Church  Hist,  3er„  XI.  145-479. 


PBKSBYTBtT  395  PBBSCBIPTION 

in.— firapKBNfi,   Tk»  ^^eahi/terian  ChurehM  (Philadelphia,  civil  codes  are  not  80  explicit  in  demanding  this,  but 

1910) ;  BoBun.  THb  Pn^byUna,^  Handbook  (miadelpMa,  1911).  Jq  conscience  it  is  essential.    This  simply  means  that 

J.  A.  McliUGH.  a  man  must  be  honestly  convinced  that  what  he 

Presbytery.— The  part  of  the  church  reserved  for  ^  ^  J^,  poflsession  reaUy  belongs,  to  him.    The 

the  higher  clergy  wasinown  m  antiquity  by  various  f^^^  ^^^  5°*^°^  requires  this  m  no  imcertam 

names,  among  them  preabytenum,  because  of  its  occu-  ^^'    Prescription  cannot  legitimiaje  theft  or  de- 

pation  during  the  Uturgical  functions  by  the  priests  at-  Mention  of  prapwty  known  to  be  that  of  another.    It 

tached  to  a  church,  arranged  in  a  half-cu-cle  round  the  ^^y  b«  noted,  however,  that  when  the  scope  of  the 

bishop.    The  presbytery  was  also  known  as  apsia,  ^^^l^^^^Ji^^J^  t^  ^'^l  from  oertam  servitudes, 

exedra,  concha,  designations  referring  to  its  form;  {^^  ^«  ^"il^®*?^  ^,?Jjp„R«>fi^  *>y  ^J^  ^^^ 

hema  Irom  the  fact  that  it  was  elevSted  above  the  ^  W^«'  ^    ♦*?^i"*]l   is  interpreted  to  mean 

level  of  the  nave  and  in  consequence  reached  by  a  i^^^,!*"?"^^  ""^J  fcf"^^.^^®  oth«r  party  exewasmg 

stairway  of  a  few  steps;  iribuna  because  of  its  location  ?»  "P*'  ^®.  ^  °^*  boimd  to  w^  him  thaX  prescnp- 

and  general  resemblance  to  the  tribunal  in  civil  basil-  i?^°  .^  JT?^i  ^^^\^.l  ^^^  **»  apphca- 

icas  whence  the  magistrates  administered  justice,  tionm  ruraJ  distncts  and  with  regard  to  such  mattere 

These  various  names  were,  in  the  Middle  Ages,  mostly  ?f  ^^-t  J^^^^  ^  P^l  ^  ^"^  ^H^i  ^  I^^l  "^S 

superseded  by  the  term  chUr,  which  in  turn  yielded  to  1^,  ^f' ,  .^^  ^^  ,^^  **^«  P'f  ^^  *  decedent  wiU 

thrmodem  term  sanctuar^.     The  presb^ry  was  E^'Sr^r^JS^^ii^  ^^  ??^?  heir  from  avaihng 

separated  from  the  rest  of  the  churcfi  by  rails  (ca;^  5i^i£P'^S"J?l*''5'-    ^  ^""^  "^  !?f  J^^^^^^ 

S?i).    Eusebius,  in  his  dedication  oration  at  tyre  S^i^Kuro^^  ^}u  ^n^  and  must  take  over  the 

(H.  E.,  X,  iv).  d^cribes  this  feature  of  the  church  liid  \^J u^^^u^^'u'^!^'i^l^^  ^"^  "^  ''5^^?"' 

its  ob/ecti:  '^the  Holy  of  Holies,  the  altar",  he  ex-  ^''^^A^-^y^^  In  addition 

plains  was  inclosed  with  wooden  lattice-work,  accu-  wf^^^^^^.r^^lL^^  ^^'  prescnption 

retelywrouriitwithartisticcarvingtorenderit  "inac-  fSfl't^    Ti  nlS^!^  ^^^'^  ^^^  E?®  '^'X''^ 

cessible  to  tite  multitude".   In  oSSstantinople,  as  ap-  Jl*il.*^^^;.M^lr'^  ^1>  f  *™  ^i*^?  ^"^T  **""*? 

pears  from  the  episode  related  by  Theodoret  in  whic^  W  f^llw^n^.T^  it  "^"^ 

the  actors  were  Theodosius  the  Great  and  St.  Ambrose,  X^  *^*^?  semblance  of  a  good  title,  such  as  the  pur^ 

the  emoerOT  was  accustomed  to  remain  within  theWl  ?^*®*.  ^f  somethmg  which  did  not  as  a  matter  of 

l\^^T^^J^^^^^^^^rZ^hl^^^  fact  belong  to  the  seller,  or  at  least  there  must  be 

cmcts  of  the  presbytery  dunng  the  celebration  of  the  ^^^  ^^^  ^^^  suppoei'ng  the  existence  of  a  title 

as  in  the  case  of  things  acquired  by  inheritance. 
From  the  point  of  view  of  the  law,  prescription  is 

li'n/i  X"TZp^r7^'m  Nh^^^i.'p'n^^^^  Unintelligible  without  the  fact  of  posiision,  whether 

fnJ^hp  nW???P^  !r^.^h.r^    VrnA.I^Z:  *^  last  Stand  for  the  holding  ofsome  thing  or  the 

ing  the  presbyteiy  to  the  clergy.    From  this  strict  enjoyment  of  some  right.    Either  way  the  wisession 

prohibition   relative  to  the   laity  the   term  adyto  JJ^  ^  ^^  be  accompanied  V  aSSSaWe 

(macc^ble)   came  to  be  us^  of  the  pr^bytery.  proprietary  state  of  mind  aSd  is  not  satisfied  by 

Presbutenum  also  denoted  a  body  of  pnests  taken  gdueiary  relatiom.  such  as  trusteeship  or  by  thc"^' 

deposit,  rental,  and  the  like.    Theologians  exa 

_  _  _  necessary  Qualities  of  this  possession  that  it  d 

fordVisssr       *         '         Maurice  M.  HASSBTTr"  be  peaceable,  that  is,  not  assailed  by  lawsuits,  sure, 

uninterrupted,  and  oi>en,  that  is,  not  clandestine. 

Prescription  (Lat.  prce,  before,  and  scnberef  to  Much  stress  is  laid  on  the  fact  of  possession  by  the 

write,  in  later  legal  Latin   involving   the  idea  of  common  law  which  regards  it  as  the  very  foundation 

limitation)  is  a  method  created  by  law  for  acquiring  of  prescription.    Tenure  of  property,  other  requisites 

ownership  or  ridding  oneself  of  certain  burdens  on  the  bemg  verified,  will  confer  a  right  by  prescription  not 

fulfilment  of  fixed  conditions.    It  is,  therefore,  either  only  to  the  land  or  buildings  as  the  case  may  be  but 

acquisitive  or  liberating,  the  former  being  frequently  also  to  such  income  as  may  have  been  derived  from 

termed  usiicaption.    Prescription  has  its  ong^n  in  them  in  the  meantune. 

enactments  of  the  civil  law  which  have  been  con-  The  plea  of  prescription  cannot  be  successfully  ad- 
firmed  by  the  canon  law  and  which  so  far  as  the  vanced  unless  it  can  be  shown  that  possession  has 
principle  underlying  them  is  concerned  are  uni-  been  had  over  a  period  of  time  stipulated  by  law. 
versally  acknowledged  to  be  perfectly  valid  in  con-  This  space  is  different  for  different  kinds  of  goods, 
science.  Public  good  demanos  that  provision  should  The  canon  law  allows  prescription  of  movables  on 
be  made  for  security  of  title  to  property  as  well  as  proof  of  possession  for  three  years  with  at  least  a 
for  the  prevention  of  litigation  as  much  as  possible,  supposed  title;  without  other  title  than  that  they  have 
Hence  tne  State,  using  its  rig^t  of  eminent  domain,  been  held  a  long  time,  possession  for  thirtv  years  is 
may  for  grave  reasons  of  the  common  welfare  trans-  required.  Against  immovable  ecclesiastical  prop^y 
fer  owne^hip  from  one  individual  to  another  or  re-  prescription  may  be  used  only  after  possession  for 
lease  from  lawful  obligations.  A  person,  therefore,  forty  years,  whilst  a  special  provision  demands  an 
who  has  under  the  proper  conditions  acquired  real  hundred  years  when  the  action  lies  against  the  Roman 
estate  by  prescription  may  retain  it  with  a  safe  con-  Church.  The  civil  law  in  various  countries  exhibits 
science  even  though  the  former  owner  were  to  appear  such  substantial  differences  in  fixing  this  require- 
and  claim  it.  ment  that  there  is  no  *way  to  summarise  it.  In 
Prescription,  deriving  its  value  from  positive  law,  general  a  longer  time  is  required  for  immovable  than 
presupposes  certain  conditions  in  order  to  produce  movable  property.  In  the  United  States  of  America 
the  effect  attributed  to  it.  Moralists  are  agreed  that  manv  of  the  States  exact  twenty  years  for  immovables; 
the  object,  the  owner^p  of  which  is  to  pass,  must  be  in  Maine  forty  years  are  necessary^  whilst  in  others 
open  to  prescription.  It  must  be  something  that  may  the  time  sinks  to  seven  or  even  five  years  as  in  Cali- 
be  made  the  subject  matter  of  private  barter  and  to  fomia.  In  England  rights  of  common  and  all  other 
which  it  is  possible  to  gain  a  title  recognized  by  both  profits  from  land  become  absolute  and  indefeasible 
natural  and  positive  law.  Thus  one  could  not  secure  after  sixty  years.  The  same  is  true  of  rights  of  way 
dominion  over  a  public  highwav  on  pretence  that  and  easements  in  general  after  forty  ^rears.  More- 
prescription  had  operated  in  his  behalf.  Tlie  reason  over,  prescriptive  ri^ts  may  be  extinguished  and  will 
IS  that  the  authonty  of  the  law  cannot  be  invoked,  be  presumed  to  have  lapsed  when  they  have  not  been 
without  which  the  process  falls.  used  for  twenty  years,  or  sometimes  even  less. 
2.  The  beneficiary  must  act  in  good  faith.    The       Slatm,  Manual  of  MonA  rfc«ofeTO(5^«iR^«e».A'««^N'^«»!- 


raiSBHOI 


396 


TON.  Th€  Law  of  the  Church  (London*  1906);  Sabbtti,  Con^ 
jMmdiwn  theol.  moral.  (Ratisbon,  1902) ;  Ballsbini,  Ojnu  <Aeoi. 
wurraU  (Prate.  1899).  JoSEPH  F.  DSLANT. 

In  Civil  Jubisprudencb. — Prescription  "in  some 
form  and  under  some  name"  is  said  to  have  existed 
as  a  part  of  the  municipal  law  of  every  civilised  na- 
tion, except  the  Jewish  [Angell,  "A  treatise  on  the 
limitations  of  actions"  (Boston,  1876),  5;  Broom, 
"A  selection  of  \e^  maxims"  (London,  1911).  690; 
Domat,  "The  Civil  law  in  its  natural  order  ,  tr. 
Strahan  (Boston,  1850),  sections  2183,  2184],  and 
Devas,  "Political  Economy"  (London,  1901),  491, 
remarks  that  "the  doctrine  of  prescription  in  econom- 
ics as  well  as  in  politics  is  essentisil  to  social  wel- 
fare." It  is  in  accord  with  public  policy  that  owneiv 
ship  of  things  which  the  law  considers  capable  of 
ownership  (Broom,  op.  cit.,  279)  should  not  remain 
forever  uncertain,  and  that  litigation  should*  not  be 
immort^,  litigants  themselves  being  mortal  (Voet, 
cited  on  title  page,  Brown,  "The  law  of  limitation 
as  to  real  property,"  London,  1869),  and  their  muni- 
ments of- title  perishable  (Angell,  op.  cit.,  2).  In  the 
old  Roman  law  usttcapio  {rem  imu  capio)  was  the 
process  by  which  a  Roman  citizen's  possession  of  a 
corporeal  thing  during  a  length  of  time  defined  by 
law  "ripened  .  .  .  into  full  ownership"  {dominium) 
["The  Institutes  of  Justinian",  tr.  Sandars  (London, 
1898),  II,  tit.  VI;  Pothicr,  "Pandectae  Justinianeae", 
XLI,  tit.  IIL  1^  11).  "Fundiw",  remarks  Cicero 
(Ctetio  p^  Csecina,  26),  "a  patre  reUnqui  potest f  at 
usucapio  fundi,  hoe  est,  finis  soUcitudinie  ac  periculi 
litiumj  non  a  poire  relinquitur  sed  a  legibus",  the 
land  is  derived  from  the  ancestor,  but  its  quiet 
enjo3rment  from  usucaption.  This  method  of  as- 
surance of  title  was  not  open  to  foreigners  {peregrini) ; 
nor  could  it  be  appUed  to  provincial  land  {eolum 
prouindak),  for  in  such  land  Homan  law  recognized 
no  right  of  ownership,  but  right  of  possession  only. 
To  supply  these  defects  there  was  provided  under  the 
empire,  in  favour  of  foreigners  and  of  possessors  of 
provincial  land  during  a  defined  time,  a  written 
formula  of  defence  or  exception,  otherwise  called  a 
pnBScriptio,  the  longi  temporia  or  longcB  posaeeeionis 
proBscriptio.  Taken  alone,  the  word  prcescriptio  simply 
signified  a  formula  available  to  defendants  in  a 
legal  action  for  the  purpose  of  limiting  its  inquiry 
("The  Institutes  of  Justinian",  Introduction,  sect. 
104),  and  possession  remained  no  more  than  a  de- 
fence imtil  a  law  of  Justinian  allowed  a  right  of 
action  founded  on  possession  for  thirty  years  [Girard, 
"Manuel  61^mentaire  de  droit  romain"  (Paris,  1901), 
300,  298],  the  Umgisaimi  temporie  possessio  [Leage, 
"Roman  Private  Law"  (London,  1906),  142]. 

Tlie  operation  of  tutuxtpio  was  subject  to  some  re- 
strictions similar  to  those  of  canon  law  prescription. 
A  purchaser  in  good  faith  and  for  full  value  from  a  thief 
would  not,  by  usucaption,  acouire  ownership  in  the 
thing  stolen,  nor  would  ownersnip  thus  accrue  to  one 
who  acouired  possession,  knowing  that  the  thing 
really  belonged  to  another  (Leage,  op.  cit.,  135,  136). 
Nor  could  property  be  gained  by  usucapio  or  right 
of  possession  dv  prcBscriptiOf  in  a  thing  taken  oy 
violence  (Girar^  op.  cit.,  298;  cf.  as  to  prcMcriptio, 
299,  note  3).  The  law  of  'Justinian  just  referred  to 
conferred  ownership  on  a  possessor  in  good  faith, 
but  only  if  no  violence  had  been  used  (Leage.  op.  cit., 
142).  "Length  of  time",  remarks  Domat,  "does  not 
secure  unjust  possessors  from  the  guilt  of  sin,  .  .  . 
on  the  contrary^  their  long  possession  is  only  a  con- 
tinuance of  their  injustice."  But  this  authority  on 
the  modem  civil  law  holds  that  "civil  policy  docs  not 
permit  that  possessors  be  molested  after  a  long  pos- 
session, or  that  thev  be  obliged  to  make  good  their 
titles  or  even  to  declare  the  origin  of  their  possession. 
Fnr  lAiA  pretext  of  inquiring  i^ter  unjust  possessors 
jrtuii)  the  peace  and  quiet  of  just  and  lawful 
r'  (note  to  section  2209). 


In  English  law  the  term  prescription  is  applied  to 
rights  only  which  are  defined  'to  be  incorporeal  here- 
ditaments, such  as  a  rig^t  of  way  or  a  common  or  an 
advowson.  "No  prescription",  remarks  Blackstone, 
"can  give  a  title  to  lands  and  other 'corporeal  sub- 
stances of  which  more  certain  evidence  may  be  had  ** 
(Commentaries,  II,  264,  266;   III,  250). 

According  to  English  law  if  a  legal  beginning  be 
possible  [Ei^lish  Law  Reports,  17  Appeal  cases  (1882), 
648;  Brown,  op.  cit.,  139],  it  will  oe  presumed  from 
use  during  tne  defined  time,  such  length  of  use  estab- 
lishing a  conclusive  presumption  that  even  a  person 
whose  use  had  commenced  wrongfully  has  procured 
a  legal  title  [Broom,  op.  cit.,  689;  Lightwood,  "A 
treatise  on  possession  of  land"  (London,  1894),  153]. 
But  this  presumption  only  holds  against  a  person  who 
is  deemed  capable  of  asserting  his  rights  and  who  is 
not  under  legal  disability ;  for  contra  non  valentem  aqere 
nuUa  currii  prtBscriplio  (Broom,  op.  cit . ,  696) .  Against 
those  unable  to  act  the  maxim  viguantibus  non  dormien^ 
tibus  jura  subveniunt — the  law  assists  those  who  are 
vigilant,  not  those  who  sleep  over  their  rights— -does  not 
apply  [ibid.,  689;  Wood,  "A  treatise  on  the  limitation 
of  actions  "  (Boston,  1901),  416, 417].  The  use  neces- 
sary to  gain  right  bv  prescription  must  not  onl]^  be 
long,  but  "without  force,  without  secrecy,  as  of  right 
and  without  interruption"  (Wood,  op.  cit^  418,  note), 
**nec  vif  nee  dam  nee  precario**  ("The  Institutes  of 
Justinian",  II,  tit.  iii). 

Until,  as  to  most  instances,  altered  by  modern 
statutes,  the  period  required  to  make  a  prescription 
good  by  English  law  was  "time  whereof  the  memory 
of  man  runneth  not  to  the  contrary",  and  the  law 
deemed  memory  to  run  as  far  back  at  least  as  the 
commencement  of  the  reign  of  Richard  I  (a.  d. 
1189)  [Stephen,  "New  Commentaries  on  the  Laws 
of  England"  (London.  1908),  I,  468,  470:  Hor- 
wood,  "Year  Books  of  the  reign  of  King  Edward 
the  First"  (London,  1866),  136,  426].  In  this  re- 
quirement of  time,  prescription  and  that  other  im- 
memorial right  known  as  custom  were  alike.  But 
prescription  differs  from  custom  in  being  personal, 
while  custom  is  local  and  for  many  persons,  "generallv 
as  an  undefined  class  but  of  a  particular  locaJitv" 
(Brown,  op.  cit.,  213).  The  English  law  term  for 
the  acciuirmg  of  title  to  land  by  long  possession  and 
claim  is  adverse  possession.  In  En^icmd,  during  the 
early  Norman  pleriod^  the  discretion  of  the  judges 
reflated  the  time  within  which  possessors  of  land 
might  be  disturbed  in  their  possession.  Afterwards 
by  various  statutes  the  dates  of  certain  important 
events,  such  as  the  return  of  King  John  from  Ireland, 
the  coronation  of  Henry  III.  or,  similarly  to  prescrip- 
tion, the  commencement  ot  the  reign  of  Richanl  I, 
limited  the  commencement  of  various  actions  to 
recover  land  (Lightwood,  op.  cit.,  164,  156).  The 
earliest  statute  defining  a  certain  number  of  years  as 
a  Umitation  to  an  action  affecting  land  was  a  statute 
of  32  Henry  8  [Carson,  "Real  property  statutes" 
(London,  1902),  124].  Possession  of  land  neces- 
sary to  gain  title  by  adverse  possession  must  be 
"so  open,  notorious  and  important  as  to  operate  as 
a  notice  to  all  parties  that  it  is  under  a  claim  of 
rig^t";  the  possessor  "must  possess,  use  and  occupy 
the  land  as  owner  and  as  an  owner  woiUd  do,"  not  aa 
would  a  mere  trespasser  (Wood,  op.  cit.,  683,  584). 

Charles  W.  Sloans. 

Presence,  Real.    See  Eucharist. 

Presence  of  Qod,— Doctrinal.— All  solid  devotion 
and  devotional  practices  must  be  founded  upon  the 
truths  of  faith,  and  these  truths  must  be  borne  in  mind 
when  treating  of  the  presence  of  God  from  an  a«ceti- 
cal  and  devotional  point  of  view.  First,  it  is  of  faith 
that  God  is  present  by  His  Essence  everywhere  and  in 
all  things  by  reason  of  His  Immensity.  (Creed  of  St. 
Athanasius;  Council  of  Lateran,  c.  "Firmiter";  Vati- 


PftlSENTATION 


397 


PBESSNTATION 


can  Council,  Sess.  Ill,  c.  i.)    It  is  also  of  faith  that  entation  Sisters".   Their  habit  was  similar  to  that  of 

God  is  in  an  especial  manner  really  and  substantially  the  Ursulines.    The  second  superioress  was  Mother 

present  in  the  souls  of  the  just.    This  indwelling  of  Mary  Angela  Collins.    Soon  after  her  succession  a  set 

God  in  the  souls  of  the  just  is  attributed  bv  what  the-  of  rules,  adapted  from  that  of  St.  Augustine,  was 

ologians  call  appropriation  to  the  Holy  Ghost,  but  in  drawn  up  by  Bishop  Moylan,  and  approved  by  Pius 


Beauty  it  is  common  to  the  three  Divine  Persons. 

Ascetical, — ^To  put  ourselves  in  the  presence  of  God, 
or  to  Uve  in  the  presence  of  God,  as  spiritual  writers 
express  it,  means  to  become  actually  conscious  of  God 
as  present,  or  at  least  so  to  live  as  though  we  were  thus 


'VI  in  Sept.,  1791.  This  congregation  of  teaching 
sisters  was  raised  to  the  status  of  a  religious  order  by 
Pius  VII  in  1800. 

Communities  from  Cork  were  f oimded  at  Killamey 
in  1793;  Dublin  in  1794;  and  at  Waterford  in  1798. 


actually  conscious.    It  is  a  simple  act  which  involves    A  second  convent  at  Cork  was  established  in  1790, 


the  impression  of  the  unseen  Being  with  whom  we 
have  immediate  relation  and  familiar  converse,  whose 
goodness  towanda  us  is  assured,  and  who  loves  us  with 
an  everlasting  love;  who  exercises  a  particular  provi- 
dence among  us,  who  is  present  everywhere  and 


by  Sister  M.  Patrick  Fitzgerald;  and  a  convent  at 
Kilkenny  in  1800,  by  Sister  M.  Joseph  McLoughlan. 
At  the  present  day,  there  are  62  convents,  and  about 
1500  sisters.  Each  conununity  is  independent  of  the 
mother-house,  and  subject  only  to  its  own  superioress 


"who '',  in  the  words  of  Cardinal  Newman,  "  is  heart-    and  the  bishop  of  its  respective  diocese.    The  schools, 

under  the  Bntish  Government  Board,  have  for  their 
first  object  the  Catholic  and  moral  training  of  the 
yoimg,  which  is  not  interfered  with  by  the  Govern- 
ment. The  secular  system  followed  is  the  "  National  *\ 
superseded^  in  many  cases,  bv  the  ''Intermediate", 
both  of  which  ensure  a  souna  English  education;  to 
which  are  added  domestic  economy,  Latin,  Irish, 
Frendi,  and  German.    The  average  attendance  of 


reading,  heart-changing,  ever  accessible  and  open  to 
penetration"  (Grammar  of  Assent,  112).  The  simple 
child  as  well  as  the  advanced  contemplative  may  thus 
represent  God  as  present  to  the  mind,  and  live  in  the 
consciousness  of  His  presence.  It  is  only  the  angels 
and  bleated  who  can  behold  the  face  of  God. 

The  servant  of  God  or  the  devout  soul  may  be  mind- 
ful of  His  presence  in  another  way,  namely,  oy  the  ex- 


ercise of  reason  directed  by  faith.  He  sees  God  in  the  children  in  each  of  the  city  convents  of  Dublin,  Cork, 
earth,  the  sea^  the  air  and  in  all  things;  in  heaven  and  Limerick  is  over  1200;  that  in  the  country  con- 
where  He  manifests  His  glory,  in  hell  where  He  carries  vents  between  300  and  400,  making  a  total  of  22,200 
out  the  law  of  His  justice.  He  thinks  of  Him  as  pre»-  whp  receive  an  excellent  education  gratis.  For  girls 
ent  in  all  things  within  us  and  without  us,  and  espe-  who  are  obliged  to  earn  a  living,  work-rooms  £ive 
cially  as  dwelling  secretly  in  his  innermost  soul,  hidaen  been  established  at  Cork,  Youghal,  and  other  places, 
from  all  our  senses,  yet  speaking,  as  it  were,  to  the  where  Limerick  lace,  Irish  point,  and  crochet  are 
conscience  with  a  voice  that  is  in  us  but  not  of  us ;  the  taught.  The  first  foreign  country  to  receive  a  Presen- 
voice  of  One  who  is  with  us  yet  over  us.  tation  Convent  was  Newfoundland  in  1829,  when 
Deootumal, — One  may  therefore  practise  the  devo-  Sisters  Josephine  French  and  M.  de  Sales  Lovelock 
tion  of  living  in  the  presence  of  God :  (1)  by  a  lively  went  from  Galway.   There  are  now  fourteen  houses  of 


faith  in  that-Divine  presence,  that  God  is  near  us  and 
within  us  as  Elias  says:  ''the  Lord  liveth  ...  in 
whose  sight  I  stand''  (III  Kings,  xvii,  1;  cf.  IV  Kinf^s, 
iii,  14);  (2)  when  distracted  the  mind  may  be  easily 
brought  back  to  the  remembrance  of  God  s  presence 
by  the  simple  reflection:  ''The  Lord  is  here"; "The 
liord  sees  me";  (3)  when  occupied  with  conversation 


the  order  on  the  island  and  about  twenty  in  the  United 
States,  the  first  of  which  was  founded  at  San  Francisco 
by  Mother  Xavier  Cronin  from  Kilkenny  in  1854. 
In  1833  a  house  was  founded  by  Mother  Josephine 
Su;geant  from  Clonmel  at  Manchester,  England,  from 
which  sprang  two  more,  one  at  Buxton  and  one  at 
Glossop.    Their  schools  are  well  attended;  the  num- 


or  business  by  breathing  from  time  to  time  some  secret  ber  of  children,  including  those  of  an  orphanage, 

aspiration  or  affection  for  God  and  then  keeping  the  being  about  1400.    India  received  its  first  founaa- 

mmd  recollected;  (4)  in  dereliction  of  spirit,  by  keeping  tion  m  1841,  when  Mother  Xavier  Kearney  and  some 

God  m  mmd  more  faithfully,  knowmg  that  nothing  gisters  from  Rahan  and  Mullingar  established  them- 

can  come  between  Him  and  the  soul  but  grave  sm,  selves  at  Madras.    Soon  four  more  convents  in  the 

through  which  His  special  operation  in  the  soul  by  presidency  were  founded  from  this,  and  in  1891  one 

grace  ceases.    Men  may  be  said  to  come  to  God  as  ^t  Rawal  Pindi.    Their  schools  are  flourishing,  com- 

they  become  more  like  Him  in  goodness,  and  to  with-  prising  orphanages,  and  day  and  boarding-schools, 

draw  from  Him,  when  they  become  unlike  Him  by  ^^h  for  Europeans  and  natives.    At  Rawal  Pindi 

their  wickedness.  '  .,       .  .         ,  ^        _j 1_ xi..  t-i.v 


As  the  immediate  preparation  for  mental  prayer,  it 
is  fitting  and  necessary  'to  place  ourselves  in  the  pr^ 
ence  of  God ''.  This  is  to  be  done  by  an  act  of  faith  in 
the  Divine  presence,  from  which  should  follow:  (1)  an 
act  of  adoration;  (2)  an  act  of  humility;  (3)  an  act  of 
sorrow  or  contrition;  (4)  an  act  of  petition  for  light  and 
grace.  These  acts  may  be  made  m  the  interior  of  the 
soul. 

Bu>BiU8,  Inalitulio  SmrituaiU,  £iu|liBh  veraion  by  WiLBUt- 
roRCB  (London,  1900) ;  I>xvine,  A  MantuU  of  Myttieal  Theology 
(London,  1903) ;  St.  Fkancxs  dx  Salxs,  Treatiae  on  the  Love  o/Ood; 
TtrsslLj  Hard  SayingM  (London,  1898) ;  Lsaaius,  De  jMr/eetiont- 
hu9  divinie:  de  ImmeneitaU  Dei;  Valxaonbra,  Myetiea  Theologia 
Divi  Thoma  (Turin,  1890).  ARTHUR  DbVINE. 

PraMntation,  Ordbr  of  the,  founded  at  Cork,  Ire- 
land, by  Nano  (Honoria)  Nagle  (see  below).  In  1775 
she  entered  with  some  companions  on  a  novitiate  for 
the  religious  life.  With  them  she  received  the  habit 
29  Jime,  1776,  taking  the  name  of  Mother  Mary  of  St. 
John  of  God.  They  made  their  first  annual  vows  24 
June,  1777.  The  foundress  had  begun  the  erection  of 
a  convent  close  to  that  which  she  had  built  for  the 
Ursulines,  and  it  was  opened  on  Christmas  Day,  1777. 
They  adopted  as  their  title  "Sisters  of  the  Sacred 
Heart",  which  was  changed  in  1791  to  that  of  ''Pres- 


the  sisters  do  much  good  work  among  the  Irish 
soldiers,  who  «>  to  them  for  religious  instruction.  In 
1866  Mother  jCavier  Murphy  and  some  sisters  left 
Fermoy  for  a  first  foundation  at  Hobart  Town,  Tas- 
mania, under  the  auspices  of  its  first  archbishop,  Dr. 
Murphy.  There  is  a  branch  of  this  house  at  Launces- 
ton.*  St.  Kilda,  Melbourne,  received  sisters  from 
Kildare  in  1873,  and  Wagga  Wagga  a  year  later,  with 
Mother  M.  John  Byrne  at  their  head.  From  these 
two  houses  numerous  others  branched  forth  to  all 
parts  of  Australia;  to-day  there  are  over  twenty  con- 
vents, about  500  nuns,  and  thousands  of  children  at- 
tending their  schools.  M.  db  Sales  Whtte. 

Prxssntation  Order  in  America. — ^About  half  a 
century  after  its  establishment,  the  Presentation 
Order  sent  four  sisters  from  the  Galws^  convent  to 
Newfoundland,  at  the  request  of  Dr.  Fleming,  Vicar 
Apostolic  of  the  island.  The  mother-house  is  at  St. 
John's;  there  are  now  (1911)  thirteen  convente,  120 
nuns,  and  over  2000  pupils.  In  November,  1854,  some 
Presentation  Nuns  arrived  at  San  Francisco  from  Ire- 
hmd.  Mother  M.  Teresa  Comerford  and  her  sisten 
had  great  initial  difficulties;  but  Archbishop  Alemany 
succeeded  in  interesting  prominent  Catholica  oC  thit 


PRKSEHTATIOK 


398 


PBESKNTATIOK 


city  in  their  work,  and  in  oonne  of  time  two  fine  con- 
vents were  built  within  the  city  limits,  besides  con- 
vents at  Sonoma  and  Berkeley.  The  earthquake  of 
1906  destroyed  both  of  their  convents  in  the  city,  with 
practically  their  entire  contents;  but  the  sisters  have 
courageously  begun  their  work  afresh,  and  bid  fair  to 
accomplish  as  much  good  work  as  in  the  past. 

The  PrcsBentation  Convent,  St.  Miehael's,  New  York 
Citv,  was  founded  8  Sept.,  1874,  by  Mother  Joseph 
HicKey,  of  the  Presentation  Convent,  Terenure,  Co. 
Dublin,  with  two  sisters  from  that  convent,  two  from 
Ciondalkin,  and  seven  postulants.  Rev.  Arthur  J. 
Donnelly,  pastor  of  St.  Michael^s  Church,  on  com- 
pleting his  school  building,  went  to  Ireland  in  1873  to 
mvite  the  Presentation  Nuns  to  take  charge  of  the 
girls'  department.  The  consent  of  the  nuns  having 
Been  obtained.  Cardinal  Cullen  applied  to  the  .Holy 
See  for  the  necessary  Brief  authonsing  the  nuns  to 
leave  Ireland  and  proceed  to  New  York,  which  was 
accorded  by  Pius  IX.  The  work  of  the  nims  at  St. 
Michael's  has  been  eminently  successful.  From  1874 
to  1910  there  have  been  entered  on  the  school  register 
16,781  names.  In  1884  the  sisters  took  charse  of  St. 
Michael's  Home,  Green  Ridge,  Staten  Islana,  where 
over  two  hundred  destitute  children  are  cared  for. 

In  1886  Mother  Magdalen  Keating,  with  a  few  sis- 
ters, left  New  York  at  the  invitation  of  Rev.  P.  J. 
Garrigan.  afterwards  Bishop  of  Sioux  City,  and  took 
charge  ot  the  schools  of  St.  Bernard's  Pansh,  Fitch- 
burg,  Massachusetts.  The  mission  proved  most  fioiuv 
ishing,  and  has  branch  houses  in  West  Fitchbuig  and 
Clinton,  Massachusetts;  Central  Falls,  Rhode  Island; 
and  Berlin,  New  Hampshire.  The  order  was  intro- 
duced into  the  Diocese  of  Dubuque  by  Mother  M. 
Vincent  Hennessey  in  1874.  There  are  now  branch- 
houses  at  Calmar,  Elkader,  Farley,  Key  West,  Lawler, 
Waukon,  Clare,  Danbury,  Whittemore,  and  Madison, 
Nebraska.  The  order  came  to  Fargo,  North  Dakota, 
in  1880  under  Mother  Mary  John  Hiighes,  andposses^ 
a  free  school,  home,  ana  academy.  St.  Colman's, 
Watervliet,  New  York,  was  opened  m  1881,  the  sisters 
having  charge  of  the  nourishing  orphanage.  In  1886 
some  sisters  from  Fargo  went  to  Aberdeen,  South 
Dakota,  and  since  then,  imder  the  guidance  of  Mother 
M.  Joseph  Butler,  they  hXve  taken  charge  of  schools  at 
Bridffewater,  Bristol,  Chamberlain,  Elkton,  Jefferson, 
Mitoaell  JNl ilbank,  and  Woonsocket,  besides  two  hos- 
pitals. There  are  in  the  United  States  438  members 
of  the  order,  who  conduct  32  parochial  schools,  at- 
tended by  6909  pupils;  5  academies,  with  416  pupils; 
3  oiphanages,  with  519  inmates;  2  nospitals. 

MoTHSB  M.  Stanislaus. 

Naolb,  Nano  (Honoria),  foundress  of  the  Presen- 
tation Order,  b.  at  Ballygnmn,  Cork,  Ireland,  1728; 
d.  at  Cork,  20  April,  1784.  After  an  elementary  edu- 
cation in  Ireland,  where  CathoUo  schools  were  then 
proscribed,  she  went  to  France  for  further  studies, 
where  some  of  her  kinsmen  were  living  in  the  suite  of 
the  exiled  King  James,  and  entered  on  a  brilliant  social 
life  in  the  coiirt  circles  of  the  capital.  One  morning, 
when  returning  from  a  ball,  she  was  struck  by  the 
sight  of  crowds  of  working-men  and  women  waiting 
for  a  church  to  be  opened  for  early  Mass.  A  few  weeks 
later  she  returned  to  Ireland,  and  only  the  stringent 
laws  then  in  force  against  Catholic  educational  activ- 
ity prevented  her  from  consecrating  herself  at  once  to 
the  Christian  training  of  Irish  children,  who  were 
growing  up  in  ignorance  of  their  Faith.  A  short  time 
spent  as  a  postulant  at  a  convent  in  France  confirmed 
her  belief  that  her  mission  lay  rather  in  Ireland,  a  con- 
viction strengthened  by  the  advice  of  her  directors. 
Eler  first  step  on  returning  to  Ireland  was  to  familiarize 
herself  with  the  work  of  some  ladies  who  had  privately 
organised  a  school  in  Dublin,  and,  on  the  death  of  her 
mother  and  sister,  she  went  to  Cork,  where  in  the  face 
d  the  most  adverse  conditions  she  began  her  crusade 


against  the  ignorance  and  vice  there  prevalent.  Her 
fiist  pupils  were  ^thered  secretly,  and  her  part  in  the 
undertaking  havm^  been  discovered,  it  was  only  after 
a  period  of  opposition  that  she  seciufed  the  support  of 
her  relatives.  In  less  than  a  year,  however,  she  had 
established  two  schools  for  bovs  and  five  for  g^ls,  with 
a  capacity  for  about  two  hunched.  The  foundress  her- 
self conducted  the  classes  in  Christian  doctrine  and 
instructed  those  preparing  for  First  Communion, 
searehing  the  most  aoandoned  parts  of  the  city  for 
those  in  need  of  spiritual  and  temporal  help.  Her 
charity  extended  aiBO  to  aged  and  infirm  women,  for 
whom  she  established  an*  asylum  at  Coric,  and  espe- 
cially to  working-women,  whose  perseverance  in  faith 
and  virtue  was  a  source  of  solicitude  to  her.    The  de- 


roving 


excessive  for  her  resources,  she  solicited  contributions 
from  house  to  house,  at  the  cost  of  much  humiliation. 
For  the  purpose  of  perpetuating  her  work  she  de- 
cided to  foimd  a  convent;  and  a  communitv  of  XJrsu- 
lines,  young  Irishwomen  trained  especialfy  for  the 
purpose,  was  sent  to  Cork  in  1771,  although  they  did 
not  venture  to  assume  their  religious  ^tm  for  eight 
years.  As  the  Ursuline  Rule,  with  which  Nano  had 
not  thoroughly  acquainted  herself,  did  not  permit 
entire  consecration  to  the  visitation  of  the  sick*and  the 
education  of  poor  children,  she  resolved  to  form  a 
commimity  more  peculiarly  adapted  to  the  duties  she 
had  taken  up,  while  remaining  a  devoted  friend  of  the 
Ursulines.  In  1775  she  founded  the  I^^esentation 
Order  (see  above) .  She  set  an  example  of  charity  and 
self-abnegation  to  her  community,  giving  seven  hours 
dail  V  to  the  class-room  and  four  to  prayer,  in  addition 
to  the  demands  of  her  duties  as  superior  and  her  work 
of  visitation.  It  was  said  there  was  not  a  single  garret 
in  Coric  that  she  did  not  know.  Her  austerities  and 
the  persistence  with  which  she  continued  her  labours 
in  the  most  inclement  weather  brought  on  a  fatid  ill- 
ness; she  died  exhorting  her  community  to  spend 
themselves  for  the  poor.  Her  remuns  were  interred  in 
the  cemetery  of  the  Ursuline  convent  she  had  built. 

Flobence  Rudgb  McGahan. 

Presentation,  Rbliqious  Conqrbqationb  of 
THE. — (1)  Daughten  of  the  PreBenUUionf  founded  in 
1627  by  Nicolas  Sanguin  (b.  1580;  d.  1053),  Bishop 
of  Senlis,  a  prelate  who  was  atoning  by  a  life  of  sano- 
tity  for  the  errors  of  an  ill-spent  youth.  Having  given 
himself  unstintingly  to  the  service  of  the  plague- 
stricken  during  a  pest  which  devastated  Senlis  during 
the  early  years  of  his  episcopate,  he  turned  his  attcsQ- 
tion  to  the  foundation  of  a  teacning  order  to  combat 
the  prevailing  ignorance  and  the  resulting  vice  in  the 
diocese.  Two  young  women  from  Paris.  Catherine 
Dreux  and  Marie  oe  la  Croix^  began  tne  work  of 
teaching  in  1626  and  the  following  vear  were  formed 
into  a  religious  community,  which  shortly  afterwards 
was  enclosed  under  the  Rule  of  St.  Augustine.  The 
opposition  of  the  municipal  authorities  rave  way  be- 
fore the  Bull  of  erection  granted  by  Urban  Ylir  (4 
Jan.,  1628)  and  letters  patent  of  Louis  XIII  granted 
in  1630,  the  year  in  which  the  first  solemn  prof^on 
was  held.  In  1632  papal  permission  was  obtained  for 
two  of  Bishop  Saneuin's  sisters  and  a  companion  to 
leave  for  a  time  their  monastery  of  Monod  of  the 
Order  of  St.  Clare,  to  form  the  new  community  in 
the  religious  life.  Seven  years  later  they  were  re- 
ceived as  members  into  the  new  order,  over  which 
they  presided  for  more  than  thirty  years.  The  con- 
gresation  did  not  survive  the  Revolution,  althougji 
under  Bonaparte  one  of  the  former  members  orgar 
nixed  at  Senlis  a  school  which  was  later  taken  over  ^ 
by  the  municipality.  The  habit  was  black  serge  over 
a  robe  of  white  serge,  with  a  white  guimpe,  a  bladk 
bandeau,  and  veil.  Tne  original  constitutions  seem  to 
have  been  altered  by  M^  Sanguinis  nephew  and  mio^ 
cessor  in  the  See  of  Senhs,  owing  to  the  frequent  ref« 


•  • 


..  PBI8SNTATI0N                         399  PBE8INTATION 

erence  made  in  them  to  the  devotion  of  the  Slavery  act  individually,  as  when  the  different  members  of  a 

'of  Our  Lady,  which  was  suppressed  by  the  ChtLrch.  family  are  called  on  to  present  a  candidate,  the  most 

(2)  Sxatera  of  the  Presentation  of  the  Blessed  Virgirif  important  point  is  to  observe  all  the  regulations  gov- 
founded  in  1684  by  Yen.  Marie  Poussepin  at  Sain-  eming  the  foundation;  account  is  taken  of  the 
lolle  in  the  tMocese  of  Chartres.  for  teaching  and  the  branches  of  the  family  and  of  the  persons  in  each 
care  of  the  sick.  At  the  time  ot  the  religious  disturb-  branch,  in  which  case  a  relative  majority  is  sufficient, 
ances  in  France,  over  seventeen  himdred  sisters  were  A  ballot  is  resorted  to  also  when  the  patronage  is  exer- 
engaged  in  France,  Spain,  South  America,  and  Asiatic  cised  by  a  numerous  community,  e.  g.  the  men  of  a 
Twkey,  where  they  have  charge  of  a  number  of  parish  who  have  attained  their  majority.  In  case  of  a 
schools  and  protectories  for  girls.  At  Agua  de  Dios  in  .  tie,  the  bishop  selects  one  of  the  candidates  proposed. 
Colombia  they  care  for  a  colony  of  lepers.  In  1813  As  to  the  suitability  of  the  candidate,  see  Patron  and 
the  mother-house  was  established  at  Saint-Sym-  Patronaoe.  Often,  in  virtue  of  a  local  law,  as  in 
phorien  near  Tours.  Austria,  the  patron  must  select  from  a  list  of  suitable 

(3)  Sisters  of  the  PresenUUion  of  Mary,  also  called  candidates  three  for  ecclesiastical  patrons.  By  the 
White  Ladies,  founded  in  1796  at  Montpezat  by  Yen.  acceptance  of  the  presentation,  the  cleric  presented  • 
Marie  Rivier  (d.  1838),  assisted  by  the  Abl>S  Pontan-  acquires  immediately  the  ris^t  to  the  benence,  if  the 
nier,  for  the  instruction  of  poor  girls.  The  first  novi-  patronage  is  ecclesiastical;  but  the  right  is  definitive 
tiate  was  opened  at  Thueys,  near  Aubenas,  but  the  only,  if  the  patronase  is  lay,  on  the  ex{)iration  of  the 
mother-house  was  permanently  established  at  Bourg-  four  months  allowea  the  patrcNi  to  exercise  his  right  of 
Sain1r-And6ol  in  the  Diocese  of  Yiviers.  The  congre-  presentation,  unless  the  bishop  has  already  proceeded 
gation  soon  spread  over  France  and  in  1853  a  house  to  the  institution.  On  leammg  of  the  presentation 
was  established  in  Canada.  At  the  time  of  the  dis-  and  acceptance,  the  bishop  examines  into  the  fitness 
persion  of  the  religious  orders  in  France  the  congre-  of  the  candidate,  whom  he  admits  or  rejects  according 
gation  numbered  two  thousand  members  in  ch^e  to  the  case;  if  he  admits  him,  he  gives  him  canonicid 
of  schools  and  orphan  asylums.  The  Polish  mother-  institution,  regularly  within  two  months;  if  he  rejects, 
house  is  at  Cracow.                 ^  the  patron  may  present  another,  unless  in  the  pre- 

(4)  Sisters  of  the  Presentation  of  Our  Lady,  founded  vious  instance  he  had  knowingly  presented  an  imfit 
at  Ghent  in  1805  by  Miss  Weewaujbers,  m  religion  candidate  (cf.  Lib.  Ill,  Decret^  tit.  xxxviii,  ''De  jure 
Mother  Mary  Augustine,  and  Canon  de  Decker  (d.  patronatU8"jConc.Tnd.Sess.  YII,c.  13;Sess.XXIY, 
1874)  for  the  education  of  girls.  The  mother-house  c.  18;  Sess.  aXY,  c.  9,  de  Ref.;  see  also  Benefice). 
is  at  Sainlr-Nicolas,  on  which  are  dependent  a  number  „  S®*  commentaries  on  p«  jwe  patr<matu»,  ill,  zzzvitt,  wid  VI; 

of  filial  houses  with  about  two  hundred  members  ^•^^'Jl^'SfSx^l^JS:'  £;^f6^f&ii.'Sir^iy^ 

H&J^^'^gSr^r.fT^ISS);^'^^^^  ^^^-r,.l909).iM,                                  A.  BOUDINHON. 

'^°°'                   Florence  Rudqe  McGahan.  .  PrawnUtlon  Brotherg.--In  the  early  part  of  the 

mneteenth  century  when  the  Penal  Laws  were  relaxed, 

Preiontation,  Right  of. — Out  of  gratitude  for  the  and  the  ban  which'was  placed  on  the  Catholic  educa- 
foundation  or  endowment  of  churches  and  benefices,  tion  Of  youth  in  Ireland  during  a  long  period  of  perse- 
the  Church  grants  founders,  if  they  wish  to  reserve  i,t.  cution  was  removed,  great  efforts  were  made  to  em- 
the  right  of  patronage,  the  first  and  chief  privilege  of  ploy  the  opportunities  which  a  comparative  freedom 
which  is  the  right  of  presenting  a  cleric  for  thel>en-  placed  within  the  reach  of  Irish  Qatholics,  and  several 
efice.  Presentation  therefore  means  the  TiATning  to  the  J^ew  religious  congregations  of  both  men  and  women 
ecclesiastical  authorities  of  a  suitable  cleric,  thereby  sprang  into  existence.  Amongst  these  was  the  Insti- 
conferring  on  the  latter  the  right  to  have  the  vacant  tute  of  Presentation  Brothers  founded  by  Edmimd 
benefice.  Like  election  and  nomination  presentation  Ignatius  Rice.  The  Brothers  continued  a  diocesan 
confers  on  the  cleric  presented  areal  right  {jus  adrem),  congregation  approved  of  by  Rome  until  1889.  when  a 
so  that  the  ecclesiastical  superior  entrusted  with  the  change  was  effected  in  the  constitution  of  the  body 
institution  may  not  give  the  benefice  to  another,  with  a  view  to  its  more  rapid  development.  With  the 
"There  are  many  forms  of  the  right  of  patronage;  here  sanction  of  the  bishops  under  whom  the  Brothers  then 
we  need  refer  only  to  the  ri^t  of  ecclesiastical  patron-  laboured,  all  the  houses  of  the  Institute  were  united 
age  belonging  to  ecclesiastical  bodies  as  such,  e.  g.  a  under  a  superior-general  and  Leo  XIII  approved  and 
chapter,  and  to  the  right  of  lay-patronage,  possessed  confirmed  the  new  constitutions.  The  rapid  spread  of 
by  ia3rmen  or  ecclesiastics  in  their  private  capacity,  the  order  since  then  has  been  very  marked.  It  now 
Hence  there  exist  notable  differences  in  the  manner  has  several  branches  in  each  of  the  provinces  of  Ire- 
of  exercising  the  right  of  patronage,  as  misht  naturally  land,  and  is  also  established  in  England  and  Canada, 
be  expected,  especially  when  we  remember  that  the  The  Brothers  conduct  colleges,  primary  schools,  indus- 
foundations  or  endowments  giving  rise  to  the  right  of  trial  schools,  and  orphanages.  A  new  novitiate  and 
ecclesiastical  patronage  are  made  with  property  al-  trainingcollege  has  been  erected  at  Mount  St.  Joseph, 
ready  belonging  to  the  Church  (see  Patron  and  Cork.  The  superior-general  resides  there.  The  Com- 
Patronage).  Theoretically  no  special  form  of  pre»-  missioners  of  National  Education,  after  investigating 
entation  is  necessary:  it  suffices  if  the  act  signifies  the  the  methods  of  training  adopted  by  the  institute,  fully 
presentation,  and  excludes  anything  that  mig^t  indi-  approved  of  them  and  recognized  the  training  college. 
cate  a  collation  of  the  benefice^  and  if  there  is  no  In  the  colleges,  special  attention  is  paid  to  the  teach- 
aimony;  in  practice  it  is  made  m  writing,  generally  ing  of  experimental  science.  Classes  are  taught  in 
after  voting  has  taken  place  or  an  arrangement  has  connexion  with  the  Interme4iate  Education  Board 
been  made,  when  the  patron  is  not  an  individual  and  and  Technical  Department.  Students  are  prepared 
when  there  are  co-patrons.  It  is  communicated  to  the  for  the  Civil  Service  as  well  as  for  the  National 
ecclesiastical  superior,  usually  the  bishop,  who  has  to  University.  In  the  industrial  schools  and  orphan- 
perform  the  canonical  institution.  The  patron  exer-  ages,  in  addition  to  the  ordinary  school  studies, 
cises  his  right  personally  if  past  the  age  of  pub^y  various  trades  are  taught,  as  also  agriculture  and 
(fourteen  or  twelve  years  respectively),  although  he  horticulture.  Moreover,  all  the  boys  get  a  two  years' 
may 'act  by  an  attorney;  if  he  has  not  attained  this  course  in  manual  instruction. 
age,  he  must  act  through  those  who  have  authority  Brotheb  De  Sales. 
over  him:  mother,  guardian,  protector.   If  the  patron 

is  an  individual,  he  makes  the  presentation  by  himself;  Presentation  of  BAary,  Congregation  of  the. — 

if  it  is  a  college,  e.  ^.  a  chapter,  a  secret  vote  is  taken  This  congregation,  devoted  to  the  education  of  young 

and  an  absolute  majority  is  required;  if  the  co-patrona  girls,  was  H)unded  in  1796  at  Theuyts,  Arddche, 


PBESIMTATION  400  PBI8TER 

France,  by  the  Venerable  Mother  Marie  Rivier.   The        Prester   John,   name  of  a  legendary   Eastem 

mother-house  is  nov^  at  Saint^Andtol,  Ard^he.   The  priest  and  king. 

superior  general  is  the  Mother  Marie  Ste-Honorine.  Fibst  Stags. — ^The  mythical  loumey  to  Rome  of 
The  provmcial  house  in  Canada  was  foimded  on  18  a  certain  Patriarch  John  of  India  in  1122,  and  his 
Octoberi  1853,  by,  Mgr  Jean-Charles  Prince,  first  visit  to  Callistus  II,  cannot  have  been  the  origin  of 
Bishop  of  St.  Hyacinthe.  It  is  also  the  mother-house  the  legend.  Not  imtil  much  later,  in  a  MS.  £ting 
and  the  religious  make  their  vows  there.  The  first  six  from  the  latter  part  of  the  fifteenth-century  "Tracta- 
relisious,  with  Mother  Marie  St-Maurice  as  superior,  tus  pulcherrimus"  (Zamcke),  do  we  find  the  patriarch 
setUed  at  Ste-Mariede  Monnoir,  where  Rev.  £.  Cre-  uid  priest  united  in  one  person.  The  first  oombinar 
vier,  pastor  of  this  parish,  had  prepared  a  convent  for  tion  of  the  two  legends  appears  at  the  end  of  the 
them.  They  opened  a  boarding-school  and  a  class  for  twelfth  century,  in  an  apocryphal  book  of  devotions 
day  pupils;  both  of  these  are  very  prosperous  at  the  ealled  the  ''Narrative  of  £useus'\  The  first  au- 
present  time.  In  1855  the  novitiate  was  transferred  thentic  mention  of  Prester  John  is  to  be  found  in  tiie 
toSt-.Hugues  (in  thecounty  of  Bagot),  andinl858it  "Chronicle"  of  Otto,  Bishop  of  Freising,  in  1145. 
was  definitively  located  at  St.  Hy^acinthe  in  a  convent  Otto  gives  as  his  authority  Hugo,  Bishop  of  Gc^ala. 
which  was  occupied  up  to  this  tune  by  the  Sisters  of  The  latter,  by  order  of  the  Christian  prince,  Raymond 
the  Congregation  of  Notre  Dame  of  Montreal.  This  of  Antiocn,  went  in  1144  (after  the  fall  of  Odessa) 
house  was  of  insufficient  accommodation  and  the  com-  to  Pope  Eugene  II,  to  report  the  grievous  position 
munity  was  obliged  to  erect,  not  far  from  the  seminary,  of  Jerusalem,  and  to  induce  the  West  to  send  an- 
a  large  building  of  which  they  took  possession  in  1876.  other  crusade.  Otto  met  the  Syrian  prelate  at 
The  house  occupied  since  1858  then  became  an  Viterbo,  where  in  the  pope's  presence  he  learned 
academy.  Later  it  was  necessary  to  add  a  large  annex  that  a  certain  John,  who  governed  9S  priest  and  kipg 
to  the  first  building.  The  students  were  installed  there  in  the  Far  East^  nad  with  his  people  become  con- 
in  1907.  The  provincial  house  is  at  the  same  time  the  verted  to  Nestonanism.  A  few  years  earlier  he  had 
mother-house  of  the  institution  in  Canada.  The  conquered  the  brother  monarchs  of  Media  and  Persia, 
Congregation  of  the  Presentation  of  Mary  comprises  Samiardi.  Prester  John  had  emerged  victorious 
30  houses  in  Canada  and  16  in  the  United  States,  edu-  from  the  terrible  battle  that  lasted  three  days,  and 
eating  13,670  children.  ended  with  the  conquest  of  Ecbatana;   after  which 

Sister  Mary  St.  David.  the  victor  started  for  Jerusalem  to  rescue  the  Holy 

-j.^ ^^.,  _   *  j.1.   «i        J  «yj  _i    m^        TT-  Land,  but  the  swollen  waters  of  the  Tigris  compelled 

Pre86nUtlon£theBleM6dVlrginMary.F^^  hhn  to  return  to  his  own  country.    He  belong  to 

OP  THB.— The  Protoevangel  of  James  the  Gospel  of  the  race  of  the  three  Magi,  thei  former  kingdoms 

Pseudo-Matthew,  the  Gospel  of  the  Natiyity  of  Mary^  being  subject  to  him.    Hii  enormous  wealiffi  was 

Mid  othCT  apocryphal  writing  ll^^^f '     Apocryph.  demonstrated  by  the  fact  that  he  carried  a  sceptre 

Goffp:'\Edmburgh  1873)  rekte  that  M^  of  pure  ememldi. 

of  three,  was  brought  by  her  par^ts  to  the  Temple,  m        i^^  doubtful  if  the  West  gftve  unreserved  credence 

fulfilment  of  a  vow,  there  to  be  edwjated.   Thecprre-  ^  this  tale,  judging  from  the  long  sQence  of  its 

spondmg  feast  on^ted  m  the  Onent,  p^^  chronicles.    Some  twenty  years  late?  there  came  to 

Syria,  Ae  home  of  the  apocrypha.   Card.  Pitra  (Anal.  ^^^  j^^  unaccountable  ways  letters  from  this  mys- 

^ici.  Solesmensi,  p.  275)  has  published  a  great  cwion  J^^^g  personage  to  the  Bysantine  emperor  Manuel, 

(fiturgcal  poem  m  Greek  for  this  feast,  <^mposed  by  Barbar^,  ^d  other  pftnces,   which  roused   ex^ 

wme    Georgio8'>bout  the  seventh  or  eiiAth  century.^  travagant   hopes.    About   a   hlmdred   manuscripts 

pe  feast  is  inissmg  m  the  earher  Menology  of  Con-  ^^  ^^  j^^^^  toManuel  of  Constantinople  are  s&ll 

stantmople  eighth  century);  It »  ^^^ant   (with  many  variants),   and  a^rd  an  in- 

the  htuigical  documents  gf  the  eleventh  century,  like  teresting  insight  iiito  this  exceedingly  compUcated 

i^L^io  ?J^' Q^?^~'^!^^^^^^  fiction.    This    wild    medieval    talT  contain    the 

f^^*""^  '  329)  and  the  Menology  of  BasU  II  principal  mcidents  of  tiie  long  Alexander  legend, 

(eftrojof  rih  irawy^f  O^Skov).    It   a^ears  m  t^e  ft^ig  letter  is  probably  a  Nestorian  forgery.    From 

^^^S^k^JL^hL^H??^^^     IXu^.  ^dfZ  ^t  ^^^  it  ^^  beUeved  tiiat  a  Christ^kingdom 

reco^ized  festival  dunngi^ch^e  law  o^  existed  in  the  Far  East,  or  in  the  heart  of  Asia, 

sit.   IntheWestitwasmtroducedbvaFrenchn^^^  The  legend  furnished  a  wealth  of  material  for  the 

r:JS;^^fr«nL'n?*^m^^^^  p^ts,^?e«y^  explorers  of  the  Middle  Ages. 

S2iT;A?Wn^  YT    ?f  ™^^  iTEiigland  ^ir  John   MandeviUe   exploited  it  to 

S^n^nf  fL  .'^^  excess     In  Germany  Wolfram  von  E^henbach.  in 

^^^  fmm  f^S  ffilTK^  fTofc^"^?:  "Parsifal",  was  the  first  to  unite  the  lejrend  of  tiierfoly 

Sf3^^is"So?t:dtTh?^^^^  S2S.:i?^^e^a7a.lt'^^^^ 

?^^^thT^^^ri5uk?o^^^^  riT^Si?in'^?tS^^ 

!^hrm.nv  5?oi^-^  It  is  questionable  whether  the  letter  of  Pope 

A^^^if  ^  «l^ll^^in^  5n  l.i.V?^^  rp'^f  ®  Alexander  III,  dated  from  the  Rialto  in  Venice  In 

to  "Vl^fl^hnn^^ftT   1^^  A?  T^.^S'^^f:  1177   and  beinning  with  the   words   "Alexander 

^  t' Jfi  rSS^K^  Zi'i  Y?^^-    ^*  Infef'l  '*  ^  episcopus  [orP^po],  scrvus  servorum  Dei,  carrissimo 

C^  n/  r^l^  S±^i^^'ln  RiSi^^^T^^v  ^^  Christi  fiUo  j5aL,  illustro  et  magnifico  Indorum 

Sixtiw  IV  received  it  mto  the  Roman  Breviary,  Pius  V  ^„  ^      anything  to  do  with  PrSer  John.    The 

struck  It  from  the  calendar,  but  Sixtus  V  took  it  up  a  tj*:^  'uoT u^iji  ™«^ J;^*^!,^  zi  TiZ^JLrtit}  rhn^ 

second  time  (1  September,  1585).    In  the  province  of  WJ^  ^^r^^^^'i^^it^^ 

Venice  it  is  a  double  of  the  second  cU»s  witt  an  octave  SS:i^^  ..  -f,^*.,  ^Jii^^^JL^^^i 

(1680);   the  Passionists  and  Sulpicians  keep  it  as  a  F^T^ii^^°  ^t^?«  ^^Si  ^^^  P^  u;^^ 

^«.,ull^.*  *^-. /:    *   1      .  '^r  a     "y^^^  -^ccp  XII  oo  »  j^      further  information.    The  pope  sent  his  con- 

r^^jl^M^^^L^'^^r'^^L^^^I^l  fidant  to  the  king  with  the  muSi3i«cu«ed  letter. 

CarmeUtee,  Mercedanaiis,  and  others  as  a  double  „_j   „_   ;_,^*„»i!rr  ♦„  -_♦_,  *i.-  Rnman  r<iiim>h> 

of  the  secind  with  an  o^tove.    In  the  Roman  Cal-  ^^  *"  invitation  to  ^ter  the  Roman  Chur^, 

w**    ,^K,x^MM^  T»  *.«  »»*w*. «.»«._*."  wi«  AtA/uMu  vy»i  ^^      caution  aeainst  boastfulness  about  his  vast 

f o;^veV/  rZ. ' GSLn'dioS'"undl?'the  ^.wer  and  weJ^.    Provided  that  he  li^«l  to 

KiLuai.  Heartotopie  (Fwiburg.  1901);  Nilleb.  Kal  Man.  I^me,  agd  to  acconi  hhn  certain  rights  m  j^e  c^ 

(Innsbraok.  1807);  holwtck.  F(u(«  Afariant  (Freiburg.  1802).  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  in  Jerusalem).    The  result 

F.  G.  HoLWBCK.  of  this  mission  is  not  known;  but  judging  from  the 


401 


PBUTIB 


det&ils  in  the  letter,  it  is  certain  that  the  recipient  David  and  hia  host  would  offer  thmi  support  to  the 

was  no  mythical  peraouage.    The  pope  may  have  long-awaiting  army  of  Frederick  11,   The  enthusiasm 

recoiled  him  as  the  Presbyter  of  the  l^^end,  but  that  this  amiouncement  created  in  the  camp  at  Dami- 

this  IS  uncertun.  etta  led  to  a  premature  outbreak  of  the  Franks  against 

Historical  Foundation  of  the  Oriqin  or  the  Cairo,  and  the  defeat  of  the  army.     The  historical 

Leoend. — Otto  von  Fceising  does  not  mention  the  germ  is  easily  discovered.     King  David  is  no  other 

exact  year  of  the  battle  between  the  Elaatem  conqueror  than  the  Mongolian  conqueror  Jeoghis  Khan,  who  at 

and  the  Persian  sultan;  he  only  remarks  that  in  1145  this  time  with  three  legions  pushed  forward  towards 

it  had  taken  place  "ante  nonmultosannos".     On  the  the  Weet,  and  in  a  most  sanguinary  battle  annihilated 

other  hand,  there  is  found  in  the  Annals  of  Admont  the  power  of  Islam  in  Central  Asia.    He  and  many  of 

(1181),  part  of  which,  as  far  as  1141,  are  a  continua-  his  aucceasois  were  favourable  to  the  Christians,  and 

Uon  of  Otto's  chronicle,  the  following  note:  "Johannes  averse  to  the  Mohammedans;  the  Mongol  Kingdom 

fireebyter  rex  Armenia  et  Indis  cum  duobus  repbus  also  surpassed  all  Asiatic  principalities  by  its  di^lay; 

ratribus  Perearum  et  Medorum  pugnavit  et  vicit".  but  the  name  of  David  given  to  the  Kastem  conqueror 

Minute  research  has  shown  that  in  that  year    the  still  remains  unexplmned. 

Persian  Sultan  Saniar  was  completely  vanquished  by  Third  Staob.— The  horrible  slaughter  committed 

"  a  eonoueror  from  tne  eaat,  not  very  tar  from  the  an-  by  the  Mongols  soon  proved  that  they  were  no  pious 

cient  Ecbatana.     The  Arabic  historian  Ibn-el-Athir  pilgrims  bound  for  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  still  less  were 

(1160-1233)  says  that,  in  the  year  of  the  Hegira  of  .they  Christians,    After  a  short  time  the  It^nd  aa- 


i  (1141),   Swiar, 
werful  of  the  Sclii 


the  I 


Eowerful  L _— ^_ 
»d  mortally  offended  I 
sal  the  Shah  of  Khareim.  The 
latter  called  to  his  assistance 
Ku  Khan,  or  Korkhan  of  China 
(Chinese,  YdiuKuchf),  who 
had  come  in  1 122  from  Northern 
China  at  the  head  of  a  mighty 
army.  Korkhan  killed  Saniar 
and  100,000  of  his  men.  The 
Ar^ic  versions  are  substan- 
tially corroborated  by  other 
Asiatic  historians  of  that  epoch 
by  the  Syrian  writer  Abulfa- 
radsch  (on  account  of  hie  Jew 
ish  descent  called  Bar  Hebneus 
1228-88),  by  the  Arab  c  Abul 
teda  (1273-1331),  the  Pera  an 
Mirkhond  (1432-89)  etc  It  is 
not  certain  whether  the  Spaniuh 
Jew,  Benjamin  of  Tudela  who 
travelled  in  Ontral  \b  a  in 
1171,  refers  to  this  event  If 
so,  the  hypothesis  based  on  the 
researches  of  d' A vesac  Oppert 
Zanicke,  and  Yule  berimes  a 
certfunty,  i.  e.  the  land  of  this 
uncertain  and  shifting  l^end 
is  the  Kingdom  of  Karaknitai 
(1141-1218),  foundtjl  in   On- 


■  pnnt  publuhed  in  Pstu  ■!: 


BUmed  another  form.  It  said 
that  the  Mongolians  were  the 
wild  hordee  mentioned  in  the 
Presbyter'a  lettor  to  Manuel. 
Hiey  had  risen  up  ag^nst 
their  own  ruler.  King  David, 
murderiiw  both  him  and  his 
father.  The  "Speculum  his- 
toriale"of  Vincent  of  Beauvws 
says:  "  In  the  year  of  our  Lord 
1202,  after  murdering  their 
ruler  [David)  the  Tatars  set 
about  destroying  the  people". 
Certain  histoncai  facts  fonn  the 
basis  of  this  remark^le  report. 
Bar  Hebrfus  ment  ons  that  in 
1006  the Mongohan  tnbeof  the 
Kenats  m  Upper  Asia  had  be- 
come Chnstians  (Neatonans). 
Accord  n^  to  the  account  of 
Rubniquis  the  Franciscan, 
these  Kenats  were  related  to 
the  Naymans  another  Mon- 
gol an  shepherd  tnbe  and  paid 
tnbuto  to  their  ruler  Ck>ircnan; 
they-also  were  Nestonan  Chris- 
t  ans  and  m  that  v  cuuty  were 
cons  dered  the  countrymen  of 
Preater  John  The  pimce  of 
the  Keriats,  Uno-Khan,  was  in 
ompletely  subject  t 


tral  Aua  by  the  priest-king  of  the  tale.     The  disputed  superior   power   of   Jenghii   Khan,   who  meanwhile 

points  are  the  name,  the  religion,  and  the  priestly  was  on  the  friendliest  terms  with  his  family,  thus 

character  of  the  mysterious  personage.  Riving  the  Keriats  a  cert^n  amount  of  independence. 

Independently  of  the  much  earlier  work  of  Marco  Polo  speaks  of  Unc-Khan  as  the  "great  prince 
d'Aveiac,  Oppert  thinks  that  Ku-Khan,  Korkhan  or  who  is  called  Prester  John,  the  whole  world  speaking 
Corchan  (C^irchan),  as  the  East-Asian  conqueror  is  of  his  great  power".  In  1229  the  celebrated  mission- 
called  in  the  chronicleej  could  easily  have  betnme  ary  John  of  Monte  Corvino  converted  a  Neetorian 
Jorchan,  Jochanan,  or  in  Western  parlance,  John;  onace  belonging  to  this  tribe,  who  afterwards  served 
this  name  was  then  very  popular,  and  was  often  given  Mass  for  him  (fiex  GregoHut  de  iUuslri  genere  Magni 
to  Christian  and  Mohammedan  princes  (Zaracke).  Regii  qui  dietus  fuit  Presbyter  Jokannee).  And  yet 
History  knows  nothii^  about  the  Christianity  of  neither  he  oor  the  other  missionaries,  who  at  this  time 
Yeliutascke.  Yet  it  is  clear  that  the  league  of  the  West  were  trying  to  convert  the  Mongolian  princes  of  Upper 
against  the  Mohammedans  stirred  up  the  oppressed  Asia,  paid  much  attention  to  the  extravagant  embel- 
(jbristians  on  the  borders  of  Tatar  Asia  to  look  for  a  lishmenta  of  the  legend.  One  of  these  missionaries, 
deliverer.  The  sacerdotal  character  of  the  legendary  Odoricus  de  Foro  Julii,  wrote  "that  not  a  hundredth 
king  stiU  offers  an  unsolved  riddle.  part  of  the  things  related  of  Prester  John  were  true". 

Second  Stage. — The  political  aspect  of  the  l^end  For  centuries  the  Prince  of  the  Keria  was  looked  upon 

forward  in  the  thirteenth  century.     In  as  the  Preater  John  of  the  legend.     The  papal  librar- 


November,  1219,  Damietta  was  conquered  by  the 
crusaders.  In  the  spring  of  1221  the  report  was  cir- 
culated among  the  victors  that  in  the  East,  King 
David,  either  the  son  or  nephew  of  the  Presbyter,  had 
placed  himself  at  the  head  of  three  powerful  armies, 
and  was  moving  upon  the  Mohammedan  con 
An  Arabic  prophecy  foretold  that  when  Easter 


a  Assemani  and  the  geographer 


It  is  undoubtedly  true,  that  in  this  explanation  of  the 
l^end  many  of  its  peculiarities  are  more  clearly 
brought  out;  e.  g.  the  sacerdotal  character  of  the 
hero;  for  according  to  Rubruquis,  the  Nestorians  of 

,._.^     .  ,  that   locality   were   accustomed   to   dedicate   to   the 

3  April,  the  religion  of  Mohammed  would  be  abolished,    priesthood  even  the  children  in  their  cradles.    The 
Tliia  occurred  in  1222,  and  many  expected  that  King    m^n  point,  however,  is  still  unexplained,  namely,  the 
XII.— 26 


PBI8T0N 


402 


PBI8T0N 


origiii  of  the  legend;  the  account  of  Rubruquis,  how- 
ever, carefully  considei^,  supports  the  Oppert- 
Zuncke  hypothesis,  and  elucidates  the  transition  of 
the  legend  frpm  the  Karakhitai,  to  the  Keria. 
Zamcke  meanwhile  agrees  with  Oppert  onlv  in  essen- 
tials, and  in  many  points  sharply  and.  unjustly 
criticiiee  his  colleague.  Oppert  is  an  Orientalist, 
Zamcke  is  not. 

Fourth  Stage. — ^With  the  collapse  of  the  Mongol 
Kingdom,  hitherto  the  setting  for  this  le^nd,  Uie 
latter,  finding  no  favourable  back^xiund  m  Upper 
or  Middle  Asia,  was  shifted  to  the  mil  country  of  the 
Caucasus,  or  to  indefinite  parts  of  India.  It  is  true 
that  all  earlier  accounts  of  the  Presbyter  designated 
India  as  his  kingdom,  but  in  the  Middle  Ages  the  term 
India  was  so  vague  that  the  legend  obtained  in  this 
way  no  definite  location.  But  in  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury there  appeared  many  real  or  fictitious  accounts  of 
voyages  (Zamcke),  which  pointed  to  the  modem  East 
Indies  as  the  bdngdom  of  tne  Priest-King.  The  most 
important  document  of  this,  or  a  somewhat  later 
pjeriod.  is  the  afore-mentioned  ''Tractatus  pulcher- 
rimus  .  In  some  maps,  especially  a  Catalonian  pub- 
lished in  1375,  we  find  Christian  kingdoms  given  in 
India.  In  another  map  of  1447,  towers  are  to  be 
found  at  the  foot  of  the  Caucasus,  and  underneath  is 
written:  ''The  Presbyter,  King  John  built  these 
towers  to  prevent  [^he  Tatars]  from  reaching  him^'. 
The  Admont  Annals  (1181)  had  already  spoken  of  the 
Presbjrter  as  King  of  Armenia.  Professor  Bmn  of 
Odessa  supports  the  hypothesis  founded  on  these  and 
other  plausible  grounds,  namely  that  the  Armenian 
general,  I  vane,  who  in  1124  gained  a  great  victory  over 
the  Crescent,  was  the  first  Presbyter  John  (Zeitsch.  f . 
Erdkunde,  1876,  279). 

FiPTH  Staqb. — Marco  Polo  speaks  of  the  country 
called  Abaacia  as  part  of  India,  meaning  probably 
Abyssinia.  Many  scholars  (among  others  Yule)  are 
of  the  opinion  that  Pope  Alexanders  enigmatical  let- 
ter was  sent  to  the  Negus  of  Ethiopia;  at  a  much 
earlier  time  it  was  customary  to  see  in  him  the  Pres- 
byter of  the  legend.  In  1328  the  Christian  bishop. 
John  of  Columbo  (not  Colombo)  in  India,  desiffnatea 
the  Negus  as  Prester  John:  quem  voa  vocatis  Prestre 
Johan.  In  Jerusalem  at  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth 
century  the  Abyssinian  priests  oescribed  their  country 
to  tlie  Christian  Portuguese  merchants  as  the  King- 
dom of  Prester  John.  The  Grand  Master  of  the 
lights  of  Rhodes  expressed  the  same  opinion  in  a 
letter  written  to  King  Charles  VII  of  France  in  1448. 
This  interpretation  was  most  popular  at  the  end  of 
the  fifteenth  and  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury, on  account  of  the  voyages  of  discovery  made  by 
the  Portuguese,  who  at  first  persistentlv  sought  the 
Presbyter's  kingdom  along  the  whole  African  coast 
(Vasco  de  Gama  even  carried  with  him  letters  of  in- 
troduction to  Uiis  supposed  Christian  ruler),  and 
believed  that  in  Ethiopia  they  had  at  last  fidien  in 
with  him.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  Christian  King- 
dom of  Abyssinia  had  for  centuries  successfully  with- 
stood the  onslaughts  of  Islam.  The  Negus  combined 
in  his  person  a  kind  of  spiritual  with  temporal  power, 
and  the  name  of  John  recurs  in  a  remarkable  manner 
in  the  long  line  of  princes  of  that  land.  The  oldest 
map,  discovered  by  P.  Joseph  flscher,  on  which 
America  is  mentioned  (1507),  places  the  Presb3rter's 
country  in  Asia  (Province  of  Thebet;  Tibet)  in  the 
following  words:  ''This  is  the  land  of  the  good  King 
and  lord,  known  as  Prester  John,  lord  of  all  Eastern 
and  Southern  India,  lord  of  all  the  kings  of  India,  in 
whose  mountains  are  found  all  kinds  of  precious 
stones.  **  On  the  Carta  Marina  (1516)  it  is  placed  in 
Africa:  ^'Regnum  Habesch  et  Habacci  Presbiteri 
Joh.  sive  India  Maior  Ethiopie**  etc.  In  later 
times  it  was  the  general  opinion  that  Abyssinia  was 
the  Presbjrter's  native  land,  "Terra  do  Preste'*,  as 
the  Portiiguese  called  it.    Only  towards  the  end  of 


the  seventeenth  century  did  this  opinion  disappear. 
In  Leutholf's  great  work  on  Abyssinia  (Frankfort. 
1681)  it  is  said  that  the  land  had  been  wrongly  named 
the  Pre8b3rter's  kingdom.  The  legend  had  a  stimulat- 
ing effect  on  Portuguese  discoverers,  and  indirectly 
encouraged  the  missionarv  activity  of  Franciscans 
and  Dominicans  in  Central  Asia  and  China,  the  con- 
version of  the  Mongolian  ruler  bein^;  often  their  goal. 
Some  also  exhibited  a  certain  scientific  interest  in  the 
solution  of  the  legend;  the  narrative  of  Rubruquis,  for 
instance,  is  still  the  starting  point  for  all  modem 
research. 

YuLB.  Cathay  and  tht  Way  Thither,  173  sq.;  Marco  Polo 
(2nd  ed.).  I,  229-33:  II.  539^3;  RrrrsB,  Brdkunde  won  Atien 
(2nd  ed.,  Berlin,  1838);  d'Atuac.  ReeueU  de  Voyagf  et  de 
MimoiruptMa  par  la  SocUU  de  GiographU,  IV  (Paria.  1839), 
547-64:  Oppbbt,  Der  Prtehyter  Johannet  in  Sage  und  GmcA. 
(2nd  ed.,  Berlin,  1870);  Zarnckb,  FQnf  Leipeiger  Programme 
(1873-75),  the  first  four  revised  by  the  aame  author  in  vol. 
XVII  of  Abhandl.  der  k.  adeA«.  Oeadleeh.  d.  W%eaen$ehaflen.  vol. 
VII,  phil-hlstor.  Klaase  1879.  Der  Prieeter  Johannet,  I.  Abh.,  p. 
827-1030.  II.  Abh.  in  vol.  XIX,  vol.  VIII,  phil-histor.  KlaoM 
1883-86;   OtUuiatiMeher  Loyd,  XV  (1902),  1819  sq. 

AiiOifl  Stockuann. 

t 

PreBton*  Thouab,  aluu  Roger  Widdbinqton, 
Benedictine,  d.  in  the  Clink  prison,  5  April,  1640.  He 
studied  first  at  the  English  College  in  Rome,  his 
professor  of  theology  being  the  distinguished  Jesuit 
Vasquez.  He  was  professed  in  the  Benedictine 
Order  in  1590  at  Monte  Cassino.  being  then  a  priest 
of  mature  age,  and,  says  Weldon,  a  learned  and 
virtuous  man.  He  was  sent  on  the  English  mission 
in  1603,  landing  at  Yarmouth,  and  Uvea  with  Dom 
Sigebert  Buckley  (the  last  survivor  of  the  monks  of 
Westminster)  until  the  latter's  death  in  1710.  Before 
this  he  had  been  indicted  at  the  Middlesex  Sessions 
for  the  crime  of  being  a  priest,  and  the  year  after 
Dom  Buckley's  death  he  seems  to  have  been  in 
prison,  as  he  delegated  his  authority  to  two  other 
monks.  Expelled  from  England  three  years  later, 
he  t(X)k  part  at  Reims  in  the  negotiations  for  the 
union  of  the  English  monks  of  Monte  Cassino, 
Valladolid,  and  the  old  English  Congre^tion.  He 
returned  to  England  and  was  again  imprisoned, 
first  in  the  CUnk,  on  the  south  side  of  the  Thames, 
and  later  in  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury's  palacfe 
at  Croydon.  In  one  prison  or  another  he  wrote, 
under  the  assumed  name  of  Widdrington,  several 
works  treatizig  of  the  oath  of  allegiance  proposed  by 
King  James  f,  of  which  (together  with  many  other 
Benedictines  and  secular  priests)  he  was  an  upholder 
and  apologist  against  the  Jesuits.  Weldon  says  that 
Preston  '^evermore  disowned"  the  books  written 
under  the  name  of  Widdrington,  but  there  is  no  doubt 
that  h%  was  the  author  of  them.  Towards  the  end  of 
his  life,  however,  he  seems  to  have  altered  his  views, 
or  at  any  rate  to  have  made  full  submission  on  the 
question  of  the  oath  to  the  authorities  of  Rome. 

Rbticbb,  Awfstolalue  Benedietinorum  in  Anglia  (Doumi.  1626). 
app.,  ii,  ix:  weldon.  Chronological  Notes  concerning  the  Sng. 
Conor,  0.  8.  B.  (SUnbrook.  1881),  40,  43,  46.  76,  94,  95,  180; 
Olevsb,  CoUeelione  JUtutrating  the  Hiet,  of  the  CaUtoiie  Religion 


(London,  1857),  521,  622;  Folxt,  Record*  of  the  Englieh  Province 
S.  J.,  aer.  I  (London,  1877)  ,  258.  note;  Milnkr,  8'^pplementary 
Memoire  of  Englieh  Catholice  (London,  1820),  33;  Bbrinoton, 
Memoire  of  Oregorio  Paneani  (Birminghain.  1793).  121.  156; 
OiLLOW.  BibL  Diet,  Sng,  Cath.  a,  v.  Preeton,  Thomae,  0,  3,  B. 

D.  O.  Huntbb-Blair. 

Profton,  Thomab  Scott,  Vicar-General  of  New 
York,  prothonotary  Apostolic,  chancellor,  dis- 
tinguished convert,  author,  preacher,  and  adminis- 
trator, b.  at  Hartford,  Connecticut,  23  July,  1824; 
d.  at  New  York,  4  Nov.,  1891.  From  his  youth  he 
was  serious,  pious,  and  zeaJous.  He  studied  in  the  Epis- 
copalian general  seminary,  located  at  Ninth  Avenue 
and  Twentieth  Street,  New  York,  where  he  wa«  reo- 
ognized  as  the  leader  of  the  High  Church  party. 
In  1846  he  received  deacon's  orders,  and  served  m  this 


PBISUMPTION 


403 


PBISUMPTION 


capacity  at  Trinity  Church,  the  Church  of  the  Annunci- 
ation in  West  Fourteenth  Street,  and  at  Holy  Inno- 
cent8(  West  Point.  In  1847  he  was  ordained  pre8b3rter 
by  Bishop  Delancey  of  Western  New  York,  his  own 
bishop  having  refused  to  advance  him  to  this  order 
on  account  of  his  ritualistic  views.  He  believed 
himself  now  a  validlv  ordained  priest  of  the  English 
branch  of  the  One,  Holy,  Catholic,  Apostolic  Church, 
and  served  for  some  time  at  St.  Luke%,  Hudson 
Street,  New  York,  hearing  confessions  and  ursing 
freauent  Hol^r  Communion.  He  was  a  deep  student 
of  me  early  historv  of  the  Church  and  of  the  Fathers, 
and  thus  gradually  b^an  to  feel  the  branch  theory 
untenable,  fie  was  convinced  of  the  truth  of 
Catholicitv,  as  well  as  of  his  obligation  to  embrace  it, 
before  he  had  ever  read  a  professedly  Catholic  book, 
or  spoken  to  a  priest.  He  was  baptized  and  received 
into  the  Church  on  14  November,  1849.  In  the 
autumn  of  1850  he  was  ordained  priest,  and  assijgned 
to  duty  in  the  cathedral.  In  1851  he  was  appointed 
pastor  of  Yonkers  with  out-missions  at  Dobbs  Ferry 
and  Tarrytown.  In  1853  he  became  secretary  to 
Archbishop  Hughes,  and  chancellor  of  the  diocese. 
He  was  appointed  pastor  of  St.  Ann's  in  1863,  and 
was  promoted  in  1872  to  be  vicar-general.  During 
the  wsence  of  Archbishop  Corcigan  in  1890  he  was 
administrator  of  t^e  diocese.  He  founded  and  di- 
rected for  many  years  the  Sisters  of  the  Divine 
Compassion.  He  was  a  man  of  exquisite  refinement, 
of  tender  piety,  and  of  intense  loyalty.  His  Advent 
and  Lentoi  conferences  attracted  multitudes  from 
all  parts  of  the  city.  His  works  are:  "Reason  and 
Revelation"  (New  York,  1868);  "The  Divine 
Paraclete"  (1879);  "Ark  of  the  Covenant"  (I860): 
"The  Divine  Sanctuary"  (1887);  "Gethsemani'* 
(1887):  "The  Sacred  Year"  (1885):  "Vicar  of 
Christ^'  (1878);  "The  Protestant  Reformation" 
(1879);  "Protestantism  and  the  Church"  (1882); 
"Protestantism  and  the  Bible"  (1888);  "Christian 
Unity"  (1881);  "The  Watch  on  Calvary"  (1885): 
"Christ  and  the  Church"  (1870);  "God  and  Reason'* 
(1884);   "Devotion  to  the  Sacred  Heart". 

Pbbston,  Remembrance  of  My  Brother  Th&maa;  Brann,  The 
Rt.  Rev.  Thomae  S.  PreeUm,  Viear  General  (New  York);  Catholic 
Family  Almanac  (1893) ;  Montignor  Preeton'i  Views  (New  York, 
1890) ;  CORNXLL.,  Beifinninge  of  the  Church  in  Yonkera  (Yonkerv, 
1893);  Chlden  Jvbilee  of  St.  Ann'e  Parieh  (1902). 

Michael  J.  Lavelle. 

PrefOmption  (Lat.  prcesumeret  "to  take  before", 
"to  take  for  granted")  is  here  considered  as  a  vice 
opposed  to  the  theological  virtue  of  hope.  It  may 
also  be  regarded  as  a  product  of  piide.  It  may  be 
defined  as  the 'condition  of  a  soul  which,  because  of  a 
badly  regulated  reliance  on  God's  mercr^  and  power, 
hopes  for  salvation  without  doing  an3rthmp;  to  aeserve 
it,  or  for  pardon  of  his  sins  without  repentmg  of  them. 
Presumption  is  said  to  offend  against  hope  by  excess, 
as  despair  by  defect.  It  will  be  obvious,  however,  to 
one  wno  ponders  what  is  meant  by  hope,  that  this 
statement  is  not  exact.  There  is  only  a  certain  anal- 
ogy which  justifies  it.  As  a  matter  of  fact  we  could 
not  hope  too  much,  assuming  that  it  is  really  the  super- 
natural haJ[>it  which  is  in  question. 

Suares  ("  De  spe",  disp.  ^.  sect.  3,  n.  2)  enumerates 
five  ways  in  which  one  may  oe  guilty  of  presumption. 
as  follows:  (1)  by  hoping  to  obtain  by  one's  natural 
powers,  unaided,  what  is  definitely  supernatural,  viz. 
eternal  bliss  or  the  recovery  of  God's  iriendship  after 
grievous  sin  (this  would  mvolve  a  Pelagian  frame 
of  mind);  (2)  a  person  might  look  to  have  his  sins 
forgiven  without  adequate  penance  (this,  likewise, 
if  it  were  based  on  a  seriously  entertained  conviction, 
would  seem  to  carry  with  it  the  taint  of  h«^y);  (3) 
a  man  might  expect  some  special  assistance  from  Al- 
mighty Uod  for  the  perpetration  of  crime  (this 
would  be  blasphemous  as  well  as  presumptuous);  (4) 


one  might  aspire  to  certain  extraordinary  super- 
natural excellencies,  but  without  any  conformity  to 
the  determinations  of  God's  providence.  Thus  one 
might  aspire  to  equal  in  blessedness  the  Mother  of 
God;  (5)  finally,  there  is  the  transgression  of  those 
wha  whilst  they  continue  to  lead  a  life  of  sin,  are  as 
confident  of  a  happy  issue  as  if  they  had  not  lost  their 
baptismal  innocence.  The  root-malice  of  presumption 
is  that  it  denies  the  supernatural  order,  as  in  the  first 
instance,  or  travesties  the  conception  of  the  Divine 
attributes,  as  in  the  others.  Theologians  draw  a  sharp 
distinction  between  the  attitude  of  one  who  goes  on 
in  a  vicious  career,  precisely  because  he  counts  upon 
pardon,  and  one  whose  persistence  in  wrongdoing  is 
accompanied,  but  not  motived,  by  the  hope  of  for- 
giveness. The  first  they  impeach  as  presumption  of 
a  very  heinous  kind;  the  other  is  not  such  specifically. 
In  practice  it  happens  for  the  most  part  that  the  ex- 
pectation of  ultimate  reconciliation  with  God  is  not 
the  cause,  but  only  the  occasion,  of  a  person's  con- 
tinuing in  sinful  indulgence.  Thus  the  particular 
guilt  of  presumption  is  not  contracted. 

Slater,  Manual  of  Moral  Theology  (New  York,  1908) ;  RicK- 
ABT.  Moral  Teaching  of  St.  Thomae  (London,  1896):  St.  Thomas, 
Summa  (Turin,  1885);  Ballbbxni,  Opue  Theol.  Morale  (Prato, 
1899). 

Joseph  F.  Delany. 

Presumption  (in  Canon  Law),  a  term  signifying  a 
reasonable  conjecture  concerning  something  doubt- 
ful, drawn  from  arguments  and  appearances,  which 
by  the  force  of  circumstances  can  be  accepted  as  a 
proof.  It  is  on  this  pvesumption  our  common  adage 
IS  based:  ''Possession  is  nme  points  of  the  law^'. 
Presumption  has  its  place  in  canon  law  only  when 
positive  proofs  are  wanting,  and  yet  the  formulation 
of  some  judgment  is  necessary.  It  is  never  in  itself 
an  absolute  proof,  as  it  onlv  presumes  that  something 
is  true.  Canonists  divide  presumption  into  (1) 
presumption (Of  law  {juris),  or  that  which  is  deduced 
from  some  legal  precept  or  authority  expressed  in  law 
or  based  upon  precedents  or  similarities,  and  (2) 
presumption  of  a  judge  or  man  (judicis  or  hominia), 
when  the  law  is  silent  on  the  subject  and  an  opinion 
must  be  formed  according  to  the  way  that  circum- 
stances and  indications  would  affect  a  prudent  man 
or  Judge. 

There  are  several  sub-varieties  of  presumption  of 
law.  Thus,  it  is  called  presumption  of  law  alone 
(juris  Umium)  when  a  thing  is  judged  to  be  so  until 
the  contrary  is  proved.  Hence  the  legal  formuke: 
''EveiTone  is  presumed  innocent  until  his  guilt  is 
proved'';  ''Once  bad  always  bad"  (i.  e.  in  the  same 
epecies  of  ill-doin^,  if  amendment  is  not  certain); 
'What  is  known  m  a  remote  place  is  known  in  a 
neighbouring  place",  and  others  similar.  It  is 
denominatea  presumption  juris  et  de  jure,  when  the 
law  so  strongly  supports  the  presumption  that  it 
is  held  to  be  certain  in  judicial  proceeding.  Against 
such  a  presumption  no  proofs  are  admitted  except 
the  evident  truth.  Thus,  goods  described  in  the  in- 
ventory made  by  a  guardian  are  presumed  to  belong 
to  the  possessions  of  the  deceased,  nor  would  the  later 
testimony  of  the  guardian  himself  to  the  contrary 
ordinarily  be  admitted.  As  to  the  presumption 
jvdicis  or  Hominis,  it  is  called  (a)  vehei,%erU,  when  the 
probability  is  very  stronglv  supported  by  most  urgent 
conjectures.  Thus,  a  birth  would  be  held  illegitimate, 
which  took  place  eleven  months  after  a  husband's 
decease.  A  vehement  presumption  is  considered 
equivalent  to  a  full  proof  in  civil  causes  of  not  too 
great  import^ance.  As  to  whether  it  should  have 
sufficient  effect  in  criminal  causes  to  produce  the  con- 
demnation of  an  accused  person,  canonists  do  not 
agree.  It  is  termed  (b)  probable,  when  it  arises  from 
less  urgent  and  only  less  probable  conjectures  and 
indications.  Such  presumption  is  looked  on  as 
merely  a  semi-proof,  unless  it  be  sustained  by  public 


pTfnmMim;   Feb 


PRBT0BI17M  41 

rumour,  in  which  caae  it  is  held  as  sufficient  proof. 
PinaJly,  it  is  deDomin&ted  (c)  rath,  or  Unurarioue,  if  it 
reets  on  ineufficieDt  coojecturea  or  scarcely  probable 
argumenta.  Such  presumption  is  to  be  entirely  re- 
jected as  a  proof. 

"nie  fouodatioD  of  these  legal  presumptions  is  to 
be  Bought  in  the  natural  oonclusions  drawn  from  the 
ordinary  happenings  of  common  life  and  the  con- 
sideration of  the  motives  that  usually  sway  men  in 
dven  circumstancefl'.  The  Kener&l  rules  are  thus 
formulated:  "What  is  natural  is  presumed  to  be  in 
the  person  or  ease  in  question";  "Change  is  not  Co  be 

{■resumed";  "Presumption  is  to  be  formed  from  the 
avourable  side".  As  to  effects,  when  there  isques-  - 
tion  of  presumption  jurU,  it  abstracta  from  the  neces- 
sity of  proof;  not  so  presumption  hominU.  A  judge 
can  follow  the  first  in  civil  cases  even  when  doubt 
remains,  not  ao  the  second.  The  former  places  the 
burden  of  proof  on  the  odversorv,  but  the  latter  does 
not.  FineJiy,  the  fir^t  is  considered  of  itself  equiva- 
lent to  proof,  while  the  second  needs  corroboration 
from  something  extraneous  to  itself. 

Tauhtoh,  TIu:  Lav,  aj  Oil  ChatA  (New  York,  1906),  a.  V. 
Prtnmptim:   FtBBABia.  SiMiofAica  canonioi,  VI  {Rome,  1890), 

William  H.  W.  Fanning. 

ftetorium. — This  name  is  derived  from  the  Latin 
priitoriwa,  in  later  Greeic  t4  a-pairiipiBr.    Originally, 

SMorium  signified  the  general's  or  pnetor's  tent  m 
)man  camps;  then  it  was  applied  to  the  miUtary 
council  utting  there  in  judgment,  and  later  to  the 
official  residence  of  the  provincial  governor,  a  palace 
or  castle.  In  the  Gospel  (v.  g..  Matt.,  ixvu,  27)  it 
denotes  the  buildinR  Pilate  occupied  at  the  time  of 
Christ's  Passion.  There  were  two  castles  of  this  kind, 
both  built  by  Herod.  The  first  rose  on  the  ate  of  the 
tower  of  Birah,  or  tower  of  the  House  (II  Esd.,  ii,  8; 
ef,  I  Mach.,  xiii,  53),  called  Bans  by  Josephus  ("Ant. 
Jud.".  XV,  li,  4;  "Bell.  Jud,",  I,  lii,  3).  The  tower 
of  Baris  stood  on  a  rocky  moss  about  350  feet  long 
and  130  feet  wide,  cut  perpendicularly  to  a  height  of 
30  feet  on  the  south  aide,  at  a  distance  of  a  hundred 
yards  from  the  north-west  comer  of  the  Temple  en- 
closure, and  to  a  height  of  15  feet  on  the  north,  where 
it  was  separated  from  Mount  Bezetha  by  a  ditch 
neorlv  200  feet  wide.  On  this  rock,  now  occupied  by 
the  Turkish  barracks,  Herodbuilt  a  new  fortress.  Be- 
tween the  rock  and  the  Temple  enclosure  he  made  two 
wide  courts  surrounded  with  porticoes.  The  castle, 
called  Antonia  in  honour  of  Mark  Antony,  b  described 
by  Josephus  in  glowing  terms  (Bell.  Jud.,  V,  v,  8). 
Some  years  later,  Herod  built  a  second  palace,  on  the 
northern  brow  of  Mount  Sion,  at  the  western  extrem- 
ity of  the  town. 

That  niate  resided  in  one  of  these  two  castles  when 
Jesus  was  brought  before  him  can  scarcely  be  doubted ; 
and  the  early  tradition  which  locates  tne  pretorium 
in  the  fortress  of  Antonia  is  well  supported  By  history 
and  archaeology.  During  the  Paschal  solemnities, 
riots  and  sedition  often  broke  out  amongst  the  Jews 
in  the  precincts  of  the  Temple;  the  Roman  soldiers 
were  therefore  held  under  arms  at  the  different  por- 
ticoes, watching  the  populace,  to  suppress  any  at- 
tempted insurrection,  the  Temple  being  the  watch- 
tower  of  the  city,  as  the  Antonia  was  of  the  Temple 
(Bell.  Jud.,  V.  v,  8).    In  case  of  sedition  the  Tem- 

flewasacceeaibleonlyfrom  the  Antonia  (cf.  Bell,  Jud., 
I,  %v,  5,  6;  VI,  i-iii).  Pilate  came  from  CiB«area 
to  Jerusalem  solely  to  look  after  the  Jews  assembled 
around  the  sanctuary,  and  in  such  circumstances  he 
would  naturally  have  resided  ia  the  Antonia,  St. 
John  (xii,  13)  tells  us  that  the  paved  court,  in  Greek 
Lithottrotot,  where  our  Lord  was  sentenced  to 
death,  bore  the  significant  name  of  Gabbatha,  in 
Syro-Chaldean  (from  Heb,  gaphipkia.i.  e,  the  raised). 
So  interesting  a  place  could  not  have  been  forgotten 
by  the  first  Christians,     In  the  year  340,  St.  Cyril 


H  PBlTOaiDV 

of  Jerusalem  reminded  his  flock,  as  a  well-known  fact, 
that  the  houte  of  Coiphas  and  the  pretorium  of  Pilate 
hod  remained  "  unto  that  day  a  heap  of  ruins  by  the 
mijght  of  Him  who  hung  upon  the  Cross"  (Catech,. 
xiii,  XTXviii,  xxxix).  Now,  the  western  palace  of  Herod 
was  spared  by  Titus,  and  served  as  a  citadel  to  the 
legion  left  to  garrison  the  Upper  City  (Bell,  Jud., 
VII,  i,  1),  During  the  rebellion  of  the  Jews  under 
Bar-Cocheba,  Julius  Severus  took  it  by  assault;  but 
Hadrian  rebuilt  it  and  made  of  it  the  citadel  of 
£Iia  Capitolina  (Eutychius  of  Alex.,  "Annales"). 
Whereas  the  Antonia  was  utterly  destroyed  by  Titus 
(Bell.  Jud.,  VI,  ii,  7),  and  history  tells  of  no  building 
raised  upon  its  ruins  before  the  fifth  century. 


In  333  the  Bordeaux  pilgrim  mentions  Golgotha 
OS  being  on  his  left  as  he  was  walking  from  Mount  Sion 
towards  the  northern  Gate:  "On  the  right",  he  says, 
"we  perceive,  down  in  the  valley,  walls  where 
once  stood  the  house  or  pretoridm  of  Pilate. 
There  the  Lord  was  judged  before  His  Passion, "  The 
BrevariusotJerusalem  (c, 436)  mentions  in  the  preto- 
rium "a  great  basilica  called  St.  Sophia,  with  a  chapel, 
cubicidum,  where  our  Lord  was  stripped  of  his  garments 
and  scourged".  Peter  the  Iberian  (o,  454]  went  down 
from  Golgotha  "to  the  basilica  named  after  Pilate", 
and  thence  to  that  of  the  Paralytic,  and  then  to 
Gethsemane.  The  local  tradition  remained  constant, 
showing  at  all  times  up  to  the  present  day  the  pre- 
torium of  Pilate  to  have  been  in  the  Antonia, 

Of  this  fortress  there  still  renuun  three  piers 
and  two  archivolts  of  the  triple  gateway,  which 
gave  access  to  the  castle.  The  central  arch,  which 
crosses  the  street,  and  which  from  the  sixteenth 
century  only  has  been  called  Arch  of  the  Ecce 
Homo,  measures  20  feet.  The  smaller  one.  on  the 
north,  is  enclosed  in  the  new  church  of  tne  Ecce 
Homo  (1);  the  small  southern  arch  has  disap- 
peared. The  gateway  entends  60  feet.  To  the  east  of 
the  Arch  of  the  Ecce  Homo  is  a  court  paved  with  leo- 
tangular stone  blocks,  over  15inchesthick.  It  meas- 
ures about  130  feet  by  95  feet,  and  ia  bordered  at 
the  east  end  by  foundation  walls  of  ancient  bt^din^ 


I 


P&IDB 


405 


PBIESIAS 


This  is  the  outer  court  or'the  Lithostroto©.    On  the  that  is  reprehensible.    The  last  two  oases  generally 

day  of  Christ's  trial,  the  Jews  could  not  penetrate  speaking  are  not  held  to  constitute  grave  offences, 

further  amongst  paean  dwellings  without  contracting  a  This  is  not  true,  however,  whenever  a  man's  arrogance 

legal  defilement.    On  this  pavement  stands  the  chapel  is  the  occasion  of  great  harm  to  another,  as,  for  in- 

of  the  Condemnation  (2),  restored  in  the  twelfth  cen-  stance,  his  undertaking  the  duties  of  a  phjrsician  with- 

tufy  and  rebuilt  in  1904.  The  chapel  of  the  Flagellation  out  the  requisite  knowledge.    The  same  judgment  ia 


(3)  rises  about  100 
feet  more  to  the  east; 
it  dates  probably 
from  the  filth  cen- 
tury, but  has  been 
three  times  rebuilt. 
On  the  rock  of  Bans, 
the  natural  site  ot 
the  roy^  palace,  was 
the  tribunal,  "the 
inner  court",  called 
*  *  the  court  of  the  pre- 
torium ' '  in  the  Syrian 
Version  (Mark,  xv. 
16).  The  chapel  of 
the  Crowning  with 
Thoms(5),  buutinthe 
twelf  thcenturv,  is  still 
well  preserved.  The 
basilica  of  St.  Sophia 
(6),  reconstructed  in 
the  twelfth  century, 
stood  towards  the 
east.  It  was  trans- 
formed later  into  a 
Turkish  tribunal,  and 
finally  razed  to  the 
ground  in  1832,  when 
new    barracks   were 

erected. 

Wilson  and  Warren,  The  Recovery  <4  Jenuahm  (London, 
1871) ;  Warbxn  and  Conder.  Survey  of  Western  Paleatine:  Jerur 
ealem  (London,  1884) ;  Gvtnis.Jirwalein  <PariB,  1889) ;  Meib- 
TERMANN,  Le  vrttoire  de  PiUUe  (Paris,  1902) ;  Idem,  New  Guide  to 
the  Holy  hand  (London,  1907). 

Babnabas  Meistermann. 


Qround-plan  or  the  Fortress  or  Antonia 
The  broken  lines  indicate  the  supposed  buildings  according  to  the  descrip- 
tions of  Josephus.    The  figures  in  the  parentheses  give  in  feet  the 
altitude  above  the  level  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea 


to  be  rendered  when 
pride  has  given  rise 
to  such  temper  of  soul 
that  in  the  pursuit  of 
its  object  one  is  ready 
for  ansrthing,  even 
mortal  sin.  ^  Vain- 
glory, ambition,  and 
presumption  are  com- 
monly enumerated 
as  the  offspring  vices 
of  pride,  because 
they  are  wdl  adapted 
to  serve  its  inordi- 
nate aims.  Of  them- 
selves they  are  venial 
sins  unless  some  ex- 
traneous conffldera- 
tion  puts  them  in  the 
ranks  of  grievous 
transgressions.  It 
should  be  noted  that 
presumption  does 
not  here  stand  for 
the  sin  against  hope. 
It  means  the  desire 
to  essay  what  ex- 
ceeds one's  capacity. 


Slater,  Manual  of 
Moral  Theolomt  (New 
York,  1908) ;  Rzcxart,  Moral  Teaching  of  St,  Thomuu  (London, 
1896) ;  St.  Thomab,  Summa  Theoloffioa  (Turin,  1885). 

Joseph  F.  Delant. 


Pride  is  the  excessive  love  of  one's  own  excellence. 
It  is  ordinarily  accoimted  one  of  the  seven  capital  sins. 
St.  Thomas,  however,  endorsing  the  appreciation  of  St. 
Gregory,  considers  it  the  queen  of  all  vices,  and  puts 
vainglory  in  its  place  as  one  of  the  deadly  sins.  In 
giving  it  this  pre-eminence  he  takes  it  in  a  most  formal 
and  complete  sip:nification.    He  understands  it  to  be 

that  frame  of  mmd  in  which  a  man,  through  the  love  em  slope  of  Mount  Mycale,  it  never  attuned 
of  his  own  worth,  aims  to  withdraw  himself  from  sub-  great  development,  although  it  had  at  first  two  har- 
jection  to  Almighty  God,  and  sets  at  naught  the  com-  bours  and  a  fleet.  In  the  time  of  Augustus  it  was 
mwids  of  superiors.   It  is  a  species  of  contempt  of  God    already  forty  stadia  from  the  sea  because  of  the  in- 


Priana,  a  titular  see  of  Asia  Minor,  suffragan  of 
Ephesus.  The  foundation  of  the  town  of  Priene 
dates  from  the  period  when  the  Carians,  Leleges  and 
Lycians,  were  sole  masters  of  the  country.  Later 
it  was  occupjied  by  the  lonians  and  became  one  of 
the  twelve  cities  of  Ionia.  It  was  a  holy  city,  and 
chose  the  leader  of  the  Panionian  feasts.  Its  tem- 
ple of  Athena,  built  by  Alexander,  contained  an  an- 
cient statue  of  that  goddess.  Situated  on  the  south- 


and  of  those  who  bear  his  commission.  Regarded  in 
this  way,  it  is  of  course  a  mortal  sin  of  a  most  heinous 
sort.  Indeed  St.  Thomas  rates  it  in  this  sense  as  one 
of  the  blackest  of  sins.  Bv  it  the  creature  refuses  to 
stay  within  his  essential  orbit;  he  turns  his  back  upon 
God,  not  through  weakness  or  ignorance,  but  solely 
because  in  his  self-exaltation  he  is  minded  not  to  sul>- 
mit.  His  attitude  has  something  Satanic  in  it,  and  is 
probably  not  often  verified  in  human  beings.  A  less 
atrocious  kind  of  pride  is  that  which  impels  one  to 
make  much  of  oneself  unduly  and  without  sufficient 
warrant,  without  however  any  disposition  to  cast  off 
the  dominion  of  the  Creator.  This  may  happen,  ac- 
cording to  St.  Gregory,  either  because  a  man  regards 
himself  as  the  source  of  such  advantages  as  he  may  dis- 
cern in  himself,  or  because,  whilst  admitting  that  God 
has  bestowed  them,  he  reputes  this  to  have  b^n  in 
response  to  his  own  merits,  or  because  he  attributes  to 
himself  gifts  which  he  has  not;  or,  finally,  because  even 
when  these  are  real  he  unreasonably  looks  to  be  put 
ahead  of  others. '  Supposing  the  conviction  indicated 
in  the  first  two  instances  to  be  seriously  entertained, 
the  sin  would  be  a  grievous  one  and  would  have  the 
added  guilt  of  heresy.  Ordinarily,  however,  this  er- 
roneous persuasion  does  not  exist;  it  is  the  .demeanour 


roads  of  the  Meander.  It  was  conquered  by  the  Lv- 
cian  King  Ardys,  then  by  Cyrus,  and  remained  sub- 
ject to  the  Persians  till  the  time  of  Alexander.  Priene 
endured  great  hardships  under  the  Persian  ^neral 
Tabates  and  later  under  Hiero,  one  of  its  citizens. 
After  regaining  autonomy,  it  remained  attached  to 
the  Ionic  conf^eration.  It  was  the  birthplace  of  the 
philosopher  Bias.  The  "Notitis  episcopatuum" 
mentions  it  as  a  suffragan  of  Ephesus  until  the  thir- 
teenth century.  Four  of  its  bishops  are  known:  Tbeo- 
sebius,  present  at  the  Council  of  Ephesus  (431);  Isi- 
dore, wno  was  livin|;  in  451;  Paul,  present  at  the 
Council  of  Constantmople  (692) ;  Demetrius,  in  the 
twelfth  century.  The  beautiful  ruins  of  Priene  are  at 
Samsoon  Kidessi,  near  the  Greek  village  of  Kelitesh 
in  the  vilayet  of  Smyrna,  about  two  miles  from  the 
sea. 

Lb  Quibk,  Orient  ehriet.,  I,  717;  Crandlbr,  Travele,  300 
etc.;  Lbau,  Aeia  Minor  (London,  1834),  239,  352;  Fbllowb, 
Aaia  Minor  (London,  1852),  268  etc.;  Smith,  Diet,  o/  Greek  and 
Roman  geogr,  (London,  1878),  s.  v.,  bibliogn^lur  of  anoient 
authors;  Mawnbbt.  Geogr,  d.  Grieachen  u.  Rdmer,  III  (1825 sq.), 
2U;  TxxiBB,  Aeie  Mineure  (Paris,  1862).  342-45;  Eckbl.  Doo- 
trina  rei  num,,  II  (Leipsig,  1842),  536. 

S.  PiTBIDts. 


|M|M^^^^^ 


PBIE8T  406  PBII8T 

Priest. — ^This  word  (etymologically  "  elder ''^  from  new  temples  to  God.   S^acerdotal  powers  are  conferred 

wptfffi&rtpot,    presbyter)   has    taken  the   meamne  of  on  priests  by  priestly  ordination,  and  it  is  this  ordina^ 

''saoerdos''^,  from  which  no  substantive  has  been  tion  which  puts  them  in  the  highest  rank  of  the  Ider- 

formed  in  various  modem  languages  (English,  French,  archy  after  the  bishop.  ^ 

German).    The  priest  is  the  minister  of  Divine  wor-        As  the  word  sacerdos  was  applicable  to  both  bishops 

ship,  and  especiaily  of  the  highest  act  of  worship,  sac-  and  priests,  and  one  became  a  presbyter  only  by  sacer- 

rifice.    In  this  sense,  every  reUgion  has  its  priests,  dotal  ordination,  the  word  presbyter  soon  lost  its 

exercising  more  or  less  exalted  sacerdotal  functions  primitive  meaning  of  ''anqienf  and  was  applied  only 

as  intermediaries  between  man  and  the  Divinity  (cf.  to  the  minister  of  worship  and  of  the  sacnnce  (hence 

Heb.,  V,  1:  '7or  every  hi^  priest  taken  from  among  our  priest).    Originally,  however,  the  presbyieri  were 

men.  is  ordained  for  men  m  the  things  that  appertain  the.  members  of  the  high  coimcil  which,  under  the 

to  (jrod,  that  he  may  offer  up  gifts  and  sacrmces  for  presidency  of  the  bishop,  administered  the  affairs  of 

sins")*    In  various  ages  and  countries  we  fiAd  numer-  the  local  church.    Doubtless  in  general  these  members 

ous  and  important  differences:  the  priest  properly  so  entered  the  presbyterate  only  oy  the  imposition  of 

called  may  be  assisted  by  inferior  ministers  of  many  hands  which  made  them  priests;  however,  that  there- 

kinds;  he  may  belong  to  a  special  class  or  caste,  to  a  could  be,  and  actually  were  presbyteri  who  were  not 

clergy,  or  else  may  be  like  other  citizens  except  in  priests,  is  seen  from  canons  43-47  of  Hippolytus  (cf. 

what  concerns  his  sacerdotal  functions;  he  may  be  a  Duchesne,  ''Grigines  du  culte  chr^tien  ,  append.), 

member  of  a  hierarchy,  or,  on  the  contrary,  may  exer^  which  show  that  some  of  those  who  had  confessed  the 

oise  an  independent  priesthood  (e.  g.  Melchised^h,  Faith  before  the  tribunals  were  admitted  into  the 

Heb.,  vii,  1-33) ;  lastly,  the  methods  of  recruiting  the  presbyterium  without  ordination.     These  exceptions 

ministers  of  worship,  tne  rites  by  which  they  receive  were,  however^  merely  isolated  instances,  and  from 

their  powers,  the  authority  that  establishes  them,  may  time  immembnal  ordination  has  been  the  sole  manner 

all  differ.    But,  amid  all  these  accidental  differences,  of  recruiting  the  presbyteral  order.    The  documents 

one  fundamental  idea  is  common  to  all  religions:  the  of  antiquity  show  us  the  priests  as  the  permanent 

griest  is  the  person  authoritatively  appointed  to  do  council,  the  auxiliaries  of  the  bishop,  whom  they  sur- 
omage  to  Qod  in  the  name  of  society,  even  the  prim-  round  and  aid  in  the  solemn  functions  of  Divine  Wor- 
itive  society  of  the  family  (cf.  Job,  i,  5),  and  to  offer  ship.  When  the  bishop  is  absent,  he  is  replaced  by  a 
Him  sacrifice  (in  the  broad,  but  especially  in  the  strict  priest,  who  presides  in  his  name  over  the  liturgical 
sense  of  the  word).  Omitting  further  discussion  of  the  assembly.  The  priests  replace  him  especially  in  the 
general  idea  of  the  priesthood,  and  neglecting  all  refer-  different  parts  of  the  diocese,  where  they  are  stationed 
ence  to  pagan  worsnip,  we  may  call  attention  to  the  or-  by  him :  here  they  provide  for  the  Divine  Service,  as 
ganization  among  the  people  of  God  of  a  Divine  service  the  bisnop  does  in  the  episcopal  city,  except  that 
with  ministers  properly  so-called:  the  priests,  the  in-  certain  functions  are  reserved  to  the  latter,  and  the 
ferior  clergy,  the  Levites,  and  at  their  nead  tne  high-  others  are  performed  with  less  Uturgical  solemnity, 
priest.  We  know  the  detailed  relations  contained  As  the  churches  multiplied  in  the  country  and  towns,  . 
in  Leviticus  as  to  the  different  sacrifices  offered  to  God  the  priests  served  them  with  a  permanent  title^  be- 
in  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem,  and  the  character  and  coming  rectors  or  titulars.  Thus,  the  bond  umting 
duty  of  the  priests  and  Levites.  Their  ranks  were  re-  such  priests  to  the  cathedral  churcn  gradually  became 
cruited,  in  virtue  not  of  the  free  choice  of  individuals,  weaker,  whereas  it  grew  stronger  in  the  case  of  those 
but  of  descent  in  the  tribe  of  Levi  (especially  the  fam-  who  served  in  the  cathedral  with  the  bishop  (i.  e.  the 
ily  of  Aaron),  which  had  been  called  by  (jod  to  His  canons) ;  at  the  same  time  the  lower  clersy  tended  to 
ritual  service  to  the  exclusion  of  all  others.  The  elders  decrease  in  number,  inasmuch  as  the  clerics  passed 
(wpeafi&repoi)  formed  a  kind  of  council,  but  had  no  through  the  inferior  orders  only  to  arrive  at  the  sacer- 
sacerdotal  power;  it  was  they  who  took  counsel  with  dotal  ordination,  which  was  indispensable  for  the  ad- 
the  chief  priests  to  capture  Jesus  (Matt.,  xxvi,  3).  It  ministration  of  the  churches  and  the  exercise  of  a  use- 
is  this  name  presbyter  (elder)  which  has  passed  into  f ul  ministry  among  the  faithful.  Hence  ordinarily  the 
the  Christian  speech  to  signify  the  minister  of  Divine  priest  was  not  isolated,  but  was  resularly  attached  to 
service,  the  priest.  a  definite  church  or  connected  with  a  cathedral.  Ac- 
The  Christian  law  also  has  necessarily  its  priesthood  oordingly,  the  Council  of  Trent  (Sees.  XXIII,  cap. 
to  carry  out  the  Divine  service,  the  principal  act  of  xvi,  renewing  canon  vi  of  Chalcedon)  desires  bishops 
which  IS  the  Eucharistic  Sacrifice,  the  figure  and  re-  not  to  ordain  any  clerics  but  those  necessary  or  useiul 
newal  of  that  of  Calvary.  This  priesthood  has  two  to  the  church  or  ecclesiastical  establishment  to  which 
degrees:  the  first,  total  and  complete,  the  second  an  they  are  to  be  attached  and  which  they  are  to  serve, 
incomplete  participation  of  the  first.  The  first  belongs  The  nature  of  this  service  depends  especially  on  the 
to  the  bishop.  The  bishop  is  truly  a  priest  (sacerdos),  nature  of  the  benefice,  office,  or  function  assigned  to 
and  even  a  high-priest;  ne  has  chief  control  of  the  the  priest;  the  Council  in  particular  desires  (cap.  xiv) 
Divine  worship  {sacrorum  arUiates).  is  the  president  of  priests  to  celebrate  Mass  at  least  on  Sundays  and 
liturgical  meeting;  he  has  the  fullness  of  the  priest-  holydays,  while  those  who  are  charged  with  the  care 
hood,  and  administers  all  the  sacraments.  The  second  of  souls  are  to  celebrate  as  often  as  their  office  de- 
degree  belongs  to  the  priest  (presbyter)  ^  who  is  also  a  mands. 

sacerdoSf  but  of  the  second  rank  (''secundi  sacerdotes''        Consequently,  it  is  not  easy  to  say  in  a  way  appli- 

Innocent  I  ad  Eugub.) ;  by  his  priestly  ordination  he  cable  to  all  cases  what  are  the  duties  and  rights  of  a 

receives  the  power  to  offer  sacnfice  (i.  e.  to  celebrate  priest ^   both  vary  considerably  in  individual  cases, 

the  Eucharist),  to  forgive  sins,  to  bless,  to  preach,  to  By  his  ordination  a  priest  is  invested  with  powers 

sanctify,  and  in  a  word  to  fulfil  the  non-reserved  litur-  rather  than  with  rights^  the  exercise  of  these  powers 

gical  duties  or  priestly  functions.    In  the  exercise  of  (to  celebrate  Mass,  remit  sins,  preach,  administer  the 

these  functions,  however,  he  is  subject  to  the  author-  sacraments,   direct  and  minister  to  the  Christian 

ity  of  the  bishop  to  whom  he  has  promised  canonical  people)  bein^  regulated  by  the  common  laws  of  the 

obedience;  in  certain  cases  even  he  requires  not  only  church,  the  jurisdiction  of  the  bishop,  and  the  office 

authorization,  but  real  jurisdiction,  particularly  to  or  charge  of  each  priest.    The  exercise  of  the  saoer- 

forgive  sins  and  to  take  care  of  souls.    Moreover,  cer-  dotal  powers  is  both  a  duty  and  a  right  for  priests  • 

tain  acts  of  the  sacerdotal  power,  affecting  the  society  having  the  care  of  souls,  either  in  their  own  name 

of  which  the  bishop  is  the  head,  are  reserved  to  the  (e.  g.  parish  priests)  or  as  auxiliaries  (e.  g.  parochial 

latter— e.  g.  confirmation,  the  final  rite  of  Christian  curates).    Except  in  the  matter  of  the  care  of  souls 

initiation,  ordination,  by  which  the  ranks  of  the  the  sacerdotal  functions  are  likewise  obligatory  in  the 

clergy  are  recruited,  and  the  solemn  consecration  of  case  of  priests  having  any  benefice  or  office  in  a 


PBIE8T                                407  PBII8T 

ehiiroh  (e.  g.  canons);  otherwise  they  are  optional,  ooi>e  and  amioe  oTer  his  surplice  or  rochet;  but  white 

and  their  exercise  dqpends  upon  the  favour  of  the  assisting  the  bishop  presiding  at  ilSk  throne  he  wears 

bishop  (e.  g.  the  permission  to  hear  confessions  or  to  his  rozular  choral  d^^.    At  the  throne  his  stool  is 

|)reacn  granted  to  simple  priests  or  to  priests  from  out-  placedon  the  platform  of  the  throne,  regularly  at  the 

side  the  diocese).    As  for  the  case  oi  a  priest  who  is  right  and  a  little  in  front  of  the  first  assistant  deacon, 

entirely  free,  moralists  limit  his  obligations,  as  far  as  When  itte  celebrant  uses  the  faldstool,  the  assistant 

the  exerdse  of  his  sacerdotal  powers  is  concerned,  to  priest  sits  on  the  bench  at  the  deacon's  right;  but 

the  celebration  of  Mass  several  times  a  yeaF  ^St.  Al-  when  the  celebrant  uses  the  bench,  the  assistant  priest 

phonsus  Llguori,  1.  VI,  no.  313)  and  to  the  administra-  sits  on  a  stool  placed  at  the  end  of  the  bench  and 

tion  of  the  sacraments  in  case  of  necessity,  in  addition  usuallv  at  the  right  of  the  deacon.   His  chief  duty  is  to 

to  fulfilling  certain  other  obligations  not  strictly  sacei>  attend  to  the  book,  which  he  holds  for  most  of  the 

dotal  (e.  g.  the  Breviary,  celibacy).    But  canonical  parts  which  the  celebrant  sings,  and  at  the  altar  he 

writers,  not  considering;  such  a  condition  regular,  hold  turns  the  leaves,  points  out  the  text,  etc.    He  minis- 

that  the  bishop  is  obliged  in  this  case  to  attach  such  ters  the  ring,  presents  the  towel,  and  receives  the  kiss 

a  priest  to  a  church  and  impose  some  duty  on  him,  of  peace  first,  from  the  celebrant,  and  conveys  it  to 

even  if*  it  be  only  an  obligatory  attendance  at  solemn  the  choir.   At  the  throne  he  iJso  ministers  the  incense 

functions  and  processions  (Innocent  XIII.  Constitu-  and  incenses  the  bishop.    Sometimes  it  is  his  duty  to 

tion  ''Apostolici  ministerii",  23  March,  1723;  Bene-  publish  the  episcopal  indulgences.    When  the  bishop 

diet  XlII,  Const.  "In  supremo",  23  Sept.,  1724;  presides  at  the  throne,  part  of  the  time  the  assistant 

Roman  Council  of  1725,  tit.  vi,  c.  ii).  priest  occupies  his  place  at  the  throne,  and  part  of 

As  to  the  material  situation  of  the  priest,  his  rights  the  time  his  regular  place  in  the  choir,  and  tnen  he 

are  clearly  laid  down  by  canon  law,  which  varies  coii«*  ministers  the  incense,  incenses  the  bishop,  and  brings 

fliden^ly  with  the  actual  condition  of  the  Church  in  the  kiss  of  peace  from  the  celebrant  to  the  bishop. 

difiFerent  countries.    As  a  matter  of  principle,  each  In  other  pontifical  functions  besides  the  Mass  and  the 

cleric  ought  to  have  from  his  ordination  to  the  sub-  Divine  Office  his  duties  are  similar  to  those  described, 

diaconate  a  benefice,  the  revenues  of  which  ensure  him  CaremoniaU  BpUeopprum^  (Ratiabon.  1902);    Martinucci. 

a  respectable  Uying  and,  if  he  «  ordained  ^th  a  title  fe^-IJ^^SSTliZISriSSS':  ^^i^^  iSVSSSS 

of   patnmon^    (l.   e.   the  possession   of  mdependent  p<m<</leaiM  (Paris,  1004);  C«remonKa<^<A«CAurcA(Pluladelphia, 

means  sufficient  to  provide  a  decent  livelihood),  he  1^9*^  313.                                            t  t?   r« 

has  the  right  to  receive  a  benefice  as  soon  as  possible.  J*  ^'  Googin. 

Practically  the  question  seldom  arises  in  the  case  of        ^^^^    rn rr^       nx*     *..      .x«     xi.     rvu 

priests,  for  clerics  are  ordinarily  ordained  with  the  rr,^*J^^^A^~''  high-pnest  m  the  Old 
title  o/ ecclesiastical  service,  and  they  cannot  usefully  ^^^l?^  "  ^^  Y  ^^""^^  names:  ,n:.  •,  i.  e.  the 
fiill  a  remunerated  post  unless  they  are  priests.  Each  1^™^  ^^PPa's^*.®^'  '''"^^•^  .V*^'"^'  }•  «•  t"®,^^*  P",S^ 
priest  ordained  with  the  title  of  ecclesiastical  service  (Lev.,  xxi,  10) ;  tfKpn  >-lD,  i.  e.  the  head  pnest  (IV 
has  therefore  the  right  to  ask  of  his  bishop,  and  the  Kii^Si  xxv,  18) ;  n-^lTTSn  \707[,  i.  e.  the  anomted  pnest 
bishop  is  under  an  obligation  to  assign  him,  a  benefice  (Lev.,  iv,  3) :  Gr.,  'kpx^f>^  (Lev.,  iv,  3).  also  in  later 
or  ecclesiastical  office  which  will  ensure  him  a  re-  books  and  New  Testament.  In  the  Old  Testament 
spectableliving;  in  this  office  the  priest  has  therefore  *  Up«J»  (Num.,  iii,  6);  Uf^At  6  vp&rot  (IV  Kings, 
the  rig^t  to  collect  the  emoluments  attached  to  his  xxv,  18);  6  Upeds  6  iidyw  (Lev.,  xxi,  10),  arethecommon 
ministry,  including  the  offerings  which  a  lesitimate  forms.  A  coadjutor  or  second  priest  was  called  ]rO 
custom  allows  him  to  receive  or  even  demand  on  the  n^t^n  (IV  Kin^,  xxv,  18;  see  Gesenius.  s.  v.  n^iZ^?2). 
occasion  of  certain  definite  functions  (stipends  for  Aaron  and  his  mus  were  chosen  by  God  to  be  priests, 
Ma^9es,  curial  rights  for  burial  etc.).  Even  when  old  Aaron  being  the  first  high-priest  and  Eleazar  his  suc- 
or  infirm,  a  priest  who  has  not  rendered  himself  un-  cessor;  so  that,  thou{^  the  Scripture  does  not  say  so 
worthy  and  who  is  unable  to  fulfil  his  ministry  re-  explicitly,  the  succession  of  the  eldest  son  to  the  office 
mains  a  charge  on  his  bishop,  imless  other  arrange-  of  high-priest  became  a  law.  The  consecration  of 
ments  have  been  made.  It  is  thus  apparent  that  Uie  Aaron  and  his  sons  during  seven  days  and  their  vest- 
rights  and  duties  of  a  priest  are,  in  the  concrete  reality,  ments  are  described  in  Ex.,  xxviii,  xxix  (cf .  Lev.,  viii, 
conditioned  by  his  situation.  (See  BsNxncx;  12;  Ecclus.,  xlv^  7  sqq.).  Aaron  was  anointed  with 
Pastor;  Parish  Priest;  Priesthood.)  oil  poured  on  his  head  (Lev.,  viii,  12);  hence  he  is 

See  bibliosraphy  to  OrdsbSj  Holt,  and  PBxxflTBOoD;  oonmilt  called  ''the  priest  that  is  anointed"    (L&V.,  iv,  3). 

•  SSr-^r^iSSIi^d.**;^^?^  some  text.  «em  to  require  ..anointing  for  aU  (Ex., 

the  collections  of  Zambomi  and  of  Pallottinz,  b.  v.  PrMbvteri  XXX,  30;  Lev.,  x,  7;  Num.,  m,  3),  but  Aaron  was 

(ninpttcM).  anointed  with  oil  in  great  profusion,  even  on  the  head 

A.  BouDiNHON.  (Ex.,  xxix,  7),  to  which  reference  is  made  in  Ps. 

exxxii,  2,  where  it  is  said  that  the  precious  ointment 

Priest,   AsBiflTANT. — ^The  assistant   priest   (pre»-  ran  down  upon  his  beard  and  "to  the  skirt  of  ins  gar- 

hyter  assistenay  anciently  called  capellanua)  is  the  first  ment ".    The  ointment  was  made  of  myrrh,  cinnamon, 

and  hi^est  in  dignity  of  the  ministers  who  assist  the  calamus,  cassia,  and  olive  oil,  compounded  by  the  per- 

bishop  m  pontifical  functions.    Where  there  are  cathe-  fumer  or  apothecary   (Ex.,  xxx,   23-25;  Josephus, 

dral  chapters,  ordinarily  the  first  dignitary  acts  as  ''Ant.",  III.  viii,  3),  and  not  to  be  imitated  nor  ap- 

assistant  priest;  but  if  the  bishop  only  assists  at  a  plied  to  profane  uses  (Ex.,  xxx,  31-33). 

service,  then  the  first  canon  after  the  dignitaries  After  the  Exile  anointiag  was  not  in  use:  both  hi^h- 

should  serve  in  this  capacity.    If  a  priest  preaches  at  priests  and  priests  were  consecrated  bv  simple  m- 

pontifical  Mass^  the  preacher  should  also  be  assistant  vestiture.    The  rabbis  held  that  even  before  the  Exile 

priest.    A  cardinal-bishop  acts  as  assistant  priest  for  the  high-priest  alone  was  anointed  by  pouring  the 

'  the  pope.     By  privilege,  prothonotaries  de  numero  sacred  oil  ''over  him"  and  applying  it  to  his  forehead 

participarUium  and  mitred  abbots  may  have  an  assist-  over  the  eyes  "  after  the  form  of  the  Greek  X  "  (Eders- 

ant  pnest  when  they  celebrate  pontifical  Mass;  and  helm,  "The  Temple,  Its  Ministry  and  Service  at  the 

so  also,  but  with  some  restrictions,  supernumerary  Time  of  Jesus  Christ",  71).    No  age  is  specified,  and 

Srothonotaries  and  prothonotaries  aa  inatar.  Certain  thus  youth  was  no  impediment  to  the  appointment  by 
ignitaries  and  canons  in  virtue  of  ancient  custom  are  Herod  of  Aristobulus  to  the  high-priesthood,  though  the 
similarly  privileged,  and  finally  the  Sacred  Congr^;a-  latter  was  in  his  seventeenth  year  (Josephus, "  Antic}.", 
tion  of  Kites  tolerates  the  custom  of  having  an  assist-  XV,  iii,  3).  Josephus  gives  a  list  of  eight v-three  high- 
ant  priest  at  a  priest's  first  solemn  Mass.  While  priests  from  Aaron  to  the  destruction  of  the  Temple 
assisting  the  celebrant  the  assistant  priest  wears  the  by  the  Romans  (Ant.,  XX,  x).    They  were  in  the  oe- 


PROBST 


408 


PBZB8T 


gixming  chosen  for  life,  but  later  removed  at  will  by 
the  secular  power  (Job.»  ''Ant.'\  XV,  iii,  1;  XX,  x), 
so  that  "the  numbers  of  the  high-priests  from  the 
days  of  H^txl  until  the  day  when  Titus  took  the 
Temple  and  the  city,  and  burnt  them,  were  in  all 
twenty-eight;  the  time  also  that  belonged  to  them  was 
one  hundred  and  seven  years"  (Jos.,  **Ant.*\  XX,  x). 
Thus  one-third  of  the  high-priests  of  fifteen  centuries 
lived  within  the  last  century  of  their  history :  they  had 
become  the  puppets  of  the  temporal  rulers.  The 
frequency  of  change  in  the  office  is  hinted  at  by  St. 
John  (xi,  51).  where  he  says  that  Caiphas  was  "the 
high-priest  of  that  year",  Solomon  deposed  Abiathar 
for  having  supported  the  cause  of  Adonias,  and  gave 
the  high-priesthood  to  Sadoc  (III  Kings,  li,  27,  35): 
then  the  fast  of  Heli's  family  was  cast  out,  as  the  Lord 
had  declared  to  Hell  long  l)efore  (I  Kings,  ii,  32).  It 
seems  strange,  therefore,  that  Josephus  (Ant.,  XV, 
iii,  1)  states  that  Antiochus  Epiphiuies  was  the  first 
to  depose  a  hicdi-priest.  It  may  be  that  he  regarded 
Abiathar  and  Sadoc  as  holding  the  office  conjointly, 
since  Abiathar  "the  priest"  and  Sadoc  "the  priest 
were  both  very  prominent  in  David's  reign  (III  Kings, 
i,  34;  I  Par.,  xvi,  39,  40).  Josephus  may  have  con- 
sidered the  act  of  Solomon  the  means  of  a  return  to 
unity;  moreover,  in  the  same  section  where  he  men- 
tions the  change,  he  says  that  Sadoc  was  high-priest 
in  David's  reign  (Ant.,  VlII.  i,  3),  and  adds  "the  king 
[Solomon]  also  made  Zadok  to  be  alone  the  high- 
priest"  (Ant.,  VIII,  i,  4).  Shortly  before  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  Temple  by  the  Romans  the  zealots  chose 
by  lot  a  mere  rustic  named  Phannias  as  the  last  high- 

?riest:  thus  the  high-priesthood,  the  city  and  the 
*emple  passed  away  together  (Josephus,  "Bell.  Jud.", 
IV,  iii,  8). 

The  prominence  of  Solomon  at  the  dedication  of  the 
Temple  need  not  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  the  king 
officiated  also  as  priest  on  the  occasion.  Smith 
("  Ency .  Bib.",  s.  v.  Priest)  maintains  this,  and  that  the 
kings  of  Juda  offered  sacrifice  down  to  the  Exile,  sA- 
leging  in  proof  such  passages  as  III  Kings,  ix,  25;  but 
since  priests  are  mentioned  in  this  same  book,  for 
instance,  viii,  10,  11  such  inference  is  not  reasonable. 
As  Van  Hoonacker  shows,  the  prominence  of  the 
secular  power  in  the  early  history  of  the  people  and  the 
I4>parent  absence  of  even  the  high-priest  during  the 
most  sacred  functions,  as  well  as  the  great  authority 
possessed  by  him  after  the  Exile,  do  not  warrant  the 
conclusion  of  Wellha\isen  that  the  high-priesthood  was 
known  only  in  post-Exilic  times.  Tnat  such  a  change 
could  have  taken  place  and  could  have  been  introduced 
into  the  life  of  the  nation  and  so  easily  accepted  as  a  EH- 
vine  institution  is  hardly  probable.  We  have,  however, 
undoubted  references  to  the  high-priest  in  pre-Exilic 
texts  (IV  Kings,  xi;  xii;  xvi,  10;  xxii;  xxiii,  etc.)  which 
Buhl  ("The  New  Schaff-Herzog  Ency.  of  Religious 
Knowledge",  s.  v.  High  Priest)  admits  as  genuine,  not 
interpolations,  as  some  think,  by  which  the  "later 
office  may  have  had  a  historic  foreshadowing".  We 
see  in  them  proofs  of  the  existence  of  the  high-priest- 
hood, not  merely  its  "  foreshadowing  " .  Then  too  the 
title  "the  second  priest"  in  Jer.,  hi,  24,  where  the 
high-priest  also  is  mentioned,  is  a  twofold  witness  to 
the  same  truth;  so  that  though,  as  Josephus  tells  us 
(Ant.,  XX,  x),  in  the  latter  years  of  the  nation's  his- 
tory "the  high-priests  were  entrusted  with  a  dominion 
over  the  nation"  and  thus  became,  as  in  the  dajrs  of 
the  sacerdotal  Machabees,  more  conspicuous  than  in 
early  times,  yet  this  was  only  an  accidental  lustre 
added  to  an  ancient  and  sacred  office. 

In  the  New  Testament  (Matt.,  ii.  4;  Mark,  xiv,  1, 
etc.)  where  reference  is  made  to  cnief  priests,  some 
think  that  these  al)  had  been  hi^h-priests,  who  having 
been  deposed  constituted  a  distinct  class  and  had 
ereat  influence  in  the  Sanhedrin.  It  is  clear  from 
John,  xviii,  13,  that  Annas,  even  when  deprived  of  the 
pontificate,  took  a  leading  part  in  the  dehberations  of 


that  tribunal.  Schtirer  holds  that  the  chief  priests  in 
the  New  Testament  were  ex-high-priests  and  also 
those  who  sat  in  the  council  as  members  and  repre- 
sentatives of  the  privileged  famities  from  whom  the 
high-priests  were  chosen  (The  Jewish  People,  Div. 
II,  V.  i,  204-7),  and  Maldonatus,  in  Matt.,  u,  6,  cites 
II  Par.,  xxxvi,  14,  showing  that  those  who  sat  in 
the  Sanhedrin  as  heads  of  priestly  f amiUes  were  so 
styled. 

The  hiffh-priest  alone  might  enter  the  Holy  of  Holies 
on  the  day  of  atonement,  and  even  he  but  once  a 
year,  to  sprinkle  the  blood  of  the  sin-offering  and 
offer  incense:  he  prayed  and  sacrifioed  for  himself  as 
well  as  for  the  people  (Lev.,  xvi).  He  likewise  offi- 
ciated "on  the  seventh  days  and  new  moons"  and 
annual  festivals  (Jos.,  "Bell.  Jud.",  V,  v,  7).  He 
might  marry  only  a  virgin  "of  his  own  people", 
though  other  priests  were  allowed  to  marry  a 
widow;  neither  was  it  lawful  for  him  to  rend  his 
garments  nor  to  come  near  the  dead  even  if  closely 
related  (Lev.,  xxi,  10-14;  cf.  Josephus,  "Ant.",  Ill, 
xii,  2).  It  belonged  to  him  also  to  manifest  the  Di- 
vine will  made  known  to  him  by  means  of  the  urim 
and  thummim,  a  method  of  consulting  the  Lord  about 
which  we  have  very  little  knowledge.  Since  the 
death  of  the  high -priest  marked  an  epoch  in  the 
history  of  Israel,  the  homicides  were  then  allowed 
to  return  home  from  the  city  where  they  had  found 
a  refuge  from  vengeance  (Num.,  xxxv^  25^  28). 

The  typical  character  of  the  high-pnest  is  explained 
by  St.  Paul  (Heb.,  ix),  where  the  Apostle  shows  that 
while  the» high-priest  entered  the  "Holy  of  HoHes" 
once  a  year  with  the  blood  of  victims,  Christ,  the 
great  high-priest,  offered  up  His  own  blood  and  en- 
tered into  Heaven  itself,  where  He  "also  maketh  inter- 
cession for  us"  (Rom.,  viii,  34;  see  Piconio,  "Trip. 
Eroos.  in  Heb.",  ix). 

In  addition  to  what  other  priests  wore  while  exer- 
cising their  sacred  functions  the  high-priest  put  on 
special  golden  robes,  so  called  from  the  rich  material 
of  which  they  were  made.  They  are  described  in 
Ex.,  xxviii,  and  each  high-priest  left  them  to  his 
successor.  Over  the  tunic  he  put  a  one  piece  violet 
robe,  trimmed  with  tassels  of  violet,  purple,  and 
scarlet  (Joseph.,  Ill,  vii,  4),  between  the  two  &ssels 
were  bells  which  rang  as  he  went  to  and  from  the 
sanctuary.  Their  mitres  differed  from  the  turbans  of 
the  ordinary  priests,  and  had  in  front  a  golden  plate  in- 
scribed "  Holy  to  the  Lord  "  (Ex.,  xxviii,  36) .  foaephoa 
describes  the  mitre  as  having  a  triple  crown  of  gold, 
and  adds  that  the  plate  with  the  name  of  God  which 
Moses  hpA  written  in  sacred  characters  "  hath  remained 
to  this  very  day"  (Ant..  VIII.  iii,  8;  III,  vii.  6).  In  a 
note  to  Whiston's  Josephus  (Ant.,  Ill,  vii,  6)  the  later 
history  of  the  plate  is  J^ven,  but  what  became  of  it 
finally  is  not  known.  The  precious  vestments  of  the 
high-priest  were  kept  by  Herod  and  by  the  Romans, 
but  seven  days  before  a  festival  they  were  given  back 
and  purified  before  use  in  any  sacred  function  (Jos., 
"Ant.",  XVIII,  iv,  3).  On  the  day  of  atonement, 
according  to  Lev.,  xvi,  4,  the  high-priest  wore  pure 
Unen,  but  Josephus  says  he  wore  his  golden  vestments 
(Bell.  Jud..  V,  V,  7),  and  to  reconcile  the  two  Eders- 
heim  thinks  that  the  rich  robes  were  used  at  the 
beginning  of  the  ceremony  and  changed  for  the  Unen 
vestments  before  the  high-priest  entered  the  Holy  of 
Holies  (The  Temple,  p.  270).  For  additional  infor- 
mation concerning  the  vestments  and  ornaments  of 
the  high-priest  see  Ephod,  Oracle,  Pbctobal,  Urim 
AND  Thummim. 

ScH«RBR,  rA«  JewUh  People  in  the  Time  of  Jetue  Christ,  II.  I 
195-207;  also  GrXtk  and  other  hiatoriana;  Josephus,  nun'm. 
SBftTH,  Diet,  of  the  Bible,  s.  v.  High-FrieH;  Edbrshsim,  The  Tem- 
ple. lU  Ministry  and  Service  at  the  Time  of  Jetua  Chritt,  57-79; 
VAN  HooNACKSB,  Lt  aacerdoce  IMtimte  (1899),  317-83;  Smitb  in 
Sney.  Bib.,  a.  v.  Priest,  gives  the  ramoal  view;  Orb,  The  Probism 
of  the  (Hd  Teelamsnt  (1906),  180-90,  refutes  Wellhausen  and 
others  of  the  radical  sohooL 

JOBN   J.  TiSBNBT. 


PRIESTHOOD                           409  PRIESTHOOD 

Priafthood. — The  word  priest  (Germ.  Priesier;  desire  is  a  religion  without  dogma  and  without  an 

Fr.  prStre;    Ital.  prete)  is  derived  from  the  Greek  alien  redeemer,  a  service  without  a  priesthood.  .  It 

wp€ap&r9pos  (the  elder,  as  distinguished  from  wt^ripot,  will  therefore  perhaps  appear  all  the  more  extraor- 

the  younger),  and  is,  in  the  hieratical  sense,  equivalent  dinary  that  Buddhism,  in  consequence  of  the  efforts 

to  the  Latin  aacerdos,  the  Greek  Uphn,  and  the  He-  of  the  reformer  Thong-Kaba,  has  developed  in  Tibet  a 

brew  ]7\^ .   By  the  term  is  meant  a  (male)  person  called  formal  hierarchy  and  iuerocracy  in  Lamaism  (Lama= 

to  the  immediate  service  of  the  Deity  and  authorised  Brahma). 

to  hold  public  worship,  especially  to  offer  sacrifice.  The  monasticism  and  the  religious  services  of  Lama- 

In  many  instances  the  priest  is  the  religious  ipediator  ism  also  present  so  striking  a  similarity  with  Catholic 

between  God  (gods)  and  man  and  the  appointed  institutions  that  non-Catholic  investigators  have  un- 

teacher  of  religious  truths,  especially  when  tnese  in-  hesitatingly  spoken  of  a  ''Buddhist  Catholicism"  in 

elude  esoteric  doctrines.    To  apply  the  word  priest  Tibet.    Fope  and  dalai-lama,  Rome  and  the  city  of 

to  the  magicians^  prophets,  and  medidne-men  of  the  Lhasa  are  counterparts;    Lamaism  has  its  monas- 

religions  of  primitive  peoples  is  a  misuse  of  the  term,  teries,  beUs,  processions,  litanies,  relics,  images  of 

The  essential  correlative  of  priesthood  is  sacrifice,  saints,    holy   water,    rosary-beads,    bishop^s   nidtre, 

consequently,  mere  leaders  in  the  public   prayers  crosier,  vestments,  copes,  baptism,  confession',  mass, 

or  guardians  of  slurines  have  no  claim  to  the  title  sacrifice  for  the  dead.    Nevertheless,  since  it  is  the 

priest.     Our  subject  may  be  conveniently  treated  interior  spirit  that  gives  a  religion  its  characteristic 

under  four  heads:  L  The  Pagan  Priesthood;  II.  The  stamp,  we  can  recognize  in  these  externals,  not  a  true 

Jewish  Priesthood;    III.  The  Christian  Priesthood;  copy  of  Catholicism,  but  only  a  wretched  caricature. 

IV.  The  Blessings  arising  from  the  Catholic  Priest-  And,  since  tiiis  religious  compound  undoubtedly  came 

hood.                        ^  into  existence  only  in  the  fourteenth  century,  it  is 

I.  Tbb  Pagan  Pbiesthood. — ^A. — Historically  the  evident  that  the  remarkable  parallelism  is  the  result 

oldest  of  pagan  celigions,  the  most  fully  developed,  of  Catholic  influence  on  Lamaism,  not  vice  versa.   We 
and  the  most  deeply  marked  b}r  vicissitude  is  that  of  ^  can  only  suppose  that  the  founder  Thong-Kaba  was 

India.   Four  divisions,  distinct  in  history  and  nature,  educated  by  a  Catholic  missionai^y.    Of  modem  Hin- 

are  recognizable:   Vedism,  Brahminism,  Buddhism,  duism,  Schanz  draws  a  gloomy  picture:  ''In  addition 

and  Hinduism.    Even  in  the  ancient  Vedic  hymns  a  to  Vishnu  and  Siva,  spirits  and  demons '  are  wor- 

special  priesthood  is  distinguishable,  for,  although  shipped  and  feared.    The  River  Ganges  is  held  in 

originally  the  father  of  the  family  was  also  the  offerer  special  veneration.    The  temples  are  often  built  near 

of  sacrince,  he  usually  sought  the  co-operation  of  a  lakes  because  to  all  who  bathe  there  Brahma  promises 

Brahmin.    F^m  the  essential  functions  of  praying  forgiveness  of  sin.    Beasts  (cows),  en>ecially  snakes, 

and  sinnng  during  the  sacrifice  arose  in  Vedism  the  trees^  and  lifeless  objects,  serve  as  fetishes.    Their 

three  classes  of  sacrificing  {adkvariu).  singing  (udr  offermgs  consist  of  flowers,  oil,  incense,  and  food.   To 

gdiar),  and  pra3ring  priests  {hotar).    The  four  cate-  Siva  and  his  spouse  bloody  sacrifices  are  also  offered, 

gories  of  soldier,  priest,  artisan  or  farmer,  and  slave  Nor  are  idolatry  and  prostitution  wanting"  ("Apolo- 

developed  formalry  in  later  Brahminism  into  the  four  gie  d.  Christentums'^  Freiburp;,  1905,  II,  84  so.), 

ri^dly  (fistinguished  castes  (Dahlmann),  the  Brah-  B. — In  ^e  kindrea  but  ethically  superior  reugion 

mins  meanwhile  forging  ahead  of  the  soldiers  to  the  of  the  Iranians  (Parseeism,  Zoroastrianism,  Maide- 

position  of  chief  importance.    The  Brahmins  alone  ism),  which  unfortunately  never  overcame  the  theo- 

understood  the  intricate  and  difficult  sacrificial  cere-  logical  dualism  between  the  good  god  (Ormuzd= 

moniiJ;  thanks  to  their  great  knowledge  and  sacri-  Athura-Mazda)  and  the  wicked  anti-god  (Ahriman= 

fices,  they  exercised  an  irresistible  influence  over  the  Angr6-Mainyu),  there  existed  from  the  beginning  a 

^ds;  a  pantheistic  explanation  of  the  god  Brahma  special  priestly  caste,  which  in  the  Avesta  (q.  v.)  was 

mvested  them  with  a  divine  character.   The  Brahmin  cuvided  into  six  classes.    The  eeneral  name  tor  priest 

was  thus  a  sacred  and  inviolable  person,  and  to  murder  was  dUiravan  (man  of  fire),  and  the  chief  duty  of  the 

him  the  ereatest  sin.    Brahminism  has  wrongly  been  priesthood  was  the  fire-service,  fire  being  the  special 

oompaj^a  with  medieval  Christianity   (cf .  Teich-  symbol  of  Ormuzd,  the  god  of  light,    ^ter  the  dp- 

mtiUer,    ''Relieionsphilosophie'',    Leipzig,    1886,   p.  struction  of  the  Persian  monarchy  only  two  categories 

628).    In  the  Midole  Ages  there  was  indeed  a  priv-  of  priests  remained:  the  officiatmg  (sootor,  jdty  and 

ileged  priesthood,  but  not  an  hereditary  priestly  caste;  the  ministering  (rathvri).    Both  were  later  succeeded 

then  as  now  the  lowest  classes  could  attain  to  the  by  the  Median  magicians  (magiu),  called  in  modem 

highest  ecclesiastical  offices.     Still  less  justified,  in  Parseeism  mated  (from  fnog^-pofi,  niagic-father).    In 

view  of  the  pantheistic  character  of  the  Brahminic  addition  to  the  maintenance  of  the  sacred  fire^  the 

religion,  are  all  attempts  to  trace  a  genetic  oonnex-  duties  of  the  priests  were  the  offering  of  sacnfices 

ion  between  the  Catholic  and  Indian  priesthoods,  (flesh,   bread,   flowers,   fruit),   the  performance  of 

since  the  monotheistic  spirit  of  Catholicism  and  the-  purifications,  prayers,  and  hymns,  and  instructing 

characteristic  organization  of  its  clergy  are  irreoon- '  m  the  holy  law.    Sacrificial  animals  were  placed  on  a 

cilable  with  a  pantheistic  conception  of  the  Deity  bundle  of  twiss  in  the  open  air,  lest  the  pure  earth 

and  the  unsocial  temper  of  a  caste  system.  should  be  4efiled  with  blood.    The  human  sacrifices, 

The  same  remarks  apply  with  even  gpreater  force  to  customary  from  time  immemorial^  were  abolished  by 
Buddhism  which,  through  the  reform  introduced  by  Zoroaster  (Zarathustra).  In  ancient  times  the  fire- 
King  Asoka  (239-23  B.  c),  forced  Brahminism  into  altars  were  placed  in  the  open  air,  and  prefen^ly  on 
the  background.  As  this  reform  inaugurated  the  the  mountains,  but  the  modem  Parsees  have  special 
reign  of  Asnosticism,  lUusionism,  and  a  one-sided  ^fire-temples.  The  haama,  as  the  oldest  sacrifice,  ctdls 
morality,  the  Brahminic  priesthood,  with  the  decay  for  particular  mention  j  manufactured  out  of  the 
of  the  ancient  sacrificial  services,  lost  its  raison  d^iire.  narcotic  juice  of  a  certam  plant  and  used  as  a  drink- 
If  there  be  no  eternal  substance,  no  Ego,  no  immortal  offering,  it  was  identified  with  the  Deity  Himself  and 
soul,  no  life  beyond,  the  idea  of  a  God,  of  a  Redeemer,  given  to  the  faithful  as  a  means  of  procuring  immor- 
of  a  priesthood  forthwith  disappears.  The  Buddhist  tality.  This  Iranian  haoma  is  doubtlessly  identical 
redemption  is  merely  an  ascetical  self-redemption  with  the  Indian  soma,  the  intoxicating  juice  of  which 
wrought  by  sinking  into  the  abyss  of  nothingness  {asdepiaa  aoida  or  aacrottemma  acidvm)  was  supposed 
(Nirvana).  The  bonzes  are  not  priests  in  the  strict  to  restore  to  man  the  immortality  lost  in  Paradise 
sense;  nor  has  Buddhist  monasticism  anything  beyond  (see  Eucharist).  When,  during  the  reign  of  the 
the  name  in  common  with  Christian  monasticism.  Sassanides,  Mithras  the  sun-gocf-acoording  to  the 
Modem  zealots  for  Buddhism  declare  with  increasing  later  Avesta,  high-priest  and  mediator  between  God 
boldness  since  Schopenhauer,  that  what  they  chiefly  and  man — ^had  graaually  supplanted  the  creative  god 


PRIESTHOOD 


410 


PRIESTHOOD 


Ormuzd,  Persian  Mithra-worship  held  the  field  almost 
unopposed:  and  under  the  Roman /Empire  it  exerted 
an  irresistible  influence  on  the  West  (see  Mass). 

C. — To  turn  to  classical  antiquity,  Greece  never 
possessed  an  exclusive  priestly  caste,  although  from 
the  Dorian-Ionian  period  the  public  priesthood  was 
regarded  as  the  privilege  of  the  nobihty.  In  Homer 
the  kings  also  offer  sacrifices  to  the  gods.  Public 
worship  was  in  general  undertaken  by  the  State,  and 
the  priests  were  state  officials,  assigned  as  a  rule  to  the 
service  of  special  temples.  The  importance  of  the 
priesthood  grew  with  tne  extension  of  the  mysteries, 
which  were  embodied  especially  in  the  Orphic  ana 
Eleusinian  cults.  Sacrifices  were  alwa^rs  accompanied 
with  prayers,  for  which  as  the  expression  of  their  re- 
ligious sentiments  the  Greeks  showed  a  special  pref- 
erence. '  , 

But  among  no  people  in  the  world  were  reUgion, 
sacrifice,  and  the  pnesthood  to  such  an  extent  the  busi- 
ness of  the  State  as  among  the  ancient  Romans.  At 
the  dawn  of  their  history,  their  legendary  kings  (e.  g. 
Numa)  are  themselves  the  sacrificial  pnests.  Under 
the  Republic,  the  priestly  office  was  open  only  to  the 
patricians  until  the  Lex  Ogulina  (about  300  b.  c) 
admitted  also  the  plebeians.  As  the  special  object  of 
Ronian  sacrifice  was  to  avert  misfortune  and  win  the 
favour  of  the  gods,  divination  played  in  it  from  the 
earUest  times  an  important  r61e.  Hence  the  importance 
of  the  various  classes  of  priests,  who  interpreted  the 
will  of  the  gods  from  the  night  of  birds  br  tne  entrails 
of  the  beas&  of  sacrifice  {aufurea,  hartispicea).  There 
were  many  other  categories:  pontificeSf  flamineSf 
feiialeSf  luperci  etc.  During  imperial  times  the  em- 
peror was  the  high-priest  {ponlijex  maxirMis). 

D. — ^According  to  Tacitus,  the  religion  of  the  ancient 
Germans  was  a  simple  worship  of  the  gods,  without 
images;  their  services  took  place,  not  in  temples,  but 
in  sacred  groves.  The  priests,  it  one  may  call  them 
such,  were  highly  respected,  and  possessed  judicial 
powers,  as  the  Old  Hi^  German  word  for  priest, 
hvarte  (guardians  of  justice),  shows.  But  a  far  greater 
influence  among  the  people  was  exercised  by  the  Celtic 
priests  or  druids  (Old  Irish,  druif  magician).  Their 
real  home  was  Ireland  and  Britain,  whence  they  were 
transplanted  to  Gaul  in  the  third  century  before 
Christ.  Here  the^  appear  as  a  priestly  caste,  exempt 
from  taxes  and  military  service;  they  constitute  with 
t^e  nobility  the  ruUng  class,  and  by  their  activity  as 
teachers,  judges,  and  ph}rsicians  become  the  represent- 
atives of  a  higner  religious,  moral,  and  intellectual 
culture.  The  druids  taught  the  existence  of  Divine 
providence,  the  immortaOty  of  the  soul,  and  trans- 
migration. They  appear  to  have  had  images  of  the 
gods  and  to  have  offered  human'sacrifices — the  latter 
practice  may  have  come  down  from  a  much  earlier 
period.  Their  religious  services  were  usually  held  on 
neights  and  in  oak-groves.  After  the  conquest  of 
Gaul  the  druids  declined  in  popular  esteem. 

E. — The  oldest  religion  of  tne  Chinese  is  Sinism, 
which  ma^r  be  characterized  as  'Hhe  most  perfect, 
spiritualistic,  and  moral  Monotheism  known  to  an- 
tiquity outside  of  Judea''  (Schans).  It  possessed  no 
distinct  priesthood,  the  sacrifices  (animals,  fruits,  and 
incense)  being  offered  by  state  officials  in  the  name  of 
the  ruler.  In  this  respect  no  alteration  was  made  bv 
the  reformer  Confucius  (sixth  century  b.  c),  although 
he  debased  the  concept  of  religion  and  made  the  al- 
most deified  emperor  "the  Son  of  Heaven"  and  the 
organ  of  the  cosmic  intellect.  In  direct  contrast  to 
this  priestless  system  Laotse  (b.  604  B.C.),  the  founder 
of  Taoism  (too,  reason),  introduced  both  monasticism 
and  a  regular  priesthood  with  a  high-priest  at  its  head. 
From  the  first  century  before  Christ,  these  two  reli- 
gions found  a  strong  rival  in  Buddhisni^  althou^  Con- 
fucianism remains  even  to-day  the  official  rehgion  of 
China. 

The  original  national  religion  of  the  Japanese  was 


Shintoism,  a  strange  compound  of  nature-,  ancestor-, 
and  hero-worship.  It  is  a  religion  without  dogmas, 
without  a  moral  code,  without  sacred  writings.  The 
Mikado  is  a  son  of  the  Deity.. and  as  such  abo  high- 

Eriest;  his  palace  is  the  temple — ^it  was  onlv  in  much 
iter  times  that  the  Temple  of  Ise  was  built.  About 
A.  D.  280  Confucianism  made  its  way  into  Japan  from 
China,  and  tried  to  coalesce  with  i£/t  kindred  Shinto- 
ism. The  greatest  blow  to  Shintoion,  however,  was 
struck  by  Buddhism,  which  entered  Japan  in  a.  d.  552, 
and,  by  an  extraordinary  process  of  amalgamation, 
united  with  the  old  national  religion  to  form  a  third. 
This  fusion  is  known  as  Rio-bu-Shinto.  In  the  Revo- 
lution of  1868,  this  composite  religion  was  set  aside, 
and  pure  Shintoism  declared  the  r^^on  of  the  State. 
In  1877  the  law  establishing  this  situation  was  re- 
pealed, and  in  1889  general  religious  freedom  was 
granted.  The  various  orders  of  rank  among  priests 
ad  been  abolished  in  1879. 

F. — With  the  ancient  religion  of  the  Egyptians  the 
idea  of  the  priesthood  was  inseparably  bound  up 
for  many,  thousand  yeaxs.  Though  the  ruler  for  the  , 
time  being  was  nominally  the  onfy  priest,  there  had 
developed  even  in  the  ancient  kingaom  (from  about 
3400  B.  c.)  a  special  priestly  caste,  which  in  the  middle 
kingdom  (from  about  2000  b.  c),  and  still  more  in  the 
late  kingdom  (from  about  1090  b.  c),  became  the 
ruling  class.  The  great  attempt  at  reform  by  King 
Amenhotep  lY  (died  1374  b.  c),  who  tried  to  banish 
all  gods  except  the  sun-god  from  the  Egyptian  reli- 
gion and  to  make  sun-worship  the  religion  of  the  State, 
was  thwarted  by  the  opposition  of  Uie  priests.  The 
whole  twenty-first  dynasty  was  a  fanmy  of  priest- 
kings.  Although  Moses,  learned  as  he  was  in  the 
wisdom  of  the  Eg^tians,  may  have  been  indebted  to 
flfti  Egyptian  model  for  one  or  two  external  features 
in  his  organization  of  Divine  worship,  he  was,  thanks 
to  the  Divine  inspiration,  entirely  original  in  the  es- 
tablishment of  the  Jewish  priesthood,  which  is  based 
on  the  unique  idea  of  Jahweh's  covenant  with  the 
Chosen  People  (cf.  ''Realencyklopfidie  fOr  protest. 
Theologie'',^  XVI,  Leipzig,  1905,  33).  Still  less 
warranted  is  the  attempt  of  some  writers  on  the 
comparative  history  of  religions  to  trace  the  origin  of 
the  Catholic  priesthood  to  the  Egyptian  pnestly 
castes.  For  at  the  very  time  when  tnis  borrowing 
might  have  taken  place,  Egyptian  idolatry  had  degen- 
erated into  such  loathsome  animal-worship,  that  not 
only  the  Christians^  but  the  pagans  themselves  turned 
away  from  it  in  disgust  (cf.  Aristides,  "Apol.",  xii; 
Clement  of  Alexandria,  ''Cohortatio",  ii). 

G. — In  the  religion  of  the  Semites,  we  meet  first  the 
Babylonian-Assyrian  priests,  who,  under  the  name 
"Chiddeans"j  practised  the  mterpretation  of  dreams 
and  the  readmg  of  the  stars  ana  conducted  special 
schools  for  priests,  besides  Derforming  their  functions 
in  connexion  with  the  sacrifices.  Hence  their  division 
into  various  classes:  sacrificers  (nikakku),  seers  (6dr<2), 
exorcists  (d&ipu)  etc.  Glorious  temples  with  idols 
of  human  and  hybrid  form  arose  in  Assyria,  and  (apart 
from  the  obligatory  cult  of  the  stars)  served  for  as- 
trological and  astronomical  purposes.  Among  the 
Syrians  the  cruel,  voluptuous  cult  of  Moloch  and 
Astarte  found  its  special  home,  Astarte  especially 
(Babvlonian,  Mitar)  being  known  to  the  ancients 
simply  as  the  "Syrian  Goddess"  (Dea  Syria).  Like- 
wise among  the  semitized  Phcenicians.  Amonites,  and 
Philistines  these  ominous  deities  found  special  venera- 
tion. Howling  and  dancing  priests  sought  to  appease 
the  bloodthirsty  Moloch  by  sacrifices  of  children  and 
self-mutilation,  as  the  analosous  Galli  strove  to  pacify 
the  Phrygian  goddess  Cybele.  The  notorious  priests 
of  Baal  ofthe  Chanaanites  were  for  the  Jews  as  strong 
an  incentive  to  idolatry  as  the  cult  of  Astarte  was  a 
temptation  to  immorality.  The  south-Semitic  reli- 
sion  of  the  ancient  pajgan  Arabians  was  a  plain  re- 
ugion  of  the  desert  without  a  distinct  pnesthood; 


pbhsthood  4 

modem  Islam  or  Mohammedanism  lias  a  clergy 
(muezzin,  announcer  o[  the  hours  of  prayer;  imdm. 
leader  of  the  prayera;  khAtib,  preacher),  but  no  real 
priesthood.    The  west-Semitic  branch  of  the  Hebrews 

IS  treated  in  the  neitt  section. 

Of  the  VHt  liUntun  onLir  ■  rev  fnnduneDtal  worln  cut  ba 
died: — Cnnsnl  Worlu: — MOufn.  Phyaical  Ittligii™  (LondoB, 
IBOl);  Inn.  A<Miopelovic<d  Rtlin.  (LoDdcm,  ISM);  lomtt.  Tin 
BiiBkM  tf  On  Salt  (Oxford.  lS7e-M>:  IxmMi,  AV>«>'"  Of 
kUM*  dn  PFwfcrtunu  (2  rait.,  BrUd,  1S83) ;  m  u  Badiutb. 

mAdiu  (JsDB.  1B07J. 

_  imHthood: — AaHTJS,  Ou  indoftnnan, 

RtKiim  in  dm  HaujUjmnHn,  ihr^r  EntvidiilMQ  {2  vol!.,  Leipiif , 
IS7&-7);  SirtB,  La  Ttlieisnt da  VladttPuraAS^);  Laotien:in, 

(PmU,  1888);  MoNlEH-WiLUim,  Brahmaninn  aiid  Hjruiuirm 
(LoDdoD,  18S1I:  Oujekbcbo,  Uut  Rdiaiim  dti  Vida  ILeipiia, 
IBM) :  HoHIHa.  Tin  Rtli<nont  of  India  (l^ndon.  1896) ;  H.rdt, 
Dii  -ditdi-hrahman.  Piriedi  da  aJlm  InAimt  11863):  Ideh, 
Indittli*  RtUffioBtiiacX.  (1S98);  Macdoheli.,  Vidic  laylh<iliitv 
B7);    HiuJtBKABDT,  Rilaat-LUtral-uir,  ml.  Opfr 


1  PBBflTHOOD 

Aaron  himself  and  later  the  first-born  of  his  family 
was  to  stand  at  the  head  of  this  priesthood  as  high- 
priest,  while  the  other  Levites  were  to  act,  not  as 
priests,  but  as  assistants  and  servants.  The  solemn 
cobsecration  of  the  Aaronites  to  the  priesthood  took 

Etaoe  at  the  same  time  as  the  anointing  of  Aaron  as 
igh-priest  and  with  almost  the  same  ceremonial  (Ex., 
X3mt,  1-37;  xl,  12  sqq.;  Lev.,  viii,  1-36).  This  Bingle 
consecration  included  that  of  all  the  futiire  descend- 
ants of  the  priests,  so  that  the  priesthood  was  fixed  ill 
the  bouse  of  Aaron  by-  mere  descent,  and  was  thus 
hereditary.  After  the  Babylonian  Exile  strict  ^ene»- , 
logical  proof  of  priestly  descent  was  even  more  ngidty 


(LondoD.  1897): 
ZoBtw  (Leijjii-  " 
ffCmg^ilot.  \m 

(1S02):   RocB 


ZeUalttrdfrOpfmt 


Alxtv.ThiDhammaafdc- 
tla  CArul  (New  York.  IMO) ; 

.  (Loi  ■  -     ■' 

(1 — 

Fortbildun 


I,  Ihe  BuddKa  ar 


'atpdnfJi 


t.  HItl.  dt 


KBnia  Atoka  (1902);    fi>iu, 
....  ..-_.  g„i,tft„^f^g^ 

[ULTiE,  i/er  D.  aU  Heliffian 
II,  Buddlui  u.  Chrittvi,  tint 
u>  »,  XoUaUcHKIu  (leiO). 
UD  IDA  irmDimiu>-'L'AH>iEHTErEH.  Ormuad  H  Ahrinwn,  ffuri 
oriatnu  H  tnr  Villain  (PuH.  1377):  SnCOKl,  ETanitdit  Alitr- 
(i.mtJh<n<I<,lI(lS7B);   i« Hiiilei.  (Mffi'iM du  wwutrumt (Puii, 

1879);   C«a>aTELU.  La  jUiilonpliit  rriisnui  du  miiidMina 

la  Satnnida  (Louvsin,  IS84|:  Mihint,  La  Pan  "'■ 
communavlU  loroaltitnna  di  I'/nik  (Purlg,  1S9N);  u^vmiu 
BaaitutltcvUtHlrimtiliritdt  MilKra  (Peru.  1899);  Jackm 
ZaraatltT.  Ihc  Prophet  oj  Xnn«K  India  (New  Yurk.  189 
CcuaKT,  La  rnvMra  di  Uilhra  <2ad  ed..  Pmrii,  IVOt:  tr.  L 
doD,  1903). 

Coanmini  the  Grecki  uid  Romuii; — RtiCHEl,   t/rbrr  ■ 
iiUmiirA.   KuIM   (1897);     CmrPi-ii,    OritrKiKlii    MvlhcUvU 
Riiiffumtatich.  (Munich,  18fl7-19(;6)(    Jentkh.  HtUentntan 
CkriMlentum    (1903):     Bedhueb,    Le   euUc  rmdu   aui   mnrrr 
fiwwin.  (PariB.  1800) ;  Wi««ow*,  Ri 
Concern  [□■  the  Celt!  and  Germ 
da  Ga^jioit  (Fliril,  1897);    DE  u  S. 
Tralom  (Landon.  1902);   Dottin, 
1904);   Gbdfc.  Dm  iCuilur  dn-  oUci 
Ahwti,  CiUic  Rdition  in  Prt-Chrii 


11.  XuJfut  d.  R»mi 


(190.1). 


Hailek,  La  rtiioiont  da 

iium"and    ■^^m    (LodSo 
r   (1898);     H.Ai,    ffucA.   d 


ChiTtt  (Bruueli,  1901):  I>*0> 
1SSS-1903);  Docauia.  Ch/l 
1892);  Mdhiihoeb.  Dia  Jap 
Clkrutfnftimi  in  Japan  (Betlin. 

On  the  Ecyptkuu: — WiBuBbAHN.  Dia  Hrliffion  Aer  aittn 
Atoypter  (1890):  Bhcosch,  AenPlolooit  (1891);  Satce.  T** 
gdteima/AntieiUEmv'andBaSi/lania  (Lcndon.  1892);  Bttdoi. 
Tha  Gedf  of  Ihi  Smi^m  (London,  1894);  Heiu,  Bibtl  u. 
Atnv**^  (iVM);  CSrao.  FritUtr  u.  Ttmptl  im  halimitUidim 
ile«vplm(2*al>.,  190S-8):  £■MA^,  iK<<1rapli>cA>  Refiifiim  (2iid 
•d^  BarUn,  1909). 

CoDcemuiB  the  Semite*; — LsdouuKT,  La  magu  cAci  la 
ChaUioa  (Petu,  1871);  IxAdiuHaE.  Sur  la  Ttligiom  atmitifua 
(Paiu,  1903} ;  SCBEADEH.  Z)te  X«[injcArv/fcn  u.  dol  >tl<  rcilnmnil 
(3rd  ed.,  1903):  Bcreane.  Babvloniidu  SMntrilm  mit  ROckriihl 
au/ /ViHMT  u.  Sa.»r  (1908):  Vikcebt,  Canaan  IPiri.,  1907). 

n.  The  Jewish  Pbibsthood. — In  the  age  of  the 
Patriarchs  the  offering  of  sacrifices  was  the  function 
of  the  father  or  head  of  the  family  (et.  Gen.,  viii,  20; 
xii,  7,  etc.;  Job,  i,  5).  But,  even  before  Moses,  there 
were  also  regular  priests,  who  were  not  fathers  of 
family  (cf .  Ex.,  lix,  22  sqq,).  Hummelauer's  hypoth- 
esis ("  Das  vormosaiscne  Priestertum  in  Israel ", 
Freiburg,  1899)  that  this  pre-Moeaic  priesthood  was 
established  by  God  Himself  and  made  hereditary  in 
the  family  of  Manasees,  but  was  subsequently  abol- 
iahed  in  punishmeot  of  the  worship  of  the  goiaen  calf 
(cf,  Ex..  xxxii,  26  sqq.),  can  hardly  be  scientifically 
established  (cf.  Rev.  bibl.  intemat.,  1899,  pp.  470 
sqq,).  In  the  Moeiuc  priesthood  we  must  distinguish: 
priests,  Levites,  and  high-priest. 

A.~-Frie»lt. — It  was  onlj;  after  the  Sinaitical  le^g- 
lation  that  the  Isroelitic  priesthood  became  a  special 
class  in  the  community.  From  the  tribe  of  Levi 
Jahw^  chose  the  house  of  Aaron  to  discharge  per- 
manently and  exclusively  all  the  religious  functions; 


demanded,  and  any  future  to  fumiab  the  same  meant 
exclusion  from  the  priesthood  (I  Esd.,  ii,  61  sq.; 
II  Esd.,  vii^  63  sq.).  Certwn  bodily  defects,  of  which 
the  later  Talmudists  mention  142,  were  also  a  dis- 
qualification from  the  exercise  of  the  priestly  office 
(Lev.,  xxi,  17  sqq.).  Age  limits  (twenty;  and  fifty 
years)  were  also  appointed  (II  Par.,  xxxi,  17);  the 

Sriests  were  forbidden  to  take  to  wife  a  harlot  or  a 
ivorced  woman  (Lev.,  xxi,  7);  during  the  active  dis- 
charge of  the  priesthood,  marital  intercourse  was  foi^ 
bidden.  In  addition  to  an  unblemished  earlier  life, 
levitical  cleanness  was  also  indispensable  for  the 
priesthood.  Whoever  performed  a  priestly  function 
in  levitical  uncleanaess  was  to  be  expell^  Uke  one 
who  entered  the  sanctuary  after  partaking  of  wine  or 
other  intoxicating  drinks  (Lev,,  x,  9;  xxii,  3).  To  in- 
cur an  uncleanneas  "at  the  death  of  his  citiiens", 
except  in  the  case  of  immediate  kin,  was  rigidly  foi^ 
bidden  (Lev.,  xxi,  1  sqq.).  In  cases  of  mourning  no 
outward  signs  of  sorrow  might  bo  shown  (e.  g.  by 
rending  the  garments).  On  entering  into  their  office, 
the  priests  had  first  to  take  a  bath  of  purification  (Ex., 
xiii,  4;  xl,  12),  be  sprinkled  with  oU  (Ex.,  ixii,  21; 
Lev.,  viii,  30),  and  put  on  the  vestments. 

The  pneetly  vestments  consisted  of  breeches,  tunic, 
girdle,  and  mitre.  The  breeches  (feminalia  ltn«a) 
covered  from  the  reins  to  the  thighs  (Ex.,  xxviii,  42). 
The  tunic  (tunica)  was  a  kind  of  coat,  woven  in  a  special 
manner  from  one  piece;  it  bad  narrow  sleeves,  ex- 


PRIESTHOOD                         412  MtttBT&OOD 

tended  from  the  throat  to  the  ankles,  and  was  brought  B. — Levitea  in  the  Narrow  Sense. — It  has  been  said 

together  at  the  throat  with  bands  (Ex.,  xxviii,  4).  above  that  the  real  priesthood  was  hereditary  in  the 

The  girdle  {haUeue)  was  three  or  four  fingers  in  breadth  house  of  Aaron  alone^  and  that  to  the  other  descend- 

and  (according  to  rabbinic  tradition)  thirty-two  ells  ^  ants  of  Levi  was  assigned  a  subordinate  position  as 

Ions;  it  had  to  be  embroidered  after  the  same  pattern  servants  and  assistants  of  the  priests.    The  latter  are 

and  to  be  of  the  same  colour  as  the  curtain  of  tne  fore-  the  Levites  in  the  narrow  sense.    They  were  divided 

oeurt  and  the  tabernacle  of  the  covenant  (Ex.,  xxxix,  into  the  families  of  the  Gersonites,  Caathites,  and 

38).    The  official  vestments  were  completed  by  the  Merarites  (Ex.,  vi,  16;  Num.,  xxvi,  57),  so  named 

mitre  (Ex.,  xxxix,  26),  a  species  of  cap  of  fine  Unen.  after  Levi's  three  sons,  (jrerson,  Caath,  and  Merari 

As  nothing  is  saia  of  toot-covering,  the  priests  must  (cf.  Gen.,  xlvi,  11;  I  Par.,  vi,  1).    As  simple  servants 

have  performed  the  services  barefooted  as  Jewish  of  the  priests,  the  Levites  might  not  enter  the  sanc- 

tradition  indeed  declares  (cf.  Ex.,  iii,  5).    These  vest-  tuary,  nor  perform  the  real  sacrificial  act,  especially 

ments  were  prescribed  for  use  only  during  the  services;  the  sprinldin^  of  the  blood  (asperaio  sanguinis) .    This 

at  other  times  they  were  kept  in  an  appointed  place  was  the  privilege  of  the  priests  (Num.,  xviii,  3,  19 

in  charge  of  a  special  custodian.    For  detailed  in-  sqq.;  xviu,  6).    The  Levites  had  however  to  assist 

formation   ooncemins   the   priestly  vestments,  see  the  latter  during  the  sacred  services,  prepare  the  dif- 

Jos^hus,  "Antiq.",  Ill,  vii,  1  sqq.  ferent  oblations  and  keep  the  sacred  vessels  in  proper 

The  official  duties  of  the  priests  related  partly  to  condition.  Among  their  chief  duties  was  the  constant 
their  main  occupations,  and  partly  to  subsioiary  ser-  guarding  of  the  tabernacle  with  the  ark  of  the  cove- 
vices.  To  the  former  category  belonged  all  functions  nant ;  the  Gersonites  were  encamped  towards  the  west, 
connected  with  the  public  worship,  e.  g.  the  offering  the  Caathites  towards  the  south,  the  Merarites 
of  incense  twice  daily  (Ex.,  xxx,  7),  the  weeklv  renewed  towards  the  north,  while  Moses  and  Aaron  with  their 
of  the  loaves  of  proposition  on  the  eolden  table  (Lev.,  sons  guarded  the  holy  tabernacle  towards  the  east 
xxiv,  9),  the  cleaning  and  filling  of  the  oil-lamps  on  the  (Num.,  iii,  23  sqq.) .  When  the  tabernacle  had  found 
golden  candlestick  (Lev.,  xxiv,  1).  All  these  services  a  fixed  home  in  Jerusalem,  David  created  four  classes 
were  performed  in  the  sanctuary.  There  were  in  ad-  of  Levites:  servants  of  the  priests,  officials  and  judges, 
dition  certain  functions  to  be  performed  in  the  outer  porters,  and  finally  musicians  and  singers  (I  Par., 
court — ^the  maintenance  of  the  sacred  fire  on  the  altar  xxiii,  3  sqq.).  After  the  building  of  the  Temple  by 
for  burnt  sacrifices  (Lev.^  vi,  9  sqq.),  the  daily  offering  Solomon  the  Levites  naturally  became  its  guaraians 
of  the  morning  and  evening  sacrifices,  especially  of  the  (I  Par.,  xxvi,  12  sqq.) .  When  the  Temple  was  rebuilt 
lambs  (Ex.,  xxix,  38  sqq.).  As  subsidiary  services  the  Levites  were  established  as  guards  m  twenty-one 
priests  had,  to  present  the  cursed  water  to  wives  sus-  places  around  (Talmud;  Middoth,  I,  i).  In  common 
pected  of  adultery  (Num.,  v,  12  saq.),  sound  the  with  the  priests,  the  Levites  were  also  bound  to  in- 
trumpets  announcing  the  holy-days  (Num.,  x,  1  sqq.),  struct  the  people  In  the  Law  (II  Par.,  xvii,.  8;  II  Esd., 
declare  the  lepers  clean  or  unclean  (Lev.,  xiii~xiv;  viii,  7),  ana  they  even  possessiBd  at  times  certain  judi- 
Deut.j  xxiv.  8;  cf.  Matt.,  viii,  4),  dispense  from  vows,  ci^Upowers  (II  Par.,  xix,  11). 

'appraise  all  objects  vowed  to  the  sanctuary  (Lev.,  They  were  initiated  into  office  by  a  rite  of  oonsecra- 
xxvii),  and  finally  offer  sacrifice  for  those  who  broke  tion:  sprinkling  with  the  water  of  purification,  shaving 
the  law  of  the  Nazarites,  i.  e.  a  vow  to  avoid  all  in-  of  the  hair,  wadiing  of  the  garments,  offering  en 
toxicating  drinks  and  every  uncleanness  (especially  sacrifices,  imposition  of  the  hands  of  the  eldest  (Num., 
from  contact  with  a  corpse)  and  to  let  one's  hair  grow  viii,  5  sqa.).  As  to  the  age  of  service^  thirty  years 
long  (Num.,  vi,  1-21).  The  priests  furthermore  were  was  fixed  for  the  time  of  entrance  and  nfty  for  retire- 
teachers  and  judges;  not  only  were  they  to  explain  ment  from  office  (Num.,  iv,  3;  I  Par.,  xxiii,  24: 1  Esd., 
the  law  to  the  people  (Jjev.,  x^  11;  Deut.,  xxxiii,  10)  iii,  8).  No  special  vestments  were  prescribed  for 
without  remuneration  (Mich.,  iii,  11)  and  to  preserve  them  in  the  Law;  in  the  time  of  David  and  Solomon 
carefully  the  Book  of  the  Law,  of  which  a  copy  was  to  the  bearers  of  the  ark  of  the  covenant  and  the  singers 
be  presented  to  the  (future)  king  (Deut.,  xvii,  18),  wore  garments  of  fine  linen  (I  Par.,  xv,  27;  II  Par.,  v, 
but  they  had  also  to  settle  difficult  lawsuits  among  the  12).  At  the  division  of  the  Promised  Land  among 
people  (Deut.,  xvii,  8;  xix,  17 j  xxi,  6).  In  view  of  the  the  Twelve  Tribes,  the  tribe  of  Levi  was  left  without 
complex  nature  of  the  liturgical  service,  David  later  territory,  since  the  Lord  Himself  was  to  be  their  por- 
divided  the  priesthood  into  twenty-four  classes  or  tion  and  inheritance  (cf .  Num.,  xviii,  20:  Deut.,  xii. 
courses,  of  which  each  in  turn,  with  its  eldest  member  12;  Jos.,  xiii,  14).  In  compensation,  Janweh  ceded 
at  its  head,  had  to  perform  the  service  from  one  Sab-  to  the  Levites  and  priests  the  gifts  of  natural  products 
bath  to  the  next  (IV  Kings,  xi,  9;  cf.  Luke,  i,  8).  The  made  by  the  people,  and  other  revenues.  The  Levites 
order  of  the  classes  was  determined  by  lot  (I  Par.,  firet  received  the  tithes  of  fruits  and  beasts  of  the  field 
xxiv,  7  sqq.).  (Lev.,  xxvii,  30  sqq.;  Num.,  xviii.  20  sq.),  of  which 

The  income  of  the  priests  was  derived  from  the  they  had  in  turn  to  aeliver  the  tenth  part  to  the  priests 
tithes  and  the  firstlings  of  fruits  and  animals.  To  (Num.,  xviiL  26  sqq.).  In  addition,  they  had  a  share 
these  were  added  as  accidentals  the  remains  of  the  in  the  sacrincial  banquets  (Deut.,  xii,  18)  and  were, 
food,  and  guilt-oblations,  which  were  not  entirely  like  the  priests,  exempt  from  taxes  and  military  ser- 
consumed  by  fire;  also  the  hides  of  the  animals  sacn-  vice.  The  question  of  residence  was  settled  by  order- 
ficed  and  the  natural  products  and  money  vowed  to  ing  the  tribes  endowed  with  landed  property  to  cede 
God  (Lev.,  xxvii;  Num.,  viii,  14).  With  all  these  to  the  Levites 'forty-ei^t  Levite  towns,  scattered 
perquisites,  the  Jewish  priests  seem  never  to  have  over  the  land,  with  their  precincts  (Num.,  ibcxv,  1 
been  a  wealthy  class,  owmg  partly  to  the  increase  in  sqq.) ;  of  these^  thirteen  were  assigned  to  the  priests, 
their  numbers  and  partly  to  the  large  families  which  After  the  division  of  the  monarchy  into  the  Northern 
they  reared.  But  their  exalted  office,  their  superior  Kingdom  of  Israel  and  the  Southern  Kingdom  of 
education,  and  their  social  position  secured  them  m&t  Juda,  many  Levites  from  the  northern  portion  re- 
prestige  amon^^  the  people.  In  general,  they  fulfilled  moved  to  the  Kingdom  of  Juda,  which  remained  true 
their  high  position  worthily,  even  though  they  fre-  to  the  Law,  and  took  up  their  abode  in  Jerusalem, 
quently  merited  the  stem  reproof  of  the  Prophets  (cf .  After  the  Northern  Kingdom  had  been  chastised  by 
Jer..  Vj  31;  Ezech.,  xxii,  26;  Os.,  vi,  9;  Mich.,  iii,  11;  the  Assyrian  deportation  in  722  b.  c,  the  Southern 
Mai.,  1,  7).  With  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  Kingdom  was  also  overthrown  by  the  Babylonians  in 
Titus  in  70  b.  c.  the  entire  sacrificial  service  and  with  606  b.  c,  and  numbers  of  the  Jews,  including  many 
it  the  Jewish  priesthood  ceased.  The  later  rabbis  Levites,  were  hurried  away  into  the  "Babylonian 
never  represent  themselves  as  priests,  but  merely  as  exile''.  Only  a  few  Levites  returned  to  tb^  old 
teachers  of  the  law.  home  under  Esdras  in  450  (cf.  I  Esd.,  ii,  40  sqq.). 


raiESTHOOD  413  PBIBStHOOD 

With  the  destruction  of  the  Herodian  Temple  in  a.  d.  the  Babylonian  Exile  about  450  b.  c,  he  brought  back 

70  the  doom  of  the  Levites  was  sealed.  the  ''Book  of  the  Ritual"  or  the  briest's  codex  P, 

C.  —  The  High  «  priest.  —  At  Jahweh's  conmiand  1.  e.,  the  middle  portions  between  Genesis  and  Deu- 

Moses  consecrated  his  brother  Aaron  first  high-priest,  teronomy,  composed  by  himself  and  his  school  in 

repeated  the  consecration  on  seven  days,  and  on  the  Babylon,  although  it  was  onlv  in  444  B.  c.  that  he 

eighth  day  solemnly  introduced  him  into  the  taber-  dared  to  make  it  pubUc.    A  clever  editor  now  intro- 

nacle  of  the  covenant.    The  consecration  of  Aaron  duced  the  p>ortions  relating  to  public  worship  into  the 

consisted  in  washings,  investment  with  costly  vest-  old,  pre-Exilic  historical  books,  and  the  entirely  new 

ments,  anointing  with  holy  oil,  and  the  offerings  of  idea  of  an  Aaronic  priesthood  and  of  the  centraliza- 

various  sacrifices  TEx.,  xxix).    As  a  sign  that  Aaron  tion  of  the  cult  was  projected  back  to  the  time  of 

was  endowed  with  tne  fullness  of  the  priesthood,  Moses.    The  storjr  of  the  tabernacle  of  the  covenant 

Moses  poured  over  his  head  the  oil  of  anointing  (Lev.,  is  thus  a  mere  fiction,  devised  to  represent  the  Temple 

viii.  12),  while  the  other  Aaronites,'  as  simple  priests,  at  Jerusalem  as  established  in  fufly  developed  form 

had  only  their  hands  anointed  (Ex.,  xxix,  7,  29).   The  at  the  dawn  of  Israelitic  history  and  to  justify  the 

high-pnest  was  for  the  Jews  the  highest  embodiment  unity  of  worship.    Although  this  hypothesis  does  not 

of  theocracy,  the  monarch  of  the  whole  priesthood,  contest  the  great  antiquity  6f  the  Jewish  priesthood, 

the  special  mediator  between  God  and  the  People  ot  it  maintains  that  the  centralization  of  the  cult,  the 

the  Covenant,  and  the  spiritual  head  of  the  s3magogue  essentia!  difference  between  priests  and  Levites.  the 

He  was  the  priest  'par  excellence ^  the  "great  priest"  supreme  authority  of  the  priests  of  the  Temple  at 

(Greek,  dpx^^P^'t    Heb.,  bM^n  "nDri),   the  "prince  Jerusalem  as  compared  witn  the  so-called  hill-priests 

among  the  priests",  and,  because  of  the  anointing  of  (cf.  Ezech.,  xliv,  4  sqq.),  must  be  referred  to  post- 

.his  head,  the  "anointed  priest".     To  this  exalted  Exilic  times. 

office  corresponded  his  special  and  costly  vestments,  Without  entering  upon  a  detailed  criticism  of  these 
worn  in  addition  to  those  of  the  simple  priests  (Ex.,  assertions  of  Wellhiausen  and  the  critical  school  (see 
xxviii).  A  (probably  sleeveless)  purple-blue  upper  Pentateuch),  we  may  here  remark  in  general  that 
garment  {tunica)  fell  to  his  knees,  the  lower  seam  beme  the  conservative  school  also  admits  or  can  admit  that 
ornamented  alternately  with  small  golden  bells  and  only  the  original  portion  of  the  Pentateuch  is  to  be 
pomegranates  of  coloured  thread.  About  the  shoulders  accepted  as  Mosaic,  that  in  the  same  text  many  repe- 
he  also  wore  a  garment  called  the  ephod;  this  titions  seem  to  have  been  brou^t  together  from 
was  made  of  costly  material,  and  consisted  of  two  different  sources,  and  finally  that  additions,  exten- 
portions  about  an  ell  long,  which  covered  the  back  sions,  and  adaptations  to  new  conditions  by  an  in- 
and  breast,  were  held  together  above  by  two  shoulder-  spired  author  of  a  later  period  are  by  no  means  ex- 
bands  or  epaulets,  and  terminated  below  with  a  mag-  eluded.  It  must  also  be  admitted  that,  though  one 
nificent  girdle.  Attached  to  the  ephod  in  front  was  place  of  worship  was  appointed,  sacrifices  were  offered 
the  shield  {rationale) ^  a  square  ba^  bearing  on  the  even  in  early  times  by  laymen  and  simple  Levites  away 
outside  the  names  of  the  twelve  tnbes  engraved  on  from  the  vicinity  of  the  Ark  of  the  Covenant,  and  that 
precious  stones  <Ex.,  xxviii,-  6),  and  containing  within  in  restless  and  politically  disturbed  epochs  the  ordi- 


a  precious  turban  (tiara),  bearing  on  a  golden  frontal  and  the  Prophets  were  often  pratified  to  find  that  on 

plate  the  inscription:    "Sacred  to  Jahweh"   (Heb.  the  high  places  (hamoth)  sacrifice  was  offeied,  not  to 

ri^Tvb  tf*«?).  pagan  gods,  but  to  Jahweh.    However,  the  Penta- 

The  high-priest  had  supreme  supervision  of  the  Ark  teuch  problem  is  one  of  the  most  difficult  and  intricate 

of  the  Covenant  (and  of  the  Temple),  of  Divine  service  questions   in    Biblical   criticism.     The   Wellhausien 

in  general  and  of  the  whole  personnel  connected  with  hypothesis  with  its  bold  assumptions  of  pious  deceits 

public  worship.    He  presided  at  the  Sanhedrin.     He  and  artificial  projections  is  open  to  as  great,  if  not 

alone  could  perform  the  liturgy  on  the  Feast  of  Ex-  greater,  difficulties  and  m^teries  as  the  traditional 

piation,  on  which  occasion  he  put  on  his  costly  vest-  view,  even  though  some  of  its  contributions  to  literary 

ments  only  after  the  sacrifices  were  completed.    He  criticism  may  stand  examination.   It  cannot  be  denied 

alone  might  offer  sacrifice  for  his  own  sins  and  those  that  the  critical  structure  has  suffered  a  severe  shock 

of  the  people  (Lev.,  iv,  5),  enter  the  holy  of  holies  since  the  discovery  of  the  Tell-el-Amama  letters  dat^ 

(sanctum  sanctorum),  and  seek  counsel  of  Jahweh  on  ing  from  the  fifteenth  century  B.  c,  and  since  the  de- 

important  occasions.    The  office  of  high-priest  in  the  ciphering  of  the  Hammurabi  Code.    The  assumption 

house  of  Aaron  was  at  first  hereditary  in  the  line  of  that  the  oldest  religion  of  Israel  must  have  been  iden- 

his  first-bom  son  Elcazar,  but  in  the  period  from  Heli  tical  with  that  of  the  primitive  Semites  (Polydsmon- 

to  Abiathar  (1131  to  973  B.  c.)  it  belonged,  by  right  ism.  Animism,  Fetishism,  Ancestor-worship)  has  been 

of  primogeniture,  to  the  line  of  Ithamar.    Under  the  proved  false,  since  long  before  2000  b.  c.  a  kind  of 

rule  of  the  Seleucidse  (from  about  175  b.  c.)  the  office  Henotheism,  i.  e..  Polytheism  with  a  monarchical  head, 

was  sold  for  money  to  the  highest  bidder.    At  a  later  was  the  ruling  religion  in  Babylon^   The  beginninep  ot 

period  it  became  hereditary  in  the  family  of  the  Has-  the  religions  of  allpeoples  are  purer  and  more  spirit- 

mon.    With  the  destruction  of  the  central  sanctuary  ual  than  many  historiaxls  of  reli^ons  have  hitherto 

by  the  Romans,  the  high-priesthood  disappeared.  been  willing  to  admit.   One  thing  is  certain:  the  final 

Against  the  foregoing  account  of  the  Mosaic  priest-  word  has  not  yet  been  spoken  as  to  the  value  of  the 

hood,  based  on  tne  Old  Testament,  the  negative  Wellhausen  h3rpothesis. 

biblical  critics  of  to-day  make  a  determined  stand.  ^  On  the  general  question r—LwHTroor.  Miniuerium  Umrli  in 

According  to  the  hypothesis  of  Graf -Wellhausen,  ^viif!k*?^!f-^^TC^^^^^ 

Moses  (about  1250  B.  C.)  cannot  be  the  author  of  the  moMaUchen  KuUub  (2  vols..  Heidelberg.  1839;    2od  ed.,  1  vol., 

Pentateuch.     He  was  not  the  Divinely  appointed  1874);  Ktm,  Lhu PrUtieHum d«t  AU^ 

i^^«i»4.^-    u.,*  «:.«^^i.r  ♦i*^  r^..«r]».  ^f  li>rJ>n^i«r»«»    f#x«  8choi«,  Dxb  heittffen  Attertliiner  de»  Vouu9  Itrael  (2  vols.,  Ratia- 

legislator,  but  simply  the  founder  of  Monolatry,  for  ^o^^   i^^g):    IdiSi.  OdUendient  «.  Zaubencesen  M  dm  aZten 

ethical  Monotheism  resulted  from  the  efforts  of  much  Htbraem  (Katisbon,  1877} ;   ScHXraR,  Die  relioiOaen  AUertUmer 

later  Prophets.   Deuteronomy  D  made  its  appearance  f «"  ^^^  i?nd  ed..  1891) ;  Nowack,  Lehrinteh  der  hebr,  Ar(MfUyi€ 

;«  «..u»4.«,*..w.  :«  floi  «    -r,     ^u^^  *i.«  »««,.4-o.  vTiriu  ^wJi^>^  (2  vols.,  Freiburg,  1894);   Baudissik,  Oesch.  dea  altUtt,  PneaUr* 

in  substance  m  621  B.  C,  when  the  astute  high-pnest  ^^,  (Berlin.  ISlfe);  Gioor.  Outline*  of  Jewish  Hist.  (New  York. 

Helkias   by   a  pious  fraud   palmed  OII   on  the  god-  1897) ;  Van  Hoonacxkr,  Le  eacerdoee  UvU,  dane  la  Loi  el  dane 

fearing  King  Josias  the  recently  composed  "Book  of  ';*w<.  dee  Hibreux  (Loixjnin,  1899);  Sctri^m,  GeMh.dee  jod. 

♦k*»  T  ™->»  -Pk  —  ^..r^**^^  u^r  \/i^t^^  f^r   TV  TTi^^r,   ^^l\  VoUtee  im  ZeittUter  Chrtett,  II  (2nd  ed,,  Leipsig,  1898),  224  eqq.; 

the  Laws     D  as  written  by  MOS^  (cf .  IV  Kings,  XXU,  kObeblu,  Die  TemveUdnger  im  Allen  r«rf.  (1899). 

1  sqq.).     When  Esdras  returned  to  Jerusalem  from  For  modern  Biblical  criticism:— Wbllbausbn.  Preteffomena 


PBIBSTHOOD  414  PEBSTHOOD 

f^  ^"*^«/?T"*H  (Berlin.  18M),  tr.  Black  and  MsmiEB.  (Edin-  oped  from  the  germ  already  exiBting  in  the  primitive 

SSafciul'BiiJ  A^U"^. f^'SdH'Srit  i8§«)rS^.r!r^  G^\ ju?*  «•  thf. primacy of.thepope of  Itome aod 

SM<«»^ti&e  u.  SeelenkuU  im  alien  Israel  (1898);    Vooblstsin,  especially  the  distmction  of  smiple  pnests  fiom  the 

Der  Kampf  ewuefumPrie^em  t^  Lenten  eeit  den   Tagen  dee  bishops  was  recognised  with  increasmg  cleamess  88 

f^^i:^^T^iJ!i^^y^S^^.1^\J;:L'^ikT,^  time  advanced  (eee  Hi«baecht).    But  the  auertion 

■qq.;  American  Journal  of  Tked.  (1905),  76  sqq.;  KKmfirr,  Whether  there  was  at  the  beginning  a  spedal  pnest- 

ft^**.^.^  Aoronile  FrieelfMod  in  Journal  of  TkeoL  Studiee  hood  in  the  ChUTch  is  altogether  distinct.    If  it  IS  true 

STiwSf  '       "■"       I'raeluen  u,  thre  Naehbaretdmme  (Leip-  that  "  the  reception  of  the  idea  of  sacrifice  led  to  the 

^athoUo  workB:— HuiiMBLAVBB.  Dae  vormoeaiedie  Prieetertum  idea  of  the* ecclesiastical  priesthood"  (loc.  dt.,  p.  48), 

in  lerael  (Freiburg,  1899):  Nik^u  WiederhereteUwijj  dee  jud.  and  that  priesthood  and  sacrifice  are  reciprocal  terms, 

(Freiburg.  1902);  Zaplvtal.  AUteetamenaiehee  (Freiburg.  1903);  pnesthood  mUSt  be  regarded  as  established,  Once  It  IS 

NiKRu Oeneeieu,KeiUdirLnforechun^^  Hobbbo,  shown  that  the  Euoharistic  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass  is 

Moeee  u.  der  Pentateuch  (Freibui^,  1905) ;   Enqklkbiipeii,  //«-  «opva1  with  thp  hpcrinninm  And  thp  Muu^nnt^  nf  PKna. 

liotumu.  Opferetauen  in  den  Geeetten  dee  Pentateuch  (Mttnater.  fP^X?^  ^l"^  "^®  DCg^nmngB  ana  ine  essenoe  O!  ^nns- 

1908);  8cHvu.  Doppeiberichu  im  Pentateuch  (Freiburg.  1908):  tianity.    In  proof  of  this  we  may  appeal  even  to  the 

PBTEBft.  pu  jud,Gemeinde  von  Eiephantine^u^ne  u,  ihr  Tempd  Old  Testament.    When  the  Ppophet  isaias  foresees  the 

%m  6.  Jahrh. ..  Chrteiue  (Freiburg.  1910).  entrance  of  pagans  into  the  Messianic  Kingdom,  he 

ni.  The  Christian  Priesthood. — ^In  the  New  makes  the  callmg  of  priests  from  the  heathen  (i.  e. 

Testament  bishops  and  priests   are,   according   to  the  non-Jews)  a  special  characteristic  of  the  new 

Catholic  teaching,  the  sole  bearers  of  the  priesthood.  Church  (Is.,  Ixvi,  21) :  ''And  I  will  take  of  them  to  be 

the  former  enjoying  the  fullness  of  the  priesthooa  priests  and  Levites,  saith  the  Lord".    Now  this  non- 

(summus  sacerdoa  «.  primi  oreiinis),^ while  tne  presby-  Jewish  (Christian)  priesthood  in  the  future  Messianic 

tens  are  simple  priests  (aimplex  aacerdos  «.  secundi  Church  presupposes  a  permanent  sacrifice,  namely 

ordinis).    The  deacon,  on  the  other  hand,  is  a  mere  that  ''clean  oblation",  which  from  the  rising  of  the 

attendant  of  the  priest,  with  no  priestlv  powers.   Omit-  sun  even  to  the  going  down  is  to  be  offered  to  Uie  Lord 

ting  all  special  treatment  of  the  bishop  and  the  of  hosts  among  the  (jrentiles  (Mai.,  i,  11).    The  sao- 

deacon,  we  here  confine  our  attention  primarilv  to  rifice  of  bread  and  wine  offered  by  Melchisedech  (cf. 

the  presbyterate,  since  the  term  "priest"  without  Gen.,  xiv,  18  sqq.),  the  prototype  of  Christ  (cf.  Pb. 

quahfication  is  now  taken  to  signify  the  presbyter.  cix.  4;  Heb.,  v,  5  sq.j  vii,  1  sqq.),  also  refers  prophet- 

A.  The  Divine  Institution  oj  the  Prieethood, — ^Ac-  ically,  not  only  to  the  Last  Supper,  but  also  to  its 

cording  to  the  Protestant  view,  there  was  in  the  everlasting  repetition  in  commemoration  of  the  Sao- 

Erimitive  Christian  Chureh  no  essential  distinction  rificeof  the  Cross  (see  Mass).  Rightly,  therefore,  does 

etween  laity  and  clergy,  no  hierarchical  differentia-  the  Council  of  Trent  emphasize  tne  mtimate  connex- 

tion  of  the  orders  (bishop,  priest,  deacon),  no  recog-  ion  between  the  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass  and  the  priest- 

nition  of  pope  and  bishops  as  the  possessors  of  the  hood  (Sess.  XXIII,  cap.   i,  in   Densinger,  "Enchi- 

highest  power  of  jurisdiction  over  the  Universal  ridion",  10th  ed.,  957):  "Sacrifice  and  priesthood  are 

Chureh  or  over  its  several  territorial  divisions.    On  by  Divine  ordinance  so  inseparable  that  the^  are  found 

the  contrary,  the  Church  had  at  first  a  democratic  together  under  all  Jaws,    since  therefore  m  the  New 

constitution,  in  virtue  of  which  the  local  churches  Testament  the  Cathohc  Church  has  received  from  the 

selected  their  own  heads  and  ministers,  and  imparted  Lord's  institution  the  holy  visible  sacrifice  of  the 

to  these  their  inherent  spiritual  authority,  just  as  in  Eucharist  it  must  also  be  admitted  that  in  the  Chureh 

the  modem  republic  the  "sovereign  people"  confers  there  is  a  new,  visible  and  external  priesthood  into 

upon  its  elected  president  and  his  officia;ls  administrsr  which  the  older  priesthood  has  been  chajiged. "    Surely 

tive  authority.    The  deeper  foundation  for  this  trans-  this  logic  admits  of  no  reply.    It  is,  then,  all  the  more 

mission  of  power  is  to  be  sought  in  the  primitive  extraordinary  that  Hamack  should  seek  the  origin  of 

Christian  icfea  of  the  universal  priesthood,  which  ex-  the  hierarchical  constitution  of  the  Church,  not  in 

eludes  the  recognition  of  a  special  priesthood.    Christ  Palestine,  but  in  pagan  Rome.     Of  the  Catholic 

vis  the  sole  high-priest  of  the  New  Testament,  just  as  Church  he  writes:  ''She  continues  ever  to  govern  the 

His  bloody  death  on  the  Cross  is  the  sole  sacrifice  of  peoples;   her  popes  lord  it  like  Trajan  and  Marcus 

Christianity.    If  all  Christians  without  exception  are  Aurelius.    To  Romulus  and  Remus  succeeded  Peter 

priests  in  virtue  of  their  baptism,  an  official  priest-  and  Paul;  to  the  proconsuls  the  archbishops  and  bish- 

nood  obt£uned  by  special  ordination  is  just  as  inad-  ops.    To  the  legions  correspond  the  hosts  of  priests 

missible  as  the  Catholic  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass.    Not  and  monks;   to  the  imperial  bodyguard  the  Jesuits, 

the  material  sacrifice  of  the  Eucharist,  oonsistin|;  in  Even  to  the  finest  details,  even  to  her  judicial  organ- 

the  offering  of  (real)  gifts,  but  only  the  purely  spirit-  ization,  nay  even  to  her  very  vestments,  the  continued 

ual  sacrifice  of  prayer  harmonizes  with  the  spirit  of  influence  of  the  ancient  empire  and  of  its  institutions 

Christianity.    One  is  indeed  forced  to  admit  tnat  the  may   be  traced"   ("Das  Wesen  d.  Christentums", 

gradual  corruption  of  Christianity  began  very  early  Leipzig,  1902,  p.  157).    With  the  best  of  good  will, 

(end  of  first  century),  since  it  cannot  oe  denied  that  we  can  recognize  in  this  description  only  a  sample  of 

Clement  of  Rome  (Ep.  ad  Cor.,  xliv,  4),  the  Teaching  the  writer's  ingenuity,  for  an  historical  investigation 

of  the  Twelve  Apostles  (Didache,  xiv),  and  Tertullian  of  the  cited  institutions  would  undoubtedly  lead  to 

(De  bapt.,  xvii;  "De  prassc.  hser.",  xli;  "De  exhort,  sources,  beginnings,  and  motives  entirely  different 

cast.",  vii)  recognize  an  officii  priesthood  with  the  from  the  analogous  conditions  of  the  Empire  of  Rome, 
objective  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass.     The  corruption        But  the  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass  indicates  only  one 

quickly  spread  throughout  the  whole  East  and  West,  side  of  the  priesthood;  the  other  side  is  revealed  m  the 

and  persisted  unchecked  during  the  Middle  Ages,  power  of  for^ving  sin,  for  the  exercise  of  which  the 

until  the  Reformation  finally  succeeded  in  restoring  priesthood  is  just  as  necessary  as  it  is  for  the  power  of 

to  Christianity  its  original  purity.   Then  "  the  idea  consecrating  and  sacrificing.    Like  the  general  power 

of  the  universal  priesthood  was  revived;  it  appeared  to  bind  and  to  loose  (cf.  Matt.,  xvi,  19;  xviii,  18),  the 

as  the  necessary  consequence  of  the  very  nature  of  power  of  remitting  and  retaining;  sins  was  solemnly 

Christianity.  . .  .  Since  the  whole  idea  of  sacrifice  was  bestowed  on  the  Church  by  Chnst  (cf .  John,  xx,  21 

discarded,  all  danger  of  reversion  to  the  beliefs  once  sqq.).    Accordingly,  the  Catholic  priesthood  has  the 

derived  from  it  was  removed  "  ("  Realency  cl.  fur  prot.  indisputable  right  ta  trace  its  origin  in  this  respect  also 

Theol.",  XVI,  Leipzig,  1905,  p.  50).  to  the  Divine  Founder  of  the  Church.    Both  sides  of 

To  these  views  we  may  answer  briefly  as  follows,  the  priesthood  were  brought  into  prominence  by  the 

Catholic  theolorians  do  not  deny  that  the  double  (Douncil  of  Trent  (loc.  cit.,  n.  961):  "If  any  one  shall 

^'hierarchy  ol  oraer  and  jurisdiction  "  g^tulually  devel-  say  that  in  the  New  Testament  there  is  no  visible  and 


PBIS8THOOD  4 

external  prieBthood  nor  &ny  power  of  conaecrating  and 
offering  the  Body  and  Blood  of  the  Lord,  as  well  aa  of 
renuttmg  and  retaining  ajv,  but  merely  the  office  and 
bare  ministry  of  preaching  the  Gospel,  let  Jiini  be 
anathema."  Far  from  beii^ai>"uniuat)nableusiirpa- 
tion  of  Divine  powers",  the  priesthood  forms  so  in- 
dispeiiBable  a  foundation  of  Christianity  that  its  re- 
moval would  entail  the  destruction  of  the  whole  edifice. 
A  Christianity  without  a  priesthood  cannot  be  the 
Churchof  Chnst.  This  conviction  is  strengthened  by 
consideration  of  the  psychological  imposmbility  of 
the  Protestant  assumption  that  from  the  end  of  the 
first  century  onward,  Christendom  tolerated  without 
struggle  or  protest  tne  unprecedented  usurpation  of 
the  priests,  who  without  credentials  or  testimony 
suddenly  arrogated  IMvine  poweis  with  respect  to  the 
Eucharist,  and,  on  the  strength  of  a  fictitious  appeal  to 
Christ,  laid  on  baptized  sinners  the  grievous  burden 
of  public  penance  as  an  indispensable  condition  of  the 
forgiveness  of  sin. 

As  for  the  "universal  priesthood",  on  which  Prot- 
estantism relies  in  its  denial  of  the  special  priesthood, 
it  may  be  s^d  that  Catholics  also  beheve  in  a  universal 
priesthood;  this,  however,  by  no  means  excludes  a 
niedal  priesthood  but  rather  presupposes  its  existence, 
since  the  two  are  related  as  the  general  and  the  par- 
ticular, the  abstract  and  the  concrete,  the  figurative 
and  the  real.  The  ordinary  Christian  cannot  be  a 
priest  in  the  strict  sense,  for  he  can  offer,  not  a  real 
sacrifice,  but  onlv  the  figiirative  sacrifice  of  pray^. 
For  this  reason  the  historical  dogmatic  development 
did  not  and  could  not  follow  the  course  it  would  have 
followed  if  in  the  primitive  Church  two  oppowng 
trains  of  thought  (i.  e.  the  universal  versus  the  special 
priesthood)  had  contended  for  supremacy  until  one 
was  vanquished.  The  history  of  dogma  attests,  on 
the  contrary,  that  both  ideas  advanced  harmoniously 
throiwh  the  centuries,  and  have  never  disappeared 
from  the  Catholic  mind.  As  a  matter  of  fact  the  pro- 
found and  beautiful  idea  of  the  universal  priesthood 
may  be  traced  from  Justin  Martyr  (Dial,  cum  Tryph., 
cxvi),  IrenauB  (Adv.  hier.,  IV,  viij  3),  and  Ongen 
("De  orat.'",  xrviii,  9]  "In  Levit.  ,  bom.  ix,  1),  to 
Augustine  (De  civit.  Dei,  XX,  x)  and  Leo  the  Great 
(8^mo,  iv,  1),  and  thence  to  St.  Thomas  (Summa,  III, 
Q.  Ixxxii,  a.  1)  and  the  Roman  Catechism.  And  yet 
all  these  writers  recognized,  along  with  the  Sacrifice 
of  the  Moss,  the  special  priesthood  in  the  Church. 
The  ori^n  of  the  univers^d  priesthood  extends  back, 
as  is  known,  to  St.  Peter,  who  declares  the  faithful,  in 
their  character  of  Christians,  "a  holy  pricethood,  to 
o0er  up  spiritual  sacrifices",  and  "a  cnosen  genera- 
tion, a  Kinkly  priesthood"  (I  Peter,  ii,  5,  9).  But  the 
very  text  snows  that  the  Apostle  meant  only  a  figura- 
tive priesthood,  since  the  "spiritual  sacrifices"  signify 
Erayet  and  the  term  "royal  (regale,  paaCXitor)  could 
ave  had  but  a  metaphorical  sense  for  the  Christians. 
The  Gnostics,  Montanists,  and  Catharists,  who,  in 
their  attacks  on  the  s^pecial  priesthood,  had  misapplied 
the  metaphor,  were  just  as  illogical  as  the  Rcformeis, 
since  the  two  ideas,  real  and  figurative  priesthood,  are 

Suite  compatible.  It  is  clear  from  the  foregoing  that 
le  Catholic  clergy  alone  are  entitled  to  the  designa- 
tion "priest",  since  they  alone  have  a  true  and  real 
sacrifice  to  offer,  the  Holy  Mass.  Consequently, 
Angficans  who  reject  the  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass  are 
inconsistent^^wben  they  refer  to  their  clergy  as 
"priests".  The  preachers  in  Germany  quite  logically 
dwclaim  the  title  with  a  certain  indignation. 

B.  The  Hierarchical  Politian  of  the  PTeebylerale. — 
The  relation  of  the  priest  to  the  bishop  and  deacon 
may  be  briefly  explained  by  stating  that  he  is,  as  it 
were,  the  middle  term  betwe^  the  two,  being  hier- 
archically the  subordinate  of  the  bishop  and  the 
superior  of  the  deacon  (cf.  Council  of  Trent.  Sess. 
XixVI,  can.  vi).  While  the  pre-eminence  of  the  bishop 
over  the  priest  consists  mainly  in  his  power  of  ordina- 


5  PBIESTHOOD 

tion,  that  of  the  priest  over  the  deacon  is  based  on 
his  power  of  consecrating  and  absolvinfc,  (cf.  Council  of 
Trent,  loc.  cit.,  cap.  iv;  can.  i  and  vii).  The  inde- 
pendence of  the  diaconate  appears  earlier  and  more 
clearly  in  the  oldest  sources  than  that  of  the  priest- 
hood, chiefly  because  of  the  long-continued  fluctuation 
in  the  meaning  of  the  titles  episcoput  and  prabyler, 
which  until  the  middle  of  the  second  century  were  in- 
terdiangeable   and   synonymous  terms.     Probably 

son  in  fact  for 
this  uncertainty 
since  the  hier 
archical  distinc 
tion  between 
bishop  and 
iriest  seems  to 

rodual  growth 


Wter,    ^ 

pie  priests  are 
never  calledepM- 
copi.  The  prob- 
lem is,  however,  »-'■  i^niuiy  ivoiy.  rr»a«iori 

far   from   being 

solved,  since  in  the  primitive  Church  there  were  not 
yet  fixed  names  for  the  different  orders;  the  latter 
must  rather  be  determined  from  the  context  according 
to  the  characteristic  functions  discharged.  The  ap- 
peal to  the  usage  of  the  pagan  Greeks,  who  had  their 
trlcneirai  and  rptffpSrtpM,  does  not  settle  the  ques- 
tion, as  Ziebarth  ("Das  griechische  Vereinswesen ". 
Leipzig.  .1896)  has  shown  in  reply  to  Hatch  and 
Hamack.  Any  attempt  at  a  solution  must  take  into 
account  the  varying  use  in  different  countries  (e.  g. 
Palestine,  Asia  Minor).  In  some  places  the  "pres- 
byters" may  have  been  real  bishops,  in  others  priests 
in  the  present  meaning  of  the  term,  while  elsewhere 
they  may  have  been  mere  administrative  officers  or 
worthy  ciders  chosen  to  represent  the  local  church  in 
its  external  relations  (see  Uierarcht  of  the  Eablt 
Church). 

Like    the    Ap<»tolic    writings,    the    "Didache", 
Hermaa,  Clement  of  Rome,  and  Irc[ueu&<b^\;«i'>asR.'OEM 


PRIESTHOOD                          416  PRIESTHOOD 

terms  "bishop"  and  "priest"  indiscriminately.  In  VIII,  ix,  2).  The  three  essentials  of  a  sacrament — 
fact,  it  18  really  a  moot  question  whether  the  presby-  outward  sign^  interior  j^ace,  and  institution  by  Christ 
terate  gradualljr  developed  as  an  offshoot  of  the  epis-  — are  found  m  the  pnestly  ordination. 
copate--which  is  in  the  nature  of  things  more  likely  As  regards  the  outward  sign,  there  has  been  a  long- 
and  in  view  of  the  Deeds  of  the  growing  Church  more  protracted  controversy  among  theologians  concerning 
readily  understood — or  whether,  conversely,  the  epis-  the  matter  and  form,  not  alone  of  the  priestly  ordina- 
copate  had  its  origin  in  the  elevation  of  the^  presby-  tion,  but  of  the  Sacrament  of  Holy  Orders  in  general, 
terate  to  a  higher  rank  (Lightfoot),  which  is  more  Is  the  imposition  of  hands  alone  (Bonaventure, 
difficult  to  admit.  On  the  other  hand,  even  at  the  Morin,  and  most  modem  theologians),  or  the  pres- 
beginnins  of  the  second  century.  Ignatius  of  Antioch  entation  of  the  instruments  (Gregory  ot  Valencia,  the 
(£p.  ad  Magnes.,  vi  and  paasim)  brings  out  with  re-  Thomists),  or  are  both  together  (Bellarmine,  De  Lugo, 
markable  clearness  the  hierarchical  distinction  be-  Billot  etc.)  to  be  regarded  as  the  essential  matter  of 
tween  ihe  monarchical  bishop,  the  priests,  and  the  the  sacrament?  As  to  the  priestly  ordination  in  par- 
deacons.  He  emphasizes  this  triad  as  essential  to  the  ticular^  which  alone  concerns  us  here,  the  difference  of 
constitution  of  the  Church:  "Without  these  [three]  views  is  explained  by  the  fact  that^  in  addition  to 
it  cannot  be  called  the  Church"  (Ad  Trail.,  iii).  But,  three  impositions  of  hands,  the  rite  mcludes  a  pres- 
acoording  to  the  law  of  historic  continuity,  this  dis-  entation  to  the  candidate  of  the  chalice  filled  with 
tinction  of  the  orders  must  have  existed  in  substance  wine,  and  of  the  paten  with  the  host.  Concerning  the 
and  embryo  duriiig  the  first  century;  and,  as  a  matter  latter  Eugenius  IV  says  expressly  in  his  "Decretum 
of  fact,  St.  Paul  (I  Tim.,  v,  17, 19)  mentions  "presby-  pro  Armenis"  (1439;  in  Denzinger,  n.  701):  "The 
ters"  who  were  subordinate  to  the  real  bishop  Tim-  priesthood  is  conferred  by  the  handing  of  the  chalice 
othy .  But  in  the  Latin  writers  there  is  no  ambiguity,  containing  wine  and  of  the  paten  with  bread."  How- 
Tertulhan  (De  bapt.,  xvii)  calls  the  bishop  the  ever,  in  view  of  the  fact  that  in  the  Bible  (Acts^  xiii. 
'^summus  sacerdos",  under  whom  are  the  "presbvteri  3;  xiv,  22;  I  Tim.,  iv,  14;  v,  22:  II  Tim.,  i,  6),  m  all 
et  diaooni";  and  Cyprian  (Ep.  Ixi,  3)  speaks  of  the  patristic  literature,  and  in  the  whole  East  the  impost- 
"presbvteri  cum  episcopo  sacerdotali  nonore  con-  tion  of  hands  alone  is  found,  while  even  in  the  West 
juncti",  i.  e.  the  pnests  united  by  sacerdotal  dignity  the  presentation  of  the  sacred  vessels  does  not  extend 
with  the  bishop  (see  Bishop).  back  beyond  the  tenth  century,  we  are  forced  to 
About  360,  i^ter  the  development  of  the  orders  had  recognize  theoretically  that  the  latter  ceremony  is 
lon^  been  complete^  ASrius  of  Pontus  first  ventured  to  unessential^  like  the  solemn  anointing  of  the  priest's 
obliterate  the  distmction  between  the  priestly  and  hands,  which  is  evidently  borrowed  from  the  Old 
episcopal  orders  and  to  place  them  on  an  equality  Testament  and  was  introduced  from  the  Gallican  into 
with  respect  to  their  powers.  For  this  he  was  ranked  the  Roman  Rite  (cf.  "Statuta  ecclesis  antique"  in 
among  tne  heretics  by  Epiphanius  (Adv.  haer.,  Ixxv,  P.  L^  LVI^  879  sqq.).  In  defence  of  the  anointing. 
3).  The  testimony  of  St.  Jerome  (d.  420),  whom  the  the  (Jouncil  of  Trent  condemned  those  who  declared 
Scottish  R-esbytcrians  cite  in  behalf  of  the  presbyteral  -it  "despicable  and  pernicious"  (Sess.  XXXIII,  can. 
constitutionof  the  Church,  raises  some  difficulties,  as  v).  As  regards  the  sacramental  form,  it  may  be 
he  appears  to  assert  the  full  equality  of  priests  and  accepted  as  probable  that  the  prayer  accompanying 
bishops.  It  is  true  that  Jerome  endeavoured  to  en-,  the  second  extension  of  hands  (x^p^^^^)  is  the 
hance  the  (tignity  of  the  priesthood  at  the  expense  of  essential  form,  although  it  is  not  impossible  that  the 
the  episcopate  and  to  refer  the  bishop^  superiority  words  spoken  by  the  bishop  during  the  third  im- 
" rather  to  ecclesiastical  custom  than  to  Divine  regula-  position  of  hands  (x«po^e^^):  "Receive  the  Holy 
tion"  (In  Tit.,  i,  5:  "Episcopi  noverint  se  magis  con-  Ghost,  whose  sins  you  shall  remit,  they  are  remitted, 
suetudine  quam  dispositionis  dominie®  veritate  pres-  etc.",  constitute  a  partial  form.  The  first  imposition 
byterisessemajores  ).  He  desired  a  more  democratic  of  hands  by  the  bishop  (and  the  priests)  cannot  be 
constitution  in  which  the  priests  hitherto  undeserv-  regarded  as  the  form,  since  it  is  performed  in  silence, 
edly  slighted  would  participate,  and  he  urged  the  but  it  also  may  have  an  essential  importance  in  so  far 
correction  of  the  abuse,  wiaespread  since  the  third  as  the  second  extension  of  hands  is  simply  the  moral 
century,  by  which  the  archdeacons,  as  the  "right  continuation  of  the  first  touching  of  the  head  of  the  oftfi- 
hand"  of  the  bishops,  controlled  the  whole  diocesan  nandus  (cf.  Gregory  IX,  "Decret.",  I,  tit.  xvi,  cap. 
administration  (Ep.  cxliv  ad  Evangel.).  It  is  at  once  III).  The  oldest  formularies — e.  g.  the  "l^ucholo- 
evident  that  Jerome  disputes  not  the  hierarchical  g;ium"of  Serapionof  Thmuis  (cf.  Funk,  "Didascalia", 
rank  (potestfis  ordinia)  of  the  bishops  but  their  powers  II,  Tiibingen,  1905, 189),  the  "Pseudo- Apostolic  Con- 
of  government  (potestaa  jurisdictionis) — and  this  not  stitutions  (Funk,  loc.  dt.,  L  520),  the  lately  dis- 
so  much  in  principle,  but  only  to  insist  that  the  covered  "Testament  of  the  Lord"  (ed.  Rahmani, 
deacons  should  be  dislodged  from  the  position  they  Mainz,  1899,  p.  68),  and  the  Canons  of  Hippolytus 
had  usurped  and  the  priests  established  m  the  official  (ed.  Achelis,  Leipzig,  1891,  p.  61) — contain  only  one 
position  befitting  their  higher  rank.  How  far  Jerome  imposition  of  hands  with  a  short  accompanying  prayer, 
was  from  being  a  follower  of  ASrius  and  a  forerunner  In  the  eleventh  century  the  Mozarabic  Rite  is  still 
of  I^esbyterianism  appears  from  his  important  ad-  quite  simple  (cf.  "Monum.  liturg.",  V,  Paris,  1904, 
mission  that  the  power  of  ordination  is  possessed  pp.  54  so.),  while,  on  the  contrary,  the  Armenian  Rite 
by  the  bishops  alone,  and  not  by  the  priests  (loc.  cit.  oi  the  Middle  Ages  shows  great  complexity  (cf. 
in  P.  L.,  XXII,  1193:  "Quid  enim  facit — excepta  Conybeare-Maclean,  "Rituale  Armenorum"^  Cbrford, 
ordinatione — episcopus  quod  presbyter  nonfaciat?").  1905.  pp.  231  sqq.).  In  the  Greek-Byzantme  Rite, 
By  this  admission  Jerome  establishes  his  orthodoxy,  the  bishop,  after  making  three  signs  of  the  cross, 
C.  The  SacramerUality  of  the  PresbytercUe. — ^The  places  his  right  hand  on  the  head  of  the  ordinandus. 
Council  of  Trent  decrera  (Sess.  XXIII,  can.  iii,  in  meanwhile  reciting  a  prayer,  and  then,  praying  in 
Denzinger,  n.  963) :  "If  any  one  shall  say  that  order  secret,  holds  the  same  hand  extended  above  the  candi- 
or  sacrS  ordination  is  not  truly  and  properly  a  sacra-  date,  and  invokes  upon  him  the  seven  nf ts  of  the 
ment  instituted  by  Christ  our  Lord  ...  let  him  be  Holy  Ghost  (cf.  Goar.  "Euchol.  Grsec",  Paris,  1647, 
anathema."  While  the  synod  defined  only  the  existence  pp.  292  sqq.) .  For  other  formularies  of  ordination  see 
of  the  Sacrament  of  Holy  Orders,  without  deciding  benzinger,  "Ritus  Orientalium",  II  (WQrzburK» 
whether  ^1  the  orders  or  only  some  fall  within  the  1864);  Manser  in  Buchberger,  "Kirchliches  Hand- 
definition,  it  is  admitted  that  the  priestly  ordination  lexikon",  s.  v.  Priesterweihe. 
possesses  with  even  greater  certainty  than  the  epi»-  As  a  sacrament  of  the  living,  ordination  presupposes 
copal  and  the  diaconal  ordination  the  dignity  of  a  the  possession  of  sanctifying  grace,  and  therefore  con- 
saenuDeaf  (cf,  Benedict  XIV,  "De  syn.  dioces.",  fers,  besides  the  right  to  the  actual  graces  of  the 


FRQB8TH00D                           417  PRIESTHOOD 

priestly  office,  an  increase  of  sanctifying  grace  (cf .  sins,  but  also  authority  to  adniinister  extreme  unction 

/'Deoret.  pro  Armenis''  in  Doizinger,  n.  701).    But  and,  as  the  regular  minister,  solemn  baptism.   Only  in 

in  all  cases,  whether  the  candidate  is  in  the  state  of  virtue  of  an  extraordinary  faculty  received  from  the 

sanctifying  gpLce  or  not,  the  sacrament  imprints  on  pope  is  a  priest  competent  to  administer  the  Sacra- 

the  soul  an  indelible  spuitual  mark  (cf.  Council  of  ment  of  Confirmation.    While  the  conferring  of  the 

Trent.  Sess.  VII,  can.  ix,  in  Denidnger,  n.  852),  i.  e.  the  three  sacramental  orders  of  the  episcopate,  presby- 

priestly  character,  to  which  are  permanently  attached  terate,  and  diaoonate,  pertains  to  the  bishop  alone, 

the  powers  of  consecrating  and  absolving — the  latter,  the  pope  may  delegate  a  priest  to  administer  the  four 

however,  with  the  reservation  that  for  the  valid  ad-  minor  orders,  and  even  the  subdiaconate.    According 

ministration  of  the  Sacrament  of  Penance  the  power  to  the  present  canon  law,  however,  the  papal  per- 

of  jurisdiction  is  also  required  (see  Charactei^).    As  mission  granted  to  abbots  of  monasteries  is  confined 

the  priestly  character,  like  that  imparted  by  baptism  to  the  conferring  of  the  tonsure  and  the  four  minor 

and  confinnation,  is  indelible,  ordination  can  never  orders  on  their  subjects  (cf.  Council  of  Trent.  Sess. 

be  repeated,  and  a  return  to  the  lay  state  is  absolutely  XXIII  de  Ref.,  cap.  x).    Concerning  the  privile^  of 

impossible  (cf.  Coimcil  of  Trent,  Sess.  XXIII,  can.  conferring  the  diaoonate,  claimed  to  have  been  given 

iv,  in  Denzinger,  n.  964).    That  priestly  ordination  to  Cistercian  abbots  by  Innocent  VIII  in  1489,  see 

was  instituted  by  Christ  is  proved  not  alone  by  the  Gasparri,  ''De  sacr.  ordin.",  11  (Paris,  1893),  n.  798, 

Divine  institution  of  the  pnesthood  (see  above,  A),  and  Pohle,  ''Dogmatik",  III  (4th  ed.,  Paderbom, 

bi^t  also  by  the  testimonjr  of  Holy  Writ  and  Tradition,  1910),  pp.  587  sqq.    To  the  priestly  office  also  belongs 

which  unanimously  testify  that  the  Apostles  trans-  the  facultv  of  adoiinistering  the  ecclesiastical  bless- 

mitted  their  powers  to  their  successors,  who  in  turn  ings  and  the  sacramentals  in  general,  in  so  far  as  these 

transmitted  them  to  the  succeeding  generation  (cf.  are  not  reserve  to  the  pope  or  bishops.    By  preaching 

I  Tim.,  v,  22).    Since  the  charismatic  gifts  of  the  the  Word  of  God  the  priest  has  his  snare  in  the  teach- 

'' apostles  and  prophets ''mentioned  in  the ''Didache"  ing  office  of  the  Church,  always,  however,  as  subor- 

had  nothing  to  do  with  the  priesthood  as  such,  these  dinate  to  the  bishop  and  only  M^thin  the  sphere  of 

itinerant  missionaries  still  needed  the  imposition  of  duty  to  which  he  is  assigned  as  pastor,  curate,  etc. 

hands  to  empower  them  to  discharge  the  specifically  Finally,  the  priest  may  participate  in  the  pastoral  duty 

,  priestly  functions  (see  Charismata;  .  in  so  far  as  the  bishop  entrusts  him  with  a  definite 

For  the  valid  reception  of  the  Sacrament  of  Orders,  ecclesiastical  office  edtailing  a  more  or  less  extensive 

it  is  necessary  that  the  minister  be  a  bishop  and  the  jurisdiction,  which  is  indispensable  especially  for  the 

recipient  a  baptised  person  of  the  male  sex.   The  first  v8^d  absolution  of  penitents  from  their  sins.   Certain 

requisite  is  based  on  the  episcopal  prerogative  of  or-  extemaJ  honorary  privileges,  e.  g.  those  enjoyed  by 

darning:  the  second  on  the  conviction  that  baptism  cardinal-priests,   prelates,    eccleoastical   councillors, 

opens  tne  door  to  all  the  other  sacraments  ana  that  etc.,  do  not  enhance  the  intrinsic  dignity  of  the 

women  are  definitively  barred  from  the  service  of  the  priesthood. 

altar  (cf.  Epiphanius,  "De  h»r.".  bcxix,  2).    St.  Paul  General  WorkB^--ST. Thomas, Supptem., Q. n^^ 

is  a  r^olute  champion  of  an  exc/usively  male  priest-  rsSrm^iB.^JJ^J^'X^^^ 

hood  ^Cf.  I  Cor.,  XIV,  34).     In  this  respect  there  is  an  et  novo  jure  (Paris.  1636).  also  in  MxGNB.  Curau9  theol.,  XXlV; 

essential  difference  between  Christiamty  and  Pagan-  ^o"^*  jSj^*!*!^-  ^  ••^^  EccUna  ordin^  (Paris,  1656;  Ant- 

;•««    «:*t#wk  *u^  1a4^^a»  ««M.rvflr..;«<w>  «%-:»a4^<>al«a  o.  «»«li  ».  werp,  1696):  Obbrkdobfeb,  J3«  socr.ora.  (Freising,  1769);  amonc 

ism,  smce  the  latter  recomisee  priestesses  as  well  as  utS*  works  consult:  KOppleb,  PHester  u.  0R/er(M6«  (Mains. 

priests — e.  g.  the  hierodules  of  Ancient  Greece,  the  1886);    Gasparki,  TraetaUu  canonieus  de  §acr.  ordinal.  (Paris, 

vestal  virgins  of  Rome,  the  bajaders  of  India,  the  WU  JgW);  QcBAint,D%eLehrevpnd€n  Sakramentm  d,  kathoL  KirOis 

of  China,  and  the  femaiebonses  of  Japan.    The  early  2;^1:^;JS.¥i>^fS.^,%3%^^ 

Church  contemned  as  an  absurdity  the  female  pnest-  m  leratUJuda  u.  im  UrehrUtentum  (19(X();  Pourkat.  La  thMogi^ 

hood  of  Montanism  and  of  the  Collyridiani,  and  it  •?S2l''»*!SS*''f  A^™'  1907);   SALm,  Lu  riordinatione  (^m, 

riAvroi*  *A«»o«^i^  *\yM^  Avw^of^KA  in^^l**^*^! r^t  A^t^Lx^^^^^m^^  1907).   The  foUowing  are  written  rather  from  the  asoetical  stand- 
never  regwrd«l  the  ApostOhC  institute  of  deaconesses  poj^t:  Ouib,  TraiUdea  eainte  ordre*  (7th  od.,  Paris.  1868) ;  Man- 

as  a  branch  of  Holy  orders.     For  the  licit  reception  of  ninq.  The  Btemal  Frieethood  (London,  1883);  Mkbcibb,  RetraiU 

priestly  ordination,  canon  law  demands:    freedom  p^torois  (7th  ed..  Brussels.  I9ii).                     ^  *u  «  a^ 

f.%r%«n  ^«TA*«r  ;M.A«n.U-:4>«*    4^^w^^\^*i^w^  ^t  ♦k^  *^^^*^  Conceming  the  alleged  pagan  influenoea  on  the  Catholic  Baorl- 

from  every  uregulanty^  completion  of  the  twenty-  ficse  and  priSthood:  douSSm.  H«den/Mm  m. /i«i«n/iim  (Rati»- 

fOUrth  year,  the  reception  of  the  earlier  orders  (m-  bon.  1867);  Hatch,  The  Influence  of  Oreek  Ideae  and  Ueageeupon 

eluding  the  diaconate),  the  observation  of  the  regular  <*•  Chri^uin  Church,  ed.  by  Faibbaiwc  (London,  1890) :  ^ot. 

;*t4-A«a4T««<^    onrl  4VkA  «w>.««^m.:a*«  ^t  «  *;♦!«  ♦«.  ^«^:««^:^««  *^^  anttke  My^enenweaen  tn  eetnem  Eirifluee  aufdae  Chrxatentum 

mterstlC^,  and  the  possession  of  a  title  to  ordination,  (oottingen.  1894);  Wobbebmik,  RelioioMgeachicha.  Studien  aur 

In  addition  to  the  requisites  for  the  vahd  and  lawful  Frage  der  Beeinfluaauno  dee  Chriatmluma  durch  daa  anttke  Mya^ 

reception  of  the  priesthood  the  question  arises  as  to  <«ri«nir««n  (Berlin.  1896) ;  Cumoht,  r«rf«  etmon,  rdatifa  aus 

4kA  nA««>^*«<il  nr/^«./k;«Aoo  #v*  ♦k^  ^«l^A\A^*^       k  ^^^^A\^^  myatirea  de  Mtthra  (Brussels.  1896-9);  Robebtsgn.  Chrtattanity 

the  personal  WOrthmess  of  the  candidate.     According  ^nd  Mythology  (London,  19005 ;  Chapum,  ^influence  de  Veaainiame 

.                                        .                  .                      ..               .  .         -     _                             >Wto«.  (1903),  pp.  193 

loCoBMACK  (Ixuidon, 

daa  Chriatentum 

^.^-.«, , ,- .-  (Leipsig,  1903); 

means  of  securing  worthy  candidates  for  the  priest-  hijffim,^D%ekUdniach€n^Myaierienu.duYieUmx^^ 

hood  is  careful  mquiry  regarding  vocations.     In-  '^'J^'^'^V"''^*?^^"^;^*'****^,^^ 

truders  in  the  sanct^u^  h^e  at  lu  times  been  the  liTei^^r^-S2;;,^^'^e^^ 

occasion  of  the  greatest  mjury  to  the  Church,  and  of  Jenbbn^Dm  QUgameaehrEooa  in  der  WeUUteratw,  I  (Strasburg. 

scandal  to  the  people.    For  this  reason,  Pope  Pius  X,  }«>6) ;  w»ji>yNi>. Die h^iach^iadie KuiturinaurenB^ 

«r;4^k  ^^,^^  <.«.Aa^<»«\>4^*:^4-«%^«^  ♦u-^.  »,«.  -u»£»«  :•»  ^^  hungen  au  Judentum  u.  Chrtatentum  (TQbinsen,  1907);   Soltau. 

With  even  ^ater  Stnctness  than  was  shown  m  pre-  DaiFortMtendea  HeidentumainderaUchriaaTKirehe(BeTUn,1906); 

VlOUS  ecclesiastical  regulations,  msists  upon  the  exclu-  db  Jonq,  Daa  antike  Myaterienweaen  (Leiden,  1909) ;    Cum bn. 

Sion  of  all  candidates  who  do  not  give  the  highest  Relimonageaehicha,  ErklOrung   dea  Neuen    TeetamenU  (Giessen. 

promise  of  a  life  conspicuous  for  firmness  of  faith  and  ^^nceming  the  relations  between  the  bishop  and  priests  in  the 

moral  rectitude.      In  this  connexion  the  importance  primitive  Church  consult:   Kubx,  Der  Bpiakopat  der  hdchate  vom 

and  necessity  of  colleges  and  ecclesiastical  seminaries  Prubyterafverachiedene  Ordo  (Vienna.  1877) :  Hatch,  JA«  Org^ 

e^m.  ♦k^  4«.«:««iM»  ^f  ♦C^  «i«.».,  »««.,^4.  u^  *^«  ..^...^^^i..  tatton  of  the  Early  Chnatuin  Churchea  (2nd  ed.,  London,  1882); 

for  the  trwmng  of  the  clergy  cannot  be  too  strongly  smith  and  Chebtham,  Did.  of  Chriat.  Antiq.,  s.  v.  Prieat; 

emphasised.  ScHULiv-pLAsaifAN,  Der  Epiakopat  ein  vom  PreabytenU  verachiede- 

D.   The  Official  Powers  of  the  Priest— Ab  said  above,  t}^-  •^^'^ndvger  und  aakramenlaler  Ordp   (Pade'^n}.   1^^  J 

the  official  ^we«  of  the  priest  are  intimately  con^  Jf?^^?:  ^**  (^^^^f^^J^  ^"  f/rc^m<^un«„(Halle,  1889). 


nected  with  the  sacramentid  character,  indelibly  im-  xowski. 

printed  on  his  soul.    Together  with  this  character  is  ^^^^^^^th^^??^'^  ^^VZ'JiL^ni/^!i!i!tJi^p^^^^^ 

*l^.^e 1    _Aii.v  e    tf     -  xtci  bourg,  1898) ;  Dunin-Borkowski,  D%e  neueren  roracnungen  itoer 

conferred,  not  only  the  power  of  offenng  up  the  Sac-  die  Anfangedea  Epinkopatn  (Frciburj?.  1900);  Michiels.  I'origine 

rince  of  the  Mass  and  the  (virtual)  power  of  forgiving  de  Vipiacopat  (Louvain,  1900);    Wbim&cuui,  Daa  apoatoliache 

XII.— 27 


PRIESTHOOD 


418 


PRIESTHOOD 


ZeUaUer  der  ehristl.  KireKe  (3rd  ed..  Leipxig,  1902) ;  Brudbrm,  Die 
Ver/atsung  der  Kirche  wm  den  ereten  Jahrtehnten  der  apoetoliaehen 
Wirkeamkeit  hie  turn  Jahre  176  naeh  Chr.  (Mains,  1904);  Knopf, 
Dae  naehapoeiolieche  ZeUalier  (Leipxig,  1005) ;  Batipfol,  L'igliae 
naieeoTUe  el  le  Catholieieme  (2ad  ed.,  Paris,  1908);  Haknack, 
JSrUstehutui  und  Enlunckelung  der  Kirchenverfaaaung  und  dee  Kirck- 
enreehta  (Leipxig,  1910).  For  special  treatment  of  the  views  of  St. 
Jerome,  consult:  Blondbl,  Apotogia  pro  aerUentia  Hieronymi  de 
efiiacopia  et  preabyteria  (Amsterdam,  1646);  KdNia.  Der  kaiho- 
Itache  Prieaier  tar  1600  Jahren:  Prieater  und  Prieeiertutn  nacA 
Hieronymua  (Breslau,  1890);  Sakdbrs,  Etudea  atar  S.  Jirdme 
(Paris.  1903),  296  sqq.;  Tixbront,  Hiat.  dee  dogmee,  II  (Paris, 
1909).    On  clerical  training  see  bibliography  under  Sbmxnabt. 

rV.  What  the  Cathouc  Priesthood  has  done 
FOR  Civilization. — Passing  entirely  over  the  super- 
natural blessing  derived  by  mankind  from  the 
prayers  of  the  priesthood,  the  celebration  of  the  Holy 
Sacrifice,  and  the  administration  of  the  sacraments, 
we  shall  confine  ourselves  to  the  secular  civihEation. 
which,  through  the  Catholic  priesthood,  has  spread 
to  all  nations  and  brought  into  full  bloom  rehgion, 
morality,  science,  art,  and  industry.    If  religion  in 

general  is  the  mother  of  all  culture,  Christianity  must 
e  acknowledged  as  the  source,  measure,  and  nursery 
of  all  true  civihzation.  The  Church,  the  oldest  and 
most  successful  teacher  of  mankind,  nas  in  each  cen- 
tury done  pioneer  service  in  all  departments  of  culture. 
Through  her  organs,  the  priests  and  especially  the 
members  of  the  religious  orders,  she  carried  the  light 
of  Faith  to  all  lands,  banished  the  darkness  of  pagan- 
ism, and  with  the  Gospel  brought  the  blessings  of 
Chnstian  morality  and  education.  What  would  have 
become  of  the  countries  about  the  Mediterranean 
during  the  epoch  of  the  migration  of  the  nations  (from 
375)  if  the  popes,  bishops,  and  clergy  had  not  tamed 
the  German  hordes,  converted  them  from  Arianism 
to  Cathohcism,  and  out  of  barbarism  evolved  order? 
What  Ireland  owes  to  St.  Patrick,  England  owes  to 
St.  Augustine,  who,  sent  by  Pope  Gregory  the  Great, 
brought  not  only  the  Gospel,  but  also  a  hi^er  moral- 
ity and  culture.  While  the  light  of  Christianity  thus 
burned  brightly  in  Ireland  and  Britain,  part  of  Ger- 
many was  still  shrouded  in  the  darkness  of  paganism. 
Bands  of  missionaries  from  the  Island  of  Saints  now 
brought  to  the  continent  the  message  of  salvation  and 
established  new  centres  of  culture.  Charlemagne's 
great  work  of  uniting  all  the  German  tribes  into  an 
empire  was  onlv  the  ^orious  fruit  of  the  seed  sown  by 
St.  Boniface  of  Certon  (d.  755)  on  German  soil  and 
watered  with  the  blood  of  martyrs.  The  Church  of 
the  Middle  Ages,  having  now  attained  to  power,  con- 
tinued through  her  priests  to  propagate  the  Gospel  in 
pagan  lands.  It  was  missionaries  who  first  brought  to 
Europe  news  of  the  existence  of  China.  In  1246  three 
Franciscans,  commissioned  by  the  pope,  appeared  in 
audience  before  the  emperor  of  the  Mongols;  in  1306 
the  first  Christian  church  was  built  in  Peking.  From 
the  Volga  to  the  Desert  of  Gobi,  the  Franciscans  and 
Dominicans  covered  the  land  with  their  missionary 
stations.  In  the  sixteenth  century  the  zeal  of  the 
older  orders  was  rivalled  by  the  Jesuits,  among  whom 
St.  Francis  Xavier  must  l>e  accorded  a  place  of  hon- 
our; their  achievements  in  the  Reductions  of  Para- 
guay are  as  incontestable  as  their  great  services  in  the 
United  States.  As  for  the  French  colonies  in  America, 
the  American  historian  Bancroft  declares  that  no 
notable  city  was  founded,  no  river  explored,  no  cape 
circumnavigated,  without  a  Jesuit  showing  the  way. 
Even  if  Buckle's  one-sided  statement  were  true,  viz. 
that  culture  is  not  the  result  of  religion,  but  vice  versa, 
we  could  point  to  the  work  of  Cathouc  missionaries, 
who  are  striving  to  lift  the  savages  in  pagan  lands  to  a 
higher  state  of  morality  and  civilization,  and  thence 
to  transform  them  into  decent  Christians. 

In  the  wake  of  religion  follows  her  inseparable  com- 
panion, morality;  the  combination  of  the  two  forms  is 
the  indispensable  preliminarv  condition  for  the  con- 
tinuation  and  vitality  of  all  higher  civilization.  The 
decadence  of  culture  has  always  been  heralded  by  a 


reign  of  unbelief  and  immorality,  the  fall  of  the 
Roman  Empire  and  the  French  Revolution  furnishing 
conspicuous  examples.  What  the  Church  accom- 
plished in  the  course  of  the  centuries  for  the  raising  of 
the  standard  of  morality,  in  the  widest  sense,  by  the 
inculcation  of  the  Decalogue,  that  pillar  of  human 
society,  by  promulgating  the  commandment  of  love 
of  God  and  one's  neighbour,  by  preaching  purity  in 
single,  married,  and  family  life,  by  waging  war  upon 
superstition  and  evil  customs,  by  the  practice  of  the 
three  counsels  of  voluntary  pov.ertv,  obedience,  and 
perfect  purity,  by  holding  out  the  ''imitation  of 
Christ"  as  the  ideal  of  Chnstian  perfection,  the  rec- 
ords of  twenty  centuries  plainly  declare.  The  history 
of  the  Church  is  at  once  the  history  of  her  charitable 
activity  exercised  through  the  priesthood.  There 
have  indeed  been  waves  of  degeneracy  and  immorality 
sweeping  at  times  even  to  the  papal  throne,  and  re- 
sulting m  the  general  corruption  of  the  people,  and 
in  aposta^  from  the  Church.  The  heroic  stru^le  of 
Gregory  VII  (d.  1085)  against  the  simony  and  mcon- 
tinence  of  the  clergy  stands  forth  as  a  fact  which 
restored  to  the  stale-grown  salt  of  the  earth  its  earlier 
strength  and  flavour. 

The  most  wretched  and  oppressed  classes  of  human- 
ity are  the  slaves,  the  poor,  and  the  sick.  Nothing 
is  in  such  harsh  contrast  to  the  ideas  of  human  per- 
sonality and  of  Christian  freedom  as  the  slavery 
found  in  pagan  lands.  The  efforts  of  the  Church  were 
at  first  directed  towards  depriving  slavery  of  its  most 
repulsive  feature  by  emphasizing  the  equuity  and  free- 
dom of  all  children  of  God  (cT  I  Cor.,  vii,  21  sqq.; 
Philem.,  16  sqq.).  then  towards  ameliorating  as  far  as 
possible  the  condition  of  slaves,  and  finally  towards 
effecting  the  abolition  of  this  unworthy  bondage.  The 
slowness  of  the  movement  for  the  abolition  of  slavery, 
which  owed  its  final  triumph  over  the  African  slave- 
traders  to  a  crusade  of  Cardinal  Lavigerie  (d.  1802), 
is  explained  by  the  necessary  consideration  of  the 
economic  rights  of  the  owners  and  thepersonal  welfare 
of  the  slaves  themselves,  since  a  bold  ''proclamation 
of  the  rights  of  man"  would  simply  have  thrown 
milUons  of  helpless  slaves  breadless  into  the  streets. 
Emancipation  carried  with  it  the  obligation  of  caring 
for  the  bodily  needs  of  the  freedmen,  and,  whenever 
the  experiment  was  made,  it  was  the  clergy  who  un- 
dertook this  burden.  Special  congregations,  such  as 
the  Trinitarians  and  theMeroedarians,  devoted  them- 
selves exclusively  to  the  hberation  and  ransom  of 
Srisoners  and  slaves  in  pagan,  and  especially  in 
iohammedan  lands.  It  was  Christian  compassion 
for  tiie  weakly  and  languishing  Indians  which  sug- 
gested to  the  Spanish  monk,  Las  Casas,  the  unfor- 
tunate idea  of  importing  the  strong  negroes  from 
Africa  to  work  in  the  American  mines.  Tliat  his  idea 
would  develop  into  the  scandalous  traffic  in  the  black 
race,  which  the  history  of  the  three  succeeding  cen- 
turies reveals,  the  noble  monk  never  suspected  (see 
Slavery). 

As  to  the  relief  of  the  poor  and  sick,  a  single 
priest,  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  (d.  1660),  achieved  more 
m  all  the  branches  of  this  work  than  many  cities  and 
states  combined.  The  services  of  the  clergy  in  general 
in  the  exercise  of  charity  cannot  here  be  touched  upon 
(see  Charity  and  Charities).  It  may  however  be 
noted  that  the  famous  School  of  Salerno,  the  first  and 
most  renowned,  and  for  many  centuries  the  OTily 
medical  faculty  m  Europe,  was  foimded  by  the  Benedic- 
tines, who  here  laboured  partly  as  practitioners  of 
medicine,  and  partly  to  furnish  a  supply  of  dolled 
physicians  for  all  Europe.  Of  recent  pioneers  m  the 
domain  of  charity  and  social  work  may  be  mentioned 
the  Irish  "Apostleof  Temperance",  Father  Theobald 
Matthew  and  the  German  "Father  of  Journeymen 
(GeselUrwater),  Kolping. 

Intimately  related  with  the  morally  good  is  the  id» 
of  the  true  and  the  beautiful,  the  object  of  science  and 


PEIE8THOOD 


419 


PEIE8TH00D 


art.  At  all  times  the  Catholic  clergy  have  shown  them- 
selves patrons  of  science  and  the  arts,  partly  by  their 
own  adiievements  in  these  fields  ana  partly  by  their 
encouragement  and  support  of  the  work  of  others. 
That  theology  as  a  science  should  have  found  its  home 
among  the  dergy  was  but  to  be  expected.  However, 
the  whole  range  of  education  lay  so  exclusively  in  the 
hands  of  the  priesthood  during  the  Middle  Ages,  that 
the  ecclesiastical  distinction  of  dericus  (cleric)  and 
laicua  (layman)  developed  into  the  social  distinction 
of  educated  and  ignorant.  But  for  the  monks  and 
clerics  the  ancient  classical  literature  would  have  been 
lost.  A  medieval  proverb  ran:  "  A  monasteiy  without 
a  Ubrary  is  a  castle  without  an  armory. "  Hume,  the 
philosopher  and  historian,  says:  ''It  is  rare  that  the 
annals  of  so  uncultivated  a  people  as  were  the  English 
as  well  as  the  other  European  nations,  after  the  decline 
of  Roman  learning,  have  been  transmitted  to  posterity 
so  complete  and  with  so  little  mixture  of  falsenood  and 
fable.  This  advantage  we  owe  entirely  to  the  clergy 
of  the  Church  of  Rome,  who,  founding  their  authority 
on  their  superior  knowledge,  preserved  the  precious 
literature  of  antiquitv  from  a  total  extmction" 
(Hume,  "Hist,  of  England'',  ch.  xxiii,  Richard  III). 
Among  English  historians  Gildas  the  Wise,  Venerable 
Bede,  and  Lingard  form  an  illustrious  triumvirate. 
The  idea  of  scientific  progress,  first  used  by  Vincent 
of  Lerins  with  reference  to  theology  and  later  trans- 
ferred to  the  other  sciences,  is  of  purely  Catholic 
origin.  The  modem  maxim,  ''Education  for  all",  is 
a  saying  first  uttered  by  Innocent  III.  Before  the 
foundation  of  the  first  universities,  which  also  owed 
their  existence  to  the  popes,  renowned  cathedral 
schools  and  other  scientific  institutions  laboured  for 
the  extension  of  secular  knowledge.  The  father  of 
German  public  education  is  Rhabanus  Maurus.  Of 
old  centres  of  civilization  we  may  mention  among 
those  of  the  first  rank  Canterbury,  the  Island  of  lona, 
Malmesbury,  and  York  in  Great  Britain:  Paris, 
Orleans,  Corbie,  Cluny,  Chartres,  Toul,  and  Bee  in 
France;  Fulda,  Reichenau,  St.  Gall,  and  Corvey  in 
Germany.  The  attendance  at  these  universities  con- 
ducted by  clergymen  during  the  Middle  Ages  awakens 
one's  astonishment:  in  1340  the  University  of  Oxford 
had  no  less  than  30,000  students,  and  in  1538,  when 
the  German  universities  were  almost  deserted,  about 
20^000  students,  according  to  Luther,  flocked  to  Paris. 
The  elementary  schools  also,  wherever  they  exist^, 
were  conducted  bv  priests.  Charlemagne  had  already 
issued  the  capitulary  "Presbyteri  per  villas  et  vicos 
scholas  habeant  et  cum  summa  charitate  parvulos 
doceant'\  i.  e.  The  priests  shall  have  schools  in  the 
towns  and  hamlets  and  shall  teach  the  children  with 
the  utmost  devotion.  The  art  of  printing  was  re- 
ceived by  the  whole  Church,  from  the  lowest  clergy 
to  the  pope,  as  a  "holy  art".  Almost  the  whole  book 
production  of  the  fifteenth  century  aimed  at  satisfying 
the  taste  of  the  clergy  for  reading,  which  thus  furthered 
the  development  of  the  book  trade.  Erasmus  com- 
plained: "The  booksellers  declare  that  before  the  out- 
break of  the  Reform  they  disposed  of  3000  volumes 
more  quickly  than  they  now  sell  600"  (see  Dollinger, 
"Die  Reformation,  ihre  innere  Entwickelung  u.  ihre 
Wirkungen",  I,  Ratisbon,  1851,  p.  348).  Early 
Humanisxn,  stron^y  encouraged  by  Popes  Nicholas  V 
and  Leo  X,  numbered  among  its  enthusiastic  sup- 

S^rters  many  Catholic  clerics,  such  as  Petrarch  and 
rasmus;  the  later  Humanistic  school,  steeped  in 
paganism,  found  among  the  Catholic  priesthood,  not 
encouragement,  but  to  a  great  extent  determined  op- 
position. Spain's  greatest  writers  in  the  seventeenth 
century  were  priests:  Cervantes.  Lope  de  Vega, 
Calder6n  etc.  At  Oxford  in  the  tnirteenth  century, 
by  their  skill  in  the  natural  sciences  the  Franciscans 
acquired  celebrity  and  the  Bishop  Grosseteste  exer- 
cised great  influence.  The  friar,  Roger  Bacon  (d. 
1240),  was  famous  for  his  scientific  knowledge,  as  were 


also  Gerbert  of  Rheims,  afterwards  Pope  Silvester  IL 
Albertus  Magnus,  Raymond  Lull}%  and  Vincent  ot 
Beauvais.  Copernicus,  canon  of  Thorn,  is  the 
founder  of  modem  astronomy,  in  which  even  to  the 
present  day  the  Jesuits  especially  (e^  g.  Scheiner, 
Clavius,  Secchi,  Perry)  have  rendered  important  serv- 
ices. For  the  first  geographical  chart  or  map  we  are 
indebted  to  Fra  Mauro  of  Venice  (d.  1459).  The 
Spanish  Jesuit,  Hervas  y  Panduro  (d.  1809),  is  the 
father  of  comparative  philology;  the  Carmelite, 
Paolino  di  san  Bartolomeo,  was  the  author  of  the 
first  Sanskrit  grammar  (Rome,  1790).  The  foundation 
of  historical  criticism  was  laid  by  Cardinal  Baronius 
(d.  1607),  the  monks  of  St.  Maur,  and  the  Bollandists. 
A  study  of  the  history  of  art  would  reveal  a  "propor- 
tionately great  number  of  the  apostles  of  the  beautiful 
in  art  among  the  Catholic  clergy  of  all  centuries.  From 
the  paintings  in  the  catacoxnbs  to  Fra  Angelico  and 
thence  to  the  Beuron  school  we  meet  numerous  priests, 
less  indeed  as  practising  artists  than  as  Maecenases  or 
art.  The  cler^  have  done  much  to  justify  what  the 
celebrated  sculptor  Canova  wrote  to  Napoleon  I: 
''Art  is  under  infinite  obligations  to  reUgion,  but  to 
none  so  much  as  the  Catholic  reli^on." 

The  basis  on  which  higher  culture  finda  its  secure 
foundation  is  material  or  economic  culture,  which,  in 
spite  of  modem  technics  and  machinery,  rests  ulti- 
mately on  labour.  Without  the  labourer's  energy, 
which  consists  in  the  power  and  the  wiU  to  work,  no 
culture  whatever  can  prosper.  But  the  Cathohc 
priesthood  more  than  any  other  professional  body  has 

E raised  in  word  and  proved  by  deed  the  value  and 
lessing  of  the  labour  reouired  m  agriculture,  mining, 
and  the  handicrafts.  The  curse  and  disdain,  whioi 
paganism  poured  on  manual  labour,  were  removed  by 
Christianity.  Even  an  Aristotle  (Polit.,  III^  iii)  could 
anathematize  manual  labour  as  f'philistine  ,  .the 
humbler  occupations  as  "unwortiiv  of  a  free  man". 
To  whom  are  we  primarily  indebted  in  Europe  for  the 
clearing  away  ot  the  primitive  forests,  for  schemes 
of  drainage  and  irrigation,  for  the  cultivation  of  new 
fruits  andcrops,  for  the  buildins of  roads  and  bridges, 
if  not  to  the  Catholic  monks?  In  Eastern  Europe  the 
Basilians,  in  Western  the  Benedictines,  and  later  the 
Cistercians  and  Trappists,  laboured  to  bring  the  land 
under  cultivation,  and  rendered  vast  districts  free 
from  fever  and  habitable.  Mining  and  foundries  also 
•owe  their  development,  and  to  some ,  extent  their 
origin,  to  the  keen  economic  sense  of  the  monasteries. 
To  place  the  whole  economic  Ufe  of  the  nation^  on  a 
scientific  foundation.  Catholic  bishops  and  priests  early 
laid  the  basis  of  the  science  of  national  economy— e,  g. 
Duns  Scotus  (d.  1308),  Nicholas  Oresme,  Bishop  of 
Lisieux  (d.  1382),  St.  Antoninus  of  Florence  (d.  1459), 
and  Gabriel  Biel  (d.  1495)  .>  The  Church  and  clergy  have 
therefore  truly  endeavoured  to  carry  out  in  every 
^here  and  in  all  centuries  the  programme  which  Leo 
XIII  in  his  famous  Encyclical  '^ Immortals  Dei"  of 
1  Nov.,  1885,  declared  the  ideal  of  the  Catholic 
Church:  '4mo  inertia  desidisecfue  inimica  [Ecclesia] 
magnopere  vult,  ut  hominum  ingenia  uberee  ferant 
exercitatione  et  cultura  fructus".  The  "fligtit  from 
the  world",  with  which  they  are  so  constantly  re- 

Eroached,  or  the  ''hostility  to  civilisation",  which  we 
ear  so  often  echoed  by  the  ignorant,  have  never  pre- 
vented the  Church  or  her  clergy  from  fulfilling  tneir 
calling  as  a  civilizing  agency  of  the  first  order,  and  thus 
refuting  all  slanders  with  the  logic  of  facts. 

For  the  literature  of  the  various  branches  of  eoclesiastioal  and 
clerical  activity  in  the  furtherance  of  civilisation  the  special  arti- 
cles must  be  consulted,  e.  g.,  Mismons,  Scroolb.  UNnrsBsmca, 
etc.  Only  a  few  works  can  be  here  given.  General. — -Balmm, 
Dtr  ProU8tant%8mua  v^rglichen  mit  dem  KatfuUitiamut  in  «etn«n 
Begiehunotn    tuf    europaiachm    CivilitaHon    (Ratisbon,    1844); 


GmioT,  HiH.  (U  la  nviluati&n  en  Buropa  (Paris,  1840) ;  Lacbaud, 
La  cinlitaHanouUMhimfaiU  de  VSglUe  (Paris.  1890>:  Lillt.  ChrU- 
tianity  and  Modem  CiviUtation  (London.  1003):  Chrial  and  CitiU' 
aaiion,  a  Sttney  of  the  Influence  of  the  Chriatian  Retigion  upon  lAs 
Couree  ofCiviliaaHon  (London,  1910):  Dsvas.  Key  to  the  fFsrbfi 
Progreet  (2nd  ed.,   Ix>ndon,    1008);    Hkttinobb,   ApeloQiU  4m 


420 


Ckridmiuwu,  V  (9th  ad.,  Fraiburs,  1908);  Ehbbabd,  KathoL 
Chritlmiium  «.  moderns  iCvlCMr  (2nd  ad.,  Maiiu.  1906),  (cf.); 
Saooc  Bial6.  BhrkartU  Sdurifl  tte,,  tin  Bmtrag  aw  Kldrung  dtr 
rdigidtm  Ftagt  dtr  (hatntooH  (OnB.  1909);  Cathmiv,  DU 
hathoL  WeUantekauung  %n  ihrm  Urundlinimi  mit  hmondmnr  B*- 
nukaidaigunQ  dm  Moral  (2Dd  ed.,  FreibiU]|,  1910). 

SpeeuU  works  «re:  Schbll,  Der  KatholuiUwtuM  aU  Prinrip  d§9 
ForUckriiU  (7th  ed..  WOnburg,  1909);  Pmch,  Die  tonal*  Bo- 
fiUUffuno  dor  Kitrehe  (2Dd  ed.,  BerUn,  1897):  dm  CiiAMFAOinr,  La 
ehar%Uekr4tioHnodan9  let  premioro  oiieUo  Q*azis,  18M):  CoGHor, 
faboUHon  do  Potdavago  (Paria.  1862):  MAMauAF,  CkrioloiUum 
u.  Skiaveroi  (1865):  Ratumobb,  Oooch,  dor  kirchL  ArmonpfloQ^ 
(Freiburg,  1868);  Bc&iUB,  Die  kaihol.  Chariiao  u.  ihro  Qognor 
(Fmburg,  1900);  Montalbmbsbt,  Tho  Monka  of  Iho  WMt 
(tr.  Boston,  1872);  WmwBLL,  Hitt,  of  tho  Indudif  Sdoneoa 
(London,  1847) ;  Wissiian,  Scioneo  and  RoHgion  Ufondon,  1863) ; 
MAnsB,  Loo  iooUo  do  VOoddoni  (Paris,  1858);  Wsdewsb,  Doe 
CAmtofil«m  u.  dio  Spraehwicoonoekafl  (1867) ;  Roscbbb,  Prineiploo 
oS  PeL  Bconomu  (tr.  New  York,  1878) ;  Sbcbstak,  CivilioaUon  H 
eroyaneo  (Lausanne,  1882) ;  Dahucakm,  IHo  Sprachkundo  u,  dio 
Miooionon  (FMburg,  1891);  Lilly,  CkrioiianUy  and  Modem 
Cioilioation  (London.  1903) ;  Paulmbm,  Oaoeh.  doo  goMurton  Untot- 
riehU  (2  vols.,  Berlin,  1896);  Kksllsb,  ChrioUanUu  and  tho 
Loadoro  of  Modom  Scioneo  (tr.  St.  Louis.  1911);  MOllbb,  Ifik, 
Kopomikuo.  Dor  AUmoiator  dor  neuoren  Aotronomio  (Freibuig, 
1898) ;  PoBLB,  P.  Angolo  Socehi,  ein  Lottono^u,  KuUurhUd  (2nd  ed7, 
Cologne,  1904) ;  Willmanm,  Ge$ch,  doe  IdealiemMO  (3  vols.,  Bruns- 
wick, 1908);  Iloiikb.  Die  volkawirfehafiL  Aneehauun(fon  dee  hL 
Antonin  eon  Florono  (Breslau,  1904). 

J.  POHLB. 

Prietto,  CoNFRATBRNiTiBS  OF. — ^Three  confraterni- 
ties of  priests — the  Apostolic  Union,  the  Priests'  Eu- 
charistic  Leaeue,  the  Priests'  Ck)mmunion  League — 
have  reachea  a  stage  of  unprecedented  diffusion 
throughout  the  Churcn  and  receive  special  treatment 
elsewhere  in  this  Enctclopbdia.  Confraternities  of  a 
local  character  form  the  subject  of  this  article.  A  con- 
fraternity is  a  society  of  persons  associated  for  some 
pious  object.  The  members  are  linked  together  by  a 
Dond  of  brotherhood  for  mutual  co-operation  in  the 
pursuit  of  a  specific  object  of  religion  or  charity  b^ 
means  of  praver,  ezami>le,  and  counsel.    This  defim- 


tion  will  exclude  societies  among  the  olmty  formed 
for  purely  scientific  or  literary  work.  The  clergy 
funds  of  Knglish  dioceses,  even  though  they  include 


certain  religious  obligations  towards  the  living  and 
the  dead,  fall  outside  its  limits.  The  "Societas  pro 
olero  defuncto"  is  a  mutual  enga^^ent  to  pray  for 
the  deceased  clergy  of  a  district;  it  is  an  association 
but  not  a  confraternity.  On  the  other  hand  the  nu- 
merous societies  of  secular  clergy  in  all  parts  of  Spain, 
called  b^  the  name  of  ''Monte-pio",  will  doubtless, 
many  of  them,  fall  under  the  title  of  confraternity,  on 
account  of  the  importance  assigned  to  the  duty  of 
visiting  the  sick  brethren  and  affording  them  not  only 
material  aid  but  spiritual  consolation,  and  adminis- 
tering to  them  the  sacraments.  Two  or  more  of  the  as- 
sociates are  appointed  to  visit  the  mck  at  least  every 
three  davs. 

A  confraternity  of  priests  in  the  strict  sense  of  the 
word  sedcs  before  all  else  the  personal  sanctification  of 
its  members.  Sacerdotal  confraternities  in  different 
parts  of  the  worid  present  a  close  family-likeness, 
their  common  object  being  to  preserve  pnests  from 
the  dangers  of  spiritual  and  social  isolation,  and  to 
a^ord  them  something  of  that  mutual  support  which 
belongs  to  a  religious  community.  ''  ConjunctsB  vires 
plus  vedent  quam  singulie"  is  the  expression  bjr  which 
the  Holy  See  has  recently  consecrated  the  principle. 
The  particular  aims  of  pnests'  confraternities  may  be 
reduced  to  three :  personal  holiness,  ecclesiastical  learn- 
ing, and  mutual  nnancial  aid.  The  first  two  are  uni- 
versal, the  third  appears  occasionally.  The  religious 
exercises  almost  invariably  insistea  upon  are:  the 
half-hour's  meditation.  Mass  with  preparation  and 
thanksgiving  of  fifteen  minutes^  visit  to  the  Blessed 
Sacrament,  the  devout  recitation  of  the  Breviary, 
rosary,  weekly  confession,  monthly  recollection,  ana 
biennial  retreats.  Eksclesiastical  learning  is  under- 
stood to  comprise  the  study  of  those  subjects  which 
are  proper  to  the  various  departments  of  the  ministrv, 
and  great  importance  is  attached  to  associate  studv 
hy  means  of  conferences  and  discussions.    Financial 


assistance  embraces  cases  of  sickness  and  old  age,  as 
well  as  loans,  medical  attendance,  and  legal  advice. 
I.  Spain. — ^The  uncertainty  or  the  position  of 
ecclesiastics  under  a  hostile  Uovemment  has  led  to 
the  display  of  considerable  activity,  of  late  years  in 
different  parts  of  Spain,  in  the  establishment  of  the 
"Monte-pio",  an  association  for  the  help  of  priests  in 
sickness  or  old  age.  Such  societies  are  to  be  found  in 
the  Dioceses  of  C6rdova,  Madrid-AlcaUL  (founded 
1009),  and  for  the  clergy  of  the  cities  of  Valencia 
(1897),  Toledo  (1901).  Le6n  (1902),  Orviedo  (1903), 
Sarasossa  (1904),  Palenda  (1905),  Astorgia  (1906), 
Ung^  (1906),  Orense,  Salamanca  (1907),  and  in  the 
dismcts  of  north  Ara^n,  Ayerbo,  and  Bolea  in  Huesca. 
In  Granada  there  is  the  "Refuno  de  San  Pedro 
Nolasco"  under  the  care  of  the  regions  of  St.  John 
of  Crod  for  priests  who  by  reason  of  age  or  infirmity 
are  ordinarily  unable  to  celebrate  Mass.  Should 
there  be  further  accommodation  after  these  have  been 
provided  for,  priests  over  sixty  years  of  age  who  are 
able  to  celebrate  regularly  are  also  admitteid.  There 
is  a  society  of  clergy  for  mutual  aid  in  the  Diocese  of 
Majorca  (established  1846)  and  Vitoria  (1846),  also  in 
the  cities  of  San  Sebastian  and  Guernica;  another  called 
"La  Providensa"  is  found  in  the  EHocese  of  Tarra- 

Sona.  A  brotherhood  for  mutual  assistance  in  case  of 
Iness  exists  among  the  clergy  of  the  town  of  Vich 
(1:846)  in  the  Diocese  of  Barcelona.  Masses  are  said 
for  all  deceased  members  once  a  year,  and  for  indi- 
vidual members  shortly  after  death.  The  co-oper- 
ative society  called  "  The  Spanish  Clergy  Association  ", 
established  in  Ambrona  (iSoria)  for  the  purchase  ot 
provisions,  hardly  falls  within  the  scope  ofthe  present 
article,  nor  does  the  society  now  being  projected  in 
Madrid  by  Fr.  Armendaris  for  the  vinoucation  of  the 
clernr  from  the  calumnies  of  the  anticlerical  press. 
In  Ciudad  Real,  Cadii,  and  other  dioceses  there 
exists  a  brotherhood  in  which  each  priest  prays  for 
his  fellow  members.  At  his  death  his  mass-register 
is  shown  to  the  brotherhood,  and  if  it  appears  that  he 
has  faithfully  offered  Mass  for  deceased  members, 
each  living  member  offers  a  Mass  for  him.  The 
brotherhoods  framed  unon  the  type  of  the  "Associa- 
ci6n  de  Sacerdotes  del  Obispado  de  Ja6n",  under  the 
title  of  Our  Lady  of  Capilla  and  St.  Euphrasius,  dedi- 
cate their  lives  to  the  apostolate  of  the  working-class 
in  any  of  the  forms  reouired  by  the  present  social  con- 
ditions. They  teach  Christian  doctrine  in  the  schools ; 
they  distribute  wholesome  literature;  they  attract  the 
young  to  confraternities  and  the  practices  of  rdigion; 
and  they  are  always  ready  for  work  in  the  confes- 
sional, so  as  to  make  it  easy  for  people  to  approach 
the  sacraments.  They  hold  a  day's  retreat  every 
month,  during  which  the  charitable  duties  for  the 
next  month  are  allotted.  In  case  of  sickness  three 
of  the  associates  are  selected  to  minister  spiritually 
to  the  sick  brother. 

The  "Venerable  Congregaci6n  de  Sacerdotes  de 
San  Felipe  Neri  v  Nuestra  Sefiora  de  la  Presentaci6n" 
took  its  rise  under  the  invocation  of  St.  Philip  in  the 
parish  church  of  St.  James,  ValladoUd,  as  early  as  the 
year  1645.  Later  on  the  members  erected  the  church 
of  the  Oratoiy,  where  the  congregation  is  now  in- 
stalled, and  in  1609  united  with  the  ancient  but 
languishing  confraternity  of  the  Presentation.  The 
personal  sanctification  of  the  associates,  and  as  a  con- 
sequence the  greater  spiritual  profit  of  the  faithful, 
form  the  objects  of  the  Institute.  Priests  and  clerics 
in  sacred  orders  are  eligible  for  admission,  and  on  en- 
tering take  an  oath  of  fidelity  to  the  rules  which  pre- 
scribe certun  religious  duties  and  in  particular  visi- 
tation of  the  sick,  attendance  at  the  mnerals  of  the 
brethren,  and  prayers  for  the  dead.  As  a  type  of 
other  forms  may  be  taken  the  ancient  "Hermandad 
[Brotherhood]  de  San  Pedro  de  la  Ciudad  de  Xeres". 
Its  aim  is  the  performance  of  spiritual  and  corporal 
works  of  mere}'.    The  confraternity  supplies  a  legal 


PRII8T8 


421 


PRB8T8 


adviser  and  two  medical  doctors  at  a  low  fee;  more- 
over, it  also  provides  decent  interment  for  parents 
of  tne  brethren,  and  for  sacristans  who  have  as- 
sisted the  society  in  its  charitable  offices.  There  are 
likewise  brotherhoods  of  the  clergy  in  Seville,  Puerto 
de  S.  Maria,  in  Santucar  de  Renameda,  Carmina, 
Ecija,  and  in  the  principal  cities  of  Andalusia.  To 
these  must  be  added  the  association  of  priests  entitled 
"Hermandad  de  Sacerdotes  operarios  Diocesanos  del 
Sagrado  Ck)raz6n  de  Jesds'',  founded  in  1872  by 
Manuel  Domingo  y  Sol  (d.  1009).  This  association, 
which  has  received  the  approval  of  the  pope,  takes 
charge  of  the  discipline  m  the  seminaries,  of  which 
it  has  several  in  Spain,  one  in  Mexico,  and  the  Spanish 
College  in  Rome,  whose  late  rector,  Benjamin  D. 
Mifiana,  became  superior  of  the  society  on  the  death 
of  the  foimder. 

II.  Portugal. — ^A  confraternity  has  existed  in 
Lisbon  from  the  year  1415  with  the  title  of  '^  Veneravel 
Irmandade  dos  (jlerigos  Pobres''  under  the  protection 
of  the  Holy  Trinity  and  is  now  installed  in  the  sup- 
pressed convent  of  St.  Martha,  It  is  composed  of 
secular  and  regular  priests  and  clerics  in  orders. 
Its  chief  works  are  to  render  special  homage  to  the 
Blessed  Trinity,  to  afford  spiritual  and  temporal 
succour  to  the  brethren,  and  to  aid  primary  education. 
In  1887  the  brotherhood  took  up  the  functions  of  a 
benefit  society. 

III.  Austria. — Austria  possesses  several  confrater- 
nities of  the  clergy.  The  "Associatio  PerseverantiiB 
Sacerdotalis'',  founded  in  1868  for  secular  or  regular 
priests,  has  its  seat  in  Vienna.  The  aim  proposed  to 
members  is  their  sanctification  and  perseverance.  The 
sealous  promotion  of  devotion  to  the  Sacred  Heart  is  a 
prominent  feature  of  the  association.  Much  is  made 
of  intercourse  between  members;  the  anniversary  day 
of  ordination  is  observed  with  fittins  solemnity.  The 
society  has  a  monthly  ioumal  called  the  "Korrespon- 
dens  der  Associatio"  (Vienna).  The  "  Priester-Sodali- 
t&t  sum  heiligsten  Hersen  Jesu''  of  Botzen  was  estab- 
lished in  1866.  Candidates  are  admitted  after  a  year's 
probation.  The  key-note  of  the  association  is  per- 
sonal holiness  by  the  thoughtful  and  reverent  dis- 
charge of  priestly  duties.  It  supplies  a  guide  to  life  by 
fixing  a  mmimum  for  certain  rehgious  exercises  likely 
to  be  crowded  out:  thus,  meditation,  twenty  minutes, 
and  when  this  is  impossible  its  place  is  to  be  supplied  by 
spiritual  reading  or  ejaculatory  prayer;  confession,  at 
least  fortniffhtly;  retreat,  at  least  every  second  year, 
with  three  days  recollection  other  years;  preparation 
for  Mass  and  thanksgiving  (fifteen  minutes)  in  the 
church  for  example's  sake;  night  prayers  with  the  con- 
gregation. Stress  is  laid  on  regular  application  to  the 
studies  of  the  ministry;  specialisation  is  encouraged 
as  promoting  interest.  Other  points  are:  careful 
preparation  of  all  instructions,  seal  in  the  work  of  the 
ooiuesBional,  special  care  of  talented  boys  and  of 
neglected  children.  ''Der  Marianische  Kongrega- 
tion  im  Priester-eeminar''  in  Brixen  has  for  its  object 
to  foster  sacerdotal  piety  among  its  members  ana  to 
cultivate  the  ecclesiastical  spirit  among  the  students 
of  the  seminary.  The  means  insisted  on  are  a  personal 
devotion  to  Our  Lady,  public  devotions  with  sermons 
twice  a  month,  and  mutual  admonition.  Its  journal  is 
the  "  Priester-IConfereni-Blatt '' .  At  Innsbruck  there 
is  a  confraternity  connected  with  the  Jesuit  College 
entitled  "Priest^ebetsverein",  consisting  of  priests 
and  seminarians  in  theology.  The  essential  object  of 
the  association  is  to  maintain  the  bonds  of  spiritual 
companionship  established  in  the  seminary  when  the 
young  priests  leave  to  take  up  their  pastoral  work. 
The  means  employed  are  prayer  (particularly  associ- 
ated devotion  to  the  Sacred  Heart)  and  correspond- 
ence (the  periodical  of  the  confraternity  being  sent  to 
members,  and  members  writing  to  the  committee  at 
least  once  a  year). 

IV.  France. — ^A  peculiar  feature  of  the  "Associa- 


tion des  Pr^tres  s^culiers  du  Sacr6-Coeur"  (lasoudun, 
France)  is  its  intimate  relation  with  the  Missionaries 
of  the  Sacred  Heart,  of  whose  congregation  it  is  the  off- 
spring;. "  Le  soutien  d'un  pr6tre,  c'est  le  pri^tre  "  is  the 
principle  which  has  guided  the  missionaries  in  found- 
ing an  association  whereby  they  may  co-operate  in  the 
sanctification  of  the  secular  clergy.  The  confraternity 
was  founded  in  1858,  blessed  by  Pius  IX  in  1860,  and 
enriched  by  him  with  special  favours  in  1867  and  1874. 
In  1882  the  roll  of  the  association  contained  700  names. 
At  that  date  a  journal  was  inaugurated,  to  be  suc- 
ceeded three  years  later  by  the  monthly  review  enti- 
tled "Le  Sacrd-Coeur  ".  Each  member  under  the 
advice  of  his  director  arranges  his  rule  of  life  with  suffi- 
cient detail  to  forestall  onussions  and  yet  with  a  cer- 
tain elasticity  so  as  not  to  interfere  with  parochial 
duties  [see  the  "Manuel"  (Issoudun),  published  by 
the  Missionaries  of  the  Sacred  Heart]. 

V.  Rome.— The  "Pia  Unio  S.  PauK  ApostoK". 
established  in  Rome,  may  be  accepted  as  an  approved 
type  of  a  priestly  association.  It  dates  back  to  1797, 
when  it  was  instituted  as  a  confraternity  of  priests  for 
the  corporal  and  spiritual  assistance  of  sick  brethren. 
With  the  co-operation  of  the  laity  the  good  work  ex- 
tended and  ultimately  embraced  the  distinct  works  of 
fostering  vocations  to  the  priesthood,  the  care  of  the 
young  on  festival  days,  ana  the  holding  of  discussions 
on  moral  subjects.  It  was  reorganisedl>y  Pius  X  in  a 
decree  datecl  26  May,  1910,  and  attached  to  the 
church  of  S.  Maria  defia  Pace.  The  central  idea  of  the 
association  is  sanctification  by  the  exercise  of  the  sa- 
cred ministry.  On  the  economic  side  financial  ud  is 
given  in  time  of  sickness  and  a  loan  committee  has 
been  projected.  Provision  is  also  made  for  the  legal 
defence  of  the  clergy  when  this  is  desirable. 

VI.  United  States. — The  needs  of  the  teeming, 
active,  and  diversified  population  of  America  have 
called  into  being  a  number  of  agencies  for  dealing  with 
the  spiritual  and  social  problems  which  are  constantly 
arising.  Mention  therefore  should  be  made  here  of  the 
followmg  societies  of  priests:  "Association  for  the 
Protection  of  Belgian  and  Dutch  Immigrants  "\"  Asso- 
ciation of  the  Secular  Polish  Clersy  " ;  Cathohc  Board 
for  Mission  Work  among  the  Coloured  People  " ;  "  The 
Bureau  of  Catholic  Indian  Missions";  "Catholic 
Missionaiy  Union",  which  provides  funds  to  enable 
bishops  to  defray  tne  expenses  of  giving  missions  to 
non-Catholics  in  their  dioceses.  Imally  the  "  Priests' 
Total  Abstinence  League"  appears  to  come  nearest  to 
the  true  idea  of  a  comratemity  whose  central  idea  is 
self-sanctificatiop.  [See  the  "Catholic  Directory" 
(Milwaukee,  1910),  725-731.) 

VII.  Spanish  Akerica. — It  must  sufidce  here  to 
Eive  the  names  of  several  societies  of  priests  in  certain 
mstricts  of  South  America:  Argentina,  the  "  Associa- 
ci6n  Eclesidstica  de  S.  Pedro"  with  centres  at  Buenos 
Aires  and  Cdrduba;  Colombia,  "  Asociacidn  de  sufra- 
DOS  del  Clero"  at  Bogota;  Brasil,  "Liga  Sacerdotal 
Kiograndeza  "  at  Porto  Alegre.  In  Mexico  there  is  the 
"Asociaci6n  del  Espfritu  Santo"  and  the  "  Asociaci6n 
de  S.  Juan  Nepomuceno"  at  Guadalajara,  and  the 
"Asociaci6n  de  Socorros  mutuos  de  Cl^rigos"  in  the 
City  of  Mexico. 

VIII.  Germany. — In  Germany  almost  all  the 
associations  for  priests  have  as  their  object  either 
the  cultivation  of  the  ascetical  life  amon^  the  clergy 
or  the  assistance  of  the  members  in  their  temporal 
necessities.  ()ne  of  the  most  important  of  the  pious 
societies  is  the  "Associatio  PerseverantiflsSacerdotaUs" 
(see  III.  Austria).  The  association  has  ahready 
been  introduced  into  about  27  dioceses  in  Ger- 
manv.  The  "Eucharistic  Association  of  the  Priests 
of  the  Adoration"  was  founded  in  1858  for  sec- 
ular priests,  and  was  canonically  erected  into  a 
confraternity  on  16  January,  1887.  Its  objects  are 
to  foster  among  the  clergy  truly  priestly  aeaivsv^Q^ 
and  a  lively  lov«  wcid  n«msc^<scl  Vst  Vi[A  ^SysssK^ 


PRIX8T8'                               422  PRIUT8' 

Sacrament.    Each  member  is  to  spend  each  week  by  which  many  of  the  faithful  are  prevented  from 

one  hour  without  intermission  in  adoration  before  frequenting  the  Holy  Table/  and  teach  them  that 

the  Blessed  Sacrament,  and  to  celebrate  one  Mass  to  conmiunicate  lawfully  every  day  nothing  more  is 

yearly  for  deceased  members,  to  whom  he  is  also  to  exacted  than  what  even  yearly  Communion  requires, 

apply  once  monthly  the  plenary  indulgence  granted  namelv,  the  state  of  grace  and  a  right  intention,  al- 

for   each   hour   of   adoration.    The   official   organ,  though  it  is  desirable  that  they  should  be  free  also 

"S.   Eucharistia'',   is  published   in   six  languages;  from  deliberate  venial  sins.    As  the  best  means  to 

the  membership  is  about  7000  in  Germany.    Among  spread  the  practice  of  daily  Communion   is  daily 

this  class  of  associations  may  be  also  mentioned  the  attendance  at  Mass,  they  e^ort  the  people  to  hear 

**  Priesterabstinentenband "   (with   its    organ    "  So-  it  every  day.    They  should  give  their  parishioners, 

brietas'')  for  promoting  total  abstinence,  and  th^  during  a  period  of  not  less  than  three  days,  a  series 

Katechetenvereine  in  Munich,  etc.  of  instructions  dealing  especially  with  the  practice  of 

There  are  three  important  associations  for  priests  and  preparation  for  daily  Communion.  Members  of 
with  the  primary  object  of  the  rendering  of  assist-  the  league  take  care  to  prepare  children  for  the  recep- 
aiice  to  members  in  temporal  matters.  These  are  tion  of  Holy  Communion  at  an  early  age.  Priests 
(1)  the  "Priesterverein  ziir  Unterstiitzung  kranker  belonging  to  the  league  en  joy  the  right  of  a  privileged 
Mitglieder  " ;  (2) "  St.  Josephs-Priesterverein  "  in  Gorz ;  altar  three  times  a  week,  provided  they  have  not  that 
(3)  the  "Fa,x*\  The  fiist,  which  is  essentially  an  right  already;  they  may  celebrate  Mass  an  horn- 
insurance  society,  pays  to  sick  priests  three  marks  before  sunrise  and  an  hour  after  midday,  and  may 
daily,  provided  they  have  been  members  for  at  least  distribute  Hol}r  Communion  till  simset;  they  may 
one  year.  The  entrance  fee  varies  from  2  marks  gain  a  plenary  indulgence  on  all  the  first-class  feasts 
to  over  100  marks  according  to  the  age  of  the  ap-  of  the  mysteries  of  faith,  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  and 
plicant;  the  annual  tax  is  10  marks.  Founded  in  1882  the  Apostles;  and  an  indulgence  of  300  days  for  every 
it  paid  127,192  marks  to  513  members  in  995  cases  work  they  perform  for  the  intention  of  the  league; 
of  sickness  in  the  first  twenty-five  years  of  its  ex-  they  may  impart  at  the  end  of  the  triduum,  after 
istence.  The  association  has  almost  1000  members  the  general  Communion,  the  papal  benediction  with 
(600  in  the  Archdiocese  of  Cologne).  St.  Josephs-  the  plenary  indulgence  attached.  Lastlv,  penitents 
Priesterverein  in  Gorz  (primarily  an  Austrian  associa-  confessing  to  priests  enrolled  in  the  league  may 
tion)  was  founded  in '  1876  by  Mgr  Filipp;  in  Meran,  gain  a  plenary  mduJgence  once  a  week,  if  accustomed 
and  was  transferred  in  1882  to  GOrzj  its  object  is  to  communicate  very  frequently, 
to  secure  places  in  sanatoria  for  sick  pnests  who  need  A.  Letellier. 
to  take  a  cure  to  recover  their  health.    The  fee  for 

membership  is  three  Kronen  yearly  (about  60  cents).  Priests'  Eucharistic  League. — I.  Object. — ^The 
or  a  single  pajrment  of  fifty  Kronen.  The  "Pax",  or  Priests'  Eucharistic  League  (Confratemitas  sacerdo- 
the  ''Association  of  the  Catholic  Priests  of  Germany",  talis  adorationis  Sanctissimi  Sacramenti)  was  estab- 
was  founded  in  1905  to  supply  good  and  cheap  insur-  fished  in  Paris  by  the  Venerable  Pierre-Julien  Eymard, 
ance  for  ecclesiastical  corporations ;  the  foundation  of  a  founder  of  the  (Congregation  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament, 
pension  fund,  the  afifording  of  legal  protection,  and  the  Already  in  1857  he  hiui  been  deeply  impressed  by  the 
procuring  of  abatements  at  sanatoria  and  hotels  are  also  necessity  of  such  an  adaptation  of  his  work  of  Euchar- 
m  contemplation  and  to  some  extent  attained.  Spe-  istic  adoration  as  woula  attract  the  clergy  to  a  more 
cially  favourable  terms  have  been  secured  from  the  intimate  and  constant  intercourse  with  the  sacramen- 
life  insurance  company  "Concordia",  at  Cologne,  and  tal  Lord.  Still  it  was  not  until  1867  that  the  plan  of  a 
the  fire  insurance  company  "Rhineland".  at  Neuss.  distinct  confraternity  was  matured,  and  the  Blessed 
Any  priest  who  takes  an  insurance  with  either  of  Cur6  d'Ars  was  among  the  first  to  enrol  his  name  on 
these  companies  becomes  thereby  a  member  of  the  the  list  of  members.  The  association  assumed  its  pres- 
assoclation.  The  members  (about  1500)  come  from  ent  form  in  1879,  received  the  approval  of  Leo  XIII  on 
all  parts  of  Germany,  although  the  southern  and  25  Jan.,  1881,  and  six  years  later,  on  16  Jan.,  1887,  was 
eastern  dioceses  (except  Fulda)  are  not  equally  weU  definitively  approved  and  canonically  erected  by  Car- 
represented.  The  Polish  priests  have  founded  a  sepa-  dinal  Parocchi,  cardinal  vicar,  in  the  church  of  S. 
rate  insurance  society,  the  "Unitas".  Claudio  in  Rome.    To  this  church  is  attached  the 

Kbobb.  Kirchliches  Han^buch,  II  (Froibur«.  1909).  377-79.  Archconfratemity  of  the  Most  Holy  Sacrament,  and 

Henrt  Parkinson.  it  is  the  canonical  centre  of  the  Priests'  Eucharistic 

League;  but  the  ofllice  of  the  central  administration  of 

Priests'  Communion  League,  an  association  of  the  league  is  at  the  house  of  the  fathers  of  the  Congre- 
priests  established  at  Rome  on  20  Jul}^  1906,  in  the  gation  of  the  Most  Holy  Sacrament,  Brussels. 
CJhurch  of  San  Claudio,  in  charse  of  the  Fathers  of  the  The  primary  object  of  this  confraternity  is  the  f re- 
Blessed  Sacrament,  and  raised  cw  Pius  X  to  the  dig-  quent  and  prolonged  worship  of  the  Blessed  Sacra- 
nity  of  an  archconfratemity  ten  oays  later.  Its  object  ment  by  priests.  As  Christ  is  truly  "  God  with  us  "  in 
is  to  spread  the  practice  of  frequent  and  daily  Com-  the  Eucharist,  it  is  His  desire  that  priests  should  ap- 
munion  among  tne  faithful  in  conformity  with  the  pear  often  in  His  presence  and  remain  for  reverent  and 
Decree '' Sacra  TridentinaS}rnodus"  of  20  December,  affectionate  intercourse.  From  this  close  intimacy  a 
1905.  The  conditions  for  joining  the  league  are:  (1)  higher  spiritual  life  must  ensue.  At  this  source  priests 
To  have  one's  name  inscribed  on  the  register  of  the  will  learn  how  to  adore  Him  in  spirit  and  in  truth  and 
league;  (2)  to  pledge  oneself  (though  under  no  obligsr  draw  li^ht  and  power  to  carry  out  more  fruitfully  their 
tion  of  conscience)  to  promote  secdouslv  the  observ-  apostolic  mission.  Its  next  object  is  to  extend  the 
ance  of  the  Decree  upon  frequent  and  daity  Com-  Kingdom  of  Christ  bv  forming  apostles  of  the  Eucha- 
munion  by  the  apostolate  of  prayer,  of  preaching,  and  rist.  Reverent  and  docile  companionship  brings 
of  the  press;  (3)  to  subscribe  for  the  montlily  period-  knowledge,  love,  and  a  desire  to  share  with  others  the 
iciJ  ''Emmanuel",  published  by  the  Fathers  of  the  precious  treasures  of  this  supreme  sacrament.  Hence 
Blessed  Sacrament.  The  members  of  the  league  the  devout  adorer  will  labour  assiduously  to  revive 
begin  their  work  by  explaining  to  the  people  what  faith  in  the  Holy  Eucharist,  and  will  encourage  the 
the  Eucharist  is;  when,  how,  wherefore,  and  with  faithful  to  partake  of  the  life-giving  banquet.  A  third 
what  love  it  was  instituted  by  Jesus  Christ;  what  object  of  the  confraternity  is  to  band  together  priests 
are  its  effects,  whether  considered  as  a  sacrifice,  as  apostles  of  the  Eucharist  who  "will  pledge  them- 
as  the  real,  perpetual  presence  of  God  among  us,  selves  to  take  up  and  defend  on  all  occasions  the  cause 
and,  above  all,  as  the  nourishment  of  our  souls,  and  the  honour  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  promote  by  every 
They  endeavour  strenuously  to  dissipate   the  fear  means  in  their  power  frequent  visits  to  the  Blessed 


PEmiCT 


423 


P&IMAtC 


Sacrament  as  well  as  frequent  communion''.  The 
regular  and  associated  practice  of  the  weekly  adora- 
tion fosters  a  spirit  of  religious  brotherhood.  Priests 
animated  by  the  Eucharistic  spirit,  impelled  by  the 
Eucharistic  instinct,  will  be  stimulated  by  the  example 
of  the  neighbouring  clergy  and  by  a  sense  of  spiritual 
companionship  with  a  vast  unseen  array  of  associates 
performing  the  same  acts  of  homage  and  devotion  in 
all  parts  of  the  world. 

The  precise  and  specific  works  of  the  association  are 
the  following:  (1)  to  spend  each  week  one  full  and 
continuous  hour  of  adoration  before  the  Blessed  Sac- 
rament exposed  on  the  altar  or  veiled  In  the  taber- 
nacle; (2)  to  report  monthlv  to  the  local  director  on 
a  prescribed  schedule  {libeUua)  the  performance  of 
the  above  undertaking;  (3)  to  apply  once  a  month  the 
indulgences  attached  to  the  hour  of  adoration  for  the 
benefit  of  the  souls  of  members  who  may  have  died 
during  the  previous  month;  (4)  to  offer  the  Holy  Sac- 
rifice once  a  year  for  all  deceased  members  of  the  asso- 
ciation. Repeated  failure  to  transmit  the  Itbellus 
entidls,  after  due  warning,  loss  of  membership. 

II.  Membership  and  Privileges, — ^The  confraternity 
was  originally  intended  for  members  of  the  secular 
clergy  only;  out  as  far  back  as  1898  the  admission 
of  religious  has  been  authorised;  and  by  a  conces- 
sion 01  the  superior  general  of  the  Congregation  of  the 
Blessed  Sacrament  dated  2  Nov.,  1^02,  seminarists 
in  the  United  States  become  eligible  for  admission 
even  before  receiving  the  subdiaconate.  The  Holy  See 
has  favoured  the  practice  of  this  devotion  with  numer- 
ous advantages,  notably  with  the  singularly  rich  indul- 
gences of  ''The  Station  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament'' 
(Beringer,  ''Les  Indulgences",  II,  129),  and  the  fac- 
ulty of  {^anting  the  indulgence  of  the  Crosier  Fathers 
(cf.  Bermger,  I,  504). 

III.  OrganizcUion. — ^The  organization  of  the  con- 
fraternity enjoys  the  merit  of  simplicity.  Ordinary 
members  are  grouped  under  their  respective  diocesan 
directors.  These  are  united  under  a  general  director 
for  a  district  or  a  whole  country,  while  the  entire  asso- 
ciation throughout  the  world  is  subject  to  the  central 
direction  of  the  Fathers  of  the  Bleased  Sacrament  at 
Brussels.  For  the  greater  convenience  of  administra- 
tion local  centres  nave  been  established  in  Austria. 
Argentina.  Canada,  Chili.  Holland^  Italy,  Spain,  ana 
the  United  States.  The  aiocesan  directors  are  elected 
by  members  with  the  approval  of  the  ordinary.  They 
officially  represent  the  confraternity  in  a  dipcese  and 
maintam  its  efficiency  and  regular  working. '  Hie  life 
and  energy  of  the  members  is  promoted  by  periodical 
assemblies  of  the  respective  groups.  Conferences  of 
diocesan  members  are  held  on  the  occasion  of  the 
clergy  retreats  and  at  other  convenient  times.  In  the 
United  States,  besides  these  diocesan  conferences,  con- 
ventions of  several  dioceses  have  been  held  at  Coving- 
ton, Kentucky  (1894),  at  Notre  Dame,  Indiana  (1894, 
1898),  and  at  Philadelphia  (1899).  More  important 
gatherings  from  a  large  number  of  dioceses,  called  con- 
gresses, have  been  held  at  Washington  (1893),  St. 
Louis  (1901),  New  York  (1904),  and  Pittsburg  (1906). 
The  numerous  local  congresses  held  in  France  form  a 
significant  feature  of  the  religious  activity  of  the 
Church  there  (cf.  "Annales",  1909,  pp.  446-9;  1910, 
p.  158).  Perhaps  the  most  notewortny  characteristic 
of  the  confraternity  is  the  rapidity  with  which  it  has 
spread  throughout  every  portion  of  the  world.  Can- 
ada has  a  total  of  two  thousand  four  hundred  and 
fifty  members,  the  United  States  8015,  while  the  grand 
total  for  the  whole  confratemitjr  in  March  of  the  year 
1911  is  one  hundred  thousand  nve  hundred  and  sixty- 
one,  of  whom  twelve  are  cardinals  and  two  hundred 
and  forty  bishops  or  archbishops.  The  real  value  of 
these  figures  is  checked  by  the  record  kept  of  the  in- 
dividusQ  reports  sent  in  by  members  of  their  discharge 
of  the  duty  of  the  weekly  hour  of  adoration.  Should 
a  member  have  failed  for  a  year  to  send  in  his  libeltua, 


he  receives  a  reminder,  which,  if  ineffective,  is  followed 
by  the  removal  of  his  name  from  the  register. 

IV.  Literature. — A  number  of  monthly  periodi- 
cals serve  to  maintain  the  fervour  and  activity  of  the 
associates:  the  '^ Emmanuel"  (sixteenth  year;  New 
York);  ''Annales  des  Pr^tres  Adorateurs"  (twenty- 
third  year;  Brussels);  "Annales  de  1' Association 
des  Prfttres  Adorateurs"  (twenty-third  year;  Brus- 
sels); "Annali  dei  Sacerdoti  Adoratori  '  (sixteenth 
year;  Turin);  ''Anales  de  los  Sacerdotes  Adora- 
dores"  (third  year;  Buenos  Aires):  "SS.  Eucharis- 
tia"  (twentieth  year;  Bozen),  tne  organ  of  the 
league  for  Austria,  Germany,  and  Switzerland; 
''Eucharist  and  Priest"  (sixteenth  year;  Verapoly, 
Malabar  Coast).  In  addition  to  these  sources  of  infor- 
mation and  piety,  there  is  much  dogmatic  and  devo- 
tional literature  on  the  subject  of  the  nour  of  adoration, 
such  as  "The  Real  Presence",  "The  Month  of  our 
Lady  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament",  "The  Month  of 
Manr",  "The  Month  of  St.  Joseph",  by  the  Ven- 
erable T^re  Eymard.  The  late  Pftre  Tesni^  pub- 
lished: "The  Adoration  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament"; 
"  The  Eucharistic  Christ " ;  "  The  Eucharistic  Heart " ; 
"The  Mysteries  of  the  Rosary".  The  commendable 
practice  nas  much  increased  among  the  members  of 
the  confraternity  of  making  the  hour  of  adoration  at  a 
time  when  the  faithful  are  able  to  take  part  in  it.  M- 
vate  or  solemn  exposition  is  adopted  according  to  cir- 
cumstances, and  for  the  benefit  of  the  faithful  prayers 
are  recited  and  suitable  hymns  sung  between  the  in- 
tervals of  meditation.  In  this  connexion  the  associa- 
tions, entitled  "Agr^ation  du  tr^  saint  Sacrement" 
and  ''GSuvre  de  I'Exposition  Menseulle  du  tr^  saint 
Sacrement  dans  les  Paroisses"^  will  be  of  service. 

In  additioii  to  the  literature  mentioned  in  the  article,  see  Stat- 
ute* of  ths  Suehariatic  League  (New  York);  Report  of  the 
Nineteenth  Bucharietie  Conareae  (Westminster,  1908).  255-266; 
PoiRiBB,  AdvajOagea  of  the  Prieata'  Ettchariatie  Leagtu,  Ita  Origin 
and  Pteaent  Statue  (paper  read  at  the  Montreal  Congress)  in 
Emmanuel  (Nov..  1910).  279-290. 

Henbt  Parkinson. 

Primacy  (Lat.  primattLs,  primii8f  first),  the  su- 
preme episcopal  jurisdiction  of  the  pope  as  pastor  and 
governor  of  the  Universal  Church.     (See  Pops.) 

Prima  Primaria.    See  Sodalitt. 

Primary  School.    See  Schools. 

Prixnata  (Lat.  primaej  from  primus,  "first"). — In 
the  Western  Church  a  primate  is  a  bishop  possessing 
superior  authority,  not  only  over  the  bishops  of  his 
own  province,  like  the  metropolitan,  but  over 
seversu  provinces  and  metropolitans.  Tnis  does  not 
refer  to  episcopal  powers,  which  each  bishop  possesses 
fuUy,  but  to  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  ana  organiza- 
tion, especially  in  national  churches.  Primates  exist 
only  in  the  West,  and  correspond  not  to  the  patriarchs 
but  to  the  exarchs  of  the  East.  There  is  no  uniformity 
in  the  institution,  it  has  no  place  in  common  law; 
primatial  rights  are  privileges.  In  their  widest  ac- 
ceptation these  rights  woula  be:  to  convoke  and  pre- 
side over  national  councils,  to  crown  the  sovereign,  to 
hear  appeals  from  the  metropolitan  and  even  episcopal 
courts,  and  finally  the  honorary  right  of  precedence. 
This  oi]ganization  formerly  useful,  as  it  favoured  and 
maintained  unity  in  national  churches,  has  lost  its 
importance  and  disappeared;  first,  because  national 
Churches  as  such  no  longer  exist,  and  secondly  on 
account  of  the  gradual  disciplinary  centralization  of 
the  Western  Churches  around  the  Roman  See.  Ex- 
cept in  the  case  of  Gran  in  Hungary,  the  primatial 
title  is  merely  honorific.  At  the  solemnities  accom- 
panying the  canonization  of  the  Japanese  martyrs  in 
1867,  no  special  place  was  reserved  for  primates;  and 
in  the  Vatican  Council  the  precedence  of  primates  was 
recognized  onlv  at  the  instance  of  the  Pnnce-Primate 
of  Hungary  (Vering,  "Kirchenrecht",  §  133),  as  some- 
thing exceptional  and  not  to  be  considered  a  prece- 


ranot 


424 


dent.  The  Brief  "Inter  multiplices".  27  November, 
1869  (Acta  S.  Sedis,  V,  235),  ranks  the  primates  ac- 
cording to  their  date  of  promotion  after  the  patriarchs, 
but  adds:  Ex  speciah  indulgentia,  i.  e.  i>y  special 
favour,  for  that  occasion  only,  nor  must  it  be  mter- 
preted  as  conferring  any  right  on  them  or  diminishing 
the  right  of  others,  llie  history  of  the  prinacies  in 
the  Middle  Ages  is  largely  concerned  with  intermi- 
nable disputes  concerning  special  rights,  privileges,  etc. 
The  real  primacies  were  at  nrst  those  that  did  not  bear 
the  name.  The  Bishop  of  Carthage  exercised  a  true* 
primatial  jurisdiction  over  the  provinces  of  Roman 
Africa^  without  being  called  a  primate;  on  the  other 
hand,  m  the  provinces,  other  than  the  Proconsular,  the 
oldest  bishop,  who  resembled  a  metropolitan,  was 
ctdled  the  primate.  The  title  Primate  of  Africa  was 
restored  again  in  1893  by  Leo  XIII  in  favour  of  the 
ArchbifiJiop  of  Carthage.  The  Bishop  of  Toledo  was 
also  a  primate  for  the  Visigothic  kingdom.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  Bishops  of  Tnessalonica  and  Aries,  in- 
vested with  the  vicanate  of  the  pope,  had  authority 
over  sevend  provinces.  We  meet  later  with  claims  to 
primatial  authoritjr  in  every  country,  and  refusals  to 
recognise  these  claims;  the  primates  who  have  exer- 
cised a  real  authority  being  eroecially  those  of 
Mayence,  the  successors  of  St.  Boniface,  and  of  Lyons, 
made  by  Gregory  VII,  Primate  of  the  Gauls,  in 
reality  of  the  provinces  called  formerly  "Lugdunen- 
bgb".  All  kinds  of  reasons  were  invoked:  the  evan- 
gelisation of  the  country,  the  importance  of  the  see, 
pontifical  concessions,  etc.  It  is  impossible  to  give 
more  than  the  mere  names  of  primacies:  in  Spain, 
Toledo,  Compostella,  Braga;  in  France,  Lyons,  Reims, 
Bourges,  Vienne,  Narbonne,  Bordeaux,  Rouen;  in 
Germany,  Mayence^  Trier,  Magdeburg:  in  England, 
Canterbury,  York;  m  Scotland,  St.  Andrews;  in  Ire- 
land, Armagl^;  in  the  Scandinavian  countries,  Lund. 
But  of  all  these  nothms  but  a  title  has  remained;  and 
at  the  Vatican  CoimcQ  the  only  bishops  figuring  as 
primates,  in  virtue  of  recent  concessions,  were  those 
of  Salzburg,  Antivari,  Salerno,  Bahia,  Gnesen,  Tarra- 
gona, Gran,  Mechlin,  and  Armagh  (Coll.  Lacens.,  VII, 
pp.  34,  488,  726). 

Thoiiabsxn,  Vettis  et  tuna  diaeipt.,  pt.  I,  bk.  I,  xzvii  aq.;  Pril- 
UPB,  Kirdienreehl,  1 62. 

A.   BOUDINHON. 

Prime. — ^I.  The  Name. — ^The  name  Prime  (prima 
hora)  belongs  with  those  of  Terce,  Sext,  None,  to  the 
short  offices  recited  at  the  different  hours  of  the  da^, 
called  by  these  names  among  the  Romans,  that  is, 
'prima  towards  6  a.  m.;  tertiaf  towards  9  a.  m.;  sexta^ 
towards  noon;  novui  towards  3  p.  m.  At  first  Prime 
was  termed  maiuiina  {hora),  morning  hour;  later,  in 
order  to  distinguish  it  from  the  nocturnal  hours  of  Mat- 
ins and  Lauds,  and  to  include  it  among  hours  of  the 
day,  it  was  called  prima.  The  name  is  first  met  with 
in  the  Rule  of  St.  Benedict.  In  the  Bangor  Antipho- 
nary  it  is  called  secunda. 

II.  Origin. — This  short  office  is  one  of  those  whose 
origin  is  best  known.  Cassian,  speaking  of  Prime, 
says  expressly  "sciendum  ...  hanc  matutinam 
canonicam  functionem  [i.  e.  Prime]  nostro  tempore  in 
noetro  quoque  monasterio  primitus  institutam''(In- 
stit.,  Ill,  IV). 

As  the  chronology  of  Cassian's  works  has  recently 
been  established  faurly  accurately,  the  institution  of 
Prime  must  be  placed  towards  382  (see  Pargoire, 
op.  cit.  below,  288).  Apropos  of  this  monasten^.  of 
which  Cassian  speaks  as  the  cradle  of  Rime,  it  nas 
now  been  provea  that  it  was  not  St.  Jerome's  monas- 
.  tery  at  Bethlehein.  but  another,  perhaps  one  estab- 
lished beyond  the  Tower  of  Ader  (or  of  the  Flock)  be- 
vond  the  village  of  the  Shepherds,  and  consequently 
beyond  the  modem  Beth-saour;  it  nas  b^n  identified 
either  with  DeTr-er-Raouat  (convent  of  the  shepherds) 
or  with  Seiar-er-Ganhem  (enclosure  of  the  sheep). 


We  learn  further  from  Cassian  the  reason  that  led 
to  the  institution  of  this  office.  The  office  of  the  night, 
comprising  Matins  and  Lauds,  ended  then  at  simrise,  so 
that  Lauds  corresponded  to  the,  dawn.  After  the 
night  offices  at  Bethlehem,  as  in  the  other  Palestinian 
monasteries,  the  monks  might  retire  to  rest.  As  no 
other  office  called  them  together  before  Terce,  those 
who  were  lazy  seized  the  opportunity  of  prolonging 
their  sleep  till  nine  in  the  morning,  instead  of  applying 
themselves  to  manual  work  or  spiritual  reading.  To 
end  this  abuse,  it  was  decided,  in  tne  above  monastery, 
to  continue  tne  custom  of  reposing  after  the  night 
office,  but,  to  prevent  an  undue  prolongation  of  sleep, 
the  monks  were  recalled  to  choir  at  the  hour  of  Prime, 
and  after  the  recital  of  a  few  psalms  they  were  to  work 
until  Terce  (Cassian,  "  Instit.",  Ill,  iv).  All  this  is  es- 
tablished by  authentic  texts.  The  only  difficulty  is 
that  some  contemporaries  of  Cassian  or  even  his  pred- 
ecessors, as  Eusebius  of  Ceesarea,  St.  Jerome,  St. 
Basil,  St.  John  Chrysostom,  speak  of  an  office  recited 
at  sunrise,  and  which  therefore  would  seem  to  be  iden- 
tical with  Prime.  But  it  must  be  noted  that  they  are 
speaking  of  Lauds,  which  in  some  conmiunities  was  re- 
cited later,  and  so  was  identified  with  the  hour  but  not 
with  the  subject  matter  of  Prime. 

III.  Contents. — ^The  matter  oompomng  the  new 
hour  was  drawn  from  the  office  of  Lauds;  or  rather 
Prime,  as  an  office,  was  a  repetition  of  part  of  Lauds, 
and  aaded  nothing  to  the  ensemble  of  the  psalmody,  only 
Psalms  i,  bdi,  ana  Ixxxix.  which  were  formerly  part  of 
Lauds,  were  recited  at  tnis  hour.  Such  at  least  was 
the  original  composition  of  Prime;  but  the  monasteries 
which  gradually  adopted  it  in  the  East  and  in  the  West 
changed  its  constitution  as  they  liked.  It  is  impossi- 
ble to  describe  here  all  the  variations  this  office  under- 
went in  the  different  liturgies.  We  need  only  remark 
tluBit  one  of  the  most  characteristic  features  of  Prime 
is  the  recitation  of  the  famous  symbol  ''Quicumque 
vult  salvus  esse'^  called  the  Athanasian  Creed,  which 
has  recently  been  the  subject  of  much  controversy 
in  the  Anglican  Church.  St.  Benedict  orders  to  be 
recited  at  Prime  on  Sundays  four  groups  of  eisht 
verses  of  Ps.  cxviii;  on  week-days,  three  psalms,  oe- 
^inning  with  the  first  and  continiung  to  rs.  xix,  tak- 
ing three  psalms  each  day  (Ps.  ix  and  xvii  bein^  di- 
vided into  two).  In  that  way  Prime  is  ^rmmetncal, 
like  the  other  short  hours  of  the  day.  It  resembles 
these  also  in  composition,  the  psalmody  being  accom- 
panied by  a  hymn,  an  antiphon,  capitulum,  versicle, 
and  prayer.  In  the  Roman  lituigy  the  office  of  Prime 
is  not  composed  so  symmetrically.  Usually  it  consists 
of  Ps.  lUi,  cxvii,  the  first  four  groups  of  eipht  vmes  of 
Ps.  cxviii,  and  during  the  week  Pss.  liii,  xxiii,  xxv, 
xxiv,  xxii,  and  xxi.  Tne  capitulum  and  other  elements 
are  after  the  model  of  the  short  hours  (cf.  None). 

rV.  The  Office  of  the  Chapter. — So  far  we 
have  spoken  only  of  the  office  of  Prime  properly  so 
called,  which  ends  like  the  other  short  hours.  It  is  fol- 
lowed by  some  prayers  which  are  called  the  office  of 
the  chapter,  and  are  composed  in  the  Roman  Liturgy  of 
the  reading  of  the  martvrology,  of  a  prayer,  "Sancta 
Maria  et  omnes  sancti  ,  a  F^y^  concerning  work, 
"Respice  in  servos  tuos  .  .  .  Dingere  et  sanctmcare", 
and  a  blessing.  This  addition  to  Prime  is  a  legacy 
bequeathed  by.  the  monks  to  the  secular  clergy.  As 
has  been  said  above,  originally  after  Prime  the  monks 
had  to  betake  themselves  to  manual  work  or  readins. 
The  office  therefore  ended  with  a  prayer  for  their  work 
''.  .  .  et  opera  manuum  nostrarum  dirige  super  nos 
et  opus  manuum  nostrarum  dirige '\  and  the  prayer 
"Dirigere'\  Later  the  reading  of  tne  martyrology, 
the  necrology,  the  rule,  and  a  prayer  for  the  dead  were 
added  (see  Batkmer-Biron,  loc.  cit.,  I,  361-62). 

In  view  of  its  origin  ana  constitution.  Prime  is  to  be 
considered  as  the  prayer  of  the  bednmnj;  of  the  day, 
whereas  Lauds  is  devoted  to  recalling  with  the  dawn 
the  memory  of  Christ's  Resurreotion,  Prime  ia  the 


425 

mornixig  hour  which  oonBecrates  all  the  work  of  the  received.  Of  the  curaua  or  Little  Office  of  the 
day.  Its  institution  has  made  the  litumcal  da^r  more  Bleraed  Virgin  we  hear  nothing  until  the  time  of  Ber- 
regular  and  symmetrical.  Prime,  until  then  without  nerius  of  Verdun  (c.  960)  and  of  St.  Udalric  of  Aufl»- 
an  office,  received  its  psalmody  like  Terce,  Sext,  None,  burg  (c.  971) ;  but  this  form  of  devotion  to  Our  Lady 
Vespers.  With  Complin  and  Lauds,  the  liturgical  day  spr^ul  rapi(Uv.  Two  English  manuscripts  which  con- 
readied  the  sacred  septenarjr,  "septies  in  die  laudem  tain  it  date  from  before  the  Norman  Conquest  and 
dixi  tibi".  While  for  the  mght  office  there  was  the  have  been  published  in  facsimile  by  the  Henrv  Brad- 
text:  "media  nocte  surgebam  ad  confitendum  tibi''.  i^aw  Society.  In  these  provision  was  probably  made 
Pbluocia,  7A«  Polity  0/  tKe  Christian  Ckurch,  204  wa.;  Ma»-  only  for  the  private  recitation  of  the  Office  of  the 

SSrro6%iJS;i?tt.S*{^«flh^Sr?3&iSl«  Ble«ed  V-upn,  but  after  the  ardent  encouragement 

anUquu  BeeUtia  ritibut,  Ub.  IV^  o.  viU;  t.  III.  p.  19-23;  Iduc,  Qven  to  this  form  of  devotion  by  St.  Peter  Damian 

DeaMiqw MonMhmmrUiinu,hbA,e,ir,ul^^  in  the  middle  of  the  tenth  century  many  monastic 

BntON.  Htitove  du  Brivtatre,  1. 1, pp.  146,  240,  259. 861. 364, 374;  ^-j^-g  uAnr^is^  if  nr  i^f  AinAH  if  in  nr^fprAnnA  f^  onmA 

Pabooxu.  Prime  «t  ComplintM  in  La  Revue  d'hittoire  et  de  lAutra^  ordCTS  adopted  It  or  retamed  It  m  pr^erenoe  to  some 

iiir«.  Ill  (1898).  28i-«8:  Dui,  d'ArehMoffie  et  de  LUurgie,  1. 198;  other  devotional  offices,  e.g.,  those  of  All  Saints  and 

II.  1246, 1302, 1306;  N«aub  ahd  Littlbdaw.  ACommmOaryon  of  the  Blessed  Trinity,  which  had  found  favour  a  little 

the  Paalms,  I  (London,  1884),  7,  18;  for  the  Symbol  of  St.  Ath»-  pj.-i:p-     la-.  xu^  afiflond  half  of  the  foiirtfiPnt h  rmnf  iirv 

nanus  cf.  Atbanasxan  Cbbu.  1. 1,  p.  33  iq.;  and  Diet,  de  Utiol,  ©anier.    oy  ine  second  nail  01  ine  lourieentn  century 

eatkol„B.Y.Athanaee,  a  certam  measure  of  uniformity  had  been  attamed 

F.  Cabbol.  with  regard  to  these  devotional  accretions  both  among 

the  monastic  orders  and  in  cathedral  and  collemate 

Prlxnor,  Thb.  the  common  En^^Qsh  name  for  a  book  churches,  so  that  we  learn  from  Radulphus  de  Rivo 
of  devotions  which  from  the  thirteenth  to  the  six-  (c.  1360)  that  the  duly  recital  of  the  Office  of  the 
teenth  century  was  the  ordinary  praver-book  used  by  Blessed  Virgin  and  of  the  Vigilis  Mortuorum  were 
the  laity.  The  contents  of  these  books  varied  greatly,  then  regarded  as  obligatory  upon  all  ecclesiastics  by 
but  they  possessed  certain  common  elements  which  the  general  consent  of  nations,  while  by  the  laudable 
practicallv  speaking  are  never  absent.  The  most  im-  practice  of  many,  other  particular  offices  were  also 
portant  feature,  judging  by  the  position  usually  observed,  such  as  the  Pemtential  and  Gradual  psalms 
assigned  to  it  as  well  as  by  the  lavish  use  of  miniatures  and  so  forth.  Throughout  all  this  it  would  seem  that 
and  other  forms  of  ornament  with  which  it  is  asso-  the  sense  that  these  things  were  accretions  to  the  Di- 
ciated,  was  the  Little  Office  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  vine  Office  itself  was  not  lost.  Hence  there  was  a 
Mary.  In  different  liturgical  centres,  for  example,  at  tendency  to  i)erform  these  devotions  in  private,  and 
Rome,  Ssdisbury,  York,  or  Paris,  the  constituents  of  for  this  purpose  thev  were  probably  often  collected 
this  Ldttle  Office  differed  from  each  other  in  various  into  a  separate  book.  Moreover,  since  these  devo- 
details;  for  example,  the  Psalms  recited  at  Prime  tions.  unuke  the  Divine  Office,  were  invariable,  they 
"according  to  the  use  of  York"  were  not  the  same  as  could  be  learned  and  practised  with  comparative  ease 
those  appointed  for  the  same  hour  in  the  Sarum  bre-  by  those  who  had  little  pretensions  to  scholarship, 
viary  and  hence  in  the  later  printed  editions  of  the  There  was  always  a  tendency  in  the  laity  to  copy  the 
Primer  it  is  common  to  find  upon  the  title-page  or  in  exercises  of  piety  which  prevailed  among  the  monastic 
the  colophon  a  statement  of  the  particular  use  fol-  orders.  To  take  part  in  the  full  Divine  Office  of  the 
lowed,  e.g.,  "Hone  secundum  usum  Romanum"  or  Chureh,  which  changed  from  day  to  day,  was  beyond 
"secundum  usum  Sarum '\  Such  designations  how-  their  reach,  but  by  rendering  themselves  familiar  with 
ever  qualify  only  the  Little  Office  of  the  Blessed  Vir-  the  Hours  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  they  were  enabled 
ffin,  and  not  the  other  contents  of  the  volume.  Next  both  to  make  their  own  something  of  that  burden  of 
m  importance,  but  not  usually  next  in  order,  was  the  prajrer  which  the  monks  actually  performed,  and  also 
Office  for  the  Dead,  or  rather  Vespers,  followed  by  to  imitate  that  sevenfold  consecration  of  the  day, 
Matins  and  Lauds.  These  were  commonly  known  as  which  no  doubt  seemed  to  them  the  most  distinctive 
Placebo  and  Dirige  (hence  our  Enelish  word  "dirffe''))  feature  in  the  monastic  hfe.  Hence  it  came  to  pass, 
from  the  antiphons  with  which  tne  Vespers  and  the  no  doubt,  that  the  collection  of  these  accretions  to  the 
Matins  respectively  b^an.  Three  other  constant  Office,  gathered  into  one  small  volume,  became  the 
elements  are  also  invariably  included  in  the  Primer:  favourite  prayer-book  of  the  laity,  whilst  copyists 
the  Fifteen  Psalms  (i.e^  the  Gradual  Psalms,  Ps.  naturallv  supplemented  these  more  strictly  hturgical 
cxix-cxxxiii).  the  Seven  Psalms  (i.e.,  the  Penitential  forms  of  prayer  by  the  addition  of  many  private  de- 
Ptalms),  and  the  Litany  of  the  Saints.  As  already  votions,  often  in  the  vernacular.  For  it  must  be  re- 
stated, these  invariable  features  of  the  Primer  are  sup-  membered  that  the  Psalms,  the  Officium  B.  M.  V.,  the 
plemented  in  nearly  all  extant  copies  with  a  variety  Vigiliae  Mortuorum,  etc.,  were  recited  by  the  laity  as 
of  other  devotions  of  which  a  won!  wiU  be  said  later  wm  asby  theclerr^inLatin.  True,  anumberof  manu- 
on.  script  primers  of  the  fifteenth  century  are  in  existence, 

Origin  of  the  Primer, — ^The  question  of  the  origin  in  which  the  whole  contents  have  been  translated  into 

and  primitive  association  of  the  invariable  elements  English,  but  these  are  comparatively  rare  exceptions, 

just  specified  has  been  of  late  thorou^y  examined  by  On  the  other  hand,  out  of  over  a  hundred  editions  of 

Mr.  Edmimd  Bishop  (see  introduction  to  the  E^ly  the  Primer  printed  for  the  English  book-trade  before 

Encash  Text  Society's  edition  of  the  Primer,  London,  the  breach  with  Rome  in  1533,  not  one  is  known  to 

1897),  who  has  corrected  the  erroneous  views  pre-  contain  the  Office  or  the  Psalms  in  English, 
viously  advanced  by  Henry  Bradshaw  and  others.        Primers  for  CkUdren, — ^The  oridn  of  the  name 

As  Mr.  Bishop  has  shown,  the  Primer  was  consti-  "primer"  is  still  obscure.    The  earliest  instance  yet 

tuted  out  of  certain  devotional  accretions  to  the  Di-  discovered  of  the  use  of  the  word  is  in  a  Latin  will  of 

vine  Office  itself  which  were  invented  first  by  the  1323,  where  it  evidently  means  a  prayer-book.  Prob- 

piety  of  individuals  for  the  use  of  monks  in  their  mon-  abilities  favour  the  view  (see  "  The  Month  '*,  February, 

asteries,  but  which  gradually  spread  and  came  to  be  1911,  pp.  150-63)  that  it  was  called  "primer''  because 

regarded  as  an  obligatory  supplement  to  the  office  of  the  more  elaborate  forms  developed  out  of  a  book  con- 

the  day.    Of  these  accretions  the  Fifteen  Psalms  and  taining  the  invariable  elements  already  specified,  pre- 

the  Seven  Psalms  were  the  earliest  in  point  of  time  to  ceded  oy  the  alphabet,  the  Pater  noster,  Ave  Maria, 

establish    themselves    generally    and    permanently.  Creed,  etc.,  which  compilation  was  used  as  a  first 

Their  adoption  as  part  of  the  daily  round  of  monastic  reading  book  for  children.    This  will  not  seem  strange 

devotion  was  probably  largely  due  to  the  influence  of  when  we  remember  that  children  ip  the  Middle  Ages 

St.  Benedict  of  Aniane  at  the  beginning  of  the  ninth  learned  to  read  not  in  English  but  in  Latin,  and  that 

century.     The  "Vigilise  Mortuorum",  or  Office  for  almost  every  child  that  learned  to  read  learned  with 

the  Dead,  was  the  next  accretion  to  be  generally  the  more  or  less  definite  purpose  of  becoming  a  clerl^ 


FBIMIANnS 


426 


PBIMICIBinS 


i.e^  a  cleric,  whose  profession  required  him  to  recite  the 
Office  and  to  know  the  Psakns  by  heart.  Further  the 
day-book  of  John  Dome  (Oxford  Hist.  Soc.,  1888), 
bookseller  in  Oxford  in  1520.  preserves  many  entries 
of  the  sale  of  books  called  '^primarium  pro  pueris", 
with  indications  which  make  it  certain  that  they  con- 
tained the  Little  Office  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  and 
though  none  of  these  now  survive,  some  later  re- 
formed examples  are  in  existence  of  the  ''Primer — 
moste  necessary  for  the  educacyon  of  Children'' 
(1538),  which  contain  the  A.  B.  C.  together  with  a 
modified  office.  When,  therefore,  we  read  in  Chaucer's 
"Prioress's  Tale"  (1386)  of  the  primer  used  by  the 
"Htel  clergeon  seven  years  of  age  — 

''This  litel  child,  his  litel  book  leminge, 
As  he  sat  in  the  scole  at  his  prymer", 
there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  book  was  none  other 
than  the  Primer  here  described.  Indeed,  the  rehgious 
character  of  such  elementary  manuals  persisted  for 
long  centuries  afterward  and  Dr.  Johnson,  the  lexicog- 
rapher, as  late  as  1773,  still  defined  a  primer  as  'a 
small  prayer-book  in  which  children  are  taught  to 
read". 

Early  Printed  Primers. — A  very  large  nimiber  of 
editions  of  the  Primer  came  from  the  press  before 
Henry  VIII  threw  off  his  alleriance  to  the  pope.  Such 
books  containing  the  Little  Office  of  the  Blessed  Vir- 
gin and  the  Vigiliss  Mortuorum  with  miscellaneous 
private  devotions  were  common  enough  everywhere 
throughout  Europe  and  were  genendly  known  'as 
"  Hors  ".  But  the  English  name,  the  name  commonly 
used  when  these  books  were  si>oken  of  in  English,  was 
" Primer".  Though  Caxton  hiniself  is  known  to  have 
printed  four  editions,  and  there  are  probably  more  of 
(lis  that  have  perished,  while  his  successors  multiplied 
editions  rapidly,  the  English  printers  were  unequal 
to  supply  the  demand.  A  vast  number  were  produced 
"secundum  usum  Sarum"  by  the  presses  of  Paris, 
Rouen,  and  elsewhere,  many  of  tnem  exceedingly 
beautiful  in  their  typo^aphy  and  ornamentation,  and 
a  considerable  number  printed  on  vellum.  Besides 
the  constant  elements  already  specified,  these  books 
commonly  contain  some  other  mmor  offices,  e.g.,  that 
of  the  Passion,  that  of  the  Angels^  etc.,  and  a  vast 
number  of  commemorations  of  individual  saints. 
The  be^^nnings  of  the  four  Gospels  are  also  often 
found  with  the  Athanasian  and  other  creeds,  and 
prayers  for  Confession  and  Communion.  An  almost 
invariable  adjunct,  either  in  Latin  or  English,  was  the 
fifteen  prayers  attributed  to  St.  Bridget  and  known  as 
"the  fifteen  O's",  and  there  were  often  devotions  of  a 
more  fantastical  kind  which  claimed  to  have  been 
enriched  by  extravagant  grants  of  indulgence,  mostly 
quite  unauthentic.  Perhaps  no  better  idea  can  be 
^ven  of  the  miscellaneous  contents,  some  Latin, 
some  English,  of  many  of  the  larger  primers  than  by 
making  an  extract  from  the  index  of  one  of  Wynk}m 
de  Worde's  quarto  editions.    Thus: 

A  prayer  made  upon  Ave  Maria. 

Gaude  virgo  mater. 

De  profimdis  for  all  crysten  soules. 

A  prayer  to  oure  lady  and  saynt  John  the  evan- 

gelyst:  O  intemerata. 
A  prayer  to  our  lady;  Sancta  Maria. 
Another  devout  prayer  to  our  lady:  Obsecro. 
To  our  lady:  Sancta  Maria  regina. 
To  our  lady:  Stella  celi  extirpavit. 
Prayers  to  the  Sacrament  at  the  leavacion:  Ave 

verum, 
A  prayer  to  the  trinite;    sancta  trinitas  unus 

aeus,  with  two  other  prayers,  Deus  qui  super- 

bis^  Deus  qui  liberasti. 
Domme  Jesu  Christe  qui  me  creasti. 
Domine  Jesu  Christe  qui  solus. 
Two  prayers  with  two  collectes  to  the  thre 

K3mges  of  Cole}!!, 


Rex  Jaspar,  rex  Melchior,  and  Trium  regum 
trinum  mimus. 

The  XV  OOS  of  the  passion  of  our  Lorde  in  latyn. 

Pra^rers  to  the  p}i;e  of  our  lorde:  Adoro  te  do- 
mine. 

A  prater  to  our  lord  crucyfyed:  Preoor  te  aman- 
tissime. 

Another  to  his  V  woimdes:  O  pie  crucifixe. 

The  prayer  of  saynt  Bemardyn:  O  bone  Jesu, 
witn  an  antheme  and  a  coUecte. 

O  rex  gloriose. 

To  the  crosse:  Santifica  me. 

To  thy  proper  Aungell:  O  sancte  angele. 
Po8t  Reformation  Primers. — So  strong  was  the  hold 
which  the  Primer  had  taken  upon  the  affections  of 
Englishmen  that  after  the  breach  with  Rome  various 
imitations,  still  bearing  the  name  of  Primer  and 
framed  upon  the  same  general  lines,  were  put  forward 
with  more  or  less  of  ecclesiastical  approval  by  Mar- 
shall and  Bishop  Hilsey,  while  in  1545  appeared  "the 
Royal  Primer",  which  was  published  in  the  name  of 
Henry  VIII  himself,  and  was  to  supersede  all  others. 
Other  substitutes,  still  further  mooified  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  reformed  doctrine  now  in  favour,  were  pub- 
Ushed  in  the  reign  of  Edward  VI.  For  the  most  part 
these  books  were  entirely  in  English  and  when  under 
Queen  Mary  the  old  form  of  Primer  was  restored, 
several  editions  then  produced,  though  thoroughlv 
Catholic  in  their  contents,  were  printed  in  En^sn 
as  well  as  in  Latin.  Under  Elizabeth  the  Protestant 
substitutes  for  the  Primer  returned,  but  that  printed 
in  1559  was  still  called  "the  Primer  set  forth  at  large 
with  manv  godly  and  devoute  Prayers"-  and  it  in- 
cluded a  form  of  "Office"  divided  into  seven  hours, 
with  the  "seven  psalms",  the  htany  (much  modified), 
and  "the  Dirige"  (see  "Private  Flyers",  Parker 
Society,  1851).  Meanwhile  the  Catholics  had  to  be 
content  with  such  ancient  copies  of  the  Marian  or 
earlier  editions  which  they  would  secrete,  or  with  the 
few  copies  of  the  Roman  Hone  printed  entirely  in 
I^atin  which  could  be  smuggled  in  from  abroad. 
The  first  Cathofic  Primer  ofpenal  times  seems  to 
have  been  that  edited  by  Richard  Verste^an  (Ant- 
werp, 1599).  It  adhered  to  the  old  conception  of  the 
Primer  by  making  the  Office  of  Our  Blessed  Lady  the 
most  conspicuous  feature  of  the  whole,  but  a  great 
deal  of  new  matter  was  introduced  into  the  miscella- 
neous devotions,  and  in  the  subsequent  editions 
printed  in  many  of  the  cities  to  which  Catholics 
resorted  upon  the  continent,  e.g.,  Douai,  St.  Omers, 
Rouen,  etc.,  a  great  deal  of  innovation  was  tolerated. 
Of  really  old  English  devotions  the  "Jesus  Psalter", 
which  we  know  uom  John  Dome's  day-book  to  have 
been  printed  and  sold  separately  before  1520,  was 
one  of  the  features  most  relished  and  most  consist- 
ently retained.  The  edition  of  1706  seems  to  have 
been  much  improved  as  regards  the  translations  of 
the  hymns,  ana  of  some  of  these  John  Dryden  is  be- 
lieved to  have  been  the  author.  The  whole  number 
of  Catholic  editions  of  the  Primer  known  to  have 
been  printed  under  that  name,  either  in  England  or 
abroad  since  Elisabeth,  amounts  to  over  forty. 

Mabkbll,  Monumenta  RUtuMa  Eedetia  Anolioana,  III  (2nd 


duction  by  Bishop  (London,  ISO^-T};  Hoakxks,  Hora  Btata 
Maria  Vtrginit.  or  the  Sarum  and  York  Primera  and  Kindred 
Books,  a  Hat  ana  description  of  Enfflish  Horn  and  Primen  (Lon- 
don, 1901);  BcNiOBTT  in  Julian's  Dictionary  of  Hymnoiogy  (Lon- 
don, 1907).  8.  V.  Primera:  THvnaTON.  T/ie  Mediavai  Primer  in  The 
Month  (February,  1911);  Gillo^.  LeUera  on  "Our  Old  Bn^ieh 
Prayer-books*'  in  The  Tablet  (December,  1884,  and  January,  1886). 

Herbert  Thurston. 
Primianus.    See  Donatibts. 

Primicerius  (etymologically  mimua  in  cera,  sc.  in 
tabula  cerata,  the  first  in  a  list  ot  a  class  of  officials), 
a  term  applied  in  later  Roman  times  to  the  head  of 
any  administration — thus  ''primicerius  notarionun". 


PBIBIU8  427  PBIOB 


torum  servientium  in  ecclesia  Li^diinensi "  (Le  Blant 
"Inscriptions  ohr^tiennes  de  la  Gaule",  I^  142,  n.  45 
cf.  similar  notices  in  Ducange,  "Glossanum' ,  s.  v., 
Gregory  of  Tours^  "Hist.  Francorum",  II,  xxxvii). 
St.  Isiaore  of  Seville  treats  of  the  obligations  of  the 


^'primicerius  protectonim"  etc.  (cf.  ForceUini,  "To-  1842.  In  1870  Father  Moulin  was  put  in  charge  of 
tius  latinitatis  Lexicon",  s.  v.).  In  ecclesiastical  use  the  French  half-breed  families  who  had  settled  on  the 
the  term  was  given  to  heads  of  the  colleges  of  Notarii  banks  of  the  south  branch  of  the  Saskatchewan, 
and  Defensores,  which  occupied  so  important  a  place  In  1874  the  permanent  mission  of  St.  Laurent  was 
in  the  administration  of  the  Roman  Church  in  later  establishedbvFatherAndr^,  who  was  replaced  in  Nov., 
antiquity  and  in  the  early  Middle  Ages.  When  young  1877,  by  Father  Lestanc,  the  real  founder  of  that  mis- 
clerics  were  assembled  in  schools  for  traiMng  m  the  sionary  post  on  the  south  branch  of  the  Saskatche- 
ecclesiastical  service  in  the  different  districts  of  the  wan.  Then  followed  the  missions  of  St.  Anthony^  at 
Western  Church  (from  the  fifth  or  sixth  century),  the  Batoche,  established  in  1881  by  Father  V6greville, 
directors  of  these  schools  were  also  commonly  given  succeeded  by  Father  Moulin,  and  of  Prince 
this  title.  Thus,  an  inscription  of  the  year  551  from  Albert,  started  by  Father  Andr6  in  1882.  Tlie'first 
Lyons  mentions  a  "Stephanus  primicerius  scolte  lee-  missionaries  of  the  diocese  were  French  Oblate^^  of 

Mary  Immaculate.    The  uprising  of  the  dissatisfied 

B)pulation  in  1885  resulted  in  the  battles  of  Fish 
reek  and  Batoche,  the  murder  of  two  missioriaLries 
by  Plains  Crees,  the  destruction  of  several  mission- 

K^«.  xo.v.v^m«^  x/.  K^w^K^^  v>«<.vo  x/«  »XA^  ^.L#«x6<.ww.»  y,,.  »u^  ary  establishments,  and  the  capture  and  execution 

primicerius  of  the  lower  clerics  in  his  "Epistola  ad  of  the  half-breed  leader,  Louis  Riel.    St.  Louis  de 

Ludefredum"  (P.  L.^  LXXXIII,  896).    From  this  Langevin  was  founded  by  Father  Lecocq  in  18^. 

position  the  primicenus  also  derived  certain  powers  The  advent  of  railways  prompted  the  foundation 

m  the  direction  of  Uturf^cal  functions.    In.  the  regu-  of  parishes  and  farming  settlements,  of  which  the 

lation  of  the  common  life  of  the  clergy  in  collegiate  most  imi>ortant  is  the  German  colony  of  St.  Peter^ 

and  cathedral  churches,  according  to  the  Rule  of  founded  in  1903  by  the  Very  Rev.  Bruno  Doerfler, 

Chrodegang  and  the  statutes  of  Amalarius  of  Mets,  O.S.B.,  now  attended  by  several  priests  of  the  same 

the  primicerius  appears  as  the  first  capitular  after  the  order. 

archdeacon  and  archpresbyter,  controlling  the  lower  The  Catholic  population  of  the  diocese  is  estimated 

clerics  and  directing  the  liturgical  functions  and  chant.  (1011)  at  45^000,  of  whom  some  15,000  follow  the 

The  primicerius  thus  became  a  special  dignitary  of  Ruthenian  Rite.    The  French  have  18  parishes,  with 

many  chapters  by  a  gradual  development  from  the  resident  priests,  and  number  11,050;  the  Germans  are 

position  of  the  old,  primicerius  of  the  scola  carUorum  or  between  10^500  and  1 1,000,  distributed  in  12  parishes; 

lectcrum.  while  the  English-speaking  population,  about  3100, 

THOMAosiinTs,  Fc<iM0<  nova  iP<x:{m«(ft«aj>{»na,  I  (Lyons.  1700);  have  4  parishes  of  their  own.    In  other  centres  the 

vti'^f^*  r^  *      ^f  ^L  ^.'C^ ^?Siit'^Q ^^?'J^n^i  Catholics  are  of  mixed  nationalities.    There  are  also 

ISS^^'pf^:^  S«^!lW)f*^*  ^'  ^•''™'  "^  some  1000  Catholic  Crees,  whose  spiritual  needs  a« 

J.  P.  KiBSCH.  attended  to  by  French  Oblates  established  on,  or  near, 

their  reserves.  The  schools  of  all  these  parishes, 
Primus  and  Felidan,  Saints,  suffered  martyrdom  whether  public  or  separate^  are  equally  satisfactory 
about  304  in  the  Diocletian  persecution.  The  "  Mar-  but  not  up  to  the  Catholic  ideal  (see  Saskatchewan, 
tyrologiumHieronymianum"(ed.DeRo6si-Duchesne.  Province  or).  Saskatoon  has  15,000  inhabitants, 
77)  gives  under  9  June  the  names  of  Primus  and  and  Prince  Albert,  8000.  The  diocese  coimts  28 
Felician  who  were  buried  at  the  fourteenth  milestone  Oblate  fathers,  22  secular  priests,  14  Benedictines, 
of  the  Via  Nomentana  (near  Nomentum,  now  Men-  and  6  communities  of  women.  It  has  42  academies 
tana).  They  were  evidently  from  Nomentum.  This  ?"^d  parish  schools.  2  Catholic  hospitals,  and  2  board- 
notice  comes  from  the  catalogue  of  Roman  martyrs  of  inj-schools  for  Indians  with  130  pupils, 
the  fourth  century.  In  648  Pope  Theodore  translated  c^^n  ^^^  cil^Tli^onSS'^iio)*'^^  "^  *^  ^*'**^*' 
the  bones  of  the  two  saints  to  the  Roman  Church  of  AG  Morice 
San  Stefano,  under  an  altar  erected  in  their  honour 

(Liber  Pontificalis,  1, 332),  where  they  remain.   Their  Prince  Kdward  Islaad.     See  Charlottbtown, 

feast  is  still  observed  on  9  June.  Diocese  of. 

Ada  SS.t  June.  II,  162  aq.;   Dufoubcq,  Let  Oeata  martvrum 

romaiM,  I  (ParM,  1900).  213;  D«  Rofw,  /nterirtuwwM  cJtm*..  Prlor,  a  monastic  superior.     In  the  Rule  of  St. 

SS?)f^pTSS  ^IP^ttef  lSS^c^£in^/5r Jte  Benedict  the  term  prior  occurs  several  times,  but  does 

de  Rome  (2iid  ed..  Rome,  1909),  221  sq.  not  sigmfy  any  particular  supenor;  it  IS  mdiscrum- 

J.  P.  KiBSCH.  nately  applied  to  any  superior,  be  he  abbot,  provost. 

dean,  etc.    In  other  old  monastic  rules  the  t&tpi  is  used 

PrlxuM  Albert,  Diocese  of,  a  suffragan  see  of  St.  in  the  same  generic  sense.  With  the  Cluniac  reform  the 
Boniface,  Manitoba,  in  the  Province  of  Saskatchewan,  term  prior  received  a  specific  meaning;  it  supplanted 
Canada.  Originally  part  of  the  Diocese  of  St.  Albert,  the  provost  (pngpositus)  of  the  Rule  of  St.  Benedict, 
it  was  formed,  4  June,  1891,  into  the  Vicariate  Apos-  In  the  congregation  of  Hirschau,  which  arose  in  Ger- 
tolic  of  the  Saskatchewan,  bounded  in  the  south  by  many  in  the  eleventh  centurv,  the  term  prior  was  also 
62^  30'  N.  lat.,  in  the  west  oy  109^  W.  long.,  in  the  east  substituted  for  provost,  and  the  example  of  the  Cluniac 
by  the  present  boundaries  of  the  province  of  the  same  and  Hirschau  congregations  was  graoually  followed  by 
name,  and  in  the  north  by  the  Arctic  Sea.  On  2  Dec.,  all  Benedictine  monasteries^  as  well  as  by  the  Camal- 
1907,  most  of  this  was  erected  into  the  Diocese  of  <iolese,  Vallombrosians,  Cistercians,  and  other  off- 
Prince  Albert,  and  Rt.  Rev.  Albert  Pascal,  O.M.I.,  shoots  of  the  Benedictine  Order.  In  the  Benedictine 
became  its  bishop.  The  new  diocese  is  bounded  on  Order  and  its  branches,  in  the  Premonstratensian 
the  south  by  a  line  passing  between  the  thirtieth  and  Order,  and  in  the  militaiy  orders  there  are  two  kinds 
the  thirty-first  township,  approximately  51°  30' N.  lat.  of  priors,— the  claustral  prior  (prior  dauatralis)  and 
Its  western  and  eastern  limits  are  coincident  with  the  the  conventual  prior  (prior  conventualis).  The  clau9- 
boundaries  of  the  civil  province  as  far  north  as  the  tral  prior,  in  a  few  monasteries  called  dean,  holds  the 
sixtieth  township  (about  54°  20')  in  the  west,  and  the  first  place  after  the  abbot  (or  grand-master  in  military 
fifty-second  township  (or  53°  30')  in  the  east,  thus  orders),  whom  he  assists  in  the  government  of  the 
forming  in  the  north  a  line  of  demarcation  with  two  monastery  and  whose  place  he  supplies  in  his  absence, 
right  angles  just  half  way  between  its  eastern  and  He  has  no  ordinary  jurisdiction  by  virtue  of  his  office, 
western  limits.  since  he  performs  the  duties  of  his  office  entirely  ac- 

Fort  Carlton  within  that  territory  had  been  pe-  cording  to  the  will  and  under  the  direction  of  the  ab- 

riodically  visited  by  Catholic  missionaries  ever  since  bot.    His  jurisdiction  is,  tbeiefore,  a  delegated  one 


PRIOBS88                             428  PBI8GA 

and  extends  just  as  far  as  the  abbot  derires,  or  the  con-  to  apply  the  title  of  prioress  also  to  a  superioress  in  a 
stitutions  of  the  congregation  prescribe.  He  is  ap-  convent  which  has  only  the  episoopal  approbation 
pointed  by  the  abbot,  generally  after  a  consultation  and  whose  members  do  not  make  solemn  profession. 
with  the  capitulars  of  the  monastery,  and  may  here-  In  general,  the  office  of  a  prioress  in  an  order  for 
moved  bv  bun  at  any  time.  In  many  monasteries,  es-  women  corresponds  to  that  of  the  prior  in  the  same 
pecially  larger  ones,  the  claustnd  prior  is  assisted  by  a  order  for  men.  If  the  prioress  is  the  first  superior,  her 
subprior,  who  holds  the  third  place  in  the  monastery,  authority  over  the  convent  is  similar  to  that  of  a  con- 
In  ^rrner  times  there  were  in  larger  monasteries,  be-  ventual  prior  over  his  priory;  if  the  first  superior  is  an 
sides  the  prior  and  the  subprior,  also  a  third,  fourth,  abbess,  the  office  of  the  prioress  is  similar  to  that  of  a 
and  sometimes  even  a  fifth  prior.  Each  of  these  was  claustral  prior  in  an  abbey, 
called  drca  (or  circatar),  because  it  was  his  duty  to  For  bibUogr»phy  aee  Pbiob. 

make  the  rounds  of  the  monastery  to  see  whether  any-  Michael  Ott. 

thing  was  amiss  and  whether  the  brethren  were  intent  i>-i-»--    .  «»/^.»— ♦^^^  «,y«^^  «„^*;^*  ;-  .  ^^^^ 

^.^^«^t^it^^S^.£r      ^^^^^  •»«  *°»°<»  their  monUeriee  priories.    The  Benedictlne«  and 

annMS  or  contrary  to  me  rules.  their  offshoots,  the  PremonstratenaiaM.  and  the  miH- 

oU^oS^SA?!^^^  taryordersdistinguishbetw^nconve^^^^^ 

lK^ci"for^lift?M  ^  fSrr^«  he'wS  f  ^er  beca^  the  canonicdly  required  number  oi 

often  elected  for  a  speci&l  period  of  time.    He  may  *7v«^^«  "^^^  ^  'JS*  y«*  ^^  ^^  ^'■J^^  "^"^^ 

bewsisted  by  a  subprior,  ^^  other  reason.    The  Congregation  of  Cluny  had  many 

SaJTthe  cllustral  prior'in  an  abbey.    In  the  Con-  ???;!S   P^SiS*  Jo^ITJa^U^  SJ 

gresaUon  of  Cluny  a^  otheni  of  the  tenth,  eleventh,  je^^fJ^j^l  ^P^^J^  i^^Xn^fll  ^^«fSS5 

^twelfth  centuries  there  was  also  a  greater  prior  ^f  ^j^'^^  ^i^  ^\"^  England  all  monastencs 

(^^•or^^^^  3^'pl^es"^^^^ 

S W'lh^oSJXS^^m^^^  famoJ^MauristCon^^^ 

tirover  extei^Sf&dend«^  of  thTabbeJr.  .  The  ^1^^^'^J^^Jlf^  ^^.  '^f  .L^^^^l* 


^Sd^cyVaTabb^?  l^TilTSkTb^^^^           the  "^^JfL^^,^^^  ^  ev^aything,  is  ci^ed  simple  or 

abbot,  is  appointed  by  him,  and  may  be  removed  by  ''^J^SSSSSX^  P«o., 

him  at  any  time.  Micbasl  Ott. 

The  Augustinian  Hermits,  Carmelites,  Servites,  and 

Brothen  of  Mensy  have  three  kinds  of  priors,-— the  Priic*,  Saint,  a  martyr  of  the  Roman  Church,  whose 

oonventuidprior,  the  provincial  prior,  and  the  prior  dates  are  unknown.    Tne  name  Prisca  or  Priscilla  is 

general.    The  conventual  prior  is  the  first  superior  often  mentioned  by  early  authorities  of  the  history  of 

over  a  monastery.    He  is  generally  elected  by  the  the  Church  in  Rome.   The  wife  of  Aquila,  the  pupil  of 

chapter  of  the  monastery  for  a  specified  time,  and  his  8t.  Paul,  bore  this  name.    The  grave  of  a  martyr 

election  requires  the  approbation  of  the  provincial  Prisca  was  venerated  in  the  Roman  Catacomb  of 

prior.    The  provincial  prior  is  the  superior  over  a  Priscilla  on  the  Via  Salaria.    The  place  of  interment 

number  of  monasteries  that  are  united  into  a  province,  ig  explicitly  mentioned  in  all  the  seventh-century 

He  IS  generally  elected  for  a  specified  time  by  the  con-  itineraries  to  the  graves  of  the  Roman  martyrs  (De 

ventual  priors  and  delegates  from  the  various  monas-  Rossi,  ''Roma  sotterranea'',  I,   176,  177).        The 

teries  of  the  province,  and  his  election  requires  the  ap-  epitaph  of  a  Roman  Christian  named  Priscilla  was 

probation  of  the  prior  peneral.    The  pnor  general  is  found  in  the  "larger  Catacomb",  the  CwrMterium 

the  superior  over  the  whole  order;  he  IS  elected  in  the  maius,  on  the  Via  Nomentana.  not  far  from  the 

ffeneral  chapter  for  a  specified  time  and  resides  in  Catacomb  of  St.  Agnes  [De  Rossi,  Bull,  di  areh.  crist. 

Rome.    The  Dominicans  also  have  conventual  and  (1888-1889),  130,  note  5].    There  still  eidsts  on  the 

provincial  priors,  but  the  superior  of  the  whole  order  Aventine  a  church  of  St.  Prisca.    It  stands  on  the  site 

IS  not  called  prior  general,  but  master  general.    The  of  a  very  early  title  church,  the  TUtdut  PriaoB,  men- 

Carthuflians  have  conventuidpribrs  and  a  prior  g^eral,  tioned  in  the  fifth  century  and  built  probably  in  the 

but  no  provincial  prion.    Their  prior  general  is  the  fourth.    In  the  eighteentii  century  there  was  found 

onlv  superior  of  an  order  who  does  not  reside  in  Rome,  near  this  church  a  bronse  tablet  with  an  inscription 

Before  their  suppression  in  France  the  prior  of  the  of  the  year  224,  by  which  a  senator  named  Caius 

Grande  Chartreuse  was  always  prior  general,  an  Marius  Pudens  Comelianus  was  granted  citisenship 

office  now  filled  by  the  prior  of  Fameta  near  Lucca  in  in  a  Spanish  city.    As  such  tablets  were  generally  put 

Italy.    In  all  these  orders  the  second  superior  of  upinthehouseof  the  person  so  honoured,  it  is  possible 

a  monasterv  is  called  subprior  and  his  office  is  similar  that  the  senator's  palace  stood  on  the  spot  where  the 

to  that  of  the  claustral  pnor  in  the  Benedictine  Order,  church  was  built  later.    The  assumption  is  proba- 

^^^v'aS'li'^^^*-^*  (^'«***?;  ^®?*2»  ^•ifiJ^  ble  that  the  Prisca  who  founded  this  title  church,  or 

paeiAlly  52-7:  Moutob.  IttUaxoi  twru  capita  teUcta  (lUtiBboQ,  ,       .w^-ko,^  •«  <^*Ur  •.  *Umx  *W,w^  ^.^..f .•*»    ».»a  ♦k^ 

l^me'New  Vork,  andnnati.  iSw).  patnm;  BiuuwirtLLBii,  who,  perhaps  as  early  as  the  thuxl  century,  gave  the 

PtMti,  />Mon  «.  Prior  in  SindUn «.  MitteU.  aut  dtm  Benedietiner-  use  of  a  part  of  the  house  standing  there  for  the 

il.(Sg;rcifnM^^-Ordm,  IV,  I  (WOnbun  aad  Vienna,  1883).  231-  Christian  church  services,  belonged  to  the  famUy  of 

49.  See  also  Riuoioub  Un.                   MiCHABL  Ott  Pudens  Comelianus.    Whether  Uie  martyr  buried  in 

the  Catacomb  of  Priscilla  bdonged  to  the  same  f amilv 

Priortaa  (Pbiobissa,  prafosfta),   a    superioress  or  was  identical  with  the  founder  of  the  title  church 

in  a  monastic  community  for  women.    Tne  term  cannot  be  proved.    Still  some  family  relationship  is 

prioress  is  properly   applied  only  to  a  superioress  probable,  because  the  name  Priscilla  appears  also  in 

in  a  convent  wnieh  has  the  papal  approbation  and  the  senatorial  family  of  the  Acilii  Glabnones,  whose 

whose  members  make  solemn  profession,  that  is,  to  burial-place  was  in  the  Catacomb  of  Priscilla  on  the 

oonvents  which  belong  to  an  order  in  the  strict  sense  Via  Salaria.    The  "  Martyrologium  Hieronymianum  " 

of  the  word.    In  some  places,  however,  it  is  customary  mentions  under  18  January  a  martyr  Priscilla  on  the 


P&ISCIANUS  429  PRISCILLIANI8M 

Via  Salaria  (ed.  De  Roasi-Ducheane.  10).    This  Pri^       T*?7»'n  ^^A  ^a  l^if^riuur,  »  «J;_/««»Lg»sS-  i-  ^^ 

BcUla  is  evidently  identical  mth  tte  W  whoae  J&S^JT^^ 

grave  was  in  the  Catacomb  of  Pnaoilla  and  who  is  Hul  of  cuunoal  SehoUMrakip,  i,  2S8;  biauiaob,  Th»  Seulp- 

mentioned  in  the  itinerariea  of  the  aeventh  century.  «tfM  ofCKartr^a  CaMriU  (Cambridn,  1009).  so.  For  tbe  ahwe 

Later  legendary  traditiong  identified  the  f oimder  of  t^otl^SS^,^Ti;^lfE^  'S&'^M^SSt^  *^ 
the  TUidu8  Prisca  with  St.  Paul's  friend,  Prisdlla,  ™««.  "•  *»au«.  tr  i»ni»  '''^**j^^^£J^^y 

whoae  home  would  have  occupied  the  spot  on  which 

the  church  was  later  erected.    It  was  from  here  ^at       Prlsci]lianiBtn« — ^This  hereqr  originated  in  Spain . 

St.  Paul  sent  a  greeting  in  his  Epistle  to  the  Romans,  in  the  fourth  century  and  was  derived  from  tiie 

Another  legend  relates  the  martjrrdom  of  a  Prisca  who  Gnostio-ManichsBan  doctrines  taught  by  Marcus,  an 

was  beheaded  at  the  tenth  milestone  on  the  Via  Eigsrptian  from  Memphis.    His  firat  adherents  were 

Ostiensis,  and  whoae  body  Pope  Eutychianus  is  said  a  may  named  Agape  and  a  rhetoricuOi  named  Hel* 

to  have  translated  to  the  church  of  Prisca  on  the  pidius,  through  whoae  influence  PrisciUian  "a  man 

Aventine.    The  whole  narrative  is  unhistorical  and  of  noble  birth,  ^of  great  riches,  bold,  restless,  eloqu«it, 

its  details  impossible.    As  18  January  is  also  assigned  learned  through  much  reading,  very  ready  at  dfebate 

as  the  day  of  the  execution  of  this  Priscilla,  she  is  anddiscussion^'(Sulmcius8eyenis,'His.Sac.'',II,46), 

probably  the  same  as  the  Roman  martyr  buried  in  was  also  enroUed.    Uis  lu|^  position  and  great  gifts 

the  Catacomb  of  Priscilla.    Her  feast  is  observed  on  made  him  the  leader  of  the  party,  and  he  became  an 

18  January.  ardent  apostle  of  the  new  doctnnes.    Through  his 

iictoSiSMJanuary.il,  184  aqq.;  Dim>T7BCQj[.MGMto«Mir«vrttm  oratorical  gifts  and  reputation  for  extreme  asceti- 

romatfif.  I  (f*™.  i«»).  169  w.;  Gftma,  Jg.  fiartvrium  d.  «.  ^ism  he  attracted  a  larce  foUowing.    Among  those 

aid  tUolo  jtreabiUraU  di  5.  PK»eo(Pal«rmo,  1885);   Du  Roasi,  y*^    «>    him   were    tWO    blShOpS,    InstanUUB   and 

DtUa  COM  d'iiouiia  a  Priaea  ntiT  Awentino  in  BtdL  d'arch,  eriu.  Salvianus.    The  adherents  of  the  new  scct  organised 

(ill^^faJ^iSs   '^"lifASjTOm^lSrfcJn^  themselves  into  an  oath4x)und  society,  the  rapid 

(2ad  ed:*RonJ!\io9)tiSoi!^l  Builw^  ^SiSoftH  sSnu,  Janu-  W^  ^^  ^^^^  attracted  the  attention  of  the  Catholic 

ary.  1. 83.  Bishop  of  Cordova^  Hyginus.  who  made  known  his 

J.  P.  KiBBCH.  fears  to  Idacius,  Bishop  of  Ejneritu,  and.  at  the  in- 
stance of  the  latter  and  of  Ithacius  of  Ossanoya,  a 

PriseianuSi   Latin  grammarian,  b.  at  Caesarea  gynod  wad  held  at  Saragoasa  in  380.    Bishops  were 

(Mauretania),  taught  at  Constantinople  under  Anas-  present  at  this  synod  not  only  from  Spain  but  from 

tasius  I  (491-518).    He  delivered  the  panegyric  of  the  Aauitaine.    Though  summoned,  the  Priscillianista 

Emperor  Anastasius  about  512;  we  possess  this  work  refused  to  i^pear,  and  the  synod  pronounced  sen- 

in  312  hexameter  verses,  preceded  by  a  prologue  of  22  tence  of  excommunication  a^punat  the  four  leaders, 

iambic  MnarH.    Besides  this  he  composed  a  "Perie-  Instantius,    Salvianus.    Helpidius,    and    PrisciUian. 

gesis"  in  1087  hexameters;  a  translation  of  the  work  The  enforcement  of  the  synod's  decrees  was  commit* 

of  the  same  name,  written  under  Hadrian  by  Dionys-  ted  to  Ithacius,  an  impuliBiye  and  violent  man.    He 

ills  of  Alexandria;  three  works,  dedicated  to  a  certain  failed  to  bring  the  heretics  to  terms,  and,  in  defiance, 

SymmachuB  (perha{)s  the  consul  of  485),  on  numbers.  PrisciUian  was  ordained  to  the  priesthood  'and  ap- 

numeration,  and  coins,  on  the  metrical  character  oi  pointed  Bishop  of  Avila.    Idacius  and  Ithacius  ap- 

Latin  comedies,  on  rhetoric  according  to  the  "Pro-  pealed  to  the  imperial  authorities.    The  Emperor 

gymnasmata"  of  Hermogenes;  the  ''rartitiones  XII  Gratian  issued  a  decree  which  not  onl^r  deprived  the 

versuum   .£neidos"    (on   the   versification   of   the  Priscillianists  of  the  churches  into  which  they  had 

JSneid);  a  treatise  "De  accentibus'';  a  compendium  intruded  themselves  but  sentenced  PrisciUian  and 

on  declensions  ("Institutio  de  nomine  et  pronomine  his  foUowers  to  exUe.    Instantius,  Salvianus,  and 

et  v«rbo").    But  he  is  chiefly  celebrated  for  a  great  PrisciUian  proceeded  to  Rome  to  gam  the  aid  of  Pope 

work  of  which  the  last-named  is  an  extract,  the  eigh-  Damasus  in  having  this  sentence  revoked.    Denied 

teen  books  of  the  ''Institutiones  GrammaticsB",  me  an  audience,  they  went  to  Milan  to  make  a  similar 

most  important  grammatical  work  of  antiauit^  which  request  of  St.  Ambrose,  but  with  the  same  result, 

we  possess.    Eadi  of  these  ei^^teen  books  nas  its  own  They  then  resorted  to  intrigue  and  bribeiy  at  the 

special  title  and  subiect.    The  fint  sixteen,  often  Court  with  such  success  that  they  were  not  only 

separately  copied   ("Friscianus  Maior").  treat  of  freed  from  the  sentence  of  exfle,  but  permitted  to 

forms  ("De  accidentibus");  the  last  two  ("Priscianus  regain  possession  of  their  churches  in  Spain,  where, 

Minor")  of  syntax.    They  are  dedicated  to  a  certain  under  the  patronage  of  the  imperial  officials,  they 

Julianus.  consul  and  patndan.    In  this  preface  Pris-  enjoyed  sudi  power  as  to  compel  Ithacius  to  wiU^ 

dan  declares  that  he  borrows  his  doctrines  from  the  draw  from  the  country.    H&  m  turn,  appealed  to 

enormous  volumes  (spatiosa  volumina)  of  ApoUonius  Gratian,  but  before  Bnythin|(  nad  been  accomplished 

Dyscolus  and  from  "the  sea''  (pdoffus)  of  nerodian.  the  emperor  was  murdered  m  Paris,  and  the  usurper 

He  lUso  cites  Juba,  HeUodorus,  and  Hefihsstion.  Maximus  had  taken  his  place.    Maximus,  wishing 

Moreover,  he  foUows  his  sources  servUely,  as  is  proved  to  cuny  favour  with  the  orthodox  party  and  to  re- 

by  comparison  with  the  extant  fragments  of  ApoUo-  idenish  nis  treasury  through  confiscations,  gave  orders 

mus.    His  knowledge  of  Latin  authors  is  chiefly  de-  for  a  synod,  which  was  held  in  Bordeaux  in  384. 

rived  from  his  predeoeaaor  Flavius  Caper  (end  of  Instantius  was  first  tried  and  oondenmed  to  depoei- 

aecond  century).    Priscian  lacks  judgment  and  taste,  tion.    Thereupon  PrisciUian  appealed  to  ^e  em« 

biit  he  is  valuable  because  he  has  preserved  for  us  the  peror  at  Trier.^  Ithacius  acted  as  his  accuser  and  was 

theories  of  the  Greek  grammarians,  and  numerous  so  vehement  in  his  denunciations  that  St.  Martin 

Latin  quotations  for  which  he  is  our  sole  authority,  of  Tours,  who  was  then  in  Trier,  interv«ied,  and,  after 

The  best  edition  is  Herts  in  KeU's   "Grammatici  expressing  his  disapproval  of  bringing  an  ecclesiastica] 

Latini",  II,  III  (1855-9).  case  before  a  civil  tribunal,  obtained  from  the  em- 

A  copy  of  Priscian  carried  to  Ensland  in  the  time  peror  a  promise  not  to  carry  his  condemnation  to  the 

of  Aldhelm  (d.  709)  was  ouoted  by  Bede  and  Alcuin.  extent  of  shedding  blood.    After  St.  Martin  had  left 

and  copied  by  Rabanus  Maurus,  who  reintroduced  the  city,  the  emperor  appointed  the  Prefect  Evodius 

Priscian  on  the  Continent.    Together  with  Donatus  as  iuage.    He  found  PrisciUian  and  some  others 

he  became  the  personification  of  grammar.    More  guilty  of  the  crime  of  magic.    This  decision  was 

than  a  thousand  manuscripts  of  his  work  exist.    His  reported  to  the  emperor  mio  put   PrisciUian  and 

portrait  accompanies  the  allegorical  figure  of  Gram-  several  of  his  followers  to  the  sword;  the  property 

mar  at  Santa  Maria  Novella,  and  on  the  doorway  of  of  others  was  confiscated  and  they  were  banished, 

the  cathedral  of  Chartres.  The  conduct  of  Ithadus  immediately  met  with  the 


PRISONS                               430  PRISONS 

severest  reprobation.    St.  Martin,  hearing  what  had  and  through  His  doctrine  and  His  apparent  death 

taken  place,  returned  to  Trier  and  compelled  the  released  the  souls  of  men  from  the  influence  of  the 

emperor  to  rescind  an  order  to  the  military  tribunes,  material.    These  doctrines  could  be  harmonised  with 

already  on  their  way  to  Spain  to  extirpate  the  heresy,  the  teaching  of  Scripture  only  by  a  strange  system 

There  is  no  ground  in  the  condenmation  and  death  of  of  exegesis,  in  whicn  the  liberal  sense  was  entirely 

Priscillian  for  the  charge  made  against  the  Church  rejected^  and  an  equally  strange  theory  of  personsJ 

of  having  invoked  the  civil  auQiority  to  punish  inspiration.    The  Old  Testament  was  received,  but 

heretics.    The  pope  censured  not  only  the  actions  of  the  narrative  of  creation  was  rejected.    Several  of 

Ithadus  but  also  that  of  the  emperor.    St.  Ambrose  ^he  apocryphal  Scriptures  were  acknowledged  to  be 

was  equally  stem  in  his  denunciation  of  the  case  and  genuine    and    inspired.    The    ethical    side    of    the 

some  of  the  Gallican  bishops,  who  were  in  Trier  under  Dualism  of  Priscillian  with  its  low  concept  of  nature 

the  leadership  of  Theognistus,  broke  off  communion  gave  rise  to  an  indecent  system  of  asceticism  as  well 

with  Ithacius,  who  was  subsequently  deposed  from  as  to  some  peculiar  liturgical  observances,  such  as 

his  see  by  a  synod  of  Spanish  bishops,  and  his  friend  fasting  on  Sundays  and  on  Christmas  Day.    Because 

and  abettor,  Idatius,  was  oompellea  to  resign.    The  their  doctrines  were  esoteric  and  exoteric,  and  be- 

death  of  Priscillian  and  his  followers  had  an  unlooked-  cause  it  was  believed  that  men  in  Keneral  could  not 

for  sequel.    The  numbers  and  zeal  of  the  heretics  understand  the  hisher  paths,  the  Priscillianists,  or 

increased;  those  who  were  executed  were  venerated  at  least  those  of  them  who  were  enlightened,  were 

as  saints  and  mart3rrB.    The  progress  and  spread  of  permitted  to  tell  lies  for  the  sake  of  a  noly  end.    It 

the  heresy  called  for  fresh  measures  of  repression,  was  because  this  doctrine  was  likely  to  be  a  scandal 

In  400  a  synod  was  held  in  Toledo  at  which  many  even  to  the  faithful  that  Augustine  wrote  his  famous 

pcorsons,  among  them  two  bishops.  Symphonius  and  work,  ''De  mendacio". 

Uictinnius,    were    reconciled    to    the    Church.     Die-  Ed.8cBKvas,  PrUeiUianiQtug  niper8unt\nConnu9cr%pi.eeeU4, 

tinnius  was  the  author  of  a  book  "Libra"  (Scales),  i5fv?\"'  (Vi?.™*  1889):  SuLPicms  Sbvmus.  Hih,  tae,.  ll. 

a  moral  treatise  fn>m  the  Priscillianist  viewpoint  iti^ .iSITinttls^Jkf: Si' ^'^^o^^rSilS:^.^: 

The  upheaval  m  the  Spanish  peninsula  consequent  Idem,  Bp.  xxxvi  Ad  Caaulam;  Jeroux.  De  vir,  iuu»„  cxxi;  Leo 

on  the  invasion  of  the  Vandals  and  the  Suevi  aided  MAONUft,  «p.  «  Ad  Twribiwn;  HiLOBKraLD,  ^rmUian^^ 

the.8p««d  of  Priscilliiinkm.  .  So  menacing  was  this  T-^^^^^f^^^^^^.^^t^^i^^SHSf^'^^ 

revival  that  OroSlUS,  a  Spanish  pnest,  wrote  to  St.  burg.  1891):MzcfHAXi^  iVuciaianu.  die  neueatoiMa  in  ^et^eAr. 

Augustine  (415)  to  enlist  his  aid  in  combating  the  4*«^/,T*«^;<i8?2), 692-706;  Dmrich^ 

neresy.      rope  lieo  at  a  later  date  tOOK  active  steps  SymboU  u.  theolog.  TnetaU  mr  Bekdmp/una  dea  PnteiUianiamuM 

for  its  repression  and  at  his  urgent  insistence  COUn-  «.  wettgoliaehen  Arianinnut  aut  dem  e.  fahrh,  (Maim,  1900): 

Cils  were  held  in  446  and  447  at  Astorga,  Toledo,  and  5?»"«.    AntipruteiUiana.    DogmenaeMehum,     UtOM^nuhungeHU, 

Galicia.    In  spite  of  tij€«e  efforts  the  sect  continued  ^^Z  "^^.^SSV^^ITS^S^i'^Slta  SSSHo^.'^fl! 

to  spread  during  the  fifth  century.     In  the  foUowmg  Lbclebcq.  VBtpagne  ehrH,  (Paris.  1906),  ili,  150-213. 

century  it  commenced  to  decline,  Aad  after  the  Synod  P.  J.  He  alt. 
of  Bra^  held  in  563,  had  legislated  concerning  it,  it 

soon  died  out.  '  Prisons. — I.  In   ANcncNT  Times. — ^Many   juris- 

In  regard  to  the  doctrines  and  teaching  of  Pris-  consults  and  Scriptural  inteipreters  include  imprison- 

cillian  and  his  sect,  it  is  not  necessary  to  go  into  the  ment  amonj;  the  number  of  penalties  recogmzed  in 

merits  of  the  discussion  as  to  whether  Priscillian  was  Hebrew  l^^lation,  but  the  fact  mav  well  be  ques- 

guilty  of  the  errors  traditionally  ascribed  to  him,  tioned.    However,  on  the  coming  of  the  Chaldeans 

whether  he  was  really  a  heretic,  or  whether  he  was  un-  under  Nebuchadnezzar,  there  were  at  least  three 

justly  condemned — ^the  object  of  misunderstanding  prisons  at  Jerusalem,  and,  about  the  same  time,  the 

and  reprobation  even  in  his  lifetime  and  afterwards  names  of  the  places  of  detention  were  expressive  of 

made  to  bear  the  burden  of  heretical  opinions  sub-  the  reg^e  to  which  the  culprits  were  subjected,  such 

sequentl^  developed  and  associated  witn  his  name,  as   Bdh   ha-kdi    (house   of   detention),    Beth   ha- 

The  weight  of  evidence  and   the  entire  course  of  asourim  (house  of  those  in  chains),    Beth   ha^mahf 

events  in  his  lifetime  make  the  supposition  of  his  pedieth  (fronl  the  name  of  an  instrument  for  chaining 

innocence    extremely    improbable.    The    discovery  the  hands  and  feet),  and  Bor  (cistern,  underg^und 

by  Schepssof  eleven  treatises  from  his  pen  in  a  fifth-  receptacle)  [cf.  Thonissen,  ''Etudes  sur  Thistoire  du 

or  sixth-centu^  manuscript,  in  the  library  of  the  droit  criminel  dee  peuples  anciena"  (Brussels,  I860)]. 

University  of  Wtlrzburg,  has  not  put  an  end  to  a  At  Athens  imprisonment  was  imposed  as  a  penalty, 

controversy  still  involvea  in  considerable  difficulty,  though  this  is  doubted  by  many.    It  seems  there  was 

Kttnstle  (AntiprisciUiana),  who  has  examined  all  the  only  one  J^pson  placed  under  the  authority  of  the 

testimon^y  has  decided  in  favour  of  the  traditiontd  Eleven.    The  prisoners  were  not  isolated  and  could 

view,  wmch  alone  seems  capable  of  offering  any  ade-  be  visited  by  tneir  friends  and  the  members  of  their 

quate  solution  of  the  fact  that  the  Church  in  Spain  family.    Some  were  deprived  of  freedom  of  move- 

and  Aquitaine  was  aroused  to  activity  by  the  separa-  ment  by  having  their  feet  attached  to  wooden  blocks 

tist  tendency  in  the  Priscillianist  movement.    The  (Thonissen,  ''Le  droit  p^nal  de  la  r^publique  ath6n- 

foundation  of  the  doctrines  of  the  PrisciUianists  was  ienne",  1875).    At  Rome  there  still  remains  at  the 

Gnostic-Manichffian  Dualism,  a  belief  in  the  existence  foot  of  the  Capitol  the  ancient  Mamertine  prison, 

of  two- kingdoms,  one  of  Lignt  and  one  of  Darkness.  It  comprised  an  upper  portion  and  a  dungeon,  tlje 

Angels  and  the  souls  of  men  were  said  to  be  severed  TuUianum,    The   prisoners   were   enclosed   in   the 

from  the  substance  of  the  Deity.    Human  souls  former  which  was  lighted  only  by  narrow  loopholes, 

were  intended  to  con(]|uer  the  Kingdom  of  Darkness,  and,  if  they  were  condemned  to  death,  they  were 

but  fell  and  were  imprisoned  in  material  bodies.  Thus  thrown  into  the  dungeon  through  an  opening  in  its 

both  kingdoms  were  represented  in  man,  and  hence  a  roof,  to  be  strangled  like  Cats£ne's  accomplices  or 

conflict  symbolized  on  the  side  of  Light  by  the  Twelve  starve  to  death  like  Jugurtha.    Their  naked  corpses 

Patriarchs,  heavenly  spirits,  who  corresponded  to  were  then  thrown  out  on  the  steps  of  the  Oemonies, 

certain  of  man's  powers,  and,  on  the  side  of^  Darkness,  Imprisonment,  which  the  laws  did  not  usually  pro- 

by  the  Signs  of  the  Zodiac,  the  symbols  of  matter  nounce,  was  of  two  kinds,  simple  detention  or  de- 

and  the  lower  kingdom.    Tne  salvation  of  man  con-  tention  in  chains.    It  was  for  life  or  for  a  time,  ao- 

sists  in  liberation  from  the  domination  of  matter,  cording  to  the  gravity  of  the  offence.    The  super- 

The  twelve  heavenly  spirits  having  failed  to  acoom-  vision  of  the  public  prisons  at  Rome  was  entrusted 

plirii  this  release,  tne  Saviour  came  in  a  heavenly  to  the  triumviri  cajnUdes,    Under  the  empire  per* 

body,  which  appeared  to  be  like  that  of  other  men,  petual   imprisonment   was   abolished   theoretically, 


PBI80N8                               431  PRISONS 

impriBOiunent  being  oonsidered  not  so  much  a  penalty  fects  they  noticed  and  to  have  changes  made.    Duf- 

as  a  means  of  supervising  culprits.    The^  care  of  the  ing  the  Middle  Ages  this  right  and  duty  was  enforced 

gaols,  up  to  the  middle  of  the  third  century,  was  in-  only  here  and  there.    St.  Charles  Borromeo  was  a 

eluded  among  the  duties  of  the  triumviri  capUaies.  great  reformer  and  reorganized  the  whole  prison 

In  the  provinces  a  more  regular  administration  en-  system  in  his  diocese,  even  to  the  smallest  details^ 

tirely  under  military  control  was  then  being  in-  on  an  essentially  humanitarian  and  Christian  basis, 

stituted.    At  first  the  accused  do  not  seem  to  nave  The  clergyman  deputed  by  the  bishop  to  look  after 

been  separated  from  the  convicted,  nor  were  the  the  prisoners  had  to  in(|uire  constantly  "quseillorum 

sexes  kept  apart;    though  there  are  instances  of  cura  adhibeatur,  cum  in  primis  ad  animie  salutem, 

solitary  imprisonment  (Humbert  in  Daremburg  and  tum  etiam  ad  corporis  sustentationem",  i.  e.  what 

Saglio,  "Diet,  des  antiquity  grecques  et  romaines",  care  was  taken  of  them,  first  in  regard  to  their 

s.  V.  Career).  spiritual  needs  and  then  as  to  their  physical  welfare. 

II.  Influbncb  of  CHRisTTANnr. — ^It  was  natural  Influence  of  the  Papacy, — ^The  infmenoe  of  the 

that  when  Christians  were  being  hunted  down  and  Papacy  also  was  very  great,  and  the  prison  system 

cast  into  gaol  for  tiieir  faith,  the  Church  should  rec-  at  Rome  became  a  model.    Popes  Euc^nius  IV 

ommend  we  faithfid  to  visit  the  prisoners.    The  (1435),   Paul    V   (1611),   and    Innocent  ]|C   (1655) 

deacons  and  deaconesses  were  especially  chai]sed  with  passed    regulations    improving    the    conditions    of 

the  care  of  the  incarcerated  Christians,  bringing  them  prisoners,  imtil  finally  Clement  XI  (1703),  by  con- 

the  comforts  of   religion,  food,  clothing,  and   e»-  structins  St.  Michael's  prison,  introduced  the  most 

pecially  money,  which  was  needed  to  procure  certain  essential   change  needed  to  ameUorate  the  penal 

miti^tions,  even   Uberty.    The   deaconesses   more  system:  the  construction  of  a  house  of  correction  for 

particularly  were  appointed  to  t^s  office,  for  in  youthful  offenders,  as  is  recorded  in  the  inscription 

visiting  the  Christians  they  ran  less  risk  of  awakening  on  the  facade:   ''Perditis  adolescentibus  oorrigendis 

the  suspicion  of  the  pagans.    At  an  earlv  period  the  instituendisque    ut    qui    inertes    oberant    instructi 

bifdiops  began  to  purchase  the  liberty  of  the  prisoners,  reipublics  serviant"  (for  the  correction  and  educa- 

For  tnis  they  made  collections,  and  if  the  receipts  tion  of  abandoned  youths;   that  they  who,  without 

were  not  sufficient,  they  sold  the  church  property,  training,  were  detrimental  to  the  State,  may,  with 

Not  only  their  own  flock  but  Uie  Christians  in  dis-  training^  be  of  service  to  it).    The  methods  employed 

tant  lands  were  the  objects  of  their  charitable  zeal,  to  reclaim  cidprits  were  separation,  silence,  work, 

Debtors,  towards  whom  Rome  was  so  heartless,  were  and  prayer,    ilach  prisoner  had  his  cell  at  night,  but 

not  forgotten.    Justinian  granted  private  debtors  all  worked  in  common  diiring  the  day.    A  religious 

the  right  of  asylum  in  the  house  of  uod,  but  only  if  confraternity  supervised  them  and  undertook  their 

the  creditors  abused  their  rij^ts;  this  favour  was  not,  education.    Each  one  was  taught  a  trade,  and  was 

however,  extended  to  pubhc  or  state  debtors.    The  encouraged  by  a  S3rstem  of  rewards.    The  punish- 

Church,  the  help  of  sinners,  could  not  but  extend  her  ments  consisted  in  bread  and  water  diet,  work  in 

assistance  and  protection  to  criminals;  for  crime  is  their  cells,  black  holes,  and  flogging.    In  the  large 

primarily  a  sin.    In  the  earliest  times,  as  soon  as  more  workshop  of  the  gaol  was  inscribed  the  motto: 

peaceful  days  had  dawned,  she  endeavoured  to  free  "Parum  est  coeroere  improbos   poena  nisi  probos 

them  from  prison,  to  punish  and  correct  them  in  efficias  disciplina"    (It  avails  little  to  punish  the 

another  way.    For  this  she  emplo}red  three  means,  wicked  unless  you  reform  them  by  discipline).    In 

(1)  The  paschal  indulgence.    By  virtue  of  an  edict  1735  Clement  All  erected  a  prison  for  women  on  the 

of  Valentinian  I  in  367  all  prisons  were  opened  at  model  of  St.  Michael's.    If  (jlement  is  considered  the 

Easter  and  the  prisoners  set  free.    This  edict  was  creator  of  the  modem  penitentiary  system^  it  must 

called  the  indulaentia  pascalis.    The  privilege  was  be  pointed  out  that  at  Amsterdam  the  pnnciple  of 

not  extended  to  those  arrested  for  sacrilege,  poisoning,  separation  at  nig^t  and  work  in  common  during;  the 

treason,  adultery,  rapine,  or  murder.    Valentinian  dav  had  been  introduced  in   1603    (Vofi   Hippel, 

the  younger,  Theodosius,  and  Theodoric  issued  similar  ''Beitr&ge   zur   Geschichte   der   Freiheitstrafe"    in 


also  bv  his  successors.  Charlemagne  ordained  in  a  in  Germany  and  Italy,  where  learned  jurisconsults 
capitulary  that  no  one  taking  refuge  in  a  church  proclaimed  that  the  reformation  of  the  culprit  was 
should  be  taken  from  it  by  force,  but  should  be  un-  the  object  of  punishment  (Rivi^,  "Revue  p^ni- 
molested  till  the  court  had  pronounced  its  decision,  tentiaire",  1895,  p.  1152).  A  priest,  Filippo  Franci, 
This  privilege  in  the  course  of  time  was  abused  and  after  experimenting  at  Venice  and  Napfes  on  the 
consequently  was  abolished.  The  right  of  asylum  effect  of  separating  prisoners  according  to  sex,  age, 
was  not  extended  to  adulterers,  ravisners  of  young  and  social  rank,  succeeded  in  making  his  house  of 
girls,  or  public  debtors :  it  was  confined  to  those  who  refuge  at  Florence  {casa  pia  di  r^ugio),  by  the  ap- 
were  imiustljr  pursuea.  (3)  The  right  of  interces-  plication  of  individual  separation,  a  model  establisn- 
sion.  Tne  bishops  had  ihe  right  to  ask  the  civil  ment  for  the  correctional  education  of  children, 
judge  to  pardon  condemned  prisoners,  especially  Influence  of  the  Religiaus  Orders, — ^In  the  Middle 
those  sentenced  to  death;  frequentlv,  however,  they  Ages  the  Church  founded  religious  orders  which 
petitioned  to  have  prisoners  discharged.  In  the  bound  themselves  by  vow  to  the  redemption  of  cap- 
course  of  time,  through  the  influence  of  the  Church,  tives;  the  Trinitarians,  or  Mathurins^  established 
the  lot  of  prisoners  was  greatly  improved.  The  in  1198  by  St.  John  of  Matha  and  Felix  de  Vidois, 
Council  of  Nicsa  (325)  ordered  the  procuratorea  paur  and  the  Nolascans,  founded  in  1223.  In  Spain, 
perum  to  visit  the  gaols  and  offer  their  services.  The  France,  and  especiidly  Ital^,  there  were,  moreover, 
Synod  of  Orleans  (549)  obliged  the  archdeacon  to  associations  or  confraternities  labouring  to  improve 
see  all  the  prisoners  on  Sundays.  The  active  in-  the  condition  of  prisoners:  the  ConfratemUd  deUa 
tervention  of  the  Church  bef^an  in  the  days  of  Con-  Misericordia  and  the  Cotnpagnia  di  Sania  Maria 
stantine  the  Great  and  contmued  for  a  long  period,  della  croce  al  Tempio  delta  de  Neri  at  Florence,  the 
The  bishops  and  priests  were  invited  and  authorised  Pia  Casa  di  Misericordia  at  Pisa,  the  Casa  della 
to  supervise  the  conduct  of  the  judges,  to  visit  pietd  at  Venice,  etc.  Besides  the  prisons  depending 
raisoners  on  a  certain  week-day,  Wednesdays  or  on  the  State,  there  were  prisons  under  the  control 
Frida3r8,  and  find  out  the  reason  of  their  imprison-  of  the  religious  authorities.  Each  convent  had  one 
ment,  to  speak  with  them  about  their  position  and  or  at  times  two  prisons  in  which  religious  were  in- 
wants,  to  inform  the  proper  authorities  of  any  de-  carcerated.    The  term  of  imprisonment  was  tems- 


432  PBI80M8 

poral  or  perpetual.    The  culprit  had  to  do  penance  pjSnitentiareB",  304).    Having  visited  the  priaoDB  of 

and  amend  his  ways.    He  was  isolated  and  often  England,  Germany,  France,  Italy,  Portugal,  Tuzke^, 

chained.    G^ieraUy  the  discipline  was  severe;   not  ana  North  America,  he  published  in  1744  a  remarK- 

unfrequently  coiporal  punishment  was  added  to  in-  able  work,  ''State  of  tne  prisons  in  England  and 

caroeration  and  the  prisoner  put  on  bread  and  water.  Wales  with  preliminary  obeorvations  and  an  account 

The  Church  had  the  right  to  punish  clerics  for  penal  of  some  forei^  prisons".    Howard  described  the 

offences  and  had  its  own  episcopal  prisons,  but  from  wretched  conditions  of  the  prisons:  imprisonment  in 

the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century,  as  a  result  of  the  common  without  regard  to  age  or  sex,  want  of  space, 

chanspdrelationsof  Church  and  State,  the  prun[Ze^'um  bad  food,  damp  and  vitiated  air,  want  of  ught, 

fori  disappeared  and  the  State  resumed  its  right  of  filth,    immorality,    the   use   of   spirituous   liquors, 

punishing  clerics  in  non-religious  matters.    In  the  gambling  with  cards  and  dice.    After  noting;  the 

episcopal   prisons   clerics  were  treated  more  gently  evils,  he  proposes  the  remedies.    It  is  on  a  rehKious 

than  were  the  monks  in  convent  prisons,  neverthe-  traimng  of  the  prisoners  that  he  relies  most  Tot  a 

less  in  certain  cases  the  discipline  was  very  rigorous,  reform;   the  second  great  means  is  work;  he  hcdds 

The  Church  had  jurisdiction  also  over  the  laity  in  that  society  is  bound  bv  the  ties  of  brotherhood  and 

offences  of  a  religious  character.    Finally,  it  created  even  b^  the  hope  of  recuuming  the  culprit,  to  provide 

a  new  procedure,  differing  from  the  oroinary,  viz.  him  with  proper  food  and  simject  him  to  a  l^gienie 

tiie  inquisitorial  procedure  in  cases  of  heresy.    Im-  regime;    he  favoured  the  s^Mration  of  prisoners, 

prisonment  was  the  severest  punishment  the  in-  though  he  did  not  approve  of  the  system  of  shutting 

({uisitorB  could  inflict  directly.    According  to  the  them  alone  in  ceUs  both  b^  day  and  night,  except 

inquisitional  theory,  it  was  not  really  a  punishment,  for  certain  classes  of  culprits:   all  otiiers  he  would 

but  a  means  for  the  culprit  to  obtain  pitfdon  for  his  separate  only  during  the  nignt.    Howard  was  the 

crimes,  and  to  amend  and  be  converted,  while  close  interpreter  of  the  opinion  of  the  civilised  world, 

supervision  prevented  him  from  inf ectmg  the  rest  It  is  interesting  to  note  the  results  of  this  change  of 

of  the  flock.    The  prisoners  were  subiectod  to  two  opinion  in  the  different  countries,  or,  at  least,  to  point 

regimes:   the  severe  and  the  milder;   but,  in  either  out  the  original  systems. 

case,  the  captive  was  given  only  bread  and  water;  United  States  of  America. — (1)  The  Pennsylvania 
he  was  confined  to  a  cell,  and  forbidden  all  communicar  system  is  the  work  of  the  Philadelphia  Society  for 
tion,  though  the  latter  provision  was  not  strictlv  Alleviating  the  Miseries  of  Public  Prisons,  founded  in 
forced.  Those  under  the  milder  discipline  could,  1776.  Tl^  fundamental  idea  of  this  regime  is 
if  they  behaved  well,  take  a  little  exercise  in  the  rigorous  and  continued  isolation  to  excite  to  re- 
corridors^  privilege  granted  also  to  the  aged  and  pentance  and  l^ul  the  culprit  to  a  better  life.  At 
infirm.  Those  condemned  to  the  severe  re^pme  were  first  the  system  was  carried  to  such  an  extreme  that 
cast  fettered  into  a  narrow  dark  cell;  sometimes  they  the  cells  were  without  li^dit  in  order  that  the  darkn< 


were  chained  to  the  walls.    The  prisons  were  con-  might  act  more  powerfully  on  the  prisoner's  mind  and 

structed  without  any  regard  to  the  health  or  con-  conscience.    Some  writers  say  that  Uie  culprits  had 

venience  of  the  inmates,  and  the  condition  of  the  no  work  to  do,  but  that  is  uncertain.    The  Pennsvl- 

iatter  was  wretched.    The   Inquisition  sometimes  vania  system,  in  its  rigorous  form  as  it  was  ori|pnally 

commuted  or  remitted  the  punishment.    The  re-  established,  prevented,  it  is  true,  the  mutual  oomip- 

mission  was  ad  tempus,  for  a  longer  or  shorter  period,  tion  of  the  prisoners  and  the  planning  of  crimes  to  be 

according  to  the  case.  committed  on  their  release,  which  are  tiie  negative 

III.  AloDEBN  Pbison  REroBMS. — ^lu  spltc  of  these  effects  of  individual  separation;  but  it  was  not  suited 

efforts  to  better  the  prison  system  in  earlier  days  to  produce  positive  results,  that  is,  an  awakening  of 

there  was  much  room  for  improvement  in  the  build-  the  moral  sense  in  man  left  to  his  own  medita^ns; 

ings.  diet,  and  discipline.    Usually  the  main  object  the  cell  can  have  an  influence  for  moral  good  only 

of  tne  authorities  was  to  punish  rather  than  to  re-  when  it  enables  the  reflections  of  solitude  to  be 

form  the  culprit.    Not  unfrequently  the  greatest  suided    and    strengthened    by    outside    influences 

criminals  and  persons  convicted  of  trifling  offences  (Cuche,  op.  cit.,  312  sqq.). 

were  imprisoned  together.  Fortunately,  after  the  (2)  The  system  of  Auburn  or  silence  (Chestel, 
construction  of  St.  Michaers  prison  by  Clement  XI,  ^'Avantages  du  Systdme  d' Auburn ",  1900),  intro- 
the  development  of  cellular  imprisonment  went  on  duced  in  the  State  of  New  York,  consists  in  isolating 
uninterruptedly.  From  Central  Italy  the  movement  the  prisoners  onlv  at  night,  in  making  them  work  to- 
spread  towards  Northern  Italy,  to  Turin  (erection  of  j;ether  in  strict  silence  during  the  day,  and  in  separat- 
tne  House  of  Good  Counsel,  1757),  Venice  (1760).  ing  them  according  to  age  and  mondity.  Tnis  is. 
Milan,  where  Empress  Maria  Theresa  established  in  general,  the  same  as  the  renme  of  the  prisons  of 
in  1759  a  house  of  correction  containing  140  oeUs,  Amsterdam,  St.  Michael,  and  Ghent.  The  prin- 
25  of  which  were  for  women  and  20  for  children,  cipal  objection  urged  against  it  is  the  difficulty  of 
From  Milan  the  system,  as  might  be  expected,  was  enforcing  silence,  and  of  preventing  the  inmates  from 
introduced  almost  immediately  into  the  Austrian  commumcating  with  one  another.  Moreover,  such 
Low  Countries  where  Maria  Theresa's  efforts  were  unnatural  life  makes  the  culprits  irascible, 
earnestly  seconded  by  Viscount  Jean  Vilain  XIV,  (3)  In  the  so-called  system  of  classification,  the 
Burgomaster  of  Ghent  (Vicomte  Vilain  XIV,  "M6-  prisoners  are  divided  not  only  according  to  sex,  sge, 
moires  sur  les  moyens  de  corriger  les  malfaiteurs".  degree  of  guilt,  aptitude  for  work,  but  also  according 
Brussels,  1841).  At  his  suggestion  the  celebrated  to  their  moral  character  and  the  possibility  of  amend- 
prison  of  Ghent,  finished  in  1775^  was  erected  (Holt-  ment;  in  each  division  work  is  m  common.  Such  a 
zendorf,  ''Handouch'',  I,  pi.  3,  gives  the  plan  of  this  system  depending  entirely  on  the  judgment  of  the 
prison).  The  system  adopted  there  was  isolation  governor  of  the  gaol  seems  difficult  to  carry  out  in 
by  ni^t  and  work  in  common  by  day.    Moreover  practice. 

a  division  of  the  culprits  according  to  juridical  and        (4)  In  the  mitigated  Pennsylvania  system,  the 

moral  classification  was  seriously  undertaken.  inmates  are  isolated  in  cells  day  and  night;  they  are 

A  general  change  in  prison  discipline  was  effected  separated  also  in  church,  in  school,  and  on  the  grounds, 

through  the  efforts  of  John  Howard  the  philan-  but  they  work  at  a  lucrative  trade,  read  books,  are 

thropist,  b.  in  1726  at  Hackne^y  London  (Riviere,  visited  by  members  of  the  prison  staff,  are  allowed  to 

''Howard,  sa  vie,  soq  ceuvre"  in  ''Revue  p^niten-  receive  tneir  relations  from  time  to  time,  and  may 

tiaire",  1891,  pp.  662 sqq.;  Howard-Wines,  ''Punish-  write  to  them. 

ment  and  Reformation'',  122  sqq.;   Krohne,  "Lehr-        (5)  The  state  reformatories  are  intended  to  pro- 

buch";  Cuche,  "Traits  de  science  et  de  legislation  vide  rigorous  training  for  prisoners  between  the 


PBI80N8                              433  PBI80N8 

of  sixteen  and  thirty  who  give  hoi)e  of  beinp  cor-  to  reside  six  months  in  the  prison  at  Lusk,  a  prison 
rected;  the  indeterminate  sentence  is  the  basis  and  without  walls,  bars,  or  bolts,  where  the  culprits  were 
the  paroling  of  prisoners  the  completion  of  this  sys-  employed  as  free  workmen  in  agriculture  or  a  trade, 
tem.  The  model  establishment  is  the  Reformatory  This  intermediate  sta^  was  abolished  when  Crof ton's 
at  Elmira  (Aschrott,  "  Aus  dem  Strafen  u.  Qefftnmss-  connexion  with  the  Irish  prisons  ceased, 
wesen  Nordamerikas",  1889;  Winter,  "Die  New-  The  progressive  S3r8tem  has  been  adopted  in  Hun« 
Yorker  staatliche  Bessenrngsanstalten  zu  Elmira",  gary;  during  the  intermediate  stage  the  prisoners 
1800;  Yoon,  "Rapix)rt  sur  I'organisation  p6niten-  are  employed  on  *farms.  What  characteriies  the 
tiare  aux  Etats-Unis"  in  ''Revue  pdnitentiare",  regime  of  penal  servitude,  in  addition  to  its  progres- 
1895;  Barrows,  "The  Reformatory  system  in  the  sive  organisation,  is  the  nature  of  the  work  imposed 
United  States",  'Wa^ngton,  Govt.  Printing  Office,  on  the  prisoners.  In  the  second  stage  the  prisoners 
1900;  Sanborn.  "Rapport  sur  le  Reformatory  are  en|»ged  only  in  public  works.  The  gaol  at  Wonn- 
d'Elmira";  Cucne,  op.  cit..  358  sqq.).  The  com-  wood-Scrubs  was  built  entirely  by  convicts,  as  were 
mittee  of  oirectors  release,  before  the  end  of  their  the  breakwater  at  Portsmouth  and  part  of  the  docks 
term,  those  who  deserve  this  favour.  The  convicts  at  Chatham  etc.  Prins  (Science  p^nale  et  droit 
are  isolated  at  night;  and  in  the  daytime  receive  a  positif,  p.  445  sq.)  believes  that  the  progressive 
professional,  physical,  and  intellectual  training,  regime,  while  not  perfect,  offers  perhaps  more  scope 
Every  opportunity  is  tckken  to  provide  for  the  moral  than  the  purely  cellular  system,  as  it  approaches  more 
and  religious  improvement  of  the  culprits.  It  is  not  closely  the  normal  conditions  of  life.  The  successive 
the  object  of  the  system  to  train  the  prisoners  only  stages  bring  the  convict  nearer  to  liberty,  and  liable 
at  specified  hours  but  rather  to  do  so  continually,  him  to  appreciate  the  advantages,  the  dangers,  the 
by  bringing  them  into  constant  contact  with  an  in-  meaning,  and  significance  of  freedom.  The  shops, 
telligent  and  devoted  staff  of  instruetora,  and  thus  where  gix>ups  of  prisoners  work  under  the  control 
gracuiaUy  inspire  better  resolutions.  A  last  cluurao-  of  the  authorities,  accustom  them  to  tJie  oonditions 
teristic  of  the  system  is  the  multiplication  of  dassi-  of  free  work.  Rivi^  and  Cuche.  viewing  the  que»- 
fications  and  gradations.  The  reward  consists  in  tion  from  another  standpoint,  hold  that  u  the  corn- 
being  promoted  from  grade  to  grade,  which  results  mon  prison  is  only  a  preparatory  school  for  recidivists, 
in  an  increase  of  comfort  and  a  grMter  remuneration  it  stiU  retains  thajb  character  when  it  is  imposed  on  a 
for  manual  work;  the  punishment  in  a  cozresponding  criminal  who  has  just  completed  his  stay  in  the  cells, 
descent.  Wh«i  he  has  been  promoted  to  the  first  Persons  who  have  caught  a  cold  are  not  placed  in  a 
class  or  category,  the  convict,  if  his  conduct  during  draught  to  fortify  them  against  the  draui^hts  they 
the  preceding  six  months  has  been  satisfactory,  must  be  exposed  to  later.  At  all  events,  what  may 
may  be  let  out  on  parole.  Generally  a  situation  is  have  succeeded  in  one  countiy  or  in  the  case  of  a 
found  for  him,  and  nis  employer  sends  in  regularly  particular  race  might  produce  evil  results  i£  applied 
an  account  of  his  conduct  to  the  administration  of  the  elsewhere  (Cuche,  op.  dt.,  325). 
reformatory;  certain  officers  are,  moreover,  appointed  Belgium. — ^When  a  discussion  arises  among  prison 
to  watch  over  the  paroled  convicts  and  are  autnorised  experts  as  to  the  merits  and  demerits  of  the  cell,  the 
to  arrest  them  and  brmg  them  back  to  the  reforma-  tvpical  example  is  always  the  Belgian  cell  says 
tory  if  their  conduct  is  not  satisfactory.  This  last  Cuche  (cf .  "  Notice  sur  Porganisation  des  prisons  en 
sta|;e  of  freedom  on  parole  lasts  six  months,  after  Belgique",  Bruasels,  1910).  It  is  necessary,  there* 
which  the  prisoners  are  discharged  from  prison  for  fore^to  study  it  in  oetail.  The  cellular  regime  is  due 
good.  (For  treatment  of  juvenile  offenders  see  to  Ducpetiaux,  Inspector-General  of  Prisons,  who, 
JuvBNiLB  Courts.)  in  1830,  detennined  to  put  an  end  to  the  abuses  of  the 

Oreal  Britoin.— Captain   Maoonochie  introduced  penitentiary  S3rstem  in  voKua  in  Belgium,  and  to 

about  1840  a  special  system  called  the  progressive  place  the  criminal  in  a  cell,  compuisating  for  the 

into  the  convict  settlement  of  Norfolk  Island.    This  severity  of  the  punishment  by  curtailing  its  duration, 

system  consisted  in  proportioning  the  duration  of  the  Although  he  soon  had  the  satisfaction  of  seeing  his 

punishment  to  the  work  done  and  the  good  conduct  plan  succeed  so  far  as  to  have  cellular  inols  erected, 

of  the  convict.    The  duration  was  represented  by  a  it  was  only  on  4  March,  1870,  that  oeUiuar  imprison- 

certain  figure  or  number  of  good  marks  settled  ao*  ment  was  adopted  by  law.    All  penalties  of  dep- 

cording  to  the  gravitv  of  the  crime.    The  cidprit  rivation  of  liberty  are  undergone  under  the  regime 

had  to  merit  these  gooa  marks  before  being  liberated;  of  cellular  isolation  by  dajr  and  ^ht.    The  rule, 

each  day  he  was  awarded  one  or  more,  according  to  however,  admits  of   exceptions.    The   physical   or 

his  worK;  if  his  conduct  was  unsatisfactory  a  slight  mental  condition  of  some  prisoners  will  not  allow  the 

penalty  was  imposed.    Maconochie  thus  gave  the  application   or   continuance   of   ceUular   discipline, 

convict  the  control  of  his  own  lot.    The  results  were  AgEun  the  crowding  of  the  cellular  gaols  sometimes 

marvellous.    When   transportation    was   abolished,  makes  it  necessary  to  allow  the  prisoners  to  be  put 

England  remained  faithful  to  the  idea  of  making  im-  together.    Finally,  those  who  are  condemned  to  hard 

prisonment  in  a  cell  onl^r  a  small  part  of  the  pemdty,  labour  or  perpetual  imprisonment  are  isolated  only 

and  of  cpnadually  preparing  the  convict  to  return  to  during  the  first  ten  years  in  prison.    At  the  expira- 

society  when  he  haa  gained  his  complete  freedom,  tion  of  that  time,  those  condenmed  to  a  life  sentence 

This  system  comprises  the  following  stag^:  (1)  The  are  allowed  to  cnoose  either  to  continue  their  form 

prisoner  is  at  first  confined  to  the  cells  for  nine  months,  of  imprisonment  or  to  be  placed  imder  ordinary 

(2)  He  is  then  sent  to  one  of  the  central  public  works  discipline.    From  1870  to  1909,  170  (76  per  cent) 

prisons,  Qiathamj  Dover,  or  Plymouth,  where  the  selected  to  continue  their  ceUular  life,  and  55  (24 

Auburn  regime  is  m  force — separation  at  ni^^t,  woric  per  cent)  choose  the  ordinary  discipline, 

in  common  during  the  day.    The  culprits  are  divided  The  cellular  system  as  it  exists  in  Belgium  is  con- 

into  four  classes,  according  to  their  work  and  conduct,  sidered  at  present  the  most  practical,  though  criminol- 

by  means  of  a  system  of  marks,  enabling;  them  to  ogists  and  practical  experts  are  far  from  agreeing 

reach  a  higher  grade.    Violation  of  discipline  rele-  on  the  advantages  ana  inconveniences  of  the  cell, 

gates  them  to  a  lower  ^rade  and  even  to  the  cells,  except  in  the  cases  of  short  terms,  when  there  is 

(3)  The  third  period  is  one  of  conditional  liberty,  unanimit^r.     "The  real  value  of  a  penitential  in« 

the  prisoner  being  liberated  on  a  ticket-of-leave.  stitution  is  in  no  way  absolute'',  sa3m  Cuche  (op. 

In  Ireland  Walter  Crofton  devised  an  intermediate  cit.,  p.  331);  "we  have  merely  to  see  if  its  advantages 

stage   between    the    public    gaol    and    conditional  are  considerably  greater  than  its  inconveniences;  it 

libOTty.    To  test  the  moral  character  of  the  convict  must  be  remembered,  too,  that  its  merit  ie  greatly 

and  to  see  ^  he  was  fit  for  liberty,  he  was  compeUed  increased  when  intelligent  and  devoted  men  are  in 
XII.— 28 


PEI80H8 


434 


PRISONS 


charge  of  the  establishment.  If  it  be  laid  down  as  a 
principle  that  the  prisoners  shall  be  subjected  to  the 
cellular  reg^e  only  as  long  as  is  judged  proper  by 
the  physician  who  shall  examine  them  on  their 
admission  and  visit  them  regularlv  afterwards  during 
the  course  of  their  punishment;  if  there  be  an  official 
staff  and  a  sufficient  number  of  visitors  to  preserve 
the  social  element  in  each  prisoner;  finally  if,  in  con- 
fining prisoners  to  their  cells,  due  discrimination  as 
to  sex.  age,  and  race  is  made,  the  evil  results  of  pro- 
k>ngea  isolation  will  in  large  measure  disappear  " .  M 
Henri  Joly  C'Probldmesde  science  crimineUe'',  Paris. 
1910,  pp.  195,  211),  who  visited  the  central  prison  oi 
Louvain  on  three  occasions,  was  very  favourably  im- 
pressed by  the  system;  he  recogmzes  that  an  ex- 
cellent programme  is  being  carried  out:  the  prisoner 
is  separated  as  much  as  possible  from  his  fellows,  and 
brought  into  contact  as  far  as  possible  with  society 
properly  so-called,  with  which  he  maintains  the  best 
relations;  his  only  regrets  are  that  there  are  so  many 
prisoners  and  that  conditional  liberations  are  granted 
so  rarely. 

Proportional  and  progressive  reductions  of  the 
term  of  incarceration  are  granted.  The  rule  in 
force  reduces  a  sentence  of  6  months  to  4  months 
and  23  days;  a  year  to  9  months  and  12  da3r8;  3 
years  to  2  years,  1  month,  and  8  days;  5  years  to  3 
years,  5  months,  and  10  days;  10  years  to  6  years, 
3  months,  and  9  days;  20  years  to  9  years,  9  months, 
and  12  days.  The  l^;islature  not  having  provided 
cases  in  wmch  the  original  sentence  is  between  20  and 
25  years,  a  conditional  liberation  is  granted  to  the 
prisoner  when  he  would  have  been  definitely  liberated 
if  he  had  been  slanted  a  reduction  of  10-12  of  the 
years  over  20.  Experience  shows  that  a  mathemat- 
ical reduction,  uniform  in  every  case,  ignoring  the 
principle  of  the  individualization  of  the  penalty, 
does  not  meet  the  necessity  of  repression.  Tlie 
only  result  of  the  system  is  to  weaken  the  effect  of 
prison  restraint  and  to  liberate  much  too  rapidly 
criminals  unworthy  of  the'  favour  (Prins,  op.  cit., 
523  sqq.). 

The  prisons  are  divided  into  two  classes:  central 
prisons,  two  in  number,  Louvain  and  Ghent;  second- 
ary prisons,  numbering  twenty-seven.  The  central 
pnson  of  Louvain,  and  all  the  secondary  prisons, 
except  two  which  are  to  be  changed,  are  arrangea 
with  a  view  to  complete  separation  night  and  day. 
The  central  prison  of  Ghent,  erected  towards  the  close 
of  the  ei^toenth  century,  has  eight  divisions,  only 
one  of  which  has  been  arranged  for  cellular  imprison- 
ment by  day  and  night;  the  others  contain  only 
night  cells,  the  prisoners  being  assembled  during  the 
day.  The  central  prisons  receive  only  male  convicts. 
There  is  no  central  prison  for  women,  on  account  of 
the  few  crimes  committed  by  women;  they  are  in- 
carcerated in  the  secondary  prisons.  The  central 
prison  of  Louvain  receives  those  condenmed  to  hard 
labour  and  seclusion,  as  well  as  prisonera  sentenced 
to  correctional  imprisonment  for  more  than  five 
years.  There  is  a  special  quarter  in  the  central 
prison  at  Ghent  for  youthful  convicts.  The  inmates 
are  isolated  in  cells  at  night  and  work  in  common 
during  the  day.  The  law  allows  the  courts  and  tri- 
bunals in  sentencing  an  individual  under  the  age  of 
eighteen  years  completed  to  order  him  to  remain  at  the 
disposal  of  the  Government  after  the  end  of  his  term 
till  he  attains  his  majority:  such  persons  are  also  sent 
to  Ghent.  However,  those  who  on  account  of  their 
youth,  the  moral  conditions  in  which  they  are  situ- 
ated, or  their  previous  conduct,  do  not  deserve  to  be 
subjected  to  the  more  rigid  discipline  of  the  special 
auajters  till  their  majority  are  sent  to  a  philan- 
tnropic  school.  The  secondary  prisons,  whicn  with 
one  exception  have  two  distinct  sections,  one  for  men 
and  one  for  women,  are  principally  prisons  for  punish- 
ment; accused  persons  are  detained  there;  they  con- 


tain, moreover,  different  classes  of  inmates,  such  as 
those  detained  only  temporarily,  beggars  and  vagar 
bonds  awaiting  transference  to  the  mendicity  m- 
stitutions. 

The  central  administration  of  the  prisons  is  under 
the  control  of  the  minister  of  justice.  Connected 
with  the  central  administration  is  the  inspection  de- 
partment, divided  into  three  sections:  tne  first  in- 
cludes everything,  except  the  accounting  and  con- 
struction departments;  the  second  is  engaged  on  the 
accounts;  tne  third  attends  to  buildings,  improve- 
ments, and  repairs.  Besides  the  supervision  of  the 
inspectors,  which  embraces  the  prisons  as  a  whole, 
there  is  permanent  local  supervision  which,  in  each 
establishment,  is  confided  U>  a  commission,  called 
the  administrative  commission.  The  members  of 
this  body,  numbering  three,  six,  or  nine,  according 
to  the  importance  of  the  prison,  are  appointed  by 
the  king  and  selected  preferably  from  the  raynks  of 
the  clergy,  physicians,  manufacturers  or  merchants, 
engineers  or  architects.  The  royal  procurator  of  the 
arrondiasemerUf  the  burgomaster  of  tne  commune,  and 
the  military  auditor,  if  there  be  one  in  the  locality, 
are  ex  officio  members.  The  commission  participates 
in  the  work  of  reforming  the  lives  of  the  condenmed 
by  visiting  the  cells  as  often  as  possible.  It  advises 
pardons  and  conditional  liberation,  and  is  consulted 
on  the  suggestions  made  by  the  governor.  It  is  not 
a  mere  organ  of  control  and  consulting  coundl;  it 
participates  in  the  working  of  the  establishment,  at 
least  in  the  cases  provided  for  by  law,  such  as  grant- 
ing holidays  to  the  staff,  approving  contracts,  reg- 
ulating the  conditions  relating  to  tne  work  of  the 
prisoners.  The  members  of  the  staff  of  the  central 
prison  of  Louvain  may  be  taken  as  an  example: 
a  governor,  two  assistant  governors,  three  Catholic 
chaplains,  two  Protestant  chaplains,  a  Jewish  c^p- 
lain^  two  teachers,  two  doctors,  a  druggist,  two  ac- 
countants, two  store-keepers,  five  d^ks,  a  head- 
warder,  fifty  guards,  five  assistant  warders,  and  four 
inspectors  of  work.  As  the  central  prison  of  Louvain 
contains  about  600  ordinary  cells,  there  are  about 
twelve  prisoners  for  each  warder.  The  inspectors 
of  work  are  employed  exclusively  to  give  professional 
instruction  to  the  prisoners,  and  to  supervise  the  work 
of  the  principal  trades,  shoemaking,  tailoring  etc., 
as  well  as  the  repairing  of  the  furniture  and  buUdinps. 
In  five  gaols  where  the  small  number  of  female  m- 
mates  reouires  only  one  wardress,  the  latter  is  a  lay 
person.  In  all  the  others  the  supervision  of  the 
female  prisoners  is  confined  to  nuns. 

The  duty  of  the  chaplains  consists  in  presiding  at 
reli^ous  exercises,  and  fulfilling  the  obli^tions  of 
their  ministry;  religious  instruction,  administration 
of  the  sacraments,  assistance  to  the  d3ring.  Hiey  go 
to  the  cells  of  their  co-religionists  unless  the  latter 
decline  to  receive  them.  The  exercise  of  Catholic 
worship  includes  Mass  and  Benediction  and  also  a 
moral  and  religious  instruction  on  Sundays  and  feast 
days  in  the  prison  chapel.  In  the  more  important 
gaols  a  spiritual  retreat  is  given  every  year  by  an 
outside  clergyman.  Attendance  at  religious  ex- 
ercises is  optional.  Cuche  remarks  quite  ooiiectly 
that  "for  adults  as  for  children,  experience  proves 
that  lelkion  is  the  best  method  of  inculcating^  moral- 
ity ".  This  incontestable  truth  has  been  admitted  by 
every  prison  expert  in  the  neighbouring  countries. 
Krohne  declares  that  it  is  only  by  means  of  religion 
that  we  can  hope  through  punishment  to  reform  the 
criminal,  which  is  the  principal  object  of  imprison- 
ment. Kraus,  in  the  '^'Hanabuch  d'Holtiendorff", 
gives  an  excellent  refutation  of  the  objection  drawn 
^m  the  liberty  of  conscience  of  the  culprit.  "Be- 
sides the  moral  influence  of  religion  there  is,"  adds 
Cuche,  "the  Divine  service  with  its  oeremonicM,  a 
fact  often  forgotten.  In  a  prison,  especially  if  it 
is  cellular,  assistance  at  Divine  worship  and  singing 


PRISONS  435  PRISONS 

of  h3niin8,  are  excellent  distractions,  while  they  ofTor  of  individual  cases  in  time  to  deal  with  them  on  the 

the   prisoner  an  occasion  for  salutary  reflection,  release  ot  the  prisoners.    On  discharge  from  prison 

In  Germany  choruses  in  four  parts  are  sung  in  the  the  convict  keeps  in  touch  with  the  society  to  which 

evening.    Krohne  gives  a  simple  and  touching  de-  he    belongs.    Except    in    unsuitable    cases    police 

scription  of  this  ceremonv.    Tne  same  author  recom-  supervision  is  suspended  so  lon^  as  the  convict  be- 

mends  that  each  ctUprit  should  be  given  a  hymn-book,  haves  well  and  obeys  the  conditions  imposed  upon 

as  well  as  a  New  l^stament,  a  Bible  history,  and  a  him  by  the  central  association,  working  throuj^h  the 

psalter.    He    even    emresses    the  desire  that  the  particular  society.    If  he  misbehaves,  or  if,  m  the 

prisoner  should  be  inouced  to  purchase  the  hymn-  opinion  of  the  authorities  charged  with  his  care,  he 

t>ook  and  the  New  Testament  with  his  own  money  is  not  sincere  in  his  efforts  to  abstain  from  criminal 

in    Older    that    he    might    keep    them    after    his  courses,  he  may  be  returned  to  police  control.    But 

liberation."  so  long  as  he  makes  an  honest  endeavour  to  re^pun 

Conditional  LiberaHon. — Prins  remarks:    ''As  the  his  position,  guided  and  aided  by  the  association, 

system  of  conditional  condemnation  allows  the  judges  he  is  freed  from  direct  contact  with  the  police  or 

to  exercise  their  discretion,  and  remit  the  penaitv  from  anvthing  likely  to  obtrude  his  past  upon  the 

in  the  case  of  offenders  for  wnom  a  warning  seems  suf-  notice  of  his  neighbours  or  employers, 
ficient,  conditional  liberation  allows  the  administra-        PrisonrBeform     Aasociaiiona, — -The    international 

tion  to  act  similarly  towards  those  in  prison,  and  to  prison  congresses  have  played  an  important  part  in 

decide  who  should  remain  in  prison  till,  the  end  of  prison  reform.    The  first  was  held  at  Frankfort-on- 

their  term  and  who  should  be  prepared  for  definitive  the-Main  in  1S46.    The  Congress  of  London  (1872), 

liberation  by  a  conditional  liberation.    This  plan  in  which  twenty-two  countries  were  represented  by 

acts  as  a  stimulus,  since  it  holds  out  to  well-conducted  100  delegatesj  led  to  the  creation  of  an  mtemational 

prisoners  the  possibility  of  having  their  term  short-  prison  commission.    The  last,  the  ninth  quinquen- 

ened;  it  acts  too  as  a  restraint,  as  the  liberated  con-  nial  session  of  the  International  Prison  Congress,  was 

vict  recognizes  that  the  favour  may  be  withdrawn;  held  in  Washington  in  1910.    Twenty-two  countries 

it  is  a  stage  of  the  punishment  since  it  prepares  the  belonging  to  the  association  were  represented  by 

{)risoner  for  his  dennitive  liberation."  Conditional  delegates  as  well  as  a  number  of  countries  not  yet 
iberation  has  become  an  essential  part  of  the  penal  officially  members,  among  them  China,  Japan,  and 
system  throughout  the  world.  As  there  is  an-  Egypt.  One  of  the  principal  achievements  of  the 
ticipated  liberation,  when  the  culprit  seems  reformed  congress  was  the  formal  approval  of  the  indetermi- 
before  the  end  of  the  term  to  which  he  was  sentenced,  nate  sentence,  a  product  of  American  developments, 
so  it  lo^cally  follows  there  should  be  a  supplementary  The  congress  also  approved  the  centralization  of  con- 
detention  when  the  criminal  at  the  eiroiration  of  trol  of  >all  penal  institutions,  including  local  jails, 
his  term  does  not  appear  to  be  reformed,  tinder  such  and  the  useful  employment  of  all  inmates,  whether 
circumstances  an  indeterminate  sentence  is  advocated  merely  detained  for  trial  or  sentenced  for  long  terms; 
(Cuche.  "Traits  de  science  et  de  legislation  p^niten-  and  it  favoured  the  discreet  use  of  the  probation 
tiaires  ,  356-9).  Some  see  in  this  theory  the  system,  advocating  central  supervision  of  probation 
logical  result  of  a  repressive  system  having  as  its  in  each  state.  Considerable  attention  was  paid  also 
sole  aim  the  moral  reformation  of  the  criminal;  to  the  methods  of  criminal  procedure  suitable  for 
others  consider  it  the  logical  result  of  the  theory  children  and  minors.  The  Prisons'  Society  of 
which  considers  the  punishment  as  an  act  of  social  Rhenish  Prussia  and  Westphalia  (founded  in  1826); 
defence,  the  intensity  of  which  is  proportioned  to  the  the  Society  of  Officers  of  the  German  Prisons 
danf;er  personified  in  the  delinquent  (cf.  Prins,  (founded  in  1864) ;  the  German  ytimten^cw  (foimded 
''Science  p^nale  et  droit  podtif",  455).  This  writer  in  1867);  the  International  Union  of  Penal  Law 
(op.  cit.,  459  sqq.)  does  not  favour  the  indeterminate  (founded  in  1889);  the  SodUi  ginSrale  des  prisoHa 
sentence  as  a  penalty  properly  so  called  imposed  on  a  in  France,  and  the  National  Prison  Congress  of  the 
normal  responsible  culpnt,  Mcause  it  is  not  in  har-  United  States,  have  likewise  materially  aided  the 
mony  with  the  principles  of  our  public  law,  which  en-  work  of  prison  reform. 

deavours  in  the  matter  of  punishment  to  seieguard        The  foUowing  reforms  among  others  have  been 

the  liberty  of  every  individual  against  arbitrary  use  warmly    advocated:     (1)  The    uniform    repressive 

of  power,  and  because  it  is  very  complicate  in  system  should  be  differentiated  into  a  system  of 

practice;  he  admits,  however^  that  it  is  different  when  education,  a  system  of  r^ression,  and  a  ssrstem  of 

there  is  Question  of  subjecting  to  government  con-  preservation,  and  each  of  these  should  be  in  turn 

trol  youthful  offenders,   beggars,   and  vagabonds,  subdivided  according  to  the  various  classes  of  de- 

or  in  the  case  of  degenerates,  lunatics  or  weak-  linquents.    In  particular  there  should  be  a  good 

minded  persons.  division  of  the  culprits,  and  a  social  effort  made  to 

Care  of  lAbereded  Criminal, — It  is  a  dutv  of  society  reform  those  who  are  susceptible  of  it.     (2)  Short 

to  come  to  the  aid  of  deserving  liberated  prisoners;  sentences  are  undesirable,  as  they  are  likely  neither 

for  oftentimes  they  are  not  in  a  position  to  support  to   intimidate   nor   to   educate.    (3)  The    cellular 

themselves,  and  so  fall  again  easily.    Many  societies  system  b  by  far  the  most  preferable,  so  long  as  dfmger 

have  been  established  everywhere  to  assist  and  en-  to  the  physical  and  mental  well-being  of  the  culprit 

courage  liberated  prisoners;   their  efforts  should  be  is  averted.    (4)  The  prisoner's  work  should  be  both 

directed    especially    towards    youthful    offenders,  useful  and  productive;  it  should  not  be  monotonous 

A  new  Central  Association  for  the  Aid  of  Discharged  or  wearisome;  the  criminal  should  be  applied  to  work 

Prisoners  was  established  in  Eki^^land  early  in  1911.  in  which  he  will  easily  find  occupation  on  his  libera- 

While  the  association  is  an  official  body  it  combines  tion;  the  kinds  of  work  should  be  sufficiently  varied 

and  co-ordinates  all  the  private  philanthropic  socio-  to  suit  the  natural  aptitude  of  the  various  prisoners, 

ties  which  in  a  disconnected  way  endeavoured  to  State  public  work  is  preferable.     (5)  While  enforcing 

assist  convicts  on  their  discharge.    Besides  aimins  to  as  far  as  possible  the  individualization  of  the  penalt]^, 

help  the  prisoner  on  his  release  more  effectively  than  the  progressive  sjrstem  should  be  introducea,  as  it 

formerly,  it  aims  to  do  away  in  most  cases  with  the  leads  up  gradually  to  liberty,  and  prepares  the  cul 

ticket-of-leave    S3rstem.    Persons    discharged    from  prit  to  enter  again  into  society.    (6)  In  the  case  of 

penal  servitude  come  under  the   cognizance  and  youthful  offenders  it  is  more  than  ever  necessary  to 

control  of  the  central  body.    Representatives  of  the  substitute  education  and  protection  for  punishment 

different  societies  are  admitted  to  the  convict  pris-  (see  Collard,  "U6ducation  protectrice  ae  I'enfance 

ons,  and  are  thus  enabled  to  divide   the   ground  en  Prusse,  La  loi  du  2  Juillet  1900  et  son  applica- 

among  the  different  agencies  and  to  make  a  study  tion",  Louvain,  1908).    (7)  The  treatment  of  womiaii 


PSI80M8                         436  FRivmios 

in  prisons  ahould  be  based  on  different  principles  every  province".    The  crimes  in  Question  must  be 

from  those  i^^plied  to  men.     (8)  In  the  case  of  con*  such  as  by  natural  or  civil  law  would  merit  the  pun- 

ditional  liberation  the  time  oJF  probation  should  be  ishment  oL  death  or  in^irisonment  for  life  (Reineii- 

sufficiently  prolonged.  stuel,  "Jus  Can.  univ.",  no.  228).    Innocent  XII  re- 

Kbaw,  Im  Kerkjr  tar  u.  nodi  fJjgSsJr^SSf^  i»«);  duoed  the  year  required  by  the  above-meotioneddeaee 

gS^^^S^-tnlSiai^^  'S::SSL''1^t^Ji;  15  «  month. J5^  ^  Wtibus-,  $2)     a  <!««« 

a^angtms  und  BnOaa^me  in  Prmuun  (1908);    Bon>nr,  Pro-  of  the  Sacred  Congregation  of  the  Coundl  (13  Nov.. 

Umm  der  (hfangmmuedaorge  u,  KnOataeMrBorge  Cimh    tow  1632)  declares  that  a  rdlgioUS  IS  not  tO  be  judged 

22:2S?7l«)riiSlL^"Si^  mcorrigiblel^ 

(iSSO);    Lam,  DU  angUnawttrikanudu  a^ormbewtguno  im  lesB,  after  being  punished  three  tunes,  he  shoukl  make 

8^€duiim);Aaaam,ahra/0^^  a  fourth  escape.   As  the  dvil  laws  do  not,  at  present, 

^^SX':^^  permitofincai««jtionbvprivateaut^^ 

Dtr  V<MMmg  der  FniUUutraftn  in  Badtn  (190S):  RomrriLD,  negation  ou  the  Discipline  of  Regulars  has  decreed 

aoo  John  Fftr9org€  dw  vremntdttn  Staattret^rung  /Or  du  (22  Jan.,  1886)  that  trials  for  incorngibUity,  preceding 

Siraf9olUyff€M<(im);  BAcmi  ahd  MxwnB,  (hfdngnuwaen  in  ownuwal,  Should  be  camed  out  by  summary,  not 

SiaaUUxUum,  II  (1909),  418  MM.;  Cucn,  Traiu  de  aeitnce  H  formal,  procesB,  and  that  lor  each  case  recourse  should 

(U  UgiAMon  vh^muiaiTt»  (1906) ;   Paors.  Sd^nM  pinaU  d  be  had  to  Rome.   A  vestige  of  the  monastic  imprison- 

(London,  1872):  Cook.  7A«  JPKmhm  c/  tu  World  (London,  moral  force)  IS  found  m  the  decree  df  Leo  XIII  (4 

22?^ •  XSIf^T**^  ^'^T^s^  ?%9^^^  ^S"  ^'^  Nov.,  1802),  in  which  he  declares  that  religious  who 


SSST;'  'fSii^i^rhSS^                                iS^;  haveUn  okhimed  anj  wish  to  leave  their  order  can- 

CooxxT,  Friton  Reform  in  Tk»  Month,  xcvi  (London,  1900),  not,  under  pam  of  perpetual  suspenaon,  depart  from 

^^'                                            -^            ^  the  cloister  {exire  ex  dauawra)  until  they  have  been 

(JHABUBS  (JOLLABD.  adopted  by  a  bidiop. 

PUTCW  Moimnt«M,  AmIeetionM  juria  roguiario,  I  (Paris,  1888); 

PrlSOm,  EoCLBSIASnCAL. — It  is  plain  from  many  Rmi'™»tu»l.  Ju»  oanonieum  wnwrnuwi,  V  ((Pam,  1888);  Pl- 

decrees  in  the  "Corpus  Juris  Canonici"  that  the  "^^' '^'"~'^*~~'^*'^w"\^ii*p?*w   fe.i^ 

Church  has  claimed  and  exercised  the  right,  belonging  William  m.  w.  t/nnnsa. 

object  of  prisimsoK^y,  both  aniong  the  Hdbrews  ^"'  Gbobqb,  Vbnbrablb. 

and  the  Komans,  was  merely  the  safe-keemng  of  a  PrlvilAge  (Lat.,  privileffium,  like  pruwi  lex)  is  a 

criminal,  real  or  pretended,  until  his  trial.   The  ecde-  permanent  concession  made  by  a  legislator  outside 

fliastical  idea  of  imprisonment,  however,  is  that  con-  of  the  common  law.    It  is  granted  by  special  favour, 

finement  be  made  use  of  both  as  a  punisnment  and  as  and  gives  the  privileged  an  advantage  over  the  non- 

affordinc  an  opportunity  for  reformation  and  leflec-  priyueged -individuals;  it  differs  from  particular  laws 

tion.    l%is  metnod  ^f  punishment  was  anciently  ap-  which  also  concern  certain  classes  of  persons  or  things: 

plied  even  to  derics.     Thus,  Boniface  VIII  (cap.  thus  the  clergy  and  the  religious  have  their  laws  ana 

"(^uamvis",  ill,  "Depoen.",  in  6)  decrees:  "Although  their  privilem.    The  favour,  being  lasting,  is  thus 

it  IS  known  that  prisons  were  specially  instituted  to  distinguiahed  from  a  permission  or  single  oispensa- 

the  custody  of  criminals,  not  for  their  punishment^  yet  tion.    It  is  granted  to  his  subjects  by  a  superior 

we  shall  not  find  fault  with  you  if  you  commit  to  having  authority  over  the  law;  it  thus  receives  an 

prison  for  the  performance  of  penance,  either  per-  official  value  approximating  it  to  a  law,  in  the  soise 

petually  or  temporarily  as  shall  seem  best,  those  clerics  that  he  who  enjoys  it  may  lawfully  exercise  it,  and 

subject  to  you  who  have  confessed  crimes  or  been  con-  third  narties  are  obliged  to  respect  its  use.    A  privi- 

victed  of  them,  after  you  have  carefully  considered  the  lege,  nnally.  deviates  from  the  common  law,  including 

excesses^persons  and  circumstances  mvolved  in  the  particular  laws,  whether  it  merely  adds  to  it  or 

case".   The  Church  adopted  the  extreme  punishment  dero^;ates  from  it. 

of  peri)etual  imprisonment  because,  by  the  canons,  the  Privileges  are  of  many  kinds.  Contrasted  with 
execution  of  onenders.  whether  clerical  or  lay,  could  the  law,  thev  are:  (1)  assimilated  to  the  law,  forming 
not  be  ordered  by  ecclesiastical  judges.  It  was  quite  part  of  it  (oausa  in  carpore  jtuie).  such  are  the  privi- 
common  in  ancient  times  to  imprison  in  monasteries,  leges  of  clerics,  or  they  are  granted  b  v  special  rescript, 
for  the  purpose  of  doing  penance,  those  clerics  who  had  (2)  Thev  are  superadded  to  the  law  (prioer  jus),  when 
been  convicted  of  grave  crimes  (c.  vii.  dist.  50).  The  they  relate  to  an  object  not  touched  by  the  law,  or 
"Corpus  Juris'',  however,  says  (c.  "Super  His'',  viii,  contraiy  to  the  law  (coniru  jue),  when  uiey  form  an 
"De  poen.")  that  incarceration  does  not  of  itsdf  in-  exception,  allowing  one  to  do  or  to  omit  wlutt  the  law 
flict  tne  stigma  of  infamy  on  a  cleric,  as  is  evident  forbids  or  commands.  As  to  the  manner  of  con- 
from  a  papal  pronouncement  on  the  complaint  of  a  cession,  they  are  (3)  granted  directly  or  obtained  by 
deric  wno  haa  been  committed  to  prison  because  he  communication  with  those  who  enjoy  them  directly, 
vacillated  in  giving  testimony.  The  reply  recorded  is  Moreover,  the  concession  may  be  (4)  either  verbal  or 
that  imprisonment  does  not  ipeo  facto  carry  with  it  by  an  official  writing.  Verbal  concessions  are  valid 
any  note  of  infamy.  in  the  forum  of  conscience,  or  better,  in  the  case  of 
As  to  monastic  prisons  for  members  of  religious  acts  that  need  not  be  justined  in  the  external  forum; 
orders,  we  find  them  recorded  in  decrees  dealing  with  to  be  valid  in  the  external  forum,  they  must  have  been 
the  incorri^bility  of  those  who  have  lost  the  spirit  of  granted  officially  by  rescripts  or  at  least  attested  by  a 
their  vocation.  Thus,  by  command  of  Urban  VIII,  competent  official  (Urban  VIII,  "Alias  felicis", 
the  Congregation  of  the  Council  (21  Sept.,  1624)  de-  20  Dec.,  1631;  Reg.  Cone.  27  and  52).  If  we  con- 
creed:  "For  the  future,  no  regular,  legitimately  pro-  aider  the  motive  for  granting  them,  privileges  are 
fessed^  may  be  expelled  from  his  order  unless  he  be  divided:  (5)  into  remunerative,  when  tney  are  based 
truly  incorrigible.  A  person  is  not  to  be  judged  truly  on  the  merits  or  services  of  the  ^prantees.  or  purely 
ineorrimble  unless  not  only  all  those  things  are  found  gratuitous.  From  the  point  of  view  of  tne  subject, 
verified  which  are  required  by  the  common  law  (not-  privileges  are  (6)  personal^  real,  or  mixed;  personal 
withstanding  the  constitutions  of  any  religious  order  are  granted  directly  to  individuals;  real  to  what  the 
even  confirmed  and  approved  by  the  Holy  See),  but  law  terms  a  "thing'',  for  instance,  a  dignity  as  such, 
also,  imtil  the  delinquent  has  been  tried  by  fasting  e.  g.  the  privilege  of  the  pallium  for  an  episcopal 


and  patience  for  one  year  in  confinement,   llierefore,    mixed,  to  a  group  of  persons,  hke  a  chapter  or  a  dio- 
let  every  order  have  private  prisons,  at  least  one  in    cese  (local  privilege).    With  regard  to  their  objeet, 


FBIVILIOED  437  PBTVlLEOn 

pnvileses  are  (7)  positive  or  negative,  aoocrding  as  ferred  on  one  for  life;  third,  by  the  cessation  of  the 

they  allow  the  performance  of  an  act  otherwise  for-  subject:    thus  a  personal  privilege  disappears  with 

bidden,  or  exempt  one  from  the  performance  of  an  the  person:   the  real  privilege  with  the  tning,  e.  s. 

act    otherwise    obligatory.    Agam    they    are    (8)  the  privileges  of  the  cnurches  of  France  ceased  wiUi 

honoraxy  or  useful;  (9)  purely  p^tuitous  or  onerous,  the  total  suppression  of  the  former  state.    Does  a 

the  latter  entailing  certain  duties  or  obligations  cor-  privilege  cease  when  its  raiwm  d'itre  has  completely 

relative  to  the  privilege;    among  such  are  conven-  ceased?    Theoretically,  it  ma^  be  so;  but,  in  prao- 

tional  privileges,  like  concordats.    Finally,  from  the  tice,  the  privilege  remains  m  possessipn  and  the 

point  of  view  of  their  duration,  they  are  (10)  per-  grantee  may  wait  till  the  superior  intervenes. 


Detual  or  temDorary.  See  the  oanonieftl  writers  on  the  title  "Depriyileaiiaet  ezi 


proved  by  the  production  of  the  original  concession  "»^™'  ^'^  ^'••''•w  Kuonaon,  iw»;. 

or  by  a  duly  certified  copy.    To  avoid  difficulties  the  ^'  iJOUDiNHON. 

superior  is  often  asked  to  renew  or  confirm  the  priv-  prfyiieged  Altar.    See  AiyrAR,  sub-title  Privi. 

lieges  gnmted  by  him  or  his  predecessors.    This  uj^jj^  Awab 

confirxnation  may  be  either  in  common  form,  recognii-  *     ^ 

ing  the  privilege  ag;ain,  but  giving  it  no  new  force,  or  PrlTileg6i»  Ecclbsiabtical,  are  exoeptions  to  the 
in  specific  form,  wmch  is  a  new  grant,  revfdidating  the  law  made  in  favour  of  the  clergy  or  m  favour  of 
former  as  far  as  needs  may  be.  The  two  forms  are  consecrated  and  sacred  objects  and  places, 
distinguished  by  the  context  and  the  official  wording  I. — ^The  privileges  in  favour  of  the  clergy  are: 
employed  (cf.  Decret.,  lib.  II,  tit.  xxx,  ''De  con-  personal  inviolabihty.  a  special  court,  immunity  from 
firmatione  utili  vel  inutili")-  The  teaching  of  the  certain  burdens  and  the  right  to  a  proper  main- 
canonists  on  the  interpretation  of  rescripts  may  be  tenance  (prwilegium  canonU,  fori,  immumioHs, 
summed  up  as  follows:  Privileges  ai«  to  be  construed  eompetentuB),  In  addition,  the  dergv  have  preoe- 
according  to  the  letter^  the  interpretation  being  neither  denoe  of  the  luty  in  religious  aasexnblies  ana  pro- 
extensive  nor  restrictive  but  purely  declaratory,  that  cessions,  a  special  place  in  the  church,  vis.,  the 
is  the  words  are  to  be  taken  omy  in  their  fuU  and  usual  presbyter;^  (c.  1,  X  de  vita  et  honeetate  cleric,  III, 
signification.  A  privDege  as  being  a  concession  of  1),  and  titles  of  honour.  These  honours  increase 
the  ruler  is  understood  generously,  especially  when  it  accordmg  to  the  higher  order  or  office, 
runs  counter  to  no  law;  in  as  far  as  it  derogates  from  Prwilegium  Cananis, — In  earlier  canon  law  the 
the  law,  particularly  if  it  interferes  with  the  ri|^ts  of  injuring  or  wounding  of  a  cleric  was  punished  by 
a  third  party,  it  is  interpreted  strictly.  Privileges  severe  canonical  penances,  and  on  occasion  by  ex- 
are  obtamed  by  direct  concession,  which  is  the  usual  communication  (cc.  21,  22,  23,  24,  C.  XVII,  q.  4). 
way,  or  by  prescriptive  custom,  an  exceptional  and  A  person  woundmg  a  bishop  inouired  ipio  facto  ex- 
indirect  manner,  or  by  communication.  The  last  is  communication  (Synod  of  Rome  862  or  863,  c. 
an  extension  of  the  privilege  to  others  than  the  first  xiv).  When  about  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  cen- 
gzantees.  It  may  occur  m  two  ways:  either  ex-  tury  at  the  instigation  of  politico-religious  agitators, 
plicitly,  the  legislator  giving  the  former  class  what  he  like  Arnold  of  Brescia,  excesses  were  oolnmittea 
gave  the  latter,  or  implicitly,  when  it  is  already  de-  against  the  defenceless  clergy  and  religious,  who  were 
creed  that  the  privileges  granted  to  certain  jundical  forbidden  to  carry  weapons,  the  Church  was  corn- 
entities  are  deemed  acconled  to  certain  others,  un-  pelled  to  make  stricter  laws.  Thus,  the  Second 
less  the  privilege  be  incommunicable  or  an  exception  Council  of  Lateran  (1139),  c.  xv.  after  the  Qjrnods  of 
be  made  by  the  superior.    The  best-known  example  Clermont  (1130),  Reims  (1131),  and  Pisa  (1135), 


of  the  communication  of  privileges  is  that  existing  decreed  that  whosoever  thenceforth  laid  nialiciouB 

amone  the  Mendicant  Orders,  as  appears  by  many  hand  on  a  cleric  or  monk  incurred  ipso /ado  anathema, 

pontifical   Constitutions  from  the  time  of  Sixtus  the  raising  of  which,  except  in  dimger  of  death,  was 

IV.   Similarly  communication  of   privileges   exists  reserved  to  the  POTO^  and  must  be  sought  in  person 

between  archconfratemities   and   affiliated   confra-  at  Rome  (c.  29^  C.  XVII,  q.  4). 

temities.  This  privilege,  which,  from  the  opening  words  of 

Privileges  cease  by  the  act  of  the  legislator,  the  the  canon,   is  called  the  primlegium  carumis  "Si 

act  of  the  grantees,  or  spontaneously.     (1)  The  legis-  quis  suadente  diabolo"  or  simply  privilegium  canonitf 

lator  may  revoke  his  concession  either  formally,  or  continues  even  to-day  (Pius  I  A,  "Apostolic®  Sedis 

implicitly  by  a  contrary  law  containing  the  clause  moderation! ",  12  October,  1869,  II,  2),  and  is  en- 

" notwithstanding  all  privileges  to  the  contrary"  or  joyed  also  by  nuns  (c.  33,  X  de  sent,  excomm.  V,  39), 

even,  ''notwithstanding  all  privileges  the  tenor  of  lay  brothers  (c.  33  cit.),  novices  (c.  21  in  Vlto  h.  t. 

which  ought  to  be  reproduced  textually".    It  is  V,  11),  and  even  by  tertiaries,  who  live  in  conmion 

clear  that  a  revocation  may  be  only  partial.     (2)  The  and  wear  the  habit  (Leo  X,  "Dum  intra",  19  Decem- 

grantees  may  terminate  the  privilege:   first,  by  an  ber,    1516;    "Nuper  in  sacro".    1   March,    1518). 

express  renunciation  accepted  by  the  superior:  pro-  According  to  the  wording  of  tne  canon,  however, 

viaed  however  that  it  is  the  case  of  a  personal  priv-  it  is' necessary,  for  the  incurring  of  the  excommunica- 

ilege;  for  privileges  of  general  interest,  like  those  of  tion,  that  the  injury  infficted  on  t^e  cleric  or  monk 

the  clergy,  may  not  be  renounced.    Second,  by  non-  be  a  malicious  and  real  injury^  under  which  is  in- 

user;  not  always,  however,  as  theoretically  the  use  eluded    unauthorised   deprivation   of   freedom    (c. 

of  privileges  is  optional,  but  when  this  non-user  gives  29,  X  h.  t.  V,  39).    Consequently,  excommunication 

third  parties  a  prescriptive  right;   thus  by  non-user  is  not  incurred  by  a  superior  justly  chastising  one 


a   judicial   declaratory    sentence.     (3)  A    privilege  or  assault  on  wife,  mother,  sister,  or  dau^ter  (c. 

ceases  spontaneously  when  a  circumstance  which  was  3  cit.);   when  the  injuiy  results  rrom  a  jdce  (c.  1, 

a  condition  for  its  enjoyment  ceases:   thus  a  cleric  X  h.  t.  V,  39),  or  if  the  assailant  be  unaware  (to 

in  minor  orders  loses  the  clerical  privileges  if  he  ap^ain  be  testified  on  oath,  if  necessary)  of  the  clerical  rank 

embraces  a  secular  callins ;  second,  by  lapse  of  time:  (c.  4,  X  h.  t.  V,  39).    Instead  of  the  pope,  the  bishop 

for  instance,  where  an  indult  is  granted  for  a  certain  gives  absolution  in  the  case  of  a  slight  injury  (c. 

number  of  years,  or  when  an  honorary  title  is  con-  3,  17,  31,  X  h.  t.  V,  39);  or  if  a  journey  to  Rome 


FBIVILSOK8  438  PBIVILian 

be  imposrable;  if  the  obstacle  to  the  journey  be  only  The  gradual  liberation  of  the  clergy  from  the  laj 
temporary,  the  assailant  must  promise  the  bishop  forum  received  a  further  incentive  from  the  ever- 
on  oath  at  the  time  of  receiving  absolution  to  present  increaong  number  of  ecclesiastical  causes,  from  the 
himself  before  the  pope  on  the  disappearance  of  the  acceptance  of  the  dictum  that  tibe  clei-gy  were  sub- 
obstacle;   should  he  fail  to  do  so,  the  sentence  re-  iect  to  personal,  and  the  Church  to  liie  Roman  law, 
vives  (cc.  1,  2,  6,  11,  13,  26,  32,  33,  37,  58,  60,  X  from  the  ecclesiastical  prohibition  to  clerics  to  engage 
h.  t.  V,  39 1  c.  22  in  Vlto  h.  t.  V,  11).    According  to  in  duels  or  ordeals,  from  the  growing  political  im- 
the  Council,  of  Trent,  the  bishop  may  also  absolve  portance  of  the  bishops  as  counts  and  territorial 
when  there  is  question  of  secret  offences  (Sess.  XXIV  lords  after  the  disintegration  of  the  Carlovingian 
de  Ref.,  c.  vi)  and,  in  virtue  of  the  quinquennial  Empire.    Thus,  in  view  of  the  ferocious  acts  of 
faculties   pro  foro  intemOf  of  the  less  serious  of-  violence   committed   by   the  laity,    Pseudo-Isidore 
fences.  In  consequence  of  the  more  extensive  powers  could  demand  in  the  most  uigent  terms  that  no  cleric 
of  releasing  from  ecclesiastical  censures  enjoyed  b^  be  summoned  before  the  secular  courts  (cc.  1.  3. 
confessors  to-day,  personal  appearance  at  Kome  is  9,  10^  37,  C.  XI,  q.  1).    This  principle  was  callea 
perhaps  necessarv  only  in  the  most  serious  cases,  into  hfe  by  the  medievaJ  popes,  and,  by  decretal  law. 
Abbots  absolve  their  subjects  in  the  case  of  lighter  the  exclusive  competence  of  ecclesiastical  judges  over 
offences  occurring  among  themselves  (c.  2,  32,  50,  clerics  in  civil  and  criminal  causes  was  established 
X  h.  t.  V,  39).    This  privilege  grows  with  the  office,  (cc.  4,  8,  10,  17,  X  de  iud.,  II,  1;  cc.  1,  2,  9,  12,  13, 
Thus,  whosoever  commits  or  causes  a  real  injury  X  de  foro  compet.,  II,  2).    In  feudal  affairs  alone 
to  a  cardinal,  papal  legate,  or  bishop  incurs  excom-  were  the  clergy  subject  to  the  secular  courts  (cc. 
munication  speciali  mSdo  reservata  (Pius  IX,  "Apos-  6,  7,  X  de  foro  compet.,  II,  2).     The  ecclesiastical 
tolicse   Sedis   moderation!",    12   October,    1869,    I.  courts  were  thus  competent  for  civil  causes  of  clerics 
5).    While  the  old  German  common  law  punished  amons  one  another,  of  laymen  against  clerics,  and 
the  injuring  of  a  cleric  with  a  heavier  fine  than  the  for  all  criminal  causes  of  clerics.    This  privilegium 
injuring  of  a  lay  person,  the  modem  secular  laws,  like  fori  was  also  recognized  by  imperial  laws  (Auuien- 
the  Roman  law,  afford  special  protection  to  clerics  tica  of  FVederick  II,  "Statuimus";  1139.  ad  1.  33, 
only  durixig  the  exercise  of  their  calling.  C.  de  episc.  I,  3).    From  early  times,  however,  it 

Prwilegium    Fori. — ^This    secures    the    clergy    a  met  with  great  opposition  from  the  State.    With 

special  tribunal  in  civil  and  criminal  causes  before  the  growing  ascendancy  of  the  State  over  the  Church, 

an  ecclesiasticflJ  judge.    The  civil  causes  of  clerics  the  privilege  was  more  and  more  limited,  and  was 

pertain  by  nature  to  the  secular  courts  as  much  as  finally  everywhere  abrogated. 

those  of  the  laity.    But  the  thought  that  it  was  un-        To-day,  according  to  secular  law,  the  civil  and 

seemly  that  the  fathers  and  teachers  of  the  faithful  criminal  causes  of  clerics  belong  to  the  lay  court, 

shoula  be  brought  before  laymen  as  judges,  and  also  Only  with  respect  to  the  purely  spiritual  conditions 

the  experience  that  many  laymen  were  peatly  in-  of  their  station  and  office,  are  clerics  subject  to  their 

clined  to  oppress  the  clergy  (c.  3  in  VI^  de  immun.,  bishop,  and  then  not  without  certain  state  limita- 

III,  23),  led  the  Church  to  withdraw  her  servants  tions— -especially  with  respect  to  certain  practical 

even  in  civil  matters  from  the  secular  courts,  and  punii^ments.    However,  the  Church  maintains  in 

to  bring  them  entirely  under  her  own  jurisdiction.  principle  the  vrunlegium  forif  even  for  those  in  minor 

In  the  Roman  Empire,  in  virtue  of  the  decisions  orders,  provided  that  they  have  the  tonsure  and  wear 

of  the  synods,  a  cleric  could  in  civil  disputes  cite  clerical  garb,  and  either  already  serve  in  a  church 

another  only  before  the  bishop  (cc.  43,  ^,  C.  XI,  or  are  preparing  in  a  seminary  or  imiversity  for  the 

q.  1).   However,  these  sjmodal  decrees  obtained  no  reception  of  higher  orders  (CouncU  of  Trent,.  Sess. 

recognition  from  the  lay  courts,  until  Justinian  rele-  XXlII  de  Ref.,  c.  vi;  Sess.  XXV  de  Ref.,  c.  xx; 

gated  all  disputes  of  clerics  amon^  one  another  and  Syllabus,  n.  31).    On  the  other  hand,  the  popes  have 

complaints  of  la3rmen  against  clerics  to  the  ecclesi-  in  their  recent  concordats  to  a  great  extent  relin- 

astical  forum  (Novella  Ixxix,  Ixxxiii.  cxxiii,  cc.  8,  21.  quished   this  position.    They  have,   however,   de- 

22).    In  the  Prankish  kingdom,  also,  clerics  could  manded  that  the  bishops  should  be  apprised  of 

summon  one  another  only  before  the   bishops   in  criminal  proceedings  against  a  cleric^  so  that  he  may 

civil   causes    (Furst   Synod  of   Macon,   583,  c.  8),  be  able  to  take  the  necessary  ecclesiastical  measures 

while  laymen  engaged  in  a  civil  dispute  with  clerics  (Bavarian  Concordat,   art.   xii,   litt.   c;    Austrian 

could  proceed  before  the  secular  court  only  with  Concordat,   art.   xiii,  xiv;    Concordat   with   Costa 

the  bishop's  permission  (Third  Synod  of  Orleans,  Rica,  art.  xiv,  xv;   that  with  Guatemala,  art.  xvi, 

538,  c.  35).    The  Edict  of  Clotaire  II  (614),  c.  4,  xvii;   that  with  Nicaragua,  art.  xiv,  xv;   that  with 

altered  the  existing  laws,  by  determining  that  at  San  Salvador,  art.  xiv,  xv).    This  warning  of  the 

least  actions  for  debt  against  clerics  midbt  also  be  bishop  is  also  ordered  by  the  laws  of  many  states,  as 

brought  before  the  episcopal  tribunal.    The  Carlo-  well  as  a  similar  regard  for  the  cleric  himself  in  the 

vingian  legislation  made  nerein  no  alteration,  but  case   of   criminal   proceedings    (Regulation   of   the 

it  forbade  clerics  expressly  to  appear  personally  P/ussian  Minister  of  Justice  of  12  June,  1873;    of 

before  the  civil  courts,  ordering  them  to  appoint  25  August,  1879;    Austrian  Law  of  7  May,  1874, 

a  defender  (advoccUua)  to  represent  them  (Admonitio  §29). 
generalis,  789,  c.  23).  But,  wherever  the  pope  has  not  relinquished  the 

In  criminal  causes,  the  bishop  had  in  the  Roman  yrvoUegium  fori,  lawgivers  and  administrators,  who 

Empire  no  jurisdiction,  except  in  trivial  matters,  directly  or  mdirectly  compel  the  judges  to  siunmon 

To  him  pertained  only  the  deposition  of  the  crim-  ecclesiastical  persons  before  the  secular  forum,  incur 

inal  cleric  before  pimislunent  was  inflicted  by  the  excommunication   specially   reserved   to   the   pope 

secular  judge  (Novella  cxxiii,  c.  21.  §  1;   cxxxvii,  (Pius    IX,    ''Apostolics    Sedis    moderationi",    12 

c.  4).    In  tne  Prankish  kingdom  bisnops  were  con-  October,  1869.  1,  7).    In   places  where  the  papal 

demned   and  degraded   at   the  synod,   whereupon  derogation  of  tne  pruii2e{;ium/(^  has  not  been  secured 

the  secular  court  executed  the  sentence  of  death,  but  where  justice  can  be  obtained  only  before  the 

when  necessary.    Still  more  in  the  case  of  the  other  secular  judge,  a  lay  complainant,  before  summoning 

clergy  did  the  power  of  the  lay  courts  to  inflictpunish-  a  cleric  before  the  secular  courts,  should  seek  the 

ment  prevail.    But,  from  the  time  of  the  Edict  of  bishop's  permission,  or,  if  the  complaint  be  against 

Clotaire  II  (614),  priests  and  deacons  began  to  be  a  bishop,  the  permisson  of  the  pope.    Otherwise, 

treated  in  the  same  maimer  as  the  bishops.    In  this  the  bishop  can  take  punitive  measures  against  him 

respect  the  (Darlovingian  legislation  remained  essen-  (S.  Congregation  of  the  Inquisition,  23  January. 

tiaUy  the  same  (Synod  of  Frankfort,  794,  c.  30).  1886).    It  is  also  in  accordance  with  the  spirit  of 


PBIVILIOn 


439 


PBIVILSQK8 


the  prurilegium  fori  that  it  is  ordered  in  many  dio- 
ceses that  all  complaints  of  and  against  denes  be 
laid  first  before  the  bishop  for  settlement;  should 
no  settlement  be  reached,  the  case  may  then  be  brought 
before  the  secular  court  [Archiv  fUr  kathol.  Kir^hen- 
recht,  VII  (1862),  200  sqq.;  LXXXIII  (1903),  505 
sq.,  662;  LXXXV  (1905),  671;  LXXXVI  (1906), 
356  sq.]. 

PrwUegium  JmmunitatU, — ^This  consists  in  the 
exemption    of    ecclesiastical    persons,    things,    and 

? laces  from  certain  general  obligations  and  taxation. 
*he  immunity  is,  therefore,  either  personal,  or  real, 
or  local.  Personal  immunity  is  the  exemption  of  the 
clergy  from  certain  public  burdens  and  obligations, 
which  the  general  religious  sentiment  of  the  people 
declares  in  keeping  with  their  office,  or  which  render 
the  discharge  of  their  calling  difficult.  Whether  this 
privilege,  as  well  as  the  other  clerical  privileges, 
rests  on  Divine  law,  the  (IJhurch  has  never  dogmati- 
cally decided,  although  canon  law  declares  that 
churches  and  ecclesiastical  persons  and  thin|»  are 
free  from  secular  burdens  according  to  both  iMvine 
and  human  law  (c.  4  in  Vlto  de  cens.^  Ill,  20);  that 
eccleaastical  immunity  rests  on  the  Divine  command 
(Ck)uncil  of  Trent,  Seas.  XXV  de  Ref.,  c.  xx);  and 
that  it  is  false  to  assert  that  ecclemastical  immunity 
can  be  traced  only  from  secular  law;  that  the  im- 
munity of  the  clergy  from  military  service  could  be 
aboli^ed  without  any  breach  of  the  natural  law  or 
of  justice,  nay  that  it  must  be  abolished  in  the  in- 
terests of  progress  and  civil  equality  (Syllabus,  nn. 
30,  32). 

In  accordance  with  the  liberties  granted  the 
pagan  priests,  tiie  Christian  emperors  after  Con- 
stantino exempted  the  clergy  from  the  obligation  of 
undertaking  municipal  offices,  trusteeships,  guardian- 
ships, and  ail  public  functions,  from  mihtary  service. 
Quartering,  and  the  other  personal  munera  aordida 
(later  called  villainage),  and  in  part  also  from  per- 
sonal taxation  ((I!od.  Just.,  1. 1,  t.  3  de  episc.  Novella 
cxxHi,  c.  5).  For  the  most  part  these  privileges 
also  prevailed  in  the  Teutomc  kingdoms.  Thus, 
Frederick  II  exempted  the  clergy  from  all  taxation 
and  from  all  socage-  and  teaming  (Authentica, 
"Item  nulla"  1220  ad  1.  2,  C.  de  epwc.  I.  3).  But 
decretal  law  (c.  3  in  Vlto  de  immun.  Ill,  23;  c. 
3  in  Clem,  de  cens.  Ill,  13)  demanded  the  complete 
immunity  of  the  clergy  (cc.  2,  4,  7,  X  de  immun. 
Ill,  49;  c.  4  in  Vlto^e  cens.  Ill,  20;  c.  3  in  Vlto 
de  immun.  Ill,  23;  c.  3  in  Clem,  de  cens.  Ill,  13; 
c.  un.  in  CHem.  de  immun.  Ill,  17).  This  immunity 
was  indeed  in  the  Middle  Ages,  and  especially  at 
the  end,  complete,  since  in  many  cases  we  find  the 
secular  rulers  doing  their  utmost  to  impose  secular 
burdens  on  the  clergy.  The  Council  of  Trent 
(Seas.  XXV  de  Ref.,  c.  xx),  therefore,  again  exhorts 
the  princes  to  respect  tnis  privilege.  In  recent 
times,  and  especiallv  since  the  French  Revolution, 
the  State's  demands  on  the  clergy  have  been  in- 
creasing. Hence  the  .  above-citea  explanations  of 
Pius  IX  in  the  Syllabus,  nn.  30,  32. 

The  exemption  of  the  clergy  from  national  taxa- 
tion is  to-day  almost  entirely  abolished;  their  exemp- 
tion from  municipal  taxation  still  continues  in  some 
places.  In  Austria  and  Germany  clerics  are  exempt 
from  public  offices  and  services  and  from  serving 
as  assessors  and  jurors.  In  these  countries  the  clergy 
are  also  free  from  undertaking  trusteeships,  if  they 
do  not  obtain  the  consent  of  their  superiors.  Finally, 
candidates  for  the  ecclesiastical  state,  and  still 
more  ordained  clergymen,  are  exempted  in  Grermany 
and  Austria  from  military  service  under  arms. 
Less  favour  is  shown  the  clergy  in  Italy,  and  prac- 
tically none  in  France  since  the  separation  of  Church 
and  State.    Conditions  vary  greatly  in  other  lands. 

PrivUegium  CompetentifE. — This  is  a  right  possessed 
by  the  clergy,  in  accordance  with  which,  in  the  case 


of  executions  against  their  property  an  income, 
sufficient  to  constitute  a  livelihood,  must  be  left  to 
them.  A  beneficium  competentUB  was  enjoyed  by 
the  Roman  soldiers  (fr.  6,  18,  D.  de  re  iumc.  XLII, 
1).  The  Glossa  argues  that,  since  the  cleric  is  a 
milea  codeatis  milituB  (cf.  also  c.  19,  C.  XXIII^  q.  8), 
the  same  privilege  should  be  recognized  in  his  case. 
But  t^  constitutes  as  poor  a  foundation  as  the  c. 
"Odoardus''  (c.  3,  X.  de  solut.  Ill,  23);  according 
to  which  excommunication  may  not  be  infficted  on 
an  insolvent  cleric,  who  binds  himself  to  pay  on  the 
improvement  of  his  financial  position.  The  origin 
of  the  privilege  is  io  be  referred  rather  to  custom 
and  to  the  i(^  expressed  in  manv  canons^-  that  a 
cleric  may  not  be  brought  into  such  a  position  that 
he  is  forced  to  seek  a  livelihood  in  an  unworthy  man- 
ner. In  both  theory  and  practice  the  privilege  af- 
forded protection  from  pereonal  arrest,  foreclosure 
of  a  mortgage,  and  from  the  immediate  vacation  of 
property  m  favour  of  tiie  lay  person.  It  also  ex- 
tended to  the  patrimony  formm^  the  title  of  or- 
dination. On  the  other  hand,  if  the  cleric  has 
judicially  denied  his  guilty  has  beem  guilty  of  a  fraud, 
disregarded  cautions,  or  if  the  lay  person  be  poorer 
than  the  debtor^  the  privilege  is  lost. 

Since  the  abolition  of  the  prwUegiumforif  the  scope 
of  the  prwUegium  competenticB  has  been  dependent  on 
the  state  laws.  Thus,  according  to  §  850,  Ziff.  8 
of  the  civil  suit  regulations  of  the  German  Empire, 
the  yearly  income  or  the  pension  of  clerics  is  free  from 
seizure  to  the  extent  of  1500  marks,  and  of  the  excess 
only  one-third  is  liable.  According  to  (  811,  Ziff. 
7,  8,  10;  all  objects  necessary  for  the  discharge  of 
the  clerical  calling  (e.  g.  books,  proper  clothing) 
are  also  exempt  from  seizure.  In  Austria,  according 
to  the  law  of  21  April,  1882,  800  gulden  annually  are 
exempt  in  the  case  of  clergy  employed  in  the  care 
of  souls  and  ecclesiastical  beneficiaries,  and  500 
in  the  case  of  other  clerics.  In  Italy  also  the  prwi- 
legium  competenticB  still  prevails,  but  it  has  been 
abolished  in  France. 

As  the  prwUegia  dericorum  are  the  legal  conse- 
quences of  the  reii^ous  station,  granted  for  the  pro- 
tection of  the  clencal  calling,  they  may  not,  being 
the  rights  of  a  class,  be  waived  by  any  individuaL 
nor  may  they  be  withdrawn  from  an  individual 
except  m  specified  cases.  They  are  forfeited  by 
degradation  (c.  2  in  VI*o  de  pcen.  V,  9);  by  the  com- 
mitting of  a  serious  criminal  act  and  simultaneously 
laying  aside  the  clerical  garb  in  spite  of  a  triple 
warmng  of  the  bishop  (cc.  14,  23,  25,  45,  X  de  sent, 
excomm.  V,  39:  c.  10.  X  de  iud.  II.  1;  c.  1,  X  de 
apostat.  V,  9) ;  by  leaoing  an  unseemly  or  de^icable 
life  and  simultaneously  la3ring  aside  the  clerical  garb 
in  spite  of  three  warnings  irom  the' bishop  (c.  16, 
X  ae  vita  et  honest,  cleric.  Ill,  1;  c  un.  in  Vlto 
h.  t.  Ill,  1:  c.  1  in  Clem.  h.  t.  Ill,  l);  and  finally  in 
the  case  ot  clerics  in  minor  orders  by  laying  aside 
the  clerical  garb  (Pius  IX,  20  September,  I860). 

II. — Like  clerics,  consecrated  and  sacred  things 
and  places  enjoy  certain  privileges  and  freedom  from 
burdens  and  obligations;  this  is  based  on  the  priviU' 
gium  immuniUUis^  and  is  termed  real  or  local  im- 
munity. All  objects  intended  for  ecclesiastical 
use  are  termed  res  ecclesiastics.  Res  ecdesuutica 
in  this  wide  sense  are  divided  into  res  ecclesiastic4B 
in  the  narrow  sense  and  res  sacros.  Ecclesiastical 
things  (res  ecclesiasticcB  in  the  narrow  sense),  or 
ecclestiastical  property  {patrimonium  or  'pecmium 
eccUsiasHcum),  mediately  maintain  the  Divme  wor- 
ship, and  include  all  buildings  and  real  property 
belonging  to  the  Church  except  the  churches  and 
cemeteries,  the  funds  for  the  maintenance  of  the 
servants  of  the  Church  (bona  mensm^  bona  beneficii)^ 
and  the  ecclesiastical  buildings  Qxma  fabricce), 
and  finally  the  property  designed  for  charitable 
objects  or  pious  foundations  (res   rdigiosm^  oausn 


PBOBA  440  PBOBA 

pub),    Saored  objects  (rea  aacrai)  are  immediately  might  be  safe  from  vengeance  in  certain  places,  untfl 

connected  with  Divine  worship,  and  are  set  apart  the  public  had  come  to  a  decision  concerning  his  sur- 

from  all  other  things  by  an  act  of  worship  or  con-  render  (Ek.,  xxi,  13;  Num.,  zzxv,  6  sqq.;  Deut.,  xix, 

secration   as   things   consecrated    (res   conaecrake),  2  sag.)*    Among  the  Gredcs,  azid  espe<naUy  among 


and  by  benediction  as  thinas  blessed  (re«  henedieUE),  the  Romans,  the  temples,  the  altars,  and  the  statues  m 
To  res  eoMecraUs  belong  churches,  altars,  chalices,  the  emperor  were  places  of  refuge  (1,  ljC.de  .his  qui  ad 
and  patens;  to  rea  henecneta  a  series  of  ecclesiastical  statuas  confugiunt  I,  25).  Thus,  when  Christianity 
utensils  and  cemeteries.  became  the  religion  of  the  State,  it  followed  as  an 
As  the  ecclesiastical  property  serves  for  the  public  inevitable  consequence  that  the  emperor  should  also 
good,  it  was.  exempted  by  the  Homan  emperors  from  raise  to  the  right  of  sanctuary  the  churches  and 
all  the  lower  and  extraordinarv  burdens,  but  not  bishops  (C.  Just,  de  his  qui  ad  ecclesias  confu- 
from  the  regular  taxes  (1.  3,  C.  ae  episc.  I,  3).  This  giunt  I,  12).  But,  as  the  ecclesiastical  rifdit  of 
example  was  followed  in  the  Prankish  empire,  in  sanctuary  was  still  very  limited,  the  Synod  of  Car- 
which  church  property  was  subject  to  all  the  or-  thage  (399)  asked  the  emperor  to  remove  these  limita- 
dinary .public  burdens.  In  addition,  however,  many  tions.  In  the  Gennan  empires  it  was  the  Church 
extraordinary  burdens  were  imposed,  such  as  the  dona  which  founded  the  right  of  asylum  as  a  protection 
grtUuUa  to  tne  king^  the  furnishing  of  accommoda-  against  the  rude  conception  of  justice  then  prevalent 
tion  f or  him  on  his  journeys,  the  rendering  of  court  and  against  savage  revenge^  by  decreeing  mtii  the 
and  war  services  to  him  as  their  feudal  lord,  and  assent  of  the  State  that  a  cnmmal,  who  had  reached 
manyarbitrary  forms,  of  oppression.  Consequently,  the  church  or  its  immediate  neighbourhood,  might  be 
the  Third  Lateran  Council  (1179)  demanded  the  delivered  up  only  after  he  had  p^ormed  ecclesiastical 
complete  exemption  of  church  property  from  taxa-  penance,  and  after  the  secular  judge  had  promised 
tion,  and  that  only  in  case  ojf  pubhc  need,  and  then  that  sentence  of  death  or  maimins  would  not  be  in- 
only  with  the  consent  of  the  bishop  or  of  the  pope,  flicted  upon  him  (cc.  19, 36,  C.  XVlI,  q.  4.  Capitulate 

de  partibus  Saxoniie,  776-90,  c.  2).  The  right  of 
asylum,  which  had  its  origin  in  this  manner  and  which 
was  subsequently  extended  to  the  surroundings  of  the 

commun.  Ill,  13).    Frederick  II  accordingly  granted  church,  the  cemeteries^  the  dwelling  of  bishops  and 

church  property  exemption  from  all  taxation  (Au-  parish-priests,  seminanes,  monasteries,  and  hospitals, 

ihentica  "Item  nulla''  ad  1.  2,  C  de  episc.  I,  3).  was  upheld  especially  by  the  popes,  although  they 

After  the  dose  of  the  Middle  Ages,  however,  secular  excluded  from  the  privilege  veiy  great  criminals,  such 

rulers  subjected  to  a  great  extent  church  property  as  highway  robbers,  muraerers,  and  those  who  chose 

to  public  burdens:  the  Council  of  Trent  uierefore  the  church  or  churchyard  as  the  scene  of  their  crimes 

admonished  them  to  respect  the  old  privilege  of  im-  so  as  to  enjoy  immediately  the  right  of  asylum  (cc.  6, 

munUoi  reaUa  (Seas.  XXV  de  Ref..  c.  xx),  but  with-  10,  X  de  immun.  Ill,  49;  c.  1,  X  de  homic.  V.  12), 

out  much  success.    In  modem  ana  recent  times  tiie  Since  the  dose  of  the  Middle  Ages,  however,  State 

tendency  has  everjrwhere  been  to  subject  church  prop-  legislation  has  been  opposed  to  the  ecdesiastical  ris^t 

erty  more  and  more  to  public  taxation.    The  asser-  of  a^lum,  so  that  the  popes  have  been  compelled  to 

tion  that  the  privilege  of  immuniUu  realia  was  of  modify  it  more  and  more  (GrMory  XIV,  "Cum  alias" 

purely  secular  origin  was  decUred  erroneous  by  <rf  24  May.  1591;  Benedict  XIII,  "Ex  quo  divina", 

Fius  IX  in  the  Syl&bus,  n.  30.    Here  and  there,  as  8  June,  1725;  Qement  XII,  "In  suprema  justitia", 

in  Germany  and  Austria,  the  State  laws  accoid  partial  1  Feb.,  1734;  Benedict  XIV,  "Officii  Nostri",  15 

freedom  from  taxation  to  ecclesiastical  property.  March,  1750).    The  modem  penal  codes  no  longer 

In  Italy  the  papal  property  is  alone  exempt;    m  recognise  an  ecclesiastical  ri«ht  of  asylum,  and  the 

France  exemption  ceased  with  the  separation  of  Church  can  all  the  more  readily  acquiesce  therein,  as 

Church  and  State.    In  the  United  States  the  Church  modem  justice  is  humane  and  well-regulated.    How- 

sharas  in  the  exemption  generally  granted  to  all  ever,  even  to-day  those  who  violate  "ausutemerario" 

institutions  labouring  for  the  public  good.    The  con-  the  ecclesiastical  rig^t  of  asylum  incur  excommuni-' 

ditions  vary  much  in  tiie  other  lands.  oatio  lata  aerUentuB  simply  reserved  to  the  pope  (Pius 

For  places  and  things  consecrated  to  the  Divine  ser-  IX,  "  Apost.  Sedis  moderationi",  12  Oct.,  1889,  II,  6). 

vice  no  rights  can  be  claimed  whidl  involve  a  profane  Kolb,  AquHa  eertant  pro  immunitaU  H  esempfioiM  §eeUaiarum, 

use.    Consequently,  such  objects  are  in  this  sense  r!?'*t^Sfe~*J  lf?l!i! 

two.     ^^^vr.««rw«AUYuw.j ,  »i««/uww^jw%/M>  — .  w   <u  jTv.  •~t"*~  fort,  1687) ;   Fattouki,  Tfuatrum  tmmunUattt  tt  Wberiaiit  •oei*- 

extra-COmmercUU.     Otherwise,    m    sharp    distmction  aiattiem  (Rome,  1704-30);  Bulmbbincq,  Dm  AwylnetU  m  mi'imt 

from  the  rea  aacrca  among  the  Romans  and  contrary  to  gtehidM,  SrUwiddung  u.  die  Audi^erung  JlaeMiger  Vtrbrtektr 

thep«aioeofthe«}rlyJhrirtif«centujj^^  g!?'Si:i2Si'  g'^Jlx^:^:Y^&Y'tr^"M 

m  accordance  with  the  Germamc  conception  of  private  3   aqq.,  256  aqq.;   XXXVIII,  8  aqq.;   WuTdbr  in  Und,, 

churches,   be    possessed    by  private    individuals  and  LXXvIII,  24Mq.;  Poncvt,  LMprtntt^M ^ etern au moyen-d^ 

even  ent«  into  dva  trmoMctU  »nd  commerpe     In  j^^SSlllJ^S^iJ^T^^ 

churches  and  cemetenes,  however,  no  judicial  tran»-  Hxnscriub,  Dm  KircUnrwiu  det  Kathaiikm  u.  Pnm^UMUn  m 

actions,  political  meetings,  markets,  banquets,  theatri-  DtuUMand  (Berlin,  186»-88) ,  I,  l is  aqq. :  IV,  IM  saq.,  306  aqq. ; 

cal  performances,  secular  concerts,  dances  etc.,  may  J?,"''!;./'"  ^^Stfjf^y:'^^^  ^^-r'^S'JJSfi^'iilb^^^**-* 

u    iTij     TrS^^^iT^^^      '11    *  "'•"^'^'o  r;*^**  .TTV  III,  i.  167  aqq.;  Ill,  u,  966  aqq.;  LAtTsmNnus, /fuhfiilioMa /una 

be  held.    The  bishop  may  m  all  cases  sanction  theur  •eefMuuMcT (ifnd  ecL.  Fraiburs.  lOOS),  83  aqq..  854.  550^  641; 

use  outside  of  Divine  service,  provided  that  all  scan-  SXaiiOLLmi,  L»hf^u€k  du  haM,  KirehenreehU  (Znded.  Fretburg, 

dal  be  avoided.    Similarly,  the  use  of  the  church-  ^*^>'  ^05  aqq..  731  aqq..  861  aqq. 

bell  for  secular  purposes  may  be  allowed  or  tolerated  Johannes  BAPnsT  SlaifeLLBB. 

apart  from  cases  of  need,  where  the  propriety  of  its  .      «                ^,   .    .           .        #  ^.^    *       ^ 

use  is  sdf-evident  (cc.  1,  5,  9,  X.  de  immun.  Ill,  49:  Probft,  Faltonia,  Christian  poetess  of  the  fourth 

c.  2  in  Vlto  h.  t.  Ill,  23).    Mischief,  disorder,  and  century.     The  name  Faltonia  is  doubtful  Mid  is 

disturbance  in  the  chureh  (espedally  during  Divine  apparently  due  to  a  confusion,  as  the  MSS.  call  the 

service),  robbery  of  the  church,  the  injury  or  destruo-  author  simply  Proba.    As  granddaughter  of  Probus, 

tion  of  thmgs  or  buildiiuss  consecrated  to  the  Divine  consul  in  310,  daughter  of  Petronius  Frobianius,  oon- 

service,  disturbance  ofthe  peace  proper  to  the  ceme-  sul  in  322,  wife  of  Claudius  Celcinus  Ad^phius,  pre- 

tery  or  churehyard,  are  punished  by  the  State  as'  fectof  Rome  in  351,  and  mother  of  C.ClodiusHermo- 

qualified  crimes.  genianus  Olybrius.  consul  in  379,  and  of  Faltonius 

To  the  ecclesiastical  local  immunity  belongs  the  Alypius,  Proba  belonged  to  that  Koman  aristocracy 

right  of  asylum  of  churches.    Even  in  the  Old  Testa-  which  upheld  the  old  pagan  religion  so  long  against 

meot  it  WAS  decreed  that  the  murderer  or  homicide  Christianity.    Proba  was  at  first  a  pagan,  as  was  her 


PB0BABILI8M 


441 


PR0BABZLI81I 


husband,  but  once  converted  she  persuaded  him  to 
follow  her  example.  She  had  celebrated  in  an  epic 
poem  now  lost  the  wars  between  Constantine  and 
Magnentius.  After  her  conversion  she  wrote  a  terUo 
in  hexameter  verses  in  which  she  relates  sacred  history 
in  terms  borrowed  exclusively  from  Virgil.  The  story 
of  the  Old  Testament  is  briefly  outlined,  the  author 
dwelling  only  on  the  Creation,  the  Fall,  and  the 
Deluge.  The  larger  portion  of  the  work  recounts  the 
life  of  Christ  acoordmg  to  the  Gospels.  But  the  ac- 
tion of  the  poem  is  constrained  and  unequal,  the  man- 
ner absurd,  the  diction  frequently  either  obscure  or 
improper;  nevertheless  the  work  had  a  certain  pop- 
ularity during  the  Middle  Ages. 

Qlotib,  Lif€  and  LetUrt  in  IA«  Ftntrth  Century  (Cambridge, 
1001),  144;  for  the  latest  edition,  with  an  exhaustive  study,  see 
ScBKMKL  in  Poet,  Chrui.  im'n,  I,  Corp,  Bcript,  eedlec.  kU,  (Vienna, 

1888).  Paul  Lbjay. 

Probabiliim  is  the  moral  system  which  holds  that, 
when  Uiere  is  question  solely  of  the  lawfulness  or  un- 
lawfulness of  an  action,  it  is  permissible  to  follow  a 
solidly  probable  opinion  in  favour  of  liberty  even 
thou^  the  opposing  view  is  more  probable. 

I.  State  op  the  Question. — when  a  prohibiting 
law  is  certain,  the  subjects  of  the  law  are  bound  to  ^ 
abstain  from  performing  the  action  which  the  law  for-  * 
bids,  unless  tney  are  excused  bv  one  of  the  ordinary 
exempting  causes.  On  the  other  hand,  when  it  is 
certain  tnat  no  law  forbids  an  action,  there  is 
no  obligation  to  abstain  from  performing  it.  Be- 
tween these  two  extremes  there  can  be  varying  degrees 
of  uncertainty  about  the^  existence  or  cessation  of  a 
prohibiting  law.  There  is  doubt  in  the  strict  sense 
when  the  intellect  neither  assents  nor  dissents,  because 
either  there  are  no  positive  arguments  for  and  against 
the  law,  or  the  arguments  for  and  agunst  the  law  are 
equid  in  strength.  The  opinion  which  favours  the 
law,  and  which  is  technically  called  the  safe  opinion, 
can  be  more  probable  than  the  opinion  which  favours 
liberty  and  which  still  retains  solid  probabihty. 
Again,  the  opinion  which  favours  the  law  can  be 
most  probable,  and  the  opinion  which  favours  liberty 
only  sli^tly  probable.  In  the  same  way  the  opinion 
which  favours  liberty  and  which  is  technically  called 
the  less  safe  opinion,  can  be  more  probable  than  the 
oppoang  view,  or  can  be  most  probable. 

In  estimating  the  degree  which  is  required  and 
which  suffices  for  solid  probability,  moralists  lay  down 
the  general  principle  tnat  an  opinion  is  solidly  prob- 
able which  by  reason  of  intrinsic  or  extrinsic  argu- 
ments is  able  to  gain  the  assent  of  many  prudent  men. 
All  admit  that  extrinsic  authority  can  have  sufficient 
wei^t  to  make  an  opinion  solidly  probable;  but  there 
is  cuven^ence  of  view  in  estimatins  what  number  of 
experts  is  able  to  give  an  opinion  this  solid  probabil- 
ity. The  prevailing  theory  amongst  Probabihsts  holds 
that  if  five  or  six  theologians,  notable  for  prudence  and 
learning,  independently  aohere  to  an  opinion  their 
view  is  solidly  probable,  if  it  has  not  been  set  aside  by 
authoritative  decisions  or  by  intrinsic  arguments 
which  they  have  failed  to  solve.  Even  one  theologian 
of  very  exceptional  authority,  such  as  St.  Alphonsus 
liguori,  is  able  to  make  an  opinion  solidly  probable, 
as  we  Imow  from  the  official  aeclarations  of  the  Holy 
See.  All  moralists  agree  that  mere  ffimsy  reasons  are 
insufficient  to  give  an  opinion  solid  probability,  and 
also  that  the  support  of  many  theologians  who  are 
mere  collectors  of  the  opinions  of  others  is  unable  to 
give  solid  probability  to  the  view  which  they  maintain. 

Non-Catholics  who  bring  charges  of  laxity  against 
the  moral  systems  which  Catholic  theolo^ans  uphold, 
often  forget  liiat  the  Catholic  Church,  in  theory  and 
in  practice,  has  condemned  various  views  in  favour 
of  liberty  which  are  based  on  insufficient  data. 

If  the  less  safe  opinion  is  speculatively  uncertain,  it 
is  unlawful  to  follow  it  in  practice,  until  all  reasonable 
effort  has  been  made  to  remove  the  uncertainty,  by 


considering  the  arguments  on  both  sides  and  by  con- 
sulting available  authorities.  It  is  unlawful,  also,  to 
act  on  the  less  safe  view  unless  the  speculative  uncer- 
tainty has  been  changed  into  practical  certainty  that 
the  action  to  be  pmormed  is  lawful.  The  whole 
question  at  issue  between  dififerent  moral  systema  con- 
cerns the  way  in  which  the  speculative  uncertainty  is 
changed  into  practical  certainty :  each  system  has 
what  is  called  a  reflex  principle  of  its  own,  by  whidi 
practical  certainty  can  be  obtained  that  the  action  to 
be  perfbrmed  is  lawful.  Rigorism,  or,  as  it  is  fre- 
quently called.  Tutiorism.  held  that  the  less  safe 
opinion  should  be  most  probable,  if  not  absolutely  cer- 
tain, before  it  could  be  lawfully  put  into  practice, 
while  Iiaxism  maintained  that  if  the  less  safe  opinion 
were  slightly  probable  it  could  be  followed  with  a  safe 
conscience. 

Hiese  two  views,  however,  never  received  serious 
support  from  Catholic  theologians,  and  were  formally 
condemned  by  the  Holy  See.  At  one  time  or  another 
in  the  history  of  the  Church  three  other  opinions 
sained  many  adherents.  Some  theoloffiiuu,  who  put 
forward  the  system  known  as  Probabiliorism,  hold 
that  the  less  safe  opinion  can  be  lawfully  followed  only 
when  it  is  more  probable  than  thesafe  opinion.  Others, 
upholding  JSqwprobabilism^  maintain  that,  when  tiie 
uncertainty  concerns  the  existence  of  a  law,  it  is  law- 
ful to  follow  the  less  safe  opinion  when  it  has  equal  or 
almost  equal  probability  with  the  safe  opinion,  but 
that,  when  there  is  question  of  the  cessation  of  a  law, 
the  less  safe  opinion  cannot  lawfully  be  followed  un- 
less it  is  more  probable  than  the  safe  view.  Others 
again,  who  adhere  to  Probabilism,  believe  that, 
whether  there  is  question  of  the  existence  or  of  the 
cessation  of  a  law^  it  is  lawful  to  act  on  the  less  safe 
opinion  if  it  is  sohdly  probable,  even  though  the  safe 
view  is  certainly  more  probable.  In  recent  years  a 
system  known  as  Compensationism  has  tried  to 
reconcile  these  three  opinions  by  holding  that  not  only 
the  degree  of  probabihty  attacmng  to  various  opinions 
must  be  taken  into  account,  but  also  the  importance 
of  the  law  and  the  de^ee  of  utility  attaching  to  the 
performance  of  the  action  whose  morality  is  m  ques- 
tion. The  more  important  the  law,  and  the  smaller 
the  degree  of  probability  attaching  to  the  less  safe 
opinion,  the  greater  must  be  the  compensating  utility 
which  will  pennit  the  peiformance  of  the  action  of 
which  the  lawfulness  is  uncertain. 

From  what  has  so  far  been  said  it  is  clear  that  these 
various  moral  systems  come  into  play  only  when  the 
question  concerns  the  lawfulness  of  an  action.  If  the 
uncertainty  concerns  the  validity  of  an  action  which 
must  certainly  be  valid,  it  is  not  lawful  to  act  on  mere 
probability  unless,  indeed,  this  is  of  such  a  nature  as 
to  make  the  Chureh  certainly  supply  what  is  needed 
for  the  validity  of  the  act.  Thus,  apart  from  neces- 
sity, it  is  not  lawful  to  act  on  mere  probability  when 
the  validity  of  the  sacraments  is  in  Question.  Again, 
it  is  not  lawful  to  act  on  mere  probability  when  mere 
is  question  of  gaining  an  end  which  is  obligatory,  since 
certain  means  must  be  employed  to  gain  a  certainly 
reouired  end.  Hence,  when  eternal  salvation  is  at 
stake,  it  is  not  lawful  to  be  content  with  uncertain 
means.  Moreover,  the  virtue  of  justice  demands 
eouality,  and  as  such  excludes  the  use  of  probability 
wnen  tne  established  ri^ts  of  another  are  concerned. 
Consequently,  if  a  certain  debt  has  not  been  certainly 
paid,  at  least  a  payment  jito  rata  dvbii  is  required  ac- 
cording to  the  prevailing  view.  It  is  evident^  then, 
that  the  question  which  arises  in  connexion  with  the 
moral  S3rstems  has  to  do  solely  with  the  lawfulness  or 
unlawfulness  of  an  action. 

II.  HisTOBT  OP  pROBABiuBif. — ^Probabilism  as  a 
moral  system  had  no  history  prior  to  the  end  of  the 
sixteenth  century.  Fathers,  aoctors  and  theologians 
of  the  Church  at  times  solved  cases  on  princinlea  wbLckik 
apparently  were  probabV^l  m  ^xsdAs^^^  .   ^\*«  Vcc^ass^atir 


PR0BABZLI8M 


442 


FROBABILXSM 


tine  declared  that  marriage  with  infidels  was  not  to  be 
regarded  as  unlawful  since  it  was  not  clearly  con- 
demned in  the  New  Testament:  ''Quoniam  revera 
in  Novo  Testamento  nihil  inde  prseceptimi  est,  et 
ideo  aut  licere  creditum  est,  aut  velut  dubium  dere- 
lictum"  {**De  Fide  et  Operibus",  c.  xix.  n.  35  in 
"P.  L.",  XL,  221).  St.  Gregory  of  Nazianxus  Uiid 
down,  against  a  Novatian  writer,  that  a  second  mar- 
riage was  not  unlawful,  since  the  prohibition  was 
doubtful:  ''Quo  arg[umento  id  oonfirmas.  Aut  rem 
ita  esse  proba,  aut,  si  id  nequis,  ne  condemnes.  Quod 
si  res  dubia  est,  vincat  humanitas  et  facilitas^' 
(Or.  39,  "In  sancta  Lumina",  n.  19  in  "P.  G.", 
XXXVI,  358).  St.  Thomas  maintained  that  a  pre- 
cept does  not  bind  except  throu^  the  medium  of 
knowledge:  "Unde  nuUus  ligatur  per  prseceptum 
aliquod  nisi  mediante  scientia  illius"  ("De  Veritate'', 
Q.  xvii,  a.  3) ;  and  Probabilists  are  accustomed  to  point 
out  that  knowledge  implies  certainty.  On  the  other 
hand  many  theologians  were  Probabiliorist  in  their 
principles  before  the  sixteenth  century.  Sylvester 
Pricrias  (Opinio,  s.  2),  Conradus  (De  Contract., 
Q.  ult),  and  Cajetan  (Opinio)  were  Probabiliorists;  so 
that  Probabiliorism  had  gained  a  strong  hold  on 
thco!orians  when  Medina  arrived  on  the  scene. 
Bartholomew  Medina,  a  Dominican,  was  the  first  to 
expound  the  moral  system  which  is  known  as  Prob- 
abilism.  In  lag  "Expositio  in  l^m  2»  S.  Thoms^' 
he  taught  that,  "if  an  opinion  is  probable  it  is  lawful 
to  follow  it,  even  though  the  opposing  opinion  is  more 
probable".  His  system  soon  became  the  common 
teaching  of  the  theologians,  so  that  in  the  introduction 
to  his  "Regula  Morum"  Father  Terill,  S.  J.  (d.  1676) 
was  able  to  say  that  until  1638  Catholic  theologians  oif 
all  schools  were  Probabilists.  There  were  exceptions 
such  as  Rebellus  (d.  1608),  Comitolus  (d.  1626).  and 
Philalethis  (d.  1642),  but  the  great  body  of  the 
theologians  of  the  end  of  the  sixte^th  and  of  the  first 
half  of  the  seventeenth  century  were  on  the  side  of 
Medina.  Amongst  them  were  Sa  (d.  1596),  Toletus 
(d.  1596),  Gregorius  de  Valentia  (d.  1603),  Bfines  (d. 
1604),  Vasques  (d.  1604),  Azor  (d.  1607).  Thomas 
Sanches  (d.  1610),  Ledesma  (d.  1616),  Suarez  (d. 
1617),  Lessius  (d.  1623),  Laymann  (d.  1625),  Bon- 
acina  (d.  1631),  Castropalaus  (d.  1633),  Alvarez  (d. 
1635),  and  Ildephonsus  (d.  1639). 

With  the  rise  of  Jansenism  and  the  condemnation  of 
"  Augustinus"  a  new  phase  in  the  history  of  the  Prob- 
abilist  controversies  began.  In  1653  Innocent  X  con- 
demned the  five  propositions  taken  from  "Augusti- 
nus",  and  in  1655  the  Louvain  theologians  condemned 
Probabilism.  Tutiorism  was  adopted  by  the  Jansen- 
ists,  and  the  Irish  Jansenist  theologian,  Sinnichius  (d. 
1606),  a  professor  of  Louvain,  was  the  foremost  de- 
fender of  the  Rigorist  doctrines.  He  held  that  it  is 
not  lawful  to  follow  even  a  most  probable  opinion  in 
favour  of  liberty.  Jansenist  Rigorism  spread  into 
France,  and  Pascal  in  his  "Lettres  Provingiales"  at- 
tacked Probabilism  with  the  vigour  and  grace  of  style 
which  have  dven  his  letters  theu*  high  place  in  htera- 
ture.  The  "Lettres  Provingiales"  were  condemned 
by  Alexander  VII  in  1657,  but  Rigorism  did  not  re- 
ceive its  final  blow  till  the  year  1690,  when  Alex£fnder 
VIII  condemned  the  proposition  of  Sinnichius:  ''Non 
licet  sequi  opinionem  vel  mter  probabiles  probabilissi- 
mam". 

After  this  condemnation  a  moderate  form  of  Tutior- 
ism was  unfolded  by  theologians  like  Steyaert  (d. 
1701),  Opstraet  (d.  1720),  Henricus  a  S.  Ignatio  (d. 
1719),  and  Dens  (d.  1775).  During  this  period^  dating 
from  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  to  the  middle  of 
the  eighteenth  century,  the  following  were  amongst 
the  notable  theologians  who  remain^  true  to  Prob- 
abilism: Lugo  (d.  1660),  Lupus  (d.  1681),  Cardenas 
(d.  1684),  Deschamps  (d.  1701),  Lacroix  (d.  1714), 
Sporer  (d.  1714),  Salmanticenses  (1717-1724),  Maz- 
sotta  (d.  1748). 


Side  by  side  with  Probabilism  and  Rigorism  a 
party  held  sway  which  favoured  Laxism,  and 
which  maintained  in  theory  or  practice  that  a 
slightly  probable  opinion  in  favour  of  liberty  coulcl 
safely  be  followed.  The  principal  upholders  of  this 
view  were  Juan  Sanchez  (id.  1620),  Bauny  (d.  1649), 
Leander  (d.  1663),  Diana  (d.  1663),  Tamburini  (d. 
1675),  Caramuel  (d.  1682),  Moya  (d.  1684).  Laxism 
was  expressly  condenmed  by  Innocent  XI  in  1679: 
and  Alexander  VII  (1665-66),  and  Innocent  XI 
(1679)  condemned  various  propositions  which  savoured 
of  Laxism. 

Besides  Rigorism,  Probabilism^  and  Laxism,  there 
was  also  a  theory  of  Probabiliorism  which  held  that 
it  is  not  lawful  to  act  on  the  less  safe  opinion  unless  it 
is  more  probable  than  the  safe  opinion.  This  view, 
which  was  in  vo^e  before  the  time  of  Medina,  was 
renewed  in  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century,  as 
SR  antidote  against  Laxism.  Its  revival  was  princi- 
pally due  to  the  efforts  of  Alexander  VII  and  Innocent 
XL  In  1656  a  general  chapter  of  the  Dominicans 
urged  ail  members  of  the  order  to  adopt  Probabilior- 
ism. Though  previously  Dominican  theologians  like 
Medina,  Lraesma,  Bafiez,  Alvarez,  and  Ildephonsus 
.  were  Probabilists.  subsequently  the  Dominicans  in  the 
main  were  ProbaDiliorists.  Amonsst  them  were  Mer- 
corius  (d.  1669),  Gonet  (d.  1681),  0[>ntenson  (d.  1674), 
Fagnanus  (d.  1678),  Natalia  Alexander  (d.  1724), 
Concina  (d.  1756),  Billuart  (d.  1757),  Patuzzi  (d. 
1769) .  ProbabiUonsm  was  held  by  many  Jesuits  such 
as  Gonzalez  (d.  1705),  Elizalde  (d.  1678),  Antoine  (d. 
1743),  Ehrentreich  (d.  1708),  and  Tabema  (d.  1686). 
In  1700  the  Galilean  clergy,  under  Bossuet,  accepted 
Probabiliorism.  The  Franciscans  as  a  rule  were 
Probabiliorists.  and  in  1762  a  general  chapter  of  the 
order,  held  at  Mantua,  ordered  the  members  to  follow 
Probabiliorism.  In  1598  a  general  chapter  of  the 
Theatines  adopted  Probabiliorism.  The  Augustinians 
the  Carmelites,  the  Trinitarians,  and  many  Benedio- 
tines  were  also  Probabiliorists.  The  most  notable 
event  in  the  history  of  the  oontrover^  occurred  in 
connexion  with  Thyrsus  Gonzalez,  S.J.,  a  professor 
of  Salamanca,  who  (1670-72)  wrote  a  work^  entitled 
"Fundamentum  Theologise  Moralis'',  in  favour  of 
Probabiliorism.  In  1673  the  book  was  sent  to  the 
Jesuit  Gmieral  Oliva,  who  refused  permission  for  its 
publication.  Innocent  XI  favoured  Gonzalez,  and 
m  1680  sent,  through  the  Holy  Office,  a  decree  to 
the  General  OUva  ordering  that  liberty  be  given  to 
the  members  of  the  order  to  write  in  favour  of  Prob- 
abiliorism and  against  Probabilism.  Gonzalez  was 
elected  general  of  the  order  in  1687,  but  his  book  was 
not  published  until  1694. 

During  the  controversies  between  the  Probabilists 
and  the  ProbabiUorists,  the  system  known  as  .£qui- 
probabiUsm  was  not  clearly  brought  into  prominence. 
iEquiprobabilism  holds  that  it  is  not  lawful  to  follow 
the  less  safe  opinion  when  the  safe  opinion  is  certainly 
more  probable;  that  it  is  not  lawful  to  act  on  the  less 
safe  opinion  even  when  it  is  equally  probable  with  the 
safe  opinion,  if  the  uncertainty  regards  the  cessation 
of  a  law ;  but  that  if  the  existence  of  the  law  is  in  ques- 
tion, it  is  lawful  to  follow  the  less  safe  opinion  if  it 
has  equal  or  nearly  equal  probability  with  the  safe 
opinion.  Many  of  the  moaerate  Probabilists  of  the 
sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries  foreshadowed  in 
their  writings  the  theory  to  which,  in  his  later  davs. 
St.  Alphonsus  adhered.  Even  Suarez,  who  is  resaniea 
as  a  typical  Probabilist,  said:  ''Major  probabilitas 
est  qusedam  moralis  certitude,  si  exceesus  probahili- 
tatis  certus  est  (De  Legibus,  1.  VIII,  c.  3,  n.  19).  In 
the  be«nning  of  the  eighteenth  century  Amort  (d. 
1775),  Rassler  (d.  1730),  and  Mayr  (d.  1749),  who  are 
sometimes  classed  as  moderate  Probabilists,  m  reality 
defended  iGquiprobabilism. 

This  view  gamed  vigour  and  persistence  from  the 
teaching  of  St.  Alphonsus,  who  began  his  theologi- 


PR0BABZLI8M                          443  PR0BABILI8M 

« 

cal  career  as  a  Probabiliorist,  subsequently  defended  action  is  in  question  believes  that  the  safe  opinion  ifl 

Probabilism,  espjediJly  in  a  treatise  entitled  "Dis-  the  more  probable  opinion.    If ,  however,  he  looks  on 

sertatio  scholastico-moralis  pro  usu  moderato  opin-  the  safe  opinion  as  moraJly  certain,  he  cannot  lawfully 

ionis  probabilis  in  concursu  probabilioris"    (1749,  use  the  opinion  of  others  who  diner  from  him.    Nor 

1755),  and  finally,  about  1762,  embraced  .£quiproba-  can  a  person  on  the  same  occasion  use  opposing  prob- 

bilism.    In  a  new  dissertation  he  laid  down  the  two  abilities  in  his  favour  in  reference  to  several  ooliga- 

propositions  that  it  is  lawful  to  act  on  the  less  safe  tions  of  which  one  or  another  would  be  certainly 

opinion,  when  it  is  equally  probable  with  the  safe  violated;  thus  a  priest  cannot  lawfullv  take  meat  on 

opinion,  and  that  it  is  not  lawful  to  follow  the  less  the  probability  that  Friday  has  already  elapsed^  and 

safe  opinion  when  the  safe  opinion  is  notably  and  cer-  at  the  same  time  postpone  the  reading  of  Comphn  on 

tainly  more  probable.    In  the  sixth  edition  (1767)  of  the  probability  that  Friday  will  not  elapse  for  some 

his  **  Moral  Theology"  he  asain  expressed  these  views,  time.    Finally,  ^X)babilist8  insist  that  the  opinion  in 

and  indc^  towards  the  ena  of  his  life  frequently  de-  favour  of  liberty  must  be  based  on  solid  arguments  and 

clared  that  he  was  not  a  Probabilist.  not  on  n;Lere  flimsy  reasons  which  are  insufficient  to 

Probabilists  sometimes  hold  that  St.  Alphonsus  gain  the  assent  of  prudent  men. 

never  changed  his  opinion  once  he  had  discarded  B.  Arguments  for  Probabilism, — (1)  External  argu- 

Probabiliorism  for  Probabilism,  though  he  changed  ments:   (a)  Probabilism,  if  untrue,  is  seriously  detri- 

his  manner  of  expressing  his  view  so   as  to  ex-  mental  to  the  spiritual  life  of  the  faithful,  since  it  per- 

clude  Laxist  teacmng  and   to   give  an   indication  mits  actions  which  ought  to  be  forbidden,   and  the 

of  what  must  be  regarded  as  a  solidly  probable  Church  cannot  tolerate  or  give  approval  to  such  a 

opinion.    As  a  matter  of  fact,  as  can  be  seen  from  moral  system.    But  the  Church  diuing  many  cen- 

a  comparison  between  the  ''Moral  Theologies''  of  turies  has  tolerated  ProbabUism,  and  has  given  it 

moderate  Probabilists  and  of  uSquiprobabilists,  there  approval  in  the  person  of  St.  Alphonsus.     Hence 

is  little  practical  difference  between  the  two  sys-  Irobabilism  is  not  a  false  system  of  morals.   That  the 

tems,  so  far  at  least  as  the  uncertainty  regards  Church  has  tolerated  Probabilism  is  shown  from  the 

the  existence  as  distinguished  from  the  cessation  numerous  approved  authors,  who,  since  the  time  of 

of  a  law.    Since  the  time  of  St.  Al^onsus  the  pre-  Medina,  have  defended  it  without  interference  on  the 

vailing  moral  systems  have  been  Probabilism  and  part  of  ecclesiastical  authority.   That  the  Church  has 

iBquiprobabilism.    Probabiliorism  has  to  a  great  ex-  given  positive  ai)proval  to  Probabilism  in  the  person 

tent  disappeared,  and  even  many  Dominican  theo-  of  St.  Alphonsus  is  proved  from  the  fact  that  hia  weeks 

logians  have  espoused  the  cause  of  ^quiprobabilism.  including  his  treatises  in  favour  of  Probabilism,  re- 

During  the  nineteenth  century  the  principal  ^qui-  ceived  official  sanction  from  the  Decree  of  18  May, 

OTobabilists  have  been  Konings,  Marc,  Aertnys,  Ter  1803,  the  reply  of  the  Sacred  Penitentiary  of  5  July. 

Haar,  de  Caigny,  Gaud^,  and  Wouters.    Quite  re-  1831.  the  Bull  of  Canonization  of  26  May,  1839.  and 

cently  Ter  Haar  and  Wouters  have  been  engaged  in  the  Apostolic  Letters  of  7  July,  1871  (cf.  Lehmkuhl, 

controversy  with  Lehmkuhl  who,  especially  in  his  "Theologia  Moralis",  I.  nn.  165-75). 

"  Probabilismus  Vindicatus"  (1906)  and  in  the  elev-  iGquiprobabilists  reply  that  this  argument  proves 

enth  edition  of  hia  ''Theologia  Moralis"  (1910),  has  too  much  for  Probabilists,  since  the  Church  has  also 

strongly  supported  the  Probabilist  thesis  which  has  tolerated  iGouiprobabilism,  and  has  given  it  positive 

been  accepted  during  the  nineteenth  century  by  the  approval  in  the  person  of  St.  Alphonsus,  whose  works 

vast  majority  of  theologians.                           ^  in  favour  of  i£|quiprobabilism  received  the  sanction 

In  late  years  the  system  of  Compensationism  has  of  the  Holy  See  in  tne  official  documents  of  1803, 1831, 

arisen,  which  holds  that  a  compensating  reason,  pro-  1839,  and  1871.    If  iEquiprobabilism  is  false,  it  is 

portionate  to  the  gravity  of  the  law  and  to  the  degree  seriously  detrimental  to  the  spiritual  life  of  the  f aith- 

of  probability  in  favour  of  the  existence  of  the  law,  ful,  since  it  imposes  burdens  which  ought  not  to  be 

is  required  in  order  that  a  person  might  lawfully  act  imposed.    Hence,  if  any  argument  can  be  derived  for 

on  the  less  safe  opinion.    Tms  theory  was  proposed  by  Probabilism  from  the  toleration  or  approval  of  the 

Mannier,  Laloux,  and  Potton;  but  it  has  gained  little  Church,  a  similar  argument  can  be  denved  therefrom 

support  and  has  not  yet  become  a  rival  of  the  old  for  .£auiprobabilism. 

theories  of  Probabilism,  uSquiprobabilism,  or  even  (b)  In  interpreting  her  own  laws  the  Church  applies 

Probabiliorism.  the  principles  of  Probabilism^  since  amongst  the  rules 

III.  Pbobabiusm. — A.  Teaching  of  ProbabUisia, —  of  law  in  "Sexto  Decretahum"  we  t&bA:  "Odia 
The  central  doctrine  of  Probabilism  is  that  in  every  restrin^,  et  favores  convenit  ampliari"  (r.  15):  "In 
doubt  which  concerns  merely  the  lawfulness  or  unlaw-  obscuns  minimum  est  sequendum  "  (r.  30) ;  "  Contra 
fulness  of  an  action  it  is  permissible  to  follow  a  solidly  eum  qui  legem  dicere  potuit  apertius,  est  interpre- 
probable  opinion  in  favour  of  liberty,  even  though  the  tatio  facienda"  (r.  57);  "In  pcenis  benignior  est 
opposing  view  is  more  probable.  Probabilists  apply  interpretatio  facienda'  (r.  89).  What  is  true  of  the 
their  theory  only  when  there  is  question  merely  of  the  Church  is  equtilly  true  of  other  legislators,  because 
lawfulness  or  unlawfulness  of  an  action,  because  in  God  is  not  a  more  exacting  Legislator  than  His 
other  cases  certainty  might  be  demanded  on  various  Church,  nor  is  the  State  to  be  presumed  more  strict 
grounds,  as  happens  when  the  validity  of  the  sacra-  than  God  and  the  Church  (cf.  Tanquerey^  "Theologia 
ments,  the  attainment  of  an  obligatory  end,  and  the  Moralis  fundamentalist,  n.  413). 
established  rights  of  another  are  concerned.  They  ^Equiprobabilists  reply  to  this  argument  that  when 
apply  their  doctrine  whether  the  doubt  about  the  law-  the  less  safe  opinion  is  certainly  less  probable  than 
fulness  or  unlawfulness  of  an  action  be  a  doubt  of  law,  the  safe  opinion,  the  former  has  lost  solid  probability 
or  a  doubt  of  fact  which  can  be  reduced  to  a  doubt  of  and  consequently  cannot,  so  far  as  conscience  is  con- 
law.  Thus  if  it  is  solidly  probable  that  Friday  morning  oemed,  obtain  the  privileges  which  the  Divine  L^s- 
has  not  yet  set  in,  there  is  a  doubt  of  fact  which  can  be  lator,  the  Church,  and  the  State  concede  in  the  case 
reduced  to  a  doubt  of  law  as  to  whether  it  is  lawful  of  really  doubtful  laws.  Moreover,  many  of  these 
in  the  circumstances  to  take  meat.  They  also  apply  rules  of  law  directly  apply  to  the  external  forum 
their  doctrine  not  merely  to  human  but  also  to  Divine  and  ought  not,  without  due  limitation,  be  transferred 
and  natural  laws,  on  the  ground  that  the  Divine  legis-  to  the  forum  of  conscience. 

lator  is  not  more  exacting  than  a  human  legislator.  (2)  Internal  arauments:   (a)  a  law  which  has  not 

They  apply  their  principles  whether  the  existence  or  been  promulgated  is  not  a  law  in  the  full  and  strict 

the  cessation  of  a  law  is  concerned,  since,  in  their  esti-  sense,  and  does  not  impose  an  obligation.    But  when 

mation,  liberty  is  always  in  possession.    They  also  there  is  a  solidly  probable  opinion  in  favour  of  liberty, 

apply  their  doctrine  even  though  the  person  whose  the  law  has  not  been  sufficiently  promulgated,  since 


»ftOBABIU8M                         444  PBOBABXLMM 

there  has  not  been  the  requisite  manifestation  of  the  opinion  regarding  the  existence  of  a  law,  when  it  is 

mind  of  the  legislator.   Hence,  when  there  is  a  solidly  equally  or  almost  equally  probable  with  the  safe 

Erobable  opinion  in  favour  of  liberty,  the  law  is  not  a  opinion, 
iw  in  the  full  and  strict  sense,  and  does  not  impose  (e)  Many  Probabilists  lay  stress  on  a  practical 
any  obligation  (cf.  Lehmkuhl,  ''Theologia  Moralis",  argument  in  favour  of  their  opinion,  which  is  derived 
I,  nn.  176-8).  from  the  difficultjf  of  distinpiishing  between  various 
JBquiprobabilists  reply  that,  when  there  is  a  solidly  grades  of  Probability.  It  is  impossible  in  practice, 
probable  opinion  in  favour  of  liberty,  the  law  is  prob-  especially  for  ordinary  people,  to  tell  when  one  solidlv 
ably  not  sufficiently  promulgated,  and  the  question  probable  opinion  is  more  probable  than  another  sol- 
remains  whether  a  law  that  is  probably  not  sumciently  idly  probable  opinion.  But  a  moral  system,  to  be  of 
firomulgated  imposes  any  obligation  in  conscience,  any  serious  utility,  must  be  universal,  so  that  not 
t  would  be  begging  the  question  to  assume  that  no  merely  experts^  in  moral  science  but  also  ordinary 
obligation  is  imposed  simply  because  there  is  a  prob-  people  can  utilize  it.  Hence  the  systems  which  de- 
abihty  that  the  law  has  not  been  sufficiently  promul-  mand  a  knowledge  of  the  various  degrees  of  prob- 
gated.  Moreover,  if  the  safe  oi)inion  happens  to  be  ability  must  be  discarded  as  practically  useless,  and 
the  true  opinion,  a  material  sin  is  committed  by  the  Probabilism  alone  must  be  accepted  as  a  working  sys- 
person  who,   acting  on  probability,   performs  the  tem. 

prohibited  action.    But,  unless  the  law  is  promul-  iEquiprobabilists  reply  that  their  e^stem  merely 

gated,  a  material  sin  cannot  be  committed  by  its  asks,  that  if  after  due  investigation  it  is  found  that  the 

violation,  since  promulgation  is  a  necessary  concution  less  safe  opinion  is  notably  and  certainly  less  probable 

of  a  binoing  law  (cf.  McDonald,  "The  IMnciples  of  than  the  safe  opinion^  the  law  must  be  observed.    The 

Moral  Science'',  p.  245).  necessary  investigation  has  frequently  been  already 

(b)  An  obligation,  concerning  whose  existence  there  made  by  experts;  and  others,  who  are  not  experts,  are 
is  invincible  ignorance,  is  no  obuK&tion.  But,  so  long  safe  in  accepting  the  conclusions  to  which  the  experts 
as  there  is  a  solidly  probable  opinion  in  favour  of  lib-  adhere. 

erty,  there  is  invincible  ignorance  about  the  obligation  C.  ArgumerUa  against  Probabilism, — In  addition  to 

imposed  by  the  law.    ^nce  a  law  does  not  impose  an  some  arguments  to  be  explained  in  connexion  with  the 

obligation  so  long  as  the  less  safe  opinion  is  solidly  other  modem  moral  systems,  it  is  necessary  to  mention 

probable  (cf.  Tienmkuhl,  ''Theologia  MoraUs",  I,  n.  a  few  difficulties  wnich  have  been  urged  directly 

179).  ag^nst  Probabilism. 

^!quiprobabilists  reply  that  there  is  not  invincible  (1)  When  the  less  safe  opinion  is  notably  and  oer- 

icnorance  in  regard  to  a  law  when  the  safe  opinion  is  tunly  less  probable  than  the  safe  opinion,  there  is  no 

also  the  more  probable  opinion,  because  in  tnese  cir-  true  probability  in  favour  of  liberty,  since  the  stronger 

cumstanoee  a  person  is  Dound  by  ordinary  prudence  destroy   the   force  of  the  weaker  reasons.    Hence 

to  give  assent  to  the  safe  opinion.    Although  it  is  true  Probabilists  cannot  consistently  maintain  that  it  is 

that  an  obUgation  concerning  whose  existence  there  safe  in  practice  to  act  on  the  less  safe  opinion  which 

is  invincible  ignorance  is  no  obligation,  this  is  not  true  is  also  the  leas  probable. 

when  one  is  compelled  to  give  assent  to  an  opinion  as  Probabilists  reply  that  the  greater  probability  does 

tne  more  probable  opinion  (cf.  Wouters,  **Ue  Minus-  not  of  necessity  destroy  the  solid  probability  of  the 

probabilismo'',  p.  121).  less  probcJ:>le  opinion.    When  the  foimdations  of  the 

(c)  According  to  the  axiom:  lex  dvbia  rum  Migat.  opposing  probabilities  are  not  derived  from  the  same 
a  doubtful  law  does  not  bind.  But  a  law  is  doubtful  source,  then  at  least  the  opposing  arguments  do  not 
when  there  is  a  solidly  probable  opinion  against  it.  detract  from  one  another;  and  even  when  the  two 
Hence  it  is  lawful  to  follow  a  solidly  probable  opinion  probabilities  are  based  on  a  consideration  of  the  same 
in  favour  of  liberty  (cf.  Tanquerey,  "Theologia  argument,  one  opinion  will  retain  probability  in  so  far 
Fundamentalist^  n.  409).  as  the  opposing  opinion  recedes  from  certainty. 

JEquiprobiJ^ilists  in  reply  say  that  the  axiom  lex  (2)  A  moral  system,  to  be  of  a^y  use,  must  Se  cer- 

dvbia  rum  obligcU  holds  when  the  law  is  strictly  doubt-  tain,  since  an  uncertain  reflex  principle  cannot  give 

ful,  i.  e.  when  the  reasons  for  and  against  the  law  are  practical  certainty.    But  Probskbilism  is  not  certain, 

e^ual  or  nearly  equal.    A  fortiori  the  law  does  not  because  it  b  rejected  by  all  those  theolo^ans  who  up- 

bmd  when  the  safe  opinion  is  more  probable  than  the  held  one  or  another  of  the  opposing  views.    Hence 

less  safe  opinion.    It  would,  however,  be  begging  the  Probabilism  cannot  be  accepted  as  a  satisfactory  solu- 

queetion  to  assume  that  the  axiom  holds  when  the  less  tion  of  the  question  at  issue. 

safe  opinion  is  clearly  less  probable  than  the  safe  Probabilists  reply  that  their  system  can  be  of  no  use 

opinion.  to  those  who  do  not  look  on  it  as  certainly  true;  but 

(d)  According  to  .£<^uiprobabilists,  it  is  lawful  to  the  fact  that  many  theologians  do  not  accept  it  does 
follow  the  less  ^e  opimon,  when  it  is  more  probable  not  prevent  its  adherents  from  regarding  it  as  cer- 
than  the  safe  opinion.  But  they  must  admit  that  tain,  since  these  can  and  do  believe  that  the  arguments 
Probabilism  is  more  probable  than  JEquiprobabilism,  urged  in  its  favour  are  insuperable. 

since  the  vast  majority  of  theologians  favour  the  (3)  Probabilism  is  an  easy  road  to  Laxism,  because 

milder  view,  and  i^quiprobabilists  do  not  reject  ex-  people  are  often  inclined  to  regard  opinions  as  really 

temal  authority.    Hence  on  their  own  principles  they  probable  which  are  based  on  flimsy  arguments,  and 

ou^t  to  admit  the  practical  truth  of  Probaoilism.  because  it  is  not  difficult  to  find  five  or  sax  serious 

£quiprobabilists  reply  that  extrinsic  authority  is  of  authors  who  approve  of  opinions  which  right-minded 

no  avail  when  the  arguments  on  which  the  authority  men  consider  lax.    The^  only  sure  way  to  safeguard 

rests  have  been  proved  to  be  invalid;  and  they  claim  Catholic  morals  is  to  reject  the  opinion  which  opens 

that  they  have  proved  the  invalidity  of  the  Probabilist  the  way  to  Laxism. 

arguments.    Moreover,  a  reflex  principle  is  useless  un-  Probabilists  reply  that  their  system  must  be  pru- 

lees  its  truth  is  provea  with  certainty^  since  its  sole  dentlyemployed,  and  that  no  serious  dan^  of  Laxism 

utility  is  to  change  speculative  uncertamty  into  prac-  arises  if  it  is  recognized  that  an  opinion  is  not  solidly 

tical  certainty,    cut  greater  probability  does  not  give  probable  unless  there  are  arguments  in  its  favour 

certainty.    According,    even   if    .^quiprobabilists  which  are  sufficient  to  sain  the  assent  of  many  prudent 

were  to  admit  the  greater  probability  of  Probabilism,  men.    As  for  the  authority  of  approved  authors,  it 

that  admission  would  be  useless  for  Probabilists.    The  must  be  remembered  that  nve  or  six  grave  authors  do 

case  b  different  with  ^uiprobabilism.  which  has  not  give  solid  probability  to  an  opinion  unless  they 

practical  certainty,  since  nearly  all  theologians  now-  are  notable  for  learning  and  prudence,  and  indepen- 

adays  admit  the  lawfulness  of  following  the  less  safe  dently  adhere  to  an  opinion  which  has  not  been  set 


PB0BABXU8M           445  PB0BABIU8M 

fuside  by  authoritative  decisioxu  or  by  unanswered  [ThsrrBUs]  shaU  freely  and  fearlessly  preach,  teacll,  and 

arKuments.  defend  with  his  pen  the  more  probable  opinion,  and 

IV.  Moral  Systems  Opposed  to  Probabilism. —  also  manfully  attack  the  opinion  of  those  who  assert 

A.  JSquiprobabilism, — ^This  system  can  be  expressed  that  in  a  conflict  of  a  less  probable  opinion  with  a 

in  the  three  following  propositions:  more  probable,  known  and  estimated  as  such,  it  is 

(1)  The  opinions  for  and  against  the  existence  of  a  allowed  to  follow  the  less  probable;  and  to  inform 
law  having  equal  or  nearly  equal  probabilitiesi  it  is  him  that  whatever  he  does  and  writes  on  behalf  of  the 
permissible  to  act  on  the  less  safe  opinion.  more  probable  opinion  will  be  pleasing  to  His  Holi- 

(2)  Tlie  opinions  for  and  against  the  cessation  of  a  ness. 

law  having  equal  or  nearlv  equal  probabilities,  it  is  "Let  it  be  enjoined  upon  the  Father  General  of  the 

not  permissible  to  act  on  the  less  safe  opinion.  ,  Society  of  Jesus,  as  by  order  [de  ordine]  of  His  Holi- 

(3;  Tlie  safe  opinion  being  certainly  more  probable  ness,  not  only  to  permit  the  Fathers  of  the  Society  to 

than  the  less  safe  opinion,  it  is  unlawful  to  follow  the  write  in  favour  of  the  more  probable  opinion  and  to 

less  safe  opinion.  attack  the  opinion  of  those  who  assert  that  in  a  con- 

Witih  the  first  of  these  propositions  Probabilists  flict  of  a  less  probable  opinion  with  a  more  probable, 

agree;  but  thev  denv  the  truth  of  the  second  and  third  known  and  estimated  as  such,  it  is  allowed  to  follow 

propositions  (cf.  Marc,  " Institutiones  Morales'',  I,  the  less  probablej  but  also  to  write  to  all  the  Univer- 

nn.  91-103).  sities  of  the  Society  [informing  them]  that  it  is  the 

Arguments  for  iEquiprobabilism:  ^1)  In  proof  of  mind  of  His  Holiness  that  whosoever  chooses  may 

their  first  proposition  ^Equiprobabilists  quote  the  freely  write  in  favour  of  the  more  probable  opinion, 

axiom:  lex  dubia  nan  obligat.    When  the  opposing  and  may  attack  the  aforesaid  contnuy  [opinion];  and 

probabilities  are  e^ual  or  nearly  eaual,  the  law  is  to  order  them  to  submit  entirely  to  the  command  of 

doubtful  in  the  strict  sense,  and  a  aoubtful  law  im-  His  Holiness''. 

poses  no  obligation  in  conscience.    They  also  apply  i£quiprobabiliBts  say  that  in  this  Decree  there  is  a 

the  rule:  in  dvbio  mdior  est  conditio  possidentis,  clear  expression  of  the  mind  of  Innocent  XI  about  the 

When  the  doubt  regards  the  existence,  as  distinguished  morality  of  teaclung  that  it  is  permissible  to  act  on 

from  the  cessation  of  a  law,  liberty  is  in  possession,  the  less  safe  opinion  when  the  safe  opinion  is  cer- 

and  accordinglv  the  op>inion  which  favours  liberty  tainl3r  more  probable.    The  pope  disapproves  of  this 

can  be  followed  in  practice.  teaching,  commends  Father  Gonzalez  for  his  opposi- 

(2)  In  proof  of  their  second  proposition,  i£qui-  tion  to  it,  and  orders  the  General  of  the  Jesmts  to 
probabilists  quote  the  same  axiom:  in  dvJbio  mdior  est  allow  full  liberty  so  that  anyone  who  pleases  may 
conditio  possidentis.    When  the  doubt  concerns  the  write  against  it. 

cessation  of  a  law,  the  law  is  in  possession,  and  there-  lSt>babilists  replv  that,  though  Innocent  XI  was 

fore  the  law  must  be  observed  until  it  is  displaced  by  opposed  to  Probabifism,  his  officii  Decree  merely  com- 

a  stronger  probability  in  favour  of  libertv.  manded  that  liberty  of  teaching  be  allowed  to  the 

Probabilists  reply  to  this  argument  that  liberty  is  members  of  the  order.    Moreover,  they  point  out  that 

always  in  possession,  since  law  and  obHgation  pre-  Gonzalez  was  not  an  ifiquiprobabifist,  but  a  Frob- 

suppose  liberty  in  the  subject.  abiliorist  of  a  strict  type  whom  St.  Alphonsus  re- 

(3)  In  proof  of  their  third  proposition  .Squiprob-  garded  as  an  extremist. 

abilists  put  forward  various  arguments,  of  whicn  the  B.  ProbabUiorism. — ^According  to  the  teaching  of 

following  are  the  most  forcible:  Probabiliorists,  it  is  unlawful  to  act  on  the  less  safe 

(a)  A  perison  is  bound  seriously  to  endeavour  to  opinion  unless  it  is  also  the  more  probable  omnion. 
bring  his  actions  into  harmonv  with  objective  moral-  In  addition  to  an  argument  derivecf  from  the  becree 
ity .  But  a  person  who  follows  the  less  probable  of  Innocent  XI,  the  principal  arguments  for  Probabil- 
opinion  in  favour  of  liberty  fails  to  observe  this  dictate  iorism  are  the  following: 

ot  prudence,  and  consequently  acts  unlawfully  (cf.  (1)  It  is  not  lawful  to  follow  the  less  safe  opinion, 

Wouters.  "I>e  Minusprobabilismo",  p.  71).  unless  it  is  truly  and  expeditely  probable,    cut  an 

Probabilists  reply  that  this  ar^^ument,  if  carried  to  opinion  ^diich  is  opposed  oy  a  more  probable  opinion 

its  logical  conclusion,  would  end  m  Rigorism,  because  is  not  truly  and  expeditely  probable,  since  its  argu- 

the  only  way  efficiently  to  bring  our  actions  into  per-  ments  are  annulled  by  more  potent  opposing  argu- 

feet  harmony  with  objective  morality  is  to  follow  the  ments  and  cannot  in  consequence  gain  tne  assent  of  a 

safe  opinion,  s6  long  as  the  less  safe  opinion  has  not  prudent  man.    Hence  it  is  not  lamul  for  a  person  to 

acquired  moral  certainty.    This  is  the  only  way  of  follow  the  less  safe  opinion  when  he  r^ards  the  safe 

preventing  all  serious  danger  of  committing  material  opinion  as  more  probable. 

sin,  and  consequently  is  Qie  only  way  of  observing  As  has  already  been  explained  in  connexion  with 

perfect  harmony  with  objective  morality.   Since,  how-  ProbabiUsm,  Probabilists  maintain  that  the  less  safe 

ever.  Rigorism  is  universally  condemned,  the  argu-  opinion  does  not  necessarily  lose  its  solid  probability 

ment  must  be  r^ected,  and  the  principles  of  ProSa-  because  of  more  probable  opposins  arguments.    This 

bilism  must  be  adopted  which  hold  that  it  is  sufficient  bein^;  so,  the  law  is  not  certain,  ana  consequently  does 

to  observe  harmony  with  objective  morality  in  so  far  not  imjMMe  an  obligation  in  regard  to  action,  even 

as  this  is  known  with  moral  certainty  (cf .  Lehmkuhl,  though  in  regard  to  speculative  assent  it  is  ri^tly 

''Theologia  Moralis",  I,  n.  191).  looked  on  as  more  probable. 

(b)  On  26  June,  1680,  the  Holy  Office,  under  the  (2)  As  in  speculative  doubt  we  are  bound  to  give 
presidency  of  Innocent  Al,  issued,  in  connexion  with  assent  to  the  view  wluch  is  more  likely  to  exclude 
the  teachmg  of  Thyrsus  Gonzalez,  S.J.,  a  Decree  of  error,  so  in  practical  doubt  about  lawfulness  we  are 
which  the  authentic  text  was  published  19  April.  1902,  bound  to  adopt  the  opinion  which  is  more  likely  to 
by  the  Secretary  of  the  Hol^  Office.  So  much  con-  exclude  the  danger  of  material  sin.  But  the  more 
troversy  has  recently  arisen  in, regard  to  the  value  of  probable  opinion  is  the  more  likely  to  exclude  this 
this  decree,  that  it  is  opportune  to  quote  the  whole  danger.  Consequently  in  practical  doubt  we  are 
text:  "A  report  having  been  made  by  Father  Laurea  boimd  to  adopt  the  Probabihorist  view.  Probabilists 
of  the  contents  of  a  letter  directed  by  Father  Thyrsus  reply  that  this  argument  leads  to  Tutiorism  rather 
Cronzalez,  S.J.,  to  Our  Most  Holy  Lord;  the  Most  than  to  ProbabiUorism,  because  ^he  only  efficacious 
Eminent  Lords  said  that  the  Secretary  of  State  must  way  of  excluding  reasonable  daneer  of  material  sin 
write  to  the  Apostolic  Nuncio  of  the  Spains  [directing  is  to  act  on  the  safe  opinion  so  long  as  the  less  safe 
himj  to  signif^  to  the  said  Father  Thyrsus  that  His  opinion  is  not  morally  certain.  Moreover,  Ptobt^U- 
Hohness,  having  received  his  letter  favourably,  and  iorism  would  impose  an  intolerable  burden  on  the  con- 
having  read  it  with  approval,  has  commanded  tiiat  he  sciences  of  timorous  minds,  since  it  would  demand  an 


PBOBATIC 


446 


PBOCB88ION8 


investigation  into  the  various  degrees  of  probability, 
BO  as  to  enable  a  person  definitely  to  say  that  one 
opinion  is  more  probable  than  another.  In  view  of  the 
great  diversity  of  opinion,  which  exists  on  many  moral 


paigns  against  the  Burgundians  and  Vandals.  In  the 
meantime  his  generals  had  overcome  the  Franks  on 
the  lower  Rhine.  The  next  ^ear  the  emperor  went  to 
Asia  Minor  where  he  punished  the  Isaurians  and 


subjects,  this  definite  judgment  is  practically  impos-  gained  their  fortified  castle  Cremna  in  Pisidia.  Hib 
sible,  especially  in  the  case  of  the  vast  majority  of  legions  advanced  as  far  as  Svria  and  Esypt.  Probus 
men  who  are  not  experts  in  moral  science.  settled  foreign  colonists  in  all  the  bouncfiiy  provinces. 
C.  Campensalionism. — ^This  maintains  that  a  doubt-  In  this  way,  he  brousht  about  that  the  outlying  prov- 
ful  law  is  not  devoid  of  all  binding  force,  and  that  inces  were  peacefully  settled  by  German  tribes, 
there  must  be  a  compensating  reason,  proportionate  to  During  his  long  absence  in  Asia  Mmor  rival  emperors 
the  probability  and  gravity  of  the  law,  to  justify  the  were  proclaimed  in  various  provinces;  e.  g.  Satumi- 
perf ormance  of  the  action  which  is  probably  forbidden,  nus  at  Alexandria,  Proclus  at  Lyons,  who  controlled 
This  teaching  is  based  on  an  analogy  with  an  act  Gaul  and  Spain,  and  had  a  successor  at  Cologne  named 
which  has  two  effects,  one  good  and  the  other  bad.  It  Bonosus.  All  these  rivals  were  vanquished  by  the 
is  not  lawful  to  perform  such  an  act  unless  there  is  a  imperial  troops.  Probus  celebrated  triumphs  at 
justifying  cause  proportionate  to  the  evil.  In  the  Rome  over  his  enemies  and  even  hoped  to  attain  to 
case  of  a  doubtful  law  the  bad  effect  is  the  danger  of  an  era  of  peace  and  plenty.  In  times  of  peace  he 
material  sin,  and  the  good  effect  is  the  benefit,  which  employed  the  soldiers  in  constructing  pubhc  works, 
arises  from  the  performance  of  the  action  which  is  building  temples  and  bridges,  regulation  of  rivers,  dig- 
probably  forbidden.  Hence  in  this  as  in  the  former  ging  canals  to  drain  marsnes,  and  planting  vineyards, 
case,  a  compensating  cause,  proportionate  to  the  especially  in  Gaul,  Pannonia,  and  Moesia.  By  forcing 
probable  evil,  is  reqmred  to  justify  the  performance  the  soldiers,  who  no  longer  had  any  interest  in  the 


of  the  action. 

Probabilists  replsr  that  this  moral  system  leads  to 
Tutiorism,  because  it  implies  that  if  no  compensating 


prosperity  of  the  citizens,  to  do  this  work,  Probus 
roused  them  to  revolt;  in  Rhsetia  the  prefect  of  the 
guard,  Marcus  Aurelius  Cams,  was  proclaimed  em- 


benefit  exists,  it  is  not  lawful  to  perform  an  action  so  peror.  The  troops  sent  against  him  by  Probus  joined 
long  as  it  certainly  is  not  forbidden.  Again,  Probabil-  the  rebels,  and  the  emperor  himself  was  killed  near 
ists  say  that  the  preservation  of  liberty  is  of  itself  a    his  birthplace. 


sufiicient  compensating  reason  when  there  is  question 
of  a  law  which  is  not  certain.  Finally,  Probabilists 
are  prepared  to  admit  that,  as  a  ]X)int  of  expediency 
though  not  of  obligation,  it  is  advisable  to  look  for  a 
compensating  cause  over  and  above  the  preservation 
of  liberty  when  a  confessor  is  directing  penitents  in 
the  use  of  probable  opinions.  If  no  such  compensating 
reason  exists,  the  penitent  can  be  advised,  though  not 
.under  pain  of  sin,  to  abstain  from  the  performance  of 
the  action  which  is  probably  forbidden. 

McDonald,  The  PrincipUt  of  Moral  Science  (Dublin,  1910); 
Bbrthb-Cabtlb,  Life  of  St.  Alphoneut  de  lAguori  (Dublin,  1005) ; 
Slatbb.  a  Short  Hiatory  of  Moral  ThetOogy  (New  York.  1909); 
RicKABT.  Moral  PhUoaovhy  (London,  1892) ;  Lba,  A  Hietory  of 
Auricular  Corvftesion  (Philadelphia.  1896);  db  Caiont,  Apolo- 
getica  de  JSquiprobahiliamo  Alphontiano  (Toumai.  1894) ;  Arbndt, 
Apologetica  de  JSquiprobabiliemo  Alr^umnano  hiatorico^hiloeo- 
phica  Dieeertationie  a  R,  P.  J.  de  Caigny,  C.  SS.  R,  exarata 
Crina  juxta  Principia  Angelici  Doctorie  (Freiburg.  1897);  Bal- 
LEBiNi,  Vindicia  Alphoneianm  (Rome,  1873);  GAUni.  De  Morali 
Syetemaie  3.  Alphonei  Maria  De  Lioorio  (Rome,  1894);  Teb 
Haab,  De  SyeUtnate  Morali  Antiquorum  ProMnlietarum  (Pader- 
bom.  1894);  Idbm,  Ven.  InnocerUii  P.  P.  XI  de  Probahiliemo 
Decreti  Hietoria  et  Vindicia  (Rome.  1904) ;  Woutbbs.  De  Minue- 
probabHietno  (Amsterdam,  1908) ;  Lebmkuhl,  Probabiliemue  Vin- 
dieatue  (Freiburg,  1906);  Idem.  Theohffia  Moralia  (Freiburg, 
1910);  DiNNBEN.  De  Probabiliemo  Dieaertalio  (Dublin.  1898); 
Tanquebbt.  Theoloffia  Moralie  FurtdamerUalie  (Toumai,  1905); 
St.  Alphonbus  Liquori.  Theologia  Moralie  (Rome,  1905) ;  Potton, 
De  Theoria  Probabilitatia  (Paris,  1874);  Laloux,  De  Adibua 
Humanie  (Paris,  1862) ;  Mobris,  Probability  and  Faith  in  The 
Dublin  Review,  CXI  (London.  1892).  365-94;  Tablbtok.  Prob- 
abiliem  in  The  Month  (London,  May.  1883).  43;  Jones.  What  it 
Probabiliemr  in  The  Month  (London,  January,  1868),  75;  see  also 
the  ordinary  treatises  on  moral  theology  and  moral  philosophy. 

J.  M.  Harty. 

ProbatiQ  Pool.    See  Bethsaida. 

ProbUBi  Marcus  Aursuus,  Roman  Emperor,  276- 
82,  raised  to  the  throne  bv  the  army  in  Syria  to  suc- 
ceed Tacitus.  Of  humble  origin,  he  was  bom  at 
Sirmium  in  Illyria;  by  courage  and  ability  he  won  the 
confidence  of  the  soldiers,  and  during  the  reign  of 
Marcus  Aurelius  he  subdued  Palmyra  and  Egypt. 
As  emperor,  he  ordained  that  the  imperial  edicts  must 
be  ratified  bv  the  senate,  and  he  returned  to  the  senate 
the  right  of  appointing  the  governors  of  the  former 
senatorial  provmces.  His  reign  was  passed  in  wars 
with  the  Germans.  He  personally  drove  the  Ala- 
manni  across  the  Rhine  and  forced  them  as  far  as  the 
fortifications,  extending  from  Ratisbon  to  Mainz. 
He  made  nine  German  kings  tributary  to  Rome,  and 
distributed  sixteen  thousand  German  warriors  among 
the  Roman  legions.  In  278  the  emperor  re-estab- 
lished peace  in  Rhsetia,  Illyria,  and  Moesia  by  cam- 


MoMMSEN,  Rthn,  Oetch.,  V  (Berlin.  1885);  Scrillbb,  Geeek,  der 
r6m.  Kaieerzeit,  II  (Ootha,  1887);  ton  Doicasxbwsu,  OsscA.  der 
rOm.  Kaieer  (2  vols.,  Leipsig,  1900). 

Karl  H<ebeb. 

Procedurei  Canonical.  See  Cottbts,  Ecclesi- 
astical. 

Proceuional,  Roman. — Strictly  speaking  it  might 
be  said  that  the  Processional  has  no  recognised  place 
in  the  Roman  series  of  liturgical  books.  As  the  full 
title  of  the  work  so  designated  shows,  the  book  con- 
sists of  a  single  section  of  the  Roman  Ritual  (titulus 
ix)  with  sundry  supplementary  materials  taken  from 
the  Missal  and  the  Pontifical.  What  we  read  on  the 
title-page  of  the  authentic  edition  runs  as  follows: 
"Processionale  Romanum  sive  Ordo  Sacrarum  Pro- 
cessionum  ex  Rituali  Romano  depromptus  additis 
Quae  similia  in  Missali  et  Pontificali  habentur". 
Seeing,  however,  that  the  Ritual  does  not  always 
print  in  full  the  text  of  the  hymns,  litany,  and  other 
prayers  which  it  indicates,  it  is  convenient  to  have 
these  set  out  at  length  with  the  music  belonf^g  to 
them.  Processionals  appropriated  to  the  special  uses 
of  various  local  churches,  e.  g.  ''Processionafe  ad  usum 
Sarum",  are  of  fairly  common  occurrence  among  the 
later  medieval  manuscripts.  At  the  close  of  the 
fifteenth  century  and  in  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth 
we  have  a  good  many  printed  processionals  belonging 
to  different  churches  of  France.  England,  and  Germany. 

Zaccaria,  Bibliotheca  ritualie,  I  (Rome.  1776),  150. 

Herbert  Thxtbston. 

Proceuion  of  the   Holy   Ohost.    See   Holt 

Ghost. 

ProcosBionB,  an  element  in  all  ceremonial,  are  to 
be  found,  as  we  should  expect,  in  almost  every  form 
of  relieious  worship.  The  example  of  the  processions 
with  the  Ark  in  the  Old  Testament  (cf.  espec.,  II 
Kings,  vi,  and  III  Kings,  viii)  and  the  triumphant 
entry  of  our  Saviour  into  Jerusalem  in  the  New  were 

{)robably  not  without  influence  upon  the  ritual  of 
ater  ages.  Even  before  the  a^p  ot  Constantine.  the 
funeral  processions  of  the  Christians  seem  to  have  been 
carried  out  with  a  certain  amount  of  solemnity^  and 
the  use  of  the  word  by  TertuUian  (De  Prsescnptio. 
xliii)  may  possibly  have  reference  to  some  formal 
progress  or  movement  of  the  faithful  churchwards, 
which  led  afterwards  to  the  assembly  itself  or  the 
service  beins  called  processio  as  well  as  synaxia  and 
coUeda  (Ftobst,  "Sakramentarien  und  Ord.",  205)* 


PR0C18SI0NS  4 

About  the  time  of  St.  Gregory  the  Great,  &nd  possibly 
earlier,  two  forms  ofprocession  played  a  great  part  in 
papal  ceremonial.    Ijie  one  waa  the  proeeamon  to  the 

Nation",  the  other  the  Holemn  entrv  of  the  celebrant 
from  the  Beerttarium,  or  sacriety,  to  the  altar.  A  good 
description  of  the  stational  procesaion  is  ^ven  in  the 
8t.  Amand  Ordo,  n.  6  (Ducheene,  "Chnatiao  Wor- 
ship", 474).  The  pontiff,  the  clergy,  and  the  people 
BBaembled  io  the  appointed  church,  where  the  clergy 
vested  and  the  office  was  begun.  The  poor  people  of 
the  hospital  went  first  with  a  painted  w< 
•L jj  Btatiooary  — "~  "-'*■ 


i,  with  three  candles  each 
....  ,1  then  the  biahops,  priest^ 

and  BubdeacoDs;  finally  came  the  pope  Burrounded 
by  his  deacons,  with  two  crosses  borne  before  him  and 
the  tchola  cantorum  or  choir  following  behind  hitn.  . 
As  the  procession  moved  alons  to  the  stational  church 
where  Mass  was  to  be  offered  the  Kyiie  £lei»on  and 
the  litanies  were  sung,  from  which  the  proceaaon  itself 
was  often  called  iUania.  The  solemn  entrance  of  the 
celebrant  as  he  proceeded  from  the  sacristy  to  the 
altar  was  of  course  a  procession  on  a  smaller  scale,  but 
this  also  is  minutely  described  in  the  first  "Ordo". 
The  pontiff  was  again  surrounded  by  his  deacons  and 
preceded  by  the  subdeacons,  one  of  whom  swung  a 
thurible,  and  a  conspicuous  feature  was  the  group  of 
aevea  acolytes  carrying  tapers,  which  make  us  think  of 
the  seven  candles  now  lighted  on  the  altar  at  a  pon- 
tificat  High  Mass.  In  this  procession  to  the  altar  the 
antiphon  of  the  introit  was  auns.  On  certain  special 
occasions,  notably  St.  Mark's  Day  (25  April),  which 
coincided  with  the  old  Roman  festival  of  the  Ao&t^io, 
and  in  Gaul  on  the  three  Rogation  Days  before  the 
feast  of  the  Ascenuon,  there  were  processions  of  ex- 
ceptional solenmity  (see  LrrANr). 

Although  not  now  formally  recognized  as  a  pro- 
ceauon  in  the  liturgical  books,  we  may  say  that  the 
■prinklii^  of  the  congregation  with  holy  water  at  the 
b^tnning  of  the  parochial  Mass  on  Sundays  preserves 
for  us  the  memory  of  the  most  famihar  procession  of 
the  early  Middle  Ages.  The  rite  ia  prescribed  in  the 
Capituloriea  of  Chorlemwne  and  Of  Louis  the  Pious, 
as  well  as  in  other  ninth-century  documenta.  For 
example  a  Council  of  Nantes  before  the  year  900  en- 
joina  that  "every  Sunday  before  Mass,  each  priest  is 
to  bless  water  in  a  vessel  which  is  clean  and  suitable 
for  so  

the  round  of  the  vard  [atrium]  of  the  said  church  with 
the  Iprocesflional]  crosses,  aprinkling  it  with  the  holy 
water,  and  let  him  pray  for  the  aoula  of  them  that  rest 
therein"  (Mansi,  '^'Concilia",  XVIII,  173).  In  the 
monastic  ceremonials  of  the  same  period  this  holy 
water  procession  on  the  Sunday  morning  was  usually 
described  in  much  detail.  After  the  sprinkling  of  the 
high  altar  and  of  the  other  altars  of  the  church  in  order. 
the  whole  body  of  the  monks,  aft«r  being  sprinkled 
thenwelves,  went  in  procesaion  through  tbe  cloister, 
making  stations  there,  while  the  celebrant  assisted  by 
two  lay  brothers  blessed  the  different  portions  of  the 
monasteiy  (see  Martine,  "De  antio.  eccles.  rit.", 
IV,  46-^).  At  the  present  day  the  Roman  Missal, 
which  is  the  primary  litiusical  authority  for  this 
"Blessing  of  the  people  mtb  holy  water  to  be  im- 
parted on  Sundays  (Benedictio  popiUi  cum  a<]ua 
Denedicta  diebus  dommicis  import  ienda),  saya  nothing 
about  a  proceemon,  thouzh  some  auch  procress  of  the 
celcl>rant  and  assistant  clerks  around  the  church  very 
commonly  takes  place.  The  rubric  only  directs  that 
the  l>rieet  havii^  intoned  the  antiphon  "Asperges 
me"  is  to  aprinkle  the  altar  and  then  himself  and  his 
assistants.  After  which  he  is  to  sprinkle  the  clergy 
And  the  people,  while  he  recites  the  Miaerere  with  his 
assistants  in  a  low  voice.  The  other  ordinary  pro- 
cessions, as  opposed  to  the  extraordinary  processions, 
which  thebishop  may  enjoin  or  permit  as  circumstances 
may  call  for  such  a  form  of  pubhc  supplication,  are 


17  PROCEaSIONB 

specified  in  the  Roman  Ritual  to  be  the  ProcesHon  of 
Candles  on  the  Purification  of  our  I>ady  (2  February), 
that  of  Palms  or  Palm'  Sunday,  the  greater  litanies 
on  the  feast  of  St.  Mark  (25  Apnl),  the  Rogation  pro- 
cessions on  the. three  days  before  the  Ascension,  and 
the  procession  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament  on  the  feast 
of  Corpus  Christi.  The  prescriptions  to  be  observed 
on  al!  these  occasions  are  duly  set  down  in  the  Roman 
Ritual.  For  their  hiato^  etc.,  see  Candlkhas; 
Corpus  Christi;  Holi  Week;  LiTAffv,  etc.  We 
might  also  add  to  these  "ordinary"  processions  the 
carrying  of  the  Ble^ed  Sacrament-  to  the  altar  of 


Boktgnk.  XVII  CuituT7 

repose  on  Maundy  Thursday  and  the  return  on 
Good  Friday,  as  well  as  the  visit  to  the  font  on  Holy 
Saturday  and  the  procession  which  forms  port  of  the 
rite  of  the  consecration  of  the  holy  oils  in  cathedral 
churches  on  Maundy  Thursday.  This  latter  function 
ia  described  in  full  in  the  Roman  Pontifical.  In  earlier 
limes  a  scries  of  processions  were  usually  made  to  the 
font  after  Vespers  upon  every  day  of^  Eaater  week 
(Morin  in  "Rev.  benedict.",  VI,  150).  Traces  of 
this  rite  hngered  on  in  many  local  churches  down  to 
the  eighteenth  and  nineteenth  centuries,  but  it  finds 
no  official  recognition  in  the  Roman  service  books. 

Under  the  heading  of  "extraordinary"  processions 
the  Roman  Ritual  makes  provision  for  the  following 
emergencies:  a  procesaion  to  ask  for  rain,  another 
to  beg  for  fine  weather,  a  third  to  drive  away  storms, 
three  others  assigned  respectively  to  seasons  of  fam- 
ine, plague,  and  war,  one  more  general  on  occasion  of 
any  calamity  (pro  guacuTiipie  Inbuiatione),  one  rather 
tengtiiy  form  (in  which  a  number  of  the  Jubilate  and 
Laudate  psalms  are  indicated  for  recitation)  by  way 
of  solemn  thanksgiving,  and  finally  a  form  for  the 
translation  of  important  relics  (reit^iaruminsiffnium). 
In  the  majority  of  these  extraordinary  processions  it 
ia  directed  that  the  Litany  of  the  Saints  be  chanted 
as  in  the  Rogation  proceBsiotis,  a  supplication  special 
to  the  occasion  being  usually  added  and  repeatai,  for 
example  in  the  procession    to  ask  for  rain  '  the  peti- 


PBOCS88ION8 


448 


PBOcsssioira 


tion  18  inserted:  "Ut  congruentem  pluviam  fidelibus  paiish  possesses  a  cross  of  its  own  and  that  behind 
tuis  concedere  digneris.  Te  fc^inus  audi  nos".  In  this,  as  a  sort  of  standard,  the  parishioners  are  mar- 
the  medievaJ  rituals  and  processionals  a  large  variety  of  shaUed  when  they  take  part  in  some  general  pro- 
such  exceptional  forms  may  be  found,  connected  espe-  cession.  It  is  usual  also  for  cathedral  chapters  and 
cially  witn  suppUcations  for  the  produce  of  the  earth,  similar  collegiate  bodies  to  possess  a  processional 
A  common  feature  in  manj^  of  these  was  to  make  a  cross  which  precedes  them  in  their  corporate  capacity; 
station  towards  the  four  pomts  of  the  compass  and  to  and  the  same  is  true  of  religious,  for  whom  usage  pre- 
read  at  each  the  beginning  of  one  of  the  four  Gospels  scribes  that  in  case  of  the  monastic  orders  the  sta£f 
with  other  prayers.  The  practice  of  canying  the  of  the  cross  should  be  of  silver  or  metal,  but  for  the 
Blessed  Sacrament  upon  such  occasions  is  frequently  mendicant  orders,  of  wood.  In  the  case  of  these 
condemned  in  medieval  synods.  In  England  the  crosses  of  religious  orders,  confraternities,  etc.  it  is 
perambulation  of  the  parishes  on  the  "Gang  days",  usual  in  Italv  to  attach  streamers  to  a  sort  of  pent- 
as  the  Rogation  days  were  called,  lasted  far  into  the  house  over  the  crucifix^  or  to  the  knob  underneath 


seventeenth  century.  Aubrey, 
for  example,  declares  in  a  pen- 
cil note  to  his  ''Remaines": 
"On  Rogation  Days  the  Gos- 

Sells  were  read  in  the  cornfields 
ere  in  England  untill  the 
CiviU  wars"  (Hazlitt,  "Faiths 
and  Folklore  ".  II,  478) .  The 
custom  of  making  these  pro- 
cessions was  kept  up  seem- 
ingly with  a  view  to  its  utility 
in  impressing  upon  the  memory 
the  Doundanes  of  the  parish, 
and  in  some  places  boys  were 
flogged  at  the  boundaries  that 
they  might  remember  the  spot 
in  old  age.  In  the  Greek  and 
some  other  Oriental  liturgies 
the  two  processions  known  as 
the  great  and  little  entrances 
form  a  very  imposing  feature 
of  the  rite.  At  the  "little  en- 
trance" the  Book  of  the  Gos- 
pels is  carried  in  by  the  dea- 
con accompanied  by  a^ohrtes 
bearing  torehes  and  two  fans. 
The  "great  entrance"  takes 
place  when  the  holy  (pfts,  i.  e. 
the  bread  and  wme,  are 
solemnly  brought  to  the  altar 
while  the  choir  sing  the  famous 
"cherubic  hymn'\  Similar 
features  seem  to  have  existed 
in  the  early  Gallican  Liturgy; 
even  in  the  Roman  high  Mass 
the  procession  which  heralds 
the  sin^g  of  the  Gospel  is  probably  the  survival  of 
a  more  imposing  ceremony  ot  earlier  date. 

MABTtNB,  De  arUiquia  eecletia  ritibiu  (Venice.  1788).  Ill, 
177;  IV.  45  sq.,  280  sq.;  Catalani.  Comtnentariiu  in  RituaU 
Romanum  (Rome,  1760);  GBBTUBa,  De  jtroeMnonHnf  in  Opera 
omniot  V  (RatiBbon,  1735).  v;  Sanoerus,  Auetarium  de  ritu  pro- 
eeeeumum  (Ypres.  1640) ;  Eycillon.  De  nroceeeionibtu  eeelenaeiieie 
(Paria,  1641) ;  Quarto.  De  proeeeeiontbua  eeeUaieuticie  (Naples, 
1649):  WoRMWOBTH.  Ceremoniee  and  Proceeeiona  of  the  Cathedral 
Church  of  Salialntry  (Cambridge,  1901);  Ceremonial  of  the  Churdi 
(Philadelphia,  1894).  HERBERT  ThURSTON. 

Processional  Cross. — ^A  processional  cross  is 
simply  a  crucifix  which  is  carried  at  the  head  of  a 
procession,  and  which,  that  it  may  be  more  easily 
seen,  is  usually  mounted  upon  a  long  staff  or  handle. 
From  an  archseological  point  of  view  tlus  subject  has 
already  been  briefly  dealt  with  under  Cross.  It  will 
suffice  to  note  here  that  the  processional  cross  does 
not  essentiallv  differ  from  what  may  be  called  the 
cross  of  jurisdiction  which  is  borne  before  the  pope, 
his  legates,  and  metropolitans  or  archbishoiw.  The 
pope  IS  entitled  to  have  the  cross  borne  before  him 
wherever  he  may  be;  a  legate's  cross  is  used  only 
in  the  territory  for  which  he  has  been  appointed,  and 
that  of  an  archbishop  within  the  limits  of  nis  province. 
All  these  crosses,  including  that  of  the  pope,  have  in 
practice  only  one  bar.  The  double-baired  cross  is 
a  sort  of  heraldic  fiction  which  is  unknown  in  the 
ceremonial  of  the  Church.    It  is  supposed  that  every 


PROCRSSIONAL  CrOSB 

XV  Century 


it.  When  these  crosses  are 
carried  in  procession  the  figure 
of  Christ  faces  the  direction 
in  which  the  procession  is 
moving,  but  in  the  case  of 
the  papal,  legatine,  and  ar- 
chiepiscopal  crosses  the  fig- 
ure of  our  Saviour  is  always 
turned  towards  the  prelate  to 
whom  it  belongs.  In  England, 
durine  the  Middle  Ages,  a 
special  processional  cross  was 
lUBed  during  Lent.  It  was  of 
wood,  painted  red  and  had  no 
figure  of  Christ  upon  it.  It 
seems  probable  that  this  is 
identical  with  the  ''vexillum 
cinericium"  of  which  we  read 
in  the  Sarum  processional. 

Processional  Canopies. — 
As,  according  to  the  require- 
ments of  tne  Csremoniale 
Episcoporum,  the  altars  of  a 
church  and  especially  the  high 
altar  should  be  covered  by  a 
baldacchino  and  the  bishop's 
throne  etc.  should  be  honoured 
with  the  same  mark  of  re- 
spect, so  canopies  are  used  in 
processions  and  solemn  recep- 
tions not  only  for  the  Blessed 
Sacrament  but  also  imder  cer- 
tain circumstances  for  bishops, 
legates,  and  princes  of  uie 
blood  royal.  The  principal  oc- 
casions on  which  a  bishop  has 
the  right  to  use  a  canopy  are  at  his  solemn  reception 
in  his  own  cathedral  city,  and  when  he  makes  his  first 
pastoral  visitation  to  any  town  or  parish  within  his 
jurisdiction  the  Cseremoniale  Episcoporum  (I,  ii,  4) 
directs  that  in  these  receptions  tne  bishop  is  to  ride  on 
horseback  wearing  his  mitre,  and  imder  a  canopv  which 
is  in  the  first  instance  to  be  carried  by  some  of  the  prin- 
cipal magistrates  of  the  town.  Excepting  in  the  rare 
case  of  separate  portions  of  the  True  Croiss  or  of  the 
instruments  of  the  Passion,  relics  borne  in  procession 
are  not  to  be  carried  under  a  canopy.  In  processionr 
of  the  Blessed  Sacrament  the  colour  of  the  canopy 
must  always  be  white.  For  transporting  the  Blessed 
Sacrament  from  one  altar  to  another  or  for  taking 
the  Holv  Viaticum  to  the  sick,  it  is  customary  in 
many  places,  e.  g.  in  Rome,  to  use  an  umbeUa.  or 
ombreUinOf  as  it  is  called  in  Italian,  which  is  simply  a 
small  canopy  with  a  single  staff. 

Processional  Banners. — Processional  banners 
have  idso  been  in  common  use  in  the  Chureh  since 
medieval  times.  In  England  before  the  Reformation 
they  are  frequently  referred  to,  though  it  does  not 
seem  clear  that  these  vexiUa  were  floating  draperies, 
such  as  we  are  now  accustomed  to  understand  by  the 
name.  The  woodcuts  which  appear  in  some  early 
editions  of  the  Sarum  Processional  rather  suggest 
a  rigid  frame  of  wood  or  metal.  In  the  Rogation 
processions  and  some  others  two  special  vmUa  were 


I 


PROCESS 


449 


PBOCONNESUS 


carried,  representing  the  one  a  lion,  the  other  a  drason 
(Rock,  ^*The  Church  of  Our  Fathers",  1904,  IV. 
202).  The  use  of  a  number  of  richly  embroiderea 
banners  in  religious  processions  of  all  kinds  is  now 
customary'  in  most  parts  of  the  Church,  but  the 
Rituale  Komanum  (tit.  IX,  cap.  i,  4,  5)  seems  to 
contemplate  only  a  single  banner.  ''At  the  head  of 
the  procession  let  a  cross  be  carried,  and  where  the 


bidiop  of  their  own,  and  no  attempt  was  made  to 
force  Proclus  upon  a  reluctant  people.  Sissinius  died 
at  the  end  of  427,  and  again  Proclus  was  likely  to  be 
appointed  to  the  patriarchate,  but  eventually  Nesto- 
nus  was  chosen.  Nestorius  was  deposed  at  the 
Council  of  Ephesus  (431)  and  Proclus  was  on  the 
point  of  being  made  patriarch,  but  ''some  influential 
persons  interfered  on  the  ground  of  its  being  forbidden 


custom  obtains  a  banner  adorned  with  sacred  de-    by  the  ecclesiastical  canon  that  a  person  nominated 
vices  (socris  i7mi(jrtni6ti«  trwi^i^um),  but  not  made  in  a    to  one  bishopric  should  be  translated  to  another" 


miUtary  or  triangular  shape". 

Processional  Hymns. — ^We  may  recognize  a 
particular  class  of  hymns  which  in  the  early  Middle 
Ages  were  specially  composed  to  be  sung  in  pro- 
cessions, as  distinct  from  tne  breviary  hymns.  These 
processional  hymns  were  nearly  alwavs  provided  with 
a  refrain.  England  was  specially  ricn  in  such  hymns, 
and  several  are  to  be  found  in  the  Sarum  Processional. 
In  the  Roman  liturgy  we  still  retiun  the  "Gloria, 
laus  et  honor"  sung  in  the  procession  on  Palm  Sunday, 
and  in  the  ceremony  of  the  consecration  of  the  oils 
on  Maundy  Thursday  we  have  the  hymn  "O  Re- 


(Soc.,  VII,  xxxv) .  In  consequence  a  priest,  Maxinuan, 
was  appointed,  upon  whose  death  (424)  Proclus  suc- 
ceeded. "The  Emperor  Theodosius  wishing  to  pre- 
vent the  disturbances  which  usually  attend  the 
election  of  a  bishop,  directed  the  bishops  who  were 
then  in  the  city  to  place  Proclus  in  the  episcopal 
chair  before  the  body  of  Maximian  was  interred,  for 
he  had  received  letters  from  Celestine,  Bishop  of 
Rome,  approving  of  this  election"  (Soc.,  VII,  xl). 
In  438  Proclus  brought  the  body  of  St.  John  Chrysos- 
tom  to  Constantinople  and  placed  it  in  the  church  of 
the  Apostles.    In  436  some  bishops  of  Armenia  con- 


demptor,  sume  carmen  temet  concinentium".    Both  suited  him  about  some  propositions  attributed  to 

these  have  a  refrain,  as  has  also  the  Easter  hynm  Theodore  of  Mopsuestia  which  were  being  put  for- 

" Salve  festa  dies",  which  in  different  forms  appears  ward  by  the  Nestorians.    Proclus  replied  in  an  epistle 

in  the  Processionals  of  both  Sanun  and  York.    The  (often  caJled  the  "Tome  of  St.  Proclus"),  in  which 

hymns  "  Vexilla  Reps"  and  "Pange  lingua",  though  he  required  the  propositions  to  be  condemned.    Here 

sung  in  processions,  lack  a  refrain  and  are  less  prop-  a  difficulty  arose.    People  were  ready  to  condenm  the 

erly  processional  hymns.  propositions  but  not  the  memory  of  Theodore.    "Pny- 

Barbibr  DB  MoHTAWTj  Traiti  pratique  de  la  Cotu^ruciion  q\^^  j^^^  (^^jg  difficulty  by  disclaiming  any  intention  of 

attributing  the  propositions  to  Theoaore.  Volusianus. 
the  uncle  of  Melama  the  Younger,  was  converted  and 
baptized  bv  him.  The  writings  of  Proclus,  consisting 
chiefly  of  homilies  and  epistles,  were  first  printed  b^ 
Riearaus  (Rome,  1630),  reprinted  in  GaUandi,  lA; 
also  in  P.  G»  LXV,  661.  For  Proclus  and  the 
ProceuuB  and  Maitiniaii,  Saints,  martyrs  whose    Trisagion,  see  Trisagion. 

dates  are  unknown.    The  "  Martyrologium  Hiero-       Tilijkjiont,  H.  «.,  704  m.;  CniAAw^n,H^.de»AuUur»8ae,. 

nymianum  "  (ed.  De  Rossi-Duchesne,  85)  gives  under    ^^^^  ^^^  «,. ;  Butlkr.  L»r«  of  the  Satnu.jx^her^  24. 

2  July  their  names.    The  Berne  manuscript  of  the 


de.  dee  Eglieee,  I  (Paria,  1878),  382-499;  Rock,  The  Church  of 
Our  Fathen  (2Dd  ed.,  London,  1904),  II.  337  sq.,  IV.  282  sq.; 
WoBDSWORTB,  Salisbury  Ceremoniee  and  Proceeeione  (Cambridge, 

1801).  Herbert  Thurston. 

Process  of  Canonization.    See  Beatification 
AND  Canonization. 


F.  J.  Bacchus. 


Proclus.  Montanist.    See  Montanistb. 
ProclUBi  Neo-Platonist.    See  Neo-Platonibm. 
ProconncsuB    (Frceconnesus);    titular 


see    in 


Mart3rrology  also  gives  their  burial-place,  viz.  at  the 
second  milestone  of  the  Via  Aurelia.  The  old  cata- 
logues of  the  burial  places  of  the  Roman  martyrs  like- 
wise mention  the  graves  of  both  these  saints  on  this 

road  (De Rossi,  "Roma  sotterranea'',  1, 182-3).  They  Hellespont.  Proconnesus  was  the  name  of  an  island 
were  publicly  venerated  in  Rome  from  the  fourth  or  situat^  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  Propontis,  between 
perhaps  the  third  centunr,  although  nothing  further  Priapus  (now  Kara  Bogha)  and  C^sicus.  It  was  also 
Is  known.  A  legend  makes  them  the  keepers  of  the  the  name  of  the  capital  of  this  island  colonized  by 
prison  of  Sts.  Peter  and  Paul  (Lipsius,  ''Apokryphe  MUesianB  or  Samians  and  the  country  of  the  poet 
Apostelgeschich.  u.  Apostellegenden",  II,  Brunswick,  Aristeas.  In  493  b.  c.  it  was  burned  by  a  Phoenician 
1887, 02, 105  sqq.,  110  sq.).  It  cannot  be  shown  how  fleet  in  the  service  of  Darius.  In  410  the  Athenian 
the  l€«end  came  to  give  them  this  identification,  vessels  commanded  by  Aldbiades  subjected  it,  like 
Pope  Paschal  I  (817-24)  translated  the  bones  of  the  Cyzicus,  to  the  domination  of  Athens.  Later  it  was 
two  martyrs  to  a  chapel  in  the  old  basilica  of  St.  conquered  by  Cyzicus.  Coins  of  the  Roman  epoch 
Peter;  they  still  rest  under  the  altar  dedicated  to  them  can  stiU  be  seen.  Proconnesus  was  renowned  for  its 
in  the  right  transept  of  the  present  St.  Peter's.  Tlieir  cjuarry  of  white  marble,  used  in  constructing  the  ad- 
feast  is  celebrated  on  2  July.  joining  towns,  particularly  that  of  Cyzicus,  and  the 
^<*»  ^^w^^^}y\hJf^''   ^^ISF^^^'  ^  9,^  martyrum  tomb  of  Mausoleus  at  Halicamassus,  later  of  Con- 

J.  P.  KiRSCH.  given  to  the  island  its  modem  name  of  Marmora, 

which  was  given  also  to  the  Propontis.    The  ancient 

Proclus,  Saint.  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  d.  capital  seems  to  be  the  present  village  of  Palatia.   The 

446  or  447.    Proclus  came  to  the  fore  in  the  time  of  island  forms  to-day  a  nahii  of  the  vilayet  of  Brousse. 

Atticus,  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  who  sue-  The  island  contains  about  seventy-seven  square  miles 

ceeded  (406)  Arsacius  who  had  been  intruded  upon  and  9000  inhabitants,  nearly  all  Greek.    During  the 

the  patriarchal  throne  after  the  violent  deposition  of  Byzantine  epoch  exiles  were  frequently  sent  there, 

St.  John  Chrvsostom  (404).     ''Proclus  was  a  Lector  among'  whom  may  be  mentioned  the  monk  Stephen 

at  a  very  early  age,  and,  assiduously  frequenting  the  the  Young,  and  the  patriarch.  Saint  Nicephorus; 

Schools,  became  devoted  to  the  study  of  rhetoric.  Saint  Gregory  the  Decapolite,  Stunt  Nicholas  the 

On  attaining  manhood  he  was  in  the  habit  of  con-  Studite,  and  Saint  Ignatius  the  patriarch  also  so- 

stant  intercourse  with  Atticus,  having  been  constituted  joumed  there.    In  1399  a  battle  took  place  between 

his  secretary"  (Socrates,  "H.  E.",  VII,  xl).    From  the  Turks  and  Venetians.    The  island  and  the  neigh- 

Atticus  he  received  the  diaconate  and  priesthood  houring  isles  form  a  suffragan  see  for  the  schismatic 

(ibid.).    When  Atticus  died  (425),  there  was  a  strong  Greeks.    In  the  Middle  Ages  it  was  an  autocephalous 

party  in  favour  of  Proclus,  but  Sissinius  was  even-  archdiocese,  originally  dependent  on  Cyzicus.     Le 

tualfy  chosen  as  his  successor.    Sissinius  appointed  Quien  (Oriens  christ.,  I,  783)  names  six  of  its  bishops; 

him  Archbishop  of  Cyzicus;  but  the  Cyzicans  chose  a  the  first  known,  John,  assisted  at  the  Cquck:^  ^ 
XII.— 29 


pEocopnns  4 

Epheeus,  431 .  He  doea  not  mention  a  Sfdnt  Tlmotb^, 
who  must  have  lived  in  the  sixth  century  and  who  ia 
venerated  as  the  patron  of  the  island. 

B>am,DiA  afOnAoHd  Romanqioar.,m.v.;  Oshboh,  IVinen- 
ntm,  in  Qiwk  (CoortutinoplB,  ISW.  S.  PAtbidIib. 

Frocopliu.    See  Hns  and  Husbitbs. 

Froooplui  of  Csures,  fiyzontme  liiBtorian,  b.  in 
the  latter  veara  of  the  fifth  century  at  Ctesarea  in 
P^estine,  d.  not  earlier  than  a.  d.  562.  We  have  no 
account  of  liis  parentage  or  education,  except  that  by 
a  legal  and  literary  training  he  qualified  himself  for 
the  civil  Bervice.  As  early  as  a.  d.  527,  before  Justin's 
death,  he  became  counsellor,  assessor,  and  secretary  to 
BelisariuB,  whose  fortunes  and  camp^sns  he  followed 
for  the  next  twelve  or  fifteen  years.  He  was  raised  to 
the  dignity  of  an  tUusfrtiw.    He  is  reckoned  the  great- 


Weo 


eight 


books.  Of  Iheae,  two  deal  with  the  Persian  War,  two 
with  the  Vandalic,  three  with  the  Gothic;  Book  VllI 
concludes  with  a  general  survey  of  events  down  to 
A.  D.  554.  The  scope  of  the  work  is  more  than  mili- 
tary^ he  is  the  best  authority  for  the  history  of 
Justmiau's  reign,  and  Gibbon  eloquently  expresses 
his  regret  at  reaching;  a  date  where  he  muat  exchange 
Procopiua  for  less  mtetlisent  guides.  In  style  he 
imitates  Thucydides  chiefly;  perhaps  also  in  casting 
his  work  into  eight  books.  His  range  of  reading  in- 
cluded all  the  greatest  of  the  Greek  historians  and 
geographers,  and  ht  was  well  schooled  in  the  poets  and 
the  orators.  But  his  unique  value  lies  in  his  personal 
as  well  Bs  official  f  amiharity  with  the  people,  the  places, 
and  the  events  of  which  he  writes.  His  tone  m  this 
work  is  critical  and  independent.  His  account  of 
"Justinian's  Buildings"  (npl  urur^rur)  was  com- 
pleted in  a.  d.  558  or  558.  It  is  composed  in  the  man- 
ner of  the  courtly  panegyrics  for  which  Plinv's  en- 
comium of  Trajan  nad  cast  the  modcl^  ana  he  is 
thought  to  have  written  it  either  by  imperial  command 
or  at  least  in  order  to  vindicate  himself  from  suspi- 
cions of  disaSection.  But  the  'very  extravaeance 
which  prompts  him  to  credit  Justinian  with  all  the 

Sublic  works  executed  in  the  entire  Eastern  Empire 
uring  his  reign  gives  the  work  an  exhaustive  soope 
and  a  peculiar  value  for  the  arctueologist.  The  third 
of  his  Dooka  has  gained  a  scandalous  celebrity  and 
aroused  much  question  both  as  to  its  authenticity  and 
motives.  Thisis  the"Anecdota",  which  Suidas  cha»- 
actflriies  aa  "a  aatirical  attack  on  Justinian",  but 
which  ia  most  commonly  known  by  the  title  of 
"Arcana  historia"  (the  secret  history).  It  is  a 
supplement  to  the  other  history,  carrying  the  narra- 
tive down  to  the  year  558-9,  where  it  breaSa  off.  Into 
it,  as  into  the  pa^gee  of  a  private  journal,  Procopius 
pours  his  detestation  of  Justinian  and  Theodora;  even 
BelisariuB  and  his  wife  are  not  spared.  It  is  a  Ditter, 
malignant,  and  often  obscene  mvective  against  all 
the  powers  of  the  Byiantine'  Church  and  State,  ap- 
parently the  tard};  revenge  of  an  ill-conditioned  man  of 
lettere  for  a  lifetime  of  obsequiousness.  The  indis- 
criminate  violence  of  tlie  pamphlet  betrays  the 
writer's  passionate  indignation,  but  spoils  his  case. 
The  authenticity  is  now  generally  allowed,  after  a 
great  deal  of  not  unbiased  discussion  in  the  seven- 
teenth and  eighteenth  centuries.  (TTie  "Anecdota" 
waa  first  publuhed  in  1623.) 

Dabk,  Aekapim  tm  Cmmm  rBcrila.  ISOS).  A  nudiiot  to- 
couDt  With  m  bibliomnli)'  u  to  be  fouDd  is  KauiiaicBca,  Oi- 
(dttcU*  dt  BymntinUAm  LilUratitr  nun  Jiufinun  ^i•  lun  Endt 
iaotlramiKSmRttektt\iiMti.ixs.Handbtichadtr)dati.  Allrr- 
IkdnuwiHfiuetaA  (Musieh.  1S«0).  See  •Jeo  BimUAN.  JahrtO)!- 
rvM.  XXXVIII.  2&A  (ScmnD.  ud  LVIII.  83,  and  pntu«  tn 
the  edition  by  CoWAFrrn  fHoniB.  1895)  nod  Hadbi:  Sirnn- 
tinitdu  ZnUdtri/l  (18B3).  If.  107-100;   JVnnnodnu  N.  S..  IX 

(1S81],  ios-113,  HB-M,  leo-i. 

J.  S.   PBILLIUORa. 

tnetn,  Adblaidb  Anne,  poetess  and  philanthro- 
JJu^  b.  in  London,  England,  30  October,  1S25;  d.  in 


SO  PBOCTKB 

London,  2  February,  1864.  She  was  the  eldest  daugh- 
ter of  the  poet  Bryan  Waller  Procter  ("Barry  Corn- 
wall") and  Anne  Benaon  Skepper.  Aa  a  child 
Adelaide  showed  precocious  intelligence.  Bhe  at> 
taincd  considerable  proficiency  in  French,  German, 
and  Italian,  aa  well  aa  in  music  and  drawing,  and  abe 
was  a  great  reader.  Brought  up  in  surroundings 
favourable  to  the  development  oi  literary  leaiiinga, 
she  began  to  write  versea  at  an  early  age,  and  at 
eighteen  contributed  to  the  "Book  of  BeauW",  In 
1851  she  and  two  of  her  sisters  became  Catholioa 
without,  apparently,  any  disturbance  of  the  harmoni- 
ous relations  of 
the  domestic  cir- 
cle. In  1853. 
under  the  pseu- 
donym of  "Mary 
Berwick",  she 
Bent  to  "  House- 
hold Words"  a 
short  poem,  which 
so  pleased  the  edi- 
tor, Charles  Dick- 
ens, that  he  not 
only  accepted  it 
but  also  invited 
further  contribu- 
tions. It  was  not 
till  late  in  the  fol-  - 


that  his.  unltnown 
correspondent  was 
the  daughter  of  his 
old   friend,  Barry 
Cornwall.     To 
"Household  Worda' 
nearly  all  her  poetr 
tributed. 
published 


and   "All  the  Year  Round" 

vas  in  the  first  instance  con- 

_.  her  poems 'were  collected  and 

two  series  under  the  title  of  "L^^nds 
and  Lyrics".  They  had  a  great  succeaa,  reaching  the 
tenth  edition  in  1866.  In  that  year  a  new  issue,  with 
introduction  by  Dickens,  was  printed,  and  there  have 
been  several  reprints  since. 

Miss  Procter  was  of  a  charitable  dispodtion:  she 
visited  the  sick,  befriended  the  destitute  and  home- 
less, taught  the  ignorant,  and  endeavoured  to  ruse  up 
the  fallen  ones  of  her  own  sex.  She  waa  generous  yet 
practical  with  the  income  derived  from  her  works, 
in  1859  she  served  on  a  committee  to  consider  fresh 
ways  and  meansof  providing  employment  for  women; 
in  1861  she  edited  a  miscellany,  entitled  "Victoria 
Re^",  which  had  some  of  the  leading  litterateurs  of 
the  time  as  oontributora  and  which  waa  set  un  in  type 
by  women  compositors;  and  in  1862  she  putlishM  a 
slender  volume  of  her  own  poems,  "A  Chaplet  of 
Veraes",  mostly  of  a  religious  turn,  tor  the  benefit  of 
the  Providence  Row  night  refuge  for  homeless  women 
and  children,  which,  as  the  linit  Catholic  Refuge  in 
the  United  Kingdom,  had  been  opened  on  7  October, 
1860,  and  placed  under  the  care  of  the  Sisters  of 
Mercy.  In  her  charitable  seal  she  appears  to  have 
unduly  taxed  her  atrength,  and  her  health,  never  ro- 
bust, gave  way  under  the  strMn.  The  cure  at  Malvern 
was  tried  in  vain;  and,  after  an  illness  of  fifteen 
months,  she  died  calmly,  and  waa  buried  in  KensaJ 
Green  Cemetery. 

Dickens  haa  given  a  characteristic  testimony  to  her 
worth.  "She  waa",  he  aays,  "a  friend  who  inspired 
the  strongest  attachments;  she  was  a  finely  sym- 
pathetic woman  with  a  great  accordant  heart  and  a 
sterUng  noble  nature,"  Modest  and  cheerful,  un- 
constr^ned  and  unaffected,  and  quick  in  repart«e,  die 
had  the  pft  of  humour  herself  and  of  appreciating 
humour  in  olhera.  Her  works  were  very  popular: 
they  were  published  in  America  and  also  tmielated 
into  German.    In  1877  her  poema  were  in  gieftter 


PBOCURATOR 


451 


PROFESSION 


demand  in  England  than  those  of  any  living  writer 
except  Tennyson.  If  her  verses  are  unambitiouB, 
deahng  with  simple  emotional  themes,  they  have  the 
merit  of  originality  and  give  evidence  of  much  culture. 
She  appears  perhaps  to  greatest  advantage  in  her 
narrative  poems,  several  of  which,  such  as  ''The  An- 
gel's Story",  "A  Legend  of  Bregens",  "The  Story  of 
the  Faithful  Soul",  and  "A  Legend  of  Provence",  are 
well  known  in  anthologies;  but  some  of  her  l3rric8,  like 
"Cleanong  Fires"  and  "A  Lost  Chord",  have  made 
a  very  wide  appeal.  Some  of  her  poems,  for  example, 
"Per  Pacem  ad  Lucem"  and  "Thankfulness"  are  so 
devotional  that  they  are  in  use  as  hymns. 

DiCKBMB,  IrUroduetion  prefixed  to  1866  edition  of  Legendt  and 
Lurict;  The  Month  (Jan.,  1866);  Babbt  Cobnwall  (Brtak 
Waliar  ProctbbJI*  An  AtUobiooraphieal  Froqment^  ed.  Patmorb 
(London,  1877) ;  Brucb,  The  Book  of  Noble  EnqlUhtDomen  (Lon- 
don, 1878);  Kbmbli:,  Record*  of  a  Girlhood  (London,  1859) ;  Iokm, 
Records  of  Later  Life  (London,  1882);  Faithfull,  Victoria  Regia, 
ant;  Rbxd,  Life  of  Lord  Houghton;  Bblloc  (Lownobs),  In  a 
Walled  Garden  (London,  1902);  Howirr,  AiUobiography  (London, 
1889);  JuuAN,  Dictionary  of  Humndogy  (New  York,  1892); 
Chambbrs,  Cydopadia  of  Bngliah  Literature,  III  (London,  1904) ; 
Leb  in  Diet,  Nat,  Biog,,  a.  v. 

P.  J.  Lennox. 

Procurator,  a  person  who  manages  the  affairs  of 
another  by  virtue  of  a  charge  received  from  him. 
There  are  different  kinds  of  procurators:  general,  or 
particular,  according  as  he  is  authorized  to  manage  all 
the  ^airs  of  another,  or  only  some  of  them;  again  a 
procurator  may  represent  another  in  judicial  matters 
(adlites),  or  in  matters  not  requiring  court  proceedings 
lad  neqoiia);  special  procurators  are  the  syndicuSf  a 
Kenera!  agent  of  a  university  or  corporation  and  the 
fiscal  procurator,  appointed  bv  puolio  authont>r  as 
guardian  of  ti^e  law  m  civil,  and  especially  in  criminal 
proceedings. 

Everybody,  unless  expressly  forbidden  by  the  law. 
has  the  ri^t  to  appoint  a  procurator  in  affairs  of 
which  he  has  the  free  management.  In  selecting  a 
procurator,  a  person  is  free,  provided  the  choice  does 
not  fall  on  someone  debarred  by  law,  as  excommuni- 
cated persons,  notorious  criminals,  regulars  without 
the  consent  of  their  superiors,  clerics  in  cases  for  which 
they  cannot  act  as  lawyers,  and  finally,  for  judicial 
cases,  persons  under  twenty-five,  for  non-judicial 
cases,  persons  under  seventeen  years  of  age. 

A  procurator  has  the  right  and  duty  to  act  accord- 
ing to  the  terms  of  the  charge  committed,  but  a  gen- 
eral mandate  does  not  include  cases  for  which  the  law 
requires  a  specisJ  commission.  He  is  also  allowed  to 
elect  a  substitute,  except  in  cases  of  marriages,  and  in 
general  whenever,  owing  to  the  serious  character  of 
the  affair,  the  procurator  is  supposed  to  have  been 
chosen  with  the  understanding  that  he  should  transact 
the  business  in  person. 

The  power  to  act  as  procurator  ceases:  (a)  as  soon 
as  he  nas  fulfilled  his  office;  (b)  if  with  a  sufficient 
reason  he  resigns;  (c)  if  the  principal  or  appointer 
revokes  his  mandate;  but  he  must  do  this  in  clue  time, 
that  is.  while  the  affair  still  remains  untouched  (re 
Integra);  this  revocation  must  be  brought  to  the 
notice  of  the  procurator  before  the  latter  completes 
the  transaction;  one  of  the  chief  exceptions  to  these 
rules  is  when  there  is  question  of  a  procuration  to  con- 
tract a  marriage,  in  which  case  the  revocation  holds 
good,  as  long  as  it  was  made  before  the  procurator 
contracted  in  the  principal's  name. 

Unless  the  procurator  acted  beyond  his  powerjs,  the 
principal  must  accept  whatever  the  latter  did  in  his 
name. 

Fbrrabxa-Bcccbroni,  Bibliotheca  Canonica,  VI  (Rome,  1885- 
1902),  454;  Hbrobnr6thbr-Hollwbck,  L^irbuch  dee  kano- 
nischen  KirchenredUe  (Freiburg  im  Br.,  1905),  n.  643;  Drobtb- 
Mbsbmbr,  Canonical  Procedure  in  Diaciplinary  and  Criminal 
Caeea  of  Clerics  (New  York),  n.  41 ;  Smith,  Elements  of  Ecclesias- 
tieal  Law  (New  York),  n.  756. 

Hector  Papi. 
Procurator  FiscaliB.    Sec  Fiscal  Pbocubatob. 


)    Pro-Datary.    See  Roman  Curia. 
ProfanatioiL    See  Desecration. 

Profession.  Rbliqious.  Historical  View. — Pro- 
fession may  be  considered  either  as  a  declaration 
openly  made,  or  as  a  state  of  life  publicly  embraced. 
The  oiisdns  of  religious  profession  date  from  the  time 
when  C^jistians  were  recognized  in  the  Church  as 
followers  after  perfection  in  the  practice  of  religious 
life.  We  meet  them  in  the  third  century,  under  the 
name  of  ascetics,  called  in  Greek  d^Kirral^  and  in  Latin 
confessores,  Eusebius  (Hist,  eccl.,  Ill,  xxxvii)  num- 
bers among  the  ascetics  the  most  illustrious  pontiffs  of 
the  first  ages,  St.  Clement  of  Rome,  St.  Ignatius  of 
Antioch,  St.  Polycarp,  and  others.  After  these,  in 
the  fourth  century,  come  the  hermits  and  monks,  fol- 
lowed in  the  eleventh  century  by  the  canons  regular, 
in  the  thirteenth  century  by  the  mendicant  orders,  in 
the  sixteenth  by  the  clerks  regular,  and  lastly  by  the 
members  of  religious  congregations.  Profession  for 
a  long  time  was  made  by  clothing  with  the  religious 
habit:  the  aspirant  coula  personally  put  on  the  habit 
or  receive  it,  with  or  without  ceremony,  from  the 
abbot  or  froin  the  bishop.  This  clothing  laid  upon 
him  the  obligation  of  poverty  and  chastity  more  as  a 
natursJ  consequence  of  a  donation  or  consecration  to 
God  than  as  arising  from  formal  vows,  which  did  not 
exLst  at  that  time  (cf .  St.  Basil,  Regulse  fusius  trac- 
tatae  resp.  ad  14  interrogat.  in  P.  G.,  AXXI,  94^52). 

The  community  life,  established  under  Schenoudi, 
the  great  disciple  of  St.  Pachomius,  added  an  explicit 
promise  of  fidelity  to  certain  precepts.  St.  Bene- 
dict added  an  express  promise  of  stability,  and  obedi- 
ence to  the  superior.  These  last  promises  denoted 
obl^ations  created  in  addition  to  those  implied  by 
taking  tiie  habit.  The  first  formula,  which  expressly 
mentions  poverty  and  chastity,  is  that  of  the  Con- 
stitutions of  Narbonne,  promulgated  in  1260  by  St. 
Bonaventure  for  the  Friars  Minor;  then  the  constitu- 
tions of  the  Minims  and  clerks  regular  expressly 
mention  the  three  essential  vows  of  the  religious  life, 
as  well  as  those  which  were  superadded  on  account 
of  the  special  ends  of  their  orders.  This  discipline 
is  common  to  religious  orders  and  congregations. 
Finally  the  regulations  {NormcB)  of  1901,  published  in 
explanation  of  the  p^jesent  practice  of  the  Holy  See, 
do  not  permit  in  new  congregations  any  but  the  three 
essential  vows  of  poverty,  chastity,  and  obedience. 

In  the  Decretal,  "Quod  votum,"  unic.  De  voto  et 
voti  redemptione  (iii,  15)  in  6°,  Boniface  VIII  de- 
clared autiioritatively  that  the  vow  of  chastity,  con- 
secrated by  the  reception  of  major  orders,  or  by  reli- 
gious profession  in  an  approved  institute,  created  a 
diriment  impediment  to  marriage.  Some  communi- 
ties of  tertiaries  not  belonging  to  an  approved  order 
were  the  first  to  introduce  profession  accompanied  by 
simple  vows,  which  is  now  the  ordinary  practice  in 
the  more  recent  congr^ations. 

The  Annals  of  the  Order  of  St.  Benedict  (vol.  I, 
p.  74)  in  the  year  537  recognized  among  the  Greeks 
three  classes  of  religious:  the  novices,  who  wore  the 
simple  tunic;  the  perfect,  clothed  with  the  pallium; 
and  the  more  perfect  invested  with  the  cucuUa^  or 
hood  attached  to  a  short  cloak,  covering  the  shoulders, 
which  was  considered  the  special  emblem  of  the  rcli- 
^ous  life.  In  certain  monasteries  of  the  East,  a  dis- 
tinction was  made  between  persons  wearing  the  short 
habit,  lUKpSffxvf^f  and  those  wearing  the  long  habit, 
tuyak^X'n/'^i  a  distinction  against  which  St.  Theo- 
dorus  the  Studite  protested  in  his  epistles  (I,  ep.  x,  in 
P.  G.,  XCIX,  941-2)  and  which  is  still  found  among 
the  Schismatic  Coptic  monks  (see  Kathol.  Missionen. 
1  Oct.,  1910,  p.  7  saq.).  St.  Ignatius  of  Loyola  laid 
down  that  in  nis  order  there  should  be  a  simple  pro- 
fession, followed  by  more  or  less  frequent  renewal  of 
vows  until  such  time  as  the  candidate  should  be  pre- 
pared for  the  solemn  or  definitive  profesaio^'^  ^k^ 


PROFESSION  452  PROFESSION 

under  Pius  IX  and  Leo  XIII  has  become  the  common  dismiss  one  who  has  not  shown  himself  worthy  to 

law  of  all  religious  orders.  renew  his  profession^  or  to  make  a  subsequent  pro- 

ExiSTiNG  Law. — Definition, — ^According  to  the  ex-  fession*  but  a  physical  infirmity  which  was  caused 
isting  law,  religious  profession  denotes  the  act  of  em-  after  tne  vows,  or  the  cause  of  which  was  known  at 
bracing  the  religious  state  by  the  three  vows  of  pov-  the  time  of  the  vows,  does  not  justify  the  dismissal  of 
erty,  chastity,  and  obedience  according  to  the  rule  of  a  religious  against  lus  will.  In  congregations  which 
an  order  csmonically  approved  j  it  involves  then  a  have  no  solemn  vows,  the  Holy  See  ordinarily  pre- 
triple  vow  made  to  Goa,  and  binding  oneself  to  the  scribes  a  term  of  temporary  vows,  varjring  from  three 
rule  of  a  certain  order.  Very  often  the  rules  or  con-  to  six  years,  before  the  perpetual  vows.  There  are 
stitutions  of  an  order  or  congregation  (approved  be-  however  some  congre|;ations,  such  as  the  Nims  of  the 
fore  the  NomuB  of  1901)  add  to  these  essential  vows  Sacred  Heart,  in  which  all  the  vows  are  perpetual; 
certain  special  vows  inspired  by  the  purpose  of  the  and  pious  societies  without  perpetual  vows,  such  as  the 
order:  thus  the  Friars  Minor  make  a  vow  of  specisd  Sisters  of  Charity  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul;  or  even 
obedience  to  the  pope  and  the  Roman  Church;  the  without  vows,  like  the  Missionaries  of  Africa,  or  White 
Poor  Clares,  a  vow  of  enclosure;  the  Mercedarians,  a  Fathers,  who  have  only  an  oath  of  obedience.  The 
vow  of  devoting  themselves  to  the  redemption  of  Holy  See  insists  that  on  the  expiration  of  temporal 
Christian  captives,  even  giving  themselves  as  host-  vows,  these  should  be  either  renewed  or  converted 
ages;  the  Minims,  a  vow  of  strict  abstinence;  the  Car-  into  perpetual  vows,  as  the  case  may  be,  without  allow- 
melite  Sisters  and  discalced  Augustinians,  a  vow  of  ing  any  interval  of  time,  during  which  the  relifpous 
humility;  the  first  profession  in  the  Society  of  Jesus  would  be  free  from  his  obligations. 
impUes  a  vow  of  indifference  in  regard  to  final  vows,  Simple  profession  sometimes  is  a  preparation  for 
i.  e.  whether  they  be  solemn  or  simple;  the  solemn  solemn  profession,  and  sometimes  has  a  distinct  char- 
profession  adds  a  vow  of  obedience  to  the  pope  for  acter  of  its  own.  In  all  religious  orders,  three  years 
missions,  and  five  simple  vows  in  order  the  better  to  at  least  of  simple  profession  are  a  necessary  conmtion 
ensure  the  observance  of  poverty,  and  the  eschewal  of  for  the  validity  of  solemn  profession  (see  Nuns),  and 
ambition;  the  Brothers  of  St.  John  of  God  make  a  for  lay  brothers,  six  years  of  simple  profession  and 
vow  to  serve  the  sick;  the  Clerks  Regular  of  the  Pious  an  age  of  at  least  thirty  years  are  required  (Decree 
Schools,  a  solemn  vow  to  educate  children,  and  also  of  1  Jan..  1911).  This  time  of  simple  profession  may 
three  simple  vows  relatine  to  poverty  and  the  shun-  be  consiaered  as  a  second  term  of  probation;  it  is  not 
ning  of  ambition;  the  religious  of  Penitence  (Seal-  difficult  for  the  religious  to  obtain  a  dispensation  from 
zetti),  a  vow  to  defend  the  doctrine  of  the  Immaculate  his  vows,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  the  order  may -dis- 
Conception;  the  Passionists,  to  promote  devotion  to  miss  him  for  any  grave  cause  of  dissatisfaction,  the 
thePassionof  Our  Lord;  the  Brothers  of  the  Cluistian  sufficiency  of  whicn  is  left  to  the  judgment  ot  the 
Schools,  vows  of  stability  and  of  gratuitous  education  superior.  Th&  dismissal  of  nuns,  however,  requires  the 
of  children;  the  Little  Sisters  of  the  Poor,  a  vow  of  consent  of  the  Holy  See;  religious  with  simple  or  even 
hospitality.  temporary  vows,  who  have  received  major  orders  in 

Division. — Profession  was  express,  when  made  with  their  institute,  are  in  the  same  portion,  in  regard  to 
theusualceremonies;  tacit,  or  implied,  when  the  recip-  dismissal,  as  those  who  have  made  their  final  pro- 
rocal  engagement  between  the  order  and  the  religious  fession.  Generally  speaking,  simple  profession  does 
was  proved  by  outward  acts;  it  was  sufficient  for  this  not  prevent  a  religious  from  retaining  or  accjuiring 
purpose  to  wear  the  habit  of  tlie  professed  members  property;  the  administration  and  disposition  of 
for  some  time  openly  and  without  objection  being  property  alone  are  forbidden.  Except  in  the  Society 
made  in  any  one.  Pius  IX  abolished  the  tacit  solemn  of  Jesus  it  is  no  longer  a  diriment  impediment  t^ 
profession  for  religious  orders  (11  June,  1858)  and  it  marriage,  and  it  never  annuls  a  marriage  already  con- 
has  fallen  into  disuse  altogether.  tracted. 

'  Profession  is  either  simple  or^lemn.  Solemn  pro-  Conditions  of  Validity  and  Form. — It  is  essential  in 
fession  exists  at  present  only  in  the  institutes  approved  all  cases  for  the  validity  of  a  religious  profession  that 
by  the  Holv  See  as  religious  orders.  It  is  always  per-  the  candidate  should  be  at  least  sixteen  years  of  age 
petual,  and  dispensation  from  it  is  difficult  to  obtain;  and  have  passed  one  year  in  the  novitiate.  Persons 
a  religious  who  has  been  dismissed  from  his  order  is  who^  under  the  provisions  of  the  Decree  "Ecdesia 
still  bound  by  the  obligations  of  the  religious  Life;  the  Chnsti"  of  7  September,  1909,  cannot  be  validly  ad- 
same  is  the  case  with  one  who  obtains  from  the  Holy  mitted  to  the  novitiate  without  the  consent  of  the 
See  the  indult  of  perpetual  secularization;  professed  Holy  See,  cannot  without  the  same  consent  make  a 
who  have  left  their  order  owe  to  the  bishop  of  the  valid  profession.  Admission  to  profession,  especially 
diocese  in  which  they  reside  the  obedience  wluch  they  to  the  first,  is  generally  decided  oy  the  chapter.  Pro- 
formerly  owed  to  their  religious  superior.  Solemn  fession  made  or  permitted  under  duress  is  null  and 
profession  implies  a  reciprocal  engagement  between  void;  and  the  Council  of  Trent  passes  sentence  of 
the  religious  and  his  order,  which  undertakes  to  main-  excommunication  on  all  persons  who  compel  a  young 
tain  him,  and  treat  him  as  a  member  of  its  household;  girl  to  enter  a  monastery  by  solemn  profession,  or 
except  in  case  of  special  privilege,  it  can  dismiss  a  who  forcibly  prevent  her  from  doing  so.  Although 
professed  religious  in  canonical  form  only  for  incor-  tacit  profession,  which  has  been  expressly  abolished 
rigible  persistence  in  some  grave  public  fault.  The  for  reu^ous  orders,  has  fallen  into  disuse  everywhere, 
professed  religious  who  is  dismissed  is  ipso  facto  sus-  no  particular  rite  or  formula  of  profession  is  essential, 
pended,  and  the  suspension  is  reserved  to  the  Holy  unless  distinctly  required  by  the  constitutions.  A 
See  (see  the  recent  decree  "Cum  singulffi"  of  16  general  Decree  of  the  Sacred  Ck)ngregation  of  Rites 
May,  1911).  According  to  existing  law,  solemn  pro-  of  14-27  August,  1874,  indicates  the  manner  in  which 
fession  annuls  a  marriage  previously  contracted,  but  profession  should  be  made  during  Mass.  Since  the 
not  yet  consummated,  and  creates  a  diriment  im-  Decree  "Auctisadmodum",  simple  but  perpetual  pro- 
pediment  to  any  future  marriage;  and  also  renders  fession  creates  the  same  bond  between  the  religious 
the  professed  religious  incapable,  without  the  permis-  and  the  congregation  as  solemn  profession  does  in  a 
sion  of  the  Holy  See,  of  acquiring  or  of  possessing  and  reli^ous  order.  Such  a  religious  can  be  dismissed  only 
disposing  of  property.  In  Belgium,  and  probably  in  for  incorrigible  persistence  in  sonie  grave  public  fault. 
Holland,  profession  no  longer  involves  this  disability.  Even  when  congregations  with  simple  vows  have  the 

Simple  profession  is  sometimes  perpetual  and  some-  power  to  dismiss  a  reh^ous,  they  have  not  the  power 

times  temporary,  and  therefore  imperfect.    At  the  end  to  dispense  him  from  his  vows :  tnis  is  strictly  reserved 

of  a  term  of  temporary  profession,  a  religious  is  free  to  the  Holy  See. 
U?  go  h&c\L  to  the  world,  and  the  order  has  power  to        Common  Effects  of  Profession, — Every  perpetual 


PROFESSION 


453 


PROMISE 


profesaon  admits  one  to  the  religious  state  and  con- 
sequently creates  an  obligation  to  aspire  after  per- 
fection. This  obligation  is  sufficiently  fulfilled  by 
observing  the  vows  and  rules,  so  far  as  they  bind  the 
conscience.  All  previous  vows,  provided  tney  do  not 
prejudice  the  rignt  of  a  third  party,  may  be  chaneed 
into  reli^ous  profession,  as  into  something  of  a  dis- 
tinctly higher  character;  and  this  may  be  done  by  the 
refigious  himself,  or  by  some  person  who  has  power  to 
commute  the  vows,  if  the  profession  be  solemn,  these 
previous  vows  are  annulled  by  canon  law.  Theolo- 
gians generally  teach  that,  when  made  in  a  state  of 
grace,  this  absolute  suirender  of  self  procures  for  the 
religious  a  remission  of  all  the  penalties  due  to  past 
sins.  The  generally  accepted  opinion,  bv  wnich 
religious  pro^ssion  was  compared  to  a  new  baptism, 
induced  St.  Pius  V  to  permit  novices  in  houses  oi 
Dominican  nuns  to  make  their  profession  when  in 
danper  of  death  even  before  completing  their  years  of 
novitiate  (Constitution  ''Summi  sacerdotii",  23 
August,  1570).  This  has  since  been  extended  to  all 
religious  orders;  but  restoration  to  health  deprives 
the  profession  made  under  such  circumstances  of  all 
canonical  effects. 

HiBtorieal. — Ladbuxk,  L«  ctnobUi9me  pakhdmien  pendant  U  JV" 
nieie  el  la  premikre  tnoUU  du  V*  (Louvun.  1898) ;  MartAnb.  De 
antiq.  monaeh,  rUibtia.  Comment,  in  regtd.  S.  P.  Benedxcti; 
ScHiBwm,  Dae  orientalieche  Mdnehlum  (Maine,  1904). 

Dootrinal. — Bastibn,  Diredoire  canonxque  d  Vueage  dee  con- 
grig,  d  vonu  eimplee  (MaredBOiu,  1911);  Battandibr,  Guide 
canon,  pour  lea  conetUutiong  dee  inetUtUs  d  vaux  eimplee  (Paris, 
1908);  Bouix,  Trad,  defweregularium  (Paris,  1856):  CoLLEi*rE, 
Religioea  pro/eeeionie  valor  saiiefaetoriue  (Li6ge.  1887):  Mocchb- 
oiANi,  Jurieprudentiaecdeeia^ica,  I  (Quaraochi,  1904)  ;Passbiuni, 
Dehominum  etatibue.  Ill,  qq.  186,  189;  Pbllizarius,  Manuale 
regularium,  tr.  3.  c.  1-^:  Idbm,  Tradatio  de  monialihue.coT.  b^ 
MoMTANX  (Rome.  1761);  Piat.  Pneled.  Jurie  regularie,  I  (Toumu. 
1898),  13(>-70;  Reiffknstubl,  /iu  eanonicum  univereum;  Ro- 
TABIU8,  Theoloffia  moralie  regidarium,  I,  III,  v;  Sanchez, 
In  Decalogum,  V,  iii,  iv,  v;  VI,  v;  SchmaueorObbr,  In  lib.  3 
decreUU.,  t.  31,  n.  149  sqq.;  Suabbs,  De  religione,  tr.  7,  lib.  VI, 
oo.  1,  2,  12;  Vermbbrach.  De  religioeie  inetitiUie  d  pereonie 
(Bruges,  1907),  sect.  3;  Idem,  De  relig.  ineti.  d  pers.,  aupplemerUa 
d  monumenta  (Bruges,  1909) ;  Idem,  De  relig.  ind.  d  per  a.,  sup- 
plem.  d  mon.  periodica  (Bruges,  1905 — );  Wbrnz,  Jua  decre- 
kUium^  III  (2nded.,  Rome.  1908),  no.  640,  648,  668,  673. 

A.  Vermeersch 

Profouion  of  Faith..   See  Creed. 

Promise,  Divine,  in  Scripture. — ^The  term  prom- 
ise in  Holy  Writ  both  in  its  nominal  and  verbal  form 
embraces  not  only  promises  made  by  man  to  his  fellow- 
man,  and  by  man  to  God  in  the  form  of  vows  (e.  g. 
Deut^  xxiii,  21-3),  but  also  God's  promises  to  man. 
A  complete  study  of  this  phase  of  the  subject  would 
require  a  review  of  the  whole  question  of  Old-Testa- 
ment prophecy  and  also  a  discussion  of  several  points 
pertaining  to  the  subject  of  Divine  grace  and  election. 
For  God's  every  word  of  grace  is  a  promise;  man's 
willingness  to  obey  His  commandments  brings  him 
many  assurances  of  grace.  When  the  children  of 
Israel  were  commanded  to  go  in  and /'possess  the 
land",  it  was  practically  already  theirs.  He  had 
"liftea  up  His  hand  to  give  it  them":  their  disobe- 
dience, however,  rendered  of  no  effect  the  promise  im- 
plied in  the  command.  There  are,  moreover,  many 
examples  of  promises  of  which  the  Patriarchs  them- 
selves did  not  receive  the  outward  fullness.  Among 
these  may  be  mentioned,  the  full  possession  of  Canaan, 
the  growth  of  the  nation,  universal  blessing  through 
the  race.  For:  "All  these  died  according  to  faith,  not 
having  received  the  promises,  but  beholding  them  afar 
off"  ^eb.,  xi,  13).  On  the  one  hand  we  find  that 
Abraham,  '^  patiently  enduring  .  .  .  obtained  the 
promise"  (Heb.,  vi,  15),  because  the  birth  of  Isaac 
was  the  banning  of  -its  fulfilment.  On  the  other 
hand,  he  is  one  of  the  fathers  who  "received  not  the 
promise",  yet  with  a  true  faith  looked  for  a  fulfilment 
of  thepromises  which  was  not  granted  to  them.  The 
New-T^tament  phrase  "inherit  the  promises"  (Heb.. 
vi,  12;  cf .  xi,  9;  Gal.,  iii,  29)  is  found  in  theapocryphal 
Psalms  of  Solomon,  xiii,  8  (70  b.  c.  to  40.  b.  c).    It  is 


believed  that  this  passage  is  the  first  instance  in  extant 
Je\yish  literature  where  the  expression  "the  promises 
of  the  Lord"  sums  up  the  assurances  of  the  Messianic 
redemption.  The  word  "promise"  is  used  in  this 
technical  sense  in  the  Gospels  only  in  Luke,  xxiv,  49, 
where  we  find  that  the  promise  of  the  Father  refers  to ' 
the  coming  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  In  piussa^es  which 
make  mention  of  promises  of  which  Cnrist  is  the  ful- 
filment, the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  especially 
abounds.  St.  Paul  indeed  both  in  his  speeches  and  in 
his  Epistles  looks  at  the  Christian  Gospel  from  the 
same  point  of  view.  And  we  see  that  il^  was  by  a  con- 
templation of  Christ  that  men  ultimately  discovered 
what  the  "promise"  meant. 

The  New-Testament  teaching  on  the  subject  might 
be  summed  up  under  three  heads:  that  which  the 
promise  contamed,  those  who  were  to  inherit  it,  and 
the  conditions  affecting  its  fulfilment.  The  contents 
of  the  "promise"  are  always  intimately  concerned 
with  Christ,  in  Whom  it  has  found  its  perfect  fulfil- 
ment. In  the  preaching  of  St.  Peter  it  is  the  risen 
Jesus,  "both  Lord  andC&ist",  in  whom  the  "promise" 
has  been  fulfilled.  The  forgiveness  of  sins,  the  gift  of 
the  Holy  Ghost,  the  partaking  of  the  Divine  nature 
through  grace  (11  Peter,  i,  4),  all  the  Divinely  be- 
stowed possessions  of  the  Christian  Church,  may  be 
said  to  be  its  contents.  Passing  to  St.  Paul  we  find  a 
general  conception  of  the  same  character.  Christ  and 
the  "promise"  are  practically  synonymous  terms. 
The  promises  of  Goa  are  all  summed  up  in  Christ. 
A  conception  of  the  "oromise"  which  was  distinct- 
ively common  to  the  &rly  Christians  is  set  forth  in 
I  John,  ii,  25 — "And  this  is  the  promise  which  he  hath 
promised  us,  hfe  everlasting."  Concerning  the  in- 
heritors of  the  "promise",  it  was  given  at  first  to 
Abraham  and  his  seed.  In  Hebrews,  xi,  9,  we  find 
Isaac  and  Jlacob  referred  to  as  "co-heirs  of  the  same 
promise".  A  controversy  existed  in  the  primitive 
Church  over  the  interpretation  of  the  expression  "the 
seed  of  Abraham".  St.  Paul  speaks  frankly  concern- 
ing the  prerogatives  of  Israel,  "to  whom  belongeth 
.  .  .  the  promises"  (Rom.,  ix,  4).  Of  the  Gentile 
Church  before  admission  to  Christianity,  he  says  its 
members  had  been  "strangers  to  the  covenants  of  the 

gromise",  consequently  cut  off  from  all  hope.  It  was 
is  work,  however,  to  show  that  no  physical  or  his- 
torical accident,  such  as  Jewish  birth,'  could  entitle 
one  to  a  claim  as  of  ri^t  i^ainst  God  for  its  fulfil- 
ment. It  is  his  teacmng  in  one  instance  that  all 
who  are  Christ's  by  faith  are  Abraham's  seed,  and 
heirs  according  to  promise.  He  is  concerned,  how- 
ever, with  the  fact  that  the  promise  is  not  being  ful- 
filled to  the  seed  of  Abraham  (referring  to  the  .fews) ; 
yet  his  heart  is  evidently  on  the  side  of  those  against 
whom  he  argues.  For  to  the  last  the  Jew  was  to  St. 
Paul  "the  root,  the  first  fruits,  the  ori^al  and  proper 
heirs".  The  echoes  of  this  conflict  die  away  in  later 
writings:  as  instinctively  Christ  is  felt  to  be  the  Lord 
of  all,  the  scope  of  the  promise  is  universalized. 

Spontaneity  on  the  part  of  the  promisor  is  among 
the  primary  conditions  on  which  the  promise  is  ful- 
filled (e.  g.  Acts,  ii,  39).  As  the  promise  is  of  ^ace, 
St.  Paul  shows  that  it  is  subject  to  no  pre-existing 
merit  on  the  part  of  the  Mosaic  law,  or  of  works  of 
the  law.  Th^  promise  was  given  to  Abraham  and  to 
his  faith  four  hundred  and  thirty  years  before  the  law 
was  heard  of.  It  is  fulfilled  not  in  works  of  law,  but 
in  a  living  faith  in  Jesus  Christ  together  with  the  love 
and  works  that  are  the  fruits  of  such  a  faith.  Having 
God's  proniise  to  go  upon,  it  is  part  of  the  function  of 
faith  to  maintain  a  strong  conviction  that  the  promise 
objectively  is  "the  substance  of  things  to  be  hoped  for, 
the  evidence  of  things  that  appear  not"  (Heb.,  xi,  1). 
But  if  the  first  grace  leading  to  the  fulfilment  of  the 
promise  is  gratuitous^  a  supernatural  gift  bestowed 
without  regard  to  merit  in  the  natural  order,  co-opera- 
tion with  this  and  ulterior  graces  is  required  ii^^  ^kss^ 


PBOMOTIO 


454 


PBOor 


realization  of  the  fulfilment.  Through  lack  of  the 
co-operation  no  less  than  from  lack  of  faith  have  the 
Divine  promises  often  proved  of  no  avail  in  the  Old 
Testament  as  well  as  in  the  New  (see  Grace). 

CoRNBLT,  Commenl.  in  Bpistolam  ad  Romanot  in  Curnt* 
Script.  Sac.  (Paria,  LethieUeuz.  1896).  203.  467-96;  Fouabd, 
SainL  Paul  and  Hi*  MitaioM  (New  York.  1894);  Toussaint. 
EpUres  de  8.  Paul,  I  (Paris,  1910).  216  sqq.;  Sakdat.  EpistU 
to  the  Roman9  (New  York,  1903).  6.  18.  109  tqq. 

Jambs  F.  Dribcoll. 
Promotio  i>er  SaltuxxL    See  Ordebs,  Holy. 

Promotor  Fidel  (Promoter  op  the  Faith),  an 
official  of  the  Roman  Congregation  of  Rites.  The 
office  was  created  by  Clement  XI,  7  April,  1708.  In 
earlier  times  the  work  now  undertaken  by  the 
Promotor  Fidei  was  entrusted  to  the  Promotor  Fis- 
calis  or  some  consistorial  advocate.  The  Promotor 
Fidei  is  also  an  official  of  the  Congregation  of  Indul- 

?;enoes  and  Sacred  Relics,  but  his  main  duty  is  per- 
ormed  in  the  processes  of  beatification  and  canoniza- 
tion, which  are  conducted  by  the  Congregation  of 
Rites.  It  is  the  special  care  of  the  Promoter  of  the 
Faith  to  prevent  any  rash  decisions  concerning  mir- 
acles or  virtues  of  the  candidates  for  the  honours  of  the 
altar.  All  documents  of  beatification  and  canonization 
processes  must  be  submitted  to  his  examination,  and 
the  difficulties  and  doubts  he  raises  over  the  virtues 
and  miracles  are  laid  before  the  congregation  and 
must  be  satisfactorily  answered  before  any  further 
steps  can  be  taken  in  the  processes.  It  is  his  duty  to 
suggest  natural  explanations  f^r  alleged  miracles,  and 
even  to  bring  forward  human  and  selfish  motives  for 
deeds  that  have  been  accounted  heroic  virtues.  For 
the  examination  of  witnesses  outside  of  Rome,  the 
promoter  formulates  the  questions  and  he  has  the 
power  to  appoint  sub-promoters  to  assist  him.  All 
the  processes  for  beatincation  and  canonization  must 
be  submitted  to  the  promoter  under  pain  of  nullity. 
Owing  to  his  peculiar  duty  of  antagonizing  the  proofs 

gut  forward  on  behalf  of  persons  proposea  for  saintly 
onours,  the  Promoter  of  the  Faith  is  commonly  re- 
ferred to,  half  jocosely,  as  the  devil's  advocate. 

HiujNG,  Proe0dur9  ai  the  Roman  Curia  (New  York,  1907); 
Baakt.  The  R4>man  Court  (New  York,  1895). 

William  H.  W.  Fanning. 

Proznulgation  (Lat.  -promvigare,  to  make  known, 
to  post  in  public). 

I.  Promulgation  in  General. — ^This  is  the  act  by 
which  the  legislative  power  makes  legislative  enact- 
ments known  to  the  authorities  entrusted  with  their 
execution  and  to  the  subjects  bound  to  observe  them. 
Philosophically  it  is  a  matter  of  dispute  whether  pro- 
mulgation is  of  the  essence  of  a  law.  It  seems  indis- 
put£3[>le  that  the  essential  element  of  a  law  is  the  will 
of  the  legislator,  but  it  is  clear  that  the  legislator 
should  make  known  his  will  and  intention  in  on^  way 
or  another.  This  manifestation  is  the  promulgation 
of  the  law,  which  is  not  necessarily  distinct  from  the 
very  elaboration  of  the  laWi  provided  that  this  takes 
place  by  external  acts — sucn  as  the  vote  of  a  legisla- 
tive assembly  or  by  royal  sanction.  Such  is  the  prac- 
tice observed  in  England  and  in  most  of  the  states  of 
the  American  Union,  but,  as  it  was  thought  too  severe, 
the  legislation  of  various  coimtries  reouires  the  pro- 
mulgation of  laws  by  a  special  formal  act,  through 
which  the  text  of  the  law  is  made  known  to  the  com- 
munity, e.  g.  by  publication  of  this  text  in  an  official 
journal  or  bulletin  of  the  Government.  Previous  to 
this  publication  the  law  does  not  take  effect.  The 
promulgation  of  a  law  must  not  be  confounded  with 
its  pubfication,  the  object  of  the  first  being  to  make 
known  the  will  of  the  legislator,  of  the  second  to 
spread  the  knowledge  of  legislative  enactments  among 
subjects  bound  to  observe  them. 

II.  Promulgation  in  Canon  Law. — ^The  Church 
has  lone  exacted  the  promulgation  of  a  law  by  a  special 
set  of  the  authorities :  "  Leges  instituuntur  quum  pro- 


mulgantur",  a  law  is  not  really  a  law  until  it  has  been 
made  known,  says  Gratian  (Decretum  Gratiani^  pt.  I, 
c.  3,  dist.  VII).  However,  no  special  form  n  pre- 
scribed for  acts  of  ecclesiastical  authorities  inferior  to 
the  pope,  even  synodal  decrees  being  considered  suffi- 
ciently promulgated  by  being  read  in  the  synod.  The 
Constitution  ''Promulgandi^'  of  Pius  X  (29  S^tem- 
bcT,  1908)  determined  the  ordinary  method  of  pro- 
mulgating pontifical  laws,  namely  by  the  insertion  of 
the  text  of^the  law  in  the  "Acta  Apostolics  Sedis" 
(the  official  publication  of  the  Holy  See),  after  this 
insertion  has  been  ordered  by  the  secretary  or  the 
supreme  authority  of  the  congregation  or  the  office 
through  the  medium  of  which  the  pope  has  passed 
the  law.  A  regulation  of  5  January^  1910,  oivides 
the  official  bulletin  of  the  Holy  See  into  two  parts: 
in  the  first  or  official  part  should  be  inserted  all  docu- 
ments requiring  promulgation  to  have  the  force  of 
law;  the  second  merely  serves  to  illustrate  and  sup- 
plement the  first  (Acta  Apost .  Sedis,  1910,  p.  37) .  How- 
ever, the  pope  explicitly  reserves  the  right  to  deter- 
mine in  exceptional  cases  another  method  of  promulga- 
tion. Prior  to  this  law  two  systems  had  been  chiefly 
in  use  in  the  Church — provincial  promulgation,  until 
the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century,  and  Koman  pro- 
mulgation. During  the  first  period  promulgation 
often  took  place  in  the  different  ecclesiastical  prov- 
inces either  through  special  envoys  or  through  the 
bishops.  Nevertheless  it  is  also  a  fact  that  laws 
binding  in  one  province  were  also  binding  in  others. 
During  the  second  period  the  custom,  which  be- 
came exclusive  during  the  fifteenth  century,  devel- 
oped of  having  the  new  laws  read  and  posted  up  by 
curtores  at  Rome  only,  at  the  doors  of  the  great 
basilicas,  the  Palazzo  Cancellaria,  the  Campo  de' 
fiori,  and  sometimes  at  the  Capitol.  The  value  of  this 
means  of  promulgation  was  disputed  in  modem  times  t 
some  claimed  that  the  Church  had  admitted  the 
arrangements  of  Novels  Ixvi  and  cxvi  of  Justinian, 
which  required  provincial  promulgation  for  some  laws; 
others  maintained  that  in  theory  publication  at  Rome 
was  sufficient,  but  that  the  popes  did  not  wish  to  bind 
the  faithful  before  the  laws  were  made  known  to  them 
by  the  bishoi)s;  while  others  appealed  to  ancient  cus- 
toms, to  which  the  pope  should  conform.  This  last 
theory,  made  use  of  by  the  Galileans  and  Febronian- 
ists,  furnished  the  State  with  a  pretext  for  preventing 
the  promulgation  of  laws  whicn  it  did  not  like.  A 
special  method  of  promulgation  was  idso  introduced 
with  the  express  or  tacit  consent  of  the  Holy  See  for 
the  decrees  of  congregations;  they  were  published  at 
the  secretariate  of  the  dicasteries  from  which  they 
emanated. 

Zaccasxa,  De  taria  *ecdee.  pneeertim  laiina  in  prownUi/andie 
aaerie  eoneHtutionibue  diaeiplina  in  De  rebtu  ad  hiaUfriam  algue 
antiquitatee  eceUtim  periinentibus  dieeeriationee  iote'fur,  II  (Iiil- 
ginia,  1781), xi;  Boxtix,  Deprineipiie iurie oanonici  (Paria,  1852), 
196  sq.;  Bouquillon,  Theol.  mortu.  fundamentalie  (Bniaaeb, 
1890),  270  so.;  Cbeaoh,  The  PronudifaHon  of  Poniifieal  Law  in 
Cath.  Univ.  BuU.»  XV  (Waahincton,  1909),  23  sq.:  Simibr,  La 
promuUfotion  dee  loie  eedia.  in  Revue  auouet%nienne,  "XV  (Louyain, 
1909),  164  iq.  A.   VaN  HoVB. 

Pro  Nuncio.    See  NuNao. 

Proof,  the  establishment  of  a  disputed  or  contro- 
verted matter  by  lawful  means  or  arguments.  Proof 
is  the  result  of  evidence;  evidence  is  the  medium  of 
proof.  There  is  no  proof  without  evidence,  but  there 
may  be  evidence  without  proof.  Proof  is  judicial,  if 
offered  in  court;  otherwise  it  is  extra-judicial.  Proof 
is  perfect,  or  complete,  when  it  produces  full  con- 
viction, and  enables  the  judge  without  further  in- 
vestigation to  pronounce  sentence:  imperfect,  or  in- 
complete, if  it  begets  probability  only.  Canonists 
enumerate  six  kinds  of  perfect  proof:  the  unshaken  de- 
position of  two  witnesses,  who  are  above  all  suspicion; 
a  public  document,  or  other  instrument  having  the 
force  of  a  public  document,  as,  for  instance,  a  certified 
copy  of  a  public  instrument;  conclusive  preBumpiion 


raoor 


455 


PROOF 


of  law;  the  decisive  oath;  judicial  confession;  evidence 
or  notoriety  of  the  fact.  Imperfect  or  semi-proof  is 
derived  from  the  testimony  of  one  witness  only,  or  of 
several  singular  witnesses,  or  of  two  witnesses  not  en- 
tirely unsluLken  in  their  testimony  or  not  beyond  all 
suspicion;  writings  or  instruments  of  a  private  charac- 
ter; a  document  admitted  as  authentic  only  on  the 
strength  of  the  handwriting;;  the  necessary  oath;  pre- 
sumption which  is  only  probablei  not  conclusive;  pub- 
lic report  when  legally  proved.  Two  imperfect  proofs 
cannot  constitute  perfect  proof  in  crimmal  cases,  in 
which  proof  must  be  clearer  than  the  noonday  sun :  in 
matrimonial  cases,  when  there  is  question  of  the  valid- 
ity of  a  marriage  alreadycontracted;  or  in  civil  actions 
of  a  Krave  character.  With  these  exceptions  two  in- 
complete proofs  tending  to  establish  the  same  point 
may  constitute  full  proofor  conviction.  Judicial  proofs 
must  as  a  rule  be  full  and  conclusive.  There  are,  how- 
ever, some  exceptions.  Thus  the  testimony  of  but  one 
witness  will  suffice  when  it  is  beneficial  to  another  per- 
son and  hurts  no  one.  Likewise  in  summary  causes  of 
little  moment  and  not  prejudicial  to  any  one,  half 
proof  is  sufficient;  also  when  the  judge  is  commissioned 
to  proceed,  having  merely  examined  into  the  truth  of 
the  fact  (splafacti  verUcUe  inapecta), 

Canfe8sionf  the  acknowledgment  by  a  person  that 
what  IS  charged  or  asserted  by  his  opponent  is  true, 
is  judicial  or  extra-judicial.  Judicial  confession 
is  the  best  of  proofs.  It  must  be.  made  in  clear 
and  definite  terms,  in  court^  that  is,  before  the  jud^ 
in  his  official  capacity,  dunng  the  trial,  with  certain 
knowledge  of  the  fact  and  aUso  of  the  consequences 
of  siud  confession,  by  a  person  not  under  twenty-five 
years  of  age,  acting  with  full  liberty  and  not  through 
fear.  Such  a  confession  makes  further  proof  un- 
necessary; renders  valid  any  previous  defective  pro- 
ceedings; and,  if  made  after  the  defendant  has  already 
been  convicted,  deprives  him  of  the  ri^ht  of  appeal. 
The  confession  may  be  revoked  dunng  the  same 
session  of  court  in  which  it  was  made;  after  an  inter- 
ruption the  only  remedy  available  is  to  show,  if  possi- 
ble, that'  the  confession  was  illegal,  because  wanting 
in  some  reouisite  quality,  as  above.  Ordinarily  a 
confession  ooes  not  miUtate  against  accomplices  or 
others,  but  only  against  the  one  confessing.  Extra- 
judicial confession,  if  properly  proved,  constitutes  in 
criminal  causes  a  grave  presumption,  out  not  perfect 
proof;  in  civil  cases  it  is  sufficient  for  the  pronouncing 
of  sentence,  if  made  in  the  presence  of  the  plaintiff  or 
his  representative  and  if  it  specifically  states  the  cause 
or  origin  of  the  obligation. 

InatrumerUa  or  DocumenUary  Evidence, — A  public 
instrument  is  one  drawn  up  by  a  public  official  with  the 
reciuired  formaUties.  If  a  document  be  the  work  of  a 
private  person,  or  of  an  official  who  does  not  observe 
the  prescribed  formalities,  it  is  a  private  instrument. 
Instruments  to  possess  weight  must  be  genuine  and 
authentic.  Public  instruments  consequently  must 
bear  the  name,  title,  and  seal  of  the  official  issuing 
them.  Private  documents  should  be  written  in  the 
presence  of  witnesses  and  attested  by  them. 

Preaumptione, — Circumstantial,  presumptive,  or  in- 
direct evidence,  strong  enough  to  estabhsh  a  moral 
certainty,  is  admitted  Siso  in  canon  law,  but  it  must  be 
accepted  with  caution,  and  sentence  modified  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  degree  of  evidence.  The  rational 
basis  of  such  evidence  lies  in  the  coimexion  of  Uie  facts 
or  circumstances,  known  and  proved,  with  the  fact 
at  issue.  A  presumption  consequently  is  more  or  less 
strong,  according  as  the  fact  presumed  is  a  necessary 
(vehement,  very  strong  presumption),  or  usual  (strong 
presumption),  or  infrequent  (rash,  unreasonable  pre- 
sumption), consequence  of  the  fact  or  facts  seen, 
known,  or  proven.  A  presumption  is  legal,  if  the  law 
itself  draw  the  inference.  This  is  of  two  Kinds :  rebut- 
table {juris  eimpliciter),  which  may  be  set  aside  by  con- 
trary proof;  conclusive  (juris  et  dejure),  against  which 


no  direct  proof  is  admitted.  A  presumption  is  natural 
(hominis)  when  the  law  permits  the  judge  to  draw 
whatever  inference  he  considers  warranted  by  the  facts 
proved;  such  presumptions  are  sometimes  called  pre- 
sumptions of  facts.  The  general  effect  of  presump- 
tion is  to  place  the  burden  of  proof  on  him  against 
whom  the  presumption  militates.  A  rash  presump- 
tion is  little  more  than  mere  suspicion;  a  grave  or 
sound  presumption  constitutes  imperfect  proof,  while 
a  vehement  presumption  suffices  in  civil  cases  of  not 
too  great  importance.  Legal  presumptions  or  pre- 
sumptions of  law  are  of  course  stronger  than  natural 
presumptions  or  presumptions  of  facts;  while  specific 
presumptions  have  more  wei^t  than  those  of  a 
general  character.  Presumptions  that  favour  the 
accused  or  the  validity  of  an  act  already  performed 
are  pr^erred. 

Oaths. — Oaths,  as  proof,  are  decisive  (litis  deciso- 
rium)  or  necessary.  The  decisive  oath  is  given  by  the 
judge,  when  private  interests  are  in  question,  to  one  of 
the  litigants  at  the  instance  of  the  other.  The  case 
is  decided  in  favour  of  the  one  taking  the  oath;  if  he 
refuse  to  swear,  sentence  is  pronounced  against,  him. 
The  necessary  oath  is  given  oy  the  judge  on  his  own 
initiative,  not  at  the  request  of  one  of  the  Htigants,  to 
complete  imperfect  proof,  and  is  called  supplementary; 
or  to  destroy  the  force  of  circumstantial  evidence,  aris- 
ing especially  from  current  rumour,  against  the  ac- 
ciSed,  and  is  called  pur^tive.  This  latter  is  per- 
mitted only  when  there  is  not  at  least  *  semi-pen  ect 
proof.  The  supplementary  oath  is  permissible  only 
when  there  is  at  least  impenect  and  yet  not  full  proof. 
It  is  not  allowed  in  criminal  actions  or  in  important 
civU  cases,  as^  for  example,  when  the  validity  of  a  mar- 
riage or  a  religious  profession  is  in  question. 

Public  Report. — ^Witnesses  testify  as  to  the  exist- 
ence 01  non-existence,  the  orij^n,  extent,  and  nature 
of  a  public  report.  Their  testimony  does  not  concern 
the  truth  or  falsehood  of  the  report.  It  is  for  the 
judge  to  trace  the  report  to  its  source  and  accept  it 
at  its  proper  value.  Since,  however,  it  is  to  be  pre- 
sumed that  public  opinion  is  foimded  on  fact,  in  civil 
matters  it  furnishes  semi-perfect  proof,  when  its  ex- 
istence is  properly  established.  In  criminal  matters  it 
has  less  weight  still,  being  sufficient  only  for  an  in- 
vestigation. 

Evidence  of  the  Fact. — ^Evidence  or  notoriety  of  the 
fact,  viz.,  when  it  is  so  open  and  evident  that  it  can- 
not be  concealed  or  denied,  needs  no  proof.  Hence  a 
judicial  inspection  or  visitation  of  the  corpus  delicti 
IS  often  of  advantage.  Under  this  head  might  be 
mentioned  the  opinion  of  experts,  who  are  appointed 
by  the  judge  to  examine  certain  matters  ana  to  ^ve 
th^ir  expert  testimony  concerning  the  same. 

Rules. — Proof  must  be  clear,  specific,  and  in  keeping 
with  the  charge  or  point  at  issue;  otherwise  confusion 
and  obscurity  will  arise.  To  establish  a  point  other 
than  the  one  in  question  will  avail  Nothing.  Whether 
the  evidence  offered  be  relevant  or  not.  the  judge  will 
determine.  The  issue  must  be  established  suostan- 
tially,  not  necessarily  in  all  its  details.  The  burden 
of  proof  lies  with  the  plaintiff,  though  the  defendant 
must  offer  proof  in  support  of  his  allegations,  excep- 
tions etc .  W  hat  is  evident  needs  no  proof :  in  criminal 
cases  this  axiom  applies  only  to  what  is  evident  in 
law,  i.  e.  he  who  has  the  presumption  of  all  in  his 
favour  is  exempt  from  the  necessity  of  proving  his 
contention. 

Time  to  Introduce  Evidence. — Judicial  evidence 
must  be  introduced  during  the  trial.  Ordinarily, 
therefore,  evidence  may  not  be  presented  before  the 
hearing  of  the  petition  or  charge  and  the  answer  of  the 
defencGmt  to  the  same  (contestcUio  litis).  This  rule, 
however,  does  not  apply  when  the  judge  proceeds 
summarily  or  by  inquiry;  and  likewise  in  certain  cases 
where  there  is  danger  of  the  testimony  being  lost 
through  death  or  other  cause.    Again,  as  a  rule,  no 


PROPAGANDA 


456 


PROPAGANDA 


evidence  will  be  admitted  after  the  jud^e  has  closed 
the  case.  This  general  rule  is  not  apphed  when  the 
validity  of  a  marriage  is  in  question;  in  criminal  cases, 
in  which  eveiy  opportunity  of  defence  is  given  the 
accused;  and  occasionallv  in  other  trials,  where  further 
testimony  is  considered  necessary  or  new  evidence 
has  been  discovered. 

Entry  of  Evidence. — Evidence  must  be  presented  to 
the  judge  or  other  person  commissionGd  to  receive  it. 
It  must  be  written  down  by  the  clerk  in  the  acts  or 
minutes  of  the  trial :  date  of  presentation  of  documents 
is  noted  on  the  documents  themselves  and  attested  bv 
the  signature  of  the  clerk.  Evidence  in  rebuttal, 
effected  by  witnesses,  documents^  or  otherwise,  must 
be  admitted,  the  final  word  in  cnminal  actions  being 
given  to  the  defendant. 

Comparison  of  Proofs. — It  belongs  to  the  judge 
to  sift  the  depositions  of  witnesses  or  other  proof  and 
to  determine  the  relative  value  of  conflicting  evidence. 
He  must  consider  not  merely  the  respective  nimiber  of 
witnesses  but  their  qualincations,  intellectual  and 
moral,  their  knowledge  of  the  facts  at  issue,  and  so  on. 
The  strong  proof  must  prevail,  and  when  proof  is 
equally  divided,  the  accused  or  possessor  must  be 
favoured,  except  in  privileged  cases  (see  Examination^ 
Examination  of  Witnesses). 

DtereL  Oreo.  fX,  I.  II,  tit.  18  aqq.;  Taumton,  Law  of  the 
Ckureht  8.  T.  Froof;  Dbpstk-Mkbsmer,  Canonical  Procedure,  etc.. 
ii;  SANTit  PraUdumee  juria  Can.,  1.  II,  tit.  18  aqq. 

Andrew  B.  Meehan. 

Propaganda,  'Sacbed  Congbegation  of. — ^The 
Sacred  Con^egation  de  Propofanda  Fide,  whos^ 
official  title  is  ^  sacra  Congregatio  christiano  nomini 
proptfgando"  is  the  department  of  the  pontifical  ad- 
mimstration  charged  with  the  spread  ot  Catholicism 
and  with  the  regulation  of  ecclesiastical  affairs  in 
non-CathoUc  countries.  The  intrinsic  importance  of 
its  duties  and  the  extraordinai^  extent  of  its  authority 
and  of  the  territory  under  its  jurisdiction  have  caused 
the  cardinal  prefect  of  Propaganda  to  be  known  as  the 
"red  pope". 

I.  HiOTORY. — A.  First  Period. — Its  establishment 
at  Rome  in  the  seventeenth  century  was  owing 
partly  to  the  necessity  of  communicating  with  new 
countries  then  recently  discovered,  ana  partly  to 
the  new  svstem  of  government  by  oongrogations 
adopted  during  the  Counter-Reformation.  It  is 
well  known  that,  during  this  period,  the  defence  and 
propagation  of  Catholicism  suggested  to  the  Holy 
aee  the  establishment  of  a  complete  system  of 
administrative  departments,  to  each  of  which  was 
assigned  some  special  branch  of  Catholic  interests. 
The  propagation  of  the  Faith  was  a  matter  of  such 
vital  importance  as  to  demand  for  its  work  an  entire 
congregation.  The  reconquest  for  the  Church  of 
the  lands  severed  from  it  was  not  of  greater  impor- 
tance than  the  evangelization  of  the  vast  regions  then 
being  explored  by  courageous  adventures.  America, 
Africa,  the  Far  East,  opened  up  new  lands,  new 
peoples,  new  conquests;  tne  Church,  conscious  of  her 
natural  mission  to  evangelize  the  world,  felt  obliged 
to  act  and  to  act  quickly,  especially  as  Holland  and 
England,  while  striving  eaferlv  for  commerce  and 
colonial  expansion,  were  aCo  bent  upon  spreading 
everywhere  the  doctrines  of  Protestantism. 

The  origin  of  the  Sacred  Congregation  of  Prop- 
aganda has  been  variously  accounted  for;  in  reality 
it  is  the  result  of  slow  evolution.  It  is  certfun  that 
it  passed  through  two  distinct  periods,  one  formative 
and  the  other  constitutive.  The  first  period  is  that 
of  the  cardinalitial  commission  de  projxiganda  fide 
(before  it  had  been  constituted  a  definite  pontifical 
department  or  ministry).  This  lasted  from  the  time 
of  Gregory  XIII  (1672-85)  to  1622,  when  Greroiy 
XV  established  the  congregation  properly  so-called. 
Gregory  XIII  instituted  a  primary  commission  com- 
posed of  the  three  cardinals,  Caraffa,  Medici,  and 


Santorio,  who  were  especially  charged  to  promote 
the  union  with  Rome  of  the  Oriental  Christians 
(Slavs,  Greeks,  Ssrrians,  Egmtians,  and  Abyssinians). 
Their  meetings,  held  under  the  presidency  of  Cardinal 
Santorio,  known  as  the  Cardinal  of  Santa  Severina, 
revealed  certain  urgent  practical  needs — e.  g.  the 
foundation  of  forei^  seminaries,  the  printing  of 
catechisms  and  similar  works  in  many  languages. 
Its  efforts  were  successful  among  the  Ruthenians,  the 
Armenians,  S3rrians,  both  Western  (as  those  of  the 
Lebanon)  and  Eastern  (as  those  of  MaJabar).  After 
the  death  of  Gregory  XIII  the  rapid  succession  of 
four  popes  in  seven  years  arrested  the  progress  of  the 
commission's  work.  Clement  VIII  (1592-1605), 
a  pontiff  of  large  and  bold  aims,  was  deeply  interested 
in  the  commission,  and  caused  its  first  meeting  after 
his  election  to  be  held  in  his  presence.  He  retained 
Santorio  as  its  president:  weekly  meetings  were  held 
in  that  cardinal's  palace,  and  every  fifteen  days  the 
decisions  and  recommendations  of  the  commission 
were  referred  to  the  pontiff.  To  this  period  belongs 
a  very  notable  triumph,  the  union  with  Rome  of  the 
Ruthenian  nation  (the  Little  Russia  of  Poland) 
called  the  Union  of  Brest  (1598). 

B.  Second  Pmorf.— The  death  of  Clement  VIII 
revealed  an  essential  weakness  of  the  institution. 
It  was  a  personal  commission,  depending  for  its  very 
existence  on  the  energy  of  its  few  members.  Even- 
tually the  meetings  of  the  three  cardiniJs  ceased; 
at  the  same  time  an  active  propagation  of  the  Catholic 
Faith  was  kept  up  among  ootn  Protestants  and  non- 
Christians.  The  practical  demise  of  the  commission 
made  evident  the  necessity  of  providing  for  its  per- 
manence. The  honour  of  accomplishmg  this  be- 
longs to  Gregory  XV  (1621-23).  On  6  Jan.,  1622, 
the  pope  summoned  thirteen  cardinals  and  two  prel- 
ates, to  whom  he  announced  Iub  intention  of  con- 
stituting a  permanent  and  well-organized  congrega- 
tion for  the  propagation  of  Catholicism,  and  nis 
hearers  were  appointed  members  of  the  congre^- 
tion.  The  preliminaries  of  organization  were  dih- 
gently  carried  on;  on  22  June  of  the  same  year  ap- 
peared the  Bull  '^  Inscrutabili  Divins",  by  which 
the  Sacred  O>ngregation  de  propofanda  fide  was  in- 
stituted, composed  of  thirteen  cardinals  and  two  prel- 
ates, to  whom  were  added  a  secretary  and  a  con- 
suitor.  Its  first  presidents  were  Cardinal  Sauli, 
dean  of  the  Sacred  College,  and  Cardinal  Ludovisi, 
nephew  of  the  pope  and  founder  of  the  Irish  (Jollege 
at  Rome.  On  the  same  day  provision  was  made 
for  the  support  of  the  congregation  by  the  Con- 
stitution ''Romanum  Decet".  It  assigned  to  Prop- 
aganda the  tassa  deW  anello  (ring -tax)  assessed  on 
each  newly  appointed  cardinal  (500  gold  scudi, 
later  600  silver  scudi).  On  14  Dec.  of  the  same  year 
was  published  the  (Constitution  "Cum  Inter  Multi- 
plices".  and  on  13  June,  1623,  another  O>nstitution, 
*'Chim  Nuper  ",  both  of  which  conferred  on  the  congre- 

?;ation  ample  privileges  and  immunities  in  order  to 
aciUtate  and  accelerate  its  labours.  When  the . 
financial  management  increased  in  importance,  the 
pope  ordered  that  each  of  the  thirteen  ciuxlinals 
should  direct  it  in  turn;  at  a  later  date  a  single  car- 
dinal was 'placed  at  the  head  of  the  financial  depart- 
ment. The  death  of  Gregory  XV  (1624)  prevented 
the  founder  of  th^  congregation  from  completing  its 
organization;  happily,  his  successor,  Unban  YlII 
(1623-44),  was  Cardinal  Barberini,  one  of  the  orig- 
inal thirteen  members  of  the  cot^gregation. 

After  the  death  of  Cardinals  Saiui  and  Ludovisi, 
Urban  VIII  directed  that  there  should  be  but  one 
prefect  general  of  the  congregation,  and  nominated 
to  the  office  his  brother.  Cardinal  Antonio  Barboini 
(29  Dec.,  1632).  At  the  same  time  he  appointed  his 
nephew,  a  second  Cardinal  Antonio  Barberini.  as  the 
auxiliary  of  the  preceding,  and  later  made  nim  his 
successor.    These  two  open  the  series  of  prefects 


PBOPAQAHDA  4J 

It  was  clear  to  Urban  VIII 

^ ^._     to  the  eatobliahment  (rf  eo 

cleeiBHtical  seminaiiefl  by  the  Council  of  Trent  had 
already  produced  excellent  results,  even  in  the  vast 
province  of  the  PropasaiKU,  through  the  agency  of 
the  numerous  national  ooUf^es  then  foundeaj  e.  g.  at 
Rome,'  the  German,  English,  Greek,  Maronite, 
Scots,  and  other  colleges.  But  he  atso  saw  that  it 
was  necessary  to  establish  a  central  seminary  for  the 
missions  where  young  eccleuastics  could  be  «jucated, 
not  only  for  countries  which  had  no  national  college 
but  also  for  such  as  were  endowed  with  such  institu- 
tions. It  seemed  very  desirable  to  have,  in  every 
country,  priests  educated  in  an  international  college 
where  thev  could  acquire  a  larger  personot  acquain- 
tance, ana  establish  in  youth  relations  that  might 
be  mutually  helpful  in  after  life.  Thus  arose  the 
seminary  of  the  Propaganda  known  as  the  CoU^um 
Urbanum,  from  the  name  of  its  founder.  Urban  Vllt. 
It  was  eetablished  by  the  Bull  "Inunortalig  Dei", 
of  1  Aug.,  1627,  and  placed  under  the  immediate 
direction  of  the  Congregation  of  Propaganda.  The 
congregation  itself  devdoped  so  rapidly  that  it  be- 
came  eventually   necessary   to   divide   its   immense 


This  contmuoL 
very  earliest  yeara. 
of  the  ooDgr^ation 


a  secretariates  and 

rease  of  its  labours  dates  from  its 
In  the  betpnning  the  meetings 

were  held  in  the  presence  of  the 

__         ,  __.         er,  the  pressure  of  bumneas  grew 

«  oe  so  great  that  the  general  prefect  and  the  general 
secretary  were  authorised  to  transact  all  current  busi- 
nese,  with  the  obligation  of  placing  before  the  pope, 
at  stated  int«rvals,  the  raore  important  matters,  which 
is  still  the  custom.  In  extent  of  territory,  in  ex- 
ternal  and  internal  organization,  and  in  jurisdiction, 
the  congregation  has  undergone  modifications  ac- 
cording to  the  needs  of  the  times;  but  it  may  be  said 
that  its  definite  organizBltion  dates  from  about  1650. 
II.  Terbitobiaij  Jurisdiction.— As  a  general 
principle,  it  was  understood  that  the  territory  of 
Propaganda  was  (apart  from  the  Catholics  of  all  the 
Oriental  rites)  conterminous  with  those  countries 
that  were  non-Catholic  in  government.  Naturally 
there  were,  and  are,  exceptions;  for  example,  Russia 
depends,  ecclenastically,  upon  the  Congregation  of 
Extraordinary  Ecclesiastical  Aff^rs,  since  it  is  neces- 
sary to  treat  all  Russian  aiTairs  through  governmental 
chaiuiete.  The  territorial  juriadiction  of  Propaganda 
WBS  before  the  promulgation  of  the  Codstitution 
"Sapienti  Conmlio"  as  follows:  in  Europe,  Great 
Briton  and  Gibraltar,  Sweden  and  Norway,  Den- 
maric,  Germany  {Saxony,  AnhaJt,  Mecklenburg, 
Schaumburs,  Oldenburg^  LauenburE,  Hamburg, 
Bremen.  LUbeck,  Schleswig'Holstein),  Holland,  Lux- 
emburg, some  places  in  Switserland  (Mesolcina  and 
Calanca  in  the  Griaons,  St.  Maurice  in  the  Canton 
of  Valaia),  the  Balkan  peninsula  (Bosnia.  Her- 
cegovina.  and  Greece);  in  the  New  Worla,  the 
United  States,  Canada,  Lower  California,  the  Lesser 
Antilles  (British  and  Danish),  Jamaica  and  Hondursa, 
some  missions  in  Peru,  Patagonia;  ail  Oceonica  ex- 
cept the  Phihppines;  all  Asia  except  the  Russian 
possessions;  ail  Africa.  As  to  the  Catholics  of 
the  Oriental  rit«8,  they  are  subject  personally 
(that  is,  wherever  they  may  be)  to  Propaganda. 
Thdr  divisian  by  rites  generally  corresponda  to  their 
nationaUty.  These  rites  are:  the  Armemon,  fre- 
quent (basides,  of  course,  in  Armenia)  in  Austria, 
Persia,  and  Egypt;  the  pure  Coptic  Rite  (in  Egypt); 
the  Aoyasinian  Coptic  Rite,  to  which  belong  a  few 
faithfijd  in  Abyssinia  and  in  the  Italian  colony  of 
Eritrea;  the  pure  Greek  Rite,  including  some  com- 
munities in  Southern  Italy  and  a  very  few  in  Tur- 
key; the  liumanian  Greek  Rite,  with  adherents 
uno^  the  Rumanians  of  Hungary  and  Transylvania; 
the  Ruthenian  Gr^k  Rite,  or  that  of  the  Little 
Russians  in  Austria  and  Russia;  the  Bulgarian  Greek 


>7  PBOFAGAHDA 

Rite,  in  Bulgaria  and  in  Macedonia;  the  Melchite 
Gre^  Rite  (Grsco-Syrian),  which  includes  the 
Catholics  of  Greece,  also  hellenized  natives  of  Syria 
and  Palestine;  the  unmixed  Syrian  Rite  (Western 
Syrian),  or  tJtat  of  the  Syrians  of  the  plain  of  Syria 
and  Palestine;  the  Syro-Moronite  Rite  (Western 
Syrian)  or  the  (Syrian)  Maronites  of  Mount  Lebanon; 
the  Syro-Clialdean  Rite  (Eastern  Syrian)  i.  e.  Syria 
in  the  Persian  Empire:  the  Malabar  Rite  (Eastern 
Syrian),  i.  e.  the  Cathohcs  of  Malabar  in  South- 
western India.  Among  most  of  these  peoples  there 
has  set  in  a  remarkable  tide  of  emigration  to  the  New 
World,  especially  to  North  America,  whither  the 
Ruthenians  and  Maronites  emigrate  in  lai^  numbers. 

In  the  Constitution  "Sapienti  Consilio"  of  Kus 
X  (29  June,  190S),  the  plan  was  followed  of  entrusting 
to  Propaganda  those  countries  of  Europe  and  Amer- 
ica where  the  eccieeiastical  hierarchy  ia  not  estabhshed. 
Great  Britain,  Holland,  Luxemburg,  Canada,  and  the 
United  States  were  therefore  removed  from  its 
jurisdiction;  on  the  other  bond,  all  the  vicariates  and 
prefectures  Apostolic  of  America  and  the  Phihp- 
pines, which  were  formerly  subject  to  the  Congrega- 
tion of  Extraor- 
dinary Ecclesi- 
astical Affaire, 
were  placed  under 
Propaganda.  A 
det^trture  from 
the  general  plan  , 
was  in  leaving  i 
Australia  under  I 
the  jurisdiction  of  I 
the  latter  congre-  ■  \ 
gation,  with  the 
addition  of  St- 
Pierre,  in  Marti- 
nique, and  Gua- 
deloupe. Another 
restriction  of  the 
powers  of  Propa- 
ganda effected  by 
the  new  legislation  was,  that  all  matters  apper- 
taining to  faith,  the  sacraments  (particularly  matri- 
mony), rites,  and  reUgjous  conjugations — as  such, 
even  though  they  were  exclusively  devot«d  to  the 
work  of  the  missions — were  assigned  to  the  care  of 
the  reepective  congregations:  those  of  the  Holy 
Office,  the  Sacraments,  Ritesi  and  R^ulare. 

III.  External     Oboanieation.^ — The 


delegatioi 

simple  missions,  and  colleges.  The  Apostolic  dele^a- 
tions  are  established  to  maintain  immediate  repre- 
sentatives of  the  Holy  See  in  places  where  they  seem 
to  be  needed  by  reason  of  the  growth  of  the  Church 
in  organization  and  in  numbers.  Their  personnel 
is  composed  of  an  Apostolic  delegate  and  an  auditor, 
subject  to  Propaganda.  They  are  as  follows:  in 
Europe,  those  of  Constantinople  and  of  Greece 
(Athens);  in  Asia,  those  of  the  East  Indies  (Kondy 
in  Ceylon),  of  Mesopotamia,  Kurdistan,  and  Armenia 
Minor  (Mosul),  of  Persia  (Urumiah),  of  Syria  (Beirut) ; 
in  Africa,  that  of  E^iypt  and  Arabia  (Alexandria). 
The  dioceses  as  a  rule  confdst  of  a  bishop,  who  holds 
the  title  to  the  see  and  administers  the  local  govern- 
ment with  the  aid  of  a  cathedral  chapter  and  a 
parochial  clergy.  A  diocesan  organization  (Latin 
Rite)  exists  in  the  following  Propaganda  countries: 
in  Europe,  Bosnia  and  Heriegovina,  Rumania,  Bul- 
garia, Abyssinia,  Greece;  in  America,  Guadeloupe 
and  St-Pierre,  Martinique;  in  Oceania,  Australia 
and  New  Zealand;  in  Asia,  Smyrna,  India,  and  Japan; 
in  Africa,  the  Mauritius  and  the  Seychelles.  The 
Oriental  Catholics  (Uniats),  except  those  of  the 
Abyssinian-Coptic,  the  Umnixed  Greek,  and  the 
Grsco-Bulgarian   Rites,   ai«  tian  rsr^tsiatAL'^Si.  ^^«>- 


FBOPAOAMBA 


458 


PBOPAGAMSiA 


The  triearuites  Apostolic  are  miaBioiw  mt  the 
head  of  each  of  which  is  plaoed  a  Iriahop  who  acta 
aa  lepreKotatiTe  of  the  pope  in  the  local  govenuneot. 
The  prafectarea  Apoatolic  are  miaBioiia  of  minor  im- 
portwice^  eadi  of  whidi  has  at  ito  head  an  eodeaaiatic, 
not  a  biflhop,  with  the  title  of  prefect  Apoatolic. 
Tlioee  temtoriea  of  Propaganda  wfaidi  are  not  or- 
ganiifd  aa  diooeen  are  either  Yicariates  or  prefeo- 
toreB;  their  number  increaaea  r^dly,  flinoe  every 
year  aome  vicariate  Apoatolic  ia  divided^  or  aome 
prefectore  ia  raiaed  to  the  dk^ty  of  a  vicariate  or 
aome  new  prefecture  ia  created.  The  ample  miariona 
are  few  and  mostly  in  Africa.  They  icpieBcnt  an 
uncertain  or  tninaitory  condition  that  may  be  readily 
strengthened  by  the  establishment  of  an  Apoatolic 
prefecture. 

The  oolkp^  are  institutiona  for  the  education  of 
the  clergy,  mtended  either  to  supply  clergy  for  mta- 
aions  that  have  no  native  dergy  or  to  give  a  better 
education  to  the  native  clergy  for  the  apoetolate  in 
their  own  country.  The  central  seminary  of  Prop- 
aganda is.  as  has  been  said,  Uie  Urban  College, 
estaUishea  in  the  palace  of  the  congregation  at  Rome. 
The  immediate  superiors  are  two  prelates,  one  the 
general  secretary  A  the  congregation,  and  the  other 
the  rector.  In  this  collie  may  be  found  students 
from  all  the  territories  subject  to  Propasanda,  but 
from  nowhere  else.  The  average  number  of  its 
resident  students  is  about  one  hundred  and  ten. 
It  has  its  own  schools,  which  are  attended  by  many 
other  students  not  subject  to  Propaganda — e.  g. 
the  Bohemian  Collcse.  Besides  the  preparatory 
training,  these  schools  offer  courses  of  philoeophy 
and  theolo^,  and  confer  the  academic  degrees  of 
Bachelor,  Licentiate,  and  Doctor  of  Theology.  The 
number  of  students  in  these  schools  exceeds  five 
hundred.  In  Rome  the  College  of  the  Holy  Apostles 
Peter  and  Paul,  for  Italian  missionaries  (Lower 
California  and  Quna)^  and  the  College  of  St.  Anthony, 
for  Franciscan  missionaries  (especially  in  China), 
are  subject  to  Propagandas^  which  also  exercises 
jurisdiction  over  the  following  missionary  colleges 
outside  of  Rome:  St.  Calocerus,  at  Milan,  for  Italian 
missionaries  to  China  and  India;  St.  Charies,  at 
Parma  (China);  Brignole-Sale,  at  Genoa  (without 
local  designation  of  mission):  Instituto  per  la 
Nigrixia  (for  negroes  of  the  Sudan),  at  Verona; 
College  for  African  Missions,  at  Lyons,  espedaUy  for 
French  missionaries  to  Africa;  Seminary  of  Foreign 
Missions,  at  Paris  (India,  Indo-China,  China,  Japan) ; 
Mill  Hill  Seminary,  near  London,  for  the  missionaries 
of  the  Society  of  St.  Joseph  (India,  Central  Africa, 
Malay  Peninsula) ;  House  of  St.  Joseph,  Rozendaal 
(for  Dutch  students  of  the  Mill  Hill  Society) ;  House 
of  St.  Joseph,  Brixen  in  the  Tyrol  (for  German  stu- 
dents of  the  same  society) ;  four  colleges  of  the  Society 
of  the  Divine  Word,  at  Steyl  (Holland),  at  Heiligen- 
kreuz  (Germany),  and  at  St.  Gabriel,  near  Vienna, 
for  the  students  of  the  same  society  whose  missionary 
fields  are  in  the  United  States,  South  America, 
Oceania,  China,  and  Africa^  College  of  All  Hallows, 
DubUn,  for  Irish  missionanes;  American  College  at 
Louvain,  for  missionaries  to  the  United  States. 
The  national  colleges  at  Rome  subject  to  the  Prop- 
aganda are:  the  Greek,  Ruthenian,  Armenian,  and 
Maronite  colleges.  It  also  exercises  jurisdiction 
over  the  Albanian  College  at  Scutari,  the  College  of 
Pulo-Penang  (Prince  of  Wales  Island)  in  uido- 
China,  belonging  to  the  Societv  of  Foreign  Missions 
at  Paris  for  the  native  Indo-Chinese  clergy.  Before 
the  appearance  of  the  Constitution  ''Sapienti 
Consilio",  the  American,  Canadian,  English,  Irish, 
and  Scots  Colleges  at  Rome,  the  English  (College  at 
Lisbon,  the  Endish  and  the  Scots  College  at  Vallar 
dolid,  and  the  Irish  College  at  Paris  were  all  subject 
to   Propaganda. 

The  BuxUuuieB  of  this  vast  organization  are  all 


refi^ooB  Olden  and  n^gular  coBgregatioDs  of  xien  and 
women  to  which  foreign  miaoions  are  eonfided.  Their 
number  ia  very  great.  The  principal  orden  (Bene- 
dictine,  Fhuiaacan,  Dominican,  Cknn^le,  Jeauit 
etc.)  have  diarge  of  numenxis  misBons.  During 
the  nineteenth  century  many  regular  aocietiea  of  mia- 
sionary  priests  and  nuasionary  sisters  entered  ae- 
tively,  and  with  great  success,  on  miasionaiy  labours 
under  the  direction  of  the  congregation.  Tike  prin- 
cipal colleges  of  these  auxiliary  bodies  (not  directly 
subject  to  Prv^Munnda)  are:  at  RomeL  the  CoBeges 
of  St.  Fidelis  (Capuchm)  and  St.  Isidore  (Irah 
Frandscans),  and  the  Inah  Augustinian  O^lege; 
outside  of  Rome,  the  college  at  Schooten  near  Bruaseis 
(MisBionaries  of  the  Immaculate  Heart  of  Mary), 
the  seminary  of  the  African  Missions  at  Lyons 
(White  Fathen)  etc. 

rV.  Imtebnai«  OnoANiZATioir. — ^The  internal  or- 
ganisation of  Propaganda  is  the  result  of  almost  three 
centuries  of  experience.  All  its  works  are  carried 
on  by  means  of  a  general  cardinalitial  congregation, 
two  cardinalitial  prefecturea,  and  several  permanent 
commissions.  The  general  congregation  is  omipoaed 
of  aU  the  cardinals  of  Propaganda  choeen  by  the  Pope 
"Eminenttsnmi  Patres  Consilii  Qiristiano  ncNmni 
Pftipagando^'.  The  chief  authority  of  Propaganda 
resides  in  this  body.  The  creation  and  division  of 
dioceses,  vicariates,  and  prefectures,  the  selection 
of  bishops  and  other  ordinary  superiors  of  missions, 
matrimonial  causes,  ecclesiastical  appeals,  and  the 
like,  aU  come  under  its  jurisdiction.  It  holds  a  regular 
meeting  twice  a  month  and  deals  ahematdy  with  the 
affairs  of  the  Latin  and  the  Oriental  ritea.  Only 
the  cardinal-members  of  Propaganda  are  present, 
together  with  two  prelates,  the  general  secretary,  and 
the  secretary  of  the  Oriental  rites.  To  the  general 
prefect  of  Ftopaganda,  a  cardinal,  belongs  the  duty 
of  despatching  lul  current  business  and  all  matters 
pertaining  to  the  General  Congr^ntion.  He  is  the 
ordinary  head  of  Propaganda.  The  General  Pre- 
fecture has  subject  to  it  two  secretariates:  the  Gen- 
eral Secretariate  and  the  Secretariate  of  Oriental 
rites.  The  general  secretary  (always  a  prdate, 
Monsignor)  is  the  chief  assistant  of  the  cardinal  pre- 
fect, and  the  immediate  head  of  the  General  Secre- 
tariate. He  countersigns  all  letters  addressed  by 
the  cardinal  prefect  to  persons  outside  of  Rome,  and 
signs  all  letters  from  the  prefecture  destined  to  points 
in  Rome  (except  to  cardinals  and  ambassadors, 
letters  for  whom  are  ogned  by  the  cardinal  prefect 
alone).  An  under-eecretary  has  been  added  by  the 
Constitution  '^Sapienti  Consilio".  The  Secretary 
of  the  Oriental  rites  is  the  head  of  his  secretariate, 
and  is  charged  with  duties  analogous  to  those  of  the 
general  secretary,  of  whom  he  is  independent. 

Each  of  the  secretariates  has  its  rmntUantif  scriUori, 
and  protocoUisti.  There  are  also  the  General  Ar- 
chives, and  a  Despatch  Office.  The  mtnutanH  (so 
called  because  one  of  their  duties  is  to  prepare  the 
minutes  of  decrees  and  letters  which  are  afterwards 
re-copied  by  the  acriUori)  are  officiab  occupied  with 
the  subordinate  affairs  of  certain  regions.  We  may 
note  here  the  simplicity  and  the  industry  of  the  Prop- 
aganda secretariate:  only  six  minutarUi  attend  to 
the  affairs  of  the  countries  of  the  Latin  Rite  subject 
to  the  congregation.  Apropos  of  the  authority  of 
Propaganda  we  shall  see  what  a  vast  deal  of  work 
is  involved  in  the  ordinary  despatch  of  this  work. 
The  minutantif  in  addition  to  msudng  minutes  of  the 
ordinary  acts  of  the  secretariate,  prepare  the  ponenze, 
i.  e.  the  printed  copies  of  the  propositions  or  cases 
destined  to  come  before  the  general  cardinalitial 
congregation.  Every  week  each  of  the  two  secre- 
tariates holds  a  meeting  (congresso)  in  the  presence 
of  the  cardinal  prefect,  of  its  own  secretary,  and  of 
the  head  of  the  other  secretariate.  At  this  meeting 
each  miniUarUe  reports  on  all  matters  for  the  settle* 


PROPAOAHDA  4 

ment  of  .which  reference  to  the  pertiarait  aet  of 
documents  may  be  necessary,  he  gives  oral  informa- 
tions etc.  After  hearing  the  report  of  the  minubmit 
and  the  opiniori  of  the  Secretary  concerned,  sometimes 
of  all  others  present,  the  cardinal  prefect  issued  an 
order  to  reply,  or  to  df^er  the  rase,  or  to  send  it  up 
to  the  genenii  congregation.  The  KrUtori  copy  ail 
documents  that  are  to  be  despatched,  while  the 
prolocoUieti  stamp,  numbu,  and  register  all  papers 
received  and  sent  out.  Records  of  the  earliest  pro- 
ceedinp  of  the  congregation,  dating  from  its  first 
eatabtiahment,  are  preserved  in  the  General  Archivee, 
or  Record  Office.  Finally,  there  is  the  Despatch 
Office  (ufficto  di  tpedvaone),  which  keeps  its  own  r^^ 
ter  of  all  documents  issuing  from  Propaganda,  and 
sees  to  their  actual  forwarding.  The  office  of  oon- 
suitor  is  filled  gratuitously  by  a  number  of  prelates, 
to  whom  the  secretariates  send  such  of  the  pmeme 
as  are  of  litigious  na- 
ture — matrimonial 
causes,  diocesan  dif- 
ficultiea,etc.  These 
consultors  are  re- 
nuested  to  express 
their  opinions,  which 
are  then  attached 
to  the  pontrue  and 
presented  therewith 
to  the  cardinals  at 
the  General  Congre- 
gation.   theOriental 


gati 
Seci 


inteipreters  —  eccle- 
siastics who  translate 
all  current  correspon- 
dence in  Arabic,  Ar- 

their  work  faithfully. 
The  method  of 
treatment  applied 
by  Propaganda  to  an 
ordinary  case  may 
be  described  as  fol- 
lows: A  letter  ad- 
dressed to  the  coil- 
gregatioQ  is  opened 
By  the  cardinal  pre- 
fect who  annotates 
it  with  some  torse  official  formula  in  I^tin,  embcxlyinj; 
his  first  instructions  (e.  g.  that  a  pricit  of  the  antecedent 
correspondence  relating  to  thi»mattor  is  to  be  made). 
Then  the  letter  goes  to  the  ProiacoUo,  where  it  is 
stamped  and  registered,  and  its  object  noted  on  the 
outside.  The  chief  minuUmtt  reports  on  its  object 
and  on  the  noto  made  by  the  ciudinal  to  the  secre- 
tary concerned,  and  writes  the  con-eaponding  order 
of  the  secretaiy.  Supposing  the  order  should  be  to 
write  a  letter,  the  lolio  is  given  to  the  minutanU, 
who  draws  up  his  minute  according  to  the  instruc- 
tions of  the  cardinal  prefect  and  oi  the  secretary, 
he  then  passes  it  on  to  the  tcriUore,  who  copies  it, 
and  verifies  the  copy.  This  copy,  with  all  the  cor- 
respondence in  the  case,  is  returned  (supposing  it  to 
be  matter  to  be  sent  away  from  Rome)  to  the  cudinal 
OTefect,  who  signs  it  and  remits  it  to  the  secretary. 
The  secretary  counterugns  it  and  pasKS  it  on  to  the 
Demiatch  Office,  which,  after  returning  to  the  pro- 
locJio  (for  preservation)  the  other  correspondence  of 
the  case  under  consideration,  roisters  it,  encloses  all 
matter  to  be  forwarded  in  an  envelope,  writes  thereon 
the  postal  weight,  and  sends  it  on  to  the  Account* 
ing  Office.  Here  the  postal  weight  is  verified,  the 
stamps  affixed,  and  the  letter  forwarded  to  the  Post 
Office.  By  this  system  everything  is  under  control, 
from  the  subject-mattor  of  the  correspondence  to 
the  cost  of  postage.    The  whole  routine  is  completed 


>g  PBOPAQAHDA 

with  nuiidity  and  regularity  under  the  immediate 
responsiDility  of  the  several  persons  who  have  charge 

of  the  matter  in  its  various  stages, 

Before  the  Constitution  Sapient]  Consilio" 
the  second  cardinalitial  Prefecture  of  Propaganda 
was  that  of  the  cardinal  prefect  of  finance,  to  whom 
are  entrusted  the  finances  of  Propaganda,  the  ex- 
penses, subsidies  etc.  Decisions  r^arding  aut>Bidies 
pertained  dther  to  the  cardinal  prefect  or  to  the 
General  Congregation,  or  to  the  Board  of  Finance 
{cottffretto  eamomico),  which  met  as  an  executive 
committee  for  the  transaction  of  the  most  important 
ordinary  business  with  which  the  General  Congre- 
gation was  entrusted.  This  Prefecture  of  Financh 
was  composed  of  tlie  general  prefect,  the  cardinal 
prefect  of  finance,  and  of  some  other  cardinal  of 
the  General  CongrMation.  Piua  X,  however,  by 
the  above  mentionca  Constitution,  suppressed  the 
Prefecture  of  Fi- 
nance, and  its  func- 
tions are  now  dis- 
charged by  the  Gen- 
eral Prefecture. 
With  the  Prefecture 
of  Finance  was 
joined  the  executive 
office  of  the  Rev- 
erend Chamber  of 
Chattels  (Atienda 
delta  Rwtreada  Ca- 
mera degli  Spogli), 
i.  e.  the  effective 
administration  of  the 
revenues  collected 
from  vacant  bene- 
fices (tpogti),  I 


the  8 


I    of    I 


le  of  Propaganda. 
The    two  perma- 

Fropoganda  are :  one 
for  the  reviMon  of 
Synodal  Decrees 
(provifLciat  or  dio- 
cetjan)  in  countries 
subject  to  Propa- 
ganda and  one  for 
the  rcviKion  of  litur- 
gical books  of  the 
Oriental  rites.  Each  of  thcav  Cornmissions  is  prended 
over  by  a  carilinal,  lias  for  secretary  a  prelato,  and 
is  always  in  close  communication  with  il^  own  secro 

V.  Faculties.— The  faculties  (authority)  of  the 
Congregation  of  Propaganda  are.  very  extensive. 
To  the  other  pontifiraJ  congr^ations  are  assigned 
quito  specific  matters:  the  only  restriction  on  Prop- 
aganda is  that  of  territory,  i.  e.  while  one  congre- 
gation is  concerned  with  rites,  a  second  with  bishops 
and  regulars,  a  third  with  marriage,  a  fourth  with 
subsidies  etc..  Propaganda  deaU  with  all  such  matters, 
in  a  practical  way,  for  all  the  countriea  subject  to  it. 
Thus,  the  nomination  of  a  bishop,  the  settlement  of  a 
matrimonial  case,  the  granting  of  an  indulgence,  are 
within  the  jurisdiction  of  Propaganda.  The  limits 
of  its  jurisdiction  are  practical  rather  than  theorelicpJ; 
in  general,  it  may  be  smd  that  Propaganda  is  au- 
thorized 1^  deal  with  matters  peculiar  to  the  other 
congregations,  when  such  matters  are  presented  as 
practical  cases,  i.  e.  when  they  do  not  raise  questions 
of  a  technical  character,  or  of  general  bearing,  or  are 
not  of  a  class  specifically  rcsorved  to  uiime  other  de- 
partment of  the  pontifical  administration.  This  is 
more  particularly  true  of  the  Congregation  of  tlie 
Holy  Office.  Matrimonial  cascn  are  very  frequently 
brought  before  Propaganda,  es|>ccialty  those  in  which 
the  marriage  is  alleged  to  be  mvelui.,  ts.v.Viift^  ^^  ^^^^ 


PBOPAQANDA 


460 


PBOPA0ANDA 


from  the  beginning  or  because  it  was  never  consum- 
mated. The  procure  in  such  cases  is  as  simple 
as  it  is  practical:  Pppaganda  having  been  appealed 
to  by  one  party,  directs  the  local  episcopal  court  to 
hold  a  canonical  trial  and  to  report  its  results  to  the 
congregation^  it  being  understood  that  both  parties, 
defendant  and  plaintiff,  may  protect  themselves  by 
legal  counsel  at  their  own  expense.  When  the  con- 
ppregation  has  received  the  record  of  the  local  court, 
it  transmits  the  same  to  a  consultor  with  a  request 
for  his  opinion  on  the  objective  status  of  the  ques- 
tion at  issue  (pro  ret  verilate).  If  the  opinion  be  in 
favour  of  the  nuUity  or  of  the  non-consummation  of 
the  marriage,  then  the  record,  together  with  the 
opinion  of  the  consultor,  is  sent  on  to  a  second  con- 
sultor {pro  vinctdi  d^ensione),  whose  duty  it  is  to 
set  forth  the  grounds,  more  or  less  conclusive,  that 
can  be  adduced  in  favour  of  the  validity,  or  con- 
summation, of  the  marriage,  and  therefore  of  its 
indissolubility.  The  local  record  and  the  opinions 
of  the  consultors  (ponenza)  are  then  printed  in  as 
many  copies  as  there  are  cardinal- judges  in  the  con- 
gregation. This  printed  ponenza  is  sent  to  each  of 
these  cardinals  (the  printed  document  is  held  to  be 
secret,  being  looked  on  as  manuscript)  that  they  may 
examine  the  matter.  One  of  them  (cardinale  po^ 
nente)  is  selected  to  summarize  the  entire  case, 
and  to  him  are  finally  turned  over  the  local  record 
and  the  opinions  of  the  consultors,  with  the  obliga- 
tion of  reporting  on  the  case  at  the  next  General 
Congregation.  At  this  meeting,  the  cardinals,  after 
mature  discussion,  pronounce  judgment.  Their 
decision  is  immediately  submitted  to  the  pope,  who 
ratifies  it,  if  he  sees  fit,  and  orders  the  proper  decree 
to  be  issued. 

It  should  be  added  that  all  these  proceedings  are 
absolutely  without  expense  to  the  litigants  (gratia 
quocumque  tiiido)^  i.  e.  no  one  is  ever  called  on  for 
any  payment  to  the  congregation  because  or  on  ac- 
count of  any  favour  or  decision.  Thus,  the  wealth- 
iest Catholic  in  America,  Great  Britain,  Holland,  or 
Germany,  who  has  brought  a  matrimonial  case  before 
Propaganda,  pays  literally  nothing,  whatever  the 
judgment  maf  be.  There  are  no  chancery  expenses, 
and  nothing  is  collected  even  for  the  printing  of  the 
diocesan  records,  consultors'  opinions,  etc.  This  fact 
^ows  how  absurd  are  certain  calumnies  uttered 
against  the  Holy  See,  especially  in  connexion  with 
matrimonial  cases,  as  though  the  annulment  of  a 
marriage  could  be  procured  at  Rome  by  the  use  of 
money.  Were  such  the  purpose  of  the  Roman  Curia, 
it  would  not  exempt  the  richest  countries  of  the 
world — those  precisely  in  which  it  is  easiest  for  per- 
sons of  opulence  to  institute  legal  proceedings — 
from  any  expense,  great  or  small,  direct  or  indirect. 

VI.  Incidental  Features. —  Propaganda  for- 
merly possessed  a  valuable  museum,  the  Museo  Sor- 
iano (situated  in  the  palace),  so  called  because  it 
was  given  by  Cardinal  Stefano  Borgia,   who  was 

feneral  prefect  early  in  the  eighteenth  century, 
t  once  contained  precious  Oriental  codices,  es- 
pecially Sahidic  (Coptic  of  the  Thebaid)  now 
Ereserved  with  other  Coptic  codices  in  the  Vatican  Li- 
rary,  for  the  greater  convenience  of  students.  It  pos- 
sesses at  the  present  time  an  important  cabinet  of 
medals  and  many  ethnolo^cal  curiosities  sent  as  gifts  ' 
by  missionaries  in  far  distant  lands,  and  scattered 
through  the  Palace  of  Propaganda  are  many  valuable 
paintings  of  the  old  masters.  Propaganda  also 
conducted,  until  within  recent  years,  the  famous 
Polyglot  printing  press  whence,  for  some  centuries, 
issued  liturgical  and  catechetical  books,  printed 
in  a  multitude  of  alphabets.  Among  its  most  note- 
worthy curios  is  a  Japanese  alphabet  in  wooden 
blocks,  one  of  the  first  seen  in  Europe.  The  Prop- 
a^mda  Press  issued,  among  other  publications,  an 
official  statistical  annual.   (  the  mis&ions  conducted 


bv  the  congregation  (Missiones  Catholics  cura  S. 
Congreg.  de  Propaganda  Fide  descriptae),  as  well  as 
the  ^'Collectanea",  a  serial  record  of^  pontifical  acts 
relating  to  the  business  of  the  congregation.  In  1884 
the  Italian  Government  liquidated  the  real  estate 
of  Propaganda,  leavins  it  only  its  palace,  the  neigh- 
bouring Mignanelli  palace  for  the  use  of  its  schools, 
its  printing  press,  and  two  villas  used  as  summer 
resorts  for  the  students  of  the  Urban  College. 

One  of  the  customs  of  Propaganda,  worthy  oi 
special  mention,  is  the  gift  of  a  fan  to  ail  employees 
at  the  beginning  of  the  summer.  This  custom  ap- 
pears to  have  arisen  in  the  early  days,  when  fans  were 
sent  from  China  by  the  missionaries.  It  is  cus- 
tomary for  the  Urban  College  to  hold,  at  Epiphany, 
a  solenm  ''Accademia  Polyglotta",  to  symbolise 
the  world-wide  unity  of  the  Catholic  Church.  At 
this  acpademia  the  Propaganda  students  recite  poems 
in  their  respective  mother  tongues.  Invited  guests 
always  find  it  very  interesting  to  listen  to  this  medley 
of  th^  strangest  languages  and  dialects.  Another 
custom  of  the  Urban  College  is  that  every  graduate 
student  {alumno)t  wherever  he  may  be  in  the  pursuit 
of  his  ministry,  is  boimd  to  write  every  year  a  letter 
to  the  cardinal  prefect,  to  let  him  know  how  the  writer's 
work  is  progressing  and  how  he  fares  himself.  The 
cardinal  answers  immediately,  in  a  letter  of  paternal 
encouragement  and  counsel.  By  this  means  there  is 
maintained  a  bond  of  affection  and  of  mutual  good- 
will between  the  "great  mother" — as  the  "Prop- 
agandists", or  the  alumni  of  F^paganda,  designate 
the  congregation — and  he^  most  distant  sons. 

The  names  of  many  distinguished  persons  appear 
in  the  records  of  Propaganda,  notably  in  the  catalogue 
of  its  cardinals,  prelates,  and  officials.  Among  the 
cardinal  prefects  entitled  to  special  mention  are  the 
following:  Giuseppe  Sagripanti  (d.  1727),  a  meri- 
torious reformer  of  Roman  judicial  procedure;  the 
very  learned  Bamabite  Sigismondo  Gerdil  (d.  1S02); 
Stefano  Borgia,  patron  of  Oriental  studies,  protector 
of  the  savant  Zoega  (d.  1804);  Ercole  Consalvi  (d. 
1824),  the  great  diplomatist,  Secretary  of  State  to 
Pius  VII,  at  whose  death  he  was  made  prefect  gen- 
eral of  Propaganda  by  Leo  XII;  Mauro  Cappellari, 
later  Gregory  XVI,  who  was  prefect  general  from  1826 
to  his  election  as  pope  (1831).  Among  the  Gereral 
Secretaries  (who  usually  become  cardmab)  the  fol- 
lowing are  particularly  worth v  of  special  mention: 
Domenico  Passionei,  created  canunal  in  1738; 
Nicold  Fortiguerra,  a  distinEuished  man  of-  letters 
(d.  1739);  the  erudite  Angelo  Mai,  secretary  from 
1833  to  1838.  The  list  of  missionaries  sent  forth  by 
Propaganda  has  been  long  and  glorious,  containing 
the  names  of  many  martyrs.  Ihe  protomartyr  of 
Propaganda  is  St.  Fidelis  of  Sigmaringen,  a  German 
Capuchin  missionarv  in  Grisons,  Switzerland. 
The  Calvinists  killed  him  in  the  village  of  Sercis, 
24  April,  1622.  He  was  canonized  by  Benedict 
XIV  in  1746'.  Propaganda  holds  at  all  times  a 
grateful  memory  of  the  Discalced  Carmelites.  It 
was  they  who  vigorously  urged  the  Holy  See  to  found 
the  congregation,  foremost  among  them  being 
Domenico  di  GesCl  e  Maria,  general  of  the  order.  In 
the  original  act  of  its  foundation  he  appean  as  a 
member.  Tommaso  da  Gesil,  another  Carmelite, 
opportunely  published  in  1613,  at  Antwerp,  a  Latin 
work  on  the  obUgation  of  preaching  the  Goqiel  to  all 
nations. 

Many  authors  have  treated  of  Propaganda  very  maooorate^, 
and  have  confufled  the  ancient  and  recent  syatenui  of  adminia- 
tration.  The  moat  reliable  of  the  earlier  writers  are:  Db  Luca. 
II  Cardinale  Pratieo;  Cobnbuus,  Informationi  intomo  al 
CardinaUUo  (Rome,  1653);  Bbtbr  and  Mensbl,  BrcM  eom- 
pendium  hist.  S.  Congr.  de  Prop.  Fide  (KOnigsberg,  1721); 
Pollard,  Let  miniatree  eccUsiaetipiee  du  8.  Si^e  (Lyons,  1878) ; 
Lbqa,  Pralediones  in  textum  jurie  canonici  (Rome,  1806); 
Anon.,  Tax  Propaganda  e  la  eonvergume  de*  auoi  beni  immcimi 
(Rome.  1884);  Humphrbt.  Urb$  el  Orbia  (London.  1899).  380- 
386.  Cf.  also  Meyer,  Die  Propaganda,  ihre  Provinetn  und  tJkf 
Recht;  Banoen,  Die  r&miacKe  Curie  (MQnster,  1854);   Pbipbb  il 


^ 


PROPAGATION           461  PROPAGATION 

Rdmisehe  QuartaUehrift,  I   (18^9),  for  the  Archives.    For  the  general  committee.    Besides  the  ordinary  members, 

most  important  Coptio^oodiowformerly  praw.rved  by  Propaganda  there  are  special  members  who  contribute  personally 

nee  Zoboa.  Catalogua  Codie.  Copl.  MSS.  Muscn  Borgiant  (Rome,        •jn^  j  ^i  u  u 

1810);  MmT^^ PropaganSa  (Gfittingen.  1852V.   Leitnkr.  sw  dollars  a  year,  and  perpetual  members  who  con- 

D$  Curia  Rinnana  (1900).  tribute  at  one  time  a  sum  of  at  least  fprty  dollars.  The 

U.  Bbnigni.  official  organ  of  the  society  is  the  "Annals  of  the 

Propagation  of  tKfe  Faith",  the  first  number  of  which 

Propagationof  the  Faith,  The  SociETT  FOB  THE,  appeared  In  France  in  1822.     At  present  350,000 

is  an  mtemational  association  for  the  assistance  by  copies  of  that  publication  are  printed  bi-monthly  in 

prayers  and  alms  of  Catholic  missionanr  priests.  French,  English,  German,  Itahan,  Spanish,  Portuguese, 

brothers,  and  nuns  engaged  in  preaching  the  Gospel  Dutch,  Polish,  Flemish,  Basque,  Maltese,  and  the 

in  heathen  and  non-Catholic  countries.  dialects  of  Brittany.    The  "Annals"  contains  letters 

I.  ORiGnr  AND  Development. — It  was  founded  in  from  missionaries,  news  of  the  missions,  and  reports  of 

Lyons,  Fwuice,  in  1822,  as  a  result  of  the  distress  of  all  money  received  and  apportioned  by  the  society, 

missions  in  both  East  and  West.    In  1815,  Bishop  ^n  illustrated  magazine,  "Catholic  Missions",  is  also 

DubouTK  of  New  Orleans  was  in  Lyons  collecting  almn  published  by  the  society  in  Italy,  France,  England, 

for  his  mooese,  which  was  in  a  precarious  condition.  Germany,  Holland,  Spain,  Poland,  Hungary,  and  the 

To  a  Mrs.  Petit,  whom  he  had  known  in  the  United  United  States. 

States,  he  expressed  the  idea  of  founding  a  charitable  Administration. — The  Society  for  the  Propagation 
association  for  the  support  of  Louisiana  missions,  of  the  Faith  takes  no  part  in  selecting  missionaries, 
which  suggestion  she  cordially  embraced,  but  could  appointing  them  to  their  field  of  work,  or  training 
procure  only  small  alms  among  her  mends  and  them  for  it,  and  does  not  concern  itself  with  the  ad- 
acquaintances.  In  1820,  Pauline  Jaricot  of  Lyons  ministration  of  the  missions.  Its  aim  is  merelv  to 
received  a  letter  from  her  brother,  a  student  at  the  assist  missionaries  chosen,  trained,  and  sent  forth  by 
Seminary  of  8t-Sulpice,  in  which  he  described  the  the  usual  authorities  of  the  Church.  The  society  is 
extreme  poverty  of  the  members  of  the  Foreign  administered  by  two  central  councils,  each  composed 
Missions  of  Paris.  She  conceived  the  idea  of  forming  of  twelve  clergymen  and  laymen  of  recognized  ability 
an  association  whose  members  would  contribute  one  and  knowledge  of  business  affairs,  and  distinguished 
cent  a  week  for  the  missions.  The  membership  rose  for  zeal  and  piety.  These  councils,  one  of  which  is  in 
to  a  thoiisand  and  the  offerings  were  sent  to  Asia..  liyons  and  the  other  in  Paris,  are  self-recruiting,  and 
In  1822,  Father  Inglesi,  Vicar-General  of  New  Or-  the  work  performed  b^  their  members  is  entirely 
leans,  was  sent  to  Lyons  by  Bishop  Dubourg  to  visit  gratuitous.  They  keep  in  close  touch  with  the  mis- 
his  benefactors  and  reanimate  their  zeal.  Seeing  the  sions,  serve  as  headquarters  for  the  distribution  of  the 
success  of  Miss  Jaricot,  they  thought  at  first  of  estab-  alms  received  from  the  delegates  of  the  society,  to 
lishing  a  similar  society  for  American  missions,  but  whom  they  pass  successively  from  the  diocesan  and 
decided  to  unite,  instead  of  di\dding,  efforts.  parochial  directors,  and  the  promoters  <|f  bands  of  ten. 

A  meeting  of  the  friends  of  the  missions  called  by  Eveiy  year,  at  the  end  of  January,  the  offerings  of  the 
Father  Inglesi  was  attended  by  twelve  ecclesiastics  members  of  the  society  all  over  the  world*  are  for- 
and  laymen,  and  on  3  May,  1822,  the  Society  for  the  warded  to  these  central  bureaux,  and  the  total  amount 
Propa^tion  of  the  Faith  was  formally  established,  is  divided  among  all  the  missions  of  the  earth.  With 
Its  object  was  declared  to  be  to  help  Catho|ic  mission-  conscientious  care  and  impartiality  the  reports  of  the 
aries  by  prayers  and  alms.  It  was  understood  that  superiors  of  the  missions,  bishops,  vicars  and  prefects 
the  new  association  should  be  cathoUc,  that  is,  en-  Apostolic  are  studied  and  all  allotments  recom- 
deavour  to  enlist  the  sympathy  of  all  Catholics,  and  mended,  in  accordance  with  the  extent  and  necessities 
assist  all  missions,  without  regard  to  situation  and  of  each  mission,  and  in  consideration  of  the  desires  of 
nationality.  However,  it  is  not  the  aim  of  the  society  the  pope  and  the  data  furnished  by  the  Congregation 
to  help  "Catholic  countries",  no,  matter  how  great  of  the  Propaganda.  The  Lyons  Central  Council  first 
their  needs  may  be,  for  that  reason  France,  Italy,  goes  over  this  work.  The  result  of  its  labours  is  re- 
Austna,  Spain.  Portugal,  etc.  have  never  received  vised  by  the  Paris  Central  Council,  which,  with  close 
lielp  from  it.  For  the  same  reason,  as  soon  as  missions  attention  and  solicitude,  approves,  augments,  or  re- 
are  able  to  exist  by  their  own  efforts  the  society  with-  duces  the  sum  recommended  as  it  considers  necessary 
draws  its  ud,  because  demands  are  many  and  re-  or  advisable.  Then  both  councils  agree  upon  the 
sources  inadequate.  In  1823,  a  delegate  was  sent  to  allotments  which  are  sent  to  each  mission.  It  is  a  law 
Rome  and  Pius  VII  hesuiiily  approved  the  new  under-  of  the  society  to  make  its  affairs  public,  and  each  year 
taking  and  granted  the  indulgences  and  other  spiritual  an  integral  account  of  all  money  received,  all  appro- 
privileges  that  permanentlv  enrich  the  society,  which  priations  made,  and  all  expenditures  is  published  in  the 
judgment  has  been  ratified  by  all  his  successors.  In  "Annals".  The  society  does  not  deal  in  investments 
1840,  Gregory  XVI  placed  the  society  in  the  rank  of  and  has  no  permanent  fund.  At  the  beginning  of  each 
Universal  Catholic  institutions,  and  on  25  March,  year  the  total  sum  collected  during  the  past  year  is 
1904,  in  the  first  year  of  his  pontificate,  Pius  X  recom-  distributed,  and  the  missions  are  always  at  the  mercy 
mended  it  to  the  charity  of  all  the  faithful,  praising  of  the  faithful. 

its  work,  confirming  its  privileges,  and  raising  the  Results  Obtained. — In  1822,  the  society  collected 

feast  of  its  patron,  St.  Francis  Xavier,  to  a  higher  rite,  a  little  more  than  $4000.00.    The  sum  was  divided  in 

A  large  number  of  provincial  and  national  councils  three  parts,  of  which  one  was  assigned  to  the  Eastern 

(especially  the  III  Council  of  Baltimore,  1884),  as  well  missions,  the  other  two  to  I^uisiana  and  Kentucky. 

as  thousands  of  bishops  from  all  parts  of  the  world.  At  present  about  three  hundred  dioceses,  vicariates 

have  likewise  enacted  decrees  and  published  letters  in  and  prefectures  Apostolic  receive  assistance  and  the 

favour  of  its  development.    It  receives  contributions  total  amount  collected  up  to  1910,  inclusively,  is  $78,- 

from  all  parts  of  the  Christian  worid.  846,872.51.     The  following  will  show  the  part  each 

OBOANiZATXON.—The    organization    is    extremely  country  has  taken  in  furnishing  this  sum.  and  in  what 

simple.   To  become  a  member  it  is  necessary  to  recite  year  the  society  was  established  there: 

daily  a  prayer  fqr  the  missions,  and  contribute  at  least  Society  established : — 

five  cents  monthly  to  the  general  fund.   As  the  society  1822,  France $48,829,632.53 

is  ordinarily  organized  m  the  parishes,  the  usual  1825,  Belgium 4,421,992.00 

method  for  gathering  the  contributions  is  to  form  the  1827,  Germany  and  Austria-Hun- 

associates  into  bands  of  ten,  of  whom  one  acts  as  a  gary 7,393,275.52 

promoter.    These  offerings  are  turned  over  to  some  1827,  Italy 5,814,294.95 

lo€4il  or  diocesan  director  and  finally  forwarded  to  the  1827,  Switzeriand 970.494.03 


® 


PROPERTY 


462 


PROPERTY 


1827,  Balkan  States $364,835.95 

1833,  Canada,  Mexico,  West  Indies . .  1,384,418.59 

1837,  Great  Britain  and  Ireland 2,593,644.88 

1837,  HoUand 1,325,100.98 

1837,  Portugal 502,619.84 

1837,  Russia  and  Poland \ . . .  72,353.50 

1839,  Spain 866,570.50 

1840,  United  States 2,749,436.11 

1840,  South  America 1,029,972.39 

1843,  Oceanica 103,737.52 

1848,  Asia 88,140.14 

1857,  Africa 310,573.68 

Ck)untrie8  not  mentioned 25,779.40 

$78,846,872.51 
The  foregoing  sum  has  been  distributed  as  follows: 

To  missions  in  America $10,747,397.45 

To  missions  in  Europe 11,066,975.88 

To  missions  in  Asia 32,061,680.43 

To  missions  in  Africa 11,552,228.26 

To  missions  in  Oceanica 7,309,152.81 

Special  donations,  transportatioh  of 
missionaries,  publications,  man- 
agement      6,109,437.68 

On  25  March,  1904,  Pius  X  addressed  an  encyclical 
letter  to  the  Catholic  world  reconmiending  the  Propa- 
gation of  the  Faith  to  the  charity  of  all  the  faithful,  in 
which  he  says:  ''If  the  messengers  of  the  Catholic 
doctrine  are  able  to  reach  out  to  the  most  distant 
lands,  and  the  most  barbarous  peoples,  it  is  to  the 
Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Faitn  that  credit 
must  be  eiven.  Through  that  Society  salvation  began 
for  numberless  peoples  .  .  .  ,  through  it  there  has 
been  gatherec^a  harve^  of  souls  ....  In  1884,  His 
Eminence  Cardinal  Giobons.  writing  to  the  directors 
of  the  society  in  the  name  of  the  American  hierarchy 
assembled  at  Baltimore  for  the  third  national  Council, 
said:  ''If  the  grain  of  mustard  seed  planted  in  the 
virgin  soil  of  America  has  struck  deep  roots  and  grown 
into  a  gigantic  tree,  with  branches  stretching  from  the 
shores  of  the  Atlantic  ocean  to  the  coasts  of  the 
Pacific,  it  is  mainly  to  the  assistance  rendered  b^ 
vour  admirable  Society  that  we  are  indebted  for  this 
blessing. " 

Annaiu  dt  la  Propaoaiion  de  la  Foi  (82  vola.,  Lyons,  1822- 
1910),  pa««im;  Le*  misHons  cathoUquei  (42  voIb.,  Lyons,  1867- 
1910),  patnm;  Guabco,  Vasrivrt  de  2a  Propagation  de  la  Foi  (Paris, 
1904) :  Frcri,  The  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Faith  and  the 
Catholic  Mieeuma  (Baltimore,  1902) ;  Idem,  The  Misaumary  Work 
of  the  Church  (New  York.  1906) ;  Idem.  Facte  and  Figuree  (New 
York,  1908) ;  Biographic  de  M.  Didier  Petit  de  MeurviOe  (Lyons. 
1873)'   Maurin.  Pauline  Marie  Jaricot  (New  York,  1906). 

Joseph  Freri. 

Property. — I.  Notion  of  Property. — ^The  pro- 
prietor or  owner  of  a  thing,  in  the  current  acceptation 
of  the  word,  is  the  person  who  enjoys  the  full  right 
to  dispose  of  it  in  so  far  as  is  not  forbidden  by  law. 
The  thing  or  object  of  this  right  of  disposal  is  called 
property,  and  the  right  of  disposal  itself,  ownership. 
Taken  m  its  strict  sense,  this  definition  applies  to 
absolute  ownership  only.  As  long  as  the  absolute 
owner  does  not  exceed  the  limits  set  by  law,  he  may 
dispose  of  his  property  in  any  manner  whatsoever; 
he  may  use  it,  alienate  it,  lease  it  etc.  But  there  is 
also  a  qualified  ownership.  It  may  happen  that 
several  persons  have  different  rights  to  the  same  thing, 
one  subordinate  to  the  other:  one  has  the  right  to  the 
substance,  another  to  its  use,  a  third  to  its  usufruct, 
etc.  Of  all  these  persons  he  alone  is  called  the  pro- 
prietor who  has  the  highest  right,  viz.,  the  right  to 
the  substance;  the  others,  whose  rights  are  subor- 
dinate, are  not  called  proprietors.  The  tenant,  for 
example,  is  not  said  to  be  the  proprietor  of  the  land 
he  tills,  nor  the  lessee  proprietor  of  the  house  in  which 
he  dwells;  for  though  both  have  the  right  of  use  or 
usufruct,  they  have  not  the  highest  right,  namely  the 
right  to  the  substance.    There  are  two  reasons  why 


he  to  whom  the  substance  of  a  thing  belongs  is  called 
its  woprietor:  first,  because  the  right  to  the  substance 
is  the  highest  right;  secondly,  beimuse  this  right  nat- 
urally tends  to  grow  into  absolute  ownership.  The 
tenant,  for  instance,  enjoys  the  usufruct  of  a  thing 
only  through  a  cause  which  lies  outside  the  thing  itself, 
i.  e.  through  a  contract.  If  this  cause  is  removed, 
then  he  loses  his  right,  and  the  thing  reverts  to  him 
to  whom  the  substance  belongs.  The  ri^t  to  the 
substance  necessarily  implies  the  absolute  n^t  of  dis- 
posal as  soon  as  any  accidental,  ext<»mal  limitations 
are  removed.  This  is  probably  the  reason  why  law- 
makers, when  establishing  the  definition  of  property, 
take  into  consideration  onlv  absolute  ownership. 
Thus  the  French  civil  code  (544)  defines  ownership 
as  ''the  right  to  make  use  and  dispose  of  a  corporeal 
thing  absolutelv  provided  it  be  not  forbidden  by  law 
or  statute '';  the  code  of  the  German  Empire  (903) 
says:  ''The  proprietor  of  a  thin^  may  use  it  as  he 
likes  and  exclude  from  it  all  outside  interference,  as 
long  as  the  law  or  the  rights  of  others  are  not  violated  " 
and  in  Blackstone  (Comm.  I,  138)  we  read  that  the 
right  of  property  "consists  in  the  free  use,  enjoy- 
ment ana  disposal  of  all  acquisitions,  without  any 
control  or  diminution,  save  only  by  tne  laws  of  the 
land". 

The  statement  has  been  made  that  the  Roman  law 
set  up  a  definition  of  property  which  is  absolute  and 
excludes  all  legal  restrictions.  This  is  not  correct. 
The  Roman  jurists  were  too  vividly  conscious  of  the 
principle  Solus  publica  suprema  lex  to  exempt  private 
property  from  all  legal  restrictions.  No  clearer  proof 
IS  needed  than  the  numerous  easements  to  which  the 
Roman  law  subjected  property  (cf.  Puchta,  "Kursus 
der  Institutionen",  II,  1842,  561  sqq.).  Precisely 
in  order  to  exclude  this  erroneous  conception,  the 
Roman  jurists,  following  the  example  of  Bartolus, 
generally  define  perfect  ownership  as  the  right  to 
dispose  perfectly  of  a  material  thmg  in  so  far  as  is 
not  forbidden  by  law  (Jus  perfects  dispcnendi  de  re 
corporali  nisi  lege  prohibeatur).  Again,  man  is  es- 
sentiallv  a  social  being.  Consequently,  all  ri^^ts 
granted  him  are  subject  to  the  necessary  restrictions 
which  are  demanded  by  the  common  welfare  and  more 
accurately  determined  by  law.  This  right  of  dis- 
posal which  the  civil  power  exercises  over  property 
has  been  called  dominium  aUumf  but  the  term  is 
misleading  and  should  be  avoided.  Ownership'  gives 
to  a  person  the  right  to  dispose  of  a  thing  for  his 
private  interests  as  he  sees  fit.  The  Government 
has  no  right  to  dispose  of  the  property  of  its  subjects 
for  its  i^rivate  interests,  but  only  as  far  as  the  common 
weal  requires. 

II.  Classes  of  Propebtt. — If  the  holder  of  the 
right  of  ownership  is  considered,  property  is  either 
individual  or  collective,  according  as  the  ownwr  is  an 
individual  (a  physical  person)  or  a  community  (a 
moral  person).  Individual  property  is  also  called 
private  property.  Again,  collective  property  differs 
as  the  commumty.  Those  estates  are  not  collective 
property  which  have  for  ever  been  set  aside  for  a 
fixed  purpose  and  are,  by  a  sort  of  fiction,  considered 
as  a  person  (persona  juridica,  ficta),  for  example, 
endowments  for  pious  purposes  or  for  the  public 
benefit:  hospitals  orphanages  etc.  For  the  actual 
administrators  or  usufructuaries  are  not  to  be  regarded 
as  proprietors  of  the  endowment.  Furthermore, 
property  may  be  either  public  or  private.  Public 
property  is  the  property  of  a  public  community, 
namely,  the  State  and  the  Church.  Everything 
else  is  private  property.  However,  the  distinction 
between  private  and  public  property  arises  not  only 
from  difference  in  ownership,  but  also  from  difference 
in  purpose.  Public  property  is  intended  to  serve 
the  interests  of  the  community  at  large;  private 
property,  the  interests  of  a  limited  cirele.  Family 
property  is  private  property,  even  if  it  belongs  to 


ntOPEETT                             463  PBOPEBTY 

• 

the  family  as  a  whole.    Not  all  collective  property  attaining  its  ends,  requirQ3  property,  i.  e.  the  free 

is  public  p»roperty.    The  property  of  a  community  contract  and  disposal  of  holdmgs,  whereby  the  entire 

remains  private  as  long  as  that  commimity  is  able  personality  is  brought  into  action.    Similar  views 

to  exclude  outsiders  from  participating  in  its  enjoy-  are  held  by  Bluntschli,  Stable,  and  others.    ThJB 

ment.    But  when  a  conmiunity  can  no  longer  pre-  theory  admits  of  a  correct  explanation,  but  is  in 

vent  outsiders  from  settling  down  in  its  midst  and,  itself  too  indefinite  and  vague.    If  it  is  understood 

like  the  rest,  sharing  in  its  property,  that  property  to  mean  only  that,  as  a  rule,  private  property  is 

ceases  to  be  private.    If  we  consider  the  object  necessary  for  the  free  development  of  the  human 

of  ownership,  property  may  be  movable  or  immovable,  personality  and  for  the  accomplishment  of  its  tasks, 

Immovable  property  consists  in  land  (real  estate),  and  then  it  is  correct,  as  will  appear  in  the  course  of  our 

in  every  thing  so  attached  to  the  land  that,  as  a  rule,  it  discussion.    But  if  these  theorists  remain  within  the 

cannot  be  transferred  from  one  place  to  another  with-  pure  notion  of  personality,  then  they  cannot  derive 

out  undergoing  a  change  in  its  nature.    All  the  rest  from  it  the  necessity  of  private  property,  at  least  of 

is  movable  property.    Lastly,  the  purpose  distin-  productive  goods  or  land.    At  most  they  might  prove 

guishes  property  into  goods  of  consumption  and  goods  that  everylxKly  is  entitled  to  the  necessary  means  of 

of  production,  according  as  the  j^oods  are  directly  subsistence.    But  this   is  possible  without  private 

intended  either  for  production,  i.  e.  for  producing  property  strictly  so  called.    Those  who  are  either 

new  goods,  or  for  consumption.  voluntarily  or  involuntarily  poor  and  live  at  the  ex- 

III.  Possession  differs  essentially  from  property,  pense  of  others  possess  no  property  and  yet  do  not 
At  times,  possession  denotes  the  thing  poss^eed.  but  cease  to  be  persons.  Thou^  the  children  of  a  famity 
generally  it  means  the  state  of  possessing  sometnin^.  are  without  property  during  the  lifetime  of  their 
He  possesses  a  thing  who  has  actual  control  over  it  parents,  stUl  they  are  true  persons.  Others  derive 
and  intends  to  keep  it.  Possession  may  be  unjust,  private  property  from  a  primitive  contract,  express 
as  is  the  case  with  the  thief  who  has  knowingly  taken  or  tacit  (contract  theory),  as  Grotius  (De  jure 
the  property  of  another.  Since  such  possession  is  belli  et  pacis,  II,  c.  2,  §  2),  Pufendorf,  and  others, 
manifestly  unjust,  it  gives  the  possessor  no  right  This  theory  is  founded  on  the  supposition,  which  has 
whatever.  On  the  other  hand,  it  may  happen  that  never  been  and  never  can  be  proved,  tnat  such  a 
one  is  bona  fide  possessor  of  another's  property,  contract  ever  has  or  must  have  taken  place.  And 
Such  possession  implies  certain  rights.  It  is  incum-  even  supposing  the  contract  was  actually  made, 
bent  on  the  owner  to  prove  that  the  thing  does  not  what  obliges  Us  to-dav  to  abide  by  it?  To  this  ques- 
belong  to  the  possessor.  If  he  is  imable  to  furnish  tion  the  theory  is  unable  to  give  a  satisfactory  answer, 
this  evidence,  the  law  protects  the  actual  possessor  Others  again  derive  the  justice  of  private  property 

/  of  the  thing  imder  dispute.  The  basic  reason  why  from  the  laws  of  the  State  Qegal  theory).  The  first 
possession  must  not  be  neglected  when  ownership  to  advance  this  hypothesis  was  Hobb€»  (Leviathan, 
IS  disputed  is  that  under  normal  conditions  posses-  c.  2).  He  considers  the  laws  of  the  State  as  the  foun- 
sion  IS  the  result  of  ownership.  For,  generally  tain-head  of  all  the  rights  which  the  subjects  have, 
speaking,  the  possessor  is  the  owner  of  a  thing.  This  and  consequently  also  as  the  source  of  private  owner- 
being  the  normfd  state  of  affairs,  the  law  favours  the  ship.  The  same  view  is  taken  by  Montes- 
presumption  that  the  actual  possessor  is  also  the  qmeu,  Trendelenburg,  Wagner,  and  others,  as  far 
legal  possessor  and  consequently  holds  that  nobody  as  ownership  is  concerned.  Kant  (Rechtslehre, 
has  the  right  to  evict  him  unless  the  illegality  be  p.  1,  §§  8,  9)  ^prants  indeed  a  provisory  proprietorship 
proved.  He  who  seeks  to  overturn  existing  conditions  m  the  condition  Of  nature  prior  to  the  formation  of 
as  being  unjust  mjiist  bear  the  burden  of  proof,  the  State;  but  definite  and  peremptory  ownership 
Should  this  principle  be  denied,  the  security  of  prop-  arises  only  through  the  civil  laws  and  under  the  pro- 
erty  would  be  greatly  endangered.  tection  of  the  coercive  power  of  Government.    Most 

IV.  Opponents  of  Private  Propebtt. — ^The  pres-  of  the  partisans  of  this  theory,  like  Hobbes,  proceed 
ent  order  of  society  is  largely  based  on  the  private  from  the  wrong  supposition  that  there  is  no  natural 
property  of  individuals,  fiSnuies,  and  communities,  right  properly  so  called,  but  that  every  genuine  right 
Now  there  are  many  communists  and  socialists  who  Is  a  concession  of  the  civil  power.  Besides^  their 
condemn  this  kind  of  ownership  as  unjust  and  in-  appreciation  of  actual  facts  is  superficial.  It  is  true 
jurious,  and  who  aim  at  abolishmg  either  all  private  that  the  laws  everywhere  protect  private  property, 
property  or  at  least  the  private  ownership  of  produc-  But  why?  A  fact,  like  private  propertjr,  wnich  we 
tive  goods,  which  they  wish  to  replace  by  a  com-  meet  in  one  form  or  another  with  all  nations,  ancient 
munity  of  goods.  Their  intention  may  be  good,  or  modem,  cannot  have  its  last  and  true  reason  in  the 
but  it  proceeds  from  a  total  misunderstanding  of  civil  laws  which  vary  with  time  and  clime.  A  uni- 
human  nature  as  it  is,  and,  if  carried  out,  wouldf  re-  versal,  constant  effect  supposes  a  universal,  constant 
suit  in  disastrous  failure  (cf.  Communism  and  cause,  and  the  civil  laws  cannot  be  this  cause.  If 
Socialism).  The  so-called  agrarian  socialists,  among  they  were  the  only  basis  of  private  property,  then  we 
whom  must  be  numbered  the  sin^Ie-taxists,  do  not  mi^t  abolish  it  by  a  new  law  and  introduce  oommu- 
propose  to  abolish  private  ownership  of  all  productive  nisnj.  But  this  is  impossible.  Just  as  the  individual 
goods,  but  maintam  only  that  the  land  with  the  nat-  and  the  family  existed  prior  to  the  State,  so  the  rights 
ural  bounties  which  it  holds  out  to  mankind  es-  necessary  for  both,  to  which  belongs  the  right  of 
sentially  belongs  to  the  whole  nation.  As  a  logical  property,  existed  prior  to  the  State.  It  is  the  duty 
conclusion  they  propose  that  ground  rent  be  confis-  of  the  State  to  bring  these  rights  into  harmony  with 
cated  for  the  community.  This  theory,  too,  starts  the  interests  of  the  community  at  large  and  to  watch 
from  false  premises  and  arrives  at  conclusions  which  over  them,  but  it  does  not  create  them. 

are  impracticable.     (See  Aqrarianism.)  John  Locke  saw  the  real  foundation  of  private  prop- 

V.  Insufficient  Justification  of  Private  Prof-  erty  in  the  right  which  every  man  has  to  the  prod- 
brty.— <hitside  the  communistic  and  socialistic  uets  of  his  labour  Qabour  theoi^).  This  theory  was 
circles  all  concede  that  private  property  is  justified;  loudlv  applauded  by  the  political  economists,  es- 
but  in  regu^  to  its  founoation  opimons  differ  widely,  peciaily  by  Adam  Smith,  Ricardo,  Say,  and  others. 
Some  derive  the  justice  of  private  property  from  But  it  is  untenable.  There  is  no  doubt  that 
personality  (personality  theory).  They  look  upon  labour  is  a  powerful  factor  in  the  acquisition  of 
private  property  as  a  necessary  supplement  and  ex-  property,  but  the  right  to  the  products  of  one's 
pansion  of  personality.  Thus  H.  Ahrens  (''Natur-  labour  cannot  be  the  ultimate  source  and  basis  of  the 
recht",  6th  ed.,  1871,  §68)  thinks  that  the  "in-  right  of  property .  The  labourer  can  call  the  product  of 
dividuality  of  every  human  mind,  in  choosing  and  his  work  his  own  only  when  the  material  on  which  he 


PBOPEBTT 


464 


PBOPEBTT 


works  is  his  property,  and  then  the  question  arises 
how  he  came  to  oe  the  owner  of  the  material.  Sup- 
pose, for  instance,  that  a  number  of  workmen  have 
Seen  engaged  to  cultivate  a  vineyard;  after  the  work 
is  done,  they  may  indeed  claim  their  wages,  but  the 
products  of  their  labour,  the  grapes  and  the  wine, 
do  not  belong  to  them,  but  to  the  owner  of  the  vine- 
yard. Then  the  further  question  may  be  asked: 
How  did  the  owner  of  the  vineyard  acquire  his  prop- 
erty? The  final  answer  cannot  be  the  right  to  the 
product  of  his  labour.  There  were  some  who  asserted 
that  the  Roman  law  derived  private  property  solely 
from  the  right  of  first  occupation  (rua  primi  occupan^ 
ti8)y  as  for  instance  Wagner  (Grundlegung  1,  c. 
§102).  But  they  confound  two  things.  Though 
the  Roman  jurists  regarded  occupation  the  original 
title  of  acquisition,  they  supposed  as  self-evident  the 
right  of  private  property  ana  the  right  to  acquire  it. 

VI.  The  Doctrine  op  the  Catholic  Church. — 
The  Catholic  Church  has  always  regarded  private 
property  as  justified,  even  though  there  may  have 
existed  personal  abuses.  Far  from  abolishing  the 
commandments  of  the  Old  Law  (Thou  shalt  not  steal; 
thou  shalt  not  covet  thy  neighbour's  house,  nor  any- 
thing that  is  his)  Christ  inculcated  them  anew  (Matt., 
xix,  1&-19:  Mark,  x,  19:  Rom.,  xiii,  9).  And  though 
the  Catholic  Church,  following  in  the  footsteps  of  her 
Founder,  has  always  recommended  voluntary  poverty 
as  an  evangelical  counsel,  yet  she  has  at  the  same 
time  assert^  the  justice  and,  as  i^  rule,  the  necessity 
of  private  property  and  rejected  the  contrary  theories 
of  the  Circumcellions,  Waldenses,  Anabaptists  etc. 
Moreover,  theologians  and  canonists  have  at  all  times 
taught  that  private  ownership  is  just.  Leo  XIII, 
especially  in  several  encyclicals,  strongly  insisted  on 
the  necessity  and  justice  of  private  ownership. 
Thus  the  encyclical  "Rerum  novarum"  expressly 
condemns  as  unjust  and  pernicious  the  design  of  the 
socialists  to  abolish  private  property.  The  right  of 
acquiring  private  property  has  been  granted  by  na- 
ture, and  consequently  he  who  would  seek  a  solution 
of  tne  social  question  must  start  with  the  principle 
that  private  property  is  to  be  preserved  inviolate 
(prwaias  possessionea  inviolale  aervandas).  And  Pius 
X,  in  his  Motu  Proprio  of  18  Dec,  1903,  laid  down  the 
following  two  principles  for  the  guidance  of  all  Catho- 
lics: (1)  "Unlike  the  beast,  man  has  on  earth  not 
only  the  right  of  use,  but  a  permanent  right  of  owner- 
ship; and  this  is  true  not  only  of  those  things  which 
are  consumed  in  their  use,  but  also  of  those  which 
are  not  consumed  by  their  use";  (2)  " Private  prop- 
erty is  under  all  circumstances,  be  it  the  fruit  of 
labour  or  acquired  by  conveyance  or  donation,  a 
natural  right,  and  everybody  may  make  such  reasonable 
disposal  of  it  as  he  thinks  fit.  ' 

VII.  Economic  Theory  Based  on  the  Natural 
Law. — ^The  doctrine  of  the  Church  as  here  explained 
points  out  the  right  way  to  a  philosophical  justifica- 
tion of  private  property.  It  is  derived  from  the  nat- 
ural law,  since  the  present  order  in  general  demands 
it  for  the  individual  as  well  as  for  the  family  and  the 
community  at  large;  hence  it  is  a  postulate  of  reason 
and  everybody  receives  by  nature  the  right  to  acquire 
private  property.  This  justification  of  private  prop- 
erty, which  is  outlined  by  Aristotle  (Polit.,  2,  c.  2), 
may  be  called  the  "economical  theory  based  on  the 
natural  law".  The  necessity  of  private  ownership 
arises  partly  from  the  external  conditions  of  life 
under  which  the  human  race  actually  exists,  partly 
and  especially  from  human  nature  as  we  know  it  by 
experience,  with  all  its  needs  and  faculties,  inclina- 
tions both  good  and  bad,  which  the  average  man  re- 
veals at  all  times  and  in  all  places.  This  theory  does 
not  assert  that  there  should  be  nothing  else  than 
private  property,  much  less  that  there  should  be 
private  property  of  individuals  only.  Families,  pri- 
vate corporations,  communities,  and  states,  as  well 


as  the  Church,  may  own  property.  Its  distribution 
is  not  something  settled  by  nature  uniformly  and 
immutably  for  all  times  and  circumstances,  but  full 
play  is  given  to  human  liberty.  Generally  speaking, 
what  is  necessary  is  that  private  property  shouEl 
also  exist.  The  boundaries  between  private  and 
public  property  may  vary  from  age  to  age;  but,  as 
a  rule,  private  ownership  becomes  the  moro  necessary 
and  the  more  prevalent  the  farther  the  civiliBation 
of  a  people  progresses. 

In  oraer  to  gain  a  clear  insi^^t  into  the  basis  of  ' 
property,  we  must  carefuU^r  distmguish  three  things: 
(1)  The  institution  of  private  property,  i.  e.  the 
i  ctual  existence  of  private  property  with  aU  its  es- 
sential rights.  In  general,  it  is  necessary  that  pri- 
vate property  should  exist,  at  least  to  a  certain  ex- 
tent, or,  m  other  words,  the  natural  law  demands  the 
existence  of  private  property.  From  the  necessity 
of  private  property  follows  immediately  (2)  every 
man's  right  to  acquire  property.  The  institution 
of  private  property  supposes  this  right ;  for  the  former 
cannot  rightly  exist  unless  evenrbody  has  the  right 
to  acquire  private  property.  Nature,  or  rather  the 
Author  of  nature,  requires  the  institution  of  private 
property;  hence  He  must  also  will  the  means  necessary 
for  it,  namely,  the  right  of  everyone  to  acquire  private 
property.  Tnis  right  refers  to  no  object  in  particular; 
it  is  merely  the  g;eneral  capacity  of  acquiring  property 
by  licit  means,  lust  as  one  may  say  that  owing  to  the 
freedom  of  trade  everybody  has  the  right  to  engage 
in  any  legitimate  business.  The  right  to  acquire 
property  belongs  to  every  man  from  the  first  inoment 
of  his  existence;  even  the  child  of  the  poorest  bc^g^ 
has  this  right.  (3)  From  the  right  of  acquisition 
arises  the  right  of  owning  a  certain  concrete  object 
through  the  medium  of  some  fact.  Nobody,  basing 
his  claim  on  his  existence  alone,  can  say:  this  field 
or  this  house  is  mine.  God  did  not  distribute  im- 
mediately the  goods  of  this  earth  among  men.  He 
left  this  distribution  to  man's  activity  and  to  his- 
torical development.  But  since  private  property 
and  consequently  the  acquisition  of  a  definite  object 
by  a  definite  person  is  necessary,  there  must  also  be 
some  facts  on  which  such  acc^uisition  may  be  based. 
Among  these  facts  the  first  in  time  and  by  nature 
is  simple  occupation.  Oripnally  the  goods  of  this 
earth  were  without  a  definite  owner,  i.  e.  there  was 
nobody  who  could  call  them  his  exclusive  property. 
But  since  they  had  been  given  to  man  and  since 
everybody  had  the  right  of  acquiring  property,  ihe 
first  men  could  take  as  much  of  these  goods  by  simple 
occupation  as  seemed  useful  to  them.  Later  genera- 
tions, too,  could  make  their  own  such  goods  as  were 
still  without  a  master.  As  time  went  on  and  the 
earth  was  populated,  its  goods  passed  more  and  more 
into  the  nands  of  individuals,  families,  or  whole 
tribes.  Now  in  order  to  acquire  or  occupy  something, 
the  mere  will  to  possess  it  as  private  property  is  not 
sufficient;  the  object  must,  by  some  exterior  fact, 
be  brou^t  under  our  control  and  must  be  perma- 
nently marked  as  our  own.  These  marks  may  be  of 
various  kinds  and  depend  on  custom,  agreement  etc. 

Philosophical  Explanation. — We  sh^l  prove  fiiBt 
of  all  that,  generally  speaking,  the  institution  of 
private  property  is  necessary  for  human  society  and 
that  it  IS  conseauently  a  postulate  of  the  natural 
law;  this  established,  it  follows  at  once  that  the  right 
of  acquiring  property  is  a  natural  right.  The  first 
reason  for  the  necessity  of  private  property  is  the 
moral  impossibility  of  any  other  disposition  of  prop- 
erty. If  all  goods  remamed  without  a  master  and 
were  common  to  all,  so  that  anybody  might  dispose 
of  them  as  he  saw  fit,  then  peace  and  order  would  be 
impossible  and  there  would  be  no  sufficient  incentive 
to  work.  Who  indeed  would  care  to  cultivate  a 
field  or  build  a  house,  if  everybody  else  were  idlowed 
to  harvest  the  crop  or  occupy  the  building?    Con- 


PROPERTY 


465 


PBOPSRTT 


•equently,  the  right  of  ownership  must  rest  either 
wholly  with  communities,  as  the  communists  and 
socialists  maintain,  or  with  private  persons.  It  is 
impossible  to  reduce  the  doctnnes  of  communism  and 
socialism  to  practice.  All  attempts  hitherto  made 
have  ended  in  failure.  Of  longest  duration  were  the 
experiments  of  some  sects  which  were  founded  on  a 
religious  basis.  But  it  is  manifest  that  communities 
based  on  religious  fanaticism  cannot  become  the 
general  rule.  History,  too,  testifies  to  the  necessity 
of  private  property.  An  institution  which  meets  us 
everywhere  and  at  all  times  with  only  a  few  negligible 
exceptions,  whidi  develops  more  and  more  among 
the  nations  as  their  civilization  advances,  which  has 
aJways  been  recognized  and  protected  as  just  cannot  be 
an  arbitrary  invention,  but  must  be  the  necessary 
outcome  of  the  tendencies  and  needs'  of  human 
nature.  For  a  universal  and  permanent  phenomenon 
supposes  a  universal  and  permanent  cause,  and  this 
cause  in  the  present  question  can  only  be  human 
nature  with  its  wants  and  inclinations,  which  remain 
essentially  the  same.  Besides,  only  private  property 
is  a  sufficient  stimulus  for  man  to  work.  The  earth 
does  not  furnish  the  products  and  fruits  which  man 
needs  for  the  sustenance  and  development  of  soul 
and  body,  except  at  the  expense  of  hard,  continued 
labour.  Now  men  will  not  undertake  this  labour  un- 
less they  have  a  guarantee  that  they  can  freely  dis- 
pose of  its  fruits  for  their  own  benefit  and  can  exclude 
all  others  from  their  enjoyment.  This  argument, 
however,  does  not  bind  us  to  the  labour  theory  re- 
futed above.  This  theory  maintains  that  each  one 
can  call  his  property  all  that  and  only  that  which 
is  the  product  of  his  labour.  This  is  wrong.  The 
correct  theory  on  the  other  hand  says,  if  man  had  not 
the  right  to  acquire  private  property,  the  necessary 
stimulus  to  work  would  be  wanting;;  and  the  fruit 
of  labour  in  this  theory  signifies  private  property  in 
the  widest  sense,  for  instance,  wages. 

Private  ownership  alone  is  able  to  harmonize  order 
and  freedom  in  the  social  life.  If  no  one  could  ex- 
clude others  from  using  his  property,  order  would 
be  impossible.  Nobody  could  lay  down  in  advance  a 
plan  of  his  life  and  activity,  or  procure  in  advance 
the  means  and  tlie  material  for  his  livelihood.  If 
on  the  other  hand  productive  goods  were  the  property 
of  the  community  and  subject  to  its  administration, 
liberty  would  be  impossible.  Man  is  not  really  free 
unless  he  can,  at  least  to  a  certain  degree,  dispose 
of  external  goods  at  will,  not  only  of  goods  of  con- 
sumption but  also  of  productive  goods.  The  largest 
portion  of  human  activity,  directly  or  indirectly, 
aims  at  procuring  external,  useful  goods;  without 
private  property,  all  would  lapse  into  abject  depend- 
ence on  the  community^  which  would  be  obliged  to 
assign  to  each  man  his  office  and  his  share  of  the  work. 
But  with  private  property,  both  freedom  and  order 
can  exist  as  far  as  the  imperfection  of  all  human  con- 
ditions aUows  it.  This  is  proved  by  history  and  by 
daily  experience.  Thus  also  the  peace  of  society  is 
best  guaranteed.'  True  it  is  that  in  spite  of  private 
property  many  disputes  arise  about  ''mine  and  thine.'' 
but  these  are  settled  by  the  law  courts  and  do  not 
disturb  the  essential  order  of  society.  In  any  other 
disposition  of  property  among  free  men,  the  disputes 
would  be  far  more  numerous  and  violent,  and  this 
would  necessarily  lead  to  quarrels  and  feuds.  Just 
as  for  the  individual,  so  private  property  is  necessary 
for  the  family.  The  family  cannot  exist  as  an  in- 
dependent organizm  unless  it  can  freely  manage  its 
internal  affairs,  and  unless  the  parents  have  to  pro- 
vide for  the  maintenance  and  education  of  their  chil- 
dren, and  this  without  any  external  interference. 
All  this  demands  property,  the  exclusive  use  of  a 
dwelling,  food,  clotnes,  and  other  things,  which  fre- 
quently must  be  procured  in  advance  so  that  a  well- 
regulated  and  secure  family  life  may  be  made  possible. 
XII.— 30 


Like  the  individual,  the  family,  when  deprived  of  all 
property,  easily  falls  into  a  vagabond  life  or  becomes 
wholly  dependent  on  the  will  of  others.  The  duty 
to  care  for  the  preservation  and  education  of  the 
family  ur^es  the  father  and  mother  to  work  unceas- 
ingly, while  the  consciousness  that  they  are  respon- 
sible for  their  children  before  God  and  men  is  ajpower- 
ful  stay  and  support  of  their  moral  lives.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  consciousness  of  the  children  that 
they  are  wholly  dependent  on  their  parents  for  their 
maintenance  and  start  in  life  is  a  veiy  important  ele- 
ment in  their  education.  The  socialists  are  quite 
logical  in  seeking  to  transfer  not  only  the  possession 
of  productive  goods,  but  also^the  care  of  the  education 
of  children  to  tiie  community  at  laree.  But  it  is  ob- 
vious that  such  a  scheme  would  end  in  the  total  de- 
struction of  the  family,  and  hence  that  socialism  is 
an  enemy  of  aU  genuine  civilization. 

Private  property  is  also  indispensable  for  human 
society  in  general.  Progress  in  civilization  is  possible 
only  when  many  co-operate  in  largja  and  far-reaching 
enterprises;  but  this  co-operation  is  out  of  the  ques- 
tion unless  there  are  qiany  who  possess  more  than  is 
required  for  their  ample  maintenance  and  at  the  same 
time  have  an  interest  in,  devoting  the  surplus  to  such 
enterprises.  Private  interest  and  public  welfare  here 
meet  each  other  half  way.  Private  owners,  if  they 
consult  their  own  interest,  will  use  their  property  for 
public  enterprises  because  these  alone  are  perma- 
nently paying  investments.  The  advances  and  dis- 
coveries of  the  last  century  would  not  have  beni 
accomplished,  at  least  the  greater  part  of  them,  with- 
out private  property.  If  we  but  recall  the  extensive 
net-work  of  nolroads,  steamship  lines,  telegraphs, 
and  telephones,  which  b  spread  around  the  world,  the 
gigantic  tunnels  and  canals,  the  progress  made  in 
electricity,  aerial  navigation,  aviation,  automobiles 
etc.,  we  must  confess  that  private  property  is  a 
powerful  and  necessary  factor  in  civilization.  Not 
only  economic  conditions,  but  also  the  higher  fields 
of  culture  are  bettered  by  the  existence  of  wealthy 
proprietors.  Though  they  themselves  do  not  become 
artists  and  scholars,  still  they  are  indirectly  the  oo« 
casion  for  the  progress  of  the  arts  and  sciences.  Only 
the  rich  can  order  Works  of  art  On  a  large  scale,  only 
they  have  the  means  that  frequently  are  necessary 
for  the  education  of  artists  and  scholars.  On  the 
other  hand,  poverty  and  want  are  the  reason  why 
many  become  eminent  artists  and  schokra.  Their 
advance  in  life  and  their  social  position  depend  on 
their  education.  How  many  brilliant  geniuses 
would  have  been  crippled  at  their  birth  if  fortune  had 
granted  them  every  comfort.  Lastly,  we  must  not 
overlook  the  moral  importance  of  private  property. 
It  urges  man  to  labour,  to  save,  to  be  orderly,  and 
affords  both  rich  and  poor  frequent  opportunity 
for  the  exercise  of  virtue. 

Thouffh  private  property  is  a  necessity,  still  the  use 
of  earthly  goods  should  m  a  manner  be  general,  as 
Aristotle  intimated  (Polit.,  1.  2,  c.  5)  and  as  Clun»* 
tian  philosophy  has  proved  in  detail  (St.  Thomas, 
"Smnma"  II-II,  q.  Ixvi,  a.  2;  Leo  XIIPs  oncycL. 
''De  conditione  opificum")*  This  end  is  obtamed 
when  the  rich  not  only  observe  the  laws  of  justice, 
by  not  taking  unjust  advantage,  but  also,  out  or 
charity  and  liberality,  share  their  abundance  with  the 
needy.  Earthly  goods  are  meant  to  be,  in  a  certain 
manner,  useful  to  all  men,  since  they  have  been  created 
for  all  men,  and  consequently  the  rich  are  strictly 
obliged  to  share  their  superfluities  with  the  poor. 
True  Christian  charity  will  even  go  beyond  this 
strict  obligation.  A  wide  and  fertOe  fiekl  is  thus 
opened  up  to  its  activity,  through  the  existence  of 
poverty.  For  the  poor  themselves,  poverty  is  a 
hard,  but  beneficial,  school  of  trust  in  God,  humility, 
renimciation.  It  is  of  course  self-evident  that  pov- 
erty should  not  degenerate  into  wretchedness,  which 


PBOPEBTY                            466  FBOPSRTT 

• 

is  no  less  an  abundant  source  of  moral  dangers  than  versally  acted  upon  in  practice,  this  truth  has  me| 

iH  excessive  wealth.    It  is  the  function  of  a  wise  with  many  contradictors.    Scandalized  by  frequent 

Government  so  to  direct  the  laws  and  administration  examples  of  greed,  or  misled  by  an  impossible  ideal 

that  a  moderate  well-being  may  be  shared  by  as  many  of  a  clergy  entirelv  spiritualised  and  raised  above 

as  possible.    The  civil  power  cannot  reach  this  end  human  needs,  Arnold  of  Brescia,  the  Waldenses,  then 

'  *                '        "         1.1.-  ^-      ._.!-_  somewhat  later  Marsilius  of  Padua,  and  finally  the 

Wycliffites,   formulated  various   extreme  views  re- 
garding the  lack  of  temporal  resources  which  befitted 

strict  accordance  with  the  demands  of  public  welfare,  ministers  of  the  Gospel.     Under  John  XXII  the  doc- 

Thus  far  we  have  spoken  of  the  necessity  of  private  trine  of  Marsilius  and  his  forerunners  had  provoked 
property  and  the  right  to  ac(^uire  it.  It  remains  only  the  two  Decrees  ''Cum  inter  nonnullos''  (13  Nov., 
to  discuss  the  title  of  acquisition  by  which  one  b^  1323)  and  "Licet  juxta  doctrinam''  (23  Oct.,  1323) 
comes  the  proprietor  of  a  certain  concrete  thing:  by  which  it  was  affirmed  that  our  Lord  and  His 
a  piece  of  lana,  a  house,  a  tool  etc.  As  explained  Apostles  held  true  ownership  in  the  tempoHEd  things 
above,  the  primitive  title  is  occupation.  The  first  which  they  possessed,  and  that  the  goods  of  the 
who  took  possession  of  a  piece  of  land  became  its  Church  were  not  rightfully  at  the  disposition  of  the 
proprietor.  After  a  whole  country  has  thus  been  emperor  (see  Den£inger-Bannwart,nn.4d4-5).  Some- 
turned  into  property,  occupation  loses  its  significance  what  less  than  a  century  later  the  errors  of  Wyclif 
as  conferring  a  title  to  real  estate.  But  for  movable  and  Hus  were  condemned  at  the  Council  of  Con- 
goods  it  still  remains  iniportant.  It  is  sufficient  stance  (Denzinger-Bannwart,  nn.  586,  598, 612, 684-6, 
to  recall  fishing  and  hunting  on  unclaimed  ground,  etc.)  and  it  was  equivalently  defined  that  ecclesiaB- 
searching  and  digging  for  gold  or  diamonds  in  re-  tical  persons  might  without  sin  hold  temporal  pos- 
gions  which  have  not  yet  passed  over  into  private  sessions,  that  the  civil  authorities  had  no  right  to 
ownership.  Many  regard  labour  as  the  primitive  appropriate  ecclesiastical  property,  and  that  3  they 
title  of  acquisition,  that  is,  labour  which  is  different  did  so  the^  might  be  punished  as  guilty  of  sacrilege, 
from  mere  occupation.  ^  But  in  this  they  are  wrong.  In  later  tunes  these  position^  have  been  still  more 
If  one  works  at  an  object,  then  the  product  belongs  explicitly  reaffirmed  and  in  particular  by  Pius  IX, 
tx>  him  only  when  he  is  proprietor  of  the  object,  the  who  in  the  Encyclical  ''Quanta  cura"  (1864)  con- 
material;  u  not,  then  the  product  belongs  to  another,  denmed  the  opimon  that  the  claims  advanced  by  the 
though  the  workman  has  the  right  to  demand  his  civil  Government  to  the  ownership  of  all  Church 
reward  in  money  or  other  gpoods.  Now  the  question  property  ootild  be  reconciled  with  the  principles  of 
again  rectms:  How  did  this  other  man  obtain  pos-  sound  theology  and  the  canon  law  (Denzingei^Bann- 
eession  of  these  ^oods?  Finally  we  shall  arrive  at  a  wart,  n.  1697,  and  the  appended  Syllabus,  prope.  26 
primitive  title  different  from  labour,  and  this  is  oc-  and  27). 

cupation.  Besides  occupation  there  are  other  titles  But  apart  from  these  and  other  similar  pronounce- 
of  acquisition,  which  are  called  subordinate  or  de-  ments  the  right  of  the  Church  to  the  complete  con- 
rived  titles,  as,  for  instance,  accession,  fructification,  trol  of  such  temporal  possessions  as  have  been  be- 
ccffiveyance  by  various  kinds  of  contracts,  prescrip-  stowed  upon  her  is  grounded  both  .on  reason  and 
tion,  and  especially  the  right  of  inheritance.  By  oc-  tradition.  In  the  first  place  the  Church  as  an  or- 
cupation  an  ownerless  thing  passes  into  the  possession  ganized  and  visible  society,  performing  public  duties 
of  a  person,  bv  accession  it  is  extended,  by  the  other  whether  of  worship  or  administration,  requires  ma- 
derivative  titles  it  passes  from  one  possessor  to  aur  terial  resources  for  the  orderly  discharge  of  these 
other.  Though  all  the  titles  mentioned,  with  the  duties.  Neither  could  this  end  be  sufficiently  at- 
exception  of  prescription,  are  valid  by  the  law  of  tained  if  the  resources  were  entirely  precarious  or  if 
nature,  and  hence  cannot  be  abolished  by  human  laws,  the  Chureh  were  hampered  in  hei'bse  of  them  by  the 
still  they  are  not  precisely  and  uniyera^ly  applied  by  constant  interference  of  the  civil  authority.  In  the 
natural  law.  To  define  them  m  mdividual  cases  m  gecond  place  Old  Testament  analogy  (see,  e.  g., 
accordance  with  the  demands  of  the  public  weal  and  Num.,  xviii,  8-25),  the  practice  of  the  Apoettes 
with  due  regard  to  all  concrete  circumstances  is  the  (John,  xii,  6;  Acts,  iv.  34r-5)  with  certain  explicit 
task  of  legidation.  utterances  of  St.  Paul,  for  example,  the  argument  in 

St.  THoitA»j5umiiw.  11-11,9.1^.:  Soto,  I)«yii««^  ti  fwre;  J  Cor.,  ix,  3  sq.,  and  finally  the  interpretation  of 

Zi^:  ?f  ''(?^)Vo^\^^%l\  ^^'^^T'SilSIZi^  the  doctors  and  pastors  of  the  Chureh  at  all  periods, 

philotophia  moraiit,  II,  no.  dOOaqq.:  PsscB.  Lehrbueh  der  fla-  recogmze  no  dependence  upon  the  State,  but  show 

iwmoto*anom<e.  I  (1905),  i79aqq.;  WAaKm,Lehr-u,  Handbueh  plainly  that  the  principle  of  absolute  ownership 

^.n^'^J^ij^^SiL.^^SSir^^^^^  fii'J^^'^'J^^^a'SS;^.  and  free  administration  of  «jclesiastical  property  has 

Riaifne  de  la  propriiu  (1907);  Waivtbb.  Dm  Btgentum  naeh  der.  always  been  mamtamed.     It  may  be  further  noted 

Lehre  dea  hi,  fhomoM  von  Aquin  u.  der  Sonaliemu*  (1895);  that  in  some  of  the  stemest  of  her  disciplinary  enact- 

2Sr^^5oJS;^«?Ti898^  ments  the  (Church  has  proved  that  she  takes  for 

droii  de  propriiU;  Willems.  Philosophia  maralu  (1908),  295  sqq.;  granted  her  dommion  over  the  goods  bestowed  upon 

Stammleb  Eigentum  u.  Beeitt  m  Har^buch  der  staaUin$Mm^  ggr  by  the  charity  of  the  faithful.    The  twelfth  canon 

t^ktivf^P^B^'feST^  of  the  (Ecumenfcal.  Council  of  Lyons  (1274)  oro- 

EEiN.   MonUphOoBophie,    II    (5th   ed..   1911).  1.  2;  Dbvas,  nounces  excommunication  ipso  fado  against  those 

Poiiiieal  ^ccmomif  (London,  iwi);    Rickabt,  Mor<d  Phiiot-  \^y  persons  who  seize  and  detain  the  temporal  pos- 

opAy  (London,  1910) ;  Kvbbt,  Private  Property  aa  U  u  m  Catho-  «J1«'1^«    ^t    *u«    r<Ui.».l«     fa^%^    l!^t%AUAi^      **n^^*mt» 

lie  World,  XCII  (New  York/ 1911).  577;  Idem.  The  Indietmeni  ^essions    of    the    Church     (see    Fnedberg,       f^«PUB 

of  Private  Property,  ibid.,  XCIII,  30;  Rtan.  Henry  George  and  Juns'',  II,  953  and  1059)  and  the  Council  of  Trent 

hivate  Property,  ibid.,  iCIII.  289;  Idem.   The  ithioal  Arqu-  followed  SUit  in  itS  SesS.   XXII    (De  ref.,  C.  xi)  by 

XCin^Sr^CA^rOrTn'^  SjSS  "P^';' ili^Hiii^:  launching  excommmiicatioi^  IoUb  senl^UB  ai^ainst 

545;    Idem.   Ownership  of  Private  Property,  ibid.,   XLV.  433:  those  who  usurped  many  dllTerent  kmds  Of  eCCleSUA- 

DiLLON,  Right*  and  DtUie*  of  Property  in  our  Legal  and  Socio*  fioa}  nronertv 

Systems,  XXIX  (St.  Louis,  1895).  161;   Bbtce,  Studies  in  Hie-  Q^.U^JTrif  P.'^hf^  «/  P^/.«u>W«/       Riif  wKiIa  ♦>»*»  nK. 

tory  and  Jurisprudence  (London,  1901).  Subject  of  RighU  Of  Froperty, ---iSnt  Wblle  tne  aO- 

V.  Cathrein.  stract  nght  of  the  (Jhurch  and  her  representatives 

to  hold  property  is  clear  enough,  there  has  been  in 

Property     EcdMlastieal. — Abstract     Right     of  past  ages  much  vagueness  and  diversity  of  view  as  to 

Ownership.— Tha,t  the  Church  has  the  right  to  acauire  the  precise  subject  in  whom  this  right  was  vested, 

and  possess  temporal  goods  is  a  proposition  wtiich  The  idea  of  a  corporate  body,  as  that  of  an  organised 

may   now  probably  be  considered  an   established  group  of  men  (universitas)  which  has  rights  and  duties 

principle.    6ut  though  almost  self-evident  and  uni-  other  than  the  rights  and  duties  of  aU  or  any  of  itt 


PROPEBTY                              467  PROPEBTY 

members,  existed,  no  doubt,  at  least  obscurelv  in  the  these  rights  was  ever  adopted.  In  later  times  many 
early  centuries  of  the  Roman  Empire.  Before  the  canonists,  like  Phillips  and  Lammer,  have  maintained 
time  of  Justinian  it  was  pretty  clearly  apprehended  that  the  jvoperty  was  vested  in  the  Church  (ecdesia 
that  the  members  of  such  a  group  formed  lesall^  but  caiholica)  as  a  whole.  Others  like  Seitz  and  Thomas- 
a  single  unit  and  might  be  regarded  as  a  ^'fictitious  sinus  favour  a  supernatural  ownership  by  which  God 
person",  though  this  conception  of  the  persona  Himself  was  regarded  as  the  true  proprietor.  To 
/Scto,  dear  to  the  medieval  legists  and  perpetuated  others  again,  and  notably  to  Savigny.  the  theory  has 
by  men  like  Savigny,  is  not  perhaps  quite  so  much  in  commended  itself  that  the  Church  held  property  as  a 
vogue  among  modem  students  of  Kotnan  law  (cf,  community,  while  many  still  more  modem  authorities, 
Gierke,  "Das  deutsche  Genossenschaftsrecht",  III,  with  Friedberg,  S&gmuller,  and  Meurer,  defend  the 
129-36).  It  was  at  any  rate  recognised  that  this  view  that  each  separate  local  church  was  re^jtied  as 
'* fictitious  person",  or  ''group-person",  was  not  an  institution  with  proprietary  ri^ts  and  was  iden- 
subject  to  death  like  the  individuals  of  wnich  it  was  tified,  at  least  popularly,  with  its  patron  saint.  Ac- 
composed,  and  on  the  other  hand  that  it  could  not  oordiog  to  this  conception  the  saints  were  the  succes- 
be  called  into  existence  by  private  agreement.  It  sors  of  the  pagan  gods,  and  whereas  previously  Jupiter 
required  a  senaius  considium  or  somethmg  of  the  sort  Tarpeius,  or  Diana  of  the  Ephesians,  had  owned  umd 
to  be  legally  constituted.  and  revenues  and  sacred  vessels,  so  now  under  the 
These  well-understood  principles,  we  might  sup-  Christian  dispensation  St.  Michael  or  St.  Mary  or  St. 
pose,  could  easily  have  been  invoked  to  regulate  the  Peter  were  regarded  as  the  proprietors  of  all  that  be- 
ownership  of  property  in  the  case  of  the  Christian  longed  to  the  churches  that  were  respectively  dedi- 
eommumties  established  in  the  Roman  Empire,  but  cated  to  them. 

the  question  in  point  of  fact  was  complicated  by  a  No  doubt  this  view  obtains  some  apparent  support 
survival  of  the  ideas  which  attached  to  what  were  from  the  fact  that  almost  everywhere,  and  notably 
called  res  ttacrcB  in  the  old  days  of  paganism.  This  in  England,  at  the  dawn  of  the  Middle  Ages  we  find 
title  of  ''sacred  things-"  was  given  to  tdl  property  or  testators  beaueathing  property  to  saints.  In  the 
utensils  consecrated  to  the  sods,  though  it  was  re-  oldest  Kentish  charter  of  which  the  text  is  preserved 
quired  that  there  should  be  some  authoritative  the  newly-converted  Ethelbert  says:  "To  thee  St. 
recognition  of  such  consecration.  As  res  sacra  these  Andrew,  and  to  thy  church  at  Rochester  where  Justus 
things  were  regarded  as  in  a  sense  withdrawn  from  the  bishop  presides,  do  I  give  a  portion  of  my  land." 
the  exercise  of  ordinary  ownership,  and  formed  Even  as  late  as  the  Domesday  mquisition  the  saint 
a  category  apart.  The  truth  seems  to  be  that  the  is  often  depicted  as  the  landowner.  "St.  Paul  holds 
gods  themselves  in  pa^an  times  were  often  conceived  land,  St.  Constantine  holds  land,  the  Count  of 
of  as  the  owners.  This  is  suggested  by  the  fact  that  Mortain  holds  lands  of  St.  Petroc — ^the  church  of 
while  it  was  mled  that  the  gods,  i.  e.,  their  temples,  Worcester,  an  episcopal  church,  has  luids,  and  St. 
could  not  inherit  at  law,  stiD  certain  deities  were  ex-  Mary  of  Worcester  holds  them"  (Pollock  and  Mait- 
plicitly  exempted  from  this  inhibition  and  were  allowed  land,  "  Hist,  of  English  Law  ",  I,  501 ) .  But  the  most 
to  inherit  as  any  private  individual  inherited.  Such  recent  authorities^  and  amongst  others  Professor 
deities  were,  for  example^  Jupiter  Tarpeius  at  Rome,  Maitland  himself  in  his  second  edition,  are  inclined 
Apollo  Didym^eus  of  M:iletus,  Diana  of  the  Ephe-  to  regard  such  phrases  as  mere  popular  locutions,  a 
sians,  and  others  (Ulpian,  "Frag.",  22, 6).  In  similar  personification  which  must  not  be  pressed  as  if  it 
wise  when  Christiamty  became  the  established  faith  mvolved  any  serious  theory  as  to  the  ownership  of 
of  the  empire,  "Jesus  Christ"  was  often  appointed  ecclesiastical  goods.  The  truth  seems  to  be,  as 
heir,  and  Justinian  construed  such  an  appomtment  Knecht  has  shown  (System  des  Justinianischen 
as  a  gift  to  the  Church  of  the  place  of  the  testator's  Kirchenvermogensrechts,  pp.  5  sq.),  that  the  Chris- 
domicile  (Codex  1,  2,  25).  The  same  principles  were  tian  Church  was  a  unique  institution  which  it  was 
followed  when  an  archangel  or  a  martyr  was  appointed  impossible  for  the  traditional  conceptions  of  Roman 
heir,  and  this,  Justinian  tells  us,  was  sometimes  law  to  assimilate  successfully.  The  Church  had  in 
done  by  educated  people.  The  gift  was  understood  the  end  to  build  up  its  own  ^tem  of  jurisprudence. 
to  be  made  to  some  shrine  or  church  bearing  that  In  the  meantime  tne  rights  of  ecclesiastical  property 
dedication  which  the  circumstances  indicated,  and,  were  protected  efficiently  enough  in  practice  and  the 
failing  such  indication,  to  the  church  of  the  testator's  Questions  of  legal  theory  did  not  occur,  or  at  any  rate 
domicile  (Cod.  1,  2,  25).    The  civil  power  in  any  case  did  not  press  for  a  solution. 

seems  to  have  assiuned  a  certain  protective  control  From  the  time  of  the  Edict  of  Milan,  issued  by 
over  res  sacrce  probably  with  the  view  of  safeguarding  Constantine  and  Licinius  in  313,  we  hear  of  the 
their  inviolability.  "Sacred  things",  we  rcSid,  "are  restoration  of  the  property  of  Christians  "known  to 
things  that  have  been  duly,  that  is  by  the  priests  belong  to  their  community,  that  is  to  say  their 
(pontifices),  consecrated  to  God — sacred  building,  churches,  and  not  to  the  individuals"  ("ad  jus  corporis 
for  instance,  and  gifts  duly  dedicated  to  the  service  eorum,  id  est  ecclesiamm,  non  hominum  singulorum 
of  God.  And  these  we  by  our  constitution  have  for-  pertinentia" — Lactantius,  "De  morte  pers.",  xlviii), 
bidden  to  be  alienated  or  burdened  (ohlipari)  except  while  a  few  years  later  by  the  Edict  of  321  the  right 
only  in  order  to  ransom  captives.  But  if  a  man  by  of  bequeathing  property  by  will  "to  the  most  holy 
his  own  authority  establi^  a  would-be  sacred  thing  and  venerable  commumty  (concilio)  of  the  Catholic 
for  himself,  it  is  not  sacn^i,  but  profane.  A  place,  faith"  was  guaranteed.  Practically  speaking  there 
however,  in  which  sacred  buildings  have  been  erected,  can  be  little  doubt  that  this  Christian  "concilium", 
even  if  the  buildings  be  pulled  down,  remains  still  "collegium",  "corpus"  or  "conventiculum"  (the 
sacred,  as  Papinian  too  wrote"  (Institutes,  II,  i,  8).  words  principally  used  to  indicate  the  body  of  tme 
As  regards  suienation,  however,  we  may  compare  believers)  denoted  primarily  the  local  Christian  assem- 
Cod.  1, 2, 21,  which  allowed  the  sale  of  church  prop-  blies  represented  by  their  bishop  and  that  it  was  to 
erty  to  sustain  the  lives  of  men  during  a  famine,  the  bisnop  that  the  administration  of  such  property 
and  "Novel.",  cxx,  10,  permitting  the  sale,  in  case  was  committed.  What  stands  out  most  clearly  from 
of  debt,  of  a  church's  superfluous  vessels  but  not  of  the  enactments  of  the  time  of  Justinian  was  the 
its  immovables  or  things  really  necessary.  recognition  of  the  ri^t  of  individual  Churches  to 
These  and  similar  provisions  have  been  invoked  to  hold  property.  Despite  the  recent*  attempt  of  Bon- 
support  very  divergent  theories  as  to  the  ownership  droit  (De  capacitate  possidendi  ecclesise,  123-36)  to 
of  church  property  imder  the  empire.  Tlie  real  fact  revive  the  old  conception  of  a  dominium  eminens 
seems  to  be  tnat  among  the  jurists  of  the  early  cen-  vested  in  the  universal  Church  Catholic,  there  is  not 
tunes  no  clear  conception  as  to  the  precise  subject  of  much  evidence  to  show  that  such  a  view  was  current 


PR0PSRT7 


468 


PBOPEBTT 


among  the  jurists  of  that  age  though  it  undoubtedly 
grew  up  later  (see  Gierke,  '"Genossenschaftsrechf. 
ill,  8).  So  far  as  property  went,  Justinian  busied 
himselif  with  the  rights  of  particular  iKkXii^Uu,  not 
with  those  of  the  general  iKkXtfcUif  but  at  the  same 
time  he  did  encoiu>age  a  centralizing  tendency  which 
left  a  supreme  junsdiction  in  the  bishop's  hands 
within  the  limits  of  the  civitas,  his  own  sphere  of 
:*uthority. 

There  can  be  no  reasonable  doubt  that,  with  the 
exception  of  the  monasteries  which  possessed  their 
goocLs  as  independent  institutions,  thou^  even 
then  under  the  superintendence  of  the  bishop  (see 
authorities  in  Knecht,  op.  cit.,  p.  58),  the  whole  ecclesi- 
astical property  of  the  diocese  was  subject  to  the 
bishop's  control  and  at  his  disposal.  His  powers  were 
ver}r  large,  and  his  subordinates,  the  diocesan  clergy, 
received  onlv  the  stipends  which  he  allowed  them, 
while  not  only  the  support  of  his  ecclesiastical  assist- 
ants, who  generally  shared  a  conmion  table  in  the 
bishop's  hous^  but  also  the  sums  devoted  to  the  relief 
of  the  sick  ana  the  poor,  to  the  ransom  of  captives,  as 
well  as  to  the  upkeep  and  repair  of  churches,  all  de- 
pended immediately  upon  him.  No  doubt  custdm 
regulated  in  some  measure  the  distribution  of  the 
resources  available.  Popes  Simplicius  in  475,  Gelasius 
in  494  (Jaff^Wattenbach, "  Regesta",  636),  and  Greg- 
ory the  Great  in  his  answer  to  Augustine  (Bede,  "Hist, 
eccl.",  I,  xxvii)  quote  as  traditional  the  rule  "that 
all  emoluments  that  accrue  are  to  be  divided  into  four 
portions — one  for  the  bishop  and  his  household  be- 
cause of  hospitality  and  entertainments,  another  for 
the  clergy,  a  third  for  the  poor,  and  a  fourth  for  the 
repair  of  churches",  and  then  texts  natundly  were 
incoiporated  at  a  later  date  in  the  "Decretum"  of 
Gratian. 

Church  Property  in  the  Middle  Ages, — Centraliza- 
tion of  this  kmd,  however,  leaving  everything,  as  it 
did,  in  the  bishop's  hands,  was  adapted  only  to 
peculiar  local  conditions  and  to  an  age  which  was  far 
advanced  in  commerce  and  orderly  government.  For 
the  sparsely  settled  and  barbarous  regions  occupied 
by  the  Teutonic  invaders  changes  would  sooner  or 
later  become  necessary.  But  at  first  the  Franks, 
Angles,  and  others,  who  accepted  Christianity  took 
over  the  system  already  existing  in  the  Roman  Em- 

Eire.  The  Coimcil  of  Orl^ns  in  511  enacted  in  its 
fteenth  decree  that  every  kind  of  contribution  or 
rent  offered  by  the  faithful  was  in  accordance  with  the 
ancient  canons  to  remain  entirely  at  the  disposition 
of  the  bishop,  though  of  the  gifts  actually  presented 
at  the  altar  he  was  to  receive  only  a  third  part.  So 
with  regard  to  the  Church's  right  of  ownership,  her 
freedom  to  receive  legacies  and  the  inviolability  of  her 
property,  the  pages  of  Gregory  of  Tours  bear  ample 
evidence  to  the  generosity  with  which  religion  was 
treated  during  the  early  Merovins:ian  period  (cf. 
Hauck,  "KirchengeschichteDeutschlands",  1, 134-7) 
— so  much  so  that  Chilperic  (c.  580)  complained  that 
the  royal  treasury  was  exhausted  because  all  the 
wealth  of  the  kingdom  had  been  transferred  to  the 
churches. 

Almost  everjrwhere  the  respect  due  to  the  rights  of 
the  clergy  was  put  in  the  foremost  place.  As  Mait- 
land  has  remarked  (Hist,  of  Eng.  Law,  I,  499), 
"God's  property  and  the  Church's,  twelvefold"  are 
the  first  written  words  of  English  law.  The  conscious- 
ness of  all  that  was  involved  in  this  code  of  King 
Ethelbert  of  Kent  (c.  610)  had  evidently  made  a  deep 
impression  upon  the  mind  of  Bede.  "Among  other 
benefits",  he  says,  "which  he  [Ethelbert]  conferred 
upon  the  nation,  he  also,  by  the  advice  of  wise  persons, 
introduced  judicial  decrees,  after  the  Roman  model, 
which,  being  written  in  English,  are  stiU  kept  and 
observed  by  them.  Among  which  he  in  the  first  place 
set  down  what  satisfaction  should  be  given  by  those 
who  should  steal  an3rthing  belonging  to  the  Church, 


the  bishop  or  the  other  clergy,  resolving  to  give  pro* 
tection  to  those  whose  doctrine  he  had  embraoea" 
(Hist,  eccl.,  II,  5).  Even  more  explicit  is  the  fa- 
mous privilege  of  Wihtred,  King  of  Kent,  a  hundred 
years  later  (c.  606):  "I,  Wihtred,  an  earthly  king, 
stimulated  by  the  heavenly  King  and  kindled  witL 
the  zeal  of  righteousness,  have  learned  from  the  insti- 
tutes of  our  forefathers  that  no  layman  ought  with 
ri^t  to  appropriate  to  himself  a  diurch  or  any  of  the 
things  which  to  a  church  belong.  And  therefore 
starongly  and  faithfully  we  appoint  and  decree,  and 
in  the  name  of  Almi^ty  Goa  and  of  all  saints  we 
forbid  to  all  Kings  our  successors,  and  to  all  earldom, 
and  to  all  laymen,  ever  any  lordship  over  churches, 
and  over  any  of  their  possessions  which  I  or  my  prede- 
cessors in  days  of  old  have  given  for  the  glory  of 
Christ,  and  our  lady  St.  Mary  and  the  holy  Aposues" 
(Hadden  and  Stubbs,  "Councils".  Ill,  244). 

This  touches  no  doubt  upon  a  ctiflSculty  which  had 
just  begun  to  be  felt  and  which  for  many  centuries 
to  come  was  to  be  a  menace  to  the  religious  peace  and 
well  being  of  Christendom.  As  alrc^y  suggested, 
the  primitive  idea  of  a  single  church  in  each  civitas, 
governed  by  a  bishop,  who  was  assisted  by  j^ra^ 
terium  of  subordinate  clergy,  was  unworkable  in  rude 
and  sparsely  populated  districts.  In  those  more 
northerly  regions  of  Europe  which  now  b^an  to 
embrace  Christianity,  village  churches  remote  from 
one  another  had  to  oe  provided,  and  though  many 
no  doubt  were  founded  and  maintained  by  the  bidiops 
themselves  (cf.  Fustel  de  Coulanges,  "La  monarchic 
franoue",  517)  the  religious  centres,  which  became  the 
parishes  of  a  later  date,  developed  in  most  cases  out 
of  the  private  oratories  of  the  landowners  and  thegns. 
The  great  man  built  his  church  and  then  set  himself 
to  find  a  clerk  who  the  bishop  might  ordain  to  serve 
it.  It  was  not  altogether  surprising  if  he  looked  upon 
the  church  as  his  church  seeing  that  it  was  built  upon 
his  land.  But  the  bishop's  consent  was  also  needed. 
It  was  for  him  to  consecrate  the  altar  and  from  him 
that  the  ordination  of  the  destined  incumbent  had  to 
be  soueht.  He  will  not  act  unless  a  sufficient  provision 
of  worldly  goods  is  secured  for  the  priest.  Here  we 
see  the  ori^  of  patronage.  This  "advowson"  (odtio- 
catio)f  or  n^t  to  present  to  the  benefice,  is  in  origin 
an  ownership  of  the  soil  upon  which  the  church  stands 
and  an  ownership  of  the  land  or  goods  set  apart  for 
the  sustenance  of  the  priest  who  serves  it.  Obvious^ 
the  sense  of  proprietorship  engendered  by  this  relation 
was  very  dangerous  to  peace  and  to  ecclesiastical 
liberty.  Where  such  advowsons  rested  in  the  hands 
of  the  clergy  or  monastic  institutions,  there  was 
nothing  very  unseemly  in  the  idea  of  the  patron  "own- 
ing" the  church,  its  lands,  and  its  resources.  In  point 
of  fact  a  large  and  ever-increasing  number  of  parish 
churches  were  made  over  to  reUgious  houses.  The 
,  monks  provided  a  "vicar"  to  discharge  the  duties  of 
piuish-priest,  but  absorbed  the  revenues  and  tithes, 
spending  them  no  doubt  for  the  most  part  in  works 
of  utility  and  charity.  But  while  thfe  idea  of  a  bishop 
of  Paderbom  for  example  presenting  a  parish  churcL 
to  a  monastery  "proprietario  lure  possiaendum ",  "to 
be  held  in  stbsolute  ownership",  excites  no  protest,  the 
case  was  diiSTerent  when  la3rmen  took  back  to  their 
own  use  the  revenues  which  their  fathers  had  allocated 
to  the  parish-priest^  or  when  kings  began  to  assert  a 
patronage  over  ancient  cathedrals,  or  again  when  the 
emperor  wanted  to  treat  the  Church  Catholic  as  a 
sort  of  fief  and  private  possession  of  his  own. 

In  any  case  it  is  plain  that  the  general  tendency  of 
the  parochial  movement,  more  especially  when  the 
churches  originated  in  the  private  oratories  of  the 
landowners,  was  to  take  much  of  the  control  of  church 
property  out  of  the  hands  of  the  bishops.  A  canon  of 
the  Third  Council  of  Toledo  (589),  re-enacted  sub- 
sequently elsewhere,  speaks  very  significantly  in  this 
connexion.   "  There  are  many  ",  it  says,  "  who  agamst 


PBOPEBTT 


469 


PBOPEBTT 


the  canonical  rule,  seek  to  get  their  own  churches  con- 
secrated upon  sucn  terms  as  to  withdraw  their  endow- 
ment (dotem)  from  the  bishop's  power  of  disposition. 
This  we  disapprove  in  the  past  and  for  the  future 
forbid"  (cf.  Chalons  in  Mansi,  X.  119).  On  the  other 
hand  many  ordinances,  for  example  that  of  the  Council 
of  Carpentras  in  527  (Mansi,  VIII,  707),  make  it 
quite  aear  that  while  the  bishop's  right  was  main- 
tained in  theory,  the  practice  prevailed  of  leaving  the 
offerings  of  the  faithnil  to  the  church  in  which  they 
were  made  so  long  as  they  were  there  needed.  The 
pajrment  of  tithes,  which  seems  first  to  have  been  put 
forward  as  a  contribution  of  general  obligation  by 
certain  bi^ops  and  synods  in  the  six^  century  (see 
Selbome,  ''Ancient  facts  and  fiction",  cap.  xi),  must 
have  told  in  the  same  direction.  It  seems  tolerably 
plain  that  this  collection  must  always  have  been  un- 
dertaken locally,  and  the  threefold  partition  of  tithes 
which  is  spoken  of  in  the. so-called  "Capitulare  epis- 
ooporum"  and  which  reappears  in  the  ''Egbertine 
Excerptions"  takes  no  account  of  any  bishop's  share. 
The  tithes  are  to  be  devoted  first  to  tne  upkeep  of  the 
church,  secondly  to  the  reHef  of  the  poor  and  of  pil- 
grimSj  and  thirdly  to  the  support  of  the  clergy  them- 
selves. Even  if,  according  to  the  celebrated  ordinance 
of  Obarlemagne  in  778-^,  the  tithes  which  everyone 
was  bound  to  give  "were  to  be  dispensed  according 
to  the  bu^op's  conmiandment",  local  custom  and 
tradition  were  everywhere  placing  checks  upon  any 
arbitrary  apportionment.  Usage  varied  considerably, 
but  in  almost  all  cases  the  resources  so  provided  seem 
to  have  been  expended  parochially  and  not  upon  the 
general  needs  of  the  diocese. 

It  was  in  the  ninth  century  particularly  that  not 
onlv  in  the  matter  of  tithes  out  in  the  revenues  of 
bishoprics  and  monasteries  a  general  apportionment 
began  to  be  arrived  at.  Both  oishop  and  abbot  had 
now  become  great  personages,  maintaining  a  certain 
state  which  could  not  be  kept  up  without  considerable 
expenditure.  The  conmion  escpenses  of  the  diocese 
and  the  monastery  tended  more  and  more  to  become 
the  private  prop^y  of  the  bishop  and  the  abbot. 
Disputes  naturally  arose,  and  before  long  there  came 
a  division  of  these  resources.  The  bishop  shared  the 
revenues  with  the  chapter  and  separate  establish- 
ments, or  viensa,  were  created.  Similarly  the  abbot 
lived  apart  from  his  monks  and  in  a  large  measure 
the  two  systems  became  mutually  independent. 
Naturally  in  tiie  case  of  cathedral  chapters  the  proc- 
ess of  division  went  further  and  although  the  chap- 
ters still  held  property  in  common  and  administered 
it  through  a  steward,  or  ''oeconomus",  each  of  the 
canons  4n  the  course  of  time  acquired  a  separate  preb- 
end, the  administration  of  which  was  left  entirely 
in  his  hands.  The  same  freedom  was  gradually  con- 
ceded to  parish-priests  and  other  members  of  the 
ddigy,  once  they  had  duly  been  put  in  possession  of 
their  benefices.  To  all  intents  and  purposes  it  mijB^ht 
be  said  that  in  the  later  Middle  Ages  the  parish- 
priest,  whether  rector  or  vicar,  had  succeeded,  so  far 
as  concerned  the  limits  of  his  own  jurisdiction,  to 
the  administrative  duties  formerly  exercised  by  the 
biidiop. 

Still  the  old  idea  that  all  church  property  was  ''the 
patrimony  of  the  poor"  was  not  lost  sight  of.  In 
theory  always,  ana  most  commonly  in  practice,  the 
rector  collected  the  revenues  of  his  benefice,  his 
tithes  and  other  dues  and  offerings  in  trust  for  the 
poor  of  the  parish,  res^vihg  only  what  was  necessary 
for  his  own  reasonable  support  and  for  the  main- 
tenance of  the  church  and  its  services.  In  England 
there  was  a  general' and  well-understood  rule  that  the 
rector  of  the  parish  kept  the  chancel  of  the  church  in 
repair,  while  the  parishioners  were  bound  to  see  that 
the  nave  and  the  rest  of  the  fabric  was  maintained 
in  proper  condition  (see  Bishop  Quivil's  "Exeter 
Decrees",  cap.  ix;    Wilkins,  "Concaia",  II,  138). 


The  long-protracted  process  of  division  and  adjust- 
ment wMch  led  up  to  the  comparatively  stable  and 
well-defined  ownership  of  church  property  in  the 
later  Middle  Ages  was  also,  as  might  be  expected, 
fertile  in  abuses.  The  impropriation  of  tithes  by  the 
monasteries  set  an  example  which  unscrupulous  and 
powerful  laymen  were  not  slow  to  follow,  with  more 
or  less  pretence  of  respecting  the  forms  of  law.  Great 
landowners  awniming  patronal  rights  over  the  monas- 
teries situated  within  tiieir  domains  named  them- 
selves or  other  secular  persons  to  be  abbots  and  seized 
the  revenues  which  the  abbot  separately  enjoyed, 
while  the  patrons,  or  advocati,  of  individual  parish 
churches  were  continually  attempting  to  make 
simoniacal  compacts  with  uiose  whom  they  proposed 
to  present  to  such  benefices.  But  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  from  the  eleventh  century  onwards  the 
more  centralized  government  of  the  Church,  as  well 
as  the  marked  progress  made  in  the  study  of  canon 
law,  did  much  to  check  these  abuses  even  during  the 
worst  times  of  the  Great  Schism. 

Acquisition^ — ^Turning  from  early  history  to  ques- 
tions of  principle  we  find  it  laid  down  by  the  canonists 
that  as  regards  the  acquisition  of  property  the  Church 
stands  on  the  same  footing  as  any  corporation  or  any 
private  individual.  There  is  nothing  in  the  nature 
of  things  to  prevent  her  from  receiving  legacies  or 
gifts  either  of  movable  or  immovable  goods,  and  she 
insy  also  allow  her  possessions  to  grow  by  invest- 
ments, by  occupation,  by  prescription,  or  by  the 
emoluments  resulting  from  any  legitimate  form  of 
contract.  Indeed  if  the  civil  power  interferes  sub- 
stantiidly  with  the  freedom  of  collecting  alms  and 
receiving  donations  the  rights  of  the  (jhurch  are 
thereby  invaded.  The  laws  which  were  enacted  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  thirteenth  centiiry  both  in 
England  and  in  France  to  check  the  passing  of  prop- 
erty into  "mortmain"  were  for  this  reason  always 
regarded  as  wrong  in  principle,  though  the  loss  oc- 
casioned to  the  feudal  lord  by  tne  cessation  of  reliefs, 
escheats,  wardships,  marriages,  etc.,  when  the  land 
was  made  over  to  ecclesiastical  uses,  could  not  be 
denied.  No  doubt  this  legislation  of  the  civil  power 
was  in  practice  acquiesced  in  while  licenses  to  ac- 

2uire  land  in  mortmain  were  obtainable  without  great 
ifficulty  upon  adequate  compensation  being  made 
(this  was  known  in  France  as  the  droit  d^amoriiscUion, 
see  Viollet,  "Institutions  politiques",  II,  398-413). 
but  the  restrictions  thus  imposed  were  never  accepted 
in  principle.  Such  papal  pronouncements  as  the 
"Clericis  laicos"  of  Boniface  VIII  claimed  that  the 
Church  possessed  the  right  to  acquire  property  by 
the  donations  of  the  faithful  independently  of  any 
interference  on  the  part  of  the  State  ana  that  if 
compensation  was  made  it  should  be  done  through 
the  free  action  of  the  Holy  See,  in  whom  the  dominion 
of  all  church  goods  ultimately  rested,  acting  in  willing 
response  to  any  reasonable  representations  that  might 
be  addressed  to  it. 

Later  on  and  especially  since  the  Reformation  in 
countries  where  no  state  provision  or  endowment 
exists  for  the  maintenance  of  the  clergy,  custom, 
generally  endorsed  by  the  enactments  of  provincial 

rods  and  the  sanction  of  the  Holy  See,  nas  intro- 
ed  besides  certain  traditional  jura^  or  rights,  for 
spiritual  services  various  exceptional  metnods  of 
adding  to  the  slender  resources  of  the  missions  or 
stations:  Such  are  for  example  bench-rents  or 
charges  for  more  advantageous  seats,  collections, 
charity  sermons,  and  out-door  collections  made  from 
house  to  house.  At  the  same  time  the  dangers  of 
abuse  in  this  direction  are  jealously  watched.  It  is 
particularly  insisted  upon  that  there  should  be  a  suf- 
ficiency of  free  seats  to  allow  the  poor  readily  to  dis- 
charge the  obligation  of  attending  Sunday  Mass. 
The  oishops  are  charged  to  see  that  bazaars  and  en- 
tertainments got  up  for  church  purposes  are  not  an 


PROPEBTT 


470 


PROPEBTT 


occasion  of  scandal.  In  particular  any  refusal  of  the 
sacraments  to  the  sick  and  dying  on  the  ground  of  a 
neglect  to  contribute  to  the  support  of  the  mission 
is  severely  condemned.  So  also  are  certain  unseemly 
methods  of  soliciting  alms,  as  for  example  when  the 
priest  quits  the  altar  during  the  celebration  of  Mass 
to  go  round  the  church  to  make  the  collection  himself 
or  when  promises  of  Masses  and  other  spiritual 
favours  in  return  for  contributions  are  conspicuously 
made  in  the  advertisement  sheets  of  pubUc  journals 
or  when  the  names  of  particular  singers  are  placarded 
as  solpists  in  the  music  performed  at  liturgical  func- 
tions (cf.  Laurentius,  ''Juris  eccles.  inst.",  640).  In  the 
past  certain  definite  forms  of  alms  were  recognized  as 
the  ordinary  sources  through  which  the  possessions  of 
the  Church  were  acquired.  A  word  may  be  said 
upon  some  of  the  more  noteworthy  of  these. 

(1)  Firatfruits. — The  offering  of  firstfruits  which 
we  meet  m  the  Old  Testament  (Ex.,  xxiii,  16; 
xxxiv,  22;  Deut.,  xxvi,  1~11)  seems  to  have  been 
taken  over  as  a  traditional  means  of  contributing  to 
the  support  of  the  pastors  of  the  Churcl^  by  the  earlv 
Christians.  It  is  mentioned  in  the  ''Didache  , 
the  ''Didascalia".  "Apostolic  Constitutions '',  etc., 
but  thou^  for  a  wnile  it  was  customary  to  make  some 
similar  contributions  in  kind  at  the  Offertory  of  the 
Mass  (a  late  mention  may  be  found  in  the  Council 
of  Tnillo  in  Mansi.  "  Concilia  ",  XI,  956)  still  the  prac- 
tice gradually  fell  into  disuse  or  took  some  other 
form,  e.  g.  that  of  tithes,  more  particularly  perhaps 
the  ''small  tithes'',  sometimes  Imown  as  "altalage''. 

(2)  Tithes. — This  also  was  an  Old-Testament  or- 
dinance (see  Deut.,  xiv,  22-7)  which  many  believe  to 
have  been  identical  in  origin  with  firstfruits.  Like 
the  latter  due,  tithes  were  prqbabl^  taken  over  by 
the  early  Christian  Church  at  least  m  some  districts, 
e.  g.  Syria.  They  are  mentioned  in  the  "  Didascalia'' 
and  the  "Apostolic  Constitutions'',  but  there  is 
very  little  to  show  that  the  payment  was  at  first  re- 
garded as  of  strict  obligation.  Still  less  can  we  be 
certain  that  there  was  continuity  between  the  usage 
referred  to  in  the  Eastern  Church  of  the  fourth  cen- 
tury and  the  institution  which,  as  already  mentioned 
above,  we  find  described  by  the  Council  of  MScon  in 
585.     (See  Tithes.) 

(3)  DueSf  rather  ill-defined  and  still  imper- 
fectly understood,  which  were  known  to  the  Anglo- 
Saxons  as  "church-shot".  We  meet  them  first  in  the 
laws  of  King  Ine  in  693,  but  they  continued  throu^- 
out  all  the  An^o-Saxon  period  and  later.  This  is 
commonly  considered  to  have  been  a  contribution 
not  paid  according  to  the  wealth  and  quality  of  the 
person  paying  it,  but  according  to  the  value  of  the 
house  in  which  he  was  living  in  the  winter  and  iden- 
tical with  the  see  dues  {cathedraticum)  of  a  later  age 
(see  Kemble,  "Saxons  in  England",  II,  559  sq.). 
Other  dues  equally  difficult  to  identify  with  exact- 
ness were  the  "light-shot"  and  the  "soul-shot". 
Thus  we  find  among  the  canons  passed  at  Eynsham  in 
1009  such  an  ordinance  as  the  following:  "Let  God's 
rights  be  paid  every  year  duly  and  carefully,  i.  e. 
plough-alms  15  nights  after  Easter,  tithe  of  young  by 
Pentecost  and  of  ail  fruits  of  the  earth  by  All  Hallows 
Mass  (Nov.  1).  And  the  Rome-fee  by  Peter's  Mass 
(Aug.  1).  And  the  Church-shot  at  St.  Martins  Mass 
(Nov.  11)  and  lightHshot  thrice  a  year,  and  it  is  most 
just  that  the  men  pay  the  soul-shot  at  the  open 
grave." 

(4)  Funeral  Dues. — The  last-mentioned  contri- 
bution of  "soul-shot",  the  precise  signification  of 
which  is  imperfectly  understood,  is  t3rpical  of  a  form 
of  offering  which  at  many  different  epochs  has  been  a 
recognized  source  of  income  to  the  Church.  Even 
if  we  look  upon  the  payments  to  certain  clerks  pre- 
scribed by  Justinian  (Novel.,  lix)  as  a  fee  for  a  ma- 
terial service  rendered,  rather  than  an  offering  to  the 
Church,  still  from  the  time  of  the  Council  of  Braga 


(can.  oou  in  Mansi,  IX^  779)  in  563,  such  noboney  con- 
tributions though  quite  volimtary  were  oonstantly 
made  in  connexion  with  funerals.  In  medieval  Eng- 
land the  mortuaiy  in  the  case  of  a  person  of  knightly 
dijgnity  commonly  took  the  form  of  his  war^rse 
with  all  its  trappings.  The  horse  was  led  up  the 
church  at  the  Offertory  and  presented  at  the  altar 
rails.  No  doubt  it  was  afterwanls  sold  or  redeemed 
for  a  money  payment. 

(5)  Ordination  Dues  and  other  Offerings  in  con- 
nexion  vnth  the  Sacraments. — ^Just  as  it  is  recognized 
that  Mass  stipends,  supposing  the  conditions  to  be 
observed  which  custom  and  ecclesiastical  authority 
prescribe,  may  be  accepted  without  simony,  so  at 
almost  all  periods  of  the  Church's  history  offerings 
have  been  made  in  connexion  with  the  administration 
of  the  sacraments.  One  of  the  commonest  of  these 
was  the  payment  made  to  a  bii^p  bv  the  newly- 
ordained  at  the  time  of  ordination.  Tnou^^  in  the 
end  prohibited  by  the  Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  XXI, 
de  ref.y  cap.  i),  such  offerings  had  been  customary 
from  quite  early  ages.  In  some  localities  a  payment 
was  made  at  the  time  of  the  annual  confession,  but  the 
dangers  of  abuse  in  this  case  were  obvious  and  many 
syncKds  condenmed  the  practice.  Less  difficulty  was 
felt  in  the  case  of  baptism  and  matrimony  and  the 
exaction  of  such  dues  from  those  who  can  afford  it 
may  almost  be  described  as  general  in  the  Church. 

(6)  Investments  and  Landed  Property. — But  the 
most  substantial  source  of  revenue,  and  one  that  in 
view  of  the  precarious  nature  of  all  other  offerings 
may  be  considered  as  necessary  to  the  Churdrs 
well-being,  is  land,  or  in  more  modem  times  invest- 
ments bearing  interest.  Even  before  the  toleration 
edict  of  Milan  (313),  it  is  clear  from  the  restitu- 
tion there  spoken  of  that  the  Church  must  have 
owned  considerable  landed  possessions,  and  from  that 
time  forward  donations  and  legacies  of  property 
yielding  annual  revenues  naturaUy  multiplied.  As 
alreadv  pointed  out,  the  Church's  right  to  receive 
such  donations  whether  by  will  or  inter  vives  was  re- 
peatedly acknowledged  and  confirmed.  In  medieval 
England  it  was  usual  by  wa^  of  symbolical  investiture, 
by  which  possession  was  given  to  the  Church,  to  lay 
some  material  object  upon  the  altar,  for  example  a 
book,  or  parchment  deed,  or  a  ring,  or  most  frequently 
of  all  a  knife.  This  knife  was  often  broken  by 
the  donor  before  it  was  laid  upon  the  altar  (see 
Reichel,  "Church  and  Church  Endowments"  in 
"Transactions  of  the  Devonshire  Association", 
XXXIX,  1907,  377-81). 

The  modem  exponents  of  the  canon  law,  basing 
their  teaching  on  the  pronouncements  of  the  Holy 
See  and  the  decrees  of  provincial  s3aiods,  lay  great 
stress  upon  the  principle  that  the  offerings  of  the 
faithful  are  to  be  expended  according  to  the  intention 
of  the  donors.  They  also  insist  that  where  that  in- 
tention is  not  clearly  made  known  certain  reasonable 
presumptions  must  oe  followed;  for  example  in  mis- 
sionary centres  where  a  church  has  not  yet  been 
built  and  organized  donations  are  presumed  to  be 
made  in  view  of  the  ultimate  erection  of  such  a  church. 
So  again  money  given  at  the  Offertory  in  anv  quasi- 
parochial  church,  or  collected  b^  the  faithful  from 
house  to  house  is  not  to  be  considered  as  a  personal 
gift  to  the  priest  in  charge  but  as  intended  for  the  sup- 
port of  the  mission.  Certain  difficult  questions 
which  arise  with  regard  to  such  contributions  of  the 
faithful  in  places  where  parochial  duties  are  under- 
taken by  the  religious  oraers  are  legislated  for  in  the 
Constitution  "Romanes  pontifices"  (q.  v.)  of  Leo 
XIII,  8  May,  1881. 

Foundations. — By  these  are  understood  a  transfer^ 
ence  of  property  to  the  Church  or  to  some  particular 
ecclesiastical  institute  in  view  of  some  service  or  work  to 
be  done  either  perpetually  or  for  a  long  time.  They  are 
not  valid  until  tney  are  formally  accepted,  and  for 


PROPEBTT                              471  PROPERTY 

that  purpose  they  have  to  be  approved  by  the  bishops  Baltimore  (1884)  laid  down  that  all  acts  of  alienation 

and  for  all  institutions  under  their  jurisdiction.    It  is  or  any  equivalent  disposition  of  properly  involving  a 

for  the  bishop  to  decide  whether  the  endowment  is  sum  greater  than  $5000  required  papal  permission, 

sufficient  for  the  charge,  but  the  foundation  once  made,  the  consent  of  the  diocesan  consultors  having  been 

especially  when  the  interests  of  a  third  party  are  previously  obtained.    But,  as  the  Plenary  Council  of 

involved,  the  conditions  cannot  ordinarily  be  changed,  Latin- America  in  1899  (n.  870)  also  points  out,  "much 

at  least  without  appeal  to  the  Holy  See.   In  particular  depends  on  circumstances  of  time  and  place  in  deciding 

where  a  charge  of  Masses  to  be  said  has  been  accepted,  what  ought  to  be  regarded  as  property  of  small  value 

and  the  foundation  no  longer  meets  that  charge,  ap-  Iwdar  exiguus]^  hence  in  this  matter  a  decision  to  meet 

plication  must  be  made  to  the  Holy  See  before  the  the  case  ought  to  be  obtained  by  each  country  sepa- 

number  can  be  reduced.  rately  from  the  Apostolic  See.*' 

Alienation. — That    the    Church    herself    has   the  It  will  be  readily  understood  that  all  forms  of 

right  to  aUenate  ecclesiastical  propa*ty  follows  as  a  hypothecation  or  the  raising  of  money  upon  the 


consequence  of  the  complete  ownership  by  which  she    security  of  church  property  must  be  regarded  as  sub- 


the  position  of  a  minor,  and  disposes  of  her  property  of  Exeter  and  deciding  that  in  a  case  where  the 

through  her  prelates  and  admimstratprs.    No  one  of  parish-priest  had  pawned  a  silver  chalice  and  a  Brev- 

these,  not  .even  the  pope,  has  the  power  to  alienate  lary  and  had  died  before  redeeming  them,  his  heirs 

ecclesiastical  property  validly,  without  some  pro-  were  to  be  compelled  under  pain  of  exconmiimication 

portionate  reason  (Werhz,  "  Jus  Decret.",  III^  i,  179).  to  recover  and  restore  the  property  to  the  church  to 

Further,  the  alienation,  which  in  accordance  with  num-  which  it  belonged. 

berless  decrees  and  canons  of  synods  (see  the  second        Prescription, — ^With  regard   to  prescription,  also, 

part  of  the  Decret.,  C.  xii,  a.  2,  canons  20,  41,  52)  is  ecclesiastical  property  has  special  privileges.  Amongst 

thus  forbidden,  comprehends  not  only  the  transfer-  private  indiyidualB  the  canon  law  recognized  that 

ence  of  the  ownership  of  church  gpods  but  also  all  possession  with  an  unchallenged  title  for  ten,  twenty, 

proceedings  by  which  the  property  is  burdened,  e.  g.,  or  at  most  thirty  years  suffices  to  confer  ownership, 

p^  mortgages,  or  lessened  in  value  or  eimosed  to  the  but  in  the  case  of  immovable  church  property  forty 

nsk  of  loss,  or  by  which  its  revenues  are  tor  anv  nota^  vears  are  required,  and  against  the  Holy  see  one 

ble  time  diverted  from  their  proper  uses.    It  is  to  hundred  years.   As  to  the  much  controverted  question 

this  inalienability  of  all  the  possessions  of  the  Church,  regarding  the  true  owner  (sui^ectum  daminii)  of  eccle- 

which  like  the    hand  of  a  dead  man"  never  loosens  siastical  property,  the  more  approved  view  at  the 

its  grip  of  what  it  once  has  clutched,  that  thepr#j-  present  day  looks  upon  each  institution  as  the  pro- 

udice  already  referred  to  against  property  held  in  prietor  of  the  goods  belonging  to  it^  but  always  iji 

"mortmain"  grew  up  in  the  thirteenth  century.  subordination  to  the  supreme  jurisdiction  vested  in 

Still  the  prohibition  of  alienation  is  not  absolute,  the  Holy  See  (Wemz,  "Jus  Decretalium",  III,  n.  138). 

It  is  prohibited  only  when,  done  without  just  reason  As  Wemz  forcibly  arpies,  if  the  Universal  Church  were 

and  without   the  requisite  formalities.     As   "just  itself  the  proprietor  it  would  also  be  bound  by  all  the 

reasons"  the  canonists  recognize:    (1)  urgent  neces-  debts  by  which  any  and  every  ecclesiastical  institution 

sity,  for  example,  when  a  church  is  in  debt  and  has  was  burdened.    But  neither  the  Universal  Church  nor 

no  other  means  of  raising  the  money  needed;    (2)  the  Holy  See  have  ever  admitted  such  an  obligation, 

manifest  utility,  siwh  as  may  occur  when  an  oppor-  neither  have  they  ever  declared  that  one  institution 

tunity  presents  itself  of^  acquiring  a  much-desu-ed  was  liable  for  the  debts  incurred  by  another.    At  the 

piece  of  land  on  exceptionally  advantageous  terms;  same  time,  if  the  aim  and  purpose  of  any  particular 

(3)  piety,  e.  g.,  if  church  goods  are  sold  to  ransom  ecclesiastical  institution  comes  to  an  end,  and  its 
captives  or  to  feed  the  starving  poor:  and  (4)  con-  moral  personality  is  destroyed,  its  property  passes 
venience,  as  in  the  case  when  the  upKeep  of  certain  by  right  to  the  ownerdiipof  the  Universal  Cnurch^of 
possessions  involves  more  trouble  than  they  are  worth,  which  the  institution  in  question  was  by  supposition 
Besides  a  just  reason,  there  is  required,  for  the  alien-  a  member  or  part.  Further,  since  it  is  in  virtue  of  its 
ation  of  immovable  goods  (such  as  lands,  houses,  stock  connexion  with  the  Universal  Church  that  the  right 
and  other  titles  and  rent-bearing  investments)  and  of  ac(]uiring  and  owning  property  belongs  to  any 
movable  goods  of  value,  the  observance  of  certain  ecclesiastical  organization,  it  is  commonly  held  that 
formalities.  We  may  enumerate:  (1)  the  preliminary  if  it  revolt  from  the  obedience  of  the  Church  and 
discussion  (tracteUus),  e.  g.,  between  the  bishop  and  apostatize  from  the  Catholic  Church  it  has  no  longer 
the  chapter;  (2)  the  consent  of  the  bishop  in  those  any  claims  to  the  property  which  it  originally  acquired 
matters  in  which  it  is  required;  (3)  a  formal  mandate  for  Catholic  purposes  as  a  member  of  the  Church, 
for  the  act  of  alienation  issued  by  competent  authority,  Upon  the  principle  that  the  civil  power,  as  such, 
e.  g.,  the  vicar-general  if  he  is  empowered  to  do  this;  has  neither  the  supreme  dominion  nor  any  just  control 

(4)  the  formal  consent  of  interested  parties  and  in  over  the  administration  of  ecclesiastical  property,  ex- 
many  cases  of  the  cathedral  chapter.  cept  in  so  far  as  the  Church  by  concordats  or  other 

Finally  the  important  constitution  "Ambitiosae"  of  agreements  may  freely  concede  certain  powers  to  the 
Paul  II,  confirmed  by  Urban  VIII,  7  Sept.,  1624,  and  State,  all  approved  writers  within  the  Church  are 
by  Pius  IX  in  the  Cionstitution  "Apostolic®  Sedis",  agreed.  Neither  can  there  be  any  question  that  the 
12  Oct.,  1869,  requires  under  penalty  of  excommunicar  Decree  of  the  Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  XXII,  de  ref ., 
tion  the  consent  of  the  Holy  See  for  the  alienation  of  cap.  ii),  upheld  by  the  Constitution  "Apostolic® 
immovable  property  of  great  value.  At  one  time  it  Sedis"  of  Pius  IX,  which  pronounces  an  excommuni- 
was  contended  that  the  Constitution  "Ambitiosse"  cation  and  other  censures  against  the  usurpers  of 
had  f aUen  into  desuetude,  but  most  canonists  hold  church  goods,  is  still  in  full  vigour.  It  must  be  plain, 
that  in  the  face  of  the  "Apostolic®  Sedis"  this  cannot  then,  that  the  recent  wholesale  confiscations  in  Italy, 
now  be  maintained  (see  e.  g.,  Wemz,  III,  n.  165,  France,  and  other  countries,  have  given  rise  to  a  vast 
Sa^Uller,  879).  Still  the  requirements  of  the  "Am-  number  of  very  difficult  questions  as  to  the  extent 
bitiosse"  are  much  mitigated  in  practice  by  the  to  which  those  who  in  various  ways  have  participated 
faculties  commonly  conceded  to  bishops  by  the  Hqjy  in  these  confiscations  are  subject  to  the  censures  pro- 
See  for  ten  years  at  a  time  to  authorize  the  alienation  nounced  against  the  usurpers  of  the  Church's  goods, 
of  church  property  up  to  a  not  inconsiderable  amount.  The  position  of  those  who  participate  in  the  act  of 
In  the  United  States  the  Third  Plenary  Council  of  spoliation  by  aid,  counsel,  or  favour,  in  the  case  of  the 


PBOPEBTT 


472 


PROPERTY 


eodefliastical  property  of  the  Papal  States,  is  different 
from  those  who  co-operate  in  the  same  way  elsewhere. 
The  Encyclical  "Roq^icientes"  of  1  Nov.,  1870,  deal- 
ing with  the  former  class  clearly  extends  the  excom- 
munication to  all  who  co-operate,  whereas  in  France 
and  elsewhere  offenders  fall  only  under  the  common 
law  of  the  Church,  and  by  this,  those  who  merely  take 
part  in  the  liquidation  of  property,  or  act  as  clerks, 
for  instance,  in  the  proceedings,  do  not  seem  to  incur 
the  censures,  but  onlv  those  who  are  the  actual  spoli- 
ators and  usurpers  of  the  property,  or  those  who  order 
and  plan  it;  the  law  affects,  in  other  words,  the  prin- 
cipals and  not  those  who  are  merely  accessories.  The 
question  of  the  application  of  these  censures  is  very 
fully  discussed,  amongst  other  recent  authorities, 
by  Card.  Gennari  (Consultations,  I)  and  by  the 
ADb6  BoudiiUion  in  the  ''Canoniste  Contemporain" 
(March,  1909-Oct.,  1910). 

Apart  from  such  determined  acts  of  spoliation  as 
those  which  foUowed  the  occupation  of  Rome  (1870) 
and  the  recent  Associations  and  Separation  Laws  in 
France,  the  clergy  are  generally  instructed  to  comply, 
as  far  as  may  be  possible  without  sacrifice  of  principle, 
with  the  reauirements  of  the  civil  law,  if  ozuy  in  the 
interest  of  the  property  of  which  they  are  the  admin- 
istrators. These  and  similar  points  are  dwelt  upon 
in  the  Decrees  of  the  Second  Plenary  Council  of  West- 
minster (1885).  which  dealt  at  some  length  with  the 
fuestion  of  ecclesiastical  property.  For  example,  the 
'athers  of  the  Council  direct  that  ''no  administrator 
of  a  mission  should  draw  up  any  legal  document  con- 
cerning church  property,  without  the  express  author- 
ity of  the  bishop,  who  will  not  fail  to  consult  lawyers 
most  skilled  in  these  matters,  and  subject  ever3rthing 
to  the  most  careful  revision".  So,  too,  it  directs  that 
"all  buildings  belonging  to  a  mission  should  be  most 
carefully  insured  against  fire'',  and  lays  down  rules 
as  to  the  destination  of  Mass  offerings,  stole  fees  (jura 
siolcBJf  etc. 

For  Ireland  some  similar  regulations  were  made  in 
the  Maynooth  Synod  of  1875,  and  we  may  note  how 
the  synod,  after  directing  that  a  two-fold  inventory  of 
church  property  should  be  made,  one  copy  to  be  kept 
by  the  bishop  m  the  diocesan  archives  and  the  other 
to  be  kept  among  the  parish  records,  lays  down  the 
following  wise  rules  respecting  the  requirements  of  the 
civil  law:  "Lest  ecclesiastical  property  fall  into  other 
hands  on  account  of  the  defects  of  the  law,  the  bishop 
will  take  heed  that  the  titles  or  de^  may  be  accu- 
rately drawn  up  according  to  the  civil  law  and  in  the 
name  of  three  or  four  trustees  (curatorum).  The 
trustees  are  to  be  the  bishop  of  the  diocese,  the 
parish-priest  or  other  whose  property  is  concerned, 
the  vicar-general  or  other  person,  prudent,  well  known 
for  uprightness,  and  for  oeine  versed  in  matters  of 
this  sort.  These  trustees  should  meet  once  a  year,  so 
as  to  provide  for  the  security  of  the  aforesaid  goods. 
And  if  one  of  them  die  the  others  are  bound  to  ap- 
point another  in  his  place.  All  bishops  or  priests 
naving  possession  or  administration  in  any  way  of 
such  property  are  bound  to  make  their  wills,  and  these 
wills  are  to  be  kept  by  the  bishop:  and  to  no  one  in 
extremis  will  the  last  sacraments  be*  given  unless  he 
makes  his  will  or  promises  to  do  so.'' 

The  sreat  and  claasioal  work  dealing  with  the  whole  question 
of  church  proiwrty  is  Thomassin,  VHu»  H  tuna  ecclenia  discipiina 
circa  benmcia  et  heneficiarioM,  of  which  several  editions  have  been 
published,  including  one  at  least  in  French.  AH  the  more  copious 
treatises  upon  canon  law.  such  as  those  of  Philum},  Vbrino, 
8cHMAUORt)BiiR,  necessarily  deal  with  the  matter  at  some 
length,  and  among  modem  authorities  special  mention  should  be 
madeof  Wbrns,  Jm  Decretalium,  III  (Rome.  1908);  SXomDllisr, 
Kirehenrtcht  (Freiburg,  1009);  Laurentiub,  InsiU.  juris  ecd. 
(Freiburg.  1908) ;  see  also  Mamachi,  Dd  diritU  libera  delta  ehiem 
ai  acquittare  e  potsedere  boni  temporali  (Venice,  1766) :  Mburer, 
Der  Beffrif  und  BigerUUmer  der  heilipen  Sfithen  (DOsseidorf, 
1885):  BoNDROiT,  De  capacitate  poBsidendi  ecdeaia:  (Ix>uvain. 
1900);  ScRETA,  De  jtare  ecdeaia  acquirendi  (I^uvain,  1892); 
Knecht,  Sytiem  dea  ju9tiriiani»ehen  KirchenvermOgentfrrehtu 
(Stuttgart,  1905);  Moulart,  Vigliat  et  VUat  (Pans,  1902); 
OsNNABit  ContuUfUione  de  numUe,  de  droit  canonique  et  de  lUurgie 


(1907-9);  BouDXNBOK,  Biena  ^tgliee  et  peinee  eanoniqute,  in 
Canoniete  contemporain  (April.  1909-Oot.,  1010):  FomurERvr 
in  Diet,  de  thiol.  Cath.^  s.  v.  Bietu  eedMaatiquee;  Taunton.  Law 
of  the  Church  (London,  1905). 

Herbert  Thtjrston. 

Property  Ecclesiastical,  in  the  IlNrrsD 
States. — ^The  Third  Plenary  Council  of  Baltimore 
decreed  (tit.  IX.  cap.  i,  n.  264):  "We  must  hold, 
holily  and  inviolably,  that  the  complete  right  of  owner- 
ship and  dominion  over  ecclesiastical  goods  resides  in 
the  Church.''  In  English-speaking  countries,  how- 
ever, the  State  as  a  rule  does  not  recognize  this  in- 
herent right  of  the  Church,  but  claims  for  itself  the 
supreme  dominion  over  temporal  possessions.  "The 
State  refuses  to  recognize  the  Church  as  an  actual 
corporation  with  the  power  of  holding  property  in  her 
own  name;  hence  tne  civil  power  deals  only  with 
specific  individuals''  (Taunton,  op.  oit.  infra,  p.  310). 
The  fathers  of  the  Third  Plenaiy  Council  of  Baltimore 
say  on  this  subject :  "On  account  of  the  grave  dangers 
to  which  temporal  goods  are  often  exposed  when 
bishops  are  not  allowed  to  control  them  according  to 
the  prescriptions  of  the  Church,  it  is  much  to  be  re- 
g^tted  that  in  many  parts  of  the  United  States  the 
civil  laws  concerning  the  possession  and  administra- 
tion of  temporal  goods  rest  upon  principles  which  the 
Church  cannot  admit  without  departing  from  the 
rule  which  she  has  always  held  from  the  time  when  she 
first  became  free  to  put  her  religious  principles  into 
practice"  (tit.  IX,  cap.  ii,  n.  266).  The  many  painful 
mcidents  arising  m  tne  United  States  from  insecure 
methods  of  holding  ecclesiastical  property  (schism, 
usurpation  of  church  goods,  etc.)  caused  the  bishops 
ta  niake  stringent  rules  for  safeguarding  ecclesiasticial 
possessions.  Dissensions  frequently  arose  owing  to 
the  abuse  of  power  by  lay  trustees  (see  Trustee  Sys- 
tem), in  whose  name  the  property  was  often  held. 

The  various  councils  of  JBaltimore  endeavoured  to 
find  a  remedy  for  this  deplorable  state  of  things.  The 
First  Provincial  Council  (n.  5)  declared  that  no 
church  should  be  erected  or  consecrated  unless  (where 
possible)  it  had  first  been  deeded  to  the  bishop 
(instrutnento  scripto  aseignata).  Administrators  of 
temporal  goods  were  exhorted  to  observe  the  prescrip- 
tions of  the  Council  of  Trent  concerning  church 
property.  The  Third  Provincial  CJouncil  (n.  43)  says: 
"We  admonish  bishops,  priests  and  all  others  who 
have  care  of  movable  or  immovable  property  given 
for  ecclesiastical  uses,  to  take  measures  as  soon  as 
possible  to  secure  the  canying  out  of  the  intentions 
of  the  donors,  according  to  the  safest  method  pre- 
scribed by  the  civil  laws  in  the  various  States."  The 
Fourth  Council  adds  (n.  56):  "that  if  this  security 
can  be  obtained  in  no  other  way,  then  the  property 
is  to  be  handed  on  by  means  of  last  wills  and  testa- 
ments, drawn  up  according  to  the  provisions  of  the 
civil  law".  In  1S40  Propaganda  issued  a  decree  that 
each  bishop  should  make,  some  fellow-bishop  his  heir, 
and  that,  on  the  death  or  resignation  of  the  former,  the 
latter  should  then  hand  over  the  property  to  the  new 
bishop.  This  condition  was  not,  however,  to  be  ex- 
pressed in  the  testament,  but  signified  in  writing  to 
the  chosen  heir,  who  was  then  to  bum  the  letter. 
The  fathers  of  tne  Fifth  Provincial  Council  asked  for 
a  modification  of  this  decree,  as  the  laws  of  various 
states  would  make  it  difficult  of  execution;  they  de- 
sired that  each  bishop,  within  three  months  after  his 
consecration,  should  make  a  will  and  deposit  a  dupli- 
cate of  it  with  the  archbishop  (n.  59).  The  First 
Plenary  Council  of  Baltimore  occupied  itself  with  the 
vexed  question  of  church  property,  decreeing:  "We 
warn  priests  who  administer  churches,  the  title  to 
which  has  been  given  to  the  bishop,  not  to  constitute 
lay-trustees  without  episcopal  sanction,  or  permit 
them  to  be  elected  by  the  faithful,  lest  an  impeaiment 
arise  to  their  free  administration"  (n.  94).  In  like 
manner,  the  Second  Plenary  Council  made  new  de- 


PROPfifiCY 


473 


PEOPfiSCT 


crees  concerning  church  property.  The  Fathers  of 
this  council  seem  to  have  been  hopeful  that  the 
prescriptions  of  canon  law  would  find  free  play  in  the 
United  States.  They  say:  "In  these  Unitcvl  States  it 
is  the  right  of  all  citizens  to  live  freely  according  to 
the  precepts  of  their  religion,  and  as  the  civil  laws 
recognize  and  declare  the  same,  it  seems  that  there 
is  no  obstacle  to  the  exact  observance  of  the  laws 
decreed  by  councils  and  popes  for  the  legitimate 
acquisition  and  preservation  of  ecclesiastical  prop- 
erty, the  Fathers  desire,  therefore,  that  the  right 
of  the  Church  be  vindicated  in  the  eyes  of  all  and 
publicly  before  the  State,  so  that  Catholics  may  be 
allowed  to  observe  the  laws  of  the  Catholic  Church 
in  acquiring,  holding  and  preserving  ecclesiastical 
goqds.  such  as  lands  for  church  edifices,  presbyteries, 
schools,  cemeteries  etc.  This  complete  liberty,  how- 
ever, can  be  said  to  exist  only  when  the  laws  and 
ordinances  of  the  Church  are  recognized  by  the  civil 
tribunals  and  thus  receive  civil  effect.  By  such  pro- 
visions the  rights  of  all  will  be  preserved,  possible 
abuses  will  be  obviated,  and  the  powerof  the  bishops, 
instead  of  being  increased,  will  rather  be  diminishea 
by  the  regulations  made  by  the  Church  herself.  For, 
at  present,  in  order  to  obtain  protection  from  the 
improper  interference  of  lay  tribimaLs,  which  in  prac- 
tice scarcely  acknowledge  the  ecclesiastical  laws, 
nothing  now  remains  to  the  bishops  for  canying  out 
ecclesiastical  decrees  but  to  claim  for  themselves  the 
fullest  administration  of  property  before  the  civil 
power.  As,  however,  church  r^ulations  are  not 
acknowledged  as  yet  in  some  States,  it  is  our  duty  to 
see  that  in  those  places  where  no  provision  has  been 
made  by  the  civil  law,  the  impediments  to  the  liberty 
of  the  Church  and  to  the  security  of  ecclesiastical 
property  be  removed  or  diminished "  (tit.  IV,  cap.  i, 
nn.  199,  200).  The  council  then  lays  down  regula- 
tions regarding  lay  trustees. 

The  Third  Plenary  Council  (tit.  IX,  cap.  ii,  nn. 

267--8)  defined  more  exactly  what  was  meant  by  secure 

methods  of  ownership  according  to  civil  law,  directing 

that:    (1)  The  bishop  himself  be  constituted  a  cor- 

.poration  sole  for  possessing  and  administering  the 

goods  of  the  whole  diocese;  or  (2)  that  the  bishop 
old  the  goods  in  trust  in  the  name  of  the  diocese; 
or  (3)  that  the  bishop  hold  and  administer  the  church 
property  in  his  own  name  (in  fee  simple)  by  an  abso- 
lute and  full  legal  title.  In  the  last  case,  the  bishop 
is  to  remember  that,  though  before  the  civil  law  he  is 
the  absolute  owner,  yet  by.  the  sacred  canons  he  is 
only  procurator.  By  whichever  title  the  bishop  holds 
the  proi)erty,  he  is  to  keep  inventories,  carefully  dis- 
tinguishing between  the  churchproperty  and  his  own 
personal  property.  Since  the  lliird  Plenary  Council 
the  question  of  holding  church  property  has  more  than 
once  been  discussed  by  the  American  bishops,  and  at 
the  present  time,  in  addition  to  the  fee  simple  and 
the  corporation  sole  methods,  a  modified  system  of 
the  trustee  method  has  found  considerable  favour. 
Concerning  this,  the  "St.  Paul  Catholic  Bulletin", 
says  (I.  no.  20):  "Not  only  is  it  not  true  that  the 
archbishops  (at  their  meeting  in  1911)  discouraged  the 
holding  of  church  property  by  local  churches,  but  on 
the  contrary,  they  declared  it  to  be  the  very  beat 
solution  of  the  problem  under  consideration.  And 
while  in  some  States,  owing  to  peculiar  legislative 
enactments,  other  methods  of  holding  church  property 
are  in  vogue,  yet  it  was  admitted  by  the  assembled 
prelates  that  the  holding  of  church  property  by  local 
parish  corporations  was  W  far  the  safest  method.  In 
the  Archdiocese  of  St.  Paul,  each  church  is  incor- 
porated separately  and  independently  of  all  others. 
Members  of  this  corporation  are  ex-ofl5cio  the  Ordi- 
nary of  the  Diocese,  his  vicar-general,  and  the  pastor 
of  the  parish,  who  select  two  laymen  from  the  parish 
to  represent  the  congregation.  In  addition  to  these 
separate  parochial  corporations,  there  is  a  general 


diocesan  corporation  known  as  'The  Diocese  of  St. 
Paul',  in  which  is  invested  the  control  of  all  the 
property  belonging  to  the  diocese,  not  directly  con- 
trolled by  the  aforesaid  parish  corporations."  The 
laws  of  the  Church  are  fully  observed,  as  the  bishop 
of  the  diocese  exercises  sufficient  control  over  all  the 
property;  without  him,  the  other  members  of  the 
corporation  can  take  no  action  binding  in  law,  and  he 
assumes  no  unreasonable  obli^^ations  inasmuch  as  he 
himself  is  powerless  to  act  without  the  consent  and 
co-operation  of  the  others.  Dr.  P.  A.  Baart  ("  Catho- 
lic Fortnightly  Review",  XIV,  no.  4)  says:  "The 
Church,  through  the  Sacred  Congregation  of  Propa- 
ganda, whose  decision  and  decree  were  approved  by 
the  Pope,  has  declared  that  the  corporation  system 
whidh  recognizes  the  rights  of  the  hierarchy  is  pref- 
erable to  the  fee  simple  tenure  by  the  bishops  as  indi- 
viduals before  the  civil  law." 

Concilia   Protincialia   et   Plenaria   BaUitnorenna;    Baabt 


in 


The  Catholic  Fortnighay  Review,  VI,  VII,  XIV  (St.  Loub) ;  Taitn- 
TON,  Law  of  the  Church  (London,  1906),  a.  v.  EccUnaatical  Prop- 
erty;  Smith,  Elements  of  BedeeituHcal  Law,  I  (New  York,  1895); 
Idem,  Notes  on  Second  Plenary  Council  of  BaUimore  (New  York, 

1874).  William  H.  W.  Fanning. 

Prophecy. — Meaning. — Aa  the  term  is  used  in 
mystical  theolog>r,  it  applies  both  to  the  prophecies 
of  canonical  Scripture  and  to  private  prophecies. 
Understood  in  its  strict  sense,  it  means  the  foreknowl- 
edge and  foretelling  of  future  events,  though  it  may 
sometimes  apply  to  past  events  of  which.  Uiere  is  no 
memory,  and  to  present  hidden  things  which  cannot 
be  known  by  the  natural  light  of  reason.  St.  Paul, 
speaking  of  prophecy  in  I  Cor.,  xiv,  does  not  confine 
its  meaning  to  precuctions  of  future  events,  but  in- 
cludes under  it  Diviiie  inspirations  concerning  what  is 
secret,  whether  future  or  not.  As,  however,  me  mani- 
festation of  hidden  present  mysteries  or  past  events 
comes  under  revelation,  we  have  here  to  imderstand 
by  prophety  what  it  is  in*  its  strict  and  proper  sense, 
namely,  the  revelation  of  future  events.  Prophecy 
consists  in  knowledge  and  in  the  manifestation  of 
what  is  known.  The  knowledge  must  be  supernatural 
and  infused  by  God  because  it  concerns  things  bevond 
the  natural  power  of  created  intelligence;  and  the 
knowledge  must  be  manifested  either  by  words  or 
signs,  because  the  gift  of  prophecy  is  given  primarily  for 
the  good  of  others,  and  hence  needs  to  be  manifested. 
It  is  a  Divine  light  by  which  God  reveals  things  con- 
cerning the  unknown  future  and  by  which  these  things 
are  in  some  way  represented  to  the  mind  of  the  prophet, 
whose  duty  it  is  to  manifest  them  afterwards  to  others. 

Division. — Writers  on  mystical  theology  consider 
prophecies  with  reference  to  the  illumination  of  the 
mind,  to  the  objects  revealed,  and  to  the  means 
by  which  the  knowledge  is  conveyed  to  the  hu- 
man mind.  By  reason  of  the  illumination  of  the 
mind  prophecy  may  be  either  perfect  or  imperfect. 
It  is  called  perfect  when  not  only  the  thing  revealed, 
but  the  revelation  itself  is  made  known,  that  is,  when 
the  prophet  knows  that  it  is  God  who  speaks.  The 
prophecy  is  imperfect  when  the  recipient  does  not 
know  clearly  or  sufficiently  from  whom  the  revelation 
proceeds,  or  whether  it  is  the  prophetic  or  individual 
spirit  that  speaks.  This  is  called  the  prophetic  in- 
stinct, wherein  it  is  possible  that  a  man  may  be  de- 
ceived, as  it  happened  in  the  case  of  Nathan  who  said 
to  David  when  he  was  thinking  of  building  the 
Temple  of  God:  "Go,  do  all  that  is  in  thy  heart, 
because  the  Lord  is  with  thee"  (II  Kings,  vii,  3). 
But  that  very  night  the  Lord  commanded  the  Prcyhet 
to  return  to  the  king  and  say  that  the  glory  of  the 
building  of  the  temple  was  reserved,  not  for  him,  but 
for  his  son.  St.  Gr^ory,  as  quoted  by  Benedict  XIV, 
explains  that  some  holy  prophets,  through  the  fre- 
quent practice  of  prophesying,  have  of  themselves 
predicted  some  things,  believing  that  therein  they 
we're  influenced  by  the  spirit  of  prophecy. 

By  reason  of  the  object  there  are  three  kinds  of 


PROPHECY  474  FBOPHICV 

pfophecy  according  to  St.  Thomas  (Sumiha,  II-II,  of  persons.  There  is  no  distinct  faculty  in  human 
Q.  clxxiv,  a.  1):  prophecy  of  denunciation,  of  fore-  nature  by  which  any  normal  or  abnormal  person  can 
knowledge,  and  of  predestination.  In  the  first  kind  prophesy,  neither  is  any  specisd  preparation  required 
God  reveals  ftrture  events  according  to  the  order  of  beforehand  for  the  reception  of  tnis  |^t.  Hence 
secondary  causes,  which  may  be  hindfered  from  taking  Ck>mely  remarks:  ''Mooem  authors  speak  inaccu- 
effect  by  other  causes  which  would  require  a  mirao-  rately  of  'schools  of  prophets',  an  expression  never 
ulous  power  to  prevent,  and  these  may  or  may  not  found  in  the  Scriptures  or  the  Fathers"  (Ck>mp.  Intro- 
happen,  though  the  prophets  do  not  express  it  but  duct,  in  N.  T.,  n.  463).  Neither  was  there  ever  any 
seem  to  speak  absolutely.  Isaias  spoke  thus  when  he  external  rite  by  which  the  office  of  prophet  was  in- 
said  to  Ezechias:  "Take  order  with  thy  house,  for  augurated;  its  exercise  was  always  extraordinary  and 
thou  shalt  die,  and  not  live"  (Is.,  xxxviii,  1).  To  this  depended  on  the  inmiediate  call  of  God.  The  pro- 
kind  belongs  the  prophecy  of  promise,  as  that  men-  phetic  light,  according  to  St.  Thomas,  is  in  the  soul 
tioned  in  I  Kings,  li,  30:  "  I  said  indeed  that  thy  house,  of  the  prophet  not  as  a  permanent  form  or  habit,  but 
and  the  house  of  thy  father  should  minister  in  my  after  the  manner  of  a  passion  or  passing  impression 
sight,  for  ever",  which  was  not  fulfilled.  It  was  a  con-  (Summa,  II-II,  Q.  clxxi,  a.  2).  Hence  the  ancient 
ditional  promise  made  to  Heli  which  was  dependent  prophets  by  their  prayers  petitioned  for  this  Divine 
upon  other  causes  which  prevented  its  fulfilment,  ught  (I  Kmgs,  viii,  6;  Jer.,  xxxii,  16;  xxiii,  2  sq.; 
The  second  kind,  that  of  foreknowledge,  takes  place  xUi,  4  sq.),  and  they  were  liable  to  error  if  they  gave 
when  God  reveals  future  events  which  depend  upon  an  answer  before  invoking  God  (II  Kings,  vii,  2,  3). 
created  free  will  and  which  He  sees  present  from  eter-  Writing  on  the  recipients  of  prophecy.  Benedict 
nity.  They  have  reference  to  life  and  death,  to  wars  XIV  (Heroic  Virtue,  III,  144,  150)  says:  "The  recip- 
and  dynasties,  to  the  affairs  of  Church  and  State,  as  ients  of  prophecy  may  be  angels,  devils,  men,  women, 
well  as  to  the  affairs  of  individual  life.  The  third  kind,  childroi,  heathens,  or  gentiles;  nor  is  it  necessary  that 
the  prophecy  of  predestination,  takes  place  when  God  a  nmn  idiould  be  gifted  with  any  particular  disposi- 
re veals  what  He  alone  will  do.  and  what  He  sees'  tion  in  order  to  receive  the  light  of  prophecy  provided 
present  in  eternity  and  m  His  absolute  decree.  This  his  intellect  and  senses  be  adapted  for  making  mani- 
mcludes  not  only  the  secret  of  predestination  to  grace  fest  the  things  which  God  reveals  to  him.  Though 
and  to  glory,  but  also  those  things  which  God  has  abso-  moral  goodness  is  most  profitable  to  a  prophet,  yet  it 
lutely  decreed  to  do  by  His  own  supreme  power,  and  is  not  necessary  in  order  to  obtain  the  gift  of  proph- 
which  will  infallibly  come  to  pass.  ecy."  He  also  tells  us  that  the  angels  by  their  own 
The  objects  of  prophecy  may  also  be  viewed  in  natural  penetration  cannot  know  future  events  which 
respect  to  human  knowledge :  (1 )  when  an  event  may  are  imdetermined  and  contingent  or  uncertain,  neither 
be  beyond  the  possible  natural  knowledge  of  the  can  they  know  the  secrets  of  the  heart  of  another, 
prophet,  but  may  be  within  the  ran^e  of  human  whether  man  or  angel.  When  therefore  God  reveals  to 
knowledge  and  known  to  others  who  witness  the  oc-  an  angel  as  the  medium  through  which  the  future  is 
currence,  as,  for  instance,  the  result  of  the  battle  of  made  known  to  man,  the  angel  also  becomes  a 
Lepanto  revealed  to  St.  Fius  V;  (2)  when  the  object  prophet.  As  to  the  Devil,  the  same  author  teUs  us 
surpasses  the  knowledge  of  all  men,  not  th#t  it  is  un-  that  he  cannot  of  his  own  natural  knowledge  foretell 
knowable  but  that  the  human  mind  cannot  naturally  future  events  which  are  the  proper  objects  of  prophecy, 
receive  the  knowledge,  such  as  the  mystery  of  the  yetGodmay  make  use  of  him  for  this  purpose.  Thus 
Holy  Trinity,  or  the  mystery  of  predestination;  (3)  we  read  in  the  Gospel  of  St.  Luke  that  when  the  Devil 
when  the  things  that  are  beyond  the  power  of  the  saw  Jesus  he  fell  down  before  Him  and,  crying  out  with 
human  mind  to  know  are  not  in  themselves  knowable  a  loud  voice,  said:  "What  have  I  to  do  with  thee, 
because  their  truth  is  not  yet  determined,  such  as  Jesus,  Son  ot  the  most  high  God?"  (Luke,  viii,  28). 
future  contingent  things  which  depend  upon  free  will.  There  are  instances  of  women  and  children  prophesy- 
This  is  regarded  as  the  most  perfect  object  of  prophecy,  ing  in  Holy  Scripture.  Mary,  the  sister  of  Moses,  is 
because  it  is  the  most  general  and  embraces  all  called  a  prophetess;  Anna,  tne  mother  of  Samuel, 
events  that  are  in  themselves  unknowable.  prophesied;  Elizabeth,  the  mother  of  John  the  Bap- 
God  can  enlighten  the  human  mind  in  any  way  He  tist,  by  a  Divine  revelation  recognised  and  confessed 
pleases.  He  often  makes  use  of  angelic  ministry  in  Mary  as  the  Mother  of  God.  Samuel  and  Daniel  as 
prophetic  communications,  or  He  Himself  may  speak  boys  prophesied^  Balaam,  a  Gentile,  foretold  the  ad- 
to  the  prophet  and  illuminate  his  mind.  Again  the  ventof  the  Messias  and  the  devastation  of  Assyria  and 
supernatural  light  of  prophecy  may  be  conveyed  to  Palestine.  St.  Thomas,  in  order  to  prove  that  the 
the  intellect  directly  or  through  the  senses  or  the  im-  heathens  were  capable  of  prophecy,  refers  to  the  in- 
agination.  Prophecy  may  take  place  even  when  the  stance  of  the  Sibyls,  who  make  clear  mention  of  the 
senses  are  suspended  as  in  ecstasy,  but  this  in  mystical  mysteries  of  the  Trinity,  of  the  Incarnation  of  the 
terminology  is  called  rapture.  St.  Thomas  teaches  Word,  of  the  Life,  Passion,  and  Resurrection  of  Christ, 
that  there  is  no  suspension  of  the  sense  activities  when  It  is  true  that  the  Sibylline  poems  now  extant  became 
anything  is  presented  to  the  mind  of  the  prophet  in  course  of  time  interpolated;  but,  as  Benedict  XIV 
through  impressions  of  the  senses,  nor  is  it  necessary  remarks,  this  does  not  hinder  much  of  them,  especially 
when  the  mind  is  immediately  enlightened  that  a^tiv-  what  the  early  Fathers  referred  to,  from  being  genuine 
ity  of  the  senses  should  be  suspended;  but  it  is  nece&-  and  in  no  wise  apocryphal. 

sary  that  this  should  be  the  case  when  the  manifesta-  That  the  gift  of  private  prophecy  exists  in  the 
tion  is  made  by  imaginative  forms,  at  least  at  the  Church  is  clear  from  Scripture  and  the  acts  of  canon- 
moment  of  the  vision  or  of  the  hearing  of  the  revefa-  ization  of  the  saints  in  every  age.  To  the  question, 
tion,  because  the  mind  is  then  abstract^  from  external  what  credence  is  to  be  given  to  these  private  propb- 
things  in  order  to  fix  itself  entirely  on  the  object  mani-  ecies,  Cardinal  Cajetan  answers,  as  stated  by  B^e- 
fest^  to  the  imagination.  In  such  a  case  a  perfect  diet  XIV:  "Human  actions  are  of  two  kinds,  one  of 
judgment  cannot  be  formed  of  the  prophetic  vision  which  relates  to  public  duties,  and  especially  to  ecde- 
during  the  transport  of  the  soul,  because  then  the  siastical  affairs,  such  as  preaching,  celebrating  Mass, 
senses  which  are  necessary  for  a  right  understanding  pronouncing  judicial  decisions,  and  the  like;  with 
of  things  cannot  act,  and  it  is  only  when  a  man  comes  respect  to  these  the  question  is  settled  in  the  canon 
to  himself  and  awakens  from  the  ecstasy  that  he  can  law,  where  it  is  said  that  no  credence  is  to  be  publicly 
properly  know  and  discern  the  nature  of  his  vision.  given  to  him  who  says  he  has  privately  received  a 
Recipient  op  Prophecy. — ^The  gift  of  prophecy  is  mission  from  God,  unless  he  confirms  it  by  a  miracle 
an  extraordinary  grace  bestowed  by  God.  It  has  never  or  a  special  testimony  of  Holy  Scripture.  The  other 
been  confined  to  any- particular  tribe,  family,  or  class  class  of  human  actions  consists  of  those  of  private 


PROPHECY                            475  PBOPHICT 

persons,  and  speaking  of  these,  he  distinguishes  be-  The  real  t^t  of  these  predictions  is  their  fulfilment; 
tween  a  prophet  who  enjoins  or  advises  them,  accord-  they  may  be  only  pious  anticipations  of  the  ways  of 
ing  to  the  universal  laws  of  the  Church,  and  a  prophet  Providence,  and  they  may  sometimes  be  fulfilled  in  part 
who  does  the  same  without  reference  to  those  laws,  and  in  part  contradicted  by  events.  The  minatory 
In  the  first  case  every  man  may  abound  in  his  own  prophecies  which  announce  calamities,  being  for  the 
sense  whether  or  not  to  direct  his  actions  according  to  most  part  conditional,  may  or  may  not  be  fulfilled, 
the  will  of  the  prophet;  in  the  second  case  the  prophet  Many  private  prophecies  have  been  verified  by  sub- 
is  not  to  be  listened  to''  (Heroic  Virtue,  III,  192).  sequent  events,  some  have  not;   others  have  given 

It  is  also  important  that  those  who  have  to  teach  rise  to  a  good  deal  of  discussion  as  to  their  genuine- 
and  direct  others  should  have  rules  for  their  guidance  ness.  Most  of  the  private  prophecies  of  the  saints 
to  enable  them  to  distinguish  true  from  false  prophets,  and  servants  of  God  were  concerned  with  individuals, 
A  summary  of  those  prescribed  by  theologians  for  our  their  death^  recovery  from  illness,  or  vocations.  Some 
guidance  may  be  useful  to  show  practically  how  the  foretold  thinm  which  would  affect  the  fate  of  nations, 
doctrine  is  to  be  appUed  to  devout  souls  in  order  to  as  France,  England,  and  Ireland.  A  great  number 
save  them  from  errors  or  diabolical  delusions:  (1)  the  have  reference  to  popes  and  to  the  papacy;  and  finally 
recipient  of  the  gift  of  prophecy  should,  as  a  rule,  be  we  have  many  such  prophecies  relating  to  the  end  of 
good  and  virtuous,  for  all  mystical  writers  agree  that  the  world  and  the  approach  of  the  Day  of  Judgment, 
for  the  most  part  this  gift  is  granted  by  God  to  holy  The  more  noteworthy  of  the  prophecies  bearing  upon 
persons.  The  disposition  or  temperament  of  the  'latter  times"  seem  to  have  one  common  end,  to  an- 
person  should  also  be  considered,  as  iitell  as  the  state  nounce  great  calamities  impending  over  mankind, 
of  health  and  of  the  brain;  (2)  tne  prophecy  must  be  the  triumph  of  the  Church,  and  the  renovation  of  the 
conformable  to  Christian  truth  and  piety,  because  if  world.  All  the  seers  agree  in  two  leading  features  as 
it  propose  anything  against  faith  or  morals  it  cannot  outlined  by  E.  H.  Thompson  in  his  ''life  of  Anna 
proceed  from  the  Spirit  of  Truth;  (3)  the  prediction  Maria  Taigi"  (ch.  xviii):  "First  they  all  point  to 
should  concern  things  outside  the  reach  of  all  natural  some  terrible  convulsion,  to  a  revolution  springing 
knowledge,  and  have  for  its  object  future  contingent  from  most  deep-rooted  impiety,  consisting  in  a  formal 
things  or  those  things  which  God  only  knows;  (4)  it  opposition  to  Uod  and  His  truth,  and  resulting  in  the 
shotud  also  concern  something  of  a  grave  and  im-  most  formidable  persecution  to  which  the  Church  has 
portant  nature,  that  is  something  for  the  good  of  the  ever  been  subject.  Secondly,  they  all  promise  for  the 
Church  or  the  good  of  souls.  Tms  and  the  preceding  Church  a  victory  more  splendid  and  complete  than 
rule  will  help  to  distinguish  true  prophecies  from  the  she  has  ever  achieved  here  below.  We  may  add 
puerile,  senseless,  and  useless  predictions  of  fortune-  another  point  in  which  there  is  a  remarkable  agree- 
tellers,  crystal-gazers,  spiritualists,  and  charlatans,  ment  in  the  catena  of  modem  prophecies,  and  that  is 
These  may  tell  things  bevond  human  knowledge  and  the  peculiar  connection  between  the  fortimes  of 
yet  within  the  scope  of  the  natural  knowledge  of  France  and  those  of  the  Church  and  the  Holy  See,  and 
demons,  but  not  those  things  that  are  strictly  speaking  also  the  large  part  which  that  country  has  still  to  play 
the  objects  of  prophecv;  (5)  prophecies  or  revelations  in  the  history  of  the  Church  and  of  the  world,  and  will 
which  make  known  the  sins  of  others,  or  which  an-  continue  to  play  to  the  end  of  time." 
nounce  the  predestinat^n  or  reprobation  of  souls  are  Some  prophetic  spirits  were  prolific  in  the  forecasts 
to  be  suspected.  Three  special  secrets  of  God  have  of  the  future.  The  biographer  of  St.  Philip  Neri 
always  to  be  deeply  respected  as  they  are  very  rarely  states  that  if  all  the  prophecies  attributed  to  this 
revealed,  namelv:  the  state  of  conscience  in  this  life,  saint  were  narrated,  they  alone  would  fill  entire  vol- 
the  state  of  souls  after  death  unless  canonized  by  the  umes.  It  is  sufficient  to  give  the  following  as  exam- 
Church,  and  the  mysterv  of  predestination.     The  pies  of  private  prophecies. 

secret  of  predestination  has  been  revealed  only  in  (1)  Prophecy  of  St.  Edward  the  Confessor, — ^Ambrose 
exceptionai  cases,  but  that  of  reprobation  has  never  Lisle  Philipps  in  a  letter  to  the  Earl  of  Shrewsbury 
been  revealed,  because  so  long  as  the  soul  is  in  this  Ufe,  dated  28  October,  1850,  in  giving  a  sketch  of  English 
its  salvation  is  possible.  The  day  of  General  Judg-  Catholic  history,  relates  the  following  vision  or  proph- 
ment  is  also  a  secret  which  has  never  been  revealed;  ecy  made  by  St.  Edward:  ''During  the  month  of 
(6)  we  have  afterwards  to  ascertain  whether  the  proph-  January,  1066,  the  holy  King  of  England  St.  Edward 
ecy  has  been  fulfilled  in  the  way  foretold.  There  the  Ck>nfe8sor  was  confined  to  his  bed  by  his  last  ill- 
are  some  limitations  to  this  rule:  (a)  if  the  prophecy  ness  in  his  royal  Westminster  Palace.  St.  JElred, 
was  not  absolute,  but  containing  threats  only,  and  Abbott  of  Recraux,  in  Yorkshire,  relates  that  a  short 
tempered  by  conditions  expressed  or  understood,  as  ex-  time  before  his  happy  death,  this  holy  King  was  wrapt 
emplified  in  the  prophecy  of  Jonas  to  the  Ninivites,  and  in  ecstasy,  when  two  pious  Beneoictine  monks  of 
that  of  Isaias  to  King  Ezechias;  (b)  it  may  sometimes  Normandy,  whom  he  had  Imown  in  his  youth,  during 
happen  that  the  prophecy  is  true  and  from  God,  and  his  esdle  m  that  country,  appeared  to  him,'  and  re- 
the  human  interpretation  of  it  false,  as  men  may  inter-  vealed  to  him  what^was  to  happen  in  England  in  future 
pret  it  otherwise  than  God  intended.  It  is  by  these  centuries,  and  the  cause  of  tne  terrible  punishment, 
limitations  ^e  have  to  explain  the  prophecy  of  St.  They  said:  'The  extreme  corruption  and  wickedness 
Bernard  regardins  the  success  of  the  Second  Crusade,  of  the  English  nation  has  provoked  the  just  anger  of 
and  that  of  St.  Vincent  Ferrer  regarding  the  near  .  God.  When  malice  shall  have  reached  the  fulness  of 
approach  of  the  General  Judgment  m  his  day.  its  measure,  God  will,  in  His  wrath,  send  to  the  Eng- 

Chief  Particular  Prophecies. — ^The  last  pro-  lish  people  wicked  spirits,  who  will  punish  and  afllict 
phetic  work  which  the  Church  acknowledges  as  Di-  them  with  great  severity,  by  separating  the  green  tree 
vinely  inspired  is  the  Apocalypse.  The  prophetic  from  its  parent  stem  the  length  of  three  furlongs.  But 
spirit  did  not  disappear  with  the  Apostolic  times,  but  at  last  this  same  tree,  through  the  compassionate 
the  Church  has  not  pronounced  any  work  propnetic  mercy  of  God,  and  without  any  national  (govern- 
since  then,  though  she  has  canonized  numberless  mental)  assistance,  shall  return  to  its  original  root, 
saints  who  were  more  or  less  endowed  with  the  gift  of  reflourish  and  bear  abundant  fruit. '  After  having 
prophecy.  The  Church  allows  freedom  in  accepting  heard  these  prophetic  words,  the  saintly  King  Edward 
or  rejecting  particular  or  private  prophecies  according  opened  his  eyes,  returned  to  his  senses,  and  the  vision 
to  the  evidence  for  or  against  them.  We  should  be  vanished.  He  immediately  related  all  he  had  seen 
slow  to  admit  and  slow  to  reject  them,  and  in  either  and  heard  to  his  virgin  spouse,  Edgitha,  to  Stigand, 
^se  treat  them  with  respect  when  they  oome  to  us  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  and  to  Harold,  his  sucoefr- 
from  trustworthy  sources,  and  are  in  accordance  with  sor  to  the  throne,  who  were  in  his  chamber  praying 
Catholic  doctrine  and  the  rules  of  Christian  morality,  around  his  bed/'     (See  "Yita  beati  Edwardl  regis  et 


PROPHECY 


476 


PBOPHBCT 


oonfesBoris",  from  MS.  Selden  55  in  Bodleian  Li- 
brary, Oirford.) 

The  interpretation  given  to  this  prophecy  ib  remark- 
able when  applied  to  uie  events  which  have  happened. 
The  spirits  mentioned  in  it  were  the  Protestant  inno- 
vators who  pretended,  in  the  sixteenth  century,  to 
reform  the  Catholic  Church  in  England.  The  sever- 
ance of  the  green  tree  from  its  trunk  signifies  the 
separation  of  the  English  Church  from  the  root  of  the 
Catholic  Church,  from  the  Holy  Roman  See.  This 
tree,  however,  was  to  be  separated  from  its  life-giving 
root  the  distance  of  "three  fmrlongs".  These  three 
fmrlongs  are  understood  to  signify  three  centuries,  at 
the  end  of  which  England  would  again  be  reunited  to 
the  Catholic  Church,  and  bring  forth  flowers  of  virtue 
and  fruits  of  sanctity.  The  prophecy  was  quoted  by 
Ambrose  Lisle  Phihpps  on  the  occasion  of  the  re- 
establishment  of  the  Catholic  liierarchy  in  England 
by  Pope  Pius  IX  in  1850. 

(2)  Prophecies  of  St.  Malachy. — Concerning  Ire- 
land.— ^This  prophecy,  which  is  distinct  from  the 
prophecies  attributed  to  St.  Malachy  concerning  the 
popes,  is  to  the  effect  that  his  beloved  native  isle 
woula  imdergo  at  the  hands  of  England  oppression, 
persecution,  and  calamities  of  every  kind,  durine  a 
week  of  centuries:  but  that  she  would  preserve  her 
fidelity  to  God  ana  to  His  Church  amidst  all  her  trials. 
At  the  end  of  seven  centuries  she  would  be  delivered 
from  her  oppressors  (or  oppressions),  who  in  their  turn 
would  be  subjected  to  dreadful  chastisements,  and 
Catholic  Ireland  would  be  instrumental  in  bring- 
ing back  the  British  nation  to  that  Divine  Faith  which 
Protestant  England  had,  during  three  hundred  years, 
so  rudely  endeavoured  to  wrest  from  her.  This 
prophecy  is  said  to  have  been  copied  by  the  learned 
Benedictine  Dom  Mabillon  /rom  an  ancient  MS. 
preserved  at  Clairvaux,  and  transmitted  by  him  to  the 
martyred  successor  of  OUver  Plunkett. 

Concerning  the  Popes. — ^The  most  famous  and 
best  known  prophecies  about  the  popes  are  those  at- 
tributed to  St.  Malachy  (q.  v.).  In  1139  he  went  to 
Rome  to  give  an  account  of  the  affairs  of  his  diocese 
to  the  pope.  Innocent  II,  who  promised  him  two 
palliums  for  the  metropolitan  Sees  of  Armagh 
and  Cashel.  While  at  Rome,  he  received  (accord- 
ing to  the  Abbd  Cucherat)  the  strange  \ision  of  the 
future  wherein  was  unfolded  before  his  mind  the  long 
list  of  illustrious  pontiffs  who  were  to  rule  the  Church 
until  the  end  of  time.  The  same  author  tells  us 
that  St.  Malachy  gave  his  MS.  to  Innocent  II 
to  console  him  m  the  midst  of  his  tribulations, 
and  that  the  document  remained  unknown  in  the 
Roman  Archives  imtil  its  discovery  in  1590  (Cu- 
cherat, "Proph.  de  la  succession  des  papes",  ch.  xv). 
They  were  first  published  by  Arnold  cie  Wyon,  and 
ever  since  there  has  been  much  discussion  as  to 
whether  they  are  genuine  predictions  of  St.  Malachy 
or  forgeries.  The  silence  of  400  years  on  the  part  of 
so  many  learned  authors  who  had  written  about  the 
popes,  and  the  silence  of  St.  Bernard  especially,  who 
wrote  the  "Life  of  St.  Malachy"^  is  a  strong  argument 
against  their  authenticity,  but  it  is  not  conclusive  if 
we  adopt  Cucherat's  theory  that  they  were  hidden  in 
the  Archives  during  those  400  years. 

These  short  prophetical  announcements,  in  number 
112,  indicate  some  noticeable  trait  of  all  the  future 
popes  from  Celestine  II,  who  was  elected  in  the  year 
1 130,  until  the  end  of  the  world.  They  are  enunciated 
under  mystical  titles.  Those  who  have  undertaken 
to  interpret  and  explain  these  symbolical  prophecies 
have  succeeded  in  discovering  some  trait,  allusion, 
point,  or  similitude  in  their  application  to  the  individ- 
ual popes,  either  as  to  their  country,  their  name,  their 
coat  of  arms  or  insignia,  their  birth-place,  their  talent 
or  learning,  the  title  of  their  cardinalate,  the  dignities 
which  they  held  etc.  For  example,  the  prophecy  con- 
ceniing  Urban  VIII  is  Mium  ei  rosa  (the  lily  and  the 


rose) :  he  was  a  native  of  Florence  and  op  the  armt 
of  Florence  figured  a  flewr-deAU;  he  had  three 
bees  emblasoned  on  his  escutcheon,  and  the  bees 
gather  honey  from  the  lilies  and  roses.  Again,  the 
name  accords  often  with  some  remarkable  and  rare 
circumstance  in  the  pope's  career:  thus  Peregrinut 
apo8ioUcu8  (pilgrim  pope),  which  designates  Pius  VI, 
appears  to  be  verified  by  nis  journey  when  pope  into 
Germany,  by  his  long  career  as  pope,  and  by  his  ex- 
patriation from  Rome  at  the  end  of  his  pontificate. 
Those  who  have  lived  and  followed  the  course  of 
events  in  an  intelligent  manner  during  the  pontificates 
of  Pius  IX,  Leo  XIII,  and  Pius  X  cannot  fail  to  be 
impressed  with  the  titles  given  to  each  by  the  proph- 
ecies of  St.  Malachy  and  their  wonderful  appropriate- 
ness: Crux  de  cnice  (Cross  from  a  Cross)  Pius  IX;  . 
Lumen  in  calo  (light  in  the  Sky)  Leo  XIII;  Ignis 
ardena  (Burning  Fire)  Pius  X.  There  is  something 
more  than  a  coincidence  in  the  designations  given  to 
these  three  popes  so  many  hundred  years  before  their 
time.  We  need  not  have  recourse  either  to  the  family- 
names,  armorial  bearings  or  cardinalitial  titles,  to  see 
the  fitness  of  their  designations  as  given  in  the  proph- 
ecies. The  afflictions  and  crosses  of  Pius  lA  were 
more  than  fell  to  the  lot  of  his  predecessors;  and  the 
moro  aggravating  of  these  crosses  were  brouf^t  on  by 
the  House  of  Savoy  whose  emblem  was  a  cross.  Leo 
XIII  was  a  veritable  luminary  of  the  papacy.  The 
present  pope  is  truly  a  burning  fire  of  zeal  for  the 
restoration  of  all  things  in  Christ. 

The  last  of  these  prophecies  concerns  the  end  of 
the  world  and  is  as  follows:  ''In  the  final  persecution 
of  the  Holy  Roman  Church  there  will  reign  Peter 
the  Roman,  who  will  feed  his  flock  amid  many  trib- 
ulations, alter  which  the  seven-hilled  city  will  be 
destroyed  and  the  dreadful  Judge  will  judge  the 
people.  The  End.  **  It  has  been  noticed  concerning 
Petru8  RomanuSf  who  according  to  St.  Malachy's 
list  is  to  be  the  last  pope,  that  the  prophecy  does  not 
say  that  no  popes  shall  intervene  between  him  and 
his  predecessor  designated  Gloria  olwm.  It  merely 
says  that  he  is  to  be  the  last,  so  that  we  mav  suppose 
as  many  popes  as  we  please  before  ''Peter  the 
Roman".  Cornelius  a  Lapide  refers  to  this  proph- 
ecy in  his  commentary  ''On  the  Gospel  of  St. 
John"  (C.  xvi)  and  "On  the  Apocalsrpee"  (cc. 
xvii~xx),  and  he  endeavours  to  calculate  according 
to  it  the  remaining  yeare  of  time. 

(3)  Propheqf  of  St.  Paid  of  the  Cross. — During 
more  than  fifty  years  this  saint  was  accustomed  to 
pray  for  the  return  of  England  to  the  Cathotic 
Faith,  and  on  several  occasions  had  visions  and  revela- 
tions about  its  re-conversion.  In  spirit  he  saw  the  Pas- 
sionists  established  in  England  and  labouring  there 
for  the  conversion  and  sanctification  of  souls.  It 
is  well  known  that  several  of  the  leaders  of  the  Oxford 
Movement,  including  Cardinal  Newman,  and  thou- 
sands of  converts  have  been  received  into  the  Church 
in  England  by  the  Passionist  missionaries. 

There  are  many  other  private  prophecies  concern- 
ing the  remote  and  proximate  signs  which  will 
precede  the  General  Judgment  and  concerning 
Antichrist,  such  as  those  attributed  to  St.  Hildesude, 
St.  Bridget  of  Sweden,  Venerable  Anna  Maria  Taigi, 
the  Cuii  d'Ars,  and  many  others.  These  do  not 
enlighten  us  any  more  than  do  the  Scriptural  proph- 
ecies as  to  the  day  and  the  hour  of  that  judgment, 
which  still  remains  a  Divine  secret. 

Benxdict  XIV,  Heroic  Virtue  in  Oratorian  SerieM  (I^Ddon, 
1851);  Devinb,  Mystical  Thedogy  (London,  1903);  Mar4chaux, 
Le  merveiUeux  divin  et  le  merveilleux  dhmmiaque  (Paris,  1901): 
RiBBT,  La  myttique  diviM  (PariB,  1895);  St.  Thomas.  Summa 
(Turin,  1891),  II-II,  QQ.  clxxi-iv;  Schram.  Theolooia  myatiea 
(Augsburg,  1767) ;  O'Brien,  Prophecy  of  St.  Malachy  (Dublin, 
1880);  Germano.  Vita  del  g.  p.  ».  Malachia  (Na^lm.  1670); 
Paviniub.  Epitome  Romanarwn  pcnH^m  (Vemoe,  1563): 
Senesio,  Profetia  veredica  di  tutti  itummt  ponH/iei  tin*  al  Ane  dm 
mundo  fatta  a  San  Malachia  (Venice.  1675);  Wion,  Lignum  wilm 
(Venice.  1595);   Ifuturi  deetini  degli  alati  e  ddU  fumoin  (Turin, 


XM*);  Biaieil  esnpM  da  ptooMlituit  (Lyou.  1870);  Dtrnitn 
ant  prapMifwt  (Puru.  1872). 

Arthub  Dbvine. 

PropheoTi  Prophat,  mad  Proph«tui. — I.  In 
TBE  Old  Testament.  A.  Introduelion.^Jahve  had 
forbiddeo  Israel  all  kinds  of  oraclea  in  vogue  among 
the  pagans.  If,  for  a  time,  he  conaented  to  reply  by 
Urim  and  Thummim  (apparently  a  species  of  sacred 
lots  irhich  the  high-prieat  carried  in  the  cincture  of 
his  ephod,  and  consulted  at  the  request  of  the  public 
authoriliee  in  matters  of  graver  moment),  yet  He 
always  abominated  those  who  had  recourse  to  divina- 
tion and  magic,  practiced  augury  and  enchantment, 
trtisted  in  charms,  consulted  soothsayers  or  wiiards, 
or  inteiTDgat«d  the  Bpirits  of  the  dead  (Deut.,  xviii, 
9  sqq.).  Speaking  of  orthodox  Jahveism,  Balaam 
could  truthfully  say  "There  is  no  soothsaying  in 
Jacob,  nor  divination  in  Israel.  In  their  timce  it 
shall  be  told  to  Jacob  and  to  Inrael  what  God  hath 
wrought"  (Num.,  xxiii,  23).  For  the  absence  of 
other  oracles,  the  Chosen  People  were  indeed  more 
than  compensated  by  a  gift  unique  in  the  annals  of 
mankind,  to  wit,  fhn  gift  of  prophecy  and  the  pro- 
phetic olhcc. 

B.  Ceneroj  Idea  and  the  Hebrew  Names.  (I) 
General  Idea.~The  Hebrew  Prophet  was  not  merely, 
as  the  word  commonly  unplles,  a  man  enlightened  by 
God  to  foretell  events,  he  was  the  int«rp'*'«''  Mid 
Bupematurally  eniightened  herald  sent  by  Jahve 
to  communicate  His  will  and  designs  to  Israel. 
His  mission  consisted  in  preaching  as  well  sit  in  fore- 
telling. He  had  to  maintain  and  develop  the  knowl- 
edge and  practice  of  the  Old  Law  among  the  Chosen 
People,  lead  them  bock  when  they  strayed,  and 
naaually  prepHj«  the  way  for  the  new  kingdom  of 
God,  whicn  tnc  Messiae  was  to  establish  on  earth. 
Prophecy,  in  general,  signifies  the  supernatural 
message  of  the  Prophet,  and  more  especially,  from 
custom,   the  predictive   element   of   the   prophetic 

^&)The  Hdireu)  Names.— The  ordinary  Hebrew 
word  for  prophet  is  nObf.  Its  etymology  is  uncertwn. 
According  to  many  recent  critics,  the  root  ndM',  not 
employed  in  Hebrew,  signified  to  speak  enthusias- 
tically, "to  utter  cries,  and  make  more  or  less  wild 
gestures  ",  like  the  pagan  manttcs.  Judging  from  a 
comparative  examination  of  the  cognate  words  in 
Hebrew  and  the  other  Semitic  tongues,  it  is  at  least 
equally  probable  that  the  original  mpaning  was 
merely:  to  speak,  to  utter  words  (cf.  Laur,  "Die 
Prophetennamen  des  A.  T.",  Fribourg,  1903,  14-38). 
The  historic  meaning  of  n^bt'  established  by  biblical 
usageis  "interpreterand mouthpiece  of  God".  This 
is  forcibly  illustraled  by  the  passage,  where  Moses, 
excusing  himself  from  speaking  to  Pharao  on  account 
of  his  embarrassment  of  speech,  was  answered  by 
Jahve:  "Behold  I  have  appointed  thee  the  God  of 
Pbarao:  and  Aaron  thy  brother  shall  be  thv  prophet. 
Thou  sholt  speak  to  him  all  that  I  cosmiand  thee;  and 
he  shall  speak  to  Pharao.  that  he  let  the  children  of 
Israel  go  out  of  his  lana"  (Ex.,  vii,  1-2).  Moses 
plays  towards  the  King  of  Egypt  the  rflle  of  God, 
mspiring  what  is  to  be  uttered,  and  Aaron  is  the 
Prophet,  his  mouthpiece,  transmitting  the  inspired 
memoge  he  shall  receive.  The  Oreok  Tpo^itri^f 
(from  rpi-^rai,  to  speak  for,  or  in  the  name  of 
some  one)  translates  the  Hebrew  word  accurately. 
The  Greek  prophet  was  the  revealer  of  the  future, 
and  the  interpret«r  of  divine  thinp,  especially  of 
the  obscure  oracles  of  the  pythoness.  Poets  were 
the  prophets  of  the  muses:  Inspire  me,  muse,  thy 
prophet  I  shall  be"  (Pindar,  Bei^,  Fragm.  127). 

The  word  nM'  expresses  more  especially  a  func- 
tion. The  two  most  usual  synonyms  rO'ih  and 
kdtik  pmphasiie  more  clearly  the  special  source  of 
the  prophetic  knowledge,  the  vision,  that  is,  the  Divine 
revelation  or  inspiration.    Both  have  almost  the 


r?  PBOPHICT 

aame  moaning:  hdtik  in  employed,  however,  much 
more  frequently  in  poetical  language  and  almost 
always    in    connexion    with    a   supernatural   vision, 

whereas  rd'ah,  of  which  rd'ih  is  the  participle,  is  the 
usual  word  for  to  see  in  any  manner.     The   com- 

C"  !i  of  the  first  Book  of  Kings  (ix,  6)  infonns  us  that 
ore  his  time  rd'ih  was  used  where  ndM'  was  then 
employed.     H6tih  is   found   much   more  frequently 
■'        ■  '    '  m.    .       ..         other    leas 


r   days   of   Amos.     There   ' 


of  which  is  clear,  such  as,  messenger  of  God,  i 
God,  servant  of  God,  man  of  the  spirit,  or  inspired 
man,  etc.  It  \a  only  rarely,  and  at  a  later  period, 
that  prophecy  is  called  n^  dh,  a  cognate  of  nOkX; 


more  ordinarily  we  find  hOz&n,  vision,  or  word  of 
God,  oracle  {ne  Am)  of  Jahve,  etc. 

C.  BriiS  Sketch  I  of  iJte  HUlory  of  Propheey.— 
<1)  The  nrst  person  entitled  nObi'  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment is  Abraham,  father  of  the  elect,  the  friend  of 
God,  favoured  with  his  personal  communications 
(Gen.,  XX,  7).  The  next  is  Moses,  the  founder  and 
lawgiver  of  the  theocratic  nation,  the  mediator  of  the 
Old  Covenant  holding  a  degree  of  authority  un- 
equalled till  the  coming  of  Jesus  Christ.  "And  there 
arose  no  more  a  prophet  in  Israel  like  unto  Mosee, 
whom  the  Ix>rd  knew  face  to  face,  in  all  the  signs  and 
wonders,  which  he  sent  by  him,  to  do  in  the  land  of 
Egypt  to  Pharao,  and  to  ai!  his  servants,  and  to  his 
whole  land,  and  all  the  mighty  hand,  and  great 
miracles,  which  Moses  did  before  all  Israel"  (Deut,, 
xxxiv,  10  sqq.).  There  were  other  Prophets  with 
hira,  but  onlv  of  the  second  rank,  such  as  Aaron  and 
Maria,  Eldad  and  Medad,  to  whom  Jahve  manifested 
himself  in  dreams  and  vision,  but  not  in  the  audible 
speech  with  which  He  favoured  him,  who  was  most 
faithful  in  all  His  house  (Num.,  xii,  7). 

Of  the  four  institutions  concerning  which  Moaea 
enacted  laws,  according  to  Deuteronomy  (xiv,  18- 
xviii),  one  was  prophecy  (xviii,  &-22;  cf,  xiii,  1-5, 
and  Ex.,  iv,  1  sqq.).  brael  was  to  listen  to  the  true 
Prophets,  and  not  to  heed  the  false  but  rather  to 


PROSE 


482 


PB08E 


the  conclusion  is  unifoimly  an  independent  sentence 
of  shorter  or  longer  form.  Each  pair  of  strophes 
is  composed  of  strophe  and  antistrophe,  which  ex- 
actly agree  in  their  length  and  the  number  of  their  . 
syllables  (l&ter  also  in  rhythm  and  rhyme).  The 
execution  was  entrusted  to  two  choirs  (usually  of  men 
and  boys,  respectively),  the  strophe  being  sung  by 
one  and  the  antistrophe  by  the  other  to  the  same 
melody.  Thus,  in  contrast  with  the  monotony  of  the 
hymn,  the  Sequence  shows  manifold  diversity  in  out- 
ward construction,  in  melody,  and  in  method  of 
execution.  The  various  tranaormations  which  this 
original  plan,  underwent  in  the  course  of  the  centuries, 
and  according  to  which  we  divide  sequences  into  those 
of  the  first,  the  transitional,  &nd  the  second  periods, 
will  be  considered  in  the  next  paragraph. 

II.  Origin,  Development,  and  Classification. 
— ^That  the  Seouence  started  irom  the  Alleluia  is  gen- 
erally admitted,  and  may  be  considered  as  certain; 
but  the  manner  of  its  origin  and  the  various  phases 
of  its  development  before  we  get  to  what  are  termed 
the  ''versus  ad  sequentias^'  (which  are  the  imme- 
diate predecessors  of  the  Sequence),  arc  still  shrouded 
in  obscurity  and  cannot  now  be  determined  with 
certainty,  as  the  oldest  documents  are  not  contempo- 
ranr,  and  from  those  which  we  possess  no  sufficiently 
definite  conclusions  can  be  drawn.  With  the  aid  of 
the  "Analecta  hymnica  medii  CBvi" — especially  the 
material  of  the  last  volume  (LIII)  edited  by  the  Rev. 
H.  M.  Bannister  and  the  writer  of  the  present  article 
— ^and  with  the  assistance  of  the  material  gathered 
by  Bannister  for  his  forthcoming  work  on  the  Se- 
quende  melodies  of  all  Western  countries,  we  may 
trace  the  most  probable  development  of  the  Sequence 
as  below: 

(1)  The  starting-point  of  the  Sequence  is  the  Alle- 
luia with  its  melisma  (i.  e.  a  more  or  less  long  melo- 
dious succession  of  notes  on  its  concluding  a);  in 
other  words,  the  Alleluia  which  precedes  the  versita 
aileluialicus.  This  succession  of  notes  was  called 
aequentia  (or  sequeUif  "that  which  follows''); 
synonymous  terms  are  jvbUua^  jtibilaiio,  neuma. 
mdodiaf  as  was  later  explained  by  Abbot  Gerbert  ot 
Saint-Blasien:  "Nomen  sequentiarum  antea  jubila- 
tionibus  ejusmodi  proprium  fuit,  haud  dubie,  quia 
soni  illi  lutimam  verbi  s^Uabam  seu  vocalem  se- 

ribantur.  'Sequitur  jubilatio',  ut  habetur  in  Or- 
e  Romano  11,  'quam  sequentiam  vocant'.  .  .  . 
In  citatis  his  locis  agitur  de  Alleluia,  in  cujus  ultima 
syllaba  hujusmodi  neunue  haud  raro  satis  longs  com- 
parent  in  veteribus  codicibus.  .  .  .  Ipsa  ilia  repetitio 
a  a  a  cum  modulatione  sequentia  dicebatur.  'Post 
Alleluia  quaedam  melodia  neumatum  cantatur,  quod 
sequentiam  quidam  appellant',  ait  S.  Udalricus  lib. 
I  consuet.  Cluniac.  cap.  II.  Belethus  idem  affirmat: 
'Moris  enim  fuit,  ut  post  Alleluia  cantaretur  neuma; 
nominatur  autem  neuma  cantus  qui  sequebatur  Alle- 
luia.' Quod  tamen  ita  intelligi  debet,  ut  ipsi  ultimsB 
vocali  A  coniungeretur"  (Gerbertus,  "De  cantu  et 
musica  sacra",  Typis  St.  Blasianis.  1, 1774,  pp.  338  sq. ; 
cf.  "Analecta  hymnica",  XLVII,  11  sqq.;  XLIX, 
266  sqq.).  Hence  sequentia  is  originally  only  a 
musical  term;  etymologically  it  is  the  same  as  the 
Greek  dkoXovBla^  although  the  latter  word  actually 
means  something  else  (cf.  Christ  and  Paranikas, 
"Anthologia  grsca",  Leipzig,  1871,  p.  Ivii).  How 
far^  however,  we  are  justified  in  supposing  Graeco- 
Onental  influence  from  the  similarity  of  the  terms 
seqiientia  and  dKo\ov6(a  must  be  left  undecided,  es- 
pecially as  the  Hymn  too,  though  borrowed  from  the 
Greek  tfipos^  must  be  regarded  as  a  genuine  West- 
em  product  without  traces  of  anything  essentially 
Eastern. 

(2)  It  was  the  length  of  the  melisma  or  jubilus 
over  the  ending  a  (when  and  how  this  length  arose 
is  not  here  in  question)  which  probably  led  to  its 
being  divided  into  several  parts   {incMa,  musical 


phrases).  Each  division  was  then  called  sequentia, 
and  the  whole,  as  comprising  several  such  divisions, 
sequerUuB.    The  reason  for  t£us  division  was  a,  purely 

Practical  one,  viz.  to  allow  the  singers  tii^e  to  take 
reath,  and  to  effect  this  the  more  easily  the  practice 
was  introduced,  so  it  would  seem,  of  having  these 
divisions  of  the  melody  (or  sequerUioB)  sung  by  alter- 
nate choirs,  each  musical  phrase  being  sung  twice; 
exception  wds  made  in  the  case  of  a  few  jubili,  appar- 
ently the  shorter  ones,  which  have  no  such  repetition. 
This  is  the  origin  of  the  alternate  choirs,  and  of  the 
consequent  repetition  of  all  or  nearlv  all  the  divisions 
of  the  melody.  In  the  old  musical  manuscripts  the 
repetition  is  indicated  by  a  d  (=dentiQ  or  dupplex  or 
dis  for  his;  cf.  discanttis  for  biscarUus), 

(3)  A  much  more  important  advance  was  made 
when  some  of  the  divisions  of  the  melody  or  se- 
querdia — ^for  it  did  not  as  yet  apply  to  all  of  them — • 
were  provided  with  a  text;  this  text,  consisting  of 
short  versicles,  was  appropriately  termed  in  the 
"Procemium"   of   Notker   "versus  ad   aliquot    se- 

Suentias"  (i.  e.  the  verses  or  text  to  some  of  the 
ivisions  of  the  melody),  in  which  expression  the 
proper  meaning  of  aeqtterUia  is  preservea.  When  we 
reach  these  versus  ad  sequentias  we  are  on  safer  his- 
torical ground-  In  the  'Analecta  hymnica",  XLIX, 
nn.  51^30,  we  have  examples  of  them  preserved  in 
some  old  French  and  English  tropers;  not  a  single 
example  comes  from  Germany.  For  the  purpose  of 
illustration  we  may  give  the  first  paragraphs  of  the 
iubilus  "Fulgens  pneclara"  from  the  Winchester 
Troper: 

'Fulgens  praeclara* 


Al.lt  .  hi 


la.       a 


I    ]■  .1.  >j|siy  ■  ||>J^M'<  •  l'l*M'    I 


I 


•pi    |i  i=g 


|i  II  .  ■     •=i 


/Rax  la  M'<er-onn.  I  Mt.d-pe     bcalffau    I  prae.oo.nl.  ■ 
*  Vic.tor  •  .M'<|ae    I  mor-te   M'pe-rt.U     I    ■t.^^trl-on 


iln. 


The  first  three  divisions  of  the  iubilus  are  here 
without  any  text;  they  are  pure  melody  sung  to  the 
vowel  a:  a  text  is  then  provided  for  the  fifth  division 
and  its  repeat;  this  is  again  followed  by  a  on  which 
the  melody  was  sung :  a  text  has  been  composed  for  the 
eighth  and  twelfth  oivisions  as  f or  the  fifth;  the  end- 
ing is  three  divisions  of  the  melody  without  any  text. 

(4)  From  these  "versus  ad  sequentias"  to  the 
real  Sequence  was  no  great  step;  a  text  waa  now  set 
to  all  the  sequerUus  or  divisions  of  the  melody  with- 
out exception,  and  we  thus  have  what  we  call  a 
sequence.  The  proper^and  natural  title  of  such  a 
melody  with  its  text  (a  text  which  has  neither  rhythm, 
metre,    nor  rhyme)   is   doubtless    "sequentia   cum 

frosa"  (melody  with  its  text),  a  title  found  in  old 
rench  sources.  As  this  text  (prosa)  gradually  be- 
came more  prominent,  and  as  it  had  to  be  marked 
before  the  melody,  the  use  of  the  twm  "Prosa" 
for  both  melody  and  verse  was  only  natural.  France 
adopted  and  retained  this  term;  on  the  other  hand, 
Germany,  whether  from  imperfect  knowledge  of  the 
development  or  because  the  original  meaning  of 
sequentia  was  lost,  or  from  opposition  to  France 
which  is  frequently  evinced  in  the  language  of  the 
sequences,  or  from  whatever  other  reason,  em- 
ployed almost  exclufflvely  the  title  SequenUa.    Id 


PROSE 


483 


PROSE 


'  this  connexioD  it  is  interesting  to  quote  the  remark 
of  William  of  Hirschau  in  his  '^Consuetudines": 
"...  pro  signo  prosse,  quam  quidam  sequentiam 
vocant'\  From  the  single  title  ''Sequentia  cimi 
prosa"  developed  the  two  titles,  "Prosa"  and  "Se- 
quential (Prose  and  Sequence),  which  are  now  used 
promiscuously;  the  first  is  the  older  and  more  ac- 
curate, the  second  the  more  usual.  (As  a  matter  of 
curiosity  we  may  mention  that  there  have  been  people 
who  took  in  earnest  the  interpretation  of  proM  as 
=^pro  «a.  i.  e.  pro  sequerUia.) 

This  sketch  of  the  development  of  the  Prose  or 
Sequence  explains  many  peculiarities  in  the  oldest 
sequences.  Originallv  the  text  was  adapted  to  a 
melody  which  already  existed;  as  the  divisions  of 
this  melody  Iclausylce)^  with  the  exception  of  the 
introductory  and  closing  ones,  were  usuallv  repeated 
'  by  alternative  choirs  (cf.  above  II,  2).  there  arose 
double  strophes  of  the  same  length  ana  sung  to  the 
same  melody — in  other  words,  f^ynmietricauy  con- 
structed parallel  strophes.  These  somewhat  long 
pieces  of  melody  (a  musical  division  corresponding  to 
the  strophe  of  the  text)  were  further  subdivided  mto 
smaller  divisions,  shorter  musical  phrases  with  short 
half-pauses,  so  that  the  whole  of  the  melody  was 
divided  into  a  number  of  short  musical  phrases  of 
different  lengths.  As  the  text  had  to  follow  this 
peculiarity,  the  strophe  was  divided  into  different 
verses  of  different  lengths.  Under  these  circum- 
stances it  was  natural  that  at  the  beginning  neither 
rh^hm  nor  metre  (still  less  rhyme,  which  is  of  rel- 
atively late  origin)  was  taken  into  practical  accoimt, 
and  the  whole  presented  an  appearance  and  form  very 
different  from  what  we  usually  understand  by  a  poem. 
On  the  whole  then  the  Prosa  was  true  to  its  name  in 
being  prose,  except  that  the  fact  that  the  antis- 
trophe  nad  to  be  as  long  as  the  strophe  and  that  the 
end  of  the  verse  had,  so  far  as  possible,  to  corre- 
spond with  the  end  of  the  word  imposed  a  certain  re- 
straint. Moreover,  as  it  seems,  tne  first  writers  of 
sequences  felt  themi^lves  especially  bound  b^  an- 
other law  (frequently  observed  also  in  later  tunes), 
which,  it  is  important  to  note,  prevailed  with- 
out exception  in  the  versus  ad  sequeniias,  the  prede- 
cessors of  the  Sequence,  and  which,  therefore,  may 
not  be  considered  the  product  of  a  later  date;  the 
jubilus  of  the  Alleluia  was  built  on  its  concluding  a, 
and  is  thus  the  melody  of  the  a.  This  a,  the 
original  text  of  the  jubilus,  ought  therefore  naturaJly 
to  be  prominent  in  the  text  which  was  introduced  to 
replace  it.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  in  all  versus  ad 
sequenlias  and  in  many  old  sequences  (especially  the 
earliest),  not  only  the  strophes  out  often  all  the  verses 
end  in  a.  But  we  must  not  overlook  the  fact  that  in 
those  of  German  origin  this  law  is  seldom  observed  or, 
more  properlv  speaking,  is  still  only  occasionally 
used  (cf.  Analecta  Hymnica,  LIII,  nn.  150,  160,  161,  ■ 
185,  186).  and  even  then  it  is  not  the  verses  but  only 
the  strophes  which  end  in  a.  As  an  example  of  these 
peculianties  we  mav  quote  the  first  strophes  of  the 
sequence  "Eia  recolamus"  (Anal.  Hymn.,  LIII,  16), 
once  a  favourite  Christmas  sequence  in  all  countries: — 


2.  Qui  re^  aoeptra 
forti  dextra 
BoluB  eunota, 

3.  Tu  plebi  tuam 
ostende  magnam 
ezoitando  potentiam; 


1.  Alleluia; 

4.  Praata  dona  illi  nalutaria. 

5.  Quem  pmdizerunt  prophetioa 
vaticinia, 

a  clara  poli  regia 

in  nostra, 

Jesu,  veni,  Domine,  anra. 


All  impaired  and  unsymmetrical  sequences  of  this 
sort  are  thus  short,  and  their  origin  is  probably  to  be 
explained  by  the  fact  that  a  few  relatively  short 
AUeluia-jubili  were  left  without  repeats.  As  the 
divisions  of  the  melody  have  no  repeat,  the  strophes 
set  to  them  are  also  not  repeated  (i.  e.  they  have  no 
antistrophe  or  parallel  strophe).  If  this  explanation 
is  right,  there  is  no  ground  for  the  suggestion  that 
sequences  without  parallel  strophes  are  older  than 
those  with  them;  they  may  date  trom  the  same  period, 
but  they  had  a  very  short  life,  as  sequences  without 
^mmetrical  pairs  of  strophes  soon  became  so  unusual 
that  antistrophes  were  added  to  those  earlier  without 
them.  With  the  sequence  developed  in  the  way  thus 
indicated,  viz.  by  adapting  a  text  to  an  already  exist- 
ing melody,  it  became  natural  in  time  to  have  se- 
quences composed  with  a  melody  of  their  own.  The 
text  in  this  case  had  no  need  to  follow  the  AUeluia- 
jubilus;  text  and  melody  would  be  composed  at  the 
same  time,  and,  if  need  be,  the  melody  might  be  ac- 
commodated to  the  text.  This  led  to  a  freer 
treatment  of  the  text,  which  otherwise  would  have  to 
follow  syllable  by  syllable  the  notes  of  the  melody, 
and  so  gradually  more  attention  was  paid  to  rhythm 
and  symmetry  m  the  construction  of  the  verse,  as  is 
required  by  the  exigencies  of  poetry. 

Even  when  the  text  was  set  to  a  melody  already 
in  lise,  care  was  soon  taken  to  observe  a  certain 
rhythm  in  the  words.  In  this  connexion  rhythm  does 
not  depend  on  the  quantity  of  the  syllables  (with 
which  the  sequence  has  practically  no  concern),  but 
simply  on  the  accent  of  the  word.  In  many  se- 
quences we  find  in  a  few  of  their  verses  and  strophes 
this  type  of  symmetrical  rhythm  (i.  e.  a  rhythm 
which  occurs  regularly  in  a  verse  and  its  correspond- 
ent); in  other  sequences  we  find  it  in  almost  all 
the  verses  (e.  g.  in  two  sequences,  for  St.  Stephen's 
Day  and  the  feast  of  Sts.  Peter  and  Paul,  ascribed 
to  Notker  Balbulus).  In  the  St.  Stephen  sequence 
''Hanc  concordi  famulatu''  (Anal.  Hynm..  LlII,  n. 
215)  the  rh3rthm  in  the  first  two  pairs  of  strophes 
which  follow  the  introductory  verse  is  of  this  kind; 
the  acute  accent  placed  above  the  words  represents 
the  natural  intonation  of  the  words: — 


2a.  Auct6rifl  illfua 
ex6mp!o 
d6cti  oenlgno 

3a.  O  St^phane, 
aignifer  r^gis 
sdmme  b6ni,  d68  exa<idi. 


2b.  Pro  p^raeout^rum 
«»     precantifl 

Iradde  su^rum. 

3b.  Proffeue 

Jul  68  pro  tAis 
zauditufl  (nimf  da. 


Exactly  the  same  rhythm  in  strophe  and  antis- 
trophe, in  the  verse  And  its  parallel,  can  be  seen  in  the 
Apostles'  sequence  which  follows  the  same  plan: — 


1.  Eia,  recolamufl 

2a.  jHuiuB  diei  carmina, 
in  qua  nobLi  lux 
oritur  gratiasima; 

3a.  Hodie  ssbcuIo 
maria  atella 
eat  enixa 
nova  aalutia  gaudia; 

4a.  Gemitcapta 
peatia  antiqua 
coluber  lividua  perdit 
apolia; 


laudibua  piia  digna 

2b.  Noctia  int«rit  nebula, 
pereunt  noetri 
oriminia  umbracula. 

3b.  Quem  tremunt  barathra, 
mora  omenta 
pavet  ipaa, 
a  quo  peribit  mortua. 

4b.  Homo  lapaua 
ovia  abducta 
revocatur  ad  vterna 
gaudia,  rtc. 


2a.  EcclMam  v4atria 
dootrinia 
lUuminAtam 

8a.  Nam  D6minua, 
P6tre,  c»16nun, 
tfbi  eUvea  66no  d6dit 


2b.  Per  drculum  t^rra 
prec&tua 
adfuvet  vteter. 

3b.  Armfgerum 

B^niamin,  Chriatua 

\Jk  acit  a6um  v^laque  eKktum. 


Some  few  sequences  of  the  older  period  do  not  show 
the  strophes  in  pairs,  their  strophes  lacking  antiis- 
trophes.  A  short  example  is  the  following  Advent- 
sequence  (Anal.  Hymn.,  LIII,  n.  3): — 


In  both  these  sequences  the  end  of  all  the  strophes  is 
paroxytone. 

Like  rhythm,  assonance,  the  precursor  of  rhyme, 
was  also  gradually  introduced;  now  a  single  verse, 
now  several  verses,  began  to  end  with  the  same  or 
equivalent  vowel  (e  and  i,  o  and  u).  This  was  the 
beginning  of  that  process  which  gradually  led  fo  the 
development  of  sequences  (^harac^terizwi  by  regular 
rhythm  and  rhyme  and  complete  uniformity  in  the 
construction  of  the  verses  (frequently  also  of  the 
strophes),  and  thus  revealing  in  structure  and  tech- 
nique a  strong  contrast  to  the  older  types,  in  which 


PROSE 


484 


PROSE 


the  text  had  almost  exclusively  the  character  of  prose, 
the  strophes  being  dissimilar  and  the  verses  of  un- 
equal length,  of  different  structure,  and  without 
rhvme  or  regular  rhythm.  These  latter  are  therefore 
called  the  sequences  of  the  first  epoch;  none  have 
been  preserved  in  the  litur^  of  tcnday. 

(5)  The  transition  from  the  sequences  of  the  first 
to  those  of  the  second  epoch  occupied  more  than  a 
century,  viz.  from  the  end  of  the  tenth,  when  the 
change  made  itself  visible  here  and  there,  to  the 
beginning  of  the  twelfth,  when  the  new  style  reached 
its  perfection.  Sequences  with  more  or  less  numerous 
traces  of  the  transition  process  are  so  numerous  that 
they  ma^r  be  placed  in  a  class  by  themselves.  While 
maintaining  the  structure  of  sequences  of  the  first 
epoch,  these  sequences  add  a  greater  or  less  degree 
of  the  element  of  rhyme  (although  not  yet  pure 
rhyme)  and  greater  uniformity  of  rhythm.  .They 
may  be  entitled  sequences  of  the  transitional 
style,  not  of  the  transitional  period;  for  many 
Hoquences  of  the  transitional  period  still  bear  the 
distinct  stamp  of  the  older  ones,  and  moreover, 
when  sequences  of  the  second  period  were  in  high- 
eat  favour,  some  writers  of  proses*  utilized  the 
structure  of  the  early  period,  while  employing  rhyme 
according  to  the  style  of  the  second  period.  It 
should  also  be  observed  that  not  a  few  sequences  are 
so  very  akin  to  those  of  the  first,  whilst  others  on 
the  contrary  are  so  nearly  related  to  those  of  the 
second  epoch,  that  it  is  very  difi&cult  to  decide  to 
what  ^up  they  should  be  referred.  A  sharp  line 
of  division  cannot  be  drawn,  since  the  development 
from  the  older  to  later  forms  (sometimes  in  strong 
contrast  with  the  first)  was  not  only  slow  but  steady, 
revealing  no  abrupt  transition  or  change.  A  good 
example  of  the  transition  style  is  the  Easter  sequence 
whiph  is  still  used,  but  now  a  little  altered  in  the  "Mis- 
sale  Romanum",  and  which  probably  was  composed 
by  Wipo  the  Burgundian  (d.  after  1048): — 

1.  Victims  paachali  laudes  immolent  ChristianL 

2s.  Agnus  redemit  oves,  2b.  Mors  et  vita  duello 
Christus  innoceiu  Patri  conflixere  mirando. 

reconciliavit  dux  vite  mortuus 

peccatores.  regnat  vivua. 

3a.  Dio  nobis,  Maria,  3b.  Angelioos  testes, 
quid  vidisti  in  via?  sudarium  et  vestes. 

Sepulcrum  Christi  viventis  Surrexit  Christus  spes  mea; 

et  gloriam  vidi  resurgentis.  pmoedet  suos  in  Galilflsa. 

4a.  Credendum  est  4b.  Scimus  Christum 
magis  soli  surrexisse 

Maria  veraci,  a  mortuis  vere; 

quam  Judsorum  tu  nobis,  victor, 

turbflB  fallaci.  Rex,  miserere. 

(6)  The  final  phase  of  the  development  is  seen  in 
the  sequences  of  the  secoiiS  epoch  already  described, 
in  which  uniformity  of  rhythm,  purity  of  rhyme,  and 
strict  regularity  in  structure  characterize  the  verses, 
thou^  the  strophes  still  evince  manifold  variety. 
Not  infrequently  most  (sometimes  even  all)  of  the 
pairs  of  strophes  are  composed  of  verses  so  uniform 
that  the  outward  difference  between  these  sequences 
and  hvmns,  though  not  completely  removed,  is  con- 
siderably lessened.  The  present  sequence  for  Cor- 
pus Christi,  composed  by  St.  Thomas  Aquinas  in 
1263,  may  serve  as  an  example: — 


ta.  Lauda  Sion  salvatorem, 
Lauda  ducem  et  pastorem 
In  hsrmms  et  cantiois. 


lb.  Quantum  potes,  tantum 
aude. 
Quia  major  omni  laude. 
Nee  laudare  sufficis. 


If  we  institute  a  comparison  between  this  and  a 
strophe  of  a  seauence  of  the  first  epoch  and  a 
strophe  of  the  following  hymn: — 

Pange  lingua  gloriosi 

Corporis  mysterium 
Sangmnisque  pretiosi, 

Quem  in  mundi  pretium 
Fructus  ventris  generoA 

Rex  efTudit  gentium 

— it  is  at  once  evident  how  far  the  sequence  strophe 
given  above  differs  structurally  from  one  of  the  first 


epoch,  and  how  nearly  it  approaches  the  form  of  the 
hymn  strophe.  With  the  latter,  it  has  the  same 
kind  of  verse  with  its  masculine  and  feminine  rhymes 
and  a  similar  rhjrthm,  the  only  difference  being  that 
the  order  of  the  catalectic  and  acatalectic  verses  is 
dissimilar.  Moreover,  in  the  Corpus  Christi  se- 
quence all  the  pairs  of  strophes  are  like  the  first, 
except  that  the  third  pair  consists  of  a  strophe  and 
antistrophe  each  composed  of  six  verses.,  of  which 
the  fourth  and  fifth  introduce  another  rhythm,  and 
the  last  two  pairs  of  strophes  increase  the  number  of 
verses  by  one  and  two  verses  respectively.  .The 
three  other  sequences  which  remain  m  the  liturgy — 
viz.  the  "Veni  sancte  Spiritus",  "Stabat  mater 
dolorosa",  and  "Dies  iraj  dies  ilia",  of  which  the  last 
two  were  originally  rhymed  prayers — show  even 
greater,  and  in  fact  complete,  symmetry  in  all  the 
strophes — ^the  sequences  for  Whitsuntide  and  the 
requiem  Mass  show  uniformity  even  in  all  the  verses. 
In  other  respects,  however,  many  sequences  of  the 
pecond  epoch,  despite  their  uniformity,  evince  such 
variety  in  the  structure  of  the  pairs  of  strophes  that, 
in  contrast  with  the  monotony  of  the  hymn,  they 
present  considerable  diversity.  But  the  element 
which  is  wanting  in  all  of  them  is  the  connexion  with 
the  Alleluia-jubilus  and  its  melody,  and  it  is  only  in 
the  repetition  of  the  melody  in  the  antistrophe  and  in 
the  change  of  melody  in  the  individu^  strophes  that 
its  origin  from  the  jubilus  can  still  be  observed. 

Of  the  above-mentioned  six  phases  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  sequence  the  first  and  second  are  very 
obscure  in  two  respects,  as  regards  (1)  the  appearance 
of  the  Alleluia-jubilus  without  the  text  and  (2)  its 
relation  to  the  so-called  Gregorian  Alleluia.  To 
answer  the  first  question,  we  are  naturally  tempted 
to  point  to  the  fact  that  in  some  of  the  earliest 
tropers  (e.  g.  Cod.  Sangallcn.,  484),  the  Alleluia- 
jubilus  has  no  text.  It  is  quite  true  that  melodies 
without  text  are  found  there,  but  the  earlier  opinion 
that  these  are  melodies  to  which  texts  were  sub- 
sequently added  is  not  true:  they  are  melodies  to 
previous  sequence-texts,  as  is  shown  in  the  intro- 
duction to  "Anal,  hymn.",  LIII,  pp.  xxii  sq.  The 
expr^ion  "melodies  without  text"  is  liable  to  be, 
and  in  fact  has  been,  misunderstood,  and  should  be 
replaced  by  "melodies  to  an  existing  but  unwritten 
text".  No  one  has  as  yet  found  a  single  Alleluia 
jubilus  without  text,  whence  might  have  been  deduced 
the  existence  of  jubUi  in  this  form  before  the  text 
and  independent  of  it.    The  prior  existence  of  such 

C'  ili  must  indeed  be  admitted,  but  no  example 
as  yet  been  discovered,  nor  is  the  discovery  ef 
such  jubili  hereafter  probable.  For,  in  spite  of  long 
and  careful  research,  no  liturgical  MS.  with  neimns 
or  melodies  has  been  discovered  of  a  date  earlier 
than  the  ninth  century,  with  the  one  exception  of  a 
Pontifical  of  Poitiers  (Cod.  Parisin.  Arsen.,  227), 
which  is  either  eighth-  or  ninth-century;  even  of  the 
ninth  century  we  have  only  one  certain  and  three 
or  four  probable  ones.  One  might  hazard  the 
opinion  that  it  was  only  in  the  ninth  century  that  the 
melodies,  which  were  previously  known  by  heart, 
came  to  be  inserted  in  the  choir-books.  In  the 
ninth  century,  however,  the  textless  Alleluia-jubili 
were  already  replaced  by  the  versus  ad  sequerUics 
and  many  sequences;  the  form  of  the  textless  jubilus 
can  be  only  provisionally  conjectured  on  the  basis 
of  the  jubih  with  the  versus  ad  sequerUias  (see  above, 
II,  3). 

For  this  reason  it  is  still  more  difficult  to  give  a 
decided  answer  to  the  second  question  as  to  the  oon- 
Dexion  between  the  jubilus,  which  forms  the  basis  of 
the  sequence-melodies,  and  the  Gregorian  Alleluia. 
If  we  take  it  for  granted  that  the  latter  have  been 
handed  on  unaltered  and  retain  the  original  form  in 
the  oldest  known  sources  (though  these  do  not  go 
further  back  than  the  ninth  century),  in  other  wortu. 


PROSE  485  PROSE 

-  • 

that  the  Alleluia  before  the  Alleluia-verse  had  in  the  of  which  later  sequences  were  adapted;  as  examples 

time  of  St.  Gregory  the  Great  the  form  which  the  we  may  cite  such  titles  as  ^'Almiphona^',  '^Creator 

Benedictines  of  Sofesmes  have  established  for  it  in  poli'',   ''Digna  cultu'\  "Exsultet  elegantis",  "Ful- 

their  valuable  publications,  then  we  must  admit  that  gens  praeclara'',  etc. 

the  melismata  of  the  Gregorian  Alleluia,  even  the  It  was  also  natural,  if  indeed  not  even  more  appro- 
longest  of  thetn,  are  much  shorter  than,  and  are  dif-  priate,  to  provide  as  the  title  of  a  sequence  melody 
ferent  in  kind  from,  the  melismata  of  the  jubilus  the  beginning  of  the  Alleluia-verse  whose  AUeluia- 
to  which  the  versus  ad  aequentias  and  the  sequences  jubilus  ^ave  the  melodv  for  the  sequence.  Hence 
proper  were  attached.  According  to  the  "Prooemium  we  explam  such  titles  as  "Ostende",  ''LsBtatus  sum", 
of  NotkeP",  the  text  of  the  sequences  is  so  set  to  "Excita",  "Veni  Domine",  ''Dominus  regnavit". 
the  melodue  longissimoB  of  the  Alleluia-jubilus  that  "Dies  sanctificatus",  "Multifarie",  and  several 
practically  one  syllable  of  the  text  corresponds  to  others.  Thus  the  Alleluia-versicle  of  the  Gradual  for 
one  note  of  the  jubilus.  What  thefi  was  the  origin  the  first  Sunday  in  Advent  is  ''Ostende  nobis  Domine 
of  this  comparatively  lon^  melisma?  Was  it  de-  miserioordiam  tuam  etc.":  for  the  second  Sunday, 
veloped  from  the  Gregonan  Alleluia  by  similar  ''Lsetatus  sum  in'his  etc.";  for  the  third,  "Excita 
melismatic  interpolations  and  musical  embellish-  Domine  tx>tentiam  tuam  etc.",  and  so  on.  In  the 
ments,  just  as  responsories  of  the  Breviary  with  their  further  development  of  the  Sequence,  as  the  list  of 
final  melisma  grew  into  the  tropes  and  verbeta  with  titles  increasea,  tis  the  sense  of  the  connexion  of  the 
their  more  extensive  text  and  music?  This  view  Sequence  with  the  Alleluia  and  its  versicle  gradually 
cannot  be  accepted;  for  we  always  straightway  rec-  disappeared,  and  as  for  some  reason  or  other  the  de- 
ognize  the  original  melisma  of  the  responsory  as  the  sire  for  novelty  arose,  titles  were  adopted  which  seem 
basis  or  leiimoiiv  of  the  melody  of  the  verbeta,  which  to  us  rather  far-fetched.  Important  words  from  the 
at  the  end  of  each  division  and  at  the  conclusion  beginning  or  middle  of  a  sequence  were  taken  as 
regularly  returns  to  the  shorter  original  melody,  titles.  In  the  sequence ''Quid  tuvirgo  mater  ploras" 
Quite  dmerent  is  the  case  with  respect  to  the  geciuences  (Anal,  hymn.,  LIII,  n.-  239),  the  words  virgo" 
of  the  ^t  epoch.  The  introduction,  it  is  true,  and  ''ploras"  gave  the  title  ''Virgo  plorans";  from 
follows  the  melody  of  its  Alleluia;  a  few  words  which  "Hanc  concordi  famulatu"  (Anal,  hynm.,  LIII., 
follow  are  frequently  "adapted  to  the  first  notes  of  the  n.  215)  was  taken  the  title  "Ck>noordia";  in  the 
melisma  to  the  Gregorian  Alleluia,  but  the  melody  sequence  "Virginis  venerandsa"  (Anal,  hymn.,  LIII, 
of  the  sequence  then  entirely  deserts  the  melisma  of  n.  246),  the  second  strophe  commences  "Filiao 
the  Allelma  and  never  retiuns  to  it.  Various  modem  matris",  whence  was  taken  the  title  "Filia  matris"; 
Uturgiologists  have  believed  that  the  long  jubilus  the  sequence  "Simmii  triumphum  r^is"  (Anal, 
may  be  referred  to  Byzantine  influence  during  the  hymn.,  LIII,  n.  67)  belongs  to  the  alleluia-versicle, 
eighth  century;  however,  no  direct  positive  evidence  "Dominus  in  Sina  in  sancto  aaoendens  in  altum 
has  hitherto  been  forthcoming,  ana  no  example  of  captivam  duxit  captivitatem",  and  the  conspicuous 
Byzantine  music,  which  might  have  served  as  a  words  "captivam  .  .  .  captivitatem"  produced  the 
model  for  the  long  Alleluia  jubilus,  has  come  to  title  "Captiva";  the  same  is  the  case  with  other 
light.  Moreover,  assuming  a  Byzantine  model,  titles,  e.  g.  "Amoena",  "Mater",  "Maris  stella", 
it  is  more  than  enigmaticcd  why  writers  of  proses  "Planctus  cvgni",  etc.  Several  titles  are  evidently 
often  adhered  so  conscientiously  to  the  melody  of  the  formed  on  the  principle  of  analogy;  from  the  begin- 
Alleluia  proper  and  to  the  first  notes  of  its  con-  ning  of  the  sequences  "Lyra  pulchra  regem"^(AnaL 
eluding  a;  assuming  that  the  verses  were  written  hymn.,  LIII,  n.  52)  and  "Nostra  tuba  nunc  tua" 
to  fit  foreign  melodies,  we  are  at  a  loss  to  explain  (ibid.  n.  14),  titles  (namely  "Lyra"  and  "Nostra 
why  a  part  is  not  foreign.  Perhaps  the  difficulty  tuba")  which  indicated  musical  instruments  were  in- 
may  be  explained  if  we  assume  that  Gregory  the  troduced;  analogous  to  these  are  such  titles  as 
Great  foimd  a  long  Alleluia,  presumably  derived  from  "Bucca",  "Cithara",  "Fidicula",  "Fistula",  "Or- 
the  Greeks,  and  gave  it  the  short  form  preserved  in  gana",  "Tuba".  "Tympanum".  Perhaps  "Sym- 
the  choir-books  of  the  West.  We  know  that  he  phonia"  is  foimaed  on  the  analogy  of  "Concordia", 
shortened  many  parts  of  the  Sacramentary.  If  and  the  title  "Chorus"  related  to  it.  Of  somewhat 
this  surmise  be  true,  the  long  jubili  may  have  con-  less  obvious  ori^,  although  they  indicate  the  actual 
tinned  to  exist  in  some  places  alongside  of  the  shorter  or  supposed  ongin  of  the  melody,  are  such  titles  as 
ones,  and  may  have  served  later  as  the  balsis  of  the  "Grseca",  "Romana",  "Metensis",  "Occidentana". 
sequence  text.  While  this  attempt  at  a  solution  of  Far-fetched  and  now  scarcely  esrolicable  are  the 
the  great  riddle  has  much  in  its  favour,  it  is  still  titles  "Cignea",  "Frigdola",  "PLuictus  sterHis", 
only  an  attempt.  "Duo    tres",    "Hypodiaconissa".  ."Vitellia",    etc. 

III.  Melodt  and  Titlb  of  the  Melodt. — From  If  the  conjecture  be  accurate  that  tne  title  of  a  melody 

what  has  been  said  it  will  be  seen  that  there  are  two  is  simpler  and  more  natural  the  nearer  it  is  to  its 

classes  of  sequence  melodies:    (1)  those  which  ori-  origin,  then  the  titles,  taken  in  connexion  with  other 

ginally  formed  the  Alleluia-jubUus.     These  are  the  facts,  provide  the  means  of  explaining  the  question 

melodiesto  which  a  sequence  text  was  later  composed;  as  to  the  original  home  of  the  various  sequences. 

(2)  those  which  originated  simultaneously  with  the  France  preferably  chose  titles  from  the  IncipU  of  the 

text,  both  being  composed  by  the  same  person,  or  Sequence  or  Alleluia- verse j  St.  Gall  and  Germany  on 

those  which  were  composed  by  a  musician  for  a  text  the  contrary  never  chose  titles  from  the  IncipU  of  the 

written  by  a  prosator.    Not  e^ery  sequence  has  its  Sequence,  but  used  many  unusual  titles  which  to  ua 

own  melody;   often  several  sequences  were  written  have  Uttle  or  no  meaning. 

to  one  and  the  same  melody,  and,  if  this  were  very        IV.  Histobt  of  the  Sequence. — ^Formerly  the 

popular,  many  sequences  were  written  to  it.    Hence  origin  of  the  Sequence  was  always  sought  at  St. 

many  sequences  have  the  same  plan  and  the  same  Gall,  and  Notker  ^albulus  was  imiversally  accredited 

melody.    In  such  sequences  the  oovious  thing  was  to  as  its  inventor.    The  basis  for  this  supposition  was 

identify  the  melody  by  some  distinctive  word;   this  furnished  by  the  so-called  "Prooemium  of  Notker", 

word  was  and  is  called  the  title  of  the  melody.    About  in  which  Notker  tells  us  that  it  was  the  "  Antiphona- 

300  titles  of  sequences  of  the  first  and  transitional  rium"  of  amonkof  Jumi4ges  (in  which  "aliqui  versus 

period  are  found  in  the  old  MSS.;  this  does  not  imply  ad  sequentias  erant  modu&ti"),  which  had  suggested 

that  only  300  old  melodies  are  known,  for  many  to  him  to  place  the  words  of  a  text  under  the  mdodim 

melodies  have  come  dovm  to  us  without  title.  UmgissinuB  of  the  Alleluia-jubilus  in  such  a  way  that 

It  was  natural  that  the  title  should  be  chosen  from  each  word  of  the  text  corresponded  to  a  note  of  the 

the'initialwordof  the  original  sequence,  to  the  melody  melody.    But  does  this  prove  that  Notker  was  the 


PROSKe 


486 


PROSKE 


first  person  who  did  this?  In  St.  Gall,  eertainlv;  but 
elsewhere  this  might  have  taken  place  long  before- 
hand. Besides  it  is  very  doubtful  on  other  ^unds 
whether  the  "Procemium  of  Notker"'is  genume  and 
authentic.  Until  the  last  two  decades  our  knowledge 
of  sequence  material  was  entirely  inadequate.  The 
older  sequences,  and  especially  their  melodies,  were 
only  known  to  us  through  the  St.  Gall  tropers,  whose 
importance  was  enhanced  bv  their  numoer;  other 
olcl  tropers  from  Germany,  of  which  scarcely  six  were 
known,  were  treated  as  copies  of  those  of  St.  Gall. 
What  France,  England,  or  Italy  had  done  in  the  pro- 
duction of  sequences  was  scarcely  suspected,  and  one 
had  no  idea  at  all  of  the  relation  which  their  melodies 
had  to  the  St.  Gall  melodies.  Subsequently  it  be- 
came plain  that  the  St.  Gall  composer  waa  more  than 
once  influenced  by  an  older  French  exemplar;  what 
has  been  said  above  as  to  the  development  of 
the  Se<iuence — ^it  was  based  on  the  most  extensive 
collection  of  original  material — ^undoubtedly  goes 
to  prove  that  all  the  peculiarities  of  the  sequences 
in  their  early  stage  are  found  in  those  of  France, 
whilst  those  of  St.  Gall  (i.  e.  the  German  ones)  show 
signs  of  a  relatively  later  period  and  of  a  phase  of 
greater  development,  even  m  the  matter  of  tne  name 
of  the  sequence  ana  of  titles  of  melodies.  Further 
proofs  cannot  be  given  here,  and  we  must  content 
ourselves  with  referring  to  the  discussion  in  ''Ana- 
lecta  hymnica",  LIII,  the  results  of  which  may  be 
summed  up  in  three  sentences:  (1)  proses  or  se- 
quences did  not  originate  in  St.  Gall.  Notker  Bal- 
bulus  was  not  their  first  inventor,  although  he  was 
their  first  smd  most  prominent  exponent  in  Germany. 
Their  origin  goes  further  back,  probably  to  the 
ei^th  century;  (2)  failing  more  definite  evidence, 
it  is  difficult  to  say  exactly  what  sequences  are  to  be 
attributed  to  Notker  Balbulus :  meanwhile,  we  cannot 
determine  what  sequences  oi  the  first  epoch  and 
clearly  of  German  origin  come  from  St.  Gall  and  what 
from  other  German  abbeys  or  dioceses;  (3)  all  that 
has  hitherto  been  discovered  as  to  the  origin  and  de- 
velopment of  sequences  shows  France  to  nave  been 
the  original  home  of  the  "versus  ad  sequentias^'  and 
of  the  ''sequentia  cum  prosa''.  As  to  the  precise 
locality  of  that  home  in  France — ^whether  it  was 
LUxeuil,  or  Fleury-sur-Loire,  or  Moissac,  or  St- 
Martial,  must  be  a  matter  for  conjecture. 

In  what  countries  and  to  what  extent  France  made 
its  influence  felt  in  the  composition  of  sequences  can- 
not yet  be  decided  with  accuracy.  At  the  end  of  the 
tenth  and  especially  in  the  eleventh  century  se- 
(|uences  were  certainly  very  widely  spread  and  popular 
in  all  countries  of  the  West — even  in  Italy,  which 
until  lately  has  been  overlooked  as  having  scarcely 
any  share  in  this  branch  of  composition.  Not  only 
in  Northern  but  also  in  Southern  Italy,  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Benevento  and  Monte  Cassino, 
were  schools  for  sequences,  as  the  discoveries  of  Bannis- 
ter at  Benevento  have  proved.  Of  all  these  sequences 
of  the  first  epoch  there  were  some  in  the  eleventh 
century  which  were  found  only  in  a  given  country' 
and  were  therefore  local  products;  others  (but  they 
were  relatively  few)  were  the  conunon  liturgical  prop- 
erty of  all  countries  of  the  West.  Besides  these, 
there  are  two  particular  groups  to  be  distinguished, 
viz.  such  as  were  used  only  in  France,  England,  and 
Spain,  and  such  as  were  used  only  in  Germany, 
Italy,  and  the  Netherlands.  This  bemg  the  case,  we 
may  classify  sequences  as  Gallo-Anglican  or  Germano- 
Itedian:  to  the  first  class  belong  the  Spanish;  to  the 
second  those  of  Holland  and  Belgium.  Between  the 
countries  which  belong  to  one  class,  there  existed 
a  more  or  less  free  exchange  of  sequences,  whilst 
sequences  which  belong  to  the  other  class  were  as  a 
whole  excluded  and  only  rarely  introduced.  Thus, 
between  France  and  Italy,  as  well  as  between  Eng- 
limd  and  Germany,  there  existed  sometimes  a  friendly 


exchange,  but  scarcely  ever  between  France  and  Ger- 
many. This  fact  probably  played  some  r51e  in  the 
development  of  sequences  in  various  countries  and 
in  the  influence  which  one  country  exercised  upon 
another.  Of  the  composers  of  sequences  unfor- 
tunately only  a  few  names  have  been  preserved; 
after  the  great  Notker  Balbulus  of  St.  Gall  (d.  912), 
the  first  rank  is  taken  by  Ekkehard  I  of  St.  Gall 
(d.  973),  Abbot  Bemo  of  Reichenau  (d.  1048).  Her- 
mann Contractus  (d.  1054),  and  Gottschaflc  of  Lim- 
burg  (d.  1098).  If  the  honour  of  the  invention  of 
sequences  belongs  to  France,  the  honour  of  bringing 
sequences  to  perfection  during  the  first  epoch  be- 
longs to  Germany. 

Diu>ing  the  second  epoch  the  picture  changes: 
in  the  abbey  of  the  Canons  Regular  of  St.  Victor  in 
Paris  the  Sequence  with  rhythm  and  rhyme  reached 
artistic  perfection,  combining  spendomr  of  form  with 
depth  and  seriousness  of  conception.  This  was  the 
case  with  Adam  of  St.  Victor  (d.  1192);  it  is  un- 
fortunately uncertain  whether  many  of  the  sequences 
ascribed  to  him  are  really  his  or  belong  to  his  prede- 
cessors or  imitators.  The  new  style  met  with  an 
enthusiastic  reception.  The  sequences  of  Adam  of 
St.  Victor  came  into  liturgical  use  almost  everyivhere. 
and  found  eager  and  frequently  even  successful 
imitation.  In  French  Graduals  almost  all  the  se- 
quences of  the  first  epoch  were  supplanted  by  the 
later  ones,  whereas  in  Germany,  together  with  the 
new  ones,  a  considerable  number  of  those  which  are 
supposed  to  be  Notker's  remained  in  use  as  late  as 
the  fifteenth  century.  Some  precious  contributions 
were  furnished  by  England.  Italy  on  the  other  hand 
falls  quite  behind  during  the  second  epoch.  How- 
ever, the  two  noble  sequences  still  in  use,  the  ''Stabat 
mater''  and  the  "Dies  irse'',  are  the  works  of  two 
Italian  Franciscans,  their  composition  being  with 
some  probability  assigned  to  Jacopone  da  Todi 
(d.  1305)  and  Thomas  of  Celano  (d.  about  1250); 
both  these  works,  however,  were  originally  written 
as  rhymed  prayers  for  private  use  and  were  only 
afterwards  used  as  sequences.  St.  Thomas  of 
Aquinas  too  (d.  1274)  has  bequeathed  to  us  the  im- 
mortal sequence, "  Lauda  Sion  salvatorem '',  but  that  is 
the  only  one  he  wrote.  Sequences  like  hymns  declined 
in  the  fifteenth  century,  and  reached  their  lowest 
stage  of  decadence  where  they  had  most  flomrished 
in  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  (viz.  in  France). 
5000  sequences  of  the  most  varying  value  have  al- 
ready come  to  light;  they  are  a  testimony  to  the  Chris- 
tian literary  activity  in  the  West  during  seven  centu- 
ries, and  £tre  especially  significant  for  the  influence  they 
exercised  on  tne  development  of  poetry  and  music. 
For  the  Gregorian  melodies  were  taken  over  by  them 
and  preserved  with  fideUty  and  conservatism;  with 
the  admission  of  sequences  and  tropes  into  the 
litiurg^,  ecclesiastical  music  found  its  opportunity 
for  further  development  and  glorious  growth. 

Trench,  Sacred  Latin  Poetry  chiefly  Lyrical  (London,  1849. 
1864,  and  1874);  Nealb.  Seauentia  ex  miatalibiu  .  .  .  eoUectce 
(London,  1852) ;  Fbere,  The  Winchester  Troper  (London,  1894) 
Wealx  and  Mibsbt,  Analecta  liturg,  (London  and  Lille,  1888 
92);  JuUAN,  Diet,  of  Hymnology  (2nd  ed.,  London.  1907) 
Babtbch,  Die  latein.  Sequenzen  dee  MittelalterM  (Rostock,  1868) . 
ScHUBiGEB,  Die  Sdngerachule  St.  Oallen»  (Einaiedeln  and  New 
York,  1858);  Krhrein,  Latein.  Seqttemen  dee  MiUelaUert 
(Mains,  1873);  Werner,  Notkera  Sequemen  (Aarau,  1901); 
Mabxeb,  Zur  epatmiUelalterl.  Choralgesch.  St.  Gallent  (St.  Gall. 
1908);  MissBT  and  Aitbrby,  Les  proaee  d'Adam  de  Saints 
Victor  (Paris,  1900);  Blums  and  Dreve«,  Analecta  hymnioa 
medii  ctvi.  Vll-X,  XXXIV.  XXXVII,  XXXIX,  XL.  XLII. 
XLIV,  LIIL  (Leipiig,  1889-1911);  vols  VII-X  were  edited  by 
Drbves,  XL  bv  Bannister,  LItt  by  Blcmr  and  Bannister. 
and  the  others  by  Blume;  vob.  LFV  and  LV  will  conclude  the 
collection  of  all  proses  or  sequences.         ClbmENB  Blums. 

Proske,  Karl,  b.  at  Grobing  in  Upper  Silesia, 
11  Feb.,  1794;  d.  20  Dec,  1861.  He  took  his  degree 
as  Doctor  of  Medicine  at  Halle,  after  which  he  be- 
came court  physician  at  Oppein.  From  1813  to  1820 
he  followed  the  profession  of  medicine,  and  was  army 


PR08PSB                              487  PROSPER 

« 

BUTKeon  in  the  campcugn  of  1813-5.    He  was  also  an  arbitrio;  liber  contra  collatorem".    The  ''Collator" 

enthusiastic  lover  of  ecclesiastical  chant.    At  length  was  Cassian  who  in  his  "Conferences"  had  put  for- 

in  1821  he  determined  to  become  a  priest,  and  was  ward  semi-Pelagian  doctrine.    The  date  of  this,  the 

ordained  at  Ratisbon,  11  April,  1826.    Henceforward  most  important  of  Prosper's  prose  writings,  can  be 

he  devoted  himself  to  the  acquisition  of  ancient  fixed  at  about  433,  for  the  author  speaks  of  twenty 

church  music,  and  spent  the  whole  of  his  private  in-  years  and  more  having  elapsed  since  the  beginning  of 

come  as  well  as  the  emoluments  from  his  church  pre-  the  Pelagian  heresy^  viz.,  according  to  his  ''Chron- 

ferments,  searching  through  Italian  and  other  musical  icle  '\  a.  d.  413.    Afi.  u'onical  epitaph  on  the  Nestorian 

archives.    In  1830  he  was  made  Canon  and  Kappel-  and  Pelagian  heresies  was  prooably  composed  shortly 

meister  of  Ratisbon  cathedral,  of  which  he  had  oeen  after   the   Coimcil   of   Ephesus.     The    ''Expositio 

vicar  choral  since  1827.    With  im wearied  patience  he  psalmonum'*  is  substantially  an  abridgment  of  the 

collected  and  transcribed  hundreds  of  musical  scores,  ''Enarrationes"  of  St.  Auguiatine.    It  probably  com- 

and  in  1853  started  the  publication  of  his  invaluable  prised  the  whole  psalter,  but  as  it  has  come  down  to  us 

''Musica  Divina",  the  fourth  volume  of  which  ap-  it  onlj'  comments  on  the  last  fifty.    The  ''Sententis 

peared  in  1862;    this  was  followed  by  a  "Selectus  ex  Augustine  delibatse''  are  a  collection  of  sayinss 

Novus  Missarum",  in  two  volumes  (1857-61).  extracted  from  the  writings  of  St.  Augustine.     In 

Gbovb,  Dirf.  of  Muaieand  Munciaru,  new  ed.,  Ill  (London,  framing  them  Prosper  as  a  rule  dealt  rather  freely 

'^Ji'i^^1SSSSSnfi^.Si^^  ^th  the  text  of  St.  Augustine  chiefly  in  the  mt«^ 

W.  H.  Grattan-Flood.  o^  rhythmic  prose.    Canons  9,  14,  15,  16,  18  of  the 

second  Council  of  Orange  were  taken  from  tentencea 

Prosper  of  Aquitiine,  Tiro.— The  first  sure  date  22,  222,  226,  160,  297.   The  epigrams  are  a  number 

in  the  life  of  Prosper  is  that  of  his  letter  to  St.  Angus-  of  the  sentences  turned  into  verse.    Both  these  works 

tine  written  under  the  following  circumstances.    In  must  have  been  composed  about  the  time  of  the  Coun- 

428  or  429  a  certain  Hilaiy  wrote  to  St.  Augustine  in  cil  of  Chalcedon,  and  probably,  therefore,  in  Rome, 

reference  to  difficulties  raised  agidnst  his  doctrine  in  whither  Prosper  was  summoned  about  a.  d.  440  by 

Marseilles  and  the  neighbourhood.    Hilary  distrusted  Leo  the  Great.    According  to  Gennadius  (De  vir.  iM., 

his  own  ability  to  give  St.  Augustine  a  proper  grasp  84),  he  was  said  to  have  drawn  up  the  letters  written 

of  the  situation,  so  he  prevcdled  with  a  friend  whom  by  this  pope  against  Eutyches. 

he  described  as  a  man  distinguished  ium  moribus,  turn  *The  "Chromcle"  of  Prosper,  from  the  creation  to 

doquio  el  studio  (for  morals,  eloquence  and  zeal)  to  a.  d.  378,  was  an  abridgment  of  St.  Jerome's,  with, 

write  also.    Tins  friend  was  Prosper  who,  though  he  however,  some  additional  matter,  e.  g.  the  consuls 

had  never  met  St.  Augustine,  had  corresponded  with  for  each  year  from  the  date  of  the  Passion.    There 

him.    The  two  letters  were  despatched  at  the  same  seem  to  have  been  three  editions:  the  first  continued 

time,  and  may  be  said  to  have  opened  the  semi-  up  to  433,  the  second  to  445.  the  third  to  455.    This 

Pelagian  controversy.    St.  Augustine  replied  to  the  chronicle  is  sometimes  called  the  '^  Consular  Chron- 

app^  made  to  him  with  the  two  treatises,  "  De  Prss-  icle  ",  to  distinguish  it  from  another  ascribed  to  F^x)sper 

destinatione''  and  ''De  Dono  Perseverantiee. "     It  where  the  years  are  reckoned  according  to  the  regnal 

was  about  this  time  that  Prosper  wrote  what  was  years  of  the  emperors  apd  which  is  accordingly  called 

really  a  short  "treatise  on  grace  and  free  will,  under  the  the  "  Imperial  Chronicle".    This  is  certainly  not  the 

form  of  a  letter  to  a  certain  Rufinus,  and  his  great  work  of  Prosper.  It  was  compiled  by  a  man  whose  sym- 

dogmatic  poem  of  over  a  thousand  hexameter  fines,  pathies  were  not  with  St.  Augustine,  and  who  was  for- 

"De  Ingratis",  on  the  semi-Pelagians,   who  were  merly  supposed  to  be  Tiro  Prosper  and  not  Prosper 

enemies  of  grace  and  are  represented  as  reviving  the  of  Aquitame,  but  this  theory  has  broken  down,  for 

errors  of  Pdagianism.    Two  epigrams  of  twelve  and  Prosper  of  Aquitainc  in  some  MSS.  of  the  "Consular 

fourteen  lines  respectively  against  an  "obtrectator"  Chronicle"  is  called  Tiro  Prosper.   With  regard  to  the 

of  St.  Augustine  seem  also  to  have  been  composed  in  writings  of  Prosper  not  yet  mentioned,  Valentin  pro- 

the  lifetime  of  the  saint.    Three  opuscules  belong  to  nounces  the  poem  "De  providentia"  to  be  genume; 

the  time  immediately  after  the  death  of  St.  Augustine  the  "Confessio  S.   Prosperi",   and   "De  vocatione 

(430);    (1)  "Responsiones  ad  c^itula  Gallorum".  gentium"  to  be  probably  genuine;  the  "Epistola  ad 

These  capitula  were  a  series  of  nfteen  propositions  Demetriadem",  the  "Pneteritorum  sedis  Apostolical 

attributed  to  St.  Augustine  by  his  opponents,  e.  g.  auctoritates  de  Gratia  Dei,  etc."  appended  to  the 

"the  Saviour  was  not  crucified  for  the  whole  world.^'  Epistle  of  St.  Celestine,  and  the  "Poema  mariti  ad 

To  each  Prosper  appended  a  brief  responsio^  and  con-  conjugem"  to  be  very  likely  genuine.    The  "De  vita 

eluded  the  treatise  with  fifteen  corresponding  sevi^  oontemplativa"  and  "De  promissionibus  etc."  are 

tenticBf  setting  forth  what  he  held  to  be  the  true  doo-  not  by  Prosper,  according  to  Valentin  and*  Hauck. 

trine.    (2)  "Ad  capitula  objectionumVincentianarum  Hauck   agrees  with   Valentin   with  regard  to  the 

responsiones".    Tne  Vincentian  objections  were  like  "Poema  mariti  "and  the  "Confessio",  but  pronounces 

the  "capitula  Gallorum",  but  more  violent,  and  they  against  the  "De  vocatione",  the  "lie  providentia", 

attacked  Prosper  as  well  as  St.  Augustine.    Prosper  and  on  the  other  doubtful  works  expresses  no  view, 

replied  to  them  one  by  one.    The  Vincent  who  drew  The  story  that  Prosper  was  Bisnop  of  Reggio  in 

them  up  was  probably  Vincent  of  Lerins  (Harden-  Italy  was  exploded  by  Sirmondi  and  others  in  the 

hewer,  Hauck,  Valentin),  but  some  writers  have  con-  seventeenth  century.    For  the  origin  of  this  legend 

tested  this  point.    (3)  "Pro  Augustino  responsiones  see  Dom  Morin  in  "R6vue  b^n^ctine",  XII,  241 

ad  excerpta  Genuensium".    This  is  an  explanation  of  sqq.     Prosper  was  neither  bishop  nor  priest.    The 

certain  passages  in  St.  Augustine's  treatises,  "De  question  whether  he  mitigated  the  severity  of  St. 

praedest"  and  "De  dono  persev.",  which  presented  Augustine's  doctrine  has  been  much  debated.    The 

difficulties  to  some  priests   at   Genoa  who   asked  difference  of  opinion  probably  arises  more  from  differ- 

Prosper  for  an  explanation  of  them.     These  three  ent  views  regarding  St.  Augustine's  doctrine  than 

opuscula  are  placed  by  Bardenhewer  after  Prosper's  from  different  interpretations  of  Prosper's.    The  gen- 

visit  to  Rome.  eral  trend  of  opinion  among  Catholic  writers  seems  to 

In  431  Prosper  and  a  friend  went  to  Rome  to  invoke  be  in  favour  of  the  affirmative  view,  e.  g.  Knius, 

the  aid  of  St.  Celestine.   The  pope  responded  with  the  Funk,  Bardenhewer,  Valentin,  and  others, 

letter   "  ApostoHci  Verba",  addressed  to  the  bishops  VAL«imN.  Saim  ProMper  d'Atuitaine  (Toulou«i.  1900);  Bab- 

of  Gaul,  in  which  he  blamed  their  remissness  with  re-  dsnrbwer,  Patrologie.    The  bwt  edition  of  Prosper  is  the  one 

gard  to  the  enemies  of  grace,  and  eulogized  St.  AugU»-  Ftf^j^^i^^y  **»?  Benedictines  L«  Bkun  and  Manoibaot  (Paris, 

♦inn      On  rofiii^inir  trT riniil    Vrnsinar  utrnin  fonlr  iin  i'^^';.   M»ny  of  the  more  important  works  4re  moluded  m  the 

tine.     Un  returning  to  Uaul,  l^OSper  again  took  up  Benedictine  edition  of  St.  Augustinb.    The  DeingralU  and  aome 

the   controversy   in    his       De   Uratia    Dei   et   llbero  other  treatises  are  contained  in  Hurtbb,  55.  Pa<r.  opMC.    MoMM- 


P&OTA8IU8 


488 


PBOTIGTOBATI 


BBN  publiBhed  a  critical  edition  of  the  Chr^ieU  in  Mon.  Germ, 
H%it,»  IX  (Berlin,  1802).  Prosper  was  a  favourite  at  Port-Rcoral. 
Sact  pttbhohed  a  verm  traiuuatioii  of  the  De  ini/raiu  in  1646, 
a  proee  translation  in  1650.  Another  proae  translation  was  pub- 
lianed  by  Lbqueux  in  1761,  who  also  translated  some  of  the  other 
works.    Valbntin,  S.  Prosper  d^AquUaine  Q'oulouae,  1900). 

F.  J.  Bacchus.. 

PrbtaBiuB,  Saint.  See  Gbbvasiub  and  Pbota- 
BiUB,  Saints. 

Protectorate  oi  lliaBioiui,  the  right  of  proteotioii 
exercised  by  a  Christian  power  in  an  infidel  oouiitiy 
with  regard  to  the  persons  and  establishments  of  the 
missionaries.  The  term  does  not  apply  to  all  protec- 
tion of  missions,  but  only  to  that  permanently  exer- 
cised in  virtue  of  an  acquired  right,  usually  established 
by  a  treaty  or  convention  (either  explicit  or  tacit), 
volimtarily  consented  to  or  accepted  after  more  or  less 
compulsion  by  the  infidel  power.  The  object  of  the 
protectorate  may  be  more  or  less  extensive,  according 
as  it  embraces  only  the  missionaries  who  are  subjects 
of  the  protecting  power,  or  ai)p]ies  to  the  missionaries 
of^all  nations  or  even  to  their  neophytes,  the  native 
Christians.  To  comprehend  fully  the  nature  of  the 
protectorate  of  missions^  as  it  has  been  in  times  past 
and  as  it  is  to-day,  it  will  be  necessary  to  study  sep- 
arately the  Protectorate  of  the  Levant  and  that  of  the 
Far  East. 

Pbotectoratb  of  the  Levant. — ^This  comprises 
the  missions  of  the  countries  under  Turkish  rule, 
especially  Constantinople,  the  Archipelago,  Syria, 
Peuestine,  Egypt,  Barbary,  etc.  It  is  French  in  ongin, 
and  was,  unm  near  the  end  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
tihe  almost  exclusive  privilege  of  France.  It  was  in- 
augurated in  the  Holy  Land  by  Charlemagne,  who 
secured  from  the  celebrated  Caliph  Haroun  al-Raschid 
a  sort  of  share  in  his  sovereignty  over  the  Holy  Places 
of  Jerusalem.  Charlemagne  and  his  successors  made 
use  of  this  concession  to  make  pious  and  charitable 
foundations  in  the  Holy  City,  to  protect  the  Christian 
inhabitants  and  pilgrims,  and  to  insure  the  perpetuity 
of  Christian  worship.  The  destruction  of  the  Arabian 
Empire  by  the  Turks  put  an  end  to  this  first  pro- 
tectorate, but  the  persecutions  to  which  the  new 
Mussulman  masters  of  Jerusalem  subjected  pious 
visitors  and  the  clergy  in  charge  of  tne  Holy  Sepulchre 
brought  about  the  Crusades,  as  a  result  of  which 
Palestine  was  conquered  from  the  infidels  and  became 
a  French  kingdom.  The  Christian  rule  was  later  re- 
placed by  that  of  Islam,  but  during  the  three  centuries 
of  Crusades,  which  had  been  undertaken  and  sup- 
ported mainly  by  France,  the  Christians  of  the  East 
nad  grown  accustomed  to  look  to  that  country  for 
assistance  in  oppression,  and  the  oppressors  had 
learned  to  esteem  and  fear  the  valour  of  its  warriors. 
In  these  facts  we  find  the  germ  of  the  modem  Pro- 
tectorate of  the  Levant. 

The  Capitvlations, — The  protectorate  began  to 
assume  a  contractual  form  in  the  sixteenth  century, 
in  the  treaties  concluded  between  the  kings  of  France 
and  the  sultans  of  Constantinople,  which  are  histori- 
cfldly  known  as  Capitulations.  At  first  this  name  des- 
ignated the  commercial  agreement  conceded  by  the 
Porte  to  Latin  merchants  (first  to  the  Italians),  and 
arose  froin  the  fact  that  the  articles  of  these  agree- 
ments were  called  Capitoli  in  the  Italian  redaction: 
the  term  has  not,  therefore,  the  same  meaning^  as  in 
military  parlance.  Francis  I  was  the  first  king  of 
France  wno  sought  an  alliance  with  Turkey.  To 
this  he  was  urgecC  not  by  the  spirit  of  the  Crusaders, 
but  entirely  by  the  desire  to  break  in  Europe  the 
dominating  power  of  the  House  of  Austria.  By  com- 
pelling Austria  to  spend  its  forces  in  defence  against 
the  Turks  in  the  East,  he  hoped  to  weaken  it  and  ren- 
der it  unable  to  increase  or  even  to  maintun  its  power 
in  the  West.  His  successors  down  to  Louis  XV  fol- 
lowed the  same  policy,  which,  whatever  criticism  it 
merits,  was  as  a  matter  of  fact  favourable  to  Chris- 


tianity in  the  Levant.  The  French  kings  sought, 
by  their  zeal  in  defending  Christian  interests  a,t  the 
Portef  to  extenuate  their  alliance  with  infidels,  whidi 
was  a  source  of  scandal  even  in  France.  As  early  as 
1528,  Francis  I  had  appealed  to  Solyman  II  to  restore 
to  the  Christians  of  Jerusalem  a  church  which  the 
Turks  had  converted  into  a  mosque.  The  sultan 
refused  on  the  plea  that  nis  religion  would  not  permit 
alteration  of  the  purpose  of  a  mosque,  but  he  prom- 
ised to  maintain  tne  Christians'in  possession  of  all  the 
other  places  occupied  by  them  and  to  defend  them 
against  all  oppression.  However,  religion  was  not 
the  object  of  a  formal  convention  between  France  and 
Turkey  prior  to  1604,  when  Henry  IV  secured  from 
Ahmed  I  the  insertion,  in  the  capitulations  of  2M)  May. 
of  two  clauses  relative  to  the  protection  of  pilgrims  ana 
of  the  reUgious  in  charge  of  the  church  of  the  Holy 
Sepulchre.  The  following  are  the  clauses,  which 
form  articles  IV  and  V  of  the  treaty:  "IV.  We  also 
desire  atid  command  that  the  subjects  of  the  said 
Emperor  of  France,  and  those  of  the  princes  who  are 
his  friends  and  allies,  may  be  free  to  visit  the  Holy 
Places  of  Jerusalem,  and  no  one  shall  attempt  to  pre- 
vent them  nor  do  them  injury";  "V.  Moreover,  for 
the  honour  and  friendship  of  this  Emperor,  we  desire 
that  the  religious  Uving  in  Jerusalem  and  serving  the 
church  of  Comane  [the  Kesurrection]  may  dwell  there, 
come  and  go  without  let  or  hindrance,  and  be  well 
received,  protected,  assisted,  and  helped  in  consider- 
ation of  the  above. 

It  is  noteworthy  that  the  same  advantages  are  stip- 
ulated for  the  French  and  for  the  friends  and  allies  of 
France,  but  for  the  latter  in  consideration  of,  and  at 
the  recommendation  of,  France.  The  fortunate  result 
of  this  friendship  was  the  devdopment  of  the  missions, 
which  began  to  flourish  through  the  assistance  of 
Henry  IV  and  Louis  XIII  and  throush  the  zeal  of  the 
French  missionaries.  Before  the  middle  of  the  seven- 
teenth century  religious  of.  various  orders  (Capuchin, 
Carmelite,  Dominican,  Franciscan,  and  Jesuit)  were 
established,  as  chaplsdns  of  the  French  ambassadors 
and  consuls,  in  the  chi^  cities  of  the  Levant  (Con- 
stantinople, Alexandria,  Smyrna,  Aleppo,  Damascus, 
etc.),  Lebanon,  and  the  islands  of  tne  Archipelago. 
Here  they  assembled  the  Catholics  to  instruct  and 
confirm  them  in  the  Faith,  opened  schools  to  which 
flocked  the  children  of  all  rites,  reheved  the  spiritual 
and  corporal  miseries  of  the  Christians  lansuisning  in 
the  frightful  Turkish  prisoiis,  and  nursed  the  pest- 
stricken,  which  last  office  frequently  made  them  mar- 
tyrs of  charity.  During  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV  the 
missionaries  multiplied  and  extended  the  field  of  their 
activities.  This  monarch  gave  them  at  once  a  ma- 
terial and  a  moral  support,  which  the  prestige  of  his 
victories  and  conquests  rendered  irresistible  at  the 
Porte.  Thanks  to  him,  the  often  precarious  tolerance, 
on  which  the  existence  of  the  missions  had  previously 
depended,  was  officially  recognized  in  1673,  when  on  5 
June,  Mohammed  IV  not  only  confirmed  the  earher 
capitulations  guaranteeing  the  safety  of  pilgrims  and 
the  religious  guardians  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  but 
si^ed  four  new  articles,  all  beneficial  to  the  mission- 
anes.  The  first  decrees  in  a  general  manner  'Hhat  all 
bishops  or  other  religious  of  the  Latin  sect  who  are 
subjects  of  France,  whatever  their  condition,  shall  be 
throughout  our  empire  as  they  have  been  hitherto, 
and  [may]  there  perform  their  fimctions,  and  no  one 
shall  trouble  or  hinder  them";  the  others  secure  the 
tranquil  possession  of  their  churches,  explicitly  to  the 
Jesuits  and  Capuchins,  and  in  general  ''to  the  French 
at  Smyrna,  Said,  Alexandria,  and  in  all  other  ports  of 
the  Ottoman  Empire". 

Thevreign  of  Louis  XIV  marked  the  apogee  of  the 
French  Protectorate  in  the  East,  for  not  only  the  Latin 
missionaries  of  all  nationalities,  but  also  the  heads 
of  all  Catholic  communities,  regardless  of  rite  or  na- 
tionality, appealed  to  the  Grand  Roif  and,  at  the 


P&OTECTOBATE 


489 


PBOTECTOBATE 


reoommendation  of  his  ambassadors  and  consuls  to 
the  Porte  and  the  pashas,  obtained  justice  and  proteo- 
lion  from  their  enemies.  Though  the  missionaries 
were  sometimes  on  such  amicable  terms  with  the  non- 
Catholic  der^  that  the  latter  authorized  them  to 
preach  in  their  churches,  they  usually  experienced  a 
lively  hostility  from  that  quarter.  On  several  occa- 
sions the  Gi^bek  and  Armenian  schismatical  patri- 
archs, displeased  at  seeing  a  great  portion  of  their 
flocks  abandon  them  for  the  Roman  priests,  on  various 
pretexts  persuaded  the  Turkish  Government  to  forbid 
all  propf«andism  by  the  latter.  The  representatives 
of  Louis  XIV  succeasfully  opposed  this  ill-will.  At  the 
befldnning  of  the  reign  of  Louis  XV  the  preponderance 
of  Fuench  influence  with  the  Porte  was  also  manifested  in 
the  authority  granted  the  Franciscans,  who  wereprot^ 
g6s  of  France,  to  repair  the  dome  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre : 
this  meant  the  recognition  of  their  right  of  proprietor- 
ship in  the  Holy  Sepulchre  as  superior  to  the  chums  of 
the  Greeks  and  the  Armenians.  In  1723  the  schismat- 
ical patriarchs  succeeded  in  obtaining  from  the  Sultan 
a  ''command^'  forbidding  his  Christian  subjects  to 
embrace  the  Roman  reU^on,  and  the  Latin  religious 
to  hold  any  communication  with  the  Greeks,  .^me- 
nians,  and  Syrians,  on  the  pretext  of  instructing  them. 
For  a  long  time  PYench  diplomacy  sought  in  vain  to 
have  this  disastrous  measure  revoked.  At  last,  as  a 
reward  for  the  services  rendered  to  Turkey  during  its 
wars  with  Russia  and  Austria  (1736-9),  the  French 
succeeded  in  1740  in  securing  the  renewal  of  the  capitu- 
lations, with  additions  which  expUcitly  confirmea  the 
right  of  the  French  Protectorate,  and  at' least  implic- 
itly guaranteed  the  liberty  of  the  Catholic  apostotate. 
By  the  eighty-seventh  of  the  articles  signed,  28  May, 
1740,  Sultan  Mahmud  declares:  ".  .  .  The  bishops 
and  religious  subject  to'  the  Emperor  of  France  living 
in  my  empire  shall  be  protected  while  they  confine 
themselves  to  the  exercise  of  their  office,  and  no  one 
may  prevent  them  from  practising  their  rite  according 
to  their  custom  in  the  churches  in  their  possession,  as 
well  as  in  the  other  places  they  inhabit;  and,  when  our 
tributary  subjects  and  the  French  hold  intercourse  for 
purposes  of  selling,  buying,  and  other  business,  no  one 
may  molest  them  for  this  sake  in  violation  of  the  sa- 
cred laws."  In  subsequent  treaties  between  France 
and  Turkey  the  capitulations  are  not  repeated  verba- 
tim, but  they  are  recalled  and  confirmed  (e.  g.  in  18^ 
and  1838).  The  various  regimes  which  succeeded  the 
monarchy  of  St.  Louis  and  of  Louis  XIV  all  maintained 
in  law,  and  in  fact,  the  ancient  privilege  of  France  in 
the  protection  of  the  missionaries  and  Christian  com- 
munities of  the  Orient.  The  expedition  in  1860  sent 
by  Napoleon  III  to  put  a  stop  to  the  massacre  of  the 
Maronites  was  in  harmony  with  the  ancient  r61e  of 
France,  and  would  have  been  more  so  if  its  work  of 
justice  had  been  more  complete.  The  decline  in  re- 
cent years  of  the  French  Protectorate  in  the  Levant 
will  be  treated  below. 

Pbotbctorate  of  the  Far  East. — Portugitese  Pai- 
ronage. — In  the  Far  East — this  refers  especially  to 
China — ^there  was  not,  prior  to  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury, any  protectorate  properly  so  called  or  based  on  a 
treaty,  what  is  sometimes  called  the  ''Portuguese 
^  Protectorate  of  Missions''  was  only  the  ''Portugese 
Patronaee"  (Padroado),  This  was  the  privilege, 
granted  oy  the  popes  to  the  Crown  of  Portugal,  or 
designating  canoidates  for  the  sees  and  ecclesiastical 
bend^ces  in  the  vast  domains  acquired  throu^  the  ex- 
peditions of  its  navigators  and  captains  in  Africa  and 
the  East  Indies.  This  concession,  which  brought  to  the 
King  of  Portugal  a  certain  portion  of  the  ecclesiastical 
revenues  of  his  kingdom,  carried  the  condition  that  he 
should  send  good  missionaries  to  his  new  subjects,  and 
that  he  should  provide  with  a  fitting  endowment  such 
dioce8e8^arishes,and  religious  establishments  as  should 
be  established  in  his  acquired  territories.  At  first  Por- 
tugal's zeal  and  generosity  for  the  spread  of  Christian- 


ity corresponded  to  the  liberality  of  the  sovereign  pon- 
tiffs manifested  in  the  grant  of  the  padroado;  but  in 
the  course  of  time  this  patronage  became  the  source  of 
most  unpleasant  annoyances  to  the  Holy  See  and  one 
of  the  chief  obstacles  to  the  progress  of  the  missions. 
The  main  cause  of  this  regrettable  change  was  the 
failure  of  Portugal  to  observe  the  conditions  agreed 
upon  at  the  time  of  the  bestowal  of  the  privilege:  an- 
other reason  was  the  disagreement  between  Portugal 
and  the  Holy  See  with  regard  to  the  extent  of  the 
patronage,  for,  while  Rome  maintained  that  it  had 
never  ^pmted  the  privilege  except /or  really  conquered 
countnes,  Lisbon  claimed  the  right  for  all  tiie  coun- 
tries designated  by  the  famous  demarcation  of  Alex- 
ander VI  as  future  possessions  of  Portugal.  In  virtue  of 
thia  interpretation  the  Portuguese  Government  vio- 
lently contested  the  papal  right  to  appoint,  without 
its  consent,  missionaiy  bishops  or  vicars  ApostoUc  in 
countries  which  were  never  subject  to  its  dominion, 
such  as  the  greater  part  of  India,  Tong-king,  Cochin- 
China,  Slam,  and  especially  China.  In  the  vast  Chi- 
nese empire,  where  Portugal  had  never  possessed  more 
than  Macao,  the  popes  consented  to  end  the  strife  by  a 
sort  of  compromise.  Besides  the  See  of  Macao  they 
created  in  tne  two  chief  cities,  Peking  and  Nankins, 
bishoprics  in  the  appointment  of  the  King  of  Portugal, 
to  wmch  were  assigned  five  of  the  Chinese  provinces; 
the  other  provinces  were  left  to  the  vicars  Apostolic 
named  personally  by  the  pope.  This  system  lasted 
from  1696  to  1856,  when  Pius  IX  suppre^ed  the  titles 
of  the  sees  of  Peking  and  Nanking;  Uienceforth  all  the 
Christian  settlements  of  China  were  administered 
only  b^  yicars  ApostoUc. 

Passing  over  the  quarrels  regarding  the  padroado,  we 
must  confess  that  the  missions  of  the  East  owe  much 
to  the  munificence  of  the  kings  of  Portugal,  although 
these  were  never  accepted  by  the  infidel  sovereigns  as 
the  official  protectors  of  the  missionaries,  much  less  of 
the  native  Christians.  Portugal  strove  to  play  this 
honourable  r61e  in  China,  especiidly  b^  dispatching 
formal  embassies  to  Peking  during  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, for,  besides  their  ostensible  instructions,  the  am- 
bassadors received  orders  to  intervene  as  much  as  possi- 
ble in  behalf  of  the  missionaries  and  native  Christians, 
who  were  then  b^ing  cruellv  persecuted  in  the  prov- 
inces. The  first  of  these  embassies  (1727)  almost  had 
a  disastrous  ending,  when  the  Portuguese  envoy,  Dom 
Metello  de  Sousa.  petitioned  the  Emperor  Yimg-ching 
to  recognize  the  liberty  of  Christian  preaching;  the  sec- 
ond (1753)  avoided  a  similar  danger  by  maintidning 
silence  on  this  critical  point.  It  is  only  just  to  add  that 
these  embassies,  having  flattered  Chinese  vanity,  pro- 
cured for  the  mission  a  measure  of  respite  from,  or 
moderation  of,  the  persecution.  Later,  by  expelling 
the  Jesuits  and  other  religious  societies  whicn  had 
established  for  it  such  successful  missions,  Portugal 
excluded  itself  from  subsequently  occupying  any  posi- 
tion in  a  sphere  in  which  it  had  earlier  been  foremost, 
and  by  its  own  act  destroyed  the  basis  of  its  patronage 
and  its  protectorate,  such  as  it  was. 

French  Protectorate  in  China. — The  protectorate  still 
exercised  by  France  over  the  missions  in  the  Chinese 
Empire  dates,  as  far  as  a  regular  convention  is  con- 
cerned, only  from  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
turjr,  but  the  way  was  prepared  bv  the  protection 
which  French  statesmen  had  accorded  the  mission- 
aries for  almost  two  centuries.  The  zeal  and  liberality 
of  Louis  XIV  permitted  the  foundation  of  the  great 
French  Jesuit  mission,  which  in  less  than  fifteen  years 
(1687-1701)  more  than  doubled  the  number  of  apos- 
tolic workers  in  China,  and  which  never  ceased  to  pro- 
duce most  capable  workers.  The  first  official  relations 
were  formed  between  France  and  China  when  the  mis- 
sionaries brought  thither  bv  the  ''Amphitrite",  the 
first  French  vessel  seen  in  Chinese  waters  (1699),  pre- 
sented gifts  from  Louis  XIV  to  Emperor  K'ang-hi. 
The  two  monarchs  shared  the  expense  of  erecting  the 


PROTECTORATE  490         PROTECTORATE 

first  French  church  at  Peking:  the  emperor  donated  whom  from  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  a 
tl\B  ground,  within  the  limits  of  the  imperial  city,  and  revival  of  Apostolic  zeal  drew  from  all  countries  to 
the  building  materials,  while  the  French  king  supplied  China.  From  them  the  passports  necessary  to  pene- 
the  money  to  pay  for  the  labour,  the  decoration,  and  trate  into  the  interior  of  the  coimtry  were  regularly « 
the  magnificent  liturgica]  ornaments.  Several  other  sought,  and  to  them  were  addressed  complaints  and 
chiux:hes  erected  in  the  provinces  through  the  mimifi-  claims,  which  it  was  their  duty  to  lay  before  the 
cence  of  Louis  XIV  increased  the  prestige  of  France  Chinese  Government.  The  French  ministers  aJso 
throuf^out  the  empire.  Under  Louis  XV  the  mission  secured,  not  without  difficulty,  the  necessary  additions 
in  China,  like  many  other  things,  was  somewhat  over-  to  the  Treatv  of  T'ien-tsin — such,  for  instance,  a^  the 
looked,  but  the  government  did  not  wholly  neglect  it.  Berthemy  Convention  (1865)  with  the  Gerard  addi- 
It  foimd  a  zealous  protector  in  Louis  XVrs  minister,  tion  (1805),  regulating  the  important  question  of  the 
Bertin,  but  it  felt  keenly  l^he  suppression  of  the  Soci-  purchase  of  lands  and  buildings  in  the  mterior. 
ety  of  Jesus  and  the  French  Revolution  with  all  its  Rivals  of  the  French  Protecloraie,  — The  foregoing 
consequences,  which  dried  up  the  source  of  the  apos-  historical  sketch  shows  that  the  ancient  French  right 
tolate  m  Europe.  It  was  a  handful  of  French  mission-  of  protection  over  the  missions,  in  both  Turkey  and 
aries  (Lazarists  or  members  of  the  Society  of  Foreign  China,  was  established  as  much  by  constant  exercise 
Missions),  assisted  by  some  Chinese  priests,  who  pre-  and  by  services  rendered  as  by  treaties.  Further- 
served  the  Faith  throughout  the  persecutions  of  the>  more,  it  was  based  on  the  fundamental  right  of  the 
early  nineteenth  century,  during  which  several  of  Church,  derived  from  God  Himself,  to  preach  the 
them  were  martyred.  Grospel  everywhere  and  to  receive  from  Christian 
Treaties  of  T*ienrl9in. — ^When  the  English,  after  the  powers  the  assistance  necessary  to  enable  her  to  per- 
so-called  Opium  War.  imposed  on  China  the  Treaty  form  her  task  untrammelled.  The  desire  to  further 
of  Nanking  (1842),  tney  did  not  at  first  ask  for  re-  the  Church's  mission,  which  always  guided  the  French 
ligious  liberty,  but  the  murder  of  the  Lazarist  John  monarchs  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  does  not  infiu- 
Gabriel  Perboyre  (11  Sept.,  1840)  becoming  known,  ence  the  present  government.  The  latter  endeavours, 
they  added  an  article  stipulating  that  thenceforth  a  however,  to  preserve  the  prerogative  of  its  predeces- 
missionary  taken  in  the  intenor  of  the  country  sors^  ana  continues  to  lend  protection,  though  much 
should  not  be  tried  by  the  Chinese  authorities,  but  diminished,  to  the  Catholic  missionary  underts^ngs — 
should  be  deUvered  to  the  nearest  consul  of  his  coun-  even  to  those  directed  by  religious  who  are  prosciiDed 
try.  On  24  Oct.,  1844,  Thdodose  de  Lagren6,  French  in  France  (e.  g.  it  subsidizes  the  Jesuit  schools  in 
ambassador,  secured  further  concessions  which  in-  Syria).  The  advantages  of  the  protectorate  are  too 
auipirated  a  new  era.  The  treaty  properly  so-called,  obvious  even  to  the  least  clerical  of  the  ministers  for 
which  was  signed  on  that  date  at  Wampoa  (near  them  not  to  attempt  to  retain  them,  whatever  the 
Canton),  speaks  only  of  liberty  for  the  French  to  resulting  contradictions  in  their  policy.  It  is  very 
settle  in  certain  territory  in  the  open  ports,  but,  at  the  evident  that  France  owes  to  this  protectorate  throudii- 
request  of  the  ambassador,  an  imperial  edict  was  sent  out  the  Levant  and  in  the  Far  East  a  prestige  and  a 
to  the  mandarins  and  at  least  partially  promulgated,  moral  influence  which  no  commerce  or  conquest  could 
which  praised  the  Christian  reli^on  and  removed  the  ever  have  given  her.  Thanks  to  the  protectorate,  the 
prohibition  for  Chinese  to  practise  it.  However,  the  treasures  of  respect,  gratitude,  and  affection  won  by 
murder  of  the  missionary  Chapdeleine  (1856)  and  the  Catholic  missionaries  have  to  a  certain  extent 
other  facts  showed  the  insufficiency  of  the  guarantees  become  the  property  of  France;  and,  if  the  French 
accorded  to  Europeans;  to  obtain  others,  England  and  entertained  doubts  as  to  the  utility  of  this  time- 
France  had  recourse  to  arms.  The  war  (1858-60),  honoured  privilege  (a  few  anti-clericals  attempt  to 
which  showed  China  its  weakness,  was  ended  by  the  obscure  the  evidence  on  this  point),  the  efforts  of 
treaties  of  T'ien-tsin  (24-25  Oct.,  1860).  They  con-  rival  nations  to  secure  a  share  of  it  would  prove 
tained  an  article  which  stipulated  freedom  for  the  enlightening.  These  efforts  have  been  frequent,  es- 
missionaries  to  preach  and  for  the  Chinese  to  embrace  pecially  since  1870,  and  have  been  to  a  large  extent 
Christianity.     This  article  was  included  in  the  treaties  successful. 

which  other  powers  a  little  later  concluded  with  China.  As  early  as  1875,  at  the  time  of  the  negoti- 
To  the  treaty  with  France  was  also  added  a  supple-  ations  between  France  and  Egypt  with  regard  to  ju- 
mentary  article,  which  reads  as  follows: ''An  imperial  diciary  reform,  the  German  (jovemment  declared 
edict  conformable  to  the  iinperial  edict  of  20  Feb.,  ''that  it  reco^zed  no  exclusive  right  of  protection 
1846  [that  secured  by  M.  de  Lagren6j,  will  inform  the  of  any  power  in  behalf  of  Catholic  establic&ments  in 
people  of  the  whole  empire  that  soldiers  and  civilians  the  East,  and  that  it  reserved  its  rights  with  regard  to 
De  permitted  to  propagate  and  practise  the  religion  German  subjects  belonging  to  any  of  these  establish- 
of  the  Lord  of  Heaven  [Catholic],  to  assemble  for  ments.''  In  Germany  and  Italy  a  paragraph  of 
explanation  of  doctrine,  to  build  churches  wherein  article  sixty-two  of  the  Treaty  of  Berhn,  whicn  had 
to  celebrate  their  ceremonies.  Those  [the  man-  been  signed  by  all  the  European  powers  in  1878,  was 
darins]  who  henceforth  make  searches  or  arbitrary  used  as  a  weapon  against  the  exclusive  protectorate  of 
arrests  must  be  punished.  Furthermore,  the  temples  France:  "Ecclesiastics^  pilgrims,  and  monks  of  all 
of  the  Lord  of  Heaven,  together  with  the  schools,  nationalities  travelling  m  Turkey  in  Europe  or  Turkey 
cemeteries^  lands,  builaings  etc.,  which  were  con-  in  Asia  shall  enjoy  the  same  rights,  advantages,  and 
fiscated  formerly  when  the  followers  of  the  religion  of  privileges.  The  official  right  of  protection  of  the 
the  Lord  of  Heaven  were  persecuted,  shall  be  either  diplomatic  and  consular  agents  of  the  Powers  in  Tur- 
restored  or  compensated  for.  Restoration  is  to  be  key  is  recognized,  with  regard  both  to  the  above-men- 
made  to  the  French  ambassador  residing  at  Peking,  tioned  persons  and  to  their  religious,  charitable,  and 
who  will  transfer  the  property  to  the  Christians  of  the  other  establishments  in  the  Holy  Places  and  elsewhere." 
locaUties  concerned.  In  all  the  provinces  also  the  The  passage  immediately  following  this  paragraph  in 
missionaries  shall  be  permitted  to  rent  or  purchase  the  article  was  overlooked:  "The  acquired  nghts  of 
lands  and  erect  buildings  at  will".  The  general  and  France  are  explicitly  reserved,  and  there  shall  be  no 
exclusive  right  of  protection  (granted  to  the  French  interference  with  the  statu  quo  in  the  Holy  Places." 
over  idl  the  Cathouc  missions  in  China  could  not  be  Thus  the  protection  guaranteed  to  all  ecclesiastics, 
more  explicitly  recognized  than  it  was  by  this  agree-  etc.,  no  matter  what  their  nationality  or  religion,  as 
ment,  which  made  the  French  ambassador  the  indis-  well  as  the  generally  recognized  right  of  all  the  powers 
pensable  intermediary  in  the  matter  of  all  restitutions,  to  watch  over  this  protection,  should  be  understood 
And  the  representatives  of  France  never  ceased  to  with  the  reservation  of  the  "acquired  rights"  of 
make  full  use  of  this  right  in  favour  of  the  missionaries,  France  i.  e.  of  its  ancient  protectorate  in  behalf  of 


PROTEGTOBATE  491  PROTECTORATE 

Catholics.    This  protectorate  is,  therefore,  really  con-  arte  warned  that,  if  they  have  need  of  any  help,  they 

firmed  by  the  Treaty  of  Berlin.  are  to  have  recourse  to  the  consuls  and  other  minis- 

But,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  the  influence  of  Russia,  ters  of  France." 
which  has  assumed  the  protectorate  of  Christians  of  The  Protectorate  and  the  Holt  See.— The  in- 
the  Greek  Rite,  has  already  greatly  aftected  the  stand-  stance  just  mentioned  was  not  the  only  occasion  on 
ing  which  the  ancient  French  Protectorate  had  assured  which  the  Holy  See  undertook  the  defence  of  the 
to  Catholics  in  Palestine  and  e^ecially  in  Jerusalem.  French  Protectorate.  Whenever  missionaries  sought 
Moreover,  Emperor  William  II  of  Germany  has  in-  protection  other  than  that  of  France,  French  diplo- 
stfiJled  Protestantism  with  a  magnificent  church  be-  macy  complained  to  Rome,  and  the  Propaganda  was 
side  the  Holy  Sepulchre  (1898).  As  a  sort  of  com-  always  careful  to  reprimand  the  missionanes  and  to 
pensation  he  has  indeed  ceded  to  German  Catholics  remind  them  that  it  appertained  to  France  alone 
the  site  of  the  Dormition  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  which  to  protect  them  against  infidel  powers.  Two  such  in- 
he  obtained  from  the  sultan;  here  a  church  and  a  stances,  relating  to  the  years  1744  and  1844  and 
monastery  have  been  erected  and,  together  with  the  selected  from  many  others,  are  cited  by  the  author  of 
other  German  establishments,  have  been  placed  under  the  study  of  the  French  Protectorate  m  the  "Civiltii 
the  protection  of  the  German  Empire,  without  the  Cattolica"  (5  November,  1904).  To  these  may  be 
slightest  deference  to  the  ancient  prerogative  of  added  Leo  XIII's  confirmation  of  the  Decree  of  1888 
France.  A  similar  situation  prevails  in  China.  First,  in  his  reply  to  Cardinal  Lang^nieux,  Archbishop  of 
in  1888,  Germany  obtained  from  the  Chinese  Govern-  Reims,  dated  1  August,  1898:  "France  has  a  special 
ment  that  German  passports  should  insure  the  same  mission  in  the  East  confided  to  her  by  Providence — a 
advantages  to  the  missionaries  as  those  secured  at  noble  mission  consecrated  not  alone  by  ancient  usage, 
the  French  legation.  At  the  same  time  the  German  but  also  by  inteimational  treaties,  as  has  been  recos- 
Catholic  missionaries  of  Shan-tung,  who  had  much  nized  recently  b^  Our  Congregation  of  the  Propaganoa 
to  endiure  from  the  infidels,  were  on  several  occasions  in  its  deliberation  of  22  May,  l888.  The  Holy  See 
offered  the  powerful  protection  of  the  German  Empire,  does  not  wish  to  interfere  with  the  glorious  patrimony 
Mgr  Anzer,  the  vicar  Apostelic,  decided  to  accept  it,  which  France  has  received  from  its  ancestors,  and 
after  having,  as  he  declares,  several  times  sought  un-  which  beyond  a  doubt  it  means  to  deserve  by  always 
successfully  the  aid  of  the  French  minister.  In  1896  showins  itself  equal  to  its  task.''  This  attitude  of 
the  German  ambassador  at  Peking  received  from  the  Holy  See  is  tne  best  defence  of  the  French  Pro- 
Berlin  the  command  not  only  to  support  energetically  tectorate,  and  is  in  fact  its  only  defence  against  the 
the  claims  of  the  Catholic  missionaries,  but  even  to  manoeuvres  of  its  rivals  as  r^ards  missions  not  under 
declare  that  the  German  Empire  woula  pledge  itself  the  direction  of  French  subjects.  The  latter  would 
to  defend  against  all  unjust  oppression  th^  persons  and  have  difficulty  in  resisting  the  pressing  invitations 
property  of  the  mission  of  Shan-tung,  together  with  extended  to  them  from  other  quarters,  if  the  Holy 
freedom  of  preaching,  in  the  same  measure  in  which  See  left  them  free  to  accept.  Rome  gives  still  another 
such  had  been  formerly  guaranteed  by  the  French  proof  of  respect  for  the  acquired  rights  of  France  by 
Protectorate.  The  murder  of  two  of  the  Shan-tung  refusing,  as  it  has  hitherto  done,  to  accredit  permanent 
missionaries  in  Nov.,  1897,  afforded  the  occasion  for  legates  or  ministers  to  Constantinople  and  Peking, 
a  more  solemn  affirmation  of  the  new  protectorate,  For  a  time  the  idea,  supported  by  the  official  agents  of 
while  it  furnished  a  long-sought  pretext  for  the  occu-  the  Turkish  and  Chinese  governments,  attracted 
pation  of  Kiao-chow.  Leo  XIII,  but  he  dismissed  it  at  the  instance  of  French 

Austria  had  a  better  foundation  for  claiming  a  share  diplomats,  who  represented  to  him  that  the  object 

in  the  Catholic  protectorate,  as,  in  various  treaties  was  less  to  establish  amicable  relations  between  the 

concluded  with  the  Porte  (1699,  1718,  and  1739),  it  Holy  See  and  Turkey  or  China  than  to  evade  the 

had  secured  a  rUpht  of  protection  over  "the  relirious"  tutelage  of  the.  lay  protectorate.     Pius  X  has  done 

in  the  Turkish  Empire  and  even  at  Jerusalem.    What-  nothing  to  alter  the  protectorate,  although  some  ac- 

ever  the  meaning  of  this  concession  (apparently  it  did  tion  in  this  direction  would  perhaps  have  been  but  a 

not  include  liberty  of  worship),  it  was  never  confirmed  just  reprisal  for  the  disloyal  separation, 
by  usage,  except  in  the  countries  bordering  on  Austria        Some   Objections. — The   protectorate   of   missions 

(notably   Albania   and    Macedonia).     In    1848   the  is,  however,  open  to  some  criticism  both  in  theory 

Au.strian  Protectorate  was  extended  to  the  mission  and  in  practice.    This  article  will  not  deal  with  at- 

of  the  Sudan  and  Nigritia,  which  was  in  the  care  of  tacks  based  solely  on  hatred  of  religion;  the  following 

Austrian  priests;  apparently  for  this  reason,  when  the  are  the  most  plausible  objections  which  have  influ- 

Coptic  Catholic  hierarchy  was  restored  in  Egypt  by  enced  even  friends  of  the  apostolate  to  the  extent  of 

Leo  XIII  (1895),  the  new  patriarch  and  his  suffragans  making  them  sometimes  doubtful  of  the  usefulness  of 

placed  themselves  under  the  protection  of  Austna.  the  institution,  even  for  the  missions.    The  protecto- 

Italy  also  has  been  very  active  in  seeking  to  acquire  rate,  it  is  said,  is  unwillingly  tolerated  by  the  author- 
a  protectorate  of  missions,  by  patronizins  societies  ities  of  infidel  countries;  it  embitters  the  antipathy 
for  the  assistance  of  the  missionanes  and  by  legislative  and  hatred  excited  by  the  Christians  in  those  coun- 
measures  intended  to  prove  its  benevolence  to  the  tries,  and  causes  the  missionaries,  who  rely  on  its  sup- 
Italian  missionaries  ana  persuade  them  to  accept  its  port,  to  be  insufficiently  mindful  of  the  sensibilities  of 
protection.  It  even  attempted  by  attractive  prom-  the  natives  and  on  their  guard  against  excessive  zeal, 
ises  to  win  over  the  Propaganda,  but  the  SacrecTCon-  The  modicum  of  truth  contained  in  these  objections 
gregation  discouraged  it  by  a  circular  addressed  to  shows  that  the  exercise  of  the  protectorate  requires 
the  Italian  missionaries  of  the  Levant  and  the  Far  great  wisdom  and  discretion.  Naturally,  the  infidel 
East  on  22  May,  1888.  This  not  only  forbade  the  powers  chafe  somewhat  under  it  as  a  yoke  and  an  un- 
missionaries  to  adopt  towards  official  representatives  comfortable  and  even  humiliating  servitude,  but,  so 
of  Italy  any  attitude  which  might  be  interpreted  as  long  as  they  do  not  assure  to  the  missionaries  and  their 
.favounng  the  Piedmontese  usurpations  in  Italy,  but  works  the  security  and  guarantees  of  justice  which 
once  more  affirmed  the  privilege  of  France  in  the  most  are  found  in  Christian  countries  (and  experience  has 
formal  manner:  "They  [the  missionaries]  know  that  shown  how  little  this  is  the  case  in  Turkey  and  China), 
the  Protectorate  of  the  French  Nation  in  the  countries  the  protectorate  remains  the  best  means  of  providing 
of  the  East  has  been  established  for  centuries  and  them.  But,  to  obviate  as  much  as  possible  the  odium 
sanctioned  even  by  treaties  between  the  empires,  attached  to  the  meddling  of  one  foreign  power  in  the 
Therefore,  there  must  be  absolutely  no  innovation  in  affairs  of  another,  this  intervention  is  reduced  to  what  is 
this  matter;  this  protectorate,  wherever  it  is  in  force,  absolutely  necessary .  Thesolution  of  the  delicate  prob- 
is  to  be  religiously  preserved,  and  the  missionaries  lem  lies  in  the  cordial  union  and  prudent  collaboration 


PROTECTORIES 


492 


PROTECTORIES 


of  the  agents  of  the  i)rotectorate  and  the  heads  of  the 
mission,  and  these  thin^  it  is  not  impossible  to  realize 
in  practice.  When  it  is  learned  that  the  superior  of 
the  mission  of  south-east  Chi-li  during  the  difficult 
period  from  1862  to  1884  had  recourse  to  the  French 
legation  only  three  times  and  arranged  all  other  diffi- 
culties directly  with  the  local  Chinese  authorities  (Em. 
Becker,  "Le  R.  P.  Joseph  Gonnet",  Ho-kien-fou, 
1907,  p.  275)^  it  will  be  understood  that  the  French 
Protectorate  is  not  necessarily  a  heavy  burden,  either 
for  those  who  exercise  it  or  for  those  bound  by  it. 
.The  abuses  which  may  arise  are  due  to  the  men,  not 
to  the  svstem;  for,  after  all,  the  missionaries,  though 
not  faultless,  are  most  anxious  that  it  should  not  be 
abused.  Perhaps  the  abuse  most  to  be  feared  is  that 
the  protectors  should  seek  payment  for  their  services 
by  trammelling  the  spiritual  direction  of  the  mission 
or  by  demancung  political  services  in  exchange:  a 
complete  history  of  the  protectorate  would  show,  we 
believe,  such  abuses  and  others  to  be  insignificant 
when  compared  with  the  benefits -conferred  by  this 
institution  on  religion  and  civilization. 

CoNCERNiNQ  THB  LEVANT. — CRARRiisRE,  Nigociottons  de  la 
Prance  dant  le  Levant  (4  vols.,  Paris,  1848);  ScHOPorr,  Lee  r$- 
formee  et  la  protection  dee  chrH.  en  Turquie  167S-1904t  Firmane, 
bSrate,  .  .  .  traitie  (Paris,  1904) ;  Piussii  on  Rausas.  Le  rlgime 
dee  oapUulatione  dane  V empire  tMoman  ^Paris,  1902-5),  I,  190- 
202;  n,  80-176;  Ret,  De  la  protection  dtplomatique  et  conetUaire 
dane  lee  ichdlee  du  Levant  et  de  Barbarie  (Paris,  1899);  de 
SAnrr-PiUEST,  Mimoiree  ettr  rambaeaade  de  France  en  Ttarquie 
.  .  euivie  du  texte  dee  traductione  originalee  dee  eapitukUione  et  dei 
traitie  condue  avec  la  Sublime  Porte  (Paris,  1871) ;  Charmed.  Poli- 
tioue  extirieure  et  eoloniale  (Paris,  1885),  303-84,  387-428;  Le 
rUgime  dee  oapitulatione  par  un  ancien  diplomate  (Paris,  1898); 
BuRNiCRON,  Lee  oapUulatione  €t  lee  eonffrigatione  reliffieueee  en 
Orient  in  Btudee,  LX  (1893).  55;  Pr^lot,  Le  protectorat  de  la 
France  eur  lee  chritiene  d' Orient  in  Btudee,  LXXVII  (1898).  433, 
651 ;  LXXVIII,  38.  172;  Rabbath,  Documente  inid.  pour  eervir  d 
rhiet.  du  Chrietianisme  en  Orient,  X  VI-XIX  eiide  (Paris.  1907- 
10) ;  Caraton,  Relatione  inSd.  dee  miseione  de  la  C,  de  J.  d  Con- 
etantinople  et  dane  U  Levant  au  X  VII'  eiicle  (Paris,  1864) ;  Lettree 
Sdifiantee  et  curieueee. 

CoNCERNiNQ  THB  Far  East. — CoRDiER,  Hiet.  dee  relatione  de 
la  Chine  avec  lee  puieeancee  occidenteUee  (Paris.  1901-2);  Cou- 
TRBUR,  Choiz  de  documentet  lettree  ojgHeiellee,  proclamatione.  Mite 
.  .  .  Texte  chinoie  avec  traduction  en  franfate  et  en  latin  (Ho- 
kien-fu,  1894) ;  Wiboer.  Rudimenle  de  parler  et  de  style  chinoie,  XI. 
Textee  hietoriquee  (Ho-kien-fu.  1905).  2070-38  ;  Cooordan. 
Lee  mieeione  eathol,  en  Chine  et  le  protectorat  de  la  France  in  Revue 
dee  deux  mandee,  LXXVIII  (15  December.  1886).  765-98: 
Fauvel,  Lee  AUemande  en  Chine  in  Le  Correepondant,  CXCi 
(1898),  538-58,  758-74;  Launat  in  Piolet,  Lee  mieeione  eathol, 
III,  270-75;  DB  Lanessan,  Lee  mieeione  et  Uur  protectorat  (Paris, 
1907),  written  against  the  protectorate  and  very  unfnencUy 
towards  the  missionaries. 

For  THB  PoRTuauESB  Patrgnaqe. — JoRoXo,  Buttarium 
pcUronatue  Portugallia  regum  in  eecleeiie  Africa,  Aeia  aique 
Oceani4B  (Lisbon,  1868) ;  de  Bubbierre,  Hiet.  du  echieme  partus 
gaie  dane  lee  Indee  (Paris,  1854). 

JOSBPH  BrUCKER. 

ProtectorieSi  institutions  for  the  shelter  and 
training  of  the  voung,  designed  to  afford  neglected  or 
abandoned  children  shelter,  food,  raiment,  and  the 
rudiments  of  an  education  in  religion,  morals,  science, 
and  manual  training  or  industrial  pursuits.  In- 
stitutions of  this  character  are  to  be  found  in  most  of 
the  dioceses  of  the  United  States.  They  are  usually 
open  to  the  reception  of  juvenile  delinquents,  who, 
under  the  better  ideas  now  obtaining  in  criminal  pro- 
cedure, are  committed  by  the  courts,  especially  by 
Juvenile  Courts  (q.  v.),  to  educational  rather  than  to 
penal  institutions.  San  Mich^le,  the  first  protectory 
lor  youth,  was  foimded  at  Rome  in  1704  by  Clement 
XI.  When  John  Howard,  the  English  prison  re- 
former (1726^90),  visited  the  institution,  he  read 
above  the  entrance  this  inscription:  "Clement  XI, 
Supreme  Pontiff,  for  the  reformation  and  education 
of  criminal  youtns,  to  the  end  that  those  who  when 
idle  had  been  injurious  to  the  State,  might,  when 
better  instructed  and  trained,  become  useful  to  it. 
In  the  Year  of  Grace  1704 :  of  the  Pontiff ^  the  fourth  ". 
On  a  marble  slab  inserted  in  one  of  the  interior  walls 
he  read  further:  "It  is  of  little  use  to  restrain  crimi- 
nals b^  punishment,  unless  you  reform  them  by 
education  " .   This  has  become  the  key-note  of  modem 


penology.  The  inmates  worked  together  bv  day 
m  a  large  hall  where  was  hung  up  m  large  letters, 
visible  to  all,  the  word  sUerUiumf  indicating  that  the 
work  must  go  on  in  silence.  At  night  they  slept  in 
separate  celK.  Cliis  svstem  of  associated  or  oong[re- 
gate  labour  in  silence  by  day  and  cellular  separation 
at  night,  for  which,  under  the  name  of  the  Auburn 
System,  so  much  excellence  has  been  claimed  in  Amer- 
ican penolo^,  was  thus  inaugurated  at  Rome  in  the 
beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century,  more  than  a 
hundred  years  prior  to  the  introduction  of  the  method 
into  use  here.  The  same  wise  pontiff  established  in 
connexion  with  this  foundation  of  San  Mich^le  a 
special  court  for  the  tried  of  offenders  under  twenty 
years  of  age,  a  plan  that  has  re-appeared  in  the  last 
decade  in  the  Juvenile  Courts  established  in  America 
for  the  trial  of  delinquents  under  seventeen  years  of 
age. 

Secular  protectories  or  reform  schools,  now  termed 
"training  schools'',  were  instituted  in  America  during 
the  initial  quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century.  On  1 
Jan.,  1825,  the  House  of  Refuge  was  opened  with 
appropriate  exercises  on  what  is  now  Madison  Square, 
New  York  City.  Nine  children,  just  gathered  from 
the  streets,  were  present  and  formed  uie  nucleus  of 
the  new  establishment  that  has  since  grown  to  vast 

Eroportions  in  its  present  location  on  Randall's 
9land.  Boston  followed  with  a  similar  institution 
in  1826;  Philadelphia  in  1828;  and  in  1855  a  girls' 
reformatory  was  foimded  at  Lancaster  in  Massa- 
chusetts on  the  family  or  cottage  plan,  dividing  the 
institution  into  three  separate  nouses  of  thirty  girls 
each,  with  their  three  matrons,  all  under  the  general 
supervision  of  a  superintendent.  In  1904,  according 
to  the  U.  S.  Census  Reports,  there  were  thirty-nine 
states  and  territories  with  institutions  for  juvenile 
delinquents,  and  these  had  ninety-three  institutions, 
exclusively  for  such  children,  reporting  a  population, 
between  seven  and  twentjr-one  years  of  age,  of  23,034 
as  against  14,846  population  in  such  institutions  on 
1  June,  1890.  It  is  stated  that  these  figures  do  not 
include  children  placed  in  these  institutions  by  parents 
or  ^ardians  without  the  sanction  or  order  of  a 
magistrate  or  other  lawful  conmiitting  authority. 
Nor  do  these  figures  include  persons  under  twenty- 
one  years  of  age  committed  to  institutions  that  are 
not  exclusively  for  juveniles,  as,  for  instance,  jails  and 
workhouses.  Inqiury  at  the  Census  OMce  in  Wash- 
ington shows  there  were  one  hundred  and  three  insti- 
tutions for  juvenile  delincjuents  (1910);  eighty-seven 
of  these  institutions  reported  22,096  inmates  on  1 
January,  1910. 

In  the  great  majority  of  cases  the  institutions  are 
public.  But  the  report  of  the  Census  entitled 
Prisoners  and  Juvemie  Delinquents  in  Institutions: 
1904"  observes  that  in  several  states  the  reformation 
and  correction  of  delinquents  are  entrusted  in  whole 
or  in  part  to  private  or  religious  agencies,  and  dis- 
tinguishes as  the  most  notable  among  these  the 
Catholic  Protectory  at  Westehester,  New  York,  the 
largest  institution  of  the  kind  in  the  country,  which 
in  1904  contained  2566  delinquents  and  dependents. 
The  actual  number  present  in  this  institution  on 
31  December,  1909,  was  2320,  of  whom  540  were 
girls  accommodated  in  a  department  and  buildings 
separate  from  the  boys  under  the  care  of  the  Sisters 
of  Charity.  The  boys  are  in  charge  of  the  Brotiiers 
of  the  Christian  Schools,  of  the  Institute  founded  by 
St.  John  Baptiste  de  la  Salle  (q.  v.).  Another  large 
protectory  is  St.  Mary's  Industrial  School  for  Boys 
m  charge  of  the  Xaverian  Brothers  at  Baltimore, 
Md.  It  had  a  juvenile  population  of  748  on  1  Decem- 
ber, 1909.  Since  1866,  St.  Mary's  has  cared  for 
7593  boys.  Similar  institutions  are:  in  the  United 
States,  at  Chicago,  Illinois;  Arlington,  New  Jersey 
(Diocese  of  Newark);  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania; 
and  Utica,  New  York  (Diocese  of  Syracuse).    In 


PB0TE8TANT 


493 


PB0TE8TANT 


Canada,  4  in  the  Archdiocese  of  Montreal.  In  Eng- 
land: for  boys,  at  Walthamstow.  Essex;  Fam worth, 
Lancashire;  Birkdale,  Lancasnire;  and  Market 
Weig^ton,  Yorkshire:  for  girls,  at  Bristol,  Glouces- 
teramre;  and  Liverpool,  Lancashire.  In  Scotland, 
at  Parkhead,  Glasgow.  In  Ireland:  for  boys,  at 
Olencree,  Co.  Wi«klow  and  Philipstown,  King's 
Co.;  for  girls,  at  Drumcondra,  Co.  Dublin. 

Most  of  the  juvenile  delinquents  sent  to  institu- 
tions in  the  United  States  are  committed  either 
during  minority  or  for  an  indeterminate  period. 
Statistics  show  that  female  delinquents  are  com- 
mitted during  minority  more  frequently  than  the 
males.  On  the  other  hand,  commitment  for  an  in- 
determinate period  was  more  frequently  imposed 
upon  males  than  females.  Most  of  these  delinquents 
are  literate.  During  1904,  of  the  male  delinouents, 
84-7  per  cent  could  both  read  and  write;  the  per 
cent  of  literate  females  was  as  high  as  89*4.  The 
length  of  stay  in  the  institution  is  as  a  general  rule 
not  long.  Under  the  system  of  parole  and  probation, 
the  actual  restraint  is  much  shortened.  The  average 
duration  of  residence  of  1508  boys  discharged  from 
the  New  York  Catholic  Protectory  had  been  fifteen 
and  two-thirds  months;  of  two  nimdred  and  fifty 
girls,  thirty-two  and  one-half  months.  The  manage- 
ment of  the  Protectory  claim  that  the  girls'  depaurt- 
ment  cannot  be  considered  a  reformatory  or  even  a 
home  for  delinquent  children,  and  express  their 
satisfaction  with  the  recent  amendment  of  the  law 
in  New  York  to  prohibit  the  conviction  of  children 
under  sixteen  years  of  age  of  crime  as  such,  restrict- 
ing the  complaint  to  delinc[uency. 

At  St-Yon,  in  France,  m  the  first  quarter  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  St.  John  Baptiste  de  la  Salle 
undertook  the  training  and  correction  of  wayward 
youth.  The  methods  which  are  now  employed  at 
the  New  York  Catholic  Protectory,  which  is  under 
the  care  of  the  order  established  by  him,  may  well 
be  taken  as  indicative  of  the  general  plan  of  pro- 
tectories or  the  ideals  which  they  seek  to  attain. 
The  Protectory  aims  to  form  the  youth  committed 
to  its  care  by  vi^lance,  good  example,  and  instruc- 
tion: vigilance^  to  remove  from  the  cniloren  the  many 
occasions  of  offending;  example,  that  the  teachers  be 
exemplars  of  the  virtues  they  inculcate,  for  example 
is  much  better  than  precept;  instruction,  that  they 
may  become  intelligent  scholars,  not  only  in  the 
secular  sciences  but  in  religion,  which  is  the  warmth 
that  gives  life  and  light  to  all  other  learning,  without 
which  there  is  danger  that  knowledge  may  but 
minister  to  evil.  Many  of  the  boys  received  have 
been  truant  players  with  a  strong  disinclination  to 
study.  To  overcome  this  and  to  train  and  de- 
velop the  receptive  faculties  in  the  usual  school 
studies  entails  much  labour  upon  the  Brothers. 
Moreover,  it  is  felt  that  for  these  children  especially 
vocational  studies  should  not  be  postponed  until 
mature  years,  but  should  be  commenced  early,  so  as 
to  accustom  the  boy  to  what  may  afterwards  prove 
to  be  the  means  of  earning  his  own  livelihood  when  he 
shall  have  left  the  Protectory.  Accordingly,  the  ef- 
fective faculties  are  instructed  in  different  industries, 
in  printing  in  all  its  branches,  photography,  tailoring, 
shoemaking,  laundry  work,  industrial  and  ornamental 
drawing,  sign-pidnting,  painting,  wheel-wrishting, 
blacksmithing,  plumbing,  carpentry,  biicklayinj;, 
stone-work,  baking  in  its  different  branches,  and  in 
practical  knowledge  of  boilers,  engines,  djmamos,  and 
electric-  wiring. 

A*,  the  Lincoln  Agricultural  School,  a  aubsidiary 
institution,  the  boys,  moreover,  receive  a  tasainihg  in 
dairy-farmine  and  other  agriculture.  It  is  felt  that 
if  these  cMldren  should  not  acquire  a  taste  for  the 
farm  and  for  husbandry,  but  should  return  later  to 
the  city,  they  will  have  passed  the  trying  period  of 
their  lives  under  conditions  that  will  help  them  to  be 


good  men  and  assist  them  in  health  and  in  many  othev 
ways  in  after-life.  While  the  productivity  o?  these 
protectories  is  sometimes  considerable,  this  is  not  the 
aim,  but  simplv  incidental  to  their  primary  object, 
wliich  is  the  development  of  an  industrious  boy  or 
good  character  for  the  glory  of  God  and  the  good  of 
the  country.  Protectories  are  always  desirous  of 
allowing  their  inmates  to  go  out  into  the  world,  if 
they  are  prepared  for  it.  They  are  impressed  with 
the  truth  in  the  statement  of  Archbishop  Hughes  in  his 
letter  of  19  June,  1863,  to  Dr.  Ives:  "Let  the  children 
be  in  their  house  of  protection  just  as  short  as  possible. 
Their  lot  is,  and  is  to  be,  in  one  sense,  a  sufficiently 
hard  one  under  any  circumstances,  but  the  sooner 
they  know  what  it  is  to  be  the  better  they  will-  be 
prepared  for  encountering  its  trials  and  difficul- 
ties". These  protectories  have  established  working 
boys'  homes,  like  St.  Philip's  of  New  York  City,  St. 
James'  of  Baltimore,  the  Working  Boys'  Home  of 
Chicago,  and  other  places,  where  the  children  may  be 
mfely  housed  and  fed,  tayght  manners,  trained  in 
the  amenities  of  life,  and  somewhat  accustomed  to 
the  use  of  money  and  economic  conditions  before  they 
become  incorporated  in  the  great  mass  of  citizenship. 

U.  S.  CeMiu:  Priaonert  and  Juvenile  Delinquenlt  in  InetUu- 
Hone:  1904  (Waahington.  1907);  Froceedinge  of  (Hb  National 
Conference  of  the  Society  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  hdd  at  Richtnond, 
Va.,  1908  (New  York.  1909);  Froceedinge  of  ike  Firet  NatunuU 
Conference  of  Catholic  Charities,  held  at  the  Catholic  Univereity 
of  Anurioa,  1910  (Washington,  1911);  F.  H.  Winub,  Funiehment 
and  Reformation  (New  York,  1895);  The  Life  and  Worke  of  the 
Venerable  J.  B.  de  la  SaUe  (New  York  and  Montreal,  1878); 
E.  C.  Wmi»,  The  Stale  of  Frieona  and  of  Child-Having  Inatitw 
tione  in  the  Civilieed  World  (Cambridge.  1880) ;  Annual  RepmU 
of  the  New  York  Catholic  Protectory  and  others  in  U.  S. 

WiLUAM  H.  DeLact. 

Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  the  United 
States  of  America. — ^The  history  of  this  religious 
organization  divides  itself  naturally  into  two  por- 
tions: the  period  of  its  dependence  upon  the  Church 
of  England  and  that  of  its  separate  existence  with  a 
hierarchy  of  its  own. 

The  Church  of  England  was  planted  permanently 
in  Virnnia  in  1607,  at  the  foundation  of  the  James- 
town Colony.  There  had  been  sporadic  attempts 
before  this  date — in  1585  and  1587,  under  the  aus- 
pices of  Walter  Raleigh  in  the  Carolinas,  and  in 
1607,  under  the  auspices  of  Chief  Justice  Popham  and 
Sir  Ferdinando  Gorges  in  Maine.  The  attempt  to 
found  colonies  had  failed,  and  with  it,  of  course,  the 
attempt  to  plant  the  English  ecclesiastical  institu- 
tions. During  the  oolomal  period  the  Church  of 
England  achieved  a  quasi-establishment  in  Mary« 
land  and  Virginia,  and  to  a  lesser  extent  in  the  other 
colonies,  with  the  exception  of  New  England,  where 
for  many  years  the  few  Episcopalians  were  oitterly 
persecuted  and  at-  best  barely  tolerated.  In  the 
Southern  states,  notably  in  Virginia  and  Maryland, 
in  the  latter  of  which  the  Church  of  England  had  dis- 
possessed the  Catholics  not  only  of  their  political 
power,  but  even  of  religious  liberty,  the  Church  of 
f^ngland,  although  well  provided  for  from  a  worldly 
point  of  view,  was  by  no  means  in  a  strong  state, 
either  spiritually  or  intellectually.  The  appoint- 
ment to  parishes  was  almost  wholly  in  the  hands  of 
vestries  who  refused  to  induct  ministers  and  so  give 
them  a  title  to  the  emoluments  of  their  oQpe,  out 
preferred  to  pay  chaplains  whom  they  could  dismiss 
at  their  pleasure.  This  naturally  resulted  in  fillinjs 
the  ranks  of  the  ministry  with  very  unworthy  candi- 
dates, and  reduced  the  der^  to  a  position  of  con; 
tempt  in  the  eyes  of  the  laity.  • 

As  there  were  no  bishops  in  America,  the  churches 
in  the  colonies  were  unaer  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
Bishop  of  London,  who  governed  them  by  means  of 
commissaries;  but,  although  among  the  commissariev 
were  men  of  such  eminence  as  Dr.  Bray,  in  Mary- 
land, and  Dr.  Blair,  the  founder  of  William  and 
Mary  College  in  Virginia,  the  lay  power  was  so  strong 


PEOTESTaKT 


494 


PBOTISTANT 


and  the  class  of  men  willing  to  undertake  the  work  of 
the  ministry  so  inferior  that  very  little  could  be  done. 
Even  the  dforts  of  the  Society  for  the  Propagation 
of  the  Gospel  proved  of  very  little  effect  in  the  South, 
though  in  Pennsylvania,  New  York,  and  New 
Jersey  it  bore  much  better  fruit.  But,  while  the 
Anghcan  Church  was  sunk  in  spintusJ  and  intellec- 
tual lethargy  in  the  South,  and  while  it  had  a  rather 
attenuated  existence  in  the  Middle  states,  an  event 
occurred  in  New  England  in  1722  which  was  of  the 
greatest  promise  for  the  future  of  Anglicanism,  and 
which  shook  Congregationalism  in  New  England 
to  its  very  foundations.  Timothy  Cutler,  the  rector 
of  YsJe  Ciollege,  with  six  other  Congregational  minis- 
ters, all  men  of  learning  and  piety,  announced  to  their 
brethren  in  the  Congregational  ministry  of  Connecti- 
cut that  they  could  no  longer  remain  out  of  visible 
communion  with  an  Episcopal  Church:  that  some 
of  them  doubted  of  the  validity,  while  others  were 
persuaded  of  the  invalidity,  of  Presbyterian  ordina- 
tions. Three  of  them  wjere  subsequently  persuaded 
to  remain  in  the  Congregational  ministry,  the  rest 
becominff  Episcopalians,  and  three  of  them,  Messrs. 
Cutler,  Johnson,  and  Brown,  were  ordained  to  the 
ministry  of  the  Anglican  Church. 

During  the  period  of  the  Revolution  the  Church  of 
England  in  America  suffered  greatly  in  the  estimation 
of  Americans  by  its  strong  attachment  to  the  cause 
of  the  British  Crown.  But  there  were  not  wanting 
both .  clei^men  and  laymen  most  eminent  in 
their  loyuty  to  the  cause  of  the  colonies  and  in  the 
patriotic  sacrifices  which  they  made  to  the  cause  of 
mdependence.  Among  the  clergy  two  such  men  were 
Mr.  White,  an  assistant  of  Qirist  Church,  Phila- 
delphia, and  Mr.  Provost,  assistant  of  Trfhity  Church, 
New  York.  The  rectors  of  these  churches  being 
Tories,  these  gentlemen  subsequently  succeeded  them 
in  the  pastorate  of  their  respective  parishes.  At  the 
close  of  the  war,  Episcopalians,  as  tney  were  already 
commonly  called,  realized  that,  if  they  were  to  play 
any  part  in  the  national  life,  their  church  must  have 
a  national  organization.  The  greatest  obstacle  to 
this  organization  was  the  obtaii^ng  of  bishops  to 
carry  on  a  national  hierarchy.  In  Connecticut, 
where  those  who  had  gone  into  the  Episcopal  Church 
had  not  only  read  themselves  into  a  belief  in  the 
necessity  of  Episcopacy,  but  had  also  adopted  many 
other  tenets  of  the  Caroline  divines,  a  bishop  was  con- 
sidered of  absolute  necessity,  and,  accordingly, 
the  clergy  of  that  state  elected  the  Rev.  Samuel 
Seabury  and  requested  him  to  go  abroad  and  ob- 
tain the  episcopal  character. 

It  was  found  impossible  to  obtain  the  episcopate 
in  England,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  bishops  there 
could  not  by  law  consecrate  any  man  who  would 
not  take  the  oath  of  allegiance,  and,  although  dur- 
ing the  War  of  the  Revolution,  Seabury  had  been 
widely  known  for  his  Tory  sjrmpathies,  it  would  have 
been  impossible  for  him  to  return  to  America  if  he 
had  received  consecration  as  a  British  subject. 
Upon  the  refusal  of  the  English  bishops  to  confer 
the  episcopate,  he  proceeded  to  Scotland,  where,  after 
prolonged  negotiations,  the  Nonjuring  bishops  con- 
sented to  confer  the  episcopal  character  upon  him. 
These  l)ishops  were  the  remnant  of  the  Episcopal 
Church  which  the  Stuarts  had  so  ardently  desired 
to  set  up  in  Scotland,  and  which  had  lost  the  pro- 
tection of  the  State,  together  with  all  its  endowments, 
by  its  fidelitv  to  James  II.  Their  religious  prin- 
ciples were  l<Joked  upon  by  Scotch  Presbyterians  as 
scarcely  less  obnoxious  than  those  of  Roman  Catholics 
and  politically  they  were  considered  quite  as  danger- 
ous. They  were  indeed  exceedingly  High  Church- 
men, and  had  made  such  alterations  in  the  liturgy 
a^  brought  their  doctrine  of  the  Holy  Eucharist  very 
near  to  that  of  the  Catholic  Church.  They  had  oven 
been  known  to  use  chrism  in  confirmation,  and  they 


were  strong  believers  in  the  sacerdotal  character 
of  the  Christian  ministry  and  in  the  necessity  of 
Apostolic  succession  and  episcopal  ordination.  Dr. 
Seabury  was  consecrated  by  them  in  1784,  and, 
bein^  of  very  similar  theological  opinions  himself, 
he  si^ed  a  concordat  immediately  after  his  con- 
secration, whereby  he  agreed  te  do  his  utmost  to 
introduce  the  liturgical  and  doctrinal  peculiarities 
of  the  Nonjurors  into  Connecticut.  Upon  his  return 
to  his  own  state  he  proceeded  to  organize  and  govern 
his  diocese  very  much  as  a  Catholic  bi^op  would  do; 
he  excluded  the  laity  from  all  deliberations  and  ec- 
clesiastical councils  and,  as  much  as  he  could,  from 
all  control  of  ecclesiastical  affairs. 

But  if  sacerdotalism  was  triumphant  in  Connecti- 
cut, a  very  different  view  was. taken  in  New  York, 
Pennsylvania,  and  Virginia.  Dr.  White,  now  rector 
of  Christ  Church,  and  a  doctor  of  divinity,  believed 
that  if  the  Episcopal  Church  was  ever  to  live  and 
grow  in  America  it  must  assent  to,  and  adopt  as  far 
as  possible  the  principle  of  representative  govern- 
ment. He  would  have  been  willing  to  go  on  without 
the  episcopate  until  such  time  as  it  could  have  been 
obtained  from  England,  and  in  the  meantime  to 
ordain  candidates,  to  the  ministry  by  means  of  Pres- 
byterian ordination,  with  the  proviso,  however,  that 
upon  the  obtaining  of  a  bishop  these  gentlemen  were 
•  to  be  conditionsJly  re-ordained.  This  last  sugges- 
tion, however,  found  little  favour  among  Episcopa- 
lians, and  at  l^t,  after  considerable  difficulty,  an  act 
was  passed  in  Parliament  whereby  the  English  bish- 
ops were  empowered  to  confer  the  episcopate  upon 
men  who  were  not  subject  to  the  firitish  Crown. 
Accordingly,  Dr.  White,  being  elected  Bishop  of 
Pennsylvania,  and  Dr.  Provost,  Bishop  of  New  York, 
proceeded  to  England  and  received  consecration  at 
the  hands  of  the  then  Archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
Dr.  Moore,  on  Septuagesima  Sunday,  1787;  but  upon 
their  return  to  America,  although  there  were  now 
three  bishops  in  the  United  States,  there  were  so 
many  differences  between  the  Connecticut  church- 
men and  those  of  the  Middle  and  Southern  states, 
especially  with  regard  to  the  presence  of  laymen  in 
ecclesiastical  councils,  that  it  was  not  until  1789  that 
a  union  was  effected.  Even  ^ter  that  date,  when 
Dr.  Madison  was  elected  by  Virginia  to  be  its 
bishop,  he  proceeded  to  England  for  his  consecration 
because  Bishop  Provost,  of  New  York,  refused  to  act 
in  conjunction  with  the  Bishop  of  Connecticut. 
The  union,  however,  was  finally  cemented  in  1792, 
when  Dr.  Claggert  being  elected  Bishop  of  Mary- 
land, and  there  being  three  bishops  in  the  country 
of  the  Anglican  line  exclusive  of  Dr.  Seabury,  the 
Bishop  of  New  York  withdrew  his  objections  as  far 
as  to  allow  Dr.  Seabury  to  make  a  fourth.  If  Dr. 
Seabury  had  not  been  invited  to  take  part  in  the  con- 
secration of  Dr.  Claggert,  a  schism  between  Con- 
necticut and  the  rest  of  the  country  would  have  been 
the  immediate  result. 

Almost  from  the  very  beginning  of  its  independent 
life  the  tendencies  which  have  shown  themselves  in 
the  three .  parties  in  the  Episcopal  Church  of  the 

E resent  day  were  not  only  evident,  but  were  even  em- 
odied  in  the  members  of  the  Episcopate.  Bishop 
Provost,  of  New  York,  represented  the  rationalistic 
temper  of  the  eighteenth  century,  which  has  eventu- 
ated in  what  is  called  the  Broad  Church  Party.  Bishop 
White  represented  the  Evangelical  Party,  with  its 
belief  in  the  desirability  rather  than  the  necessity 
of  Apostolic  succession  and  its  desire  to  fraternize 
as  nearly  as  possible  with  the  other  progeny  of  the 
Reformation.  Bishop  Seabury,  on  the  other  hand, 
represented  the  traditional  High  Church  position, 
intellectual  rather  than  emotional,  and  laying  more 
stress  upon  the  outward  ecclesiastical  organization 
of  the  Church  than  upon  emotional  religion.  This 
school  has  played  a  very  important  part  in  the  hi0- 


PROTESTANTISM 


495 


PBOTESTANTISM 


tory  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  the  United 
States;  and,  while  it  was  undoubtedly  influenced 
to  a  large  extent  by  the  Oxford  Movement,  it  was 
existent  and  energetic  long  before  1833.  Indeed, 
in  the  twenties  Bishop  Hobart  was  already  present- 
ing that  type  of  evangelical  pietv,  united  with  hig^ 
sacramental  ideas,  which  has  been  the  principal 
characteristic  of  the  party  ever  since.  The  Oxford 
Movement,  however,  was  not  without  its  influence, 
and  as  early  as  1843  the  disputes  between  the  ex- 
treme High  Churchmen  and  the  rest  of  the  Episcopal 
Church  had  reached  a  condition  of  such  acerbity 
that  when  the  Rev.  Arthur  Cary,  in  his  examination 
for  orders,  avowed  the  principles  of  "Tract  90",  and 
in  spite  ol  that  fact  was  not  refused  ordination,  the 
controversy  broke  out  into  an  open  war.  The  Bishop 
of  Philadelphia,  Dr.  Onderdonk,  was  suspended  from 
his  office  on  a  charge  of  drunkenness,  the  real  reason 
being  his  sympathy  with  High  Churchmen;  and  his 
dispossession  was  so  unjust  that  it  was  declared  by 
the  famous  legal  authority,  Horace  Binney,  to  be 
absolutely  illegal.  He  was  not,  however,  restored 
to  the  exercise  of  his  functions  for  more  than  ten 
years.  His  brother  bishop  of  New  York  fared  even 
worse.  Charges  of  immorality  were  preferred  against 
him,  and  he  was  suspended  from  his  office  for  the  rest 
of  his  life,  despite  the  fact  that  the  vast  majority 
of  his  fellow-citizens,  whether  thev  belonged  to  his 
communion  or  not,  nrmly  believed  in  his  innocence. 
An  attempt,  however,  to  suspend  a  third  bishop  of 
High  Church  views,  the  father  of  the  late  Monsignor 
Doane,  failed  after  he  had  been  presented  four  times. 
Bishop  Doane,  not  onlv  by  his  unrivalled  diplomatic 
skill,  out  by  the  goodness  and  probity  of  his  life, 
made  an  ecclesiastical  trial  impossible. 

In  1852  the  Bishop  of  North  Uarolina,  Dr.  Ives,  re- 
signed his  position  in  the  Episcopal  Church  and  sub- 
mitted to  the  Apostolic  See,  and  he  was  followed  into 
the  Catholic  Church  by  a  considerable  number,  both 
of  clergymen  and  laymen.  His  secession  drew  out 
of  the  £{)iscopal  Church  all  those  of  distinctly  Roman 
8ymi>athies,  but  the  High  Church  Party  fived  on, 
^wing,  and  in  some  degree  prospering,  in  spite  of 
Qostile  legislation,  while  in  course  of  time  a  pro- 
Roman  party.  si)rang  up  again.  Since  the  passing 
of  the  open-pulpit  canon  in  the  General  Convention 
of  1907,  some  twentv  clergymen  and  a  lar|;e  number 
of  the  laity  have  submitt^  to  the  Catholic  Church. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  extreme  Evangelical  Party, 
disturbed  by  the  growth  of  ritualism,  and  unable  to 
drive  out  High  Churchmen  in  any  large  numbers, 
themselves  seceded  from  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church  in  1873,  and  formed  what  is  known  as  the 
Reformed  Episcopal  Church.  Unlike  many  of  the 
Protestant  bodies,  the  Episcopal  Church  was  not 
permanently  disrupted  by  the  Civil  War,  for  with  the 
collapse  of  the  Confederacy  the  separate  organiza- 
tion of  the  Protestant  EpiscopsJ  Church  in  the  Con- 
federate States  ceased.  The  Broad  Church  party, 
however,  have  remained  in  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church,  and  of  late  years  have  seriously  affected 
its  attitude  towards  such  subjects  as  higher  criticism 
and  the  necessity  of  episcopsd  ordination.  The 
most  outspoken  advocates  of  this  school,  who  in 
their  conclusions  differed  little  or  not  at  all  from  the 
extreme  modernists,  have  not  been  able  seriously  to 
alter  the  teaching  of  the  Episcopal  Church  upon  such 
fundamental  truths  as  the  Trinity  and  Incarnation; 
and  in  a  few  cases  the  High  Church  Party  and  the 
Evangelical,  by  combining,  have  been  strong  enough 
to  exclude  them"  from  the  Episcopal  Church.  The 
party,  however,  is  gaining  strength;  its  clergymen 
,  are  men  of  intellect  and  vigour,  and  the  laity  who 
support  the  party  are  in  the  main  people  of  large 
means.  To  it  the  future  of  Anglicanism  belongs 
more  than  to  any  other  school  of  thought  within  the 
Anglican  body. 


The  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  the  United 
States  of  America  possesses  a^ierarchy  of  5413  clergy^ 
438  candidates  for  orders,  and  946,252  communicants. 
These  communicants  should  be  multiplied  at  least 
three  times  in  order  to  give  an  idea  of  the  adherents 
of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church.  It  possesses 
nine  colleges  and  universities  and  fifteen  theological 
seminaries. 

TiFrxNT,  Hiat.  of  the  Prot,  Epiae.  Church  in  the  U.  S.  of  Amet' 
tea  in  American  Church  Hiatary  Series,  VII  (New  York.  1907); 
McCoNNELL.,  Ifiat.  of  the  Am.  Ep.  Church  from  the  Planting  of 
the  CoUmiee  to  the  End  of  the  Civil  War  (Ntfw  York,  1890) ;  Whitb, 
Memoira  of  the  Prot.  Ep.  Church  in  the  U.  S.  (New  York.  1880); 
COLBUAN.  The  Church  in  America  (New  York,  1895). 

SiGOURNST  W.  Fay. 

Protestantism. — ^The  subject  will  be  treated 
imder  the  following  heads,  viz.:  I.  Origin  of  the 
Name.  II.  Characteristic  Protestant  Principles. 
III.  Discussion  of  the  Three  Fundamental  Prin- 
ciples of  Protestantism:  A.  The  Supremacy  of  the 
Bible;  B.  Juatificatian  by  Faith  Alone;  C.  The 
Uninereal  Priesthood  of  Believers,  IV.  Private  Judg- 
ment in  Practice.  V.  "Justification  by  Faith 
Alone"  in  Practice.  VI.  Advent  of  a  New  Order: 
CsBsaropapism.  VII.  Rapidity  of  Protestant  Prog- 
ress Explained.  VIII.  rresent-aay  Protestantism. 
IX.  Popular  Protestantism.  X.  Protestantism  and 
Progress:  A.  Prejudices;  B.  Progress  in  Church  and 
Churches:  C.  Progress  in  CivU  Society;  D.  Prog- 
ress in  Keligious  Toleration;  E.  The  Test  of  Vitality, 
XI.  Conclusion. 

I.  Origin  of  the  Name. — ^The  Diet  of  the  Holy 
Roman  Empire,  assembled  at  Speyer  in  April,  1529, 
resolved  that,  according  to  a  decree  promulgated  at 
the  Diet  of  Worms  (1524),  communities  in  which  the 
new  religion  was  so  far  established  that  it  could  not 
without  great  trouble  be  altered  should  be  free  to 
maintain  it,  but  until  the  meetinjg  of  the  council 
they  should  introduce  no  further  innovations  in  re- 
ligion, and  should  not  forbid  the  Mass,  of  hinder 
Catholics  from  assisting  thereat.  Against  this 
decree,  and  especially  against  the  last  article,  the 
adherents  of  the  new  EvangeL  the  Elector  Freaerick 
of  Saxony,  the  Landgrave  of  Hesse,  the  Margrave 
Albert  of  Brandenburg,  the  Dukes  of  Ltlneburg. 
the  Prince  of  Anhalt,  toKether  with  the  deputies  of 
fourteen  of  the  free  ana  iinperial  cities,  entered  a 
solemn  protest  as  uniust  and  impious.  The  meaniiig 
of  the  protest  was  tnat  the  dissentients  did  not  in- 
tend to  tolerate  Catholicism  within  their  borders. 
On  that  account  they  were  called  Protestants.  In 
course  of  time  the  original  connotation >of  ''no  tolera- 
tion for  Catholics"  was  lost  sight  of,  and  the  term 
is  now  applied  to,  and  accepted  by,  members  of 
those  Western  Churches  and  sects  which,  in  the 
sixteenth  century,  were  set  up  by  the  Reformers  in 
direct  opposition  to  the  Catholic  uhurch.  The  same 
man  may  call  himself  I^testant  or  Reformed:  the 
term  Protestant  lays  more  stress  on  antagonism  to 
Rome;  the  term  Reformed  emphasizes^  adherence 
to  any  of  the  Reformers.  Where  religious  indifference 
is  prevalent,  many  will  say  they  are  Protestants, 
merely  to  signify  that  they  are  not  Catholics.  In 
some  such  vague,  negative  sense,  the  word  stands  in 
the  new  formula  of  the  Declaration  of  Faith  to  be 
made  by  the  King  of  England  at  his  coronation; 
vis.:  ''I  declare  that  I  am  a  faithful  Protestant". 
During  the  debates  in  Parliament  it  was  observed 
that  the  proposed  formula  effectively  debarred 
Catholics  from  the  throne,  whilst  it  committed  the 
king  to  no  particular  creed,  as  no  man  knows  what 
the  creed  ot  a  faithful  Protestant  is  or  should  be. 

II.  Characteristic  Protestant  Principles. — 
However  vague  and  indefinite  the  creed  of  individual 
Protestants  may  be,  it  always  rests  on'  a  few  standard 
rules,  or  principles,  bearing  on  the  sources  of  faith, 
the  means  of  justification,  and  the  constitution  ot 
Uie  Church.    An  acknowledged  Protestant  authority, 


PBOTBSTANnSM 


496 


PBOTI8TANTI8M 


Philip  Schaflf  (in  "The  New  Schaff-Heraog  Ency- 
clopedia of  Religious  Knowledge'',  s.  V.  Refonnation), 
sums  up  the  principles  of  Protestantism  in  the  fol- 
lowing words:  "The  Protestant  goes  directlv  to  the 
Word  of  God  for  instruction,  and  to  the  throne  of 
grace  in  his  devotions]  whilst  the  pious  Roman  Catho- 
Rc  consults  the  teachmg  of  his  church,  and  prefers  to 
offer  his  prayers  through  the  medium  of  the  Virgin 
Mary  ana  the  saints. 

"From  this  general  principle  of  Evangelical  free- 
domj  and  direct  individual  relationship  of  the  be- 
liever to  Christ,'  proceed  the  three  fundamental 
doctrines  of  Protestantism — the  absolute  supremacy 
of  (1)  the  Word,  and  of  (2)  the  grace  of  Christ,  and 
(3)  the  genera!  priesthood  of  believers.  .  .  .  (1)  The 
[first]  objective  [or  formal]  principle  proclaims  the 
canonical  Scriptures,  especially  the  New  Testament, 
to  be  the  only  infallible  source  and  rule  of  faith  ana 
practice,  and  asserts  the  right  of  private  interpreta- 
tion of  the  same,  in  distinction  from  the  Roman 
Catholic  view,  which,  declares  the  Bible  and  tradi- 
tion to  be  co-ordinate  sources  and  rule  of  faith,  and 
makes  tradition,  especially  the  decrees  of  popes  and 
councils,  the  only  legitimate  and  infallible  interpreter 
of  the  Bible.  In  its  extreme  form  Chillingworth  ex- 
pressed this  principle  of  the  Reformation  in  the 
well-known  formula,  'The  Bible,  the  whole  Bible, 
and  nothing  but  the  Bible,  is  the  religion  of  Prot- 
estants.' Pyotestantism,  nowever,  by  no  means 
despises  or  rejects  church  authority  as  such,  but  only 
subordinates  it  to,  and  measures  its  value  by,  the 
Bible,  and  believes  in  a  progressive  interpretation  of 
the  Bible  through  the  expanding  and  deepening  con- 
sciousness of  Christendom.  Hence,  besides  having 
its  own  symbols  or  standards  of  public  doctrine,  it 
retained  all  the  articles  of  the  ancient  creeds  and 
a  large  amount  of  disciplinai^  and  ritual  tradition, 
and  rejected  only  those  doctrmes  and  ceremonies  for 
which  no  clear  warrant  was  found  in  the  Bible  and 
which  seemed  to  contradict  its  letter  or  spirit.  The 
Calvinistic  branches  of  Protestantism  went  farther 
in  their  antagonism  to  the  received  traditions  than  the 
Lutheran  and  the  Anglican;  but  all  united  in  re- 
jecting the  authority  of  the  pope  [Melanchthon  for 
a  while  was  willing  to  conc^e  this,  but  only  ji*re 
humanOf  or  a  limited  disciplinary  superintendency  of 
the  Church],  the  meritoriousness  of  good  works, 
indulgences,  the  worship  of  the  Virgin,  saints,  ana 
relics,  the  sacraments  (other  than  baptism  and  the 
Eucharist),  the  dogma  of  transubstantiation  and  the 
Sacrifice  ot  the  mass,  purgatory,  and  prayers  for  the 
dead,  auricular  confession,  celibacy  of  the  clergy, 
the  monastic  system,  and  the  use  of  the  Latin  tongue 
in  public  worship,  for  which  the  vernacular  languages 
were  substituted.  (2)  The  subjective  principle  of 
the  Reformation  is  justification  by  faitn  alone,  or. 
rather,  bv  free  grace  through  faith  operative  in  good 
works.  It  has  reference  to  the  personal  appropria- 
tion of  the  Christian  salvation,  and  aims  to  give  all 
glory  to  Christ,  by  declaring  that  the  sinner  is  justi- 
ed  before  God  (i.  e.  is  acquitted  of  guilt,  and  declared 
righteous)  solely  on  the  ground  of  the  all-sufficient 
merits  of  Christ  as  apprehended  by  a  living  faith,  in 
opposition  to  the  theory — then  prevalent,  and  sub- 
stantially sanctioned  by  the  Council  of  Trent — 
which  makes  faith  and  good  works  co-ordinate 
sources  of  justification,  laying  the  chief  stress  upon 
works.  Protestantism  does  not  depreciate  good 
works;  but  it  denies  their  value  as  sources  or  condi- 
tions of  justification,  and  insists  on  them  as  the  neces- 
sary fruits  of  faith,  and  evidence  of  justification. 
(3)  The  universal  priesthood  of  believers  implies 
the  ridit  and  duty  of  the  Christian  laity  not  only  to 
read  the  Bible  in  the  vernacular,  but  also  to  take  part 
in  the  government  and  all  the  public  affairs  of  the 
Church.  It  is  opposed  to  the  hierarchical  system, 
which  puts  the  essence  and  authority  of  the  Church 


in  an  exclusive  priesthood,  and  makes  oxdained 
priests  the  necessary  mediators  between  God  and  the 
people".  See  also  Schaff,  "The  Principle  of  Prot- 
estantism, German  and  English"  (1846). 

III.  Discussion  of  the  Three  Fundamental 
Principles  of  Protestantism. — A.  The  Suprem- 
acy of  the  Bible  as  source  of  faith  is  unhis- 
torical,  illogical,  fatal  to  the  virtue  of  faith,  and 
destructive  of  unity.  It  is  unhistorical.  No 
one  denies  the  fact  that  Christ  and  the  Apostles 
.  founded  the  Church  by  preaching  and  exacting  faith 
in  their  doctrines.  No  book  told  as  yet  of  the 
Divinity  of  Christ,  the  redeeming  value  of  His  Pas- 
sion, or  of  His  coming  to  judge  the  world;  these  and 
all  similar  revelations  had  to  be  believed  on  the  word 
of  the  Apostles,  who  were,  as  their  powers  ^owed, 
messengers  from  God.  And  those  who  received  their 
word  old  so  solely  on  authority.  As  immediate, 
implicit  submission  of  the  mind  was  in  the  lifetime 
of  the  Apostles  the  only  necessanr  token  of  faith, 
there  was  no  room  whatever  for  what  is  now  called 
private  judgment.  This  is  quite  clear  from  the  Vords 
of  Scripture:  ''Therefore,  we  also  give  thanks  to  God 
without  ceasing:  because,  that  when  you  had  re- 
ceived of  us  the  word  of  the  hearing  of  God,  ^ou  re- 
ceived it  not  as  the  word  of  men,  but  (as  it  is  mdeed) 
the  word  of  God"  (I  Thess.,  ii,  13).  The  woid  of 
hearing  is  received  through  a  human  teacher^  and  is 
believed  on  the  authority  of  God,  who  is  its  fijvt 
author  (cf.  Rom.,  x^  17).  But,  if  in  the  time  of  the 
Apostles,  faith  consisted  in  submitting  to  authorised 
teaching,  it  does  so  now;  for  the  essence  of  things 
never  changes  and  the  foundation  of  the  Church  and 
of  our  salvation  is  immovable.  Agsdn,  it  is  iUogical 
to  base  faith  upon  the  private  interpretation  of  a 
book.  For  faitn  consists  in  submitting;  private 
interpretation  consists  in  judging.  In  faitn  by  hear- 
ing the  last  word  rests  with  the  teacher;  in  private 
judonent  it  reste  with  the  reader,  who  submits  the 
dead  text  of  Scripture  to  a  kind  of  post-mortem  ex- 
amination and  delivers  a  verdict  without  appeal: 
he  believes  in  himself  rather  than  in  any  higher  au* 
thority. 

But  such  trust  in  one's  own  light  is  not  faith.    Private 

J'udgment  is  fatal  to  the  theological  virtue  of  faith, 
^ohn  Henry  Newman  says  *'  I  think  I  may  assume  that 
this  virtue,  which  was  exercised  by  the  first  Chris- 
tians, is  not  known  at  all  amongst  Protestante  now: 
or  at  least  if  there  are  instances  of  it,  it  is  exercised 
toward  those,  I  mean  their  teachers  and  divines,  who 
expressly  disclaim  that  they  are  objects  of  it,  and 
exhort  their  people  to  judge  for  themselves"  ("Dis- 
courses to  Mixed  Congregations",  Faith  and  Private 
Judgment).  And  in  proof  he  advances  the  instability 
of  ^t)testant  so-call^  faith:  "They  are  as  children 
tossed  to  and  fro  and  carried  along  by  every  gale 
of  doctrine.  If  they  had  faith  they  would  not  change. 
They  look  upon  the  simple  faith  of  Catholics  as  if 
unworthy  the  dignity  of  human  nature,  as  slavish 
and  foolish". 

Yet  upon  that  simple,  imouestioning  faith  the 
Church  was  built  up  and  is  held  together  to  this  day. 
Where  absolute  reliance  on  God's  word,  proclaimed  by 
his  accredited  ambassadors,  is  wanting,  i.  e.  where 
there  is  not  the  virtue  of  faith,  there  can  be  no  unity 
of  Qiurch.  It  stands  to  reason,  and  Protectant  his- 
tory confirms  it.  -  The  "unhappy  divisions",  not 
only  between  sect  and  sect  but  within  the  same  sect, 
have  became  a  byword.  They  are  due  to  the  pride 
of  private  intellect,  and  they  can  only  be  healed  by 
humble  submission  to  a  Divine  authority. 

B.  Juetificatum  by  'Faith  Alone. — See  article 
Justification. 

C.  The  Univeraal  Priesthood  of  BeUevera  is  a  fond 
fancy  which  goes  well  with  the  other  fundamental 
tenets  of  I^testantism.  For,  if  evc^  man  is  his  own 
supreme  teacher  and  is  able  to  justify  himself  by  ad 


PROTESTANTISM 


497 


PROTESTANTISM 


easy  act  of  faith^  there  is  no  further  need  of  ordained 
teachers  and  ministers  of  sacrifice  and  sacraments. 
The  sacraments  themselves,  in  fact,  become  super- 
fluous. Tlie  abolition  of  priests,  sacrifices,  and 
sacraments  is  the  logical  conseauence  of  false  prem- 
ises, i.  e.  the  right  of  private  juogment  and  justifica- 
tion by  faith  alone;  it  is,  merefore,  as  illusory  as 
tjiese.  It  is  moreover  contrary  to  Scnpture,  to  tradi- 
tion, to  reason.  The  Protestant  position  is  that  the 
clergv  had  originallv  been  representatives  of  the 
people,  deriving  all  their  power  from  them,  and  only 
doing,  for  the  sake  of  oitler  and  convenience,  what 
laymen  mi^t  do  also.  But  Scripture  speaks  of 
bishops,  pnests,  deacons  as  invested  with  spiritual 
powers  not  possessed  by  the  community  at  large, 
and  transmitted  by  an  external  sign,  the  imposition 
of  hands,  thus  creating  a  separate  order,  a  hierarchy. 
(See  Hierarchy;  Priesthood.)  Scripture  shows  the 
Church  starting  with  an  ordained  priesthood  as  its 
central  element*  History  likewise  shows  this  priest- 
hood living  on  in  unbroken  succession  to  the  present 
day  in  East  and  West,  even  in  Churches  separated 
from  Rome.  And  reason  requires  such  an  institu- 
tion; a  societv  confessedly  established  to  continue 
the  saving  work  of  Christ  must  possess  and  perpetuate 
His  saving  power;  it  must  have  a  teaching  ana  minis- 
tering oraer  commissioned  by  Christ,  as  Christ  was 
commissioned  by  God:  ''As  the  Father  hath  sent 
me,  I  also  send  you''  (John,  xx,  21).  Sects  which 
are  at  best  shadows  of  Churches  wax  and  wane  with 
the  priestly  powers  they  subconsciously  or  instinc- 
tively attribute  to  their  pastors,  elders,  ministers, 
preachers,  and  other  leaders. 

IV.  Private  Judgment  in  Practice. — ^At  first 
si^t  it  seems  that  private  judgment  as  a  rule  of 
faith  would  at  once  dissolve  all  creeds  and  confes- 
sions into  individual  opinions,  thus  making  impossible 
any  church  life  based  upon  a  common  faith.  For 
quot  capita  tot  aensiui:  no  two  men  think  exactly  alike 
on  any  subject.  Yet  we  are  faced  by  the  fact  that 
Protestant  churches  have  lived  through  several  cen- 
turies and  have  moulded  the  character  not  only  of 
individuals  but  of  whole  nations;  that  millions  of 
souls  have  foimd  and  are  finding  in  them  the  spiritual 
food  which  satisfies  their  spiritual  cravings;  that 
their  missionary  and  charitable  activity  is  covering 
wide  fields  at  home  and  abroad.  The  apparent 
incongruity  does  not  exist  in  reality,  for  private 
judgment  is  never  and  nowhere  allowed  full  play  in 
the  framing  of  religions.  The  open  Bible  and  the 
open  mind  on  its  interpretation  are  rather  a  lure  to 
entice  the  masses,  by  flattering  their  pride  and  de- 
ceiving their  ignorance,  than  a  workable  principle 
of  faim. 

The  first  limitation  imposed  on  the  application  of 
private  judgment  is  the  incapacity  of  m6st  men  to 
judge  for  themselves  on  matters  above  their  physical 
needs.  How  many  Christians  are  made  by  the  tons 
of  Testaments  distributed  by  n^issionaries  to  the 
heathetl?  What  religion  could  even  a  well-schooled 
man  extract  from  the  Bible  if  he  had  nought  but  his 
brain  and  his  book  to  guide  him?  The  second  limita- 
tion arises  from  environment  and  prejudices.  The 
assimied  ri^t  of  pri^te  judgment  is  not  exercised 
until  the  mmd  is  already  stocked  with  ideas  and  no- 
tions supplied  by  fami^  and  community,  foremost 
among  tnese  being  the  current  conceptions  of  religious 
dogmas  and  duties.  People  are  saia  to  be  Catholics, 
Protestants,  Mahommedans,  Pagans  "by  birth'', 
because  the  environment  in  which  they  are  bom  in- 
variably endows  them  with  the  local  religion  long 
before  they  are  able  to  judge  and  choose  for  them- 
selves. And  the  firm  hold  which  this  initial  training 
gets  on  the  mind  is  well  illustrated  by  the  fewness 
of  changes  in  later  life.  Conversions  from  one  belief 
to  anotner  are  of  comparatively  rare  occurrence. 
The  number  of  converts  in  any  denomination  com- 
XII.— 32 


pared  to  the  number  of  stauncher  adherents  is, a 
negligible  quantity.  Even  where  private  judgment 
has  led  to  the  conviction  that  some  other  form  of 
religion  is  preferable  to  the  one  professed,  conversion  ' 
is  not  always  achieved.  The  convert,  boaide  and 
beyond  his  knowledge,  must  have  sufficient  strength 
of  will  to  break  with  old  associations,  old  friendships, 
old  habits,  and  to  face  the  uncertainties  of  life  in  new 
surroundings.  His  sense  of  duty,  in  many  cases, 
must  be  of  heroical  temper. 

A  third  limitation  put  on  the  exercise  of  private 
judgment  is  the  authority  of  Church  and  State. 
The  Reformers  took  full  advantage  of  their  emanci- 
pation from  papal  authority,  but  they  showed  no 
mclination  to  allow  their  followers  the  same  freedom. 
Luther,  Zwingli,  Calvin,  and  Knox  were  as  intolerant 
of  private  judgment  when  it  went  against  their  own 
conceits  as  any  pope  in  Rome  was  ever  intolerant 
of  heresy.  Confessions  of  faith,  symbols,  and  cate- 
chism were  set  up  everywhere,  and  were  invariably 
backed  by  the  secular  power.  In  fact,  the  secular 
power  in  the  several  parts  of  Germany,  England, 
Scotland,  and  elsewhere  has  had  more  to  do  with  the 
moulding  of  religious  denominations  than  private 
judgment  and  justification  by  faith  alone.  Rulers 
were  ^ided  by  political  and  material  considerations 
in  their  adherence  to  particular  forms  of  faith,  and 
they  usurped  the  right  of  imposing  their  own  choice 
on  their  subjects,  regardless  of  private  opinions: 
CUJU8  regio  hvjus  reliffio. 

The  above  considerations  show  that  the  first  Prot^ 
estant'  principle,  free  judgment,  never  influenced 
the  Protestant  masses  at  large.  Its  influence  is 
limitec^  to  a  few  leaders  of  the  movement,  to  the  men 
who  by  dint  of  strong  character  were  capable  of 
creating  separate  sects.  Thev  indeed  spumed  the 
authority  of  the  Old  Church,  but  soon  transferred  it 
to  their  own  persons  and  institutions,  if  not  to  secular 
princes.  How  mercilessly  the  new  authority  was 
exercised  is  matter  of  history.  Moreover,  m  the 
course  of  time,  private  judgment  has  ripened  into 
unbridled  freethought,  Rationalism,  Modernism, 
now  rampant  in  most  universities,  cidtured  society, 
and  the  Press.  Planted  by  Luther  and  other  re- 
formers the  seed  took  no  root,  or  soon  withered,  among 
the  half-educated  masses  who  still  clung  to  authority 
or  were  coerced  by  the  secular  arm;  but  it  flourished 
and  produced  its  full  fruit  chiefly  in  the  schools  and 
amon|;  the  ranks  of  society  which  draw  their  intellec- 
tual life  from  that  sourcCi  The  modem  F^iess  is  at 
infinite  pains  to  spread  free  judgment  and  its  latest 
results  to  the  reaoing  public. 

It  should  be  remarked  that  the  first  I^otestants, 
without  exception,  pretended  to  be  the  tme  Church 
founded  by  Christ,  and  all  retained  the  Apostles' 
Creed  with  the  article  ''I  believe  in  the  Catholic 
Church''.  The  fact  of  their  Catholic  origin  and  sur- 
roundings accounts  both  for  their  good  intention  and 
for  the  confessions  of  faith  to  which  they  bound  them- 
selves. Yet  such  confessions,  if  there  be  any  tmth 
in  the  assertion  that  private  judgment  and  the  open 
Bible  are  the  only  sources  of  Protestant  faith,  are 
directly  antagonistic  to  the  Protestant  spirit.  Tnis  is 
recognized,  among  others,  by  J.  H.  Blunt,  who  writes: 
''The  mere  existence  of  such  confessions  of  faith  as 
binding  on  all  or  any  of  the  members  of  the  Chris- 
tian community  is  inconsistent  with  the  great  prin- 
ciples on  which  the  Protestant  bodies  justified  their 
separation  from  the  Church,  the  ri^t  of  private 
jud^ent.  Has  not  any  member  as  just  a  rudbt  to 
criticise  and  to  reject  them  as  his  forefathers  had  a 
right  to  reject  the  Catholic  creeds  or  the  canons  of 
general  councils?  Thev  appear  to  violate  another 
prominent  doctrine  of  the  Reformers,  the  sufficiency 
of  Holy  Scripture  to  salvation.  If  the  Bible  alone 
is  enough^  what  need  is  there  for  adding  articles? 
If  it  is  rejoined  that  they  are  not  additions  to,  but 


PROTESTANTISM 


498 


PBOTKSTANTISM 


merely  explanations  of,  the  Word  of  God,  the  further 
question  ariBes,  amid  the  many  explanations,  more 
,  or  less  at  variance  with  each  other  given  by  tne  dif- 
ferent sects  of  Prote8tanti^m,  who  is  to  decide  which 
is  the  true  one?  Their  professed  object  being  to 
secure  uniformity,  the  experience  of  three  hundred 
years  has  proved  to  us  what  may  not  have  been  fore* 
seen  by  their  originators,  that  they  have  had  a  dia- 
metrically opposite  result,  and  have  been  productive 
not  of  union  out  of  variance"  (Diet,  of  Sects,  Here- 
sies, etc.",  London,  1886,  s.  v.  Protestant  Confes- 
sions of  Faith). 

By  pinning  private  judgment  to  the  Bible  the  Re- 
formers started  a  book  religion,  i.  e.  a  religion  of 
which,  theoretically,  the  law  of  faith  and  conduct  is 
contained  in  a  written  document  without  method, 
without  authority,  without  an  authorized  inter- 
preter. The  collection  of  books  galled  'Hhe  Bible" 
IS  not  a  methodical  code  of  faith  and  morals;  if  it  be 
separated  from  the  stream  of  tradition  which  asserts 
its  Divine  inspiration,  it  has  no  special  authority, 
and,  in  the  hands  of  private  interpreters,  its  meaning 
is  easily  twisted  to  suit  every  private  mind.  Our 
modem  laws,  elaborated  by  moaem  minds  for  modem 
requirements,  are  daily  obscured  and  diverted  from 
their  object  by  interested  pleaders:  judges  are  an 
absolute  necessity  for  their  right  interpretation  and 
application,  and  unless  we  say  that  reugion  is  but  a 
personal  concern,  that  coherent  religious  bodies  or 
churches  are  superfluous,  we  must  admit  that  judges 
of  faith  and  morab  are  as  necessary  to  them  as 
judges  of  civil  law  are  to  States.  And  that  is  another 
reason  why  private  judgment,  though  upheld  in  theory, 
has  not  been  carried  out  in  practicei  As  a  matter  ot 
fact,  all  Protestant  denominations  are  under  con- 
stituted authorities,  be  they  called  priest  or  presby- 
ters, elders  or  ministers,  pastors  or  presidents.  Not- 
withstanding the  contradiction  between  the  freedom 
they  proclaim  and  the  obedience  they  exact,  their 
rule  has  often  been  tyrannical  to  a  degree,  especially 
in  CsJyinistic  communities.  Thus  in  the  seventeenth 
and  eighteenth  centuries  there  Was  no  more  priest- 
ridden  country  in  the  world  than  Presbyterian  Scot- 
land. A  book-religion  has,  moreover,  another  draw- 
back. Its  devotees  can  draw  devotion  from  it  only 
as  fetish  worshippers  draw  it  from  their  idol,  viz. 
by  firmly  believing  in  its  hidden  spirit.  Remove 
belief  in  Divine  inspiration  from  the  sacred  books, 
and  what  remains  may  be  regarded  as  simply  a 
human  document  of  religious  illusion  or  even  of 
fraud.  Now,  in  the  course  of  centuries,  private  judg- 
ment has  partly  succeeded  in  taking  the  spirit  out 
of  the  Bible,  leaving  little  else  than  the  letter^  for 
critics,  high  and  low,  to  discuss  without  any  spiritual 
advantage. 

V.  "Justification  by  Faith  Alone"  in  Prac- 
tice.— This  principle  bears  upon  conduct,  unlike 
free  judgment,  which  bears  on  faith.  It  is  not  sub- 
ject to  the  same  limitations,  for  its  practical  applica- 
tion requires  less  mental  capacity;  its  working  can- 
not be  tested  by  anyone;  it  is  strictly  personal  and 
internal,  thus  escaping  such  violent  conflicts  with 
community  or  state  as  would  lead  to  repression.  On 
the  other  hand,  as  it  evades  coercion,  lends  itself  to 
practical  application  at  every  step  in  man's  Hfe,  and 
favours  man's  inclination  to  evil  by  rendering  a  so- 
called  "conversion"  ludicrously  easy,  its  baneful 
influence  on  morals  is  manifest.  Add  to  justification 
by  faith  alone  the  doctrines  of  predestination  to 
heaven  or  hell  regardless  of  man's  actions,  and  the 
slavery  of  the  human  will,  and  it  seems  inconceivable 
that  any  good  action  at  all  could  result  from  such  be- 
liefs. As  a  matter  of  history,  public  morality  did  at 
once  deteriorate  to  an  appalling  degree  wherever 
Protestantism  was  introduced.  Not  to  mention  the 
robberies  of  Church  goods,  bmtal  treatment  meted 
out  to  the  clergy,  secular  and  regular,  who  remained 


faithful,  and  the  horrors  of  so  many  wars  of  religion, 
we  have  Luther's  own  testimony  as  to  the  evil  re- 
sults of  his  teaching  (see  Janssen,  '^  History  of  the 
German  People",  Eng.  tr.,  vol.  V,  London  and  St. 
Louis,  1908,  274r-83,  where  each  quotation  is  docu- 
mented by  a  reference  to  Luther's  works  as  publidied 
by  de  Wette), 

VI.  Advent  of  a  New  Order:  Cjbbaropapisic. — 
A  similar  picture  of  religious  and  inond  degradation 
may  easily  be  drawn  from  contemporary  Protestant 
writers  for  all  countries  after  the  first  introduction 
of  Protestantism.  It  could  not  be  otherwise.  The 
immense  fermentation  caused  by  the  introduction  of 
subversive  principles  into  the  life  of  a  people  nat- 
urally brings  to  the  surface  and  shows  in  its  utmost 
ugliness  all  that  is  brutal  in  human  nature.  But  only 
for  a  time.  The  ferment  exhausts  itself,  the  fer- 
mentation subsides,  and  order  reappears,  possibly 
under  new  forms.  The  new  form  of  social  and  re- 
ligious order,  which  is  the  residue  of  tjie  great  Protes- 
tant upheaval  in  Europe,  is  territorial  or  State  Re- 
ligion— an  order  based  on  the  reli^ous  supremacy  of 
the  temporal  ruler,  in  contradistmction  to  the  old 
order  in  which  the  temporal  ruler  took  an  oath  of 
obedience  to  the  Church.  For  the  right  understand- 
ing of  Protestantism  it  is  necessary  to  describe  the 
genesis  of  this  far-reaching  change. 

Luther's  first  reformatory  attempts  were  radically 
democratic.  '  He  sought  to  oenefit  the  people  at  large 
by  curtailing  the  powers  of  both  Church  and  State. 
Ine  German  princes,  to  him,  were  ''usually  the  big- 
gest fools  or  the  worst  scoundrels  on  earth".  In 
1523  he  wrote:  ''The  people  will  not,  cannot,  shall 
not  endure  your  tyranny  and  oppression  any  longer. 
The  world  is  not  now  what  it  was  formerly,  when  you 
could  chase  and  drive  the  people  like  game".  This 
manifesto,  addressed  to  the  poorer  masses,  was  taken 
up  by  Franz  von  Sickingen,  a  Knight  of  tiie  Empire, 
who  entered  the  field  in  execution  of  its  threats.  His 
object  was  two-fold:  to  streiigthen  the  political  power 
of  the  knights — the  inferior  nobility — ^against  the 
princes,  anof  to  open  the  road  to  the  new  Gospel  by 
overthrowing  the  bishops.  His  enterprise  had,  how- 
ever, the  opposite  result.  The  knights  were  beaten; 
they  lost  what  influence  they  had  possessed,  and  the 
princes  were  proportionately  strengthened.  The 
rising  of  the  peasants  likewise  turned  to  the  advan- 
tage of  the  prmces:  the  fearful  slaughter  of  Franken- 
hausen  (1525)  left  the  princes  without  an  enemy  and 
the  new  Gospel  without  its  natural  defenders.  The 
victorious  princes  used  their  augmented  power  en- 
tirely for  tneir  own  advantage,  in  opposition  to  the 
authority  of  the  emperor  and  tne  freedom  of  the  na- 
tion; the  new  Gospel  was  also  to  be  made  subservient 
to  this  end,  and  tms  by  the  help  of  Luther  himself. 

After  thft  failure  of  tne  revolution,  Luther  and  Nfe- 
lanchthon  began  to  proclaim  the  doctrine  of  the 
rulers'  unlimited  power  over  their  subjects.  Their 
dissolvins  principles  had,  within  less  than  ten  years, 
destroyed  the  existing;  order,  but  were  unable  to 
knit  together  its  debns  into  a  new  system.  So  the 
secular  powers  were  called  on  for  help;  the  Church 
was  placed  at  the  service  of  the  State,  its  authority, 
its  wealth,  its  institutions  all  passed  into  the  hands  of 
kings,  princes,  and  town  magistrates.  The  one  dis- 
carded Pope  of  Rome  was  replaced  by  scores  of  popes 
at  home.  These,  "to  strengthen  themselves  by  aJ- 
liances  for  the  promulgation  of  the  Gospel",  banded 
together  within  the  limits  of  the  German  Empire  and 
made  common  cause  against  the  emperor.  From 
this  time  forward  the  progr^  of  Protestantism  is  on 
political  rather  than  on  religious  lines;  the  people  are 
not  clamouring  for  innovations,  but  the  rulers  find 
their  advantage  in  being  supreme  bishops,  and  by 
force,  or  cunning,  or  both  impose  the  yoke  of  the  new 
Gospel  on  their  subj ects.  Denmark,  Sweden,  Norway, 
England,  and  all  the  small  principalities  and  im- 


PBOTESTANTI8M 


499 


PROTESTANTISM 


penal  towns  in  Germany  are  examples  in  point. 
The  supreme  heads  and  governors  were  well  aware 
that  the  principles  which  had  brought  down  the 
authority  of  Rome  would  equally  bring  down  their 
own ;  hence  the  penal  laws  everywhere  enacted  against 
dissenters  from  the  state  religion  decreed  by  the 
temporal  ruler.  England,  under  Henry  VIII,  Eliza- 
beth, and  the  Puritans  elaborated  tha  most  ferocious 
of  aJu  penal  codes  against  Catholics  and  others  un- 
willing to  conform  to  the  established  religion. 

To  sum  up:  the  much-vaunted  Protestant  prin- 
ciples only  wrought  disaster  and  confusion  where  they 
were  allowed  free  play;  order  was  only  restored  by 
reverting  to  something  like  the  old  system:  symbols 
of  faith  imposed  by  an  outside  authority  and  en- 
forced by  the  secular  arm.  No  bond  of  union  exists 
between  the  many  national  Churches,  except  their 
common  hatred  for  ''Rome",  which  is  the  birth- 
mark of  all,  and  the  trade-mark  of  many,  even  unto 
our  day. 

VII.  Rapidity  op  Protestant  Progress  Ex- 
plained.— Before  we  pass  on  to  the  study  of  con- 
temporary Protestantism,  we  will  answer  a  question 
and  solve  a  difficulty.  How  is  the  rapid  spread  of 
Protestantism  accounted  for?  Is  it  not  a  proof  that 
God  was  on  the  side  of  the  Reformers,  inspiring, 
fostering,  and  crowning  their  endeavours?  ourely. 
as  we  consider  the  growth  of  early  Christianity  ana 
its  rapid  conquest  of  the  Roman  Empire,  as  proofs  of 
its  Divine  origin,  so  we  should  draw  the  same  con- 
clusion in  favour  of  Protestantism  from  its  rapid 
spread  in  Germany  and  the'northem  parts  of  Europe. 
In  fact  the  Reformation  spread  much  faster  than  the 
Apostolic  Church.  When  the  last  of  the  Apostles 
died,  no  kingdoms,  no  vast  tracts  of  lands^  were  en- 
tirely Christian  J  Christianity  was  still  hiding  in  the 
catacombs  and  m  out-of-the-way  suburbs  of  heathen 
towns.  Whereas,  in  a  period  of  similar  duration, 
say  seventy  years,  Protestantism  had  taken  hold  of 
the  better  part  of  Germany.  Scandinavia,  Switzer- 
land, England,  and  Scotland.  A  moment's  consid- 
eration supplies  the  solution  of  this  difficulty.  Suc- 
cess is  not  invariably  due  to  intrinsic  eoodness,  nor  is 
failure  a  certain  proof  of  intrinsic  badness.  Both 
largely  depend  on  circumstances:  on  the  means  em- 
ployed, the  obstacles  in  the  way,  the  receptivity  of 
the  puolic.  The  success  of  Protestantism,  therefore, 
must  itself  be  tested  before  it  can  be  used  as  a  test 
of  intrinsic  goodness. 

The  reformatory  movement  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury found  the  ground  well  prepared  for  its  reception. 
The  cry  for  a  thorough  reformation  of  the  Church 
in  head  and  members  had  been  ringing  through 
Europe  for  a  full  century;  it  was  justified  by  the 
worloly  lives  of  many  of  the  clergy,  high  and  low,  by 
abuses  in  church  administration,  by  money  ex- 
tortions, by  the  neglect  of  religious  duties  reaching 
far  and  wide  through  the  body  of  the  faithful.  Had 
Protestantism  offered  a  reform  in  the  sense  of  amend- 
ment, probably  all  the  corrupt  elements  in  the  Church 
would  have  turned  against  it,  as  Jews  and  pagans 
turned  against  Christ  and  the  Apostles.  But  what 
the  Reformers  aimed  at  was,  at  least  in  the  first 
instance,  the  radical  overthrow  of  the  existing  Church. 
"*  and  this  overthrow  was  effected  by  pandermg  to  all 
the  worst  instincts  of  man.  A  bait  was  tendered  to 
the  seven-headed  concupiscence  which  dwells  in 
every  human  heart;  pride,  covetousness,  lust,  anger, 
gluttony,  envy,  sloth,  ana  all  their  offspring  were 
covered  and  healed  by  easy  trust  in  God.  No  good 
works  were  required:  the  immense  fortune  of  ihe 
Church  was  the  prize  of  apostasy:  political  and  re- 
ligous  independence  allured  the  kings  and  princes: 
the  abolition  of  tithes,  confession,  fasting,  and  other 
irksome  obligations  attracted  the  masses.  Many 
persons  were  deceived  into  the  new  religion  by  out- 
ward appearances  of  Catholicism  which  the  innova- 


tors carefully  maintained,  e.  g.  in  England  and  the 
Scandinavian  kingdoms.  Evidently  we  need  not 
look  for  Divine  intervention  to  account  for  the  rapid 
spread  of  Protestantism.  It  would  be  more  plausiole 
to  see  the  finger  of  God  in  the  stopping  of  its  progress. 

VIII.  Present-day  Protestantism. — Tkeoloffy. — 
After  nearly  four  centuries  of  existence.  Protestantism 
in  Europe  is  still  the  religion  of  milUons,  but  it  is  no 
more  the  original  Protestantism.  It  has  been,  and 
is,  in  a  perpetual  flux:  the  principle  of  untrammelled 
free  juagment,  or,  as  it  is  now  called.  Subjectivism, 
has  been  swaying  its  adherents  to  and  fro  from  or- 
thodos^  to  Pietism,  from  Rationalism  to  Indifferent- 
ism.  The  movement  has  been  most  pronounced  in 
intellectual  centres,  in  universities  ana  among  theo- 
logians generally,  yet  it  has  spread  down  to  the 
lowest  classes.  The  modem  Ritschl-Hamack  school, 
also  called  Modernism,  has  disciples  everywhere  ana 
not  only  among  Protestants.  For  an  accurate  and  ex- 
haustive survey  of  its  main  lines  of  thou^t  we  re- 
fer the  reader  to  the  Encyclical  ''Pascendi  Dominici 
Gregis"  (8  Sept.,  1907)^  the  professed  aim  of  which 
is  to  defend  the  Cathohc  Church  against  Protestant 
infiltrations.  In  one  point,  indeed,  the  Modernist 
condemned  by  Pius  A  differs  from  his  intellectual 
brothers:  he  remains,  and  wishes  to  remain,  inside 
the  Catholic  Church,  in  order  to  leaven  it  with  his 
ideas;  the  other  stands  frankly  outside,  an  enemy  or 
a  supercilious  student  of  religious  evolution.  It 
should  also  be  noted  that  not  every  item  of  the 
Modernist  pro^amme  need  be  traced  to  the  Protes- 
tant Reformation;  for  the  modem  spirit  is  the  dis- 
tilled residue  of  many  philosophies  and  many  re- 
ligions: the  point  is  that  Protestantism  proclaims 
itself  its  stanaard-beareri  and  claims  credit  for  its 
achievements. 

Moreover,  Modernistic  views  in  philosophy,  the- 
ology, history,  criticism,  apologetips,  churcn  re- 
form etc.,  are  advocated  m  nine-tenths  of  the  Prot- 
estant theological  literature  in  Germany,  France, 
and  America,  England  only  slightly  lagging  behind. 
Now,  Modernism  is  at  the  antipodes  of  sixteenth- 
century  Protestantism.  To  use  Ritschl's  terminol- 
ogy, it  gives  new  "values"  to  the  old  beliefs.  Scrip- 
ture is  still  spoken  of  as  inspired,  but  its  inspiration 
is  only  the  impassioned  expression  of  human  redigious 
experiences;  Christ  is  the  Son  of  God,  but  His  Son- 
ship  is  like  that  of  aziy  other  good  man;  the  very 
ideas  of  God,  religion,  Church,  sacraments,  have  lost 
their  old  values:  they  stand  for  nothing  real  outside 
the  subject  in  whose  religious  life  they  form  a  kind  of 
fool's  paradise.  The  fundamental  fact  of  Christ's 
Resurrection  is  an  historical  fact  no  longer;  it  is  but 
another  freak  of  the  believing  mind.  Hamack  puts 
the  essence  of  Christianity,  that  is  the  whole  teach- 
ing of  Christ,  into  the  Fatherhood  of  God  and  the 
Brotherhood  of  man:  Christ  Himself  is  no  part  of  the 
Gospel  I  Such  was  not  the  teaching  of  the  Reformers, 
Present-day  Protestantism,  therefore,  may  be  com- 
pared with  Gnosticism,  Manichseism,  the  Renaissance, 
eighteenth-century  Philosophism,  in  so  far  as  these 
were  virulent  attacks  on  Christianity,  aiming  at 
nothing  less  than  its  destruction.  It  has  achieved 
important  victories  in  a  kind  of  civil  war  between 
ortnodoxy  and  unbelief  within  the  Protestant  pale; 
it  is  no  mean  enemy  at  the  gate  of  the  Catnqlic 
Church. 

IX.  Popular  Protestantism. — In  Germany,  es- 
pecially in  the  greater  towns.  Protestantism,  as  a 
positive  guide  in  faith  and  morals,  is  rapidly  djring 
out.  It  has  lost  all  hold  of  the  workmg  classes. 
Its  ministers,  when  not  themselves  infidels,  fold  their 
hands  in  helpless  despair.  The  old  faith  is  but  little 
preached  and  with  little  profit.  The  ministerial 
ener^es  are  turned  towards  works  of  charity,  foreign 
missions,  polemics  against  Catholics.  Among  me 
English-speaking  natioiis  things  seem  just  a  little 


PROTESTANTISM 


500 


PBOTISTAITTISM 


better.  Here  the  gpp  of  Protestantism  on  the 
masses  was  much  tighter  than  in  Germany,  the 
Wesleyan  revival  and  the  High  Chm-ch  party  amons 
Anglicans  did  much  to  keep  some  faith  alive,  and 
the  deleterious  teaching  of  English  Deists  and  Ra- 
tionalists did  not  penetrate  into  the  heart  of  the  peo- 
ple. Presbyterianism  in  Scotland  and  elsewhere  has 
also  shown  more  vitality  than  less  well-organized 
sects.  " England '',  says  J.  R.  Green,  ''became  the 
people  of  a  book,  and  that  book  was  the  Bible.  It 
was  as  yet  the  one  English  book  which  was  familiar 
to  every  Englishman;  it  was  read  in  the  churches  and 
read  at  home,  and  evervwhere  its  words,  as  they  fell 
on  ears  which  custom  nad  not  deadened^  kindled  a 
startling  enthusiasm.  ...  So  far  as  the  nation  at  large 
was  concerned,  no  history,  no  romance,  hardly  any 
poetry,  save  the  little-known  verse  of  Chaucer,  existed 
m  the  English  tongue  when  the  Bible  was  ordered  to 
be  set  up  in  churches.  .  .  .  Hie  power  of  the  book 
over  the  mass  of  Englishmen  showed  itself  in  a  thou- 
sand superficial  ways,  and  in  none  more  conspicuously 
than  in  the  influence  exerted  on  ordinary  speech.  .  .  . 
But  far  greater  than  its  effect  on  literature  or  social 
phrase  was  the  effect  of  the  Bible  on  the  character 
of  the  people  at  large  . . .  (Hist,  of  the  English  People, 
chap,  viii,  §  1). 

X.  Protestantism  and  Progress. — ^A.  Preju^ 
dices. — ^The  human  mind  is  so  constituted  that  it 
colours  with  its  own  previous  conceptions  anv  new 
notion  that  presents  itself  for  acceptance.  Though 
truth  be  objective  and  of  its  nature  one  and  unchange- 
able, personal  conditions  are  largely  relative,  de- 
pendent on  preconceptions,  and  changeable.  The 
arguments,  for  example,  which  three  hundred  years  ago 
convinced  our  fathers  of  the  existence  of  witches  and 
sent  millions  of  them  to  the  torture  and  the  stake,  make 
no  impression  on  our  more  enlightened  minds.  The 
same  may  be  said  of  the  whole  theological  contro- 
versy of  the  sixteenth  century.  To  the  modem  man 
it  is  a  dark  body,  of  whose  existence  he  is  aware, 
but  whose  contact  he  avoids.  With  the  controver- 
sies have  gone  the  coarse,  unscrupulous  methods  of 
attack.  The  adversaries  are  now  facing  each  other 
like  parliamentarians  of  opposite  parties,  with  a  com- 
mon desire  of  polite  fairness,  no  longer  like  armed 
troopers  only  mtent  on  killing,  by  fair  means  or 
foul.  Exceptions  there  are  stiU,  but  only  at  low 
depths  in  the  literarv  strata.  Whence  this  change 
of  behaviour,  notwithstanding  the  identity  of  posi- 
tions? Because  we  are  more  reasonable,  more  civil- 
iced;  because  we  have  evolved  from  medieval  darkness 
to  modem  comparative  li^t.  And  whence  this 
progress?  Here  Protestantism  puts  in  its  claim, 
that,  by  freeing  the  mind  from  Roman  thraldom,  it 
opened  the  way  for  religious  and  political  libertv; 
for  untrammelled  evolution  on  the  basis  of  self- 
reliance;  for  a  hi^er  standard  of  morality;  for  the 
advancement  of  science — in  short  for  every  good  thing 
that  has  come  i^to  the  world  since  the  Reformation. 
With  the  majority  of  non-Catholics,  this  notion  has 
hardened  into  a  prejudice  which  no  reasoning  can 
break  up:  the  following  discussion,  therefore,  shall 
not  be  a  battle  royal  for  final  victory,  but  rather  a 
peaceful  review  of  facts  and  principles. 

B.  Progress  in  Church  and  Churches. — The  Catholic 
Church  of  the  twentieth  century  is  vastly  in  advance 
of  that  of  the  sixteenth.  She  has  made  up  her  loss 
in  political  power  and  worldly  wealth  by  increased 
spiritual  influences  and  efiiciency;  her  acmerents  are 
more  widespread,  more  numerous,  more  fervent  than 
at  any  time  in  her  history,  and  they  are  bound  to  the 
central  Government  at  Riome  by  a  more  filial  affection 
and  a  clearer  sense  of  duty.  Religious  education  is 
abundantly  provided  for  clergy  and  laity;  religious 
practice,  morality,  and  works  of  charity  are  flourish- 
ing; the  Catholic  mission-field  is  world-wide  and  rich 
in  harvest.    The  hierarchy  was  never  so  united,  never 


80  devoted  to  the  pope.  The  Roman  unity  is  sucoeoi* 
fully  resisting  the  inroads  of  sects,  of  philosophies, 
of  politics.  Can  our  separated  brethren  tell  a  similar 
tale  of  their  many  Churches,  even  in  lands  where  they 
are  ruled  and  backed  by  the  secular  power?  We  do 
not  rejoice  at  their  disintegration,  at  their  falUnc 
into  religious  indifference,  or  returning  into  ^litical 
parties.  No,  for  any  shied  of  Christianity  is  better 
than  blank  worldliness.  But  we  do  draw  this  con- 
clusion: that  after  four  centuries  the  Catholic  prin- 
ciple of  authority  is  still  working  out  the  salvation  of 
the  Church,  whereas  amonp  Protestants  the  principle 
of  Subjectivism  is  destroyizig  what  remains  of  ih&r 
former  faith  and  driving  multitudes  into  religious 
indifference  and  estrangement  from  the  supernatural. 

C.  Progress  in  Civu  Society. — ^The  political  and 
social  organization  of  Europe  has  undergone  greater 
changes  than  the  Churches.  Royal  prerogatives, 
like  that  exercised,  for  instance,  by  the  Tudor  d3masty 
in  England,  are  gone  for  ever.  "The  prerogative 
was  absolute,  both  in  theory  and  in  practice.  Govern- 
ment was  identified  with  the  will  of  the  sovereign,  his 
word  was  law  for  the  conscience  as  well  as  tiie  con- 
duct of  his  subjects''  (Brewer,  "Letters  and  Papers, 
Foreign  and  Domestic  etc.",  II.  pt.  I,  1,  p.  ccxxiv). 
Nowhere  now  is  persecution  tor  conscience'  sake 
inscribed  on  the  national  statute-books,  or  left  to  the 
caprice  of  the  rulers.  Where  still  carried  on  it  is 
the  work  of  anti-religious  passion  temporarily  in 
power, .  rather  than  the  expression  of  the  national 
will;  at  any  rate  it  has  lost  much  of  its  former  bar- 
barity. Education  is  placed  within  reach  of  the 
poorest  and  lowest.  The  punishment  of  crime  is  no 
longer  an  occasion  for  the  spectacular  display  of 
human  cruelty  to  human  beings.  Poverty  is  largely 
prevented  and  largely  relieved.  Wars  diminish  in 
number  and  are  waged  with  humanity;  atrocities  like 
those  of  the  Thirty  Years  War  in  Germany,  ^e 
Huguenot  wars  in  France,  the  Spanish  wars  in  the 
Netnerlands.  and  Cromwell's  invasion  of  Ireland^  are 
Kone  beyond  the  possibility  of  return.  T^ie  witdi- 
finder,  the  witchbumev,  the  inquisitor,  the  disbanded 
mercenary  soldier  have  ceased  to  plague  the  people. 
Science  has  been  able  to  check  the  outbursts  of  pesti- 
lence, cholera,  smallpox,  and  other  epidemics;  human 
life  has  been  lengHiened  and  its  amenities  increased 
a  hundredfold.  Steam  and  electricity  in  the  service 
of  industry,  trade,  and  international  communication, 
are  even  now  drawing  humanity  tOjB^ether  into  one 
vast  family,  with  many  common  interests  and  a 
tendency  to  uniform  civilization.  IVpm  the  sixteenth 
to  the  twentieth  century  there  has  indeed  been  prog- 
ress. Who  have  been  its  chief  promoters?  Catho- 
lics, or  Protestants,  or  neither? 

The  civil  wars  and  revolutions  of  the  seventeenth 
century  which  put  an  end  to  the  royal  prerogatives  in 
England,  and  set  up  a  real  government  of  the  people 
by  the  people,  were  religious  throughout  anaRt>t- 
estant  to  the  core.  "Lib^y  of  conscience"  was  the 
cry  of  the  Puritans,  which,  however^  meant  liberty  for 
themselves  against  established  Episcopacy.  Tynjor 
nical  abuse  of  their  victory  in  oppressing  the  Episco- 
palians brought  about  their  downfall,  ..and  they  in 
turn  were  the  victims  of  intolerance.  James  II, 
himself  a  Catholic,  was  the  first  to  strive  by  all  the 
means  at  his  command,  to  secure  for  his  subjects  of 
all  the  denominations  ''liberty  of  conscience  for  all 
future  time"  (Declaration  of  Indulgence,  1688). 
His  premature  Liberalism  was  acquiesced  in  by  many 
of  the  clergy  and  laity  of  the  Established  Church, 
which  alonehad  nothing  to  gain  by  git,  but  excited  the 
most  violent  opposition  among  the  Protestant  Non- 
conformists who^  with  the  exception  of  the  Quakers, 
preferred  a  contmuanoe  of  bondage  to  emancipation 
if  shared  with  the  hated  and  (beaded  ''Papists". 
So  strong  was  this  feeling  tiiat  it  overcame  all  those 
principles  of  patriotism  and  respect  for  the  law  of 


PROTESTANTISM 


501 


PROTESTANTISM 


which  the  English  people  are  wont  to  boast,  leading 
them  to  welcome  a  foreign  usurper  and  foreign 
troops  for  no  other  reason  than  to  obtain  their  assist- 
ance against  their  Catholic  fellowHSubjects,  in  part 
to  do  {)recisely  what  the  latter  were  falsely  accused  of 
doing  in  the  time  of  Elisabeth. 

The  Stuart  dvnasty  lost  the  throne,  and  their  suc- 
cessors were  reduced  to  mere  figure-heads.  Political 
freedom  had  been  achieved,  but  the  times  w^re  not 
yet  ripe  for  the  wider  freedom  of  conscience.  The 
penal  laws  against  Catholics  and  Dissenters  were 
aggravated  instead  of  abolished.  That  the  French 
Revolution  of  1789  w'as  largely  influenced  by  the  Eng- 
lish events  of  the  preceding  century  is  beyond  doubt; 
it  is,  however.  equall3r  certain  that  its  moving  spirit 
was  not  English  Puritanism,  for  the  men  who  set 
up  a  declaration  of  the  Rights  of  Man  against  the 
Rights  of  God,  and  who  enthroned  the  Goddess  of 
Reason  in  the  Cathedral  Church  of  Paris,  drew  their 
ideals  from  Pagan  Rome  rather  than  from  Protestant 
Exigland. 

D.  Progress  in  Rdigiaus  Toleration. — Aa  regards 
Protestant  influence  on  the  general  progress  of  civili- 
zation since  the  origin  of  Protestantism  we  must 
mark  off  at  least  two  periods:  the  first  from  the  be- 
ginning in  1517  to  the  end  of  the  Thirty  Years  War 
(1648),  the  second  from  1648  to  the  present  day: 
the  period  of  youthful  expansion,  and  the  period  of 
maturity  and  deca^.  But  before  apportioning  its 
influence  on  civilization  the  previous  questions 
should  be  examined:  in  how  far  does  Chnstianitv 
contribute  to  the  amelioration  of  man — intellectual, 
moral,  material — ^in  this  world:  for  its  salutary  ef- 
fects on  man's  soul  after  death  cannot  be  tested,  and 
consecfuentty  cannot  be  used  as  arguments  in  a  purely 
scientific  disquisition.  There  were  highly-civilized 
nations  in  antiquity,  Assyria,  Egypt,  Greece,  Rome: 
and  there  are  now  China  and  J^an,  whose  culture 
owes  nothing  to  Christianity.  When  Christ  came  to 
enlighten  the  world,  the  li^t  of  Roman  and  Greek 
culture  was  shining  its  bnghtest,  and  for  at  least 
three  centuries  longer  the  new  religion  added  nothing 
to  its  lustre.  The  spirit  of  Qiristian  charity,  how- 
ever, gradually  leavened  the  heathen  mass,  softening 
the  hearts  of  rulers  and  improving  the  condition  of 
the  ruled,  especially  of  the  poor,  the  slave,  the 
prisoner.  The  close  union  of  Church  and  otate, 
begun  with  Constantine  and  continued  under  his 
successors,  the  Roman  emperors  of  East  and  West, 
led  to  much  good,  but  probably  to  more  evil.  The 
lay  episcopacv  which  the  prmces  assumed  well- 
nigh  reduced  the  medieval  Church  to  a  state  of  abject 
vassalage,  the  secular  clergy  to  ignorance  and 
worldliness,  the  peasant  to  bondage  and  often  to 
misery. 

Had  it  not  been  for  the  monasteries  the  Church  of 
the  Middle  Ages  would  not  have  saved,  as  it  did,  the 
remnant  of  Roman  and  Greek  culture  wnich  so  power- 
fuUjr  helped  to  civilize  Western  Europe  after  the  bar- 
banan  invasions.  Dotted  all  over  the  West,  the 
monks  formed  model  societies,  well-organized,  justly 
ruled,  and  prospering  by  the  work  of  their  hands, 
true  ideals  of  a  superior  civilization.  It  was  still 
the  ancient  Roman  civilization,  permeated  with 
Christianity,  but  shackled  by  the  jarring  interests  of 
Church  and  State.  Was  Christian  Europe,  from  a 
worldly  point  of  view,  better  off  at  the  beginning  of 
the  fifteenth  century  than  pagan  Europe  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  fourth?  For  the  beginning  of  our 
aistinctly  modem  progress  we  must  ^o  back  to  the 
Renaissance,  the  Humanistic  or  classical,  i.  e.  pagan 
revival,  following  upon  the  conquest  of  Constantmople 
by  the  Turks  (1453) ;  upon  the  discovery  of  the  new 
Indian  trade  route  round  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope 
by  the  Portuguese;  upon  the  discovery  of  America 
by  the  Spaniards,  and  upon  the  development  of  all 
European  interests,  fostered  or  initiated  at  the  end 


of  the  fifteenth  century,  just  before  the  birth  of  Protes- 
tantism. The  opening  of  the  New  World  was  for 
Euroi)e  a  new  creation.  Minds  expanded  with  the 
vast  spaces  submitted  to  them  for  investigation: 
the  study  of  astronomy,  at  first  in  the  service  ot 
navigation,  soon  reaped  its  own  reward  by  discov- 
eries in  its  proper  domain,  the  stanv  heavens;  de- 
scriptive geography,  botany,  anthropology,  and 
kindred  sciences  demanded  study  of  those  who 
would  reap  a  share  in  the  great  harvest  East  and  West. 
The  new  impulse  and  new  direction  given  to  com- 
merce changed  the  political  aspiect  of  old  Europe. 
Men  and  nations  were  brought  into  that  close  con- 
tact of  common  interests,  which  is  the  root  of  all 
civilization;  wealth  and  the  printing-press  supplied 
the  means  for  satisfying  the  awakened  craving  for 
art,  science,  literature,  and  more  refined  living. 
Amid  this  outburst  of  new  life  Protestantism  appears 
on  the  scene,  itself  a  child  of  the  times.  Did  it  help 
or  hinder  the  forward  movement? 

The  youth  of  Protestantism  was,  naturally  enough, 
a  period  of  turmoil,  of  disturbing  confusion  in  all  the 
spneres  of  life.  No  one  nowadays  can  read  without 
a  sense  of  shame  and  sadness  the  history  of  those 
years  of  religious  and  political  Istrife;  of  religion 
everywhere  made  the  handmaid  of  politics;  of  wanton 
destruction  of  churches  and  shrmes  and  treasures 
of  sacred  art;  of  wars  between  citizens  of  the  same 
land,  conducted  with  incredible  ferocity;  of  terri- 
tories laid  waste,  towns  pillaged  and  levelled  to  the 
ground,  poor  people  sent  adrift  to  die  of  starvation 
in  their  barren  fields;  of  commercial  prosperity  cut 
down  at  a  stroke;  of  seats  of  learning  reduced  to 
ranting  and  loose  living;  of  charity  banished  from 
social  intercourse  to  give  place  to  slander  and  abuse, 
of  coar  eness  in  speech  and  manners,  of  barbarous 
cruelty  on  the  part  of  princes,  nobles,  and  judges 
in  their  dealings  with  the  "subject"  and  the  prisoner, 
in  short  of  the  almost  sudden  drop  of  whole  countries 
into  worse  than  primitive  savagery.  "Greed,  rob- 
bery, oppression,  rebellion,  repression,  wars,  devasta- 
tion, degradation"  would  be  a  fitting  inscription  on 
the  tombstone  of  early  Protestantism. 

But  violenta  non  durant.  Protestantism  has  now 
grown  into  a  sedate  something^  difiScult  to  define. 
In  some  form  or  other  it  is  the  official  religion  in  many 
lands  of  Teutonic  race,  it  also  counts  among  its  ad- 
herents an  enormous  number  of  independent  re- 
ligious bodies.  These  Protestant  Teutons  and  semi- 
Teutons  claim  to  be  leaders  in  modem  civilization: 
to  possess  the  greatest  wealth,  the  best  education, 
the  purest  morals;  in  every  respect  they  feel  them- 
selves superior  to  the  Latm  races  who  still  profess 
the  Catholic  religion,  and  they  ascribe  their  superior- 
ity to  their  Protestantism. 

Man  knows  himself  but  imperfectly:  the  exaA 
state  of  his  health,  the  truth  of  his  knowlec^e,  the 
real  motives  of  his  actions,  are  all  veiled  in  semi- 
obscurity:  of  his  neighbour  he  knows  even  less  than 
of  himself,  and  his  generalizations  of  national  charac- 
ter, typified  by  nicknames,  are  worthless  caricatures. 
Antipathies  rooted  in  ancient  quarrels— political  or 
religious — enter,  largely  into  the  judgments  on  na- 
tions and  Churches.  Opprobrious,  and  so  far  as 
sense  goes,  obsolete  epithets  applied  in  the  heat  and 
passion  of  battle  still  cling  to  the  ancient  foe  and  create 

Prejudice  against  him.  Conceptions  formed  three 
undred  years  ago  amid  a  state  of  things  which  has 
long  ceased  to  be,  still  survive  and  distort  our  judg- 
ments. How  slowly  the  terms  Protestant,  Papist, 
Romanist,  Nonconformist,  and  others  are  losing  their 
old  unsavoury  connotation.  Again:  Is  there  &ny  of 
the  greater  nations  that  is  purely  Protestant?  The 
richest  provinces  of  the  German  Empire  are  Catholic, 
and  contain  fully  one-third  of  its  entire  population. 
In  the  United  States  of  America,  according  to  the 
latest  census,  Catholics  form  the  majority  of  tb^ 


PBOTESTANTISM 


502 


PBOTESTANTISM 


church-going  population  in  many  of  the  largest  cities: 
San  Fnuicisco  (81 '1  per  cent);  New  Orleans  (79*7  per 
cent);  New  York  (76-9  per  cent);  St.  Louis  (69  per 
cent) ;  Boston  (68-7  per  cent) ;  Chicago  (68-2  per  cent) ; 
Philadelphia  (51*8  per  cent). 

Great  Britain  and  its  colonies  have  a  Catholic 
population  of  over  twelve  miUions.  Holland  and 
Switserland  have  powerful  Catholic  provinces  and 
cantons;  onlv  the  small  Scandinavian  kingdoms  have 
succeeded  in  keeping  down  the  old  religion.  A  further 
question  suggests  itself:  granting  that  some  states,  are 
more  prosperous  than  others,  is  their  greater  pros- 
perity due  to  the  particular  form  of  Christianity 
they  profess?  The  idea  is  absurd.  For  all  Chris- 
tian denominations  have  the  same  moral  code — the 
Decalogue — and  believe  in  the  same  rewards  for  the 
good  and  punishments  for  the  wicked.  Wc  hear  it 
asserted  that  Protestantism  produces  self-reliance, 
whereas  Catholicism  extinguishes  it.  Against  this 
may  be  set  the  statement  ih&i  Catholicism  produces 
disciplined  order — an  equally  good  conmiercial  asset. 
The  truth  of  the  matter  is  that  self-reliance  is  best 
fostered  by  free  political  institutions  and  a  decen- 
tralized government.  These  existed  in  England  be- 
fore the  Keformation  and  have  survived  it;  they  like- 
wise existed  in  Germany,  but  were  crushed  out  b^ 
Protestant  Csesaropapism,  never  to  revive  with  their 
primitive  vigour.  Medieval  Italjr,  the  Italy  of  the 
Renaissance,  enjoyed  free  municipal  government  in 
its  many  towns  and  principalities:  though  the  coim- 
try  was  Catholic,  it  brought  forth  a  crop  of  undis- 
ciplined self-reliant  men,  great  in  many  walks  of  life, 
good  and  evil.  And  looking  at  history,  we  see  Catho- 
Bc  France  and  Spain  attaining  the  zenith  of  their 
national  grandeur,  whilst  Germany  was  undermining 
and  disintegrating  that  Holy  Roman  Empire  vested 
in  the  German  nation — an  empire  which  was  its 
glory,  its  strength,  the  source  and  mainstay  of  its 
culture  and  prosperity. 

England's  grandeur  during  the  same  epoch  is  due 
to  the  same  cause  as  that  of  Spain:  the  impulse 
given  to  all  national  forces  by  the  discovery  of  the 
New  World.  Both  Spain  and  England  began  by 
securing  religious  unity.  In  Spain  the  Inquisition 
at  a  small  cost  of  human  life  preserved  the  old  faith; 
in  England  the  infinitely  more  cruel  penal  laws 
stamped  out  all  opposition  to  the  innovations  im- 
ported from  Germany.  Germany  itself  did  not 
recover  the  prominent  position  it  held  in  Europe 
under  the  Emperor  Charles  V  until  the  constitution 
of  the  new  empire  during  the  Franco-German  War 
(1871).  Since  then  its  advance  in  every  direction, 
except  that  of  religion,  has  been  such  as  seriously  to 
threaten  the  commercial  and  maritime  supremacy  of 
England.  The  truth  of  the  whole  matter  is  this: 
Miffious  toleration  has  been  placed  on  the  statute 
books  of  modem  nations;  the  civil  power  has  severed 
itself  from  the  ecclesiastical;  the  governing  classes 
have  grown  alarmingly  indifferent  to  things  spiritual; 
the  educated  classes  are  largely  Rationalistic;  the 
working  classes  are  widely  ^  infected  with  anti-re- 
ligious socialism;  a  prolific  press  daily  and  period- 
i(^y  preaches  the  gospel  of  Naturalism  overtly  or 
covertly  to  countless  eager  readers;  in  many  lands 
Christian  teaching  is  banished  from  the  public  schools; 
and  revealed  rehgion  is  fast  losing  that  power  of 
faE^oning  politics,  culture,  home  me,  and  personal 
character  which  it  used  to  exercise  for  the  benefit 
of  Christian  states.  Amid  this  almost  general  flight 
from  God  to  the  creature,  Catholicism  alone  makes  a 
stand:  its  teaching  is  intact,  its  discipline  stronger 
than  ever,  its  confidence  in  final  victory  is  unshaken. 

E.  The  Test  of  Vitality.— A  better  standard  for 
comparison  than  the  glamour  of  worldly  progress, 
at  best  an  accidental  result  of  a  religious  system, 
is  the  power  of  self-preservation  and  propagation, 
i.  e.  vital  energy.    Wnat  are  the  facts?    "The  anti- 


Protestant  movement  in  the  Roman  Church  "  says  a 
Protestant  writer,  "which  is  generally  called  the 
Counter-Reformation,  is  really  at  least  as  remarkable 
as  the  Reformation  itself.  At>bably  it  would  be  no 
exaggeration  to  call  it  the  most  remarkable  single 
episode  that  has  ever  occurred  in  the  history  of  the 
Christian  Church.  Its  immediate  success  was 
greater  than  that  of  the  Protestant  movement,  and 
its  permanent  results  are  fully  as  lari^e  at  the  present 
day.  It  called  forth  «a  burst  of  missionary  enthu- 
siasm such  as  has  not  been  seen  since  the  first  day  of 
Pentecost.  So  far  as  organization  is  concerned,  there 
can  be  no  question  that  the  mantle  of  the  men  who 
made  the  Roman  Empire  has  fallen  upon  the  Roman 
Church;  and  it  has  never  given  more  striking  proof* 
of  its  vitality  and  power  than  it  did  at  this  time,  im- 
mediately after  a  large  portion  of  Europe  had  been 
torn  from  it«  grasp.  Printing-presses  poured  forth 
literature  not  only  to  meet  the  controversial  needs  of 
the  moment  but  also  admirable  editions  of  the  early 
Fathers  to  whom  the  Reformed  Churches  appealed — 
sometimes  with  more  confidence  than  knowledge. 
Armies  of  devoted  missionaries  were  scientificaUy 
marshalled.  Regions  of  Europe  which  had  seemed 
to  be  lost  for  ever  [for  example,  the  southern  portion 
of  Germany  and  parts  of  Austria-Hunganr]  were  re- 
covered to  the  Papacy,  and  the  claims  of  the  Vicar 
of  Christ  were  carried  far  and  wide  through  countries 
where  they  had  never  been  heard  before"  (R.  H. 
Maiden,  classical  lecturer,  Selwyn  College,  Cam- 
bridge, in  "Foreign  Missions  ,  London,  1910, 
119-20). 

Dr.  G.  Wameck,  a  protagonist  of  the  Evangelical 
Alliance  in  Germany,  thus  describes  the  result  of  the 
KuUurkampf:  "The  Kulturkampf  [i.  e.  struggle  for 
superiority  of  Protestantism  against  Catholicism  in 
Prussia],  which  was  inspired  by  political,  national, 
and  liberal-religious  motives,  end^  with  a  complete 
victory  for  Rome.  When  it  began,  a  few  men,  who 
knew  Rome  and  the  weapons  used  against  her,  fore- 
told with  certainty  that  a  contest  with  Romanism 
on  such  lines  would  of  necessity  end  in  defeat  for  the 
State  and  in  an  increase  of  power  for  Romanism.  .  .  . 
The  enemy  whom  we  met  in  battle  has  brilliantly 
conquered  us,  though  we  had  all  the  arms  civil  power 
can  supply.  True,  the  victory  is  partly  owing  to  the 
ability  of  the  leaders  of  the  Centre  party,  but  it  is 
truer  still  that  the  weapons  used  on  our  side  were 
blunted  tools,  unfit  ^or  doing  serious  harm.  The 
Roman  Church  is  indeed,  like  the  State,  a  political 
power,  worldly  to  the  core,  but  after  all  she  is  a  Church, 
and  therefore  disposes  of  religious  powers  which  ^e 
invariably  brings  into  action  when  contending  with 
civil  powers  for  supremacy.  The  State  has  no 
equivalent  power  to  oppose.  You  cannot  hit  a  spirit, 
not  even  the  Roman  spirit  ..."  (Der  evangelische 
Bund  imd  seine  Gegner",  13-14).  The  anti-re- 
ligious Government  of  France  is  actuallv  renewing  the 
Kulturkampf;  but  no  more  than  its  derman  models 
does  it  succeed  in  "hitting  the  Roman  spirit".  En- 
.  dowments,  churches,  schools,  convents  have  been  con- 
fiscated, yet  the  spirit  lives. 

The  other  mark  of  Catholic  vitality — the  power 
of  propagation — ^is  evident  in  missionary  work. 
Long  before  the  birth  of  Protestantism,  Catholic 
missionaries  had  converted  Europe  and  carried  the 
Faith  as  far  as  China.  After  the  Reformation  they 
reconciuered  for  the  Church  the  Rhinelands,  Bavaria, 
Austria,  part  of  Hungary^  and  Poland;  they  e8tai>- 
lished  flourishing  Christian  communities  all  over 
North  and  South  America  and  in  the  Portuguese  colo- 
nies, wherever,  in  short,  Catholic  powers  allowed  them 
free  play.  For  nearly  three  hundred  years  Protes- 
tants were  too  intent  on  self-preservation  to  thijok  of 
foreign  missionary  work.  At  the  present  day,  how- 
ever, they  develop  great  activity  in  all  heathen  coun- 
tries, and  not  witnout  a  fair  success..   Maiden,  in  the 


i 


PBOTHONOTABY 


503 


PBOTOPOPE 


work  quoted  above,  compares  Catholic  with  Prot- 
estant methods  and  results:  althou^  his  sympathy 
is  naturally  with  his  own,  his  approbation  is  all  for 
the  other  side. 

XI.  Conclusion. — Catholicism  numbers  some  270 
millions  of  adherents,  all  professing  the  same  Faith, 
using  the  same  sacraments,  living  under  the  same 
discipline;  Protestantism  claims  roundly  100  mil- 
lions of  Christians,  products  of  the  Gospel  and  the 
fancies  of  a  hundred  reformers,  people  constantly 
bewailing  their  "unhappy  divisions"  and  vainly  cry- 
ing for  a  union  which  is  onl^r  possible  under  that  very 
central  authority,  protestation  aga^lst  which  is  theur 
only  common  denominator. 

For  oontroverqial  matter  see  any  Catholic  or  Prot«fltant  text- 
books. The  Catholic  standard  work  ia  Bbllabminb,  DiaputtUionM 
de  Controveraiit  Christiana  fidei  etc.  (4  vols.,  Rome,  1832-8); 
on  the  Protestant  side:  Gbbhabd,  Loci  Theotoaiei,  etc.  (9  vols., 
Berlin,  1863-76).  For  the  historical,  political,  and  social  his- 
tory of  Protestantism  the  best  works  are:  DOlunqbr,  DiB 
Reformation  (3  vols.,  Ratisbon,  1843-61);  The  Church  and  the 
Chur^iea,  tr.  MacCabb  (1862);  Jakbsbn,  HiU.  of  the  Qerman 
People  at  the  cloee  of  the  Middle  Agee^  tr.  Chkistxb  (London, 
189&-1910);  Pastob,  Hiet.  of  the  Popea  from  the  dose  of  the 
Middle  Agea^  tr.  Antrobus  (London,  1891-1910);  Balmbb, 
Proleatantiam  and  Catholicity  in  their  effect*  on  the  dtUiuUion  of 
Europe,  tr.  Hanford  and  Kbrsbaw  (1849);  Baudrillart. 
The  Catholic  Church,  the  Renaieaance  and  Proteatantiam,  tr. 
Gibbs  (London,  1908),  these  are  illuminating  lecturea  given  at 
the  Institut  Catholique  of  Paris  by  its  rector..  On  the  Protestant 
side  may  be  recommended  the  voluminous  writings  of  Cbbiqhton 
and  Gardinbb,  both  fair-minded. 

J.   WiLHBLM. 

Prothonotary  Apostolic,  member  of  the  highest 
college  of  prelates  in  the  Roman  Curia,  and  also  of  the 
honorary  prelates  on  whom  the  pope  has  conferred 
this  title  and  its  special  privileges,  in  later  antiquity 
there  were  in  Rome  seven  regional  notaries,  who,  on 
the  further  development  of  the  papal  administration 
and  the  accompanying  increase  of  the  notaries,  re- 
mained the  supreme  palace  notaries  of  the  papal  chan- 
cery (notcarii  apostolici  or  proUmotarii) .  In  the  Middle 
Ages  the  prothonotaries  were  very  high  papal  officials, 
and  were  often  raised  directly  from  this  office  to  the 
cardinalate.  Sixtus  V  (1685-90)  increased  their  num- 
ber to  twelve.  Their  importance  gradually  dimin- 
ished, and  at  the  time  of  the  French  Revolution  the 
office  had  almost  entirelv  disappeared.  On  8  Febru- 
ary, 1838,  Gregory  XVI  re-established  the  college  of 
real  prothonotanes  with  seven  members  called 
''protonotarii  de  numero  participantium'',  because 
they  shared  in  the  revenues. 

Since  the  sixteenth  century  the  popes  had  also  ap- 
pointed honorary  prothonotaries,  who  enjoyed  the 
same  privileges  as  the  seven  real  members  of  the 
college;  and  titular  prothonotaries,  who  held  a  corre- 
sponding position  in  tne  administration  of  the  episcopal 
ordinariate  or  in  the  collegiate  chapter.  By  the  Motu 
Proprio  "Inter  multiplices"  of  21  February,  1905, 
Pius  X  exactly  defined  the  position  of  the  prothono- 
taries. These  are  divided  mto  four  classes:  (1)  the 
"  Protonotarii  apostolici  de  numero  participantiiun^' 
(members  of  the  college  of  prelates),  who  exercise  their 
office  in  connexion  with  the  acts  of  consistories  and 
canonizations,  have  a  representative  in  the  Congrega- 
tion of  the  Propaganda,  and,  according  to  the  reor- 
ganization of  the  (Juria  by  the  Constitution  "Sapienti 
consilio"  of  29  June,  1908,  sign  the  papal  Bulls  instead 
of  the  earlier  abbreviators  (q.  v.).  They  enjoy  the 
use  of  pontificals  and  numerous  privileges,  and  may 
also,  after  examining  the  candidates,  name  annually 
a  fixed  number  of  doctors  of  theology  and  of  canon 
law;  (2)  the  " Protonotarii  apostolici  supranumerarii", 
a  di^ty  to  which  only  the  canons  of  the  three  Roman 

Satnarchal  churches  (the  Lateran,  St.  Peter's,  and  St. 
fary  Major),  and  of  cathedral  chapters  outside  of 
Rome  to  which  the  privilege  has  been  granted,  can  be 
raised j  (3)  the  "  Protonotarii  apostolici  ad  instar  [sc. 
participantium]'',  who  are  appointed  by  the  pope  and 
have  tne  same  external  insignia  as  the  real  prothono- 
taries; (4)  the  "Protonotarii  titulares  seu  honorarii'', 


who  are  found  outside  of  Rome,  and  who  may  receive 
this  dignity  from  the  nuncios  or  as  a  special  privilege. 
The  privileges,  dress,  and  insignia  of  the  members  of 
these  four  classes  are  exactly  defined  by  the  above- 
mentioned  Motu  Proprio. 

See  the  bibliography  of  Frblatb. 

J.  P.  KiBSCH. 

Protocanonical  Books.    See  Canon  of  the  Holt 

Scriptures. 

Protocol,  the  formula  used  at  the  beginning' of 
public  acts  drawn  up  by  notaries,  e.  g.,  mention  oi  the 
reign,  time,  place,  etc.  (Justinian,  "Novels",  43); 
also,  the  compact  register  in  which  notaries  register 
the  acts  drawn  up  by  them,  in  order  of  date;  finally, 
the  first  draft  of  these  acts  (called  minutes,  because 
they  are  written  in  small  characters),  which  remain 
in  care  of  the  notary,  and  from  which  a  copy  or  tran- 
script (said  to  be  engrossed,  because  written  in  larger 
characters)  is  made,  and  sent  to  the  interested  parties. 
In  tribunals  where  the  registrars  have  retained  the 
name  notary,  the  protocol  is  the  register  in  which 
records  of  the  proceedings  are  preserved  and  the  office 
in  which  the  originals  of  these  documents  are  kept 
(cf.  Regulation  of  the  Rota,  4  August,  1910,  art.  2). 
Public  acts,  official  records,  ought  to  be  either  the 
originals  (engrossed)  or  authentic  copies,  i.  e.,  certified 
to  De  faithful  copies  of  the  originaT  preserved  in  the 
protocol,  the  notary  who  transcribes  the  dociunent 
witnessing  on  the  copy  itself  that  it  is  exact;  this  is 
what  isknown  as  fides  instrumentorum,  or  trust- 
wortliiness  of  the  documents. 

Dn  Canoe,  Gloaaarium,  s.  v.  ProtocoUum;  the  canomcal  writers 
on  the  title  De  fide  inatrumentorum,  II,  tit.  xxii. 

A.   BOITDINHON. 

Protoeyaageliuzti  of  St.  James.  See  Apocbt- 
PHA,  sub-title  III. 

Protomartyr.    See  Stephen,  Saint. 

Protopope,  a  priest  of  hisher  rank  in  xke  Orthodox 
and  Bysantine  Uniat  Churches,  correspondingsin  gen- 
eral to  the  Western  archpriest  or  dean.  The  rights 
and  duties  of  these  dignitaries  have  varied  to  some  ex- 
tent at  different  times  and  in  different  local  Churches. 

Roughly  the  titles  archpriest  {dpxiirpwp&repoi),  pro- 
topriest  (wpunoieptds,  Tpu)Towp€ffP&repos)j  jrrotopope  {wpta^ 
Toirairfit)  may  be  taken  as  meaning  tne  same  thing, 
though  they  have  occasionally  been  distinguished.  The 
general  idea  is  that  the  archpriest  has  the  highest  rank 
m  his  order;  he  comes  immediately  after  the  bishop. 
In  the  fifth  century  he  appears  as  head  of  the  college 
of  priests,  as  the  bishop's  delegate  for  certain  duties  of 
visitation  and  judgment,  as  his  representative  in  case 
of  absence  or  death  {sede  vacante).  So  Liberatus: 
"Breviarium",  XIV  (P.  L.,  LXVIII,  1016).  He 
therefore  combined  the  offices  of  our  modem  dean  of 
the  chapter,  vicar-general,  and  vicar  capitular.  The 
title  recurs  constantly  in  the  early  Middle  Ages  (Bing- 
ham, op.  cit.,  I,  292  sqq.).  At  Constantinople  there 
was  an  eliJx)rately  organized  court  of  ecclesiastical 
persons  around  the  patriarch,  whose  various  places  in 
choir  when  the  patriarch  celebrated  are  given  in  the 
Euchologion  together  with  a  statement  of  their  duties. 
Among  these  the  protopope  had  the  first  place  on  the 
left.  "The  protopope  stands  above  the  left  choir 
when  the  pontiff  celebrates,  he  gives  to  him  [the  pon- 
tiff) Holy  Communion  and  in  the  same  way  the  pontiff 
to  the  protopope;  and  he  has  all  first  places  [t4  wpaneTa 
wdvra]  in  thecnurch"  (Goar,  225).  Under  him  is  the 
"second  one"  (6  fieurepitfwi'),  who  takes  his  place  in  his 
absence  (ibid.).  So  also  Leo  Allatius's  list,  where  it  is 
said  further  that:  "he  holds  the  place  [KparQy  tAitop,  as 
deputy]  of  the  pontiff"  (ibid.,  229).  He  is  promoted 
by  presentation  to  the  patriarch,  who  lays  his  hand  on 
him  with  prayer,  and  the  clergy  cry  "A^of"  three 
times  (the  rite  from  Allatius  is  given  by  Goar,  238). 
Goar  notes  that  the  protopope,  at  least  to  some  ex- 


7BOT0TYPI 


biahop  is  present  he  presided  and  said  the  £l:p'ioncseu. 
In  the  biahop'a  absence  he  took  his  place  as  president, 
and  had  iunsdiction  over  hta  fellow-clergy.  George 
Kodinos  (fourteentli  century)  says  ot  the  protapo_pe: 
"he  is  first  in  the  tribunal  \roS  piti^m,  in  authonty] 
holding  the  second  place  tJter  the  pontifi'"  (De  Offi- 
ciis,  I,  quoted  by  Goar  237). 

Distinct  from  the  official  of  the  patriarchal  court, 
though  bearing  the  same  title,  were  the  protopopes  in 
the  country  parishes.  They  correepond  to  our  rural 
deaiis,  having  delegate  episcopal  jursidiction  for  minor 
cases,  from  which  appesJ  may  be  made  to  the  bishop. 
So  Theodore  Balsamon  (twelfth  century):  "It  is  foi^ 
bidden  by  the  canons  that  there  should  be  bishops  in 
Btttoll  towns  and  villages  and  because  of  this  they  or- 
dain tor  these,  priests  who  are  protopopes  and  chore- 
piscopi"  (Syntagma,  III,  142).  There  are  cases  in 
which  a  protopope  m  a  remote  place  has  episcopal 
jurisdiction,  but  not  orders,  like  some  vicars  Apos- 
tolic, or  the  archpriests  in  England  from  1599  to  1621. 
In  such  cases  they  are  distinguished  from  archpriests 
and  have  such  officials  under  them  (so  the  introduc- 
tion to  Nicholas  Bulgaris's  "Sacred  Catechism", 
Venice,  1681). 

In  modem  times  the  Orthodox  (and  Uniat)  title  of 
protopope  often  means  hardly  more  than  a  compli- 
tnentary  title  conveying  a  certain  rank  and  precedence 
with  sometimes  a  few  unimportant  rights.  Often  in  a 
church  that  has  several  pnests  (as  we  should  say  a 
rector  and  curates)  the  first  (rector)  is  called  proto- 
pope. In  Russia,  Bulgaria,  Rumania,  and  Austria 
the  protopopes  have  authority  over  a  district  oontun- 
ing  several  parishes.  They  have  to  visit  these  occa- 
sionally and  represent  for  tne  ciorgy  the  court  of  first 
instance.  In  Orthodox  Hungary  and  Transylvania 
there  are  protopresbyterates  (eparchies),  in  which  the 
protopope  is  elected  by  clergy  and  people  and  rules 
under  the  bishop.  In  these  cases  he  may  be  compared 
to  our  rural  deans.  Such  an  office  is  the  highest  to 
which  a  married  Orthodox  priest  may  aspire,  since 
bishops  are  always  monks.  In  Rustda  the  pro- 
topope (protoierei)  sometimes  wears  the  Byzantine 
mitre  and  epigonation,   but  not  the  omopkorUm  or 

Gam,    Euchologim    (VEOiM,    1730);     BlHoaAH,    Originu   lit* 

anfifuilojH  eccltiuiIicK  (LoDdoa.  1723) :  SLiuMm.  Da4  Kirchm- 
rechtdermffrffeTUandiEchrnKirche  i2iidbd..Moetat,lWiS);  Khib, 
Die  ruinnA-KhumaliKkt  Kirclu  (Oru.  18M). 

Adrian  Portescub. 

Prototype.    See  Herubnectics. 

ProtUB  and  ^ftdnth.  Saints,  martyrs  during 
the  persecution  of  Valerian  (r57-9).  The  day  of  their 
annual  commemoration  is  mentioned  in  the  "  Depositio 
Martyrum"  in  the  chronMraphia  for  354  (Ruinart, 
"Acta  martyrum".  ed.  Ratisbon,  632)  under  11 
September.  The  cnronographia  also  mentions  their 
sraves,  in  the  Camelerium  of  Basilla  on  the  Via 
Solaria,  later  the  Catacomb  of  St.  Hermes.  The 
Itineraries  and  other  early  authorities  likewise  give 
this  place  of  burial  (De  Rossi,  "Roma  sotterranea", 
I,  176-7).  In  1845  Father  March!  discovered  the  still 
undisturbed  grave  of  St.  Hyacinth  in  a  crypt  of  the 
above-mentioned  catacomb.  It  was  a  small  square 
niche  in  which  lay  the  ashes  and  pieces  of  burned  bone 
wrapped  in  the  remains  of  costly  stuffs  (Marchi, 
"Monumenti  primitivi:  I,  Architettura  della  Roma 
sotteiraneacristina"  Rome,  1844,  238 sqq.,  264  sqq.). 
Evidently  the  stunt  had  been  burnt;  most  probably 
both  mar^rs  had  suffered  death  by  fire.  The  niche 
was  closed  by  a  marble  slab  similar  to  that  used  to 
close  a  Iceulut,  and  bearing  the  original  inscription 
that  confirmed  the  date  in  the  old  Martyrology; 
D  P  III  IDU8  8EPTEBR 
YACINTHUS 
MARTYR 


(Buried  on  11  September  Hyacinthiu  Martyr).  In 
the  same  chamber  were  found  fragments  of  an  archi- 
trave belonging  to  some  later  decoration,  with  the 

...  SEPULCRUM  PROTI  M(artyri«)  . . . 
(Grave  of  the  Martyr  Protua).  Thus  both  martyr* 
were  buried  in  the  same  crypt.  Pope  Damasus  wrote 
an  epitaph  in  honour  of  the  two  martyrs,  part  ot  whic^ 
still  exists  (Ihm,  "Damasi  epigrammata",  52,  49). 
In  the  epitaph  Damasus  calls  Protus  and  Hyacinth 
brothers.  WhenLeo  IV  (847-66)  translated  the  bones 
of  a  lai^  number  ot  Roman  martyrs  t^  the  churches 
of  Rome,  the  relics  of  these  two  saints  were  to  be 
translated   also;   but,   probably   on   account   ot  the 


San  Salvatore  on  the  Palatine.  The  remains  of  St. 
Hyacinth  were  placed  (1849)  in  the  chapel  oS  the 
Propaganda.  Later  the  tombs  of  the  two  saints  and 
a  stairway  built  at  the  end  of  the  fourth  century  were 
discovered  and  restored. 

*.'..r.    Rom,  touUrraint  (2nd  ed.,  Pum.  1877),  5M  »qq.: 
Ltt  aOlKomba  nnnainei  (!Dd  ed..  Ronu,  1903),  480 

- ~S),  11  ■       — 


.;  Iftuno  BmU.  di  _ 
iutAwa  Koffioanjthi 


I.  (1S9S).  11  aqq.;  (ISQS).  77Mq.: 

a,  II.  lOlSl    DUTODSCQ,  L—  QoU 


J.  p.  KiRSCB. 


Prout,  Father,  the  name  by  which  the  Rev. 
Francis  Sylvester  Mahony  (O'Mahony),  author  of 
"The  Bells  of  Shondon",  is  senerally  known,  b.  at 
Cork  31  Dec.,  1804;  d,  in  Fans,  18  May,  1866.  Edu- 
cated at  Clongowes  Wood  College,  Ireland,  and  St- 
Acheul,  France  , 
(1815-21),  he  en- 
tered the  Jesuit 
novitiate  in  Paris  | 
in  1821,  B 
1823  was  sent  to    | 


ROK 


philos- 
ophy. In  1826 
he  returned  to 
Clongowes  as  dis- 
ciplinarian and 
after  a  brief  stay 
there,  going  sulh- 
sequentlyto  Frei- 
burg and  nor- 
ence,  fae  left  the 
ScEiety  of  Jesus 
and  entered  the 
Irish  College  at 
Rome  as  a  stu- 
dent for  the  priest- 
hood. He  did  not 
complete  his  course  there,  but 


Pboitt  (FaiHcu  Mabokt) 
1 1832  was  orduned  at 


superiors  had  advised  h 
diocese  and  for  a  time  served  there  as  priest,  being 
conspicuous  for  his  heroism  and  devotion  as  chaplain 
to  the  Cork  Cholera  Hospital  during  the  terrible  epi- 
demic that  visited  the  city  at  that  time.  Developing 
some  differences  with  his  superiors,  he  went  to  London 
in  1834,  and  almost  immediately  commenced  his  liter- 
ary career,  joininB  "Fraser's  Magazine",  then  under 
the  editorship  ot  his  fellow-townsman,  Maginn.  For 
three  years  he  wrote  in  "Fraser's"  (1834-7),  then  in 
"Bentley's  Magasine",  edited  by  Charles  Dickens, 
and  in  1846  was  sent  by  Dickens  to  Rome  as  oorre- 
spondent  for  the  "Daily  News".  For  twelve  years  he 
filled  that  post,  then  went  to  Paris  (1858)  as  oone- 
spondent  of  the  "Globe"  and  spent  the  rest  of  his  life 
there.  After  his  death  his  remains  were  brou^t  to 
Cork  and,  after  a  public  funeral,  were  interred  m  the 
family  vault  in  Shandon  churchyard.  Althou^  for 
thirty  years  MsJlony  did  not  exeruse  hie  priestly 


j^ttovANdaift  505  i^&ovs&BS 


duties,  he  never  wavered  in  his  deep  loyalty  to  the 
Church,  recited  his  Office  daily,  and  received  the  last 


ProTerbSy  Book  of,  one  of  the  Sapiential  writings 
of  the  Old  Testament  placed  in  the  Hebrew  Bible 

sacraments  at  the  hands  of  his  old  friend,  Abbd  among  the  Hagiompha,  and  found  in  the  Vulgate 

Rogerson,  who  has  left  abundant  testimony  of  his  after  the  books  of  Psalms  and  Job. 
excellent  dispositions.    Popularly  best  known  as  the        I.  Names  and  General  Object. — In  the  Masso- 

author  of  the  famous  lyric,  ''The  Bells  of  Shandon'',  retic  Text,  the  Book  of  Proverbs  has  for  its  natural 

Mahony's  title  to  literary  fame  rests  more  securely  heading   tiie   words  HttblT  ''br?:,   Mishli  Shddmoh 

upon  the  collection  of  writings  known  as  the  "Rel-  (Proverbs  of  Solomon),  wherewith  this  sacred  writing 

iques  of  Father  Prout''.     Dowered  with  a  retentive  begins  (cf.  x).    In  the  Talmud  and  in  later  Jewish 

memory,  irrepressible  humour,  large  powers  of  ex-  works  the  Book  of  Proverbs  is  oftentimes  designated 

pression,  and  a  strongly  satiric  turn  of  mind,  an  om-  by  the  single  word  MUkUf  and  this  abridged  title 

nivorous  reader,  well  trained  in  the  Latin  classics,  is  expressly  mentioned  in  the  superscription  ''  Liber 

thoroughly  at  home  in  the  French  and  Italian  Ian-  Proverbiorum,    quem    Hebrsi    MisU    appellant'', 

guages,andaready  writer  of  rhythmic  verse  in  English,  found  in  the  official  edition  of  the  Vulgate.    In  the 

Latin,  and  French,  he  produced  in  such  articles  bs  Septuagint  MSS.,  the  two  Hebrew  titles  are  ren- 

"AnApolo^forLenf, 'literature  and  the  Jesuits'',  dered  bv  wtipoifilai  Zo(a)\ofiQrros  and  wapoifdaij  re- 

and  "The  Rogueries  of  Tom  Moore",  an  extraordi-  spectively.    From  these  Greek  titles  again  are  imme- 

nary  mixture  of  erudition,  fancy,  and  wit,  such  as  is  cuately   derived   the   Latin   renderings,    "Parabolse 

{>ractically  without  precise  parallel  in  contemporaiy  Salomonis".  "Parabols",  a  trace  of  which  appears 
iterature'  The  best  of  his  work  appeared  in"  Fraser's  in  the  Triaentine  "Decretum  de  Canon.  Script.", 
Magazine"  duiing  the  first  three  years  of  his  literary  wherein  the  Book  of  Proverbs  is  simpler  called  "Para- 
life.  He  translated  largely  from  Horace  and  the  bote".  The  ordinary  title  "Proverbia  Salomonis" 
poets  of  France  and  Italy,  including  a  complete  and  was  apparently  taken  from  the  Old  Latin  Version 
free  metrical  rendering  of  Gresset  s  famous  mock-  into  tne  Vulgate,  whence  comes  directly  ths  usual 
heroic  poem  "Vert-Vert"  and  Jerome  Vida's  "Silk-  English  title  of  "Proverbs".  In  the  Church's  litur^. 
worm".  But  his  newspaper  correspondence  from  the  Book  of  Proverbs  is,  like  the  other  Sapiential 
Rome  and  Paris  is  notable  chiefly  for  the  vigour  of  his  writings,  designated  by  the  common  term  "Wisdom", 
criticisms  upon  men  and  measures,  expressed,  as  these  This  is  consonant  to  the  practice,  common  in  early 
were,  in  most  caustic  language.  Seven  years  before  Christian  times,  of  designating  such  books  bv  the 
his  aeath  he  edited  the  first  authorized  collection *of  word  "Wisdom  or  bv  some  expression  in  which  this 
the  "Relique8",«and  in  1860  wrote  the  inaugural  ode  word  occurs,  as  "All-virtuous  Wisdom",  etc.  In- 
for  the  "Comhill  Magazine",  then  starting  under  deed,  it  is  probable  that  the  title  HTS^n,  "Wisdom". 
Thackeray's  editorship.  No  complete  biography  of  was  common  in  Jewish  circles  at  the  beginning  ot 
"Father  Front"  has  .yet  been  written  and  but  frag-  Christianity,  and  that  it  passed  from  them  to  the 
mentary  materials  are  now  available.  earlv  Fathers  of  the  Church  (cf.  Eusebius,  "Hist. 

O'Nbill,   Journal  of  tKe  Iwsmian  Society  (Cork,  Oot.-Dec..  EccL",  IV,  xxii.  XXvi).     Of  the  varioUS  names  give© 

1910);  The  Clongownian  (Dublin,  1904);  Lmm  m  Diet:  Nat,  Biog,,  tO  the  Book  of  Proverbs,  that  of  Wisdom  best  setS 

K;«f?^3o^^S??)fS^^^  forth  the  ethicaJobiect  of  this  inspired  wr^^^      How- 
Thomas  F.  WooDLOCK.  ^7^^  disconnected  the  pithy  sayings  or  vivid  desmp- 

tions  which  make  up  the  book  may  appear,  they. 

Provancher,  L6on  Abel)  naturalist,  b.  10  March,  ®^^  ^^  ^*  ^,  ^^^  ^X  ^f!®  ^^.  *]^«  ^ame  moral 

1820,  in  the  parish  of  B^ancourt,  Nicolet  county  PJ^^T^^'  ^^^JT  **  "^?"lf?*^K  wisdom  as  under- 

Province  of  Quebec;  d.  at  Cap  Rouge,  P.  Q.,  23  March,  ^^^,^  *^?  Hebrews  of  old,  that  is  perfection  of 

1892.    He  studied  at  the  CoUege  and  ^minaiy  oi  knowletke  showmg  iteelfm  action,  whether  m  the 

Nicolet,  was  ordained  12  Sept.,  1844,  and  for  the  next  ^^^^^  '^^  ^\  peasant,  statesman  or  artisMi,  phil- 

twenty-five  years  laboured  zealously  and  fearlessly.  He  5^*^?^  ®,^  Hu  ^i    '  irPtS^^^^T  ^^^    .1  ^!?? 

organized  two  pilgrimages  to  Jerusalem,  one  of  which  ,  ^^??P^.»  T^  V"®  ^^J^&^'  Jerome,  MaalaUi) 

he  conducted  in  person.    In  1865  he  estibUshed  in  his  ^^  *  ^"^?*  reference  to  the  symbohc  ch^to 

parish  at  Portneuf  a  confraternity  of  the  Third  Order  ^^  Poetical  form  of  the  sgrmgs  which  are  gathered 

of  St.  Francis,  probably  the  first  of  its  kind  in  Canada,  ^K^ther  m  ttie  Book  of  Proverbs.    Ltt  ^neral,  ihe 

From  childhood  he  had  a  special  love  for  the  study  Hebrew  word  MOahOl  (constr.^  plur.  Mi«^)  denote 

of  nature  and  all  the  time  he  could  spare  from  his  t  representative^ymg,  tJiat  is,  a  statement  which, 

pastoral  duties  was  devoted  to  the  study  and  de-  however  deduced  from  a  single  instance,  is  capable  o^ 

scription  of  the  fauna  and  flora  of  Camada;    his  *P?^^V<>^^,*^  o^^^er  instances  of  a  similar  kind, 

extensive  pioneer  work  in  this  domain  won  for  him  J/^^  2  *^  «®T'  '*  ^corresponds  pretty  well  to 

the  appellation  of  the  "Father  of  Natural  History  in  S®  7^^^  proverb,   parable,   maxim    etc..   m    our 

Canada".     In   1868  he  founded  the  "Naturafiste  Western  hteratures.   ^ut  besides,  it  has  the  mean- 

Canadien",  a  monthly  pubHcation  which  he  edited  *''?  ?^  f  ?^r^  constructed  mparallehsm;   and  in 

for  twenty  years,  and  from  1869  until  his  death  he  Pomt  of  fact,  the  contents  of  the  Book  of  Proverbs 

was  engaged  almost  exclusively  in  scientific  work.  ^^'^^  ^"*"  begimung  to  end,  this  leading  feature  of 

Amonplis  chief  writings  are:  "^ait^  616mentaire  de  S'^j:?^:?^^?]^^  ^w'  V\f  S^t?  &f  H^SS^ 

Botanique"   (Quebec,   1858);    "Flore  du  Canada"  I?  **^  mspired  wntmg   the  word  MiMS  d^cnbes 

(2   vols.,   Quebec,    1862);    "Le  Verger  Canadien"  ^"^  ^T''?^  ^*^*™^^'"  ^f  ^^^^^  ^^  ^T^i?  ^  * 

(Quebec    1862);    "Le  Verger,  le  Poteger  et  le  Par-  '^^^^,  ?^  practical  rules  which  are  set  forth  m  a 

terre"   (Quebec,   1874);   "Faune  entomolorique  du  P<>«?cal  form.  a    •*   *     j     wi. 

Canada'5^(3  vols.,  1877-90);   "De  Qu^befl  J^ni-        "'  PT^'^'I^  ^u^'TSiT'^^K*  ^^"^-.l*  J^^ 

salem"  (1884);    "Une  Excureion  aux  Climats  tro-  SI?!?!  ^*^  ^^tfi^i^Q^^  Proverbs  begins  with  the 

^au^';,(1890);  "Les  Mollusques  de  la  Province  de  ^n^|^f  ^.^^^^^ 

-  n.      J .  ■,  ^  prologue  (i,  2-6) ,  stating  the  aim  and  importance  of  the 


(Chicoutimi,  1804-9;  Quebec.  1903).  of  Moshols.     The  first  part  of  the  book  (i,  7-ix). 

Edward  C.  Philups.        itself  a  hortatory  introduction  to  the  collection  of 

proverbs  which  follows,  is  a  commendation  of  wisdom. 

FroTencher,    Joseph    Norbert.    See   Canada,     After  a  deeply  religious  epigraph  (i,  7),  the  writer, 

Catholicity  in;  St.  Bonipac?e,  Diocbsb  op.  speaking  like  a  father,  gives  a  series  of  exhortotions 


PB0VIRB8  506  PB0VIRB8 

and  warnings  to  an  imagined  pupil  or  diaciple.  He  subsequent  transcribers.  Finally,  the  obscure  or 
warns  him  against  evil  company  (i,  8-19) ;  describes  enigmatic  character  of  a  certain  number  of  maxims 
to  him  the  advantages  attending  the  pursuit  of  wis- '  led  to  the  deliberate  insertion  of  glosses  in  the  text, 
dom,  and  the  evils  to  be  avoided  by  such  course  (ii) ;  so  that  primitive  distichs  now  wrongly  appear  in  the 
exhorts  him  to  obedience,  to  trust  in  God,  to  the  pay-  form  of  tristichs,  etc.  (cf.  Knabenbauer^  "Comm.  in 
ment  of  legal  offerings,  to  patience  under  the  Divine  Proverbia'',  Pans,  1910).  Of  the  ancient  versions 
chastisements,  and  sets  forth  the  priceless  value  of  of  the  Book  of  Proverbs,  the  Septuagint  is  the  most 
wisdom  (iii,  1-26).  After  some  miscellaneous  pre-  valuable.  It  probably  dates  from  tiiie  middle  of  the 
cepts  (iii,  27-35),  he  renews  his  pressing  exhortation  second  century  b.  c,  and  exhibits  very  important 
to  wisdom  and  virtue  (iv),  and  gives  several  warnings  differences  from  the  Massoretic  Text  in  point  of 
against  unchaste  women  (v;  vi,  20-35;  vii),  after  the  omissions,  transpositions,  and  additions.  The  trans- 
first  of  which  are  inserted  warnings  against  surety*  lator  was  a  Jew  conversant  indeed  with  the  Greek 
ship,  indolence,  falsehood,  and  various  vices  (vi,  language,  but  had  at  times  to  use  paraphrases 
1-19).  At  several  points  (i,  20-33;  viii;  ix)  Wisdom  owing  to  the  difficulty  of  rendering  Hebrew  pithy 
herself  is  introduced  as  speaking  and  as  displaving  sayings  into  intelligible  Greek.  After  full  allowance 
her  charms,  origin,  and  power  to  men.  The  style  of  has  been  made  for  the  translator's  freedom  in  render- 
this  first  part  is  flowing,  and  the  thoughts  therein  ing,  and  for  the  alterations  introduced  into  the  primi- 
expressed  are  generally  developed  in  tne  form  of  tive  wording  of  this  version  by  lat^  transcribers  and 
connected  discourses.  The  second  part  of  the  book  revisers,  two  things  remain  quite  certain:  first,  the 
(x-xxii,  16)  has  for  its  distinct  heading:  "Mishit  Septuagint  mav  occasionally  be  utilized  for  the 
ShelOmoh'',  and  is  made  up  of  disconnected  sa3rings  discovery  and  the  emendation  of  inaccurate  readings 
in  couplet  form,  arranged  in  no  particular  order,  so  in  our  present  Hebrew  Text;  and  next,  the  most 
that  it  is  impossible  to  give  a. summary  of  them,  important  variations  which  this  Greek  Version  pre- 
In  maxiy  instances  a  saying  is  repeated  within  this  sents^  especially  in  the  line  of  additions  and  trana- 
large  collection,  usually  in  identical  terms,  at  times  positions,  point  to  the  fact  t^at  the  translator  r^i- 
'with  some  slight  changes  of  expression.  Appended  dered  a  Hebrew  original  which  differed  considerably 
to  this  second  part  of  the  book  are  two  minor  col-  from  the  one  embodied  in  t^e  Massoretic  Bibles.  It 
lections  (xxii,  17-xxiv,  22;  xxiv,  23-34),  chiefly  made  is  well  known  that  the  Sahidic  Version  of  Proverbs 
up  of  aphoristic  quatrains.  The  opening  verses  was  made  from  the  Septuagint,  before  the  latter  had 
(xxii,  17-21)  of  the  first  appendix  reouest  attention  been  subjected  to  recensions,  and  hence  this  Coptic 
to  the  "words  of  the  wise"  which  follow  (xxii,  22-  Version  is  useful  for  the  control  of  fhe  Greek  Text, 
xxiv,  22),  and  which,  in  a  consecutive  form  recalling  The  present  Peshito,  or  Syriac  Version,  of  tiie  Book 
that  of  the  first  part  of  the  book,  set  forth  warning  of  Proverbs  was  probably  based  on  the  Hebrew  Text, 
against  various  excesses.  The  second  appendix  with  which  it  generally  agrees  with  regard  to  materiai 
has  for  its  title:  "These  also  are  words  of  the  wise",  and  arrangement.  At  the  same  time,  it  was  most 
and  the  few  proverbs  it  contains  conclude  with  two  likely  made  with  respect  to  the  Septuagint,  the  pecu- 
verses  (33,  34),  apparently  taken  over  from  vi,  10, 11.  liar  readings  of  which  it  repeatedly  adopts.  The  Latin 
The  third  part  of  the  book  (xxv-xxix)  bears  the  in-  Version  of  Proverbs,  which  is  embodied  in  the  Vul- 
scription:  "These  are  also  Mfshld  Shel5moh.  which  gate,  goes  back  to  St.  Jerome,  and  for  the  most  part 
the  men  of  Ezechias,  king  of  Juda,  copied  out."  closely  agrees  with  the  Massoretic  Text.  It  is  prob- 
By  their  miscellaneous  character,  their  couplet  form,  able  that  many  of  its  present  deviations  from  the 
etc.,  the  proverbs  of  this  third  part  resemble  those  ot  Hebrew  in  conformity  with  the  Septuagint  should 
x-xxii,  16.  Like  them  also,  thc^  are  followed  by  two  be  referred  to  later  copyists  anxious  to  complete  St. 
minor  collections  (xxx  and  xxxi,  1-9),  each  supplied  Jerome's  work  by  means  of  the  "Vetus  Itala",  which 
with  its  respective  title.  The  first  of  these  minor  had  been  closely  made  from  the  Greek, 
collections  has  for  its  heading:  "Words  of  Agur,  the  IV.  Authorship  and  Date. — The  vexed  questions 
son  of  Takeh",  and  its  principal  contents  are  Agur's  anent  the  authorship  and  date  of  the  collections  which 
meditation  on  the  Divine  transcendence  (xxx,  2-9),  make  up  the  Book  of  Proverbs  go  back  only  to  the 
and  groups  of  numerical  proverbs.  The  second  minor  sixteenth  century  of  our  era,  when  the  Hebrew  Text 
collection  is  inscribed:  "The  Words  of  Lamuel,  a  began  to  be  studied  more  closely  than  previously, 
kin^:  the  oracle  which  his  mother  taught  him."  They  were  not  even  suspected  by  the  eany  Fathers 
In  it  the  queen-mother  warns  her  son  against  sen-  who,  following  implicitly  the  inscriptions  in  i,  1;  x,l; 
suality,  drunkenness,  and  injustice.  Nothing  is  xxiv,  1  (which  bear  direct  witness  to  the  Solomonic 
known  of  Agur  and  Lamuel:  their  names  are  possibly  authorship  of  large  collections  of  proverbs),  and 
symbolical.  The  book  concludes  with  an  alphabetical  being  misled  by  the  Greek  rendering  of  the  titles  in 
poem  descriptive  of  the  virtuous  woman  (xxxi,  10-39).  xxx,  1 ;  xxxi,  1  (which  does  away  altogether  with  the 
III.  Hebrew  Text  and  Ancient  Versions. — A  references  to  Agur  and  Lamuel  as  authors  distinct 
close  study  of  the  present  Hebrew  Text  of  the  Book  from  Solomon),  regarded  King  Solomon  as  the  author 
of  Proverbs  proves  that  the  primitive  wording  of  the  of  the  whole  Book  of  Proverbs.  Nor  were  they  real 
pithy  sayings  which  make  up  this  manual  of  Hebrew  questions  for-  the  subsequent  writers  of  the  West, 
wisdom  has  experienced  numerous  alterations  in  the  although  these  medieval  authors  had  in  the  Vulgate  a 
course  of  its  transmission.  Some  of  these  imperfec-  more  faithful  rendering  of  xxx,  1 :  xxxi,  1,  which  might 
tions  have,  with  some  probability,  been  assigned  to  have  led  them  fo  leject  the  Solomonic  origin  of  the 
the  period  during  which  the  maxims  of  the  "wise  sections  ascribed  to  Agur  and  Lamuel  respectively, 
men  were  preserved  orally.  Most  of  them  belong  for  in  their  eyes  the  words  Agur  and  Lamuel  were 
undoubtedly  to  the  time  after  these  sententious  or  but  symbolical  names  of  Solomon.  At  the  present 
enigmatic  sa3rings  had  been  written  down.  The  day,  most  Catholic  scholars  feel  free  to  treat  as  non- 
Book  of  Proverbs  was  numbered  among  the  "Hagio-  Solomonic  not  only  the  short  sections  which  are 
erapha"  (writings  held  by  the  ancient  Hebrews  as  ascribed  in  the  Hebrew  Text  to  Agur  and  Lamuel, 
less  sacred  and  authoritative  than  either  the  "Law"  but  also  the  minor  collections  which  their  titles 
or  the  "Prophets"),  and,  in  consequence,  copyists  attribute  to  "the  wise"  (xxii,  16-xxiv,  22;  xxiv,  23- 
felt  naturally  less  bound  to  transcribe  its  text  with  34),  and  the  alphabetical  poem  concerning  the  vir- 
scrupulous  accuracy.  Again,  the  copyists  of  Proverbs  tuous  woman  wnich  is  appended  to  the  whole  book, 
knew,  or  at  least  thought  they  knew,  by  memory  the  With  regard  to  the  other  parts  of  the  work  (i-ix; 
exact  words  of  the  pithy  sayings  they  had  to  write  x-xxii,  16;  xxv-xxix).  Catholic  writers  are  wellnigh 
out;  hence  arose  involuntary  changes  which,  once  unanimous  in  ascribing  them  to  Solomon.  Bearing 
introduced,  were  perpetuated  or  even  added  to  by  distinctly  in  mind  the  statement  in  III  (A.  V.  I./ 


PROVIDENCE 


507 


PBOVIDENCE 


Kings,  iv,  29-32,  that,  in  his  great  wisdom,  Solomon 
"spoke  3000  Ma8hal8^\  they  have  no  difficulty  in 
admitting  that  this  monarch  may  be  the  author  of 
the  much  smaller  number  of  proverbs  included  in 
the  three  collections  in  question.  Guided  by  ancient 
Jewish  and  Christian  tradition  they  feel  constrained 
to  abide  by  the  exphcit  titles  to  the  same  collections, 
all  the  more  so  because  the  titles  in  the  Book  of 
Proverbs  are  manifestly  discriminating  with  regard 
to  authorship,  and  because  the  title,  "These  also  are 
Mishle  Shelomohf  which  the  men  of  Ezechias,  King 
of  Juda,  copied  out'*  (xxv,  1),  in  particular,  bears 
the  impress  of  definiteness  and  accuracy.  Lastly, 
looking  into  the  contents  of  these  three  large  collec- 
tions, they  do  not  think  that  anything  found  therein 
with  respect  to  style,  ideas,  historic  background  etc. 
should  compel  anyone  to  give  up  the  traditional 
authorship,  at  whatever  time — either  imder  Eze- 
chias, or  as  late  as  Esdras — all  the  collections  em- 
bodied in  the  Book  of  Proverbs  reached  their 
present  form  and  arrangement.  A  very  dififerent 
view  concerning  the  authorship  and  date  of  the  col- 
lections ascribed  to  Solomon  by  their  titles  is  gaining 
favour  among  non-Catholic  scholars.  It  treats  the 
headings  of  these  collections  as  no  more  reliable  than 
the  titles  of  the  Psalms.  It  maintains  that  none  of 
the  collections  comes  from  Solomon's  own  hand  and 
that  the  general  tenor  of  their  contents  bespecdcs  a  late 
post-exilic  date.  The  following  are  the  principal  argu- 
ments usually  set  forth  in  favour  of  this  opinion.  In 
these  collections  there  is  no  challenge  of  idolatry, 
such  as  would  naturally  be  expected  if  they  were 
pre-exilic,  and  monogamy  is  everywhere  presupposed. 
It  is  very  remarkable,  too,  that  throughout  no  men- 
tion is  made  of  Israel  or  of  any  institution  pecuUar 
to  Israel.  Again,  the  subject  of  those  collections  is 
not  the  nation,  which  apparently  no  longer  enioys 
its  independence,  but  the  individual,  to  whom  wisdom 
appeals  in  a  merely  ethical,  and  hence  very  late,, 
manner.  The  personification  of  wisdom,  in  particular 
(chap,  viii),  is  either  the  direct  result  ol  the  influence 
of  Greek  upon  Jewish  thought,  or,  if  independent  of 
Greek  philosophy,  the  product  of  late  Jewish  meta- 
physics. Finsdly,  the  close  spiritual  and  intellectual 
relation  of  Proverbs  to  Ecclesiasticus  shows  that,- 
however  great  and  numerous  are  the  differences  in 
detail  between  them,  the  two  works  cannot  be  sepa- 
rated by  an  interval  of  several  centuries.  Despite 
the  confidence  with  which  some  modem  scholars  ur^e 
these  arguments  against  the  traditional  authorship 
of  i-ix;  x-xxii,  16;  x5cv-xxix,  a  close  examination 
of  their  value  leaves  one  unconvinced  of  their  proving 
force. 

V.  Canonicity. — ^The  Book  of  Proverbs  is  justly 
numbered  among  the  protocanonical  writings  of  the 
Old  Testament.  In  the  first  century  of  our  era  its 
canonical  authority  was  certainly  acknowledged  in 
Jewish  and  Christian  circles,  for  the  Sacred  Writers 
of  the  New  Testament  make  a  frequent  use  of  its 
contents^  quoting  them  at  times  explicitly  as  Holy 
Writ  (ct.  Rom.,  xii,  19,  20;  Heb.^  xii,  5,  6;  James, 
iv,  5^  6,  etc.).  It  is  true  that  certain  doubts  as  to  the 
inspiration  of  the  Book  of  Proverbs,  which  had  been 
entertained  by  ancient  rabbis  who  belonged  to  the 
School  of  Shammai,  reappeared  in  the  Jewish  assembly 
at  Jamnia  (about  a.  d.  100) ;  but  these  were  only  theo- 
retical difficulties  which  could  not  induce  the  Jewish 
leaders  of  the  time  to  count  this  book  out  of  the 
Canon,  and  which  in  fact  were  there  and  then  set  at 
rest  for  ever.  The  subsequent  assaults  of  Theodore 
of  Mopsuestia  (d.  429),  of  Spinoza  (d.  1677),  and  of 
Le  Clerc  (d.  1736)  a^^ainst  the  inspiration  of  that 
sacred  book  left  likewise  its  canonical  authority  un- 
shaken. 

For  Introductions  to  the  Old  Teatament  aee  Introduction. 
Recent  commentaries — Catholic:  Rohunq  (Mainz,  1879); 
LxatTRB  (Parid.  1870);  Filuon  (Paris, '  1892);  Vioouroux 
(Paria,     1903);    Knarsnbaubb     (Paris.     1910).      Protestant: 


ZdCKLBR  (tr.  New  York.  1870);  Deutsbch  (tr.  Edinburgh, 
1874);  NowACK  (Leipsig.  1883);  Wildeboeb  (Freiburg.  1897); 
Fbankekberg  (G6ttmgen,  1898);  Strack  (Ndrdlingen,  1899); 
Tot  (New  York,  1899).  General  works:  Meionak,  Salomon^ 
Mon  regne,  «es  icrUs  (Paris,  1890);  Crbine,  Job  and  Solomon 
(Now  York,  1899);  Kent,  The  Wise  Men  of  Ancient  Itrael  CSevr 
York,  1890);  Davison,  The  Wiedom  LiiercUure  of  the  Old  Teata- 
ment (London,  19(X)). 

Francis  E.  Gigot. 

Providence,  Congregations,  of. — I.  Daughters 
OP  Providence,  founded  at  Paris,  by  Madame 
Polaillon  (Marie  de  Lumague),  a  devout  widow.  In 
1643  Madame  Polaillon,  having  obtained  letters 
patent  from  Louis  XIII^  opened  a  home  to  provide 
protection  and  instruction  for  young  girls,  whom 
beauty,  poverty,  or  parental  neglect  expos^  to  the 
loss  of  Faith  and  other  spiritual  perils,  placing  it 
under  the  protection  of  Providence,  with  the  name 
Seminary  of  Providence.  Among  the  many  who 
sought  admission  were  some  capable  of  instructing 
the  rest,  and  of  these,  seven,  who  gave  evidence  of  a 
religious  vocation,  were  selected  to  form  a  religious 
community  under  rules  drawn  up  for  their  use  by 
St.  Vincent  de  Paul  at  the  direction  of  FranQois  de 
Gondy,  Archbishop  of  Paris  (1647).  New  letters 
patent  were  panted  by  Louis  XIV,  whose  mother, 
Anne  of  Austria,  gave  the  institute  its  first  fixed  abode, 
the  Hospital  de  la  Sant^  in  Faubourg  Saint-Marcel 
(1651),  previously  a  home  for  convalescents  from  the 
H6tel-Dieu,  a  grant  confirmed  by  royal  letters  in  1667, 
bestowing  on  the  relisious  all  the  privileges,  ri^ts, 
and  exemptions  accorded  to  hospitals  of  royal  founda- 
tion. The  Archbishop  of  Paris  established  other 
houses  in  various  parts  of  the  city,  and  foundations 
were  made  first  at  Metz  and  Sedan,  where  special 
attention  was  devoted  to  Jewish  converts  and  the 
reclamation  of  heretics.  After  two  years  of  probation 
candidates  were  admitted  to  the  simple  vows  of  chas- 
tity, obedience,  the  service  of  others,  and  perpetual 
stability.  The  superior,  elected  every  three  years,  and 
the  ecclesiastical  superior,  appointed  by  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Paris,  were  assisted  in  the  temporal  admin- 
istration of  the  community  by  two  pious  matrons, 
chosen  from  among  the  prmcipal  benefactresses.  In 
1681  some  members  of  the  congregation  joined  the 
Sisters  of  Charitable  Instruction  of  the  Child  Jesus  of 
Saint-Maur,  established  by  Nicolas  Barr^  in  1678. 
thenceforth  known  as  the  Ladies  of  Saint-Maur  ana 
of  Providence;  the  remaining  members  became  canon- 
esses  of  the  ConCTegation  of  Our  Lady,  founded  by  St. 
Peter  Fourier.  The  foregoing  congregation  became  a 
model  for  others  estabhshea  to  carry  on  a  simihu: 
work  in  various  dioceses  of  France,  whose  activities, 
however,  came  eventually  to  embrace  the  administra- 
tion of  elementary  schools  for  girls,  orphanages,  and 
asylums  for  the  blind  and  deaf  mutes,  and  the  care 
of  the  sick  in  hospitals  and  their  own  homes.  In  1903 
the  number  of  Sisters  of  Providence  in  France  ex- 
ceeded 10,000.  From  the  original  seminary  of 
Providence  also  came  the  religious  who  formed  the 
nucleus  of  the  Congregation  of  Christian  Union  sub- 
sequently establish^  by  M.  le  Vachet,  a  priest  whose 
counsels  had  encouraged  Madame  Polaillon. 

H^LTOT,  Diet,  dee  ordres  relio.  (Parin,  1869);  Hbimbucber, 
Orden  u.  Kongregationen  (Paderborn.  1908);  Faidbau,  Vie  de 
Madame  Lumague  (Paris,  1659);  Riglementa  de  la  maieon  et  hoa- 
pital  dee  fiUes  de  la  Providence  de  Dieu  (Paris,  1657). 

Florence  Rudge  McGahan. 

II.  Sisters  op  Providence  (St.  Mary-of-the- 
Woods). — ^Among  the  teaching  religious  oraers  that 
originated  in  France  at  the  close  of  the  Revolution  was 
the  Congregation  of  the  Sisters  of  Providence  of  Ruill^ 
sur-Loir,  founded  in  1806  by  M.  Jacques-Francois 
Dujari6,  Cur6  of  Ruill^  (Sarthe).  The  society  had  a 
struggling  existence  for  several  years,  but  was  finally 
establish^  with  the  collaboration  of  Josephine  Zde 
du  Roscoat,  the  first  superior  general.  Mother  du 
Roscoat  was  of  an  ancient  noble  Breton  family  and 
was  renowned  for  her  piety,  charity,  and  zeal.    Many 


PBOVIDENCI  508  PBOVIDENCI 

_  • 

followed  her  to  Ruill^  and  the  community  prospered.  the-Woods,  30  Januai^  IS56,  whose  life  has  been 

Though  the  sisters  devoted  themselves  to  various  published  under  the  title  "An  Apostolic  Woman", 

works  of  mercy  and  charity,  the  instruction  of  youth  and  Sister  M.  Joseph  (Elvire  le  Fer  de  la  Motte),  b. 

was  their  primary  object.     They  soon  had  schools  at  St.  Servan,  16  February,  1825;  d.  at  St.  Mary-of- 

not  only  throughout  the  diocese,  but  in  distant  ooun-  the- Woods,  12  December,  1881,  a  sketch  of  whose  life 

tries  also.    In  1839  Rt.  Rev.  Simon-Gabriel  Brut^,  has  been  published  in  French.    The  sisters  conduct 


first  Bishop  of  Vincennes,  commissioned  his  vicar-    parochial  schools  and  academies  in  the  Archdioceses 
general,  Mgr  de  la  Hailancudre.  to  return  to  his  native    of  Baltimore,  Boston,  and  Chicago;  in  the  Dioceses  of 


nounced,  followed  by  the  appointment  of  Mgr  de  la  west  of  Terre  Haute.    Statistics  for  1910  are:   937 

Hailandi^re  as  his  successor.    The  newly-consecrated  sisters;  68  parochial  schools :  15  academies;  2  orphan 

bishop  obtained  from  Mother  Mary  a  colony  of  reli-  asylums;  1  industrial  school;  20,000  children, 

eious  for  Indiana.    Six -sisters,  under  the  leadership  of  Sister  Mabt  Theodobia. 

Mother  Theodore  Gu6rin,  a  woman  of  exceptional  jjj  Sisters  op  Providence  of  CHARiTT.-The  Sis- 
qualifications  and  high  spintual  attainments,  reached  -«^«***.     x^icww- 


rived  at  St.  Ma.y'8,  Inna  Le  Fer  de  la  Motte,  Sister    ?K«^h^^T«^AeS^^„X*5^  ?^''^„^^ 
St. 


plan  providing  for  the  advanced  studies  and  culture  S"'""^"'  mXnii J"'T'?h»'"n,^^*  "J^S^f^nSS^ 

of  th^  time     As  earlv  9fl  1846  a  charter  was  irranted  IVve  been  multiplied.     In  the  present  year  (1908) 

K„  !^h„  StV»  «™^2L^.,»^»  i^5?wLw^*^iS^  they  have  in  charge  four  diocesan  hospitak  and  one 

by  the  State  empowenng  the  mstitution  to  coirfer  sanatorium,  with  m  annual  total  of  about  five  thou- 

S^frmU?foZf,rr^,d^Zl^  «?§^™  ^^^^  «"»<»  P»««nt«  t^t«l  ^^^^^-    Comiected  with  th^ 

new  foundation  prospered,  many  sufferings  and  hard-  ^^^^^  jg  ^  training  school  for  pupU  nuiBes.  and  the 

ships  were  endured,  ansmg  from  the  ngours  of  the  .:^^„  „i^  «./„.;„«  ?  T^~^.,-^«ti  «_!-:_!rL-j  ™^ 

sr^mTSiU^avii^r-The^n-^  SrSESSSS'^S 

gSsMvryeT'Ki^a^nSoaT  S^MSi^^SJc^nn^rS^^ 

more,  the  bishop  placed  his  difficulties  before  the  ?^'™H^?^'««r„n'^'1^n«W^'^.l„'rf^^^ 

assembly  and  offereS  his  resignation,  at  the  same  time  ^*"'Jn£l^^  H ,,♦  L°°S;  ^SS^/^K.^^  L*L?k 

strongly  denouncing  the  Sirtera  of  Providence.     In  ^^-    ^^ o^!l^fn^rX^AiZi^r.^J^  ^ 

1847,  iist  as  he  haJinformed  Mother  Theodore  that  f^^'nl^^Z^^  InH^^r  «^S?^Jf™i?lJ^  ,^ 

hp  dpnoDMl  hfr  from  her  office  as  BUDerior-<ren(>raI  fin  *°**  mfiim  women,  and  for  eif^ty  a^  mra,  m  three 

which^h J  ^t^  hZ  ^Z^,  b^n^KJd  tor  r^^  ^"'?"  **^  "T"*  ~'^™?»:'-  1^??  J^^t 

Ufe),  released  fier  from  her  vows,  and  dismissed  her  l^^i^Z^JiZrf^  A^i^.t'' F^"^^^  ^ 

^Li%^!^^&J^^£^^^^  &"^hKa;rf^^-|a;^s^g( 

rM!ri8.7a^3re^in^n^^^^^^^^^  ^^^^^^^^^^:::2^::::j- 

preliminaries  Lave  been  undertaken  for  intniducing  ^^^^  ^^^  «'  Providbnce. 

the  cause  of  her  beatification  at  Rome.  IV.  Sisters    of  Providence   of   Saint    Anne, 

The  sisters  take  simple  vows.    The  postulantship,  founded  at  Turin  in  1834  by  the  Marchesa  Jidia  Falletti 

two  months,  is  followed  by  a  novitiate  of  two  years,  de  Barolo  for  the  care  of  children  and  the  side.    The 

at  the  end  of  which  vows  are  taken  fOr  three  shears,  order  was  approved  by  the  Holy  See  8  March,  1848. 

renewed  then  for  five  years,  if  the  subject  is  satisfac-  Its  mother-house  is  at  Florence,  and  there  are  dau^ji- 

tory  and  desires  to  persevere.    A  year  of  second  novi-  ter  institutions  at  Bagnoria,  Castelfidardo,  and  Assisi. 

tiate  precedes  the  final  and  perpetual  vows.    This  where  the  sisters  conduct  the  industrial  school  of 

3rear,  during  which  the  nuns  devote  themselves  en-  San  Francesco,  founded  in  1902.    In  Rome  their  two 

tirely  to  the  spiritual  life,  is  passed  at  the  mothei^  infant  asylums  of  St.  Anne  (Via  dei  Gracchi)  and  the 

house.    A  course  of  normal  training  is  carried  on  in  Sacred  Heart  (Via  Conde)  harbour  three  hundred 

connexion  with  the  novitiate  properly  so  called,  and  children.    At  Secundersbad  in  the  Diocese  of  Hyder- 

summer  sessions  are  held  dunng  the  vacation  for  all  abad,  India,  they  have  a  convent  where  they  educate 

teachers  who  return  to  the  mother-house  for  the  European  and  Eurasian  girls,  and  they  also  conduct 

annual  retreat.    The  administrative  faculty  is  an  elec-  a  school  at  Kazipet  in  the  same  diocese.    In  Italian 

tive  body  comprising  a  superior-general  and  three  Eritrea  they  have  a  home  for  children  redeemed  from 

assistants,  a  secretary,  procuratrix,  treasurer,  and  a  slavery. 

general  chapter.    The  rules  and  constitutions  received  --.P***"^*^*"*  Orden  u.  Konaregationen,  III  (Pad«rbora«  1008), 
final  approval  from  the  Holy  See  in  1887.    Amomj         •  Blanche  M.  Kellt. 

prominent  members  of  the  order  were:    Sister  St.  «i-Axiv.nx.  x«.  ^^at^s. 

Francis  Xavier  (Irma  Le  Fer  do  la  Motte),  b.  at  St.        V.  Sisters  of  Providence  of  the  Instttutb  of 

Servan,  Brittany,  16  April,  1818;  d.  at  St.  MaryM)f-  Charity,  an  offshoot  from  the  Sisters  of  Providence 


PROVIDENCE 


509 


PROVIDENCE 


founded  by  Jean-Martin  Moye  in  France  in  1762  for 
teaching  poor  girls  and  tending  the  sick.  Their  pre»- 
ent  existence,  constitution,  and  religious  character  are 
due  to  Antonio  Rosmini,  of  whose  institute  they  reaUy 
form  a  part.  In  1831,  at  the  request  of  Abb^  Ldwen- 
bruck,  the  French  sisters  received  into  their  house  at 
Portieux  four  pious  but  uneducated  young  women 
from  the  Val  d'  Ossola  and  neighbouring  Swiss  valleys. 
This  priest,  one  of  the  moving  spirits  in  the  Institute 
of  Charity  then  beginning  at  Domodossola,  wished 
these  young  women  to  receive  a  reli^ous  training  at 
Portieux  and  then  to  found  a  house  in  Italy.  They 
returned  in  1832  and  joined  a  community  alreadv  or- 
ganized at  Locarno  in  Ticino,  and  designed  to  be  a 
novitiate  as  well  as  a  school  for  the  poor.  He  provided 
no  funds,  however,  and  though  they  opened  a  school, 
being  but  slenderly  educated  they  could  get  no  sala- 
ries as  recognized  teachers.  This  bad  management  in- 
duced Rosmini  to  intervene.  He  reformed  their  rule 
to  suit  it  to  its  new  conditions,  and  thenceforward  had 
to  assume  entire  responsibility  for  them.  Thus  thev 
were  from  the  first  a  distinct  body,  the  "  Rosminiane  ^  %, 
as  the  Italians  call  them.  A  house  for  novices  and 
school  for  the  education  of  teaching  sisters  was  formed 
at  Domodossola  in  a  former  Ursuline  convent.  The 
Holy  See  in  its  solemn  approval  of  the  Institute  of 
Charity  in  1839  gave  an  indirect  recognition  of  the 
sisters  also,  as  adopted  children  of  the  institute.  From 
that  time  they  have  steadily  increased.  The  order  is 
mainly  contemplative;  but,  when  necessary,  they  un- 
dertiJce  any  charitable  work  suitable  to  women,  es- 
pecially the  teaching  of  gjrls  and  youn^  children,  visit- 
ing the  sick,  and  instructing  in  Christian  doctrine. 
The  central  nouses  have  smaller  establishments  ema- 
nating from  and  depending  upon  them.  For  each  of 
these  groups  there  is  one  superioress,  elected  by  the 
professed  sisters  for  three  years,  and  eligible  for  three 
years  more.  Aided  by  assistants,  she  appoints  a  pro- 
curatrix  over  each  lesser  estabhshment  and  assigns  the 
gx^es  and  most  of  the  offices.  All  the  sisters  return  to 
their  central  house  every  summer  for  a  retreat  and  to 
hold  a  chapter  for  the  election  of  officers.  The  noviti- 
ate lasts  three  vears;  the  usual  three  vows  are  then 
taken,  at  first  for  three  years,  then  either  renewed  or 
made  perpetual.  In  each  diocese  the  bishop  isprotector. 
There  are  houses  in  Italy,  England,  and  Wales.  In 
Italy  there  were  in  1908  about  600  sisters  and  60  nov- 
ices. They  have  64  establishments,  most  of  which  are 
elementary  schools  for  children  and  girls;  there  are 
also  several  boarding-schools  for  girls,  a  few  orphan- 
ages, and  a  home  for  poor  old  men.  They  are  scattered 
in  nine  dioceses,  some  in  Piedmont,  others  in  Lom- 
bardy .  The  principal  houses  are  those  of  Borgomanero. 
the  central  nouse  for  Italy,  Domodossola,  Intra,  and 
Biella.  The  English  branch  began  in  1843  on  the  initi- 
ative of  Lady  Mary  Arundel,  who  had  taken  a  house 
at  Loughborough  in  order  to  aid  the  Fathers  of  the  In- 
stitute in  that  mission.  Into  this  house,  fitted  as  a 
convent,  she  receive  two  Italian  sisters,  the  first  nuns 
to  wear  a  religious  habit  in  the  English  Midlands  since 
the  Reformation.  A  year  later  they  opened  a  girls' 
and  infants'  school,  which  was  thfe  first  dayHSchool  for 
the  poor  taught  by  nuns  in  England.  The  first  Eng- 
lish superioress  was  Mary  Agnes  Amherst,  niece  of  the 
Earl  of  Shrewsbury.  Under  her  rule  the  present 
central  house  was  built  at  Loughboroush.  A  board- 
ing-school and  middle  and  elementary  schools  are  con- 
ducted by  the  nuns.  There  are  six  other  establish- 
ments. At  St.  Etheldreda's  in  London  and  at  Whit- 
wick,  Rugby,  and  Bexhill  they  have  girls'  and  infants' 
schools,  at  Cardiff,  two  houses,  one  for  visiting  the 
sick  and  aiding  the  poor,  and  the  other  a  secondary 
school  and  pupil-teachers'  centre.  Whitwick  and  St. 
David's,  Cardiff,  are  the  only  places  in  which  their 
work  is  not  auxiliary  to  that  of  the  Fathers  of  the  In- 
stitute.   (See  RosMiNiANS.) 

William  Henrt  Polulrd. 


ProTidence,  Diocese  of  (Providentiensib).  is 
co-extensive  with  the  State  of  Rhode  Island.  Wnen 
erected  (17  Feb.,  1872)  it  included  also  that  portion 
of  south-eastern  Massachusetts  which  has  since  14 
March,  1904,  been  set  off  as  the  Diocese  of  Fall  River 
(a.  v.).  It  thus  embraces  an  entire  state,  the  majority 
of  whose  population  is  Roman  Catholic  (State  Cen- 
sus, 1905).  The  city  of  Providence  was  the  residence 
of  the  Bishop  of  Hartford  from  the  establishment  of 
that  see  in  1844  (see  Hartford,  Diocese  of).  In 
1847  a  Brief  authorizing  this  transfer  of  residence  was 
obtained  from  the  F^paganda. 

The  first  appearance  of  Roman  Catholic  worship 
in  the  colony  of  Rhode  Island  was  in  the  latter  part 
of  1780,  when  the  French  army  under  Rochambeau 
encamped  at  Newport  and  Providence.  It  is  known 
that  there  were  several  chaplains  with  the  army  who 
often  said  Mass  publicly.  Shortly  afterwards  (Feb., 
1783)  the  colonial  legislature  repealed  the  act  dis- 
franchising Roman  Catholics.  The  Negro  uprising;  in 
Guadeloupe,  which  followed  the  French  Revolution, 
drove  several  Catholic  families  (French)  to  Newport 
and  Bristol.  In  Newport  also  about*  1808  there  died 
one  Joseph  Wiseman,  Vice-Consul  to  His  Catholic 
Majesty  of  Spain.  The  building  of  Fort  Adams  at 
Newport  and  the  beginnings  of  the  cotton-mill  in- 
dustry in  Pawtucket  brought  in  some  Catholics  to 
these  parts  in  the  twenties.  The  first  priest  assigned 
to  Rhode  Idand  was  the  Rev.  Robert  Woodley  in 
1828.  The  first  land  owned  in  the  state  for  church 
purposes  was  purchased  in  Newxx)rt  in  1828.  During 
the  thirties  the  growth  was  gradual  and  fluctuating. 
It  was  only  in  November,  1837,  that  Mass  was  said 
for  the  first  time  in  Providence  in  a  Catholic  church 
built  for  that  purpose.  In  1842  another  parish  was 
cflrected  in  Providence,  but  when  Bishop  Tyler  (see 
Hartford)  died  in  June,  1849,  there  were  but  six 
small  parishes  in  the  state.  The  famine  in  Ireland 
(1848)  brought  thousands  to  these  parts  who  found 
work  in  the  factories,  foundries,  machine  shops,  and 
ieweliy  shops  then  oeginning  to  flourish  in  Rhode 
Island.  During  the  fifties  m^  of  the  still  large  and 
important  Enghsh-speaking  parishes  were  estabUshed; 
several  costly  churches  were  attempted;  an  orphan 
asylum  was  founded;  and  a  few  very  primitive  schools 
were  begun.  The  Knownothing  Movement  in  March, 
1855,  disturbed  Catholics  because  of  threats  against 
the  convent.  In  the  sixties  the  growth  was  appre- 
ciable but  not  extraordinary,  and  most  of  the  con^e- 
gations  were  in  debt  with  very  little  to  show  for  it — 
an  evidence  of  their  extreme  poverty.  When  Bishop 
McFarland  left  Providence  in  1872  to  fix  his  residence 
at  Hartford,  he  left  behind  him  a  poor  cathedral  and 
episcopal  residence  and  a  debt  of  $16,000 — so  unable 
or  so  indifferent  was  his  flock  to  second  his  admirable 
zeal  and  devotion. 

Thomas  Francis  Hendricken,  the  first  Bishop  of 
Providence,  was  bom  in  Kilkenny  5  May,  1827.  He 
made  his  preliminary  studies  at  St.  Kieran's  College, 
Kilkenny,  which  he  attended  in  1844.  He  took  up 
the  study  of  theology  at  Maynooth  in  1847  and  was 
ordained  by  Bishop  O'Reilly  of  Hartford  at  All 
Hallows  College  in  1851.  After  a  short  period  as 
assistant  and  pastor  of  a  small  parish  he  was  trans- 
ferred to  Waterbury,  Conn.,  where  he  proved  to  be 
a  successful  church  builder.  He  transformed  the 
parish  and  seemed  to  be  equal  to  any  financial  bur- 
den. Perhaps  because  of  tnis  remarkable  talent  he 
recommended  himself  to  Bishop  McFarland  as  the 
man  best  fitted  for  the  heavy  labours  that  then 
awaited  the  first  Bishop  of  Providence.  He  was  con- 
secrated bishop  in  the  cathedral  at  Providence  on 
April  28,  1872,  by  Archbishop  McCloskey  of  New 
York,  the  metropolitan  of  the  province.  He  set  to 
work  at  once  to  build  an  episcopal  residence  and  a 
suitable  cathedral.  He  had  no  sooner  begun  than  the 
panic  set  in.    Nothing  daunted,  and  in  spite  of  failing 


PBOVIDBNCI                            510  PROVIOBNCE 

health,  he  began  a  tour  of  his  diocese  to  collect,  and  Sisters  of  Mercy) ;   in  only  three  are  there  Brothers 

succeeded  in  raising  some  hundreds  of  thousands  of  for  the  larger  boys.     La  Salle  Academy,  a  diocesan 

dollars  in  a  few  years,  so  that  when  he  died  (May,  High  School  of  which  the  bishop  is  president,  obtained 

1886)  the  new  cathedral  was  almost  completed  without  a  university  charter  from  the  state  (1910).     The 

any  debt  encumbering  it.    It  was  during  his  epis-  teachers  are  diocesan  priests  (for  the  classics)  and 

copate  that  the  French  Canadian  Catholics  began  to  Christian  Brothers.     It  is  conveniently  situated  in 

come  to  the  diocese  in  considerable  numbers,  fu'st  to  Providence.     One   day    high    school    (St.    Francis 

Woonsocket  and  then  to  the  various  mill  towns  along  Xavier's  Academy)  and  two  boarding  schools  (Bay- 

the  little  streams  of  the  Blackstone  and  the  Paw-  view.  Sisters  of  Mercy,  and  Elmhurst,  Religious  of 

tuxet,  and  above  all  to  Fall  River.    The  bishop,  en-  the  Sacred  Heart)  provide  similar  training  for  the 

grossed  with  other  things,  did  not  realize  apparently  girls.    In  all  there  are  some  eighteen  thousand  chil- 

the  magnitude  of  the  problem,  and  his  attempts  to  aren  receiving  Catholic  training  in  the  diocese, 

deal  with  it  were  not  infrequently  a  cause  of  anxiety  A  diocesan  weekly  paper,  the    Providence  Visitor", 

and  pain  to  himself  and  others.  sanctioned  by  the  bisnop  and  edited  by  diocesan 

Rt.  Rev.  Matthew  Harkins  succeeded  Bishop  Hen-  priests,  has  a  considerable  influence  among  the  Cath- 

dricken  after  an  interval  of  eleven  months.    Bom  in  olics  of  the  state.    The  Catholic  Club  for  men,  es- 

Boston  17  Nov^  1845,  educated  at  the  Boston  Latin  tablished  in  1909,  has  its  own  home  in  Providence  and 

School,  Holy  Cross  College,  and  Douai  (Ik)llege  in  a  large  and  influential  membership.    The  Catholic 

France,  he  made  his  theological  studies  at  Saint  Woman's  Club,  established  in  1901,  has  a  member- 

Sulpice  (Paris),  where  he  was  ordained  in  1869.   The  ship  of  four  hundred  and  is  noted  for  considerable 

Vatican  Council  took  place  while  he  was  continuing  literary  and  social  activity.    Although  in  a  numerical 

his  studies  in  Rome.    Made  pastor  of  Arlington  in  piajority.  Catholics  do  not  exert  any  perceptible  in- 

1876,  he  was  transferred  to  St.  James'  parish,  Boston,  fluence  on  pubUc  life.    They  receive  their  share  of 

in  1884,  in  succession  to  Bishop  He2uy  of  Portland  elective  offices,  the  last  two  governors,  the  one  a 

and  Archbishop  Williams  of  Boston,  its  former  pas-  democrat,  the  other  a  republican,  being  Catholics, 

tors.    (3n  the  14  April,  1887,  Bishop  Harkins  was  Frequently  the  mayors  and  other  city  officials  are 

consecrated  in  the  new  (uncompleted)  Cathedral  of  Catholics.   There  has,  however,  never  been  a  Catholic 

Sts.  Peter  and  Paul  in  Providence  which  had  first  judge  of  a  superior  court. 

been  opened  a  year'  before  for  the  obsequies  of  his  1  he  cler^  until  recently  was  nearly  exclusively 

predecessor.  A  man  of  wide  reading,  acute  mind,  and  diocesan.     From  1878  to  1899  the  Jesuits  had  St. 

Judicial  temperament,  a  lover  of  order  and  method,  Joseph's  parish  in  Providence,  out  left  there,  as  there 
le  has  devoted  himself  to  the  task  of  organizing  his  was  no  prospect  of  opening  a  college.  Now  various 
diocese.  He  has  particularly  made  his  own  the  dio-  small  communities  of  men  have  parishes  in  outl>ing 
cesan  charities.  The  orphan  asylum  begun  in  1851,  districts,  Westerly  (1905,  Marist  Fathers),  Ports- 
transferred  in  1862,  had  always  obtained  a  precarious  mouth  (1907,  Congregation  of  the  Holy  Ghost), 
income  from  fairs  and  donations,  and  for  these  he  Natick  (1899,  Sacr^  Heart  Fathers);  in  1910  the 
substituted  parochial  assessments.  Through  the  gen-  Dominicans  began  a  new  parish  between  Pawtucket 
erosity  of  Joseph  Banigan  the  Home  for  the  Aged  in  and  Providence.  The  Catholic  population  of  the 
Pawtucket  was  built  in  1881.  Mr.  Banigan  also  diocese,  approximately  from  250,000  to  275,000.  live 
built  the  large  St.  Maria  Working  Girls'  Home  in  for  the  most  part  in  the  densely  inhabited  Providence 
Providence  in  1894  at  a  cost  of  $80,000,  and  either  County,  only  eighteen  parishes,  and  several  of  them 
gave  in  his  lifetime  or  left  by  will  (1897)  sums  of  very  small,  existing  in  the  four  other  counties  of  the 
125,000  or  more  to  nearly  every  diocesan  charity,  state,  while  there  are  sixty-one  in  Providence  county. 

St.  Joseph's  Hospital  was  begun  in  1891  and  the  St.  rJ^^f^  H  %  ^^iholw  Chwreh  in  New  England:  Diocese  oj 

Vincent  de  Paul  Infant  Asylum  in  the  following  year;  ^«^«»"^.  I?  Chancery  Records, 

the  Working  Boys'  Home  began  in  1897,  the  House  Austin  fowling. 
of  the  Good  Shepherd  in  1904,  Nazareth  Home  (a  Providence.  Divine  (Lat.,  ProvidenHa;  Greek, 
day-nursery,  that  also  supplies  nurses  m  the  homes  of  irp6wia).— Providence  in  general,  or  foresi^t,  is 
the  poor)  in  1906.  In  Woonsocket  and  Newport  and  a  function  of  the  virtue  of  prudence,  and  may  be 
other  parts  of  the  diocese  similar  charitable  institu-  defined  as  the  practical  reason,  adapting  means  to  an 
tions  have  been  erected  at  the  suggestion  and  advice  end.  As  applied  to  God,  Providence  is  God  Himself 
of  Bishop  Harkins.  Almost  twenty  parishes  out  of  a  considered  in  that  act  by  which  in  His  wisdom  He 
total  of  seventy-nme  are  exclusively  French  Cana-  bo  orders  all  events  within  the  universe  that  the  end 
dian,  while  there  are  a  few  small  parishes  of  mixed  for  which  it  was  created  may  be  realized.  That  end 
French  and  Enghsh-speaking  Catholics.  In  the  last  ig  that  all  creatures  should  manifest  the  glory  of 
fifteen  years  (1911)  the  Italians  have  come  to  Provi-  G^d,  and  in  particular  that  man  should  glorify  Him, 
dence  and  the  vicinity  in  lar^e  numbers,  so  that  now  recognizing  in  nature  the  work  of  His  hand,  serving 
there  are  perhaps  between  thirty  and  forty  thousand  Him  in  obedience  and  love,  and  thereby  attaining 
of  them  in  the  diocese.  Two  churches  for  the  Italians  to  the  full  development  of  his  nature  and  to  eternal 
were  dedicated  in  Providence  in  1910  and  other  happiness  in  God.  The  universe  is  a  system  of 
smaller  parishes  provide  for  their  needs  in  the  out-  real  beings  created  by  God  and  directed  by  Him  to 
lying  districts.  The  four  colonies  of  Poles  have  four  this  supreme  end,  the  concurrence  of  God  being  neces- 
Polish  parishes,  while  the  Portuguese  have  one  in  sary  for  all  natural  operations,  whether  of  things 
Providence.  One  Syrian  parish  in  Central  Falls  animate  or  inanimate,  and  still  more  so  for  operations 
ministers  to  some  of  the  Orientals  in  these  parts.  of  the  supernatural  order.  God  preserves  the  uni- 
Parochial  schoob  are  established  in  the  greater  num-  verse  in  being;  He  acts  in  and  with  every  creature 
ber  of  the  English-speaking  parishes  of  the  cities,  in  each  and  all  its  activities.  In  spite  of  sin,  which 
Thus  out  of  seventeen  English-speaking  parishes  is  due  to  the  wilful  perversion  of  human  liberty, 
in  Providence,  nine  have  large  and  well-equipped  acting  with  the  concurrence,  but  contrary  to  the 
schools;  of  the  four  in  Pawtucket,  three  have  schools;  purpose  and  intention  of  God  and  in  spite  of  evil 
the  three  parishes  in  Newport  have  schools.  The  which  is  the  consequence  of  sin,  He  directs  all,  even 
others  arc  either  very  small  or  heavily  in  debt  or  evil  and  sin  itself,  to  the  final  end  for  which  the  uni- 
unable  to  procure  suitable  teachers.  Among  the  verse  wjis  created.  All  these  operations  on  God's 
French  Canadians,  with  whom  the  church  school  is  part,  with  the  exception  of  creation,  are  attributed 
a  patriotic  as  well  as  a  religious  institution,  it  is  in  Catholic  theology  to  Divine  Providence, 
rare  to  find  a  parish  without  its  school.  Religious  The  Testimony  oj  Universal  Belief. — For  all  re- 
women  are  usually  the  teachers  (in  ten  schools,  the  ligions,  whether  Christian  or  pagan,  belief  in  Provi- 


PBOVIDBNCI 


511 


PROVIDENCE 


denoe,  understood  in  the  wider  sense  of  a  superhuman 
being  who  governs  the  universe  and  dnrects  the 
course  of  human  affairs  with  definite  purpose  and 
beneficent  design,  has  always  been  a  very  real  and 
practical  beUef.  Prayer,  divination,  blessing  and 
curse,  oracle  and  sacred  rite^  all  testify  to  a  belief 
in  some  over-ruling  power,  divine  or  quasi-divine  in 
character;  and  such  phenomena  are  found  in  every 
race  and  tribe,  however  uncivilized  or  degraded.  We 
find  it,  for  instance,  not  only  amonest  the  savages  of 
to-day,  but  also  among  the  early  Greeks,  who, 
thou^  they  do  not  appear  to  hav«  dearlv  distin- 
guished between  Providence  and  Fate,  and  though 
their  gods  were  little  more  than  glorified  human 
beings,  subject  to  human  frailty  and  marred  by 
human  passion,  thev  none  the  less  watched  over  the 
home  and  the  family,  took  sides  in  human  warfare, 
and  were  the  protectors  and  avengers  of  mankind. 
The  intimate  connexion  of  the  go'ds  with  human  af« 
fairs  was  even  more  marked  in  the  religion  of  the 
early  Romans,  who  had  a  special  ^od  to  look  after 
each  detail  of  their  daily  me,  their  labours  in  the 
field,  and  the  business  of  the  state.  The  ancient 
religions  of  the  East  present  the  same  characteristics. 
Auramazda,  the  supreme  god  of  the  Persians  during 
the  period  of  the  great  kings,  is  the  ruler  of  the  worlo, 
the  maker  of  kings  and  nations,  who  punishes  the 
wicked  and  hearkens  to  the  prayers  of  the  good 
(see  cuneiform  inscriptions  translated  by  Casartelli 


rewards  the  good  and  smites  the  wicked  (Renouf. 
100  so . )  •  Osiris,  the  kine  of  the  gods,  judges  the  world 
according  to  his  will,  and  to  all  nations,  past,  present, 
and  future,  gives  his  commands  (op.  cit.,  218  sq.)* 
Amon  Ra-is,  the  lord  of  the  thrones  of  the  earth,  tne 
end  of  all  existence,  the  support  of  all  things,  just  of 
heart  when  one  cnes  to  him,  deliverer  of  the  poor 
and  oppressed  (op.  cit.,  225  sq.).  Assyrian  and 
Babylonian  records  are  no  less  clear.  Marduk,  the 
lord  of  the  universe,  shows  mercy  to  all,  implants 
fear  in  their  hearts,  and  controls  their  lives;  while 
Shamash  directs  the  law  of  nature,  and  is  the  supreme 
god  of  heaven  and  earth  (Jastrow,  296,  300,  301). 
The  books  of  the  Avesta,  though  they  depict  a  duali»- 
tic  system,  represent  the  good  god,  Mazdah  Ahura, 
with  his  court,  as  helping  those  wha  worship  him 
against  the  principle  of  evil  (Hist,  of  Relig.,  11,  14). 
In  the  dualism  of  the  Gnostic  theories,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  wo^ld  is  shut  off  from  the  supreme  god, 
Bythos,  who  has  nothing  directly  to  do  with  human 
affairs  before  or  after  the  incarnation.  This  idea 
of  a  remote  and  transcendent  deity  was  probably  de- 
rived from  Greek  philosophy.  Socrates  certainly 
admitted  Providence,  and  believed  in  inspiration  and 
divination;  but  for  Aristotle  the  doctrine  of  Provi- 
dence was  mere  opinion.  It  is  true  that  the  world 
was  for  him  the  instrument  and  expression  of  the 
Divine  thought,  but  (jrod  Himself  lived  a  life  wholly 
apart.  The  Epicureans  explicitly  denied  Providence, 
on  the  ground  that  if  God  cares  for  men  He  can  be 
neither  happy  ^  nor  good.  Everything  is  due,  they 
said,  to  chance  or  free  will.  On  both  these  points 
they  were  opposed  by  the  Stoics,  who  insisted  that 
God  must  love  men,  otherwise  the  very  notion  of 
God  would  be  destroyed  (Plutarch,  "De  comm. 
notit.",  32;  "De  stoic,  rep.",  38).  They  also  at- 
tempted to  prove  the  action  or  existence  of  Provi- 
dence from  the  adaptation  of  means  to  ends  in  nature, 
in  which  evil  is  merely  an  accident,  a  detail,  or  a 
punishment.  On  the  other  hand,  the  notions  of 
god,  nature,  force,  and  fate  were  not  clearly  dis- 
tinguished by  the  Stoics,  who  regarded  them  as 
practically  the  same  thing.  While  even  Cicero,  who 
works  out  the  argument  from  adaptation  at  con- 
siderable length  in  his  "De  natura  deorum",  ends 


unsatisfactorily  with  the  statement,  "Magna  Dii 
curant,  parva  negligunt'\  as  his  ultimate  solution 
of  the  problem  oi  evil  (n.  51-66). 

Caibd,  The  BvohUion  of  Theology  in  Greek  Philo8opher9 
(Glasgow,  1004) ;  Casabtelxi,  Leaves  from  My  Eastern  Garden; 
Cicero,  De  ruUura  deorum;  Fox,  Religion  and  Morality  (New 
York,  1899) ;  Jastbow,  The  Religion  of  Bo^lonia  and  Assyria 
(Boston,  1898);  Hiat,  of  Religions  (London,  1910);  Louis, 
Doctrines  Religieuses  des  Philosophes  Grecs  (Paris,  1909);  ed. 
MuLLER,  Sacred  Books  of  the  East,  IV.  XXIII,  XXXI,  The  Zend- 
AvesUit  tr.  Dariixstbtbr  and  Mills  (London,  1880-7) ;  Mubbat, 
HelUiiistic  Philosophy  in  HibbeH  Journal  (Oct.,  1910);  Piat, 
Soerate  (Paris,  1909);  Plutarch,  De  eommunibus  notitiis: 
loBif,  De  etoicorum  repugnantiis;  Lb  Page  Renouv,  Lectures 
on  ths  Origin  and  Growth  of  Religion,  as  itttutrated  by  the  Re» 
ligiona  of  Ancient  Egypt  (London,  1880);  Satce,  The  Religion 
of  Ancient  Egypt  and  Babylonia  (Edinburgh,  1902);  Touiak, 
Ancient  Persian  Lexicon  and  Texts  (New  York,  1908);  Zellbb, 
Stoics,  Epicureans,  and  Sceptics  (London,  1880). 

The  Testimony  of  Scripture. — ^Though  the  term 
Providence  is  applied  to  God  only  three  times  in 
Scripture  (Eccl.,  v,  5;  Wis.,  xiv,  3;  Judith,  ix,  5), 
and  once  to  Wisdom  (Wis.,  vi,  17),  the  general  doc- 
trine of  Providence  is  consistently  taught  throughout 
both  the  Old  and  New  Testaments.  God  not  only 
implants  in  the  nature  of  things  the  potentiality  of 
future  development  (Gen.,  i,  7,  12,  22,  28;  viii,  17; 
ix,  1.  7;  xii,  2;  xv,  5),  but  in  this  development,  as 
in  all  the  operations  of  nature.  He  co-operates;  so 
that  in  Scriptural  language  what  nature  does  God 
is  said  to  do  (Gen.,  ii,  5,  cf.  9;  vii,  4,  cf.  10;  vii,  19- 
22,  cf.  23;  viii,  1,  2,  cf.  5  sq.).  Seed  time  and  har- 
vest, cold  and  heat,  summer  and  winter,  the  clouds 
and  the  rain,  the  fruits  of  the  earth,  life  itself  alike 
are  His  jpft  (Gen.,  ii,  7;  viiij  2;  Ps.  cxlvi,  8,  9; 
xxviii;  ciii;  cxlviii:  Job,  xxxviii,  37;  Joel,  ii,  21  so.; 
Ecclus.,  xi,  14).  oo  too  with  man.  Man  tills  tne 
ground  (Gen.,  iii,  17  sq.;  iv,  12;  ix,  20),  but  human 
labours  without  Divine  assistance  are  of  no  avail 
(Ps.  cxxvi,  1;  lix,  13;  Prov.,  xxi,  31).  Even  for  an 
act  of  sin.  Divine  concurrence  is  necessary.  Hence 
in  Scripture  the  expressions  '^God  hardenea  Pharao's 
heart"  (Ex.,  vii,  3;  ix,  12;  x,  1,  20,  27;  xi,  10;  xiv, 
8)j  "Pharao's  heart  was  hardened"  (Ex.,  Vii,  13: 
viii,  19,  82;  ix,  7,  35),  "Pharao  hardened  his  heart'* 
(viii,  15)  and  ''Pharao  did  not  set  his  heart  to  do  it" 
(vii,  23),  or  ''hearkened  not"  (vii,  4;  viii,  19),  or 
''increased  his  sin"  (ix,  34),  are  practically  synony- 
mous, (jrod  is  the  sole  ruler  of  the  world  (Job, 
xxxiv,  13).  His  will  governs  all  things  (Ps.  cxlviii, 
8;  Job,  ix,  7;  Is.,  3d,  22-6;  xliv,  24-8;  Ecclus., 
xvi,  18-27;  Esther,  xiii,  9).  He  loves  all  men  (Wis.> 
xi,  25,  27),  desires  the  salvation  of  all  (Is.,  xiv,  22: 
Wis.,  xii,  16),  and  His  providence  extends  to  all 
nations  (Deut.,  ii,  19;  Wis.,  vi,  8;  Is.,  Ixvi,  18). 
He  desires  not  the  death  of  a  sinner,  but  rather  that 
he  should  repent  (Ezech.,  xviii,  20-32;  xxxiii,  11: 
Wis.,  xi,  24);  for  He  is  above  all  things  a  merciful 
(jrod  ana  a  (iod  of  much  compassion  (Ex.,  xxxiv,  6; 
Num.,  xiv,  18;  Deut.,  v,  10;  Ps.  xxxii,  5;  cii,  8-17; 
cxliv,  9;  Ecclus.,  ii,  23).  Yet  He  is  a  just  God,  as 
well  as  a  Saviour  (Is.,  jdv.  21).  Hence  both  good  and 
evil  proceed  from  Him  (Lam.,  iii,  38;  Amos,  iii,  6; 
Is.,  xiv,  7;  Eccl.,  vii,  15;  Ecclus.,  xi,  14),  good  as  a 
bounteous  gift  freely  bestowed  (Ps.  cxliv,  16;  Eccl., 
V,  18;  I  Par.,  xxix,  12-4),  evil  as  the  consequence 
of  sin  (Lam.,  iii,  39;  Joel  ii,  20;  Amos,  iii,  10,  11; 
Is.,  V,  4,  5).  For  God  rewards  men  according  to  their 
works  (Lam.,  iii,  64;  Job,  xxxiv,  10-7;  Ps.  xvii,  27; 
Ecclus.,  xvi,  12,  13;  xi,  28;  I  Kings,  xxvi,  23),  their 
thoughts,  and  their  devices  (Jer.,  xvii,  10;  xxxii,  19; 
Ps.  vii,  10).  From  His  anger  there  is  no  escape 
(Job,  ix,  13;  Ps.  xxxii,  16,  17;  Wis.,*  xvi,  13-8);  and 
none  can  prevail  against  Him  (Ecclus.,  xviii,  1;  Wis., 
xi,  22-3;  Prov.,  xxi,  30;  Pa.  ii,  1-4;  xxxii,  10; 
Judith,  xvi,  16,  17).  If  the  wicked  are  spared  for  a 
time  (Jer.,  xii,  1;  Job,  xxi,  7-15;  Ps.  Ixxii,  12-3; 
Eccl.,  viii,  12),  they  will  ultimately  receive  their 
deserts  if  they  do  not  repent  (Jer.,  xii,  13-7;  Job, 
xxi,  17,  18;   xxvii,  13-23);   while  the  good,  though 


PBOVIDENCE 


512 


PBOVIDBNCI 


they  may  suffer  for  a  time,  are  comforted  by  God 
(Pa.  xc,  15;  Is.,  11,  12),  who  will  build  them  up,  and 
will  not  cease  to  do  them  good  (Jer.,  xxxi,  28  sq.; 
xxxii,  41).  For  in  spite  of  the  wicked,  God's  oounsela 
are  never  changed  or  thwarted  (Is.,  xiv,  24-7:  xliii, 
13;  xlvi,  10;  Ps.  xxxii,  11;  cxlviii,  6).  JEvil  He  con- 
verts into  good  (Gen.,  1,  20;  cf.  Ps.  xc,  10);  and 
suffering  He  uses  as  an  instrument  whereby  to  train 
men  up  as  a  father  traineth  up  his  children  (Deut., 
viii,  1-6;  Ps.  bcv,  10-2;  Wis.,  xii,  1,  2);  so  that  in 
very  truth  the  world  fi^teth  tor  the  just  (Wis.,  xvi, 
17)\ 

The  teaching  of  the  Old  Testament  on  Providence 
is  assumed  by  Our  Lord,  who  draws  therefrom  prac- 
tical lessons  both  in  regard  to  confidence  in  Okxl 
(Matt.,  vi,  25-33;  vii,  7-11;  x,  28-31;  Mark,  xi,22-4; 
Luke,  xij  9-13;  John,  xvi,  26,  27)  and  in  regard  to 
the  lor^veness  of  our  enemies  (Matt.,  v,  39-45; 
Luke,  VI,  27-38);   while  in  St.  Paul  it  becomes  the 
basis  of  a  definite  and  systematic  theology.    To  the 
Athenians  in  the  Areopagus  Paul  declares  (1)  that 
God  made  the  universe  and  is  its  supreme  Lord 
(Acts,  xvii,  24);  (2)  that  He  sustains  the  imiverse  in 
its  ^  existence,  giving  life  and  breath  to  all  thinni 
(verse  25),  and  hence,  as  the  source  whence  they  M 
proceed,  must  Himself  lack  nothing  nor  stand  in  need 
of  any  hiunan  service;   (3)  that  He  has  directed  the 
growth  of  nations  and  their  distribution  (verse  26), 
and  (4)  this  to  the  end  that  they  should  seek  Him 
(verse  27)  in  Whom  we  live  and  move  and  have  our 
being,  and  whose  offspring  we  are  (verse  28).    Being 
therefore  the  offspring  of  God,  it  is  absurd  for  us  to 
liken  Him  to  thinp  inanimate  (verse  29)  ^  and  though 
God  has  borne  with  this  ignorance  on  man's  part  for 
a  time,  now  He  demands  penance  (verse  30),  and, 
having  sent  Christ,  Whose  authority  is  guaranteed  by 
His  Resurrection,  has  appointed  a  day  when  the 
world  shall  be  judged  by  Him  in  justice  (verse  31). 
In  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans  the  supernatural  charac- 
ter of  Divine  Providence  is  further  evolved,  and  the 
doctrine  of  Providence  becomes  identical  with  that 
of  grace.    Nature  manifests  so  clearly  the  power  and 
the  divinity  of  God  that  failure  to  recognize  it  is 
inexcusable   (Rom.,   i,   20-2).    Hence  God  in  His 
anger  (verse  18)  gives  man  over  to  the  desires  of  his 
heart  (verse  24)  j  to  a  reprobate  sense  (verse  28). 
Some  day  He  will  vindicate  Himself  (ii,  2-5),  ren- 
dering to  every  man  according  to  his  works  (ii,  6-8; 
cf.  II  Cor.,  V,  10;  Gal.,  vi,  8),  his  knowledge  (Rom., 
ii,  9  sq.),  and  his  secret  thoughts  (ii,  16);  but  for  the 
present  He  forbears  (iii,  26;  cf.  ix.  22;  II  Peter,  ii, 
9)  and  is  ready  to  justify  all  men  ireely  through  the 
redemption  of  Jesus  Christ  (Rom.,  iii,  22,  24,  25); 
for  all  men  stand  in  need  of  God's  help  (iii,  23). 
Christians,  moreover,  having  already  received  the 
grace  of  redemption  (v,  1),  should  glory  in  tribulation, 
knowing  that  it  is  but  a  trial  which  strengtheneth 
patience  and  hope  (v,  3,  4).    For  the  graces  that  are 
to  come  are  far  greater  than  those  already  received 
(v,  10  sq.)  and  far  more  abundant  than  the  con- 
sequences of  sin  (v,  17).    Life  everlasting  is  promised 
to  us  (v,  21);  but  unaided  we  can  do  nothing  to  gain 
it  (vii,  18-24).    It  is  the  grace  of  Christ  that  delivers 
us  (vh,  25)  and  makes  us  co-heirs  with  Him  (viii,  17). 
Yet  we  must  also  suffer  with  Him  (verse  17)  and  be 
patient  (verse  25),  knowing  that  all  things  work  to- 
gether for  good  to  them  that  love  God;  for  God  in 
His  Providence  has  regarded  us  with  love  from  all 
eternity,  has  predestined  us  to  be  made  conformable 
to  the  image  of  &is  Son,  that  He  mif^t  be  the  first- 
bom  of  many  brethren,  has  called  us  (II  Thes.,  ii,  13), 
has  justified  us  (Rom.,  v,  1;  I  Cor.,  vi  11),  and  even 
now  has  begun  to  accomplish  within  us  the  work 
of  glorification  (Rom.,  viii.  29,  30;  cf.  Eph..  i,  3  sq., 
II  Cor.,  iii.  18;  II  Thes.,  h,  13).    This,  the  beneficent 
purpose  of  an  all-seeing  Providence,  is  wholly  gratui- 
touB,  entirely  unmerited  (Rom.,  iii.  24:    ix,  11-2). 


It  extends  to  all  men  (Rom.,  ii,  10;  I  Tim.,  ii,  4). 
even  to  the  reprobate  Jews  (Rom.,  xi,  26  sq.);  and 
by  it  all  God's  dealings  with  man  are  renilated 
(Eph.,  i,  11). 

The  Testimony  of  the  Fathers  is,  it  need  hardly  be 
said,  perfectly  unanimous  from  the  very  outset.  Even 
those  Fathers — and  they  are  not  many — ^who  do  not 
treat  expressly  of  the  subject  use  the  doctrine  of 
Providence  as  the  basis  of  their  teaching,  both  dog- 
matic and  practical  (e.  g.  Clement,  "I  Epis.  ad  Cor.", 
xix  sq.,  xxvii,  Xxviii  m  "P.  G.",  I,  247-64,  267-70). 
(jrod  governs  the  whole  universe  [Aristides,  "ApoL", 
I,  XV  in  "Texts  and  Studies"  (1891),  35,  50;  "Anon, 
epis.  ad  Diog.",  vii  in  "P.  G.".  II,  1175  sq.;  Origen, 
"Contra  Celsum",  IV,  n.  75  in  ^'P.  G.",  XI,  1146;  St. 
Cyprian,  "Lib.  de  idol.  van.",  viii,  ix  in  "P.  L.",  IV, 
596-7;  St.  John  Chrysostem,  ''Ad  eos  qui  scandalisati 
sunt",  V  in  "P.  G.^',  LII,  487;  St.  Augustine,  "De 
gen.  ad  lit.",  V,  xxi,  n.  42  in  "P.  L.",  XXXIV,  335-8; 
St.  Gregory  the  Great,  "Lib.  moral.'%  XXXII,  n.  7  in 
"P.  L.'^,  LXXVI,  637  sq.;  XVI,  xii  in  "P.  L.",  Ixxv, 
1126].  It  extends  to  every  individual,  adapting  itself  to 
the  needs  of  each  (St.  John  Chrysostom, "  Hom.  xxviii  in 
Matt.",  n.  3  in  "P.  G.",  LVII,  354),  and  embraces 
even  what  we  think  is  due  to  our  own  initiative  (Hom. 
xxi,  n.  3  in  |'P.  G.",  298).  All  things  are  created  and 
governed  with  a  view  to  man,  to  the  development  of 
his  life  and  his  intelligence,  and  to  the  satisfaction  of 
his  needs  (Aristides,  '^ipoL",  i,  v,  vi,  xv,  xvi;  Origen, 
"Contra  Celsum",  IV,  Ixxiv,  Ixxviii  in  "P.  G.",  XI, 
1143-51;  Lactantius,  "Deira  Dei",xiii,  xv  in  "P.  L.", 
VII,  115  sq.;  St.  John  Chiysostom,  "Hom.  xiii  in 
Matt.",  n.  5  in  "P.  G.",  LVit  216,  217;  "Ad  eos  qui 
scand.'S  vii,  viii  in  "P.  G.",  LII,  491-8;  "Ad  Stagir.". 
I,  iv  in  "P.  G.",  XLVII,  432-4;  St.  AugustmeT"!)^ 
div.  quaest.",  xxx,  xxxi  in  "P.  L.",  XL,  19,  20).  The 
chief  proof  of  this  doctrine  is  derived  from  the  adapta- 
tion of  means  to  an  end,  which,  since  it  takes  place  in 
the  universe  coniprisinff  a  vast  multitude  of  relatively 
independent  individuius  differing  in  nature,  function, 
and  end,  implies  the  continuous  control  and  unif3ring 

f;ovemance  of  a  single  supreme  Being  (Minucius  Felix, 
<n/>fo«riiia"     wii  ^n  TTolm     «r*^i.y>    »/.*;««     1?^^1     T  .4  H 


ira  Dei^',  x-xv  in  *^P.  L.",  VII,  100  sq.;  St.  John 
Chiysostom,  "Hom.  ad  Pop.  Ant.*',  ix,  3, 4  m  "P.  G.", 
XLIX,  106-9;  "Ad  eos.  qui  scand.",  v,  vii,  viii  in 
"P.  G.",  LII,  488-98;  "In  Ps.",  v,  n.  9  in  "P.  G.", 
LV,  54-6;  "Ad  Demetrium",  ii,  5  in  "P.  G.",  XLVII, 
418,  419;  "Ad  Stagir.",  passim  in  "P.  G.",  XLVII, 
423  sq.;  St.  Augustme,  "De  gen.  ad  lit.",  V,  xx-xxiii 
in  "P.  L",  XXXIV,  335  sq.;  "In  Ps.",  cxlviii,  n.  9- 
15  in  "P.  L.",  XXXVII,  1942-7;  Theodoret,  "Pe 
prov;  orat.",  i-v  in  "P.  G.",  LXXXIII,  555  sq.;  St. 
John  Damascene,  "De  fid.  orth.",  i,  3  in  "P.  G.", 
XCIV,  795  sq.).  Again,  from  the  fact  that  God  has 
created  the  universe,  it  shows  that  He  must  also  gov* 
em  it;  for  just  as  the  contrivances  of  man  demand 
attention  and  guidance,  so  (jod,  as  a  good  workman, 
must  care  for  His  work  (St.  Ambrose,  "De  Oflfic. 
minist.",  XIII  in  "P.  L.",  XVI,  41;  ^St.  Augustine, 
"In  Ps.'',  cxlv,  n.  12, 13  in  ^*P.  L.'',  XXXVII,  1892-3; 
Theodoret, "  Deprov.  orat.",  i,  iiin  ^*  P.  G.".  LXXXIII, 
564,  581-4;  Salvianus,  "De  gub.  Dei",  I,  viii-xii  in 
"P.  L.",  LIII,  40  sq.:  St.  Gregory  the  Great,  "Lib. 
moral.",  xxiv,  n.  46  m  "P.  L.^,  LXXVI,  314).  In 
addition  to  this,  Tertullian  ("De  testim.  anims"  in 
"P.  L.",  I,  681  sq.)  and  St.  Cyprian  Qoc.  cit.)  appeal 
to  the  testimony  of  the  human  soul  as  ei^ressed  in 
sayings  common  to  all  mankind  (cf.  Salvianus,  loc. 
cit.);  while  Lactantius  ("De  ira  Dei",  viii,  xii,  xvi  in 
"P.  L.",  VII,  97, 114, 115, 126)  uses  a  distmctly  prag- 
matic argument  based  on  the  utter  ruin  that  wouul 
result  to  society,  were  the  Providence  of  God  generally 
denied. 


PBOVmSNCB 


513 


PBOVIDENCE 


The  question  of  Providence  in  the  Fathers  is  ahnost 
invariably  connected  with  the  problem  of  evil.  How 
ca&  evil  and  suffering  be  compatible  with  the  benefi- 
cent providence  of  an  all-powerful  God?  And  why 
especially  should  the  iust  be  allowed  to  suffer  while  the 
wicked  are  apparently  prosperous  and  happy?  Pa- 
tristic solutions  to  these  problems  may  be  summed  up 
under  the  following  heads:  (1)  Sin  is  not  ordained  by 
the  will  of  God,  though  it  happens  with  His  permi»- 
sion.  It  can  be  ascribed  to  Providence  onw  as  a 
seconda^  result  (Origen,  "Contra  Celsum",  IV,  Ixviii 
in  "P.  G.",  Xli  1516-7;  St.  John  Damascene,  "De 
fid.  orth.",  li,  21  in  "  P.  G.",  XCIV,  95  so.).  (2)  Sin  is 
due  to  the  abuse  of  free  will;  an  abuse  wrnch  was  cer- 
tainly foreseen  by  God,  but  could  have  been  prevented 
only  by  depriving  mfin  of  his  most  noble  attribute 
(TertuUian,  "Adv.  Marcion.",  II,  v-vii  in  "P.  L.",  II, 
317-20;  St.  Cyril  of  Alei^dria,  "In  Julian.",  IX, 
xiii,  10,  11,  18  in  "P.  G.",  LXXIV,  120-1,  127-32; 
Theodoret,  "De  prov.  orat.",  IX,  vi  in  "P.  G.", 
LXXXIII,  662).  Moreover,  (3)  in  this  world  man  has 
to  learn  by  experience  and  contrast,  and  to  develop  bv 
the  overcomii^  of  obstacles  (Lactantius,  "  De  ira  Dei  , 
xiii,  XV  in  "P.  L.",  VII,  115-24;  St.  Augustine,  "De 
ordine",  I,  vu,  n.  18  in  "P.  L.",  XXXII,  986).  (4) 
One  reason  therefore  why  God  permits  sin  is  that  man 
mav  arrive  at  once  at  a  consciousness  of  righteousness 
and  of  his  own  inability  to  attain  it,  and  so  may  put 
his  trust  in  God  (Anon.  epb.  ad  Diog.,  vii-ix  in  "P. 
G.",  II,  1175  sq.;  St.  Gregory  the  Great,  "Lib. 
moral.".  Ill,  Ivii  in  "P.  L.",  LXXV,  627).  (5)  For  sin 
itself  God  is  not  responsible,  but  only  for  the  evils  that 
result  as  a  punishment  of  sin  (Tertullian,  "Adv. 
Marc.",  II,  XIV,  xv  in  "P.  L.",  II,  327  sq.),  evils  which 
happen  without  God's  will  but  are  not  contrarv  to  it 
(St.  Gregory  the  Great,  op.  cit.,  VI,  xxxii  in  "P.  L.", 
LXXVII,  746.  747).  (6)  Had  there  been  no  sin,  phys- 
ical evil  would  have  been  inconsistent  with  the  Divine 
goodness  (St.  Augustine,  "De  div.  qusest.",  Ixxxii  in 
"  P.  L.",  LX,  98, 99) ;  nor  would  God  permit  evil  at  all, 
unless  He  could  dfaw  good  out  of  evil  (St.  Augustine, 
"Enchir.",  xi  in  "P.  L.",  LX,  236;  "Serm.",  ccxiv,  3 
in  "P.  L.*\  XXXVIII,  1067:  St.  Gregory  the  Great, 
op.  cit.,  VI,  xxxu,  XVIII,  xlvi  in  "P.  L?',  LXXV,  747; 
LXXVI,  61-2).  (7)  AU  physical  evil,  therefore,  is  the 
consequence  of  sin,  the  inevitable  result  of  the  Fall 
(St.  John  Chrysostom,  "Ad  Stagir.",  I.  ii  in  "P.  G.", 
LXVII,  428,  429:  St.  Gregory  the  Great,  op.  cit., 
yill,  li,  lii  m  "P.  L.",  LXXV,  833, 834),  and  regarded 
in  this  light  is  seen  to  be  at  once  a  medicine  (St.  Augus- 
tine, "De  div.  qufiBst.",  Ixxxii  in  "P.  L.",  XL,  98,  99; 
"Serm.",  xvii,  4,  5  in  "P.  L.",  XXXVIII,  126^),  a 
discipline  ("Serm.",  xv,  4r-9  in  "P.  L.",  XXXVIII, 
118-21.;  St.  Gregory  the  Great,  op.  cit.,  V,  xxxv;  VII, 
xxix;  XIV,  xl  in  ^'P.  L.",  LXXV,  698, 818, 1060),  and 
an  occasion  of  charitjr  (St.  Gregory  the  Great,  VII, 
xxix).  Evil  and  suffering  thus  tend  to  the  increase  of 
merit  (XIV,  xxxvi,  xjovii  in  "P.  L.",  1058, 1059),  and 
in  this  way  the  function  of  justice  becomes  an  agency 
for  goodness  (Tertullian,  c.  "Adv.  Marc",  II,  xi,  xiii  in 
"P.  L.",  324  sq.).  (8)  Evil,  therefore,  ministera  to 
God's  design  (St.  Gregory  the  Great,  op.  cit.,  VI,  xxxii 
in  "P.  L.",  LXXV,  747;  Theodoret,  "De prov. orat.", 
v-yiu  in  "P.  L.",  LXXXIII,  652  sq.).  Hence,  if  the 
universe  be  considered  as  a  whole  it  will  be  found  that 
that  which  for  the  individual  is  evil  will  in  the  end 
turn  out  to  be  consistent  with  Divine  goodness,  in 
conformity  with  justice  and  right  order  (Origen, 
"Contra  Celsum",  IV,  xcix  in  "P.  G.",  XI,  1177-80; 
St.  Augustine,  "De  ordine",  I,  i-v,  9;  II,  iv  m  "P. 
L.",  IDCXII,  977-87,  990,  999-1002).  (9)  It  is  the 
end  that  proves  hM>pine8s  (Lactantius,  "De  ira  Dei", 
XX  in  "P.  L.",  VII,  137  sq.;  St.  Ambrose,  "De  offic. 
minist.",  XVI,  cf.  XII,  XV  in  "P.  L.",  XVI,  44-6,  38 
sq.;  St.  John  Chrysostom,  "Horn,  xiii  in  Matt.",  n.  5 
in  "P.  G.",  LXVIL  216, 217;  St.  Augustine,  "In  Ps.", 
xci,  n.  8  in  "P.  L.'\  XXXIII,  1176;  Theodoret,  "De 
XII.— 33 


prov.  orat.".  be  in  "P.  G.",  LXXXIII,  727  sq.).  In 
the  Last  Judgment  the  problem  of  evil  will  be  solved, 
biit  till  then  the  workings  of  Providence  will  remain 
more  or  less  a  mystery  (St.  Augustine,  "De  div. 
qu»st.",  brodi  in  "  P.  Lr.  XL,  98,  99;  St.  John  Chrys- 
ostom, "Ad  eos  qui  scand.",  VIII,  LX  in  *'P.  G.", 
LII,  494,  495).  In  regard  to  poverty  and  suffering, 
however,  it  is  well  to  bear  in  mind  that  in  depriving  us 
of  earthly  goods,  God  is  but  recalling  what  is  His  own 
(St.  GrM^ory  the  Great,  op.  cit.,  II,  xxxi  in  "P.  L.", 
LXXVII,  571);  and  secondly  that,  as  Salvianus  tells 
us  ("De  gub.  Dei",  I,  i,  2  in  '*P.  L.",  LIII,  29  sq.), 
nothing  is  so  ligjit  that  it  does  not  appear  heavy  to 
him  who  bears  it  unwillingly,  and  nothing  so  heayv 
that  it  does  not  appear  light  to  him  who  bears  it  with 
goodwill. 

The  Testimony  of  the  Councils, — From  the  creeds  we 
learn  that  God  the  Father  is  the  omnipotent  creator  of 
heaven  and  earth;  that  God  the  Son  descended  from 
heaven,  became  man,  suffered  and  died  for  our  salva- 
tion, and  is  to  be  the  judge  of  the  living  and  the  dead; 
that  the  Holy  Ghost  inspired  the  Projects  ajid  the 
Apostles,  and  dwells  in  the  saints — all  of  which  implies 
Providence,  natural  and  supernatural.  The  Profession 
of  Faith  prescribed  for  the  Waldenses  in  1208  declares 
God  to  be  the  governor  and  disposer  of  all  things  cor- 
poreal and  spiritual  (Denzinger,  10th  ed.,  1908,  n. 
421).  The  Cfouncil  of  Trent  (Sess.  VI,  can.  vi,  a.  d. 
816)  defines  that  evil  is  in  the  power  of  map,  and  that 
evil  deeds  are  not  to  be  attributed  to  God  in  the  same 
sense  as  good  deeds,  but  permissive  only,  so  that  the 
vocation  of  Paul  is  God's  work  in  a  much  truer  sense 
than  the  treachery  of  Judas.  The  Council  of  the  Vati- 
can sums  up  past  doctrine  in.  the  statement  that  God 
in  His  Providence  protects  and  governs  all  things 
(Sess.  Ill,  c.  I,  d.  1784). 

Philosophical  Developments. — ^The  basis  of  all  fur- 
ther philosophical  speculations  among  Scholastics  in 
regard  to  the  precise  nature  of  Providence,  its  relation 
to  other  Divine  attributes,  and  of  creation,  was  laid  by 
Boethius  in  the  "De  consol.  phil."  (IV,  vi  sq.  in  "P. 
L.",  LXIII,  813  sq.) .  Providence  is  the  Divine  Intelli- 
gence itself  as  it  exists  in  the  supreme  principle  of  all 
things  and  disposes  all  things;  or,  again,  it  is  the  evolu- 
tion of  thin^  temporal  as  conceived  and  brought  to 
unity  in  the  Divine  Intelligence,  which,  as  St.  Thomas 
says  (Summa  I,  G.  xxii,  a.  1)^  is  the  cause  of 'all  things. 
Providence,  therefore,  pnertams  primarily  to  the  Intel- 
ligence of  God,  though  it  implies  also  will  (I,  Q.  xxii, 
a.  1,  ad  3  um),  and  hence  is  defined  by  St.  John 
Damascene  as  "the  will  of  Grod  by  which  all  things  are 
ruled  according  to  right  reason"  ("De  fid.  orth.  ,  i,  3 
in  "P.  G.",  XCIV,  963,  964).  The  term  "Provi- 
dence", however,  must  not  be  taken  too  literally.  It 
is  not  merely  sight,  or  fore-sight.  It  involves  more 
than  mere  vision  or  knowledge,  for  it  implies  the  active 
disposition  and  arrangement  of  things  with  a  view  to  a 
definite  end;  but  it  does  not  involve  Accession.  God 
beholds  all  things  together  in  one  comprehensive  act 
(I,  Q.  xxii,  a.  3,  ad  3  um),  and  by  the  same  act  pro- 
duces, conserves,  and  concurs  in  all  things  (I,  Q.  civ, 
a.  1,  ad  4  um).  Providence  as  expressed  in  the  created 
order  of  things  is  by  Boethius  called  Fate  (loc.  cit.); 
but  St.  Thomas  naturally  objects  to  the  use  of  thiff 
term  (I,  Q.  cxvi,  a.  1).  Strictly  only  those  things 
which  are  ordained  by  God  to  the  production  of  cer- 
tain determinate  effects  are  subject  to  necessity  or 
Fate  (I,  Q.  xxii,  a.  4;  Q.  cii,  a.  3;  Q'.  cxvi,  a.  1,  2,  4). 
This  excludes  chance,  which  is  a  relative  term  and  im- 
plies merely  that  some  things  happen  irrespective  of, 
or  even  contrary  to,  the  natural  purpose  ana  tendency 
of  some  particular  agent,  natural  or  free  (I,  Q.  xxii,  a. 
2;  Q.  cvi,  a.  7;  Q.  cxvi,  a.  1);  not  that  things  happen 
irrespective  of  the  supreme  and  universal  cause  of  all 
things.  But  it  does  not  exclude  free  will.  Some  causes 
are  not  determined  ad  unum,  but  are  free  to  choose 
between  the  effects  which  they  are  capable  of  produc- 


PROVINCE  514  PROVINCIAL 

ins  (^t  Q*  ^™i»  A  2,  ad  4  urn;  cf .  BoethiuB,  op.  cit.,  V,  ii,  within  the  same  natural  geographical  boundaries  were 

in  "P.  LJ\  LXIII,  835).   Thus  things  happen  oontin-  accustomed  to  assemble  on  important  occasions  for 

gently  as  well  as  of  necessity  (I,  Q.  xxii,  a.  4),  for  God  conunon  counsel  in  synods.    From  the  end  of  that 

nas  dyen  to  different  things  different  wa3rs  of  acting,  century  the  summons  to  attend  these  increasingly 

and  His  concurrence  is  given  accordingly  (I,  Q.  xxu,  important  synods  was  usualljr  issued  bv  the  bidiop 

a.  4).    Yet  all  things,  whether  due  to  necessary  causes  of  the  capital  of  the  state  provmce  (eparchy),  who  also 

or  to  the  free  choice  of  man,  are  foreseen  by  God  and  presided  over  the  assembly,  espedaUy  in  the  East, 

preordained  in  accordance  with  His  all-en^bracing  Important  communications  were  also  forwarded  to  the 

purpose.    Hence  Providence  is  at  once  universal,  im-  bishop  of  ^he  provincial  capital  to  be  brought  to  the 

mediate,  efficacious,  and  without  violence:  universal,  notice  of  the  other  bishops.    Thus  in  the  Elast  during 

because  all  things  are  subject  to  it  (I,  Q.  xxii,  a.  2;  ciii,  the  third  century  the  bishop  of  the  provincial  metrop- 

a.  5);   immediate,  in  that  though  God  acts  through  olis   came  gradually  to  occupy  a  certain  superior 

secondary  causes,  yet  all  alike  postulate  Divine  con-  position,  and  received  the  name  of  metropolitan.    At 

currence  and  receive  their  powers  of  operation  from  the  (Council  of  Nicaea  (325)  this  position  of  the  metro- 

Him  (I,  Q.  xxii,  a.  3;  Q.  ciii,  a.  6);  efficacious,  in  that  politan  was  taken  for  granted,  and  was  made  the 

all  things  minister  to  God's  final  purpose,  a  purpK)se  oasis  for  conceding  to  him  definite  rights  over  the 

which  cannot  be  frustrated  (Contra  Gent.,  HI,  xciv) ;  other  bishops  and  dioceses  of  the  state  province.    In 

without  violence  (st/oris),  because  it  violates  no  natu-  Eastern  canon  law  since  the  fourth  century  (cf.  also 

ral  law,  but  rather  effects  its  purpxise  through  these  theSynodof  Antiochof  341,  can.  ix),  it  was  a  principle 

laws  (I,  Q.  ciii,  a.  8).  that  every  civil  province  was  likewise  a  church  prov- 

The  functions  of  Providence  are  threefold.  As  phys^  ince  under  the  supreme  direction  of  the  metropolitan, 

ical,  it  conserves  what  is  and  concurs  with  what  acts  i.  e.  of  the  bishop  of  the  provincial  capital.    This 

or  becomes;  as  moral,  it  bestows  upon  man  the  natu-  division  into  ecclesiastical  provinces  did  not  develop 

ral  law,  a  conscience,  sanctions — ^physical,  moral,  and  so  early  in  the  Western  Empire.    In  North  Africa  the 

social — ^answers  human  prayers,  and  in  general  gov-  first  metropolitan  appears  during  the  fourth  century, 

ems  both  the  nation  and  the  individual.    That  God  the  Bishop  of  Carthage  being  recognized  as  primate 

should  answer  prayer  must  not  be  imderstood  as  a  of  the  dioceses  of  Northern  Africa;  metropohtans  of 

violation  of  the  order  of  natural  Providence,  but  rather  the  separate  provinces  gradually  appear,  although  the 

as  the  carrying  of  Providence  into  effect,  ''because  this  bounaaries  of  these  provinces  did  not  coincide  with 

veiy  arrangement  that  such  a  concession  be  made  to  the  divisions  of  the  empire.    A  similar  development 

such  a  petitioner,  falls  under  the  order  of  Divine  was  witnessed  in  Spain,  Gaul,  and  Italy.    The  migra- 

Providence.   Therefore  to  say  that  we  should  not  pray  tion  of  the  nations,  however,  prevented  an  equally 

to  gain  anything  of  God.  because  the  order  of  His  stable  formation  of  ecclesiastical  provinces  in  the 

Providence  is  unchangeaole,  is  like  saying  that  we  Christian  West  as  in  the  East.    It  was  onlv  after  the 

should  not  walk  to  get  to  a  place,  or  eat  to  support  fifth  century  that  such  gradually  developed  mostly  in 

life"    (Contra  Gent.,   Ill,   xcv).     The  Providence  accordance  with  the  ancient  divisions  of  the  Roman 

whereby  we  are  enabled  to  overcome  sin  and  to  merit  Empire.    In  Italy  alone,  on  account  of  the  central 

eternal   life — supernatural   Providence — ^pertains   to  ecclesiastical  position  of  Rome,  this  development  was 

another  order,  and  for  a  discussion  of  it  tne  reader  is  slower.    However,  at  the  end  of  antiquity  the  exis- 

ref erred  to  Grace;  ^edestination.  tence  of  church  provinces  as  the  basiiS  of  ecclesiastical 

St.  Thomas'  treatment  of  the  problem  of  evil  in  rela-  administration  was  fairly  universal  in  the  West.    In 

tion  to  Providence  is  based  upon  the  consideration  of  the  Carlovindan  period  they  were  reorganized,  and 

the  universe  as  a  whole.    God  wills  that  His  nature  have  retained  their  place  till  the  present  day.    The 

should  be  manifested  in  the  Idghest  possible  way,  and  delimitation  of  church  provinces  is  since  the  Middle 

hence  has  created  things  like  to  Himself  not  only  Ia  Ages  a  right  reserved  to  the  pope.    There  have  al- 

that  they  are  good  in  «e,  but  also  in  that  they  are  the  ways  been,  and  are  to-daj^,  individual  dioceses  which  do 

cause  of  good  in  others  (I,  Q.  ciii,  a.  4,  6).    In  other  not  belong  to  any  province,  but  are  directly  subject 

words  He  has  created  a  universe,  not  a  number  of  to  the  Holy  See.     For  the  present  boundaries  of 

isolated  beings.    Whence  it  follows,  according;  to  St.  ecclesiastical  provinces  see  articles  on  the  various 

Thomas,  that  natural  operations  tend  to  what  is  better  countries.     (See  Metropolitan.) 

for  the  whole,  but  not  necessarily  what  is  better  for         Hatch,  Orowlh  of  Church  InHUuHons  (London,  1887) ;    Du- 

each  part  except  in  relation  to  the  whole  (I  Q.  xxii,  a.  £-^^5_  ^K&*^C  t^T^^l'SSl  ^  liTXi; 

2,  ad  2  Um;  Q.  Ivill,  a.  2,  ad  3  Um;   Contra  Gent. ,  III,  Aiuoange  dea  4.  Jahrh.  in  Kirdienqeach.  Studien,  V  (MQn«t«r. 

xciv).     Sin  and  suffering  are  evils  because  they  are  1901);  Sikkk,  Die  Bnttnekdung  de»  Metron^itanwtaau  i^  Prank-- 

contrary  to  the  jjood  of  the  mdividual  and  to  6od's  SS^^^/j/^-KS^^^ 

original  purpose  m  regard  to  the  mdmdual,  but  they  Phillips.  Kirchenreeht,  II  (lUtubon.  1846). 

are  not  contrary  to  the  good  of  the  universe,  and  this        ^  J.  P.  Kirsch. 

food  will  urtimately  be  realized  by  the  omnipotent 
'rovidence  of  God.  Provincial,  an  officer  acting  under  the  superior 

Butler,  Analogy  of  Raioion,  ed.  Gladstonb  (Oxford,  1896);  general  of  a  religious  order,  and  exercising  a  genera] 

Brucb.  Ti*  ^^T^^^.Z^  ^^  J^%^  i^°?5?A  *?®®^'  ^^^'  supervision  over  all  the  local  superiors  in  a  division 

The  ProndenttalOrdera  of  the  World  (London,  1S97) ;  Lkcobdaibm,  ^r  ♦!»«  #%»^<^«  ^all«^   ^   «%wv«r;«tAA       TUo.  Al'tAtA^^n   la  4-^ 

De  VEamomie  de  la  RSparation  in  CEuvr^,  IV  (Pam,   1857);  O'   the  Order  called  a  prOVmce.     The  division  IS  tO 

Maccobh.  The  Method  of  Divine  Government  (fAixibnrgh,  I860);  a  certain   extent   geographical,   and   may   COnsiSt   Of 

Vacant.  Did,  Apol,  delaFoi  Cath,  (Paria  and LyonB.  1889). «. ▼.  one  or  more  countries,  or  of  a  part  of  a  country  onlv ; 

Leslib  J.  Walker.  however,  one  or  more  houses  of  one  province  may  be 

situated  within  the  territory  of  another,  and  the 

Provinoe,  Ecclesiastical,  the  aame  given  to  an  jurisdiction  over  the  religious  is  personal  rather  than 

ecclesiastical  administrative  district  under  the  juris-  territorial.    The  old  oraers  had  no  provincial  supe- 

diction   of   an   archbishop    (a.    v.).     Eccledastical  riors;    even  when  the  monasteries  were  united   to 

provinces  first  assumed  a  fixea  form  in  the  Eastern  form  con^^regations,  the  arch-abbot  of  each  congrega- 

Koman  Empire.    The  more  important  centres  (e.  g.  tion  was  in  the  position  of  a  superior  general  whose 

Antioch  for  Syria,  Ephesus  for  the  Province  of  Asia,  powers  were  limited  to  particular  cases,  almost  like 

Alexandria  for  Egypt,  Rome  for  Italy),  whence  Chris-  the  powers  of  an  archbishop  over  the  dioceses  of  his 

tian  missionaries  issued  to  preach  the  Gospel,  were  suffragans.    Provincials  are  found  in  the  connega- 

regarded    as    the   mother-cnurches   of   the    newly-  tions  of  comparatively  recent  formation,  which  be- 

founded  Christian  communities.   From  the  second  half  gan  with  the  mendicant  orders.    The  Holy  See  hesi- 

of  the  second  century  the  bishops  of  the  territories  tated  for  a  long  time  before  allowing  the  division  of 


PBOVraCIAL                           515  PBOVINCXAL 

congregations  with  simple  vows,  especially  oongrega-  programme.  As  a  result  there  was,  towards  the  end  of 
tions  of  women,  into  different  provinces  as  a  regiuar  the  sixteenth  century,  in  Catholic  countries,  a  remark- 
institution,  ana  some  congregations  have  no  such  idble  series  of  provmcial  councils,  notably  those  of 
division.  Milan,  under  St.  Charles  Borromeo;  but  the  move- 
The  provincial  is  ordinarily  appointed*  by  the  ment  soon  waned.  Towards  the  middle  of  the  nine- 
provincial  chapter,  subject  to  connrmation  by  the  teenth  century  there  was  a  fresh  series  of  provincial 
general  chapter:  in  the  Society  of  Jesus,  he  is  ap-  councils  in  almost  all  Catholic  countries,  but  they  were 
pointed  by  tne  general.  The'^Kegulations"  (iNTormoe)  never  assembled  with  the  punctuality  prescribed  by 
of  18  June,  1901 .  vest  the  appointment  of  the  provincial  the  law.  Leo  XIII  authorized  Latin  America  to  hold 
in  the  general  council.  The  provindal  is  never  them  every  twelve  years  (1897;  cf.*  "Cone,  plen.", 
elected  for  life,  but  ordinarily  for  three  or  six  years.  1899,  n.  283).  It  must  be  admitted,  however,  that 
In  religious  orciers  he  is  a  regular  prelate,  and  has  the  modem  facilities  of  communication,  and  still  more  the 
rank  of  ordinary  with  quasi-episcopal  jurisdiction,  custom  of  unconventional  episcopal  reunions  or  con- 
He  appoints  the  regular  confessors,  calls  together  the  ferences,  have  compensated  for  the  rarity  of  provincial 
provincial  chapter,  presides  over  its  deliberations,  and  councils  to  a  large  extent. 

takes  care  that  tne  orders  of  the  general  chapter  (1)  The  metropolitan  has  the  right  and  the  duty  of 

and  the  superior  general  are  properly  carried  out.  convoking  the  council;  the  Councu  of  Trent  (dt.  c.  ii) 

He  is  an  ea;  officio  member  of  the  general  chapter,  ordered  it  to  be  convoked,  first  in  the  year  following 

His  principal  duty  is  to  make  regular  visitations  of  its  own  close,  and  then  everv  third  year  at  least;  u 

the  houses  in  his  province  in  the  name  of  the  general  the  metropolitan  is  prevented,  or  the  see  is  vacant,  the 

and  to  report  to  tne  latter  on  all  the  reUgious  and  thie  senior  sunragan  acts.    The  time  appointed  is  after 

property  of  the  order;  his  authority  over  the  various  the  octave  of  Easter,  "or  at  another  more  opportune 

nouses  and  local  superiors  differs  in  different  orders,  time,  according  to  the  usage  of  the  province  .    It  is 

He  has  in  many  cases  the  right  of  appointment  to  not  necessary  to  hold  the  council  in  the  metropohtan 

the  less  important  offices.    At  the  end  of  his  term  city;  any  town  in  the  province  niay  be  selected.   The 

of  office,  the  provincial  is  bound,  according  to  the  penalty  of  suspension  with  which  the  Councils  of  the 

Constitution  "Nuper"  of  Innocent  XII   (23  Dec,  Lat^ran  (c!  xxv,  "  De  accusat.")  and  Trent  threatened 

1697),  to  prove  that  he  has  complied  with  all  the  n^ligent    metropolitans   has   certainly   fallen   into 

precepts  of  that  decree  concerning  masses;  if  he  fails  desu^ude. 

to  do  80,  he  loses  his  right  to  be  elected  and  to  vote  (2)  All  those  who,  "by  right  or  by  custom",  have 

in    the  general    chapter.    In    accordance  with  the  the  ri^t  to  assist  at  the  council  are  to  be  convoked, 

privilege  granted  to  the  Society  of  Jesus,  the  pro-  These   are,    first,    the   suffragan    bishops;     exempt 

vindal  of  a  religious  order  is  authorized  to  approve  bishops,  immediately  subject  to  the  Holy  See,  must 

of  oratories  set  apart  for  the  celebration  of  Mass  in  choose,  once  for  all,  the  metropohtan  whose  council 

the  convents  of  nis  order;    these  bratories  may  re-  they  will  attend,  without  prejudice  to  their  exenap- 

ceive  the  blessing  usually  given  to  public  oratories,  tions  and  privileges.     Secondly,  those  who  exercise 

and  may  not  be  permanently  diverted  from  their  an  extemsu    jurisdiction:     prelates    nuUiuSt    vicars 

sacred  uses  except  for  good  reason  and  with  the  capitular  or  administrators  Apostolic  of  vacant  sees, 

approval  of   the  provincial.    In  congregations  with  and  vicar^  ApostoUc  if  any.    These  have  the  right  to 

simple  vows  and  not  exempt,  the  provincial  has  no  take  part  in  tne  deUberations.   The  council  may  allow 

power  of  jurisdiction.    According  to  the  "Regula-  this  idso  to  titular  bishops,  and  the  representatives  of 

tionsJ'  of  1901,  his  duty  is  also  to  supervise  the  bishops  prevented  from  attending.   The  other  persons 

financial  administration  of  the  provincial  procurator  convoked,  with  a  right  only  to  take  part  in  consulta- 

and  the  local  superiors.  tions,  are  non-exempt  abl)ots,  deputies  of  cathedral 

A.  Verm EER8CH.  or  even  coUejgiate  chapters,  superiors  of  religious  insti- 
tutes, deputies  of  the  universities  and  rectors  of  sem- 

>   Provincial   Couiicil,  a  deliberative  assembly  of  inaries,  and  lastly  the  consultors,  theologians^  and 

the  bishops  of  an  ecclesiastical  province,  summoned  canonists.     The  persons  called  to  the  council  are 

and  presided  over  by  the  metropohtan,  to  discuss  strictly  obUged  to  attend,  unless  legitimately  pre- 

ecclesiastical  affairs  and  enact  disciplinary  regulations  vented,  in  which  case  they  must  excuse  themselves 

for  the  province.    The  good  government  of  a  society  under  penalty  of  censure.    Formerly,  ne^gent  bish- 

as  vast  as  the  Church  required  grouping  of  those  dio-  ops  were  deprived  of  communion  with  their  colleagues 

ceses  whose  similar  interests  would  gain  by  common  (df .  can.  x,  xiii,  xiv,  Dist.  xviii) ;  but  this  penalty  is 

treatment.    This  led  to  the  organization  of  ecdesi-  olMolete.    It  is  not  permissible  to  leave  the  council 

astical  provinces  and  so  of  provincial  councils.    As  before  its  close  without  a  just  and  approved  reason, 

long  as  administrative  centralization  in  the  great  sees  (3)  The  ceremonies  of  the  provmcial  council  are 

was  imperfect,  and  while  the  general  canon  law  was  regulate  by  the  Pontifical   (3rd  part,   "Ordo  ad 

being  slowly  evolved,  this  provincial  grouping  was  synodum'Oy  and  the  Ceremonial  of  the  Bishops  (lib. 

very  important.    The  Councils  of  Nicsa  (325,  can.  v),  I,  c.  xxxi);  they  include  in  particular  the  profession 

Antioch  (341,  can.  3cx),  and  others  ordered  the  bishops  of  faith.   The  work  of  the  council  is  prepared  in  special 

of  each  province  to  meet  twice  a  year;  however,  even  commissions  or  congregations;  the  decrees  are  enacted 

inlhe  East,  the  law  was  not  long  observed;  the  Coun-  in  private  or  public  sessions,  and  are  decided  by  a 

cils  "in  Trullo''  (692.  can.  viii)  and  Nicsea  (787,  can.  majority  of  the  members  having  a  dehberative  vote. 

vi)  prescribe,  but  witn  little  success,  onl^r  one  meeting  The  metropohtan  presides,  directs  the  discussions, 

each  year.    In  the  West,  except  in  Africa,  and  in  a  proposes  the  subjects,  but  he  has  not  a  preponderating 

certain  sense  also  at  Rome,  provincial  councils  were  voice  and  the  bishops  can  take  up  whatever  matters 

neither  frequent  nor  regular;  most  of  those  that  were  or  proposals  they  judge  fitting.    The  adjournment  or 

held,  and  which  have  left  us  precious  documents,  dose,  generally  at  a  solenm  pubUc  session,  is  an- 

were  episcopal  assembUes  of  several  provinces  or  nounced  by  the  metropolitan  with  the  consent  of  the 

regions.   In  spite  of  the  frequent  renewal  of  the  ancient  bishops. 

legislation  provincial  councils  did  not  become  a  regu-  (4)  The  provincial  council  is  not  competent  to  deal 
lar  institution.  The  great  Lateran  Council  (1215)  directly  witn  matters  of  faith,  bv  defining  or  condemn- 
also  ordered  an  annual  provincial  council,  but  it  was  in^;  yet  it  may  treat  of  such  from  a  disciplinary 
not  long  obeyed.  The  Councils  of  Basle  (1433)  and  point  of  view:  promoting  retigious  teaching,  pointing 
Trent  also  tned  to  revive  the  provincial  councils,  and  out  the  errors  of  the  day,  defending  the  truth.  Its 
ordered  them  to  be  held  at  least  every  three  years  proper  sphere  is  ecclesiastical  discipline:  to  correct 
(sess.  XXIV,  c.  ii),  laying  down  for  them  a  certain  abuses,  to  watch  over  the  observance  oi  laws,  espe- 


PROVISION 


516 


PROVISOBS 


cially  the  reform  laws  of  the  Council  of  Trent ;  to  pro- 
mote the  Christian  life  of  the  clei]^  and  people,  to 
settle  disputes,  to  decide  minor  differences  between 
bidiope,  to  adopt  measures  and  make  suitable  regula- 
tions for  all  these  objects.  The  decrees  of  the  pro- 
vincial councils  are  binding  on  the  whole  province; 
each  bishop,  however,  may  prudently  grant  dispensa- 
tions in  his  own  diocese,  as  he  is  the  legislator;  but 
he  may  not  abrogate  the  decrees  of  the  Coimcil.  If 
the  Council  deems  any  derogation  from  the  common 
law  useful,  it  ought  to  send  a  poslvlatum  to  the  pope. 
(5)  Within  the  limits  indicated  abov^  a  provincial 
council  is  a  legislative  body  whose  acts  ao  not  require 
papal  confirmation  for  their  validity.  It  is  customary 
indeed  to  ask  for  the  pontifical  approbation;  but  the 
latter  is  generally  given  in  common  form  only,  so  that 
the  decrees  contmue  to  be  provincial  decrees,  and  can 
be  abrogated  by  a  later  council;  if,  however,  the  ap- 

Sroval  IS  given  in  specific  form,  as  th"^  Council  of 
fount  Le^knon  was  approved  by  Benedict  XIV,  the 
decrees  acquire  a  supplementary  authority  and  may 
not  be  mooified  without  the  papal  consent.  In  any 
case,  the  decrees  of  every  provincial  council  must  be 
revised;  Sixtus  V  (1587)  so  ordered,  and  the  revision 
was  entrusted  to  the  Sacred  Congregation  of  the 
Council;  but  in  virtue  of  the  Constitution  "Sapienti " 
of  Pius  X  (29  June,  1908)  the  duty  now  devolves  on 
the  Sacred  Congregation  of  the  Consistorv. 

The  monographs  of  FsssLBif,  Ueber  d,  FrovinziaVeonzilien  und 
Difiietaruynoden  (Innsbraok,  1849) ;  Bouuc.  Du  concile  provincial 
(Palis,  1860) ;  Benedict  XIV,  De  aynodo.  The  ancient  provincial 
oouneUs  have  been  reproduced  in  the  great  oolleetions,  tnoee  from 
the  Council  of  Trent  up  to  1870  are  contained  in  the  Collectio 
Lacentit  (7  vols.,  Freiburg,  1870—) ;  Taunton,  The  Law  of  the 
Church  (London,  1906),  531-4. 

A.  BOUDINHON. 

Provilion,  Canonical,  a  term  signifying  regular 
Induction  into  a  benefice,  comprising  three  distinct 
acts — the  designation  of  the  person,  canonical  insti- 
tution, and  installation.  In  various  ways  a  person 
may  be  designated  to  fill  a  vacant  benefice':  by  elec- 
tion, postulation,  presentation,  or  recommendation, 
resignation  made  in  one's  favour,  or  approved  ex- 
chimge.  In  all  cases  confirmation  by  the  proper 
ecclesiastical  superior  of  the  selection  made  is  required, 
while  letters  of  appointment,  as  a  rule,  must  be  pre- 
sented. Reception  of  administration  b^  a  chapter 
without  such  letters  brings  excommunication  reserved 
to  the  pope,  together  with  privation  of  the  fruits  of 
the  benefice;  and  the  nominee  loses  ipso  facto  all  right 
to  the  prelacy.  Ordinarily  greater  benefices  are  con- 
ferred Sy  the  pope;  minor  oenefices  by  the  bishop, 
who  M  a  rule  has  the  power  of  appointing  to  all  bene- 
fices in  his  diocese.  The  pope,  however,  owing  to  the 
fullness  of  his  jurisdiction,  may  appoint  to  any  bene- 
fice whatsoever.  These  extraordinary  provisions 
became  common  in  the  eleventh  and  subsequent  cen- 
turies, and  met  at  times  with  stem  oppositipn.  In 
1351  an  En^lidbi  statute  (Statute  of  Provisors)  was 
enacted,  desi^cni  to  prevent  the  pope  from  exercising 
this  prerogative.  Similar  enactments  were  made  in 
1390  and  in  later  years.  At  present  only  in  certain 
defined  circumstances  does  the  Supreme  Pontiff  make 
use  of  this  right.  The  bishop's  power  is  further 
restricted  at  times  to  confirming  an  election  or  postu- 
lation; or  to  approving  candidates  presented  by  one 
who  enjoys  the  right  of  presentation  by  privilege, 
custom,  or  prescription. 

Canonical  institution  or  collation  is  the  concession 
of  a  vacant  benefice  by  one  who  has  the  authority. 
If  made  by  the  sole  right  of  the  prelate,  it  is  free;  if 
made  by  legal  necessity,  for  example,  alter  due  pres- 
entation or  election,  or  at  the  command  of  a  superior, 
it  is  styled  necessary.  An  ecclesiastical  benefice  cannot 
be  lawfully  obtained  without  canonical  institution. 

Installation,  called  corporal  or  real  institution,  is 
the  induction  into  the  actual  possession  of  a  benefice. 
In  the  case  of  a  bishop  it  is  known  as  enthronization 


or  enthronement.  Corporal  institution,  according  to 
common  law,  belongs  to  the  archdeacon;  by  custom 
to  the  bishop  or  his  vicar-general.  It  may  take  place 
by  proxy:  the  rite  observed  depends  much  on  custom. 
To  installation  belong  the  profession  of  faith  and  oath, 
when  prescribed.  (See  Benefice;  Institution,  Ca- 
nonical; Installation.) 

Andrew  B.  Meehan. 

Provison,  Statute  of. — The  English  statute 
usually  so  designated  is  the  25th  of  Edward  III,  St.  4 
(1350-1 X  otherwise  termed  "The  Statute  of  Provisors 
of  Benefices",  or  anciently  "Statute  de  p'viaoribs" 
or  "Xicstatut  de  revicons  &  pvis". 

This  was  among  the  statutes  incidental  to  the  "long 
and  angry  controversy"  [to  quote  Dr.  Ungard,  "The 
History  of  Endand"^  (London,  1883),  III,  349]  be- 
tween the  English  kings  and  the  Court  of  Rome  con- 
cerning filling  of  ecclesiastical  benefices  by  means  of 
papal  provisions  "by  which  the  Pope,  suspending  for 
the  time  the  right  of  the  patron^  nominatea  of  his  own 
authority,  to  the  vacant  benefice"  (op.  cit.,  II,  416), 
the  papal  nominee  bein^  called  a  provisor. 

The  resulting  possession  by  Italians  of  church  liv- 
ing in  England  provoked  at  one  period  during  the 
thirteenth  century  acts  of  lawless  violence  (ibid.)- 
Pope  Gregory  IX  (1227-41)  pronounced  against  the 
propriety  of  such  provisions  as  interfered  with  the 
rights  of  lay  patrons  (ibid.,  417).  And  Pope  Innocent 
lY  expressed,  in  1253,  general  disapprobation  of  these 
nominations  (ibid.,  419). 

From  the  recitals  of  "The  Statute  of  Provisors"  it 
appears  that  the  bestowal  by  the  pope  of  Englii^ 
benefices  and  ecclesiastical  possessions  "as  if  he  had 
been  patron  or  avowee  ...  as  he  was  not  of  rig^t 
by  the  law  of  Ekigland",  and  his  "accroching  to  him 
the  sei^ories"  was  complained  of  as  not  only  an 
illegal  injury  to  the  property  ri^ts  of  particular 
patrons,  but  also  as  mjurious  spiritually  and  eco- 
nomically to  the  community  in  general.  The  holy 
church  of  England,  "aetnte  eglise  d*Engleterre"f  was 
said  to  have  men  founded  by  the  sovereigns  and  the 
nobles  to  inform  them  and  the  people  of  the  law  of  God 
and  also  to  make  hospitalities,  alms,  and  other  works 
of  charity  in  the  places  where  churches  were  founded, 
and  possessions  assigned  for  such  purposes  to  prelates, 
religious,  and  other  people  of  holy  church;  and  these 

Eurposes  were  said  to  be  defeated  by  this  granting  of 
enefices  to  aliens  who  did  not,  and  to  carainals  who 
might  not.  Uve  in  England  "and  to  others  as  well 
aliens  as  denizens".  Certain  of  the  economic  evils 
had  been  dealt  with  by  a  Statute  of  Edward  I  (35 
Edward  I,  St.  1,  c.  1,  1306-07),  forbidding  aUen 
priors  or  governors  of  a  relieious  house  to  impose 
charges  or  burdens  on  their  houses  and  forbidding 
abbots,  priors  or  other  religious  to  send  out  of  the 
kingdom  any  tax  imposed  on  them.  But  the  "  Statute 
of  Provisors"  recites  that  the  evils  complained  of  in 
the  petition  leading  to  this  Statute  of  Edward  I  still 
contmue,  and  "that  our  holy  father,  the  Pope" 
(Notre  seirUe  jnere  le  Pape),  still  reserves  to  his  colla- 
tion benefices  in  England,  giving  them  to  aliens  and 
denizens  and  taking  first  fruits  and  other  profits,  the 
purchasers  of  benefices  taking  out  of  the  kingdom  a 
great  part  of  its  treasure.  The  Statute,  therefore, 
enacts  that  elections  of  bishops  shall  be  free,  that 
owners  of  advowsons  shall  have  free  collation  and 
presentment^  and  that  attempted  reservation,  coHa- 
tion,  or  provision  by  the  Court  of  Rome  shall  cause  the 
right  of  collation  to  revert  to  the  king. 

Later  Statutes  are  27  Edward  III,  St.  1,  c.  1 ;  38 
Edward  III,  St.  2;  3  Richard  II;  7  Richard  II,  c.  XII: 
12  Richard  II,  c.  XV;  13  Richard  II,  St.  2;  16  RichaHl 
II,  c.  5,  and  finally  in  the  parliament  of  1400-1,  the 
Statute  2  Henry  IV,  c.  3,  c.  4. 

Concerning  adverse  legislation  of  the  Council  of 
Trent  respecting  provisions,  see  Benefice. 


PBOVOST 


517 


PBUDENTIUS 


The  Statutes  of  the  Realm  (1810).  I.  150.  316,  323.  329.  385:  II. 
13.  14.  32,  60.  70,  84,  121;  The  Statytee  at  Large  (Cambndge, 
1762),  ed.  PicKBBiNO,  I,  325:  Pulton,  A  CoUection  of  Statutes, 
now  in  lue  (London,  1670);  LufQAxb,  op.  cit,,  II,  416-^10;  III, 
253-265.  343-349. 

Charles  W.  Sloane. 

Provoft  (Lat»  prcsposUus;  Fr.,  pr^&t;  Ger^  Probst). 
Ancientlv  (St.  Jerome,  ''Ep.".  II,  xiv:  Ad  Rusticum 
monach.)  every  chapter  (q.  v.)  had  an  archpriest  and 
an  archdeacon.  The  former  officiated  in  the  absence  of 
the  bishop  and  had  general  supervision  of  the  choir, 
while  the  latter  was  the  head  of  the  chapter  and  ad- 
ministered its  temporal  aJTairs.  Later  the  archpriest 
was  called  decanus  (dean)  and  the  archdeacon  praeposi- 
tus  (provost).  At  present  the  chief  dignity  of  a  chapter 
is  usually  styled  dean,  though  in  some  countries,  as  in 
England,  the  term  provost  is  applied  to  him.  The  pro- 
vost, by  whatever  name  he  may  be  known,  is  ap- 
pointed by  the  Holy  Sec  in  accordance  with  the  fourth 
rule  of  the  Roman  Chancerv.  It  is  his  duty  to  sec  that 
all  capitular  statutes  are  observed.  To  be  authentic, 
all  acts  of  the  chapter,  in  addition  to  the  seal  of  the , 
chapter,  require  his  signature.  Extraordinary  meet- 
ings of  the  chapter  are  convened  by  him,  generally, 
however,  on  written  request  of  a  majority  of  the  chap- 
ter, and  with  the  consent  of  the  bisnop.  He  presides 
in  chapter  at  the  election  of  a  vicar  capitular,  who 
within  eight  days  of  the  death  of  the  bishop  is  to  be 
chosen  as  the  administrator  of  the  vacant  see.  He 
conducts  the  ceremonies  at  the  installation  (q.  v.)  of 
canons-elect,  investing  them  with  the  capitular  insig- 
nia, assigning  them  places  in  choir,  etc.  In  choir,  the 
fiiBt  place  after  the  bishop  belongs  to  him.  In  the  ab- 
sence of  the  bishop,  or  in  case  the  see  is  vacant,  the 
provost  conducts  episcopal  ceremonial  functions, 
while  he  takes  precedence  of  all,  even  of  the  vicar 
capitular.  He  must  be  present,  however,  personally, 
not  being  allowed  a  substitute.  When  the  bishop  pon- 
tificates, the  provost  is  assistant  priest.  It  is  his  office 
to  administer  Viaticum  to  the  bishop,  and  to  conduct 

the  bishop's  obsequies. 

Taumton,  The  Law  of  the  Church  (London,  1906) ;  Fbrraris, 
Bibliotheea  eaiumiea  (Roman  ed.,  1888-96),  a.  v. 

Andrew  B.  Meehan. 

Pnidenca  (Lat.,  prudentia.  contracted  from  provi- 
derUia,  seeing  ahead),  one  of  the  four  cardinal  virtues. 
Definitions  of  it  are  plentiful  from  Aristotle  down. 
His  ''recta  ratio  agibilium"  has  the  merits  of  brevity 
and  inclusiveness.  Father  Rickaby  aptly  renders  it  as 
"right  reason  applied  to  practice  .  A  fuller  de- 
scription and  one  more  serviceable  is  this:  an  intel- 
lectusJ  habit  enabling  us  to  see  in  any  eiven  juncture 
of  human  affairs  what  is  virtuous  and  what  is  not, 
and  how  to  come  at  the  one  and  avoid  the  other. 
It  is  to  be  observed  that  prudence,  whilst  possessing 
in  some  sort  an  empire  over  all  the  moral  virtues,  it- 
self aims  to  perfect  not  the  will  but  the  intellect  in  its 
practical  decisions.  Its  function  is  to  point  out  which 
course  of  action  is  to  be  taken  in  any  round  of  con- 
crete circumstances.  It  indicates  which,  here  and 
now,  is  the  golden  mean  wherein  the  essence  of  all 
virtue  lies.  It  has  nothing  to  do  with  directly  willing 
the  good  it  discerns.  That  is  done  bv  the  particular 
moml  virtue  within  whose  province  it  falls.  Prudence, 
therefore,  has  a  directive  capacity  with  regard  to  the 
other  virtues.  It  lights  the  wa^  and  measures  the 
arena  for  their  exercise.  The  insight  it  confers  makes 
one  distinguish  successfully  between  their  mere  sem- 
blance and  their  reality.  It  must  preside  over  the 
eliciting  of  all  acts  proper  to  any  one  of  them  at  least 
if  they  be  t^en  in  their  formal  sense.  Thus,  without 
prudence  bravery  becomes  foolhardiness;  mercy  sinks 
mto  weakness,  and  temperance  into  fanaticism. 
But  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  prudence  is  a  virtue 
adequately  distinct  from  the  others,  and  not  simply  a 
condition  attendant  upon  their  operation.    Its  office 


is  to  determine  for  each  in  practice  those  circumstances 
of  time,  place,  manner,  etc.  which  should  be  observed, 
and  which  the  Schola!stics  comprise  under  the  term 
medium  ratumis.  So  it  is  that  whilst  it  qualifies  im- 
mediately the  intellect  and  not  the  will,  it  is  neverthe- 
less rightly  styled  a  mond  virtue. 

This  is  because  the  moral  agent  finds  in  it,  if  not 
the  eliciting,  at  any  rate  the  directive  principle  of 
virtuous  actions.  According  to  St.  Thomas  (II-II, 
Q.  xlvii,  a.  8)  it  is  its  function  to  do  three  things: 
to  take  counsel,  i.  e.  to  cast  about  for  the  means 
suited  in  the  particular  case  under  consideration 
to  reach  the  end  of  any  one  moral  virtue;  to 
judge  soundly  ,of  the  fitness  of  the  means  suggested; 
and,  finaUy.  to  command  their  emplojonent.  If  these 
are  to  be  aone  well  they  necessarily  exclude  remiss- 
ness and  lack  of  concern ;  they  demand  the  use  of 
such  diligence  and  care  that  the  resultant  act 
can  be  described  as  prudent,  in  spite  of  whatever 
speculative  error  may  have  been  at  the  bottom  of 
the  process.  Readiness  in  finding  out  and  ability  in 
adapting  means  to  an  end  does  not  always  imply  pru- 
dence. If  the  end  happens  to  be  a  vicious  one,  a  cer- 
tain adroitness  or  sagacity  may  be  exhibited  in  its 
pursuit.  This,  however,  according  to  St.  Thomas, 
will  only  deserve  to  be  called  false  prudence  and  is 
identical  with  that  referred  to  in  Rom.,  viii,  6,  "the 
wisdom  of  the  flesh  is  death".  Besides  the  prudence 
which  is  the  fruit  of  training  and  experience,  and  is 
developed  into  a  stable  habit  by  repeated  acts,  there 
is  another  sort  termed  "  infused  .  This  is  directly  be- 
stowed by  God's  bounty.  It  is  inseparable*from  the 
condition  of  supernatural  charity  and  so  is  to  be 
found  only  in  tnose  who  are  in  the  state  of  grace. 
Its  scope  of  course  is  to  make  provision  of  what  is 
necessary  for  eternal  salvation.  Although  acquired 
prudence  considered  as  a  principle  of  operation  is 
quite  compatible  with  sin  in  the  agent,  still  it  is  well 
to  note  that  vice  obscures  or  at  times  utterly  be- 
clouds its  judgment.  Thus  it  is  true  that  prudence 
and  the  other  moral  virtues  are  mutuidly  interde- 
pendent. Imprudence  in  so  far  as  it  implies  a  want  of 
obligatory  prudence  and  not  a  mere  gap  in  practical 
mentality  is  a  sin,  not  however  always  necessarily 
distinct  from  the  special  wicked  indulgence  which  it 
happens  to  accompany.  If  it  proceed  to  the  length  of 
formal  scorn  of  the  Divine  utterances  on  the  point, 
it  will  be  a  mortal  sin. 


RtCKABT,  The  Moral  Teaching  of  St.  Thotnaa  (London,  1896) ; 
Lbrmktthl,  Theologia  Moralia  (Freiburg,  1887) ;  Rickaby,  iBUiiea 
and  Natwral  Law  (London,  1908) ;  St.  Thomas  Aquinas,  Summa 


Theologica  (Turin,  1885). 


Joseph  F.  Delaxt. 


PrudentiUB,  Attkbliub  Clemens,  Christian  poet, 
b.  in  the  Tarraconensis,  Northern  Spain,  348;  d. 

grobably  in  Spain,  after  405.  He  must  have  been 
om  a  Christian,  for  he  nowhere  speaks  of  his  con- 
version. The  place  of  his  birth  is  uncertain;  it  niay 
have  been  Sara^ssa,  Tarragona,  or  Calahorra.  H!e 
practised  law  with  some  success,  and  in  later  life  de- 
plored the  zeal  he  had  devoted  to  his  profession.  He 
was  twice  provincial  governor,  perhaps  in  his  native 
country,  before  the  emperor  summoned  him  to  court. 
Towards  the  end  of  his  life  Prudentius  renounced  the 
vanities  of  the  world  to  practise  a  rigorous  asceticism, 
fasting  until  evening  (Cath.,  iii,  88)  and  abstaining 
entirely  from  animal  food  (ibid.,  56).  The  Christian 
poems  were  written  during  this  period;  he  later  col- 
lected them  and  wrote  a  preface,  which  he  himself 
dated  405.  A  little  before  (perhaps  in  403)  he  had  to 
go  to  Rome,  doubtless  to  nake  some  appeal  to  the 
emperor.  A  number  of  his  poems  (Penstephanon, 
vii,  ix,  xi,  xii,  xiv)  were  written  subsequently  to  this 
journey,  of  which  he  took  advantage  to  visit  the 
sanctuaries  and  tombs  of  the  martsrrs.  "Contra 
Symmachum"  must  have  been  written  at  Rome;  the 
second  book  belongs  to  the  period  between  29  March 


PBUDENTIUS  518  PBUDBNTIUS 

and  December,  403.  All  other  works  antedate  the  New  Testament,  must  be  included  among  the  didactic 
journey  to  Rome.  poems  of  Pnidentius.  Doubts  have  been  raised  re- 
Prudentius  wrote  to  ^orify  God  and  atone  for  his  garding  the  authenticity  of  these  verses  but  with  very 
sins.  His  works  fall  into  tiiree  groups:  Ijrrical,  Bttle  reason.  Gennadius  (De  viris  illustr.,  xiii)  fur- 
didactic,  and  polemical.  The  lyrics  form  two  col-  thermore  attributes  to  Pnidentius,  mistakenly  per- 
lections.  In  the  "Cathemerinon"  the  hymns  are  for  haps,,  a  ''Hexaemeron"  of  which  we  know  notlung. 
the  sanctification  of  the  hours  of  the  day  or  certain  His  most  personal  work  is  the  invective  against 
important  occasions,  such  as  Christmas,  the  Epiphany,  Symmachus.  It  shows  how  the  Christians  reconciled 
obsequies,  etc.  Some  continue  the  liturgical  tradi-  their  patriotism  with  their  faith.  Pnidentius  iden- 
tion  of  Saint  Ambrose,  and  are  written  in  the  Ambro-  tifies  the  Church  with  Rome  and,  in  thus  transforming 
sian  iambic  dimeter;  others  are  an  attempt  to  enlist  it,  preserves  that  ancient  belief  in  the  eternity  of^the 
the  metres  of  Horace  in  the  service  of  Christian  lyrical  city.  He  can  be  impartial  towards  the  pagan  and 
poetry.  Despite  his  negligence  Pnidentius  displays  prwse  him  for  services  rendered  the  State.  He  is 
more  art  than  Ambrose.  Hymn  xii,  on  the  feast  of  the  proud  of  the  senate,  seeing  its  majority  Christian. 
Epiphany,  contains  the  two  celebrated  stanzas,  Christianity  is  come  to  crown  the  Roznan  institutions. 
"SaJuete  flores  martyrum",  characterized  by  pro-  Romans  are  superior  to  the  barbarians,  as  man  is 
found  ieeling  united  to  the  purest  art:  hymn  x  on  superior  to  the  animals.  These  two  books  against 
burial  is  likewise  very  remarkable.  However,  his  Symmachus  undertake,  therefore,  to  solve  the  prob- 
style  is  generally  diffuse,  and  the  hymns  admitted  to  lem  which  presented  itselt  to  the  mind  of  the  stUl 
the  Roman  Breviary  had  to  be  curtailed.  The  hesitant  pagan.  A  genius  more  powerful  than  pliant, 
**Peristephanon"  is  dedicated  to  the  glory  of  the  Pnidentius  displays  a  more  versatile  and  richer  talent 
martyrs:  Emeterius  and  Chelidonius  of  Calahorra,  than  that  of  his  pagan  contemporary,  Claudian.  The 
Lawrence  the  Deacon,  Eulalia,  the  eighteen  martyrs  '  rhetoric  he  disparages,  he  himself  misuses^e  often 
of  Saragossa,  Vincent,  Fructuosus  with  Augurius  and  exaggerates,  but  is  never  commonplace.  The  supe- 
Eulogius,  Quirinus  of  Siscia,  the  martsrrs  of  Calahorra  rior  of  many  pf^an  poets,  among  the  Christian  he  is 
put  to  death  on  the  site  of  the  baptistery,  Cassianus  the  greatest  and  the  most  truly  poetic.  His  style  is 
of  the  Forum  Comelium,  Romanus,  Hippolytus,  not  bad  considering  the  period  in  which  he  wrote,  and, 
Peter  and  Paul,  Cyprian,  and  Agnes.  Taten  alto-  while  there  are  occasional  errors  in  his  prosody  due 
gether,*it  is  an  endeavour  to  endow  Christianity  with  to  the  pronunciation  then  current,  he  shows  himself 
a  l3rrical  poetry  independent  of  liturgical  uses  and  a  careful  versifier  and  has  the  ^t  (then  become  rare) 
traditions.  Unfortunately,  neither  F^dentius's  tal-  of  var3ring  his  metres.  An  edition  of  Pnidentius  is  to 
ent  nor, current  taste  favoured  such  an  enterprise,  appear  in  the  ''Corpus''  of  Vienna,  edited  by  J. 
The  narratives  are  spoiled  with  too  much  rhetoric.  Bereman.  The  best  manuscript  is  at  Paris,  in  the 
There  are,  however,  beautiful  passages,  a  kind  of  grave  Bibuoth^ue  Nationale,  Latin  department,  8084;  on 

gower,  and  some  pretty  details,  as  in  the  hymns  on  one  of  its  margins  is  the  half -effaced  name  of  Vettius 

t.  Eulalia  (see  v.  206-15)  and  St.  Agaea,    Certain  Agorius  Basilius  Mavortius  (consul  in  527),  who  made 

others,  such  as  that  on  St.  Hippolytus,  have  an  a  recension  of  the  works  of  Horace.    This  manuscript 

archsological  interest.    The  whole  collection  is  curi-  is  free  from  the  dogmatic  corrections  which  are  found 

ous,  but  of  imequal  merit.  in  others. 

The  two  principal  didactic  poems  are  the  "  Apothe-  •oSV^^o^^ii^''  S^  ^^*  *?  ^  Fourth  Centwy  (Cainbrid«. 

rvoia»»     rxn  ♦K^  Arxart^tk  r^f  fK<i  T'^ntf^r     ^^A   ♦»»«   "TTa  1901),  249-77;    ScHANB,  Getck.  dtT  T6m,  LtUerotw,  IV,  I,  211; 

081S    .   on  the  dOWna  of  the  Tnmty.   and  the      Ha-  p^w^h.  Prudence  fParia.  1888):  Lbasi:.  a  Syntactic:  Sti^ietie  and 

martlgenia    ,  on  the  Ongm  of  sm.     One  is  somewhat  Metrical  study  o/Frudentiue  (Baltimore,  1895);  RoBKRT,  Notice 

astonished    to    find    Pnidentius    attacking    ancient  ^^i^  MS.de  Jh^dence  B.N.  U.8084mMaange*  Graux  (Pbiib, 

heresies,  such  as  those  of  Sabellius  and  Marcian,  and  'JSSi  it'liJfi'SJJ^^?  l?£Sr>i£3^S£^ri.rr^5! 

having  nothing  to  say  on  Ananism.    It  u  due  to  the  in  Diet.  Chriet.  Biog.,  a.  v. 

fact  that  he  closely  follows  and  imitates  Tertullian,  Paul  Lejat. 

whose  rugged  genius  resembles  his  own.    These  poems 

are  interesting  examples  of  passionate,  glowing  ab-  Pnidentiui  (Galindo),  Bishop  of  Troyes,  b. 
stractions,  precise  exposition  being  combined  with  in  Spain;  d.  at  Troyes  on  6  April,  861;  celebrated  op- 
poetic  fantasy.  Some  brilliant  scenes,  like  the  sacrifice  ponent  of  Hincmar  in  the  controversy  on  predes- 
of  Julian  (Apoth.,  460),  merit  quotation.  The  com-  tination.  He  left  Spain  in  his  youth,  probably  on 
parison  of  souls  led  astray  by  sin  with  dpves  caught  account  of  the  Saracen  persecution,  and  came  to  the 
m  snares  (Ham.,  779)  has  a  charm  that  recalls  the  Prankish  Empire  where  he  changed  his  native  name 
happy  inspiration  of  "Saluete  flores''.  Orthodoxy  is  Galindo  into  Ftudentius.  He  was  educat^  at  the 
his  great  preoccupation  in  these  poems,  and  he  in-  Palatine  school,  and  became  Bishop  of  Troyes  shortly 
vokes  all  kinds  of  punishments  on  heresy.  Yet  he  is  before  847.  In  the  controversy  on  predestination 
not  always  free  from  error,  here  or  elsewhere.  He  be-  between  Gottschalc  of  Orbais,  Archbishop  Hincmar 
lieves  that  only  a  small  number  of  souls  are  lost  (Cath.,  of  Reims,  and  Bishop  Pardulus  of  Laon.  ne  opposed 
vi,  95).  It  is  an  exaggeration  of  the  meaning  of  his  Hincmar  in  an  epistle  addressed  to  him.  In  this 
metaphors  to  assert  that  he  makes  the  soul  material,  epistle,  which  was  written  about  849,  he  defends 
The  '^Psychomachia''  is  the  model  of  a  style  destined  against  Hincmar  a  double  predestination,  viz.  one  for 
to  be  lovingly  cultivated  in  the  Middle  Ages,  i.  e.,  reward,  t^e  oUier  for  punishment,  not,  however, 
allegorical  poetry,  of  which  before  Pnidentius  only  the  for  sin.  He  further  upholds  that  Christ  died  only 
merest  traces  are  found  (in  such  authors  as  Apuleius,  for  those  who  are  actually  saved.  The  same  opinion 
Tertullian,  and  Claudian).  In  Tertullian's  "De  he  defends  in  his '^De  pnedestinatione  contra  Johan- 
Spectaculis'',  29,  we  find  its  first  conception;  he  per-  nem  Scotum'',  which  he  wrote  in  851  at  the  instance 
sonifies  the  vices  and  the  virtues  aild  shows  them  of  Arehbidhop  Wenilo  of  Sens  who  had  sent  him  nine- 
contending  for  the  soul.  The  army  of  vices  is  that  of  teen  articles  of  Eriugena's  work  on  predestination  for 
idolatry,  the  army  of  the  virtues  that  of  faith.  The  refutation.  Still  it  appears  that  at  the  synod  of 
poem  is,  therefore,  at  once  moral  and  apologetic.  It  Quierzy,  he  subscribed  to  four  articles  of  Hincmar  which 
would  be  difficult  to  inytgine  anything  more  unfoi^  admit  only  one  predestination,  perhaps  out  of  rever- 
tunate  or  insupportable.  Incidents,  action,  and  char-  ence  for  the  archbishop,  or  out  of  fear  of  Kin^  Charles 
acters  of  the  iGneid  are  here  travestied,  and  the  de-  the  Bald.  Inhis*"Epistolatractoriaad  Wenilonem", 
plorable  effect  is  heightened  by  the  borrowing  of  written  about  856,  he  again  upholds  his  former  opin- 
numerous  hemistichs  divested  of  their  proper  mean-  ion  and  makes  his  approval  of  the  ordination  of  the 
in^.  The '^Dittochson",  forty-nine  hexameter  tetra-  new  bishop  JSneas  or  Paris  depend  on  Uie  latter  s 
Stichs  commenting  on  various  events  of  the  Old  and  subscription  to  four  articles  favouring  a  double  pre- 


PBttM  519  PRUSSIA 

• 

destination.    Of  great  historical  value  is  his  oon-  of  the  abbey.    The  abbey  was  now  brought  into 

tinuation  of  the  "Annates  Bertiniani''  from  835-61,  order  within  and  without,  and  once  more  flourished 

in  which  he  presents  a  reliable  history  of  that  period  to  such  a  degree  that  the  two  archsBolof^ts  Mart^ne 

of  the  Western  Prankish  Empire.    He  is  also  the  and  Durand,  who  visited  the  monastery  in  1718,  state 

author  of  "Vita  SanctsB  Maurae  Virginis"  (ActaSS.  in  their  "Voyage  litt^raire''  that  of  all  the  monas- 

Sept.  VI,  275^)  and  some  poems.    At  Troyes  his  teries  in  Germany  Priim  showed  the  best  spirit,  and 

feast  is  celebrated  on  6  April  as  that  of  a  saint,  thou^  study  was  zealously  pursued.     The  monks  made  ef- 

the  Bollandists  do  not  recognize  his  cult  (Acta  So.  forts  even  in  the  eighteenth  century  to  shake  off  the 

Apr.  I,  531).    His  works,  with  the  exception  of  his  supremacy  of  Trier. 

poems,    are    printed    in    P.    L.,   CXV,   971-1458;        In  1801  Priim  fell  to  France,  was  secularized,  and 

his  poems  in  Mon.  Germ.  Poetse  lAt.,  II,  679  sq.  its  estates  sold.    Napoleon  gave  its  buildings  to  the 

,  G'^Q^^aoHN,  JWen«»u«  und  die  B^nianisehen  Ann^tne  city.    Since  1815  Priim  has  belonged  to  Prussia. 

'^^^  JSi^SSSS:  &;g"(»^3§5r'SS"Srw  «,";  The  church  bmlt  in  1721  by  the  Elector  Louk,  is  now 

hnKYKR^LanesdeSt.  Prudence  Eviquade  Troyes,  eide  St.  Maura,  a  parish  Church.     The  monastic  buildings  are  noW 

n^ge  (Troyw,  1725);    MipDmuMnrT,  DePruderUio  et JheOogia  used  |or  the  district  COUrt  and  the  high-SChool.      The 

OS^uSy-iwT         *^  ""  ^«i«*n/«  far  hteiar.  TKeoi..  11  gandals  of  Christ  are  considered  to  be  t¥e  most  notable 

MiCBASL  Ott.  o^  ^^®  many  relics  of  the  church;  they  are  mentioned 

by  Pepin  in  the  deed  of  762.    He  is  said  to  have  re- 

PriUn»  a  former  Benedictine  abbey  in  Lorraine,  now  oefved  them  from  Rome  as  a  gift  of  Pope  Zacharias 

in  the  Diocese  of  Trier,  founded  by  a  Prankish  widow  or  Pope  Stephen. 

Bertrada,  and  her  son  Charibert,  23  June,  720.    The  ^Marx.  Oee^.  dee  Sreetifie  Trier,  ll  ,(Trier,  i860).  £271-8^; 

first  h««l  of  the  abl^y  was  Angioai^us.  ^Bertn«la's  1^}^^^?^::^  ^^^'J^u^'lKi.Srii.'r^iSSSi^ 

grand-daughter  was  Bertha,  wife  of  King  Pepm  (751-  und  Zieierdeneermden,  XXVIII  (1907).  609^2. 

88),  and  Priim  became  the  favourite  monastery  of  Kleicsns  L6fflbb. 

the  Carlovingians  and  received  large  endowments        Pniaa.    See  Brusa 
and  privileges.    Pepin  rebuilt  the  monastery  and  be-        «ti»».    oee       uba. 

stowed  great  estates  upon  it,  13  August,  762.  The  Prusiu  ad  Hypium,  titular  see,  suffragan  of  Clan- 
king brought  monks  from  Meaux  under  Abbot  diopolisintheHonoriad.  Memnon,  the  historian,  says 
Assuerus  to  the  monastery.  The  church,  dedicated  that  Prusias  I,  King  of  Bithynia  (237-192  b.  c), 
to  theSaviour(Salvator),  was  not  completed  imtil  the  captur^  from  the  fieracleans  the  town  of  Kieros, 
reign  of  Charlemagne,  and  was  consecrated,  26  July,  umted  it  to  his  dominions  and  changed  its  name  to 
799,  by  Pope  L«p  III.  Charlemame  and  succeeding  Prusias  ("Frag,  histor.  Graec.",  coU.  Didot,  frag.  27 
emperors  were  liberal  patrons  of  the  abbey.  Several  and  47:  fragment  41  treats  of  Kios  or  Guemlek,  also 
of  the  Carlovingians  entered  the  religious  life  at  called  Prusias.  and  not  of  Kieros,  as  the  copyist  has 
PrQm;  among  these  was  Lothair  I,  who  became  a  written:  this  nas  given  rise  to  numerous  confusions), 
monk  in  855.  His  grave  was  rediscovered  m  1860;  pimy  (Hist,  nat.,  V,  43)  and  Ptolemy  (V,  i,  13)  merely 
m  1874  the  Emperor  Wilham  I  erected  a  monument  mention  it,  one  below  Mt.  Hypius,  the  other  near  the 
over  it.  In  882  and  892  the  monastery  was  plundered  River  Hypius  or  Milan-Sou.  Several  of  its  bishops 
and  devastated  by  the  Normans,  but  it  soon  recovered,  are  known :  George  (not  Hesychius,  as  Le  Quien  says), 
The  landed  possessions  were  so  lal^e  that  the  abbey  325;  Olympius  in  451 :  Dometius  in  681 ;  Theophilus 
developed  into  a  pnncipaUty.  ^  „  ^  .in  787;  Constantino  in  869;  Leo  in  879;  St.  Paul, 
At  times  durmg  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries  martyred  by  the  Iconoclasts  in  the  ninth  century  (Le 
the  monastery  contained  over  three  hundred  monks.  Quien,  "Oriens  christ.",  I,  579).  It  is  not  known 
The  period  of  its  internal  prosperity  extends  to  the  when  this  see  disappeared,  which  still  existed  in  the 
thirteenth  century.  The  monks  were  energetic  cul-  tenth  century  (Gelzer,  "Un^druckte  .  .  .  Texte  der 
tivatore  of  the  land.  About  836  Abbot  Marquard  Notitia  episcopatuum",  554).  The  ruins  of  Prusias 
founded  a  new  monastery,  Munstereifel;  in  1017  are  found  to-day  at  the  little  Mussuhnan  village  of 
Abbot  Urald  founded  at  Priim  a  collegiate  foundation  Eski  Bagh  or  rather  Uskub  in  the  caza  of  Duzdj6  and 
for  twelve  priests;  in  1190  Abbot  Gerhard  founded  a  the  vilayet  of  Castamouni.  The  region  is  very  rich, 
house  for  ladies  of  noble  birth  at  NiederprQm.  The  especially  in  fruit  trees.  Ruins  are  still  seen  of  the 
monastery  cared  for  the  poor  and  sick.  Learning  was  walls  and  the  Roman  theatre  forty-^six  miles  in  cir- 
alto  cultivated.    Among  those  who  taught  in  the  cumference. 

school  of  the  monastery  were  Ado,  later  Archbishop  Db  Hell.   Voyage  en  Turquie  el  Peree,  IV.  334-^38,  3fi3-73; 

of  Vienne  (860-75).    Another  head  of  the  school,  ?«««•  ^•*«^*'*«fr^  8*1  ^b  B^»  JT^ 

Wandelbert     (813-70),     was    a    distinguished    poet!  ^^l^^^^^f^umarcMologtquedelaOahtteetdel^Btthynu, 

Abbot  Regino  (893-99)  made  a  name  for  himself  '         '  g,  Vailh£. 

as  historian  and  codifier  of  canon  law.    Csesarius  of 

Heisterbach  is  only  brought  into  the  list  of  authors  of        PrUBSla. — ^The  Kingdom  of  Prussia  at  the  present 

this  monastery  by  being  confounded  with  Abbot  time  covers  134,616  square  miles  and  includes  i^ut 

Csesarius  of  Priim  (121^16).    In  the  thirteenth  and  64*8  per  cent  of  the  area  of  the  German    Empire, 

fourteenth  centuries  the  monastery  declined,  partly  It  includes  the  greater  part  of  the  plain  of  nortnem 

from  Uie  oppression  of  its  secular  administrators,  but  Germany  and  of  the  central  mountain  chain  of  Ger- 

more  from  mtemal  decay.    It  reached  such  a  pass  many.    With  exception  of  the  small  HohenzoUem 

that  the  monks  divided  the  revenues  among  them-  district,  the  original  domtun  of  the  Prussian  royal 

selves  and  lived  apart  from  one  another.    Conse-  famil^r,  it  does  not  extend  beyond  the  Main.    How- 

quently  the  archbishops  of  Trier  sought  to  incorporate  ever,  in  a  south-westerly  direction  west  of  the  Rhine 

tne  flJbbey  in  the  arcndiocese.    In  1376  Charles  IV  it  includes  a  considerable  portion  of  the  basin  of  the 

gave  his  consent  to  this,  as  did  Boniface  IX  in  1379,  Saar  and  of  the  plateau  of  Lorraine.    All  the  large 

ut  the  pope's  consent  was  recalled  in  1398;  Sixtus  German  rivers  flow  through  it,  and  it  contains  the 

IV  about  1473  also  gave  his  approval  to  the  incorpora-  greater  part  of  the  mineral  wealth  of  Germany, 

tion.    But  the  abbots  refused  to  submit  and  even  coal,  iron,  salt,  and  potash.    Of  the  area  devoted 

in  1511  carried  on  war  against  the  arehbishop.     Fi-  to  agriculture  over  2-5  per  cent   are. used  for  the 

nally,  when  the  abbey  was  near  ruin,  Gregory  XIII  cultivation  of  grain  as  follows:    25-91  per  cent  for 

issued  the  decree  of  incorporation  24  Aug.,   1574,  rye,  15-37  per  cent  oats,  6-86  per  cent  wheat.    In 

which  was  carried  into  effect  in  1576  after  the  death  of  1905  the  population  was  37,282,935,  that  is  61-5 jmer 

Abbot  Christopher  von  Manderscheid.    After  this  the  cent  of  the  population  of  the  German  Empire.    The 

archbishops  ofTrier  were '^perpetual  administrators"  annual  increase  of  the  population  is  about  1*5  per 


PRUSSIA 


520 


PRUSSIA 


cent,  but  this  results  from  the  decline  of  emigration 
and  the  decrease  of  the  death-rate.  In  1905  about 
11-5  per  cent  were  Slavs,  of  whom  8-887  per  cent 
were  Poles.  In  religion  63*29  per  cent  were  Prot- 
estantSy  35*14  per  cent  Catholics,  0-13  per  cent  Jews. 
In  1895  34*18  per  cent  of  the  population  was  em- 
ployed in  agriculture,  38*7  per  cent  in  manufactures. 
About  onelialf  of  all  the  manufacturing  industries 
are  carried  on  in  the  provinces  of  the  Rhine,  West- 

Ehalia,  and  Silesia.  It  is  only  since  1866  that  Prussia 
as  had  its  present  area,  and  not  until  1871  did  it 
become  the  ruling  state  of  Germany.  Its  present 
area  and  power  are  the  result  of  a  gradual  develop- 
ment extending  over  more  than  seven  centuri^. 

I.  The  beginnings  of  the  state  are  connected  with  the 
bloody  struggles  and  with  the  wonderful  cultural 
and  missionary  labours  by  means  of  which  the  terri- 
tories on  the  Baltic  between  the  Elbe  and  Memel 
were  wrested  in  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries 
from  the  Slavs  and  won  for  Germany  and  the  Catholic 
Church.'  In  this  era  the  re^on  on  the  Vistula  and 
the  Pregel  Rivers,  which  originally  was  the  only  part 
of  the  territory  bearing  the  name  of  Prussia,  was  con- 
quered by  the  Teutonic  Knights  in  1230  and  con- 
verted to  Christianity.  In  1300  the  Grand  Master  of 
the  order  transferred  his  residence  to  the  Marien- 
burg,  a  castle  noted  for  its  artistic  importance,  which 
has  oeen  restored  by  the  Emperor  William  II.  The 
order  and  the  region  ruled  oy  the  order  attained 
their  highest  development  in  the  years  succeeding 
this,  especially  under  the  government  of  Winrich 
of  ICniprode  (1351-82).  Pomerania,  the  district 
along  the  coast  to  the  right  and  left  of  the  mouth  of 
the  Oder,  continued  to  be  ruled  by  its  dynasty  of 
Slavonic  dukes,  nevertheless  it  was  also  imder  Ger- 
man influence  and  was  converted  to  Christianity  in 
the  first  half  of  the  twelfth  century  by  St.  Otto  of 
Bamberg.  The  inland  territory  between  the  Elbe 
and  Oder,  and  the  region  drained  by  the  Warthe  and 
Netze,  first  called  the  Electorate  of  Brandenburg 
and  the  New  Mark,  were  acquired  from  1134  on- 
wards by  the  Ascanian  line,  which  also  had  posses- 
sions in  Saxony.  Before  long  this  line  also  gained 
the  feudal  suzerainty  over  Pomerania.  In  all  three 
districts  the  Teutomc  Knights,  who  carried  on  wars 
and  colonized  at  the  same  time,  had  the  principal 
^are  in  reconstructing  the  political  conditions.  The 
Cistercian  Order  had  also  a  large  part  in  the  peaceful 
development  of  civilization;  the  order  foimded 
flourishing  monasteries  beginning  at  Lehnin,  and 
Chorin  and  extending  as  far  as  Oliva  near  Danzig, 
and  Christianized  the  natives.  In  all  these  tem- 
tories;  though,  numerous  German  cities  were  founded 
and  German  peasants  were  settled  on  the  soil. 

After  the  extinction  of  the  Ascanian  line  in  1320 
the  Electorate  of  Brandenburg  became  a  possession 
of  the  Bavarian  House  of  Wittelsbach,  and  in  1373 
of  the  House  of  Luxemburg.  Under  the  new  rulers 
the  government  and  the  country  greatly  declined  and 
the  nobility  ruled  with  an  iron  hand.  In  order  to 
restore  order  the  last  member  of  the  Luxemburg 
line  transferred  Brandenburg,  at  first  temporarily, 
then  on  30  April,  1416,  as  a  fief  to  Frederick  of 
Hohenzollem.  This  was  the  birthday  of  the  future 
great  state  of  Prussia,  for  Prussia  has  not  become  a 
great  power  from  natural,  geographical,  or  national 
conditions,  but  is  the  product  of  the  work  of  its  kings 
of  the  House  of  Hohenzollem.  Frederick  I  probably 
desired  to  make  Brandenburg  a  great  kingdom  on  the 
Baltic  for  himself;  however,  he  limited  himself  to 
crushing  the  power  of  the  nobles  and  then  devoted 
his  attention  again  to  imperial  aJTairs.  During  the 
next  two  centuries  his  descendants  did  not  do  much 
to  increase  the  power  of  Brandenburg,  and  they  never 
attained  the  power  of  the  last  members  of  the  Ascan- 
ian line.  The  most  important  event  was  the  "Dis- 
positio  Achillea''  of  1473,  by  which  Brandenburg  was 


made  the  chief  possesdon  of  the  Hohenzollem  family 
and  primogeniture  was  established  as  the  law  of  ito 
inhentance. 

Of  the  Hohenzollem  rulers  of  the  fifteenth  and 
sixteenth  centuries  only  Frederick  II  (1440-70)  and 
Joachim  I  Nestor  (1499-1535)  were  men  of  any 
prominence.  They  were  more  successful  in  internal 
affairs  than  in  the  endeavour  to  extend  the  size  and 
importance  of  their  realm.  Frederick  II  separated 
the  towns  of  Brandenburg  from  the  Hanseatic  League, 
and  forced  them  to  become  a  part  of  the  territory 
of  Brandenburg.  He  also  brought  the  clergy  under 
the  power  of  the  state  by  aid  of  two  Bulls  of  1447. 
which  he  obtained  from  Pope  Nicholas  V,  and  laid 
the  foundation  of  the  later  State  Church  system  es- 
tablished by  his  family.  His  efforts  to  enlarge  his 
territories  were  checked  by  the  rapid  development 
of  the  power  of  Poland  at  this  time,  which  was  fol- 
lowed by  the  rising  itntiortance  of  Hungarv.  « The 
result  was  that  all  the  German  possessions  along  the 
coast  of  the  Baltic  were  endangered  |  and  the  greater 
part  of  the  territory  of  the  Teutomc  Knights,  com- 
prising the  region  of  the  Vistula,  was  conquered  to- 
gether with  Danzig  by  the  Poles  after  two  ware:  in 
the  war  of  1410-11  the  Teutonic  Knights  were  de- 
feated by  the  Poles  at  the  battle  of  Tannenberg; 
this  was  followed  by  the  First  Peace  of  Thorn;  after 
the  war  of  1456-66  came  the  Second  Peace  of  Thom. 
The  Poles  also  took  part  in  the  war  which  Frederick 
II  waged  with  Pomerania  over  the  possession  of 
Stettin.  When  Frederick's  nephew  and  successor 
sought  compensation  for  Stettin  m  Silesia,  he  was  op- 
posed by  Hungary  and  had  to  retire  there  also. 

As  ruler  Joachim  I  was  even  firmer  than  Frederick 
II.  During  his  administration  the  nobility  were 
forced  to  pve  up  their  freebooting  expeditions.  Fol- 
lowing; this  example  the  ruling  family  of  Pomerania, 
of  which  the  most  important  member  of  this  era  was 
Bogislaw  X  (reigned  1478-1524).  put  an  end  to  the 
excesses  of  the  Pomeranian  nooility  also.  In  the 
provinces  along  the  Baltic  the  nobility  had  then  a 
force  of  armed  men  at  their  disposal  probably  equal 
to  similar  forces  of  the  princes.  Thus,  for  example, 
a  family  called  Wedel  had  so  many  branches  that  in 
the  sixteenth  century  it  could  at  one  time  reckon 
on  two  hundred  men  among  its  own  members  capable 
of  bearing;  arms.  When  these  rode  out  to  war  with 
their  sqmres  and  mounted  men  they  formed  a  body  of 
soldiers,  which,  owin^  to  the  scarcity  of  money,  was 
difficult  for  tne  rulmg  princes  to  meet.  Both  in 
Brandenburg  and  Pomerania  the  establishment  of 
order  was  followed  by  an  improvement  in  the  lan^s 
and  the  courts,  and  by  a  reorganization  of  the  ad- 
ministration. This  latter  brou^t  about  the  ipadual 
formation  of  a  class  of  civil  officials,  who  had  m  part 
legal  training,  and  who  were  dependent  not  on  the 
nobility  but  on  the  ruling  princes.  The  beginnings 
were  also  made  of  an  economical  policy.  Joachim  I 
sought  to  turn  to  the  advantage  of^  the  -Hohenzollems 
the  fact  that  the  Wettin  line  ruling  in  Saxony,  which 
up  to  that  time  had  been  of  more  importance  than  the 
Hohenzollems,  had  paralyzed  its  future  development 
in  1485  by  dividing  its  possessions  between  two 
branches  of  the  line.  These  two  dynastic  families, 
Wettin  and  Hohenzollem^  were  active  competitors 
for  the  great  spiritual  pnncipalities  of  the  empire. 
In  1513  Joachim's  brother  Albrecht  became  Arch- 
bishop of  Magdeburg  and  Bishop  of  Halberstadt, 
and  in  1514  Archbishop  of  Mainz.  At  the  same  time 
another  ipember  of  the  Hohenzollem  family,  one  be- 
longing to  the  Franconian  branch  of  the  line,  became 
Grand  Master  of  the  Teutonic  Order,  that  is,  he 
was  the  ruler  of  that  portion  of  Prussia  which  still 
belonged  to  the  order.  In  1525  he  brought  about  the 
secularization  of  the  territory  of  the  order,  and  made 
it  a  permanent  possession  of  his  family;  in  return 
for  this,  however,  he  was  obliged  to  acknowledge  the 


PRUSSIA 


521 


PRUSSIA 


feudal  suzerainty  of  Poland.  Joachim  was  unable 
to  Aiaintain  his  claims  to  the  right  of  succession  on 
the  extinction  of  the  Pomeranian  dukes,  but  had  to 
^ve  up  the  claim  to  feudal  supremacy  (Treaty  of 
Grimmtz,  1529). 

Of  all  the  ecclesiastical  princioalities.  Joachim's 
successors  were  able  to  retain  Magdeourg  alone, 
and  this  only  to  the  end  of  the  century.  In  Prussia 
(1569)  they  obtained,  the  right  to  joint  feudal  pos- 
session, and  thus  gained  for  the  main  branch  of  the 
family  a  claim  to  the  Duchy  of  Prussia.  Taken  al- 
together, however,  the  Hohenzollem  power  declined 
very  decidedly.  The  ruling  branch  .in  Brandenburg 
was  badly  crippled  by  debts,  and  the  last  member  of 
the  line  ruling  in  Prussia  was  weak-minded.  This 
enabled  the  States,  which  had  rapidly  developed  in 
all  German  territones  from  the  second  half  of  the 
fifteenth  century,  to  obtain  great  influence  over  the 
administration,  both  in  Prussia  and  Brandenburg. 
This  influence  was  due  to  the  fact  that  the  Estates, 
owing  to  their  possessing  the  right  of  granting  the 
taxes,  were  equvalent  to  a  representative  assembly 
composed  in  part  of  the  landowners,  the  nobility, 
and  the  pler^,  and  in  part  of  the  cities,  who  con- 
trolled connderable  ready  money.  At  first  the 
nobility  was  the  most  powerful  section  of  the  Estates. 
In  order  to  keep  the  nobles  well-disposed  the  ruling 
princes,  both  in  Brandenburg  and  Prussia,  and  also 
m  Pomerania,  transferred  to  them  the  greater  part 
of  the  princely  jurisdiction  and  other  legal  rights 
over  the  peasants,  so  that  the  feudal  lords  were  able 
to  bring  the  peasants  into  complete  economic  de- 
pendence upon  themselves  and  to  make  them  serfs. 
As  a  result  the  influence  of  the  nobility  constantly 
grew.  But  as  the  nobles  were  men  without  breadth  of 
view,  and  in  all  foreign  complications  saw  the  means 
of  reviving  the  power  of  the  princes  and  of  imposing 
taxes,  the  strength  of  the  three  Baltic  duchies  waned 
equally  in  the  second  half  of  the  sixteenth  century. 
None  of  them  seemed  to  have  any  future. 

II.  At  this  juncture  the  head  of  the  Franconian 
branch  of  the  Hohenzollem  family,  George  Frederick 
of  Ansbach-Bayreuth,  persuaded  the  Brandenburg 
branch  of  the  family  to  enter  upon  a  far-reaching 
policy  of  extension  which,  in  the  end,  resulted  in 
leading  the  dynasty  and  the  state  over  which  it 
reigned  into  an  entirely  new  path.  Influenced  by 
George  Frederick,  John  George  of  Brandenburg 
(1571-98)  strengthened  his  claim  upon  Prussia  by 
marrying  his  daughter  to  the  weak-minded  Duke  of 
Prussia,  and  secured  for  himself  by  another  marriage 
a  new  reversionary  right  to  the  Duchy  of  Cleve- 
JUlich,  the  ruling  family  of  which  was  nearing  ex- 
tinction. Up  to  this  time  Prussian  policy  had  been 
entirely  directed  to  gaining  control  in  eastern  Ger- 
many, and  this  marriage  was  the  first  attempt  to 
make  acouisitions  in  western  Germany.  During  the 
reign  of  John  Sigismund  (1608-19)  the  ducal  line  of 
Cleve-Jiilich  became  extinct  in  1609,  and  in  1618 
that  of  Prussia.  Of  the  possessions  of  Cleve-Julich, 
however,  JUlich  and  Berg  were  claimed  by  the  Wittels- 
bach  family,  and  Brandenburg  was  only  able  to  ac- 
auire  (Dleve  and  a  few  adjacent  districts  (1614);  even 
tne  hold  on  this  inheritance  was  for  a  long  time  very 
insecure.  On  the  other  hand  Prusua  was  united  with 
Brandenburg  without  any  dispute  arising  because 
Poland  in  the  meantime  had  become  involved  in  war 
with  Gustavus  Adolphus  and  was  obliged  to  act  with 
caution.  At  about  the  same  time  the  ducal  House  of 
Pomerania  was  nearing  extinction,  so  that  all  at  once 
the  state  ruled  by  the  HohenzoUems  seemed  to  ap- 
proach a  great  extension  of  its  territories. 

In  1613  John  Sigismund  became  a  Calvinist,  a 
faith  at  that  time  which  had  a  great  attraction  for  all 
the  energetic  and  ambitious  among  the  German 
Protestant  princes.  The  ruler  of  Brandenburg  and 
Prussia  became  the  son-in-law  of  the  leader  of  the 


Calvinistic  party,  the  Elector  Palatinate,  and  his 
daughter  marriea  Gustavus  Adolphus  ot  Sweden. 
However,  on  account  of  the  great  power  which  the 
Estates  had  acquired  in  his  dominions  John  Sigismund 
was  not  able  to  undertake  a  vigorous  policy.  The 
Elstates  were  strongly  opposed  to  his  adoption  of  Cal- 
vinism, and  his  promise  to  leave  the  Lutheran  Con- 
fession undisturbed  hardly  satisfied  them,  nor  were 
they  willing  to  grant  any  money  for  his  external  pol- 
icies. On  account  of  these  financial  difficulties  his 
successor,  George  William  (1619-40),  during  the 
Thirty  Years'  War,  came  near  losing  the  territories 
just  inherited;  and  he  was  not  able  to  make  good  his 
daims  to  Pomerania  when,  in  1637,  his  right  of  in- 
horitance  was  to  be  enforced.  It  became  evident.that 
the  power  of  the  Estates  must  be  crushed  and  the 

S»ple  forced  to  pay  their  taxes  regularly,  before  the 
ohenzoUems  could  obtain  firm  possession  of  their 
newly  acquired  domain,  establish  their  authority  in 
Pomerania,  and  then  build  up  their  power  in  the  Baltic 
coast  lands  in  the  valleys  of  the  Oder  and  Vistula. 
George  William's  chief  adviser.  Count  Adam  von 
Schwarzenberg,  recognized  this  and  made  the  attempt 
to  carry  out  tfis  policy;  from  1637  he  was  engaged  m 
a  severe  struggle  with  Sweden,  to  prevent  the  Swedes 
from  t£ddn(;  possession  of  Pomerania. 

This  ment  of  finallyv  carrying  out  this  policy  and  of 
turning  the  small  and  far  from  cultured  state  into  a 
strong  mstrument  for  political  and  military  aggression 
belongs  to  the  Great  Elector,  Frederick  \Villiam 
(1640-88),  and  to  his  grandson,  King  Frederick  Wil- 
liam I  (1713-40).  In  1644  the  Great  Elector  laid  the 
foundation  of  the  standing  army  with  the  aid  of  which 
his  successors  raised  Brandenburg-Prussia  to  its  lead- 
ing position;  Frederick  William  I  increased  the  stand- 
ing army  to  83,000  men.  In  order  to  procure  the 
resources  for  maintaining  his  army  the  Great  Elector 
gradually  reorganized  the  country  on  entirely  different 
principles,  anddid  his  utmost  to  further  the  prosperity 
of  his  people  so  as  to  enable  them  to  bear  increased 
taxation.  His  grandson  continued  and  completed  the 
same  policy.  At  this  period  a  like  intemtdpolicy  was 
followed  in  all  the  states  of  the  German  Empire,  in- 
cluding the  larger  ones.  Nowhere,  however,  was  it 
carriedf  out  in  so  rational  and  systematic  a  manner  as 
in  Brandenburg-Prussia,  and  nowhere  else  were  its 
results  so  permanent.  In  this,  not  in  its  originality, 
consists  the  greatness  of  the  political  achievement  of 
the  HohenzoUems.  The  Estates  and  their  provincial 
diets  were  not  opposed  and  put  down  on  principle, 
but  they  were  forced  in  Prussia  and  Cleve  to  grant 
what  was  needed  for  the  army;  the  cities  were  then 
subjected  to  a  special  indirect  taxation  (excise  duties), 
and  in  this  way  were  withdrawn  from  the  government 
of  the  Estates.  The  nobility,  now  the  only  members 
of  the  Estates,  were  subjected  to  personal  taxation  by 
reforms  in  the  existing  system  of  direct  taxation,  by 
the  abolition  of  the  feudal  system,  and  especially  by 
the  introduction  into  Prussia  of  the  general  taxation 
of  limd.  At  the  same  time  the  control  that  the  Estates 
had  acquired  over  the  collection  and  administration 
of  the  taxes  was  abolished,  and  the  assessment  and 
collection  of  the  taxes  was  transferred  to  the  ofiicials 
of  the  Government,  who  had  originally  charge  only  of 
the  administrative  and  commissariat  departments  of 
the  army.  All  these  officials  were  placed  under  a 
central  bureau,  the  general  commissariat,  and  a  more 
rigid  and  regular  state  system  of  state  receipts  and 
expenditures  was  established.  Among  the  changes 
were  the  founding  of  the  excheauer,  the  drawing-up 
of  a  budget,  which  was  prepared  for  the  first  time  in 
1689,  and  the  creation  of  an  audit-office.  Moreover, 
there  was  a  stricter  regulation  of  the  finances  in  every 
part  of  the  Government,  and  an  extension  of  the  su- 
pervision of  every  branch  of  the  administration  by 
the  fiscal  authorities  so  as  to  include  even  the  inde^ 
pendent  departments  of  the  state,  the  result  being 


PRUSSIA 


522 


PBUSSU 


that  these  bodies,  especially  the  cities,  were  actually 
ruled  by  these  officials. 

These  reforms  reached  their  culmination  in  the 
founding  of  the  "General  Directory'',  at  Berlin,  and 
of  the  Boards  of  War  and  Finance  in  the  provinces 
in  1721.  The  result  was  that  the  entire  official  life  of 
Prussia  became  bureaucratic,  and  financial  considera- 
tions had  the  preponderating  influence  in  the  internal 
administration  of  the  coimtry,  as  is  still  6trikin^y 
noticeable.  Those  departments  of  national  admm^ 
istration  that  yielded  little  revenue,  or  were  apt  to 
cost  more  than  they  could  be  counted  upon  to  vield, 
were  for  the  present  nesdected,  or  in  part  still  left 
under  the  control  of  the  Estates,  in  those  cases  where 
the  Estates  had  acquired  the  supervision  of  them; 
such  were,  above  aU,  the  administration  of  law,  eccle- 
siastical anairs,  and  the  schools.  On  the  other  hand 
great  attention  was  given  to  improving  economic  con- 
ditions, and  gradually  all  the  measures  were  used  in 
Prussia  that  the  genius  of  a  Colbert  had  planned  dur- 
ing the  reign  of  I^uis  XIV  to  raise  France  to  the  place 
of  the  first  power  in  the  world.  Accordingly  the  popu- 
lation was  mcreased  by  encourage  the  immigration 
of  the  Dutch,  Huguenots,  and  muuly  of  the  Aotest- 
ants,  who  were  driven  out  of  Salzburg.  Much  also 
was  done  to  improve  the  soil  and  the  breeding  of 
cattle.  In  agreement  with  the  prevailing  principles 
of  economics^  i.  e.  as  much  money  as  possible  should 
be  brought  mto  the  country,  but  that  its  export 
should  be  prevented,  manufacture  and  commerce 
were  to  be  stimulated  in  every  possible  way.  The 
Great  Elector  even  established  a  navy  and  also 
founded  colonies  on  the  African  Gold  Coast;  in  1717 
Frederick  William  I  sold  the  colonies.  Many  excel- 
lent officials  were  drawn  from  other  countries  to  aid 
in  the  administration.  However,  the  ruling  prince 
was  the  centre  of  the  Government.  The  result  of  this 
was  that,  as  early  as  the  latter  years  of  the  reign  of 
the  Elector,  the  principal  boards  of  administration 
and  the  ministers  presiding  over  them  sank  more  and 
more  into  mere  tools  for  caroling  out  the  will  of  the 
ruling  prince,  and  decisioif^  were  made,  not  in  the 
boards,  but  in  the  cabinet  of  the  prince.  This  method 
of  administration  became  completely  systematized  in 
the  reign  of  Frederick  William  Ij  consequently  it  is 
customary  to  speak  of  the  cabinet  government  of 
Prussia.  This  form  of  administration  was  maintained 
until  1806. 

The  success  of  the  organizing  energy  of  the  ruling 
princes  was  so  evident  that  even  before  the  end  of  the 
seventeenth  century  Leibniz  said:  "This  country  is 
a  kingdom  in  all  but  name."  The  lacking  name  of 
kingdom  was  given  to  the  country  when  fYederick  I 
(168tS-1713),  the  son  of  the  Great  Elector,  crowned 
himself  on  18  January,  1701,  at  Konigsberg,  with  the 
title  "King  in  Prussia",  meaning  of  the  former  duchy. 
As  long  as  the  development  of  the  internal  strength 
of  the  country  was  backward  there  was  fittle  chance  of 
gaining  any  important  additions  of  territory,  even 
though  the  great  wars  of  the  period  made  such  efforts 
very  tempting.  The  Great  Elector  was  a  man  of  un- 
oontroUea  and  passionate  character,  and  of  much 
military  ambition;  it  was  very  hara  for  him  to  let 
others  reap  where  he  had  sown,  for  he  had  taken  part 
in  nearly  all  the  wars  of  his  era.  Frederick  William  I 
also  was  alive  to  his  country's  glory,  but  was  more 
inclined  to  prepare  for  war  than  to  carry  it  on;  in 
man^  respects  nis  character  recalls  that  of  the  later 
Wilham  I.  In  this  period  the  chief  object  of  the  for- 
eign policy  of  the  Hohenzollems  was  to  increase  their 
possessions  along  the  Baltic.  Above  all  they  desired 
to  own  Pomerania,  which  Sweden  retained.  By  the 
Treaty  of  WestphaUa  the  Great  Elector  received  only 
Further  Pomerania  (Hinterpommem),  which  was  of 
little  value.  He  gained  nothing  from  the  first  North- 
em  War  (1655-60)  in  which  he  took  part;  his  victory 
over  the  Swedes  in  the  battle  of  Fehrbellin  (1675) 


proved  fruitless.  His  grandson  finally  acquired  Stettin 
and  the  mouth  of  the  Oder  in  1720,  and  Hither 
Pomerania  (Vorpommem)  did  not  become  a  part  of 
Prussia  until  1815.  The  Great  Slector  was  more  for- 
tunate in  obtaining  the  release  of  the  Du(^y  of 
Prussia  from  the  feudal  suzerainty  of  Poland  (1658), 
and  was  also  able  to  increase  its  area  by  the  addition 
of  Ennla9d.  He  further  desired  to  acquire  Silesia. 
In  these  years  the  chief  battlefield  of  Europe  was  the 
western  part  of  the  Continent.  This  was  unfavour- 
able for  the  schemes  of  the  Hohenzollems,  for  at  that 
time  they  had  no  definite  policy  of  territorial  exten- 
sion in  westem  Europe,  ana  consequently  no  interests 
of  any  importance  there. 

In  the  west  the  Great  Elector  limited  himself  to 
securing  the  lasting  possession  of  Cleve  (1667)  and  the 
occupation  of  the  ^rritories  which  France  had  secured 
for.  him  in  exchange  for  Pomerania,  namely  Minden, 
Halberstadt^  and  Ma^^ebur^,  which  before  this  had 
been  ecclesiastical  principahties.  These  gave  him 
strategetically  iihportant  positions  controlling  points 
of  crossing  the  Elbe  and  the  Weser;  but  he  could  not 
obtain  Magdeburg  until  1666.  and  did  not  gain  full 
possession  of  it  until  1680.  During  the  reigns  of  his 
son  and  grandson  some  small  and  unimportant  terri- 
tories to  the  west  of  these  were  obtained.  Taken  alto- 
|;ether  Brandenburg-Prussia  had  by  1740  increased 
in  area  from  9000  square  miles  under  the  first  Hohen- 
zollem  Elector  and  31,600  square  miles  in  the  reign 
of  John  Sigismund  to  about  45,800  square  miles  with 
a  population  of  about  2,250,000.  Up  to  now  the  bulk 
of  the  area  of  the  country  had  Ifun  towards  the  east, 
but  from  this  period  onward  the  preponderating  part 
of  its  territories  began  to  be  foimd  in  the  west.  The 
iNofe  of  the  Great  Elector  belonged  to  the  family  of 
the  Princes  of  Grange,  and  this  led  the  Elector  to 
consider  Holland  in  ms  foreign  policy;  in  1672  espe- 
cially this  influenced  him  to  take  part  in  the  war 
between  Holland  and  Louis  XIV.  He  also  ^ave  more 
attention  to  imperial  affairs  than  his  immediate  pred- 
ecessors. In  the  politics  of  the  empire  sometimes  he 
sided  with  the  emperor.  At  times,  however,  he  ad- 
hered Us  the  views  held  by  the  Crerman  ruling  princes 
of  that  time  that  there  was  an  inner  Gennany  con- 
sisting of  the  various  states  of  the  empire:  and  that 
this  was  the  real  Germany,  the  interests  of  which  did 
not  always  coincide  with  those  of  Austria  or  of  the 
reigning  emperor.  He  believed  that  the  real  Germany 
must  at  times  maintain  its  interests  against  Austria 
by  the  aid  of  one  of  the  guaranteeing  powers  of  the 
Peace  of  Westphalia,  viz.  France  and  Sweden.  The 
only  times  he  paid  no  attention  in  his  policies  to  his 
duty  as  a  prince  of  the  empire  was  at  the  beginning  of 
his  reign  when  influenced  by  religious  prejudices,  and 
towfurds  its  end  when  disappointed  by  the  Peace  of 
St.-Germain-en-Laye  (1679). 

Another  sign  that  the  Prussian  state  was  becoming 
gradually  involved  in  the  affairs  of  westem  Europe 
was  the  fact  that  as  a  second  wife  the  Great  Elector 
married  a  Guelph,  to  which  family  the  wives  both  of 
his  son  and  grandson  belonged.  In  the  second  half  of 
the  seventeenth  centuiy  the  Guelph  line  founded  the 
Electorate  of  Hanover  in  north-western  Germany,  the 
only  state  in  this  section  of  Germany  that,  at  the 
be^nning  of  the  eighteenth  century,  could  in  any  way 
compete  with  Brandenburg-Prussia  for  the  leading 
position.  The  founding  of  the  Academy  of  Berlin  is 
due  to  Sophia  Charlotte,  wife  of  Frederick  I.  The 
same  royalcouple  established  the  University  of  HaUe, 
which  soon  gained  a  European  reputation  on  account 
of  its  professors  Thomasius  and  Christian  Wolff  and 
the  institutions  for  the  poor  founded  by  Professor 
Francke.  The  fine  addition  in  the  royal  castle  at 
Berlin  and  the  splendid  statue  of  the  Great  Elector 
by  Andreas  SchlUter  were  both  works  of  this  reign. 

III.  Frederick  II,  The  Great  (1740-88),  son  of 
Frederick  William  I,  had  probably  more  intellectual 


PRUSSIA 


523 


PRUSSIA 


ability  than  any  other  HohenzoUem  known  to  his- 
tory; he  had  in  him  a  touch  of  geniuB.  What  checked 
the  development  and  exercise  of  his  ability  was, 
however,  that  he  seemed  from  his  natural  pre- 
dispositions, and  from  the  way  in  which  in  youth 
he  looked  upon  life,  to  be  bom  for  entirely  different 
conditions  than  those  prevailing  in  the  I^iissia  of 
that  era.  He  was  more  inclined  to  literature  and 
music  than  to  official  routine  work  and  military  ser- 
vice, and  early  became  a  free-thinker.  He  preferred 
the  literature  of  France  and  despised  that  of  Germany, 
and  was  indifferent  to  Prussia  and  its  people.  When 
a  young  man  these  tastes  led  to  conflicts  with  his 
father,  who  resolved  on  this  account  to  exclude 
Frederick  from  the  succession,  and  imprisoned  him 
for  several  years  in  the  fortress  at  Klistrin.  Freder- 
rick  was  then  married  against  his  will,  by  the  advice 
of  Austria,  to  the  Princess  Elizabeth  of  Brunswick- 
Bevem,  personally  an  excellent  and  good  woman. 
He  finally  leamea  self-control  and  applied  himself 
with  gradually  increasing  zeal  and  intensity  to  the 
civil  and  military  affairs  of  the  state,  but  he  did  this 
not  from  a  sense  of  pleasure  in  such  occupations,  but 
from  one  of  discipline  and  necessity.  This  n\fky  be 
the  reason  why  in  his  civil  administration  and  m  the 
aims  of  his  foreign  policy  he  showed  little  origmality 
in  comparison  to  his  natural  abilities.  On  the  other 
hand,  in  the  conduct  of  war  the  king  showed  ex- 
traordinary energy,  great  intellectual  activity,  and 
ceaseless  personal  attention  to  his  task.  In  his 
foreign  policy  Frederick  followed  the  principles  of 
his  predecessors  and  sought  above  all  to  aevelop 
his  domain  towards  the  east.  The  precarious  posi- 
tion of  Austria  at  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  Maria 
Theresa  was  taken  advantage  of  by  Frederick  to 
begin  a  campaign  in  Silesia  in  Dec.,  1740.  As  a 
pretext  for  the  war  he  took  the  treaties  of  succession 
of  his  forefathers  with  the  rulers  of  several  of  the 
smaller  Silesian  duchies,  made  in  1537,  for  the  non- 
fulfilment  of  which  Austria  seemingly  was  alone  to 
blame. 

He  gained  the  battle  of  Mollwitz  10  April,  1741, 
and  on  5  June  formed  an  alliance  with  France,  the 
chief  of  the  other  opponents  of  Maria  Theresa; 
the  intervention  of  England  led  him  to  agree  to  a 
truce  on  9  October,  which  enabled  Austria  to  make 
its  military  force  equal  to  that  of  France.  In  alarm 
Frederick  advanced  into  Moravia,  gained  the  battle 
of  Chotusitz,  17  May,  1742,  and  in  the  Peace  of 
Breslau,  of  1  June  of  the  same  year,  obtained  from 
Austria  the  whole  of  Silesia,  excepting  the  Count- 
ships  of  Glatz,  Troppau,  and  Teschen.  As  in  the  war 
between  Austria  and  France,  which  still  went  on, 
the  advantage  of  the  former  continually  increased, 
Frederick  once  more  formed  an  alliance  with  Aus- 
tria's opponents  and  began  a  campaign  in  Bohemia 
in  Sept.,  1744,  but  was  obliged  to  withdraw  from  this 
province  in  December.  His  position  in  Silesia  now 
became  precarious,  but  he  extricated  himself  by  the 
victory  at  Hohenfriedberg.  4  June,  1745,  and  then 
defeated  the  enemy,  alreaay  on  the  march  to  Berlin, 
at  Soor  20  Sept.,  at  Kathohsch-Hennersdorf  23  Nov., 
and  at  Kesselsdorf  15  Dec.  By  the  Peace  of  Dres- 
den of  25  Dec,  1745,  Frederick  retained  Silesia. 
Maria  Theresa,  however,  was  not  willing  to  give  up 
Silesia  without  further  effort.  Conaequently  after 
peace  had  been  made  between  Austria  and  France. 
Kaunitz,  who  was  now  Maria  Theresa's  minister  or 
foreign  affairs,  sought  to  form  more  friendly  relations 
with  France  and  to  strengthen  those  alreaay  existing 
with  Russia.  So  little,  however,  was  attained  in 
France  that  Kaunitz  wished  to  drop  the  negotiations, 
but  Maria  Theresa's  persistence  and  the  measures 
taken  by  Frederick  in  1756  led  to  the  formation  of  the 
alliance.  Made  uneasy  by  the  weakness  of  Fnmoe, 
Frederick  did  not  maintain  the  amicable  relations 
that  had  existed  until  then  between  himself  and  that 


power.  When  war  broke  out  between  England  and 
France  over  the  colonies  in  1755-6,  England  ne- 
gotiated /With  Russia  for  the  sending  of  auxiliary 
troops.  Frederick  feared  to  permit  such  auxiliaries 
to  march  through  Prussia  and  offered  to  guarantee 
England's  possession  on  the  Continent  himself 
(Convention  of  Westminster,  Jan.,  1756). 

France  and  Austria  now  agreed  to  help  each  other 
in  case  of  attack  by  Frederic!^  (First  Alliance  of 
Veraailles,  1  May,  1756).  Upon  this  Frederick,  led 
perhaps  by  fear  of  attack  by  a  coalition  stronger  than 
tiimself,  perhaps  also  by  the  hope  of  making  ireah 
gains  by  daring  seizures,  be^an  a  third  war,  the 
Seven  Years'  War,  with  Austna,  taking  as  a  pretext 
the  advance  of  the  Austrian  troops.  Without  any 
declaration  of  war  he  advanced  into  the  Electorate 
of  Saxony,  which  was  friendly  to  Austria,  and  be- 
sieged Dresden  9  Sept.,  but  the  Saxon  troops  kept  up 
a  longer  resistance  than  he  had  counted  upon,  so  it 
was  1757  before  he  could  begin  a  campaign  in 
Bohemia.  In  the  meantime  Russia  and  Austria  had 
signed  an  alliance  for  war  against  him  2  Feb.,  1757: 
in  addition  both  the  Empire  and  Sweden  declared 
War  against  him,  and  on  1  May,  1757,  France  an<^ 
Austria  agreed  in  the  Second  Alliance  of  Versailles 
to  adopt  the  offensive  together  against  him.  Fred- 
erick's opponents  could- produce  a  force  of  430,000 
m%n,  while  he  with  the  aid  of  England  and  Hanover 
(Treaty  of  11  January,  1757)  controlled  about 
210,000  men.  It  was  most  important  for  him  to 
force  the  matter  to  a  conclusion  as  quickly  as  possible, 
before  the  means  of  his  still  poor  country  were  ex- 
hausted. On  6  May  he  won  a  bloody  battle  near 
Prague-,  but  on  18  June  he  was  defeated  near  KoUin 
and  suffered  losses  by  the  new  Austrian  commander 
Daun  which  he  could  not  repair.  Frederick  was 
forced  to  return  to  Saxony,  while  the  French  defeated 
the  Hanoverian  army  at  Kastenbeck  on  6  July, 
and  the  Russians  defeated  a  Prussian  army  at  Gross- 
iftgemdorf  on  30  Aug.  However,  the  Russians  and 
French  did  not  form  a  junction  with  the  Austrians 
quickly  enough.  When  finally  the  united  French 
and  Imperial  army  advanced^  Frederick  defeated  the 
joint  forces  badly  at  Rossbach  on  5  Nov.,  and  then 
turned  against  Daun,  who  had  entered  Silesia  and  had 
taken  Breslau.  Frederick  defeated  him  at  Leuthen 
on  5  Dec.  Duke  Ferdinand  of  Brunswick  continued 
to  lead  the  Hanoverian  and  Prussian  forces  that 
fought  against  the  French  and  drove  the  latter  to  the 
Rhine  in  the  battle  of  Crefeld,  23  June,  1758.  The 
progress  of  the  war  in  the  east  did  not  equal  the  great 
expectations  aroused  by  the  success  at  Leuthen.  In 
1758  the  Russians  advanced.  Frederick  maintained 
himself  against  them  at  Zomdorf,  25  August,  but  the 
battle  was  not  decisive;  from  here  he  nastened  to 
Saxony,  where  the  troop  he  had  left  behind  were 
threatened  by  Daun,  and  he  was  surprised  by  Daun 
at  Hochkirch  on  14  Oct. 

At  the  end  of  1758  the  majority  of  his  officers  were 
dead,  and  he  could  only  fill  the  gaps  among  the 
soldiery  by  the  compulsory  enlistment  of  mercenaries. 
His  treasury  was  empty,  and  he  struck  debased  coin. 
He  exhausted  the  resources  of  Saxony.  On  the  other 
hand  the  Austrian  army  was  always  ready  for  the 
field,  and  the  Austrian  artillery  was  superior  to  his. 
Accordingly  his  opponents  in  the  campaign  of  1759 
forced  Frederick  to  take  the  defensive.  The  united 
Russians  and  Austrians  decisively  defeated  Fred- 
erick at  Kunersdorf  on  12  August.  The  result  was 
a  series  of  capitulations.  Fre(ferick  lost  Saxony,  the 
greater  part  of  Silesia  was  taken  from  him  in  1760- 
61,  largely  by  Laudon.  What  saved  him,  besides  his 
own  energy,  was  the  gradual  dissolution  of  the  al- 
liances between  his  enemies.  France  began  to  with- 
draw in  the  Third  Alliance  of  Versailles  of  30-31 
December,  1757.  At  first  Russia  and  Austria  drew 
all  the  closer  together  in  the  Treaty  of  St.  Petersburg 


PEUSSIA 


524 


PBUSSIA 


of  1  April,  1760.  The  Russianfl  plundered  Berlin 
in  Oct.,  1760r.  At  this  most  critical  moment  Fred- 
erick maintained  himself  only  by  the  almost  unex- 
pected victory  of  Torgau,  3  Nov.,  1760,  which  en- 
abled him  once  more  to  occupy  a  secure  position  in 
Saxony.  As  early  as  1761  the  Russian  mterest  in 
the  war  becan  to  decline,  and  when  in  January, 
1762  Peter  III,  an  admirer  of  Frederick,  became  tsar, 
he  took  sides  with  Frederick  (truce  in  March,  peace 
5  May,  idliance  19  June).  It  was  also  an  advantage 
to  Frederick  that  Turkey  began  a  war  aeainst  Austria. 
In  Jfifyt  1762^  Peter  III  was  succeeded  by  the  famous 
Catnerine  II.  She  wished  to  have  a  European 
peace,  and  continually  urged  Maria  Theresa  to  yield. 
On  the  Rhine  Ferdinand  of  Brunswick  continued  to 
.  keep  the  French  in  check.  As  the  French  were  also 
successful  in  their  war  with  England,  they  withdrew 
from  the  struggle  against'  Frederick  by  the  prelimi- 
nary Peace  otFontainebleau  (3  Nov.,  1762).  The 
imperial  army  broke  up.  Finally  Austria  also  grew 
w&ury  of  the  struggle. 

On  15  Feb.,  1763,  the  Peace  of  Hubertusburg  closed 
the  Austro-Prussian  war.  Frederick  retained  Silesia, 
but  made  no  new  acquisitions.  However,  his  per- 
'Bonal  importance  and  the  respect  for  the  military 

growess  of  Prussia  were  so  greatly  increased  that 
enceforth  Prussia  was  treated  by  the  other  coun- 
tries as  a  great  power.  After  tms  Frederick's  ad- 
ministration was  a  peaceful  one.  He  was  able  to 
increase  his  realm  by  taking  part  in  the  First  Parti- 
tion of  Poland  (1772),  whereby  he  ^gained  Polish 
Prussia  with  the  exception  of  Danzig  andThom.  The 
War  of  the  Bavarian  Succession  (1778-79),  which 
Frederick  declared  against  Austria  to  prevent  Bava- 
ria becoming  part  of  that  monarchy,  caused  but  little 
bloodshed.  In  the  Peace  of  Teschen  Austria  aban- 
doned all  claim  to  the  Bavarian  succession.  In  1781 
Frederick  took  part  in  the  ''Naval  Alliance  of  Neutral 
Powers".  This  was  formed  by  Catherine  II,  and 
intended  mainly  to  limit  the  power  of  England  on 
the  Baltic,  but  it  was  of  small  importance,  it  should 
also  be  mentioned  that  in  1744  East  Frisia  became 
a  part  of  Prussia  by  in^ieritanoe. 

The  most  important  measure  of  domestic  policy 
carried  out  by  Frederick  in  the  first  half  of  his  reign 
with  the  help  of  his  minister  (I!occeji,  was  the  re- 
organization of  the  department  of  justice,  which  had 
been  neglected  during  the  reign  of  his  father.  After  the 
Seven  Years'  War  his  personal  influence  became  more 
manifest  in  the  other  departments  of  state.  It  must 
be  confessed,  however,  that  at  the  same  time  he 
obstinately  adhered  both  to  the  forms  and  principles 
of  government  that  he  had  inherited.  At  the  most  it 
was  only  in  isolated  cases  that  power  was  exercised 
with  moderation  or  that  the  admmistration  was  mod- 
ified in  harmony  with  the  spirit  of  the  times,  although 
this  spirit,  animated  by  humanitarian  ideas  and  a 
tolerance  arising  from  indifference,  was  also  alive 
in  him.  He  even  exaggerated  many  of  the  objection- 
able sides  of  the  ola  system  of  government.  He 
ruled  the  country  and  especially  the  new  provinces 
as  an  enlightened  despot,  exclusivelv  from  the  cabinet, 
though  as  a  writer  he  approved  of  Rousseau's  views 
as  set  down  in  the  ''Social  (Dontract".  In  addition 
he  employed  the  higher  officials  as  if  they  were 
subalterns.  The  officials  throughout  the  country 
during  his  reign  developed  more  and  more  of  a  ten- 
dency to  treat  the  people  and  especially  the  middle 
classes  with  bureaucratic  contempt.  Tnough  proud 
of  their  victories  in  the  Seven  Years'  War,  the  people 
manifested  no  consciousness  of  their  belonging  to  a 
unified  Prussian  State.  It  is  true  that  in  the  last 
years  of  his  reign  Frederick  regarded  it  as  his  duty 
to  inspire  the  entire  Prussian  people  in  their  economic 
and  social  feelings  with  the  sense  of  their  direct  re- 
lations to  the  Government,  so  that  every  Prussian 
in  all  his  doings  should  have  in  view  not  only  his 


own  personal  advantage  but  also  the  welfare  and 
strengthening  of  the  state.  Practically,  however, 
this  idea  only  led  him  to  accentuate  the  social  de- 
ferences, the  abolition  of  which  was  demanded  by 
the  neeos  of  the  time.  At  the  end  of  his  reign  mo 
Prussian  State,  of  which  he  was  more  than  ever  the 
monarch,  ended  just  as  at  the  beginning  of  tins  rule, 
with  the  president  of  each  district.  As  regards  his 
economic  poUcy,  he  held  on  to  liie  worn-out  mercan- 
tile system. 

The  great  errors  of  this  policy,  e.  g.  the  neg}ect  of 
agriculture,  the  failure  to  abolish  serfdom,  the  reten- 
tion of  the  double  system  of  taxation  (direct  for  the 
country  and  indirect  for  the  cities),  a  system  that 
paralyzed  all  economic  development,  the  maintenance 
of  the  excessively  high  system  of  protection  with  its 
many  internal  duties,  were  due  to  this  cause.  The 
same  mav  be  said  of  many  of  his  failures,  such  as  the 
mercantile  enterprises  which  he  founded,  or  his  partial 
failures,  such  as  the  transfer  of  sevextd  industries,  in 

{)articular  the  porcelain  and  silk  industries,  to  the 
eading  provinces  of  the  state.  His  adherence  to  the 
mercantile  system  of  economics  was  necessitated  by 
his  adherence  to  the  one-sided  conception  of  nationaJ 
finan(9es  which  led  the  Prussian  Government  to  pro- 
vide for  the  economic  prosperity  of  the  population, 
with  the  intention  of  bringing  as  much  money  as 
possible  into  the  country  in  order  to  have  it  for  gov- 
ernment purposes.  Frederick,  therefore,  made  no 
changes  in  the  financial  theories  of  Prussian  poUcy. 
These  theories  led  him,  for  instance,  in  imitation  of 
French  fiscal  methods,  to  introduce  the  Regie,  i.  e. 
to  farm  out  the  customs  and  indirect  taxes,  and  to 
make  the  sale  of  tobacco,  coffee,  and  salt  absolute 
monopolies.  The  Regie  made  him  very  unpopular. 
It  is  sJl  the  more  surprising  that,  notwithstanding  the 
reactionary  character  of  his  internal  policy,  he  made 
the  country  politically  capable  of  performing  all  the 
unusual  tasks  that  he  imposed  on  it,  that  he  changed 
his  possessions  into  a  well-regulated  state,  and  that  he 
succeeded,  by  political  measures,  in  repairing  the 
terrible  injunes  of  the  Seven  Years'  War  in  a  com- 
paratively short  time.  Large  extents  of  moor-land 
and  swamp  were  brought  under  cultivation,  a  hundrcxi 
thousand  colonists  were  settled  in  deserted  districts, 
and  the  revenues  yielded  by  manufactiure  and  indus- 
try were  decidedly  increased.  The  great  estates  were 
aided  to  pay  off  their  debts  by  encouraging  union 
credit  associations,  and  Frederick  sought  to  regulate 
and  give  independence  to  the  circulation  of  money  by 
founding  the  Prussian  Bank.  In  harmony  with  the 
spirit  of  the  times  he  also  undertook  a  comprehensive 
(XKiification  and  revision  of  the  laws  of  the  state,  which 
was  completed  after  his  death  and  culminated  in  the 
publication  of  the  general  "Prussian  Statute  Book" 
of  1794;  Suarez  was  the  chief  compiler. 

Towards  the  end  of  his  reign  he  encouraged  the 
efforts  made  on  behalf  of  the  CathoUc  public  schools 
by  the  provost  Felbiger,  and  those  for  the  Protestants 
by  Freiherr  von  Z^litz  and  the  cathedral  canon 
Kochow,  but  he  never  at  any  time  gave  the  schools 
sufficient  money.  The  new  (>ode  laid  down  the  prin- 
ciple that  the  public  schools  were  a  state  organization. 
Frederick's  government,  internal  and  foreign,  was 
marked  by  a  mixture  of^  strong  and  weak  character- 
istics. It  was  the  policy  of  a  man  of  genius  who  was 
entirely  devoted  to  his  task;  too  inteUectual  and  en- 
lightened to  be  a  reactionary,  but  one  who  showed 
himself  greater  in  carrying  out  and  in  utilizing  the 
policies  of  his  predecessors,  than  in  establishing  what 
was  necessary  to  ensure  the  future  development  of  the 
state.  Great  as  were  his  achievements,  ne  ended  by 
paralyzing  Prussia's  vital  powers  and  engaged  the 
resources  of  the  country  in  a  direction  opposed  to  its 
development.  fVederick  gave  Prussia  the  position 
of  a  Great  Power.  But,  outside  of  his  personal  im- 
portance, this  position  of  the  state  rested  exclusively 


^ 


PRUSSIA 


525 


PRUSSIA 


on  its  military  power,  not  yet,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
other  Great  Powers,  upon  the  area  of  the  countnr  and 
the  economic  efficiency  of  the  population.  Conse- 
quentlv,  the  position  of  Prussia  as  a  Great  Power 
needed  to  be  placed  on  a  stronger  basis.  Its  people 
had  to  tnake  marked  advances  culturallv,  and  develop 
a  real  national  spirit.  Furthermore,  the  effort  must 
be  made  to  bring  the  future  development  of  Prussia 
into  close  connexion  with  the  leading  movements  of 
the  coming  generation,  so  that  the  roots  of  its  life 
should  receive  fresh  nourishment.  Both  problems 
could  best  be  solved  by  furtherin((  the  transfer  to- 
wards the  west  of  the  centre  of  gravitv  of  the  Prussian 
states  already  begun  under  Frederick's  predecessors. 
This  western  development  of  his  territory  was  also  a 
poUcy  furthered  *bv  Frederick,  but  he  pursued  it  un- 
willingly and  cared  little  for  it.  By  this  one-eidedness 
he  leasiMied  his  services  to  Prussia  when  he  enlarged 
his  territories  in  the  district  of  the  Oder  and  Vistula, 
where  the  foundations  of  the  state  had  been  laid  during 
the  Middle  Ages. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  in  1757-58  the  coalition 
formed  against  him  would  have  crushed  him  had  not 
Hanover  f ou^t  on  his  side  and  given  him  the  strate- 
gic control  of  north-western  Germanv.  As  even  after 
1763  he  rei^uxled  Austria  as  the  deadly  enemy  of 
Prussia,  he  could  not  fail  to  see  that  for  strategic 
reasons  it  was  absolutely  necessuy  for  Prussia  to  have 
the  whole  of  north-western  Germany  within  its 
sphere  of  influence;  but  he  did  nothing  jto  attain  this 
end.  Moreover,  he  could  not  abstain  from  interfering 
in  imperial  politics  in  order  to  keep  Austria  from  mak- 
ing southern  Germany  dependent  on  itself.  He,  there- 
fore, urged  on  the  War  of  the  Bavarian  Succession 
HOBiiDSt  Austria  in  1778-79,  and  in  1783  was  for  a  time 
the  leader  of  the  ''League  of  Princes''  formed  among 
the  German  princes  of  the  empire  against  Joseph  II. 
However,  all  imperial,  that  is  to  say,  German  politics 
were  distasteful  to  him.  By  his  example  he,  more  than 
any  one  else,  contributed  to  smother  all  interest  in  the 
empire  on  the  part  of  the  German  statesmen.  He  pre- 
ferred rather  to  rest  Prussian  policy  on  that  of  Russia, 
and  to  lay  his  political  schemes  in  the  east  of  Europe. 
In  like  manner  in  his  internal  administration  he  delib- 
erately neglected  his  western  provinces,  although  it 
was  just  this  part  of  his  kingdom  that  lay  in  the 
centre  of  the  ri^ng  economic  me  of  Europe,  and  con- 
tained, along  with  Silesia,  the  mineral  treasures  that 
in  the  future  were  to  make  the  country  and  its  popula- 
tion rich.  It  was  also  the  population  of  this  section 
that  was  to  prove  itself  unusually  energetic  and  ca- 
pable in  economic  Ufe.  Fortunately  for  the  realm 
Frederick's  excellent  minister  of  conmierce,  Heynitz, 
did  not  neglect  the  western  provinces.  In  these 
provinces  the  young  Freiherr  von  Stein  passed  t^ie 
first  years  of  his  career  in  the  service  of  the  Govern- 
ment. During  Frederick's  reign  the  eastern  provinces 
of  Prussia  were  also  brought  into  connexion  with  the 
cultural  development  of  the  civilization  of  Western 
Europe.  In  onler  to  meet  the  growing  demand  of 
England  for  grain,  their  great  estates  were  worked  on 
a  capitalistic  basis.  The  younger  civil  officials  and 
nobiuty  admired  England  as  a  model  country  and 
were  full  of  interest  in  all  the  liberal  ideas  of  the  pe- 
riod. Prominent  among  these  was  Theodore  von 
Schdn.  But  a  number  of  other  young  jurists  called 
for  a  constitution.  The  University  of  Konigsberg  had 
a  large  share  in  producing  this  development.  One  of 
its  professors,  Kraus,  a  political  economist,  spread  the 
theories  of  Adam  Smith :  another  professor  was  Kant, 
who  also  started  with  tne  English  philosophy. 

During  Frederick's  reign  a  novel  element  found  its 
way  into  the  Prussian  State.  By  the  conquest  of 
Silesia,  Prussia  for  the  first  time  ac()uired  a  province 
that  was  predominantly  Catholic;  in  annexing  Polish 
Prussia  it  annexed  one  that  was  half  Cathohc.  Up 
to  then  the  only  Catholics  in  Prussia  were  a  few  in 


Cleve.  During  the  reign  of  the  Great  Elector,  Catholic 
Ermland  also  became  a  part  of  Prussia,  but  this 
province  never  was  considered  of  much  importance. 
The  church  privileges  of  the  CathoUcs  here  as  there 
rested  upon  national  treaties.  As  a  rule  they  were 
respected.  However,  a  strict  watch  was  kept  that 
the  position  of  the  Catholics  should  be  an  exertional 
one.  Attempts  to  introduce  Protestantism  among 
them  were  encouraged.  In  ecclesiasticid  matters 
Frederick  followed  in  the  path  of  his  predecessors. 
Being  a  free-thinker  the  tolerance  of  his  predecessors, 
based  on  treaty  obligations,  became  under  him  a  poUcy 
merely  of  religious  indifference.  ^'In  my  Idngdom, 
each  may  go  to  Heaven  after  his  own  fa^on'  .  He 
provided  for  the  religious  and  educational  needs  even 
of 'the  Catholics,  and  showed  favour  to  the  Jesuits. 
Still,  in  his  reign  Catholics  were  not  allowed  to  hold 
office  except  inferior  ones.  In  its  foreign  policy  the 
State  remained  the  chami)ion  of  Protestant  interests. 
This  policy  could  be  continued,  notwithstandkig  the 
great  increase  in  the  number  of  Catholics,  because  the 
population  of  Prussia  was  accustomed  to  obey  the 
Government  without  claiming  any  rights  for  itself. 
In  the  course  of  time  difficulties  would  naturally  arise 
from  this  policy. 

IV.  When  Frederick  II  died  the  area  of  Prussia 
was  about  78,100  square  miles  and  its  population 
5,500,000.  Since  1740  the  annual  revenues  of  tne  State 
had  risen  from  7,500,000  to  22,000,000  thalers;  the 
national  treasury  contained  54,000,000  thalers.  fVed-* 
crick's  successor,  his  nephew  Frederick  William  II 
(17^6-97),  was  a  man  of  some  ability,  but  was  soon 
led  astray  by  his  taste  for  loose  living,  and  fell  under 
the  influence  of  bad  counsellors,  such  as  the  theologian 
"and  Rosicrucian  von  Wdllner.  and  Colonel-  von 
Bischoffsweider.  Frederick  William  III  (1797-1840) 
was  a  man  without  much  ability,  somewhat  like  a 
subordinate  official  in  instinct,  of  good  intentions  but 
little  force.  In  consequence  of  the  Revolution  whose 
spirit  spread  throughout  Europe  the  demands  of  the 
new  era  made  themselves  heard  in  Prussia  also.  Both 
the  ministry  and  the  cabinet  were  constantly  occupied 
with  plans  for  reform,  but  there  was  a  lack  of  united 
and  hanponious  working;  and  of  ability  to  come  to  a 
decision.  Dangerous  agitations  arose  among  the  civil 
officials.  Government  by  the  cabinet  became  intoler- 
able to  the  ministers,  as  the  administration  was  no 
longer  exercised  by  the  kina  himself  but  by  the  secre- 
taries of  the  cabinet,  who  auring  this  reign  were  von 
Beyme,  Lombard,  and  Mencken.  Thus  the  zeal  for 
reform  only  increased  the  dissatisfaction,  and  very 
little  was  accomplished.  In  foredgn  politics  Frederick 
William  II  disavowed  the  opposition  to  Austria  when 
he  signed  the  Reichenbach  Convention  of  27  July, 
1790,  with  the  Emperor  Leopold  II.  In  1792  he  even 
became  an  ally  of  Leopold's  in  the  war  with  France, 
in  order  to  combat  the  ''principles"  of  the  Revolu-> 
tion.  His  army,  however,  accomplished  but  little  in 
this  war,  and  on  5  April,  1795,  he  signed  a  separate 
treaty  of  peace  with  France  at  Basle,  thus  deserting 
Austria.  For  a  number  of  years  following  this  treaty 
he  and  his  successor,  Frederick  William  in,  pursued  a 
policy  of  neutrality  in  the  great  events  of  Western 
Europe.  Still  they  sought  to  gain  advantaess  out  of 
them.  According  to  the  Treaty  of  Basle,  Frederick 
William  11  agreed  with  France  upon  a  line  of  demarca- 
tion by  which  nearly  all  of  northern  Germany  was 
declared  neutral  under  the  protection  of  Prussia. 
Prussia  worked  energetically  for  the  secularization  of 
the  Catholic  ecclesiastical  principalities,  and  by  agree- 
ment with  France  in  1802  obtained  the  Dioceses  of 
Paderbom,  Fulda,  a  part  of  MOnster,  Eichsfeld,  the 
domains  of  several  abbeys,  and  the  cities  of  Ejfurt 
aiid  Dortmund;  the  decision  of  the  imperial  delega* 
tion  of  1803  confirmed  it  in  the  possession  of  these 
territories. 

Prussia  kept  a  close  watch  upon  the  fate  of  Hanover 


PRUSSIA 


526 


PRUSSU 


in  the  wars  between  Napoleon  and  Etigland,  being 
desirous  to  annex  Hanover  if  possible.  For  a  consider- 
able length  of  time  Napoleon  tempted  Prussia  by 
holding  out  the  hope  of  this  acquisition,  and  in  1806 
by  the  plan  of  a  North  German  Confederation  of 
which  Prussia  was  to  be  the  leader,  Frederick  William 

11  even  sou^t  to  gain  territory  in  southern  Germany. 
By  an  agreement  made  with  the  Hohenzollem  Line 
of  southern  Germany  he  obtained  in  1791  the  Prin- 
cipalities of  Ansbach  and  Bayreuth;  in  1796  he  made 
an  unexpected  attack  upon  Nuremberg  but  soon 
vacated  it.  None  of  these  undertakings  were  con- 
ducted with  much  energy  or  with  any  clearly-defined 
end  in  view,  for  at  the  same  time  the  political  plans 
of  Prussia  in  Eastern  Europe  exceeded  her  strength. 
Not  only  did  Prussia  obtain  Danzig  and  Thorn  in  the 
Second  Partition  of  Poland  (1792),  but  in  the  Third 
Partition  (1795)  she  acquired  the  central  basin  of  the 
Vistula,  with  Warsaw  as  its  capital.  Prussia  now  in- 
cluded the  entire  basins  of  the  Oder  and  Vistula.  But 
it  was  no  longer  possible  to  make  the  eastern  terri- 
tories the  preponderating  part  of  the  State.  Besides 
the  countrv  was  now  half  Slavonic,  and  the  majority 
of  its  inhabitants  were  henceforward  to  be  Catholic. 
The  old  Prussian  territories  had  by  this  time  been 
brought  to  a  higher  state  of  culture  and  had  become 
in  some  measure  capable  of  meetins  the  demands 
made  upon  them.  The  State  now  undertook  another 
task:  tnis  was  to  bring  the  demoralized  Polish  prov- 
inces into  order,  to  organize  them,  bring  them  to 
economic  prosperity,  ana  give  them  civil  officials  and 
teachers.  In  1806  Prussia  became  involved  in  a  war 
with  Napoleon,  which  made  evident  the  confusion  of 
its  internal  affairs,  and  its  lack  of  strength.  Its  army, 
led  by  the  grey-haired  Ferdinand  of  Brunswick,  was 
cut  to  pieces  in  the  battles  of  Jena  and  Auerst&dt, 
fouffht  on  the  same  day  (14  Oct.),  after  a  skirmish  at 
Sasdfeld;  Prince  Louis  Ferdinand  died  18  October. 
Most  of  the  fortresses  capitulated  without  any  real 
resistance.  The  bureaucracy  of  government  officials 
lost  its  head  and  acted  in  a  cowardly  manner.  The 
people  were  apathetic.  The  king^  however,  made  some 
resistance,  with  the  aid  of  Russia.  Napoleon  wished 
to  make  an  end  of  Prussia  as  a  State,  and  only  the 
intercession  of  Russia  preserved  for  the  Hohenzollem 
dynasty  a  part  at  least  of  its  territories.  By  the  Peace 
of  Tilsit,  9  July,  1807,  Prussia  lost  the  Franconian 
provinces  and  all  those  west  of  the  Elbe,  as  well  as 
the  Polish  acquisitions  outside  of  Polish  Prussia. 
Moreover,  PYench  troops  were  garrisoned  in  the  dm- 
tricts  still  remaining  to  it,  and  an  enormous  war  in- 
demnity was  demanded  (Convention  of  Kdnigsberg, 

12  July,  1807). 

However,  Prussia's  terrible  humiliation,  notwith- 
standing all  its  mournful  results,  first  opened  the  way 
for  the  exercise  of  those  energies  of  the  countrv  thati 
had  been  until  now  suppressed.  The  king  showed 
great  endurance  in  his  misfortunes.  His  wife  Louise 
made  herself  the  intermediary  between  him  and  the 
men  from  whom  the  restoration  of  the  country  was  to 
come.  During  the  war  Schamhorst  the  future  re- 
organizer  of  the  Prussian  army  had  had  his  first 
opportunity  to  distinguish  himself  at  the  battle  of 
Eylau,  7-8  February,  1807.  In  the  winter  of  1806-07 
the  philosopher  Fichte  delivered  his  celebrated  "ad- 
dresses to  the  German  nation"  at  Berlin.  In  the 
spring  of  1807  the  king  appointed  Count  Hardenburg, 
a  native  of  Hanover,  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  but 
was  obliged  to  dismiss  him  in  July  at  Napoleon's 
bidding;  the  count,  however,  still  continued  to  advise 
the  king.  Shortly  after  the  Peace  of  Tilsit  Scham- 
horst was  given  charge  of  military  affairs.  From  this 
time  the  army  consisted  only  of  natives  of  the  king- 
dom, the  soldiers  were  better  treated,  a  thorough  edu- 
cation was  required  from  those  desiring  to  become 
officers,  and  the  people  were  gradually  accustomed  to 
the  idea  of  universal  military  service,  until  it  was  in-* 


troduced  by  the  law  of  3  Sept.,  1814.  On  5  October, 
1807,  fYeiherr  von  Stein,  a  native  of  Nassau,  wai 
placed  at  the  head  of  all  the  internal  affairs  of  Prussia. 
With  his  appointment  the  real  reform  minister  came 
into  power.  He  was  able  to  retain  his  position  only  a 
year,  but  this  sufficed  to  impress  on  the  legislation  of 
the  time  a  character  of  grandeur,  althou^  he  could 
not  control  its  details.  Stein  found  the  kingdom  re- 
duced in  reality  to  the  present  province  of  East 
Prussia,  and  there  the  liberal  officials  were  sJready 
preparing  radical  changes.  The  law  of  9  Oct.,  1807, 
was  alreadv  enacted,  according  to  which  the  peasant 
serfs  were  declared  free;  every  Prussian  was  authorized 
to  hold  landed  property  and  to  follow  any  occupation 
he  diose.  Stem  only  signed  the  decree.  The  law 
made  it  necessary  to  readjust  all  peasant  holdings  and 
the  taxes  upon  them.  This  readjustment  dragged 
on  during  a  number  of  years,  and  was  not  finally  com- 
pleted until  the  middle  of  tne  century. 

After  Stein's  retirement  this  measure  frequently 
proved  the  economic  ruin  of  the  peasants.  Another 
consequence  of  this  law,  as  completed  b^  the  law  on 
trade  taxation,  Oct.,  1810,  and  by  the  Edict  of  7  Sept., 
1811,  was  the  adoption  by  Prussia  of  liberty  of  occu- 

Sation.  Prussia  led  the  way  in  this  reform  in  Germany, 
tein's  chief  personal  interest  was  in  the  reform  of  the 
constitution  and  of  the  administration.  His  desire 
was  to  create  a  union  between  the  Government  and  the 
people  that  was  then  lakcking,  to  awidcen  in  the  Gov- 
ernment officiids  a  spirit  of  initiative  and  responsibil- 
ity, to  enkindle  in  Prussia  popular  sentiment  for 
Germany.  The  lesser  offices  in  Prussia  were  to  b« 
divided  into  two  classes;  the  former  following  the 
historical  and  geographical  divisions  of  the  country 
(provinces,  circles,  communes);  the  second  deter- 
mined wholly  by  the  needs  of  the  Government  (Regie- 
nmg^)ezirke).  The  duties  of  the  former  were  to  be 
performed  by  adnunistrative  bodies,  who  were  to  act 
as  the  representatives  or  as  the  deputies  of  the  people; 
the  latter  by  government  officials.  With  the  admin- 
istrative body,  in  some  cases,  a  government  official 
was  associated  (provincial  president);  in  other  cases 
certain  government  duties  were  confided  to  their  heads 
(Landrciif  BUrgermeister),  On  the  other  hand  repre- 
sentatives of  the  people  were  to  have  a  share  in  the 
Government,  and  in  tne  course  of  time,  as  a  counter- 
poise to  the  ministerial  bureaucracy,  the  members  of 
the  national  diet  were  to  be  elected  from  the  pro- 
vincial diets.  Stein  substantially  gave  the  franchise 
only  to  land  owners.  He  desired  that  the  people  in 
eeneral  should  be  prepared  for  taking  part  in  the 
Government  by  the  schools  and  universities.  Freedom 
of  action  was  to  be  restored  to  the  state  officiids  by 
putting  an  end  to  cabinet  government,  and  giving 
each  minister  the  independent  administration  of  his 
own  department.  Personally,  Stein  was  only  able  to 
initiate  these  reforms  by  the  municipal  legislation  of 
19  Nov.,  1808;  and  the  'laws  on  the  changed  constitu- 
tion of  the  highest  administration  of  the  reahn"  of 
24  Nov.,  1808.  His  fiery  temperament  and  his  strong 
German  svmpathies  made  him  too  impatient.  To- 
gether with  Schamhorst  he  planned  measures  to  rouse 
the  German  people  for  a  war  against  Napoleon.  Con- 
sequently he  was  obliged  to  resign.  Moreover,  he  did 
not  sufficiently  gaupe  the  peculiarities  of  Prussia,  par- 
ticularistic, d3ma8tic,^  ana  bureaucratic.  His  work, 
however,  did  not  perish. 

In  1810  the  University  of  Berlin  was  founded  as  the 
great  national  centre  of  education:  in  1811  the  Uni- 
versity of  Breslau.  In  1810  Hardenberg  re-entered  the 
Government  and  a  chancellor  carried  on  the  work  of 
reform  systematically  until  his  death  in  1822.  He 
skilfully  managed  the  king  and  accommodated  him- 
self to  the  peculiarities  of  the  Prussian  character:  like 
Stein  he  thoroughly  believed  in  the  necessity  of  a  com- 
plete reconstruction  of  the  State.  He  made  special 
efforts  to  reform  the  system  of  taxation,  but  he  was 


PRUSSU 


527 


PRUSSIA 


not  able  to  do  this  at  once.  In  1810  and  1815  he  even 
promised  to  call  a  natiokial  parliament.  After  his  own 
fashion  he  liberalized  or  bureaucratized  Stein's  plans, 
often  taking  the  Napoleonic  l^dslation  for  his  model. 
Only  the  opposition  of  the  Prussian  nobility  pre- 
vented him  from  sacrificing  the  very  cornerstone  of 
Stein's  reform  of  the  administration  (1812)  by  sub- 
stituting the  French  system  of  prefecture  and  munici- 
patity  for  the  self-govemins  mstitutions  of  district 
and  city,  lliese  reforms  led  to  the  awakening  of  a 
sense  of  nationality  both  in  the  educated  classes  and 
the  common  people;  and  when  in  1813  Napoleon  re- 
turned d^eated  from  Russia  the  whole  population  of 
Prussia  rose  of  their  own  accord  for  king  and  country, 
and  also  for  the  liberation  of  Germany  about  which  the 
Idngs  had  not  concerned  themselves. 

During  the  War  of  Liberation  of  1813-14  and  1815 
the  Prusman  army  had  a  large  share  in  the  overthrow 
of  Napoleon.  At  the  Peace  of  Paris  (20  May,  1814) 
and  the  Congress  of  Vienna,  which  rearranged  the 
map  of  Europe,  Hardenberg  represented  Prussia.  He 
desued  to  form  a  permanent  agreement  in  policy 
between  Prussia  and  Austria,  while  the  king  preferred 
to  join  his  interests  with  tnose  of  Russia.  At  the 
imp|ortant  moment  (Nov.,  1814)  the  king  decided 
against  his  minister,  whereby  a  fresh  European  war 
was  nearly  kindled.  The  question  was  whether  the 
greater  part  of  western  Poland  should  henceforth  be- 
.long  to  Russia,  and  what  compensation  Prussia  should 
receive  for  its  share  of  Poland.  Russia  was  successful, 
and  only  Polish  Prussia  and  the  Grand  Duchy  of 
Posen  were  given  to  Prussia.  As  a  compensation  for 
the  loss  of  mtrsaw,  Prussia  demanded  Saxony.  Owing 
to  Austria's  opposition  it  received  only  the  present 
Prussian  province  of  Saxony  and,  instead  of  the  re- 
mainder of  Saxony,  the  Westphalian  and  Rhenish 
provinces,  where  before  1802  it  had  possessed  only 
small  districts.  Austria  hoped  that  in  this  way 
Prussia  would  be  so  entangled  in  Western  Europe  that 
it  could  no  longer  pursue  a  policy  of  neutrality,  such 
as  it  had  adopted  after  the  Treaty  of  Basle.  By  this 
means,  however,  the  centre  of  gravity  of  Prussia  was 
completely  shifted  towards  Western  Europ>e.  Hence- 
forfJi  Prussia  could  scarcely  give  up  the  military  con- 
trol of  northern  Germany;  should  opposition  arise,  it 
must  endeavour  to  incorporate  into  its  own  territories 
the  districts  between  its  eastern  and  western  provinces. 
It  soon  felt  the  temptation  to  become  the  leader  of 
Germany,  especially  as  Austria  at  the  same  time  gave 
up  its  old  possessions  in  Swabia  and  on  the  Rhine,  and 
had  no  longer  any  territories  in  Germany.  In  1814-15 
the  area  of  Prussia  was  increased  to  108,000  square 
miles,  and  its  population  reached  10,500,000.  The 
geographical  and  political  changes  which  took  place 
m  1807-15,  years  of  suffering  and  war,  had  been 
too  rapid.  Much  remained  to  be  done.  Reactionary 
forces  asserted  themselves  once  more.  Until  1840 
old  and  new  ideas  struggled  against  each  other,  even 
among  the  ruling  statesmen.  The  reactionary  ten- 
dencies, especially  of  the  era  of  Frederick  the  Great, 
reappearea  with  the  king's  approval. 

However,  sovemment  by  cabinet  order  was  not 
re-establisheof.  The  higher  officials,  who  under 
Frederick  the  Great  had  been  the  king's  executive 
t<x)ls,  now  practically  carried  on  the  Government  in 
the  name  of  the  king.  The  minister  Nagler  spoke 
of  "the  limited  intelligence  of  the  subject''.  The 
promise  to  call  «  national  representative  assembly 
was  limited  to  the  case  of  the  State  needing  a  national 
loan;  but  care  was  taken  that  no  such  necessity  oc- 
curred. The  Prussian  Government  not  only  took 
part  in  all  the  attempts  of  Austria  and  Russia  since 
1818  to  suppress  all  revolutionary  and  politically 
liberal  movements  among  the  people,  but  even  showed 
the  greatest  zeal  and  severity  in  doing  so;  e.  g.  the 
persecution  of  student  societies,  the  imprisonment  of 
Jahn,  the  order  forbidding  Amdt  to  lecture,  and  the 


expulsion  of  Gdrfts  from  Germany.  Partly  through 
attachment  to  the  king^  witii  whom  they  had  been 
united  in  common  sufifenngs  and  partly  because  of  the 
generally  excellent  behaviour  c^  the  officials,  the 
people  of  the  old  Prussian  provinces  maintained  an 
attitude  of  expectancy.  With  the  new  provinces, 
however,  serious  friction  arose.  Having  belonged  to 
France  during  the  years  1795-1814,  these  provinces 
had  grown  accustomed  to  democratic  forms  and  fre- 
quently had  a  racial  dislike  to  Prussians.  The  strug- 
^e  began  with  the  question  whether  the  Prussian 
statute-book  should  replace  the  French  "Code 
civile"  in  the  province  of  the  Rhine.  The  conffict 
was  intensified  by  the  appointment  of  many  old 
Prussian  officials  to  positions  in  the  Rhdneland  and 
was  greatly  augmented  bv  quarrels  about  methods 
of  Church  government  and  the  claims  of  the  State  in 
matters  of  religion.  The  territories  annexed  in  1814- 
15  were  mostly  peopled  by  Catholics.  Hitherto  the 
State  had  controUea  the  Catholic  Church  authorities 
of  the  kingdom  in  the  same  way  as  the  Protestants. 
This  not  only  aroused  the  opposition  of  the  demo- 
cratically-inclined Rhenish  provinces,  but  also  excited 
the  resistance  of  the  new  western  Catholic  move- 
ment, which,  without  much  regard  to  diplomacy, 
strove  to  secure  complete  liberty  for  the  Church 
by  vigorous  defence  of  her  ri^ts. 

The  question  in  what  cases  it  was  the  duty  of  the 
Catholic  priest  to  bless  mixed  marriages  was  the 
accidental  but  highly  opportune  occasion,  of  bringing 
the  matter  to  an  issue.  The  Archbishop  of  Colome, 
von  Droste  zu  Vischering,  led  the  opposition.  Tlie 
Prussian  Government  imprisoned  him  in  a  fortress 
as  a  "disobedient  servant  of  the  state".  A  powerful 
popular  commotion  throughout  the  Rhine  country 
was  the  result;  this  gained  its  echo  in  a  Polish  na- 
tional movement  in  Posen,  where  Archbishop  Dunin 
resisted  the  marriage  laws  and  was  arrested.  Suc- 
cess was  on  the  side  of  the  Catholics  and  the  new 
provinces.  But  alonrade  of  these  after  effects  of  the 
spirit  of  Frederick  II  the  Stein-Hardenberg  policy 
continued  to  gain  ground,  especially  after  1315.  The 
reform  of  taxation  was  now  carried  through  under 
the  direction  of  the  statistician  J.  G.  i^ffmann. 
Organization  of  the  provinces  was  completed,  and  an 
edict  granting  provmcial  diets  was  issued  in  1823. 
General  communal  legislation  was  postponed  because 
the  economic  and  social  conditions  of  the  eastern 
and  western  provinces  still  differed  widely.  Allen- 
stein  and  Johannes  Schulze  did  much  for  education. 
Under  the  lead  of  the  king,  the  Government  compelled 
the  union  of  the  Lutheran  and  the  Reformed  churches; 
in  order  to  give  the  union  a  firm  basis,  a  new  liturgy 
was  issued  in  1821.  The  old  Lutherans  who  opposed 
the  union  of  the  two  denominations  were  subjected  to 
severe  police  restraint.  By  the  Papal  Bull "  De  salute 
animarum'',  and  the  Brief  ''Quod  de  fidelium", 
two  Catholic  church  provinces  were  erected  16  July, 
1821:  the  Archidocese  of  Gnesen-Poeen,  with  the 
suffragan  Diocese  of  Culm;  and  the  Archdiocese  of 
Cologne,  with  Trier,  Munster,  and  Paderbom  as 
suffragans.  In  addition  the  exempt  Bishoprics  of 
Breslau  and  Ermland  were  established.-  The  bish- 
ops were  to  be  elected  by  the  cathedral  chapters, 
but  were  to  be  directed  by  the  pope  not  to  choose  any 
person  not  acceptable  to  the  king.  The  endowment 
of  the  bishoprics  with  landed  estates  proposed  in 
1803  was  not  carried  out;  hitherto  the  State  has  pro- 
vided yearly  subventions  in  accordance  with  the 
budget  of  the  ministry  of  worship.  Prussia's  great- 
est progress  at  this  time  was  in  {he  field  of  political 
economy.  The  post  office  was  well  orgamzed  by 
Postmaster-General  Nagler. 

By  the  law  of  26  May,  1818,  Prussia  changed  from 
a  prohibitive  high  tariff  to  a  low  tariff  system,  almost 
completely  suppressed  the  taxes  on  exports,  and 
maintained  a  high  duty  only  on  goods  in  transit. 


PBUSSIA 


528 


PRUSSIA 


It  thereby  simplified  its  administration  of  the  cus- 
toms, and  made  business  easier  for  its  subjects,  but 
the  law  fell  heavily  on  the  provinces  belonging  to 
other  German  states  that  were  surrounded  by  Prus- 
sian territory,  and  gradually  effected  the  states  of 
middle  and  southern  Germanv,  whose  traffic  with  the 
North  Sea  and  the  Baltic  had  to  be  carried  on  across 
Prussian  territory.  After  violent  disputes  a  ZoU" 
verein  (customs  union)  was  gradually  formed;  the 
first  to  join  with  Prussia  in  such  a  union  were  the 
smaller  states  of  Northern  Germany,  beginning  with 
Sondershausen  in  1819;  in  1828  Hesse-Darmstadt; 
in  1831  Electoral  Hesse;  from  1  Jan.,  1834.  the 
kingdoms  of  Southern  Germany,  Saxony,  ana  the 
customs  and  commercial  union  of  the  Thuringian 
States.  By  the  beginning  of  1836  Baden,  Nassau, 
and  Frankfort  had  also  jomed.  With  the  exception 
of  the  non-Prussian  noith-westem  districts,  besides 
Mecklenburg  and  the  Hanseatic  cities,  all  non-Aus- 
trian Germany  was  now  economically  under  Prussian 
hegemony.  The  different  states  joined  the  Zoll- 
verein  by  terminable  agreements.  Each  of  the 
larger  states  retained  its  own  customs  administra- 
tion; changes  in  the  ZoUverein  could  only  be  made  by 
a  unanimous  vote.  These  states  simply  agreed  in 
their  economic  policy  and  in  the  administration  of 
the  customs.  They  did  not  form  a  unified  Germany 
from  an  economic  point  of  view.  The  men  who 
deserve  the  chief  credit  for  the  establishment  of  the 
ZoUverein  are  Motz  (d.  1830)  and  his  successor 
Nassen.  From  the  first,  Prussia  was  determined  that 
Austria  should  not  be  admitted  as  a  member  of  the 
new  customs  union.  Politically  this  union  did  not 
bring  its  members  into  closer  alhance,  but  it  was  prob- 
ably the  cause  of  a  great  increase  of  their  economic 
prosperity.  The  g^atest  benefit  from  it  was  gained 
by  the  Prussian  Rhenish  provinces.  Consequently 
the  trading  element  of  the  Rhineland,  generally 
Liberal  in  politics,  gradually  srew  friendly  to  the 
Prussian  Govemipent;  it  hoped  to  be  able  to  dictate 
Prussia's  economic  policy  in  the  course  of  time.  The 
result  was  that  political  conditions  within  the  country 
improved.  In  all  its  other  relations  to  the  newly- 
acquired  provinces  the  State  had  been  forced  to  give 
way  (e.  g.  the  continued  existence  of  the  "(Sxie 
civile")  or  would  have  to  in  the  future  (e.  g.  in  its 
ecclesiastical  policy).  Now  the  Rhenish  provinces 
began  to  divide  politically.  The  State  was  further- 
more consolidated  by  gaining  the  S3rmpathetic  sup- 
port of  the  teachers  and  professors  as  an  after  effect 
of  the  patriotic  movement  in  the  War  of  Liberation 
and  partly  owing  to  its  energy  in  the  cause  of  educa- 
tion. The  Prussian  political  system,  of  meddliiig 
with  everything,  perhaps  iustified  by  necessity,  was 
at  this  time  philosophically  defended  and  glorified 
by  the  philosopher  Hegel. 

V.  Frederick  William  IV  (1840-61)  in  his  youth 
had  enthusiastically  taken  part  in  the  War  of  Libera- 
tion, and  afterwards  in  all  the  efforts  for  the  reor- 
ganization of  the  State.  His  character  was  inconsis- 
tent; while  a  man  of  ability,  he  was  subject  to  the 
influence  of  others.  Soon  after  his  accession  he 
conciliated  the  Catholics  (Johann  Geissel  as  coadjutor 
of  Cologne;  establishment  of  a  Catholic  department 
in  the  Ministry  of  Worship  and  Education).  Al- 
though personally  a  Conservative,  he  appointed  some 
moderate  Liberals  to  places  of  prominence.  He  first 
called  forth  opposition  among  the  doctrinaii^  and 
radical  elements  of  the  eastern  provinces  by  con- 
demning their  ideas  of  popular  sovereignty  and  popu- 
lar representation  on  the  occasion  of  his  coronation 
at  Kdnigsberg.    In  accordance  with  Stein's  original 

Elan  he  intended  to  give  to  Prussia  a  legislature  chosen 
y  the  several  provincial  diets.  Too  much  time  was 
spent  in  discussion  without  coming  to  any  decision. 
In  the  meantime  the  western  provinces  also  joined 
the  movement  for  more  liberal  institutions,  largely 


as  a  consequence  of  the  debates  in  the  provincial 
diet  of  th^  Rhine,  in  1845.  The  restlessness  was 
increased  by  economic  distress,  especially  among 
the  weavers  of  Silesia,  by  oontradictoiy  ordinances 
issued  by  the  Government,  and  by  the  discovery  of  a 
national  Polish  conspiracy  in  the  province  of  Poeen. 
Finally  in  Feb.,  1847,  the  king  sunmioned  to  Beriin 
a  ** first  united  diet",  composed  of  all  the  provincial 
diets.  The  authority  of  the  imited  diets  was  to  be 
small,  its  future  isittings  were  to  depend  on  the 
pleasure  of  the  king.  The  more  liberal  element  of  the 
eastern  provinces  wished  to  reject  this  diet  as  in- 
sufficient. The  more  politic  liberals  of  the  western 
provinces,  however,  gained  the  victory  for  the  new 
diet,  for  they  hoped  in  this  way  to  attain  to  power 
in  the  State.  The  united  diet  was  opened  11  April. 
1847.  Passionate  differences  of  opinion  showed 
themselves  in  the  debates  over  the  wording  of  an 
address  to  the  king,  in  which,  although  moderately 
expressed,,  the  demand  for  such  a  "national  pariia- 
ment"  as  had  been  promised  in  1815  was  put  forth. 
Motions  made  in  favour  of  the  granting  of  a  national 
parliament,  and  finally  the  refusal  of  the  diet  to  take 
decisive  action  on  a  proposed  railroad  loan,  so  an- 
gered the  king  that  he  closed  the  sessions  of  the  diet 
towards  the  end  of  June.  Throughout  the  country 
the  movement  to  obtain  a  parliamentary  chamber 
directly  elected  by  the  people  was  kept  up. 

When  in  March,  1848,  there  was  danger  that  the 
revolution  would  break  out  in  Prussia,  on  7  March 
the  kii^;  made  the  concession  that  the  united  diet 
should  meet  every  fourth  year.  On  14  March  he 
summoned  the  second  united  diet  to  meet  at  the  end 
of  April,  but  he  was  not  willing  to  concede  the  elec- 
tion by  the  people  and  a  written  constitution."  On 
15  Mareh  barricades  were  built  in  the  streets  of 
Berlin.  On  the  evening  of  17  Mareh  the  Idng  de- 
cided to  grant  a  constitution,  to  set  the  date  of  the 
assembling  of  the  second  united  diet  for  2  April, 
and  to  take  part  in  the  movement  for  forming  a 
German  national  state.  Notwithstanding  the  an- 
nouncement of  this  decision,  bloody  fighting  broke 
out  in  the  streets  of  Berlin  18  Mareh.  The  next 
day  the  king  withdrew  the  troops  who  were  con- 
fronting those  in  revolt.  In  Posen  the  Poles  gained 
control  of  the  Government,  while  the  Rhine  province 
threatened  to  separate  from  Prussia  and  to  become 
the  first  province  of  the  future  united  Germany. 
On  20  Mareh  Frederick  William  announced  that 
Prussia  would  devote  its  entire  strength  to  the  move- 
ment for  a  united  Germany,  and  to  maintaining  the 
rif^hts  of  Germany  in  Schleswig  and  Holstein  by  war 
with  Denmark.  At  the  end  of  the  month  the  king 
entrusted  the  Government  to  the  Rhenish  Liberals. 
The  brief  session  of  the  second  united  diet  had  for  a 
time  a  quieting  effect,  the  Radical  element  predom- 
inated in  the  Prussian  National  Assembly  which 
opened  22  May,  and  the  king's  ministere,  chosen 
from  the  Rhenii^  Liberals,  were  not  able  to  keep 
it  in  check.  During  the  sunmier  the  Conservatiye 
element,  especially  that  of  the  old  Prussian  provinces, 
bestirred  itself  and  held  the  '^ Junker  Parliament"; 
founded  the  "Kreusseitung'^  and  won  influence  over 
the  masses  by  appealing  to  the  sentiments  of  Prussian 
particularism  and  loy^ty  to  the  king.j  Wlien  the 
Radicals  favoured  street  riots,  sought  to  place  the 
army  under  the  control  of  parliament,  ana  resolved 
upon  the  abolition  of  the  nobility,  gf  kinfmhip  by  the 
grace  of  God,  and  demanded  that  the  Govenunent 
riiould  support  the  revolutionary  party  in  Vienna, 
the  king  dismissed  his  Rhenish  ministers.  In  the 
German  movement  also  they  had,  inhisopinion^ailed. 
The  war  in  Sdileswig-Holstein  had  brought  Pniasia 
into  a  dangerous  European  position  (Armistice  of 
Malmo,  26  Aug.,  1848). 

The  king  now  commissioned  Count  Brandenburg 
on  2  Nov.  to  form  a  Conservative  ministiy.   Tl^  most 


PRUSSIA 


529 


PRUSSIA 


im)K)rtant  places  in  it  were  given  to  men  from  the  old 
Prussian  provinces.  On  9  Nov.,  1848,  the  National 
Assembly  was  adjourned  and  removed  from  Berlin. 
Martial  law  was  proclaimed  in  the  city.  On  5  Dec. 
the  National  Assembly  was  dissolved,  and  a  constitu- 
tion was  published  on  the  king's  sole  authority. 
Nearly  all  the  liberal  demands  of  the  National  Assem- 
bly were  granted  in  it,  and  the  upper  and  lower  houses 
of  parliament  provided  for.  Much  was  done  to  meet 
the  demand  of  the  Catholics  for  the  complete  libertv 
of  the  Church.  After  the  failure  of  the  Rhenish 
liberal  Governhient,  the  king  hoped  for  support  from 
the  Catholics  of  the  western  provinces,  and  this  was 
at  first  given.  In  order  to  satisfy  public  opinion  a 
series  of  laws,  intended  to  meet  Liberal  wishes,  was 
promulgated  in  the  course  of  the  next  few  weeks.  In 
accordance  with  the  recently  imposed  constitution,  a 
new  chamber  of  deputies  was  immediately  elected  and 
opened  26  Feb.,  1849,  in  order  that  it  might  express 
its  opinion  on  the  Constitution.  However  it  came  to  no 
agreement  wit.li  the  Government.  The  three-class 
system  of  election,  which  is  still  in  force,  was  now 
introduced  for  elections  to  the  second  chamber.  In 
each  election  district  all  voters  who  pay  taxes  are 
divided  into  three  classes,  so  that  one-third  of  the 
taxes  is  paid  by  each  class;  each  class  elects  the  same 
number  of  (^lectors,  and  these  electors  elect  the  dep- 
uties. Upon  this  the  Radicals  abstained  from  voting. 
The  Conservatives  were  in  the  majority  in  the  new 
chamber.  The  revision  of  the  Constitution  could  now 
be  proceeded  with,  and  it  was  proclaimed  on  31  Jan., 
1850.  According  to  its  provisions  Prussia  was  to  be 
a  constitutional  kingdom  with  a  diet  of  two  chambers; 
ffreat  power  was  left  to  the  Crown^  which  was  moreover 
favoured  by  obscurities  and  omissions  in  the  docu- 
ment .  After  the  convulsions  of  1 848  Prussia  had  much 
need  of  rest.  During  this  year  the  course  of  the  Ger- 
man national  movement  had,  however,  excited  the 
hopes  of  the  king  that  Germany  would  acquire  the 
unity  which  even  he  desired  to  see,  and  that  Prussia 

.  would,  as  a  result  of  this  unity,  be  the  leader  of  the 
German  national  armies,  or  perhaps  control  the  new 
state. 

The  Liberals  were  estranged  from  the  king  in  the 
autumn  of  1848,  and  the  wish  was  frankly  expressed, 
if  not  fulfilled,  that  the  future  constitution  of  Germany 
should  be  decided  in  agreement  with  Austria,  and  if 
possible  in  agreement  with  all  other  German  princes. 
These  difficiuties  led  the  king  to  decline  the  German 
imperial  crown  when  it  was  offered  to  him  by  the 
Frankfort  assembly  in  April,  1848.*  He  would  not 
accept  it  from  a  parliament  claiming  its  power  from 
the  sovereignty  of  the  people.  Soon  after  this,  in- 
fluenced by  General  Raaowitz,  he  himself  decided  to 
open  new  negotiations  on  the  question  of  German 
unity.  The  intention  was  that  Prussia  should  unite 
with  other  German  states  that  were  ready  to  join  in  a 
confederation  called  the  "union'',  and  that  the  union 
should  adopt  a  constitution  and  have  a  diet.  This 
confederation  was  to  form  a  further  IndLssoluble  union 
with  Austria,  by  which  each  should  bind  itself  to 
assist  the  other  in  defending  its  territories.  As 
Prussia  had  aided  the  principalities  of  central  Germany 
to  suppress  internal  revolts  m  the  spring  of  1849,  these 
countries  did  not  at  first  venture  to  disagree  with 
Prussia,  as  appears  from  the  agreement  of  26  May 
with  Saxony  and  Hanover,  call^  the  "union  of  the 

,  three  kings''.  Nearly  all  the  smaller  principalities 
joined  also.  Bavaria,  however,  refused  to  enter  the 
union,  and  Austria  worked  against  this  plan.  In  the 
summer  of  1849  Austria  proposed  to  the  Prussian 
Government  that  the  two  powers  should  revive  the 
old  German  Confederation  which  had  been  cast  aside 
the  year  before,  and  should  henceforth  lead  it  in  com- 
mon ("Interim",  30  Sept.j  1849).  Russia,  which  had 
eenerally  supported  Prussia,  now  upheld  Austria. 
Nevertheless  the  king,  although  much  opposed  by 
XTT.— 34 


members  of  his  Government,  persisted  in  his  scheme 
of  a  union.  The  constitution  planned  for  the  union 
was  laid  before  a  diet  of  the  principalities  belonging 
to  the  union,  summoned  to  meet  at  Erfurt. 

The  Diet  in  session  from  20  March  to  29  April, 
1850,  accepted  the  Constitution.  Upon  this  Aus- 
tria encouraged  the  states  of  central  Germany  to 
form  a  confederation  among  themselves  to  which 
neither  Prussia  nor  Austria  should  belong.  This  con- 
federation was  to  act  as  a  counterbalance  to  Prussia, 
and  at  the  same  time  was  a  menace  to  the  Prussian 
supremacy  in  the  ZoUverein.  In  the  autumn  of  1850 
war  between  the  two  parties  seemed  unavoidable. 
Russia,  however,  not  wishing  an  open  rupture, 
urged  both  sides  to  mutual  concessions.  Prussia  now 
finally  gave  up  its  scheme  of  the  "union",  and  prom- ' 
ised  to  re-enter  the  federal  diet  (Agreement  of  Olmflts, 
29  Nov.,  1850;  further  conferences,  Jan.  to  April, 
1851).  The  dispute  between  the  two  powers  as  to 
which  should  control  the  Zollverein  continued  for  two 
yeara  longer.  The  ability  of  Prussia  to  accomplish  the 
difficult  task  of  defeating  the  attacks  of  Austria  was 
probably  due  to  the  expert  knowledge  and  clearness 
of  the  chief  representative  of  its  economic  policy, 
Rudolf  von  DelorOck,  and  to  the  fact  that  Hanover 
joined  the  ZoUverein  in  Sept.,  1851.  Still,  concessions 
^  had  to  be  made  to  Austria  in  the  Treaty  of  19  Feb.. 
1853,  which  crippled  the  ZoUverein  until  1865.  In  alt 
questions  of  foreign  politics  the  relations  between 
Prussia  and  Austria  remained  suspicious  and  cool. 
Prussia  felt  that  the  dispute  had  resulted  in  a  painful 
weakening  of  its  European  position.  The  damage  was 
further  increased  by  the  irresolute  policy  of  the  king 
during  the  Crimean  Wair,  which  caused  England  to 
try  to  exclude  Prussia  from  the  confess  at  Paris  in 
1856.  A  small  group  of  Prussian  politicians,  especially 
Bismarck,  began  to  urge  an  aggressive  policy  and  the 
seeking  of  support  from  Napoleon  III  for  such  a 

goficy,  but  neither  Frederick  William  IV.  nor  his 
rother  William  who  succeeded  him  would  listen  to 
the  suggestion. 

As  regards  the  internal  Condition  of  the  country, 
after  the  close  of  the  revolutionary  movements  the 
Conservatives  obtained  a  l&rge  majority  in  both 
houses  of  the  Prussian  Diet.  The  more  determined 
members  of  the  Conservative  party  in  the  diet  de- 
manded a  complete  restoration  of  conditions  existing 
before  the  revolution.  They  were  supported  in  these 
demands  by  the  camariUa  which  haa  oeen  active  at 
the  court  since  30  March,  1848,  and  among  the  mem- 
bers of  which  were  the  brothers  Leopold  and  Ludwig 
vonGerlach.  Among  the  measures  desired  by  the 
Conservatives  were:  abandonment  of  the  German 
national  policy;  limitations  of  Prussian  policy  to 
northern  Germany;  closer  connexion  with  England; 
the  adoption  of  free  trade  as  an  economic  policy; 
restoration  of  judicial  and  police  power  on  their 
estates  to  the  nobility;  alteration  of  the  Constitution 
of  1850;  and  restoration  of  the  Protestant  character 
of  the  country.  Otto  von  Manteuffel,  who  had  been 
minister-president  since  Nov.,  1850,  wa^  able  to  de- 
feat the  most  extreme  demands.  His  chief  effort  was 
to  suppress  all  parties  as  much  as  possible,  and  to 
make  the  Government  official  body  once  more  the 
great  power  in  the  State.  Up  to  1854  there  were  bitter 
disputes  as  to  the  constitution  of  the  upper  house  of 
the  diet.  At  last  it  was  agreed  that  it  should  be  com- 
posed partly  of  representatives  of  the  great  estates, 
partly  of  representatives  of  the  large  cities  and  univer- 
sities, and  partly  of  members  independently  appointed 
by  the  king.  The  bureaucratic  administration  estab- 
lished by  Manteuffel  led  to  many  arbitrary  acts  by  the 
police,  who  were  under  the  supervision  of  Minister  of 
the  Interior  von  Westphalen;  the  result  was  inuch 
bitterness  among  the  people.  Von  der  Heydt,  Minis- 
ter of  Commerce,  pursued  a  sensible  policy,  declining 
to  favour  concentration  of  capital,  and  protecting  tht 


PRUSSIA 


530 


PRUSSIA 


small  mechanical  industries  that  were  threatened  with 
a  crisis.  fYom  1854  the  influence  of  the  churches  over 
the  primary  schools  was  strengthened  by  the  regula- 
tions issued  by  Raumer,  Minister  of  Worship  and 
Education.  A  defection  from  the  Conservative  party, 
led  by  von  Bethmann-Hollweg  (grandfather  of  the 
present  Chancellor  of  Germany),  was  of  little  parlia- 
mentary importance,  but  apparently  influenced  the 
heir  to  the  throne.  In  the  same  way  the  ''Catholic 
Fraction"  (1852),  formed  to  oppose  the  re-establish- 
ment of  the  Protestant  character  of  the  State,  proved 
to  be  only  temporary. 

In  1857  the  king  fell  ill,  and  on  23  Oct.,  1857,  he 
appointed  his  brother  William  to  act  for  him;  on 
26  Oct.,  1858,  William  was  made  regent.  All  extremes 
of  policy  and  religion  were  distasteful  to  William,  and 
he  began  his  reign  with  many  misconceptions  of  the 
position  of  dom^ic  politics.  He  therefore  dismissed 
Manteuffel  and  formed  his  first  ministry,  the  ministry 
of  the  ''new  era",  of  men  of  the  Bethmann-Hollweg 
party  and  of  moderate  Liberals,  the  premier  being 
Prince  Karl  of  Hohenzollem.  He  desired  by  this  selec- 
tion to  assure  the  public  of  an  evenly  balanced  non- 
partizan  administration.  The  Liberals,  however,  re- 
garded it  as  a  si^  that  the  moment  had  come  to 
repair  the  failure  m  1848  to  obtain  a  parliament  and 
a  Liberal  form  of  government  for  Prussia.  The  war 
between  Austria  and  France  in  1859  obliged  William 
to  give  his  entire  attention  to  the  reorganization  of  the 
Prusdan  army,  which  was  still  dependent  on  the  law 
of  1814,  and  had  shown  many  deficiencies  when  mob- 
ilized on  account  of  the  war.  In  Dec.,  1859,  the  regent 
appointed  von  Roon  minister  of  war.  A  bill  laid 
before  the  Diet  in  1860  called  for  the  reconstruction 
of  the  military  forces,  which  since  the  War  of  Libera- 
tion had  been  disorganized;  the  army  was  once  more 
to  be  a  centralized  professional  force,  and  at  the  same 
time  be  enlarged  without  a  great  increase  of  expense. 
The  Diet  avoided  taking  any  positive  stand  on  the 
question.  Wifliam,  however,  went  on  with  the  reor- 
ganization. In  Jan.,  1861,  he  became  king  (1861-88). 
In  jMne,  1861,  most  of  the  Liberals  united  in  the  Rad- 
ical "German  party  of  progress".  The  elections  at 
the  end  of  the  year  placed  this  part^  in  the  majority. 
Bills  upon  questions  of  internal  pohtics  that  were  in- 
tended to  meet  Liberal  wishes  were  laid  before  the 
Diet  in  vain,  nor  did  the  resumption  of  the  policy  of 
the  "union"  by  Count  Bemstorff,  Minister  of  Foreign 
Affairs,  nor  the  commercial  treaty  with  France  in  1862 
pacify  the  Liberals.  A  conflict  between  the  Crown  and 
the  Diet  began.  The  money  demanded  for  the  army 
was  refused  in  1862. 

In  Sept.,  1862,  the  king  called  Bismarck  to  the  head 
of  affairs.  He  was  ready  to  carry  on  the  administra- 
tion without  the  approval  of  the  budget.  In  1863 
Bismarck  dissolved  tne  lower  house  of  the  Diet,  took 
arbitrary  measures  against  the  Press,  and  sought  to 
bring  the  Liberals  in  disfavour  with  the  people  by  a 
daring  and  successful  foreign  policy.  His  first  oppor- 
tunity for  this  came  when  stramed  relations  developed 
between  the  German  Confederation  and  Denmark  in 
regard  to  the  Duchies  of  Schleswig  and  Holstein.  The , 
upper  house  of  the  Diet  now  refused  to  inrant  the  money 
for  the  expenses  of  the  war  against  Denmark.  Bis- 
marck nevertheless  carried  on  the  war  jointly  with 
Austria;  among  it-s  events  were  the  succ^sful  storm- 
ing of  the  DUppeler  entrenchments  on  18  April,  and 
the  crossing  to  the  Island  of  Alsen  in  the  night  of 
2^29  June,  1864.  Even  these  events  caused  pubhc 
opinion  to  change.  At  the  next  election  the  Conserva- 
tives were  in  the  majority,  and  signs  of  disruption  in 
the  "German  party  of  progress"  were  evident.  The 
disputes  which  arose  between  Austria  and  Prussia  as 
a  result  of  the  war  with  Denmark  caused  Bismarck  to 
go  to  war  with  Austria  in  the  early  summer  of  1866. 
The  "party  of  progress"  was  now  completely  divided. 
At  a  fresh  election  for  the  House  of  Deputies  on  3  July, 


accidentally  the  day  of  the  victorv  of  Kdniggrati 
(Sadowa),  the  Conservatives  gained  on^haJf  of  the 
seats.  The  enthusiasm  over  the  defeat  of  Austria  and 
over  the  definite  settlement  thereby  of  Prussia's  lead- 
ing position  in  non-Austrian  Germany  was  so  great 
that  the  difficulties  besetting  the  internal  poucies 
could  be  regarded  as  removed.  Bismarck  made  re- 
treat easy  for  his  opponents  by  asking  indemnity  for 
the  p^od  in  which  he  had  carried  on  the  administnir 
tion  without  a  budget.  The  greater  part  of  the  "  party 
of  progress  "  now  became  supporters  of  Bismarck  under 
the  name  of  the  "National  Libeo^"  party;  the  lead- 
ers of  the  National  Liberals  were  Twesten,  Lasker, 
and  Forckenbeck.  Only  a  small  section  of  the  former 
"partv  of  process",  under  the  leadership  of  Waldeck, 
and  Schultz-DeUtzsch,  remained  in  the  opposition. 
As  time  went  on  Bismarck  found  it*  more  convenient 
to  manage  parliamentary  business  through  the  Na- 
tional Idberals,  and  consequently  made  more  con- 
cessions to  Liberalism  both  in  Prussia  proper  and 
throu^out  the  kingdom  than  were  in  harmony  with 
Prussian  Conservative  traditions. 

In  return  the  Liberals  gradually  abandoned  their 
opposition  to  the  military  form  of  government  in 
Prussia,  and  avoided  disputes  concerning  constitu- 
tional law.  Prussia  received  a  large  increase  of  terri- 
tory by  the  war  with  Austria.  Alter  it  had  gained 
in  1865  Lauenburg,  it  also  obtained  Schleswig  and 
Holstein,  and  wim  them  a  good  maritime  position, 
with  Kiel  as  a  naval  station  on  the  Baltic.  Before 
this,  early  in  1863,  it  had  obtained  Wilhelmshafen 
from  Oldenburg  as  a  naval  station  on  the  North  At- 
lantic. The  war  also  gave  to  Prussia  the  Kingdom 
of  Hanover,  Electoral  Hesse,  the  Duchy  of  Nassau, 
and  the  city  of  Frankfort-on-the-Main.  Its  area  was 
increased  to  132,000  souare  miles^  its  population  to 
20,000,000;  at  present  tne  population  numbers  about 
40,000,000.  A  still  more  important  gain  was  that  its 
western  and  eastern  provinces  were  now  united,  and 
that  it  had  complete  military  control  of  northern  Ger- 
many. The  additions  of  territory  gave  Protestantism 
once  more  the  preponderance,  as  the  Protestants  now 
numdbered  two-thirds  of  the  population.  The  Cath- 
olics of  the  new  districts  belonged  ecclesiastically 
partly  to  the  church  province  of  the  Upper  Rhine, 
partly  to  the  exempt  Bishoprics  of  OsnabrQck  ana 
Hildesheim;  no  change  was  made  in  these  relations. 
An  ApostoUc  prefecture  was  connected  with  Osna- 
brilck,  to  whicn  the  Catholics  of  Schleswig-Holstein 
belonged. 

VI.  Prussia  had  now  reached  the  goal  which  for 
three  hundred  years  it  had  steadily  sought  to  attidn. 
Ite  ambitions  were  now  satisfied,  it  ceased  to  pursue 
an  independent  foreign  policy  and  directed  that  of  the 
new  German  Confederation  that  was  established  un- 
der its  headship  in  1867-71.  At  first,  both  in 
southern  Germany  and  in  the  small  countries  adiacent 
to  Germany,  it  was  feared  that  Prussia  would  con- 
tinue its  policy  of  concjuest  in  order  to  create  a 
"Greater  Prussia".  This,  however,  was  a  mistaken 
opinion,  as  is  also  the  belief  that  the  German  Empire 
is  simply  the  heir  to  the  position  of  Prussia  as  a  great 
power.  It  is  true  that  Bismarck  after  1871  seems  to 
nave  held  this  view,  and  to  have  regarded  it  as  the  sole 
tadc  of  his  foreign  policy  to  secure  what  had  been  at- 
tained by  large  military  forces,  by  a  peaceful  policy 
of  treaties,  and  by  directing  the  attention  of  the  other 
great  powers  to  questions  outside  of  central  Europe. 
Soon,  nowever,  the  empire  was  confronted  b^r  new  and 
far-extending  problems  and  combinations  with  which 
Prussia  had  never  had  to  reckon.  So  after  1866  only 
the  domestic  policy  of  Prussia  comes  under  consider- 
ation. After  the  war  with  Austria  ite  first  task  was 
to  combine  th^  new  provinces  with  the  old  in  ite  state 
organization.  This  was  much  more  easily  accom- 
plished than  the  similar  task  in  1815,  both  because  the 
populations  were  more  easily  adapted  to  each  other, 


PRUSSIA                                 531  PRUSSIA 

and  because  the  Government  proceeded  more  cir-  lation.    The  Government  has  always  distrusted  the 

cumspcctly.    It  was  only  in  Hanover  that  a  strong  Poles.    This  distrust  has  been  increased  b^r  the  dem- 

party,  that  of  the  Guelphs,  maintained  a  persistent  ocratic  propaganda  among  the  Poles,  by  their  progress 

opposition.    The  war  had  also  made  it  possible  for  in  economic  organization,  and  their  rapid  social  de- 

Prusdia  to  restore  the  efficiency  of  the  ZoUverein,    The  velopment.    Moreover,   the  rapid  increase   of   the 

remltinggreateconomicdevelopmentof  Germany  was  Polish  population  and  its  ^wing  prosperitv  have 

of  much  benefit  to  Prussia's  western  provinces,  for  enabled  the  Poles  to  outstrip  the  German  element, 

the  commerce  of  the  Rhine  and  the  manufacturing  which  does  not  seem  capable  of  much  resistance,  in 

districts  of  the  lower  Rhine  and  Westphalia  rapidly  the  provinces  of  East  and  West  Prussia,  and  of  late 

grew  in  importance.    Berlin  also  shared  in  the  general  in  Silesia.    In  1885  the  Government  began  a  land 

increase  of  yrosperity,  it  became  a  citv  of  a  million  policy  on  a  large  scale.    The  scheme  was  to  purchase 

inhabitants,  a  centre  of  wealth,  was  almost  entirely  from  the  Poles  as  many  estates  as  possible  with  gov- 
rebuilt,  ana  covers  a  larger  area  each  vear.    In  its .  emment  funds,  to  form  from  these  farms  to  bQ  sold 

active  mercantile  life  it  is  a  symbol  of  the  present  b^  the  Government  on  easy  terms,  and  by  establishing 

character  of  Prussia  just  as  Potsdam,  near  by,  still  villages  to  settle  a  large  number  of  German  peasants 

preserves  the  character  of  the  Prussia  of  the  era  of  in  these  provinces,  which,  on  account  of  the  many 

Frederick  the  Great.  baronial  estates,  were  thinly  populated,  and  thus  to 

The  result  of  the  great  economic  development  was  a  strengthen  the  German  element  in  them  (1890,  law 

renewed  growth  in  influence  of  the  Liberal  party,  for  the  forming  of  these  government-leased,  or  sold, 

which,  however,  did  not  last  beyond  1877.   From  1870  farms;  1891,  law  for  a  bank  in  support  of  these  hold- 

the  liberals  were  opposed  by  the  new  and  strong  ihgs).    The  Government  began  oy  banishing  large 

Centre  party,  in  which  the  great  majority  of  the  non-  numbers  of  Poles,  then  set  systematically  to  work  to 

Liberal,  Catholic  population  of  the  western  provinces  eermanize  the  Poles  by  limiting  the  use  of  their 

were  combined.    The  opposition  between  the  Centre  language;  thus,  even  in  purely  Polish  districts,  Polish 

and  the  Liberals  made  it  possible  for  the  Conservatives  was  almost  entirel}^  excluded  from  the  public  schools 

to  gain  time  to  form  a  more  effective  political  organi-  as  the  language  of  instruction,  even  for  teaching  reli- 

zation  than  any  they  had  had  before,  and  to  regain  gion.    With  exception  of  a  break  in  the  early  part 

for  the  elements  holding  to  old  Prussian  traditions  a  (1890-94)  of  the  reign  of  William  II,  this  anti-Polish 

marked  influence  upon  Prussia's  domestic  policy,  not-  policy  has  been  carried  on  with  steadily  increasing 

withstanding  the  fact  that  since  1866  the  western  vigour.    At  last  in  1908  the  Government  by  law  ac- 

provinces  included  the  greater  part  of  the  territory  quired  the  right  to  expropriate  Polish  lands  for  its 

and  population  of  the  country.    From  1871  the  Gov-  colonizing  scheme,  as  voluntary  sale  of  such  lands  had 

ernment  took  part  in  the  struggle  in  which  Liberals  almost  entirely  ceased.    So  far  no  use  has  been  made 

and  Catholics  fought  out  their  opinions.    It  restricted  .of  this  authority.    The  harsh  policy  of  the  Govem- 

the  share  of  the  churches  in  the  direction  of  primar}'  ment  greatly  promoted  the  growth  of  Radicalism 

schools,  and  passed  laws  that  destroyed  the  ruling  among  the  Poles;  of  late,  however,  the  more  sober  ele- 

position  of  orthodoxy  in  the  Protestant  church  sys-  ments  seem  to  have  regained  influence  over  tliem. 

tem.    It  sought  to  bring  the  clergy  once  more  under  Besides  the  increase  of  the  Polish  population  in  the 

the  power  of  the  State.    During  the  eighties  Bismarck  eastern  provinces,  there  has  also  been  a  large  emigra- 

abandoned  the  Kulturkampfy  so  far  as  government  tion  of  Poles  into  the  western  provinces,  factory 

interference  in  Catholic  church  life  extended.     There  hands,  so  that  in  some  of  the  western  election  dis- 

was  no  essential  change  in  the  policy  affecting  the  tricts  the  Poles  hold  the  balance  of  power. 

Evangelical  Church.    The  Evangelical  Church  has  a  Outside  of  its  Polish  policy  Prussia  since  1870  has 

supreme  church  council,  and  by  the  law  of  1873  it  re-  done  much  for  agriculture.    Mention  should  be  made 

ceived  a  synodal  and  parish  organization;  in  1876  a  of  the  founding  of  the  central  credit  asQocation  fund, 

general  synod  was  established  by  law.    Few  changes  the  first  director  of  which  was  Freiherr  von  Huene,  a 

were  made  in  the  school  laws.     The  final  decision  con-  member  of  the  Centre  party,  of  the  Prussian  Diet, 

ceming  them  has  not  yet  been  reached,  as  in  the  Con-  The  reform  of  the  system  of  taxation,  however,  was 

stitution  of  1850  a  special  law  of  primary  schools  was  the  main  cause  of  the  improvement  and  reorganiza- 

E remised,  and  this  promise  must  now  be  fulfilled.  A  tion  of  the  entire  economic  life.  Indirect  taxes  were 
itter  struggle  arose  over  this  question.  The  bill  of  restored,  the  direct  taxes  of  the  country  were  based 
1891  was  dropped  sm  too  liberal ;  that  of  1892  was  with-  on  an  income-tax,  from  which  very  small  incomes  were 
drawn  on  account  of  the  opposition  of  the  Liberals,  exempted.  The  income-tax  was  supplanted  by  a 
After  this  the  matter  was  allowed  to  rest.  In  1906,  moderate  property  tax.  The  taxes  on  profits  were 
owing  to  the  necessities  of  the  situation,  a  law  was  left  to  the  communes  for  their  purposes.  I^para- 
passed  by  a  combination  of  the  Government  with  the  tions  for  the  tax-reform  were  maoe  ^rom  1881  by 
Conservatives  and  National  Liberals,  with  the  tacit  Bitter,  Minister  of  Finance,  and  the  reform  was  car- 
consent  of  the  Centre.  The  question  to  be  settled  ried  out  (1890-93)  by  Miquel,  Minister  of  Finance^  a 
was  who  should  bear  the  expense  of  the  public  schools?  former  leader  of  the  National  Liberal  party.  The  m- 
It  was  laid  down  that  the  public  schools  were  in  troduction  of  the  reform  was  simplined  by  the  fact 
general  to  be  denominational  in  character;  but  that  that^nly  one-eleventh  of  the  direct  taxes  were  needed 
everywhere,  as  exceptions,  imdenominational  pubUc  for  the  reouirements  of  the  Government,  and  of  this 
schools  were  permissiole,  and  in  two  provinces,  Nassau  eleventh  tne  income-tax  3delded  80  per  cent.  Five- 
and  Posen,  should  be  the  rule.  The  share  of  the  sixths  of  the  revenues  of  the  Government  come  from 
Church  in  them  was  not  defined,  and  the  struggle  as  the  surplus  earnings  of  the  railways,  as  since  1879 
to  its  rights  of  supervision  still  continues.  The  gen-  nearly  all  the  railways  within  its  territories  have  been 
eral  level  of  national  education  is  satisfactory.  Only  purchased  by  the  State.  As  these  surpluses  vary  they 
*04  per  cent  olthe  recruits  have  had  no  schooling,  effect  the  uniformity  of  the  budget,  espeeisuly  in 
In  1901  there  were  36,756  public  primary  schools,  of  periods  of  economic  depression.  Since  1909,  how- 
which  10,749  were  Catholic.  These  schools  had  al-  ever,  provision  has  been  made  for  this  in  the  budget, 
together  90,208  teachers,  and  6,670,870  pupils.  Only  The  purchase  of  the  railways  by  the  State  affected 
315  primary  schools  were  private  institutions.  For  for  some  time  the  improvement  of  the  waterways,  on 
higher  education  Prussia  has  10  universities,  1  Cath-  account  of  the  advantage  to  the  State  of  the  railway 
olic  lyceum,  5  polytechnic  institutions,  and  2  com-  revenues.  In  1886  the  improvement  of  water  com- 
mercial training  colleges.  Unfortunately  there  grew  munication,  which  is  still  urgent  in  the  eastern  prov- 
out  of  the  Kulturkampf  not  only  the  conflict  over  the  inces,  was  taken  up  both  in  the  form  of  a  regulation  ot 
schools,  but  also  the  conflict  against  the  Polish  popu-  the  rivers  and  in  the  form  of  a  canal  policy.    In  1897 


PRZEMTSL 


532 


PRZEMYSL 


a  bill  was  Ia:d  before  the  Diet,  which  sought  to  relieve 
the  railways  from  overtaxing  with  freight,  by  a  coin- 
prehensive  construction  of  canals  from  the  Rhine  to 
the  Oder.  The  bill  wiis  rejected.  It  was  once  more 
brought  up,  and  this  time  the  provision  was  included 
that  the  Government  should  have  a  monoi>oly  of  the 
towing  on  the  canals  to  be  built.  The  bill  Wos  ac- 
cepted in  this  shape  in  1905. 

One  result  of  the  Government  improvements  of  the 
waterways  is  its  endeavour  to  limit  the  entire  free- 
dom of  river  navigation  which  has  grown  up  in  Ger- 
many on  the  basis  of  the  acts  of  the  Congress  of 
Vienna.  So  far  the  Government  has  not  been  able  to 
overcome  the  opposition  to  this  plan  in  the  empire 
and  the  neighbouring  states;  a  bill  to  this  end  is  be- 
fore the  Diet.  Since  1870  Prussia  has  also  considered 
large  schemes  for  improving  the  organization  of  the 
administration.  The  organization  of  the  district  and 
country  communes  had  not  been  settled  in  the  earlier 

Ceriod;  the  organization  of  the  provinces  had  also  t^ 
e  perfecteil.  The  law  regulating  the  administration 
of  the  districts  was  passed  m  1872  under  the  influence 
of  the  National  Liberal  party;  the  law  affecting  the 
provinces  in  1875.  At  the  same  time  a  law,  which 
met  with  general  approval,  in  regard  to  the  entire 
administrative  jurisdiction  was  carried.  In  1897  the 
difficulties  were  finally  removed  which  up  to  then  had 
prevented  the  Government  from  obtaining  a  law  to 
regulate  the  country  communes.  This  was  effected 
by  abandoning  the  effort  to  have  one  law  for  the  entire 
country,  and  by  passing  one  simply  for  the  eastern 
provinces,  where  the  need  was  mo8t  pressing.  Since 
then  there  has  been  no  further  legislation  as  regards 
the  organization  of  the  administration.  In  the  future 
new  and  large  questions  as  to  administration  will  have 
to  be  settled,  which  in  the  meantime  are  being  dis- 
cussed by  a  commission  appointed  by  the  king  in  1908, 
who  are  to  report  directly  to  him.  Of  late,  public 
opinion  has  also  been  occupied  with  constitutional 
Questions,  especially  of  the  Centre  and  the  parties  of 
tne  Left  for  the  aaoption  of  the  iniperial  system  of 
electing  the  Reichstag  in  Prussia.  The  Government 
is  not  ready  for  this,  and  desires  only  to  modify  the 
three-class  system.  The  first  bill  for  this  did  not  naeet 
with  the  approval  of  the  Prussian  Diet,  and  was  with- 
drawn in  May,  1910. 

Prxtti,  PreustUehe  Geach.  (4  vols.,  1899-1902).  Among  earlier 
histories  should  be  meationetl:  Stenzkl,  Geach.  dea  Preuaaiachen 
Staata  (5  vpls.,  1830-54),  extends  to  1703;  Hanke.  ZioOlf  BUcher 
Preuaaiacher  Geach.  (5  vols.,  1874);  Droysen,  Geach.  der  nrexua. 
Politik  (14  vols.,  1855-80),  extends  to  1750.  Reviews  of  histor- 
ical works  on  Prussia  appear  regularly  in  the  semi-annual 
Forachungen  tur  Brandenburoischen  und  Preuaaiachen  Geach. 

Authorities:  Lehicann,  Prcuasen  und  die  kalholiache  Kircht 
aeit  1640  (1807),  up  to  now  9  vols.;  Urkunden  und  AktenatHeke 
zur  Geach.  dea  KurfQraten  Friedrich  Wilhelm  ton  Brandenburg 
(1864-),  up  to  now  about  20  vols.;  Protokolle  und  Relationen  dea 
Brandenburgiachen  Geheimen  Ratea  aiu  der  Zeit  dea  KurfQraten 
Friedrich  Wilhelm  (5  vols.,  1889-);  PolUiache  Korreapondens 
Fricdricha  dea  Groaaen  (32  vols.,  1879-);  Preuaaiache  und  dster^ 
reichiache  Akten  zur  Vorgeachichte  dea  7.  jdhrigen  Kriegea,  ed.  von 
VoLX  AND  KOntzel  (1899);  Acta  Boruaaica.  Denkmdler  der 
Preuaaiachen  Staataverufaltung  »m  18.  Jahrhunderl  (1892-),  in 
course  of  publication;  Briefwechad  Kdntg  Friedrich  Wilhelm  II T 
und  der  Kdnigin  Luiae  mit  Kaiaer  Alexander,  ed.  Bailleu  (19(X)); 
Preuaaen  und  Frankreich  von  1795-1 807 ^  ed.  Idem  (2  vols., 
1881-87);  DenhwHrdigkeiten  dea  Staatakamlera  Fiiraten  ron  Har- 
denberg,  ed.  Ranke  (5  vols.',  1877) ;  Aua  den  Papieren dea  Ministers 
Th.  von  Sch6n  (1877-83);  von  Humboldt,  Politische  Denk' 
achriften,  ed.  Gebbardt  (3  vols.,  1903-04);  Wilhelm  dea  Groaaen 
Brie/e,  Reden  und  Schriflen,  ed.  Bernrr  (2  vols.,  1906);  Pufkn- 
ooRr,  De  rebua  geatia  Friderici  Wilhelmi  Magni  electoria  Branden- 
burgici  commentariorum  libri  XIX  (Berlin,  1695);  Frederick 
THE  Great,  Worka;  Waddinoton,  Le  Grand  Hecteur  Fridhic 
Guillaumt  de  Brandebourg,  Sa  politique  eztirieure  (1905-); 
Pag*8,  Le  Grand  Electeur  H  Louia  XIV,  1660-68  (1905); 
ScHMOLLER,  Umriaae  und  Unterauchungen  zur  Ver/aaaunga-'Wtw, 
Geach.,  beacmdera  dea  Preuaaiachen  Staata  im  18.  und  19.  Jahrh, 
(1898);  KosER,  KOnigFrieilrich  der  Groaae  (2  vols.,  1893-1903); 
Carltle,  Hiatory  of  Frederick  II  of  Pruaaia  (6  vol*.,  lSr,8-66); 
Oie  Kriege  Friedricha  des  Groasen,  ed.  by  the  Gkobbkk  GkneraI/- 
■TAB  (1890-),  in  course  of  publication;  Brogue,  Frederic  II  et 
Marie-Thh^ae,  1740-42  (2  vols..  1883):  Idem,  FreUric  II  et 
Louia  XV,  1742-1744  (2  vols.,  1885);  HOfper.  Die  Kabineta- 
regierung  in  Preu.vten  und  Johann  Wilhelm  Lombard  (1891); 
Idem,  Amaataaiua  Luthtig  Mencken  (1891):  I'i.mann,  Ruaaiach' 
Preuaaiu^  Politik  unttr  Alexander  I  und  Friedrich  Wilhelm  III 


his  tSOG  (1899);  Lehmann,  Freiherr  von  Stein  (3  vols.,  1902-04); 
Cavaionat,  /xi  fttrmation  de  la  Pruane  conlemporaine,  1806-13 
(2  vols..  1891-98);  Treitschke,  Deutache  Geachichte  im  19.  Jakt- 
hundert  (5  vols..  1^8,  1879-94);  Knapp.  Die  Bauembe/reiung 
und  der  Uraprung  der  Landarbeiter  in  den  tUteren  Teilen  Preuteene 
(2  voLs.,  1887);  Ziuueru ash,  Geach.  der  Preuaeiaeh-DetUechen 
Handelapolilik  (1892) ;  Pariset,  VEtat  et  VEgliae  en  Ptuue  eoue 
Frideric  Guillaume  I  (1897). 

Mabtin  Spabn. 

PfzeEpysl,  Diocese  of  (Premisliensis),  Latin  see 
in  Galicia,  suffragan  of  Lemberg.  After  conquering 
Halicz  and  Wladimir,  Casimir  the  Great -euggested  to 
the  pope  the  creation  of  seven  Latin  sees  in  places 
where?,  from  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century, 
schismatics  had  at  least  nominal  sees:  HaUcz,  Pne- 
mysl,  Chelm,  Vladimir,  Lutzk,  KieflF^  and  Lembeig. 
Franciscans  and  Dominicans  immediately  began  to 
establish  missions.  Wlien  the  Bishop  of  Lebus  ap- 
pointed an  incumbent  for  Przemysl,  the  pope  refused 
to  recognize  his  jurisdiction  and  designated  (1353)  as 
successor  the  Domini(*an  prior  of  Sandomir,  Nicolaus 
Ruthenus.  The  latter  was  consecrated  at  the  papal 
Court  and  the  pope  declared  this  diocese  directly  sub- 
ject to  the  Holy  See.  As  the  see  was  insufficiently 
endowed,  the  bishop  did  not  reside  in  his  cathedral 
town.  After  the  death  of  Nicolaus  the  Bishop  of 
Ivcbus  again  endeavoured  to  assert  jurisdiction  over 
Przemysl,  but  Gregory  XI  appointed  Eric  de  Winsen 
Q377),  who  became  the  first  actual  bishop  of  PYzemysl. 
Blessed  Jacob  Strepa  rendered  important  services  to 
the  Diocese  of  Przemysl.  In  1237  Boleslas  the 
Chaste  had  introduced  the  Franciscans  to  Cracow; 
about  one  hundred  years  later  they  came  to  Lemberg, 
where,  for  three  years,  Strepa  was  protector  of  the 
order.  During  that  time,  Archbishop  Bernard  laid 
Lemberg  under  an  interdict  and  excommunicated  the 
town  councillors.  Strepa  took  up  the  cause  of  the  city 
to  protect  it  from  the  influence  of  the  neighbouring 
schismatics.  In  addition,  he  had  to  defend  the  Fran- 
ciscans and  Dominicans  against  the  accusation  of  the 
secular  clergy,  who  maintained  that  their  administra- 
tion of  the  sacraments  was  inv^id.  In  1391  Strepa 
became  Archbishop  of  Galicia.  In  that  capacity  ne 
adjusted  the  ancient  quarrel  between  the  Dioceses  of 
Halicz  and  Przemysl.  In  1844  Bishop  Franz  Zacha- 
riasiewicz  published  the  '^Lives''  (mentioned  below), 
which  mention  fifiy-seven  of  his  predecessors;  six 
bishops  have  succeeded  him  (1911).  To  the  "Lives" 
are  prefixed  important  data  concerning  the  early 
history  of  the  Latin  sees  in  Russia  (pp.  xxv-xxxix)  and 
concerning  the  Latin  dioceses  of  GaUcia  (pp.  xl- 
Ixxxviii).  At  present  the  Latin  Diocese  of  Przemysl 
numbers  1,152,000  Catholics;  547  Wular  priests;  369 
religious  men  in  27  convents,  and  698  religious  women 
in  97  (99)  convents. 

Monumenta  med.  aroi  hiat.  ree  geetaa  Polonim  iUuetrantia 
(Cracow.  1872-) ;  Tbeinkr,  Vet.  mnn.  Polonia  hiet.  iUuetrantia 
(3  vols.,  Rome,  18(}0-4);  Abraham,  Der  ael.  Jakob  tan  Strepa 
(Lemberg.  1908);  Pawlowskt,  Premialia  aacra,  eive  aeriea  et 
geata  epincoporum  r.  I.  Premislienaium  (Craoow,  1870) :  Rbifcn- 
KUOEL,  Die  Grundung  der  rdm.  kath.  BiatUmer  in  den  Territorien 
Halicz  u.  Wladimir  in  Arch.  fUr  Oat.  Geach.,  XLII  (Vienna,  1875); 
ScKOBissEvi,  Vitce  epp.  Halicieneium  et  Leopolineaium  (Lemberc, 
l(i2S);   Zachariasiewicz,  Vita  epp.  Premxalien  (Vienna.  1844)! 

C.    WOLFSGRUBER. 

Prsemysl,  Sambor,  and   Sanok,  Diocese  of 

(Premisliensis,  Samboriensis,  et  Sanochiensis).  a 
Graeco-Ruthenian  Uniat  diocese  of  Western  GaJicia, 
Austria.  It  is  really  the  Diocese  of  Przemysl  (Ruthenian, 
Peremyshl)  of  the  Greek  Rite,  since  the  See  of  Sambor  * 
represents  only  a  former  contest  between  the  Catholic 
and  the  Orthodox  about  the  time  of  the  union  of  the 
churches,  and  there  never  was  at  any  time  a  Bishopric 
of  Sanok.  Przemysl  is  a  fortified  town  situated  on  the 
River  San,  in  the  Crownland  of  Galicia,  about  fifty- 
four  miles  west  of  Lemberg.  Its  population  in  1900 
was  46,350,  and  it  contains  the  Cathedral  Church  of  the 
Nativity  of  St.  John  the  Baptist  and  the  diocesan 
seminary  of  the  Ruthenian  Greek  Catholics.    Sambor 


PSALMS 


533 


PSALMS 


is  a  manufacturing  town  situated  about  ten  miles 
away  upon  the  River  Dniester;  it  had  in  1900  some 
17,3]50  inhabitants.  Sanok  is  a  still  smaller  town,  situ- 
ated on  the  River  San  about  twenty-five  miles  south- 
west of  Przemysl,  and  has  about  5000  inhabitants. 
The  original  cathedral  church  of  Przemysl  was  a 
church  connected  with  the  great  castle,  but  this  was 
nven  to  the  Latins  by  King  Wladislaw  in  1412.  The 
Kuthenians  then  took  the  present  Church  of  the 
Nativity  of  St.  John  the  Baptist  for  their  cathedral. 
The  cathedral  church  of  Sambor,  dedicated  to  the 
Transfiguration,  is  situated  near  the  town  of  Old 
Sambor.  All  this  part  of  the  country  was  the  King-^ 
dom  of  Poland,  and  on  its  partition  the  Diocese  of 
Prsemysl  fell  to  Austria.  The  present  Greek  Catholic 
diocese  is  divided  into  40  deaneries,  containing  688 
organized  parishes,  1334  churches  and  chapels,  6 
monasteries  of  Basilian  monks,  and  2  convents  of 
Greek  nuns.  The  clergy  consists  of  803  secular 
priests,  as  follows:  662  married,  129  widowers,  and  12 
celibates,  together  with  36  monastic  priests.  The 
Greek  Catholic  population  of  this  diocese  is  1,198,398. 

The  Diocese  of  Przemysl  stretched  over  a  large  part 
of  Red  Russia,  covering  some  900  square  miles,  west 
of  the  Archdiocese  of  Lemberg.  It  is  perhaps  the 
oldest  of  the  Ruthenian  dioceses,  and  Sts.  Cyril  and 
Methodius  are  said  to  have  preached  Christianity 
there.  It  is  certain  that  this  part  of  south-west 
Russia  received  Christianity  nearly  one  hundred 
years  before  the  conversion  of  King  Vladimir  at  Kieff . 
The  names  of  its  early  missionary  bishops  are  lost, 
but  from  1218  the  succession  is  unbroken.  Antonius 
(1218-25)  is  the  first  bishop  whose  name  is  recorded. 
He  was  a  monk  and  Bishop  of  Novgorod,  but  was 
banished  from  there  and  then  became  Bishop  of 
Przemysl,  succeeding  a  former  bishop  who  had  just 
died.  King  Danilo  at  this  time  was  in  union  with  the 
Holy  See,  and  for  over  one  hundred  years  the  Greek 
bishops  of  Przemysl  were  likewise  united  with  Rome. 
Hilanon  (12,54),  Abraham  (1271),  Jeremias  (1282), 
Memnon  (1288),  Hilarion  (1292),  George  (1315), 
Mark  (1330),  Cyril  (1353),  Hilarion  (1366),  BasU 
(1385),  Athanasius  (1392),  and  Gelasius  (1412)  ruled 
this  see  during  its  peace  with  Rome.  In  1416  the 
Bishop  of  Przemysl  embraced  the  schism.  Elias 
(1422)  was  the  first  bishop  who  took  the  title  Przemysl 
and  Sambor.  The  See  of  Sambor  was  founded  in  the 
thirteenth  century,  and  shortly  afterwards  the  two 
dioceses  were  united,  although  the  double  name  was 
not  used  until  assumed  by  Elias.  Athanasius  (1440- 
49)  opposed  the  union  of  the  (Douncil  of  Florence.  The 
succeedinp;  bishops  of  Przemysl  adhered  to  the  schism, 
and  remamed  schismatic  for  over  a  century. 

In  1594  Bishop  Michael  Kopystynski  (1591-1610) 
took  up  the  idea  of  reunion  with  Rome  and  added  his 
name  to  the  declaration  of  union  at  the  Synod  of 
Brest.  Later  he  withdrew  it  and  was  excommunicated 
by  the  Greek  Catholic  Metropolitan  of  Kieff,  Michael 
Ragosa.  His  successor,  Athanasius  Krupetzki  (1610- 
52).  was  a  zealous  Catholic  bishop.  Meanwhile  the 
schismatics  elected  another  bishop  and  drove  out 
Athanasius;  and  for  nearly  a  centiuy  there  was  a 
double  line  of  Greek  bishops,  the  Orthodox  holding 
the  see  at  Przemysl,  and  the  Catholics  holding  it  at 
Sambor.  In  1668  the  Orthodox  coadjutor  bishop, 
George  Hoshovski,  took  up  his  residence  at  Sanok, 
and  from  that  date  the  title  of  Bishop  of  Przemysl,  Sam- 
bor, and  Sanok  was  assumed,  although  no  see  was 
established  at  Sanok.  The  succeeding  Catholic 
bishops  were  Procopius  CJhmelovski  (1652),  Anthony 
Terletzki  (1662),  and  John  Malachovski  (1669).  The 
next  Orthodox  bishop  was  Innocent  Vinnitzki  (1680- 
1700),  and  during  his  administration  the  Catholic 
Bishop  Malachovski  left  his  see  and  went  to  Warsaw, 
where  he  died  in  1691.  From  the  time  of  his  consecra- 
tion Bishop  Innocent  had  announced  his  intention  of 
uniting  with  the  Holy  See.    He  prepared  his  clergy 


for  the  union,  and  on  23  June,  1691,  he  renounced  the 
schism  and  signed  the  act  of  union.  Since  then  the 
Greek  Diocese  of  Przemysl  has  always  been  Catholic. 
In  1694  the  first  Catholic  diocesan  synod  of  the  Greek 
Rite  was  held  at  Sambor,  where  the  new  situation  of 
the  Greek  Catholic  clergy  was  canonically  established. 
The  bishops  succeeding  him  were  (Jeorge  Vinnitzki 
(1700-13).  Jerome  Ustritzki  (1715-46),  Onuphrius 
Shumlanski  (1746-62),  Athanasius  Szepticki  (1762- 
79),  Maximilian  Ryllo  (1780-94),  and  Anton  Angelo- 
vich  (1795-1808) .  The  see  remamed  vacant  f roml808 
until  1813,  during  the  Napoleonic  wars,  but  was  admin- 
istered by  the  Metropolitan  of  Lemberg,  the  well- 
known  historian  of  the  Greek  Uniats,  Michael 
Harasievich.  The  succeeding  bishops  were  Michael 
Levitzki  (1813-16),  John  Snigurski  (1818-47),  Gregor 
Jachimovich  (1848-59),  Thomas  Polanski  (1860-69), 
John  Stupnitzki  (1872-90),  and  Julian  Pelesz  (1891- 
96),  the  renowned  author  of  the  "History  of  the 
Union  of  the  Ruthenian  Church  with  Rome".  The 
present  bishop  (1911)  is  Constantine  Chekhovich. 

DoBBANSKi,  istoria  Peremyahkoi  Bparkhii  (Lemberg,  1893); 
PcLEw,  Qfch.  der  Union,  II  (Vienna,  1880);  SdunuUiamu* 
Bparkhii  Peremyahkoi,  Samborakoi  i  SianoUkoi  (Qolkiew,  1910); 
Battandzxr,  Annuaire  P&ntifieale  Calholique  (Paris,  1910). 

Andrew  J.  Shipman. 

Pudmi.— The  Psalter,  or  Book  of  Psalms,  is  the 
first  book  of  the  '* Writings''  (Kethubkim  or  Hagio- 

S-apha),  i.  e.  of  the  third  section  of  the  printed  Hebrew 
ible  of  to-day.  In  this  section  of  the  Hebrew  Bible 
the  canonical  ordec  of  books  has  varied  greatly; 
whereas  in  the  first  and  second  sections,  that  is,  in  the 
Law  and  the  Prophets,  the  books  have  always  been 
in  pretty  much  the  same  order.  The  Talmudic  list 
(Baba  Bathra  14  b)  gives  Ruth  precedence  to  Psalms. 
St.  Jerome  heads  the  ''Writings''  with  Psalms,  in  his 
"Epistola  ad  Paulinum"  (P.  L.,  XXII,  547) :  with  Job 
in  his  "Prologus  Galeatus"  (P.  L»  XXVIII,  555). 
Many  Massoretic  MSS.,  ^Specially  Spanish,  begin  the 
"Writings"  with  Paralipomena  or  Chronicles.  Ger- 
man Massoretic  MSS.  have  led  to  the  order  of  books 
in  the  Kelhubhim  of  the  modem  Hebrew  Bible.  The 
Scptuagint  puts  Psalms  first  among  the  Sapiential 
Books.  These  latter  books,  in  "Cod.  Alcxandrinus", 
belong  to  the  third  section  and  follow  the  Prophets. 
The  Clementine  Vulgate  has  Psalms  and  the  Sapien- 
tial Books  in  the  second  section,  and  after  Job.  This 
article  will  treat  the  name  of  the  Psalter^  its  contents, 
the  authors  of  the  Psalms,  their  canonicity^  text,  ver- 
sions, poetic  form,  poetic  beauty,  theological  value, 
and  liturgical  use. 

I.  Naimie. — ^The  Book  of  Psalms  has  various  names 
in  the  Hebrew,  Septuagint,  and  Vulgate  texts. 

A.  The  Hebrew  name  is  D^bnn,  "praises"  (from  bbT\f 
"to  praise") ;  or  fa^bnn  nCC,  "book  of  praises ".  This 
latter  name  was  known  to  Hippolytus,  who  wrote 
*E)9paibc  irepi^pa^ar  r-^y  filfiXow  X4if>pa  StXtl/i  (ed .  Lagarde, 
188).  There  is  some  doubt  in  regard  to  the  authen- 
ticity of  this  fragment.  There  can  be  no  doubt,  how- 
ever, in  regard  to  the  transliteration  ^4>ap0(\\€lfi  by 
Origen  (P.  G.,  XII,  1084);  and  ''sephartaUim,  quodin- 
ierpretatur  volumen  hymnorum"  by  St.  Jerome  (P.  L., 
XXVIII,  1124).  The  name  "praises"  does  not  in- 
dicate the  contents  of  all  the  Psalms.  Only  Ps.  cxliv 
(cxlv)  is  entitled  "praise"  (n^nn).  A  S3monymous 
name  haUd  was,  in  later  Jewish  ritual,  given  to  four 
groups  of  songs  of  praise,  Pss.  civ-cvii,  cxi-cxvii^ 
cxxxv-cxxxvi,  cxlvi-cl  (Vulg.,  ciii-cvi,  cx-cxvi,  cxxxvi 
-cxxxvii,  cxlv-cl).  Not  only  these  songs  of  praise, 
but  the  entire  collection  of  psalms  made  up  a  manual- 
for  temple  service — ^a  service  chiefly  of  praise;  hence 
the  name  "Praises"  was  given  to  the  manual  itself. 

B.  The  Septuagint  MSS.  of  the  Book  of  Psalms 
read  either  f  aXftol,  psalms,  or  ^aXr^ptor,  psalter.  The 
word  ifoKfiAi  is  a  translation  of  ^^?2T?5,  which  occurs  in 
the  titles  of  fifty-seven  psalms.  '^dXfiAt  in  classical 
Greek  meant  the  twang  of  the  strings  of  a  musical 


PSALMS 


534 


PSAUCS 


instrument;  its  Hebrew  eqtiivalent  (from  *^ttT,  "to 
trim")  means  a  poem  of  "trimmed"  and  measured 
form.  The  two  words  show  us  that  a  psahn  was  a 
poem  of  set  structure  to  be  sung  to  the  accompani- 
ment of  stringed  instruments.  The  New  Testament 
text  uses  the  names  ypaXiwl  (Luke,  xxiv.  44),  /9i/SXot 
^aX/udy  (Luke,  xx,  42;  Acts,  i,  20),  and  Aave(d  (Heb., 
iv,  7). 

C.  The  Vulgate  follows  the  Greek  text  and  trans- 
lates psotmi,  liher  psalmorum.  The  Syriac  Bible  in 
like  manner  names  the  collection  Mazm&ri, 

II.  CJoNTBNTB.— The  Book  of  Psalms  contidns  150 
psalms,  divided  into  five  books,  together  with  four 
doxologies  and  the  titles  of  most  of  the  psalms. 

A.  NuTnber, — ^The  printed  Hebrew  Bible  lists  150 
psalms.  Fewer  are  given  by  some  Massoretic  MSS. 
The  older  Septuagint  MSS.  (Codd.  Sinaiticus,  Vati- 
canus,  and  Alexandrinus)  give  151,  but  expressly  state 
that  the  last  psalm  is  not  canonical:  ''This  psaun  was 
written  by  David  with  his  own  hand  and  is  outside  the 
number",  f^taOw  roO  dpidfioO.  The  Vulgate  foUows 
the  numeration  of  the  Septuagint  but  omits  Ps.  cli. 
The  differences  in  the  numerations  of  the  Hebrew  and 
Vulgate  texts  may  be  seen  in  the  following  scheme: 
Hebrew  Septuapnt  and  Vulgate 


i-vm 

i-vm 

IX 

x-cxii 

ix-x 

xi-cxm 

cxm 

cxiv-cxv 

cxiv— cxv 
cxvi-cxlv  ^ 
cxlvi-cxlvii 
cxlviii-cl 

cxvi 

cxvu-cxlvi 
cxlvii 
cxlviii-cl 

In  the  course  of  this  article,  we  shall  follow  the 
Hebrew  numeration  and  bracket  that  of  the  Septua- 
gint and  Vulgate.  Each  numeration  has  its  defects; 
neither  is  preferable  to  the  other.  The  variance  be- 
tween Massorah  and  Septuagint  texts  in  this  numera- 
tion is  likely  enough  due  to  a  gradual  neglect  of  the 
original  poetic  form  of  the  Psahns;  such  neglect  was 
occasioned  by  liturgical  uses  and  carelessness  of  copy- 
ists. It  is  admitt^  by  all  that  Pss.  ix  and  x  were 
originally  a  single  acrostic  poem;  they  have  been 
wron^y  separated  by  Massorah,  rightly  united  by  the 
.Septuagint  and  Vulgate.  On  the  other  hancf  Ps. 
cxliv  (cxlv)  is  made  up  of  two  songs — verses  1-11 
and  12-15.  Pss.  xlii  and  xliii  (xli  and  xlii)  are  shown 
by  identity  of  subject  (yearning  for  the  house  of 
Jahweh),  of  metrical  structure  and  of  refrain  (cf.  Heb. 
Ps.  xlii,  6,  12;  xliii,  5),  to  be  three  strophes  of  one  and 
the  same  poem.  The  Hebrew  text  is  correct  in  count- 
ing as  one  Ps.  cxvi  (cxiv + cxv)  and  Ps.  cxlvii  (cxlviH- 
cxlviii).  Later  liturgical  usage  would  seem  to  have 
split  up  these  and  not  a  few  other  psalms.  Zenner 
(''Die  Chorges&nge  im  Buche  der  Pswmen",  II.  Frei- 
burg im  Br.,  1896)  ingeniously  combines  into  wnat  he 
deems  were  the  original  choral  odes:  Pss.  i,  ii,  iii,  iv; 
vi+xiii  (vi+xii);  ix+x  (ix);  xix,  xx,  xxi  (xx,  xxi,  xxii); 
xlviH-xlvii  (xlvii+xlviii);  Ixix+bcx  (Ixx-f  bod);  cxiv-f 
cxv  (cxiii) ;  cxlviii,  cxlix,  cl.  A  choral  ode  woidd  seem 
to  have  been  the  original  form  of  Pss.  xiv+lxx  (xiii+ 
bdx).  The  two  strophes  and  the  epode  are  Ps.  xiv; 
the  two  antistrophes  are  Ps.  Ixx  (cf.  Zenner-Wies- 
mann,  "Die  Psalmen  nach  dem  Urtext",  Miinster, 
1906,  305).  It  is  noteworthy  that,  on  the  breaking 
up  of  the  original  ode.  each  portion  crept  twice  into 
the  Psalter:  Ps.  xiv=liii,  Ps.  lxx  =  xl,  14-18.  Other 
such  duplicated  psalms  are  Ps.  cviii,  2-6  (cvii)=Ps. 
Ivii.  8-12  (Ivi);  Ps.  cviii,  7-14  (cvu)  =  Ps.  k,  7-14 
(lix);  Ps.  bni^  1-3  (lxx)=»Ps.  xxxi,  2-4  (xxx).  This 
loss  of  the  onranal  form  of  some  of  the  psalms  is  al- 
lowed by  the  Biblical  Commission  (1  May.  1910)  to 
have  been  due  to  liturgical  uses,  neglect  ot  copyists, 
or  other  causes. 

B.  Division, — The  Psalter  is  divided  into  five  books. 
Each  book,  save  the  last,  ends  with  a  doxology. 
These  liturgical  forms  differ  slightly.    All  agree  that 


the  doxologies  at  the  end  of  the  first  three  books  have 
nothing  to  do  with  the  original  songs  to  which  thev 
have  been  appended.  Some  consider  that  the  fourth 
doxology  was  always  a  part  of  Ps.  cvi  (cv)  (cf .  Kirk- 
patrick,  "Psalms",  IV  and  V^  p.  634).  We  prefer, 
with  Zenner-Wiesmann  (op.  cit.,  76),  to  rate  it  as  a 
doxology  pure  and  simple.  The  fifth  book  has  no 
need  ofan  appended  doxology.  Ps.  cl,  whether  com- 
posed as  such  or  not,  serves  the  purpose  of  a  grand 
doxology  which  fittingly  brings  the  whole  Psalter  to 
its  close. 

The  five  books  of  the  Psalter  are  made  up  as  fol- 
lows:— 

Bk.  I:  Pss.  i-xU  (i-xl);  doxology,  Ps.  xli,.  14. 

Bk.  II:  Pss.  xlii-lxxii  (xU-lxxi);  doxology,  Ps.  Ixxii, 
18-20. 

Bk.  Ill:  Pss.  Ixxiii-lxxxix  (Ixxii-lxxxviii) ;  doxology, 
Ps.  Ixxxix,  53. 

Bk.  IV:  Pss.  xc-cvi  (Ixxxix-cv);  doxology,  Ps.  cvi, 

Bk.  V:  Pss.  cvii-cl  (cvi-cl);  no  doxolo^. 

In  the  Massoretic  text,  the  doxology  is  udmediately 
followed  by  an  ordinal  adjective  indicating  the  num- 
ber of  the  succeeding  book;  not  so  in  the  Septuagint 
and  Vulgate.  This  division  of  the  Psalter  into  five 
parts  belongs  to  earlyJewish  tradition.  The  Midnuah 
on  Ps.  i  tells  us  that  David  gave  to  the  Jews  five  books 
of  psalms  to  correspond  to  the  five  books  of  the  Law 

given  them  by  Moses.  This  tradition  was  accepted 
y  the  early  Fathers,  Hippol3rtus.  in  the  doubtful 
fragment  already  referred  to,  calls  tne  Psalter  and  its 
five  books  a  second  Pentateuch  (ed.  Lagarde,  193). 
St.  Jerome  defends  the  division  in  his  important 
"Prologus  Galeatus"  (P.  L.,  XXVIII,  553)  and  in 
Ep.  cxl  (P.  L^  XXII,  11,  68).  Writing  to  Marcella 
(r.  L.,  XXIII,  431),  he  savs:  "In  quinque  siquidem 
volumina  psalterium  apua  HebraK>s  di visum  est". 
He,  however,  contradicts  this  statement  in  his  letter 
to  Sophronius  (P.  L.,  XXVIII*  1123):  "Nos  Hebr»- 
orum  auctoritatem  secuti  et  maxime  apostolorum, 
qui  semper  in  Novo  Testamento  psalmorum  Ubnim 
qpminant,  unum  volumcn  asserimus". 

C.  Titles. — In  the  Hebrew  Psalter,  all  the  psalms, 
save  thirty-four,  have  either  simple  or  rather  complex 
titles.  The  Septuagint  and  Vulgate  supply  titles  to 
most  of  the  thirty-four  psalms  that  lack  Hebrew  titles. 
These  latter,  called  "orphan  psalms"  by  Jewish  tradi- 
tion, are  thus  distributed  in  the  five  books  of  the 
Psalter: 

Bk.  I  has  4 — Pss.  i,  iii,  x,  xxxiii  [i,  iii,  ix  (b)j  xxxii]. 
Of  these,  Ps.  x  is  broken  from  Ps.  ix;  Ps.  xxxui  has  a 
title  in  the  Septuagint  and  Vulgate. 

Bk.  II  has  2 — ^Pss.  xliii,  had  (xlii,  Ixx).  Of  these, 
Ps.  xliii  is  broken  from  Ps.  xlii. 

Bk.  Ill  has  none. 

Bk.  IV  has  10 — ^Pss.  xci,  xciii-xcvii,  xcix,  civ-cvi 
(xc,  xcii-xcvi,  xcviii,  ciii-cv).  Of  these,  all  have 
titles  in  the  Septuagint  and  Vulgate. 

Bk.  V  has  18 — Pss.  cvii,  cxi-cxix,  cxxxv-cxxxvii, 
cxlvi-cl  (cvi,  cx-cxviii.  cxxxiv-cxxxvii,  cxlv-cl).  Of 
these,  Ps.  cxii  has  a  title  in  the  Vulgate,  Ps.  cxxxvii  in 
the  Septua^nt  and  Vulgate;  the  quasi-title  haUdU  yah 
preceoes  mne  (cxi-cxiu,  cxxxv,  cxlvi-cl);  the  Greek 
equivalent  'AXXi^Xo^i'a  precedes  seven  others  (cvii, 
cxiv,  cxvi-cxix,  cxxxvi).  Only  Ps.  cxv  [cxiii  (b)]  has 
no  title  either  in  the  Hebrew  or  the  Septuagint. 

(1)  Meaning  of  Titles: — ^These  titles  tell  us  one  or 
more  of  five  tmngs  about  the  psalms:  (a)  the  author, 
or,  perhaps,  collection;  (b)  the  historical  occa^on  of 
the  song;  (c)  its  poetic  characteristics;  (d)  its  musical 
setting;  (e)  its  liturgical  use. 

(a)  Titles  indicating  the  author: — Bk.  I  has  four 
anonymous  psahns  out  of  the  forty-one  (Pss.  i,  ii,  x, 
xxxiii).  The  other  thirty-seven  are  Davidic.  Ps.  x 
is  part  of  ix;  Ps.  xxxiii  is  Davidic  in  the  Septuagint; 
and  Pss.  i  and  ii  are  prefatory  to  the  entire  collection. — 
Bk.  II  has  three  anonymous  psalms  out  of  the  thirty- 


PSALMS                                535  PSALMS 

one  (Pes.  xliii^  Ixvi,  Ixxi).    Of  these,  eight  Pas.,  xlii-  (b)  Ewald,  Riehm   and  others  suggest  "a  skilful 

xlix  (xli-xlvih)  are  ''of  the  sons  of  Korah''  (libni  artistic  song",  from  other  uses  of  the  cognate  verb 

qOrai);  Ps.  i  is  ''of  Asaph";  Pss.  li-lxxii  are  Davidio  (cf.  II  Par.,  xxx,  22;  Ps.  xlvii,  7);  Kirkpatrick  thinks 

excelling  Ps.  Ixvii  "of^  the  Director"  (Idmendgfedh)  "a  cunning  psaun"  will  do.    It  is  difficult  to  see  that 

and  rsTlxxii  "of  Solomon".    Ps.  xliii  (xlii)  is  part  of  the  MdakU  is  either  more  artistic  or  more  cunning 

xlii  (xli);  Pss.  Ixviand  Ixvii  (bcv  and  Ixvi)  are  Davidio  than  the  Mizmor,    (c)  Delitzsch  and  others  interpret 

in  the  Septuagint  and  Vulgate. — Bk.  Ill  has  one  "a  contemplative  poem";   Briggs,  "a  meditiition". 

Davidic  psalm,  bnxvi  (Ixxxv);   eleven  "of  Asaph",  This  interpretation  is  warrantee!  by  the  usage  of  the 

lxxiii-*lx»dii    (Ixxii-lxxxii) ;    four    "of   the   sons   of  cognate  verb  (cf.  Is.,  xli,  20;  Job,  xxxiv,  27),  and  is  the 

Korah",  Ixxxiv,  Ixxxv,  Ixxxvii.  Ixxxviii  (Ixxxiii,  Ixxxiv  only  one  that  suits  all  MdskUim, 

lxxxvi,lxxxvii):  andone"of  Ethan"  Ixxxix (Ixxxviii).  TephiUah    (n^Bfi;     Septui 


tuagint  assigns  to  David  eight  others,  Pss.  xci,  xcih-  20).  "The  prayers  of  David  son  of  Yishai  have  been 

xcvii,  xcix,  civ  (xc,  xcii-xcvi.  xcviii,  ciii).    The  re-  enaed".    Here  the  Septuagint  C/ow  (Vulg.,  landes) 

mainder  are  anonymous. — Bk.  V  has  twenty-seven  points  to  a  better  reading,  nSin,  "praise", 

anonymous  psalms  out  of  forty-four.     Pss.  cviii-cx,  TehiUah     (nVnn;      Septuagint,     ofiw«;      Vulg.; 

cxxii,  cxxiv,  cxxxi,   cxxxiii,   cxxxviii-cxlv   (cyii-dx,  laudatio;  "a  song  of  praise"),  is  the  title  only  of  Ps. 

cxxi,  cxxiii,  cxxx.  .cxxxii,  cxxxvii-<;xlv)  are  Davidic.  cxlv  (c5div). 

Ps.  cxxvii  is  "ot  Solomon".     The  Septuagint  and  Mikhtdm  (nr^3tt;    Septuagint,  rriKerfpeuf^ta  or   «^t 

Vulgate  assign  Ps.  cxxxvU  (cxxxvi)  to  David,  Pss.  mfKrfpa^tap;  Vulg.,  tUuli  inacriptio  or  in  titvli  in- 

cxlvi-<;xlviii  (cxlv-<;xlviii)  to  Aggeus  and  Zacharias.  acriptianem),  an  obuBcure  term  in  the  title  of  sixpsalms, 

Besides  these  title-names  of  authbrs  and  collections  xvi,  lvi~lx  (xv.  Iv-lix)}  alwavs  joined  to  "of  David", 

which  are  clear,  there  are  several  such  names  which  are  Briggs  ("Psalms",  I,  Ix:  New  York,  1906)  with  the 


do\ihtM,—ljdmendggSdh  (n^^?2V;   Se^uagint,  eltrh    Rabbis  derives  this  title  from  ^3,  "gold".     The 

MikhiSmim  are  golden  songs,  "artistic  in  form  and 
choice  in  contents". 

Skiggdydn  {Vi^'M;  Septuagint  merely  ^aX/i6t;  Vulg., 
pwdmus;  Aqmla,  dyvSnifta;  Symmachus  and  Theodo- 
tion,  ^ip  dywolat;  St.  Jerome,  ignorcUio  or  pro  igno" 


V>VV>..         CUAV&         UAVUVUWI^W         W                .k^^m  x/^v  w     w          -wrwm.'w»«w»                 «■.  AAAg    AAAJTVAAAAA. 

Psalms.   This  collection  would  seem  to  have  contained  (d)  Titles  indicating  the  nihsical  setting  of  a  psalm 

55  of  our  canonical  psalms,  whereof  39  were  Davidic,  (a  specially  obscure  set) : — 

9  Korahite,  5  Asaphic,  and  2  anonymous.  Eight  titles  may  indicate  the  melody  of  the  psalm 

* AUYedOMinf  in  Pss.  bdi  and  Ixxvii  (Ixi  and  Ixxvi),  by  citing  the  opening  words  of  some  well-known  song: 

where  the  preposition  al  might  lead  one  to  interpret  Nehtl&th  (m^^n^H  Vk;    Septua^t   and  Theodo- 

YediUkdn  as  a  musical  instrument  or  a  tune.    In  the  tion,  (^^p  r^  Kkiipopo/iaOffTis;  Aqmla,  dir6  KkifpodoffUkp; 

title  to  Ps.  xxxix   (xxxviii),   "of  the  Director,  of  Symmachus,    ^ip    irXi^povxiwr;    St.    Jerome,    super 

YediUhiHn,  a  song  of  David",  YedMMn  is  without  al  hoereditatibus;    Vulg.,   pro  ea  qiUB  hoBredUatem  conae- 

and  seems  to  be  the  Director  (Mendggidh)  just  spoken  quUtir)j  occurs  only  in  Ps.  v.    The  ancient  versions 

of.    That  David  had  such  a  director  is  clear  from  rightly  derive   the  title  from   ^n^   "to    inherit"; 

I  Par.,  xvi,  41.  Baethgen  ("Die  Psalmen",  3rd  ed.,  1904,  p.  xxxv) 

(b)  Titles  indicating  the  historical  occasion  of  the  thinks  Nehtl&lh  was  the  first  word  of  some  ancient 
song: — ^Thirteen  Davidic  psalms  have  such  titles,  song;  most  critics  t^ranslate" with  wind  instruments" 
Pbs.  vii,  xviii,.xxxiv,  lii,  liv,lvi,  Ivii,  lix,  cxlii  (vii,  xvii,  wrongly  aasuming  that  NehU&th  means  flutes 
xxxiii,  li,  liii,  Iv,  Ivi,  Iviii,  cxU)  are  referred  to  the  time  (a^V'^^n,  cf.  Is.,  xxx,  29). 

of  David's  persecution  by  Saul;  Ps.  Ix  (hx)  to  that  of  'Al-lashhgth  [miZ^n-^K;  Septuagint,  Aquila,  Sym- 

the  victories  in  Mesopotamia  and  Sjrna;  Ps.  h  (I)  to  machus,  fi^  dieuf>$€lpns^  except  Ps.  Ixxv,  Symmachus, 

his  sin;    Pss.  iii  and  bdii  O^ii)  to  his  flight  from  wtpl  d4>0apclat;  St.  Jerome,  vi  rum  dUperdaa  (Daiind 

Absalom.  kumilem  et  sim^Mcem);    Vulg.,  ne  dUperdaa   or  ne 

(c)  Titles  indicating  poetic  characteristics  of  the  corrumpaa],  in  Pss.  Ivii-lix,  brav  Qvi-lviii,  boriv), 
aim: —  meaning  "destroy  not",  may  be  the  banning  of  a 
Mizmor     (lITST^D;     Septuagint,     ^aM»;      Vulg.,  vintage  song  referred  to  in  Is.,  Ixv,  8.    Symmachus 

psalmua;  a  psalm),  a  technical  word  not  used  outside  gives,  in  title  to  Ps.  Ivii,  irepl  rod  fiii  dta^/^f ;  and 

the  titles  of  the  Psalter;  meaning  a  song  set  to  stringed  m  thiswise  suggests  that  !?y  originally  preceded  Vk. 

accompaniment.    There  are  57  psahns,  most  of  them  'Al-MtUh-Labben  (]2^    m?S-^3?;    Septuagint,  ^ip 

Davidic,  with  the  title  Mumwr,  rd^p  kv^Iup  tow  vlov;  Vulg.,  pro  occulHs  fiii,  "con- 

Shtr  (yt;    Septuagint,   v«^;  Vul^.,  CarUicum;  a  ceming  the  secret  sins  of  the  son";  Aquila.  wartArin-of 

song),  a  generic  term  used  30  times  in  the  titles  (12  roO  vloO^  "of  the  youth  of  the  son*';   Theodotion, 

times  together  with  Mizmdr).  and  often  in  the  text  ^Wp  aK/iijt  roO  wlow,  "concerning  the  maturity  of  the 

of  the  Psalms  and  of  other  books.    In  the  Psalms  son")  in  Ps.  ix,  probably  means  "set  to  the  tune 

(xlii,  9;    box.  31;    xxviii,  7)  the  song  is  generally  'Death  Whitens'  ''. 

sacred;  elsewhere  it  is  a  lyric  lay  (Gen.,  pxi,  27;  Is.,  *AUayydeik  hasshahar  (in^H  nl^'^K-V:?;  Septuagint, 

xxx,  29),  a  love  poem  (Cant.,  i,  1.1),  or  a  bacchanalian  iw4p  r^f  dm\^§m  rijt  itaSipfit;  Vulg.,  pro  suacep- 

ballad  (Is.,  xxiv,  9;  Eccles.,  vii,  5).  Hone  mattUina,  "for  the  morning  offering";  Aquila, 

MdskU  {h^itl^ ;  Septuagint,  avvifftm,  ot  *«/»  ir^pwip]  inrkp  t^  Ad0ov  t^i  hpBunit ;  Symmachus,  ^*p  rrji  poi/Selas 

Vulg..  inteUectua  or  ad  irUeUectum),  an  obscure  form  rifs   ipBipritf  "the  help  of    the    morning";   St.  Je- 

founa  in  the  titles  of  13  psalms  (xxxii,  xlii.  xliv,  xlv,  rome,  pro  cervo   mcUutino),  in  Ps.  xxii    (xxi),  very 

lii,   Iv^   Ixxiv,  Ixxviii,   IxKXviii,  Ixxxix,   cxliv).     (a)  likely  means  "set  to  the  tune  'The  Hind  of  the 

Gesemus  and  others  explain  "a  didactic  poem"^  from  Morning'  ". 

Hiph*il  of  b2^  (cf .  Ps.  xxxiij  8;   I  Par.,  xxvih,  19) ;  'Al  Shoahanntm  in  Pss.  xlv  and  Ixix  (xliv  and  Ixviii), 

but  only  Pss.  xxxU  and  bpcvip  Bite  didaciic  MdakUtm,  Shuahanr^^Uh  in  P9.  Ix  (lix),  ShQ9h(mntnh^iUh  ib 


PSALMS 


536 


PSAUCS 


Fb.  box  (bcDx)  seem  to  refer  to  the  opening  of  the 
same  song,  "Lilies'^'  or  ''Lilies  of  testimony".  The 
prepoflition  is  *al  or  'U.  The  Septuagint  tranmates  the 
consonants  *r*p  r«v  * AXKouadifro/iipup;  Vulg:,  pro  ii$ 
qui  commutaburUurj  "for  those  who  shall  be  changed  ", 

*Al  Ydnath  'Him  refidqtm.  in  Ps.  Ivi  Qv)  means 
"set  to  'The  dove  pf  the  oistant  terebinth'  ",  or, 
according  to  the  vowels  of  Massorah,  "set  to  'The 
nlent  dove  of  them  that  are  afar'  ''.•  The  Septuagint 
renders  it  ^ip  rod  \aov  roO  drd  tQp  iiyUiP  ftefiOKpvfJLfufpovi 
Vulg.,  pro  papulo  qui  a  Sanctis  longef actus  ea^,  "for  the 
folk  that  are  afar  from  the  sanctuary".  Baethgen 
(op.  cit.,  p.  xli)  explains  that  the  Septuagint  under- 
stands Israel  to  be  the  dove;  reads  Slim  for  'e2^,  and 
>  interprets  the  word  to  mean  qods  or  sanctuary. 

'At  Mahalath  (Ps.  Uii).  Afaf^alaih  leannoth  (Ps. 
Izxxviii)  is  transliterated  by  the  Septuagint  MacXM; 
by  Vulg.,  pro  Madeth,  Aquila  renders  i^l  X^P*^, 
"for  the  dfuice";  the  same  idea  is  conveyed  by  Sym- 
machus,  Theodotion,  Quinta,  and  St.  Jerome  {pro 
choro).  The  word  *AI\b  proof  that  the  following  words 
indicate  some  well-known  song  to  the  melody  of  which 
Pss.  liii  and  Ixxxviii  (lii  and  Ixxxvii)  were  sung. 

'AU-HaggiUithf  in  titles  to  Pss.  viii,  Ixxxi,  Ixxxiv 
Tvii,  Ixxx,  Ixxxiii).  The  Septuagint  and  Sjonmachus, 
Mp  tQp  Xiyirdr;  Vulg.,  and  St.  Jerome,  pro  torcvlarUmSf 
"for  the  wine-presses".  They  read  gittothf  pi.  of  gath. 
The  title  may  mean  that  these  psahns  were  to  be  sung 
to  some  vintage-melody.  The  Massoretic  title  may 
mean  a  Gittite  instrument  (Targ.,  "the  harp  broug;ht 
by  David  from  Gath"),  or  a  Gittite  melody.  Aquila 
and  Theodotion  follow  the  reading  of  Massorah  and, 
in  Ps.  viii,  translate  the  title  inr^p  rijs  ywrSlriSot;  yet 
this  same  reading  is  said  by  Bellarmine  ("Explan&tio 
in  Psalmos",  Paris,  1889,  I,  43)  to  be  meaningless. 

One  title  probably  means  the  kind  of  musical  in- 
strument to  be  used.  N^ndth  (roy^^^y,  Septuagint, 
iw  ^ff oK/wit J  in  Ps.  iv,  ip  ifi^U  elsewhere;  Vulg.,  in 
carminibus)  Symmachus,  JtA  ^aXriyp/wr;  St.  Jeronae, 
in  psatmis)  occurs  in  Pss.  iv,  vi,  liv,  Ixvii,  Ixxvi  (iv, 
vi,  liii,  liv,  Ixvi,  Ixxv).  The  root  of  the  word  means 
"to  play  on  stringed  instruments"  (I  Kings,  xvi, 
16-18,  23).  The  title  probably  means  that  these 
psalms  were  to  be  accompanied  in  cantilation  exclu- 
sively "with  stringed  instruments".  Ps.  bd  (Ix)  has 
'Al  ffeglndth  in  its  title,  and  was  perhaps  to  be  sung 
with  one  stringed  instrument  only. 
'  Two  titles  seem  to  refer  to  pitch.  *Al'*Al&mdth 
(Ps.  xlvi),  "set  to  maidens",  i.  e.  to  be  sung  with  a 
soprano  or  falsetto  voice.  The  Septuagint  renders 
^ip  Tvv  Kpwpitav-  Vulg.,  pro  occuUis,  "for  tlie  hidden"; 
Symmachus,  Mp  tAp  aUtplvp  "for  the  everlasting"; 
Aquila,  iirl  pwptorirwp;  St.  Jerome,  pro  juueniutibuSf 
"for  youth". 

*Al'HassheminUh  (Pss.  vi  and  xii),  "set  to  the 
eighth" ;  Septuagint,  (nrip  r^t  Ayd6iit;  Vulg..  pro  octava. 
It  has  been  conjectured  that  "theeij^hth"  means  an 
octave  lower,  the  lower  or  bass  register,  in  contrast 
with  the  upper  or  soprano  register.  In  I  Par.,  xv, 
2(>-21,  Levites  are  assigned  some  "with  psalteries 
set  to  'Alamoth"  (the  upper  register),  others  "with 
harps  set  to  Shemtntth"  (the  lower  register). 

(e)  Titles  indicating  the  liturgical  use  of  a  psalm: 
— Hammaalothf  in  title  of  Pss.  cxx-cxxxiv  (cxix- 
cxxxiii) ;  Septuagint,  fp^  tQp  dro/9a^fu^v;  St.  Jerome, 
canticum  graduum/"ihe  song  of  the  steps".  The 
word  is  used  in  Ex.,  xx,  26  to  denote  the  steps  leading 
up  from  the  women's  to  the  men's  court  of  the  Temple 
plot.  There  were  fifteen  such  steps.  Some  Jewish 
commentators  and  Fathers  of  the  Church  have 
taken  it  that,  on  each  of  the  fifteen  steps,  one  of  these 
*;  fifteen  Gradual  Psalms  was  chanted.  Such  a  theory 
does  not  fit  in  with  the  content  of  these  psalms; 
they  are  not  temple-psalms.  Another  theoiy,  pro- 
posed by  Gescnius,  Delitzsch,  and  others,  refers 
"the  steps"  to  the  stair-like  parallelism  of  the 
Gradual  Psalms.    This  stair-like  parallelism  is  not 


found  in  all  the  Gradual  Psalms;  nor  is  it  distinctive 
of  any  of  them.  A  third  theory  is  the  most  probable. 
Aquila  and  Symmachus  read  e/t  rkt  ^Jv/Sd^-ctt,  "for 
the  goings  up";  Theodotion  has  $0'/iw  tQ  pdpofia/rdtgp. 
These  are  a  Pilgrim  Psalter,  a  collection  of  pilgrim- 
songs,  of  songi^  of  those  "going  up  to  Jerusalem  for 
the  festivals'^  (I  Kings,  i,  3).  Isaias  tells  us  the 
pilgrims  went  up  singing  (xxx,  29).  The  psalms  in 
question  would  be  well  suited  for  pUgrim-song. 
The  phrase  "to  go  up"  to  Jerusalem  (dm/3o/mr) 
seems  to  refer  specially  to  the  pilgrim  goings-up 
(Mark,  x,  33;  Luke,  ii,  42,  etc.).  This  theory  is 
now  commonly  received.  A  less  likely  explanation 
is  that  the  Gradual  Psalms  were  sung  oy  those 
"j^oing  up"  from  the  Babylonian  exile  (I  Esd., 
vii,  9). 

Other  liturncal  titles  are:  "For  the  thank- 
oflfering",  in  Ps.  c  (xcix);  "To  brin^  to  remem- 
brance'', in  Pss,  xxxviii  and  Ixx  (xxxvii  and  Ixix); 
"To  teach",  in  Ps.  xl  (xxxix);  "For  the  last  day  or 
the  Feast  of  Tabernacles",  in  the  Septuagint  of 
Ps.  xxix  (xxviii),  i^tov  amiprft;  Vulg.^  in  con" 
summatume  tabernaculi.  Psalm  xxx  (xxix)  is  en- 
titled "A  Song  at  the  Dedication  of  the  House". 
The  psalm  may  have  been  used  at  the  Feast  of  the 
Dedication  df  the  Temple,  the  Encaenia  (John, 
X,  22).  This  feast  was  instituted  by  Judas  Macha- 
l^us  (I  Mach.,  iv,  59)  to  commemorate  the  rededica- 
tion  of  the  temple  after  its  desecration  by  Antiochus. 
Its  title  shows  us  that  Ps.  xcii  (xci)  was  to  be  sung 
on  the  Sabbath.  The  Septuagint  entitles  Ps.  xxiv 
(xxiii)  T^j  fuit  ffafifidrwp^  "for  the  first  day  of  the 
week";  Ps.  xlviii  (xlvii)  dwripq.  aapfidTov^  "for 
the  second  day  of  the  week";  Ps.  xciv  (xciii), 
Ttrpddi  ffofipdruPj  "for  the  fourth  day  of  the  week"; 
Ps.  xciii  (xcii)  fit  r^p  iit*4pap  roO  irpoo-o^/Sdrov, 
"for  the  day  before  the  Sabbath".  The  Old  Latin 
entitles  Ps.  Ixxxi  (Ixxx)  quinta  sabbati,  "the  fifth 
day  of  the  week".  The  Mishna  (Tamid,  VII,  13) 
assigns  the  same  psalms  for  the  daily  Temple  service 
and  tells  us  that  Ps.  Ixxxii  0^°^)  was  for  the  morning 
sacrifice  of  the  third  day  (cf.  James  Wm.  Thirtle, 
"The  Titles  of  the  Psalms,  Their  Nature  and  Mean- 
mg  Earolained",  New  York,  1905). 

(2)  Value  of  the  Titles: — Many  of  the  critics  have 
branded  these  titles  as  spurious  and  rejected  them 
as  not  pertaining  to  Holy  Writ;  such  critics  are 
de  Wette,  Chesme,  Olshausen,  and  Vogel.  More 
recent  critical  Protestant  scholars,  such  as  Briggs. 
Baethgen,  Kirkpatrick,  and  Fullerton,  have  followea 
up  the  lines  of  Ewald,  Delitzsch,  Gesenius,  and 
K6ster,  and  have  made  much  of  the  titles,  so  as  thereby 
to  learn  more  and  more  about  the  authors,  collections, 
occasions,  musical  settings,  and  liturgical  purposes 
of  the  Psalms. 

Catholic  scholars,  while  not  insisting  that  the 
author  of  the  Psalms  superscribed  the  titles  thereof, 
have  always  considered  these  titles  as  an  integral 
part  of  Holy  Writ.  St.  Thomas  (in  Ps.  vi)  assigns 
the  titles  to  Esdras:  "Sciendum  est  quod  tituli  ab 
Esdra  facti  sunt  partim  secundum  ea  guse  tunc 
agebantur,  et  partim  secundum  ea  quie  contigerunt. " 
So  comprehensive  a  statement  of  the  case  is  scarcely 
to  the  point;  most  modem  scholars  give  to  the  titles 
a  more  varied  history.  Almost  all,  however,  are 
at  one  in  considering  as  canonical  these  at  times 
obscured  directions.  In  this  unanimity  Catholics 
carry  out  Jewish  tradition.  Pre-Massoretic  tradi- 
tion preserved  the  titles  as  Scripture,  but  lost  much 
of  the  liturgical  and  musical  meaning,  very  likely 
because  of  changes  in  the  litur^cal  cantilation  of  the 
Psalms.  Massoretic  tradition  has  kept  carefully 
whatsoever  of  the  titles  it  received.  It  makes  the 
titles  to  be  part  of  Sacred  Scripture,  preserving  their 
consonants,  vowel-points,  and  accents  with  the  very 
same  care  which  is  given  to  the  rest  of  the  Jewish 
Canon.    The  Fathers  give  to  the  titles  that  respect 


PSALMS 


537 


PSALMS 


and  authority  which  they  give  to  the  rest  of  Scripture. 
True,  the  obscurity  of  the  titles  often  leacfs  the 
Fathers  to  mystical  and  highly  fanciful  interpreta- 
tions. St.  John  Chrysostom  ("De  Compunctione", 
11,  4;  P.  G.,  XLVII,  415)  interprets  (nrip  rijt  &yS6rit, 
"for  the  eighth  day",  "the  day  of  rest",  "the  day 
of  eternity".  St.  Ambrose  (In  Lucam,  V,  6)  sees 
in  this  title  the  same  mystical  number  which  he 
notes  in  the  Eight  Beatitudes  of  St.  Matthew,  in  the 
eighth  day  as  a  fulfilment  of  our  hope,  and  in  eight 
as  a  sum  of  all  virtues:  "pro  octava  enim  multi 
inscribuntur  psalmi".  In  this  matter  of  mystical 
interpretations  of  the  titles,  St.  Augustine  is  in 
advance  of  the  generally  literal  and  matter-of-fact 
Sts.  Ambrose  and  John  Chrysostom.  Yet  when  treat- 
ing the  worth  and  the  genuineness  of  the  titles,  no 
Father  is  more  decided  and  pointed  than  is  the  great 
Bishop  of  Hippo.  To  him  the  titles  are  inspired 
Scripture.  Commenting  on  the  title  to  Ps.  li,  "of 
David,  when  Nathan  the  Prophet  came  to  him, 
what  time  he  had  gone  into  Bethsabee",  St.  Augus- 
tine (P.  L.,  XXXVl,  586)  says  it  is  as  inspired  as  is 
the  story  of  David's  falL  told  in  the  Second  Book 
of  Kin^  (xi,  1-6);  "Utracjue  Scriptura  canonica 
est,  utnque  sine  ulla  dubitatione  a  Christianis  fides 
adhibenda  est".  Some  recent  Catholic  scholars  who 
are  of  St.  Au^pstine's  mind  in  this  matter  are: 
Comely,  "Specialis  Introductio  in  Libros  V.  T.", 
II,  85;  Zschokke,  "Hist.  Sacr.  V.  T.",  206;  Thai- 
hofer,  "Erkl&rung  der  Psahnen",  tth  ed.,  1904, 
8;  Patrizi,  "Cento  Sahni",  Rome,  1875.  32;  Danko, 
" Historia  V.  T."^  276;  Hoberg,  "Die  Psalmen  der  Vul- 
gata",  1892,  p.  xii.  Only  a  very  few  Catholic  scholars 
nave  denied  that  the  titles  are  an  integral  part  of 
Holy  Writ.  Gigot,  in  "Special  Introduction  to  the  Old 
Testament"  (New  York,  1906),  II,  75,  cites  with  ap- 
proval this  denial  by  Lesdtre,  "  Le  Livre  des  Psaumes" 
(Paris,  1883),  p.  1.  Barry,  in  "Tradition  of  Scrip- 
ture" (New  York,  1906),  102,  says:  "It  is  plausible 
to  maintain  that  inscriptions  to  which  the  Massorah, 
LXX,  and  Vulgate  bear  witness  cannot  be  rejected. 
But  to  look  on  them,  imder  all  circumstances,  as 
portions  of  Scripture  would  be  to  strain  the  Tridentine 
Decrees  ".  Because  of  the  danger  that,  without  grave 
reason,  these  time-honoured  parts  of  the  Bible  may 
be  rated  as  extrarcanonical,  the  Biblical  Commission 
has  recently  (1  May,  1910)  laid  special  stress  on  the 
value  of  the  titles.  From  the  agreement  we  have 
noted  between  the  titles  of  Massorah  and  those 
of  the  Septuagint,  Vulgate,  Aouila,  Synunachus, 
Theodotion,  St.  Jerome,  etc.,  the  Commission  has 
decided  that  the  titles  are  older  than  the  Septuagint 
and  have  come  down  to  us,  if  not  from  the  authors 
of  the  Psalms,  at  least  from  ancient  Jewish  tradi- 
tion, and  that,  on  this  account,  they  may  not  be 
called  into  douot,  unless  there  be  some  serious  reason 
against  their  genuineness.  Indeed,  the  very  dis- 
agreements which  we  have  noted  lead  us  to  the  same 
conclusion.  By  the  time  the  Septuagint  was  written, 
the  titles  must  have  been  exceedii^y  old;  for  the 
tradition  of  their  vocalization  was  already  very  much 
obscured. 

III.  Authors  of  the  Psalms. — ^A.  Witness  of 
Tradition. — (1)  Jewish  tradition  is  uncertain  as  to 
the  authors  of  the  Psalms.  Baba  Bathra  (14  f) 
mentions  ten;  Pesachim  (10)  attributes  all  the 
Psalms  to  David. 

(2)  Christian  tradition  is  alike  uncertain.  St. 
Ambrose,  "In  Ps.  xliii  and  xlvii"  (P.  L.,  XIV,  923), 
makes  David  to  be  the  sole  author.  St.  Augustine, 
in  "De  Qvitate  Dei",  XVII,  14  (P.  L.,  XLI, 
547),  thinks  that  all  the  Psalms  are  Davidic  and  that 
the  names  of  Aggeus  and  Zachari&s  were  superscribed 
by  the  poet  in  prophetic  spirit.  St.  Philastrius,  Hasr. 
130  (P.  L.,  XI 1,  1259),  brands  the  opposite  opinion 
as  heretical.  On  the  other  hand,  plurality  of  author- 
ship was  defended  by  Origen,  "In  Ps."  (P.  0.,  XII, 


1066);  St.  Hilary,  "In  Ps.  Procem.  2"  (P.  L.,  IX, 
233);  Eusebius,  "In  Ps.  Prooem.  in  Pss.  41,  72'* 
(P.  G.,  XXIIL  74,  368):  and  many  others.  St. 
Jerome,  "Ad  Cypnanum^',  Epist.  140.  4  (P.  L., 
XXII,  1169),  says  that  "they  err  who  deem  all  the 
psalms  are  David's  and  not  the  work  of  those  whose 
names  are  superscribed". 

(3)  This  disagreement,  in  the  matter  of  authorship 
of  the  Psalms,  is  carried  from  the  Fathers  to  the 
theologians.  Davidic  authorship  is  defended  by  St. 
Thomas,  the  converted  Jew  Archbishop  Paul  of 
Burgos,  Bellarmine,  Salmeron,  Sa,  Mariana;  multiple 
authorship  is  defended  by  Nicholas  of  Lyra,  Cajetan, 
Sixtus  Senensis,  Bonfr^re,  and  Menochio. 

(4)  The  Church  has  come  to  no  decision  in  this 
matter.  The  Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  IV,  8  April, 
1546),  in  its  decrees  on  Sacred  Scripture,  includes 
"Psalterium  Davidicum  150  Psalmorum"  among 
the  Canonical  Books.  This  phrase  does  not  define 
Davidic  authorship  any  more  than  the  number 
150,  but  only  designates  the  book  which  is  de&ied 
to  be  canonical  (cf.  Pallavicino,  "Istoria  del  Con- 
cilio  di  Trento",  1.  VI,  §91,  Naples,  1853,  I.  376). 
In  the  preliminary  vota,  fifteen  Fathers  were  for  the 
name  "Psalmi  David";  six  for  "Psalterium  Davidi- 
cum " ;  njjie  for  "  Libri  Psalmorum  " ;  two  for  "  Libri  150 
Psalmorum";  sixteen  for  the  name  adopted,  "Psal- 
terium Davidicum  150  Psalmorum";  and  two  had 
no  concern  which  of  these  names  was  chosen  (cf. 
Theiner,  "Acta  Authentica  Concilii  Tridentini", 
I,  72  sq.).  From  the  various  vola  it  is  clear  that  the 
Council  had  no  intention  whatsoever  of  defining 
Davidic  authorship. 

(5)  The  recent  Decree  of  the  Biblical  Commission 
(1  May,  1910)  decides  the  following  points: 

(a)  Neither  the  wording  of  the  decrees  of  the  coun- 
cils nor  the  opinions  of  certain  Fathers  have  such 
weight  as  to  determine  that  David  is  sole  author  of  the 
whole  Psalter.  , 

(b)  It  cannot  be  prudently  denied  that  David  is  the 
chief  author  of  the  songs  of  the  Psalter. 

(c)  Especially  can  it  not  be  denied  that  David  is 
the  author  of  those  psalms  which,  either  in  the  Old 
or  in  the  New  Testament,  are  clearly  cited  under  the 
name  of  David,  for  instance  ii,  xvi,  xviii,  xxxii,  Ixix, 
ex  (ii,  XV,  xvii,  xxxi,  Ixviii,  cix). 

B.  Witness  of  Old  Testament, — In  the  above  deci-  ' 
sion  the  Biblical  Conmiission  has  followed  not  only 
Jewish  and  Christian  tradition,  but  Jewish  and  Chris- 
tian Scripture  as  well.  The  Old  Testament  witness 
to  the  authorship  of  the  Psalms  is  chiefly  the  titles. 
These  seem  to  attribute  various  psalms,  especially  of 
Books  I-III,  to  David,  Asaph,  the  sons  of  Korah, 
Solomon,  Moses,  and  others. 

(1)  David: — The  titles  of  seventy-three  psalms  in 
the  Massoretic  Text  and  of  many  more  in  the  Septua- 
gint seem  to  single  out  David  as  author:  cf.  Pss.  iii- 
xli  (iii-xl),  i.  e.  all  of  Bk.  I  save  only  x  and  xxxiii; 
Pss.  li-lxx  (1-lxix),  except  Ixvi  and  Ixvii,  in  Bk.  II; 
Ps.  Ixxxyi  Oxxxv)  of  Bk.  Ill;  Ts.  ciii  (cii)  in  Bk.  IV; 
Pss.  cviii-cx,  cxxii,  cxxiv,  cxxxi,  cxxxiii,  cxxxv-cxlv 
(cvii-cix,  cxxi,  cxxiii,  cxxx,  cxxxiv-cxliv)  of  Bk.  V. 
The  Hebrew  title  is  "n^nb.  It  is  now  generally  held 
that,  in  this  Hebrew  word,  the  preposition  (e'has  the 
force  of  a  genitive,  and  that  the  Septuagint  rod  Aavld 
"of  David",  is  a  better  translation  than  the  Vulgate 
ipsi  David,  "unto  David  himself".  Does  this  prep- 
osition mean  authorship?  Not  in  every  title;  else 
both  David  and  the  Director  are  the  authors  of  Ps. 
xix  (xviii),  and  all  the  sons  of  Korah,  together  with  the 
Director,  are  joint  authors  of  the  psalms  attributed  to 
them.  In  the  case  of  such  composite  titles  as  "of  the 
Director,  a  psalm  of  David"  (Ps.  xix),  or  "of  the 
Director,  of  the  sons  of  Korah,  a  psalm"  (Ps.  xlviii), 
we  probably  have  indications  not  of  authorship  but 
of  various  collections  of  psalms — ^the  collections  en- 
titled "David",  "the  Director",  "the  sons  of  Korah". 


F8ALM8 


538 


MALMS 


Just  as  the  New  Testament,  the  Council  of  Trent,  and 
many  Fathers  of  the  Church  speak  of  "David",  "the 
Psalter  of  David",  "the  Psalms  of  David",  not  in 
truth  to  infer  that  all  the  psalms  are  David's,  but 
because  he  was  the  psalmist  par  ezceUencej  so  the 
titles  of  many  psalms  assign  them  not  so  much  to  their 
authors  as  to  their  collectors  .or  to  the  chief  author  of 
the  collection  to  which  they  pertain.  On  the  other 
hand,  some  of  the  longer  titles  go  to  show  that  "of 
David"  may  mean  authorship.  Take  an  instance: 
"Of  the  Director,  to  the  tune  'Destroy  not',  of  David, 
a  chosen  piece  (MikfUdm),  when  he  fled  from  the  face 
of  Saul  into  the  cave"  (Ps.  Ivii).  The  historical  occa- 
sion of  the  Davidic  composition  of  the  song,  the  lyric 
quality  of  the  song,  its  inclusion  in  the  early  collec- 
tion "of  David"  and  later  in  the  Director's  hynm- 
book,  the  tune  to  which  the  psalm  was  either  written 
by  David  or  set  by  the  Director — all  these  things 
seem  to  be  indicated  by  the  very  composite  title  under 
consideration.  Of  a  sort  with  the  Davidic  titles  is  the 
ending  subscribed  to  the  first  two  books  of  the  Psalms: 
"  Amen.  Amen;  ended  are  the  praises  of  David,  son  of 
Yishai'^  (Ps.  Ixxii,  20).  This  subscription  is  more 
ancient  than  the  Septuagint:  it  would  be  altogether 
out  of  place  were  not  Davia  the  chief  author  of  the 
psalms  of  the  two  books  whereto  it  is  appended. 
Further  Old-Testament  evidence  of  Davidic  author- 


elegiac  plaints  at  the  death  of  Saul  and  Jonathan  fll 
Kin^,  i,  19-27)  reveal  some  power,  but  not  that  of  the 
Davidic  psalms.  The  above  reasons  for  Davidic 
authorship  are  impugned  by  many  who  insist  on  the 
late  redaction  of  II  Kings,  21-24  and  upon  the  dis- 
crepancies between  the  passages  we  have  paralleled. 
The  (question  of  late  redaction  of  the  Davidic  songs  in 
II  Kings  is  not  within  our  scope;  nor  does  such  late 
redaction  destroy  the  force  of  our  appeal  to  the  Old 
Testament,  since  that  appeal  is  to  the  Word  of  God. 
In  regard  to  the  discrepancies,  we  have  already  said 
that  they  are  explainable  b^  the  admission  that  our 
Psalter  is  the  result  of  various  liturgical  redactions, 
and  does  not  present  all  the  psalms  in  the  precise  form 
in  which  they  proceeded  from  their  original  writers. 
(2)  Asaph:  Asaph  is  accredited,  by  the  titles,  wilii 
twelve  paedms,  1,  bodii-lxxxiii  (idix,  bodi-bncxii). 
These  psalms  are  all  national  in  character  and  pertain 
to  widely-separated  periods  of  Jewish  history.  Ps. 
Ixxxiii  (boodi),  although  assigned  by  Briggs 
("Psakns",  New  York,  1906,  p.  Txvii)  to  the  earty 
Persian  period,  seems  to  have  been  written  at  the 
time  of  the  havoc  wrought  by  the  Assyrian  invasion 
of  Tiglath-pileser  III  m  737  b.  c.  Ps.  badv  G^xiii) 
was  probably  written,  as  Briggs  surmises,  during  the 
Babylonian  Exile,  after  586 B.C.  Asaph  was  a  Levite, 
the  son  of  Barachias  (I  Par.,  vi,  39),  and  one  of  the 
three  chiefs  of  the  Levitical  choir  (I  Par.,  xv,  17). 


ship  of  the  Psalms,  as  suggested  bjr  the  Biblical  Com-  three  chiefs  of  the  Levitical  choir  ^I  Par.,  xv,  17). 
mis»on's  recent  Decree,  are  David's  natural  poetic  The  "sons  of  Asaph"  were  set  aside  "to  prophesv 
talent,  shown  in  his  songs  and  dirges  of  II  Kings  and    with  harps  and  with  psalteries  and  with  cymbals 


talent,  shown  in  his  songs  and  dirges  of  II  Kings  and 
I  Par.,  together  with  the  fact  that  it  was  he  who  insti- 
tuted the  solemn  levitical  cantilation  of  psalms  in  the 
presence  of  the  Ark  of  the  Covenant  (I  Par^  xvL 
xxiii-xxv).  The  songs  and  dirges  attributed  to  David 
are  significantly  aUke  to  the  Davidic  psalms  in  spirit 
and  style  and  wording.  Let  us  examme  the  opening 
lines  of  II  Kings,  xxii: — 

"  And  David  spoke  to  Jahweh  the  words  of  this  song 
in  the  (|ay  that  Jahweh  saved  him  from  the  grasp  of 
his  foes  and  out  of  the  hands  of  Saul,  and  he  said: 

2.  Jahweh  is  my  Cliff,  my  Fortress,  my  Way  of 

E^ape, 

3.  My  God.  my  Rock  to  Whom  I  betake  me, 
My  Shield,  the  Horn  of  my  salvation,  my  Tower. 
My  Refuge,  my  Saviour,  from  wrong  dost  Thou 

save  me. 

4.  Shouting  praise,  I  cry  to  Jahweh, 
And  from  my  foe  I  get  salvation   . 

This  undoubt^ly  Davidic  song  it  were  well  to  com- 
pare, part  for  part,  with  Ps.  xviii  (xvii).  We  shall  cite 
only  the  title  and  opening  lines  of  this  Davidic  psalm: 
"Of  the  Director,  of  the  servant  of  Jahweh,  David, 
who  spake  to  Jahweh  the  words  of  this  song  in  the  day 
that  Jahweh  saved  him  from  the  grasp  of  his  foes  and 
out  of  the  hands  of  Saul,  and  he  said: 

2.  Heartily  I  love  Thee,  Jahweh,  my  Might, 

3.  Jahweh,  my  Cliff,  my  Fortress,  my  Way  of 

Escape, 
My  God,  my  Rock  to  whom  I  betake  me. 
My  Shield,  the  Horn  of  my  Salvation,  my  Tower  I 

4.  Shouting  praise,  I  cry  to  Jahweh, 
And  from  my  foe  I  get  salvation"! 

The  two  songs  are  clearly  identical,  the  slight  differ- 
ences being  probably  due  in  the  main  to  different 
liturgical  redactions  of  the  Psalter.  In  the  end  the 
writer  of  II  Kings  gives  "the  last  words  of  David" 
(xxiii,  1) — to  wit,  a  short  psalm  in  the  Davidic  style 
wherein  David  speaks  of  nimself  as  "  Israel's  sweet 
singer  of  songs",  "egregius  psaltes  Israel"  (II  Kings, 
xxiii,  2).  In  like  manner  the  Chronicler  (I  Par.,  xvi, 
8-36)  quotes  as  Davidic  a  song  made  up  of  Ps.  cv, 
1-13,  Ps.  xcvi,  and  a  small  portion  of  Ps.  cvi.  Finally, 
the  Prophet  Amos  addresses  the  Samarians:  "Ye 
that  sing  to  the  sound  of  the  psaltery;  they  have 
thought  themselves  to  have  instruments  of  music  like 
David"  (vi,  5).  The  poetic  power  of  David  stands 
Aut  as  a  characteristic  of  the  Shepherd  King.    His 


(I  Par.,  XXV,  1).  His  probable  that  members  of  this 
family  composed  the  psalms  which  later  were  collected 
into  an  Asaph  psalter.  The  features  of  these  Asaph 
psalms  are  uniform:  frequent  allusions  to  the  history 
of  Israel  with  a  didactic  purpose;  sublimity  and  ve- 
hemence of  style;  vivid  aescription;  an  exalted  con- 
ception of  the  deity. 

(3)  The  Sons  of  Kora^i:— The  Sons  of  Korah  are 
named  in  the  titles  of  eleven  psalms — ^xlii-xlix,  boodv, 
bcxxv,  bKxvii,  Ixxxviii  (xU-xlviii,  kxxiii,  bocxiv, 
Ixxxvi,  Ixxxvii) .  The  Kora^im  were  a  family  of  temple 
singers  (II  Par.,  xx,  19).  It  can  scarcely  be  that  each 
ps^m  of  this  geonp  was  jointly  composed  bv  all  the 
sons  of  Korah;  each  was  rather  composed  by  some 
member  of  the  guild  of  Koraf^;  or,  perhaps,  all  were 
gathered  from  the  various  sources  into  one  liturgical 
h3rmnal  by  the  guild  of  the  sons  of  Korah.  At  all 
events,  there  is  a  oneness  of  style  to  these  hymns 
which  is  indicative  of  oneness  of  Levitical  spirit.  The 
features  of  the  Kora^te  psalms  are:  a  great  love  for 
the  Holy  City;  a  yearning  for  the  public  worship  of 
Israel;  asupreme  trust  in  Jahweh;  and  a  poetic  form 
which  is  simple,  elegant,  artistic,  and  well-balanced. 
From  their  Messiamc  ideas  and  historical  allusions, 
these  psalms  seem  to  have  been  composed  between 
the  days  of  Isaias  and  the  return  from  exile. 

(4)  Moses: — Moses  is  in  the  title  of  Ps.  xc  (Ixxxix). 
St.  Augustine  (P.  L.,  XXXVII,  1141)  does  not  admit 
Mosaic  authorship;  St.  Jerome  (P.  L.,  XXII,  1167) 
does.  The  author  imitates  the  songs  of  Moses  in 
Deut.,  xxxii  and  xxxiii;  this  imitation  may  be  the 
reason  of  the  title. 

(5)  Solomon: — Solomon  is  in  the  titles  to  Pss.  Ixxii 
and  cxxvii  Qxxi  and  cxxvi),  probably  for  a  similar 
reason. 

(6)  Ethan: — ^Ethan,  in  the  title  of  Ps.  Ixxxix 
Gxxxviii),  should  probably  be  Idiihun,  The  Psalter 
of  Iditkun,  or  YediUkdn,  contained  also  Pss.  xxxix, 
bdi,  Ixxvii  (xxxviii,  Ixi,  Ixxvi). 

C.  WUneBs  of  the  New  Testament, -To  Catholics, 
believing  as  they  do  fully  in  the  Divinity  of  Christ  and 
inerrancy  of  Holy  Writ,  New  Testament  citations 
render  Pss.  ii,  xvi,  x*xii,  xxxv,  Ixix,  cix,  ex  (ii,  xv.  xxxi, 
xxxiv,  Ixviii,  cviii,  cix)  Davidic  without  the  shadow  of 
a  doubt.  When  the  Pharisees  said  that  the  Christ 
was  the  Son  of  David,  Jesus  put  them  the  question: 
'*  How  then  doth  David  in  spirit  call  him  Lord,  saying: 


PSALMS 


539 


PSALMS 


rhe  Lord  said  to  my  Lord"  (cf.  Matt.,  xxii,  43-45; 
Mark,  !}di,  36-37;  Luke,  xx,  42-44;  Pa.  ex,  1).  There 
can  be  here  no  question  of  the  name  of  a  collection 
"of  David".  Nor. is  there  ouestion  of  a  collection 
when  St.  Peter,  on  the  first  rentecost  in  Jerusalem, 
says:  "For  David  ascended  not  into  heaven:  but  he 
himself  said:  The  Lord  said  to  my  Lord  etc.''  (Acts, 
ii,  34).  Davidic  authorship  is  meant  by  Peter,  when 
he  cites  Pss.  bdx  (Ixviii),  26,  cix  (cviii),  8,  and  ii,  1-2 
as  "from  the  mouth  of  David"  (Acts,  i,  16;  iv,  25). 
And  when  the  chief  Apostle  has  quoted  Ps.  xvi  (xv), 
^11.  as  the  words  of  David,  he  expl^ns  how  these 
woras  were  intended  by  the  dead  patriarch  as  a 

frophecy  of  centuries  to'come  (Acts,  li,  25-32).  St. 
'auFs  testimony  is  conclusive,  when  he  (Rom.,  iv,  6: 
xi;  9)  assigns  to  David  parts  of  Pss.  xxxii,  xxxv,  ana 
box  (xxxi,  xxxiv,  Ixviii).  A  non-Catholic  might  object 
that  St.  Paul  refers  to  a  collection  called  DaVid", 
especially  as  such  a  collection  seems  clearly  meant  by 
"in  David",  ii^  A«yeW  of  Heb.,  iv,  7.  We  answer, 
that  this  is  an  evasion:  had  St.  Paul  meant  a  collec- 
tion, he  would  have  dictated  iv  Aav€l$  in  the  letter  to 
the  Romans. 

D.  The  Critics  incline  to  do  away  with  all  question 
of  Davidic  authorship.  Briggs  says:  "It  is  evident 
from  the  internal  character  of  these  psalms,  with  a 
few  possible  exceptions,  that  David  could  not  have 
written  them"  (Psalms,  p.  Ixi).  Ewald  allows  that 
this  internal  evidence  shows  David  to  have  written 
Pss.  iii,  iv,  vii,  xi,  xv,  xviii,  first  part  of  xix,  xxiv, 
xxix,  xxxii,  ci  (iii,  iv,  vii,  xi,  xiv,  xvii,  xxiii,  xxviii, 
xxxi,  c). 

IV.  Canonictty. — A.  The  Christian  Canon  of  the 
Psalms  presents  no  difficulty;  all  Christians  admit 
into  their  canon  the  150  psalms  of  the  Canon  of  Trent; 
all  reject  Ps.  cli  of  the  Septuagint,  probably  a  Macha^ 
bean  addition  to  the  canon. 

B.  The  Jewish  Canon  presents  a  vexing  problem. 
How  has  the  Psalter  been  evolved?  The  traditional 
Jewish  opinion,  generally  defended  by  C^athoUc 
scholars,  is  that  not  only  the  Jewish  Canon  of  the 
Psalms  but  the  entire  Palestinian  Canon  of  the  Old 
Testament  was  practicallv  closed  during  the  time  of 
Esdras  (see  Canon).  This  traditional  opinion  is 
probable;  for  the  arguments  in  its  favour,  cf.  Comety, 
"Introductio  Generalis  in  N.  T.  Libros",  I  (Pans, 
1894),  42. 

(1)  The  Critical  View: — ^These  arguments  are  not 
all  admitted  by  the  critics.  Says  Driver:  "For 
the  opinion  that  the  Canon  of  the  Old  Testament  waa 
closed  by  Ezra,  or  his  associates,  there  is  no  foundation 
in  antiquity  whatever"  ("Introduction  to  the 'Litera- 
ture of  the  Old  Testament",  New  York,  1892,  p. 
x).  In  regard  to  the  Psalms  Wellhausen  says: 
"Since  the  Psalter  is  the  hymn-book  of  the  congrega- 
tion of  the  Second  Temple,  the  question  is  not  whether 
it  contains  any  post-exilic  psalms,  but  whether  it 
contains  any  pre-exilic  psiums"  (Bleek's  "Intro- 
duction", ed.  1876,  507).  Hitzig  ("Begriff  der 
Kritik",  1831)  deems  that  Books  Ill-V  are  entirely 
Machabean  (168-135  b.  c).  Olshausen  ("Die 
Psalmen",  1853)  brings  some  of  these  psalms  down 
to  the  Hasmonsean  d3masty,  and  the  reign  of  John 
Hyrcanus  (135-105  b.  c).  Duhm  ("Die  Psahnen", 
1899,  p.  xxi)  allows  very  few  pre-Machabean  psalms, 
and  assigns  Pss.  ii,  xx,  xxi^  Ixi,  bdiii,  Ixxii,  Ixxxiv  (b), 
cxxxii  [ii,  xix,  Ix,  Ixii,  Ixxi,  Ixxxiii  (b),  cxxxi]  to  the 
reigns  of  Aristobulus  I  (105-104  b.  c.)  and  his 
brother  Alexander  Jannaus  (104-79  b.  c);  so  that 
the  Canon  of  the  Psalter  was  not  closed  till  70  b.  c. 
(p.  xxiii).  Such  extreme  views  are  not  due  to  argu- 
ments of  worth.  So  long  as  one  refuses  to  accept 
the  force  of  the  traditional  argument  in  favour  of  tne 
Esdras  Canon,  one  must  at  all  events  admit  that  the 
Jewish  Canon  of  the  Psalms  was  undoubtedly  closed 
before  the  date  of  the  Septuagint  translation.  This 
date  is  285  b.  c,  if  we  accept  the  authority  of  the 


Letter  of  Aristeas  (see  Septuagint)  ;  or,  at  the  very 
latest  132  b.  c,  the  period  at  which  Ben  Sirach  wrote, 
in  the  prologue  to  Ecclesiasticus,  that  "the  law  itselt 
and  the  prophets  and  the  rest  of  the  books  [i.  e. 
the  Hagiographa,  of  which  were  the  Psidmsj  had  been 
translated  into  Greek".  This  is  the  opinion  of 
Briggs  (p.  xii),  who  sets  the  final  redaction  of  the 
Psalter  in  the  middle  of  the  second  century  b.  c. 

The  gradual  evolution*  of  the  Book  of  Psalms  is  now 
quite  generally  taken  by  the  critics  as  a  matter  of 
course.  Their  application  of  the  principles  of  higher 
criticism  does  not  result  in  any  uniformity  of  opinion 
in  regard  to  the  various  strata  of  the  Psalter.  We 
shall  present  these  strata  as  they  are  indicated  by 
Prof.  Briggs,  probably  the  least  rash  of  those  who 
have  lately  published  what  are  called  "critical  edi- 
tions" of  the  Psalms.  His  method  of  criticism  is  the 
usual  one;  by  a  rather  subjective  standard  of  in- 
ternal evidence,  he  carves  up  some  psidms,  patches 
up  others,  throws  out  portions  of  others,  and  "edits" 
all.  He  assigns  seven  psalms  to  the  early  Hebrew 
monarchy;  seven  to  the  middle  monarchy;  thirteen 
to  the  late  monarchy:  thirteen  to  the  time  of  exile; 
thirtv-three  to  the  early  Persian  period ;  sixteen  to  the 
middle  Persian  period-  (the  times  of  Nehemias) ;  eleven 
to  the  late  Persian  period;  "the  great  ro^aJ  advent 
psalm"  (Pss.  xciii,  xcvi-c)  together  with  eirfit  others 
to  the  early  Greek  period  (beginning  with  Alexander's 
conquest);  forty-two  to  the  late  Greek  period,  and 
to  the  Machabean  period  Pss.  xxxiii,  cii  (b).  cix  (b). 
cx^,  cxxxix  (c),  cxxix  of  the  Pilgrim  Psalter  ana 
cxlvii,  cxlix  of  the  Hallels. 

Of  these  psalms  and  portions  of  psalms,  according 
to  Briggs,  thirty-one  are  "psalms  apart",  that  is., 
never  were  incorporated  into  a  Psalte^  before  the  pres- 
ent canonical  redaction  was  issued.  The  rest  were 
edited  in  two  or  moro  of  the  twelve  Psalters  which 
mark  the  evolution  of  the  Book  of  Psalms.  The 
earliest  collection  of  psalms  was  made  up  of  seven 
Mikhtdrntnif  "golden  pieces",  of  the  middle  Persian 
period.  In  the  late  Persian  period  thirteen  MaskUtm 
wero  put  together  as  a  collection  of  meditations. 
At  the  same  time,  seventy-two  psalms  wero  edited, 
as  a  praver-book  for  use  in  the  synagogue,  under  the 
name  of  "David";  of  these  thirteen  have  in  their 
.titles  roferonces  to  David's  life,  and  are  thought  to 
have  formed  a  previous  collection  by  themselves. 
In  the  early  Greek  period  in  Palestine,  eleven  psalms 
were  gathered  into  the  minor  psalter  entitled  the 
"Sons  of  Korat". 

About  the  same  time  in  Babylonia,  twelve  psalms 
were  made  into  a  Psalter  entitled  "Asaph".  Not 
long  thereafter,  in  the  same  period,  the  exilic  Ps. 
Ixxxviii,  together  with  two  orphan  Pss.,  Ixvi  and 
Ixvii,  were  edited  along  with  selections  from  "David, " 
"Sons  of  Korab",  and  "Asaph",  for  public  worship 
of  song  in  the  synagogue;  the  name  of  this  psalter 
was  "Mizmortm".  A  major  psalter,  the  Elohist, 
Pss.  xlii-lxxxiii  (xli-lxxxii),  is  supposed  to  have  been 
made  up,  in  Babylonia,  during  the  middle  Greek 
period,,  of  selections  from  "David",  "Kora^J", 
''Asaph"  and  "MizmSilm";  the  name  is  due  to  the 
use  of  Elohim  and  avoidance  of  Jahweh  in  these 
psalms.  About  the  same  time,  in  Palestine,  a  prayer- 
Dook  was  made  up  of  54  from  "MizmSrlm".  16 
psalms  from  "Davia",  4  from  "Korah",  and  1  irom 
"Asaph";,  this  major  psalter  bore  the  name  of  the 
"Director".  The  Hallels,  or  AUeluiatic  songs  of 
praise,  were  made  up  into  a  psalter  for  temple  service 
in  the  Greek  perioa.  These  psalms  have  halleluyah 
(Praise  ye  Yah)  either  at  the  beginning  (Pss.  cxi, 
cxii),  or  at  the  close  (Pss.  civ,  cv,  cxv,  cxvii),  or  at 
both  the  beginning  and  close  (Pss.  cvi,  cxiii,  cxxxv, 
cxlvi-cl).  The  Septuagint  gives  'AXXiyXoiJia  also  at 
the  beginning  of  Pss.  cv,  cvii.  cxiv,  cxvi,  cxix,  cxxxvi. 
Briggs  includes  as  Hallels  all  these  except  cxviii  and 
cxix,  "the  former  being  a  triumphal  Macnabean  song, 


PSALMS 


540 


PSALMS 


the  latter  the  great  alphabetic  praise  of  the  law''. 
A  like  minor  psalter  of  the  Greek  period  was  the 
"Pilgrim  Psalter"  (Pss.  cxx-cxxxiv),  a  collection  of 
"Songs  of  Pilgrimage"^  the  "Songp  of  Ascents",  or 
"Gradual  Psalms",  which  the  pilgrims  chanted  while 
going  up  to  Jerusalem  for  the  three  great  feasts. 

(2)  The  Catholic  View: — So  extensive  an  applica- 
tion of  divisive  criticism  to  the  Psalter  does  not  meet 
the  approval  of  Catholic  exegetes.  Successive  redac- 
tion of  the  Psalms  they  readily  admit,  provided  the 
doctrine  of  the  inspiration  of  Holy  Writ  be  not 
impugned.  The  doctrine  of  inspiration  'i^fis,  regard 
to  the  Psalms  as  they  now  stand  in  the  canoh^  .and 
does  not  impede  a  Catholic  from  admitting  variotu 
redactions  of  the  Psalter  previous  to  our  present 
redaction;  in  fact,  even  uninspired  liturgical  redac- 
tion of  the  inspired  Psalms  would  not  be  contrary  to 
what  the  Church  teaches  in  the  matter  of  inspiration, 
so  long  as  the  redactor  had  preserved  intact  and  ab- 
solutely unaltered  the  inspired  meaning  of  the 
Sacred  Text.  The  Biblical  Commission  (1  May, 
1910)  will  not  allow  that  our  present  redaction  con- 
tains many  Machabean  psalms;  nor  will  Driver, 
Delitzsch,  Perowne,  Renan,  and  many  other  critical 
scholars.  "Had  so  many  psalms  dated  from  this 
age,  it  is  difficult  not  to  think  that  they  would  have 
borne  more  prominent  marks  of  it  in  their  diction  and 
style"  (Driver,  "Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  the 
Old  Testament".  New  York,  1892,  365).  Pss.  xliv, 
Ixxiv,  Ixxix,  and  Ixxxiii,  which  Delitzsch  and  Perowne 
on  historical  grounds  admit  to  be  Machabean,  oc- 
casion to  Davison  (Hastings,  "Diet,  of  the  Bible", 
IV,  152)  "unquestionable  difficulties  arising  from 
their  place  in  tlie  second  and  third  books".  There 
are  no  certain  proofs  that  these  or  any  psalms  are 
Machabean.  The  Biblical  Commission  does  not, 
on  this  account,  deny  any  of  the  psalms  are 
Machabean;  it  leaves  that  question  still  open.  In 
the  matter  of  redaction,  it  allows  that  "for  liturgical 
or  musical  or  other  unknown  reasons,  psalms  may 
have  been  split  up  or  joined  together"  in  course  of 
time;  and  that  "there  are  other  psalms,  like  the 
Miserere  mei,  Deus  [Ps.  lij,  which,  in  order  that  they 
might  be  better  fitted  to  the  historical  circumstances 
and  the  solemnities  of  the  Jewish  people,  were 
sli^tly  re-edited  and  changed  by  the  omission  or- 
addition  of  a  verse  or  two,  so  long  as  the  inspiration 
of  the  entire  text  remains  intact   .    Tliat  is  the  im- 

S>rtant  thing;  the  doctrine  of  the  inspiration  of 
olv  Writ  must  not  suffer  in  the  least.  How,  then, 
is  the  doctrine  of  the  inspiration  of  the  entire  text 
kept  intact?  Were  the  previous  redactors  inspired? 
Nothing  has  been  determined  by  any  authority  of 
the  Church  in  these  matters.  We  incline  to  the  opin- 
ion that  God  inspired  the  meanings  of  the  Psalms  as 
originally  written,  and  in  like  manner  inspired  every 
redactor  who  gathered  and  edited  tHese  songs  of 
Israel  imtil  the  last  inspired  redactor  set  them  to- 
gether in  their  present  form. 

V.  Text. — ^The  Psalms  were  ori^nally  written  in 
Hebrew  letters,  such  as  we  see  only  on  coins  and  in  a 
few  lapidary  inscriptions;  the  text  has  come  down 
to  us  m  square  Aramaic  letters.    Only  the  versions 

g've  us  any  idea  of  the  pre-Massoretic  text.  Thus 
r  no  pre-Massoretic  MS.  of  the  Psalms  has  been 
discovered.  The  Massoretic  text  has  been  preserved 
in  more  than  3400  MSS.,  of  which  none  is  earlier 
than  the  ninth  century  ana  only  nine  or  ten  are  earlier 
than  the  twelfth  (see  Manuscripts  op  the  Bible). 
These  Massoretic  MSS.  represent  two  slightly  variant 
families  of  one  tradition— the  texts  of  Ben  Asher  and 
of  Ben  Naftali.  Their  variations  are  of  little  moment 
in  the  interpretation  of  the  Psalms.  The  study  of 
the  rh3rthmic  structure  of  the  Psalms,  together  with 
the  variations  between  Massorah  and  the  versions, 
have  made  it  clear  that  our  Hebrew  text  is  far  from 
perfect,  and  that  its  points  are  often  wrong.    The 


efforts  of  critics  to  perfect  the  text  are  at  times  due 
to  no  more  than  a  shrewd  surmise.  The  metrical 
mould  is  chosen;  then  the  psalm  is  forcibly  adapted 
to  it.  It  were  better  to  leave  the  text  in  its  imperfect 
condition  than  to  render  it  worse  by  guese-work. 
The  decree  of  the  Biblical  Commission  is  aimed  at 
those  to  whom  the  imperfections  in  the  Massoretic 
Text  are  an  occasion,  though  no  excuse,  for  countless 
conjectural  emendations,  at  times  wild  and  fanciful, 
which  nowadays  pass  current  as  critical  exegesis  of 
the  Psalms. 

'  VI.  Versions. — A.  Greek. — The  chief  version  of 
the  Psalms  is  the  Septuagint.  It  is  preserved  to  us  in 
Cod.  U,  Brit.  Mus.  Pap.  37,  seventh  century,  con- 
iainixig  Pss.  x-xxxiii;  Leipzig  P&P-i  fourth  century, 
containing  Pss.  xxix-liv;  K ,  Cod.  oinaiticus,  fourUi 
century,  complete;  B,  Cod.  Vaticanus,  fourth  cen- 
tury, complete^  except  Pss.  cv,  27-cxxxvii,  6;  A, 
Cod.  Alexandnnus,  nfth  century,  complete  except 
Pss.  xlix,  19^lxxvi,  10;  I,  Cod.  Bodleianus,  ninth 
centuiy,  complete;  and  in  many  other  later  MSS. 
The  ^ptuagmt  Version  is  of  ^at  value  in  the 
exegesis  of  me  Psalms.  It  provides  pre-Massoretic 
readings  which  are  clearly  preferable  to  those  of  the 
Massorette.  It  brings  us  Dack  to  a  text  at  least  of  the 
second  century  b.  c.  In  spite  of  a  seeming  servility 
to  words  and  to  Hebrew  constructions,  a  servility  that 
probably  existed  in  the  Alexandrian  Greek  of  the  Jews 
of  the  period,  the  Septuasint  translator  of  psalma 
shows  an  excellent  knowledge  of  Hebrew,  and  fears 
not  to  deiMut  from  the  letter  and  to  gfve  the  meaning 
of  his  original.  The  second-century  a.  d.  Greek  ver- 
sions of  Aquila,  Symmachus,and  Theodotion  are  extant 
in  only  a  few  fragments ;  these  fragments  ajre  witnesses 
to  a  text  pretty  much  the  same  as  our  Massoretic. 

B.  Latin. — ^About  the  middle  of  the  secoild  century 
the  Septuagint  Psalter  was  translated  into  liatin.  Of 
this  Old  Latin,  or  Itala,  Version  we  have  only  a  few 
MSS.  and  the  citations  by  the  early  Latin  Fathers. 
At  the  request  of  Pope  St.  Damasus  I,  a.  d.  3S3,  St. 
Jerome  revised  the  Itala  and  brought  it  back  <  closer 
to  the  S^tuagint.  His  revision  was  soon  so  disl^rted 
that  he  complained,  "plus  antiouum  errorem  cuam 
novam  emendationem  valere"  (P.  L.,  XXIX,  *17). 
This  is  St.  Jerome's  "Roman  Psalter":  it  is  us^  in 
the  recitation  of  the  Office  in  St.  Peters,  Rome,  \and 
in  the  Missal.  The  corruption  of  his  first  translation 
led  St.  Jerome  to  undertake  an  entirely  new  transla- 
tion of  the  Hexapla  edition  of  the  Septuagint.  j9e 
worked  with  great  care,  in  Bethlehem,  some  time  ~ 
fore  A.  D.  392.  He  indicated  by  asterisks  the  parts  of 
Hebrew  text  which  had  been  omitted  by  the  Septuj 
gint  and  were  borrowed  by  him  from  Theodotion ;  L- 
marked  with  the  obelus  (-«-)  the  parts  of  the  Sep- 
tuagint which  were  not  in  the  Hebrew.  These  crit- 
ical marks  came  in  course  of  time  to  be  utterly  ne' 
fleeted.  This  translation  is  the  "Galilean  Psalter"^ 
It  is  part  of  the  Vulgate.  A  third  Latin  translation  oi 
the  Psalms,  made  from  the  Hebrew  Text^  with 
Origen's  Hexapla  and  the  other  ancient  versions  in 
view,  was  completed  by  St.  Jerome  about  the  end  of 
the  fourth  century  at  Bethlehem.  This  version  is  of 
great  worth  in  the  study  of  the  Psalter.  Dr.  Briggs 
says:  "Where  it  differs  from  H.  and  G.,  its  evidence 
is  especially  valuable  as  giving  the  opinion  of  the  best 
Bibhcal  scholar  of  ancient  times  as  to  the  ori^nal  text, 
based  on  the  use  of  a  wealth  of  critical  matenal  vastly 
greater  than  that  in  the  possession  of  any  other  critic, 
earlier  or  later"  (p.  xxxii). 

C. — For  other  translations,  see  Versionb  op  the 
Bible;  Rhymed  Bibles. 

VII.  Poetic  Form. — A.  ParaUdism  (q.  v.)  is  the 
principle  of  balance  which  is  admitted  by  all  to  be 
the  most  characteristic  and  essential  feature  of  the 
poetic  form  of  the  Psalms.  By  synonymous,  synthetic, 
antithetic,  emblematic,  stair-like,  or  introverted 
parallelism,  thought  is  balanced  with  thought,  line 


PSALBS8 


541 


PSALBIS 


with  line,  couplet  with  couplet,  strophe  with  antis- 
trophe,  in  the  lyric  upbuilding  of  the  poetic  picture 
or  imprecation  or  exhortation. 

B.  Metre, — Is  there  metre  in  the  Psalms?  The 
Jews  of  the  first  century  a.  d.  thought  so.  Flavins 
Josephus  speaks  of  the  hexameters  of  Moses  (Antiq., 
II,  xvi,  4:  IV,  viii.  44)  and  the  trimeters  and  tetram- 
eters and  manifold  meters  of  the  odes  and  hymns 
of  David  (Antiq.,  VII,  xii,  3).  Philo  says  that  Moses 
had  learned  the  '* theory  of  rhythm  and  harmony'' 
(De  vita  Mosis,  I,  5).  Early  Christian  writers  voice 
the  same  opinion.  Origen  (d.  254)  says  the  Psalms  are 
in  trimeters  and  tetrameters  (In  Ps.  cxviii :  cf .  Card.  Pi- 
tra,  "Analecta  Sacra'',  II,  341) ;  and  Eusebius  (d.  340), 
in  his  ''De  praeparatione  evangetica",  XI,  5  (P.  G., 
XXI,  852),  spMsaks  of  the  same  metres  of  David.  St. 
Jerome  (420),  in  ''Prsef.  ad  Eusebii  chronicon"  (P.  L., 
XXVII.  36),  finds  iambics,  Alcaics,  and  Sapphics  in 
the  Psalter;  and,  writing  to  Paula  (P.  L.,  XXII,  442). 
he  explains  that  the  acrostic  Pss.  cxi  and  cxii  (ex  ana 
cxi)  are  made  up  of  iambic  trimeters,  whereas  the 
acrostic  Pss.  cxix  and  cxlv  (cxviii  and  cxliv)  are  iambic 
tetrameters.  Modem  exegetes  do  not  agree  in  this 
matter.  For  a  time  many  would  admit  no  metre  at 
all  in  the  Psalms.  Davison  (Hast., ''  Diet,  of  the  Bi- 
ble", s.  V.)  writes:  ''  though  metre  is  not  discernible  in 
the  Psalms,  it  does  not  follow  that  rhjrthm  is  excluded" . 
This  rhythm,  however,  "defies  analysis  and  systcm- 
atization".  Driver  ("Introd.  to  Lit.  of  O.  T.",  New 
York,  1892,  339)  admits  in  Hebrew  poetry  "no  metre 
in  the  strict  sense  of  the  term".  Exegetes  who  find 
metoe  in  the  Psalms  are  of  four  schools^according  as  they 
explain  Hebrew  metre  bv  quantity,  by  the  number  of 
syllables,  by  accent,  or  by  both  quantity  and  accent. 

(1)  Defenders  of  the  Latin  and  Greek  metrical 
standard  of  quantity  as  applied  to  Hebrew  poetry  are 
Francis  Gomarus,  in^Davidis  lyra",II  (Lyons.  1637), 
313;  Mark  Meibom,  in  "Davidis  psalmi  X'  (Am- 
sterdam, 1690)  and  in  two  other  works,  who 
claims  to  have  learned  his  system  of  Hebrew  metre  by 
Divine  revelation:  William  Jones,  " Poeseos  Asiaticte 
commentariorum"  (Leipzig,  1777),  who  tried  to  force 
Hebrew  words  into  Arabic  metres. 

(2)  The  number  of  syllables  was  taken  as  the  stand- 
ard of  metre  by  Hare,  "  Psalmorum  Uber  in  versiculos 
metrice  divisus"  (London^  1736) ;  he  made  all  feet  dis- 
syllabic, the  metre  trochaic  in  a  line  of  an  even  num- 
l>er  of  syllables,  iambic  in  a  line  of  an  odd  number  of 

Syllables.  The  Massoretic  system  was  rejected,  the 
yriac  put  in  its  stead.  This  opinion  found  chief  de- 
fence in  the  writings  of  the  learned  Innsbruck  Professor 
Gustav;  and  in  Bickell's  "Metrices  biblicse"  (Inns- 
bruck. 1879),  "Supplementum  ad  Metr.  bibl."  (Inns- 
bruck), "Cannina  veteris  testamenti  metrice" 
(1882),  "DichtunMider  Hebraer"  (1882-84).  Gerard 
Gietmann,  S.J.,  'T>e  re  metrica  Hebraeorum"  (Frei- 
burg im  Br..  1880);  A.  Rohling,  "Das  Solomonische 
Spruchbuch"  (Mainz,  1879);  H.  Les^tre,  "Le  livre 
des  DsAumes"  (Paris,  1883);  J.  Knabenbauer,  S.J.,  in 
"Job"  (Paris,  1885),  p.  18;  F.  Vigouioux,  "Manuel 
biblique",  II,  203,  have  all  followed  in  Bickell's  foot- 
steps more  or  less  closely.  Against  this  system  stand 
some  patent  facts.  The  quantity  of  a  word  is  made  to 
vanr  arbitrarily.  Hebrew  is  treated  as  Syriac,  a  late 
dialect  of  Aramaic — which  it  is  not  j  in  fact,  even  early 
Svriac  poetry  did  not  measure  its  hues  by  the  number 
of  syllables.  Lastly  the  Massorah  noted  metrical 
structure  by  accents;  at  least  sdphpdfiUc  and  athndJj^ 
indicate  complete  lines  or  two  hemistichs. 

(3)  Accent  is  the  determining  principle  of  Hebrew 
metre  according  to  C.  A.  Anton,  "Conjectura  de 
metro  HebrsBorum"  (Leipzig,  1770),  "Vindicias  dis- 
put.  de  metr.  Hebr."  (Leipzig,  1771),  "Specimen  edi- 
tionis  psalmorum"  (Vitebsk,  1780):  I^utwein, 
"Versuch  einer  richtigen  Theorie  von  tier  biblischen 
Verkunst"  (1776);  Ernst  Meier,  "Die  Form  der 
hebrfiischen  Poesienachgewiesen"  (Tubingen,  1853); 


Julius  Ley,  "  Die  Metrischen  Formen  der  hebraischen 
Poesie"  (Leipzig,  1886);  "Ueber  die  Alliteration  im 
Hebraischen"  m  "Zeitsch.  d.  Deutsch.  Mor^n- 
landisch.  Ges.",  XX,  180;  J.  K.  Zenner,  S.J.,  "Die 
Chorgesange  im  Buche  der  Psalmen"  (Freiburg  im 
Br.,  1896),  and  in  many  contributions  to  "Zeitsch.  fiir 
kathol.  Theol.",  1891,  690:  1895,  373;  1896,  168, 
369,  378,  671,  754;  Hontheim,  S.J.,  in  "Zeitsch.  fiir 
kathol.  Theol.",  1897,  338,  560,  738;  1898,  172,  404, 
749:  1899,  167;  Dr.  C.  A.  Briggs,  in  "The  Book  of 
Psalms",  in  "International  Critical  Commentary" 
(New  York,  1906),  p.  xxxix,  and  in  many  other  pubUca- 
tions  therein  enumerated;  Francis  Brown.  "  Measures 
of  Hebrew  Poetry"  in  "Journal  of  Biblical  Litera- 
ture", IX,  91;  C.  H.  Toy,  "Proverbs"  in  "Intemat. 
Crit.  Comm."  (1899);  W.  R.  Harper,  "Amos  and 
Hosea"  in  "Intemat.  Crit.  Comm.'^(1905);  Cheyne, 
"Psahns"  (New  York),  1892;  Duhm,  "Die  Psalmen'* 
(Freiburg  im  Br.,  1899),  p.  xxx.  This  theory  is  the  best 
working  hypothesis  together  with  the  all-essential 

Rrinciple  of  parallelism;  it  does  far  less  violence  to  the 
lassoretic  Text  than  either  of  the  foregoing  theories. 
It  does  not  force  the  Massoretic  syllables  into  grooves 
that  are  Latin,  Greek,  Arabic,  or  Aramaic.  It  is  inde- 
pendent of  the  shifting  of  accent;  and  postulates  just 
one  thin^,  a  fixed  and  harmonious  number  of  accents 
to  the  hne.  regardless  of  the  number  of  syllables 
therein.  Tnis  theory  of  a  tonic  and  not  a  syllabic 
metre  has  this,  too,  in  its  favour  that  accent  is  the 
determining  principle  in  ancient  Egyptian,  Babylo- 
nian, and  AoByrian  poetry. 

(4)  Of  recent  years  the  pendulum  of  Hebrew  met- 
rical theories  has  swung  back  upon  quantity;  the 
syllabic  must  not  be  utterly  neglected.  Hubert 
Urimme.  in  "Grundziige  der  Hebraischen  Akzent- 
und  Vokallehre",  Freiburg,  1896,  and  "Psalmen- 
probleme'  '(1902),  builds  up  the  metre  chiefly  upon 
the  tonic  principle,  at  the  same  time  taking  into  ac- 
count the  mora  or  pauses  due  to  quantitv.  Schlogl, 
"De  re  metrica  veterum  Hebraeorum  (Vienna, 
1899),  defends  Grimme's  theory.  Sievers,  "  Metrische 
Studien"  (1901),  also  takes  m  the  unaccented  syl- 
lables for  metrical  consideration;  so  does  Baethgen, 
"Die  Psalmen"  (Gottingen,  1904),  p.  xxvii. 

C.  Other  CharcuUerisiics. — Alliteration  and  asso- 
nance are  frequent.  Acrostic  or  alphabetic  psalms  are 
ix-x,  XXV,  xxxiv,  xxxvii,  cxi,  cxii.  cxix,  cxlv  (ix,  xxiv, 
xxxiii.  xxxvi,  ex,  cxi,  cxviii,  cxliv).  The  letters  of  the 
alphaoet  begin  successive  unes.  couplets^  or  strophes. 
In  Ps.  cxix  (cxviii)  the  same  letter  begins  eight  suc- 
cessive lines  in  each  of  the  twenty-two  alphabetic 
strophes.  In  Pss.  xiii,  xxix,  bdi,  cxlviii,  and  cl  (xii, 
xxviii,  Ixi,  cxlvii,  and  cxlix)  the  same  word  or  words 
are  repeated  many  times.  Rhymes,  by  repetition  of 
the  same  suffix,  are  in  Pss.  ii,  xiii,  xxvii,  xxx,  liv.  Iv, 
cxlii,  etc.  (ii,  xii,  xxvi,  xxix,  liii,  liv,  cxU,  etc.);  these 
rhymes  occur  at  the  ends  of  lines  and  in  csesural 
pauses.  Lines  were  ^uped  into  strophes  and  antis- 
trophes,  commonly  m  pairs  and  triplets,  rarely  in 
greater  multiples;  at  times  an  independent  strophe, 
uke  the  epode  of  the  Greek  chorus,  was  used  between 
one  or  more  strophes  and  the  corresponding  antie- 

trophes.     The  word  Selah  {<^\^)  almost  invariably 

marks  the  end  of  a.strophe.  The  meaning  of  this  word 
and  its  purpose  is  still  a  moot  question.    We  think  it 

was  originally  nVj5  (from^^D,  "to  throw"),  and  meant 

"a  throwing  down",  "a  prostration".  During  the 
antiphonal  cantilation  of  the  Psalms,  the  priests  blew 
their  trumpets  to  mark  the  end  of  a  strophe,  and  at  the 
signal  the  two  choirs  or  the  people  or  both  choirs  and 
people  prostrated  themselves  (cf.  Haupt,  "Expository 
Times'',  May,  1911).  The  principle  of  parallelism 
dcjtermined  these  atrophic  arrangements  of  the  lines. 
Koster,  in  "Die  Psalmen  nach  ihrer  strophischen 
Anordnung"  (1837),  distinguishes  various  kinds  of 
strophic  parallelism,  corresponding  to  various  kinds  of 


PSALMS 


542 


PSALMS 


parallelism  in  lines  and  half-lines,  synonymous,  anti- 
thetical, synthetic,  identical,  introverted.  Zenner,  S. J., 
in  his  "Chorgesange  im  Buche  der  Psalmen"  (Frei- 
burg im  Br.,  1896),  has  very  cleverly  arranged  many 
of  the  psalms  as  choral  odes,  chanted  by  two  or  three 
choirs.  Hermann  Wiesmann,  S. J.,  in'^Die  Psalmen  nach 
dem  Urtext"  (Miinster,  1906),  has  applied  the  met- 
rical principles  of  Zenner,  and  revised  cmd  published 
the  latter's  translations  and  studies  of  the  Psalms. 
This  work  takes  too  great  liberty  with  the  Sacred 
Text,  and  has  lately  (1911)  been  put  on  the  Index. 

VIII.  Poetic  Bbaxtty. — ^The  extravagant  words  of 
Lamartinein  ''Voyage  en  Orient''  are  classic:  ''Lisez 
de  I'Horace  ou  du  Pindare  aprte  un  Psaume!  Pour 
moi,  je  ne  le  peux  plus".  One  wonders  whether 
Lamartine  ever  read  a  psalm  in  the  original.  To 
criticise  the  Psalms  as  literature  ia  very  difficult. 
Their  text  has  reached  us  with  many  losses  m  the  mat- 
ter of  poetic  form.  The  authors  varied  much  in  style. 
Their  literary  beauty  should  not  be  judged  by  com- 
parison with  the  poetry  of  Horace  and  Pmdar.  It  is 
with  the  hymns  of  ancient  Egypt,  Babylon,  and 
Assyria  that  we  should  compare  tne  songs  of  Israel. 
Those  ancient  hymns  are  crude  and  rude  by  the  side 
of  the  Psalms.  Even  the  imprecatory  Pss.  xviii, 
"xxxv,  lii,  lix,  bdx^  oix,  cxxxvii  (xvii,  xxxiv,  li,  Iviii, 
Ixviii,  cviii,  cxxxvi).  those  national  anthems  so  full  of 
love  of  Jahweh  and  of  Israel  and  almost  startling  in 
their  hatred  of  the  foes  of  Jahweh  and  of  Israel,  if 
read  from  the  viewpoint  of  the  writers,  are  sublime, 
vivid,  glowing,  enthusiastic,  though  exaggerated, 
poetic  outbursts,  instances  of  a  '' higher  seriousness 
and  a  higher  truthfulness",  such  as  Aristotle  never 
^ould  have  found  in  a  song  of  Babylonia  or  of  Su- 
meria.  Whether  their  tones  are  those  of  praise  or 
blame,  of  sorrow  or  of  joy,  of  humiliation  or  of  exalta- 
tion, of  deep  meditation  or  of  didactic  dogmatism, 
ever  and  everywhere  the  writers  of  the  PwJms  are 
dignified  and  grand,  true  to  the  ideals  of  Jahweh's 
chosen  folk,  spiritual  and  devotional.  The  range  of 
thought  is  immense.  It  takes  in  Jahweh,  His  temple, 
cult,  priests,  creation;  man,  friend  and  foe:  beasts, 
birds;  all  nature,  animate  and  inanimate.  The  range 
of  emotions  is  complete;  every  emotion  of  man  that  is 
pure  and  noble  has  been  set  to  words  in  the  Ps^ms. 
As  an  instance  of  poetic  beauty,  we  subjoin  the  famous 
Ps.  xxiii  (xxii),  translated  from  the  Hebrew.  The 
poet  first  speaks  in  his  own  person,  then  in  the  guise 
of  the  sheep.  The  repetition  of  the  first  couplet  as  an 
envoi  IB  suggested  by  Zenner  and  many  commenta- 
tors, to  complete  the  envelope-form  of  the  poem,  or 
the  introverted  parallelism  of  the  strophic  structorc: 
The  Poet:  1.   Jahweh  is  my  Shepherd; 

I  have  no  want. 
The  Sheep:  2.   In  pastures  of  tender  grass  he  set- 

teth  me; 

Unto  still  waters  he  leadeth  me ; 

3.  He  tumeth  me  back  again ; 

He  guideth  me  along  right  paths  for 
his  own  name's  sake. 

4.  Yea,  though  I  walk  throuRh  the  vale 

of  the  shadow  of  death, 
I  fear  no  harmj 
For  thou  art  with  me; 
Thy  bludgeon  and  thy  staff,  they 

stay  me. 

5.  Thou  settest  food  before  me. 
In  the  presence  of  my  foes; 

Thou  has  anointed  my  heaa  with  oil ; 
My  trough  runneth  over. 
The  Poet:  6.  Aii,  goodness  and  mercy  have  fol- 
lowed me 
AH  the  days  of  my  life; 
I  will  go  back  to  the  house  of  Jahweh 
Even  for  the  length  of  my  days. 
Jahweh  is  my  Shepherd; 
I  have  no  want! 


IX.  Theological  Value. — ^The  theological  ideas 
of  the  Psalms  are  comprehensive;  the  existence  and 
attributes  of  God,  the  soul's  yearning  for  immortality, 
the  economy  of  srace  and  the  virtues,  death,  judg- 
ment, heaven,  heO,  hope  of  resurrection  and  ot  glory, 
fear  of  pimishment — all  the  main  dogmatic  truths  of 
Israel's  faith  appear  again  and  again  in  her  Psalter. 
These  truths  are  set  down  not  in  dogmatic  form,  but 
now  in  the  simple  and  childlike  lyric  yearning  of  the 
ingenuous  soul,  again  in  the  loftiest  and  most  vehe- 
ment outbursts  of  which  man's  nature  is  capable. 
The  Psalms  are  at  once  most  human  and  most  super- 
human; they  sink  to  the  lowest  depths  of  the  human 
heart  and  soar  to  the  topmost  heignts  of  Divine  con- 
templation. So  very  human  are  the  imprecatory 
psalms  as  to  make  some  to  wonder  how  they  can  have 
been  inspired  of  God.  Surely  Jahweh  cannot  have 
inspired  the  singer  who  prayed : 

''As  for  them  that  plan  my  soul  to  destroy, 
Down  to  the  depths  of  the  earth  shall  they  go; 

To  the  grasp  of  the  sword  shall  they  be  delivered; 
A  prey  to  the  jackals  shall  they  become". 

[Ps.  Ixiii  (Ixii),  10-11.] 
Such  an  objection  is  based  upon  a  misunderstanding. 
The  perfection  of  the  counsels  of  Christ  is  one  thing, 
the  aim  of  the  good  Levite  is  ouite  another  thing. 
The  ideals  of  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount  are  of  higher 
spiritualitv  than  are  the  ideals  of  the  imprecatory 
psalm.  Yet  the  ideals  of  the  imprecatory  psalm  are 
not  bad — nay,  are  good,  are  Divine  in  their  origin  and 
authority.  The  imprecatory  psalms  are  national  an- 
thems; they  express  a  nation's  wrath,  not  an  individ- 
ual's. Humility  and  meekness  and  forgiveness  of  foe 
are  virtues  in  an  individual;  not  necessarily  so  of  a 
nation;  by  no  means  so  of  the  Chosen  Nation  of  Jah- 
weh, the  people  who  knew  by  revelation  that  Jahweh 
willed  they  snould  be  a  great  nation  and  should  put 
out  their  enemies  from  the  land  which  He  gave  them. 
Their  great  national  love  for  their  own  people  postu- 
lated a  great  national  love  for  Jahweh.  The  love  for 
Jahweh  postulated  a  hatred  of  the  foes  of  Jahweh,  and, 
in  the  theocratic  economy  of  the  Jewish  folk,  the  foes 
of  Jahweh  were  the  foes  of  Israel.  If  we  bear  this 
national  purpose  in  mind,  and  forget  not  that  all 
poetry,  and  especially  Semitic  poetry,  is  highly  col- 
oured and  exaggerated,  we  shall  not  be  shocked  at  the 
lack  of  mercy  in  the  writers  of  the  imprecatory  psalms. 

Hie  chief  theological  ideas  of  the  Psalms  are  those 
that  have  regard  to  the  Incarnation.  Are  there  Mes- 
sianic psalms?  Unaided  by  the  authentic  interpret- 
ing power  of  the  Church  and  neglectful  of  the  con- 
sensus of  the  Fathers,  Protestants  have  quite  generally 
come  to  look  upon  the  Psalms  as  non-Messianic  either 
in  Uteral  or  in  typical  meaning;  the  older  Messianic 
interpretation  is  discarded  as  worn-out  and  thread- 
bare. Delitzsch  admits  only  Ps.  ex  (cix)  to  be  Mea^ 
sianic  in  its  literal  meaning.  Cheyne  denies  both 
literal  and  i<3rpical  Messianic  meaning  to  the  Psalms 
("Origin  of  Ps.".  339).  Davison  (Hast.,  Idc.  cit.) 
says,  "it  may  well  be  that  the  Psalter  contains  hardlv 
a  single  instance  of  direct  Messianic  prophecy' . 
Catholics  have  ever  held  that  some  of  the  Psalms  are 
Messianic  in  meaning,  either  literal  or  typical.  (Cf. 
articles  Incabnation;  Jesus  Chri8T|  Messiab.)  The 
New  Testament  clearly  refers  certain  psalms  to  the 
Messias.  The  Fathers  are  unanimous  in  interpreting 
many  psalms  as  prophecies  of  the  coming,  kingdom, 

Sriesthood,  passion,  death,  and  resurrection  of  the 
iessias.  Tne  coming  of  the  Messias  is  predicted  in 
Pss.  xviii.  1,  Ixviii,  xcvi-xcviii  (xvii,  xlix,  Ixvii,  xcv- 
xcvii).  St.  Paul  (Eph.,  iv.  8)  interprets  of  Christ's 
ascent  into  heaven  the  words  of  Ps.  Ixviii,  18,  descrip- 
tive of  Jahweh's  ascent  after  conquering  the  world. 
The  kingdom  of  the  Messias  is  predictoi  in  Pss.  ii, 
xviii,  XX,  xxi,  xlv,  Ixi,  Ixxii,  Ixxxix,  ex,  cxxxii  (ii,  xvii, 
xix,  XX,  xliv,  Ix,  Ixxi,  Ixxxviii,-  cix.  cxxxi);  the  priest- 
hood in  Pb.  ox.    The  passion  and  death  of  the  Me-^''^'' 


PSALMS 


543 


P8ALTSBIUM 


are  clear  in  the  sufferings  of  the  Servant  of  Jahweh  of 
Pes.  xxii,  xl,  box  (xxi,  xxxix,  Ixviii) .  Ps.  xxii  was  used 
in  part,  perhaps  entirely,  by  Christ  on  the  Cross;  the 
Psalmist  describes  as  his  own  the  emotions  and  suffer- 
ings of  the  Messias.  Hence  it  is  that  the  Biblical 
Commission  (1  May,  1910)  rejects  the  opinion  of  those 
who  do  away  with  the  Messianic  and  prophetic  char- 
acter of  the  Psalm*  and  refer  only  to  the  future  lot  of 
the  Chosen  People  those  words  which  are  prophecies 
concerning  Christ,  a.  Maas,  "Christ  in  Type  and 
Prophecy^'  (New  York,  1893).  ,    ,    ^    . 

A.  LrruRGiCAL  Use. — A. — ^The  use  of  the  Psalms 
in  Jewish  lituiwr  has  been  spoken  of.    Cf .  also  articles 
SYNAOoauB;  Temple.— B.— Christian  liturgical  use 
of  the  Psalter  dates  from  the  time  of  Christ  and  Hia 
Apostles.    He  recited  the  Hallels  at  the  last  Pasaoverj 
Pss.  cxiii-<5xiv  before  the  Last  Supper,  Pss.  cxv-cxviu 
thereafter;  Ps.  xxii  was  His  dying  words;  authorita- 
tive citations  of  other  psalms  appear  in  His  discourses 
and  those  of  His  Apostles  (cf.  Luke,  xx.  42;  xxiv,  44; 
Acts,  i,  20) .    The  Apostles  used  the  Psalms  m  worship 
(cf.  Acts,  xvi,  25;  James,  v,  13;  I  Cor.,  xiv,  26).    The 
earliest  liturgical  service  was  taken  from  the  Psalter. 
St.  Paul  represents  the  Ephesian  Christians,  to  all 
seeming,  psalmodising,  one  choir  answering  the  other; 
"Spea^g  to  one  another  in  psalms  and  hvmns  and 
spiritual  songs,  sinsdng  and  psalmodizing  [f  dWorrw] 
in  your  hearts  to  the  Lord,  giving  thanks  [w^apiffritGrra] 
always  for  all  things"  (Eph.,  v,  19).    Probably  the 
Eucharistic  agave  is  referred  to.    A  like  reference  is  in 
Col.,  iii,  16.    St.  BasU  (P.  G.,  XXXII,  764)  speaks  of 
this  psidmodizing  in  two  choirs — dyri^dXXcir  dXX^Xocf . 
The  custom  of  psalmody,  or  antiphonal  singing,  is  said 
to  have  been  introduced  into  the  Church  of  Antioch 
by  St.  Ignatius  (Socrates,  "Hist.  Ecd.",  VI,  viii). 
from  Syria,  this  custom  of  the  Synagogue  would  seem 
to  have  passed  over  to  Palestine  and  Egypt,  to  Asia 
Minor,  Constantinople,  and  the  West.    St.  Ambrose 
was  the  first  to  inaugurate  in  the  West  the  chanting  of 
the  Psahns  by  two  choirs  (cf.  Batiffol,  "Histoire  du 
br6viaire  romain",  1893).    In  the  Proprium  de  tem- 
pore of  the  Roman  Rite,  all  the  Psalms  are  chanted  at 
least  once  a  week,  some  twice  and  oftener.    In  Matins 
and  Lauds,  according  to  the  Vulgate's  numeration, 
are  Pss.  i-cx,  excepting  a  few  that  are  fixed  for  Prime 
and  other  hours:  in  Vespers  are  Pss.  cxi-cxlvii,  ex- 
cepting a  few  nxed  for  other  hours.     The  great 
alphal^tic  praise  of  the  Law,  Ps.  cxviii,  is  distributed 
between  Prime,  Terce,  Sext,  and  None.    The  Bene- 
dictines, f^iinciscans,  Carmelites,  and  Dominicans, 
who  have  their  own  rite,  all  chant  the  Psalter  once  a 
week;  the  Jesuits  follow  the  Roman  ritual. 

In  the  Latin  Rite.  Pss.  vi,  xxxi,  xxxvii,  1,  ci,  cxxix, 
cxlii  (Douai)  have  long  been  recited,  in  the  above 
order,  as  prayers  of  sorrow  for  sin;  they  are  Ivric 
cries  of  the  sorrowing  soul  and  have  hence  oeen  called 
the  "  Penitentiial  Psalms".  Their  recitation  during 
Lent  was  ordered  by  Innocent  III  (1198-1216).  Pius 
V  (1566-72)  established  the  custom,  now  no  longer  of 
general  obligation,  whereby  these  psalms  became  a 
part  of  the  Friday  ferial  Office  of  Lent. 

The  Ambrosian  Rite,  still  used  in  Milan  cathedral, 
distributes  the  Psalms  over  two  weeks.  The  Oriental 
Rites  in  union  with  Rome  (Melchite,  Maronite,  Syr- 
iac,  Qialdean.  Coptic,  .fflthiopic,  etc.),  together  with 
the  heretical  Oriental  Churches,  all  ke^  up  the  recita- 
tion of  the  Psalter  as  their  Divine  Office. 

The  bibliography  of  the  Psalms  is  naturally  enormous  and  can 
be  given  only  in  small  part. 

Greek  Fathers:  Oriobn,  SeUcta  in  Ptalnuu  in  P.O.,  XII,  1043; 
Idbu.  Homilia  in  PtalnM  in  P.  (7..  XII,  1319;  Idbii^  Onointt 
Hexaplorum  qua  tuperaunl,  ed.  Fibld;  Edsebius,  Comm.  %n 
PtalmM  in  P.  O.,  XXIII,  66;  XXIV,  9;  St.  Athanasius,  ^pW. 
ad  MareeUinum  in  P.  G.,  XXVII,  11:  Idbm.  BzegeMM  \n  P»Mmo9 
in  P.  a.,  XXVII,  55;  Idem,  De  Tituli*  P»^^i*S!^inm  P.O., 
XXVII,  645;  &p.  Basil,  HomUia  in  P»».  in  F.  O.,  XXIX,  209; 
St.  Didtmus  or  Albxandria  in  P.  0.,  XXIX,  1155:  St.  Gbeo- 
OBY  or  NTgaA  in  P.  O.,  XLIV.  431,  608;  St.  John  CiiBTSOfrroM 
in  P.  O.,  LV,  35, 527;  St.  Ctbil  or  Albxandbia  m  P.  (?.,  LXIX, 
999;  TnoDOBvrua  in  P.  Q.,  LXXX,  857. 


Jjtiin  Fathers:  St.  Ambbobb,  BnamUionea  in  XII  PaalmoM  !n 
P.  Z*.,  XIV.  921;  St.  Jbboicb,  Uber  Paalmorum  juxia  htbraieam 
writaUm  in  P.  L..  XXVIII.  1123;  Idbii„  Excentade  PfoiUno 
(Maradaous,  1895);  Idem,  BjnatoUB  in  P.  L.,  XXII,  433.  441.  837; 
iDBii,  Brenarium  in  P*almo»  in  P.  L„  XXIVI,  821;  St.  Acgub- 
tinb.  Enarraiionea  in  Pu.  in  P.  L.,  XXXVII,  67;  Idbm.  Bx^wmiw 
in  Pu,  C-CL  in  P.  L.,  LI,  277;  Caabiodobius  in  P.  L.,  LXX,  9. 

Commentators  of  the  Middle  Ages:  Bbob,  Pbtbb  Lombabd,  Br, 
Thomab,  St.  Bonatbntubb  and  others  of  the  Middle  Ages  depend 
chiefly  upon  the  Fathers  for  their  interpretations.  Nicholab  or 
Ltba,  in  his  PtutiUa,  and  the  converted  Jew,  Paul,  Abchbibrop 
or  BuBOOs,  in  his  Additions  to  the  PoatiUa,  give  us  much  of  rab- 
binic interpretation. 

Modems:  Bbllabminb,  Sxplanatia  in  PaaltnoM  (1611),  was  by 
far  the  best  oommentator  on  the  Psalms  till  recent  times,  as  ha 
used  scientific  methods  in  textual  criticism;  Schboo,  Die  Pealmen 
(Munich,  1845) ;  Rohuno  (1871);  TBALHorsR  (Ratisbon,  1904) ; 
Woltbb,  PeaUiU  Sapienter  (Freiburg  im  Br.,  1904);  Bickbll, 
Der  Pealter  (1884);  van  Stebneistb  (1870);  Patbibi,  Cento 
Salmi  tradoUi  e  eommentali  (1875) ;  Minocbi,  /  Salmi  tradatti  del 
Teeto  Bbreo  (1895);  Lb  Hir,  Lee  Peaumee  traduita  de  VhHtreu  en 
latin  avee  la  Vidgate  en  regard  (Paris.  1876);  LEsiTRB  (Paris, 
1883);  Filuon,  Lm  Peaumea  commenlie  eelon  la  Vulgate  el 
rHH>reuJPfins,  1893);  Crampon  (1889);  Pannier  (1908); 
ZENNER-WiBaMANN,  Die  Pealmen  nach  dem  Uriext  (Mftnster, 
1906);  NiGLUTBCtf  (Trent,  1905);  Eaton,  Sing  ye  to  the  Lord 
(London.  1909);  HoBkno,  Die  Pealmen  nach  der  Vvlgata  (Frei- 
burg, 1892);   M'SwiNBT.  Pealme  and  Canticles  (St.  Louis,  1901). 

Protestants:  the  commentaries  of  db  Wettb  (1811-66); 
HrrziG  (1863-65);  Olbhauben  (1853);  HnprBU>  (1855-88); 
Ewalo  (1839-66) ;  Obutssch  (1895) ;  Duhm  (Freiburg  im  Br.. 
1899);  Babthobn  (Gdttingen.  1904);  Chbynb  (New  York, 
1892) ;  International  Critical  Commentary,  ed.  BRioas  (New  York, 
1907),  the  best  of  non-Catholic  commentators  on  the  Psalms; 
KiBKPATRicK  in  Cambridge  Bible  (1893-95). 

Walter  Drum. 

Psalmflf  Alphabetic,  are  bo  called  because  thcdr 
successive  verses,  or  successive  parallel  series,  begin 
with  the  successive  letters  of  the  alphabet.  Some  of 
these  formations  are  perfectly  regular,  others  are  more 
or  less  defective.  Among  the  regular  Alphabetic 
Psalms  must  be  reckoned  Pss.  ex.  cxi,  cxviii  (Heb., 
Pss.  cxi,  cxii,  cxix).  The  praise  ot  the  strong  woman 
in  Pro  v.,  xxxi,  1()~31,  ana  the  first  four  chapters  of 
Lamentations  exhibit  a  similar  regular  formation. 
Pss.  ex  and  cxi  consist  of  twenty-two  verses  each,  and 
each  successive  verse  begins  with  the  correjsponding 
successive  letter  of  the  alphabet.  Ps.  cxviii  consists 
of  twenty-two  strophes  containing  each  eight  dis- 
tichs;  the  successive  twenty-two  strophes  are  built 
on  the  twenty-two  letters  of  the  alphabet  in  such  a 
way  that  each  of  the  eight  distichs  of  the  first  strophe 
begins  with  the.  first  letter^  each  of  the  eight  disticha 
of  the  second  strophe  begms  with  the  second  letter, 
etc.  Prov.,  xxxi.  10,  consists  of  twenty-two  distidis, 
each  successive  oistich  beginning  with  the  successive 
corresponding  letter  of  the  alphabet.  Lam.,  i,  ii,  iv, 
consist  each  of  twenty-two  short  strophes  beginning 
with  the  successive  letters  of  the  alphabet.  In  Lam., 
iii,  each  successive  letter  of  the  alphabet  begins  three 
lines,  so  that  the  chapter  consists  of  sixty-six  lines  in 
which  each  letter  of  the  alphabet  occurs  three  times 
as  the  initiiJ  of  the  line.  Defectively  Alphabetic 
Psalsis  may  be  found  in  Pss.  ix.  xxiv,  xxxiv,  xxxyl, 
cxliv  (Heb.,  ix,  x,  xxv,  xxxvii,  cxlv).  But  the  device 
is  not  limited  to  the  Book  of  Psalms;  it  is  also  found 
in  other  poetical  portions  of  the  Old  Testament. 

ViGOUROUX,  Did,  de  la  Bible  (Paris,  1895). 

A.  J.  Maab. 

PBalterium. — ^The  PaaUerium,  or  Book  of  the 
Psahns,  only  concerns  us  here  in  so  far  as  it  was 
transcribed  and  used  for  Uturpical  purposes.  As  a 
iPftTinftl  of  private  devotion  it  has  already  been 
sufficiently  oiscussed  under  Prater-Books.  In  \U 
liturgdcal  use  the  PeaUerium  contained  the  bulk  of - 
the  Divine  Office.  The  other  books  associated  with 
it  were  the  Lectionary,  the  Antiphonary,  and  Re- 
sponsorisJe,  and  the  Hymnary.  The  PsaUerium 
contained  primarily  all  the  text  of  the  Psalms,  and 
it  may  be  noted  that  for  some  centuries  the  Western 
Church  used  two  different  Latin  versions,  both  due 
to  St.  Jerome.  The  earlier  of  these  was  a  mere  re- 
vision of  the  pre-existing  Latin  translation  which 
closely  followed  the  Septnagint.    St.  Jerome  under- 


P8AUHE  5^ 

took  this  reviHuin  in  383  ^.t  the  request  of  Pope 
DamaeuB,  and  the  text  thus  corrected  was  retained 
in  use  at  Rome  for  many  centuries  afterwards.  In 
392,  however,  when  at  Bethlehem,  the  saint  set  about 
the  same  ttlBk  much  more  seriously  with  the  ^d  of 
the  Hexapla.  He  produced  what  was  almost  a  new 
version,  and  this  being  circulated  in  Gaul,  through 
a  copy  sent  to  Tours  in  the  sixth  century,  became  com- 
monly known  aa  the  "Fsalterium  Gallicanum",  and 
in  the  end  entirely  supplanted  the  Roman.  A  pre- 
cious manuscript  at  the  Vatican  (Rijgin,  11),  of  the 
aixth  or  seventh  century,  contwns  the  "Fsalterium 
Gallicanimi"  upon  the  left-hand  page,  and  a  version 
made  from  the  Hebrew  upon  each  page  facing  it. 


t4  PSAUIO 

ouUteria  mardnal  notes  indicated  which  psalms  b^ 
longed  to  eacn  day  and  hour.  Leas  commonly  the 
pBsIms  were  not  arranged  in  their  numerical  order, 

but,  as  in  a  modem  Breviary,  according  to  the  order 
of  their  occurrence  in  the  ferial-Office.  Both  thne 
classes  of  books  were  called  pgalteria  feriata.  In 
medieval  cathedral  chapters  it  was  common  to  assign 
two  or  three  psalms  to  each  prebend  (or  daily  rr^ta- 
ticm,  the  psalms  being  so  distributed  that  the  bishop 
and  canons  got  through  the  whole  Psallerium.  be- 
tween them.  The  repetition  of  the  entire  Psalter 
was,  Bs  many  necrologies  and  monastic  custumals 
show,  a  favourite  form  of  sufTrsffe  for  the  dead. 

BRiUBiCH,  /"wilmuri,  Bibhagra^iKiier  VwnK*  Bbrr  dia 
lUltrai'clita  Bacher  da  cKrist.  AbcKiUaTuler  (Berlin,  1887): 
RiHN,   Dot    "Piailtrium   A-urtum"   con  Sand  Galitn    18l.   (i«fl. 


D    LlTTLEULU,    Tkl  Old    S 


at 


The    BancvMk 


190B>,    Z8-41;     GABOurr    *i  _    _  ..    

ILondoa,   1908):    Bisch,   TAi   Vlrrctu  FtaUrr  (LoDdon. 
Haist.   VUictU  Pnlicr  Rtpon4  (London.  1873-74). 


Herbert  Tuunt 


Bibliolhfciua  Nslion^e.  Puis 

The  Psalter  proper  is  here  followed,  as  nearly  always 
in  those  liturgical  books,  by  the  principal  canticles, 
e.  g.  the  Canticle  of  the  Three  Children,  the  Canticle 
of  Moecs  etc.  and,  what  is  not  so  general  a  feature, 
though  sometimes  found,  by  a  collection  of  faymna 
or  Hymnarium.  These  last  were  more  commonly 
written  in  a  book  apart.  The  oldest  Psalter  of  the 
British  Museum,  which  comes  from  St.  Augustine's, 
Cant«rbury,  and  which  was  long  supposed  to  have 
been  one  of  the  actual  books  brought  ny  St.  Augus- 
tine to  England,  also  contused  tne  Canticles  with 
two  or  three  hymns. 

In  other  similar  books  we  find  the  Gloria,  Credo, 
Quicunque  vult,  and  the  Litany  of  the  Sumts;  at 
tbe  beginning  usually  stands  a  calendar.  Many  of 
the  more  ancient  ■ptalUria  which  survive,  as  for  ex- 
ample the  "ftalterium  Aureum",  of  St.  Gall  an<f  the 
"Utrecht  Psalter",  both  of  them  probably  of  the 
ninth  century,  are  very  richly  illuminated  or  illus- 
trated— a  fact  which  has  probably  had  much  to  do 
with  their  preservation.  A  certain  tradition  tended 
to  estabhsh  itself  at  an  early  date  with  regard  to  the 
subjects  and  position  of  these  embellish  men  ts.  In 
particular  the  custom  spread  widely  of  dividing  the 
whole  Psalter  into  three  parts  containing  fifty  psalms 
each.  Hence  the  first  psalm,  the  fifty-first  psalm, 
and  the  hundred  and  first  psalm  are  usually  intro- 
duced by  a  full-page  miniature  or  by  a  richly-illumi- 
nated initial  letter.  Thus  also  in  penitential  codes  and 
monastic  documents  of  both  England  and  Ireland 
during  the  early  Middle  Agee.  it  is  common  to  find 
allusions  to  the  recitation  of  "two  fifties"  or  "three 
fifties",  meaning  two  or  three  of  the  divisions  of  the 
Psalter.  With  regard  t.o  Hip  Divine  Office  thP  rwita- 
tion  of  the  Psalms  was  in  primitive  times  so  arranged 
that  the  whole  Psalter  was  gone  through  in  the  course 
of  the  Sunday  and  ferial  Office  each  week.    In  many 


FMume  (also  Pbaclme,  I*iieaiiue,  Lat .  Pbalmaub), 
Nicholas,  Bishop  of  Verdun,  b.  at  Chaumont-Hur- 
Airo  in  1518;  d.  10  August,  1575,  Having  studied 
classics  at  the  Norbertine  Abbey  of  St,  Paul  at 
Verdun,  of  which  his  uncle  Fnuigois  Psaumc  was  com- 
mendatory abbot,  he  completed  a  higher  course  of 
studies  at  the  Universities  of  Paris,  Orleans,  and 
Poitiers:  and  then  entered  the  Norbertine  Abbey  of 
St.  Paul  at  Verdun.  Ordained  priest  in  1540,  he 
was  sent  to  the  University  of  Paris,  where,  after  a 
brilliant  defence  of  numerous  theses,  he  won  his 
doctorate  of  theology.  But  for  the  intrigues  of 
Francois,  Cardinal  ofPisa,  Psaumc,  who  hod  already 
been  made  Abbot  of  St.  Paul,  Verdun,  would  have 
been  elected  Abbot  General  of  Pn^montn5,  for  his 
nomination  had  already  been  confirmed  by  Francis 
I,  King  of  France.  In  1546  he  was  chosen  to  rep-  i 
resent  the  Norbertine  Order  at  the  Council  of  Trent, 
but  the  Cardinal  of  Lorraine  retained  him  and,  nilh 
the  pope's  consent,  resigned  the  Bishopric  of  Verdun 
in  favour  of  Psaume,  who  was  consecrated  bi^op. 
26  August,  1.548-  In  the  following  year  he  attended 
the  Provincial  Council  of  Trier,  and  in  the  same  year 
he  published  its  canons  and  decrees  in  his  own  dio- 
cese. He  was  also  present  at  the  General  Council  of 
Trent  from  May,  1551,  until  its  prorogation  on  28 
April,  1552,  distinguishing  himsell  by  his  eloquence 
and  learning  and  by  his  zeal  in  defence  of  the  doc- 
trine and  the  prerogatives  of  the  Church.  He  was 
active  in  condemning  certain  abuses,  especially  those 
of  the  eommenda  (see  Cohuendatorv  Abbot), 
On  2  Januan',  1552,  he  was  charged  by  the  papal  - 
legato  with  the  editing  of  the  canons  of  the  council. 
In  1562  he  returned  to  Trent,  where  the  sessions  of 
the  council  had  been  resumed.     On  both  occasions 


Reims  and  at  Verdun  in  the  some  year.  Hugo,  the 
annalist  of  the  order,  also  edited  it  in  two  parts,  but 
much  was  left  out  in  the  second  part,  Hugo's 
"Collectio"  was  edited  by  I-e  Plat  in  the  fifth  volume 
of  his  "Monumenta  Cone.  Tridentin."  ■  The  parts 
omitted  are  supplied  by  Dollinger,  "Ungedruckte 
Borichte  u.  TagebUcher  e.  Oeschicntc  d.  Koniils  v, 
Trient",  II  (Nordlingen,  1876),  p.  172.  Psaume 
was  also  requested  by  the  Archbishops  of  Reims  and 
Trier  to  co-ordinate  French  ecclesiastical  legislation 
and  make  it  agree  with  the  canons  and  decrees  of  the 
Councilor  Trent,  He  wrote  much  in  defence  of  the 
Catholic  doctrine  against  the  Calvinistic  and  Lu- 
theran heresies.  To  provide  a  sound  education  for 
youth  he  giive  financial  asslslance  to  the  Jesuits  in 
founding  a  college  at  Verdun.  Ho  is  burie<l  near  the 
altar  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament  in  the  cethedral  of 


PSELLUS 


545 


PSTCHOLOaT 


Hnoo,  AnnaUtt  I,  preface,  {xvi;  II,  523;  Calmst,  Bibiiolh. 
torrotne,  II;  Spilbbbck,  in  Pricit  HuUrique  (BruaeeU,  1888>^9); 
QoovABRT,  JHc.  Bio-inbUoo.,  II.  66  sqq.  (Bruoaeb,  1902). 

*     F.  M.  Gbudens. 

PiellllB,  Michael  {Uixaii\6^€\Ut)^  Byzantine 
statesman,  scholar,  and  author,  b.  apparently  at 
Constantinople,  1018;  d.  probably  1078.  He  at- 
tended the  schools,  afterwards  learning  jurisprudence 
from  John  Xiphilinos,  later  patriarch  (John  VIII. 
1064-75).  Psellus  practised  law.  was  appointea 
judge  at  Philadelphia,  and  under  the  f^peror 
Michael  V  (1041-2)  became  imperial  secretary. 
Under  Constantine  IX  (Monomachos,  1042-54) 
he  became  influential  iii  the  state.  At  this  time  he 
taught  philosophy  at  the  new  Academy  at  Con- 
stantinople, arousing  opposition  among  ecclesiastical 
persons  by  preferring  Plato  to  Aristotle.  Psellus 
attained  a  great  reputation  as  a  philosopher.  His* 
pedagogical  career  was  cut  short  by  his  appointment  as 
Secretary  of  State  {rfH^offtiKp^u)  to  Constantino 
IX.  In  1054  he  followed  Xiphilinos  to  the  monas- 
tery of  Olympos,  in  Bithynia,  where  he  took  the 
name  Michael.  He  soon  quarrelled  with  the  monks, 
however,  and  returned  to  the  capital.  He  was  one 
of  the  ambassadors  sent  to  treat  with  the  rebel  Isaac 
Konmenos  after  the  defeat  of  the  imperial  army  near 
Nic»a  in  1057.  When  Isaac  I  (1057-9)  entered  Con- 
stantinoi)lQ.  in  triumph  Psellus  had  no  scruple  against 
transferring  allegiance  to  him.  Psellus  drew  up  the 
indictment  aeainst  the  Patriarch  Michael  Caarularius 
in  1059,  and  preached  the  enthusiastic  panegyric 
that  the  government  thought  advisable  after  Csenila- 
rius's  death.  Psellus  maintained  his  influence  under 
Constantine  X  (Duksa,  1059-67);  under  Michael 
VII.  (1071-8)  he  became  chief  Minister  of  State. 
Famous  for  oratory  as  well  as  for  philosophy  and 
statecraft,  he  preached  the  panegyric  of  the  Patriarch 
John  Xiphilinos  in  1075.  A  work  written  in  1096-7 
after  Psellus's  death  has  a  conunendatory  preface 
by  him.  Krumbacher  (Byzant.  Litteratur.,  434) 
suggests  that  the  preface  may  have  been  written  be- 
fore the  work  was  begun.  That  Psellus  was  able 
to  retain  his  influence  under  succeeding  governments, 
through  revolutions  and  usurpations,  shows  his  im- 
scrupulous  servility  to  those  in  power.  Krumbacher 
characterizes  him  as  ''^o veiling  servility,  unscrupu- 
lousn^,  insatiable  ambition,  and  unmeasured  vanity" 
(op.  cit.,  435).  Nevertheless  his  many-sided  literary 
work  and  the  elegance  of  his  style  give  him  a  chief 
place  amonff  cont^porary  scholars.  Compared  with 
Albertus  Mamus  and  Roger  Bacon,  he  is  to  Krum- 
bacher ''the  nrst  man  of  his  time".  His  important 
works  are:  commentary  on  Aristotle  rtpl  ipfniptlat- 
treatises  on  psychology;  works  on  anatomy  ana 
medicine,  including  a  poem  on  medicine  and  a  list 
of  sicknesses;  a  fragmentary  encyclopedia,  called 
"Manifold  Teaching"  (Atdaa'jraX(a  rarrodaTi;);  a 
paraphrase  of  the  Iliad;  a  poem  on  Greek  dialects; 
a  treatise  on  the  topography  of  Athens;  a  poetic 
compendium  of  law  and  an  explanation  of  legal 
terms.  His  speeches  are  famous  as  examples  of 
style,  and  contain  much  historical  information. 
His  best  known  panegyrics  are  on  Cserularius. 
Xiphilinos,  and  his  own  mother.  About  five  hundred 
letters,  and  a  number  of  rhetorical  exercises,  poems, 
epitaphs,  and  occasional  writings  are  extant.  His 
most  valuable  work  is  his  history  (xp^pcypa^la)  from 
976  to  1077,  forming  a  continuation  to  Leo  Diaconus. 

Work*  (incomplete)  in  P.  O.,  CXXII,  477-1186,  also  in 
Satras.  MciraiMKunf  ^(SAloMK1),  IV  and  V:  the  history  edited 
by  Satsas  is  published  in  Msthubn.  ByaarUine  Texts  (London, 
1809):  Lao  Aixatiub,  De  Padlis  el  eorum  eeriptie  (Rome,  1634), 
republished  in  Fabbicius-Hableh.  Bibliolheca  oraea,  X  (Ham- 
burg, 1790),  41-97,  and  in  P.  O.,  CXXII.  477-538;  Kbum- 
BACHBB,  BytafUinieehe  LiUeraturgeaeh.  (2nd  ed.,  Munich,  1897), 
433-44;    Dibhl,  Fiowrea  ByMantinea,  I  (Paris.  1906),  x,  xl 

Adrian  Fortescue. 

PBeudo-AznbrosiiXB.    See  Ambrobiaster. 
XII.— 35 


Pieudo-Clementines.    See  Clementinbs. 

Pieudo-DionjBiuB.  See  Digntbius  the  Psbudo* 
Arbopagite. 

Pieudo-Isidore.    See  Faiae  Decretals. 

Pseudo-ZiMharias  (Hibtoria  Miscellanea). 
See  Mgngphtsitbs  and  Mongphysitism. 

Psychology  (Gr.  i^vx'i.  X^os;  Lat.  psycholo^ia;  Fr. 
psychologie;  Ger.  Seelenkunde).  in  the  most  general 
sense  the  science  which  treats  oi  the  soul  and  its  opera- 
tions. During  the  past  century,  however,  the  term 
has  come  to  be  frequently  employed  to  denote  the  lat- 
ter branch  of  knowledge — ^the  science  of  the  phenom- 
ena of  the  mind,  of  the  processes  or  states  of  human 
consciousness.  Moreover,  the  increasing  differentia- 
tion, characteristic  of  the  advance  of  all  departments 
of  knowledge  in  recent  years,  has  manifested  itself  in 
so' marked  a  manner  in  psychological  investigation 
that  there  are  already  several  distinct  fields  of  pyscho- 
logical  work,  each  putting  forward  claims  to  be  recog- 
nized as  a  separate  science.  The  term  psychologia 
seems  to  have  first  come  into  use  about  the  end  of  the 
sixteenth  century  (Goclenius,  1590,  Casmann's  ''Pky- 
chologia  Anthropological',  1594).  But  the  populari- 
zation of  the  name  dates  from  Ch.  Wolff  in  the  eigh- 
teenth century. 

History. — Aristotle  may  well  be  deemed  the  founder 
of  this  as  of  so  many  other  sciences,  though  by  him  it 
is  not  distinguished  from  general  biology,  which  is 
itself  part  of  physics,  or  the  study  of  nature.  His 
treatise  repl^wx^  ("De  Anima")  was  during  two 
thousand  years  virtually  the  universal  textbook  of 
psychology,  and  it  still  well  repays  study.  In  the 
mvestigation  of  vital  phenomena  Aristotle  employed 
to  some  extent  all  the  methods  of  modem  science: 
observation,  interned  and  extemai;  comparison;  ex- 
periment; hypothesis;  and  induction;  as  well  as  de- 
duction and  speculative  reasoning.  He  defines  the 
soul  as  the  "Entelechy  or  form  of  a  natural  body 
potentially  possessing  life".  He  distinguishes  three 
kinds  of  souls,  or  grades  of  life,  the  vegetative,  the 
sensitive,  and  the  intellectual  or  rational.  In  man 
the  higher  virtually  includes  the  lower.  He  investi- 
gates the  several  functions  of  nutrition,  appetency, 
locomotion,  sensuous  perception,  and  intellect  or 
reason.  The  last  is  confined  to  man.  The  working 
of  the  senses  is  discussed  by  him  in  detail;  and  diligent 
anatomical  and  physiological  study,  as  well  as  careful 
introspective  observation  of  our  conscious  processes, 
is  manifested.  Knowledge  starts  from  sensation,  but 
sense  only  apprehends  the  concrete  and  singular 
thing.  It  is  the  function  of  the  intellect  to  abstract 
the  universal  essence.  There  is  a  radical  distinction 
between  thou^t  and  sentiency.  The  intellect  or 
reason  (voOt)  is  separate  from  sense  and  immortal, 
thou^  how  precisely  we  are  to  conceive  this  poGs 
and  its  "separateness"  is  one  of  the  most  puzzling 
problems  in  Aristotle's  psychology.  Indeed,  the  doc- 
trines of  free  will  and  personal  immortality  are  not 
easily  reconciled  with  parts  of  Aristotle's  teacMng. 

Scholastic  Period. — There  is  little  effort  at  syste- 
matic treatnient  of  psychology  from  Aristotle  to  the 
medieval  philosophers.  For  Epicurus,  psychology 
was  a  branch  of  physics  in  subordination  to  a  theory 
of  hedonistic  ethics.  With  the  introduction  of  Chris- 
tianity certain  psychological  problems  such  as  the 
immortality  and  the  origin  of  the  soul,  free  will  and 
moral  habits  at  once  assumed  a  vastly  increased  im- 
portance and  raised  the  treatise  "De  Anima",  to  one 
of  the  most  important  branches  of  philosophy.  More- 
over, the  angels  being  assumed  to  be  spirits  in  many 
ways  resembling  the  human  soul  conceived  as  separate 
from  the  human  body,  a  speculative  theory  of  the 
nature,  attributes,  and  operations  of  the  angelic 
beings,  partly  based  on  Scriptural  texts,  partly  de- 
duced  by  analogical  reasoning  from  human  psy- 


P8TCH0L0G7 


546 


PBYCHOLOaT 


chology,  gradually  grevr  up  and  received  its  final 
elaboration  in  the  Middle  Ages  in  the  metaphysical 
theology  of  the  Schoolmen.  The  Christian  mystics 
were  naturally  led  to  consider  the  character  of  the 
soul's  knowledge  of  God.  But  their  treatment  of 
psychological  questions  is  generally  vague  and  obscure, 
whilst  their  hmguage  indulges  much  in  allegory  and 
symbolism.  Indeed,  the  gr^test  of  the  mystics  were 
not  sympathetic  with  the  employment  of  Scholastic 
or  scientific  methods  in  the  handling  of  mystic  experi- 
ence. The  great  controveisy  between  Realism  and 
Nominalism  from  the  early  Middle  Ages  directed 
much  attention  to  the  theory  of  knowledge  and  the 
problem  of  the  origin  of  ideas.  However,  althou|;h 
psycliological  observation  was  appealed  to,  the  epis— 
temological  discussions  were  largely  metaphysical  in 
character  during  this  period.  To  Albertus  Magnus 
and  St.  Thomas  the  popularization  of  the  psychology 
of  Aristotle  throughout  Europe  during  the  thirteenth 
century  was  mainly  due.  In  Questions  Ixxv  to  xc  of 
part  I  of  the  "Summa  Theologica'',  St.  Thomas  gives 
a  very  fairly  complete  and  systematic  account  oi  the 
leading  topics  connected  with  the  soul.  However, 
questions  of  biology,  general  metaphysics,  and  theol- 
ogy were  constantly  interwoven  with  psychology  for 
many  centuries  afterwards.  Indeed,  the  liberal  use 
made  of  physiological  evidence  in  psychological  dis- 
cussions IS  a  marked  feature  in  the  treatment  of  this 
branch  of  philosophy  throughout  the  entire  history 
of  scholastic  philosophy.  But  although  there  is  plenty 
of  proof  of  acute  observation  of  mental  activities,  the 
usual  appeal  in  discussion  is  rather  to  metaphysical 
analysis  and  deductive  argument  than  to  systematic 
introspective  observation  and  induction,  so  character- 
istic of  modem  psychology.  The  treatise  "De 
Anima"  of  Suarez  is  a  very  good  example  of  scholastic 
psychology  at  the  close  of  the  Middle  Ages.  The 
treatise,  containing  six  books,  starts  in  book  I  with  an 
inquiry  into  the  essence  of  the  soul.  Recalling  Aris- 
totle's definition  of  the  soul  as  the  form  of  the  body, 
the  author  proceeds  to  examine  the  relations  of  the 
vegetative,  sensitive,  and  rational  soul.  Next,  in 
book  II  he  treats  of  the  faculties  of  the  soul  in  general 
and  their  relation  to  the  soul  as  an  essence.  In  book 
III  he  investigates  the  nature  and  working  of  the 
cognitive  faculties,  and  especially  of  the  senses.  In 
book  ly  he  inquires  iiito  the  character  of  the  activity 
of  the  intellect.  In  book  V  he  deals  with  faculties  of 
appetency  and  free  will.  Book  VI  is  devoted  to  a 
speculative  consideration  of  the  condition  and  mode  of 
operation  of  the  soul  in  a  future  life.  In  each  question 
he  begins  with  a  summary  of  previous  opinions  and 
then  puts  forward  his  own  solution.  Tne  order  of 
treatment  starting  from  the  essence  and  passing  thence 
to  the  faculties  and  their  operations  is  characteristic 
of  the  scholastic  treatises  generally.  The  method  is 
mainly  deductive  and  the  argument  metaphysical, 
thouga  in  dealing  with  the  sens^  there  is  constant 
appeal  to  recognized  physiological  authorities  from 
Anstotle  to  V^alius. 

In  psychology  as  well  as  in  other  branches  of  philos- 
ophy the  influence  of  Descartes  was  consioerable 
though  indirect.  His  subjective  starting-point,  cogito, 
ergo  9um,  his  insistence  on  methodic  doubt,  nis  ad- 
vocacy of  reflection  on  thought  and  close  scrutiny  of 
our  fundamental  ideas,  all  tended  to  encourage  the 
method  of  internal  observation,  whilst  the  meclmnical 
explanation  of  the  ''Traits  des  Passions"  favoured 
the  advent  of  physiological  psychology.  It  was  prob- 
ably, however,  John  Lockers  "Essay  on  the  Human 
Understanding"  (1690)  which  did  most  to  foster  the 
method  of  analytic  introspection  which  constitutes 
the  principal  feature  of  modem  psychological  method. 
Notwithstanding  the  confused  and  inconsistent  meta- 
physics and  the  many  grave  psychological  blunders 
with  which  that  work  abounds^  yet  his  frequent  appeal 
to  inner  experience,  his  honest   efforts  to  describe 


mental  processes,  and  the  quantity  of  acute  observa- 
tions scattered  throughout  the  work,  coming  idso  at 
an  age  when  the  inductive  method  was  rapidly  rising 
in  popularity,  achieved  a  speedy  and  wide  success  for 
his  book,  and  gave  a  marked  empirical  bent  to  all 
future  English  psychology. 

Psychological  observation  and  analysis  were  still 
more  skilfully  used  by  Bishop  Berkeley  as  a  principle 
of  explanation  in  his  "Theory  of  Vision",  and  then 
employed  by  him  to  establish  his  psychological  creed 
of  Idealism.  Finally,  David  Hume,  the  true  founder 
of  the  Associationist  school  of  psychology,  still  further 
increased  the  importance  of  the  method  of  introspec- 
tive analysis  by  the  daring  sceptical  conclusions  he 
claimed  to  establish  by  its  means.  The  subsequent 
British  adherents  of  the  Associationist  school.  Hart- 
ley, the  two  Mills,  Bain,  and  Herbert  Spencer,  con- 
tinued this  method  and  tradition  along  the  same  lines. 
There  is  constant  direct  appeal  to  inner  experience 
combined  with  systematic  effort  to  trace  the  genesis 
of  the  highest,  most  spiritual,  and  most  complex 
mental  conceptions  back  to  elementary  atomic  states 
of  sensuous  consciousness.  -  Universal  ideas,  necessary 
truths,  the  ideas  of  self,  time,  space,  causfJity  as  well 
as  the  conviction  of  an  external  material  world  were 
all  explained  as  the  outcome  of  sensations  and  asso- 
ciation. The  reality  of  any  higher  activities  or  fac- 
ulties essentially  different  from  the  lower  sensuous 
powers  was  denied^  and  all  the  chief  data  formerly 
employed  in  establishing  the  simplicity,  spirituality, 
and  substantiality  of  the  soul  were  reiected.  Rational 
or  metaphysical  psychology  was  thus  virtually  ex- 
tinguished and  erased  from  English  philosophical 
literature  during  the  nineteenth  century.  Even  the 
more  orthodox  representatives  of  the  »Dotch  school, 
Reid  and  Dugald  Stewart,  who  avoided  all  meta- 
physical argument  and  endeavoured  to  controvert 
Hume  with  his  own  weapons  of  appeal  exclusively  to 
experience  and  observation,  had  only  further  con- 
finned  the  tendency  in  the  direction  of  a  purely  em- 
pirical psychology.  The  great  need  in  English  psy- 
chological literature  throughout  most  of  the  nine- 
teenth century,  on  the  side  of  those  defending  a 
spiritual  doctrme  of  the  human  mind,  was  a  systematic 
and  thorough  treatment  of  empirical  psychology. 
Excellent  pieces  of  work  on  particular  questions  were 
done  by  Martineau,  W.  G.  Ward,  and  other  writers, 
but  nearly  all  the  systematic  treatises  on  psychology 
were  produced  by  the  disciples  of  the  Sensationist  or 
Materialistic  schools.  Yet,  if  philosophy  is  to  be 
based  on  experience,  then  assuredly  it  is  on  the  care- 
fully-scrutinized and  well-established  results  of  em- 
pirical psychology  that  any  satisfactory  rational 
metaphysical  doctrine  respecting  the  nature  of  the 
soul,  its  origin,  and  its  destiny  must  be  built.  It  was 
in  their  faulty  though  often  plausible  analysis  and 
interpretation  of  our  states  of  consciousness  that  the 
greatest  errors  in  philosophy  and  psychology  of  Bain, 
the  two  Mills,  Spencer,  and  their  disciples  had  their 
sourcej  it  is  only  by  more  careful  introspective  ob- 
servation and  a  more  searching  analysis  of  the  same 
mental  facts  that  these  errors  can  be  exposed  and 
solid  foundations  laid  for  a  true  metaphysical  psy- 
cholo^  of  the  soul. 

In  France,  Condillac,  La  Mettrie,  Holbach,  and 
Bonnet  developed  the  Sensationalism  of  Locke's 
psychology  into  an  increasingly  crude  Materialism. 
To  oppose  this  school  later  on,  Royer-Collard,  Cousin, 
Jouffroy.  and  Maine  de  Biran  turned  to  the  work  of 
Reid  and  the  "common  sense"  Scotch  school,  appro- 
priating their  method  and  results  in  empirical  psy- 
chology. Some  of  these  writers,  moreover,  sought  to 
carry  their  reasoning  beyond  the  mere  inductions  of 
empirical  psychology,  in  order  to  construct  on  this 
enlarged  experience  a  genuine  philosophy  of  the  soul, 
as  "principle"  and  subject  of  tne  states  and  activities 
immediately  revealed  to  introspective  observation. 


P8TCH0L0G7  547  PSYCHOLOaT 

In  Germany  the  purely  empirical  tendency  which  ogy,  but  in  some  branch  of  speculation  to  be  styled 
had  reduced  psychology  in  England  to  a  mere  positi-  the  metaphysics  or  ontolo{;y  of  the  human  mind, 
vistic  science  of  mental  facts  did  not  meet  with  quite  and  to  be  completely  isolatedf  rom  science, 
the  same  success.  Metaphysics  and  philosophy  prooer  In  direct  contrast  with  this  view  is  that  ordinarily 
never  fell  there  into  the  degradation  which  tney  adopted  by  Catholic  writers  hitherto.  By  them, 
experienced  in  flngland  in  the  oeginning  of  the  nine-  psychology  has  usually  been  conceived  as  one  of  the 
teenth  century.  And  although  the  old  conception  of  most  important  branches  of  philosophy.  In  their 
a  philosophical  science  of  the  nature  and  attributes  of  view  it  ma}^  be  best  describea  as  the  philosophical 
the  soul  was  rejected  bv  Kant,  and  abandoned  in  the  science,  wmch  investigates  the  nature,  attributes, 
systems  of  Fichte,  Schelling,  and  Hegel,  yet  mere  and  activities  of  the  soul  or  mind  of  man.  By  soul. 
Phenomenalism  was  never  completely  triumphant  in  or  mind,  is  understood  the  \iltimate  principle  within 
Germany.  Herbart,  whilst  denying  the  reality  of  me  by  which  I  think,  feel,  will,  and  by  which  my  body 
faculties,  postulates  a  simple  soul  as  the  underlying  is  ammated.  Whilst  the  soul  and  the  mind  are  con- 
subject  of  the  presentations  or  ideas  which  form  our  ceived  as  fundamentally  one,  the  latter  term  is  usually 
conscious  life.  Hermann  Lotze,  laying  similar  stress  employed  to  designate  the  animating  principle  viewed 
on  the  importance  of  scientific  observation  of  our  as  subject  of  my  conscious  or  mental  operations; 
mental  states,  insists  even  more  strongly  that  our  the  former  denotes  it  as  the  root  of  all  vital  activitien. 
introspective  experience  correctly  interpreted  affords  By  terming  their  branch  of  knowledge  a  philosophical 
abundant  metaphysical  justification  for  the  doctrine  science,  it  is  implied  that  psychology  ought  to  include 
of  an  inmiatenal  soul.  Meanwhile'  the  earlier  at-  not  only  a  doctrine  of  the  laws  of  succession  and 
tempts  of  Herbart  to  express  mental  activities  in  conconutance  of  our  conscious  states,  but  an 
mathematical  formuls  lecl  to  a  more  successful  line  isquiry  into  their  ultimate  cause.  Any  adequate 
of  experimental  research  in  the  hands  of  Weber,  study  of  the  human  mind,  it  is  contended,  naturally 
Fechner,  Wundt,  and  others.  The  aim  of  this  school  presents  itself  in  two  stages,  empiricad  or  phenomenal 
is  to  attain  the  possible  quantitative  measurement  psychology,  and  rational  or  metaphysical  ps>rchology. 
of  conscious  states.  As  this  is  ordinarily  not  directly  Though  conveniently  separated  for  didactic  treat- 
possible,  much  industry  and  ingenuity  have  been  de-  ment  the  two  are  organically  connected.  Our  meta- 
voted  to  measuring  quantitatively,  by  the  aid  of  skil-  physical  conclusions  as  to  the  nature  of  the  soul 
fully  devised  instruments,  the  unmediate  physical  must  rest  on  the  evidence  supplied  by  our  experience 
antecedents  and  effects  of  sundry  mental  activities,  of  the  character  of  its  activities.  On  the  other  hand, 
by  which  it  is  hoped  to  secure  accurate  quantitative  any  effort  at  thorough  treatment  of  our  mental 
descriptions  of  the  mental  states  themselves.  Psy-  operations,  and  especially  any  attempt  at  explana- 
chological  laboratories  devoted  to  research  of  this  tion  of  the  higher  forms  or  products  of  consciousness, 
kind  have  been  set  up  in  several  countries,  especi^y  it  is  urged,  is  quite  impossible  without  the  adoption 
in  Germany  and  America.  One  of  the  most  successful  of  some  metaphysical  theory  as  to  the  nature  of  the 
so  far  is  that  at  the  Catholic  University  of  Louvain,  underlying  suDJect  or  agents  of  these  states.  Pro- 
and  another  has  lately  been  established  at  that  of  fessor  Dewey  has  justly  observed:  "The  philosophic 
Washington.  In  Great  Britain,  however,  the  special  implications  embedded  in  the  very  heart  of  psychol- 
home  of  empirical  psychology  since  Locke,  the  new  ojgy  are  not  got  rid  of  when  they  are  kept  out  of 
movement  in  favour  of  experimental  psychology  has  si^t.  Some  opinion  regarding  the  nature  of  the 
not,  at  all  events  down  to  the  present  time,  met  with  mmd  and  its  relations  to  reality  will  show  itself  on 
much  success.  The  advance  of  physiological  science,  almost  every  page,  and  the  fact  that  this  opinion  is 
and  especially  of  that  of  the  brain  and  nervous  system,  introduced  without  the  conscious  intention  of  the 
has  also  reacted  on  psychology,  stimulating  closer  writer,  may  serve  to  confuse  both  the  author  and  his 
inquiry  into  the  relations  between  mental  and  bodily  reader"  ("Psychology",  IV).  Ladd,  and  others  also, 
processes.  It  cannot,  however,  be  maintained  that,  recognize  the  evil  of  "clandestine"  metaphysics  when 
the  progress  of  physiological  knowledge,  considerable  smugded  into  what  claims  to  be  purely  "scientific" 
thou^  it  is,  has  brought  us  apprecnably  nearer  to  the  non-philosophical  treatments  of  psychology, 
solution  of  the  great  problem,  how  body  and  mind  act  Psychology  is  not  in  the  same  position  as  the 
on  each  other.  The  study  of  nervous  pathology,  of  physical  sciences  here.  Whilst  investigating  a  ques- 
mental  disease  and  of  abnormal  mental  states,  such  tion  in  geology,  chemistry,  or  mechanics,  we  may,  at 
as  those  of  hypnotism  and  double-consciousness,  has  least  temporarily,  prescind  from  our  metaphysical 
also  opened  up  new  fields  of  psychological  research,  creed,  but  not  so — ^judging  from  the  past  history — 
constantly  widening  with  the  last  thirty  years.  when   giving   our   psychological    accounts   and   ex- 

Scope  of  PsychoU^. — As  wc  hav  3  already  observed,  planations  of  mental  products,   such   as  universal 

recent  writers  commonly  confine   ne  term  psychology  concepts,  the  notions  of    moral  obligation,  respon-^ 

to  the  science  of  the  phenomena  of  the  mind.     Thus  sibility,  personal  identity,  time,  or  the  perception  "* 

William  James,  probably  the  psychologist  of  widest  of  an  external  material  world,  or  the  simple  mdg- 

influence  during  the  past  twenty  years,  defines  psy-  ment,  two  and  two  must  make  four.     The  view,  there- 

chology  as  "The  Science  of  Mental  Life,  both  of  its  fore,  of  those  philosophers  who  maintain  that  the  in- 

fhenomena  and  their  conditions".     ("Principles",  trinsic  connexions  between  many  of  the  questions  of 

,1).     Wundt's  definition  is:   "the  science  which  in-  empirical  and  rational  psychology  are  so  indissoluble 

vestigates  the  whole  content  of  Experience  in  its  that  they  cannot  be  divorced,  seems  to  have  solid 

relations  to  the  Subject".     ("Outlines",  3rd  ed.,  3).  justification.    Of  course  we  can  call  the  study  of  the 

Other  writers  describe  it  as,  "the  science  of  the  facts  phenomena  of  the  mind,  "  Psychology",  and  that  of  its 

apprehended  by  our  internal  sense",  or  a^ain,  "the  inner  nature,  the  "Philosophy  of  the  Mind"j  and  we 

science  of  our  states  of  consciousness,  their  laws  of  may  treat  each  in  a  separate  volume.     That  is  merely 

succession  and  concomitancy".    The  common  fea-  a  matter  of  terminology  and  convenience.    But  the 

ture  of  all  these  definitions  is  the  limitation  of  the  important  point  is  that  in  the  explanatory  treatment 

scope  of  psychology  to  the  phenomena  of  the  mind  of  the  higher  intellectual  and  rational  processes,  it 

directly  observable  by  introspection.     In  this  view  will  practically  be  impossible  for  the  psychologist 

it  is  a  purely  positivist  science  from  which  all  philo-  to  preserve  a  philosophically  neutral  attitude.    A 

Bophicai  problems  are  to  be  excluded,  as  rigorously  as  truly  scientific  psychology,  therefore,  should  comprise: 

from  chemistry  or  geology.     It  is,  in  fact,  la  psycho-  (1)   a  thorough  investigation  by  introspective  obser- 

logie  sans  dnie.     If  such   questions  as  the  nature,  vat  ion  and  analysis  of  our  various  mental  activities 

origin,  or  destiny  of  the  soul  are  to  be  discussed  at  all,  — cognitive  and  appetitive,  sensuous  and  rational 

it  must  be,  according  to  these  writers,  not  in  psychol-  — seeking  to  resolve  all  prcxlucts  of  the  mind  back 


P8TCHOLOOY  M8  PBYCH0L0G7 

to  their  origbial  elements,  determining  as  far  as  of  the  new  movement  for  the  past  fifty  yean,  places 

possible  their  organic  conditions,  and  tracine  the  laws  th^  only  hope  of  p^chological  progress  in  the  ex- 

of  tiieir  growth;  (2)  based  on  the  results  of  this  study,  perimental  method,  William  James's  judgment  on  the 

a  rational  theoiy  or  explanatory  account  of  the  nature  entire  literature  of  the  subject  since  Fechner  (1840) 

of  the  agent  or  subject  of  these  activities,  with  its  wA  that  "itB  proper  psychologicaJ  outcome  is  just' 

chief  properties.  ^  nothing  at  all'*^  ("Principles",  I,  534).   Apart,  how- 

Methoa  of  Psychology. — ^The  primary  method  of  ever,  from  the  very  modest  positive  results,  especially 
investigation  in  empirical  or  phenomenal  psychology  in  the  higher  forms  of  mental  life,  which  the  expen- 
is  introspection  or  reflective  observation  of  our  own  ,  mental  method  ha6  achieved  or  may  achieve  in  the 
mental  states.  This  is  the  ultimate  source  of  all  future,  its  exercise  may  nevertheless  prove  a  valui^le 
knowledge  of  mental  facts;  even  the  information  agency  in  the  training  of  the  psychological  specialist, 
gathered  immediately  f  om  other  quarters  has  Rnally  both  in  increasing  his  appreciation  of  the  value  of  the 
to  be  interpreted  in  terms  of  our  own  subjective  ex-  most  minute  accuracy  in  descriptions  of  mental 
perienc6.  Introspection  is,  however,  liable  to  error:  states,  and  also  by  fostering  in  him  nabits  of  precision 
consequently,  it  nas  to  be  employed  with  care  ana  and  skill  in  systematic  introspection, 
helped  and  corrected  by  all  the  supplementary  sources  Claasification,  The  Faculties. — In  empirical  psy- 
of  psychological  knowledge  available.  Among  the  cholog^r,  with  modem  writers,  the  next  step  ^ter 
chief  of  these  are:  the  internal  experience  of  other  determining  the  method  of  l^e  science  is  to  attempt 
observers  communicated  through  language;  the  studv  a  classification  of  the  phenomena  of  mental  life.  In 
of  the  human  mind  as  exhibited  in  different  periods  the  scholastic  philosophy  the  eauivalent  operation 
of  life  from  infancy  to  old  age,  and  in  different  was  the  systematic  division  of  tne  faculties  of  the 
races  and  grades  of  civilization;  as  embodied  in  soul.  Apart  from  vegetative  and  locomotive  powers 
various]  languages  and  literatures;  and  as  revealed  the  Schoolmen,  following  Aristotle,  adopted  a  bi- 
in  the  absenc.  of  particular  senses,  and  in  abnormal  partite  division  of  faculties  into  those  of  cognition  and 
or  pathological  conditions  such  as  dreams,  hypnotism,  appetency.  The  former  they  subdivided  into  sen- 
and  forms  of  insanity.  Moreover,  the  anatomy,  buoub,  and  intellectual  or  rational.  The  sensuous 
physiology,  and  pathology  of  the  brain  and  nervous  faculties  they  again  subdivided  into  the  five  external 
system  supply  valuable  data  as  to  the  organic  con-  senses  and  the  internal  activities  of  imagination, 
clitions  of  conscious  states.  Experimental  psychology,  sensuous  memory,  sensus  communis^  and  vis  cogitO' 
psychophysics,  and  ps;yrchometry  l^lp  towards  ac-  tiva.  But  there  was  much  disagreement  as  to  the 
curacy  and  precision  m  the  description  of  certain  number,  character,  and  boundary  lines  of  these  in- 
forms of  mental  activity.  And  the  comparative  study  ternal  forms  of  sensuous  cognition.  There  were  also 
of  the  lower  animals  may  also  afTord  useful  assistance  divergency  of  opinion  as  to  the  nature  of  the  faculties 
in  regard  to  some  questions  of  human  psychology,  in  general  in  themselves  and  to  what  extent  there  was 
By  the  utilization  of  these  several  sources  of  informa-  a  aistinctio  realis  between  faculties  and  the  essence 
tion,  the  data  furnished  to  the  psychologist  by  the  of  the  soul.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  there  was  general 
introspective  observation  of  his  own  individual  mind  agreement  as  to  an  essential  difference  between  bXL 
may  be  enlarged,  tested  and  corrected,  and  may  thus  sensuous  and  intellectual  or  spiritual  powers  of  the 
acquire  in  a  certain  degree  the  objective  and  uni-  mind.  The  possession  of  the  latter  constitutes  the 
vereal  character  of  the  observations  on  which  the  dijferentia  which  separates  man  from  the  irrational 
physical   sciences   are   built.    Introspection   is   fre-  animals. 

quently  spoken  of  as  the  subjective  method,  these        Content  of  Empirical  Psychology. — ^The  psycholo- 

other  sources  of  information  as  supplementary  ob-  gist   naturally   begins  with   the   treatment  of   Uie 

jective  methods  of  psychological  study.  phenomena  of  sentiency.    The  several  senses,  their 

Branches  of  Psychology. — Indeed  some  of  them  have  organic  structure  and  functions,  the  various  forms 
rapidly  grown  to  be  such  large  and  important  fields  of  sentient  activity  with  their  cognitive,  hedonic  and 
of  research  that  they  now  claim  to  be  recognized  as  tippetitive  properties  and  their  special  character- 
special  departments  of  psychology,  or  even  sciences  istics  have  to  be  carefully  analyzed,  compared,  and 
in  their  own  jight.  Thus  we  have  comparative  described.  Next,  imagination  and  memory  are 
psychology  including  animal  psychology,  child  psy-  similarly  studied,  and  the  laws  of  their  operation, 
chology,  and  race  psychology.  Again  psychiatry  or  growth^  and  development  diligently  traced.  The 
psychopathology,  the  science  of  mental  disease,  also  discussion  of  the  organic  appetites  springing  from 
physiological  psychology,  which,  in  a  broad  sense,  sensations,  and  the  investigation  of  the  nature  and 
includes  all  systematic  study  of  the  organic  conditions  conditions  of  the  most  elementary  forms  of  pleasure 
of  mental  life,  or,  as  Ladd  defines  it,  "psychology  ap-  and  pain  may  also  appropriately  come  here.  In- 
proached  ana  studied  from  the  physiological  side  .  tellect  follows.  The  consideration  of  this  faculty 
•  ExperimerUal  Psychology. — ^A  special  department  includes  the  stud^  of  the  processes  of  conception, 
of  physiological  psychology  which  has  recently  risen  judgment,  reasonmg,  rational  attention,  and  self- 
rapidfy  into  favoiu*  in  some  countries  is  experimental  conscious  reflection.    These,  however,  are  all  merely 

fsycholog^,  alluded  to  above  in  our  historical  sketch,  different  functions  of  the  same  spiritual  cognitive 
t  is  at  times  styled  the  "New  Psychology"  by  its  power — the  intellect.  Psychology  mquires  into  their 
more  enthusiastic  supporters.  It  seeks  to  secure  modes  of  operation,  their  special  features,  and  the 
precision  and  an  objective  standard  in  the  description  general  conditions  of  their  growth  and  development. 
o(  mental  states  by  controlling  their  conditions  by  From  the  higher  power  of  cognition  it  proceeds  to  the 
skilful  devices  and  ingenious  apparatus.  Its  chief  study  of  spiritual  appetency,  rational  desire,  and  free 
success  so  far  has  been  in  its  efforts  to  measure  the  volition.  The  relations  of  will  to  knowledge,  the 
varying  intensity  of  sensations,  the  delicacy  of  sense-  qualities  of  conative  activity,  and  the  effects  of  re- 
organs  and  "reaction-time"  or  the  rapidity  of  a  facul-  peated  volitions  in  the  production  of  habit,  con- 
ty  s  response  to  stimulation.  (Certain  properties  stitute  the  chief  subjects  of  investigation  here, 
of  memory  have  also  been  made  the  subject  of  measur-  In  connexion  with  these  higher  forms  of  cognition  and 
ii^g  experiments  and  more  recently  considerable  in-  desire,  there  will  naturally  be  undertaken  the  study 
dustry  has  been  devoted,  especially  by  Kulpe  and  the  of  conscience  and  the  phenomena  of  the  emotions. 
WttrzDurg  school,  to  bring  some  aspects  of  the  higher  Genetic  Treatment  a  marked  characteristic  of  Modem 
activities  of  intellect  and  will  within  the  range  of  the  Empirical  Psychology. — ^The  constant  aim  of  modem 
laboratory  apparatus.  Opinions  still  difTorinuch  as  to  psychology  is  to  analyse  all  complex  mental  opera- 
both  the  present  value  and  futuro  prosixM^ts  of  ex-  tions  into  their  simplest  elements  and  to  trace  back 
perimental  psychology.     Whilst  Wundt,  the  leader  to  their  first  beginning  all  acquired  or  composite  habits 


PBTCH0PH7SIC8 


540 


PSTCHOTHERAPT 


and  faculties,  and  to  show  how  thev  have  been  gener- 
ated or  could  have  been  generated  from  the  ^west 
oripnal  aptitudes  or  fundamental  activities  of  the 
mind.  This  is  sound  scientific  procedure — ^recognized 
in  the  Scholastic  aphorism,  jEntia  non  aunt  muUi- 
plicanda  prcUer  rmcesaitatem.  We  may  not  postulate 
a  q>ecial  faculty  for  any  mental  state  which  can  be 
accounted  for  by  the  co-operation  of  already  recog- 
nized activities  of  the  soul.  But  the  labour  and 
skiU  devoted  during  the  past  century  and  a  half  to 
this  combined  analjrtic  and  synthetic  procedure  has 
developed  one  feature  of  modem  psychology  by  which 
it  is  dmerentiated  in  a  most  marked*  manner  from 
that  of  the  Middle  Ages  and  of  Aristotle.  The  pres- 
ent-day treatment  is  pronouncedly  genetic.  Tlius. 
whilst  the  Schoolmen  in  their  account  of  mental 
operations,  such  as  perception,  conception,  or  desire, 
considered  these  processes  almost  solelv  as  elicited  bv 
the  normal  adult  human  being  already  in  full 
possession  and  control  of  matured  mental  powers,  the 
chief  interest  of  the  modem  p^chologist  is  to  trace 
the  growth  of  these  powers  from  their  first  and 
simplest  manifestations  in  infancy,  and  to  disH 
criminate  what  is  the  product  of  experience  and  ac- 
quired habits  from  that  which  is  the  immediate  out- 
come of  the  innate  capabilities  of  the  soul.  This 
is  particularly  noticeable  if  we  compare  the  treat- 
ment of  the  mental  operation  of  perception  as  given 
in  most  Scholastic  textbooks  with  that  to  be  found  in 
any  modem  handbook  of  psychology.  The  point 
of  view  is  usually  ouite  different.  Since  much  of  the 
most  plausible  modem  attacks  on  Scholastic  psycho- 
logical doctrine  has  been  made  in  this  manner,  the 
genetic  treatment  from  the  Thomist  standpoint  of 
many  psychologvsal  questions  seems  to  us  to  be  among 
the  most  urgent  tasks  imposed  nowadays  on  the  neo- 
Scholastic  psychologist.  The  value  of  such  work 
from  a  philosophical  standpoint  would  seem  to  be 
distinctly  greater  than  that  of  an^  results  likelv 
to  be  achieved  in  quantitative  expenment^psychol- 
ogy.  Obviously  there  is  nothing  in  the  Thomistic 
conception  of  the  soul  and  its  operations  incompatible 
with  a  diligent  investigation  into  the  unfolding  of  its 
various  aptitudes  and  powers. 

Ralianal  Psychology.— i^From  the  study  of  the 
character  of  the  activities  of  the  mind  m  experi- 
mental psychology,  the  student  now  passes  on  to 
inquire  mto  the  nature  of  the  principle  from  which 
they  proceed.  This  constitutes  the  more  philo- 
sophical or  metaphysical  division  of  the  science. 
For,  as  we  have  indicated,  the  analysis  and  explan^ 
tory  accounts  of  the  higher  forms  and  products  of 
mental  activity,  which  the  scientific  psychologist 
is  compelled  to  undertake  even  in  phenomenal  psy- 
chology, involve  metaphysical  assumption  and  con- 
clusions which  he  cannot  escape — certainly  not  by 
merely  ignoring  them.  Still,  it  is  in  this  second  stage 
that  he  will  formally  evolve  the  logical  consequences 
to  which  his  previous  study^of  the  several  forms  of 
mental  activity  lead  up.  His  method  here  will  be 
both  inductive  and  deductive;  both  analjrtic  and 
syntiietic.  He  argues  from  efTect  to  cause.  From 
the  character  of  the  mental  activities  already  scruti- 
nized with  so  much  care,  he  now  concludes  as  to  the 
nature  of  the  subject  to  which  they  belong.  From 
what  the  mind  does,  he  seeks  to  learn  what  it  is. 
In  particular,  from  the  simple  spiritual  nature  of  the 
higher  activities  of  intellect  and  will,  he  infers  that 
the  being,  the  ultimate  principle  from  which  they 
proceed,  must  be  of  a  simple  and  spiritual  nature. 
Consequently,  it  cannot  be  the  brain  or  any  corporeal 
substance.  Having  established  the  simplicitv  and 
spirituality  of  the  soul,  he  then  goes  on  to  deduce 
further  conclusions  as  to  its  origin,  the  nature  of  its 
union  with  the  body,  and  its  future  destiny.  In  this 
way  by  rational  arguments  the  Scholastic  thinkers 
clami  to  prove  that  the  human  soul  can  only  have 


arisen  by  creation,  that  it  is  naturally  incorruptible, 
and  that  the  boundless  aspirations  of  the  intellect, 
the  insatis^le  yearnings  of  the  will,  and  the  deepest 
convictions  of  the  moral  reason  all  combine  to  es- 
tablish a  future  life  of  the  soul  after  death. 

Important  special  questions  of  psychology  are  treated  under 
the  articles  Animism;  Association  ok  Ideas;  CoNSCiousNEsa. 
Energy;  Faculties  of  the  Soul;  Form;  Free  Will;  Idea; 
Imagination;  Immortauty;  Individual,  Inditidualxtt;  In- 
tellect;  Life;   Personality. 

General  Psychology:  among  the  Scholastic  Latin  manuals 
there  is  much  uniformity  of  treatment.  UrrAbura«  Paycholoffia, 
I,  II  (Rome  and  Pahs,  1804),  is  exhaustive.  Hicxbt,  Ptychologia 
(2nd  ed.,  Dublin  and  New  York,  1910)  is  an  easy  useful  intro- 
duction; Boeddbr,  Psychologia  Rationalxs  (4th  ed.,  Freiburg  and 
New  York,  1903).  English:  Maher,  Payehology,  Empirical  and 
Rational  (7th  ed.,  New  York  and  London,  1911).  French: 
Mercier,  PMychologie  (4th  ed.,  Louvain,  1903) ;  Gardair,  Phi- 
lo9ophie  de  St  Thomas  (Paris,  1892-95) ;  Faroes.  Etudes  Phi^ 
losophiquea,  I-VI  (Paris,  1890-95).  German:  Gutberlbt,  Die 
PsyohWHfie  (MAnster,  1896).  English  works  of  various  schools: 
Ladd,  Psychology,  Descri^ive  and  Explanatory  (New  York  and 
London,  1895);  Idem,  Philosophy  of  Mind  (New  York  and 
London,  1895) ;  James,  Principles  of  Psychology  (New  York  and 
l4>ndon,  1890) ;  Btout,  Analyiioal  Psychology  (London  and  New 
York,  1902) ;  Spencer,  Principles  of  Psychology  (New  York  and 
London,  1904) ;  Bain,  Senses  and  Intellect:  Idem,  Emotions  and 
Will  (London,  1894).  Physiological:  Ladd,  Elements  of  Physio- 
logical Psychology  (New  York  and  London,  1894);  Wundt, 
Principles  of  Physiological  Psychology  (tr..  New  York  and  Lon- 
don, 1904).  Experimental:  Titchener,  Experimental  Psychol- 
oqy,  parts  I,  li  (4  vols..  New  York  and  London,  1001-05); 
KOlpe,  Outlines  of  Psychology  (tr.  New  York  and  London,  1894) ; 
Mbuman,  Vorlesungen,  ExperimenteUe  Podaaogik  (Leipsig,  1907). 
Comparative:  Wasmann.  Instinct  and  Inteuigence  (tr.  New  York 
and  London,  1903);  Idem,  Psychology  of  Ants  and  Animals 
(1905);  MrvART,  Origin  of  Human  Reason  (London,  1890). 
Child  Psychology:  Tracy,  Psychology  of  Childhood  (Boston, 
1907);  Preyer,  The  Mind  of  the  Child,  vol.  I-II  (tr.  New  York 
and  London,  1901);  Perez.  First  Three  Years  of  Childhood  (tr. 
N9W  York  and  London,  1892);    Marenbols-Bulon,  CAiU  and 

S'hild  Nature  (tr.  London,  1904) ;  Sully,  Children's  Ways  (Lon- 
on,  1898);  Burke,  Child  Study  (Dublin,  1908).  History: 
gensral  histories  of  philosophy,  suoh  as  Turner,  History  of 
Philosophy  (Boston  and  London,  1903);  de  Wulf,  History  of 
Philosophy  (tr.  London  and  New  York,  1909) ;  8t6cel,  History 
of  PkOosophu  (tr.  New  York  and  Dublin,  1887);  Perrier, 
KevivcA  of  Schaiastie  Philosophy  in  the  Nineteenth  Century  (New 
York,  1909),  contains  also  a  useful  bibliographv  of  neo-Seholastic 
philosophy;  Siebeck,  Oeseh,  der  Psychol.  (1904).  See  also: 
Baldwin,  Dictionary  of  Philosophy  and  Psychology;  and  Eisler, 
W9rterimch  (Berlin,  1904). 

Michael  Maheh. 

PgychophyBics.  See  Conscigusnbbs,  Quantita- 
TivB  Science  of  Conbcioubnsbs. 

Psychotherapy  (from  the  Greek  ^wx^,  "mind", 
and  OepaireOVf  "1  cure"),  that  branch  of  therapeutics 
which  uses  the  mind  to  mfluence  the  body;  first,  for 
the  prevention  of  disease  by  keeping  worry  from 
lowering  resistive  vitaUty;  secondly,  for  reaction 
against  disease  during  progress  by  freeing  the  mind 
from  solicitude  and  tapping  latent  energies;  thirdly, 
aiter  the  ailment  retrogrades,  to  help  convalescence 
through  the  removal  of  discouragement  during;  weak- 
ness by  inspiring  suggestion.  Psychotherapy  is  some- 
tiipps  regarded  as  a  comparatively  new  development 
consequent  upon  our  recent  advance  in  psychology 
and  especially  in  physiological  psychology:  it  is,  how- 
ever, as  old  as  the  history  of  humanity,  and  the  priests 
in  ancient  Egypt  used  it  effectively.  Wherever  men 
have  had  confidence  in  other  men  for  their  physical 
good  there  has  always  been  a  large  element  of  psychic 
influence  over  disease.  The  first  physician  of  whom 
we  have  any  record  in  history  was  I-Em-Hetep,  "The 
Bringer  of  Peace";  we  know  that  it  was  much  more 
the  confidence  that  men  had  in  him  than  anything 
which  he  did  by  physical  means  that  brought  him 
this  complimentary  title  and  enabled  him  to  do  so 
much  good.  He  was  so  highly  esteemed  that  the 
famous  step  pyramid  at  Sakkara,  near  Memphis,  is 
called  by  his  name,  and  after  his  death  he  was  wor- 
shipped as  a  god.  The  Eastern  nations  always  em- 
ployed mental  influences  in  medicine,  and  we  have 
abundant  evidence  of  its  effectiveness  amons  them. 

Among  the  Greeks  the  influence  of  the  mind  on  the 
body  was  recognized  very  clearly.  Plato  says  in  the 
"Charmides":  "Neither  ought  you  to  attempt   to 


PSYCHOTHERAPY  550  PSYCHOTHERAPY 

'  • 

cure  the  body  without  the  sou i.     .     .     .     You  begin  actually  cured  many  patients,  until  the  suggestive 

by  curing  the  soul   [or  mind]."     These  expressions  value  of  the  new  discovery  failed  to  act  favourably  on 

occiu*  in  a  well-known   passage   in  which  Socrates  the  mind.    When  the  Rdntgen  ra3rs  attracted  atten- 

tells  of  curing  a  young  man  of  headache  by  sug-  tion,  they  too  were  used  with  the  most  promising 

gestion.    He  pretended  to  have  a  remedy  that  had  results  in  nearly  every  disease,  though  now  their  range 

been  used  at  the  court  of  an  Eastern  king  to  cure  of  therapeutic  value  is  known  to  be  very  limited, 
headache;   though  it  was   really  indifferent  in  its        Faith  Cures. — Faith  has  ^ways  been  a  strong 

effect,  the  employment  of  it  produced   the  desired  therapeutic  agent.    Science,  or  the  supposed  applica- 

result.     In  this  story  we  have  the  essence  of  psycho-  taon  of  scientific  principles,  has  probably  been  the 

therapy  at  all  times.    The  patient  must  trust  the  responsible  cause  of  more  fidth  cures  than  anything 

suggestor  and  must  be  persuaded  that  the  suggestion  else.    The  reason  why  astrology  maintained  its  in- 

has  already  been  efficient  on  others,  and  then  the  cure  flaence  in  medicine  was  because  of  faith  in  scientific 

results.    There  are  many  passages  of  Plato  in  which  he  knowledge  transferred  to  the  realm  of  human  affairs, 

discusses  the  influence  of  tne  mind  in  lessening  physical  When  light  was  studied,  it  too  came  into  therapeutics, 

ills  and  also  in  increasing  them,  and  even  creating  them,  With  the  discovery  of  the  ultra-violet  rays  and  their 

80  that  he  says  in  the ''  Republic  "  that  in  his  generation  actinic  value,  blue-glass  therapy  became  a  fad,  thou- 

men  were  educating  themselves  in  disease  instead  of  sands  of  tons  of  blue   glass  were  sold,  and  people 

in  health,  and  this  was  making  many  very  miserable,  sat  beneath  it  and  were  cured  of  all  kinds  of  pains 

A  special  form  of  psychotherapy  is  by  hypnotism,  and  aches.     Each  new  development  of  chemistry  and 

This  consists  in  suggestion  made  to  the  patient  while  of  physics  led  to  new  applications  to  therapeutics, 

he  is  in  a  state  of  concentration  of  attention  that  may  though  after  a  time  most  of  them  have  proved  to  be 

be  so  deep  as  to  resemble  sleep.    We  find  traces  of  nugatory.    The  faith  in  the  scientific  discovery  had 

this  from  the  early  days  in  Egypif  and  especially  in  acted  through  the  mind  of  the  patient  so  as  to  brine 

the  temple  hospitals.    The  Eastern  nations  paid  much  about  an  amelioration  of  symptoms,  if  not  a  cure  of 

attention  to  it  and  succeeded  in  producing  many  the  disease.    The  patients  who  are  cured  are  usually 

manifestations  that  we  are  likely  Uf  think  of  as  quite  sufferers  from  chronic  diseases,  who  either  have  only  a 

modem.    As  the  result  of  more  careful  investigation  persuasion  that  they  are  ill  or,  having  some  physical 

in  modem  times  we  have  come  to  realize  that  what-  ailment,  inhibit  through  solicitude  and  worry  the 

ever  there  is  in  hypnotism  is  due  entirely  to  the  sub-  natural  forces  that  would  brin^  about  a  cure.    This 

ject  and  not  to  the  operator.    It  is  not  the  power  of  inhibition  cannot  be  lifted  until  the  mind  is  relieved 

the  operator's  will,  but  the  influence  of  the  subject  on  by  confidence  in  some  wonderful  remedy  or  scientific 

himself   that   produces   the   condition.     (See   Htp-  discovery  that  gives  them  a  conviction  of  cure. 
i^OTiBM.)     Hypnotism  may  be  useful  at  the  be^nning        Quackery   and   Mind   Cures. — ^The   history  of 

of  certain  neurotic  cases,  but  it  depends  for  its  effi-  quackery  is  really  a  chapter  of  psychotherapy.    The 

ciency  on  the  patient's  will.    If  repeated  frequently  it  quack's  best  remedy  is  always  his*  promise  to  cure. 

aJways  does  harm.    The  recurrence  of  attention  to  it  This  he  does  for  all  diseases.    As  a  consequence  he 

in  each  succeeding  generation  is  one  of  the  most  in-  benefits  people  very  much  through  their  minds.    Such 

teresting  phenomena  in  the  history  of  the  use  of  the  patients  have  never  before  fully  trusted  that  they  could 

mind  to  influence  the  body.  be  cured,  and,  without  having  much  the  matter  with 

Unconscious   Psychotherapy. — Besides  deliber-  them,  they  have  suffered,  or  at  least  complained, 

ate  psychotherapy,  there  is  not  a  little  unconscious  When  they  lift  the  burden  of  solicitude  from  them- 

psycnotherapeutics  in  the  history  of  medicine.     Many  selves,  nature  cures  them  by  very  simple  means,  but 

remedies  have  been  introduced,  have  seemed  to  bene-  the  cure  b  attributed  to  the  last  remedy  employed, 

fit  patients,  have  then  had  considerable  vogue,  and  We  have  no  remedies  in  medicine  that  have  come  to  us 

subsequently  proved  to  be  quite  without  effect.    The  from  quacks:  their  wonderful  cures  have  been  ob- 

patients  were  helped  by  the  confidence  aroused  by  Uie  tained  from  simple  well-known  remedies  plu8  mental 

new  remedy.    Such  therapeutic  incidents  make  it  influence.    The  same  power  over  the  mind  helps 

difficult  to  determine  the  real  value  of  new  remedies,  nostmms,  or  special  medicines,  sold  with  the  promise 

Remedies  of  comparatively  slight  efficiency  acqoire  a  of  cure.    At  times  such  remedies  have  worked  so 

reputation  because  of  their  recommendation  by  some-  many  cures  that  governments  have  purchased  the 

one  who  commands  confidence;  only  after  this  loses  special  secret  from  its  inventor  and  published  it  to 

its  effect  can  the  true  value  of  the  remedy  be  esti-  the  world.    The  secret  has  always  proved  to  be  some 

mated.  ordinary  remedy  known  before,  and  just  as  soon  as  its 

Nearly  every  branch  of  science  has  furnished  medi-  secrecy  was  lost  it  failed  to  cure.    The  spread  of 

cine  with  supposed  remedies  which  have  been  of  bene-  popular  education,  instead  of  making  such  faith  cures 

fit  for  a  time  and  have  subsequently  proved  to  be  of  by  nostrums  less  common,  has  rather  served  to  give 

little  or  no  avail.    In  the  later  Miadle  Ages  magnets  them  wider  diffusion.    Ijie  ability  to  read  leaves 

were  supposed  to  draw  diseases  out  of  people  and  people  open  to  the  suggestive  influence  of  print,  thou^ 

actually    syBfected    many    patients    favourably*    As  it  does  not  necessarily  supply  the  judgment  requisite 

electricity  developed,  each  new  phase  of  it  found  ap-  for  a  proper  appreciation  of  what  is  thus  presented, 

plications  in  medicine  that  were  very  promising  at  As  a  consequence  our  generation  is  nostrum-ridden 

nrst,  but  afterwards  proved  to  be  of  little  therapeutic  and  spends  millions  of  money  for  remedies  which  are 

value.    The  supposed  effect  of  the  Leyden  jar  shortly  quite  indifferent  or,  at  most,  trivially  helpful,  and 

after  its  discovery  is  ludicrous  reamng.    Galvanis  sometimes  are  absolutely  noxious.   Government  analy- 

work  gave  new  impetus  to  electrical  therapy.    A  sis  of  a  score  of  the  most  popular  remedies  widely 

wandering  quack  from  America,   Perkins,   made  a  consumed  throughout   the  country  five  years  ago 

fortune  in  Europe  by  means  of  two  metal  instruments  showed  that  the  only  active  ingredient  was  alcohol  and 

about  the  size  of  lead  pencils  with  which  he  stroked  that  a  dose  of  the  medicine  was  about  eqiuvalent  to  a 

patients.    They  were  supposed  somehow  to  make  an  drink  of  whisky.    This  lessened  the  sale  of  these 

application  of  Galvani's  discovery  of  animal  electricity  remedies,  however,  only  for  the  time  being,  and  most 

to  t^e  human  body.    After  a  time,  of  course,  "Per-  of  them  have  regained  their  old  popularity.    The 

kins  tractors"  failed  to  produce  any  such  results.     In  most  popular  present  source  of  scientific  superstition 

spite  of  disappointments,  each  new  development  has  concerns  electricity.    All  sorts  of  rings,  medals,  and 

had  the  same  results.    When  the  stronger  electrical  electrodes  are  bought  at  high  prices  with  the  con- 

machines,  and  then  the  methods  of  producing  high-  fidence  that  they  will  produce  wonderful  results, 

frequency  currents,  were  invented,  these  were  an-  Rheumatic  rings  and  wristlets,  foot  electrodes,  one  of 

nounced  as  having  wonderful  curative  powers  and  copper  and  the  other  of  sine,  electric  belts,  shields 


P8YCH0THSRAPT 


551 


PSTCHOTHERAPT 


worn  in  the  front  and  back  of  the  chest — these  are 
modem  examples  of  superstitious  practices. 

Special  Psychotherapeutics. — Ordinarily,  it  is 
presumed  that  psychotherapy  is  only  efficient  in  affec- 
tions that  are  due  to  mental  pei:Buafiions.  so-called  imag- 
inary diseases,  and  that  it  cannot  benefit  organic  affec- 
tions. In  recent  years,  however,  abundant  proof  has 
been  forthcoming  that  favourable  influence  upon  the 
mind  can  modify  even  very  serious  physical  conditions. 
It  is  not  unusual  for  a  cancer  patient  who  has  lost  some 
twenty  or  thirty  pounds  in  weight  to  regain  this  and 
more  after  an  exploratory  incision  which  has  shown 
the  condition  to  be  inoperable.  The  patient,  to  save 
solicitude,  is  given  to  understand  that  now  he  ought  to 
get  better  and  he  proceeds  to  do  so.  In  one  such  case 
a  gain  of  seventy  pounds  was  recorded.  The  patient 
eventually  died  of  cancer,  but  there  had  been  months 
of  strength  and  efficiency  that  would  not  otherwise 
have  been  secured.  There  are  affections,  too,  in 
which  unfavourable  mental  persuasion  produces 
serious  physical  changes  that  may  even  prove  fatal 
if  any  other  cause  intervenes.  It  is  now  very  well 
known  that  a  great  many  cases  of  so-called  dyspep- 
sia are  really  due  to  over-solicitude  about  food  and 
the  elimination  from  the  diet  of  so  many  articles 
supposed  to  be  indigestible  that  the  patient's  nutri- 
tion is  seriously  interfered  with.  Occupation  of  mind 
with  the  stomach  b  particularly  likely  to  interfere  with 
its  activity.  Certain  thoughts  bring  a  sense  of  nausea. 
Delicate  people  may  reject  a  meal  if  they  are  reminded 
of  something  nauseating,  or  if  a  particular  smell  or 
some  untoward  incident  disturbs  them.  Food  eaten 
with  relish  and  in  process  of  satisfactory  digestion  may 
be  rejected  if  something  deterrent  is  heard  m  reference 
to  its  origin  or  mode  of  preparation,  and  rejection 
occurs  whether  the  disgusting  statement  be  true  or 
false.  A  conviction  that  certain  articles  of  food  will 
disagree  with  us  is  almost  sure  to  make  them  difficult 
of  digestion:  a  great  many  people  are  quite  sure  that 
they  cannot  digest  milk  or  eggs,  but  prove  thoroughly 
capable  of  digesting  those •  articles  of  diet  without 
difficultv  when,  as  in  tuberculosis  sanatoria,  they  are 
required  to  take  them  regularly. 

Heart  and  Mental  Influence. — ^The  heart  might 
be  presumed  free  from  the  influence  of  the  mind,  be- 
cause of  its  great  importance.  It  is  probably  throu^ 
this  organ,  however,  that  mpst  of  the  favourable  and 
unfavourable  influence  of  the  mind  on  the  bodv  is 
exerted.  The  heart  begins  to  beat  in  the  embryo  long 
before  the  nervous  system  is  formed,  but  it  very  soon 
comes  to  have  the  most  intimate  relations  with  the 
nervous  system.  In  excitement  and  joy  the  heart 
beats  fast;  in  fright  and  depression  it  beats  slowly;  and 
any  vehement  emotion  seriously  affects  its  action. 
This  is  true  in  health,  but  is  particularly  true  in  disease 
of  the  heart  itself.  Sufferers  from  heart-disease  die 
from  joy  as  well  as  from  fright.  The  state  of  mind 
may  influence  the  heart  favourably  or  unfavourably 
in  the  course  of  disease,  and  the  physician  must  recog- 
nize this  and  use  his  understancung  of  it  to  good  pur- 
pose. Many  of  our  heart  remedies  are  rather  slow  to 
act,  taking  twelve  hours  or  more  for  their  effect.  An 
hour  or  two  after  the  visit  of  a  physician,  however, 
most  heart  patients  will  be  ever  so  much  better  than 
they  were  before,  and  their  improvement  may  be  at- 
tributed to  the  physician's  remedies,  though  it  is  only 
due  to  confidence  aroused  by  his  presence  and  the 
feeling  of  relief  afforded  by  his  careful  examination 
and  assurance  that  there  is  no  danger.  By  the  time 
this  feeling  would  begin  to  lose  its  effect,  his  remedies 
take  hold  and  the  patient  continues  to  improve. 

Great  physicians  have  at  all  times  recognized  the 
strong  influence  that  the  mind  has  over  the  heart. 
Lancisi  [De  subit.  morte,  I  (Geneva,  1718),  xix,  §31 
tells  of  cases  in  which  over-solicitude  about  the  heart 
was  the  cause  of  the  symptoms.  Morgagni,  in  '^  The 
Seats  and  Causes  of  Diseases",  I  (London,  1769),  Let- 


ter xxiv,  tells  of  a  physician  who,  from  worrying  about 
his  heart,  caused  it  to  miss  beats.  Sydenham  and  Boer- 
haavc  both  note  the  unfavourable  effect  which  the  mind 
may  have  on  the  heart  [Brown,  "Academical  Lectures", 
VI  (London,  1757)].  In  our  own  times  Oppenheim 
("Letters  to  Nervous  Patients",  tr.  Edinburgh,  1907) 
tells  one  patient  that  whenever  he  feels  the  pulse,  the 
,  patient  being  conscious  of  it,  beats  are  missed;  when- 
ever he  feels  it  without  advertence  on  the  part  of  the 
patient,  it  is  quite  regular  in  its  actions.  He  insists 
that  the  heart  resents  surveillance,  "which  not  only 
accelerates,  but  may  even  inhibit  its  action  and  render 
it  irregular".  He  adds:  "And  so  it  is  with  all  the 
organs  of  the  bodv  which  act  spontaneously;  they  get 
out  of  order  and  become  functionally  defective,  if, 
as  the  result  of  the  attention  and  self-observation 
directed  towards  them,  impulses  flow  to  them  from 
the  centres  of  consciousness  and  will  in  the  same  wav 
as  they  flow  to  the  organs  [e.  g.  the  muscles]  which 
are  normally  under  the  control  of  the  will."  Prof. 
Broadbent,  whose  experience  with  heart  disease  was 
perhaps  the  greatest  in  our  generation,  frequently 
dwells,  in  "The  Action  of  the  Heart"  ("The  Writings 
of  Sir  Wm.  Broadbent",  Oxford,  1910),  on  the  neces- 
sity for  setting  the  mind  at  rest.  MacKenzie,  whose 
work  on  the  mechanics  of  the  heart  was  in  a  contrary 
direction,  has  been  quite  as  emphatic  in  recognizing 
mental  influence  ("Diseases  of  the  Heart",  Oxford, 
1910).  Psychotherapy  means  more  in  heart  disease 
than  anywhere  else,  and  in  other  diseases  its  effect  upon 
the  circulation  through  the  heart  is  very  important. 

The  absolutely  automatic  action  of  the  lungs  might 
seem  to  indicate  that  these  were  free  from  any  emo- 
tional or  mental  influence.  Most  of  the  asthmatic 
conditions  characterized  by  difficulty  of  breathing 
have  large  mental  elements  in  them.  Neurotic  asthma 
is  more  dependent  on  the  mental  state  than  anything 
else.  Most  of  the  remedies  that  affect  it  have  a  dis- 
tinct action  on  the  mind  as  well  as  the  lungs.  Even 
tuberculosis  is  very  largely  influenced  by  the  state  of 
the  patient's  mind.  A  patient  who  gives  up  the 
struggle  will  succumb.  "Consumption  takes  the 
Quitters"  is  an  axiom.  Patients  who  bravely  face 
tne  danger  and  the  difficulties  usually  live  on  much 
longer  and  sometimes  live  their  lives  out,  and  in  spite 
of  serious  invasion  of  the  lungs  die  from  other  inter- 
current disease.  In  all  the  functional  nervous  dis- 
eases— that  is,  those  nervous  affections  not  dependent 
on  some  organic  change  in  the  nervous  system,  yet 
often  accompanied  by  pains  and  palsies — the  con- 
ditions known  as  hystencal — treatment  through  the 
mind  is  most  essential.  Even  when  other  remedies 
are  used  it  is  only  if  they  affect  the  patient's  mind 
that  they  do  good.  The  ill-smelling  remedies,  the 
bread  pills,  the  stronger  cathartics  and  •emetics  for- 
merly used  in  these  cases  produced  their  effect  through 
the  mind. 

Even  in  organic  nervous  disease,  however,  there  is  a 
distinct  place  for  mental  healing.  Patients  become 
depressed  when  they  learn  that  they  are  sufferers 
from  some  incurable  nervous  disease,  the  appetite  is 
disturbed,  the  digestion  impaired,  constipation  sets  in, 
they  go  out  less  in  the  air  and  take  insufficient  exer- 
cise, and  then  many  adventitious  symptoms  develop. 
The  patient  attributes  these  to  the  underlying  nervous 
disease,  though  they  are  really  due  to  the  mental  state 
and  to  confinement.  The  promise  of  a  cure  lifts  up 
the  despondent  mind,  tempts  the  patient  to  go  out: 
the  appetite  will  be  improved,  many  symptoms  will 
disappear,  and  the  patient  thinks  that  the  under- 
lying disease  is  being  helped.  Hence  the  many  ad- 
vertised remedies  for  even  such  absolutely  incurable 
diseases  as  locomotor  ataxia,  multiple  sclerosis, 
epilepsy,  and  the  like. 

Dreads. — Psychotherapy  is  of  course  most  impor- 
tant in  the  treatment  of  such  affections  as  depend  on 
mental  influence.    We  have  a  whole  series  of  dreads. 


PSYCHOTHERAPY          552  PSYCHOTHERAPY 

of  anxieties,  of  exaggerations  and  sensations,  and  then  he  is  more  susceptible  than  others;  he  must  be  kept 

of  habits  and  of  lack  of  will  power,  that  can  only  be  from  contact  with  it  in  every  way.  and  then  it  is  com- 

properly  treated  through  the  mind.    The  dreads,  or  paratively  easy  for  him  not  to  relapse  into  the  habit, 

phooias,  constitute  ^  rather  large  class  of  nervous  Probably  the  most  helpful  factor  m  the  treatment  of 

affections;  perhaps  the  most  common  is  mysophobia,  alcoholism  is  for  the  patient  to  have  some  friend,  phy- 

or  dread  of^dirt,  sometimes  under  the  form  of  bac-  sician  or  clergyman,  whom  he  thoroughly  respects,  to 

teriophobia;  acrophobia,  the  dread  of  heights,  which  whom  he  turns  with  confidence  in  moments  of  trial, 

may  become  so  poignant  as  to  make  it  impoasible  for*  There  Is  no  reason,  except  in  case  of  distinct  deteriora- 

a  person  to  sit'  m  the  front  row  of  a  gallery  or  even  tion,  why  he  should  not  be  completely  cured;   but 

to  say  Mass  on  a  high  altar :  alurophobia,  or  the  dread  not  drugs,  but  mental  influence  and  will  power  is  the 

of  cats,  which  may  make  life  miserable.    Then  there  important  remedy.    The  same  is  true  of  drug  addic- 

is  dread  of  the  dark,  the  dread  of  wide  open  places,  tions,  now  grown  so  common  in  the  United  States, 

the  dread  of  narrow  spaces,  the  dread  of  walkms  be-  That  country  uses  more  than  ten  times  as  much  opium 

neath  anything  overhanging,  and  numbers  of  others,  and  cocaine  as  is  required  in  medicine.    The  special 

There  is  always  a  certain  mental  element  in  these,  yet  victims  of  the  habits  are  those  who  can  easily  procure 

they  occur  in  persons  of  intellect  and  character.   Only  the  drugs — druggists,  physicians,  and  nurses.     It  is 

suggestion  and  training  will  cure  them.    Usually  they  quite  easy  to  cure  a  drug  habit.    It  is  even  easier  to 

are  worse  when  the  patient  is  nm  down.  resume  it.    Relapses  take  place  because  the  patients 

Tbemobs  and  Tics. — After  the  dreads  come  the  persuade  themselves  that  for  this  once  they  need  a 

tremors,  the  tics  or  habits,  and  then  the  conscious  dose  of  their  favourite  remedy.    One  dose  leads  to 

surveillance  of  actions  usually  automatic,  such  as  another,  and  so  the  habit  is  resumed.    After  a  time  a 

talking,  writing,  even  walking,  which  interfere  with  habit  of  relapse  into  the  habit  develops  and  is  most 

the  accomplishment  of  them.    Under  emotional  stress,  difficult  to  break.    If  the  patients  themselves  want  to, 

as  after  a  panic,  men  sometimes  find  themselves  un-  however,  it  is  not  hard  as  a  rule  to  correct  these 

able  to  sign  their  names  when  anyone  is  watching  habits.    Moral  factors  mean  much  more  than  physical, 

them.    Some  men  cannot  drink  a  glass  of  water  at  a  Patients  must  have  someone  whom  they  take  into 

strange  table  without  spilUng  it.    These  are  psychic  their  confidence,  they  must  live  normal,  regular  lives, 

rather  than  nervous  conditions,  and  must  be  treated  with  long  hours  in  the  open  air  and  good  hours  of 

as  such.    There  are  a  number  of  tremors  that  occur  sleep,  and  must  not  be  subjected  to  emotional  strains, 

as  a  consequence  of  fright  which  can  only  be  bettered  It  is  almost  impossible  to  break  up  the  habit  in  an 

in  the  same  way.     Many  of  the  tics — as  winking,  actor  or  a  broker,  or  a  gambler,  because  every  now 

head-nodding,  slight  convulsive  movements  of  the  and  then  he  feels  the  ne^  of  the  stimulant  to  enable 

arms,  movements  of  the  lips,  and  nose — ^must  be  him  to  accomplish  some  sudden  call  in  his  work.    The 

looked  on  in  this  same  way.     Children  must  be  same  thing  is  true  of  a  doctor  or  a  nurse  with  many 

watched  and  prevented  from  contracting  them.   Th^  emergency  calls  to  answer.    Often  the  change  of  life 

have  a  tendency  to  run  in  families  by  imitation.    If  necessary  may  be  difficult,  but  as  the  wages  of  the 

noted  early,  they  can  be  removed  bv  the  formation  drug  habit  is  premature  death,  it  should  not  be  diffi- 

of  a  contrary  habit.    Some  habits  of  children,  espe-  cult  to  make  patients  understand  the  necessity, 

cially  certain  sucking;  habits  and  tongue  movements.  Other  habits — dietary,  sexual,  and  the  like — must 

lead  to  ugly  deformities  of  the  mouth  when  the  jaws  be  met  in  just  the  sam^  way.    The  patient  can  be 

are  in  the  plastic  stage.    Thumb-sucking  is  a  habit  helped  in  the  be^ning  by  means  of  drugs.   After  that 

that  must  be  taken  seriously,  or  the  results  on  the  it  depends  on  his  will.    His  will  may  be  helped  very 

mouth  will  be  very  marked.    Biting  the  nails  in  older  much,  however,  by  having  a  confidant,  a  confessor, 

people  is  a  corresponding  affection.    Such  habits  de-  or  a  physician  to  whom  he  goes  in  relapses,  and  who 

velop,  as  a  rule,  only  in  those  with  some  psychasthenic  advises  him  so  that  his  surroundings  may  be  made 

condition,  but  the  individuals  may  be  very  useful  more  favourable, 

members  of  society.  Faith  Cures  and  MiHACLES.—It  is  often  said  that 

Alcoholism  and  Drug  Habits. — ^The  greatest  use-  the  cures  at  shrines  and  durins  pilgrimages  are  mainly 
fulness  of  psychotherapy  is  in  alcoholism  and  in  the  due  to  psychotherapy — partly  to  confident  trust  in 
drug  habits.  There  is  no  remedy  that  will  cure  alco-  Providence,  and  partly  to  the  strong  expectancy  of 
holism.  We  have  had.  during  the  past  half  century,  cure  that  comes  over  suggestible  persons  at  these  tunes 
hundreds  of  advertisea  cures:  we  know  now  that  all  and  places.  Undoubted^  many  of  the  cures  reported 
of  them  owed  their  success  to  influence  on  the  patient's  at  smrines  and  during  pilgrimages  are  of  this  character, 
mind.  When  a  new  cure  is  first  announced  many  are  An  analysis  of  the  records  of  cures  carefully  kept — 
benefited  by  it.  Afterwards  it  sinks  to  the  ordinary  as,  for  instance,  at  Lourdes — shows,  however,  that 
level  and  comes  to  be  recognized  as  only  a  helpful  the  majority  of  accepted  cures  have  been  in  patients 
physical  treatment  with  a  strong  mental  factor  at-  suffering  not  from  mental  persuasions  of  disease,  nor 
tachod.  When  the  patients  are  m  the  midst  of  the  from  neurosis,  nor  from  symptoms  exaggerated  by  anxi- 
attacks  of  alcoholism,  their  physical  state  makes  them  ety,  but  from  such  very  concrete  affections  aa  tuber- 
crave  some  stimulation.  At  this  time  they  must  culosis,  diagnosed  by  one  or  more  physicians  of  stand- 
be  given  other  than  alcoholic  stimulants,  and  must  be  ing,  ulcers  of  various  kinds,  broken  bones  that  have 
under  such  surveillance  as  shall  help  them  to  keep  long  failed  to  heal,  and  otner  readily  demonstrable 
away  from  liquor.  After  a  variable  time — ^from  a  week  organic  affections.  When  cures  are  worked  in  such 
to  two  or  three  weeks— they  are  quite  capable  of  re-  cases,  some  force  beyond  that  of  nature  as  we  know 
sisting  the  craving  by  themselves,  if  they  really  want  it  must  be  at  work.  The  physicians  who  have  been 
to.  The  cure  of  alcoholism  is  easy,  but  relapses  are  most  closely  in  touch  with  tne  patients  at  such  shrines 
easier  still,  because  the  patients  think  that  they  can  are  those  most  confident  in  their  expression  that  they 
take,  a  glass  and  go  no  further.  When  they  are  tired  have  seen  miracles  take  place.  A  visit  to  a  shrine 
or  chillSd.  or  fear  that  they  are  going  to  catch  a  cold,  like  Lourdes  is  sufficient  to  convince  any  physician 
or  when  friends  suggest  it  to  them,  they  indulge  in  a  that  there  is  something  more  than  psychotherapy, 
glass  and  then  in  the  second  and  third,  and  the  old  though  he  can  see  also  abundant  evidence  of  psycho- 
nabit  has  to  be  broken  again.    We  have  any  number  therapy  at  work. 

of  examples,  however,  of  men  who  have  not  drawn  Cycles  of  Psychotherapy. — Our  time  has  seen  a 

a  sober  breath  for  ten,  twenty,  or  thirty  years  who  revival  of  psychotherapy  in  many  forms.    Interest 

have  resolved  to  drink  no  more  and  have  kept  their  in  it  runs  in  cycles.    It  is  always  most  intense  just 

resolutions.    If  a  man  inclined  to  alcoholism  is  put  after  a  period  of  such  devotion  to  physical  science  as 

in  the  way  of  temptation,  he  will  almost  surely  tall;  produces  a  general  impression  that  at  last  the  m3r»- 


\ 


y 


PTOLXMAIS 


553 


PUBLICAN 


terv  of  life  has  been  discovered.  In  the  reaction  that 
follows  disillusionment  mental  heaJing  becomes  a 
centre  of  attention.  Our  phase  will  lose  significance 
as  preceding  phases  have  done,  and  a  juster  estimation 
of  the  place  of  bodily  and  mental  factors  as  co-ordi- 
nate influences  for  health  will  recur. 

CurrBN,  Thtf  ThouMnd  Yeara  of  Mental  Healing  (New  York, 
1911);  Lawrkncb,  Primitive  Ptyehotherapu  and  Quackery  (Boe- 
ton,  1910)  (both  of  thew  lack  ^rmpathy  for  preceding  genera- 
tions); TuxB.  Influence  of  the  Mind  on  the  Body  (London,  1872) 
(subsequent  editions  enlaiged);  Dercum,  nest,  Hyjmotietn, 
Mental  TherapeuUee  (Philadelphia,  1907);  Dubois,  Mental  In- 
fluence in  Nenou*  Diaordera  (tr.  New  York,  1907) ;  MOnvtbrbebo, 
Paychotherapy  (Boston,  1909);  PaychotherapeiUiea,  a  Sympoaium 
(Boston.  1910);  Walah.  Paychotherapy  (New  York,  1911). 

James  J.  Walsh. 

PtolexnauB,  Claudius.  See  Geoobaphy  and 
THE  Church. 

Ptolemaifly  a  titular  see  in  Egypt,  metropolis  of  The- 
bais  Secunda.  Ptolemais  owes  its  name  to  Ptolemy 
Soter  who  built  it  on  the  site  of  a  yilla«e  named  Si 
(with  the  article,  Psi,  whence  the  Coptic  Psoi,  or  Psoi : 
Arabic  Absay:  Greek  Sois  and  Syis).  The  capital  ot 
the  nome  of  Tninite,  it  supplanted  Thebes  as  capital  of 
Thebais j  as  important  as  Memphis,  its  a<kninistration 
was  copied  from  the  Greek  system.  A  specisd  cult  in 
honour  of  the  Ptolemys,  particularly  ot  its  founder, 
was  established.  In  the  sixth  century  it  was  the 
civil  metropolis  of  Thebais  Secunda.  Le  Quien  (Oriens 
christianus,  II,  605)  mentions  three  bishops:  the 
Melitian  Ammonius;  Heraclides,  present  at  the  Coim- 
cil  of  Ephesus  (431);  Isaac,  who  signed  the  letter  of 
the  bishops  of  Thebais  to  the  Emperor  Leo  (457)  and 
was  present  at  the  Council  of  Constantinople  under 
the  ratriarch  Gennadius.  A  Greek  ''Notitia  epis- 
copatuum"  refers  to  the  see  about  820.  It  had  also 
some  Coptic  bishops  (Zoega,  ''Catalogus  codicum 
copticorum",  329).  The  Coptic  ^'Notitis  episcopa- 
tuum"  do  not  mention  the  see,  but  other  Coptic  docu- 
ments cite  it  frequently,  and  allusion  is  made  to  its 
medical  school.  To-day  it  is  known  as  MensHtyehpr 
Mensh4h,  contains  8000  inhabitants,  belongs  to  the 
district  of  Girgeh,  Province  of  Sohag,  on  the  western 
bank  of  the  Nile,  and  is  a  railway  station  between 
Cairo  and  Thebes. 

Smith,  Diet,  of  Greek  and  Roman Oeogr.  (London.  1878),  s.  v.; 
MOllsr,  Notea  d  Ptolemy,  ed.  Dioot,  I,  720;  AuiuNSAU,  Oio' 
graphie  de  VBgypU  d  I'ipoque  copte  (Paris,  1893),  381. 

S.   P^TRIDts. 

Ptoleznaifl  (Saint-Jean  d'  Acre),  a  titular  metrop- 
olis in  Phoenicia  Prima,  or  Maritima.  The  cit^  of 
Acre,  now  Saint^ean  d'Acre,  was  csAled  Ptolemais  in 
281  or  267  B.  c,  by  Ptolemy  II,  sumamed  Philadel- 
phus.  and  since  then  this  na^e  has  subsisted  con- 
jointly with  the  primitive  one,  at  least  as  the  official 
name.  Quite  early  it  possessed  a  Christian  community 
visited  by  St.  Paul  (Acts,  xxi,  7).  The  first  bishops 
known  are:  Clarus,  present  about  190  at  a  council 
held  concerning  the  observance  of  Easter;  iEneas,  at 
Nic«a,  325,  and  at  Antioch,  341;  Nectabus  at  Con- 
stantinople, 381;  Antiochus,  friend  and  later  adver- 
sary of  St.  John  Chrysostom,  and  author  of  some  lost 
works;  Helladius  at  Ephesus,  431;  Paul  at  Antioch, 
445,  and  at  Chalcedon,  451;  John  in  518;  George  at 
Constantinople,  553  (Le  Quien,  '' Oriens  christianus'', 
II,  813) .  The  see  was  a  suffragan  of  T)rre,  which  then 
depended  on  the  Patriarchate  of  Antioch.  With  the 
Latin  conquest  the  province  of  Tyre  was  attached  to 
the  Patriarchate  of  Jerusalem.  Latin  bishops  resided 
there,  and  a  list  of  them  from  1133  to  1263  may  be 
found  in  Eubel  (Hier.  Cath.  med.  »vi,  I,  66).  From 
this  date  to  the  taking  of  the  city  by  the  Arabs  in  1291 
the  bishopric  was  governed  by  thd  Patriarch  of  Jeru- 
salem. Concerning  the  titular  bishops  up  to  1592  see 
Eubel,  op.  cit.,  I,  also  II.  88;  III,  105.  The  official 
list  of  the  Roman  Curia  (Rome,  1884)  does  not  men- 
tion Ptolemais  as  a  bishopric,  but  it  may  have  been 
known  as  an  archbishopric.  The  Greeks  elevated  the 
see  to  the  rank  of  metropolitan  depending  on  the 


Patriarchate  of  Jerusalem.  This  occurred  before  1672, 
when  Joasaph,  present  at  the  Council  of  Jerusalem, 
was  qualified  as  metropolitan;  the  same  conditions 
now  exist.  The  Melkite,  or  Greek,  metropolis  num- 
bers 10,0(X)  faithful,  36  priests,  30  churches  or  chapels, 
17  schools,  3  orphanages,  and  a  monastery  of  23  monks. 
Tliere  is  a  Latin  pansh  directed  by  the  Franciscans, 
a  hospital,  school  for  boys,  the  Ladies  of  Nazareth 
with  a  school,  and  a  Protestant  school  and  hospital 
of  the  Church  Missionary  Society. 

WaiibA  in  Diet,  d'hiet.  el  de  gtog.  ecd.  (Paris,  1910),  s.  v.  Acre, 
Saints  Jean  d*,  with  an  important  bibliography. 

S.  P^TRIDis. 

Ptoleniy  of  Lucca.    See  Bartholomew  of  Lucca. 

Ptolemy  the  Gnostic,  a  heretic  of  the  second 
century  and  personal  disciple  of  Valentinus.  He  was 
probably  still  living  about  180.  No  other  certain 
details  are  known  of  his  life;  Hamack's  suggestion 
that  he  was  identical  with  the  Ptolemy  spoken  of 
by  St.  Justin  is  as  yet  unproved  (Text.  u.  Unter- 
such.  New.  Ser.  XIII,  Anal.  z.  aJt.  Gesch.  d.  Chr.). 
He  was,  with  Heracleon,  the  principal  writer  of  the 
Italian  or  Western  school  of  Valentinian  Gnosticism. 
His  works  have  reached  us  in  an  incomplete  form  as 
follows:    (1)  a  fragment  of  an  exegetical  writing 

f>re8erved  by  Irenseus  (Adv.  Hser.,  I,  viii,  5);  (2)  a 
etter  to  Flora,  a  Christian  lady,  not  otherwise  known 
to  us.  This  letter  is  foimd  in  the  works  of  Epiphanius 
(Hser.  XXXIII,  3-7).  It  was  written  in  response 
to  Flora's  inquiry  concerning  the  origin  of  the  Law 
of  the  Old  Testament.  This  law,  Ptolemy  states, 
cannot  be  attributed  to  the  supreme  God,  nor  to  the 
devil;  nor  does  it  proceed  from  one  law-giver.  A 
part  of  it  is  the  work  of  an  inferior  god;  the  second 
part  is  due  to  Moses,  and  the  third  to  the  elders  of 
the  Jewish  people.  Three  different  sections  are  to 
be  distinguished  even  in  the  part  ascribed  to  the  in- 
ferior god:  (1)  The  absolutely  pure  legislation  of 
the  Decalogue  which  was  not  destroyed,  but  fulfilled 
by  the  Saviour;  (2)  the  laws  mixed  with  evil,  like 
the  right  of  retaliation,  which  were  abohshed  by  the 
Saviour  because  they  were  incompatible  with  His 
nature;  (3)  the  section  which  is  typical  and  sym- 
bolical of  the  higher  world.  It  includes  such  pre- 
cepts as  circumcision,  fasting,  and  was  raised  by  the 
Saviour  from  a  sensible  to  a  spiritual  plane.  The  god 
who  is  the  author  of  the  law,  in  so  far  as  it  is  not  the 
product  of  human  effort,  is  the  demiurge  who  occupies 
a  middle  position  between  the  Supreme  God  and  the 
devil.  He  is  the  creator  of  the  universe,  is  neither 
perfect,  nor  the  author  of  evil,  but  ou^t  to  t)e  called 
just.  In  his  interpretation  of  the  universe,  Ptolemy 
resorted  to  a  fantastic  system  of  eons.  Thirty  of 
these,  as  he  believes,  rule  the  higher  world,  the  pleroma. 
This  system  becomes  the  basis  of  a  wild  exegesis 
which  discovers  in  the  prologue  of  St.  John's  Gospel 
the  first  Ogdoad.     (See  Gnosticism.) 

Irbn«ub,  Adt.  Hot.,  1,  cc.  i-viii;  Lipsius  in  Diet.  Chriat. 
Biog.,  s.  V.  PUAemaua,  I. 

N.  A.  Weber. 

Publican,  in  the  Gospels,  is  derived  from  the 
publicaniis  of  the  Vulgate,  and  si|;nifies  a  member  or 
employee  of  the  Roman  financial  companies  who 
farmed  the  taxes.  From  the  time  of  the  Republic 
the  Roman  State  relieved  itself  of  the  trouble  of 
collecting  the  taxes  in  the  provinces  by  putting  up 
the  taxes  of  each  in  a  lump  sum  to  auction.  The 
highest  bidder  received  the  authorization  to  extort  the 
sum  from  the  province  in  question.  Such  a  system 
afforded  ample  opportunity  for  rapacious  exactions 
on  the  part  of  the  company  and  its  officials,  and 
the  abuses  were  often  intolerable.  On  account  of 
these,  and  more,  perhaps,  because  of  the  natural  though 
impotent  Jewish  hatred  of  the  Roman  supremacy, 
those  of  the  Jews  who  found  it  profitable  thus  to 
serve  the  foreign  rulers  were  objects  of  execration  to 
their  countrymen.    In  the  Gospel  narrative  we  find 


PUBLIC                                 554  PUEBLO 

them  as  a  class  habitually  coupled  with  "sinnert"  begotten  by  a  marriage  contract,  not  perfected  by 
and  the  "heathen".  The  attitude  of  Christ  towards  carnal  relations — and  this,  too,  though  the  marriage 
this,  as  well  as  other  despised  classes,  was  that  of  an  be  invalid,  unless  the  invalidity  be  due  to  lack  of 
uplifting  sympathy.  One  great  reproach  cast  upon  lawful  consent.  By  carnal  intercourse  public  decency 
Him  by  His  enemies,  the  self-righteous  Scribes  and  gives  way  to  affinit^^,  and,  thou^  some  deny  this,  all 
Pharisees,  was  EQs  friendship  for,  and  association  with  admit  that  in  a  petition  for  a  dispensation  it  is  suffi- 
pubhcans  and  sinners;  and  consistently  with  this  cient  to  express  the  impediment  of  affinity,  while  pub- 
conduct  it  pleased  Him  to  choose  as  one  of  the  twelve  Uc  decency,  if  it  still  exist,  is  imderstood. 
Apostles  Levi  or  Matthew  the  Publican  (Matt.,  A  civil  marriage  does  not  give  rise  to  this  impedi- 
ix,  9).  ment  (S.  C.  C,  17  March,  1879),  nor  does  pubUc  de- 
Maja,  CommenL  of  Chapd  of  St.  Mauhew  (^^^  cency  beget  a  second  impediment  prejudicial  to  a 

DiBTBiCB.  Dte  recfUltche  Nalur  der  Socieiaa  jmblunnorum  (Mei»-  fnrmpr  hpf mthal  •     tiattipIv     a.  hptrof  hal   nr  marnfurt^ 

son.  1889);  TmsAvup,  Let  douaneachez  lea  Romaina  (Psavi,l88S).  *onner  Dciroinai,    namely,  a  petrotnaj  or  marriage 

Jambs  F.  Dribcoll.  (unless  consummated),  with  the  mother,  sister,  or 

daughter  of  an  affianced  person  does  not  prohibit  the 

Public  Honesty  (D'ecenct),  a  diriment  matri-  keeping  of  one's  troth  to  the  said  person.    Since  the 

monial  impediment  consisting  in  a  relationship,  which  impediment   of  pubUc  decency  is  of  ecclesiastical 

arises  from  a  valid  betrothal,  or  from  a  marriage  ap-  origin,  it  follows  that  the  Church  may  dispense  from 

proved  by  the  Church  but  not  consummated.    Mar«  it,  ana  that  it  does  not  affect  unbaptized  persons,  even 

riage  between  the  persons  affected  by  this  impediment,  though  later  they  become  Christians.   A  dispensa- 

as  described  below^is  null;  were  it  possible  for  them  tion  from  ''Disparity  of  Worship"  includes  one  in 

to  marry  thev  imght  be  exposed  to  incontinency,  public  decency,  where  the  baptized  party  requires 

owing  particularly  to  their  mtimacy  and  familiar  such.    Finally  it  is  apparent  that  this  impediment 

intercourse.  may  be  multiphed  in  the  same  person,  as,  for  instance. 

Traces  of  this  impediment  are  found  under  another  if  one  were  to  enter  into  betrothal  with  several  women 

name  in  Roman  law,  since  according  to  Modestinus  related  by  blood  in  the  first  d^p'ee. 

(D.  XXIII,  ii,  42,  De  ritU  nuptiarum)  not  only  what  G^f ^fw*  De  Ma^numw  (Pari^  1904) ;  Slam       Manual  of 

b  lawful,  but  likeVise  what  is  eminentlv  fitting,  is  to  ^  l!;^*  "  ^^ew  York.  1908).  306;  and  all  manual,  of 

be  observed  in  entering  into  wedlock.     Hence  in  j^,  3,  Meehan. 

Roman  law  affinity  arising  from  a  valid  marriage,  «.  i^ii    «  i.     i       a     o 

whether  consummated  or  not,  constituted  a  diriment  FutoliC  ScnoolS.     Bee  bCHOOLS. 

impediment  between  the  affined  in  all  degrees  throuph-  Puebla,  Archdiocbsb  op.    See  Tlaxcala. 

out  the  direct  Ime,  and  to  the  second  degree  (civil  •*•'»*'*•»»  ^rii.ni/xvv.«o«  vr*.    w^  ^i^^^^^ai^a. 

method  of  computing)  in  the  mdirect  or  oblique  line.  Pueblo  Indians.  —Name  :  From  the  Spanish  word 

Moreover,  there  was  a  quasi-affinity,  which,  for  the  meanmg  "village"  or  "town".    A  term  used  colleo- 

safeguarding  of  public  morals,  rendered  matrimony  lively  to  designate  those  Indians  of  central  New 

null  and  void :  (1 )  between  a  man  and  his  stepdaughter  Mexico  and  north-east  Arizona,  of  sedentary  and  agri- 

or  between  a  woman  and  her  stepson;   (2)  between  a  cultural  habits  and  dwelling  in  permanent  communal 

woman  and  the  son  or  father  of  her  betrothed,  and  stone-built  or  adobe  houses,  as  distinguished  from  the 

conversely  between  a  man  and  the  daughter  or  mother  eurrounding  tribes  of  ruder  culture  and  roving  habit, 

of  his  affianced  (D.  XXIII,  ii,  12  and  14);    (3)  lastly,  The  name  is  strictly  a  cultural  designation,  without 

between  persons  affined  through  concubinage  (loc.  linguistic  or  proper  tribal  significance,  although  in 

^^^  ^^A  and  D.  XXXVIII,  x,  7).                    ^  former  times  each  group  of  pueblos  efpeaking  the  same 

The  Church,  imitating  this  legislation,  admits  an  language  or  dialect  appears  to  have  constituted  a 

impediment,  which,  in  her  estimation,  is  required  by  loose  confederacy,  or  ^* province"  as  termed  by  the 

pubhc  decency  or  good  morals.    In  canon  law  carnal  Spaniards. 

intercourse,  licit  or  otherwise,  is  the  principle  of  Divisions  and  Languages:  The  ancient  area  of 

affinity;  in  Roman  law,  it  is  valid  marriage,  whether  Pueblo  culture,  as  indicated  by  the  numerous  prehi»- 

consummated  or  not.     Public  honesty  then  coin-  tone  ruins,  extended  from  about  the  Arkansas  and 

cides  at  times  with  the  affinity  of  the  Romans,  at  Grand  rivers,  in  Colorado  and  Utah,  southward  in- 

times  with  their  quasi-affinity.   The  institution  of  this  definitely  into  Mexico,  and  from  about  central  Ari- 

impediment  is  sometimes  attributed,  but  wrongly,  to  zona  eastward  almost  across  the  Texas  Panhandle. 

Boniface  VIII.    It  doubtless  owes  its  existence  not  to  Tliis  area  seems  to  have  been  gradually  narrowed 

a  positive  law,  but  to  custom,  and  probably  dates  downby  pressure  of  the  invading  wild  tribes  from  the 

back  to  the  twelfth  century  (Berardi,  III,  diss.  II,  north  and  east:  Apache,  Navaho,  Ute,  and  Comanche 

cap.  iii).     Canons  xi,  xiv,  xv  (Cans.  II,  Q.  ii)  in  —-and  by  the  slow  drying  up  of  the  coimtiy,  until 

Gratian's  Decretum,  indicating  an  earlier  existence  of  at  the  beginning  of  the  historic  period  in  1540  the 

this  impediment,   are   apocryphal    (Gasparri,    "De  Pueblo  population  centred  chiefly  on  the  upper  Pecos 

Matrimonio",  n.  801).  and  Rio  Cfrande  and  about  Zufii  in  New  Mexico,  and 

According  to  our  present  legislation  (Trent,  Sess.  upon  the  Hopi  mesas  in  north-east  Arizona.    The  in- 

XXIV,  cap.  iii,  De  Ref.  Matr.)  the  impediment  of  habited  pueblos  at  that  date  probably  numbered  close 

public  honestv  arises   from  a  valid  betrothal  be-  to  one  hundred,  with  an  approximate  population  not 

tween  the  male  party  to  the  contract  and  the  blood  far  from  50,0(X),  as  against  25  now  occupied,  with  a 

relatives  of  the  woman  in  the  first  degree  (mother,  total  population  in  1910  of  11,153.    This  does  not  in- 

daughter,  sister),  and  conversely  between  the  woman  elude  the  two  small  Americanized  pueblos  of  Ideta 

and  the  blood  relatives  of  the  naan  in  the  same  degree  del  Sur  (Texas)  and  Senecti  (Mexico),  in  the  immediate 

(father,  son,  brother).   Once  existing,  the  impediment  neighbourhood  of  El  Paso,  which  mi^t  bring  the 

always  remains,  even  though  the  betrothal  is  lawfully  total  up  to  a  few  more  than  11,200  souls.    Wi^  the 

broken  (see  Betrothal).    It  is  to  be  noted  that  be-  exception  of  these  two,  all  but  the  seven  Hopi  pueblos 

trothal,  to  be  valid,  must  now  ("Ne  temere"  of  Pius  (including  Hano)  are  in  New  Mexico.    In  all,  there 

X)  be  in  writing,  signed  by  the  contracting  parties  were  represented  seven  languages  of  four  distinct 

and  by  the  ordinary,  or  a  parish  priest  within  lus  own  linguistic  stocks,  classified  as  follows: 

territory,  or  two  witnesses.    If  one  or  the  other  of  the  Tanoan  Stock: 

contracting  parties  is  unable  to  write,  an  additionid  la.    Tewa  group  ("Teguas  province")     1910  a.  d. 

witness  is  required.    If  the  betrothal  is  conditional,  1     Hano  (with  Hopi,  Arizona) .  about  125 

the  impediment  does  not  arise  till  the  condition  is  2    Nambe about*   95 

verified.  3    Pojoaque  (recently  extinct) 

Second,  this  impediment,  for  a  stronger  reason,  is  4    San  Ilaefonso ,  110 


PUEBLO  555  PUEBLO 

5  San  Juan 404  Juan  de  la  Cruz  at  Puaray.    The  first^  and  it  is  b<y 

6  Santa  Clara 277  lieved,  all  three,  were  killed  bv  the  Indians,  being  the 

7  Tesuque about    75  first  missionary  martyrs  within  the  United  States. 

lb.    Tano  grdup  ("Tanos  province")  practi-  Unless  otherwise  noted,  all  the  Catholic  mission  work- 

cally  extinct.  ers  in  the  Pueblo  renon  are  Franciscans. 

2.  Tiqua  group  ("Tiguex  province")  No  other  entry  of  the  Pueblo  country  was  made 

1  Isleta about  980  until  1581,  when  Fr.  Augustin  Rodriguez  asked  and 

2  Isleta  del  Sur  (Texas,   Mexican-  received  permission  for  the  undertaking.     Accom- 

ized) about    40  panied  b^  two  other  priests,  Frs.  Santa  Maria  and 

3  Picurio about    75  Ix)pez,  with  an  escort  of  about  twenty  Indians  and 

4  Sandia 78  soldiers  under  Francisco  Chamuscado,  he  reached 

6    Taos 515  Tiaoiex  late  in  the  year.    The  escort  was  apparently 

3.  Piro  group  ("Piros  province",  ''Tomjiras  fri^tened  by  the  hostile  attitude  of  the  natives,  but 

Srovince"),  practically^  extmct;  the  priests  remained,  and  all  three  soon  afterward  met 

enecu,  Mex,  Mexicanized.  the  tate  of  their  predecessors,  being  killed  by  the  Tigua. 

Tanoan  stock,  continued:  In  an  attempt  to  ascertain  the  details  of  their  death, 

4.  Jemez  group  ("Jemes  or  Emerprovinae",  .  and  possibly  recover  their  remains,  a  volunteer  ex- 

" Pecos  province") 1910  a.  d.  plorer,  Don  Antonio  Espejo,   accompanied  by  Fr. 

1  Jemez about  430  Bernardino  Beltran,  in  the  next  year  led  a  small 

2  Pecos  (extinct,  1838)  expedition  over  the  same  route  up  the  Rio  Grande. 
Keresan  stock  (''Quirix  or  Quires  province") :  Having  accomplished  this  purpose  he  went  on,  visiAnjg 

la.    Eastern  group:  almost  everyr  Pueblo  tribe  from  the  Pecos  to  the  Hopi, 

1  Cochiti about  280  finally  reaching  Mexico  in  the  fall  of  1583.    Late  in 

2  San  Felipe 514  1590  a  strong  expedition  under  Castano  de  Sosa 

'  3    Santa  Ana 211  ascended  the  Rio  Grande,  stormed  Pecos  and  visited 

4  Santo  Domingo 819  a  large  niunber  of  jmebloSf  whose  inhabitants  either 

5  Sia 119  fled  or  made  submission.   One  or  two  later  contraband 

lb.    Western  group:  expeditions  seem  to  have  reached  the  buffalo  plains. 

1  Acoma,  etc about  745  The  real  conquest  of  the  country  was  accomplished 

2  Laquna,  etc about  1350  in  1598-9  b^  Juan  de  Onate  of  Zacatecas,  with  400 

Zunian  stock  ('' Cibola  province"):  men,  including  commissary  Fr.  Alonso  Martinez  and 

1    Zufii,  etc 1640  nine  other  Franciscans,  who  traversed  the  whole 

Shoshonean  stock:  re^on  to  beyond  the  Hopi,  generally  establishing 

Hop!  group  C'Tusayan  province"):  friendly  relations  with  the  natives,  and  organizing 

1  Mii^ongnovi about  175  regular  forms  of  government,  with  a  priest  in  each 

2  Oraibi **      780  district.    A  massacre  of  a  Spanish  detachmient  at  the 

3  Shijanlovi "      140  almost  inaccessible  cliff  town  of  Acoma  resulted  in 

4  Shongopovi "      250  the  storming  of  the  pueblo  and  the  slaughter  of  most 

5  Sichomovi *'      130  of  the  inhabitants,  - 24  Januarv,  1599.    In  1605  Santa 

6  WalpL "      200  F6  was  founded  as  the  capital  of  New  Mexico. 

7  Hano  (of  Tewa  group) "      125        In  1617  eleven  Franciscan  churches  had  been  built 

History:  The  history  of  the  Pueblo  tribes  begins  and  14,000  natives  baptized.    In  1621  Fr.  Alonso  de 

in  1539  with  the  expedition  of  the  Franciscan  monk,  Benavides  arrived  as  first  custodian  with  27  more 

Marcos  di  Niza,  who,  lured  by  rumours  of  great  cities  Franciscans.    In  1627  over  34,000  Indians  had  been 

in  the  North,  set  out  from  Mexico,  accompanied  by  baptized  and  43  churches  built,  and  46  fathers  and  a 

some  Indian  guides  and  by  a  negro  survivor  of  the  number  of  laymen  were  at  work.    To  Fr.  Benavides 

ill-fated  Nawaez  expedition,  and  aiter  crossing  the  'we  owe  the  '^  Memorial",  the 'standard  authority  on 

fo^at  deserts  that  intervenea,  arrived  within  si^t  of  early  New  Mexico  and  its  missions,  published  at 

Zufii,  plant^  a  cross  and  dedicated  the  country  to  Madrid  in  1630.    Fr.  Geronimo  Salmeron,  of  the  same 

St.  Francis,  and  returned  with  the  news  of  his  dis-  periodi  is  the  author  of  a  "Doctrina"  in  the  Jemez  • 

covery.    A  powerful  expedition  was  at  once  organized  language  and  of  a  valuable  "  Relaciones  de  Nuevo 

under  Francisco  Vasquez  de  Coronado,  for  the  con-  Mexico".    In  1630  there  were  about  50  friars  serving 

guest  of  the  new  country.    In  July,  1540,  aft^  nearly  over  60,000  Indians  in  over  90  pueblos  grouped  into 

nve  months'  march,  the  advance  guard  reached  the  25  mission  jurisdictions,  the  work  including  even  a 

principal  Zufii  town,  which  was  taken  by  storm,  part  of  the  wild  Apache  and  the  unidentified  Jumana 

Exploring  parties  were  sent  out  in  every  oirection,  m  the  eastern  plains. 

over  to  the  Hopi,  the  Colorado,  and  the  buffalo  plains,  Shortly  afterward  began  the  difficulties  between  the 
and  the  exp>edition  finally  went  into  winter  quarters  administration  and  the  missionaries,  which  led  up  to 
at  Puaray,  among  the  Tigua  (Tisuex  province)  about  the  great  ctisaster  of  1680.  Revolts  at  various  times 
the  present  Bernalillo,  North  Mexico,  on  the  Rio  of  the  Jemez,  Tewa,  Piros,  and  others  weVe  harshly 
Grande.  The  province  was  rich  and  populous,  haying  repressed  by  the  governors.  Taos  planned  a  general 
twelve  pvMo8  with  perhaps  8000  souls.  The  Indians  rising  and  severed  missionaries  were  killed.  From 
were  at  first  friendly,  but  the  arbitrary  conduct  of  the  about  1670  the  Apache  and  Navaho  raids  became  a 
Spaniards  soon  provoked  hostility  and  resistance,  constant  check  to  Pueblo  prosperity.  The  trouble 
which  was  put  down  with  terrible  atrocity,  one  culminated  in  August  of  1680  in  a  general  rising  of  sdl 
hundred  surrendered  prisoners  being  burnt  at  the  the  Pueblos,  with  a  few  exceptions,  under  Pop^,  a 
stake,  or  shot  down  as  they  attempted  to  escape,  and  Tewa  chief  of  San  Juan.  Nearly  four  hundred  span- 
hundreds  or  thousands  of  others  being  butchered  in  a  iards  were  killed,  including  twenty-one  of  the  thirty- 
determined  struggle.  Coronado  pjenetrated  as  far  as  three  missionaries  then  in  the  country;  every  mission 
Quivora  (the  Wichita  country),  in  central  Kansas,  was  destroyed,  with  furnishings  and  records;  Governor 
where  Fr.  Juan  de  Padilla  remained  to  evangelize  the  Otermin  was  besieged  in  Santa  F^,  and  finally  compelled 
natives  (see  Wichita).  After  another  winter  in  to  withdraw  with  every  Spaniard  in  the  country  into 
llguex,  which  remained  hostile,  with  explorations  Mexico.  Many  of  the  Indians  abandoned  their 
among  the  Jemez,  Piros  and  other  tribes,  the  expedi-  vyMos  and  built  new  towns  in  inaccessible  regions, 
tion  returned  to  Mexico  in  the  spring  of  1542.  Besides  For  twelve  years  the  Pueblos  retained  their  independ- 
Fr.  Padilla  with  the  Wichita,  Fr.  Lius  de  Escalona  ence  until  tlie  reconquest  of  the  countr>'  by  Diego  de 
remained  behind  at  Pecos  (*'Cicuye")  and  Brother  Varzas  in  1692-4.    In  Zufii  alone  was  found  any  in- 


PUEBLO 


556 


PUEBLO 


dication  of  former  Christian  teaching.  The  sacred 
vessels  of  the  slain  priests  had  been  cardTuUy  preserved 
and  candles  were  still  burning  upon  the  altar.  The 
reconquest  was  assured  by  the  retaking  of  Santa  F6 
from  tne  hostile  Tano.  and  the  slaughter  or  enslave- 
ment of  all  the  defenders,  29  December,  1693,  but  a 
spirited  resistance  was  kept  up  by  the  various  tribes, 
even  at  heavy  loss,  for  nearly  a  vear  longer.  The  de- 
feated hostiles  were  compelled  to  return  to  their 
a|i)andoned  towns  or  to  gather  into  new  ones,  as  their 
conquerors  dictated.  A  part  of  the  Yewa,  who  had 
fled  from  the  Rio  Grande  to  the  far  distant  Hopi, 
remained  with  their  protectors  and  now  constitute 
the  pueblo  of  Hano,  still  retaining  their  distinct  cus- 
toms and  language.  In  June,  1696,  half  the  pueblos 
rose  again,  kming  five  missionaries  and  a  number  of 
other  Spaniards,  but  were  finally  reduced  to  sub- 
mission. The  missions  were  re-established  among  all 
but  the  Hoi)i,  who  showed  such  determined  hostility 
to  Christianity  as  to  destroy  one  of  their  own  towns, 
Aw^tobi,  and  massacre  or  enslave  the  entire  popula- 
tion for  having  consented  to  receive  missionaries 
(1700).  Sporadic  outbreaks  and  alarms  continued 
for  many  years^  together  with  increasingly  bold  in- 
roads by  the  wild  tribes.  In  a  special  junta  held  in 
1714  the  missionaries,  against  the  civil  and  military 
authorities,  defended  the  right  of  the  Christian  Indians 
to  carrv  arms  and  paint  their  bodies.  From  1719  to 
1745  the  Jesuits  of  Arizona  made  efforts  to  secure 
official  charge  of  the  Hopi,  but  without  success.  In 
1747  an  eiroeaition  against  the  wild  Comanches,  who 
had  raidecf  Pecos  and  other  eastern  pueblos^  kHled  10^, 
captured  206  and  took  nearly  1000  horses. 

In  1750  the  hostility  of  the  civil  administration  to 
the  missionaries  resulted  in  two  counter  reports,  in 
one  of  which  the  Franciscans  were  accused  of  neglect- 
ing their  duties,  and  it  was  recommended  that  the 
number  of  missions  be  reduced,  while  in  the  other  the 
missionaries  accused  the  governor  and  civil  officers  of 
all  sorts  of  crimes  and  oppressions  against  the  Indians. 
In  1748  Villasenor  reported  18  principal  missions, 
besides  visiting  stations  representing  a  total  of  nearly 
9400  Indians.  Only  a  part  of  these,  however,  could 
be  considered  as  actual  Christians.  Pecos  and  Zufii 
were  the  most  important,  the  one  with  1000  and  the 
other  with  2000  Indians,  and  each  with  two  resident 
missionaries.  In  1776  the  Franciscan  Fr.  Francisco 
Garces  ascended  the  Colorado  to  the  obdurate  Hopi, 
but  was  refused  even  a  shelter.  In  1780  Governor 
.Anza  took  advantage  of  a  terrible  famine  in  the  tribe 
to  induce  a  few  of  them  to  remove  to  the  mission 
pueblos  (see  Hopi).  In  this  same  year,  1780-1,  besides 
the  famine  and  pestilence  which  nearly  exterminated 
the  Hopij  the  smallpox  carried  off  over  5000  Indians 
of  the  mission  puemosj  in  consequence  of  which  the 
governor  in  1782  officially  reduced  the  number  of 
missions  by  eight,  despite  the  protests  of  the  friars. 
Says  Bancroft:  "It  should  be  noted  that  the  New 
Meucan  missions  were  radically  different  from  the 
Califomian  establishipents  of  later  years.  FVacti- 
cally,  except  in  being  subject  to  their  provincial  and 
paid  by  the  king,  instead  of  being  under  the  bishop 
and  supported  by  parochial  fees,  these  friars  were  mere 
parish  priests  in  charge  of  Indian  pueblos.  There 
were  no  mission  estates,  no  temporalities  managed  by 
the  padres,  and  except  in  petty  matters  of  religious 
observance  the  latter  had  no  authority  over  the 
neophytes.  At  each  pueblo  the  padre  had  a  church, 
where  he  preached  and  taught  and  said  Mass.  With 
the  performance  of  these  routine  duties,  and  of  those 
connected  with  baptism,  marriage  and  burials,  he  was 
generally  content.  The  Indians,  for  the  most  part 
willingly,  tilled  a  little  piece  of  land  for  him,  furnishing 
also  a  few  servants  from  week  to  week  for  his  house- 
hold service  and  that  of  the  church.  He  was  in  moat 
instances  a  kind-hearted  man,  a  friend  of  his  Indians, 
spending  much  of  his  salary  on  them  or  on  the  church. 


The  Indians  were  in  no  sense  Christians,  but  they 
liked  the  padre  in  comparison  With  other  Spaniards, 
and  were  willing  to  complv  with  certain  harmless 
church  formalities  (sic),  which  they  neiUier  understood 
nor  cared  to  understand."  Of  the  frequent  charges 
brought  against  them  he  says,  ''with  all  their  short- 
comings, the  padres  were  better  men  than  their 
enemies.'^  Official  reports  of  this  later  period  repre- 
sent the  Indians  as  constantly  victimized  by  the 
traders  and  the  Spaniards  generally. 

About  the  year  18(X)  the  missions  still  existing  were 
eleven,  viz:  at  Sia  (Asuncion),  Isleta  (San  Agustin), 
Laguna  (San  Jos^),  Picures  (San  Lorenzo).  San  Fehpe, 
San  Juan,  Dandia  (Asumpcion  or  Dolores),  Poynaque 
(Guadalupe),  Santa  Clara,  Santo  Domingo,  Toros 
(San  Geronimo),  Zufii  (Guadalupe).  ''Visitas"  were 
Acoma,  Cochiti  (San  Buenaventura),  GaUsteo,  Jemes 
San  Diego),  Namb^  (San  Francisco),  Pecos  (Los 
Angeles),  San  Felipe,  San  Udefonso,  Santa  Ana, 
Tesuque.  With  the  increase  of  the  Spanish  popula- 
tion and  the  steady  decrease  of  the  Indians  in  im- 
portance as  well  as  in  number,  the  missions  also  de- 
clined, and  in  1811  there  were  but  five  missionaries  in 
nineteen  pueblos  of  New  Mexico.  The  establishment 
of  the  Republic  of  Mexico  in  1821  tended  further  to 
weaken  the  mission  support.  In  1832  there  were  still 
five  resident  missionaries.  There  was  no  '' seculariza- 
tion", as  in  California,  because  there  was  nothing  to 
confiscate.  In  1837  a  part  of  the  Pueblos  attempted 
a  revolution,  and  elected  Jos^  Gonzalez  of  Taos  as 
governor,  but  were  defeated  in  the  following  January 
and  the  Indian  leader  taken  and  shot.  In  January, 
1847,  the  same  Indians  of  Taos  resisted  the  newly 
established  American  government,  killing  Governor 
Charles  Bent  and  about  twenty  other  Americans,  but 
were  finally  defeated,  their  pueblo  being  stormed,  aoout 
150  of  their  men  killed,  and  several  others  executed. 
With  some  unimportant  exceptions  the  Pueblos  have 
since  remained  quietly  under  American  rule,  the  treaty 
of  Cession  having  conferred  upon  them  the  theoretic 
right  of  citizenship,  with  whicn  however  they  seldom 
concern  themselves,  their  affairs  being  administered 
through  the  Indian  Office,  and  their  puMo  lands  being 
secured  imder  old  Spanish  grants  confirmed  by  act  of 
Congress  in  1858.  Other  legislation  left  them  prao- 
ticalTy  disfranchised.  "They  never  cost  the  govern- 
ment a  dollar  of  warlike  expenditure,  and  they  re- 
ceived much  less  aid  from  the  civil  department  than 
any  of  the  hostile  tribes."  In  1853  they  suffered  again 
from  smallpox.  With  the  changing  conditions  the 
pueblos  lost  their  mission  character,  the  old  Francis- 
cans bein^  replaced  by  secular  priests. 

Exceptmg  the  Hopi  of  Arizona  and  about  one-half 
of  the  people  of  Laguna^  most  of  the  Pueblo  Indians 
are  still  under  Catholic  influence  and  at  least  nomi- 
nally Catholic,  although  a  majority  undoubtedly  still 
adhere  to  their  ancient  rites.  Every  puMo  vs  served 
either  by  a  resident  or  visiting  priest,  including  several 
Franciscans,  with  frequent  instruction  by  sisters  from 
Santa  F6  or  Bernalillo.  Some  of  the  old  churches, 
however,  are  in  ruinous  condition  and  visits  from  the 
priest  are  at  long  intervals.  Besides  a  number  of 
Government  schools  there  is  a  Catholic  day  school  at 
Jemes,  conducted  by  Franciscan  Sisters  and  the  two 
flourishing  boarding-schools  of  Saint  Catherine's  at 
Santa  F6,  in  charge  of  the  Sisters  of  the  Blessed  Sacra- 
ment, and  Loretto  at  Bem^iUo,  under  the  Sisters  of 
Loretto.  Of  Protestant  work,  past  and  present,  the 
most  important  is  that  of  the  Presbyterians,  at 
Laguna,  begun  about  1876  by  Rev.  John  Menaul,  who 
is  the  author  of  several  booldets  in  the  lanouage. 
Although  very  few  of  the  adult  Pueblos  speak  any 
English,  a  large  number  speak  Spanish  fluently. 

Home  Life  and  iNDUSTRisa:  The  primitive  Pueblo 
culture  stood  alone.  It  centred  about  the  house,  an 
immense  communal  structure,  sometimes  in  part 
several  stories  high,  of  many  rectangular  rooms  and 


PUEBLO  DANCE  AND  GROUP  OF  PUEBLO  INDIANS.  ZUSfl,  NEW  MEXICO 


PUEETO 


557 


PUGET 


nftiTOW  passage  ways,  of  varying  sizes  and  directions, 
with  flat  roofs  which  served  tis  working  or  resting 
places,  or  as  observation  points  for  ceremonial  occa- 
sions. The  houses  of  the  pueblo  were  usually  built 
around  a  central  open  space  or  plaza  in  the  middle  of 
which  was  the  ''kiva'^  (Spanish  "estufa")  or  sunken 
rock-hewn  chamber  dedicated  to  the  sacred  secret 
rites  of  the  various  priesthoods.  For  better  defence 
against  the  wild  tribes  the  outer  walls  were  frequently 
solid,  without  door  or  window  opening,  entrance  being 
eflfected  by  meand  of  ladders — one  on  the  outside  for 
ascending  to  the  flat  roof,  and  another  descending 
into  the  interior  through  a  doorway  in  the  roof  itself. 
The  material  was  either  cut  sandstone  or  volcanic  tufa, 
faced  with  adobe,  or  adobe  blocks  of  sun-baked  clay. 
The  roofs  were  of  timbers  reinforced  with  cornstalks 
laid  in  clay.  The  fire-place  was  in  the  centre  or  in 
the  comer,  and  the  smoke  escaped  through  the  door- 
way in  the  roof.  At  one  end  of  the  principal  living- 
room  was  a  low  stone  enclosure  fitted  with  stone  slabs 
of  various  smoothness  and  set  slanting,  on  which  the 
corn  was  ground  into  meal  by  means  of  stone  jtietales. 
The  "cliff  dwelling"  and  the  "cave  dwelling"  of  the 
same  region  were  simply  variant  forms  of  the  same 
structure,  from  which  the  modern  Pueblo  house  dif- 
fers but  very  little.  The  prehistoric  "clifT-dwellers" 
were  in  many  cases  the  ancestors  of  the  Pueblos  of 
to-day.  The  Hopi,  in  fact,  are  still  true  cliff-dwellers, 
their  villages  being  set,  for  defensive  pui'poses,  upon 
the  sumnuts  of  mesas  several  hundred  feet  above  the 
surrounding  desert. 

Their  mam  dependence  was  agriculture  assisted  by 
irrigation^  com  and  beans  being  the  principal  crops, 
with  "chile",  pumpkins,  native  cotton  and  tobacco, 
and,  later,  peaches  introduced  by  the  old  missionaries. 
In  spite  of  their  arid  surroundings  they  were  indus- 
trious and  successful  farmers.  They  also  hunted  to 
some  extent,  particularly  jackrabbits,  which  were 
taken  by  circle  "drives"  m  which  whole  communities 
participated.  Fish  was  never  eaten.  The  dog  was 
the  only  domestic  animal,  with  the  exception  of  the 
turkey  and  eagle  occasionally  kept  for  feathers.  As 
weavers  and  potters  they  excelled  all  other  tribes 
north  of  Mexico,  their  pottery  being  particularly 
beautiful  in  ornamentation,  finish,  and  general  work- 
manship. Their  native  cotton  is  now  superseded  by 
wool.  They  also  made  a  great  variety  of  baskets,  the 
basket  plaques  of  the  Hopi  being  especially  artistic. 
The  men  were  expert  carvers  in  wood.  Their  ordinary 
dress  was  of  deerskin,  with  elaborate  fabrics  of  woven 
cotton  for  ceremonial  occasions;  fabrics  of  woven 
yucca  fibre  were  also  used  in  ancient  times.  Blankets 
of  woven  strips  of  rabbit  skin  were  worn  in  winter. 
In  summer  the  men  went  practically  naked  except  for 
the  breechcloth  and  children  under  ten  years  were 
seldom  clothed.    Necklaces,  earrings,  and  other  orna- 

'  ments  of  shell,  turquoise,  and  more  recently  of  worked 
coin  silver,  were  worn  by  both  sexes.  The  hair  was 
cut  off  above  the  eyes  in  front,  and  either  bunched  up 
behind  by  the  men,  or  at  the  side  by  the  women,  the 
Uninarriea  girls  being  distinguished  by  a  special  hair 
arrangement.  The  women  alone  were  the  potters  and 
breadmakers,  but  both  sexes  shared  in  farming, 
house-building,  weaving  and  basket  making.  XVcapons 
were  the  bow  and  arrow,  lance,  club,  and  knife,  with 

.  a  boomerang  club  for  killing  jackrabbits  and  shields 
for  ceremonial  occasions. 

Organization  and  Religion. — AH  the  Pueblo 
tribes  had  the  clan  system,  some  having  as  many  as 
twenty  or  more  clans,  with  descent  generally,  but  not 
always,  in  the  mother.  Monogamy  was  the  rule,  un- 
like the  condition  in  most  trib^  in  the  United  States 
and  northward,  and  the  woman  was  the  virtual  owner 
of  both  the  house  and  the  garden,  with  correspond- 
ingly hi^er  status  than  in  other  tribes.  Each  piieblo 
was  an  independent  and  separate  community,  the 
only  larger  bond  being  similarity  of  langu.ij^i'  or  ous- 


tom,  the  chief  being  simj^ly  the  executive  of  the  priest- 
hoods. In  some  piuiblos  there  is  said  to  have  been  a 
summer  and  a  winter  chief.  Since  Spanish  times  the 
town  government  is  vested  in  an  elective  chief  or 
governor,  a  vice-chief  and  a  council.  Practically  all 
affairs  of  importance — war,  medicine,  hunting,  agri- 
culture, etc. — ^were  controlled  by  the  numerous 
priesthoods  or  secret  societies,  whose  public  cere- 
monies made  up  a  large  and  picturesque  part  of 
Pueblo  life.  Among  these  ceremonies  the  Snake 
Dance  of  the  Hopi  is  probably  most  widely  known. 
Their  religion  was  an  animism,  with  special  appeal  to 
the  powers  supposed  to  control  the  rain,  the  growing 
crops,  hunting,  and  war.  Some  of  their  ritual  myths 
were  of  great  length  and  full  of  poetic  imagery,  while 
some  of  their  ceremonials  were  of  high  dramatic  char- 
acter, often  interwoven  with  features  of  the  grossest 
obscenity.  Special  regard  wa.s  paid  also  to  the  cardi- 
nal points,  to  which  were  ascribed  both  sex  and  colour. 
Belief  in  witchcraft  w£us  universal  and  witch  execu- 
tions were  of  frequent  occurrence.  The  dead  were 
buried  in  the  ground.  In  temperament  the  Pueblos 
were,  and  still  are,  peaceal>le,  kindly,  industrious,  and 
of  rather  jovial  disposition.  Their  outward  life  has 
been  but  little  (;hanged  by  the  white  man's  civilization 
beyond  the  addition  of  a  few  conveniences  in  house- 
keeping and  working  methods,  and  the  majority  still 
hold  tenaciously  to  their  old  beliefs  and  ceremonials 
(see  also  Hopi  Indians). 

The  literature  upon  the  Pueblo  Indians  and  region 
is  so  voluminous  that  it  is  only  possible  to  note  a  few 
of  the  works  most  readily  available. 

Bancroft.  Native  Races  (of  the  Pacific  States) — Wild  Tribn 
(San  Francisco,  1S86) ;  Idem,  Arizona  and  New  Mexico  (San  Fran- 
cisco, 188Q);  Bandelibr,  numerous  papers  in  publications  of 
Archseolugical  Instituto  of  America  (Cambridge  and  Boston, 
1881-92) ;  BouRKE,  Sruike  Dance  of  the  Afoquis  (New  York,  1889) ; 
Bureau  of  Cath.  Ind.  Missions,  annual  Rcpts.  of  Director,  Wash- 
ington; Commissioner  of  Ind.  Affairs,  annual  Repts.  (Wash- 
ington): CusRiNO,  Zutli  Fetiches  in  second  Rept.  Bureau  Am. 
Ethnology  (Washington,  1883);  Idem,  Zufii  Creation  Myths, 
1.3th  do.  (Washington,  180G);  Fewkes,  Tiisayan  Snake  Cere" 
monies  in  16th  Ilept.  Bur.  Am.  Ethn.  (Washington,  1897); 
Idem.  Tunayan  Flute  ami  Snake  Ceremonies,  19th  do.,  II  (Washing- 
ton, 1900);  Idem,  Hopi  Katcinas,  21st  do.  (Washington,  1903); 
Idem,  Two  Summers'  Work  in  Pueblo  Ruins,  22d  do.  (Washington. 
1904),  I;  Idem,  in  Journal  Am.  Ethn.  and  Arch.,  I-IV  (Boston  and 
New  York,  1891-4);  Hodqk,  in  Handbook  of  Am.  Inds.  etc.,  I-II, 
Bur.  Am.  Ethn.  (Washington,  1908-10) ;  Holmes,  Pottery  of  th€ 
Ancient  Pueblos  in  4th  Rept.  Bur.  Am.  Ethn.  (Washington,  1886); 
Lummis,  The  Man  Who  Married  the  Moon,  Pueblo  folk  stories 
(New  York,  1894);  Mindeleff,  A  Study  of  Pueblo  Architecture 
in  8th  Rept.  Bur.  Am.  Ethn.  (Washington,  1891);  Stevenson, 
TheSia  in  11th  do.  (Washington.  1893);  Idem,  The  Zufii  Indians 
in  23d  do.  (Washington,  1904);  Voth.  various  Hopi  papers  in 
publications  Field  Columbian  Museum  (Chicago,  1901-5); 
WiNSHiP,ir/i«  Coronado  Expedition  in  14th  Rept.  Bur.  Am.  Ethn., 
I  (Washington,  1896). 

James  Mooney. 

Puerto  Vie  Jo,  Diocese  of.    See  Portoviego. 

Puget,  Pierre,  painter,  sculptor,  architect,  and 
naval  constructor,  b.  at  Marseilles,  31  Oct.,  1622;  ti. 
there  2  Dec,  1694.  Al  fourteen  he  was  apprenticed 
to  a  shipbuilder  and  showed  much  talent.  In  1637 
he  set  out  on  foot  for  Italy,  and  found  work  with  the 
duke's  cabinet-maker  in  Florence.  Later  at  Rome  he 
studied  painting  under  Pictro  da  Cortona.  In  1643 
he  returned  to  France,  and  was  summoned  to  Toulon 
to  build  a  man-of-war.  In  1640  he  was  again  in  Italy 
as  assistant  to  a  religious  of  the  Feuillants,  whom 
Anne  of  Austria  had  commissioned  to  make  drawings 
of  all  the  principal  monuments  of  antiquity.  Puget  s 
attention  was  thus  directed  to  architecture.  In  1653 
he  was  back  in  France,  painting  altar-pieces  for  differ- 
ent churches,  the  ^'Annunciation  and  Visitation" 
(Aix);  the  "Salvator  Mundi",  the  '' Baptism  of  Con- 
stantine  and  of  Clovis"  (Marseilles).  Some  pictures 
believed  to  be  his  are  probably  the  work  of  his  son 
Frangois.  In  1660  Fouquet  sent  him  to  Carrara  to 
buy  marble  for  his  palace.  After  the  fall  of  Fouquet, 
Puget  lingered  in  Genoa  long  enough  to  execute  many 
works:   '*St.  Sebastian";  ."B.  Alexander  Sauli";   a 


18681;  C 


"Madonna''  for  the  Balbii  another  for  the  Carrega; 

"St.  Philip  Ken";    the  'Rape  ot  Helen",  Palaaio 

Spinola;  a  relief  of  the  "AsBuniption"  for  the  Duke 
of  Mantua.  Hia 
BCulptures  in  the 
Ixtuvre  are  "Her- 
cules", "JanuB 
and  the  Earth", 
"Pereeus  deliver- 
ing Andromeda", 
"Milo  of  Cro- 
tona",  "Alex- 
ander and  Di- 
ORenee".  At  the 
(SinaigDe,  Mar' 
...       ^  7j_^jj|    aeilles,    is    his 

I  .j^pi^  ^^^^^■H  "^'''Sue  of  Mi- 
lt '  ^F^^^-^w^VV^^T  I  Ian".  Architec- 
IU._...^^^^^]|^^i'  ^1^1^  i  tural  worka  are 
th^  door  and  bal- 
cony of  the  Hotel 
de  Ville,  Toulon; 
the  fish  market, 
Marseilles;  he  al- 
so oommenred  the 
Church  and  Hoa- 
pioe    of  Charity 

in  that  city,  but  left    it  unfini^ed  at   his /death. 

DHARA,  Sumo  dcUo^culfuracVeDin.  1813):  HiNBr, 
Ut  antra  de  P.  Pufrl  (Toufon.  IS&3). 

M,  L,  Handlbt. 

Pugh,  GsoROE  Ellis,  jurist  and  stateaman,  b. 
at  Cincinnati,  O.,  28  November,  1822;  d.  there,  10 
July,  1876.  Ho  waa  the  son  of  Lot  Pugh  and  Rachel 
Anthony.  Educated  at  Miami  Unii-ersity,  Oxford,  O., 
graduating  A.M.  in  1843,  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar 
of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Ohio  in  1844,  and  won 
high  repute  as  a  lawyer  in  Cincinnati,  where  he'prac- 
tised.  He  served  in  the  Mexican  War,  29  April,  1847- 
1  April,  1848,  as  captain  Co.  F.,  4th  Ohio  V.  I.,  and 
gm  aide-de-camp  to  General  Lane,  being  commended 
for  bravery  atAtlexco,  IHOct.,  1847.  Ho  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Ohio  House  of  Representatives  from  Hamil- 
ton County,  1848^9;  city  solicitor,  Cincinnati,  1850; 
attorney-general,  State  of  Oliio,  1852-54 ;  and  waa 
elected  to  the  United  States  Senate  from  Ohio,  3  Dec,, 
1855-3  March,  1861.  He  was  the  firet  native  ot  Ohio 
to  ait  in  that  body.  His  principal  services  were  in  the 
committees  on  public  lands  and  on  the  Judiciary. 
Displaying  great  ability  in  discussion  of  the  measures 
ariaing  from  the  question  of  slavery  and  in  the  or- 

Knization  of  the  territories  of  Kansas  and  Nebraska, 
supported  DoueUibs's  doctrine  of  popular  sover- 
eignty, and  waa  defeated  for  re-election  lo  the  Senate 
in  1861  by  Chase.  HewsAdelegate  in  1860  to  the  Char- 
leston-Baltimore  Convention  of  the  Democratic  party, 
acting  as  chairman  of  Ohio  delegation  and  supporting 
the  nomination  of  Douglass.  The  reply  to  Yancey  on 
the  slavery  question  waa  most  effective.  Yancey 
blamed  the  northern  delegates  for  "admitting  slavery 
to  be  wrong  and  thus  surrendering  the  very  citadel  of 
their  argument " .  Pugh  answered:  "You  mistake  us; 
we  will  not  do  so."  He  defined  the  position  of  the 
northern  dfimocrata,  settinji;  out  that  while  they  were 
not  opposed  to  the  institution  of  slavery  in  the  stales 
where  it  existed,  they  were  unalterably  opposed  to  its 
extension  into  any  free  state  and  any  territory  with- 
out the  untrammelled  consent  of  the  residents  thereof, 
as  ascertwned  by  an  appeal  to  the  ballot. 

During  the  Civil  War  he  advocated  the  exercise  ot 
every  constitutional  power  by  the  Government  to 
preserve  the  Union.  Defeated  for  Lieutenant-Gov- 
ernor of  Ohio  in  1863,  and  for  representative  to  the 
29th  Congress  in  the  1st  Ohio  district  in  1864,  he  was 
elected  a  delegate  to  the  constitutional  convention  ot 
Ohio  in  1872,  but  declined  to  serve.    His  most  noted 


iS  FUaiH 

legal  argument  waa  the  appeal  in  habeas  corpue  pro- 
ceedings on  behalf  of  Vallandigham  in  1863.  The 
question  involved  was  the  power  and  duty  of  the 
court  to  tree  Vallandigham  held  in  confinement  under 
a  mihtary  order.  Pugh  urged  release  on  the  ground 
that  the  civil  courts  of  Ohio  and  of  the  United  States 
were  open  and  unimpeded  in  Ohio  and  that  only 
through  proceedings  in  them,  and  not  by  the  exercise 
of  military  authority,  could  Vallandigham,  a  civilian, 
be  lawful^  imprisoned.  Soon  after  his  marriage  to 
Tberjee  Cbaltant,  22  Nov.,  1855,  both  he  and  faia 
wife  were  converted  to  the  Church. 
TaTLOB,  Okia  i7i  Cim«ru].'  ApiMm'i  Cue.  Amtr.  BioQ..  i.  r. 

John  G.  Ewino. 

Puglli,  AnauBTUB  Welbt  Nortrudre,  arcbitect 
and  arehieologist,  b  in  London,  1  March,  1812;  d.  at 
Rarasgate,  14  Sept.,  1352;  only  child  of  Augustus 
Charles  Pugin  (ori^nally  de  Pugin),  a  French  Prot- 
estant of  good  family,  who  had  rfed  from  France  and 
settled  in  London  about  1798,  and  soon  acquired 
distinction  aa  a  draughtsman  in  the  office  ot  John 
Naah,  and  as  a  teacher  of  arehitectural  drawing.  Tlie 
young  Pugin  received  his  elementary  education  as  a 
ilay-boy  at  Christ's  Hospital,  l>etU;r  known  as  the 
Blue-coat  School.  At  an  early  age  he  took  his  plaice 
among  his  father's  pupils,  and  in  1825  he  accompanied 
a  party  to  Normandy  for  the  study  of  Gothic  architec- 
ture. Frovi  his  father  he  inherited  a  surprising  deli- 
cacy and  dexterity  in  drawing  and  from  his  mother, 
Catherine  Welby,  some  of  that  force  ot  character  and 

Ciety  which  so  distinguished  him  in  after  years.  When 
wrteen  he  was  entrusted  with  the  responsibility  of 
preparing  drawings  of  Rochester  Castle,  and  the  year 
followiDK,  on  occasion  of  his  second  visit  to  France, 
we  find  nim  suffering  from  overwork  while  sketching 
in  the  Cathedral  of  Notre  Dame  at  Paris.  In  the 
same  year  he  was  cnfjaged  to  design  furniture  foi^ 
Windsor  Castle.  In  his  youth  a  passion  for  theatri- 
cal accessories  took  possession  of  nim.  He  fitted  up 
a  model  stage  with  mechanical  apphances  of  all  kinds 
on  the  upper  floor  of  his  father's  house  in  Great  Rus- 
sell St.;  he  executed  the  scenery  tor  the  new  ballet 

opera  of  "Kenil- . 

worth",  which 
owed  its  success 
largely  to  the 
architectural  ef- 
fects of  his  sce- 
nery; and  subse- 
quently he  worked 
at  the  rearrange- 
ment of  the  stage 

Drury  Lane. 
While  still  a  deli- 
cate youth  he  be- 
came intensely 
fond  of  the  sea, 
had  a  smack  of  his 
own,  did  some 
small  trading 
carryi'ng 


od- 


Flanders,  and  was  From  t  portrait  by  Hcrbtrt 

shipwrecited      off 

I  eith  in  1830.    This  love  ot  the  sea  was  strong  m 
him  lo  the  end  of  his  life. 

In  1831  he  married  Ann  Gamett,  and  shortly  after- 
wards was  imprisoned  tor  non-payment  of  rent. 


the  supply  o 


. drawings  a..  . 

The  venture,  however,  did  not  succeed. 
His  wife  died  in  childbirth  27  May,  1832,  In  1833  he 
married  Louisa  Burton,  who  bore  him  six  children. 
among  whom  were  the  two  who  successively  cairiea 
OD  his  busiacaa,  tlie  eldest,  Edward  (d.  1S7S)  and  the 


puam 


559 


PUGIN 


youngest,  Peter  Paul  (d.  1904).  Both  received  from 
the  pope  the  decoration  of  the  Order  of  St.  Sylvester. 
After  his  second  marriage  he  took  up  his  residence  at 
Salisbury,  and  in  1834  embraced  the  Catholic  Faith, 
his  wife  following  his  example  in  1839.  Of  his  con- 
version he  tells  us  that  the  study  of  ancient  eccle- 
siastical architecture  was  the  prinaary  cause  of  the 
change  in  lus  sentiments,  by  inducing  him  to  pursue 
a  course  of  study,  terminating  in  complete  conversion. 
He  never  swerved  in  his  fidelity  to  the  Church,  not- 
withstanding the  bitter  trials  he  experienced.  He 
found  that  he  had  exchanged  ihe  noble  English  cathe- 
drals with  their  service  of  chant  for  Moorfields  chapel 
with  its  maimed  rites. 

In  1835  he  bought  a  small  plot  of  oround  at  Laver- 
stock,  near  Salisbury,  on  wmch  he  Duilt  for  himself 
a  quaint  Mteenth-century  house,  St.  Marie's  Grange. 
In  1837  he  made  the  acouaintance  of  the  authorities 
of  St.  Mary's  College,  Oscott!,  where  his  fame  as  a 
writer  had  preceded  him.  He  found  there  men  in 
sympathy  with  his  ideas  about  art  and  religion.  The 
president,  Rev.  Henry  Weedall,  was  so  impressed  by 
nim,  that  he  accepted  his  services  for  the  completion 
of  the  new  chapel  and  for  the  decorations  of  the  new 
college,  which  was  opened  in  1838.  He  designed  the 
apse  with  its  effective  groinings,  the  stained  glass  of 
the  chancel  windows,  the  decorated  ceiling,  the  stone 
pulpit,  and  the  splendid  Gothic  vestments.  He  con-  ' 
structed  the  reredos  of  old  wood-carvings  brought 
from  the  Continent,  he  placed  the  Limoges  enamels 
on  the  front  of  the  super-altar,  he  provided  the  seven- 
teenth-century confessional,  altar  rails,  and  stalls,  the 
carved  pulpit  (from  St.  Gertrude's,  Louvain),  the 
finest  in  England,  as  well  as  the  ambries  and  chests 
of  the  sacristy  (see  "The  Oscotian",  July,  1905).  He 
built  both  lodges  and  added  the  turret  called  "  Pugin's 
night-cap"  to  the  tower.  Above  all  he  inspired  supe- 
riors ana  students  with  an  ardent  enthusiasm  for  his 
ideals  in  Gothic  art,  liturgy,  and  the  sacred  chant. 
Tradition  points  out  the  room  in  which  on  Saturday 
afternoons  he  used  to  instruct  the  workmen  from 
Hardman's,  Birmingham,  in  the  spirit  and  technic  of 
their  craft.  The  president  appointed  him  professor  of 
ecclesiastical  antiquities  (1838-44).  While  at  the 
''Old  College"  he  gave  his  lectures  in  what  is  now  the 
orphans'  dining-nxfm,  and  at  the  new  college  in  a 
room  which  stiU  bears  the  inscription  "  Architectura". 
This  association  with  one  of  the  leading  Catholic 
colleges  in  England  afforded  him  valuable  opportu- 
nities for  the  advancement  of  his  views.  During  this 
period  he  did  much  of  his  best  work  in  wnting, 
teaching,  and  structural  design.  Although  at  different 
times  he  had  visited  France  and  the  Netherlands 
either  alone,  or  in  the  company  of  his  father  or  the 
Earl  of  Shrewsbury,  he  did  not  visit  the  great  cities 
of  Italy  until  1847.  The  ecclesiastical  buildings  of 
Rome  sorely  disappointed  him;  but  he  had  his  com- 
pensation in  the  gift  from  Pius  IX  of  a  splendid  gold 
medal  as  a  token  of  approval,  which  gratified  Pugin 
more  than  any  other  event  in  his  life.  His  second  wife 
having  died  in  1844,  he  married  in  1848  Jane,  daughter 
of  Thomas  EniU  of  Typtree  Hall,  Herefordshire,  by 
whom  he  had  two  children.  In  the  meantime  he  had 
removed  from  Laverstock,  and  after  a  temporary  resi- 
dence at  Cheyne  Walk,  Chelsea  (1841),  he  took  up 
his  residence  at  Ramsgate,  living  first  with  his  aunt. 
Miss  Selina  Welby,  who  made  him  her  heir,  and  then 
in  the  house  called  St.  Augustine's  Grange,  which, 
together  with  a  church,  he  had  built  for  himself.  Of 
these  he  said  that  they  were  the  only  buildings  in 
which  his  designs  had  not  been  curtailed  by  financial 
conditions. 

Under  a  presentiment  of  approaching  death,  of 
which  he  had  an  unusual  fear,  he  went  into  retreat  in 
1851  and  prepared  himself  by  prayer  and  self-denial 
for  the  end.  At  the  close  of  the  year  his  mind  became 
affected  and  early  in  1852  he  was  placed  in  the  asylum 


commonly  called  Bedlam,  in  St.  George's  Fields, 
Lambeth.  At  the  urgent  request  of  his  wife  and  in 
opposition  to  the  wishes  of  the  rest  of  his  friends,  he 
was  removed  from  the  asylum,  first  to  the  Grove, 
Hammersmith,  where  after  six  weeks'  care  his  con- 
dition had  improved  to  such  an  extent  that  it  was 
possible  for  him  to  return  to  Ramsgate;  but  two 
days  after  he  reached  home  he  had  a  latal  apoplectic 
seizure. 

Pugin  was  somewhat  below  the  middle  stature  and 
rather  thick-set,  with  long  dark  hair  and  grey  eyes 
that  seemed  to  take  in  everything.  He  usually  wore 
a  sailor's  jacket,  loose  pilot  trousers,  a  low-crowned 
hat,  a  black  silk  handkerchief  thrown  negligently 
round  his  neck,  and  shapeless  footwear  carelessly  tied. 
His  form  and  attire  suggested  the  seaman  rather  than 
a  man  of  art.  A  voluble  talker  both  at  work  and  at 
table,  he  possessed  a  fund  of  anecdote  and  fr  great 
power  of  dramatic  presentation;  and  when  in  good 
health  overflowed  with  energy  and  good  humour. 
And  if  sometimes  his  language  was  vigorous  or  per- 
sonal, he  was  generous  and  never  vindictive.  Inured 
to  industry  from  childhood^  as  a  man  he  would  work 
from  sunnse  to  midnight  with  extraordinary  ease  and 
rapidity.  His  short  thick  hands,  his  stumpy  tapering 
fijigers,  with  the  aid  of  a  short  piece  of  pencil,  a  piur 
of  compasses  and  a  carpenter's  rule,  perlormed  tneir 
delicate  work  even  under  such  unfavourable  circum- 
stances as  saiUng  in  his  lugger  off  the  South  Coast. 
Most  of  his  architectural  work  he  entrusted  to  an 
enthusiastic  builder  whom  he  had  known  as  a  working- 
man  at  Beverley.  He  trained  the  workmen  he  em- 
ployed, and  was  m  turn  idolized  by  them.  In  his  home 
at  Ramsgate  he  lived  with  the  regularity  and  abste- 
miousness of  a  monk,  and  the  intellectual  eagerness  of 
a  student.  His  benevolence  made  him  everywhere  the 
father  of  the  poor. 

His  life  was  a  battle  for  truth  and  fitness  in  architec- 
ture. He  fought  for  the  Christian  inspiration  of 
medievalism  as  against  the  cold  paganism  of  the 
classic  style.  The  victory  ultimately  fell  to  his  side. 
The  Englishman  of  to-day  can  with  difficulty  realize 
the  condition  of  bad  taste  and  ignorance  which  pre- 
vailed in  matters  of  art  at  the  commencement  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  "When  Welby  Pugin  began 
his  labours",  says  Ferrey,  "there  was  not  a  singje 
building  of  modem  date,  either  public  or  private, 
which  was  not  a  reproach  and  a  disgrace  to  the 
country.'^  And  although  not  alone,  still  more  than 
any  other  man  Pugin  worked  for  a  restoration.  He 
revealed  the  principles  of  the  medieval  builder  and 
the  enlightened  skill  of  their  craftsmen.  Others  have 
since  applied  his  principles.  The  occasional  exag- 
geration or  narrowness  of  his  views  has  been  corrected 
or  avoided;  and  it  remains  true  that  th^  restoration 
of  our  ancient  churches,  as  well  as  the  varied  beauty 
of  many  of  our  *new  structures,  is  due  to  the  ability 
and  unconquerable  energy  of  Pugin.  He  was  the 
man  for  his  time.  Gothic  art  was  being  studied,  and 
many  were  turning  their  thoughts  to  the  Church 
out  of  which  it  had  sprung.  Still,  prejudice  had  to  be 
broken  down  and  ignorance  removed;  but  the  spirit 
of  Pugin  triumphed  in  the  end. 

Buildings. — The  following  may  be  set  down  as 
typical  and  fairly  complete:  Cathedrals: — Birming- 
ham: Northampton  (older  portion);  Nottingham; 
Soutnwark;  Killamey;  Enniscorthy;  Salford  (de- 
signed only).  Parish  Churches: — Diocese  of  Birming- 
ham: Alton,  Brewood,  Cheadle,  Dudley,  Kenilwortn, 
Rugby.  Solihull,  Stoke-upon-Trent,  Uttoxeter.  Dio- 
cese ot  Liverpool:  in  Liverpool,  St.  Marie's  (some 
years  ago  removed  stone  by  stone  to  its  present  site), 
St.  Oswald's,  Bishop-Eton  (chapel  now  forming  north 
aisle),  St.  Marie's,  Southport  (now  north  cusle).  Dio- 
cese of  Northampton:  Cambridge  (former  chapel), 
Great  Marlow:  Lynn  (former  church).  Diocese  of 
Nottingham:  Derby;  Shepshed;  Whitwick.   Diocese 


PUISEUX 


560 


PUISSUX 


of    Hexfaam   and    Newcastle:     Newcastle-on-Tyne, 
Stockton-on-Tees. 

To  the  above  may  be  added  churches  or  chapels  at 
Barnstaple,  Blairgowrie  (Perthshire),  Douai,  Fulham, 
Gorey  (Wexford),  Guernsey;  Kensinfl;ton  (London, 
Carmelite  Church),  Manchester  (St.  Wilfrid's),  Par- 
sonstown,  Pontefract  (Jesus  Chapel),  Salisbury, 
Stratford,  Ta^at  (Wexford),  Waterfoni,  Woolwich, 
a  chapel  for  Sir  William  Stuart,  and  the  high  altar. 
Farm  Street  (London).  Conoents: — Alton,  Bermond- 
sey,  Birmingham,  Ch^Eulle,  Edge  Hill,  Gorey,  Notting- 
ham, Parsonstown.  Stoke-upon-Trent,  Tagoat.  Af on- 
asteries: — Downsiae,  Mount  St.  Bernard's  (Leicester- 
shire). Colleges: — Mount  St.  Mary's.  RatclifiFe,Ushaw 
(additions),  St.  Edmund's,  Ware  (church),  Oscott, 
(chapel  completed),  Maynooth  (additions),  Ushaw 
(church  and  refectory).  Domestic  Buildings: — ^Adare 
(seat  of  Lord  Dunraven),  Alton  Castle  (rebuilding), 
Alton  Towers  (completion),  Bilton  Grange  (near 
Rugby);  Chirk  Castle  (restoration),  Grace-Dieu, 
Leicestershire  (restoration  and  church),  Hornby 
Castle  (near  Leeds;  plans  for  rebuilding),  Magdalen 
College,  Oxford  (gateway),  Scarisbrick  Castle,  Sib- 
thorpe  Almshouses,  Lincolnshire,  Tofts,  near  Brandon 
(restoration). 

Much  discussion  has  arisen  concerning  the  claims 
of  Pugin  to  the  credit  of  havingdesigned  the  Houses  of 
Parliament  at  Westminster.  The  old  Palace  of  West- 
minster had  been  destroyed  by  fire  in  1834;  plans  for 
the  new  buildings  were  invited,  and  those  of  Charles 
Bany  (afterwaras  Sir  Charles)  received  the  approval 
of  the  Commissioners  from  among  some  eighty-four 
competitors.  The  first  stone  of  the  new  erection  was 
laid  in  1840  and  the  queen  formally  opened  the  two 
houses  in  1852.  At  the  outset  Barry  called  in  Pugin 
(1836-37)  to  complete  his  half-drawn  plans,  and  he 
further  entrusted  to  him  the  working  plans  and  the 
entire  decoration  (1837-52).  Pugin's  own  statement 
on  the  subject  is  decisive:  "Barry's  great  work",  he 
said,  "was  immeasurably  superior  to  any  that  I  could 
at  the  time  have  produced,  and  had  it  been  otherwise, 
the  commissioners  would  have  killed  me  in  a  twelve- 
month" (i.  e.,  by  their  opposition  and  interference). 

LrrERART  Work. — ^The  influence  he  wielded  must 
be  ascribed  as  much  to  his  vigorous  writings  and  ex- 
quisite designs  as  to  any  particular  edifice  which  he 
erected.  His  "Contrasts'  (1836)  placed  him  at  once 
ahead  of  the  pioneers  of  the  day.  His  "Glossary" 
(1844),  so  briluant  a  revival  in  form  and  colour,  pro- 
duced nothing  short  of  a  revolution  in  church  decora- 
tion. Scarcelv  less  important  were  his  designs  for 
"Furniture"  0835),  for  "Iron  and  Brass  Work" 
(1836),  and  for  "Gold  and  Silver-Smiths"  (1836),  to 
which  should  be  added  his  "Ancient  Timber  Houses 
of  the  XVth  and  XVlth  Centuries"  (1836),  and  his 
latest  architectural  work  on  "Chancel  Si*reens  and 
Rood  Lofts"  (1851).  Besides  the  above  elaborately 
illustrated  productions,  many  other  e^fplanatoiy  and 
apologeticai  writings,  especiaSly  his  lectures  deUvered 
at  Oscott  (see  "Catholic  Magazine",  1838,  April  and 
foil.)  ^ve  powerful  expression  to  the  message  he  had 
to  dehver.  As  closely  allied  with  his  idea  of  the  res- 
toration of  constructive  and  decorative  art,  he  brought 
out  a  pamphlet  on  the  chant:  "An  Earnest  Appeal  for 
the  Revival  of  the  Ancient  Plain  Song"  (1850).  It  is 
worthy  o(  mention  that  some  of  lus  earliest  drawing 
appears  in  the  volumes  published  by  his  father 
("  Examples  of  Gothic  Architecture",  1821 .  226  plates; 
"Architectural  Antiquities  of  Normandy",  1828,  80 
plates;  "Gothic  Ornaments,  England  and  France  ', 
1831,  91  plates).  In  knowledge  of  medieval  archi- 
tecture and  in  his  insist  into  its  spirit  and  form,  he 
stood  above  all  his  contemporaries.  As  a  draughts- 
man he  was  without  a  rivaJ.  The  success  of  his  career 
is  to  be  sought  not  so  much  in  the  buildings  he  erected, 
which,  being  mostly  for  the  Catholic  body,  were 
neariy  always  shorn  of  their  chief  splendour  by  the 


poverty  of  his  patrons.     He  invented  no  new  fonam 
of  design,  though  he  freely  used  the  old;  hia  instiDei 
led  him  not  to  Art  as  such,  but  to  the  Gothic  embodi- 
ment of  Art,  which  seemed  to  him  the  only  true  fonn 
of  Christian  architecture.    He  lacked  the  patience 
and  breadth  of  the  truly  great  mind,  yet  ne  may 
justly  claim  to  rank  as  the  architectural  genius  of  the 
century.    His  unquestioned  merit  is  the  restoration 
of  architecture  in  England  and  the  revival  of  the  forms 
of  medieval  England^  which  since  his  day  have  covered 
the  lahd.    Queen  Victoria  granted  his  widow  a  pen- 
sion of  £100  a  year,  and  a  committee  of  all  parties 
founded  the  Pugin  Travelling  Scholarship  (controlled 
by  the  Royal  Institute  of  British  Architects)  as  the 
most  appropriate  memorial  of  his  woik  and  a  partial 
realization  of  the  project  which  he  had  broua^t  for- 
ward in  his  "Apology  for  the  Revival  of  Cl 
Architecture  in  EngSnd"  (1843). 

GiLLOw.  Bihl.  Diet.  Sng.  Caih.,  a.  v.:  Diet,  Nat,  Biog.,  s.  v.: 
Fkrrbt,  Recollections  o/Auouettu  N.  WHby  Puoin,  and  hia  Pother, 
Auifuattu  Pugin  (London,  1861),  with  an  appendix  by  Puxcbll; 
Pdrcell,  review  of  the  above  in  DiMin  Review  (Feb.,  1862)* 
The  Gentleman's  Moifosine  (Nov..  1852);  Wipbiian,  CathaHedy 
in  BngUmd  in  Dublin  Review  (Feb.,  1840);  Pdqin.  The  Present 
StaU  of  Catholicity  in  England  in  Dublin  Review  (Feb..  1842)  • 
AuHRRBT,  The  Osootian  (July,  1887),  184-87. 

Henry  Parkinson. 

PuIboux,  Victor-Alexandre,  French  mathemati- 
cian and  astronomer,  b.  16  ApiiLy  1820,  at  Ai^tem'i 
(Seine-et-Oise);  d.  9  September,  1883,  at  Frontenay 
(Jura).    He  went  to  school  at  Font-lL-Mousson  (Lor- 
raine).   His  brother  persuaded  the  family  to  send  the 
boy  to  a  boarding-dchool  in  Faris  (1834).    In  a  year's 
time  he  entered  the  College  Rollin,  where  he  studied 
mathematics  under  Sturm.    He  took  the  competitive 
examinations  of  the  Faris  lycdes  and,  having;  won  the 
prizes  in  mathematics  and  physics,  he  was  acCnitted  to 
the  Eoole  Normale  in  1837.    Three  years  later  he  was 
appointed  associate  professor  in  science  and  in  1841 
received  the  decree  of  doctor  in  mathematical  sciences 
and  the  appointment  to  teach  at  the  College  of 
Rcnnes.   In  1845  he  was  called  to  the  new  UniverBity 
of  Besangon,  where  he  taught  science  until  1849.     He 
then  returned  to  Fans  as  maitre  de  conferences  at  the 
Ecole  Normale.    He  substituted  repeatedly  both  at 
the  Sorbonne  and  at  the  GoU^g&de  France,  lecturing 
for  Sturm,  Le  Verrier,  and  Binet.    In  1853  and  1854 
he  had  charge  of  the  examinations  for  admission  to  the 
polytechnic  school.    From  1855  to  1859  he  was  assist- 
ant astronomer  at  the  Faris  observatory,  placed  at 
the  head  of  the  bureau  of  calcidation  bv  Le  Verrier. 
From  1857  until  six  months  before  his  death  Fuiseux 
was  the  successor  of  Cauchy  in  the  chair  of  celestial 
mechanics  at  the  Sorbonne.     He  resigned,  but  was 
granted  the  right  to  keep  his  title.    He  also  gave  up 
his  appointment  as  member  of  the  Bureau  des  Longi- 
tudes (1868-1872),  on  account  of  failmg  health. 

Fuiseux  excelled  especiallv  in  mathematical  analysis. 
In  his  account  of  algebraic  functions,  first  published  in 
the  "Journal  de  Liouville"  (1851),  he  introduced  new 
methods,  marking  an  epoch  in  this  subject.  His 
numerous  contributions  to  celestiid  mechanics  have 
considerably  advanced  knowledge  in  this  direction. 
He  supervised  the  new  edition  of  Laplace's  woriu, 
published  under  the  auspices  of  the  Academy  of 
Sciences,  revising  all  the  formulie  and  scrupulously 
verifying  idl  his  calculations  in  celestial  mechanics. 
He  performed  a  great  deal  of  dry  and  laborious  work 
himself,  such  as  the  reduction  of  the  observations  on 
the  moon  at  Faris  during  the  years  1801-29,  and  the 
intricate  computations  and  deductions  from  the  obs^ 
vations  on  the  transit  of  Venus  in  1874  and  again  in 
1882.  He  had  also  a  decided  taste  for  botany  and 
natural  sciences  in  general .  He  was  fond  of  phikeophy 
and  the  classics. 

While  a  student  at  the  normal  school  he  took  part 
in  the  religious  discussions  of  the  day,  dirolaying 
strong  convictions  and  a  keen  intelligenoe.    He 


PULASKI  5l 

ended  the  efTorto  of  his  friend  and  comrade  in  the 
fichool,  Pierre  Olivant,  foundini?  with  him  a  Society  of 

St.  Vincent  de  Paul  among  the  etiidentti  and  devoting; 
a  Urge  part  of  hie  vacations  bo  works  of  charity.  His 
kindness,  his  charity,  and  above  all  his  Himple,  un- 
affected modesty  ovenhadowed  even  his  talents.  His 
election  (1871)  to  the  French  Academy  was  unani- 
mous: Bertrand  says  of  it:  "The  election  was  due  to 
his  merit,  but  its  unanimity,  to  his  character".  As  a 
last  wish  he  requested  that  no  discourse  should  be  held 
over  his  body.  His  profound  faith  helped  him  to  bear 
with  resignation  the  death  of  a  devoted  wife  and  of 
four  grown  children.  A  ^reat  number  of  his  memo- 
randa are  to  be  found  m  "Journal  des  Savants", 
"Journal  de  Liouville",  "Comptes  Rendua",  "Re- 
cueils  des  savanta  Strangers",  "Annalea  de  TObserva- 
toire  de  Paris",  He  edited  "Conmussance  dea 
Temps"  (Paris)  from  1868  to  187iand  from  1864  with 
Bertrand   "Annales  scientifiques  de  l'6cole  normale 


llf.  (P»ri 


,  I8H4).  2iid 


WiLUAU  Fox. 

PuluU,  CAniuiR.  patriot  and  Boldier,  b,  at  Win- 
iary,  Poland,  4  March,  1748;  d.  on  the  Wasp,  in  the 
harbour  of  Savannah,  U  Oct,,  1779;  eldest  son  of 
CountJoseph  Pulaski  and  Maria  Zislinslca,  Hisfather. 
a  not«d  junst,  reared  him  for  the  bar,  and  he  recdvea 
his  military  train- 
ing, as  a  youth, 
in  the  guard  of 
Charles,  Duke  of 
Courland,         Pu- 

thoae  who,  under 
the  leadership  of 
hisfather,  formed, 
29  Feb,,  1768,  the 
confederation  of 
Bar,  to  free  Po- 
land from  Russia. 
Driven  into  Mol- 
davia he,  return- 
ing, seised  the 
monastery  of  Ber- 
dichev  and  for 
several  weeks 
withstood  with 
slender  forces  a 
_  siege  by  the  Rus- 
Nans,  Again  find- 
From  *  portrui  by  oiB3ikiei.ici  ing  refuge  in  Mol- 

davia in  1769 
after  the  arrest  and  death  of  his  father,  Pulaski  in  a 
series  c^  brilliant  marches  overran  and  raised  in  re- 
volt the  greater  part  of  Poland  and  Lithuania.  De- 
feated bv  SuvarofTat  Iiomazy,  near  A^ladowa,  he  fied 
with  only  ten  men  into  the  Carpathian  Mountains. 
There  he  spent  the  winter  of  1769-70,  making  forays 
into  Poland,  and  in  August,  1770,  seized  the  fortified 
monastery  of  CienstocKowa.  He  gallantly  defended 
it  against  a  siege  in  Jan.,  1771,  andforeed  the  Russians 
to  withdraw.  Though  he  joined  his  compatriots  in 
driving  the  Russians  across  the  Vistula,  his  failure  to 
CD-operate  with  Dumouriez  is  considered  to  have 
caused  the  loss  of  the  battle  of  I^andekron,  where 
Suvaroff  overwhelmingly  defeated  the  patriots. 
Beaten  at  Cartenow  near  Leopol  and  failing  to  take 
Zamose,  he  returned  to  Czenstochowa.  Though 
modem  historians  hold  him  guiltless,  he. was  convict«d 
of  treason  and  outlawed  for  complicity  in  the  plot  to 
seise  and  cany  off  King  Stanislaus,  3  Nov.,  1771. 
This  plot  lead  to  the  open  intervention  of  Prussia  and 
Austria,  and  Pulaski,  after  a  gallant  but  futile  defence 
of  Czenstochowa,  fled  in  1772  to  Turkey,  and  later  to 
France. 

XII.— -in 


PULCHKEIA 


On  17  Oct,,  1778,  he  offered  his  services  to  Franklin, 
the  American  agpnt,  landed  at  Boston  in  July,  1777, 
and  joined  WashinKton.  He  rendered  signal  service, 
4  Sept.,  1777,  at  Brandywine  Creek;  he  was  com- 
mis^onedlSSept.,  1777,bj;  the  Continental  Congreaa 
commander  of  the  horse  with  rank  of  brigadier.  He 
saved  the  army  from  surprise  at  Warren  Tavern,  and 
took  part,  4  Oct.,  1777,  in  the  battle  of  Germantown. 
He  was  prominent  in  the  Jersey  campaign  during  the 
winter,  but  resigned  his  command,  28  March,  1778, 
to  organize  an  independent  corps  known  as  Pulaski's 
Legion,  The  banner  of  the  legion  was  purchased  by 
him  from  the  Moravians  at  Bethlehem  and  not  pre- 
sented to  him,  as  represented  by  Longfellow  in  his 
"Hymn  of  the  Moravian  Nuns".  Ordered  to  Little 
Egg  Harbor,  New  Jersey,  the  le^on  on  15  Oct,,  1778, 
suffered  severe  loss  through  a  mght  attack,  which  he 
repulsed.  Dissatisfied  with  his  assignments,  he  was 
only  dissuaded  by  Washington  from  resignation.  He 
entored  Charleston,  8  May,  1 779 ;  he  gallantly  attacked 
the  investing  British  on  11  May.  Against  the  inclina- 
tion of  the  authorities  he  held  the  city  until  itwasre- 
lieved  on  13  May,  He  rendered  great  services  during 
the  siege  of  Savannah,  Geoi^a,  and  in  the  assault  on 
the  city,  9  Oct.,  he  commanded  both  the  American 
and  French  cavalry.  He  was  wounded  by  H  shot  in 
the  upper  part  of  the  thigh,  and  was  taken  on  board 
the  brig  Wasp.  He  died  as  the  vessel  was  leaviiw  the 
river  and  was  buried  at  sea  off  St.  Helena's  Island, 
South  Carolina.  It  has  be«n  mistakenly  held  by  some 
that  his  remains  lie  under  the  monument  erected  to 
his  memorv  at  Savannah.  On  11  May,  1910,  there 
was  unveiled  at  Washington  a  monument  to  hie 
memory,  erected  by  order  of  Congress. 

Sr.iliKS,  Tkc  Library  of  Amervmi  SioffropAv.  leoancl  serica  (18 
vdIb.,  Boaton,  IS44-47),  IV.  36G-Ma:  DB  RnLHitBi.  HiOoiri  d* 

(Paris,  1S0T) :  Snale  EiKutit  Doaunent.  no.  120.  4aur^n«rcw, 
Sod  Hvwan  (1SB7);  Amtrican  CalJutiic  Hittmcal  KsMarcAu,  nsw 
■erin.  VI(1910). 

John  G.  Ewino. 

PulftU,  Diocese  of  (Pclatensib  or  Poiati- 
nensib).    The  ancient  Pulati  in  Albania  no  longer 

exists;  its  name  is  borne  by  a  district  of  Euro- 
pean Turkey.  The  first  Bishop  of  Pulati  (877) 
was  a  suffragan  of  Dioclea,  after  the  overthrow  of 
which  the  bishops  of  Pulati  were  suffragans  of 
Salonica  (Thessalonica).  During  the  tenth  century 
and  even  later  Pulati  is  not  mentioned.  From  1340 
tfi  1S20  there  were  two  Dioceses  of  Pulati,  Polata 
major  and  Polata  minor;  the  bishops  of  the  latter 
were  known  as  Episcopi  Soabriemes  from  the  Fran- 
ciscan hospice  in  the  village  of  Sosir  Owing  to  the 
Turks  and  the  decay  of  its  population,  after  the  death 
of  Vincenso  Giovanelli  appointed  in  1656,  the  bishops 
no  lon((er  resided 'at  Pulati,  After  1667  its  bishops 
were  vicars  Apostolic  for  Pulati.  The  Franciscan, 
Peter  Karagif,  was  nominated  Bishop  of  Pulati  in 
1Q97  and  Apostolic  administrator  of  the  Archdiocese 
of  Scopia  in  Albania.  Since  1867  Pulati  is  suffragan 
of  Scutari.  The  present  (forty-first)  Bishop  of  Pulati 
is  Nicholaus  Marconi,  O.F.M.,  b.  at  Trent,  Tyrol, 

18  May,  1842,  elected  bishop  23  December,  1890.  He 
resides  at  Giovagni.  His  coadjutor,  with  right  of  suc- 
cession, is  Bemardinus  Sclaku,  O.F.M  b.  at  Scutari, 
23  June,  1873;  nominated  bishop  in  .January,  1910. 
The  Diocese  of  Pulati  comprises  13  parishes,  all,  ex- 
cept one,  held  by  Franciscans,  There  are  14,644 
Catholics;  6  secular  priests;    14  churehes  or  chapels. 

MMlionij  Catluilirjr  {home.  1907);  MamotI*,  OuWjnrUjta- 
iartiit  Uttroneiija  (Zianb,  1002),  41;  Mraxcmf.  It  aOniniit  a 
adiflnvi,  XXIII  (Serot.  PwivoJ,  1909),  128-9. 

Anthont  Lawrence  Gancevi6, 
PulclMrU,  Saint,  Empress  of  the  Eastom  Roman 
Empire,  eldest  daughter  of  the  Emperor  Arcadius,  b. 

19  Jan.,  399;  d.  in  453.  Aftor  the  death  of  Areadiui 
(408),  her  younger  brother,  Theodosius  II,  then  only 
seven,  became  emperor  under  the  guardianship  m 


PULCi  562  PULCi 

Anthimus.     Pulcheria  had  matured  early  and  had  peror  attended  the  sixth  session  (25  Oct.,  451).    Leo 

great  administrative  ability;   she  soon  exerted  ssdu-  m  his  letter  of  d3  April,  451  (Epist.  Ixxix),  wrote 

tary  influence  over  the  young  and  not  very  capable  Pulcheria  that  both  the  Nestorian  and  Eutychian 

emperor.    On4  July,  414,  she  was  proclaimed  Augusta  heresies  had  been  overcome  largely  bv  her  efforts, 

(empress)  by  the  Senate,  and  made  regent  for  her  He  thanked  her  for 'the  benefits  sne  had  bestowed  on 

brother.    She  made  a  vow  of  virginity  and  persuaded  the  Churchp  for  her  support  of  the  papal  legates,  for 

her  sisters  to  do  the  same,  the  imperial  palace  thus  the  recall  of  the  banished  Catholic  bishops,  and  for  the 

becoming  almost  a  monastery  (Socrates,  "  Hist,  eccl.",  honourable  burial  of  the  body  of  the  Patriarch  Flavian. 

VII,  xxii).    At  the  same  time  she  fulfilled  all  her  duties  Pulcheria  showed  no  less  zeal  in  promoting  other 

as  a  ruler  for  about  ten  years  jointly  with  her  brother,  interests  of  the  Church.    She  built  tnree  churches  in 

After  the  marriage,  brought  about  by  Pulcheria,  of  Constantinopleinhonourof  Mary  the  Mother  of  God; 

Theodosius  II  with  Eudoxia,  the  new  empress  sought  one,  erected  after  the  condemnation  of  the  NestoHan 

to  weaken  Pulcheria'.s  influence  over  the  emperor,  and,  heresy,  was  exceedingly  beautiful.    In  other  places 

with  the  aid  of  some  courtiers,  succeeded  for  a  time,  also  she  built  churches,  hospitals,  houses  for  pilgrims. 

Nevertheless,  Pulcheria  had  always  a  powerful  posi-  and  gave  rich  Jpfts  to  various  churches  (Sozomen, 

tion  at  Court,  which  she  used  in  behalf  of  ecclesiastical  **  Hist.  eccl.'\  IX,  i).    She  had  the  bones  of  St.  John 

orthodoxy,  as  shown  by  her  opposition  to  the  doc-  Chiysostom,  who  had  died  in  exile,  brought  back  to 

trines  of  Nestorius  and  Eutyches.   Eudoxia  supported  Constantinople  and  buried  in  the  church    of  the 

Nestorius.    St.  C3rril  of  Alexandria  sent  Pulcheria  his  Apostles  on  27  Jan.,  438:  this  led  to  the  reconciliation 

work '^De  fide  ad  Pulcheriam'^  and  wrote  heron  be-  with  the  Church  of  tne  schismatic  party  of  the 

half  of  the  true  Church  doctrine,  to  which  ehe  held  Johannines  (Socrates,  "Hist,  eccl.",  VII,  xfv).    Pul- 

unwaveringly   fletter  of  Cyril  in  Mansi,   "Concil.  cheria  had  the  relics  of  the  forty  martyrs  of  Sebaste, 

coll.",  IV,  618  sqq.).     He  also  ,wrote  to  Eudoxia  which  were  found  near  Constantinople,  transferred  to 

(ibid.,  679  sq.).     Tlieodosius  allowed  himself  to  be  a  church  (Sozomen,  "Hist,  eccl.",  IX,  ii).    She  is 

influenced  by  Nestorius  to  the  prejudice  of  C3rril,  venerated  as  a  saint  in  the  Greek  and  other  Oriental 

whom  he  blamed  for  appealing  to  the  two  empresses  Churches  as  well  as  in  the  Latin  Church.    Her  feast 

(ibid.,  1110).    Pulchena,  however,  was  not  deterred  is  given  under  10  Sept.  in  the  Roman  Martyrology 

fron^  her  determination  to  work  against  Nestorius  and  and  in  the  Greek  Menaia;    in  the  other  Oriental 

to  persuade  the  emperor  to  espouse  Cyril'speirty  which  calendars  it  is  under  7  Aug. 

favoured  the  defimtion  of  the  CouncU  of  Ephesus.    In         Ada  SS.,  September,  in.  503-40;  Nillbs,  Xol^ndanum  ma- 

the  further  course  of  the  negotiations  over  the  Council  »««>(«  "{?H!!?^  ^^P**^*.?  ^2°**,®i}v'  238  sq.;  Hbfblb.  KonziUen^ 

of.E^e8U8..the  Patriarch  of . Alexandria  sought  to  lAiilH^'i^^^'^Ar)^l:.'t^'r^:S^^''if'^ 

gam  Pulchena's  zeal  and  influence  for  the  Umon  and  1885);   Naol.  Pulcheria  in  Frauencharakter  aua  d.  Kirehenoeteh,, 

sent  her  presents  as  he  did  to  other  influential  persons  U  (Paderbom.  lOip),  13  sqq. ;  Stokm  in  Dtct.  Chri^.BUg.,  a.  v.; 

at  the  Court  (Mansi,  loc.  cit.,  V,  987  sq.).    Aere  is  ^^''"'■'  ^"^  ""^ ^^  ^"*'^'  "^  ^^^^^<>^^  \  ^-h  ^-^^^ 
no  doubt  that  the  final  acknowledgement  by  the  em-  jvirsch. 

peror  of  the  condemnation  of  Nestorius  was  largely        -^i.t  t^i-  xi_xt^  ^.-a 

due  to  Pulcheria.     The  Nestorians,  consequently,        Pulcl,  Luigi,  Itahan  poet,  b.  at  Florence,  15  Aug., 

spread  gross  calumnies  about  her  (Suidas,  s.  v.  Pul-  1432;  d.  at  Padua  in  1484.    The  Pulci  gave  many  in- 

cheria).    Court  intrigues  obliged  her  (446)  to  leave  terestmg  writers  to  the  history  of  Itahan  letters  m  the 

the  imperial  palace  and  retire  to  a  suburb  of  Constan-  earher  period  of  the  Renaissance.    Luigi's  brothers, 

tinople,  where  she  led  a  monastic  life.    When  the  ^uca  and  Bernardo,  aa  well  as  the  latterjs  wife,  also 

Empress  Eudoxia  went  to  Jerusalem,  Pulcheria  re-  P^^i^^^v  ^^^  frequented  the  hou^hold  of  Lorenzo 

turned  (about  449)  to  Court.    At  the  emperor's  death  ^  Magmfico,  who  was  very  fond  of  him,  and  helped 


_„  ^.  virginity  should  be  respected.  ,         ,      -     -    *      xi_      #                      •     i.-         _x 

At  her  order  Marcian  was  proclaimed  Augustus.  odoxy,  because  of  rather  free  passages  in  his  most 

Meantime,  at  Constantinople,  Eutyches  had  an-  famous  work.    Those  who  have  engaged  m  this  at- 

nounced  his  heresy  of  the  unity  of  the  natures  in  *«™P^  ^^^e  failed  to  reahze  that  Pulci  was  an  mvet- 

Christ,  and  the  Patriarch  Flavian  had  expressed  his  e^ate  joker  and  that  the  passages  in  question  figure 

opposition,  as  did  also  Pope  Leo  I.     Once  more  among  the  least  senous  of  the  poem.    He  had  aU  the 

Pulcheria  took  up  the  cause  of  the  Church.    On  13  burlesquing  and  parodying  instincts  of  his  time,  and 

June,  449,  the  pope  had  written  both  to  Pulcheria  spared  no  man  or  institution  when  the  whim  was  on 

and  to  Theodosius,  requesting  them  to  end  the  new  *¥°^-    H^  ?*"?  ^^i*-'®  to  fame  is  the  chivalrous  roman- 

heresy  ("Leonis  epist. ^xxx,  in  Migne,  LVI,  785  sq.).  t»c  poem,  "Morgante  ,  which  on  the  basis  of  two 

Nine  other  letters  followed.    Theodosius  II  confirmed  antecedent  Itahan  documents  gives  the  history  of 

the  decisions  of  the  Robber  Synod  of  Ephesus  (449)  Roland's  peripatetic  adventures,  and  marks  a  first 

and  the  pope,  who  had  rejected  them,  sought  to  bring  serious  attempt  at  an  artistic  treatment  of  the  Car- 

the  emperor  back  to  orthodox  opinions.    On  13  Oct.,  lovingian  epic  matter  imported  from  France.    Deal- 

449,  he  wrote  again  to  the  emperor  and  also  to  Pul-  ^^K  ostensibly  with  the  adventures  of  a  mant,  Mor- 

cheria  (Epist.  xTv),  begging  the  latter  for  aid.    The  gante,  the  author  is  far  more  concerned  ^th  the 

Roman  Archdeacon  Hiiarius  also  wrote  with  the  same  wandering  career  of  Orlando,   Rmaldo,  and  other 

object  (Epist.  xlvi  in  "Leonis  Epist."),  and  at  Leo's  legendary  hero«  of  Charlemagne  s  court.    The  iMser 

entreaty  Valentinian  III  of  the  Western  Empire,  with  compositions  of  Pulci  are  greatly  mfenor  to    Mor- 

Eudoxia  and  Galla  Placidia,  wrote  to  Theodosius  and  gante".     They  include  the     Beca  da  Dicomano  , 

Pulcheria  (Epist.  Iviii).    Another  letter  to  Pulcheria  wluch  is  a  burlesque  treatment  of  the  idyll  m  verro, 

was  sent  by  Leo  on  16  July,  450  (Epist.  Ixx).    After  and  follows  the  example  set  by  Lorenzo  s    Nencia  da 

the  death  of  Theodosius,  conditions  were  at  once  Barbenno";theoctav^on  the'  Giostra    of  Lorenzo; 

changed.    Marcian  and  Pulcheria  wrote  to  Leo  (Epist.  a  number  of  briefer  lyncs  («^mm!M>tti.  mpe«t,  aonetti) ; 

-bcxvii).    She  informed  him  that  the  Patriarch  Ana-  a  prose  tale;  and  a  "Confe^ione     in  terza-nma. 

tolias  had  expressed  his  approbation  and  had  signed  ^9^  ^^  ^^  ^^^ch  the  air  of  a  parody  of  parts  of 

the  papal  letter  to  Flavian  concerning  the  two  natures  Scripture. 

in  Christ.    She  requested  the  pope  to  let  it  be  known  9»^*'J^"*l*^Li^?®H.,.^'!]?J!^*'  ^'  ^°*^"  SP**""^;^?^!^^ 

whether  he  would  attend  personally  the  council  that  Sd^?7'l?rM«  iS'^O^ 

had  been  summoned.    The  empress  was  influential  Qiiottrooenio. 

in  the  Council  of  Chalcedon  (451)  and  wilii  the  em-  J>  D.  M.  Ford. 


PULLIN                                563  PULPIT 

Pullen  (PoLENiuB,  PuLLAN,  PuiXBiN.  FuLLBNUS,  of  tndition.  Taking  his  stand  on  the  authority 
PuLLYi  La  Poule),  Robbbt,  d.  1147  (?).  Nothing  is  of  the  Bible  and  of  papal  decisions,  he  proceeds  to 
known  of  his  early  life  except  that  he  was  of  Enghsh  enter  on  speculative  discussion.  The  first  book  treats 
parentage.  The  conjecture  of  a  recent  biographer  of  God  and  His  attributes;  the  second,  of  the  crea- 
(Williams,  op.  cit.  infra)  that  he  was  bom  at  Poole  tion,  of  angels,  of  the  soul,  of  the  fall  of  man  and  of 
in  Dorsetshire  is  not  supported  by  any  evidence,  orinnal  sin;  the  third,  of  the  ancient  and  the  new  law, 
Other  accounts  state  that  he  came  from  Devonshire,  and  of  the  Incarnation;  the  fourth,  of  God's  power, 
John  of  Hexham,  in  his  continuation  of  the  history  of  Christ's  Passion,  and  of  hell  and  purgatoiy;  the* 
of  Symeon  of  Durham,  written  within  half  a  century  fifth,  of  the  Resiurection,  the  descent  of  the  Holy 
of  Pullen's  death,  asserts  that  Henry  I  offered  him  a  Ghost,  the  preaching  of  the  Gospel,  of  baptism,  con- 
bishopric  which  he  refuse<^  being  devoted  to  the  study  firmation,  confession,  and  some  virtues  and  vices, 
of  philosophy.  His  early  education  was  received  in  The  sixth  book  deals  with  a  varietv  of  subjects,  in- 
England,  out  during  the  troubles  which  began  with  eluding  ignorance,  negligence,  and  frailty,  good  and 
the  accession  of  King  Stephen  in  1135  he  seems  to  have  bad  spirits,  the  choirs  of  angels,  merits,  and  the  ad- 
gone  to  Paris  to  continue  his  life  of  study  in  peace  ministrationof  the  Sacrament  of  Penance;  the  seventh 
there.  According  to  other  accoimts,  he  completed  discusses  the  forsiveness  of  sins,  penance  and  fasting, 
his  education  At  Paris,  where  he  subsequentlv  lectured  prayer,  tithes,  the  civil  power,  the  priesthood,  its 
before  retumine  to  Oxford  to  teach.  At  Oxford  he  privileges  ana  obligations,  continency,  the  contem- 
was  one  of  the  first  masters  whose  names  have  been  pUtive  and  %ptive  life,  and  matrimony.  The  eighth 
recorded.  He  opened  schools  there  and  taught  book  deals  with  the  Blessed  Sacrament,  the  Second 
without  exacting  fees;  he  is  said  to  have  supported  Advent,  Antichrist,  the  Last  Judgment  and  the  ulli- 
many  scholars  at  his  own  expense  and  to  have  been  mate  state  of  the  saved  and  the  lost.  The  titles  of 
largely  instrumental  in  fostering  the  growth  of  the  some  other  works  which  remain  unpublished  are  given 
Oxford  schools.  If  these  traditions  are  true,  and  it  by  Pitts:  "In  Apocalypsim  sancti  Johannis"; 
must  be  confessed  that  they  rest  on  the  statements  "Super  aliquot  psalmos":  "De  contemptu  mundi"; 
of  later  writers,  it  would  seem  more  probc^le  that  "Super  doctorum  dictis";  "Praelectiones";  "Ser- 
they  happened  during  the  rei^  of  Henry  I,  when  he  mones".  A  MS.  copy  of  the  sermons  is  preserved 
refused  to  accept  the  bishopnc  offered.  He  was  cer-  at  Lambeth  Palace,  and  Rashdall  (Diet,  of  Nat. 
tainly  Archdeacon  of  Rochester  in  1134.  and  it  is  Biog.)  observes  of  them  that  "the  sermons,  which 
equally  certain  that  he  was  absent  from  England  for  breathe  a  very  ascetic  spirit,  were  evidently  delivered 
a  notable  time  within  the  next  few  years,  for  at  some  to  scholars".  Chevalier  is  certainly  in  error  in  identi- 
date  prior  to  1143  he  seems  to  have  been  in  trouble  /ying  hj^d  with  the  Cardinal  Robert  who  was  cardi- 
with  his  bishop  for  being  absent  so  long  from  his  nal  priest  of  St.  Eusebius  in  December,  1134.  This 
duties.  This  appears  from  an  undated  letter  of  St.  Robert,  who  also  held  the  office  of  Chancellor  of  the 
Bernard  addressed  to  the  Bishop  of  Rochester,  in  Holy  Roman  Qiurch,  was  created  cardinal  by  Inno- 
which  the  saint  makes  his  excuses  for  detaining  Pullen  cent  II  in  1130,  a  date  inconsistent  with  the  known 
in  Paris  "on  accoimt  of  the  sound  doctrine  which  facts  of  Pullen's  life. 

is  recognized  in  him".     In  the  same  letter  he  blames  ,  ^^TSiH.^^  Oaeney;  AnnaUt  Monaatiei,  TV  (Rolla  Series,  Lon- 

the  bi^^or  seizing  the  archdeacon's  goods  and  he  f^  ®  ^  ?:;n^nS^?nKSrS.''Z'r?«2i^ 

begs  that  Pullen  may  stay  longer  m  Pans  where  he  tcnptonbu*  (PariB,  1619);  jAyF^,  RegeBia  Pontifieum  Romanarum 

is  necessary.    Though  Bishop  Stubbs  (op.  cit.)  has  i^'^^^A?5^U  Wi^-maim,  £**»«  of  the  BngiishCardinaUjlAin- 

ttirown  doubt  on  tK  identSy  of  this  Xrchdeaoon  i"^  '^  ^'Si^  S^iJS  i^Ji^aJ  &^ 

Robert  Pullen  with  the  cardinal  of  the  same  name,  Hiatory  (Oxford,  1886). 

the  statements  of  St.  Bernard's  bio^pher,  William  Edwin  Bubton. 
Abbot  of  Theodoric,  and  the  Oseney  Chronicle  justify 

the  identification.  Pulpit  (Lat.  pulpilutn,  a  stage  or  scaffold),  an  ele- 
While  in  Paris,  Pullen  taught  logic  and  theology  vated  stand  to  preach  on.  To  elucidate  the  meaning 
with  great  success.  Among  his  pupils  was  John  of  of  the  word  Durandus  refers  (Ration,  div.  offic,  I)  to 
Salisbury,  who  describes  him  as  a  man  commended  Solomon  (II  Par.,  vi,  13),  who  prayed  from  "a  brazen  * 
both  by  his  life  and  his  leariiing.  That  was  in  1141  scaffold'',  and  to  Esdras  (II  Esd.,  viii.  4).  who  "stood 
or  1142.  In  1143  he  is  still  described  ^  Archdeacon  upon  a  step  of  wood"  and  read  tne  law  of  Grod. 
of  Rochester  and  in  or  about  that  year  he  probably  Tneir  elevated  position  and  public  action  sug^t  to 
went  to  Rome  on  the  invitation  of  Innocent  II.  who  Durandus  the  symbolical  meaning  of  the  pulpit:  the 
died  in  September  of  that  year,  but  Pullen  found  position  of  the  perfect.  He  also  csdls  it  analogium 
favour  with  the  new  pope.  Celestine  II,  who  created  Xif^'Koyetbw-dpaywtaaTijpu^'),  from  the  preaching  of  the 
him  a  cardinal  (Ciacomus).  The  Oseney  chronicler,  word  of  God;  and  ambo  ab  ambiendo,  quia  intrantem 
however,  states  that  he  waa  called  to  Rome  by  Lucius  mribit  et  cingit.  The  ambo  (a.  v.)  was  the  immediate 
II  who  succeeded  Celestine  in  1144.  Certainly  it  predecessor  of  the  present  pulpit.  In  the  first  Chris- 
was  Pope  Lucius  who  appointed  him  Chancellor  tian  era  the  bishop  preached  from  his  cathedra;  a  sur- 
of  the  Holy  Roman  Churcn,  an  office  which  he  waa  vival  of  this  is  retuned  in  the  French  and  German 
discharging  through  1145  and  1146.  When  St.  words  for  pulpit,  chaire  and  vredigtatuhl.  The  other 
Bernard's  disciple,  Eugenius  III,  became  pope  in  German  word  kanzel  recalls  tne  position  of  the  ambo 
1145  the  saint  wrote  a  letter  to  Cardinal  Pullen  beg-  at  the  choir-screen  (cancelli).  Durandus  clearly  dis- 
ging  him  to  console  and  counsel  the  new  pontiff,  tinguishes  the  pulpit  from  the  canceUi  and  alcdli  of  the 
As  a  theologian  Cardinal  Pullen  used  all  his  influence  choir.  The  pmpit.  characterized  as  part  of  the  church 
against  the  heretical  teaching  of  Abelard,  and  em-  furniture  bv  its  maependent  position  and  use,  is  found 
bodied  his  doctrine  in  his  work  "Sententiarum  Logi-  separated  from  the  choir  and  pushed  forward  in  the 
carum  Libri  VIII "  reprinted  in  P.  L.j  with  the  com-  central  part  of  the  nave  beyond  the  choir  for  singers, 
mentary  prefixed  to  it  by  the  Maunst,  Dom  Hugo  as  indicated  by  a  large  circle  in  the  buildins  plan  of 
Mathoud,  originally  written  for  his  edition,  published  St.  Gall  (820).  The  analo^a,  or  reading  desks  for 
at  Paris  m  1655.  In  this  treatise  he  was  breaking  the  Epistle  and  Gospel,  remained  at  the  sides  of  the 
new  ground,  being  one  of  the  first  teachers  to  compile  choir,  and  were  used  for  the  same  purpose  as  the  ambo, 
a  book  of  "Sentences",  but  his  work  was  soon  which,  as  belonging  to  the  choir,  was  considered  a  part 
supplanted  by  that  of  Peter  Lombard.  He  covers  of  the  canceUi  and  was  chiefly  used  for  reading  or  sing- 
a  wide  range  of  subjects,  but  his  treatment  lacks  ing  parts  of  the  liturgy. 

orderly  arrangement,  and  he  relies  for  his  proofs  on  Just  when  it  became  customary  to  use  the  ambo 

Scripture  and  reason  in  preference  to  the  testimony  mainly  for  the  sermon,  which  gave  it  a  new  impor- 


PIILPIT  51 

tance  and  affected  its  position,  is  not  known.  The 
pulpit  IB  often  conDect«d  with  the  appearance  of  the 
mendicant  friars,  but  this  can  refer  only  to  some  in- 
novations in  its  use  and  some  external  changes,  as 
the  Fathers  of  the  Church  had  long  before  thts  con- 
stantly used  the  ambo  for  preaching.  Although  Paul 
of  Samosata  (Euseb.,  VII,  xxx)  spoke  to  the  people 
■  from  a  high  canopied  seat  in  the  apse,  Socrates  (Hist. 
eeel.,  VI,  v)  says  of  St.  ChryBostom  that  he  preached 
"mttins  on  the  ambo".  Sozomen  (Hist.  eccL,  IX,  ii) 
states  the  same,  still  characterizing  the  ambo  as  piiarSt 
dM7«i«Ti3»,  ChryBoatom  was  the  first  to  speak  from 
the  ambo  "in  order  to  be  better  understood  ,  Isidore 
of  Seville  first  employed  the  word  pulpit  (Etym..  XVI, 
iv),  then  tribu- 
nal", because 
from  this  the 
priest  gave  the 
"pKcepts  for  the 
conduct  of  life", 
proclaiming  law 
and  justice.  Isi- 
dore also  derives 
"analogium" 
from  Xfryoi,  as 
"the  aildresses 
were  given"  from 
it.  Thustheambo 
becsme  the  reg- 
ular place  for  the 
preacher,  and  iU 
situatioB  was  de- 
pendent on  local 
conditions.  In  the 
Church  of  St. 
Sophia  it  stood 
under  the  dome 
(Paul  the  Silen- 
tiary,  P.  G., 
LXXXVI,  2250  si^q.),  but  was  united  with  the  choir 
"like  an  island  with  the  mainland".  Similarly  at 
Ravenna  the  ambo  of  Bishop  Agnollus  (sixth  century) 
stood  in  the  central  aisle  of  the  nave,  on  the  inner  side 
of  theoldchancelscraen.  In  large  churches,  therefore, 
the  bishops,  e.  a.  Ambrose,  Augustine,  and  Paulinug  of 
Nola,  preached  from  the  ambo  at  a  very  early  date. 
The  deeire  to  be  more  plainly  understood  was  the 
reason  why  the  preacher's  platform  was  pushed 
towards  the  centre  of  the  nave;  which  change  led  to 
its  assuming  the  present  fonn.  It  was  not  until 
modem  timea  that  the  two  terms  attained  clearly 
distinct  meanings.  At  present  the  pulpit  no  longer 
serves  for  the  reading  of  the  Epistles  and  Gospels,  nor 
as  the  tribune  for  singing,  hence  the  eagle  or  dove 
formerly  used  as  support  of  the  book  now  has  little 
meaning,  A  position  in  which  the  preacher  could  be 
heard  throughout  the  church  became  necessary, 'and 
the  pulpit  was  then  adapted  to  receive  a,  greater  amount 
of  adornment,  having  reference  to  the  preaching  of 
the  Gospel. 

The  number  of  amboa  still  in  existence  which  may 
be  included  among  pulpits  is  undetermined.  The 
amboofSalonica,  traditionally  called  "Paul's  pulpit", 
appeam  to  be  the  oldest  remaining  monument  of  this 
kind  (fourth  to  sixth  century).  It  is  circular  in  form, 
about  four  metres  in  circumference,  with  two  stair- 
ways, for  ascending  and  descending,  and  is  orna- 
mented with  carvings  of  the  three  Magi  set  in  niches 
representing  ashell;  two  ornamental  bands  are  carried 
around  above  the  niches  ("Archives  des  missions 
scientifiques",  III.  187S).  Bishop  Agnellus,  builder 
of  the  ambo  of  the  cathedral  at  Ravenna  (sixth  cen- 
tury), called  it  pyrffut,  or  tower-like  structure.  The 
exterior  surface  of  the  round  middle  part  and  the  steps 
which  come  far  forward  on  the  sides  have  panels  ar- 
raoEed  like  a  chess-board  in  six  parallel  bands  filled 
with  symbolic  animals;  fish,  ducks,  doves,  deer,  pea- 


PULPIT 


cocks,  and  lambs  in  regular  succession.  Owing  to 
the  aversion  of  Bysantine  art  of  that  period  to  de- 
lineating the  human  figure,  animals  are  here  preeented 
in  symbolical  dependence  on  the  words;  "Pmach 
the  Gospel  to  everv  creature".  The  ambo  of  St. 
Sophia  was  adorned  with  flowers  and  trees.  Ths 
beautiful  pulpit  in  the  cathedr^  at  Aachen  was,  ac- 
cording to  the  inscription,  a  present  from  Kmperor 
Henry  II  (d.  1024).  The  ^und-plaa  consists  of 
three  unequal  segments  of  a  circle:  The  wooden  core 
is  covered  with  sheets  of  aopper  overiwd  with  gold. 
Of  the  fifteen  flat  suriaces  formed  by  slightly  sunken 
panels,  six  contain  ivory  carvings  belonging  to  an 
earlier  period,  and  the  others,  precious  stones,  cups 
of  rock-crystal,  and  enunels.  Iltere  is  no  explanation 
as  to  what  this  was  intended  to  represent:  with  large 
generosity  the  emperor  had  given  whatever  he  had 
that  was  costly  for  the  house  bf  God.  St,  Bernard 
preached  from  this  pulpit,  and  also  from  the  pulpit 
preserved  in  the  cathedral  of  Reims.  In  that  era 
there  wen^  many  wooden  pulpits  which  were  movable 
wherever  occasion  required. 

In  many  places  the  pulpit  was  made  a  part  of  the 
rood-loft,  which  was  a  gallery  or  loft  of  wood  or  stone, 
existing  as  early  as  the  eleventh  century  and  used, 
inrtUutd  of  the  canrfUi,  to  separate  the  choir  from  the 
nave;  it  was  called  the  Ifciorium,  or  odeum,  as  the  loft 
where  the  singers  were,  and  dozaU  from  the  singing 
of  the  doxologies.  Statues  of  the  ^viour  and  His 
Apostles,  representing  the  Last  Judgment  and  the 
Passion,  frequently  ornamented  the  rood-loft  on  the 
side  towards  the  nave.  At  Wechselburg  in  Saxony 
a  Romanesque  pulpit  from  the  beginning  of  the  thir- 
teenth century  is  still  in  existence;  it  probably  be- 
longed, together  with  the  celebrated  altar  cross,  to 
the  partially  preserved  rood-loft,  which,  with  a  few 
others  of  that  period,  is  still  to  be  found.  It  is  om»> 
mented  with  well-executed  reliefs,  and  rests  on  ar- 
cades and  columns.  In  the  central  oval  panel,  or 
mandoria,  there  is  a  relief  of  Christ  as  teacner,  sur- 
rounded by  the  symbols  of  the  Evangelists;  on  eithw 
side  are  Mary  and  John  trampling  upon  allegorical 
symbols  of  error.  The  other  reliefs,  vii.,  the  sacrifices 
of  Abel  and  Abraham  and  the  Braien  Serpent,  wer« 
chosen  with  reference  to  the  crass  and  altar  m  tho 
rood-loft,  redemption  by  Christ's  sacrificial  death 
being  a  m^n  topic  of  preaching.  From  the 
thirteenth  century,  rood-lofts  were  customary  in 
France  where  they  were. called  jvbi  from  the  formula, 
Jvhe  Doming  benedieere.  Those  still  in  existence  be- 
long to  the  Renaissance  period.  Pulpits  like  those  of 
the  present  time  were  built  in  Italy  ap  eariy  as  the 
thirteenth  century.  The  pulpit  at  Pisa,  completed 
by  Niccola  Pisano  in  1260,  is  an  unattached  structure 
resting  on  seven  columns,  which  opened  the  way  to  a 
new  development  for  Italian  sculpture.  In  addition 
to  what  is  palpably  borrowed  from  antiquity,  e.  g. 
the  Virgin  as  Juno,  there  are  figures  taken  entirely 
from  the  life  of  the  time.  Instead  of  the  mosaic,  six 
bas-reliefs  surround  the  breastwork:  the  Annuncia- 
tion, Nativity,  Adoration  of  the  Masi,  Presentation 
in  the  Temple,  Crucifixion,  and  the  Last  Judgment; 
they  pretient  the  main  contents  of  the  doctrine  of  sal- 
vation. Between  the  trefoiled  arches  of  the  columns 
over  the  capitals,  in  the  spandrels,  are  eymbolict^ 
representations  of  the  virtues  and  figures  of  the  proph- 
ets. An  allegorical  meaning  shoula  also  be  attributed 
to  the  lion,  gritlin,and  dog,  which,  togetherwith three 
figures  of  men,  ornament  the  seventh  or  middle  col- 
umn, and  to  the  lions  that  carry  three  of  the  supports, 
or  stand  guard  on  the  steps.  The  ornamentation  of 
tlie  cathedral  pulpit  of  Siena  was  executed  by  the 
same  master  in  a  similar  manner.  It  forms,  however, 
an  octagon,  thus  permitting  two  more  large  reliefs 
which  represent  the  slaughter  of  the  children  at  Beth- 
lehem and  further  dcttuls  of  the  Last  Judgment.  A 
third  work  of  the  same  chanK-ter,  containing  figures 


PUNCTATIOH  5t 

thav  iMpresa  feeling  and  motion,  ia  the  pulpit  of  the 
Church  of  Saa  Andres  st  Ptaloia,  which  was  completed 
by  Niccola's  son  Giovanni  in  1301. 

The  first  exatnpleeof  ReoMBeance  putpita  are  those 
of  Don&tello  (fifteenth  century).  For  funerul  ora- 
tions in  the  churchyanl,  for  the  preaching  of  pil- 
{crintasw,  or  for  the  exhibition  of  relics,  pulpits  were 
ofl«n  DUilt  outside  of  the  churches,  as  that  of  the 
cathedral  at  Prato.  Donatello  inserted  here  into 
the  original  round  form  of  the  pulpit  seven  white 
marble  panels,  on  which  in  his  customary  manner 
he  represented  in  bas-relief  little  cherubs  in  an  anima- 
ted dance;  the  ornamentation  of  the  bronze  capital 
below  the  pulpit,  which  rests  on  a  single  support,  is 
also  purely  decorative  in  character.  At  an  earlier  era 
the  platform  of  the  pulpit  was  supported  by  an  under- 
structure  or  by  a  number  of  columns,  and  during  the 
Renaissance  pulpits  projected  from  a  pillar  or  wall, 
like  balconies.  Both  bronze  pulpits  in  San  Lorenso 
at  Fktranoe  rest  on  four  Ionic  columns,  and  are  dec- 


^^Vl^H  P  ^^H^RB^n'l^^l 

Puim  V   im  CaTHUDRAl'oF    LfCCA-M*TTEO    ClVITALl 

15  PUHISHBSKHT 

dragon.  Underneath  the  pulpit  of  the  cathedral  of 
Mechlin  there  is  a  representation  of  the  Crucifixion  on 
Calvary  with  the  people  at  Christ's  feet,  while  below 
the  rock  Saul  falls  from  his  horae,  overcome  by  the 
truth;  above  at  the  side  arc  carvings  of  Adam  and 
Eve  with  the  Serpent.  All  these  are  rich  in  sug- 
gestions for  the  sermon.  At  the  base  of  the  pulpit  of 
the  Church  of  St.  Andrew  at  Antwerp  there  is  a  splen- 
did carving  of  Christ  and  the  Apostles  Peter  and  John 
in  a  little  boat.  Over  the  sounding-board  angels 
hold  on  high  the  St,  Andrew's  cross,  and  beneath 
the  dove,  representing  the  Holy  Spirit,  sends  rai/s  in 
all  directions.  The  whole  structure  of  a  pulpit  in 
Cracow  represents  a  ship,  with  sails,  mast,  and  rig- 
ging, poisol  over  sea  monsters.  The  ornamentation 
of  the  pulpit  should  never  be  excessive,  but  subordi- 
nate to  that  of  the  high  altar,  whose  view  it  should  not 
obstruct.  The  latter  difficulty  is  often  removed  by 
settingthepulpitslightty  towards  the  aide  aisle,  where- 
by a  troublesome  echo  from  the  transept  is  avoided. 
Near  which  pillar  of  the  nave  the  pulpit  should 
be  placed  depends  upon  the  acoustics  of  tlie  church. 
The  sounding-board  should,  above  all,  make  the 
voice  of  the  preacher  perfectly  distinct;  by  (riving  it 
the  form  of  a  shell  the  waves  of  sound  are  often  sent 


1  a  definite  direction.     In  order  that  the  s 


orated  with  refft^sent^tions  of  the  Passion,  over 
which  there  is  a  frietc  of  cherubs  borrowed  from  the 
art  of  antiquity.  In  the  beautiful  marble  pulpit 
of  Santa  Croce  at  Florence,  the  panels  of  the  breasts 
work  arc  decorated  with  scenes  from  the  life  of  St. 
t'rancis.  The  details  of  the  work  are  executed  with 
fine  artistic  feelins  and  proportion;  the  decorative 
statuettes  and  other  accessories  are  dignified  and 
paceful.  The  magnificent  pulpit  made  by  Master 
Pilgram  for  the  Cathedral  of  St.  St«phen  at  Vienna 
(sixteenth  centutv)  is  decorated  wito  busts  of  the 
Fathers  of  the  Church  and  figures  of  other  saints. 
The  omaf«  decoration  of  the  pulpit  of  the  collegiate 
church  at  Aschaffenburg  depicts  the  Church  Fathers 
around  the  supporting  pillar,  busts  of  the  same  in  the 
upper  fricse,  scenes  from  the  Bible  separated  by 
spirited  figures  of  the  Evangelists,  and  angels  in 
the  place  of  consoles.  In  the  Cathedral  at  Trier  the 
ascent  to  the  pulpit  is  covered  by  a  magnificently 
ornamented  archway  with  a  high  decoration  at  the 
top.  On  the  string-piece  of  the  steps  are  carved 
the  Sermon  on  the  Mount  and  the  Last  Judgment, 
and  on  the  panels  of  the  parapet  the  works  of  mercj' 
are  depictea.  The  pulpit  of  Freiberg  in  Saxony  is 
fantastically  developed  from  the  root  of  a  plant  and 
on  it  in  a  naturalistic  manner  the  figures  of  men  and 
animals  are  formed. 

The  most  striking  pulpits  of  the  Baroque  period 
are  those  of  Belgium.  ThebBse,stairway,and80und- 
ing-board  were  artistically  or  fantastically  covered 
according  to  the  ta8t«  of  the  time  with  luxurious  and 
ornate  carving.  In  Ste  Gudule's  at  Brussels  the 
banishment  of  Adam  and  Eve  from  Paradise  is 
carved  underneath  the  pulpit,  while,  in  contrast,  the 
Mother  of  Ood  is  reprpsente<i  above  the  snundinK- 
board  as  a  mighty  female  warrior  and  slayer  of  the 


may  be  readily  understood,  the  pulpit  should  no 
stand  too  high.  Its  ornamentation  should  be  ap- 
propriate; representations  of  the  Evangelists  or 
Church  Fathers,  scenes  from  the  Bible,  as  the 
Sermon  on  the  Mount,  the  dove  as  a  symbol  of  the 
Holy  Ghost  on  the  under  mde  of  the  sounding-board, 
and  perhaps  an  angel  over  it.  A  simple  pillar  skil- 
fully developed  into  the  platform  of  the  pulpit  is 
satisfactory,  when  its  decoration  and  that  of  the 
stairway  and  string-piece  is  subordinate  to  that  of  the 
central  m^n  part.  The  lack  of  a  vertical  support 
makes  an  unpleasant  impression;  a  reading-desk 
or  crucifix  is  apt  to  produce  an  overloaded  effect. 
A  well-arranged  pulpit-cloth  varied  in  colour  to  suit 
the  various  feanta  and  periods  of  the  year  would  be 

Ott£,  KunnlanMoloait  (txipiie.  1S!U-1):  I.Okk,  PlarM 
|l*ipiiK.  1871):  M.bkony,  birtionuairr  tir-  aaliqiiilh  rl,rf- 
RVnnc  (Pltis.  IH77J.  1SO-02.  e.  V.  Chair-';  Alurd.  /fnmr  itmlrT- 
mint  (Pnrii,  1X74).  BSa-dlt:  H«<  >l»  bibtiocniihy  umbr  Ahbo, 
The  pulpiM  lor  nvcnl  hundred  yean  put  Bre  described  in  Iha 
iuvr  biBlories  id  art. 

G.    GiBTMANN. 

PunotftUon  of  Enu.    See  Ens,  CoNaiiRSS  of. 

Puniihmont,  Capital,  the  infliction  by  duo  leoal  , 
process  of  the  penalty  of  death  as  a  punishment  Tor 
crime.  The  Latins  use  the  word  capilalia  (from  eapui, 
head)  to  describe  that  which  relat«d  to  life,  that  by 
which  life  ia  endangered.  They  used  the  neuter  form 
of  this  adjective,  i.  e-icapilalr,  -substantively  to  de- 
nominate death,  actual  or  civil,  and  baninhment  im- 
poited  by  public  authority  in  consequence  of  crinic. 
The  idea  of  capital  punishment  is  of  great  antiquity 
w»d  formed  a  part  of  the  primal  concepts  of  the  human 
race.  When  Cain  committed  fratricide  (Gen.,  iv),  and 
was  rebuked  therefor  by  God,  he  uttered  the  lament 
that  his  life  would  be  in  danger  by  reason  of  the  hoe- 


first  Divine  pronouncement  which  seems  to  sanction 
the  death  penalty  is  found  in  Gen,,  ix,  6:  "Whosoever 
shall  shed  man's  blood,  his  blood  shall  he  shed;  for 
man  was  made  to  the  image  of  God. "  When  the 
ancient  Israelites  had  departed  from  Egvpt  and  were 
sojourning  in  the  Rlnaitic  Peninsula,  they  received 
from  the  Lord  a  code  of  legislation  wherein  the  death 
penalty  was  prescribed  for  many  offences.  Thus,  in 
Ex.,  xxi,  that  penalty  is  prescril)ed  for  murder,  for  a 
wilful  assault  upon  the  father  or  miithcr  of  an  offender, 
for  cursing  a  man's  father  or  mother,  and  for  man- 
stealing.    Down  to  their  latest  days  the  Ivingdoma  of 


PUNISmiENT  566  PUNISHMENT 

Israel  and  Juda  preserved  capital  punishment  as  a  and  is  the  law  of  homicide  to  which  Pliny  ref^r«: 
feature  of  their  criminal  code.  but  this  cannot  be  proved.  It  is  generally  supposed 
No  more  cruel  form  of  punishment  for  offences  that  the  laws  of  the  Twelve  Tables  contained  pro- 
deemed  capital  existed  in  ancient  times  than  that  visions  against  incantations  (malum  carmen)  and  poi- 
which  prevailed  among  the  Jews,  i.  e.  stoning  to  death,  soning,  both  of  which  offences  were  ^so  included  under 
This  form  of  capital  punishment  is  repeatedly  men-  parricuium  (parricide).  The  murderer  of  a  parent 
tioned  in  the  Old  and  New  Testaments.  It  would  ap-  was  sewed  up  in  a  sadc  {cvleuB  or  cuUeus)  and  thrp^^ 
pear  from  the  Book  of  Esther  that  hanging  was  the  into  a  river.  It  was  under  the  provisions  of  some  ol(l 
punishment  which  prevailed  among  the  Assyrians,  law  that  the  Senate  by  a  consuUum  (decree)  ordered 
Two  of  the  king's  slaves  who  plotted  against  his  life  the  consuls  P.  Scipio  and  D.  Brutus  (138  b.  c.)  to 
were  thus  punished  (Esther,  ii),  and  by  that  method  inquire  into  the  murder  in  the  Silva  Scantia.    The 


the  king's  prime  minister,  Aman,  was  executed,  the  Lex  Cornelia  de  sicariis  et  veneficis   (concerning  _ 

gibbet  used  for  that  purpose  being  said  in  Esther,  vii,  sassins  and  sorcerers)  was  passed  in  the  time  of  Sulla 

to  be  the  same  one  which  Aman  had  prepared,  ''fifty  (82  b.  c.)  and  derives  its  distinctive  name  from  his 

cubits  high"  (ibid.,  v),  with  the  design  of  hanging  niiddle  name,  Cornelius.    This  law  contained  pro- 

thereon  Mardochai,  the  Jew,  who  had  incurred  his  visions  as  to  death  or  fire  caused  by  dolus  mahut  (evil 

displeasure,  but  who  was  "precious  in  the  sight  of  the  fraud)  and  against  persons  going  about  armed  with 

Lord".  the  intention  of  killing  or  thieving.    The  law  not 

The  ancient  Greeks  punished  homicide  (phonos),  only  provided  for  cases  of  poisoning,  but  contained 
committed  by  design,  and  many  other  offences  with  provisions  against  thos%  who  made,  sold,  bought, 
death.  The  court  which  prescribed  this  penalty  was  possessed,  or  gave  poison  for  the  purpose  of  poison- 
the  (3ourt  of  the  Areopagus.  The  court  was  not  in-  mg;  also  against  a  magistrate  or  senator  who  con- 
vested  with  discretionary  power  in  awarding  punish-  spired  in  order  that  a  person  might  be  condemned  in 
ment,  since  Demosthenes  says  that  the  law  deter-  sl  judicium  publicum  (public  judgment),  etc.  To  the 
mined  this  according  to  the  nature  of  the  crime,  provisions  of  this  law  was  subsequently  added  a 
Wilful  murder  was  punished  with  death,  and  other  senatus  consuUum  (decree  of  the  senate)  against 
degrees  of  homicide  and  malicious  wounding  were  mala  sacrificia  (evil  sacrifices)  otherwise  called  impia 
punished  with  banishment  and  confiscation  of  ^oods.  sacrificia  (impious  sacrifices),  the  agents  in  which 
Those  who  were  convicted  upon  a  charge  of  umnten-  were  brought  within  the  provision  of  this  lex.  The 
tional  homicide,  not  perfectly  excusable,  were  con-  punishment  inflicted  by  the  law  was  the  interdictio 
demned  to  leave  the  country  for  a  year.  Treason  aquce  et  ignis  (prohibition  of  the  use  of  water  .and  fire), 
(prodosia)  was  punished  with  death.  The  goods  of  according  to  some  modem  writers.  Marcianus 
traitors  who  suffered  death  were  confiscated,  and  their  (Dig.  49,  tit.  8,  s.  8)  says  that  the  punishment  was 
houses  razed  to  the  ground.  It  was  not  permitted  to  deportatio  in  insulam  et  bonorum  ademtio.  that  is, 
bury  their  bodies  in  the  country,  but  they  were  cast  out  banishment  to  an  island  and  deprivation  oi  personal 
into  some  desolate  place.  Hence,  the  bones  of  The-  property.  These  statements  are  reconcilable  when 
mistocles,  who  had  been  condemned  for  treason,  were  we  consider  that  deportation  under  the  emperors  took 
brought  over  and  biuied  secretly  by  his  friends,  as  the  place  of  interdiction  and  the  expression  in  the 
related  by  Thucydides.  The  posterity  of  a  traitor  re-  "Digest"  was  suited  to  the  times  of  the  writers  or 
ceived  the  treatment  of  outlaws.  The  Areopagus  was  the  compilers.  Besides,  it  appears  that  the  lex  was 
the  tribunal  for  the  trial  of  cases  wherein  the  charge  niodified  by  various  senatorial  decrees  and  imperial 
against  an  individual  was  wilful  murder  and  wound-  rescripts.  * 
ing,  or  a  charge  of  arson  or  poisoning.  The  Attic  The  Lex  Pompeia  de  pamcidiis^  passed  in  the  time 
legend  tells  us  that  the  first  notable  trial  before  the  of  Cn.  Pompeius,  extended  the  crime  of  parricide  to 
Areopagus  was  that  of  Orestes  upon  a  charge  of  hav-  the  killing  (dolo  malo,  i.  e.,  by  evil  fraud)  of  a  brother, 
ing  murdered  his  mother.  iEschylus  represents  this  sister,  uncle,  aunt,  and  many  other  relations  enumer- 
trial  as  the  origin  of  the  court  itself.  Some  authorities  ated  by  Marcianus  (Dig.  49,  tit.  9,  s.  1) ;  this  enumera- 
claim  that  the  Ephetai  acted  as  a  court  for  the  trial  tion  also  comprises  step-father  (vitricus)^  step-mother 
of  murder  in  conjunction  with  that  of  Areopagus,  (ruwerca),  step-son  (privignv^),  step-daughter  (pri- 
The  Ephetai  certainly  had  jurisdictiod  over  cases  in-  vigna),  a  male  or  female  patron  (patronuSf  patrona), 
volving  the  lesser  degrees  of  homicide.  an  avus  (grandfather)  who  killed  a  nepos  (grandson). 

The  punishment  of  death  at  Athens  was  generally  and  a  mother  who  killed  &filius  (son)  or  filia  (daug^- 

by  poison  in  the  case  of  freemen.    After  sentence,  the  ter) :  but  it  did  not  extend  to  a  father.    All  privies 

condemned  murderer  was  directed  to  take  a  cup  of  to  the  crime  were  also  punished  by  the  law,  and  at- 

hemlock  or  other  poison  and  drink  it.    In  the  case  of  tempts  at  the  crime  also  came  within  its  provisions, 

the  imposition  of  any  penalty  upon  a  criminal  in  the  The  punishment  was  the  same  as  that  affixed  by  the 

courts  of  Athens,  the  prosecutor  proposed  the  penalty  lex  ComeUa  de  sicariis  (Dig.,  1  c),  by  which  must  be 

in  the  first  instance  and  then  the  person  condemned  meant  the  same  punishment  that  the  lex  Cornelia 

had  the  privilege  of  suggesting  a  different  punish-  affixed  to  crimes  of  the  same  kind.    He  who  killed 

ment.   Thus  it  wais  that  Socrates,  when  his  death  was  a  father  or  mother,  grandfather  or  grandmother, 

proposed,  after  trial  and  conviction,  suggested  that  was  punished,  mare  majorum  (according  to  the  cus- 

instead  of  being  punished  by  death  he  ou^t  to  be  tom  of  the  fathers)  by  being  whipped  till  he  bled, 

entertained  at  public  expense  for  the  rest  of  his  life  in  sewn  up  in  a  sack  with  a  dog,  cock,  viper,  and  ape, 

the  Prytaneum,  the  palatial  quarters  used  by   the  and  thrown  into  the  sea,  if  the  sea  was  at  hand,  and 

Athenians  for  extenoing  and  providing  municipal  if  not,  by  a  constitution  of  Hadrian,  he  was  exposed 

hospitality.    Criminals  of  low  social  grade,  such  as  to  wild  beasts,  or,  in  the  time  of  Paulus,  to  be  burnt, 

slaves,  were  beaten  to  death  with  cudgels.  The  ape  would  appear  to  be  a  late  addition.    Only 

The  Roman  law  was  notably  severe  in  regard  to  the  murderer    of   a    father,    mother,   grandfather, 

public  offences.    A  law  of  the  Twelve  Tables  con-  pandmother  was  punished  in  this  manner  (Modest, 

tained  some  provision  as  to  homicide  (Plin.,  ''H.  N.",  Dig.  49,  tit.  9,  s.  9);   other  parricides  were  simply 

xviii,  3).  but  this  is  all  that  we  know.     It  is  generally  put  to  death.     From  this  it  is  dear  that  the  lex 

assumed  that  the  law  of  Numa  Pompilius,  quoted  Cornelia  contained  a  provision  against 'parricide,  if 

by  Festus  (s.  v.  Parrici  Quaestores),  "Si  quis  hominem  we  are  rightly  informed  as  to  the  provisions  thereof, 

liberum  dolo  sciens  morti  duit  pariciaa  esto"    [If  unless  there  was  a  separate  lex  Cornelia  relating  to  the 

any  one  with  guile,  and  knowingly,  inflicts  death  specific  crime  of  parricide.     As  already  observed,  the 

upon  a  freeman,  let  him  be  (considered  as)  a  par-  provisions  of  these  two  laws  were  modified  in  various 

ricidej,   was  incorporated  into  the  Twelve  Tables,  Ways  under  the  emperors. 


PCHI8HMEHT  54 

It  uipeara  from  the  law  of  Numa,  quoted  by  Featus 
(s.  V.  Parrici  Quaslores),  that  a  ■parriada  WEts  any  one 
who  killed  another  dcio  meUo.  Cicero  (pro  Rose. 
Am.,  c.  xxv)  appears  to  use  the  word  in  its  limited 
Benae,  as  he  apeaka  of  the  punishment  of  the  culUut. 
In  tlus  limited  sense  there  seems  do  impropriety  in 
Catiline  being  called  parricida,  with  reference  to  his 
country;  ana  the  dictator  Cfesar's  death  might  be 
called  a  parricidium  (the  crime  of  parricide),  con- 
sidering tne  circumfltanoes  under  which  the  name  was 
given  (Suet.,  Cfee.,  o.  boccviii).  If  the  oripnd 
meaning  of  parricida  be  what  Festus  says,  it  may  be 
doubted  whether  the  etymology  of  the  word  (-paler 
and  ctedo)  is  correct;  for  it  appears  that  pariciaa  or 
parrieida  meant  murderer  generally,  and  afterwards 
the  murderer  of  certain  persons  in  a  near  relationship. 
If  the  word  was  origioally  pairieida,  the  law  intended 
to  make  all  malicious  kJhng  as  great  an  offence  as 
parricide,  though  it  would  appear  that  parricide, 
OTopcrly  80  called,  was,  from  the  time  of  the  Twelve 
Tables  at  least,  specially  punished  with  the  culleui, 
and  other  murders  were  not. 

Carnifex  (flesh-maker)  was  the  appellation  given, 
to  the  public  executioner  at  Rome,  who  put  slavefl 
and  foreignora  to  death  (Plaut.,  "Bacch.",  iv,  4,  37: 
"Capt,",v,4,22),  but  not  oitiiens,  who  were  punished 
in  a  manner  different  from  slaves.  It  was  also  his 
business  to  administer  the  torture.  This  office  was 
considered  so  disgraceful  that  he  was  not  allowed  to 
reside  within  the  city  (Cic,  "Pro.  Rabir.",  6),  but 
lived  without  the  Porta  Metia,  or  Esquilina  (Plant., 
"Pseud.",  i,  3,  98),  near  the  place  destined  for  the 
punishment  ofalavee  (Plaut.,  Cos.",  ii,  6,  2;  Tacit., 
'"Ann.",  jcv,  60;  Hor.,  "Epod.",  v,  99)  called  Seeter- 
Hum  under  the  emperors  (Plaut.,  "Galb.",  20). 
It  is  thought  by  some  writers,  from  a  passage  in 
Flautus  (Rud.,  iii,  6, 19),  that  theatmifex  was  anciently 
keeper  of  the  prison  under  the  Iriiimiriri  eapiiaiet; 
but  there  does  not  appear  suHicient  authority  for  this 
opinion  (Lipsius,  "Excurs.  ad  Tacit.  Ann.  ,  ii,  32). 

Crucifixion  was  a  method  of  inflicting  capital  pun- 
ishment by  nailing  or  tying  malefactors  to  pieces  of 
wood  transversely  placed  the  one  upon .  the  other. 
The  crosses  used  by  the  ancients  were  of  several 
forms;  one  shaped  uke  the  letter  X  has  often  been 
called  crux  Anareana  (Andrew's  cross)  because,  ac- 
cording fo  tradition,  St.  Andrew  suffered  death  upon 
a  cross  of  that  form;  another  was  formed  like  the 
letter  T,  and  a  Roman  writer,  Lucian,  uses  that  fact 
'  in  disparagement  of  the  letter  itself.  The  third 
kind  of  cn^s,  and  that  most  commonly  used,  was  made 
of  two  pieces  of  wood  crossed  ao  as  to  make  tour 
right  angles.  It  was  on  this  )dnd  of  a  cross  that 
(Arist  suffered,  according  to  tne  unanimous  testi- 
mony of  the  Fathers.  Crucifudon,  under  the  Roman 
law,  was  usually  reserved  for  slaves  and  the  worst 
.  kind  of  evildoers.  The  incidents  of  crucifixion  were 
that  the  criminal,  after  the  pronouncement  of  sen- 
tence, carried  his  cross  to  the  plitce  of  execution,  a 
custom  mentioned  by  Plutarch  and  other  writers  as 
well  as  in  the  Gospels.  Scourging  was  inflicted  upon 
the  persons  executed  as  in  the  case  of  other  capital 
punishments  among  the  Romans,  Grotius  and  other 
writers  have  called  attention  to  the  fact  that  the 
scouring  of  Christ  was  not  in  accordance  with  the 
Roman  usage,  because  it  was  inflicted  before  the 
sentence  of  death  was  pronounced.  The  criminal 
was  next  stripped  of  his  clothes,  and  muled  or  bound 
to  the  cross.  The  latter  was  the  more  painful 
method,  as  the  sufferer  was  left  to  die  of  hunger. 
Instances,  are  recorded  of  peraons  who  survived  nine 
days.  The  Romans  usually  left  the  body  on  the 
cross  after  death. 

During  the  Middle  Ages,  in  spite  of  the  lealous 
humanitarian  efforts  of  the  Church,  cruel  punish- 
ments were  commonly  empbyed,  and  the  death 
penalty  was  very  frequently  inflicted.    This  severity 


7  PUHISHHEHT 

was,  in  general,  an  inheritance  from  the  Roman  Em- 
pire, the  jurisprudence  of  which,  civil  and  criminal, 
pervaded  Europe.  One  of  the  most  horrible  forms 
of  punishment,  derived  from  ancient  Roman  usages, 
was  burning  at  the  stake.  The  nations  of  modem 
Europe,  as  they  gradually  developed,  seemed  to  have 
agreed  upon  the  necessity  of  extirpatmg  all  influences 
and  agencies  which  tended  to  pervert  the  fwth  of 
the  people,  or  which  seemed  to  them  to  betray  the 
potency  of  evil  spirits.  Therefore,  the  laws  of  all 
these  nations  provided  for  the  destruction  of  con- 
tumacious unbelievers,  tcachera  of  heresy,  witches, 


deep  into  the  consciousness  of  the  medieval  people. 


of  Sir  Matthew  Hale  (1609-76).    The  Statute  of 


i^ppjf^" 

BS^S 

■ 

'  "ii& 

?!■ 

1 

fii 

Ml 

^^^Hp 

Hi 

i 

^^^S 

■ 

1 

ThI  OlBBIT  or   MOHTFilIICOH 

EncTBvinc  In  tba  NaUonal  Ubrvy,  Paiti 
Elisabeth  in  1562  made  witchcraft  a  crime  of  the 
first  magnitude,  whether  directed  to  the  injury  of 
others  or  not.  The  Act  of  James  the  Sixth  m  1603 
defines  the  crime  more  minutely  and  provides  the 
penally  of  death.  In  Scotland,  during  the  reign  of 
the  same  monarch  and  even  later,  the  prosecution 
.and  punishment  of  alleged  witchcraft  became  a 
popular  frenzy,  to  which  tne  courts  lent  their  zealous 
^d.  The  number  of  victims  in  Scotland  from  first 
to  last  has  been  estimated  as  more  than  four  thou- 
sand. The  last  regular  execution  for  witchcraft  is 
said  to  have  taken  place  at  Dornoch  in  1722,  when  en 
old  woman  was  condemned  by  David  Ross,  Sheriff 
of  Caithness.  The  same  bcliei  in  witchcraft  and  the 
same  overmastering  dread  of  it  pervaded  New  Eng- 
land. Many  persons  were  convicted  of  witchcralt 
and  were  tortured,  imprisoned,  and  burned.  One 
of  the  leaders  in  ferreting  out  and  punishing  witches 
was  the  Reverend  Cotton  Mather  who,  although  a 
man  of  prodifpous  learning  and  deep  piety,  betrayed 
in  the  pit>secution  of  witches  absolute  fanaticism  and 
merciless  cruelty.  The  laws  against  witchcraft  were 
formally  repealed  in  England  in  1736.  They  were 
not  repealed  in  Austria  until  1766. 

Canon  law  has  always  forbidden  clerics  to  shed 
human  blood  and  therefore  capit^  punishment  has 
always  been  the  work  of  the  officials  of  the  State  and 
not  of  the  Church.  Even  in  the  case  of  heresy,  of 
which  so  much  is  made  by  non-Catholic  controver- 
sialists, the  functions  of  ecclesiastics  were  restricted 
invariably  to  asccrtaininp  the  fact  of  heresy.  The 
punishment,  whether  capital  or  other,  was  both  pre- 
scribed and  inflicted  by  civil  government.  The  inflic- 
(don  of  capital  punishment  is  not  contrary  to  the 


PUNISHBSENT 


568 


PUNISHBONT 


teaching  of  the  Catholic  Church,  and  the  power  of  the 
State  to  visit  upon  culprits  the  penalty  of  death  de- 
rives much  authority  from  revelation  and  from  the 
writings  of  theologians.  The  advisability  of  exercising 
that  power  is,  of  course,  an  i^air  to  be  determined  upon 
other  and  various  considerations. 

Much  less  severity  prevails  in  England  at  present 
than  during  the  reign  of  George  III,  when  Sir  William 
Blackstone  felt  impelled  to  say  m  his  "Commen- 
taries": **  Yet,  though  .  .  .  we  may  glory  in  the 
wisdom  of  the  Engliwi  law,  we  shall  find  it  more  diffi- 
cult to  justify  the  frequency  of  Capital  Punishment  to 


be  found  therein,  inflicted  (perhaps  inattentively)  by  a 
multitude  of  successive  independent  statutes  upon' 
crimes  vQry  different  in  their  natures.  It  is  a  melan- 
choly truth^  that  among  the  variety  of  actions  which 
men  are  daily  liable  to  oonmiit,  no  less  than  one  hun- 
dred and  sixty  have  been  declared  by  Act  of  Parlia- 
ment to  be  felonious  without  benefit  of  clergy ;  or,  in 
other  words,  to  be  worthy  of  instant  death  (bk.  IV, 
c.  1). 

The  traditional  method  of  capital  punishment  in 
Enj^nd  has  been  bv  hanging  the  criminal  by  the  neck 
until  dead,  although  during  the  Middle  Ages  behead- 
ing was  customarv.  The  English  law  in  the  time  of 
Blackstone  provided  that  a  person  convicted  of  trear 
son  of  any  kind  should  be  drawn  or  dragged  to  the 
place  of  execution;  that  in  case  of  high  treason  affect- 
ing the  king's  person  or  government,  the  person  con- 
victed should  be  disembowelled  while  still  alive,  be- 
headed, and  his  body  divided  into  four  quarters. 
Murderers  were  not  only  hansed  by  the  neck  until 
they  were  dead,  but  their  bomes  were  pdt>licly  dis- 
sected. A  writ  of  execution  iipon  a  judgment  of  mur- 
der before  the  king  in  Parliament,  delivered  in  May, 
1760,  recited  the  judgment:  "That  the  said  Lawrence 
E^l  Ferrers,  Viscount  Tamworth,  shall  be  hanged  by 
the  neck  until  he  is  dead  and  that  lus  body  be  dis- 
sected and  anatomized."  This  barbarous  sentence 
was  literally  carried  into  effect.  After  death,  the  body 
was  conveyed  from  Tyburn  in  his  lordship  s  landau, 
drawn  by  six  horses,  to  Surgeon's  Hall  in  the  City  of 
London ;  and  there,  after  bemg  disembowelled  and  cut 
open  in  the  neck  and  breast,  was  exposed  to  public  view 
in  a  room  on  the  first  floor.  The  dissection  of  the 
bodies  of  criminals  led  to  great  abuse,  and  was  abol- 
ished in  1832. 

In  England  during  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth 
centuries  the  people  seemed  to  have  a  passion  ior 
witnessing  pubUc  executions.  Many  hired  windows  at 
a  considCTtu^le  expense  for  such  occasions.  George 
Selwyn  was  very  fond  of  executions.  His  friend,  6. 
Williams,  writing  to  him  of  the  condemnation  of  a 
man  named  John  Wesket  <9  Jan.,  1765)  for  robbery  in 
the  house  of  his  master,  the  Earl  of  Harrington,  says: 
''Harrington's  porter  was  condemned  yesterday. 
Cadogan  and  I  have  already  bespoke  places  at  the 
Brazier's.  I  presume  that  we  shall  have  your  Hon- 
our's company,  if  your  stomach  is  not  too  squeamish 
for  a  single  swim"  (Selwyn's  Correspondence,  I,  323). 
The  Ean  of  Carlisle,  writing  to  Selwyn,  speaks  of 
having  attended  the  execution  of  Haclcman,  a  mur- 
derer, on  19  April,  1779  (ibid..  IV,  25).  Boswell,  the 
biographer  of  Johnson,  had  a  keen  desire  for  witness- 
ing executions,  and  often  accompanied  criminals  to 
the  gallows.  He  had  a  seat  in  the  mourning  coach 
conveying  Hackman  to  Tvbum,  and  in  the  same  car- 
riage rode  the  ordinary  of  Newgate  and  the  sheriff's 
officer.  Visiting  Johnson  on  23  June,  1794,  Boswell 
mentions  that  he  has  just  seen  fifteen  men  hanged  at 
Newgate"  (Boswell,  "Life  of  Johnson  "J  Croker^s  edi- 
tion, VIII,  331). 

During  the  French  Revolution,  executions  in  Paris 
were  witnessed  by  vast  throngs  including  many  female 
Jacobins.  These  bloodthirsty  women  employed  them- 
selves with  their  knitting  while  attending  daily  at  the 
scaffold,  hence  the  famUiar  name  les  iricoteuses  (the 


knitters).  Those  were  the  palmy  days  of  the  guillo- 
tine, the  instrument  which  is  still  usea  for  the  decapi- 
tation of  criminals  in  France.  It  was  introduced  oy 
the  National  Convention  during  the  progress  of  the 
French  Revolution  and  was  named  after  its  supposed 
inventor,  Joseph-Ignace  Guillotin,  a  physician.  He 
was  not  the  inventor,  but  was  only  the  person  who 
first  proposed  its  adoption.  It  consists  of  two  upright 
posts  grooved  on  the  inside  and  connected  at  the  top 
by  cross  beams.  In  these  grooves  a  knife,  having  a 
sharp  blade  placed  obliquely,  is  allowed  to  fall  with  tr&% 
mendous  force  upon  the  neck  of  ^  the  victim  who  is 
bound  upon  a  board  placed  at  the'foot  of  the  upri^t 
posts.  It  is  said  by  some  authorities  that  this  machme 
was  invented  by  the  Persians.  It  was  well  known  in 
Italy,  and  from  the  thirteenth  century  onward  it  was 
the  privilese  of  the  nobilit]^  to  be  put  to  death  by  a 
machine  oi  this  kind,  which  was  called  mannaia, 
Conradin  of  Swabia  was  executed  by  such  a  machine 
at  Naples  in  1268.  An  instrument  closely  resembling 
the  guillotine  was  employed  for  public  executions  dur- 
ing the  Middle  Ages.  In  Scotland,  a  machine  called 
the  "  Maiden  ",  very  similar  to  the  guillotine,  was  used. 
A  like  machine  was  also  used  by  the  Dutch  in  the 
eighteenth  century  for  executing  slaves  in  their  col- 
onies. The  ordinary  mode  in  which  coital  punii^- 
ment  is  performed  in  England  and  in  the  United  States 
is  by  hanging.  This  was  first  established  in  England 
in  1241,  when  Maurice,  a  nobleman's  son,  was  handed 
for  piracy.  In  the  military  service  capital  punish- 
ment is  inflicted  by  shootins,  except  in  the  case  of 
spies  and  traitors,  who  are  Killed  by  hanging:  such 
punishment  being  considered  veiy  di^paceful  and 
therefore  suited  to  the  offence.  American  civil  and 
criminal  procedure  having  been  derived  from  the 
common  law  of  England,  legislation  has  generally  been 
in  close  accord  with  that  of  the  English  in  regard  to 
the  punishment  of  crime.  , 

Tne  punishment  of  deatn,  universal  in  his  day,  waa 
declared  by  the  famous  Marquess  Beccaria  to  be  abso- 
lutely without  justification.  In  his  famous  work, 
''Crime  and  Punishment",  he  says  (chap,  xxviii): 
"The  punishment  of  death  is  not  authorized  by  any 
right;  for  I  have  demonstrated  that  no  such  r^ht 
exists.  It  is,  therefore,  a  war  of  a  whole  nation  against 
a  citizen,  whose  destruction  they  consider  as  necessary 
or  useful  to  the  general  ^ood.  But,  if  I  can  further 
demonstrate  that  it  is  neither  necessary  nor  useful,  I 
shall  have  gained  the  cause  of  humanity.  The  death 
of  a  citizen  can  be  necessary  in  one  case  only:  when, 
though  deprived  of  his  liberty,  he  has  such  power  ana 
connexions  as  may  endanger  the  security  of  tne  nation; 
when  his  existence  mav  produce  a  dangerous  revolu- 
tion in  the  established  form  of  government.  But  even 
in  this  case,  it  can  only  be  necessary  when  a  nation  is 
on  the  verge  of  recovering  or  losing  its  liberty;  or  in 
times  of  absolute  anarchy,  when  ^e  disorders  them- 
selves hold  the  place  of  laws.  But  in  a  reign  of  tran- 
quillity; in  a  form  of  government  approved  by  tho 
united  wishes  of  the  nation;  in  a  state  fortified  from 
enemies  without,  and  supported  by  strength  within ; 
.  .  .  where  all  power  is  lodged  in  the  hands  of  the 
true  sovereign;  where  riches  can  purchase  pleasure 
and  not  authority,  there  can  be  no  necessity  for  ticking 
away  the  life  of  a  subject. " 

The  learned  marquess  makes  a  most  impressive 
argument  in  favour  of  penal  servitude  for  life  as  a 
substitute  for  the  judicial  killing  of  criminals.  Vol- 
taire, in  his  commentaries  on  the  treatise  of  Beccaria, 
emphasizes  his  opposition  to  capital  punishment  by 
saying,  ''It  hath  long  since  been  observed  that  a  man 
after  he  is  hanged  is  good  for  nothing,  and  that  punish-^ 
ments  invented  for  the  good  of  society  ought  to  be 
useful  to  society.  It  is  evident  Uiat  a  score  of  stout 
robbers,  condemned  for  life  to  some  public  work, 
would  serve  the  state  in  their  punishment,  and  that 
hanging  them  is  a  benefit  to  nobody  but  the  execu- 


PVKO 


509 


ptmo' 


tioner."  These  two  authorities,  as  well  oh  Sir  Willisra  "That  the  state  of  irvery  King  ronsista  more  assuredly 

Blackstone,  refer  to  the  favourable  rewilts  which  fol-  in  the  love  of  the  Mubjeels  towards  their  prince  than  in 

lowed  the  abohtibn  uf  capital  pun i;<h merit  in  Kusnia  thedrciulof  lawn  made  with  rignruus  puine;  and  that 

by  the  Empress  Eliiabeth  and  the  contnmunee  of  the  laws  made  for  the  preservation  of  the  Commonwealth 

same  policy  by  her  successor,  Catherine  III,    Beccaria  without  great  penalties  are  more  often  obeyed  and 

makes  a  tellmg  argument  against  the  execution  of  kept  than  laws  made  with  extreme  punishments." 

criminals  in  saying;  "The  punishment  of  death  is  per-  The  policy  at  present  pursued  by  the  nations  of  the 

nicious  to  society,  from  the  example  of  barbarity  it  world  Benerally  favours  capital  punishment,  although 

affords.     If  the  passions,  or  necesBitv  of  war,  have  it  haa  oeen  abolished  in  Italy,  Holland,  moot  of  tJne 

taught  men  to  shed  the  blood  of  their  fellow  creatures,  cantons  of  Switzerland,  Belgium,  Portugal,  and  Ru- 

the  laws  which  are  intended  to  moderate  the  ferocity  mania,  and  in  the  States  of  Michigan,  Rhode  Island, 

of  mankind  should  not  increase  it  by  examples  uf  bar-  Wisconsin,  Iowa,  and  Maine.    It  has  fallen  into  proc- 

barity,  the  more  horrible  as  this  punishment  is  usually  tical  disuse  in  Finland  and  Prussia.     It  is  retained  in 

attended  with  formal  pageantry.    Is  it  not  absurd  that  Russia  only  for  treason  and  military  insubordination, 

the  laws,  which  detect  and  punish  homicide,  should,  in  The  State  of  Colorado  abolished  it  in  1897,  but  as  the 

order  to  prevent  murder,  pubhdy  commit  murder  result  of  a  lynching  outbreak  in  1900  it  wea  restored 

themselves?   What  are  the  true  and  most  useful  laws?  in  1901.  The  death  penalty  is  inSictod  by  the  guillo- 

Tboee  compacts  and  conditions  which  all  would  pro-  tine  in  France^  Belgium,  Denmark,  Ranover,  and  two 

pose  and  olmerve,  in  those  moments  when  private  cantons  of  SwitEerland.    In  these  countries  the  execu- 

interest  is  »lent,  or  combined  with  that  of  the  public,  tion  is  public.    Criminals  are  executed  privately  by 

What  are  the  natural  sentimonta  of  every  person  con-  the  guillotine  in  Bavaria,  Saxony,  and  in  two  cantons 


eeming  the  punish- 
ment of  death?  We 
may  read  them  in  the 
contempt  and  indis- 
nation  with  which 
everyone  looks  on  the 
executioner,  who  is 
nevertheless  an  inno- 
cent executor  of  the 
public  will;  a  good 
citizen,  who  contrib- 
utes to  the  advan- 
tage of  society;  the 
instrument  of  the  gen- 
eral security  within, 
as  good  soldiers  ore 
without.  What  then 
is  the  on^in  of  this 
contradiction?  Why 
is  this  sentiment  of 
mankind  indelible  to 
the  scandal  of  reason? 
It  is,  that  in  a  secret 
comer  of  the  mind, 


of  Switserhind, 
ecution  upon  the  gftl- 
lowa  is  m  vogue  in 
Austria  and  Portugal. 
Hanging  is  conducted 
privately  in  Great 
Britain  and  in  most  of 
the  states  of  the  Fed- 
eral Union.  In  the 
States  of  New  York, 
New  Jersey  I  Massa- 
chusetts, Ohio,  North 
Carolina,  and  Vir- 
ginia, criminals  are 
executed  ^  electric- 
ity. In  China  and 
in  fifteen  cantons  of 
Switzerland  criming 
condemned  to  death 
are  iiublicly  behead- 
ed; in  Prussia  they 
are  privately  behead- 
ed. In  Ecuador,  and 
in  the  Grand  Duchy 
In  Spain  they  are  e 


in  which  the  origina]  impressions  of  nature  are  still  of  Oldenburg,  they  are  shot.  .,  .    ,  . 

preserved,  men  discover  a  sentiment  which  tells  them  cuted  by  means  of  an  instrument  called  the  garrotte, 

that  their  lives  are  not  lawfully  in  the  power  of  any-  and  sudi  executions  are  public.    In  China  they  are 

one,  but  that  of. necessity  only,  which  with  its  iron  strangled  in  public  with  a  cord.    In  Brunswidc  they 

sceptre  rules  the  universe."  are  beheaded. 

The  opposite  view  was  taken  by  Jeremy  Bentham.         S"9,»?V"!",'  f'?"'?S*™  "  ""^'^  uf  England,  ed,  Sraw- 

In  his  wo^  "Rationale  of  Punishment-^  (1830)  he  ilT^iliS^.'^alo^ln' ^  ma"'  T^'^'"2frf' .^  ^MZ 

'    "" ' "■ '  ■-         '  "  ■   ■    ndon.'lOOai:    Criminal  Laii/  Mata- 

Proetedinat  of  ikt  Fi " 


OOD  (Pluladclpbi 

says  that  death  is  regarded  by  most  men  as  the  great-  Aihm,  (tK™ 

est  of  all  evils;  and  that  especially  among  those  who  ""•-  "  Ue" 

are  attached  to  life  by  the  tics  of  reputation,  affection,  Wt/Mxa^Cn 

enjoyment,  hope,  or  fear,  it  appears  to  be  more  etfica-  Tht  Pumrhm 

cious  punishment  than  any  other.    Sir  Samuel  RomiUy     *"■ ■*■'"' 

in  his  "Memoirs"  (1840)  takes  issue  with  Beccaria, 
"Eleccaria,"  he  says,  "and  his  disciples  confess  that  it 
is  not  the  greatest  of  evils,  and  recommend  other  pun- 
ishments as  being  more  severe  and  effectual,  foi^et- 


xr  (Iflndo 


EncKindiOTi  Jv 


^au  o/  Bmont  Daa,  (ChLci.  . 

I  RomuTii  iKrii,  19,73,):   BsccAUA.  Crima  an 

(Albuy,  1873). 

John  Willet  Willis. 


o      -                                          ,        .,  Pllno,  Diocese  or    (Punienbis),  suffragan  of  the 

ting,  undoubtedly,  that  if  human  tribunals  have  a  Archdiocese  of  Lima  in  Peru.    Its  jurisdiction  extendi 

right  to  inflict  severer  punishment  than  death,  they  over  the  whole  territory  of  the  Department  of  Puno, 

must  have  a  right  to  inflict  death  itself"  {III,  278),  with  a  Catholic  population  (1909)  of  260,810  souls;  85 

It  mav  be  said  in  this  connexion  that  Sir  Samuel  pripsts;  62  parishes;  320  churches  and  chapels.    The 

Romilly  was  one  of  the  most  strenuous  and  efficacious  residence  of  the  bishop  is  at  the  City  of  Puno.    The 

scents  in  reforming  and  humanizing  the  criminal  code  bishopric  was  created  by  law  of  the  republic,  2G  No- 

of  England.     The  battle  is  still  raging  between  the  vember,  1832,  and  by  a  Bull  of  Pius  IX  of  6  Nov., 

advocates  and  the  opponents  of  capita]  punishment.  1861,  approveii  by  executive  resolution,  6  Sept.,  1865. 

It  has  been  well  observed  by  Montesquieu  that  the  Dr,  Mariano  Chacon  y  Bccerra  was  nominated  the 

excessive  severity  of  law  hinders  its  execution,  for  first  Bishop  of  Puno  on  17  June,  1861,  and  consecrated 

when  the  punishment  surpasses  all  measure  the  public  7  April,  1862,  but  resigned  before  assuming  his  duties, 

will  frequently,  out  of  humanity,  prefer  impunity  to  His  successor.  Dr.  Juan  Ambrosio  Huerta  was  nomi- 

euch  punishment.     The  same  benevolent  and  philo-  nated  17  June,  1865,  and  in  1875  transferred  to  the  See 

Bophi<»l  idea  was  also  emressed  in  the  hrst  statute  of  Arequipa.    He  was  succeeded  by  Mgr.  Pedro  Jos6 

enacted  by  the  English  Parliament  in  the  reign  of  Chavei,  whose  consecration  took  place  on  25  Jul) 

Queen  Mary;  and  that  statute  recites  in  its  preamble:  1875.    The  next  Bishop  of  Puno  was  Mgr.  Juan  Este- 


PUBCELL 


570 


PtTKCELL 


Moez  y  Seroinario,  a  Discalced  Recollect,  who  waa  at^ramary,  he  set  out  Tor  the  scene  of  his  life's  work, 

consecrated  on  26  Feb.,  18S1,  and  died  in  the  name  (ioing  from  Baltimore  b^  eta^e  to  Wheeling,  mi 

year.    The  diocese  was  then  left  vacant  until  1909,  it«  from    Wheeling    to    Cincinnati     by   st«amboat,    he 

last  Apostolic  administrator  being  Mgr.  IsmacI  Puirre-  reached  hia  destination  14  Nov.,  1S33.   Bishopa  Flaxet, 

don,  until  Sept.,  1909,  whea  the  present  bishop,  Mgr  David  of   Bardstown,  Rese  of   Detroit,  and  afew 

Laisson,  waa  consecrated.  priests  met  him  and  conducted  him  to  his  cathedra^ 

The  Diocese  of  Puno  is  divided  into  9  ecclesiastical  which  waa  on  Sycamore  Street.     He  waa  csnonically 

S evinces,  viz.:  Cereado;  Baja  de  Chucuito;  Alta  de  installed  by  Biahop  Flaget,  who  made  the  addren 

hucuito;    Lampa;    Baja   de   Lampa;     Huancani;  of  welcome.    After   the   inatailation   Bishop   Rese, 

Azangara;    Carabaya,  and  Sandia,     There  ia  in  the  who  had  been  administrator  of  the  diocese  during 

City  of  Puno  a  seminario  eonciliar  tor  the  education  of  the  vacancy,  made  the  l^al  transfer  of  the  property 

the  priesthood.   Thedioceseia  well  supplied  with  pub-  in  his  charge.    The  site  of  the  first  cathearalaQd 

lie  and  private  schools,  some  of  the  latter  connected  at  that  time  the  only  church  in  the  city,  a  humble 


with  the  parishes.     (See  Peru.) 


JcLiAN  Mobkmo-LacauiB. 


structure,    ia   now   occupied  by   the   imposing   St. 

Xavier's  Church,  accommodatinK  over  one  thousa    ' 

families,  under  tiie  care  of  the  Jesuit  Fatheia.     i 

his  arrival  in  1S33  Bishop  Purcell  found  himself  ii 


John   Baphst,    Archbishop   of  Cincin- 
nati, b.  at  Mallow,   Ireland,  26   Feb.,   1800;    d.   at     city  of  about  30,000  inhabitants  and  only 

t  of  the  Ursulinea,  Brown  County,  Ohio,     The    diocese    embraced   the   whole    State    of    Ohio. 
"'  '  '    ■  ■'      '  The    prospect    presented    to 

the  youn^  bishop,  then  i 


the 

4  July,  1883.  Of  hia  early  edu- 
cation but  few  particulars  can 
befound.  His  parents,  Ed wm^ 
and  Johanna  Purcell,  being  in- 
duHtriouB  and  pious,  gave  their 
children  all  the  advantages  of 
the  education  attainable  at 
a  time  when  the  penal  laws 
were  less  rigorously  enforced. 
John  displayed  remarkable 
tulent  and  mastered  all  the 
branches  of  the  school  curricu- 
lum before  his  eighteenth  year. 
Entrance  into  the  colleges  of 
Ireland  was  an  impossibility. 
He  therefore  decided  to  seek  m 
the  United  States  the  higher 
education  denied  him  in  his 
native  country.  Landing  at 
Baltimore  he  applied  for  and 
obtained  a  teacher's  certificate 
in  the  Asbury  College.  He 
siMnt  about  one  year  in  giving 
lessons  OS  private  tutor  in  some 
of   the   prominent  families  of 

Baltimore.     Hia  ambition  was     . ,   , „  

to  become  a  priest,  a^d  this  he  Jow  lUwar  Pdb™u.  !f?.'''r«'":'','°B"H.'''f?' 

never  lost  sight  of  while  teach-  Telegraph   ,  a  Catholic  pinier 

ing  others  as  a  means  of  obtaining  a  livelihood.  On  founded  by  Father  Young,  a  nephew  of  Bishop  l4n- 
20  June,  1820,  he  entered  Mount  St. Mary's  Seminary,  wick,  the  orst  Catholic  paper  published  in  the  West. 
Bmmitsburg.  His  previous  knowledge  of  the  classics  Hb  taught  classes  in  the  seminary.  At  his  first  ordina- 
made  it  an  easy  task  for  him  to  take  charge  of  important  tion  he  raised  to  the  priesthood  Juncker,  afterwards  first 
classes  in  the  college,  and  at  the  same  time  prepare  Bishop  of  Alton,  II Imoia.  He  lost  no  time  in  providing 
himaelf  for  the  priesthood  by  the  study  of  philoso-  for  the  wants  of  the  growing  Church  in  Cmcinnati. 
phy,  theology,  and  other  branches  of  ecclesiastical  Holy  Trinity  on  Fifth  Street,  the  first  church  built  for 
Bcionco.  After  three  years'  atiidy  in  the  seminary  the  German-speaking  Catholics,  was  soon  followed  by 
he  received   tonsure   and  minor  orders   from  Arch-     another,  8t.  Mary's,  at  Clay  and  TTiirt^enth  Streets. 


'ith  misgiv- 
ing and  dread.  The  difficul- 
ties increased,  for  soon  the 
tide  of  immigration  turned  to- 
wards Ohio,  Immigrants  from 
Germany  and  Ireland  came  in 
thousands^  and  as  they  were  all 
Catholics  It  became  hisduty  to 
provide  for  their  spiritual 
wants,  and  that  had  to  be  done 
quickly.  A  seminaiy  had  been 
founded  by  Biahop  Fenwick  in 
the  Athenaeum,  which  stood 
near  the  cathedral .  The  num- 
ber of  atudents  was  of  course 
very  small,  but  Bishop  Purcell 
had  to  rely  on  this  little  band  to 
help  him  m  his  work.  He  be- 
gan his  work  aa  a  biahop  with 
an  energy  and  eamestneaa  that 
never  flagged  during  his  whole 
i;f_      □. — -';irmg  ir  "■-- 


bishop  Marcschal,  of  Baltimore,  at  the  close  of  1S23. 
On  1  March,  1824,  in  the  company  of  Rev.  Simon 
Gabriel  Brutfi,  one  of  the  professors  of  the  seminary, 
afterwards  first  Bishop  of  Vinccanes,  he  sailed  for 
Europe  to  complete  hia  studies  in  the  Sulpician  Sem-     cathedral 


Finding  it  impossible  to  provide  professors  or  give  his 

own  time  to  the  seminary,  he  called  to  his  aid  the  Jesuit 

Fathers,  to  whom  he  gave  over  the  church  property 

Sycamore  Street,  and  purchased  a  site  for  his  new 

1 — i.„i  —  Plum  and  Eighth  Streets,  and  Weatcm 


8  of  Issy  and  Paris.    On  26  May,  1826,  he  waa  Row,    then    the    western   boundary    of    Cincinnati, 

oneof  the  three  hundred  priests  ordained  in  the  cathe-  Western   Row   is   now   Central   Avenue.     The   new 

dral  of  Paris  by  Archbishop  de  Quelen.     Aft«r  his  or-  cathedral,  a  magnificent  structure  200  feet  long  and 

dination  he  continued  his  studies  until  the  autumn  80  feet  wide,  built    of  Dayton    limestone,  with  its 

of  1827,  when  he  returned  to  the  United  States  to  beautiful  spire  of  solid  stone  rising   to    the   h^ght 

enter    Mount    St.    Mary's    Senainary    as    profcsaor.  of  225  feet,  ia  one  of  the  finest  in  the  West.     Ttiia 

He  afterwards  became  president,  until  his  apjioint-  grand   temple   was   completed   and   consecrated   tnr 

ment  sa  Bishop  of  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  to  succeed  the  Archbishop  Ecclcston  of  Baltimore,   38  Oct.,   1846, 

saintly  Fenwii;k.     He  received  notice  of  his  appoints  thirtrcn    yeara    after    Bishop    Purcell's    arrival    at 

ment   in   Aug.,    1833,   and   waa   consecrated   bishop  Cincinnati.     After   trying   several   locations   for  his 

in  the  cathodml  of  Baltimore,  1-'!  Oct.,  1833,  by  Arch-  diocesan  seminary,  he  finally  located  it  on  Price  Hill, 

bishop  Whitfield.     He  attended  the  sessions  of  the  west  of  the  city  limits.    The  main  building  was  tom- 

Tliird  Provincial  Council  of  Baltimore,  which  opened  pleted  and  0)>ened  for  the  theologians  in  1851.     He 

on  the  day  of  his  consecration  and  continued  for  one  called  it  Mount  St.  Mary's  of  the  West,  after  his 

week.  own    Alma    Mater    at   Emmitsbur^.    Two  orphan 

After  winding  up  hia  affairs  in  connexion  with  the  asylums  were  established,  St.  Aloysiua's  for  the  chil- 


PUBGSLL 


571 


PUBGELL 


Iren  of  Gennan-speakins  parents,  and  St.  Peter's, 
aow  St.  Joseph's,  for  cnildren  of  English-speaking 
people,  and  provision  was  made  for  their  mainte- 
nancei 

He  made  a  complete  visitation  of  his  extensive 
diocese  the  first  year  of  his  administration,  providing 
for  the  spiritual  care  of  his  scattered  flock,  either 
placing  resident  pastors  in  parishes  or  having  priests 
to  visit  regularly  the  smaller  communities  that  were 
unable  to  support  a  resident  pastor.  In  1840  the 
canal  and  railway  systems  that  were  to  revolutionize 
the  existing  conditions  of  commerce  were  begun  and 
continued  without  interruption  until  1854.  Little 
Miami  Railroad  from  Xenia  to  Cincinnati,  a  distance 
of  65  miles,  was  opened  for  traffic  in  1841.  It  is  now 
a  link  in  the  great  Pennsylvania  system.  These 
public  works  brought  immense  numbers  of  emigrants 
to  the  state.  What  were  villages  soon  grew  into 
cities;  Cleveland,^  Toledo,  Columbus,  Dayton,  and 
Hamilton  became  the  cities  of  the  state.  New 
parishes  were  formed,  and  churches  and  schools 
were  built.  Cleveland  became  a  bishopric  in  1847, 
and  Columbus  in  1868.  He  was  obliged  to  call  on 
Europe  for  help  to  meet  the  fast-growing  wants  of 
his  diocese. 

Bishop  Purcell  made  several  trips  to  Europe, 
visiting  the  various  seminaries  there^  and  solicitmg 
students  having  the  missionary  spirit  to  share  his 
labours  in  Ohio.  On  his  return  from  one  of  these 
trips  to  Europe  he  was  accompanied  by  a  band  of 
sealous  young  priests,  Fathers  Machebeuf,  Lamy. 
Gacon,  Chevmol,  and  Navaron.  Father  Machebeuf 
afterwards  became  first  Bishop  of  Denver;  Father 
Lamy,  first  Archbishop  of  Santa  F6.  The  others 
lived  to  a  ripe  old  age,  doing  missionary  work  in  the 
diocese  till  Uod  call^  them  to  their  reward.  While 
the  state  was  grrowing  in  population,  the  city  of 
Cincinnati  did  not  lag  behind.  Cist's  ''Cincinnati" 
(1851),  in  its  church  statistics,  gives  the  Catholics 
13  parishes  and  11  parish  schools,  with  an  enroll- 
ment of  4494  pupils.  Bishop  Purcell  from  the  be- 
ginning was  an  earnest  advocate  of  the  establishment 
of  parish  schools.  The  rapid  g^wth  of  Ohio  and  the 
West  was  recognized  in  Rome,  and  in  1850  Cincinnati 
was  made  an  archbishopric.  The  pallium  was  ^con- 
ferred on  Archbishop  Purcell  by  Pope  Pius  IX,'  who 
at  the  same  time  ma^e  him  assistant  at  the  pontifical 
throne,  in  appreciation  of  his  personal  worth.  The 
new  ecclesiastical  province  of  Cincinnati  had  for 
suffragans  the  Diocese  of  Cleveland,  Detroit,  Indian- 
apolis, and  Louisville. 

In  1861  the  archbishop  did  not  hesitate  in  making 
known  his  views  on  the  Civil  War.  He  decided  to 
fly  the  flaff  from  the  cathedral  spire.  This  action 
of  the  archoishop  called  forth  a  great  deal  of  adverse 
criticism,  as  there  was  at  the  time  an  influential  party 
in  the  North  opposed  to  the  war.  Many  Catholics 
were  in  sympamy  with  this  party.  The  archbishop 
bolclly  took  his  stand  and  ignored  the  adverse  criti- 
cism. The  event  showed  the  wisdom  of  his  course. 
The  last  vestige  of  insane  Knownothingism  and  its 
halj^  of  the  Church  disappeared.  This  wave  of 
bigotry  which  spread  over  the  whole  country  in  the 
early  fifties  had  showed  itself  decidedly  hostile  to 
CaUiolics  in  Cincinnati  in  1854,  when  Archbishop 
Bedini  was  the  euest  of  Archbishop  Purcell.  The 
firm  stand  taken  by  the  German  and  Irish  Catholics 
vnder  the  direction  of  the  archbishop  overawed  the 
mob  that  threatened  to  destroy  the  cathedral  and 
thus  prevented  bloodshed. 

Archbishop  Purcell  attended  the  Council  of  the 
Vatican,  and  in  the  discussion  of  Papal  Infallibility 
he  took  the  side  of  the  minority  which  opposed  the 
opportuneness  of  the  decision,  but  on  his  return  from 
Kome,  which  he  left  before  the  question  was  decided, 
he  gave  in  his  adhesion  to  the  doctrine  as  soon  as  he 
leeumed  of  the  signing  of  the  decree  by  Pope  Pius 


IX.  This  he  did  in  a  sermon  he  preached  in  the 
cathedral  saying,  ^'I  am  here  to  proclaim  my  belief 
in  tJie  infallibility  of  the  pope  in  the  words  of  the 
Holy  Father  defining  the  doctrine". 

He  celebrated  his  golden  jubilee  of  priesthood  26 
May,  1876.  He  was  joined  in  this  celebration  not 
only  by  his  diocese  but  by  the  whole  country.  Bishops 
and  archbishops  came  personally  or  sent  rcpresentap- 
tives.  He  had  reason  to  rejoice  when  he  saw  the  re- 
sult of  his  -work.  When  he  came  to  Cincinnati  he 
foimd  a  small  city  with  but  one  church,  and  a  diocese 
with  a  few  Catholics  scattered  through  the  state. 
After  forty-three  years  of  toil  he  found  me  city  grown 
to  a  population  of  nearly  300,000,  with  forty  well- 
organized  parishes  having  schools  giving  Catholic  edu- 
cation to  20,000  children,  a  well-equipped  seminary, 
colleges,  and  charitable  institutions  to  take  care  of  the 
poor  and  sick.  Throughout  the  diocese  were  well- 
organised  parishes,  churches,  and  parish  schools. 
Forty  years  before  he  had  only  a  few  priests;  in  1876 
he  could  count  on  the  help  of  150  diocesan  and  50 
regular  priests,  and  a  Catholic  population  of  150,000. 
In  reply  to  the  addr^ses  of  conzratulation  on  the 
occasion,  he  modestly  referred  the  success  to  the 
cordial  assistance  of  the  priests  and  the  generous  aid 
of  the  laity. 

The  serious  financial  disaster  that  clouded  his  last 
years  was  the  result  of  circumstances  for  which  he 
could  hardly  be  responsible.  Giving  all  his  time  to  the 
spiritual  management  of  the  diocese,  he  left  the  ma- 
terial part  altogether  in  the  hands  of  his  brother, 
Father  Edward  Purcell.  He  received  deposits  from 
people  who  were  mistrustful  of  the  banks,  which  were 
unstable  institutions  until  the  general  government 
adopted  the  national  banking  system  during  the  War 
of  Kebellion.  The  large  amount  involved  represented 
the  accumulation  of  compound  interest.  Tnis  finan- 
cial disaster  crushed  out  the  lives  of  the  archbi^op 
and  his  brother.  The  crash  came  in  the  autumn  of 
1878,  and  the  archbishop  died  five  years  later.  His 
brother  had  passed  away  in  the  spring  of  the  preceding 
year. 

After  fourteen  years  of  litigation  and  the  mis- 
management of  the  assignees,  uxe  sff&ir  came  to  an 
end,  when  the  court  found  the  amount  due  on  the 
cathedral  and  diocesan  institutions  to  be  $140,000. 
Archbishop  Elder  accepted  the  finHing^  of  the  court 
and  made  arrangement  by  a  system  of  assessments  on 
the  parishes  to  meet  the  loans  made  to  pay  the  amount 
required  by  the  final  decision.  This  decision  was  made 
in  1892.  Under  the  wise  administration  of  Arch- 
bishop Elder,  who  succeeded  Archbishop  Purcell,  all 
the  loans  have  been  paid  off. 

In  1837  Bishop  Purcell,  wishing  to  come  in 
touch  with  the  learned  men  of  Ohio,  oecame  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Ohio  College  of  Teachers.  At  one  of  the 
meetings  the  discussion  turned  on  religion,  and  some 
remarks  were  made  reflecting  on  the  Church.  Bishop 
Purcell  asked  leave  to  reply  to  them  at  length.  This 
permission  could  not  be  granted  under  the  rules  limit- 
ing speeches  to  ten  minutes.  In  a  spirit  of  fairness. 
Dr.  Wilson  offered  the  bishop  the  use  of  his  church 
on  Fourth  and  Main  Streets  to  reply.  This  offer  was 
gladly  accepted,  and  the  bishop  delivered  a  masterly 
discourse.  The  position  and  teaching  of  the  Catholic 
Church  were  put  before  the  people  of  Cincinnati  so 
clearly  and  forcibly  as  to  cause  many  who  heard  the 
bishop  at  least  to  reconsider  the  ideas  they  had 
formed  of  Catholic  teaching  and  practice.  The  Cath- 
olic Church  was  unfavourably  known  by  non-Cath- 
olics at  the  time,  owing  to  the  false  charges  made  by 
preachers  and  the  spread  of  anti-Catholic  literature 
giving  false  views  of  her  teaching  and  practice.  The 
lecture  was  a  surprise  to  many  who  had  up  to  that 
time  looked  upon  Catholics  as  a  danger  to  the  coun- 
try. It  stirred  up  a  great  deal  of  discussion  in  the 
community,  so  much  so  that  Alexander  Campbelle, 


PURGATIVE 


572 


PURGATORIAL 


founder  of  the  Campbellite  wing  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church,  felt  called  to  take  upon  himself  the  de- 
fence of  I^otestantism.  He  sent  a  letter  to  Bishop 
PurceU  challenging  him  to  a  public  debate.  The 
bishop  with  a  ^eat  deal  of  reluctance  accepted  the 
challenge,  and  mvited  Mr.  Campbelle  to  call  at  his 
residence  in  the  Athenseum  on  Sycamore  Street  to 
arrange  for  the  debate.  The  meeting  took  place  at 
2  p.  m.  on  11  Jan.,  1837.  It  was  agrp^d  to  hold  a 
debate  in  the  Baptist  Church,  now  St.  Thomas's  Cath- 
olic Church,  on  Sycamore  Street.  The  debate  was  to 
begin  13  Feb.  and  to  continue  seven  days,  exclu- 
sive of  Sunday.  Two  sessions  were  to  De  held 
each  day,  the  morning  session  from  9  to  12.30, 
the  afternoon  from  3  to  5.  The  debate  was  to  be  held 
under  the  direction  of  five  moderators,  two  to  be 
chosen  by  each  of  the  disputants,  these  four  to  choose 
a  fifth. 

Mr.  Campbelle  was  to  open  the  discussion.  Bishop 
Purcell  to  reply.  The  discussion  was  to  be  taken 
down  by  shorthand  writers,  printed  after  re- 
vision by  the  disputants,  and  sold,  the  net  proceeds 
to  be  distributed  equally  among  Catholic  and  Prot- 
estant charities.  The  moderators  selected  were 
Messrs.  Samuel  Lewis,  Thomas  J.  Briggs,  William 
Disney,  John  Rogers,  and  J.  W.  Piatt. 

Mr.  Campbelle  s  charges  were: 

(1)  The  Catholic  Church  is  not  now  nor  was  she 
ever  Catholic,  Apostolic,  or  Holy,  but  is  a  sect  in  the 
fair  import  of  the  word,  older  than  the  sects  now  ex- 
isting, not  the  Mother  and  Mistress  of  Churches,  but 
an  apostasy  from  the  Church  of  Christ. 

(2)  The  notion  of  Apostolic  succession  is  without 
foundation  in  the  Bible  and  reason. 

(3)  She  is  not  uniform*  in  faith,  but  fallible  and 
changeable  as  other  sects  in  religion  and  phi- 
losophy. 

(4)  She  is  the  Babvlon  of  St.  John. 

(5)  Purgatory,  indulgences,  confession,  and  transub- 
stiuitiation  are  immoral  in  their  tendencies,  injuri- 
ous to  the  well-being  of  society,  political  and 
religious. 

(6)  The  world  is  not  indebted  to  the  Church  for 
the  Bible. 

(7)  If  the  Church  is  infallible  and  unchangeable, 
she  is  opposed  to  the  spirit  of  the  institutions  of 
the  United  States,  which  means  progress. 

At  the  close  ot  the  debate  one  of  the  city  papers 
said  ''Catholicity  lost  nothing  and  Protestantism 
gained  nothing  by  the  discussion."  It  made  a  pro- 
H>und  impression  on  the  community  at  large.  Catholic 
doctrine  was  brought  before  the  people  in  a  way  they 
had  never  understood  it  before.  Thinking  men  were 
led  to  lay  aside  the  prejudice  caused  by  their  igno- 
rance of  the  Church.  Bishop  Purcell's  ability  as  a 
public  teacher  was  recognized  and  his  learning  re- 
spected. The  reputation  and  standing  he  acquired 
by  this  discussion  he  maintained  during  his  entire 
administration.  The  members  of  his  own  flock  were 
encouraged  when  they  found  Uieir  bishop  so  com- 
petent to  teach  them  tneir  faith  and  defend  it  against 
the  attacks  of  non-Catholics.  The  discussion  brought 
him  into  prominence  tlux>ughout  the  whole  country. 
He  was  called  upon  to  defiver  lectures  and  preach 
sermons  in  nearly  every  diocese.  He  was  looked  upon 
a.s  the  representative  bishop  of  the  West,  as  Arch- 
bishop Hughes  was  of  the  East. 

In  1867  Mr.  Vickers  preached  a  sermon  at  the  lay- 
ing of  the  corner-stone  of  St.  John's  Evangelical 
Church,  in  which  he  made  charges  against  the  Church. 
Archbishop  Purcell  felt  called  upon  to  take  notice  of 
Mr.  Vickers's  sermon.  This  he  did  in  a  sermon 
preached  at  the  laying  of  the  comer-stone  of  St. 
Rose's  Church.  This  brought  on  a  discussion  in  the 
columns  of  the  "Catholic  Telegraph"  and  the  "Cin- 
cinnati Gaaette".  The  discussion  attracted  little 
attention,  as  the  archbishop  had  to  patiently  follow 


his  opponent,  refuting  the  oft-repeated  false  charges 
against  the  Church. 

The  observatory  corner-stone  was  laid  on  Mount 
Adams  9  Nov.,  1842,  by  John  Quinc^  Adams,  ez- 

E resident  of  the  United  States.  He  is  reported  to 
ave  said  in  the  course  of  his  speech,  "this  obsn^ 
vatory  is  to  be  a  beacon  of  true  science,  that  should 
never  be  obscured  by  the  dark  shadows  of  superstition 
and  intolerance  symbolized  bv  the  Popish  Cross". 
The  position  is  now  the  site  of  the  Holy  Cross  Mon- 
astery of  the  Passioftist  Fathers.  The  monastery  was 
solemnly  dedicated  22  June,  1873,  when  the  arch- 
bishop preached  a  most  eloquent  sermon  on  the 
"Triumph  of  the  Cross".  This  was  his  reply  to 
the  remarks  of  John  Quincy  Adams  and  his  slur  on  the 
Cross  of  Christ.  He  had  before  that  placed  the 
cross  above  the  observatory  when  he  built  his 
votive  church  called  the  "Immaculata"  on  Mount 
Adams. 

The  following  religious  orders  came  to  the  arch- 
diocese during  the  incumbency  of  Archbishop  Pur- 
cell:— the  Sisters  of  Charity,  founded  at  Emmitsburg, 
came  to  Cincinnati  in  1829,  in  union  with  the  Sisters 
of  Charity  of  France.  In  the  changes,  the  Sisters 
formed  an  independent  community,  taking  the  name 
of  the  Sisters  of  Charity  of  Cincinnati.  Archbishop 
Purcell  received  their  vows  in  1862.  The  Jesuit 
Fathers  took  charge  of  the  college  in  1840,  and  the 
congregation  in  1847.  The  Sisters  of  Notre  Dame 
of  Namur,  Belgium,  came  to  Cincinnati  in  1840.  The 
Precious  Blood  Fathers  came  to  Ohio  in  1840.  The 
Franciscan  Fathers  came  to  the  diocese  in  1844;  the 
Giood  Shepherd  Sisters  in  1857;  the  Sisters  of  Mercy 
in  1858;  Little  Sisters  of  the  Poor  in  1868;  Sisters 
of  the  Poor  of  St.  Francis  in  1858;  Ladies  of  the  Sa- 
cred Heart  in  1869;  and  the  Passionist  Fathers  in 
1870. 

Catholic  Telegraph  (Cincinnati) ;  Shea,  HiaUry  of  Ike  Catholie 
Church  in  the  United  State*:    Cist.  Cincinnati  (1851). 

John  B.  Mubrat. 
Purgatiye  State.    See  State  ob  Wat. 

« 

Purgatorial  Societies^  pious  associations  or 
confraternities  in  the  Catholic  Church,  which  have 
for  their  purpose  to  assist  in  every  possible  way  the 
poor  souIb  m  purgatory.  The  (Jatholic  doctrine 
concerning  purgatory,  the  condition  of  the  poor 
souls  after  death,  the  communion  of  saints,  and  the 
satisfactory  value  of  our  good  works  form  the  basis 
of  these  associations,  although  they  were  caUed  into 
life  by  pure  Christian  charity  for  one's  neighbour 
which  reaches  beyond  the  grave.  This  brotherly 
love  was  the  distinguishing  mark  of  Christ's  Church 
from  the  very  beginning;  the  first  Christian  communi* 
ties  and  the  whole  Church  of  the  early  centuries  down 
to  the  time  of  the  catacombs  was  one  grand  purga- 
torial society.  The  clearest  evidence  of  this  is  sup- 
plied by  the  prayers  for  the  dead  in  the  oldest  liturgies 
and  breviary  prayers,  and  by  the  earliest  Christian 
inscriptions. 

In  the  centuries  which  followed,  wherever  the 
Christian  and  ecclesiastical  spirit  manifested  itself 
in  the  form  of  associations,  seal  and  love  for  the  pooi 
souls  were  revealed  in  the  same  degree  (cf.  Kraus, 
**Christl.  Altertiimer",  s.  v.  FratemiUu),  The 
old  religious  orders,  e.  g.  the  Benedictine  Order  with 
all  its  branches,  especiallv  the  Order  of  Cluny  which 
inaugurated  All  Souls'  Day,  furnish  the  most  con- 
vincing proof  of  this.  Religious  confraternities  are 
likewise  distinguished  in  their  early  beginnings  by  a 
special  devotion  to  the  sick  and  deceased,  e.  g.  the 
Brotherhood  of  Constantinople  which  flourished  in 
336  [Baronius,  "Annales",  ad  an.  336,  IV  (Lucca, 
1739),  295;  cf.  VII  (Lucca,  1741),  869  "Parabolam"). 
and  in  the  West  the  Confratrice  or  Confratemitatea  of 
the  Middle  Ages.  Even  the  medieval  ffeldonicB  or 
guilds,  estabUshed  primarily  for  secular  purpoflce, 


PURGATORIAL 


573 


PURGATORIAI. 


never  forgot  in  their  constitutions  and  practical 
corporate  life  special  works  of  charity  for  deceased 
members  [Michael,  "Gesch.  des  deutschen  Volkes", 
I  (1897),  146,  150  sq.;  Janssen,  "Gresch.  d.  deutsch. 
Volkes",  I  (Ist  ed.),  319  sqq.J. 

Although  affording  one  of  the  best  proofs  of  the 
existence  of  lively  faith,  especially  among  Anglo- 
Saxons,  Franks,  and  the  Germanic  people  in  general, 
the  medieval  associations  of  brotherhoods  of  prayer 
called  "fratemitates",  "societates",  "consortium", 
''societates  fratemae".  and  "consortium  fratemita- 
tis"  (cf.  Adalbert  Ebner,  "Die  klosterl.  Gebets- 
VerbrttderunKen",  Ratisbon,  1890;  Georg  Zappert, 
"Ueber  VerbrUderungsbticher  u.  NekroTogien  im 
Mittelalter",  Vienna,  1853)  are  little  known.  They 
were  founded  chiefly,  though  not  solely,  to  assist 
deceased  members  with  prayers,  Mass,  ana  all  works 
of  Christian  charity.  Critical  investigators,  there- 
fore, simply  designate  these  institutions  "Toten- 
b&nde''  (associations  for  the  dead).  Ducange-Favre 
defines  a  (Donfratemitas  "as  ...  a  society  formed 
between  various  churches  and  monasteries,  which 
bind  themselves  to  hold  exequies  for  the  deceased 
members  of  one  another  as  for  their  own  brothers' \ 
These  were  soon  formed  between  monasteries,  abbeys, 
bishops,  and  noblemen;  later  kings,  i)rinces,  bishops, 
priests,  and  the  laity,  especially  ecclesiastical  benefac- 
tors, were  admitted.  In  the  certificate  of  admission  or 
the  document  instituting  the  brotherhood  it  was  usually 
stated  in  detail  how  many  Masses,  what  prayers, 
and  good  works  would  be  offered  on  their  death  for 
the  repose  of  the  souls  of  deceased  members,  in  the 
monasteries  and  churches  or  by  individuals.  The 
names  of  all  members  were  enrolled  in  the  register 
of  brotherhood  {Liber  vita)^  a  development  of  the 
ancient  diptychs.  A  messenger  was  immediately 
dispatched  with  a  circular  (jolulus)  to  announce  the 
death  of  a  member  to  all  the  affiliated  monasteries, 
where  the  name  was  inserted  in  the  dead  list  (see 
Necbologieb)  for  constant  commemoration;  these 
lists  were,  like  the  earlier  diptychs  (q.  v.),  read  aloud 
so  that  special  prayers  might  be  said  for  the  deceased 
mentioned,  ana  a  special  conmiemoration  made  bv 
the  priest  auring  the  Holy  Sacrifice  (Kraus,  "Christ!. 
Altertumer",  11,  486  sq.). 

The  revival  of  the  regular  Hfe  in  the  West,  emanat- 
ing from  England  in  the  sixth  century,  marks  the 
rise  of  these  confraternities,  which  attained  their 
greatest  prosi>erity  during  the  period  of  the  Car- 
lovingians,  maintained  tneir  position  throughout 
the  Middle  Ages,  and  declined  with  its  close.  From 
England  also  issued  the  first  public  opposition  to 
these  associations,  proclaimed  by  Wyclif  about  1400 
in  his  "Trialogus  (IV,  xxx  sq.),  and  followed  by  all 
religious  innovators  of  these  times.  These  brother- 
hoc^  may  be  divided  into  those  formed  hi  several 
monasteries,  churches,  or  individual  bishops,  priests, 
abbots,  ana  monks.  However,  kings,  princes,  and 
other  laymen,  especially  benefactors,  we^e  admitted 
into  these  three  classes,  and  even  the  frequently  very 
numerous  subordinates  of  a  monastery.  Especially 
durins  their  most  flourishing  period,  confraternities 
were  formed  among  monasteries.  In  the  ninth  cen- 
tury Reichenau  was  affiliated  with  more  than  a 
hundred  other  monasteries  and  chapters  in  Germanv, 
Switzerland^  France,  and  Italy;  this  was  chiefly 
due  to  the  reform  of  the  monastery  by  St.  Benedict 
of  Aniane  (d.  821),  and  is  the  largest  brotherhood 
known  to  us.  Alcuin  worked  in  the  west  of  the 
Frankish  Empire,  and,  before  him,  St.  Boniface 
had  sought  with  eager  zeal  to  establish  and  foster 
in  Germany  such  unions  and  brotherhoods  with 
England  and  Italy  (cf.  Monumenta  Germanise 
historica,  "Libri  conf ratemitatum  " ;  "Necrologia")- 
In  this  connexion  it  is  interesting  to  note  the  "Act 
of  Spiritual  Association*'  between  the  Abbeys  of 
St.  Denis  of  France  and  St.  Remy  of  Reims  (Bibl. 


Nat.,  MS.  lat.  13090,  fol.  70),  in  which  it  is  arranged 
that,  within  thirty  days  after  the  death  of  a  member, 
the  entire  Office  be  recited  by  each  of  the  surviving 
members,  that  the  priests  say  Masses  corresponding 
to  the  various  offices,  and  that  vi^JA  be  held  in  com- 
mon on  the  first,  seventh,  and  thirtieth  days. 

At  the  provincial  and  national  synods  of  the  Middle 
Ages  the  bishops  and  abbots  present  f reouently  formed 
themselves  into  such  brotherhoods,  oiten  extending 
to  the  cathedral  chapters  and  monasteries  whose  su- 
periors were  members,  and  to  the  kings  and  princes 
present  at  the  councils.  In  the  eighth  and  ninth 
centuries  there  was  a  whole  series  of  such  synods,  e.  g. : 
Attigny  (762);  Dingolfing  (769);  Frankfort  (794); 
SalzbuTK  (799) ;  Freismg  (805) ;  Clechyt  (815 :  Synodus 
CaJchuthensis  anno  X,  i,  816) ;  Savonidres  near  Toul 
(859);  brotherhoods  were  also  formed  at  other  Eng- 
lish and  Italian  synods  [cf .  Mansi,  XII  sqq.  ad  annos 
cit.^  Wilkins,  "Concilia  Britannise",  I  (London, 
1737,  171)].  At  (fiocesan  synods  idl  the  clergy  of  a 
diocese  with  their  bishop  formed  themselves  into  a 
brotherhood,  and  frequently  priests  of  still  smaller 
districts  (rural  chapters)  formed  lesser  associations  of 
prayer  to  which  the  laity  were  also  admitted  [cf .  P.  L., 
CVI,  866,  878;  Baluze,  "Miscell."  I  (Lucca,  1761), 
112,  Iviii:  Harduin,  '^Conc",  VI,  420,  xx].  Indi- 
viduals of  every  station,  rank,  and  sex  eagerly  joined 
these  associations,  while  numerous  rich  persons 
founded  monasteries,  or  made  large  benefactions  to 
secure  a  special  share  in  their  suffrages  after  death. 
English  kings,  bishops,  abbots,  and  especially  Carlo- 
vingian  kings  gave  them  an  excellent  example,  as  did 
St.  Boniface  and  Alcuin.  Even  the  laity  of  the  lower 
classes  joined  the  brotherhoods  of  St.  Gall  and  Reich- 
enau ["  Mon.  Germ.  BQst.",  "libri  confratemitatum'', 
and  "Necrologia";  Manm,  "Concil.",  XIX,  283  sq., 
"Concil.  Tremoniense''  (i.  e.  of  Dortmund).  lOOS], 
The  communion  of  spiritual  goods  and  indulgences, 
granted  by  monasteries  in  the  Ukst  centuries  to  another 
monastery,  to  benefactors  and  friend^  outside  the 
cloister,  or  to  other  confraternities,  is  more  than  a 
memorial  of  the  old  brotherhoods,  since  in  these 
grants,  or  communicaJtUmeSf  the  promise  of  spiritual 
help  for  the  deceased  is  one  of  the  chief  features. 

With  these  brotherhoods  of  prayer  there  appeared 
at  an  early  period  Con/rcUemttotes  more  closely  re- 
sembling the  associations  which  are  to-day  known 
under  that  name.  Their  chief  object  was  care  for  the 
poor  souls.  Among  these  mi^t  be  included  the  above- 
mentioned  associauons  from  the  earUrat  times,  which 
devoted  themselves  especially  to  the  spiritual  welfare 
of  the  dying  and  the  burial  of  the  dead.  Of  the  con- 
fraternities for  the  dead,  of  which  we  have  informa- 
tion, only  examples  can  be  cited  from  the  earlier 
centuries,  but  these  show  sufficiently  clearly  how 
widespread  these  must  then  have  been.  According 
to  an  inscription  in  the  church  of  Sts.  Cosmas 
and  Damian  in  Rome  [Baronius,  "Annal.'^  XVI 
(Lucca,  1744).  272]  a  number  of  priests  and  bishops  in 
Rome  formed  themselves  into  an  association  of  so- 
dales  (c.  985),  each  promising  that  on  the  death  of  a 
member  he  would  immediately  sinp  forty  Masses  for 
the  repose  of  his  soul.  At  the  beginning  of  the  elev- 
enth century  Ore,  the  friend  of  Knut  the  Great, 
erected  in  honour  i)f  God  and  St.  Peter  a  confraternity 
at  Abbotesbury,  according  to  the  statutes  of  which 
each  member  should  on  the  death  of  another  contribute 
one  penny  for  the  repose  of  his  soul  [Dugdale,  "Mo- 
nasticon  Anglicanum'',  III  (London,  1821).  55].  In 
1220  Bishop  Peter  of  Sens  ratified  a  confraternity 
formed  by  thirteen  clergy,  who  bound  themselves  to 
celebrate  annually  four  anniversaries  for  the  benefac- 
tors and  members  of  the  confraternity  ["Gallia  Chris- 
tiana", XII  (Paris,  1770),  Appendix  363].  In  1262 
twenty-four  secular  priests  united  to  practice  works 
of  mercy  for  the  dead,  read  Masses  for  the  rejpjose  of 
their  souls,  etc.  (Quix,  "Beschreibung  der  Miinster- 


PURGATORIAL 


674 


PUROATORIAI. 


kirche  zu  Aachen",  58.  157,  161  sq.)*  In  1355  there 
existed  at  Glocknitz  a  lay  confratemitY  for  the  dead, 
which  accepted  membera  from  other  parishes  (Monum. 
Boica,  IV,  168  sqq.)  and  cared  especially  for  the  burial 
of  the  poor.  Ehicange-Favre  (s.  v.  Ptirgatorium) 
speaks  of  a  pious  association,  founded  in  1413,  ex- 
pressly under  the  name  Of  purgatory,  in  the  old 
chiu*ch  of  Maria  Deaurata  (Daurade)  at  Toulouse. 

These  confraternities  concerned  themselves  almost 
exclusively  with  the  souls  of  deceased  members  and 
benefactors,  while  the  distinguishing  mark  of  the 
later  associations  is  their  foundation  for  all  poor  souls. 
Provision  for  buriab  was  first  made  by  La  CJom- 
pagnia  della  Piet^'',  founded  in  Rome,  1448  (cf.  A. 
Berignani  in  "Archivio  storico  R.  di  Stor.  Patr.", 
XXXIII,  5  saq.),  and  nearly  related  to  the  confra- 
ternities here  aescribed.  In  the  newly-erected  church 
of  the  German  cemetery  (Campo  Santo),  a  confrater- 
nity, "in  honour  of  the  bitter  Passion  of  Christ  and  of 
the  Sorrowful  Mother,  to  comfort  and  assist  all  the 
faithful  souls  ".  was  erected  (1448)  by  the  penitentiary, 
Johannes  Goldenerof  Nuremberg,  later  titular  Bishop 
of  Accon  and  Auxiliary  Bishop  of  Bamberg  (cf.  E)e 
Waal,  "Der  Campo  Santo  der  Deutschen  zu  Rom", 
Freiburg,  1896,  pp.  46  sqq.),  and  in  1579  raised  by 
Gregory  XIII  to  an  archconfratemity,  enriched  with 
new  indulgences,  and  empowered  to  aggregate  other 
confraternities  throughout  the  world  (loc.  cit.,  107 
sqq.).  Although  it  has  undergone  many  changes,  this 
confraternity  still  exists,  combined  towards  the  end  of 
the  nineteenth  century  with  a  special  Requiem  Mass 
Association  for  assisting  souls  of  deceased  members 
Qoc.  cit.,  307;  cf.  Beringer,  "Die  Ablaase",  13th 
German  ed.,  1906,  pp.  685  sqq.),  and  it  is  the  first 
purgatorial  society  according  to  tiie  present  meanine 
of  the  name.  The  "Black  Penitents",  who  marched 
in  procession  through  Rome  under  the  banner  of 
mercy,  were  founded  in  1488  to  assist  before  execu- 
tion those  condemned  to  death,  and  afterwards  to  pro- 
vide for  their  burial,  exequies,  and  Requiem  Mass  [cf . 
Raynald.  "Annales",  XI  (Lucca,  1754),  178  sq.  ad 
an.  1490).  The  Confraternity  of  Our  Lady  of  Suffrage 
(S.  Maria  del  Suffragio)  existed  in  Rome  from  1592. 
expressly  for  the  relief  of  the  poor  souls.  It  had 
numerous  members,  and  since  1615  has  aggregated 
other  confraternities  with  the  same  object  (Deer, 
auth.  S.  C.  Indulg.,  n.  83,  p.  67;  Moroni,  II,  309; 
LI,  328). 

The  Archconfratemity  of  Death  and  Prayer  (mortis 
et  arationis).  founded  in  Rome,  1538,  to  provide  for  the 
burial  of  tne  p€>or  and  abandoned,  still  exists  (cf. 
Berignani,  loc.  cit.);  at  the  beginning  of  the  seven- 
teenth century  it  was  granted  new  indulgences  by 
Paul  V  (Rescr.  auth.  S.  C.  Indulg.,  n.  26,  pp.  448  sqg. : 
Moroni,  II,  303).  About  1687  the  rules  of  a  special 
confraternity  "for  the  Relief  of  the  Most  Needy  Souls 
in  Purgatory"  under  the  invocation  of  the  Sacred 
Names  of  Jesus,  Mary,  and  Joseph  were  approved  in 
Rome  (Moroni,  XVI.  130).  The  confraternity  for  the 
relief  of  the  departed  under  the  title  of  "Jesus  Christ 
on  Mount  Calvary  and  the  Sorrowful  Mother"  en- 
joyed special  popularity  and  inaugurated,  8  Sept., 
1760,  the  processions  of  the  Way  of  the  Cross  in  the 
Roman  Coliseum;  among  its  illustrious  members 
was  St.  Leonard  of  Port  Maurice  (Rescr.  auth.  Summ. 
39,  pp.  497  sqq.;  Moroni,  loc.  cit.).  The  Ingoldstadt 
Mass  Association,  formed  by  the  Franciscans  of  In- 
goldstadt in  1726  to  procure  for  all  members  the  grace 
of  a  happy  death  and  for  those  already  deceased 
speedy  assistance  and  liberation  from  the  pains  of 
pulsatory,  was  erected  into  a  formal  ecclesiastical 
confraternity  under  the  title  of  the  Immaculate  Con- 
ception in  1874.  An  ancient,  highly  venerated  picture 
of  the  Mother  of  God  was  a<lopted  as  the  titular  pic- 
ture of  the  a.ssociation,  which  has  received  all  the  in- 
dulgences of  the  confraternity  of  the  same  name  in  the 
Ara  CcBli  at  Rome,  i.  e.  the  indulgences  of  the  Blue 


Scapular  (Rescr.  auth.  n.  393;  Summ.  58,  pp.  580 
sqq.).  It  numbers  its  members  by  tens  and  hundreds 
of  thousands;  almost  2000  Masses  are  daily  cele- 
brated for  the  intentions  of  the  Marian  Mass  Associa- 
tion, which  includes  the  intention  of  particularly 
assisting  the  most  recently  deceased  members. 

At  the  close  of  the  Middle  Ages  the  old  confra- 
ternities, generally  confined  to  a  town  or  small  dis- 
trict, gradually  disappeared,  as  did  also  many  of  the 
later  ones  in  the  confusion  at  the  end  of  the  ei^teenth 
century,  while  others  preserved  only  a  semblance  of 
life.  Since  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century 
they  have  been  replaced  by  vigorous  new  associations, 
which,  richly  endowed  with  indulgences  by  eccle- 
siastical authorities,  have  rapidly  extended  to  the 
entire  Church.  By  Brief  of  5  October,  1818,  Pius  VII 
endowed  the  Archconfratemity  of  Our  Mother  of 
Sorrows  and  the  Poor  Souls  in  Purgatory  (Archioon- 
fratemitas  B.  M.  V.  Dolorosse  sub  invocatione  Ani- 
manim  pui]gatorii),  which  was  erected  in  the  basilica 
of  S.  Maria  in  Trastevere,  with  rich  indulgences 
(Rescr.  auth.  Summ.  28,  pp.  455  sqq.).  First  among 
the  later  confraternities  which  have  extended  through- 
out Christendom  is  the  '^Archconfratemity  for  the 
Relief  of  the  Poor  Souls  in  Purgatory  under  the  title 
of  the  Assuniption  of  Mary  in  the  Redemptorist 
church  of  S.  Maria  in  Monterone  at  Rome",  foimded 
in  1841.  It  rapidly  developed,  especially  in  England 
and  North  America,  and  was  endowed  with  indul- 

?;ences  in  1841^63.  Priests  empowered  to  receive  the 
aithful  into  the  confraternity  enjoy  various  other 
faculties.  This  confraternity  is  especially  adapted  for 
rapid  expansion,  because  in  1861  it  was  expressly 
authorized  to  aggregate  every  confraternity  of  what- 
ever name  and  object  and  to  communicate  to  them 
its  graces  and  privileges,  provided  they  added  to  their 
original  titles  ''and  for  the  Relief  of  the  Poor  Souls  in 
Purgatory";  they  must  not,  however,  be  already 
aggregated  to  another  aschoonfratemity,  nor  have 
been  endowed  with  indulgences  on  their  own  account 
(Rescr.  auth.  8umm.,  n.  48,  pp.  543  sqa.).  The  Re- 
demptorist fathers  conduct  this  archconfratemity  (cf . 
Seeberger,  "Key  to  the  Spiritual  Treasures",  2nd  ed., 
pp.  296  sqq.). 

At  Ntmes  in  France  a  confraternity  siixular  to  that 
of  Our  Lady  of  Suffrage  was  established  in  1857,  re- 
ceived the  faculty  of  aggregating  other  confraternities 
in  the  Diocese  of  Ntmes  in  1858,  and  in  1873  received 
the  same  right  for  the  whole  world.  In  addition  to  the 
indulgences  of  the  Roman  confraternity,  that  of  Ntmes 
has  received  others:  the  recital  of  the  Rosary  of  the 
Dead  was  approved  especially  for  its  members  by 
Pius  IX  in  1873  (Beringer,  "Die  Ablasse",  II,  3ni 
ed.,  pp.  470  sqq.).  In  accordance  with  its  ancient 
tradition^,  the  Benedictine  Order  formed  a  twofold 
Confraternity  of  the  Poor  Souls  at  Lambach,  Diocese 
of  linz,  Austria.  In  1877  the  Archconfratemity  of 
the  Perpetual  Adoration  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament 
under  tne .  Protection  of  St.  Benedict  for  the  Poor 
Souls  in  Purgatory  was  erected  with  right  to  aggregate 
other  confratemities  of  the  same  name  and  object  in 
Austria-Hungary.  In  1893,  with  the  same  title  and 
objects,  this  confraternity  was  erected  in  the  abbey 
church  of  St.  John  the  Baptist  at  Collegeville,  Min- 
nesota; it  shares  in  all  the  indulgences  of  the  Lambach 
confraternity,  and  possesses,  as  the  archconfratemity 
for  North  America,  the  faculty  of  aggregating  all  con- 
fratemities of  the  same  name  and  communicating  to 
them  its  indulgences.  Finally,  by  Brief  of  2  March, 
1910,  Pius  X  granted  to  the  Lambach  archconfrsp 
temity  the  right  of  aggregation  for  the  whole  world 
(Acta  Ap.  S€ki.,  Ill,  93  saq.).  There  was  also  founded, 
in  1878,  in  the  same  abbey  church  of  Lambach  a 
Priests'  Association  under  the  Protection  of  St. 
Benedict  for  the  Relief  of  the  Poor  Souls  in  Purgatory. 
This  was  approved  and  recommended  by  the  diocesan 
bishop,  Franz  Joseph  Rudigier.    Many  other  bishops, 


PUROATORY 


575 


PURGATORY 


especially  in  North  America,  recommended  it  to  their 
clergy.  The  direction  of  the  association  is  in  the  hands 
of  the  general-director  of  the  Archconfratemlty  of 
Lambach,  who  enters  the  members  in  a  special  regis- 
ter. The  official  organ  for  both  is  the  ''Benediktus- 
stimmen".  published  by  the  Abbey  of  Emaus  in 
Prague  (ct.  Seeberger,  op.  cit.,  301  sqq.). 

A  work  of  atonement  to  procure  relief  and  liberation 
for  the  most  needy  and  abandoned  souls  in  purgatory 
by  the  celebration  of  many  Masses  was  founded  in 
1884  in  the  parish  of  La  Chapelle-Montligeon,  Diocese 
of  S^z,  France.  Until  18d3  this  association  was  aggre- 
gated to  thearchconf  ratemity  of  S.  Maria  in  Monterone, 
but  it  was  declared  by  Brief  of  2  October,  1893,  an  hon- 
orary archconfraternity  and  prima-primaria.  Only 
associations  united  with  that  of  Month^eon  may  adopt 
the  same  title  and  statutes.  This  association  of  many 
million  members  is  blessed  by  the  pope,  and  recom- 
mended by  numerous  bishops.  To  become  a  member, 
one  must  have  one's  name  enrolled,  and  contribute 
five  centimes  annually  for  the  objects  of  the  associa- 
tion; persons  who  make  a  single  contribution  of  five 
francs  have  a  permanent  share  in  all  the  Masses  cele- 
brated for  the  deceased.  Seven  Masses  are  said  weekly 
for  the  souls  in  purgatory,  three  monthly  for  deceased 
priests,  and  in  addition  many  thousand  Masses  are 
offered  annually.  A  monthly  organ  of  the  association 
is  issued  in  various  languages  (cf.  Seeberger,  loc.  cit., 
304  sqq. ;  Beringer,  op.  cit.,  II,  478  sqq.).  The  Order 
of  Cluny  have  always  been  conspicuous  for  their 
special  devotion  to  tne  poor  souls.  Since  998,  St. 
Odilo,  Abbot  of  Cluny,  had  All  Souls'  Day  celebrated 
by  his  monks  on  2  November,  which  day  was  grad- 
ually  devoted  by  the  entire  Church  to  the  relief  of  the 
poor  souls.  In  memory  of  this  fact,  a  new  archcon- 
fraternity was  erected  at  Cluny  in  the  parish  church  of 
Our  Lady.  Bv  Brief  of  25  May,  1898,  Leo  XIII 
granted  this  Archconfraternity  of  Prayer  for  the 
Poor  Souls  of  Purgatory"  the  indulgences  of  the  old 
Roman  Confraternity  of  Prayer  and  Death  (see  above), 
and  authorized  it  to  aggregate  similar  confraternities 
throughout  France  and  its  colonies  ("  Analectaeccles.", 
1898,  p.  328;  Beringer,  "Die  Ablasse",  II,  475  sqq.). 
The  ^'Associazione  del  Sacro  Cuore  di  Gesii,  in 
sufTra^io  delle  Anime  del  Purgatorio"  was  canonicallv 
established  in  Rome  (Lungotevere,  Prati)  in  a  church 
of  the  Sacred  Heart,  and  granted  indulgences  and 
privileges  by  Leo  XIII  (1903-5).  The  director  of  this 
association,  which  includes  non-residents  of  Rome  in 
its  membership,  is  Victor  Jouet,  who  «iits  "Ri vista 
mensile  delP  Associazione''. 

Having  named  the  best-known  and  most  wide- 
spread modem  confraternities  for  the  poor  souls,  we 
must  not  forget  that,  amon^  the  numerous  other 
confraternities  and  pious  associations,  there  is  scarcely 
one — ^if  indeed  any — ^which  does  not  seek  to  promote 
with  special  devotion  the  intercession  for,  and  help  g^, 
the  poor  souls.  Indulgences  of  the  confraternities 
are  ever  applicable  to  the  souls  in  purgatory,  and  the 
privilege  of  the  altar  for  churches  and  for  priests, 
who  are  members,  may  be  used  in  favour  of  dead 
members  or  of  all  the  poor  souls.  The  formation  of 
the  "Catholic  League  for  Constant  Intercession  for 
the  Poor  Souls  in  Purgatory"  was  proposed  by 
certain  pious  citizens  of  Rome,  approvea  by  Leo 
XIII  in  the  last  years  of  his  reign,  and  enriched  with 
indulgences.  The  only  requisite  for  membership 
\p  to  recite  thrice  daily  the  prayer,  "Requiem  setemam 
dona  eis  Domine  et  lux  perpetua  luceat  eis.  Re- 
quiescant  in  pace .  Amen ' ' ,  thereby  gaining  once  daily 
an  indulgence  of  200  days  (cf.  Raccolta,  1898,  pp.  539 
sq.).  In  conclusion  we  must  mention  the  thousands 
and  perhaps  millions  of  the  faithful,  who  have  made 
the  heroic  act  of  charity  (q.  v.),  thus  assisting  in 
the  most  perfect  manner  the  souls  in  purgatory,  and 
finally  the  crown  of  all  these  association^  in  this 
woiAc,  is  the  Order  of  the  Helpers  of  the  Holy  Souls. 


Man.  Germ.  Hist.  Libri  eonfratemitatum,  ed.  Piper  (Berlin, 
1884);  Necrologia  Germanug,  I-III  (Berlin,  188Sr-1905);  Reeeuil 
dea  hiatorieru  de_la  France.  Obiluairee,  I-II  (Paria,  1902-6); 
Zappert,  op.  eit.;  Ebner.  op.  cit.;  Mounier,  Lea  otniuairea 
franeaia  (Paria,  1890);  Beringer,  Die  AbUkaae,  ihr  Weaen  u. 
Gebrauch  (Paderbom.  1906;  French  tr.  Paria,  1905);  Migne, 
Diet,  dea  con/ririea  in  BncydopSdie  Thioloffique,  L. 

Joseph  Hilqbrs. 

Purgatory. — ^The  subject  is  treated  under  these 
heads:  I.  Catholic  Doctrme;  II.  Errors;  III.  Proofs; 
IV.  Duration  and  Nature;  V.  Succouring  the  Dead; 
VI.  Indulgences;  VII.  Invocation  of  Souls;  VIII. 
Utility  of  Prayer  for  the  Departed. 

I.  Catholic  Doctrine.— Purgatory  (Lat.,  pur- 
garCf  to  make  clean,  to  purify)  m  accordance  with 
Catholic  teaching  is  a  place  or  condition  of  temporal 
punishment  for  those  who,  departing  this  life  in 
God's  grace,  are  not  entirely  free  from  venial  faults, 
or  have  not  fully  paid  the  satisfaction  due  to  their 
transgressions.  The  faith  of  the  Church  concerning 
purgatory  is  clearly  e^roressed  in  the  Decree  of 
Union  drawn  up  by  the  Council  of  Florence  (Mansi, 
t.  XXXI,  col.  1031),  and  in  the  decree  of  the  Council 
of  Trent  which  (Sess.  XXV)  defined:  "Whereas  the 
Catholic  Church,  instructed  by  the  Holy  Ghost,  has 
from  the  Sacred  Scriptures  and  the  ancient  tradition 
of  the  Fathers  taught  in  Councils  and  very  recently 
in.  this  (Ecumenical  synod  (Sess.  VI,  cap.  xxx;  Sess. 
XXII,  cap.  ii,  iii)  that  there  is  a  purgatory,  and  that 
the  souls  therein  detained  are  helped  oy  the  suffrages 
of  the  faithful,  but  principally  by  the  acceptable 
Sacrifice  of  the  Altar;  the  Holy  Synod  enjoins  on  the 
Bishops  that  they  diligently  endeavour  to  haye  the 
sound  doctrine  of  the  Fathers  ^  Councils  regarding- 
purgatory  everywhere  tau^t  and  preached,  held 
and  believed  by  the  faithful"  (Denzinger,  "En- 
chiridion", 983).  Further  than  this  the  definitions 
of  the  Church  do  not  go,  but  the  tradition  of  the 
Fathers  and  the  Schoolmen  must  be  consulted  to 
explain  the  teaching  of  the  councils,  and  to  make 
clear  the  belief  and  the  practices  of  the  faithful. 

Temporcd  Punishment. — That  temporal  punish- 
ment is  due  to  siuj  even  after  the  sin  itself  has  been 
pardoned  by  God,  is  clearly  the  teaching  of  Scripture. 
God  indeed  brought  man  out  of  his  first  disobedience 
and  gave  him  power  to  govern  all  things  (Wis.,  x, ' 
2),  but  still  condemned  him  "to  eat  his  bread  in  the 
sweat  of  his  brow  "  until  he  returned  unto  dust.  God 
forgave  the  incredulity  of  Moses  and  Aaron,  but  in 
punishment  kept  them  from  the  "land  of  promise" 
(Num.,  XX,  12).  The  Lord  took  away  the  sin  of 
David,  but  the  life  of  the  child  was  forfeited  because 
David  had  made  God's  enemies  blaspheme  His 
Holy  Name  (II  Kings,  xii,  13,  14).  In  the  New 
Testament  as  well  as  m  the  Old,  almsgiving  and  fast- 
ing;  and  in  general  penitential  acts  are  the  real 
fruits  of  repentance  (Matt.^  iii,  8;  Luke,  xvii,  3; 
xiii,  3).  The  whole  penitential  system  of  the  Church 
testifies  that  the  volimtary  assumption  of  penitential 
works  has  always  been  part  of  true  repentance 
and  the  Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  XIV,  can.  xi)  re- 
minds the  faithful  that  God  does  not  always  remit 
the  whole  punishment  due  to  sin  together  with  the 
guilt.  God  requires  satisfaction,  and  will  punish 
sin,  and  this  doctrine  involves  as  its  necessary  con- 
sequence a  belief  that  the  sinner  failing  to  do  penance 
in  this  life  may  be  punished  in  another  world,  and  so 
not  be  cast  oft  eternally  from  God. 

Venial  Sins. — All  sins  are  not  equal  before  God, 
nor  dare  anyone  assert  that  the  daily  faults  of  human 
frailty  will  be  punished  with  the  same  severity  that 
is  meted  out  to  serious  violation  of  God*8  law.  On 
the  other  hand  whosoever  comes  into  God's  presence 
must  be  perfectly  pure,  for  in  the  strictest  sense 
His  "eyes  are  too  pure  to  behold  evil"  (Ilab.,  i,  13). 
For  unrepented  venial  faults,  for  the  pavment  of 
temporal  punishment  due  to  sin  at  time  of  death,  the 
Church  has  always  taught  the  doctrine  of  purgatory. 


PUEaATORY 


576 


PURGATORY 


So  deep  was  this  belief  ingrained  in  our  common 
humamty  that  it  was  accepted  by  the  Jews,  and  in 
at  least  a  shadowy  way  by  the  pagans,  long  before 
the  coming  of  Christianity  (**iEneid",  Vl.  735  sq.; 
Sophocles,  "Antigone",  450  sq.;  cf.  Mommsen, 
"Rome",    I,   xiii). 

II.  Erbors. — Epiphanius  (Hasr.^  Ixxv,  P.  G., 
XLII,  col.  513)  complains  that  Aenus  (fourth  cent.) 
taught  that  prayers  for  the  dead  were  of  no  avail. 
In  the  Middle  Ages,  the  doctrine  of  purgatory  was 
rejected  by  the  Albigenses,  Waldenses,  and  Hussites. 
St.  Bernard  (Serm.  Ixvi  in  Cantic,  P.  L.,  CLXXXIII. 
col.  1098)  states  that  the  so-called  Apostolid  denied 

Surgatory  and  the  utility  of  prayers  for  the  departed, 
fuch  discussion  has  arisen  over  the  position  of  the 
Greeks  on  the  question  of  purgatory  ("Perp^tuit4 
de  la  foi".  Ill,  col.  1123  sq.).  It  would  seem  that 
the  great  oifference  of  opinion  was  not  concerning  the 
existence  of  purgatory,  but  concerning  the  nature  of 
purgatorial  fire;  still  St.  Thomas  proves  the  existence 
of  purgatory  in  his  dissertation  against  the  errors 
of  the  Greeks,  and  the  Council  of  Florence  also 
tnoueht  necessary  to  affirm  the  belief  of  the  Church 
on  the  subject  (Bellarmine.  "De  Purgatorio",  lib. 
I,  cap.  i).  The  modem  Orthodox  Church  denies 
purgatorv,  but  is  rather  inconsistent  in  its  way  of 
putting  forth  its  belief  (Fortescue,  "Orthodox  East- 
em  Church",  London,  1907.  389). 

At  the  beginning  of  the  Reformation  there  was  some 
hesitation  especifuly  on  Luther's  part  (Leipzig  Dis- 
putation) as  to  whether  the  doctrine  should  be  re- 
tained, but,  as  the  breach  widened,  the  denial  of 
purgatory  by  the  Reformers  became  universal 
(Centuriat.  Alagdeburg,  cent.  IV,  cap.  iv),  and  Calvin 
termed  the  CathoUc  position  "exitiale  commentum 
quod  crucem  Christi  evacuat  .  .  .  quod  fidem 
nostram  labefacit  et  evertit"  (Institutiones,  lib. 
Ill,  cap.  V,  §  6).  Modem  Protestants,  while  they 
avoid  the  name  purgatory,  frequently  teach  the 
doctrine  of  "the  middle  state  ,  and  Martensen 
("Christian  Dogmatics",  Edinburgh,  1890,  p.  457) 
writes:  "As  no  soul  leaves  this  present  existence  in  a 
fully  complete  and  prepared  state,  we  must  suppose 
that  there  is  an  intermediate  state,  a  realm  of  pro- 
gressive development,  (?)  in  which  souls  are  prepared 
for  the  final  judgment"  (Farrar,  "Mercy  and  Judg- 
ment", Lonclon,  1881,  cap.  iii;  A.  Campbell,  "The 
Doctrines  of  the  Middle  State  ...  of  Prayers 
for  the  Pead  etc.",  London,  1721;  Hodge,  "Sjrste- 
matic  Theology",  New  York^  1885,  III,  741). 

III.  Proofs. — ^The  Cathohc  doctrine  of  purgatory 
supposes  the  fact  that  some  die  with  smaller  faults 
for  which  there  was  no  true  repentance,  and  also  the 
fact  that  the  temporal  penalty  due  to  sin  is  at  times 
not  wholly  paid  in  this  life.  The  ptoofs  for  the 
Catholic  position,  both  in  Scripture  and  in  Tradition, 
are  bound  up  also  with  the  practice  of  praying  for 
the  dead.  For  why  pray  for  the  dead,  if  there  be  no 
belief  in  the  power  of  prayer  to  afford  solace  to  those 
who  aa  yet  are  excluded  from  the  sight  of  God? 
So  true  is  this  position  that  prayers  for  the  dead  and 
the  existence  of  a  place  of  purgation  are  mentioned 
in  conjunction  in  the  oldest  passages  of  the  Fathers, 
who  lulege  reasons  for  succouring  departed  souls. 
Those  who  have  opposed  the  doctrine  of  purgatory 
have  confessed  that  prayers  for  the  dead  would  be  an 
unanswerable  argument  if  the  modem  doctrine  of  a 
"particular  judgment"  had  been  received  in  the  early 
ages.  But  one  has  only  to  read  the  testimonies 
hereinafter  alleged  to  feel  sure  that  the  Fathers 
speak,  in  the  same  breisith,  of  oblations  for  the  dead 
and  a  place  of  purgation:  and  one  has  pnly  to.  consult 
the  evidence  found  in  the  catacombs  to  feel  eaually 
sure  that  the  Christian  faith  there  oxpr<^88efI  oni- 
braoed  clearly  a  belief  in  judgment  immodiatoly  after 
death.  Wilpert  ("Roma  Sotteranea",  I,  441)  thus 
concludes  chap,   zzi,    **Che  tale  esaudimento"  •to., 


"Intercession  has  been  made  for  the  soul  of  the  dear 
one  departed  and  God  has  heard  the  prayer,  and  the 
soul  has  passed  into  a  place  of  light  and  refresh- 
ment." "Surely",  Wilpert  adds,  "such  inter- 
cession would  have  no  place  were  there  question  not 
of  the  particular,  but  of  the  final  judgment." 

Some  stress  too  has  been  laid  upon  the  objection 
that  the  ancient  Christians  had  no  clear  conception 
of  purgatory,  and  that  they  thought  that  the  souls 
departed  remained  in  uncertainty  of  salvation  to  the 
last  day:  and  consequently  they  prayed  that  those 
who  had  gone  before  might  in  the  final  judgment 
escape  even  the  everlasting  torments  of  hell.  The 
earliest  Christian  traditions  are  clear  as  to  the  par- 
ticular judgment,  and  clearer  still  concerning  a  sharp 
distinction  between  purgatory  and  hell.  The  paa- 
sages  alleged  as  referring  to  relief  from  hell  cannot 
offset  the  evidence  given  below.  (Bellarmine,  "De 
Purgatorio",  fib.  II,  cap.  v;  Gihr,  "Holy  Sacrifice 
of  tne  Mass",  tr.  St.  Louis,  1902,  p.  50.)  Concern- 
ing the  famous  case  of  Trajan,  which  vexed  the 
Doctors  of  the  Middle  Ages,  see  Bellarmine,  loc.  cit., 
cap.  viii. 

Oid  Testament. — ^The  tradition  of  the  Jews  is  put 
forth  with  precision  and  clearness  in  II  Machabe€». 
Judas,  the  commander  of  the  forces  of  Israel,  "mak- 
ing a  gathering  .  .  .  sent  twelve  thousand  drachms 
of  silver  to  Jerusalem  for  sacrifice  to  be  offered  for 
the  sins  of  the  dead,  thinking  well  and  religiously 
concerning  the  resurrection  (For  if  he  had  not  hoped 
that  they  that  were  slain  should  rise  again,  it  would 
have  seemed  superfluous  and  vain  to  pray  for  the 
dead).  And  because  he  considered  that  they  who 
had  fallen  asleep  with  godliness,  had  great  grace  laid 
up  for  them.  It  is  therefore  a  holy  and  wholesome 
thought  to  pray  for  the  dead,  that  they  may  be 
loosed  from  sins  "  (II  Mach.,  xii,  43-46) .  At  the  time 
of  the  Machabees  the  leaders  of  the  people  of  God 
had  no  hesitation  in  asserting  the  efficacy  of  prayers 
offered  for  the  dead^  in  order  that  those  who  had 
departed  this  life  might  find  pardon  for  their  sins 
and  the  hope  of  eternal  resurrection. 

New  Testament. — There  are  several  passages  in  the 
New  Testament  that  point  to  a  process  of  purification 
after  death.  Thus,  Jesus  Christ  declares  (Matt.,  xii, 
32):  "And  whosoever  shall  speak  a  word  against 
the  Son  of  man,  it  shall  be  forgiven  him :  but  he  that 
shall  speak  against  the  Holy  Ghost,  it  shall  not  be 
forgiven  him,  neither  in  this  world,  nor  in  the  world 
to  come."  According  to  St.  Isidore  of  Seville  (De 
ord.  creatur.,  c.  xiv,  n.  6)  these  words  prove  that  in 
the  next  life  "some  sins  will  be  forgiven  and  pureed 
away  by  a  certain  purif}dng  fire  .  St.  Augustine 
also  argues  "that  some  sinners  are  not  forgives 
either  in  this  world  or  in  the  next  would  not  be  truly 
said  unless  there  were  other  [sinners]  who,  thoush 
not  forgiven  in  this  world,  are  iorpven  in  the  world 
to  come"  (De  Civ.  Dei,  XXI,  xxiv).  The  same  in- 
terpretation is  given  by  Gregory  the  Great  (Dial., 
IV,  xxxix);  St.  Bede  (commentary  on  this  text); 
St.  Bernard  (Sermo  Ixvi  in  Cantic,  n.  11)  and  other 
eminent  theological  writers  (cf.  Hurter,  "Theol. 
Dog.  Compend.  ,  tract.  X). 

A  further  argument  is  supplied  by  St.  Paul  in  I 
Cor.,  iii,  11-15:  "For  other  foundation  no  man  can 
lay,  but  that  which  is  laid;  which  is  Christ  Jesus. 
Now  if  any  man  build  upon  this  foundation,  gold, 
silver,  precious  stones,  wood,  hay,  stubble:  Every 
man's  work  shall  be  manifest;  for  the  day  of  the  Lord 
shall  declare  t^,  because  it  shall  be  revealed  in  fire; 
and  the  fire  shall  try  every  man's  work,  of  what  sort 
it  is.  If  any  man's  work  abide,  which  he  hath  built 
thereupon,  he  shall  receive  a  reward.  If  any  man's 
work  burn,  he  shall  suffer  loss;  but  he  himself  shall 
be  saved,  yet  so  as  by  fire."  While  this  passage  pre- 
sent's considerable  difficulty,  it  is  regarded  by  many 
of  the  Fathers  and  theologians  as  evidence  for  the 


PURGATORY 


677 


PURGATORt 


existence  of  an  intennediate  state  in  which  the  dross 
of  lighter  transgressions  will  be  burnt  away,  and  the 
soul  thus  purified  will  be  saved.  This,  according 
to  Bdlarraine  (De  Purg.,  L  5),  is  the  interpretation 
commonly  given  by  the  Fathers  and  theologians; 
and  he  cites  to  this  effect  St.  Ambrose  (commentary 
on  the  text,  and  Sermo  xx  in  Ps.  cxvii),  St.  Jerome 
(CJomm.  in  Amos,  c.  iv),  St.  Augustine  (Comm.  in 
Ps.  xxxvii),  St.  Gregory  (Dial.,  IV,  xxxix),  and  Origen 
(Hom.  vi  in  Exod.).  See  also  St.  Thomas,  ".Contra 
Gentes",  IV,  91.  For  a  discussion  of  the  exegetical 
problem,  see  Atzberger,  "Die  christliche  Eschato- 
logie",  p.  275. 

Tradition. — This  doctrine  that  many  who  have 
died  are  still  in  a  place  of  purification  and  that  prayers 
avail  to  help  the  dead  is  part  of  the  very  earliest 
Christian  tradition.  Tertuilian  "De  corona  militis'' 
mentions  prayers  for  the  dead  as  an  Apostolic  ordi- 
nance, and  in  "De  Monogamia*'  (cap.  x,  P.  L.. 
II,  col.  912)  he  advises  a  widow  "to  pray  for  the  soul 
of  her  husband,  begging  repose  for  him  and  par- 
ticipation in  the  first  resurrection'';  he  commands 
her  also  "to  make  oblations  for  hira  on  the  anni- 
versary of  his  demise",  and  charges  her  with  in- 
fidelity if  she  neglect  to  succour  his  soul.  This  set- 
tled custom  of  the  Church  is  clear  from  St.  Cyprian, 
who  (P.  L.  IV,  col.  399)  forbade  the  customary 
orayers  for  one  who  had  violated  the  ecclesiastical 
aw.  "Our  predecessors  prudently  advised  that  no 
brother,  departing  this  ufe,  should  nominate  any 
churchman  as  his  executor;  and  should  he  do  it, 
that  no  oblation  should  be  made  for  him,  nor  sacri- 
fice offered  for  his  repose."  Long  before  Cyprian, 
Clement  of  Alexandria  had  puzzled  over  the  question 
of  the  state  or  condition  of  the  man  who,  reconciled 
to  God  on  his  death-bed,  had  no  time  for  the  fulfil- 
ment of  penance  due  his  transgression.  His  answer 
is:  "the  believer  through  discipline  divests  himself 
of  his  passions  and  passes  to  the  mansion  which  is 
better  than  the  former  one,  passes  to  the  greatest 
torment,  taking  with  him  the  characteristic  of  re- 

Eentance  for  the  faults  he  may  have  committed  after 
aptism.  He  is  tortured  then  still  more,  not  yet 
attaining  what  he  sees  others  have  acquired.  The 
greatest  torments  are  assigned  unto  the  believer, 
for  God's  righteousness  is  good,  and  His  goodness 
righteous,  and  though  those  punishments  cease  in 
the  course  of  the  expiation  and  purification  of  each 
one,  'vet'"  etc.  (P.  G.  IX,  col.  332). 

In  Origen  the  doctrine  of  purgatory  is  very  clear. 
If  a  man  depart  this  life  with  lighter  faults,  he  is 
condemned  to  fire  which  bums  away  the  lighter 
materials,  and  prepares  the  soul  for  tne  kingdom 
of  God,  where  nothing  defiled  may  enter.  "For  if 
on  the  foundation  of  Christ  }rou  have  built  not 
only  gold  and  silver  and  precious  stones  (I  Cor., 
3)  but  also  wood  and  hay  and  stubble,  what  do  you 
expect  when  the  soul  shall  be'  separated  from  the 
body?  Would  you  enter  into  heaven  with  your 
wood  and  hay  and  stubble  and  thus  defile  the  king- 
dom of  God;  or  on  account  of  these  hindrances  would 
you  remain  without  and  receive  no  reward  for  your 
pold  and  silver  and  precious  stones?  Neither  is  this 
just.  It  remains  then  that  you  be  committed  to  the 
fire  which  will  bum  the  light  materials;  for  our  God 
to  those  who  can  comprehend  heavenly  things  is 
called  a  cleansing  fire.  But  i}ns  fire  consumes  not 
the  creature,  but  what  the  creature  has  himself 
built,  wood,  and  hay  and  stubble.  It  is  manifest 
that  the  fire  destroys  the  wood  of  our  transgressions 
and  then  returns  to  us  the  reward  of  our  good  works. " 
(P.  G.,  XIII,  col.  445,  448). 

The  Apostolic  practice  of  praying  for  the  dead, 
which  passed  into  the  liturgy  of  the  Church,  is  as 
clear  in  the  fourth  centunr  as  it  is  in  the  twentieth. 
St.  Cyril,  of  Jerusalem  (Catechet.  Mystog.,  V,  9^ 
P.  G.,  XXXIII,  col.  1116)  describing  the  liturgy, 
XII.— 37 


writes:  "Then  we  pray  for  the  Holy  Fathers  and 
Bishops  that  ace  dead;  and  in  short  for  all  those  who 
have  departed  this  life  in  our  communion;  believing 
that  the  souls  of  thoee  for  whom  prayers  are  offered 
receive  very  great  relief,  while  this  holy  and  tremen- 
dous victim  lies  upon  the  altar. "  St.  Gregory  of 
Nyssa  (P.  G.,  XLVI,  col.  524,  525)  states  that  man's 
weaknesses  are  purged  in  this  life  by  prayer  and  wis- 
dom, or  are  expiated  in  the  next  by  a  cleansing  fire. 
"When  he  has  quitted  his  body  and  the  difference 
between  virtue  and  vice  is  known  he  cannot  approach 
God  till  the  purging  fire  shall  have  cleansed  the  stains 
with  which  his  soul  was  infested.  That  same  fire 
in  others  will  cancel  the  corruption  of  matter,  and 
the  propensity  to  evil."  About  the  same  time  the 
Apostohc  Constitution  gives  us  the  formularies  used 
in  succouring  the  dead.  "Let  us  pray  for  our 
brethren  who  sleep  in  Christ,  that  God  who  in  his 
love  for  men  has  received  the  soul  of  the  departed 
one,  may  forgive  him  every  fault,  and  in  mercy  and 
clemency  receive  him  into  the  bosom  of  Abraham, 
with  those  who  in  this  life  have  pleased  God"  (P. 
G.,  I.  col.  1144).  Nor  can  we  pass  over  the  use  of 
the  (uptychs  where  the  names  of  the  dead  were  in- 
scribed j  and  this  remembrance  by  name  in  the  Sacred 
Mystenej--(a  practice  that  was  from  the  Apostles) 
was  considered  bv  Chnrsostom  as  the  best  way  of 
relieving  the  dead,  (In  I  Ad  Cor.,  Hom.  xli,  n;  4,  P. 
G.,  LXI,  col.  361.  362). 

The  teaching  ot  the  Fathers,  and  the  formularies 
used  in  the  Liturgy  of  the  Church,  found  expression 
in  the  early  Christian  monuments,  particularly  those 
contained  in  the  catacombs.  On  the  tombs  of  the 
faithful  were  inscribed  words  of  ho]>e,  words  of  peti- 
tion for  peace  and  for  rest;  and  as  the  anniversaries 
came  round  the  faithful  gathered  at  the  graves  of 
the  departed  to  make  intercession  for  those  who  had 
gone  before  (Wilpert,  "Roma  sotteranea",  xxi,  396 
sq.).  At  bottom  this  is  naught  else  than  the  faith 
expressed  by  the  Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  XXV,  "De 
Purgatorio' ),  and  to  this  faith  the  inscriptions  in  the 
catacombs  are  surely  witnesses  (Kirsch,  "Die  Ac- 
clamationen  und  Gebete  der  altchristlichen  Graba- 
chriften".  Cologne,  1898^  pp.  70-78). 

In  the  fourth  century  m  the  West,  Ambrose  insists 
in  his  commentary  on  St.  Paul  (I  Cor.,  iii)  on  the 
existence  of  purgatory,  and  in  his  masterly  funeral 
oration  (De  obitu  Theodosii),  thus  prays  for  the  soul 
of  the  departed  emperor:  "Give,  O  Lord,  rest  to 
Thy  servant  Theodosius,  that  rest  Thou  hast  pre- 
pared for  Thy  saints.  ...  I  loved  him,  there- 
fore will  I  follow  him  to  the  land  of  the  living;;  I 
will  not  leave  him  till  by  my  prayers  and  lamentations 
he  shall  be  admitted  unto  the  holy  mount  of  the  Lord, 
to  which  his  deserts  call  him"  (P.  L.,  XVI,  col. 
1397).  St.  Augustine  is  clearer  even  than  his  master. 
He  describes  two  conditions  of  men;  "some  there  are 
who  have  departed  this  life,  not  so  bad  as  to  be 
deemed  unworthy  of  mercy^  nor  so  good  as  to  be 
entitled  to  immediate  happmess"  etc.,  and  in  the 
resurrection  he  says  there  will  be  some  who  "have 

§one  through  these  pains,  to  which  the  spirits  of  the 
ead  are  liable"  (De  Civ.  Dei,  XXI,  24).  Thus  at 
the  close  of  the  fourth  century  not  only  (1)  were 
prayers  for  the  dead  found  in  all  the  Lituipes,  but 
the  Fathers  asserted  that  such  practice  was  from  the 
Apostles  themselves;  (2)  those  who  were  helped  by 
the  prayers  of  the  faithful  and  by  the  celebration 
of  the  Holy  Mysteries  were  in  a  place  of  purgation: 
(3)  from  which  when  purified  they  "were  acunitted 
unto  the  Holy  Mount  of  the  Lord".  So  clear  is  this 
patristic  Tradition  that  those  who  do  not  believe  in 
purgatory  have  been  unable  to  bring  any  serious 
difficulties  from  the  writings  of  the  Fathers.  The 
passages  cited  to  the  contrary  either  do  not  touch 
the  question  at  all,  or  are  so  lacldng  in  clearness  that 
they  cannot  offset  the  perfectly 'open  expresstoh  of  . 


578 


De  PttnE.",  fib.  I,  cap.  sfi;    BOol,  ''QnxaL  de    only  in  Tiitoe  of 

'  ,  Bfloie,  1903,  p.  97;  dir.  Fneh,  ''PjkL    flnnte  intawfe  for  «  bo(  bj 


DuBBatr,  TmmA  eiL,  Frabuif;,  1902;.  (loc  cit.,  II,  cap.  m) 

IvTDrKAXKnr     a»     Natukk.— DvrolMiL— The        Piamiork 


Fin.— At 

far  the  rrirtfnry  of  pargatofy  I!<iwiii»ii  signed  apunel  the 

for  it«  pMng  ebatutUr.    We  pnj,  we  offer  toml  fire,  and  tfae  GrBeks 

■Msrifiee  for  eoob  therein  drteJnfdtJMit^Gcwt  in  merey  nfeen  Qnnch  had 

■nj  foffgiTe  eroj  fmh  and  reeme  than  into  tJbe  on  this  aobjeet^    In  the  West  the  bchef  is.  the 

boaom  of  Abtaham**  (ConaL  ApooL,  P,  G^  I,  coL  cnee  of  reel  fire  ii  eoomian.    AqpHline  is  IV  z 

1144);  and  AogBBtine  (De  Ghr.  Dei  fib.  XXI,  cap.  n. 3,  ipoJa  of  the  pain  wldcli  parsHonii 

lam  wad  xri)  declares  that  the  ponidiiaent  of  pmga-  aa  nane  aerere  than  anything  a 

tofyii  tempomy  and  vill  eeaae,  at  least  vith  the  this  life,  "^nniar  crit  ~ 

Laat  Jateiifnt.    '^Bnt  temporarf  pnmshmenta  are  homo  pati  m  faac  Tita"  (P.  L.,  XXXVX 

anttered  uf  aome  in  this  file  onfy,  by  othoa  after  Gregoty  the  Great  ipeais  <tf  thoae  vho 

death,  by  othoa  both  nov  and  then;  but  afl  of  them  fife  "wiD  expiate  tikeir  faoltB  br  pargHonii 

before  that  hat  and  atrietcat  judgment.''  and  be  adds  "that  the  pain  «iD  be 


Kahtrt  nf  PumskmaU. — ^It  is  dear  from  thelitor-    than  aay^ooe  can  anffcr  in  this  fife"  fF^  3 


and  the  Fathcsa  above  cited  thai  the  aouls  for  n.  1).     FoOowingin  the  footat^  of 

le  peace  aaerifiee  was  offerai  were  dint  out  for  Thomaa  teaches  U?',  4fist.  zxi,  q.  i,  a.  1}  that 

the  time  bong  from  the  sig^t  of  God.    Thej  were  the  aeparation  of  the  aonl  from  the  m^  of  Gm^ 

"not  to  good  as  to  be  entitled  to  eternal  hapianem".  there  is  the  other  poniahment  from  fire.    '^U^ba 

Still,  for  them  "death  is  the  termination  not  df  nature  poena  danmi,   in   qoantom   acifioet 

bat  of  sin"  (Ambrose,  "De  obita  Tbeodoa.";   and  ifirina  Tiskme;   afia  aoisas  bpciiimIiiih 

this  inabifity  to  sin  makes  them  seeiire  of  final  hap-  ponientar'*,  and  St. 

This  is  the  Cathofic  position  prodsimed  hy  with  St.  Thomas  bot  adds  (IT,  <fisL  zz,  p.  L  sl  1, 

X  in  the  BqH  "Ezmge  Dondne'*  whidi  eon-  q.  n)  that  this  pomsfament  by  fire  is 


dwnnwl  the  crma  of  Luther  (Bollanam,  ed.  Tamin.,  anj  pmnshment  which  eomes  to 

V,  751).  ''GraTior  est  omni  teoporsfi  p 

Are  the  aonls  detained  in  poigatory  fonacious  thai  aostinet   aoima  eand  eonjuncta' 

theirhappbieaBisbutdefemdforatmie,ormaythey  affeeta  the  aoob  of  the  deported  the  DoctoD  ^ 

alill  be  m  doobi  eooeeming  their  ultimate  aamtioiir  know,  and  in  sodi  matten  it  is  wdl  to  heed  the 

The  ancient  Iitargie%  and  the  insciiptions  of  the  ing  of  the  Coandl  of  Trent  when  it 

cataeombs  speak  of  a  ''sleep  of  peaoe",  whidi  woold  faaahops  "to  esehide  from  their  laeaLhiiig 

be  impoasible  if  there  was  any  <loubt  of  oltimaie  and  mbtle  questions  which  tend  not  to 

aahraljon.    Some  of  the  Doctors  of  the  h&ddle  Ages  and  from  the  cfiocosBion  of  whidi  there  is 

thoo^t  oneertainty  of  aahration  one  of  the  aerere  cither  of  piety  or  of  derotian''  (Sess^  XXT, 

|wmiMiiiientaofpaigatorT(BcDannine,  "Be  Pnigai."  Pnrgatorio"). 

lib.  n,  cap.  iv);  but  this  opinion  finds  no  general        V.  Scoodubiko  thx  Dkao. — Ser^itare  wmi 

cmfit  among  the  theologians  of  the  mecfieval  period.  Fathers  conmiand  iiravetB  and  oblatioDs  far 

nor  is  it  possible  in  the  fi^  of  the  bdef  in  the  prted,  and  the  Coandl  of  Trent  (Seas.  XXV.  ^D^ 

particular  judgment.    St.  Bonarenture  gives  aa  the  Furgstorio")  in  Tirtae  of  tins  tracfition 


for  this  efimination  of  fear  and  of  uneertainty    asserts  the  eiist^'iMy  of  purgatory,  but  adds 

detained  are  aided  by  the 


the  intimate  eonyietion  thai  they  can  no  longer  sin  the  aouls  therein 

QSb.  IV,  dist.  zz,  p.  1,  a.  1,  q.  iv):  "Estevacoatio  of  the  faithful  and  prindpolly  by  the 

timoris  propter  eonfirmationem  libcri  arbiirn,  qua  aaerifiee  of  the  altar''.    That  those  on  earth 

deineqis  sat  se  peecare  non  poase"  (Fear  is  cast  out  in  communion  with  the  aouls  in  purgatory 

beeaoae  of  the  strengthenmg  of  the  will  by  whidi  earfiest  Christian  teaching,  and  that  the  ' 

the  soul  knows  it  can  no  loncer  sin),  aiMl  St.  Thomas  the  dead  by  their  pra^rers  and  worts  of  i 

(dist.  xzi,  q.  L  a.  1)  aays:  '^liai  scirent  ae  esseliber-  is  dear  from  the  tradition  above  alleged.    That 

andas  suffragia  non  peterent"  (unkas  they  knew  H<^  Sacrifice  waa  offered  for  the  departed  wm 

thai  they  are  to  be  ddivered,  they  wouU  not  tA  eeived  Cat  hc^  TnufitioB  even  in  the  dvrs  of  T 

for  prayets).  tulfian  and  CTyprian,  and  that  the  souls  of  the 

lrmr.~In  the  Bull  "Exmge  Dooune"  Leo  X  were  aided  particularhr  "while  the  sacred  i 

oondemnathe  proposition  (n.  38>  "Nee  probaium  est  lav  upon  the  altar'' is  the  ezprosionofQrTflofJ 

ollis  aut  radooibus  aut  scriptuiis  ipsas  esse  extra  auem  quoted  above.    Augustine  (Senn.  ylmmw    a. 

fltaium  merendi  aut  augends  caritatis"  (Iliere  is  no  2)  smra  thai  the  "prayers  and  ahns  of  the  faitbfal. 

rof  from  reason  or  Scripture  thai  they  [the  souk  the  fiohr  Sacrifice  of  the  altar  aid  the  fanhndl 

purgatory]  cannot  merit  or  increaae  in  charity),  departeci  and  move  the  Lord  to  deal  with  thes  m 

For  them  "the  nie^t  has  eome  in  which  no  man  can  mercy  and  kindnww,  and"  he  adds,  "this  is  the 

labour",  and  Qinstian  tradition  has  always  eon-  tiee  of  the  univcrBal  Church  handed  down  by 

sidered  thai  onfy  in  this  life  can  man  work  unto  the  Fathers".    Whether  our  works  of  satirfactKm 

profit  of  his  own  soul.    The  Doctors  of  the  Middle  formed  on  bdialf  of  the  dead  avail  pury  «rt  nT 

Ages  while  agreeiiig  that  this  life  is  the  time  for  merit  (}od's   benevolence   and   mercy,   or  whithu    God 

and  increaae  of  grace,  still  some  with  St.  Thomas  obliges  himself  in  justice  to  accept  our  vicarions  atrmi 

■eemed  to  question  whether  or  not  there  might  be  ment,  is  not  a  settled  ouestion.    Suarea  thnto  tht 

•ome  non-esKntial  reward  which  Uie  souls  in  purga-  Uie  acceptance  is  one  of  justice,  and  sHgBES  »  «■>■> 

tory  midht  merit  (TV,  dist.  m,  q.  i,  •-  3).    Bdlar-  mon  practice  of  the  Church  which  ^mns  tog^er  tihe 

mme  beSeves  that  m  this  matter  St.  lliomas  dianged  living  and  the  dead  without  any  diacrmimatMm  vOe 

his  opinkm  and  refets  to  a  statement  of  St.  Thomas  poenit.,  (fi^.  xlviii,  §  6,  n.  4).  

("De  Mak)",  q.  vii,  a.  11).    Whatever  may  be  the        VI.  lyDUMENCBS.— The  Onmcd  oiTfmA  (S 

mind  of  the  Angdic  Doctor,  theokigiana  agree  thai  XX\0  defined  that  mdukenees  m    mort  saM 

no  merit  ia  pooSble  in  purgatory,  and  if  objection  for  CHiristian  people"  and  that  thenr    use  is  to 

be  urged  that  the  souls  there  merit  by  Iheir  prayers,  retained  in  the  Church".    It  is  the  conmon  

Jdlaniiine  aays  that  such  fnayers  avafl  with  God  of  Catholic  theolorians  thai  (1)  indulgjnoea  n^  w 

because  of  merit  aheady  acquired  "Solum  impetrant  applied  to  the  souls  detained  m  purgatosy;  aad  Cl> 


PURttATOBY 


679 


PUBOATOBY 


that  iiidulffenoeB  ard  available  for  them  "by  way 
of  su£frage     (per  modum  suffiragii), 

(1)  Augustine  (De  Civ.  Dei,  XX,  ix)  declares  that 
the  souls  of  the  futhful  departed  are  not  separated 
from  the  Church,  which  is  the  kingdom  of  Christ, 
and  for  this  reason  the  prayers  and  works  of  the 
living  are  helpful  to  the  d^Eul.  "If  therefore",  argues 
Bellarmine  (De  indulgentiis,  xiv)  ''we  can  ofifer  our 
prayers  and  our  satisfactions  in  behalf  of  those  de* 
tained  in  purgatory,  because  we  are  members  of  the 
great  body  of  Christ,  why  may  not  the  Vicar  of  Christ 
apply  to  the  same  souls  the  superabundant  satis- 
faction of  Christ  and  his  saints — of  which  he  is  the 
dispenser?"  Tlus  is  the  doctrine  of  St.  Thomas 
(IV,  Sent.,  dist'.  xlv,  q.  ii,  a.  3,  q.  2)  who  asserts  that 
indulgences  avail  principally  tor  the  person  who 

gerforms  the  work  for  wmch  the  indulgence  is  ^ven, 
ut  secondarily  may  avail  even  for  the  dead,  if  the 
form  in  which  the  indulgence  is  granted  be  so  worded 
as  to  be  capable  of  such  interpretation,  and  he  adds 
"nor  is  there  any  reason  why  the  ClJhurch  may  not 
dispose  of  its  treasure  of  merits  in  favour  of  the  dead, 
as  it  surely  dispenses  it  in  favour  of  the  living". 

(2)  St.  Bona  venture  (IV,  Sent.,  dist.  xx,  p.  2, 
q.  v)  agrees  with  St.  Thomas,  but  adds  that  such 
'relaxation  cannot  be  after  the  manner  of  absolution 
as  in  the  case  of  the  living,  but  only  as  suffrage 
(Hs&c  non  tenet  modum  judicii,  sed  potius  suffragii). 
This  opinion  of  St.  Bonaventure,  that  the  Church 
through  its  Supreme  Pastor  does  not  absolve  juridi- 
cally the  souls  m  purgatory  from  the  punishment  due 
their  sins,  is  the  teaching  of  the  Doctors.  They 
point  out  (Gratian,  24  q.  ii,  2^  can.  1)  that  in  case  of 
those  who  have  departed  this  hfe  judgment/  is  reserved 
to  (jrod;  they  allege  the  authority  of  Gelasius  (Ep. 
ad  Faustum;  Ep.  ad.  Episcopos  Dardanise)  in  sup- 
port of  their  contention  (uratian  ibid.),  and  they  also 
insist  that  the  Roman  Pontiffs,  when  they  grant  in- 
dulgences that  are  applicable  to  the  dead,  add  the 
restriction  per  modum  suffragii  et  deprecationis. 
This  phrase  is  found  in  the  Bull  of  Sixtus  i  V  "  Romani 
Pontificis  provida  diligentia",  27  Nov.,  1477. 

The  phrase  per  modum  suffragii  et  deprecationis 
has  been  variously  interpreted  oy  theologians  (Bellar- 
mine, "De  indulgentiis  ,  p.  137).  Bellarmine  him- 
self says:  "The  true  opinion  is  that  indulgences 
avail  as  suffrage,  because  they  avail  not  after  the 
fashion  of  a  juridical  absolution  'aula  non  prosunt 
per  modum  juridicse  absolutionis'.  But  according 
to  the  same  author  the  suffrages  of  the  faithful  avau 
at  times  per  modum  meriti  congrui  (by  way  of  merit), 
at  times  per  modum  impelrationis  (by  way  of  sup- 
plication) at  times  per  modum  salisfaciionis  (by  way 
of  satisfaction) ;  but  when  there  is  question  of  apply- 
ing an  indulgence  to  one  in  purgatory  it  is  only  7>er 
m^um  suffragii  saiisfactorii,  and  for  this  reason 
"the  pope  does  not  absolve  the  soul  in  purgatory 
from  the  punishment  due  his  sin,  but  offers  to  God 
from  the  treasure  of  the  Church  whatever  may  be 
necessary  for  the  cancelling  of  this  punishment". 

If  the  question  be  further  asked  whether  such 
satisfaction  is  accepted  by  God  out  of  mercy  and 
benevolence,  or  ex  justUiay  theologians  are  not  in 
accord — some  holding  one  opinion,  others  the  other. 
Bellarmine  after  canvassing  both  sides  (pp.  137,  138) 
does  not  dare  to  set  aside  either  opinion,  but  is  in- 
clined to  think  that  the  former  is  more  reasonable 
while  he  pronounces  the  latter  in  harmony  with 
piety  {admodum  pia). 

Condition. — That  an  indulgence  may  avail  for  those 
in  purgatory  several  conditions  are  required:  (1) 
The  indulgence  must  be  granted  by  the  pope.  (2) 
There  must  be  a  sufficient  reason  tor  granting  the 
indulgence,  and  this  reason  must  be  something  per- 
taining to  the  glory  of  God  and  the  utility  of  the 
Church,  not  merely  the  utility  accruing  to  the  souls 
in  purgatory.    (3)  The  pious  work  enjoined  must  be 


performed  by  the  living  and  if  the  enjoined  satisfac- 
tion requires  the  state  of  grace,  this  must  be  verified 
as  in  the  case  of  indulgences  for  the  livins. 

If  the  state  of  grace  be  not  among  the  required 
works,  in  all  probability  the  person  performing  the 
work  may  gam  the  indulgence  for  the  dead,  even 
though  he  himself  be  not  in  friendship  with  God 
(Bellarmine,  loc.  cit.,  p.  139).  Snares  (De  Poenit., 
disp.  liii,  s.  4,  n.  5  and  6)  puts  this  categorically  when 
he  says:  "Status  gratis  solum  requintur  ad  toUen- 
dum  obicem  induTgentiflB"  (the  state  of  grace  is 
reauired  only  to  remove  some  hindrance  to  the  in- 
dulgence), and  in  the  case  of  the  holy  souls  there  can 
be  no  hmdrance.  This  teaching  is  bound  up  with 
the  doctrine  of  the  Communioh  of  Saints,  and  the 
monuments  of  the  catacombs  represent  the  saints 
and  inart3rrs  as  interceding  with  Crod  for  the  dead. 
The  prayers  too  of  the  early  liturgies  speak  of  Mary 
and  of  the  sunts  interceding  for  those  who  have 
passed  from  this  life.  Augustine  believes  that  buriid 
m  a  basilica  dedicated  to  a  holy  martyr  is  of  value 
to  the  dead,  for  those  who  recall  the  memory  of  him 
who  has  suffered  will  recommend  to  the  martyr's 
prayers  the  soul  of  him  who  has  departed  this  life 
(Bellannine,  lib.  II,  xv).  In  the  same  place  Bellar- 
mine accuses  Dominicus  A  Soto  of  rashness,  because 
he  denied  this  doctrine. 

VII.  Invocation  of  Souls. — Do  the  souls  in 
purgatory  prav  for  us?  May  we  call  upon  them  in 
our  neeos?  There  is  no  decision  of  the  Church  on 
this  subiect,  nor  have  the  theolo^ans  pronoimced 
with  denniteness  concerning  the  invocation  of  the 
souls  in  purgatory  and  their  intercession  for  the 
.  living.  In  the  ancient  liturgies  there  are  no  prayers 
of  the  Church  directed  to  those  who  are  still  in 
purgatory.  On  the  tombs  of  the  early  Christians 
nothing  is  more  common  than  a  prayer  or  a  supplica- 
tion asking  the  departed  to  intercede  with  God  for 
surviving  friends,  out  these  inscriptions  seem  always 
to  suppose  that  the  departed  one  is  already  with  God. 
St.  Thomas  (II-II,  Q.  Ixxxiii,  a.  11,  ad  3  um)  denies 
that  the  souls  in  purgatory  pray  for  the  living,  and 
states  that  they  are  not  in  a  position  to  pray  for  us, 
rather  we  must  make  intercession  for  them.  Despite 
the  authority  of  St.  Thomas,  many  renowned  theo- 
logians hold  that  the  souls  in  purgatory  really  pray 
for  us,  and  that  we  may  invoke  their  aid.  Bellarmine 
(De  Pui]zatorio,  lib.  II,  xv)  says  the  reason  alleged 
by  St.  Tnomas  is  not  at  all  convincing,  and  holds 
that  in  virtue  of  their  greater  love  of  (jrod  and  their 
union  with  Him  their  prayers  may  have  preat  in- 
tercessory power,  for  they  are  really  supenor  to  us 
in  love  of  God,  and  in  intimacy  of  union  with  Him. 
Suarez  (De  pcenit.,  disp.  xlvii,  s.  2,  n.  9)  goes  farther 
and  asserts  "that  the  souls  in  purgatory  are  holy, 
are  dear  to  God,  love  us  with  a  true  love  and  are 
mindful  of  our  wants;  that  they  know  in  a  general 
way  bur  necessities  and  our  dangers,  and  how  great 
is  our  need  of  Divine  help  and  divine  grace". 

When  there  is  question  of  invoking  the  prayers  of 
those  in  purgatory,  Bellarmine  (loc.  cit.)  says  it  is 
superfluous,  ordinarily  speaking,  for  they  are  ignorant 
of  our  circumstances  and  condition.  This  is  at 
variance  with  the  opinion  of  Suarez,  who  admits 
knowledge  at  least  in  a  general  way,  also  with  the 
opinions  of  many  modem  theologians  who  point 
to  the  practice  now  common  with  almost  all  the 
faithful  of  addressing  their  prayers  and  petitions  for 
help  to  those  who  are  still  in  a  place  ot  purgation. 
Scavini  (Theol.  Moral.,  XI,  n.  174)  sees  no  reason 
why  the  souls  detained  in  purgatory  may  not  pray  for 
us,  even  as  we  pray  for  one  another.  He  asserts 
that  this  practice  has  become  common  at  Rome,  and 
that  it  has  the  great  name  of  St.  Alphonsus  in  its 
favour.  St.  Alphonsus  in  his  work  the  "Great 
Means  of  Salvation",  chap,  t.  III,  2,  after  quoting 
Sylvius,  Gotti,  Lessius,  and  Medina  as  favourable 


PUBOATOBT 


580 


PUSIM 


to  his  opinion,  concludes:  ''so  the  souls  in  purgatory, 
being  beloved  by  God  and  confirmed  in  ^^tce,  have 
absoTutelv  no  impediment  to  prevent  them  from 
praying  for  us.  Still  the  Church  does  not  invoke 
them  or  implore  their  intercession,  because  ordinarily 
they  have  no  cognizance  of  our  prayers.  But  we 
may  piously  believe  that  God  makes  our  prayers 
known  to  them''.  He  alleges  also  the  authority 
of  St.  Catharine  of  Bologna  who  "whenever  she 
desired  any  favour  had  recourse  to  the  souls  in  purga- 
tory, and  was  immediately  heard". 

VlII.  Utility  of  Prayer  for  the  Departed. — 
It  is  the  traditional  faith  of  Catholics  that  the  souls 
in  purgatory  are  not  separated  from  the  Chiuxjh, 
and  that  the  love  which  b  the  bond  of  union  between 
the  Church's  members  should  embrace  those  who 
have  departed  this  life  in  God's  grace.  Hence,  since 
our  prayers  and  our  sacrifices  can  help  those  who  are 
still  waiting  in  purgatory,  the  saints  have  not  hesi- 
tated to  warn  us  that  we.  have  a  real  duty  toward 
those  who  are  still  in  purgatorial  expiation.  Holy 
Church  through  the  Uongregation  of  Indulgences, 
18  Dec,  1885,  has  bestowed  a  special  blessing  on  the 
so-called  "heroic  act"  in  virtue  of  which  "a  member 
of  the  Church  militant  olfers  to  God  for  the  souls  in 
purgatory  all  the  satisfactory  works  which  he  will 
perform  during  his  lifetime,  and  also  all  the  suffrages 
which  may  accrue  to  him  after  his  death"  (Heroic 
Act,  vol.  VII,  292).  The  practice  of  devotion  to  the 
dead  is  also  consoling  to  humanitv  and  eminently 
worthy  of  a  religion  which  seconds  all  the  purest 
feelings  of  the  human  heart.  "Sweet",  says  Cardinal 
Wiseman  (lecture  XI),  "is  the  consolation  of  the  dy- 
ing man,  who,  conscious  of  imperfection,  believes  that 
there  are  others  to  make  intercession  for  him  when  his 
own  time  for  merit  has  expired;  soothing  to  the 
afflicted  survivors   the  thought  that  they  possess 

gowerful  means  of  relieving  their  friend.  In  the 
rst  moments  of  grief,  this  sentiment  will  often  over- 
power religious  prejudice,  cast  down  the  unbeUever 
on  his  knees  beside  the  remains  of  his  friend  and 
snatch  from  him  an  unconscious  prayer  for  rest; 
it  is  an  impulse  of  nature  which  for  the  moment, 
aided  by  the  analogies  of  revealed  truth,  seizes  at 
once  upon  this  consoling  belief.  But  it  is  only  a 
flitting  and  melancholy  fight,  while  the  Catholic 
feeling,  cheering,  though  with  solemn  dimness,  re- 
sembles the  unfailing  lamp,  which  the  piety  ot  the 
ancients  is  said  to  have  hung  before  the  sepulchres 
of  their  dead. " 

Besides  the  works  cited  in  the  article,  consult  Scheeben- 
Atzberokk,  Dogmatik,  IV  (Freiburg,  1903),  good  bibliography; 
Wiseman,  Lectures  on  the  Principal  Doctrines  and  Practices  of  the 
Catholic  Church  (London,  1836),  lect.  XI;  Loch,  Das  Dogma  der 

Siechischen  Kirche  von  Purgatorium  (Ratisbon,  1842) ;  Redneb, 
CM  FegfetuT  (Ratisbon,  1856) ;  Casaccia,  H  Purgatorio  (Biella, 
1863) ;  JuNQMANN,  De  Novissimis  (Ratisbon,  1871) ;  Anderdon, 
Purg<Uory  Surveyed  (London.  1874) ;  Coleridge,  The  Prisoners 
of  the  King  (London,  1878);  Oxenham,  Catholic  Eschatology 
(London,  1878);  Bautz.  Das  Fegfeuer  (Mainz,  1883);  Cantt, 
Purgatory,  Dogmatic  and  Scholastic  (Dublin,  1886);  Sadubr« 
Purgatory:  Doctrinal,  Historical,  Practical  (New  York,  1886);- 
Atzberoer,  Die  chrisiliche  EschcUologie  (Freiburg,  1890) ;  Tappe- 
HORN,  Das  Fegfeuer  (Dillingen,  1891) ;  Schmid.  Das  Fegfeuer  rmch 
katholischer  Lehre  (Brixen,  1904);  Newuan,  The  Dream  of 
Gerontius;    see    also   bibliogriiphy   under  Dead,  Prateiw  roB 

the;   E^aCHATOLOOT. 

Edward  J.  Hanna. 

PuTfiratoryt  St.  Patrick's.  Lough  Ders,  Ireland. 
This  celebrated  sanctuary  in  Donegal,  in  the  Diocese 
of  Clogher,  dates  from  the  days  of  St.  Patrick,  but 
it  is  also  known  as  the  Lough  Derg  pilgrimage, 
so  named  from  Lough  Derg^  a  sheet  of  water  cov- 
ering 2200  acres,  about  thirteen  miles  in  circum- 
ference, and  450  feet  above  sea  level,  on  which  are 
eleven  islands,  the  principal  of  which  are  Saints 
Island  and  Station  Island.  The  sanctuary  lands  on 
Saints  Island  were  known  in  the  Middle  Ages  as 
Termon  Dabheoo  (from  the  sixth-century  St.  Du)heoc 
who  presided  over  the  retreat),  and  were  subsequently 


called  Termon  Magrath  from  the  family  of  Magrath, 
who  were  coarhs  or  stewards  of  the  place  from  1290. 
St.  Patrick's  connexion  with  the  purgatoty  which 
bears  his  name  is  not  only  a  constant  tradition,  but 
is  supported  by  historical  evidence,  and  admitted 
by  the  Bollandists.  In  1130,  or  1134,  the  Canons 
Regular  of  St.  Augustine  were  given  charge  of  Lough 
Derg — it  being  constituted  a  dependent  priory  on 
the  Abbey  of  Sts.  Peter  and  Paul,  Armagh.  Its  fame 
became  European  after  the  kni^t  Owen's  visit  in 
1150,  although  it  had  been  previously  described  in 
1120  by  David,  the  Irish  rector  of  Wiirzburg.  Nu- 
merous accounts  of  foreign  pilgrimages  to  St.  Patrick's 
Purgatory  are  chronicled  during  the  thirteenth, 
fourteenth,  and  fifteenth  centuries,  including  the 
vision  related  in  the  ''Legenda  Aurea",  printed  in 
1482. 

In  1470,  Thomas,  Abbot  of  Armagh*  ^ot  the  priory 
m  commendamf  and  in  1479  the  community  had  iJmost 
died  out,  the  revenues  being  farmed  by  Neill  Magrath.. 
Pope  Alexander  VI  ordered  the  cave  to  be  closed  on 
Samts  Island,  and  the  papal  decree  was  executed  on 
St.  Patrick's  Day,  1497.  A  few  years  later,  in  1502, 
the  station  was  transferred  to  Station  Island,  where 
the  Purgatory  had  Ori^nally  existed.  The  cave 
was  visited  by  a  French  knight  in  1516,  and  by  the 
papal  nuncio,  Chiericati,  in  1517.  Chiericati  gives 
an  interesting  account  of  his  visit,  and  relates  that 
there  were  three  Austin  Canons  in  the  priory. 
Thou^  formally  suppressed  by  the  Enslish  (jK)vem- 
ment  in  1632,  the  lay  owner  permitted  the  Austin 
Canons  to  resume  their  old  pnorv,  and  in  1660  we 
find  StCv.  Dr.  O'Clery  as  prior,  whose  successor  was 
Father  Art  Maccullen  (1672-1710).  The  Franciscan 
Friars  were  given  charge  of  the  Purgatory  in  1710, 
but  did  not  acquire  a  permanent  residence  on  the 
Island  till  1763,  at  which  date  they  built  a  friary  and 
an  oratory  dedicated  to  St.  Mary  of  the  Angels. 
In  1780  St.  Patrick's  Church  was  built,  and  was  sub- 
sequently remodelled.  From  1785  the  priory  has 
been  governed  by  secular  priests  appointed  bv  the 
Bishop  of  Clogher.  In  1813  St.  Mary's  Church  was 
rebuilt,  but- it  was  replaced  by  the  present  Gothic 
edifice  in  1870,  and  a  substantial  hospice  was  opened 
in  1882.  The  number  of  pilgrims  from  1871  to  1911 
has  been  about  3000  annually,  and  the  station  season 
lasts  from  June  to  15  August.  The  station  or  pil- 
grimage lasts  three  days,  and  the  penitential  exercises, 
thou^  not  so  severe  as  in  the  davs  of  faith,  are 
austere  in  a  hi^  degree,  and  are  productive  of  lasting 
spiritual  blessings. 

Messinqham,  Florilegium  Ins%da  Sandorum  (Paris,  1624); 
Wabe.  Antiquities  of  Ireland  (London,  1654);  O'Brullaghan. 
The  Pilgrimage  of  Lough  Derg  (Belfast,  1726) ;  O'Coxnob,  St, 
Patrick's  Purgatory  (new  ed.,  Dublin,  1895);  Healt,  Life  and 
Writings  of  St.  Patrick  (Dublin.  1905). 

W.   H.   GRATrAN-FLOOD. 

Purification    of    the    Blessed  Virgin  Mturj, 

Feast  of  thb.    See  Candlemas. 

Puriflcator.  See  Altar,  sub-title  Altar  Linens; 
Chalice. 

Purim  (Phurim). — ^The  orisin  of  the  name  is  dis-< 

{)uted:  some  derive  it  from  tne  Persian  pure  (part 
ot),  or  pur  (full);  others  from  the  Aramaic  purah 
(root  paroTf  to  break  into  pieces).  The  feast  was 
instituted  to  commemorate  the  deliverance  of  the 
Jews  from  the  machinations  of  Xerxes's  minister, 
Haman,  who  had  obtained  from  the  king  an  edict  for 
their  extermination,  date  of  the  massacre,  13  Adar, 
being  appointed  bv  lot  (Esth.,  ix,  26).  Through  the 
intercession  of  Esther,  Jewess  ana  queen  of  the  realm, 
the  edict  was  recalled,  and  on  13  Adar  the  Jews, 
certain  of  royal  protection,  defended  themselves 
and  killed  a  large  number  of  their  enemies  (ix,  16). 
In  Susa  (then  the  Persian  capital)  Jewish  vengeance 
reigned  for  two  days,  in  other  parts  of  tl^  rmm  for 
one  day  (ix,  17, 18).    Hence  the  Purim  was  celebrated 


PURITANS  581  PURITANS 

onl5  AdarinSuBa,andinotherpartdon  14  Adar.  Reuss  by  an  aversion  from  gaiety  and  by  a  passionate  love 

(Gesch.  des  Alten  Test.,  §473)  identifies  it  with  "Nica-  of  civic  freedom"  (Trevelyan,-op.  cit.  inf.,  60).     We 

nor  Day",  and  holds  the  Book  of  Esther  responsible  may  see  the  first  beginnings  of  English  Puritanism  in 

for  the  name  Purim,  but  this  theory  is  refuted  by  the  the  attitude  of  those  who  in  1563  entered  into  the 

"M^gillah  Ta'anith"  (second  century,  a.  d.),  where  "Vestiarian  Controversy"  by  opposing  the  use.  by 

13    Adar    is    still    called    "Nicanor    Day".     Fiirst  theclergy,  of  the  cap  and  gown  in  daily  life  and  of  the 

(Kanondes  A.  T.)  and  Meier  (Heb.  Worterb.)  identify  surplice  m  church.     English  exiles  from  Geneva  were 

the  feast  with  the  Persian  spring  festival,  whidi  th*  active  \n  the  cause,  and  by  1565  their  resistance  to 

Jews  arc  supposed  to  have  adopted  in  Susa:    the  the  queen's  wishes  subjected  some  of  them  to  loss  of 

Book  of  Esther  is  then  a  mere  allegory^  intenaed  to  benefices.    This  controversy  of  rights  and  vestments 

cast  a  national  halo  about  the  feast.    Von  Hammer  developed  into  a  controversy  of  polity,  until  Presby- 

(Wien.  Jahrb.  Lit.,  1827)  calls  the  Purim  a  trans-  terianism  emerged  in  antagonism  to  Episcopalianism. 

formation  of  the  Zoroastrian  feast  Farwadigdn  (Fes-  Yet  in  the  process  the  movement  developed  on  such 

trval  of  the  Dead),  observed  during  the  last  ten  days  divergent  lines  that  Puritanism  soon  included  three 

of    the    year.     Lagarde    (Beitrag    zur    Gesch.    der  different    theories    of    Church    government.     First 

Religion,  18S7)  elaborated  this  theory  and  brought  there  were  the  moderates  who  were  willing  to  retain 

to    its    support    Unguistic    considerations    of    little  government  by  bishops,  though  they  preferred  the 

value.    Gratz    (Monatschr.    Gesch.    u.    Wiss.    der  title  "superintendent   ,  but  who  wished  the  usages  of 

Jud.,  XXXV,  10-12)  derives  Purim  from  puraJk  (wine-  the  Establishment  to  conform  more  nearly  to  Genevan 

press),  and  accordingly  identifies  the  feast  with  the  practices.    Those   who   held    this   system   were   in 

observance  of  the  Greek  and  Roman  Bacchanalia,  agreement  «with  the  Scottish  Presbyterianism  which 

forgetting  that  the  wine  season  is  passed  when  the  had    been    established    by    John    Knox.     Secondly 

Purim  is  celebrated.     Others,  like  Zimmem    (Zeit-  there  were  the  strict  Presbyterians  who  wished  for 

schrift  fur  d.  alttest.  Wiss.,  1891),  Jensen  (Wiener  the  Calvinistic  form  of  government  as  well  as  the 

Zeitschr.  ftir   die    Kunde    des    Morgerdandes,    VI,  theology  and  order  of  worship.  In  England  the  move- 

47-209),  and  Wildeboer  ("Comment,  on  Esther"  in  ment  was  led  by  Thomas  Cartwright  of  Cambridge, 

Martins  "Kurzer  Handcomm.",  p.  173)  wish  to  make  whose  doctrine  that  there  should  be  equality  of  au- 

the  Book  of  Esther  a  mere  metamorphosis  of  mytho-  thority  and  that  bishop  and  presbvter  were  all  one 

logical  legends.    These  hvpotheses,  however,  have  was  soon  adopted  in  Scotland.    Thirdly  there  were 

a  very  weak  and  doubtful  historical  basis.  the  Free  Churchmen  or  Independents  who  repudiated 

Onginally    the    Piuim    was    celebrated    without  all  coercive  power  in  the  Church  and  wished  all  men 

liturgical  services.    Later  the  Book  of  Esther,  the  to  be  free  m  forming  congregations.    Their  leader 

Me^lah  par  excellence ,  was  read  on  the  evening  of  was  Robert  Brown,  whose  followers  were  at  first 

the  vigil  and  on  the  morning  of  the  feast.    When  persecuted  by  Anglicans  and   Presbyterians  alike, 

the  name  of  Haman  occurs  in  the  reading,  the  con-  out  whose  descendants  grew  in  powdr  and  influence 

eregation  hisses,  stamps,  and  gesticulates,  shouting:  until  under  Oliver  Cromwell  they  became  the  pre- 

"Let  his  name  be  blotted  out!    Let  the  name  of  the  dominant  party. 

wicked  perish!"  The  reader  names  ten  sons  of  The  three  bodies  differed  from  one  another  in 
Haman  in  one  breath  to  indicate  that  they  died  at  doctrine,  in  ecclesiastical  polity,  and  in  their  view 
the  same  moment.  The  vigil  is  observed  by  a  strict  of  toleration.  The  strength  of  Puritanism  as  com- 
fast  called  the  "fast  of  Esther".  The  feast  is  cele-  mon  to  these  three  bodies  lay  in  the  results  effected 
brated  with  great  solemnity,  gifts  being  exchanged,  by  the  general  study  of  the  Bible,  in  which  the  Puri- 
Sometimes,  however,  the  feast  degenerated  into  an  tans  learned  the  relations  of  man  with  God  as  ex- 
occasion  for  debauchery  and  licence,  gruesome  details  emplified  in  the  histories  and  parables  of  Holy  Writ, 
(e.  g.  the  burning  on  a  gibbet  of  an  effigy  of  Haman)  This  private  study  of  the  Scriptures  was  carried  on 
being  added  to  the  diversions.  At  times  a  cross  was  by  the  aid  of  private  interpretation  which  inevitably 
burned  to  manifest  hatred  for  the  Christians  (Cod.  resulted  in  the  multiplication  of  minor  sects  such  as 
Theodos.,  XVI,  viii,  18).  When  the  feast  occurred  Fifth  Monarchy  men.  Levellers,  Diggers,  and 
in  an  intercalary  year  it  was  celebrated  twice:  ,on  others.  Thus  Puritanism  could  never  attain  a  rec- 
15  Adar  (Little  Purim)  and  on  15  Ve-adar  (Great  ognized  dogmatic  system.  At  fibrst  it  shared  many 
Purim).  This  feast  was  generally  observed  as  Calvinistic  views  with  the  theologians  of  the  E»- 
early  as  the  time  of  the  Machabees  (II  Mach.,  xv,  tablished  Church,  but  these  were  abandoned  by  some 
37)  and  Josephus  (Antiq.,  XI,  vi,  13).  The  Purim  and  Calvin's  doctrines  were  rejected  first  by.  the 
frequently  contributed  to  the  preservation  of  the  Baptists  and  afterwards  by  the  Quakers  and  the 
Jewish  faith,  when  in  imminent  danger.  To  this  Unitarians.  However,  the  lack  of  a  consistent  theol- 
fact  the  Cairene  Purim  and  the  Purim  Vincent  bear  ogy  was  the  less  felt  because  of  the  great  stress  which 
witness.  The  first  commemorates  the  deliverance  the  Puritans  laid  upon  "serving  God  in  spirit  and  in 
of  the  Jews  in  Cairo  (1524);  the  latter  in  Frankfort  truth" — by  feeling  and  conduct  rather  than  by 
(1616).  doctrine.    This  spirit   is  most  pronounced   in  the 

Gbbew.  Hebrew  Peastn  (1886) ; ,  Mb™,  De  temp  H  feat.  hebr<B'  Puritan  works  which  achieved  the  highest  popularity : 

orum:    iKKS,  AntiquitcUes  hebratea   (Bremen,   1741);     Rbland,  !>„„„«„»«  «i>:i„«:,^>«  t>«^„««„»    r« -«««««  i?^C«>«  "  T^.X. 

Aniiq.  eacr.  (Utrecht.  1741) ;  LEstTRB  in  Vioouboux.  Diet,  de  U  ^H^ja"  ?     ™S™1,^  ^^?^,. ,  George  Foxe  8     Jour- 

hibU,  B.  V.  Phurim;    Oppmur,  Commentaire  du  litre  d' Esther  in  nar  ,     ThomaS     Ellwood  S     "History    of    My    Own 

An»i^^  rf«  pjitos.  cjr«   (Jan    1864):   Vio^  Ljfe"    and    Baxter's    "Saint's    Everlasting    Rest". 

eainie  de  la  crtttqiie  rationalvsU,  Iv  (6th  ed.,  Pans,  1896),  579-93;  ▼„  ,«n+*^«o  ^t  nu.^^^i.  »»,,».»^»«4-  «^».a  h^iZiA  ^f  ««ra 

SchOrbb.  OmcX!  dee^nd.  Voikee  im  ZeitaUer  J.  c.  (4th  ed..  Uip-  ^^  matters  of  Church  government  some  kind  of  sys- 

lig.  1901-7).  Charles  L.  Souvat.  t^ni  became  necessary  and  the  Scottish  Presbyterians 

t,  evolved  a  plan,  embodied  in  the  First  Book  of  Dis- 

Puritaiis.— One  of  the  chief  difficulties  in  study-  cipline  which  had  been  drawn  up  in  the  Edinburgh 

ing  the  various   movements  loosely  spoken  of  as  Assembly  of  1560,  and  which  was  concerned  chiefly 

Puritanism  is  to  frame  an  exact  definition  capable  of  with  the  congregation  itself.    This  was  supplemented 

including  the  varied  and  sometimes  mutually  in-  by  the  Second  Book  of  Discipline  of  1578  which  reg- 

consistent  forms  of  belief  usually  classified  under  that  ulated  the  dependence  of  the  congregation  on  the 

name.     In  its  original  meaning  it  signified  "those  higher  courts.     By  it  Presbyterianism  was  fully  es- 

who  strove  for  a  worship  purified  from  all  taint  of  tablished;    for  the  superintendents  were  abolished 

popery"    (Maitland,   op.   cit.   inf.^   590).    A   more  and  all  authority  was  transferred  from  individual 

recent  writer  adopting  and  expanding  this  definition  ministers  to  four  bodies,  the  Kirk  Session,  the  Pres- 

adds:  "The  many  various  sects  and  persons  who  fall  bytery,    the    Provincial    Synod,    and   the    General 

under  this  definition,  were  usually  characterized  both  Assembly. 


PU8IY 


582 


PUSBT 


The  EngUflh  Puritans  regarded  this  Bystem  from 
two  diametrically  opposed  points  of  view.  It  was  ap- 
proved by  the  Presbyterians  and  condemned  by  the 
Independents.  But  for  a  time  they  were  kept  united 
by  the  common  necessity  of  opposing  the  alliance  be- 
tween the  High  Church  party  and  the  Crown  which 
took  place  under  James  I.  The  struggle  became 
politiciEdf  and  the  Arminiamsm,  Episcopsuumism,  and 
divine  right  of  the  sovereign  maintained  by  the  one 
party  were  opposed  by  the  Calvinism,  Presbyterian- 
ism,  and  RepubUcanism  of  the  other.  When  the 
enactments  of  the  Long  Parliament  had  resulted  in 
victory  for  the  Puritans,  their  own  internal  dif- 
ferences clamoured  for  settlement  and  the  West- 
minster Assembly  of  1643  was  an  unsuccessful 
^tempt  at  comfKxsing  them.  The  four  parties,  Mod- 
erate Presbyterians,  Scottish  Presbyterians,  Eras- 
tians,  and  Independents  having  quarrelled  fiercely, 
^reed  on  a  compromise  favouring  the  Moderate. 
Tne  Presbyterians,  however,  gradually  lost  ground, 
owing  to  the  growing  power  of  the  Independents  who 
had  the  strong  support  of  Cromwell  *and  his  army. 
They  in  their  turn  were  destroyed  as  a  political  power 
by  the  Restoration,  since  when  Puritanism  ceased  to 
be  a  force  in  England  under  that  name,  and  survived 
only  in  the  various  Nonconformist  sects  which  have 
increased  and  multiplied  in  number  down  to  the 
present  day,  without,  however,  any  augmentation  of 
collective  strength.  Many  of  these  bodies  have  long 
ceased  to  represent  Puritanism  in  any  respect  save 
that  of  dissent  from  the  Established  Church.  One  of 
the  most  picturesque  incidents  in  the  history  of 
Puritanism  and  one  of  far  reaching  influence  on  sub- 
sequent American  history  was  the  departure  of  the 
"Pilgrim  Fathers" — seventy-four  English  Puritans 
and  twenty-eight  women — who  sailed  from  England 
in  the  May  Piower  and  landed  on  Pl3rmouth  Kock, 
25  December.  1620.  There  they  founded  a  colony, 
representing  Doth  types,  the  Plymouth  colony  being 
Congregationalists,  tne  Massachusetts  Bay  settlers, 
Presbyterians. 

Campbkll,  PurUanum  in  Hottand,  Bnalandt  and  America 
(London.  1892);  Dextbb,  England  and  Holland  (London,  100&); 
Gkcgort,  Puritaniam  (London,  1895) ;  Wakbman,  The  Church 
and  the  Puritane:  1570-1660  (London,  1887);  Btinoton,  The 
Puritan  in  England  and  New  England  (London,  1896),  giving  a 
uaeful  bibliography;  Neal,  History  of  the  Puritane,  1617-1688 
(Ix>ndon,  1822) ;  Stowkll  and  Wilson,  HiOory  of  the  Puritane 
in  England  (London.  1849);  Hopkins,  The  Puritane:  Church, 
Court  and  Parliament  during  the  reigne  of  Edward  VI  and  Eliao' 
beth  (BoAton,  1859-61) ;  Mabsdbn,  History  of  the  early  Puritane, 
to  164S  (London,  1850);  Idem,  History  of  the  later  Puritane, 
16 4»-6i  (London,  1852) ;  Tdlloch,  English  Puritanism  and  its 
leaders  (Edinburgh,  1861)  \  Maitland,  The  Anglican  Settlement 
and  Uie  Scottish  Reformation  in  Cambridge  Modem  History,  11 
(Cambridge,  1903);  Tbbvkltan,  England  under  the  Stuarts 
(London,  1904).  See  also  ReprinU  of  the  Clarendon  Historical 
Society  (Edinburgh,  1882-6). 

Edwin  Bubton. 

Puaey  and  PuBayiBin. — Edward  Bouverie  Pusey, 
b.  at  Pusey  House,  Berkshire,  22  Aug.,  1800;  d.  at 
Ascot  Ptiory,  Berkshire,  16  Sept..  1882;  divine  of  the 
EstablishcKl  Church  of  Englancl,  patristic  scholar, 
voluminous  writer,  preacher  and  controversialist, 
after  whom  the  ''Catholic''  revival  among  Anglicans 
was  termed  Puseyite.  His  father,  Philip  Bouverie, 
was  the  youngest  son  of  the  first  Viscount  Folkestone; 
his  mother  was  Lady  Lucy  Sherard,  dau^ter  of  the 
fourth  Earl  of  Harborough.  The  family  was  of 
Huguenot  descent.  In  1807  he  went  to  Bch(X)l  lit 
Miteham  in  Surrey  and  began  the  course  of  education 
which  made  him  afterwards  a  deeply  learned  man, 
according  to  the  older,  uncritical,  but  massive  scholar- 
ship of  the  seventeenth  century.  From  Mitcham  he 
pained  to  Eton  in  1812.  Always  delicate,  cdiy,  and 
serious,  he  made  few  friends  and  took  little  part  in 
boys'  games.  In  January,  1819,  he  proceeded  to 
Cmrist  Church,  Oxford,  where  he  was  destined  to 
spend  his  life,  except  for  an  interval  of  study  abroad. 
He  formed  an  attachment,  while  a  mere  youth,  to 


Maria  Barker  whom  he  married  in  1828  after 
vicissitudes  which  almost  shook  his  reason,  and  which 
revealed  the  intensely  emotional  character  of  Pusey's 
temperament.  His  affections  counted  for  much  in 
the  part  that  he  played  as  a  champion  of  orthodoxy; 
but  his  principles  were  sternly  held,  and  to  them  he 
sacrificed  more  than  one  friendship.  He  became  an 
enormous  reader,  cultivated  acute  verbal  accuracy, 
showed  no^  turn  for  metaphysics,  and  was  always 
religious-minded. 

At  Easter,  1822.  he  took  a  First  Class  with  dis- 
tinction, one  of  tne  examiners  being  John  Keble. 
He  was  elected  Fellow  of  Oriel  in  1823;  won  the  Latin 
Essay  in  1824;  and  at  Bishop  Lloyd's  instance  went 
off  next  year  to  Germany,  intending  to  combine  the 
study  of  languages  with  a  theolpgical  training.  He 
attended  lectures  by  Eichhom.  made  acquaintance 
with  Hen£stenberg  and  TholucK,  learned  something 
from  Schleiermacher,  and  brou^t  home  a  tinge  of 
Liberalism  in  theology  which  did  not  go  deep.  His 
affinities  were  with  devout  mystics:  he  admired  the 
teaching  of  Spener  and  was  himsell  a  pietist,  feelinjg 
kindly  at  all  times  towards  the  Eneliiui  ''Evangeli- 
cals". In  1826-27  he  paid  a  second  visit  to  Berlin 
etc.  and  became  an  excellent  Arabic  scholar  under 
Freitag. 

His  long  and  almost  unbroken  career  of  contro- 
versy was  opened  by  the  volumes  (1828,  1830), 
afterwards  withdrawn,  in  which  he  defended  German 
religion  against  H.  J.  Rose.  Both  writers  had  the 
same  object  in  viewj  they  became  friends;  and 
Pusey's  covert  intention  was  to  warn  Englishmen 
against  the  dangers  of  Rationalism.  The  Tractarian 
movement  found  him  in  sympathy  with  Newman, 
but  he  did  not  join  it  formally  until  1835.  His  tracts 
on  Holy  Baptism  {67-;8-9;  were,  like  aH  Pusey's 
writings,  too  long,  but  impressive  from  their  wei^t 
of  erudition  and  pleading  earnestness.  He  neglected 
stvle,  was  often  obscure,  and  could  not  throw  him- 
self mto  the  mind  of  his  opponents.  ''Imperturb- 
ably  sanguine",  he  took  the  movement  to  be  simply 
Anglican;  hence^  when  it  betrayed  tendencies  towarcu 
Rome  he  was  shocked,  but  not  alarmed.  The  friend- 
ship between  himself,  Keble,  and  Newman,  roman- 
tically devoted  to  one  another,  made  them  triumvirs 
in  an  agitatic^n  of  which  the  double  issue  became  only 
by  degrees  apparent.  In  1840  the  world  talked  of 
''Puseyism",  and  with  a  sure  instinct,  for  Newman 
had  gone  upon  the  solitary  path  where  the  High 
Church  host  would  not  follow  him.  But,  although 
with  hesitations,  it  followed  Pusey.  During  tne 
Hampden  troubles  (1836)  he  had  fought  for  Catholic 
dogma  and  denounced  the  Nominalism  which  made 
short  work  of  creeds.  His  position  never  wavered. 
It  was  founded,  he  said,  on  the  teaching  of  the  Fathers 
"anterior  to  the  separation  of  East  and  West". 
When  Tract  90  appeared  he  upheld  it  on  principle  aa 
giving  a  Catholic  interpretation,  i.  e.  the  sanction 
of  antiquity,  to  the  Thirty-Nine  Articles.  He 
acted  on  Newman's  behalf  in  the  negotiations  with 
the  Bishop  of  Oxford.  But  when  the  Bench  of  Bish- 
ops charged  against  the  Tract,  their  condemnations, 
which  Newman  reckoned  to  be  tne  voice  of  the  Church, 
left  Pusey  undismayed. 

He  was  himself  suspended  from  preaching  by  the 
authorities  of  the  university,  in  consequence  of  his 
sermon  on  the  Holy  Eucharist  in  1843.  The  pro- 
ceedings were  flagrantly  unjust  as  well  as  grotesque, 
and  they  helped  to  destroy  the  old  Oxford  constitu- 
tion. Pusey,  like  other  great  scholars,  was  very 
simple-minded;  he  let  himself  be  circumvented  by  the 
astute  Provost  Hawkins  and  put  in  the  wronf . 
However,  in  1846  he  repeated  from  the  same  pulpit 
his  former  doctrine,  which  was  in  its  drift  Anglican, 
while  much  of  the  language  had  been  taken  from  St. 
Cyril  of  Alexandria.  Newman's  submission  to  the 
Catholic  Church  in  October,  1845,  though  a  stunning 


pvsnT 


583 


PUSTif 


blow,  did  not  break  their  friendship,  even  when  their 
correspondence  was  interrupted  for  years.  But  it 
threw  upon  Keble  and  Pusey  the  task  of  maintaining 
under  assaults  from  Catholics,  Evangelicals,  and 
Broad  Churchmen,  what  they  conceived  to  be  the 
"pure  and  Apostolic"  doctrines  of  the  Prayer  Book, 
^or  this  was  in  effect  their  rule  of  faith.  Neither  ad- 
mitted the  principle  of  development;  both  allowed 
the  Roman  primacy,  but  insisted  on  the  independence 
of  local  Churches;  and  they  saw  in  the  papal  claims, 
as  in  modem  "Marian''  devotions,  a  departure  from 
antiquity.  There  was  never  any  likelihood  that 
they,  as  individuals,  would  enter  the  Catholic  fold. 
Pusey's  unbounded  activities,  under  domestic 
trials  and  continual  bad  health,  were  directed,  from 
1^  onwards,  to  the  restoration  of  piety  on  these 
Unes.  He  took  a  leading  p^  in  .the  fierce  battles 
which  ra^^  round  Hampden's  appointment  to  Here- 
ford (1846),  the  Gorham  Case  <185Q),  the  Denisop 
Trial  (1854),  Essays  and  Reviews  (1861),  the  Purchas 
Judgment  (1871),  the  Athansfiiam.  Creed  (1873- 
74),  the  pubUc  Worship  Bill  (1874>,  the  Bonn  Con- 
ference of  Old  Catholics  (1876),  the  Ridsdale  Case 
(1877),  the  Lambeth  Conference  and  habitual  Con- 
fession (1878),  Dr.  Farrar  on  Everlasting  Punish- 
ment (1870),  and  many  other  topics  of  dissension  be- 
tween members  of  his  own  Church.  The  argument' 
was  invariably  an  appeal  to  the  Fathers,  to  English 
divines  of  the  Laudian  school,  /and  to  the  verdict  of 
ecclesiastical  as  distinct  from  lay  tribunals.  Agidn, 
it  was  Pusey  who,  by  his  preaching  and  extensive 
practice,  made  private  confession  the  feature  which 
it  has  now  become  of  Anglican  religious  life.  With 
help  from  the  remarkable  Miss  SeUon  he  foimded 
sisterhoods,  largely  increased  since  his  time..  As  a 
work  of  penance  he  built  and  endowed  St.  Saviour's, 
Leeds;  but  most  ,of  the^  clergy  attached  to  it  came 
over  to  Rome,  and  he  sufferedgrievous  things  on  that 
account  from  the  impetuous  Dr.  Hook.  With  so- 
caUed  "Ritualism"  he  had  little  fellow-feeling;  it 
was  a  voun^r  and  less  learned  movement  wnich 
thrust  nis  fnends  aside.  But  he  influenced  many 
through  Canon  Liddon;  and  during  his  last  twentv 
years  exercised  a  sway  over  his  own  party  which 
made  of  him  a  gentle  mctator  to  the  English  Church 
Union.    After  ICeble's  death  in  1866  he  was  the 

Eatriarch  of  High  Churchpien,  holding  no  preferment 
ut  his  canonry,  revered  as  a  saint,  and  in  secret 
leading  the  most  austere  of  lives.  His  penances, 
charities,  and  studies  were  alike  distinguished  for 
their  unsparing  selfHsacrifice. 

Though  a  convinced  An^^lican,  he  prayed  and 
wrought  on  bdialf  of  "Reumon",  as  he  understood 
it,  wmch  was  a  different  idea  from  that  of  submission, 
simply  and  without  making  terms,  to  the  Holy  See. 
In  pursuance  of  this  object  he  put  forth  his  "Eireni- 
con" in  1865.  Newman  in  a  gracious  answer  hap- 
pilv  described  it  as  an  "olive  branch  from  a  catar 
pult".  It  offended  CathoUcs  by  its  handling  of  the 
cultus  of  Our  Lady;  it  provoked  the  average  Prot- 
estant, and  even  men  like  Dean  Church,  to  utter  the 
cry  of  "scandal"  over  various  unfortunate  quotations; 
but  Pusey  had  never  been  able  to  calculate  the  effect 
of  his  arguments  on  any  who  differed  from  him.  A 
second  and  third  pamphlet,  addressed  not  very 
pertinently  to  Newman,  exhausted  the  subject.  In 
1869,  on  the  eve  of  the  Vatican  Council,  Pusey  and 
Bishop  Forbes  of  Brechin  joined  in  a  fresh  effort 
towards  conciliation;  but  their  communications 
with  Archbishop  Darboy,  Bishop  Dupanloup,  and 
Father  de  Buck,  S.J.,  bore  no  fruit.  There  was  a 
divergence  on  first  principles  which  the  council  made 
so  clear  that  after  1870  Pusey  gave  up  all  thoudit 
of  re-union.  He  would  not  countenance  the  Old 
Catholics,  who.  as  the  event  proved,  were  forsaking 
the  standard  ot  dogma.  Pusey  remained  faithful,  as 
Keble  did,  to  the  conception  of  the  Via  Media,  wnile 


others  have  drawn  nearer  to  Rome  and  seem  willinff, 
if  they  midit  keep  their  orders,  to  accept  the  whole 
of  the  papfQteaching  without  demur. 

Pusey  s  works  have  never  been  collected;  there 
is  a  complete  bibliography  in  Vol.  IV  of  his  Life 
by  Liddon  (pp.  394-446).  That  copious  work  also 
includes  a  large  selection  from  his  correspondence. 
Of  purely  scientific  or  professional  undertakin^p  may 
be  noted  his  "Catalogue  of  Arabic  MSS.  m  the 
Bodleian"  (1835),  "The  Minor  Prophets"  (1860), 
"Daniel  the  Prophet"  (1864).  This  latter  treatise 
was  held  on  its  appearance  to  contain  the  best  de- 
fence of  the  traditional  views  regarding  the  Book  of 
Daniel. 

Li/«,  in  4  voli.,  begun  by  Liddon,  finiahed  and  published  by 
JoHNBTOKK.  WxLBON,  NswDOLT  (Londou,  1899-97).  See  alw 
bibliognphiee  under  Nbwman;  Oztobd  Moybmsht. 

William  Babbt. 

,Puft«t»  the  name  of  a  family  of  well-known  Cath- 
olic publishers.  The  original  home  of  the  Pustots  was 
the  Kepublic  of  Venice,  where  the  name  Bustetto  is 
common  even  to-day.  Probably  in  the.  seventeenth 
century,  the  founder  of  the  Ratisoon  line  emigrated  to 
South  Gcomany,  where  one  of  his  descendants,  Anton 
Pustet,  lived  as  a  poor  bookbinder  in  the  Lower 
Bavarian  borough  of  Hals  (near  Passau)  at  the  close 
of  the  eighteenth  century.  To  him  and  his  wife  Anna 
(rUe  Scheuerdcker)  was  bom  on  25.  Maroh,  1798,  a 
son,  FYiedrich.  Having  learned  bookbinding  under 
his  father,  Friedrich  started  a  smaH  book-store  in 
Passau  in  1810,  and  in  1822  foimded  a  separate  print- 
inff  establishment.  This  business  developed  so  favour- 
ably, thimks  to  Pustet's  energy  and  skill,  that,  in  1826, 
he  was  able  to  transfer  his  publishing  business  to 
Ratisbon.  Establishing  business  relations  with  promi- 
nent Catholic  authors,  he  extended  the  ranse  of  his 
publications  to  a31  branches  of  Uterature,  while  pa3anff 
special  attontipn  to  theologjr.  In  1830  he  married 
Theresa  von  Schmid;  ton  children  were  the  fruit  of 
this  marriage.  To  extend  his  business  imdertakings, 
in  1833  Pustot  set  up  one  of  the  first  printing-machines, 
and  in  1836  erected  near  Ratisbon  a  paper  factory,  for 
which  he  procured  the  first  paper  machme  in  Bavaria. 
In  1845  he  began  printing  fiturgical  worksj  with  this 
he  assodated  a  department  for  church  music,  with  th^ 
co-operation  of  Dr.  Proske,  for  the  purpose  of  carrying 
out  the  tatter's  ideas  for  the  reform  of  ecclesiastical 
music.  Men  like  Dr.  Witt,  Dr.  Haberl,  Haller,  later 
rendered  valuable  services  in  this  department.  In 
1860  he  handed  over  the  business  to  his  sons  Friedrich 
(b.  1831),  Karl  (b.  1839)^  and  Klemens  (b.  1833). 
and  two  years  lator  acquired  in  Munich  the  Royal 
Bavarian  Central  Schoolbook-Publishing  Companv, 
which  he  conducted  until  1874.  He  died  on  5  Mareh, 
1882.  Inheriting  their  father's  ability,  the  sons  con- 
tinued the  extension  of  the  business.  Friedrich  chose 
for  his  department  liturgical  publications,  Karl 
German  works,  and  Klemens  the  paper  factory.  The 
success  of  Friedrich  earned  for  him  in  1870  the  title 
''Typographus  S.  R.  Congregationis";  among  vari- 
ous other  distinctions,  the  firm  was  entrusted  by  the 
Vatican  with  the  world-famous  editio  tyjrioa  of  all 
the  liturgical  works.  After  a  most  successtul  business 
activity,  which  extended  also  to  poUtico-religious  life. 
Friedrich  died  on  4  August,  1902.  Klemens  had  died 
before  him  (1898),  and  Karl's  death  followed  on 
17  Januaiy,  1910.  The  last,  who  was  a  Privy  Coun- 
sellor of  (Jommerce,  had  raised  the  German  publica- 
tions of  the  firm  to  the  highest  repute;  among  its 
publications  mav  be  mentioned  the  ''Regensburger 
Marienkalender"  and  the  illustrated  family  magazine, 
the  "Deutscher  Hausschatz".  The  present  heads  of 
the  Pustet  firm  are  Friedrich  Pustot,  son  of  Fried- 
rich. and  Ludwig,  son  of  Karl.  Among  the  model 
productions  of  the  firm  may  be  also  mentioned  the 
illustrated  monthly,  "Der  Aar",  appearing  since 
October,  1910.    It  remains  to  add  that  branch  firms 


•  PUTATIVX  S 

have  been  eetabluhed  in  New  Yorii  (1865),  Cincin- 
Dftti,  Ohio  (1867),  and  Rome  (ISQS). 

Denk.  PriidniA  FiuUt,  VaUr  h.  S<*%.  Zu«  LthtTubMrr. 
HtfliicA  niu  tiucit  d«  ifauHi  JSiMM  (Raluboa,  190i). 

Fbibdbich  PuaTBT. 

Putatln  Bltrriicft.— Putative  (Lat..  j»ibuimi, 
nipposed)  Ngnifiea  that  which  is  commonly  thought, 
reputed,  or  believed.  A  putative  mamoge,  con- 
eequently,  in  canon  law  ia  a  matrimonial  Chance 
which  is  commonly  reputed  to  be.  vtihd,  and  is 
sincerely  believed  by  one  at  least  of  the  contracting 
parties  to  be  bo  in  the  eyes  of  the  Church,  because 
entered  inte  in  good  futb;  but  which  in  reahty  is  null 
and  void,  owing  to  the  existence  of  a  diriment  im- 
pediment. The  Church  too  in  her  external  forum 
lecogniieB  such  a  marriage,   until  its  invaUdity  be  . 

proved:  and  concedes  to  the  children  bom  thereof     ohosM     Supenpr 
the  rights  of  iMitimacy.  ?f  „»'■     Maiy^B, 

0*«PARRI,  Dt  Mairimmio.  I.  nn.  47.  137S  <3rd  kL.  Puu,      BuSalo,     and     in 
IWHJ:  RoaBWT,  Dt  SaiT.  Matr.,  B.  n.  1887    was    called 

Andmw  B.  Mbkhan.  to  Ilcheatet,  Md., 

PutsuMU,  Ebtcihb    (Erruck  db    Put),  b.  at  to  occupy   the 

Venloo,  in  Dutch  Limbourg,  4  Nov.,  1574;    d.  at  <*>«■ ,  ot     moral 

Louvain,  17  Sept.,  1646.    A  Belpan  humanist  and  theology 

philologist,  he  studied  at  the  schools  of  Dordrecht  canon  law. 

and  Cologne  (College  dee  Trois-Couronnas),  where  ««»» leMiiing,  he 

he  took  the  degree  of  Master  of  Arts,  28  Feb.,  1595.  P«BeMed  a  fund 
He  then  followed,  at  Louvain,  the  lectures  on  ancient 
history   given   by  Justus   Lipsius.     In    1597   he   re- 
pairea  to  Italy,  and  lived  in  intimacy  with  the  learned 
men  of  that  countiy,  especially  the  famous  Cardinal 

Federigo  Boiromeo,  through  whom  he  was  appointed  „. 

professor  of  Latin  at  the  Palatine  School  of  Milan  "'^  opimon   wu 

from  1600  to  1606,  when  the  Statee  of  Brabant  offered  constantly  sought 

h'"i  the  chair  left  vacant  by  Lipsius  at  Louvain.  '*'^     questions  of 

Ho  taught  with  6clat  at  the  Collie  dee  Trois-Lan^es  theology    and 

tor  forty  years,  and  was  loaded  with  favours  by  leign*  ^"^^  ,    " '     , 

ing  pnnce»:  the  Archduke  Albert   appointed  him  Jftot*  frequently  _  

his  honorary  counseUor  (1612),  and  increased  his  for  periodicals  and  journals,  generally  mgmng  hw  aHi- 
annual  pension  by  200  ducats  (1614),  and  added  the  p'es:  "J.P. '  Heisbeetknownbyhis"Cominentarium 
reversion  of  ChAteau-C^sar.  At  the  same  time  he  "^  FacuIUtes  Apostohcas  ,  five  editions,  first  under- 
filled, after  1603,  the  post  of  historio^apher  to  King  tal^n  by  Father  Konings.  Father  Putier  revised 
Philip  IV,  on  behalf  of  the  Milanese,  with  other  a°«  enlarged  it  into  practically  a  new  work.  On  its 
appointments,  often  ill-paid  in  consequence  of  a  ^pearanco  the  Civilti  Cattohca  (7  Oct.,  1893) 
treasury  depleted  by  continual  wars.  His  rash  »nd  "II  Monitore"  (31  Aug.,  1897)  among  others 
language  provoked  political  animosities,  and  he  was  P™^  "ta  clearness,  depth,  precision,  and  learmnE. 
almost  driven  into  exile  by  request  of  King  James  I  of  Father  Putter  also  published  an  Instnictio  de 
England,  who  wrongly  believed  him  to  be  the  author  oonfeeeanis  reltgiof 
of  an  injurious  lampoon.  Jl""?*,  ""*  ,  •'»*;'^' 


PutMlL    See  Pozzuou,  Dtocisi  of. 

Putiphar.    See  Josefb. 

Ptitnr,  Joseph,  theologian  and  canonist,  b.  ftt 
Rodaneck,Tyrol,4March,1836;  d.  at  Ilchester,  Md., 
16  May,  1904.  He  entered  the  Congregation  of  the 
Most  Holy  Redeemer  and  made  his  relipous  pro- 
fession, 14  Aug.,  1856.  Having  finished  his  theolo- 
gical studies  at  Mautera,  Austria,  he  was  ordained 
7  Aug.,  1859.  He  arrived  in  New  York,  7  Aug., 
1876,  was  assigned  to  St.  Alphonsus',  Baltimore,  until 
1880,  and  was  oc- 
cupied in  pariah 
work  at  St.  Mich- 
ael's church  until 
18S4,  when  he  was 


1  law.   With 


umility  and  sim- 
plicity were  char- 
acteristic     traits. 


...  .^  injurious  lampoon.  „  ,  ,         ,       ,  ,         .  ,.  ,    ,  .       ,™ 

His  family  numbered  seventeen  children,  of  whom     He  left  an  abmidance  of  ungubliehed  manuscripts.  The 
four  died  in  infancy.    The  services  he  rendered  to  ""■""••''     -.« ~..=..i.n~      ^,„a^    .o,™  „      ,™  <  ■ 


'American  Ecclesiastical  Review"  says  of  him  that 
he  is  entitled  "to  the  gratitude  of  all  who  believe 
themselves  debtors  to  Holy  Church.  His  memory, 
his  judgment,  his  keen  power  of  analysis  were  rarely 
at  fault  in  difficult  questions  of  moral  theology." 


(PluUdel^ii*  1904),  XXX,  OH;   Tht  Calholu  ChtarJi  i, 


May.  1904). 


J;  M.D 

1887):    A'oni  Amt 


.  .  1   Guelders,   the   Low   Countries,   and 

dividuals    were    considerable.    Puteanus    was    an 
encyclopedist;  bis  ideal,  which  saw  in  numerous  and 
vaned  acqiliremente  the  fullest  measure  of  wisdom 
and  the -surest  means  of  arriving  at  virtue  the  end    „t„,„  ,rim««,iiMu. 
of  all  knoweldge,  had  been  sug^rted  to  him  by  his     tA.  c.  .i.  (New  Yo7i, 
master  Justus  Lipsius.     During  a  ceri^ain  period  of     *",  '^"^^S''  ^' 
bis  literary  activity  (1603-19),  he  detached  himself 
from  Lipsius  by  aiming  at  personal  leadership  of  a 
school.     He   dreamed  of  re-establishing  in  Belgium 
the  splendid  classical  period  and  the  cult  of  eloquence 

which  he  had  derived  from  Italy.    When  he  saw  the    ^i,, --■--,-',;- ;    ,- ■    .,    '.  t,     ■     j-         nr. 

useleasness  of  his  efforts,  the  mdifference  of  a  too  Through  his  father  Pu^^B  wsa  Burgundian—  Bur- 
Utilitarian  age  inclined  towards  positive  sciencra,  he  gundian  salt  ,  says  the  provRrb,  that  is  the  ttrongeat 
again  threw Tiimself  into  encyclopedic  authorship  and  French  race,  which  produced  such  men  as  .BoMuct, 
produced  his  best  chronological  works.  His  merit  Bufton  and  Lamartinc.  His  Lyonnaise  idealism 
as  a  philologist  is  somewhat  limited;  but  his  disserta-  ^}^<^^  "^  mhented  through  his  mother,  never  allowed 
tions,  reproduced  in  the  Thesauri  of  Grsviue  and  *>">»  *«  lose  the  sense  of  the  real,  his  d 
Gronovius,  are  of  real  value  and  may  still  be  c  "°"°  "~™'''"  •"' 


suited.     As  a  whole,  his  influence  on  Belgian  phi- 
lology has  been  unfortunate. 

For  tha  hiitary  of  tha  nutaemiu  willioB*  ftnd  adltioiu  ol 
Eryciui  Putcuiua  k«  Roekkh  and  VAmEiinAEaiiBN  in  Biblio- 
MKa  Bri/ica  (lOOt-.l),  Dm.  168.  167.  168,  171:  alsa  Roesm-h  id 
Biographit  NalimoU  ilt  Btlniqut,  XVIII  (1904):  Sihab.  El)tdi 
nrBridiH  PtOeanui  (Louvain,  1909), 

Ta.  SiiiAB. 


the  Eixile  PoTytechnique,  and  he  was  twenty-three 
years  old  when  after  his  return  from  a  first  journey  to 
Italy  he  showed  the  inclination  to  paint.  Determin- 
ing to  adopt  art  as  a  profession,  he  studied  for  a 
VMT  without  much  profit  in  the  studio  of  Henry 
Scheffer,  the  brother  of  Ary,  and  ^terwarde  entered 


PUVIS 


585 


those  of  DeUciroix  and  Couture.  Another  aojoum  in 
Italy,  where  he  remained  a  year,  fixed  his  ideas  and 
determined  tus  creed.  He  returned  convinced  of  the 
artistic  dignity  and  great  eminence  of  decorative 
punting.  The  art  of  the  great  Italian  masters,  their 
manner  of  expressing  in  large  compoaitionH  stamped 
with  simpUcity,  the  marvellous  thoughts  and. the  Be- 
liefs common  to  a  period  or  a  people,  was  thenceforth 
the  object  which  he  set  about  reahzing  tor  his  con- 
temporaries. Without  being  positively  Christian  his 
inspu^tion  preserves  a  clearly  spiritual  character.  In 
the  midst  of  the  materialistic  invasion  of  the  second 
half  of  the  nineteenth  century  Puvis  (with  Eugene 
Carriire)  was  the  noblest  champion  of  religious  art  in 
France.  As  a  painter  his  ori)£inaJity  freed  lum  from 
early  influ^iees  and  tendencies.  In  a  sense  he  was 
really  self-taught.  While  admiring  Delacroix,  he  de- 
tested the  Romantic  anarchy,  with  its  disordered 
passions,  and  despised  acailemic 
timid  taste  and  feeble  ideas  of 
the  Bo-8tyle(#  clasfflcals.  If  he 
was  in  sympathy  with  any  sec- 
tion o<  the  school,  it  was  doubt- 
lees  wifh  the  small  group  of 
landscape  piuntK^.  In  view  of 
the  importance  with  which  he 
endowed  landscape,  the  atmos- 

Shere  which  he  instils  into  his 
'escoes,  his  liking  for  familiar 
horizons  and  lowly  countrysides, 
together  with  his  way  of  depict- 
ing and  ennobling  them,  it 
seems  evident  that  Puvis 
studied  Corot.  Finally  in  the 
paintings  of  Th&dore  Chas- 
siSriau  the  young  artist  found 
an  ideal  similar  to  his  own,  a 
liindred  spirit  and  a  model  for 
ids  .\mienB  pictures. 

Puvis's  first  "Salon"  was  a 
"PietA"  exhibited  in  1852,  but  . 
he  was  constantly  rejected  for 
some  years  afterwards.  His 
already  remarkable  pictures, 
such  Ha  his  "Salome  or  his 
"Julia",  shocked  the  public  by 
a  determined  absence  of  shad- 
ows (u  in  mosaics)  and  by  an  Engraved  by 
hieratic  and  Byzantine  strangeness.  At  the  Salon 
of  1859  he  showed  a  "Return  from  the  Hunt" 
(Museum  of  Maiwlleej,  which  is  a  striking  work  of 
youthful,  heroic,  borfiarous  movement.  A  great  dec- 
orative talent  became  more  and  more  evident  in  these 
stray  works.  Then  came  the  opportunity  to  paint  a 
hall  for  a  private  citizen:  "At  last",  said  the  artist, 
"I  have  water  to  swim  in."  Henceforth  he  forced 
himself  to  that  regimen  of  work  wluch  he  observed  all 
his  life,  the  regimen  of  a  Carthusian  or  cenobite  in 
art;  one  meal  a  day  at  about  seven  in  the  evening, 
two  rapid  walks  lasting  an  hour  before  and  after  work 
between  his  dwelling  at  Montmartre  and  his  studio 
at  Neuilly,  sessions  of  nine  or  ten  hours  of  incessant 
work,  in  the  evening,  reading,  drawing,  music,  and 
conversation  with  his  friends.  Several  journeys  in- 
terrupted this  regular  life. 

It  is  not  known  to  whom  the  merit  belongs  of  having 
singled  out  the  young  painter  and  appointed  him  to 
the  work  which  was  his  true  vocation,  nor  who  com- 
missioned him  to  paint  the  frescoes  of  the  staircase 
in  the  museum  of  Amiens,  but  it  was  through  this 
chance  that  Puvis  undertook  the  work  which  became 
his  true  sphere,  that  of  monumental  painting.  In 
1861  appeared  "War "and  "Peace";  in  1863 "Work" 
and  "Rest";  in  1885  these  were  completed  by  a 
now  work  "Ave  Picardia  Nutrix".  There  is  noth- 
ing simpler  or   nobler  than  these  paintings.     TTiey 


are  considered  by  more  than  one  authority  his  beat 
work,  and  in  any  case  are  the  manifestation  of  a  singu- 
larly new  art.  He  showed  an  admirable  faculty  for 
generalization,  a  power  of  expressing  life  in  universal 
features  without  cold  allegones  or  romantic  disturb- 
ances, while  retelling  a  rustic  realism  and  accent. 
But  because  of  its  very  novelty,  its  mural  simplicity, 
this  new  and  vigorous  work  created  astonishment  and 
scandal,  with  which  the  artist  had  to  contend  for  many 
years.  Still  sharper  criticisms  were  aroused  by  hia 
"Autumn",  "Sleep",  "Harvest"  (1870)',  and  espe- 
cially by  the  "Poor  Smner"  (Salon  of  1875),  in  which 
the  touching  archaism  lisd  the  effect  of  a  challenge. 
Puvis  was  accused  of  not  knowing  "how  to  p^nt  or 
draw.  His  ideas  and  projects  seemed  incomprehen- 
sible and  Ukc  a  defiance  of  public  taste.  There  was 
no  attempt  to  understand  the  methods  of  synthesis 
and  NTOpufication  due  to  the  particular  circumstances 
of  fresco,  these  pieces  being  persistently  regarded  from 
the  same  standpoint  as  the  other 
Salon  pictures.  The  result  was 
a  prolonged  misunderstanding 
lasting  fifteen  years,  during 
which  much  ink  was  wasted. 
Finally  the  inteUigent  initiative 
of  the  Marquis  de  Cheunevi- 
Sres,  the  best  director  of  the  fine 
arts  France  has  ever  had,  af- 
forded the  unjustly  criticised 
painter  the  opportunity  for  a 
decisive  triumph.  This  was  in 
connexion  with  the  paintings  of 
the  "Childhood  of  St.  Gene- 
vieve"  (1876-8),  in  the  ancient 
church  of  that  name,  now  the 
Pantheon.  All  that  had  been 
misunderstood  at  the  Salon  be- 
came clear  here,  all  that,  seen 
at  close  range  amid  factitious 
surroundings,  had  seemed  a  de- 
fect vanished  and  acquired  a 
meaning  in  the  perfect  accord 
of  the  work  with  the  monu- 
ment. For  the  Srst  time  it  was 
perceived  that  decoration  had 
its  own  laws  and  that  in  this 
M  Cbatakhm  light  each  of  the  artist's  appar- 

Lufimc,  I8S8  ent  weaknesses  became  a  charm 

and  a  necessity.  Thenceforth  the  masterheld  a  unique 
positionin  the  French  school.  Without  the  titlehe  was 
a  sort  of  painter  laureate.     During  his  last  twenty 

^■ears  each  of  his  successive  works  increased  his  hen  ce- 
orth  undisputed  reputation;  they  were  "Ludus  pro 
patria"(  1880-2),  for  the  Museum  of  Amiens;  "Doux 
pays"  (1882),for  M.I,eon  Bonnat;  for  the  Lyons  Mu- 
seum, the  "SacredWood  Dear  to  the  Arts  and  Muses" 
(1884)  with  the  "Antique  Virion",  "Christian  Inspir- 
ation", the"  SaAne"  and  the"  Rhflne"  (1886);  "Inter 
artes  et  naturam"  (Rouen  Museum);  "Summer", 
"  Winter  ","  Victor  Hugo  Presenting  his  Lyre  to  Paris  ", 
for  the  Paris  H6tel  de  ViUe  (189^-5),  and  his  last 
pictures,  two  new  scenes  from  the  legend  of  St. 
Genevieve:  "Bt.  Genevieve  Revictualling  the  Pari- 
mans"  (1897)  and  "St.  Genevieve  Watching  over 
Paris"  (1898).  After  an  interval  of  twenty  years 
this  last  picture  met  with  the  same  popularity  as  that 
which  had  welcomed  the  first  soene  of  the  "Child- 
hood", It  is  a  sublime  picture,  showing  a  single 
figure,  in  a  monastic  costume,  standing  erect  and  mo- 
tionless in  the  night,  watching  over  the  blue  roofs  of 
the  sleeping  city. 

During  this  last  portion  of  his  life  the  master  exer- 
cised a  wholly  new  jurisdiction  over  art ;  without  being 
the  leader  of  a  school,  or  even  strictly  speaking  having 
disciples,  his  word  was  law.  To  him  the  Government 
had  recourse  on  solemn  occasions,  for  instance  the 


FUT 


586 


decoration  of  the  vast  and  srandiose  hemicycle  of  the 
new  Sorbonne  (1887-9).  Larae  cities,  such  as  Paris, 
Lyons,  Rouen,  Bordeaux,  Marseilles,  followed  the 
example  of  Amiens,  and  when  Boston  (U.  S.  ^A.) 
wished  to  decorate  the  monumental  staircase  of  its 
.library  it  was  Puvis  de  Chavannes  who  was  chosen 
to  execute  that  great  work  (1896).  All  these  works 
breathe  the  same  love  of  noble  ideas,  the  same  con- 
fidence in  the  higher  destinies  and  ideals  of  the  human 
race;  it  may  even  be  said  that  what  the  theological 
painters  of  the  Middle  Ages  wrought  in  the  Spanish 
Chapel  and  what  Raphael  did  for  the  Renaissance  in 
the  Camera  della  Segnatura,  Puvis  did  in  our  era.  He 
wrought  his  ''Parnassus"  and  his  "School  of  Athens", 
different  it  is  true  from  those  of  old,  but  eciually. 
beautiful  and  sacred.  He  never  lacked  clear,  ingen- 
ioiis  and  definite  83rmbols  for  the  plastic  expression  of 
general  ideas.  He  upheld  the  rights  of  the  ideal  in 
the  modem  world,  making  it  known  and  detaching  it 
from  dreams,  art^  and  poetry.  He  always  had  an 
unshakable  faith  m  the  holiness  of  the  spiritual  side 
of  humanity  and  in  the  supreme  importance  of  con- 
tinuous search,  aspiration,  and  unrest  which  form  the 
moral  capital  of  our  race.  As  an  artist  he  did  much 
to  maintain  religion  among  men.  After  the  death  of 
Meissonier  (1894),  Puvis  was  elected  by  acclamation 
to  the  presidency  of  the  National  Society  of  French 
Artists.  He  was  commander  of  the  Le^on  of  Hon- 
our. The  moral  di^ty  and  the  rectitude  of  his 
character  and  his  life  increased  the  respect  paid  to  the 
artist  and  the  thinker.  He  married  the  Princess 
Marie  Cantacuzene  whom  he  had  met  in  Chassdriau's 
studio.  He  survived  her  by  only  a  few  months.  His 
last  work,  the  lovely  "Watch  of  St.  Genevieve",  re- 
produces her  features  and  consecrates  the  memory  of 
that  charming  companion.  It  is  perhaps  this  sorrow 
mingled  with  an  immortal  hope  which  imparts  to  this 
supreme  work  a  haunting  poetrv  and  unforgettable 
beauty.     (See  Paris,  coloured  plate.) 

CHEflNSAU,  Lea  nation*  rivalet  dan*  Vart  (Paris,  1868);  Cab- 
TAGNABT,  Solon*  (Paiis,  1878) ;  GAimKR,  AbMdaire  du 
Salon  (Paris.  1863):  Hutsmans,  Certain*  (Paris.  1889):  Art 
RSNAN,  Puvi*  de  Chavanne*,  Gazette  de*  Beaux  Art*  (1896); 
MicHSL.  N<^e*  tur  Vart  modem*  (Paris,  1896);  Buisson,  Puvi* 
de  Chavanne*,  *ouvenir*  intime*.  Gazette  de*  Beaux  Art*  (1899) ; 
Vachon,  Puvi*  de  Chavanne*  (1896) ;  Muther,  Bin  Jahrhundert 
franz6*i*cher  Malerei  (Berlin,  1901) ;  BiN^DirnB,  Le*  deeein*  de 
P.  de  Chavanne*  au  Luxembouro  (Paris.  1900) ;  BrunetiIsrs,  La 
Renai*»anee  de  ridSoUiame  (Parts,  1896),  reproduced  in  Diaoour*  de 

^'"'*^*  I-  Louis  Gillet. 


Puy.    See  Le  Put,  Dioctese  of. 

Puyallup  Indians,  an  important  tribe  of  Salishan 
linguistic  stock,  formerly  holding  the  territorv  along 
the  river  of  the  same  name  entermg  near  the  head  of 
Puget  Sound,  Washington,  and  now  occupying  an 
allotted  reservation,  together  with  several  kindred 
tribes,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Tacoma,  Pierce  County. 
Their  near  neighbours,  the  Nisqually^  speak  a  dialect 
of  the  same  language.  The  name  is  said  to  mean 
'' shadow '\  referring  to  the  dense  forest  shades,  and 
to  have  been  applied  originally  to  the  country  about 
the  mouth  of  the  stream. 

The  tribes  of  the  Puget  Sound  region  made  ac- 
quaintance with  Catholic  priests  and  la3rmen  as  far 
back  as  the  advent  of  the  Spanish  explorers  in  1774- 
95^  and  from  the  accompanying  Franciscans  ob- 
tamed  rosaries  and  crucifixes  which  they  still  treasured 
sixty  years  later.  Thi^  Catholic  memory  was  kept 
up  throu^  the  French  Canadians  in  the  service  of 
Mackenzie,  Fraser,  and  the  Hudson  Bay  Company. 
In  1838  the  secular  missionaries,  Norbert  Blanchet 
and  Modeste  Demers,  arrived  on  the  Columbia  from 
Canada,  making  headquarters  at  Fort  -Vancouver, 
from  which  point  Father  Demers  in  1839-41  visited 
the  tribes  northward  along  Puget  Sound,  instructing 
and  baptizing  many.  In  1843  another  secular,  Father 
Jean-Baptiste  Bolduc,  made  another  successful  tour 
of  Puget  Sound  and  lower  Vancouver  Island.   In  1847 


arrived  the  first  party  of  Oblates  destined  for  the 
same  mission,  chief  among  whom  was  the  famous 
Father  Casimir  Chirouse,  tne  Apostle  of  Tulalip  (d. 
1891).  In  1854  they  joined  with  other  tribes  of  that 
region  in  the  treaty  of  Medicine  Creek,  by  which  they 
gave  up  their  free  range  and  an*^  to  come  upon  the 
reservation  assigned  them.    In  the  next  year  they 

i'oined  the  Nisqually  and  others  in  the  general  out- 
break of  the  Washington  tribes,  known  as  the  Yakima 
War,  which  was  not  finally  brought  to  an  end  until 
1858,  when  the  work  of  civilization  and  Christianisa- 
tion  was  again  taken  up ;  but  it  has  been  sadly  checked 
by  the  demoralization  consequent  upon  the  removal  of 
reservation  restrictions  under  the  recent  Individual 
Allotment  Act.  Upon  this  point  both  official  and 
mission  authorities  agree.  With  whiskey  and  pauper- 
ization by  white  swindlers  the  end  seems  not  far  off. 
More  than  half  of  the  tribe  are  classed  as  Catholic, 
and  besides  the  Government  reservation  school,  the 
St.  Georee  mission  school,  established  in  18^,  and  in 
charge  of  a  secular  priest  assisted  by  six  fl^ciscan 
sisters  and  a  lay  teacher,  has  an  attendance  of  sixty 

gupils  of  the  several  confederated  tribes.  From  per- 
aps  800  souls  sixty  years  ago  the  PuyaJlup  have  de- 
creased to  556  in  1900  and  461  in  1910.  In  abori^al 
custom  and  belief  they  resembled  the  Tulalip  tnbes. 

Bancropt,  HiBt.  Waehington,  Idaho  arid  Montana  (San  Fran- 
Cisco,  1890):  OiRRB,  Tribe*  of  We9tem  Wa*hinoton  in  Contr.  to 
N.  Am.  Ethnology,  I  (Washington,  1877);  Morics,  Catholic 
Church  in  Weetem  Canada  (2  vols.,  Toronto,  1910);  CoiCMiBa- 
xoxsR  OF  Indian  Affairs,  annual  reports  (Washington) ;  Burbau 
OF  Cathouc  Indian  Missions,  annual  reports  of  director  (Wash- 

"**<>»»)•  James  Moonet. 

Pya.    See  Directoribs,  Catholic. 

Pyrker,  Johann  Ladislaus  von  Oberwart  (Felb5- 
EdR),  b.  at  Langh  near  Stuhlweissenburg,  Hungary.  2 
Nov..  1772;  d.  at  Vienna,  2  Dec.,  1847.  He  was  ae- 
scenaed  from  an  old  Hungarian  noble  family.  His 
father  was  one  of  the  ei^teen  brave  hussars  who  dis- 
tinguished themselves  m  the  battle  of  Kimmdorf. 
Graduated  from  Stuhlweissenburg  and  Fuenfldrchen, 
he  applied  for  a  civil  seivice  position  in  Ofen,  but  was 
^unsuccessful.  In  1792  he  entered  the  Cistercian  chapter 
house  at  Lilienf  eld,  where  he  was  ordained  priest  ( 1 796) . 
In  quick  succession  he  was  steward,  chanceUor,  prior, 
abbot,  for  a  time,  parish  priest  at  TUrnitz,  and  brought 
the  monastery  to  the  greatest  material  and  spiritual 
prosperity.  He  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Zips  (1818), 
Patnarch  of  Aguileia  and  Primate  ot  Dalmatia  with 
his  see  in  Venice  (1820),  and  finally  Archbishop  of 
Erlau,  earning  the  love  and  veneration  of  his  diocesans. 
He  founded  health  resorts  in  Karlsbad  and  Gastein 
for  sick  soldiers,  a  seminary  for  country  school  teach- 
ers at  Erlau,  and  donated  10,000  florms  toward  the 
adornment  of  the  cathedral  at  Erlau.  His  great  col- 
lection of  paintings  forms  the  basis  of  the  Hungarian 
National  Museum.  For  these  charitable  gifts  he  was 
knighted  by  the  emperor  with  the  title  of  Fels6-E6r. 

I^rker  wrote  dramatic,  epic,  and  lyric  poetry.  His 
first  dramatic  work,  "Historische  Schauspiele'^  ap- 
peared in  1810,  and  contained  three  five-act  tragedies: 
"Die  Corvinen",  "Karl  der  Kleine,  Kdnig  von  Un- 
gam  ",  and  "  Zrinis  Tod  ".  It  was  not  even  consid^^ 
worthy  of  discussion  or  criticism,  and  the  various  edi- 
tions of  his  collected  works  do  not  contain  the  dramas. 
The  "Tunisias",  an  epic  in  twelve  cantos,  describing 
the  conquest  of  Timis  by  Charles  V.  appeared  in  1820, 
and  there  have  been  frequent  later  editions.  A 
sketch  of  a  "Tunisias"  with  striking  resemblances 
was  found  in  the  textbooks  of  the  Jesuit  Jacob  Masen. 
It  is  possible  that  the  Jesuit's  textbook  (Palsestra 
eloquentiae)  was  used  at  the  time  of  Pjrrker's  vouth. 
Another  epic,  "Rudolphias",  glorifies  Rudolph  of 
Hapsburg,  and  was  printed  in  Vienna  in  1824.  Grill- 
parzer  dramatized  the  same  material  in  his  "Ottokars 
Gltick  und  Ende'',  which  has  many  similarities  with 
the  well-known  "Ode  to  Hapsburg"  written  by  the 
Latin   poet  Avancini,  S.J.,  probably  read   in   the 


ST.  GENEVIEVE  WATCHING  OVER  THE   SLEEPING  CITY 

PCVIB    DE     CHAVANNES,     THE    I 


PYBBHOMinC  587  pythaoobas 

schools  at  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century.    Pyrker  founder  of  the  Pythagorean  school,  flourished  about 

also   wrote  several  short  stories:  ''Die  Perlen  der  530  b.  c.    Veiy  little  is  known  about  the  life  and  per- 

heiligen  Vorzeit''   (1S21);   ''Bilder  aus  dem  Leben  sonality  of  Pythagoras.    There  is  an  abundance  of 

Jesu  und  der  AposteP'  and^'Legenden   der  Heiligen  biographical  material  dating  from  the  first  centuries 

auf  alle  Sonntage  und  Festtage  des  Jahres"  (1842).  of  the  Christian  era,  from  the  age  of  neo-Pythagore- 

As  a  lyric  poet  I^rker  published  only  a  few  mono-  anism,   but,    when  we  go    back    to    the    centuries 

graphs,  e.  g.  ''Lilienfelds  Freude",  and  ''Lieder  der  nearer  to  Pythagoras's  time,  our  material  becomes 

Sehnsucht  nach  den  Alpen"  (1845).  very  scanty.    It  seems  to  be  certain  that  I^thagoras 

GAdbke,  GrundrU*  der  deutechen  Dichtung;  BbOhl,  Ottch,  der  was  bom  at  SamOS  about  the  year  550  Or  560  B.  C, 

tunu  OesterrHch,  XXIV,  115  eq.;  Sacir,  AOgemeine  deuuehe  about  the  year  530,  that  he  founded  there  a  school 

Biographie;    Herold,  Friedrieh  Au<7u«<  Klement  Wertkea  u.  die  of  philosophy,  and  that  he  died  at  Metapontum  in 

Jl^J^  ^s^j^tcS^^^iiU-t)^^''''  ^"^  '^"^^  ^"*"  "*•  ^'  ^'  Sicily.    The  detailed  accounts  of  how  he  invented  the 

'    *  *  jyj"^  ScHEiD.  musical  scale,  performed  miracles,  pronounced  proph- 

ecies,  and  aid  many  other  wonderful  things,  he- 

Pyrrhoniflm,  a  system  of  scepticism,  the  founder  lon^  to  lozend,  and  seem  to  have  no  historiccu  foun- 

of  which  was  Pyrrho,  a  Greek  philosopher,  about  whom  dation.    Similarly   the   story   of   his   journey   into 

very  little  is  known  except  that  he  died  in  270  b.  c.  Egypt,  Asia  Minor,  and  even  to  Babylon  is  not  at- 

The  best  known  of  Pyrrho's  disciples  was  Timon  of  tested  by  reliable  historians.    To  the  region  of  fable 

Philius,  known  as  the  sillographer.    Pyrrho's  scepti-  belongs  also  the  description  of  the  learned  works 

cism  was  so  complete  and  comprehensive   that   the  which  he  wrote  and  which  were  long  kept  secret  in 

word  Pyrrhonism  is  sometimes  used  as  a  synonym  his  school.    It  is  certain,  however,  that  he  founded  a 

for  scepticism.    The  scepticism  of  Pyrrho's  school  school,  or,  rather,  a  religious  philosophical  society, 

covered  three  points.     (1)  All  the  dogmatists,  that  for  wl#ch  he  drew  up  a  rule  of  life.    In  this  rule  are 

is  to  say,  all  the  philosophers  who  believed  that  truth  said  to  have  been  regulations  imposing  secrecy,  a 

and  certitude  can  be  attained,  were  mere  sophists;  protracted  period  of  silence,  celibacy,  and  various 

they   were   self-deceived   and   deceivers   of   others,  kinds  of  abstinence.    The  time-honoiu^  tradition 

(2)  Certitude  is  impossible  of  attainment^  not  only  that  Pythagoras  forbade  his  disciples  to  eat  beans, 
because  of  the  possibility  that  our  faculties  deceive  for  which  various  reasons,  more  or  less  ingenious, 
us,  but  also  because,  in  themselves,  things  are  neither  were  assigited  by  ancient  and  medieval  writers,  has 
one  thing  nor  the  other,  neither  good  nor  evil,  beau-  been  upset  bv  some  recent  writers,  who  understand 
tiful  nor  ugly,  large  nor  small.  Or,  rather,  things  are  the  phrase,  "Abstain  from  beans"  (m/d/ttwr  dir^xrre), 
both  good  and  evil,  beautiful  and  ugly,  large  and  to  refer  to  a  measure  of  practical  prudence,  and  not 
small,  so  that  there  is  no  reason  why  we  should  affirm  to  a  gastronomic  principle.  Beans,  black  and  white, 
that  they  are  one  thing  rather  than  the  other.  This  were,  according  to  this  interpretation,  the  means  of 
conviction  was  expr^sed  in  the  famous  saying,  voting  in  Ma^na  Grsecia,  ana  "Abstain  from  beans'' 
odd^r  fiaXXor,  nothing  is  more  one  thing  than  another;  wouldf,  therefore,  mean  merely  "Avoid  pohtics" — 
the  paper  is  not  more  white  than  black,  the  piece  a  warning  which,  we  know,  was  warranted  by  the 
of  sugar  is  not  more  sweet  than  bitter,  and  so  forth,  troubles  in  which  the  school  was  involved  on  account 

(3)  The  reaUty  of  things  being  inaccessible  to  the  of  the  active  share  which  it  took  during  the  founder's 
human  mind,  and  certitude  being  impossible  of  attain-  lifetime  in  the  struggles  of  the  popular  with  the  ari»- 
ment,  the  wise  man  doubts  about  everything;  that  tocratic  party  in  Southern  Italy.  The  school  was 
is,  he  recognizes  the  futility  of  inquiry  into  reality  instructed  by  its  founder  to  devote  itself  to  the  cul- 
and  abstains  from  judging.  This  abstention  is  tivation  of  phposophy,  mathematics,  music,  and  gyin- 
called  ^0X1^.  It  is  the  foundation  of  happiness,  nasties,  the  aim  of  the  organization  being  priiriarily 
Because  he  aloue  can  attain  happiness  who  cmtivates  ethical.  The  theoretical  doctrines  taught  by  the 
imperturbability,  drapa^la;  and  then  only  is  the  mind  master  were  strictly  adhered  to,  so  much  so  that  the 
proof  against  disquietude  when  we  realize  that  every  IVthagoreans  were  known  for  their  frequent  citation 
attempt  to  attain  the  truth  is  doomed  to  failure.  of  the  ipse  dixit  of  the  founder.    Naturally,  as  soon 

From  this  account  of  the  principles  of  P^honism,  as  the  legends  began  to  grow  up  around  the  name  of 

it  is  evident  that  Pyrrho's  aim  was  ethical.    Like  Pythagoras,  many  tenets  were  ascribed  him  which 

all  the  philosophers  o^  the  period  in  which  he  lived,  were  in  fact  introduced  by  later  Pythagoreans,  such 

he  concerned  himself  J3rincipally  with  the  problem  as  Philolaus  and  Archytas  of  Tarentum. 
of  happiness.    The  Stoics  sought  to  found  happi-        It  seems  to  be  certam  that,  besides  prescribing  the 

ness  on  the  realization  of-  the  reign    of    law    in  rules  that  were  to  govern  the  society,  Pythagoras 

human    nature   as   well    as   in   nature.     The   Ep-  tau^t:    (1)  a  doctrine  of  transmigration  of  souls 

icureans   grounded   happiness    on    the    conviction  which  he  probably  borrowed  from  Uie  Bacchic  and 

that    transitory    feeling    is    the     one     important  Orphic  niysteries,  the  whole  spirit  of  the  doctrine 

phenomenon  in  human  life.    The  Eclectics  plac^  being  religious  and  ethical,  intended  to  show,  by 

the  intellectual  basis  of  happiness  in  the  conviction  successive  incarnations  of  the  soul  in  the  bodies  of 

that  all  systems  of  philosophy  are  equally  true.    The  dififer^t  animals  a  system  by  which  certain  vices 

Pyrrhonist,  as  well  as  the  other  sceptics  of  that  and  virtues  were  to  be  punished  and  rewarded  after 

period,   believed   that  there  is  no  possibihty  of  at-  death;  (2)  in  a  general  way,  the  doctrine  th&t  math- 

taining  happiness  unless  one  first  realizes  that  all  ematics  contains  the  key  to  all  philosophical  knowl- 

systems  of  philosophy  are  equsdly  false  and  that  the  edge,  a  germ,  so  to  speak,  which  was  afterwards 

real  truth  of  things  cannot  be  attained.     Pyrrhonism  developed  into  an  elaborate  number-theory  by  his 

is.  therefore,  an  abdication  of  all  the  supposed  rights  followers;  and  (3)  the  notion  that  virtue  is  a  hannony, 

of  the  mind,  and  cannot  be  dealt  with  by  the  ordinary  and  may  be  cultivated  not  only  by  contemplation 

rules  of  lo^c  or  by  the  customary  canons  of  philo-  and  meditation  but  also  by  the  practice  of  gymnastics 

sophical  criticism.  and  music.    The  subsequent  elaboration  of  these 

feRODERSEN,  De  PhxioB.  PyirhonU  (Kiel.  1819) ;  Lanohmn-  three  central  doctrines  into  a  complicated  system 

%^Xi^%i' lTSt^lTi'^^^\\!^li^'^;  »  Jije  ^OTk  of  the  followers  of  Pythawras..  The 

Turner,  History  of  Phiioaophy  (Boston.  1903).  184  sqq.  Pythagorean  phOosophy  in  its  later  elaboration  is 

William  Turner.  dominated  by  the  number-theory.    Being  the  first, 

apparently,  to  obsefve  that  natural  phenomena,  es- 

Fythagoras  and  PythafforeaniBin. — Pythagoras,  pecially  the  phenomena  of  the  astronomical  world, 

the    Greek    philosopher    and    mathematician    and  may  be  expressed  in  mathematical  formulas,  the 


rtx  5! 

Pythagoreans  were  carried  on  by  the  enthusiaBin 
characteristic  of  diacovereis  t^)  maintain  that  num- 
bers are  not  only  the  symbolB  of  reality,  but  the  very 
BubHtance  of  real  things.  They  held,  for  example, 
that  one  is  the  point,  tno  the  line,  three  the  surface, 
and  four  the  solid.  Seven  they  considered  la  be  the 
fate  that  dominates  human  life,  because  infancy  ceases 
at  seven,  maturity  bcKios  at  fourteen,  marriage  takes 
place  in  the  twenty-nrat  year,  and  seventy  years  is 
the  span  of  life  usually  allotted  to  man.  Ten  ia  the 
perfect  number,  because  it  is  the  sum  of  one,  two, 
three,  and  four — the  point,  the  line,  the  surface,  and 
the  solid.  Having,  naturally,  observed  that  all  num- 
bers may  bo  rang^  in  parallel  columna  under  "odd" 
aod  "even",  they  were  led  to  attempt  a  similar  ar- 
rangement of  the  qualities  of  thin^.  Under  odd 
they  placed  light,  straight,  good,  right,  masculine; 
under  even,  dark,  crooked,  evu,  left,  feminine.  These 
oppoflites,  they  contended,  are  found  everywhere 
in  nature,  and  the  union  of  them  constitutes  the 
harmony  of  the  real  world. 

The  account  given  by  the  IVthagoreans  of  the 
"harmony  of  the  spheres"  is  the  best  illustration 
of  their  method.  There  are,  they  said,  ten  heavesly 
bodies,  namely,  the  heaven  of  the  fixed  stars,  the  five 
planets,  the  sun,  the  moon,  the  earth,  and  the  counter- 
earth.  The  count«r-«arth  is  added  because  it  is 
necessary  to  make  up  the  number  ten,  the  perfect 
number.  It  is  a  body  under  the  earth,  moving 
parallel  with  it,  and,  since  it  moves  at  the  sa«ie  rate 
of  speed,  it  is  invisible  to  us.  The  five  planets,  the 
sun,  the  moon,  and  the  earth  with  its  counter-earth, 
moving  from  west  to  east  at  rates  of  speed  propor- 
tionate to  the  distance  of  each  from  the  central  fire, 
produce  eight  tones  which  give  an  octave,  and,  there- 
fore, a  harmony.  We  are  not  conscious  of  the 
harmony,  either  because  it  is  too  great  to  be  per- 
ceptible by  human  ears,  or  because,  like  the  black- 
smith who  has  grown  accustomed  to  the  noise  of  his 
hammer  on  the  anvil,  we  have  lived  since  our  first 
conscious  moments  in  the  sound  of  the  heavenly 
musio  and  can  no  longer  perceive  it.  In  their  p^- 
cholo^  and  their  ethics  tne  Pythagoreans  used  the 
idea  of  harmony  and  the  notion  of  number  as  the  ex- 
planation of  the  mind  and  its  states,  and  also  of 
virtue  and  its  various  kinds.  It  was  not  these  par- 
ticular doctrines  of  the  school  so  much  as  the  general 
notion  which  prevailed  among  the  Pythagoreans  of 
the  scope  and  aim  of  philosophy,  that  influenced  the 
subsequent  course  of  speculation  among  the  Greeks. 
Unlike  the  lonians,  who  were  scientists  and  related 
philosophy  to  knowledge  merely,  the  Pythagoreans 
were  religiously  and  ethically  inclined,  and  strove  to 
bring  phUosophy  into  relation  with  life. as  well  as  with 
knowledge.  Anstotelianism,  which  reduced  philos- 
ophy to  knowledge,  never  could  compete,  m  the 
estimation  of  its  advocates,  with  Christianity,  as 
neo-I^thagoreanism  did,  by  setting  up  the  claim  that 
in  the  teachings  of  its  founder  it  had  a  "way  of  life" 
preferable  to  that  taught  by  the  Founder  of  Chris- 
tianity. 

lAHBUCacftp  Lagendary  Life  of  PuU\aaora4.  m  Latio  (Leipiig. 
ISIS),  tr.  T*iLOH  (London,  1818);  Ghoti,  HiM.  of  drecce, 
TV  (LoDdon,  1SS5),  5ZG  aqq.;  Zellbh.  Fre-SoeraUe  Phila:. 
tr.  Aluthb,  I  (LondoQ.  1S81),  306  nq.;  Uebcbwu,  Hiil.  of 
Philas.,  tr.  MoHHia,  I  iSe-w  York.  1892).  42  sqq.;  Tanneri, 
Pour  rAur.il(Jatn««A<lUn<(P<>rig,lS37),  201  aqq.:  Tdrneii. 
Hill,  of  PML  (Bocton.  1003),  3S  iqq. 

•  WlLUAM  TlIKNBR. 

Pyx. — The  word  pyx  (Lat.,  m/xis,  which  translit- 
erates the  Greek,  vuE't,  a  box-wood  receptacle, 
from  riCo',  box-tree)  was  formerly  applied  in  a  wide 
and  general  sense  to  all  vessels  used  to  contain  the 
Blessed  Eucharist.  In  particular  it  was  perhaps 
the  commonest  term  applied  to  the  cup  in  which  the 
Blessed  Sacrament  actually  rested  when  in  the 
Middle  Ages  it  was  suspended  above  the  altar.  Thus 
^he  Custumal  ot  Cluny  in  the  eleventh  century  speaks 


8  PTX 

of  the  "deacon  taking  the  golden  pyx  (auraom 
pj/xidem)  out  of  the  dove  (cMumba)  which  hongs 
permanently  above  the  altar".  In  later  times 
however  it  has 
come  about  that 
the  term  pyx  is 
limited  in  oriunary 
usage  to  that 
smaller  vessel  of 
gold,  or  silver- 
gilt,  in  which  the 
Eucharist  is  com- 
monly carried  to 
the  sick.  Such 
vessels  are  some- 
times made  flat 
like  awatch,  some- 
times mounted  ,. 
upon  a  little  stand  '-. 
like  a  miniature 
ciborium.  From 
the  resemblance  in 
size  and  shape 
the  word  pyx  is 
also  used  to  denote  the  small  silver  vessel  or  cuttofU 
in  which  the  Sacred  Host  is  commonly  kept  in  the 
Tabernacle,  that  it  may  be  transferred  thence  to  the 

monstrance    when 

the  Blessed  Sacra* 
ment  is  exposed 
tor  the  service  of 
Benediction.  In 
the  Middle  Apes 
pyxes  for  cajrymg 
the  Eucharist  to 
the  sick  were  not 
unfrequently  made 
of  ivory.  In  spite 
of  synodal  decrees 
it  is  to  be  feared 
that  there  were 
Pn  many   churches 

V  Century  [yjtji  in   medieval 

and  later  times  which  preserved  no  proper  pyx  for 
taking  Viaticum  to  the  sick.  In  these  cases  the  custom 
seems  to  have  prevailed,  even  if  it  was  not  ofhcially 
tolerated,  of  carrying  the 
Host  wrapped  in  a  corporal 
in  a  burse  which  was  sus- 
pended round  the  priest's 
neck  or  even  of  placing  it 
between  the  leaves  of  a 
breviary. 

The  "pyx-cover", or"pyx- 
cloth",  of  which  we  some- 
times read  in  medieval  in- 
ventories, was  a  veil  which 
bung  over  the  pyx  as  it  was 
suspended  above  the  altar, 
and  it  was  consequently  a 
cloth  of  considerable  size.  At 
the  present  dav  the  pyx  when 
earned  secretly  to  the  sick, 
as  is  the  case  in  moat  Protest- 
ant and  many  Catholic  coun- 
tries, is  generally  carried  in 
a  burse  or  pyx-bag,  i.  e.  a 
silken  bag  suspended  round 
the  priest's  neck  within  which 
the  pyx  is  wrapped  in  a  di- 
minutive corporal  used  for 
that  purpose. 

I,  379-BO;  '  Or™.'  Han^iudl  d 

(teipiij,  1883),  I,  KO-W;    RoHintr  di  wiMvtr,  Lib  «mh.  f 
n>>rU.   1BS7).  G7-M.  with  pluUa;    Buurcs.  Dixtuimirv  of  So 
d  Tmiu  (LondoB,  ISIO},  pp.  2S1-353. 

Herbert  Thurston. 


fejBjB^I 

1 

''if   *ro 

W   Z 

m  §- 

Q 

QaadrageeixDft  (Lat.,  the  fortieth)  denotes  a  seaaon  .  QuadriTium.    See  Abts,  The  Sbvbn  Libbral. 

of  preparation  by  fasting  and  prayer,  to  imitate  the  o««i.— -     g^  i?»t»,^<>  q^^««v  -r^« 

example  of  Chriat  (Matt!;  iv).    Several  such  were  ob-  Quakers.    See  Friends,  Society  of. 

served  by  the  earlv  Christians,  viz.  before  Christmas,  Quality  (Gr.  »oiAri|f— Plato,  Aristotle— iroi^r;  Lat. 

Easter,  and  the  f Mst  of  St.  John  the  Baptist;  the  qualitas,  quale)  is  used,  1st,  in  an  extended  sense,  as 

Greeks  had  four,  the  Mwomt^  six,  and  the  Arme-  whatever  can  be  attnbuted  to  the  subject  of  dis- 

nians  ei^^t  (Du  Cange,    Gloss.  ).   The  major,  before  course;  and  2nd,  in  its  exact  signification,  as  that  cate- 

Laster,  is  commonly  known.    It  is  mention^  m  the  ^^^  ^hich  is  distinguished  from  the  nine  others 

fifth  canon  of  the  Council  of  Nic»a,  in  t^  sixty-mnth  enumerated  by  Aristotle.    In  the  present  article  the 

of  the  Apostohc  Canons,  and  m  ^e  PdgnmMe  of  ^^^^  jg  treated  in  its  stricter  sense.     The  eighth 

iEthena    (Duchesne,    499).    In    the    Anglo^wton  chapter  of  the  "Categories"  treats  of   quality,  as 

Church  Mass  was  said  on  the  weekdays  of  Quadra-  distinct  from  substance  and  the  other  predicaments, 

gesuna  late  in  the  afternoon  and  food  was  taken  only  j^  -^  described,  however,  in  the  openmg  words  of  the 

near  sunset  (Rock,  IV,  76).    According  to  the  Roman  sbcth  chapter  of  the  same  book  as  that  on  account  of 

Rite,  the  feruB  of  this  tune,  bw^innmg  with  Ash  ^Yiich  we  say  that  anything  is  such  or  such— Tot6rin-« 

Wednesday,  are  major  (see  Fbria).    The  season  has  ^  x4yu»   koB^  Ijw  wotU  nw  UXwai]  \4yorrai.     It  is  thus 

a  proper  preface.    In  fenal  masses  a  special  oration  is  ^.^^  accidental  form  which  determines  the  subject  to  a 

added  after  the  ordinary  postcommumon,  with  the  in-  g^jj^l  mode  of  bemg.    It  is  the  reply  to  the  question 

vitation: j'Humiliate  capita  vestra  Deo".    Octaves  ^^^^  ^  ^^f  ^  gt.  Thomas  Aquinas  remarks;  and 

are  forbidden,  and  rf,  by  special  conc^on,  they  are  is  the  correlative  to  Talis  (as  QtuirUtui  to  Tantus),  as 

allowed  they  must  be  mterrupted  on  Sundays.    The  »  pointed  out  by  James  MiU  in  his  "Analysis".    As 

first  Simday  of  Lent,  known  as  Invocaba  from  the  first  thenotion  is  a  wmple  one,  it  is  not  possible  strictly 

word  of  the  Introit,  18  for  the  Grwlw  a  commemoration  ^  define  it;  for,  to  do  this,  it  would  Wnecessary  to 

of  the  veneration  of  images  (19  Feb.,  842).    For  Gaul  y^  j^       -^^  ^^^^  ^^d  diJBfererUia-axi  impossibUity 

It  was  the  tour  de  burea  or  fHe  des  hrandonsandjor  ^^^  ^f^  simplest  concepts  are  concerned!^  It  ^ 

Germany  FurUcmtag  or  Hatt/eu«r,  because  on  that  day  j^^f  ^^^  ^  j^^j            ^^  ^^y  particular  things,  not 

**'®r^?^PT®T'^^Hi,*^®^'^*l'^?'^T''^  generically  identicaf,  can  be  subjects  of  the^kme 

torches  (NiUes,  H, J^^'  J^^^'^^  Sunday  ^*-  predicate,   analogic^y  employed!     QuaUty  is  the 

?l*?i!S\  '''^J^fJ^J^Q^^^^®/?^^  '^f'''^  ^/?*"u'  category  according  to  whic^  objectslre  sdd  to  be 

I/jl122).    The  thml  Sunday,  Oa*/t,  was  for  the  Greeks  likelrunUke;  andfrn  view  of  the  tendency  mtroduced 

Adoro/io  Crucw  with^^  into  modem  science  by  the  mechanist  theories  of 

Jf  *TJ V^J!?  r-^'           the  Bohemians  it  was  Descartes,  and  fostered  by  the  postulate  of  the  trans- 


l^li!!^.- ^!S*^-;!^.°^^^^^  formation'  of  energy,  it  ^is  of  Importance  that  the 


*^R:>c^7*i.dJ'^0^^^^  1904);  Duc^kb.  "Categories"  .is  a  logical  one,  in  which  the  attri- 
Chrittian  Wortkip  (London.  1904).  Kbllnbb,  Hwrtoioifis  (Frei-  butes  are  considered  as  possible  predicates  of  a  sub- 
burg,  1906,  tr.  ^London  and  St.  Louw,  1908) ;  Bbngbb,  Pattoral-  ject.     But  they  are  further  understood  metaphys- 

2»,  "\«S!*TSSU'1i^Si^,^°SSri.^S£a  H^'  '^^-  ^  *"\^T^'  <rlity  isoneorother  of  the 

1897).  four  modes  m  which   substance  is  determmed  to 

Francis  Mbbshman.  being  talis  or  taHs,  i.  e.  such  or  such.    Considered  thus, 

it  is  an  accidental  determiaation  (cf.  Form). 

Quadratus,  the  first  of  the  Christian  apolofpsts.  The  four  divisions  of  quality  are:    (1)  Habit,  or 

He  is  said  by  Eusebius  (Chron.  ad  ann.  Abrah.  2041,  condition  (habitiis);  a  permanent  and  comparatively 

124  A.  D.)  to  have  been  a  disciple  of  the  Apostles  stable  quiJity  by  which  man^  considered  as  to  his 

(auditor  apostolorum).    He  addre^ed  a  discourse  to  nature  or  operation,  is  well  or  ill-adapted  towards  his 

the  Emperor  Hadrian  containing  an  apolonr  for  the  natural  end.    Strictly  si^eaking,  only  man  can  be  the 

Christian  religion,  during  a  visit  which  me  latter  subject  of   habit.    It   is   thus   distinguished   from 

made  to  Athens  in  124  or  125.    With  the  exception  disposition;    which  is  used  of  other  than  human 

of  a  short  passage  quoted  by  Eusebius  (Hist.  EccL,  beings.     Less  stable  conditions,  as  hot,  cold,  sick, 

IV,    iii),    this    apology    has    entirely    disappeared,  well,  are  also  mentioned  here.    (2)  Natural  powers  or 

Eusebius    states     (Chron.)     incorrectly,     however,  incapacities  (potentia  activa  et  impoierUia),    These  are 

that  the  appeal  of  Quadratus  moved  the  emperor  distmguished,  as  accidents,  from  the  substance;  and 

to  issue  a  favourable  edict.     Because  of  the  similar-  are  further  distinguished  among  themselves  as  are  the 

ity  of  name  some  scholars   have  concluded  (e.  g.  distinct  acts  from  which  they  are  inferred.    The  im- 

Bardenhewer,  ''Patrology",  p.  46)  Uiat  Quadratus  portant  Scholastic  thesis  of  the  real  distinction  of 

the  apologist  is  the  same  person  as  Quadratus,  a  nature  from  its  faculties  arises  in  this  connexion, 

prophet   mentioned    elsewhere    by    Eusebius  (Hist.  (3)  Power  of  causing  sensations  and  results  of  the 

Eccl.,  Ill,  xxxvii).     The  evidence,  however,  is  too  modification  of  sense;  the  one  belonging,  as  quality, 

slight   to  be  convincing.    The  later  references  to  to  the  objects  of  sense;  the  other  to  the  senses  that 

Quadratus  in  Jerome  and  the  martyrologies  are  all  are  modified.     (4)  Figure,  or  circumscribing  form  of 

based  oh  Eusebius  or  are  arbitrary  enlargements  of  extended  bodies.    St.  Thomas  Aquinas  insists  upon 

his  account.  the  fact  that  this  mode  of  quality  (morphology)  is  the 

ttS^^'  «««««»•«  5acr«,  I  (^ord,  1846),  69-79;  Harnacb.  most  certain  index  of  the  identity  or  diversity  of 

Lii€r.j  I.  96;  II.  269-71;  BabdhmhbWbr.  Patroiooy,  tr.  Sraban  species,  especially  m  plants  and  animals.    QuaUty 

(St.  Louii,  1908).  admits  m  the  concrete,  though  not  m  the  abstract, 

Patrick  J.  Healt.  of  more  and  less;  and  in  some  cases,  though  not  in  all« 

589 


QUAMICHAN 


590 


QUAM 


of  contrariety.  A  figure  cannot  be  more  or  less  tri- 
angular than  another,  though  one  man  may  be  more 
wise  than  another;  and  there  is  no  contrary  to  red; 
though  just  is  contrary  to  unjust.  The  category,  in 
its  predicamental  sense,  involves  that  of  relation,  as 
is  noted  by  Aristotle.  The  answer  to  Qualist  asked  of 
the  concrete  man,  is  tcdU — such  as  so-and-so.    Meta- 

ghysically  considered,  no  relation  of  this  kind  need 
e  involved.  The  substance,  or  nature,  is  talis  because 
of  the  accidental  form  that  determines  it  absolutely, 
without  reference  to  any  standard  of  comparison. 

Abistotlb,  Opeta  omnia  CParia.  1619) ;  Qbotk,  AriaMU  (Lon- 
don, 1872);  LoBBNSBLU,  PhHo9ophim  Theoretiea  ItutittUionet 
(Rome,  1896);  Mbbcibb,  Onlohgie  (Louvain.  1902);  Ntb, 
CosnuUogie  (Louvain,  19()6);  St.  Tbomab  Aquinab,  Opera 
(Parma,  1852),  (ef.  especiaUy,  De  ruUura  getitrU,  De  nahtra 
aeciderUia), 

Francis  Avsling. 

Quamichan  TTirttanfi,  the  largest  of  the  numerous 
small  bands  attached  to  Cowicnan  agency,  at  the 
south-east  end  of  Vancouver,  Briti^  Columbia. 
They  are  of  Salishan  stock  and  speak  the  Gowichan 
language,  which  is  spoken  also  by  seversd  of  the  as- 
sociated bands  as  well  as  upon  the  opposite  main- 
land. Their  chief  settlement  is  in  Gowichan  vdley, 
about  forty  miles  north  of  Victoria.  In  their  primi- 
tive condition  they  subsisted  by  fishing,  hunting 
and  the  gathering  of  wild  berries  and  roots.  Their 
customs,  beliefs,  and  ceremonials  were  practicallv 
the  same  as  those  of  their  neighbours,  the  Son^sh 
and  Sechelt.  Frs.  J.  B.  Bolduc  and  Modeste 
Demers  visited  them  as  early  as  1847,  but  thev  were 
chiefly  converted  by  the  Oblate  Fathers,  who  ar- 
rived at  Victoria  in  1857.  They  are  now  civilized, 
industrious,  and  moral,  in  fairly  good  houses,  living 
by  farming,  fishing,  hunting,  and  by  working  on 
the  ^railway,  in  canneries,  etc.  From  probably  1000 
souls  sixty  years  ago,  they  nave  been  reduced  by  small- 
pox and  other  diseases  to  300  in  1901,  and  260  m  1909, 
of  whom  all  but  about  60  are  reportea  to  be  Catholics, 
the  rest  Methodists  (see  also  Sonqibh  Indians). 

Deft,  of  Indn.  Affaibb  (Canada)  ;  AnnucU  RepU.  (Ottawa) ; 
MoBXCB,  Catholie  Church  in  WeaUm  Canada  (Toronto,  1910). 

Jambs  Moonbt. 

Quam  singulari,  adecree  of  the  Sacred  Congrega- 
tion of  the  Sacraments,  8  August,  1910,  on  the  age  at 
which  children  are  to  be  admitted  to  first  Communion, 
officially  promulgated  15  August.  1910  (Acta  Apost. 
Sedis,  15  August,  1910).  Tiie  historical  facts  nar- 
rated in  the  ''Quam  singulari''  prove  that  (a)  it  is  not 
a  decree  inaugurating  a  new  oiscipline,  but  one  re- 
storing the  ancient  and  universe  law  of  the  Church, 
wherever  it  has  not  been  observed  (Pius  X  to  Card. 
Abp.  of  Cologne,  31  December,  1910);  (b)  the^^ustom 
of  giving  Holy  Communion  to  infants  immediately 
after  baptism,  and  frequently  before  the  beginning  of 
their  rational  life,  has  been  modified  but  never  con- 
denmed;  it  is  even  approved  to-day  among  the  Greeks 
and  Orientals;  (c)  the  decree  of  the  Fourth  Lateran 
Council  (1215^  can.  xxi)  has  never  been  revoked  or 
modified,  and  in  virtue  of  it  all  are  obliged,  as  soon  as 
they  arrive  at  the  years  of  discretion,  to  receive  both 
the  Sacraments  of  Penance  and  Holy  Communion  at 
Easter  time;  (d)  the  '^ testimony  of  the  f;reatest 
authority,  St.  Thomas  Aquinas  ,  inteipretmg  the 
Council,  states  that  the  Lateran  decree  obliges  ''chil- 
dren when  they  begin  to  have  some  use  of  reason  "  (also 
Ledesma,  Vasquez,  St.  Antoninus);  (e)  the  Goundl  of 
Trent  confirmed  the  Lateran  decree  pronouncing 
anathema  against  all  who  deny  "that  the  faithful  of 
both  sexes  who  have  attained  the  use  of  reason  are 
obliged  to  receive  Holy  Communion  every  year,  at 
least  at  Easter  time''  (Sess.  XIII,  de  Euch.,  c.  viii, 
can.  ix). 

Errors  condemned  by  the  *'Quam  singulari**. — (a)  A 
greater  discretion  is  required  for  first  Communion 
&an  for  first  Confession,  (b)  To  receive  Holy  Com- 
munion a  more  complete  knowledge  of  the  articles  of 


Faith  is  required.  This  erroneous  opinion,  demanding 
with  Jansenism  (1)  extraordinary  preparation,  thereby 
deferring  Communion  "for  the  nper  age*'  of  twelve, 
fourteen,  or  even  older  ("absolutely  forbidden"), 
makes  (2)  "the  Holy  Eucharist  a  reward  and  not  a 
remedy  for  human  frailty",  which  is  contraiy  to  the 
teaching  of  the  Coimcil  of  Trent  that  Holy  Commu- 
nion is  "an  antidote  by  which  we  are  freed  from  our 
daily  faults  and  preserved  from  mortal  sins".  The 
error  assumes  (3)  what  may  be  false— that  riper  years 
and  more  completeSnstruction  g^ve  better  dispositions 
than  the  innocence  and  candour  of  more  tender  years. 
As  first  Communion  is  not  essentially  dififeient  from  any 
other  Communion  the  extraordinary  preparation  here- 
tofore demanded  is  (4)  contrary  to  the  "Sacra  Triden- 
tina",  which  for  daily  communicants,  including  chil- 
dren, requires  only  the  state  of  grace  and  a  good 
intention. 

Abuses  foUowing  from  errors. — (a)  Depriving  the  child 
from  the  beginning  of  its  rational  life  of  the  right 
of  living  in  Christ  through  Holy  Communion, 
a  right  given  by  baptism;  (b)  causing  the  loss 
of  angelic  first  irmocence  in  many  by  those  years  of 
deprivation  of  Christ  and  of  paces,  years  for  many 
the  seed-time  for  snares  and  vices,  all  of  which  might 
have  been  avoided;  (c)  causing,  by  the  custom  of  some 
places,  children  to  live  in  the  state  of  sin  by  not  allow- 
ing them  to  go  to  confession  until  the  age  determined 
for  first  Communion,  or  of  denying  them  absolution 
when  they  confessed  ("absolutely  condemned"  and 
"to  be  done  away  with  by  ordinaries  as  the  law  per- 
mits"); (d)  denyirig  the  Viaticum  to  dying  children 
who  had  not  received  their  first  Communion,  and 
burying  these  as  infants,  thereby  depriving  them  of 
the  suffrages  of  the  Church,  to  which  they  were  en- 
titled ("utterly  detestable' ,  "ordinaries  to  proceed 
severely  against  these"). 

Conditions  for  first  Confession  and  first  Communion. 
— (a)  The  age  of  discretion,  which  applies  equally  to 
both  sacrainents.  This  may  be  juoged  (1)  by  the 
first  indication  of  t^e  child  using  its  reasoning  powers; 
(2)  by  the  child  knowing  what  is  right  from  wrong. 
No  determined  age  is  placed  as  a  conmtion;  the  aee  of 
seven  is  mentioned  because  the  majority  of  children 
arrive  at  the  years  of  discretion,  that  is,  begin  to 
reason,  about  this  period,  some  sooner,  some  later. 

(b)  A  knowledge  such  as  a  child  just  beginning  to 
reason  can  have  about  one  God,  Who  rewards  the 
good  and  punishes  the  wicked,  and  about  the  mys- 
teries of  the  Trinity  and  the  Incarnation.  It  is  not 
necessary  that  the  child  should  commit  to  memory 
accurate  theological  definitions,  which  may  con- 
vey no  idea  to  the  little  mind  just  beginning  to  unfold. 

(c)  A  child  must  be  ^le  to  distinguish  the  Eucharistic 
from  the  common  bread;  that  is,  to  know  that  what 
looks  like  bread  is  not  bread,  but  contains  the  real, 
living  Body  and  Blood  of  Christ,  (d)  Children  should 
be  taught  to  received  Holy  Communion  devoutly,  (e) 
Children  should  be  instructed  on  the  necessity  of  being 
in  the  state  of  grace  and.  of  having  a  good  intention, 
also  (f)  of  fasting  from  midnight  before  Communion. 

Obligation  of  admitting  children  to  first  Communion. 
— When  children  begin  to  reason,  the  obligation  of  re- 
cieving  Holy  Communion  is  pivineas  well  as  ecclesi- 
asticaL  The  subject-matter  of  the  decree  (a)  is  there- 
fore a  grave  one  obliging  under  serious  sin,  (1)  children 
themselves  if  they  know  of  and  maliciously  neglect  their 
obligation ;  (2)  those  responsible  for  the  children :  father, 
mother,  instructors,  rectors  of  colleges,  principals  of 
schools,  superiors  ot  'communities  and  children's  asy- 
lums, all  wno  have  parental  responsibility,  confesRors, 
and  pastors,  (b)  A  grave  obligation  devolving  on  all 
above  mentioned  is  to  encourage  children  after  first 
Communion  to  approach  the  altar  frequently,  even 
daily,  if  possible.  Those  (c)  responsible  for  childrea 
should  regard  as  "  their  most  important  duty"  that  the 
incomplete  instruction  given  before  first  Communion 


QUANTA 


591 


QUAPAW 


|p6  oontinued  afterwards  by  sending  the  children  to  the 
public  catechetical  instructions,  or  by  supplying 
their  reUsious  instruction  in  some  other  way.  The 
formal  admission  of  the  child  to  first  Conmiunion 
rests  with  the  father,  or  the  one  taking  his  place, 
and  with  the  confessor.  The  decree  supposes  these 
to  act  together,  and  when  they  agree  on  the  ad- 
mission no  one  may  interfere.  Where  the  parents 
are  negligent  or  in(ufferent  or  opposed  to  their  chil- 
dren's first  Ck)mmunion,  the  confessor  can  assume  the 
entire  responsibility.  Should  the  confessors  oppose 
the  admission  of  children  whose  parents  know  they 
have  begun  to  reason,  the  prudent  course  in  practice 
is  to  present  the  children  to  another  confessor,  for 
every  confessor  has  a  right  to  admit  a  child  to  private 
first  Communion. 

General  Communion, — A  public  ceremony  devolving 
not  on  the  confessor  but  on  the  parish  pnest,  who  is 
required  to  have  yearly  one  or  several  of  these  general 
Ck)mmunionSf  wmch  may  be  simple  or  solemn.  The 
simple  (a)  will  admit  the  (1)  little  children  making 
their  first  Communion,  also  (2)  those  who  have  pre- 
viously approached  the  Holy  Table. .  The  decree  re- 
quires some  days  of  instruction  and  preparation  for 
both  classes  of  children  when  they  receive  in  a  body. 
This  can  be  g^ven  as  conditions  and  circumstances 
permit,  attention  being  paid  to  the  spirit  and  sub- 
stance of  this  provision.  Every  pastor  can  arrange 
a  solemn  ceremony  in  which  those  would  participate 
who  had  completed  a  course  in  Christian  Doctrine. 
Every  year  during  the  time  the  faithful  can  «atisfy 
their  Easter  duty,  the  ''Quam  singulari"  must  be  read 
to  the  people  in  the  vernacular.  Every  five  years  in 
their  ad  /tmtna,  ordinaries  will  be  obliged  to  report  the 
observance  of  the  decree  to  the  Holy  See. 

Qbnnari  in  11  Mon,  Bee,  (Aug.,  Sept.,  1910);  Vkbmesbbch, 
De  Prima  Puerorum  Communione;  Bbsson  in  NouveUe  Rente 
Thiologique  (Nov.,  Deo.,  1910);  Fkrbsbes  in  Rai&n  y  Fe  (Dec., 
1910):  CanbA  in  The  Sentinel  (March,  1911—);  Bcdenasti^ 
Renew  (Oct.,  1910);  Zvjajvta,  Barly  Pint  Communion:  Tke  Child 
Prepared  for  Firet  Communion  (New  York,  1011);  Ldcab,  The 
Decree  "Quam  aingtUari'*  and  the  Age  for  Firet  Communion;  Ma- 
LONKT  in  The  Catholic  World  (Feb..  1911);  Nebi.  La  PW«na  Cw 
munione  dei  fancuUli;  Limtblo,  II  Decreto  euW  Bta  delta  Prima 
Comunione;  Maccono,  La  Prima  Comunione;  Pddagogisehe  Be- 
deutung  dee  Dekrete  Hber  Bret^Kommunion  (Hildeebeim,  1911);  Die 
Kommunion  der  Kinder  (Maim,  1911);  aee  also  current  Catholic, 
especially  foreign,  reviews.  Sept.  to  Dec,  1910;  also  many  pastoral 
letters  of  biahops  of  United  States  and  Europe. 

John  T.  McNicholas. 

Quanta  Cura.    See  Syllabub  of  Pius  IX 

Quantity  (Gr.  vwhw;  Lat.  ^uantitas.  quantum, 
correlate  to  tanlum),  Aristotle,  in  his  ''Categories'' 
places  quantity  (with  which  he  deals  at  length  from 
the  logical  standpoint  in  the  sixth  chapter)  first  in 
his  enumeration  of  the  nine  accidents.  His  list  of  the 
possible  heads  of  classification  of  predicates  has  refer- 
ence to  a  concrete,  material  subject,  and,  as  shown  by 
the  last  two  predicaments  (jacere  and  habere),  prin- 
cipally to  man.  Quantit^r  does  not,  therefore,  as 
philosophy  is  at  present  divided,  fall  properly  under 
the  treatment  of  ontology,  but  of  cosmolo^.  It  pre- 
supposes the  material .  In  Metaphysics/ ',  I V ,  the  con- 
crete quantum  is  described  as  ''tnat  which  is  divisible 
.into  the  parts  included  in  it,  of  which  any  and  each 
is  potentially  one  and  hoc  quid".  By  this  description 
the  inexistent  parts  of  the  quantum  are  discriminated 
from  the  elements  in  the  compound,  the  matter  and 
the  form,  which  are  not  each  potentially  ''one  and 
hoc  quid".  Quantity  is  distinguished  into  (1)  con- 
tinuoiis,  and  (2)  discrete.  Continuous  (geometrical) 
quantity  is  that  which  consists  of  parts  having  posi- 
tion in  reference  to  each  other,  so  that  the  limit  of  the 
one  is  the  limit  of  the  next.  These  parts,  each  poten- 
tially "one  and  hoc  quid",  do  not  form  a  multitude, 
an  aggregate  of  units,  but  one  divisible  quantum,  or 
measurable  sisee.  They  are  not  actual  entities. 
(This  doctrine  is  not  unanimously  held  in  the  School.) 
Continuous  quantity  is  further  subdivided  into  (1) 


successive,  and  (2)  permanent.  Time  and  movement 
are  examples  of  successive,  the  line,  surface  or  tri- 
dimensional body  of^rmanent  continuous  quantity. 
It  is  to  be  noted  that  time  and  movement  have  no 
reality  apart  from  quantified  things  which  move,  and 
of  which  the  movement  is  measurable;  and  that  the 
line  and  superficies  are  no  more  than  abstractions 
practised  upon  the  real  quantum — tridimensional 
body.  Discrete  (arithmetical)  quantity  is  made  up  of 
discontinuQUS  parts.  The  resultant  whole  is  a  unity 
per  acddens,  m  which  the  elements  coexist  as  a 
plurality.  Number  and  speech  are  given  as  examples. 
Quantity  has  no*  contrary,  nor  does  it  admit  degrees. 
There  is  no  contrary  to  a  given  length  or  superficies; 
nor  is  any  one  quantity,  as  such,  more  a  quantity 
than  another  is.  Large,  small,  etc.,  as  used  in  refer- 
ence to  extended  things,  fall  more  properly  under  the 
category  of  relation.  Equal  and  unequal  are  affirmed 
of  objects  in  virtue  of  their  quantitv  alone.  Not  only 
is  material  substance  affected  by  the  accidental  form 
of  quantity,  but  all  the  other  accidents  are  measur- 
able,  at  least  per  acddens,  as  when  we  say  "much 
and  little  white".  St.  Thomas  ("Summa"^',  III.  Q. 
ixxvii,  a.  2)  makes  all  the  accidents  "related  to  their 
subject  by  the  medium  of  dimensive  quantity,  as  the 
first  subject  of  colour  is  said  to  be  the  superficies''. 

An  important  question  is  raised  as  to  the  nature  of 
the  distinction  to  be  drawn  between  substance  and 
quantity.  The  School  generally,  following  Aristotle, 
holds  that,  as  quantity  is  that  reality  which  makes  the 
indivisible  substance  potentially  divisible  (Physics, 
1.  2),  the  distinction  to  be  admitted  is  a  real  one. 
There  is  considerable  diversity  of  opinion  as  to 
whether  this  can  be  demonstrated  by  argiunents  of 
natural  reason.  Aristotle's  own  argument  lies  in  the 
consideration  that  length,  breadth,  and  depth  are 
(|uantities,  but  are  not  substances.  But  against  this 
it  has  been  urged  that  these  things  do  not  exist  as 
such  at  all.  They  are  abstractions  formed  by  the 
dissociation  produced  by  varying  concomitants. 
Suarez,  Pesch.  De  San,  Nys.  and  others  hold  that  the 
distinction  is  aemonstrable ;  out  most  of  the  arguments 
advanced  are  negative  ones.  For  Descartes  and  his 
school,  quantity,  or  extension,  is  the  essence  of  cor» 
poreal  substance.  The  distinction  to  which  allusion 
has  just  been  made  has  no  place  in  the  system  (cf. 
De8(;artes).  The  definition  of  the  Council  of  Trent, 
however,  teaches  that  quantity  is  really  distinct  from 
substance.  It  is  of  faith  that  the  substances  of  bread 
and  wine  in  the  Eucharist  are  changed  at  the  consecra- 
tion (Sess.  XIII,  cap.  iv) ;  but  the  quantity  remains 
sensibly  unaltered.  To  escape  this  difficulty,  the 
Cartesi&ns  had  recourse  to  several  explanations,  none 
of  which  seems  to  be  in  any  way  satisfactory.  Con- 
tinuous quantity  is  seen  to  be,  in  the  philosophy  o{ 
the  School,  an  attribute  and  accident  of  body.  Cor- 
poreal substance,  as  such,  is  not  quantitatively  divis- 
ible. When  actuated  by  quantity  it  becomes  so;  but 
is  not  yet  spatially  displayed.  The  accident  is  thus 
distinguished  by  Scholastics  from  the  further  accident 
of  formal  extension  which  is  complementary  to  it,  and 
by  which  the  parts,  already  rendered  distinct  by  quan- 
tity, are  localized  in  space.  Through  the  aptitude  to 
being  determined  by  this  accidental  form,  matter 
is  held  to  be  individuated;  the  principle  of  indi- 
viduation of  corporeal  beings  is  materia  quantitate 
eignaia. 

Grots,  ArietoOe  (London,  1872);  Haan,  Philoeophia  na- 
twralia  (Freibuis.  1806);  Lorkkielu,  Philoeophia  Theore- 
ticoB  Inettttdionee  (Rome,  1896):  Mercier.  OrUologie  (Louvain, 
1002) ;  Ntb,  Coemologie  (Louvain,  1006) ;  St.  Thomas  Aquinas, 
Opera  (Parma,  1852).  (Cf.  especiaJIv  De  ftrineipio  individuationia, 
De  natura   materia   et    dimeneionxoue    irderminatis^  De  nohira 


generie,  De  natura  acddentia.) 


Francis  Avelino. 


Quapaw  Indians. — ^A  tribe  now  nearly  extinct, 
but  formerly  one  of  the  most  important  of  the  lower 
Mississippi  region,  occupying  several  villages  about 


QtTAPAW 


592 


QUAPAW 


the  mouth  of  the  Arkansas,  chiefly  on  the  west 
(Arkansas)  side,  with  one  or  two  at  various  periods 
on  the  east  (Mississippi)  side  of  the  Mississippi,  and 
claiminfi;  the  whole  of  the  Arkansas  River  region  up 
to  the  border  of  the  territory  held  by  the  Osage 
in  the  north-western  part  of  the  state.  They  are  of 
Siouan  linguistic  stock,  speaking  the  same  language, 
spoken  also  with  dialectic  variants,  by  the  Osage  ana 
Kansa  (Kaw)  in  the  south  and  by  the  Omaha  and 
Ponca  in  Nebraska.  Their  name,  properly  Ugakhpa. 
signifies  "down-stream  people  ,  as  distinguishea 
from  Umahan  or  Omaha,  "up-stream  people  .  To 
the  Illinois  and  other  Algonquian  tribes  they  were 
known  as  Akansea,  whence  their  French  name  of 
Akensas  and  Akansas.  According  to  concurrent 
tradition  of  the  cognate  tribes  the  Quapaw  and  theu* 
kinsmen  originally  lived  far  east,  possibly  beyond  the 
Alleghenies,  and,  pushing  gradually  westward,  de- 
scended the  Ohio  River — ^hence  called  by  the  Illinois 
the  "river  of  the  Akansea" — to  its  junction  with  the 
Mississippi,  whence  the  Quapaw,  then  including  the 
Osage  and  Kansa,  descended  to  the  mouth  of  the 
Arkansas,  while  the  Omaha,  with  the  Ponca,  went  up 
the  Missouri. 

The  Quapaw,  under  the  name  of  Capaha  or  Pacaha, 
were  first  encountered  in  1541  by  de  Soto,  who 
found  their  chief  town,  strongly  palisaded  and  nearly 
surrounded  by  a  ditch,  between  the  Mississippi  and  a 
lake  on  the  Arkansas  (west)  side,  apparently  in  the 
present  Phillips  County,  where  archseologic  remains 
and  local  conditions  bear  out  the  description.  The 
first  encounter,  as  usual,  was  hostile,  but  peace  was 
finally  arranged.  The  town  is  described  as  having 
a  population  of  several  thousand,  by  which  we  may 
perhaps  omderstand  the  whole  tribe.  They  seem 
to  have  remained  unvisited  by  white  men  for  more 
than  130  years  thereafter,  until  in  1673,  when  the 
Jesuit  Father  Jacques  Marauette,  accompanying  the 
French  commander  Louis  Jolliet,  made  his  famous  voy- 
age down  the  Mississippi,  to  the  villages  of  the  "Akan- 
sea" who  gave  him  warm  welcome  and  listened  with  at- 
tention to  his  exhortations,  during  the  few  days  that 
he  remained  until  his  return.  In  1682  La  Salle  passed 
by  their  villages,  then  five  in  number,  of  which  one 
was  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Mississippi.  The  Re- 
collect, Zenobius  Membr^,  accompanying  La  Salle, 
planted  a  cross  and  attempted  to  give  them  some  idea 
of  the  Christian's  God,  while  the  conmiander 
negotiated  a  peace  with  the  tribe  and  took  formal 
possession  of  the  territory  for  France.  Then,  as 
always,  the  Ouapaw  were  uniformly  kind  and  friendly 
toward  the  French.  In  spite  of  frequent  shif tings 
the  Quapaw  villages  in  this  early  period  were  generally 
four  in  number,  corresponding  in  name  and  popula- 
tion to  four  suD-tribes  still  existing,  viz.  Ugahpahti, 
Uzutiuhi,  Tiwadimafl,  and  Tafiwafizhita,  or,  under 
tiieir  French  forms,  Kappa,  Ossoteoue,  Tomiman, 
and  Tonginga. 

In  1683  the  French  conmiander,  Tonti,  built  a 
post  on  the  Arkansas,  near  its  mouth  at  the  later 
Arkansas  Post,  and  thus  began  the  regular  occupa- 
tion of  the  Quapaw  country.  He  arranged  also  for  a 
resident  Jesuit  missionary,  but  apparently  without 
result.  About  1697  a  smallpox  visitation  greatly 
reduced  the  tribe,  killing  the  greater  part  of  the  women 
and  children  of  two  villages.  In  1727  the  Jesuits, 
from  their  house  in  New  Orleans,  again  took  up  the 
work,  and  Father  Du  Poisson  was  sent  to  the  Quapaw, 
with  whom  he  remained  two  years.  On  the  morning 
of  27  November,  1729,  while  on  his  way  to  New 
Orleans  on  behalf  of  his  mission,  he  was  preparing  to 
say  Mass  at  the  Natchez  post  on  request  of  the 
garrison,  when  the  signal  for  slaughter  was  given 
and  he  was  struck  down  in  front  of  the  altar,  the  first 
victim  in  the  great  Natchez  massacre.  In  the  en- 
suing war,  whicn  ended  in  the  practical  extermination 
of  the  Natchez,  the  Quapaw  rendered  efficient  ser- 


vice to  the  French  against  the  hostile  tribes.  A 
successor  (Father  Cavette)  was  appoint^  to  the 
Arkansas  mission,  but  details  are  unknown.  It  was 
vacant  in  1750,  out  was  again  served  in  1764  by 
Father  S.  L.  Meurin,  the  last  of  the  Jesuits  up  to  the 
time  of  the  expulsion  of  the  order.  Fathers  Pierre 
Gibault  (1792-94),  Paul  deSt.  Pierre  (c.  1795-98),  and 
Maxwell  undoubtedly  attended  the  Indians. 

Shortly  after  the  transfer  of  the  territory  to  the 
United  States  in  1803  the  Quapaw  were  officially  re- 
ported as  living  in  three  villages  on  the  south  side  of 
Arkansas  River  about  twelve  miles  above  Arkansas 
Post.  In  1818  they  made  their  first  treaty  with  the 
government,  ceding  all  claims  from  Red  River  to 
beyond  the  Arkansas  and  east  of  the  Mississippi,  with 
the  exception  of  a  considerable  tract  between  the 
Arkansas  and  the  Saline,  in  the  south-eastern  part  of 
the  8tat«.  In  1824  they  ceded  this  also,  excepting 
eighty  acres  occupied  by  the  chief  Saracen  (Sarrasin) 
below  Pine  Bluflf,  expecting  to  incorporate  with  the 
Caddo  of  l/ouisiana,  but  in  this  they  were  disappointed, 
and  after  being  reduced  to  the  point  of  starvation  by 
successive  floods  in  the  Caddo  country  about  Red 
River,  most  of  them  wandered  back  to  their  old 
homes.  In  1834,  under  another  treaty,  they  were  re- 
moved to  their  present  location  in  the  north-east  cor- 
ner of  Oklahoma.  Sarrasin,  their  last  chief  before  the 
removal,  was  a  Catholic  and  friend  of  the  Lazarist  mis- 
sionaries (Congregation  of  the  Missions)  who  arrived 
in  1818  and  ministered  alike  to  white  and  Indians. 
He  died  about  1830  and  is  buried  adjoining  St. 
Joseph's  Church,  Pine  Bluff,  where  a  memorial  win- 
dow preserves  his  name.  The  pioneer  Lazarist  mis- 
sionary among  the  Quapaw  was  Rev.  John  M.  Odin, 
afterward  Archbishop  of  New  Orleans.  In  1824  the 
Jesuits  of  Maryland,  under  Father  Charles  Van 
Quickenbome,  took  up  work  among  the  native  and 
immigrant  tribes  of  the  present  Kansas  and  Oklahoma. 
In  1846  the  Mission  of  St.  Francis  was  established 
among  the  Osage,  on  Neosho  River,  by  Fathers  John 
Shoenmakers  and  John  Bax,  who  extended  their 
ministration  also  to  the  Quapaw  for  some  years. 
The  Quapaw  together  with  the  associated  remnant 
tribes,  the  Miami,  Seneca,  Wyandot  and  Ottawa,  are 
now  served  from  the  Mission  of  "Saint  Mary  ot  the 
Quapaws",  at  Quapaw,  Okla.,  in  charge  of  a  secular 
priest  and  several  Sisters  of  Divine  Providence,  about 
two-thirds  of  the  surviving  Quapaw  being  reported 
as  Catholic.  From  perhaps  5000  souls  when  first 
known  they  have  dwindlea  by  epidemics,  wars,  re- 
movals, and  consequent  demorahzation  to  approxi- 
mately 3200  in  1687,  1600  in  1750,  476  in  1843,  and 
307  in  1910,  including  all  mixed  bloods. 

Besides  the  four  established  divisions  already  noted, 
the  Quapaw  have  the  clan  system,  with  a  number  of 
gentes.  Polygamy  was  practised,  but  was  not  com- 
mon. Like  the  kindred  Osage  they  were  of  cere- 
monial temperament,  with  a  rich  mythology  and 
elaborate  rituals.  They  were  agricultural,  and  their 
architecture  and  general  culture  when  first  known  were 
far  in  advance  of  that  of  the  northern  tribes.  Their 
towns  were  palisaded  and  their  "town  houses",  or 
public  structures,  sometimes  of  timbers  dovetailed 
together,  and  roofed  with  bark,  were  frequently 
erected  upon  large  artificial  mounds  to  ^ard  against 
the  frequent  inundations.  Their  ordmary  houses 
were  rectangular,  and  long  enough  to  accommodate 
several  families  each.  They  dug  large  ditches,  con- 
structed fish  weirs,  and  excelled  in  the  pottery  art  and 
in  the  painting  of  skins  for  bed  covers  and  other  pur- 
poses. The  dead  were  buried  in  the  ground,  some- 
times in  mounds  or  in  the  clay  floors  01  their  houses, 
being  frequently  strapped  to  a  stake  in  a  sitting  posi- 
tion and  then  carefully  covered  with  earth.  They 
were  uniformly  friendly  to  the  whites.while  at  constant 
war  with  the  Chickasaw  and  other  southern  tribes, 
and  are  described  by  the  earlier  explorers  as  differing 


QOARANTINBS 


593 


QUKBEG 


from  the  northern  Indians  in  being  better  built, 
pohte,  liberal,  and  of  cheerful  humour.  Their  modem 
descendants  are  now  fairly  prosperous  farmers,  retain- 
ing Uttle  of  their  former  habit  or  belief.  Of  the 
Quapaw  dialect  proper,  little  has  been  recorded  be- 
yond some  brief  vocabularies  and  word  lists,  but  of 
the  so-called  Dhegiha  language,  including  the  dialects 
of  the  Omaha,  Ponca,  Osa^e,  Kansa,  and  Quapaw, 
extended  study  and  publication  have  been  made,  par- 
ticularly by  Rev.  J.  O.  Dors^  under  the  auspices  of 
the  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology  (see  Pilling, 
''Siouan  Bibliography"). 

Arkatuaa  Hist.  Am.  fiubg.,  II  (Luoey,  Vauchan),  (Fayette- 
ville.  1908):  American  StaU  Papert,  II,  Indian  Affair$  (Wash- 
ington, 1832) :  Bttrtau  of  Cath.  Ind,  Mianona,  annual  repts.  of 
director  (Washington);  CHABLBVonc,  Journal  (London,  1761); 
Annual  BeparU  of  Commiaaioner  of  Indian  Affaira  ^Washington) ; 
DoBSST,  numerous  papers  (see  Pilling),  particularljr.  The 
Dhegiha  Language^  ContribM.  to  N.  Am.  Ethnology  (Washington, 
1800),  and  Siouan  Sociotogy  in  ISth  Repi,  Bureau  Am.  Ethnology 

S Washington,  1807) ;  Fbsnch,  Hietorieal  CoUe,  of  La.  (indudinc 
iedma  aad  Elvas  narratives  of  De  Soto  Expedition,  in  pt.  II 
(1860),  p^.  I-V  (New  York.  1846-53,  new  series.  New  York, 
1869;  2nd  series.  New  York,  1875) ;  JeauU  Relatione,  ed.  Thwaitc, 
Louisiana  volumes  (Cleveland,  1896-1901);  Ljlpplur,  Indian 
Affairs:  Laws  and  Trealiee  (Washington,  1904) ;  L>  Paqb  du 
Prats,  Hist,  de  la  Louieiane  (Paris,  1758;  tr.  London,  1763-74) ; 
Lettret  Mifiantes  el  curieueee  (Du  Poisson  letters),  IV  (Lyons, 
1819):  Marqbt,  DSoouvertee  et  Hablieaemente  dee  Francaie 
etc.  (Paris.  1879-86) ;  Pillino,  BibUography  of  tA«  Siouan  Lan^ 
guagee  in  BtUl.  Bur.  Am.  Ethnology  (Washington,  1887) ;  9hba, 
Catholic  Miseione  (New  York,  1854);  Idbm.  Dieeovery  and  Ex- 
ploration of  the  Mieeieeippi  VaUey  (New  York,  1852;  2nd  ed., 
Albany,  1903). 

Jaicbb  Moonet. 

Qoaraatinas  is  an  expreadon  frequently  used  in 
the  grants  of  indulgences,  and  signifies  a  strict  eccle- 
siastical penance  of  forty  davs,  performed  according 
to  the  practice  of  the  early  Church.  Hence  an  indul- 
gence of  seven  quarantines,  for  instance,  implies  the 
remission  of  as  much  temporal  punishment  as  would 
be  blotted  out  by  the  corresponding  amount  of  eccle- 
siastical penance. 

ScHMiTX,  Die  BueebUeher  und  die  BwtadiecipUn  der  Kirehe 
(Mains,  1883).  764:  Bbbingbr,  Die  AblOeae  (Paderbom,  1900), 
57,  French  tr.  (Pans,  1905);  Maurel,  The  Chrietian  Inebruded 
in  the  Nature  and  Vee  of  Indulgencee,  tr.  (1875). 

A.  J.  Maas. 

QvammiuSf  FsANciscnB,  writer  and  Orientalist 
of  the  seventeenth  century,  b.  at  Lodi  (Lombardy), 
4  April,   1583;    d.  at  Milan,  25  Oct.,  1650.    His 

.  father  was  the  noble  Alberto  Quaresmi  and  his  mother 
Laura  Papa.  At  an  early  age  he  was  enrolled  among 
the  Franciscan  Observantines  at  Mantua. .  For  many 
years  he  held  the  chairs  of  philosophy,  theology,  and 
canon  law,  and  became  successively  guardian, 
cusios,  and  minister  of  his  province.  Later  (1645-^) 
he  occupied  the  two  highest  posts  in  the  order;  that 
ot  defilmtor  and  procurator  general.  The  memoirs 
of  the  order  extol  his  consummate  virtue,  particularly 
his  piety,  prudence,  and  extraordmaiy  meekness. 
His  long  apostolate  m  the  East  and  the  magnificent 
works  he  has  left  us  have  secured  for  Quaresmius 
world-wide  fame,  especiallsr  among  earlier  historians, 
Biblical  scholars,  and  Orientalists.  On  3  March, 
1616,  he  went  to  Jerusalem,  where  he  became  Guardian 
and  Vice-Commissary  Apostolic  of  Aleppo  in  Syria 
(1616^),  and  Superior  and  Commissary  Apostolic 
of  the  East  (1618-9).  During  this  period  he  was 
twice  imprisoned  by  the  Turks.  In  1620  he  returned 
to  Europe,  but  in  1625  was  back  in  Jerusalem,  whence 
the  following  year  he  addressed  from  the  Holy 
Sepulchre  an  appeal  to  Philip  IV  of  Sbain,  inviting 
him  to  reoon(]uer  the  Holy  Land,  and  at  the.  same 
time  dedicating  to  him  his  work,  "Hierosolymse 
afflictae".  Between  1616  and  1626  he  wrote  his 
classical  work.  ''Elucidatio  teme  sanctie'',  adjudged 

.  by  the  learned  a  monumental  contribution  to  history, 
geography,  archeology,  Biblical  and  moral  science. 
During  1627-9  he  was  at  Aleppo  as  papal  commissary 
and  as  vicar-patriaroh  for  the  Chaldeans  and  Maro- 
nites  of  S3rria  and  Mesopotamia.  In  1629  he  went 
XII.— 38 


to  Italy  to  render  an  account  to  the  Holy  See  of  the 
state  of  the  Eastern  Churches;  he  then  returned 
to  the  East,  but  how  long  he*  remained  is  not  known. 
Meanwhile  he  journeyed  through  Egypt  and  Sinai,*the 
Holy  La,nd,  Syria.  Mesopotamia,  Cyprus,  Rodi, 
Constantinople,  and  a  large  part  of  Asia  Minor:  he 
also  visited  Germany,  France,  Belgium,  and  Hol- 
land. In  1637  he  was  guardian  of  S.  Angelo  (Milan), 
where  in  1643  he  completed  his  other  great  work  on 
the  Passion  of  Christ. 

No  bibliographer  has  yet  given  us  a  complete  list 
of  his  works.  His  published  works  are :  (1 )  "  Historica, 
theologica  et  moralis  terrse  sanctse  elucidatio:  in 
qua  pleraque  ad  veterem  et  prsesentem  ejusdem 
terrse  statum  spectantia  accurate  explicantur" 
(2  fol.  vols.,  pp.  xxx-924r-98  and  1014-120,  Antwerp, 
1639);  second  edition  edited  by  P.  Cypriano  da 
Treviso  (4  pts.  in  2  fol.  vols.,  Venice,  1880-1); 
(2)  "De  sacratissimis  D.  N.  J.  Christi  quinaue  vul- 
neribus,  valria.  pia  et  luculenta  tractatio  . .  .  ''  [5,  not 
3,  fol.  vols.  J  L  202:  II,  258;  III,  368;  IV,  400;  V,  271. 
besides  an  mdex  or  pp.  200  (Venice,  1652)],  approved 
by  the  examining  theologians  in  1643,  but  unknown 
to  bibliographers;  only  three  copies  are  extant — 
one  in  the  library  of  Brera,  the  Amorosiana  of  Milan, 
and  the  National  Library  (Florence);  (3)  "Jeroso- 
lymss  afflicts  etOiumiliatie  deprecatio  ad  suum  Phil- 
ippum  IV  Hispaniarum  et  Novi  Orbis  potentissimum 
ac  Catholicum  Regem"  (1  quarto  vol.,  pp.  74, 
Milan,  1631),  very  rare:  there  is  a  copy  in  tne  Am- 
brosiana  of  Milan;  (4)  "Ad  SS.  DD.  N.  Alexandrum 
VII  Pont.  Opt.  Max.  Fr.  Francisci  Quaresmii 
Laud.  Ord.  Min.  Pia  Vota  pro  anniversaria  Passionis 
Christi  solemnitate"  (1  quarto  vol.,  pp.  xx-58, 
Milan,  1656),  of  which  there  is  one  comr  m  the  Am- 
brosiana;  (5)  "Pro  confratemitate  SS.  Steilarii  B. 
Virginia  Maris  tractatus"  (1  quarto  vol.,  Palermo, 
1648);  (6)  "Itinerario  di  Caldea  del  Rev.  P.  Fran- 
cesco Quaresmio  e  di  Fr.  Tomaso  da  Milano  suo 
compagno.  Min.  Oss.  e  Giov.  Batt.  Eliano.  Maronita, 
ed  Elia  Patriarca  e  con  li  Nestoriani  etc.  Tanno 
1629 '',  edited  by  Marcellino  da  Civezza  in  "Storia 
delle  Missioni  Francescane'',  XL  595-608. 

Still  in  manuscript  are:  (1)  "Apparatus  pro  re- 
ductione  Chaidsorum  ad  cathoUcam  fidem  ("six 
manuscript  volumes",  says  Fr.  Cyprian),  which 
Quaresmius  wrote  when  among  the  Qialdeans,  and 
to  which  he  refers  in  "Elucidatio  terre  sancts", 
I,  li;  (2)  "Adversus  errores  Armenorum"  ("three 
volumes  in  folio",  savs  Sbaralea),  preserved  in  the 
Convent  of  Lodi;  (3;  "Deipara  in  Sanguine  Agni 
dealbata",  left  incomplete  by  the  author;  (4) 
"EpistolsB  ex  oriente",  m  the  archives  of  the  Prop- 
aganda Fide..  These  and  other  manuscript  works 
are  said  to  be  preserved,  some  in  the  municipal 
library  of  Pavia  and  Lodi  and  some  at  Jerusalem. 

Ctprxanus  db  Tabvisio,  Vita  P.  Franc.  Quareemii  in  the 
preface  to  the  second  edition  of  Elucidatio  Terra  SancUe;  Qolu- 
bovich,  Serie  aronalogica  de*  Superiori  di  Terra  Santa  (Jerusalem* 
1898),  68-0;  da  Civezsa,  Storia  univereale  delle  Mieaioni  Fran" 
eeaoaru,  XI  (Florence,  1895).  595-608;  Idem  in  Saggio  di  hiblio- 
grafia  (Prato,  1879),  479;  Calahorra,  Chronica  de  Syria  y  Terra 
Santa  (Madrid.  1684),  V,  xxxvi;  Waodino-Sbaralba,  Script.  O. 
M.  (Rome,  1806),  I,  90;  II,  280. 

GlBOLOMO  GOLUBOVICH. 

QcutftodecixnaziB.    See  Easteb  Controvbbst. 

Quebec,  Archdiocebb  of  (Quebecensis),  in 
Canada,  comprises  the  coimties  of  Beauce,  Belle- 
ohasse,  Dorcnester,  Kamoiu-aska,  Levis,  L' Islet, 
Lotbiniere,  Megantic,  Montmagny,  part  of  Temis- 
couata,  Montmorency,  Portneuf,  and  Quebec.  The 
early  missionaries,  the  R^gcollets  (1615-29)  and  the 
Jesuits  (1625),  depended  directly  on  the  Holy  See. 
The  Jesuits  having  returned  alone  in  1632,  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Rouen  extended  his  iurisdiction  over  the 
coimtry.  According  to  the  Bull  of  erection  (1674). 
the  See  of  Quebec  comprehended  all  the  possessions  of 
France  in   North  America:    Newfoimdland,  Qidspt 


QUZBIC  5*. 

Bntoii,  Acadia,  lie  St.  Jean,  all  New  France  from  the 
AtUntio  to  the  phuns  of  the  far  West,  the  valley  of 
the  MiansKppi  tuid  Louiaiaiia,  a  territory  much  l^^er 
•than  Euio^.  After  the  treaty  of  Pans  (17S3),  the 
Bishop  of  Quebec  kept  Newfoundland  and  what  now 
forms  the  Dominion  of  Canada.    That  immense  dii>- 


it  waa  reduced  to  ita  present  boundaries  (see  Canada, 
CATHOLicrrr  ik). 

BUhops. — (1)  Franoob  de  Montmoreacy  Laval 
(q.  v.),  conaecrsted  (165S)  Biabop  of  Pe^tea  and 
Vicar  Apostolic  of  New  iWice,  laiided  at  Quebec 

(1659)  and,  having  happily  overcome  the  pret^udons 
of  the  Archbiahop  of  Rouen,  set  about  the  organii^ 
tion  of  his  diocese.    His  first  ret>ort  to  the  Holy  See 

(1660)  states  that  there  were  only  twenty-six  prieets, 
,of  whom  dxteen  were  Jeauita:  eisht  churches  or 
chapels  in  Quebec  aod  the  nei^Dourhood,  ^iUi  three 
others  in  Montreal,  Three  lUvera,  and  Tadouasao; 
about  2000  inhabitante.  No  house,  no  revenue  for  the 
bishop,  no  cathedral,  and  no  income  for  churches. 
Two  orders  of  nuns  appUed  themselvea  to  the  inatruc- 
tioD  of  girls:  the  Urmuinee  (founded  in  1639  by  Ven- 
erable   Marie  de 


Mercy  of  Jesos. 

nary  of  Quebec  ^ ,, 

nary  in  1668,  but  had  nq  clasees  before  the  Con- 
queet.  The  pupils  attended  the  lecturee  of  the 
Jesuit  college  opened  in  1S35,  and  where,  on 
the  bishop's  request,  clansco  in  theology  wer«  aoon 
added  to  philosophy.  For  ita  maintenance  the 
institution  was  granted  the  tithes  established  in  1663; 
parish  piests  and  pf^shes  were  to  be  served  by  its 
members^  what  remuned  of  tithes  was  devot^  to 
the  buildmg  of  churches  and  priests' housefl.  The  first 
parish  erected  waa  that  of  Quebec  (1664)  which,  eup- 
prewed  by  the  Bull  of  erection  of  the  dioceee,  was  re- 
established by  the  biahop  in  16S4  and  united  to  the 
seminary:  be  also  instituted  a  chapter.  The  parish 
church  of  Quebec,  begun  in  1947,  consecrated  in  1666 

Sthe  prelate,  became  aikd  remains  the  cathedral, 
iven  othCT  parishes  were  erected  m  1678.  In  1683 
eighteen  nrieeta  of  the  seminary  did  parish  work  along 
the  St.  Lawrence.  The  Montreal  parish,  with  Our 
Lady  of  Bon-Secours,  waa  united  to  the  seminary 
of  the  Sulpiciana  (1678).  In  Acadia,  Port-Royal  was 
served  by  the  AbbS  Petit,  seat  m  1676,  and  the  Abbj 
Thury  founded  the  Pentagoet  mission  in  1684.  There 
were  numerous  Indian  misaions,  some  reeideotial, 
some  among  wandering  tribes,  almost  all  in  the  hands 
of  the  Jesuits.  Bishop  Laval,  in  spite  of  material 
obstacles,  faithfully  visited  his  diocese  and  confirmed 
nearly  6000.  The  population  (1883)  was  10,278  in 
Cftuada,  600  Aoadians,  and  1512  converted  Indiana. 


The  census  of  10S6  states  that  there  were  44  prieati, 
12  students  in  thecdoKy,  43  Jesuits,  12  lUoolIets  (re- 
turned m  1670),  28  Uraulines,  26  Hospitallers  erf  the 
Mercy  of  Jesus.  16  Hospitallers  of  St.  Joseph,  and  13 
SisteiB  of  the  Congregation  of  Notre  D»me. 

(2)  Jean-Baptiste  de  la  Croix  Chevriire  de  St. 
Valher,  b.  1653;  d.  1727,  visited  Canada  as  vicai^ 
general  of  Bishop  Laval  (1685-6)  and  became  his 
sueoesaor  in  1688.  A  yearly  ^ant  of  eight  thousand 
francs  from  the  king  euahled  him  to  increase  the  num- 
ber of  parish  priests  from  twenty  to  thirty-six.  The 
Jefuits  were  eatnisted  with  the  mission  of  the  Dlinois 
(1S90)  and  other  Indians  of  that  T«^n;  the  It£col- 
lets,  with  the  Royal  Island  (Cape  Breton),  and  the 
Seminary  of  Quebec  with  Acadia  and  Uie  misnon  of 
the  Tamarois  on  the  left  shore  of  the  Missisippi, 
which  it  kept  until  after  the  Conquest.  Two  of  its 
members,  the  Abl>£a  St.  Cosme  and  Foucault,  fdl 
victims  there  to  their  seal.  Parishes  were  rendered 
independent  of  the  seminary  (1692).  For  the  im- 
provement of  science  in  the  clergy  and  of  church 
discipline,  ecclesiastical  conferences  were  orgaidied 
(1700),  four  synods  held,  and  a  ritual  with  a  catechism 

Siublished.  The  General  Hospital  of  Quebec  waa 
ounded  (1693),  alao  the  Ursuline  convent  at  Three 
Rivera  (1697),  which  was  in  the  meantime  a  hospital 
and  a  school.  He  approved  (1SS8)  the  Chamm 
Brothers,  founders  of  the  General  Hospital  of  Mont- 
real (1694).  Th^  were  HoapitaUers  and  school- 
maat^  and,  until  their  extinction,  half  a  century 
later,  kept  schools  in  Montreal,  Three  Rivers,  and  a 
few  other  places.  Instruction  waa  more  common  at 
that  epoch  than  is  generally  admitted  by  historians. 
The  Jesuits  and  the  Sulpicians  early  eetoblished 
primary  schoob,  teachers  went  about  from  plaoe  to 
place,  and  moatly  all  parish  priests  wne  school- 
masters. Though  a  most  charitable  man,  he  waa  not 
amiable.  He  had  hurt  the  feelinfls  of  many,  chksflyin 
the  aeparation  of  parishes  from  the  seminuy  (1692), 
and  complaints  had  reached  France.    His  resignation 


from  1709  to  1713,  after  having  been  five  y .  .  . 
prisoner  in  England  (1704-9).  During  that  voyage  he 
had  gone  to  Rome  and  obtained  the  canonical  union 
to  the  See  of  Quebec,  chapter,  and  seminary,  of  the 
abbeys  of  Mauoec,  Lestr£es,  «id  Benevent,  granted 
by  the  Idng  to  Bisnop  Laval. 

(3)  Louia-FrangoisDuplessisde  Mom&y,  b.l6ft3:d. 
1741,  coadjutor  of  Bishop  St.  ValUer  (1713),  aod  his 
successor  (1727-33).  He  never  went  to  Canada,  Bend- 
ing, to  administer  in  his  stcsad,  his  coadjutor,  Biahop 
Dosquet. 

(4)  Pierre-Herman  Dosquet  (q.  v.),  consecrated 
(1725)  Biahop  of  Samoa,  bishop  from  1733  to  173S. 
His  diief  acU  were  the  establishment  of  the  sisters 
of  the  congregation  of  Notre  Dame  at  Louisburg 
(1735J  and  the  resignation  to  the  king  of  the  abbey  of 
Benevent,  more  a  burden  than  a  source  of  revenue  for 
the  Quebec  bishops.  A  yearly  allowonoe  of  nine 
thousand  francs  was  granted  in  return.  He  resigned 
his  see  in  1739,  and  received  the  abbey  of  Breine  with 
on  income  of  six  thousand  francs. 

(5)  Francois-Louis  Pourroy  da  L'Auberiviire,  b. 
1711;  d.  1740,  conseciatod  in  Paris  (17391  by  Bishop 
Momay,  unfortunately  died  a  few  days,  after  landing 
at  Quebec. 

(6)  Henri-Marie  de  Pontbriand,  b.  1708;  d.  1760, 
wa|  consecrated  in  Paris  (1741).  A  man  of  great 
science  and  zeal,  most  devoted  to  his  pastoral  duties, 
he  visited  several  times  his  diocese,  even  the  distant 
missions  of  the  Presentation  (C^enaburg)  and 
Detroit,  occasionally  taught  theology  in  the  sraninaiy, 
and  established  yearly  retreats  for  priests.  Ilie  new 
order  of  Grey  Nuns,  recmtly  founded  in  Montieal 
by  Madame  lyYouville  and  entrusted  with  the 
Oeneral  Hospital,  reo«ved  his  encouragement  and 


QUIBBO  5{ 

i4>proval  (1755).  He  aided  the  victims  of  the  plague 
in  1746,  1757,  and  1758,  enabled  the  VrauUnee  to  r»> 
build  their  convent  at  TWee  Rivers,  destroyed  by  fire 
(1752),  and  retrieved  a  Bimilar  disasl^r  fallen  upon 
the  Quelxw  HAtel-Dieu  (1755).  In  his  pastoral  let- 
t«rB,  he  extkorted  the  clergy  to  grant  to  the  king  (or 
his  wars  a  part  of  their  tithes  and  encouraged  (^na- 
diana  to  do  their  duty  to  their  country,  recalling  the 
fate  of  the  Acadians  in  1755.  During  the  siege  of 
Quebec,  broken  in  health  by  work  and  cares,  he  retired 
to  a  nearby  parish  and  could  see  after  the  surrender, 
his  palace  and  the  seminary,  the  churches  of  the 
Jesuits  and  the  Recollects  greatly  damaged  by  bullets 
and  shells,  half  of  the  city  houses,  the  church  of  the 
Lower-Town  and  the  cathedral,  which  he  had  recently 
(1744-9)  rebuilt  on  a  larger  scale,  entirely  destroyed. 
(7)  Jeaa-OIivier  Briand  (q.  v.),  bishop  from  1766 
to  1784.  One  of  the  vicars-general  charged  with  the 
adminiatration  of  the  diocese  durii^  the  vacancy,  he 
ruled  the  district  of  Quebec.  The  Canadians,  by  two 
delegates,  and  the  chapter,  by  on  address,  hao  en- 
b«ated  the  King  of  England  to  maintain  the  Catholic 
hierarchy.     More  successful  than  the  Abbfi  Mont- 

folGer,  rejected  by  England,  the  Abb£  Briand,  elected 
y  the  chapter  in  his  place,  was  indirectly  notified 
that  the  Government  would  not  oppose  hia  consecra^ 
Uon,  which  took  place  in  Paris  (1766).  He  had  to 
thwart  the  intentions  of  England  of  aoghcizing  her 
new  subjects  in  faith  and  language.  Circumstances 
besides  seemed  most  unfavourable.  The  population, 
42000  in  1730,  was  in  1760,  60,000;  of  181  priests 
only  138  remained.  The  Recoilecl«and  Jesuitswere 
forbidden  to  receive  novices.  The  chapter,  prevented 
from  filling  its  vacancies,  soon  died.  Canonically 
,  Dotified — or  not  (it  may  be  doubted) — of  the  suppres- 
sion of  their  order,  the  Jesuits  were  left,  until  the 
dcath'of  the  last.  Father  Casot  (1800),  in  peaceful 
possession  of  their  eetatcs,  which  were  afterwards  for- 
feited to  the  Crown.  In  Louisiana  they  had  been  all 
bani^ed  after  1763,  with  the  exception  of  Father 
Meurin,  and  their  several  chapels  amon^  the  Illinois 
destroyed,  while  the  properties  of  the  mission  of  the 
Tamarois  were  sold  for  a  farthing  by  the  Abb£  Fotget^ 
Duverger,  the  last  priest  sent  by  the  seminary.  The 
Recollects  disappeared  one  by  one.  Father  Berey,  the 


college  of  the  Jesuits  having  been  changed  into  mih- 
tary  stores  and  barracks,  the  hope  of  education  rested 
upon  the  seminary  of  Quebec,  where  classes  opened  in 
1765.  The  loyalty  of  the  bishop  during  the  Ajnerican 
War  of  Independence  greatly  contributed  to  obtain 
religious  hberty  for  Canada.  He  could  write  in  1775: 
"  RcUgion  is  perfectly  free.  I  can  exercise  my  ministry 
without  any  rcBtriction."  As  a  proof  that  he  united 
firmness  with  the  respect  of  civil  authority,  it  may 
be  remembered  that  he  refused  to  take  the  Teat  Oath, 
until  the  formula  was  made  acceptable  to  a  Catholic, 
and  once  said  to  General  Murray:  "My  head  shall  be 
cut  off  before  allowing  you  to  appoint  priests  to  any 
pariah."  The  Government  granted  him  an  annuity 
of  £250  besides  £150  for  the  episcopal  palace  that  he 
had  rebuilt  and  rented  for  public  use.  With  three 
thousand  francs  voted  hy  the  clergy  of  France  in  1765, 
it  formed  nearly  all  his  revenue.  Neverthelem,  he 
found  means  for  frequent  and  abundant  charities. 
The  number  of  parishes  was  about  one  hundred,  more 
than  twenty-five  having  been  erected  since  the  Con- 
quest. A  pastoral  letter  of  1777  contains  interesting 
statistics:  46,323  births  and  24,731  burials  from  1759 
to  1769,  and  43,995  births  with  26,127  burials  from 
1769  to  1777,  giving  a  net  increase  of  39,460  for 
the  whole  period  between  1769  and  1777.  From 
1767  Bishop  Briand  regularly  visited  his  diocese.  He 
ordained  ninety  priests.  Having  been  allowed  by 
Rome,  for  fear  of  a  vacancy,  to  choose  and  consecrate 
a  coadjutor  with  future  Buoccesion,  he  ooosMtated  in 


5  QUKBIC 

1772  the  Bishop  of  Doryhea  and  gave  him  authority 
in  1784. 

(S)  Louis-Philippe  Mariauchau  D'Ewlis  (q.  v.) 
was  the  first  Quebec  bishop  bom  in  Canai^.  He  was 
pastor  of  Saint-Pierre-d'Orl^ans  and  kept  until  his 
death  his  small  parish.  According  to  tne  Ursuline 
annals,  in  1782  priests  were  very  scarce  and  several 
parishes  without  pastors.  Vacancies  were  quickly 
filled,  whereas,  in  1788-90,  the  number  of  parishes 
being  121,  the  census  of  1790  numbers  146  priests,  of 
whom  142  were  in  office.  Returning  Acadians  settled 
in  several  of  the  maritime  provinces  and  were  served 


Ghost,  while  the  Irish  and  Scotch  Cathohcs  of  the 
same  region  were  attended  by  the  Abb&  Phelan  and 
Jones,  who  resided  at  Halifax. 

(9)  Jean-Francois    Hubert    (q.    v.),    consecrated 
Bishop  of  Almire  and  coadjutor  of  Quebec  (1786), 


N  1037. 


filled  the  see  from  1788  to  1797.  Every  year  he  spent 
three  months  visiting  the  religious  communities  and  a 
part  of  his  diocese.  In  1795  he  visited  Baie-des- 
Chaleurs.  He  ordained  63  priests  and  confirmed 
46,148  people.  The  number  of  priests,  in  1794,  was 
160  for  a  population  of  160,000  Catholics.  During 
the  French  Revolution,  34  came  from  France,  Nine 
were  sent  to  Acadia  and  four  to  Upper  Canada.  The 
seminary  of  Montreal,  on  the  verge  of  ruin,  obtained  re- 
cruits, and  kept  possession  of  its  estates,  which,  thanks 
to  the  fimmesB  of  Bishops  Plessia  and  Panet,  were  de- 
clared, under  Queen  Victoria,  its  lawful  property. 
Bishop  Hubert,  to  please  Lord  Dorchester,  appointed 
coadjutor  the  Abhi  Bailly  de  Messein.  parish  priest 
of  Pointe-a«K-Trembles  (Portneuf  co.j,  consecrated 
Bishop  of  Capsa  in  1789.  A  distinguisbed  man  in 
some  regards,  successful  missionary  in  Acadia  (1767- 
71),  professoi  of  the  seminary  (1772-7),  and  after- 
wards (1778-82)  private  teacher  of  the  governor's 
children,  he  favoured  the  establishment  of  the  mixed 
university  contemplated  by  some  New  England  loyal- 
ists settled  in  Canada,  and  which  Bishop  Hubert  con- 
sidered and  firmly  opposed  as  an  anti-Catholic  agency. 
The  coadjutor  died  m  1794,  apologiiing  for  his  errors. 
Another  and  different  coadjutor  was  chosen,  Kerre 
Denault,  to  whom  Bishop  Hubert  resigned  his  au- 
thority in  1797. 

(10)  Herre  Denault  (q.  v.)  was  pastor  of  Longueuil 
and  kept  his  parish  even  after  his  consecration  as 
ffishop  of  Canathe  (1795).  The  parishes  of  Lower 
Canada  numbered  then  about  one  hundred  and  forty. 
some  of  which  he  visited  every  year.  He  also  visitea 
Upper  Canada  in  1801  and  1802,  and  created,  for 


QUEBKG  5i 

Alex.  McDonell.  On  hie  visit  to  the  mariUme  prov- 
incM   in    1803,    he   confirmed    8800    people.    The 

Eiimary  school  founded  bv  AbM  Braesard  at  Nicolct 
e  made  a  classical  school  (1803),  now  the  seminary 
of  Nicolet.  Hia  generous  contributionB  to  the  new 
college  of  the  Suplicians  (1804-5)  tAeo  show  his  de- 
votion to  education. 

(11)  Joseph-Octave  Plessis  (q.  v.),  consecrated 
Bishop  of  Canathe  in  1801,  Bishop  of  Quebec  from 
ISOfl  to  1825.  His  great  achievement  was  theorgani- 
zation  of  the  Church  in  Canada  in  which  he  was  prov- 
identially aided  by  the  American  invasion  of  1812-13. 
After  the  treaty  of  Ghent  (1814)  he  was  for  the  first 
time  officially  acknowledged  as  Catholic  Bishop  of 
Quebec,  and  granted  by  the  king  an  annuity  of 
£1000.     He  obtained  from  Home,  l>^de8  the  erection 


Fusealaaod  coadjutor  of  Quebec  (1827),  admiuistntor 
(1832),  bishop  (1833),  archbishop  frona  1844  to  ISfiO. 
There  were  epidemics  of  cholera  in  1832,  IS34,  and 


then  secretary  to  the  bishop  and  afterwards  vicar- 

feneral,  who  found  homes  for  nearly  five  hundred 
rish  orphans.     Important  events  were;  the  law  on 
education  (1841)  which  allowed  the  election  of  school 
having  power  to  build  new  achools,  to 


of  the  Vicariate  Apostohc  of  Ni 


I  luB  return:  McDonell  (1820),  McEachi 


Scotia  (1817),  the 
appointment  of 
bishops  for  Upper 
Canada,  Montreal, 
New  Brunswick, 
including  Prince 
Edward's  and  the 
Magdalen  Islands, 
and  for  the  North- 
west, where  the 
Abb^  Provencher 
and  Dumoulin  had 
begun  (1818)  the 
mission  of  the  Red 
River.  England 
assented,  but  on 
the  express  condi- 
tion that  these 
bishops  would  be 
only  auxiliaries  and 
vicars-general      of 

Suebec.  He  also 
>tuned  from  the 
pope  not  to  use, 
while  the  Govern- 
ment objected,  the 
title  of  archbishop 
granted  to  him  in 
1819.  All  the  new 
prelates  were  con- 
secratod    by    hit 


Lartigue  (1821),  Provencher  (1822).  He  ordained 
114  priests,  preserved  the  college  of  Nicolet,  and 
encouraged  St,  Hyacinth  College,  begun  by  Abb^ 
Girouani  (1811).  Like  his  preaecessors,  he  firmly 
opposed  the  royal  institution  which  placed  education 
in  Protestant  hands,  and  endeavoured  to  obtain 
Catholic  primary  schools.  A  more  favourable  law 
was  voted  in  1824.  As  a  member  of  the  Lwslative 
Council  from  1817,  he  had  great  influence.  In  1822 
he  contributed  to  prevent  the  union  of  the  Canadas 
intended  by  the  English  House  of  Commons. 

(12)  Bernard-Claude  Panel,  b#  1753;  d.  1833, 
parish  priest  of  Riviir&Ouelle,  consecrated  Bishop 
of  SaJdes  and  coadjutor  of  Quebec  [1807],  was  bishop 
from  1825  to  1833.  The  chief  events  of  his  adminis- 
tration were;  the  building  of  Nicolet  College  (1827), 
to  which  he  contributed  the  suni,  large  tor  the  time, 
of  132,000;  the  foundation  of  the  Collf  Re  of  Ste-Anne- 
de-la-Pocati^re  (1827)  by  the  Abbf  Painchaud;  the 
educational  \aw  of  1829  which  granted  allowances  for 
the  creation  of  parish  schools  and  the  maintonancc  of 
colleges,  convents,  and  academies  already  in  existence; 
the  erection  in  Quel>ec,  with  his  help,  of  St.  Patrick's 
church  for  the  Irish;  the  sale  to  the  Government  of 
the  episcopal  palace  built  by  Mgr  Briand.  An  annual 
rent  of  £1000  was  ptud  which,  although  irredeemable, 
was  redeemed  in  1888  by  the  sum  of  174,074,  given  to 
Cardinal  Taechereau. 

(13)  Joeeph  Signay,  b.  1778;  d.  1850,  Biahop  of 


choose  teachers  and  raise  funds  therefor;  the  e: 
of  Quebec  (1844)  into  a  metropolis  with  three  suf- 
fragan sees,  Kingston,  Montreal,  and  Toronto;  theOb- 
lates  (1844)  and  the  Jesuits  (1849)  admitted  into  the  di- 
ocese and  charged  respectively  with  the  Saguenay  mis- 
sion and  tlic  Sodality  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  of  the  Upper- 
Town  ;  Bocicties  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Faith  (1837), 
colonization  (1838),  and  tomperance  (1843).  The 
report  of  Bishop  Signay  to  the  Holy  See  in  1843 
8tat<>s  that  the  diocese  contained  200,000  Cathohca, 
145  churches  and  chapels,  4  orders  of  nuns,  and  3  col- 
lefses  or  seminaries.  In  the  Red  River  mission,  undv 
Bishop  Provencher,  out  of  6140  souls,  more  than 
2700  were  Catholics.  Vicar-General  Norbert  Blan- 
chet  and  Modesto  Demers  had  opened  (1838)  the 
mission  of  British  Columbia,  while  other  missionaries 
worked  among  the  Indians  of  Lake  Abbittibi.  Bishop 
Signay  was  the  last  to  receive  the  annuity  of  £1000 
granted  to  Mgr  Pleseis.  In  1847  he  entered  the 
present  episcopal  palace. 

(14)  Piene-Flavien  Turgeon,  b.  1787;  d.  1867, 
elected  in  1831  and  consecrated  in  1834  Bishop  of 
Sydime  and  coadjutor  of  Quebec,  became  admin- 
iBtrator  in  1849,  and  bishop  in  1850.  That  same  year 
a  meeting  of  the  bishops  at  Montreal  pn^ared  the 
first  Council  of  Quebec,  held  in  1851  under  his  presi- 
dency. After  directions  on  lituiKy  and  discipline, 
against  social  and  moral  dangers,  its  most  important 
decree  is  that  on  Catholic  universities  and  normal 
Bcliools,  which  gave  birth  (1852)  to  Laval  University 
and  to  Uval  Nomial  School  in  1857.  Pius  IX  was 
also  petitioned  to  form  new  sees.  St.  Hyacinth  and 
Three  Rivers  were  erected  in  1852,  while  Halifax  be- 
came a  metropolis.  A  second  council  took  place  at 
Quebec  in  1854.  The  foundation  of  the  Quebec  Sis- 
ters of  Charity  (1849)  and  of  the  Good  Shepherd 
(1850),  the  reorganization  of  ecclesiastical  conferences, 
the  publication  of  a  new  catechism  and  the  approval 
of  Butler's  for  English-speaking  Catholics  ara  the 
chief  acts  of  Bishop  TWgGon's  administration.  In 
1855,  owing  to  ill-liealth,  he  left  the  administration  of 
the  diocese  to  his  coadjutor, 

(15)  Charlea-FranQois  Baillargeon  (q.  v.),  as  parish 
priest  of  Quebec  (l^-tl-fiO),  procured  for  his  parish 
the  Brothers  of  the  Christian  Schools,  and  established 
the  conferences  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul.  As  bishop,  the 
great  events  of  his  administration  were  the  third 
and  fourth   (1868)   Councils  of  Quebec,   at- 


Sandwich  (now  London),  Kingston,  Toronto,  and  (in 
1868)  Rimouski.  Besides  several  disciplinary  decrees, 
the  erection  of  the  ecclesiastical  provinces  of  Toronto 
and  St.  Boniface  was  decided  and  a  petition  was  added 
for  the  canonization  of  Sister  Marie  de  I'lncamation, 
foundress  of  the  Quebec  Ursulincs.  Bishop  Baillargeon 
attended  the  Vatican  Council  (1869),  but  was  forced  by 
ill-health  to  return  before  voting  for  papal  inf allibihty, 
which  he  favoured.  He  died  soon  after.  He  had  con- 
secrated five  bishops  and  ordained  one  hundred  and 
ninety  priests. 

(16)  Eliear-Alexandre  Taschereau,  b.  1820;  d. 
1898,  for  several  years  teacher  of  philo«ophv  in  the  sem- 
inary, and  was  one  of  the  founders  of  Laval  University; 
he  was  rector  (1860-6),  and  again,  in  1869    vicar- 


QUIBIO  51 

g  'neral  (1S62),  theologian  of  Archbuttop  Btullargeoa 
at  the  Vatican  Council,  adminifltrator  (1870),  arch- 
bishop (1^71),  cardinal  of  (he  title  of  Santa  Maria  detla 
Vittoria  (ISSii).  Among  the  many  facts  of  his  admin- 
iBtration  may  be  auoleJ;  the  foundation  of  the  Ho»- 
pital  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  which  he  entrusted  to  the 

^Sisters  of  the  General  HospitaJ  (1873);  the  erection 
of  the  Chicoutimi  college  and  see(lS78);  the  inaugu- 
ration of  a  classical  course  of  studies  in  the  Commer- 
cial CoUpEe  of  Levis  (1879);  the  creation  of  more  than 
fifty  parishes  with  the  funds  of  colonization  and  of  the 

-  Propagation  of  the  Faith,  kept  since  1876  for  local 
wants;  the  foundation  (1892)  of  the  now  prosperous 
order  of  Our  Lady  of  Perpetual  Help,  by  the  Abb6 
Broussoau;  the  fifth  (1873),  sixth  (1878),  and  seventh 
(ISSO)  Councils  of  Quebec.  Among  the  decrees  must 
be  mentioned  that  on  the  improvement  of  theological 
uid  philosophical  studies  after  St.  Thomas's  prin- 
ciples, aecording  to  Leo  Xlll'a  direction.  Archbishop 
Taschcreau  h&a  to  deal  with  some  perplexing'cases: 
he  was  papal  delegate  for  the  division  of  Notre  Dame 
parish  in  Montreal  (1871),  and  the  conclusion  of  his 
report  was  adopted  by  Cardinal  Bamabo.  In  the 
exciting  question  of  Catholic  Liberaliscn,  his  pastoral 
l«tteia  of  1875  and  1877  procured  for  the  country  a 
lasting  peace.  Another  cause  of  discord  was  the  uni- 
versity ([uestion,  finally  settled  by  establishing  at  Mon- 
treal (1876)  a  branch  of  Laval,  which,  by  the  Decree 
"Jamdudum"  (lS96),haebecome  nearly  indPi)cndent. 
In  ISS8  the  long  pending  debate  on  the  Jesuits'  estates 
ended  by  an  agreement  between  Prime  MinisteE 
Mercier  and  Father  Turgcon,  S.J.,  authorized  by, 
Rome.  The  Government  paid  an  indemnity  of  $400,- 
000  to  be  divided  among  the  Jesuits,  Laval  Unlvcr- 
flity,  and  the  bishops  for  educational  purposes.  A 
share  of  SGO,0(K)  was  granted  to  the  Protestant  Board 
of  Education.  When  Cardinal  Taschcreau  handed 
over  the  adminwtration  to  his  coadjutor  (1894),  the 
archdiocese  contained  320,000  Catholics,  392  secular 
priests,  33  regulars,  3  coUcEea  or  seminaries,  6^  con- 
vents, 19o  churches  and  chapels,  193  parishes  and 
nflssions,  although  more  than  I>0  had  been  cut  off  for 
the  new  sees  of  Rimouski  and  Chicoutimi. 

(17)  Louis  Nazairc  Begin,  b.  1840,  after  several 
years  of  studies  in  Rome,  where  he  was  ordained  in 
1865,  filled  in  the  seminary  of  Quebec  the  successive 
positions  of  professor  of  theology,  director  of  students, 
and  prefect  of  studies.  Principal  of  the  Laval  Normal 
School  (1881),  Bishop  of  Chicoutimi  (1888),  coadjutor 
of  Quebec  (1891)  with  the  title  of  Archbishop  of 
Cyrenc,  granted  future  succession  (1892),  he  took 
possession  of  the  sec  in  1S98.  He  has  written  books 
on  infallibility,  the  rule  of  faithj  and  the  veneration 
of  the  saints.  During  his  administration  the  arch- 
diocese has  greatly  developed  by  the  admission  of 

■  several  orders  of  men  and  women,  and  by  the  crea- 
tion of  many  new  parishes.  He  played  a  leading  part 
in  the  struggle  of  the  Canadion  bishops  (1896) 
against  the  unjust  law  of  1890,  by  which  the  Catholics 
Of  Manitoba  had  been  deprived  of  their  schools.  After 
the  delegation  of  Mgr.  Nlcrry  del  Val,  now  Secretary 
of  State  to  Pius  X,  he  received  (1898)  the  Encyclical 
letter  "Affari  vos"  (1897),  in  which  Leo  XIII,  while 
he  praised  the  bishops  for  their  vindication  of  Catholic 
principles  of  education,  advised  union  and  charity 
when  claiming  justice.  On  the  tercentenary  of  the 
foundation  of  Quebec  (1908)  a  monument  was 
erected  to  Bishop  Laval.  Important  events  arc;  the 
organization  of  the  "Action  sociale  catholique",  a 
branch  of  which  is  the  paper  "L'Action  Sociale". 
edited  at  Quebec  since  1907:  the  first  Plenary  Council 
of  Canada  {190iJ),  attended,  under  the  presidency  of 
Archbishop  Sbaretti,  delegate  Apostolic,  by  7  arch- 
bishops, 26  bishops,  1  prefect  ApoetoUc.  1  mitred 
abbot,  and  5  episcopal  proxies.  At  this  oate  (April, 
1911),  the  decrees  have  not  yet  been  published.  Mgr 
Faul-Eugene  Roy,  b.  1859,  was  consecrated  auxiliary 


)7  QUEBEC 

bishopin  1908.  His  classical  course  was  made  in  Que- 
bec; after  taking  in  France  the  degree  of  licentiate  in 
letters,  he  was  professor  of  rhetoric  and  prefect  of 

studies  in  the  Quebec  seminary,  became  pastor  of  the 
Canadian'!  at  HartFord,  Conn.,  and  in  1901  was  first 
parish  priest  of  Jacques-Cartier  in  Quebec.  He  is  the 
chief  force  in  the  "Action  Sociale". 

Organiailujn. — The  Archdiocese  of  Quebec  is  in- 
corporated under  the  title  "La  Corporation  Epis- 
oopale  Catholique  Romaine  de  Qui5bec"  by  XII 
Victoria,  ch.  36,  which  also  grants  (|  7)  incorporation 
to  all  dioceses  then  existing  or  to  be  afterwards  erected 
in  Canada.  "L'Evfeque  catholique  de  Quebec"  was 
personally,  and  remains,  incorporated  by  letters 
patent  of  Queen  Victoria  in  1845.  Parishes  receive 
civil  incorporation  after  canonical  erection,  but 
possess  their  legal  rights  even  without  it.     Church 

Eroperty,  administen^  under  the  pastor's  presidency 
y  church-wardens  elected  by  parishioners,  cannot  he 
legally  alienated  without  the  bishop's  assent.  In  the 
ecclesiastical  province  of  Quebec,  a  mutual  ii 
with  its  seat  in 
Quebec,  covers 
nsks  on  church 
buildings  and  par- 
sonages    to    the 


Catholic  educa- 
tional or  chari- 
table institutions. 
The  parish  church 
of  Quebec  is  the 
cathedral.  B^un 
in  1G47,  conse- 
crated by  Bishop 
IavbI  in  1666,  re- 
built on  a  larger 
scale  by  Bishop 
Pontbriand(1744- 
9)  and  again,  after 
the  siege  by  Bish- 
op Briand  (1767- 

71),  it  was   hon-   Chubcb  or  Noteb-d. 
oured  in  1874  by  QntBcc 

the  title  of  basilica.  With  the  exception  of  a  tew 
students,  sent  every  year  to  Eunipe  to  receive  a  train- 
ing as  professors,  most  of  the  clergy  are  educated  in 
the  higher  seminary  of  Quebec.  None  is  admitted 
until  alter  satisfactory  classical  studies  and  two  years 
of  philosophy. .  The  course  of  theology  lasts  tour  years. 
Four  times  a  year  all  priests  in  office  have  to  meet  by 
groups  of  ten  and  twelve  to  .treat  of  questions  of 
theology  or  church  history  determined  by  the  bishop, 
to  whom  report  must  be  sent.  Two  retreats  every  year 
are  preached  in  the  seminary,  so  that  all  the  clergy 
may  attend  one  or  the  other.  An  ecclesiastical  asso- 
ciation ("La  Caisse  St.  Joseph")  grants  a  pension 
to  its  members  out  of  office  through  sickness  or  old  age. 

Charilies. — Two  hospitals  (Hfltel-Dieu)  for  the 
sick;  12  for  old  persons  of  both  sexes;  7  orphanages; 
3  patronages  tor  foundlings;  1  refuge  for  repentant 
girls— all  entrusted  to  religious  orders;  several  pros- 
perous societies  or  conferences  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul; 
a  Tabernacle  Society  and  an  Association  for  the  Pro- 
tection of  Maid  Servants. 

Religumg  Orders.— M  ale. — (The  asterisk  shows  which 
have  in  the  diocese  a  novitiate  or  at  least  a  preparatoiy 
house  or  postulate.)  Jesuits,  Franciscans*,  Capuchins*, 
Dflminicans,  White  Fathers,  Oblates,  Fathers  of  the 
Sacred  Heart*,  Brothers  of  the  Christian  Schools,  of 
Christian  Instruction,  of  St.  Viateur,  of  the  Sacred 
Heart,  Marists*,  Fathers  and  Brothers  of  St.  Vincent 
de  Paul.  The  Fathers  of  Ste  Croix  have  a  house  and 
9  students  following  the  course  of  theology  at  Laval. 
Tlic  Franciscans  have  their  own  classes  of  theology 


QUEBEC 


598 


QUEBEC 


with  30  students. — ^Female. — ^Ursulmes*,  Sisters  of  tHe 
Good  Shepherd*,  Congregation  of  Notre  Dame,  Serv- 
ants of  the  Holy  Heart  of  Mary  %  Dominican  Sisters  of 
the  Infant  Jesus*,  Franciscan  Missionaries  of  Mary*, 
Sisters  of  the  Mercy  of  Jesus*,  of  Charity*,  of  Jdsus- 
Marie*.  of  the  Holy  Family,  of  Charity  of  St.  Louis*^ 
of  St.  Francis  of  Assisi,  of  the  African  Missions  (White 
Sisters)*,  of  St.  Joseph  of  St.  Vallier*,  of  the  Perpetual 
Help*,  of  the  Holy  Redeemer  (Redemptoristmes)*, 
of  the  Precious  Blood*,  of  Hope,  and  Cistercian  Sisters 
(Trappistines)*. 

Statistics  (1910):  359,000  Catholics;  510  secular 
and  100  regular  priests;  218  parishes  and  25  missions; 
266  churches  and  chapels  (only  two  parishes  are  ex- 
dusivehr  composed  of  Irish  or  English  Catholics; 
about  m  teen  are  mixed,  but  mostly  all  with  a  much 
larger  proportion  of  French-Canadians);  1  university 
(Laval)  with  405  students,  of  whom  116  for  theology: 
3  colleges  or  seminaries  with  1601  students;  Laval 
Normal  School,  with  95  young  ladies  and  61  voimg 
men  trained  for  teaching,  and  174  other  pupils;  49 
academies  and  143  high  schools  (icoles  moakles),  with 
27,579  children  educated  by  196  brothers,  745  sisters 
of  different  orders,  21  lay  schoolmasters  and  136 
schoolmistresses:  1279  primary  schools  {icoles  SUmeiV' 
iaires),  in  whicn  14  brothers,  108  sisters,  4  school- 
masters and  1293  schoolmistresses  give  instruction  to 
43,933  children. 

TiTU,  Lm  Bvtquea  da  Qu&>ee  (Quebec,  1899);  MandemenU  d«9 
Mquet  da  Quibae  (Quebec.  1887-1910):  Le  palaia  SpUeoptd 
(Quebec,  189(9) ;  Jovrnal  d'un  toyaga  en  Burope  var  Mgr  PUtwia 
(Quebec.  190$;  Joumai  da  vititea  paalcraUa  ae  181S-te»  par 
Mar  Pletna  (Quebec.  1903);  ConeOet  de  QuSbac  (Quebec.  1870- 
1888);  DoeumenJU  hittoriQuet  mr  la  NoutdU  France  (Quebeo, 
1883-6) ;  Jesuit  Retatume,  ed.  Thwaxtm  (Cleveland.  1896-1901); 
GABNSAn.  Hiat.  du  Canada  (4th  ed..  Montreal,  1882);  Fkrland, 
Coure  d'hieUrire  (2nd  ed..  Quebeo.  1882);  Auanvn  QoflSBUif 
Vie  de  Mgr  de  Laval  (Quebeo.  1890);  db  Pontbbxaivd.  Mfpr  de 
PorUbriand  (Pam.  Champion,  1910);  Lee  Ureulinee  de  Qutbee 
(Quebec,  186^-6);  Cabobaxn,  Hiel.  de  VHdtd-Dieu;  AM^ote 
QoBSKUN,  L*  Ifutruclion  au  Canada  eoue  le  rigime  franQaie  (Qufr- 
beo,  1911);  Monies.  DieHonnaire  dee  Canadiene  et  dee  MUie 
finanfoie  de  VOueei  (Quebec.  1908);  Iduc.  HiaUny  of  the  CathoUe 
Churek  in  Western  Canada  (Toronto,  1910):  Rapporte  eur  lee 
mieevms  du  diookee  de  Quibee  (9uebeo.  1839-74);  Le  nOOe  anni- 
vereaire  de  la  fondation  du  Shinnaire  de  QuSbec  (Quebec.  1863) ; 
Le  premier  oondle  pUnier  de  Quibee,  priparaHon,  stancee  eUenr 
neUee  et.  allocuHone  (Quebec.  1910) ;  Le  9e  cenJtenaire  de  VireeHon 
du  diocese  de  Qutbee  (Quebec.  1874) :  Souvenir  dee  f»tee  du  £1, 
££  et  SS  juin  1908  (Quebec.  1908) ;  MxoNAUi;r,  Droit  paroianaL 
(Montreal,  1893);  Rapport  du  eurintendant  de  rinatruction 
pubUque  pour  1909-1910;  Le  Canada  eceUaiaatique  (Montreal, 
1911). 

H.  A.  Scott. 

QaebeOy  Pbovincb  of. — Gbographt. — ^The  prov- 
ince of  Quebec  occupies  mainly  the  two  slopes  of  the 
vast  basin  formed  by  the  St.  liawrence  River  whose 
course  runs  chieflv  lietween  the  Laurentian  and  Alle- 
ghany ranges.  Its  boundaries  are:  to  the  north, 
the  district  of  Ungava;  to  the  northeast,  Labrador; 
to  the  east,  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence;  to  the  south- 
east, New  Brunswick,  and  the  States  of  Maine  and 
New  Hamoshire;  to  the  south,  the  States  of  Vermont 
and  New  York,  and  the  Counties  of  Glengarry  and 
Prescott  in  Ontario;  to  the  west,  the  province  of 
Ontario.  Quebec  is  comprised  between  the  45th 
and  54th  aegrees  of  latitude  north,  and  the  57th 
and  79th  degrees  of  longitude  west  of  Greenwich. 
Its  area  measures  354,873  square  miles;  about  equal 
to  that  of  the  United  Kingdom,  France^  Beldum,  and 
Holland  united.  No  country  in  the  world  ofthe  same 
extent  possesses  so  many  and  so  abundant  waterways, 
chief  of  which  are  the  St.  Lawrence,  discharging  the 
Great  Lakes,  and  navigable  to  its  very  source,  and 
its  principal  tributaries:  the  Ottawa,  the  St.  Maurice 
and  the  Saguenay,  each  of  which  surpasses  in  navi- 
gableness the  largest  rivers  of  Europe.  Innumerable 
cascades  falling  from  the  Laurentian  heights  represent 
boundless  mechanical  forces;  the  forest  resources 
of  Quebec  are  still  immense,  and  its  asbestos  mines 
the  richest  in  the  world.    Tiie  principal  citieaare: — 

Quebec,  the  capital,  founded  in  1606,  population, 


according  to  the  last  census  (1901),  68,840;  Montreal 
foimded  1642,  population,  exclusive  of  lately  annexea 
municipalities,  267,730;  Three  Rivers,  founded 
1634,  population,  9981;  Sherbrooke,  11,765;  Hull, 
13,993;  Valleyfield,  11,055.  Quebec,  the  cap- 
ital, long  enjo3red  a  political,  militaiy.  and  com- 
mercial superiority  over  all  Canada.  Although  since 
surpassed  in  material  prosperity,  it  stUl  appeals  to 
the  scholar  and  student,  teeming  as  it  is  with  his- 
torical interest,  while  to  the  tourist  it  ofiFers  a  view 
of  magnificence  and  picturesqueness  perhaps  unique 
in  the  world.  Here  landed  the  discoverers  of  the 
coimtry  and  the  founders  of  the  nation;  hither  came 
the  bare-footed  Recollect,  the  black-robed  Jesuit, 
the  Ursuline  and  the  hospital  Sisters;  here  the  noble 
and  saintly  Laval  ruled  the  infant  Church  of  New 
France;  from  hence  the  Faith  radiated  throughout 
North  America.  •  Here  was  bom  Joliet,  the  discoverer 
of  the  Mississippi;  here  the  viceroys  held  court; 
here  flourished,  from  the  very  outset,  many  of  the 
dearest  devotions  of  the  Church.  I^val's  first  ca- 
thedral was  dedicated  in  1666  to  the  Immaculate 
Conception ;  the  cult  of  the  Holy  Family  was  approved 
in  1665,  a  fact  lauded  by  Leo  XIII  in  his  Letter 
"Neminem  fugit"  (14  June,  1892);  the  first  celebra- 
tion of  the  Feast  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus  in  the 
New  World  took  place  in  the  Ursuline  chapel  (1700). 
Traditions  of  courtesy  as  well  as  of  piety  were  created 
that  have  left  their  impress  on  the  people's  charac- 
ter. Almost  the  entire  population  of  the  province 
of  Quebec,  i.  e.  about  five-sixths,  consists  of  French- 
Canadians;  the  remainder  comprises  chiefly  the 
descendants  of  English,  Scotch;  and  Irish  immi- 
srants.  About  12,000  Indians  and  half-breeds  of  the 
m>quois,  Huron,  Micmac,  Abenaki,  and  Montagnus 
tribes  occupy  reservations  in  different  sections  of  the 
province.  With  one  or  two  exceptions,  these  abo- 
rigines are  instructed  by  missionaries  in  their  re- 
spective tongues,  which  they  have  faithfully  preserved 
in  spite  of  their  environment. 

Present  Conditions. — Although  there  is  no  state 
religion,  and  freedom  of  worship  is  sanctioned  by  law, 
the  immense  majority  of  the  population  being 
Catholic  in  faith  and  practice,  the  relations  between 
Church  and  State  are,  as  a  rule,  harmonidlls.  The 
hierarchy  and  clergy  are  habitually  treated  with  due 
consideration  and  respect,  in  recognition  not  only 
of  their  sacred  character,  but  also  of  the  efiBcient 
part  they  have  ever  taken  in  the  moral  as  well  as 
the  social  well-being  of  the  country.  Public  order, 
education  in  every  degree,  agriculture,  colonization, 
and  even  industry,  all  owe  a  debt  to  the  influence  of 
the  Church,  which  the  political  authorities  are  prone 
to  recognize.  In  all  public  religious  demonstrations, 
such  as  the  procession  of  Corpus  Christi,  the  dimi- 
taries  of  the  State  occupy  a  prominent  rank.  The 
province  of  Quebec  comprises  three  metropolitan 
sees :  Quebec,  Montreal,  ana  Ottawa.  That  of  Qudbec 
counts  four  suffragran  dioceses:  Three  Rivers, 
Rimouski,  Chicoutimi,  Nicolet,  and  one  vicariate 
apostolic,  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence.  The  suffragan 
sees  of  Montreal  are:  St.  Hyacinth,  Sherbrooke, 
Valleyfield,  and  Joliette.  The  ecclesiastical  province 
of  Ottawa,  partly  situated  in  Ontario,  comprises  the 
Diocese  of  Pembroke  and  the  Vicariate  Apostolic 
of  Temiscamingue.  The  Catholic  population  ofthe 
province,  according  to  the  last  government  census 
(1901),  was  1,449,716,  out  of  a  total  of  1,648,898. 
Later  statistics  (ecclesiastical),  including  1910,  show 
an  increase  for  the  two  ecclesiastical  provinces  of 
Quebec  and  Montreal,  and  exclusive  of  ihat  portion 
of  the  civil  province  depending  on  the  metropolitan 
See  of  Ottawa,  of  163.611,  giving  a  total  Cfatholic 
population  for  1910  of  1,613,327,  Quebec  and  suf- 
fragan sees  having  a  total  of  731,609{  and  Montreal, 
with  its  suffragans,  of  789,502.  This  increase  in  a 
province  where  race-suicide  is  unknown  and  families 


QUEBEC 


599 


QUEBEC 


proverbially  numerouB,  in  spite  of  a  notable  in- 
fantile death-rate,  should  be  far  greater,  were  it  not 
for  the  continuous  flow  of  emi^^ation  to  the  United 
States  and  to  the  western  provinces  of  Canada,  with 
a  comparatively  small  immigration  from  Europe. 
This  emigration  of  French  Canadians,  according  to 
authentic  statistics,  amounted  to  10,000  for  the  single 
year  of  1909.     (For  history,  see  Canada.) 

Correction  and  Education. — ^All  penitentiaries 
and  prisons  are  provided  with  Catholic  chaplains 
subsimzed  by  the  State,  and  feast-days  of  oblif^ation, 
as  well  as  Sunday,  are  observed.  Reformatories  for 
youth  are  managed  at  the  public  expense  by  the 
Brothers  of  Chfuity  for  older  boys,  by  the  Sisters 
of  the  Good  Shepherd  for  nrls,  and  by  the  Sisters 
of  Charity  for  younger  children  of  both  sexes,  the 
Government  contributing  in  the  last  two  cases  a 
per  capita  sum  for  a  limited  number  of  juveniles. 
The  two  largest  sanitaria  in  the  province  are  managed, 
by  government  contract,  by  the  Sisters  of  Providence 
andof  Charity,  in  Montreal  and  Quebec,  respectively. 
Homes  for  idiots,  enjoying  government  subsidies, 
are  likewise  in  the  care  of  reugious.  According  to 
the  latest  criminal  statistics  (1908),  the  province  of 
Quebec,  with  a  ratio  of  13*91  per  10,000  of  population, 
comes  fourth  in  order  of  excellence,  after  the  three 
maritime  provinces,  where  there  has  been  no  im- 
migration within  the  last  decade;  and  third  for 
number  of  convictions  according  to  population, 
beins  one  for  each  96  inhabitants.  Prince  Ed- 
ward Island  and  New  Brunswick  alone  surpassing 
Quebec. 

Schools. — ^The  public-school  system  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Quebec,  without  being  ideal,  is,  in  a  notable 
measure,  respectful  of  the  rights  of  the  family  and  of 
the  Church.  This  desirable  condition  results  mainly 
from  the  constitution  of  the  Council  of  Public  In- 
struction, composed,  ex  officio,  of  the  hierarchy  of 
the  province  representing  the  Cnurch,  and  of  an  equal 
number  of  laymen.  The  latter  are  nominated  ex- 
clusively by  the  lieutenant  governor  in  council.  The 
council  is  presided  over  by  a  superintendent  of  publio 
instruction  who  represents  the  State;  there  is  no 
minister  of  education,  and  politics  are  thereby  partly 
excluded  from  the  administration.  Several  prin- 
cipals of  normal  schools  and  lay  professors  have  lately 
been  added  to  the  council.  The  council  has  the 
power  to  distribute  a  limited  portion  of  the  public 
moneys  for  primary  and  classical  schools,  to  propose 
certain  nominees  to  normal  schools  and  to  the  board 
of  examiners  for  teaching  licences,  to  approve  or 
reject  all  text-books.  But  its  powers  are  more  ad- 
visory than  legislative,  nearly  all  its  deliberations 
being  subject  to  government  sanction.  A  committee 
similarly  organized  attends  to  the  educational  in- 
terests of  the  Ftotestant  minority.  The  most  strik- 
ing feature  of  the  Quebec  school  law  is  the  absolute 
liMrty  enjoyed  by  each  of  the  two  chief  religious 
denominations  of  controlling  its  own  schools  agree- 
ably to  the  wishes  of  parents.  In  municipaBties 
where  they  form  the  majority,  Catholics  cannot  in- 
terfere with  the  rights  of  Protestants,  and  vice  versa. 
In  this  respect,  of  all  the  school  laws  of  the  dominion, 
that  of  Quebec  may  justly  be  considered  as  the  fairest 
and  most  conducive  to  religious  harmony;  never 
was  a  majority  so  liberal  towards  a  minority.  The 
school  grants  are  even  proportionally  larger  to  the 
latter  (the  Protestant  minoritv)  than  to  the  former. 
It  has  been  rightly  proclaimed  that  nowhere  has  the 
separate  school  law  been  more  generously  and  con- 
scientiously applied,  and  that,  to  the  honour  of 
French  Catholic  Quebec,  there  has  never  been  any 
occasion  to  invoke  government  interference  for  the 
protection  of  the  minority.  This  fair  treatment 
extends  likewise  to  the  language.  The  French- 
■peaking  province  of  Quebec  amply  provides  for  the 
requirements  of  the  English-speakmg  minorities,  as 


regards  education  in  their  mother  ton^e.  More- 
over, a  course  of  English,  in  many  cases  qmte  efficient, 
is  given  in  eveiv  French  school  of  the  intermediate 
and  higher  grades.  It  must  be  noted  that  there  is 
only  one  school  law  for  the  province,  under  which  all 
schools.  Catholic  and  Protestant,  are  organized. 
To  interest  the  people  more  deeply  ip.  the  schools 
and  give  greater  umty  and  strength  to  the  system, 
the  legislature  has  spited  it  on  the  parish  organiza- 
tion. Each  parish  is  thus  incorporated  three  times: 
(1)  for  church  affairs;  (2)  for  municipal  affairs;  (3) 
for  school  affairs.  The  parish  priest  is  ehgible  as 
school  commissioner,  and  has  the  right  to  visit 
the  schools  with  the  exclusive  choice  of  textbooks 
relating  to  religion.  In  parishes  where  there  is  a 
Protestant  minority,  the  minority  has  a  right  to  a 
dissentient  separate  school,  controlled  by  special 
trustees.  Lay  inspectors,  nominated  by  the  gover- 
nor in  coimcu,  visit  all  schools  under  control  of  the 
school  commissioners;  diocesan  clerics^  inspectors, 
chosen  by  the  respective  bishops,  are  authorized  to 
visit'  even  schools  receiving  a  partial  grant  from  the 
Government.  Normal  or  training  schools,  based  on 
the  principle  of  denonunationalism^  were  definitively 
created  in  1857,  two  for  the  Catholics,  one  in  Quebec 
for  both  sexes,  the  Laval,  and  one  in  Montreal,  the 
Jacque&-Cartier,  for  male  teachers,  and  one  for  Protes- 
tants, in  Montreal,  the  McGill.  Recently,  normal 
schools  for  women  teachers  only  have  been  established 
in  Montreal,  Three  Rivers,  Rimouski,  Chicoutimi, 
St.  Hyacinth,  Hull,  Sherbrooke,  Valleyfield,  Nicolet, 
and  Joliette,  under  the  management  of  reli|;ious 
communities,  and  grafted  on  pre-existing  educational 
institutions.  In  each  of  the  ten  Catholic  normal 
schools  of  the  province,  the  principal  is  a  priest 
nominated  by  the  Catholic  committee.  Another  late 
improvement  is  the  establishment  of  special  schools 
of  domestic  economy  under  the  management  of 
sisters.  (For  legislation  relating  to  the  Church,  see 
Canada.) 

The  latest  report  of  the  superintendent  of  publio 
education  for  the  school  year  1909-10  gives  the 
following  general  statistics  for  the  province  of 
Quebec:  schools,  6760;  teachers,  14,000;  pupils, 
394,945;  average  attendance,  308,982 j  average  per 
cent,  78*23.  The  same  report  shows  an  increase  above 
the  figures  of  theyear  previous  of  7552  in  the  num- 
ber of  pupils.  There  has  also  been  a  considerable 
increase  in  the  expenditure,  due  to  grants  for  technical 
schools,  and  to  the  newly  organized  normal  schools. 
The  total  government  outlay  for  1909-10  was 
$6,210,530,  showing  an  increase  above  that  of  1907-08 
of  $1 ,744,993 .  The  contrast  between  the  amount  spent 
and  the  number  of  schools,  teachers,  and  pupils, 
instead  of  signif3dng  an  inferior  quality  of  education, 
testifies  to  the  economy  wrought  by  the  empld)rment 
of  teaching  religious  orders,  5805  of  whose  members 
(out  of  a  total  of  14,000  teachers)  are  employed  in 
the  publio  schools.  (For  statistics  regarding  uni- 
versities, classical  colleges,  and  the  several  teaclung 
orders,  see  Canada.) 

The  accompanying  table  of  comparative  school  sta- 
tistics for  the  entire  dominion  was  published  officiidly 


• 

SCHOOLS 

TBACR- 
KB8 

PUFILS 

AVCRAOK 

ATTEND- 

ANCB 

EXPSNDI- 

TURBS 

Canada .... 
Alberta .... 
B.  Columbia 
Manitoba. . 

(1907) 
New  Brawk 
Nova  Scotia 
Ontario .... 
P.E.I..... 
Quebec .... 
Saskatoh'n. 

22,971 

1,070 

422 

1.943 

1.828 
2.516 
•6.413 
476 
6.549 
1.764 

44.896 

1,171 

816 

2.480 

1.903 

2.664 

♦10,643 

580 

13.139 

1.500 

1,214.4.'>7 
39.109 
33.314 
67,144 

66.383 

101,725 

•478.,'i49 

18.012 

372.,599 

♦37.622 

776.96S 

♦17.311 

23.55S 

37,279 

38.584 

58,343 

♦284.988 

11.646 

285.418 

♦19,841 

$19.370..538 

282,205 

1.220.509 

324.836 

776,320 

1,215.600 

♦8.769.876 

176.092 

4.466,637 

♦2.139.663 

QUIXN'S  6( 

by  the  Department  oF  the  Interior  in  1908.     (Those 
marked  with  an  asterisk  are  eetimated.) 

Of  the  two  oldest  provinces  of  the  domioion,  Ontario 
and  Quebec;,  the  latter  stands  firet  iis  regards  ^e 
number  of  schools,  of  teachers,  and  of  average  attend- 
ance, being  inferior  only  in  the  number  of  pupils 
(irrespective  of  the  ratio  to  each  population),  and  in 
expenditure.  About  one-eleventh  of  the  number 
of  pupils  in  the  province  of  Quebec  are  non-Catholics 
The  following  table,  baeeii  on  the  preceding  statistics, 
shows  the  relative  standing  of  each  province  of  the 
dominion,  according  to  the  percentage  of  average 
attendance  for  1908: 


AVBBAO. 

*m™;™ 

17,311 

23,558 
37,279 
38,584 

58,343 
2S4,988 

11,84C 
28.5,418 

19,841 

Prince  Edward  Island 

64-65 

?,  DtpartmtHl  af  Ihe  Interior 

);    R.ipp    ■    ■  ■  ■     ■ 

c,  1B09): _..    

^1^uer>ei?.  lin>9);  ASUUN,  CnthiAir  EilactUion  in  Canada  iu 
CalhoHr  Educalxonal  Aitocialion  Bultoin  (Cojumbus.  0.,Aue., 
iaiO);HoPiiHB.Ciin>da.  Arnnc^dopfliaofilucoiniralToroaui. 
\SSS>:  U  C<na<la  rrcUiioilivut  (.Montriol,  1011);  LViTninal 
tbxlitlia  (OltBWH.  liKIW). 

Lionel  Lindbav. 
Qumu'i  DftUKbter,  The.    Sec  Societies,  Cato- 

QuMDilaQd.  See  BRISBANE,  Abcbdiocese  of. 
Quelen,  HYArixTHE-T,oi(is  dp.  Archbishop  of 
Paris,  b.  at  Paris,  8  Oct.,  1778;  d,  there  31  Dec,,  1839. 
He  was  eilueated  at  the  College  de  Navarre,  and  under 
the  private  tui- 
tion of  M.Emery 
and  other  ccalesi- 
antics.  Ordained 
in  1807,  he  served 
a  year  as  Vicar- 
General  of  St. 
Bricuc  and  then 
became  secretary 
"  "  al 
Fesch.  When  the 
latter  was  sent 
back  to  his  dio- 
cese, de  Quelen 
exercised  the 
sacred  ministry 
at  St.  Sulpicc 
and  in  the  mili- 
tary  hospitals. 
Under  the  Res- 
toration of  1814 
he  became  euc- 
ceseively  spiritual  directorot  the  schools  in  the  archdio- 
cese, Vicar-General  of  Paris,  and  coadjutor  archbishop 
toCardinaldeTallcyrand-Pi^rieord.  BucceedinBthelat- 
te^inl821.ThefavoursofLouisXVIIlandChar!esX 
did  not  makehim  subservient.  As  a  peer  of  the  realm 
he  opposed,  on  behalf  of  the  middle  classes,  the  convcr- 
eion  of  the  national  debt.  At  his  reception  into  the 
French  Academy  he  publicly  lauded  Gnateaubriand, 
then  in  disgrace.  While  blessing  the  comer-stone 
of  the  ChapeUc  Expiaioire  he  demanded,  though  in 
vain,  an  amnesty  for  the  eiiied  members  of  the 
Convention;  and  the  ordinance  of  1828,  disbanding 
the  Jesuits  and  limiting  the  recruiting  of  the  clergy, 


E   Qn«. 


0  QUSH 

was  issued  ag^nst  his  advice.  Although  de  Quelen 
had  not  approved  the  royal  ordinance  of  July.  1830, 

which  aimral  at  restoring  absolute  monarchy,  he  was 
nevertheless  held  in  suspicion  by  the  House  of  Orleans. 
On  one  occasion  Louis-Philippe  said  to  him:  "Arch- 
bishop, remember  that  more  than  one  mitre  has  been 
torn  asunder".  "Sire",  repl'ed  the  archbishop, 
"God  protect  the  crown  of  tlie  King,  for  many  royal 
crowns  too  have  been  shattered".- 

Apart  from  some  o£Gcial  functions  such  as  the  chris- 
tening of  the  Comte  de  Paris,  the  obsequies  of  the 
Duke  of  Orleans  and  the  Te  Deum  sung  in  honour 
of  the  French  victory  in  Africa,  he  confuted  himself 
to  his  episcopal  duties,  visiting  the  parishes  of  his  juris- 
diction, looking  after  the  rehgious  instruction  of 
military  recruits,  and  organizing  the  metropolitan 
clergy.  In  the  outbreaks  which  followed  the  Revolu- 
tion of  1830  the  archbishop,  twice  driven  from  his 
palace,  had  to  seek  refuge  in  humble  quarters 
and  to  bear  in  silence  the  worst  calumnies  against 
his  person.  However,  when  the  epidemic  of  1832 
broke  out,  he  noblv  transformed  his  seminaries  into 
hospitals,  personally  ministered  to  the  sick  at  the 
H6tel-Dieu,  and  founded  at  his  own  expense  the 
"CEu^(|;e.  dee  orphelins  du  chol6ra".  He  died  shortly 
after,'navingthejoyot  witneBeingtheconversionotthe 
apostate  Bishop  of  Autun,  the  Prince  de  Talleyrand. 
Ravignan  eulogized  him  at  Notre-Dame,  and  de  MoM 
at  the  French  Academy.  From  de  Quelen's  episco- 
pate date  the  "Soci^t*  de  St.  Vincent  de  Paul",  the 
Conferences  apologStiques  de  Notre-Dame"  and 
several  rcli)^0U8  institutes,  among  which  are  the 
nursing  Sisters  of  Bon-Secours.  Besides  the  eulogies 
on  Louis  XVI  (Paris,  1816),  on  Madame  Elisabeth 
(Paris,  1817),  on  the  Duke  de  Berry  (Paris,  1830),  his 
"Discours  de  r(5ception  k  I'acad^mie  frangaise" 
(Paris,  1824),  and  some  120  pastoi'sJ  letters,  we  have 
from  his  pen  "  Manuels  pour  I'administration  des 
Sacrements  de  rEucharistie  et  de  rExtr6me-0nction: 
du  Baptfmo  des  Enfants:  du  Mariage"  (3  vols.,  Paris, 
1837-38)  collected  in  the  "Rituel  de  Paris". 

BioKripliipi  Ly  DEiAi'ULLia  (Piiris.  1840).  and  Hensioh 
(Paris.  lg1l)):PiHAMin//Ep>icopaI/ranc<ita  IPiriB,  1907).  s.  v.; 
d'Avenkl.  Lit  Itlqari  tl  aTchn^att  dt  Paris  (TourDBi,  I87S): 
SK  bIh  Mimoim  d*  Jaufrel.  Ill  (Pani.  1S24)  -.Am  lit  la  Rttigiim 
(Part..  1810),  CIV:  Rctut  BccUtiaHiqar,  II  (P»ri«,  1840). 

J.  F.  SoLUER, 


trage  etc.,  I,  393)  remarks  that  it  is  not  found  ii 

MSS.  of  Fortunatus's  works,  to  whom,  however. 
Dreve8("Analectanymmca",  L?f«ipiig,  1907,  86-8) 
andBlume(see  HrMNoDY)referit.  The  Roman  Brevi- 
ary divides  it  int^  two  ports :  the  first,  beginning  with 
"Qucm  terra,  pontus,  sidera",  asnipied  to  Matins  in 
the  Common  OfTice,  and  also  the  Little  Office  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin;  the  second,  beginning  with  "O  glori- 
osa  virginum",  similarly  assigned  to  I.auds.  Both 
parts  conclude  with  the  doxology  of  Marian  hymns, 
"  Jesu  tibi  sit  gloria  etc."  As  found  thus,  the  hvmns 
are  revisions,  m  the  interest  of  classical  prosody,  of 
the  older  hymn,  "Qucm  terra,  pontus,  others",  found 
in  many  old  breviaries,  and  in  MSS.  dating  from  the 
eighth  century.  In  the  Cistercian  office  it  was  aunjg 
at  Compline  during  Advent.  Sometimes  it  was  divi- 
ded into  two  parts,  as  now  in  the  Roman  Breviary, 
the  second  part  bepnning  with  "O  gloriosa  Domina 
(or  "fcmina  ).  Including  both  theolder  and  the  revised 
form,  there  ore  eighteen  translations  into  English  of 
the  first  part  and  fourteen  of  the  second  part,  neariy 
all  of  which  arc  by  Catholics.  In  the  Marquess  oif 
But<''s  "The  Roman  Breviary"  (1879L),  however,  the 
versions  selected  are  those  of  the  Anglican  trans- 
lators. J.  M.  Neale  and  R.  F.  Uttledale.  The  beau- 
tiful vcr^ons  of  Father  Caswall,  appearing  originally 


QUKBCU  6C 

in  hi»  "Lj;ra  Catholics"  (1849),  are  eaaily  accessible 
in  the  reprinted  work  (London,  1884),  For  tirst  linra 
of  the  various  translations,  sourcee,  authors,  ace 
Julian,  "Diet,  of  HymnoloKv"  (2nd  cd.,  London, 
1907,  944).  To  hia  hst  should  be  added  the  transla- 
tions of  Archbishop  Bagshawe  ("Breviary  Hymns 
and  Missal  Sequences",  London^  1900,  106-7),  and 
Judge  Donahoe  ("Early  Christian  Hymns",  New 
York,  1908,  80-1).  The  revised  form  of  the  Latin 
text  B8  well  08  the  older  forms,  with  variant  readings 
and  some  interesting  notes,  may  be  found  in  Daniel 
("Thesaurus  Hymnolopcus", I,  172;II,382i  IV,  135), 
and  in  Mone  (I^tciniache  Hymnen  des  Mittel- 
altere,  II,  128-31).  For  Latin  text  and  English  tr., 
ancient  plain  song  harmonited,  and  alternative  musi- 
cal settmg,  see  "Hymns,  Ancient  and  Modem" 
(London,  1909,  Hymn  222).  The  official  or  "typical" 
melody  will  be  found  in  the  "Antiphonary". 

H.  T.  Henbt. 
Qucrdft,  Jacdpo  Della,  sculptor,  b.  (it  is  said)  at 

8 uercia  Grossa,  near  Siena,  1374;  d.  30  October,  1438. 
is  father,  a  goldsmith,  taught  him  design.  When 
about  sixteen  he  made  an  etjueatrian  wooden  statue 
for  the  funeral  of  Alio  Ubaldioi ;  fac  is  believed  to  have 
left  Siena  soon  after  this,  owing  to  party  strife  and  dis- 
turbances. In  1401  he  reappeared  m  Florence,  a 
competitor  for  the  gates  of  S.  Giovanni  (assigned  to 
Ghiberti);  in  1408  he  executed  in  Ferrara  various 
sculptures,  notably  the  Madonna  of  the  Pomegranate. 
One  of  his  most  exquisite  works,  the  tomb  of  Uaria 
del  Carretto,  second  wife  of  Paolo  Guinki,  in  the 
Cathedral  of  Lucca  dates  about  1413.  The  Gotluc 
altar-piece  at  B  Frediano,  Lucca,  with  figures  of  Our 
Lady  and  aoints  (c.  1413)  is  by  him.  He  spent  ten 
years  on  his  Fontc  Gaia,  in  the  Haisa  del  Gampo, 
Siena;  it  has  figures  of  Our  Lady  and  of  the  theological 
and  cardinal  virtues,  reliefs  of  the  creation  of  man 
and  expulsion  from  paradise,  and  various  water- 
spouting  animal  forms.  The  fountain  was  restored 
by  Tito  Sarocchi  in  1868.  Also  in  Siena  (Baptistery 
of  S.  Giovanni)  is  the  font  made  from  Jacopo's  designs 
(1417-30).  The  surmounting  statuette,  Uie  Baptist, 
the  miui>le  reliefs  of  the  Prophets,  and  one  of  the  fax 
broDie-giit  panels  (Zacharias  led  out  of  the  Temple) 
are  from  his  hand.  A  very  important  work  is  the 
great  doorway  of  S.  Petronio,  Bologna,  with  fifteen 
bss-reliefa  from  Genesis  (1425-38).  Raphael  and 
MichJIangelo  are  both  indebted  to  these  sculptures. 
In  the  ambulatory  of  S.  Giacomo,  Bologna,  is  the 
monument  of  Antonio  Bentivoglio  (d.  1435).  The 
mandorla  of  the  Assumption,  Sta  Maria  del  Flore, 
Florence,  has  been  claimed  for  Jacopo,  but  modem 
authorities  ^ve  it  to  Nanni  del  Banco.  The  forms 
of  Jacopa  are  highly  tactile,  graceful,  and  animated. 

' \.  Hitloni  nf  SadiMuri,  tr.  BoRsrrr  (London,  187!); 

" "  A.  Sk™ 

.  for  Halg 

.  L.  Handlxt. 


QlUrttftro,  Diocese  of  (deQueretaro),  in  Mexico, 
suffrwati  of  Michoacan.  Its  area  is  that  of  the  state 
of  the  same  name,  4492  sq,  miles,  population,  243,516 
(census  of  1910).  Theprmcipal  city,  residenoeof  the 
bishop  and  the  governor,  is  Quer^taro,  population 
(1910),  35,011,  founded  by  the  Otomis  Indians  in 
1446,  and  occupied  by  the  Spaniards  since  1531.  The 
CarraeliMh  established  themselves  there  in  1601,  the 
Dieguinoe  in  1613,  the  Fathers  of  Mercy  in  1636,  the 
Dominicans  in  1692;  the  Augustinians  and  the 
Fathers  of  the  Oratory  of  St.  Philip  also  had  houses  in 
Quer^taro.  The  Jesuit  college  of  Saint  Francis 
Xarier  was  suppressed  in  1767  by  Charles  III  on 
the  <Moasion  of  the  expulsion  of  all  Jesuits  from  the 
Spanish  possessions.  One  of  the  most  notable  in- 
stitutbns  of  Quer^taro  was  the  college  of  Apostolic 
miasionaries,  which  Innocent  XI  called  the  greatest 
influenoe  for  the  propagation  of  the  Faith  in  th« 


1  QUB8NEL 

Indies.  Missionaries  went  forth  from  it  to  evan- 
gelize Sonora,  California,  Texas,  and  TamauJipas. 
In  1848  the  Government  of  the  Republic  asked  for 
some  of  its  members  to  take  charge  of  the  missions 
of  Sierra  Gorda.     Almost  all  of  the  present  diocese 


of  Ouer^taro  formed  partof  the  Archdiocese  of  Mexico 
until  26  January,  1862,  when  by  the  Bull  "Optimum 
Maximum"  of  Plus  IX,  the  See  of  Querftaro  was 
created.  The  diocese  has  two  seminaries  with  128 
students;  it  numbers  101  parochial  schools  and  nine 
Catholic  colleges,  which  together  contain  5195 
students.  There  are  one  Protestant  college  with  65 
students  and  two  Protestant  churches.  Adjoining 
the  residence  of  the  bishop,  in  the  capital  near  the 
church    of    La    Cruz,    is  the  Convent  jpf  La  Crui, 


The  Capuchin  Convent  was  used  as  a  prison  lor 
Emperor  Maximilian  and  his  two  generals,  Miramon 
and  Mejia.  It  was  on  the  hill  of  Las  Campanas  on 
the  outskirts  of  the  town  that  these  generals  were 
shot,  19  June,  1867.    An  elaborate  mortuary  chapel 


has  replaced  the  former  modest  monument  erected 
on  the  site.  At  Quer^taro  was  ratified  in  1848  the 
treaty  by  which  Mexico  ceded  to  the  United  States, 
at  the  close  of  the  war,  the  territory  covered  by  Texas, 
New  Mexico,  Arizona,  and  Upper  California. 

meriasritt  (AmccuDNH.  1881);  NoniEOA.  GtB^nna  itt  la  n- 
piibhca  Tnniama  (Meiico.  1898):  DnHENRc-H.  Quia  Bmerol 
duenpftH  di  la  rtpilbli'ca  mtiitana  (M«ico.  ISOS). 

CaUILLUS   CEtTELU. 

Qu«anel,  Pasquibr  (Paschase)  b.  in  Paris,  14 
July,  1634;  d.  at  Amsterdam,  2  December,  1719. 
Descended  from  an  ancient  noble  family  he  completed 
at  the  Sorbonne  a  brilliant  course  in  philosophy  and 
theology.  At  the  age  of  twenty-three  he  entered  the 
congregation  of  the  Oratory  wVv'etft\ia'«i>ra:*of«^* 


Qoxsma  6( 

profitably  employed  in  the  direction  of  the  youi^. 
He  composed  for  the  use  of  the  atudente  under  his 
charge,  and  published  in  1671  an  "Epitome  of  the 
Morals  of  the  Evangelists,  or  Christian  Thoughts  on 
the  Texts  of  the  Four  EvaJigelistB".  By  important 
HunceBsive  developments,  this  work  became  "The 
New  Testament  in  French  with  Moral  Reflectionfl  on 
each  verse"  (Paris,  1687-92)  and  gave  rise  to  lively 
polemics  until  at  last,  in  170S,  his  doctrines  were  con- 
denmed  by  Clement  XI  (see  JANSENirs).  But  the 
edition  of  1671  idready  contained  five  of  the  101  prop- 
ositions (12,  13,  30,  60,  and  65)  later  censured  in  the 
Bull  "Unigenitufl".  Quesnel  waa  profoundly  imbued 
with  the  errors  of  Baius  and  the  Janaenists,  and  he  had 
skilfully  spread 
these  views  in  his 
"Moral  Reflec- 
tionB"onthe  New 
Testament.  Fur- 
thermore, he  had 
adopted,  in  rela- 
tion to  the  papa' 
c>^  the  teachinga 
of  Marco  Antonio 
de  Dominis  (q.  v.) 
and  of  Richer,  He 
published  (Paris, 
167fi;Lyona,1700) 
a  complete  edition 
of  the  works  of  Leo 
the  Great.  The 
ootea  and  diaserta- 
tioDs  which  he 
added,  though 
very  learned,  are 
QMiled  by  his  at- 
tacks upon  infalli- 
bility, and  even 
Roman  primacy. 
In  conaequeace, 
this  work  was  placed  under  the  ban  of  the  Index,  aod 
Quesnel's  only  reply  to  the  condemnation  was  disro- 
spectfid  recrimination.  On  account  of  his  Jansenist 
opinions,  which  he  emphasized  more  and  more,  he  was 
rel^ated  to  Orleans.  In  1684,  having  refused  to  sub- 
scribe to  the  formula  which  the  Genial  Assembly  of 
the  Oratory  felt  oblioed  to  draw  up  against  the  current 
erTOrs.hewascompcllcd  toguit  tnecongr«ation.  He 
then  went  to  Belgium  to  join  Antoine  Amauld,  at 
whose  death  (1694)  he  was  present,  and  whose  place 
he  took  at  the  head  of  the  part^. 

The  difficulties  of  a  sojourn  in  a  foreign  land  failed 
to  dampen  his  ardour  for  proselytizing  or  abate  his 
literary  activity.  The  dictionary  of  Moreri  attributes 
to  him  some  sixty  discourses,  ascetic  or  polemical, 
several  of  which  were  published  under  assumed  namee 
or  anonymously  at  Brussels,  where  for  some  time  he 
remained  in  hiding.  But  in  1703  Philip  V,  acting  in 
concert  with  the  Archbishop  of  Mechlin,  Humbert  of 
Frecipiano,  had  hii"  arrested  and  imprisoned  in  the 
archiepiscopa!  palace.  Nevertheless,  he  succeeded 
in  escaping  and  reaching  Holland,  finding  an  asylum 
at  Amsteraam,  where  he  continued,  despite  all  bans 
and  censures,  to  write  in  support  of  his  ideas.  Ob- 
stinate in  the  pursuit  of  his  aims,  he  was  not  always 
delicate  in  his  choice  of  means.  When  the  roval  com- 
missioners discovered  him  disguised  in  secular  dress 
and  crouching  behind  a  cask,  and  wished  to  assure 
themselves  of  his  identity,  he  declared  that  his  name 
was  Rebccq,  one  of  his  numerous  pseudonyms.  On 
the  part  of  a  man  who  like  all  those  of  his  party 
scorned  mental  restrictions  and  equivocations,  the 
expedient,  to  say  the  least,  was  singular.  Still  more 
disloyal  was  his  attempt  to  c1oak_his  doctrin^  with 
the  authority  of  Bossuet,  The  latter  had  been  re- 
quested to  examine  the  text  of  the  "Reflexions 
morales  "  and  had  consented  to  do  so.    He  had  even 


QDX8M1L 


drawn  up  &i 

tion,  insisting,  however,  <  _.    

hundred  and  twenty  propositions  which  he  had  found 
reprehensible.  As  this  condition  was  not  accepted, 
he  refused  his  co-operation  and  held  back  his  proposed 
"Avertissemeot".  But  later  on  Quesnel  obtained 
from  the  heirs  of  Bossuet  the  materials  which  the 
latter  had  prepared,  and  which  he  published  as  an 
authentic  work  under  the  title  "Justification  of  the 
Moral  Refleotions,  by  the  late  M.  Bossuet".  Up  to 
the  time  of  his  death  the  ardent  Jansenist  was  incan- 
sistent  and  insincere.  He  requested  and  received  the 
last  sacraments,   and  in  presence  of  two  Apostolic 

Srothonotariee  and  other  witnesses,  he  made  a  pro- 
!Ssion  of  faith  over  his  own  signature,  in  which  he 
declared  "  that  he  wished  to  die,  as  he  had  alwava  lived, 
in  the  bosom  of  the  Catholic  Church,  that  he  believed 
all  the  truths  taught  by  her,  condemned  all  the  errors 
condemned  by  her,  that  he  recognized  the  Sovereign 
Pontiff  as  the  chief  Vicar  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  the 
ApoBtohc  See  as  the  centre  of  unity".  That  th«e 
formulas  concealed  some  inadmissible  restrictions  is 
proved  by  their  very  tenor.  On  this  point  we  are  left 
m  no  doubt  in  viewof  Article  7  which  completes  them, 
and  in  which  it  is  said  the  writer  "persists  in  his  appeal 
to  a  future  General  Council,  regarding  the  constitu- 
tion 'Unixenitus',  and  regaiding  the  grievances  i 
Sopot  of  which  he  sought  the  judgment  of  the 
hurch". 

Among  the  numerous  works  of  Quesnel  besides  those 
already  mentioned  we  may  cite  especially:  "Lettree 
oontre  lee  nudity  addressees  aux  religieuses  qui  ont 
soin  de  I'Mucation  des  filles";  "L'ld^  du  Sacerdoce 
et  du  Sacrifice  de  J^sus  Christ";  "Les  trois  cons^ 
crations;  la  consferation  baptismale,  la  sacerdotale 
et  la  consecration  religieuse  ;  "E16vation  k  N.  S.  J. 
C.  BUT  sa  Passion  et  sa  Mort";  "Jeeus  p6nitent"; 
"Du  bonheur  de  la  mort  chrftienne";  "Pri^w 
chretiennea  avec  des  pratiques  de  pifite";  "Office  de 
J£bus  avec  des  reflexions " ;  "  Recueil  de  Jettres 
spirituelles  sur  divers  sujets  de  la  morale  et  de  la 
piSte";  under  the  paeudonym  of  G6ry,  "Apologie 
tustorique  de  deux  censuree  (contre  Leesius)  de 
rUniversit^  dc  Douai";  under  the  pseudonym  of 
Germain,  "Tradition  de  I'Eglise  Romaine  but  Ib 
predestination  des  saints  et  sur  la  Br&ce  efficace"; 

La  discipline  de  I'Eglise  tiree  du  Nouveau  Testa- 
ment et  de  quelquee  anciens  concilee";  "Causa  Ar- 
naldina",  a  work  produced  under  anothit'  form  as 
"La  justification  de  M,  Amauld";  "Entretiene  but 
le  Ddcret  de  Rome  contre  le  Nouveau  Testament  de 
Chftlons  accompagneea  de  reflexions  morales  ";  finally 
seven  "Memoires  servinRas  a  histoiy  of  the  con- 
stitution "Unigenitus".  This  list,  however  incom- 
plete, comprises  in  its  first  part  only  the  most  generally 
useful  and  edifying  works;  as  an  offset  the  seven  last 
numbers  are  either  impregnated  with  the  Jansenist 
principles  or  consecrated  principally  to  their  defence. 

QuESNELUSH. — The  theological  errors  of  Quevnel 
found  their  most  complete  expreswon  in  his  "Re- 
flexions morales".  Although  they  appear  there  only 
on  occasions,  disjointedly,  in  a  fragmentary  way,  and 
are  moreover  hidden  in  the  expression  of  pious  con- 
siderations, they  really  form  a  systematic  whole; 
they  show  their  author  to  have  adopted  a  radically 
false  but  coherent  system,  which  is  fundamentally 
only  a  sjoithesis  of  the  systems  of  Bflius  and  Jan- 
Bcmiis,  To  make  this  clear,  one  has  only  to  compare 
the  hundred  and  one  propositions  condemned  in  the 
Bull  "Unigenitus",  and  faithfully  extracted  from  the 
"Reflexions  morales"  with  the  theories  previously 
defended  by  tie  Bishop  of  Ypres  and  his  predecessor 
in  the  Umversity  of  Louvain.  For  Quesnel,  like 
Baius,  conceived  human  nature  in  its  three  succes- 
sive states:  innocence,  fail,  and  restoration.  All 
his  essential  theses  are  based  on  a  confusion  between 
the  natural  and  the  supernatural  order,  which  neoM- 


QUEVfiDO 


603 


QUEVBDO 


sarily  entailed  the  assertion  of  an  intrinsic  difference 
in  regard  to  gratuity  as  well  as  to  efficacy,  between 
the  grace  ojb^he  Creator  and  the  grace  of  the  Re- 
deemer. ''The  grace  of  Adam  produced  only  human 
merits''  (prop.  34);  but  ''being  a  consequence  of  the 
creation,  it  was  due  to  nature  when  whole  and  un- 
impaired" (prop.  35).  Its  loss  through  the  original 
fall  mutilated  our  nature,  and  man  having  become 
"a  sinner  is,  without  the  grace  of  the  Liberator,  free 
only  to  do  evil"  (prop.  38).  Moreover,  thb  grace 
"is  never  given  except  by  faith"  (prop.  26).  Faith 
which  "is  the  first  grace  and  the  source  of  all  the 
others"  (prop.  27),  is  to  be  understood  as  "operative 
faith,  and  it  works  only  by  charity"  (prop.  51). 
Consequently  "outside  of  the  Church  no  grace  is 
g^ven  (prop.  29),  and  "the  first  grace  given  to  the 
sinner  being  the  remission  of  sins"  (prop.  28),  all 
his  acts,.a8  long  as  he  remains  a  sinner,  are  sins  (prop. 
44-8),  so  that  "the  prayer  of  the  wicked  is  a  new  sin, 
and  what  God  grants  to  them  is  a  fresh  condemna- 
tion" (prop.  69). 

This  is  all  resumed  in  the  thesis  of  the  double 
contrary  love:  "There  are  only  two  loves,  from  which 
all  our  volitions  and  all  our  actions  spring:  the  love 
of  God  (charity  properl]^  so  called)  which  refers 
everything  to  God  ana  which  God  rewards;  and  love 
of  self  and  of  the  world,  which  is  evil  as  it  does  not 
refer  to  God  what  should  be  referred  to  Him"  (prop. 
44).  From  this  follow  not  only  the  uselessness,  but 
the  malice  and  the  evil  effects  of  attrition,  that  is, 
of  all  repentuice  which  does  not  arise  from  pure 
charity;  for,  "fear  restrains  only  the  hands;  the 
heart  remains  attached  to  sin,  as  long  as  it  is  not 
led  by  the  love  of  justice"  (prop.  61);  and  "he  who 
refrains  from  evil  only  through  fear  of  punishment 
has  already  sinned  in  his  heart "  (prop.  62) .  Thus,  the 
erroneous  conception  of  the  really  gratuitous  and 
sui>ematural  character  of  the  original  grace  bore  its 
legitimate  fruits,  rigorism  and  despair;  it  resulted, 
as  far  as  concerns  attrition,  in  a  conclusion  already 
condemned  by  the  Council  of  Trent.  In  Quesnel  we 
find  likewise  the  doctrine  of  the  "AuguslJnus"  (see 
Jansenius).  Like  that  famous  book,  the  "Reflex- 
ions Morales"  did  not  admit  either  purely  sufficient 
grace  or  real  liberty  of  indifference;  on  the  con- 
trary, it  denied  them  in  many  formulas  "Grace  is 
the  operation  of  the  omnipotent  hand  of  God,  which 
nothing  can  hinder  or  retard"  (prop.  10),  "it  is  noth- 
ing but  the  omnipotent  will  of  God  who  commands 
and  who  executes  his  commands  * '  (prop.  11).  "  When 
God,  no  matter  when  or  where,  wishes  to  save  a 
soul,  the  will  of  God  is  infallibly  carried  into  effect" 
(prop.  12).  "When  God  wills  to  save  a  soul  and 
touches  it  with  the  interior  hand  of  his  grace,  no 
human  will  can  resist  it"  (prop.  13);  "there  is  no 
attraction  but  yields  to  the  attraction  of  grace,  be- 
cause nothing  resists  the  Omnipotent"  (prop.  16). 
In  a  word,  the  action  of  grace  can  and  must  be  fikened 
to  that  by  which  God  created  the  world,  realized  the 
Incarnation,  raised  Jesus  Christ  from  tne  dead,  and 
by  which  He  worked  every  other  miracle  (proj).  250-5). 

Having  admitted  all  this,  it  is  not  astonishing  that 
the  Divine  precepts  cannot  be  observed  by  men  of 

good  will  who  make  the  effort.  For.  on  the  one 
and,  "the  grace  of  Jesus  Christ,  tne  efficacious 
principle  of  all  good,  is  necessary  for  any  good  work 
whatsoever;  without  it  not  only  is  nothing  done 
but  nolhin^  can  be  done"  (prop.  2);  "the  wiU  with- 
out prevement  grace  has  no  light  save  to  go  wrong, 
no  zeal  but  to  hasten  to  destruction,  no  strength  but 
to  wound  itself:  it  is  capable  of  all  evil,  and  incaptUble 
of  any  good"  (prop.  39),  On  the  other  hand,  when 
grace  is  present  and  acting  one  never  resists  it.  If 
therefore  anyone  fail  in  his  duty,  it  can  only  be 
because  he  has  not  received  the  indispensable  grace. 
For  "grace  is  that  voice  of  the  Father  teaching  men 
interiorly  and  leading  them  to  Jesus  Christ; .  who- 


ever, having  heard  the  exterior  voice  of  the  Son,  does 
not  come  to  him,  has  not  been  taught  by  the  Father" 
(prop.  17).  And  yet,  according  to  Quesnel,  man  will 
be  held  ^pilty  and  condemned  for  those  transgres- 
sions which  he  cannot  possibly  avoid  (prop.  40). 
But,  since  the  observing  of  commandments  and 
therefore  of  the  conditions  necessary  for  salvation  is 
not  within  the  reach  of  all,  it  is  evident  that  neither 
the  intention  of  God  to  save  nor  the  efficacy  of  the 
sufferings  of  the  Saviour  extend  to  all  mankind.  So 
"aU  those  whom  God  wbhes  to  save  through  Christ 
are  infallibly  saved"  (prop.  30),  and  if  "Christ  Him- 
self delivered  Himself  up  to  death",  it  was  solely  "to 
snatch  the  first-bom,  that  is  the  elect,  from  the 
hand  61  the;  exterminating  angel"  (prop.  32). 

AU  these  extraordinary  ideas  of  Quesnel's  concern- 
ing ^ace,  and  his  obstinate  defence  of  them  against 
legitimate  authority  had,  as  a  practical  and  logical 
result,  a'  second  group  of  errors  no  less  serious  about 
the  Church,  its  .membei^p,  discipline,  and  govern- 
ment in  general.  :According  to  Quesnel,  the  Church 
is  invisible;  for  it  comprise  "as  members  only  the 
saints"  or  "the  elect  and.  the  just"  (prop.  72-7), 
and  "a  person  ia  separated  from  it  by  not  uving' ac- 
cording to  the  Gospel  as  much  as  by  not  believing 
in  the  Gospdl"  (prop.  78).  It.  is  an  abuse  in  the 
Church  "to  forbid  Christians  to  tead  the  Holy 
Scriptures  and  especiaUy  the  Gospel"  (prop.  85), 
for  thia  reading  "is  necessary  to  aU,  in  every  place 
and  at  all  times"  (prop.  79-84).  "It  is  the  Church 
that  has  the  power  of  excommunicating,  to  be  used 
by  the  chief  pastors  with  the  consent,  at  least  pre- 
sumed, of  the  whole  body"  (prop.  90).  This,  as  the 
author  states  explicitly  m  his  seventh  "M6moire", 
supposes  that  the  multitude  of  the  faithful,  without 
distmction  of  rank,  is  properly  speaking  the  sole 
depository  of  all  ecclesiastical  power;  but,  as  it  can- 
not exercise  this  power  by  itsc^,  the  community  en- 
trusts it  to  the  bishops  and  the  pope,  who  are  its 
agents  and  its  mandatories;  and,  in  tnis  sense,  the 
pope  is  only  "the  ministerial  head"  of  the  episcopal 
Dody.  Moreover,  "the  fear  of  an  iinjust  excom- 
munication must  never  keep  us  from  doing  our  duty" 
(prop.  91),  "to  suffer  in  peace  an  undeserved  excom- 
mumcation  and  anathema  rather  than  betray  the 
truUi  is  to  imitate  St.  Paul "  (prop.  92) .  The  directly 
personal  character  and  object  of  these  last  declara- 
tions are  apparent.  The  same  may  be  said  of  the 
articles  that  protest  against  the  abuse  of  multiply- 
ing oaths  among  Christians  (prop.  101),  or  speak  of 
the  contempt,  intolerance,  and  persecution  to  which 
truth  is  subjected  (prop.  93-100),  and  which,  crown- 
ing this  sad  arraignment  with  an  assertion  more 
o&nsive  than  the  others,  see  in  the  abuses  pretended 
to  have  been  discoverea  "one  of  the  most  striking 
proofs  of  the  senile  decay  of  the' Church"  (prop.  95). 

liAnriAU,  Hiatoin  d*  la  Conttitution  UnigenUut  (Lite,  1738) ; 
ScHiLL,  Die  Conatttution  Unigmitiu  (Freiburg,  1876). 

J.  Forget. 

QueT6do»  Juan  de,  Franciscan,  native  of  Beiori, 
Old  Castile,  Spain:  d.  at  Barcelona,  24  December, 
1519.    His  antecedents  are  unknown.    At  the  re- 

?uest  of  King  Ferdinand,  husband  of  Queen  Isabella, 
^ope  Leo  X,  on  28  August,  1513,  appomted  Quevedo 
bishop  of  Santa  Maria  de  la  Antigua,  or  Darien,  on  the 
Isthmus,  and  he  thus  became  the  first  bishop  on  the 
mainlana  of  America.  Accompanied  by  several 
Franciscans,  Bishop  Quevedo  on  12  April,  1514,  em- 
barked at  San  Lucar  with  Pedrarias  (Pedro  Arias  de 
Avila,  or  Davila),  who  had  been  named  governor  of 
Darien.  The  expedition  reached  its  destination  30 
June.  The  governor  and  his  officers,  despite  royal 
warnings  to  heed  the  advice  of  Quevedo,  committed 
the  most  frightful  cruelties,  not  only  against  the  In- 
dians, but  also  against  rivals,  of  which  the  beheading 
of  Vasco  Nufiez  de  Balboa,  the  discoverer  of  the 


QUICHE  & 

Pacific  Ocean,  is  not  the  least.  Las  Casaa  accused 
Quevedo  of  having  violated  a  trust,  accumulated 
wealth,  and  neglected  the  Indians;  but  Las  Casus 
was  frequently  ua|uBt  in  his  condemnations.  It  is  ini' 
possible  to  determine  how  much  truth  or  untruth  his 
charges  contain.  Quevedo  returned  to  Spain  (1518) 
and  presented  two  memorials  to  King  Charles.  One 
was  against  Pedrarias,  and  the  other  advocated  re- 
stricting the  powers  of  all  governors  in  the  New  World 
for  the  better  protection  of  the  natives.  When  these 
documents  were  shown  to  Las  Casas,  he  offered  to 
countersign  them,  Quevedo  declared  that  all  the 
aborigines  of  America,  as  far  as  he  had  observed  them, 
appeared  to  be  a  race  of  men  whom  it  would  be 
impossible  to  instruct  or  improve  unless  they  were 
collected  in  villages  or  missions  and  kept  under  con- 
tinual supervision.  In  this  be  was  ri^t,  as  all  Bub- 
seauent  experience  has  shown.  Bishop  Quevedo  soon 
fell  sick  and  died  at  Barcelona. 

BofKin  de  la  Real  Aradtmia  di  la  Hitoria,  XX  (Muinil.' 
ISei);  HxHOu).  Epitomt  Annaiium  Uinorum  (Roms,  1663); 
B*!icBOFT.  CerUrat  America.  1  (Sim  FranoiBco,  18B0);  Du-pio. 
lot  Conu  (St.  Louia.  Mo..  1002) ;  Maqluho,  SI.  Fnicii  and  Iht 
/•nmCMOHM  (New  York,  1887). 

Zep&tbin  Knoblhabivt. 

Quiche  (Ututeca),  the  principal  aboriginal  tribe 
or  nation  a(  Guatemala.  They  belong  to  the  great 
Mayan  linguistic  stock  (see  Mata  Indians),  as  do 
also  their  neighbours  in  the  same  state,  the  Cakchi- 
quel,  Pokonchi,  and  Tzutnhil,  the  four  dialects  con- 
stituting but  one  langua^.  The  Quiche  occupied 
north-central  GuBtemalB,  including  the  present  dis- 
tricts of  Quiche,  Totonicapan,  and  a  part  of  Quezal- 
tenango.  Like  those  of  the  other  Mayan  tribes,  tlieir 
traditions  pointed   to   a   northern   "-   — -•^  — ' — 


lorth-eastem 


H  QUICHUA 

of  evil  monsters  and  to  institute  ceremonies  and 

sacrifices. 

The  "Popol  Vuh",  or  "Nationalftook",  the  great 
literary  monument  of  the  Quiche,  is  a  comp«i3ium 
of  their  ancient  traditions  handed  down  from  before 
the  conquest.  The  present  version,  evidently  a  copy 
from  an  older  record,  was  written  in  the  Quiche  lan- 
guage by  one  of  the  tribe,  apparently  shortly  after  the 
conquest.  It  was  first  brou^t  to  attention  through  a 
Spanish  translation  by  the  Dominican  Father  Fran- 
cisco Xim^nez  (c.  1725).  In  1861  amore  correct  French 
translation,  with  the  original  text,  was  published  in 
Paris  by  the  Abb6  Braeseur  de  Bourbourg.  Of  the 
work  Brinton  says:  "This  may  well  be  conaideredone 
of  the  most  valuable  monuments  of  ancient  American 
literature  and  its  substantial  authenticity  cannot  be 
doubted." 

BAWcwirr,  fTaliK  Raat  \eHKt  Parijii:  Slala\.  vpl.  II:  dtitiui 


.  Hia.   I 


II  (3  V 


.    3u 


:  CTTitniU  (4  voIb..  Parii.  1857) ;  Idu. 
iioinet,   iooLudiiia  Pvpai 

NTina  ffipafii  (Mmco,  1820)';'  SiToisii.  Cmlml  Amtrita  (V«w 
York.  1SS3) :  XiidNEi.  Orvm  de  I«  Iidioi  de  Oualrmala  in  pBf^ 
KuA,  ed.  ScBEBiis  (Viennii,  1857). 

Jakes  Moonky. 

Quichua  lodiUlS,  formerly  the  dominant  people  of 
the  Empire  of  Peru,  and  still  the  largest  homogeneous 
body  of  Indians  in  existence,  constituting  the  bulk  of 
the  rural  population  of  Peru  and  Ecuador.  The  name 
— written  also  Qquichua,  Quechua,  Kechua— most 
probably  signifies  those  who  "speak  correctly",  at 
distingiushed  from  tribes  from  alien  stock.  The  nu- 
merous  tribes  or  small  nations  comprising  the  Qui- 
chuan   linguistic   stock   occupied  a   territory   nearly 


IS  far  back  as  the  second  century.)  They  i 
gated  by  PedrodeAlvaradoabout  1525,  withevenmore 
than  the  customary  atrocities,  and  rapidly  declined 
under  the  system  of  slavery  and  heavy  tnbute  imposed, 
notwithstanding  the  warnings  of  the  pope  and  the 
humane  laws  promulgated  By  the  Spanish  monarch, 
at  the  instance  of  Las  Casas.  Even  before  the  conquest 
was  complete  the  Dominican  Fathers  Pontaz  and  de 
Torres  had  taken  up  their  residence  among  the  Quiche 
and  begun  the  work  of  Christianization.  In  1530 
Father  Francisco  Marroqufn  (d.  1663)  arrived  from 
Spun  to  organize  the  Church  in  Guatemala,  and  in 
IS33  was  confirmed  as  bishop.  He  gave  special  atten- 
tion to  the  Indians  and  their  languages,  becoming  par- 
ticularly proficient  in  the  Quiche,  into  which  language 
he  translated  the  catechism.  On  his  appeal  Father 
Las  Casas  (1530)  established  at  Santiago  a  convent  of 
Dominicans  for  the  conversion  of  the  natives.  They 
were  reinforced  two  years  later  by  Fathers  Zarabrano 
and  Dardon,  of  the  Order  of  Mercy  (Merctd),  who 
established  a  convent  of  that  order  m  the  same  city. 
Under  these  two  orders,  working  in  harmony  together 
with  the  Franciscans,  who  entered  the  field  in  1541, 
the  conversion  of  the  Indians  was  gradually  effected, 
the  new  converts  being  gathered  into  towns  for  their 
better  government  and  instruction.  The  entire  tribe 
is  long  since  Christian,  although  many  of  the  ancient 
rites  and  beliefs  pemist  in  daily  life.  Their  present 
number  is  near  150,000. 

In  agricultural  habit,  architecture,  literary  method 
and  productiveness,  religious  ceremonial,  and  general 
culture,  the  ancient  Quiche  resembled  the  Maya,  with 
only  minor  differences.  In  their  gcnems  myth  (as 
recorded  in  the  "Popol  Vuh"),  the  earth  was  brought 
into  form  by  Gi^umatz,  the  Plumed  Serpent  (equiv- 
alent to  the  QueUakvalt  of  the  Aztec),  who  finally 
created  four  men  and  four  women,  who  became  the 
ancestors  of  the  race,  assigning  to  each  pair  at  the 
same  time  a  special  tutelary  god,  whose  first  duty 
it  was  to  produce  Ere  and  light,  to  clear  the  worid 


conterminous  with  tAt  of  the  empire  at  its  greatest 
extent,  but  reaching  «ut  somewhat  beyond  its  oorders 
on  the  north,  and  exfcnding  on  the  south,  with  inter- 
ruptions, to  about  COquimbo,  Chile,  at  30°  S,  lat. 
The  Inoa  seem  to  have  had  their  original  territory 
somewhere  between  Paucartambo  and  Cuaco.  The 
Quichua  proper,  living  south  from  Cuzco,  were  among 


tlc-i. 


ulin 


principal  Wcic  i.uc  i.iuiuii:aiviii;iii,  lthuha,  -./aia,  \-.iuuui, 

and  Quitu  (Ecuador);  the  I.Amano,  Rucana,  and 
Quichua  proper  (Peru),  the  latter  about  Cueco  and  Uie 
upper  Apurimac  in  central  Peru,  all  of  a  high  stage  of 
civiliiation ;  the  cognate  Malaba  and  other  small 
tribes  above  Esmeraldas,  on  the  Ecuador-Colombia 
frontierj  remained  unconquered  and  uncivihied.  Of 
the  nations  or  tribes  conquered  and  incorporated  by 
the  empire,  but  of  alien  stock,  the  principal  were  the 
Aymar4  tribes,  on  the  Peru-Bolivia  border;  the 
Yunca  tribes,  on  the  coast  from  the  Gulf  of  Quayaquil 
to  below  Truxillo;  and  the  Calchaqui,  in  nortb-weBt 
Argentina.  The  Aymard  were  proDMily  the  direct 
originators  and  inspirers  of  the  Quichua  civiliiation, 
and  still  preserve  their  separate  identity  and  language 
to  the  number  of  over  half  a  million  souls  of  pure  or 


^^^ 


QUICHUA  6( 

mixed  blood.  At  the  period  of  its  Kreateet  expanmon, 
about  the  year  1500,  the  Empire  of  Peru  probably  con- 
tained at  leofit  ten  million  Boub.  Under  the  Spaniards 
the  nativM  rapidly  decreased.  In  1580  an  officLiI  cen- 
Bua  gave  them  ae  8,280,000  souk.  In  1S30  d'Orbigny 
estimated  the 
Quichua  and  Ay- 
mar^  ^ups  re- 
epectively  at 
approximately  1,- 
393  000  and  561,- 
000  eoub,  about 
one  third  of  each 
beinR  of  mixed 
blood  The  pres- 
ent totaJ  prob- 
ably approximatee 
2  500  000.  but  sep- 
arate Indian   fie- 

The  founda- 
tions  of  Quichua 
history  are  laid  in 
the  mythic  period  but  the  se<juence  of  events  may  be 
tracea  with  fair  ilegree  of  probability  back  to  about 
the  year  1000  According  to  tradition  their  culture 
hero  appeared  first  at  Tiahuanuco  (Lake  Titicaca): 
he  brought  about  order  upon  earth  and  apportioned 
its  sovereignty  among  four  rulers,  one  of  whom  was 
Ayra-MoDCO.  Ayrsr-Manco  was  one  of  three  wonder- 
working brothers,  who,  with  their  three  sisters,  had 
their  residence  at  Povoo-tambo,  "  House  of  Venera- 
tion",,south  of  the  site  of  Cuzco,  or  according  to 
another  version,  at  Paucar-taiabo,  "House  of 
Beauty",  some  two  hundred  miles  to  the  north-west. 
Owing  to  a  dispute  over  the  possession  of  a  magic 
golden  ding  the  Drothers  separated,  two  of  them  bemg 
finally  transformed  into  stone  statues,  while  the  third 
by  supernatural  command  journeyed  to  Cuzco  (i.  e. 
navel,  or  centre),  where  he  built  a  temple  to  the  sun 
and  eetabliahed  his  capital  as  the  first  Inca  king  of 
Peru,  under  the  title  of  Manco  Capac,  "  Manco  the 
Ruler".  Ehminatina  the  mythic  features,  Manco 
Capac's  period  is  fixed  by  BoUaert  at  about  the  middle 
-  of  the  eleventh  century.  Without  concedinj;  the  ex- 
travagant cl^ms  of  Montesinoa,  who  gives  a  list  of  101 
Inca  rulers  up  to  the  Spanish  conquest,  we  may  as- 
sume that  his  work  fairly  aummanzes  the  historical 
traditions  of  the  Quichua.  The  earlier  rulers  seem 
to  have  devoted  their  attention  largely  to  the  elabora- 
tion of  a  calendar,  the  regulation  of  reUgion,  and  the 
building  up  of  their  kingdom  by  concessions  of  land 
to  refugees  from  various  ouarters.  Almost  from  the 
bc^pning  there  were  «Btablished  cloistered  orders  of 
pnesta  and  virgins  of  the  sun. 

There  is  probably  no  foundation  for  the  claim 
advanced  by  Mont^inos  that  the  use  of  letters  was 
known  in  remote  antiquity,  but  subsequently  lost. 
So  far  as  known,  the  quipu  was  the  only  mnemonic 
system  in  use  in  Peru,  llocca,  the  eleventh  (?)  ruler 
tiefore  the  conquest,  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  to 
assume  to  himself  and  his  successors  the  title  of  Inca. 
The  Calchaqui  of  Tucuman  were  subdued  under  Vira- 
cocha  (about  1330?);  the  Chincha  and  Chimu,  to  the 
latter  of  whom  belonged  the  great  temple  of  Pacha- 
comac,  about  1400.  The  Moxoa  of  eastern  Bolivia 
were  brought  into  alliance  by  Yupanqui  (d.  1439). 
Tupac  Yupanqui,  toward  the  close  of  the  fifteenth 
century,  subdued  the  Cailari  of  Ecuador,  and  began 
the  conquest  of  Quitu,  which  waa  accompliahed  by  his 
son,  Huayna  Capac,  in  14S7.  Huayna  Capac  divided 
the  sovereignty  between  his  two  sons,  giving  Quitu 
and  the  northern  provinces  to  Atahualpa,  and  leaving 
the  Boutheni  provinces,  or  Peru  proper,  to  Huascar. 
On  his  death  in  1525  civil  war  aaon  broke  out,  and 
almost  at  the  aame  time  Piiarro's  band  landed  on  the 


coast.    Huascar  v 

and  was  killed  in  '- ^  — ,— . 

of  Peru  was  brought  to  tm  end,  after  a  short  struggle, 
by  the  treacherous  srizure  of  Atahualpa  hiDiselTby 
Pizarro,  by  whom  he  was  executed  on  29  August,  1533 
(see  Peru).  Tupac  Amaru,  nephew  o(  Huascar  and 
last  of  the  direct  claimants  to  imperial  dignity,  was 
beheaded  by  order  of  the  viceroy  in  1571. 

The  natives  were  now  parccUed  out  into  reparli- 
mientos  and  milayos  as  slaves,  or  forced  laiiounas,  the 
result  being  the  swift  and  terrible  wasting  of  their 
numbers.  Although  the  spirit  of  the  Indians  was 
well-nigh  broken  there  were  occasional  outbreaks,  the 
most  notable  of  which  was  the  great  rising  of  1780 
led  by  another  Tupac  Amaru,  claiming  descent  frera 
the  old  Inca  race,  who  for  a  time  rcstj^red  Indian 
supremacy  over  a  large  extent  of  territory.  Being 
finally  taken  he  was  butchered  at  Cuico,  together 
with  his  wife,  children  and  all  hia  relatives,  with  a 


barbarous  cruelty  never  exceeded  in  history.  His 
sacrifice,  however,  resulted  in  a  mitigation  of  the  op- 
pressive system,  which  was  finally  abohshed  at  the 
close  of  the  war  of  independence  (1824),  in  which  the 
Indiana  bore  their  full  part.  With  the  establishment 
of  settled  conditions  after  the  Conquest,  the  work  of 
Christianizing  the  natives  was  begun,  cniefly  by  the 
Dominicans  and  Jesuits,  and  before  the  close  of  the 
seventeenth  century  practically  the  whole  of  the 
native  race  of  the  former  empire,  west  of  the  Cordil- 
leras, was  converted. 

The  ci^'iliEation  of  the  ancient  Quichua  was  not 
quite  equal  in  some  respects  to  that  of  the  Maya 
nations  of  Yucatan  and  Guatemala,  The  social 
organisation,  while  imperial  in  form,  was  really 
based  upon  the  clan  system.  For  administrative 
purposes  the  empire  waa  divided  into  four  great  dis- 
tricts (supi),  respectively  north,  south,  east,  and 
west  from  Cuzco,  the  capital.  Land  was  held  and 
tilled  by  the  clan  in  common,  and  every  able-bodied 

S:rBon,  not  assigned  lo  other  service,  was  a  producer. 
[  the  crop,  one-fourth  was  aaagned  to  the  workers 
and  their  families;  pne-fourtb  to  the  dependent  rick, 
mdowB,  and  orphans ;  bne-fourth  to  the  Government, . 


QUICH1TA  6( 

and  one-fourth  to  relipon.  From  the  one-half 
okimed  for  Government  and  reb^on  a  portion  waa 
held  in  reserve  for  famine  eeasona  and  other  emer- 
genciee.  Seeds,  wool,  leather,  and  cotton  were 
also  diatributeo,  under  superviuon  of  the  Govem- 
inent,  which  atoo  regulated  the  ownership  of  live- 
stock. Military  service  was  a  universal  obligation. 
To  hasten  the  aaaimilation  of  the  conauered  peoples 
huf  e  bodies  of  them  were  regularly  coloniied  in  the 
older  portions  of  the  empire,  the  iimabitante  of  these 

_    latter  districts 

being  transplant- 
ed to  thenewpos- 
seaaionB.  The  re- 
ligion of  the  Sun 
was  made  obliga- 
tory throughout 
the  empire  ae  waa 
also,  so  far  as 
possible,  the  use 
of  the  Quichua 
lawuage. 

"niere  seems 
to  be  no  doubt 
that  the  ancient 
Peruvians  had  at- 
tained the  mono- 
theietic  idea. 
Theii  great  gofl 
was  the  Sun, 
from  whom  the 
Incaa  themselves 
claimed  descent, 
although     the 


veneration.  The  emperor  was  the  great  high  priest  of 
the  nation  The  ceremonial  forms  were  elaborate  and 
magmficent  and  without  the  bloody  ntes  so  frequent 
and  sickenuiB  m  other  native  systems  The  great 
Temple  of  the  Sun  m  Cuico  contamed  a  massive 
golden  image  of  the  sun  and  the  walls  and  roof  were 
cohered  with  pKtea  of  eohd  gold  which  the  unfor 
tunate  Atahualja  in  vain  delivered  as  a  ransom  to 
the  faithless  Puarro  The  great  Sun  temple  at 
Quito  and  the  temple  dedicated  to  the  '^unca  god 
Pachocamac  were  of  nearly  equJ  magnificence 
The  dead  were  wrapt  in  cloths  and  deposited  in 
graves  or  tombs  of  various  construction  At  Ancon 
on  the  coast  is  a  vast  necropoliH  from  which  thousands 
of  mummified  botUes  have  been  resurrected.  Near 
Tnijillo,  in  the  Yunca  country,  are  several  great 
bunal  pyramids,  one  of  them  two  hundred  feet  nigh, 
filled  with  bo<Ues  in  separate  niches.  From  one  ot 
these  pyramids  sixteen  millions  of  dollars  in  gold  are 
said  to  have  been  taken. 

The  golden  wealth  of  Pern  mider  the  Incaa  almost 
Buipaases  beUrf.  The  country  was  rich  in  the  pre- 
dous  metal,  which  was  HystematieaJly  mined  by  the 
Government.  Silver  was  mined  in  due  proportion 
and  worked,  like  gold,  into  objects  of  skill  and  beauty. 
Tools,  weapons  and  houaenold  implements  were 
fashioned  of  copper,  bronze,  and  stone.  Iron  was 
unknown.  Emeralds  and  porphyry  were  in  use  for 
decorative  or  sculptural  purposes.  Their  pottera 
excelled  in  general  "workmanship  and  m  variety  and 
ingenuity  of  design.  Head  fiattMiing  prevailed. 
Clothing,  blankets,  and  other  textile  fabrics  were 
woven  from  cotton  and  from  the  hair  of  their  flocks. 
Agriculture  had  reached  a  high  standard,  with  sys- 
tematic irrigation,  mountain  terracing  and  use  of 
guano  manure  from  the  coast  islands.  Great  herds 
of  Uamas  and  alpacas  were  kept  as  burden-bearera  or 
for  their  hur.  The  vicufia  was  protected  for  game 
jHupoees.    It^  in  architecture  and  eogjneeiing  that 


the  Quichua  have  Itit  their  most  enduring  monument. 
Their  tempica,  fortresses,  canals,  and  etupendoua 
mountain  roads  are  still  the  wonder  of  every  traveller; 


was  the  equal  of  any  of  the  famoua  Roman  toads,  and 
is  still  in  good  preservation. 

The  modem  Quichua  is  of  medium  hdght,  with 
large  chest,  dark-brown  akin,  and  well-marked  fea- 
tures; strong,  enduring  and  long  lived:  industrious, 
gentle,  and  disposed  to  melancholy.  Me  is  given  to 
music  and  song  recitation.  He  is  fond  of  churah 
ceremonial,  with  which  he  frequently  mingles  aome  of 
his  ancient  rites,  and  loves  to  set  up  wayside  shrines 
and  decorate  tbem  with  flowers.  Their  houses,  out- 
side of  the  towns,  are  of  slone  or  wood,  and  thatched 
with  grass,  of  one  room,  without  window  or  chim- 
ney. Their  favourite  dish  is  chupe,  a  highly  pep- 
p^ed  meat  stew,  and  the  favourite  intoxicant  is 
chieha,  of  com  chewed,  boiled  with  water,  and 
fermented.  They  are  preat  smokers.  They  are 
dressed  in   woollen  clothing   of  their  own  weaving, 

eenerally  surmounted  by  a  cloak,  and  a  white  som- 
rero  or  skull-cap.  The  Quichua  language  has  been 
extenMvely  cultivated;  it  is  capable  of  expressing 
fine  shades  of  meaning.  Of  the  several  dialects,  that 
of  Cusco  is  considerra^the  standard  and  that  of  Quito 
the  moat  remote.  It  is  still  the  language  of  Ecuador 
and  Peru,  outade  of  the  principal  cities,  and  even 
of  the  wild  tribes  formerly  attached  to  the  Jesuit  and 


de  la  lengua  general  del  Pent",  by  the  Dominican 
Father  Domingo  de  Santo  Tomis  (Valladolid,  1560). 
Between  that  date  and  1754  nine  other  grammars  and 
dictionaries  by  the  missionaries  were  published  at 
lima.  Of  modem  studies  the  most  important  are: 
Maricham,  "Grammar  and  Dictionary  of  Quichua" 


Uhautiqo 


(London,  1804);  Anchorena,  "Gram&tica  Quechua" 
(lima,  1874);  von  Tschudi,  "Ois^ilsmus  der 
Khetsua  Sprache"  (Leiprig,  1887);  and  Mldden- 
dorf,  "Das  Ruma  Simi  oder  die  Keshua  Sprache" 
(Leipiig,  1890).  Of  ita  abundant  native  literature 
the  most  remarkable  example  is  the  pre-Conquest 
drama  of  Allanta,  of  which  tne  beet  of  many  editions 
is  that  of  Z^arra,  "Ollanta:  Drame  en  vers  Quechnas 
du  temps  des  Incas"  (Paris,  1878.  tr.  London,  1871). 
A  collection  of  modem  native  folk  aonga,  under  the 
title  of  "Ysravies.  Quitenoe",  was  published  by 
Eepada  at  Madrid  in  1381. 
Acont.  HiH.  n.  .... 

dan,  1801);  Ambi.        _  .     ...     .  .     .   _._. 

IrilMi  (Buenoa  Aim.  190ft-3);  BtujviiH.  Doeum.  para  la  AuL. 
<h  .  .  .  finhna  (Tupsc  Amm  ridu)  (Za  Pu.  IWNI): 
BavAH,  Anlifiulli  dt  la  rtgian  Andim  (Puu.  IBOS);  Baanow. 
.lnunBH  AoH  (Nbw  York,  isei):  BiOai.  CuUnntlttr  Alt' 
AmiribH  (CSnoimuU.  1S8T) ;  Cutelhiu,  BiiMiiim  dofu  FSmit- 


X.  v  moral  de  lot  Indiai  (Seville.  ISSO.  ti 


QmCUlIQUE 


607 


QmCUMQUE 


rique  du  Sud  (1843-7)  (Paris.  1890-3);  Cibka  ds  Lb6n.  HiH.  de 
PerU  (Seville,  1653;  (r.  Travels  through  the  Mighiy  Kinqdom  of 
Peru,  London,  1709);  Fobbxs,  Aymara  Indiant  in  Bihn.  Soe, 
Jour.  N.  5.,  II  (London,  1870) ;  Gabcilaso  ds  la.  Vbga,  Commen- 
tarioe  realee  de  el  origen  de  lot  Inoaa  (Lisbon,  1609:  tr.  Hakluyt 
Soc.,  London,  1869) ;  Iobm,  Hitt,  gen.  del  Pent  (Gdrdova.  1617:  tr. 
Royal  Commeraarie*  of  Peru.  London,  1688) ;  Hbjutdon  and  Gib- 
bon. Bz^oration  of  the  VaUey  of  the  Amaaon,  II  (Waahlnston, 
1854);  Hbbtab,  Catdlogo  de  lae  Unguae,  I  (Madrid.  1800);  Mark- 
HAM,  Cuseo  (London.  1856);  Idem,  TraeeU  in  Peru*and  India 
(London,  1862) ;  Idbm .  (^nta,  an  Ancient  Ynca  Drama  (London, 
1871) ;  MoMTBSiNOA,  Memoriae  Peruanas  (Ms.  ca.  1640,  see  Pbb»- 
coTT,  Peru,  II) ;  D'OBBiomr,  L'homme  amerieain  (Paris,  1839) ; 
pRcacoTT.  Hiet.  of  the  Conqueei  of  Peru  (London,  1847) ;  Rai- 
MONDi,  El  PerU  (monumental  work  in  several  quarto  volumes  with 
plates  and  atlas)  (1874-1902),  III.  bk,  II.  Hietoria  de  la  geografia 
del  Peni  (lima,  1879) :  Rbclub,  The  Earth  and  He  IrihabitarUe: 
South  America.  I.  the  Andes  Regione,  tr.  Kbanb  (New  York, 
1894);  Rjvixbo  and  von  Tbchubi,  Antiguedadee  Peruana* 
rVienna,  1851;  tr.  (mutilated)  by  Hawks,  London,  1854]; 
Sa villi,  Aniiquitiee  of  Manabe,  Eatador  (Heye  Ezpedn.),  (New 
York,  1907);  Sqotbb,  Peru  (New  York,  1877);  Suarei,  Hiet. 
gen.  del  Ecuador  (Quito,  1800-1903);  von  Tscbudi,  Peru:  Reie&- 
9kiMMenil838-lC4e)  (St.  Gall,  1844;  tr.  Travds  in  Peru,  London. 
1847);  Uhlji,  Exphratione  in  Peru  (Univ.  of  California,  Berkeley, 
1905);  Vblabco,  Hiet.  del  reino  de  Quito  (written  1789)  ((^to, 
1841-4;  French  tr.  in  TEifAxnc-OoiiPANS,  Voyages  etc.,  XlX, 
(Paris,  1850) ;  Dt>  Zabate,  Hist,  de  la  desaibfimiento  y  de  la  con- 
quista  dd  Peril  |^twerp,  1550;  tr.  London,  1581). 

James  Moonet 

Quicumquo  Christuxn  Qu8Briti8,  the  openinK  line 
of  the  twelfth  (in  honour  of  the  Epiphany)  and  last 
poem  in  the  ^'Cathemerinon"  of  Prudentins  (q.  v.). 
This  twelfth  poem  or  hymn  contains  $2  iambic  dmietpr 
strophes,  ana  an  irregular  selection  from  its  208  lines 
has  furnished  four  hymns  to  the  Roman  Breviazy,  aJl 
of  which  conclude  with  the  usual  Marian  doxology 
("  Jesu  tibi  sit  gloria  "  etc..  not  composed  by  Pruden- 
tius),  slightly  varied  to  make  the  doxolor^  appropriate 
for  the  several  feasts  employing  the  nymns.  The 
four  centos  are: 

(1)  Quicumque  Christum  quoBfiiU  (Matins  and  first 
and  second  Vespers  of  the  feast  of  the  Transfiguration), 
comprising,  sixteen  lines  (1-4,  37-44.  85-88)  and  the 
doxology  (which  changes  ith  second  line): 

Jesu,  tibi  sit  gloria, 

Qui  te  revelas  parvulis,  etc. 

Although  written  for  the  Epiphany,  the  lines  forming 
the  cento  apply  well  to  the  Trans^guration,  as  Danid 
notes  (Thes.  Hymnol.,  I,  p.  136).  Of  the  18  trancda- 
tions  in  English  verse,  twelve  are  by  Catholics. 

(2)  0  8(Xa  magnarum  urbium  (introduced  by  Pius 
V  into  the  office  of  the  Epiphamr  and  assigned  to 
Lauds),  comprises  sixteen  lines  (77-80,  5-8,  61-4. 
69-72)  with  the  doxology  (which  changes  its  second 
line): 

Jesu,  tibi  sit  ^oria. 

Qui  apparuisti  gentibus,  etc. 

The  Roman  Breviary  changes  the  opening  words  of 
the  second  strophe,  ^'Hibc  stella''  into  "Quern  stdla". 
The  hymn  has  never  been  adopted  by  the  Carthu- 
siand,  Cistercians,  Dominicans  (these  last  using  at 
Lauds  the  hymn  '*A  patre  unigenitus").  Of  the 
seventeen  translations  into  EngliMi  verse,  six  tixe  by 
Catholics. 

(3)  AudU  tyrannus  anxiita  (Matins  of  the  Holy 
Innocents  and  of  the  octave  day),  comprising  twelve 
lines  (93-100;  133-6)  and  the  {unchanged)  cfoxology, 
"Jesu  tibi  sit  gloria"  etc.  The  Roman  Breviary 
changes  the  opening  word  of  the  third  strophe  "Quo 
proficit"  mto  "QJad  proficit". 

(4)  Sdbetejlorea  martyrum  (Lauds  and  Vespers  of 
feast  of  the  Holy  Innocents  and  of  the  octave  day), 
comprising  (in  the  Roman  Breviary  cento)  8  lines 
(125-132}  and  the  (unchanged)  doxology,  "Jesu.  tibi 
sit  gloria"  etc.  The  thhxl  fine  of  the  second  strophe 
is,  in  the  Roman  Breviary,  "Aram  sub  ipsam  .  .  .  ". 
insteadof  the  ori^nal  "Aram  ante  ipsam  .  .  .  " 
(or  the  other  variants  of  this  much-disputed  line) — 
a  change  which  not  only  consults  the  interests  of  class- 
ical prosody  but  happily  suggests  the  words  of  the 
Apooalypee  (vi,  9):  "Vi<fi  subtus  altare  animas  inter- 


fectorum  .  .  .  ".  Until  the  middle  o^  the  sixteenth 
century  the  Roman  Breviary  had  no  special  hymns 
for  this  feast,  but  in  1568  hymns  (3)  and  (4)  were  as- 
signed by  Pius  V.  The  two  hymns  have  never  been 
aoopted  by  the  Carthusians,  the  Cistercians,  the  Do- 
mimcans,  these  last  chanting  at  Lauds  only  the  strophe 
from  the  abecedary  of  Sedulius  (lines  37-40) : 

Caterva  matrum  personlat 
Collisa  deflens  pignora^ 

8uorum  tyrannus  milha 
hristo  sacravit  victimas. 
Clicthoue,  Cassandre,  Tommasi,  favour  the  doxology: 
Sit  trinitati  scoria, 
Virtus,  honor,  victoria. 
Quae  aat  coronam  testibus 
Per  ssBculorum  sfficula — 

But  the  Roman  Breviary  retains  the  usual  doxolorjr^ 
which  better  connects  the  feast  with  its  true  bacK- 
ground  of  the  Christmas  cycle.  In  selections  of  vari- 
ous length  and  arrang^ement,  the  "Salvete  flores 
martyrum"  was  in  ancient  liturgical  use,  and  sub- 
stantially comprised  both  hymns  (3)  and  (4)  (Daniel, 
Ij  p,  124;  IV,  p.  v20;  Dreves,  Anal.  Hymn.,  L;,  p.  27, 
giving  many  MSS.  references,  some  dating  back  to 
the  tenth  centiiry),  andother  strophes  not  now  in  use. 
The  older  brevianes  iniiji^ed  thQ.prder  of  Prudentius, 
placing  the  "Salvete  fio*fes"  e^.,  before  the  "Audit 
tjrrannus"  etc.;  but  the  Roman  Breviary  follows  the 
original  order,  showing  us  ^t  Matins  the  oloody  spec- 
tacle, and  at  Lauds  saluting  the  victors,  the  "flores 
mar^n*um".  The  Marquess  of  Bute's  Roman  Brevi- 
ary (1879)  gives  N«ale's  translation 

All  hail  I  ye  infant  Martyr  flowers! 
Cut  off  in  life's  first  dawning  hours. 
As  rose-buds  snapped  in  tempest  strife, 
"When  Herod  sougnt  your  Saviour's  life. 

The  version  hsA  the  value  of  retaining  the  similarity 
of  rhythm  wilh  the  original;  but  if  ever  a  departure 
froin  this  course  b  justifiable,  Father  Caswall  has 
vini&cated  his  action  in  changing  the  rhythm: 

Flowers  of  martyrdom,  all  hail  I 
Smitten  by  the  tyrant  foe 
On  life's  threshold — as  the  gale 
Strews  the  roses  ere  they  bk>w. 

Not  to  speak  of  the  beauty  and  fidelity  of  the  render- 
ing, the  trochaic  rhythm  vividly  conveys  the  sense  of 
suddenness  of  the  onslaught,  the  ruthlessness  and 
swiftness  of  the  destruction.  Caswall's  version  has 
been  adopted  by  the  (Baltimore)  Manual  of  Prayers 
(with  the  first  une  changed  into  "Lovely  flowers  of 
Martyrs,  hail!").  The  Paris  Breviary  text  had  five 
strophes  (exclusive  of  doxology),  but  altered  the  first 
strophe  as  follows  (in  order  to  avoid  impleasant  eli- 
sions): 

Salvete  flores  martsmim. 

In  lucis  ipso  limine 

Quoe  sffivus  ensis  messuit, 

Ceu  turbo  nascentes  rosas. 

There  are  in  all  about  twenty-five  versions  into  Eng- 
lish, of  which  about  half  are  by  Catholics. 

JnuAK,  Diet,  of  Hymnology  (2nd  ed.) ,  046. 1690.  for  first  lines  of 
translations,  etc.  To  his  list  should  be  added  the  trans,  of  all 
four  hymns  in  Baoshaws,  Breviary  Hymns  and  Missal  Seqysnees 
(London,  10(X)),  and  in  Donahoe,  Earltf  Christian  Hymns  (New 
York,  1008) ;  also,  Hexrt,  Hymns  of  the  Holy  Innocents  in  Bo- 
desiastical  Review  (Dec,  1806),  557-65,  for  Latin  text  and  Euf- 
Hsh  vernons  and  comment ;  Katszr,  Beitrdge  tur  Gesehichte  u.  Brh- 
larung  der  oUesten  Kirehenhymnen  (Paderbom,  1881).  204-317, 
for  texts  of  four  hymns  and  extensive  comment;  Pimont,  Hymnes 
du  brMaire  remain,  II  (Paris,  1878),  66-77,  for  texts  and  much 
comment  on  the  hymns  of  the  Holy  Innocents;  Tbbnch.  Sacred 
Latin  Poetry  (3rd  ed.,  London,  1874).  gives  Latin  text  (in  36 
lines)  of  no.  (4);  Hymns  Ancient  and  Modem,  historical  ed. 
(London,  1900),  nos.  72,  82,  for  Latin  and  English  texts,  musical 
settinip,  flmd  comment  on  (2)  and  (4).  The  official  or  "  typical** 
melodies  for  the  four  hymns  will  be  found  in  the  Antiphonaiy  now 
passing  through  the  Vatican  press.  No.  2  (p.  213)  and  na  4  (jp. 
192)  have  appeared  in  i>n>of  sheets  (1011). 

H.  T.  Hbmbt. 


QUIERZT 


608 


QUZITXSM 


Quierzy*  Councils  of  (Kierzt,  Cabisiacum). 
Several  .^uncils  were  held  at  Quierzy,  a  royal  resi- 
dence under  the  Carlovingiaps,  but  now  an  insignifi- 
cant village  on  the  Oise  in  the  French  Department 
of  Aisne.  The  synod  of  September,  838,  ordered  the 
monks  of  Saint  Calais  in  the  Diocese  of  Le  Mans  to 
retiun  to  their  monastery,  from  which  they  falsely 
claimed  to  have  been  expelled  by  their  bishop.  It 
also  condemned  some  of  the  liturgical  opinions  of 
Amalarius  of  Metz  (q.  v.).  The  two  succeeding 
councils,  held  respectively  in  849  and  853^  dealt  with 
Gottschalk  (q.  v.)  and  his  peculiar  teachmg  resp)ect- 
ing  predestination.  The  first  of  these  meetings  sen- 
tenced the  recalcitrant  monk  to  corporal  castigation, 
deposition  from  the  priestly  office  and  imprisonment : 
his  books  were  to  be  burned.  At  the  second  synod 
the  famous  four  decrees  or  chapters  (Capitula)  drawn 
up  by  Hincmar  (q.  v.)  on  the  predestination  question 
were  published.  They  asserted:  (1)  the  predestina- 
tion of  some  to  salvation,  and,  in  consequence  of 
Divine  foreknowledge,  the  doom  of  others  to  everlast- 
ing punishment;  (2)  the  remedy  for  the  evil  ten- 
dencies of  free  will  through  grace;  (3)  the  Divine  in- 
tention of  saving  all  men;  (4)  the  fact  of  universal 
redemption.  The  council  held  in .  February,  857, 
aimed  at  suppressing  the  disorders  then  so  prevalent 
in  the  kingdom  of  Charles  the  Bald.  The  B3mod  of 
858  was  attended  by  the  bishops  who  remained  loyal 
to  Charles  the  Bald  during  the  invasion  of  his  do- 
minions by  Louis  the  German.  It  addressed  a  firm 
but  conciliatory  letter  to  the  invader  stating  its  at- 
titude towards  him  for  the  intentions  which  he  ex- 
pressed, but  which  his  actions  belied. 

Hefele-Leclerq,  Histoire  de»  concile*.  IV  (Paris,  1011),  i, 
101-3.  150-«,  197-9,  212,  214-5,  good  bibliography. 

N.  A.  Wbbbr. 

Quiet,  Prayer  op. — ^The  Prayer  of  Quiet  is  re- 
garded by  all  writers  on  mystical  theology  as  one  of 
the  degrees  of  contemplation.  It  has  to  be  dis- 
tinguished therefore  from  meditation  ancP  from  af- 
fective prayer.  It  holds  an  intermediary  place  be- 
tween the  latter  and  the  prayer  of  union.  As  the 
name  implies  the  prayer  of  quiet  is  that  in  which 
the  soul  experiences  an  extraordinary  peace  and  rest, 
accompanied  by  delight  or  pleasure  m  contemplating 
God  as  present.  In  this  prayer  God  gives  to  the 
soul  an  intellectual  knowledge  of  His  presence,  and 
makes  it  feel  that  it  is  really  in  communication  with 
Him,  although  He  does  this  in  a  somewhat  obscure 
manner.  The  manifestation  increases  in  distinct- 
ness, as  the  union  with  God  becomes  of  a  higher 
order.  This  mystic  gift  cannot  be  acquired,  because 
it  is  supernatural.  It  is  God  Himself  who  makes  His 
I  presence  felt  in  the  inmost  soul.  The  certain  sight 
of  God  therein  obtained  is  not  the  same  as  the  li^^t 
of  faith,  though  it  is  founded  upon  faith.  T^e 
gift  of  wisdom  is  especially  emploved  in  this  degree, 
as  it  is  in  every  degree  of  contemplation.  Accoi^ng 
to  Scaramelli  the  office  of  this  gift,  at  least  to  a  certain 
extent,  is  to  render  God  present  to  the  soul  and  so 
much  the  more  present  as  the  gift  is  more  abundant. 
Some  authors  say  that  this  is  not  to  be  understood 
of  the  ordinary  gift  of  wisdom  which  is  necessarily 
connected  with  sanctifjdng  grace  and  is  possessed  by 
every  just  man,  but  of  wisdom  as  one  of  the  charismata 
or  extraordinary  graces  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  specially 
granted  to  privileged  souls. 

(1)  At  first  the  prayer  of  quiet  is  given  from  time 
to  time  only  and  then  merely  for  a  few  minutes.  (2) 
It  takes  place  when  the  soul  has  already  arrived  at  the 
prayer  of  recollection  and  silence,  or  what  some  authors 
call  the  prayer  of  simplicity.  (3)  A  degree  of  prayer 
is  not  a  definite  state  excluding  reversions  to  former 
states.  (4)  A  time  often  comes  when  the  prayer  of 
quiet  is  not  only  very  frequent  but  kabitual.  In  this 
case  it  occurs  not  only  at  the  time  set  for  prayer,  but 
eveiy  time  that  the  thought  of  God  presents  itself. 


(5)  Even  then  it  is  subject  to  interruptions  and  al- 
terations of  intensity,  sometimes  strong  and  some- 
times weak. 

The  prayer  of  quiet  does  not  entirehr  impede  the 
exercise  of  the  faculties  of  the  soul.  The  will  alone 
remains  captive.  The  intellect  and  memory  appear 
to  have  greater  activity  for  the  things  of  God  in  this 
state,  but  not  so  much  for  worldly  affairs.  They  may 
even  escape  the  bounds  of  restraint  and  wander  on 
strange  and  useless  thoughts,  and  yet  the  will,  at- 
tracted by  the  charm  of  the  Divine  presence,  con- 
tinues its  delists,  not  wholly  in  a  passive  way,  but 
capable  of  eliciting  fervent  affections  and  aspirations. 
As  to  the  bodily  senses  St.  Francis  de  Sales  tells  us 
that  persons  during  the  prayer  of  quiet  can  hear  and 
remember  things  said  near  tJiem;  and,  quoting  St. 
Teresa,  he  observes  that  it  is  a  species  of  superstition 
to  be  so  jealous  of  our  repose  as  to  refrain  from  conn- 
ing, and  almost  from  breathing  for  fear  of  losing  it. 
God  who  is  the  author  of  this  peace  will  not  deprive 
us  of  it  for  unavoidable  bodily  motions,  or  even  for 
involuntary  wanderings  of  the  imagination.  The 
spiritual  fruits  are,  interior  peace  which  remains  after 
the  time  of  prayer,  profound  humility,  aptitude  and  a 
disposition  for  spiritual  duties,  a  heavenly  light  in  the 
intellect,  and  stability  of  the  will  in  goodness.  It  is 
by  such  fruits  true  mystics  may  be  discerned  and  dis- 
tinguished from  false  mystics. 

St.  Tkbbsa.  The  Way  of  Perfection;  Idem.  The  ItOerior 
Caatfe;  St.  John  or  the  Cross,  The  Obtcure  NiqfU;  Tdem,  Aeceni 
of  Mount  Carmel;  St.  Fbancis  ds  Sales,  Treatise  on  the  Lote  of 
Ood;    P0UI4AIN,  The  Oraoea  of  Interior  Prayer  (London,  1910). 

A.  Devine. 

Quietism  (Lat.  quies^  quietus^  passivity)  in  the 
broaiest  sense  is  the  doctrine  which  declares  that 
man's  highest  perfection  consists  in  a  sort  of  psychical 
self-annihilation  and  a  consequent  absorption  of  the 
soul  into  the  Divine  Essence  even  during  the  present 
life.  In  the  state  of  "auietude"  the  mind  is  wholly 
inactive;  it  no  longer  tninks  or  wills  on  its  own  ac- 
count^ but  remains  passive  while  God  acts  within  it. 
Quietism  is  thus  generally  speaking  a  sort  of  false 
or  exaggerated  mysticism  (q.  v.),  which  under  the 
guise  of  the  loftiest  spirituality  contains  erroneous 
notions  which,  if  consistently  followed,  would  prove 
fatal  to  morality.  It  is  fostered  by  Pantheism  and 
similar  theories,  and  it  involves  peculiar  notions  con- 
cerning the  Divine  co-operation  in  human  acts. 
In  a  narrower  sense  Quietism  designates  the  m3rstical 
element  in  the  teaching  of  various  sects  which  have 
sprung  up  within  the  Church,  only  to  be  cast  out  as 
heretical.  In  some  of  these  the  Quietistic  teaching 
hafl  been  the  conspicuous  error,  in  others  it  has  been 
a  mere  corollary  of  more  fundamental  erroneous  doc- 
trine. Quietism  finsdly,  in  the  strictest  acceptation 
of  the  term,  is  the  doctrine  put  forth  and  d^ended 
in  the  seventeenth  century  by  Molinoe  (q.  v.)  and 
Petrucci.  Out  of  their  teaching  developed  the  less 
radical  form  kno¥m  as  Semiquietism,  whose  principal 
advocates  were  F^nelon  (q.  v.)  and  Madame  Guyon 
(q-V.).  AU  these  varieties  of  Quietism  insist  with 
more  or  less  emphasis  on  intenor  passivity  as  the 
essentiflJ  condition  of  perfection;  and  all  have  been 
proscribed,  in  very  explicit  terms,  by  the  Church. 

In  its  essential  features  Quietism  is  a  charac- 
teristic of  the  religions  of  India.  Both  Pantheistic 
Brahminism  and  Buddhism  aim  at  a  sort  of  self- 
annihilation,  a  state  of  indifference  in  which  the  soul 
enjoys  an  imperturbable  tranauillity.  Ajid  the  means 
for  1>ringing  this  about  is  tne  recognition  of  one's 
identity  with  Brahma,  the  all-god,  or,  for  the  Budd- 
hist, the  quenching  of  desire  and  the  consequent  at- 
tainment of  Nirvana,  incompletely  in  the  present  life, 
but  completely  after  death.  Among  the  Greeks  the 
Quietistic  tendency  is  represented  by  the  Stoics.  Along 
with  Pantheism,  which  characterizes  th^  theory  ctt 
the  world,  tb^  present  in  their  dirdafia  an  ideal  wiBcb> 


QUIETISM  609  QUIETISM 

recalls  the  indifference  aimed  at  by  the  Oriental  mys-  they  owe  no  obedience  to  any  law,  since  their  wiD  is 

tics.  The  Wiseman  is  he  who  has  become  independent,  identical  with  God's  will;  and  they  ma^^  indulge  their 

and  free  from  all  desire.    According  to  some  of  the  carnal  desires  to  any  extent  without  staining  the  soul. 

Stoics,  the  sage  may  indulge  in  the  lowest  kind  of  This  b  also  substantially  the  teaching  of  the  Ulu- 

sensuality,  so  far  as  the  body  is  concerned,  with-  minati  (Alumbradoe),  a  sect  that  disturbed  Spain 

out  incurring  the  least  defilement  of  his  soul.    The  during  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries. 
Neoplatonists  (q.  v.)  held  that  the  One  gives  rise  to        It  was  the  Spaniard  Michael  de  Molinos  who  de- 

the  rfous  or  Intellect,  this  to  the  world-soul,  and  this  veloped  Quietism  in  the  strictest  sense  of  the  term, 

again  to  individual  souls.    These,  in  conse<][Uence  of  From  his  writings,  especially  from  his  ''Dux  spiri- 

tneir  imion  with  matter,  have  forgotten  then:  Divine  tualis"  (Rome,  1675),  sixtv-eight  propositions  were 

origin.    Hence  the  fundamental  principle  of  morality  extracted  and  condemned  by  Innocent  XI  in  1687 

is  uie  return  of  the  soul  to  its  source.    The  supreme  (Denzinger-Bannwart,  1221  sqq.).    The  key-note  of 

destiny  of  man  and  his  highest  happiness  consists  the  system  is  contained  in  the  nrst  proposition:  man 

in  rising  to  the  contemplation  of  tne  One,  not  by  must  annihilate  his  powers  and  this  is  the  inward  way 

thought  but  bv  ecstasy  {tMrajvit),  {via  interna) ;  in  fact,  the  desire  to  do  an3rthing  actively 

The  origin  of  these  Quietistic  tendencies  is  not  hard  is  offensive  to  God  and  hence  one  must  abandon  one- 
to  discover.  However  strongly  the  Pantheistic  con-  self  entirely  to  God  and  thereafter  remain  as  a  lifeless 
ception  of  the  world  may  appeal  to  the  philosophic  body  (prop.  2).  By  doing;  nothing  the  soul  anni- 
mmd,  it  cannot  do  away  with  the  obvious  data  of  ex-  hilates  itself  and  returns  to  its  source,  the  ^senoe  of 
perience.  To  say  that  the  soul  is  part  of  the  Divine  God,  in  which  it  is  transformed  and  divinized,  and 
being  or  an  emanation  from  God  enhances,  apparently,  then  God  abides  in  it  (5).  In  this  inward  way,  the 
the  dignity  of  man;  but  there  still  remains  the  fact  soul  has  not  to  think  either  of  reward  or  of  punish- 
that  passion,  deore,  and  moral  evil  make  human  life  ment,  of  heaven  or  hell,  of  death  or  eternity.  It  must 
anything  but  Divine.  Hence  the  craving  for  deliver-  not  concern  itself  about  its  own  state,  its  defects,  or 
ance  and  peace  which  can  be  obtained  only  by  some  its  progress  in  virtue;  having  once  resigned  its  will  to 
sort  of  withdrawal  from  action  and  from  dependence  God  it  must  let  Him  work  out  His  will  without  any 
on  external  things,  and  by  a  consequent  immersion,  action  of  the  soul  itself  (7-13).  He  who  has  thus 
more  or  less  complete^  in  the  Divine  being.  These  committed  himself  entirely  to  God  must  not  ask  any- 
aberrations  of  Mysticism  continued  even  after  the  thing  of  God,  or  render  thanks  to  Him;  must  take  no 
preaching  of  Christianity  had  revealed  to  mankind  account  of  temptations  nor  offer  any  active  resistance; 
the  truth  concerning  God,  the  moral  order,  and  human  ''and  if  nature  be  stirred  one  must  permit  its  stirring 
destiny.  Gnosticism  (q.  v.),  especially  the  Antino-  because  it  is  nature"  (14^17).  In  prayer  one  must 
mian  School,  looked  for  salvation  in  a  sort  of  intuitive  not  use  images  or  discursive  thought,  but  must  remain 
knowledge  of  the  Divine  which  emancipated  the  in  ''obscure  faith"  and  in  guiet,  forgetting  every  dis- 
" spiritual"  from  the  obligations  of  the  moral  law.  tinct  thought  of  the  Divine  attributes,  abiding  in 
The  same  Quietistic  tendency  appears  in  the  teaching  God's  presence  to  adore,  love,  and  serve  Him,  but 
of  the  Euchites,  or  Messalians  (q.  v.),  who  mun-  without  producing  %ny  acts  because  with  these  Uod  is 
tained  that  prater  frees  the  body  from  passion  and  not  plea^d.  Whatever  thoughts  arise  during  praver, 
the  soul  from  evil  inclination,  so  that  sacraments  and  even  though  they  be  impure  or  against  faith,  if  tney 
penitential  works  are  useless.  They  were  condemned  are  not  voluntarily  encouraged  nor  voluntarily  ex- 
at  the  Synod  of  Side  in  Pamphilia  (383)  and  at  pelled  but  are  suffered  with  indifference  and  resigna- 
Ephesus  (431).  The  Bogomili  (a.  v.)  of  the  later  tion,  do  not  hinder  the  prayer  of  faith  but  rather 
Middle  Ages  were  probably  their  lineal  descendants,  enhance  its  perfection.    He  who  desires  sensible  de- 

Medieval  Quietism  is  further  represented  in  the  votion  is  seocing  not  God  but  himself;  indeed,  every 

vagaries  of  Hes^chasm  (q.  v.),  according  to  which  the  sensible  effect  experienced  in  the  spiritual  life  is 

supreme  aim  of  life  on  earth  is  the  contemplation  of  abominable,  filthy,  imclean  (18r-20). 
the  uncreated  light  whereby  man  is  intimately  united        No  preparation  is  required  before  Communion  nor 

with  God.    Hie  means  for  attaining  to  such  con-  thanksgivmg  after  other  than  that  the  soul  remain  in 

templation  are  prayer,  complete  repose  of  body  and  its  usual  state  of  passive  resignation;  and  the  soul 

will,  and  a  process  of  auto-suggestion.    Among  the  must  not  endeavour  to  arouse  in  itself  feelings  of 

errors  of  the  B^uines  (a.  v.)    and  Beghards  con-  devotion.    Interior  souls  resign  themselves,  in  silence, 

demned  by  the  Cx>unQil  of  Vienne  (1311-12)  are  the  to  God;  and  the  more  thorough  their  resignation  the 

propositions:  that  man  in  the  present  life  can  attain  more  do  they  realize  that  they  are  imable  to  recite 

such  a  degree  of  perfection  as  to  become  utterly  im-  even  the  "Pater  Noster'\    They  should  elicit  no  acts 

peccable;  that  the  "perfect"  have  no  need  to  fast  or  of  love  for  the  Blessed  Virgin  or  the  saints  or  the 

pray,  but  mav  freely  grant  the  body  whatsoever  it  Humanity  of  Christ,  because,  as  these  are  all  sensible 

craves;  that  they  are  not  subject  to  any  human  au-  objects,  love  for  them  is  also  sensible.    External 

thority  or  bound  by  the  precepts  of  the  Church  (see  works  are  not  necessary  to  sanctification,  and  oesm- 

Denzinger-Bannwart,  471  aqq.).     Similar  exaggera-  tential  works,  i.  e.  volimtary  mortification,  should  be 

tions  on  the  part  of  the  Fraticelli  (q.  v.)  led  to  their  cast  off  as  a  grievous  and  useless  burden  (32-40). 

condemnation  by  John  XXII  in  1317    (Denzinger-  God  permits  the  demon  to  use  "violence"  with  certain 

Bannwart,  484  sqq.).    The  same  pope  in  1329  pro-  perfect  souls  even  to  the  point  of  making  them  per- 

scribed  among  the  errors  of  Meister  Eckhart  (q.  v.)  form  carnal  actions  either  alone  or  with  other  persons, 

the  assertions  that  (prop.  10)  we  are  totally  trans-  When  these  onsets  occur,  one  must  make  no  effort 

formed  into  God  just  as  in  the  sacrament  the  bread  but  let  the  demon  have  his  way.    Scruples  and  doubts 

is  changed  into  the  Body  of  Christ;  that  (14)  since  must  be  set  aside.    In  particular,  these  things  are  not 

Grod  wills  that  I  should  have  sinned  I  do  not  wish  that  to  be  mentioned  in  confession,  because  by  not  confes- 

I  had  not  sinned;  that  (18)  we  should  bring  forth  the  sing  them  the  soul  overcomes  the  demon,  acquires  a 

fruit  not  of  external  actions,  which  do  not  make  us  "treasure  of  peace",  and  attains  to  closer  union  with 

good,  but  of  internal  actions  which  are  wrought  by  God  (41-52).    The  "inward  way"  has  nothing  to  do 

^e  Father  abiding  within  us  (Denzinger-Bannwart,  with  confession,  confessors,  cases  of  conscience,  theol- 

^J:^^5' •  J     .  1.    1   .  ^8y»  or  philosophy.    Indeed,  God  sometimes  makes 

Qmte  m  accord  with  their  Pantheistic  principles,  It  mipossible  for  souls  who  are  advancckl  in  perfection 

the  Brethren  and  Sisters  of  the  Free  Spirit  (thirteenth  to  go  to  oonfesmon,  and  supplied  them  with  as  much 

to  fifteenth  century)  held  that  they  who  have  reached  fn*ace  as  they  would  receive  in  the  Sacrament  of 

perfection,  i.  e.  complete  absorption  in  God,  have  no  Ponance.    The  inward  way  leads  on  to  a  state  in 

need  of  external  worship,  of  sacraments,  or  of  prayer;  which  passion  is  extinguished,  sin  is  no  more,  sense  is 


QUIGLST 


610 


QUILON 


deadened,  and  the  soul,  willing  only  what  God  wills, 
enjoys  an  imperturbable  peace:  this  is  the  mystic 
death.  They  who  pursue  this  path  must  obey  their 
superiors  outwardly;  even  the  vow  of  obedience  taken 
by  religious  extends  onl^  to  outward  actions,  only  God 
and  the  director  enter  mto  the  soul's  interior.  To  say 
that  the  soul  in  its  interior  l^e  should  be  governed  by 
the  bi^op  is  a  new  and  very  ridiculous  doctrine;  for 
on  hidden  things  the  Church  passes  no  judgment 
(55-68). 

From  this  summary  it  is  readily  seen  why  the 
Church  condemned  Quietism.  Nevertheless,  these 
doctrines  had  found  adherents  even  in  the  higher 
ranks  of  the  clergy,  such  as  the  Oratorian,  Pietro 
Matteo  Petrucci  (1636-1701),  who  was  made  Bishop 
of  JeBi'(1681),  and  raised  to  the  cardinalate  (1686). 
His  works  on  Mysticism  and  the  spiritual  life  were 
criticized  by  the  Jesuit  Paolo  Se^eri,  and  a  con- 
troversy ensued  which  resulted  in  an  examination 
of  the  whole  question  by  the  Inquisition,  and  the 
proscription  of  fifty-four  propositions  taken  from 
ei^t  of  Petrucci's  writings  (1688).  He  submitted 
at  once,  resigned  his  bishopric  in  1696^  and  was  ap- 
pointed by  Innocent  XII  Apostolic  visitor.  Other 
leaders  of  the  Quietist  movement  were:  Joseph 
Beccarelli  of  Milan,^who  retracted  before  the  In- 
quisition at  Venice  in  1710;  Frangois  Malaval,  a 
blind  layman  of  Marseilles  (1627-1719);  and  es- 
pecially the  Bamabite  Francois  Lacombe,  the 
director  of  Mme.  Guyon,  whose  views  were  embraced 
by  F^nelon. 

The  doctrine  contuned  in  F^nelon's^'^  Explication 
des  Maximes  des  Saints''  was  suggested  by  the  teach- 
ings of  Molinos,  but  was  less  extreme  in  its  principles 
and  less  dangerous  in  its  application;  it  is  usually  ae&- 
ignated  as  ^miquietism.  The  controversy  between 
Bossuet  and  F^nelon  has  already  been  noticed  (see 
F^nelon).  The  latter  submitted  his  book  to  the  Holy 
See  for  examination,  with  the  result  that  twenty-three 
propositions  extracted  from  it  were  condemned  by  In- 
nocent XII  in  1699  (Denzin^er-Bannwart,  1327  sqq.). 
According  toF6nelon,  there  is  an  habitual  state  of  the 
love  of  God  which  is  wholly  pure  and  disinterested, 
without  fear  of  punishment  or  desire  of  reward. 
In  this  state  the  soul  loves  God  for  His  own  sake — not 
to  gain  merit,  perfection,  or  happiness  by  loving  Him; 
this  is  the  contemplative  or  unitive  life  (Props.  1,  2). 
In  the  state  of  holy  indifference^  the  soul  has  no  longer 
any  voluntary  deliberate  desire  in  its  own  behalf 
except  on  those  occasions  in  which  it  does  not  faith- 
fully co-operate  with  all  the  grace  vouchsafed  to  it. 
In  that  state  we  seek  nothing  for  ourselves^  all  for 
God;  we  desire  salvation,  not  as  our  own  dehverance 
or  reward  or  supreme  interest,  but  simply  as  some- 
thing that  God  IS  pleased  to  will  and  that  He  would 
have  us  desire  for  His  sake  (4-6).  The  self-abandon- 
ment which  Christ  in  the  Gospel  requires  of  us  is 
simply  the  renunciation  of  our  own  interest,  and  the 
extreme  trials  that  demand  the  exercise  of  this  re- 
nunciation are  temptations  whereby  God  would 
purify  our  love,  without  holding  out  to  us  any  hope 
even  in  regard  to  our  eternal  welfare.  In  sucn  trials 
the  soul,  by  a  reflex  conviction  that  does  not  reach  its 
innermost  depths,  may  have  the  invincible  persuasion 
that  it  is  justly  reprobated  by  God.  In  this  in- 
voluntary despair  it  accomplishes  the  absolute  sacri- 
fice of  its  own  interest  in  regard  to  eternity  and  loses 
all  interested  hope;  but  in  its  higher  and  most  inwsurd 
acts  it  never  loses  perfect  hope  which  is  the  disin- 
terested desire  of  obtaining  the  Divine  promises  (7-12) . 
While  meditation  consists  in  discursive  acts,  there  is  a 
state  of  contemplation  so  sublime  and  perfect  that  it 
becomes  habitual,  i.  e.  whenever  the  soul  prajrs, 
its  prayer  is  contemplative,  not  discursive,  and  it 
neeos  not  to  return  to  methodical  meditation  (15- 
16).  In  the  passive  state  the  soul  exercises  all  the 
virtues  without  adverting  to  the  fact  that  they  are 


virtues;  its  only  thought  is  to  do  what  God  wills: 
it  desires  even  love,  not  as  its  own  perfection  and 
happiness,  but  simply  in  so  far  as  love  is  what  God 
asks  of  us  (18-19).  In  confession  the  truisformed 
soul  should  detest  its  sins  and  seek  forgiveness  not 
as  its  own  purification  and  deliverance  but  as  some- 
thing that  God  wills  and  that  He  would  have  us 
will  for  His  glory  (20).  Though  this  doctrine  of  pure 
love  is  the  evangeUcal  perfection  recognized  in  the 
whole  course  of  tradition,  the  earlier  directors  of  souls 
exhorted  the  multitude  of  the  just  only  to  practices 
of  interested  love  proportioned  to  the  graces  bestowed 
on  them.  Pure  love  alone  constitutes  the  whole  in- 
terior life  and  is  the  one  principle  and  motive  of  all 
actions  that  are  deliberate  and  meritorious  (22-23). 
While  these  condemnations  i^owed  the  determined 
attitude  of  the  Church  against  Quietism  both  in  its 
extreme  and  in  its  moderate  form.  Protestantism  con- 
tained certain  elements  which  the  Quietist  mi^t  have 
consistently  adopted.  The  doctrine  of  justification 
by  faith  ^one,  i.  e.  without  good  works,  accorded 
very  well  with  Quietistic  passivity.  In  the  "visible 
Church"  as  proposed  by  the  Reformers,  the  Quietist 
would  have  found  a  congenial  refuge  from  the  con- 
trol of  ecclesiastical  authoritjr.  And  the  attempt  to 
make  the  religious  life  an  affair  of  the  individusu  soul 
in  its  direct  dealing  with  God  was  no  less  Protestant 
than  it  was  Quietistic.  In  particular,  the  rejection, 
in  part  or  in  whole,  of  the  sacramental  system,  would 
lead  the  devout  Protestant  to  a  Quietist  attitude. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  traces  of  Quietism  are  found  in 
early  Methodism  and  Quakerism  (the  "inward 
light ").  But  in  its  later  developments  Protestantism 
has  come  to  lay  emphasis  on  tne  active,  rather  than 
the  inert,  contemplative  life.  Whereas  Luther  main- 
tained that  faith  without  work  suffices  for  salvation, 
his  successors  at  the  present  day  attach  little  im- 
portance to  dogmatic  belief,  but  insist  much  on  "re- 
ligion as  a  life  ,  i.  e.  as  action.  The  Cathohc  teach- 
ing avoids  such  extremes.  The  soul  indeed,  assisted 
bv  Divine  grace,  can  reach  a  hi^  degree  of  contem- 
plation, of  detachment  from  created  things  and  of 
spiritual  union  with  God.  But  such  perfection,  far 
from  leading  to  Quietistic  passivity  and  Subjectivism, 
implies  rather  a  more  earnest  endeavour  to  labour 
for  God's  glory,  a  more  thorough  obedience  to  lawful 
authority  and  above  all  a  more  complete  subjugation 
of  sensuous  inipulse  and  tendency. 

HiLOERS,  Ztir  Bibliographie  de»  QuietxarmLa  in  CentralblaU  f. 
Bibliolhekaipesen  (Leipzig,  1907).  24;  Heppe,  Geteh.  der  mtuiut. 
Myttik  inderhaih.  Kirehe  (Berlin,  1875,  Protestant  view) ;  Nicolb, 
lUftUation  de»  prineipaUs  erreurt  des  quietifUa  (Paris,  1695); 
BBUNBTiibkB.  La  quereUe  du  quiitisme  (Paris,  1882);  BigeijOW, 
MoUnoa  the  Quietist  (New  York.  1882) ;  Vauohak.  Hours  with  tlie 
Mystics  (London,  1856;  New  York,  1893) ;  Hilqers,  Der  Index 
d.  verbotenen  BUcker  (Freiburg,  1904) ;  Gennarx,  De  faUo  my«fi- 
eismo  (Rome,  1907) ;  Paquieh,  Le  Quietisme  in  Revue  du  Clergi 
franfais,  LIX  (1909),  257  oa.:  Poulain,  The  Graces  of  Interior 
Prayer  (tr.  London,  1911),  witn  bibliography;  see  also  bibliography 
under  F^nelon;  Guton  ;  Mounob. 

E.  A.  Pace. 
Quigley,  James  Edward.    See  Chicago,  Arch' 

DIOCESE  OF. 

Quign6noB.    See  QuifioNEs,  Francis. 

Quilon,  Diocese  of  (Quilgnensis),  in  India  on  the 
Malabar  coast,  suffragan  of  Verapoly,  comprises  the 
southern  half  of  the  native  state  of  Travancore,  and 
the  British  territories  of  Tangacherry  and  \njengo. 
It  stretches  from  the  northern  branch  of  the  River 
Ranee  down  to  Cape  Comorin,  is  bounded  on  the  east 
by  the  slope  of  the  Ghauts,  and  on  the  west  by  the 
Indian  Ocean,  on  the  coast  of  which,  however,  there  ia 
one  narrow  strip  belonging  to  the  Diocese  of  Cochin. 
Out  of  a  total  population  of  1,600,000,  the  Catholics 
number  116,090,  having  161  churches  and  29  chapela, 
served  by  59  priests,  of  whom  17  are  Discalced  Carme- 
lite Fathers  from  various  provinces  of  Europe,  the 
rest  being  native  clergy.  The  bishop's  residence, 
cathedral,  and  the  preparatory  flominary  with  32 


students  are  all  »t  Quilon,  and  there  ore  0  ciindidutes 
for  the  priesthood  at  Kandy  Swninary,  Ceylon. 

HiSTOBT. — Down  to  18^  the  temtoiy  comprised 
by  thia  dioceee  formed  part  of  the  Padroado  Diocese 
of  Cochin  (see  Cochin,  Diocese  of).  In  that  year, 
by  the  Brief  "MultaPrfficlare",  jurisdiction  was  with- 
drawn from  the  See  of  Cochin,  and  this  portion  of  its 
territory  was  placed  under  the  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Mala- 
bw-  (Verapoly).  la  1845  its  separation  into  a  distinct 
vicariate  was  decreed  by  the  Holy  See.  ThLt  arrange- 
ment viae  efTecl«d  in  1853,  and  on  the  CHtabJishment 
of  the  hierarchy  in  1836  it  was  finally  clevatod  into  an 
episcopal  sec,  suffragan  to  Verapoly. 

List  of  prelates  (all  Carmelites)  :— 

Bernardino  Baccinelli  of  St,  Terosa,  pro- vicar 
Apostolic,  1845-53; 

Bernardino  Puntanova  of  St.  Agnes,  Dominated 
1853  but  died  shortly  after; 

Maurice  of  St.  Albert,  nominated  1854  but  died 
shortly  aft«r; 

Charles  Hyacinth  ValorRa,  1851-R4; 

Marie  Epnrera  Garrelon,  18t>!>-f>S; 

ItdephonsuB  Borgiia,  1S71~S'.(; 

Ferainand  Maria  Us:)i,  lKK:t,  hin'ainu  first  bishop  in 
1887.  dimi  1905; 

Aloysius  Maria  Benzigcr,  present  bishop  from 
19Q5. 

Relioioub  CosiMUNiTiBS.^DiBcalced  Carmelite 
missionaries,  17;  Conven(  of  Discalced  Carmelites  at 
Trivandrura,  5  fathers;  Sistefs  of  the  Third  Order 
Apostolic  of  Our  Lady  of  Mount  Camiel,  37  (of  whom 
five  are  Europeans)  and  2  novices,  for  the  e<lucation 
of  girls  and  the  care  of  orphans,  with  convents  at 
Trivandrum,  Quilon,  and  Tangacherry;  Missionary 
Canonesses  of  St.  Ai^^usttne,  14  tluropean  sisters  and 
13  native  lay  sisters,  for  the  i^lucation  of  girls  and 
the  can;  of  orphans,  with  convents  at  Mulagamude. 
Cape  Comorin,  and  NaRcrcoil;  Sisters  of  the  Holy 
Cross  (from  Mensingcn),  Q  sisti'rs,  for  nursing  the 
sick'  in  Bovemment  hospitals  at  Trivandrum  and 
Quilon;  Sisters  of  the  Holy  and  Immaculate  Heart 
of  Mary  (from  Pondic'icrry),  8  sisters,  3  novices,  and 
5  postulants,  for  inntruc'ion  of  girls  in  vernacular 
schools,  with  convent  and  novili:ile  at  Ciigncracode. 

Boys'  Sicuoou). — Tlic  C'lildren'.'!  Friend  Normal 
School,  (Juilon,  for  training  Malayalam  school- 
masters, with  59  student;:  St,  Francis's  Normal 
School,  Nagercoil,  for  train^n-^  TuTnil  si-hool masters, 
with  72  students:  ,.St.  .Io,*-i!i's  i:n;(lish  High  School, 
Trivandrum,  with  633  pupi's:  Si.  .Vloysius's  English 
Hijch  School,  Quilon,  wi:h  4i;i  pupils. 

Girls'  Scuooiis. — Un;l  ^r  Sisters  of  Third  Order 
of  Cannel:  Holy  Anp^li'  Convent.  Trivandrum, 
boarding  establishment  with  32  boarders,  PJnglish 
high  school  with  435  pupils,  industrial  and  technical 
school  with  37  pupilH;  St.  Joseph's  Conv-cnt,  Quilon, 
boarding  establishment  with  27  boanlcrs,  Knglish 
middle  school  with  173  pupils,  industrial  school  with 
37  pupils;  Convent  of  Our  I,^y  of  Mount  Carmel, 
Tangacherry,  boarding  establishment  with  15 
boarders,  English  middle  school  #ith  71  in  the  Eng- 
lish and  39  in  the  Malayalam  department,  industrial 
school  with  31  pupils. 

Under  Canonesscs  of  St.  Augustine:  Convent  of 
the  Holy  Infant  Jesus,  Mulagamude,  vernacular 
school  with  350  pupils,  industrial  school  with  276 
pupils,  besides  1250  outdoor  I actv workers;  Convi^nt 
of  the  Immaculate  Conception,  Cape  Comorin,  ver- 
nacular and  industrial  schools  n-ith  120  pupils; 
St.  Joseph's  School,  Nagercoii,  with  200  pupils. 

Under  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Heart  of  Mary:  Blessed 
Margaret's  Home,  Cagneracode,  vernacular  school 
with  60  pupils. 

Besides  these  there  are  two  mixed  srhools,  vi^,,  St. 
JniU'ph's  Middle  English  Srliool,  AnjcnRo,  with  173 
pupiLi;  St,  Leo's  vemaculw  middle  school,  Teke- 
karay,  with  113  pupils.    In  other  places,  132  ver- 


nacular primary  schools  with  7060  pupils.  Total 
number  of  schools  in  the  diocese,  144;  totAl  of  pupils, 
10,857. 


at  Mulagamude,  with  15  inmates;  Holy  Angela 
Orphanage,  for  girls,  Trivandrum,  with  83  inmates, 
St.  Joseph's  Orphanage,  for  girls,  Quilon,  with  47 
inmatas;  Mount  CMmel  Orphanage,  for  girls, 
Tangacherry,   with    21   orphans;     Infant    Jesus  Or- 

Khanage,  Muliwamude,  with  276  inmatcfl,  foundlinx 
ome  and  widows'  home;  dispensary  at  Mula- 
gimude;  nursing  department  in  general  hospital, 
Trivandrum,  women  and  children's  hospital,  Trivan- 
drum, and  district  hospital,  Quilon,  under  Sisters  of 
the  Holy  Cross. 

Madrat  CalMic  DirKlora  (lAO). 

Ernest  R.  Hull. 

Quimper,  Diocese  of  (Cori8ofit£Nsis),  includes 
the  Department  of  Finist^re;  as  re-established  by  the 
Concordat  of  1802  it  embraces  a  large  portion  of  the 


1,  has  been  c 


ancient  Diocese  of  Quimper,  also  known  as  the  Dio- 
cese of  Comouaillcs,  the  whole  of  the  Diocese  of  St. 
Pol  de  L£on,  and  a  small  part  of  the  Dioceses  of 
Tr^guier  and  Vannes.  From  1802  to  185S  it 
suffragan  of  Tours,  and  since  1859  i 
suffragan  of  Rennes. 

I.  Diocese  of  Quimper,— We  have  twt 
of  the  catalogue  of  the  bishops  of  Quimper:  one  in  the 
Cartulary  of  Quimperlf ,  of  the  twelfth  century;  the 
other  prescrvwi  in  a  Quimper  cartulary  of  tlie  fif- 
teenth century.  Both  mention  a  St.  Corentinus  as 
first  Bishop  of  Quimper;  his  biography  is  of  very  late 
origin.  Nothing  accurate  is  known  about  him,  but 
he  is  Bupposed.by  some  to  have  been  ordained  by  St. 
Martin  in  the  fourth  century,  while  others  claim  that 
he  was  a  sixth-centuiy  monk.  Duchesne  has  proved 
that  the  Diocese  of  Quimper  must  have  been  repre- 
sented at  the  Council  of  Angers  (453)  by  one  of  the 
four  prelates,  S.irmatio,  Chariato,  Rumoridus,  and 
VivnntiuH,  anil  at  the  Council  of  Vannes  (c.  465)  by 
one  of  the  two  prelates  .^Ibinus  and  Lil>eratus,  He 
puts  Uttte  credence  in  the  traditions  that  make  St. 


QUIMPER 


612 


QUIMPER 


Gonoganus  (Goennoc)  or  St.  Allorus  (Alori)  succes- 
sors of  St.  Corentinus.  Among  the  bishops  may  be 
mentioned:  Philippe  de  La  Chambre,  Cardinal  de 
Boulogne  (154&-50);  Nicholas  Cajetan  (1550-60); 
Cardinal  de  Sermonetta,  in  1536. 

II.  Diocese  of  St.  Pol  de  L6on. — The  Christian 
religion  seems  to  have  been  preached  in  L6on  twenty 
years  before  the  evangelization  of  Comouaille,  but 
ancient  Breton  chronology  is  very  uncertain.  The 
legend  of  St.  Paul  Aurelian.  written  in  884,  shows  that 
the  Breton  monks  believea  the  See  of  L6on  had  been 
founded  in  the  Merovingian  epoch.  Paul  Aurelian, 
a  Gallic  monk,  founder  of  monasteries  at  Ouessant  on 
the  north-west  coast  of  Brittany  and  on  the  Island 
of  Batz,  was  believed  to  have  founded  in  an  abandoned 
fort  a  monastery  which  gave  origin  to  the  town  of  St. 
Pol  de  L6on,  afterwards  the  seat  of  a  diocese.  He 
was  the  first  titular  of  the  see,  a  wonder-worker  and 
prophet,  and  was  held  to  have  died  in  575  at  the  age 
of  140  years,  after  having  been  a&sisted  in  his  labours 
by  three  successive  coadjutors.  Some  of  the  legends 
give  the  names  of  three  saints  among  his  succ(issors: 
Golvinus  (Goulven),  Tenenanus  (Th6n4nan),  and 
Guesnovcus  (Gouesnon).  Duchesne  accepts  as  cer- 
tain that  the  monastery  of  L6on  was  founded  by  Paul 
Aurelian  during  the  sixth  century.  As  for  the  see  it 
would  appear  that  the  civitas  of  the  Ossismi,  to  which 
the  territory  of  L6on  belonged,  was  represented  at  the 
Council  of  Angers  (453)  and  of  Vannes  (c.  465)  by  a 
bishop;  but  the  chief  town  of  that  civitas  (afterwards 
known  as  Carhaix)  was  soon  after  included  in  the 
Diocese  of  Quimper;  and  this  ancient  Diocese  of  the 
Ossismi,  from  which  the  chief  town  in  the  civitas  was 
thus  cut  off,  was  translated  to  St.  Pol  de  L6on  at  an 
uncertain  date.  Duchesne  thinks  that  the  Lithardus 
Uxomensis  (not  Oximensis)  who  assisted  in  511  at  the 
Council  of  Orleans  was  a  Bishop  of  S6ez  and  not  of 
Lk>n.  It  is  at  least  certain  that  there  are  traces  in 
history  of  a  Diocese  of  L^n  as  far  back  as  the  middle 
of  the  ninth  century. 

Jean  Fran9ois  de  La  Marche,  Bishop  of  St.  Pol  de 
L6on  from  1772,  took  refuge  in  England  in  1792,  and 
organized  material  assistance  for  the  &migri  clergy, 
as  well  as  spiritual  comfort  for  the  French  prisoners 
detained  in  England;  he  obtained  a  grant  of  the  Castle 
of  Winchester  for  the  French  priests,  and  gathered 
there  no  less  than  eight  hundred  of  them.  He  died 
in  1806. 

The  hermit,  St.  Ronan,  a  native  of  Ireland,  often 
held  to  be  one  of  the  350  bishops  consecrated  by  St. 
Patrick,  was  in  the  fifth  century  one  of  the  apostles 
of  Comouailles  and  the  neighbourhood  around  L6on. 
In  his  honour,  evenr  six  years,  on  the  second  and  third 
Sunday  of  July,  the  "ureat  Trom^nie"  is  held,  an 
immense  procession  of  fifteen  or  twenty  thousand 
persons,  through  5  parishes,  halting  at  12  improvised 
chapels.  It  was  mainly  the  Dioceses  of  Quimper  and 
St.  Pol  de  L^n  that  saw  the  zeal  of  the  great  apostles 
of  Brittany  in  the  seventeenth  century:  the  Domin- 
ican Michel  Le  Nobletz  (1577-1652),  who  has  been 
declared  Venerable,  native  of  Plouguemeau  in  the  Dio- 
cese of  L^on,  and  who  preached  the  catechism  in  the 
churches  and  in  the  public  squares  with  the  help  of 
svmbolical  painted  charts;  and  his  famous  disciple, 
the  Venerable  Julien  Maunoir,  S.J.  (1606-^),  whose 
sermons  were  extremely  popular.  The  Dominican 
Albert  Le  Grand,  bom  at  Morlaix,  assisted  this  ^^t 
religious  revival  by  his  "  Lives  of  the  Saints  of  Brit- 
tany" (1636).  Maunoir  found  time  to  publish  a 
Breton  dictionary,  and  some  devotional  works  in 
Breton.    He  was  the  founder  of  Breton  philology. 

The  cornerstone  of  Quimper  Cathedral  was  laid  in 
1424,  but  the  building  waa  still  unfinished  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  sixteenth  century.  \Vhen  Alexander 
VI  granted  that  church  the  same  indulgences  as  could 
be  gained  at  the  Roman  Jubilee,  funds  came  in  which 
allowed  its  completion. 


The  Cathedral  of  St.  Pol  de  L6on  was  built  between 
the  thirteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries.  The  churcb 
of  Notre  Dame  de  Creisker,  in  the  same  town,  re- 
stored in  the  fourteenth  century,  has  a  belfry  which 
the  Bretons  claim  to  be  the  handsomest  in  the  world. 
Formerly  Quimperl^  had  an  important  Benedictine 
abbey,  Sainte  Croix,  founded  in  1029,  and  where  the 
Benedictines  of  St.  Maur  took  up  their  residence  in 
1665.  It  was  suppressed  by  the  Revolution.  Brest, 
one  of  the  great  fortified  harbours  of  France,  is  in  the 
diocese. 

Among  saints  specially  honoured  in  the  diocese  are 
St.  Hiltutus  (Iltut  or  Ydeuc),  disciple  of  St.  Cadoc 
and  founder  of  the  monastery  of  Lan-Iltut,  w^here  he 
had  for  disciples  St.  David,  St.  Gildas  the  Albanian, 
St.  Samson,  St.  Magloire;  St.  Gueng^aenus  (Gudnold), 
founder  and  first  Abbot  of  Landevennec,  who  died, 
according  to  some,  about  448,  according  to  others  in 
532,  or  as  others  compute  in  616;  St.  Gildas,  founder 
and  first  Abbot  of  Rhuys  and  many  other  monasteries 
in  Comouailles  (sixth  century);  St.  Guevroc,  Arch- 
deacon of  St.  Pol  de  L^n,  disciple  of  St.  Tudgual,  and 
founder  of  the  church  of  Notre  Dame  de  Creisker 
(sixth  centurv) ;  the  hermit,  St.  Hervaeus  (sixth  cen- 
tury); St.  Melorius  (Melar),  a  Breton  prince,  a  vic- 
tim of  a  political  conspiracy,  and  honoured  as  a 
martyr  (sixth  century);  the  Cistercian  St.  Maurice 
(d.  1191),  founder  of  the  monastery  of  Camoet;  St. 
Jean  Discalceat  (d.  1349),  founder  of  the  convent  of 
St.  Francis  at  Quimper. 

Le  Coz  (1740-1815),  who  under  the  Revolution  as 
Archbidhop  of  Rennes  (1790-1802),  was  one  of  the 
mainstavs  of  the  constitutional  schism,  had  pre- 
viously been  principal  of  Quimper  College. 

Among  those  bom  in  the  Diocese  of  Quimper  are: 
the  Jesuit  Bougeant  (1690-1743)^  author  of  the  "His- 
tory of  the  Treaty  of  Westphalia";  the  Jesuit  Har- 
douin  (1646-1729);  the  critic  Fr^ron  (1719-71),  who 
opposed  Voltaire;  Abb6  Legris  Duval  (1765-1819), 
who  under  the  Revolution  directed  the  "Congrega- 
tion'' for  a  time,  after  having  founded  many  charitable 
and  philanthropic  institutions. 

The  principal  shrines  of  the  diocese  are:  Notre 
Dame  de  Folgoet,  near  Lesneven,  a  pilgrimage  dating 
from  1419;  Notre  Dame  de  Locmaria  at  Quimper,  a 
church  which  dates  from  the  eleventh  century,  whun 
the  Abbey  of  Locmaria  was  founded  by  Count  Alain 
Canihart  (1013-40);  Notre  Dame  de  Rumengol,  near 
Faou,  a  chapel  founded  1500  years  ago,  replaced 
in  1536  by  a  large  church  where  the  unique  reli-  . 
gious  festivals  known  as  ''Great  Pardons"  take 
place. 

Before  the  application  of  the  Associations  Law 
(1901),  there  were  in  the  diocese  Jesuits,  Benedictines 
of  the  "Pierre  qui  vire",  and  many  teaching  orders 
of  brothers.  An  important  religious  community  for 
women  originated  in  the  diocese,  the  Reli^pous  de  la 
Retraite  du  Sacr^Coeur.  In  1899  the  rehgious  con- 
gregations in  the  Diocese  of  Quimper  had  charge  of 
1  foundling  hospital,  35  nurseries,  1  orphanage  for 
boys,  9  orphanage^for  girls,  10  workrooms,  4  refuges, 
29  hospitals,  166  district  nursing  houses,  and  8  houses 
of  retreat.  In  1905  there  were  in  the  Diocese  of 
Quimper  773,614  inhabitants,  48  parishes,  262  auxil- 
iary parishes,  and  280  curacies  supported  by  state 
funds. 

Oaaia  Chriattana,  nova  (1856),  XIV,  871-90;  971-1017,  and 
instr.,  189-208;  225-32:  DucHsaKS,  Fattet  ijnteopatLX,  II,  244- 
56;  368-71:  387-88;  Tresvaux,  L'EplUe  de  Brttaane  (Paria. 
1839);  GuENiN.  Uitangilisation  du  FtnisUre  in  BvUttin  de  fa 
SociiU  acadSmique  de  Brest  (1907);  Cartulaire  de  QuimperU,  ed. 
Maitrb  and  de  Bertrou  (Paris,  1904);  Le  Men,  Monographie 
de  la  Cathidrale  de  Quimper  (Quimper,  1877);  Wruonoc,  Kilo 
Patdi  Aureliani,  ed.  Plaine,  m  Analeeta  BoUandiana  (1882), 
208-58;  Cltishard,  Vie  de  Saint-Paul  de  Lion  de  Bretaone  iTaprte 
un  manuacrU  de  Fleury  nur  Loire  in  Revue  Celtique  (1883),  413-60; 
Lecurkux.  Saint  Pol  de  Lion  (Paris,  1909);  Aboralu  ArckUec- 
ture  brelonne,  itude  dee  monuments  du  diocese  de  Quimper  (Quim- 
per, 1904). 

Gboroes  Gotau. 


QUIN 


613 


QUINONES 


Quin,  MicEAEL  Joseph,  originator  of  the  ^'Dublin 
Review",  b.  at  Thurles,  Co.  Tipperary,  Ireland,  1796; 
d.  at  Boulogne-sur-Mer,  19  Feb.,  1843.  Coming  to 
London  he  was  called  to  the  Bar  at  Lincoln's  Inn  and 
while  waiting  for  practice  devoted  himself  to  journal- 
ism. For  the  "^Moming  Herald  "  he  wrote  an  account 
of  his  experiences  in  Spain  during  the  latter  part  of 
1822  and  the  first  four  months  of  1823.  This  he  pub- 
lished in  book-form  as  *' A  Visit  to  Spain'*  (1823).  In 
the  following  year  he  issued  two  translations,  "Mem- 
oirs of  Ferdinand  VII"  and  '*A  Statement  of  some  of 
the  principal  events  in  the  public  life  of  Don  Agustln 
de  Iturbide".  He  became  editor  of  the  "Monthly 
Review"  in  1825  and  held  that  post  for  seven  years. 
During  this  period  he  contributed  manv  articles  on 
foreign  policy  to  the  "Morning  Chronicle  ,  and  edited 
"The  Catholic  Journal",  a  weekly  newspaper  which  ran 
for  one  year  only.  Further  travels  in  Hungary,  Wal- 
lachia,  Servia,  and  Turkey  furnished  him  with  mate- 
rial for  a  new  book  in  1835,  called  "A  Steam  Voyage 
down  the  Danube",  which  was  so  successful  that  it 
was  translated  into  French  and  German.  But  his 
most  lasting  work  was  the  "Dublin  Review",  which  has 
ever  since  remained  the  leading  Catholic  periodical  in 
the  British  Isles.  Of  its  first  beginnings  Cardinal 
Wiseman  wrote:  "  It  was  in  1836  that  the  idea  of  com- 
mencing a  Catholic  Quarterly  was  first  conceived  by 
the  late  learned  and  excellent  Mr.  QuiA,  who  applied 
to  the  illustrious  O'Connell  and  myself  to  join  in  the 
undertaking".  Quin  became  the  editor  and  chief 
contributor,  writing  five  articles  in  the  first  number 
and  four  in  the  second.  But  the  enterprise  was  not 
remunerative.  After  two  numbers  he  resigned  the 
editorship-^  being  unable  to  devote  so  much  time  and 
trouble  without  financial  advantage,  but  continued 
to  contribute  articles  to  succeeding  issues.  During 
1842  he  edited  "The  Tablet",  pending  the  disputes 
between  Lucas  and  the  publishers.  His  remaining 
works  are:  "The  Trade  of  Backing  in  England 
(1833);  a  pamphlet  on  the  proposed  abolition  of  local 
probate  courts  (1834);  "Nourmahal,  an  Oriental 
Romance"  (1838);  "Petra",  translated  from  the 
French  (1839),  and  "Steam  Voyages  on  the  Seine, 
the  Moselle  and  the  Rhine"  (1843).  He  married  a 
daughter  of  Edward  Wallis  of  liurton  Grange,  York, 
and  had  three  daughters  by  her.  ' 

GiLLOW,  Bibl.  Diet.  Eng.  Cath.^.  v. ;  Cooper  in  Diet.  Nat.  Biog., 
B.  v.;  RuASEUL  in  Irish  Monthly,  XXI,  80;  Casartblli  in  Dublin 
Review  (April.  189G),  250  aqq. 

Edwin  Burton. 

QuinctianuB  (QniNTiANus),  Saints. — (1)  Under 
the  date  of  1  April  the  present  "  Roman  Martyrology" 
mentions  a  saint  of  this  name,  together  with  a  com- 
panion named  Iremeus.  In  the  "  Martyrologium 
Hieronymianum"  the  same  saint  is  mentioned  with 
three  companions  under  the  same  date,  the  topo- 

Saphical  note  "in  Asia  Minor"  being  appended  [ed. 
e  Rofisi-Duchesne  (38)].    We  have  no  further  infor- 
mation concerning  these  martyrs. 

(2)  A  bishop  Quinctianus,  probably  identical  with 
the  "episcopus  Urcitanus",  suffered  martyrdom  with 
several  other  confessors  in  Africa  during  the  persecu- 
tion under  the  Vandal  king,  Huneric  (476-84),  as 
related  by  Victor  Vitensis  ("De  persecutione  Van- 
dalica",  I,  xxix;  II,  xxviii;  ed.  Halm  in  "Mon.  Germ. 
Hist.:  Auct.  antiq.",  I,  8,  18).  His  feast  is  cele- 
brated on  23  May.  In  the  "Martyrologium  Hiero- 
nymianum" several  other  African  martjrrs  of  this 
name  are  mentioned  on  various  other  days,  but 
nothing  further  is  known  of  them. 
-  (3)  A  long  list  of  Christian  martjrrs  from  Catania 
in  Sicily  are  found  in  the  above-mentioned  martyrol- 
ogy [ed.  cit.,  (3)1,  and  also  in  the  present  "Roman 
Martyrology"  on  31  December;  among  these  occurs 
the  name  of  a  Saint  Quinctianus.  Concerning  this 
whole  group,  however,  we  have  no  historical  informa- 
tion. 


(4)  In  the  list  of  Roman  confessors  who  languished 
in  prison  during  the  Decian  persecution  (a.  d.  250) 
a  certain  Quinctianus  also  occurs  ("Epist.  Luciani 
ad  Celerinum"  inter  Epist.  Cypriani,XXII,  iii;  ed. 
Hartel,  II,  535). 

(5)  The  Synod  of  Agde  (506)  was  attended  by  a 

Quinctianus,  then  Bishop  of  Rodez.    A  native  of 

Africa,  he  had  fled  from  the  Arians  to  Gaul,  and 

been  appointed  Bishop  of  Rodez.     During  the  war 

between  the  Franks  and  the  West  Goths,  he  was  a 

zealous  supporter  of  Chlodwig  I.    He  was,  therefore, 

compelled  to  leave  the  territory  of  the  West  Goths, 

and  proceeded  to  Auvergne,  where  he  was  hospitably 

received  by  Bishop  Euphrasius.     King  Theodoric  I 

appointed  Quinctianus  successor  to  St.  Apollinarius, 

Bishop  of  Clermont.     On  the  death  of  the  latter, 

Quinctianus  succeeded  to  the  See  of  Clermont,  which 

he  occupied  until  his  death  on  13  November,  525  or 

526.     His  feast  is  celebrated  on  this  date,  except  at 

RodeE,  where  it  is  kept  on  14  June.    In  the  "Roman 

Martyrology"  his  nape  stands  under  both  dates. 

Consult  GRcaoRT  or  Tours,  ViUx  patrum,  ed.  Kbusch  in 
Mon.  Oertn.Hiat.:  Script,  rer.  Meroving.,  I,  673  aq.;  Idem,  Histor. 
Francor.,  II,  xxxvi  and  paaaim;  Duchesnx,  Paste*  Spiacopaux 
de  Vaneienne  Gaule,  II  (PariB,  1900).  35,  40. , 

J.    P.    KlRSCH. 

Quifiones  (Quignonez),  Francis,  cardinal,  b.  in 
the  Kingdom  of  Leon,  Spain,  c.  1482;  d.  at  Veroli, 
Italy,  5  Nov.,  1540.  He  was  the  son  of  Diego  Fer- 
nandez de  Quifiones,  Count  of  Luna,  was  educated  as 
a  page  of  Cardinal  Ximenes,  and  at  the  age  of  sixteen 
entered  the  Order  of  Friars  Minor  in  the  convent  of 
Los  Angeles  (Spain),  taking  the  name  of  Francis  of  the 
Angels  (1498).  Having  completed  his  studies,  he 
successively  discharged  all  the  various  offices  of  his 
order  as  custos,  commissary  general,  and  minister 
general.  In  1521  he  had  obtained  special  permission 
and  faculties  from  Leo  X  to  go  to  the  missions  in 
America,  together  with  Father  Glapion,  O.F.M., 
confessor  of  Charles  V,  but  Glapion  died  in  the  same 
year,  and  Quiftones  was  elected  commissary  general 
of  the  Ultramontane  Franciscans  (1521-23).  In  the 
general  chapter  of  the  order  at  Burgos,  in  1523,  he 
was  elected  minister  general  (1523-27).  As  general, 
he  visited  the  convents  of  Spain  (1523-25)  and  a 
great  part  of  Italy  and  Belgium  (1525-27),  promoted 
studies,  maintained  general  discipline,  and  was  not 
less  active  in  behalf  of  missions.  In  1524  he  sent 
twelve  missionaries  to  Mexico,  among  them  Father 
Juan  Juarez,  who  later  became  the  first  bishop  within 
the  present  territory  of  the  United  States.  (See 
Engelhardt,  "The  Missions  and  Missionaries  of  Cali- 
fornia", San  Francisco,  1908,  I,  604.) 

After  the  sack  of  Rome  and  the  imprisonment  of 
Clement  VII  (May  1527),  Quifiones,  who  was  dis- 
tantly related  to  Charles  V,  and  also  his  confidant, 
seemed  the  aptest  man  to  effect  the  release  of  the 
pope,  and  a  full  reconciliation  between  him  and  the 
emperor.  He  was  thrice  sent  to  the  emperor  for  this 
purpose^  and  his  efforts  were  crowned  with  success  by 
the  deliverance  of  Clement  (Dec.,  1527),  and  the 
treaties  of  Barcelona  (1528)  and  Cambrai  (1529). 
As  these  embassies  rendered  his  effective  government 
of  the  order  impossible,  Quifiones  renounced  the 
generalship  in  December,  1527,  and  in  September  of 
the  following  year  he  was  created  cardinal  of  the 
title  of  S.  Croce  in  Gerusalemme,  hence  his  name 
"Cardinal  of  the  Holy  Cross".  From  1530  to  1533 
he  was  also  Bishop  of  Coria,  in  Spain,  and  for  a  short 
time,  in  1539,  administrator  of  Acemo  (Naples),  but 
he  was  never  Cardinal  Bishop  of  Palestrina,  as  some 
authors  assert.  Cardinal  Quifiones  always  occupied 
a  distinguished  position  in  the  Sacred  College  and 
closely  followed  the  movement  of  the  Reformation  in 
Germany.  When  Paul  III  contemplated  assembling 
a  general  council  at  Mantua,  he  sent  (1536)  the 
Cardinal  of  the  Holy  Croas  to  Ferdinand  I,  King  of 


QmNQUAGESIMA                      614  QUIBINI 

the  Romans  and  of  Hungary,  to  promote  that  cause,  quera,  where  he  devoted  the  rest  of  his  life  to  writings 

The  cardinal,  however,  did  not  live  to  see  the  opening  in  the  Mixc  language.   This  being  the  earliest  pubhca- 

of  the  Council  of  Trent  in  1545.   His  body  was  brought  tion  in  that  language,  in  spite  of  age  and  infirmity,  he 

from  Veroli  to  Rome  and  buried  in  his  titular  church  made  several  journeys  to  Puebla,  to  supervise  the 

in  a  tomb  which  he  had  prepared  for  himself.  making  of  special  types.    His  most  important  work 

Quifiones  left  some  legislative  compilations. for  his  was  a  grammar  and  a  series  of  articles  on  the  principal 

order,  but  is  best  known  for  his  reform  of  the  Roman  articles  of  the  Faith,  under  the  title,  "  Instituci6n  cris- 

Breviary  undertaken  by  order  of  Clement  VII  (see  tiana,  que  contiene  el  Arte  de  la.  Lengua  Mije  etc. " 

Breviary:  VI.  Reforms).  (Puebla,  1729).    (See  also  Mixe  Indians.) 

\Sk  1523.  1530.  1539.  1540;  Idem.  Senpt.  Ord.  Mtn.  (Rgme.  jj  (Amecameca,  1883).                                                               ^^ 

1906).  01;  Sbaralca,  Stippcemen^um  ad  5crtptore«  (Rome,  1908),  Ta^^wq   Itf/vi^mrw 

297:  DB  GuBBRNATiB,  Orbia  SeraphicM,  I  (Rome,  1672),  205-16;  JAMBS  iVlOONET. 
Abturub  a  Monabtbrio,  Martyrologium  Franeiaeanum  (Paris, 

l(m),4^;   HierarchM  caiholicam  QuirlCUS    and  Julitta    (CiRTCUS   AND  JuIJTTA), 

Eubel  (Manster,   1910),  22,  70.  105.   176;  van   den  Haittb,  a.TtTmo     »»«-4^«r*<w4     .^.^^a*    T\i^^i^*i^w%        TU^    ^^w^ll 

Breviarium  hUtoHcum  orrfinw   Aftn.   (Rome.   1777).  330-32!  Saints,   martyred    Under  Dioclctian.     The   names 

Gaudbntiub,  Btttrdge  tur  Kirchengeschichu  de»  X  VI.  und  X  VIL  of  these  two  martyrs,  who  in  the  early  Church  en- 

/oArAuiuterta  (Bomb.  1880),  8,  n.  1.  34,  244,  n.  1;^^^^  joyed  a  widespread  veneration,   are  found  in  the 

l^^^^'^I^^^IS^fZ^^SS^liiit^^lcT^^^,  Hiartyrolopum   Hieronymianum"  (ed.  De   R««i- 

1786),  385-431;  baumeb,  GmcH.  de*  Breviers  (Freiburg  im  Br..  Duchesne,  79)  and  also  in  the  calendars  and  menolo- 

}5??<'  ?2fM9?'  BATiFroL,^Mtoir«  dtt  Brfviaire  «oi»win  (Paris,  gies  of  the  Greek  and  Other  Oriental  Churches.    Ac- 

hVi^L^^tir  ^.'STfimi/^r'  "^^  "^  ""  ^"^  "  «>'^,  <f  the  Acts  of  their  martyrdom  which  ap- 

LiVARius  OuoER.  peared  later,  and  a  letter  of  the  sixth  century,  Juutta 

ned  with  her  three-months-old  child,  Quirictis,  from 

Quinquagesima  (fiftieth),  the  period  of  fifty  days  Lycaonia,  when  the  Maximinian  ijersecution  broke 

before  Easter.     It  begins  with  the  Sunday  before  gut  there,  to  Isauna  and  thence  to  Tarsus  m  Cibcia. 

Ash  Wednesday,  called  Dominica  in  Quinquagesima  She  suffered  martyrdom  in  the  last-nwned  city  ^ter 

or  Esto  Miki  from  the  beginning  of  the  Introit  of  the  ^^  child  had  &«t  been  kiUed  before  her  eyes.    The 

Mass;   it  is  a  Sunday  of  the  second  class,  and  the  veneration  of  the  two  martyrs  was  common  in  the 

colour  of  the  Mass  and  Office  is  violet.   For  many  early  West  at  an  early  date,  as  is  proved  by  the  chapel 

Christians  it  was  the  beginning  of  the  fast  before  dedicated  to  them  in  the  Church  of  Santa  Mana 

Easter,  hence  called,  as  with  the  Syrians,  Dom.  in-  Antiqua  at  Rome,  as  weU  as  by  testimony  from  Gaul. 

gressus  jerjunii.    For  some,  Quinquagesima  marked  the  Theu-  rehcs  are  said  to  have  been  brought  to  the 

time  after  which  meat  was  forbidden  and  was  there-  monastery  of  Swnt^Amaiid  (Elnonense  monastenum) 

fore  called  Dom.  camis  pritnum,  ad  comes  toUendas,  ^  the  Diocese  of  Toumai.    The  feast  is  observed  on 

camevala;  by  the  Poles,  Ned.  zapustna.    Since  these  16  June;  in  the  Synaj^vm  of  Constantmople  it  is 

regulations  affected  mainly  the  clergy,  we  find  the  set  under  the  date  of  15  July, 

name  camis  privium  sacerdotum  and  in  CJermany  „.^,<^  ^^^  IIJ  June,  23aq.;  AiiflZ«ya  BoU.,  I  (1881),  192  m.; 

herrenfastn<u:ht.    Where  abstinence  from  meat  began  ^i^-^SSZku^'^.^cJSiiMi^plSSS^S::  ^b^L^ 

earlier,  this  Sunday  mtroduced  the  time  m  which  (Bnuweia.  1902).  821  sq.;  Rushfoktb,  The  Chweh  of  Santa 

neither   milk   nor   eggs,    etc.    (ova   ei   ioc^tcinia)  were  Maria  Antigua  mPapereohhe  British  Schoel  at  Rome,  I  {Umdon, 

allowed,   hence    called   bjr  the  Greeks  Dom.  casei  ^^^^*  38  aqq.                                          T   P   K 

comestrixetovorum;MG\chiteSfSublalionisovorumeica'  ''•  "•  "J^acH. 

sei;  Austrians,  K&se-  or  MUchfasckingsonntagj  Sonntag  Quirinal.    See  Robcb. 
in  der  BvUerwoche;  Italians,  de*  latticini;  anci  Servians, 

bele  poklade  (white  meats).  The  Slavs  name  it  Ned.  Quirini  (Qubrini),  Anoelo  Maria,  cardinal  and 
///.  predpepdni^^,  i.  e.  the  third  Sunday  before  Ash  scholar,  b.  at  Venice,  30  Mareh,  1680;  d.  at  Brescia, 
Wednesday;  the  Bohemians,  Ned.  II.  po  deintn^Uj  6  January,  1755.  In  1696  he  entered  the  Benedictine 
i.  e.  the  second  Sunday  after  the  ninth  before  Easter.  Order  at  Florence,  and  was  appointed  professor  of 
In  many  places  this  Sunday  and  the  next  two  days  Sacred  Scripture  in  his  monastery  in  1705.  Pive 
were  used  to  prepare  for  Lent  by  a  good  confession;  years  later  he  started  on  an  educational  journey 
hence  in  England  we  find  the  names  Shrove  Sunday  through  Germany,  the  Netherlands.  England,  and 
and  Shrovetide.  As  the  days  before  Lent  were  fre-  France.  In  1718  the  pope  appointed  him  a  member 
guently  spent  in  merry-making,  Benedict  XIV  by  the  of  the  commission  instituted  for  the  revision  of  the 
Constitution  "Inter  Cetera"  (1  Jan.,  1748)  intro-  Greek  liturgical  books,  and  in  1723  named  him  Bishop 
duced  a  kind  of  Forty  Hours'  Devotion  to  keep  the  of  Corfu.  A  few  years  later  Quirini  was  transferred 
faithful  from  dangerous  amusements  and  to  make  some  to  the  Bishopric  of  Brescia  and  elevated  to  the  car- 
reparation  for  sins  committed.  Quinquagesima  also  dinalate.  He  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  Vatican 
means  the  time  between  Easter  and  Pentecost,  or  Library  in  1730,  and  became  subsequently  prefect  of 
from  the  Saturday  after  Easter  to  the  Sund^  after  the  Congregation  of  the  Index.  He  was  elected  a 
Pentecost;  it  is  then  called  Quinquagesima  Fascha,  member  of  the  Vienna  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1747 
paschaliSf  or  IcetiticB.  and  of  the  Berlin  Academy  the  following  year.   About 

DucHMNE.    Christian    Worship    (London.    19(H),    244.    246;  ^.j^g  ^^^^  his  opposition  tO  the  proposed  reduction  in 

Rock.  The  Church  of  Our  Fathers,  IV  (London,  1904),  70    Bin-      . ,  __, _-  Clt„  j«„„  ;«.„^i„«5  u^r.*  :«  «  ^^•^^■w^.w,^.^.. 

•ncRiM,  DenkwQrdigkeiten,  V,  1.  156;   Nilu».  Kal.  Man.,  II;  the  number  of  holydavs  involved  him  in  a  Controversy 

Benobr,  Pastoral  Theoiogie,  III  (Ratisbon,  1863).  107.  with  Muraton,  which  lasted  untu  Rome  enjomed 

Francis  Mershman.  silence  on  both  parties  in  1750.    His  part  in  the  dis- 
cussions concerning  the  Patriarehate  of  Aquileia  re- 

Quintana,  AousTiN,  missionary  and  Indian  phi-  suited  in  Ms  enforced  retirement  from  Rome  the 

lologist,  b.  at  Antequera,  the  capital  of  Oaxaca,  Mex-  following  year.    Quirini  generously  contributed  from 

ico,  about  1660;  d.  at  Oaxaca,  1734.    He  entered  the  his  personal  means  to  the  relief  of  the  finandal  needs 

Order  of  Preachers  in  that  city  in  1688,  and  was  soon  of  the  German  missionary  districts.    His  writings 

thereafter  sent  as  missionary  priest  to  the  Mixe  include  works  on  the  liturgy  and  history  of  the  Greek 

Indians  of  southern  Oaxaca,  among  whom  he  laboured  Church,  the  history  of  the  papacy  (Paid  II),  and  that 

for  twenty-eight  years,  mastering  their  difficult  Ian-  of  Corfu  and  Brescia.    They  also  include  an  edition 

guage  to  a  degree  never  attained  by  any  other  white  of  Cardinal  Pole's  correspondence  (Brescia,  1744-57), 

man.      He  was  then  appointed  superior  of  the  con-  Baodrillabt,  De  Card,  guinni  vita  et  operibue  CPiiM,  1888): 

vent  of  Zcu;avila,  but  on  account  of  broken  health  was  CHAUiBBa,  Biographical  DtcHonary  (Ix>ndon,  1816),  ■.  ▼. 

80on  afterward  retired  to  the  main  convent  at  Ante-  .  N.  A.  Weber. 


Q0IRINIUS 


615 


QUITO 


QuiriniUB,  Census  of.  See  Chronology,  Bibli- 
cal. 

Qoirinus,  Saints. — Several  martyrs  of  this  name 
are  mentioned  in  the  '^Martyrologium  Hierony- 
mianum'^  and  in  the  historical  Martyrologies  of  the 
early  Middle  Ages,  and  the  feasts  of  these  saints  are 
still  to  be  found  in  the  catalogue  of  saints  of  the 
Roman  Church. 

(1). — ^According  to  the  legendary  Acts  of  the 
ms^yrs  St.  Maris  and  St.  Martha,  a  Roman  tnartyr 
Quirinus  (Cyrinus)  was  buried  in  the  Catacomb  of 
Pontian.  However,  the  Itineraries  to  the  graves  of 
the  Roman  martyrs  do  not  mention  him.  His  feast 
is  celebrated  on  25  March.  Perhaps  this  Quirinus 
is  meant  by  the  expression  "Romae  sancti  Cyri" 
found  in  the  "  Martyrologium  Hieronymianum"  of  24 
March  (cf.  "Acta  SS.",  Ill,  March,  543  sqq.:  Du- 
f ourcq,  * '  Les  Gesta  martyrum  romains  " ,  1, 240) .  In  the 
eighth  centuiy  the  relics  of  the  martyr  were  translated 
to  the  Benedictine  abbey  of  Tegemsee  in  Bavaria. 

(2). — Another  Roman  martyr  named  Quirinus  was 
buried  in  the  Catacomb  of  Prsetextatus  on  the  Via 
Appia.  Both  the  name  and  the  place  of  burial  are 
mentioned  in  the  " Martyrologium  Hieronymianum" 
(ed.  De  Rossi-Duchesne,  52),  as  also  in  the  Itineraries 
to  the  graves  of  the  Roman  martyrs  (I>e  Rossi, 
"  Roma  sotterranea",  I,  180-1).  His  name  un- 
doubtedly appeared  in  the  catalogue  of  Roman 
martyrs  of  the  fourth  century  under  date  of  30  April, 
which  is  the  day  that  the  Martyrology  of  Jerome 
assigns  him.  He  is  introduced  into  the  legendary 
Acts  of  Sts.  Alexander  and  Balbina,  where  it  is  said  he 
was  a  tribune  (Dufomrcq,  loc.  cit.,  175).  Ado  took 
the  name  from  these  Acts  and  put  it  in  his  Martyr- 
ology under  date  of  30  March,  on  which  day  it  is 
now  also  found  in  the  Roman  Martyrolo^  (Quentin, 
"Les  raartyrologes  historiques",  490).  In  1050  the 
relics  of  Quirinus  were  given  by  Leo  IX  to  his  sister 
Gepa,  Abbess  of  Neuss.  In  this  way  the  relics  came 
to  the  beautiful  Romanesque  Church  of  St.  Quirinus 
at  Neuss  which  still  exists. 

(3). — ^The  relics  of  a  third  St.  Quirinus,  now  in 
Rome,  were  brought  thither  from  Pannonia.  This 
St.  Quirinus  was  Bishop  of  Siscia,  now  Sissek  in 
Croatia,  and  suffered  martyrdom  in  309.  He  was 
thrown  into  the  water  with  a  millstone  about  his 
neck  and  drowned.  The  genuine  Acts  of  the  martyr- 
dom of  the  saint  are  still  in  existence  (Ruinart, 
"Acta  mart.'',  Ratisbon,  522),  also  a  hymn  in  his 
honour  by  Prudentius  (loc.  cit.,  524).  Upon  the 
incursion  of  the  barbarians  into  Pannonia  at  the  be- 

? inning  of  the  fifth  century  the  inhabitants  fled  to 
taly  and  took  the  bones  of  St.  Quirinus  with  them. 
The  remains  were  taken  to  Rome  and  interred  in  a 
vaulted  burial  chamber  near  the  Church  of  St.  Sebas- 
tian on  the  Via  Appia  (De  Waal,  "Die  Apostelgruft 
•  ad  Catacumbas  an  der  via  Appia",  Rome,  1894). 
His  feast  is  observed  on  4  June. 

(4). — ^The  name  of  a  martyr  Quirinus,  who  is  vener- 
ated in  Tivoli,  is  found  in  the  present  Roman  Mar- 
tyrology under  the  same  date  of  4  June.  There  is  no 
historical  account  of  him;  he  is,  perhaps,  identical 
with  one  of  the  martyrs  of  this  name  who  are  men- 
tioned in  the  Martyrology  of  Jerome  among  groups 
of  martyrs  under  the  dates  of  12  March,  3  and  4 
June.  Under  4  June  a  Quirinus  is  mentioned  with  a 
statement  of  the  place,  ^^Nividuno  civitate"  (Mart. 
Hieron.,  31,  73,  75). 

(5). — ^At  Malmedy,  in  Rhenish  Prussia,  is  venerated 
a  St.  Quirinus.  It  is  related  that  at  the  beginning  of 
the  ninth  century  his  relics  were  translated  to  the 
abbey  church  there.  According  to  the  legend  he  was 
put  to  death,  together  with  a  companion  Nicasius, 
m  the  pagits  Vulcassintia  (Vexin).  No  trustworthy 
historical- reports  of  him  exist.  His  feast  is  observed 
on  11  October. 


Sofi  Ada  SS.,  for  the  various  dates  mentioned;  Bihl.  hapiogr, 
LtUitux,  8.  V.  Quirintut;  Potthast,  Bibl.  histtyrica  medii  <tti,  2nd 
ed.,  II,  s.  V.  Quirinu»,  For  St.  Quirinus  of  Rome  see  Ubbain, 
Ein  Martyrologium  d.  chrisU,  Gemeinde  tu  Rom  (Leipzig,  1901), 
B.  V.  Quirinus.  J.   p.   KlESCH. 

Quito,  Archdiocese  or  (Qxhtensis). — ^The  city 
of  Quito,  formerly  known  as  San  Francisco  de  Quito, 
capital  of  the  Republic  of  Ecuador,  is  situated  14' 
south  of  the  Equator,  and  114  miles  inland  from  the 
Pacific  Ocean.  It  stands  at  an  elevation  of  about 
9300  feet,  and  has  a  population  of  some  70,000, 
mostly  mestizos.  It  was  the  capital  of  the  Incas 
Huajrnacapac  and  Atahualpa,  and  was  biimt  by 
Rumif^hm  in  1533.  Sebastian  de  Belalcdzar  cap- 
tured Quito  the  following  year.  In  1541  it  was  made 
a  city  by  Charles  V;  in  1565  it  became  the  head- 
quarters of  a  separate  Franciscan  province.  Quito 
formed  part  of  Peru  till  1718,  when  it  was  included 
in  Nueva  Grenada.  The  seminary  in  charge  of 
the  Jesuits  was  the  centre  of  ecclesiastical  studies 
for  all  middle  and  northern  South  America.  The 
Dominicans  and  Augustinians  had  high  schools  in 
Quito.  In  1735  the  city  was  ruined  oy  an  esurth- 
quakc.  Independence  was  declared  there  on  19 
August,  1809;  and  the  following  year  witpes^bd  a 
terrible  massacre  of  the  nobility,  even  women  and 
children  being  put  to  the  sword.  President  Montes 
defeated  the  patriots  two  years  later  in  th^  Panecillo; 
Sucre  giiined  his  great  victory  hard  by  in  1822.  In 
1829  Quito  became  the  capital  of  Ecuaidor. 

The  city  is  built  on  very  uneven  ground,  and  the 
streets  run  in  parallel  lines.  The  most  important 
souare  is  the  Plaza  Mayor,  on  the  southern  side  of 
wnich  is  the  cathedral,  on  the  eastern  the  city  hall, 
and  on  the  western  the  government  house.  The 
square  was  turned  into  a  beautiful  garden  by  Presi- 
dent Garcia  Moreno,  who  was  assassinated  here  6 
Aug.,  1875.  Quito  is  remarkable  for  its  many  beau- 
tiful churches,  especially  the  old  seventeenth-century 
Jesuit  Church  of  Santa  Ana,  San  Francisco,  La 
Merced,  and  El  Sagrario.  The  present  university, 
which  was  founded  by  Sixtus  V  and  Philip  II  in 
1586,  but  opened  only  in  1621  by  the  Jesuits,  still 
occupies  a  portion  of  the  old  Jesuit  college  and  has  an 
excellent  library,  formed  in  part  from  that  of  the 
San  Luis  seminary.  There  are  32  professors  and 
216  students.  The  observatory  was  erected  under  the 
direction  of  the  celebrated  astronomer  Father  Menten. 
Garcia  Moreno  invited  the  German  Jesuits  to  lecture 
in  the  university;  they  have  since  been  expelled  by 
the  Masonic  parties.  The  College  of  St.  Ferdinand 
contains  a  tablet  with  a  Latin  inscription  commemora- 
tive of  the  French  and  Spanish  mathematicians  who 
measured  the  degree  of  the  meridian  here  in  1736-41, 
The  chief  manufactures  of  the  city  are  woollens, 
laces,  rugs,  carpets,  and  tobacco.  There  is  also  a 
large  export  trade  in  religious  oil-paintinfis. 

The  Diocese  of  Quito  was  erected  by  Paul  III  on 
8  Jan.,  1545,  at  the  request  of  Charles  V,  and  made 
suffragan  of  Lima.  The  first  bishop  was  Mgr. 
Garcidid,  who  died  in  1563.  In  1853  the  Holy  See 
proceeded  to  the  beatification  of  Maria  Ana  de 
Jesd  de  Paredes  y  Flores,  the  *'Lily  of  Quito"  (b.  31 
Oct.,  1618;  d.  26  May,  1645).  By  the  Bull  "Nos 
semper  Romanis  Pontificibus"  of  13  Jan.,  1848,  Pius 
IX  made  Quito  a  metropolitan  see,  with  the  Dioceses 
of  Cuenca  and  Guayaquil  as  suffragans,  to  which 
have  since  been  added  the  Sees  of  Ibarra,  Riobambo, 
Loja,  and  Portoviejo.  The  first  archbishop,  Mgr 
Francisco  Xavier  de  Garaycos,  previously  Bishop  of 
Guayaquil,  was  appointed  5  Sept.,  1851.  The  present 
archbishop,  Mgr  Uonsdlez  y  Sudrez,  was  bom  at  Quito 
2  Jan.,  1845;  consecrated  Bishop  of  Ibarra,  30  July, 
1895;  transferred  to  Quito,  14  Dec.,  1905,  and  en- 
tered into  possession  on  6  July,  1906,  succeeding  Mgr 
Pedro  Rafael  Gonsdlez  (b.  at  Quito,  14  Oct.,  1839; 
Bishop  of  Ibarra,  29  Sept.,  1876;    coadjutor  titular 


QUITO 


616 


QUITO 


Archbishop  of  S^unade,  15  June,  1893,  succeeding  to 
the  ut^bishopnc  in  Aug.,  1803).  The  Archdiocese 
of  Quito  includes  the  provinces  of  Pichincha,  Le6n, 
and  Tunguragua,  and  contains  81  parishes,  195 
priests,  and  420,560  Catholics.  The  seminary  is  in 
care  of  the  Laaarists. 


Wolf,  Qtografia  y  geohgia  del  Ecuador  fLoipiig,  1893) :  Cb- 
VALLOS.  Retumen  de  la  hisUfria  dd  Ecuador  (Ouayaquil,  1870-89); 
GonsAlez  t  Suabbx,  Hiatoria  ecdeaidstiea  del  Ecuador  (Quito, 
1881);  Medina,  Zx»  imprenia  en  Quito  (Santiago,  1904);  Herrbra, 
ApurUes  para  la  hiHoria  de  Quito  (Quito,  1874);  Vblasco.  Bl 
revno  de  Quito  (Quito.  1841-4);  BoUtin  eeUsidetieo,  the  official 
oiigan  of  the  church  province  of  Quito. 

A.  A.  MacEblsan. 


R 


Babanus  (Hrabanub,  Rhabanus),  Maurus  Mao-  no  equal,  and  was  thoroughly  conversant  with  canon 
NENTius,  Blessed,  Abbot  of  Fulda,  Archbishop  of  law  and  liturgQr.  His  literary  activity  extended  over 
Mainz,  celebrated  theological  and  pedagogical  writer    the  entire  field  of  sacred  and  profane  learning  as 


of  the  ninth  century,  b.  at  Mainz  about  776  (784?); 
d.  at  Winkel  (Viniceilum)  near  Mainz  on  4  Februajy, 
856.  He  took  vows  at  an  early  age  in  the  Benedictine 
monastery  of  Fulda,  and  was  ordained  deacon  in 
801 .  A  year  later  he  went  to  Tours  to  study  theology 
and  the  liberal  arts,  under  Alcuin.  He  endeared  him- 
self to  his  £u;ed  master,  and  received  from  him  the 


then  understood.  Still,  he  cannot  be  called  a  pioneer, 
either  as  an  educator  or  a  writer,  for  he  followed  in  the 
beaten  track  of  his  learned  predecessors.  A  complete 
edition  of  his  nimierous  writings  is  still  wanting. 
Most  of  them  have  been  edited  by  Colvenerius 
(Cologne,  1627).  This  uncritical  edition  is  reprinted 
with  some  additions  in  P.   L.,  CVII-CXIl.    His 


surname  of  Maurus  in  memory  of  the  favourite  dis-    poems  were  edited  by  Dilmmler  in  ''  Mon.  Germ. : 


ciple  of  St.  Benedict.  After  a  year  of  study  he  was 
recsdled  by  his  abbot,  became  teacher  and,  later, 
head-master  of  the  monastic  school  of  Fulda.  His 
fame  as  teacher  spread  over  Europe,  and  Fulda  be- 
came the  most  celebrated  seat  of  learning  in  the 
Frankish  Empire.  In  814  he  was  ordained  priest. 
Unfortunately,  Abbot  Ratgar's  mania  for  building 
temporarily  mipeded  the  progress  of  the  school,  but 
under  Abbot  Eigil  (818-82)  Rabanus  was  once  more 
able  to  devote  himself  entirely  to  his  vocation  of 
teaching  and  writing  (see  Carlo vingian  Schools: 
Fulda,  Diocese  of).  In  822  Rabanus  was  elected 
abbot,  and  during  hip  reign  the  monastery  enjoyed 
its  greatest  prosperity.  He  completed  the  new 
buildings  that  had  been  begun  by  his  predecessor; 
erected  more  than  thirty  churches  and  oratories; 
enriched  the  abbey  churcH  with  artistic  mosaics, 
tapestry,  baldachina,  reliquaries,  and  other  costly 
ornaments;  provided  for  the  instruction  of  the  laity 
by  preaching  and  by  increasing  the  number  of  priests 
in  country  towns;  procured  numerous  books  for  the 
library,  and  in  many  other  ways  advanced  the 
spiritual,  intellectual  and  temporaf  welfare  of  Fulda 
and  its  dependencies.  In  the  political  disturbances 
of  the  times  he  sided  with  Louis  the  Pious  against 
his  rebellious  sons,  and  after  the  emperor's  death 
he  supported  Lothair,  the  eldest  son.  When  the 
latter  was  conquered  by  Louis  the  German,  Rabanus 
fled  from  home  in  840,  probably  to  evade  taking  the 
oath  of  allegiance.  In  841  he  returned  and  resigned 
his 
Louis 
where 

literary  labours.  In  845  he  was  reconciled  with  the 
king  and  in  847  succeeded  Otgar  as  Archbishop  of 
Mainz.  His  consecration  took  place  on  26  June.  He 
held  three  provincial  synods.  The  31  canons  enacted 
at  the  first,  in  the  monastery  of  St.  Alban  in  October, 
847,  are  chiefly  on  matters  of  ecclesiastical  discipline 
(Acts  m  Mansi,  "  Cone.  Coll.  AmpL",  XIV,  89^ 
012).  At  the  second  s3mod,  held  in  October,  848,  in 
connexion  with  a  diet,  the  monk  Gottschalk  of 
Orbais  and  his  doctrine  on  predestination  were  con- 
demned. The  third  synod,  held  in  852  (851?),  oc- 
cupied itself  with  the  ri^ts  and  discipline  of  the 
Church.  Rabanus  was  distinguished  for  his  charity  to- 
wards the  poor.  It  is  said  in  the  **  Annales  Fuldenses  " 
that,  during  the  famine  of  850,  he  daily  fed  more  than 
300  persons.  Mabillon  and  the  Bollandists  style 
him  "Blessed",  and  his  feast  is  celebrated  in  the  Dio- 
ceses of  Fulda,  Mainz,  and  Limburg  on  4  February. 
He  was  buried  in  the  monastery  of  St.  Alban  at 
Mainz,  but  his  relics  were  transferred  to  Halle  by 
Archbishop  Albrecht  of  Brandenburg. 

Rabanus  was  probably  the  most  learned  man  of  his 
age.    In  Scriptund  and.  patristic  knowledge  he  had 


Poetffi  lat.  aevi  Carol.",  II,  154-244.  He  was  a 
skilful  versifier,  but  a  mediocre  poet.  His  epistles 
are  printed  in  "Mon.  Germ.:  Epist.",  V,  379  sq. 
Most  of  his  works  are  exegetical.  His  commen- 
taries, which  include  nearly  all  the  books  of  the 
Old  Testament,  as  well  as  the  Gospel  of  St.  Matthew 
and  the  Pauline  Epistles — a  commentary  on  St.  John 
is  probably  spurious — ^are  based  chiefly  on  the  exegeti- 
cal  writings  of  St.  Jerome,  St.  Augustine,  St.  Gregory 
the  Great,  St.  Isidore  of  Seville,  Origen,  St.  Ambrose, 
and  St.  Bede.  His  chief  pedagogical  works  are:  "  De 
universo",  a  sort  of  encvclopedia  in  22  books,  based 
on  the  Etymologies  of  Isidore;  "De  computo**, 
a  treatise  on  reckoning;  "  Excerpt io  de  arte  grammat- 
ica  Frisciani",  a  treatise  on  grammar,  etc.  Other 
important  works  are:  "De  ecclesiastica  disciplina''; 
sermons,  treatises,  a  mart3rrology,  and  a  penitential. 

A  oontemporaneouB  biography,  written  by  his  diaciple,  the 
aohoIasticuB  Rudolph,  ia  printed  in  P.  L.,  CVII,  40-68.  Ma- 
billon, B.  Rabani  Maun  Bloffium  hitUnricum,  ibid.,  40-68; 
Acta  3S.t  I  Feb.^  506-44;  Kunstmakn,  Hrabanus  Magnentiua 
JfaurtM,  eine  hist.  Monographie  (Maina,  1841);  Spsnolbb, 
LAen  dea  hi.  Rhabanu*  Maurtu,  Br^yUchofB  von  Mainz  (Ratisboo. 
1856);  RiCHTKR,  HTobanxu  Maunu,  Bin  BeUrag  xur  Qesch.  der 
Padaoogik  im  MitUUOter  (Malohin,  1882);  T«bnau.  Rahanut 
Maurtu.  Bin  Beilrag  twr  Oe«ch,  der  Podag.  des  MiUelaUera 
(Munich,  1900);  DOifiiLEB,  Hrabaniatudien  in  SUxungsber.  der 
kihiial.  preu9».  Akademie  (Beriin,  1898),  24-42;  Idem  in  AUg. 
deuUcke  Biogr.,  XXVI,  66-74;  Hauck  in  Kirchengeschichle 
Deutsehtandt,  II  (Leipsig,  1900),  620-41;  Bubgbb,  Hrabanw 
Maurua  der  Begr&nder  der  theol.  Studien  in  DeuUchland  in  Ka- 
MoJiib.  II  (Mains.  1902),  51-69,  122-35;  Hablitzel.  Hrabanua 
Maurtu,  Bin  Beitrag  eur  Geech.  der  mittdaU.  Bxegese  (Freiburg, 
1906);     BiBKLE,    R?uAantu    Maunu   und  seine   Lehre   von   der 


617 


Alcuin  and  iu  Rise  of  Christian  Schods  (kew  York,   1892)! 
124-64. 

Michael  Ott. 

Rabbi  and  Rabbiniflm.— The  special  condition 
which  prevailed  in  Palestine  after  the  Restoration  led 
to  the  gradually  increasing  importance  of  the  Temple, 
and  of  the  priesthood  nunistering  in  it.  The  spirit 
of  Esdras's  reform  outlasted  the  reformer  and  sur- 
vived in  the  authority  henceforth  attached  to  the 
Law,  an  authority  soon  to  overshadow  the  prestige 
of  the  Temple  and  of  the  priesthood  itself  *  and  tended 
to  put  into  prominence  the  teachers  ana  expounders 
of  the  Law,  the  Scribes  (Sopherim),  Originally  the 
word  scribe  meant "  scrivener  " ;  but  rapidly  it  was  ac- 
cepted as  a  matter  of  course  that  the  scribe  who  copies 
the  Law  knows  the  Law  best,  and  is  its  most  qualified 
expounder:  accordingly  the  word  came  to  mean 
more  than  it  implies  etymologically.  Knowledge  of 
the  Law  became  the  cmef  passport  to  fame  and  pop- 
ularity. The  earliest  scribes,  hke  Esdras,  who  came 
to  be  hailed  as  the  model  of  the  "ready  scribe"  (i. 
e.  skilful)  in  the  Law  of  Moses  (I  Esd.,  vii,  6),  were 


RABBI                                 618  RABBI 

priests:  but  in  time  a  large  body  of  lay  teachers  came  down  for  generations  in  the  esoteric  teaching  of  the 
to  swell  the  ranks  of  the  scribes.  As  gradually  the  faithful  scribes  as  the  officiid  interpretation  of  the 
spell  of  Hellenistic  fashions  fell  upon  the  priesthood,  Law,  and  finally  committed  to  writmg,  particulvly 
the  lay  scribes  found  themselves  more  and  more  the  in  the  Mishnas  and  Talmuds.  Under  tms  parasitic 
only  guardians  and  exponents  of  the  Law.  When  the  vegetation  of  traditional  teaching  the  Law  itself  came 
Pharisees  began  to  be  recognized  as  a  distinct  sect  gradually  almost  to  be  entirely  lost  sight  of  and  stifled : 
(about  150  B.  c.)  the  scribes  as  a  rule  adhered  to  them  yet  every  word  designating  the  tradition  was  calculatea 
as  being  the  most  scrupulous  observers  of  the  Law  to  remind  the  Rabbi  of  the  connexion  of  this'  tradi- 
(yet  Mark,  ii,  16;  Luke,  v,  30,  and  Acts,  xxiii,  9,  seem  tion  with  the  Law.  Mishna  means  "repetition  of  the 
to  implv  that  some  scnbes  belonged  to  the  party  of  Law'^  its  sources  were  the  sayings  of  the  Tannaite  or 
the  Sadducees).  At  any  rate,  from  that  time  on-  ''repeating''  doctors:  a  baraUha  is  a  saying  of  some 
wards  the  scribes  were  accepted  as  the  accredited  earlv  doctor  not  included  in  the  Mishna;  the  harav- 
teachers  of  the  people.  Until  the  fall  of  Jerusalem  thoth  are  gathered  either  into  the  Tosepkta  (addition) 
they  were  chiefly  congregated  in  Judea;  but  in  later  or  in  the  Ghemara  (complement),  the  Mishna  and  the 
times  we  hear  of  their  presence  in  Northern  Palestine,  Ghemara  constituting  the  Talmud  or  "teaching"  (of 
even  in  Rome,  and  in  every  important  centre  of  the  the  Law).  This  teaching  is  either  halaka  (way)  or 
Dispersion.  "customary  law",  or  cLgodai  "information",  given 
From  the  earliest  times  the  scribes  seem  to  have  by  or  about  the  Law.  The  Law  is  therefore  under- 
conceived  an  exalted  opinion  of  their  merits:  "The  stood  to  be  at  the  root  of  every  tradition,  even  when, 
wisdom  [knowledge]  of  the  scribe  cometh  by  his  time  in  practice,  tradition  as  good  as  makes  void  the  lett^* 
of  leisure:  and  he  that  is  less  in  action  [less  steeped  of  the  Law  (Matt.,  xv,  1-6;  Mark,  vii,  8-13);  nay 
in  business]  shall  receive  wisdom.  With  what  wis-  more,  we  hear  of  Rabbis  pretending  to  prove  by  the 
dom  shall  he  be  furnished  [what  knowledge  can  he  Law  itself  (Ex.,  xxxiv,  37)  that  oral  traaitions  should 
acquire]  that  holdeth  the  plough,  and  that  glorieth  be  preferred  to  the  written  word  (MegilL,  iv,  74^\  cf. 
in  the  goad,  that  driveth  the  oxen  therewith,  and  is  Sanhedr.,  xi,  3).  This  exaggerated  authority  these 
occupied  in  their  labours,  and  his  whole  talk  is  about  oral  traditions  obtained  on  account  of  the  ongin  at- 
the  offspring  of  bulls?"  (thus  Hebrew;  Ecclus.,xxxviii,  tributed  to  them.  They  generally  purported  to 
25.  26).  Evidently  the  scribe  in  his  own  estimation  have  been  handed  down  from  Esdras,  who  received 
belonged  to  a  higher  caste.  And  so  it  was  under-  them  by  Divine  inspiration  as  esoteric  wisdom  to  be 
stood  oy  the  people  who,  after  the  time  of  Hillel.  in-  imparted  to  the  initiated  disciples.  Some  claimed  for 
troduced   the  custom  of  saluting  them   "Raboi".  them  a  still  higher  antiquity,  going  back  to  Moses 


scribes  the  specific  force  of  its  pronoun  was  lost,  and  Enoch,  and  Adam.    This  voluminous  body  of  exeget- 

"Rabbi"  was  used  very  mucn  like  our  "Doctor",  ical  traditions,  the  logical  system  according  to  which 

That  this  title  was  far  from  unpleasant  in  the  ears  inferences  are  drawn  and  the  theological  conceptions 

of  the  scribes  we  know  from  Matt.,  xxiii,  7.    In  upon  which  this  whole  oral  teaching  is  groundeid,  are 

point  of  fact  a  pupil  never  would  omit  it  when  speaking  commonly  designated  as  a  whole  by  the  name  of 

to  or  of  his  teacher  (Berach.,  xxvii,  1),  and  it  oecame  Rabbinism.     What  has  been  said  above  of  its  theo- 

a  universal  usage  never  to  mention  the  name  of  a  logical  basis  may  suffice  to  show  the  two  radical  errors 

doctor  of  the  Law  without  prefixing  "Rabbi".     Nay  which  lie  at  the  bottom  of  it:  infinity  of  the  Scriptures, 

more,  in  order  to  show  the  person  greater  honour,  and  necessity  of  interpreting  them  in  every  detail  in 

this  title  was  intensified  into  "Rabban",  "Rabboni",  accordance  with  that  severe  precision  which  alone  is 

so  that  in  the  course  of  time  custom  establish^  a  worthy  of  God. 

kind  of  hierarchy  among  these  various  forms:  A  few  words  on  the  principles  of  Rabbinical  logic 
"Rabbi",  the  doctors  said,  "is  more  than  Rab,  may  not  be  useless  to  help  form  a  judgment  of  the 
Rabban  more  than  Rabbi,  and  the  proper  name  more  whole  system.  The  traditional  exegesis  was  of  two 
than  Rabban."  The  latter  part  of  this  .traditional  kinds.  The  one,  the  Halaka,  was  legal  and  casuistic: 
regulation  haa  particularly  m  view  the  two  great  the  Halaka  it  was  that  so  "fenced  about  the  Law"  as 
Doctors  Hillel  and  Shammai,  always  designated  by  to  render  it  impossible;  the  other,  the  Hagada,  was 
their  unqualified  proper  names:  the  successors  of  illustrative  and  practical,  ^bracing  innumerable 
Hillel,  as  GamalieL  were  titled  Rabban,  and  so  also  legends  and  allegories  intended  to  illustrate  and  en- 
was  by  exception  Johanan  ben  Zakkai:  Palestinian  large  Biblical  history,  but  in  reality  obscuring  it  in  a 
doctors  are  commonly  known  as  Rabbi  So-andnso,  maze  of  idle  and  fanciful  inventions.  Hillel  is  credited 
yet  Rabbi  Judas  the  Saint,  who  composed  the  Mishna,  with  having  codified  the  rules  of  the  Halaka;  his  orig- 
is  not  infrequently  called  merely  Rabbi  (par  ex-  inal  seven  rules  were  later  on  enlarged  to  thirteen  by 
cellence);  in  the  same  manner,  Rab,  without  the  R.  Israel.  Some  of  these  rules  are  excellent,  as  when, 
proper  name,  designates  Abba  Arika  (d.  a.  d.  247),  the  for  instance,  it  is  stated  that  the  meaning  of  a  word  is 
founder  of  the  School  of  Sora,  while  Rab  is  the  title  determined  by  the  context,  and  the  sentence  by  the 
prefixed  to  the  names  of  the  Amoras  of  Babylon.  scope  of  the  passage  (rule  12);  others,  good  m  them- 
The  Law,  of  course,  must  be  the  exclusive  study  of  selves,  do  not  sufficiently  take  into  account  the  vast 
a  Rabbi,  as  it  is  the  one  source  of  religious  knowledge,  differences  of  times  which  separate  the  inspired  writers 
the  perfect  embodiment  of  the  will  of  God,  and  the  and  the  dissimilar  religious  and  social  conditions 
people's  sole  binding  rule  of  daily  Ufe.  But  the  Law  which  prevailed  at  different  periods;  others,  finally,  are 
does  not  cover  explicitly  every  possilble  case:  yet,  as  it  the  ejcpression  of  a  somewhat  fallacious  mode  of 
is  a  Divinely-given  Law,  it  must,  in  the  mind  of  the  reasoning.  As  a  whole  the  Halaka  is  an  artificial 
learned  Rabbi,  participate  in  the  infinitude  of  the  system,  jaundiced  by  its  evident  purpose  to  offer  the 
Divine  Lawgiver;  therefore,  not  only  the  sentences  means  of  engrafting  the  tradition  on  the  stem  of 
but  the  individual  words,  even  the  number  of  letters.  Scripture  (Mielziner).  The  Hagada  method,  still 
nay  more,  the"  jote  and  tittles",  must  convey  a  mean-  more  extravagant,  was  elaborated  by  R.  Eliezer  into 
ing,  since  God  willed  every  one  of  them,  and  since  in  thirty-two  rules,  on  which  it  is  useless  to  dwell  at  any 
all  that  He  does  He  acts  for  a  reason:  thus  does  the  length. 

Law  apply  itself  to  all  possible  occurrences.     Hence  Prom  the  Halaka  and  Hagada  were  subsequently  de-' 

arose  in  the  schools  that  immen.se  mass  of  inferential  rived  the  Peshat,  or  determination  of  the  literal  sense, 

teaching  deduced  from  the  WTitten  word  according  and  the  Sodhj  or  determination  of  the  mystical  or  alle- 

to  the  rules  of  a  special  process  of  reasoning,  handed  gorical  sense.   The  Peshat,  used  in  ancient  times  only 


1  the  TftTgum  of  Onkeloa   and  the   Greek  n 


a  an  apothecary,  aa- 


among  the  Q^iraites.  The  Sodh  first  found  favour 
among  the  Eesenee  and  the  Zealots,  but  attained  its 
full  development  only  in  the  Kabbaliatii  ' 


A  of  the  natural  evolution  of  the  Hagada,  make 

'  evident  the  falsity  of  the  fMinciplee  underlying  the 
method  of  Rabbinical  exegesis. 

BmioOB.  Otnrral  fnlniducfian  U  At  Sludg  0/  Holv  Smfkuri 
(Ediaburih,  ISSe):  Edibshcik.  Lifi  and  TiintM  nf  Jeiut.  Iht 
ifanili:BTtmuDos.  Jtrat^m  and  Tibtriat.  Stmt  anJ  ConJina 
(ISM):  MrBUtHia.  falrodwti'Ji  la  ih>  Talmui  (Cmriniuii,  ISiU) ; 
Chixim,  Ia  Talmud  dt  Bibt/lott.  I  (L«ipi«,  1831);  L^iuhinos. 
Lt  ifHrianvHiH  dm  la  Jui/t  (Pki^  llMai;  SnrTTx,  La  idfH 
-  "  '    -        1  PaltiHn*  d  Vtpv        '     ■'-■"■      ■" —     ■   -  - 


. ,  lem):  II,  isw;  Idbu.  Ow  a^^  dv  Pjja*. 

tUiKluit  Amorttr.  I  (13B21;  II  (1S98);  III  (13B9}:  Ideu.  />•• 
Agada  dtr  Babi/biaU^n  Amorair  (187(1):  Hadsiuth,  Die  Ztil 
ChriHi  (HsldelMra.  ISii-Tit:  ScsObeb.  GhcA.  da  JudiKAin 
KuUu  imZrilailf  Juu  ChriiH.  II  (L«pii(),  i:  Wibes.  SuiUm- 
dm-  AUii/taaaaal€ii  FalUHiitehea  Thsol-vit  (Lein^.  tSBO); 
Hill,  Dt  Hibrmnim  AiUiiu  iiu  ManMrii  (Jea&.  I74S): 
WlBMU.  XnMfuiloln  SOrworam  (f»ttin(ea.  1743). 

ClIARbBS    L.    Sou  VAT. 

Rabbulu,  Biaaop  of  Edessa,  in  the  later  years  of 
his  life  one  of  the  foremost  opponents  of  Nestoriin- 
ism,  was  the  son  of  a  heathen  priest  and  a  Cliristiun 
mother.  He  was  convertel  by  Eusebius,  Bishop  of 
Chalcis  (his  native  town),  and  Acacius,  Bishop  of 
Aleppo.  After  his  conversion  he  became  a  monk.  For 
a  time  he  was  a  devoted  admirer  of  Theodore  of 
Mopauestia,  but  there  was  ao.ne  quarrel,  the  details 
of  which  are  not  known,  and  Theodore  publicly  re- 
buked him  at  a  synod.  In  412  he  was  appomted 
Bishop  of  Edessa  and  died  in  435.  According  to  the 
anonymous  panegyrist  who  wrote  his  Life,  he  from 
the  first  took  a  decided  stani  agiinst  Neslorius  and 
denounced  the  hereaiarch  to  his  face.  At  the  Council 
of  EphesUH,  however,  he  was  on  the  side  of  John  of 
Antioch,  and  his  name  is  found  among  the  subscrin- 
tions  to  two  letters  (Labbe,  I,  p.  1S32  and  p.  1557)  in 
which  St.  Cyril's  doctrine  is  denounced  as  heretical. 
But  a  few  months  later  he  realised  that  St.  Cyril  was 
in  the  right,  and  became  his  most  uncompromising 
ally  against  Neetorianism.  His  task  was  not  an  easy 
one,  tor  his  diocese,  owing  chiefly  to  the  prestige  of 
Theodore  of  Mopauestia,  was  a  stronehold  of  Neatoi^ 
ianism.  The  leal  with  which  Rabbulaa  endeavoured 
to  suppress  Theodore's  writings  was  unfairly  attrib- 
uted by  Ibas,  in  his  letters  to  Maris,  to  personal 
rancour  against  the  memory  of  the  deceased  (Ibas' 
letter  was  read  at  the  Council  of  Chalcedpn  and  may 
be  found  in  Labbe,  Hardouin,  Mansi,  or  Hefele). 
Most  of  the  surviving  works  of  Rabbulas  were  pub- 
lished by  Overbeck  "S.  Ephrsmi  Syri  Rabula;  Episc. 
EdcBseni,  Balsei  alioruraque  opera  selecta"  (Oxford, 
1865).  Rabbulas'  Syrioc  translation  of  St.  Cyril's 
"De  Fide  Recta"  was  first  published  by  Philip  Pusey 
(Oxford,  1877).  Most  of  the  writings  of  Rabbulas 
were  translated  into  German  by  Bick^in  Thalhofer's 
"Bibliothek  der  Kirchenvater  .  According  to  Burk- 
itt,  "St.  Ephraim's  quotations  from  the  Gospel" 
(Cambridge  Texts  and  Studies,  VII,  2)  and  "Evan- 
gelion  Da  Mephareshe "  (Cambridge,  1901),  Rabbulaa 
was  the  author  of  the  Peshitto.  The  chief  authority 
(or  his  Life  is  an  anonymous  panegyric  composed 
soon  after  his  death  by  a  cleric  of  Edessa.  This  was 
published  by  Overbeck  and  translated  by  Bickell. 

.  Ddv»i,  La  liu.  ivriaipu  (Piirii.  18BB).  iai-2:  B*bi.bm- 
HiwEMr.ftiAnAH,  Pnnolow  {St.  Luuii,  1808),  MB-fl;  Vbsablbi 
in  OicL  CkriH.  Biaf.,  ..  v. 

F.  J.  Bacchcb. 

BftbeUla,  Francois.— The  life  of  this  celebrated 
French  writer  is  full  of  obscurities.  He  waa  bom 
tA  Chinon  in  Touraine  in  1483,  1490,  or  1495.    Ac- 


them  with  the  Franciscans  near  Angers.  He  be- 
came a  Franciscan  in  tie  convent  of  Gontenay-le- 
Comte,  where  he  remained  fifteen  years  and  received 
Holy  orders.  But  the  spirit  of  his  order  not  being 
favourable  to  the  studies  then  esteemed  by  the  Re- 
naissance and  for  which  he  himself  displayed  great 
aptitude,  he  left  the  convent.  Through  the  mediation 
of  Bishop  Geoffrey  d'Estissac  he  secured  pardon  from 
Clement  VII,  who  authorised  him  to  enter  the  Bene- 
dictine abbey  of  Muillezms,  In  1630  he  was  at 
Montpcllier  as  a  medical  student,  and  the  following 
year  professor  of 
anatomy  at  Lyons 
and  head  phy- 
sieian  at  the  hos- 

g'til  of  Pont-du- 
hflne.  At  Lyons 
he  waj  much  in 
the  society  of  Do- 
let  and  Morot,  and 
became  the  father 
of  a  i-liild  who 
dieil  young.  In 
1534  Cardinal  du 
Bellay    hrousht 


him 


jRomi 


physician,  and  in 
lo36  he  obtained 
from  Paul  111  an 
indult  which  ab- 
solved him  from 
his  infractions  of 
conventual    disci- 

Eline  and  allowed 
im  to  practise 
medicine.  The 
next  year  he  re- 
ceivecf  the  degree  olhiiwork. 

ofDuctorofMedicineatMontpelUer.  In  1540  the  pope 
permitte<l  him  to  abandon  the  conventual  life  and  to 
join  the  canons  of  SUMaur-les-FossSs.  He  took  ad- 
vantage of  this  to  resume  his  wandering  life.  In 
1541  he  was  at  Turin. as  phirsician  to  the  governor, 
Guillaume  du  Bellay.  Perhaps  through  fear  of 
prosecution  which  his  works  might  draw  upon  him 
he  went  in  1546  to  practise  medicine  at  MetZjWhere 
he  was  in  the  pay  of  the  city,  but  Cardinal  du  Bellay, 
being  again  sent  to  Rome,  induced  him  to  go  thither. 
Du  Bellay  returned  to  France  at  the  beginning  of 
1450  and  secured  for  him  the  benefices  of  St-Mwlin 
de-Meudon  and  St-Christophe-du-Jambet,  both  of 
which  he  resigned  two  years  later,  after  havins,  it  is 
said,  fulfilled  his  duties  with  regularity  and  seri- 
ousness. He  died  most  probably  at  Paris  either, 
as  is  generally  thou^t,  in  1553,  or  in  1559.  State- 
ments regarding  his  last  moments  are  contradictory. 
Accordingto  some  he  died  as  a  free-thinker  and  jester, 
saying,  "Draw  the  curtain,  the  farce  is  played  out", 
according  to  others  his  end  was  Christian  and  edifying. 
Rabelais  wrote  various  works,  including  almanacs, 
but  he  was  chiefly  known  tor  the  celebrated  romance 
entitled,  "La  Vie  de  Gaigantua  et  de  Pantagruel". 
This  work  comprises  four  books  which  appeared  from 
1532  (or  1533)  to  1552;  a  fifth,  the  most  daring  in  its 
ideas,  appeared  after  the  death  of  ita  author  (1562- 
64);  it  IS  not  certain  that  it  is  his.  This  history  of 
giants  is  a  chaos  wherein  are  found  learning,  elo- 
quence, coarse  humour,  and  extravagances.  It  is  im- 
possible to  analyseit. 

Rabelais  was  a  revolutionary  who  attacked  all  the 
past.  Scholasticism,  the  monks;  his  relieion  is  scarcely 
more  than  that  of  a  spiritual-minded  pagan.  Less 
bold  in  political  matters,  he  cared  little  for  liberty:, 
his  ideal  was  a  tyrant  who  loves  peace.     Uia  strange 


RACCOLTA 


620 


RACE 


fictions  seem  to  be  a  veil  behind  which  he  conceals 
his  ideas,  fof  he  desires  his  readers  to  imitate  the  dog 
to  whom  a  bone  has  been  thrown  and  who  must 
break  it  in  order  to  reach  the  marrow.  But  many  of 
his  gigantic  buffooneries  were  merely  the  satisfaction 
of  a  vast  humour  and  a  boundless  imagination.  He 
took  pleasure  in  the  worst  obscenities.  His  vocabu- 
lary is  rich  and  picturesque,  but  licentious  and  filthy. 
In  short,  as  La  Bru^^re  says:  ''His  book  is  a  riddle 
which  may  be  considered  inexplicable.  Where  it  is 
bad  it  is  beyond  the  worst;  it  has  the  charm  of  the 
rabble;  where  it  is  good  it  is  excellent  and  exauisite; 
it  may  be  the  daintiest  of  dishes."  As  a  whole  it 
exercises  a  baneful  influence. 

Ed.  Mabtt-Layeaux,  0pp.  (Paris,  1872);  Stapfkr«  Rabelais 
(PariB,  1889). 

Georges  Bertrin. 

*  Baccolta  (Ital.,  "a  collection"),  a  book  contain- 
ing prayers  and  pious  exercises  to  which  the  popes 
have  attached  indulgences.  The  full  title  of  the  last 
official  edition  is:  ''Kaccolta  di  orazioni  e  pie  opere^ 
per  le  quali  sono  state  concesse  dai  Sommi  Ponteflci 
le  SS.  Indulgenze"  (Rome,  1898).  The  Raccolta 
was  first,  published  at  Rome  in  1807  by  Telesfqro 
Galli,  one  of  the  consultors  of  the  Congregation  of 
Indulgences.  In  the  sixth  edition  there  is  printed  a 
Decree,  dated  30  Nov.,  1825,  which  recognizes  the 
indulgences  as  authentic,  and  in  the  eleventh — the  last 
published  by  Canon  Galli — there  is  a  Decree,  dieted 
13  Nov.,  1843,  which  approves  the  Raccolta  as 
^'prselaudatum  opus  omnious  Christifidelibus  vivis 
atque  defunctis  maxime  perutile".  Two  new  edi- 
tions were  published  by  Aloysius  Prinzivalli,  sub- 
stitute secretary  of  the  congregation,  and  were 
specially  approved  by  a  Decree  of  15  Dec.,  1854. 
The  editions  of  1877,  1886,  and  1898  are  the  official 
publications  of  the  Sacred  Congregation  of  Indul- 
gences and  Hol^  Relics  (see  Roman  Curia).  The 
Raccolta  contains,  arranged  in  convenient  order, 
the  prayers,  novenas,  pious  practices,  etc.  to  which 
general  indulgences  have  been  attached,  as  well  as 
the  decrees  and  rescripts  granting  the  indulgences, 
and  the  conditions  requisite  for  gaining  them.  All 
the  indulgences  contamed  in  the  Raccolta  are  ap- 
plicable to  the  souls  in  purgatory.  It  is  forbidden 
to  publish  a  translation  of  the  entire  Raccolta  without 
the  approval  of  the  Roman  congregation  (Decret. 
auth.,  nn.  361,  415).  There  is  an  approved  edition 
of  the  Raccolta  in  English,  especially  adapted  for  the 
use  of  the  faithful. 

Deereta  aulhentica  (Ratisbon,  1883);  Collection  dea  dicreU 
arttheniiqtie*  de»  aacries  eonffrSffotiong  romaine*  (Paria,  1868); 
Bbringer,  Die  Ablditse,  ihr  Weaen  und  Gebraufih  (Paderbom, 
1900;  French  tr.,  Paria,  1905) ;  Maurel,  The  Christian  Instnuted 
in  the  Nature  and  Use  of  IndulgenceSj  tr.  (1875) ;  The  New  Raccolta 
(Philadelphia,  1900). 

F.  X.  Dblant. 

Race,  Human. — Mankind  exhibits  differences  which 
have  been  variously  interpreted.  Some  consider 
them  so  great  that  they  regard  the  varieties  of  the 
human  race  as  distinct  species;  others  maintain  the 
unity  of  the  human  race,  looking  upon  the  differ- 
ences as  not  sufficiently  great  to  constitute  different 
species.  The  apparently  unlimited  fertility  of  crossed 
races  is  a  fact  in  favour  of  the  unity  of  mankind. 
The  diversities  are  indeed  only  quantitative,  the 
difference  between  the  most  opposite  varieties  (e. 
g.  the  darkest  blacks  and  the  lightest  whites)  being 
.  bridged  over  bv  numerous  intermediate  stages.  The 
unity  of  mankind  is  moreover  supported  by  the 
intellectual  similarity  apparent  between  the  most 
primitive  savages  and  the  representatives  of  the 
nicest  culture.  The  various  types  of  human  beings 
now  living  are  only  different  races.  G.  Schwalbe 
thou^t  that  the  primitive  Quaternary  type  of  man 
with  the  prominent  bridges,  low  braincap,  chinless 
Jower  jaw,  etc.   (the  homo  primigenius),   must  be 


distinguished  as  a  separate  species  from  the  homo 
sapiens.  The  peculiarities  of  this  homo  primigenius, 
he  clauned,  did  not  fall  within  tiie  limits  of  the 
variations  of  the  homo  sapient.  However,  the  re- 
searches of  H-  Klaatsch,  especially  his  investigation 
of  the  skulls  of  the  aboriginal  Australians,  gAiow  that 
the  same  peculiarities  are  to  be  found  even  in  men  now 
Uving.  Consequently,  the  homo  primigenius  is  simply 
one  of  the  races  of  mankind,  although  a  primitive 
one. 

The  physical  differences  found  in  the  human  race 
may  be  grouped  together  into  basic  types  or  "races  ", 
which  are  divided  further  into  sub-races.  Another 
grouping  is  into  "nations''  and  "tribes'',  which  mav 
be  described  as  poUtical  units  of  men  of  like  speech 
and  customs.  The  investigation  of  physical  dif- 
ferences is  the  task  of  anthropology  (the  science  of 
man),  whose  duty  it  is  to  establish  numerically  in  the 
most  exact  manner  possible  the  conspicuous  differ- 
ences between  the  fundamental  types  and  between  the 
mixed  races  arising  from  them.  A  number  of  meth- 
ods may  be  used  to  attain  this  end.  The  method 
of  height  and  measurement  aims  at  expressing  math- 
ematically the  differences  in  size,  whether  of  the  whole 
body  or  of  its  parts.  The  ratio  of  the  different 
measurements  is  computed,  thus  obtaining  relative 
measurements  or  indices,  and  the  angles  which  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  body  form  with  one  another  are 
determmed.  For  this  purpose  the  greatest  possible 
number  of  individuals  of  a  race  are  measur^;  the 
average  of  the  results  is  regarded  as  the  expression 
of  the  racial  peculiarity,  or  the  results  are  represented 
in  the  form  of  curves  which  express  the  numerical 
values  derived  from  the  study  of  a  group.  As  ab- 
solute and  relative  measurements  alone  do  not  suf- 
fice to  determine  racial  peculiarities,  outline  drawings 
have  of  late  been  resorted  to,  and  the  forms  thus 
obtained  have  been  compared.  This  method  has  the 
advantage  that  all  possible  dimensions  and  angles  can 
be  measured  later  independently  of  the  object.  On 
these  outline  drawings  or  projections  H.  Klaatsch  con- 
structed triangles  and  quadrangles  (cranio-trigonome- 
try),  or  sought  to  define  the  curves  as  segments  of 
circles  (cyclography  of  the  skull). 

To  the  graphical  method  and  that  of  measurement 
should  also  be  added  the  description  of  morphological 
peculiarities.  The  most  striking  difference  ia  men  is 
that  of  stature.  Consequently,  it  has  been  attempted 
to  separate  races  into  groups  according  to  this  crite- 
rion. Even  in  Europe,  marked  differences  have  been 
shown  to  exist  between  the  tall  northern  peoples  of 
Scandinavia,  England,  and  North  Germany  on  the  one 
hand,  and  the  low  statured  peoples  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean (especially  the  Italians)  on  the  other.  In  other 
regions  also  tail  races  are  found,  e.  f.  the  Fuegians; 
other  races  are  distinguished  by  their  extremely  low 
stature,  e.  g.  the  Bushmen  of  Africa,  the  Lapps  of  the 
Arctic,  above  all  the  extremely  small  tribes  of  the  forests 
of  Central  and  Western  Africa  (stature  generally  under 
four  feet  eleven  inches),  who  are  now  grouped  together 
as  Pygmies,  and  the  natives  of  the  Andaman  Islands  in 
the  Bay  of  Bengal,  the  Semand  of  Malacca,  and  the 
Negrites  of  the  Philippines.  While  the  weight  of  the 
body,  depending  greatly  on  external  causes,  is  not 
serviceable  for  mfferentiation,  the  proportions  of  the 
body  on  the  other  hand  vary  in  different  races.  The 
primitive  races  are  characterized  in  particular  by  a 
short  trunk,  long  arms,  and  long  legs,  in  contrast  to 
the  civiliz^  peoples,  who  have  a  long  trunk,  short 
arms,  and  short  legs.  The  differences,  however,  are 
not  greater  than  those  between  members  of  different 
classes  in  one  and  the  same  people,  as  J.  Ranke  has 
proved.  G.  Fritsch  made  use  of  the  length  of  the 
spinal  column  for  the  comparison  of  the  bodily  pro- 
portions (moduliLs).  In  this  way  he  constructed  a 
canon  or  general  rule,  which  Stratz  utilized  in  com- 
paring various  peoples:  the  white  race  has  the  pro- 


\ 


RACE                                  621  RACE 

portions  of  the  canon,  the  Fuegians  undue  length  of  In  the  comparison  of  crania,  especially  of  the  ratios 

the  arms,  the  negro  undue  length  of  all  four  extremi-  of  angles,  it  is  necessary  to  place  the  skull  in  a  definite 

ties,  ana  the  (jninese  deficient  length  of  all  four  position.     To  attain  this,  various  methods  have  been 

extremities.  used  besides  the  German  horizontal  plane  already 

As  regards  the  skeleton  the  attempt  was  made,  in  mentioned.     G.    Schwalbe    has   recentl>r   used   the 

the  first  place,  to  determine  racial  peculiarities  by  the  glabella^inion  line  (glabella,  the  central  point  between 

study  of  the  skull.    The  length,  breadth,  and  height  the  arches  of  the  eyebrows :  inion,  the  protuberance  of 

of  the  cranium  were  determined,  and  from  these  were  the  occiput  at  the  median  line)  for  the  comparison  of 

calculate   the   length-breadth^    length-height,    and  the   brainpans   at   the   sagittal   sutures,    while   H. 

breadth-height   indices — that   is,    the   breadth   and  Klaatsch  nas  returned  to  the  glabellsrlambda  line 

height  were  expressed  as  percentages  of  the  length  or  formerly  proposed  by  Hamy  (lambda,  the  point  of 

breath.    According  to  the  Frankfort  Agreement  of  union  of  the  lambdoid  and  sagittal  sutures).    In  the 

1882  skulls  are  divided  into  narrow  or  dolichocephalic  first  case  the  height  of  the  cap  (the  distance  of  the 

(up  to  74-9),  medium  or  mesocephalic  (75-0  to  79-9),  highest  point  from  the  glabellarinion  line),  the  height 

and  broad  or  brachycephalic  (over  80*0) ;  and  further  of  the  bregma  (the  linear  distance  of  the  bregma  from 

into  low  or  chama&cepnalic  (up  to  70-0),  medium  or  the  point  of  comparison,  i.  e.  the  distance  between 

orthocephalic  (70*1  to  75*0),  and  high  or  hypsicephalic  the  point  of  intersection  of  the  coronal  and  sagittal 

(over  75-0).    According  to  the  international  agree-  sutures  by  the  glabella^-inion  line),  and  their  ratios  to 

ment  of  1883  the  following  desi^ations  were  added  the  glabella-inion  line  (which  is  taken  as  100),  can  be 

to  those  already  in  use:  ultradohchocephalic  (55*0  to  determined.    On  this  line  Schwalbe  traced  the  frontal 

59-9)    hyperdolichocephalic    (60*0   to   64*9),    hyper-  angle  (that  between  the  tangent  of  the  frontal  bone  at 

brachycephalic  (85*0  to  89-9)  and  ultrabrachycephalic  the  glabella  and  the  glabelia-inion  line),  the  bregma 

(90-0  to  94*9).    The  French  call  skulls  with  a  length-  angle    (brcgrna-glabeUa-inion) ;    the    lambda    angle 

breaidth  index  of  75*01  to  77*77  subdolichocephalic,  of  (lambda-iniori-glabella) ;  the  opisthion  angle  (glabella- 

80*01  to  83*33  subbrachycephalic;  only  the  indices  inion-opisthion;  the  opisthion  is  the  posterior  border 

77*78  to  80*0  are  looked  upon  by  them  as  mesocephalic.  of  the  occipital  foramen).     Schwalbe  also  determined 

For  the  front  of  the  skull  the  criteria  used  in  deter-  the  position  of  the  bregma  (distance  of  the  base  point 

mining  the  peculiarities  of  a  race  are  the  height  and  of  the  bregma-verticals  from  the  glabella)  and  the 

breadth,  the  facial  angle,  and  the  form  of  the  nostrils,  index  of  this  position  to  the  glabeUa-inion  line,  the 

orbital   entrance,    and  palate.    The   ratios   of   the  glabella^erebral  index  (ratio  of  the  tendon  of  the 

breadth  of  the  zygomatic  arch  (supposing  it  equal  to  glabella  arch  to  the  tendon  of  the  arch  of  the  fronted 

100)  to  the  height  of  the  entire  face  (from  the  nasion  bone).    The  other  bones  of  the  skeleton  were  not 

to  the  gnathion),  and  to  the  height  of  the  upper  face  made  the  object  of  exhaustive  study  until  more 

(from  the  nasion  to  the  prosthion),  give  facial  indices  recent  times.     Particular  mention  should  be  made,  as 

which  are  divided  by  R.  Martin  into  the  following  important  in  the  comparative  anatomy  of  races,  of 

groups:   (1)   Index  for  the  entire  face:  hypereury-  the  cross-section  of  the  diaphysis  of  the  long  bones,  and 

prosopous  (to  79*9),  euryprosopous  (80*0  to  84*9),  of  the  position  of  the  epiphyses  to  the  diaphysis. 

mesoprosopous  (85-0  to  89*9),  leptoprosopous  (90-0  to  Not  only  the  structure  of  the  skeleton,  but  also  the 

94*9),  hyperleptoprosopous  (over  95*0).     (2)  Index  musculation  and  the  general  formation  of  the  soft 

for  ^e  upper  face:  hypereuryonic  (to  44*9),  euryonic  parts  are  taken  into  consideration.    As  regards  the 

(45*0  to  49*9),  mesial  (50*0  to  54*9),  leptous  (55*0  to  musculation  attention  is  given  especially  to  the  vari- 

59*9),   hjrperleptous    (over   60*0).    The   expressions  eties  found  in  the  face;  measuring  the  tmckness  of  the 

euryprosopous    and    euryonic    correspond    to    the  soft  paHs  of  the  face  (by  piercing  with  needles  such 

chamfficonchous  of  the  Frankfort  Agreement;  leptous  parts  in  fresh  or  preserved  cadavers)  also  yields  good 

is  the  same  as  leptoprosopous.    According  to  the  results,  when  there  are  sufficient  subjects  for  investiga- 

Frankfort  Agreement  the  orbits  are  chamseconchous  tion.     Apparently,  the  flat,  broad  face  of  the  Mongol 

(to  80*0),  mesoconchous  (80*1  to  85*0),  hjrpsiconchous  is  mainly  conditioned  by  the  great  thickness  of  the 

(over  85*0);  the  nostrils  are  leptorhine   (to  47*0),  soft  parts  in  the  region  of  the  cheek.    Racial  difFer- 

mesorhine  (47*1  to  51*0),  platyrhine  (51*1  to  58*0),  ences  are  also  shown  by  the  nose.    The  nose  of 

h3rperplatyrhine    (over  ^*0);   the   palate  is  lepto-  Europeans  and  Asiatic  Indians  is  long,  narrow,  with 

staphyline  (to  80*0),  mesostaphvline  (80-0  to  85*0),  a  more  or  less  decided  projection;  the  roots  are  high 

brachystaphyline  (over  85*0).    The  facial  part  of  the  and  narrow,  the  back  straight  or  convex,  the  wings  are 

skull  with  a  facial  angle  up  to  82    is  called  prog-  appressed,  the  nostrils  set  vertically  to  the  upper  lip, 

nathous;  with  an  angle  of  83   to  90,  orthognathous;  the  elevation  (that  is  the  height  of  the  point  above  the 

with  an  angle  of  91    and  over,  hyperorthognathous.  lip)  relatively  large.    According  to  Topinard's  theory 

By  facial  angle  is  meant  that  formed  by  the  line  con-  noses  are  divided  into  aquiline,  straight,  flat,  hooked, 

necting  the  naso-frontal  suture  and  the  point  farthest  and  Semitic  noses.    The  nose  of  the  aboriginsu  Austra- 

forward  on  the  upper  jaw  between  the  central  incisors  lians  is  poorly  developed;  it  does  not  project,  the 

(the  alveolar  pomt)   with   the  German   horizontal  roots  are  low  and  broad,  the  back  broad  and  rather 

plane.    The  German  horizontal  plane  passes  through  concave,  the  wings  decidedly  projecting;  the  nostrils 

the  lowest  point  of  the  under  edge  of  the  orbits  and  the  lie  parallel  to  the  upper  lip,  and  the  elevation  is  slight, 

upper  edge  of  the  ear-aperture.     Besides  these  in-  There  are  a  large  number  of  intermediate  forms  be- 

dices,  to  which  eorrespona  groups  more  or  less  gener-  tween  these  extreme  ones  (e.  g.  according  to  Topinard, 

ally  recognized,  other  points  of  importance  for  the  the  Mongoloid,  negroid,  and  Australioia).    The  roots 

shape  of  the  braincap  and  the  facial  part  of  the  skull  of  the  nose  may  enter  the  forehead  without  depre»- 

are:  the  ratio  of  the  greatest  breadth  of  the  braincap  sion,  by  a  sharp  bend,  or  in  a  flat  curve.    The  region 

to  the  smallest  frontS  breadth  (smallest  distance  be-  above  the  orbits  and  between  the  borders  of  the 

tween  the  temporal  lines  over  the  zygomatic  process  orbits  varies.    Either  the  entire  part  projects  in  a 

of  the  frontal  bone);  also  the  ratio  of  the  breadth  of  ridge  (brow  ridges,  torus  supraorbitalis),  or  only  the 

the  zygoma  to  the  smallest  breadth  of  the  forehead,  glabella,  that  is  the  prominent  part  of  the  forehead 

and  to  the  breadth  of  the  face  at  the  two  angles  of  the  just  above  the  root  oi  the  nose,  seems  to  be  curved, 

lower  jaw.    At  the  base  of  the  skull  measurements  can  or  projections  arise  from  a  somewhat  depressed  gla- 

be  taken  of  the  angle  formed  by  the  plane  of  the  oc-  bella  and  extend  to  about  the  middle  of  the  upper 

cipital  foramen  wi^h  the  German  horizontal  plane,  orbital  border,  the  sections  on  the  sides  being  them 

and  of  the  angle  formed  by  this  German  plane  with  flat  {planum  supraorbitale).    The  forehead  is  either 

the  surface  between  the  occipital  foramen  and  the  flat  and  receding,  or  is  full,  domed,  and  rises  more  or 

spheno-basilar  joint.  less  abruptly.    The  position  of  the  sockets  of  the 


HACE 


622 


&ACE 


eyes  is  horizontal  in  the  white  race  and  inclines  ob- 
liquely upwards  in  Mongols;  in  the  latter  case  the 
lacrimal  caruncle  is  generally  not  free,  but  is  covered 
by  a  fold  that  inclines  downward  in  a  curve  (the 
Mongolian  fold).  In  the  same  way  the  edge  of  the 
Mongolian  eyelid,  which  in  other  cases  is  me,  gen- 
erally lies  under  a  transverse  fold.  The  forms  of  the 
ear  and  mouth  are  less  used  as  racial  characteristics. 
They  display  only  individual  variations,  although  a 
peciiliarity  of  the  negro  race  is  the  great  protrusion 
and  thickness  of  the  Bps. 

Especially  important  for  the  differentiation  of 
races  are  the  colour  of  the  eyes  and  skin,  and  the 
form  and  colour  of  the  hair.  The  colour  of  these 
parts  of  the  body  is  conditioned  by  a  brownish  pig- 
ment, on  the  amount  and  seat  of  which  the  shade  of 
colour  depends.  Eyes  are  called  blue  and  blue-grey 
when  onl)r  the  black  layers  of  the  iris  contain  the  pig- 
ment, which  appears  blue  through  the  cloudy  outer 
layers  of  tissue.  If  the  other  layers  of  the  iris  also 
contain  pigment,  the  eye  appears  from  light  to  dark 
brown.  The  pupils  are  like  a  dark  circle,  the  blood- 
vessels of  the  retina  appearing  red  only  in  albinos 
(persons  with  very  little  or  no  pigment).  The  other 
parts  of  the  eye  also  contain  more  or  less  pigment. 
The  pigment  of  the  skin  is  found  chiefly  in  the  epi- 
dermis; in  new-bom  children  of  coloiured  races  (at 
times  also  in  whit«  infants),  as  the  Mongolians  and 
negro,  piginent  in  the  true  skin  or  corium  produces 
blue  spots  in  the  region  of  the  loins,  called  the  blue 
Mongolian  spot.  In  hair  the  homy  outer  portion  is 
the  main  seat  of  the  pigment.  Besides  the  amount 
of  air  in  the  hair  is  also  of  importance;  hair  con- 
taining a  great  amount  of  air  (appearance  of  age) 
looks  grey  or  white,  this  condition  being  usually  ao- 
companiea  by  a  disappearance  of  the  nAir-pigment. 
Hair  is  divided  as  to  colour  into  flaxen,  light  brown, 
black,  red,  and  ^y;  it  is  lank,  smooth,  wavy,  or 
curty.  Lank  hair  generally  shows  a  round  cross- 
section,  and  curly  an  oval  one;  there  are  other  dross- 
sections  (e.  g.  the  reniform  or  elliptical).  In  the 
same  individual  the  eyes,  hair,  and  skin  may  be  of 
different  colours.  Blue  eyes,  flaxen  hair,  and  white 
skin  constitute  the  blonde  type;  brown  eyes,  brown 
hair,  and  dark  skin  make  the  brunette  type.  Between 
these  two  tvpes  are  all  possible  variations  and  mixtures. 

Although  the  human  race  must  be  regarded  as  a 
unit  intelTectualhr  and  physically,  there  have  existed 
and  still  exist  differences  which  permit  a  classification 
into  various  groups  and  races.  Even  the  most  an- 
cient remains  of  man,  dating  from  the  glacial  period 
in  Europe,  show  differences  that  justify  the  accepta- 
tion of  at  least  two  races.  Remains  of  skeletons  that 
certainly  belong  to  the  Quaternary  age  have  been 
found  in  France,  Germany,  and  Austria.  The  shape 
of  the  crania  found  at  Spy,  Krapina,  La  Chapelle 
aux  Saintes,  Le  Moustier,  etc..  resembles  that  of 
the  skull  discovered  at  Neandertal,  the  geological 
stratification  of  which  is  uncertain.  These  remains 
can  be  grouped  together  as  the  '' Neandertal  race", 
which  had  a  long,  narrow,  low  skull  with  very 
retreating  forehead,  enormous  brow  ridges  (torus 
supraorbitalis),  powerful  masticating  apparatus,  up- 
per jaw  without  the  fosace  caninoB^  heavy  under  jaw 
with  broad  ascending  branch,  no  chin,  and  chin  part 
with  an  outward  convex  curve.  Some  of  these 
characteristics  are  still  to  be  found  among  the 
Eskimo  and  aborigii^al  Australians.  The  bones  of 
the  skeletons  indicate  a  bulkv,  relatively  low-sized 
frame.  The  gait  was  upright^  but  it  would  seem  with 
knees  somewhat  bent.  Variations  existed  even  in 
this  era.  The  Krapina  remains  belong  to  crania 
somewhat  broader  than  do  the  remains  of  the  Nean- 
dertal race  of  Western  Europe.  The  strata  in  which 
the  remains  of  the  skeletons  were  found  must  be  re- 
garded as  belonging  to  the  last  warm  intermediate 
period  (or  the  last  glacial  period),  and  were  found 


with  remains  of  the  early  Palsolithic  period,  tlie 
stage  of  civilization  represented  by  the  Saint-Acheul 
and  Le  Moustier  remains.    During  the  glacial  period, 
particularly  during  the  late  Paleolithic  period  (as 
represented   by   the   remains   found   at   Aurignac, 
Soiutr^.  and  La  Madeleine),  human  beines  of  a  dif- 
ferent form  existed.    Their  remains,  as  moee  found 
at  Laugerie-Basse,  Chancelade,  Mentone,  and  Combe- 
Capelle,  may  be  grouped   tojgether  as   the  '*  Cro- 
Magnon  Race".    Tne  peculiarities  of  the  Neandertal 
race  are  not  to  be  found;  the  generally  long  dolicho- 
cephalic crania  have  a  good  vault,  ana  are  relatively 
high  without  great  brow  ridges;   the  apparatus  for 
mastication  is  less  powerful;   the  upper  jaw  contains 
plainljr  fossoe  canina;   the  under  jaw  is  less  massive, 
the  chin  being  fine  and  projecting.    In  the  structure 
of  the  cranium  the  Cro-Magnon  race  on  the  whole 
resembled  the  modem  European.    Local  variations 
are  recognizable.    It  is  not  impossible  Uiat  both 
diluvial  races  lived  at  the  same  era,  so  that  crossings 
appeared,  as  would  seem  the  case  from  the  skuDs 
found  at  Galley  Hill  and  at  Briinn.    The  bones  of  the 
skeletons  indicate  a  higher  stature.    Variations  with 
a  broader  skull  appeared  in  Europe  very  soon  af  t«r 
this,  if  not  along  with  the  long-skulled  Cro-Magnon 
race  in  the  diluvian  epoch,  so  that  the  present  dif- 
ferent shapes  of  crania  found  in  Europe  seem  to  ^o 
back  to  the  earliest  era.    Schliz  ascertamed  two  mam 
forms  of  crania  in  the  remains  found  in  a  layer  of  the 
Ofnet  cave  near  Ndrdlingen  (Bavaria)  belonging  to 
the  transition  period  between  the  Quaternary  and 
the  present  geological  era:  one  was  a  low,  short 
skull  and  the  other  a  moderately  high,  long  skull, 
both  with  a  low,  broad  face.    Tnese  skulls  recall, 
on  one  hand,  the  form  of  the  skull  of  the  homo 
alpiniu.  and,  on  the  other,  the  structure  of  the  skull 
of  the  later  lake-dwellers  and  of  the  Mediterranean 
type. 

While  in  the  course  of  the  prehistoric  epochs  in 
Europe  the  variations  in  the  form  of  the  skull  mul- 
tiplied, Schliz  believes  that  the  various  prehistoric 
ages  (Stone  age.  Bronze  age,  Iron  age)  show  races  wiUi 
well-defined  forms  of  the  skull.  At  present  time  the 
European,  of  all  the  branches  of  nuuikind,  has  been 
the  most  thoroughly  investigated  anthropologi- 
cally. Notwithstanding  the  crossings  which  have  oc- 
curred continuously  for  centuries^  certain  groups  with 
definite  somatological  peculiarities  are  recognizable. 
Stature,  the  shape  of  the  skull,  and  the  colour  of  the 
complexion  have  been  taken  as  the  criteria  of  these 
groups.  According  to  this  classification  there  is  in 
the  interior  of  Europe,  in  Alpine  territory,  a  brunette 
population  of  medium  stature  and  with  a  broad  head; 
towards  the  north  the  crania  are  narrower,  the  colour 
of  the  skinf,  hair,  and  eyes  is  lighter,  the  stature  is 
higher;  towards  the  south  the  stature  decreases,  the 
complexion  is  darker,  but  the  skull  in  the  south,  as 
in  the  north,  is  narrower  than  in  the  case  of  the 
first-named  class.  Starting  from  the  north  to  the 
south,  Ripley  names  these  three  types:  (1)  Teutonic 
race:  long  head  and  face,  very  light  hair,  blue  eyes, 
high  stature,  narrow  and  partly  curved  nose;  (2) 
Alpine  race:  round  head,  broad  face,  light  chestnut 
brown  hair,  nut-brown  eyes,  robust  meoium  stature, 
variable  but  generally  broaa,  strong  nose;  (3)  Medi- 
terranean race:  long  head,  long  face,  hair  dark- 
brown  to  black,  dark  eyes,  medium  to  small  stature, 
rather  broad  nose.  Between  these  pure  types  there 
are  innumerable  crossing). 

It  is  exceedingly  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to 
include  the  various  races  of  mankind  in  one  system. 
All  attempts  made  hitherto  contain  certain  aefects 
which  are  perhaps  imavoidable.  Liniueus  sought  to 
establish  tne  characteristic  phjrsical  and  intellectual 
peculiarities  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  four  quarters 
of  the  globe  then  known.  Later  investigators  have 
selected  one  or  a  few  peculiarities  of  the  body  (e.  g. 


RACE 


623 


RACE 


the  shape  of  the  cranium  or  hair,  the  colour  of  the 
skin)  as  the  principle  of  olassification^  or  have  used 
a  combination  of  several  characteristics.  Finally 
ethnological  peculiarities  (especially  the  lan^age  and 
de^e  of  civilization)  were  invoked  for  aid  m  charac- 
terization. Linnaeus  differentiated  four  varieties  of 
the  homo  diumus  (a  sub-division  of  the  homo  sapiens) : 
(1)  American;  (2)  European;  (3)  Asiatic;  (4) 
African.  Not  only  were  the  colour  of  the  skin  and 
eyes,  the  colour  and  form  of  the  hair,  and  the  form 
of  the  nose  used  as  criteria  of  these  four  divisions, 
but  the  different  temperaments  of  the  four  races  were 
also  distinguished,  otner  criteria  being  their  peculiari- 
ties of  character,  mode  Of  dress,  and  whether  the  in- 
dividual races  were  governed  by  customs,  laws,  be- 
liefs, or  arbitrary  rule. 

Blumenbach  already  attempted  to  group  the  races 
of  mankind  on  the  basis  of  purely  somatological 
peculiarities,  selecting  five  t3rpical  forms  of  the  cra- 
nium as  the  criteria  of  the  five  races  of  men.  He  took 
as  the  normal  type  the  skull  of  the  Caucasian  race, 
which  is  distinguished  by  harmony  of  the  individual 
parts,  none  being  unduly  prominent:  with  roundness 
(mesocephaly)  are  united  a  massive  high  forehead, 
narrow  cheek-bones,  round  alveolar  arch,  and  an 
orthognathous  upper  jaw.  To  the  Caucasian  type 
belong:  Europeans  (except  the  Lapps  and  Finns), 
Western  Asiatics,  and  North  Africans.  Around  this 
type  are  groupea  the  others,  which  are  related  both 
to  it  and  one  another.  The  Mongolian  race  includes 
most  Asiatics,  the  Finnish  tribes,  the  Lapps  and  the 
Eskimo;  it  has  an  ahnost  square  skull  (exceedingly 
brachycephahc),  flat  nose,  flat  projecting  malar  bone, 
somewhat  broad  alveolar  arch,  and  projecting  chin. 
The  American  race  has  a  higher  forehead,  hij^ly 
developed  superciliary  arch,  deeply  simken  bridge 
of  the  nose,  cheek-bones  strongly  projecting  sidewards, 
and  high,  broad,  and  strons  lower  jaw.  In  this 
race  Blumenbach  included  all  aboriginal  Americans 
except  the  Eskimo.  The  skull  of  the  Malay  race  is 
brachy cephalic;  the  parietal  bones  project  strongly 
sidewards,  the  nose  and  cheek-bones  are  flat,  and 
the  upper  jaws  slightly  prognathous.  To  this  race 
belong  the  inhabitants  of  Malacca  in  Asia  and  the 
natives  of  the  islands  of  the  Pacific  and  Indian  Oceans. 
The  Ethiopian  race  includes  the  inhabitants  of  Africa 
except  the  Caucasian  Africans  in  the  north;  the 
skull  is  dolichocephalic,  the  forehead  full,  the  cheek- 
bones prominent,  the  nostrils  wide,  the  alveolar  arch 
narrow  and  prominent,  the  jaws  prognathous,  and 
the  lower  jaw  large  ana  strong.  Blumenbach  added 
to  these  craniological  criteria  others  of  a  general 
somatological  character,  deduced  from  the  observa- 
tion of  the  members  of  the  body,  chiefly  of  the  head 
and  its  parts.  Blumenbach's  classification  still  has 
adherents,  B.  P.  Ehrenreich,  for  example,  being  a 
vigorous  supporter  of  it.  He  adds  to  the  classifica- 
tion, however,  those  races  that  have  become  known 
or  at  least  better  known  since  Blumenbach's  time. 
These  are  mainly  the  blacks  of  Asia  and  the  aborigi- 
nal races  of  Australia  and  Oceania.  Accordmg  to 
Ehrenreich,  the  classification  is:  (1)  Caucasian- 
Mediterranean;  (2)  African-Nigritian;  (3)  Mongo- 
lian; (4)  American;  (5)  Malay  Polynesian;  (6) 
Australian.  In  addition  there  is  (7)  the  Papuans 
and  the  blacks  of  Asia,  including  the  Dravidians  and 
the  Kolarian  tribes  of  India,  whose  position  in 
Ehrenreich's  anthropological  system  must  still  be 
regarded  as  uncertain. 

Blumenbach's  classification  was  based  on  obser- 
vation and  description.  There  now  followed  a  series 
of  attempts  to  determine  the  different  tjrpes  by  meas- 
urements. For  the  determination  of  the  variations 
in  the  facial  part  of  the  skull  Camper  had  already 
settled  by  measurement  the  facial  angle,  that  is  the 
angle  made  by  the  profile  line  and  the  auriculo-sub- 
nasal  line  (the  line  from  the  ear  orifice  to  the  lowest 


part  of  the  nose).  A.  Retzius  introduced  the  word 
orthognathism  to  signify  an  almost  ri^ht  facial  angle 
(00°),  and  called  the  more  acute  facial  angle  prog- 
nathy.  Having  noticed  that  in  Sweden  the  Ger- 
mans had  narrow  skulls,  while  the  skulls  of  the  Lapps 
were  broad,  Retzius  sought  to  determine  th^  shapes 
mathematically  by  the  length-breadth  index.  He 
combined  the  groups  of  dolichocephalic  and  brachy- 
oephalic  crania  gamed  in  this  way  with  the  groups 
of  facial  angles,  and  thus  arrived  at  four  main  tvpes 
of  crania:  orthognathous  dolichocephalic,  orthog- 
nathous brachycephahc,  prognathous  dolichocepha- 
Uc,  and  prognathous  bracnycephalic.  However,  this 
classification  of  the  shapes  of  the  cranium  was  un- 
satisfactory, even  when  mesocephalic  crania  were 
separated  from  the  others,  since  the  various  forma 
appear  within  every  race,  although  perhaps  with  vary- 
ing frequency.  Welcker^s  investigations  proved  that 
crania  ranging  from  dolichocephalic  to  hyperbrachy- 
cephalic  are  Tound  in  the  Mediterranean,  Malayan, 
and  American  races;  the  Monoglians  appear  to  be 
rather  mesobrachycephalic  ^nd  hyperbrachycephalic, 
while  the  black  races  incline  more  to  dohchocephaly. 
J.  KoUmann  also  based  his  racial  classification  on 
the  shape  of  the  skull  and  face.  He  supposed  six 
sub-species:  chamsprosopous  dolichocephahc,  chamss- 
prosopous  mesocepnalio,  chamseprosopoua  brachyce- 
phalic,  leptoprosopous  dolichocephalic,  leptoproso- 
pous  mesocephalic,  leptoprosopous  brachycephalic. 
These  sub-species  have,  throu^  migrations  ana  pene- 
trations, spread  over  the  entire  world,  and  may  be 
grouped  into  eigjiteen  varieties  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  hair  (smooth,  bristly  or  coarse,  and 
woolly). 

Besides  the  shape  of  the  skull,  other  somatological 
pecuharities  have  been  emploved  by  P.  Topinard  in 
the  classification  of  races.  FoUowing  Cuvier's  classi- 
fication, he  takes  as  his  main  divisions  the  white, 
yellow,  and  black  races,  which  he  characterizes  mainly 
hy  the  shape  of  the  nose.  The  narrow-nosed  (leptor- 
hme)  white  race  has  wavy  hair  with  oval  cross- 
section.  Of  those  with  dolichocephalic  crania,  one 
division  is  blonde  and  large  (Anglo-Scandinavian  or 
Cymric) ;  another  large  with  red  hair  (first  type  of  the 
Finns)*;  a  third  brunette  and  relatively  small  ^Medi- 
terranean races) .  The  mesocephalic  t3rpe  with  orown 
hair  and  relatively  small  stature  b  foimd  in  the 
Semites  and  fkyptians.  The  brachycephahc  type  is 
composed  of  tne  little  Lapps  and  Ligurians  with 
brown  hair,  and  the  Celto^lavs  of  medium  height. 
The  yellow  race  with  nose  of  medium  width  (mesor- 
hine),  coarse,  straight  hair  of  round  crossHsection,  also 
contains  dolichocephalic,  mesocephalic,  and  brachy- 
cephalic types.  The  Eskimo  are  small,  dolichoce- 
phalic, and  have  a  yellow  skin;  the  Tehuelches  are 
large,  dolichocephalic,  and  have  a  reddish  skin;  the 
Polynesians  are  large,  mesocephalic,  and  have  a  red- 
dish skin.  The  brachcycephalic  type  is  represented 
by  the  Quaranni  and  Peruvians,  the  former  being  of 
medium  size  with  yellow  skin,  and  the  latter  small 
with  olive  skin.  The  broad-nosed  (platyrhine) 
black  race  was  divided  by  Topinard  into  one  group 
with  straight  hair  of  oval  cross-section,  and  a  second 
group  with  woolly  hair  of  eUiptical  section.    The  first 

group,  comprising  the  aboriginal  AustraUans,  are 
olicnocephalic,  tall,  and  have  a  black  skin;  all  three 
types  of  skull  appear  in  the  second  group.  The  very 
small  yellowish  Bushmen,  the  large  black  Melanesians, 
and  the  African  negroes  are  dolichocephalic,  the 
medium-sized  black  Tasmanians  mesocephalic,  the 
small  black  Negritos  brachycephalic. 

A  summary  according  to  somatological  principles 
has  been  given  lately  by  J.  Deniker  (cf.  "The  Races 
of  Man",  p.  225),  a  Frenchman,  who  has  selected  the 
divisions  of  the  earth  as  the  principle  of  classification 
in  the  description  of  the  several  races  and  tribes. 
A.  Frizzly  hair,  broad  nose. — (a)  yellow  skin:  (1) 


RACE 


624 


RACE 


the  Bushman  races,  comprising  Hottentots  and  Bush- 
men— ^yellow  skin,  steatopygous,  small  stature,  doli- 
chocephalic; 

(b)  dark  skin:  (2)  Negrito  races,  comprising  both 
Negrillo  and  Negrito — ^reddish-brown  skin,  stature 
verv  small,  sub-brachycephalic  or  sub-dolicho- 
cephalic; (3;  Negro,  comprising  the  Nimitian  and 
Bantu  stocks — ^black  skin,  dolichoceptialicj  (4) 
Melanesians,  comprising  Papuans  and  Melanesians — 
blackish-brown  skm,  m^ium  stature,  dolichocephalic. 

B.  Hair  frizzly  or  wavy. — (a)  dark  skin:  (5) 
Ethiopians — ^reddish-brown  skin,  narrow  nose.  largQ 
stature,  dolichocephalic;  (6)  aboriginal  Australians — 
chocolate  brown  skin,  broad  nose,  mediimi  stature, 
dolichocephalic;  (7)  Dravidians — ^blackish-brown  skin, 
broad  or  straight  nose,  small  stature,  dolichocephalic : 

(b)  skin  dirty  white:  Assyrioids — nose  narrow,  ana 
convex  with  thick  end. 

C.  Hair  wavy,  brown  or  black  in  colour,  ey^ea  dark. 
— (a)  skin  light  Drown:  (9)  Indo- Afghan — ^hair  black, 
nose  narrow,  straight  or  convex,  tall  stature; 

(b)  dirty  white  Eukin,  black  hair :  (a)  tall  stature,  long 
face:  (10)  Arabians  and  Semites — ^ac[uiline  nose,  pro- 
jecting occiput,  dolichocephalic,  elliptical  face;  (11) 
Berbers — nose  straight  and  thick,  dolichocephalic, 
square  face:  (12)  Inhabitants  of  the  European  coasts — 
nose  straight  and  small,  mesocephalic.  face  oval; 

(p)  Small  stature:  (13)  Inhabitants  of  the  Iberian 
island— dolichocephalic ; 

(c)  dull  white  skin,  hair  brown:  (14)  Inhabitants  of 
Western  Europe — small  stature,  strongly  brachy- 
cephalic;  face  round:  (15)  Inhabitants  of  countries  on 
the  Adriatic — tall  stature,  brachycephalic,  long  face. 

D.  Hair  wavy  or  straight,  flaxen  in  colour,  eyes 
light,  skin  pinkish  white. — (16)  Northern  Europeans 
— ^hair  generally  wavy,  flaxen  or  reddish,  tall  stature, 
dolichocephalic;  (17)  Eastern  Europeans — ^hair  gener- 
ally strais[ht,  tow-coloured,  small  stature,  su&doli- 
chocephabc. 

E.  Hair  straight  or  wavy  and  black,  dark  eves. — 
(a)  Skin  light  brown:  (18)  Ainos — body  very  hairy, 
nose  broad  and  concave,  dolichocephalic; 

(b)  Skin  yellow,  body  without  nair:  (19)  Pol3me- 
eians — ^nose  projecting  and  often  convex,  tall  stature, 
elliptical  face,  brachycephalic  or  mesocephalic;  (20) 
Indonesians — small  stature,  nose  flat  ana  often  con- 
cave, projecting  cheek-bones,  face  lozenge-shaped, 
dolichocephalic:  (21)  Native  races  of  South  America — 
small  stature,  nose  projecting  and  straight,  meso- 
cephalic or  dolichocephalic. 

F.  Straight  hair. — (a)  Sallow  skin:  (a)  Straight  or 
aquiline  nose:  (22)  North  American  races — talTstat- 
ure,  mesocephalic;  (23)  Native  races  of  Central 
America — small  stature,  brachycephalic;  (/3)  Straight 
nose:  (24)  Pat€igonians — tall  stature,  brachyc^phiXc, 
square  face; 

(b)  Skin  yellow-brown:  (25)  Eskimo — small  stature, 
face  round  and  flat,  dolichocephalic; 

(c)  Skin  pale  yellow:  (26)  Lapps — snub-nose,  small 
stature,  brachycephalic;  (27)  Ugrian  race — nose 
straight  or  concave,  small  stature,  mesocephalic  or 
dolichocephalic,  projecting  cheek-bones;  (28)  Turks 
or  Turko-Tatars— ^straight  nose,  medium  stature, 
very  brachycephalic; 

(d)  Skin  sallow:  (29)  Mongolians — projecting  cheek- 
bones, Mongolian  fold,  slightly  bracnycephahc. 

Huxlev  classifles  mankind  on  a  somatico-anthro- 
pologicaf  basis.  He  divided  the  human  race  into  four 
main  types:  the  Australioid,  Negroid,  Xanthocroi,  and 
Mongoloid,  to  which  he  afterwfurds  added  the  Ma- 
lenochroi.  The  aboriginal  Australians  are  the  chief 
representatives  of  the  dolichocephalic  Australioid 
type  (dark  skin  and  eyes,  wav^  black  hair,  flat  nose, 
pronounced  osseous  superciliary  arch,  and  very 
prognathous).  Outside  Australia,  Huxley  claimed  to 
nave  found  the  Australioid  type  in  the  interior  of  the 
Deccan,  and  among  the  Egyptians.    The  standard  for 


the  Negroid  type  is  the  African  negre.  Huxley 
wrongly  considered  this  type  as  almost  without  ex- 
ception dolichocephalic.  It  generally  lacks  a  bony 
superciliarv  arch:  skin  and  eyes  are  brown  to  black; 
the  hair  black,  snort  and  frizzly  or  woolly;  the  nose 
flat  and  broaa;  the  lips  thick  and  protruding,  while 
pro^athism  is  univeisal.  According  to  Himey,  the 
particular  modifications  of  the  Negroid  type  are:  the 
small  Bushmen  with  lighter  skin;  the  partly  brachy- 
cephalic Negritos  with  heavy  superciliary  arch,  living 
in  southern  and  south-eastern  Asia  (the  Malay 
Peninsula),  and  in  the  Andaman,  Philii^ine,  and 
South  Sea  Islands  (Papuans)  as  far  as  Tasmania. 
Among  these  Negritos  there  has  been  a  considerable 
crossins  with  Pol3mesians  and  Malayans.  Huxley 
grouped  together  me  inhabitants  of  the  greater  part 
of  Central  Europe  as  the  Xanthocroi  or  fair-white 
t3rpe.  This  group  is  characterized  by  an  ahnost 
colourless  soft  skin,  blue  or  grey  eyes,  and  light  hair; 
the  shape  of  the  skull  ranges  from  dolichocephaUc  to 
brachycephalic.  In  the  south  and  west  this  type 
comes  into  contact  with  the  Melanochroi;  in  the  north 
and  eastj  where  it  extends  to  Hindustan,  with  the 
Mongoloid  type.  According  to  Huxley  all  Asia  and 
its  surrounding  islands  in  the  east  and  south-east,  the 
east  and  north-east  of  Europe,  and  the  whole  of 
America  are  inhabited  by  the  Mongoloid  t^^  (yel- 
lowish-brown skin,  black  eyes,  black,  lank  hair,  small, 
flat  nose,  oblique  lold  of  the  eyelid,  out  no  projecting 
bony  superciliary  arch);  the  type  is  partly  brachy- 
cepnalic,  partly  dolichocephalic.  The  Melanochroi 
or  brunettes  live  arouixd  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  and 
extend  through  Asia  Minor  across  Arabia  and  Persia 
to  Hindustan.  The  skin  is  brownish,  the  fine  wavy 
hair  almost  black,  the  eyes  dark.  Huxley  considered 
the  Melanochroi  the  result  of  a  mixture  of  the  Xantho- 
croi and  Australioids. 

The  attempt  of  Linnseus  to  employ  intellectual 
peculiarities  as  criteria  has  also  been  repeatedly 
imiteted.  Thus.  Friedrich  Mtiller  has  combined 
somatic  (form  ot  the  hair)  and  lin^istic  peculiarities 
to  f orm  tJie  basis  of  his  racial  classification.  Accord- 
ing to  his  theory  mankind  is^  divided,  according  to  the 
shape  of  the  nead,  into  woolly-haired  and  sleek- 
haired.  The  woolly-haired  races  are  subdivided  into 
those  with  tuft-like  hair  (Hottentots,  Papuans),  and 
those  with  fleecy  hair  (African  negro,  Kafir);  the 
sleek-haired  races  into  the  straigh&haired  (as  the 
Australians,  Hyperboreans,  Americans,  Malayans, 
Mongolians)  and  the  curly-haired  (as  the  Dravidians, 
Nubians,  and  Mediterranean  races).  These  races  are 
subdivided  into  a  number  of  family  groups  on  the 
basis  of  language  and  of  the  intellectual  culture  arising 
from  it.  MUller  distinguished:  the  Indo-Germanic 
family  of  languages  (G^manic,  Romanic,  Slavonic, 
Celtic,  Greek,  Albanian,  Iranian,  Indian);  the  Ural- 
Alteic  family  (Finno-Ugrian,  Turkish  and  Yakutiah, 
Mon^lian,  Tunisian,  Samoyedic);  the  South- 
Asiatic  family  (Chmese,  Siamese,  Annamite,  Burmese, 
and  Thibetan);  the  Hamito-Semitic  family  (Semito- 
Arabic,  and  Hamitic)^  the  Malayo-Polynesian  group 
(the  Malayan,  Pol3me8ian,  and  Melanesian  langua^) ; 
the  Bantu  family,  and  along  with  it  the  Ajmencan 
languages  (related  to  this  group  only  as  to  structure), 
the  Dravidian,  and  various  isolated  languages. 

Following  Cuvier  and  Topinard,  W.  H.  Flower,  an 
Englishman,  separates  mankind  into  three  main  divi- 
sions: 

I.  Ethiopian  or  Negroid  Races:  (a)  The  African 
type  of  negro;  (b)  Hottentots  and  Bushmen;  (c)  The 
Oceanic  negro  or  Melanesians:  (d)  Negritos. 

II.  Mongolian  Race:  (a)  Eskimo:  (b)  The  Mongols 
proper,  comprising  the  Mongolo- Altaic  group;  and 
the  southern  Mongolian  group;  (c)  Miuayans;  (d) 
Polynesians,  Maoris;  (e)  Amencans. 

III.  Caucasians,  comprising  Xanthocroi  and  Md- 
anochroi.    From    these    three    main    races    (calM 


RACE 


625 


RACE 


arc/dmorpkic  by  C.  H.  Stratz),  G.  Fritsch  has  4is- 
tiri^^uiflhed  the  mixed  races  derived  from  them  as 
meiamorphic.  Both  divisions  have  a  strongly  de- 
veloped instinct  for  migration  (nomadic  peoples), 
whi(m  has  promoted  the  growth  of  civilization.  At 
the  same  time  Fritsch  and  Stratz  assumed  a  series 
of  tribe»  without  an  instinct  for  migration  (non- 
nomadic  peoples);  these  were  named  by  Stratz  pro^ 
iomorphic.  These  theories,  however,  have  scientific 
value  as  working  hypotheses,  even  though  the  one  or 
the  other  may  prove  to  be  incorrect. 

Following  in  part  the  investigations  made  by 
Klaatsch  of  the  skeleton,  Stratz  takes  as  protomor- 
phic  criteria:  great  individual  variability;  normal 
proportions  (according  to  the  calculations  of  Fritsch) 
with  slightly  excessive  length  of  the  arm;  total  height 
six  or  seven  times  the  height  of  the  heads;  external 
appearance  little  different  in  the  two  sexes;  women 
with  small  hips  and  mamma  areolata;  Ught  to  dark 
brown  skin;  hair  of  the  head  very  variant  with  oval 
cross-section;  hair  on  the  body  moderately  developed; 
pronounced  protuberance  of  frontal  bone;  inclination  to 
(iolichocephaly  and  prognathism;  strong,  broad  jaws; 
facial  part  of  the  skull  large  in  proportion  to  the  back 
of  the  skull;  coarse  features;  broad  nose;  small 
orbits  widely  separated  from  each  other;  pointed 
ear,  like  the  ear  of  the  Macaca  monkey;  graceful, 
slender  frame;  narrow  vertebrse;  slighter  curvature 
of  the  vertebral  column;  narrow  pelvis;  platyknemic 
tibia;  nates  weak;  femur  slight;  no  calves;  tendency 
to  a  crouching  position  and  to  turning  the  foot  in- 
wards; foot  adapted  for  climbing;  prehensile  foot; 
weaker  development  of  the  ankle-bone  (toZti«),  of  the 
heel-bone  (calcaneus)^  of  the  cuboid  bone  {os  cuboi^ 
deum),  of  the  toe;  very  slight  arch  to  the  sole  of  the 
foot;  entire  sole  set  on  the  ground  in  walking;  early 
development  of  sexual  instinct.  Stratz  has  selected 
the  following  as  the  criteria  for  the  three  archimor- 
phic  races.  Those  of  the  melanodermic  or  black  race 
are:  excessive  length  of  the  legs;  total  height  7  to 
7*5  heads;  skin  from  dark  brown  almost  to  black; 
the  hair  of  the  head  thick,  black,  and  frizzly,  with 
an  elliptical  cross-section;  hair  on  the  body  scant: 
an  inchnation  to  dolichocephaly  (with  a  very  decided 
breadth  of  the  skull  behind);  pronounced  progna- 
thism; powerful  broad,  and  mgh  jaws.  Among  the 
characteristics  of  the  yellow  or  xanthodermic  raoe 
are:  deficient  length  of  the  Umbe;  total  height  7 
to  7*5  heads;  mamyna  papiUata;  brownish-yellow 
to  light  yellow  skin,  coarse  and  black  hair  of  the  head, 
with  a  round  cross-section;  hair  on  the  body  scant; 
inclination  to  brachycephaly;  broad,  short  jaw; 
slight  frontal  ridge;  short,  small,  strong  foot  with 
moderate  arch.  Among  the  criteria  of  the  leucoder- 
mic  or  white  race  are:  normal  proportions;  stature, 
7*5  to  8  heads;  mamrna  papiUata;  Ught  brown  to 
almost  white  skin;  orthognathism;  from  shght  to 
hardly  noticeable  frontal  ridse;  narrow,  high  jaws; 
large  muscles  of  the  seat  ana  calves;  narrow,  long 
foot  with  powerful  arch;  strong  ball  of  the  great  toe; 
powerful  neel. 

Stratz  has  also  sought  to  compare  the  different 
races  according  to  their  relationship  and  develop- 
ment. According  to  him,  the  aboriginal  Australians 
of  to-day  are  the  nearest  to  the  common  monogenetic 
original  form.  The  second  earliest  protomorphic 
races  are  the  Papuans,  Koikoins,  and  kindred  races. 
After  the  black  races  in  Africa  had  become  separated 
from  the  main  stock  of  mankind,  the  third  earUest 
protomorphic  group  separated  from  the  first  stock 
(the  American  races,  Malays  of  the  interior  of  the 
peninsula,  Kanakas,  and  Andamans).  After  the 
main  yellow  race  had  been  thrown  off  from  the  main 
stock,  the  fourth  earliest  protomorphic  group  was 
formed  (according  to  Stratz,  the  Ainos,  Veddahs, 
Dravidians,  Basques,  and  Celts).  Finally  the  main 
white  race  was  developed.  The  metamorphic  races 
XII.— 40 


are  to  be  r^arded  as  races  still  in  the  process  of 
formation.  Fritsch  regards  the  three  archimorphic 
main  races  as  centres  of  radiation:  the  white  race 
In  South-Westem  Asia,  the  yellow  race  in  North- 
Eastem  Asia,  and  the  olack  race  in  Central  Africa. 
The  white  stock  divided  into  the  Semitic  and  Sans- 
kritist  branches;  the  yellow  into  the  Chinese  and 
Scythian  branches;  while  the  Finno-Tatar  branch 
belongs  to  both  the  white  and  yellow  stocks.  The 
black  stock  divided  into  the  Pelagic  branch  (living 
on  the  islands  south  and  south-east  of  Asia^  and  the 
African  branch.  According  to  Fritsch,  owing  to  thA 
universal  fertiUty  of  crosses  among  mankind,  the 
contact  of  the  main  stocks  with  one  another  and  with 
the  protomorphic  races  gave  rise  at  the  points  of  con- 
tact to  the  metamorphic  races.  Fritsch  took  as  pro- 
tomorphic non-nomadic  peoples  (i.  e.  as  remains  of 
original  primitive  peoples) :  m  Africa,  the  Bushmen, 
Akkas  Obongos,  Batuas;  in  Australia,  the  natives 
of  Queensland;  in  Asia,  the  Dravidians,  Veddahs, 
Guang,  Senoi,  Kubu-kubu,  Hieng,  Miao-Tse,  Ainos; 
in  America,  the  Makus,  the  Ges  tribes  of  Eastern 
Brazil.  Fuegians;  in  Europe,  the  Neandertal  raoe, 
the  Alpine  race,  the  European  dwarf  race,  and  the 
Lapps  living  in  stone  huts. 

On  the  basis  of  the  theories  of  Stratz  and  Keane, 
Schurtz  makes  the  following  classification: 

I.  Early  races  (that  is  the  almost  disappeared  re- 
mains of  earlier  races):  (1)  Palseo-Asiatic,  non- 
Mongolian  race  (the  Ainos);  (2)  Ethiopian  race 
(the  Nubians) ;   (3)  dwarf  race. 

II.  Chief  family  groups:  A.  Light  colour  or 
European-West-Asiatic  group  of  races:  northern 
Alpine,  and  Mediterranean  main  races;  B.  Asiatic- 
Pol3me6ian  group  of  races:  Mongolhm  stock,  Malayo- 
Polynesian    stock;     C.  Nigritian    group    of    races: 

(1)  Negro;  (2)  dark-coloured  Indian  (Dravidic  races); 
(3)  Indonesian  and  Oceanic  Nigritian  (Negritos, 
Melanesians) ;  (4)  Australians  and  Tasmanians; 
D.  American  group  of  races. 

III.  Hybrid  races:   (1)  Finno-Ugrian  hybrid  race; 

(2)  Berber  hybrid  race. 

Most  of  the  above  racial  classifications  offer  cer- 
tain advantages,  but  also  show  faults  that  may  not 
be  overlooked.  All  contain  three  great  groups  which 
may  be  characterized  from  the  most  strikmg  attributes 
as  the  smooth  to  wavy-haired  white  race,  the  coarse- 
haired  yellow  race,  and  the  frizzly-hairea  black  race. 
In  addition,  however,  these  races  all  exhibit  a  series 
of  other  differences,  somatological  and  ethnological. 
However,  it  is  difficult  to  group  together  a  number  of 
branches  of  these  three  main  stocks.  Most  writers 
who  desire  to  give  a  descriptive  summary  of  the  races 
and  peoples  of  the  world  (as  Deniker,  Buschan, 
Schurtz,  and  others)  have,  therefore,  primarily 
guided  themselves  by  the  abodes  of  thefiue  races,  and 
have  grouped  them  according  to  the  divisions  of  the 
earth  wit&h  which  it  can  be  shown  that  various 
branches  and  subordinate  groups  live. 

Bartols  in  ZeiUchr.  fUr  Morpk.  w.  ArUhrop.,  VII,  81 ;  Buschan. 
Menachenkunde  (Stuttgart,  1909) ;  Idem,  lUustrierte  Vdllurkunde 
(Stuttgart,  1910);  Czbkanowbki  in  Arch,  far  Anthrop.,  new 
iierica,  VI.  47;  Davenport,  Statittieal  Melhodt  (New  York,  1899) ; 
Dkniker,  Le$  races  el  lea  peuplee  de  la  ierre  (Paris.  1900),  tr.  The 
Raeee  of  Man  (London,  1900);  Ehrbnreich.  ArUhrop.  Studien 
Uher  d.  Urbewohner  Braeiltena  (Brunswick,  1897);  Flower  in 
Journal  Anthr.  InetU.  of  Great  Britain  and  IrOand,  XIV,  378; 
Fritsch  in  ZeiUchr.  fUr  Ethnol.  (1910),  680:  Hadoon,  Study  of 
Man  (London,  1898);  Hoernes,  Nature.  Urgeech.  d.  Meneehen 
(Vienna,  1909);  Keane,  Man,  Past  and  Present  (Cambridge. 
1904);  Klaatsch  in  Arch.  fUr  Anthr.,  new  series.  VIU,  101; 
Quatrefages.  Etude  des  races  humaines  (Paris,  1900) ;  Ranke, 
Der  Menach  (3rd  ed..  Brunswick,  1911);  Ranke  in  Arch,  fur 
Anthr.,  new  series.  II,  295;  Ripley,  The  Races  of  Etarope  (London, 
1900) ;  Schliz  in  Archiv.  far  Anthr.,  new  series,  IX,  202;  Schurtz, 
Volkerkunde  (Leipsig  and  Vienna,  1903);  Scuuivr,  DUSteUung 
der  PygmAen  (Stuttgart,  1910);  Schwalbb  in  Anat.  Am.,  IX 
(1901),  Supplement,  44;  Stratji  in  Arch.  fUr  Anthr.,  new  series, 
I,  189;  Idem,  Naturoesch.  des  Mensehen  (Stuttgart,  1904) ;  Topi- 
NARD,  EUments  d'anthr.  ghUrale  (Paris,  1885),  tr.  (London,  1890). 

Ferdinand  Bibkner 


RACE 


626 


RACE 


ETHNOLOGICAL  TABLE  OF  THE  HUMAN  RACE 

WHITE  RACES 


FAMIUBB 


BRANCHXB 


I.  Indo^eriunic  OB  Abtan:  ricin 
white  to  brunette;  hair  flaxen  to  dark- 
brown,  straisht,  wary,  or  curly;  eyes 
horiioatal.  Uue  to  brown;  face  narrow 
to  broad;  nose  narrow  aiid  prominent; 
dolichocephalic  to  brachycepnalic;  or- 
thognathous  to  slightly  prognathous. 


n.  Smmc:  fair  to  brunette;  strong 
profile;  nose  large,  and  narrow. 

III.  HAMmc:  daric  ridn;  hair  sleek 
and  friuly;  stature  moderate;  doli- 
choc^haUc;  progna^ous. 

IV.  MixsD  Racm. 

V.  Rkmainb  of  PRmmrB  Racib. 


(1)  Teutonic  (Germans,  English,  Scandinavians,  Frisians, 
Netherlanders). 

(2)  Romanic  (Italians,  French,  Spaniards,  Portuguese, 
Rhieto-Romans,  Ladins,  Friauls,  Roumanians). 

(3)  SZat.— (a)  West  Slavs:  Wends,  Poles,  Tchechs,  Sbvaks; 

(b)  Emt  Slavs:  the  Great,  White,  and  Little  Russian  (Ruthen- 
ians);    (o)  South  Slavs:   Sbvenes  and  SerbocroatB. 

(4)  Greek  (with  strong  Slav  strain). 

(5)  Cdtie.—W   Gauta:    (b)   Cymri  (Welsh  and  Cornish); 

(c)  Bretons;   (d)  Gaels  (Irish  and  Scotch). 

(6)  Leitic  or  Litkuantan. 

(7)  Iranian  (Persians,  Afghans,  Baluehis,  Ossetians,  Kurds). 

(8)  Indian  (Hindu),  Kajv. 
,9)    Armenian  (mixed  type). 

10)  Albanian. 

11)  Sort  and  Tale. 
(12)  Dard  (Hindu  and  Mongolian). 

(1)  Jevieh;  (2)  Stfrian;  (3)  Arabian;  (4)  KHfrak;  (5)  Manm* 
ite  and  Dnue. 

^(-l)  Berber  (in  Morocco;  Eabyles  in  Algeria;  Tuaregs). 
(2)  Nubian:  Nubians  proper,  Agau,  I^uiakil,  Gallas,  Soma- 
lis,  and  Wahuma. 

1(1)  HamiU  x  SemiU:  Egyptians,  Abvssinians;  (2)  Hamita 
X  Negro:  Fulahs.  Masai,  Niam-Niam,  Mangbuttu,  Kanembu, 
Kanuri;   (3)  HamiU  x  Semite  x  Negro:  Tibbus. 

•{  Bssques;  Ainus;  certain  tribes  of  the  Caucasus. 


apicuL  cHAiucnaancB  of  bbai 


(  White  skin,  flaxen  hair,  blue  eyes, 
^  dolichocephalic,  tall  (towanls  the  South, 
( brunette,  brachycephalic,  smaller). 


Brunette;  physical  characteriatica  of 
various  types;  speech  derived  from  va- 
rious dialects  of  the  Latin  language. 

Blond  (in  the  north)  to  brunette  (ia 
the  south);    face  flat  and   frequently 
broad. 
-{     Noble  features. 


^wech,  Slavo-Lettic  kngoage;   pfaj*- 
ical  resemblance  to  Teutons. 
Brunette,  strong  profile. 
Brunette,  stioag  profile. 


YELLOW  RACES 


FAMILIXS 


I.  Moxool:  yellowish  skin;  straight  hair,  dark-brown  to 
black;  eyes  dark  and  oblique;  face  flat  and  broad;  nose  low 
and  broeA;  brachyorahalic;  of  medium  stature. 

II.  Turk  (Turco-Tatar):  of  larger  stature;  less  brachy- 
cephalic; Aryan  features. 

III.  Thibbtan:  well-built;  Aryan  strain. 

ly.  Cbinub,  jAPAioBsa,  and  Cobban. 

V.  TUNOUS. 

VI.  Samotbdic. 

VTI.  FxNNo-UaRiAii:  combines  with  Mongolian  character^ 
istics  fair  skin,  flaxen  hair,  and  blue  eyes. 

Vni.  Malay:  hair  long  and  generally  brown;  face  flat; 
noee  small,  low,  and  flat;  oblique  eyes;  prominent  malar  bone. 

IX.  Eskimo:  light-brown  skin;  straight  hair;  eyes  dark  and 
oblique;  dolichocephalic;  face  broad;  superior  maxiUary  and 
malar  bones  prominent;  nose  flat;  of  low  stature. 

X.  Indun:  skin  yellow  to  reddish  brown;  hair  straight  and 
black;  face  broad;  superior  maxillary  bone  prominent;  nose 
large  and  elevated  to  broad  and  flat;  dolichocephalic  to  brachy- 
cephalic; stature  small  to  very  large. 

XI.  Rbmaims  or  pBminvB  Racbb. 
Xn.  MixBD  Racks. 


BRANCHES 


I 


(1)  Baet  Mongol:  Khalkhas.  Chakhars,  Ordus;  (2)  Weal  Mongol  (Kalmooka): 
Sun^,  Khoshod,  Torgod.  DOrbdd,  Hill  Kalmucks,  Tdeutos;  (3)  Mongti  x  Iranian: 
Shi'ites,  Sunnites. 

Tatars  (Siberian,  Kasan.  etc.),  Yakuts,  Kirghis,  Usbegs.  Kashgaris,  Nogais,  Kipi- 
chaks,  Turkomans,  Ottomans. 

Thibetans  propo-,  Tan^ts,  Ladakis,  Ghoorkhas,  CHiinflK  hill  tribes  Qiokja,  Miao-tae). 

Two  types  are  distinguished:  (1 )  the  Northern  or  Manehu^orean,  the  finer  type,  with 
oval  face;  (2)  the  Sovikem  or  Mongolo-Maiay,  the  coarser,  with  broad,  triangular  face. 

Tungus  proper,  Manchu,  Lamuts,  Daurians,  Gokls. 

Samoyeaes  proper,  Karagasses,  Soyotes.  Motors.  Kaibals,  Kamasins. 

(1)  Finnic:  Finns  i»oper,  Esthonians,  Livonians,  Lapps,  Volga  tribes  (Mordvinian, 
TcberemisBian)>Bulgar8,rermians,Siryenians  (Finland),  Votyaks;  (2)  Ugrie:  Ostyaks, 
Voguls,  Magyars. 

(1)  Sundaneee:  Malays  proper  (Malacca),  Battaks  CSumatra),  Dayak  (Borneo), 
Javanese.  Bugis  (Celebes),  Alfuros  (Eaft  Indies);  (2)  PkiUvffine.'  Tagalas  (Luson), 
Visava  (Mindanao);  (3)  Malagaty:  (4)  Polyneeian,  in  the  Pacific  Ocean  (except  the 
Fiji  Islands);  (5)  Mieroneeian,  connecting  link  between  the  Polynesian  and  Melanesian. 


(1)  North^Wettem  America:  Nutkas  (Thlinkeets,  Hakias.  Chimmesyan);  (2)  North 

America:  Athabascans.  Algonquins,  Iroquois  and  Hurons,  Dakotas  (Sioux),  Shaahoaes, 

Muskhogees.  Astecs,  Zapotecs,  Mixtecas.  Chichimecs;   (3)  Central  America:  Mayans, 

Zapotecs;   (4)  Soidk  America:  Arawaks,  Caribians,  Tupi,  Ges;  Quaicuri;  Arauea- 

.nians;  Patagonians;  Fuegians. 

Mois,  Kuis,  Mons,  Ciampas,  Karens,  Nagas. 

Khmers  (Cambodia);  Annaroites;  Burmese  and  Aracans  (Burmah);  Thais  or  Shans 
(Siam  and  Laos);  Igorrotes  (dolichocephalic);  Nicobars. 


BLACK  RACES 


I.  Bantu:  light-brown  to  black;  black  hair  with  a  spiral 
curl;  dark  ey'es;  face  flat  and  prognathous;  blubber-lipped; 
nose  broad,  flat;  dolichocephalic. 

II.  Sddanbbk  Nkoro  (Negro  x  fair  races):  skin  mostly 
fairer;  face  frequently  with  stronger  profile. 

III.  HorrBNTOT  (Khoi-Khoin):  flabbv  skin,  light-brown  to 
yellow;  triangular  faces;  superiw  maxillary  bone  very  prom- 
inent; pointed  chin;  steatopygous. 

rv.  Bushiobn:  similar  to  ^e  Hottentot;  very  small. 

V.  African  Dwarf  Racbs:  similar  to  the  negro;  very  small. 

VI.  NaoRrro  x  brown-black  sSin:  hair  frisxly  and  long;  face 
moderately  prognathous;  nose  broad  and  bent;  thick  lips; 
brachycepnalic. 

VII.  Mblanbsun  (Papuan  in  New  Guinea):  resembles  the 
Negrito;  dolichocephalic. 

VIII.  Aubtrauan:  skin  ydlowish  brown  to  black;  hair 
dark,  straight,  curly,  frixsly;  abundant  beard;  strong  super- 
ciliary arch;  nose  low  and  broad;  blubber-lipped;  chin  small, 
retreating. 

IX.  Dravidian:  skin  li^ht  to  medium  brown;  hair  wavy 
and  long;  strong  superciliary  arch;  nose  moderatdy  high, 
narrow,  straight;  prognathous;  blubber-lipped;  frequently 
noble-featured. 

X.  Vbddahs:  skin  medium  to  dark-brown;  hair  of  varjring 
length,  wavy,  somewhat  frissly;  strong  superciliary  arches; 
none  broad,  depressed,  small. 

XI.  Cingalese:  skin  light-t»own  to  yellow;  hair  long, 
thick,  wavy:  nose  high,  straight  or  bent,  broad;  medium  stature. 


Kafirs  (Zulus,  Matabeles.  Bechuanas,  Mafitis),  Hereros.  Ovamnos.  Borotses,  Bakubas, 

cnaggas, 
Bakwiris,  Jaundes. 


Balubas,  Kaluzkdas,  Wasagaras,'  Ugogos,  Wanjamwesis,  Wadset 


Fana,  Duallaa, 


j     Nilotic  tribes  (Schilluks.  Dinkas,  Bans.  Berbas),  Hausas.  Ashantees,  Krus,  Weis. 
I  Mandingos,  Jolofs.  Jorubas,  Dahomans,  Ewes. 

(1)  Namaquas,  Korannas;   (2)  Hill  Damaras  (Hottentot  x  Herero),  Griquaa  and 
Oerlaam  (Hottentot  x  White). 

•{     Akkas,  Wambutiis,  Batuas,  Babongos,  Ashangos. 

Aetas  (Philippines).  Semangi  and  Sakai  (Malacca),  Miskopis  (Andaman  Uaada). 


j     Dravklians  proper  (Tamuls,  Tdugu,  Kanarese,  Malabars,  Toda,  Good.  Khood), 
I  Brahui,  Mundas  mbes. 


RACE 


627 


RACE 


Race,  Neoro. — The  tenn  negro,  derived  from  the 
Sjvuiish  and  the  Latin  words  meaning  "  black '* 
(negro;  niger),  may  be  appHed  to  a  large  portion  of 
mankind,  but  it  is  more  strictly  confined  to  certain 
peoples  and  tribes  of  Central  Africa  and  their  de- 
scent Ian  ts  in  various  parts  of  the  world.  The  Blumen- 
back  fivefold  division  of  mankind  considers  the  negro 
in  the  first  place  under  Ethiopian,  embracing  the 
K:iftr,  Hottentot,  Australian,  Alforian,  and  Oceanic 
iK*Si*oes.  Pritchard  and  Latham  rightly  protest 
:i<V^inst  the  error  of  considering  the  term  negro  synon- 
y  nous  with  African.  There  are  dark-skinned  people 
uf  various  types  throu^out  the  tropical  countries  of 
t!io  world.  The  negro  properly  so  called  is  dark- 
skinned,  with  wooly  hair  and  other  characteristics, 
while  differing  in  minor  traits.  It  is  a  mistake  to  hold, 
as  some  do,  that  all  negroes  have  common  traits. 
l*rofessor  Jerome  Dowd,  a  Southern  white  man,  de- 
clares that  "to  speak  of  all  negroes  in  Africa  as  one 
race  having  common  characteristics,  is  as  misleading 
and  is  as  unscientific  as  if  we  should  consider  all  Euro- 
peans and  Americans  as  of  one  race  and  attribute  to 
all  of  them  the  same  traits '^  Observations  and  the 
re<*ords  of  the  African  continent  go  to  show  that  it  is 
not  necessarily  the  races  with  the  blackest  skins  that 
are  lowest  in  the  scale  of  civilization.  The  negro  is 
originally  a  native  of  the  Sudan  and  other  parts  of 
West  and  Central  Africa,  where  there  is  now  a  popula- 
tion of  about  128,000,000  blacks.  In  the  West  Indies, 
South  America,  and  the  United  States  they  are  the 
descendant^  of  Africans,  thoudi  in  the  United  States 
those  of  mixed  blood,  tne  mulattoes,  and  even  those 
with  a  preponderance  of  white  blood  are  classed  as 
negroes. 

History. — ^The  origin  of  the  ne^  race  dates  from 
the  formation  of  races  in  the  twihght  of  human  his- 
tory. Like  the  origin  of  the  himian  race  in  general, 
it  IS  a  subject  for  anthropologists  and  theologians. 
The  ethnological  aspects  of  the  question  are  many  and 
varied.  The  original  African  is  said  to  be  the  fiuah- 
man,  who  is  rather  brown  than  black;  the  negro,  the 
real  black  man,  probably  came  from  other  regions. 
This,  however,  must  have  occurred  at  a  remote  period. 
The  chief  divisions  of  the  native  population  of  Africa 
are  the  negro,  or  black,  the  Bushman,  and  the  Bftntu, 
or  mixed,  races,  ^eneralljr  brown  in  colour,  who  in- 
vaded South  Africa,  driving  out  the  original  Bush- 
man. But  centuries  of  slavery  have  so  broken  and 
intermingled  the  different  stocks  that  it  is  difficult  to 
find  the  negro  without  any  mixture  of  forei^  blood. 

The  histor^r  of  the  black  man  in  America,  with 
which  this  article  is  more  especially  concerned,  begins 
with  the  African  slave-trade.  Under  the  compulsion 
and  rod  of  the  slave-master  the  negro  became  part 
of  the  population  of  the  New  World.  The  negro  slav- 
ery of  modem  times  followed  the  discovery  of  Amer- 
ica. The  Portuguese,  who  possessed  a  large  part  of 
the  west  African  coast,  b^an  the  employment  of 
negroes  as  slaves,  in  which  they  were  followed  by 
others  colonizing  the  New  World.  Tlie  first  country 
in  the  New  World  to  which  negroes  were  extensively 
brought  was  Haiti,  or  Hispaniola.  TTie  aboriginal 
race  had  at  first  been  employed  in  the  mines  there, 
but  this  kind  of  labour  was  found  so  fatal  to  them  that 
Las  Casas,  Bishop  of  Chiapa,  the  celebrated  protector 
of  the  Indians,  although  at  a  later  period  he  dis- 
approved of  slavery,  urged  Charles  V  to  substitute 
African  slaves  as  a  stronger  race.  Accordingly,  the 
emperor,  in  1517,  authorized  a  large  importation  of 
negroes.  Sir  John  Hawkins  was  the  first  Englishman 
who  engaged  in  the  traffic.  Others  of  his  countrymen 
soon  followed  his  example  on  an  extensive  scale.  Eng- 
land is  said  to  have  taken,  between  1680  and  1700,  no 
fewer  than  300,000  slaves  from  Africa,  and  between 
1700  and  1786  Jamaica  alone  absorbed  610,000.  A 
Dutch  ship  brought  from  the  Guinea  Coast  to  James- 
town, Virginia,  a  cargo  of  twenty  negroes  in  1620; 


this  was  the  beginning  of  slavery  in  the  English  col- 
onies of  America.  An  English  company  obtained  the 
monopoly  of  supplying  negro  slaves  to  the  Spanish 
colonies  for  thirty  years;  the  contract  was  annulled 
by  Spain  in  1739,  and  England  thereupon  declared 
war  on  Spain.  The  number  of  slaves  annually  ex- 
ported from  Africa  amounted,  at  the  end  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  to  74,000.  Between  1680  and 
1786  Uiere  were  2,130.000  n^gro  slaves  brought  into 
the  British  colonies  of  America,  including  the  West 
Indies.  Altogether  it  is  estimated  that  probably 
12,000,000  slaves  were  landed  in  North  and  South 
America  from  the  beginning  to  the  end  of  the  slave- 
trade.  An  equal  number  is  supposed  to  have  perished 
in  the  African  slave  raids  and  on  their  way  to  America. 
The  slave-trade  was  usually  attended  with  extreme 
cruelty;  the  ships  which  transported  the  slaves  from 
Africa  to  America  were  overcrowded  to  such  an  extent 
that  a  large  proportion  died  on  the  passage.  The  treat- 
ment of  the  slave  after  his  arrival  depended  much  on 
the  character  of  his  mastery  restraints,  however,  were 
imposed  by  law  in  the  various  settlements  to  protect 
slaves  from  injury. 

Early  in  the  seventeenth  century  Cartagena,  in 
Colombia,  was  a  noted  slave  market.  This  was  the 
field  of  labour  of  St.  Peter  Claver,  of  the  Society  of 
Jesus,  the  apostle  of  the  negroes.  As  many  as  twelve 
thousand  slaves  were  landed  annually  at  Cartasena. 
They  were  usually  in  a  wretched  condition,  ana  the 
saint  sought  to  alleviate  their  hardships  and  suffer- 
ings. In  time  a  strong  Christian  sentiment  asserted 
itself  against  the  traffic.  In  Catholic  times  in  Europe 
and  the  East,  under  the  benign  influence  of  the  Catn- 
olic  Church,  the  nations  gradually  emancipated  the 
slaves.  From  the  beginning  of  the  African  slave-trade 
the  popes,  from  Pius  II,  in  the  fifteenth  century,  to 
Leo  XIII,  in  the  nineteenth,  issued  encyclicals  and 
directed  anathemas  against  the  barbarous  and  in- 
human treatment  of  hxmian  beings  in  slavery.  The 
traffic  and  its  cruelties  were  condemned  by  the  Holy 
See  before  the  discovery  of  America.  In  America  the 
Friends,  or  Quakers,  of  Pennsylvania,  in  1776,  required 
their  members  holding  slaves  to  emancipate  them. 
Abolition  societies  were  formed  to  discourage  an.d 
oppose  the  slave-trade.  On  a  great  increase  in  the 
traffic,  action  was  taken  by  the  British  Government 
and  further  importation  of  slaves  into  the  colonies 
was  prohibited  in  1805.  The  United  States  prohibited 
the  importation  of  slaves  from  Africa  in  1808,  though 
to  some  extent  slaves  continued  to  be  brought  into  the 
country  secretly  and  unlawfully  up  to  the  emancipa- 
tion of  the  slaves  during  the  Civil  War.  The  importa- 
tion of  slaves  was  likewise  forbidden  in  the  South 
American  republics.  Eventually,  all  the  states  of 
Europe  passed  laws  or  entered  into  treaties  prohibiting 
the  traffic. 

The  next  thing  sought  was  the  total  abolition  of 
slavery  and  the  emancipation  of  slaves.  This  was 
brought  about  in  the  British  colonies  in  1834.  The 
French  emancipated  their  negroes  in  1848.  In  Haiti 
slavery  ceased  as  far  back  as  1791 ;  its  abolition  was 
one  of  the  results  of  the  negro  insurrection  of  that  year. 
Many  of  the  Spanish- American  states  abolished  slav- 
ery on  declaring  their  independence;  the  others  have 
since  that  time  abolished  the  institution.  Brazil 
passed  a  law  of  gradual  emancipation  in  1871.  Pope 
Leo  XIII,  in  1888,  wrote  to  the  bishops  of  Brazil 
setting  forth  the  position  of  the  Church  on  slavery: 
he  condemned  the  cruelties  of  the  slave-trade  and 
commended  the  abolition  of  slavery.  In  the  United 
States  slavery  was  firmly  established  at  the  time  of 
the  Declaration  of  Independence  and  was  recognized 
by  the  Constitution,  ratified  in  1788.  There  were 
then  several  hundred  thousand  slaves  in  the  republic. 
Slavery  diBclined  in  the  Northern  states,  but  not  in 
the  South,  where  negro  labour  was  required  for  the 
cultivation  of  sugar  and  cotton.     The  diversity  of 


RACE 


628 


RACE 


feeling  and  interest  between  the  North  and  the  South 
on  the  question  of  slavery  brought  about  the  Civil 
War.  Negro  slavery  was  then  brought  to  an  end  in 
the  United  States,  when,  in  the  interest  of  the  Union 
and  as  a  military  measure,  President  Lincoln  issued 
his  Pi'oclamation  of  Emancipation  (1  January,  1863) . 
Since  acquiring  freedom  the  negro  has  increased  in 
numbers  and  advanced  in  a  material  way.  Discrim- 
ination, prejudice,  and  fierce  criticism  have  spurred  on 
the  more  ambitious  and  more  respectable  class  among 
them  to  acquire  education  and  property.  In  less  than 
forty  years  of  freedom,  up  to  the  year  1900,  the  num- 
ber of  blacks  that  could  read  and  write  rose  from  5  per 
cent  to  55  J^.  The  rate  of  increase  of  the  negro  popu- 
lation is  estimated  by  United  States  Census  author- 
ities to  be  about  15  per  cent  for  the  ten  years  preced- 
ing the  Census  of  1900.  The  Census  Reports  for  1900 
give  8,833.994  negroes  for  the  Continental  United 
States.  There  are  also  363,742  persons  of  pure  or 
mix^  negro  blood  under  United  States  jurisdiction 
in  Porto  Rico.  The  Census  statistics  for  1910  in  rela- 
tion to  the  various  races  are  not  as  yet  available,  but 
by  using  the  normal  percentage  of  increase,  we  may 
estimate  the  approximate  figures  for  that  year,  placing 
the  present  negro  population  of  the  Continental 
United  States  at  10, 158,092.  The  cfensus  of  mulattoes 
or  those  of  mixed  blood  of  varying  degree  was  taken 
in  the  years  1850,  1860,  1870.  and  1890.  While  this 
enumeration  is  acknowledgea  to  be  very  subject  to 
error,  some  general  results  have  been  obtained.  The 
indications  are  that  from  11  to  16  per  cent  of  those 
classed  as  negroes  have  some  degree  of  white  blood. 
The  figures  warrant  the  belief  that  between  one-sixth 
and  one-ninth  of  the  negro  population  of  the  Conti- 
nental United  States  have  been  regarded  by  four 
groups  of  enumerators  as  bearing  evidence  of  an  ad- 
mixture of  white  blood.  In  the  South  negroes  form 
about  one-third  of  the  population.  In  1900  three- 
tenths  of  the  entire  ne^ro  population  of  the  country 
were  living  in  the  adjoining  states  of  Georgia,  Ala- 
bama, and  Mississippi.  These,  together  with  the 
adjacent  Atlantic-Coast  states  (Virgmia,  North,  and 
South  Carolina)  and  the  Gulf  states  (Louisian.  and 
Texas),  had  then  each  over  half  a  million  negroes.  In 
1900  the  negro  population  Was  distributed  by  states  as 
follows: — 

Georgia 1,034,813 

Mississippi , 907,630 

Alabama 827,307 

South  Carolina 782,321 

Virginia 660,722 

Louisiana 650,804 

North  Carolina 624,469 

Texas 620,722 

Tennessee 480,243 

Arkansas 366,856 

Kentucky 284,706 

Maryland 235,064 

Florida 230,730 

Missouri 161,234 

Pennsylvania 156,845 

New  York 99,232 

Ohio 96,901 

District  of  Columbia 86,702 

Illinois 85,078 

New  Jersey 69,844 

Indiana 57,505 

Kansas 52,003 

The  remaining  states  had  less  than  50,000  each, 
making  up  the  total  of  8,833,994. 

Leading  Occupations. — The  Census  Reports  show 
that  negro  agricultural  labourers,  farmers,  planters, 
and  overseers,  unclassified  labourers,  servants,  wait- 
ers, launderers,  and  laundresses  constituted  83-6  per 
cent,  or  about  five-sixths,  of  the  negroes  in  all  wage- 
earning  occupations  in  the  Continental  United  States. 
The  same  documents  also  show  that  27  occupations 


include  95*4  per  cent,  or  over  nineteen-twentieths,  of 
all  negroes  in  wage-earning  occupations.  More  than 
three-fourths  (77*3  per  cent)  of  the  negroes  live  in 
the  country.  In  1900  there  were  in  the  United  States 
746,717  farms  operated  by  negroes.  These  farms 
covered  38,233,933  acres,  valued  at  $499,943,734.  Of 
the  746,717  farms  operated  by  ne^oes  21  per  cent 
were  owned  entirely,  and  an  additional  4-2  per  cent 
owned  in  part,  by  the  farmers  operating  them;  in 
other  words,  forty  years  after  emancipation  25-2  per 
cent,  or  about  one-fourth,  of  all  negro  farmers  had 
become  land  owners.  The  value  of  all  taxable  property 
now  owned  by  the  coloured  people  in  the  United  States 
is  estimated  at  $550,000,000. 

Education.— Statistical  summaries  which  are 
available  from  16  former  slave  states  give  for  1908-9 
in  the  common  schools  for  coloured  children  an  average 
daily  attendance  of  1,116.811.  In  these  schools  are 
employed  30,334  coloured  teachers.  There  are  141 
public  high  schools  for  the  coloured  race  with  10,935 
pupils  ami  473  teachers.  The  governmental  education 
report  for  1910  also  gives  statistics  of  189  secondary 
and  higher  schools,  colleges,  industrial  schools,  etc., 
for  coloured  students  (excluding  public  high  schools). 
These  schools  are  usually  under  tne  control  of  various 
religious  denominations.  Some  are  controlled  by  pri- 
vate corporations  and  are  classed  non-sectarian.  The 
list  is  admitted  to  be  incomplete.  Only  two  Catholic 
schools  are  given  in  the  list,  namely,  St.  Joseph's  In- 
dustrial SchooJ,  Clayton,  Delaware,  and  St.  Francis's 
Academy,  Baltimore,  Maryland.  There  are,  besides 
these,  two  other  Catholic  boarding  schools  for  col- 
oured boys,  one  at  Rock  Castle.  Virginia,  the  other 
at  Montgomery,  Alabama,  besides  the  Van  de  Vyer 
College,  at  Richmond,  Virginia,  and  others.  There 
are  also  several  Catholic  boarding  schools  for  coloured 
girls  where  academic  and  industrial  branches  are 
taught.  The  Sisters  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament  have 
institutes  at  Rock  Castle,  Virginia,  Nashville,  Tenn., 
and  Cornwells,  Pennsylvania.  The  coloured  Oblate 
Sisters,  of  Baltimore,  and  the  Holy  Family  Sisters, 
of  New  Orleans,  have  each  several  boarding  institu- 
tions. The  Catholic  day  schools  for  coloured  children 
number  about  one  hundred.  No  education  is  given  in 
the  South  except  in  separate  schools. 

Many  of  the  schools  described  in  the  Government 
report  of  non-public  high  schools  are  termed  normal 
and  industrial  schools  and  institutes.  Others  are 
termed  missionary  colleges.  They  are  supported 
largely  by  the  religious  denominations  of  the  North. 
Considerable  income  is  also  derived  from  tuition  fees 
and  private  subscriptions.  Generous  allotments  are 
also  received  by  the  non-Catholic  institutes  from  edu- 
cational funds  established  for  freedmen  by  Northern 
philanthropists,  such  as  the  Peabody  Fund,  the  John 
F.  Slater  Fund  of  New  York.  The  John  F.  Slater 
Fund  alone  disbursed  $72,950  (about  £14,590)  to 
various  coloured  institutes  throu^out  the  South  in 
1909-10.  The  so-called  non-sectarian  colleges  receive 
also  state  and  municipal  aid.  In  1868  Samuel  Chap- 
man Armstrong,  a  celebrated  friend  of  the  ntgro, 
founded  Hampton  Institute  of  Virginia  for  the  educa- 
tion of  negroes  and  Indians.  At  the  present  writing 
(1911)  Hampton  Normal  and  Industrial  Institute  has 
1374  students,  male  and  female,  with  112  white  and 
coloured  teachers.  Hampton  has  been  the  inspiration 
of  an  extensive  system  of  similar  educational  and 
industrial  institutes  for  the  coloured  race  throughout 
the  South.  The  most  noted  offspring  of  Hampton  is 
Tuskegee  Normal  and  Industrial  Institute,  Tuskegee, 
Alabama,  which  now  has  1698  students,  1137  of  them 
male,  and  561  female.  There  are  185  instructors,  all 
coloured.  The  property  of  the  institute  is  valued  at 
$1,278,635  (£255,727).  It  has  a  large  endowment, 
which  is  being  increased.  The  total  income  of  the 
school  for  1909-10  was  $258,940. 

Religion. — The  negro  has  a  religious  nature.    His 


RACE 


629 


RACE 


docile,  cheerful,  and  emotional  disposition  is  much  in- 
fluenced by  his  immediate  environment,  whether 
those  surroundings  be 'good  or  evil.  Catholic  faith 
and  discipline  are  known  to  have  a  wholesome  effect 
on  the  race.  Observing  men  and  judges  of  courts  have 
remarked  on  the  law-abiding  spirit  existing  in  Catholic 
coloured  communities.  Some  elements  of  the  white 
man's  civilization  do  not  always  tend  to  elevate  the 
morality  of  the  ne^.  The  negro  is  naturally  gre- 
garious, and  the  dissipations  and  conditions  of  city 
life  in  many  instances  corrupt  the  native  simplicity  of 
the  younger  generation  to  the  sorrow  of  their  more  con- 
servative elders.  (For  a  view  of  reli^on  in  these  later 
times  among  the  blacks  in  the  native  African  home 
of  the  race,  see  Africa.)  Contrary  to  a  prevalent 
opinion,  the  negro,  when  well  grounded  in  the  Catho- 
lic faith,  is  tenacious  of  it. 

In  the  United  States  the  negroes  and  their  descend- 
ants naturally  adopted  more  or  less  the  religion  of 
their  masters  or  former  owners.  Thus  it  comes  that, 
outside  of  Maryland  and  the  Gulf  Coast,  in  a  large 
section  of  the  South  comprising  former  slave  states 
and  colonized  by  English  Protestants,  the  negroes 
who  claim  afRUation  to  any  Church  are  for  the 
most  part  Baptists  and  Methodists.  Catholics  and 
the  Catholic  faith  were  entirely  unknown  to  the 
negroes  in  those  states.  In  colonial  times  the  religion 
of  Catholics  and  the  religion  of  ne^oes  were  regarded 
with  ec[ual  disfavour,  the  latter  bem^  considered  non- 
Christian.  Under  the  law  of  Virgmia*  as  it  was  in 
1705,  Catholics,  Indians,  and  negro  slaves  were  denied 
the  Tight  to  appear  "as  witnesses  in  any  case  whatso- 
ever, not  being  Christians".  The  negro  Methodists 
comprise  those  who  are  in  a  manner  affiliated  to  the 
white  Methodists,  as  also  those  who  form  independent 
bodies  having  no  connexion  with  the  white  bodies. 
The  three  more  important  organizations  of  coloured 
Methodists  are  the  African  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church,  the  African  Methodist  Episcopal  Zion  Church, 
and  the  Coloured  Methodist  Episcopal  Church.  These 
bodies  claim  together  869,710  members.  With  other 
African  Methodists  the  total  number  of  coloured 
Methodists  is  probably  nearly  1,500,000,  with  13,000 
churches.  The  greater  number  of  coloured  Protestants 
are  Baptists.  After  the  manner  of  the  Baptist  sect, 
the  Baptist  congregations  are  independent  of  each 
other.  However,  according  to  statistics  given  for 
1908,  there  are  eighty-nine  state  organizations  and  six 
hundred  district  associations  with  18,307  organized 
negro  Baptist  churches  and  17,088  ordained  preachers 
in  the  United  States.  The  entire  number  of  coloured 
Baptists  is  given  as  2,330,535.  The  number  of  ne^oes 
adhering  to  other  Protestant  sects  is  comparatively 
insignificant.  Taken  together  there  are  probably 
about  4,000,000  negroes  who  profess  Protestantism 
in  the  United  States.  There  are  probably  about 
200,000  coloured  Catholics,  which  leaves  over  5,000,- 
000  who  profess  no  Christianity.  Remembering  that 
some  of  the  Baptist  sects  do  not  baptize  young 
children,  we  mav  conclude  that  there  are  over  6,000,- 
000  negroes  in  the  United  States  unbaptized.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  vast  majority  of  those  who  claim  ad- 
herence to  some  Protestant  denomination  have  no 
definite  notions  of  Christian  doctrine  and  have  equally 
vague  ideas  about  Christian  morality.  This  state  of 
things  may  be  largely  attributed  to  the  lack  of 
definite  reUgious  training  in  youth.  The  negroes  of 
the  West  India  Islands  and  of  South  America  have 
for  the  most  part  the  religion  of  the  original  conquer- 
ors and  settlers  of  those  regions,  and  the  matter  is 
treated  under  the  respective  proper  titles. 

As  before  stated,  the  Catholic  negroes  of  the  United 
States  live  chiefly  in  those  Southern  states  originally 
settled  in  part  by  Catholics.  Among  these  are  Mary- 
land and  the  states  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  namely, 
Florida,  Mississippi,  and  specially  Louisiana,  where 
the  larger  number  dwell.   Tne  bishops  of  the  Catholic 


Church,  in  times  past,  made  zealous  endeavours  to 
spread  the  elevating  influence  of  the  Catholic  Faith 
among  the  coloured  people  of  this  country.  The  two 
later  councils  of  Baltimore,  in  burning  words,  urge 
work  among  the  coloured  race.  The  Second  Plenary 
Council  implores  priests  ''as  far  as  thev  can  to  con- 
secrate their  thoughts,  their  time  and  themselves, 
wholly  and  entirely,  if  possible,  to  the  service  of  the 
coloured  people''.  The  want  of  men  and  means  has 
much  hampered  the  work.  At  one  time  it  was  re- 
ported that  many  thousands  had  lost  t^e  Faith  for 
want  of  priests  to  care  for  them.  It  is  said  that  in  one 
portion  of  Louisiana  alone  as  many  as  30^000  strayed 
away.  But  strenuous  efforts  are  now  bemg  made  to 
reclaim  them.  The  supply  of  priests  devoted  to  the 
interests  and  salvation  of  the  negro  race  is  recognized 
as  a  serious  problem,  as  there  seems  to  be  hardly  a 
sufficient  number  of  vocations  among  white  youth. 
Some  time  before  his  death,  Pope  Leo  XIII  issued  a 
letter  urging  a  native  clerKy^.  rope  Pius  X  has  also 
encouraged  missionary  work  among  the  negroes. 

It  is  almost  impossible  to  obtain  the  exact 
number  of  Catholic  negroes  in  the  United  States. 
While  a  ^eat  number  live  in  coloured  parishes  and 
have  their  own  churches,  to  the  number  of  about 
sixty,  many  others  are  mingled '  amon^  whites  in 
widely  separate  parishes,  where  no  report  is  ever  made 
of  the  colour  of  the  members.  However,  a  conserv- 
ative estimate  gives  225.000  as  the  approximate  num- 
ber in  the  Continental  United  States.  TTiere  are 
about  ninety-five  priests  labouring  exclusively  among 
coloured  people.  Of  these  the  Fathers  of  the  Society 
of  St.  Joseph,  about  fifty  in  number,  labour  in  twelve 
Southern  dioceses  and  have  their  mother-house  at 
Baltimore,  Maryland.  The  remainder  are  twenty^^ 
eiglit  diocesan  priests  in  various  dioceses  and  priests 
of  the  Society  of  African  Missions,  in  the  Diocese  of 
Savannah;  of  the  Society  of  the  Divine  Word,  in  the 
Dioceses  of  Natchez  and  Little  Rock;  of  the  Congre- ' 
gation  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  in  Pennsylvania  and  Vir- 
ginia. There  are  five  priests  in  the  country  who 
are  coloured  men.  Some  white  sisterhoods  are  as- 
sisting the  good  work  for  the  race,  teaching  11,000 
children  in  the  parish  and  mission  schools.  Besides 
these,  there  are  two  communities  of  coloured  sisters. 
One  of  these  is  the  Oblate  Sisters  of  Providence. 
Tlie  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Family,  another  order  of 
coloured  women,  now  has  1 16  sisters,  who  have  charge 
of  seventeen  schools  and  asylums  situated  in  the 
Archdiocese  of  New  Orleans  and  in  the  Dioceses  of 
Galveston  and  Little  Rock.  They  also  conduct  a 
Government  school  with  295  pupils  in  British  Hon- 
duras. 

A  commission  established  by  the  Third  Plenary 
Council  of  Baltimore  for  the  Catholic  missions  among 
the  coloured  people  and  Indians,  consisting  of  three 
archbishops,  distributes  the  funds  collected  for  this 
purpose  annually  throughout  the  United  States;  and 
a  special  "Catholic  Board  for  Mission  Work  among 
the  Coloured  People",  incorporated  by  the  hierarchy 
in  1907,  fosters  a  missionary  spirit  among  Catholics 
in  favour  of  the  coloured  people  and  labours  also  to 
provide  funds  for  this  obiect.  (See  Priests,  Con- 
fraternities of:   VI.     The  United  States.) 

DowD,  The  Negro  Races  (New  York,  1907);  Johnston,  The 
Negro  in  the  New  World  (New  York,  1910);  Clark,  Cardinal 
Laviperie  and  the  African  Slave  Trade  (London,  1889) ;  Blyden, 
Christianity,  Islam  and  the  Negro  Race  (London,  1888) ;  Clark- 
son,  On  the  Slave  Trade  (2  vols.,  London,  1808);  Negroes  in  the 
United  Stolen,  census  reports  (Government  Printing  Onice,  Wash- 
ington, 1904) :  Schools  for  the  Colored  Race  (United  States  Bureau 
of  E^lucation,  Washington,  1911);  Jackson  and  Davis,  The 
Industrial  History  of  the  Negro  Race  (Richmond.  1908) ;  Bruce, 
The  Plantation  Nrgro  as  a  Freeman  (New  York,  1889);  Wilson, 
Rise  and  Fall  of  the  Slave  Power  in  America  (3  vob.,  Boston,  1874) ; 
Williams,  Hist,  of  the  Negro  Race  (2  vols..  New  York,  1883); 
Ti;rKERMAN,  WiUuim  Jay  and  the  Abolition  of  Slavery  {If  ewYork, 
1893);  Washington,  Story  of  the  Negro  (2  vols..  New  York, 
1909):  Idem.  The  Future  of  the  American  Negro  (Boston,  1899); 
Id  KM,  The  Negro  in  Business  (Boston,  1907);  Odum,  Social  and 
Afrntal  Traitu  of  the  Negro  (New  York,  1910);   Durbam,  Star  o/ 


SACHEL  6< 

UbBia  {London,  18S2):  Sntu  Tki  Undrrfinaid  Railroad 
(PhilulelDhu.  1SB3);  Siibert.  TIu  CndcrnrciuiHi  Railroad  [New 
Vork.  \Sa»):  Gehvask,  La  Raa  Ntera  (Vallulolid,  1901); 
PnicB.  De  lo  rtkabitibaiim  At  la  race  tunH  (Pert  lu  Pnn«, 
IBOO);  Mehriah.  TAi  Awtd  and  IA«  iVoIion  (New  York.  1906); 
Noble.  Th*  Stdtmttum  0/  .«JW™  (New  York.  18991 ;  Bbaceett. 
Tht  Utaro  in  UanMnA  (Jolini  Hopkins  UnivermitT.  1889): 
Tkt  Ku  Klu  CoMpiracv-  Rrporm  of  TriaU  in  Uniud  SlaUt 
CaarU  (la  vdIb,.  Qowmmnnt  Printing  Office,  1872);  Liverikibb, 
Ktona  w  Sla«.,  CiKjctm  and  Saldirrt  (BobIod,  i8«3);  W1150N, 
TJK  Bloc*  FioIoBT  (Hurtford.  1892);    TiMnJ^.      " '   " -'- 


(Hmn 


DDthly    (Hui 


:a  (AtluU. 


The    SouiAam    WorbMi. 
1,  FoUinpin^/  tha  Color 


I    Phiitieai    Caruiilun 


University   Pnas);     , - 

Ntaror,  in  CilUi  (AtlmnH.  Oniveniitv  Ptms,  1897);  Qorr-« 
Raci  Tmili  of  iKr  Amrrican  Ncfo  (New  York,  189«1;  Amu* 
Hittarn  0/  1^  Amtrican  Cotann  in  Libtria  from  IStt  (o  IS 
(WEshiogtor  City.  1BZ6);  Baerihqeh.  TSe  Amrricin  ffcgi 
Hu  Pail  and  Future  (RaleiBh,  IBOO):    ' '" '    "' 


.. I,' HiilorT/  Bf  Hit  Colnred  Race  ii  A 

(London,  19(ie). 


Joseph  Butsch. 

BAChsl  (^nli  "a  ewe"),  daughter  of  Laban  and 
younger  sister  of  Lia.  The  journey  of  Jacob  to  the 
"east  country"  (Mesopotamia)  in  quest  of  a  bride 
of  his  own  kin,  and  hi*  providential  meeting  with 
Rachel  at  the  weii  in  the  open  country  followed  by 
hia  tntroductioD  into  the  household  of  Laban  are  told 
with  idyllic  charm  in  the  twenty-ninth  chapter  of 
Genesis.  Jacob,  being  in  love  with  Rachel,  agreed 
to  serve  her  father  for  her  seven  years.  Laban  ac- 
cepted the  propoBal,  and  the  seven  years  seemed  to 
Jacob  "but  a  few  days,  because  of  the  greatneaa  of 
bis  love".  He  was  deceived,  however,  by  Laban, 
who  at  the  end  of  the  term  of  eervicc  gave  him  to 
wife,  not  Rachel,  who  "was  well  favoured,  and  of  a 
beautifulcountenance",  but  her  elder  sister  Lia,  who 
was  "blear-eyed",  and  Jacob  received  the  younger 
daughter  to  wife  only  on  condition  of  serving  seven 
years  more,     Rachel,  being  for  a  time  without  oH- 

Sring  and  envious  of  her  sister,  to  whom  four  chil- 
en  were  bom,  gave  to  Jacob  as  a  secondary  wife 
her  handm^d  Bala,  whose  issue,  according  to  a  custom 
of  the  times,  would  be  reckoned  as  her  own.  From 
this  union  were  bom  Dan  and  Ncphtali,  In  the 
quarrel  which  arose  between  Jacob  and  Laban, 
Rachel  as  well  as  Lia  sided  with  the  former,  and  when 
departing  from  her  father's  home  she  carried  away 
with  her  the  terapkim  or  household  gods,  believing 
in  their  protecting  influence  over  herself  and  her 
husband  (Gen,,  xxxi,  10).  Among  the  sons  of  Rachel 
after  iiie  "Lord  remembered"  her  were  Joseph  and 
Benjamin,  in  giving  birth  to  the  latter  of  whom 
Kacnel  died.  At  the  point  of  death  "she  called  the 
name  of  her  son  Benoni,  that  is,  The  son  of  my  pain : 
but  his  father  called  him  Benjamin,  that  is,  The  son 
of  the  right  hand".  Rachel  was  buried  "in  the  high- 
way that  leadeth  to  Ephrata,  this  is  Bethlehem. 
And  Jacob  erected  a  pillar  over  her  sepulchre:  this 
is  the  pillar  of  Rachel's  monument,  to  tliis  day" 
(Gen.,  wxv,  18-20).  The  exact  location  of  the  grave 
of  Rachel  is  a  disputed  point.  A  passage  in  Jcremias 
(xxa,  15)  would  seem  to  indicate  that  it  was  on  the 
northern  border  of  Benjamin  towards  Ephraim,  about 
ten  miles  north  of  Jerusalem.  Tradition,  however, 
has  from  at  least  the  fourth  century  fixed  the  spot 
four  miles  south  of  Jerusalem  and  one  mile  north  of 
Bethlehem. 

ViooDBoin.  Diet,  de  to  BOU,  a.  v.:  ton  Hcuhblidui.  Com- 

James  F.  Driscoll. 
Bwicot,  ZonquE.    See  Montbeal,  Archdiocbsb 


10  BACINE 

BadiUi  Jean,  dramatist,  b.  at  T.A  FertA-MUon,  in 
theoldDuchyof  Vdois,  20Dec.,  1639;  d.in  Paris,  21 
April,  1699.  Left  an  orphan  at  a  very  early  a^, 
his  relatives  sent  him  to  the  College  of  Beauvaia,  which 
was  intimately  connected  with  Fort  Royal,  whither  he 
went  in  1655.    Here,  though  only  uxteen  years  of 

S;e,  he  made  such  progress  that  he  not  only  read 
reek  at  sight,  but  wrote  odes  both  in  Latin  and  in 
French.  In  lfi68,  he  entered  the  CkillAge  d'Harcourt. 
While  boarding  with  his  uncle,  Nicolas  Vitart,  he 
formed  too  close  an  acquaintance  with  some  theatrical 
people,  and  in  order  to  guard  him  agiunst  temptation 
his  relatives  sent  him  to  another  uncle,  the  Abb^ 
Sesvrin,  at  Viks;  but  failing  to  obt^  any  position 
there,  he  returned  to  Paris  in  1663,  where  he  wrote 
two  odea  which 
made  him  known 
to  the  court.  In 
1664  his  first  play, 
"LaThfb^de,ou 
lea    Frfires   enne- 

formed.  It  was 
followed      by 

"Alexandre",  an- 
other drama 
equally    insignifi- 

maque",  in  1667, 
proved     a     great 

followed     by    his 

only     comedy, 

"Lea    Plaideurs' 

(1668).    "Britan- 

nicus"     followed 

in    1669,    "B^rt- 

nice"      (1670),  J"*"  R^aum 

"Bajaaet"  (1672),  "Mithridate"  (I873),"Iphii[*nie" 

(1674).    After  the  failure  of  "PhMre"  in  1677,  Racine 

abruptly  severed  his  connexion  with  the  stage,  partly 

because  he  was  weary  of  unjust  criticism  and  unfair 

rivalry,  and  partly  from  conscientious  motives.     He 

remained  silent  for  twelve  years,  but  in  1689.  at  the 

Siest  of  Madame  de  Main  tenon,  he  wrote  "Esther", 
"AthaUe"  in  1691. 
Racine's  dramas  were  variously  recdved.  "  Andro- 
maque"  achieved  as  great  a  Buccess  as  "Le  Cid", 
and  deservedly;  the  author  devoted  his  most  delicate 
and  refined  art  to  the  portrayal  of  the  most  trogia 
passion.  No  characters  on  the  French  sta^  ore 
more  interesting  and  attractive  than  "Hemuone", 
the  type  of  passionate  love,  and  "Androraaque". 
of  maternal.  His  comedy,  "Les  Plaideurs",  inspired 
by  the  "Wasps"  of  Aristophanes,  fiulcd  at  first,  but, 
...,..,.  ,    ...   ^,i,    ..   -ibaequently 


being    applauded   by   Louis   XIV, 
met  with   great  favour.     "Britannicus" 
by   Voltaire  la  jiiice   det  amnoitaeuT».     ' 
was  written  in  competition  with  a  play  o 

subject  by  Comeille,  which  it  far  aurpi  

two  tr^edies  on  Onental  subjects,  "Bajaiet"  and 
"Mithridate",  do  not  breathe  the  Oriental  sjMrit. 
"Iphiginie"  is  full  of  pathos.  "Phfidre",  which  may 
dispute  with  "Andromaque"  and  "Athalie"  the 
title  of  Racine's  masterpiece,  was  represented  at  the 
Hatel  de  Boureogne,  while  the  "PhMre"  of  Pradon 
was  performed  by  the  king's  actors.  From  the 
first,  Racine  had  been  bitterly  opposed  by  various 
cabals,  whom  his  success  and  his  sarcasm  had  irri- 
tated. His  own  "Ph&dre"  was  a  failure,  while 
Pradon's  triomphed.  He  now  ceased  all  dramatic 
work,  married,  and  became  veiy  pious,  devoting 
himself  entirely  to  domestic  life  and  to  his  duties 
as  royal  hisUiriographer.  In  the  remaining  twenty 
years  of  h^  life  he  wrote  only  two  plays.  Madame 
de  Maintenon,  who  had  established  an  institution 
at  Sainl-CjT  for  the  education  of  poor  girls  of  noble 


RADBEBTUS 


631 


RADOWITZ 


family,  asked  Racine  for  a  drama  to  be  represented 
by  her  prot6g6es.  He  wrote  *' Esther 'Y  which  had 
an  enormous  success.  Every  critic  admires  in  it  the 
splendour  of  the  chorus,  the  perfection  of  the  char- 
acters, and  the  wonderful  art  of  the  play  as  a  whole. 
The  other  was  ''Athalie'^  a  drama  of  the  same  kind. 
As  a  dramatic  writer,  Racine  is  one  of  the  leaders 
of  the  classical  school.  His  dramatic  art  was  a  pro- 
test against  the  heroic  and  bombastic  tragedies 
which^  until  that  time,  had  been  the  fashion.  We 
read  m  the  preface  to  "Britannicus":  "What  can 
I  do  to  satisfy  my  stem  critics?  It  would  be  very 
easy  to  do  so  if  I  were  willing  to  sacrifice  common 
sense.  I  need  only  disregard  nature  and  rush  into 
the  sensational."  Ck)meille  liked  an  action  rather 
complicated,  "full  of  incident,  a  large  number  of 
theatrical  surprises,  and  numberless  high-flown 
speeches".  Racine,  to  quote  his  own  words,  always 
diose  "a  simple  action,  not  overladen,  which,  pro- 
gressing steadily  to  tne  catastrophe,  is  sustained  by 
the  interest,  the  feelings,  and  the  passions  of  the 
characters".  Again,  while  in  Comeille  the  charac- 
ters are  secondary  to  the  action,  in  Racine  the  action 
is  suited  to  the  characters.  Hence  we  do  not  find 
sensational  situations  in  his  tragedies,  but  rather  a 
deep  and  complete  study  of  the  passions  to  which 
the  human  heart  is  a  prey  and,  above  all,  of  love. 
Racine  is  the  great  pamter  of  love,  but  love  as  he 
conceives  it  is  alwa3's  violent,  impetuous,  jealous, 
and  sometimes   criminal.    The   effect   of  his  new 

•method  was  to  bring  about  a  change  in  that  of  the 
French  drama.  Racine's  style  is  simple  and  smooth, 
always  pure,  elegant,  harmonious,  and,  nevertheless, 

.  when  necessary,  strong  and  bold.  Racine  was  a 
sensitive,  vain,  and  irritable  man,  with  deeply  re- 
ligious feelings,  and  a  keen^  supple,  and  strong  in- 
tellect. He  displays  in  his  work  almost  unique 
powers  of  psychological  analysis,  a  wonderful  deli- 
cacy of  sentiment,  and  an  exquisite  sense  of  literary 
art. 

The  standard  text  of  hb  works  is  Mbbnabd  (7  vols.,  Paris, 
1866-73);  tr.  Bobwsll,  in  Bohn's  Library  (London.  188^01); 
DB  Burt,  Racine  and  the  French  CUuncal  Drama  (London, 
1845);  Tbollopb,  Comeille  and  Racine  in  Foreign  Claeaice 
Seriee  (Edinburgh,  1881);  BRUNETitRE,  Le«  Epoquea  du  thiAtre 
francai*  (Paris,  1892);  Larrounert  in  Leg  grands  icrivains 
fran^ia  (raris,  1898);  Stendhal,  Racine  et  SKakeapeare  (Paris, 
1882);  Saxntb-Beuvb,  Port  Royal,  VI  (4th  cd.,  Paris,  1878); 
Db  Grouchy,  DocumenU  inMUa  relatifa  d  Jean  Racine  (Paris, 
1892);  Leiiaitre,  Impreaaiona  de  ihidtret  I,  II,  IV  (Paris, 
188»— );   FiQVvr,  Dix^Seplihne  Si^de.   •      JbaN  Lebars. 

Radbartus.    See  Paschasius  Radbertus. 

Radegunda,  Saint.  See  Fortunatub,  Venan- 
Tius  HoNORius  Clementianus. 

Radar,  Matthew,  philologist  and  historian,  b.  at 
Innichen  in  the  Tyrol  in  1^1;  d.  at  Munich,  22 
December,  1634.  At  the  age  of  twenty  he  entered  the 
Society  of  Jesus  and  subsequently  taught  the  human- 
ities for  twenty-one  years  m  different  Jesuit  institu- 
tions. He  wrote  several  school  dramas,  but  was  par- 
ticularly known  among  Catholics  and  non-Catholics 
for  his  scholarly  attainments.  In  1599  he  published 
an  improved  and  expurgated  edition  of  Martial,  and 
in  1628  one  of  Quintus  Curtius.  His  edition  of  the 
Acts  of  the  Eighth  (Ecumenical  Council  was  incor- 
porated by  Labbe  and  Cossart  in  their  collection  of 
the  Acts  of  councils;  that  of  the  works  of  St.  John 
Climacus,  published  in  1614,  was  reprinted  by  Migne 
in  his  Greek  patrology  (LXXXVIII,  585  sqq.).  More 
important  than  the  publications  just  mentioned  were 
his  now  very  rare  works:  **  Bavaria  Sancta"  (Munich, 
1615-27),  and  "Bavaria  Pia"  (Munich,  1628).  Both 
were  reprinted  in  1704  at  Dillingen  and  Augsburg, 
and  the  former  was  partly  published  in  a  German 
translation  by  Father  Kassler  at  Straubing  in  1840. 

Db  BACKER-SoiiMERVOOBL,  Bibliolh.,  VI,  1371-82;  Janbsbn, 
Hialory  of  the  German  People,  tr.  Christie,  XIII  (St.  Louis,  1909), 
198,  203,  393,  437,  459. 

N.  A.  WSBER. 


Radawyns,  Florens,  co-foimder  of  the  Brethren 
of  the  Common  Life,  b.  at  Leyderdam,  near  Utrecht, 
about  1350;  d.  at  Deventer,  25  March,  1400.  He 
passed  a  brilliant  university  course,  took  his  M.A. 
degree  at  Prague.  Returning  home,  he  was  in- 
stiled canon  of  St. ,  Peter's,  Utrecht.  For  some 
Uttle  time  he  led  a  gay  life,  until  converted  by  a  ser- 
mon of  Gerard  Groote.  Thereupon  he  resigned  his 
canonry,  placed  himself  unreservedly  under  Groote's 
direction,  at  his  instance  was  ordained  priest,  and 
accepted  a  poor  benefice  at  Deventer.  where  uroote 
resided.  Tnere  he  powerfully  seconaed  his  friend's 
apostolate,  especially  among  the  poor  clerical  scholars 
of  Deventer,  and  it  was  at  his  suggestion  and  in  his 
house  that  the  first  community  of  the  Brethren  of 
the  Common  Life  was  formed.  It  was  also  from 
his  house  that  the  six  brethren  who  established  the 
Congregation  of  Windesheim  went  forth  in  1386, 
and  among  them  John,  the  elder  brother  of  Thomas 
a  Kempis.  Thomas  himself  was  under  the  imme- 
diate care  and  guidance  of  Radewyns  from  his  thir- 
teenth to  his  twenty-first  year.  He  wrote  a  loving 
and  edifying  sketch  of  his  master,  wherein  he  de- 
scribes Florens  as  a  man  learned  in  the  Scriptures 
and  all  sacred  science,  exceedin^y  devout,  humble, 
simple,  zealous,  charitable^  and  excessively  mortified. 
His  austerities  enfeebled  his  health,  possibly  hastened 
his  end.  He  was  commonly  regarded  among  the 
brethren  as  a  saint.  His  skull,  with  that  of  Groote, 
is  still  preserved  in  the  Catholic  church  (Broedem 
Kerk)  of  Deventer.  Of  his  correspondence  we  have 
only  one  letter,  preserved  for  us  by  ll  Kempis,  who 
also  gives  us  a  collection  of  his  notable  sayings. 

Arthur,  The  Foundera  of  the  New  Dew^ion  (Ix>ndon,  1905); 
Cruisb,  Thomas  d  Kempis  (London.  1887);  Kbttlswbll, 
Thpmas  d  Kempis  and  the  Broihera  of  the  Common  Life  (London, 
1882);  Scully,  Life  of  the  Ven.  Thomaa  d  Kempis  (London,  1901); 
Thomas  A  Kbmpis,  Opera  Omnia  (Freiburg,  1901). 

Vincent  Scully. 

Radowits,  Joseph  Maria  von,  b.  at  Blankenburg, 
6  February,  1797;  d.  at  Berlin,  25  December,  1853. 
Radowitz  was  of  Hungarian  descent,  though  his 
family  had  lived  in  Germany  since  1745.  In  his 
youth  he  fought  with  the  French  in  the  War  of 
Liberation,  but  had  no  feeling  against  the  German 
cause.  While  an  army  officer  in  the  service  of  the 
Elector  of  Hesse  (1815-23)  he  gained  an  extensive 
knowledge  of  modem  lanp^iages  and  history,  and 
laid  the  foundation  of  his  religious  and  pohtical 
convictions.  As  the  child  of  a  mixed  marriage  he 
had  lived  in  purely  Protestant  surroundings,  but  in 
time  he  grasped  the  historic  fact  of  the  Incarnation 
of  God,  the  founding  of  the  Church  by  Christ,  and 
the  superiority  of  the  truth  of  Christian  dogma  and 
the  Catholic  view  of  life  over  all  philosophy,  thus 
becoming  a  strong  Catholic.  Repelled  in  politics  by 
Liberalism,  which  he  considered  superficial,  he  studied 
Burke  and  Haller,  adopted  the  theories  of  the  latter, 
and  became  an  opponent  of  Absolutism  in  every  form. 
His  preference  was  for  constitutional  government  by 
the  Estates,  but  he  considered  a  representative  con- 
stitution unavoidable  at  that  time.  In  1823  Rado- 
witz entered  the  Prussian  army,  and  from  this  time 
served  Prussia  with  enthusiasm.  The  king  took 
a  kindly  interest  in  him^  the  crown  prince  was  his 
friend,  and  by  his  marriage  with  Countess  Voss,  a 
Protestant,  he  came  into  connexion  ^th  the  higher 
aristocracy.  His  efforts  to  improve  Prussian  military 
training  and  artillery  were  rewarded  by  repeated 
promotion,  but  on  account  of  his  birth  and  faith 
ne  met  with  opposition  among  the  bureaucracy 
and  army  officers.  In  1831  he  combined  with 
the  "Christian-German"  followers  of  Haller  in  issu- 
ing at  Berlin  the  "Politisches  Wochenblatt"  (see 
Jarckb)  and  wrote  largely  for  the  publication.  For 
this  transgression  of  mihtary  traditions  the  king 
removed  him  from  Berlin  in  1835.    Until  1848  he 


BADULPH  61 

vae  Prussian  military  attache  at  the  Gennan  Diet 
at  Frankfort,  and  from  1S42  also  PruBman  ambasaa- 
dor  at  the  Courts  of  Karlsruhe,  Stuttgart,  and  Darm- 
stadt. He  had  nothing  t«  do  with  the  dispute  be- 
tween the  government  and  Prussian  Catholics  in 
1837. 

After  Frederick  William  IV  ascended  the  throne 
in  1840  Radowits  was  frequently  called  to  Berlin  to 
give  advice  and  was  also  sent  on  nuHsians  to  other 
countries.  Notwithstanding  the  secret  opposition 
of  Austria  and  the  open  opposition  of  the  States  of 
central  Germany,  his  duties  as  military  attach^  led 
him  to  examine  the  conatitution  of  the  German  con- 
federation, the  immediate  reform  of  which  he  deirlared 


liu.iie  the  reformer  of  the  Confederatiun,  aim,  m  .h.- 
of  the  difficulties  in  the  way,  advocoted  the  stimuli 
■'   Q  of  the  German  people  by 


the 


,  Strained  relations  between  France  and  Germany,  and 
in  1S46,  when  the  Schleswig-Holatein  question  became 
acute);  victory  was  to  be  utilised  to  strengthen  the 
German  position  among  the  European  Powers  and  to 
develop  Germany  internally.  He  desired  to  make 
Germany,  includmg  Austria,  a  unit  and  to  enlarge 
it  by  the  addition  of  Switzerland  and  the  Nether- 
lands. He  wished  Prusda  to  take  the  lead  in  the 
reorganization  of 
internal  affairs,  as 
he  had  discovered 
at  Frankfort  that 
Austria's  interests 
lay  in  eastern  and 
southern  Europe, 
and  could  not  be 
depended  on  for 
German  interests. 
To  attain  these 
internal  reforms 
by  pea  wf  u  1  means, 
he  considered  it 
necessary  to  place 
military  matters 
and  legislation 
under  the  control 
of  the  Confeder- 

ccnl'ral  power 
cou  Id  then  be 
formed  as  need 
required.  To  accomplish  his  ciesinw  he  advised  the 
king  to  attain  the  unity  which  the  "public  opinion" 
of  the  German  people  demanded  Dy  introducing 
a  constitutional  form  of  government,  in  which  the 
parliament  should  be  less  powerful  than  the  crown 
and  independent  of  the  bourgeoisie  and  cnpitaliste. 
He  proposed  social  legislation  to  win  the  workmen 
for  the  government,  but  on  account  of  the  weak 
character  of  Frederick  William  IV,  these  plans  were 
not  carried  out.  While  in  Baden  Radowitz  watched 
the  approach  of  the  revolution.  In  1846  he  wrote  the 
"Gespriche  Uber  Staat  und  Kirche",  setting  forth 
in  the  form  of  a  dialogue  all  the  antitheses  in  the 
Cierman  life  of  his  time  and  pointing  out  in  a  clear, 
simple  manner  what  he  would  have  done  to  improve 
conditions.  la  a  memorial  presented  in  November, 
1847,  he  Ui«ed  the  king  to  take  up  at  last  the  reform 
of  the  Con^eration,  as  Germany  hod  been  carried 
into  the  revolutionary  movement.  He  was  sent  on 
this  business  to  Vienna  and  Paris,  but  before  he  was 
able  to  accomplish  anything  Mettemich  was  over- 
thrown in  March,  1848,  and  Frederick  William  IV 
after  granting  a  parliamentary  constitution,  called 
a  Liberal  ministry.  Kadowitz  withdrew  from  public 
affairs,  but  without  any  effort  on  his  own  part  was 
elected  member  of  the  preliminary  Parliament  of 


JOSBPB    MlAU  VOH    RlDOWlTI 


12  BADULPH 

Frankfort,  where  he  brilliantly  represented  mora 
as  orator  tJi'an  as  leader  the  Christian  and  conservative 
principles.  Though  the  majority  of  Catholics  were 
adherents  of  the  Liberal  party  and  opposed  to  forming 
a  confederation  under  the  leadership  of  Prussia, 
Radowitz  worked  both  to  attain  this  end,  and  to 
prevent  the  whole  national  movement  from  failing. 
He  was  willing  that  Austria  should  merely  be  connect^ 
with  the  German  states  in  a  "new  confederation", 
thus  he  was  among  those  who  elected  Frederick 
WilUam  IV  as  German  Emperor,  March,  1849, 
though  the  king  had  declined  the  election. 

In  April  Radowi,tz  was  called  to  Berlin  and  by  his 
advice  the  king  invited  all'  the  German  governments 
except  Austria  to  carry  out  the  principles  of  the  con- 
stitution agreed  upon  at  Frankfort  in  a  freer  confed- 
eration called  the  "Union",  all  revolutionary  ele- 
ments being  suppressed.  To  Austria  he  offered  to 
exchange  guarantees  of  their  possessions.  Fear  rtf 
Prussia  led  most  of  the  German  government*  to 
accept  this  proposition^  to  which  the  mod  era  to  Liberals 
also  agreed.  Radowitz,  however,  was  not  made 
minister,  and  the  Conservative  party  waa  rapidly 
powing  in  strength  in  Prussia.  They  opposed  him 
because  he  was  witling  in  the  plan  of  the  Confedera* 
tion  to  concede  an  assembly  that  would  represent 
the  people.  At  too  late  an  hour  (26  September, 
1850)  ttie  king  appointed  Radowitz  minister  of 
foreign  affairs.  Austria  had  gained  time  to  plan  its 
measuree,  and  Radowitz  wished  to  settle  the  matter 
by  war.  Austria  and  Prussia  mobilized  their  armies, 
but  Frederick  William  gave  up  the  idea  of  war. 
Radowitz  retired  from  his  post  on  2  November,  and 
wont  to  London  as  extraordinary  ambassador  but 
could  gain  no  diplomatic  success  on  account  of  the 
weakness  Prussia  had  shown.  In  the  spring  of  18.^1 
he  retired  into  private  life.  In  1852  the  king  pre- 
vailed upon  him  to  come  again  to  Berlin,  where, 
however,  he  performed  only  military  duties.  He  was 
an  active  author  all  his  life.  At  the  close  of  his 
twentieth  year  ho  had  written  an  "  Ikonographie", 
and  later  no  published  numerous  pmiphlels.  The 
pamphlet  issued.  April,  1848,  on  "Deutschland  und 
Friedrich  Wilhelm  IV"  attracted  much  attention. 
The  "Gesprache"  was  followed  during  tho  fifties  by 
five  volumes  of  collected  writings.  The  first  *7)lume 
of  his  comprehensive  biography,  published  by  Hassel 
in  1905,  gives  the  remainder  of  his  literary  works 
up  to  May,  1848.  The  second  volume,  which  is 
being  prepared  by  Mcinecke,  is  expected  to  give  a 
detailed  explanation  of  much  that  is  not  clear  in  ihe 
Pniswan-German  policy  of  1848-50.  His  son  has 
had  a  brilliant  diplomatic  career.  He  came  r»- 
pecially  into  notice  in  1885  when  tJircaleninga  of  waf 
disturbed  European  diplomacy,  and  lately  when  he 
was  the  representative  of  Germany  at  the  con- 
ference at  Algeciras. 

FREHBDOHrr, /otcpATOn  Aodm^idfipiig.lSSa)!  CkilinKtum. 
VII  (WDnburg.  ISOf),  483  sqq.;  AUpcm.  dofiM'  BiBS-  XXVII. 
Ill  mm. 

Martin  Spabn. 

Radulph  of  Blvo  (or  or-  Tokqrbb;  RAi>TTu>ti 
VAN  DER  Bekke).  historian  and  liturgist,  fa.  at  Breda, 
in  Dutch  Brabant,  about  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth 
century;  d.  at  Tongrca,  3  Nov.,  1403.  He  pursueil 
his  studies  in  various  parts  of  Europe — in  Italy,  where 
he  was  in  1362,  at  Paris,  and  at  Orldans  (1367-75), 
where  he  studied  canon 'and  civil  law.  In  1371  at  thf 
latest  he  was  subdeacon.  Invested  in  1371  with  the 
deanery  of  Tongres  by  a  Bull  of  Gr^;ory  IX,  he  took 
possfeaion  of  his  charge  in  1383.  In  the  int^rral  he 
returned  to  Italy;  in  1381  he  was  still  at  Rome,  where 
he  had  as  master  Simon  of  Constantinople,  Arch- 
bishop of  Thebes,  who  taught  him  Greek.  After  I3W 
he  wa'>  replaced  at  Timgres  by  a  vice-dean.  Durinii 
this  time  tie  had  matriculated  at  the  new  Universit] 
of  Cologne  (founded  in  1388).  where  for  a  time  he  wft 


^  RAFFEIX  6: 

rector  (1397).  Re  made  hia  last  journey  to  Rome 
somewhat  prior  to  that  dat*.  In  1398  he  returned  to 
TongreB,  where  he  reaumed  hia  duties  aa  dean.  Here 
he  (Kicupied  hiiDHelf.  !i»  durinn  his  first  stay,  with  firm 
and  eiliKhl«ned  zeaJ  in  the  maintj^nance  of  diHciphne 
during  the  period  disturtwd  by  the  beghining  of  the 
Great  Schiam  of  the  West.  He  exerted  himself 
especially  for  the  reform  of  the  liturgy.  He  waa  the 
friend,  protector,  and  guide  of  the  new  institutions  of 
Windprsheim  and  Corsendonck.  Several  of  his  works 
ilate  from  this  period,  while  his  liturgical  writings 
were  ehiefly  compoeed  during  his  second  stay  at  Rome. 
He  was  buried  m  the  cloisters  of  the  church  of  Ste- 
Marie  at  Toogres. 

Radulph  wrote  a  great  deal.  Besides  some  works 
on  grammar,  mention  must  be  made  of  his  chronicle 
of  the  bishops  of  Li^ge  published  by  Chapeaville 
(3  vols.,  Li^,  1612-16)  and  his  liturgical  works.  The 
last-named  are  the  most  important  and  the  beat  of 
his  writings,  eape- 
eially  for  the  his- 
tory of  the  Breviary 
and  the  Mass.  Here 
he  displays  a  great 
spirit  of  piety,  snow- 
ing at  the  same  ^me 
much  critical  ability, 
learning,  and  wide 
reading.  He  ia  de- 
cidedly in  favour  of 
maintaining  ancient 
Homanlitur(^eal  cus- 
toms and  rejects  re- 
•^ent  modihcations. 
Among  his  writings 
(many  still  unedited) 
especially  notable 
are:  "Liber  de  ca- 
nonumobservantta" 
(ed.  Hilthorp, 
Cologne,  150S,  and 
in  "  Maxima  Patrum 
Bibliotheca",  Lyons, 
vol.  XXVI,  289); 
"Calendarius  eccle- 
aiasticus  Generalis" 
(Louvain,  1508);  "De  psaJterio  obaervando"  and 
"  Liber  de  Officiis  ecclesiosticia",  the  laat  two  unpub- 

BikU\o,SBurradrn>iato{Tedt  Lttgi  (BiushIb.  1903);  Batiftol, 
HiUoirr  du  ArMsirr  (Psria,  IfiU);  Forftn*,  BibliiUheca  bdffica 
(Bniiwls.  1730):  MOBLBEHO,  Kadalph  di  Ri^  (lAuvain.  1611). 


Kftffflix,  Pierre,  misaionary,  b.  at  Clermont, 
1633;  d.  at  Quebec,  1724.  He  entered  the  Society  of 
Jesus  in  1653,  and  came  to  Canada  in  1663.  In  1668 
he  established  near  Montreal  a  settlement  for  con- 


aftorw&rds  went  to  the  Senecas  until  1680.  receivii^ 
an  ample  share  of  the  hardships  and  dangers  insepa- 
rable from  the  Iroquois  mission,  RafTeix  was  a  teamed 
cartographer,  as  the  following  maps  still  preserved 
in  Paris  bear  witness:  (a)  "Carte  des  regions  lea  plus 
occidentales  du  Canada",  dated  1676,  and  bearing  a 
l^end  relating  to  the  voyage  of  diacovery  of  Marquette 
andJoliet;  (b)  "  Le  lac  Ontario  avec  lea  pays  adjacents 
et  aurtout  lescinq  nations  iroquoisps";  (c)  "La  Nou- 
velle-France,  de  I'Oci^an  au  lac  Eri^,  et,  au  sud,  jusqu'il 
la  Nouvelle-Angleterre".  After  his  return  to  Quebec 
he  acted  as  procurator  to  the  mission.  He  spent  two 
years  at  Jcune-Lorette  (1699-1700),  shortly  aft«r  the 
nnal  migration  of  the  remnants  of  the  Huron  nation. 
RocHEMOKTEix.  Lm  Jttaiut  it  la  KouvctU-Fmnri  IPs™, 
1S1M):  LiHDBiT.  Nmrt-Dainr  di  la  JeunfLomu  (M^irnl, 
lOOU):  Campbell,  Pimirr  Prinu  of  Norlli  Amrriea  (New  York, 
I90S);  TavArrBa.  Jauit  Hdaiimxi  (Clevabnd.  lS9e-l9ni). 

Lionel  Lindsay. 


3  KAOtrSA 

Eaguonrau,  Paol,  Jesuit  missionary,  b,  in  Paris, 
18  March.  1608;  d.  8  Sept.,  1680.  He  entered  the 
society  in  1626.  In  1636  he  went  to  Queber,  and  was 
soon  sent  to  the  Hurons  with  I^  Moyne,  Duperon, 
Jogues,  and  Gamier,  to  labour  under  Br^beuf  during 
the  long  and  painful  period  preceding  the  conversion 
of  that  nation.  He  was  one  of  the  heroic  band  who, 
in  1637,  being  exposed  to  death  at  every  moment, 
ei^ed  and  sent  to  their  superior  as  their  last  will  a 
joint  act  of  resignation  to  martyrdom.  In  1645 
Raguencau  was  superior  of  the  Huron  mission  which 
counted  eighteen  workers.  He  possessed  a  perfect 
mastery  of  the  language.  The  death  of  the  martyr 
Jogues  was  the  signd  for  many  conversions,  and 
Ragueneau  writes  with  admiration  of  the  fervour  of 
his  neophytes.  Five  of  his  fellow-mlsaionaries  won 
the  martyr's  crown  in  different  posts  under  Raxue- 
neau's  direction,  the  ftrst  being  Father  Daniel  (4  July, 
1648).  He  remained  at  his  post  at  St.  Mary's  on  the 
Wye  until  persuaded 
by  the  Huron  cap- 
tains to  join  the  fugi- 
tives on  St.  Joseph's 
island  (1649).  The 
notahle  increase  in 
the  number  of  con- 
versions (3(»0  In- 
dians being  baptized 
--  1649)  rewarded 
a  leal.  After  a 
bloody  defeat,  fol- 
lowed by  the  maa- 
sBcre  of  l--athera 
Chabanel  and  Gar- 
nier,  Raguencau. 
yielding  to  the  en- 
treaties of  the  few 
whom  famine,  pesti- 
lence, and  the  fury 
of  the  Iroquoia  had 
spared,  led  the  smtdl 
band  of  400  sun'iv- 
ors,  theremnanlsofa 
nation  of  ten  thou- 
sand, to  their  final 
refuge,  Quebec,  after 
a  long  and  perilous  journey.  In  16.50  he  became  vice- 
rector  of  I  he  college  of  Quebec  and  superior  of  the  Cana- 
dian mission.  It  was  during  this  time  that  he  directed 
in  the  ways  of  holiness  a  highly  privileaed  soul.  Sister 
Catherine  of  St^Augustine,  whose  life  he  wrote.  Hia 
influence  in  the  supreme  council  and  with  Governor 
de  Lavizon  waa  the  occasion  of  his  removal  to  Three 
Rivers  (1656).  Theyearfollowinghewassent  as  supe- 
rior to  the  Iroquois  mission.  On  hia  way  to  Onondaga 
be  witnessed  the  butchery  of  his  Huron  companions, 
for  which  he  reproved  the  murderers,  the  Senecas  ana 
Onondagaa,  at  the  peril  of  his  own  life.  Informed 
of  the  impending  massacre  of  all  the  French  in  the 
Iroquois  country,  Ragueneau's  genius  planned  and  re- 
alized their  escape  and  return  to  Queoec  (1658).  He 
returned  to  France  (1662)  with  Bishop  I^val,  and  re- 
mained there  as  procurator  of  the  mission.  Besides  a 
life  of  Sister  Catherine  of  St-Augustine  {Patis,  1671), 
RftEUeiieau  wrote  "Relations"  of  1648-9,1649-50, 
16.T0-1,  and  1651-2.  Noother  Jesuit  in  Canada  wrote 
so  much  as  he.  On  one  of  his  missions  he  saw  and 
mentioned  Niagara  Falls  thirty-five  years  before  Hen- 
nepin, the  alleged  discoverer,  described  the  cataract. 

RoTHBHOimil,    La    Jinilr.    ft    In    NouTtUr-Frani-l    (Parii, 
lS9fl>.  CAypBiLL.  Pionrrr  /^>>«i  of  North  Ammm  INew  YorL, 
-  ■■        Amfriai  IToronlo,  ISM); 

1R96-1901), 

Lionel  Lindsat. 

BaffUW  (EFtDACRoa),  Diocese  of  (Racusina), 
a  bishopric  in  DaJmalia,  suffragan  of  Zara.  The 
epiacopato  of  its  first  bishop  Fabricanus  was  followed 


BUBOLnn  6i 

by  ft  long  acricH  of  bishoini.  For  miirc  llion  a  thou- 
BunJ  years  Ragutta  wiv^  an  indcpendeDt  republic  and 
consequently  had  urchbishopB.  The  first  archbishop 
waa  Joaanes  II  (d.  970).  Alter  the  dissolution  of  the 
republic  (ISOG)  the  see  was  vacant  for  a  long  time, 
until  in  ISSORaguaa  was  once  more  theseeofaBisbop. 
At  the  present  day  the  diocese  has  a  Cathoue 
population  of  73,000,  with  115  secular  priests;  re- 
lieious  orders  of  men,  93  members  in  19  houses; 
religious  orders  of  women,  51  members. 

DOLTIt  De  Raffunni  fpitcopatua  arUiifuilaie.  AcadU  titudem 
trritn^  antiMum  scrirt  chnmotosica  (Ancona,  1781):  FaRUTI, 
tUwricum  lacnim  {V™icr,  1761-18I9):  CoLim,  torn.  VI.  1-285; 
I'HEIHCH,    V'cfcra  monvmmta  liitlarica,  II  (Home.  1830). 

C.    Woi.FSaRIIBER. 


Ralbollni,  Fbancebco. 


c  Francia. 


Ratob,  JOBANN  Michael,  Catholic  theologian,  b. 
at  Ottobeuren  in  Bavaria,  17  January,  1832;  d.  at 
Mainz,  2S  March,   1907.     Rtuch  pursued  his  p-m- 

nuHial  studies  under  the  Benedictines  at  St.  Stephen's 
at  Augsburg,  and  studied  philosophy  and  theology  at 
the  Collegium  Gennanicuni  at  Rome  (1852-5). 
On  29  May,  1S58,  he  wan  ordained  priest  at  the  same 
place.  In  the  autumn  of  1859  he  left  Rome  and  went 
to  Maim  as  secretary  of  Bishop  von  Kettelor.  He 
accompanied  the  bishop  on  journey  and  thus  was  at 
Rome  during  the  Vatican  Council.  Ho  was  also  a 
cathedral  prebend  from  4  May,  1867.  After  the 
death  of  Bishop  von  Ketteler,  during  the  years  of  the 
KuUurkampf,  Raich  had  a  position  in  the  episcopal 
Chancery.  On  29  November,  1890,  Bishop  Haff- 
ner  appointed  him  cathedral  canon,  and  on  11  April, 
1900,  he  become  cathedral  dean. 

Rudi  did  much  notable  literaiy  work.  Among  his 
writings  are:  "Die  Auflehnung  D611ingers  gegen  die 
Kirche  u.  ihre  Autoritat "  (Mainz,  1871) ;  "  Ueber  das 
Alt«r  der  Etstcommunicantcn"  (Mainz,  1875): 
"f^hakespeare's  Stellung  zur  katholischen  Religion 
(Maine,  1884);  "Die  innere  Unwahrhcit  der  Frei- 
maurerei"  (iirst  issued  at  Mainz,  1S84,  under  the 
pseudonym  of  Otto  Beurcn;  2iid  ed.  under  his  own 
name  Raich,  1897);  "St,  August inus  u.  derMoaaischo 
Sch&ptungsbericht ''  (Frankfort-on-Mwn,  I889J.  Be- 
sides  these  original  works  he  edited  the  following: 
Liebenuann'a  " Institutionea  theologicfe"  (lOth  ea., 
2  vols.,  Mainz,  1870);  "Joannis  Maldonati  Conv 
mentani  in  quatuor  Evangelistas"  (new  ed.,  2  vols., 
Mainz,  1874) ;  " Prcdigten  des  Bischofs  von  Keltoler'' 
(2  vols.,  Mwnz,  1878);  "Briefe  von  u.  an  Wilhclm 
tmmanuel  Freiherm  von  Ketteler,  Bischof  voa 
Mainz"  (Mainz,  1879);  "Hirtcnbriefe  von  Wilhelm 
Kmmanuel  Freiherm  von  Kott«ler,  Bischof  von 
Mainz"  (Mainz,  1904);  "Novolis'  Bri^wechsel  mit 
Schleigor'  (Mainz,  1880);  "Dorothea  von  Schlegel 
Eeb.  Mendelssohn  und  dercn  Sohns  Johannes  und 
Philipp  Vcit,  Briefweehsel"  (2  vols.,  Mmuz,  1881); 
J.  B.  Rady's  "Geschichte  der  katholischen  Kirche 
in  Hc8sen'^(Mmnz,  1904).  After  the  death  of  Hein- 
rich  and  Moiifang,  iWch  waa  editor  of  "  Der  Katholik" 
from  1891  to  1007.  From  1887  he  also  revised  the 
"Frankfurter  zeiteemiisson  Broschilren". 

FoFESCSNVB,  Dr.  Johann  Miehaei  Roich,  Domdtt^n  fu  Maint 
in  Drr  Katkolii  <1907).  I,  213-51.  with  portrut;  ths  Mine  u  a 
Kpvmie  publicBtioa  (Maioi,  1907). 

Fbiedbich  Laccheet. 

Bftlmondi,  Mabcantonio,  engraver,  b.  at  Bologna, 
1475  (1480?);  d.  there,  1530  (15347).  He  studied 
under  the  goldsmith  and  niellist  Francia,  and  later 
often  agned  his  work  M-A.  F..  F  referring  to  his 
teacher.  Hia  earliest  plate  (1.505),  "Pyramus  and 
Thisbe",  shows  a  goldsmith-like  shading.  His  first 
artistic  stimulation  came  from  seeing  plates  by  Dtlrer, 
some  of  which  ho  copied  (1506)  with  such  perfection 
that  they  sold  as  origniJs.  When  rebuked  by  tho 
Venetian  Senate  on  Diirer's  eomplainl,  the  young 
mwi  subsequently  added  hia  own  to  Durer's  initials. 


t4  RAINALD 

From  Lucas  of  Leydcn  Raimondi  also  learni^l  much; 
his  burin  gained  in  mellowness  from  engraving 
Perazzo's  work.  R^idly  assimilating  and  aiwavs 
simplifying,  Marcantonio's  "  Mars  and  Cupid" 
(1508)  fiads  him  master  of  t«cimio  and  finished  in 
style. 

About  this  time  Raimondi  left  for  Rome,  stopping 
at  Florence  to  sketch  Michelangelo's  (lost)  cartoon 
"The  Climbers"  which  he  afterwards  engraved  in 
Rome  (1510).  Seeing  a  proof  of  this  Raphael  ex- 
claimed: "It  is  the  fijieat  I  have  ever  seen  and  the 
finest  that  can  be  seenl"  The  two  artists  became 
friends  and  Raimondi's  nest  work  waa  Raphael's 
"The  Death  of 
Lucretia".  This 
and  later  plates 
show  the  darks  be- 
coming less  dra- 
matic and  the 
burin  work  more 
"open".  Raphael 
left  much  to  Rai- 

ing  him  a  finished 
picture  but  a  pen- 
cil or  pen  outune- 
drawing,  knowing 
that  tne  proper 
treatment  and 
elaboration  would 
come  from  his  en- 
graver; and  hence 
there  is  often  a 
marked  discrep- 
betweon 


Mabcahtonio  Raikomdi 
Detail  from  "The  GiDulsioii  ol  Hi 
",  lUpbul.  V.    ' 


^y  h 

oil  by  Raphael  and  Raimondi's  engraving  thereof. 
Marcantonio's  triumphs  in  Rome  equalled  those 
of  Raphael;  DUrer  wrote  for  proofs  from  his  hand, 
and  German  engravers  flocked  to  Rome  to  study 
under  him.  Romano  and  Arctino  subsequently 
induced  hira  to  engrave  obscene  or  sumeetive  plates, 
tor  which  he  was  imprisoned  by  Pope  Clement,  who, 
however,  freed  him  several  months  later  at  tiie 
soUcitation  of  Cardinal  de  Medici.  In  1527,  at  the 
sack  of  Rome,  he  is  stud  to  iuve  escaped,  leaving  a 
fortune  and  his  plates  in  the  victors' hands.  Some 
authorities  record  that  he  died  four  years  before  this, 
heartbroken  at  the  death  of  Raphael.  Raimondi 
opened  up  a  new  province  of  the  burin — reproduc- 
tion; he  inspired  the  lai^est  following  that  ever  an 
engraver  h^,  and  he  drew  as  well  as  da  Vinci  or 
Raphael.  "His  sentiment  waa  noble,  his  taste  pure" 
(Delaborde);  hia  style,  simple  and  sober,  bis  model- 
ling of  B^ures  beautiful,  and  he  was  the  first  engraver 
who  omitted  details.  Of  texture,  tone,  and  local 
colour  of  modem  engravers  he  had  not  a  trace. 
Raimondi  engraved  about  six  hundred  plates.  His 
best  are:  "Adam  and  Eve"  (probably  the  finest}; 
"Virgin  with  the  Bare  Arm";  "Massacre  of  the 
Innocents":  "The  Plague";  "The  Judgment  of 
Paris"  (with  a  trace  of  goldsmith-like  shading). 

Hind,  A  Short  Hitiani  of  EnBraiing  and  BIcAiao  (New  York, 
1908);  Df.laborde.  La  Gracare  (Pui>.  e.  d.):  XiFnuH,  B•^- 
erannv  a~J  Btchina  (3ni  od,.  Nb»  York.  1910). 

Leigh  Hunt. 

Ralnald  of  Dauel,  b.  probably  not  before  1115; 
d.  in  Italy,  14  August,  1167.  A  younger  son  of  a  rich 
Saxon  count,  Rainald  I,  and  destined  as  such  to  be 
an  ecclesiastic,  he  was  sent  to  the  cathedr^  school  at 
Hildesheim.  At  a  later  date  he  probably  went  to 
Paris.  As  early  as  1130  he  is  said  to  have  had  a  high 
reputation  for  classical  learning,  and  to  have  been  a 
member  of  the  cathedral  chapter  of  Hildesheim. 
According  to  documentary  evidence  ho  was  provost  in 
1148,  and  in  11.54  reccivini  the  provoatship  of  Peters- 
borg  at  Goslar  and  of  St,  Moritz  at  Hildesheun.  Soon 
after  1 154  he  was  also  provost  of  the  cathedral  diap- 


RAINALDUCCI 


635 


RALE 


tcr  at  MiinBtcr,  ]>iit  declined  the  See  of  Hildeabeim^ 
As  a  member  of  the  embassy  sent  by  Frederick  I  in 
1153  to  Eugenius  III  at  Rome  he  first  revealed  his 
political  ability,  and  in  1156  the  emi)eror  appointed 
Kim  chancellor  of  the  empire.  The  Diet  of  Besanoon 
(October,  1157)  left  no  doubt  as  to  the  drift  of  Jbis 
policy.  He  inaugurated  a  German  polioy  which  in- 
sisted upon  the  rights  and  the  power  of  the  German 
kings^  the  strengthening  of  the  Church  in  the  German 
Empire,  the  lordship  of  Italy,  and  the  humiliation  of 
the  papacy.  Full  of  life,  at  times  rough  and  blunt 
and  again  careful  and  calculating,  Rainald,  who^  in 
spite  of  his  ecclesiastical  dignities,  knew  how  to  wield 
tne  sword,  henceforth  influenced  the  policy  of  his 
imperial  masters.  Though  he  did  not  wish  to  separate 
Germany  entirely  from  Rome  and  still  held  the 
medieval  respect  for  the  Church,  his  temperament 
carried  Barbarossa  muchiurther  than  the  latter  de- 
sired, or  than  was  advantageous  under  the  circum- 
stances. When  Frederick  mially  submitted,  it  was 
Rainald  who  prevented  him  from  making  concessions 
which  might  have  proved  of  advantage.  The  struggle 
with  the  curia  began  at  the  Diet  of  Be8an9on.  where 
Rainald  vigorously  rejected  the  use  of  the  wora  henefi- 
ctiim,  which  might  mean  fief  as  well  as  benefit.  In  tne 
expression  used,  that  the  pope  would  have  been  glad  to 
grant  the  emperor  even  greater  heneficia  (or  benefits),  it 
was  thought  that  the  old  desire  of  the  curia  for  the 
mastery  of  the  world  was  to  be  found.  In  1158 
Rainald  undertook  a  diplomatic  journey  into  Italy 
to  prepare  the  way  for  the  emperor.  In  1159  he  was 
appointed  Archbishop  of  Ck>logne,  and  during  the 
schism  between  Alexander  III  and  Victor  IV  sup- 
ported the  imperial  pope.  In  1160  he  was  the  am- 
bassador of  the  emperor  to  the  courts  of  the  French 
and  English  kings,  whom  he  endeavoured  to  win  to 
the  side  of  the  antipope,  but  he  did  not  succeed. 
In  1161  he  joined  the  emperor  before  Milan  and  in- 
fliienced  him  to  consent  to  the  destruction  of  the  city. 
Rainald  was  also  employed  in  diplomatic  negotiations 
with  Genoa,  Pisa,  and  Louis  VII;  these,  however, 
failed.  In  1163  Alexander  III  excommunicated 
Rainidd,  who  had  loudly  proclaimed  in  these  negotia- 
tions the  right  of  the  emperor  to  dispose  of  the  papal 
see.  Basing  his  action  on  the  Roncalian  decrees, 
Rainald  was  once  more  successfully  employed  in  Italy 
in  the  affairs  of  the  emperor.  When  Victor  IV  diea, 
Rainald,  of  his  own  volition  and  without  waiting  for 
the  consent  of  the  emperor,  elected  at  Lucca  a  new 
antipope.  Paschal  III.  Frederick  would  hardly  have 
oontmued  the  schism.  Rainald  knew  this  and  there- 
fore wished  to  force  the  emperor  to  continue  the 
struggle  for  imperial  supremacy.  In  1164  he  was 
again  in  Germany,  and  brought  the  bones  of  the  Three 
Kings  with  him.  In  the  meantime  the  number  of  the 
adherents  of  the  lawful  pope  increased  in  Germany. 
Finally  only  Rainald  supported  the  antipope.  Rai- 
nald won  the  consent  of  tne  King  of  England  to  com- 
mon ecclesiastico-political  action  in  behalf  of  Paschal 
and  once  more  tooK  up  arms  in  defence  of  his  one  am- 
bition, which  he  hoped  the  proposed  canonization  of 
Charlemagne  at  Aachen  in  1165  would  advance.  In 
1166  he  was  again  in  Italy,  activelv  engaged  in  pre- 
paring the  way  for  the  emperor.  While  there  with  a 
few  mounted  soldiers  he  defended  himself  in  Tu»- 
culum  against  a  much  larger  force  of  Roman  troops. 
His  death  was  caused  by  the  pest;  he  was  buried  in 
the  Lady  Chapel  of  the  cathedral  at  Cologne. 

FiCKBB,  Rainatd  von  Dasnel^  Reichakander  u.  Ertbiachof  wm 
Kdln  (CologDe,  1850);  Hampe,  Deutsche  Kai»erge»ch%chte  in  der 
Zeit  der  Salier  u,  Siaufer  (Leipsiff.  1900);  Haucx.  Kireheng»- 
tehiehte  DeuUchlande,  pt.  iv  (Leipsig,  1003). 

F.  KAMPmts, 

Ralnaldueci,  Pietro,  Ai«tifofe.  See  John 
XXII,  Pope. 

Bftjpootaaa,  Prefecture  Apostolic  of,  in  India, 
attached  to  the  Province  of  Agra,  comprises  ap- 


proximately the  collection  of  Native  States  which 
form  the  Kajpootana  Agency.  To  the  north  it  is 
bounded  by  the  Bahawalpur  State  and  the  Pimjab;^ 
on  the  east  it  extends  to  Ahahari,  PipU,  Rania,  Sirsa, 
Hissar,  Rewari,  the  Native  States  of  Alwar,  BharatpuTi 
Dholpur,  and  as  far  as  Sipri  (which  however  belong 
to  Agra),  then  to  Lallitpur  and  Bina;  on  the  soutn 
it  reaches  to  the  limits  of  the  BhopaJ  State  and  the 
River  Nerbudda;  on  the  west  to  tne  borders  of  the 
Bombay  Presidency — excepting  Mount  Abu  and 
Abu  Road  station,  which  belong  to  the  Archdiocese 
of  Bombay.  Out  of  a  total  population  of  10,800,000 
the  Catholics  number  about  3846  (Europeans  656. 
Eurasians  609,  natives  2581)  who  have  9  churches  ana 
8  chapels  served  by  29  Capuchin  Fathers  of  the  Prov- 
ince of  Paris,  assisted  by  10  lay  brothers  of  the  same 
order.  The  residence  of  the  Prefect  Apostolic  is  at 
Ajmere. 

History.— Originally  a  portion  of  the  Vicariate  Apos- 
tolic of  the  Great  Mogul,  and  later  on  of  the  Thibet- 
Hindustan  mission,  Rajpootana  had  no  ecclesiastical 
history  down  to  the  year  1891,  when  it  was  separated 
from  the  Archdiocese  of  Agra,  and  made  into  a  pre- 
fecture apostolic.  At  this  date  the  district  had  only 
one  mission  station,  Jaipur.  Besides  this,  a  priest 
was  residing  at  Ajmer^  in  charge  of  a  small  community 
of  Euraaans  and  Goanese,  and  there  were  also 
stations  for  troops  at  Nasirabad,  Neemuch,  and 
Mhow,  served  by  three  military  chaplains.  Since 
the  coming  of  the  French  Capuchins  other  stations 
have  been  established  at  Ratlam,  Thandla,  Mariapur, 
Jhabua,  Jhalrapatan,  Parbatpura,  and  Bhawanikhera, 
besides,  sub-stations  visited  from  time  to  time.  There 
have  been  two  prefects  Apostolic: — Father  Bertram, 
1892-1902.  and  Father  Fortunatus,  present  prefect 
Apostolic  from  1903. 

iNSTrruTiONB. — The  Third  Order  of  St.  Francis 
of  Assisi,  with  35  members,  besides  various  confra- 
ternities numbering  347  members.  For  education 
of  boys:  St.  Anselm's  School,  Ajmere,  with  37  board- 
ers and  17  day  scholars;  St.  Joseph's  School,  Jaipur, 
for  training  teachers  and  catechists,  with  25  native 
orphans:  School  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  Mhow,  'with 
35  boarders  and  8  day  scholars;  besides  25  elementary 
schools  attended  by  native  boys  from  the  villages. 
For  education  of  girls:  under  the  Franciscan  Nuns 
of  St.  Mary  of  the  Angels — Convent  of  the  Assump- 
tion, Mhow,  15  nuns  and  4  lay  sisters,  convent 
high  school  with  21  boarders  and  47  day  scholars, 
St.  Joseph's  School  with  12  boarders,  St.  Anne's 
School  with  37  native  pupils,  of  whom  10  are  or- 
phans; Convent  of  St.  I^ary  Magdalen,  Ajmere,  with 
10  nuns  and  4  lay  sisters,  convent  high  school  with 
34  boarders,  and  105  day  scholars.  Charitable 
institutions:  besides  those  attached  to  the  foregoine, 
there  are  agricultural  orphanages  at  Mariapur  with 
72  inmates,  and  at  Thandla  with  29  Bhil  orphans; 
St.  Joseph's  Convent,  Thandla.  for  Bhil  girls;  sur- 
gical home  at  Indore  attended  by  4  nuns; — also  dis- 
pensaries in  seven  places. 

Madnu  Catholie  Dxredory,  1910;  Fobtunat,  Au  Pay  ds* 
Raj<u  (Paris,  1906). 

Ernest  R.  Hull. 

Bile  (Rasle),  Sebastian,  missionary,  b.  at 
Pontarlier,  Diocese  of  Besanoon,  France,  20  Jan., 
1654(7);  shot  by  the  En^h  force  attacking 
Norridgewock  Mission,  Maine,  23  August,  1724. 
He  entered  the  Jesuit  novitiate  at  Dole,  prov- 
ince of  Lyons,  in  1675.  He  made  his  first  studies 
at  Carpentras,  taught  for  a  time  at  Ntmes,  finished 
his  theology  at  Lyons  in  1688,  volunteered  for  the 
missions  in  America,  and  sailed  the  next  year  with  a 
party  under  Frontenac  from  Rochelle.  His  first 
missionary  work  was  at  an  Abenaki  village  near 
Quebec,  whence  he  was  recalled  to  Quebec  in  1691. 
Next  he  laboured  for  two  years  among  the  Illinois 
Indians.    In  1694  he  went  to  the  Abenaki  mission  on 


RALPH 


636 


ItAlff 


the  Kennebeo.  The  colonists  of  New  England  re- 
garded with  suspicion  and  hatred  the  arrival  of  a 
Frenchman  in  the  midst  of  savages  who  were  for  the 
most  part  hostile  to  the  English.  The  latter  pro- 
simied  that  the  missionary  would  do  his  best  to  keep 
alive  this  hostihty.  Hence  the  Indian  outrages  per- 
petrated on  the  eastern  frontier  of  New  England 
during  Rule's  long  residence  among  the  Abenakis 
were  for  the  most  part  attributed,  either  directly 
or  indirectly,  to  iiim.  R&le  made  his  head- 
quarters at  Norridgewock,  where  in  1698  he  built 
a  church.  Diuing  Queen  Anne's  war,  frequent  at- 
tacks were  made  by  the  English  upon  Norridgewock, 
and  in  1705  the  church  was  burned.  HAle  and  his 
converts  escaped  capture  by  flight. 

The  Treaty  of  Utrecht,  1713,  established  relatively 
peaceful  conditions  for  a  short  time.  A  conference 
was  held  by  the  English  and  the  Indians  at  Ports- 
mouth, of  which  we  have  two  conflicting  reports. 
According  to  PenhaUow  (Indian  Wars)  the  Indians 
ac^owledged  themselves  subjects  of  Great  Britain, 
who,  in  return,  promised  them  free  possession  of  their 
lands  about  the  Kennebec.  RAle  denies,  however,  that 
the  Indians  promised  sub j  ection  to  Ehigland .  His  source 
of  information  was  the  verbal  report  of  the  Abenakis, 
who,  if  they  had  made  any  promises,  carefully  con- 
cealed them  from  the  missionary.  It  is  most  likely, 
however,  that  the  savages  had  no  idea  of  what  a 
promise  of  subjection  to  England  meant.  This  is 
Farkman's  opinion  (Half-Century  of  Conflict,  1, 
212-13).  Ere  long  English  encroachments  upon 
Indian  lands  again  stiired  up  the  Abenakis.  As 
a  result,  hostilities  broke  out  in  Sept.,  1721.  In  the 
following  January  an  English  expedition  started  for 
Norridgewock  with  the  purpose  of  apprehending  Fr. 
R&le.  The  missionary  escaped,  however,  and  soon 
returned  to  his  mission.  In  August,  1724,  another 
EngUsh  expedition  set  out  to  capture  him.  The  at- 
tacking party  came  upon  Nomdgewock  unexpect- 
edly; the  Indians  were  routed,  and  fled,  leaving  be- 
hind them  many  wounded  and  dead,  among  the  latter 
their  beloved  missionary.  R&le's  long  residence 
with  his  flock,  over  a  quarter  of  a  century,  gave  him 
an  intimate  knowledge  of  their  tongue.  As  evidence 
of  this  he  prepared  a  dictionary  of  the  Abenaki 
language,  the  MS.  copy  of  which  is  preserved  in  the 
library  of  Harvard  College.  Some  Indian  prayers 
and  a  catechism,  still  in  use  among  the  Penobscots 
and  Passamaquoddies,  are  attributed  to  him.  In 
"The  Jesuit  Relations",  LXVII,  are  two  lengthy 
letters  written  by  him  from  Norridgewock. 

Records  of  the  Am.  Cath.  Hist.  Soc.,  XVIII  (Philadelphia, 
1790),  art.  A  Typical  Missionary;  The  Jesuit  Relations 
(171&-1727);  PaBkman,  A  Half-Century  of  Conflict  (Boston, 
1902)  I  CONVBRS,  Life  of  Rev.  Sebastian  Rale  in  Library  of 
American  Biography,  2na  ser.,  VII  (Boston,  1845);  Baxter, 
The  Pioneers  of  New  France  in  New  England  (Albany,  1894); 
Crablbvoix,  Hist,  of  New  France,  II,  tr.  Shea  (New  York.  1866- 
72):  Pbnh  ALLOW  (ed.  Dodqe),  Hist,  of  the  Wars  of  New  England 
vrith  the  Eastern  Indians  (Cincinnati,  1859);  Collections  of  the 
Mass.  Hist.  Soc.,  passim,  especiallv  2nd  ser.,  VIII:  3rd  ser.,  VI; 
4th  ser..  V;  5th  ser.,  V,  VI,  VII;  6th  ser.,  I.  II;  Coll.  of  the  Maine 
Hist.  Soc.,  lat  and  2nd  series;  Coll.  of  the  N.  H.  Hist.  Soc.,  I.  II; 
Plumbb,  MSS.  Biographies  of  Persons  connected  with  the  Hist, 
of  New  Hampshire,  II  (N.  H.  Hist.  Soc.) ;  Collection  de  Manuscrits 
relatifs  d  la  NouveUe  France,  II,  III  (Quebec.  1883-85) ,  Roche- 
MOMTKIX,  Les  Jisuites  el  la  NouveUe  France,  III  (Paris,  1895). 

H.  C.  Schuyler. 

Ralph  Crocketti  Venerable,  EngUsh  martyr, 
b.  at  Barton,  near  Famdon,  Cheshire;  executed  at 
Chichester.  1  October,  1588.  Educated  at  Cam- 
bridge, ana  ordained  at  Reims  in  1585,  he  was  cap- 
tured on  board  ship  at  Littlehampton,  Sussex,  19 
April,  1586,  with  three  other  priests,  Thomas  Brams- 
ton,  George  Potter,  and  his  fellow-martyr,  Edward 
James  (b.  at  Breaston,  Derbyshire,  about  1557,)  ed- 
ucated at  Derby  Grammar  School,  St.  John's  College, 
Oxford,  and  the  English  colleges  at  Reims  and  Rome; 
ordained  by  Bishop  Goldwell  of  St.  Asaph  in  October, 
J583;  all  were  sent  up  to  London  and  committed 


to  prison  27  April,  1586.  After  the  failure  of  the 
Armada  the  Government  determined  to  revenge  itself 
on  some  of  the  priests  in  its  custody.  Crockett  and 
James  with  two  others,  John  Oven  and  Francis  Ed- 
wardes,  were  selected  for  trial,  which  took  place  at 
Chichester  on  30  September,  1588.  All  were  c5on- 
demned  to  death,  under  27  Elia.  c.  2,  for  being  priesta 
and  coming  into  the  realm ;  but  Oven  on  taking  the 
oath  of  supremacy  was  respited.  The  other  three 
were  drawn  on  one  hurdle  to  Broyle  Heath,  near  Chi- 
chester, where  Edwardes  recanted,  but  the  other  two 
Buffered  with  great  constancy  after  absolving  each 
other. 

Qu^vow,  Bibl.  Did.  Eng.  Cath., a.  v.  James, Edward; Ckallonbs, 
Missionary  Priests,  1,  nos.  64  and  C5;  Catholic  Record  Society' 9 
Publications,  II,  V;  Salzmann  in  Victoria  History  of  Stustx, 
II  (London,  1905),  28. 

John  B.  Wainbwright. 

Ralph  Sherwin,  Blessed,  English  martyr,  b. 
1550  at  Rode^ley,  near  Longford,  Derbyshire:  a.  at 
Tyburn,  1  December,  1581.  In  1568  Sir  William 
Petre  nominated  him  to  one  of  the  eight  fellowships 
which  he  had  founded  at  Exeter  College,  Oxford, 
probably  acting  under  the  influence  of  the  martyr's 
uncle,  John  Woodward,  who  from  1556  to  1566  had 
been  rector  of  Ingatestone,  Essex,  where  Sir  William 
lived.  There  Blessed  Ralph  took  the  degree  of 
M.A.,  2  July,  1574,  and  was  accounted  "an  acute 
philosopher,  and  an  excellent  Grecian  and  Hebri- 
cian'\  In  1575  he  fled  abroad  and  went  to  the  Eng- 
lish College  at  Douai,  where  23  March,  1577,  he  was 
ordained  priest  by  the  Bishop  of  Cambrai.  On  2 
Aug.,  1577,  he  left  for  Rome,  where  he  stayed  at  the 
English  College  nearly  three  years,  becoming  leader 
of  the  movement  which  placed  it  under  the  super- 
vision of  the  Jesuits.  On  18  April,  1580,  he  set  out 
for  England,  a  member  of  a  party  of  fourteen;  at 
Milan  they  were  the  guests  of  St.  Charles  for  eight 
days,  and  Blessed  Ralph  preached  before  him.  On 
9  November.,  1580,  he  was  imprisoned  in  the  Mar- 
shalsea,  where  he  converted  many  fellow-prisonerB, 
and  on  4  Dec.  was  transferred  to  the  Tower,  where  he 
was  severely  racked,  15  Dec,  and  afterwards*  laid 
out  in  the  snow.  The  next  day  he  was  racked  again, 
after  which  second  torture  he  "lay  for  five  days  ana 
nights  without  any  food  or  speaking  to  anybody.  All 
which  time  he  lay,  as  he  thought  in  a  sleep,  before  our 
Saviour  on  the  Cross.  After  which  time  he  came  to 
himself,  not  finding  any  distemper  in  his  joints  bv 
the  extremity  of  the  torture".  After  over  a  years 
imprisonment  he  was  brought  to  trial,  on  an  absurd 
charge  of  treasonable  conspiracy,  in  Westminster 
Hall  20  Nov.,  1581,  and  being  found  guilty  was  taken 
back  to  the  Tower,  whence  he  was  drawn  to  Tyburn 
on  a  hurdle  shtu^  bv  Blessed  Alexander  Briant. 
He  suffered  very  bravely,  his  last  words  being,  /em, 
JesUf  JesUy  eato  mihi  Jesus! 

Camm,  Lites  of  the  English  Martyrs,  II  (London,  1905) ;  Allbk, 
Briefs  Histoire,  ed.  Pollen  (1008) .  For  particulars  of  Johii  Wood- 
ward: The  Tablet  (London),  11  March,  1911. 

John  B.  Wainewriqht. 

Ram,  Pierre  FRANgois  Xavier  de,  b.  at  Lou  vain 
2  Sept.,  1804;  d.  there  14  May,  1865;  Belgian  histo- 
rian and  rector  of  the  Catholic  University  of  Louvain. 
He  belong^  to  an  ancient  family,  originally  from  the 
Province  of  Zealand.  De  Ram  entered  the  seminary 
at  Mechlin,  where  he  was  ordained  in  1827.  During 
the  trying  period  when  King  William  I  of  the  Nether- 
lands was  carrying  on  his  campaign  against  the 
Catholic  faith  and  traditions  of  the  Belgians,  and 
whilst  de  Ram  was  still  young,  he  took  an  active  part 
in  the  struggle  maintained  by  the  Belgian  clergy 
against  the  government  of  the  Netherlands,  republisn- 
ing  eighteenth-century  works,  in  which,  in  a  series  of 
historical  studies  refuting  the  doctrines  of  Joseph  II, 
he  combate^l  the  latters  disciple.  King  William  I. 
He  was  next  appointed  keeper  of  the  diocesan  recorda 


RAMADAN 


637 


RAMEAU 


and  professor  in  the  episcopal  seminary  at  Mechlin. 
In  order  to  stay  the  spreaa  of  Protestantism  in  the 
Netherlands  he  collaborated  with  a  movement  for 
the  publishing  of  religious  works,  bringing  out 
**Levenfl  von  de  voomaemste  Heyligen  en  roemweer- 
dige  peersonen  der  Nederlanden  (Lives  of  the  most 
prominent  saints  and  celebrities  of  the  Netherlands). 
His  chief  study  for  many  years  was  hagio^aphy,  and 
he  published  an  edition  of  Butler's  ''Lives  of  the 
Samts"  (Louvain,  1828-36).  Between  1828  and  1858 
appeared  the  "Synodicon  Belgicum**,  a  collection  of 
unpublished  documents  upon  the  ecclesiastical  history 
of  the  Netherlands  since  Philip  II  (Louvain,  4  vols.,  in 
quarto).  These  books  met  with  a  warm  appreciation 
and  showed  remarkable  ability.  His*  position  as 
keeper  of  the  records  facilitated  his  researches  to  a 
great  extent. 

Then  came  the  Belgian  Revolution  of  1830.  Noth- 
ing need  be  said  of  the  political  and  philosophical 
opmions  of  de  Ram,  as  they  are  but  secondary  fea- 
tures of  his  career.  He  is  best  known  as  a  prolific 
writer  upon  history  and  the  restorer  and  first  rector 
of  the  Catholic  University  of  Louvain.  He  showed  a 
remarkable  talent  for  organization  and  administra- 
tion during  his  tenure  of  office.  He  still  continued  his 
historicid  researches,  and  the  history  of  the  university 
was  treated  by  Rim  in  numerous  monographs.  For 
this  purpose  he  had  at  his  disposal  the  material  in  the 
National  Archives  at  Brussels.  Upon  the  reorganiza-i 
tion  of  the  BoUandists,  de  Ram  ceased  his  work  upon 
hagiography,  but  still  continued  to  produce  works 
upon  ecclesiastical  and  University  history.  De  Ram 
was  an  active  member  of  the  ''Acad6mie  Royale  de 
Belgique"  and  a  foreign  associate  of  the  Bavarian 
Ac^emy.  The  complete  list  of  his  works  given  in  the 
*  'Bibliop*aphie  de  T  University  CJatholique  oe  Louvain  " 
(Louvam,  1880)  comprises  205  volumes.  Many  of 
these  are  of  considerable  length,  and  the  majority  con- 
tain hitherto  unpublished  papers  of  great  value. 
Among  the  many  tributes  paid  to  the  historian,  that 
of  Gachard,  the  renowned  keeper  of  the  national 
records,  is  remarkable  for  its  sincerity  and  warmth. 
No  complete  biography  of  de  Ram  has  as  yet  ap- 
peared, although  such,  considering  his  influential 
position  and  important  work,  would  awaken  no  incon- 
siderable interest. 

Revue  Caih.,  XXIII  (Louvam,  1865),'  317-30;  de  Buck,  Mffr 
de  Ram  (Paris,  1865) ;  Thorbibsbn  in  Annuaire  de  VAcadimie 
royale  de  Belffimte  (Bnusels,  1866);  NxMicHB  in  Annuaire  de 
r  Uniteretti  de  Louvain  (Louvain,  1866). 

Victor  Brants. 

BAwioilaTi,  See  Mohammed  and  Mohammedan- 
ism. 

i^inA.».l%a.^  a  titular  see  in  Palestine,  suppressed 
in  1884  by  the  Roman  Curia.  It  was  never 
an  episcopal  see  properly  so  called,  but,  in  the  Middle 
Ages,  the  crusaders  established  the  Diocese  of  Lydda 
and  Kama,  the  titular  of  which  was  generally  called 
Bishop  of  Rama,  i.  e.  of  Ramlet,  a  town,  near  Lydda, 
but. more  populous  than  the  latter.  Later  this  was 
forgotten  ana  there  was  a  titular  see  of  Lvdda,  as 
wefi  as  of  Rama  or  Ramatha;  the  mistake  has  been 
discovered  and  rectified  (see  Ltdda). 

S.  Vailh£. 

Rambler,  The,  a  Catholic  periodical  (not  of  course 
to  be-confused  with  the  older  ** Rambler",  published 
a  century  earlier  by  the  famous  Dr.  Johnson),  has  an 
importance  in  the  history  of  English  Catholicism 
during  the  nineteenth  century  which  is  not  to  be 
measured  by  its  mere  duration  as  a  journal.  Closely 
associated  with  the  names  of  Sir  John  (afterwards 
Lord)  Acton  (q.  v.),  Richard  Simpson  and,  for  a  brief 
period,  Newman  himself,  it  represented  a  phase  of 
convert  thought  which  was  in  opposition  to  the  ex- 
treme ultramontanism  of  W.  G.  Ward  and  Manning, 
and  which  eventually  led  to  increasing  friction  with 


the  leading  members  of  the  newly  established  Eng- 
lish liierarchy.  The  chief  external  facts  in  the  history 
of  the  p>eriodical  arc  recounted  in  an  announcement 
which  appeared  in  the  last  number  published  under 
the  old  name  (May,  1862)  headed  '^Enlargement  of 
the  'Rambler'  ":  "The  Rambler  was  commenced  on 
1st  of  January  1848  as  a  weekly  magazine  of  home  and 
foreign  literature,  politics,  science  and  art.  Its  aim 
was  to  unite  an  intelligent  and  hearty  acceptsmce  of 
Catholic  dogma  with  H'ee  enquiry  and  discussion  on 
questions  which  the  Church  left  open  to  debate  and 
while  avoiding,  as  far  as  possible,  tne  domain  of  tech- 
nical theology,  to  pro\dde  a  medium  for  the  expression 
of  independent  opinion  on  subjects  of  the  dav, 
whether  interesting  to  the  general  public  or  especially 
affecting  Catholics".  Before  the  year  1848  was  over 
the  new  venture  succeeded  so  well  that  it  was  found 
necessaxy  to  increase  the  size  of  the  magazine  and  to 
issue  it  in  a  monthly  form.  It  continued  to  be  pub- 
lished as  a  monthly  serial  from  1  Sept.,  1848,  to  1 
Feb.,  1859.  "During  this  period  of  ten  years  and  a 
half",  says  the  same  annoimcement,  "we  at  first  en- 
deavoured to  restrict  it  to  topics  of  social  and  literary 
interest,  without  entering  airectly  into  the  graver 
problems  of  moral  or  political  philosophy,  but  the 
events  of  the  time  and  the  circumstancas  of  English 
Catholicism — compelled  us  more  and  more  to  open 
our  pages  to  investigations  of  a  deeper  and  more  com- 
plex nature." 

In  view  then  of  the  fact  that  "The  Rambler"  had 
thus  "assumed  a  less  ephemeral  character  than  ordi- 
narily belong  to  a  monthly  periodical",  a  new  series 
was  started  m  May,  1859,  of  which  the-numbers,  in  a 
slightly  enlarged  form,  appeared  only  every  two 
months.  This  came  to  an  end  in  Mav,  1862,  and,  in 
accordance  with  the  announcement  above  quoted,  a 
quarterlv  journal,  "The  Home  and  Foreign  Review", 
under  the  same  editorial  management,  appeared  in 
its  place  in  July.  For  some  time  before  this  "The 
Rambler"  had  contrived  to  give  considerable  offence 
to  the  Catholic  authorities  in  England  and  particularly 
to  Cardinal  Wiseman.  Before  June,  1861,  we  find 
Manning  writing  confidentially  to  Rome  that  he  hoped 
soon  to  be  able  to  announce  the  cessation  of  "The 
Rambler"  (Purcell,  "Life  of  Manning",  II,  384). 
The  change  from  a  monthly  to  a  two-monthly  form 
had  really  marked  a  crisis  in  the  journal's  histoiy,  for 
in  May,  1859,  at  the  intervention  of  Cardinal  Wise- 
man, Simpson  had  withdrawn  from  the  editorship 
and  Newman  had  consented  to  take  it  over,  though 
his  connexion  with  the  periodical  was  to  prove  a  very 
brief  one.  Acton  then  succeeded  to  the  direction, 
Simpson,  however,  continuing  to  write  a  great  number 
of  the  articles.  Amongst  the  other  leading  contrib- 
utors were  Wetherell  and  H.  N.  Oxenham.  "The 
Home  and  Foreign  Review",  which  was  supported  by 
the  same  staff  of  writers,  soon  came  into  conflict  with 
the  authorities,  notably  both  with  Cardinal  Wiseman 
and  Bishop  Ullathome,  and  it  lasted 'only  imtil 
April,  1864. 

Gasquet,  Lord  Aeton  and  his  Circle  (London,  1906),  consMting 
mainly  of  letters  written  by  Acton  aa  editor  of  The  Rambler, 
and  its  successor;  Ward,  Life  of  Cardinal  Wiseman  (London, 
1897),  XXIV;  Idem,  W.  G.  Ward  and  the  Catholic  Revival  (Lon- 
don, 1893),  X:  GiLLOW,  Bibl.  Did.  Eng.  Caih.,  «.  v.  Simpson, 
Oillou),  etc. 

Herbert  Thurston. 

Bameau,  Jean-Philippe,  musician,  b.  at  Dijon, 
Burgundy,  25  Sept.,  1683;  d.  at  Paris,  12  Sept.,  1764. 
His  father,  himself  an  organist,  was  his  first  master. 
At  the  age  of  seven  he  was  able  to  perform  every  kind 
of  music.  For  his  further  education  he  was  sent  to  a 
Jesuit  college;  but  even  during  class  he  was  either 
singing  or  writing  music.  Excepting  a  short  stay 
in  Italy,  he  always  lived  in  France,  was  twice  or- 
ganist at  Clermont,  and  from  1723  remained  con- 
stantly in  Paris,  where  he  was  organist  in  several 
churches.    Rameau  was  very  tall  and  extraordinarily 


iru"i«= 


KAHSKT  6: 

thin,  80  that  he  had  more  the  appearance  of  a  ghoat 
than  of  a  human  being.  He  wae  a  ^reat  thinker, 
fond  of  eolitude,  and  out  of  place  in  society.  In  1726 
he  married  Marie-Louise  Mangot,  and  had  four 
children,  a  son  and  three  dau^tere,  one  of  whom  en- 
tered the  Order  of  the  Vimtation.  Without  denying 
the  merilfi  of  Lully  (1333-1687)  and  Couperin  (1663- 
1733),  the  founders  of  tiio  French  opera,  and  even 
odmittiuK  that  Kameau  was  not  right  in  all  the  de- 
tails of  Ris  theory,  we  must  acknowledge  that  he 
opened  up  a  new  road,  which  was  followed  by  aJ!  who 
came  after  him.  His  main  principle,  for  the  defence 
of  which  he  had  to  sustain  hard  struggles,  was  that 
melody,  far  from  beiUK  sulficient  for  a  good  piece 
of  muaic,  itself  depend  on  the  rules  of  harmony, 
ao  that  the  real  guide  of  every  composer  'ib  harmony, 
not  melody.  Hw  chief  merit  consist*  in  having  es- 
tablished the  relations  between  science  and  art,  and 
in  having  highly  developed  the  symphonic  part  of  the 
opera.  His  most  famous  theoretical  works  aic: 
"Traits  de  I'harmonie  r£duite  k  son  principe  na- 
turel"  (1722J;  "G^ndration  harmoniquo"  (1737); 
"D^onstration  du  principe  de  I'harmonie"  (1750); 
"Code  de  musioue  pratique"  (1760).  Only  at  the 
age  of  fifty  did  ne  t^n  to  write  for  the  stage,  and 
in  sixteen  years  (1733-1749)  he  comjMwed  about 
thirty  operas  and  ballots,  the  beat  of  which  are: 
"Castor  et  Pollux",  "Les  Indea  Galantea",  "Dar- 
danus  and  Zoroastre".  Of  his  church  music  some 
motets  only  are  known.  He  left  many  compositions 
for  the  piano,  either  alone  or  with  other  instnimenl*, 
dghteen  of  which  have  been  1al«ly  published  by 
Vincent  d'lndy.  Durand,  in  Paris,  has  undertaken 
a  complete  eoition  of  Rameau's  works,  under  the 
direction  of  Siunt-Saens. 

T,  EloBi  tittoriaui  de  M.  Ramnu  (Parii,  1766) :  FonaiH, 
t...7..„  »,  :?,  ct  ,„  inin-c,  {Pxtit.  1878);    LacbehcIM, 

_._ Juin  (1907);    Laloi.  Roiwau  (P»ri^ 

1909),  Z  edit. 

A.  Walter, 

BamMr  Abber,  Huntingdonshire,  England,  was 
founded  by  Ailwino  (Ethelwine,  Egelwine),  a  SftJion 
noble,  in  969.  He  was  encouraged  in  the  under- 
taking by  St.  Oswald  of  York,  who  advised  him  that 
where  men  have  renounced  the  world  "the  air  be- 
comes salubrious,  the  fruits  of  the  earth  are  gathered 
in  abundance,  famines  and  pestilence  disappear,  the 
State  is  duly  governed,  prisons  are  opened,  and 
captives  set  free,  those  wrecked  at  sea  are  relieved, 
the  sick  are  healed  and  the  weak  find  means  for  their 
oonvalescence".  The  site  chosen,  Ramsey  (Kara  + 
eie,  insula  arielw),  was  then  the  largest  and  finest 
of  the  islands  of  a  great  marsh  formed  by  the  waters 
of  the  Ouse.  It  wos  afterwords  connected  with  the 
mainland  by  a  causeway  constructed  by  the  monks. 
Here  A^noth,  nephew  of  Ailwine,  commimioncd  by 
Oswald  to  make  preparations,  built  a  wooden  church 
and  offices,  and  as  soon  as  all  was  ready,  the  saint 
sent  twelve  monks  from  his  monastery  of  Wt^thury 
(Worcester)  to  take  possession.  The  wooden  minster 
was  dedicated  by  Oswald  and  St.  Dunston  of  Canter- 
bury to  St.  Mary,  ail  Holy  Virgins,  and  St,  Benedict. 
Soon  a  Sne  stone  church  with  towers  was  erected 
and  consecrated  by  St.  Oswald,  Arehbiahop  of  York, 
BS^ted  by  Aescwio,  Bishop  of  Dorche^^1<'^,  in  091, 
The  vear  following  (992)  the  two  foundc-.-s,  Ailwine 
and  Oswald,  died,  and  the  monastery,  governed  tiU 
then  by  priors  (Gennanua  and  Aednoth],  was  per- 
mitted to  elect  an  abbot,  Aednoth,  son  of  Aednoth 
the  prior,  was  the  first  to  hold  the  ofncc, 

Ailwine  handsomely  endowed  his  foundation  with 
lands  and  p^i^dlege8.  He  also  presented  the  new 
church  with  an  altar-frontal  (tabula  infrorUe  eminen- 
tu>rU  oUaris)  of  wood,  covered  with  silver  plates  and 
many-coloured  jewels.  King  Eilgar,  Henry  I, 
Henry  11,  and  others  extended  and  confirmeil  the 
possessiona  and  liberties.    In  1002  the  body  of  St. 


S  RAMUS 

Ives  (Ivo)  was  miraculously  discovered  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood and  this  led  to  the  establiahment  of  the 
dependent  priory  of  St.  Ives.    Another  dependent 

Enory  or  cell  was  Modney,  in  Norfolk,  The  abbot 
ad  a  seat  in  Parliament  and  ranked  next  after 
Glastonbury  and  St.  AJbon's.  At  the  Dissolution 
(1539)  John  Wardeboys,  aliax  l.awrence,  willingly 
resigned  the  abbey  into  the  king's  hands  and  re- 
ceived a  pension  of  £266.  13s.  4d.  per  annum.  The 
estates  were  granted  by  Henry  VIII  to  Sir  Richard 
Williams,  alui»  Cromwell.  The  revenue,  according 
to  Dugdale,  was  £1716,  12s,  4d.,  but  according  to 
Speed,  £983.  15s.  3Hd.  Nothing  important  remains 
of  the  buildings  but  a  ruined  Late  (Gothic  gateway. 

Chriminm  ASbalia  Aamun>n>u  in  RoUi  SmM  (1886); 
Canularium  Mona^lerii  <U  Ramtaia  in  RMt  Stria  (3  vol*.); 
DcnDH.!,  MoMKiraFiAnffiiconuin.  lULondon,  1846);  Ritiiiem, 


and  m  (ISSl). 


J,  C.  Almond. 


Buniu,  Peter  (Pibrrb  db  la  RAufiE),  Humoniflt 
and  lo^cion,  b.  at  Cuth  in  Picardy,  1516;  d.  in  Paris, 
1572.  In  spite  of  many  difficulties,  including  poverty 
and  the  loss  of  both  his  parents  at  an  early  age,  he 


succeeded 
uated  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Paris  in 
1536  as  Master  of 
Arta,  The  Ihwtis 
which  he  defended 
' '  Qufecumque  ab 
Anatotele  dicta 
sunt,  commentitia 
sunt"  ("All  Aris- 
totle's doctrines 
are  false")  indi- 
cates the  direction 
of  his  thoughts 
even  at  that  time. 
He   was  an  out- 


ing a  good  education,  and  grad- 


iing  op- 
of    the 


pone 

Aristotelean  phi- 
losophy which  was 
at  that  time  the  . 
authoritative  phi- 
losophy in  Bverv  European  centre  of  learning. 
His  two  principal  works,  "  AristotelicK  Animodver- 
siones"  and  "Dialeeticffi  Institutiones",  both  of 
which  were  written  in  elegant  humanistic  Latin 
and  published  in  Paris  in  1543,  brought  him  into 
still  sharper  conflict  with  the  official  world  irf 
scholarship.  The  books  were  condemned  by  the 
University  of  Paris,  an  act  which  was  made  the  sub- 
ject of  debate  in  the  French  Parliament,  until  Francis 
I  interposed  by  appointing  a  committee  to  list«n  to  a 
disputation  between  Ramus  and  his  principal  oppo- 


tee  decided  against  Ramus,  ano  condemned  him  aa 
"rash,  arrogant  and  impudent".  This  decision  was 
confirined  by  the  king.  In  1547,  after  the  accession 
of  Henry  II,  and  owing  to  tlie  protection  of  the  Car- 
dinal of  Lorraine,  Ramus  was  accorded  greater  liberty, 
and  succeeded  in  obtaining  a  position  as  teacher,  or 
"royal  lecturer",  at  the  College  of  Navarre.  In 
1562,  he  renounced  Catholicism  and  became  a  Cal- 
vinist.  In  the  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew,  in 
1572.  he  was  singled  out  by  his  enemies  and  put  to 
death  with  every  cireumstance  of  cruelty  and  brutal- 
itj;.  Ramus  was  a  writer  of  more  than  ordinary 
brilliancy  and  effectiveness.  Ho  sought  out  the  weak 
points  in  the  method  of  teachiiut  logic  then  in  rogue, 
and  directed  his  atlurk  again:*!  them  with  the  ^mty, 
und  indii-d,  very  much  in  llif  manner,  of  the  cele- 
brated Italian  Hum;iiiisi.  Vives.  He  objecteil  ca- 
pecially  to  what  he  called  the  sterility  of^  the  logic 


BAHCi  6: 

tbcn  ciurently  taught,  and  pleaded  tor  a  reform  of 
the  science  fJong  lines  of  broader  human  interest. 
in  his  positive  teaching,  that  is  to  say,  in  the  logic 
which  he  wished  to  euDstitute  for  the  Aristotelean, 
he  was  not  very  successful.  In  a  general  way,  he 
may  be  said  to  have  advocated  a  closer  union  between 
rhetoric  and  logic,  between  the  art  of  exponitian  and 
the  art  of  argumentation.'  Among  his  following,  the 
"Ramista",  as  they  were  called,  were  the  Englishman, 
William  Temple,  and  the  Germans,  Sturm,  Freige, 
and  Fabricius,  In  the  official  academic  world  he  mot 
with  opposition  not  only  at  the  University  of  Paris 
but  also  at  Wittenbei^,  Helmstadt,  and  elsewhere. 
His  opponents  were  called  Anti-Ramists.  For  a 
time,  his  camp^gn  ag^nst  Aristotle  had  the  e&ect 
of  rallying  to  his  views  the  Antl'Ariatoteleans  of  every 
country  in  Europe.  His  influence,  however,  did  not 
last  long,  although  some  writers  find  evidences  of  it 
as  late  as  1662  in  the  famous  "Port  Royal  Lt^c". 

WlDDIHOTOK.  Dl   Pnri    a^mi    rila    (Puis,    IMS   unTlSSS]; 
StCckl,  GachiMi  der  Phil  da  MilMaiUrt.  Ill  (Miini.  1808), ' 

WiujAH  Turner. 

Ranct,  Jean-Aruand  lb  Boctbiluer  pb,  abbot 
and  reformer  of  Notre  Dame  de  la  Trappe,  second 
son  of  Denis  Bouthillier,  Lord  of  Rancf,  Councillor 
of  State,  etc., 
b.  at  Paris,  0 
Jan  1626;  d. 
at  La  Trappe, 
27  Oct.,  1700. 
Oridnally  in- 
tended for  the 
KniehtA  of  Mal- 
ta, the  illness  of 
his  elder  brother 
caused  his  fa- 
ther to  dedicate 
him  to  ecclesi- 
astical service, 
in  order  to  pre- 
serve i  n  the  f  am- 
Uy  the  former's 


fices.  On  the 
death  of  his 
brother,  1637, 
he  became 
Canon  of  Notre 
Dame  de  Paris, 
Abbot  of  La 
Trappe,  and  of 
several       other 

E laces,  which  gave  him  a  revenue  of  about  15,000 
vret.  He  eflrly  ^ve  evidence  of  great  precociousneas 
in  study,  publisliing,  at  the  age  of  twelve  veatB,  an 
edition  of  Anacreon,  with  Greek  notes,  dedicated  to 
his  (godfather,  Cardinal  Richelieu.  In  1651,  he  was 
ordained  priest  by  his  uncle,  the  Archbishop  of  Tours. 
This  dignity  did  not  effect  a  change  in  his  manner  of 
life,  which  was  worldly  in  the  extreme.  In  1652 
his  father  died,  leaving  him  a  further  increase  in 
estate.  At  the  age  of  twenty-six  he  was  tiius  left 
absolutely  his  own  master,  handsome  of  person, 
polished  and  with  practically  unlimited  wealth. 
Feasting,  and  the  pleasures  of  the  chase,  to  which  ho 
was  passionately  attached,  divided  his  time  with 
preaching  and  other  sacerdotal  ministrations.  His 
uncl^  who  desired  him  as  coadjutor,  made  him 
archdeacon,  caused  him  to  be  elected  deputy  of  the 
second  order  to  the  General  Assembly  of  the  French 
Clergy  in  16.55,  and  had  him  appointed  first  chaplain 
to  Gaston,  Duke  of  Orleans,  m  1666. 

For  several  years  his  conscience  reproached  bim 
fur  his  scandalous  conduct,  but  he  paid  little  heed  to 
its  voice.  The  death  of  the  Duchess  of  Montbazon, 
in  16S7,  gave  faim  the  first  serious  thought  leading  to 


9  RANDALL 

his  conversion.  He  retired  to  his  Cb&t«au  de  Vereta, 
where  he  gave  himself  to  reSection  on  the  vanities  of 
life;  put  himself  under  capable  directors,  and  began 
to  live  more'  in  conformity  with  his  obligations. 
In  1660  he  asaiBted  at  the  death  of  the  Duke  of 
Orleans,  which  mode  so  great  an  impression  on  him 
that  he  said:  "Either  the  Gospel  deceives  us,  or  this 
is  the  house  of  a  reprobate.  After  having  taicen 
counsel,  he  disposed  of  all  his  possessions,  except  the 
Abbe^  of  La  Trappe,  which  he  visited  for  the  first 
time  m  1662.  He  decided  to  become  a  religious,  and 
obtained  permission  from  the  king,  in  1663,  to  lie- 
come  its  regular  abbot  and  reformer.     After  having 

EBssed  through  his  novitiate  and  mode  profession, 
e   took  formal   possession  of   his  monastery  as  its 
regular  abbot,  and  began  the  work  of  its  reform, 
which,  after  he  had  overcome  immense  difficulties, 
was  solidly  established  in  his  own  abbey,  from  whence 
it  was  adopted  into  numerous  other  monasteries. 
His  time  and  energy  were  so  taken  up  with  this  work 
that,  during  the  first  yeaisof  his  retirement  heobliged 
himself    to    an  entire    separation  from  the  world. 
He  devoted  his  spare  time  to  manual  labour,  and  to 
the  compilation  of  spiritual  books.     These  latter  were 
by  no  means  inconsiderable.     Amongst  the  most  im- 
portant  are:    "Vies   de    plusieurs    solitaires   de   La 
Trappe";   "Letrwt^  de  la  swntetfi  ct  des  devoirs  de 
la    vie    monastique " ;     "La    r^le    de    a.     Benolt, 
traduiteet  expliqute  selon  son  vfritabl^ esprit";  etc. 
His  penitcntisJ  mode  of  life  made  him  many  enemies, 
and  caused  him  to  be  accused  of  Jansenism,  but  he 
refr^ned  from  defending  himself,  until  finally,  at  the 
request  of  his  most  intimate  friends,  he  wrote  Vo  the 
Marshal  de  Bellefonds,  stating  that  he  had  signed 
the    "Formula"    (against    Jansenism)    without    re- 
striction or  reservation  of  any  kind;   adding  that  he 
had  always  submitted  himself  absolutely  to  those 
whom  God  had  placed  over  him,  i.  e.  the  pope  and  his 
bishop.     If  this  is  considered  insufficient  to  vindicate 
his  orthodoxy,  the  letters  and  pamphlets  with  wliich 
be  attacked  the  Jansenists,  as  published  by  Bossuet, 
are  certainly  enough  to  justify  nim  from  this  chaive. 
In  1695,  feeling  his  health  to  be  dechning,  he  ob- 
tained permission  from  the  king  to  resign  his  po- 
sition, and  for  several   years   continued   to   give  an 
example  of  burailitv  and  resignation.     His  remains 
are  interred  at  the  Monastery  of  La  Grande  Trappe. 

Le  Naih,  Vit  du  R,  P.  Armanjl  Jam  Lt  BauihiUier  de  ftonctt 
(P>rig,  1715];  Mauolueh,  Vh  da  T.R.  .  .  .  dt  Rand (Fttia. 

17031:  Mxcrrxiv.Viidu  T.  R.  .  .  .  di «an(J(PRri»,  1702):d'In- 

OL'iuBiBT,  fffTiuinut  Ouaractir  R.  in  X.  Patrit .  .  .  Raneai  (Roma. 
1718) :  CnlTuuBHiAHD,  Vm  dt  VAbbtdi  RanU  (Pmiii,  184«):  Du- 
BQ»,  HiiM-iTK  dil-AbbfdiRana  a  dt  la  rifonat  (Pmsa.  ISM); 
■.^.■.„v.i......  HiMnrtdifAhbtdeRanct  (y^ra,\M21:  ScHMtD. 

It.  u.  Rctanvitor  xoa  La  Trappt  (Riliibonns, 

bH  dt  Banrf  rl  Boinisl  {Parin,  1903) ;  Dloro, 

•  MabiUm  It  dl  rAbbi  de  Rand  (Ami^DB,  1802); 

Armand  Jean^df  Ranei  Rtforrnalor    '       "' 


Tumd  dt  RaiKi.  A 


897);  Sim  AN 
a  QueT-elU  dt 


I.  IMS). 


.  Vitillo 


Edmond  M.  Obbecht. 


BancUlli  James  Rideh,  journalist  and  poet, 
b.  1  Jan.,  1839,  at  Baltimore,  Maryland;  d.  15 
Jan.,  190S.  at  Ai^usta,  Georgia.  As  author  of 
"Maryland,  my  ^^tyland",  the  famous  war  song 
of  the  Coirfederacy,  he  has  been  frequently  styled 
the  "Poet  Laureate  of  the  Lost  Cause".  He  re- 
ceived his  education  at  Georgetown  University,  but 
did  not  graduate.  He  travelled  in  South  America 
and  the  West  Indies  and  upon  returning  to  the  United 
States,  accepted  the  chur  of  English  Literature  at 
Poydras  College,  Pointe-Coupfe.  La..,  then  a  flourish- 
ing Creole  institution.  Hearing  of  the  attack  upon 
the  Federal  troops  in  Baltimore  on  21  April,  1861, 
in  which  a  classmate  had  been  wounded,  his  Southern 
sympathies  were  so  aroused  that  during  the  night  by 
t.hi'  light  of  a  oandle  he  composed  what,  in  generally 
acknoivliilged  to  be  America's  mo^t  martial  poem, 
which  first  appeared  in  the  New  Orleans  "Sunday 


RANSOM 


640 


RAPHAEL 


Delia''  of  26  April,  1861.  Reaching  Baltimore,  it 
was  set  to  the  music  of  ''Lauriger  Horatius"  by  Miss 
Jemiie  Gary,  who  added  ''My  Maryland''  to  each 
stanza.  A  German  musician  of  Southern  sympathies 
eventually  set  the  poem  to  ''Tannenbaum,  Q  Tannen- 
baum",  the  original  of  "Lauriger  Horatius".  After 
the  close  of  the  war,  Randall  engaged  in  newspaper 
work,  holding  several  important  editorial  positions, 
evcntuflJly  becoming  Washington  correspondent  for 
the  Augusta  ''Ghronicle".  He  was  the  author  of 
numerous  other  poems,  none  of  which,  however,  at- 
tained the  popularity  oi  ''Maryland,  my  Maryland". 
His  later  work  breathed  a  deeply  religious  tone. 

Maryland^  My  Maryland^  and  other  Poems  (Baltimore,  1908): 
Poenu  of  Jamet  Ryder  Randall^  ed.  Andrews,  with  a  biographical 
■ketch  of  the  poet  (New  York.  1910). 

William  J.  Dwter. 

Ransom,  Feast  of  Our  Ladt  of,  24  Sept.,  a 
double  major,  commemorates  the  foundation  of  the 
Mercedarians  (q.  v.).  On  10  Aug.,  1223,  the  Merce- 
darian  Order  was  legally  constituted  at  Barcelona  by 
King  James  of  Aragon  and  was  approved  by  Gregory 
IX  on  17  Jan.,  1235.  The  Mercedarians  celebrated 
their  institution  on  the  Sunday  nearest  to  1  Aug.  (on 
which  date  in  the  year  1233  the  Blessed  Virgin  was 
beheved  to  have  shown  St.  Peter  Nolasco  the  white 
habit  of  the  order),  and  this  custom  was  approved  bv 
the  Congregation  of  Rites  on  4  April,  1615  (Anal. 
Juris  Pont..  YII,  136).  But  the  calendar  of  the  Span- 
ish Mercraarians  of  1644  has  it  on  1  Aug.,  double. 
Proper  lessons  were  approved  on  30  April,  1616.  The 
feast  was  granted  to  Spain  (Sunday  nearest  to  1  Aug.) 
on  15  Feb.,  1680;  to  France,  4  Dec.,  1690.  On  22  Feb.. 
1696,  it  was  extended  to  the  entire  Latin  Church,  ana 
the  date  changed  to  24  September.  The  Merceda- 
rians keep  this  feast  as  a  double  of  the  first  class,  with 
a  vigil,  privileged  octave,  and  proper  Office  under  the 
title:  ^'Solemnitas  Descensionis  B.  Marise  V.  de 
Mercede".  Our  Lady  of  Ransom  is  the  principal 
patron  of  Barcelona;  the  proper  Office  was  extended 
to  Barcelona  (1868)  and  to  all  Spain  (second  class, 
1883).  Sicily,  which  had  sufifered  so  much  from  the 
Saracens,  took  up  the  old  date  of  the  feast  (Sunday 
nearest  to  1  Aug.)  by  permission  of  the  Congregation 
of  Rites,  31  Aug.,  1805  (double  of  the  second  class). 
The  Mercedarians  have  a  special  feast  (double  major), 
,  Apparition  of  Our  Lady  to  St.  Peter  Nolasco  in  the 
*  choir  of  Barcelona,  on  the  Sunday  after  24  Sept.  In 
England  the  devotion  of  Our  Lady  of  Ransom  was 
revived  in  modem  times  to  obtain  the  rescue  of  Eng- 
land as  Our  Lady's  Dowry. 

CoLVKMBRius,  K<u.  Marianum  (Summa  Attrea^  III),  17  Jan. 
^  and  10  Aus.;  Holwbck,  Fatti  Mariani  (Freiburg,  1802). 

F.  G.  Holwbck. 

Raphael  (bKCn,  "God  has  healed"),  Saint.— The 
name  of  this  archangel  does  not  occur  ^  in  the 
Hebrew  Scriptures,  and  in  the  Septuagint  ('Pa0a^X) 
only  in  the  Book  of,  Tobias.  Here  he  first  appears 
disguised  in  human  form  as  the  travelling  companion 
of  the  younger  Tobias,  calling  himself  "  Aaarias  the 
son  of  the  great  Ananias".  The  story  of  the  adven- 
turous journey  during  which  the  protecting  influence 
of  the  an^el  is  shown  in  many  ways  including  the 
binding  "m  the  desert  of  upper  EgypV^  of  the  demon 
who  had  previously  slain  seven  husbands  of  Sara, 
dau^ter  of  Raguel,  is  picturesquely  related  in  Tob., 
v-xi,  to  which  the  reader  is  referred.  After  the  return 
and  the  healing  of  the  blindness  of  the  elder  Tobias, 
Azarias  makes  himself  known  as  'Hhe  angel  Raphael, 
one  of  the  seven,  who  stand  before  the  Lord"  (Tob., 
xii.  15.    Of.  Apoc.,  viii,  2).    Of  these  seven  "archan- 

5els"  which  appear  in  the  angelology  of  post-Exilic 
udaism,  only  three,  Gabriel,  Michael,  ana  Raphael, 
are  mentioned  in  the  canonical  Scriptures.  The 
others,  according  to  the  Book  of  Enoch  (cf.  xxi)  are 
Uriel,  Ki^el,  Sariel,  and  Jerahmeel,  while  from  other 
apocryphal  sources  we  get  the  variant  names  Izidkiel, 


Hanael,  and  Kepharel  instead  of  the  last  three  in  tlie 
other  list. 

Regarding  the  functions  attributed  to  Raphael  we 
have  Tittle  more  than  his  declaration  to  Tobias  (Tob., 
xii)  that  when  the  latter  was  occupied  in  his  works  of 
mercy  and  charity,  he  (Raphael)  offered  his  pra^ro* 
to  the  Lord,  that  he  was  sent  by  the  Lord  Urh&al  mm 
of  his  blindness  and  to  deUver  Sara,  his  son's  wife, 
from  the  devil.  The  Jewish  category  of  the  archan- 
gels is  recognized  in  the  New  Testament  (I  Thess., 
IV,  15;  Jude,  9),  but  only  Gabriel  and  Michael  are 
mentioned  by  name.  Many  commentators,  however, 
identif}r  Raphael  with  the  "angel  of  the  Lord"  mm- 
tioned  in  John,  v.  This  conjecture  is  based  both  on 
the  significance  of  the  name  and  on  the  healing  r6Ie 
attributed  to  Raphael  in  the  Book  of  Tobias.  Tlie 
Church  assigns  the  feast  of  St.  Raphael  to  24  Oct. 
The  hynms  of  the  OflBce  recall  the  healing  power  of 
the  archangel  and  his  victory  over  the  demon.  The 
lessons  of  the  first  Noctum  and  the  Antiphons  of  the 
entire  Office  are  taken  from  the  Book  of  Tobias,  and 
the  lessons  of  the  second  and  third  Noctums  from  the 
works  of  St.  Augustine,  viz.  for  the  second  Noctum 
a  sermon  on  Tobias  (sermon  I  on  the  fifteenth  Sun- 
day), and  for  the  third,  a  homily  on  the  opening 
verses  of  John,  v.  The  Epistle  of  the  Mass  is  taken 
from  the  twelfth  chapter  of  Tobias,  and  the  Gospel 
from  John,  v,  1-4,  referring  to  the  pool  called  Pio- 
batica,  where  the  multitude  of  the  infirm  lav  awaiting 
the  moving  of  the  water,  for  "an  angel  of  the  Lord 
descended  at  certain  times  into  the  pond;  and  the 
water  was  moved.  And  he  that  went  down  first  into 
the  pond  after  the  motion  of  the  water  was  made 
whole  of  whatsoever  infirmity  he  lay  under".  Thus 
the  conjecture  of  the  commentators  referred  to  above 
is  confirmed  by  the  official  Liturgy  of  the  Church. 

VioouBOux,  LHet.  de  la  BibU^  a.  v.  Raphail. 

James  F.  Driscoll. 

Raphael,  the  most  famous  name  in  the  history  of 
painting,  b.  at  Urbino,  6  April  (or  28  March),  1483,* 
d.  at  Rome,  6  April,  1520.  He  belongs  to  the  Umbrian 
School.  Raphael  is  only  a  Christian  name^  the  full 
name  being  Raphael  (Raffaele)  Santi  (Sanzio  is  an 
absolutely  incorrect  form).  His  father,  Giovanni 
Santi,  held  an  important  but  indefinite  post  at  the 
Court  of  Urbino.  He  was  the  artistic  factotum  of 
Duke  Frederick,  one  of  the  most  intellectual  princes 
and  most  enlightened  art-lovers  of  his  age.  The  best 
painters,  Piero  della  Francesca,  Melozzo,  and  Justus 
of  Ghent,  were  in  his  service  and  had  made  Urbino 
one  of  the  most  prominent  art  centres  of  the  time. 
The  ducal  palace  is  still  one  of  the  wonders  of  Italy. 
Nor  was  the  social  and  worldlv  life  less  advanced; 
at  this  Court  was  written  the  "Cortegiano"  of  Bal- 
dassare  Castiglione,  the  complete  handbook  of  the 
man  of  the  world,  according  to  the  ideal  of  the 
Renaissance.  The  relations  which  Raphael  formed 
in  these  early  surroundings  (especially  about  1506), 
the  serene  and  pure  moral  atmosphere  which  he 
breathed  and  which  is  characteristic  of  his  genius, 
followed  him  throughout  his  life. 

Giovanni  Santi  died  on  1  August,  1494.  The  orphan, 
placed  under  the  guardianship  of  his  maternal  uncle, 
entered  the  studio  of  a  charming  painter,  Timoteo 
Viti,  a  pupil  of  Francia,  who  had  just  returned  to  take 
up  his  residence  in  the  country.  Probably  to  the 
beginning  of  this  apprenticeship,  perhaps  somewhat 
previous  to  it,  belongs  Raphael's  famous  sketch-book 
of  the  Academy  of*  Venice.  This  book  was  discovered 
in  1803  by  Bossi  and  purchased  by  Cicognara  for  the 
City  of  Venice.  It  is  a  small  portfoho,  now  mutilated, 
consisting  of  a  hundred  pen-and-ink  drawings;  the 
author  copied,  in  particular,  the  "Savants"  and  the 
"Philosophers"  attributed  to  Justus  of  Ghent,  which 
were  then  in  the  palace  of  Urbino  (half  of  them  are 
now  at  the  Louvre  and  the  other  half  at  the  Barbemi 


RAPHAKL  & 

PaUceJ.  Morelli  (LennoliefF)  thinks  he  recogniiee  in 
these  orawinga  the  huid  of  PintoriccUo,  but  the  old 
opinion  has  prevailed  over  his  criticism.  These  are 
rather  the  first  studies  and  attempts  of  Raphael  be- 
tween his  twelfth  and  fifteenth  years.  Though  child- 
ish, the}^  alreadv  reveal  the  masterly  eeniua  of  the 
artist,  luB  singular,  divine  sentiment  of  beauty.  In 
Timoteo'a  studio  aod  under  his  inJQuence  were  painted 
the  earliest  pictures  of  his  iUustrious  pupil  which  have 
reached  us,  four  small  exquisite  pictures,  of  the  shape 
and  value  of  miniatures,  the  "Dream  of  the  Knight" 
(National  Gallery),  "St.  George  and  St.  Michaei" 
(Louvre),  and  the  most  charming  of  the  four,  the 
"Three  Graces"  of  the  Tribune  erf  Chantilly. 

In  June,  1499,  Raphael  had  not  yet  left  Urbino. 
In  May,  1500,  he  must  have  been  at  Perugia, .  but 
oDuld  not  have  entered  PeruginD's  studio  prior  to  that 


Therefore,  Vasari's  story  of  Raphael's  education  by 
Perugino  is  not  to  he  believed,  being  pure  fable. 
Penigino's  influence  was  important  to  a  young  man  of 
eighteen,  and  in  fact,  with  his  wonderful  faculty  of 
assimilation,  Raphael  had  soon  succeeded  in  mastering 
the  suggestions  and  methods  of  the  older  painter,  his 
poetic  sense  of  light  and  space,  his  harmoniously  sym- 
metrical system  of  composition.  He  shortly  became 
a  sort  of  foreman,  or  head  of  the  studio,  supervising 
the  making  of  those  countless  Madonnas  for  which 
Perugino'a  "workshop"  was  the  best  patroniied  in 
Italy.  This  period  oi  somewhat  commercial  produc- 
tion is  the  least  interesting  of  Raphael's  life.  The 
"Vir^  of  the  Book"  at  the  Hermitage  and  the 
"Viigin between  St.  Jerome  and  St.  Francis"  (Berhn) 
are  among  his  most  insignificant  works.  The  "Cru- 
cifixion" of  1502  (National  Gallery)  shows  an  archwc 
and  "primitive"  dryness.  But  his  genius  soon  threw 
off  its  naif  slumber.  The  "Coronation  of  the  Virmn", 
painted  in  1603  for  the  Franciscans  of  Perut^a  (Rna- 
coteca  of  the  Vatican),  shows  qualities  apparently 
borrowed  from  Perugino,  but  vivified  by  new  imagi- 
nation and  youth,  the  three  panels  of  the  predella 
especially  displaying  gr^t  progress.  A  very  important 
work,  unfortunately  lost  since  the  Revolution,  seems 
to  have  been  the  "Triumph  of  St.  Nicholas  of  Tolen- 
tino".  But  the  pearl  of  this  period  is  the  "Kspousal 
of  the  Virgin",  preserved  at  Milan  (1504).  A  similar 
picture  in  the  Museum  of  Caen  is  not  the  model 
wrongly  ascribed  to  Perugino,  but  a  copy  of  Raphael's 
picture,  the  work  of  the  mediocre  Spagna.  TTiia 
masterpiece  worthily  ends  the  period  of  Raphael's 
youth.  The  final  word  of  Umbrian  art  of  the  fifteenth 
century  was  spoken  in  this  page  of  youth  and  divine 
modesty. 

Florentinb  Period  (1504-08).— After  a  short 
visit  in  the  summer  at  Urbino  Rfqihael  went  to  live 
at  Florence  towards  the  end  of  1504.  The  four  years 
he  spent  there  were  a  new  and  decisive  stage  in  his 
career.  At  that  date  Florence  was  the  most  intense 
and  active  centre  of  the  Renaissance  (and  the  period 
was  prt^ant  with  artistic  development).  Leonardo 
da  Vinci  and  the  young  Michelangelo,  the  two  leaders 
of  the  movement,  revealed  (1506)  in  their  rival 
"cartoons"  (now  lost)  of  the  Signoiy  perfect  models 
of  historical  composition.  In  the  stimulating  atmos- 
phere of  a  perpetual  contest  dominated  by  an  im- 
fiassioned  love  of  beauty  and  /ame  Raphael  found 
rcsh  incentive.  The  knowledge  and  skillof  the  least 
of  the  Florentine  painters  were  calculated  to  amaie 
the  young  provincial  and  sharpen  his  ideas,  which 
proved  most  profitable  to  his  talent.  At  Florence  he 
E>^an  his  education  over  again;  he  resumed  his  stud- 
ies and  in  a  few  years  learned  more  about  form  tJian 
he  had  acquired  from  Timoteo  and  Perugino,  His 
earnings  were  still  modest.  During  his  stay  in  Flor- 
ence Raphael  was  a  young,  unknown  artist  with  a 
good  future.  He  had  few  acquaintances  and  not  many 
XII.-4I 


lt*PWA»T. 


e  was  only  given  small  pictures  to 

punt,  portraits  of  middle-cfass  people,  such  as  Angelo 
and  Maddalena  Doni  (Uffiii,  1506)  and  the  "Donna 
Gravida"  (pregnant  woman)  of  the  Pitti  Palace,  and 
an  especially  l^e  number  of  Madonnas  which  he 
executed  for  private  oratories.  But  nothing  could 
show  more  advantageously  the  progress  he  had  made 
since  his  Umbrian  period.  He  nad  found  a  model  of 
a  more  regular  type,  a  fuller  oval  and  a  richer  form 
than  was  Perugino's  usual  model.  His  sense  of  lite 
became  more  natural  without  losing  any  of  its  poetry. 
Raphael's  Madonnas  are  all  his  own;  they  have  not 
the  melancholy  affectation  of  those  of  Botticelli,  nor 
the  mysterious  smile  of  those  of  Leonardo.  They  are 
all  near  to  us,  material  and  human.   Their  familiarity. 


of  a  thoroughly  Franciscan  grace,  is  expressed  with 
the  greatest  tact.  They  retain  the  easy  good-humour, 
sometimes  excessive,  i>>dulged  in  by  the  painters  of 
the  North.  They  are  not  intended  to  be  "edifying", 
properly  speaking,  but  in  these  matters  degree  is  a 
matter  of  taste.  As  Burckhardt  has  said,  for  the  first 
time  since  Phidias,  art  reached  those  heights  where 
human  beauty  by  its  nobility  and  perfection  of  form 
undertakes  to  call  forth  the  divine. 

The  Madonnas  of  the  Florentine  period  may  be 
divided  into  three  groups  according  to  the  nature  of 
the  motif  and  the  composition.  The  oldest  and  most, 
simple  are  those  which  represent  the  Madonna  with 
the  features  of  a  young  Italian  woman,  standing  and 
at  half  length,  holding  the  Christ  Child  in  her  arms. 
The  masterpiece  of  this  class  is  the  "Madonna  of  the 
Grand  Duke"  (Florence,  Pitti  Palace,  1505).  Despite 
a  trace  of  timidity  in  the  arrangement  the  Virgin  is  so 
charming  that  one  cannot  prefer  even  the  more  per- 
fect Madonnas  of  the  next  period.  This  simple  com- 
position has  given  rise  to  many  variations,  such  as 
the  Uttle  "Cowper  Madonna"  (Panshanger),  so  ten- 
derly pensive,  and  the  charmingly  spirited,  sweet,  and 
impassioned  "Madonna  Casa  Tempi"  (Munich).  The 
second  ^^up  does  little  more  than  modify  the  first 
by  the  introduction  of  new  elements,  such  as  interior 
decoration  or  landscape,  tor  example  the  "Virgin  of 
Orleans"  (Chantilly),  the  "Bridgewater  Madonna", 
the   "Colonna  Madonna"    (BerUn),  and   the  great 


RilPHAEL 


642 


RAPHAEL 


"Cowper  Madonna"  (Panshanger),  the  two  last- 
named  being  contemporaries  (1506  or  1507)  and  to  a 
certain  extent  twins.  The  third  group,  however, 
shows  a  new  stage,  a  superior  type  of  composition  ana 
style.  Raphael  was  then  obviously  under  the  influence 
of  the  great  Dominican  painter,  Fra  Bartolommeo, 
one  of  those  who  did  most  in  the  sixteenth  Century  to 
organize  the  truly  Florentine  pictorial  tradition.  This 
learned  painter  who  was  gifted  to  a  high  degree  with  a 
sense  of  balance  and  beautiful  comoosition,  greatly 
influenced  the  young  Umbrian,  the  innuence  becoming 
apparent  as  early  as  1505,  when  Raphael  execuved  at 
San  Severino,  Perugia,  a  fresco  of  which  he  painted 
only  the  upper  part  (it  was  completed  in  1521  by  the 
aged  Perugmo).  This  fresco,  which  was  important 
inasmuch  as  it  contained  the  germ  of  the  ''Disputa", 
merely  reproduces  the  arrangement  of  Fra  Barto- 
lommeo's  ''Last  Judgment".  To  him  Raphael  owes 
the  methods  by  which  he  produced  the  Virgins  of  the 
third  group,  in  which  the  Madonna  appears  at  full 
length  in  a  landscape  with  the  Infant  and  the  young 
St.  John.  The  sublime  trio  in  such  compositions  as 
"La  Belle  Jardiniere"  (Louvre,  1507),  the  "Madonna 
of  the  Meadow"  (Vienna),  or  the  "Madonna  of  the 
Goldfinch"  (Uffiri,  Florence)  is  an  idea  directly  de- 
rived from  the  teachings  of  the  artist-monk.  Here 
Raphael  detaches  himseC  from  the  external  symmetry 
of  Perugino's  art,  attaining  a  harmony  at  once  more 
complex,  intimate^  and  hving. 

From  this  penod  date  several  more  important 
works  in  which  the  young  man  practised  painting 
in  the  "noble"  style.  He  began  to  receive  orders 
and  to  gain  a  reputation.  On  setting  out  for  Rome 
he  left  unfinished  the  "  Madonna  of  the  Baldacchino  " 
(Pitti  Palace,  1508),  and  it  is  not  known  when  it 
was  completed,  but  it  is  without  originality  and  mieht 
pass  for  a  picture  by  Fra  Bartolommeo.  Preferable 
to  it  is  his  "Madonna  Ansidei"  (National  Gallerv, 
1507),  less  "modem"  and  more  "Peruginesque", 
'but  one  of  the  loveliest  things  conceivable  in  this 
traditional  style.  From  1508  dates  the  "Entomb- 
ment" of  the  Casino  Borghese.  This  work,  ordered 
by  Atalanta  Baglioni  for  the  chapel  of  her  son 
Griffonetto  at  Perugia,  is  Raphael's  first  attempt  in 
the  historic  manner.  His  client  was  important  and 
he  had  an  opportunity  to  gain  distinction;  it  is  evi- 
dent that  he  spared  no  pains.  Prepared  for  by  an 
extraordinary  number  of  drawings^  the  work  is  never- 
theless one  of  the  artist's  least  fortunate  ventures. 
It  is  spoiled  by  excessive  labour.  Raphael  wished 
to  display  all  his  knowledge  and  resoiu'ces,  uniting  on 
the  same  canvas  the  qualities  of  the  two  masters  of 
the  "cartoons"  of  the  Signory,  the  men  whom  he 
most  admired  and  who  tantalized  him  most,  Leonardo 
da  Vinci  and  Michelangelo.  Too  many  contradic- 
tory ambitions  injured  the  result  and  the  great  at- 
tempt ended  in  failure.  But  his  contemporaries 
judged  otherwise,  and  the  "Entombment"  ranked 
Raphael  among  the  foremost  of  the  Florentine 
j;)ainters.  Thenceforth  all  eyes  were  on  him.  The 
period  of  beginnings  and  attempts  was  over.  In 
the  summer  of  1508  the  young  man  went  to  Urbino. 
Julius  II  had  just  ascended  the  papal  throne.  Duke 
Guidobaldo  recommended  Raphael  to  the  pope 
who  was  having  the  Vatican  repainted  and  re- 
decorated. In  October,  1508,  Raphael  reached 
Rome. 

Roman  Period  (1508-20). — ^The  twelve  years  of 
Raphael's  life  in  Rome  are  unparalleled.  In  this 
short  space  of  time  the  young  master  multiplied 
masterpieces  and  left  behind  him  the  most  complete, 
serene,  and  harmonious  expression  of  the  Renais- 
sance. The  painter  of  the  Madonnas  and  of  the 
little  pictures  of  the  Florentine  period  underwent  the 
most  surprising  transformation,  becoming  all  at 
once  a  most  productive  decorative  painter  on  a 
vast  scale.    His  genius  set  itself  to  the  most  exalted 


as  well  as  the  most  diverse  tasks,  his  inexhaustible 
resources  permitting  him  to  conceive  of  and  complete 
within  a  tew  years  the  Stanze  or  Chambers  of  the 
Vatican,  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles",  the  Famesina, 
and  the  Loggie,  not  to  mention  other  undertakings 
as  architect,  archflK)logist.  and  sculptor,  and  fifty 
pictures  or  portraits,  nearly  cdl  of  which  are  master- 
pieces. It  18  a  metamorphosis  without  precedent  or 
explanation.  When  we  consider  that  this  vast  and 
immortal  work  was  accomplished  in  less  than  twelve 
years  by  a  young  man  who  was  twenty-six  when  he 
began  and  who  died  at  thirty-seven,  we  must  question 
whether  the  world  has  twice  beheld  the  wonder  of 
such  a  genius. 

Julius  II,  the  reigning  pope,  was  one  to  whom 
modem  speech  willingly  accoros  the  title  "superman" 
or  "hero".  He  was  one  of  the  first  to  conceive  of 
and  pursue  the  policy  of  Italian  unity.  Beyond 
doubt  this  warrior  pontiff,  who  entered  the  citadel 
of  Mirandola  through  the  breach,  had  a  somewhat 
temporal  id^  of  his  power,  but  through  art  he  en- 
dowed the  Church  with  an  intellectual  importance 
which  it  seemed  to  have  lost  since  the  Great  Schism. 
In  his  powerful  hands  Rome  became  what  it  only 
recently  ceased  to  be,  the  capital  of  the  civilized  world. 
Space  does  not  permit  adequate  treatment  of  this 
point;  but  when  face  to  face  with  the  chief  problems 
of  the  sixteenth  century;  when  the  question  arose 
as  to  whether  the  Church  would  absorb  or  reject 
and  condemn  progress,  whether  or  not  it  would 
associate  itself  with  the  humanistic  spirit,  Julius 
II  deserves  the  credit  for  having  taken  sides  with  the 
Renaissance  and  prepared  the  stage  for  the  moral 
triumph  of  the  Church.  The  great  creations  of 
Julius  II,  Bramante's  St.  Peters  and  Raphael's 
Vatican,  are  inseparable  from  the  great  ideas  of 
humanity  and  culture  represented  by  the  CathoUc 
Church.  Here  art  surpasses  itself,  becoming  the 
language  of  something  higher,  the  symbol  of  one  oi 
the  noblest  harmonies  ever  realized  by  human  nature. 
At  the  will  of  this  extraordinary  man  Rome  became 
at  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century  the  meeting  place 
and  centre  of  all  that  was  gre&t  m  art  and  thought. 
With  the  infallible  sense  and  discernment  of  great 
judges  of  men,  the  pope  had  immediately  call^  to 
his  service  those  who  would  do  most  honour  to  his 
reign.  He  did  not  make  a  mistake,  and  posterity 
can  only  ratify  his  choice.  But  his  infaUible  divina- 
tion is  best  shown  in  his  selection  of  Raphael.  There 
was  nothing  in  the  young  man's  work  to  presage  the 
wholly  new  genius  he  was  to  display  nor  the  un- 
eoualled  powers  of  composition,  nobility,  and  beauty 
wnich  slumbered  in  that  privileged  soul.  It  is 
probable  that  Bramante  who.  like  Raphael,  was  a 
native  of  Urbino,  actively  furtnered  his  young  towns- 
man's interest  with  the  pope,  and  caused  him  to 
be  received  among  the  inner  circle  of  artists  whom 
Julius  II  had  engaged  for  the  works  in  his  palace. 
It  must  have  been  chiefly  to  the  great  architect^  whose 
magnificent  frescoes  were  at  the  Castle  of  Milan,  to 
the  conversations,  the  example,  and  familiar  inter- 
course with  this  powerful  genius,  that  Raphael  owed 
the  sudden  broadening  of  his  ideas  and  the  unfore- 
seen maturity  of  his  style;,  the  young  Umbrian  be- 
came worthy  of  the  grandeur  of  Rome.  But  nothing 
completely  explains  this  singular  metamorphosis; 
it  remains  the  miracle  of  Rapnael's  existence. 

The  pope,  weary  of  dwelling  in  the  apartments  of 
his  pr^ecessor  (the  famous  Appartamento  Borgia, 
decorated  by  Pinturicchio),  decided  to  remodel  the 
lower  chambers  which  had  already  been  used  by 
Nicholas  V.  A  whole  colony  of  painters,  including 
the  aged  Signorelli  and  the  agedPerugino,  Sodoma  ana 
Bramantino,  Peruzzi,  Lotto  and  the  Fleming  Ruysch. 
in  1502  took  up  their  residence  in  the  Vatican  ana 
once  more  Raphael  worked  beside  his  former  master. 
But  his  first  attempts  showed  such  mastery  that  th« 


KAFHAEL  6- 

pope  diBmiaged  all   the  others  and  unhesiteluidy 
confided  to  the  youngest  and  the  latest  comer  (1500) 
the  vast  task  of  decorating  the  Chambers.    The 
firet  of  these  was  called  the  Slama  della  SegTiaiura, 
it  being  that  of  a  tribunal  of  the  Roman  Curia,     It 
is  a  somewhat  irr^^larlv  vaulted  hall  with  two 
windows  on  each  side  whicn  are  not  on  the  same  axis. 
These  unfavourable  conditions  (which  were  repeated 
in  the  other  chambers)  the  young  artist  turned  to 
Ids   advantage.     This   ha!i   contains   a   plenitude   of 
art  and  an  intellectual  harmony  which  will  never  be 
surpassed.    On  the  four  triangles  of  the  ceiling  he 
painted  four  large  circular  medallions  representing. 
in  the  guise  of  young  women  crowned  and  surrounded 
by  genii,  Theology,  Law,  Science,  and  Poetry.     In 
the  spaces  between  these  four  circles  be  p^nt«d  aa 
many  bas-reliefs  representins 
a  scene  or  "story"  typical  ta 
the  four  disciplines:   Orieinal 
Sin     (Theology),    The    Judg- 
ment of  Solomon  (Law),  Apollo 
and  Marsy as  (Poetry).  Unable 
to   find   a  similar  subject  for 

.  Science,  he  pacefully  depictixi 
Astronomy  m  the  form  of  a 
beautiful  young  woman  lean- 
ing over  the  celestial  sphere 
and  by  a  gesture  signifying  the 
discovery  of  the  stars.  llieBe 
figures  on  the  ceiling  sound 
the  keynote  of  the  pwntinKS 
on  the  walls,  which  have  al- 
ways been  r^^ed  as  the  most 
perfect  expression  of  the  genius 
of  the  Renaissance,  the  har- 
monious agreement  of  all  the 
human  faculties,  reason,  and 
fwth,  justice  and  poetry,  the 
balancing  of  all  the  forces  and 

.  needs  of  our  nature,  and  the 
joy  resulting  from  the  peaceful 
and  happy  exercise  of  all  our 
activities.  It  is  difficult  to  be- 
lieve that  KapbacI  himself  con- 
ceived so  extensive  and  compli- 
cated a  design.  The  theme  was  iupbibl's  PoHTSAr 
certwnly  set  by  a  cleric,  a  Hu-  Urrm  0*i,li 
mauist.ormanof  letters, such  as 

Phadrusln^ranior  Sieismondo  de'  Conti  (for  whom 
Raphael  painted  the  "Foligno  Madonna"  as  a  thank- 
offering).  Furthermore,  the  ideas  which  he  had  to 
represent  were  not  new  in  art.  To  go  back  no  further 
than  thefourteenthcenturypaintinghad  been  endeav- 
ouring to  express  ideas.  Tne  frescoes  at  the  Spanish 
Chapel  of  Andrew  of  Florence  (c.  1355),  that  of  Giueto 
at  Padua,  Traini's  picture  at  St.  Catherine's  of  Pisa, 


«  well-known  examples  of  what  may  be  called  phi 
losopbic  painting.  Raphael  was  largely  inspired 
by  these  models.  His  work,  novel  m  the  style 
and  spirit  of  its  forms,  merely  takes  up  ognin  on  a 
larger  scale,  and  with  consummate  art  farinp  to 
perfection  ideas  which  had  been  a  national  tradition 
m  Italy  since  the  Middle  Ages. 

Lack  of  roace  forbids  a  detailed  description  of  these 
celebrated  Irescoes,  permitting  only  a  general  outline 
of  the  prmcipal  ones.  One  of  their  most  remarkable 
characteristics  is  the  incomparable  clearness  of  the 
composition,  the  faculty  of  adapting  it  to  one  order 
of  ideas  and  so  placing  the  spectator,  previous  to  any 
analy^  on  his  part,  m  a  mood  appropriate  to  each 
Bcene  represented.  That  is,  a  spectator  standing  be- 
fore the  "EHsputa"  or  the  "School  of  Athens",  even 
though  he  did  not  know  the  names  of  the  persons  and 


mediately  n 


3  BAPHAIL 

the  general  arrangement,  an  informing  impression  of 
the  UiingB  represented.    With  its  two  and  even  three 

planes,  its  hierarchical  aspect,  its  regular  movement 
descending  from  the  Father  to  the  Holy  Ghost,  from 
tie  Son  to  the  Host  placed  vertically  below  Him, 
to  rebound  in  concentric  waves  through  the  two  par- 
allel hemicycles  of  the  celestial  and  the  terrestrial 
Church,  the  "Disputa"  is  stamped  with  theological 
majesty.  In  contrast  to  this  presentment  of  august 
solemnity,  in  which  everything  follows  an  emphatic- 
ally Scholastic  method — the  drfuction  from  principles 
of  a  rigorous  chain  of  reasoning  like  tliat  of  ontolo^ — 
the  "School  of  Athens"  dLsplays  the  moat  varied 
action,  effervescence,  scattercU  groups,  and  the  agita- 
tion of  a  scientific  congress.  Ideas,  methods,  every- 
thing is  changed ;  we  puss  from  one  world  to  another. 
No  other  painter  could  sen- 
Mbly  express  the  moat  deli- 
cate nuances  by  the  pure  lan- 
guage of  forms.  On  the  other 
band,  in  such  subjects  it  was 
allowable  for  the  artist  to  make 
abundant  use  of  all^or^. 
There  existed  for  the  personi- 
fication of  abstract  ideas  a 
whole  body  of  figures  often 
characterized  by  complicated 
attributes;  often  long  inscrip- 
tions, streamers,  phylacteries, 
completed  the  explanation. 
Pinturicchio  proceeded  in  this 
manner  in  the  Borgia  apart- 
ments, as  did  also  the  author 
of  the  magnificent  tapestries 
of  Madrid.  With  better  taste 
Raphael  forbore  this  confusion 
of  kinds,  the  mingling  of  fiction 
with  rculily,  of  personifications 
with  [MTBtnifl.  For  the  repre- 
sentation of  ideas  he  made  use 
only  of  real  and  historical  per- 
sons, philosophy  being  repre- 
sented by  Sonrates,  Plato,  Aris- 
totle, and  Democritus. 
Thus  this  chamber  of  the 
ur  iiiu.ii.1  in  ina  VuticaH  bccamp  a  sort  of  mir- 

iT.  Florenc*  ror    of    the  tendencies  of  the 

human  mind,  a  summai^  of 
all  its  idetJ  histoiy,  a  sort  of  pantheon  of  spirrtual 
grandeurs.     Thereby  the  representation  of  ideas  ao- 

Siiired  a  dramatic  value,  being  no  longer,  as' in  the 
fiddle  Ages,  the  immovable  expwution  of  an  un- 
changeable truth,  but  the  impassioned  search  for 
knowledge  in  all  its  branches,  the  moral  life  of  human- 
ity. Finally  these  historic  figures  conceived  of  aa 
portr^ts  for  which  the  artist  made  use  of  all  the  docu- 
ments possessed  by  the  iconogr^hy  of  his  time, 
blended  in  heroic  familiarity  with  contemporaryper- 
sons,  the  very  circle  of  Julius  II  and  Raphael.  There 
arc  found  Bramante,  the  Duke  of  Urbino,  Raphael, 
Sodoma,  and  twenty  others  named  by  Vasari.  Thus 
abstract  ideas  became  animated,  and  wc  are  afforded 
the  magnificent  sppctaele  of  the  world  of  the  spirit,  the 
society  formed  of  the  harmonious  concert  of  the  high- 
est intelligences.  Nevertheless  these  frescoes,  which 
are  so  full  of  life,  ore  perhaps  the  most  highly  deco- 
rative ever  imagined.  It  is  wonderful  to  sec  how  the 
artist's  thought  adapts  itself  to  the  law  of  archit«cture, 
readily  inventing  simple  and  monumental  motifs 
which  endow  his  ideas  with  imperishable  grandeur. 
Berenson  is  perhaps  mistaken  in  reducing  Raphael's 
genius  to  the  incomparable  ma.'^tery  of  the  language 
of  oxtj-nt  which  he  culls  "composition  in  space".  This 
is  to  cheapen  liiK  unique  and  enchanting  qualities  an 
designer  and  painter,  plastic  gifts  which  no  vther 
mortal  ever  possessed  in  the  same  degree.  It  is  none 
the  lees  true  that  the  ease  with  which  Raphael  moves 


AAPHAKL  & 

(bout  in  space,  tlie  aerial,  spacious  qualities  which 
characterize  his  frescoes,  is  one  of  the  essential  parl« 
of  his  particular  ma^c.  He  is  the  greatest  decorator 
who  evw  lived. 

[It  is  worthy  of  note  that  the  titles  of  theac  two 
famous  frescoes  are  a  later  and  incorrect  invention  of 
the  eigbteenth-ceQtuiy  engravers.  The  "  Disputa' '  is 
r^l^  a  picture  of  the  life  of  the  Church  and  an  affir- 
mation of  the  dopna  of  the  Real  Presence.  The  title 
of  the  ''School  of  Athena"  is  due  to  mistaking  the 
figures  of  Aristotle  and  Plato,  although  they  are 
dedgnated,  by  the  titles  of  their  writings,  for  those  of 
St.  Paul  and  Dionysius  the  Areopagite.  Moreover, 
the  whole  of  this  second  scene  is  but  a  new  illustration 
of  the  traditional  theme  of  the  seven  Uberal  arts  or 
the  seven  disciplines  of  the  trivium  and  quadriv 


Detail  tmm  "The  Eipulaonof  Hsliodonu".  lUphul,  Vi 


The  puntings  on  the  other  two  walls  were,  as  has 
been  said,  obstructed  by  a  window.  Rtyhael  easily 
found  a  most  ingenious  solution  of  the  difficulty.  The 
painting  of  "Law"  waa  divided  into  three  parts:  on 
the  lintel  he  painted  the  three  tbeolopcal  virtues  (they 
are  among  bia  most  exquisite  creations),  to  left  and 
right  of  tne  window  he  depicted  in  two  Bymmetrical 
scenes  "Civil  Law"  (Justinian  bestowing  the  Pan- 
dects; this  scene  is  imitated  in  Mellozo's  fresco  in  the 
Vatican  Library)  and  "Canon  Law"  (Gregorv  IX, 
with  the  features  of  Julius  II,  publishing  the  Decre- 
tals). These  two  frescoes  are  unfortunately  much 
damaged.  On  the  opposite  wall  Raphael  painted 
Parnassus.  This  showa  a  mountain-top  crowned  with 
laurel  where  ApoUo,  surrounded  by  the  Muses,  his 
divine  dau^ters,  plays  on  the  lyre;  Homer  sings,  and 
about  the  inspired  blind  man  is  gathered  his  ideal 
family:  VirpI  leading  Dante,  Petrarch  conversing 
below  with  Anacreon,  Alcteua,  and  the  wonderful 
Sappho.  Thus  on  the  poetic  mount  beside  the  source 
of  HeUcon  the  dream  of  Humanism  is  fulfilled  in  the 
joy  of  living  and  intellectual  pleasures.  The  whole 
code  of  classic  art  la  formulated  in  these  unrivalled 
pictures.  In  them  beauty,  nobility  of  jHwlurc  purity 
and  pace  of  form,  the  sense  of  rhythm  and  life — all 
combine  to  form  one  joyous  whole.  The  Hcrenity  of 
Greek  art  is  recovered  without  effort,  and  the  noblest 
, harmony  is  the  result.    It  is  the  most  complete  ex- 


The  decoration  of  the  second  Chamber  or  St&nta  of 
Hcliodorus  is  quite  different.  The  pope  was  not  one 
to  be  satisfied  for  long  with  impersonal  aUegoriea.    He 


forma  the  subject  of  uie  new  chamber.  His  portrait 
was  to  appear  on  all  sides,  and  in  fact  it  is  found  in 
two  out  of  every  four  of  these  frwcoea.  They  were 
b^un  in  1511  and  completed  in  1514  under  Leo  X, 
whose  countenance  appears  in  the  last  freaco,  "St. 
Leo  halting  Attila".  This  picture,  which  was  donebjr 
pupils,  shows,  despite  the  oeauty  of  the  picturesque 
idea,  inferior  execution.  TTie  Deliverance  of  St. 
Pet^",  with  its  night  effects,  ita  various  li|tjita  (the 
moon,  torches,  and  the  nimbus  or  radiants  of  the 
angel)  is  one  of  the  most  famous  but  not  the  moat 
beautiful  or  purest  of  the  artist's  works.  But  the 
frescoes  of  the  other  two  walls,  "The  Expulsion  of 
Hcliodorus  from  the  Temple"  and  the  Mass  d 
Bolscna"  arc  among  hia  finest  creations.  The  "Helio- 
dorus"  (an  obvious  aUusion  to  the  despoilero  of  the 
I'upai  States  and  the  war-cry  of  JuUus  II,  "Fuori  i 
harbari!")  is  a  splendid  work  of  dramatic  art  wherein 
everything  is  simultaneously  composed  and  expressed 
with  starring  clearness  and  energy.  The  "Mass  d 
Bolsena"  is  perhaps  still  more  beautiful.  Raphad 
never  produwd  a  richer  or  more  profound  composi- 
tion; never  was  he  more  picturesque  and  noble,  more 
dramatic  and  strong.  Furthermore,  as  regards  colour- 
ing, it  is  impossible  to  ima^nc  anything  more  beau- 
tiful than  the  portrait  of  the  pope  or  the  Swiss  Guard 
grouped  kneeling  at  hia  feet.  In  this  instance  the 
always-impressionable  artist  was  influenced  by  the 
Venetian,  Scbastiano  del  Piombo.  With  his  usual 
genius  and  rapidity  of  asnmilation  he  added  the 
Venetian  palette  to  his  art. 

JuliuaIldiedon21Feb.,1513.  Hissucceaaor.LeoX, 
lost  no  time  in  restorii^  or  assuring  to  Rwhael  all 
hia  commissiona  and  duties.  But  the  work  in  the 
Chambers  was  almost  neglected.  In  the  third  in  point 
of  time  Raphael  painted  only  one  fresco,  the  "la- 
cendio  del  Bor^o"  (1514).  The  other  three  are  all  hf 
his  pupils  and  are  very  poor.  The  "Incendio"  itaeB 
is  one  of  his  least  happy  and  ncrsonal  works.  Michel- 
angelo had  just  uncovered  the  ceiling  of  the  Siitioe 
Chapel,  and  this  masterpiece  waa  obviously  in  R*- 

C'  el's  thoughts.  He  sought  o^  to  assemble  nude 
ics  in  sculptural  attitudes.  Though  it  displayed 
more  skill  and  beauty  in  detail,  it  repeated  the  mislalie 
made  six  ycsjs  previous  in  the  "Entombment".  The 
entire  fourth  Chamber,  that  of  Constantine,  was 
painted  after  the  death  of  Raphael,  under  the  direc- 
tion of  Giulio  Romano,  and  it  is  very  difficult  to  stale 
precisely  what  remains  of  the  spirit  and  original  idea* 
of  Raphael. 

The  frescoes  of  the  Hall  of  Conatantine  were 
painted  to  convey  the  impression  of  immense  tapes- 
tries. Tapestries  were  the  fashion,  after  Raphael, 
by  command  of  Leo  X,  had  painted  the  cartoons  for 
the  "Acts  of  the  Apoatlea"  which  were  to  be  copied 
in  the  studio  of  Pieter  van  Aelst  at  Brussels.  Ordered 
in  1.^14,  the  hanging,  composed  of  ten  pieces,  waa 
suspended  on  the  walls  of  the  Vatican  in  1519. 
Stolen  in  \h27  during  the  aack  of  Rome,  these  tapw- 
tries  were  not  restored  to  the  Vatican  till  1808,  and 
then  in  a  ruined  condition.  Seven  of  the  original 
cartoons,  discovered  by  Rubens  at  Brussels  in  1630, 
are  now  preserved  at  the  South  Kensington  Museum 
in  London.  This  work  de  luxe,  woven  of  threads  ot 
silk  and  gold,  is  the  most  n^ust  and  easily  intelligible 
of  all  Raphael's  productions.  In  it  is  found  afwr 
an  inl<!rvui  of  a  cenlury  the  epic  inspiration  of  Masac- 
cto.  Many  of  the  details  are  textual  rem.' 
tA  the  frescoes  of  the  Carmine.    At  the  a 


KAPHAKL  6 

Raphael's  geniua  rareljf  manifested  itself  bo  fre<'ly 
or  with  Buch  happiness  in  so  beautiful  a  story.  This 
happiness,  the  joy  of  creating,  case,,  and  fertility 
are  the  beneficent  charaeterislics  of  all  the  later 
works  of  Raphael's  life.  It  is  evident  that  the  artist 
proroundly  enjoyed  the  beauty  of  his  inventions  and 
the  feeling  is  communicated  to  the  spectator,  lirtiog 
him  above  himself.  Once  more  antiouity  ana  Chris- 
tianity, the  profane  and  the  sacred,  were  mingled 
but  in  'a  new  and  properly  "historic"  form.  To 
revive  Uie  Temple  with  ita  twisted  columns  (two  of 
which  are  preseri-ed  at  St.  Peter's  and  which  Bernini 
imitated  in  the  biddacchino  In  the  following  century), 
to  rey^roduce  accoMing  to  a  bas-relief  a  scene  of 
sacrifice  (Sacrifice  of  Lystra)  to  imagine  an  agora, 
&  sort  of  Athenian  forum,  surniunded  by  porticoes 
&nd  tcmplofi  in  which  all  antiquity  lived  again,  and 
to  set  in  this  scene  the  "PreachinK  of  St.  Paul" 
was  U>  Itaphael  an  uninterrupted  pleasure. 

Such  works  have  remainra  the  unsurpassable 
models  ofhistoriccom- 

esition.  each  of  them 
getting  for  more 
than  two  centuries  a 
lengthy  posterity  and 
stirring  many  echoee 
inart.  The  "Death 
of  Ananias"  inaugu- 
rated the  serieeof  lurid 
miracles.  Without 
such  examples  aa  the 
"Sacrifice  of  Lyetra" 
and  the  ' '  Preaching  of 
St.  Paul "  PousBin's 
art  would  hardly  be 
understood.  The 
"Conversion  of  St. 
Paul"  is  a  marvel  of 
noble  and  luminous 
composition  in  a  sub- 
ject which  seven- 
teenth-century art 
iiften  treated  with 
vulgarity.  But  the 
fitiest  examples  of 
thia  Hplendid  series 
are  the  first  two  scenes  which  form  the  evangelical 
prelude  or  prologue  to  the  "Acta";  the  "Calling 
of  the  Apostles"  and  the  "Pasce  Oves"  are  works 
in  which  the  Umbrian  soul,  the  serene  and  poetic 
sensibility  of  Raphael  could  not  be  surpassed.  Here 
the  artist  has  given  us  the  true  colour  of  thinp, 
the  pastoral  charm  and  original  atmosphere  of  the 
preaching  of  Christ.  The  idyllic  and  confident  sense 
of  life  as  it  is  e:^re8sed  in  the  catacombs  or  on  the 
tomb  of  Galla  Placidia,  in  the  type  of  the  Good 
Shepherd,  the  moral  perfume  so  long  vanished  or 
evaporated  were  successfully  revived  by  the  wonderful 
divmation  and  tact  of  a  great  artist.  Raphael's 
genius  would  seem  to  have  been  bestowed  by  Provi- 
dence to  restore  lost  feelings  to  Christianity. 

This  same  poetry  as  of  a  higher  kind  of  ecliKue 
characterizes  the  second  of  the  great  works  under- 
taken by  Raphael  at  the  command  of  Leo  X,  the 
decoration  of  the  IjOggie,  known  as  the  Loggie  of  the 
Vatican,  This  was  a  story  added  by  Raphael  to 
the  two  stories  of  the  fagade  built  by  Dramante. 
It  comprised  three  arcades  and  as  many  little  cupolas, 
each  of  which  received  four  small  pictures.  In  the 
decoration  of  this  gallery  Raphael's  idea  was  to  rival 
the  Therma  of  Titus,  the  recent  discovery  of  which 
had  stirred  artistic  and  literary  Rome.  The  walls 
were  covered  with  charming  stuccoes  by  John  of 
IJdine;  trellises  painted  so  as  to  deceive  the  eye 
framed  the  pictures  on  the  V8ulte<l  ceilings.  Nothing 
equals  the  gaiety  and  grace  of  this  aerial  portico, 
flooded  with  sunlight  and  completed  by  the  horizon 


5  BAPHAXI. 

of  the  Roman  Campa^.  The  ceiling  was  painted 
from  1513  to  1519,  but  Raphael  ■  had  not  time 
to  make  it  his  own  handiwork,  executing  only  the 
designs,  and  thoseof  the  last  three  cupolas  are  not  at  all 
worths'  of  him.  Here  he  delineates  sacred  history 
from  the  Creation  to  the  Last  Supper.  The  first 
"scenes"  illustrate  the  same  subject  from  Genesis 
which  Michelangelo  had  Just  painted  on  the  ceiling 
of  the  Sixtine  Chapel.  But  Raphael  does  not  out- 
shine his  rival,  bemg  only  spirituel  and  charming 
where  the  latter  is  magnificent.  In  the  succeeding 
compositions  often  occurs  a  reflection  of  the  lovely 
pictures  which  Pietro  Cavallini  had  painted  about 
1280  in  the  basilica  of  3.  Lorenzo,  reproduced  in  a 
MS.  of  the  Vatican  still  extant.  But  the  pastoral 
scenes  are  wholly  original  with  Raphael,  especially 
those  in  which  landscape  figures  Fareoiy.  Nothing 
could  be  more  nobly  graceful  than  the  "Angels  re- 
ceived by  Abraham",  the  "Meeting  of  Jacob  and 
Rachel",  or  "Moses  saved  from  the  waters".  "Ra- 
phael's Bible",  as  it 
IS  often  called,  is  a 
series  of  epic  minia- 
tures, the  clearness 
of  interpretation  of 
which  rivals  their 
simplicity,  perfect 
equilibrium  of  ar- 
rangement, charm  of 
motifs,  and  grace  of 
style. 

But  the  service  of 
Leo  X  did  not  stop 
here.  The  artist  had 
to  respond  to  the  moat 
unforeseen  whims; 
now  it  was  the  deco- 


hofii! 
life-) 
portrait  of  an  elephant 

I    in.  mnia.un.    nu«.,  >f,TB  ftnd    agalU     thcrC    WprB 

nuif  q"Q  B^w^nci  ***  ^'^^^  "^  Cardinal 

Ji  el  oiorientTmon  Bibhicna   tO   bc    dcCO- 

ratc<l.  But  neither 
these  nor  many  other  tasks  exhausted  the  activity 
of  Raphael.  In  1512  the  desire  to  compete  with 
Michelangelo  caused  him  to  consent  to  paint  at  S. 
Agostino  for  the  I.uxemburger  John  Goritz  a  figure 
of  Isaias  which  is  almost  a  plagiarism,  and  in  1514 
for  the  Sienese  banker,  Agostino  Chigi,  the  four 
celebrated  "Sibyls"  of  S.  Maria  della  Pace.  By 
their  divine  elegance  the  latter  recall  the  sublime 
qualities  of  the  Camera  deUa  Segnatura.  For  Chigi 
were  also  painted  in  1516  the  cartoons  for  the  mosaics 
which  were  to  adorn  Santa  Maria  della  Popolo,  his 
funeral  chapel,  but  only  the  figures  of  God  (he  Father 
and  the  planet^  were  finished.  Finally  this  Mrecenas 
conceived  the  ostentatious  idea  of  having  the  pope's 
favourite  painter  decorate  the  villa  which  he  was 
building  in  the  Trasteverc  and  which  in  the  seven- 
teenth century  was  called  the  Famesina,  This 
delightful  summer  palace,  one  of  Peruzzi's  most 
channing  creations,  is  a  perfect  type  of  a  coimtiy 
house,  a  patrician  dwelling  of  the  Renaissance  period, 
and  was  decorated  by  the  most  popular  masters  of  the 
age. .  Sodoma  decorated  the  first  story  with  subjects 
from  the  "Marriage  of  Alexander"  which  form  an 
heiViic  and  voluptuous  epithalamium.  Raphael  had 
to  decorate  the  large  gallery  on  the  ground  floor. 
The  first  fresco  was  the  "Triumph  of  Galatea". 
Raphael  took  as  his  theme  the  celebrated  verses  from 
Politian's  "Giostra"  which  had  already  inspired 
Botticelli.  But  what  is  the  mythology  of  this  charm- 
ing artint  beside  the  resurrection  of  an  immoKal  and 
chaste  paganism?     Zeuxis  and  Apelles  did   not  do 


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646 


RAPHAEL 


otherwise.  It  is  curious  tkat  Raphael  made  the 
purest  profession  of  faith  in  idealism  with  regard  to 
this  figure  of  a  woman  which  arouses  all  the  veneres 
cupidinesque  of  painting.  **VVith  regard  to  the 
'Galatea"'  he  writes  to  his  friend  Castiglione,  ''I 
should  consider  myself  a  great  master  if  it  had  only 
half  the  merits  of  which  you  write.  I  know  that  to 
paint  a  beautiful  woman  I  should  see  several  and 
should  have  you  also  to  assist  me  in  my  choice.  But 
as  I  have  few  good  judges  or  good  models  I  work  ac- 
cording to  a  certain  idea  which  presents  itself  to  my 
mind.  If  this  idea  possesses  any  perfection  I  do 
not  know  it,  though  this  is  what  I  endeavour  to 
attain.''  Plato  might  recognize  himself  in  these 
exquisite  lines,  or  they  might  be  a  recovered  frag- 
ment of  the  "Ion"  or  "Phaedrus". 

The  "History  of  Psyche"  on  the  ceiling  of  the  large 
ffallery  was  painted  in  1518  when  RaphaeL  over- 
burdened with  work,  had  no  leisure  and  confided  to 
his  pupils,  chiefly  to  Giulio  Romano,  the  task  of 
executing  his  sketches  and  designs.  His  original 
sketches  are  marvels,  and  the  composition  of  the 
frescoes,  despite  their  rather  heavy  and  vulgar 
colouring,  is  calculated  to  charm  an  artist's  eye. 
With  his  spiritually  inclined  imagination  Raphael 
feigns  that  the  loggia  opening  on  the  garden  is  a  large 
trellis,  an  archedand  vine-covered  pergola  throu^ 
which  appear  in  mid-heaven  the  winged  whiteness 
of  the  goddesses.  Two  or  three  figures  fill  these 
azure  triangles.  These  ideal  and  floating  figiures  are 
a  very  festival.  But  the  middle  of  the  pergola  is 
covered  with  a  velum  formed  by  a  double  tapestry 
which  depicts  in  two  scenes  the  "Entrance  of  Psyche 
to  Olympus"  and  the  "  Marriage  of  Psyche".  Giulio 
Romano's  coarse  execution  and  the  still  more  re- 
grettable retouching  of  Maratta  could  not  wholly 
dishonour  these  incomparable  works. 

Pictures  and  portraits  of  the  Roman  period. — To- 
gether with  these  vast  decorative  works  Raphael  con- 
tinued to  produce  as  though  for  pastime  works  of 
small  size  but  great  importance,  for  they  are  the  sole 
means  whereby  his  art  could  be  known  outside  of 
Italy,  and  Raphael  become  more  than  a  name  to  the 
great  European  pubhc.  Moreover,  there  are  many 
masterpieces  among  these  works  of  small  compass. 
The  Madonnas  of  the  beginning  of  the  Roman  period 
still  retain  somewhat  of  the  relative  timidity  of  the 
preceding  period.  The  lovely  Uttle  "Virgin  of  the 
Casa  Alba"  (St.  Petersburg,  1510),  the  Leonardo-like 
"Madonna  Aldobrandini''  (National  Gallery),  the 
charming  "Madonna  of  the  Veil"  of  the  Louvre 
(1510),  still  preserve  a  remnant  of  the  Florentine  grace 
and  simplicity.  The  "Foligno  Madonna",  painted  in 
1511  for  Sigismundo  Conti  after  the  Camera  delta 
Segnaiuray  marks  the  transition  to  a  new  manner. 
The  graceful  figure  of  the  Virgin  seated  amid  clouds 
on  a  sunlit  throne  with  her  Child  in  her  arms  recalls 
the  celestial  figures  of  the  "Disputa";  the  three 
saints  and  the  donor  kneehng  below  on  the  earth 
before  the  beautiful  landscape,  the  Child  with  a  cartel 
on  which  was  formerly  written  the  ex-voto,  show 
brilliant  and  scholarly  painting,  but  perhaps  too  evi- 
dent symmetry.  The  "Virgin  of  the  Fish"  (Madrid, 
1513),  the  "Virgin  of  the  Candlesticks"  (London, 
1514),  the  "Virgin  of  the  Curtain"  (Madonna  delta 
Impannaia,  Pitti,  1514)  are  unfortunately  among  his 
pupils'  works.  There  is  a  coldness,  a  lack  of  the 
artist's  personal  qualities  and  peculiar  sensibility, 
which  chills  works  otherwise  charming  in  conception. 
Execution  is  a  part  of  art  which  seems  material  but 
which  is  in  reality  quite  spiritual;  through  it  the 
artist  betrays  his  emotion,  gives  us  his  confidence, 
and  communicates  his  impressions.  The  work  of  an- 
other hand  always  lacks  the  most  valuable  Qualities 
of  style.  Raphael  was  therefore  not  sufficiently  care- 
ful of  his  reputation  when  he  confided  his  most  original 
inspirations  to  his  pupils,  for  they  lost  in  being  ez- 


Eressed  by  others.  The  division  of  labour  which  has 
ut  few  inconveniences  in  decorative  works  becomes 
fatal  in  works  of  a  "lyric"  or  familiar  nature,  and 
which  are  only  valuable  in  so  far  as  the  artist  endows 
them  with  his  personality.  It  is  this  which  injures  or 
spoils  irreparably  some  of  his  most  famous  works, 
such  as  the  "Spasimo"  of  Madrid,  the  "Madonna  of 
the  Rose"  (or  "La  Perla")  of  the  same  museum,  the 
"St.  Michael"  of  the  Louvre,  and  the  "Holv  Family" 
known  as  that  of  Francis  I  (all  these  belong  to  the 
years  1516-18).  A  thou^t  of  Raphael's  translated 
even  by  such  a  master  as  Giulio  Romano  or  Francesco 
Penni  has  nevertheless  only  the  value  of  a  shadow  or 
a  copy.  Translation  in  such  a  case  too  often  means 
betrayal. 

Some  works  of  this  period  are  nevertheless  by  the 
artist  himself  and  are  rightly  numbered  amon^  his  most 
popular  works.    The  "Madonna  of  theChaur"  (Pitti 
Palace)  is  perhaps  the  best  liked  by  women.    No  other 
links  so  happily  the  famiUar  charm  of  the  Florentine 
period  with  the  maturity  of  the  Roman  period.    She 
IS  only  a  peasant  in  the  costume  of  a  conladina  with 
the  national  kerchief  on  her  hair,  but  Raphael  never 
found  in  such  simple  materials  a  more  profound  and 
natural  combination  of  forms,  such  curving  lines,  such 
an  expressive,  enfolding  arabesque.     The  whole  of 
niatemal  love  seems  to  Be  enclosed  within  the  perfect 
circle  of  this  picture.    It  is  the  perfection  of  genre 
pictures,    wherein    the   most   ordinary    human    life 
reaches  its  noblest  expression,   a  universal   beauty. 
Art  has  lived  for  foiur  centuries  on  this  sublime  idea. 
Though  from  GiuUo  Romano  to  Ingres  it  has  been 
imitated  a  thousand  times,  no  one  has  discovered  the 
secret  of  its  perfection.    Among  tableaux  de  grace  must 
be  mentioned  together  with  the  little   "Vision  of 
Ezechiel"  of  the  Pitti  Palace,  the  splendid  picture  of 
St.  CeciUa  of  Bolo^a  (1515).    This  canvas,  as  well 
as  its  contemporanes  the  "Madonna  of  the  Chair" 
and  the  "Sistine  Madonna",  coincides  with  the  ap- 
pearance of  a  new  model  whose  portrait  we  have  m 
the  famous  "Donna  Velata"  of  the  Pitti  Palace.    It 
was  she  who  posed  for  the  St.  Cecilia  as  for  the  Dres- 
den picture.   These  two  pictures,  especially  the  second, 
occupy  a  place  apart  in  Raphael's  works.    Here  the 
artist  directly  attempts  the  expression  of  the  super- 
natural.   The  Dresden  picture  is  the  most  beautiful 
devotional  picture  in  existence.     The  impression  is 
obtained  not  only  by  the  idealism  of  its  form,  but  by 
the  vision-like  representation  of  space,  by  the  scheme 
of  clouds  on  which  the  Virgin  is  upheld,  and  the 
solemnity  of  the  drapery.     An  almost   forbidding^ 
mystery  fills  this  majestic  canvas,  truly  unt.qualled  in 
Raphael's  work.    It  would  perhaps  have  haid  a  com- 
panion had  death  not  interrupted  the  "Transfigura- 
tion" (Vatican  Gallery,  1520).   The  upper  part,  which 
is  all  Raphael  had  time  to  complete,  is  one  of  his  ni|^est 
inspirations.    In  uniting  this    glory"  with  the  earthly 
and  agitated  scene  below,  he  was  confronted  with  a 
problem  which  it  required  all  his  genius  to  solve.    The 
devotion  of  his  pupils,  who  assumed  the  task  of  com- 
pleting this  well-nigh  unrealizable  task,  produced  only 
a  cold  and  confus^  work. 

This  is  why  we  often  prefer  Raphael's  portraits, 
which  the  taste  of  those  days  neglected,  to  his  most 
talkcd-of  works,  his  most  famous  Virp;ins.  It  is  now 
the  fashion  to  praise  the  portrait  pamter  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  painter  of  the  Madonnas  and  even  of  the 
decorator.  It  is  truly  said  that  in  the  first  two  Cham- 
bers the  beauty  of  the  portraits  adds  much  to  the  life 
of  the  whole.  Later,  starting  with  the  Chamber  of  the 
Incendio,  Raphael,  doubtless  following  Michelangelo's 
example,  ceased  to  introduce  portraits  into  his  his- 
torical works;  he  no  longer  represented  individuals, 
but  only  the  general  species.  Nevertheless  he  con- 
tinued to  paint  portraits  and  even  here,  though  he  has 
equals,  no  one  excels  him.  The  half-dozen  portraits 
he  has  left,  the  Julius  II  of  the.Ufi&siy  the  Leo  X  of  the 


Pitti  Palace,  th^  portr^t  of  Pha>driu  la^hiromi  (Bos- 
ton, Fenway  Court),  and  that  of  CastiglionR  (Louvre) 
are  rivals  of  the  most  perfect  work  of  Titian,  Velae- 
quei,  and  Rembrandt.  There  is  no  doubt  that  the 
original  of  the  splendid  "Donna  Vdata"  of  the  Pitti 
Pft&ce,  who  80  often  inspired  him,  played  a  part,  in 
hia  life,  but  she  keeps  her  secret  and  no  one  has  ever 
Bucc<«dod  in  piercing  her  incognito.  It  is  only  certiun 
that  she  waa  not  the  Fomarina,  who  seems  to  be  an 
inrentiun  of  a  romance  dating  only  from  the  end  of 
the  eighteenth  century.  The  ratiier  indecent  portrait 
of  a  woman  in  the  Darberini  Palace,  which  bears  on  a 
bracelet  the  name  of  Raphael,  is  the  work  of  GiuUo 
Romano,  and  the  mgnature  is  a  forgery  of  the  seven- 
teenth centu^. 

Raphael's  fame,  after  three  centuries  of  unclouded 
splendour,  has  been  violently  attacked  during  the  last 
century.  The  progress  of  historical  criticism  and  the 
discovery  of  the  "Primitives"  were  the  beginning  of 
a  reaction  as  violent  as  it  was  unjust.  It  was  asserted 
that  the  Renaissance,  instead  of  furthering  the  prog- 
ress of  art,  was  a  source  of  decadence.  A  school  was 
founded  bearing  the  standard  of  the  Pre-Rapbaclitee. 
This  school,  whose  herald  was  John  Ruskin,  did  much 
good,  but  without  denying  it  its  due,  it  ia  time  to  reject 
some  of  its  narrow  and  prejudiced  judgments.  There 
is  no  doubt  that  Raphael,  hkc  other  men  of  genius, 
had  no  pupils  worthy  of  him.  It  would  be  strange  to 
reproach  him  with  the  fact  that   his  art   whs  quite 

Kional  to  himself.  It  may  be  that  compared  with 
nardo  and  especially  with  Michclai^lo,  Raphael 
seems  less  great  or  less  original.  He  made  no  dis- 
coveries in  nature  like  those  of  his  great  rivals,  he 
added  nothing  to  our  knowledge  of  anatomy^  of  model- 
ling, or  construction;  he  is  not  a  colourist  like  Titian, 
nor  even  a  draughtsman  in  the  absolute  sense  of  the 
word,  such  as  was  Diirer  or  PoUaiuolo.  It  is  probable 
that  Raphael  will  never  recover  the  singular  position 
ascribed  to  him  in  the  schools  as  the  faultless  master 
and  the  professor  whose  instructions  are  always  to  be 
consulted.  On  the  other  band,  he  appears  more  and 
more  the  most  exquisite  and  perfect  expression  of  an 
age  and  a  society  which  will  never  return.  Never- 
thelcHB  the  fact  remains  that  if  there  have  been  rarer 
or  more  learned  paintere  than  he,  he  excels  them  all  in 
Ws  incomparable  sense  of  beauty.  No  other  has  shown 
us  BO  much  nobility  in  nature,  no  one  ever  had  or  led 
us  to  form  a  bettor  opinion  ot  human  nature.  No 
other  painter  handled  so  completely  all  the  resourceo 
of  his  art.  He  has  never  been  equalled  as  a  portrait 
punter  and  decorator.  No  one  has  known  so  well 
how  to  invest  the  highest  and  most  precious  ideas 
with  plastic  forms.    He  has  given  form  to  our  dreams. 


li  Gianinn;  Santi    {Ortn 


rUraa  <!•  Sap/unl  (PmM.  18S9):  1 
p^raiU  (Puia.  1SS7>:  Tune,  Vauc 
Idem.  PhiUuopliie  dr  Tarl  in  Ilalii 
Raptiarl  u.  MiehdnnOii^  (Lnpiig, 
Painltri  (Lonrton.  1893);  MOnti,  R 
Hn  Irmpt  (Palis,  1XR7:  nps  i»l  ia 
(Bolocna,  1885)  ; 
Mirbuch  Mr  Kaa 
RapAafi  (Londop,  I 


7  RAPHOl 

(Gaelic  Ralhbotk,  fort  of  eottages)  was  the  first  o{ 
Rt ,  Columba's  Iriah  foundations  to  become  an 
episcopal  see.  The  monastery  which  he  founded 
there  in  the  middle  of  the  sixth  century  was  renovated 
about  the  year  700  by  Adamnan,  who  succeeded  him 
in  Raphoe  as  well  as  in  lona.  Though  Adamnan  died 
in  lona  (704)  he  spent  the  last  six  years  of  his  life 
in  Ireland,  and  his  mother'a  kindred  were  the  clan 
that  occupied  the  Raphoe  district.  It  has  been  sug- 
gested that  then,  though  not  before,  he  may  have  be«i 
in  episcopal  orders  with  a  sedea  at  Raphoe  (Cuimhne 
Coluimcille,  12).  Be  that  as  it  may,  lor  Eunan,  who 
is  venerated  as  first  Bishop  of  Raphoe  and  so  recorded 
by  earlv  Irish  writers  and  the  ancient  calendars,  is  no 
other  than  Adamnan,  whose  name  has  the  same  pro- 
nunciation with  Irish  speakers.    There  is  no  reoord 


d..   laoO):    MiNOHim,  RoffocUo 

Dit    Biblialhrt    Jultut    11  in 

V    <BerUn     1883):    Cartwhioht. 

ciFDM.  fffl^oil  (BLelefeld.  1897); 


%>me  (Puns!  ie02)  "cahottt.  ^pi^t™ Lvmardo.  Bram^Xa 
RaffarOo  (Mil.n,  19081  ;   GlLtET,  Raplall  (P.ris,  1907). 

LoUla   GiLLET. 

Eapluwl  Sociat?.    See  EuiaBANTAiDSociBTtEB. 

Kaphoe,  Diocehe  of  (Rafotensis),  comprises 
the  greater  part  of  the  Co.  Donegal  (Gael.  TiTconaH), 
in  the  ecclesiastical  Province  of  Armagh.    Raphoe 


of  a  break  in  the  line  of  the  Catholic  sucoeaaion 
in  Raphoe.  But  from  the  death  of  Nial  O'Boyle 
in  1610  t«  the  appointment  of  James  O'GaJlagher  in 
1726,  owing  to  the  violence  of  persecution,  the  dio- 
cese was  sdministered  by  vicars  except  during  the 
episcopate  of  John  O'Culenan  from  1625  to  1661. 
The  sufferings  of  this  prelate  are  characteristic  of 
the  times.  He  was  arrested,  taken  to  Dublin,  and 
twice  brought  before  the  viceroy  and  Privy  Council. 
About  1643  he  again  fell  into  the  hands  of  his  enemies. 
Along  with  some  prominent  men  of  his  dioceee  be  was 
besieged  by  English  soldiers  and  forced  to  surrender. 
Though  promised  quarter,  seventy-two  of  his  fol- 
lowers were  put  to  the  sword,  and  the  bishop  was 
^ven  a  choice  between  death  by  drowning  and  death 
at  the  hands  of  the  miUtary.  Electing  the  latter  fate 
he  was  stripped  naked,  and  as  the  croesbows  and 
matohlocks  failed  to  discharge  against  the  kneehng 
victim,  pikemen  were  advancing  to  dispatch  him, 
when  Colonel  Sir  Jamee  Askin  arrived  upon  the  scene 
and  prevented  the  murder,  severely  rebuiting  the 
soldiers.  The  bishop  was  then,  confined  for  four 
years  in  Derry  in  a  dark  dungeon  where  cold,  hunger, 
and  thirst  were  his  portion.  In  the  exchange  of 
prisoners  after  Owen  Roe  CNeill's  victory  at  Ben- 
DUrb  he  regained  his  liberty  in  1647.  But  when  the 
remnant  of  the  Irish  army  under  Heber  MacMahon 
was  defeated  near  Letterkeimy  in  1650,  O'Culenan's 
hfe  was  once  more  in  daily  peril.  He  made  Ms  way 
out  of  the  country  in  1S53,  and  died  at  Bruasefe 
24  March,  1661.  Six  brothers,  all  older  than  him- 
self, held  high  offices  in  the  Church,  The  eldest, 
GelasiuB,  a  doctor  of  the  Sorbonne  and  Abbot  of 
Boyle,  was  imprisoned  in  Dublin,  tortured,  and  hanged. 
The  next  Bishop  of  Raphoe,  whose  appointment  comes 
just  a  hundred  years  after  that  ol  O'Culenan,  had 


RAPIN 


648 


BASK0LNIK8 


night  shortly  before  soldiers  came  to  seize  him.  He 
flOu^t  refuge  on  a  remote  island  in  an  Irish  lake  and, 
dunng  a  year's  concealment  there,  wrote  for  publicar 
tion  the  Irish  sermons  which  he  had  been  accustomed 
to  deliver  to  his  flock,  and  which,  when  printed  in 
1736,  became  a  powerful  reminder  of  the  duties  of  a 
Christian  life  throughout  the  western  half  of  Ireland 
at  a  time  of  fierce  aggression  on  the  Faith.  A  marked 
man,  he  could  not  show  himself  again  in  Raphoe,  and 
he  was  transferred  to  Kildare  in  1737,  where  he  found 
it  needful  to  make  a  secluded  spot  in  the  Bog  of 
Allen  the  centre  of  his  apostolic  labours. 

Driven  out  at  the  Reformation,  a  Catholic  bishop 
has  never  since  resided  at  Raphoe.  Even  before  the 
flight  of  the  earls  from  RathmuUen  (1607)  Donald 
MacCongail,  a  remarkable  prelate,  who  was  present 
at  the  Council  of  Trent  in  1563  and  at  the  Ulster 
provincial  council  in  1587,  seems  to  have  resided  most 
of  his  time  at  Killybegs  on  ground  now  occupied  by 
structures  connected  with  St.  Columba's  Marine 
Industrial  School.  A  remnant  of  the  ancient  cathe- 
dral church  of  Raphoe  still  shows  in  the  chancel  of 
the  Protestant  cathedral  there;  but  no  ruin  marks 
the  site  of  the  ancient  monastery.  It  is  different  with 
the  foundations  at  Gartan,  Glencolumbkille  and 
Kilmacrenan,  associated  with  Columba.  More  strik- 
ing to  the  eye  are  the  remains  of  the  remarkable 
abbeys  founded  during  the  Middle  Ages  in  the 
Diocese  of  Raphoe.  The  Cistercians  were  at  As- 
saroe,  near  BaJlyshannon,  the  Carmelites  at  Rath- 
muUen, the  Franciscans  in  almost  every  district  of 
Tirconail.  The  most  celebrated  of  these  foundations 
was  the  Franciscan  Abbey  of  Donegal  under  whose 
shelter,  after  it  was  dismantled,  the  "Annals  of  the 
Kingdoms  of  Ireland"  were  compiled  by  the  Four 
Masters  (1632-1636).  After  the  plantation  of 
Ulster  in  the  seventeenth  century  not  an  acre  of  good 
land  remained  in  the  hands  of  a  Catholic  in  Tirconill. 
To  this  day  some  of  its  confiscated  abbey  lands  yield 
an  annual  income  of  close  on  £9000  sterling  to 
Trinity  College,  Dublin. 

Dr.  Patrick  McGettigan  (1820-1861)  brought  the 
Loreto  Sisters  into  the  Diocese  of  Raphoe  (1854); 
Dr.  Daniel  McGettigan  (1861-1871),  afterwards 
Primate  of  all  Ireland,  introduced  the  Sisters  of 
Mercy  (1867),  and  Dr.  James  McDevitt  (1871-1879) 
estabtished  the  Raphoe  Diocesan  Society  (1872); 
the  Presentation  Brothers  came  to  Letterkenny  in 
1894.  The  vear  1901  is  an  important  date  in  the  his- 
tory of  Raphoe;  it  was  then  that  the  ancient  cathe- 
dral  chapter  was  re-established  by  Leo  XIII  and  St. 
Columba  declared  joint  patron  with  St.  Eunan  of 
the  diocese  and  of  the  new  cathedral.  In  that  year 
also  the  new  cathedral,  which  together  with  the  bishop's 
reffldence  is- at  I/ctterkenny,  was  solemnly  dedicated. 
Cardinal  Logue,  a  native  and  former  bishop  (1879- 
1887)  of  Raphoe,  presided,  and  Archbishop  Keane  of 
Dubuque,  ^so  a  native',  preached  the  dedication 
sermon.  St.  Eunan's  (Adamnan's)  College  was  begun 
at  I-«tterkenny  on  23  September.  1904,  the  twelfth 
centenary  of  St.  Adamnan^  and  opened  in  1906. 
There  are  many  pilgrimages  m  Raphoe,  the  most  fre- 
quented being  Doon  Well.  Inniskeel,  St.  Catherine's 
Well,  and  Glencolumbkille. 

8t.  Adamnan,  Life  of  Columba,  ed.  Rbetss  (Dxiblin,  18»7); 
O'DoNOVAN  (ed.),  Annalt  of  the  Four  Matters  (Dublin.  1856); 
O'CuBRT,  Life  of  Red  Hugh  (yDonnell,  ed.  Mukpht  (Dublin. 
1893);  Maouibc,  Cuimhne  ColuimciUe  (Dublin,  1908);  Burke 
(ed.).  Sermoru  of  the  Mott  Rev.  Dr.  Jamea  O'Gallaoher  (Dublin. 
1887) ;  Mkbhan.  The  Rite  and  Fall  of  the  Irish  Francitcan  Moruia- 
teriet  (Dublin,  1872);  Archdalb,  Monatticon  Hibemieum,  ed. 
MoRAN  (Dublin,  1873). 

Patrick  0'DoNNEt.L. 

Bapin,  Ren£,  French  Jesuit,  b.  at  Tours,  1621; 
d.  in  Paris,  1687.  He  entered  the  Society  in  1639, 
taught  rhetoric,  and  wrote  extensively  both  in  verse 
and  prose.  His  first  production,  "Eclojr»  Sacrse*' 
(Paris.  1659)',  won  him  the  title  of  the  Second  The- 


ocritus, and  his  poem  on  gardens,  ''Hortorum  libri 
IV"  (Paris,  1665),  twice  translated  into  Ensliah 
(London.  1678;  Cambridge,  1706),  placed  him 
among  the  foremost  Latin  versifiers.  Of  his  critical 
essays,  the  best  known  are:  "Observations  sur  les 
po^mes  d'Horace  et  de  Virmle''  (Paris,  1669);  "R^ 
flexions  sur  Tusage  de  I'Soquence  de  ce  temps" 
(Paris,  1672);  "Reflexions  sur  la  po^tique  d'Aristote 
et  sur  les  ouvragei  des  pontes  anciens  et  modemes" 
(Paris,  1676).'  He  is  also  the  author  of  several 
theological  and  ascetic  treatises  like  "De  nova  doc- 
trina  dissertatio  seu  EvangeUum  Jansenistarum" 
(Paris,  1656);  "L'esprit  du  christianisme"  (Paris, 
1672);  "La  perfection  du  christiiCnisme"  (Paris, 
1673);  "La  foi  des  demiers  sidcles"  (Paris,  1679). 
These  books  and  many  other  pamphlets  were  col- 
lected in  "(Euvres  completes"  published  at  Amster- 
dam, 1709-10.  Rapin's  best  titles  to  celebrity  are  his 
two  posthumous  works:  "Histoire  du  ians^nisme", 
edited  by  Domenech  (Paris,  1861),  and  "Mdmoires 
sur  r^lise,  la  soci^t^.  la  cour,  la  ville  et  le  jan- 
s6nisme",  edited  by  Aubineau  (Paris,  1865).  The 
latter  book  is  the  counterpart  of  the  Jansenistic 
"M^moires  de  (jodefroi  Hermant  sur  Tlustoire 
eccl^astique  du  XVII'  si^le",  edited  by  Gazier 
(Paris,  1905).  Ste-Beuve  in  his  "Port  Royal"  tries 
on  every  occasion  to  find  Rapin  at  fault,  but  recent 
studies  on  Jansenism  show  that  he  is,  in  the  main, 
reliable. 

Dbjol,  De  Renato  Rapino  (Paria,  1881);  Attbinsap,  L«  P. 
Rapin  et  tet  mimoiret  inidilt  in  Revue  du  mimde  calholique  (Paria, 
1864);  HnsTBR,  Nomendator  II  (Innabruck.  1892).  447;  Son- 
MXRVOOBL,  BibUothkque  de  la  Compacnie  de  Jieua  (Pkris,  1895), 
VI.  1443;   Stb-Bbuvb.  Port  Royal,  YU  (Paris.  1900).  index. 

J.   F.   SOLUER. 

Ri4>olla.    See  Melfi  and  Rapolla,  Diogbsx  of. 

Raskolniks  (Russian  raskolnik,  a  schismatic,  a 
dissenter;  from  rciskolf  schism,  splitting;  that  in  turn 
from  raz,  apart,  and  kolot\  to  split;  plural,  raskolniki). 
a  generic  term  for  dissidents  from  the  Established 
Church  in  Russia.  Under  the  name  RaskdniJcif  the 
various  offshoots  and  schismatic  bodies  orinnating 
from  the  Greek  Orthodox  Church  of  the  Russian 
Empire  have  been  grouped  by  Russian  historians  and 
ecclesiastical  writers.  Strictly  speaking,  the  name 
Raskolniki  refers  merely  to  those  who  have  kept  the 
outward  forms  of  the  Byzantine  Rite;  the  others  who 
have  deserted  its  rituad  as  well  as  its  teachings  are 
grouped  under  the  general  Russian  name  ofSek- 
lanstvo  (sectarianism).  In  the  present  article  they 
are  both  treated  together,  since  either  form  of  di^ent 
is  but  slightly  known  outside  of  Russia.  The  Ras- 
kdniks  represent  in  the  Russian  Church  somewhat 
the  antithesis  of  Protestantism  towards  the  Catholic 
Church.  Protestants  left  the  Church  because  they 
claimed  a  desire  to  reform  it  by  dropping  dogmas, 
beliefs,  and  rites;  the  Raskolniks  left  the  Russian 
Churcn  because  they  desired  to  keep  alive  the  minutest 
rites  and  practices  to  which  they  were  accustomed, 
and  objected  to  the  Russian  Church  reforming  them 
in  any  respect.  In  doing  so  they  fell  into  the  greatest 
of  inconsistencies,  and  a  section  of  them,  while  keeping 
up  the  minutise  of  ritual,  rejected  nearly  every  doc- 
trine the  Church  taught  throughout  the  world. 

I.  True  Raskolniks. — Even  from  the  time  that  the 
Russians  were  converted  to  Christianity  there  were 
various  dissident  sects  among  them,  reproducing  in 
some  respects  the  almost  forgotten  heresies  of  the 
early  ages  of  the  Church.  These  are  mere  names  to- 
day, but  the  main  separation  from  the  Russian  Estab- 
lished Church  came  in  1654  when  Nikon,  Patriarch  of 
Moscow,  convened  a  synod  at  Moscow  for  the  reform 
of  the  ritual  and  correction  of  the  church  books.  At 
the  time  the  air  in  Southern  Russia  was  filled  with 
the  idea  of  union  with  Rome,  in  Central  and  Northern 
Russia  there  was  the  fear  of  the  Polish  invasion  and 
the  turning  to  Latin  customs.   When  Nikon  corrected 


RASKOLNIKS 


649 


BASKOLNIKS 


\ 


the  Church  service  books,  into  which  manv  errors  had 
crept  by  careless  copying,  and  conformed  them  with 
the  original  Greek  text,  great  comphunt  was  eicpressed 
that  he  was  departing  from  ola  Slavonic  hallowed 
words,  and  was  making  cause  with  the  stranger  out- 
side of  Russia.  When  he  undertook  to  chajage  the 
style  of  popular  forms  and  ceremonies,  such  as  the  sien 
of  the  cross,  the  spelling  and  pronunciation  of  '^  Jesus^', 
shaving  the  beard,  or  to  diner  in  the  number  of  Alle- 
luias before  the  Gospel,  he  aroused  popular  resent- 
ment, which  rose  until  there  came  an  open  break  in 
which  every  point  he  proposed  waa  rejected.  After- 
wards when  Peter  the  Great  came  to  the  throne 
(168^1725)  and  introduced  western  customs,  abol- 
ished the  Patriarchate  of  Moscow,  substituted  the 
Holy  Synod  and  made  himself  the  head  of  Church 
authority,  changed  the  forms  of  the  ancient  Russo- 
Slavonic  letters,  and  set  on  foot  a  host  of  new  things 
in  Church  and  State,  the  followers  of  the  old  order  of 
things  publicly  condemned  him  as  the  Antichrist  and 
renounced  the  State  Church  for  ever,  while  clinging 
to  the  older  forms  of  their  fathers.  But  both  Nikon 
and  Peter  had  the  whole  Russian  episcopate  with  them 
as  well  as  the  great  majority  of  the  Russian  clergy  and 
people.  The  dissenters  who  thus  separated  from  the 
established  Greco-Russian  Orthodox  Church  became 
also  known  as  Stariobriadtai  (old  Ritualists)  and 
Staroviertsi  (old  Believers),  in  allusion  to  their  ad- 
herence to  the  forms  and  teaching  prevailing  before 
Nikon's  reforms. 

As  none  of  the  Russian  bishops  seceded  from  the 
Established  Church  the  Raskolniks  therefore  had 
but  an  incomplete  form  of  Church.  Of  course  a 
number  of  priests  and  deacons  adhered  to  them, 
but  as  they  had  no  bishops  they  could  not  pro- 
vide new  members  of  the  clergy.  Soon  death  b^an 
to  thin  the  ranks  of  their  clergy  and  it  became  ap- 
parent that  within  a  brief  period  they  would  be  left 
without  any  priesthood  whatever.  Then  some  of 
their  leaders  began  to  denv  that  a  priesthood  was 
necessary^  at  all.  This  led  to  the  splitting  of  the 
Raskolmks  into  two  distinct  branches:  the  Popovtsi 
(Priestly,  i.  e.  "Pope"-ly),  who  insisted  on  the  hier- 
archy and  priesthood,  and  the  Bezpopovtsi  (Priestless, 
i.  e.  without  "Popes  ),  who  denied  the  necessity  of 
anjr  clergjy  whatever.  The  latter,  however,  accepted 
their  ministrations.  The  fortunes  of  these  two  denom- 
inations or  sects  were  quite  different.  The  former 
grew  to  great  importance  in  Russia,  and  are  now  said 
to  have  between  thirteen  and  fifteen  millions  of  ad- 
herents. The  latter  subdivided  again  and  again  into 
smaller  sects,  and  are  said  to  number  between  three 
and  four  millions,  all  included.  They  will  be  taken 
up  separately. 

Po-povtsi  or  Hierarckiccd  Raskolniks. — At  first  these 
renewed  their  clergy  by  taking  over  dissatisfied  or 
dismissed  priests  Trom  the  established  Orthodox 
Church,  after  having  them  take  an  oath  against  all 
the  reforms  instituted  by  Nikon  and  Peter;  but  this 
method  was  hardly  satisfactory,  for  in  most  cases  the 
material  thus  obtained  was  of  a  low  moral  grade. 
They  believed  that  the  whole  Russian  episcopate 
had  gone  over  to  Antichrist,  but  still  were  valid  bish- 
ops, and  hence  endeavoured  to  have  priests  ordained 
by  them,  but  in  vain.  They  searched  the  Eastern 
world  for  a  bishop  who  held  their  peculiar  ideas,- and 
it  seemed  almost  as  though  they  must  eventually 
change  for  lack  of  clergy,  when  chance  aided  them.  A 
communityof  Popovtsi  monks  had  settled  at  Bielo- 
krinitsa  (White  Fountain)  in  Bukowina.  Ambrose 
(1791-1863),  a  Greek  monk,  was  appointed  Bishop 
of  Sarajevo  in  Bosnia,  and  waa  consecrated  by  the 
Patriarch  of  Constantinople.  Subsequently  a  later 
patriarch  deposed  him,  and  when  his  resentful  feel- 
mgs  against  the  Constantinople  authorities  were  at 
their  height,  the  Raskolniks  approached  him  with  the 
request  U>  become  their  bishop.    On  16  April,  1S46, 


Ambrose  agreed  to  go  over  to  their  faith  and  adopt  all 
the  ancient  practices,  consecrate  other  bishops  for 
them,  and  become  their  metropolitan  or  archbishop. 
On  27  October,  1846,  he  was  solemnly  received  in  the 
monastery  of  Bielo-luinitsa,  took  the  necessary  oaths, 
celebrated  pontifical  Mass  and  assumed  episcopal 
jurisdiction.  Bielo-krinitsa  is  only  a  few  miles  from 
the  Russian  border,  and  a  hierarchy  was  soon  brought 
into  being  for  Russia.  After  bishops  were  conse- 
crated for  Austria  and  Turkey,  bi^ops  were  conse- 
crated and  installed  in  Russia.  The  Russian  Govern- 
ment could  not  crush  the  head  of  the  Raskol  Church, 
for  it  was  in  Austria.  The  Popovtsi  grew  by  leaps  and 
bounds,  commenced  to  provide  for  a  regular  educated 
clergy  and  vied  with  the  Established  Church.  At 
present  they  have,  since  the  decree  of  toleration  in 
1905,  a  well-established  hierarch^r  in  Russia,  with  a 
metropolitan  at  Moscow,  and  bishops  at  Siuratoff, 
Perm,  Kazan,  Caucasus,  Samara,  Kolomea,  Nijni- 
Novgorod,  Smolensk,  Vyatka,  and  Kaluga. 

Their  chief  stronghold  is  the  Rogoshsky  quarter  in 
Moscow,  where  they  have  their  great  cemetery, 
monastery,  cathedral,  church,  and  chapels.  In  1863, 
at  the  time  of  the  Polish  insurrection  the  Raskolnik 
archbishop  and  his  lav  advisers  sent  out  an  encyclical 
letter  to  the  "Holy  Catholic  Apostolic  C^hurch  of  the 
Old  Believers",  supporting  the  tsar  and  declaring 
that  on  all  main  points  they  were  in  a^eement  with 
the  Established  Church.  This  agam  split  their 
Church  into  two  factions  which  last  to  this  day: 
the  Okruzhniki  or  Encyclicalists  and  the  Raz" 
domiki  or  Controversialists,  who  denied  the  points 
of  agreement  with  the  national  Church.  In  addition 
to  this  the  Established  Church  has  now  set  up  a 
section  of  these  Raskolniks  in  union  with  it,  but  has 
permitted  them  to  keep  all  their  peculiar  practices, 
and  these  are  called  the  YedinoverUi  or  "Uniates'\ 
A  great  many  of  the  controversial  section  of  the 
Raskolniks  are  coming  into  the  Catholic  Church,  and 
already  some  eight  or  ten  priests  have  been  received. 

Bezpopwtaif  or  the  Priestless^  seemed  to  represent 
the  despairing  side  of  the  schism.  They  have  their 
great  stronghold  in  the  Preobrazhenky  quarter  in 
Moscow,  and  are  strong  also  in  the  Government  of 
Archangel.  They  took  the  view  that  Satan  had  so 
far  conquered  and  throttled  the  Church  that  the 
clergy  had  gone  wrong  and  had  become  his  servants, 
that  the  sacraments,  except  baptism,  were  withdrawn 
from  the  laity,  ana  that  they  were  left  leaderless. 
They  claimed  the  right  of  free  interpretation  of  the 
Scriptures,  and  mc^elling  their  lives  accordingly. 
They  recognize  no  ministers  save  their  "readers''  who 
are  elected.  Lest  this  be  said  to  duplicate  Protestant- 
ism, one  must  remember  that  they  have  kept  up  all 
the  Orthodox  forms  of  service  as  far  as  possible, 
crossings,  bowings,  icons,  candles,  fastings,  and  the 
like,  and  have  regularly  maintained  monasteries  with 
their  monks  and  nuns.  But  they  had  no  element  of 
stability;  and  their  sects  have  become  innumerable, 
ever  shifting  and  varying,  with  incessant  divisions 
and  subdivisions.  The  chief  of  the  subdivisions  are: 
(1)  Pomortsi;  or  dwellers  near  the  sea,  a  rural  division 
which  is  very  devout;  (2)  Feodocei  (Theodosians)  who 
founded  hospitals  and  laid  emphasis  on  good  works; 
(3)  Bezbrachnihi  (free  lovers)  who  repudiated  mar- 
riage, somewhat  like  the  Oneida  community  in  New 
York;  (4)  Stranniki  (wanderers)  a  peripatetic  sect, 
who  went  over  the  country,  declaring  their  doctrines; 
(5)  Molchalniki  (mutes),  who  seldom  spoke,  believing 
evil  came  through  the  tongue  and  idle  conversation; 
and  (6)  Niemoliaki  (non-praying),  who  taught  that 
as  God  knows  all  things  it  is  useless  to  p^y  to  him, 
as  He  knows  what  one  needs.  These  various  divisions 
of  the  Priestless  are  again  divided  into  smaller  ones, 
like  many  of  the  strange  sects  in  England  and  Amer- 
ica, so  tiiat  it  is  almost  impossible  to  follow  them. 
Often  they  indulge  in  the  wildest  immorality,  justify- 


SX88 


650 


BASS 


ing  it  under  the  cover  of  some  distorted  text  of  Scrip- 
ture or  some  phrase  of  the  ancient  Qiurch  service. 
II.  Sectarians. — ^The  various  bodies  which  make 
up  the  Sektarutvo  have  seceded  from  the  national 
Russian  Church  quite  independently  of  the  schism 
at  the  time  of  Nikon  and  the  reform  in  the  Church 
books.  They  correspond  more  closely  with  the  vari- 
ous sects  arising  from  Protestantism,  and  are  founded 
upon  some  distorted  idea  of  the  Church,  or  a  rule  of 
life  or  doctrines  of  the  Faith.  Some  of  them  are  older 
than  the  schism,  but  most  of  them  are  later  in  point 
of  time.  The  principal  ones  comprise  between  one 
and  two  millions  and  may  be  subdivided  or  classified 
as  follows:  (1)  Khlysti  (Flagellants),  who  believe  in 
severe  penances,  reject  the  Church,  its  sacraments  and 
usages.  They  are  also  called  tne  Ludi  Bozkif  or 
"God's  People",  and  also  the  "Farmazoni"  (Free- 
masons) on  account  of  the  secret  initiations  thev  have. 
They  hold  secret  meeting  in  which  they  sing  wild,  stir- 
ring hymns,  dress  in  wmte,  and  jump,  dance,  or  whirl, 
much  like  the  negro  revivals  in  the  Southern  States. 

(2)  SkovUi  (Eunuchs)  who  not  only  teach  absolute 
celibacy,  out  mutilate  themselves  so  as  to  be  sexless. 
The^r  bloast  that  they  are  pure  like  the  saints  and  walk 
untainted  through  this  world  of  sin,  and  take  the 
literal  view  of  Matt.,  xix,  12.  Women  are  also 
mutilated,  particularly  after  they  have  borne  children 
to  recruit  the  sect,  but  these  children  are  not  bom  in 
wedlock.  The Skoplsi  are  said  to  be  usurers  and  money 
chimgers. 

(3)  Molokani  (Milk-drinkers)  said  to  be  so  named 
because  thev  make  it  a  point  to  drink  milk  and  use 
other  prohibited  foods  during  Lent  and  fast  days, 
to  show  their  objection  to  the  Orthodox  Church. 
They  abhor  all  external  ceremonies  of  religion,  but 
lay  stress  upon  the  Bible.  They  say  there  is  no  teacher 
of  the  Faith  but  Chhst  himself,  and  that  we  are  all 
priests;  and  they  carry  their  logic  so  far  as  to  have 
neither  church  nor  chapel,  simply  meeting  in  one 
anothers'  houses. 

(4)  Dukhobora  (Spirit  wrestlers)  are  those  who 
deny  the  Holy  Ghost  and  who  place  but  a  minor 
importance  upon  the  Scriptures.  They  are  bet- 
ter known  to  America,  for  some  thousands  of  them 
emigrated  to  Canada,  where  they  are  now  good 
colonists.  They  give  a  wide  place  to  tradition,  and 
designate  man  as  'Hhe  living  book",  in  opposition  to 
dead  books  of  paper  and  ink.  In  some  respects  they 
are  pantheists,  saying  that  God  lies  within  us,  that 
we  must  struggle  with  the  spirit  of  God  to  attain  the 
fulness  of  life.  They  do  not  give  an  historical  reality 
to  the  Gospel  narratives,  but  take  them  figuratively. 
Their  idea  of  the  Church  is  in  conformity  with  their 
belief;  they  consider  it  an  assembly  of  the  righteous  on 
earth,  whether  Christians,  Jews,  or  Moslems.  Yet  they 
have  all  the  peculiarities  and  fanaticism  of  the  Slav. 

(5)  SiundisU,  or  a  kind  of  Russian  Baptists.  These 
seem  to  be  an  offshoot  from  the  Lutherans  or  Mennon- 
ites  who  settled  in  Russia.  The  name  is  derived  from 
the  German  Stunde  or  hour,  because  they  assembled 
at  stated  hours  to  read  the  Bible  or  worship.  They 
rejected  the  sacraments,  even  baptism  at  nrst,  but 
yet  retain  it.  They  gave  up  all  Church  holidays,  and 
agreed  with  the  Melokani  in  repudiating  the  idea  of  a 
clergy.  They  are  nearly  all  Little  Russians,  in  the 
South  of  Russia. 

(6)  Subbotniki  (Sabbatarians),  who  have  substi- 
tuted Saturdav,  the  Jewish  Sabbath,  for  Sunday. 
They  have  aJso  taken  up  a  great  many  Jewish 
practices  from  the  Old  Testament  ^ong  with  such 
elemental  Christian  forms  which  they  retain.  They 
are  practically  Unitarians,  and  expect  the  Mes- 
sias;  and  they  are  also  said  to  be  like  the  Mor- 
mons, living  in  polygamy  in  many  instances,  although 
most  of  them  are  content  with  one  wife.  Besides 
these  principal  sects  there  are  numerous  smaller  ones. 
One  can  run  almost  the  same  round  of  strange  and 


erratic  religious  beliefs  in  Russia  as  in  the  United 
States.  There  are  the  Pliasmmy  (Dancers),  Samoboffi 
(Self-gods),  Ckislenniki  (Computers),  who  have 
changed  Sunday  so  as  to  fall  on  Wednesday,  and 
Easter  to  the  middle  of  the  week,  Pcuhkaviles,  Rod- 
stockiles  (so  named  after  their  founders),  and  numer- 
ous others,  which  exploit  some  peculiar  tenet  of  their 
various  founders  and  believers.  In  addition  to  these 
are  the  various  missionary  enterprises  and  local 
churches  of  Western  Protestantism,  of  which  the 
Lutherans  and  Baptists  are  the  leading  ones. 

Lebot-Beadueu.  The  Empire  of  the  Tsara,  III  (New  York. 
1902) ;  Heabd.  The  Ruaeian  Church  and  Ruaeian  Diaaent  (New 
York,  1887):  Pravoalavnaya  BoooaUnakaya  Encidopedia,  II  (St. 
Petersburg,  1003) ;  Ionatius,  laUfria  Raakola  v  rtiaahnn  Taerkae 
(St.  Petersburg,  1848);  Smibnopf,  Jaioria  maakikh  aiaronerykk 
Raakolnikoff  (St.  Petersburg.  1895). 

Andbew  J.  Shipman. 

BSsB,  Andreas,  Bishop  of  Strasburg,  b.  at  Sigols- 
heim  in  upper  Alsace,  6  April,  1794;  d.  at  Strasburg. 
17  November,  1887.  After  receiving  his  classical 
training  at  SchlettStadt  and  Nancy,  Rass  studied 
philosophy  and  theology  at  the  seminary  at  Mainz 
under  Liebermann  and  was  ordained  priest  in  1816. 
At  first  he  was  a  teacher  in  the  seminary  for  boys  at 
Mainz.  In  1822  he  received  the  degree  of  doctor  from 
the  theological  faculty  of  Wiirzburg.  When  Lieber- 
mann left  Mainz  for  Strasburg  Rass  was  made,  in 
1825,  director  of  the  seminary  at  Mainz  and  professor 
of  dogmatics  at  the  same  place.  After  failing  to  be 
elected  Bishop  of  Mainz  in  1828,  on  account  of  the 
opposition  of  the  Hessian  Government,  he  had  charge 
for  a  short  time  of  the  theological  seminary  at  Mob- 
heim;  in  1829  he  became  superior  of  the  seminary  for 
priests  at  Strasburg  and  professor  of  dogmatics, 
theology,  and  homUetics.  On  5  August,  1840,  he  was 
made  coadjutor  Bishop  of  Strasburg  with  the  right 
of  succession,  and  was  consecrated  on  14  February, 
1841.  In  1842  he  became  Bishop  of  Strasburg.  As 
bishop  he  devoted  himself  particularly  to  the  training 
of  the  clergy  and  the  extension  of  religious  societies. 
He  was  one  of  the  most  determined  defenders  of  Papal 
Infallibility  at  the  Vatican  CouncU.  His  declaration 
in  1874  in  the  German  Reichstag  that  the  Treaty  of 
Frankfort  was  recognized  by  the  Catholics  of  Alsace 
and  Lorraine  did  much  to  shatter  the  great  popularity 
he  had  until  then  enjoyed  among  his  fellow-country- 
men of  Alsace. 

In  his  earlier  years,  before  he  was  raised  to  the  epis- 
copate, Rass  showed  great  and  very  crcditaJble  activ- 
ity as  an  author.  One  undertaking  which  is  much  tx) 
his  honour  is  the  founding,  with  Nicholas  Weis,  of  the 
"Katholik"  at  Mainz  in  1821.  In  the  years  1819-39, 
also  with  the  aid  of  Weis,  he  published  a  large  number 
of  works,  chiefly  translations  and  revisions  of  French 
and  English  originals.  Among  the  most  important 
of  these  are  Alban  Butler's  "Leben  der  Vater  und 
Martyrer"  (20  vols..  Mainz,  1823-26;  2nd  ed.,  23 
vols.,  1838-40);  a  brief  summary  of  this  work: 
"  Leben  der  Heiligen  Gottes  "  (4  vols..  Mainz,  1826—) ; 
later,  completely  revised  by  J.  Holzwarth  (2  vols., 
Mainz,  1854—);  13th  ed.  (1903);  another  was  the 
''Bibliothek  der  katholisch^n  Kanzelberedsamkeif 
(18  vols.,  Frankfort,  1829-36).  Rass  also  broudit 
about  the  German  translation  of  the  "Annalen  der 
Verbreitung  des  Glaubens",  which  he  edited,  and  in 
this  way  did  much  to  promote  the  interest  in  missions 
to  the  heathen.  During  his  episcopate  Rass  published 
his  well-known  and  most  important  work:  *  Die  Con- 
vertiten  seit  der  Reformation  nach  ihrem  Leben  imd 
aus  ihren  Schriften  dargestellt"  (13  vols,  and  index, 
Freiburg,  1866-80). 

Bernhard  (pseudonym  for  Gtterber),  Andreaa  R<laa,  Bi- 
Bchof  von  Straaaburg  (WOr«burg.  1873)  in  the  aeriea  "Deutatk- 
landa  Epiacopat  in  Lebenahildem^',  I.  pt.  IV) ;  RXas.  Mgr  A.  Rdaa, 
Mque  de  Strasbourg,  biographical  notice  in  Revue  caUuiliqtie 
drAlaace,  new  series,  XXI  (1901).  aqq  :  RAu,  AndrS  R(M  d 
rtguvrt  de  la  propagation  delafoi  (Rizheim.  Strasburs.  1902). 

FRif^pmcH  Lauc^ert. 


RATHBORNE  651  RATIONAL! 

Rathbomay  Joseph,  priest  and  controversialist  and  invectives  against  his  contemporaries.    He  also 

(sometimes  erroneously  called  Rathbone),  b.  at  Lin-  wrote  complaints  against  himself  in  his  own  alTairs. 

coin,  11  Mav,  1807;   d.  at  Cowes,  12  August,  1S42.  Amons  his  writings  should  be  mentioned:    ^'Prs* 

He    was    educated    at    Ushaw  (1813-22),  and    St.  loquia  ,  in  six  books,  a  criticism  of  all  the  social  ranks 

Edmund's,  Old  Hall  (1823-30),  where  he  was  or-  of  the  period;  "Ck)nclusiodeliberativa*\  and  "Phren- 

dained   18  Feb.,   1830.    In  November  he  was  ap-  esis'',  do th_  in  defence  of  his  right  to  the  Diocese  of 
pointed  by   Bishop   Bramston   to   the   mission   at       * 


Li^^e;    ''Dialogus  confessionum"   and    '^Qualitatis 
conjunctura",    reckless   self-accusation;    "De    con- 


Cowes,  where  the  rest  of  his  life  was  spent.    He  pub-  .                , 

lished  "Letters  of  Alethphilos''  (1839),  which  dealt  temptu   canonum",   "Synodica".    "Discordia  inter 

with  a  local  controversy  about  prayers  for  the  dead,  ipsum    et    clericos"^    and    "Liber    apologeticus", 

Under  the  same  pseudonym  he  published  a  series  of  against  the  ecclesiastics  of  his  era  and  m  defence  of 

other  pamphlets,  "Good  Friday  and  Easter  Sunday '*  hmiself.    Some  of  his  sermons  and  letters  have  also 

(1839);    "Letters  to  the  Protestants  of  the  Isle  of  been  preserved.    The  writings  throw  much  light  upon 

Wight  on  the  Cathohc  Religion"  (1839);   "A  Reply  his  era.     His  works  were  edited  by  the  l)rother8 

to    the    Reverend    Barnabas    Rodriguez    Almeda"  Ballerini  (Verona,  1765);  also  in  "P.  L.",  CXXXVI. 

(1840) ;  "A  Letter  to  Dr.  Adams,  shewing  Purgatory  Unedited  letters  are  to  be  found  in  "Studie  documenti 

inseparably  connected  with  Prayers  for  the  Dead"  di  storia  e  diritto"  (1903).  51-72. 

(1840);    "Are  the  Puseyites  smcere?"  (1841);  and  ,  Hubtbr,  ATomenetotor  (3M.  ed..  imwbra^^                ^S^-o?: 

"TOi.^  r'l»«««l»  ;irk    Ua  'D^M»4^i^w>a  «»;«k   t*-.,**,  a^^i   *\*a  Voobl,  Rathentu  wm  Verdna  una  das  X.  Jahrhundert  (2  vols, 

c.   .    ,,      ^^*^  ^^   Its  Relations  With  Truth  and  the  j^^^  1354).   Hauck,  Kirckengeach,  DeuUcfUand,.  Ill  (Leipiig. 

State" — a  reply  to  Mr.  Gladstone  (1841).     Under  1896),  285  aqq. 

his  own  name  he  published  "The  Clergy  of  the  J.  P.  Kirsch. 

French  Revolution",  an  obituary  sermon  on  the  Rev. 

*^  ..®  Grenthe.  Ratioilftl6i  an  episcopal  hmneral,  a  counterpart  of 

TabUt,  III.  423,  455,  583;    Daviba,  Hitiory  of  Cowes  Mtsston  ±\.^  nallinm    anH  liW  Jf  wnm  ov*»r  fliA  oYiamiKlo        At 

(Cowes,  1897);  Gilix)w,  bm.  Diet.  Bng.  Calk.,  s.  v.  Rathbone.  J?^  pauium,  and  iiKe  It  wom  over  tne  cnasuDie.    At 

Edwin  Burton.  ^^'^  pi'esent  time  it  is  only,  used  by  the  Bishops  of 

Eichstatt,  Paderbom,  Toul,  and  Cracow.  As  wom 
BatfaeriUB  of  Verona,  b.  about  887;  d.  at  Namur  by  the  Bishops  of  Eichstatt,  Paderbom,  and  Toul,  the 
25  April,  974.  He  belonged  to  a  noble  family  which  rationale  is  m  the  form  of  a  humeral  collar,  oma- 
lived  in  the  territory  of  Li^e.  While  still  a  boy  he  mented  in  the  front  and  back  with  appendages.  The 
was  sent  as  an  oblate  to  the  Benedictine  Abbey  of  one  used  by  the  Bishop  of  Cracow  is  made  of  two 
Lobbes  in  the  Hennegau,  where  he  was  a  diligent  bands  crossing  the  shoulder  and  joined  at  the  breast 
student,  acquired  much  learning,  and  became  a  monk  and  at  the  back,  having  the  appearance  of  a  discoid 
of  the  abbey.  At  an  early  age  he  displayed  a  restless  connected  by  medallions.  During  the  Middle  Ages 
nature,  a  disposition  difficult  to  get  along  with,  great  the  use  of  the  rationale  was  affected  by  a  number  of 
ambition,  and  a  zeal  that  was  harsh.  Consequently,  German  bishops,  e.  g.  the  Bishops  of  Wurzburg, 
notwithstanding  his  strict  orthodoxy,  his  wide  learn-  Ratisbon,  Eichsta,tt,  Naumburg,  Halberstadt,  Pader- 
ing,  and  sobriety  of  conduct,  he  met  with  great  diffi-  bom,  Minden,  Speier.  Metz,  Augsburg,  Prague,  01- 
culties  in  every  position  he  assumed,  ana  nowhere  mutz,  and  by  the  Bishops  of  Lidge  and  Toul!  whose 
attained  permanent  success.  His  entire  life  was  a  dioceses  at  that  time  belonged  to  the  German  Empire, 
wandering  one  and  not  in  reality  fruitful.  When  There  is  no  account  of  this  rationale  being  wom  by 
Abbot  Huduin  of  Lobbes  went  in  926  to  Italy,  where  any  other  bishops  except  a  few  in  territories  adjoining 
his  cousin,  Hugo  of  Provence,  was  king,  he  took  that  of  Germany  (Cracow,  Aquileia).  Of  the  above- 
Ratherius  with  him  as  companion.  After  many  diffi-  mentioned  bishops  many  only  used  it  temporarily, 
culties  Ratherius  received  from  the  kin^  the  Diocese  The  earliest  mention  of  the  rationale  dates  from  the 
of  Verona  in  931.  Yet  he  only  ruled  his  see  for  two  second  half  of  the  tenth  century.  The  earliest  repre- 
years.  He  soon  fell  into  a  quarrel  with  both  the  mem-  sentations  are  two  pictures  of  Bishop  Sigebert  of 
bers  of  his  diocese  and  with  the  king,  so  that  the  latter  Minden  (1022-36),  a  miniature  and  an  ivory  tablet, 
sent  him  to  prison  and  had  him  brought  to  Como.  which  were  both  incorporated  in  a  Mass  Ordo  belong- 
In  939  he  escaped  from  Como  into  Provence,  where  ing  to  Bishop  Sigebert.  The  form  of  th«^  rationale 
he  was  tutor  in  a  noble  family  until  he  returned  to  the  during  the  Middle  Ages  was  manifold.  Besides  the 
Abbey  of  Lobbes  in  944.  In  946  he  went  again  to  two  forms  which  have  survived  to  our  time,  there  were 
Italy  and,  after  he  had  been  held  for  some  time  as  a  two  other  t3rpe«,  one  closely  resembling  a  Y-form 

Prisoner  by  Berengar,  the  opponent  of  King  Hugo,  palHum,  the  other  like  a  T-form  pallium,  with  the 

e  obtained  once  more  the  Diocese  of  Verona.    'Die  difference  that  instead  of  being  striped  vertically,  it 

difficulties  that  arose  were  again  so  great  that  after  was  simply  tasselled  in  front  and  at  the  back.    Tnere 

two  years  he  fled  to  Germany  and  for  some  time  were  no  rules  governing  the  ornamentation  of  the 

wandered  restlessly  about  the  country.    He  took  part  rationale,  as  is  clearly  seen  by  representations  of  it 

in  the  Italian  expedition  of  Ludolph  of  Swabia,  the  on  monuments,  and  by  such  rationales  as  have  been 

son  of  Otto  I,  but  was  not  able  to  regain  his  diocese,  preserved  (Bamberg,  Ratisbon,  Eichstatt,  Paderbom, 

and  in  952  returned  to  Lobbes.    From  Lobbes  he  was  Munich).    The  edges  were  generally  adorned  with 

called  to  the  cathedral  school  of  Cologne  by  Arch-  small  bells. 

bishop  Bruno  of  Cologne,  who  soon  s^terwards,  in  The  Rationale  is  an  imitation  and  an  equivalent  of 

953,  gave  Ratherius  the  Diocese  of  Li^e.    However,  the  pallium.    That  this  is  the  case  is  evident,  apart 

as  early  aa  955;  a  revolt  of  the  nobility  against  him  from  other  papal  Bulls,  from  the  Bull  of  John  AlX 

obliged  Rathenus  to  leave  this  see,  and  he  now  re-  (1027).  conferring  on  the  Patriarch  Poppo  of  Aquileia 

tired  to  the  Abbey  of  Aulne.    In  962  the  Emperor  the  pallium  and  the  rationale  at  the  same  time,  with 

Otto  restored  to  him  the  Diocese  of  Verona,  but  after  the  condition  that  he  could  only  wear  the  pallium  on 

seven  years  of  constant  quarrels  and  difficulties  he  was  high  festivals.     It  appears,  however,  that  the  humeral 

obliged  once  more  to  withdraw.    In  968  he  went  to  ornaments  of  the  Jewish  high-priests  (ephod,  etc.) 

Lobbes,  where  he  incited  such  opposition  against  the  were  not  without  influence  in  evoking  this  pontifical 

Abbot  Folcwin  that  Bishop  Notker  of  Li^e  restored  adornment,  as  may  be  seen  from  the  onginal  rationales 

order  by  force,  and  in  972  sent  Ratherius  to  the  Abbey  preserved  at  Bamberg  and  Ratisbon.    The  name  at 

of  Aulne,  where  he  remained  until  his  death.  least  is  derived  from  the  appellation  of  the  breast  oma- 

His  writings  are  as  unsystematic  as  his  life  was  ment  of  the  high-priest  Aaron, 

changeable  and  tumultuous.    While  his  style  is  con-  From  the  tenth  to  the  thirteenth  century  the  ra- 

fused  and  lacks  clearness,  his  writings  generally  had  tionale  was  also  the  name  of  an  episcopal  omament 

reference  to  particular  occasions  and  were  pamphlets  similar  to  a  large  pectoral  clasp,  made  of  precious  metal, 


RATIONALISM 


652 


RATIONALISM 


ornamented  with  diamonds,  and  worn  over  the  chas- 
uble. It  is  frequently  met  with  in  pictures  of  the 
twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries,  and  is  generally 
square,  seldom  round  in  form.  Its  use  was  discon- 
tinued in  the  course  of  the  thirteenth  century,  and  it 
is  only  at  Reims  that  its  use  can  be  traced  to  the 
beginning  of  the  sixteenth  centur^r.  It  originated 
imdoubtedly  in  the  pomp  developed  in  episcopal  vest- 
ments during  the  tenth  centurv,  and  took  its  name 
from  the  breast  ornament  of  tne  Jewish  high-priest. 

Bkaun,  Die  l%turgi$eh€  Gevfandung  im  OeeiderU  und  Orient 
(Freiburg.  1907). 

Joseph  Braun. 

Rationalism  (Latin,  ro^io-reason,  the  faculty  of 
the  mind  which  forms  the  ground  of  calculation,  i.  e. 
discursive  reason.  See  Apoloobtics;  Atheism;  Bi- 
ble; Deism;  Empiricism;  Ethics;  Exegesis,  Bibli- 
cal; Faith;  Materialism;  Miracle;  Revelation). 
The  term  is  used:  (1)  in  an  exact  sense,  to  designate 
a  particular  moment  in  the  development  of  Protestant 
thought  in  Grermany ;  (2)  in  a  broader,  and  more  usual, 
sense  to  cover  the  view  (in  relation  to  which  many 
schools  may  he  classed  as  rationalistic)  that  the  human 
reason,  or  understanding,  is  the  sole  source  and  final 
test  of  all  truth.  It  has  further:  (3)  occasionallv 
been  applied  to  the  method  of  treating  revealed  truth 
theologically,  by  casting  it  into  a  reasoned  form,  and 
employing  pnilosophicaT  categories  in  its  elaboration. 
These  three  uses  of  the  term  will  be  discussed  in  the 
present  article. 

(1)  The  German  school  of  theological  Rationalism 
formed  a  part  of  the  more  general  movement  of  the 
eighteenth-century  "Enlightenment".  It  maybe 
said  to  owe  its  immediate  origin  to  the  philosophical 
system  of  Christian  Wolff  (1679-1754),  which  was  a 
modification,  with  Aristotelean  features,  of  that  of 
Leibniz,  especially  characterized  by  its  spiritualism, 
determinism,  and  dogmatism.  This  philosophy  and 
its  method  exerted  a  profound  influence  upon  con- 
temporaneous German  religious  thought,  providing 
it  with  a  rationalistic  point  of  view  in  theology  and 
exegesis.  German  philosophy  in  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tunr  was,  as  a  whole^  tributary  to  Leibniz,  whose 
"Th6odic6e"  was  written  principally  against  the 
Rationalism  of  Bayle :  it  was  marked  by  an  infiltration 
of  English  Deism  and  French  Materiahsm,  to  which 
the  Rationalism  at  present  considered  had  great  affin- 
ity, and  towards  which  it  progressively  developed: 
and  it  was  vulgarized  by  its  union  with  popular  litera- 
ture. Wolff  himself  was  expelled  from  his  chair  at 
the  University  of  Halle  on  account  of  the  Rationalistio 
nature  of  his  teaching,  principally  owin^  to  the  action 
of  Lan^e  (1670-1774;  cf.  ''Causa  Dei  et  religionis 
naturalis  ad  versus  atheismum'^  and  ''Modcsta  Dis- 
putatio^',  Halle,  1723).  Retiring  to  .Marburg,  he 
taught  there  until  1740,  when  he  was  recalled  to  Halle 
by  Frederick  II.  Wolff's  attempt  to  demonstrate 
natural  religion  rationally  was  in  no  sense  an  attack 
upon  revelation.  As  a  **  supranaturalist  **  he  admitted 
truths  above  reason,  and  he  attempted  to«support  by 
reason  the  supernatural  truths  contained  in  Holy 
Scripture.  But  his  attempt,  while  it  incensed  the 
pietistic  school  and  was  readily  welcomed  by  the  more 
liberal  and  moderate  among  the  orthodox  Lutherans, 
in  reality  turned  out  to  be  strongly  in  favour  of  the 
Naturalism  tha^  he  wished  to  condemn.  Natural 
religion,  he  asserted,  is  demonstrable;  revealed  religion 
is  to  be  found  in  the  Bible  alone.  But  in  his  metnod 
of  proof  of  the  authority  of  Scripture  recourse  was  had 
to  reason,  and  thus  the  human  mind  became,  logically, 
the  ultimate  arbiter  in  the  case  of  both.  Supra- 
naturalism  in  theolo^,  which  it  was  Wolff's  intention 
to  uphold,  proved  incompatible  with  such  a  philo- 
sophical position^  and  Rationalism  took  its  place. 
This,  however,  is  to  be  distinguished  from  pure 
Naturalism,  to  which  it  led,  but  with  which  it  never 
became  theoretically  identined.    Revelation  was  not 


denied  by  the  Rationalists;  though,  as  a  matter  of 
fact,  if  not  of  theory,  it  was  quietly  suppressed  by  the 
claim,  with  its  ever-increasing  application,  that  reason 
is  the  competent  judse  of  aU  truth.  Naturalists,  on 
the  other  hand,  denied  the  fact  of  revelation.  As  with 
Deism  and  Materialism,  the  German  Rationalism  in- 
vaded the  department  of  Biblical  exegesis.  Here  a 
destructive  criticism,  very  similar  to  that  of  the 
Deists,  was  levelled  against  the  miracles  recorded  in, 
and  the  authenticity  of  the  Holy  Scriptures.  Never- 
theless, the  distinction  between  Rationalism  and 
Naturalism  still  obtained.  The  great  Biblical  critic 
Semler  (1725-91),  who  is  one  of  the  principal  repre- 
sentatives of  the  school,  was  a  strong  opponent  of  the 
latter;  in  company  with  Teller  (1734-1804)  and  others 
he  endeavoured  to  show  that  the  records  of  the  Bible 
have  no  more  than  a  local  and  temporary  character, 
thus  attempting  to  safeguard  the  deeper  revelation, 
while  sacrincinff  to  the  critics  its  superficial  vehicle. 
He  makes  the  distinction  between  theology  and  reli- 
gion (by  which  he  signifies  ethics). 

The  distinction  made  between  natural  and  revealed 
religion  necessitated  a  closer  definition  of  the  latter. 
For  Supematuralists  and  Rationalists  alike  religion 
was  held  to  be  "a  way  of  knowing  and  worshipping 
the  Deity '\  but  consisting  chiefly,  for  the  Rational- 
ists,, in  the  observance  of  God's  law.  This  identifica- 
tion' of  reli|pon  with  morals,  which  at  the  time  was 
utilitarian  m  character  (see  Utiutarianibii),  led  to 
further  developments  in  the  conceptions  of  the  nature 
of  religion,  the  meaning  of  revelation,  and  the  value 
of  the  Bible  as  a  collection  of  inspired  writings.  The 
earlier  orthodox  Protestant  view  of  religion  as  a  body 
of  truths  published  and  taught  by  God  to  man  in 
revelation  was  in  process  of  disintegration.  In  Sem- 
ler's  distinction  between  religion  (ethics)  on  the  one 
hand  and  theology  on  the  other,  with  Herder's  similar 
separation  of  reugion  from  theological  opinions  and 
religious  usages,  the  cause  of  the  Christiaa  religion,  as 
they  conceived  it,  seemed  to  be  put  beyond  the  reach 
of  the  shock  of  criticism,  which,  by  destroying  the 
foundations  upon  which  it  claimed  to  rest,  had  gone 
so  far  to  discredit  the  older  form  of  Lutheranism. 
Kant's  (1724-1804)  criticism  of  the  reason,  however, 
formed  a  turning-point  in  the  development  of  Rlition- 
alism.  For  a  full  understanding  of  his  attitude,  the 
reader  must  be  acquainted  with  the  nature  of  his 
pietistic  upbringing  and  later  scientific  and  phil- 
osophical formation  in  the  Leibniz-Wolff  school  of 
thought  (see  Kant,  PeiiiGSOPHT  of).  As  far  as  con- 
cerns the  point  that  occupies  us  at  present,  Kant 
was  a  Rationalist.  For  him  religion  was  coextensive, 
with  natural,  though  not  utilitarian,  morals.  When 
he  met  with  the  criticisms  of  Hume  and  undertook 
his  famous  '^Kritik",  his  preoccupation  was  to  safe- 
guard his  religious  opinions,  his  rigorous  morality, 
from  the  danger  of  criticism.  This  he  did,  not  by 
means  of  the  old  Rationalism,  but  by  throwing  dis- 
credit upon  metaphysics.  The  accepted  proofs  of  the 
existence  of  God,  immortality,  and  liberty  were  thus, 
in  his  opinion,  overthrown^  and  the  well-known  set  of 
postulates  of  the  "categoric  imperative"  put  forward 
m  their  plAce.  This,  obviously,  was  the  end  of  Ration- 
alism in  its  earlier  form,  in  which  the  fundamental 
truths  of  religion  were  set  out  as  demonstrable  by 
reason.  But,  despite  the  shifting  of  the  burden  of 
religion  from  the  pure  to  the  practical  reason,  Kant 
himself  never  seems  to  have  reached  the  view — to 
which  all  his  work  pointed — that  relipon  is  not  mere 
ethics,  "conceiving  moral  laws  as  divine  commands", 
no  matter  how  far  removed  from  Utilitarianimi — ^not 
an  affair  of  the  mind,  but  of  the  heart  and  will;  and 
that  revelation  does  not  reach  man  by  way  of  an 
exterior  promulgation,  but  consists  in  a  personal  adap- 
tation towards  God.  This  conception  was  reached 
gradually  with  the  advance  of  the  theoiy  that  man 
possesses  a  religious  sense,  or  faculty,  distinct  from 


RATIONALISM 


653 


RATIONALISM 


the  rational  (Fries,  1773-1843;  Jaeobi,  1743-1819; 
Herder,  1744-1803; — all  opposed  to  the  Intellectual- 
ism  of  Kant),  and  ultimately  found  expression  with 
Schleiermacher  (1768-1834),  for  whom  religion  is  to 
be  found  neither  in  knowledge  nor  in  action,  but  in  a 
peculiar  attitude  of  mind  which  consists  in  the  con- 
sciousness of  absolute  dependence  upon  God.  Here 
the  older  distinction  between  natural  and  revealed 
religion  disappears.  All  that  can  be  called  religion — 
the  consciousness  of  dependence — ^is  at  the  same  time 
revelational,  and  all  religion  is  of  the  same  character. 
There  is  no  special  revelation  in  the  older  Protestant 
(the  Catholic)  sense,  but  merely  this  attitude  of  de- 
pendence brought  into  being  in  the  individual  by  the 
teaching  of  various  great  personalities  who,  from  time 
to  time,  have  manifested  an  extraordinary  sense  of  the 
religious.  Schleiermacher  was  a  contemporary  of 
Fichte,  Schelling,  and  Hegel,  whose  philosophical 
speculations  had  influence^  with  his  own,  in  ulti- 
mately subverting  Rationalism  as  here  dealt  with.  The 
movement  may  be  said  to  have  ended  with  him — in 
the  opinion  of  Teller  'Hhe  greatest  theologian  that  the 
Protestant  Church  has  had  since  the  period  of  the 
Reformation".  The  majority  of  modem  Protestant 
theologians  accept  his  views,  not,  however,  to  the  ex- 
clusion of  knowledge  as  a  basis  of  religion. 

Parallel  with  the  development  of  the  philosophical 
and  theological  views  as  to  the  nature  of  religion  and 
the  worth  of  revelation,  which  provided  it  with  its 
critical  principles,  took  place  an  exegetical  evolution. 
The  first  phase  consisted  in  replacing  the  orthodox 
Protestant  doctrine  (i.  e.  that  the  Sacred  Scriptures 
are  the  Word  of  God)  b^r  a  distinction  between  the 
Woid  of  God  contained  in  the  Bible  and  the  Bible 
itself  (T6llner,  Herder),  though  the  Rationalists  still 
held  that  the  purer  source  of  revelation  Ues  rather  in 
the  written  than  in  the  traditional  word.  This  dis- 
tinction led  inevitably  to  the  destruction  of  the  rigid 
view  of  inspiration,  and  prepared  the  ground  for  the 
second  phaise.  The  principle  of  accommodation  was 
now  employed  to  explain  the  difficulties  raised  by  the 
Scripture  records  of  miraculous  events  and  demoniacal 
manifestations  (Senf,  Vogel),  and  arbitrary  methods  of 
exegesis  were  also  used  to  the  same  end  (Paulus,  Eich- 
hom).  In  the  third  phase  Rationalists  had  reached 
the  point  of  allowing  the  possibiUty  of  mistakes  having 
been  made  by  Chnst  and  the  Apostles,  at  any  rate 
with  regard  to  non-essential  parts  of  religion.  All  the 
devices  of  exegesis  were  employed  vainly;  and,  in  the 
end.  Rationalists  found  themselves  forced  to  admit 
that  the  authors  of  the  New  Testament  must  have 
written  from  a  point  of  view  different  from  that  which 
a  modem  theologian  would  adopt  (Henke,  We^- 
scheider).  This  principle,  which  is  sufficiently  elastic 
to  admit  of  usage  by  nearlv  every  variety  of  opinion, 
was  admitted  oy  several  of  the  Supematuralists 
(Reinhard,  Storr),  and  is  very  generally  accepted  by 
modem  Protestant  divines,  in  the  rejection  ot  verbal 
inspiration.  Herder  is  very  clear  on  the  distinction — 
the  truly  inspired  must  be  discerned  from  that  which 
is  not;  and  de  Wette  lays  down  as  the  canon  of  in- 
terpretation "the  religious  perception  of  the  divine 
operation,  or  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  in  the  sacred  writers 
as  regards  their  belief  and  inspiration,  but  not  respect- 
ing their  faculty  of  forming  ideas.  .  .  "  In  an  ex- 
treme form  it  may  be  seen  employed  in  such  works  as 
Strauss's  "Leben  Jesu",  where  the  hypothesis  of  the 
mythical  nature  of  miracles  is  developed  to  a  greater 
extent  than  by  Schleiermacher  or  de  Wette. 

(2)  Rationalism,  in  the  broader,  popular  meaning 
of  the  term,  is  used  to  designate  any  mode  of  thought 
in  which  hmnan  reason  holds  the  place  of  supreme 
criterion  of  truth;  in  this  sense,  it  is  especially  applied 
to  such  modes  of  thought  as  contrasted  with  faith. 
Thus  Atheism,  Materialism,  Naturalism,  Pantheism, 
Scepticism,  etc.,  fall  under  the  head  of  rationtdistic 
systems.    As  such,  the  rationalistic  tendency  has  al- 


wajrs  existed  in  philosophy,  and  has  generallv  shown 
itself  powerful  in  all  the  critical  schools.  As  has  been 
noted  in  the  preceding  paragraph,  German  Ration- 
alism had  strong  affinities  with  English  Deism  and 
French  Materialism,  two  historic  forms  in  which  the 
tendency  has  manifested  itself.  But  with  the  vulgar- 
ization of  the  ideas  contained  in  the  various  systems 
that  composed  these  movements,  Rationalism  has 
degenerated.  It  has  become  connected  in  the  popular 
mind  with  the  shallow  and  misleading  philosophy 
frequently  put  forward  in  the  name  of  science,  so  that 
a  double  confusion  has  arisen,  in  which  (i)  question- 
able philosophical  speculations  are  taken  for  scientific 
facts,  and  (ii)  science  is  falsely  supposed  to  be  in 
opposition  to  religion.  This  Rationalism  is  now  rather 
a  spirit,  or  attitude,  ready  to  seize  upon  any  argu- 
ments, from  any  source  and  of  any  or  no  value,  to  urse 
against  the  doctrines  and  practices  of  faith.  Beside 
this  cmde  and  popular  form  it  has  taken,  for  which  the 
publication  of  cheap  reprints  and  a  vigorous  propa- 
ganda are  mainly  responsible,  there  runs  the  deeper 
and  more  thoughtful  current  of  critical-philosophical 
Rationalism,  which  either  rejects  religion  and  revela- 
tion altogether  or  treats  them  in  much  the  same 
manner  as  did  the  Germans.  Its  various  manifestar 
tions  have  little  in  common  in  method  or  content, 
save  the  general  appeal  to  reason  as  supreme.  No 
better  description  of  the  position  can  be  given  than 
the  statements  of  the  objects  of  the  Rationalist  Press 
Association.  Among^ these  are: ''To  stimulate  the 
habits  of  reflection  and  inquiry  and  the  free  exercise 
of  individual  intellect  .  .  .  and  genersJly  to  assert  the 
supremacy  of  reason  as  the  natural  and  necessary 
means  to  all  such  knowledge  and  wisdom  as  man  can 
achieve".  A  perusal  of  the  publications  of  the  same 
will  show  in  what  sense  this  representative  body  inters 
prets  the  above  statement.  It  may  be  said  fin^y. 
that  Rationalism  is  the  direct  and  logical  outcome  oi 
the  principles  of  Protestantism;  and  that  the  inter- 
mediary form,  in  which  assent  is  given  to  revealed 
truth  as  possessing  the  imprimatur  of  reason,  is  only 
a  phase  in  the  evolution  of  ideas  towards  general  dis- 
belief. Official  condemnations  of  the  various  forms  of 
Rationalism,  absolute  and  mitigated,  are  to  be  found 
in  the  Syllabus  of  Pius  IX. 

(3)  The  term  Rationalism  is  perhaps  not  usually 
applied  to  the  theological  method  of  the  Catholic 
Church.  All  forms  of  theological  statement,  however, 
and  pre-eminently  the  dialectical  form  oi  Catholic 
theolo^,  are  rationalistic  in  the  tmest  sense.  Indeed, 
the  claim  of  such  Rationalism  as  is  dealt  with  above 
is  directly  met  by  the  counter  claim  of  the  Church: 
that  it  is  at  best  but  a  mutilated  and  unreasonable 
Rationalism,  not  worthy  of  the  name,  while  that  of 
the  Church  is  rationally  complete,  and  integrated, 
moreover,  with  super-rational  truth.  In  this  sense 
Catholic  theology  presupposes  the  certain  truths  of 
natural  reason  as  the  preamhula  fideif  philosophy  (the 
anciUa  theologicB)  is  employed  in  the  defence  of  re- 
vealed truth  (see  Apologetics),  and  the  content  of 
Divine  revelation  is  treated  and  systematized  in  the 
categories  of  natural  thought.  This  systematization 
is  carried  out  both  in  dogmatic  and  moral  theology. 
It  is  a  process  contemporaneous  with  the  first  attempt 
at  a  scientific  statement  of  religious  truth,  comes  to 
perfection  of  method  in  the  works  of  such  writers  as 
St.  Thomas  Aquinas  and  St.  Alphonsus,  and  is  con- 
sistently employed  and  developed  in  the  Schools. 

Haobnbach,  Kirchengesch.  dea  18.  Jahrhundert*  in  VorUaunoen 
Hber  WeaerC  u.  Oeach.  der  Reformation  in  Deutnchland  etc.,  V-VI 


(Leipsig,  1834-43);  Idem  (tr.  Buch),  Compendium  of  the  Hittory 
'  Doctrine*  (Edinburgh,   1846);  Hasc,  KirchengeMch.   (Leipsis, 
1886) ;  HsNKS,  Rationaliamtu  u.  Tradilionalittmua  im  19.  Jahrh. 


(Halle,  1864);  Hurot.  History  of  Rationaliam  (New  York,  1882); 
Lkrminisr,  De  Vinfluence  de  la  philoBophie  du  XVJJt*  tikde 
(Paris,  1833) ;  Saintes,  Hist,  critique  du  rationaliame  en  AlUmagne 
(Paris,  1841);  Schleiermaciier,  Der  ehristl.  Glaube  nach  der 
GrundsOtzen  der  evanoelixchen  Kirche  (Berlin,  1821-22);  Semlbr, 
Von  freier  Untersuehung  den  Kanonn  (Halle,  1771-75);  Idbm, 
Inatittdio  ad  doctrinam  christianam  liberaliter  diacendam  (Halle, 


RATIO 


654 


RATIO 


1774);  Idem,  Vernteh  einer  frever  theologiachen  Lehrarl  (Halle, 
1777))  StaOdun,  Gesch.  dea  Rationalistnua  u.  SupraruUuralUmua 
(Gdttmgen,  1826) ;  Tholuck,  Vorgesch.  des  Rationaliamus  (Halle, 
1853-62) ;  Benn,  History  of  RcUionaliatn  in  the  Nineteenth  Century 
(London.  1906).  FraNCIS  AveLING. 

Ratio  Studiorum. — The  term  "Ratio  Studionim" 
b  commonly  used  to  designate  the  educational  system 
of  the  Jesuits;  it  is  an  abbreviation  of  the  official 
title,  "Ratio  atque  Institutio  Studiorum  Societatis 
Jesu",  i.  e.  '*  Metnod  and  System  of  the  Studies  of  the 
Society  of  Jesus".  The  Constitutions  of  the  Society 
from  the  beginning  enumerated  among  the  primary 
objects  of  the  Society:  teaching  catechism  to  chil- 
dren and  the  ignorant,  instructing  youth  in  schools 
and  colleges,  and  lecturing  on  philosophy  and  theol- 
ogy in  the  universities.  Eklucation  occupied  so 
prominent  a  place  that  the  Society  could  rightly  be 
styleid  a  teaching  order.  Even  during  the  lifetime 
of  the  foimder,  St.  Ignatius,  colleges  were  opened  in 
various  countries,  at  Messina,  Palermo,  Naples, 
Gandia,  Salamanca,  Alcaic,  Valladolid,  Lisbon, 
Billom^  and  Vienna;  many  more  were  added  soon 
after  his  death,  foremost  among  them  being  Ingolstadt, 
Cologne,  Munich,  Prague,  Innsbruck,  Douai,  Bruges, 
Antwerp,  Li^e,  and  others.  In  the  fourth  part  of 
the  Constitutions  general  directions  had  been  laid 
down  concerning  studies,  but  there  was  as  yet  no 
definite,  detailed,  and  universal  system  of  education, 
the  plans  of  studv  drawn  up  bv  Fathers  Nadal, 
Ledesma,  and  others  being  only  private  works. 
With  the  increase  of  the  number  of  colleges  the  want 
of  r.  uniform  system  was  felt  more  and  more.  During 
the  generalate  of  Claudius  Acquaviva  (1581-1615), 
the  ^ucational  methods  of  the  Society  were  finally 
formulated.  In  1584  six  experienced  schoolmen, 
selected  from  different  nationalities  and  provinces, 
were  called  to  Rome,  where  for  a  year  they  studied 
pedago^cal  works,  examined  regulations  of  colleges 
and  umversities.  and  weighed  the  observations  and 
suggestions  made  by  prominent  Jesuit  educators. 
The  report  drawn  up  by  this  committee  was  sent  to 
the  various  provinces  in  1586  to  be  examined  by  at 
least  five  experienced  men  in  every  province.  The 
remarks,  censures,  and  suggestions  of  these  men  were 
utihz^  in  the  drawing  up  of  a  second  plan,  which, 
after  careful  revision,  was  printed  in  1591  as  the 
"Ratio  atque  Institutio  Studiorum".  Reports  on 
the  practical  working  of  this  plan  were  again  sent  to 
Rome,  and  in  1599  the  final  plan  appeared,  the 
"Ratio  atque  Institutio  Studiorum  Societatb  Jesu", 
usually  quoted  as  "Ratio  Studiorum".  Every 
possible  effort  had  been  made  to  produce  a  practical 
system  of  education;  theory  and  practice  alike  had 
been  consulted,  suggestions  solicited  from  every  part 
of  the  Catholic  world,  and  all  advisable  modifications 
adopted.  The  Ratio  Studiorum  must  be  looked 
upon  as  the  work  not  of  individuals,  but  of  the  whole 
Society. 

At  the  present  time  the  question  of  origin  is  a 
favourite  topic  of  historical  investigation.  It  has 
been  asserted  that  the  Ratio  was  modelled  chiefly 
on  the  theories  of  the  Spanish  Humanist,  Luis  Vives 
(see  Vives,  Juan  Luis),  or  on  the  plan  of  the  famous 
Strasburg  "reformer"  and  educationist,  John  Sturm. 
No  such  dependence  has  been  proved,  and  we  can 
unhesitatingly  point  to  other  sources.  The  method 
of  teaching  the  higher  branches  (theology,  philos- 
ophy, and  the  sciences)  was  an  adaptation  of  the 
system  prevailing  in  the  great  Catholic  universities, 
especially  in  Paris,  where  St.  Ignatius  and  his  first 
companions  had  studied.  The  literary  course  is 
modelled  after,  the  traditions  of  the  humanistic 
schools  of  the  Renaissance  period;  it  is  probable 
that  the  flourishing  schools  of  the  Netnerlands 
(Louvain,  Li^e,  and  others)  furnished  the  models 
for  various  features  of  the  Ratio.  Certain  features 
oommon  to  the  Ratio  and  the  plan  of  Sturm  are 


accounted  for  naturally  by  the  fact  that  the  Stras- 
burg educationist  had  studied  at  Li^e,  Louvain,  and 
Pans,  and  thus  drew  on  the  same  source  from  which 
the  framers  of  the  Ratio  had  derived  inspirations. 
Several  Jesuits  prominent  in  the  drawing  up  of  the 
Ratio  were  natives  of  the  Netherlands,  or  haa  studied 
in  the  most  celebrated  schools  of  that  country.  But, 
as  is  evident  from  the  description  of  the  origm  of  the 
Ratio,  its  authors  were  not  mere  imitators;  the  most 
important  source  from  which  they  drew  was  the  col- 
lective experience  of  Jesuit  teachers  in  various  col- 
leges and  countries.  The  document  of  1599  remained 
the  authoritative  plan  of  studies  in  the  schools  of  the 
order  until  the  suppression  of  the  latter  in  1773. 
However,  both  the  Constitutions  and  the  Ratio 
explicitly  declared  that,  according  to  the  sp»ecial 
needs  and  circumstances  of  different  countries  and 
times,  changes  could  be  introduced  by  superiors. 
As  a  consequence,  there  was  and  is  a  «:eat  variety 
in  many  particular  points  found  in  different  coun- 
tries and  periods.  After  the  restoration  of  the 
Society  in  1814,  it  was  felt  that  the  changed  condi- 
tions of  intellectual  life  necessitated  changes  in  the 
Ratio  and,  in  1832,  the  Revised  Ratio  was  published; 
nothing  was  changed  in  the  essentials  or  the  funda- 
mental principles,  but  innovations  were  made  in  re- 
gard to  branches  of  study.  In  the  colleges  Latin  and 
Greek  remained  the  principal  subjects,  but  more 
time  and  care  were  to  be  devoted  to  the  study  of  the 
mother-tongue  and  its  literature  of  history,  geog- 
raphy, mathematics^  and  the  natural  sciences.  In 
more  recent  times  still  greater  emphasis  has  b<^n  laid 
on  non-Classical  branches.  Thus  the  Twenty-third 
General  Congregation  (legislative  assembly  of  the 
Society)  specially  recommended  the  study  of  natural 
sciences.    Non-Classical    schools    were   pronounce 

f  roper  to  the  Society  as  well  as  Classical  institutions, 
n  regard  to  methods,  the  present  seneral  declared 
in  1910  that,  "as  the  early  Jesuits  did  not  invent  new 
methods  of  teaching  but  adopted  the  best  methods 
of  their  age,  so  will  the  Jesuits  now  use  the  b^t  meth- 
ods of  our  own  time".  This  voices  the  practice 
of  Jesuit  colleges,  where  physics,  chemistry,  biology, 
physiology,  astronomy,  geology,  and  other  branches 
are  taught  according  to  the  established  principles 
of  modem  science.  From  this  it  is  clear  that 
it  is  not  the  intention  of  the  Society  to  make  the 
Ratio  Studiorum  station^^  and  binding  in  every 
detail;  on  the  contrary,  it  is  intended  that  the  edu- 
cational system  of  the  order  shall  adapt  itself  to 
the  exigencies  of  the  times. 

Concerning  the  character  and  contents  of  the  Ratio 
a  brief  description  must  suffice.  The  final  Ratio 
did  not  contain  any  theoretical  discussion  or  exposi- 
tion of  principles.  Such  discussions  had  preceded 
and  were  contained  in  the  trial  Ratio  of  1585.  The 
document  of  1599  was  rather  a  code  of  laws,  a  col- 
lection of  regulations  for  the  officials  and  teachers. 
These  regulations  are  divided  as  follows:  I.  Rules 
for  the  provincial  superior;  for  the  rector,  in  whose 
hands  is  the  government  of  the  whole  college;  for 
the  prefect  of  studies,  who  is  the  chief  assistant  of  the 
rector  and  has  direct  supervision  of  the  classes  and 
everything  connected  with  instruction,  while  another 
assistant  of  the  rector,  the  prefect  of  discipline,  is 
responsible  for  all  that  concerns  order  and  discipliiie; 
II.  Rules  for  the  professors  of  theology:  Scripture, 
Hebrew,  dogmatic  theology,  ecclesiastical  history, 
canon  law,  and  moral  theology;    III.  Rules  for  the 

frofessors  of  philosophy,  physics,  and  mathematics; 
V.  Rules  for  the  teachers  of  the  studia  inferiora 
(the  lower  department),  comprising  the  literary 
branches.  In  this  department  there  were  originally 
five  classes  (schools),  later  frequently  six:  the  three 
(or  four)  Grammar  classes,  corresponding  largely 
with  a  Classical  high  school ;  then  the  class  of  Humani- 
ties and  the  claas  of  Rhetoric  (freshman  and  sophc^- 


RATIO 


655 


RATIO 


more).  Besides  Latin  and  Greek,  other  branches 
were  tau^t  from  the  beginning  mider  the  name  of 
"accessones" — especially  history,  geography,  and 
antiquities.  As  was  said  above,  gradually  more 
attention  was  paid  to  the  study  of  the  mother- 
tongue  and  its  hterature.  Mathematics  and  natural 
sciences  were  originally  taught  in  the  higher  course 
(the  department  of  Arts),  together  with  philosophy; 
in  more  recent  times  they  are  taught  also  m  the  lower 
department.  In  philosophy  Aristotle  was  pre- 
scribed as  the  standard  author  in  the  old  Ratio, 
but  he  is  not  mentioned  in  the  revised  Ratio;  St. 
Thomas  Aouinas  was  to  be  the  chief  ^ide  in  theology. 
The  Ratio  Studiorum  does  not  contam  any  provisions 
for  elementary  education.  The  cause  of  this  omission 
is  not,  as  some  have  thought,  contempt  for  Uiis 
branch  of  educational  activity,  much  less  opposition 
to  popular  instruction,  but  the  impossibility  of 
entering  that  vast  field  to  any  great  extent.  The 
Constitutions  declared  elementary  education  to  be 
"  a  laudable  work  of  charity,  which  the  Society  might 
undertake,  if  it  had  ^a  sufficient  number  of  men". 
In  missionary  countnes,  however,  Jesuits  have  fre- 
quently devoted  themselves  to  elementary  educa- 
tion. 

If  it  be  asked  what  is  most  characteristic  of  the 
Ratio  Studiorum^  the  following  features  may.  be  men- 
tioned: It  was,  nrst  of  all,  a  system  well  thought  out 
and  well  worked  out,  and  formulated  at  a  time  when 
in  most  educational  establishments  there  was  little 
system.  The  practical  rules  and  careful  supervision 
insured  efficiency  even  in  the  case  of  teachers  of 
moderate  talent,  while  to  the  many  teachers  of  more 
than  ordinary  aoilit^r  sufficient  scope  was  left  for  the 
display  of  their  specisJ  aptitudes.  The  arrangement 
of  subjects  secured  a  combination  of  literary,  philo- 
sophical, and  scientific  training.  The  Ratio  insisted 
not  on  a  variety  of  branches  taught  simultaneously 
(the  bane  of  many  modem  systems),  but  on  a  few 
well-related  subjects,  and  these  were  to  be  taught 
thoroughly.  To  secure  thoroughness,  frequent  rep- 
etitions (daily,  weekly,  and  monthly)  were  carried 
on  in  all  grades.  What  the  teacher  presented  in 
his  prcBleciio  (i.  e.  eirolanation  of  grammar  or 
authors  in  the  lower  grades,  or  lecture  in  the  higher 
faculties)  was  to  be  assimilated  by  the  student 
through  a  varied  system  of  exercises:  compositions, 
discussions,  disputations,  and  contests.  Attention 
was  paid  to  the  physical  welfare  of  the  students, 
school  hours  and  work  being  so  arranged  as  to  leave 
sufficient  time  for  healthful  play  and  exercise.  Com- 
pared with  the  severity  of  many  earlier  schools,  the 
discipline  was  mild,  the  barbarous  pimishments  not 
unfrequently  infficted  by  educators  of  the  seven- 
teenth and  eighteenth  centuries  being  strictly  for- 
bidden. For  Uie  moral  training  of  the  pupils  much 
was  expected  from  the  personal  contact  with  the 
teacher,  'who  was  supposed  to  take  an  interest  in 
every  individual  pupu.  Religious  training  was  the 
foremost  object,  and  religious  influence  and  in- 
spiration were  to  pervade  all  teaching. 

In  modem  times  objections  have  been  raised  against 
various  features  of  the  Ratio  Studiorum,  but  most 
of  them  are  either  based  on  a  misunderstanding  of  the 
Ratio,  or  directed  against  features  which  are  entirely 
unessenti^.  Thus  the  supervision  and  examina- 
tion of  students  by  other  pupils,  the  constant  col- 
loquial use  of  Latin,  etc.  are  secondary  features  which 
have  been  abolished  in  most  Jesuit  schools.  Much 
has  been  said  against  the  supposed  disastrous  in- 
fluence of  emulation  and  rivalry,  encouraged  by 
the  Ratio,  and  the  awarding  of  prizes  and  premiums. 
This  system  is  not  necessarily  dangerous  and,  if 
properly  and  cautiously  used,  may  become  a  whole- 
some stimulus.  At  the  time  when  the  elective  S3r8tem 
was  looked  upon  by  many  as  the  greatest  modem 
discovery  in  education,  tJie  Ratio  Studiorum  was 


severely  censured  for  upholding  the  ''antiquated 
system  of  prescribed  courses".  As  the  free  elective 
system  is  now  considered  a  failure  by  the  foremost 
educationists,  it  is  not  necessary  to  refute  this 
charge  against  the  Ratio.  Besides,  there  is  nothing 
in  the  Jesuit  S3rstem  which  prohioits  a  reasonable 
amount  of  election,  and  many  American  Jesuit 
collies  have  introduced  certain  elective  branches 
in  the  hi^er  classes.  In  regard  to  the  numerous 
controversies  concerning  Jesuit  education,  Mr. 
Brown,  U.  S.  Commissioner  of  Education  (1911),  has 
well  observed  that  ''in  most  of  these  controversies 
the  Jesuit  side  is  the  side  of  many  who  are  not 
Jesuits"  (Educational  Review,  Dec,  1904,  p.  531). 
Even  critics  who  judge  the'  Ratio  with  excessive 
severity  are  compelled  to  admit  that  it  contains 
"much  educational  wisdom  and  esmerience,  prac- 
tical skill,  and  a  pedagogical  insignt  which  never 
swerves  from  the  main  purpose"  (I^fessor  Fleisch- 
mann).  Most  of  its  essential  features  can  well 
be  retained  and  will  prove  advantageous  no  matter 
what  new  branches  of  study  or  methods  of  teachhig 
are  introduced. 

Some  points  deserve  to  be  specially  treated  on 
account  of  the  serious  objections  raised  against  the 
Ratio.  We  hear  frequent^  and  often  animated, 
discussions  concerning  the  aim  or  scope  of  educational 
systems  and  of  various  branches  of  study.  What  was 
the  intellectual  scope  of  the  Ratio  Studiorum? 
It  cannot  be  better  defined  than  in  the  words  ojf 
the  general  of  the  Society,  Father  Martin,  who  said 
in  1892:  "The  characteristics  of  the  Ratio  studiorum 
are  not  to  be  sou^t  in  the  subject  matter,  nor  in  the 
order  and  succession  in  which  the  different  branches 
are  taOght,  but  rather  in  what  may  be  called  the 
'form',  or  the  spirit  of  the  system.  This  form,  or 
spirit,  consists  chiefly  in  the  training  of  the  mind 
[efformaiio  inqenii\f  which  is  the  object,  and  in  the 
various  exercises,  which  are  the  means  of  attaining 
this  object."  This  training  or  formation  of  the 
mind  means  the  gradual  and  harmonious  develop- 
ment of  the  various  powers  or  faculties  of  the  soul — 
of  memory,  imagination,  intellect,  and  will;  it  is 
what  we  now  call  a  general  and  liberal  education. 
The  training  given  by  the  Ratio  was  not  to  be 
specialized  or  professional,  but  general,  and  was  to 
lay  the  foundation  for  professional  stuaies.  In  this 
regard  the  Ratio  stands  in  opposition  to  various 
modem  s>rstems  which  aim  at  the  immediately  useful 
and  practical  or,  at  best,  allot  a  very  i^ort  time  to 
general  education;  it  stands  in  sharp  contrast  with 
those  systems  which  advocate  the  earliest  possible 
beginning;  of  specialization.  Jesuit  educationists 
thmk,  with  many  others,  that  "the  higher  the  level 
on  which  the  professional  specializing  begins,  the 
more  effective  it  will  be".  Besides,  there  are  many 
spheres  of  thought,  many  branches  of  study,  es- 
pecially literary  and  historical,  which  may  not  be 
required  for  professional  work,  but  which  are  neces- 
sary for  a  higher,  broader,  and  truly  liberal  culture. 
The  educated  man  is  to  be  not  merely  a  wage-earner, 
but  one  who  takes  an  intelligent  interest  in  the  great 
questions  of  the  day,  and  who  thorou^ly  under- 
stands the  important  problems  of  life,  mtellectual, 
social,  political,  literary,  philosophical,  and  religious. 
To  accomplish  this  a  solid  general  training,  prepara- 
tory to  strictly  professional  work  and  reasonably 
prolonged,  is  most  valuable.  One  of  the  means,  in 
fact  the  most  important  one,  for  this  liberal  training, 
the  Ratio  finds  m  the  study  of  the  Classics.  Much 
has  been  said  and  written,  within  the  past  decades, 
for  and  against  the  value  of  the  Classics  aa  a  means 
of  culture.  The  Ratio  does  not  deny  the  educational 
value  of  other  branches,  as  sciences,  modem  lan- 
gjuages,  etc.,  but  it  highly  values  the  Classical  cur- 
riculum not  merely  because  it  is  the  old  traditional 
system,  but  because,  so  far,  it  has  proved  to  be  the 


RATIO 


656 


RATIO 


best  means  for  giving  the  mind  the  much  desired 
liberal  training  and  general  culture.  It  cannot  be 
denied  that  the  study  of  Latin,  in  particular,  is  ex- 
cellently fitted  to  tram  the  mind  in  clear  and  logical 
thinking.  Immanent  logic  has  been  called  the 
characteristic  of  the  Latin  language  and  its  ^ammar. 
and  its  study  has  been  termed  a  course  in  appliea 
logic.  Some  writers  have  asserted  that  the  Ratio 
prescribed  Latin  because  it  was  the  language  of  the 
Church,  and  of  political  and  scholarly  intercourse 
of  former  centuries,  and  that  for  this  reason  the  pMer- 
fect  mastery  of  Latin,  the  acquisition  of  a  Ciceronian 
style,  was  the  primary  aim  of  Jesuit  education.  It 
is  true  that  in  former  ages,  when  Latin  was  the  one 
great  international  tongue  of  the  West,  the  study 
of  this  language  had  an  eminently  practical  purpose, 
and  both  Protestant  and  Cathohc  schools  aimed  at 
imparting  a  mastery  of  it.  But  this  was  by  no  means 
the  only  object  even  in  those  days.  As  a  distin- 
guished French  Jesuit  educationist  expressed  it  in 
1669:  ''B^des  literary  accomplishments  gained 
from  the  study  of  the  Classical  languages,  there  are 
other  advantages,  especially  an  exquisite  power  and 
facility  of  reasoning",  that  is,  in  modem  terms, 
mental  training.  The  same  is  evident  from  the  fact 
that  Greek  was  always  taught^  certainly  not  for  the 
purpose  of  conversation  and  mtercourse.  As  there 
are  many  other  advantages,  besides  the  formal 
training^  to  be  derived  from  the  study  of  the  Classics, 
the  Ratio  needs  no  apology  for  the  nigh  value  it  set 
on  them. 

As  was  said  above,  the  various  exercises  (the 
'^  prelection '^  memory  lessons,  compositions,  rep- 
etitions, and  contests)  are  the  means  of  training 
th6  mind.  The  tvpical  form  of  Jesuit  education, 
minutely  describea  m  the  Ratio,  is  called  pralectio; 
it  means  'Mectiunng"  in  the  higher  faculties,  and  its 
equivalent  (Vorlesung)  is  even  now  used  in  German 
for  Ihe  lectures  in  the  universities.  In  the  lower 
grades  it  means  '*  explanation '\  but,  as  it  has  some 
n>ecial  features,  it  is  best  to  retain  the  word  in  an 
English  dress  as  ''prelection".  It  is  applied  both 
to  the  interpretation  of  authors  and  to  tne  explana- 
tion of  grammar,  prosody,  precepts  of  rhetoric, 
poetry,  and  style.  In  r^ard  to  the  authors,  the 
text  was  first  to  be  read  by  ihe  teacher,  distinctly, 
accurately,  and  intelligently,  as  the  best  introduction 
to  the  understanding  of  tne  text.  Then  follow  the 
interpretation  of  the  text,  formerly  a  paraphrase  of 
the  contents  in  Latin,  now  a  translation  into  the 
vernacular;  linguistic  explanations  of  particular 
sentences;  study  of  poetical  or  rhetorical  precepts 
contained  in  the  passage;  finally,  what  is  called 
"erudition"  (i.  e.  antiquarian  ana  subject  explana- 
tion, including  historical,  archaeological,  geographical, 
biographical,  political,  ethical,  and  religious  details, 
according  to  the  contents).  From  many  documents 
it  is  evident  that  a  p^reat  deal  of  interesting  and  useful 
information  was  given  under  this  head.  But  what 
is  more  important,  the  systematic  handling  of  the 
text,  the  completeness  of  the  explanation  from 
every  point  of  view,  was  an  excellent  means  of  train- 
ing m  accuracy  and  thoroiighness. 

Still  it  has  been  maintained  that  this  method  of 
teaching  was  too  ''formal",  too  "mechanical",  and 
that  as  a  result  "ori|^nality  and  independence  of 
mind,  love  of  truth  for  its  own  sake",  were  suppressed 
(Quick).  Should  this  "independence  of  mmd"  be 
taken  as  unrestrained  liberty  of  thought  in  religious 
matters,  as  outspoken  or  disguised  Rationalism  which 
places  itself  above  the  whole  deposit  of  Divine  Reve- 
lation, it  must,  indeed,  be  admitted  that  the  Ratio 
and  tne  whole  Jesuit  teaching  are  opposed  to  this 
kind  of  "originality  and  independence  of  mind". 
This,  however,  is  a  question  of  philosophy  and 
theology  rather  than  of  pedagogical  methods.  Still, 
even  some  Catholic  writers  have  thought  that  the 


Jesuit  system  is  unfavourable  to  the  development  of 
great  individualities,  at  least  among  the  members 
of  the  order.  Cardinal  Newman  says:  "What  a 
great  idea,  to  use  Guizot's  expression,  is  the  Society 
of  Jesus  I  What  a  creation  of  genius  is  its  organisa- 
tion; but  so  well  adapted  is  the  institution  to  its 
object  that  for  that  very  reason  it  can  afford  to  crush 
individualities,  however  gifted"  (Hist.  Sketches,  III, 
71).  Whether  the  great  cardinal  here  fully  endforses 
Guisot's  sentiments  or  not,  it  is  certain  that  he  vir- 
tually refutes  them  in  another  passage,  when  he 
states  that  the  order  was  not  over-zealous  about  its 
theological  traditions,  but  suffered  its  great  theo- 
logians to  controvert  with  one  another.  "In  this 
intellectual  freedom  its  members  justly  glory;  in- 
asmuch as  they  have  set  their  affections  not  on  the 
opinions  of  the  Schools,  but  on  the  souls  of  men" 
(ibid.,  II,  369).  The  history  of  the  Society  is  the 
best  refutation  of  the  charge  of  crushing  individuali- 
ties. The  literary  and  scientific  activity  of  the  order 
has  been  admired  by  its  bitterest  enemies.  It  has 
produced  not  only  great  theologians  (Suarez,  Vasquez, 
Molina,  de  Lugo,  and  others),  but  men  prominently 
mentioned  amone  the  earlier  Orientalists  and  writers 
on  comparative  language,  as  Hervas,  Beschi^  Ricci. 
Pr^mare,  Gaubil:  in  t£e  field  of  mathematics  and 
natural  sciences  high  distinction  has  been  obtained 
by  Clavius,  called  "the  Euclid  of  his  age",  chief 
agent  in  the  reformation  of  the  Calendar  under 
Gregory  XIII;  Grimaldi,  Scheiner,  and  Secchi  are 
famous  as  astronomers;  Athanasius  Kircher  was  a 
polyhistor  in  the  best  sense  of  the  term;  Hardouin, 
though  frequently  hypercritical  and  eccentric,  was  a 
most  acute  critic  and  in  many  ways  far  in  advance 
of  his  age;  Petavius  was  the  father  of  the  historical 
treatment  of  dogma  and  a  leader  in  chronolos^;  and 
the  Bollandists  have  achieved  a  work  which  is  truly 
a  numumerUum  care  perennitut.  If  the  number  of  sreat 
^nen  be  taken  as  a  criterion  of  the  merit  of  an  educa- 
tional system,  a  long  roll  can  be  exhibited  of  pupils 
who  were  amons  the  mo^t  prominent  men  in  Europe: 
poets  like  Caideron,  Tasso,  Comeille,  Molidre, 
(joldoni;  orators  like  Bossuet;  scholars  like  Galileo, 
Descartes,  Buffon,  Muratori.  Montesquieu,  Males- 
herbes;  statesmen  like  Richelieu;  church  dignitaries 
like  St.  Francis  de  Sales  and  Benedict  XlY,  called 
"  the  most  learned  of  the  Popes  " .  All  these  men  were 
trained  under  the  Ratio,  and,  though  it  would  be 
puerile  to  claim  all  their  greatness  for  the  system 
of  education,  one  thing  is  certain,  namely  that  the 
Ratio  did  not  crush  the  originality  and  indivi(iuAlity 
of  these]  pupils,  whether  members  of  the  order  or 
outside  it.  Nor  has  the  educational  system  of  the 
Society  been  sterile  in  more  recent  times  m  this  regard; 
among  its  pupils  it  numbers  men  who  have  become 
distinguished  in  every  walk  of  life. 

The  history  of  the  practical  working  of  the  Ratio 
is  the  history  of  the  colleges  of  the  Society.  In  1706 
the  number  of  collegiate  and  university  institutions 
was  over  750;  Latin  America  alone  had  96  coUeges 
before  the  suppression  of  the  Society.  Some  of  me 
Jesuit  colleges  had  over  2000  pupils  each;  while 
it  is  impossible  to  give  an  absolute  average,  300  seems 
to  be  the  very  lowest.  This  would  give  the  700 
and  more  colleges  a  sum  total  of  over  210,000  students, 
all  trained  under  the  same  system.  Even  non- 
Catholics  bestowed  great  praise  on  the  educational 
efficiency  of  the  Jesuit  scnools;  it  was  a  common 
complaint  among  Protestants  that  many  non- 
Catholic  parents  sent  their  sons  to  Jesuit  schools 
because  tney  considered  the  training  given  there 
superior  to  that  obtained  elsewhere.  The  suppression 
of  the  Society  in  the  second  half  of  the  eighteenUi 
century  meant  the  total  loss  of  property,  houses, 
libraries,  and  observatories.  After  its  restoration 
it  had  to  struggle  into  existence  under  altered  and 
unfavourable   conditions.    During   the    nineteenth 


RATISBON                              657  RATISBdN 

century  the  Jesuits  were  persecuted  almost  without  Order j  ,1  of  the  Ladies  of  the  Good  Shepherd:  76 
cessation  in  one  country  or  other,  and  driven  out  estabhshments  of  the  Poor  School  Sisters;  3  of  the  Eng- 
again  and  again.  These  persecutions  seriously  lish  Ladies;  23  of  the  Sisters  of  Mercy,  in  12  town- 
hampered  the  educational  work  of  the  Society  and  ships;  1  mother-house  and  67  branches  of  the  Sisters 
px^vented  it  from  obtaining  the  brilliant  success  of  of  the  Third  Order  of  St.  Francis  of  Mallersdorf; 
tbrmer  days.  Still,  the  Jesuits  possess  now  a  re-  5  establishments  of  the  Franciscan  Sisters  from  the 
spectable  number  of  colleges,  which  is  continually  mother-house  at  Dillingen;  1  institute  for  the  Daugh- 
increasing,  particularly  in  English-speaking  coun-  ters  of  the  Divine  Redeemer  from  the  mother-house 
tries.  at  Niederbronn  in  Alsace;  1  convent  of  Carmelite 
Pachtlkr,  Ratio  studiorum  H  inMUutwMa  sehotaaiica  Socuuuis  Sisters.    The  total  number  of  sisters  is  2400.    The 

Juu  per  Oermaniam  olim  VioenUa  in  Monumenta  Oennania  Ptedo'  religioUS   and   SOCial   Societies   are   highly   developed; 

gogiea,  11,  V,  IX,  XVI  (Berlin,  1887-94),  the  standard  work,  con-  -^      -ii  i^  onffiripnt  in  rriAntinn  h#»rp  tVip  nonfratpmitv 

tainini  the  text  of  the  various  revisiona  of  the  Ratio  Studionim  ".^**  DC  sumcient  to  mention  Here  tne  yoniraternity 

and  many  other  valuable  documents;   MonumerUa  hiatoriea  Socie-  Of  Fcrpetual  Adoration,  the  Congregations  Ot   Mary 

tatu  Jeau  (Madrid,  1894—) ;  Huohbb,  Loyota  and  theBdwxuional  for  men,  boys,  and  girls,  the  Catholic  associations 

Syatem  of  tKe  Jesuif  in  Oreat  Bdueator§  Senea  (New  York,  1892);  f       venrVmttn    imimAvmAn    anH  (LnnronfipAfl    fho  otii- 

ScHwicKBBATH,  JcBuU  Education,  lu  HiHory  and  PHncipUa,  lor  Workmen,  journeymen,  and  apprentices,  tne  stu- 

Vieroed  in  the  Light  of  Modem  Educational  Problewu  (St.  Louia,  dents'    associations,    the    AlbertUB    Magnus    asSOCia- 

1903) ;  valuable  notes  on  this  work  by  Brown  in  Bdueationai  tion,  the  Volksverein  for  Catholic  Germany,  and  the 

^oliSZtf:;.  »u"M6)??^m2S;.42r'r£^'X  CathoUc  press  Assodation  for  Bavaria. 

cational  practice  of  the  Society  by  the  Jesuits  Sacchiki,  Jou-  Among  the  chuTches  Of  the  oiocese  may  be  men- 

vANcr.  kropf.  PcRpiftA.  BoNiFAciTjB,  and  PoasBviN,  translated  tioned:    the  Gothic  cathedral  of  St.  Peter,  begun 

''i^SSr^^.^^T::t>^B^^Sk^'^:ii^r^  |n  1275  but  not  «»mpleted  mitU  the  nineteenth  cen- 

gogik,  X,  XI  (Freiburg.  1898-1901);  Qmcx,  Educational  Re-  tury;   the  old  cathedral,  or  St.  Stephanskirche  (end 

/orm«r«  (New  York,  1890);  VtLviMv^Geech.  dee  gei^rtenUnter'  of  tenth  century);  the  Churches  of  St.  Emmeram 

'^JTtr'%'S^^Ti^^^'T^X^^^''T'^i-  (eleventh  century),   St    Jakob    (twelfth  .oentur^)^ 

MANN  in  Rein,  EncychpOdisdee  Handbuch  der  Podagogik,  s.  v.  the  former  DomuUCan  Church  of  St.  BlasiUS  (1273- 

Jeeuiienrpddagogik.  1400).  all  at  Ratisbon;    the  churches  of  Amberg, 

Robert  Schwickbhath.  Straubing,    Naabburg;     numerous    old    monastery 

churches,  such  as  those  of  Weltenburg,  PrQfening, 

Ratisbon  (Regenbburg),  Diocese  of  (Ratis-  Ober-Alteich  etc.  Much-frequented  places  of  piT- 
BONENSis),  suflfragan  of  Munich-Freising.  It  em-  grimage  are:  Mariahil^  near  Amberg;  the  Eichel- 
braces  the  greater  portion  of  the  administrative  berg,  near  Hemau:  the  Kreuzberg,  near  Schwandorf; 
district  of  Oberpfalz,  and  portions  of  the  districts  andNeukirchen  beim  hi.  Blut. 
of  Upper  and  Lower  Bavana,  and  Upper  Franconia  Ratisbon,  the  oldest  town  in  Bavaria,  had  its  origin 
(see  Germany,  map),  an  area  of  about  6340  square  in  the  Roman  camp,  Castra  Regina^  the  remains  of 
miles.  It  is  divided  into  the  three  episcopal  com-  whose  walls  exist  to-day.  Christianity  was  intro- 
missariates  of  Ratisbon,  Amberg,  and  Straubing,  duced  during  the  time  of  the  Romans.  In  the  sixth 
and  into  thirty  deaneries.  In  1910  it  numbered  473  century  Ratisbon  was  the  chief  town  of  Bavaria,  and 
parishes,  167  benefices  (exclusive  of  74  united  with  the  seat  of  the  apostolic  laboiUB  of  several  holy 
other  prebends),  80  expositurships,  371  curacies,  and  evangelists,  such  as  St.  Rupert  (about  697),  St.  Em- 
36  other  pastoral  offices,  1283  clergy  (including  442  meram  (about  710),  St.  Erhard  (about  720),  and 
pastors  and  159  regular  priests),  and  over  865,000  Blessed  Albert  (about  720).  In  739  St.  Boniface 
Catholics.  In  addition  to  the  ordinarv,  there  is  a  divided  the  Duchy  of  Bavaria  into  the  four  Dioceses 
coadjutor  bishop  (consecrated  .18  April,  1911);  the  of  Ratisbon,  Passau,  Freising,  and  Salzburg,  and  ap- 
cathedral  chapter  consists  of  a  provost,  8  capitulars,  pointed  as  first  Bishop  of  Ratisbon  Blessed  Gawibald 
6  cathedral  vicars,  and  a  cathedral  preacher.  There  ,or  Gaubald  (739-61).  The  early  bishops  were  chosen 
is  also  a  chapter  at  the  collegiate  Church  of  Our  alternately  from  the  canons  of  the  Church  of  St. 
Lady  "Zur  Alten  Kapelle"  in  Ratisbon.  with  11  Peter  and  the  monks  of  the  Benedictine  monastery 
members,  and  a  chapter  in  the  collegiate  Church  of  of  St.  Emmeram.  of  which  monastery  they  were 
Sts.  John  the  Baptist  and  John  the  Evangelist  at  simultaneously  aboots;  after  the  elevation  of  Sabsburs 
Ratisbon,  with  7  members.  The  diocesan  institutions  to  metropolitan  rank  by  Leo  III,  Ratisbon  was  placed 
include  the  episcopal  seminary  for  the  ecclesiastics  at  under  it.  Through  the  favour  of  the  nktive  dukes 
Ratisbon,  with  four  courses  in  theolopy  and  one  in  and,  after  their  removal,  through  that  of  the  Car- 
philosophy,  and  the  episcopal  seminanes  for  boys  at  lovingians  and  Ottos,  the  bishops  received  much 
Ratisbon,  Metten,  and  Straubing.  For  philosophical  property  and  many  gifts  for  their  churches.  The 
and  theological  studies  there  exists  at  Ratisbon  a  possessions  of  the  chapter  consisted  of  the  three  free 
state  lyceum,  in  which  10  religious  and  a  few  lay  imperial  domains  Donaustauf,  Worth  (both  on  the 
professors  lecture.  Danube),  and  Hohenburg  on  the  River  Lautrach,  the 

The  monasteries  and  monastic  institutes  are:  for  domain  of  Pechlam  below  the  Enns,  and  the  adnunis- 
the  Benedictines,  the  Abbey  of  Metten  with  a  gym-  tration  of  a  few  places  in  Lower  Bavaria.  During  the 
ncLsium  and  episcopal  seminary  for  boys  (43  fathers,  early  period  the  chief  care  of  the  bishops  was  the  con- 
8  clerics,  and  15  lay  brothers)  and  the  Priory  of  version  of  the  Slavs,  Bohemia  being  for  the  most  part 
Weltenburg  (6  fathers,  2  clerics,  and  12  lay  brothers);  won  for  Christianity  by  Ratisbon.  Bishop  Bahurich 
3  monasteries  of  the  Discalced  Carmelites,  with  22  (817-48)  baptized  fourteen  Bohemian  princes  at  Rat- 
fathers,  3  clerics,  and  21  brothers;  2  monasteries  of  isbon  in  847,  and  Bohemia  long  belonged  to  the  dio- 
the  Calced  Carmelites,  with  13  fathers,  and  11  broth-  cese.  Under  Ambricho  (864-91)  Louis  the  German 
ers:  5  monasteries  of  the  Franciscans,  with  21  fathers,  built  the  celebrated  ^'Alte  Kapelle"  in  which  his 
ana  46  brothers;  1  Capuchin  monastery,  with  7  spouse  Emma  and  the  last  Carlovingian  emperors 
fathers  and  7  brothers;  2  hospices  of  the  Minorites,  Amulf  and  Louis  the  Child  found  their  resting-places, 
with  4  fathers  and  6  brothers;  2  Augustinian  prior-  During  the  reign  of  Blessed  Tuto  (894r-931)  the  see 
ies,  with  7  fathers,  and  6  brothers;  3  Redemptorist  suffered  much  from  the  inroads  of  the  Hungarians; 
coUeges  with  27  fathers,  and  26  brothers;  4  mona»-  Bishop  Michael  (942-72)  took  personal  part  in  the 
teries  of  the  Brothers  of  Mercy,  with  5  fathers  and  wars  against  these  invaders,  especially  in  tne  battle  of 
1(X)  brothers;  1  brotherhood  of  hermits,  with  30  Lechfeld.  St.  Wolfgang  (972-94)  agreed  to  the  sepa- 
brothers,  in  25  hermitages;  3  convents  ot  the  Poor  ration  of  Bohemia  from  the  Diocese  of  Ratisbon,  and 
dHares;  2  of  the  Dominican  Sisters;  2  of  the  Cister-  also  separated  the  property  of  the  cathedral  from  the 
cian  Sisters;    1  of  the  Ursulines;    1  of  the  Elissr  Monastery  of  St.  Emmeram. 

bethines;    1  of  the  Franciscan  Sisters  of  the  Third  The  era  of  the  following  bishops  is  characterized  by 
XII.— 42 


RATISBON 


658 


RATISBON 


the  foundation  of  numerous  monasteries.  Gebhard  I 
(995-1035)  founded  the  Abbey  of  Pruhl;  his  attempt 
to  annul  the  separation  between  the  diocese  and 
Emmeram  gave  rise  to  much  dispute;  he  received 
from  Otto  ill  the  right  of  coinage.  Gebhard  III 
(1036-60)  received  from  Henry  III  the  Abbev  of 
Kempten;  during  his  episcopate  the  collegiate  chap- 
ter of  Ohringen  and  the  convent  of  Geisenfeld  were 
founded.  Otto  of  Ritenberg  (1061-89)  espoused  the 
cause  of  the  emperor  in  the  (jonflict  of  Investitures, 
while  Blessed  William,  provost  of  St.  Emmeram  and 
later  abbot  of  the  renowned  monastery  of  Hirsau,  the 
''hero  of  monasticism  and  champion  of  reform'', 
worked  in  the  spirit  of  Pope  Gregory.  Under  Gebhard 
IV,  who  received  neither  papal  ratification  nor  con- 
secration, the  Benedictine  abbey  of  Oberalteich  was 
founded;  under  Hartwich  I  (1105-26)  were  founded 
the  Scots  monastery  of  St.  James  at  Ratisbon,  and 
the  Benedictine  monasteries  of  Mallersdorf,  PrQfen- 
ing,  Reichenbach,  and  Ensdorf;  under  the  zealous 
Konrad  I  (1126-32)^  the  Cistercian  abbey  of  Wald- 
sassen,  the  Benedictme  monastery  of  3iburg;  under 
Heinrich  I  (1132-55),  the  Premonstratensian  monas- 
tery of  Windberg  and  several  chapters  of  Augustinian 
Canons.  Konrad  III  (1186-1204)  took  part  in  Bar- 
barossa's  crusade:  Konrad  IV  again  confirmed  the 
dominion  of  the  oishops  over  the  city  of  Ratisbon, 
which  in  the  foUow^ing  period  gradually  acquired  in- 
dependence and  developed  into  a  free  town  of  the 
empire;  in  1226  Konrad  gave  the  recently-founded 
Franciscan  Order  a  residence  ap^  chapel  in  the  city. 
Under  Siegfried  the  Carmelites  and  Dominicans  also 
established  themselves  in  the  diocese.  Prominent 
among  the  Franciscans  was  Blessed  Bemhard  of  Rat- 
isbon, one  of  the  most  powerful  preachers  of  the 
Middle  Ages;  the  Dominicans  gave  to  the  diocese  the 
great  bishop,  Albertus  Magnus,  on  whose  voluntary 
retirement  Leo  Thundorfer  (1262-77),  who  beean  the 
building  of  the  noble  cathedral,  was  elected.  The 
building  was  continued  vigorously  under  Heinrich  II  of 
Rotteneck  (1277-96),  who  led  a  truly  holy  life  and 
proved  himself  an  excellent  spiritual  and  secular 
prince.  Konrad  of  Luppurg  (1296-1313),  Nikolaus  of 
Stachowitz  (1313-40),  and  Konrad  VI  (1368-81)  were 
also  distinguished  bi^ops.  Albert  of  Stauf  (140^21),  ^ 
an  adherent  of  the  popes  of  Pisa,  devoted  himself  ' 
zealously  to  the  reform  of  the  monasteries  and  the 
clergy;  in  1419,  at  a  diocesan  svnod^  he  issued  an 
excellent  pastoral  instruction  for  his  diocese.  Albert 
and  his  immediate  successors — Johann  of  Streitberg 
(1421-28)  and  Konrad  VII  of  Rehlingen  (1428-37),  a 
Westphalian — ^had  to  take  the  field  against  the  Huss- 
ites, who  had  made  several  devastatmg  inroads  into 
the  territory  of  the  diocese.  Heinrich  IV  of  Absberg 
(1465-92),  an  admirable  bishop,  took  energetic  meas- 
ures against  the  Hussites  and  other  fanatics,  against 
the  superstitions  of  the  people,  and  the  incontinency 
of  the  clergy;  to  the  restoration  of  discipline  and  order 
in  the  monasteries,  expecially  in  several  convents,  he 
devoted  a  restless  activity.  In  the  same  spirit  worked 
Rupprecht  II,  CJount  Palatine  of  Sponheim  (1492- 
1507),  under  whom  the  diocese  had  to  suffer  much  in 
consequence  of  the  war  between  the  Wittelsbachs  con- 
cerning the  succession  in  Bavaria-Landshut. 

The  religious  innovations  of  Luther  were  on  the 
whole  successfullv  opposed  by  Johann  III  of  the 
Wittelsbach  family,  the  administrator  of  the  diocese 
(1507-38);  in  1524  he  took  part  in  the  assembly  of  the 
South-German  bishops  and  princes  at  Ratisbon, 
which,  under  the  presidency  of  the  papal  legate 
Campeggio,  decreed  the  execution  of  the  Edict  of 
Worms  and  the  maintenance  of  the  old  religion. 
Under  his  weak  successor  Pankraz  von  Sinzenhofen 
(1538-48),  however,  the  new  doctrines  were  allowed- 
to  spread,  and  this  prelate  was  unable  to  prevent  the 
town  from  W!cepting  the  Reformation  and  demol- 
i^ing  the  cathedral,    llie  negotiations  at  the  Diet 


of  Ratisbon  in  1541  resulted  in  the  Ratisbon  Interim, 
which  went  very  far  towards  meeting  the  wishes  of  the 
Protestants,  but  yet  did  not  find  approval  with  the 
Protestant  princes.  The  efforts  of  the  zealous  Georg 
Marschalk  of  Pappenheim  (1548-63)  and  David 
Kolderer  of  Burgstall  (1567-79)  met  with  especially 
obstinate  resistance  from  the  city.  Under  Philipp 
(1579-98),  son  of  Duke  William  V  of  Bavaria  and 
afterwards  cardinal,  the  Jesuits  were  assigpied  a  col- 
lege at  Ratisbon,  with  which  a  gymnasium  was  com- 
bined in  1589.  Wolfgang  II  von  Hausen  (1600-13) 
was  a  zealous  patron  of  the  Jesuits  and  promoter  of 
Catholic  reform,  andjoined  the  Catholic  League  in 
1609.  Albert  von  Torring  (1613-59),  when  the 
Count  Palatine  Wolfgang  Wilhelm  became  a  Catholic 
in  1614,  brought  back  under  his  spirituaJ  jurisdiction 
a  portion  of  the  Protestant  parishes,  especitdly  in  the 
Upper  Palatinate;  even  the  town  of  Eger  with  its 
territory  was  recovered  in  1627  for  the  Catholic 
faith. 

The  Thirty  Years'  War  caused  great  injury  to  the 
diocese;  Duke  Bemhard  of  Weimar,  a  partisan  of  the 
Swedes,  captured  the  town  of  Ratisbon  and  a  portion 
of  the  diocesan  territory  in  1633,  loot^  the  church 
treasury,  exacted  from  the  clerey  large  contributions, 
and  held  the  bishop  in  confinement  for  fourteen 
months.  Franz  Wilhelm  von  Wartenberg  (164&-61), 
who  was  also  Bishop  of  Osnabrilck,  Minden,  and  Ver- 
den,  sought  to  supply  the  growing  need  of  priests  by 
founding  a  clerical  seminary  in  1653.  With  Albert 
Siegmund  (1668-85)  began  the  series  of  bishops  from 
the  House  of  Wittelsbach,  which  for  nearly  a  century 
occupied  the  episcopal  see.  Albert  was  simultaneously 
Bishop  of  Freising,  as  was  Joseph  Klemens  (1685- 
1716),  who,  as  Elector  of  Cologne  (from  1688), 
espoused  the  cause  of  Louis  XIV  in  the  War  of  the 
Spanish  Succession,  and  was  for  this  reason,  like  his 
brother  Elector  Max  Emmanuel,  placed  under  the 
imperial  ban.  Cardinal  Johann  Theodor  (I71&-63) 
occupied,  in  addition  to  Ratisbon,  the  Dioceses  of 
Freising  and  Li^e,  and  other  benefices.  Excellent 
administrators  were  the  last  prince-bishops,  Anton 
Ignaz  von  Fugger  (1769-87),  Max  Prokop  von  Torring 
(1787-89),  and  Joseph  Konrad  von  Schroffenbeig 
(1790-1803).  On  the  secularization  of  the  German 
Church  in  1803  a  portion  of  the  diocese  was  left  un- 
disturbed for  a  time;  then  Napoleon  named,  even  dur- 
ing the  lifetime  of  Schroffenberg,  as  Archbishop  of 
Ratisbon  and  Prince-Primate  of  Germany,  Karl* 
Theodor  von  Dalberg,  Elector  of  Mainz,  and  assigned 
him  a  portion  of  the  earlier  ecclesiastical  territory. 
It  was  only  in  1805  that  Dalberg  received  the  papal 
consent  to  the  exercise  of  archiepiscopal  power  (1805- 
17).  Although  Dalberg,  in  his  desire  to  save  his  pre- 
carious sovereignty,  accepted  Cardinal  Fesch,  Napo- 
leon's uncle,  as  coadjutor,  he  was  compelled  to  sur- 
render the  secular  territory  of  the  Diocese  of  Ratisbon 
to  Bavaria  in  1810,  whereupon  its  secularization  was 
finally  accomplished.  With  Dalberg's  death  the 
short-lived  Archdiocese  of  Ratisbon  came  to  an 
end. 

The  Bavarian  Concordat  of  1817-18  declared  Ratis- 
bon a  simple  suffragan  see  in  the  newly-created  eccle- 
siastical province  of  Munich-Freising,  and  assign^ 
to  it  its  present  limits.  The  first  bishop  of  the  new 
cfiocese  was  the  former  coadjutor,  Johann  Nepomuk 
von  Wolf  (1821-29).  He  was  succeeded  by  the 
celebrated  Michael  Sailer  (182^-32).  Geoig  Nfichael 
Wittmann,  who  was  named  successor  to  the  latte^ 
died  before  his  preconization  (1833).  Franz  Xaver 
von  Schwabl  (1833-41),  under  whom  Diepenbrock 
Oater  cardinal)  worked  at  Ratisbon,  restored  the 
cathedral.  Valentin  Riedel  (1842-57)  founded  the 
boys'  seminary  at  Metten  and  the  priests'  hermita^, 
and  prepared  the  way  for  the  reform  of  church  music. 
Ratisbon  now  possesses  the  world-renowned  school 
for  the  special  study  of  Church  music,  founded  by 


BATISBONNX  Gf 

Haberl.  iKnatius  von  Senestr^y  (1858-1906)  com- 
pleted, witA  the  help  of  King  Louis  I,  the  towers  oS 
the  cathedral,  founded  Ihc  boys'  Rcmioarics  at  Ratw' 
bon  and  Straubing,  reformed  the  litiii'gy  in  accordance 
with  the  Roman  model,  and  greatly  promoted  the 
religioufl  life  of  the  diocese  by  frequent  tours  of  visita- 
tion, the  establishment  of  new  pastoral  ofKcea,  the 
holding  of  popular  missions,  and  the  buildins  of 
churches  and  schools.  At  the  Vatican  Council  he 
belonged  to  the  Commission  on  Faith,  and  was  one  of 
the  most  resolute  champions  of  the  dogma  of  the  in- 
.fallibihty  of.  the  pope.  In  (he  eceliniastico-political 
wars  in  Bavaria,  capccialty  since  the  appearance  of  the 
Old  Catholic  movement  and  its  eneourogcmcnt  by 
Minister  Lutz,  von  Seneatr^y  always  fearlessly  and 
unyieldingly  contended  for  the  rights  of  the  Church. 
The  pallium  was  conferred  on  him  us  a  mark  of  dis- 
tinction by  the  pope  in  190C.  He  was  Bucccedod  in 
1906  by  Antoniua  von  Hcnie,  who  had  occupied  the 
See  of  Passau  from  I90I  to  lOOG. 

ban,  17S8):  Ceueiheh.  Cl>r<mik  drr  SMM  u.  -la  llochtlirii 
Rtftnibytra  mb  Jahrt  US  bit  tum  J,  liOS  (4  vols..  Itstiabon. 
1816):  RiCD.  CnJei  chronoloBici-diiavmUieut  tjii'tupalui  Ralif 
bontntit  (2  vols.,  RaliihoD,  181(>-IT):  Gcumi iiieimeii.  Citrh. 
dtr  SUua  ttturmbuTit  (2  Toln.,  Ratinbiin,  IN3U-3H):  Witthahh, 
aiKh.dtr  Reformatiaa  in  dcr  Oberpjalt  {Auathvtg.  1X47);  Jahnis. 
OucA.  drr  BiKhOfi  ton,  Riaiuiburt  (3  voJa.,  RalisboD.  18R3-S6), 
ruchinc  to  1507;  Malriktl  dit  Birlvmt  Rtttndmra  (2  valg., 
"-■'  '    -,    1««3);     TON   WAUiEBMioiirF.   Rrai    ' 


.berpfalz  (B»li*hoo,  190S— );  Hiidibkanitc, 

RieniburQ  (Lcipiic,  IBIO);  VrTliandlviui"i  cfet  Aul.  Vrrcim  xm 
Obfrpfaii  u.  HtffenJtuTQ  (Ratiflbon,  1H31 — >;  SrhematiamuM  der 
OndftcAtnl  do  Biilumt  Rwenibuiv  (Rstiibon,  IBIO). 

JOSEPB    LiNS. 

Batlsbonnei  Maria  ALPHOKaE,  a  converted  Jew, 
b.  at  Strasburg  on  1  May,  1814;  d,  at  Ain  Karim 
near  Jerusalem,  on  6  May,  1884.  He  belonged  to  a 
wealthy  and  prominent  Jewish  family  in  Alsace.  After 
atud3dng  law  at  Paris  he  became  a  member  of  his 
uncle's  famous  banking  firm,  and  in  1841  waa  be- 
trothed to  the  daughter  of  his  oldest  brother.  Aa 
she  waa  only  sixteen  years  old,  tlic  marriage  was  post- 
poned, and  Ratisbonne  entered  upon  a  pleasure  trip 
to  the  Orient.  Though  nominally  a  Jew,  he  waa  a 
radical  infidel,  a  scorer  at  religion,  and,  after  the 
conversion  of  his  brother  Theodor,  a  rabid  enemy  of 
everything  Catholic,  On  hia  intended  tour  to  the 
Orient,  he  came  to  Rome,  whore  on  20  January,  1842, 
he  was  miraeuloiisly  converted  to  Cutholiciam  in  the 
Church  of  S.  Andrea  delle  Fratte  by  an  apparition  of 
the  Blessed  Virgin.  After  his  conversion  he  assisted 
his  brother,  Theodor.  in  founding  the  Sisterhood  of 
Our  Lady  of  Sion  in  1S43,  waa  ordained  priest  in  1847, 
and  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus.  Desirous,  however, 
to  devote  himself  entirely  to  the  eonv<;raion  of  the 
Jews,  he  left  the  society  with  the  consent  of  Pius  IX, 
transplanted  the  Sistera  of  Sien  to  Jerusalem  in  18S5, 
and  built  for  them  in  1856  the  large  Convent  of  Ecce 
Homo  with  a  school  and  an  orphanage  for  girls.  In 
1860  he  erected  the  Convent  of  St.  John  on  the  moun- 
tain at  Ain  Karim,  togetherwithachurch  and  another 
orphanage  for  ^Hs,  Here  Alphonsc  laboured  with  a 
few  companions  (Pires  de  Sion)  for  the  converaion  of 
Jews  and  Mohammedans  until  his  death.  For  boya 
he  erected  the  orphanage  of  St.  Peter,  near  the  Gate 
of  JalTa  outside  of  Jerusalem,  with  a  school  for 
mechanical  arta.in  the  city, 

De  Bi'aBifeRE,  ViKfaat  de  Alarii  (Pariii,  1S30):  HEniT.  Tict 
miraeuiuv*  couprr»iotw  from  Judaism  in  Catholic  Wvrtd^  XXXIX 
(N»  Yatk.  IHH*).  613-liD:    RoMCHTHAi.  fmrrnilrabiUtr  aiu 

III.  I  (SchamimiiKD,  ING!)).  "'  ~ 

"    H  appariiioKf  Ji  Maru. 

u  aliaMt  oaflolica  drll'  rbrrn   Ma 

UToailnit  it  S.  Aridrm  dfUt  FralU.  dr'  PP.  Minimi  di  S.  Pro 
- 41  Press,  18B2). 

MicHA£L  Orr. 


•9  RATBAMNUS 

BatiBbotUU,  Maria  Tbeodor,  a  distinguished 
preacher  and  writer,  and  director  of  the  Archconfra- 
ternityof  Christian  Mothera,b.  of  Jewish  parentage  at 
StraaburB,28  Dec,  1802;  d,  in  Paris,  10  Jan.  1884.  He 
was  raised  in  luxury,  was  educated  at  the  Royal  Col- 
lege of  his  native 
city,  and,  at  the 
age  of  manhood, 
waa  considered  a 
leader  among  hia 
people,  who  unan- 

him  to  replace 
Samson  Libcr- 
mann  when  the 
latter  waa  con- 
verted in  1824, 
The  converaion  of 
his  three  friends, 
Emile  Dreyfua. 
Alfred  Mayer,  and 
Somson  Libcr- 
mann,  cause<t  him 
tostinly  the  Bible 
and  the  history  of 
the  Church.     For 

two      years      the  M*BtA  Thmdok  Ratiibohhi 

work     of     grace 

went  on  within  him,  and  finally  he  waa  baptiied  in 
1826.  He  entered  the  aeminary  and  received 
Holy  orders  in  1830.  He  worked  in  hia  native 
diocese  until  1840,  when  he  became  subdirector 
of  the  Confraternity  of  Notre  Dame  dea  Victbires 
at  Paris.  It  waa  whilst  in  this  city,  in  1842, 
that  hia  brother  Alphonae,  a  free-thinker  ani- 
n;)ated  with  the  greatest  hatred  against  Chris- 
tianity, waa  miraciuously  converted  at  Rome,  and 
HUggeated  to  him  to  secure  a  home  for  the  education- 
of  Jewish  children.  Providence  aeemed  to  deaigii 
him  for  the  work,  and  answered  hia  prayer  for  lif^t 
by  aending  him  the  two  daughters  of  a  Jewish  lady 
whom  he  subsequently  converted.  During  the  aame 
Bummcr  he  went  to  Rome;  Gregory  XVI  decorated 
him  a  Knight  of  St.  Sylvester,  complimented  him 
for  his  "Li^of  St.  Bernard",  and  granted  hia  request 
to  labour  for  the  conversion  of  the  Jews.  Houses 
were  opened  under  the  patronage  of  "Our  Lady  of 
Sion  "  for  the  Christian  education  of  Jewish  boya  and 
girls,     Pius  IX  gave  Ratisbonne  many  raaxlts  of  hia 


from  the  Archbishop  of  Paris,  and  the  final 

blesaing  from  Leo  XIII.  Hia  chief  works  are: 
"Essai  Hur  I'Education  Morale"  (1828);  "Hiatoire 
de  Saint-Bernard"  (1841);  "M&litations  de  Saint- 
Bernard  sur  le  Prfaent  et  Futur"  (1853);  "Le 
Manuel  de  la  M^e  Chr6tienne"  (1860);  "Questiona 
Juives"  (1808);  "Nouvcau  Manuel  des  Mirea 
Chrfitiennea"  (1870);  "Le  Pap^"  (1870);   "Micttes 

'RvATiirf'-liniipq"     HRT'^^I-      "  Rj^nrtnflA     niiv    Oiipfltinnn 


Th.  Rati^Hume  (Pmris.  1904). 


Mai 


Queationa 


4  A.  Hebir. 


Raliibonnf,  0 


B&trunniu  (Rathraunus),  a  Benedictine  monk 

at  the  Abbey  of  Corbie,  in  the  present  Department 
of  Somme;  one  of  the  most  important  eeeloaiastical 
authors  of  the  ninth  century,  d.  after  868.  Scarcely 
anything  is  known  of  hia  Lfe.  Hia  best  known  work 
ia  a  treatiae  on  the  Holy  Eucharist,  entitled  "De 
corpore  ct  sanguine  Domini".  It  was  written  at  the 
instance  of  the  Emperor  Charles  the  Bald,  against  a 
work  of  the  same  title  by  Poschosiua  Rodbcrtua 
(q.  v.).  Tlie  basis  of  Rat romnus's  work  is  an  attempt 
to  solve  the  two  questions:    1.  Do  we  in  the  Holy 


RATZINGER 


660 


RAUSCHSB 


Eucharist  directly  see  the  Body  of  Christ  with  our 
bodily  eyes^  or  is  the  Body  of  Christ  hidden  from  our 
sensoiT  vision?  2.  Is  the  Eucharistic  Christ  identical 
with  tne  lustoric  Christ?  In  the  solution  of  the  first 
Question  Ratramnus  distinguishes  correctly  JDetween 
the  invisible  substance,  "invisibilis  substantia'', 
which,  he  says,  is  truly  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ, 
"vere  corpus  et  sanguis  Chnsti''  (xlix),  and  the 
external  appearances  which  after  the  consecration  by 
the  priest  remain  the  same  aa  they  were  before 
(ix-x).  The  second  question  he  answers  in  the  nega- 
tive, stating  that  the  Eucharistic  Christ  is  not  in 
-eveiything  identical  with  the  historic  Christ  "who 
was  bom  of  Mary,  suffered,  died,  was  buried,  ascended 
into  heaven  and  sitteth  at  the  right  hand  of  the 
Father"  (cap.  Ixxxix).  The  work  had  almost  been  for- 
gotten during  the  Middle  Ages.  Attention  was  asain 
called  to  it  by  Blessed  John  Fisher,  Bishop  of  Roches- 
ter, who  cited  it  in  defence  of  the  Catholic  doctrine 
on  the  Eucharist  in  the  preface  to  his  work:  "De 
veritate  corporis  et  sanguinis  Christi  in  Eucharistia 
adversus  Jon.  CEcolampadium"  (Cologne,  1527).  It 
was  first  printed  with  the  wrong  title:  '^Bertrami 
presbyteri  ad  Carolum  Magnum  Imperatorem" 
(Cologne,  1532) .  A  wrong  interpretation  of  the  words 
''figura"  and  " Veritas",  and  a  few  ambiguous  pas- 
sages have  given  rise  to  the  opinion  among  a  few 
Catholics  and  most  Protestants  that  Ratramnus 
taught  a  merely  symbolic  presence  of  Christ  in  the 
Eucharist.  Various  German,  French,  and  English 
translations  made  by  the  Sacramentarians  only 
served  to  corroborate  this  opinion.  For  this  reason 
it, was  placed  on  the  Index  of  Prohibited  fiooks  in 
1559,  but  was  removed  in  1900.  His  best  work,  from 
a  literary  as  well  as  a  dogmatic  standpoint,  is  "Contra 
Grs6corum  opposita  Romanam  ecclesiam  infaman- 
tium,  libri  auattuor".  It  was  written  in  868  at  the 
request  of  tne  bishops  of  the  province  of  Reims,  as 
a  refutation  of  Photius  who^  in  a  letter  to  the  King  of 
Bulgaria,  had  fiercely  assailed  the  "Filioque",  the 
papal  primacy,  and  various  customs  of  tne  Latin 
ChuToh.  His  earliest  work,  "De  eo  quod  Christus  ex 
virgine  natus  est  liber",  defends  the  (Jatholic  doctrine 
that  the  birth  of  Christ  occurred  in  a  natural  manner. 
In  his  work:  "De  prasdestinatione,  libri  duo",  he 
upholds  the  double  predestination  for  salvation  and 
damnation  but  not  for  sin.  A  treatise  in  defence  of 
the  expression  "trina  Deltas",  against  Hincmar,  has 
been  lost,  and  two  dissertations  "De  anima"  are  still 
unprinted.  His  works  are  in  "  P.  L.",  CXXL  1-346 
and  1 153-6,  his  extant  letters  in  "  Mon.  Germ.  Epist.", 
VI,  149  sq. 

NXOLB,  Rathramnua  u.  die  hi.  Buehariatie  (Viennm,  1903); 
Martin,  Ratramne,  une  conception  de  la  dne  au  IX*  ti^de  (Moa- 
tauban,  1891);  DRAisaEKE,  Rathramnus  u.  Photioa  in  Byzantin- 
tsehe  ZeiUchrift,  XVIII  (Leipzig,  1909).  396-421;  Traubb  in 
Mon.  Germ.  Poeta  Lot.,  Ill,  709  sq.;  Schnitzer,  Berengar  von 
Tourt  (Munich,  1890),  150-874;  Boileau,  Disaertatio  in  lihrum 
de  corpore  et  aanguine  Domini  in  P.  L.,  CXXI,  171-222;  HvUoire 
LiUiraire  de  la  France,  V,  332-51;  Mabillon,  Acta  3S.  O.  S.  B., 
■ffic.  IV,  para  II,  pnofatio,  50-63;  NIqub  in  KirefUiehee  Hand' 
Icxikon,  8.  V.  Rathramnua;  IEbnst,  Die  Lehrt  hi.  Paechatiue  Had' 
herlue  von  der  Eueharietie  (Freiburg,  1896),  99  sqq. 

Michael  Ott. 

a 

Ratsinger,  Georq,  political  economist  and  social 
reformer,  b.  at  Rickering.  near  De^endorf,  in  lower 
Bavaria,  3  April,  1844;  d.  at  Mumch,  3  December, 
1899.  Katzinger  was  a  pupil  at  the  gymnasium  at 
Passau  during  the  years  1855-<)3,  studied  theology 
at  Munich,  1863-67,  and  was  ordained  priest  in  1867. 
In  1868  he  received  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Theology 
at  Munich.  During  the  following  years  he  devoted 
himself  partly  to  pastoral,  and  partly  to  journalistic 
work.  In  1869  he  was  chaplain  at  Berchtesgaden; 
1870-71,  he  was  editor  of  the  journal  ''Frankisches 
Volksblatt"  at  Wurzburg;  1872-74,  chaplain  at 
Landshut,  then  editor,  until  1876,  of  the  "Volk»- 
freund",    at    Munich.     During   the   years'   1875-77 


he  was  a  member  of  the  Bavarian  Diet;  1877-78 
he  was  a  member  of  the  Imperial  Reichstag;  during 
this  period  he  belonged  to  the  Centre  Party.  With 
exception  of  a  pastorate  of  three  years  at  GUnxel- 
hafen,  1885-88,  he  lived  for  a  number  of  vears  at 
Munich,  where  he  devoted  himself  to  joumausm  and 
research.  From  1893  Ratzinger  was  once  more  a 
member  of  the  Bavarian  Diet,  where  he  was  now  a 
moderate  adherent  of  the  ^Bauembund"  (Peasant 
Union)  party,  his  views  of  social  politics  having 
caused  him  in  the  mean  time  to  sever  his  connexion 
with  the  Centre  Party.  In  1898  he  was  again  elected 
a  member  of  the  Reichstag.  As  a  literary  man 
Ratzinger  deserves  much  credit  for  his  scholarly 
work  in  political  economy  and  in  historical  subjects. 
His  chief  works,  distinguished  by  erudition,  richnesB 
of  thought,  and  animated  exposition,  are:  ^'Ge- 
schichte  der  Armenpflege"  (prize  essay,  Freiburg, 
1868,  2nd  revised  ed.,  1884);  "Die  Voltswirtschaft 
in  ihrer  sittlichen  Grundla^en.  Ethischsociale  Stu- 
dien  tiber  Cultur  und  Civihsation''  (Freiburg,  1881; 
2nd  completely  revised  ed.,  1895);  this  work  main- 
tmns  the  ethical  principles  of  Christianity  as  the  only 
sure  basis  for  political  economy  and  opposes  the 
materialistic  system  of  what  is  called  the  "  classical 
political  economy '^  of  Adam  Smith.  "Forschungen 
zur  bayerisch^  Geschichte''  (Kempten,  1898);  uiis 
contains  a  large  number  of  studies  on  early  Bavarian 
history  and  on  the  history  of  civilization,  oased  on  a 
series  of  unconnected  treatises  which  had  first  ap- 
peared in  the  '^Historisch-politische  Blatter".  Of 
nis  smaller  works  the  following  should  be  mentioned: 
"Das  Concil  und  die  deutsche  Wissenschaff 
(anonymously  issued  at  Mainz,  1872)  appeared  first 
in  the  "Katholik'',  1872,  I;  "Die  Erhaltung  des 
Bauemstandes"  (Freiburg,  1883). 

Frankbl  in  Biographiachee  Jahrbttch,  TV  (1900),  246  sq.; 
Idsm  in  AUg.  deut»ehe  Biographie,  LIII  (1907),  215-18. 

Friedrich  Lauchebt. 

Bauschery  Joseph  Othmar,  Prince-Archbishop 
of  Vienna,  b.  at  Vienna,  6  Oct.,  1797;  .d.  there  24 
Nov.,  1875.  He  received  his  earlier  education  at 
the  gymnasium  in  Vienna,  devoting  himself  chiefly 
to  the  study  of  jurisprudence;  he  also  gave  much 
time  to  the  study  of  poetry,  and  many  examples  of 
his  verses  have  survived.  Later  his  desire  to  enter 
Holy  Orders  was  opposed  by  his  parents,  but  he 
finally  overcame  their  objections. 

After  his  ordination  he  was  appointed  curate  in 
Htitteldorf,  and  later  professor  of  church  history 
and  canon  law  at  Salzburg,  where  Friedrich  Prince 
Schwarzenberg,  director  of  the  Oriental  Academy 
at  Vienna,  was  among  his  pupils.  In  January,  1849, 
Cardinal  Schwarzenberg  named  his  former  teacher 
Prince-Bishop  of  Sekkau,  "in  recognition  of  his  dis- 
tinguished qualities,  knowledge,  and  services''.  In 
this  capacity  Rauscher  performed  great  services  in  a 
shoi*t  time,  introduced  pastoral  conferences,  and  re- 
stored to  the  R^emptorists  their  mission  houses. 
He  also  fostered  religious  associations,  and  put  an 
end  to  the  intrigues  of  the  Rongeaner,  although  im- 
portant business  detained  him  for  the  most  part  in 
Vienna.  Scarcely  was  he  consecrated  than  he  hurried 
to  the  capital  to  attend  the  great  episcopal  assembly 
which  inaugurated  the  ecclesiastical  revival  in 
Austria;  between  29  April  and  20  June,  1849,  twenty- 
five  bishops  and  four  episcopal  proxies  held  sixty 
sessions.  The  last  in  order  of  consecration,  Rauscher 
took  the  most  prominent  part  in  the  transactions. 
He  laid  before  the  assembly  a  promemoria,  which 
served  as  the  programme  of  the  business,  and  drafted 
five  of  the  seven  memorials  addressed  to  the  Minis- 
try of  the  Interior.  He  also  drew  up  the  decrees  to 
serve  for  the  bishops  "as  the  common  rule  of  their 
aim  and  activity''.  The  beautiful  pastoral  of  the 
bishops  to  the  clergy  was  also  composed  by  him. 
Before  the  bishops  separated,  they  chose  a  committee 


RAQSCHSB  661  RAUSCHER 

of  five  members  for  the  settlement  of  the  memorials  the  pastoral  of  Bishop  Rudigier  of  Linz  was  seised, 

and  the  arrangement  of  all  current  affairs.    As  the  and  the  bishop  himself  subsequently  condemned  to 

reporter  of  this  committee,  he  acted  at  times  as  its  fourteen  days'  imprisonment  with  costs;    the  pas- 

Bole  agent.  toral  was  to  be  suppressed.  However,  Rauscher  im- 

Rauscher  was  the  father  of  the  Austrian  Concordat,  mediately  obtained  from  the  emperor  the  annulment 

On  14  Sept.,  1852,  a  cabinet  order  appeared,  naming  of  the  sentence  and  of  the  consequences  which  it 

him  impmalplenipotentiary  for  the  conclusion  of  a  entailed  with  respect  to  civil  rights  and  relations, 
concordat,    llie  negotiations  were  long  and  trouble-        Still  greatly  excited,  the  Austnan  bishops  proceeded 

some;    during  them  Rauscher  was  named  Prince-  to  the  Vatican  Council  immediately  after  the  raging 

Archbishop  of  Vienna,  and  made  his  solemn  entry  fight  about  the  Concordat.    Rauscher  regarded  the 

into  the  Cathedral  of  St.  Stephen  on  15  Aug.,  1853.  assembly  with  the  greatest  hopes  and  issued  two 

To  promote  the  Concordat  he  found  it  necessary  to  pastorals  dealing  with  the  council  on  15  Nov.,  1869. 

visit  Rome,  where  he  was  engaged  in  the  most  dif-  Pius  IX  appointed  him  to  the  important  commission 

ficult  negotiations  for  seven  months.    He  was  thus  fro  recipiendia,  which-  had  to  investigate  all  motions 

able  to  take  part  in  the  solemnities  in  connexion  with  submitted.    At  the  first  real  session  of  the  council 

the  Definition  of  the  Immaculate  Conception.  Finally,  (the  General  Congregation  of  28  Dec.)  he  delivered 

on  18  Aug.,  1855,  the  Concordat  was  signed  and  on  the  first  address,  and  twice  spoke  against  the  op- 

5  Nov.  it  was  published  as  a  law  "applicable  throu^-  portuneness  of  a  universal  catechism;  the  needs  and* 

out  the  empire".    For  the  homof^eneous  introduc-  the  d^rees  of  culture  of  the  individual  peoples  were 

tion  of  the  concordat  sixtynsix  bishops  assembled  too  different.    As  to  the  question  which  finally  most 

in  Vienna  in  1856.     Rauscher  was  raised  to  the  strongly  stirred  the  minds  of  those  in  and  outside  the 

cardinalate  in  1855.    By  1  Jan.,  1857,  ecclesiastical  council,  that  of  the  infallibility  of  the  pope  teaching 

courts,  for  which  Rauscner  composed  the  celebrated  ex  cathedraf  Rauscher  was  the  leader  of  the  bishops 

instructions  (''Instructio  pro  indiciisecclesiasticis"),  who  combatted  the  expediencv  of  the  definition, 

were  established  in  tall    the  episcopal  sees.     Pro-  His  work,  ''Observationes  qusedam  de  infallibilitatis 

vindal  synods  prescribed  the  eroecisLl  application  of  ecclesis  subjecto",  appeared  at  Naples,  and  was  re- 

the  Concordat  to  the  individual  dioceses.    The  de-  printed  at  Vienna;   the  author  later  explained  that 

crees  of  the  Viennese  Council  of  1858y<^skilfully  direct-  it  "was  especially  intended  to  emphasize  the  fact  that 

ed  by  Rauscher  and  ratified  by  Rome,  still  serve  as  the  proposed  decision  would  afford  parties  hostile 

an  important  form  of  clerical  life  and  ecclesiastical  to  the  Church  those  subterfuges  of  which  they  were 

activity.    The  sciences,  both  religious  and  general,  in  need''.    In  the  general  debate  Rauscher,  who  was 

as  well  as  the  religious  orders  and  associations  and  art,  ill,  had  his  speech  read  by  Bishop  Hef  ele :  it  lasted 

flourished   during   the   concordat   era.     Rauscher's  over  an  hour^   and  ends  characteristicaUy:    "But 

magnanimity  is  revealed  by  his  foundation  of  the  always  shall  I  adore  the  ways  of  the  Lord''.    He 

Austrian  house  for  pilgrims  at  Jerusalem,  thus  p^iving  repeatedly  took  part  in  the  special  debates  (8,  9,  and 

the  citizens  of  the  jSapsburg  Empire  a  home  m  the  15  June),  and  at  the  ballot  in  the  General  Congrega- 

Holy  Land.  tion  of  13  July  he  voted  non  placet.    However,  he 

Up  to  this  period  Rauscher's  zeal  had  been  con-  did  not  sign  the  memorial  of  the  fifty-five  bishops 

structive;    after  the  unfortunate  Austrian  wars  of  of  the  minority  to  Pius  IX  on  17  July,  believing  he  had 

185^-66,  he  found  himself  compelled  to  adopt  the  done  all  that  he  should.   On  17  July  he  took  leave  of 

defensive,  since  the  blame  for  the  defeats  was  most  the  pope,  and  later,  as  Archbishop  of  Vienna,  pro- 

uniustifiably  referred  to  the  Concordat.    The  arch-  mulgated  the  doctrinal  decrees  of  the  Vatican  Coun- 

bishops  and  prince-bishops  are  members  of  the  House  cil.    None  of  the  violations  of  justice  and  abuses  of 

of  Peers;  thus,  when  the  war  on  the  Concordat  opened  power,  which  resulted  in  the  complete  suppression 

in  the  Reichstag  in  1861  and  its  revision  was  de-  of  the  Papal  States  on  20  September,  1870,  passed 

mandecL  Rauscher  with  the  other  episcopal  members  withoulT  Rauscher  raising  a  protesting  voice.    In 

of  the  Upper  House  deliberated  concerning -an  address  May,  1874,  the  laws  concerning  the  external  legal 

to  the  emperor.    When  the  House  of  Delegates  de-  position  of  the  Catholic  Church,  the  contributions 

manded  the  removal  of  the  religious  orders  from  the  to  the  religious  funds,  and  the  legfd  recognition  of 

penitentiaries,  hospitals,  and  other  state  institutions,  religious  societies   were   issued    (see   Austbo-Hun- 

he  declared  in  the  House  of  Peers:   "Since  1859  no  gabian  Monarchy).    With  these  laws  the  religious 

effort  of  artificial  agitation  has  been  spared  to  open  legislation  of  Austria  has  found  a  temporary  con- 

a  campaign  against  defenceless  women,  who  ask  of  elusion. 

this  eartmy  hfe  only  necessities,  and  serve  their  The  term  "providential  personality",  so  often 
fellow-creatures  in  privations  and  discomforts.  This  misused,  may  be  with  complete  justice  applied  to 
unworthy  agitation  bears  the  stamp  of  hatred  towards  Cardinal  Rauscher;  he  savea  the  monarchy  the  suf- 
Christianity,  but  it  has  likewise  in  it  something  ferings  of  a  KuUurkampf.  He  was  a  true  patriot, 
oowardlv  and  ignoble,  of  which  even  one  estranged  Austria's  greatness,  power,  and  glory  were  the 
from  Christianity  should  be  ashamed."  In  conse-  guiding  stars  of  his  political  activity.  Daily  he 
quence  of  the  events  of  1866,  the  storm  against  the  prayed:  ''Lord,  let  me  not  die  before  I  have  fulfilled 
Concordat  and  the  Church  broke  out  violently,  and  the  task  with  which  Thou  hast  entrusted  me".  This 
the  Press  added  to  its  power.  When  the  drafts  of  moment  was  now  come.  On  the  eve  of  the  Feast  of 
the  new  laws  concerning  marriage,  the  schools,  and  St.  Catherine  of  Alexandria,  patroness  of  philosoph- 
the  interconfessional  relations,  in  respect  to  which  ical  studies,  he  had  always  received  the  Sacrament 
points  there  were  many  gaps  in  the  Concordat,  came  of  Penance;  on  the  eve  of  this  feast  in  1875  he  also 
up  for  discussion  in  the  House  of  Peers,  Rauscher  im-  died.  His  body  rests  in  Our  Lady's  Choir  of  the 
mediately  arose  and  delivered  his  celebrated  speech  Stephanskirche  before  the  steps  of  the  altar.  At  the 
on  the  Concordat,  urging  harmony  between  the  wall  beneath  the  Rauscher  window  is  his  monument, 
spiritual  and  secular  powers.  When  the  decrees  had  The  statue  of  the  cardinal,  representing  him  with 
been  sanctioned,  ana  the  new  laws  had  been  vig-  his  hands  crossed  over  the  breast  and  clothed  in 
orously  condemned  by  the  pope,  there  arose  great  episcopal  vestments^  portrays  his  principal  character- 
dissatisfaction  and  turmoil.  To  demonstrate  the  istic,  charity.  Besides  the  monument  are  the  pic- 
illogical  nature  of  this  agitation  Rauscher  demanded :  tures  of  his  patron  saints,  Joseph  and  Othmar,  wnile 
"Is  it  not  permissible  for  a  pope  to  pronounce  a  law  all  is  crowned  by  a  representation  of  the  Risen 
unjust?    Every  newspaper  arrogates  to  itself  the  Redeemer. 

rigjlt  of  stigmatizing  the  mjuAice  of  all  laws    which         iuu««.r.  Hirtenbru/e,  Predigten,  Anreden  (Vienna.  1858); 

do  not  agree  with  its  partisan  views  '.     A  httle  later  Iobm,  Hirtenbrie/e,  Heden,  Zuschri/ten,  new  ed..  I-II  (Viennm. 


RAVALU 


662 


RAVENNA 


1875).  Ill  (1889):  WoLWORUBER,  Cardinal  Rauacher.  Mil  dent 
PortrOU  Rautekera  u.  einem  FacnmiU  aeiner  Handaehrift  (Frei- 
burg, 1888). 

Ck^LESTIN  WOLFSQRUBER. 

Ravalli,  Antonio,  missionary,  b.  in  Italy,  1811; 
d.  at  St.  Mary's,  Montana,  U.  S.  A.,  2  Oct.,  1884.  He 
entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  about  1833.  With  Fathers 
Vercruysse,  Accolti,  and  Nobili,  Brother  Huybrechts, 
and  six  sisters  of  the  Congregation  of  Notre  Dame  de 
Namur,  he  responded  to  Father  de  Smet's  appeal  for 
the  American  mission  in  1843,  arriving  at  Fort  Van- 
couver 5  Aug.,  1844,  after  a  voyage  of  eight  months. 
Having  made  a  short  stay  at  the  Mission  of  St.  Paul 
on  the  Willamet  (Champoeg,  Oregon),  where  he  made 
a  study  of  the  English  language,  ana  gave  attention 
to  the  sick  (being  skilled  in  meoficine  in  addition  to  his 
.many  other  accomplishments),  he  joined  Father 
Adrian  Hoecken  in  the  spring  of  1845  at  the  mission 
of  St.  Ignatius,  among  the  Kalispel  (Pend  d'OreiUe), 
on  the  upper  Columbia,  Washington.  After  some  time 
he  was  transferred  to  the  Flathead  Mission  of  St. 
Mary's  on  Bitter  Root  River,  western  Montana,  where 
he  remained  until  the  mission  was  temporarily  aban- 
doned on  account  of  the  hostile  Blackfeet  in  1850, 
when,  in  1844,  he  assumed  charge  of  the  Sacred  Heart 
Mission  established  bv  Father  Nicholas  Point  among 
the  Coeur  d'Alenes  (Skitswish)  of  Northern  Idaho. 
Here  he  designed  and  supervised  the  building  of  a 
handsome  church  which,  with  its  altar  and  beautiful 
statues,  carved  by  himself,  has  been  described  by  a 
traveller  as  "a  credit  to  any  civilized  country". 
Governor  Stevens,  who  saw  it  in  1855,  says  in  his 
official  report:  "The  church  was  desired  by  the 
superior  of  the  mission.  Father  Ravalli,  a  man  of 
skill  as  an  architect  ana,  undoubtedly,  judging  from 
his  well-thumbed  books,  of  various  accomplisiiments". 
In  the  genersd  outbreak  led  by  the  Yakima  in  1856-67 
his  influence  was  largely  instrumental  in  holding  the 
northern  tribes  quiet. 

In  1866  Father  Congiato,  superior  of  the  Rocky 
Mountain  missions,  establidbed  the  old  Mission  of 
St.  Mary's  on  the  Bitter  Root,  among  the  Flatheads, 
and  among  those  appointed  to  the  station  was  Father 
Ravalli,  who  had  been  with  it  at^  its  abandonment 
sixteen  years  before.  Here  he  remained  until  his 
death. 

His  finest  eulogy  comes  from  a  Protestant  historian: 
"  Fifty  years  a  Jesuit  and  forty  years  a  missionary,  one 
of  the  noblest  men  that  ever  laboured  in  the  ranks  of 
the  Church  in  Montana,  his  fame  stands  very  high 
in  Montana,  where  a  later  generation  knows  more  of 
him  than  even  of  Father  de  Smet"  (Chittenden). 
(See  also  Flathead  Indians;  Kalispel  Indians; 
Missions,  Cathouc  Indian,  of  the  United  States.) 

CHrTTENDSN  AND  RiCHARDSON,  Life,  LetUta  and  Travela  of  Fr, 
Pierre  Jean  de  Smet  (4  vols..  New  York,  1905);  ShSa,  Catholic 
Miaaiona  (New  York,  1854) ;  Stevens  Report  in  Rejtt.  of  the 
Commiaaioner  on  Indian  Affaire  for  1866  (Waahington,  1856) ; 
also  article  Flathead  in  Clark,  Indian  Sign  Lanffuage  (Phila- 
delphia, 1885).  James  Mooney. 

Ravenna,  Archdiocese  op  (Ravennatensis). — 
The  citv  is  the  capital  of  a  province  in  Romagna,  cen- 
tral Italy,  on  the  left  of  the  Kivers  Montone  and  Ronco, 
the  confluence  of  which  is  at  Ravenna,  not  far  from 
the  mouths  of  the  Po.  The  Corsini  Canal,  constructed 
by  Clement  XII  in  1736,  connects  the  city  and  the 
wet  dock  with  Porto  Corsini,  on  the  Adriatic  Sea. 
which  is  now  five  miles  away.  Ravenna  is  situated 
on  a  vast  alluvial  plain,  partly  marshy.  A  pine  grove 
that  begins  at  a  distance  of  two  miles  from  the  city, 
and  extends  as  far  as  Cervia,  was  already  famous  m 
antiquity,  when  it  extended  to  the  north  as  far  as 
Aquueia.  This  grove  was  greatly  damaged  by  the 
winter  of  1879-80,  and  also  by  a  fire  in  1905.  The 
vast  plains  are  cultivated  by  the  intensive  system; 
and  tne  silk  industry  also  flourishes  there. 

In  ancient  times,  and  in  the  early  Middle  Ages, 


Ravenna  was  on  the  coast,  the  ^a  forming  at  this 
place  a  lagoon  that  is  shown  on  the  maps  of  the  six- 
teenth century;  the  city  itself  was  traversed  in  all 
directions  and  surrounded  by  natural  streams  and 
artificial  canals,  the  most  important  of  w^hich  was  the 
Augusta;  so  that  Ravenna  resembled  Venice.  Until 
the  time  of  the  first  emperors,  the  houses  were  all  built 
of  wood,  or  on  pile  foundations.  Its  geographical 
position  and  the  prehistoric  objects  that  have  been 
found  at  the  city  show  Ravenna  to  be  of  ancient  origin. 
It  increased  very  much  when  the  Umbrians  and  the 
Etruscans  took  refuge  there  at  the  invasion  of  the 
Gauls,  against  whom  it  allied  itself  with  Rome,  at  a 
date  that  cannot  be  established  with  precision,  retain- 
ing its  own  city  regulations.  After  the  Social  War,  it 
obtained  Roman  citizenship  (88  b.  c.) ;  and  having  sided 
with  Marius,  Sulla  deprived  it  of  its  autonomy,  and 
annexed  it  to  the  provmce  of  Cisalpine  Gaul.  Before 
crossing  the  Rubicon,  Csesar  stopped  there,  conceal- 
ing his  designs  under  the  apparent  concern  that  he 
entertained  tor  the  creation  of  a  school  of  gladiators. 
Augustus  recognized  the  military  importance  of  the 
city,  protected,  as  it  was.  on  the  land  side  by  water, 
and  he  made  it  the  second  station  of  the  imperial  fleet, 
the  first  being  Misenum,  near  Pozzuoli. 

Around  the  station  of  the  fleet  (dassis)  there  soon 
sprang  up  a  citv  which  took  that  name,  and  which  con- 
sisted of  the  dockyards  and  of  the  houses  of  employees 
connected  with  that  place.  Classis  was  surroimded 
by  walls  of  its  own;  and  thereafter,  the  Via  Ccesarea. 
which  connected  it  with  Ravenna,  became  flankra 
with  houses  on  either  side,  giving  rise  to  the  suburb  of 
Csesarea.  Tiberius  built  a  common  wall  around 
Ravenna  and  Classis.  The  chief  public  building 
were  outside  the  Porta  Aurea,  among  them  the  amphi- 
theatre, the  temple  of  Apollo,  a  circus,  baths,  and  a 
manufactory  of  arms.  Scarcely  any  of  the  buildings 
of  that  age  are  preserved,  and  the  aqueduct  of  Trajan 
is  completely  covered  by  alluvial  deposits;  the  Porta 
Aurea  was  torn  down  in  the  sixteenth  century;  and 
all  that  remains  of  the  buildings  of  Classis  are  the 
columns  of  a  few  temples,  scattered  about  in  different 
churches  of  the  city,  while  some  of  them  were  trans- 
ported to  Venice;  some  sculptures  are  preserved  in 
the  museum  (Augustus  and  his  family),  or  serve  to 
adorn  a  few  churches  (San  Giovanni  in  Fonte,  San 
Vitale) ;  there  is  a  mosaic  pavemei^t  which  is  also  of 
that  period.  Funereal  monuments  abound,  especially 
of  naval  constructors;  the  most  interesting  one  of 
them,  in  the  collection  of  the  Museum,  is  that  of  the 
Longidiena  family.  Thusnelda,  widow  of  Arminius. 
and  Marbod,  King  of  the  Marcomanni,  were  confined 
at  Ravenna.  In  404  this  cit>r  became  the  imperial 
residence,  Honorius  preferring  it  to  MUan,  whicn  was 
more  exposed  to  the  incursions  of  the  barbarians  and 
of  Alaric,  who  was  serving  in  the  pay  of  the  empire. 
At  this  time  Ravenna  was  adorned  with  its  most 
famous  monuments,  secular  and  sacred,  the  latter  of 
which  have  been  in  great  part  preserved.  Already 
about  380  Bishop  Ursus  had  dedicated  a  splendid 
basilica  to  the  Resurrection  of  Our  Lord  (called 
Anasiasis  in  the  Byzantine  period);  on  its  site  the 
present  cathedral  stands,  entirely  remodelled  in  the 
eighteenth  century,  the  only  remains  of  the  ancient 
basilica  being  a  few  sculptures  and  mosaics,  and  two 
sarcophagi,  one  of  which  is  said  to  be  that  of  St. 
Bartianus;  there  remain  only  a  few  fragments  of  the 
ambo  of  the  bishop  Angellus  (sixteenth  centuiy). 

No  vestige  remains  of  the  palaces  of  Honorius,  of 
Ad  Laurentum,  and  of  Galla  Placidia  (425-50).  Of 
the  churches  that  were  erected  under  Honorius,  there 
remains  Santa  Agata,  a  basilica  of  -three  naves,  which 
in  1893  was  restored  to  its  ancient  form;  it  possesses 
a  notable  ambo,  and  ancient  columns.  San  Pietro 
in  Classis  was  torn  down  in  the  sixteenth  century,  to 
make  room  for  fortifications.  Under  Galla  Placidia 
there  was  built  tJie  Church  of  San  Giovanni  Evangel- 


RAVENNA 


663 


RAVENNA 


ista,  which  in  the  iransformationB  that  it  underwent 
in  the  fourteenth  century  and  in  1747  lost  all  the 
mosaics  with  which  it  was  adorned,  preserving  only 
its  oohimns  and  its  <Urium;  the  Gothic  portico  dates 
from  1316.  Of  the  Church  of  Santa  Croce  only  one 
half  remains.  In  the  Church  of  San  Giovapni  Battista 
only  the  columns  are  ancient.  Most  important  is  the 
chapel  of  the  archiepiscopal  palace  of  San  Pietro  Criso- 
logo,  square  in  shape^  and  possessing  mosaics,  of  which 
the  beardless  Christ  m  the  centre  is  notable.  The  mau- 
soleum of  Galla  Placidia,  which  is  the  Church  dei  Santi 
Nazario  e  Celso  (440),  contains  the  best  mosaics  of 
Ravenna.  It  is  built  in  the  shape  of  a  Latin  cross, 
and  has  a  cupola  that  is  entirely  in  mosaics,  represent- 
ing eight  Apostles  and  S3rmbolical  figures  of  doves 
dnnking  from  a  vessel;  the  other  four  apostles  are 
represented  on  the  vaults  of  the  transverse  arm;  over 
the  door  is  a  representation  of  Christ  as  the  Good 
Shepherd,  young,  beardless^  with  flowing  hair,  and 
surrounded  bv  sheep;  opposite,  there  is  a  subject  that 
is  interpreted  as  representing  St.  Lawrence.  There 
are  three  sarcophagi,  but  it  is  not  known  whose  they 
were;  the  largest  is  said  to  have  been  that  of  Galla 
Placidia,  and  that  her  body  was  deposited  there  in  a 
sitting  position,  clothed  i^ith  the  imperial  mantle; 
in  1577,  however,  the  contents  of  the  sarcophagus 
were  accidentally  burned. 

Of  the  same  period  is  San  Giovanni  in  Fonte,  which 
was  the  baptistery  of 'the  Catholics,  dedicated  b^ 
Archbishop  Neon  (449-52).  It  is  believed  that  this 
church  was  built  over  the  caledarium  of  a  bath  on  the 
same  site.  It  is  of  octagonal  shape,  with  the  interior 
walls  and  vault  adorned  with  mosaics.  In  the  centre 
of  the  cupola  is  the  baptism  of  Christ,  on  a  golden 
fiSld,  with  a  personification  of  the  River  Jordan; 
aroimd  are  grouped  the  twelve  Apostles  on  a  blue  field; 
and  below  are  other  figures,  possibly  of  the  prophets; 
there  are  also  arabesques,  etc.  The  marbles  of  the 
socle  seem  to  have  been  taken  from  secular  buildings. 
The  art  of  this  period  has  the  merits  of  ancient  a^ 
applied  to  Christian  subjects,  although  its  technic 
already  begins  to  show  decadence;  for  the  rest  it  is 
still  Roman,  showing  no  traces  of  Oriental  influence. 
The  same  is  true  of  the  artistic  period  inaugurated  by 
Theodoric,  King  of  the  Goths.  After  the  battle  of 
Verona,  Odoacer  withdrew  to  Ravenna,  where  he 
withstood  a  sie^e  of  three  years  by  Theodoric.  The 
taking  of  Rimini,  however,  deprived  Ravenna  of 
supplies,  and  thereby  compelled  the  latter  city  to 
capitulate.  Archbishop  Joannes  served  as  the  peace 
mediator  (493).  Theodoric  employed  Roman  archi- 
tects for  the  building  of  profane  as  well  as  sacred 
structures.  It  has  been  suggested  that  in  his  build- 
ing a  Germanic  influence  may  be  perceived:  but 
this  is  without  foundation,  for  even  in  the  Gothic 
period  Ravenna  preserved  its  western  Roman  char- 
acter. Nothing  remains  of  the  palace  that  Theodoric 
built  near  San  Apollinare  Nuovo;  what  is  called 
Palazzo  di  Teodorico  to-day  was  an  annex  of  the 
former,  probably  a  barrack,  and  received  its  present 
form  in  the  eighth  century.  Excavations  are  being 
made  there  at  the  present  time. 

The  palace  itself  was  sacked  by  the  Byzantines  in 
539,  and  thereafter  it  became  the  seat  of  the  exarchs, 
and  of  the  King  of  the  Lombards.  Charles  the  Great 
took  away  the  columns  of  this  palace  to  embellish 
with  them  his  own  palace  at  Aachen.  The  last  tower 
that  remained  of  the  palace  of  Theodoric  was  de- 
stroyed in  1295.  Theodoric  also  built  the  Basilica 
Herculis,  baths,  and  several  churches  for  the  Arians, 
e.  g.  San  Martino,  which  is  now  called  San  Apollinare 
Nuovo,  because  the  relics  of  San  Apollinaris  were 
transferred  to  that  church  in  the  ninth  century.  This 
church  was  near  the  palace  of  Theodoric,  and  was  the 
cathedral  of  the  Arians.  Its  apse  and  atrium  under- 
went modernization  at  various  times,  but  the  mosaics 
Qf  the  lateral  walls,  twenty-four  columns,  and  an  ambo 


are  preserved.  The  mosaics  of  the  right  side  represent 
a  scheme  of  twenty-six  saints  going  to  receive  their 
crowns,  towards  a  group  representing  Christ,  beard- 
less, enthroned  amid  four  angels;  which  latter  group 
is  the  best.  This  picture  contains  a  schematic  repre- 
sentation of  the  palace  of  Theodoric.  After  the  Gothic 
government  had  passed  away,  this  composition  was 
somewhat  transformed,  as  is  shown  by  some  hands 
that  remain  near  a  column.  On  the  left  are  the  vir- 
gins moving  from  the  city  of  Classis  towards  the 
group  of  the  Madonna  with  the  Bambino  on  her  lap, 
and  surrounded  by  four  angels;  on  the  two  sides  are 
the  lines  of  windows,  between  which  are  mosaics 
representing  sixteen  saints  (Doctors  of  the  Church?) 
that  have  much  more  individuality  than  the  figures 
already  mentioned.  On  the  third  story  are  repre- 
sented twenty-six  seenes  of  the  life  and  passion  of 
Christ,  in  which  latter,  however,  the  crucifixion  is 
lacking;  between  each  two  scenes  there  is  the  image 
of  a  saint.  In  another  part  of  the  church  there  is  a 
rough  mosaic  containing  the  portrait  of  the  Emperor 
Justinian. 

The  Church  of  Santo  Spirito  (formerly  San  Teo- 
doro)  was  the  private  church  of  the  Arian  bishops; 
near  it  is  Santa  Maria  Cosmedin,  the  baptistery  of 
the  Arians,  the  mosaics  of  which  correspond  to  those 
of  San  Giovanni  in  Fonte;  this  baptistery  also  is  an 
octagonal  structure  with  a  cupola.  The  Church  of 
Sant  Andrea,  which  was  built  oy  Theodoric,  was  de- 
stroyed by  the  Venetians  in  1447.  After  the  Byzan- 
tine conquest  the  Arian  churches  were  consecrated 
by  Archbishop  Agnellus  for  Catholic  worship.  The 
mausoleum  of  Theodoric,  a  decagonal  structure,  cov- 
ered with  a  great  monolith  thirty-six  feet  in  diameter, 
is  the  monument  that  reveals  Roman  art  in  its  purest 
form,  at  once  austere  and  graceful.  In  the  Middle 
Ages  the  sarcophagus  that  was  used  as  a  church 
(Santa  Maria  della  Rotonda)  was  removed,  and  there 
appeared  in  its  place  a  Benedictine  monastery.  To 
Theodoric's  patronage  of  the  arts  was  due  also  the 
Churches  of  San  Vitale,  built  by  Archbishop  Ecclesius 
(526-34),  and  San  Apollinare  in  Classe,  built  by 
Archbishop  Ursicinus  (535-39) ;  San  Vitale,  which  is 
a  work  of  the  architect  Julianus  Argentarius,  is  an 
octagonal  structure  of  nearly  114  feet  in  diameter, 
with  an  apse  for  the  altar  and  presbytery.  In  1898 
it  was  restored  to  its  original  shape,  there  being  pre- 
served however  only  the  frescoes  of  the  cupola,  which 
are  by  Barozzi  and  others;  between  the  eight  columns 
that  surround  the  central  space  there  open  eight 
niches  of  two  stories,  the  upper  one  of  which  was  a 
tribune  for  women  (matronceum).  The  columns,  which 
are  placed  by  pairs  between  the  single  pilasters,  above 
and  below,  are  embellished  with  exquisitely  beautiful 
capitals.  The  mosaics  of  the  apse  and  the  lateral 
walls  are  better  than  those  of  the  epoch  of  Theodoric, 
although  not  equal  to  those  of  the  period  of  the  em- 
pire. In  the  apse  is  represented  a  juvenile  Christ, 
seated  upon  the  orb,  and  surrounded  by  two  angels, 
St.  Vi talis,  and  the  Archbishop  Ecclesius;  below  to  the 
right  is  represented  the  Empress  Theodora  with  her 
suite,  and  to  the  left  Justinian  and  his  suite,  there 
being  in  the  latter  the  Archbishop  Maximianus,  in 
whose  time  (546-56)  the  mosaics  were  executed. 

Other  representations  are  of  Abr^^am  extending 
hospitality  to  the  three  angels:  the  sacrifice  of  Isaac; 
the  sacrifice  of  Abel;  the  Eucnaristic  Sacrifice  (table 
with  bread  and  wine),  and  the  sacrifice  of  Melchisedec 
(these  have  a  dogmatic  value) ;  there  are  also  repre- 
sentations of  Mo8e8^  of  the  prophets,  of  the  Apostles, 
and  of  other  saints.  Among  the  ancient  sarcophagi, 
a  notable  one  is  that  of  the  Exarch  Isaac  (641),  in  the 
Sancta  Sanctorum,  which  must  be  a  work  of  the  fifth 
century,  with  representations  of  Daniel,  of  the  adora- 
tion of  the  Magi,  and  of  the  resurrection  of  Lazarus. 
San  Vitale  was  the  model  of  the  palatine  chapel  of 
Charles  the  Great  of  Aachen.     San  Apollinare  in 


BATXNNA  6f 

OUoae  IB  a  work  of  the  some  Julioous.  This  church, 
which  is  a  baailica  of  three  n&vee.  divided  by  two  lines 
of  marble  columns,  has  preserveo  its  ancient  atructure 
better.  The  marble  incrustations  of  the  walls  were 
removed  in  1449  by  Sigismondo  Malateata.  In  the 
lateral  naves  there  are  the  sarcopha^  of  eight  arch- 
bishops, nearly  all  of  them  with  metnc&l  inscriptiocs. 
The  mosaics  of  the  apse  have  been  restored;  they 
repreeent,  around  a  crom  on  a  blue  background,  the 
Transfiguration,  the  preaching  of  St.  ApoTlinaris,  the 
sacrifice  of  Ab«l;  Abraham,  Melchisedec,  the  Em- 
perors Conatantine  IV,  Heracleua,  and  Tiberius  grant- 
ing privileges  to  the  Archbishop  Reparatus  (671-77), 
and  four  are  the  portraits  of  bishops.    Pope  Leo  III 


4  BAVEHNA 

ance  of  the  pope,  which  happened  agBin  in  705  in 
the  case  of  Pope  John  VI.  When,  bv  order  of  Leo 
the  Isaurian  tlie  Exarch  Paulus  wished  to  destroy' 
the  sacred  images  about  the  year  727,  Ravenna  re- 
volted, and  in  the  fighting  that  followed  the  Exarch 
himself  was  killed.  AgneUo  tells  of  a  battle  between 
the  Ravennese  and  the  Greeks  at  a  time  that  is 
not  well  defined. 

In  752  Aiatulf.  King  of  the  Lombards,  look 
Ravenna;  then,  however,  Pope  Stephen  II  (111) 
obtained  the  intervention  of  Pepin,  ana  the  exarchate 
was  united  to  the  dominions  of  the  Holy  See.  There- 
after Ravenna  and  the  exarchate  were  governed  ia 
the  name  of  the  pope  by  the  archbishop,  aadsted  by 


V-ConWry  Mouie 


restored  the  church,  to  which  later  there  was  annexed 
a  Camaldoleae  monastery. 

Ravenna  is  to-day  substantially  as  it  was  at  the 
beginning  of  the  Byzantine  period:  subsequent  ages 
have  done  nothing  except  to  paas  by,  transformii^,  not 
always  happily,  the  work  of  the  fifth  and  sixth  cen- 
turies. In  539  the  city  fell  into  the  hands  of  Delisa- 
riuB,  who,  pretending  to  accept  the  crown  of  Italy 
ofiered  to  him  by  Vitigea,  was  allowed  to  ent«r  the 
town;  but  when  the  Gotha  attempted  to  retake  it 
(548-550),  it  was  held  a^iunat  thetn.  At  the  close 
of  the  war,  Ravenna  became  the  seat  of  the  Byzan- 
tine governor,  and  accordingly  was  bett«r  able  than 
Rome  to  preserve  its  outward  splendour.  The 
Lombards  attempt«d  several  times  to  take  possesuon 
of  the  city;  in  597  Faroald.  Duke  of  Spoleto,  suc- 
ceeded in  taking  Classe,  but  was  driven  from  it  two 
years  !al*r  by  the  German  Droctulf;  the  same  oc- 
curred to  Anulfo  in  592,  and  in  716  to  Faroald  II, 
the  latter  of  whom  was  compelled  to  restore  Claaae 
by  Liutprand,  who  in  turn  took  possession  of  it 
726.  Liutprand  succeeded  in  taking  Raveima  it- 
self in  731,  not,  however,  without  the  aaaistanco  of  a 
party  in  the  town  that  was  averse  to  Byiantine 
dommation.  This  aversion  had  already  mani- 
fested itself  in  692,  when  Conatana  II  wished  to  take 
Pope  Sergiua  (o  Constantinople;  the  miiilJas  of 
Ravenna  and  the  Pentapotis  hastened  to  the  aswst- 


□f  Gslls  PlMjddik,  lUveou 


three  tribunes  who  were  elected  by  the  people.  Soon, 
however,  the  archbishopH  came  to  consider  them- 
selves  feudatories  of  the  empire;  and  in  fact  in  the 
confirmation  of  thrar  temporal  power  by  Henry  li 
and  BarbaroBsa  no  mention  is  made  of  the  sov- 
ereignty of  the  pope.  The  archbishops  of  Ravenna 
were  the  most  faithful  supporters  of  the  rights  and 
policy  of  the  emperors  in  Italy,  while  the  emperors 
on  different  occasions  held  their  courts  at  Ravenna. 
In  1198,  however,  that  city — where  the  comnlunal 
institutions  had  been  greatly  developed — placed  it- 
self at  the  head  of  the  league  of  the  cities  of  Romagna 
and  of  the  Marches  against  the  imperial  power; 
and  consequently  Innocent  III  was  able  easily  to 
enforce  the  rights  of  the  Holy  See  over  Ravejina, 
which  were  ratified  by  Otto  IV  and  Frederick  II 
at  periods  when  those  princes  needed  the  good  will 
of  the  pope.  In  the  war  of  1218  the  Guelph  Pictro 
Traversari,  having  vanquished  the  faction  of  the 
Ubertini  and  Mainardi,  declared  himself  Lord  of 
Ravenna,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  sun  Paolo  in 
1226.  Paolo  fought  against  Frederick  II,  who  in 
1240  took  the  office  of  podeslA  from  Paolo's  son,  also 
named  Paolo.  In  1248,  however,  the  pope  took 
Ravenna,  and  the  Travereari  returned  to  power; 
but  in  1275  they  were  driven  from  the  city  by  Guiilo 
Novello  da  Polenta,  who  was  made  perpetual  captain. 
His  eon  Lamberto  (1297-1316)  abolished  the  demo- 


EAVENNA  6( 

cratic  govenunent,  and  having  died  without  children 
was  succeeded  by  lua  cousid  Ostasio  1  and  Guido 
Novello,  of  whom  the  latter  was  a  lover  of  lettera  and 
of  the  arts;  he  received  Dante  with  bonourB,  and 
called  to  Ravenna  Giotto,  who  painted  the  vault  of 
San  Giovanni  Evangelista  with  frescos,  while  other 
artistd  who  studied  under  him  adorned  with  frescos 
Santa  Maria  in  porta  fuori  (supposed  portraits  of 
Guido  da  Polenta,  Dante,  Chiara,  and  Francesco 
da  Polenta),  and  Santa  Cluara,  founded  by  Chiara  da 
Polenta  in  the  thirteenth  century.  Dante  died  at 
Ravenna  (1321)  and  was  buried  in  the  vestibule  of 
the  Church  of  San  Francesco.  His  present  mauso- 
leum was  erected  in  1482  by  Bernardo  Bembo. 
Ostasio,  who  had  assassinated  nis  own  brother,  the 
Archbishop  Rinaldo,  soon  thereafter  drove  from 
Ravenna  Guido,  who  attempted  in  vain  to  return. 
Ostasio  received  from  Louis  the  Brave  and  from 
Pope  Benedict  XII  the  title  of  vicar.  Not  less  cruel 
than  Ostasio  was  his  son  Bernardino  (1345-59), 
agiunst  whom  his  own  brothers  conspired;  they  died, 
however,  in  the  same  prison  of  Cervia  into  which 
he  had  aem  treacherously  thrown.  A  better  ruler 
was  Guido  Lucio,  who  in  his  old  age  in  1389  was 
thrown  into  prison  by  his  sons,  where  he  ended  his 
days.  He  was  survived  by  his  son  Ostasio  IV,  who 
died  in  1431.  Ostasio  V  in  1438  was  forced  into  an 
alliance  with  Duke  Filippo  Maria  of  Milan  by  that 
prince,  on  which  account  the  Venetians  invit«d  him 

10  Venice,  where  he  soon  learned  that  the  annex- 
ation tA  Venice  had  been  proclaimed  at  Ravenna. 
He  died  in  a  Franciscan  convent,  the  victim  of  a 
mysterious  aasassinatlon.  The  Venetians  governed 
Ravenna  by  promeditori  and  podealA.     In  1509  Julius 

11  attempted  to  retake  all  of  Romagna  that  was  held 
by  the  Venetians,  and  sent  the  Duke  of  Urhino  with 
an  expedition.  Ravenna  was  defended  bv  the 
podettA  Marcello  and  by  the  captain  Zeno;  but  at 
the  news  of  the  defeat  of  Agnadello,  the  republic 
ordered  the  restoration  of  Ravenna  to  the  Holy  See. 

Three  years  later,  in  1512  there  took  place  near 
this  city  the  disastrous  battle  in  which  the  French 
defeated  the  allied  Pontifical  and  Spanish  troops. 
In  1527,  notmthstanding  their  alliance  with  Clement 
VII,  the  Venetians  occupied  Ravenna  and  the 
Romagna,  which,  however,  they  were  compelled  to 
rest^ire  in  1529.  The  popes  governed  Ravenna 
through  a  cardinal  legate.  Of  this  period  arc; 
the  monument  of  the  battle  of  1512,  erect«d  in  1557; 
the  tombs  of  Guidarello  Guidarelli,  and  Tullio 
Lombordo,  in  the  Museo  Nazionale;  those  of  LufTo 
Numu  and  Tommaso  Flamberti,  in  the  Church  of 
San  Francesco  (1509),  and,  above  all,  the  church  and 
the  monastery  of  Santa  Maria  in  Portu  (1553), 
built  on  the  site,  and  in  part  with  the  materials,  of 
the  Church  of  San  Lorento  in  Cfesarca  (fifth  century) ; 
it  has  a  Byzantine  Madonna  of  the  tenth  century. 
Its  construction  was  undertaken  when  the  Regular 
Canons  of  Portu  were  obliged  to  leave  Santa  Maria 
in  portu  fuori;  the  church  has  three  naves,  and  an 
octagonal  cupola;  the  stalls  of  the  choir  are  adorned 
with  beautiful  carvings,  and  the  loggia  of  the  garden 
of  the  annexed  monastery  is  of  very  pure  style.  The 
fofode  dates  from  1784.  The  city  was  adorned  with 
princely  palaces,  more  especially  the  work  of  the 
architects  Danisi,  Grosei,  Moripa,  and  Zumaglini, 
while  Nicold  Rondlnelli,  at  Santo  Domingo,  Cotig- 
nola,  Luca  Lunshi  and  his  sons,  Guido  Reni,  at  the 
Duomo,  and  other  painters  adorned  the  churches. 
Meanwhile,  the  public  works  were  not  neglected, 
Beudes  the  fortifications  already  constructed  by 
the  Venetians,  which  were  enlarged,  there  was  dug 
in  1854  the  Canalc  Panfilio  (named  in  honour  of 
Innocent  X),  by  the  Cardinal  legate  Donghi,  and,  in 
the  foltowiog  century,  the  Canole  Corsini,  works 
that  were  necessary  not  only  to  facilitate  marititne 
commerce  but  to  preserve  the  city  from  inundation 


5  RAVBNHA 

in  consequence  of  the  raimng  of  the  beds  of  the  rivers. 
In  1797  Ravenna  became  a  part  of  the  Gspodan 
Republic,  and  later  of  the  Cisalpine  Republic.  The 
Austrians  took  it  from  the  French,  who  in  turn  drove 
the  former  from  the  ciW  in  1800-01.  The  town  was 
incorporated  into  the  Kingdom  of  Italy,  after  which 
it  was  attacked  again  by  the  Austrians,  and  finally 
was  restored  to  the  pope.  Provisional  governments 
were  established  in  1831,  1849,  and  1859;  and  in 
1860  the  annexation  of  Ravenna  to  the  Kingdom  of 


.    paintings 

masters,    mentioned    above:     San 


loction  of  Byzan- 
tine and  of  Slav 
Madonnas,  and 
HCulpturea  by 


collec- 
tions of  Etruscan, 
Greek,  Roman, 
and  Byiantinc 
coins  and  inscrip- 
tions, and   also 

Bcriptions  of  the 
Middle  Ages; 
fragments  of  an- 
cient sculptures, 
and  a  bust  of  In- 
nocent  X  by 
Bernini.  It  oc- 
cupies the  mon- 
astery of  the 
Camaldolesc  of 
Classe,who  moved 
into  the  city  in 
1515.  The  archi- 
epiacopal  palace 
also  has  a  lapidaiy 
hall,  ancient  vest- 
ments, a  Lenten 
calendar  for  the 
years  532  to  628 
and  a  chisellea 
ivorj-  throne  of 
the  sixth  century, 
taken  to  Ravenna 


P^l 

S^^i 

^^Hi 

i^^^JBflS^^^Hffl 

mHi 

S^^ol 

P^Hl 

^*p™ 

Vl-Centurr  Mowio  in  Uw  B 


ri-Centurr  Mowii 
8.  ApalOun  la 


1001  by  Ottone  III,  who  re- 
ceived it  from  Pietro  Orseolo,  Doge  of  Venice. 

Accor^ng  to  local  tradition,  St.  Peter  himself 
founded  the  Church  of  Ravenna,  and  established  as 
its  first  bishop  St.  ApoIIinaria,  a  native  of  Antioch, 
who  according  to  the  same  tradition  suffered  martyr- 
dom under  Nero ;  the  acts  of  his  martyrdom,  however, 
have  scarcely  any  historical  value;  they  were  prob- 
ably written  under  the  bishop  Maura  (642-61),  and 
intended,  together  with  the  alleged  Apostolic  origin 
of  the  See  of  Ravenna,  to  abet  the  autocratic  aspira- 
tions of  that  bishop.  However,  in  1756  there  wasdis- 
covered  near  Claase  a  Christian  cemetery  in  which 
there  were  found  inscriptions  that  date  from  the 
second  eenturj-;   and  in  1904  in  Classe  itself  there  was 


eluded,  therefore,  that  Christianity  was  "taken  to 
Ravenna  by  sea.  It  is  certain  that  St.  Apollinaris 
was  the  first  bishop,  and  that  he  suffered  martyrdom. 
According  to  the  list  of  the  bishops  of  Ravenna, 
handed  down  to  our  times  by  Agnellus  (ninth  cen- 
tury), who  received  it  from  the  bishop  Marianus 
(.M6-56),  of  whose  accuracy  there  is  no  reason  to 
rioubt,  Severus  was  the  twelfth  of  the  series;  and  as 
he   is  among   those  who  signed   at   the   Council  of 


RAVENNA 


666 


RAVENNA 


Sardica  (343),  the  epoch  of  St.  Apollinaris  may  be 
established  as  belonging  to  the  beginning  of  the  third 
century,  or  possibly  to  the  last  decades  of  the  second 
century,  when  the  Church,  under  Commodus,  en- 
joyed a  measure  of  peace  that  was  propitious  to  the 
development  of  hierarchical  organization.  Ravenna 
accordingly  became  a  centre  of  Chiistianization  for 
Emilia.  The  only  martyr  among  its  bishops  was 
St.  Apollinaris,  whose  martyrdom  occurred,  pos- 
sibly, under  Septimius  Severus. 

Other  martyrs  were  St.  Ursicinus,  SS.  Fusca  and 
Maura,  St.  Vitalis  (not  the  St.  Vitalis  of  Rome),  etc. 
Among  the  bishops,  besides  those  already  named, 
mention  should  be  made  of  Joannes  Angeloptes 
(430-33),  so  called  because  he  had  the  gift  of  seeing 
his  guardian  angel;  he  obtained  through  Galla 
Placidia  the  title  and  the  rights  of  metropolitan  of  the 
fourteen  cities  of  EmiUa  and  Flaminia.  The  arch- 
bishops, as  in  the  past,  continued  to  be  confirmed  and 
to  be  consecrated  by  the  pope:  St.  Peter  Chrysologus 
(433-49),  formerly  Deacon  of  Imola,  was  so  con- 
firmed and  consecrated.  For  the  rest,  the  presence 
of  the  imperial  court,  and  later,  of  that  of  the  exarch, 
aroused  in  the  minds  of  the  archbishops  a  great  sense 
of  their  dignity  and  a  certain  spirit  of  independence 
in  regard  to  Rome;  while  the  popes  on  the  otner  hand 
were  disposed  to  cede  no  measure  of  their  rights,  as 
was  shown  in  the  case  of  Simplicius,  who  threatened 
Joannes  III  with  the  forfeiture  of  the  right  to  con- 
secrate his  suffragans;  in  the  case  of  Felix  IV,  in 
regard  to  the  questions  that  arose  between  Bishop 
Ecclesius  (521-34)  and  his  clergy;  and  in  the  case  of 
St.  Gregory  the  Great,  who  was  compelled  to  repress 
the  excess  of  pomp  ol  Archbishop  Joannes  V  (575- 
595)  and  that  of  his  clergy,  and  who,  on  account  of 
those  conditions^  at  the  death  of  Joannes,  caused  the 
election  of  Manniano  (606),  who  had  been  a  com- 
panion of  the  pope  at  the  monastery  of  Sant'  Andrea. 
The  better  to  insure  the  subordination  of  the  arch- 
bishops, the  latter  were  forced  to  sign  at  the  time  of 
their  consecration  a  declaration  to  that  end  (in- 
dicula  et  caiUiones)^  in  which  were  written  the  chief 
duties  and  rights  of  those  prelates.  In  connexion 
with  this  declaration,  there  arose  differences  of  in- 
terpretation between  Pope  Vitalianus  and  Arch- 
bishop Maurus  (648-71),  which  led  to  the  schism, 
Maurus  ha\dng  sought  and  obtained  the  privilege 
of  autonomy  from  the  Emperor  Constans  II,  who  was 
a  Monothelite,  and  therefore  ready  to  humiliate  the 
pope;  even  on  his  deathbed,  Maurus  exhorted  his 
clergy  not  to  subject  themselves  to  the  yoke  of 
Rome;  and  accordmgly  Reparatus  (671-77)  did  not 
go  to  Rome  for  his  consecration. 

It  is  uncertain  whether  Reparatus  or  Theodorus 
(677-88),  who  also  was  consecrated  by  his  suffragans, 
re-established  the  union  with  Rome.  Theooorus 
adhered  to  the 'Roman  Council  of  Agatho  (680); 
for  the  rest,  he  was  hated  by  his  clergy  for  having 
suppressed  many  abuses  among  them.  There  fol- 
lowed St.  Damianus  (688-705);  St.  FeUx  (705-23), 
who  at  first  also  had  aspirations  to  independence; 
but  when  Justinian  II,  having  recovered  the  throne, 
sent  a  fieet  to  punish  Ravenna  for  its  complicity  in 
his  dethronement,  as  he  believed,  the  archbishop 
was  taken  to  Constantinople,  blinded,  and  sent  to 
Pontus,  whence  he  was  recalled  by  Philippicus 
Bardanes  (712).  Of  the  constancy  of  Ravenna 
against  Iconoclasm,  mention  has  already  been  made 
above.  Sergius  (748-69)  also  had  differences  with 
the  popes.  Georgius  (835-46)  went  to  France  in 
search  of  a  grant  of  autonomy,  but  was  imprisoned 
by  the  troops  of  Charles  and  Louis  II,  at  war  at  that 
time  with  Lothair  (835),  and  with  difficulty  was  able 
to  return  to  his  country.  Matters  agam  became 
acute  under  Archbishop  Joannes  X  (850-78),  who, 
moreover,  had  displeased  the  clergy  and  i>eople  of 
his  own  see  and  his  suffragan  bishops  by  his  overbear- 


ing acts,  consecrating  bishops  against  the  pleasure 
of  the  people  and  the  clergy,  imposing  heavy  expenses 
upon  his  suffragans  in  the  visits  that  he  made  every 
other  year,  preventing  his  suffragans  from  com- 
municating du^ctly  with  Rome,  ete.  Accordingly, 
he  was  cited  to  appear  at  Rome  by  Nicholas  I;  but 
Joannes  haying  refused  to  obey  the  summons,  the 
pope  went  in  person  to  Ravenna,  where  he  became 
convinced  of  the  general  aversion  to  the  archbishop, 
who,  being  then  deprived  of  the  protection  of  the 
emperor,  was  compelled  to  appear  oefore  the  council 
(861),  which  reprimanded  him.  Later,  however,  he 
again  intrigued  against  Nicholas,  with  the  Bishops 
of  Trier  and  Cologne.  He  was  the  founder  of  the 
Benedictine  monastery  of  Isola  Palazziola. 

Homanus  (878-88)  also  was  disaffected  to  the  Holy 
See;  Joannes  XII  (905)  became  Pope  John  X.     Petrus 

VI  (927-71)  was  obliged  to  protect  the  property  of  the 
Church  in  two  synods;  Gerbertus  (998-99)  became 
Pope  Sylvester  II;  under  Leo  II  (999^1001)  the 
Ravennose  grammarian  Vilgardus  was  condemned  for 
heresy;  Arnoldus  (1014-19)  was  a  brother  of  St. 
Henry  II,  who  gave  to  the  archbishops  temporal 
sovereignty  over  Ravenna,  Bologna,  Imola,  Faenxa, 
and  Cervia,  without  mentioning  the  sovereignty  of  the 

g>pe;  of  Archbishop  Gebhardus  (1027-44),  St.  Peter 
amian  says  that  he  maintained  himself  unsullied  in 
the  general  corruption  of  that  day;  Hunfredus  (1046- 
1051)  had  been  chancellor  of  Henry  III:  under  him 
there  arose  the  question  of  precedence  between  the 
bishops  of  Milan  and  Ravenna  at  the  imperial  court, 
which  gave  room  to  an  altercation  between  the  suites 
of  those  prelates  at  the  coronation  of  Henry  III. 
Hunfredus,  like  his  successor,  Enrico  (1052-71),  who 
had  been  vice-chancellor  of  Henry  III,  was  of  the 
imperial  party,  and  opposed  to  the  pope;  Enrico 
favoured  the  cause  of  the  antipope  Cadalous.  Gui- 
bertus,  who  was  chancellor  of  Henry  IV,  caused  him- 
self to  be  elected  antipope,  in  opposition  to  Gregory 

VII  (1080),  by  whom  he  had  been  exconmiunicated 
since  1076.  At  the  beginning  of  the  twelfth  century 
the  Blessed  Petrus  Onesti  founded  the  Congr^ation 
of  the  Regular  Canons  of  Santa  Maria  in  Portu. 
Auselmus  (1155-58),  formerly  Bishop  of  Havelberg, 
is  famous  for  his  legations  to  Constantinople,  and  for 
his  polemical  worl^  against  the  Greeks.  Guido  da 
Biandrate  (1158-69)  favoured  the  schism  of  Barba- 
rossa,  who  was  h  is  protector.  In  the  time  of  Gherardo 
(1170-90),  there  arose  the  question  between  the  monks 
of  Classe  and  those  of  San  Martino  in  regard  to  the  body 
of  St.  Apollinaris,  which,  the  monks  of  San  Martino 
claimed,  had  been  transferred  to  their  church  for  its 
safety  against  the  incursions  of  the  Saracens. 

Filippo  Fontana  (1251-70)  preached  the  crusade 
against  Ezzeiino.  Aiter  his  death  the  see  remained 
vacant  for  four  years,*  until  Gregory  X  appointed  to 
it  Bonifacio  Fieschi  (1274-94).  St.  Rinaldo  Conco- 
reggi  (1303-21)  restored  Christian  life,  and  held  six 

Erovincial  synods.  Rinaldo  da  Polenta  was  killed 
y  his  own  brother,  Ostasio  (1322),  who  then  usurped 
the  Lordship  of  Ravenna.  Fortuniero  Vaselli  (1342- 
1347)  made  a  crusade  against  the  Ordelaffi  of  Forll 
and  the  Manfredi  of  Faenza,  and  concluded  a  peace 
between  Venice  and  Genoa.  Pileo  de  Prata  (1370-87), 
a  man  of  stem  doctrines,  was  made  a  cuxlinal  by 
Urban  VI,  and  sent  as  legate  to  Germany  and  Hungary, 
which  countries  he  held  in  obedience  to  the  Holy  See. 
Cosmo  Migliorati  (1387)  became  in  1400  Pope  Inno- 
cent  VII,  and  named  as  his  successor  at  Ravenna  his 
nephew,  Giovanni  Migliorati  (1400-10),  whom  he 
made  a  cardinal.  Roverella  (1445-76),  later  a  cardi- 
nal, was  a  man  of  great  learning,  who  was  sent  on 
various  occasions  as  legate  to  England  and  elsewhere. 
Pietro  Accolti  (1524-32)  had  been  professor  of  canon 
law  at  Pisa,  and  secretary  to  Julius  11.  Benedetto 
Accolti  (1532-49),  a  famous  man  of  letters  and  his- 
torian, was  imprisoned  under  Paul  III  for  unknown 


RAVESTETN. 


667 


RAViaNAN 


reasons.  An  awakening  of  Christian  life,  such  as  had 
taken  place  on  former  occasions  in  Italy,  was  effected 
at  this  time  at  Ravenna.  The  pious  priest  Gerolamo 
MaluseUi  established  the  congregation  of  secular 
priests  of  the  Buon  Gesii  (1531);  while  there  ap- 
peared a  lay  oratory,  and  the  Blessed  Gentile,  widow, 
and  Margherita  de'  Molli  shone  for  their  virtues. 
Cardinal  Guilio  della  Rovere  (1565-78)  acquired 
sreat  merit  by  the  ecclesiastical  reforms  he  effected: 
he  held  many  provincial  and  diocesan  synods,  ana 
built  the  seminary.  His  work  was  continued  by 
Cardinal  Cristoforo  Boncampagni  (1578-1603),  Pietro 
Aldobrandini  (160^21),  and  Luigi  Capponi  (1621- 
1645),  of  whom  the  latter  caused  the  paintings  of  the 
cathedral  to  be  executed.  Maffeo  Farsetti  (1727-41) 
restored  the  cathedral.  In  the  revolutionary  fury 
that  broke  out  at  Ravenna,  Archbishop  Antonio 
Codronchi  displayed  great  firmness  and  prudence 
(1785-1826).  Cardinal  Enrico  Orfei  (1860-70)  was  for 
two  years  prevented  by  the  new  Government  from 
taking  possession  of  his  see. 

At  the  present  time  the  suffragans  of  Ravenna  are 
Bertinoro,  Cesena,  Forli,  Rimini,  and  Sarsina; 
Cervia  was  united  to  Ravenna  in  1909.  The  eccle- 
siastical provinces  o|  Bologna  (1585),  and  Ferrara 
(1735),  as  well  as  Modena,  imtil  1106  belonged  to 
Ravenna.  The  archdiocese  has  64  parishes,  with 
108,051  inhabitants,  and  154  secular  priests;  3  reli- 
gious houses  for  men,  with  11  priests,  and  10  relisious 
houses  for  women;  1  educational  institution  for  boys, 
under  the  Salesians,  and  6  for  eirls. 

AoNKLLUB,  Liber  Pontificalia  Ecd.  Ravennaiia,  in  Mionb, 
P.  L.t  CVI;  Mon.  Germ.  Hist.:  Script,  rer.  Lanocbard.;  Fab&i, 
Le  aagre  memorie  di  Ratenna  (2  vols.,  Venice,  1664);  Tablazzi, 
Memarie  aacre  di  Ravenna  (Ravenna,  1852);  Amadcsi,  Inanti*- 
tUum  ravennatum  dironfUaxin  (3  vols.,  Faenia,  1783) ;  Cappelt 
LBTTi,  Le  Chiete  d' Italia,  II;  Lutheb,  Rom  und  Ravenna,  bU  mm 
8.  Jahrhundert  (1890);  Berti,  Ravenna  riei  primi  tre  secoli  della 
«ua  fondatione  (Ravenna,  1877) ;  Diehl,  Ravenna  (Paris.  1903) ; 
Sttide  aur  V administration  Byzantine  dans  VEzarchat  de  Ravenne 
(Paris,  1888);  Ricci.  Ravenna  in  Italia  Artistica  (7th  ed.,  Ber- 
gamo, 1909) ;  DOtschks,  RavenneUische  Studien  (Leipzig,  1909) ; 
Gobtx,  Ravenna  in  BerUhmte  KunststaUen,  n.  10  (Leipzig,  1901) ; 
RiCHTEB,  Die  Mosaiken  von  Ravenna  (1878);  Kurth,  Die  Wand- 
moaaiken  wn  Ravenna  (1902);  Golduann,  Die  ravennaHachen 
Sarkophage  (19()6);  Gatbt,  L'art  byaaniine  d*aprka  lea  monumenta 
de  V  Italia,  III  (Ravenna  and  Paris,  1907);  Cardoni,  Ravenna 
antiea  (Faenza.  1879) ;  Pabolini,  GH  stcUuti  di  Ravenna  (Florence, 
1868);  Fantuza,  Storia  di  Ravenna  (6  vols.,  Venice,  1801-04); 
Zattoni,  II  vcdore  atorico  della  Paasione  di  a.  ApoUinare  in  Riv, 
ator.  arit.  delle  acienze  teoloffiche  (1905.  1906). 

U.  Benigni. 

BaveBtoyn,  Josse,  b.  about  1506,  at  Tielt,  a 
small  town  in  Flanders,  hence  often  called  Tiletanus 
(Jodacub).  He  studied  philosophy  at  the  College  du 
Lys,  in  the  University  of  Louvain,  and  in  1525  grad- 
uated fourth.  He  was  appointed  to  teach  philoso- 
phy in  the  same  college,  where  he  continued  his 
course  of  theology,  under  the  professors,  Ruard 
Tapper  and  Jean  Leonard!,  sumamcd  Hasselius. 
From  1540  to  1553  he  was  president  of  the  College 
of  Houterle,  and  associated  with  the  Abb6  de  Ste- 
Gertrude  as  guardian  of  the  privileges  of  the  univer- 
sity. In  1546  he  became  ordinary  professor  in  the 
theological  faculty  and  canon  of  the  first  rank  in  the 
collegiate  chapter  of  St-Pierre.  He  was  then  only 
a  licentiate  in  theology,  but  received  the  doctorate 
on  5  October  following.  On  the  recommendation  of 
Charles  Quint  he  was  sent  to  the  Council  of  Trent 
(1551)  and  took  an  active  part  in  the  preparatory 
work  of  Sessions  XIII-XVI.  Arrived  at  Trent  in 
Sept.,  1551,  with  his  four  colleagues  from  the  Uni- 
versity of  Louvain,  he  presented  in  November  a 
memorandum  ''super  articulis  de  sacramentis  poen- 
itentise  et  extremae  unctionis"..  Later  he  drew  up 
another  on  the  two  articles  concerning  the  Mass. 
Called  by  Ferdinand  I  to  the  Conference  of  Worms  in 
1557,  he  accompanied  Francois  Sonnius  and  Martin 
Rythovius  and  there  met  three  other  theologians  from 
the  Low  Countries:  Jean  Delphinus,  Barth^lemy  La- 
tomus,  and  P.  Canisius.    About  1558  he  was  made 


provost  of  Walcourt,  in  Namur.'  In  1561j  on  the 
resumption  of  the  work  of  the  general  council,  he  was 
proposed  as  a  delegate,  but  failing  health  forced  him 
to  decline  the  honour.  In  1559  he  succeeded  Ruard 
Tappert  as  director  of  the  nuns  in  the  hospital  at 
Louvain,  an  office  he  filled  till  his  death,  1570. 
Through  personal  merit  Ravesteyn  was  selected  as 
rector  of  the  university  in  1545  and  1550.  He  was 
a  pious  and  learned  priest,  zealous  in  teaching  purity 
of  doctrine.  Through  his  efforts  the  teachings  of  the 
innovator  Baius  were  censured  by  the  Spanish  Uni- 
versities of  Salamanca  and  Alcald,  by  the  Faculty  of 
Paris  in  1560,  and  by  Pius  V  in  his  Bull  "Ex  ommbus 
afflictionibus^',  1  Oct.,  1567. 

Ravesteyn's  works  are:  "Epistola  Ven.  Patri 
Laurentio  Villavincentio"^  against  Baianism;  "De- 
monstratio  religionis  christiana5  ex  verbo  Dei " ;  "  Con- 
fessionis,  sive  doctrine,  quad  nuper  edita  est  a  minis- 
tris  qui  in  ecclesiam  Antverpiensem  irrepserunt  et 
Augustame  confessioni  se  assentiri  profitentur  suc- 
cincta  confutatio*';  "Apologia  CatholicaB  confuta- 
tionis  profanse  illius  et  pestilentis  confessionis,  (^uam 
Antverpiensem  appellant  pseudoministri  ouidam, 
contra  manes  cavill&tiones  Matthsei  Flacci  Illyrici"; 
"De  Concordia  gratiae  et  liberi  arbitrii";  "Epistote 
tres  Michaeli  de  Bay";  "Apolo^a  seu  defensio 
decretorum  concilii  Tridentini  de  sacramentis  ad- 
versus  censuras  et  examen  Martini  Kemnitii"  in 
two  parts.  In  this  "Apology",  which  is  his  chief 
work,  the  author  comments  on,  and  brilliantly  de- 
fends, the  dogmatic  decrees  of  Sessions  IV-VI, 
the  doctrine  concerning  the  Canon  of  the  Scriptures, 
original  sin  and  justification,  the  sacraments  in 
general,  baptism,  confirmation,  the  Eucharist  as  a 
sacrament  and  as  a  sacrifice.  He  died  before  writing 
a  third  part,  in  which  he  intended  to  treat  of  the  other 
sacraments. 

Paquot,  Mhnoirea  pour  aervir  d  Vhittoire  litUraire  dea  Paya^ 
Baa,  XVI  (Louvain,  1769),  306;  db  Ram,  M6moirea  de  VAoadhnie 
RouaU  de  BruxeUea,  XIV  (Bnuaels.  1841) ;  Foppins,  Bibliotheca 
Bdffica,  II  (Bruasela,  1739).  770;  Httbtbr,  Nomendalor  liUe- 
rariua,  I  (Innsbruck.  1892),  13. 

J.   FORQET. 

Bavignan,  Gustave  Xavier  Lacroix  de,  French 
Jesuit,  pulpit  orator,  and  author,  b.  at  Bayonne 
(Basses-Pyr^n^es),  1  Dec.,  1795;  d.  at  Pans,  26 
Feb.,  1858.  Sent  quite  young  to  Paris,  he  studied 
in  private  boardingnschools,  and  for  some  time  at- 
tended lectures  at  the  Lyc6e  Bonaparte.  He  first 
thought  of  entering  the  diplomatic  service  but  decided 
in  1813  for  the  law.  On  Napoleon's  return  from 
Elba,  de  Ravignan  joined  the  Due  d'Angoultoe's 
Royal  Volunteers  ana  made  the  unsuccessful  Spanish 
campaign,  distinguishing  himself  under  fire  at  H^lette. 
He  soon  resigned  his  commission  of  lieutenant  of 
cavalry  and  resumed  his  law  studies.  Called  to  the 
bar  he  was  elected  in  1817  a  king's  counsel  in 
the  Paris  circuit  and  in  1821  deputy  attorney- 
general.  He  was  becoming  famous  when  in  May, 
1822  he  entered  the  Sulpician  seminary  at  Issy.  This 
made  a  sensation,  heightened  when  on  2  November, 
he  was  received  into  the  Jesuit  novitiate  at  Mont- 
rouge.  Here  he  laid  the  foimdations  of  that  lofty  but 
practical  spirituality,  spirit  of  mortification  and 
prayer,  mastery  over  self,  generosity,  and  zeal  which 
ever  marked  him.  After  his  noviceship,  he  studied 
theology  and  was  ordained  priest  25  July,  1828. 
Like  Bourdaloue,  de  Ravignan  prepared  for  the  pulpit 
in  a  professor's  chair.  For  two  years  at  St.  Acheul 
near  Amiens,  for  three  more  at  Brieg,  Switzerland,  he 
taught  dogmatic  theology.  While  at  Brieg  and  at 
Estavayer  on  the  Lake  of  Neufch&tel,  h^  gave  missions 
and  retreats  in  the  neighbouring  country.  His  stir- 
ring Lenten  course  in  the  Cathec&al  of  Amiens  (1835), 
his  success  at  Paris  in  St.  Thomas  d'Aquin  (1836), 
pointed  him  to  Mgr  de  Qu61en  as  the  logical  successor 
of  Lacordaire  at  Notre  Dame. 


RATIONAir  Gi 

On  the  Notre  Dame  conferences  de  Ravignaa's 
onttorical  fame  mainly  rests  ["Conf^rencea  ilu  R.  P. 
de  Ravignon  de  la  Ckimpagnie  de  Jdaua"  (Parix,  ISTiO, 
4  vols.,  5th  ed,,  Paris,  1897);  "Conforenpea  of  Revd. 
Ft.  de  Ravignan"  (Lent  of  18461,  tr.  Fctheraton 
(London,  1847),  ef.  also,  "The  Catholic  Pulpit" 
(London,  1849)].  The  subjects  treated  were  the  end- 
less confiict  of  truth  and  error,  God,  man,  the 
Divinity,  Person,  and  Doctrine  of  Christ,  the  Church 
.  and  its  dt^pnas.  Here  the  orator  introduced  a  course 
of  moral  conferences,  but  retumnl  to  apologetics  in  a 
study  of  the  relations  between  reason  and  faith. 
Reading  these  conferences  now, 


ODtTtTE-XAViBB-LicHoix  Di  ccllcd,    Completed 

Ravion*h  jjjg    work.    Supe- 

rior of  his  brethren  at  Boidcaux  (1837-42),  at  Paris 
(1348-51),  then,  as  afterwards,  he  was  preachi&K 
in  almost  every  important  city  in  France.  He  was 
heard  also  in  Rome,  m  Belgium,  and  in  London  (1851) 
where  ho  assisted  Manning  at  his  first  Mass.  Every- 
where he  was  winning  souls. 

In  1843-45,  public  opinion  led  by  ThierH,  Cousin, 
Michclet,  Libn,  Quinet,  Bdranger,  had  sot  against 
the  Jtisuits.  Some  said  they  were  working  for  the 
Bourbons,  others,  that  they  were  too  loyal  to  the 
House  of  Orlfiana.  Montalembert,  Dupunloup,  Vati- 
mesnil,  Beugnot,  Barthelf^my  defended  them.  De 
Ravignan,  the  foremost  Jesuit  in  France,  was  accused 
of  liaving  left  the  order;  at  another  time,  of  having 
made  unworthy  concessions  to  the  Government.  He 
easily  cleared  fiimnclt  with  his  superior-general,  Fr. 
Roothaan,  and  vindicated  his  order,  its  asceticism,  its 
constitutions,  its  doctrines,  its  work,  in  a  calm,  lin- 
eal, but  serenely  eloquent  book, "De  I'Existence  et 
de  rinatitut  dos  Ji^ites"  (Paris,  1844:  9th  fid.,  Paris, 
1879) ;  tr.  Scagcr  (London,  1844)  and  Atchison  (Lon- 
don, 1844).  The  book  created  a  sensation,  Royer- 
Collard  enthusiastically  p rawing  it.  Twenty-five 
thousand  copies  were  sold  in  one  year,  but  the  fight 
continued.  Through  its  agent,  Pellewino  Rossi,  the 
Government  of  Louis-Philippe  asked  Gre^jry  XVI  to 
aecularite  the  French  Jesuits.  The  pope  replied  that 
to  do  so  would  be  a  violation  of  the  concordat  and  the 
constitution,  that  no  crime  was  imputed  t«  the  order, 
that  the  French  episcopate  spoke  well  of  it.  He  re- 
fus^,  although  the  Government  and  its  s^ent  tried 
to  create  a  contrary  impression.  De  Ravignan  ad- 
vised a  firm  constitutional  resistance,  but  Fr.  Roothaan, 
to  spare  further  embarrassment  to  the  Holy  See.  with- 
out commanding,  suggested  that  the  French  Jesuits 
might  temporarily  and  partiidly  disband.  They  did 
so,  and  for  a  few  years,  as  a  corporate  body,  ceased 
to  exist  in  France.  A  painful  conlroversv  with  Mgr 
Affre,  the  future  martyr  Archbishop  of  Paris,  whose 
measures  against  the  oriler  in  1844  Gregory  XVI  was 
obliged  to  »top,  was  a  sore  trial  to  de  Ravignan. 


8  KAVIONAN 

Throughout  he  remaned  loyal  to  the  Sodety,  reopect- 
ful   but   firm  with  the  archbishop.    Another  trial 

awaited  him.  In  the  campaign  for  the  FallouT  Law 
(1850)  for  the  liberty  of  education,  though  recogninng 
the  shortcomings  of  the  me&iure  and  trying  to  elimi- 
nate them,  he  urged  the  CathoUcs  to  umte  and  to  use 
their  opportunities.  He  was  accused  of  disrupting 
their  ranks,  of  being  a  blind  follower  of  de  Falloux, 
Montalembert,  and  Dupanloup.  He  was  again 
trimnphtuitly  vindicated. 

Twice  again  de  Ravignan  came  prominently  be- 
fore the  public.  In  1855  he  preached  the  Lenten 
sermons  at  the  Tuileries,  before  -Napoleon  III  and 
Empress  £ug6nie.  Sickness  had  undermined  his 
strength,  but  he  spoke  with  much  of  his  old  vigour, 
and  with  the  same  authority  and  unction.  In  1847 
Crftineau-Joly  had  published  his  "Cldment  XIV 
et  Ice  Jdauitcs".  His  strictures  on  Clement  XIV 
were  severe  and  unfair.  In  ,1852  the  learned  Augus- 
tine Theiner  had  written  his  "  Geschichte  des  Pontifi- 
cats  Clemens  XIV",  In  it  Clement  XIII  the  de- 
fender of  the  Jesuits  was  attacked,  Clement  XIV, 
who  suppressed  them,  wronged  by  injudicious  flat- 
teries. At  the  request  of  Fr.  Roothaan,  de  Ravignan 
wrote:  "C16ment  XIII  et  Cttraent  XIV"  (Paris, 
1^.M,  2  vols).  He  endeavoured  to  put  the  facts  in 
their  true  light.  The  literary  merit  of  the  work 
is  not  of  the  highest,  but  the  author  writes  with  im- 
partiality and  candour.  The  work  of  de  Ravignan's 
last  years  if  not  prominent  or  striking  was  fertile 
in  results.  The  confeeaional,  direction  of  souls,  re- 
treats and  conferences  for  noble  ladies,  familiar  talks 
to  the  poor,  employed  his  ceal.  Many  thou^t  him 
careless  of  his  reputation,  but  though  anxious  to 
do  well,  he  prefeired  to  do  good.  Honours  soufdit 
him.  Several  times  his  name  was  mentioned  for  the 
Archiepiscopal  See  of  Paris,  but  faithful  to  his  vows, 
he  refused  the  honour.  He  preferred  to  work  as  a 
simple  religious  in  evei^  good  cause.  He  cbampionMl 
the  proclamation  of  the  Dogma  of  the  Immaculate 
Conception,  supported  Pftftot  and  Gratry  in  the  re- 
organization of  the  French  Orator>',  and  MuanI  in 
tlie  formation  of  the  Benedictine  monastery  of  l:i 
Picrre-qui-Virc.  After  a  two  months'  sicknesH,  ten- 
derly watched  by  his  friend,  superior,  and  futuri' 
biographer,  de  Ponlevoy,  he  died  a  saintly  dealh. 
Bcrryerhiulknelt  in  I«aTs  at  his  bedside;  Mgr  Dupan- 
loup preached  liis  funeral  oration;  thousands  followeil 
the  remains  of  the  "Apostle  of  Paris"  to  the  grave. 

Besides  the  volumes  mentioned,  de  Ravignan  did 
not  publish  anythinE  of  great  importance.  The  fol- 
lowing works  have  been  gathered  and  edited  since: 
"Entretiens  Spirituels"  etc.  (Paris,  1859;  7th  ed., 
Paris,  1881);  'Suite  des  entretiens  spirituels,"  etc, 
(Paris,  18fl3, 2nd  ed.,  1871),  tr.  Ram,  "Conferences  on 
the  Spiritual  Life"  (London,  1873;  5th  ed.,  New  York, 
1895);  "  La  vie  chrfitienned'une  dame  dans  leroonde" 
(Paris,  1861,  5th  ed.,  1895);  "Fr.  de  Ravignan  on 
Prayer"  (Dublin,  189-);  "PensCes  et  MaximM 
(Paris,  1911);  cf.  also  articles  in  "L'Ami  de  la  Re- 
ligion'', CXVI,  CXXXIX  to  CLI,  passim. 

De  Dakfiehbi.  Lf  R.  P.  dt  Ranonan  (Fuu.  1SSS) :  MOLLOn. 

hiHariiue  mr  U  R.P.de  Bntienn*  tU.'{Pmta,  1858);  de  MlK>- 
couffT.  Bo»WBan(PiriJi.  1858);  PoujoiTUT.  i>  R.  P.  <(•  Hii>«nu. 
-  ■■  -  "  -..  (P»ria,  1S58):  oiPoMi-KvoT.  Vwrfi.  «.  P. 
Is.. Pa™ ■' -         


dt  Ra'itnan   (2  y 


:    Iflth  Hi.,  ieoT:t 


Nf»  Yoik. 


Mtla-<,ei  Sad  kHm.  IV  (Parii,  18aO). 
Eliuin  LilUrain>.  no.  XII  (P«ri».  ISflS). 
MOaTigti    {Pb         ■' ""■  '      " 

rfu  R.P.de  Ri. 

s.  Lt  Ptrr  it  Bangnn 


DE     MlEQEa 


Rmiw.    XVIII.   ail;    The    I 


„ „    „.„*olic    World,    IX.    112;    Mom'' 

nnirtor.  VI,  M7;  Nr-r  Bn^-nd'r.  XXIX.K:  Rrtur  in  Mimdt 
rdofioF.'.  IV.  M:  V,  286;  VI.  388:  XVI.  037;  U  Carr—v*^ 
U.  CXI.  lOOn;  O-r  KalliolH.  l.l[,4(W;  PrMt  Hulorvpif  (ISSS, 

ri'i-U.  (Psrij.  1H.M), 

JOBK  C.   ReVIUJC. 


^^ 


AAWKS 


669 


BAYMOND 


RaweSf  Henry  Auqubtus,  Oblate  of  St.  Charles, 
hymn-writer  and  preacher,  b.  at  Easington  near 
Durham,  England,  11  Dec,  1826;  d.  at  Brighton, 
24  April,  1885.  Educated  at  the  grammar  school, 
Hougnton-le-Spring,  where  his  father  was  head- 
master, and  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  where  he 
proceeded  B.A.  in  1849  andf  M.A.  1852,  Rawes  en- 
tered the  Anglican  ministry,  and  after  holding  cura- 
cies at  St.  Botolph's,  Aldsate,  and  St.  Bartholomew's, 
Moor  Luie,  became  waroen  of  the  House  of  Charity, 
Soho,  1854.  In  1856  he  was  received  into  the  Catho- 
lic Church  at  Eldinbur^  by  Fr.  Ignatius  Grant,  S.J., 
and  on  Whit-Monday,  1857,  became  one  of  the 
original  members  of  die  English  Congregation  of 
Oblates  of  St.  ^  Charles,  found^  at  St.  Mary  of  the 
Angels,  Bavswater.  Ordained  priest  in  November, 
1857,  Fr.  Rawes  took  charge  of  the  poor  district  of 
the  Potteries,  Nottin^  Hill,  where  he  built  the  Church 
of  St.  fVancis  of  Af»isi.  As  Cardinal  Wiseman  bears 
witness,  "this  has  been  built  entirely  at  the  expense 
of  Fr.  Kawes.  an  Oblate,  who  has  spent  all  his  for- 
tune upon  it^'  (Letter  to  Cardinal  Bamab6  in  1860; 
cf .  W.  Ward,  "  Life  and  Times  of  Cardmal  Wiseman  ", 
II,  354).  After  acting  as  prefect  of  studies  in  St. 
Charles's  College,  Bayswater,  for  some  years,  and  doing 

food  woilc  by  his  sermons  and  devotional  writing, 
'r.  Rawes  was  created  D.D.  bv  Pius  IX  at  the  m- 
stance  of  Cardinal  Manning.  At  Whitsuntide,'  1880. 
he  became  Superior  of  the  Oblate  Con^gation,  and 
being  re-elected  in  1882  and  1884,  continued  to  hold 
this  office  till  his  death. 

His  sermons  and  devotional  writings  are  strongly 
marked  by  a  strain  of  mysticism  whiij^  was  already 
present  in  his  early  Anglican  preachmg.  ''Home- 
wajtl:  a  Tale  of  Redemption"  (3rd  ed.,  1873)  is  an 
allegory  somewhat  in  the  vein  of  Bunvan,  though 
illuminated  b^  the  light  of  Catholic  theology.  '^The 
Beloved  Disciple"  (1872)  is  inspired  by  the  devotion 
of  which  the  author  gave  practical  proof  a  few  years 
later  by  founding  a  confraternity  m  honour  of  the 
Evangelist.  In  like  manner,  his  deep  personal  de- 
votion to  the  Holy  Ghost  found  expression  not  only 
in  his  writings  but  in  the  foundation  of  the  Society 
of  Servants  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  which  was  subse- 
Quently  made  an  archconfratemitv  by  Leo  XIII. 
Among  other  smaller  devotional  works  are :  ' '  Sursum ; 
or,  Sparks  Flying  Upward"  (1864);  '*Septem;  or. 
Seven  Wa/s  of  Hearing  Mass"  (7th  ed.,  1869),  and 
some  original  devotions  for  the  Way  of  the  Cross, 
publishedin  1877  with  (h*awings  by  H.  N.  J.  Westlake. 
His  hymns,  too  little  known  nowadays,  are  remark- 
able for  poetic  beauty  and  deep  religious  devotion. 
Some  of  them  appeared  separately,  but  his  best  work 
is  preserved  in  "Foregleams  of  the  Desired"  (3rd  ed., 
1881).  When  received  into  the  Church  he  had  pub- 
lished "The  Lost  Sheep,  and  other  Poems".  Besides 
his  original  writinra.  Fr.  Rawes  translated  the  En- 
cvclicaT  of  Leo  ^II  on  Catholic  Philosophy  and 
the  treatises  of  St.  Thomas  Aquinas  on  the  Blessed 
Sacrament  and  on  the  Lord's  Prayer.  His  volume 
of  sermons,  "God  in  His  Works"  (1872),  shows  that 
his  poetic  mysticism  was  compatible  with  a  keen  in- 
terest in  modem  scientific  methods.  And  it  may  be 
remarked  that  in  like  manner  his  ultramontane  con- 
servatism in  matters  of  theology  and  Biblical  criticism 
did  not  hamper  his  warm  sympathies  with  political 
Liberalism.  Yet  his  learned  discourses  and  hieh- 
flowii  poetic  fancies  were  a  curious  counterpart  to  his 
quaint  ways  and  the  blunt,  homely  simplicity  of  his 
languag^e*  At  the  same  time  the  tender  spirit  that 
speaks  in  some  of  his  hymns  and  prayers  gives  us  a 
true  knowledge  of  his  kindly  nature. 

Cooper  in  Dtet.  Nat.  Biog.,  g.  v.;  Idkm  in  Men  of  the  Time 
(1884):   GiLLOW.  Bi6<.  Diet.  Rng.  Cath.,  ».  v. 

W.  H.  Kent. 

BawlliiB,  Alexander,  Venerable.  See  Wal- 
POLB,  Henry,  Venerable. 


Bayxnbault,  Charles,  missionary,  b.  in  France, 
1602;  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  at  Rouen  (1621); 
d.  at  Quebec,  1643.  He  was  procurator  to  the 
Canadian  mission  when  he  was  called  to  Quebec 
(1637).  When  the  time  came  (1640)  to  give  mis- 
sionaries to  the  wandering  tribes  who  frequently 
visited  the  Hurons,  chiefly  Nipissings  and  Algon- 
quins,  living  east  and  north  of  Lake  Huron  and  on  the 
banks  and  islands  of  the  Ottawa,  Raymbault  was 
sent  with  Father  Pi j art  to  follow  them.  This  mission 
offered  greater  hardships  than  that  of  the  Hurons, 
Neutrals  and  Indians  of  the  Tobacco  Nation.  The 
generosi^  and  devotedness  of  the  Jesuits  soon  bore 
fruits.  When  the  Sauteux  Indians  (1641)  besought 
the  "blackrobes"  to  visit  them,  Raymbault  travelled, 
with  the  future  martyr  Jogues,  as  far  as  the  Sault 
Ste.  Marie  on  a  voyage  of  exploration  and  with  a 
view  to  a  more  permanent  apostolate.  The  mission- 
aries, besides  their  desire  to  conquer  souls,  were  in- 
terested in  the  discovery  of  the  famous  passage  to  the 
Western  Sea.  Shortly  after  his  return,  Raymbault 
intended  to  join  the  Nipissings  in  their  winter  quar- 
ters but  he  fell  exhausted  with  fatigue,  and  was 
brought  to  Quebec,  where  he  soon  died,  the  first 
Jesuit  who  died  in  Canada.  He  was  buried  beside 
Champlain.  According  to  the  Relation  of  1643, 
he  was  a  man  of  great  stature,  of  ordinary  talent  and 
learning,  of  sound  judgment,  excellent  heart,  and 
experienced  in  temporal  affairs. 

RocHEUONTEix,  L««  Jisuttea  et  la  Noutelle-Franee  (Paris, 
1896):  FBBLA.ND.  Coure  d'hietoire  du  Canada  (Quebec,  1882); 
Thwaites,  Jeauit  ReUUion§  and  Allied  Documents  (Clcvelsad, 

I89d-i90i).  Lionel  Lindsay. 

Raymond  IV,  cf  Saint-Gilles,  Count  of  Toulouse 
and  of  Tripoli,  b.  about  1043;  d.  at  Tripoli  in  1105. 
He  was  the  son  of  Ra3rmond  III,  Pons,  and  in  1088 
succeeded  his  brother,  William  IV,  who  had  died 
without  male  issue.  From  1066  he  had  been  Count 
of  Rouergue,  of  Ntmes,  and  of  Narbonne,  thus  be- 
coming one  of  the  most  powerful  lords  of  southern 
France.  In  1095  he  received  the  pope.  Urban  II, 
on  his  own  estates  and  took  the  Cross  with  en- 
thusiasm, vowine  never  to  return  to  his  own  domin- 
ions. Alter  a  pilgrimage  to  Chaise  Dieu,  he  set  out 
in  October,  1096,  entrusting  the  care  of  his  dominions 
to  his  son  Bertrand.  His  army  was  composed  of 
Aouitanians  and  ProveuQals,  the  pope's  legate, 
Aoh^mar  of  Monteil,  Bishop  of  Le  Puy,  accompany- 
ing him.  He  traversed  Lombardy  ana  proceeded  to 
Constantinople  through  the  valleys  of  the  Eastern 
Alps.  After  many  a  successful  combat  with  the  half- 
barbarous  Slavs  who  inhabited  this  region,  he  arrived 
at  Durazzo,  where  he  found  letters  from  the  Emperor 
Alexius  inviting  him  to  Constantinople.  Raymond 
accepted,  leaving  his  army,  which  in  his  absence 
pillaged  the  country,  and  was  attacked  by  the  im- 
perial troops.  At  Constantinople  Rajrmond  re- 
fused to  swear  allegiance  to  Alexius,  as  most  of  the 
crusading  chiefs  had  done.  He  afterwards  took  an 
active  part  in  the  expedition  against  Jerusalem,  and. 
notwithstanding  his  rivalry  with  Bohemond,  exercisea 
a  very  great  influence  on  the  course  of  events.  He 
could  not  prevent  Bohemond  from  taking  Antioch 
in  1098,  and  out  of  spite  against  the  Norman  chief 
he  became  reconciled  with  the  Emperor  Alexius,  to 
whom  he  restored  the  city  of  Laoaicea  (February. 
1099).  After  his  rupture  with  Bohemond,  Raymona 
directed  the  great  bulk  of  the  crusaders  against 
Jerusalem,  and  was  actively  engaged  in  the  capture 
of  the  Holy  City  (8  July,  1099).  He  refused  the 
title  of  king,  and  left  Jerusalem  to  return  to  Con- 
stantinople in  1100.  He  was  chosen  chief  of  a  new 
army  of  crusaders,  which  was  destroyed  by  the  Turks 
in  Asia  Minor.  Returning  to  Syria  in  1102,  he  was 
imprisoned  at  Tarsus  by  Tancred,  and.  on  being  re- 
leased, seized  Tripoli  (1103),  where  he  died  two  yearg 
later. 


RAYMOND 


670 


RAYMOND 


Ratmond  D*Aat7iuCBS,  HUUrria  Prancorum  qui  eeperunt 
JenuaUm  in  Uistoriens  OedderUaux  des  Croisaties,  III.  235-3U9; 
Vaissette,  Histoire  du  LanQtudoc^  II,  III;  Chalandon,  Esgai 
aar  U  rhgns  d' Alexia  Comnine  (Paris,  1900),  186-88,  205- 
12,  222-28;  BiiiHiER,  L'Eglise  et  V Orient,  Lee  Croieadea  (Paris, 
1911). 

Louis  Br£hier. 

Raymond  VI,  Count  OF  Toulouse,  b.  1156;  d. 
1222;  succeeded  his  father,  Raymond  V,  in  1195.  He 
was  a  debauched  and  sceptical  prince^  who  successively 
put  away  three  wives,  taking  as  his  fourth  Jeanne, 
sister  of  Kichard  Cosur  de  Lion.  Loaded  with  all  the 
benefits  o(  the  Church,  he  showed  the  greatest  benev- 
olence to  the  heretical  Cathares  or  Albigenses,  whom 
his  father  had  persecuted,  refused  to  molest  them, 
even  allowing  them  to  preach  before  him,  and  perhaps 
allied  himself  with  their  sect.  His  court  was  dissolute, 
and  he  took  no  notice  of  the  reproof  of  the  legate  of 
Innocent  III,  Pierre  de  CasteUiau.  who  finally  excom- 
municated him  in  1207.  But  shortly  after,  an  equerry 
of  the  count  having  treasonably  killed  de  Caatelnau, 
Raymond  was  immediately  deposed  by  the  pope. 
Raymond,  frightened  into  submission,  expelled  the 
heretics  from  his  dominions,  and  on  18  June,  1209,  in 
the  presence  of  the  pontifical  legate, did  public  penance 
before  the  Church  of  St-Gilles.  When  the  crusaders, 
assembled  in  the  north  of  France,  invaded  Languedoc, 
Raymond  took  part  in  the  Crusade  and  assisted  at 
the  sieges  of  Beziers  and  Carcassone  in  1209.  Return- 
ing to  Toulouse,  Raymond  tried  to  elude  his  obliga- 
tions and  was  excommunicated  by  the  Council  of 
Avignon.  He  then  went  to  Rome  to  clear  himself  of 
the  murder  of  de  Castelnau,  and  was  received  by 
Innocent  III,  but  on  his  return  found  his  estates 
entirely  overrun  by  Simon  de  Montfort.  In  1212  he 
held  only  Toulouse  and  Montauban.  His  brother-in- 
law,  Peter,  King  of  Aragon,  came  to  his  rescue,  but 
was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Murat  in  1213.  In  1215 
Simon  de  Montfort  besieged  Toulouse  and  Narbonne. 
Instead  of  organizing  resistance,  Raymond  had  nego- 
tiated with  the  pontifical  legates,  wno  made  him  the 
most  humiliating  propositions.  Deprived  of  his 
estates,  he  retired  to  England,  later  appearing  at  the 
Lateran  Council  (1215),  where  he  sought  to  mterest 
Innocent  III  in  his  favour.  The  pope,  however,  ceded 
the  estates  of  Raymond  to  Simon  de  Montfort,  re- 
serving for  his  son  only  the  Marquessates  of  Provence 
and  Beaucaire.  An  exile  in  Aragon,  Raymond  VI 
reassembled  his  troops,  and  took  Toulouse  (7  Novem- 
ber, 1217),  later  defending  it  successfully  against 
Simon  de  Montfort.  who  was  killed  25  June,  1218. 
Before  his  death  Raymond  VI  had  wrested  from 
Amaury  de  Montfort  nearly  all  the  conquests  of  his 
father. 

Raymond  VII,  Count  of  Toulouse,  son  of 
Raymond  VI,  b.  at  Beaucaire,  1197:  d.  at  Milhaud, 
1249:  had  espoused  a  sister  of  the  King  of  Aragon, 
and  had  assisted  his  father  in  the  reconquest  of  his 
estates.  In  January,  1224,  Amaury  de  Montfort. 
reduced  to  the  sovereignty  of  Narbonne,  conchulea 
a  treaty  with  him,  but  ceded  his  rights  in  the  south 
to  Louis  VIII  of  France.  In  vain  Raymond  VII  of- 
fered his  obeisance  to  the  assembly  of  Bourges  in 
1226;  a  new  Crusade  was  decided  upon.  Louis 
VIII  seized  Avignon  and  occupied  Langiunloc  with- 
out resistance,  but  on  his  return  to  the  nort  h  he  died 
8  Nov.,  1226,  at  Montpensier.  Raymond  VII,  prof- 
iting by  the  feebleness  of  Blanche  of  Castile,  took 
several  places  from  Imbert  de  Beaujeu,  seneschal  of 
the  King  of  France.  This  success  was  of  short  dura- 
tion; in  1228  new  bands  of  crusaders  began  to  plunder 
the  country  of  Toulouse,  and  soon  Raymond  lost 
nearly  all  his  strongholds.  He  then  asketl  peace  from 
Blanche  of  Castile.  After  the  conference  of  Moaux, 
Raymond  returned  to  Paris,  and  on  12  April,  1229,  in 
the  Church  of  Notre  Dame,  did  pubhc  penance  and 
was  released  from  his  excommunication.    He  pledged 


himself  to  demolish  the  walls  of  Toulouse,  and  to 
give  his  daughter  Jeanne  in  marriage  to  Alphonse  of 
Poitiers,  brother  of  King  Louis  IX.  Returning  to 
Toulouse,  Raymond  VII  kept  liis  promises  and  ac- 
cepted the  establishment  of  the  Inquisition.  In 
1234  he  went  to  Rome,  and  received  from  the  pope 
the  restitution  of  the  Marcjuessate  of  Provence.  In 
spite  of  his  zeal  in  suppressing  heresy,  he  was  several 
timed  accused  of  favouring  the  massacre  of  the  in- 
quisitors. He  allied  himself  with  the  Emperor 
Frederick  II  against  the  pope,  then  with  the  King  of 
England,  Henry  III.  against  Louis  IX.  The  victoiy 
of  the  latter  at  Taillebourg  caused  him  to  renew  bis 
oath  of  fealty.  In  1247.  as  he  was  starting  for  Pales- 
tine with  St.  Louis,  he  died,  leaving  his  estates  to  his 
daughter  Jeanne. 

Lavisse.  Hiatoire  de  Prance,  III,  1,  pp.  259,  %8;  Mounier. 
Lea  Sourcea  de  V Hiatoire  de  France,  II  (Paris,  1006),  nos.  2444, 
2455,  2476;  Vaissettc,  Hiatoire  du  Languedoc,  VI  (Paris, 
1749);  Petit  '  DuTAiLUS,  Etude  aur  le  rhgne  de  Louie  VIII 
(Paris.  1894);  Bebger,  Hiatoire  de  Blanche  de  Caalile  (Paris. 
1895);  GnooENBBRaBR^  A  general  hiatory  of  the  Chriatian  Era,  I 
(2nd  revised  ed..  St.  Louis.  1903).  $548. 

Louis  Br£hi£r. 

Raymond  Lully  (Ramon  Lull),  "Doctor  Illumi- 
natus",  philosopher,  poet,  and  theologian,  b.  at  Palma 
in  Majorca,  between  1232  and  1236;  d.  at  Tunis,  29 
June,  1315.  Probably  a  courtier  at  the  court  of  King 
James  of  Aragon  until  thirty  years  of  age,  he  then 
became  a  hermit  and  afterwards  a  tertiary  of  the 
Crder  of  St.  Francis.  From  that  time  he  seemed  to 
be  inspired  with  extraordinary  zeal  for  the  conversion 
of  the  Mohammedan  world.  To  this  end  he  advo- 
cated the  studv  of  Oriental  languages  and  the  refu- 
tation of  Arabian  philosophy,  especially  that  of 
AverroSs.  He  founded  a  school  for  the  members  of 
hia  community  in  Majorca,  where  special  attention 
was  given  to  Arabic  and  Chaldean.  Later  he  taught 
in  Paris.  About  1291  he  went  to  Tunis,  preachea  to 
the  Saracens,  disputed  with  them  in  philosophy,  and 
after  another  brief  sojourn  in  Paris,  returned  to  the 
Ea^t  as  a  missionary.  After  undergoing  many  hard- 
ships and  privations  he  returned  to  Europe  m  1311 
for  the  purpose  of  laying  before  the  Council  of  Vienna 
his  plans  for  the  conversion  of  the  Moors.  Asain 
in  1315  he  set  out  for  Tunis,  where  he  was  stoned  to 
death  by  the  Saracens. 

Raymond's  literary  activity  was  inspired  by  the 
same  purpose  as  his  missionary  and  educational  ef- 
forts. In  the  numerous  writings  (about  300)  which 
came  from  his  facile  pen,  in  Catalonian  as  well  as  in 
Latin,  he  strove  to  show  the  errors  of  Averroism  and 
to  expound  Christian  theology  in  such  a  manner  that 
the  Saracens  themselves  could  not  fail  to  see  the  truth. 
With  the  same  purpose  in  view,  he  invented  a  me- 
chanical contrivance,  a  logical  machine,  in  which  the 
subjects  and  predicates  of  theolo^cal  propositions 
were  arranged  in  circles,  squares,  triangles,  and  other 
geometrical  figures,  so  that  by  moving  a  lever,  turn- 
ing a  crank,  or  causing  a  wheel  to  revolve,  the  prop- 
ositions w^ould  arrange  themselves  in  the  affirma- 
tive or  negative  and  thus  prove  themselves  to  be 
true.  This  device  he  called  the  Ars  Generalis 
Ultima  or  the  Ars  Magjia^  and  to  the  description  and 
explanation  of  it  he  devoted  his  most  important  works- 
Underlying  this  scheme  was  a  theoretical  philosophy, 
or  rather  a  theosophy,  for  the  essential  element  m 
Raymond's  method  was  the  identification  of  theology 
with  philosophy.  The  scholastics  of  the  thirteenth 
century  maintained  that,  while  the  two  sciences  agree, 
so  that  what  is  true  in  philosophy  cannot  be  false  in 
theology,  or  vice  versa,  they  are,  nevertheless,  two 
distinct  sciences,  differing  especially  in  that  theology 
makes  use  of  revelation  as  a  source,  while  philosophy 
relics  on  reason  alone. 

The  Arabians  had  completely  separated  them  by 
maintaining  the  twofold  standard  of  truth,  according 
to  which  what  b  false  in  philosophy  may  be  true  in 


BAYMOND 


671 


RAYMOND 


thcx)logy.  Raymond,  carried  on  by  his  zeal  for  the 
refutation  of  the  Arabians,  went  to  the  opposite 
extreme.  He  held  that  there  is  no  distinction  be- 
tween philosophy  and  theology,  between  reason  and 
faith,  so  that  even  the  highest  mysteries  may  be 
proved  by  means  of  logical  demonstration  and  the  use 
of  the  Ara  Magna.  This  of  course  removed  all  dis- 
tinction between  natural  and  supernatural  truth. 
Unlike  Abelard's,  however,  Ravmond's  rationalism 
was  of  the  mystic  type:  he  taught  expressly  that,  for 
the  understanding  of  the  highest  truths,  reason  must 
be  aided  by  faith;  that  once  faith  has  flooded  the 
soul  with  its  radiance,  reason,  enlightened  and 
strengthened  by  faith,  "is  as  capable  of  showing  that 
there  are  three  persons  in  one  God  as  it  is  of  proving 
that  there  cannot  be  three  Gods".  "Relying  on  the 
grace  of  God",  he  writes,  "I  intend  to  prove  the 
articles  of  faith  by  convincing  reasons"  ("Opera". 
Strasburg  ed..  p.  966).  On  the  other  hand,  he  held 
that,  althougn  reason  needs  this  Divine  assistance, 
faith  is  just  as  much  in  need  of  reason;  faith  may  de- 
ceive us  unless  reason  guides  it.  He  who  relies  on 
faith  alone  is  like  a  blind  man  who,  relying  on  the 
sense  of  touch,  can  sometimes  find  what  he  wants  but 
often  misses  it;  to  be  certain  of  finding  his  object, 
he  needs  sight  as  well  as  touch.  So  Raymond  held 
that  a  man,  in  order  to  find  out  the  truth  about  God, 
must  bring  reason  to  the  task  as  well  as  faith. 

These  principles  were  taken  up  by  the  followers  of 
Raymond,  known  as  Lullists,  who  for  a  time  had  so 
great  an  influence,  especially  in  Spain,  tliat  they  suc- 
ceeded in  founding  chairs  at  the  Universities  of  Bar- 
celona and  Valencia  for  the  propagation  of  the  doc- 
trines of  the  "Illuminated  Doctor"*  The  Church 
authorities,  however,  recognized  the  dangerous  con- 
sequences which  follow  from  the  breaking  down  of  the 
distinction  between  natural  and  supernatural  truth. 
Consequently,  in  spite  of  his  praiseworthy  zeal  and 
his  crown  of  martyrdom,  Raymond  has  not  been 
canonized.  His  rationalistic  mysticism  was  formally 
condemned  by  Gregory  XI  in  1376  and  the  con- 
demnation was  renewed  by  Paul  IV.  Raymond's 
works  were  published  in  ten  folio  volumes  at  Mainz, 
1721-42.  There  are,  besides,  several  editions  of 
portions  of  his  writings.  His  poems  and  popular 
treatises,  written  in  Catalonian,  had  a  very  wide 
circulation  in  his  own  day,  and  their  style  has  won 
him  a  high  place  in  the  history  of  medieval  3p^Bh 
literature.  The  best  known  edition  of  the  works  in 
which  he  describes  his  logical  machine  is  the  Stras- 
burg edition  of  1651.  The  "Rivista  Lulliana",  a 
periodical  devoted  to  the  exposition  of  Raymond's 
philosophy,  was  started  at  Barcelona  in  1901. 

RiBKiRA,  Originea  de  la  filoaofia  de  Ramdn  Lullo  (Madrid,  1899) ; 
Deniple  in  Arch./.  Litt.  u,  Kirehengeach.  (1888),  352;  de  Wulf, 
HiMory  of  Medieval  Phil.,  tr.  Copfet  (New  York,  1909).  403  sqq.; 
Turner,  Hiatory  of  Philosophy  (Boston,  1903),  394  sqq. 

WiujAM  Turner. 

Raymond  Martini,  Dominican,  theologian.  Orien- 
talist, b.  at  Subirats.  Catalonia,  c.  1220;  a.  i^ter 
July,  1284.  In  1250  ne  was  selected  by  his  superiors 
to  study  Oriental  languages,  in  1264  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  commission  appointed  by  Jaii^e  I  of 
Aragon  to  censure  the  wntings  possessed  by  the 
Jews,  and  subsequently  preached  to  the  Moors  in 
Spain  and  Tunis.  Retumins  to  Barcelona  (1269) 
he  successfully  taught  the  Oriental  languages  and 
wrote  against  the  Jews  and  Moors.  His  chief  work, 
"Pugio  Fidei  Christianae"  completed  after  1278, 
printed  in  Paris,  1651,  and  Leipzig,  1687,  is  written 
m  Latin  and  Hebrew.  It  appeals  to  the  Hebrew 
Scriptures  and  ancient  rabbinical  writings  to  prove 
the  truth  of  Christianity  against  the  Jews.  The  work, 
which  clearly  indicates  that  Raymond  Martini  was 
extremely  well-read  in  Hebrew  literature,  is  much 
valued  on  account  of  its  citations  from  the  Talmud 
and  other  sources,  and  has  also  been  highly  esteemed 


as  a  polemical  source.  It  is  not  probable,  however, 
that  it  was  known  and  used  by  St.  Thomas  Aquinas. 
Martini's  other  works  are  the  recently  discovered 
"Explanatio  simboli  apostolorum  ad  institutionem 
fidelium  edita",  written  about  1256,  of  which  im- 
portant fragments  were  edited  by  Denifle,  and  two 
polemical  works  also  antedating  the  "Pugio  Fidei". 
out  both  lost,  "Summa  contra  Alcoranum"  and 
"Capistrum  Judsorum". 

Quwnr-EcBARD.  Script.  Ord.  Prad.t  I,  396;  TonRON,  Hisl. 
dea  hotnmea  iUua.  de  VOrdre  de  St.  Dom.,  I,  489-504;  Manx>onnet, 
Siger  de  Brabant,  I  (Louvain,  1908).  47,  53,  315;  II  (Louvain, 
1911),  28-9;  DoUAis,  Eaaai  aur  Vorffanisation  dea  itudea  dana 
Vordre  dea  Prhrea  Pricheura  au  treiziime  et  au  muUorziime  aiicle 
(Paris,  1884),  135-140;  Jewiah  Encyel.,  VIII  (New  York,  1906), 
351;  Journal  of  Philoloffy,  XVI  (1887),- 131-52;  Zeitachrift  fUr 
Hebr.  BiU.  (1902-3). 

J.  A.  McHUGH. 

Raymond  Noxmatus,  Saint  (in  Spanish  San 
Ram6n),  b.  1200  or  1204  at  Portello  in  the  Diocese 
of  Urgel  in  Catalonia:  d.  at  Cardona,  31  Aug.,  1240. 
His  feast  is  celebrated  on  31  August.  He  is  pictured 
in  the  habit  of  his  order  surrounded  by  ransomed 
slaves,  with  a  padlock  on  his  lips.  He  was  taken 
from  the  womb  of  his  mother  after  her  death,  hence 
his  name.  Of  noble  but  poor  family,  he  showed 
early  traits  of  pietv  and  great  talent.  His  father  or- 
dereid  him  to  tend  a  farm,  but  later  gave  him  per- 
mission to  take  the  habit  with  the  Mercedarians  at 
Barcelona,  at  the  hands  of  the  founder,  St.  Peter 
Nolasco.  Ra3rmond  made  such  progress  in  the  re- 
ligious life  that  he  was  soon  considered  worthy  to 
succeed  his  master  in  the  office  of  ransomcr.  He  was 
sent  to  Algiers  and  liberated  many  captives.  When 
money  failed  he  gave  himself  as  hostage.  He  was 
zealous  in  teaching  the  Christian  religion  and  made 
many  converts,  which  embittered  the  Mohammedan 
authiorities.  Ra3rmond  was  subjected  to  all  kinds 
of  indignities  and  cruelty,  was  made  to  run  the 
gauntlet,  and  was  at  last  sentenced  to  impalement. 
The  hope  of  a  greater  sum  of  money  as  ransom  caused 
the  governor  to  commute  the  sentence  into  imprison- 
ment. To  prevent  him  from  preachine  Chnst,  his 
Ups  were  pierced  with  a  red-hot  iron  and  closed  with 
a  padlock.  After  his  arrival  in  Spain,  in  1239,  he  was 
made  a  cardinal  by  Gregory  IX.  In  the  next  year  he 
was  called  to  Rome  by  the  pope,  but  came  onlv  as 
far  as  Cardona.  about  six  miles  from  Barcelona,  where 
he  died.  His  body  was  brought  to  the  chapel  of  St. 
Nicholas  near  his  old  farm.  In  1657  his  name  was 
placed  in  the  Roman  martyrology  by  Alexander  VII. 
He  is  invoked  by  women  in  labour  and  by  persons 
falsely  accused.  The  appendix  to  the  Roman 
Ritual  gives  a  formula  for  the  blessing  of  water,  in 
his  honour,  to  be  used  by  the  sick,  and  another  of 
candles. 

Butler,  hivea  of  the  Sainta;  Staousr,  Heiligenlexieon;  Gaiib, 
Kirchengeach.  von  Spanien,  III,  1;   Acta  SS.,  Aug.  VI,  729. 

Francis  Mershman. 

Bafmond  ot  Penafort,  Saint,  b.  at  Villafranca  de 
Benadis,  near  Barcelona,  in  1175;  d.  at  Barcelona, 
6  Jan.,  1275.  He  became  professor  of  canon  law 
in  1195,  and  taught  for  fifteen  years.  He  left  Spain 
for  Bologna  in  1210  to  complete  his  studies  in  canon 
law.  He  occupied  a  chair  of  canon  law  in  the 
university  for  three  years  and  published  a  treatise 
on  ecclesiastical  legislation  which  still  exists  in  the 
Vatican  Library.  Raymond  was  attracted  to  the 
Dominican  Order  bv  the  preaching  of  Blessed  Regi- 
nald, prior  of  the  jDominicans  of  Bologna,  and  re- 
ceived the  habit  in  the  Dominican  Convent  of  Bar- 
celona, whither  he  had  returned  from  Italy  in  1222. 
At  Barcelona  he  was  co-founder  with  St.  Peter 
Nolasco  of  the  Order  of  Mercedarians.  He  also 
founded  institutes  at  Barcelona  and  Tunis  for  the 
study  of  Oriental  languages,  to  convert  the  Moors 
and  Jews.  At  the  request  of  his  superiors  Raymond 
published  the  "Summa  Casuum'',  of  which  several 


RAYMOND 


672 


RATNOUARD 


editions  appeared  in  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth 
centuries.  In  1229  Raymond  was  appointed  theo- 
logian and  penitentiary  to  the  Cardinal  Archbishop 
of  Sabina,  John  of  Abbeville,  and  was  summoned  to 
Rome  in  1230  by  Gregory  IX,  who  appointed  him 
chaplain  and  grand  penitentiary.  The  reputation 
of  the  saint  for  juridical  science  decided  the  pope  to 
employ  Raymond  of  Penafort's  talents  in  re-arrang- 
ing and  codifjring  the  canons  of  the  Chtu'ch.  He 
had  to  rewrite  and  condense  decrees  that  had  been 
multiplying  for  centuries,  and  which  were  contained 
in  some  twelve  or  fourteen  collections  already  exist- 
ing. We  learn  from  a  Bull  of  Gregory  IX  to  the  Uni- 
versities of  Paris  and  Bologna  that  many  of  the  decrees 
in  the  collections  were  but  repetitions  of  ones  issued 
before,  many  contradicted  what  had  been  determined 
in  previous  decrees,  and  many  on  account  of  their 
great  length  led  to  endless  confusion,  while  others 
had  never  been  embodied  in  any  collection  and  were 
of  uncertain  authority. 

The  pope  announc^  the  new  publication  in  a  Bull 
directed  to  the  doctors  and  students  of  Paris  and 
Bologna  in  1231,  and  commanded  that  the  work  of 
St.  Raymond  alone  should  be  considered  authorita- 
tive, and  should  alone  be  used  in  the  schools.  When 
Raymond  completed  his  work  the  pope  appointed 
him  Archbishop  of  Tarragona,  but  the  saint  declined 
the  honour.  Having  edited  the  Decretals  he  re- 
turned to  Spain.  He  was  not  allowed  to  remain  long 
in  seclusion,  as  he  was  elected  General  of  the  Order 
in  1238;  but  he  resign^  two  years  later.  During  his 
tenure  of  office  he  published  a  revised  edition  of  the 
Dominican  Constitutions,  and  it  was  at  his  request 
that  St.  Thomas  wrote  the  "Sununa  contra  Gentes". 
St.  Raynaond  was  canonized  by  Clement  VIII  in 
1601.  His  '^Summa  de  Poenitentia  et  Matrimonio" 
is  said  to  be  the  first  work  of  its  kind.  His  feast  is 
23  Jan. 

Monumenta  HUioriea  Ord.  Prced.t  V,  iv;  BuUarium  Ord.  Freed,; 
Penia,  Vita  S.  Raymundi;  Mobtisb,  Hitt.  dea  Mattres  Giniraux 
(PariB,  1003);  Finke.  Acta  Arao<meruia,  II  (1908),  902-1; 
Qu^nr-EcHARD,  Script.  Ord.  Prod.;  Balmb,  Raymundiana 
(1901). 

MlCBA£L  M.  O'Kane. 

Raymond  of  Sabunde  (Sabondb,  Sebon,  Se- 
BETDE,  etc.),  b.  at  Barcelona,  Spain,  towards  the  end 
of  the  fourteenth  century;  d.  1432.  From  1430  to 
his  death  he  tau^t  theoloKy,  philosophy,  and  medi- 
cine at  the  University  oF  Toulouse.  Apparently, 
he  wrote  several  works  on  theology  and  philosophy, 
only  one  of  which  remains,  ''Theologia  Naturalis'\ 
It  was  first  written  in  Spanish,  translated  into  French 
by  Montaigne  (Paris,  1569)  and  into  Latin  at  various 
times  (e.  g.  Deventer,  1487;  Strasburg,  1496;  Paris, 
1509;  Venice,  1581,  etc.).  Montaigne  bears  witness 
to  the  extraordinary  popularity  which  the  work  en- 
joyed in  his  day.  It  represents  a  phase  of  decadent 
Scholasticism,  and  is  a  defence  oi  a  point  of  view 
which  is  subversive  of  the  fundamental  principle  of 
the  Scholastic  method.  The  Schoolmen  of  the  thir- 
teenth century,  while  holding  that  there  can  be  no 
contradiction  between  theology  and  philosophy, 
maintain  that  the  two  sciences  are  dbtinct.  Ray- 
mond breaks  down  the  distinction  by  teaching  a 
kind  of  theosophy,  the  doctrine,  namely  that,  as  man 
is  a  connecting  link  between  the  natural  and  the 
supernatural,  it  is  possible  by  a  study  of  human  na- 
ture to  arrive  at  a  knowledge  even  of  the  most  pro- 
found mysteries  of  Faith.  The  tendenc3r  of  his 
thought  is  similar  to  that  of  the  rationalistic  theos- 
ophy of  Raymond  Lully  (g.  v.). 

De  Wult,  Hittory  of  Medieval  PhiuMophy,  tr.  Coppet  (New 
York,  1909).  455  sq.;  StOckl,  Oeeeh.  der  Phil,  des  Mittelalters, 
II  (Maini,  1866).  105  sq. 

William  Turner. 

Bl^aldi  (RiNALDi),  Odorico,  Oratorian,  b.  at 
Treviso  in  1595;  d.  at  Rome,  22  January,  1671.    Of 


patrician  birth,  he  studied  at  Parma  and  Padua, 
loined  the  Or^torians  in  Rome,  and,  distinguished  for 
his  piety,  beneficence,  and  scholarship,  was  twice 
elected  superior  general  of  his  congregation.  He  was 
entrusted  with  the  continuation  of  the  annaJs  of  Ba- 
ronius  and,  after  the  publication  of  the  first  volume, 
was  offered  the  direction  of  the  Vatican  Library  by 
Innocent  X,  which  honour  he  declined.  His  contin- 
uation of  Baronius  extends  from  1198  to  1565  and 
was  published  at  Rome,  1646-77.  He  was  the  ablest 
oontmuator  of  the  great  historian.  Although  his 
work  is  marred  here  and  there  by  inaccurate  chron- 
ological data  and  lack  of  criticism,  the  numerous 
original  documents  which  it  reproduces  render  it  very 
valuable.  Ra3rniddi  also  published  excerpts  in  Latin 
and  Italian  both  from  the  work  of  Baronius  and  his 
own  continuation  of  it. 

Mansi  in  Baroniue-Theiner,  pp.  iii-Tiii;  AnnaU^  Bedee.^  XX 
(Bai^le-Duc,  1870).  3-8. 

N.  A.  Weber. 

Raynaud,  Th^ophile,  theologian  and  writer,  b. 
at  Sospello  near  Nice,  15  Nov.,  1583;  d.  at  LyonR, 
31  Oct..  1663.  He  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus,  21 
Novemoer,  1602,  taught  granunar  and  humanities  at 
Avignon,  philosophy  and  theology  at  Lyons  and  for 
a  time  at  Rome.  He  was  very  zealous  for  souls,  a 
theologian  of  broad  erudition,  and  a  writer  of  great 
fertility,  having  produced  ninety-two  separate  works, 
covering  almost  the  entire  field  of  theology.  His 
style,  however,  is  often  prolix  and  sometimes  obscure, 
whilst  in  his  controversial  writings  he  indulges  in 
satire  and  invective.  His  collected  works,  revised 
by  himself  shortly  before  his  death,  were  published 
under  the  direction  of  his  confrere,  Fr.  John  Bertet, 
in  nineteen  volumes  (Lyons,  1665).  A  twentieth 
volume,  entitled  "Th.  Raynaudi  Apopompceus"  (i.  e. 
the  scapegoat),  containing  a  number  of  writings 
which  the  author  had  purposely  excluded  from  the 
collection,  was  published  by  an  anonymous  editor  a 
few  years  later  (Cracow,  1669);  this  volume  was  con- 
demned by  the  Congregation  of  the  Index.  The  main 
titles  alone  of  the  Opera '^  are  given,  to  show  the 
nature  and  extent  of  his  writings:  I.  "Theologia 
Patrum:  Christus  Deus  Homo";  II.  "De  Attributis 
Christi";  III.  "Moralis  disciplina";  IV.  "De  w- 
tutibus  et  vitiis":  V.  "Theologia  naturalis";  VI. 
"Opuscula  euchanstica";  VII.  "Marialia";  VJII- 
IX.  "Hagiologium";  X.  "Pontificia";  XI.  "Critica 
sacra";  XII.  "MisceUa  sacra";  XIII.  "MisoeUa 
philologica":  XIV.  "MoraUa";  XV-XVI.  "Heten>. 
cUtaspmtuaiia";  XVII.  "Ascetica";  XVIII.  "Polem- 
ica".    XIX  contsdns  general  indices. 

WcxBS  in  MicHAUD.  Biog.  UnivereelU,  XXXVII  (Paru,  1824): 
HuBTUR,  Nomendator  Lilmxriut,  I  (Innsbruck,  1892),  404  sqq.; 
SoMMKRVOQEL,  Bibl.  de  la  C,  de  J.,  VI  (BruaMb,  1805). 

Edward  C.  Philups. 

Raynouard,  FRANgois-JusTE-MARiE,  a  French 
poet,  dramatist,  and  philologist,  b.  at  Brignoles, 
Var,  8  September,  1761;  d.  at  Passv,  27  October, 
1836.  He  studied  law  at  Aix  and,  on  being  admitted 
to  the  bar,  practised  there.  When  the  Revolution 
broke  out,  he  showed  at  first  a  great  enthusiasm  for 
liberty  and  was  elected  to  the  Legislative  Assembly, 
where  he  sided  with  the  Girondins.  He  soon  aban- 
doned the  new  ideas.  During  the  Terror,  he  was 
arrested  and  imprisoned  at  the  Abbaye.  Being 
freed  after  the  ninth  Thermidor,  he  returned  to  his 
native  city  and  obtained  great  success  as  an  at- 
tomey-at-law.  In  his  leisure  hours,  he  indulged  in 
writing  poems,  "  Socrate  au  temple  d' Aglaure  "  (1802), 
and  tragedies.  "Eldonore  de  Bavidre"  and  "Lea 
templiers",  wnich  were  played  in  1805  by  special 
command  of  Napoleon.  Their  success  caused  him 
to  be  elected  to  the  French  Academv  in  1807.  From 
1806  to  1814,  he  was  a  member  of  the  Legislature. 
After  Napoleon's  downfall,  he  retired  from  politics 
and  devoted  his  time  to  literature  and  a  comparative 


EEADINQ  G; 

study  of  laii(^ua);cs,  lie  wui)  one  of  thi-  piunccTX  of 
Romania  philology  aiid  made  a.  laatiDg  ropittalion 
by  his  rexearches  on  the  troubadoura,  aJthuugh  his 
concluuans  now  seem  hasty  and  often  mere  con- 
jectures. He  was  admitted  to  the  Academy  of  In- 
scriptions and  Belles-Lcttres  in  1815.  Uis  chief 
worKB  besides  the  dramas  above  mentioned  are  the 
tragedy  "Les  £tat«  de  Blois"  (1809),  andafewothera 
I'er  produced  on 


.rlos' 


"D^ 


Fmui^ois  Rai 


bora",  "Charles 
I",  "Jeanne  d'Arc 
it  Orleans";  var- 
ious contributions 
t4)  Romance  philol- 
ogy: "Recherches 
Bur  l'antiquit6  dc 
la  langue  romone 
(Paris,  1816); 
"Elements  dc  la 
gramnuure    de    la 


troubadours" 
(181C):  "Des trou- 
badours et  lea  coiirs 
tl'amour"    (1817); 


paree  des  langues  de  I'Europe  latine  dans  leurs 
rapports  avec  la  langue  des  tlxiubiuiours"  (1^21); 
"Cnoix    des    po<58ie3    originales    des    troubadours" 

i Paris,  1821);  "Lexique  de  la  langue  dea  trouba- 
ours"  {Paris,  1824);  "Nouveau  choix  ties  pofeiea 
originales  des  troubadours"  (Paris,  1836-44). 

.It'LUEN.  La  poUiefnintiim  d  I'lpoqui  impiruiU  IParin,  1844) ; 
Medlet.  TibUau  <Jr  h  till,  franc,  de  ISOO  L  ISI3  (Paris.  1S78) : 
GtDitL.  Hill,  dela  liu. /ranc.  Ill  (1NS3):  Albmit.  tfirf.  He  la 
lia.  tout  la  KtHilutim.  rEmpin  tl  In  Bnlauralion  {Parix,  1861). 

LoDis  N.  Delaharrg. 

Roftdlng  Abbey,  Surrey,  En^and,  was  foundc<l  by 
Henry  I  in  1121,  who  built  it,  writes  William  of 
Malmesbury,  "between  therivera  Keiinet  and  Thames, 
in  a  spot  calculated  for  the  reception  of  almost  all  who 
mi^ht  have  occa'^ion  to  travel  to  the  most  popalous 
citiesof  England,  where  he  placed  monks  of  the  Cluniac 
Order,  who  arc  to  this  day  a  noble  paltem  of  holiness 
and  an  example  of  unwearied  and  [Icliglitful  hospital- 
ity". The  foundation  charter  declares  that  the  new 
monastery  takes  the  place  of  three  others.  Reding. 
Cholsey,  and  Leominster;  dedicates  it  to  the  Blessed 
Virftin  and  St.  John  the  Evangelist;  accords  it  every 
civil  privilege  conceded  to  royid  monasteries,  and  in- 
structs the  abbot  to  employ  the  alms  at  his  disposid 
for  "the  entertainment  of  the  poor,  pilgrinw,  and 
guests".  The  first  abbot  was  Hugues  de  Boves,  late 
Prior  of  St.  Pancras,  Lewes,  afterwards  .Archbishop  of 
Rouen.  From  the  beginning  it  was  an  independent 
English  abbey,  which,  whilst  retaining  the  Cluniac 
observance,  elected  its  own  abbots,  paid  no  impoKt  to 
the  mother-house,  was  exempt  from  Cluniac  visita- 
tion, and  never  acknowledged  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
General  Chapter  or  Abbot  of  Cliiny;  Hence,  though 
it  has  been  described  aa  a  Cluniac  establishment  in 
ancient  documents,  even  in  papal  letters  of  so  lale  a 
date  as  I309,it  was  never  an  "alien  "house,  and  Chinv 
can  only  claim  the  credit  of  having  set  it  going  with 
monks  and  monastic  customs. 

The  abbey  precincts  covered  about  thirty  acres  and 
were  surrounded  on  three  sides  by  a  great  wall  with 
tour  embattled  gateways,  one  of  which,  the  western 
or  compter  gate,  served  as  the  town  prison.  It  was 
entered  through  an  inner  gat  ehoiwe  (existing,  re.'ilored 
by  Sir  G.  Scott  in  ISfil)  wherein  the  abbol  held  his 
manorial  court.  The  church,  consecrated  bv  St. 
XIL— 43 


i  BEASOH 

ThomasaUecket  in  11114,  was  4i)0  feet  long  and  95  feet 
broad,  with  transepts  (200  ft.),  a  I.ady-chapel  (7.5  by 
50  ft.)  built  in  1314,  and  a  square  central  tower  wiUi 
spire.  The  monastic  buildings  were  un  the  same  scale, 
and  the  chapter-house,  an  apaidal,  vaulted  hull  (79  by 
42  ft.),  was  frequently  used  as  a  national  couiicil 
chamber,  where  Parliament  sat,  and  many  synods  and 
ecclesiastical  councils  were  held.  There  was  a  leper- 
hospital,  closed  in  1413  for  lack  of  inmates.  The 
hospitiiiin  had  a  |;ueat  hall  (120  ft.),  a  dormitory 
(aX)  ft.)  and  provision  for  twenf.y^ix  poor  pensioners. 
Part  of  the  building  (the  dormitory)  still  exist*  and 
for  many  years  was  in  use  as  the  Royai  Grammar 
School  of  King  Henry  VII,  The  abbot  was  mitred 
(1288),  a  feudal  baron,  had  a  seat  in  Parliament,  his 
own  mint,  the  rectorship  of  the  three  Reading  parishes 
and  the  rents  of  a  number  of  churches  and  granges. 
His  chief  country-seat  was  Bere  Court,  Pangbourne. 
His  officials  and  servants  were  some  forty,  at  a  time 
when  their  number  had  been  cut  down  for  the  sake  of 
ccoiioniy.  Three  priories  (cells)  were  under  his  juris- 
diction, IjCominster  (Herefordshire)  in  Englanil,  Rin- 
dcl^joe,  and  May  in  Scotland  (afterwards  resigned 
into  the  hands  of  the  Bishop  of  Aberdeen).  At  the 
dissolution  the  revenues  were  valued  at  £21 1(!  3s. 
9J^d.  The  last  abbot  was  Blessed  Hugh  Cook,  nliat 
Faringdon.  After  serving  as  a  royal  palaee  during 
some  reigns,  the  buildings  were  stripped  of  their 
carved  and  dressed  stonework  for  the  repairing  and 
building  of  churches,  bridges,  and  the  litie,  and  not 
much  more  than  the  core  of  some  of  the  walls,  huge 
masses  of  flintr^xincrete,  is  left  to  preserve  the  memory 
of  the  great  abbey  which  Henry  I  designed  aa  the 


of  the  abbey  were  the  hand  of  St.  James  the  Apostle 
(now  in  the  sacristy  of  St.  Peter's,  Marlow-on- 
Thames),  presented  by  Henry  I,  and  the  skull  of  St. 


.   J.  C.  Alnosd 
Baklism.    See  Nouinkubu,  Reausm,  Conckf- 


',  The.  See  EucHAtiisT. 
S«UOn. — Ge-nbral  Mbaninus. — Both  in  ordinary 
life  and  in  philosophical  discussions  the  t«rm  reason  is 
of  freauent  occurrence  in  different  significations. 
Etymolo^cally  the  word  comes  to  us,  tiirough  the 
Frenrh,  from  the  Latin  ratio,  which  is  originally  the 
functional  noun  of  the  verb  rear,  "  I  think  "  (i.  e.  I  pro- 
pose a  rM  to  my  mind).  According  to  Donaldson, 
reai=A-ra.M,aderivativefrom  Air=5[«i>  (hand);  hence 
res  is  "that  which  is  handled",  and  means  an  object 
of  thought,  in  accordance  with  that  practical  tendency 
of  the  Roman  mind  which  treated  all  realities  as 
palpable.  Ratio,  in  opposition  to  r^,  denotes  the 
mode  or  act  of  thinking;  by  extension  it  comes  to 
designate  on  the  one  hand  the  faculty  of  thinking 
and  on  the  other  the  formal  element  of  thought,  such 
as  plan,  account,  ground,  etc.  This  wide  use  of  the 
word  reason  to  denote  the  cognitive  faculty  (especially 


used  in  ttiis  sense  in  a  definition  of  the  Vatican  Council 
(Denzinger.  "Enchiridion",  11th  ed.,  Freiburg,  1911, 
nn.  178,S-6);  but  dready  in  Aristotle  we  haveaelear 
distinction  between  intellect  (»6»),  as  the  intuitive 
faculty,  and  reason  (Wt«),  as  the  discursive  or  infer- 
entJ^  faculty.  This  distinction  was  maintained  by 
the  Schoolmen.  Yet.  since  Kant,  the  word  reawn 
has  been  usm!  lo  shelt^rr  a  bewildering  chaos  of  no- 
tions. Boflidps  usina  reawn  (Vemunft)  as  distin- 
pnished from thefaculliesof  conception  (Vcrstand)  and 
judgment  {VrteUakraJl),  Kant  employed  the  word  in  a 


REASON 


674 


REASON 


transcendental  sense  as  the  function  of  subsuming 
under  the  unity  of  the  ideas  the  concepts  and  niles 
of  the  understanding.  Subsequent  Ucrman  phil- 
osophers, as  Schopenhauer  complained,  '*tried,  with 
shameless  audacitv,  to  smuggle  in  under  this  name  an 
entirely  spurious  faculty  of  immediate,  metaphysical 
so-called  super-sensuous  knowledge''. 

Discursive  Thinking. — In  its  general  sense,  there- 
fore, reason  may  be  attributed  to  God,  and  an  angel 
may  be  called  rational.  But  in  its  narrower  meaning, 
reason  is  man's  differentia,  at  once  his  necessity  ana 
his  privilege;  that  by  which  he  is  "a  little  less  than 
the  angels  ,  and  that  by  which  he  excels  the  brutes. 
Reasoning,  as  St.  Thomas  says,  is  a  defect  of  intellect. 
True,  in  certain  acts  our  mind  functions  as  intellect; 
there  are  immediate  truths  {Afu^a)  and  first  principles 
(dpxal)  which  we  intuite  or  grasp  with  our  intellect; 
and  in  such  verities  there  can  be  no  deception  or 
error.  On  this  point  the  Scholastic  system  may  be 
said  to  be  absolutely  intellectualist  or  noocentric. 
The  meanest  intellect  is,  to  use  an  expression  of  St. 
Augustine,  capax  Dei.  Within  a  certain  region  our 
cognitive  faculties  are  absolutely  infallible.  Yet  the 
Scholastics  also  unanimously  hold  that  man's  specific 
mark  is  ratiocination  or  discursus.  Some  indeed,  like 
St.  Augustine  (who  was  intent  on  his  analogy  between 
logos  in  man  and  in  the  Blessed  Trinity),  insist  on  the 
intuitional  aspect  of  our  mental  operations,  and  pass 
over  the  actual  process  as  a  whole.  Yet  none  denied 
that  in  this  life  our  knowledge  is  a  thing  of  shreds  and 

fatches,  laboriously  woven  from  the  threads  of  sense, 
t  is  only  in  patria,  for  instance,  that  God's  exist- 
ence will  be  to  us  as  self-evident  as  the  principle  of 
contradiction  is  now.  The  beatific  vision  will,  in  fact, 
be  not  only  as  evident,  but  also  as  immediate  as  our 
present  intuition  of  personal  consciousness.  But  then 
we  shall  be  on  a  level  with  the  angels,  who  are  sub- 
sistent  intelligences  or  pure  intuitives.  An  angel,  in 
Scholastic  philosophy,  is  practically  the  equivalent  of 
vovt  (iniellectuSf  inteUegeniia)  when  used  by  such  writers 
as  Aristotle,  Porphyry,  Plotinus,  or  Pseudo-Dionysius, 
to  denote  not  a  facility,  but  a  species  of  being. 

Opposed  to  this  icieal  intellection,  so  characteristic 
of  Scholastic  angelology,  is  our  actual  human  experi- 
ence, which  is  a  yiyvhiuvov^  a  coming  to  be.  Man  is 
rational  in  the  sense  that  he  is  a  being  who  arrives  at 
conclusions  from  premises.  Our  intellectual  life  is  a 
process,  a  voyage  of  discovery;  our  knowledge  is  not 
a  static  ready-made  whole;  it  is  rather  an  organism 
instinct  with  life  and  growth.  Each  new  conclusion 
becomes  the  basis  of  further  inference.  Hence,  too, 
the  word  reason  is  used  to  signify  a  premise  or  ground 
of  knowledge,  as  distinguished  from  a  cause  or  real 
ground.  So  important  is  this  distinction  that  one  may 
say  herein  lies  the  nucleus  of  all  philosophy.  The  task 
of  the  philosopher  is  to  distinguish  the  a  priori  of  logic 
form  from  the  a  priori  of  time;  and  that  this  task  is  a 
difficult  one  is  testified  by  the  existence  of  the  many 
systems  of  psychologism  and  evolutionism.  Reason- 
ing, therefore,  must  be  asserted  to  be  a  process  sui 
generis.  This  is  perhaps  the  best  answer  to  ^ve  to  the 
question,  so  much  discussed  by  the  old  logicians,  as  to 
what  kind  of  causative  influence  the  premises  exert 
on  the  conclusion.  We  can  only  say,  they  validate  it, 
they  are  its  warrant.  For  inference  is  not  a  mere 
succession  in  time;  it  is  a  nexus  though t-of,  not  merely 
an  association  between  thou^ts.  An  irrationaJ  con- 
clusion or  a  misleading  association  is  as  much  a  fact 
and  a  result  as  a  correct  conclusion :  the  existence  of 
the  latter  is  explained  only  by  its  logical  parentage. 
Hence  the  futility  of  trying  to  account  completely  for 
the  existence  of  a  human  thought — the  conclusion  of 
a  train  of  reasoning — simply  by  the  accompanying 
sense-data  and  psychological  associations.  The  ques- 
tion of  validity  is  prior  to  all  problems  of  genesis;  for 
rational  knowledge  can  never  be  the  product  of  irra- 
tional conditions. 


Allowing  then  the  indefinability  of  ratiocination,  we 
may  proceed  to  ask  if  inference  is  homogeneous;  in 
other  words,  are  there  different  forms  of  reasoning? 
This  raises  the  difficult  question  as  to  whether  deduc- 
tion and  induction  are  ultimately  irreducible  modes  of 
reasoning.  The  issue  is  usually  confused  by  a  very 
narrow  definition  of  the  syllogism,  which  has  to  be 
fitted  into  the  word-grooves  prescribed  by  S3mtax. 
But  if,  developing  Aristotle's  thought,  we  regard  a 
syllogism  as  the  unit  of  reasoning,  then  we  may  define 
it  as  the  inference  of  a  relation  between  A  and  C  from 
a  relation  of  A  to  B  compounded  with  a  relation  of 
B  to  C.  As  an  illustration  we  might  instance  Mill's 
famous  example  of  the  \dllage  matron's  inference. 
Mill  calls  it  reasoning  from  particulars  by  analogy; 
but  it  can  easily  be  seen  to  be  a  syllogism ;  this  drug 
(A)  cured  my  Lucy  (B),  who  had  the  same  sickncK)  as 
this  neighbour's  child  (C),  and  hence  will  cure  this 
child  (C).  All  reasoning  seems  to  consist  in  such  unit 
steps,  and  it  seems  misleading  to  talk  of  inference 
vi  materice;  material  and  formal  are  relative  terms. 

Psychology  op  Reasoning. — There  is  an  impor- 
tant sense,  however,  in  which  the  epithet  **  material " 
has  been  applied  to  reasoning,  to  denote  illation  in 
which  the  relational  formality  has  not  yet  been  dis- 
sected out.  The  same  laws  of  thought  rule  the 
{)hilosopher's  reasoning  and  the  peasant's,  but  the 
atter's  conclusion  will  only  be  fairly  certain  when  its 
matter  comes  within  his  usual  cognizance.  A  man 
can  reason  well  about  familiar  matter;  but,  unless  he 
has  expUcitly  examined  the  illative  process,  he  ^ill 
hesitate  and  err  when  dealing  with  new  subject- 
matter.  The  mistakes  of  inventors  like  Newton  and 
Leibniz  are  very  instructive  on  this  point.  We  are 
all,  then,  as  Newman  put  it,  more  or  less  depart- 
mental; we  reason  with  unequal  facility  on  different 
subjects.  Does  it  follow  that  m  such  cases  of  concrete 
informal  reasoning  there  is  a  rational  surplusage  of 
assurance  over  evidence?  This  does  not  seem  so  clear, 
and  cannot  be  answered  without  some  analysis.  Long 
before  the  dawn  of  modern  psychology,  Aristotle  em- 
phasized the  fact  that  we  never  think  without  having 
an  accompan3dng  sense-process,  whether  it  be  a  visual 
image,  or  an  auditory  symbol,  or  even  the  motor  im- 
pression of  a  word.  The  Scnolastics  also  admitted 
this,  and  indeed  many  urged  the  necessity  of  this 
converHo  ad  phantasmata  as  the  explanation  of 
our  piecemeal  ratiocinative  mode  of  learning.  But 
this  IS  not  equivalent  to  saying  that  all  reasoning  can 
be  exactly  formulated,  crystallized,  as  it  were,  into 
words.  Language,  after  all,  is  merely  a  conventional 
drapery  of  our  thought,  which  is  convenient  for  log- 
ical analysis  and  for  communicating  with  others.  But 
do  we  not  in  ordinary  life  often  sylbgize  in  sights  and 
reason  in  sounds?  Does  not  our  mind  in  its  inferences 
leap  far  ahead  of  the  sluggish  machinery  of  language? 
And  which  of  us  has  ever  succeeded  in  fully  analyzing 
his  most  commonplace  attitude  or  emotion?  To 
account,  then,  for  the  major  part  of  our  existence,  we 
must  admit  something  analogous  to  the  Aristotelean 
tf>p6pfi<rii — whether  we  call  it  the  illative  sense,  or  the 
artistic  reason,  or  implicit  thou^t.  The  main  thing 
to  observe  is  that  it  is  not  a  special  faculty.  It  is  our 
reason  acting  under  disabilities  of  language  rather 
than  of  thought;  for,  after  all,  evidence  is  for  our- 
selves while  demonstration  has  reference  to  the 
audience. 

Reason  and  Feeling. — These  experiences  have, 
however,  been  interpreted  in  an  anti-intellectualist 
sense.  The  Pragmatist  school  regards  reasoning  as 
completely  determined  by  its  relevance  to  purpose 
or  interest.  And,  again,  many  philosophers  (Kant, 
the  Modernists,  and  many  Protestant  theologians 
under  the  influence  of  Schleiermacher)  have  exag- 
gerated the  dualism  between  head  and  heart.  In  fact, 
a  sp)ecies  of  epistemological  mysticism  has  been  de- 
vised (cf.  Gefuhhglauhey  raisons  du  cceur^  etc.).    So  far 


RBCANATI 


676 


RBCANATI 


80  this  bears  on  the  problem  of  reason,  we  may  briefly 
state  the  case.  It  is  true  that  our  reason  works  ptu*- 
poai,vcly — that  is,  reason  is  selective  of  our  silbject- 
matter,  but  it  is  not  creative  or  transforming.  Nature 
b  an  ordered  cosmos  of  which  we  form  a  piut,  so  that 
every  object  in  it  has  a  '^ practical''  bearing  on  our 
lives,  is  connected  with  our  rational,  sensitive,  or 
natural  appetency.  The  known  is  never  completely 
out  of  resonance  with  our  volitions  and  emotions.  To 
affirm  anything,  or  to  reason  about  a  subject,  is  at 
once  to  take  up  a  position  before  it.  This  is  especially 
true  of  moral  and  reU^ous  matter,  and  indeed  the 
emotional  genesis  of  ethical  convictions  has  often  been 
urged  as  a  proof  of  their  irrationality.  But  we  should 
not  forget  that  the  Uability  to  be  influenced  by  emo- 
tional causes  is  not  confined  to  ethical  or  religious 
reasoning.  To  put  the  case  generally,  we  may  ask: 
What  precisely  is  meant  by  regarding  feeling  (or  will) 
as  forming  with  reason  a  co-ordinate  source  of  knowl- 
edge? (Cf.  G.  E.  Moore.  "Principia  Ethica",  sec. 
79-80. )  It  may  be  meant  tnat  to  have  a  certain  feeling 
towards  a  conclusion  is  the  same  as  to  have  reasoned 
it;  and  this  is  true  in  the  sense  that  the  complex 
"feeling"  may  include  ratiocination.  But  when  I 
draw  a  conclusion,  I  do  not  mean  that  I  prefer  it  or 
am  affected  by  it.  And  the  fact  that  the  two  things 
can  be  distinguished  is  fatal  to  the  assumed  co-ordina- 
tion between  emotion  and  reason.  As  St.  Thomas 
urged  ag^nst  the  pseudo-mvstics  and  Augustinians 
of  all  ages,  voUtion  is  possible  only  in  so  far  as  it 
includes  cognition;  and,  we  may  add,  emotion  is  a 
mode  of  experience,  only  inasmuch  as  it  presupposes 
knowledge. 

Again,  it  may  be  meant  that,  without  certain  ex- 
periences of  feeling  and  wilUng,  we  should  not  be  able 
to  draw  certain  etnical  conclusions.  This  may  be  ad- 
mitted as  a  psychological  fact,  viz.  that  there  are 
many  exercises  of  reason  which  we  shall  not  correctly 
perform  without  an  ethical  habituation  {iBuriu}  rtw, 
as  Aristotle  says).  In  this  connexion  it  is  interesting 
to  note  that  Cardinal  Newman's  object  in  writing  the 
"Grammar  of  Assent"  was  "to  show  that  a  right 
moral  state  of  mind  germinates  or  even  generates  good 
intellectual  principles".  This  is  very  far  from  coun- 
tenancing the  Kantian  view  of  the  practical  reason. 
The  School  admits  a  practical  reason  or  "synteresis" 
{Gewisserif  psychological  conscience),  in  the  sense  of  a 
natural  habit  of  moral  principles.  But  St.  Thomas 
strenuously  denies  that  it  is  specialis  potentia  rcUione 
aJUior  (a  special  faculty  higher  than  reason). 

Animals  and  Reason. — Finally,  a  word  may  be 
added  on  the  so-called  reason  of  animals.  Man  is 
called  animal  rationale;  this  expression  stands  for 
what  Aristotle  might  call  tvop  \oyiaTiK6v.  The  word 
fvoK  (in  German,  Ijebewesen)^  which  Aristotle  applied 
even  to  God,  does  not  mean  "animal",  but  "living 
being".  Is  there^  then,  any  rational  animal?  Catholic 
philosophy  attnbutes  to  animals  a  faculty  (vis 
(Bstimaliva)  whose  function,  analogous  to  that  of 
reason,  might,  for  want  of  a  better  name,  be  called 
"estimation".  Such  a  faculty  also  exists  in  man,  but 
in  a  higher  form,  and  was  called  by  the  Scholastics 
ratio  particularia  or  vis  cogilativa.  Unless  animals  had 
this  organic  faculty,  it  is  hard  to  see  how  they  could 
apprehend  those  pragmatic  relations  (inlentiones). 
such  as  utility,  danger,  etc.,  which  are  not  objects  or 
external  sense.  To  this  extent  we  may  allow  that  the 
psychic  life  of  brute  animals  is  one  of  "meanings"  and 
"values".  In  some  way  they  apprehend  aspects  and 
relations.  Otherwise  such  complex  co-ordinations  as 
those  required  for  nest-architecture  and  food-quest 
would  be  inconceivable.  The  extreme  views  of  Bethe, 
Uexkull,  and  others  almost  imply  a  return  to  Cartesian 
Mechanicism,  and  really  refute  themselves.  The 
danger  lies  rather  in  the  anthropomorphic  exaggeration 
of  the  powers  of  the  animal  mind.  Experience  has 
shown  how  fatally  easy  it  is  to  read  human  feelings 


and  reasonings  into  the  "mind"  of  one's  favourite  cat 
or  pet  lapdog.  Continuous,  patient  observations,  like 
those  of  Mrs.  Mary  Austin  on  sheep  or  of  Professor 
Yerkes  on  the  dancing-mouse,  are  worth  any  number 
of  isolated  anecdotes.  It  may  be  safely  affirmed  that 
there  is  not  a  single  unambiguous  record  of  animal 
ratiocination.  Such  experiments  as  those  of  Thorn- 
dike  (on  hungry  cats  shut  up  in  a  cage  and  forced  to 
learn  the  way  out  to  food)  are  easily  explained  by  the 
|P*adual  stereotyping  of  association  between  visuid 
impression  and  motor  response,  to  the  exclusion  of 
other  random  associations.  That  animals  are  in- 
capable of  rational  valuation  is  confirmed  by  the 
recent  observations  of  Forel,  Plateau,  and  others,  who 
have  shown  that  bees  (and  probably  all  insects)  have 
no  memory  of  facts,  but  only  of  time  and  distance. 
Reason,  therefore,  is  still  the  exclusive  prerogative  of 
man.  (See  Deduction;  Induction;  Instinct;  In- 
tellect; Intuition*  Knowledge.) 

HisTORT. — For  Aristotle  see  Bonitz,  Index  ArvntotelicuB  (Berlin, 
1870);  Kappbs,  Aristotelca-Lexikon  (Paderborn,  1894),  s.  vv. 
Aoyov;  vovK  etc.;  Tbbndblbnburg,  Elenunta  logices  AristotelefB 
(7th  ed..  Berlin,  1874);  Maier,  Die  Sylloi/isiik  dcs  AruUtMrlrs 
(TQbingen.  1896-1900).  For  the  Scholastic  view,  see  Schuid. 
ErkenntniaUhre  (Freiburg,  1890),  I.  iii;  8t6<.kl,  Gexch.  Her  Philoso- 
phieden  MiUelaUera  (Maina,  1864-66),  tr.  Fin  lay  (2  vols.,  Dublin, 
1903-);  SchCts,  Thomas-Lexicon  (2nd  ed.,  Paderborn,  1H95),  s. 
w.  InteUectuB  ;  Ratio ;  Synesis,  SynUresis.  For  general  history,  ace 
EiSLBR,  WUrterbuch  der  philosoph.  Begriffe  (3rd  ed.,  Berlin,  19 10), 
a.  w.  Vemunjl;  Verstand.  The  Kantian  view  is  explained  in 
Cairo,  Critical  Philosophy  of  Kant,  I  (Glasgow,  1889),  x;  Delbos, 
La  philoaophie  pratique  de  Kant  (Paris,  1905).  especially  the 
introduction.  Cf.  also  Coleridoe,  Aids  to  RejUectxon  {On  tht 
Difference  in  Kind  of  Reason  and  the  Understanding) .  The  Scholas- 
tic expresmon  avvrrfpffiri^  comes  from  a  false  reading  in  a  passage 
of  St.  Jerome  (P.  L.,  XXV,  22),  and  should  be  trvfciSifo-if ;  the 
derivation  <rvr  and  n}pi}<rif  (observation)  has  also  been  suggested; 
on  its  meaning  see  Appel,  Die  Lehre  der  Scholastiker  ton  ilcr 
SyrUeresis  (Rostock,  1891);  Jahnel  in  Theoldg.  QuartaUdir, 
(1870);    NrrzftCH  in  Ztitschr.  fUr  Kirchengesch.  (1897-8). 

General  Works. — Besides  the  ordinary  manuals  of  logic: 
Newman,  Grammar  of  Assent  (London,  1870),  and  Harper  s 
criticisms  in  The  Month  (1870);  Mvcleane,  Reason,  Thought  and 
Language  (London.  1906);  Baldwin.  Did.  of  Philosophy  atid 
Psychology  (New  York  anJ  London,  1901  -2),  s.  vv.  Nous;  Reason; 
Understanding;  Keary,  The  Pursuit  of  Reason  (Cambridge,  1910); 
Gkathy,  Logique  (Parb,  1855);  Roussklot,  Vintellectualhme  de 
Saint-Thomas  (Paris,  1908);  Lachelier.  Etiules  sur  le  syllogiifme 
(Paris,  1907);  Garoair.  La  connaissance  (Paris,  1895);  OLufc- 
Laprune,  La  raison  et  le  rationalisme  (Paris,  1900);  Idem,  Les 
sources  de  la  paiz  intellectuelle  (5th  ed.,  Piiri-j,  1900);  Ji.'NOMann, 
Das  Gemot  (2nd  ed.,  Freiburg,  1885);  Geyser,  Grundlagen  der 
Logik  und  Erkenntnistheorie  (MQnster,  1909). 

PsTCHOLOOY. — James.  The  Sentiment  of  Rationality  in  Mind 
July,  1879),  reprinted  in  The  Will  to  Belieoe  (New  York  and 
uondon,  1897);  Dewey,  Studies  in  Logical  Theory  (2nd  ed., 
Chicago,  1909);  Binbt,  Psychology  of  Reasoning  (2nd  ed.,  Chi- 
cago, 1907);  PiLLBBURY,  Psychology  of  Reasoning  (New  York  and 
London,  1910);  Titchener,  Experimental  Psychology  of  the 
Thought- Processes  (New  York  and  London,  1909);  Ribot,  La 
logiquedes  sentiments  (3rd  ed..  Paris,  1908);  Geyser,  EinfUhrttng 
in  die  Psychologic  der  Denkvorgdnge  (Paderborn,  1909);  Messer, 
Bmpfindung  u.  Denken  (Leipsig,  1908).  The  work  nf  the  WOrs- 
burg  School  will  be  found  recorded  in  the  Archiv  fUr  die  gesamte 
Psychologies  IV  (1905- );  the  only  experimental  investigation 
of  the  syllogistic  process  appears  to  be  that  of  StOrrinq.  Experi- 
mentelle  Untersuchungen  Uber  einfache  Schltissprozesse,  ibid.,  XI 
(1908),  but  it  has  thrown  no  new  light  on  the  subject. 

Akimala  and  Reason. — Mivart,  The  Origin  of  Human 
Reason  (London,  1889);  Wasmann,  Psychology  of  Ants  and  oj 
Higher  Animals  (St.  Louis  and  London,  1905);  Idem,  Instinct 
and  Intelligence  in  the  Animal  Kingdom  (St.  Louis  and  London, 
1903);  MucKERMANN,  The  Humanizing  of  the  Brule  (St.  Louis. 
1906);  Washburn,  The  Animal  Mind  (New  York,  1908); 
Pfunost,  Das  Pferd  des  Herrn  ton  Osten  {der  kluye  Han<) 
(Leipsig,  1907);  Edinger  and  CLAPARfcoE.  Ucher  Tierpsy- 
ehologie  (Leipzig,  1909) ;  Bohn.  La  naissanc^  de  Vintelligence 
(Paris,  1909);  Dombt  di  Vorqeb,  L'estimative  in  Revue  nio- 
scolaatie,  XI  (1904). 

Alfred  J.  Rahillt. 

Recanati  and  Loreto,  Diocese  of  (Recineten- 
818),  province  of  Ancona,  Central  Italy,  so  called  from 
the  inhabitants  of  ancient  Recina,  capital  of  Picenum, 
who.  after  the  devastation  of  their  country  by  Alaric, 
established  Recanati.  Claudius,  who  attended  the 
Council  of  Rimini,  is  believed  to  have  been  Bishop  of 
Recina.  Recanati  was  subject  to  the  Diocese  of 
Umana  until  1240,  when  Gregory  IX  deprived  Osimo 
of  its  see  and  transferred  it  to  Recanati.  Ranieri, 
Bishop  of  Osimo,  was  the  first  Bishop  of  Recanati. 
In  1263,  Recanati,  having  espoused  the  cause  of 


(Ji 
to 


RECHAB 


676 


RECTOR 


Manfred,  was  deprived  of  the  see  which  was  retrans- 
ferred  to  Oamo.  Restored  in  1289,  the  See  of 
Recanati  was  again  transferred,  in  1320,  to  Maoerata. 
In  1357  Recanati,  united  with  Macerata,  was  again 
made  a  diocese.  Noteworthy  bishops  were:  Marino 
del  Tocoo  (1412),  whose  election  was  contested  by  the 
party  of  John  XXIII  and  King  Ladisiaus;  Giovanni 
Vitelleschi  (1431),  afterwards  cardinal  and  com- 
mander of  the  armies  of  Eugenius  IV.  In  the  six- 
teenth centuiy  the  sees  of  Macerata  and  Recanati 
were  several  times  separated  and  reunited.  In  1586 
Sixtus  V  definitely  separated  Macerata  from  Recanati 
and  created  the  Diocese  of  Loreto,  to  which  in  1591 
was  added  csque  principalUer  that  of  Recanati.  The 
first  bishop  of  the  united  sees  was  RutiUo  Benzoni 
1587),  who  was  succeeded  by  the  cardinals  Agostino 
(1613)  and  Giulio  Roma  (1621).  Other 
bishops  were:  Cardinal  Alessandro  Crescenzi  (1676), 
and  Lorenzo  Gherardi  (1693),  both  famed  for  their 
benefactions;  Stefano  Bellini  (1807)  and  Giuseppe 
Cardoni  (1863-67).  The  ancient  Abbey  of  S.  Maria 
in  Potenza  is  in  this  diocese.  Recanati  was  the  birth- 
place of  Blessed  Girolamo  Gherarducci  and  Blessed 
rlacido  (fourteenth  century),  also  of  the  lilUraieurs 
Monaldo  and  Giacomo  Leopardi.  The  united  dio- 
ceses have  8  parishes  with  a  population  of  26,000;  48 
secular  and  40  regular  priests;  8  religious'  houses  of 
men  and  12  of  women;  1  school  for  boys  and  5  for 
girls. 

Cafpelurti,  Le  ekiese  dC  Italia,  VII  (Venice,  1857);  Vooel, 
De  eeeUni*  Beeanatenai  el  Laurttana  (Recanati.  1859). 

U.  Beniqni. 

Reehab  and  the  Reehabites. — Rechab  was  the 
father  of  Jonadab  who  in  IV  Kings,  x,  15-28,  appears 
as  a  fervent  supporter  of  Jehu's  attack  on  the  House 
of  Achab  in  his  endeavour  to  root  out  the  idolatrous 
worslup  which  that  d3rna8ty  had  encouraged.  The 
characteristic  principles  which  actuated  his  descend- 
ants, the  Rechabites,  we  gather  from  Jeremias, 
XXXV,  where  the  Rechabites,  being  invited  to  drink 
wine,  answered:  **We  will  not  drink  wine:  be- 
cause Jonadab  the  son  of  Rechab,  our  father,  com- 
manded us,  saying:  You  shall  drink  no  wine,  nei- 
ther you,  nor  your  children,  for  ever:  Neither  shall 
ye  build  houses,  nor  sow  seed,  nor  plant  vinevards, 
nor  have  any,  but  you  shall  dwell  in  tents  all  your 
days,  that  you  may  live  many  days  upon  the  face  of 
the  earth,  in  which  you  are  strangers"  (Jer.,  xxxv, 
6,  7).  It  was  evidently  the  belief  of  Jonadab  and  the 
Rechabites  that  settled  life  with  its  forms  of  civil- 
zation  led  to  apostasy  from  the  Jewish  religion.  In 
I  Par.,  ii,  55,  the  clan  of  the  Rechabites  is  connected 
with  the  Cinites  (Kenites). 

VioouBoux,  Did.  de  la  Bible,  a.  v. 

James  F.  Driscoll. 

Recollection,  as  imderstood  in  respect  to  the 
spiritual  life,  means  attention  to  the  presence  of  Ciod 
in  the  soul.  It  includes  the  withdrawal  of  the  mind 
from  external  and  earthly  affairs  in  order  to  attend 
to  Crod  and  Divine  things.  It  is  the  same  as  interior 
solitude  in  which  the  soul  is  alone  with  God. 

This  recollection  is  twofold:  one  which  may  be  ac- 
quired by  our  own  eflforts  aided  by  the  ordinary  pace 
of  God.  Thus  any  devout  soul  can  acquire  the  habit 
of  thinking  of  God's  presence  and  of  fixing  attention 
upon  Him  and  his  Divine  perfections.  This  is  called 
active  recollection.  The  other,  called  passive,  does 
not  depend  upon  our  own  efforts,  but  is  an  extraordi- 
nary grace  infused  by  God,  by  which  He  summons  to- 
gether the  faculties  of  the  soul  and  manifests  His 
presence  and  His  perfections;  this  kind  of  recollection 
18  classed  by  mystical  writers  as  the  first  degree  of  in- 
fused contemplation. 

The  first  kind  of  recollection  belongs  to  asceticol 
devotion  and  practice.  It  is  necessary  for  all  who 
wish  to  attain  Christian  perfection.    Without  it,  it  is 


most  difficult  to  make  progress  in  virtue.  Therefore, 
it  is  necessary  to  observe  the  means  by  which  it  may 
be  acquired.  These  are:  (1)  silence  and  solitude,  ac- 
cording to  our  state  of  life,  keepinc  in  mind^  at  the 
same  time,  that  one  may  be  reoolfected  amidst  the 
duties  of  an  active  life;  (2)  the  avc»danoe  of  distract- 
ing and  dissipating  occupations  not  dictated  by 
reason  or  required  by  necessity.  Multiplicity  of  oc- 
cupations is  an  obstacle  to  recollection.  Father 
Faber  says  that  the  man  who  undertakes  too  much  is 
a  foolish  man,  if  not  a  guilty  one.  (3)  The  frequent 
exercise  of  the  presence  of  God.  As  recollection  b 
itself  an  application  of  the  mind  to  the  Divine  presence 
within  as,  it  is  evident  that  the  shortest  way  lo  its 
acquisition  is  frequently  to  call  to  mind  that  our  souls 
are  the  temples  of  God. 

BKLLicivs,  Solid  Virtue  (Dublin,  1879);  BLoanrs.  A  Book  of 
Spiritual  Inelntelion,  tr.  WiLBBRroBCB  (LoDdoB,  1900) ;  Pocukix, 
TKe  Qraeea  of  Interior  Prayer  (London.  1910). 

Arthur  Devine. 
BecoUects.    See  Friars  Minor. 

Rector  (Lat.  regeref  to  rule). — Priests  who  preside 
over  missions  or  quasi-parishes  are  called  rectors:  in 
England  and  the  United  States  they  are  removable 
and  irremovable,  or  permanent.  These  latter  are 
known  also  as  missionary  rectors  (M.  R.).  The  term 
rector  is  applied  likewise  to  the  heads  of  universities, 
seminaries,  Smd  colleges;  to  the  local  superiors  of  reli- 
gious houses  of  men;  to  the  pope,  as  rector  of  the 
worldj  in  the  conferring  of  the  tiara.  In  some  uni- 
versities, e.  g.  Louvain.  the  actual  president  is  Imown 
as  rector  magnificus.  Rector  general  is  the  title  given 
to  the  superior  general  of  certain  religious,  e.  g. 
Clerics  Regular  of  the  Mother  of  God.  In  ancient 
times  bishops  as  rulers  of  cities  and  provinces, 
especially  in  the  Papal  States,  were  called  rectors; 
also  administrators  of  the  patrimony  of  the  Chureh 
(e.  g.  rector  SicUiag).  To  a  rector  who  has  resigned  is 
oft^  given  the  title  rector  emeritus.  One  who  supplies 
the  place  usually  occupied  by  a  rector  is  st^lea  pro- 
rector  (in  parishes,  administrator),  while  assistants  td 
rectors  in  institutions  are  known  as  vice-rectors  (in 
parishes,  as  curates,  assistant,  or  associate,  rectors  etc.). 
Rector  is  used  by  Gregory  the  Great  in  the  "Regula 
Pastoralis"  as  equivalent  to  paUor, 

Cone.  Bait.  Pten.,  Ill:  Acta  et  Decreta  (Baltimore,  1886);  Taux- 
TON.  The  Law  of  the  Church  (London,  1906).  al  v.  lit 


Rectora. 


Iteaumary 


Andrew  B.  Msehan. 


Rector  Potens,  Veraz  Deus,  the  dailv  hynm  for 
Sext  in  the  Roman  Breviary,  fiinds  its  theme  in  ihe 
great  heat  and  light  of  the  noonday  (hora  sexla, 
or  sixth  hour  of  the  dav)  sun,  and  prays  the  Almighty 
Ruler  to  take  from  the  heart  the  heat  of  passion. 
Baudot  ("The  Roman  Breviary".  London,  1909, 
34)  thinks  the  hymn  "probably"  by  St.  Ambrose: 
"We  know,  moreover,  that  the  hymns  for  Vespers, 
Terce,  and  None  (probably  also  the  hymn  for  Sext) 
are  his."  Perhaps,  however,  Baudot  refers  to  other 
hymns  ascribed  to  the  saint  by  Baumer  (''Gesch.- 
des  Breviers",  1895,  135).  Whatever  probabiUty  at- 
taches to  the  hymns  for  Teroe  and  None  affects 
equidly  that  for  Sext,  none  of  the  three  being  found 
in  the  oldest  Benedictine  cycle,  while  all  three  are 
found  in  the  later  Celtic  cycle.  (For  discussion  <^ 
authorship,  see  Rerum  Deus  Tenax  Vioor.)  It  is 
interesting  to  note  that  the  second  stanza  is  in  rhyme 
throughout: 

Exstingue  flammas  litium, 

Aufer  calorem  noxium, 

Confer  salutem  corporum 

Veramque  pacem  cordium. 

Biraghi  thinks  the  rhvme  merely  a  matter  of  chance; 
Pimont  thinks  it  deliberate,  but  finds  no  sufficient 
reason  in  this  fact  for  denving  it  to  St.  Ambrose. 
Johner  ("A  New  School  of  Gregorian  Chant",  tr. 
New  York,  1906,  55)  selects  the  first  line  to  illustrate 


RECUSANTS 


677 


REDEMPTION 


hifl  contention  that  whibt  in  ordinary  speech  anyone 
would  pronounce  the  line  thus:  Rector  pdtcns  v6rax 
De(is,  a  singer  commits  no  fault  in  stressing  as  fol- 
lows: RectOT  not^ns  verdx  D^us.  "In  German  (or 
English),  this  Kind  of  thing  is  impossible.  But  that 
does  not  give  us  a  right  to  forbid  the  composer  of 
Gregorian  melodies  to  make  use  of  this  and  similar 
licenses.  We  Germans  (and  English-speaking  peo- 
ple) frequently  pronounce  Latin  with  such  an  ex- 
aggerated accent  that  the  words  fall  too  heavily  on 
the  car.  Other  nations,  the  French,  for  example, 
pronounce  the  words  more  smoothly,  with  a  lighter 
accent."  (For  the  full  argument,  see  pp.  55, 
56.) 

Julian,  Diet,  of  Ilymnnloffy,  a.  v.,  for  MSS..  references,  authors, 
firi(t  lines  of  tra.,  etc.  Tu  his  list  should  be  added  the  Catholic 
trs.  of  Baoshawe,  Breviary  Hymns  and  Missal  Sequences  (Lon- 
don, 1000).  19;  DoNAROK,  Early  Christian  Hymns  (New  York, 
1908),  47;  Russell,  Hymni  Horarum  in  Irish  Eccl.  Record  (1905), 
231;  Hbnrt,  Hymns  of  the  Little  Hours  in  Ecel.  Review  (Sept., 
1800).  204-09,  with  Latin  text  and  commentary;  Pimont,  Les 
kymnesdu  brinaire  romain^  I  (Paris,  1874),  106-10,  for  text  and 
comment.  For  harmonised  plain-song,  modem  musical  setting, 
liatin  text  and  Eng.  tr.,  see  Hymns  Ancient  and  Modem  (\i\»~ 
torical  edition,  T^ondon,  1909),  no.  10.  For  additional  bibli- 
ography, see  Rrrum  Dkus  Tenax  Vigor. 

H.  T.  Henry. 

Reetuanti,  English. — The  first  statute  in  which 
the  term  "Popish  Recusants''  is  used  is  35  Eliz. 
c.  2,  ''An  Act  for  restraining  Popish  Recusants  to 
some  certain  place  of  abode  ,  which  was  passed  in 
1593.  The  statute  defines  a  recusant  as  one  ''con- 
victed for  not  repairing  to  some  Church,  Chapel  or 
usual  place  of  Common  Prayer  to  hear  Dmne  Service 
there,  but  forbearing  the  same  contrary  to  the  tenor 
of  the  laws  and  statutes  heretofore  made  and  pro- 
vided in  that  behalf".  The  Recusancy  Acts  are:  1 
Eliz.  c.  2,  23  Eliz.  c.  1,  29  EUz.  c.  6,  35  Eliz.  c.  2, 
3  Jac.  I.  c.  5,  7  Jac.  I.  c.  6,  and  3  Car.  I.  c.  2.  But 
several  statutes  declare  that  other  offences  shall  be 
deemed  acts  of  recusancy,  and  that  those  convicted 
of  them  shall  be  deemed  "popish  recusants  con- 
vict". 

As  time  went  on  there  were  other  recusants  who 
were  not  Catholics,  but  who  for  one  reason  or  another 
refrained  from  attending  the  Church  of  England 
services.  This  fact  must  be  remembered  in  dealing 
with  the  Recusancy  lists,  though,  of  course,  far  the 
larger  number  of  recusan^  were  Catholics.  The 
number  of  recusants  was  verv  great,  as  may  be  seen 
by  one  instance  adduced  by  J.  S.  Hansom  in  his  pref- 
ace to  the  list  of  convicted  recusants  in  the  reign 
of  Charles  II  (op.  cit.  inf.),  where  on  one  day  (24 
Feb.,  1690)  the  names  of  1755  recusanfa  were  pre- 
sented in  the  single  town  of  Thirsk.  The  recusancy 
laws  were  in  force  from  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  to  that 
of  George  III,  though  they  wei-e  not  always  put  into 
execution  witn  equal  vigour.  Listsr  of  recusants  for 
various  counties  exist  in  the  Pipe  Rolls  preserved  in 
the  Record  Office,  London.  Others  are  to  be  found 
in  the  British  Museum,  Bodleian  Library,  and  in 
various  local  archives. 

The  Statutes  at  Large  (London,  1758);  Butler,  Historical 
Account  of  the  Laws  aoainst  the  Roman  Catholics  of  England 
(London,  1811);  An'STXT,  Guide  to  the  Laws  of  England  affecting 
Roman  Catholics  (London,  1842);  McMullan  and  Ellis,  The 
Reformation  Settlement  (Ix>ndon,  1003);  instances  of  listfl  of 
reouaanta  published  of  late  years  will  be  found  in  Peacock, 
Yorkshire  Recusants  (London,  1872):  Recusants  of  Masham^ 
Yorkshire  in  Catholic  Record  Society,  III.  no.  5  (London,  1906); 
List  of  Convicted  Recusants  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II,  ibid.,  V,  no.  3 
(London,  1909). 

Edwin  Burton. 

Badeexner,  Feast  of  the  Most  Holy. — The  feast 
is  found  only  in  the  special  calendar  of  some  dioceses 
and  religious  orders,  and  is  celebrated  with  proper 
Mass  and  Office  either  on  the  third  Sunday  of  July 
or  on  23  October.  In  Venice  this  feast  has  been  ob- 
served for  more  than  three  centuries  with  great 
solemnity.  Moroni  in  his  ''Dizionario"  gives  some 
interesting  data  concerning  the  origin  of  this  feast. 


In  1576  a  plague  broke  out  in  Venice  which  in  a  few 
(iays  carried  off  thousands  of  victims.  To  avert  this 
scourge  the  Senate  vowed  to  erect  a  splendid  temple 
i^  the  Redeemer  of  mankind,  and  to  offer  therein 
each  year  on  the  third  Sunday  of  July  public  and 
solemn  services  of  thanksgiving.  Scarcely  had  the 
plague  ceased  when  they  began  to  fulfil  their  vow. 
The  church  was  designed  by  the  famous  Andrea  Pal- 
ladio,  and  the  comer-stone  was  laid  bv  the  Patriarch 
Trevisan  on  3  May,  1577.  The  celebrated  painters 
Paolo  Veronese  and  Jacopo  Tintoretto  decorated  the 
interior,  llie  church  was  consecrated  in  1592,  and, 
at  the  urgent  solicitations  of  Pope  Gregory  XIII, 
placed  in  charge  of  the  Capuchin  Fathers. 

By  concession  of  Pope  Benedict  XIV,  dated  8 
March,  1749,  the  Congregation  of  the  Most  Holy 
Redeemer  solemnizes  this  feast  as  a  double  of  the 
first  class  with  an  octave  on  the  third  Sundav  of 
July.  The  same  congregation  also  keeps  the  feast 
as  a  greater  double  on  23  October  and  25  February, 
and  has,  besides,  the  privilege  of  reciting  once  a  month 
the  votive  office  of  the  Most  Holy  Redeemer.  In 
Rome  also  Pope  Pius  VIII  introduced  the  feast  and 
by  a  Decree  of  8  May,  1830,  the  Sacred  Congregation 
of  Rites  assigned  it  to  23  October.  The  charac- 
teristics of  the  Mass  and  Office  are  joy  and  gratitude 
for  the  ineffable  graces  and  benefits  of  the  Redemp- 
tion. This  appears  especially  from  the  Introit 
'^Gaudens  gaudebo'',  from  the  antiphons  of  Lauds 
"Cantate  Domino'',  from  the  Epistle  of  the  Mass, 
taken  from  St.  Paul  to  the  Ephesians,  chap,  i,  "  Bles- 
sed be  the  God  and  Father  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ, 
Who  hath  blessed  us  with  spiritual  blessings  ...  in 
Christ''.  For  this  reason  white  is  the  colour  of  the 
vestments,  and  not  red,  as  in  the  Mass  of  the  Pas- 
sion. 

Decreta  aulh.  Cong.  S.  Rit.,  II  (Rome,  1898),  n.  2396;  Deer, 
auth.  Gardellini,  III  (Rome.  1857).  n.  4663;  Nilubs,  KaUndarium 
manuale  ulriusque  Scdesia  (Innsbruck,  1881),  I,  399;  II,  495; 
Doc.  auth.  C.  SS.  R. 

JOBBPH  WXTEST. 

Redeemer,  Knights  of  the,  a  secular  community 
founded  in  1608  by  the  Duke  of  Mentone,  Vincent 
Gonzaga,  on  'the  *  occasion  of  the  marriage  of  his 
eldest  son  Francis  II  Gonzaga  with  Maiguerite  of 
Savoy.  It  was  founded  in  honour  of  the  Precious 
Blood  of  Jesus  Christ,  a  relic  of  which  has  been 
venerated  since  time  immemorial  in  the  cathedral  of 
Mentone.  The  emblems  of  the  order  consisted  of  a 
red  silk  robe  and  a  golden  necklace  with  a  medal  on 
which  were  figured  three  drops  of  blood  in  a  mon- 
strance. The  duke  was  invested  with  these  insignia 
by  his  son.  Cardinal  Ferdinand  Gonzaga,  and  with 
the  approbation  of  Paul  V  proclaimed  grand  master 
of  the  order,  a  dignity  inherited  by  his  successors  in 
the  duchy.  The  duke  in  turn  distributed  the  same 
insignia  to  fourteen  knights  chosen  from  the  highest 
nobility  of  Mentone  and  the  neighbouring  states. 
The  statutes  of  the  order  obliged  the  members  to 
devote  themselves  to  the  defence  of  religion,  the  Holy 
See  and  their  sovereign.  This  order  lasted  only  a 
century.  It  disappeared  ^when  the  last  of  its  dukes, 
Ferdinand  Charles,  having  died  childless,  the  Emperor 
Joseph  I  in  1708  mergea  the  duchy  into  his  heredi- 
tary estates. 

MiRAENB,  Origine  des  chevaliers  el  ordres  militaires  (Antwerp, 
1609). 

Ch.  Moeller. 

Redemption,  the  restoration  of  man  from  the  bond- 
age of  sin  to  the  liberty  of  the  children  of  God  through 
the  satisfactions  and  merits  of  Christ.  The  word 
redemptio  is  the  Latin  Vulgate  rendering  of  the  Hebrew 
nSD  and  Greek  \6Tpov  which,  in  the  Old  Testament, 
means  generally  a  ransom-price.  In  the  New  Testa- 
ment, it  is  the  classic  term  designating  the  ''great 
price''  (I  Cor.,  vi,  20)  which  the  Redeemer  paid  for 
our  liberation.    Redemption  presupposes  the  original 


REDEMPTION 


678 


REDEMPTION 


elevation  of  man  to  a  supernatural  state  and  his  down- 
fall from  it  through  sin;  and  inasmuch  as  sin  calls 
do\^n  the  wrath  of  God  and  produces  man's  servitude 
under  evil  and  Satan,  Redemption  has  reference  to 
both  God  and  man.  On  God's  part,  it  is  the  aocepta^ 
tion  of  satisfactory  amends  whereby  the  Divine 
honour  is  repaired  and  the  Divine  wrath  appealed. 
On  man's  part,  it  is  both  a  deliverance  from  the 
slavery  of  sin  and  a  restoration  to  the  former  Divine 
adoption,  and  this  includes  the  whole  process  of 
8Ui>cmatural  life  from  the  first  reconciliation  to  the 
final  salvation.  That  double  result,  namely  God's 
satisfaction  and  man's  restoration,  is  brought  about 
by  Christ's  vicarious  office  working  through  satisfac- 
tory and  meritorious  actions  performed  in  our  behalf. 

I.  Need  of  Redemption. — When  Christ  came,  there 
were  throughout  the  world  a  deep  consciousness  of 
moral  depravation  and  a  vague  longing  for  a  restorer, 
pointing  to  a  universally  felt  need  of  rehabilitation 
(see  Le  Camus,  "Life  of  Christ",  I,  i).  From  that 
subjective  sense  of  need  we  should  not,  however, 
hastily  conclude  to  the  objective  necessity  of  Redemp- 
tion. If,  as  is  commonly  held  against  the  Traditional- 
ist School,  the  low  moral  condition  of  mankind  under 
paganism  or  even  under  the  Jewish  Law  is,  in  it- 
self, apart  from  revelation,  no  proof  positive  of  the 
existence  of  original  sin,  still  less  does  it  necessitate 
Redemption.  Working  on  the  data  of  Revelation 
concerning  both  original  sin  and  Redemption,  some 
Greek  Fathers,  like  St.  Athanasius  (De  incama- 
tione,  in  P.  G.,  XXV,  105),  St.  Cyril  of  Alexandria 
(Contra  JuUanum,  in  P.  G..  LXXV,  925),  and  St. 
John  Damascene  (De  fide  orthodoxa,  in  P.  G.,  XCIV, 
983),  so  emphasized  the  fitness  of  Redemption  as  a 
remedy  for  original  sin  as  almost  to  make  it  appear 
the  sole  and  necessary  means  of  rehabiUtation.  Their 
sayings,  though  qusdified  by  the  oft-repeated  state- 
ment that  Redemption  is  a  voluntary  work  of  mercy, 
probably  induced  St.  Anselm  (Cur  £)eus  homo,  I)  to 
pronounce  it  necessary  in  the  h3rpothesis  of  original 
sin.  That  view  is  now  commonly  rejected,  as  God 
was  by  no  means  bound  to  rehabilitate  fallen  mankind. 
Even  m  the  event  of  God  decreeing,  out  of  his  own 
free  volition,  the  rehabilitation  of  mail,  theologians 

Bunt  out  other  means  besides  Redemption,  v.  g. 
ivine  condonation  pure  and  simple  on  the  sole  con- 
dition of  man's  repentance,  or,  if  some  measure  of 
satisfaction  was  required,  the  mediation  of  an  exalted 
yet  created  interagent.  In  one  hypothesis  only  is 
Redemption,  as  described  above,  deemed  absolutely 
necessary  and  that  is  if  God  should  demand  an  ade- 
quate compensation  for  the  sin  of  mankind.  The 
juridical  axiom  "honor  est  in  honorante,  injuria  in 
mjuriato"  (honour  is  measured  by  the  dignity  of  him 
who  gives  it,  offence  by  the  dignity  of  him  who  re- 
ceives it)  shows  that  mortal  sin  bears  in  a  way  an 
infinite  mahce  and  that  nothing  short  of  a  person  pos- 
sessing infinite  worth  is  capable  of  making  lull  amends 
for  it.  True,  it  has  been  su^ested  that  such  a  person 
might  be  an  angel  hypostatically  united  to  Goa,  but, 
whatever  be  the  merits  of  this  notion  in  the  abstract, 
St.  Paul  practically  disposes  of  it  with  the  remark 
that  ''both  he  that  sanctifieth,  and  they  who  are 
sanctified,  are  all  of  one"  (Heb.,  ii,  11),  thus  pointing 
to  the  God-Man  as  the  real  Redeemer. 

II.  Mode  of  Redemption. — The  real  Redeemer  is  Jesus 
Christ,  who,  according  to  the  Nicene  creed,"  for  us  men 
and  for  our  salvation  descended  from  Heaven;  and  was 
incarnate  by  the  Holy  Ghost  of  the  Virgin  Mary  and  be- 
came man.  He  was  also  crucified  for  us,  suffered  under 
Pontius  Pilate  and  was  buried".  The  energetic  words 
of  the  Greek  text  rDenzinget-Bannwart,  n.  86  (47)), 
imwOpun-i/iffarra^  woBdrra^  point  to  incarnation  and  sacri- 
fice as  the  groundwork  of  Redemption.  Incarnation, 
or  the  personal  union  of  the  human  nature  with  the 
Second  Person  of  the  Blessed  Trinity,  is  the  necessary 
basis  of  Redemption  because  this,  in  order  to  be 


efficacious,  must  include  as  attributions  of  the  one 
Redeemer  both  the  humiliation  of  man,  without  which 
there  would  be  no  satisfaction,  and  the  dignity  of 
God,  without  which  the  sati^action  would  not  be 
adequate.  "For  an  adequate  satisfaction",  says  St. 
Thomas,  "it  is  necessary  that  the  act  of  him  who 
satisfies  should  possess  an  infinite  value  and  proceed 
from  one  who  is  both  God  and  Man  "  (III,  Q.  1,  a.  2,  ad 
2"™).  Sacrifice,  which  always  carries  with  it  the  idea 
of  suffering  and  inunolation  (see  Lagrange,  "Religions 
s6mitiques",  244),  is  the  complement  and  full  expres- 
sion of  Incarnation.  Althou|;h  one  single  theandrie 
operation,  owing  to  its  infinite  worth,  would  have 
sufficed  for  Redemption,  yet  it  pleased  the  Father  to 
demand  and  the  Redeemer  to  offer  His  labours,  pas- 
sion, and  death  (John,  x,  17-18).  St.  Thomas  UH, 
Q.  xivi,  a.  6,  ad  &^^)  remarks  that  Christ,  wishing  to 
liberate  man  not  only  by  way  of  power  but  also  by 
way  of  justice,  sought  both  the  hi^  degree  of  power 
which  flows  from  His  Godhead  and  the  maximum  of 
suffering  which,  according  to  the  human  standard, 
would  be  considered  sufficient  satisfaction.  It  is  in 
this  double  fight  of  incarnation  and  sacrifice  that  we 
should  alwa3rs  view  the  two  concrete  factors  of  Re- 
demption, namely,  the  satisfaction  and  the  merits  of 
Christ. 

A.  Satisfaction  of  Christ.— Satisfaction,  or  the  pay- 
ment of  a  debt  in  full,  means,  in  the  moral  order,  an 
acceptable  reparation  of  honour  offered  to  the  person 
offended  and,  of  course,  implies  a  penal  and  painful 
work.  It  is  the  unmistakable  teaching  of  Revelation 
that  Christ  offered  to  His  heavenly  Father  His  IsJ^ours, 
sufferings^  and  death  as  an  atonement  for  our  sins. 
The  classical  passage  of  Isaias  (lii-liii),  the  Messianic 
character  of  which  is  recognized  by  both  Rabbinic^ 
interpreters  and  New  Testament  writers  (see  Con- 
damin,  "Le  fivre  d'Isaie".  Paris,  1905),  gr^hically 
describes  the  servant  of  Janveh,  that  is,  the  Messias, 
Himself  innocent  yet  chastized  by  God,  because  He 
took  our  iniquities  upon  Himself,  His  self-oblation 
becoming  our  peace  and  the  sacrifice  of  His  life  a  pay- 
ment for  our  transgressions.  The  Son  of  Man  pro- 
poses Himself  as  a  model  of  self-sacrificing  love  be- 
cause He  "is  not  come  to  be  ministered  unto,  but  to 
minister,  and  to  give  his  fife  a  redemption  for  many" 
(Xih-poj'  dwrl  woWQw)  (Matt.,  xx,  28;  Mark,  x,  45).  A 
similar  declaration  is  repeated  on  the  eve  of  the  Pas- 
sion at  the  Last  Supper:  "Drink  ye  all  of  this.  For 
this  is  my  blood  of  the  new  testament,  which  shall  be 
shed  for  man>r  unto  remission  of  sins"  (Matt.,  xxvi, 
27,  28).  In  view  of  this  and  of  the  verv  explicit  as- 
sertion of  St.  Peter  (I  Pet.,  i,  11)  and  St.  John  (I  John, 
ii,  2)  the  Modernists  are  not  justified  in  contending 
that  "the  dogma  of  Christ's  expiatory  death  is  not 
evangelic  but  Pauline"  (prop,  xxxviii  condenmed  by 
the  Holy  Office  ih  the  Decree  "Lamentabili".  3  July, 
1907).  Twice  (I  Cor.,  xi,  23;  xv,  3)  St.  Paul  disclaims 
the  authorship  of  the  dogma.  He  is,  however,  of  all 
the  New  Testament  writers,  the  best  expounder  of  it. 
The  redeeming  sacrifice  of  Jesus  is  the  theme  and 
burden  of  the  whole  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  and  in  the 
other  Epistles,  which  the  most  exacting  critics  rewd 
as  surely  Pauline,  there  is  all  but  a  set  theory.  The 
main  passage  is  Rom.,  iii,  23  sq. : "  For  all  have  sinned, 
and  do  need  the  ^ory  of  God.  Being  justified  freely 
by  his  grace,  through  the  redemption,  that  is  in  Christ 
Jesus,  Whom  God  hath  proposed  to  be  a  propitiation, 
through  faith  in  his  blood,  to  the  shewing  of  his 
justice,  for  the  remission  of  former  sins."  Other  texts, 
like  Eph.,  ii,  16;  Col.,  i,  20;  and  Gal.,  iii,  13,  repeat 
and  emphasize  the  same  teaching. 

The  early  Fathers,  engrossed  as  .they  w«re  by  the 
problems  of  Christology,  have  added  but  little  to  the 
soteriology  of  the  Gospel  and  St.  Paul.  It  is  not  true, 
however,  to  say  with  Ritschl  ("Die  christliche  Lehre 
von  der  Rechtfertigun^  und  Versdhnung",  Bonn, 
1889),  Harnack  ("Ft6cis  de  Thistoire  des  doggies", 


REDEMPTION 


679 


REDEMPTION 


tr.  Paris,  1893),  Sabatier  ("La  doctrine  de  Texpiation 
et  son  Evolution  historique",  Paris,  1903)  that  they 
viewed  Redemption  only  as  the  deification  of  human- 
ity thnmgh  incarnation  and  knew  nothing  of  Christ's 
vicarious  satisfaction.  "An  impartial  inquiry",  sajrs 
Rivi^e,  "clearly  shows  two  tenaencies:  one  idealistic, 
which  views  salvation  more  as  the  supernatural  resto- 
ration of  mankind  to  an  immortal  and  Divine  life,  the 
other  realistic,  which  considers  it  rather  as  the  e^cpia- 
tirfn  of  our  sins  through  the  death  of  Christ.  The 
two  tendencies  run  side  by  side  with  an  occasional  con- 
t£Lct,  but  at  no  time  did  the  former  completely  absorb 
the  latter,  and  in  course  of  time,  the  realistic  view 
became  preponderant"  (Le  dogme  de  la  rddemptipn, 
p.  209).  St.  Anselm's  famous  treatise  "Cur  Deus 
nomo"  may  be  taken  as  the  first  systematic  presenta- 
tion of  the  doctrine  of  Redemption,  and,  apart  from 
the  exaggeration  noted  above,  contains  the  synthesis 
which  became  dominant  in  Catholic  theology.  Far 
from  being  adverse  to  the  satisfactio  vicaria  popular- 
ized by  St.  Anselm,  the  early  Reformers  accepted  it 
without  question  and  €ven  went  so  far  sts  to  suppose 
that  Christ  endured  the  pains  of  hell  in  our  place.^ 

If  we  except  the  erratic  views  of  Abelard,  Socinus 
(d.  1562)  in  his  "de  Deo  servatore"  was  the  first  who 
attempted  to  replace  the  traditional  dogma  of  Christ's 
vicarious  satisfaction  by  a  sort  of  purely  ethical 
exemplarism.  He  was  and  is  still  followed  by  the 
Rationalist  School  which  sees  in  the  traditional  theory, 
all  but  defined  by  the  Church,  a  spirit  of  vindictive- 
ness  unworthy  of  God  and  a  subversion  of  justice  in 
substituting  the  innocent  for  the  guilty.  The  charge 
of  vindictiveness,  a  piece  of  gross  anthropomorphism, 
comes  from  confounding  the  sin  of  revenue  and  the 
virtue  of  justice.  The  charge  of  injustice  ignores  the 
fact  that  Jesus,  the  Juridical  head  of  mankind  (Eph.,  i, 
22),  voluntarily  offered  Himself  (John,  x,  15),  that 
we  misht  be  saved  by  the  grace  of  one  Saviour  even 
as  we  nad  been  lost  by  the  fault  of  the  one  Adam 
(Rom.,  V,  15) .  It  would  be  a  crude  conception  indeed 
to  suppose  that  the  guilt  or  culpability  of^men  passed 
from  the  consciences  of  men  to  the  conscience  of 
Christ:  the  penalty  alone  was  voluntarily  assumed  by 
the  Redeemer  ancf,  in  paying  it,  He  washed  away  our 
sins  and  restored  us  to  our  former  supematiu'al  state 
and  destination. 

B.  Merits  of  Christ. — Satisfaction  is  not  the  only 
object  and  value  of  Christ's  theandric  operations  ana 
sufferings;  for  these,  beside  placating  God,  also  benefit 
man  in  several  ways.  They  possess,  in  the  first  place, 
the  power  of  impetration  or  intercession  which  is 
proper  to* prayer,  according  to  John,  xi,  42:  "And  I 
knew  that  thou  hearest  me  always. "  However,  as 
satisfaction  is  the  main  factor  of  Redemption  with 
regard  to  God's  honour,  so  man's  restoration  is  due 
prmcipally  to  the  merits  of  Christ.  That  merit,  or 
the  quality  which  makes  human  acta  worthy  of  a 
reward  at  the  hands  of  another,  attaches  to  the  works 
of  the  Redeemer,  is  apparent  from  the  easily  ascer- 
tained presence  in  them  of  the  usual  conditions  of 
merit,  namely  (1)  the  wa3rfarer  state  (John,  i,  14); 
(2)  moral  liberty  (John,  x,  18) ;  (3)  conformity  to  the 
ethical  standard  (John,  viii,  29);  ahd  (4)  Divine 
promise  (Is.,  liii,  10).  Christ  merited  for  Himself, 
not  indeed  gr£Lce  nor  essential  glory  which  were  both 
attached  and  due  to  the  Hypostatic  Union^  but  acci- 
dental honour  (Heb.,  ii,  9)  and  the  exaltation  of  His 
name  (Phil.,  ii,  ^10).  He  also  merited  for  us.  Such 
Biblical  phrases  as  to  receive  "of  his  fulness"  (John, 
i,  16),  to  be  blessed  with  His  blessings  (Eph.,  i,  3),  to 
be  made  alive  in  Him  (I  Cor.,  xv,  22),  to  owe  B&m  our 
eternal  salvation  (Heb.,  v,  9)  clearly  imply  a  communi- 
cation from  Him  to  us  and  that  at  least  by  way  of 
merit.  The  Council  of  Florence  [Decretum  pro  Jaco- 
bitis,  Denzinger-Bannwart,  n.  711  (602)]  credits  man's 
deliverance  from  the  domination  of  Satan  to  the  merit 
of  the  Mediator,  and  the  Coimcil  of  Trent  (Seas.  V, 


cc.  iii,  vii,  xvi  and  canons  iii,  x)  repeatedly  connects 
the  merits  of  Christ  and  the  development  of  our 
supernatural  life  in  its  various  phases.  Canon  iii  of 
Session  V  says  anathema  to  whoever  claims  that 
original  sin  is  cancelled  otherwise  than  by  the-  merits 
of  one  Mediator,  Our  Lord  Jesus' Christ,  and  canon 
X  of  Session  VI  defines  that  man  cannot  merit  without 
the  justice  through  which  Christ  merited  our  justifi- 
cation. 

The  objects  of  Christ's  merits  for  us  are  the  super- 
natural guts  lost  by  sin,  that  is,  ^ace  (John,  i,  14, 16) 
and  salvation  (I  CJor.,  xv,  22) ;  the  preternatural  gifts 
enjoyed  by  oiu"  first  parents  in  the  state  of  innocence 
are  not,  at  least  in  this  world,  restored  by  the  merits  of 
Redemption,  as  Christ  wishes  us  to  suffer  with  Him  in 
order  that  we  may  be  glorified  with  Him  (Rom. ,  viii,  17) . 
St.  Thomas,  ^q^laining  how  Christ's  merits  pass  on  to 
us,  says:  Cnrist  merits  for  others  as  other  men  in  the 
state  of  gr£Lce  merit  for  themselves  (III.  Q.  xlviii,  a.  1). 
With  us  merits  are  essentially  personal.  Not  so  with 
Christ  who,  being  the  head  of  oiu*  race  (Eph.,  iv,  15: 
V,  23),  has,  on  that  score,  the  unique  prerogative  of 
communicating  to  the  subordinate  personal  members 
the  Divine  life  whose  soiu'ce  He  is.  "The  same  mo- 
tion of  the  Holy  Ghost",  says  Schwalm,  "which 
impels  us  indivicfually  through  the  various  stages  of 
grace  toward  life  eternal,  impels  Christ  but  as  the 
leader  of  all;  and  so  the  same  law  of  efficacious  Divine 
motion  governs  the  individuality  of  our  merits  and 
the  universality  of  Christ's  merits"  (Le  Christ,  422). 
It  is  true  that  the  Redeemer  associates  others  to  Him- 
self "For  the  perfecting  of  the  saints,  ...  for  the 
edifying  of  the  body  of  Christ"  (Eph.,  iv,  12),  but 
their  subordinate  merit  is  only  a  matter  of  fitness  and 
creates  no  right,  whereas  Cmist,  on  the  sole  ground 
of  His  dignity  and  missionJ'can  claim  for  us  a  partic- 
ipation in  His  Divine  privileges. 

All  admit,  in  Christ  s  meritorious  actions,  a  moral 
influence  moving  God  to  confer  on  us  the  grace 
through  which  we  merit.  Is  that  influence  merely 
moral  or  does  it  effectively  concur  in  the  production 
of  grace?  From  such  passages  as  Luke,  vi^  19, 
"virtue  went  out  from  him",  the  Greek  Fathers  insist 
much  on  the  86vafus  j\tfoiro(6t,  or  via  vimficay  of  the 
Sacred  Humanity,  and  St.  Thomas  (III.  Q.  xlviii,  a.  6) 
speaks  of  a  sort  of  effidentia  whereby  the  £Lctions  and 
passions  of  Christ,  as  vehicle  of  the  Divine  power, 
cause  grace  by  way  of  instrumental  force.  Those 
two  modes  of  action  do  not  exclude  each  other:  the 
same  act  or  set  of  acts  of  Christ  may  be  and  probably 
is  endowed  with  twofold  efficiency,  meritorious  on 
account  of  Christ's  personal  dimity,  dynamic  on  ac- 
count of  His  investment  with  iJavine  power. 

III.  Adequacy  of  Redemption. — ^Redemption  is  styled 
by  the  "Catechism  of  the  Council  of  Trent"  (I,  v, 
15)  "complete, integral  in  all  points^  perfect  and  truly 
admirable".  Such  is  the  teachmg  of  St.  Paul: 
"where  sin  abounded,  grace  did  more  abound" 
(Rom.,  V,  20),  that  is,  evil  as  the  effects  of  sin  are, 
they  are  more  than  compensated  by  the  fruits  of 
Redemption.  Commentii^  on  that  passage  St. 
Chrysostom  (Hom.  X  in  Rom.,  in  P.  G.,  LX.  477) 
compares  our  liability  to  a  drop  of  water  and  Cnrist's 
payment  to  the  vast  ocean.  The  true  reason  for  the 
adequacy  and  even  superabundance  of  Redemption 
is  given  by  St.  Cyril  of  Alexandria:  "One  died  for 
idl  .  .  .  but  uiere  was  in  that  one  more  value 
than  in  all  men  together,  more  even  than  in  the 
whole  creation,  for,  beside  being  a  perfect  man,  He 
remained  the  only  son  of  God  (Quod  imus  sit  Christus, 
in  P.  G.,  LXXV,  1356).  St.  Anselm  (Cur  Deus 
homo,  II,  xviii)  is  probably  the  first  writer  who  used 
the  word  "infinite  in  connexion  with  the  value  of 
Redemption:  "ut  sufficere  possit  ad  solvendum  quod 
pro  peccatis  totius  mundi  debetur  et  plus  in  infini- 
tum". TTiis  way  of  speaking  was  strongly  opposed 
by  John  Duns  Scotus  and  his  school  on  the  double  plea 


REDEMPTION  680  REDEMPTION 

that  the  Humanity  of  Clirist  is  finite  and  that  the  the  generality  of  men,  or  by  way  of  comparison,  not 

qualification  of  infinite  would  make  all  Christ's  actions  between  a  portion  of  mankind  included  in,  and  another 

equal  and  place  each  of  them  on  the  same  level  with  left  out  of,   Redemption,  but  between    Adam  and 

His  sublime  surrender  in  the  Garden  and  on  Calvary.  Christ.     In  the  det<>rmination  of  the  many  problems 

However  the  word  and  the  idea  passed  into  current  that  arose  from  time  to  time  in  this  difficult  matter, 

theology  and  were  even  -officially  adopted  by  Clement  the  Church  was  guided  by  the  principle  laid  down  in  the 


If  it  is  true  that,  according  to  the  axiom  "actiones  between  the  power  of  Redemption  and  its  actual  ap- 
sunt  suppositonmi'\  the  value  of  actions  is  measured  plication  in  particular  cases.  The  universal  power  has 
by  the  dignity  of  the  person  who  performs  them  and  been  maintained  against  the  Predestinarians  and 
whose  expression  and  coefficient  they  are,  then  the  Calvin ists  who  limited  Redemption  to  the  predesti- 
theandric  operations  must  be  styled  and  are  infinite  nated  (cf.  the  councils  named  above),  and  against  the 
because  they  i)roceed  from  an  infinite  person.  Scotus's  Jansenists  who  restricted  it  to  the  faithful  or  those 
theory  wherein  the  infinite  intrinsic  worth  of  the  who  actuaUy  come  to  faith  Qjrop.  4  and  5,  condemned 
theandric  operations  is  replaced  by  the  extrinsic  ac-  by  Alexander  VIII,  in  Denzinger-Bannwart,  1294-5 
ceptation  of  God,  b  not  altogether  proof  against  the  (1161-2)]  and  the  latter's  contention  that  it  is  a  Semi- 
charge  of  Nestorianism  levelled  at  it  by  Cathohcs  pelagian  error  to  say  that  Christ  died  for  all  men  has 
like  Schwane  and  Rationalists  like  Hamack.  His  been  declared  heretical  [Denzinger-Bannwart,  n.  1096 
arguments  proceed  from  a  double  confusion  between  (97Q)]. 

the  person  and  the  nature,  between  the  agent  and  the  The  opinion  of  Vasqu^z  and  a  few  theologians,  who 

objective  conditions  of  the  act.    The  Sacred  Human-  placed  children  dying  without  baptism  outside  the 

ity  of  Christ  is,  no  doubt,  the  immediate  principle  of  pale  of  Redemption,  is  commonly  rejected  in  Catholic 

Christ's  satisfactions  and  merits,  but  that  principle  schools.    In  such  cases  no  tangible  effects  of  Redemp- 

(vrincipium  quo)  being  subordinate  to  the  Person  of  tion  can  be  shown,  but  this  is  no  reason  for  pronounc- 

tne  Word  {principium  quod)^  borrows  from  it  the  ing  them  outside  the  redeemiiiff  virtue  of  Christ, 

ultimate  and  fixed  value,  in  the  present  case  infinite,  They  are  not  excluded  by  any  Biblical  text.     Vasques 

of  the  actions  it  performs.    On  the  other  hand,  there  appeals  to  I  Tim.,  ii,  S~6,  to  the  effect  that  those 

is  in  Christ's  actions,  as  in  our  own,  a  double  aspect,  children,  not  having  any  means  or  even  possibility  to 

the  personal  and  the  objective:  in  the  first  aspect  only  come  to  the  knowledge  of  the  truUi,  do  not  seem  to  be 

are  they  imiform  and  equal  while,  viewed  objectively,  included  in  the  savipg  will  of  God.    If  applied  to 

th^  must  needs  vary  with  the  nature,  circumstances,  infants  at  all,  the  text  would  exclude  likewise  those- 

and,  finality  of  the  act.  who,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  receive  baptism.     It  is  not 

From  the  adequacy  and  even  superabundance  of  likely  that  Redemption  would  seek  adults  laden  with 

Redemption  as  viewed  in  Christ  our  Head,  it  might  personal  sins  and  omit  infants  labouring  under  origi- 

be  inferred  that  there  is  neither  need  nor  use  of  per-  nal  sin  only.    Far,  better  say  with  St.  Augustine: 

sonal  effort  on  our  part  towards  the  performance  of  ''  Numquid  parvuli  homines  non  sunt,  ut  non  pertineat 

satisfactory  works  or  the  acquisition  of  merits.    But  ad  eos  quod  dictum  est:  vult  omnes  salvos  fieri?'' 

the  inference  would  be  fallacious.    The  law  of  co-  (Contra  Julianum,  IV,  xlii). 

operation,  which  obtains  all  through  the  providential  With  regard  to  the  de  facljo  application  of  Redemp- 
order,  governs  this  matter  particularly.  It  is  only  tion  in  particular  cases,  it  is  subject  to  many  condi- 
through,  and  in  the  measure  of,  our  co-operation  that  tions,  the  principal  being  human  liberty  and  the 
we  appropriate  to  ourselves  the  satimactions  and  general  laws  which  govern  the  world  both  natural  and 
merits  of  Christ.  When  Luther,  after  denying  human  supernatural.  The  Universalists'  contention  that  all 
liberty  on  which  all  good  works  rest,  was  driven  to  the  should  finally  be  saved  lest  Redemption  be  a  failure 
makeshift  of  "fiducial  faith"  as  the  sole  means  of  is  not  only  unsupported  by,  but  also  opposed  to,  the 
appropriating  the  fruits  of  Redemption,  he  not  only  New  Dispensation  which,  far  from  suppressing  the 
fell  short  of,  out  also  ran  counter  to,  the  plain  teach-  general  laws  of  the  natural  order,  places  in  the  way  of 
ing  of  the  New  Testament  calling  upon  us  to  deny  salvation  many  indispensable  conditions  or  laws  of 
ourselves  and  carry  oiu*  cross  (Matt.,  xvi,  24),  to  walk  a  freely  established  supematiu'al  order.  Neither 
in  the  footsteps  of  the  Crucified  (I  Pet.^  ii,  21),  to  suffer  should  we  be  moved  by  the  reproaches  of  failure  often 
with  Christ  in  order  to  be  glorified  with  Him  (Rom.,  flung  at  Redemption  on  the  plea  that,  after  nineteen 
viii,  17),  in  a  word  to  fill  up  those  things  that  are  centuries  of  Christianity,  a  comparatively  smaJl  por- 
wanting  to  the  sufferinss  of  Christ  (Col.,  i,  24).  Far  tion  of  mankind  has  heard  the  voice  of  the  Good 
from  detracting  from  the  perfection  of  Redemption,  Shepherd  (John,  x,  16)  and  a  still  smaller  fraction  has 
our  daily  efforts  toward  the  imitation  of  Christ  are  entered  the  true  fold.  It  was  not  within  God's  plan 
the  test  of  its  efficacy  and  the  fruits  of  its  fecundity,  to  illumine  the  world  with  the  light  of  the  Incarnate 
*'A11  oiu"  glory",  says  the  Council  of  Trent,  "is  in  Word  at  once,  since  he  waited  thousands  of  years  to 
Christ  in  whom  we  hve,  and  merit,  and  satisfy,  doing  send  the  Desired  of  the  Nations.  The  laws  of  prog- 
worthy  fruits  of  penance  which  from  Him  derive  their  ress  which  obtain  everywhere  else  govern  also  the 
virtue,  by  Him  are  presented  to  the  Father,  and  Kingdom  of  God.  We  have  no  criterion  whereby  we 
through  Him  find  acceptance  with  God"  (Sess.  XIV,  can  tell  with  certainty  the  success  or  failure  of  Re- 
c.  viii).  demption,  and  the  mysterious  influence  of  the  Re- 

IV.  Universality  of  Redemption. — Whether  the  ef-  deemer  may  reach  farther  than  we  think  in  the  present 

fects  of  Redemption  reached  out  to  the  angelic  world  as  it  certainly  has  a  retroactive  effect  upon  the  past, 

or  to  the  earthly  paradise  is  a  disputed  point  among  There  can  be  no  other  me^ng  to  the  very  compre- 

theologians.     When  the  question  is  limited  to  fallen  hensive  terms  of  Revelation.    The  graces  accorded 

man  it  has  a  clear  answer  in  such  passages  as  I  John,  by  God  to  the  countless  generations  preceding  the 

ii,  2;  I  Tim.,  ii,  4,  iv,  10;  II  Cor.,  v,  15;  etc.,  all  bearing  Christian  era,  whether  Jews  or  Pagans,  were,  by  an- 

out  the  Reaeemer's  intention  to  include  in  His  saving  ticipation,  the  graces  of  Redemption.    There  is  little 

work  the  universality  of  men  without  exception,  sense  in  the  trite  'dilemma  that  Redemption  could 

Some  apparently  restrictive  texts  like  Matt.,  xx,  28,  benefit  neither  those  who  were  already  saved  nor 

xxvi,  28;  Rom.,  v.  15;  Heb.,  ix,  28,  where  the  words  those  who  were  forever  lost,  for  the  just  of  the  Old 

**many"  (Af  itl^i),  "more"  (pZwrea),  are  used  in  reference  Law  owed  their  salvation  to  the  anticipated  merits  of 

to  the  extent  of  Redemption,  should  be  interpreted  in  the  coming  Messias  and  the  damned  lost  their  souls 

the  sense  of  the  Greek  phrase  v6  roWQy,  which  means  because  they  spurned  the  graces  of  illumination  and 


REDEMPTION 


681 


REDEMPTION 


good  will  which  God  granted  them  in  prevision  of  the 
saving  works  of  the  Redeemer. 

V.  Titles  and  Ofiices  of  the  Redeemer. — Besides  the 
names  Jesus,  Saviour,  Redeemer,  which  directly  ex- 
press the  work  of  Redemption,  there  are  other  titles 
commonly  attributed  to  Christ  because  of  certain 
fimctions  or  offices  which  are  either  implied  in  or  con- 
nected with  Redemption,  the  principal  being  Priest, 
Prophet,  King  and  Judge. 

,  A. — ^The  sacerdotal  office  of  the  Redeemer  is  thus 
described  by  Manning  (The  Eternal  Priesthood,  I): 
"What  is  the  Priesthood  of  the  Incarnate  Son?  It  is 
the  office  He  assumed  for  the  Redemption  of  the  world 
by  the  oblation  of  Himself  in  the  vestment  of  our  man- 
hood. He  is  Altar,  Victim,  and  Priest  by  an  eternal 
consecration  of  Himself.  This  is  the  priesthood  for- 
ever after  the  order  of  Melchisedeck  who  was  without 
bep;inning  of  days  or  end  of  life — a  type  of  the  eternal 
priesthood  of  the  son  of  God."  As  sacrifice,  if  not  by 
the  nature  of  things,  at  least  by  the  positive  ordinance 
of  God,  is  part  of  Redemption,  the  Redeemer  must 
be  a  priest,  for  it  is  the  function  of  the  priest  to  offer 
sacrince.  In  an  endeavour  to  induce  the  newly- 
converted  Jews  to  abandon  the  defective  Aaronic 
priesthood  and  to  cling  to  the  Great  High  Priest  who 
entered  heaven,  St.  Paul,  in  his  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews, 
extols  the  dignity  of  Christ's  sacerdotal  office.  His 
consecration  as  a  priest  took  place,  not  from  all 
eternity  and  through  the  procession  of  the  Word  from 
the  Father,  as  some  of  the  theologians  seem  to  imply, 
but  in  the  fulness  of  time  and  through  the  Incarna- 
tion, the  mysterious  unction  which  made  Him  priest 
being  none  else  than  the  Hypostatic  Union.  His 
great  sacrificial  act  was  performed  on  Calvary  by  the 
oblation  of  Himself  on  the  Cross,  is  continued  on 
earth  by  the  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass  and  consummated  in 
heaven  through  the  sacrificial  intention  of  the  priest 
and  the  glorified  wounds  of  the  victim.  The  Christian 
priesthood,  to  which  is  committed  the  dispensation  of 
the  mysteries  of  God,  is  not  a  substitute  for,  but  the 
prolongation  of,  the  priesthood  of  Christ :  He  continues 
to  be  the  offerer  and  the  oblation:  sJl  that  the  con- 
secrated and  consecrating  priests  do,  in  their  minis- 
terial capacity,  is  to  ''show  forth  the  death  of  the 
Lord''  and  apply  the  merits  of  His  Sacrifice. 

B. — The  title  of  Prophet  applied  by  Moses  (Deut., 
xviii.  15)  to  the  coming  Messias  and  recognized  as  a 
valid  chum  by  those  who  heard  Jesus  (Luke,  vii,  16), 
means  not  only  the  foretelling  of  future  events,  but 
also  in  a  general  way  the  mission  of  teaching  men  in 
the  name  of  God.  Christ  was  a  F^phet  in  both 
senses.  His  prophecies  concerning  Himself,  His  dis- 
ciples. His  Churcn,  and  the  Jewish  nation,  are  treated 
in  manuals  of  apologetics  (see  Mcllvaine,  "  Evidences 
of  Christianity",  lect.  V-VI:  Lescoeur,  "J6su»- 
Christ",  12e  confer.:  Le  Proph^te).  His  teaching 
power  (Matt.,  vii,  29)^  a  necessary  attribute  of  His 
bivinity,  was  also  an  mtegrant  part  of  Redemption. 
He  who  came  "to  seek  and  to  save  that  which  was 
lost"  (Luke,  xix,  10)  should  possess  every  quality, 
Divine  and  human,  that  goes  to  make  the  efficient 
teacher.  What  Isaias  (Iv,  4)  foretold,  "Behold  I 
have  given  him  for  a  witness  to  the  people,  for  a 
leader  and  a  master  to  the  Gentiles",  finds  its  full 
realization  in  the  history  of  Christ.  A  perfect  knowl- 
edge of  the  things  of  God  and  of  man's  needs,  Divine 
authority  and  human  sympathy,  precept  and  example 
combine  to  elicit  from  all  generations  the  praise  oe- 
stowed  on  Him  by  His  hearers — "  never  did  man  speak 
like  this  man"  (John,  vii,  46). 

C. — ^The  kin^  title  frequently  bestowed  on  the 
Messias  by  the  Old  Testament  writers  (Ps.  ii,  6;  Is., 
ix,  6,  etc.)  and  openly  claimed  by  Jesus  in  Pilate's 
Court  (John,  xviii,  37)  belongs  to  Him  not  only  in 
virtue  of  the  Hypostatic  Union  but  also  bv  way  of 
conquest  and  as  a  result  of  Redemption  (Luke,  i,  32). 
Whether  or  not  the  temporal  dominion  of  the  universe 


belonged  to  His  royal  power,  it  is  certain  that  He 
understood  His  Kingdom  to  be  of  a  higher  order  than 
the  kingdoms  of  the  world  (John,  xviii,  36).  The 
spirituiu  kingship  of  Christ  is  essentially  character- 
ized bv  its  final  object  which  is  the  supernatural  wel- 
fare of  men,  its  ways  and  means  which  are  the  Church 
and  the  sacraments,  its  members  who  are  only  such 
as,  through  grace,  have  acquired  the  title  of  adopted 
children  of  God.  Supreme  and  universal,  it  is  sub- 
ordinate to  no  other  and  knows  no  limitations  of 
either  time  or  place.  While  the  kingly  functions  of 
Christ  are  not  alwavs  performed  visibly  as  in  earthly 
kingdoms,  it  would  be  wrong  to  think  of  His  Kingdc^ 
as  a  merely  ideal  system  of  thought.  Whether  viewed 
in  this  world  or  in  the  ne^t,  the  "  Kingdom  of  God  "  is 
essentially  hierarchic,  its  first  and  last  stage,  that  is,  its 
constitution  in  the  Church  and  its  consummation  in  the 
final  judgment,  being  official  and  visible  acts  of  the  King. 
D. — ^The  Judicial  office  so  emphatically  asserted  in 
the  New  Testament  (Matt.,  xxv,  31;  xxvi,  64;  John,  v, 
22  sq.;  Acts,  x,  42)  and  early  S3rmbols  [Denzinger- 
Bannwart,  nn.  1-41  (1-13)]  belongs  to  Chim  in  virtue 
of  His  Divinity  and  Hypostatic  Union  and  also  as  a 
reward  of  Redemption.  Seated  at  the  right  hand  of 
God,  in  token  not  only  of  rest  after  the  labours  of  His 
mortal  life  or  of  g^ory  after  the  humiliations  of  His 
Passion  or  of  happiness  after  the  ordeal  of  Golgotha, 
but  also  of  true  judicial  power  (St.  Augustine,  "De 
fide  et  sjrmbolo*',  in  P.  L.,  XL,  188),  He  judges  the 
living  and  the  dead.  His  verdict  inaugurated  m  each 
individual  conscience  wiU  become  final  at  the  par- 
ticular jud^pnent  and  receive  a  solemn  and  definitive 
recognition  at  the  assizes  of  the  last  judgment.  (See 
Atonement.) 

OxENHAM,  The  Atonement  (London,  1881) ;  RiviiRB,  Le  dogme 
de  la  Ridemption  (PariB,  1905) ;  Huoon,  Le  myetire  de  la  lUdemp- 
tion  (Paris,  1910) ;  Grimal,  Le  aacerdoce  et  le  eacrifice  (Paris,  1911) ; 
Hunter,  Outlinee  of  doomatic  theology  (New  York,  1894) ;  Wil- 
HEUi  AND  Sc^NNRLL,  Monuol  of  Cotholic  theciogy  (London,  1901) ; 
Tanqukrct,  Synopeia  theologia  doomaticas  epeaalt*  (Rome,  Tour- 
nai,  Paris,  1909) ;  with  a  good  bibuoKraphy,  II,  404.  and  paaeim; 
RiTTKR,  Christua  der  SrUieer  (Lini,  1903) ;  Miith.  HeiUtadt  Chriati 
ale  eteUoertretende  Oenitgthuung  (Ratisbon,  1904). 

J.   F.   SOLUER. 

Bademption  in  the  Old  Testament  means  either 
strictly  deliverance  by  payment  of  a  price  or  ransom, 
or  simply  deUverance  by  power,  as  from  oppression, 
violence,  captivity,  etc.  In  the  Hebrew  Text,  the 
idea  of  redemption  is  directly  expressed  by  the  verbs 
g^dl  and  padcthy  and  by  their  derivatives  to  which  the 
word  kophir  (ransom)  is  intimately  related.  Of 
these  two  verbs,  the  former,  gd^dlf  is  used  technically 
in  the  Mosaic  Law,  of  the  redemption  by  price  of  an 
inheritance,  or  of  things  vowed,  or  of  tithesj  the 
latter,  pCUiah,  of  redeeming  the  first-bom  of  children 
or  of  animals.  Outside  the  Law,  and  in  relation  to 
the  God  of  Israel,  both  verbs  are  used  of  simple 
salvation  or  deliverance  by  power.  In  the  New 
Testament,  redemption  is  specificall}^  that  of  man 
from  sin  by  Christ's  death.  The  idea  is  distinctly  ex- 
pressed by  the  verb  Xvrpwfuu  (from  X^poy,  **a 
ransom'')  and  its  derivatives;  it  is  also  directly  con- 
veyed by  the  term  dyopd^  (to  buy,  to  purchase)  and 
by  its  compound  iiayopdl;ia.  The  following  is  simply 
a  treatment  of  legal  redemption. 

I.  REDE&iPTiON  OF  PERSONS. — The  first-bom  male 
of  every  Jewish  family  was  consecrated  to  Yahweh 
and  had  to  be  redeemed  at  the  price  of  five  sides  or 
about  $2.75  (Ex.,  xiii,  2,  13;  Num.,  xviii,  16;  etc.). 
Every  other  Israelite,  whether  male  or  female,  could 
be  consecrated  to  God  by  a  personal  vow,  or  by  the 
vow  of  those  to  whom  he  or  she  belonged.  Jephte's 
actual  immolation  of  his  daughter  in  consequence  of 
his  vow  concerning  her  (Judges,  xi,  31-39),  was  con- 
traiy  to  the  Law.  Many  Israelites  carried  out  their 
dedication  to  God,  under  the  form  of  the  Nazarite 
vow.  Most,  howevw,  availed  themselves  of  the 
redemption  allowed  by  the  Law.    The  sum  then  to  be 


BBDUIPTIOM                           682  BEDEHPT0BISTINB8 

paid  as  ransom  for  males  between  20  and  60  ^ears  of  Bedampti^n  ot  CaptiTM,  Obdbb  roB  thb.    See 

age  was  50  sacred  mcles;  for  females  of  a  similar  age,  Mbbcbdarianb. 

30  rides;  for  bovs  between  5  and  20  years  old,  20  R.deniptioiu,  Penitential,  the  substitution  of 

steles,  and  for  girls  of  a  corresponding  age,  10  mcles,  exercises  (fflpeoia  ly  alms^eeds  ,  either  easier  or  ex- 

for  male  children  from  one  month  to  5  years  of  age,  t-ndinir  over  a  shorter  neriod   for  worka^  nmnanw. 

6  sides,  and  for  those  of  the  female  sex,  3;  and  finaffy,  -^S^rfinB  to  tto  ^tS^^                     TW 

for  old  nen  over  60  years  of  age,  |5  8id«  and  for  ,e3emptions  aUow  an  aUe^ation,  or  a  shortlming  of 

old  wom«i,  10.    The  poor  who  oouldnotj^w^^  this  ^^^  ^j^^  „f  penance;  they  thus  resemble  an  iBdul- 

amount  had  to  pay  the  price  fixed  by  the  pnwt,  ac-  ^^  ^^^  ^    ^  j^'.^j^^  ^^     ^^  indulgences, 

oonimg  to  their  means  (Lev,  xxvii,  2^.    Persons  ^  '   ^^^^  Anglo-^xons  and  the  Ir4,  as  mamfested 

lying  under  anathema  could  not  be  redeemed  ,,    ^^^^  penit^tial  books,  the  fundaniental  idea  was 

If:  Redemption  of  ANiHAL8.-According  to  the  jipaxeXionin  proportion  to  the  number  and  gnivity 

Mosaic  Law,  the  .firstborn  male  c^fammab  was  sacred  ^f\y^^  ^^  ^  V^  ^^  ^  ^               ^  ^^  ^^  ^^ 

to  the  Lord,  and,  if  a  first-born  of  l^lyclean  ammak,  Church.    The  confessor  imposed  a  certwn  number  of 

and  without  blemish  had  to  be  offered  msaci^ce.  penitential  acts,  prayers,  ^»te^  flageUations,  alms- 

As  undean  animals  should  not  be  unmolated  to  Yah-  3„^.  ^^^    »^^„'j,^„  «„  J  .  r,^L  «rT.-»  ^„<.;Ii^.^ku 


uon  ot  oiie-min  ot  ine  vaiue,  or  oe  soioana  xne  once  ^^j^t  ^  ^^^^  j^  ^y^  ^ut  the  penitential  books 

aven  to  the  pnest  (Lev    5«vu,  27).    The  firsMwm  ^^^  ^^^  ^j^^^  actuaUy  was  a  sort  of  scale  in  current 

of  an  aM,  however,  had  to  be  redeemed  with  a  lamb,  ^^     ^hree  things  were  considered  in  determining 

or,  if  not  redeemed,  put  to  death  (Ex.,  xui,  13).    Out-  ^^^  ^^^  works:   the  penances  abeady  imposed,  the 

side  of  tiie  first-born,  any  ammal  could  be  dedicated  difficulty  of  the  penitent's  accomplishing  them,  and 

to  God  by  vow.    It  could  be  rwisomed  only  if  it  were  g^,    ^^^  matemd  condition,  especially  in  the  case 


^™?}V  y  ^^'                  T          TT « rr «  replaced  fasts  of  seven  weeks  (a  carina),    A  penance 

Su  Redem^on  OP  Land,  Houses,  and  Tithes,  ^j*;  ^^^  ^  quarantine,  or  a  year  might  be  accom- 
— The  landed  property  which,  m  whole  or  in  pwt,  ^g^ed  in  a  ihort  time  by  Accumulating  psaltere, 
faraehtewaa  forced  by  poverty  to  sell,  (»uld  be  re-  genuflexions,  jxdmata  (blows  on  the  breast  with  the 
deemed  by  his  next  of  km  (the  Go  el)^T  by  the  man  ^^^  ^f  ^^e  hand),  or  by  condenang  two  days  of 
himself  when  s^ain  able  to  do  so.  The  redemption  ^^^^  j^^  ^^^^  ^f  severe  fasting.  Aese  substitu- 
pnce  was  then  fixed  according  to  the  number  of  years  ^^^^  assumed  numerous  combinations,  and  the  Irish 
yet  to  elapse  before  the  Jubilee  Year  at  which  time  ^.^nons  (Wasserachleben,  "Die  Bussordnungen", 
the  property  would  have  freely  reverts!  to  its  ong-  ^^^  ^^^  ^93)  g^^^  ^^^  methods  of  accompUshing 
inal  owner  or  to  his  heir  (Ley  XXV,  2&-28).  A  piece  of  ^  ye^s  p4ance  in  a  short  time.  It  was  even  at- 
land  dedicated  to  God  could  also  be  redeemed.  Its  tempted  to  have  the  penance  performed  by  others 
value  was  reckoned  accordmg  to  the  amount  of  seed  (^f.  "Leges"  or  "PoemWiale"  of  Eadger  in  Har- 
required  to  sow  it,  and  a  reduction  mfde  m  propor-  ^j^uin,  "Concilia",  VI,  i,  659  sq.),  but  these  substitu- 
tion to  the  number  of  years  tall  the  next  Jubilee  Year,  tions,  accessible  oily  to  the  great,  were  a  contradic- 
The  owner  of  the  land  might  redeem  it  at  this  pnce,  ^ion  of  penance  and  were  severely  condemned  (cf. 
plus  one-fifth;  and  if  unredeemed,  it  went  to  the  0,^^  of  Clovesho  of  747,  cans,  xxvi-xxvii).  The 
pnc»tly  domain  at  the  year  of  Jubilee.  But  if  the  redemptions  considered  in  the  penitential  books  had 
dedicant  of  the  land  had  himself  purchased  it  from  a  ^^ly  practical  and  not  officiar  value;  however,  they 
third  person  who  had  sold  it  because  of  his  poverty,  ^grc  oflScially  adopted  by  several  councils.  Thus  the 
then  at  the  Jubilee  it  reverted  to  the  latter,  and  the  Council  of  Tribur  of  895  (can.  Ivi),  in  determining  the 
dedicant  had  to  recompense  the  sanctuary  by  paying  penance  for  a  homicide,  authorizes  the  redemption 
Its  redemption  price  calculated  as  before  (Lev.,  (while  travelling  or  at  war)  of  the  fast  on  Tues- 
xxvii,  16-25).  With  regard  to  the  redemption  of  day,  Thursday,  or  Saturday  by  paying  a  denier, 
sold  houses,  the  Law  distinguished  between  dwellings  or  by  caring  for  three  poor.  Eventually  these  re- 
in wailed  cities  and  dwellings  in  unwalled  places,  demptions  were  offered  indiscriminately  to  all,  es- 
For  the  former  houses,  the  ri^t  of  redemption  lasted  pecially  at  the  CJouncil  of  Qermont  of  1095  (can.  ii), 
only  a  full  year  from  the  day  of  sale,  at  the  end  of  when  the  crusade  was  suggested  as  a  ransom  from  all 
which  they  fell  forever  to  their  respective  purchaser,  penance.  This  was  the  modem  indulgence,  save  that  in 
For  the  latter,  there  was  no  term  fixed  for  their  re-  the  case  of  an  indulgence  the  penance  to  be  redeemed 
demption,  and  if  unredeemed  before  the  Jubilee  they  has  not  been  imposed  on  individuals,  but  to  the  pro- 
then  freely  reverted  to  their  original  owners.  The  posed  work  is  attached  by  ecclesiastical  authority  a  re- 
houses of  the  Levites,  however,  could  be  redeemed  at  duction  of  penitential  satisfaction.  (See  Indulgences.) 
any  time,  and  reverted  to  them  if  unredeemed  before  Wambiwchlbbbn.  op.  cit.;  Sotmiti.  I>w  BuaMcher  u.  Bw*- 
the  year  of  Jubilee  (Lev.,  xxv,  29-34).    Houses  which  Sf^7''^.5*'2?*'  ^  *"'^"'  ^®^^'  ^^  ■*>;  SecPsNANc; Peki- 


had  been  simply  vowed  to  God  could  be  ransomed 


TENTIAL  Cakonb.  A.   BoUDINHON. 


upon  the  payment  of  the  value  fixed  by  the  priest,  Redemptorittinea.-The  cradle  of  theRedemp- 

plus  one-fifth  of  that  value  (Lev.,  xxvu,  14,  15).  .   v?r"*".*'S^*, ''*"'7:  ,f"^  a^^ia  u^.^^     i?o*k«p 

Tithes  belonged  to  God  as  the  real  oWner  of  the  land,  tcjnstines  is  Scala,  ^o<;(,*^  ^^^^^M^^^^ 

and  hence  could  not  be  made  the  subject  of  vows!  Thomas  Falcoia,  of  the  (^n«r^ation  P"  Oper^ 

Tithes  of  agricultural  produce  mieht  be  commuted  ^°""H  ^^^'ll^*L  R?aK^«  n^^^ 

for  their  money  value,  plus  one-fifth;  but  the  tithes  '^^^^  ,.^*^^'**^H?'??J2^nZ  Ih^^^^                 w«a 

Of  cattle  could  not  be  r^eemed  (Lev.,  xxvii,  31-33).  was  director  ofSt.  ^lpl^^«  ^^^^^.^^^^ 

Jahn.  Biblieai  ArefuEolom/  (tr.  New  York/  1839):   O.hlbr,  said  to  have  been  revealed  to  Sister  Mana  ^leste 

TheoioQy  of  the  Old  TeMamerd  (tr.  New  York,  188.3):   Kbil,  Crosterosa.     The    bishop  favoured    the    nile    and 

Manual  of  Biblical  ArchaoUnrv   (tr.  New  York,    1887.    1888);  o«lroH   AlnhonsUS  to  eive  the  nuns  the  spiritual  eX- 

BissBLL,  Biblical  Antiquities  (Philadelphia.  1888):   Denknobr,  ^  .  _^^l!y^|r™I«;.y*l,«  ^^                       o/Kp  uiAirfA 

Hebraieihe  Archaoioffie(FreihnTK  im  Br .  1894);  Nowack.  Uhr>  ercis^  and  to  organize  the  community  as  ne  j^<}«o^ 

buck  der  Hebraieehe  ArchOologie  (Freiburg  im  Br.,  1894) :  SchOrbr.  best  f Or  the  glory  of  God.     The  saint  disposed  thcm 

Oeeeh.  deeJ^dinehen  Volkee  im  ZeiuiUer  Jeeu  Chri»ti  (4th  ed..  f^j.  ^j^g  observance  of  the  new  rule  by  meditation  on 

Leipng.  1901-11);    Schwalm.  La   Vte  pntSe  du  Peuple  Jutf  A  ,      ,.-           ,      •^„__  ^t  niii-ia*       Tlio  H^fjiila  of  ihmt 

rspoque  d4  Jieu^Chritt  (Paris,  1910).  the  life  and  Virtues  of  Chnst.     Ihe  aeiaiw  oi  tneir 

Franc?i8  E.  GiGOT.  daily  life  were  to  commemorate  phases  of  His  hie. 


REDI1IPTOBI8T8 


683 


REDIMPTOaiSTS 


Zeal  was  to  be  exercised  by  prayer,  each  day  of  the 
week  being  devoted  to  an  object  ajffecting  the  well- 
being  of  the  Church.  They  were  to  pray  in  a  special 
manner  for  the  apostohc  works  of  the  Redemptorists. 
The  habit  is  deep  red,  and  the  scapular  and  choir- 
mantle   blue.      The    institute   began  on  23   May, 

1731.  A  second  monastery  was  founded  by  St. 
Alphonsus,  when  bishop,  in  his  episcopal  city,  St. 
Agatha  of  the  Goths.  Neariy  a  hundred  vears  after 
the  foundation  at  Scala,  the  Yen.  Joseph  Passerat 
sent  two  ladies.  Mile.  Eugenie  Dijon  and  tne  Ck>unte8s 
Welsersheim,  to  St.  Agatha  to  learn  the  rule  and 
spirit  of  the  Redemptoristines.  They  received  the 
habit  at  Rome  from  Cardinal  Odescalchi.  They 
founded  houses  at  Vienna  and  Brug(».  Convents  of 
the  institute  now  exist  in  Austria,  Bavaria,  Belgium, 
France,  Holland,  Ireland,  England,  the  Tyrol,  Spain, 
and  Canada.  The  rule  was  approved  by  Benedict 
XIV  in  1750.  (See  Alphonsus  Liquori,  Saint; 
Passbbat,  Vbnbrablb  Joseph.) 

DuMOBTiBR,   Lm   premikr€9  ridemploriatineB    (Bruses,    1884) 
oontaina  a  notice  on  the  institute;  Huouks,  Vie^  de  deux  religie^ 
«s   ridemptorittinet    (Tournai,    1884);    Dumorticr,    Fleurt   de- 
Viastitul  de*  rMtmptorUtinea  (Toumai,  1910);  Beat,  et  canonix. 
S.  D.  Sororie  Marice  Ceieate  Croeteroaa, 

J.  Maqnier. 

Redemptorists  (Conorboation  of  the  Most 
Holt  Redeemer),  a  societv  of  missionary  priests 
founded  by  St.  Alphonsus  Maria  Liguori,  9  Nov., 

1732,  at  Scala,  near  Amalfi,  Italy,  for  the  purpose 
of  labouring  among  the  neglected  country  people 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Naples. 

The  Redemptorists  are  essentially  and  by  their 
specific  vocation  a  missionai^y  society.  According 
to  their  rule  thev  are  "to  strive  to  imitate  the  vir- 
tues and  examples  of  Jesus  Christ,  Our  Redeemer, 
consecrating  themselves  especially  to  the  preaching 
of  the  word  of  God  to  the  poor".  They  take  the 
simple  vows  of  poverty,  chastity,  and  obedience,  and 
by  the  vows  of  poverty  they  are  bound  to  refuse  all 
ecclesiastical  dignities  outside  of  the  congregation. 
To  these  vows  they  add  the  vow  and  oath  of  per- 
severance to  live  m  the  congregation  until  death. 
Their  labours  consist  principally  in  missions,  re- 
treats, and  similar  exercises.  In  order  to  render 
these  labours  most  effective,  all  their  sermons  and 
instructions  should  be  solid,  simple,  and  persuasive. 
On  all  their  missions  they  are  obliged  to  preach  a 
sermon  on  prayer  and  one  on  the  intercession  of 
the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary.  In  order  to  secure  the 
salutary  effects  of  their  missions,  they  should,  after 
four  or  five  months,  return  to  the  places  where  they 
have  given  missions,  and  preach  another,  shorter 
course  of  sermons.  On  missions  proper  the  rule 
obliges  them  to  hear  all  the  confessions  themselves. 
Wherever  the  Redemptorists  have  parishes  they 
labour  in  the  same  spirit,  both  in  the  pulpit  and  in  the 
confesfflonal.  One  of  the  great  means  of  preserving 
truly  religious  fervour  among  all  classes  of  the  faith- 
ful is  the  Archconfrateruity  of  the  Holy  FamJQy, 
which  they  establish  in  all  their  parishes.  They  are 
also  most  solicitous  in  providing  well-equipp>ed 
parochial  schools,  and  they  take  special  care  of  grow- 
ing youth. 

Within  ten  years  of  the  order's  foundation,  per- 
manent establishments  were  made  at  Nocera,  Ci- 
^m,  Iliceto,  and  Caposele.  In  1749  Benedict 
XIV  CMiomcally  approved  the  work,  under  the  title 
of  the  Congregation  of  the  Most  Holy  Redeemer. 
Royalism,  however,  caused  the  greatest  obstacle  to 
the  devdopment  of  the  new  congregation.  An  effort 
to  obtain  the  royal  exequatur  to  the  papal  appro- 
bation proved  disastrous,  and  brought  about  a 
temporary  separation  of  the  Neapolitan  houses  and 
those  which  had  been  founded  in  the  Papal  Stat^. 
In  1793  a  reunion  was  at  last  effected  under  the 
new  superior  general,  Pietro  Paulo  Blasurci,  who 
governed  the  congregation  until  1817.    In  the  next 


six  years  several  houses  were  opened  in  different 

Sarts  of  Southern  Italy  and  Sicily,  and  the  society 
ourished,  though  subjected  to  many  grave  trials. 
It  was  destined,  however,  to  take  on  an  international 
character.  In  1785  a  young  Austrian,  Clemens 
Maria  Hofbauer,  journeyed  to  Rome  with  a  com- 
panion, Thaddeus  Hiibl.  There  they  were  deeply 
impressed  by  the  fervour  of  the  Fathers  of  the  church 
of  St.  Julian,  and  applied  for  admission  into  the 
community.  After  profession  and  ordination,  their 
chief  desire  was  to  transplant  the  congregation  to 
northern  countries.  They  received  permission  from 
the  general  to  establish  a  house  m  Vienna  or  in 
any  other  Austrian  city.  But  the  Government  was 
unfriendly,  and  Father  Hofbauer  offered  his  services 
to  the  Congregation  of  the  Propaganda  at  Rome. 
He  was  sent  to  labour  for  a  time  in  Courland,  Russia. 
In  1786,  with  his  former  companion,  Father  Htibl,  he 
arrived  at  Warsaw,  where  the  papal  nuncio  Saluzzo 
gave  them  charge  of  St.  Benno^s  church,  whence 
they  were  known  Ib  Poland  as  **  Bennonites".  Their 
apostolic  zeal  and  untiring  efforts  procured  the  salva- 
tion of  many  souls,  and  effected  the  conversion 
of  many  heretics  and  Jews,  while  their  church  pre- 
sented the  spectacle  of  an  uninterrupted  mission. 

In  1793  Father  Blasucci,  the  rector  myoTy  then 
residing  at  Nocera,  appointed  Father  Hofbauer  his 
vicar-seneral  with,  all  necessary  authority.  His 
first  thoughts  turned  to  Germany,  though  the  time 
seemed  inopportune,  since  Febronianism,  Josephin- 
ism.  Freemasonry,  and  infidelity  held  sway  all  over 
Europe.  He  succeeded,  however,  in  establishing 
three  foundations  in  Southern  Germany,  at  Jestetten, 
Triberg,  and  Babenhausen,  which  he  confided  to  the 
care  of  his  favourite  disciple.  Father  Passerat.  These 
foundations  were  eventually  suppressed,  and  the 
members  banished.  Father  Passerat  then  betook 
himself  to  Switzerland,  where  in  1818  he  organized 
a  community  at  Valsainte  in  a  dilapidate  Car- 
thusian monastery.  In  the  meantime,  owing  to 
opposition,  the  house  at  Warsaw  was  suppressed. 
In  1808  the  Fathers  were  expelled  from  St.  Benno's 
and  deported  to  the  fortress  of  Kiistrin,  Prussia, 
where  they  were  disbanded.  Father  Hofbauer, 
after  directing  his  companions  to  work  for  God's 
glory  whenever  and  wherever  they  could,  proceeded 
alone  to  Vienna,  where  he  became  an  assistant 
chaplain  and  conifessor  of  nuns.  His  influence  was 
soon  felt  on  all  sides,  even  in  the  Congress  of  Vienna 
(1815),  where  the  destinies  of  the  Church  in  Germany 
were  then  being  shaped.  He  was  styled  by  Pius 
VII  the  "Apostle  of  Vienna".  In  the  meantime  he 
kept  up  a  constant  correspondence  with  his  former 
companions,  did  all  in  his  power  to  find  for  them 
suitable  fields  of  labour,  and  predicted  that  after  his 
death  a  brighter  future  was  in  store  for  the  congre- 
gation, a  prophecy  that  was  soon  fulfilled.  He  med 
15  March,  1820.  In  accordance  with  the  request  of 
the  Emperor  Francis  I,  the  first  house  of  tne  Re- 
demptonsts  was  canonically  established  in  Vienna  on 
Christmas  Day,  1^20.  In  May  several  prominent 
young  men,  former  disciples  of  Father  Hofbauer,  had 
already  received  the  religious  habit. 

Father  Passerat  succeeded  Hofbauer  as  vicar- 
general;  the  onerous  and  trying  duties  of  his  office 
were  rendered  more  difficult  by  the  prevalent  spirit 
of  Josephinism.  The  years  int.ervening  between 
1815  and  1821  found  some  of  the  Fathers  labouring 
in  Bulgaria,  but,  owing  to  the  hostility  of  the  schismat- 
ics, thev  were  compelled  to  abandon  this  field. 
A  number  of  flourishing  foundations  were  established 
between  1820  and  1848.  In  1826.  at  the  request  of 
the  Austrian  Government,  a  foundation  was  started 
at  Lisbon.  Portueal,  for  the  benefit  of  German 
Catholics,  but  it  did  not  last  long.  In  1820  the  Re- 
demptorists acquired  the  convent  of  Bischenberg, 
Akace.    The  new  community  was  sent  from  VaJ- 


REDBMPT0RIST8 


684 


REDE1CPTOBI8T8 


gainte.  In  1828  the  Fathers  exchanged  their  poorly- 
furnished  home  at  Valsainte  for  the  commodious  Con- 
vent of  Fribourg,  which  proved  to  be  a  fruitful 
nurseiy  for  the  congregation  until  the  Revolution 
of  1848.  Prior  to  1848  six  houses  had  been  es- 
tablished in  Austria:  Frohnleiten  in  1826;  Mautern 
in  1827,  the  present  house  of  studies;  Innsbruck 
in  1828;  Marburg  and  Eggenbun;  in  1833;  and 
Leoben  in  1834.  During  Passerat^s  administration 
the  congreffation  was  introduced  into  Belgium  by 
Father  de  Held,  and  in  the  course  of  the  next  ten 
years  four  houses  were  established:  Toumai  in  1831, 
)3t-Trond  in  1833,  Li^e  in  1833,  and  Brussels  in 
1849.  A  foundation  was  also  opened  at  Wittem, 
Holland,  where,  in  1836,  an  old  Capuchin  monastery 
became  the  house  of  studies.  During  the  siune  period 
another  important  mission  was  begun  in  North 
America.  In  1828  Mgr  R6s^,  Vicar-General  of 
Cincinnati,  visited  Europe  to  solicit  pecuniary  fud 
and  to  obtain  evangelical  labourers.  While  at  Vienna 
he  applied  to  Passerat,  from  whom  he  secured  three 
priests  and  three  lay  brothers;  they  arrived  in  New 
York  20  June,  1832.  Two  other  Fathers  followed 
in  1835.  For  seven  years  they  laboured  heroically 
among  the  whites  and  the  Indians  of  northern 
Michigan  and  northern  Ohio.  Though  they  took 
charge  of  many  stations  in  both  states,  they  did  not 
secure  a  permanent  footing  in  any  of  these  places, 
with  the  exception  of  Detroit.  In  1839  the  Fathers 
were  called  to  Pittsburg  to  assume  charge  of  the 
German  congregation,  which  was  then  without  a 
priest,  and  torn  with  party  strife.  In  a  short  time 
they  made  it  a  model  congregation.  Scattered 
throughout  the  surrounding  country  were  many 
Catholic  settlers,  to  whom  they  preached  the  Word 
of  God  and  administered  the  sacraments.  This 
species  of  mission  inaugurated  b^  them  wherever 
tney  were  established  was  the  be^nning  of  man^  a 
well-organized  parish  of  to-day.  From  this  time 
the  care  of  German  congregations,  often  in  a  deplor- 
able condition  on  account  of  factions,  became  a 
prominent  element  of  the  apostolate  of  the  Redemp- 
torists  in  North  America.  Their  first  concern, 
however,  was  to  establish,  wherever  feasible,  parochial 
schools,  which  are  in  a  flourishing  condition  to  this 
day.  When  the  success  of  the  Fathers  at  Pittsburg 
became  known,  applications  were  made  to  them  for 
other  foundations.  They  were  called  to  Baltimore 
in  1840;  to  New  York  in  1842;  to  Philadelphia  in 
1843;  to  Buffalo  in  1845;  to  Detroit  and  New  Or- 
leans in  1847;  and  to  Cumberland  in  1849.  In  1837 
a  German  congregation  had  been  organized  at 
Rochester  by  Father  Proet,  but  the  Fathers  did  not 
take  permanent  charge  until  1841. 

Meanwhile  the  congregation  gained  a  permanent 
footing  in  new  coimtries  of  Europe.  In  1841  King 
Louis  I  of  Bavaria  invited  the  Fathers  to  the  cele- 
brated shrine  of  Our  Lady  at  Altotting.  During  this 
period  four  houses  were  founded  in  France:  Landser 
m  Alsace,  in  1842;  St-Nicolas-du-Port,  in  1845; 
Teterohen  in  Lorraine  and  Contamine  in  Savoy,  in 
1847.'  The  congregation  suffered  great  losses  through 
the  revolution  that  swept  over  Europe  in  1848.  In 
1847  the  Fathers  were  expelled  from  Switzerland  and 
in  1848  from  Austria,  to  which,  however,  they  re- 
turned. Important  developments  were  now  taking 
place  within  the  congregation  itself.  Although  the 
Transalpine  portion  of  the  conto'egation  was  subject 
to  the  rector  major  at  Nocera  in  Italy,  this  superior 
left  its  government  almost  exclusively  in  the  hands  of 
a  vicar-general  resident  at  Vienna.  As  the  conp-e- 
flrationhad  spread  far  beyond  itsorijrinal  boundaries, 
it  was  deemed  necessarv  to  create  the  oflRce  of  pro- 
vincial between  the  rector  maior  and  the  local  supe- 
riors. Father  Passerat,  weighed  down  bv  age  and 
infirmities,  resigned  his  office  in  1848.  After  a  series 
of  deliberations  conducted  by  the  Holy  See  with  the 


superior  general  and  the  Fathers  of  the  Tranwilpine 
provinces.  Father  Rudolph  Smetana  was  appointed 
vicar-general  in  1850.  Pius  IX  was  now  persuaded 
that  it  would  be  advantageous  to  have  the  supenor 
general  resident  in  Rome.  Fearing  the  opposition 
of  the  King  of  Naples^  he  did  all  in  his  power  to  con- 
vince him  of  the  benents  arising  from  this  step,  but  in 
vain;  thereupon  he  decided  that  the  Congregation 
of  the  Most  Holy  Redeemer,  to  the  exclusion  of  the 
Neapolitan  and  the  Sicilian  houses,  should  be  placed 
under  a  general  superior,  who  was  henceforth  to 
reside  at  Rome.  At  the  same  time  he  made  special 
regulations  for  the  Redemptorists  in  the  Kingdom  of 
Naples.  On  the  disappearance  of  the  latter,  uie  Nea- 
pohtan  houses  were  imited  to  the  body  of  the  con- 
gregation in  1869. 

In  pursuance  of  orders  from  the  Holy  See,  Father 
Smetana  convoked  a  general  chapter.  It  was  opened 
26  April,  1855.  The  result  of  this  chapter  was  the 
election  of  Father  Nicholas  Mauron,  a  native  of 
Switzerland,  as  superior  general.  He  was  the  first 
rector  maior  to  take  up  his  abode  at  Rome.  During 
Smetana  s  administration,  and  particularly  during 
that  of  Mauron,  the  congregation  made  rapid  prog- 
ress. The  number  of  provinces  in  1852-— not  in- 
cluding Naples  and  Sicily — was  four;  in  1890  they 
had  increased  to  twelve.  The  French-iSwiss  province, 
presided  over  by  Father  D^urmont  for  twenty-two 
years  (1865-87),  gained  admission  into  Spain  and 
South  America.  During  the  presidency  of  Garcia 
Moreno  two  houses  wero  established  in  the  Republic 
of  Ecuador.  A  few  years  later  the  congregation 
^ned  a  foothold  in  Peru,  Chile,  and  Colombia. 
The  original  Belgian  province,  having  grown  very 
rapidly,  was  divided  into  the  provinces  of  Belgium 
and  Holland.  The  Lower  German  province  found 
a  new  field  of  labour  in  the  eastern  part  of  South 
America.  The  province  of  Holland  received  charge 
of  the  mission  at  Surinam,  South  America,  a  settle- 
ment colonized  partly  by  lepers. 

The  American  province  of  the  congregation, 
erected  in  1850,  has  had  a  striking  development.  Its 
first  provincial  was  the  Rev.  Bernard  Hafkenscheid, 
a  fellowHstudent  of  Leo  XIII.  One  of  his  first  cares 
was  the  establishment  of  a  seminary  and  the  selectioa 
of  a  suitable  place  for  a  novitiate.  He  chose  Cum- 
berland, Maryland,  for  the  future  house  of  studies. 
From  this  nursery  of  study  and  piety  many  able  and 
zealous  missionaries  went  forth.  In  1853  the  novi- 
tiate, which  had  been  locate  since  1849  at  Baltimore, 
was  removed  to  Annapolis,  Marvland.  Here  Um 
heirs  of  Charles  Carroll  of  Carrollton  had  donated 
their  entire  estate  to  the  Redemptorist  Fathers. 
This  house  remained  the  novitiate  until  1907,  with 
the  exception  of  the  years  1862-66^  when  it  was  at 
Cumberland,  and  the  students  at  Armapolis.  In 
1858-59  the  present  church  and  convent  were  built 
at  Annapolis.  In  1868  the  students  were  truisferred 
to  the  new  house  of  studies  at  Hchester,  Maryland, 
which  remained  the  Alma  Mater  of  the  Redempto- 
rists until  1907.  In  that  year  the  faculty  and  the 
students,  forty-eight  in  number,  took  up  their  abode 
at  Esopus,  on  the  Hudson,  where  a  more  spacious 
scholasticate  had  been  erected.  From  the  first  house 
of  St.  Alphonsus  in  Baltimore  sprang  other  oommukii- 
ties:  St.  Michael's  in  1859,  St.  James's  in  1867,  and 
the  Sacred  Heart  in  1878.  In  1882,  owing  to  dif- 
ficulties in  the  Bohemian  parish,  the  Fathers,  at  the 
earnest  request  of  Cardinal,  then  Ardibiahop,  G&- 
bons,  assumed  charge  of  the  Bohemians,  a^™ 
diocese  five  other  parishes,  one  in  the  city  of  Wasli- 
ington,  were  originally  founded  by  the  Redemptorwto. 
In  1861  the  congregation  was  called  to  Chicago, 
Illinois,  to  take  c&arge  of  St.  Michael's  parish.  It 
was  not  long  before  a  large  chureh  and  a  commodious 
school  and  convent  were  built.  The  great  fire  of 
1871  destroyed  all  these  structures,  but,  thanks  to 


REDEMPTORISTS 


685 


REDEMPTORISTS 


the  faith  and  generosity  of  the  people,  they  were  re- 
built. 

The  many  succeeaful  missions  which  the  Re- 
*  demptorista  had  given  in  the  Diocese  of  St.  Louis 
induced  Archbishop  Kenrick  to  ask  for  a  foundation 
of  tibe  congregation  in  his  episcopal  city^  and  in  1866 
a  mission  house  was  opened  at  St.  Louis.  In  the  same 
year  (1866)  another  mission  house  was  established 
m  New  York,  near  the  little  church  of  St.  Alphonsus, 
which  had  been  erected  in  1845  for  the  convenience 
of  the  Germans  in  that  section  of  the  city ;  it  had  been 
served  by  Fathers  of  the  Third  Street  community. 
Though  now  a  mission  church,  St.  Alphonsus's  con- 
tinued to  be  a  parish  church  for  the  Germans.  Sub- 
^  sequently,  two  more  foundations  were  made  in  New 
York,  one  for  Bohemian  Catholics,  and  the  other  for 
the  German  Catholics  in  the  northern  part  of  the  city. 
In  1871  an  important  mission  house  was  opened  at 
Roxbury,  Boston.  It  was  dedicated  to  Our  Lady 
of  Perpetual  Help.  Its  first  rector,  the  Rev.  William 
H.  Gross,  was  slicceeded  by  the  Rev.  Leopold  Petsch, 
when  the  former  became  Bishop  of  Savannah  in  1873. 
In  1883,  when  a  new  parish  was  formed  in  that  dis- 
trict, the  Fathers  of  the  mission  church  took  charge  of 
it.  As  eiurly  as  1874  the  Redemptorists  of  the  Amer- 
ican province  were  called  to  St.  Patrick's  Church, 
Quebec,  Canada,  the  only  parish  church  in  that  city 
for  English-speaking  Catholics.  Four  years  later 
the  American  Fathers  became  the  custodians  of  the 
miraculous  shrine  of  Ste-Anne  de  Beaupr^,  near 
Quebec;  it  was  eventually  transferred  to  the  Fathers 
of  the  Belgian  province.  The  ^same  Fathers  assimxed 
charge  of  St.  Anne's,  Montreal,  a  large  parish  in  a 
very  poor  district  of  the  city.  The  Baltimore  prov- 
ince m  the  meantime  established  two  other  founda- 
tions in  Canada:  St.  Patrick's.  Toronto,  in  1881,  and 
St.  Peter's,  St.  John,  N.  B.,  m  1884.  In  1876  the 
congregation  was  invited  to  take  a  second  church  in 
Phimdelphia,  that  of  St.  Boniface.  Besides  these 
houses  tne  province  of  Baltimore  founded  in  1881  a 
separate  house  for  its  juvenate,  or  junior  house  of 
studies,  at  Northeast,  Pennsylvania.  Another  house, 
to  be  used  as  a  primary  juvenate.  was  purchased  in 
1886  at  Saratoga,  New  York;  tnis  is  at  present  a 
mission  house.  In  1893  a  new  house  was  opened  at 
Brooklyn,  New  York. 

In  1875  the  original  American  province  was  divided, 
the  eastern  under  the  name  of  the  province  of  Balti- 
more, and  the  western  as  the  provmce  of  St.  Louis. 
This  latter  province  embraced  the  houses  of  St. 
Louis,  New  Orleans,  Chicago,  and  Chatawa.  This 
last-named  place  was  selected  for  the  novitiate  and 
house  of  studies  for  the  province  of  St.  Louis,  but  was 
subsequently  abandoned.  Since  1875  several  new 
foundations  have  been  established.  In  1878  Kansas 
City,  Missouri,  was  selected  for  an  educational  in- 
stitution. The  old  house  of  St.  Mary's  at  Detroit 
was  abandoned  in  1872,  but  in  1880  another  house  was 
established  in  the  suburbs  of  the  same  city;  this  is 
now  a  flourishing  mission  and  parish  church.  Two 
years  later  the  Redemptorists  began  a  second  foun- 
dation at  Chicago.  In  1887  a  juvenate  was  erected 
at  Kirkwood,  near  St.  Louis,  and  in  1888  the  Fathers 
settled  at  Grand  Rapids,  Michigan.  In  1891  a 
foundation  was  made  at  Seattle,  Washington,  in 
1897  a  new  house  of  studies  was  erected  at  De  Soto, 
Missouri.  In  1894  the  Fathers  went  to  Denver, 
Colorado,  and  took  charge  of  St.  Joseph's  Church; 
in  1906  to  Portland,  Oregon;  in  1908  to  Davenport, 
Iowa,  and  to  Fresno,  California.  In  1910  a  new 
house  was  founded  at  Oconomowoc,  Wisconsin, 
which  will  be  the  future  house  of  studies  of  the  prov- 
ince of  St.  Louis. 

Despite  the  manifold  labours  and  the  limited  num- 
ber of  Fathers,  the  preaching  of  missions,  the  special 
work  of  the  sons  of  St.  Alphonsus,  was  never  neglected. 
In  1850,  however,  it  received  a  powerful  impetus 


under  the  first  provincial,  Father  Bernard.  Shortly 
after  his  arrival  in  America  he  organized  and  trained 
what  may  be  caUcd  the  first  band  of  regular  mia- 
sionaries,  among  whom  were  the  eminent  converts, 
Fathers  Hecker,  Hewit,  and  Walworth;  these  dia- 
tinguished  missionaries  afterwards  established  the 
Congregation  of  the  Paulists.  Since  then  the  work 
of  the  missions  has  increased  rapidly  from  year  to 
year;  thus  a  double  activity,  parish  work  and  mission 
work,  has  become  a  special  feature  of  the  congregation 
in  North  America.  Some  idea  of  the  work  of  the 
Baltimore  province. during  the  ten  years  from  1890 
to  1899  is  conveyed  by  the  following  figures:  mis- 
sions and  renewals,  1889;  retreats,  1071;  other  ex- 
ercises, 75;  confessions,  2,418,758;  converts,  1252. 
Parish  work:  baptisms,  54,608;  communions, 
6,827,000;  first  communions,  19,077;  marriages, 
8311;  average  number  of  school  children,  13,(X)0; 
converts.  1922. 

The  administration  of  Father  Mauron  was  rendered 
memorable  by  several  important  events.  In  1866 
Pius  IX  caused  the  miraculous  picture  of  Our  Lady  of 
Perpetual  Help  to  be  placed  in  the  Redemptorist 
Church  at  Rome.  The  devotion  to  the  Blessed  Virgin 
under  this  attractive  title  has  since  then  spread  far 
and  wide.  In  1871  the  pope,  moved  by  the  urgent 
and  repeated  petitions  of  bishops  and  heads  of  reli- 
Kious  orders,  bestowed  the  title  of  Doctor  of  the 
Universal  Cnurch  upon  St.  Alphonsus,  known  the 
world  over  by  his  theological  and  devotional  writings. 
Father  Hofbauer,  the  Apostle  of  Vienna,  was  beatified 
in  1889,  and  Brother  Gerard  Majella,  the  thaumatur' 
gu8  of  the  con^egation,  in  1893.  The  latter  was 
canonized  by  Pius  X,  11  Dec.,  1904.  The  eventful 
administration  of  Father  Mauron  ended  in  1893.  In 
1882  he  was  stricken  with  apoplexy,  and,  though  he 
rallied  from  the  shock,  a  slow  decline  set  in,  and  he 
died  13  July,  1893.  On  1  March,  1894,  Very  Rev. 
Mathias  Raus  was  elected  superior  general.  He  was 
bom  9  Au|^.,  1829,  in  the  Duchy  of  Luxemburg;  made 
his  profession  1  Nov.,  1853,  and  was  ordained  priest 
8  Aug.,  1858.  After  filling  various  imi>ortant  offices 
in  the  order,  he  was  called  to  Rome  by  his  predecessor 
to  be  one  of  the  general  consultors.  Father  Raus's  * 
administration  is  remarkable  for  the  number  of  Re- 
demptorist causes  of  beatification  introduced,  or 
about  to  be  introduced,  in  Rome,  thirteen  in  all. 
Among  them  are:  Ven.  John  Nepomucene  Neumann, 
superior  of  the  American  Province,  who  died  as 
Bishop  of  Philadelphia,  5  Jan.,  1860;  Father  Francis 
X.  Seelos,  of  the  American  province,  who  died  a 
victim  of  yellow  fever  at  New  Orleans,  4  Oct.,  1867; 
and  Father  Peter  Donders,  the  Apostle  of  the  Lepers 
in  Surinam,  who  died  in  the  leper  colony  at  Batavia, 
in  Dutch  Guiana,  14  Jan.,  1887.  To  these  may  be 
added  Father  Alfred  Pampelon,  who  died  at  Ste-Anne 
de  Beaupr^  in  Canada,  30  Sept.,  1896.  Father 
Raus's  administration  was  closed  oy  the  happy  issue 
of  the  cause  of  Blessed  Clement  M.  Hofbauer  s  can- 
onization, which  took  place  on  20  May,  1909.  In 
that  year  the  venerable  superior,  having  attained  his 
ei^ty-second  year,  deemed  it  wise  to  resign  his  re- 
sponsible office,  and  in  the  general  chapter  opened  on 
26  April,  1909,  the  Very  Rev.  Father  Patrick  Murray, 
superior  of  the  Irish  province,  was  elected  superior 
general  of  the  congregation.  He  was  bom  24  Nov., 
1865,  made  his  profession  23  Oct.,  1889,  and  was  or- 
dained priest  10  Sept.,  1890. 

During  the  past  twelve  years  the  development  of 
the  congregation  has  been  very  marked.  The  Roman 
province  was  particularly  honoured  by  Leo  XIII, 
when  he  confided  to  the  Fathers  the  magnificent  new 
church  of  St.  Joachim  in  Rome.  The  French  prov- 
ince was  divided  into  three  provinces  and  two  vice- 
provinces  in  1900.  Spain  became  a  province,  haying 
eight  houses,  to  which  recently  two  more  communities 
were    added.     The    French    province    proper   was 


REDEMPTORISTS 


686 


REDEMPTORISTS 


divided  into  two  provinces,  Lyons  and  Paris.  To  the 
former  now  belong  the  Southern  Pacific  vice-province, 
embracing  Chile  and  Peru,  and  to  the  latter  the 
Northern  vice-province  of  Ecuador  and  Colombia. 
Since  the  suppression  of  the  religious  orders  in  France 
in  1904,  some  of  the  Redemptorist  t^onmiunities  have 
undertaken  new  foundations  in  Belgium,  and  others 
in  South  America.  In  1900  the  Austrian  province 
was  also  divided  into  two  provinces,  Vienna  and 
Prague,  with  a  Polish  vice-province.  The  latter  was 
made  a  province  in  1909.  Since  the  division  the 
Viennese  opened  two  houses  in  Denmark,  one  in 
Prussian  Silesia,  and  a  fourth  at  Linz.  In  1899  the 
Belgian  Fathers  were  requested  by  the  Government  to 
take  charge  of  a  number  of  missions  in  the  Conp;o 
State;  these  missions  have  now  increased  to  six. 
Matadi,  Tumba,  Kionzo,  Kinkanda,  Kimpesse,  and 
Sonagongo.  The  Fathers  are  deeply  indebted  to  the 
paternal  Government  of  the  Congo  State  for  the  prog- 
ress they  have  made  since  their  arrival  in  1899.  Sev- 
eral valuable  missionaries  have  already  fallen  victims 
to  the  treacherous  climate. 

In  Canada,  which  was  made  a  vice-province  in 
1894j  four  more  houses  were  opened.  This  vice- 
provmce,  depending  on  the  Belgian  province,  num- 
bers six  houses.  In  the  West  Indies,  which  were  also 
made  a  vice-province  in  1904,  there  are  now  six 
houses.  The  province  of  Baltimore  opened  in  1902 
a  foundation  at  Mayagtiez  in  Porto  Rico.  Before  the 
occupation  of  the  island  by  the  United  States  the 
Spanish  Redemptorists  had  settled  at  San  Juan,  but 
at  the  close  of  the  Cuban  War  returned  to  Spain. 
The  American  Fathers  are  now  there  as  missionaries 
and  pastors.  A  parish  comprising  some  30^000  souls 
is  confided  to  their  care.  Despite  all  their  labours 
for  the  benefit  of  the  natives  their  progress  is  very 
slow.  On  26  July^  191 1 ,  the  Belgian  houses  of  Canada 
were  erected  into  a  new  province. 

The  Upper  German  or  Bavarian  province,  which 
was  under  the  ban  of  the  KvUurkampfj  has  recovered 
some  of  its  lost  ground.  Since  its  readmittance,  it 
hb&  added  another  very  important  foimdation.  But 
the  historic  convent  of  Altotting  has  passed  into 
other  hands.  In  1894  this  province  opened  in  Brazil 
a  mission  of  two  houses  forming  a  vice-province. 
The  province  of  Holland  has  added  to  its  mission  in 
Surinam  a  mission  in  Brazil,  forming  another  vice- 
province,  having  under  its  jurisdiction  three  houses. 

A  more  detailed  account  of  the  English  and  Irish 
provinces  claims  our  attention. 

The  English  province,  begun  from  Belgium  in  1843, 
owes  its  great  progress  to  the  Rev.  Robert  A.  Coffin, 
one  of  the  band  of  converts  associated  with  Newman, 
Manning,  and  Faber  in  the  Oxford  Movement.  After 
his  ordination  to  the  priesthood  he  joined'  the  Re- 
demptorists, and  gave  missions  throughout  England 
and  Ireland,  until  he  was  appointed  first  provincial  of 
the  English  province  in  1865.  During  his  adminis- 
tration of  seventeen  years  new  houses  were  founded 
in  various  parts  of  the  United  Kingdom,  the  house  at 
Perth  being  the  first  convent  open^  in  Scotland  since 
the  Reformation.  Leo  XIII  appointed  the  Rev. 
Robert  A.  CoflSn  Bishop  of  Southwark.  His  suc- 
cessor as  provincial,  the  Rev.  Hugh  McDonald,  died 
Bishop  01  Aberdeen,  Scotland.  The  activity  of  the 
English  Fathers  is  evidenced  by  their  literary  labours 
and  their  success  on  the  missions,  which  resulted  in 
more  than  16,Q00  converts.  At  present  the  province 
has  eight  houses:  Clapham.  Bishop-Eton,  Monkwear- 
mouth,  Bishop's  Stortfora,  Kingswood,  Edmonton, 
and  the  novitiate  and  house  of  studies  at  Perth,  Scot- 
land, with  a  total  membership  of  one  hundred  and 
twenty-three.  Besides  the  Rev.  Robert  A.  Coffin,  a 
number  of  noted  converts  have  joined  the  congregation, 
among  them  Bridgett,  Livius,  and  Douglas. 

In  1898  the  houses  in  Ireland  and  Australia, 
hitherto  subject  to  the  English  province,  were  con- 


stituted an  Irish  province,  and  Australia,  a  vioe- 
province,  as  its  dependency.  The  Rev.  Andrew 
Boy  Ian  w^s  appointed  the  fi^t  provincial,  with  his 
residence  at  Lamerick.  On  25  March,  1901,  the  foun- 
dation of  the  present  new  juvenate  house  at  Limerick 
was  laid.  The  province  of  Ireland  comprises  four 
houses:  Limerick,  Dundalk,  Belfast,  and  Esker;  the 
yice-province  of  Australia,  three  houses:  Waratskh  in 
New  South  Wales,  Ballarat  in  Victoria,  and  Perth  in 
Western  Australia.  The  total  membership  is  one 
hundred  and  forty-seven.  In  1906  the  Rev.  Andrew 
Boylan  was  conmiissioned  to  visit  the  Philippine 
Islands,  and  to  establish  there  a  colony  of  Irish  Re- 
demptorists. At  present  there  are  two  Redemptorist 
Houses  on  these  Islands  and  one  in  Wellington,  New 
Zealand.  The  church  at  Limerick  is  celebrated  for 
its  Confraternity  of  the  Holy  Family  for  men  and 
boys,  founded  by  the  Rev.  Edward  Bridgett,  which 
the  late  Bishop  of  Limerick.  Dr.  Butler,  called  "the 
miracle  wrought  by  the  Mother  of  Perpetual  Succour, 
a  far  greater  miracle  than  the  cure  of  a  blind  boy  or 
the  healing  of  a  cripple''.  In  1903  it  had  the  follow- 
ing membership:  Monday,  division  of  men,  2722; 
Tuesday,  division  of  men,  2580,  boys'  division.  1226; 
total,  6528.  Meetings  are  held  every  week,  the 
average  attendance  being  3992,  while  the  conmiun- 
ions  received  in  the  confraternity  during  1902  num- 
bered: men,  39,860,  boys,  8497;  total  48,357. 

The  following  figures  will  exemplify  the  growth  of 
the  congregation.  The  number  of  subjects  in  1852 
(not  including  those  of  Italy)  were:  priests,  343; 
professed  students,  75;  priests  novice.  12;  choir  nov- 
ices, 45;  professed  lay  brothers,  175;  lay  novices,  67; 
total,  715;  houses.  45.  In  1910  (including  Italy) 
priests,  2()85;  professed  students,  537;  choir  novices, 
142;  professed  lay  brothers,  962;  lay  novices,  343; 
total,  4069;  houses,  218;  provinces,  19;  vice-provinces, 
10.  The  constant  and  rapid  growth  of  the  congrega- 
tion must  be  attributed  chiefly  to  the  erection  of  the 
so-called  juvenates.  Finding  it  difficult  in  some 
countries  and  impossible  in  others  to  secure  a  solid 
future  for  the  different  provinces,  the  Fathers  deemed 
it  expedient  to  receive  boys  who  showed  a  disposition 
for  the  religious  and  priestly  life,  and  to  prepare  them 
while  still  young  for  the  higher  studies.  Father 
Hofbauer  adopted  this  plan,  and  obtained  thereby  a 
number  of  excellent  young  men  for  the  order.  In  the 
same  way  Father  Passerat  was  equally  successful  in 
drawing  youns  men  to  the  congregation.  It  was  in 
this  manner  that  Father  Mauron,  the  late  superior 
general,  wsts  attracted  to  the  order.  But  it  was  only 
after  1867  or  1868  that  a  definite  scheme  of  preparing 
boys  for  the  novitiate  was  followed.  The  idea  was 
taken  up  simultaneously  in  the  French  and  American 
provinces.  Father  Desurmont  was  the  first  to  organ- 
ize this  preparatory  institution  in  France.  For 
many  years  it  was  customary  for  the  American  Fathers 
to  select  from  their  parochial  schools  boys  who,  in 
their  opinion^  would  eventually  become  fit  subjects 
for  the  novitiate.  After  having  tested  their  ability, 
they  instructed  them  personally  in  the  rudiments  of 
Latin,  or  sent  them  to  a  Catholjc  college  until  they 
reached  their  sixteenth  year.  At  this  age  they  were 
admitted  to  the  novitiate,  after  wliich  they  completed 
their  humanities.  For  the  benefit  of  boys  who  did 
not  belong  to  Redemptorist  parishes  or  who  lived  in 
other  cities  the  provincial.  Father  Helmpraecht  (1865- 
77),  secured  a  suitable  place  near  his  residence  at 
Baltimore.  One  of  the  Fathers  was  appointed  direc- 
tor. In  1869  anew  method  was  followed.  The  young 
men  were  to  finish  their  classical  course  before  enter- 
ing the  novitiate.  To  accommodate  the  increasing 
number  of  pupils,  provision  was  made  at  Baltimore, 
then  at  Ilchester,  until  finally,  in  1881,  a  desirable 
college  building  was  purchased  at  Northeast,  Penn- 
sylvania. Here  a  six  years'  classical  course  is  pur- 
sued, while  at  the  same  time  the  moral  and  physical 


BEDFORD  6! 

fitnees  of  the  young  men  may  be  easily  ascertained. 
Similar  preparatory  collegej,  with  some  alight  differ- 
encea,  have  been  introduced  into  almost  every  prov- 
ince. After  a  novitiate  of  one  year,  the  young  mem- 
ber pass  to  the  higher  coutbc  of  studies.  1^  em- 
braces two  yeara'  philosophy,  two  years'  dogmatic, 
and  two  years'  moral  theology,  with  natural  philos- 
ophy, church  history,  Sacred  Scripture,  canon  law, 
pastoral  theolc^y,  and  homilctics.  AFter  the  com- 
pletion of  their  studios  the  young  priests  make  what 
IB  c^led  the  "second  novitiate"  of  six  months,  during 
which  lime  they  are  trained  theoretically  and  prac- 
tically in  the  special  work  of  the  missiorut. 

Although  the  limited  number  of  subjecta  and  the 
manifold  labours  of  the  ministry  do  not  permit  the 
members  of  the  congregation  to  make  a  specialty  of 
it,  still  their  literary  work  is  not  inconsiderable. 
Among  Redemptoriat  authors  the  foIIowinK  may  be 
mentioned:  Italy:  Januar.  Samelli,  Bl.  Paniutti, 
Anton.  Tannoia;  France;  Achillea  Desurmont,  Augus- 
tine Berthe,  I^eonord  GaudiS;  England;  Thoa.  Liviua, 
Thos.  E.  Bridgett,  Cyril  Ryder,  Robert  A.  Coffin: 
Austria:  Aug.  Rdsler,  Karl  Dilgskron,  Gerara 
Oiessel,  Georg  Freund,  Franz  Kayker;  Bohemia; 
Emmanuel  Kovar,  Franc,  Blatak,  Franc.  Sal.  Blazek, 
Aloys.  Polak,  Theoph.  Mateju,-  Weno.  Melichar; 
Germany;  Michael  Benger,  Michael  Horinger, Andreas 
Huguea;  Belgium:  Victor  Cardinal  Deschamps,  Henri 
Saintrain,  Ernest  Dubois,  Francis  X.  Godte;  Holland: 
J.  Aertnys,  Frans  Ter  Haar,  Willem  van  Roaaum, 
Joh.  L.  Janae«,  Aloys.  Walter;  Spain  and  South 
America:  Tomas  Ramos,  Uamon  Serabia;  North 
America;  Antony  Konings,  Joseph  Putzcr,  Michael 
Miiller,  Ferreol  Girardej-,  Peter  Geiermann. 

CoRBiEB.  Iliatoru  of  Kiliiiiout  Orderi  (Nen  York,  ISM); 
Heiubucher,  Dh  Onten  und  Konffregalioatn  drr  tiUtlolachm 
Kircht  (Puderborn.  lOOS),  s.  v.  RtdcmptorisUn;  Wuebt,  Annala 
fVorincia  Ammcana- lllchefller,  1S8S|;  HiHoni  of  Iht  ReHemplor- 
uu  al  Annapolii.  Md.  (IJctieaUr.  IVM):  Beck.  Dit  Rtdtmplnr- 
ulm  in  Fiiuburg  IPitUbun.  1889);  Anon.  Kuritr  Ufberblick, 
ftppendii  to  GisLEn's  .SI.  Atpl\omus  ma  Liguari  (EiRiledeIn, 
1887);  variDiu  lives  o(  Falhcr  HofbsuBr;  yarioiu  live,  of  St, 
Alphonaua,  eapecinlly  tho«  o(  Capecei.,itro.  Dilobebok.  »ati 
Bebtbk;  VBrioiulivHalFr.PawKratBDdFr.M&urop;  ^crroniin 
Dfi  C.SS.R.  Album  (Rome.  1903) ;  Anon..  Fifiu  finri  ol  lAmmik 
(IMS);  Mader,  Die  KangTmUian  da  AUrrkeilieilttl  Erlairrt  in 
OtMtrrtieh  (VieoBB.  18871;  Anon.,  Lrbembildrr  ttrUitrbtniT  Rt- 
dtmpUriatit  in  Nitdr-DruUcMaod  (Dalnua.  1896);  Ratie, 
Dtt  hi,  Alpfumaut  und  der  Redttaptorittea-Ordtn  CLuiembuTE. 
1887);  Zaff.  Dit  RcdrmplBiiilm  (ErIaiunD,  1894);  Aiaticai 
Workm  of  at.  Atplvmnu  (centeury  ed.)7xVlI.  mlnwiluiy. 

Joseph  Wubst. 


;7  BBDma 

engaged  in  eicperiments  intended  to  improve  the 

Eractice  of  medicine  and  suisery,  and  yet  found 
^isure  for  much  literary  work.  He  waa  an  active 
member  of  several  of  the  academies  of  the  time,  and, 
aa  an  aaaociate  of  the  Crusca,  aided  in  preparing  its 
important  Voc^Ktlario.  Ue  taught  in  the  Studio 
at  Florence  in  1666, 
loacajta    and    was 


writings  include  a 
number  of  scien- 
tific documents, 
e.     g.     "Oaserva- 


degl* 
insetti",  "Con- 
Bulti  modici",  etc. 
Other  writings  are 

the     dithyrambs, 

"  Bacco    in    Tos- 

cana"  and  "Arianna  Inferma",  beeides  a  number 

of  lyrics,  some  of  which  are  PetJ'archian  and  others 

burlesque  in  their  tone;    and  an  unedited   Vocabo- 

lario  arelino.     The  "Bacco  in  Toscana"  is  the  best 

example  of  the  dithjrramb  in  Italian,  and,  although 

best  works  of  the  m 
teenth  century, 

" /..— :-,^  17,2).  OpiiifuJi  di  • 


^^3!;  flacro 
;    niBERT, 


a  wUuraU  fnoreBAQ, 
witn  ue  BuUior'B  Bowa  (Flomios, 
To,a,na  (ClltA  di  Culello.  1890); 
•a  Antoleffia  (October.  1805). 

J.  D.  M,  Ford. 


the  Wrights  of  Kelvedon,  then  with  the  Herberts  of 
Powia  (1733-48).  Redford  waa  much  trusted  by  the 
second  Marqucaa  of  Powis  (d.  174.5),  but  the  third  waa 
unfriendly.  When  he  died  (1748),  a  Protestant  suc- 
ceeded, the  chaplaincy  lapsed,  and  Redford  had,  as 
he  says,  "to  rue  the  rum"  of  hia  former  flock.  He  was 
next  stationed  at  Croxteth,  the  scat  of  Lord  Molineux, 
where  he  published  "An  important  Inquiry;  or  the 
Nature  oi  Church  Reformation  fully  conaidered" 
(1751).  The  book  waa  a  success,  but  the  excise 
officers  seized  and  destroyed  400  copies,  the  last  half 
of  the  edition.  A  second  and  enlarged  edition  ap- 
peared in  1758.  Bedford's  extant  letters  (preserved 
by  the  English  Jesuits)  show  a  strot^  and  attractive 
peraonality,  and  throw  some  light  on  the  period  when 
most  priests  were  chaplains  in  CathoUc  families. 
FoLET,  Ricardt  of  Ihi  Eugtith  Pr<m»a.  S.  J..  VIl  (1SS2),  MO. 

J.  H.  Pollen. 

Bodl,  Francesco,  Italian  poet,  b.  at  Arezzo,  18 
February,  1020;  d.  at  Rsa  1  March,  1698.  After 
taking  his  degree  in  medicine,  he  entered  the  service 
of  the  Colonna  family  at  Rome  as  a  tutor,  and  held 
the  position  five  yearn.  In  1654  he  went  to  Florence, 
whert!  he  acted  as  physician  to  the  Grand  dukea 
Ferdinand  II  and  Cosimo  III.    He  was  constantly 


Eading,  AuGnsnNB,  Prince-Abbot  of  Einsiedeln 

and  theological  writer,  b.  at  Lichtensteig,  Switser- 
land,  10  August,  1625}  d.  at  Einsiedeln,  13  March, 
1602.  After  completing  the  classics  at  the  Bene- 
dictine College  of  Einsiedeln  he  there  joined  the  Order 
of  St.  Benedict,  26  December,  1641,  taught  philos- 
ophy at  the  early  age  of  twenty-four,  was  ordained 
priest  and  appointed  master  of  novices  in  164fl,  ob- 
tained the  degrees  of  Doctor  of  Philosophy  and  Theol- 
ogy at  the  University  of  Freiburg  im  Breisgau  in 
1654,  was  professor  of  theology  at  the  Benedictine  Uni- 
versity of  Salzburg  from  1654  to  1G48,  became  dean 
(prior)  at  Einsiedeln  in  1658,  and  was  finally  elected 
Prince-Abbot  of  Einaiedehi  on  17  July,  1670.  At 
Einsiedeln  he  built  the  stili  existing  choir,  the  con- 
fession-church, and  St.  Magdalene's  chapel  (1874-84). 
In  1675  his  monastery  took  charze  of  the  college'  at 
Bellinzona,  wliich  was  conducted  by  the  monks  of 
Einsiedeln  until  its  suppression  in  1852,  He  watched 
carefully  over  the  monastic  disciphne  and  insisted 
on  a  thorough  int4-!lectual  training  of  hia  monks. 
During  his  time  the  conventuals  of  Einsiedeln  in- 
creased from  53  to  1()0,  many  of  whom  gained  renown 
aa  professors  at  various  institutions  of  leaminH.  As 
a  temporal  ruler  he  was  beloved  by  his  people  and 
revered  as  a  father  by  the  poor.  His  numerous  theo- 
logical writings  give  evidence  of  great  learning,  though 
his  style  is  dry  and  at  times  obscure.  His  chief  work 
is  "  Theologia  scholastica  universa "  (13  vols.,  Einsie- 
deln, 1687),  based  on  the  "Summa"  of  St.  Thomas. 
Other  important  works  arc:  "Veritas  inextincta 
conoilii  Tndentini"  (5  vols.,  ib.,  1677-84),  a  defence 
of  the  Council  of  Trent  against  Heidegger;  "Vindex 
veritatia  ccnturiie  prima)  annalium  eccIe«aaticorum 
Baronii"  (ib.,  1030),  a  justification  of  the  first  century 
of  the  "  Annales  "  of  Baroniua ;  ' '  (Ecumenic^  cathednc 
apo8tolic£B  authoritas"  (ib.,  1669),  a  defence  of  papal 
supremacy  against  the  GaUican  Liberties;  and  other 
works  of  less  importance. 


RED 


688 


REDUCTIONS 


MoBSL,  AutmsUn  Reding,  FUrstabi  v&n  Einnedeln,  al*  GeJehrter 
u.  Schultnann  (Einaiedeio.  1861);  Hurtcr,  Nomenclator,  IV 
(Iniubnick,  1010).  332-5. 

Michael  Ott. 

Rad  Sea  (Heb.  Ydmnl^Hph;  Sept.  ii  ipv0p^  BdXauvra; 
Gredc  writings  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments 
1^  ipvBpii  BdKaaari;  Vulg.  Mare  rubrum). — The  name  of 
Red  (or  Erythraean)  Sea  was  used  bjc  classical  his- 
torians and  geographers  to  designate  the  waters  of 
the  Indian  Ocean  and  the  Persian  Gulf.    In  modem 

feography,  it  is  applied  to  the  north-west  arm  of  the 
ndian  Ocean,  some  1400  miles  long  and  lying  between 
Arabia  on  the  east  and  Africa  on  the  west.  Under- 
stood in  this  latter  sense,  the  Red  Sea  stretches  from 
the  Strait  of  Bab-el-Mandeb,  in  lat.  12**  40'  N.,  to  the 
modem  he^d  of  the  Gulf  of  Suez^  lat.  30°  N.  Its 
greatest  width  is  205  miles,  and  its  greatest  depth 
about  1200  fathoms.  At  Has  Mohammed,  in  lat. 
27**  45'  N.,  the  Red  Sea  is  divided  by  the  Peninsula 
of  Sinai  into  two  gulfs:  that  of  Suez  (anciently 
Heroopoliticua  siniis)  on  the  west,  now  about  130 
miles  in  length  with  an  average  width  of  about  18, 
and  that  of  Akabah  (anciently  /ElanUicus  siniLs) 
on  the  cast,  narrower  and  only  about  ninety  miles 
long.  The  Red  Sea  receives  no  river  of  importance, 
and  is  noted  for  its  heat.  Formerly  its  commerce 
was  great,  and  it  has  much  increased  since  the  open- 
ing of  the  Suez  Canal  in  1869. 

The  derivation  of  the  Hebrew  name  Ydui-t^Hph 
is  uncertain.  The  meaning  of  ^Uph  is  probably 
".reeds",  and  the  title  Ydn^Hph  (Sea  of  Reeds) 
appears  to  have  been  given  originally  to  the  upper 
end  of  the  Gulf  of  Suez,  which  was  probably  shallow 
and  marshy,  and  abounding  in  reeds.  More  uncertain 
still  is  the  derivation  of  the  Graeco-Roman.  name, 
Erythnean  (or  Red)  Sea.  It  has  been  variously 
explained  by  the  red  corals  it  contains;  by  the  colour 
of  the  Edomite  and  Arabian  Mountains,  bordering 
its  coasts;  by  the  glow  of  the  sky  reflected  in  its 
waters;  by  the  word  edom  (red),  which  the  Greeks 
may  have  rendered  literally;  by  the  name  of  King 
Erythras,  who  reigned  in  the  adjacent  country. 

The  Scriptural  references  to  the  Red  Sea  are 
directly  connected  with  its  northern  gulfs.  Those 
which  concern  the  Gulf  of  Akabah,  on  the  north-west, 
are  comparatively  few  and  unimportant.  In  Ex., 
xxiii,  31,  that  gulf  is  simply  given  as  the  southern 
limit  of  the  Holy  Land;  in  III  Kings,  ix,  26;  II 
Par.,  viii,  17,  it  is  spoken  of  in  connexion  with 
Solomon's  maritime  commeroe,  and  in  III  Kings, 
xxii,  48,  in  reference  to  Josaphat's  unsuccessful  attempt 
in  the  same  direction;  nnally,  in  Jer.,  xlix,  21,  it 
is  mentioned  in  a  prediction  of  the  utter  ruin  of 
Edom.  The  Scriptural  references  to  the  Gulf  of 
Suez,  on  the  north-east,  are  on  the  contrary  both 
numerous  and  important,  for  it  is  the  miraculous 
passage  of  that  arm  of  the  Red  Sea  which  is  de- 
scribed in  Ex.,  xiv,  celebrated  in  Moses'  Canticle 
(tjx.,  xv),  and  repeatedly  referred  to  in  other  parts 
of  Holy  Writ,  despite  the  recent  theories  framed  to 
disprove  the  traditional  identification  of  the  Gulf 
of  Suez  with  the  Red  Sea  crossed  by  Israel,  at  the 
time  of  the  Exodus.  Brugsch  and  others  have  in- 
deed argued  that  the  water  which  was  dried  up  to 
let  Israel  pass  was  the  northern  end  of  the  Sirbonian 
Bog,  on  the  shore  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  between 
Egypt  and  the  south-west  extremity  of  Chanaan,  but 
this  theory  is  untenable  because  contrary  not  only  to 
the  statements  of  the  Biblical  narratives  but  also  to 
the  recent  discoveries  which  have  settled  the  position 
of  Gessen,  whence  the  Israelites  set  out  for  Palestine. 
Again,  Beke  and  others  have  advanced  the  view  that 
the  eastern  arm  of  the  Red  Sea,  i.  e.  the  Gulf  of 
Akabah,  and  not  the  Gulf  of  Suez,  is  that  which  the 
Hebrews  crossed.  But  this  view  also  is  inconsistent 
with  the  most  natural  interpretatipn  of  the  Biblical 
data  concerning  the  Exodus.     The  traditional  iden- 


tification of  the  Gulf  of  Suez  with  the  Red  Sea  crossed 
by  Israel  should  therefore  not  be  given  up. 

It  remains  tme,  however,  that  the  scholaos  who 
most  readily  admit  this  identification  are  still  divided 
with  regard  to  the  actual  place  of  crossing.     Hieir 
disagreement  is  chiefly  due  to  the  diflficulty  of  as- 
certaining the  exact  extent  of  this  western  arm  of  the 
'  Red  Sea  at  the  time  of  the  Exodus.     On  the  suppoei- , 
tion  that  at  that  time  the   Gulf  of  Suez  extended 
northward   through    the  large   Bitter  Lake  to  the 
Timsah  Lake,  many  writers  maintain  that  the  cross- 
ing was  effected  at  a  point  between  these  two  lakes 
then  joined  only  by  a  shallow  connexion.     To  es- 
tablish this  position,   they  put  forth  various  aigu- 
ments    (historical,    geographical,    geological)  which, 
when  closely  examined,  are  found  not  to  substantiate 
it.     In  fact,  every  attempt  at  proving  that  the  Gulf 
of  Suez  extended  in  Moses'  time  as  far  as  the  Timsah 
Lake,  or  even  as  far  as  the  great  Bitter  Lake,  seems 
to  be  irreconcilable  with  the  fact  that  Egyptian  in- 
scriptions of  the  Twelfth  Dynasty  speak  of  tnis  latter 
body  of  water  as  an  undrinkable  'Make",  so  that, 
several  centuries  before  the  Exodus,  the  great  Bitter 
Lake  it49elf  was   no  part  of  the  Arabian   '*Gulf'^ 
Apparently,  then,  those  scholars  arc  in  the  right  who 
think  that  in  the  |ime  of  Moses  the  northern  limit 
of  the  Gulf  of  Suez  did  not  vary  much,  if  at  all. 
from  what  it  is  at  the  present  day,  and  who  maintain 
that  Israel  crossed  ''the  sea"  at  some  point  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  present  Suez.    This  point  is,  indeed, 
at  a  considerable  distance  from  the  pl^ce  where  Moses 
was  bidden  to  change  his  eastern  march  and  to 
"turn  and  encamp"  (Ex.^  xiv,  2);  but  this  very  dis- 
tance is  required  to  give  time  to  convey  to  Pharao  the 
intelligence  that  the  IsraeHtes  had  fled,  and  to  enable 
his  army  to  overtake  them  at  a  spot  whence,  humanly 
speaking,  they  could  not  escape  (Ex.,  xiv,  5  s^q.). 

The  passage  of  the  Red  Sea  was  ever,  and  indeed 
rightly,  considered  by  the  Hebrews  as  a  most  impor- 
tant event  in  their  national  history,  and  also  as  one  of 
the  most  wonderful  miracles  of  the  Almightysin  behalf 
of  His  Chosen  People.  Endeavours  to  explain  away 
the  miraculous  character  of  the  event  have  signally 
failed,  for  none  of  the  documents,  regarded  by  criti- 
cism as  embodied  in  Holy  Writ  and  as  describing  this 
historical  fact,  treats  it  as  the  mere  result  of  natural 
forces.  In  I  Cor.,  x,  2,  the  passage  of  the  Red  Sea  is 
referred  to  as  a  fitting  type  of  Christian  baptism. 

IloBiNSON,  Biblical  Researches  in  Palestine^  Mt.  Sinai  and 
Aiubia  Petrtta  (Boston.  1841);  Bruqbch,  Ulxode  ei  les  monument* 
igyptiena  (Leipstg,  1875) ;  Beke,  Discoteries  of  Sinai  in  Arabia 
and  of  Midian  (London,  1878);  de  Saint-Martin,  Diet,  de  gfeg. 
unit.  (Paris,  1876-79),  V,  246;  Bartlett.  From  Egypt  to  Paledin* 
(New  York,  1879);  Reclus.  L'A»ie  antirieure  (Paris,  1884); 
Navillb,  The  Store-City  of  Pithom  and  the  Route  of  the  Exodtu 
(London,  1888);  Vioouroux,  La  Bible  rt  les  dfcourertee  modeme* 
(Paris,  1896);  LesAtrr,  Le  passage  de  la  met  Rouge  in  Reww 
d'apologMique  pratique  (Paris.  1907) ;  McNeils,  The  Book  of  the 
Exodus  (New  York,  1908);  Toffteen,  The  Historic  Exodus 
(Chicago,  1909). 

Francis  E.  Gigot. 

Raductions  of  Paraguay. — ^The  Jesuit  Reduc- 
tions of  Paraguay,  one  of  the  most  singular  and  beau- 
tiful creations  of  Catholic  missionary  activity,  have 
contributed  more  than  any  other  factor  to  fix  the 
name  of  Paraguay  in  history.  They  have  been 
the  object  alike  of  the  most  sincere  admiration  and 
the  bitterest  criticism.  An  exact  account,  baaed  on 
the  best  sources,  should  be  their  best  justification. 

I.  Preliminary  Notions. — The  founding  and  the 
plan  of  the  Reductions  cannot  be  understood  and  cor- 
rectly judged  except  in  the  light  of  colonial  and 
political  conditions  as  they  prevailed  in  the  Spanish 
La  Plata  territory  at  the  time  of  the  arrival  of  the 
Jesuits.  The  country  discovered  in  1515  by  Juan 
Diaz  de  Solis  had  gradually  by  slow  stages  been  con- 
quered in  sanguinary,  and  in  the  beginning,  disas- 
trous battles  with  the  warlike,  liberty-loving  tribes. 
Until  1590  the  Spaniards  had  founded  ten  cities  and 


REDUCTIONS 


689 


REDUCTIONS 


^rty  colonies  (Guevara,  "Hist,  de  la  Conquista  del 
Paraguay,  Rio  de  La  I^lata  y  Tucuman",  Buenos 
Aires,  1882;  Gay,  "Historia da  Republica  Jesuitica do 
Paraguay",  Rio  de  Janeiro,  1863;  Monner-Sans, 
"Pinceladas  Hist6ricas",  Buenos  Aires,  1892).  The 
natives,  subdued  by  force  of  arms  or  submitting 
voluntarily,  were  brought  imder  the  yoke  of  the 
Spanish  encomienda  system  which  in  its  more  severe 
application  made  them  yanaconaSf  or  slaves,  in  its 
milder  form  mitayaSf  or  serfs,  to  the  conquistadores  and 
the  white  colonists  (Gay,  op.  cit.,  45).  The  Spanish 
kings  sought  to  better  the  lot  of  the  native  by  wise 
and  humane  decrees  for  their  protection,  but  the 
difficulty  of  exercising  control  over  them,  and  the  im- 
reliability,  weakness,  or  selfishness  of  many  of  the 
officiids  permitted  the  abuse  of  this  system  to  flourish 
(Monner-Sans,  loc.  cit.,  43  sq.).  This  system  re- 
sulted in  frequent  uprisings  of  the  subjugated  race, 
and  an  implacable  hatred  of  the  foreigners  on  the 
part  of  the  numerous  tribes  still  retaining  their  free- 
dom, who  withdrew  further  and  further  into  the  al- 
most inaccessible  steppes  and  forests  in  the  interior, 
harassed  the  colonies,  still  in  their  yoUth,  with  in- 
roads, and  frequently  laid  them  waste.  It  was  not 
until  the  Reductions  were  founded  that  conditions 
were  essentially  improved  in  this  respect  also. 

The  kings  of  Spain  having  the  conversion  of  the 
native  peoples  sincerely  at  heart,  missionaries  ac- 
compamed  even  the  earliest  expeditions  to  La  Plata, 
and  churches  and  parishes  were  founded  in  the  new 
colony  as  soon  aspossible.  Here,  as  elsewhere,  the  first 
pioneers  of  the  Faith  were  sons  of  St.  Francis  (Marc, 
de  Civezza,  '^Storia  universale  delle  Mission!  Fran- 
ciscane",  Pi^to,  1891,  VIII,  ii,  2).  Besides  them  we 
find  Dominicans,  Mercedarians,  and,  to  conjecture 
from  the  oldest  lists  of  bishops  (Ganus, '' Series  Episco- 
F|orum  Eccl.  CathoUcse'',  Ratisbon,  1873),  also  Augus- 
tinians  and  Hieronymit€».  THe  immense  territory  was 
divided  into  three  dioceses:  Paraguay  (see  at  Asun- 
cion), established  in  1547;  Tucuman  (see  at  Santi- 
ago del  Estero,  later  at  C6rdoba),  1570;  Buenos  Aires 
(see  at  Buenos  Aires),  1582.  But  as  late  as  1559  the 
clergy  in  the  colony  numbered  in  all  only  twenty  secu- 
lar and  regular  priests  (Gay,  op.  cit.,  48).  When  the 
first  Bishop  of  Tucuman,  Don  Francisco  de  Victoria, 
O.P.,  took  charge  of  his  diocese  in  1581,  he  found  in 
the  entire  diocese  only  five  secular  and  a  few  regular 
priests,  not  one  of  whom  could  speak  the  language  of 
the  Indians.  In  1586  the  first  Jesuits  came  to 
Tucuman  at  his  request,  and  in  1587,  at  the  request 
of  the  Bishop  of  Asuncion,  Don  Alonso  Guerra, 
O.S.F.,  also  to  Paraguay.  In  view  of  the  fame  ac- 
quired in  Europe  for  the  yoimg  order,  still  in  its  first 
ardour,  by  Francis  Xavier  in  Eastern  India,  Anchieta 
in  Brazil,  and  others,  it  was  hoped  the  Society  would 

{)rove  a  great  aid,  as  well  tow£uxis  improving  the  re- 
igious  conditions  in  general,  as  towards  pacifying 
and  converting  the  numerous  wild  tribes.  The  col- 
leges, seminaries,  residences,  and  houses  for  spiritual 
retreats  foundea  after  1593  in  rapid  succession  at 
Santiago  del  Estero,  Asuncion,  G6raoba  (a  university 
since  1621).  Buenos  Aires,  Corrientes,  Tarija,  Salta. 
San  Miguel  de  Tucuman,  Santa  F^,  La  Rioja,  ana 
elsewhere  served  to  attain  the  first  purpose;  while 
the  second  purpose  was  fulfilled  by  the  ministrv 
among  the  Indians  in  the  encomiendas,  and  by  travel- 
ling missionaries  who  went  out  among  the  tribes  still  at 
liberty  and  covered  the  vast  territory  in  all  directions, 
very  much  as  St.  Francis  Solanus  did  at  about  the 
same  period .  These  mission  excursions  reflected  honour 
upon  the  heroism  of  the  missionaries,  but  achieved 
no  lasting  results.  Therefore  the  general  of  the  order. 
Aquaviva.  insisted  on  the  concentration  of  effort  and 
the  founding  of  central  points  in  the  most  advan- 
tageous localities,  after  the  fashion  of  similar  efforts 
in  Brazil  (Handelmann,  "Gesch.  v.Brasilien"  ,  Berlin. 
1860,  78  sq.).  The  first  superior  of  the  province  oi 
XII.- 


Paraguay,  founded  in  1606  (which  numbered  at  its 
founoatioif  seven  Jesuits,  but  in  1613  no  less  than 
one  hundred  and  thirteen),  Father  J^iego  de  Torres 
Bollo,  was  commissioned  to  put  these  ideas  into 
practice. 

II.  Foundation  of  the  Rbductions. — ^They  did 
not,  as  has  been  asserted,  owe  their  origin  to  a  pre- 
viously-outlined idea  of  a  state  after  the  pattern  of 
Campanella's  '^Sun  State''  (^'Stimmen  aus  Maria- 
Laach"^  XXV,  1883,  439  sq.),  which  should  form  the 
realisation  of  the  longing  of  the  Jesuits  for  power; 
on  the  contrary,  they  grew  in  the  most  natural  manner 
out  of  the  efforts  to  obviate  the  three  principal  diffi- 
culties in  the  way  of  the  conversion  of  the  heathen 
resulting  from  the  prevailing  encomienda  system, 
namely:  the  oppression  of  the  natives  by  force,  the 
consequent  aversion  to  the  religion  of  the  oppressors, 
and  the  bad  example  of  the  colonists.  The  new  watch- 
word was:  liberty  for  the  Indians,  emancipation  from 
the  aervitium  yersondUf  and  the  gathering  and  isolat- 
ing of  the  natives  won  over  by  the  covK^iaUi  espirUiuU 
in  separate  mission  colonies  or  ^'reductions''  managed 
independently  by  the  missionaries.  The  plan  pro- 
voked a  storm  of  animosity  against  the  Jesuits  among 
the  colonists,  which  led  to  repeated  expulsions  of  the 
members  of  the  order  from  their  colonies.  Even  a 
part  of  the  clergy,  looking  on  the  encomienda  system 
as  a  righteous  institution,  and  who  themselves  lived 
upon  its  fruite,  opposed  the  Jesuits.  [This  opposition 
is  quite  apparent  in  Civezza's  treatise,  which,  how- 
ever, can  lay  but  little  claim  to  being  historically 
exact  (loc.  cit.,  135  sqq.)].  The  Jesuits,  however,  had 
a  powerful  ally  in  Phibp  III  of  Spain,  who  very  ener- 
getically espoused  the  cause  of  the  oppressed  Indians, 
and  who  not  only  sanctioned  the  plans  of  the  Jesuits, 
but  furthered  them  very  effectively  by  a  number  of 
royal  decrees  and  appropriations  from  the  public 
treasury,  and  placed  them  on  a  firm  legal  basis.  The 
Cedula  Real  (Royal  Ordinance)  of  18  Dec.,  1606, 
given  at  ValladoUd,  commanded  the  governor,  Her- 
nandarias  de  Saavedra,  that,  ''even  if  he  could  con- 
quer the  Indians  on  the  Parand  by  force  of  arms 
he  must  not  do  so,  but  must  gain  them  over  solely 
through  the  sermons  and  instructions  of  the  religious 
who  had  been  sent  for  that  purpose. " 

The  Cedula  Real  of  30  Jan.,  1607  provided  that  the 
Indians  who  were  converted  and  became  Christians 
could  not  be  made  serfs,  and  should  be  exempt  from 
taxation  for  a  period  of  ten  years.  The  so-called 
Cedula  magna  of  6  March,  1609,  declared  briefly  that 
"the  Indian  should  be  as  free  as  the  Spaniard" 
(Monner-Sans,  op.  cit..  22  sq.).  With  these  royal 
decrees  (which  were  followed  by  a  long  list  of  others) 
as  a  basis,  the  Jesuits  bepan,  in  explicit  understanding 
with  the  highest  ecclesiastical  and  civil  authorities, 
who  had  been  commanded  by  the  Government  to  ren- 
der efficient  aid,  to  found  Reductions,  first  of  all.  in 
the  distant  north-eastern  Province  of  Gua3nra  (ap- 
proximately the  present  Brazilian  Province  of 
Parang),  where,  in  1609,  the  Loreto  R^uction  was 
founded  on  the  Rio  Parandpanema,  which  was  fol- 
lowed in  1611  by  the  Reduction  S.  Ignacio  Miri,  and 
between  then  and  1630  by  eleven  others,  altogether 
numbering  about  10,000  Christians.  The  Indians 
hastened  in  entire  bands  to  these  pli^ces  of  refuge, 
where  thev  found  protection  and  safety  from  the 
robbers  who  harassed  them.  All  ecclesiastical  and 
civil  decrees  notwithstanding,  the  traffic  in  slaves  had 
experienced  an  astounding  development  among  the 
mixed  population  of  the  captaincies  of  Sfio  Vicente 
and  Santo  Amaro  (in  the  present  Province  of  Sfio 
Paulo,  Brazil)  composed  of  adventurers  and  free- 
booters from  all  nations.  Well -organized  troops  of 
man-hunters,  the  so-cidled  Mameluoos,  had  in  a  short 
time  depopulated  the  plateau  of  Sfio  Paulo,  and  from 
1618  onwards  threatened  also  the  Reductions^  to 
which  the  startled  Indians  hastened  from  all  sides. 


REDUCTIONS 


690 


REDUCTIONS 


\ 


One  by  one  the  Reductions  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
marauders.  In  1630  alone  no  less  than  3O,0OO  Indians 
are  said  to  have  been  murdered  in  Guayra  or  carried 
off  from  there  by  force  as  slaves.  In  vain  the  mission- 
aries had  appealed 'to  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese 
authorities  for  protection.  They  could  not  or  would 
not  help  (Handelmann,  loc.  cit.,  516  sq.)*  As  a  last 
resort  it  was  decided  to  take  the  remainmg  Christians 
and  those  still  coming  in  to  the  Reductions  founded 
on  the  Parang  and  Uruguay  rivers,  and  in  1631  the 
exodus  was  accomplished  under  the  leadership  of  the 
heroic  Father  Simon  Maceta.  Dr.  H.  vqn  Iherine 
calls  this  exodus  '^one  of  the  greatest  achievements  oi 
its  kind  recorded  in  history'^  ("Globus'',  LX,  1891, 
179).  Scarcely  12,000  reached  their  destination. 
C'Conquista  Espiritual  hecha  por  los  Religiosos  de  la 
Compatiia  de  Jesus  en  las  Provincias  del  Paraguay, 
Parang,  Uruguay,  y  Tape  escrita  por  el  P.  Antonio  Ruiz 
de  Montoya  de  la  misma  Comp. '',  new  ed.,  Bilboa, 
1892, 143  sq.) .  In  similar  manner  also  the  nine  Reduc- 
tions which  had  been  founded  between  1614  and  1638 
on  the  Rio  Jacuhy  and  in  the  Sierra  dos  Tapes  in  the 
present  Brazilian  Province  of  Rio  Grande  do  Sul,  and 
which  numbered  in  all  some  30,000  souls,  were  soon 
after  destroyed  and  partially  transferred  to  other 
places.  The  neglect  of  the  Spanish  governors  to  come 
to  the  aid  of  the  missions  in  their  peril  was  bitterly 
avenged  by  the  subsequent  destruction  of  the  Spani^ 
colonies  in  Guayra  by  the  Portuguese,  and  the  loss  of 
the  entire  province.  Cast  upon  their  own  resources, 
the  Jesuits  organized,  with  the  king's  consent,  an 
Indian  militia,  equipped  with  fire-arms^  so  that,  as 
early  as  1640,  they  could  place  a  well-disciplined  army 
in  the  field  against  the  Paulistas,  and  could  effect- 
ivelv  suppress  robbenr  and  pillage.  Henceforth  the 
Reductions  continued  to  form  a  strong  bulwark 
against  the  inroads  of  the  Portuguese. 

The  main  part  of  this  "Christian  Indian  State",  as 
the  Reductions  have  been  called,  was  formed  by  the  30 
[32]  Guaranf  Reductions,  which  came  into  bemg  dur- 
ing the  period  from  1609-1760  in  the  territory  of  the 
present  coimtry  of  Paraguay,  the  Argentine  Provinces 
of  Misiones  and  Corrientes,  and  the  Brazilian  Province 
•  of  Rio  Grande  do  Sul.  Many  of  these  Reductions 
repeatedly  changed  their  location  in  consequence  of 
the  frequent  inroads  of  the  Mamelucos  and  savage 
Indian  tribes,  retaining,  however,  their  former  names, 
— a  circumstance  which  has  given  rise  to  no  little 
confusion  in  older  charts.  The  growth  of  the  Guaranf 
Mission  can  be  seen  from  the  annual  statistical  rec- 
ords. In  1648  the  Governor  of  Buenos  Aires  on  a  visit 
found  a  population  of  30,548  souls  in  nineteen  Reduc- 
tions, and  in  1677  the  Fiscal  of  the  Audiencia  of 
Charcas,  Don  Diego  Ibafiez  da  Faria,  found  58,118 
in  twenty-two  Reductions.  In  1702.  22  villages  on 
the  Parang  and  Uruguay  numbered  89,500  souls; 
in  1717,  31  vUlages  numbered  121,168;  in  1732, 141,- 
242;  1733,  126,389;  1734,  116,250;  1735,  108,228; 
1736,  102,721;  1737,  104,473;  1738,  90,287;  1739, 
81,159;  1740,  73,910;  1741,  76,960;  1742,  78,929; 
1743,  81,355:  1750,  95,089  (Monner-Sans,  134  sq.). 
The  remarkable  fluctuations  m  the  number  of  the  m- 
habitants  were  due  to  repeated  attacks  of  epidemic 
diseases  (see  below). 

Besides  the  Guaranf  missions,  the  Chiquitos  Mission 
was  founded  in  1692  to  the  north-west,  in  the  pres- 
ent Bolivia;  in  1765  this  mission  numbered  23,288 
souls  (4981  families)  in  ten  Reductions  (Fernandez, 
"Relacion  de  los  Indos  Chiquitos",  Madrid,  1726; 
Lat.  tr.,  Augsburg,  1733;  Ger.  tr.,  Vienna,  1729; 
Bach,  "  Die  Jesuiten  und  die  Mission  Chiquitos  .  .  . 
ed.  Kriegk,  Leipzig,  1843).  The  connecting  link  be- 
tween the  Guaraci  and  the  Chiquitos  missions  was 
formed  by  the  Mission  of  Taruma  with  three  Reduc- 
tions: San  Joaquin  (1747);  San  Estanislao  (1747),  and 
Belen  (1760),  to  which  2597  souls  (547  families)  be- 
longed in  1762,  and  3777  souls  (803  families)  in  1766. 


Far  greater  difficulties  than  in  the  Guaranf  mb. 
sions  were  encountered  among  the  numerous  many- 
tongued  "mounted  tribes"  o(  the  Gran  Chaco,  whose 
depredations  conlunually  kept  the  Spanish  colonies 
on  the  alert  (Huonder,  "Die  Volkergnippienmg  im 
Gran  Chaco  im  18.  Jahrhundert ",  in  "Globus", 
LXXXI,  387  sq.;  D.  Lorenzo  Hennas,  "Catalogode 
las  lenguas"^  Madrid,  1800).  At  the  urgent  request 
of  the  Spanish  authorities  the  Jesuits  attempted  to 
found  Reductions  among  these  tribes  also.  Fifteen 
Reductions  came  into  existence  between  1735  and 
1767,  which  about  1767  harboured  Indians  of  eleven 
different  tribes,  among  them  about  5000  Christians 
(cf.  the  treatise  by  Dobrizhoffer,  "Hist,  de  Abiponi- 
bus",  Vienna,  1784;  Ger.  tr.,  Vienna,  1783;  tr., 
London,  1822;  Bauke  (Pauke),  "Missionen  von 
Paraguay",  new  ed.  by  Kobler,  Ratisbon,  1870;  and 
Brinpmann,  Freiburg  im  Br.,  1908).  Scattered  Re- 
ductions were  founded  in  Tucuman,  particularly 
among  the  Chiriguanos  and  Mataguayos  (1762:  1 
Reduction,  268  Christians,  20  pagans),  and  in  North 
Patagonia  (Terra  Magallonica)  where  the  Reduction 
of  Nuestra  Sefiora  del  Pilar  was  established  in  1745. 
Altogether  the  Jesuits  foimded  approximately  100 
Reductions,  some  of  which  were  later  destroyed;  46 
were  established  between  1638  and  1766.  Conse- 
ouently,  the  accusation  raised  bv  Azara  and  others 
that  their  missionary  activity  had  become  8tagnat4Hl 
is  unfounded.  Until  1767  new  reductions  were  con- 
tinually being  formed,  while  a  constant  stream  of  con- 
verts gained  by  the  missionaries  on  their  extensive 
apostolic  journeys  kept  pouring  into  the  older  Reduc- 
tions (cf.  Ulloa,  "  Voyage  deT-fin^r.  m^rid.",  Amster- 
dam, 1752, 1. 541  sq.).  Between  1610 and  1768, 702,086 
Indians  of  the  Guaranf  tribes  alone  were  baptized. 

The  founding  and  preservation  of  these  Reductions 
were  the  fruit  of  a  century  and  a  half  of  toil  and  heroic 
sacrifice  in  the  battle  against  the  terrors  of  the  wilder- 
ness and  the  indolence  and  fickleness  of  a  primitive 
pecmle,  «s  well  as  against  the  reckless  policy  of  ex- 
ploitation followed  by  the  Spaniards,  to  whom  the 
Reductions  were  ever  an  eyesore.  Down  to  1764 
twenty-nine  Jesuits  of  Paraguay  suffered  death  by 
martjnrdom. 

III.  Organization  op  the  Reductions. — ^A.  Plan 
and  Location  of  the  SeUlemenis. — ^The  Reductions  were 
almost  always  laid  out  in  healthy,  high  locations,  the 

feat  central  stations,  as  for  instance  Candelaria  and 
apeyu,  on  the  large  waterways  (Paranil  and  Uru- 
guav)  of  the  coimtry.  The  general  plan  was  similar 
to  that  of  the  Spanii^  puebioa.  The  form  was  square, 
all  streets  runmng  in  straight  lines,  the  main  streets 
frequently  being  paved.  The  latter  gave  upon  the 
pUua  the  large  square  where  the  church  was  situated, 
generally  shaded  by  trees,  and  ornamented  with  a 
large  cross,  a  statue  of  the  Virgin  and  frequently  also 
with  a  pretty  village  well^  at  the  head  of  the  plaza 
stood  the  church,  and  adjoining  it,  on  one  side,  the 
residence  of  the  Fathers,  called  the  "CoUese"^  on 
the  other,  the  cemeteiVj  enclosed  by  a  wall  with  a 
pillared  hall.  The  dweUings  of  the  Indians,  until  the 
end  of  the  seventeenth  century,  were  frequently  plain 
huts;  later,  solid,  one-story  houses,  built  of  stone  or 
adobe,  and  invariably  covered  with  tiles  because  of 
the  danger  of  fire,  about  fifteen  by  eighteen  feet  in 
size,  and  divided  into  various  apartments  bv  parti- 
tions of  wicker-work;  they  formed  comfortable  quar- 
ters for  families  of  from  four  to  six  members  (cf. 
Cardiel,  "Declaraci6n  de  la  Verdad''  Buenos  Aires, 
1900,  121  sq.,  282  sq.;  Queirel,  "Carta  sobra  las 
ruinas  de  S.  Ignacio  Miri'^  Buenos  Aires,  1898),  and, 
at  all  events,  were  incomparably  better  than  the 
dwellings  of  the  Indians  of  the  encomienda.  A  portico, 
resting  on  stone  or  wooden  pillars,  and  extending  the 
entire  width  of  the  building,  projected  from  the  front 
of  each  house,  so  that  one  could  walk  through  the 
entire  town  in  rainy  weather  without  getting  wet. 


EEDDCTIONS  6! 

riie  houaea  were  arranged  in  separate  groupe  {irici, 
imula)  of  aix  to  ten  dwellings  each,  to  diminish  the 
clanger  of  fire;  The  "coilego"  waa  separated  from 
Ihc  plaza  by  a  wall  and  a  small  courtyard,  and  by 
another  wall  from  the  adjoining  buildings,  which  con- 
tained the  schools,  workshops,  skire-houses  etc.  Be- 
hind  lay  the  careful ly-kopt  garden  of  the  Fathers. 

The  churches,  mostly  three-aialed,  built  of  maasive 
blocks  of  stone,  with  a  richly-decorated  facade,  a 
main  door,  and  several  wide  entrances,  convey  an 
impression  of  grandeur  even  as  ruins  (Ave-Lallemand, 
"Reisen  durch  Sttd-Brasilien ",  Leipzig,  1S59;  day, 
op.  cit.,  321  sq.J  Hernandez,  in  "Raifln  y  Fi",  VI, 
224;  V,  235;  VII,  230).  In  the  massive  belfries, 
which  mostly  stood  apart  from  the  churches,  hung 
six  or  even  more  bells,  which  latterly  were  cast  in  the 
Reductions.  The  rich  interior  furnishings  would 
have  graced  any  cathedral.  Besides  the  church,  each 
village  had  one  or  more  chapels  for  the  dead,  in  which 
the  corpses  were  exposed  and  whence  they  were  taken 
a  church- 


ihapel.     The 


.ml  enclosed  by  a 
wall  with  a  pillared 
hall,  waa,  with  its 
rows  of  orange  treea 
and  its  wealth  of 
HowerB,  truly  "a 
sa«red  garden  of  the 
dead"  (Southey, 
"  History  of  Brazil ", 
3vols.,  London, 
1819,  II,  414).  To 
,  the  left  of  the  ceme- 
tery, isolated  and 
surrounded  by  a 
wall,  stood  the  coti- 
fuaxu  (the  big 
house),  which  served 
as  an  asylum  for  the 
widows,    who    lived 

a  reformatoiT'  for 
women;  as  a  home  for  crippli  , 
Bjiinning-room.  Beyond  thie  village,  just  at  the  village 
lunits,  stood  the  chapel  of  St.  Isidore,  the  ramada  or 
lodging-house  for  travelling  Spaniards,  and  farther  off 
the  tile-kilns,  mills,  stamping-mills,  tanneries,  and 
other  buildings  devoted  to  industry.  The  villages 
mostly  lay  open;  only  the  Reductions  more  exposed 
to  the  inroads  of  bands  of  savages,  and  the  eslanciat 
or  farms,  and  the  cattle-corrals  were  protected  by 
moats,  palisades,  walls,  or  thorn  hedges.  To  facilitate 
communication  and  trafiio  between  the  various  vil' 
lages,  serviceable  roads  were  laid  out,  often  to  great 
distances.  Besides,  the  splendid  network  of  rivers 
served  as  an  excellent  waterway,  the  mission  operating 
no  leas  than  2000  boats  of  various  kinds  on  the 
ParanS  alone  and  approximately  as  many  on  the 
Uruguay  (Cunninghame  Graham,  "A  Vanished  Ar- 
cadia", London,  1901,  200)  with  its  own  wharves,  as, 
e.  g.  at  Yapeyu.  The  population  varied  widely  in 
the  different  villages,  ranging  between  350  and  7000 

B.  The  Economic  Syilem  of  the  Reductions. — The 
plan  of  the  Jesuits  of  forming,  with  rude  tribes  of 
nomads,  a  large  commonwealth,  separate  from  the 
Spanish  colonies,  and  far  in  the  mterior  of  a  country 
but  little  explored,  placed  before  them  the  difficult 
problem  of  making  the  commonwealth  economically 
mdependent  and  self-sustaining.  If  the  Indians  were 
obliged,  day  by  day,  to  gather  their  means  of  sus- 
tenance in  the  forest  anaon  the  plain,  they  would 
never  have  been  lifted  out  of  their  nomad  life  and  would 
have  remained  half-heatheoa.    The  financial  support 


1  REDUCTIONS 

of  the  Crown  consisted,  for  the  first  reductions,  of  a 
moderate  appropriation  out  of  the  state  treasury 
(algiin  Mtivendio  tnoderruio,  Deer.  Philip  III,  20  Nov., 
Kill;  see  Monner-Sans,  loc.  cit.,  49)  and  of  bells  and 
articles  for  use  in  the  church,  and  later  were  reduced 
to  a  temporary  tax  exemption,  and  a  small  salary  for 
the  missionaries  doing  parish  duty.  In  the  eigh- 
teenth century  this  salary  amounted  to  300  pesga 
annually  for  the  euro  and  his  assistant  (F.  and  A. 
Ulloa,  "Voyage  de  I'Amfirique  mSrid.",  Amsterdam, 
1752,  I,  548).  Consequently  the  natural  resources  of 
the  fertile  soil  had  to  be  exploited,  and  the  Indians, 
laxy  and  careless  by  disposition,  had  to  be  trained  to 
regular  work. 

(1)  Conditions  of  Property. — The  economic  basis 
was  a  sort  of  communism,  which,  however,  differed 
materially  from  the  modem  system  which  bears  the 
same  name,  and  was  essentially  theocratic.  "The 
Jesuits",  writes  Gelpi  y  Ferro,  "realized  in  their 
Christian  conunonwealth  all  that  is  good  and  nothing 
that  is  bad  in  the 

Cia  of  modern 
ialista  and  Com- ' 
munists"  (Monner- 
Sans,  loc.  cit.,  130; 


Maria-Laaoh  ",  loc. 
cit.).  The  land  and 
all  that  stood  upon 
it  was  the  property 
of  the  community. 
The  land  was  ap- 
portioned among 
the  caciques,  who 
aDotted  it  to  the 
familicsunderthem. 
Agricultural  instru- 
ments and  draught- 
cattle  were  loaned 
from  the  common 
supply.  No  one 
was  permitted  to 
sell  his  plot  of  land 
or  his  houae,  called 
abanUja,  i.-  e.  "own 
The  individual  efforts  of  the  Indians, 
owing  to  their  indolence,  soon  proved  to  be  inadequate, 
whereupon  aeparate  plota  were  set  aside  as  common ' 
fields,  called  Tupamba,  i.  e.  "God's  property",  which 
were  cultivated  by  common  labour,  under  the  guid- 
ance of  the  Padres.  Theproductsof  thesefieldswere 
placed  in  the  common  store-house^  and  were  used  partly 
lor  the  support  of  the  poor,  the  sick,  widows,  orphans. 
Church  Indians,  etc.,  partly  as  seed  for  the  next  year, 
partly  as  reserve  supply  for  unforeseen  contingencies, 
and  also  as  a  medium  of  exchange  for  European  goods 
and  for  taxes  (see  below).  The  yield  of  the  private 
fields  and  of  private  effort  became  the  absoluteproperty 
of  the  Indians,  and  was  credited  to  them  individually 
in  the  common  barter  transactions,  so  that  each  re- 
ceived in  exchange  the  goods  he  desired.  Those 
abantba  plots  which  gave  a  smaller  yield  because  of 
faulty  individual  manageroent  were  exchai^ed  from 
time  to  time.  The  herds  of  live-stock  were  also  com- 
mon property.  The  cabaUos  del  Santo,  which  were 
used  in  processiona  on  festal  occasions,  were  especially 
reserves.  Thus  the  Reduction  Los  Santos  Apfistoles 
at  one  time  owned  599  of  these. 

(2)  Products. — The  Indians  themselves  were  con- 
tent, for  their  needs,  with  the  cultivation  of  maize, 
manioc,  various  indigenous  tuberous  planta  and  vege- 
tables, and  a  little  cotton.  But  the  work  conducted 
by  the  communities  continued  constantly  to  asdume 
larger  proportions,  and  surpassed  by  far  the  work  of 
the  Spanish  colonies,  both  in  regard  to  the  variety 
of  the  products  and  to  rational  cultivation.  Besides 
the  common  cereals  (wheat  and  rice  were  grown 


REDUCTIONS  692  REDUCTIONS 

scaroely  anywhere  outside  of  the  Reductions)  and  in  ''Raz6n  y  F6*\  XXV,  63-474,  and  XXVII,  349; 

field  produce,  tobacco,  indigo,  suear-cane,  and  above  Schuller,  ^'Um  Libro  Americano  unico  o  primeiro 

all,  cotton  were  cultivated.    Much  care  was  devoted  impresso  nas  Missides  Guarani  S.J.'',  Para,  1910). 

also  to  fruit  culture,  and  that  successfully.    Even  to-  It  should  be  noted  particularly  that  the  remarkably 

day  one  may  find  in  the  wilderness  traces  of  former  high  industrial  development  was  not  reached  until 

splendid  orchards,  particularly  orange  groves.    Vine  after  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century,  when 

culture  was  attempted,   but  with  only   moderate  Jesuits  from  Germany  and  the  Netherlands  came  to 

success.  Paraguay  in  larger  numbers  (see  Huonder,   "Die 

One  of  the  most  important  products  of  the  terri-  deutschen  Jesuiten-Missionare  des  17.  u.  18.  Jahih., 
tory  comprised  by  the  Reductions  was  the  so-called  Freiburg,  1899,  68).  In  1726  a  Spanish  procurator 
Paraguay  tea  (W6a),  which  is  still  the  largest  article  of  the  missions  admitted  that  "Artes  plerasque 
of  export  of  the  country.  It  consisted  of  dried  leaves  [missionarii]  erexerunt,  sed  eas  omnes  uermanis 
of  the  matd  tree  (Ilex  Paraguay enaU),  crushed  and  debent'\  Arts  and  the  crafts  were  completely 
slightly  roasted,  and  drawn  m  boiling  water;  it  was  neglected  in  the  Spanish  colony  at  that  time,  the 
then,  as  it  is  now,  the  favourite  beverage  of  the  houses  in  Buenos  Aires  being  built  of  clay  and  covoed 
country,  and  almost  entirely  displaced  the  intoxicat-  with  rushes.  A  German  lay  brother  of  the  Society 
ing  dnnks  to  which  the  Indians  had  been  addicted  of  Jesus,  Joh.  Kraus,  erected  the  first' larger  brick 
to  a  deplorable  extent.  Because  the  fterba  forests  buildings  (collie  and  novitiate)  in  Buenos  Aires 
{herbales)  frequently  lay  hundreds  of  miles  distant,  and  C6rdoba;  Brother  Joseph  Klausner  of  Munich 
and  the  Indians  there  employed  must  needs  be  de-  introduce^  the  first  tin-foundry  in  the  Province  of 
prived  of  regular  pastoral  care  for  too  long  a  period,  Tucuman;  while  Indians  from  the  Reductions,  under 
the  Jesuits  attempted  to  transplant  the  tree  into  the  the  direction  of  the  missionaries,  built  the  fortificar 
Reductions;  their  endeavours  were  successful  here  Uons  and  ramparts  of  Buenos  Aires,  TobatL  San 
and  there,  but  the  jealous  Spanish  colonists  used  every  Gabriel,  Arecutagui,  and  other  public  works  (Huon- 
means  to  frustrate  their  endeavours.  The  other  der,  loc.  cit.;  Monner-Sans,  105  sq.). 
abimdaiit  natural  resources,  choice  sorts  of  wood,  (4)  Distribution  of  Labour  and  Manner  of  Con- 
aromatic  resins,  honey  bees,  and  the  like  were  con-  trol. — ^The  economic  machinery  of  the  Reductions 
verted  to  useful  puiposes,  and  attempts  were  even  could  be  kept  in  motion,  and  the  Indians,  naturally 
made,  on  a  small  scale,  to  produce  pig-iron.  Cattle-  averse  to  work  and  thoughtless,  brought  up  to  s^ 
raising  attained  a  magnificent  development,  the  en-  tematic  labour  only  by  a  well-regulated  direction 
tire  country  being  rich  in  grass,  and  some  eatanciaa  and  control.  Even  the  children  were  taught  to  work, 
numbered  as  many  as  30,(K)0  sneep  and  more  than  and  day  by  day  some  of  them  were  occupied  in  the 
100,000  head  of  cattle,  numbers  which  were  not  workshops  and  spinning-rooms  under  special  over- 
unusual  in  some  of  the  Spanish  haciendas.  The  seers,  while  others  were  led  out  into  the  ficdds  and 
herds  were  increased  from  time  to  time  by  the  capture  plantations,  to  the  joyous  strains  of  music,  following 
of  wild  cattle,  and  the  breed  improved  by  careful  a  statue  of  St.  Isidore  carried  before  them,  and  em-  . 
selection  and  breeding.  Horses,  mules,  donkeys,  and  ployed  there  for  a  few  hours.  The  women  were 
poultry  were  also  raised  on  a  large  scale.  In  addi-  obhged,  in  addition  to  the  performance  of  their 
lion,  hunting  and  fishing  aided  in  providing  support;  household  duties,  to  spin  a  certain  amount  weekly 
these  forms  of  sport  were,  however,  restricted  m  the  for  the  use  of  the  community,  to  help  during  the  sow- 
Guarani  Reduction  for  reasons  of  discipline.  The  ing  and  harvesting  of  cotton  etc.  Men  who  followed 
individual  Reductions  devoted  themselves  more  or  no  particular  trade  were  obliged  to  work  at  least  two 
less  to  one  or  the  other  branch  of  production,  and  days  weekly  at  communal  undertaJdngs,  in  the  fields, 
supplied  their  wants  by  exchange  with  other  Reduc-  or  at  public  buildings,  etc.  All  had  to  work  during 
tions.  A  written  almanac  of  1765,  which  the  Salesian  harvest  time.  Relaxation  and  recreation  were  pro- 
Fathers  of  Don  Bosco  discovered  about  1890  at  Asun-  vided  in  the  hours  set  aside  for  leisure,  which  were 
ci6n,  contains  on  its  parchment  leaves,  besides  the  passed  in  arranging  comm6n  games,  military  drills 
calendar,  an  adviser  for  agriculturists,  with  particular  horse  races,  and  the  like,  by  the  many  feast-clays  ana 
reference  to  the  climate  of  the  country;  the  manu-  the  days  set  aside  for  hunting  trips  and  other  expedi- 
script  shows  what  knowledge  and  sohcitude  the  tions.  Cards  and  dice,  however,  were  stiiotly  fcN^ 
ap(»tolic  missionaries  devoted  to  agriculture  C'Kath.  bidden.  The  heads  of  each  community  were  en- 
Missionen'',  Freiburg,  1895,  259).  trusted  with  the  direction  of  their  communities  (see 

(3)  Industries. — ^Tne  vast  needs  of  such  an  enor-  below).    Besides,  each  branch  of  trade  had  its  own 

mous  establishment  and  the  difficulties  and  expense  of  superintendents  and  guild-masters,  who  constantly 

import  necessitated  the  foundation  of  domestic  in-  remained  in  touch  with  the  missionaries^  who  watched 

dustries.    Thanks  to  the  exceptional  native  gifts  of  over  all  and  whose  presence  and  authority  formed  the 

the  Guaranfs,  the  abiUties  necessary  for  almost  all  the  driving-wheel  of  the  whole  communiUr.    All  officials 

trades  and  crafts  were  soon  developed  in  these  people,  were  obliged  to  give  exact  account  of  their  adminis- 

Some  were  carpenters,  joiners,  wood-turners,  builders;  tration,  and  it  is  a  matter  of  fact  that  the  accounts  and 

others    blacksniths,    goldsmiths,    armourers,    bell-  administration   reports   were   in   exemplary   order, 

founders,    masons,    sculptors,    stone-cutters,    tile-  according  to  the  testimony  of  the  government  in- 

makers,  house-painters,  painters  and  gilders,  shoe-  spectors.    The  superiors  of  the  order  also  conducted 

makers,  tailors,  bookbinders,  weavers,  dyers,  bakers,  an  exact  inspection  every  year.    Labourers  and  sudi 

butchers,  tanners,  instrument-makers,  or^an-builders,  public  employees  as  hospital  attendants,  sextons,  and 

copyists,  calligraphers  etc.    Others  agam  were  em-  others  were  kept  at  public  cost,  and  the  private  fields 

ployed  in  the  powder-mills,  tea-mills,  corn-mills  etc.  of  draymen  and  ferrymen,  shepherds  ana  others,  who 

Each  man  remained  true  to  the  craft  once  adopted,  were  engaged  in  public  service,  were  tilled  by  others 

and  provided  for  the  transmission  of  his  trade  by  for  their  benefit. 

teaching  it  to  apprentices.    The  wonderful  quality        (5)  Distribution  of  Rations. — Food  and  dress  were 

of  the  products  of  the  workshops  in  the  Reductions  the  same  for  aU,  with  some  alight  concessions  in 

is  shown  by  the  beautiful  cut-stone  work  of  the  favour  of  the  caciques  and  public  officials.    The 

churches.  In  some  of  the  Reductions  there  were  print-  produce  of  the  private  fields  provided  the  secondary 

in^  establishments,  as  for  instance  in  Corpus,  San  dishes  for  the  dailv  table.    Whatever  was  missing 

Miguel,  San  Xavier,  Loreto,  Santa  Maria  la  Mayor,  was  provided  out  of  the  common  storehouse  in  equal 

where  principally  books  of  a  liturgical  and  an  ascetic  measure.    The  principal  article  of  diet  of  the  Indians 

nature  were  printed   (Rodeles,   ''Imprentas  de  los  was  meat,  which  they  obtained  from  the  oommon 

antiguos  Jesuitas  en  Europa,  America  y  Filipinas'^,  slaughter-nouses  at  regular  intervals.    Ordinarily, 


BIDUCTIONS  6! 

Bnimals  were  elaughtereti  three  times  a  week;  in 
Yapeyu,  with  about  7000  inhabitants,  about  forty 
b«evee  were  lulled  each  day.  In  order  to  prevent  the 
Indians,  whose  voracity  waa  well  known,  from  con- 
suming their  entire  rdtions  of  meat  in  one  day,  they 
were  induced  to  make  cAaryui  (meat  dried  in  the  sun 
and  pulveriied)  of  a  portion  of  it.  The  sick  were 
given  special  food  prepared  in  the  parsonage;  the 
children  received  their  morning  and  evening  me«l 
in  common  in  the  courtyard  of  the  parsonage  also. 
On  high  feast-days  public  banquets  were  held  in 
common.  The  common  store-hoiisee  also  furnished 
additional  provisions  of  a  special  nature  for  wedding 
feasts  etc.  Strong  spirituous  liquors  were  almost 
entirely  rsptaced  by  matS  in  the  GuaranI  HeductionB. 
Twice  a  year  each  family  received  the  necessary 
woven  woollen  and  cotton  goods,  of  which  the  women 
made  clothing.  In  addition,  each  family  could 
bring  its  private  cotton  crop  to  the  parish  mills. 
Only  a  coarae,  plain  cloth  was  woven.  Goods  of 
better  quality,  for  the  altar  Unens  vestments,  and 
garments  of  state 
had  to  be  imported. 
The  dress  of  the  na* 
lives  was  plain  but 
decent;  the  attire 
of  the  men  con- 
sisted of  short,  loose 
brecjches,  a  cotton 
shirt,  and  two  wool- 
len ponchos,  one  for 
e very-day  wear,  the 
other  for  holidays; 
the  women  wore 
long,  loose,  shirt- 
like gowns,  with 
many  folds.  Ordi- 
narily all  went  bare- 
foot. The  official 
Eaiments  and  uni- 
forms    for    festive 


13  BEDVCTIONS 

621  sq.;  Monner-Sans,  loc.  eit.,  00  sq.;  Cardiel, 
loc.  cit.,  "Lettree  Mifiantes  et  curieuses",  Lyons, 
1819,  V,  371  sq,;  Cunninghame  Graham,  op.  cit,, 
193  etc.).  The  myth  concerning  their  vast  trade 
transactions  must  be  classed  with  that  of  the  gold 
mines  In  the  Reductions,  which  never  existed,  not- 
withstanding the  fact  that  hatred  and  envy  have  so 
persistently  clung  to  this  assertion,  that  the  Govern- 
ment was  forced  more  than  once  to  institute  investiga- 
tions. Thus  an  investigation  was  conducted  in  1640 
by  Don  Andrf  de  Ledn  Gacavita,  and  another,  still 
more  searching,  in  1657  by  Don  J.  Blasqucz  V^verde. 
In  both  cases  the  inquiries  led  to  a  clear  demonstra- 
tion of  the  untruth  of  the  accusations,  and  to  the 
severe  punishment  of  the  accusers  (see  Charlevoin, 
"Hist,  du  Parag,",  Paris,  1757,  III,  381;  CanlJel, 
op,  cit.,  163;  Lettres  ftiifiant^,  loc.  cit.).  The 
gold  mines  have  never  been  found,  even  after  the 
expulsion  of  the  Jesuits.  The  estimates  that  have 
been  made  of  the  alleged  vast  income  and  trade 
profit  are  founded  upon  purely  arbitrary  or  false 
suppositions.  The 
vast  herds  of  cattle, 
for  example,  were 
not  representative 
of  wealth,  because 
of  the  great  numbers 
of  ownerless  cattle 
in  which  the  land 
abounded,  the  price 
of  a  healthy  steer  in 
consequence    being 


lOH  Clncelabu 


uuiEu  i»Bi,i^iiiuo,  nEic  kept  in  separate  chests  m  i.iie 
I'colle^",  as  also  the  banner?,  theatrical  costumes, 

C.  Commerce  and  Wealth  of  the  Jesaitg. — The  ac- 
.  cusation  that  the  Jesuits  acquired  immense  wealth 
in  the  Reductions  is  a  fable,  spread  broadcast  by 
their  enemies  and  those  jealous  of  their  success,  but 
long  since  disproved.  "I  dare  to  maintain",  the 
Bishop  of  Buenos  Aires,  Dom  Pedro  Taxardo,  wrote 
to  Philip  V  of  Spain  in  1721,  "that  if  the  Jesuits 
were  less  virtuous,  th<^  would  have  fewer  enemies. 
I  have  visited  their  missions  frequently,  and  I  can 
assure  Your  Majesty,  that  I  have  nowhere  found 
greater  order  and  more  perfect  unselfishness  than 
amon^  these  rehgious,  who  take  nothing  that  belongs 
to  their  converts,  whether  it  be  for  their  own  attire 
or  for  their  sustenance"  (Charlevoix,  toe.  cit.,  II, 
94).  The  fact  is  that  the  Fathers  bore  the  expense 
of  their  own  sustenance,  as  far  as  possible  out  of  the 
salary  appropriated  by  the  king  for  them  (about  250 
pesos),  although  it  was  smaller  than  the  salary  of 
the  other  priests,  both  secular  and  religious  (600 
pesos).  In  compensation  tor  the  provisions  taken 
by  the  Fathers  from  the  common  stores,  such  as  fish, 
milk,  eggs,  vegetables,  the  procurator  sent  each  mis- 
sionary a  supply  of  salt,  soap,  knives,  shears,  glass 
beads,  fish-hooks,  pins,  medals,  and  the  like  for  dis- 
tribution among  the  Indians,  who  were  very  fond 
of  these  things  (Cardiel,  loc.  cit.,  264  sq.).  Southey, 
himself  a  Protestant,  published  as  the  result  of  his 
investigation  covering  this  question,  that  nothing 
can  be  more  certain,  than  that  the  Jesuits  have  not 


■petoB  in  consequence 
of  the  reckless  de- 
struction of  these 
animals  by  the 
Spaniards.  The 
single  carved  high 
altar  in  the  Church 
of  San  Borja  was  vtdued  at  the  price  of  30,000  steers. 
In  addition,  the  expense  of  keeping  up  such  a  vast 
community  should  be  borne  in  miiia(cf .  the  cost  of  kecp- 
ii^  up  the  Indian  Reservations  in  the  United  States, 
which  necessitated  an  expense  of  about  110,000,000 
in  1882,  and  from  1867-1882  no  less  than  192,213,731); 
the  high  pricps  of  the  new  products  and  iron  goods 
that  had  to  be  imported  (a  Spanish  hundredweight, 
about  102  lb.,  of  iron  from  Buenos  Aires  cost  !6 
mtrei,  1  ell  of  linen  cloth  4  old  rix-dollars,  and  even 
more,  a  fine  lace  alb  about  120  Hx-dollars) ;  the  trib- 
ute to  the  crown,  which  according  to  Bauke  (eel. 
Kobler.p,  490),  amounted  to  24,000  pesos;  the  build- 
ing and  decorating  of  the  numerous  churches  far  in 
the  interior;  the  equipment  of  Indian  auxiliary  troons 
in  the  service  of  the  Icing  (see  below);  all  of  which, 
taken  together,  alone  required  the  expenditure  of 
almost  the  entire  mcomc.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the 
entire  commerce  was  confined  to  the  exchange. 
justified  by  canon  law,  of  such  products  as  cotton, 
tobacco,  hides,  various  kinds  of  timber,  horse-htur, 
lioney,  and  in  particular  of  the  highly-prited  mis^n 
herba,  for  goods  which  the  Reductions  themselves 
either  could  not  produce  or  at  least  not  In  sufficient 
quantities,  such  as  fine  cloths,  silks,  linen  for  vest- 
ments and  altar  use,  instruments,  iron  and  glassware, 
books,  paper,  salt,  wine,  vinegar,  dyes,  and  the  like. 
The  trade  by  barter  netted  an  average  annual  income 
of  100  000  pesos,  according  to  the  report  of  the  royal 
investigating  commission  (see  Charlevoix,  op.  cit., 
361).  or  7  reals  per  capilaoi  the  population.  One  in- 
stance may  illustrate  how  arbitrarily  the  calumniators 
of  the  JesuilH  juggle  with  figures,  De  Pauw  ("R*- 
cherchos  philos.  sur  les  AmSricains",  Berlin,  1768- 


BEDUCTIONS 


694 


BEDUCTIONS 


69,  II,  411)  asserts  that  the  Jesuits  sold  4,000,000 
pounds  of  herba  annually,  while  the  amount  officially 
certified  is  only  about  6000  arrobaa  (150,000  lbs.); 
he  also  places  the  number  of  Indians  employed  in  its 
cultivation  and  production  at  300,000,  or  twice  the 
total  number  of  men,  women,  and  children  living  at 
any  one  time  in  all  the  Reductions. 

How  purely  imaginarv  the  wealth  of  the  Jesuits 
•  had  been  was  proved  by  the  inventories  taken  of 
their  houses  and  colleges  at  the  time  of  their  expulsion 
in  1767.  These  buildings  were  seized  suddenly, 
without  previous  warning,  so  that  the  Jesuits  might 
not  be  able  to  conceal  an3rthing.  But  the  only 
treasures  found  were  the  precious  church  articles. 
Only  a  trifling  amount  of  money  was  found.  The 
college  that  was  most  prominent,  that  of  C6rdoba, 
was  barely  self-supporting,  according  to  the  docu- 
ments ("Era  con  escasa  diferencia  igual  a  los  gastos''; 
see  Cardiel,  op.  cit.,  131  sq.;  Fimes,  ''Ensayo  de  la 
Historia  Civil  de  Paraguay,  Buenos  Aires  y 
Tucuman",  Buenos  Aires,  1816,  III,  1.  5,  c.  ix). 
"The  Jesuits",  writes  Cimninghame  Graham 
(op.  cit.,  204),  "strange  as  it  may  appear,  did  not 
conduct  the  missions  after  the  fashion  of  a  business 
concern,  but  rather  as  the  rulers  of  some  Utopia — 
those  foolish  beings  who  think  happiness  is  preferable 
to  wealth." 

D.  Form  of  Government, — ^The  local  administra- 
tion of  the  Reductions  was  arranged  according  to  the 
provisions  of  the  lex  indica,  after  the  Spanish  pattern, 
and  was  composed  of  the  corregidor  or  burgomaster 
(in  the  Guaranl  language  poro  quaitara^  i.  e.  one  who 
gives  commands);  the  teniente,  or  deputy;  three 
alccUdeSf  i.  e.  baiUfFs  or  inspectors,  two  lor  the  work 
in  the  town  and  one  {alcalde  de  la  hermandad)  for  the 
work  in  the  rural  districts;  four  reffidores  or  council- 
men  (Guaranl  icahUdo  iguataf  i.  e.  one  belonging  to 
the  council) ;  one  alguazil  mayor ^  a  sort  of  prefect  of 
police  (Guaranl  tWraran^w,  i.  e.  "the  chief  of  those 
who  carry  the  stick  ") ;  one  procurador  or  steward,  and 
one  escribano  or  writer  (Guaranf  qiiatiaapoharaj  i.  e. 
"one  who  draws  or  writes").  Besides  these  there 
were  the  alferez  real  or  standard-bearer  (Guaranf, 
aobebe  rereqwara^  i.  e.  "he  to  whom  the  care  of  the 
banner  is  entrusted",  and  a  number  of  subaltern 
officials  and  assistants.  The  annual  election  took 
place  at  the  end  of  December.  The  list  of  new 
candidates  was  drawn  up  by  the  retiring  officials  and 
Hubmitted  to  the  cura  for  approval,  who  had  the 
ju»  indicum  of  challenging  the  nominations.  On  the 
first  of  January  the  installation  of  the  new  officials 
and  the  investiture  with  the  insignia  of  office  took 
place  in  very  solemn  fashion  at  the  entrance  to  the 
church.  Besides  their  insignia  the  pubUc  officials 
had  a  place  of  honour  in  the  church.  Their  final 
confirmation  was  obtained  in  each  instance  from  the 
Spanish  governor.  On  1  January  also  the  sextons, 
superintendents  of  works,  the  boys'  directors,  ana 
others  were  elected.  Each  day  after  Mass  the 
corregidor  gave  the  cura  a  report  of  all  current  affairs 
and  received  from  him  the  necessary  directions,  which 
he  transmitted  to  those  concerned.  It  should  be 
noted  that  the  old  hereditary  cacic^ueship,  and  also 
the  hereditary  Indian  nobility  retained  their  rights 
and  were  honoured  in  the  Reductions,  and,  it  appears, 
were  especially  considered  in  the  allotment  of  higher 
offices  and  military  charges.  The  plan  of  Philip  V 
to  make  the  five  hundred  caciques  of  the  Guaranf  Re- 
ductions Kniglits  of  Santiago  was  not  carried  out, 
owing  to  the  fact  that  the  caciques  attached  no  value 
to  such  a  distinction. 

E.  Military  Power, — ^The  organization  for  armed 
self-defence  against  the  frequent  inroads  of  hordes 
of  savages  and  of  the  Portuguese  neighbours  was  not 
only  permitted  by  repeatedf  royal  decrees,  but  was 
carried  out  in  accordance  with  the  declared  wishes 
of  the  king  (see  Monner-Sans,  op.  cit.,  99;  Cardiel, 


op.  cit.,  238;  Charlevoix,  op.  cit.,  VI.  366).  In  con- 
formity with  these  decrees  arsenals  were  erected 
in  all  the  Reductions,  in  which  weapons  of  the  best 
quality,  principally  fire-arms,  were  stored,  together 
with  ammunition.  The  king  repeatedly,  sent  new 
suppUes  of  arms,  among  them  some  800  guns,  about 
1730.  Later  gunpowder  was  produced  in  the  Re- 
ductions themselves.  Each  Reduction  w^as  divided 
into  eight  companies,  with  a  maestro  de  campo,  gen- 
erally a  cacique,  a  sergeante  mayor^  eight  capUanes, 
and  other  officers  at  their  head.  Regularly  arrange 
military  exercises  and  armed  drills,  together  with 
sham  oattles,  preserved  and  increased  the  military 
efficiency  of  the  people.  The  governors  repeatedly 
sent  Spanish  officers  into  the  Reductions,  to  instruct 
the  Indians  in  the  use  of  fire-arms.  The  main 
strength  of  the  Reductions,  however,  lay  in  their 
cavalry.  This  force  had  already  proved  itself  very 
efficient  in  the  defence  against  the  Paulistas;  from 
1641  onwards  it  was  called  into  service  by  the  gov- 
ernors almost  year  after  year  to  help  in  the  wars  with 
the  savage  tribes,  with  the  Portuguese,  the  English 
who  threatened  Buenos  Aires,  and,  last  but  not 
least,  rebellious  colonists  and  encomienda  Indians,  and 
rendered  splendid  service.  Time  and  again  kings 
and  governors  expressed  their  sincerest  gratitude  for 
these  services,  which  were  all  the  more  valuable  be- 
cause they  cost  the  Crown  nothing.  The  Reduction 
Indians  tJetween  1637  and  1735  entered  the  field  no 
less  than  fifty  times  for  the  cause  of  the  king,  re- 
peatedly with  a  large  force  and  under  considerable 
sacrifice  of  time,  money,  and  life  (see  among  others 
Sans,  op.  cit.,  105;   Lettres  4dif.,  op.  cit.,  401  etc.). 

F.  Church  and  Religious  Life. — The  Reductions 
of  Paraguay  are  justly  called  a  model  of  a  theocratic 
commonwealth.  Religion  ruled  the  entire  pubUc 
and  private  life.  The  entire  community  attended 
Holy  Mass  and  the  evening  devotions  daily.  Prsyer 
and  religious  songs  accompanied  and  encompa^ed 
work  and  recreation  alike.  Religious  instruction  was 
given  daily  for  the  children,  on  several  days  each 
week  for  catechumens,  and  evei^  Sunday  for  the 
entire  parish.  Through  the  medium  of  easily  sung 
catechismal  hymns  the  doctrines  and  the  principu 
events  of  the  life  of  Christ  and  those  of  the  saints 
were  impressed  upon  the  minds  of  the  people.  A 
sort  of  religious  handbook  bearing  the  title  "  Ara  pom 
aguiyey  haba  yacoa  ymomoeoinda"  (On  the  Proper 
Use  of  Time),  written  by  P.  Jos.  de  Insauralde  (b. 
at  Asunci6n;  d.  1730),  pnnted  at  Madrid  in  1759-60, 
in  two  volumes,  and  which  was  very  popular,  fjave 
directions  concerning  the  performance  of  various 
acts  at  home  and  in  church  in  a  holy  and  meritorious 
manner. 

Public  religious  life  in  the  splendid  churches  found 
its  expression  in  an  exceedingly  brilliant  manner, 
particularly  on  feast-days.  Church  music  was  care- 
fully cultivated,  especially  under  the  direction  of 
Italian  and  German  Fathers,  and  its  production 
would  have  been,  according  to  the  testimony  of  Don 
Franc.  Xarque  (Gay,  op.  cit.,  214),  a  credit  to  any 
Spanish  cathedral.  In  consequence,  the  church 
choirs  of  the  Reductions  were  frequently  invited  to 
the  Spanish  cities.  The  reports  of  the  celebration 
of  the  Feast  of  Corpus  Christi,  the  patronal  feasts, 
the  Rogation  and  penitential  processions,  the  devo- 
tion to  the  saints,  particularly  to  the  Blessed  Virgin, 
the  representations  of  the  Crib  and  the  Passion, 
mystery-plays,  sacramental  dances,  etc.  convey  a 
charming  picture  of  the  religious  life  in  the  Re- 
ductions. Religious  societies  also,  especially  the 
Sodalities  of  tlie  Blessed  Virgin,  attained  to  a  re- 
markable growth  (see  "Sodalon-Correspondenx",  II, 
125).  The  reception  of  the  sacraments,  after  the 
Recluctions  had  become  firmly  grounded,  and  a 
solid  body  of  older  Christians  had  been  ob- 
tained, was,  according  to  the  annual  reports,  and 


REDUCTIONS  61 

in  accordance  with  ecclesiastical  practice  of  the  times, 
veiy  good.  The  members  of  the  religious  socie- 
tiee  received  Communion  monthly,  m&ny  of  them 
weeltly.  The  early  marriagcB  (boys  were  obUged 
to  marry  at  17,  girLa  at  15),  etrict  discipline,  and 
flurveillwice  foBtcred  chastily  among  the  natives, 
which  aided  the  natural  increaso  of  the  race,  ordinarily 
not  very  fruitful  (the  average  number  of  children  in 
each  family  wae  four).  Careful  control  and  strict 
BeereKatiun  of  all  objectionable  elements  did  the  reet. 
"Such  innocence  prevails  among  these  people", 
Bishop  Faxardo  wrote,  20  May,  1720,  from  Buenos 
Aires  to  PWlip  V,  "who  are  comp^ed  exclusively  of 
Indians  naturally  inclined  to  all  Kinds  of  vices,  that 
1  believe  no  mortal  sin  is  ever  committed  there, 
the  viligance  of  the  shejAerds  foreseeing  and  pre- 
venting even  the  slightest  fault"  (Charlevoix,  loc. 
cil..  Ill,  94).  A  number  of  authentic  testimonials 
of  DishopB  and  royal  visiting  inspectors  speait  with 
the  greatest  admiration  of  the  reugioua  zeal,  the  de- 
votion, purity  of  morals,  Christian  brotherly  love, 
and  conscientiousness  of  the  Indiana,  as  well  as  the 
unshirking  devotion  and  the  edifying  lives  of  the 
'  '  '  "■  •  ■  ^  [(,(.  (.[^^  Piksee  justificativoa; 
.,  401 ;  CardieL  loo.  cit.,  118). 
G.  Schoole  and 
EdwxUion.~~E  a  c  h 
Reduction  had,  at 
least  during  the 
later  period,  an  ele- 
mentary school  with 

educated  by  the 
Fathers;  thereat 
least  the  boys,  above 
all  the  sons  of  the 
caciques  and  the 
more  prominent  In- 
dians, from  whose 
ranks  the  heads  of 


//.'it. 


lite. 

HT  other  ofhciab  were 

'   '  mostly  taken,  could 

^  learn  reading,  writ- 

ing, and  arithmetic. 
„   ,   ''°'';'"„    ,  In  this  respect  also 

R«l«ot.«.  8.  Bori.  the  Reductions  were 

in  advance  of  the  Spanish  colony.  Even  Bucareli, 
who  later  carried  out  the  decree  of  expulsion  in  such 
rotcntlcw  fashion,  acknowledged  the  work  of  the 
Reduction  schools  (Brabo,  loc.  cit.,  222;  <^.  Cardiel, 
loc.  cit.,  284j  Peramas,  loc.  cit.,  37).  Boys  who  wetB 
especiaUy  gifted  also  received  instruction  in  Latin 
sufficient  to  enable  them  to  perform  sexton's  duties 
and  to  read  at  table  in  the  "college".  The  schools 
for  singing  and  music  were  conducted  very  success- 
fully, BO  that  each  Reduction  had  a  capable  church 
choir  and  orchestra. 

The  accusation  that  the  Jesuits  studiously  pre- 
vented the  Indians  from  learning  Spanish,  in  order 
to  preserve  their  secrets  the  more  securely  and  to 

g -event  intercourse  with  the  colonists,  is  untrue,  as 
ucareti  attests,  and  is,  liesides,  altogether  absurd, 
since  the  Guaranl  language,  then  as  now,  was  the  com- 
mon language  of  the  Spaniards  also.  The  women 
knew  no  Spanish  (see  Stein-Wappieufl,  "Handb.  de 
Allg.  Geogr.  uad  Statist.",  7th  ed.,  Leipzig,  1858, 
I,  3,  1160;  also  Reggor  and  Longchamps,  "Essai 
hbt.  sur  la  rivol.  du  Par^.",  Paul,  1827,  266).  The 
fathers  surely  sought  to  introduce  the  Spanish  lan- 

n^e  in  their  own  interest,  although  it  was  very  dif- 
t  for  the  Indiana  to  loam  and  very  unpopular 
with  them;  still  they  followed  the  j'im  indicum  (Tit. 
I,  c.  vi,  leg.  18)  which  did  not  oblige  the  natives  to 
learn  Spanish.  What  the  Jesuits  have  done  for  the 
science  of  Ungates  in  Paraguay  has  been  collated 
and  briefly  dealt  with  by  J.  Ouilmann,  S.J.,  in  his 


l5  REDUCTIONS 

book  "Die  Sprachkunde  und  die  M 


were  like  children;  it  was  necessary  to  accustom  them 
to  Christian  morals  and  love  of  work  by  raildneee 
linked   with   sever- 
ity.   Thedailyrou-  ..«^     ^   ---_-,- 
tine,  marked  by  the 
ringing  of  the  bell, 
the   strict   s^rega- 
tion  of  the  sexes  in 

[lublic  community 
ife  demanded  by 
thejuatndicutn,  to- 

S ether  with  a  pru- 
ent  system  of  sur- 
veillance demanded 
by  the  commingling 
of  older  Christians, 


stantly  coming  in 
from  the  wildemeas, 
helped,  to  achieve 
this  result.  Another 
precaution  was  the 
segregation,  as  far  as  possible,  of  the  Indians  from  the 
Spaniards,  and  from  the  eneomienda  Indians,  who  were 
mostly  of  questionable  moral  character,  a  measure 
which  Ulloa  (loe.  cit,,  M9),  referring  to  the  sad  experi- 
ence in  Peru,  considers  entirely  appropriate,  and  the 
observance  of  which  the  missionaries  of  the  Gran  Chaco 
even  to-day  deem  necessary  (see"KathoI.  Missionen", 
1909-10,  I35and  157).  RegaJdingthe penal  discipline, 
even  Azara,  who  is  so  averse  to  the  Je^its,  admits 
"that  they  exercised  their  authority  with  a  mildness 
and  moderation  [tuavidad  y  morferacitSn]  which  one 
must  admire"  (" Deecripcion  S  Hist,  del  Paraguay", 
2  vols,,  Madrid,  1847,  c.  ciii,  n.  18;  UUoa,  loc,  cit.,  I, 
544).  Minor  offences,  such  as  laziness,  public  dis- 
turbances etc.,  were  punished  by  sentences  of  fasting 
or  a  few  blows  with 
a   whip,  transgree-  /•"  -. 

rious  character  by 
arrest  and  confine- 
ment in  jail  on  small 
rations.  Refractory 
women  were  con- 
fined for  a  time  in 
the  cotiguazu,  or 
house  for  the  wo- 
men. To  prevent 
abuse  of  authority 
on  the  part  of  the  In- 
dian ofGcials,  they 
were  not  permit- 
ted to  inOict  pun- 
ishment of  any  kind 
without  having  pre- 
viously reportM  the 
case  in  question  to 
the  Fathers.  Capi- 
tal punishment  was 

Crimes  deserving 
capital  punishment, 
which  occurred  but 
very  rarely,  were 
punished  by  expulsion  from  the  Reduction  and  sur- 
render of  the  perpetrator  to  the  Spanish  author- 
ities. The  fact  that  these  tribes,  so  enamoured  o( 
liberty,  did  not  undertake  a  single  uprising  against  the 
missionaries,  while  on  the  other  hand  revolts  among 
the  ejiatmienda  Indians  were  very  frequent,  and  the 
additional  cireumstance  that  two  or  three  Fathers 
were  sufficient  to  keep  a  population  of  1000  to  2000 


in  Jei&i 


BEDUCTIONS 


696 


REDUCTIONS 


bouIb  in  order  and  discipline,  surely  speaks  very 
strongly  in  favour  of  the  system  and  proves  the  un- 
truth of  the  accusation  of  Jesuit  despotism. 

J.  The  Care  of  the  Sick  was  well  organized  in  all  the 
Reductions  (Peramas,  loc.  cit.,  110;  Cardiel,  248). 
In  each  village  there  were  four  to  eight  nurses,  well- 
instructed  in  the  use  of  medicines,  and  devoted  abso- 
lutely to  their  profession;  they  were  called  curuzuya, 
or  cross-bearers,  from  the  shape  of  their  staffs  which 
terminated  in  a  cross  at  the  top.  They  made  a  round 
of  the  village  each  day,  and  werp  obliged  to  give  the 
Fathers  an  exact  report  of  the  condition  of  the  sick, 
so  that  as  a  consequence  scarcely  an  Indian  died 
without  the  last  sacraments.  The  remedies  prin- 
cipally used  were  the  indigenous  medicinal  herbs.  In 
addition,  each  '^ college '^  had  a  pharmacy.  Some 
Fathers  and  Brothers  who  possessed  a  knowledge  of 
medicine  compiled  special  medicinal  handbooks  for 
use  in  the  Reductions.  Several  German  Fathers  and 
a  few  lay-brothers,  the  latter  having  been  apothecaries 
before  entering  the  order,  deserved  particularly  well 
of  the  Reductions  in  this  respect;  pre-eminent  m  this 
regard  was  the  Tyrolese  Father  Sigismund  Aperger 
(Huonder,  *'Die  deutschen  Jesuiten-mission&re",  p. 
80).  Usually  a  healthy  race,  the  GuaranI  showed 
absolutely  no  power  of  resistance  to  certain  contagious 
diseases,  such  as  measles  and  smallpox.  Repeated 
severe  epidemics  of  these  diseases,  such  as  occurred 
in  1618,  1619,  1635,  1636,  1692,  1718.  1733,  1739,  and 
1764^  decimated  the  population  of  the  Reductions  in 
a  frightful  manner.  Thus  in  the  one  year  1735 
measles  brought  death  to  18,773  persons,  and  in  1737 
smallpox  claimed  more  than  30,000  victims.  In  1733 
12,933  children  died  of  smallpox.  Were  it  not  for 
these  epidemics,  the  population  of  the  GuaranI 
missions  would  have  been  twice  or  three  times  as 
large  (Peramas,  loc.  cit.).  These  epidemics  demanded 
heroic  efforts  on  the  part  of  the  Fathers. 

K.  Relations  between  the  Reductions  and  the  Spanish 
Government. — Nothing  can  be  more  absurd  than  the 
myth  of  the  "independent  Jesuit  State  of  Paraguay", 
mendaciously  constructed  by  Ibafiez  and  other  writers. 
The  entire  foundation  and  development  of  the  Re- 
ductions took  place  with  the  consent  of  the  Spanish 
kings  and  on  the  strength  of  the  royal  decrees  and 
privileges,  which  were  summarized,  confirmed  and  en- 
larged in  the  famous  decree  of  Philip  V  of  28  Dec, 
1743  (Charlevoix,  loc.  cit.,  VI,  331).  As  late  as  1774 
the  Hieronymite  P.  Cevallos  could  truly  maintain 
that  all  that  the  Jesuits  had  done  in  Paraguay  "era 
todo  probado  por  reales  c6dulas  6  procedia  de  ordenes 
expresas"  (Cunninghame  Graham,  loc.  cit.,  192). 
The  territory  covered  by  the  Reductions  was  under 
the  direct  jurisdiction  of  the  crown,  in  such  a  manner, 
however,  that  part  of  the  sovereign  rights  were  exer- 
cised by  the  governor  in  the  name  of  the  king  (from 
1736  onwar(£  all  the  Reductions  were  under  the 
authority  of  the  Governor  of  Buen6s  Aires).  All 
royal  commands  and  decrees  were  announced  and 
executed  in  the  Reductions  also,  unless  the  latter 
were  expressly  excepted.  The  governors  confirmed 
the  new  officials  in  the  Reductions  after  the  annual 
elections,  as  also  the  newly  appointed  curas  belonging 
to  the  Society  of  Jesus;  they  made  regular  official 
visits  to  the  Reductions,  and  sent  reports  to  the  king 
regarding  their  visitations.  The  Reductions  were 
ready  for  war  at  the  call  of  the  governors,  and  the 
latter  could  always  depend  absolutely  upon  their 
loyalty,  a  fact  which  they  acknowledged  frequently 
and  in  glowing  terms  in  their  reports  to  the  king 
(Charlevoix,  loc.  cit.,  and  "Pi^es  justificatives"). 
Further,  the  Reductions  paid  the  taxes  imposed  and 
tithes  laid  upon  them,  faithfully  and  punctually,  and 
moulded  their  conduct  in  accordance  with  all  the  laws 
of  the  Spanish  crown,  inasmuch  as  they  were  not  sus- 
pended or  modified  in  their  application  to  that  ter- 
ritory by  special  royal  privileges  (Deer.  Phil.  V., 


art.  5,  in  Charlevoix,  loc.  cit . ) .  Controversies^ with  the 
governors  arising  in  consequence  of  unjust  encroach- 
ment were  always  adjusted  through  the  royal  audiencia 
in  Charcas,  by  royal  uispectors  or  by  investigating 
committees,  especially  named  and  appointed  by  the 
king  himself. 

Loyalty  to  the  king  and  enthusiasm  for  his  cause 
and  person  were  instilled  deeply  by  the  fathers  in  the 
hearts  of  the  Reduction  Indians,  Philip  V  himself 
declaring  in  his  famous  decree  of  28  Dec.,  1743  (Char- 
levoix, loc.  cit.,  379)  that  in  his  entire  colonial  posses- 
sions in  America  he  had  no  more  faithful  suojects. 
On  all  patronal  feasts  the  royal  standard  was  borne 
to  the  church  with  great  ceremony,  and  the  aljerez 
realy  who  carried  it,  received  with  regal  honours  at 
the  church  door.  Thereupon  the  banner  was  planted 
on  the  plazoj  with  a  picture  of  the  king,  and  the  entire 
militia  with  their  officers  renewed  their  oath  of 
homage  before  it  in  a  solemn  manner  amid  shouts  of: 
"3f6wru  bicha  guazu:  toi  cobengatu  hande  Rey 
marangatu:  toi  cobengatu  fiande  Rey  A^."  (Long  live 
our  King,  the  great  Cacique!  Long  live  our  good 
King;  long  live  our  King  N.).  The  Reduction  In- 
dians took  pride  in  calling  themselves  "  Soldiers  of  the 
Kin^"  (Cardiel,  loc.  cit.,  239).  How  they  risked  and 
sacrificed  life  and  property  on  many  occasions,  under 
the  leadership  of  the  Fathers,  for  the  cause  of  the 
crown,  has  been  told  already.  The  loyalty  of  these 
Indians  to  the  king  is  characterized  by  their  conduct 
during  the  time  of  the  Anteouera  disorders,  and  the 
so-called  Comuneros  revolt,  that  troublesome  period 
(1721-1735)  which  comprised  the  first  a«.tempt,  on  a 
large  scale,  of  the  colony  to  secede  from  Spain.  The 
usurper  Antequera  as  well  as  the  Comuneros  vented 
their  rage  first  and  above  all  on  the  Jesuits  and  the 
Reduction  Indians,  who  proved  themselves  the  strong- 
est bulwark  of  the  Spanish  rule  (Lozano,  ^'Histona 
de  las  Revol.  de  la  Prov.  del  Para^guay",  1721-35,  2 
vols.,  Buenoe  Aires,  1905).  Their  destruction  was 
consequently  soon  followed  by  the  revolution  and 
secession  from  Spain. 

L.  Exclusion  of  the  Spaniards  from  the  Territory  of 
the  Reductions. — The  isolation  of  the  Indians  and  the 
exclusion  of  the  Spaniards  from  the  territory  of  the 
Reductions,  prompted  by  reasons  of  principle  and 
strictly  enforced,  nave  given  the  opponents  of  the 
Jesuits  ample  material  for  sinister  insmuations.  These 
measures,  however,  were  sanctioned  by  royal  decrees 
and  were  necessary  for  the  attainment  of  the  purpose 
of  the  mission.  "Nothing  can  justify  this  procedure 
better,"  writes  Ulloa  (loc.  cit.,  I,  550),  "than  the  sad 
example  of  the  decline  of  the  doctrinas  in  Peru. "  It 
is  surely  a  significant  fact  that  even  Governor  Bucareli 
after  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits  strongly  ur|;ed  the 
^continuance  of  this  system  of  isolation  in  the  interest 
of  the  Indians  in  his  instructions  to  his  successor, 
written  in  1768  (Brabo,  loc.  cit.,  320).  Moreover, 
officials  of  the  crown  always  had  free  access  to  the 
Reductions,  and  where  no  danger  was  to  be  feared, 
friendly  relations  were  maintained  with  the  neigh- 
bouring Spanish  colonists,  and  the  latter  were  frc- 
quently  in\'ited  to  festivities,  asked  to  act  as  sponsors 
in  baptism  etc.  Further,  the  villages  nearest  to 
Asunci6n:  Santa  Maria,  San  Ignacio  Guazu,  Santn 
Rosa,  Santiago,  San  Cosme,  and  Itapua  were  at  the 
king's  reouest  opened  on  certain  days  of  each  month 
to  Spanish  merchants  for  the  purpose  of  selling  their 
goods.  A  number  of  trustworthy  Spaniards  m  the 
service  of  the  missions  lived  in  the  Reductions,  and 
each  Reduction  had  a  separate  lodging-house  for 
travelling  strangers  (Cardiel,  213;  Peramas,  93). 

M.  Relations  of  the  Reductions  to  Ecclesiastical  Au- 
thorities.— A  portion  of  the  GuaranI  Reductions  was 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Bishop  of  Asunci6n 
(erected  1547),  another  under  the  authority  of  the 
Bishop  of  Buenos  Aires  (1582),  while  the  Reductions 
of  the  Chiquitos  belonged  to  the  Diocese  of  Santa 


BEDWOOD 


700 


REFORMATION 


More  recent  literature:  Grakdbibe,  Briefe  aus  Paraguay, 
mitg.  von  Alex,  von  Humboldt  in  Herlha,  vol.  II  (Berlin,  1825); 
DemeBSAT,  Hist.  phys.  iconom.  et  pol.  du  Pnrnynay  et  drjt  Eiab- 
linnemenU  de*  Jisuites,  vol,  II  (Paris,  1861Hi4):  dv  Gratt, 
La  RipubL.  du  Parag.  (BruaseU.  1802);  Kobleb,  Der  chrisll. 
Communismua  in  d.  Red,  v.  Par.  (WQrsburg,  1876) ;  DC  Mousht, 
Mhnoire  hist,  sur  la  decadence  et  la  mine  des  Mise,  de  Jimitea 
(Paris,  1865);  Genbun.  Die  Red.  von  Paraguay  (Vienna,  1895); 
DvBR,  JetuHenfabeln  (4th  ed.,  Freiburg,  1904);  Ideic,  Unge- 
druckte  Briefe  Mur  Gesch.  dee  JeeuUenkrieges  in  Parag.  in  Zeitsdtr. 
fUr  Kath.  Theol.  (Innabruck),  XX,  689  sq.;  Hafkemster.  Die 
Geeeh,  dee  Jetuitenkriegee  Parag.,  ibid.,  XXXII,  672  aq.;  Weld, 
The  Suppreteion  of  the  Society  of  Jeaus  in  the  Portug.  Dominions 
(London.  1877);  Caraton,  Docum.  itUd.  P.  (Poitiers,  1867); 
Die  neuesten  Jesuitenfeindl.  Schriften  Qber  Parag.;  Goth  aim, 
Der  ehristl.  sociale  Stoat  der  Jeeuilen  in  Parag.  (Leipsig,  1883). 
answered  in  Stimmen  aus  Maria  Loach,  XXV,  439  sq.;  Pfoten- 
HAUBR,  Die  Miss,  d.  JesuUen  in  Parag.  (3  vols.,  GQteraloh, 
1891-93),  (Bracxebusch,  a  Protestant.  eaUs  tiiis  work  "a  product 
of  denominational  sealotism",  without  any  historical  value,  in 
Petermann'sche  Mitteil.,  XLI,  L.  B.,  181,  n.  843);  cf.  Pastor, 
Pfotenhauer  und  die  "Brziehungsgrundsdtze  der  JesuUen";  Kath, 
Flugschriften  (Berlin,  Germania,  1896),  noe.  104,  105. 

A.   HUONDER 

Redwood,  Francts.  See  Wellington,  Arch- 
diocese OF. 

Ref  erendarii. — The  papal  office  of  the  referendarii 
(from  referOy  to  inform)  existed  at  the  Byzantine 
Court.  They  were  officials  who  reported  to  the  em- 
peror on  the  memorials  of  petitioners,  and  conveyed 
to  the  judges  the  orders  of  the  empeK>r  in  connexion 
with  such  memorials.  During  the  Merovingian  period 
of  the  Frankish  Empire,  the  official  later  known  as 
chancellor  (cancellarius)  is  called  '^referendarius^'. 
In  the  Papal  Curia  the  office  of  '^  referendarii  Apos- 
tolici''  originated  in  the  Middle  Ages;  their  duty  was 
to  receive  all  petitions  directed  to  the  Holy  See,  to 
report  on  them  to  the  pope,  and  to  tender  him  advice. 
The  treatment  and  decision  varied  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  question.  If  a  favour  was  concerned, 
it  might  be  either  granted  or  refused;  if  some  dispute, 
the  pope  decided  whether  it  should  be  referred  to  a 
judge.  The  referendarii  were  entrusted  with  all 
arrangements  for  these  papal  decisions,  which  they 
had  to  prepare  for  the  pope's  signature  {signcUura). 
From  these  referendarii  developed  the  court  of  the 
Signaiura  (Oollegium  referendariorum  Signaturae 
votantium),  concerning  which  there  are  various  papal 
constitutions.  Innocent  VIII  (1484-92)  intro<luced  a 
distinction  between  the  referendarii^  on  Questions  of 
favours  and  of  justice,  wnence  developea  the  "Sig- 
natura  gratiae"  and  the  ^'Signatura  justitiae",  each 
competent  to  give  final  decision  within  its  sphere.  In 
the  court  of  the  ''Signatura  justitise"  developed  a  dis- 
tinction between  the  prelat^  entitled  to  vote  (pralati 
votarites)  and  those  whose  duties  were  confined  to  re- 
porting on  individual  cases  {jpTceUUi  referendarii).  The 
whole  Dody  gradually  lost  all  practical  importance, 
especially  after  the  loss  of  the  papal  States,  and  was 
entirely  abolished  at  the  reorganization  of  the  Curia 
by  Pius  X. 


Kirche  unserer  Zeit,  I  (Berlin,  1899),  464-6. 


J.   P.   KiRSCa. 

Reformation,  The,  the  usual  term  for  the  re- 
ligious movement  which  made  its  appearance  in 
Western  Europe  in  the  sixteenth  century,  and 
which,  while  ostensiblv  aiming  at  an  internal  renewal 
of  the  Church,  really  led  to  a  great  revolt  against  it, 
and  an  abandonment  of  the  principal  Christian 
beliefs.  We  shall  review  the  general  characteristics 
of  this  movement  from  the  following  standpoints: 
I.  Causes  of  the  Reformation;  II.  Original  Ideas 
and  Purposes  of  the  Reformers;  III.  Methods  Df 
Spreading  the  Reformation;  IV.  Spread  of  the  Ref- 
ormation in  the  Various  Countries;  V.  Different 
Forms  of  the  Reformation;  VI.  Results  and  Con- 
seauences   of  the  Reformation. 

I.  Causes   of  the   Reformation. — The   causes 


of  the  great  religious  revolt  of  the  sixteenth  century 
must  be  sought  as  far  back  as  tlie  fourteenth.  The 
doctrine  of  the  Church,  it  is  true,  had  remained  pure; 
saintly  lives  were  yet  frequent  in  all  parts  of  Europe, 
and  the  numerous  benencent  medieval  institutions 
of  the  Church  continued  their  course  unintemiptedlT. 
Whatever  unhappy  conditions  existed  were  laiigeQr 
due  to  civil  and  profane  influences  or  to  the  exercise 
of  authority  by  ecclesiastics  iff  civil  spheres;  they  did 
not  obtain  everywhere  with  equal  intensity,  nor  did 
they  always  occur  simultaneously  in  the  same  coun- 
try. Ecclesiastical  and  religious  life  exhibited  in 
many  places  vigour  and  variety:  works  of  educatioc 
and  charity  abounded;  religioiis  art  in  all  its  formti 
had  a  living  force;  domestic  missionaries  were  many 
and  influential;  pious  and  edifying  literature  was 
common  and  appreciated.  Gradually,  however, 
and  larsely  owing  to  the  variously  hostile  spirit  of 
the  civil  powers,  fostered  and  heightened  by  several 
elements  of  the  new  order,  there  grew  up  in  many 
parts  of  Europe  political  and  sooial  conditions  which 
hampered  the  free  reformatory  activities  of  the 
Church,  and  favoured  the  bola  and  unscrupulous, 
who  seized  a  unique  opportunity  to  let  loose  aU  the 
forces  of  heres}r  and  schism  so  long  held  in  check 
by  the  harmonious  action  of  the  ecclesiastical  and 
civil  authorities. 

A.  Since  the  Barbarian  invasions  the  Church  had 
effected  a  complete  transformation  and  revival  of 
the  races  of  Western  Europe,  and  a  slorious  develop- 
ment of  religious  and  intellectual  lue.  The  papacy 
had  become  the  powerful  centre  of  the  family  of 
Christian  nations,  and  as  such  had  for  centuries,  in 
union  with  the  episcopate  and  the  clergy,  displayed 
a  most  beneficent  activity.  With  the  ecclesiastical 
organization  fully  developed,  it  came  to  pass  that 
the  activities  of  the  governing  ecclesiastic^  bodies 
were  no  loneer  confined  to  the  ecclesiastical  domain, 
but  affectea  almost  every  sphere  of  popular  life. 
Gradually  a  regrettable  worloliness  manifested  itself 
in  many  high  ecclesiastics.  Their  chief  object,  viz. 
to  ^ide  man  to  his  eternal  goal^  claimed  t()o  seldom 
their  attention,  and  worldly  activities  became  in  too 
many  cases  the  chief  interest.  Political  power, 
material  possessions,  privileged  position  in  public 
life,  the  aefence  of  ancient  historical  rights,  earthly 
interests  of  various  kinds  were  only  too  often  ih& 
chief  aim  of  many  of  the  hi^er  clergy.  Pastoral 
solicitude,  the  specifically  religious  and  ecclesiastical 
aim,  fell  largely  into  the  background,  notwithstand- 
ing various  spirited  and  successful  attempts  to 
rectify  the  existing  evils. 

B.  Closely  connected  with  the  above  were  various 
abuses  in  the  lives  of  the  clergy  and  the  people.  In 
the  Papal  Curia  political  interests  and  a  worldly  life 
were  often  prominent.  Many  bishops  and  abbots 
(especially  in  countries  where  they  were  also  terri- 
torial prmces)  bore  themselves  as  secular  rulers 
rather  than  as  servants  of  the  Church.  Many  mem- 
bers of  cathedral  chapters  and  other  beneficed  ec- 
clesiastics were  chiefly  concerned  with  their  income 
and  how  to  increase  it,  especially  by  unitii^  several 
prebends  (even  episcopal  sees)  m  the  hands  of  one 
person,  who  thus  enjoyed  a  lai^r  income  and  greater 
power.  Luxury  prevailed  wioely  among  the  higher 
clergy,  while  the  lower  clergy  were  often  oppressed. 
The  scientific  and  ascetic  training  of  the  clergy  also 
left  much  to  be  desired,  the  moral  standard  dTmany 
being  very  low,  and  the  practice  of  celibacy  not 
everywhere  observed-  Not  less  serious  was  the  con- 
dition of  many  monasteries  of  men,  and  even  of 
women  (which  were  frequently  homes  for  the  un- 
married daughters  of  tue  nobility).  The  former 
prestige  of  the  clergy  had  thus  suffered  greatly,  and 
its  members  were  m  many  places  regarded  with 
scorn.  As  to  the  Christian  people  itself^  in  numer- 
ous districts  ignorance,  superstition,  religious  indif- 


REFORMATION  701  REFORMATION 

ference,   and  immorality  were  rife.    Nevertheless,  the   historical   development   of   European   society. 

vigorous  efforts  to  revive  religious  life  were  made  in  With  the  growing  self-consciousness  of  the  State, 

most  lands,  and  side  by  side  with  this  moral  decay  the  secular  governments  sought  to  control  all  matters 

appear  numerous  examples  of  sincere  and  upright  that  fell  within  their  competence,  which  course,  al- 

Quistian  life.    Such  efforts,  however,  were  too  often  though  in  large  measure  justifiable,  was  new  ana  of- 

confined  to  limited  circles.    From  the  fourteenth  fensive,  and  thus  led  to  frequent  collisions  between 

century  the  demand  for  '*  reform  of  head  and  mem-  Church  and  State.    The  State,  moreover,  owing  to 

bers''  (reformatio  in  ca-j^ie  el  in  membris)  had  been  the  close  historical  connexion  between  the  ecclesias- 

voiced  with  ever-increasing  energy  by  serious  and  dis-  tical  and  secular  orders,  encroached  on  the  ecclesias- 

ceming  men,  but  the  same  cry  was  taken  up  also  bv  tical  domain.    During  the  course  of  the  Western 

many  who  had  no  real  desire  for  a  religious  renewtd,  Schism  (137S-1418)  opposing  popes  sought  the  sup- 

wishmg  merely  to  reform  others  but  not  themselves,  port  of  the  civil  powers,  and  thus  gave  the  latter 

and  seeking  solely  their  own  interests.    This  call  abundant  occasion  to  interfere  in  purely  ecclesiastical 

for  reformation  of  head  and  members,  discussed  in  affairs.    Again,  to  strengthen  their  authority  in  the 

many  writings  and  in  conversation  with  insistence  face  of  anti-papal  tendencies,  the  popes  of  the  fif- 

on  existing  and  often  exaggerated  abuses,  tended  teenth  century  made  at  various  times  certain  con-^ 

necessarily  to  lower  the  clergy  still  more  in  the  eyes  cessions  to  the  civil  authorities^  so  that  the  latter 

of  the  people,  especially  as  the  councils  of  the  fifteenth  came  to  regard  ecclesiastical  affairs  as  within  their 

century,  though  largely  occupied  with  attempts  at  domain.    For  the  future  the  Church  was  to  be. 

reformation,  did  not  succeed  in  accomplishmg  it  not   superordinate,    but   subordinate    to    the    civil 

extensively  or  permanently.  power,  and  was  increasingly  menaced  with  complete 

C.  The  authority  of  the  Holy  See  had  also  been  subjection.  According  as  national  self-consciousness 
seriously  impaired,  partly  through  the  fault  of  some  developed  in  the  various  countries  of  Europe,  the 
of  its  occupants  and  partly  through  that  of  the  secular  sense  of  the  unity  and  interdependence  of  the  Chris- 
princes.  The  pope's  removal  to  Avignon  in  the  four-  tian  family  of  nations  grew  weaker.  Jealousy  be- 
teenth  century  was  a  grievous  error,  since  the  univer-  tween  nations  increased,  selfishness  gained  ^und, 
sal  character  of  the  papacy  was  thus  obscured  in  the  the  rift  between  politics  and  Christian  morality  and 
minds  of  the  Christian  people.  Certain  phases  of  the  religion  grew  wider,  and  discontent  and  perilous 
(]^uarrel  with  Louis  the  Bavarian  and  with  the  Fran-  revolutionary  tendencies  spread  rapidly  among  the 
ciscan  Spirituals  clearly  indicate  a  decline  of  the  papal  people.  Love  of  wealth  was  meanwhile  given  a  great 
power.  The  severest  blow  was  dealt  by  the  disas-  mcentive  by  the  discovery  of  the  New  World,  the 
trous  papal  schism  (1378-1418)  which  familiarized  rapid  development  of  commerce,  and  the  new  pros- 
Western  Christians  with  the  idea  that  war  might  be  perity  of  the  cities.  In  public  life  a  many-sided  and 
made,  with  all  spiritual  and  material  weapons,  mtense  activity  revealed  itself,  foreshadowing  a  new 
against  one  whom  many  other  Christians  regarded  era  and  inclining  the  popular  mind  to  changes  in  the 
as  the  only  lawful  pope.    After  the  restoration  of  hitherto  undivided  provmce  of  reli^on. 

unity,  the  attempted  reforms  of  the  Papal  Curia  E.  The  Renaissance  and  Humanism  partly  in tro- 
were  not  thorough.  Humanism  and  the  ideals  of  the  duced  and  greatly  fostered  these  conditions.  Love 
Renaissance  were  zealously  cultivated  in  Rome,  and  of  luxury  was  soon  associated  with  the  revival  of 
unfortunately  the  heathen  tendencies  of  this  move-  the  art  and  literature  of  Gneco-Roman  paganism, 
ment,  so  opposed  to  the  Christian  moral  law.  affected  The  Christian  religious  ideal  was  to  a  great  extent 
too  profoundly  the  life  of  many  higher  ecclesiastics,  lost  sight  of;  higher  intellectual  culture,  previously 
so  that  worldly  ideas,  luxury,  and  immorality  rapidly  confin^  in  great  measure  to  the  clergy,  but  now 
gained  ground  at  tne  centre  of  ecclesiastical  life,  common  among  the  laity,  assumed  a  secular  character. 
When  ecclesiastical  authority  grew  weak  at  the  and  in  only  too  many  cases  fostered  actively  and  prac- 
fountain-head,  it  necessarily  decayed  elsewhere,  tically  a  pa^an  spirit,  pagan  morality  and  views.  A 
There  were  also  serious  administrative  abuses  in  the  crude  materialism  obtained  among  the  higher  classes 
Papal  Curia.  The  ever-increasing  centralization  of  of  society  and  in  the  educated  world,  characterized 
ecclesiastical  administration  had  brought  it  about  by  a  gross  love  of  pleasure,  a  desire  for  gain,  and  a 
that  far  too  many  ecclesiastical  benefices  in  all  parts  voluptuousness  of  life  diametrically  opposed  to  Chris- 
of  Christendom  were  conferred  at  Rome,  while  in  the  tian  morality.  Only  a  faint  interest  in  the  super- 
hunting  of  them  the  personal  interests  of  the  peti-  natural  life  survived.  The  new  art  of  printing  made 
tioner,  rather  than  the  spiritual  needs  of  the  faithful,  it  possible  to  disseminate  widely  the  works  of  pagan 
were  too  often  considered.  The  various  kinds  of  authors  and  of  their  humanistic  imitators.  Immoral 
reservation  had  also  become  a  grievous  abuse,  poems  and  romances,  biting  satires  on  ecclesiastical 
Dissatisfaction  was  felt  widely  among  the  clergy  at  persons  and  institutions,  revolutionary  works  and 
the  many  taxes  imposed  by  the  Curia  on  the  in-  songs,  were  circulated  in  all  directions  and  wrought 
eumbents  of  ecclesiastical  benefices.  From  the  four-  immense  harm.  As  Humanism  grew,  it  waged  vio- 
teenth  century  these  taxes  called  forth  loud  com-  lent  war  against  the  Scholasticism  of  the  time.  The 
plaints.  In  proportion  as  the  papal  authority  lost  traditional  theological  method  had  greatly  degener- 
the  respect  of  many,  resentment  ^w  against  both  ated  owing  to  the  finical,  hair-splitting  manner  of 
the  Ciuia  and  the  Papacy.  The  reform  councils  treating  theological  questions,  and  a  solid  and 
of  the  fifteenth  century,  instead  of  improving  this  thorough  treatment  of  theology  had  unhappily  dis- 
situation,  weakened  still  more  the  highest  ecclesia&-  appeared  from  many  schools  and  writings.  The 
tical  authority  by  reason  of  their  anti-papal  tendencies  Humanists  cultivated  new  methods,  and  based 
and  measures.  theology  on  the -Bible  and  the  study  of  the  Fathers, 

D.  In  princes  and  governments  there  had  mean-  an  essentially  good  movement  which  might  have  re- 
while  developed  a  national  consciousness,  purely  newed  the  study  of  theology,  if  properly  developed, 
temporal  and  to  a  great  extent  hostile  to  the  Church;  But  the  violence  of  the  Humanists,  tneir  exaggerated 
the  civil  powers  interfered  more  frequently  in  ec-  attacks  on  Scholasticism  (q.  v.),  and  the  frequent 
clesiasticaf  matters,  and  the  direct  influence  exercised  obscurity  of  their  teaching  aroused  strong  opposition 
by  lajrmen  on  the  domestic  administration  of  the  from  the  representative  Scholastics.  The  new 
Church  rapidly  increased.  In  the  course  of  the  four-  movement,  however,  had  won  the  sympathy  of  the 
teenth  ana  fifteenth  centuries  arose  the  modem  con-  lay  world  and  of  the  section  of  the  cleijgy  devoted  to 
cept  of  the  State.  During  the  preceding  period  Humanism.  The  danger  was  only  too  imminent  that 
many  matters  of  a  secular  or  mixed  nature  haa  been  the  reform  would  not  be  confined  to  theological  moth- 
regulated  or  managed  by  the  Church,  in  keeping  with  ods,  but  would  reach  the  content  of  ecclesiafitical 


REFORMATION 


702 


REFORBiATION 


do^n^a,  and  would  find  widespread  support  in  human- 
istic circles. 

The  soil  was  thus  ready  for  the  growth  of  revolu- 
tionary movements  in  the  religious  sphere.  Many 
grave  warnings  were  indeed  uttered,  indicating  the 
approaching  danger  and  urging  a  fundamental  reform 
of  the  actusu  evil  conditions.  Much  had  been  effected 
in  this  direction  by  the  reform  movement  in  various 
religious  orders  and  by  the  apostolic  efforts  of  zealous 
individuals.  But  a  general  renewal  of  ecclesiastical 
life  and  a  uniform  improvement  of  evil  conditions, 
beginning  with  Rome  itself,  the  centre  of  the  Church, 
were  not  promptly  undertaken,  and  soon  it  needed 
only  an  external  impulse  to  precipitate  a  revolution, 
which  was  to  cut  off  from  the  unity  of  the  Church 
great  territories  of  Central  and  almost  all  Northern 
Europe. 

II.  Origin^al  Ideas  and  Purposes  of  the  Re- 
formers.— The  first  impulse  to  secession  was  supn 
plied  by  the  opposition  of  Luther  in  Germany  and  of 
Zwingli  in  German  Switzerland  to  the  promulga- 
tion by  Leo  X  of  an  indulgence  for  contributions 
towards  the  building  of  the  new  St.  Peter's  at  Rome. 
For  a  lon^  time  it  had  been  customary  for  the  popes 
to  grant  indulgences  for  buildings  of  public  utility 
(e.  g.  bridges).  In  such  cases  the  true  doctrine  of 
indulgences  as  a  remission  of  the  punishment  due 
to  sin  (not  of  the  guilt  of  sin)  had  been  always  up- 
held, and  the  necessary  conditions  (especially  the 
obligation  of  a  contrite  confession  to  obtain  absolu- 
tion from  sin)  alwa3r8  inculcated.  But  the  almsgiving 
for  a  good  object,  prescribed  only  as  a  good  work 
supplementary  to  the  chief  conditions  for  the  gaining 
of  tne  indulgence,  was  often  prominently  emphasized. 
The  indulgence  commissaries  sought  to  collect  as 
much  money  as  possible  in  connexion  with  the  in- 
dulgence. Indeed,  frequently  since  the  Western 
Schism  the  spiritual  needs  of  the  people  did  not 
receive  as  much  consideration  as  a  motive  for  pro- 
mulgating an  indulgence,  as  the  need  of  the  good 
object  by  promoting  which  the  indulgence  was  to 
be  gained,  and  the  consequent  need  of  obtaining  alms 
for  this  purpose.  The  war  against  the  Turks  and 
other  crises,  the  erection  of  churches  and  monasteries, 
and  numerous  other  causes  led  to  the  granting  of 
indulgences  in  the  fifteenth  centuiy.  The  conse- 
quent abuses  were  heightened  by  the  fact  that  secular 
rulers  frequently  forbade  the  promulgation  of  in- 
dulgences within  their  territories,  consenting  only 
on  condition  that  a  portion  of  the  receipts  should  be 
given  to  them.  In  practice,  therefore,  and  in  the 
public  mind  the  promulgation  of  indulgences  took  on 
an  economic  aspect,  and,  as  they  were  frequent, 
many  came  to  regard  them  as  an  oppressive  tax. 
Vainly  did  earnest  men  raise  their  voices  against  this 
abuse,  which  aroused  no  little  bitterness  against  the 
ecclesiastical  order  and  particularly  the  Papal 
Curia.  The  promulgation  of  indulgences  for  the 
new  St.  Peter's  furnished  Luther  with  an  opportunity 
to  attack  openly  indulgences  in  general,  and  this  at- 
tack was  tne  immediate  occasion  of  the  Reforma- 
tion in  Germany.  A  little  later  the  same  motive 
led  Zwingli  to  put  forth  his  erroneous  teachings, 
thereby  inaugurating  the  Reformation  in  German 
Switzerland  (see  Luther,  Martin;  Zwinoli,  Httl- 
dreich).  Both  declared  that  they  were  attack- 
ing only  the  abuses  of  indulgences;  however,  they 
soon  taught  doctrine  in  many  ways  contrary  to  the 
teaching  of  the  Church. 

The  great  applause  which  Luther  received  on  his 
first  appearance,  both  in  humanistic  circles  and  among 
some  tneologians  and  some  of  the  earnest-minded 
laity,  was  due  to  dissatisfaction  with  the  existing 
abuses.  His  own  erroneous  views  and  the  influence 
of  a  portion  of  his  followers  very  soon  drove  Luthor 
into  rebellion  against  ecclesiastical  authority  as  such, 
and  eventually  led  him  into  open  apostasy  and  schism. 


His  chief  original  supporters  were  won  mnong  the 
Humanists,  the  immoral  clergy,  and  the  lower  grades 
of  the  landed  nobility  imbued  with  revolutionary 
tendencies.    It  was  soon  evident  that  he  meant  to 
subvert    all    the    fundamental    institutions    of    the 
Church.     Beginning  by  proclaiming  the  false  doc- 
trine of  "justification  by  faith  alone",  he  later  re- 
jected all  supernatural  remedies  (especially  the  sacra- 
ments and  the  Mass),  denied  the  meritoriousness  of 
good  works  (thus  condemning  monastic  vows  and 
Christian  asceticism  in  general),  and  finally  rejected 
the  institution  of  a  genuine  hierarchical  priesthood 
(especially  the  papacy)  in  the  Church.     His  doctrine 
of  the  Bible  as  the  sole  rule  of  faith,  with  rejection 
of  all  ecclesiastical  authority,  established  subjectivism 
in  matters  of  faith.     By  this  revolutionary  assault 
Luther  forfeited  the  support  of  many  serious  persons 
indisposed  to  break  with  the  Church,  but  on  the  other 
hand  won  over  all  the  anti-ecclesiastical  elements, 
including  numerous  monks  and  nuns  who  left  tl^ 
monasteries  to  break  their  vows^  and  many  priests 
who  espoused  his  cause  with  the  intention  of  marry- 
ing.    The   support  of  his  sovereign,    Frederick  of 
Saxony,  was  of  ^reat  importance.     Very  soon  secular 
princes  and  municipal  magistrates  made  the  Reforma- 
tion a  pretext  for  arbitrary  interference  in  purely 
ecclesiastical  and  religious  affairs,  for  appropriating 
ecclesiastical  propertv  and  disposing  of  it  at  pleasure, 
and  for  deciding  w&at  faith  their  subjects  should 
accept.     Some  followers  of   Luther  went   to  even 
greater  extremes.     The  Anabaptists  and  the  "Icono- 
clasts" revealed   the  extremest  possibilities  of  the 
principles  advocated  by  Luther,  wnile  in  the  Peasants' 
War  the  most  oppressed  elements  of  German  society 
put  into  practice  the  doctrine  of  the  reformer.  ,  Ec- 
clesiastical affairs  were  now  reorganized  by  the  Luth- 
eran princes  on  the  basis  of  the  new  teachings; 
henceforth  the  secular  power  is  ever  more  clearly 
the  supreme  judge  in  purely  religious  matters,  and 
completely  disregards  any  independent  ecclesiastical 
authority. 

A  second  centre  of  the  Reformation  movement 
was  established  by  Zwingli  at  Zurich.  Though  he 
differed  in  many  particulars  from  Luther,  and  was 
much  more  radical  than  the  latter  in  his  transforma- 
tion of  the  ceremonial  of  the  Mass,  the  aims  of  his 
followers  were  identical  with  those  of  the  Lutherans. 
Political  considerations  played  a  great  r61e  in  the 
development  of  Zwinglianism,  and  the  magistracy 
of  Zurich,  after  a  majority  of  its  members  had  de- 
clared for  Zwingli,  became  a  zealous  promoter  of  the 
Reformation.  Arbitrary  decrees  were  issued  by  the 
magistrates  concerning  ecclesiastical  organization; 
the  councillors  who  remained  true  to  the  Catholic 
Faith  were  expelled  from  the  council,  and  Catholic 
services  were  forbidden  in  the  city.  The  city  and 
the  canton  of  Zurich  w^ere  reformed  by  the  civil  au- 
thorities according  to  the  ideas  of  Zwingli.  Other 
parts  of  German  Switzerland  experiencedi  a  similar 
fate.  French  Switzerland  developed  later  its  own 
peculiar  Reformation;  this  was  organized  at  Geneva 
Dy  Calvin  (q.  v.).  Calvinism  is  distinguished  from 
Lutheranism  and  Zwinglianism  by  a  more  rigid 
and  consistent  form  of  doctrine  and  by  the  strictness 
of  its  moral  precepts,  which  regulate  the  whole 
domestic  and  public  life  of  the  citizen.  The  ec- 
clesiastical organization  of  Calvin  was  declared  a 
fundamental  law  of  the  Republic  of  Geneva,  and  the 
authorities  gave  their  entire  support  to  the  reformer 
in  the  establishment  of  his  new  court  of  morals. 
Calvin's  word  was  the  highest  authority,  and  he 
tolerated  no  contradiction  of  his  views  or  regulations. 
Calvinism  was  introduced  into  Geneva  and  the  sur- 
rounding countrj'  by  violence.  Catholic  priests  were 
banished,  and  tiie  people  oppressed  and  compelled 
to  attend  Calvinistic  sermons. 

In  England  the  origin  of  the  Reformation  was  en* 


REFORMATION 


703 


REFORMATION 


tirely  different.  Here  the  sensual  and  tyrannical 
Henry  VIII,  with  the  support  of  Thomas  Cranmer, 
whom  the  king  had  made  Archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
severed  hii^  country  from  ecclesiastical  unity  because 
the  pope,  as  the  true  guardian  of  the  Divine  law,  re- 
fused to  recognize  the  invalid  marriage  of  the  king 
with  Anne  Boleyn  during  the  lifetime  of  his  lawful 
wife.  Renouncing  obedience  to  the  pope,  the  des- 
potic jnonarch  constituted  himself  supreme  judge 
even  in  ecclesiastical  affairs;  the  opposition  of  such 
^  good  men  as  Thomas  More  and  John  Fisher  was  over- 
come in  blood.  The  king  wished,  however,  to  re- 
tain unchanged  both  the  doctrines  of  the  Church  and 
the  ecclesiastical  hierarchy,  and  caused  a  series  of 
doctrines  and  institutions  rejected  by  Lutlier  and  his 
followers  to  be  strictly  prescribed  by  Act  of  Parlia- 
ment (Six  Articles)  under  pain  of  death.  In  England 
also  the  civil  power  constituted  itself  supreme  judge 
in  matters  of  faith,  and  laid  the  foundation  for  further 
arbitrary  religious  innovations.  Under  the  following 
sovereign,  Edward  VI  (1547-53),  the  Protestant 
party  gained  the  upper  hand,  and  thenceforth  bej^an 
to  promote  the  Reformation  in  England  according 
to  the  principles  of  Luther,  Zwingli^  and  Calvin. 
Here  also  force  was  employed  to  spread  the  new 
doctrines.  This  last  effort  of  the  Reformation  move- 
ment was  practically  confined  to  England  (see 
An^glicanism). 

III.  Method  ov  Spreadii^o  the  Reformation. 
— In  the  choice  of  means  for  extending  the  Reforma- 
tion its  founders  and  supporters  were  not  fastidious, 
availing  themselves  of  any  factor  which  could  further 
their  movement. 

A.  Denunciation  of  real  and  supposed  abuses  in 
religious  and  ecclesiastical  life  was,  especially  at  the 
begmning,  one  of  the  chief  methods  employed  by  the 
reformers  to  promote  their  desi^ps.  By  this  means 
they  won  over  many  who  were  dissatisfied  with  exist- 
ing conditions,  and  were  ready  to  support  any  move- 
ment that  promised  a  change.  But  it  was  especially 
the  widespread  hatred  of  Rome  and  of  the  members 
of  the  hierarchy,  fostered  by  the  incessantly  repeated 
and  only  too  often  justifiable  complaints  about  abuses, 
that  most  efficiently  favoured  the  reformers,  who 
very  soon  violently  attacked  the  papal  authority, 
recognizing  in  it  the  supreme  guardian  of  the  Catholic 
Faith.  Hence  the  multitude  of  lampoons,  often  most 
vulvar,  against  the  pope,  the  bishops,  and  in  general 
against  all  representatives  of  ecclesiastical  authority. 
These  pamphlets  were  circulated  everywhere  among 
the  people,  and  thereby  respect  for  authority  was 
still  more  violently  shaken.  Painters  prepared 
shameless  and  degrading  caricatures  of  the  pope, 
the  clergy,  and  the  monks,  to  illustrate  the  text 
of  hostile  pamphlets.  Waged  with  every  possible 
weapon  (even  the  most  reprehensible),  this  warfare 
against  the  representatives  of  the  Church,  as  the 
supposed  originators  of  all  ecclesiastical  abuses,  pre- 
pared the  way  for  the  reception  of  the  Reformation. 
A  distinction  was  no  longer  drawn  between  temporary 
and  corrigible  abuses  and  fundamental  supernatural 
Christian  truths;  together  with  the  abuses,  impor- 
tant ecclesiastical  institutions,  resting  on  Divine 
foundation,  were  simultaneously  abolished. 

B.  Advantage  was  also  taken  of  the  divisions  ex- 
isting in  many  places  between  the  ecclesiastical  and 
civil  authorities.  The  development  of  the  State, 
in  its  modem  form,  among  the  Christian  peoples  of 
the  West  gave  rise  to  many  disputes  between  the 
clergy  and  laity,  between  bishops  and  the  cities, 
between  monasteries  and  the  territorial  lords.  When 
the  Reformers  withdrew  from  the  clergy  all  authority, 
especially  all  influence  in  civil  affairs,  they  enabled 
the  princes  and  municipal  authorities  to  end  these 
long-pending  strifes  to  their  own  advantage  by  ar- 
bitrarily arrogating  to  themselves  all  disputed  rights, 
banishing  the  hierarchy  whose  rights  they  usurped, 


and  then  establishing  by  their  own  authority  a  com- 
pletely new  ecclesiastical  organization.  The  Re- 
formed clergy  thus  possessed  from  the  beginning 
only  such  ri^ts  as  the  civil  authorities  were  pleased 
to  ass^  them.  Consequently  the  Reformed  na- 
tional Churches  were  completely  subject  to  the  civil 
authorities,  and  the  Reformers,  who  had  entrusted 
to  the  civil  power  the  actual  execution  of  their  prin- 
ciples, had  now  no  means  of  ridding  themselves  of 
this  servitude. 

C.  In  the  course  of  centuries  an  immense  number 
of  foundations  had  been  made  for  religious,  charit- 
able, and  educational  objects,  and  had  l^n  provided 
with  rich  material  resources.  Churches,  monas- 
teries, hospitals,  and  schools  had  often  great  incomes 
and  extensive  possessions,  which  aroused  the  envy 
of  secular  rulers.  The  Reformation  enabled  the 
latter  to  secularize  this  vast  ecclesiastical  wealth, 
since  the  leaders  of  the  Reformation  constantly 
inveighed  against  the  centralization  of  such  riches 
in  the  hands  of  the  clergy.  The  princes  and  munic- 
ipal authorities  were  thus  invited  to  seize  ecclesias- 
tical property,  and  employ  it  for  their  own  purposes. 
Ecclesiastical  principalities,  which  w'ere  entrusted 
to  the  incumbents  only  as  ecclesiastical  persons 
for  administration  and  usufruct,  were,  in  defiance  of 
actual  law,  by  exclusion  of  the  incumbents,  trans- 
formed into  secular  principalities.  In  this  way  the 
Reformers  succeeded  in  depriving  the  Church  of  the 
temporal  wealth  provided  for  its  many  needs,  and  in 
diverting  the  same  to  their  own  advantage. 

D.  Human  passions,  to  which  the  Reformers  ap- 
pealed in  the  most  various  ways,  were  another  means 
of  spreading  the  Reformation.  The  very  ideas  which 
these  innovators  defended— Christian  freedom,  license 
of  thought,  the  right  and  capacity  of  each  individual 
to  found  his  own  taith  on  the  Bible,  and  other  similar 
principles — were  very  seductive  for  many.  The 
abolition  of  religious  institutions  which  acted  as  a 
curb  on  sinful  human  nature  (confession,  penance, 
fasting,  abstinence,  vows)  attracted  the  lascivious 
and  frivolous.  The  warfare  against  the  religious 
orders,  against  virginity  and  celibacy,  against  the 
practices  of  a  higher  Christian  life,  won  for  the  Ref- 
ormation a  great  number  of  those  who,  without  a 
serious  vocation,  had  embraced  the  religious  life 
from  purely  human  and  worldly  motives,  and  who 
wished  to  oe  rid  of  obligations  towards  Uod  which 
had  grown  burdensome,  and  to  be  free  to  gratify 
their  sensual  cravings.  This  they  could  do  the  more 
easily,  as  the  confiscation  of  the  property  of  the 
churcnes  and  monasteries  rendered  it  possible  to 
provide  for  the  material  advancement  of  ex-monks 
and  ex-nuns,  and  of  priests  who  apostatized.  In 
the  innumerable  writings  and  pamphlets  intended 
for  the  people  the  Reformers  made  it  their  fre- 
quent endeavour  to  excite  the  basest  human  in- 
stincts. Against  the  pope,  the  Roman  Curia,  and 
the  bishops,  priests,  monks,  and  nuns  who  had  re- 
mained true  to  their  Catholic  convictions,  the  most 
incredible  lampoons  and  libels  were  disseminated. 
In  language  of  the  utmost  coarseness  Catholic  doc- 
trines and  institutions  were  distorted  and  ridiculed. 
Among  the  lower,  mostly  uneducated,  and  aban- 
doned elements  of  the  population,  the  baser  passions 
and  instincts  were  stimulated  and  pressed  mto  the 
service  of  the  Reformation. 

E.  At  first  many  bishops  displayed  great  apathy 
towards  the  Reformers,  attaching  to  the  new  move- 
ment no  importance;  its  chiefs  were  thus  given  a 
longer  time  to  spread  their  doctrines.  Even  later, 
many  worldly -inclined  bishops,  though  remaining 
true  to  the  Church,  were  very  lax  m  combating 
heresy  and  in  employing  the  proper  means  to  prevent 
its  further  advance.  The  same  might  be  said  of  the 
paro'^hial  clergy,  who  were  ta  a  p*eat  extent  ignorant 
and  indifferent,  and  looked  on  idly  at  the  defection 


RBTORMATION 


704 


RBTORMATION 


of  the  people.  The  Reformers,  oil  the  other  hand, 
displayed  the  greatest  zeal  for  their  cause.  Leaving 
no  means  unu£^  by  word  and  pen,  by  constant  in- 
tercourse with  similarly  minded  persons,  by  popular 
eloquence,  which  the  leaders  of  the  Reformation 
were  especially  skilled  in  employing,  by  sermons 
and  popular  writings  appealing  to  the  weaknesses 
of  the  popular  character,  by  inciting  the  fanaticism 
of  the  masses,  in  short  by  clever  and  zealous  utiliza- 
tion of  every  opportunity  and  opening  that  presented 
itself,  they  proved  then*  ardour  for  the  spread  of 
their  doctrines.  Meanwhile  they  proceeoed  w^ith 
great  astuteness,  purported  to  adhere  strictly  to 
the  essentia  truths  of  the  Catholic  Faith,  retained 
at  first  many  of  the  external  ceremonies  of  Catholic 
worship,  and  declared  their  intention  of  abolishing 
only  tmngs  resting  on  human  invention,  seeking 
thus  to  deceive  the  people  concerning  the  real  ob- 
jects of  their  activity.  They  found  indeed  many 
pious  and  zealous  opponents,  in  the  ranks  of  the 
regular  and  secular  clergy,  but  the  great  need,  es- 
pecially at  the  beginning,  was  a  universally  or- 
ganized and  systematically  conducted  resistance  to 
this  false  reformation. 

F.  Many  new  institutions  introduced  by  the  Re- 
formers flattered  *the  multitude — e.  g.  the  reception 
of  the  chalice  by  the  whole  people,  the  Use  of  the 
vernacular  at  Divine  service,  the  popular  religious 
hymns  used  during  services,  the  reading  of  the 
Bible,  the  denial  of  the  essential  difference  between 
clergy  and  laity.  In  this  category  may  be  included 
doctrines  which  had  an  attraction  for  many — e.  g. 
justification   by  faith    alone   without   reference    to 

?[ood  works,  the  denial  of  freedom  of  will,  which 
urnished  an  excuse  for  moral  lapses,  personal  cer- 
tainty of  salvation  in  faith  (i.  e.  suDJective  confidence 
in  the  merits  of  Christ),  the  universal  priesthood, 
which  seemed  to  give  all  a  direct  share  in  sacerdotal 
functions  and  ecclesiastical  administration. 

G.  Finally,  one  of  the  chief  means  employed  in 
promoting  the  spread  of  the  Reformation  was  the 
use  of  violence  by  the  princes  and  the  municipal  au- 
thorities. Priests  who  remained  Catholic  were  ex- 
pelled and  replaced  by  adherents  of  the  new  doctrine, 
and  the  people  were  compelled  to  attend  the  .new 
services.  The  faithful  adherents  of  the  Church 
were  variously  persecuted,  and  the  civil  authorities 
saw  to  it  that  the  faith  of  the  descendants  of  those 
who  had  strongly  opposed  the  Reformation  was 
gradually  sapped.  In  many  places  the  people  were 
severed  from  the  Church  by  brutal  violence;  else- 
where to  deceive  the  people  the  ruse  was  employed 
of  retaining  the  Catholic  rite  outwardly  for  a  long 
time,  and  prescribing  for  the  reformed  clergy  the 
ecclesiastical  vestments  of  the  Catholic  worship. 
The  history  qf  the  Reformation  shows  incontestabiy 
that  the  civil  power  was  the  chief  factor  in  spreading 
it  in  all  lands,  and  that  in  the  last  analysis  it  was  not 
religious,  but  dynastic,  political,  and  social  interests 
which  proved  decisive.  Add  to  this  that  the  princes 
and  municipal  magistrates  who  had  joined  the  Re- 
formers tyrannized  grossly  over  the  consciences  of 
their  subjects  and  burghers.  All  must  accept  the 
religion  prescribed  by  the  civil  ruler.  The  principle 
*' Cuius  re^o,  illius  et  religio"  (Religion  goes  with 
the  land)  is  an  outgrowth  of  the  Reformation,  and 
was  by  it  and  its  adherents,  wherever  they  possessed 
the  necessary  power,  put  into  practice. 

IV.  Spread  op  the  Reformation  in  the  Va- 
rious Countries. — A.  Germany  and  German  Swit- 
zerland.— ^The  Reformation  was  inaugurated  in 
Germany  when  Luther  affixed  his  celebrated  theses  . 
to  the  doors  of  the  church  at  Wittenberg,  31  October,  ' 
1517.  From  the  conseouences  of  papal  excommunica- 
tion and  the  imperial  ban  Luther  was  protected  by 
Elector  Frederick  of  Saxony,  his  territorial  sov- 
ereign.   While   outwardly   adopting   a   neutral   at- 


titude, the  latter  encouraged  the  fonnatkm  of 
Lutheran  communities  within  his  domains,  after 
Luther  had  returned  to  W^ittenberg  and  resumed 
there  the  leadership  of  the  reform  movement,  in 
opposition  to  the  Ajiabaptists.  It  was  Luther  who 
introduced  the  arbitrary  regulations  for  Divine 
worship  and  reUgious  functions;  in  accordance  with 
these,  Lutheran  communities  were  established, 
whereby  an  organized  heretical  body  was  ooposed 
to  the  CathoUc  Church.  Among  the  other  German 
princes  who  early  associated  themselves  with  Luther 
and  seconded  his  efforts  were:  John  of  Saxony  (the 
brother  of  Frederick);  Grand-Master  Albert  of 
Prussia,  who  converted  the  lands  of  his  order  into 
a  secular  duchy,  becoming  its  hereditary  lord  on 
accepting  Lutheranism;  Dukes  Henry  and  Albert 
of  Mecklenburg;  Count  Albert  of  Mansfield;  Count 
Edzard  of  East  Friesland;  Landgrave  Philip  of 
Hesse,  who  declared  definitively  for  the  Reformation 
after  1524.  Meanwhile  in  several  German  imperial 
cities  the  reform  movement  was  initiated  by  fol- 
lowers of  Luthcr-^especially  in  Ulm,  Augsburg, 
Nuremberg,  Nordlingen,  Strasburg,  Constance,  Mainz, 
Erfurt,  Zwickau,  Magdeburg,  Frankfortron-the- 
Main,  and  Bremen.  The  Lutheran  princes  formed 
the  Alliance  of  Torgau  on  4  May,  1526,  for  th&r 
common  defence.  Hy  their  appearance  at  the  Diet 
of  Speyer  in  1526  they  secur^  the  adoption  of  the 
resolution  that,  with  respect  to  the  Ekiict  of  Worms 
against  Luther  and  his  erroneous  doctrine,  each 
might  adopt  such  attitude  as  he  could  answer  for 
before  God  and  emperor.  Liberty  to  introduce 
the  Reformation  into  their  territories  was  thus 
granted  to  the  territoriid  riilers.  The  CathoUc 
estates  became  discouraged,  while  the  Lutheran 
princes  grew  ever  more  extravagant  in  their  demands. 
Even  the  entirely  moderate  decrees  of  the  Diet  of 
Speyer  (1529) '  drew  a  protest  from  the  Lutheran 
and  Reformed  estates. 

The  negotiations  at  the  Diet  of  Aujabuig  (1530), 
at  which  the  estates  rejecting  the  Cathouc  faith 
elaborated  their  creed  (Augsburg  Confession), 
showed  that  the  restoration  of  religious  unity  was 
not  to  be  effected.  The  Reformation  extended 
wider  and  wider,  both  Lutheranism  and  Zwing- 
lianism  being  introduced  into  other  German  terri- 
tories. Besides  the  above-mentioned  principalities 
and  cities,  it  had  made  its  way  by  1530  into  the  prin- 
cipalities of  Bayreuth,  Ansbach,  Anhalt,  and  Bnins- 
wick-Liineburg,  and  in  the  next  few  years  into 
Pomerania.  JilUch-Cleve,  and  Wdrtemberg.  In 
Silesia  ana  the  Duchy  of  Liegnitz  the  Reformation 
also  made  great  strides.  In  1531  the  SmaJkaldic 
League,  an  offensive  and  defensive  alliance,  was 
concluded  between  the  Protestant  princes  and 
cities.  Especially  after  its  renewal  (1535)  this 
league  was  joined  by  other  cities  and  princes  who  had 
espoused  the  Reformation,  e.  g.  Coimt  Palatine 
Rupert  of  Zweibrticken,  Count  William  of  Nassau, 
the  cities  of  Augsburg,  Kempten,  Hambiirg,  ana 
others.  Further  negotiations  and  discussions  be- 
tween the  reUgious  parties  were  instituted  with  a 
view  to  ending  the  schism,  but  without  success. 
Amon^  the  methods  adopted  by  the  Protestants  in 
spreading  the  Reformation  force  was  ever  more 
freely  employed.  The  Diocese  of  Naumburg-  ! 
Zeitz  becoming  vacant.  Elector  John  Frederick  of  i 
Saxony  installed  by  force  in  the  see  the  Lutheran 
preacher  Nicholas  Amsdorf  (instead  of  the  cathedral 
provost,  Julius  von  Pflug,  chosen  by  the  chapter), 
and  himself  undertook  the  secular  government. 
Duke  Henry  of  Brunswick- WolfenbUttel  was  exiled 
in  1542,  and  the  Reformation  introduced  into  his 
domains  by  force.  In  Cologne  itself  the  Reformation 
was  very  nearly  established  by  force.  Some  ec- 
clesiastical princes  proved  delinquent,  taking  no 
measures  against  the  innovations  that  spread  daily 


REFORMATION                         705  REFORMATION 

In  widening  circles.    Into  Pfalz-Neuburg  and  the  proyiaions^   a  series   of  ecclesiastical   principalities 
towns  of  Halberstadt,  HaUe,  etc.,  the  Reformation .  (2    archbishoprics,    12    bishoprics,    and    numerous 

found  entrance.    The  collapse  of  the  Smalkaldic  abbeys)  were  reformed  and  secularized  before  the 

League  (1547)  somewhat  stemmed  the  progress  of  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century.    The  Catholic 

Reformation:   Julius  von  Pflug  was  installed  in  his  Lc^Eigue  was  formed  for  the  protection  of  Catholic 

Diocese  of  Naumburg.  Duke  Henry  of  Brunswick-  inteifests.  and  to  o£fset  the  Protestant  Union.    The 

Wolfenbiittel  recovered  his  lands,  and  Hermann  von  Thirty  Years  War  soon  followed,  a  struggle  most 

Wied  had  to  resign  the  Diocese  of  Cologne,  where  ominous   for   Germany^    since   it   surrendered   the 

the  Catholic  Faitn  was  thus  maintained.  country  to  its  enemies  from  the  west  and  north, 

"The  formula  of  union  established  by  the  Diet  and  destroyed  the  power,  wealth,  and  influence  of 
of  Au^burg  in  1547-48  (Augsburg  Interim)  did  the  German  Empire.  The  Peace  of  Westphalia, 
not  succeed  in  its  object,  although  introduced  into  concluded  in  1648  with  France  at  Mtinster  and 
many  Protestant  territories.  Meanwhile  the  treach-  with  Sweden  at  Osnabriick,  confirmed  definitely 
ery  of  Prince  Moritz  of  Saxony,  who  made  a  secret  the  status  of  religious  schism  in  Germany,  placed 
treaty  with  Henry,  II  of  France,  Grermany's  enemy,  both  the  Calvinists  and  the  Reformed  on  the  same 
and  formed  a  confederation  with  the  Protestant  footing  as  the  Lutherans,  and  granted  the  estates 
princes  William  of  Hesse,  John  Albert  of  Mecklen-  immediately  subject  to  the  emperor  the  right  of 
burg,  and  Albert  of  Brandenburg,  to  make  war  on  introducing  the  Reformation.  Henceforth  terri- 
the  emperor  and  empire,  broke  the  power  of  the  tonal  sovereigns  could  compel  their  subjects  to 
emperor.  At  the  suggestion  of  Cnarles,  King  adopt  a  given  religion,  subject  to  the  reco^tion  of 
Ferdinand  convened  the  Diet  of  Augsburg  in  1555,  the  independence  of  those  who  in  1624  enjoyed  the 
at  which,  after  long  negotiations,  the  compact  known  right  to  hold  their  own  religious  services.  State 
as  the  Religious  Peace  of  Augsburg  was  concluded.  Absolutism  in  religious  matters  had  now  attained 
This  compact  contained  the  following  provisions  its  highest  develoi)ment  in  Germany, 
in  its  twenty-two  paragraphs:  (1)  between  the  In  German  Switzerland  a  similar  course  was 
Catholic  imperial  estates  and  those  of  the  Augsburg  pursued.  After  Zurich  had  accepted  and  forcibly 
Confession  (the  Zwinglians  were  not  consfdered  mtroduced  the  -Reformation,  Basle  followed  its  ex- 
in  the  treaty)  peace  and  harmony  was  to  be  observed;  ample.  In  Basle  John  (Eoolampadius  and  Wolfgang 
(2)  no  estate  of  the  empire  was  to  compel  another  Xl^apito  associated  themselves  with  ZwingH,  spread 
estate  or  its  subjects  to  change  religion,  nor  was  it  his  teaching,  and  won  a  victory  for  the  new  faith, 
to  make  war  on  such  on  account  of  religion;  (3)  The  Cathouc  members  of  the  Great  Council  were 
should  an  ecclesiastical  dignitary  espouse  tne  Augs-  expelled.  Similar  results  followed  in  Appenzell 
burg  Confession,  he  was  to  lose  his  ecclesiastical  Outer  Rhodes,  Schaffhausen,  and  Glarus.  After 
dignity  with  all  ofiices  and  emoluments  connected  long  hesitation,  the  Reformation  was  accepted  also 
with  it,  without  prejudice,  however/  to  his  honour  or  at  Berne,  where  an  apostate  Carthusian,  Franz  Kolb, 
private  possession.  Against  this  ecclesiastical  pro-  with  Johann  and  Berthold  Haller,  preached  Zwing- 
viao  the  Lutheran  estates  protested:  (4)  the  holders  lianism;  all  the  monasteries  were  suppressed,  and 
of  the  Augsburg  Confession  were  to  be  left  in  pos-  great  violence  was  exercised  to  force  2wingUanism 
session  of  all  ecclesiastical  property  which  they  nad  upon  the  people  of  the  territory.  St.  Gall,  where 
held  since  the  beginning  ot  the  Reformation;  after  Joachim  Vadianus«  preached,  and  a  great  portion 
1555  neither  party  might  seize  anything  from  the  of  GraubUnden  also  adopted  the  innovations. 
.  other;  (5)  until  the  conclusion  ot  peace  between  Throughout  the  empire  Zwm^lianism  was  a  strong 
the  contending  religious  bodies  (to  be  effected  at  rival  of  Lutheranism,  and  a  violent  conflict  between 
the  approaching  Diet  of  Ratisbon)  the  ecclesiastical  the  two  confessions  began,  despite  constant  negotia- 
jurisoiction  of  tne  Catholic  hierarchy  was  suspended  tions  for  union.  Attempts  were  not  wanting  in 
in  the  territories  of  the  Augsburg  Confession;  (6)  Switzerland  to  terminate  the  unhappy  religious 
should  any  conflict  arise  between  the  parties  con-  division.  In  May,  1526,  a  great  religious  disputa- 
ceming  lands  or  rights,  an  attempt  must  first  be  made  tion  was  held  at  Baden,  the  Catholics  being  repre- 
to  setUe  such  dilutes  by  arbitration;  (7)  no  im-  sented  by  Eck,  Johann  Faber,  and  Mumer,  and  the 
penal  estate  might  protect  the  subjects  of  Another  Reformed  by  CEcolampadius  and  Berthold  Haller. 
estate  from  the  authorities;  (8)  every  citizen  of  The  result  was  favourable  to  the  Catholics;  most 
the  Empire  had  the  right  of  choosing  either  of  the  of  the  representatives  of  the  estates  present  declared 
two  recognized  reH^ons  and  of  practising  it  in  against  the  Reformation,  and  writings  of  Luther 
another  territory  without  loss  of  rights,  honour,  and  Zwingli  were  prohibited.  This  aroused  the 
or  property  (without  prejudice,  however,  to  the  opposition  of  the  Reformed  estates.  In  1527 
ridits  of  the  territorial  lord  over  his  peasantry);  Zurich  formed  an  alliance  with  Constance;  Basle, 
(9)  this  peace  was  to  include  the  free  knignts  and  the  Bern,  and  other  Reformed  estates  joined  the  con- 
free  cities  of  the  empire,  and  the  imperial  courts  federacy  in  1528.  In  self-defence  the  Catholic 
had  to  be  guided  «cactly  by  its  provisions;  (10)  estates  formed  an  alliance  in  1529  for  the  protection 
.oaths  might  be  administered  either  in  the  name  of  of  the  true  Faith  within  their  territories.  In  the 
God  or  of  His  Holy  Gospel.  By  this  peace  the  re-  resulting  war  the  Catholic  estates  gained  a  victoiy 
ligious  schism  in  the  German  Empire  was  definitively  at  Kappel,  and  Zwingli  was  slain  on  the  battle-field, 
established;  henceforth  the  Catholic  and  Protestant  Zurich  and  Berne  were  granted  peace  on  condition 
estates  are  opposing  camps.  Almost  all  Germany,  that  no  place  should  disturb  another  on  account  of 
from  the  Netherlands  frontier  in  the  west  to  the  religion,  and  that  Catholic  services  might  be  freelv 
Polish  frontier  in  the  east,  the  territory  of  the  Teu-  held  in  the  common  territories.  The  Catholic  Faith 
tonic  Order  in  Prussia,  Central  Germany  with  the  was  restored  in  certain  districts  of  Glarus  and 
exception  of  the  greater  part  of  the  western  portion,  Appenzell;  the  Abbev  of  St.  Gall  was  restored  to 
and  (in  South  Germany)  Wtirtemberg,  Ansbach,  the  abbot,  though  the  town  remained  Reformed. 
•  Pfalz-Zweibriicken,  and  other  small  domains,  with  In  Zurich,  Berne,  Basle,  and  Schaffhausen,  howevei*, 
numerous  free  cities,  had  espoused  the  Lutheran  the  Catholics  were  unable  to  secure  their  rights. 
Reformation.  Moreover,  in  the  south  and  south-  The  Swiss  Reformers  soon  composed  formal  state- 
east,  which  remained  prevailingly  Catholic,  it  found  ments  of  their  beliefs;  especially  noteworthy  were  the 
more  or  less  numerous  supporters.  Calvinism  also  First  Helvetic  Confession  (Confessio  Helvetica  I), 
spread  fairly  widely.  composed   by   Bullinger,   Myconius^  Gr^seus,  and 

But  the  Peace  of  Augsburg  failed  to  secure  the  others  (1536),  and  the  Second  Confession  composed 

bannony   hoped   for.    Iq   defiance   of   its   express  by    Bullinger   in    1564    (Confessio    Helvetica   II); 
XII.— 46 


REFORMATION 


706 


REFORMATION 


the  latter  waa  adopted  in  mcNst  Refonned  terri- 
tories of  the  Zwinglian  type. 

B.  The  Northern  Kingdoms:  Denmark^  Norway  and 
Sweden. — The  Lutheran  Reformation  found  an  early 
entrance  into  Denmark,  Norway  ^then  united  to 
Denmark),  and  Sweden.  Its  introduction  was  pri- 
marily due  to  royal  influence.  King  Christian  II  of 
Denmark  (1513-23)  welcomed  the  Kefo^nation  as  a 
means  of  weakening  the  nobility  and  especiidly  the 
clergy  (who  possessed  extensive  property)  and  thereby 
extending  the  power  of  the  throne.  His  first  attempt 
to  spread  the  teaching  of  Master  Martin  Luther  m 
1520  met  with  little  success:  the  barons  and  prelates 
soon  deposed  him  for  t^rrannv,  and  in  his  place  elected 
his  uncle  Duke  Frederick  of  Schleswig  and  Holstein. 
The  latter,  who  was  a  secret  follower  of  Lutheranism, 
deceived  the  bishops  and  nobility,  and  swore  at  his 
coronation  in  1523  to  maintain  the  Catholic  Religion. 
Seated  on  the  throne,  however,  he  favoured  the  Re- 
formers, especially  the  preacher  ,Hans  Tausen.  At 
the  Diet  ot  Odensee  in  1527  he  panted  freedom  of 
religion  to  the  Reformers,  permitte4  the  clergy  to 
marry,  and  reserved  to  the  king  the  confirmation  of 
all  episcopal  appointments.  Lutheranism  was  spread 
by  violent  means,  and  the  faithful  adherents  of  the 
Catholic  religion  were  oppressed.  His  son  Christian 
III,  who  hacT^eadiT  '^reformed"  Holstein,  threw  into 
prison  the  Danish  bishops  who  protested  against  his 
succession,  and  courted  the  support  of  the  barons. 
With  the  exception  of  Bishop  Rofiow  of  Rdskilde,  who 
died  in  prison  (1544),  all  the  bishops  agreed  to  resign 
and  to  refrain  from  opposing  the  new  doctrine,  where- 
upon they  were  set  at  liberty  and  their  property  was 
restored  to  them.  All  the  priests  who  opposed  the 
Reformation  were  expelled,  the  monast^ies  supn 
prrased,  and  the  Reformation  introduced  everywhere 
Dy  force.  In  1537  Luther's  companion  Johann 
Bugenhagen  (Pomeranus)  was  siunmoned  from  Wit- 
tenberg to  Denmark  to  establish  the  Reformation  in 
accordance  with  the  ideas  of  Luther.  At  the  Diet  of 
Copenhagen  in  1546  the  last  ri^ts  of  the  Catholics 
were  withdrawn;  right  of  inheritance  and  eligibility 
for  any  office  were  denied  them,  and  Catholic  priests 
were  forbidden  to  reside  in  the  country  under  penalty 
of  death. 

In  Norway  Archbishop  Olaus  of  Trondhjem  apos- 
tatized to  Lutheranism,  but  was  compelled  to  leave 
the  countrv,  as  a  supporter  of  the  deposed  king, 
Christian  II.  With  the  aid  of  the  Danish  nobility 
Christian  III  introduced  the  Reformation  into  Nor- 
way by  force.  Iceland  resisted  longer  royal  absolut- 
ism and  the  religious  innovations.  The  unflinching 
Bishop  of  Holum,  Jon  Arason,  was  beheaded,  and 
the  Reformation  spread  rapidly  after  1551.  Some 
externals  of  the  Catholic  period  were  retained — the 
title  of  bishop  and  to  some  extent  the  liturgical  vest- 
ments and  forms  of  worship. 

Into  Sweden  also  the  Reformation  was  introduced 
for  political  reasons  by  the  secular  ruler.  Gustavus 
Vasa,  who  had  been  given  to  Christian  II  of  Denmark 
in  1520  as  a  hostage  and  had  escaped  to  LUbeck, 
there  became  acquamted  with  the  Lutheran  teaching 
and  recognized  the  services  it  could  render  him. 
Returning  to  Sweden,  he  became  at  first  imperial 
chanodlor,  and,  after  being  elected  king  on  the  deposi- 
tion of  Christian  II  in  Denmark,  attempted  to  con- 
vert Sweden  into  a  hereditary  monarchy,  but  had 
to  yield  to  the  opposition  of  tne  der^  and  nobility. 
The  Reformation  helped  him  to  attam  his  desire,  al- 
though its  introduction  was  difficult  on  accoimt  of 
the  great  fidelity  of  the  people  to  the  Catholic  Faith. 
He  appointed  to  high  positions  two  Swedes,  the 
brothers  Olaf  and  Lorenz  Peterson,  who  had  studied 
at  Wittenberg  and  had  accepted  Luther's  teaching; 
one  was  appomted  court  chaplain  at  Stockholm  and 
the  other  professor  at  Upsala.  Both  laboured  in 
secret  for  the  spread  of  Lutheranism,  and  won  many 


adherents,  including  the  archdeacon  Lorenz  Anderson, 
whom  the  kin^  thereupon  named  his  chancellor.  Id 
his  dealings  with  Pope  Adrian  VI  and  his  legates  thfi 
king  simiilated  the  greatest  fidelity  to  the  Church, 
while  he  was  giving  ever-increasea  support  to  reli- 
gious innovations.  The  Dominicans,  who  offered  a 
strong  opposition  to  his  designs,  were  banished  from 
the  kingdom,  and  the  bishops  who  resisted  were  sub- 
jected to  all  kinds  of  oppression.  After  a  religious 
disputation  at  the  University  of  Upsala  the  king 
assigned  the  victory  to  Olaf  Peterson,  and  proceeded 
to  Lutheranize  the  university,  to  confiscate  eccle- 
siastical property,  and  to  employ  every  means  to 
compel  the  clergy  to  accept  the  new  doctrine.  A 
popi^ar  rebeUion  gave  him  an  opportunitv  of  accusing 
the  Catholic  bishops  of  hish  treason,  and  in  1527  the 
Archbishop  of  Upsala  ana  the  Bishop  of  Westraet 
were  executed.  Many  ecclesiastics  acceded  to  the 
wishes  of  the  king;  otners  resisted  and  had  to  endure 
violent  persecution,  an  heroic  resistance  being  offered 
by  the  nuns  of  Wadstena.  After  the  Diet  of  W estraes 
in  1527  jpp-eat  concessions  were  made  to  the  king 
through  ^ar  of  fresh  subjection  to  the  Danes,  espe- 
cially the  right  of  confiscating  church  property,  of 
ecclesiasticafappointments  ana  removals,  etc.  Some 
of  the  nobles  were  won  over  to  the  king's  side,  when 
it  was  made  optional  to  take  back  all  goods  donated 
to  the  Church  Dy  one's  ancestors  since  1453.  Clerical 
celibacy  was  abolished,  and  the  vernacular  introduced 
into  Divine  service.  The  king  constituted  himself 
supreme  authority  in  religious  matters,  and  severed 
the  countiy  from  Catholic  unity.  The  Synod  of 
Orebro  (1529)  completed  the  Reformation,  although 
most  of  the  external  rites,  the  images  in  the  churches, 
the  liturgical  vestments,  and  the  titles  of  archbishop 
and  bishop  were  retained.  Later  (1544)  Gustavui 
Vasa  maoe  the  title  to  the  throne  hereditary  in 
his  family.  The  numerous  risings  directed  against 
him  and  nis  innovations  were  put  down  with  bloody 
violence.  At  a  later  period  arose  other  great  reli- 
gious contests,  likewise  of  a  political  character. 

Calvinism  also  spread  to  some  extent,  and  Eric 
XIV  (1560-68)  endeavoured  to  promote  it.  He  was, 
however,  dethroned  by  the  nobility  for  his  tyranny, 
and  his  brother  John  III  (1568-02)  named  king.  The 
latter  restored  the  Catholic  Faith  and  tried  to  restore 
the  land  to  the  unity  of  the  Church.  But  on  the 
death  of  his  first  wife,  the  zealous  Catholic  Princess 
Katherina,  his  ardour  declined  in  the  face  of  numerous 
difficulties,  and  his  second  wife  favoured  Lutheranism. 
On  John's  death  his  son  Sigismimd,  already  King  of 
Poland  and  thoroughly  Catholic  in  sentiment,  be- 
came King  of  Sweden.  However,  his  uncle  Duke 
Charles,  the  chancellor  of  the  kingdom,  gave  ener- 
getic support  to  the  Reformation,  and  tne  Augsburg 
Confession  was  introduced  at  the  National  Synod  of 
Upsala  in  1593.  Against  the  chancellor  and  the 
Swedish  nobility  Sigismund  found  himself  powerless; 
finally  (1600)  he  was  deposed  as  an  apostate  from  the 
"true  doctrine",  and  Charles  waa  appointed  king. 
Gustavus  Adolphus  (1611-32),  Charles's  son,utiliied 
the  Reformation  to  increase  the  power  of  Sweden  by 
his  campaigns.  The  Reformation  was  then  success- 
fully enfor^d  throughout  Sweden. 

C.  France  and  French  Switzerland. — ^In  certain 
humanistic  circles  in  France  there  orimiated  at  an 
early  date  a  movement  favourable  to  the  Reformation. 
The  centre  of  this  movement  was  Meaux,  where 
Bishop  Guillaume  Bri^onnet  favoured  the  himianistic 
and  m3rstic  ideas,  and  where  Professor  Lefdvre« 
d'Etaples,  W.  Farel,  and  J.  de  Clerc,  Humanists  with 
Lutheran  tendencies,  tai^t.  However,  the  Court, 
the  university,  and  the  Parlement  opposed  the  reli- 
gious innovations,  and  the  Lutheran  community  at 
Meaux  was  dissolved.  More  important  centres  of 
the  Reformation  were  found  in  the  South,  where  the 
Waldensians  had   prepared  the  soil.    Here  public 


BIFORMATION 


707 


BIFORMATION 


riots  occurred  during  which  images  of  Christ  and  the 
saints  were  destroyed.  The  parlements  in  most 
cases  took  energetic  measures  against  the  innovators, 
although  in  certain  quarters  the  latter  found  pro- 
tectors—especially Margaret  of  Valois,  sister  of  King 
Fransis  I  and  wife  of  Henry  d' Albret,  King  of  Navarre. 
The  leaders  of  the  Reformation  in  Germany  sought 
to  win  over  King  Francis  I,  for  political  reasons  an 
ally  of  the  Protestant  German  princes;  the  king,  how- 
ever, remained  true  to  the  Church,  and  suppressed 
the  reform  movements  throu^out  his  land.  In  the 
south-eastern  districts,  especially  in  Provence  and 
Dauphin^,  the  supporters  of  the  new  doctrines  in- 
creased through  the  efforts  of  Reformers  from 
Switzerland  and  Strasburg,  until  finally  the  desecra- 
tion and  plundering  of  churches  compeUed  the  kin^  to 
take  energetic  steps  a^^ainst  them.  After  Calvinism 
had  established  itself  m  Geneva,  its  influence  grew 
rapidl^r  in  French  reform  circles.  Calvin  appeared 
at  Paris  as  defender  of  the  new  religious  movement 
in  1533,  dedicated  to  the  F^nch  king  in  1536  his 
'^Institutiones  Christians  Religionis'',  and  went  to 
Geneva  in  the  same  year.  Expelled  from  Geneva, 
he  returned  in  1541,  and  began  there  the  final  esta];H 
lishment  of  his  religious  organization.  Geneva,  with 
its  academy  inaugurated  by  Calvin,  was  a  leading 
centre  of  the  Reformation  and  affected  principally 
France.  Pierre  le  Clerc  established  the  first  Calvin- 
istic  community  at  Paris;  other  communities  were 
established  at  Lyons,  Orleans,  Angers,  and  Rouen, 
repressive  measures  proving  of  little  avail.  Bishop 
Jacques  Spifamius  of  Nevers  lapsed  into  Calvinism, 
and  in  1559  Paris  witnessed  the  assembly  of  a  general 
synod  of  French  Reformers,  which  adopted  a  Calvin- 
istic  creed  and  introduced  the  Swiss  presbyteral  con- 
stitution for  the  Reformed  commumties.  Owing  to 
the  support  of  the  Waldensians,  to  the  dissemination 
of  reform  literature  from  Geneva,  Basle,  and  Stras- 
burg, and  to  the  steady  influx  of  preachers  from  these 
cities,  the  adherents  of  the  Reformation  increased  in 
France.  On  the  death  of  King  Henry  II  (1559)  the 
Calvinist  Huguenots  wished  to  take  advantage  of  the 
weakness  of  the  Government  to  increase  their  power. 
The  queen-dowager,  Catherine  de'  Medici,  was  an 
ambitious  intriguer,  and  pursued  a  time-serving 
policy.  Political  aspirations  soon  became  entangled 
with  the  religious  movement,  which  thereby  assumed 
wider  proportions  and  a  greater  importance.  From 
opposition  to  the  ruling  line  and  to  the  powerful  and 
zealously  Catholic  dukes  of  Guise,  the  princes  of  the 
Bourbon  line  became  the  protectors  of  the  Calvinists; 
these  were  Antoine  de  Venddme^  ^^^  ^^  Navarre, 
and  his  brothers,  especially  Louis  de  Cond^.  They 
were  joined  by  the  Constable  de  Montmorency. 
Admiral  Coligny  and  his  brother  d'Andelot,  ana 
Cardinal  Odet  de  Ch&tillon,  Bishop  of  Beauvais. 

In  spite  of  anti-heretical  laws.  Calvinism  was 
making  steady  progress  in  the  Soutn  of  France,  when 
on  17  January,  1562,  the  queen-dowager,  recent  for 
the  young  Charles  IX,  issued  an  edict  ol  toleration, 
allowing  the  Huguenots  the  free  practice  of  their  reli- 

?^ion  outside  the  towns  and  without  weapons,  but 
orbidding  all  interference  with  and  acts  of  violence 
ap^ainst  Catholic  institutions,  and  ordering  the  restitu- 
tion of  all  churches  and  all  ecclesiastical  property 
taken  from  the  Catholics.  Rendered  thweby  only 
more  audacious,  the  Calvinists  committed,  especially 
in  the  South,  revolting  acts  of  violence  against  the 
Catholics,  putting  to  death  Catholic  priests  even  in 
the  suburbs  of  Paris.  The  occurrence  at  Vassy  In 
Champagne  on  1  March,  1.562,  where  the  retinue  of 
the  Duke  of  Guise  came  into  conflict  with  the  Hugue- 
nots, inaugurated  the  first  religious  and  civil  war  in 
France.  Although  this  ended  with  the  defeat  of  the 
Huguenots,  it  occasioned  great  losses  to  the  Catholics 
of  france.  Relics  of  saints  were  burnt  and  scattered, 
lifioent  churches  reduced  to  ashes,  and  numerous 


priests  murdered.  The  edict  of  Amboise  granted 
new  favours  to  the  Calvinistic  nobles,  althou^  the 
earlier  edict  of  tolerance  was  withdrawn.  Five  other 
civil  wars  followed,  during  which  occurred  the 
massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew's  Day  (24  August, 
1572).  It  was  not  until  the  line  of  Valois  had  be- 
come extinct  with  Henry  III  (1589),  and  Henry  of 
Navarre  (who  embraced  Catholicism  in  1593)  of  the 
Bourbon  line  had  ascended  the  throne,  that  the  reh- 

S'ous  wars  were  brought  to  an  end  by  the  Edict  of 
antes  (13  April,  1598);  this  granted  the  Calvinists 
not  only  full  religious  freedom  and  admission  to  all 

gublic  offices,  but  even  a  privileged  position  in  the 
tate.  Ever-increasing  difficulties  of  a  political  nature 
arose,  and  Cardinal  Richelieu  aimed  at  ending  the 
influential  position  of  the  Huguenots.  The  capture 
of  their  chief  fortress,  La  Rochelle  (28  October,  1628), 
finally  broke  the  power  of  the  French  Calvinists  as  a 
political  entity.  Later,  many  of  their  number  re- 
turned to  Catholicism,  although  there  still  remained 
numerous  adherents  of  Calvinism  in  France. 

D.  Italy  and  Spain. — ^While  in  both  these  lands 
there  appeared  isolated  supporters  of  the  Reformat 
tion,  no  strong  or  extensive  organization  arose.  Here 
and  there  in  Italy  influential  individuals  (e.  -g. 
Vittoria  Colonna  and  her  circle)  favoured  the  reform 
movement,  but  they  desired  such .  to  occur  within, 
not  as  a  reoellion  against  the  Church.  A  few  Italians 
embraced  Lutheranism  or  Calvinism,  e.  g.  ^ohn 
Valdez,  secretary  of  the  Viceroy  of  Naples.  In  tJbe 
cities  of  Turin,  Pavia,  Venice,  Ferrara  (where  Duchess 
Renata  favoured  the  Reformation),  and  Florence 
might  be  found  adherents  of  the  German  and  Swiss 
Reformers,  although  not  so  extreme  as  their  proto- 
types. The  more  prominent  had  to  leave  the  country 
— ^thus  Pietro  Paolo  Vergerio,  who  fled  to  Switzerland 
and  thence  to  Wittenberg:  Bernardino  Ochino,  who 
fled  to  Geneva  and  was  later  professor  at  Oxford; 
Petrus  Martyr  Vermigli,  who  fled  to  Zurich,  and  was 
subsequently  active  at  Oxford,  Strasburg,  and  again 
at  Zurich:  By  the  vigorous  inauguration  of  true 
ecclesiastical  reform  in  the  spirit  of  the  C]k)uncil  of 
Trent,  through  the  activity  of  numerous  saintly  men 
(such  as  Sts.  Charles  Borromeo  and  Philip  Neri), 
through  the  vigilance  of  the  bishops  and  the  diligence 
of  the  Inquisition,  the  Reformation  was  excluded  from 
Italy.  In  some  circles  rationalistic  and  anti-trinita- 
rian  tendencies  showed  themselves,  and  Italy  was  the 
birthplace  of  the  two  heresiarchs.  Leelius  Socinus  and 
his  nephew  Faustus  Socinus,  the  founders  of  Socinian- 
ism  (q.  v.). 

The  course  of  events  was  the  san^e  in  Spain  as  in 
Italy.  Despite  some  attempts  to  disseminate  anti- 
ecclesiastical  writings  in  the  country,  the  Reforma- 
tion won  no  success,  thanks  to  the  zeal  displayed  by 
the  ecclesiastical  and  public  authorities  in  counteract- 
ing its  efforts.  The  few  Spaniards  wha  accepted  the 
new  doctrines  were  unable  to  develop  any  reforming 
activity  at  home,  and  lived  abroad — e.  g.  Francisco 
Ensinas  (Dryander),  who  made  a  translation  of  the 
Bible  for  Spaniards,  Juan  Diaz,  Gonsalvo  Montano, 
Miguel  Servede  (Servetus),  who  was  condemned  by 
Calvin  at  (jreneva  for  his  doctrine  against  the  Trinity 
and  burnt  at  the  stake. 

E.  Hungary  and  Tranayhania. — The  Reformation 
was  spresd  m  Hungary  by  Hungarians  who  had 
studied  at  Wittenberg  and  had  there  embraced 
Lutheranism.  In  1525  stringent  laws  were  passed 
against  the  adherents  of  the  heretical  doctrines,  but 
their  numbers  continued  to  increase,  especially 
amon^  the  nobility,  who  wished  to  confiscate  the 
ecclesiastical  property,  and  in  the  free  cities  of  the 
kingdom.  Turkish  victories  and  conquest  and  the 
war  between  Ferdinand  of  Austria  and  John  Zapolya 
favoured  the  reformers.  In  addition  to  the  Lutherans 
there  were  soon  followers  of  Zwingli  and  Calvin  in 
the  country.    Five  Lutheran  towns  in  Upper  Hun- 


BEFORHATION 


708 


BEFORIffATION 


pary  accepted  the  Augsburg  Confescion.  Calvinism, 
however,  gradually  won  the  upper  hand,  although  the 
domestic  disputes  between  the  reforming  sects  by  no 
means  ceased. 

In  Transylvania  merchants  from  Hermannstadt, 
who  had  become  acquainted  with  Luther's  heresy  at 
Leipzig,  spread  the  Reformation  after  152L  Not- 
withstanding the  persecution  of  the  Reformers,  a 
Lutheran  school  was  started  at  Hermannstadt,  and 
the  nobility  endeavoured  to  use  the  Reformation  as 
a  means  of  confiscating  the  property  of  the  clergy. 
Li  1529  the  regular  orders  and  the  most  vigorous 
champions  of  the  Church  were  driven  from  the  town. 
At  Kronstadt  the  Lutheran  preacher  Johann  Honter 
gained  the  ascendancy  in  1534,  the  Mass  being  abol- 
i^ed  and  Divine  service  organized  after  the  Lutheran 
model.  At  a  synod  held  in  1544  the  Saxon  nation  in 
Transylvania  decided  in  favour  of  the  Augsburg  Con- 
fession, while  the  rural  Magyars  accepted  Calvinism. 
At  the  Diet  of  Klausenburg  in  1556  jpeneral  religious 
freedom  was  granted,  and  the  ecclesiastical  property 
confiscated  for  the  defence  of  the  country  and  the 
erection  of  Lutheran  schools.  Among  the  supporters 
of  the  Reformation  far-reaching  divisions  prevailed. 
Biesides  the  Lutherans,  there  were  Unitarians  (Socin- 
ians)  and  Anabaptists,  and  each  of  these  sects  waged 
war  against  the  others.  A  Catholic  minority  sur- 
vived among  the  Greek  Walachians. 

F,  Poland,  lAvoniaj  and  Courland. — Poland  learned 
of  the  Reformation  first  through  some  young  students 
from  Wittenberg  and  through  the  Bohemian  and 
Moravian  Brethren.  Archbishop  Laski  of  Gnesen 
and  King  Sigismund  I  (1501-48)  energetically  opposed 
the  spread  of  heretical  doctrines.  However,  the  sup- 
porters of  the  Reformation  succeeded  in  winning 
recruits  at  the  University  of  Cracow,  at  Posen,  and 
at  Dantzig.  From  Dantzig  the  Reformation  spread 
to  Thorn  and  Elbing,  and  certain  nobles  favoured  the 
new  doctrines.  Under  the  rule  of  the  weak  Sigis- 
mund II  (1548-72)  there  were  in  Poland,  besides  the 
Lutherans  and  the  Bohemian  Brethren,  Zwinglians. 
Calvinists,  and  Socinians.  Prince  Radziwili  ana 
John  Ladd  favoured  Calvinism,  and  the  Bible  was 
translated  into  Polish  in  accordance  with  the  views 
of  this  party  in  1563.  Despite  the  efforts  of  the 
papal  nuncio,  Aloisius  Lippomano  (1556^58)  free  prac- 
tice of  religion  was  secretly  granted  in  the  above- 
mentioned  three  cities,  and  the  nobility  were  allowed 
to  hold  private  religious  services  in  their  houses.  The 
different  Reformed  sects  fought  among  one  another, 
the  formula  of  faith  introduced  at  the  General  Synod 
of  Sandomir  in  1570  by  the  Reformed,  the  Lutherans, 
and  the  Bohemian  Brethren  producing  no  unity.  In 
1573  the  heretical  parties  secured  the  religious  peace 
of  Warsaw,  which  granted  eaual  rights  to  Catholics 
and  "Dissidents",  and  established  permanent  peace 
between  the  two  sections.  By  the  zealous  inaugura- 
tion of  true  ecclesiastical  reform,  the  diligent  activity 
of  the  papal  legates  and  able  bisnops,  ana  the  labours 
of  the  Jesuits,  further  progress  of  the  Reformation 
was  prevented. 

In  Livonia  and  Courland,  the  territories  of  the 
Teutonic  Order,  the  course  of  the  Reformation  was 
the  same  as  in  the  other  territory  of  the  order, 
Prussia.  Commander  Gotthard  Kettler  of  Courland 
embraced  the  Augsburg  Confession,  and  converted 
the  land  into  a  secular  hereditary  duchy,  tributary  to 
Poland.  In  Livonia  Commander  Walter  of  Pletten- 
berg  strove  to  foster  Lutheranisni,  which  had  been 
accepted  at  Riga,  Dorpat,  and  Reval  since  1523, 
hoping  thus  to  make  himself  independent  of  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Riga.  When  Margrave  William  of  Bran- 
denburg became  Archbishop  of  Riga  in  1539,  Luther- 
ism  rapidly  obtained  exclusive  sway  in  Livonia. 

G.  Netherlands. — During  the  reign  of  Charles  V 
the  seventeen  provinces  of  the  Netherlands  remained 
fairly  immune  from  the  infection  of  the  new  doctrine. 


Several  followers  of    Luther  had  indeed  appeared 
there,  and  endeavourdd  to  disseminate  the  Lutheran 
writings  and  doctrines.    Charles  V,  however,  issued 
strict  edicts  against  the  Lutherans  and  a^nst  the 
printing  and  spreading  of  the  writings  of  the  Reformer. 
The  excesses  of  the  Anabaptists  evoked  the  forcible 
suppression  of  their  movement,  and  until  1555  the 
Reformation  found  little  root  in  the  country.     In  this 
year  Charles  V  granted  the  Netherlands  to  his  son 
Philip  II,  who  resided  in  the  country  until  1559. 
During  this  period  Calvinism  made  rapid  strides, 
especiaJly  in  the  northern  provinces.    Many  of  the 
great  nobles  and  the  much  impoverished  lower  nobility 
used  the  Reformation  to  incite  the  liberty-lovmg 
people  against  the  king's  administration,  the  Spanish 
officials  and  troops,  and  the  strictness  of  the  govern- 
ment.   Disaffection    continued    to    increase,    owing 
chiefly  to  the  severe  ordinances  of*  the  Duke  of  Alva 
and  the  bloody  nersecution  conducted  by  him.    Wil- 
liam of  Orange-Nassau,  governor  of  the  Province  of 
Holland,  aimed  for  political  reasons  at  securing  the 
victory  for  Calvinism,  and  succeeded  in  several  of 
the  northern  districts.     He  then  placed  himself  at 
the  head  of  the  rebellion  against  the  Spanish  rule. 
In  the  ensuing  war  the  northern  provinces   (Nieder- 
lande)  asserted  their  independence,  whereupon  Cal- 
vinism gained  in  them  the  ascendancy.     In   1581 
every  public  exercise  of  the  Catholic  Faith  was  for- 
bidden.   The    "Bel^an   Confession"   of    1562   had 
already  a  Calvinistic  foundation;  by  the  synods  of 
Dordrecht  in  1574  and  1618  Calvinism  received  a 
fixed  form.    The  Catholics  of  the  country  (about 
two-fifths  of  the  population)  were  subjected  to  violent 
suppression.    Among  the  Calvinists  of  Holland  vio- 
lent conflicts  arose  concerning  the  doctrine  of  pre- 
destination. 

H.  England  and  Scotland. — ^The  Reformation  re- 
ceived its  final  form  in  England  during  the  reign  of 
Queen  Elizabeth  (1558-1603).  On  the  basis  of  the 
liturgy  established  in  the  "Book  of  Common  Prayer" 
under  Edward  VI  (1547-53)  and  the  confession  of 
Forty-two  Articles  composed  by  Archbishop  Cranmer 
and  Bishop  Ridley  in  1552,  and  after  Queen  Mary 
(1553-58)  had  failed  to  restore  her  country  to  union  with 
Rome  and  the  Catholic  Faith,  the  ascendancy  of 
Anglicanism  was  established  in  England  by  Elizabeth. 
The  Forty-two  Articles  were  revised,  and,  as  the 
Thirty-nine  Articles  of  the  Anglican  Church,  became 
in  1562  the  norm  of  its  religious  creed.  The  eccle- 
siastical supremacy  of  the  queen  was  recognized,  an 
oath  to  this  effect  (Oath  of  Supremacy)  being  required 
under  penalty  of  removal  from  office  and  loss  of 
property.  Several  prelates  and  the  universities  offered 
resistance,  which  was  overcome  by  force.  The  major- 
ity of  the  lower  clergy  took  the  oath,  which  was  de- 
manded with  ever-increasing  severity  from  all  mem- 
bers of  the  House  of  Commons,  all  ecclesiastics,  bar- 
risters, and  teachers.  In  externals  much  of  the  old 
Catholic  form  of  worship  was  retained.  After  the 
failure  of  the  movement  m  favour  of  Mary  Stuart  of 
Scotland,  who  had  fled  to  England  in  1568,  the  op- 
pression of  the  English  Catholics  was  continued  with 
increasing  violence.  Besides  the  Anglican  Estab- 
lished d^urch  there  were  in  England  Uie  Calvinistic 
Nonconformists,  who  opposed  a  presbyterian  popular 
organization  to  the  episcopal  nierarchy;  luce  the 
Catholics,  they  were  much  oppressed  by  .tJie  rulers  of 
England. 

In  Scotland  the  social  and  political  situation  gave 
a  great  impetus  to  the  Reformation,  aided  by  the 
ignorance  and  rudeness  of  the  clergy  (to  a  great  ex- 
tent the  result  of  the  constant  feuds).  The  nobility 
used  the  Reformation  as  a  weapon  in  their  war 
against  the  royal  house,  which  was  supported  by 
the  higher  clergy.  Already  under  James  V  (1524- 
42)  supporters  of  the  Lutheran  doctrines  (e.  g. 
Patrick   Hamilton,    Henry   Forest,    and   Alexander 


REFORHATION 


709 


RBFORBIATION 


Seton,  the  king's  confessor,  came  forward  as  Re- 
formers. The  first  two  were  executed,  while  the 
last  fled  to  the  Continent.  However,  the  heretical 
doctrines  continued  to  find  fresh  adherents.  On 
the  death  of  James  V  his  daughter  and  heiress  was 
only  eight  days  old.  The  office  of  regent  fell  to 
James  Hamilton,  who,  though  previously  of  Prot- 
estant sentiments,  returned  to  the  Catholic  Church 
;  and  supported  Archbishop  David  Beaton  in  his 
'  energetic  measures  against  the  innovators.  After 
the  execution  of  the  Reformer  George  Wishart,  the 
Protestants  formed  a  conspiracy  against  the  arch- 
bishop, attacked  him  in  his  castle  in  1545,  and  put 
him  to  death.  The  rebels  (among  them  John 
Knox),  joined  by  140  nobles,  then  fortified  them- 
selves in  the  castle.  Knox  went  to  Geneva  in  1546, 
there  embraced  Calvinism,  and  from  1555  was  the 
leader  of  the  Reformation  in  Scotland,  where  it  won 
the  ascendancy  in  the  'form  of  Calvinism.  The 
politicid  confusion  prevailing  in  Scotland  from  the 
death  of  James  V  facilitated  the  introduction  of  the 
Reformation. 

V.  Different  FoRBis  of  the  Reformation. — 
The  fundamental  forms  of  the  Reformation  were 
Lutheranism,  Zwinglianism,  Calvinism,  and  Angli- 
canism. Within  each  of  these  branches,  however, 
conflicts  arose  in  consequence  of  the  diverse  views 
of  individual  representatives.  By  negotiations,  com- 
promises, and  formulffi  of  union  it  was  sought,  usu- 
ally without  lasting  success,  to  establish  unity^ 
The  whole  Reformation^  resting  on  human  authority, 
presented  from  the  beginning,  m  the  face  of  Cathohc 
unity  of  faith,  an  aspect  of  dreary  dissension.  Beisides 
these  chief  branches  appeared  numerous  other  forms, 
which  deviated  from  tnem  in  essential  points,  and 
Q'adually  gave  rise  to  the  countless  divisions  of 
Protestantism.  The'  chief  of  these  forms  may  be 
here  shortly  reviewed  (for  further  treatment  see  the 
separate  articles). 

A.  The  Anabapti8t8y  who  appeared  in  Germany 
and  German  Switzerland  shortly  after  the  appearance 
of  Luther  and  Zwingli,  wished  to  trace  back  their 
conception  of  the  Church  to  Apnostolic  times.  They 
denied  the  validity  of  the  baptism  of  children,  saw 
in  the  Blessed  Eucharist  merely  a  memorial  cere- 
mony, and  wished  to  restore  the  Kingdom  of  God 
according  to  their  own  heretical  and  mystical  views. 
Though  attacked  by  the  other  Reformers,  they  won 
supporters  in  many  lands.  From  them  also  issued 
the  Mennonites.  foimded  by  Menno  Simonis  (d. 
1661). 

B.  The  Schwenkjddiana  were  founded  by  Kaspar 
of  Schwenkfeld,  aulic  councillor  of  Duke  Fredenck 
of  Lie^tz  and  canon.  At  first  he  associated  him- 
self with  Luther,  but  from  1525  he  opposed  the 
latter  in  his  Christology,  as  well  as  in  his  conception 
of  the  Eucharist  ana  his  doctrine  of  justification. 
Attacked  by  the  German  reformers,  his  followers 
were  able  to  form  but  a  few  communities.  The 
Schwenkfeldians  still  maintidn  themselves  in  North 
A.in6nca 

C.  Sebastian  Franck  (b.  1499;  d.  1542),  a  pure 
spiritualist,  rejected  every  external  form  of  ec- 
clesiastical organization,  and  favoured  a  spiritual, 
invisible  Church.  He  thus  abstained  frOm  founding 
a  separate  community,  and  sought  only  to  disseminate 
his  ideas. 

D.  The  SocinioM  and  other  Anti-Trinitarians. — 
Some  individual  members  of  the  early  Reformers 
attacked  the  fundamental  Christian  doctrine  of  the 
Blessed  Trinity,  especially  the  Spaniard  Miguel 
Servede  (Servetus),  whose  writing,  "De  Trinitatis 
erroribus",  printed  in  1531,  was  burned  by  Calvin 
in  Geneva  m  1553.  The  chief  founders  of  Anti- 
Trinitarianism  were  Lselius  Socinus,  teacher  of  juris- 
prudence at  Siena,  and  his  nephew,  Faustus  Socinus. 
Ck)mpelled  to  fly  from  their  nome,  they  maintained 


themselves  in  various  parts,  and  founded  special 
Socinian  communities.  Faustus  disseminated  hid 
doctrine  especially  in  Poland  and  Transylvania. 

E.  Valentine  Weigel  (b.  1533;  d.  1588)  and 
Jacob  Bdhme  (d.  1624),  a  shoemaker  from  Gorlitz, 
represented  a  mystical  Pantheism,  teaching  that  the 
external  revelation  of  God  in  the  Bible  could  be 
recognized  only  through  an  internal  light.  Both 
found. numerous  disciples.  Bohme's  followers  later 
received  the  name  of  RosenkreuzeTf  because  it  was 
widely  supposed  that  they  stood  under  the  direction 
of  a  hidden  guide  named  Rosenkreuz. 

F.  The  Pietists  in  Germany  had  as  their  leader 
Philip  Jacob  Spener  (b.  1635;  d.  1705).  Pietism 
was  primarily  a  reaction  against  the  barren  Lutheran 
orthodoxy,  and  regarded  religion  mainly  a  thing  of 
the  heart. 

G.  The  Insfiraiion  Communities  originated  in 
Germany  during  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth 
centuries  with  various  apocalyptic  visionaries.  They 
regarded  the  kingdom  of  the  Holy  Ghost  as  arrived, 
and  believed  in  the  univesalgift  of  prophecy  and  in 
the  millenium.  Amons  the  foimders  of  such  vision- 
ary societies  were  Jonann  Wilhelm  Petersen  (d. 
1727),  superintendent  at  Ltinebei]g,  and  Johann 
Konrad  Duppel   (b.  1734),  a  physician  at   Leiden. 

H.  The  nermhuter  were  founded  by  Count 
Nicholas  of  Zinzendorf  (b.  1700;  d.  1760).  On  the 
Hutberg,  as  it  was  called,  he  established  the  com- 
munity of  Hermhut,  consisting  of  Moravian  Brethren 
and  Protestants,  with  a  special  constitution.  Stress 
was  laid  on  the  doctrine  of  the  Redemption,  and 
strict  moral  discipline  was  inculcated.  This  com- 
munity of  Brethren  spread  in  many  lands. 

I.  The  Quakers  were  founded  by  John  George 
Fox  of  Drayton  in  Leicestershire  (b.  1624:  d.  1691). 
He  favoured  a  visionary  spiritualism,  ana  found  in 
the  soul  of  each  man  a  portion  of  the  Divine  intelli-  / 
genoe.  All  are  allowed  to  preach,  according  as  the 
spirit  incites  them.  The  moral  precepts  of  this 
sect  were  very  strict. 

J.  The  Methodists  were  founded  by  John  Wesley. 
In  1729  Wesley  instituted,  with  his  brother  Charles 
and  his  friends  Morgan  and  Kirkham,  an  association 
at  Oxford  for  the  cultivation  of  the  reUgious  and 
ascetic  life,  and  from  this  society  Methodism  de- 
veloped. 

K.  The  Baptists  originated  in  England  in  1608. 
They  maintained  that  baptism  was  necessary  only 
for  adults,  upheld  Calvinism  in  its  essentials,  and 
observed  the  Sabbath  on  Saturday  instead  of  Sunday. 

L.  The  Swedenborgians  are  named  after  their 
founder  Emmanuel  Swedenborg  (d.  1772),  son  of  a 
Swedish  Protestant  bishop.  Believing  in  his  power 
to  communicate  with  the  spirit-world  and  that  he 
had  Divine  revelations,  he  proceeded  on  the  basis 
of  the  latter  to  found  a  community  with  a  special 
Uturgy,  the  "New  Jerusalem".  He  won  numerous 
followers,  and  his  community  spread  in  many  lands. 

M.  The  Irvingites  are  called  after  their  founder, 
Edward  Irving,  a  native  of  Scotland  and  from  1822 
preacher  in  a  Presbyterian  chapel  in  London. 

N.  The  Mormons  were  founded  by  Joseph  Smith, 
who  made  his  appearance  with  supposed  revelations 
in  1822. 

Besides  these  best-known  secondary  branches  of 
the  Reformation  movement,  there  are  many  different 
denominations;  for  from  the  Reformation  the  evolu- 
tion of  new  forms  has  always  proceeded,  and  must 
always  proceed,  inasmuch  as  subjective  arbitrariness 
was  made  a  principle  by  the  heretical  teaching  of 
the  sixteenth  century. 

VI.  Results  and  Consequences  of  the  Ref- 
ormation.— The  Reformation  destroyed  the  imity 
of  faith  and  ecclesiastical  organization  of  the  Chris- 
tian peoples  of  Europe,  cut  many  millions  off  from 
the   true   Catholic   Church,    and   robbed   them   of 


REFORMED 


710 


REFORMED 


the  greatest  portion  of  the  salutary  means  for  the 
cultivation  and  maintenance  of  the  supernatural  life, 
^calculable  harm  was  thereby  wrought  from  the 
religious  standpoint.  The  false  fundamental  doc- 
trine of  justification  by  faith  alone,  taught  by  the 
Reformers,  produced  a  lamentable  shallowness  in 
religious  me.  Zeal  for  good  works  disappeared, 
the  asceticism  which  the  Church  had  practised  from 
her  foundation  was  despised,  charitable  and  ecclesias- 
tical objects  were  no  longer  properly  cultivated, 
supernatural  interests  fell  into  the  background, 
and  naturalistic  aspirations,  aiming  at  the  purely 
mundane,  became  widespread.  The  denial  of  the 
Divinely  instituted  authority  of  the  Church,  both  as 
regards  doctrine  and  ecclesiastical  government, 
opened  wide  the  door  to  every  eccentricity,  gave  rise 
to  the  endless  division  into  sects  and  the  never- 
ending  disputes  characteristic  of  Protestantism, 
and  could  not  but  lead  to  the  complete  imbehef 
which  necessarily  arises  from  the  Protestant  prin- 
ciples. Of  real  n-eedom  of  beUef  among  the  Reform- 
ers of  the  sixteenth  century  there  was  not  a  trace; 
on  the  contrary,  the  great^  tyranny  in  matters  of 
conscience  was  displaye<|  by  the  representatives  of  the 
Reformation.  The  most  baneful  Csesaropapism^ 
was  meanwhile  fostered,  since  the  Reformation 
recognised  the  secular  authorities  as  supreme  also 
in  religious  matters.  Thus  arose  from  the  very 
beginning  the  various  Protestant '' national  Churches  , 
wUch  are  entirely  discordant  with  the  Christian 
imiversalism  of  the  Catholic  Church,  and  depend, 
alike  for  their  faith  and  their  organization,  on  the 
will  of  the  secular  ruler.  In  this  way  the  Reforma- 
tion was  a  chief  factor  in  the  evolution  of  royal 
absolutism.  In  every  land,  into  which  it  foimd 
ingress,  the  Reformation  was  the  cause  of  inde- 
scribable suffering  among  the  people;  it  occasioned 
civil  wars  which  lasted  decades,  with  all  their  horrors 
and  devastations;  the  people  were  oppressed  and 
enslaved^  countless  treasures  of  art  and  priceless 
manuscnpts  were  destroyed;  between  members  of 
the  same  land  and  race  the  seed  of  discord  was  sown. 
Germany  in  particular,  the  original  home  of  the 
Reformation,  was  reduced  to  a  state  of  piteous  dis- 
tress by  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  and  the  German 
Empire  was  thereby  dislodged  from  the  leading 
position  which  it  had  for  centuries  occupi^  in 
Europe.  Only  gradually,  and  owing  to  forces  which 
did  not  essentially  spring  from  the  Reformation,  but 
were  conditioned  by  other  historical  factors,  did 
the  social  wounds  heal,  but  the  reUpious  corrosion 
still  continues  despite  the  earnest  religious  sentiments 
which  have  at  all  times  characterized  many  individual 
followers  of  the  Reformation. 

See  Lttthkr,  Martin;  Calvin,  John;  Mblancbtbon, 
Phiupp;  HuauENOTs;  also  the  separate  artiolra  on  various 
Reformers,  the  different  lands,  and  the  several  Protestant  de- 
nominations. Ck>nsult  DOlunqer,  Die  Reformation,  thre  innere 
Enttrieklung  u.  ihre  Wirkungen  (3  vols.,  Ratisbon,  1S46-48); 
Qdiraud,  L*Eglie€  et  lee  orimnee  de  la  Renaieaance  (2nd  ea., 
Paris,  1902);  BxvDRtiAJiXT.L' Egliee  aUholique,  la  Renaieaance, 
le  Proteetantiame  (6th  ed.,  Paris,  1005);  Kurth,  L'Sgliae  aux 
toumoTUa  de  Vhiatoire  (Paris,  1905);  Imbart  db  la  Tour,  Lee 
originee  de  la  Reformation,  I-II  (Paris,  1905-09);  Paqtor, 
Oeaeh,  der  Pdpate,  especially  IV-V.  Cf.  also  the  bibliographiet 
to  the  articles  on  the  various  Reformers  and  European  lands. 

J.   P.   KiRSCH. 

Reformed  Churches,  the  name  given  to  Protes- 
tant bodies  which  adopted  the  tenets  of  Zwingli 
and^  later,  the  doctrinal  principles  of  Calvin.  This 
distmctive  title  originated  in  1561  at  the  colloquy 
of  Poissjr.  Initiated  in  Switzerland,  the  movement 
from  which  the  Churches  sprang  gained  ground  at  an 
earlv  date  in  France,  some  German  states,  the  Nether- 
lands, England,  Scotland,  Hun|;ary,  and  Poland. 
Later,  emigration  and  colonization  secured  a  still 
wider  diffusion  of  the  Calvinistic  system.  Some  of 
the  denominations  which  adopted  it  go  to-day  under 


a  special  name,  e.  ^.  Presb3rteriani8m:  they  receive 
separate  treatment  m  this  work.  Others  became  na- 
tional churches  and  are  mentioned  under  the  name  of 
the  country  in  which  they  exist.  (See  Zwinguanism; 
Calvinism;  Reformation;  Arminianism;  Holland; 
Netherlands;  Huguenots;  Scotland,  etc.).  The 
following  bodies  are  here  considered: 

I.  The  Reformed  (Dutch)  Church  in  America. 
— (1)  Name,  Doctrinal  Standards ,  and  Organization. 
— The  denomination  known  as  "The  Reformed 
Protestant  Dutch  Church  in  North  America"  until 
1867,  when  the  present  name  was  adopted,  asserts 
with  Protestants  generally  the  sole  sufficiency  of  the 
Scriptures  as  a  rule  of  faith.  Its  recognized  theolog- 
ical standards  are  the  Apostles',  Nicene,  and  Athana- 
sian  Creeds,  the  Belgic  Confession,  the  Heidelberg 
Catechism,  and  the  Canons  of  the  Sjmod  of  Dort. 
It  believes  in  the  spiritual  reception  of  Jesus  Christ 
by  the  believer  in  the  Lord's  Supper^  and  also  accepts 
the  distinctively  Calvinistic  doctnne  of  a  limited 
election  to  salvation.  The  Uturgy  is  characterized 
by  great  simplicity;  its  forms  are  optional,  except 
in  the  administration  of  the  sacraments.  In  polity, 
the  Church  is  Presb3rterian;  the  constitution  rec- 
ognizes four  kinds  of  officers:  ministers  of  the  word, 
professors  of  theology,  elders,  and  deacons.  The 
elders  exercise  spiritual  functions  and  the  deacons 
are  in  charge  of  temporal  interests.  At  the  hopd 
of  individual  congregations  is  the  Consistory,  which  is 
composed  of  minister,  elders,  and  deacons.  The 
authority  over  a  district  b  vested  in  the  Classis  which 
is  itself  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Particular  S3mod. 
The  General  Synod  exercises  supreme  control  in  the 
Church.  The  elders  and  deacons  are  elected  to 
office  for  two  years,  after  which  they  may  be  re- 
elected. Former  elders  and  deacons  may  be  caUed 
together  for  consultation  in  what  is  known  as  the 
"  Great  Consistory  " .  The  other  Reformed  Churches 
especially  treated  in  this  article  are  similarly  con- 
stituted and  organized. 

(2)  History.— The  Dutch  Reformed  Church  was 
organized  among  settlers  from  Holland  in  New  York 
City  in  16^  by  Rev.  Jonas  MichaeUus.  Fifty  com- 
municants were  present  at  th4  first  celebration  of  the 
Lord's  Supper.  When,  in  1664,  the  colony  passed  from 
Dutch  into  English  hands,  11  Reformed  churches,  with 
an  approximate  membership  of  10,000  souls,  existed  in 
the  country;  they  were  all  situated  in  New  York  and 
neighbouring  states.  By  the  terms  of  surrender  the 
Dutch  were  granted  "the  liberty  of  their  consciences 
in  divine  worship  and  in  church  disciplihe".  During 
the  first  decade  of  English  occupation  this  provision 
was  faithfully  observed.  Later,  however,  the  gover- 
nors sought  to  impose  English  ecclesiastical  customs 
upon  their  Dutch  subjects,  in  consequence  of  which 
much  bitterness  was  engendered,  and  a  prolonged  strug- 
gle ensued.  In  spite  of  this  unfavourable  circumstance 
and  the  cessation  of  Dutch  immigration,  the  number 
of  churches,  at  the  beginning  of  the  eif^teenth  cen- 
tury, had  increased  to  thirty-four.  They  were  under 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  Classis  of  Amsterdam.  In 
1738  a  petition  for  the  authorization  of  a  cce/tM,  or 
ecclesiasticid  assembly,  was  sent  to  that  body.  But 
it  was  only  after  nine  years  that  a  favourable  reply 
was  received.  This  was  the  first  step  towards  inde- 
pendence, which  was  completely  realized  in  1755  by 
the  authorized  formation  of  a  dassis.  This  action 
of  some  members  of  the  catus  led  to  protracted 
strife,  which  was  to  be  healed  by  the  plan  of 
union  submitted  by  the  Rev.  J.  H.  Livingston 
in  1771  and  accepted  by  the  American  Dutch 
churches  and  the  Classis  of  Amsterdam.  After 
the  troublous  times  of  the  Revolution,  the  in- 
ternal organization  was  further  perfected  in  1792  by 
the  adoption  of  a  constitution,  which  provided  for 
a  General  Sjmod.  In  1794,  this  synod  met  for  the 
first  time;  it  held  triennial  sessions  until  1812,  and 


BBTOBM  711  REFORM 

then  became  an  annual  and  representative  body.  A  grade.  Its  present  membershi|>  is  297,116  ooni> 
period  of  increased  prosperity  opened  for  the  denom-  municants  with  1226  ministers  and  1730  churches, 
ination  in  1846.  when  numerous  Hollanders  settled  The  Hungarian  Reformed  Church,  which  numbers 
in  the  Middle  West  and  connected  themselves  with  at  present  5253  communicants,  was  organized  in  1904 
the  church.  In  1910  the  Dutch  Reformed  Church  in  New  York  City  for  the  convenience  of  Hungarian- 
numbered  728  ministers,  684  churches,  and  116,815  speaking  immigrants. 

communicants  (statistics  of  Dr.  Carroll  in  the  III.  The  Reformed  Churches  in  the  Union 
''Christian  Advocate",  New  York,  26  Jan.,  1911;  of  South  Africa. — Dutch  settlers  tnuosplanted 
this  statistical  authority  is  cited  throughout  for  the  the  Reformed  faith  to  South  Africa  as  early  as  1652. 
United  States).  Through  the  emigration  just  re-  Churches  of  some  imp^ortance  at  present  exist  in  the 
ferred  to,  the  Christian  Reformed  Church  was  also  country  and  are  organized  as  the  Reformed  Churches 
transplanted  to  America.  This  denomination  was  of  Cape  Colony,  of  the  Orange  Free  State,  of  the 
organized  in  Holland  (1*835)  as  a  protest  against  the  Transvaal,  and  of  Natal.  The  progress  in  political 
rationalistic  tendencies  of  the  State  CSiurch.  To  it  union  favourably  influenced  church  affairs:  in  1906 
were  joined  in  the  United  States  in  1890  the  diminish-  these  separate  bodies  placed  themselves  under  a 
ing  members  of  the  True  Reformed  Church,  a  body  federal  council,  and  in  1909  under  a  general  synod, 
organized  in  1822  by  several  clergymen.  It  numbers  to-  Thdr  collective  membership  amounts  to  about 
day  138  ministers,  189  churches,  29,006  communicants.  220,000  communicants.  The  movement  towards 
(3)  Educational  InatituHana  and  Missionary  Ac-  union  had  been  preceded  by  secessions  caused  by 
tiiniy. — Some  of  the  educational  institutions  con-  liberal  and  conservative  theological  tendencies.  As 
trolled  by  t^e  Church  were  established  at  a  very  a  representative  of  conservatism  the  ''Reformed 
early  date.  Rutgers  College  was  founded  in  1770  Church  in  South  Africa"  was  organized  in  1859  by  the 
under  the  name  of  Queen's  College  at  New  Brunswick,  Rev.  D.  Postma.  It  has  to-day  an  aggregate  mem- 
New  Jersev,  where  a  theological  seminary  was  also  bership  of  about  16,000  communicants  distributed 
established  in  1784.  At  Holland,  Michigan,  Hope  throu^  Cape  Colony,  the  Oranee  Free  State^  and 
College  was  founded  in  1866.  and  the  Western  Theo-  Transvaal.  An  offshoot  of  the  Uberal  spirit  is  the 
logical  Seminiuy  in  1867.    A  board  of  education  or-  separatist  "Reformed  Church  of  the  Transvaid". 

ganized  by  private  persons  in  1828  was  taJcen  over  which  was  organized  by  the  Rev.  Van  der  Hoff  ana 

y  the  General  Sjmod  in  1831 ;  it  extends  financial^  has  at  present  about  10,000  communicants, 

assistance  to  needy  students  for  the  ministry.    A  ,,  Sctaff.  Crwd*  o/ CAmtenAmi.  I  (Ne^ 

"Disabled  m^^J^d''  ffi^nV,  AnA\^  aid  to  'ili^'!'^^'^^^^?^^,^^,^^:!^^'^^^'^^^ 

clergymen,  and  a  "Widows'  Fund"  to  theur  wives.  CKwck,  Qtrman,  ibid,  (both  studies  are  preceded  bv  eztenaive 

A  Board  of  Publication  has  been  in  operation  since  ti^^?«»P*"<«)5   Cobwin,  Afanuoi  of  ih§jMormfdPnUitafU 

1855.    The  proselytiting  activity  of  &  Church  >  gXf^"S2  ^^^iZ^H^  ,tifV^ s'^.lh^lb^^ 

not  confined  to  Amenca;  a  Board  of  Foreign  Mi&-  Pa..  1890);  ZwimtuBm,  Reiiffum  in  New  NttherUmd,  lets-ieH 

sions  established  in  1832  was  supplemented  m  1876  OUoheater.  1910).  xr    a    w 

by  a  Woman's  Auxiliary  Board.    The  Church  main-  N«  ^*  Wbbbr. 

teins  stations  at  Amoy,  China,  in  the  districts  of  Reform  of  a  Religious  Order,  in  the  true  sense 
Arcot  and  Madura.  India,  m  Japan,  and  Arabia.  #Ti:  .  •       *^**e*v*»«w* *»«*,***  uu^  » uo  dcuik? 

United  States.— This  church  was  founded  by  im-  ^^.?  *  nntigated  or  relaxed  obswvance  to  the  ngour 

migrants  from  the  PaUtinate  and  other  Geraan  tl^J^JT^l^^"'    ^*  ™"^  ^  P"*™*^  *"»**  '^*'- 

districts  of  the  Refonned  faith.    Its  hist 

with  the  German  immigration  of  the  last 

the  seventeenth  century.    Among  its  early "ministere  t"^"^ "'  i.uc Bupc™™ w  i,uc oiucr .i«:u, «, .i»ri«  vuey 

were  Philin  Boehm and  Geonre  M  Wei«i  whosefa^  •»*^«  P°^®'  *<>  modify  its  rule  and  observance;  (c)  by 

ta  wl3  ^w^w    W^t  of  ti^'^^r^-  prescription  or  custom  lawfully  established,  so  long 

ber  ofTe  ct^r^lM^ScUatS'.  'rhe^K  ^  «"*  ?^tf  ^±  ^If  Th*  *  obM^iol*^^Ji2'; 

visited  most  of  the  German  Reformed  settlements,  S?^;^^ J^^'li**^^.'^!  W  *^ W^T.  ^f^ 

instituted  pastors,  established  schools,  and,  in  1747  ?^^.i!S'?  *^*  X*""^  "^^  •'^  *^®  '**'^i*VS  'T'?* 

trlr^lA  ♦kl  a^t  L^...     {\T^  o  «.kZL»I^i  ^»JnJ^  bc  modified  by  custom  or  prescription,  and  the  aboli- 

formea  the  nrst  coetus.    On  a  subsequent  journey  ..  _  ..  „u„-__  :„  .„„i.  _-**-_ :_  „_*  (/-~r-— _»  s_  *k« 

through  Europe  he  obtained  finandJJ  aid  for  the  *'*"'  "^  *''"*«  V*  ?""''  matters  is  not    reform  '  m  the 

destitute  chur^es  by  pledging  the  submission  of  the  P~P^  ^r^nH  fio^fir^f  t^^^^^tj^Xl 

coetus  to  the  Claris  of  Amsterdam.    Six  young  g»tion  or  modification  of  the  rule  has  be^  brought 

ministers  accompanied  him  to  America  in  1762;  thf  J^l&^SS*tSf  H„'flJ*Sl"*^  Jl^'i^  ^^^  r***"" 

supply  of  clerg^en,  however,  was  insufficient  for  ^  ^J^^^  \^ ^Y*^^^i^>.°^ }'V}^ S"^  ?)^P^ 

miiy  years  Sid  refilled  in  some  defections.    In  ^^  ''^^  iMpdative  body)  of  the  order  itself.    AU 

1793  the  synod  rephiced  the  coetus  and  assumed  those  who  shaUmaketheu- profession  after  th^ 

supreme  authority  ii^the  church,  which  now  comprised  ^^  ^"  '^^''^iSf  **'S'i*°  T*^"^*  ^  ** ,,  PSf 

approximately  180  congregations  and  16,000  com-  P«vioudy  professed  are  held  not  to  be  bound  to  the 

municants.    The  procei  of  organisation  was  com-  fefomedobservance  if  the  previous  mitiMtionsvw^ 

pleted  in  1819  by  the  division  of  the  synod  into  J?ttoduoed  teptimately.    If,  however,  the  mitio*. 

districts  or  class^.    About  1836  the  "Mercersburg  *'°2»  reformed  have  been  caused  by  neglect  on  the 

controversy",  concerning  certain  theological  quei?  partof  the  wperiors  of  the  oider,  or  have  be^mtro- 

tions,  agititei  the  Church j  in  1883  the  t^tenary  ^"^^'"*'i  *^^  ^^^'^f'  ^l'^  ^^°!f  P«»f«««i  .»»«- 

of  theldoption  of  the  flfeidelberg  Cathechism  wm  ^^^%  ^^^.  »«  ^^^^  *°  ob*^*  »*•    ^  P'?«t'f?' 

celebrated.    From  this  time  dates  the  foundation  of  *^*  .H'^y  ^  "?  ^°?*  .*<>  ."^  »«**  discretion  m  this 


in  1871  to  Lancaster,  Pennsylvania.   The  Church  also    nguUrnvm  pnxU' rnohuoria  (Cologne,  is75):  Pcluuauo, 
controls  Hddelberg  University  and  Western  Theolog^-    ManvaU  lUpd.  (Venim,  1048);  ScHHAuaBOaBB,  Jy  eeeU$, 


cal  Seminary  (both  at  Tiffin,  Ohio),  Ursinus  CoUege  XS^^JSi^^'  l?S^'  ^''"•-  '^i  ''*frt 
(CoU^SevilIe,  Pa.),  Catawba  Coll^  (North  Carolina),  Aichwbb,  Compmd.  jmu  tedn.  (Brixen,  1900). 
and  several  other  educational  institutions  of  advanced  G.  Rooer  B 


wt  TteuL  (Paru, 
ew  York,   1903); 


G.  RoOER  HUDLESTON. 


RBTUOX  712  BXOAU 

BaCoffe,  Crms  op,  towns  which  acoording  to  the  and  the  institute  began  to  q>read.   When  the  Frendi 

Jewish  law  enjoved  the  ri^t  of  asvlum  and  to  which  Revolution  broke  out  there  were  seven  communities 

anyone  who  had  unintentionally  slain  another  might  of  the  order  in  France.   From  this  parent-tree  of  Our 

flee  and  be  protected  from  the  ''avenger  of  blood''.  Ladv  of  Chanty  sprang  the  Order  of  the  Good  Sbep- 

The  barbarous  custom  of  blood-revenge  still  exists  herd  (q.  v.). 

among  the  Arab  tribes.    In  virtue  of  it  the  kinsman        The  Sisters  of  Our  Lady  of  Charity  do  not  limit 

of  anvone  put  to  death  considers  it  a  duty  to  avenge  their  work  to  reclaiming  the  fallen;  they  also  receive 

him  Dy  killing  the  intentional  or  even  unintentioiud  girls  who  are  in  danger  of  beins  lort  or  who  are  being 

sbiyer.    The  Biblical  cities  of  refuge  were  six  in  num-  brought  up  inunorally.   These  form  what  is  called  the 

ber,  viz^  to  the  west,  Cedes  in  Galilee,  Sichem  in  class  of  preservation.    Govenunent  reformatoricB  are 

Mount  Ephraim,  and  Hebron  in  the  south;   to  the  attached  to  some  of  the  monasteries.    All  the  houses 

east,  beyond  the  Jordan,  Bosor,  which  is  in  the  plain  of  this  order  are  independent  of  each  other,  and  each 

of  tne  tribe  of  Ruben,  RjEunoth  in  Galaad  of  the  tribe  has  its  own  novitiate,  but  the  mother^ouae  is  still  at 

of  Gad,  and  Gaulon  in  Basan  of  the  tribe  of  Manasses  Caen.   The  nuns  wear  a  white  habit  and  a  large  silver 

(Josue  XX,  7-8).    It  appears  from  Deut.,  xix,  2,  7,  and  cross  on  the  bVeast.    To  the  three  ordinary  religious 

from   other    considerations  that    three  cities  were  vows  they  add  a  fourth^  vis.,  to  devote  themselves  to 

originally  intended — those  to  the  west — which  were  the  reformation  of  the  fallen.   The  novitiate  lasts  two 

probabl3r  establi^ed  in  the  time  of  Josias,  when  the  yeare.    These  sisters  came  to  England  in  1863  and 

boundaries  and  population  of  the  Jewish  state  were  now  have  houses  at  Bartestree,  Waterlooville,  Mon- 

comparatively  small.    When  in  post-Exilic  times  the  mouth,  Southampton,  Northfield  (near  BirmJMham), 

Jews  covered  a  wider  area,  the  other  three  were  doubt-  and  Mold ;  in  Ireland  they  have  two  houses  at  Dublin ; 

less  added,  as  we  find  the  number  stated  as  six  in  in  France  they  have  seventeen:    one  at  Caen,  St- 

Numbers  (xxxv,  6)  and  Josue  (xx,  7-8).  Brieux,  Rennes,  La  Rochelle,  Paris,  Versailles,  Nantes, 

The  right  of  asylum  was  recognized  in  the  Old  Lyons,  Valence,  Toulouse,  Le  Mans,  Blois,  Mon- 

Testament,  but  under  conditions  that  are  carefully  tauban,  Besancon,  Valognes,  and  two  at  Marseilles; 

laid  down  m  the  Jewish  law.    One  who  had  treacher-  in  the  United  States  they  have  two  houses  at  both 

ously  and  intentionally  sullied  his  hands  with  blood  Buffalo  and  Pittsbur|(,  and  one  at  Green  Bay  (Wiscon- 

was  allowed  to  find  no  refuge  at  the  altar  of  God.  sin).  Wheeling  (W.  Vindnia),  Hot  Springs  (Arkansas), 

Indeed  he  nught  be  taken  away  from  it  to  death  (Ex.,  San  Antonio  and  Dallas  (Texas);   in  Canada  they 

xxi.  14).    He  mic^t  even  be  struck  down  at  the  altar,  bave  houses  at  Ottawa,  Toronto,  and  Vancouver;  in 

as  m  the  case  of  Joab  (III  Kings,  ii,  30,  31,  34).    Pro-  Mexico,  two;  in  Italy,  one  at  Loretto:  in  Spain,  one 

tection  was  granted  to  those  who  had  unintentionally  &t  Bilboa,  and  in  Austria,  one  at  SalzDurg. 

taken  the  liS  of  another  (Deut.,  xix,  2-7).    In  order  ft^^lV^*'!!^"'/*;^'!^,  "•'^  *i?  ^*^*'  ^^^**%^  **"^j 

to  justify  his  claim  to  unmumty  the  fugitive  had  to  KongreffatUmen  (Paderborn.  1907). 

prove  to  the  authorities  of  the  sanctuary  or  town  that  Francbbca  M.  Stbklb. 

his  deed  was  unpremeditated.    After  submitting  his 

evidence  he  was  allowed  to  remain  within  the  pre-  Bagale,  Dboit  de  (jw  regalia,  jus  regale,  itu  de- 
scribed precincts.  He  could  not  return  to  his  old  portus;  Germ.  Ae^ienrec^),  originally  denoted  those 
home,  nor  could  he  appease  the  avenger  by  money,  rights  that  belonged  exclusively  to  the  king,  either  as 
Thus  some  expiation  for  his  imprudence  was  exacted,  essential  to  his  sovereignty  (Jura  majora.  jura  essen- 
and  he  became  virtually  a  prisoner  within  the  bound-  tiolia),  such  as  royal  authority;  or  accidental  (jura 
aries  of  the  city  to  which  he  had  fled.  He  could  leave  winora.yuraaccidentoZio),  such  as  the  right  of  the  chase, 
it  only  at  the  nsk  of  his  life  at  the  hands  of  the  avenger  ^^  fishing,  mining,  etc.  By  abuse,  many  sovereigns  in 
of  blood.  We  are  not  informed  by  what  means  he  was  ^^^  Middle  Ages  and  in  later  times  claimed  the  right 
supported  in  the  city  of  refuge,  but  probably  he  was  to  seize  the  revenues  of  vacant  sees  or  imperial  abb^, 
obliged  to  work  for  his  subsistence.  Whether  his  *^d  gradually  jus  regaluB  came  to  be  applied  almost 
family  could  join  him  in  his  exile  is  also  a  matter  of  mere  exclusively  to  this  assumed  right.  It  is  a  matter  of 
conjecture.  It  is  generally  maintained  that  originally  dispute  on  what  ground  the  temporal  rulera  claimed 
every  altar  or  sanctuary  in  the  land  could  extend  these  revenues.  Some  hold  that  it  is  an  inherent  right 
its  protection  to  anyone  who  had  unintentionally  ^^  sovereignty;  others,  that  it  is  a  necessary  oonse- 
taken  the  life  of  another.    But  with  the  suppression  Quence  of  the  right  of  investiture;  bthere  make  it  part 


of  the  provincial  high  places  and  altars  by  Joeiah  °^  ^^^  feudal  system;  still  others  derive  it  from  the 
(b.  c.  621)  the  rig^t  of  asylum  naturally  fell  with  advowson,  or  right  which  patrons  or  protectors  had 
them,  and  provision  was  made  for  a  continuance  of    °^®^  their  benefices.    Ultimately,  it  had  its  origin  in 


the  ancient  usage  on  a  modified  basis  by  the  selection  the  assumption  that  bishoprics  and  imperial  abbeys. 

of  certain  cities  of  refuge.  with  all  their  temporalities  and  privile^,  were  royal 

GiaoT.  Outlines  of  Jewiah  HiHory  (New  York,  1903),  143.  estates  given  as  fiefs  to  the  bishops  or  abbots,  and  sub- 

Jameb  F.  Driscoll.  ject  to  the  feudal  laws  of  the  times.    At  first  the  right 

^                             /-.       T               ^  was  exercised  only  during  the  actual  vacancy  of  a  see 

*•  Hi!?'  Sisters  of  Our  Lady  of  Charitt  of  or  abbey,  but  later  it  was  extended  over  the  whole 

THE.---The  Institute  of  Our  Lady  of  Charity  was  year  following  the  death  of  the  bishop  or  abbot. 

founded  (1641)  by  the  Venerable  PdreEudes,  at  Caen,  Often  the  temporal  rulers  also  claimed  the  right  to 

Normandy,  under  the  title  of  Our  Lady  of  Refuse,  collate  all  the  benefices  that  became  vacant  during 

Moved  by  pity  for  abandoned  women  living  a  life  the  vacancy  of  a  diocese,  with  the  exception  of  those 

of  sin,  Pere  Eudes  at  first  attempted  to  unite  the  peni-  to  which  the  care  of  souls  was  attachea. 

tent  among  them  and  place  them  under  the  care  of  It  is  difficult  to  determine  when  and  where  the 

good  and  zealous  women,  but  he  soon  became  con-  jus  regale  was  &st  exercised.    In  the  Western  Frank- 

vinced  that  the  only  way  of  dealing  with  them  was  to  ish  Empire  it  made  its  first  appearance' probably 

foimd  a  congregation  of  holy  women,  who  would  bind  towards  the  end  of  the  Carlovingian  dynasty,  that 

themselves  by  vow  to  work  for  the  reformation  of  is,  in  the  course  of  the  tenth  century.    Ilie  first 

these  unfortunate  ones.    Three  Visitation  nuns  came  historical  mention  we  find  of  it  is  in  connexion  with 

to  his  aid  temporarily,  and,  in  1644,  a  house  was  King  William  II  (Rufus)  of  England,  who,  after  the 

opened  at  Caen  under  the  title  of  Our  Lady  of  Charity,  death  of  Lanfranc  in  1089,  kept  the  arehiepiscopal 

Other  ladies  joined  them,  and,  in  1661,  the  Bishop  See  of  Canterbury  vacant  for  more  than  three  years, 

of  Baveux  gave  the  institute  his  approbation.   In  1664  during  which  period  the  king  seised  all  the  archi- 

a  Bull  of  approbation  was  obtained  from  Alexander  episcopal  revenues.    During  the  reign  of  Henry  II 

VII.    That  same  year  a  house  was  opened  at  Rennes,  (1154-89)  it  had  become  an  established  practice  for 


^ 


BEQALIA 


713 


REGALIA 


the  King  of  En^^land  to  take  possession  of  the  revenues 
of  all  vai^ant  dioceses.  That  the  pope  did  not  recog- 
nize the  right  is  manifest  from  the  fact  that  Alexander 
III  condemned  article  12  of  the  Council  of  Clarendon 
(1164),  which  provided  that  the  king  was  to  receive, 
as  of  seigniorial  right  (sicut  dominicos),  ail  the  income 
(omnes  reditua  et  exUtu)  of  a  vacant  archbishopric, 
bishopric,  abbacy,  or  priory  in  his  dominion  (Mansi. 
XXI,  1195).  In  1176  Henry  II  promised  the  papal 
legate  never  to  exercise  the  right  of  reealia  beyond 
one  year.  With  the  exception  of  a  few  snort  periods, 
the  right  continued  to  be  exercised  by  the  English 
kings  until  the  Reformation.  Even  at  present  the 
English  Grown  exercises  it  over  the  temporalities  of 
vacant  (Anglican)  dioceses. 

In  Germany  Henry  V  (1106-25),  Conrad  III  (113*- 
52),  and  Frederic  I  (1155-89)  are  known  as  the  first 
to  have  claimed  it.  Frederic  I  exercised  it  in  its  ut- 
most rigour  and  styles  it  "an  ancient  right  of  kines 
and  emperors"  (Lacomblet,  "Urkundenbuch  f(ir  die 
Oschicnte  des  Niederrheins",  I,  288).  King  Philip 
of  Suabia  reluctantly  renounced  it,  together  with  the 
juB  apoliij  to  Innocent  III  in  1203  (Mon.  Germ.: 
Const.,  II,  9).  Gtho  IV  did  the  same  in  1209  (ibid., 
37).  King  Frederic  II  renounced  it  to  Innocent  III, 
arst  at  Eger,  on  12  July,  1213  (ibid.,  58,  60),  then  in 
the  Privilege  of  WUrzburg,  in  May,  1216  (ibid.,  68), 
and  attain  to  Honorius  III,  at  Hagenau,  in  September, 
1219  (ibid.,  78).  In  1238  he  began  to  exercise  it  anew 
(ibid.,  285),  but  only  during  the  actual  vacancy  of 
dioceses,  not  for  a  whole  year,  as  he  had  done  pre- 
viously. After  the  death  of  Frederic  II  the  claims  of 
the  German  Emperors  to  this  right  gradually  ceased. 
At  present  the  revenues  of  vacant  dioceses  in 
Prussia  go  to  the  succeeding' bishop;  in  Bavaria,  to 
the  cathedral  church:  in  Austria,  to  the  "Religions- 
fond". 

In  France  we  find  the  first  mention  of  it  during  the 
rei^  of  Louis  VII,  when,  in  1143,  St.  Bemani  of 
Clairvaux  complains,  in  a  letter  to  the  Bishop  of 
Palestrina,  that  in  the  Church  of  Paris  the  king  had 
extended  the  droit  de  regale  over  a  whole  year  (ep. 
224,  P.  L.,  CLXXXII,  392).  Pope  Boniface  VIII, 
*in  his  famous  Bull,  "Ausculta  fili  ,  of  5  Dc^^mber, 
1301,  urged  Philip  the  Fair  to  renounce  it,  but  with- 
out avail.  In  France  the  right  did  not  belong  ex- 
clusively to  the  king:  it  was  also  exercised  by  the 
Dukes  of  Normandv,  Bretagne,  and  Burgundy,  and 
by  the  Counts  of  Champagne  and  Anion.  Entirely 
exempt  from  it  were  the  ecclesiastical  provinces  of 
Bordeaux,  Auch,  Narbonne,  Aries,  Aix,  Embrun,  and 
Vienne.  The  Second  Council  of  Lyons  (1274)  for- 
bade anvone,  under  pain  of  excommunication,  to 
extend  the  ju8  regaluB  over  any  diocese  which  was 
at  that  time  exempt  from  it  (Mansi,  XXIV,  90),  and 
in  1499  Louis  XII  gave  strict  orders  to  his  officials  not 
to  exercise  it  over  exempt  dioceses.  Towuxls  the  end 
of  the  sixteenth  century  the  restriction  of  the  Council 
of  Lyons  began  to  be  disregarded,  and  on  24  April, 
1608,  the  Parliament  decided  that  the  king  had  the 
droit  de  r4gale  over  all  the  dioceses  of  France;  but 
Henry  IV  did  not  carry  this  parliamentary  decision 
into  effect.  On  10  February,  1673,  Louis  XIV  issued 
a  declaration,  extending  the  droit  de  rSgcUe  over  all 
France.  The  Parliament  was  pleased,  •  and  most 
bishops  yielded  without  serious  protest,  only  Pavilion, 
of  Alet,  and  Caulet^  of  Panuers,  both  Jansenists, 
resisting.  These  at  nrst  sought  redress  through  their 
metropolitans,  but  when  the  latter  took  the  king's 
side  tney  appealed,  in  1677,  to  Innocent  XL  In 
three  successive  Briefs  the  pope  urged  the  king  not  to 
extend  the  right  to  dioceses  that  had  previouuy  been 
exempt.  The  General  Assembly  of  the  French  clergy 
held  at  Paris  in  1681-2  sided  with  the  king,  and,  de- 
spite the  protests  of  Innocent  XI,  Alexander  VHI.  and 
Innocent  XIL  the  right  was  maintained  until  the 
Revolution.    Napoleon  I  attempted  to  restore  it  in 


a  decree  dated  6  November,  1813,  but  his  downfall  in 
the  following  year  frustrated  his  plan.  In  1880  the 
Third  Republic  again  asserted  the  right,  overstepping 
even  the  hmits  of  its  former  apphcation. 

Du  Canob,  Olosaarium,  b.  v.  Regaha;  Thomjumunus,  Vetua  ac 
nova  ecdeaia  dueijdina  eirea  ben^fieia,  HI,  lib.  II,  liv;  Db  Mabca, 
De  Concordia  aacerdotii  et  imperii,  lib.  VIII  (1704);  Makowbr, 
Die  Verfaaeung  der  Kirche  von  England  CBerlin,  1894),  326  aq.; 
Philupb,  Das  RegalienreefU  in  Ftankreick  (Halle,  1873):  Mich- 
BLBT,  Du  droit  de  rigaU  (ligug^,  1900);  Stutz,  in  Retdeneyclo^ 
nddie/Hr  prot.  Theologie  und  Kirche,  XVI  (Leipsig,  1905).  536-44; 
Mbntion,  Documents  rdati/s  aux  rapports  du  dergi  atee  la 
rouautS  de  1689  d  1709,  I  (Paris,  1893),  18  sq.  (See  also  bibli- 
ographieB  to  Iknoobnt  XI  and  Louis  XlV.) 

Michael  Ott. 

Regalia. — ^Apcording  to  the  usaffe  current  in  the 
British  Isles  the  term  regalia  is  almost  always  em- 
ployed to  denote  the  insignia  of  royalty  or  "crown 
jewels".  The  objects  more  immediately  included 
under  the  collective  term  as  conmionly  used  are  the  fol- 
lowing: the  crown,  the  sceptre  with  the  cross,  the  scep- 
tre with  the  dove,  the  orb,  the  swords,  the  rin^,  the 
spurs,  also  the  vestments  in  which  the  sovereign  is 
arrayed  after  the  unction,  to  wit  the  ccldbium  sirMonis, 
the  dalmatic,  the  armill,  and  the  royal  robe,  or  pall,  as 
well  as  a  few  other  miscellaneous  objects  connected 
with  the  coronation  ceremony,  such  as  the  ampidla 
for  the  oil,  with  the  spoon,  "St.  Edward's  staff", 
etc.  All  of  these  descend  from  pre-Reformation  days, 
and  many  of  them  are  directly  religious  in  origin. 
Indeed  there  was  a  tendency  not  only  in  England, 
but  also  in  Germany,  France,  and  elsewhere,  to  con- 
nect these  insignia  with  some  saintly  and  some- 
times legendary  possessor  of  a  former  age,  and  to 
regard  them  strictly  as  relics.  In  point  of  fact  all  the 
Englifih  regaUa  were  broken  up  and  sold  after  the 
execution  of  Charles  I,  and  the  oldest  of  those  now 
in  existence  had  to  be  constructed  anew  at  the  Res- 
toration in  1661;  but  it  had  always  been  the  custom 
of  old  to  regard -them  or  most  of  them  as  connected 
with  St.  Edward  the  Confessor,  to  whose  shrine  in 
Westminster  Abbey,  where  the  coronation  takes  place, 
they  were  regarded  as  belonging.  Even  now  the 
royal  crown  which  the  archbishop  places  on  the  king's 
head  is  still  spoken  of  in  a  marginal  note  to  the 
coronation  service  as  "St.  Edward's  Crown",  while 
we  find  in  a  chronicle  of  the  fourteenth  century,  the 
"Annales  Paulini",  a  vehement  protest  made  in 
connexion  with  the  coronation  of  King  Edws^  II 
that  the  unworthy  favourite  Piers  Gaveston  should 
have  been  suffered  to  carry  the  "Crown  of  St. 
Edward"  with  his  "polluted  hands"  {inguinatie 
manibue). 

Most  of  the  regalia  enumerated  above  call  for 
no  special  comment,  but  with  regard  to  some  few, 
the  significance  of  which  has  been  misrepresented  by 
Anglican  writers  with  a  more  or  less  controversial 
purpose,  a  few  words  are  necessary.  To  begin  with, 
it  has  been  pretended  that  the  vestures  in  which  the 
king  is  arrayed  are  the  vestments  of  a  bishop,  and 
indicate  an  mtention  to  endow  the  monarch  with  an 
ecclesiastical  character.  This  contention  forms  part 
of  a  theory  propounded  by  a  prominent  Anglican 
liturgist.  Dr.  Wickham  Legg,  that  the  king  according 
to  the  medieval  view  was  mixta  persona  (i.  e.,  both 
layman  and  ecclesiastic)  and  therefore  epiritualis 
jurisdictionis  capax  (a  fit  subject  for  spiritual  juris- 
diction). The  imderlying  and  indeed  the  avowed 
purpose  was  to  show  tliat  although  it  cannot  be  denied 
that  the  king  is  the  official  h^ad  of  the  Church  of 
England,  still  there  is  nothing  unbecoming  in  such  a 
relation  because  the  king  is  a  minister  of  the  Church 
and  consecrated  to  this  special  office  by  the  Church 
herself.  But  the  various  arguments  by  which  this 
contention  is  supported,  and  notably  that  based  upon 
the  supposed  ecclesiastical  character  of  the  corona- 
tion v^ments,  are  wholly  fallacious.  The  colobium 
sindonia  (alleged  to  be  the  equivalent  of  the  alb) 
and  the  dalmatic,  or  supertunicaf  are  simply  the  or- 


BEOENXRATION 


714 


BEGENE&ATION 


dinary  dress  of  the  later  Roman  Empire,  and  they  did 
not  acquire  their  liturgical  character  until  after  they 
had  b^me  the  customary  apparel  of  emperors  on 
state  occasions.  This  form  of  underclothing  can  be 
plainly  traced  in  the  consular  diptychs  upon  which 
the  consuls  are  represented  as  presiding  at  the  games. 
In  these  same  (Uptychs  the  most  prominent  feature 
in  tibe  official  vesture  is  an  elaborately  embroidered 
scarf  which  hangs  down  perpendicularly  in  front, 
paases  round  the  body,  and  falls  over  the  left  arm. 
Tliis  scarf  is  called  the  lorum.  It  is  almost  certainly 
the  ancestor  of  the  archiepiscopal  pallium,  but  it  re- 
mained for  long  centuries,  as  numberless  Byzantine 
paintings  and  sculptures  show,  the  most  conspicuous 
element  in  the  imperial  state  costume.  There  is  serious 
reason  to  believe,  though  the  details  cannot  be  gone 
into  here,  that  the  lorum  is  represented  by  the 
"armill'',  though  this  is  now  a  sort  of  stole  which 
two  or  three  centuries  back  was  tied  at  the  elbows. 
The  address  originally  made  at  the  delivery  of  the 
armill  declared  it  to  be  a  symbol  of  the  '^Divine  en- 
folding" {divincB  circumdatum%8)t  which  agrees  much 
better  with  a  wrap  like  the  lorum  than  with  a  stole 
or  bracelet.  Agam  ''the  Robe  Royal  or  Pall  of 
cloth  of  gold'',  which  is  embroidered  with  eagles, 
cannot  with  any  reason  be  described  as  an  ecclesias- 
tical cope.  It  cert^ly  represents  the  royal  mantle 
which  was  originallv  a  fournsquare  garment  fastened 
with  a  clasp  over  the  right  shoulder,  such  aa  is  seen 
to  recur  several  times  in  the  carvings  of  the  ivory 
book- cover  of  Queen  Melisende  now  in  the  Brit- 
ish Museum;  such  also  as  was  found  vesting  the 
body  of  Edward  I  when  his  tomb  was  opened  in 
1774. 

Not  less  misleading  is  the  interpretation  recently 
attached  to  one  of  we  three  swords  carried  before 
Hie  king  and  known  as  the  ''sword  of  the  spirituality." 
or  "the  sword  of  the  Church".  This  does  not  in 
any  way  represent,  as  contended,  a  claim  to  exercise 
junsdiction  over  the  Church,  but  it  only  symbolizes 
the  solemn  promise  of  the  kin^  to  protect  the  Church. 
There  were  three  such  promises  originally  made  by 
ike  king:  the  first  to  defend  and  secure  peace  for  the 
Church;  the  second  to  punish  wrong-doers;  and  the 
third  to  show  justice  and  mercy  in  all  his  judgments. 
Now  file  three  swords,  now  and  anciently  borne 
before  the  king  at  his  coronation,  were  known  as  the 
sword  of  the  clergy,  the  sword  of  the  laity,  and  the 
third  {curtana)f  which  has  no  point,  the  sword  of 
mercy.  There  is  every  reason  to  beUeve  that  these 
three  swords  typify  the  matter  of  the.  king's  three 
ancient  promises.  As  for  the  sword  with  which  the 
king  himself  is  girded  in  the  coronation  ceremony, 
this  was  originaUv  in  imperial  coronations  at  Rome 
laid  upon  the  tomb  of  Blessed  Peter  and,  like  the  arch- 
bishop's pallium,  presented  as  de  corpore  heati  Petri 
sumplum  and  consequently  as  a  kind  of  relic  of  the 
Prince  of  the  Apostles,  in  whose  name  and  to  defend 
whose  authority  the  power  of  the  sword  is  nven  to 
rulers  by  the  Church.  A  theory  that  the  orb  is  only 
a  variant  of  the  sceptre  with  a  cross  is  now  generally 
rejected,  and  with  reason. 

The  questiona  here  diwnmed  are  mialeadingly  treated  in  most 
manuale  dealinc  with  the  coronation,  e.  g.,  Lboo,  The  Coronation 
Reeordt  (London,  1902);  Davbkport.  The  Bngliah  Regedia 
(London.  1807);  Joxsa,  Crown  and  Caronationa  (London,  1902). 
The  reader  may  be  referred  for  a  fuller  dieoiuaion  to  THiTBaroN, 
TKe  Coronation  Ceremonial  (London,  1911);  or  Idbii,  /«  the 
Crowned  King  an  Bcdeeia^ieal  Pereont  in  ffineleenth  Century 
and  After  (March,  1902).  For  the  arch»ological  data  regarding 
the  regalia,  the  i^ve  works  of  Davbnport  and  Lioo  are  of 
Talue.  For  the  German  regalia  see  especially  Bock,  Die  Kleins 
odien  dee  heiL  B5m.  Reichee  (Vienna,  1864);  and  iSiENSDORrr, 
Zur  Oeeehiehte  der  deuteehen  Reicheineignien  in  the  Naehriehten 
of  the  Gdttingen  Academy  (1897). 

Herbert  Thitrston. 

RegenAration  (Lat.  repeneratio,  Gr.  dpayiwmiint 
and  raXi77ere0'ki)  is  a  Biblico-dogmatic  term  closely 
connected  with  the  ideas  of  justincation,  Divine  son- 


ship,  and  the  deification  of  the  soul  through  grace. 
Confining  ourselves  first  to  the  Biblical  use  of  the 
term,  we  find  regeneration  from  God  used  in  indissol- 
uble connexion  with  baptism,  which  St.  Paul  exprosdy 
'  calls  ''the  laver  of  regeneration''  (Titus,  iii,  5).  In 
His  discourse  with  Nicodemus  (Johii,  iii,  5),  the 
Saviour  declares:  ''Unless  a  man  be  bom  again  of 
water  and  the  Holy  Ghost,  he  cannot  enter  into  the 
kingdom  of  God. "  In  this  passage  Christianity  from 
its  earliest  days  has  found  the  proof  Uiat  baptism  may 
not  be  repeated,  since  a  repeated  regeneration  from 
God  is  no  less  a  contradiction  than  repeated  physical 
birth  from  a  mother.  The  idea  of  "birth  from  God" 
enjoys  a  special  favour  in  the  Joannine  theology. 
Outfflde  the  Fourth  Gospel  (i,  12  sq. ;  iii,  5),  the  Aporae 
uses  the  term  in  a  variety  of  wavs,  treating  "birUi  of 
God"  as  synonymous  now  with  the  "doing  of  jus- 
tice" (I  John,  ii,  29),  now  with  "faith  in  Jesus  Chnst" 
(I  John,  v^  1,  4  sq.),  and  elsewhere  deducing  from  it  a 
certain  "sinlessness"  of  the  just  (I  John,  iii,  9;  v,  18), 
which,  however,  does  not  necessarily  exclude  from  the 
state  of  justification  the  possibility  of  sinning  (cf. 
Bellarmine,  "De  justificatione".  III,  xv).  It  is  true 
that  in  all  these  passages  there  is  no  reference  to 
baptism  nor  is  there  anv  reference  to  a  real  "regenera- 
tion"; nevertheless,  "generation  from  God",  like 
baptismal  "regeneration",  must  be  referred  to  justi- 
fication as  its  cause.  Both  terms  effectually  refute 
the  Protestant  notion  that  there  is  in  justification 
not  a  true  annihilation,  but  merely  a  covering  up  of 
the  sins  which  still  continue  (covering<-up  theory),  or 
that  the  holiness  won  is  simply  the  imputation  of  the 
external  holiness  of  God  or  Christ  (imputatbn 
theory). 

The  very  idea  of  spiritual  palingenesis  reciuires  that 
the  justified  man  receive  through  the  Divine  genera- 
tion a  quasi-Divine  nature  as  his  "second  nature", 
which  cannot  be  conceived  as  a  state  of  sin,  but  only 
as  a  state  of  interior  holiness  and  justice.  Thus  alone 
can  we  explain  the  statements  that  the  just  man  is 
assured  "participation  in  the  divine  nature"  (cf. 
II  Peter,  i,  4:  dwiruB  consorUs  naiurce),  becomes  "a 
new  creature"  (Gal.,  v.  6;  vi,  15),  effects  which  de- 
pend on  justifying  faitn  working  by  charity,  not  on 
"faith  alone"  {8(£i  fides).  When  the  Bible  elsewhere 
refers  regeneration  to  the  Resurrection  of  Jesus  Christ 
(I  Peter,  i,  3)  or  to  "the  word  of  God  who  liveth  and 
remaineth  for  ever"  (I  Peter,  i,  23),  it  indicates  two 
important  external  factors  of  justification,  which  have 
nothing  to  do  with  its  formal  cause.  The  latter  text 
shows  that  the  preaching  of  the  Word  of  Crod  is  for 
the  sinner  the  introductory  step  towards  justification, 
which  is  impossible  without  faith,  whereas  the  former 
text  mentions  the  meritorious  cause  of  justification, 
inasmuch  as,  from  the  Biblical  standpoint,  the  Resur- 
rection was  the  final  act  in  the  work  of  redemption 
(cf.  Luke,  xxiv,  46  sq.|  Rom.,  iv,  25;  yi,  4;  II  Cor., 
V,  16) .  To  the  above-mentioned  ideas  of  regeneration, 
generation  out  of  God,  participation  in  Uie  Divine 
nature,  and  re-creation,  a  fifth,  that  of  Divine  son- 
ship,  must  be  added;  this  represents  the  formal  effect 
of  justification  and  is  crowned  by  the  personal  in- 
dwelling of  the  Holy  Ghost  in  the  justined  soul  (cf. 
Rom.,  V,  5;  viii,  11;  I  Cor.,  iii,  16  sq.;  vi,  19,  etc.). 
Since,  however,  this  Divine  sonship  is  expreBsly  de- 
scribed as  a  mere  adoptive  sonship  CfiliaHo  adoptiva, 
vloBwla;  cf.  Rom.,  viii,  15  Bqq.;  Gal.,  iv,  5),  it  is 
evident  that  "regeneration  from  God"  implies  no  sub- 
stantiid  emerging  of  the  soul  from  the  nature  of  God 
as  in  the  case  of  the  eternal  generation  of  the  Son  of 
God  (Christ),  but  must  be  regarded  as  an  analogical 
and  accidental  generation  from  God. 

As  regards  the  use  of  the  term  in  Catholic  theology, 
no  connected  history  of  regeneration  can  be  written, 
as  neither  Christian  antiquity  nor  medieval  Scholaa- 
ticism  worked  consistently  and  regulariy  to  develop 
this  pregnant  and  fruitful  idea.  At  every  period,  how- 


BEGENSBUBQ                           715  BEGESTA 

ever^  the  Sacrament  of  Baptism  was  regarded  as  the  theory  of  Albert  Ritschl,  according  to  which  the  two 

specific  sacrament  of  regeneration,  a  concept  that  was  distinct  moments  of  justification  and  reconciliation 

not  extended  to  the  Sacrament  of  Penance.    Irensus  hold  the  same  relation  to  each  other  as  forgiveness  and 

repeatedly  interprets  the  Pauline  term  "re-creation''  regeneration.    As  soon  as  resistance  to  God  is  done 

as  the  universal  regeneration  of  mankind  through  the  away  with  in  justification,  and  lack  of  trust  in  God — 

incarnation  of  the  Son  of  God  in  the  womb  of  the  or,  in  other  words,  sin — is  overcome  in  the  forgiveness 

Blessed  Virgin.    The  idea  of  regeneration  in  the  sense  of  sin,  reconciliation  with  God  and  regeneration  enter 

of  individuS  justification  is  most  conspicuous  in  the  into  their  rights,  thus  inaugurating  a  new  life  of 

writings  of  St.  Augustine.    With  an  unrivalled  keen-  Christian  activity  which  reveals  itself  in  the  fulfilment 

ness,  he  evolved  the  essential  distinction  between  the  of  all  the  obligations  of  one's  station, 

birth  of  the  Son  of  God  from  the  substance  of  the  Turning  finally  to  the  non-Christian  use  of  the  term, 

Father  and  the  generation  of  the  soul  from  God  we  find  "regeneration"  in  common  use  in  man v  pagan 

through  grace,  and  brought  together  into  an  organic  religions.    In  Persian  Mithraism,  which  spreaa  widely 

association  regeneration,  with  its  kindred  ideas,  and  in  tne  West  as  a  religion  of  the  soldiers  and  officials 

justification  (cf.  e.  g.  "Enarr.  in  Ps.  xlix",  n.  2  in  imder  the  Roman  Empire,  persons  initiated  into  the 

P.  L.",  XXXVI,  565).    Like  the  Church,  St.  Augus-  mysteries  were  designated  "regenerated"  {renattis). 

tine  associates  justification  with  faith  working  through  While  here  the  word  retains  its  ethico-reli^ous  sense, 

charity,  and  refers  its  essence  to  the  interior  renewal  there  was  a  complete  change  of  meaning  m  religions 

and  sanctification  of  the  soul.    Thus,  St.  Augustine  which  taught  metempsychosis  or  the  transmigration 

is  not  only  the  precursor,  but  also  the  model  of  the  of  souls  (pythacoreans,  Druids,  Indians),  in  these  the 

Scholastics,  who  worked  mainly  on  the  ideas  inherited  reincarnation  ofdeparted  souls  was  termed  "regenera- 

from  the  great  doctor,  and  contributed  essentially  to  tion".    This  usage  has  not  yet  entirely  disappeared, 

the  speculative  understanding  of  the  mysterious  pro-  as  it  is  current  among  the  Theosophists  (cf.  E.  R. 

cess  of  justification.    Adhering  strictly  to  the  Bible  Hull,  "Theosophy  and  Christianity",  Bombay,  1909; 

and  tradition,  the  Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  VI,  capp.  and  in  connexion  therewith  "Stimmen  aus  Maria- 

iii-iv,  in  Densinger-Bannwart,  "Enchiridion  ",  10th  Laach",  1910,  387  sqq.,  479  sqq.).    This  view  should 

ed.,  1908,  nn.  795-6)  regarded  regeneration  as  funda-  not  be  confounded  with  the  use  dating  from  Christ 

mentally  nothing  else  than  another  name  for  the  jus-  Himself,  who  (Matt.,  xix,  18)  speaks  of  the  resurrec- 

tification  acc[uir^  through  the  Sacrament  of  Baptism,  tion  of  the  dead  on  the  last  day  as  a  regeneration 

A  characteristic  view  was  that  of  the  German  Nlystics  (regeneratio). 

(Eckhart,   Tauler,   SUSO),   who  prefer  to  speak  of  a  „  Wiebw,  PauliApottoli  doclnna  de  jtistifUatione  q^n^ 

"birth  of  God  in  the  soul",  meaning  thereby  the  self-  fP*^  ^^  Thpdogie  des  hiPauiut  (2nd  ed..  Freiburg,  1883)» 

.,  .,    *.           i."    ,               ,  I  *"^"*"^  »'"***^*'J  •"^^^  i!^"  u  33  sqq.;    Kirschkamp,   Qnade  u.  Glorte  %n  thren  *nneren 

annihilation    of    the    soul    submerging    itself    m    the  Zusammenhanq   (Wttr«burg,    1878);    Terrikn,   La  grdee  et  la 

Divinity,  and  the  resulting  mystical  union  with  God  gloire  ou  la  filiation  adoptive  dea  en/antt  de  Dieu  itudiie  dan»  ta 

*Ktv^ii«»k  Ir^irA  rialitS,  sea  principeat  aon  per/ectionnement  et  aon  couronneTnent 

inrougn  lOVe.                                .                              *  xi.     t>  *  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1887);  Schbbben,  Dogmatik,  II  (Freiburg,  1878); 

In  Protestant  theology,  since  the  time  of  the  Ref-  Hbinrich-Gutbbrlbt,  Dogmaiiache  TheoL,  VIII  (Mains,  1897); 

ormation,  we  meet  great  differences  of  opinion,  which  5«at,  iMthMogiedeSt.Paidj^&uchesae,  1907);    Idem, 

are  of  course  to  be  neferred.  to  the  various  conception,  gSS^i* /U^&l^iS;  T^irJ^Se^  ^'ZiX^'^ 

of  the  nature  of  justification.    In  entire  accordance  BeUucfuung  (1Q07). 

with  his  doctrine  of  justification  by  faith  alone,  J.  Pohlb. 

^tS^^'iS^(ffirir):iLV5lSXbJ^  B.«.iuibur,.    sec  Rxtxsbox,  D,ockse  o. 

tized  infant  on  the  same  footing  as  the  adult,  although  Regesta,  Papal,  are  the  copies,  generally  entered 

he  could  give  no  precise  explanation  as  to  the  way  in  in  special  registry  volumes,  of  the  papal  letters  and 

which  the  child  at  its  regeneration  in  baptism  could  official  documents  that  are  kept  in  the  papal  archives; 

exercise  justifying  faith   (cf.   H.   Cremer,   "Taufe,  the  name,  further,  is  also  usea  to  indicate  the  modem 

Wiedergeburt  una   Kindertaufe'',   2nd  ed.,    1901).  publications  contmning  such   documents  in  chrono- 

Against  the  shallow  and  destructive  efforts  of  Ration-  logical  order  with  careful  summaries  of  their  essen- 

alism,  which  made  its  appearance  among  the  Socinians  tial  contents.    The  beginnings  of  the  papal  Regesta 

about  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century  and  later  re-  probably  antedate  Constantine.    There  is,  it  is  true, 

ceived  a  mighty  impulse  from  English  Deism,  the  no  direct  proof  of  the  making  and  preservation  of 

German  '' Enlightenment '',  and  French  Encyclope-  copies  of  the  official  documents  of  the  Roman  Church 

dism,  a  salutaiy  reaction  was  introduced  by  the  Pietists  in  this  period.    The  growth  of  the  correspondence  of 

during  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries,  the  papal  see,  however,  is  evident  even  by  the  end  of 

Leaving  far  behind  the  old  Protestant  view,  the  Piet-  the  second  century,  /rom  the  controversy  over  the 

ists  (Spener,  A.  H.  Francke,  Zinsendorf)  referred  re-  celebration  of  Easter,  and  is  also  shown  about  the 

generation  to  the  personal  experience  of  justification  in  middle  of  the  third  century  by  the  disorders  of  the 

union  with  a  sincere  conversion  to  a  new  life,  consist-  Decian  persecution,  by  the  dispute  concerning  heret- 

ing  especially  in  charitable  activity .   German  Pietism,  ical  baptism,  and  oy  other  occasions.    Moreover,  it 

systematically  cultivated  by  the  so-called  Hemhuter,  was  of  importance  for  the  officials  of  th&  Roman 

exercised  a   oeneficial  effect  on   English   Method-  Church  to  nave  the  opportunity  to  inspect  its  earlier 

ism,  which  went  about  securing  and  strengthening  correspondence  and  to  be  able  to  use  it  for  similar 

regeneration  in  "methodical  fashion'',  and  which  un-  cases.    For  these  reasons  there  is  hardly  any  doubt 

doubtedly  performed  good  service  in  the  revival  of  that  from  a  very  earl^  date  a  copy  was  made  of  papal 

Christian  piety.    Especially  those  sudden  conversions  documents  before  their  dispatch,  and  that  the  coUec- 

— such  as  are  even  to-day  striven  for  and  highly  tion  of  these  documents  was  preserved  at  the  seat  of 

prized  in  Methodist  circles,  the  American  revivals  and  the  central  administration  of  the  Roman  Church, 

camp  meetings,  the  Salvation  Army,  and  the  German  This  theory  can  all  the  more  readily  be  accepted,  as 

Gemeinschaftsbewegung,  with  all  its  excrescences  and  the  highest  officials  of  the  Roman  state  administra- 

eccentricities — are  preferentially  given  the  title  of  tion,  the  imperial  chancery,  the  Senate,  the  consuls, 

regeneration   (cf.    E.  Wacker,  "Wiedergeburt   und  the  provincial  governments,  had  all  official  documents 

Bekehnmg  ",  1893) .   Since  Schleiermacher  the  variety  entered  in  such  volumes  and  preserved  in  the  archives, 

and  confusion  of  the  views  concerning  the  character  of  The  books  in  which  these  documents  were  entered 

regeneration   in   learned   literature  have   increased  were  called  commentarii^  regesta^  the  latter  word  from 

rather  than  diminished;  it  is  indeed  almost  a  case  of  regerere,  to  inscribe.     The  existence  of  such  papal 

everyone  to  his  own  liking.    The  greatest  favour  in  Regesta  can  be  positively  proved  for  the  fourth  een- 

Uberal  and  modem  Positive  theology  is  enjoyed  by  the  tury  and  the  succeeding  era.     In  his  polemic  with 


REGESTA 


716 


BEQESTA 


RufinuB  C'Apolog.  adv.  Rufinum",  III,  xx)  St.  Jerome 
refers  to  the  archive  {charlarium)  of  the  Roman 
Church,  where  the  letter  of  Pope  Anastasius  I  (399- 
401)  on  the  controversy  over  the  doctrines  of  Origen 
was  preserved.  There  are  also  notices  concerning  the 
registration  of  papsJ  letters  in  the  documents  of  sev- 
eral popes  of  the  fifth  century.  Thus  Pope  Zosimus 
in  his  letter  of  22  Sept.,  417,  to  the  bishops  of  Africa 
refers  to  the  fact  that  all  the  earlier  negotiations  with 
Coelestius  had  been  examined  at  Rome  (Coustant, 
"Epist.  Rom.  Pontif.",  955).  Consequently  copies  of 
the  documents  in  question  must  have  existed.  From 
this  time  onwards  it  remained  the  fixed  custom  of  the 
papal  chancery  to  copy  the  official  papers  issued  by  it 
m  registers. 

From  the  centuries  previous  to  the  pontificate  of 
Innocent  III  (1199-1216)  there  remam  only  frag- 
ments of  the  registry  volumes  of  the  papal  chancery 
and  these  in  large  psurt  merely  in  later  copies.  Nearly 
all  the  volumes  of  the  papal  Regesta  up  to  the  end  of 
the  twelfth  centu^  have  disappeared.  The  frequent 
local  warfare  in  Rome  and  the  conflagrations  from 
which  the  city  suffered  explain  sufficiently  the  loss  of 
the  oldest  records.  The  most  important  fragments  of 
this  period  that  have  been  preserved  are  the  following: 
nearly  850  letters,  in  three  groups,  of  the  Regesta  of 
Pope  Gregory  I  (590-604).  Ah  investigation  proved 
that  the  original  Regesta  consisted  of  fourteen 
papyrus  volumes^  corresx)onding  to  the  number  of 
years  of  the  pontificate,  which  were  arranged  accord- 
ms  to  indictions;  that  each  of  these  volumes  was  di- 
vided into  twelve  parts,  before  each  of  which  the  name 
of  the  corresponding  month  was  written.  In  this  way 
information  is  attamed  as  to  the  plan  of  the  earliest 
volumes  of  the  papal  Regesta.  A  manuscript  of  the 
Vatican  archives  contains  letters  of  John  VIII  (872- 
82),  which  begin  with  September j  876,  and  extend  to 
the  end  of  the  pontificate.  This  is  not  an  original 
register,  but  a  copy  of  the  eleventh  century.  Separate 
letters,  fifty-five  m  number,  belonging  to  the  first  four 
years  of  the  pontificate  of  this  pope,  exist  in  a  collec- 
tion contained  in  a  manuscript  of  the  twelfth  century 
in  the  British  Museum,  London  (MSS.  Add.  8874). 
The  manuscript  contains  letters  of  Gelasius  I  (492^ 
96),  Pelagius  I  (556-61),  Leo  IV  (847-55),  John 
VIII  (872-82),  Stephen  V  (885-91),  Alexander*  II 
(1061-73),  and  Urban  II  (1088-99).  The  study  of  the 
manuscript  by  Ewald  ["Neues  Archiv".  V  (1880), 
275  sqq.,  503  sqq.]  led  to  important  conclusions  con- 
cerning the  volumes  of  the  Regesta.  Another  manu- 
script at  Cambridge  contains  some  seventy  letters 
from  the  Regesta  of  Adrian  IV  (1154-59),  Alexander 
III  (115^-81),  and  Lucius  III  (1181-85)  [see  Lowen- 
feld  in  "Neues  Archiv",  X  (1885),  586  soq.].  Again, 
large  parts  of  the  Regesta  of  Gregory  VII  (1073-85), 
namely  381  letters,  are  contained  in  a  manuscript  in 
the  Vatican  Archiv.es.  This  collection  also  is  only  an 
extract  of  the  original  Regesta.  In  it  the  letters  are 
no  longer  arranged  according  to  indictions,  but  accord- 
ing to  the  year  of  the  pontificate.  A  fragment  of  the 
Regesta  of  the  antipope  Anacletus  II  (1130-38),  con- 
taining thirty-eight  letters  of  various  contents,  has 
been  preserved  m  a  manuscript  of  Monte  Cassino 
(Ewald  in  "Neues  Archiv",  III,  164  sqq.).  Besides 
these  collections  of  letters  which  have  preserved  frag- 
ments of  the  earliest  papal  Regesta,  rich  material  is 
also  to  be  found  in  the  canonical  collections  of  the 
Middle  Ages.  In  part  these  collections  go  back 
directly  or  indirectly  to  the  volumes  of  the  Regesta 
of  the  papal  archives,  from  which  the  authors  of  these 
collections,  as  Anselm  of  Lucca,  and  above  all  Deus- 
dedit,  gathered  the  greater  part  of  their  material. 
From  Innocent  III  onwards  the  manuscript  volumes 
of 'the  papal  Regesta  still  exist  in  the  Vatican  Archives. 

The  Regesta  of  the  thirteenth  century  are  beauti- 
fully written  parchment  volumes.  Yet  the  most  of 
these  in  their  present  form  have  been  made  from  older 


volumes.  How  these  older  volumes,  the  real  original 
Regesta,  were  planned  cannot  be  positively  decided. 
From  the  fourteenth  century  onwards  registry  vol- 
umes of  paper  were  used  for  the  entering  of  the  copies. 
However,  when  the  popes  returned  from  Avignon  to 
Rome,  these  paper  Regesta  were  left  at  Avignon  and 
copies  of  them  were  made  in  parchment  registiy  vol- 
umes that  were  brought  to  Rome.  At  a  later  era  the 
original  Regesta  were  also  brought  to  the  Vatican 
Archives,  so  that  there  are  two  series  in  existence  for 
the  Avignon  epoch  of  the  fourteenth  century.  From 
the  end  of  the  fourteenth  century  onwards  the  vol- 
umes of  the  Regesta  were  generally  made  of  paper. 
Numerous  investigations  have  been  made  by  various 
scholars  as  to  the  arrangement  of  the  volumes  of  the 
Regesta,  the  rules  or  customs  observed  in  the  entering 
of  the  separate  pieces,  as  to  the  question  whether  the 
draft  or  the  finished  letter  was  copied,  and  as  to  many 
other  matters  in  diplomatics,  without  reaching  very 
certain  results.  In  the  thirteenth  century  the  letters 
were  divided  into  "Litterae  communes  and  "Lit- 
terse  de  curia''  or ''  Curiales",  the  latter  dealing  mostly 
with  affaiTB  of  general  importance.  At  a  later  date 
other  headings  {liUercB  secreUB,  litteroB  de  benefidU) 
were  also  introduced.  Besides  the  regular  Regesta 
of  the  papal  letters  made  in  the  papal  chancery,  there 
were  similar  Regesta  of  the  papal  letters  executed  since 
the  fourteenth  century  in  the  ApostoUc  Camera.  From 
about  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century  the  regis- 
ters of  petitions  were  also  preserved,  in  which  were 
entered  not  the  papal  documents,  but  the  memorials 
to  the  pope,  in  reply  to  which  the  papal  documents 
were  issu^.  • 

As  collections  of  the  official  documents  of  the  papal 
chancery,  the  Regesta  are  a  very  important  historical 
authority.  For  convenience  in  historical  investiga- 
tion various  scholars  have  published  in  chronological 
order  all  known  papal  documents  of  large  periods, 
with  brief  summaries  of  the  contents  of  Uie  letters. 
The  three  great  collections  of  this  kind  are:  Jaff^, 
"Regesta  Pontificum  Romanorum  ab  condita  ecclesia 
ad  annum  p.  Chr.  n.  1198'';  2nd  ed.  by  S.  Lowenfeld, 
F.  Kaltenbrufoer,  P.  Ewald  (2  vols.,  Leipsig,  1888). 
P.  F.  Kehr  has  undertaken  a  new  edition  of  the  Re- 
gesta for  this  periodfin  topographical  and  at  the  same 
time  chronological  order:  "Regesta  Pontif.  Roman.: 
Italia  Pontificia"  (Berlin,  1906—);  "GermaniaPontif- 
icia"  (Berlin,  1910);  with  the  co-operation  of  other 
scholars  he  is  still  canying  on  his  great  undertaking. 
JafT6's  work  was  supplemented  by  Potthast,  "Re- 
gesta Pontificum  Romanorum  inde  ab  an.  p.  Chr.  d. 
1198  ad  an.  1304"  (2  vols.,  Berlin.  1874-75).  Letters 
of  several  popes  taken  from  tne  volumes  of  the 
Regesta  have  been  published  by:  LSwenfeld,  "Epis- 
tol£  Pontificum  Romanorum  ineditse'^  (Leipsig, 
1885),  taken  from  the  manuscript  at  Cambndge; 
Rodenberg,  "Epistols  ssc.  XIII  e  Rcsestis  Rom. 
Pont,  selectae"  (Berlin,  1883—),  in  "Mon.  Germ. 
Hist."  The  Regesta  of  the  letters  of  Gregory  I  were 
edited  again  by  Ewald  and  Hartmann,  "Gregorii  I. 
Registrum  epistolarum"  in  "Mon.  Germ.  Hist." 
(Beriin.  1891—).  The  letters  of  Gregory  VII  were 
edited  oy  Jaff^,  "  Monumenta  Gregoriana  in  "Bibli- 
otheca  rerum  Uermanicarum"  (2  vols.,  Berlin,  1868). 
As  early  as  1591  the  records  of  John  VIII  were  pub- 
lished from  the  manuscript  in  the  Vatican.  CW  the 
popes  of  the  thirteenth  century,  Pressuti  edited 
(Rome,  1888-96)  the  Regesta  of  Honorius  III  (1216- 
27)  from  the  volumes  of  the  Regesta  in  the  Vatican 
Archives;  the  Regesta  of  the  succeeding  popes  to 
Boniface  VIII  (d.  1303)  were  edited  by  the  members 
of  the  Ecole  Francaise  of  Rome,  the  publication  of  the 
Regesta  of  all  these  popes  being  yet  incomplete; 
after  a  group  of  Benedictines  had  issued  the  Regesta 
of  Clement  V  (1305-14),  the  members  of  the  Ecolc 
Fran9ai8e  began  again  with  John  XXII  (1316-34), 
with  the  intention  of  publishing  the  Regesta  of  the 


BEGaiO 


717 


BEGGIO 


Avignon  popes  to  Gregory  XI  (1370-78).  In  this 
latt^  series,  besides  the  documents  of  general  inter- 
est, they  kept  in  view  pul^icularly  those  documents 
that  bore  on  the  history  of  France.  For  the  later  eras 
only  the  first  numbers  were  published  of  the  Regesta 
of  Leo  X  (151^21),  edited  by  Cardinal  Hergenrother 
(see  under  the  different  popes).  In  addition  a  num- 
ber of  works  have  been  issued  or  are  in  course  of  pub- 
lication that  contain  Regesta  from  the  Vatican 
Regesta  of  the  fourteenth  century,  bearing  on  special 

a  unions  or  on  the  history  of  various  countries  and 
ioceses,  e.  g.,  Werunsky.  "Excerpta  ex  registris 
Clementis  VI  et  Innocentii  VI"  (Innsbruck,  1885); 
Ruezler,  '^Vatikansiche  Akten  zur  deutschen  Ge- 
Bchichte  in  der  Zeit  Ludwigs  des  Bayem"  (Munich, 
1890). 

Brbmlau,  Die  Commeniarii  der  rOmieehen  Kaiaer  und  die 
RegisUrbQcher  der  Papete  in  ZeiUchrift  der  SavigntfStiftuno 
Roman.  Ableil.  (1885),  242  sqq.;  Pztra,  De  epietoUs  el  regestie 
Romanorum  PorUificum  in  Andleeta  novieeima  Spieilegio  SoUe- 
menei  eomparata,  I  (Tusoulum,  1885);  Diekamp,  Die  neuere 
LiUroJtw  twr  papetliehen  DiphnuUik  in  Hiator.  Jahxbueh  (1883), 
210  sqq.;  numerous  papers  in  the  Mitteilunaen  dee  InttituU  fOr 
oeeter.  Geech.,  as  by  OrraNTHAL,  in  V,  128  sqq.;  KAi/ncKBRUNiOBR, 
ibid,,  V,  213  sqq.;  VI,  79  sqq.;  BRxasLAU.  ibid.,  IX,  1  sqq.; 
DoNAUBAXTM,  tbui.,  XI,  101  sqq.;  Dbnitlb,  Die  papetliehen 
Regieterlande  dee  Vatikanisehen  dee  XIII.  Jahrhunderte  und  doe 
Inventor  90m  Jahre  1SS9  in  Arehiv  fUr  LiUraiur-  und  Kirehen- 
geeehiehie  dee  MiUelaUere,  II  (1886),  1  sqq.;  Idkii,  Speeimena 
paiaographiea  Regeetorum  Rom.  Poni.  (Rome,  1888) ;  Paliukiu, 
Ad  Archivi  Rom.  Pont.  Regestorum  manududio  (Rome,  1884); 
Broii,  Ouide  aux  archivee  du  VeUiean  (Rome,  1910) ;  Habkzns, 
The  VtUiean  Archivee  in  Calh.  Univ.  BuUetin,  III  (Washington, 
1897),  179. 

J.  P.  KiRSCH. 

Regglo  di  Calabria,  Archdiocese  or  (Rhe- 
GiENSis),  in  Cali^ria.  southern  Italy.  The  city  is  sit- 
uated on  the  slope  of  the  Aspromonte,  at  the  extreme 
end  of  the  peninsula^  communicating  with  Messina 
by  a  line  of  ferries.  Grain,  olives,  wine,  fruit, 
fishing,  the  silk  trade,  and  the  manufacture  of  furni- 
ture have  rendered  Reggio  an  important  trading 
port.  The  earthquakes  of  1783  and  28  Dec.,  1908. 
completely  destroyed  all  the  buildings,  ancient  and 
modem,  and  a  town  of  wooden  and  corrugated  iron 
huts  now  rises  amid  the  ruins.  The  city  was  foimded 
by  the  CsJchidians  in  the  eighth  centurv  b.  c:  in 
723  it  received  from  Messina  fugitives  who  rose  to 
supreme  power.  Inscriptions  and  coins  show  that 
it  was  a  flourishing  republic,  and  was  governed  by  the 
laws  given  by  Clmrondas  to  Catania  (640).  About 
the  close  of  the  sixth  century  b.  c,  Alcidamas  became 
tyrant  of  the  city,  and  his  son  Anaxilas  planned  to  ob- 
tain control  of  all  Grsecia  Ma^a,  but  was  unsuccess- 
ful. He  was  more  fortunate  m  his  attack  on  Zancle 
in  Sicily,  which  he  named  Messana  (Messina).  His 
sons  were  expelled  (461)  from  the  city,  which  again 
became  a  republic.  Dionvsius  oi  S3rracu8e  captured 
it  in  389  after  a  siege  of  eleven  months.  On  his 
fall,  it  became  subject  to  Agathocles  and  later  joined 
Pyrrhus  against  the  Romans.  When  Pvrrhus  aban- 
doned Italy,  a  mercenary  Campanian  fleet  captured 
the  town,  and  established  a  military  republic  (270). 
This  was  overthrown  and  severely  punished  by  the 
Romans,  who  incorporated  it,  with  all  Bruttium, 
under  tneir  rule  as  a  federated  city.  It  still  pre- 
served its  Grecian  character  in  the  days  of  Augustus. 
Julius  Cffisar  sent  a  colony  thither  and  embellished 
the  city,  calling  it  Rhegium  Julii,  In  the  Gothic 
War  it  was  attacked  by  the  fleet  of  Belisarius,  and 
despite  the  aid  of  Totila  (549)  was  destroyed.  It  re- 
mained thenceforward  in  the  hands  of  the  Byzantines, 
though  Authari  claimed  it  as  the  furthest  boundary 
of  the  Lombard  Kingdom.  In  918  it  was  captured 
by  the  Saracens,  who  were  defeated  and  massacoed 
by  the  Pisans  (1005).  It  was  again  captured  in  1080 
by  Robert  Guiscard,  and  united  to  his  Kingdom  of 
the  Two  Sicilies.  In  1313  it  was  taken  by  IBYederick 
TI  of  Sicily,  who  was  soon  forced  to  abandon  it. 
It  was  frequently  sacked  by  the  Turks  and  corsairs 


in  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries  and  especially 
in  1554  and  1595  by  the  Calabrian  renegade  Sina 
Pasha  Cicala.  In  Aug.,  1860,  the  treason  of  General 
Vial  enabled  Garibaldi  to  occupy  the  city  without 
resistance,  thus  beginning  the  downfall  of  the  King- 
dom of  Naples. 

Through  a  misinterpretation  of  Acts,  xxviii,  13, 
St.  Paul  was  said  to  have  preached  the  Gospel  there, 
and  to  have  consecrated  his  companion  St.  Stephen 
bi^op;  it  is  probable,  however,  that  it  was  evangel- 
ized at  an  early  period.  The  first  bishop  known  ia 
Mark,  legate  of  Pope  Sylvester  at  the  Council  of 
Nic^a  (325).  Other  bishops:  St.  Sisinnius  (536), 
mentioned  in  the  Acts  of  St.  Placidus;  John,  legate 
of  Pope  Agathus  at  the  Sixth  Council  (680):  St. 
Cyrillus  (749);  Leontius,  follower  of  Photius  (869); 
St.  Eusebius  (d.  916).  When  all  Southern  Italy  was 
imited  to  the  Patriarchate  o(  Constantinople,  Reggio 
became  a  metropoUtan  see  with  thirteen  suffragans, 
and  followed  the  Greek  Rite,  which  was  chang^  to 
the  GaUican  after  the  Norman  Conquest;  Archbishop 
RicciuUi  adopted  the  Roman  Rite  in  1580.  The 
Greek  Rite,  however,  remained  in  force  in  the  church 
of  Santissima  Maria  della  Cattolica,  built  by  King 
Roger,  and  governed  by  a  protopope  with  a  numerous 
Greek  clergy.  Questions  of  jurisdiction  caused  fre- 
quent controversies  with  the  archbishop.  About 
1600  Archbishop  Annibale  degli  Afllitti  suppressed 
the  Greek  Rite  in  that  church,  and  the  entire  dio- 
cese now  follows  the  Roman  Rite.  Other  bishops: 
Rangerio  (1192);  Fra  Gentile  (1279),  Franciscan; 
Pietro  Filomarino  (1404);  Antonio  Kicci  (1453), 
restorer  of  the  cathedral;  Gerolamo  Centelles  (1529), 
reformer  of  ecclesiastical  discipline;  Gaspare  Ric- 
ciuUi (1560),  a  distinguished  theologian  at  the  Coun- 
cil of  Trent,  rebuilt  the  cathedral  which  had  been 
destroyed  by  the  Turks,  and  established  the  seminary; 
Mariano  Ricciardi  (1855-71),  exiled  after  the  an- 
nexation of  the  Kingdom  of  Naples;  Cardinal 
Gennaro  Portanova  (1888).  The  sees  suffragan  to 
Reggio  are:  Bova,  Cassiano  (in  the  Ionian  idands). 
Catanzaro,  Cotrone,  Gerace,  Nicastro^  Niootera  and 
Tropea,  Opido,  Squillace.  The  archdiocese  contains 
80  parishes,  200,000  inhabitants,  200  secular  priests, 
4  religious  nouses  with  20  priests;  5  convents  of  nuns; 
2  boys'  and  5  girls'  educational  institutions. 

Cappblubtti,  Le  chieee  d" Italia,  XXI;  Spano' — Bolani,  Storia 
di  Reggio  di  Calabria  (Naples,  1827);  de  Lorsmzo,  Cronache  0 
docurnenti  inediti  da  eervire  aUa  etoria  eacra  e  civile  di  Reggio  di 
Calabria  (Reggio,  1873-77) ;  Idbii ,  Monografia  di  Storia  Reggina 
(Reggio,  1888);  Mznasz,  Le  chieee  di  Calabria  dal  guinio  al 
duodecimo  eecolo  (Naples,  1896);  GnABNA-LoooTETA.  Cronaea 
dei  vescovi  di  Reggio  (Reggio,  1899);  Gat,  Lee  diockeee  de  la 
Calabre  A  VSpoque  bytantine  (Ma^on,  1900);  DucHsaNB,  Lee 
Mquee  de  Calabre  (Paria,  1902). 

U.  Beniqni. 

Reggio  dell'  Emilia,  Diggesb  of  (Reqinensis), 
suffragan  of  Modena  in  central  Italv.  The  city  is 
situated  just  where  the  ancient  Via  iGmilia  is  crossed 
hy  the  small  River  Crostolo,  which  flows  into  the 
luver  Po,  through  a  very  fertile  territory.  The 
principal  industnes  are  silk,  straws,  and  osiers. 
The  cathedral  is  Romanesque,  of  the  twelfth  century, 
restored  in  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries,  ana 
has  some  remains  of  thirteenth  century  frescoes.  In 
the  museum  is  the  scientific  collection  of  Abbate 
Spallanzani,  an  illustrious  philosopher,  prehistoric 
antiques,  and  an  arf  collection.  The  library  has  about 
1000  majiuscripts.  There  are  also  the  state  archives. 
Near  Reggio  is  the  famous  Castle  of  Canossa. 

Regium  belonged  to  the  Boii  and  was  reduced  into 
a  colony  by  the  consul  iEmilius  Lepidus  (187  or  178) 
and  was  by^him  named  Reqium  Lemdi,  In  the  Treaty 
of  Quierc^r  Reggio  was  mcludea  among  the  towns 
which  Pepin  had  in  mind  to  give  to  the  Holy  See,  but 
it  never  came  into  possession  of  the  latter,  except 
later,  and  for  a  short  time.  In  962  it  was  given  with 
Modena  to  Count  Azzo  of  Canossa.    After  the  death 


RSaiNA 


718 


BEGINA 


of  Countess  Matilda  (1165)  the  popes  claimed  the 
town  as  a  part  of  her  inheritancei  wmle  the  emperors 
claimed  the  same  as  a  fief  of  the  Empire.  Pending 
these  disputes  the  town  was  governed  in  a  communal 
way;  at  first  they  had  consuls  and  in  1156  they  had  a 
bau^,  named  mostly  by  the  emperor.  Reggio  took 
part  in  the  wars  between  the  Lombard  cities,  es- 
pecially against  Mantua  and  Milan.  It  was  mostly 
on  the  side  of  the  Ghibellines,  although  in  1167  it 
entered  the  Lombard  League  and  in  1193  the  lea^e 
against  Henry  VI.  After  the  misfortune  of  Fredenck 
II,  the  powerful  Pico,  Fogliani,  Carpineti,  and 
Corei^io  were  disputing  the  mastery  of  the  city,  which 
fell  into  the  hancu  of  Obizzo  d'Este,  Lord  of  Ferrara, 
but  revolted  against  his  son  Azzo  VIII  (1306),  be- 
came again  a  commune,  accepted  the  vicars  of  Henry 
yil  add  Louis  the  Bavarian;  was  subject  to  the  pope 
under  Cardinal  Bertrand  du  Poyet  (1322) ;  and  later 
(1331),  John  of  Bohemia,  who  recognized  the  suzer> 
ainty  of  the  pope  over  Reggio  as  well  aa  over  Parma 
and  Modena,  was  made  lord  of  the  city,  but  sold  it 
to  the  Fogliani,  from  whom  it  passed  to  the  Gonzaga 
of  Mantua  (1335),  who  sold  it  to  Galeazzo  Visconti  of 
Milan.  In  1409  it  returned  again  to  the  House  of 
Este  of  the  line  of  Modena,  until  1859.  The  popes, 
however,  always  claimed  to  be  its  suzerains.  After 
the  Ferrara  War,  Reggio  spontaneously  submitted 
to  Julius  II  (1512-15).  By  the  Peace  of  Barcelona 
(1529)  Charles  V  bound  himself  to  give  back  Reggio 
to  the  popes,  but  he  did  not  do  so.  In  1848  Reggio 
proclaimed  its  annexation  to  Piedmont,  completed 
in  1859.  Christianity  entered  Reggio  probably  from 
Ravenna;  a  local  legend  makes  the  first  bishop  St. 
Protasius,  a  disciple  of  St.  Apollinaris,  in  the  Apostolic 
age.  Admitting  his  existence,  also  five  or  six  his- 
torical bishops,  predecessors  of  Faventius  in  451,  it 
would  seem  that  the  episcopal  see  dates  from  the 
first  half  of  the  fourth  century.  St.  Prosper  was  the 
successor  of  Faventius;  he  died  between  461  and  467. 
Among  other  bishops  were:  Thomas  (c.  701).  Nodo* 
berto.  ambassador  of  Louis  the  Pious  at  Constan- 
tinople (817);  Azzo  II,  murdered  during  the  Hun- 
garian invasion  in  900;  Thexizo  (978),  who  rebuilt 
the  Basilica  of  St.  PSx)sper  and  other  churches; 
Nicold  Maltraversi  (1211),  much  praised  by  the 
chronicler  Salimbene  and  often  ambassador  to 
Frederick  II;  Enrico  de  Casalocci  (1302);  Battista 
Pallavicini  (1445),  the  sacred  poet;  Marcello  Cer- 
vini  (1540).  later  Pope  Marcellus  II;  Cardinal 
Alessandro  d'Este  (1621);  Angelo  M.  Ficarelli  (1821), 
who  repaired  the  damages  of  the  revolution. 

The  diocese  has  246  parishes,  531  secular  priests, 
175,600  inhabitants:  4  houses  of  monks  with  29 
priests;  11  houses  ol  nuns,  5  educational  institutions 
for  bojrs  and  13  for  girls,  and  a  Catholic  weekly. 

University  of  Reggio. — Reggio  was  recognized 
as  a  atudium  generale  as  early  as  1210;  and  a  doc- 
toral diploma  of  1276  has  been  preserved,  showing 
that  there  were  a  regular  College  of  Doctors,  regular 
examinations,  and  a  Unwersitaa  acholarium  ^Tacoli, 
''Memorie  storiche  di  Reg^o",  pt.  Ill,  Carpi,  1769, 
215-16).  But  at  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth 
century  there  was  no  longer  a  single  doctor  in  the 
citv;  and  the  atudium  generale  had  evidently  lapsed 
before  this. 

Cappbllstti,  Le  Chieae  d'lUUxa,  XV;  Saccani,  7  Vueovi  di 
Reggio  (Reggio.  1902) ;  Chronieon  regiense  in  Mubatori,  Rer.  Hal., 

XVIII.  U.  Benigni. 

Regina,  Diocesb  of  (Reginbnbib),  a  newly 
created  (4  March,  1910)  ecclesiastical  division,  com- 
prising the  southern  part  of  the  Canadian  province  of 
Saskatchewan,  as  far  north  as  the  30th  township,  or 
about  51°  30'  lat.  The  Catholic  population  amounts 
to  58,771,  of  whom  19,563  are  of  French  descent, 
16,318  Germans,  about  13,000  Galicians  following  the 
Ruthenian  Rite,  4759  English-speaking,  2312  Poles, 
and  1819  Hungarians.  The  rest  are  of  various  nation- 


alities, and  comprise  about  1000  Catholic  Indians. 
Fifty-nine  priests  (43  French,  15  German  and  1 
Scotch)  attend  to  their  spiritual  needs.  The  regular 
clergy  is  represented  bv  the  Oblates  of  Mary  Immac- 
ulate, the  pioneers  in  the  country,  the  Missionaries  of 
La  Sallette  and  those  of  Issoudun,  France,  the  Re- 
demptorists,  and  the  Sons  of  Mary  Immaculate. 
Nuns  of  five  different  orders  either  teach  in  the  schools 
or  serve  the  sick  in  the  hospital  founded  last  year  at 
R^ina.  Besides  its  primary  or  parochial  schools, 
there  are  five  academies  and  three  bidian  boardinf 
schools,  the  most  important  of  which  is  that  founded 
(1884)  in  the  Qu'Appelle  valley  by  the  Rev.  Joe. 
Hugonard,  O.M.I.,  who  still  directs  it.  Six  trades  are 
taught,  in  addition  to  the  curriculum  of  the  schools. 

Tne  same  Qu'Appelle  valley  was  the  cradle  of 
the  new  diocese,  Fort  Qu'Appelle  being  its  only 
settlement  until  Father  J.  N.  Ritchot  established 
(1865)  a  mission  at  what  is  now  Lebret.  Then  fol- 
lowed a  few  other  missionary  stations  for  the  TnHiftnty, 
around  which  the  development  of  the  country  conse- 
quent on  a  Government  system  of  intense  immigration 
has  clustered  the  numerous  centres  of  white  popula- 
tion now  extant,  chief  among  which  are  Regina,  the 
capital  of  the  province,  Moosejaw,  Swift  Current,  and 
Yorkton,  the  headquarters  of  a  large  Galician  colony. 

Mgr.  Olivier  E.  Matthieu,  ex-rector  of  Laval  Uni- 
versity, Quebec,  was  appointed  (14  July,  1911)  first 
bishop. 

See  arohives  of  the  Archdiocese  of  St.  Boniface. 

A.  G.  MoRicE. 

Regina  Ccoli  (Queen  or  Heaven),  the  opening 
words  of  the  Eastertide  anthem  of  the  Blessed  Virgin, 
the  recitation  of  which  is  prescribed  in  the  Roman 
Breviary  from  Compline  of  Holy  Saturday  untU  None 
of  the  Saturday  after  Pentecost  inclusively.  In  choro, 
the  anthem  is  to  be  sung  standing.  In  illustration  of 
the  view  that  the  anthem  forms  a  "syntonic  strophe", 
that  is,  one  depending  on  the  accent  of  the  word  and 
not  the  quantity  of  the  syllable,  Albin  prints  it  ("La 
po6ne  du  br^viaire",  Lyons,  s.  d.,  p.  102)  as  follows: 
Regina  cceu  laetare, 

Alleluia, 
Quia  ouem  meruisti  portare 

Alleluia, 

Resurrexit 

Sicut  dixit. 

Alleluia. 
Ora  pro  nobis  Deum. 

Alleluia. 
In  the  first  two  verses  ("Regina"  and  "Quia")  the 
accent  falls  on  the  second,  fourth,  and  seventh  svUa- 
bles  (the  word  quia  being  coimted  as  a  single  syllable) ; 
in  the  second  two  verses  ("R€«urpexit",  "Sicut 
dixit"),  on  the  first  and  the  third  syllables.  The 
Alleluia  serves  as  a  refrain.  Of  unknown  authorship, 
the  anthem  has  been  traced  back  to  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury. It  was  in  Franciscan  use,  after  Compline,  in 
the  first  half  of  the  following  century.  Together  with 
the  other  Marian  anthems,  ii  was  incorporated  in  the 
Minorite-Roman  Curia  Office,  which^  by  the  activity 
of  the  Franciscans,  was'soon  popularised  eveiywhere, 
and  which,  by  the  order  of  Nicholas  III  (1277-SO), 
replaced  all  the  older  Office-books  in  all  the  churches 
of  Rome.  Batiffol  ("History  of  the  Roman  Brevi- 
ary", tr.,  London,  1898,  pp.  158-228)  admits  that 
"we  owe  a  just  debt  of  gratitude  to  those  who  gave 
us  the  antiphons  of  the  Blessed  Virgin"  (p.  225) ^ 
which  he  considers  "four  exquisite  compositions, 
though  in  a  style  enfeebled  by  sentimentality"  (p. 
218).  The  antnems  are  indeed  exquisite,  althoupi 
(as  may  appropriately  be  noted  in  this  connexion) 
they  run  tlm)ugn  the  gamut  of  medieval  literary  style, 
from  the  classical  hexameters  of  the  "Alma  Redemp- 
toris  Mater"  through  the  richly-rhymed  accentual^ 
rhythm  and  regular  strophes  of  the  "Ave  Regina 


REGINALD 


719 


BEGIONARU 


Coelorum",  the  irregular  sjmtonic  strophe  of  the 
^'Regma  Coeli",  down  to  the  sonorous  prose  rhythms 
(with  rhyming  closes)  of  the  Salve  Regina.  ''In  the 
16th  century,  the  antiphons  of  our  Lady  were  em- 
ployed to  replace  the  little  office  at  all  the  hours'' 
(Baudot,  "The  Roman  Breviary'',  London,  1909,  p. 
71).  The  "R(^na  Coeli"  takcb  the  place  of  the  "An- 
gelus"  during  the  Paschal  Time. 

The  authorship  of  the  "RanAa  Coeli"  being  un- 
known, legend  says  that  St.  Gregory  the  Great  (d. 
004)  heuxlthe  first  three  lines  chanted  by  angels  on  a 
certain  Easter  morning  in  Rome  while  he  walked  bare- 
foot in  a  great  religious  procession  and  that  the  saint 
thereupon  added  the  fourth  line:  "Ora  pro  nobis 
Deum.  Alleluia."  For  details  of  the  mteresting 
legend,  cf.  Gu^ranger,  ''liturgical  Year",  Paschal 
Time,  Part  I,  p.  Ill  (tr.  Dublin,  1871).  (See  also 
Salve  Reqina  for  a  similar  attribution  of  authorship.) 
The  authorship  has  also  been  ascribed  to  Gregory  V, 
but  without  good  reason.  The  beautiful  plainsong 
melodies  (a  simple  and  an  ornate  form)  are  variously 
given  in  the  Ratisbon  antiphonary  and  in  the  Solesmes 
''Liber  Usualis"  of  1908,  the  ornate  form  in  the  latter 
work,  with  rhythmical  signs  added,  being  very  at- 
tractive. The  official  or  "typical'  melody  will  be 
found  (p.  126)  in  the  Vatican  Antiphonary  (1911). 
Only  one  form  of  melody  is  given.  The  different 
syUabic  lengths  of  the  lines  make  the  anthem  difficult 
to  translate  with  fidelity  into  Endish  verse.  A  literal 
prose  rendering  is  given  in  the  "Baltimore  Manual  of 
rtaj^ers".  Seven  versions  are  noted  in  Julian's 
"Dictionaiy  of  Hymnology",  but  not  that  of  C.  H. 
Esling  (" Catholic  Record",  May,  1873,  p.  12)  nor 
that  of  Archbishop  Bagshawe  ("Breviary  Hymns 
and  Missal  Sequences",  London,  1900,  p.  220).  The 
anthem  has  often .  been  treated  musically  by  both 
polyphonic  and  modem  composers. 

H.  T.  Henrt. 

Reginaldy  Antonin,  baptized  Antoinb  Ravaille, 
theologian;  b.  at  Albi  in  Languedoc,  1605;  d.  at 
Toulouse,  12  April,  1676.  He  became  a  Dominican 
at  Avignon  in  1624.  After  a  course  of  studies  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  philosophy  in  the  schools  of 
his  order  (1632).  Dunng  the  years  1639-49  and 
1671-76  he  taught  theolo^  in  the  University  of 
Toulouse.  He  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  discus- 
sions "De  Auxiliis  Gratise"  under  Innocent  X  (Rome, 
1652-53).  From  1653-57  he  was  provincial  of  Oc- 
citania.  Reginald  was  a  zealous  defender  of  the 
Thomistic  doctrine  of  gr&ce  and  wrote  many  works 
on  that  subject.  His  chief  work,  which  was  published 
after  his  death  (Antwerp,  1706),  is  "De  mente  Con- 
cilii  IVidentini  circa  g^tiam  seipsa  efficacem". 
The  more  important  of  ms  other  works  are:  "Opus- 
culum  de  vero  sensu  composite  et  diviso"  (Paris, 
1638);  "Quffistio  .  .  .  Quse  fuerit  mens  Con- 
cilii  Trid.  circa  gratiam  efficacem  et  scientiam 
mediam"  (Toulouse,  1644);  "Dissertatio  de  Cate- 
chismi  romani  auctoritate"  (Toulouse,  1648);  the  un- 
finished work  "DoctrinsB  D.  Thom®  tria  principia 
cum  suis  consequentiis"  (Toulouse,  1670)  and  many 
unpublished  lectures  on  the  "Summa  Theologica". 

QxTiTiF-EcHARO.  Script,  Ord.  Prad.,  II,  661-3. 

J.  A.   McHUGB. 

Reginald  of  Pipemo,  Dominican,  theologian, 
companion  of  St.  Thomas  Aquinas,  b.  at  Piperno 
about  1230;  d.  about  1290.  He  ent^^  the  Domini- 
can Order  at  Naples.  St.  Thomas  chose  him  as  his 
8ociu8  and  confessor  at  Rome  about  1260.  From 
that  time  Ranald  was  the  constant  and  intimate 
companion  of  the  sunt,  and  his  testimony  is  con- 
tinually cited  in  the  process  of  Thomas'  canonization. 
To  this  disciple  Thomas  dedicated  several  of  his  works. 
In  1272  Reginald  was  cured  of  a  fever  by  the  prayers 
of  the  saint.    The  same  year  he  began  to  teach  with 


Thomas  at  Naples.  He  attended  at  the  death-bed 
of  the  holy  doctor,  received  his  general  confession, 
and  pmnounced  the  funeral  oration  (1274).  He  re- 
turned to  Naples,  and  probablv  succeeded  to  the 
chair  of  his  master.  Reginald  collected  all  the 
works  of  St.  Thomas.  Four  of  the  "Opuscula"  are 
reports  he  made  of  lectures  delivered  by  the  Saint, 
either  taken  down  during  the  lecture  or  afterwards 
written  out  from  memory.  These  are:  "Postilla 
super  Joannem"  (corrected  by  St.  Thomas),  "Pos- 
tillse  super  Epistolas  S.  Pauli' ,  "Postilla  super  Tres 
Noctumos  Psalterii",  "Lectura  super  Primum  de 
Anima".  Rcw^inald  is  also  considered  by  some  as  the 
compiler  of  t£e  Supplement  to  the  Summa  Theo- 
logica. The  funeral  discourse  published  at  Bologna 
in  1529  under  the  name  of  R^inald  is  the  work  of 
the  Italian  humanist  Flaminius. 

Quinr-EcHARO,  Script,  Ord.  Freed.,  1/382:  Mandonnxt, 
Dm  ieritt  auUurUiquea  de  S,  Thomaa  D*A^in  (Fkibourg,  1910), 
37-41.  52-3,  153-4. 

J.  A.  McHUQH. 

Bagino  of  Prtixn,  date  of  birth  unknown;  d.  at 
Trier  in  915.  According  to  the  statements  of  a  later 
era  Regino  was  the  son  of  noble  parents  and  was  bom 
at  the  stronghold  of  Altrip  on  the  Rhine  near  Speyer. 
Nothing  is  known  concerning  his  life  until  he  was 
elected  Abbot  of  Prum  in  892.  From  his  election 
as  abbot  and  from  his  writings,  it  is  evident  that  he 
had  entered  the  Benedictine  Order^  probably  at 
Priim  itself,  and  that  he  had  been  a  diligent  student. 
The  rich  and  celebrated  Abbey  of  PrUm  suffered 
greatly  during  the  ninth  century  from  the  marauding 
mcursions  of  the  Normans.  It  had  been  twice 
seized  and  ravaged,  in  882  and  892.  After  its  second 
devastation  the  Abbot  Farabert  resigned  his  office  and 
Regino  was  elected  his  successor.  His  labours  for 
the  restoration  of  the  devastated  abbey  were  ham- 
pered b)r  the  struggle  between  contending  parties 
in  Lorraine.  In  899  Regino  was  driven  from  his 
office  by  Richarius,  later  Bishop  of  li^e,  the  brother 
of  Count  Geraard  and  Count  Mattfried  of  Hennegau. 
Richarius  was  made  abbot;  Regino  resigned  the  posi- 
tion and  retired  to  Trier,  where  he  was  honourably 
received  by  Archbishop  Katbod.  He  supported  the 
archbishop  in  the  latter's  efforts  to  carry  out  ec- 
clesiastical reforms  in  that  troubled  era,  rebuilt 
the  Abbey  of  St.  Martin  that  had  been  laid  waste 
by  the  Normans,  accompanied  the  archbishop  on 
visitations,  and  used  his  leisure  for  writing.  At 
Ratbod's  su^estion  he  wrote  his  work  on  ecclesias- 
tical disciplme  for  use  in  ecclesiastical  visitations 
(see  Canons,  Collections  of  Ancisnt,  III,  286): 
he  also  wrote  a  treatise  "De  harmonica  institutione' 
[ed.  Coussemaker,  "Scriptores  de  musica  medii 
flBvi",  II  (Paris,  1867),  1-731,  for  the  improvement  of 
liturgical  singing;  further,  his 'great  historical  work, 
the  chronicle  (see  Annals.  I,  533).  Regino  was 
buried  in  the  monastery  of  St.  Maximin  near  Trier. 

Marx,  Getch.  det  BrutifUa  Trier,  11,  Pt.  I  (Trier,  I860),  296 
■qq.;  Ebsrt,  AUgem.  Qesch.  der  Lit.  dea  MiUelaU.  im  Ahendmnda, 
111,  226  sqq.;  Wattenbach,  DeuUcManda  Oetehicht$qudUn  im 
MittelaU.  (7th  ed.),  I,  311. 

J.   P.   KiRBCH. 

RegiomontanuB.    See  MI^ller,  Johann. 

Reglonarii,  the  name  given  in  later  antiquity  and 
the  earlv  Middle  Ages  to  those  clerics  and  officials 
of  the  Church  in  Rome  who  were  attached  neither  to 
the  papal  palace  or  patriarchiuvit  nor  to  the  titular 
churches  of  Rome,  but  to  whom  one  of  the  cit^r  regions, 
or  wards,  was  assigned  as  their  official  district.  For 
intemsd  administration  the  city  of  Rome  was  divided 
by  the  Emperor  Augustus  into  fourteen  rc^ons.  From 
the  fourth  century  developed  (evidently  in  connenon 
with  the  seven  Roman  deacons)  an  ecclesiafitical  divi- 
sion into  seven  regions,  which  gradually  replaced  the 
earlier  civil  divisions.  Many  branches  of  the  eccl©» 
siastical  administration  were  arranged  in  accordance 


REGIS 


720 


aiozs 


with  the  seven  regions — especially  the  care  of  the  poor, 
provision  for  the  maintenance  of  the  churches,  and 
whatever  else  pertained  primarily  to  the  office  of  the 
deaconS)  one  oi  whom  was  appointed  over  each  of  the 
seven  re^ons  (diaconus  regianarius).  As  the  deacons 
were  assisted  by  seven  subdeacons.  we  also  find  the 
term  subdiaconua  regionariiu.  The  notaries  and 
defensores  employed  in  the  administration  of  the 
regions  were  also  known  as  notarii  regionarii  and 
d^ensores  regionarii.  There  is  also  occasional  men- 
tion of  acolyii  regionarii.  Little  is  known  about  the 
functions  exercised  by  these  regionarii,  as  in  general 
concerning  the  ecclesiastical  administration  in  ancient 
Rome,  in  as  far  88  it  affected  the  regions. 

Db  Koasi,  Roma  Botteranea  erialiana.  Hi  (Rome,  1877).  514 
sqq.;  Philipps,  Kirchenrecht,  VI,  316  aqq.;  Hinschiub,  Ktrchen- 
reehi,  I,  375  sqq. 

J.   P.  KiBSCH. 

R6gi8,  Jean-Baptiste,  b.  at  Istres.  Provence,  11 
June,  16d3,  or  29  Jan.,  1664;  d.  at  Peking.  24  Nov., 
1738.  He  was  received  into  the  Society  ot  Jesus,  14 
Sept.,  1683,  or  13  Sept.,  1679,  and  in  1698  went  on  the 
Chinese  mission,  where  he  served  science  and  rdi- 
gion  for  forty  years,  and  took  the  chief  share  in  the 
m£^ng  of  the  general  map  of  the  Chinese  Empire. 
The  early  Jesmt  missionaries  had  already  endeav- 
oured to  make  known  to  Europe  the  true  geography 
of  China,  of  which  at  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury even  the  best  cartographers  were  utterly  ignorant. 
Their  achievements  up  to  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth 
century  are  summed  up  in  the  "Novus  ^tlas  Sinen- 
sis" published  by  Fatner  Martin  Martini  (Amster- 
dam, 1655).  He  was  greatly  assisted  in  this  work  by 
Chinese  books  of  geography,  where  he  found  a  mass 
of  descriptive  information,  the  distances  between 
important  places  and  even  maps,  which,  however, 
were  very  crude^  the  distances  having  been  measured 
with  little  exactitude.  These  imperfect  data  he  sup- 
plemented and  completed  by  astronomical  obser- 
vations made  in  the  chief  towns  by  himself  and  his 
associates;  hence  the  positions  of  his  Atlas  'are  re- 
markably accurate.  The  favour  enjoyed  by  the  mis- 
sionaries with  Emperor  K'ang-hi  (1662-1722)  made  it 
possible  for  them  to  improve  on  this.  Fr.  Ferdinand 
Verbiest  collected  the  earliest  definite  ideas  of  Tatary 
during  two  joumevs  made  to  that  country  with  the 
emperor  (1682-3).*  The  arrival  in  China  (1687)  of 
French  Jesuits  sent  by  Louis  XIV  gave  new  impetus 
to  scholarly  labours  in  the  mission,  especially  to 
geography,  il^vided  with  perfected  instruments  and 
trainee  in  the  methods  of  the  astronomers  of  the 
Observatory  of  Paris  the  new  missionaries  were 
enabled  to  determine  more  correctly  positions  already 
calculated.  The  **M6moires"  and  the  "Histoirede 
TAcad^mie  des  Sciences"  record  their  observations. 
Fr.  Jean-FranQois  Gerbillon  made  eight  journeys 
through  Tatary  and  Mongolia  (1688-98),  acquiring 
more  geographical  information  concerning  them.  In 
1701  the  great  work  of  the  general  map  of  the  empire, 
besun  by  the  topographical  drawing  of  the  city  of 
Peking  and  its  environs,  including  the  ancient  summer 
residence  of  the  emperors  and  1700  towns  or  villages, 
was  assigned  to  Fr.  Antoihe  Thomas,  a  Belgian  of 
Namur,  and  Joachim  Bouvet,  Jean  Baptiste  R6gis, 
Dominique  Parrenin,  all  three  'French.  K'an»^hi, 
who  wished  to  take  measures  against  the  periodical 
overflow  of  the  rivers  of  Chi-li,  was  satisfied.  Fr.  D. 
Parrenin  then  induced  him  to  consent  to  a  map  of  the 
Great  Wall  of  China.  Frs.  Bouvet,  R4gis,  and  Pierre 
Jartoux  measured  their  route  to  the  eastern  extremity 
of  the  famous  rampart  by  means  of  regularly  divided 
cords,  keeping  track  of  clirections  with  the  assistance 
of  a  compass,  and  frequently  observing  the  meridians 
of  the  sun  in  order  to  calculate  latitudes.  In  four 
days  they  reached  the  Gulf  of  Chi-li  (8  June,  1708) 
and  began  operations  on  the  Great  Wall.  On  16 
October  they  nad  estimated  its  extent  to  be  21°  long., 


or  almost  half  the  widest  breadth  of  the  United  States 
from  east  to  west,  and  had  determined  the  Dodtions 
of  the  fortified  towns  ''by  which  it  was  flanked", 
according  to  Fr.  R^gis.  At  the  end  of  two  months 
Bouvet,  being  ill,  retired  to  Peking.  R^gis  and 
Jartoux  reached  the  western  end  of  the  Great  Wall 
at  Kia-yu-Koan  and  completed  their  work  by  the 
mensuration  of  an  interior  lateral  wall  which  brought 
them  to  Si-ning,  on  the  frontier  of  Tibet,  near  the 
great  Lake  Kukunor.  They  returned  to  Peking.  10 
Jan.,  1709.  Their  map  pleased  the  emperor  and  he 
requested  the  continuation  of  the  work  for  the  prov- 
inces outside  the  Great  Wall  and  for  China  proper. 

R^s,  Jartoux,  and  Fr.  Embert  Fridelli,  from  the 
Austnan  Tyrol,  set  out  for  the  northeast.  In  two 
expeditions  (8  May-17  Dec.,  1709;  22  July-14  Dec., 
1710)  they  made  the  map  of  liao-tung  and  Man- 
churia, and  during  the  interval  drew  the  Province  of 
Chi-li  in  which  Peking  is  situated.  In  1711  Fr. 
Francis  Cardoso,  Portuguese,  and  the  Au^ustinian. 
Fr.  Guillaume  Boniour,  the  only  non-Jesuit,  joined 
the  geographers.  R4gis  and  Cardoso  drew  the  map 
of  Shan-tungj  Tartoux,  Fridelli,  and  Bonjour  trav- 
ersed Mongolia  as  far  as  Lake  Baikal  in  the  north  and 
the  entrance  of  eastern  Turkestan  to  Uie  west.  The 
year  1712  brought  a  new  reinforcement:  Frs.  Vincent 
de  Tartre  and  Cardoso  made  the  maps  of  Shan-si  and 
Shen-si  (1712-14),  Kiang-m  and  Kwax^-tung,  and 
Kwang-si;  Frs.  Anne-Marie  de  Mailla.  Roman  Hin- 
derer,  an  Alsatian,  and  R6gis  labourea  (1712-15)  on 
the  maps  of  Hu-nan,  Kiang-nan,  Che-kiang,  Fu-kien. 
and  the  Island  of  Formosa.  Meanwhile  Fridelli  and 
Bonjour  were  at  Sae-chwan  and  Yun-nan,  where  Fr. 
Boniour  died,  23  December,  1714,  and  was  replaced 
by  R^,  24  March,  1715.  He  assisted  Fridelli  with 
the  maps  of  Yun-nan,  Kwei-chow,  and  Hu-kwang. 
After  ten  years'  labour  the  new  map  of  China  was 
completed,  1  Jan.,  1717.  The  fundamental  method 
employed  was  the  exact  measurement  of  distances 
from  which  was  obtained  the  longitude  and  latitude 
of  places;  this,  supplemented  ana  controlled  by  the 
observation  of  the  meridians  of  the  sun  and  the  polar 
stars,  directly  gave  the  latitude.  The  missionaries 
were  sometimes  assisted  by  the  observation  of  eclipses 
of  the  moon  and  the  satellites  of  Jupiter,  of  wnich 
more  perfect  process  they  desired  to  make  use  to  ob- 
tain longitudes,  but  conditions  did  not  permit. 

In  reply  to  a  criticism  6f  Fr^ret,  the  learned  secretary 
of  the  Academic  des  Inscriptions  et  Belle^-Lettres, 
P6re  Gaubil  wrote  (5  November,  1736) :  "When  think- 
ing of  a  map  of  China  and  Tatary  you  had  in  mind 
such  men  as  MM.  Cassini,  Maraldi,  Chazelles,  and 
others  who  worked  at  the  meridian  assisted  by  all  the 
necessary  instruments  and  having  plenty  of  time  at 
their  disposal.  Our  Fathers  made  use  of  the  avoca- 
tion of  map-makers  to  do  missionary  work,  to  procure 
assistance  and  protection  for  the  missionaries  of  the 
provinces,  and  to  establish  new  missions.  The  Chinese 
and  Tatar  mandarins  who  accompanied  them  hindered 
them  exceedingly;  they  had  orders  not  to  let  the 
Fathers  go  where  they  would,  .  .  .  and  would 
never  allow  them  suflocient  time  for  the  observation 
of  meridians,  the  measurement  of  roads,  the  variation 
of  the  needle  (ma^etic  needle),  the  rhomb,  and  the 
estimation  of  positions  from  tliese  elements.  The 
work  being  finished  the  completed  map  had  to  be  sent 
in  haste  to  the  emperor.  .  .  .  Compared  with  what 
was  done  elsewhere  for  general  maps  of  countries 
smaller  than  China  and  Tatary  this  work  can  but  do 
honour  to  the  Tatar  prince  who  commanded  such  a 
worthy  undertaking  and  assuredly  it  did  not  discredit 
our  Fathers.''  This  appreciation  nas  been  fully  justi- 
fied by  the  votes  of  the  best  judges,  among  them  Fer- 
dinand de  Richthof er,  the  famous  geologist  and  explorer 
of  China,  who  writes :  "  If  we  consider  the  time  at  which 
it  was  made,  the  map  of  the  Jesuits,  as  a  whole,  may  be 
called  a  masterpiece^'  (China,  I,  686). 


Riois 


721 


BEGISTEBS 


Fr.  Jartoiix,  who  with  Frs.  R^gis  and  Fridelli  had 
the  largest  share  in  it,  sent  a  copy  to  France^  where  it 
was  publish^  by  Fr.  Du  Halde  with  the  assistance  of 
the  celebrated  geographer  d' Anyille  in  the  "  Descrip- 
tion de  la  Chine '^  (1735).  Fr.  R^gis  composed  a 
short  commentary  on  it  under  the  name  of  **  Nouvelle 
gdographie  de  la  Chine  et  de  la  Tartarie  orientale", 
which  is  preserved  in  the  Biblioth^ue  Nationale, 
Paris,  fr.  MS.  17,  242;  Fr.  Du  Halde  availed  himself 
of  the  writing  to  a  great  extent  but  would  have  done 
better  to  publish  it  entire.  Fr.  R^gis  also  t\imed  his 
attention  to  the  ancient  Chinese  books  (king) .  Father 
Gaubil  praises  his  ^'sane  criticism"  on  the  subject, 
and  the  English  sinologist  James  Legge  writes:  "Rdgis 
is  known  as  the  interpreter  of  the  Yih-king.  His 
work  was  edited  at  Stuttgart,  in  1834,  by  Julius 
MohK  One  part  of  the  first  volume  is  occupied  with 
Prolegomena  which  contain  the  most  valuable  intro- 
duction to  the  Chinese  higher  classics  that  has  yet 
been  published"  (" Notions  of  the  Chinese  concenung 
God  and  the  spirits",  1852,  69).  Father  Gaubil  de- 
scribes his  great  virtues  as  humUity  and  modesty,  and 
sa^:  "he  was  universally  esteemed  and  loved  bv  the 
missionaries  of  various  bodies.  Christians,  and  the 
people  of  the  court  who  associated  with  him". 

Dk  Backbr-Sommervoobl,  Bib.  de  la  Comp.  de  JUut^  VI 
(1596-7):  CoBDiBB,  Biblioiheca  Sinica  (Paris.  1904).  I.  183-7. 
562;  II.  1089.  1372;  Bruckbb  in  Revue  dea  que^ione  hiatoriquee 
(1  April.  1881).  497;  (1  April.  1885).  512;  Idbm  in  Revue  du  monde 
eatholique  (1  Dec,  1883).  711-2;  for  the  map  of  China  aee  Du 
Halde.  Description  giographique  .  .  .  de  la  Chine  et  de  la 
Tartarie,  I,  IV  (Paris.  1735);  LeUrea  idifiantea  (Paria.  1720), 
14*  Reo..  3*  sq.:  d'Anyillb.  Mtmoire  awr  lea  Carlea  giographiauea 
inaerlea  dana  Vouvraqe  eompoaS  par  le  P.  Du  Halde  eur  la  Chine 
(Peking  and  Paria,  1776) ;  Bbuckbr.  Sur  FexiciUion  dee  oartea  de 
la  Chine  par  lea  miaaionairea  du  XVIII*  sikde,  d'apria  dea  docw 
menu  inidiia  in  IV*  Congrha  international  dea  acieneea  gioffraph- 
iquea  Unu  d  Paria  en  1889,  I  (Paris,  1890).  378-96. 

J08£PH  BrUCKER. 

R6gi8y  PiSBRE  Stlvain,  b.  at  La  Salvetat  de 
Blanquefort,  near  Agen,  in  1632;  d.  in. Paris,  in  1707. 
After  his  classical  studies,  he  came  to  Paris,  followed 
the  lectures  of  Rohault  at  the  Sorbonne  and  be- 
came a  warm  admirer  and  partisan  of  tne  philosophy 
of  Descartes.  He  then,  with  great  success,  taught 
the  principles  of  Cartesianism  at  Toulouse  (16(^), 
Aigues-Mortes,  Montpellier  (1671),  and  Paris  (1680). 
The  prohibition  issued  about  that  time  against  the 
teaching  of  Cartesianism  (cf.  Cousin,  '^Fragments 
philo8ophiques'\  5th  ed.,  Paris,  1866,  III)  put  an  end 
to  his  lectures.  He  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  in  1699.  His  chief  work  is  his 
''Coui%  entier  de  philosophie  ou  Svstdme  g^n^ral 
selon  les  principes  de  Descartes"  (3  vols.,  Paris,  1690), 
where  he  presented  in  a  systematic  way  the 
principles  oi  the  Cartesian  philosophy.  Stron^v 
opposed  to  Malebranche's  idealism,  against  which 
he  wrote  several  articles  in  the  "Journal  des  Savants" 
(1693  and  1694),  lUgis  modified  the  system  of 
Descartes  on  various  points  in  the  direction  of 
empiricbm.  He  denied  that  the  human  soul  has 
innate  and  eternal  ideas,  maintained  that  all  our 
ideas  are  modifications  of  the  soul  imited  to  the  body 
and  that  we  can  know  our^  bodv  and  extension  as 
immediately  as  our  soul  aiid  thought.  His  book 
having  been  criticized  by  Huet  and  Duhamel,  he 
then  wrote  his  "R^ponse  au  livre  qui  a  pour  titre 
Censura  philosophise  Cartesianae' *  (Pans,  1691), 
and  "R^ponse  aux  reflexions  critioues  de  M.  Du- 
hamel sur  le  systdme  cart^ian  de  M.  R4gis"  (Paris, 
1692).  Among  his  other  works  we  may  also  mention 
his  "  Usage  de  la  raison  et  de  la  foi,  ou  Taccord  de  la 
raison  et  de  la  foi",  with  a  "Refutation  de  I'opinion 
de  Spinoza,  touchant  Texistence  et  la  nature  de 
Dieu''.     ' 

FoNTBNBLUB,  Bloge  de  Rtgia  in  (Euvrea,  VI  (Paria,  1790); 
BoBDAA-DuMOUUN,  Le  Cartiaianiame  ou  la  viritable  rinovalion 
dea  acieneea,  I  (Paria.  1843);  Daiiibon,  Baaai  aur  Vhiatoire  de  la 
philoaophie  carUaienne  au  X  VII*  aiiele,  XI  (Paris,  1846) ;  Bouity- 
UBB,  Hiaioire  de  la  phUoaophie  cartiaienne,  I  (3rd  ed.,  Paria,  1868) ; 

XII.— 46 


Fbanck  in  DieUonnaire  dea  acieneea  philoaophiquea,  a.  v.,  an  es- 
tract  from  the  preceding  work. 

George  M.  Sauvaqe. 

Registen,  Parochial. — One  having  the  cure  of 
souls  is  commanded  by  Divine  precept  to  know  his 
subjects  (Cone.  Trid.,  sess.  XXIII,  c.  i,  "De  Ref."). 
The  better  to  fulfil  this  obligation,  and  because,  more- 
over, of  the  historical  importance  and  probatoiy  force 
of  public  records,  a  pastor  must  have  five  distinct 
parish  regbters:  one  each  of  baptisms,  confirmations, 
marriages,  and  deaths;  and  a  fifth  containing  a  census 
or  general  account  of  the  state  of  souls  in  the  parish. 
Definite  forms  for  entries  in  these  books  are  prescribed 
by  the  Ritual.  Every  public  document /should  bear 
the  place,  date,  and  nature  of  the  act  inscribed,  the 
name  of  the  one  officiating,  the  names  of  the  parties 
concerned  and  the  witnesses  present,  and  the  si^pa- 
ture  of  the  proper  official.  The  Cnurch  prescribes 
that  in  her  parochial  registers  all  persons  be  designated 
not  only  by  name,  but  likewise  by  parentage  and 
parish;  that  the  office,  e.  g.  rector,  curate,  of  tne  one 
officiating  be  mentioned;  that  the  record  be  complete, 
i.  e.  giving  every  necessary  detail  to  remove  all  doubt 
and  uncertainty,  regarding  the  validity  of  the  act  in 
(luestion,  or  the  observance  of  prescribed  formal- 
ities. 

A  baptismal  registry,  consequently,  will  also  record 
the  fact  of  legitimacy,  date  of  birtn,  and  name  or 
names  imposed.  If  the  sacrament  is  conferred  pri- 
vately, conditionally,  or  the  ceremonies  are  merely 
supplied,  such  should  appear  in  the  record.  The  en- 
try will  show  when,  where,  and  by  whom  a  foundling 
was  discovered,  and  the  age,  presumably,  of  the  child. 
The  baptism  of  one  bom  out  of  wedlock  is  recorded 
with  the  name  of  either  known  (not  reputed)  parent. 
In  no  public  register  however  is  any  derogator^r  or 
defamatory  note  allowed.  To  safeguard  reputation, 
records  at  times,  particularly  of  certain  marriages, 
are  preserved  in  a  secret  register.  A  new  feature  ("  Ne 
temere",  can.  ix,  f  2)  in  baptismal  records  is  a  mar- 
ginal note  of  the  subsequent  marriaee  of  the  baptized 
person.  Future  legislation  may  make  this  obligatory 
also,  when  one  receives  Holy  Orders  or  enters  re- 
ligion. 

In  the  registration  of  confirmation,  as  well  as 
of  baptism,  sponsors  are  to  be  carefuHy  noted, 
owinp  to  the  spiritual  relationship  which  arises.  A 
matnmonial  record  should  state  whether  the  banns 
(q.  V.)  were  published;  what  dispensation^  if  any,  was 
obtained  and  applied;  that  the  priest  officiating  was 
duly  delegated,  if  such  be  the  case;  that  the  consent 
of  the  parties  was  asked  and  given  ('^Ne  temere". 
can.  iv,  §  3).  If  later  a  recorded  marriage  is  declarea 
null  by  the  Church,  or,  having  been  found  to  be 
invalidj  has  been  renderea  valid  in  the  external  forum, 
a  marginal  note,  duly  attested,  will  contain  this  infor- 
mation. Death  records  state  what  sacraments  the 
deceased  received  in  preparation  for  death,  by  whom 
they  were  administered,  and  place  of  burial.  Lastly 
an  official  registration  of  all  parishioners  is  kept,  giving 
name,  family,  age,  residence,  whether  they  have  made 
their  First  Oammunion,  been  confirmed,  made  their 
Easter  duty,  etc. 

All  entries  in  parochial  registers  are  to  be  made  in 
Latin  and  by  the  pastor,  even  though  he  may  not  have 
officiated.  Practice  however  tolerates  in  the  vernacu- 
lar records  of  deaths  (Cone.  Bait.  Plen^  II,  n.  223) 
and  of  the  general  state  of  the  parish.  To  the  pastor 
belongs  the  custody  of  these  books;  every  poeable 
care  must  be  taken  to  preserve  them  from  destruction, 
injury,  or  falsification.  These  records  are  public  in- 
struments, and  as  such  constitute  perfect  proof 
of  the  fact,  which  they  record.  Such  proof  would 
naturally  be  sought  in  the  parish:  parochial  registers 
consequently  should  record  baptisms,  marriages^ 
etc.  of  parishioners,  though  the  event  chronicled  take 
place  elsewhere. 


BEQIUM 


722 


BEOULABS 


Cone.  Trid.,  *«•«.  XXIV,  c.  i.  "De  ref.  Matr.'*-,  RittuOe  Ro- 
manum,  tit.  10.  co.  ii  sq. ;  Gaspabbi,  TraekUiu  Canoniciu  de  rmUr.^ 
nn.  1276  sq. 

Andrew  B.  Meehan. 

Rogium  Placet.    See  Exequatur. 

Begnaulti  Henri  Victor,  chemist  and  physicist, 
b.  at  Aachen,  21  July,  1810;  d.  in  Paris,  19  Jan.,  1878. 
Being  left  an  orphan  at  the  age  of  eight  he  was  soon 
obliged  to  work  in  order  to  provide  for  himself  and 
his  sister.  Up  to  the  age  of  eighteen  he  worked  as  a 
clerk  in  a  drapery  establishment  in  Paris,  but  made 
use  of  all  his  spare  time  in  stud^in^,  imtil  he  was  re- 
ceived at  the  Kcole  Polytechnique  m  1830.  In  1832 
he  entered  the  School  of  Mines,  was  graduated,  and  in 
1835  he  was  attached  to  the  chemical  laboratory  of 
the  school,  becoming  professor  and  adjunct  director 
in  1838,  and  remainmg  until  his  call  to  the  chair  of  ^ 
physics  at  the  Collie  de  France.  Up  till  then  he 
nad  been  working  in  the  comparatively  new  field 
of  organic  chemistry,  chiefly  in  i>roducing  new  com- 

Eounds  by  the  method  of  substituting  chlorine  for 
ydrogen  equivalents  in  hydro-carbons.  The  re- 
sults were  puolished  in  eighteen  memoirs  in  the  *' An- 
nates de  Chimie  et  de  Physique''  and  earned  for  him 
the  election  as  member  of  the  Chemical  Section 
of  the  Academy  of  Sciences.  In  1843  he  was  com- 
missioned by  the  Government  to  investigate  the 
properties  of  steam  and  to  obtain  numerical  data 
that  should  be  of  value  to  the  steam  engineer.  The 
results  were  published  in  1847,  aR  vol.  XXI  of 
the  "M^moires"  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences.  They 
obtidned  for  him  the  Rumford  Medal  of  the  RoyaJ 
Society  of  London^  and  the  exceptional  appoint- 
ment as  Chief  Engmeer  of  Mines.  In  1852  he  be- 
came Director  of  the  porcelain  manufactory  at  Sdvres, 
where  he  continued  his  experiments  until  his  laboratory, 
instruments  and  papers  were  destroyed  during  the 
Franco-German  War,  in  1871.  This,  together  with 
the  loss  of  his  talented  son,  a  well-known  painter, 
broke  his  spirit,  and  a  stroke  of  apoplexy  in  1873  was 
followed  by  years  of  long,  slow  agony.  Daubr^ 
says  of  him,  that  ''only  nis  religious  faith  could 
console  him,  and  this  consolation  was  not  wanting". 

His  invaluable  work  was  done  as  a  skilful,  thorough, 
patient  experimenter  in  determining  the  specific 
neat  of  solids,  liquids,  gases,  and  the  vapour-tensions 
of  water  and  other  volatile  liquids,  as  well  as  their 
latent  heat  at  different  temperatures.  He  corrected 
Mariotte's  law  of  gases  concerning  'the  variation  of 
the  density  with  the  pressure,  determined  the  coef- 
ficients of  expansion  of  air  and  other  gases,  devised 
new  methods  of  investigation  and  invented  accurate 
instruments.  Two  laws  governing  the  specific  heat 
of  gases  are  named  after  him.  This  mass  of  numeri- 
cal data  are  recognized  as  standards  by  the  engineer 
as  well  as  by  the  physical  chemist. 

He  was  a  foreign  member  of  the  Royal  Society  of 
London,  received  its  highest  honour,  the  Copley 
Medal,  in  1869,  and  in  1863  was  made  Commander 
of  the  Legion  of  Honour. 

"Cours  ^l^mentaire  de  Chimie''  was  published  in 
1849  at  Paris,  and  received  several  later  editions. 
"Premiers  616ment8  de  Chimie",  Paris,  1850,  6th 
ed.,  1874.  is  a  shorter  work.  "Relations  des  ex- 
periences", etc.,  1847-70,  were  collected  in  3  vols., 
Paris.  1870. 

J.  H.  NoBTON  in  Natture,  XVII  (Londoq.  1878),  263;  Voqt, 
Pop.  Se.  My.  13.  20  (New  York,  1878) ;  Dumas,  Eloge  historique 
de  Ji.  V.  RegnauU  (Paria,  1881) ;  Debray.  Jamin,  DAXTBuiB.  and 
Laboulats, />Mcour«.  etc.,  in  Comptea  Rendtu,  LXXXVI.  131-43 
(Paris.  1878);  Berthblot.  Science  et  philoe.  (Paris,  1886),  218. 

William  Fox. 

RegulsB  Juris  (rules  of  law),  general  rules  or  prin- 
ciples serving  chieflv  for  the  interpretation  of  laws. 
In  a  specific  sense,  nowever,  reguUe  juris  are  certain 
fundamental  laws  in  the  form  of  axioms  found  in  the 
"Corpus  Juris",  eleven  inserted  by  Gregory  IX  at 


the  end  of  the  fifth  Book  of  Decretals,  eighty-eight 
by  Boniface  VIII  in  the  last  title  of  Liber  Sextus 
Decretalium.    These  rules  are  an  exposition  of  several 
laws  on  the  same  subject,  conclusions  or  deductions, 
rather  than  principles,  or  law  drawn  from  constitu- 
tions and  decisions,  and  consequently  reserved  to  the 
last  title  of  the  two  books  mentioned,  in  imitation  of 
Justinian  in  the  "Digest"  (L,  1,  tit.  17).    While  these 
rules  are  of  great  importance  it  must  be  remembered 
that  few  general  statements  are  without  exception. 
Some  of  these  axioms  are  applicable  in  all  matters, 
others  are  confined  to  judicial  trial3.  benefices,  etc.   As 
examples  the  following  are  t£^en  from  Liber  Sextus: 
No  one  can  be  held  to  the  impossible  (6);  Time  does 
not  heal  what  was  invalid  from  the  beEUining  (18); 
What  is  not  allowed  the  defendant,  is  denied  to  the 
plaintiff  (32);  What  one  is  not  permitted  to  do  in  his 
own  name,  he  may  not  do  through  another  (47). 

Rkutbnstubl,  Jua.  Canon.  (Antwerp,  1755),  tr.  De  ReguHa 
Jiaria;  Wbrns,  Jue  Decretalium^  I  (Rome.  1898),  n.  140;  Taun- 
ton, The  Law  of  the  Church  (London,  1906). 

Andrew  B.  ^eehan. 

Regular  Canons.  See  Canons  and  Canonesses 
Regular. 

Regular  Clerks  Blinor.  See  Francis  Carao 
cioLo,  Saint. 

Regulars  (Lat.  repidaf  rule). — ^The  observance  of 
the  Rule  of  St.  Benedict  procured  for  the  monks  at  an 
early  period  the  name  of ''  regulars " .  The  Coimcil  of 
Vemeuil  (755)'to  refers  to  them  in  its  third  canon,  and 
in  its  eleventh  canon  speaks  of  the  ''ordo  regularis" 
as  opposed  to  the  ''ordo  canonicus",  formed  by  the 
canons  who  liv^  under  the  bishop  according  to  the 
canonical  regulations.  There  was  question  idso  of  a 
"reffula  canonicorum'',  or  '^regula  canonica".  espe- 
cial^ after  the  extension  of  the  rule  which  St.  Chrode- 
gang.  Bishop  of  Metz,  had  drawn  up  from  the  sacred 
canons  (766)  [cf.  capitularies  (n.  69  circa  810,  n. 
138  of  818,  aXO;  ed.  Alf.  Boretii)].  And  when  the 
canons  were  divided  into  two  classes  in  the  eleventh 
century,  it  was  natural  to  call  those  who  added 
rehsious  poverty  to  their  conunon  life  regulars, 
and  those  who  gave  up  the  common  life  sec- 
ulars. Before  this  we  find  mention  of  "sseculares 
canonici''  in  the  Chronicle  of  St.  Bertin  (821)  (Mar- 
tdne,  Anecdot.,  Ill,  505).  In  fact  as  the  monks  were 
said  to  leave  the  world  (St.  Augustine,  Serm.  49  de 
div.),  sometimes  those  persons  who  were  neither 
clerics  nor  monks  were  called  seculars,  as  at  times 
were  clerics  not  boimd  by  the  rule.  Sometimes  also 
the  name ''  regulars  "  was  applied  to  the  canons  regular 
to  distinguish  them  from  monks.  Thus  the  collection 
of  Gratian  (about  1139),  C.  xix,  q.  2,  c.  2  and  9. 3,  c.  1, 
speaks  of  canons  regular,  who  make  canonical  pro- 
fession, and  live  in  a  regular  canonicate,  in  opposition 
to  monks  who  wear  the  monastic  habit,  and  r five  in  a 
monastery.  But  the  Decretals  of  Gregory  IX,  pro- 
mulgated 5  Sept.,  1234,  use  the  word  "regularis"  in  a 
more  general  sense,  in  book  III,  ch.  xxxi,  which  is 
entitled  "De  regularibus  et  transeuntibus  ad  reli- 
gionem".  However  in  ch.  xxxv  ''De  statu  monach- 
orum  et  canonicorum  regularium''  the  distinction  re- 
turns, disappearing  in  the  corresponding  book  and 
chapter  of  the  Decretals  of  Boniface  VIII  (3  March, 
1298),  t.  XVI,  in  6,  which  is  entitled  merely  "  De  statu 
regulariiim"  and  reappearing  in  the  collection  of 
Clementines  (25  Oct.,  1317)  but  with  the  conjunction 
vel^  which  indicates  the  resemblance  between  them. 
(Although  another  edition  has  et.  the  title  of  ch.  x,  c.  3 
Clem,  in  the  official  edition  reads  "De  statu  monach- 
orum,  vel  canonicorum  regularium".) 

From  that  time,  while  the  word  "religious"  is  more 
generally  used,  the  word  "regular"  is  reserved  for 
members  of  religious  orders  with  solenm  vows.  It 
means  strictly  those  religious  who  have  made  solemn 


BEICHENAU 


723 


BEICHENSBEBGEB 


profession.  Those  who  have  taken  simple  vows  in 
the  Society  of  Jesus  are  also  regulars  in  the  proper 
sense  according  to  the  Constitution  '^  Ascendente  of 
Gregory  XIII.  Writers  are  not  all  agreed  on  the 
question  whether  the  religious  of  other  orders  can 
properly,  be  called  regulars  before  solemn  profession. 
The  novices  of  religious  orders  are  regulars  only  in  the 
wider  meaning  of  the  word. 

A.  Vermeersch. 

Reichenau,  called  Augia  dives  in  medieval  Latin 
MSS.  and  possessing  a  once  celebrated  Benedictine 
monastery,  is  an  island  upon  the  Gnadensee  (Untersee) 
of  the  Lake  of  Ck)nstance,  about  one  mile  in  breadth  and 
about  three  and  three-quarter  miles  lon^.  It  belon^p 
to  Baden,  and  has  1600  Catholic  inhabitants,  princi- 
pally vintagers  and  fishermen,  distributed  among 
three  villages,  Oberzell,  Mittelzell,  and  Unterzell  (or 
Niederzell) .  Since  1838  the  island  has  been  connected 
with  the  mainland  by  a  dam.  one  and  a  quarter  mfles 
in  len^h,  and  with  the  railroad  station  of  Reiche- 
nau  (via  Constance).  There  is  a  calling  station  for 
steamers  on  the  southern  shore.  The  word  ^'Zell" 
(cell)  in  the  names  of  the  three  villages  of  Reichenau 
indicates  the  existence  of  a  monastery  on  the  island, 
which  was  the  "reiche  Aue"  (the  fertile  islet)  of 
medieval  culture.  Under  the  protection  and  at  the 
Bu^estion  of  Charles  Mantel,  the  Anglo-Saxon  (?), 
Saint  Pirmin  founded,  with  the  co-operation  of  Count 
lierthold  and  the  Alemannian  Duke  Santfrid  I  (Nebi), 
the  famous  Benedictine  monastery  of  Reichenau^ 
which  in  earlier  times,  until  the  tenth  century,  bore 
the  name  of  Sintleosesau  (Sintlas  Ow).  Reichenau 
had  attained  its  full  glory  when  the  Abbey  of  St.  Gall 
was  still  comparativelv  unimportant.  In  spite  of  St. 
Pirmin's  banishment  from  his  monastery  through  the 
political  machinations  of  the  Alemannian  prince, 
Reichenau  soon  recovered  its  importance.  His  im- 
mediate successor.  Abbot  Hedao  (727-34),  later 
Bishop  of  Strasburg,  shared  the  fate  of  the  founder. 
The  ^wth  of  Reichenau  was  greatly  fostered  by  its 
position  on  the  highway  to  Italy,  which  was  fre- 
quented by  Greek  and  Italian,  and  even  Irish  ^and 
Icelandic  pilgrims  and  wayfarers.  These  became 
guests  at  the  monastery  and  enriched  it  with  gifts  of 
precious  relics,  some  of  which  are  still  preserveof  in  the 
church  treasury.  Among  other  relics  was  one  of 
sp^ial  value,  a  cross  with  the  blood  of  Christ,  which 
was  said  to  have  been  brought  by  an  Arabian  named 
Hassan  to  Charlemagne,  and  to  have  been  confided 
to  the  custody  of  Reichenau  in  925.  The  monastery 
also  gloried  in  the  possession  of  relics  of  St.  Mark, 
brou^t  to  Reichenau  from  Venice  in  830.  On  his 
homeward  journey  from  St.  Maurice  with  the  relics 
of  St.  Maurice  and  other  saints.  Bishop  Ulrich  of 
Augsburg  stayed  at  Reichenau,  and,  at  the  petition 
of  Abbot  Alewich  (934-58),  gave  a  large  portion  of  the 
relics  of  Saint  Maurice  to  the  monastery  [cf.  Schmid, 
*'St.  Ub-ich,  Bischof  von  Augsburg  (890-973)", 
Augsburg,  1901,  p.  28].  Bishop  Egino  of  Verona  re- 
sided in  Reichenau,  and  built  (799)  the  parish  church 
of  St.  Peter  at  Niederzell,  a  small  Roman  basilica  with 
two  towersj  whither  he  retired  to  lead  the  life  of  a 
hermit,  dying  in  802.  His  monument  still  exists. 
The  property  of  the  monastery  was  composed  prin- 
cipal^ of  donations  made  by  Cfharlemagne,  Louis  the 
Pious,  Charles  thie  Fat  (who  is  interred  at  Reichenau 
in  the  monastery  church  of  Mittelzell),  and  many 
other  German  kings  and  emperors,  especially  of  the 
House  of  Otto.  The  consequence  of  these  royal 
favours  was  the  rapid  growth  of  the  monastery  in 
importance,  being  granted  successively  immunity 
from  secular  authority,  jurisdicHo  fori  the  status  of  a 
principality  of  the  empire,  and  complete  exemption 
from  episcopal  jurisdiction. 

Reichenau  displayed  its  greatest  lustre  in  the  first 
centuries  after  its  foundation  (especially  between  the 


ninth  and  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  centuries), 
during  which  it  discharged  its  great  work  of  civiliza- 
tion The  men  most  prominent  for  scholarship  and 
ability  during  this  period  laboured  at  Reichenau — 
e.  g.  Walfrid  Strabo  (839^9);  Hatto  (891-913),  from 
891  Archbishop  of  Mainz;  Berno  (1008-48),  appointed 
by  Emperor  Henry  II  successor  of  the  uncultured 
Abbot  Immo,  who  had  been  thrust  upon  the  monas- 
tery by  the  same  emperor;  St.  Meinrad  (Meynrad). 
Count  of  Zollem  (d.  861),  the  hermit  and  founded  ot 
Maria-Einsiedeln,  who  came  from  the  monasterv 
of  Reichenau;  moreover,  Hermann  Contractus  (d. 
1054),  the  acute  scholar  and  historiographer,  author 
of  the  Salve  Regina.  The  last  was  a  relative  of  St. 
Ulrich.  These  and  other  scholars  laboured  at 
Reichenau  and  formed  the  famous  Reichenau  library 
and  school  of  painters  (Codex  Egberti).  The  Reiche- 
nau school  of  painting  is  seen  at  its  best  even  to- 
day in  the  single  extant  work  of  the  tenth  century — 
the  eight  pictures  on  the  upper  part  of  the  walls  of 
the  Httle  Roman  basilican  parish  church  (St.  Georgs- 
kirche)  at  Oberzell — and  in  the  paintings  on  the  walls 
of  the  church  of  St.  Peter  at  Niederzell,  which  belong 
to  the  first  half  of  the  eleventh  century,  and  were  dis- 
covered bv  Ktlnstle  and  Begerle  in  1901  (consult 
Kdnstle,  '^Die  KUnst  des  Klosters  Reichenau  im  IX. 
und  X.  Jahrhundert,''  Freiburg,  1906).  As  a  con- 
sequence of  its  prosperity,  laxity  and  decay  came  upon 
the  monastery,  and  caused  its  incorporation  with  the 
Diocese  of  Constance  in  1541.  The  bishops  of  Con- 
stance thus  became  commendatory  abbots,  and  the 
personnel  of  the  monastery  was  reduced  to  twelve 
monks  (inclusive  of  the  prior)  and  a  small  number  of 
novices.  In  1757  the  few  remaining  monks  were 
forcibly  removed  to  other  monastmes,  and  the 
novitiate  abolished.  Members  of  neighbouring  mon- 
asteries performed  the  religious  services  at  Reichenau 
imtil  the  monastery  was  secularized  in  1802. 

Oesterley,  HUtor.-geograph.  WOrUrbuch  det  dtutscken  Mittd^ 
aUert  (Gotha,  1881),  554-56;  Wattbnbach,  Deutsehiand*  O^ 
achichtsquellen  im  MiOdaUer,  I  (7th  ed..  Berlin,  1904),  277  aqq., 
439  sqq.;  BOtticser,  Germania  tura  (Leipiig,  1875),  1206  aqq. 
The  entire  literature  dealing  with  Reichenau  and  its  school  « 
painters  may  be  obtained  in  BodUche  Bibliothek,  11.  Lande*^  u, 
Volki  — 


^olkskunde  (Karlsruhe,  1901),  604-09. 


UlBICH  SqHMID. 


Reichenaberger,  Auqust,  politician  and  author, 
b.  at  Coblenz,  22  March,  1808;  d.  at  Cologne,  16 
Jul}r.  1895.  He  studied  jurisprudence  at  Bonn, 
Heidelberg,  and  Berlin  (1827-30),  entered  the  Prus- 
sian civil  service  as  auscultator  (1830),  travelled 
through  France  (1833)  and  Italy  (1839-40),  became 
counsel  in  the  land  court  at  Cologne  (1841)  and  Trier 
(1844),  visited  England  (1846),  became  chamber- 
president  in  the  kmd  court  (1848)  and  counsel  of 
appeal  (1849)  at  Cologne  until  his  retirement  from 
civil  service  in  1875.  Except  for  the  interval  1863- 
70,  he  was  actively  engaged  as  a  parliamentarian 
from  1848  to  1885,  in  the  Frankfort  Parliament, 
Prussian  National  Assembly,  and  Erfurt  Volkshaus. 
From  1851  to  1863  he  was  a  member  of  the  Prussian 
Second  Chamber,  being  one  of  the  founders  and  in- 
fluential leader  of  the  Catholic  party.  Elected  dele- 
gate to  the  Second  Chamber  for  three  districts,  he  chose 
Coblenz  as  his  constituency  (1870-3) ;  he  represented 
Cologne  (1879-85)  and  was  a  member  of  the  Reich- 
stag (1871-84).  Co-founder  of  the  Centre,  tireless 
in  his  attention  to  parliamentary  duties,  and  ex- 
ercising a  beneficent  influence  over  his  party,  thou^ 
Windthorst  was  the  actual  leader,  Reichensberger  was 
highly  esteemed  as  an  orator  even  by  his  political 
opponents.  Though  a  sceptic  in  his  youth,  he  re- 
turned to  the  Faith,  deeply  impressed  by  the  im- 
Srisonment  of  Archbishop  Clemens  August  (1837). 
[e  took  an  active  share  m  the  Catholic  movement, 
was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Borromseus  Society 
(1848),  keenly  interested  in  the  budding  Cathohc 
press,  presided  at  the  Catholic  Congress  of  Cologne 


BEICHENSBEROEB 


724 


BEITFENSTUXL 


(1858).  and  championed  religious  freedom  at  numer- 
ous otner  gatherings. 

He  was  an  outspoken  friend  of  art  and  praised 
Gothic  in  his  writmgs.  He  was  ''not  a  real  his- 
torian or  archsologist,  nor  a  philosopher  in  the  domain 
of  art,  but  chiefly  a  practical  apostle  for  the  revival 
of  a  pure,  German  art  incorporating  Christian  ideas" 
(Pastor).  Until  the  end  of  his  life  he  pr9moted  the 
completion  of  the  (Dologne  Cathedral,  by  word  and 
pen,  and  founded  (1841)  at  (Doblenz  the  first  Dom- 
bauverein  (cathedral  buildine  society).  The  fresh, 
cheerful,  amiable,  and  kindly  personality  of  this 
versatile  man  exercised  a  powerful  influence.  Op- 
posed to  extreme  theories,  he  maintained  a  temperate 
attitude  in  both  secular  and  ecclesiastical  politics. 
A  list  of  his  numerous  literary  productions  covers 
twenty-five  printed  pages  (Pastor,  II,  449),  and  con- 
tains mainly  occasion^  writings  which  appeared  in 
newspapers  and  magazines.  Most  of  his  separately 
published  works  were  concerned  with  art,  history, 
and  criticism:  ''Christliche  germanische  Baukunst 
(1845) ;  "Fingerzeige  auf  dem  Gebiete  der  kirchlichen 
Kunst "  (1854) ;  "  Vermischte  Schriften  liber  kirehliche 
Kunst"  (1856);  ''Eine  kurze  Rede  und  eine  lange 
Vorrede  iiber  kunst"  (1863);  works  on  Merian,  G. 
G.  Ungewitter,  Pugin,  etc.  Of  importance  also  were 
his  political  writings,  "Die  Wahlen  zum  Hause  der 
Abgeordneten "  (1858)  the  often  reprinted  **Buchlein 
Phrasen  und  Schlagworter"  (1862),  etc.,  and  his 
"Essay  uber  Shakespere"  (1871).  His  juridical 
studies  are  most  poorly  represented. 

Pastor,  A.  Reichensberger,  sexn  Leben  u.  «eiH  Wirken  auf  dem 
Gebiete  der  PolUik,  der  Kunst  u.  der  Wissenschafl.  Mit  Ben^zung 
aeines  ungedrUckten  Nachlaesea  (2  vols.,  Freiburg,  1899);  Kbaus 
in  MUnchener  AUgem.  Zeitung  (1900);  GObres  in  the  StcuUt- 
lexicon.  HERMANN   CaRDAUNS. 

J  Reichenabergery  Peter,  jurist  and  parliamen- 
tarian, b.  at  Coblenz,  28  May,  1810;  d.  at  Berlin, 
31  December,  1892.  He  studied  at  Bonn  and  Heidel- 
berg, and  was  successively  counsellor  at  Coblenz 
(1843),  of  the  court  of  appeal  at  Cologne  (1850),  and 
of  the  supreme  court  of  Berlin  (1859)  until  its  dis- 
solution (1879).  From  1848  he  was  active* as  a 
parliamentarian  in  the  P*russian  Diet,  the  Erfurt 
Volkshaus,  the  Prussian  second  chamber  (1849), 
the  constituent  North-German  Reichstag  (1857), 
the  Customs'  Parliament  (1868),  and  the  German 
Reichstag,  representing  in  the  last-mentioned  the 
same  district  from  1871  to  his  death.  From  the  first 
we  find  him  labouring  in  close  connexion  with  his 
elder  brother  August,  and,  like  the  latter,  he  defended 
the  Rhenish  system  of  laws  against  the  minister  von 
Kamptz  ("Oenentlichkeit,  Mtindlichkeit  und  Schwur- 
gericnte",  1834).  Like  liis  brother  he  collaborated 
with  the  author  in  de  Failly's  much-discussed  book 
(De  la  Prusse,  1842),  and  they  jointly  drew  up  a  peti- 
tion for  electoral  reform  (1847).  In  the  same  year 
was  published  one  of  his  best  works:  ''Die  Agrar- 
frage  aus  dem  Gesichtspunkt  der  Nationaldkonomie, 
der  Politik  und  des  Rechts".  In  1858,  when  a  col- 
lection of  their  parliamentary  speeches  appeared,  the 
brothers  published  their  political  programme  in  the 
pamphlet  "Die  Wahlen  zum  preussischen  Abgeord- 
netenhause'',  and  two  years  later  "Deutschlands 
n&chste  Aufgaben  fiir  die  Zukunff.  Shoulder  to 
Moulder  the  two  Dioscuri  toiled  in  the  defence  of 
constitutional  monarchy  against  Radicalism  and  of 
religious  autonomy  against  bureaucratic  enslave- 
ment. Less  versatile  than  his  brother,  Peter  sur- 
passed him  in  iuristic  keenness  and  intellectual 
depth.  In  special  writings  he  combatted  the  income 
tax  (1850),  the  abolition  of  the  usury  laws  (1860), 
and  the  com  tax  (1887).  At  the  request  of  the  minis- 
try of  justice  he  drafted  a  mortgage  law  (1851). 
Five  years  later  he  wrote  on  free  agricultural  laws, 
in  1872  on  the  relation  between  Church  and  State, 
in   1876  on  the  KuUurkampf  and  peace  between 


Church  and  State.  In  1882  appeared  his  experiences 
of  an  old  parliamentarian  in  tne  revolutionary  year 
1848.  Though  co-founder  and  leader  of  the  Centre, 
he  followed  in  many  individual  questions  his  own 
views,  e.  g.  in  the  extension  of  the  socialist  law  and 
in  the  question  of  the  septennate. 

GObrea  in  StaaUlexikon  der  Qdrre»geseUachafl  (3rd  wL,  1011). 

Hermann  Cardauns. 

Reif enatein,  a  former  Cistercian  abbey  in  EHchs- 
feld,  founded  on  1  August,  1162.  by  Count  Elmst 
of  Tonna.  It  was  first  called  Albolderode  and  be- 
longed to  the  electorate  of  Mainz.  The  monks,  who 
came  from  the  monastery  of  Volkerode  near  MiUil- 
hausen,  displayed  a  brisk  economic  activity,  and 
in  the  thirteenth  century  acouired  about  fifty  estates 
in  the  neighbourhood.  Little  is  known  of  the  domes- 
tic life  of  the  abbey,  even  the  sequence  of  the  abbots 
being  uncertain.  A  monk,  Heinrich  Pfeifer,  left 
Reifenstein  in  1521,  became  a  Lutheran,  preached 
rebellion  in  his  native  town  Muhlhausen,  shared  the 
leadership  with  Thomas  Miinzer  in  the  Thurin^pan 
Peasants  War,  and  in  May,  1525,  reduced  Reuen- 
stein  to  ashes.  After  the  battle  of  Frankenhausen 
Pfeifer  was  seized  near  Eisenach  and  executed;  he 
died  impenitent.  In  1524  only  six  monks  were  left 
in  Reifenstein,  which  underwent  a  complete  decline; 
in  1539  one  remained,  and  the  monastery  was  soon 
deserted.  In  1575  there  was  a  single  monk,  and  in 
1579,  five  or  six,  but  they  led  so  lawless  a  life  that 
Reifenstein,  according  to  a  contemporary  report, 
resembled  a  robbers'  cave.  The  church  was  restored 
in  1582.  The  exemplary  Abbot  Philipp  Busse  (158^ 
1639)  re-establishea  discipline  and  order.  During 
the  Thirty  Years'  War  the  monastery  was  pillaged 
seven  times  and  almost  reduced  to  ashes.  Abbot 
Philipp  was  carried  off  as  a  prisoner,  and  six  or  seven 
monks  were  murdered.  The  other  monks  sought 
shelter  in  caves,  and  begged  bread  from  the  peasants. 
The  revival  of  the  monastery  was  mainly  due  to 
the  learned  Abbot  Wilhelm  Streit  (1690-1721).  In 
1738  it  had  twenty-four  members,  and  survived  the 
distress  of  the  Seven  Years'  War.  In  1802  the  abbey 
fell  to  Prussia,  was  abolished  on  2  March,  1803,  and 
became  a  royal  domain.  The  last  abbot  was  Antonius 
Ldffler  (d.  1823).  At  present,  agriculture  and  a  school 
of  domestic  science  for  young  women  are  carried  on 
at  Reifenstein.  The  imposing  church,  built  in  1743, 
is  used  as  a  shed. 

WoLP,  Poliiisehe  GeechJ  dcM  Eiehnfdde*  (OAtUngen.  1703), 
pewn'm;  Idem,  Eicha/eldisehe  Kirchengeech.  (Gdttingen, .  1816), 
paanm;  Duval,  D<ia  Eichafeld  (Sondershauaen,  1846),  19-120; 
DTURXBR,  Reifenetein  im  Eichafelde  in  Cietercieneer-Chronik,  VIII 
(BregeDi,  1896),  1-10.  33-43.  6.S-74,  102-8;  Schnkiokkwisth. 
Da»  einstxge  Cistercienaerkloeter  Reifenstein  (Heiliceostadt,  1902): 
Knicb,  Qeach.  der  Reformation  u.  Oegenr^.  auf  dem  Eiehafelde 
(2Dd  ed.,  Hciligenatadt,  1909),  paanm. 

Klbmens  LOffleb. 

Reiflenatuel,  Johann  Georq,  in  reUgion  Ana- 
CLETUS,  theologian  and  canonist;  b.  at  KaJtenbrunn 
(Tegemsee)  2  July,  1641;  d.  at  Freising,  5  Oct., 
1703.  He  entered  the  Franciscan  (Reformed)  Order 
in  the  Province  of  Bavaria,  3  Nov.,  1658,  and  taught 
philosophy  at  Freising  (1665),  Landshut  (1667-68), 
and  Munich.  He  taught  theology  at  Munich  from 
1671  till  1680,  when  he  became  guardian  of  the  con- 
vent of  Weilheim  (1680-83) .  Meanwhile  he  had  been 
chosen  (1677)  definitor  of  his  province.  In  1683 
he  began  to  teach  canon  law  at  Freising  to  the  mem- 
bers of  his  order  and  the  seminarians  of  that  town. 
Ill-health  obliged  him  to  discontinue  this  teaching. 
In  1692  the  Bishop  of  Freising  appointed  him  direc- 
tor of  the  episcopal  educational  establishments  of  the 
town,  besides  which  he  filled  offices  in  his  order. 
He  also  devoted  himself  to  the  organisation  and 
cataloguing  of  the  episcopal  and  capitular  library  of 
Freising.  It  would  be  hard  to  praise  unduly  his 
learning,  virtue,  and  regularity  in  his  religious 
life;  he  enjoyed  the  confidence  of  everyone.    He 


first  published  his  "Theolcwa  moraUs"  (Munich, 
1692),  which  went  through  thirty  editiona,  notably 
thoae  of  his  fellow  religious  Massxus  KresaliuBer 
(Modena,  1740;  Munich,  ni2),  and  Daim&tiua 
Kickh  {Augsburg,  1762),  who  appended  "additions", 
and  a  treatise  on  the  "Propositiones  damDatie  a 
summis  pontificibus".  An  Antwerp  edition  (1743) 
includes  the  additions  of  Jacques  Est«va  on  the  Bidl 
of  the  Crusades.  The  edition  issued  by  Flavianus 
Ricd  a  Cimbria  (Augsbure,  1777)  modifies  his  doc- 
trines: instead  of  the  Prooabilist  which  he  was,  he 
makes  Reiffensfuel  a  Probabiliorist,  in  conformity 
with  the  official  doetriae  of  his  order.  His  "Jua 
(sanonicum  universum "  (Munich,  1700)  accords 
Reiffenstuel  first  rank  among  canonists;  he  is  equalled 
by  none,  and  is  highly  esteemed  even  in  modem 
times.  Subset|uent  editions  contain  a  "Tractatus 
de  regulis  juns",  first  published  at  Ingolstadt  in 
1733.  The  beat  editions  are  those  of  Venice  (1730- 
1735),  Rome  (1831-32),  Paris  (1864).  A  three-volume 
edilio  compendiaria  was  published  at  Paris  (1853). 
He  is  also  the  author  of  a  "Vita  S.  Prancisci  Solani", 
and  a  work  "De  caremoniis  et  ritibiis  ecclesiastic  is". 
DssnuATik  Oi"  Pfarrti  Omund  und  dU  Rti/fmiliui  (lons- 


snitdiin  Rtchu  (t 


Bolmi,  Archdiocese  op  (RneHENSis),  comprises 
the  district  of  Reims  in  the  Department  of  Marne 
(Chfllons-Bur-Mame)  and  the  whole  Department 
of  Ardennes.  It  was  suppressed  by  the  Con- 
cotdat  of  1802,  which  put  the  district  of  Reims 
in  the  Diocese  of  Mcaux,  and  the  Department 
of  Ardennes  in  that  of  Metz,  while  two  episcopal 
oouncils  were  established  at  Reims  and  Charlcville 
to  assist  the  Bishops  of  Mcaux  and  Meti  in  their 
administration.  The  archdiocese  was  re-established 
in  theory  by  the  Concordat  of  1817,  and  in  fact  in 
1821 ;  it  was  given  Amiens  and  Soissons  as  sufTraKans 
in  1821,  and  Chdlons-sur-Mame  and  Beauvaia  in 
1822.  The  Remi  (as  the  Gauls  of  this  region  were 
called),  whose  capital  was  Durocortarum,  the  present 
Reims,  were  early  reduced  to  submission  by  CEesar. 
In  the  third  century  Reims  was  the  capital  of  Belgium 
8ecundum:  the  Roman  governors  resided  there,  and 
there  Valentinian  sojourned  in  367.  As  a  centre  of 
culture,  it  was  then  considered  comparable  to  Athena, 
and  a  beautiful  Gallo-Roman  gate  (the  Pmie  Mars) 
ia  atill  to  be  seen  there.  When  Christianity  was  in- 
troduced is  not  known;  it  may  have  developed  locally, 
from  the  earliest  centuries,  by  the  coalition  of  dif- 
ferent groups  of  Christians;  but  the  true  ecclesiastical 
orgamzation  and  the  succession  of  bisho^ps  began 
only  with  the  mission  of  Sis.  Sirtus  and  Sinicius,  who 
established  theu-  see  in  the  upper  part  of  the  city 
during  the  second  half  of  the  third  century.  Late 
traditions  have  represented  St.  Sixtus  as  a  disciple  of 
St.  Peter,  but  Archbishop  Hincmar,  in  the  ninth  cen- 
tury, considered  him  as  a  disciple  of  Pope  St.  Sixtus 

n. 

Tradition  gives  to  the  Church  of  Reima  a  certain 
numbv  of  martyrs  during  the  persecution  of  Diocle- 
tian; among  others,  Timolheus,  ApoUinaris,  the 
priest  Maurus,  and  the  virgin  Macra,  whose  relics 
were  gathered  by  the  Roman  Eusebiua.  The  chapel 
erected  over  their  tomb  afterwards  became  acollegiate 
church  under  the  invocation  of  St.  Timotheus. 
Imbetausius,  who  assisted  at  the  Council  of  Aries 
(314),  was  the  fourth  Bishop  of  Reims;  he  transferred 
his  cathedral  to  the  centre  of  the  city.  It  was  much 
exposed  to  the  barbarian  invasions.  Victoriously 
defended,  about  366,  by  the  consul  Jovinus,  a  Chris- 
tian, it  bad  for  bishopa  St.  Matemian  (c.  349-70) 
and  St.  Donatian  (379-89),  the  patron  of  Bruges  and 
of  West  Flanders.    It  saw  the  Vandals  behe«d  the 


archbishop,  St.   Nicasius,  on  the  threshold  of  hia 

church,  in  406  or  407,  and  at  the  same  time  kill  his 
sister  St.  Eutropia,  his  deacon  St.  Florens,  his  lector 
St.  Juoundus,  and,  a  short  time  after,  his  disciple  8t. 
Oriculus,  and  Sts.  Oricula  and  Basilica,  the  sisters 
of  St.  Oriculus. 

St.  Remigius  (Remi),  b.  about  440,  of  a  distin- 
guished Gallo-Roman  family,  and  whom  St.  Sidonius 
Apollinaria  appreciated  very  highly  as  a  rhetorician, 
became  Bishop  of  Reims  at  the  age  of  twenty-two. 
His  history  ia  known  through  a  short  biography, 
falsely  attribute  to  Fortunatus,  and  a  longer  one, 
of  a  legendary  character,  written  by  Hincmar  in  878. 
St.  RemigiuB  directed  the  Christian  iz  at  ion  of  the 
neighbouring  regions,  sendii^  Antimond  into  the 
country  about  Terouanne  and  Boulogne,  St.  Vaast  into 


the  Arras  district,  and  creating  the  Bishopric  of  Laon; 
he  brought  about  the  mamage  of  Ctovis  with  St. 
Clotilda,  and  baptized  Clovis  on  24  December,  496. 
His  success  had  immense  political  and  religious  re- 
sults; the  Gallo-Roman  populations  woilld  not  have 
submitted  to  Clovis  the  Frank,  had  he  remained  a 
pagan,  and  his  conversion  made  him  the  protector 
of  the  Catholics  of  Burgundy  and  Aquitaine,  whose 

E'nces  were  Arians.  The  "Testament"  of  St. 
migius  is  apocryphal,  as  is  the  letter  by  whidi 
Pope  Ilormisdas  was  supposed  to  have  appointed 
him  Apostolic  legate  for  the  whole  of  Gaul.  But  it  is 
true  that  St.  Remigius  laid  the  foundations  of  the 

Klitical  authority  and  religious  power  of  the  See  of 
^inn,  and  that  from  his  time  Che  name  of  Reims 
was  well  esteemed  and  respected  at  Rome.  He  died 
10  January,  535. 

Among  the  biahopa  of  Reims  who  followed  him 
were;  St.  Nivard  (649-72),  who  caused  the  monaa- 
tery  of  Hauvillers  to  be  rebuilt  and  established  St. 
Bercarius  there;  St.  Rieul  (672-98),  who  built  the 
monastery  of  Orbnis;  St.  Rigobert  (698-743),  who 
baptized  Charles  Martel,  was  afterwards  brutally 
driven  from  the  sec  and  replaced  by  a  certain  Milo, 
the  kill's  favourite,  and  took  refuge  first  in  Aquitaine 
and  then  at  Gemicourt,  in  the  Diocese  of  Soissons, 
where  he  died;  Tilpin  (or  Turpin,  753-800),  a  friemj 


726  BBIBSS 

of  Charlenlagne,  whose  name  was  afterwards,  not  Bri^onnet  was  created  cardinal  in  1493  and  occupies] 
later  thim  the  end  of  the  eleventh  century,  forged  to  a  the  See  of  Reims  from  1497  to  1507.     His  successor, 
chronicle  .of  Charlemagne  and  Roland,  very  popular  Charles  Dominique  de  Carrette  (1507-8)   was  Car- 
in  the  Middle  Ages.  dinal  of  Final  after  1505.    Robert  de  Lenonoourt 
The  political  importance  of  the  See  of  Reims,  (1508^-32)  enriched  the  cathedral  with  sumptuous 
situatedf  geographiciEilljr  between  France  and  Ger-  tapestries  representing  the  life  and   death  of  the 
many,  was  manifested  m  the  ninth  century  during  the  Blessed  Virgin,  and  the  church  of  St.  Remigius  with 
episcopates  of  Ebbo  (816-35),  whose  disagreements  tapestries  on  the  life  of  its  titular  saint, 
with  Louis  the  Debonnaire  are  matters  of  history;        In  1553  the  House  of  Lorraine  b^an  to  acquire  a 
of  Hincmar   (845-82),  the  most  illustrious  of  the  hold  upon  the  See  of  Reims,  where  it  was  first  rep- 
archbishops  of  Reims ;  of  Fulk  (883-900),  chancellor  of  resented   by    John   V   of   Lorraine    (1533-8),  next 
Charles  the  Simple^  who  maintained  the  rights  of  the  by  Cardinal  Charles  of  Lorraine  (1538-74),  and  then 
Carlovingians  agamst  Eudes,  Count  of  Paris,  an-  by  Cardinal  Louis  de  Guise   (1574-88).     In   1585 
cestor  of  the  House  of  Capet;  of  Herv6  (900-22),  who  Rieims  had  taken  sides  with  the  League,  and  the  Duke 
laboured  for  the  conversion  of  the  Normans  and,  of  Mayenne  and  the  Murigchal  de  &tint  Paul  ruled  as 
eventually  rallying  to  the  Capetians,  crowned  Robert  masters  in  the  city  until  1594.    The  "  Joumalier'' 
lam;  in  922.    In  925  Count  Herbert  of  Vermandois  of  Jean  Pussot,  the  carpenter,  is  even  now  a  capital 
had  his  son  Hugh,  a  boy  of  less  than  five  ^ears  of  age,  source  of  information  on  the  League  spirit  which 
consecrated  Archbishop  of  Reims,  but  m  932  Kkig.  animated  the  people  of  Reims,  showing  at  the  same 
Raoul   caused  Artaud    (932-61)  to  be  consecrateoT  time  how  they  gradually  rallied  to  Henry  IV.     Phil- 
and   Hugh,   who   insisted   upon  his  archiepiscopal  ippe  du  Bee.  one  of  the  prelates  who  had  laboured 
rights,  was  excommunicated  dv  a  council  in  948  and  most  earnestly  ^or  Henry  IV's  conversion,  was  by 
by  Pope  Agapetus  in  949.    The  decisive  part  taken  him  nominated  Archbishop  of  Reims  in  January, 
by  ArchbLshop  Adalbero  (969-88)  in  the  elevation  of  1595.      The   see  was   next   occupied    by    another 
the  Capets  to  the  throne,  the  political  part  played  Guise,  Louis  of  Lorraine,  made  a  cardinal  in  1615. 
by  Archbishop  Amould  (988-91  and  995-1021),  as  a  At  his  death  the  see  was  given  to  William  Gi£ford, 
partisan  of  the  Carlovingians,  and  the  brief  occupancy  an  Englishman  by  origin.    This  personage,  who  had 
of  the  see  by  Gerbert  (991-95),  afterwards  Sylvester  been  successively  canon-theologian  of  the  cathedral 

II,  are  treated  in  the  articles  Hugh  Capet  and  of  Milan  imder  St.  Charles  ^rromeo,  dean  of  St. 
Sylvester  II,  PoPB.  ManassesdeGoumay  (1069-80)  Peter's  at  Lille,  rector  of  the  University  of  Reims,  a 
was  deposed  for  simony  at  the  behest  of  Gregory  monk  in  the  monastery  of  St-Benott  en  Voivre,  at 
VII  in  the  Council  of  Lyons.  Henry  of  France,  Metz,  and  founder  of  two  Benedictine  houses  at  St. 
second  son  of  Kin^  Louis  VI  (1162-75),  did  much  Malo  and  Paris,  spent  his  whole  life  helping  the  ex- 
to  secure  the  recogmtion  in  France  of  Pope  Alexander  patriated  English  Catholics  in  France  and  the  apostles 
lil  against  the  antipope  Octavian,  and  resisted  the  who  were  going  thence,  with  all  caution,  to  strengthen 
attempts  of  the  biu*ghers  to  form  themselves  into  a  persecuted  Catholicism  in  England.  He  wrote  a 
commune.  William  of  the  White  Hands  (1176-  treatise  on  predestination  and  a  work  against  the 
1202),  uncle  to  Philip  Augustus  and  cousin  of  Henry  Calvinists  entitled  "Calvino-Furcismus".  His  suc- 
II  of  England,  was  maoe  a  cardinal  in  1179,  and  cessor,  in  1629,  Henry  of  Lorraine,  the  adventurous 
was  l^ate  in  France  and  Germany  under  Innocent  Guise    who    afterwards    attempted    an    expedition 

III.  It  was  he  who  granted  to  the  burghers  of  against  Naples,  never  received  Holy  orders,  and  in 
Reims  in  1182  the  Wilhelmine  Charter,  a  concession  1641  Richelieu  compelled  him  to  give  up  the  emolu- 
to  the  communal  movement.  Carainal  Gui  de  ments  of  the  archbishopric.  In  the  course  of  the 
Paray  (1204-06),  formerly  Abbot  of  Ctteaux^  sup-  seventeenth  century  two  religious  women  who  be- 
pressed  Maniclueism  in  his  diocese.  Alb^nc  de  longed  to  the  House  of  Guise  had  also  been  abbesses 
Humbert  (1206-18)  took  part  in  the  Albigensian  War  at  St-Pierre-lefr-Dames  at  Reims,  and  Mary  Stuart* 
and,  in  1211,  laid  the  first  stone  of  the  present  cathe-  at  the  age  of  six,  had  spent  some  time  and  received 
dral.     In  1250,  Johel  de  Mathefelon  (1244-50),  con-  a  part  of  her  education  there. 

ferred  the  office  of  Grand  Archdeacon  of  Reims  on        Among  the  later  archbishops  of  Reims  may  be 

Cu*dinal  Ottoboni,  nephew  of  Innocent  IV,  who  be-  mentioneii:    Antonio  Barberini   (1657-71),  carainal 

came  pope  under  the  n&rhe  of  Adrian  V.    Pierre  in  1627:    Charles-Maurice  Le  Tellier  (1671-1710), 

Babette  (1274-98)  petitioned  Gregory  X  in  1276  for  who,  unhappily,  caused  to  be  demolished  the  supcah 

the  canonization  of  St.  Louis,  and  obtained  it  from  archiepiscopal  palace  raised  by  men  of  preceding 

Boniface  VIII  in  1297.    The  Dominican  Humbert,  ages,   distinguished   himself  bv  his  hatred  of  the 

Dauphin  of  Viennois,  occupied  the  See  of  Reims  from  Jesuits  and  his  antipathy  to  Roman  doctrines,  and 

1352  to  1355.    Guy  de  Roye  (1390-1409).  who  was  bequeathed  his  magnificent  hbrary  to  the  Abbey  of 

kiUed  in  Italy  on  his  way  to  the  Council  ot  Pisa,  was  St^-Genevi^ve  at  Paris*   Francois  de  MsdUy  (1710- 

the  author  of  the  "Dortrinale  Sapientise".    Simon  31),  cardinal  in  1698;  Charles-Antoine  de  La  Roche 

deCramaud  (1409-13),  created  cardinal  in  1413,  had  Aymon    (1762-77),    cardinal    in    1771;     Alexandre- 

an  important  share  injautting  an  end  to  the  (jreat  Ang^lique  de  Talleyrand-P^rigord  (1777-1801),  who 

Schism.    Renaud  de  Chartres  (1414-44),  made  car-  was  a  deputy  in  the  States-General  of  1789,  com- 

dinal  in  1439,  chancellor  to  Charles  VII.  showed  him*  bated   the   project  of  the  civil  constitution  of  the 

self  very  unfavourable  to  the  mission  ot  Joan  of  Arc;  clergy  in  several  of  his  writings,  emigrated  under  the 

when  the  heroine  was  captured  (23  May,   1430)  he  Revolution,  refused  to  resign  after  the  Concordat, 

wrote  a  letter  to  the  inhabitants  of  Reims  in  a  spirit  remained  near  Louis  XVIII  after  1803,  returned  with 

hostile  to  hcjT.and  he  took  no  steps  to  rescue  Joan  him  to  France  in  1814,  accepted  his  dismissal  from 

from  his  suffragan,  Bi^op  Cauchon  of  Beauvais.  the  Archbishopric  of  Reims  in  1816,  and  in  1817 

Renaud  was  one  of  the  plenipotentiaries  who  signed  was  made  a  cardinal  and  Archbishop  of  Paris:  Jean- 

the  treaty  of  Arras  between  Charles  VII  and  the  Duke  Baptiste-Marie-Antoine  de  Latil  (1824-39).  cnaplain 

of  Burgundy.    Jacques  Juvenel  des  Ursins  (1444-9)  to  the  future  Charles  X  from  1804,  cardinal  in  1826, 

was  commissioned  by  Charles  VII,  in  1447,  to  notify  joined  Charles  X  in  England,  and  spent  the  last  nine 

Amadeus  of  Savoy  that  he  must  abdicate  the  papal  years  of  his  life  away  from  his  diocese;  the  theologian 

throne,  and  to  treat  with  Nicholas  V  for  the  restora-  Thomas  CJousset  (1840-66),  cardinal  in  1851 ;    the 

tion  of  peace  to  the  Church.    Jean   Juvenel   des  writer  and  preacher  Landriot  (1867-74),  famous  dur- 

Ursins  (1449-73)  was  ordered  by  Callistus  III  to  ing  the  Franco-German   War  throudi   his  protest 

revise  the  process  of  Blessed  Joan  of  Arc;   he  also  against  the  military  execution  of  Abb^  Miroy,  one 

mx^te  a  history  of  the  reign  of  Charles  VX.    GuiUauroe  of  his  parish  priests,  by  the  Germans  in  the  middte 


of  &n  anniatiee;  BenottrMarie  Laweiiieux  (1874- 
1905),  one  of  the  most  illustrious  prelatca  of  the  end 
of  the  nineteenth  century,  who  took  the  initiative 
in  leading  pilKrimages  of'ChriBtiaa  workmen  to  the 
Holy  See,  ana  thus  played  a  part  in  the  great  social 
movement  which  culminated  in  the  encyclical 
"Reram  novanim".  He  presided  in  1893,  as  papal 
leo^te,  at  the  Eucharistic  Congress  in  Jerusalem, 
waen  all  the  Eastern  Churches,  whether  united  with 
Rome  or  separated,  bore  t«stimony  to  their  faith  in 
ttie  Euchanst,  He  was  the  first  cardinal  to  visit 
the  Holy  Land  since  the  Crusades.  In  1896  he  or- 
ganized the  festival  to  ce1ebrat«  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tenary of  the  baptism  of  Clovis. 

In  the  Merovingian  period,  Reims  apparently 
enjoyed  ecclesiastical  supremacy  over  the  eleven 
cities  of  Soissons,  ChAlons,  Vennand,  Arras,  Cambrai. 
Toumai,  Senlis,  Beauvais,  Amiens,  Teiouanne,  and 
Boulogne:  and  when  St.  Remigius  detached  a  part  of 
his  own  aiocese  to  form  that  of  Laon,  it  made  one 
more  suffragan  for  Reims.  The  erection  of  the 
Bishopric  of  Cambrai  into  an  archiepiscopal  see  by  a 
Bull  dated  12  May,  1559,  took  from  the  metropolitan 
jurisdiction  of  Reims  the  Dioceses  of  Cambrai, 
Arras,  and  Toum^.  At  the  same  time  the  See  of 
Terouanne  was  suppressed,  and  out  of  its  territory 
three  aew  dioceses  were  made :  one  of  them,  Boulogne, 
dependent  on  Reims;  the  other  two,  St.  Omer  ana 
Ypres,  dependent  on  Cambrai  and  Mechlin.  The 
archbishops  of  Reims,  Ugati  noli  of  the  Holy  See,  had, 
aa  primates,  jurisdiction  over  the  other  metropolitaTis 
of  Gaui.  From  the  time  of  Louis  IV  D'Outre-Mer 
they  had  been  counts.  They  were  entitled  to  coin 
money,  had  their  town  guard,  and  levied  armies. 
As  soon  as  a  new  archbishop  was  elected  he  made  a 
viwtation  of  his  suffragans;  in  each  city,  on  the  ar- 
rival of  the  metropolitan,  business  was  suspended, 
the  people  and  the  clergy,  magistrates,  even  princes, 
went  to  meet  him,  prisons  were  thrown  open,  and 
exiles  were  recalled  from  banishment.  The  inhabi- 
tants of  Saint-Quentin  and  Saint-ValSry  were  under 
his  judicial  jurisdiction,  and  had  to  bring  their  pleas 
to  tne  archiepiscopal  court  of  Rciins,  In  999  a  Bull 
of  Sylvester  11  recognized  tlie  right  of  the  archbish- 
ops of  Reims  to  crown  the  kin^,  and,  at  the  corona- 
tion of  Philip  I,  Archbishop  Gervais  took  advantage 
of  the  presence  of  the  papal  legatee  to  proclium  once 
more  thin  right,  which  right  Alexander  III,  by  a 
Brief  of  1179,  prohibitod  any  other  archbishop  from 
arrogating  to  himself.  Louis  VII,  at  his  coronation, 
raised  the  Countship  of  Reims  to  the  rank  of  a  duchy 
and  peerage  of  the  kingdom. 

On  the  tomb  of  St.  Remigius,  aa  built  by  Aroh- 
bishop  Robert  de  Lenoncourt,  there  are  niched 
figures  representing  the  twelve  peers  who  carry  the 
symbols  of  the  coronation:  on  the  right,  the  six 
spiritual  peers — the  Archbishop  of  Reims,  who 
anointed  the  king;  the  Bishop-Duke  of  Laon,  who 
held  the  sacred  amjmUa;  the  Bishop-Duke  of  Langres, 
with  the  sceptre;  the  Bishop-Count  of  Beauvais, 
with  the  emblazoned  surcoat;    the  Bishop-Count  of 


temporal  peers — the  Duke  of  Burgundy,  holding  the 
crown;  the  Dukes  of  Guyenne  and  Normandy,  and 
the  Counts  of  Champagne,  Flanders,  and  Toulouse. 
The  ceremonies  of  the  coronation  at  Reims  presented 
two  characteristic  features:  the  use  of  the  sacred 
ampuUa  and  the  touching  for  scrofula  (king's  evil). 
According  to  the  legend— of  which,  however,  St. 
Avitus,  a  witness  of  the  baptism  of  Clovis,  was 
ignorant  in  the  fifth  century,  and  the  first  trace  of 
which  appears  in  Hincmar — the  holy  ompvUa  was 
brou^t  t>y  a  dove  to  St,  Remigius  when  he  was  in  the 
act  of  crowning  Clovis.  This  am-puUa  was  a  small 
crystal  vial,  two-thirds  full  of  balm;  its  superb  oma- 
mentatioq  was  added  lat«r.     It  was  kept  at  Saint- 


Remi,  in  a  reliquary  which  also  contained  a  golden 
needle  and  a  silver  paten.  When  needed  for  a 
coronation,  the  Abbot  of  Satnt-Remi  brought  it  to 
the  cathedral.  The  golden  needle  was  used  to  mix 
the  balm,  taken  from  the  ampuUa,  with  chrism  on  the 
silver  paten.  The  holy  ampuUa  left  Reims  only  once, 
when  Louis  XI,  being  sick  at  Plessis-les-Tours  in 
1483,  hoped  that  an  unction  from  it  would  cure  him. 
The  authenticity  of  the  sacred  amputla  began  to  be 
questioned  when  Henry  IV  could  not  be  crowned 
at  Reims  because  the  Guises  occupied  Champagne; 
on  this  occasion  an  ampulla  was  used  which  was 
preserved  at  the  abbey  of  Marmoutier^  and  which 
nad  cured  St.  Martin.  Jean-Jacques  Chifflet,  first 
physician  to  Philip  IV  of  Spain,  in  1651  wroto  a  bdok 
expressly  to  disprove  the  authenticity  of  the  Reims 


.  the  vial  was  broken  in  the  jiublio 
square  of  Reims;  but  a  few  days  before  this  was 
done,  a  Constitutional  parish  priest  had  taken  out 
some  of  the  balm  and  put  it  in  a  place  of  safety; 
it  was  from  this  portion  that  Charles  X  was  anointed. 
The  legendary  privilege  of  healing  scrofula  on  the 
day  of  the  coronation  was  supposed  to  have  been 
given  by  St.  Rnmigius  to  the  kings  of  France  and 
confirmed  to  them  by  St,  Marcoul,  Abbot  of  Nanteuil 
(d,  5S2),  whose  remains  rested  after  the  ninth  cen- 
tury at  Corbeny,  in  the  Diocese  of  Laon — hence 
the  pilgrimages  made  by  several  kings,  after  their 
consecration,  to  Corbeny.  Louis  XIII  was  the  last 
king  to  make  this  pilgrimage  (in  1610);  Louis  XVI 
had  the  relics  of  St.  Marcoul  brought  to  the  Abbey 
of  Saint^Rcmi,  so  as  to  avoid  going  out  of  Reims. 
Louis  XVIII  did  not  touch  for  the  scrofula,  but 
Charlee  X  did,  the  day  after  his  consecration,  at  the 
hospital  of  Sainl-Mareoul,  changing  the  formula. 
"Le  roi  te  touche,  Dleu  te  gu6rit"  (The  king  touches 
thee,  God  heals  thee),  to  "Le  roi  te  touche,  Dieu  tc 
gudrisse"  (The  king  touches  thee,  may  God  heal 
thee). 

Several  of  the  popes  visited  Reims.  Id  the  eariy 
days  of  the  Carlovingian  dynasty  it  was  the  scene  « 
two  famous  interviews:  between  Stophen  III  and 
Pepin  the  Short,  and  between  Leo  III  and  ChAli?- 


728  BEIMS 

mame.  In  816  Louis  the  Debonnaire  was  crowned  villases  of  the  diooese.  History  records  as  having  been 
by  Stephen  V  in  the  cathedral  of  Reims,  and  the  pope  members  of  that  chapter  5  popes.  23  archbishops,  53 
conferred  the  title  of  Augusta  on  Queen  Ermengarde.  cardinals,  and  a  considerable  number  of  bishops :  pur- 
Pope  Leo  IX  came  to  Reims  in  September,  1049,  suant  to  what  was  known  as  the'' Jouanine  privilege", 
during^the  episcopate  of  Guy  de  Chatillon;  he  con-  Obtained  under  Jean  de  Craon,  its  members  were 
secrated  the  church  of  St.  Remigius,  and  decreed  that  exempt  from  all  jurisdiction  except  the  pope's. 
thencMsforward  the  feast  of  that  saint  should  be  kept  Among  them  may  be  mentioned:  St.  Bruno,  founder 
on  the  first  day  of  October,  throughout  the  whole  of  the  Carthusians  (1030-1101),  who  was  at  one  time 
kingdom.  Diuing  the  episcopate  of  Raoul  de  Verd,  scholasticua  of  Reims:  Otton  of  Ch&tillon,  who  became 
Pope  Callistus  II  presided  at  a  council  held  at  Reims  pope  in  1088  imder  tne  name  of  Urban  II;  Guillaume 
from  20  to  30  October,  1119.  St.  Norbert  came  Coquillart,  who  died  about  1490,  in  his  younger  days, 
thither  barefoot  and  in  penitential  garb,  and  Callistus  as  a  law  student,  the  author  of  celebrated  jocose 
confirmed  the  authority  granted  to  him  by  Pope  poems;  Maucroix  (1619-95),  the  friend  of  Boileau  and 
Gelasius,  to  preach  the  (^pel  in  all  places.  The  La  Fontaine.  A  very  curious  festival  which  the  chap- 
coimcil  drew  up  a  decree  for  the  Truce  of  Go^  and  ter  used  to  hold  in  the  Middle  Ages  was  the  procession 
excommunicated  Bourdin,  the  antipope,  and  the  of  the  herrings.  At  the  beginning  of  Lent,  they  went 
Emperor  Henry.  Pope  Iiinocent  II,  on  19  October,  in  Indian  me  from  the  cathedral  to  St-Renu,  each 
1131,  in  the  episcopate  of  Renaud  de  Martignd,  dragging  a  herring  after  him  by  a  thread — as3rmbolof 
opened  at  Reims  a  council  at  which  St.  Bernard  ap-  the^nten  abstinence — and  each  trying  to  put  his  foot 
peared,  and  the  antipope  Anacletus  was  excom-  on  the  herring  dragged  by  the  next  canon  ahead  of 
municated.    While  this  council  was  sitting,  the  pope  him. 

crowned  (25  October)  Louis  the  Yoimger,  afterward  The  celebrated  cathedral  of  Reims  is  dedicated  to 
Louis  VII,  in  the  presence  of  his  father  Louis  VI.  the  Blessed  Virgin.  The  edifice  raised  by  Hincmar 
Lastly,  at  the  request  of  Bernard,  Bishop  of  Hildes-  having  been  destroyed  by  a  fire  in  1211,  Bishop  AlWric 
heim,  he  canonized  St.  Godehard.  Pope  Eugene  III,  de  Humbert  undertook  to  build  the  present  cathedral 
on  22  Maroh,  1148,  opened  at  Reims  a  council  at  in  its  place.  It  was  completed  in  one  hundred  years — 
which  St.  Bernard  forced  Gilbert  de  La  Porr^  to  from  1211  to  1311 — and  hence  the  admirable  unity  of 
retract  his  errors  on  the  essence  of  God,  and  Samson  design  and  execution  which  characterize  it  as  an  exam- 
de  Mauvoisin,  Archbishop  of  Reims,  caused  Eon  de  pie  of  Gothic  architecture.  Jeau  d'Orbais  seems  to 
TEtoile  to  be  condemned.  nave  been  the  first  architect,  originating  the  plan  and 
From  the  ninth  century  to  the  eleventh,  the  build-  building  the  apse;  the  great  doorway,  crowned  with 
ings  of  a  monastery  for  women  founded  by  St.  Gom-  the  famous  gallery  containing  forty-two  statues  of 
bert  were  used  by  poor  chUdren  who  desired  to  learn,  kings  of  France,  is  chiefly  the  work  of  Robert  de 
who  lived  on  alms,  prayed  in  the  chapel  of  St.  Patrick,  Coucy,  in  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century, 
and  attended  the  chapter  schools.  Tnis  was  the  origin  In  the  treasury  of  the  cathedral  is  preserved  the  chalice 
of  the  "College  des  Bons  Enfants",  the  functions  of  of  St.  Remigius  (see  illustration  to  Chalice),  from 
which  were  regulated  by  JuheFs  Charter,  in  1245,  and  which  the  kings  of  France  used  to  communicate  under 
which  prepared  a  certain  number  of  boys  for  the  the  species  of  wine  at  the  end  of  the  coronation  cere- 
priesthood.  Between  1544  and  1546,  Paul  Grand  monies,  and  which,  according  to  tradition,  was  cut 
Raoul,  the  acholasticus  of  Reims,  had  the  college  re-  from  the  gold  of  the  celebrated  vase  of  Soissons  broken 
built,  and  it  was  in  this  building,  by  that  time  still  by  one  of  Clovis's  soldiers.  Onl  Feb.,  ISSGjtheCathe- 
further  enlarged^  that  Cardinal  Charles  of  Lorraine  dral  of  Reims  was  affiliated  to  the  illustrious  Lateran 
installed  the  university,  for  which  he  had  obtained  Basilica,  thereby  participating  in  the  privilege  of  all 
from  Paul  III  a  Bull  of  erection  (5  January,  1548)  and  the  indulgences  and  spiritual  favours  attached  to  the 
the  foundation  of  which  was  sanctioned  by  Henry  II  cathedral  of  Rome.  In  1891  the  canons  of  St.  Peter  at 
in  March,  1548.  It  was  to  comprise  the  four  faculties  Rome  presented  to  the  chapter  at  Reims  a  portion 
of  arts,  theology,  law,  and  meoicine.  The  faculty  of  of  the  relics  of  St.  Petronilla;  the  translation  of  these 
theology  was  conapleted  through  the  liberality  of  sacredbonestoReimstookplaceon  Whitsimday,  1892. 
Antoine  Foumier  (d.  at  Reims,  1532),  who  adminis-  The  Benedictine  monastery  of  St-Remi  was  long 
tered  the  Diocese  of  Metz  for  another  Charles  of  Lor-  independent  of  the  archbishops.  The  present  church  of 
raine.  This  university  was  the  stronghold  of  the  St-Remi  was  begun  in  1005  by  Airara,  abbot  of  the 
League  in  Champagne,  and  in  1588  it  adhered  to  the  monastery,  and  some  of  the  capitals  date  from  that 
solemn  declaration  by  which  the  Sorbenne  declared  the  period.  The  work  was  resumed  on  a  simpler  plan  by 
French  people  to  be  absolved  from  their  oath  of  alle-  Abbot  Thierry  in  1039,  when  the  south  transept  was 

fiance   to  Henry  III  after  the  assassination  of  the  built;  the  apse  dates  from  1170,  in  the  time  of  Abbot 

)uke  of  Guise.     But  when  Henry  IV  had  had  him-  de  Celles.   Carloman,  Louis  IV  D'Outre-Mer,  Lothair, 

self  crowned  at  Chartres,  and  the  most  fiery  Leaguers  and  Hincmar  wished  to  be  buried  in  this  chureh.    Its 

of  Reims  were  contemplating  going  into  exile,  the  fac-  treasure^  made  up  of  the  offerings  of  kings  and  princes 

ulty  of  theology  gave  the  signal  for  submission.    In  who  visited  the  tomb  of  St.  lUsmigius,  woula  be  of 

1606,  when,  through  the  favour  of  Archdeacon  Fran-  considerable  value  if  it  had  not  wen  brought  into 

9ois  Brulartj  the  Jesuits  set  up  a  college  at  Reims,  they  requisition  on  several  occasions  of  public  necessity — 

asked  to  be  incorporated  in  the  university,  and  in  1609  now  to  ransom  a  royal  prisoner,  now  to  supply  money 

they  obtained  their  reouest.    Repeated  conflicts,  how-  for  the  purposes  of  war.    Then,  acting  at  the  king's 

ever,  arose  between  tne  Jesuits  and  the  university,  behest,  the  archbishop  issued  an  order  that  the  gold 

first  in  1617,  then  in  1660  and  1664,  again  in  1722  on  and  silver  reliquaries  (chasaes)  should  be  sent  to  the 

the  question  of  Jansenism,  and  again  in  1752.   In  1682  mint ;  the  abbey  received  specie  to  the  amount  of  one- 

the  theological  faculty  of  Reims  adhered  to  the  Foiu*  fourth  the  value  of  the  metal  coined,  and  the  balance 

Articles^  and  in  1688,  when  Innocent  excommunicated  in  promissory  notes  which  were  rarely  redeemed.   The 

Lavardm,  Louis  XIV's  ambassador,  it  voted  by  accla-  church  of  St-Remi  has  been  a  ''minor  basilica''  since 

mation  in  favoiu*  of  an  appeal  to  a  council.   Until  1723  28  June,  1870. 

it  refused  to  submit  to  the  Bull  "Unigenitus",  and  one  The  church  of  Ste-Clotilde,  the  foundation  stone  of 

of  its  doctors,  Jean  Lacourt,  was  even  sent  to  the  Bas-  which  was  laid  on  26  June,  1898,  on  the  centenary  of 

tUe  at  this  time  for  six  months.    (On  the  foundations  at  the  baptism  of  Clovis,  was  opened  in  March,  1901 ,  and 

the  University  of  Reims  made  in  the  sixteenth  century  raised  to  the  rank  of  a  basilica  by  Leo  AlII  on  5 

with  a  view  to  the  Catholic  apostolate  in  England,  see  March,  1902.    At  present  it  possesses  70  chasses  and 

Allen,  William.)  nearly  1000  relics.    The  centenary  celebration  drew 

Tb^  chapter  of  Reims  possessed  rights  over  150  together  an  attendance  of  77  prelates  and  69  pUgrim- 


tUKS,  and  was  the  occasion  of  seven  eongrt^aee.  Leo 
^11  sent  Mgr  Clocci,  pontifical  master  of  cere- 
monies, to  preeide  at  the  eolemn  recognition  of  the 
relicB  of  St.  Remigiua  and  their  transfer  to  a  new 
cAoMC.  The  same  pope  granted  to  France  the  privi- 
lege of  a  national  jubilee,  and  wrote  a  Latin  "Ode  to 
France",  which  waa  the  inspiration  of  Theodore  Du- 
boia'B  oratorio  "The  Baptism  of  Oovis".  The  hos- 
pital of  Saint-Marcoul  was  founded  in  1645  by  M^ 
guerite  Etousselet  for  cases  of  contagious  scrotuIa—-i.  e. 
tuberculosis.  It  was  the  first  institution  to  practise 
isolation  of  tuberculosis  patients. 

The  coronation  of  Charles  VII  at  Reims  (17  July, 
1429),  broi^ht  about  by  Joan  of  Arc,  is  an  historical 
event  of  especial  importance,  Joan's  father  was  pres- 
ent at  the  ceremony,  and  had  his  lodgings  at  Reims  in 
the  "Hotel  de  I'Ane  RayS";   the  archives  of  the  cit/ 


of  expenses  Incurred  for  his 


still  preserve  the 
entertainment.  Joan 
wrote  from  Reims 
(17  July)  a  letter  to 
Philip  the  Good, 
Duke  of  Burgundy, 
inviting  him  to  make 
peace;     in    August, 

1429,  and     March, 

1430,  she  wrote  from 
Bray-Bur-Seinc  and 
from  Sully  three 
letters  to  her  "very 
dear  and  good  friends 
and  loyal  French- 
men, dwelling  in  the 
city  of  Reims",  ex- 
horting them  not  to 
lose  heart  under  the 
renewed  menaces  of 
the  Duke  of  Burgundy 
and  the  English. 

The  Abbey  of 
Hautvilliers,  in  the 
Diocese  of  Reims, 
was  the  original  home 
of  the  heretic  Gott- 
Bchalk.  Besides  the  saints  already  mentioned,  the  tollow- 
ingareeepeciallyhonouredinthediocese:  St. Gertrude, 
virgin  and  martyr  (d.  362) ;  St,  Paul  of  Reims,  solitary 
at  Glanum  (now  Saint-Remy)  in  Provence,  then 
Bishop  of  Troia  Chflteaux  (second  half  of  the  fourth 
century) ;  St,  Victor  of  Mouion  and  his  sister  Susanne, 
martyrs  in  420;  St.  Emilius,  father  of  St.  Remigius;  St. 
Celina,hb  mother;  St.  Principius,  his  brother;  St.  Bal- 
samia,  hia  nurs«;  St.  Celsinus,  his  foster  brother;  Sts. 
Lupus,  Bishop  of  Soissons,  and  Genebald,  Bishop  of 
Laon,  bis  nephews;  St.  Latro,  his  grandnephew  (all 
sixth-century)  ;the  saintsof  the  Uttle  Irish  colony  which 
St.  Remigius  established  in  the  valley  of  the  Marne;  St. 
Gibrien,  nia  brothers  Sts,  Hfilanj  Trfisain,  Germanus, 
Vfiran,  Abran.  and  F6tran,  and  his  sisters  Sts.  Francle, 
Prorap.ta,  and  Posenna  (siith  century) ;  St.  Thierry, 
St.  Remigius's  deaCon,  and  Abbot  of  Mont  d'Hor  near 
Reims  (d,  c,  533);  St,  Rogatian,  Count  of  Rfithel. 
converted  by  St.  Remigius,  and  his  son  St.  Arnould, 
who  was  perhaps  Bishop  oE  Tours,  and  was  assassi- 
nated at  Reims;  St.  (jeonard,adiscipleof  St,  Remigius. 
who  refused  a  bishoprio  offered  to  him  by  Clovis  and 
died  a  solitary  in  the  Diocese  of  Limoges  (sixth  cen- 
tury); St.  Bertaud  (472-545),  a  Scotchman  (Scotus) 
by  origin,  solitary  at  Chaumonl^Forcien,  his  friend  St. 
Aumond,  Bishop  of  Tfrouane,  and  his  disciples  Sts. 
Olive  and  Ub^te  (sixth  century);  St,  Attolus,  dis- 


century);  St.  Theodulph  (d.  590),  Abbot  of  Mont 
d'Hor,  who  left  among  the  neighbouring  populations 
such  a  reputation  as  a  ploughman  that  his  plough  was 
preservea  as  a  relic;  St.  Basle  the  hermit,  a  great  pro- 


tector of  anim^,  and  his  disciple  St.  Slndulph  (sixth 

century) :  St,  Walfroy,  monk  at  Ivois  (sixth  century) ; 
St.  Baudjy  and  his  sister  St,  Bode,  children  of  Sige- 
bert.  King  of  Austrasia,  founders  of  the  monastery  of 
Sain t-Pierre-les- Domes  at  Reims,  and  their  niece  St, 
Dode,  abbess  of  the  monastery  (seventh  century) ;  St. 
Gombert,  missionary  in  Scotland  and  martyr,  and  his 
wife  St.  Bertha,  foundress  of  the  Abbey  of  Avenay, 
who  was  assassinated  (seventh century);  St.  M^roli- 
lain,  Irish  priest,  .killed  near  Reims  (eighth  or  ninth 
century) ;  the  shepherd  St.  Juvinus,  solitary  (d.  961) ; 
St.  Flotilda;  ecstatic  (tenth  century);  Blessed  Odo, 
Canon  of  Reims,  b.  1042,  at  Chfttillon  sur  Marne, 
prior  of  Binson  (a  priory  the  chapel  of  which  still 
exists  and  was  restored  by  Cardinal  Lang£nieux), 
afterwards  pope  under  the  name  of  Urban  II,  whose 
cultus,  existing  from  time  immemorial,  was  recognized 
by  the  Sacred  Congregation  of  Rites,  12  July,  1881,  at 
the  petition  of  Car- 
dinal Lang^nieux; 
St.  Maurilis  of 
Reims,  Archbishop 
of  Rouen  (1055-67); 
St.  GervinuB,  Canon 
of  Reims,  Abbot  of 
S,  Riquier  (d.  1073); 
Yen.  Richard  (d. 
1046),  Canon  of 
Reims,  Abbot  of 
Saint  Vanne  at  Ver- 
d  u  n  ,  ambassador 
from  the  Emperor 
Henry  to  King  Rob- 
ert, and  to  whom, 
in  concert  with  St. 
Odilo,  Abbot  of 
Cluny,  is  due  the 
adoption  in  Neustria 
of  the  "Peace  of 
God";  St.  Albert, 
Bishop  of  Li^ge,  as- 
sassinated at  Reims 
in  1192  by  par- 
tisans of  the  Em~ 
leims.  Bis 
^mbria  (d,  1048);  Blessed  Koger,  an  Enslish- 
by  origin,  first  abbot  of  the  Cistercian  Abbey 
of  Elan  (d.  1175);  Blessed  Roland,  Cistercian  monk  of 
Ch^h«ry(d.  1160);  Blessed  Humbcrt(d.  1148),GuerTic 
(d.  1157)  and  Minoculus(d.llR6),  abbots  of  the  Cis- 
tercian uibey  of  Igny,  the  last-named  of  whom  was 
sent  by  Pope  Luoian  as  ambassador  to  the  Emperor  of  . 
Germany  and  died  Abbot  of  Cloirvaux;  St,  John 
Baptist  de  La  Salle  (1651-171«),  b.  at  Reims,  Canon 
of  Reims,  founder  of  the  Institute  of  Christian  Broth- 
ers; Ven.  Jacques  Lion  (1671-1738),  a  native  of 
Fumay,  Hicronymite  monk. 

Among  the  distinguished  persons  connected  with 
this  diocese  may  also  be  mentioned:  Dora  Morlot 
(1596-1667),  the  Benedictine,  b,  at  Reiraa,  and  the 
author  of  a  hbtory  of  the  city  which  is  still  authori- 
tative; Pfitau  (1583-1652),  the  first  to  be  honoured 
with  a  professorship  of  rhetoric  in  the  Jesuit  college 
at  Reims;  Colbttrt  (1619-83),  the  famous  minister, 
b.  at  Reims;  Mabillon  (1632-1707),  b,  at  St,  Pierwi- 
mont;  Ruinart  (1657-1709),  author  of  the  "Acta 
Martynim",  b.  at  Reims;  the  Abbe  Pluche  (1688- 
1761),  b.  at  Reims,  professor  in  the  college  of  Reims, 
author  of  the  "Spectacle  de  la  Nature"  and  the 
"Histoire  du  Cict";  Tronaon  Ducoudray  (1750- 
98) ,  who  defended  Marie  Antoinette ;  Linguet 
(1735-94),  the  controversialist  who  publicly  defended 
the  Jesuits  after  their  expulsion  from  France;  An- 
quetii,  director  of  the  Seminary  of  Reims,  and 
author  of  a  history  of  the  city  (1756). 

Besides  the  tomb  of  St.  Remigius,  the  principal 
pilgrimages  of  the  diocese  arc:   Our  l^y  of  Hope, 


Ktms 


730 


HEISACfl 


or  of  Mercy  I  at  Mdzi^res,  dating  back  to  930;  Our 
Lady  Help  of  Christians  (Notre  Dame  de  Bon 
Secours).  at  Neuvizy,  dating  from  1752;  the  Virgin 
at  the  Oak,  a  pilgrimage  organized  bv  Archbishop 
Langdnieux,  in  1880,  to  a  little  image  which  had  been 
venerated  by  pious  souls  since  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury; the  pilgrimage  to  the  relics  of  St.  Helena,  the 
empress,  at  Hautvilliers.  Before  the  Law  of  Con- 
gregations of  1901  was  put  into  effect,  there  were  in 
the  Diocese  of  Reims  Capuchins,  Jesuits,  Sulpicians, 
and  various  orders  of  t^hing  brothers;  there  are 
still  Trappists,  White  Fathers  of  Our  Lady  of  Africa, 
and  Lazarists.  Many  orders  of  women  have  had 
their  ori^n  in  the  diocese:  the  Canonesses  of  the 
H6tel  Dieu,  dating  from  the  sixth  century;  the 
Sisters  of  the  Holy  Infant  Jesus,  founded  in  1670  by 
Canon  Roland  for  the  gratuitous  instruction  of  poor 
girls,  with  the  mother-house  at  Reims,  a  foundation 
which  su^ested  to  St.  John  Baptist  de  La  Salle,  a 
friend  of  Canon  Roland,  the  idea  of  accomplishing  a 
similar  work  for  boys;  the  Sisters  of  the  Divme 
Providence,  a  nursing  and  teaching  institute,  founded 
in  1850,  with  mother-house  at  Reuns;  the  Sisters  of 
St-Marcoul,  who  care  for  patients  afflicted  with 
cancer,  paralysis,  and  scrofula,  in  the  hospital  of 
St-Marcoul  at  Reims.  At  the  close  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  the  religious  congregations  in  the 
diocese  had  the  direction  of  3  crhcheSf  52  nurseries, 
14  orohanages,  2  workshops,  2  professional  schools, 
14  hospitals  or  hospices,  11  houses  of  religious  women 
devoted  to  tne  care  of  the  sick  in  their  own  homes,  2 
houses  of  retreat.  At  the  end  of  1909  the  Diocese 
of  Reims  contained  520,650  Catholics,  47  parishes, 
545  succursal  parishes,  and  67  curacies  (of  which,  under 
the  Concordat,  the  salaries  of  9  had  been  paid  by  the 
State). 

CfaUia  Christiana  (nova,  1751).  IX.  1-332,  inatrum.,  1-94, 
FiBQUBT,  La  Prance  pontificate  (Reims.  Paris,  1864) ;  Flodoabd, 
Histoire  de  Vigliee  de  Reims,  Ft.  tr.  (3  vols.,  Reims,  1854-55); 
Marlot,  Histoire  de  la  viUe,  eiU  el  universiU  de  Reims,  Ft.  tr. 
(4  vols.,  Reims,  1843-6):  Polvptique  de  Vabbaye  S.  Remi  de 
Reims,  ed.  GniiBARD  (Paris,  1853);  Pussor,  Joumalier  ou 
Mimoires,  ed.  Henrt  and  Loriqubt  (Reims,  1858);  Cbrf,  Vie 
des  saints  du  diocise  de  Reims  (2  vols.,  Reims,  1898) ;  Demaison 
AND  Jadart,  Aper^  de  V histoire  de  Reims  (Reims.  1907);  Cault, 
HuUoire  du  college  des  Bons  En/ants  (Reims,.  1885);  Idem,  Etudes 
sur  lafaeutti  de  thiologie  de  Vuniversiti  de  Reims  (Reims,  1898); 
Landouzy,  Le  toucher  des  icroueUes,  Vhdpital  S.  Marcoul  (Paris, 
1907);  Basin,  Une  vieille  citi  de  France,  Reims,  monuments  et 
histoire  (Reims,  1900) ;  Gobbet,  La  ccUhidrale  de  Reims  (Reims, 
1894). 

Georges  Goyau. 

Reixxu,  Synods  op. — ^The  first  synod  said  to  have 
been  held  at  Reims  by  Archbishop  Sonnatius  between 
624  and  630  is  probably  identical  with  that  held  at 
Clichy  (Clippiacum)  in  626  or  627.  In  813  Arch- 
bishop Wulfar  presided  at  a  synod  of  reform  (Werm- 
inghoff  in  "Mon.  Germ.  Hist.:  Concilia  sevi  Carol. 
I'^  I,  Hanover,  1904,  253  sq.).  On  17  June,  991, 
Abp.  Siguin  of  Sens  presided  in  the  basilica  of  St. 
Basle,  near  Reims^  over  the  synod  which  deposed 
Abp.  Amulf  of  Reims  (Schlockwerder,  "Das  Konzil 
zu  St.  Basle",  Magdeburg,  1906).  In  1049,  Leo  IX 
presided  at  a  reformatory  synod  (Drehmann,  "Papst 
Leo  IX  u.  die  Simonie",  Leipzig.  1908).  In  1115  a 
synod  was  held  at  which  the  caroinal  legate  Cuno  of 
Prseneste  excommunicated  King  Henry.  In  1119 
Calistus  II  convened  a  synod  for  the  purpose  of  con- 
cluding peace  with  Henry  V.  There  were  present  15 
archbishops,  over  200  bishops,  and  as  many  abbots. 
In  1148  Eugene  III  was  present  at  a  synod  against 
Gilbert  de  la  Por^e  (q.  v.)  and  the  fanatic  Eon  de 
TEstoile.  In  1164  Alexander  III  presided  at  a  synod 
which  urged  the  crusade  against  Emperor  Frederick  I. 
In  1407  Abp.  Guido  III  convened  a  synod  to  abolish 
the  abuses  that  had  crept  into  the  Cnurch  of  Reims 
during  the  Western  Schism.  In  1528  Abp.  Robert  III 
held  a  s3mod  against  Luther.  In  1564  Cardinal 
Charles  of  Lorrame  convened  a  reformatory  synod 
to  enforce  the  Tridentine  decrees.    In  1583  Cardinal 


Francis  of  Guise  held  a  synod  at  which  27  reformatory 
decrees  were  enacted.  After  a  lapse  of  almost  three 
centuries  Cardinal  Gousset  of  Reims  convoked  a 
synod  at  Soissons  in  1849;  another,  at  Amiena  in 
1853;  a  third,  at  Reuns  in  1857.  The  acts  of  the  last 
three  synods  are  printed  in  "Collectio  Lacensis". 
IV.  91-246. 

For  the  acts  of  the  preceding  and  many  other  synods  of  minor 
importance,  see  Gonsssr,  Actes  de  la  province  ecdUiastique  de 
Reims  (Reinui,  1841);  Hmr^La,  ConcUiengesch. 

Michael  Ott. 

Reinmar  of  Hagenau,  a  German  minnesinger 
of  the  twelfth  century,  sumamed  in  the  MSS.  der 
Alte  (the  old)  to  distinguish  him  from  later  poets 
of  that  name.  He  is  undoubtedly  identical  with 
the  Reinmar  referred  to  by  Gottfried  von  Strasbuig 
in  his  ''Tristan''  as  the  nightingale  of  Hagenau, 
the  leader  of  the  choir  of  nightingales,  whose  voice 
had  just  been  hushed  by  death  and  who  was  to  be 
succeeded  by  Wsdther  von  der  Vogelweide.  From 
this  it  may  be  inferred  that  the  poet  or  his  family 
came  from  Hagenau  in  Alsace  (though  there  is  also 
a  place  of  that  name  in  Austria),  and  that  he  died 
shortly  before  1210,  when  Gottfried's  "Tristan"  was 
written.  Otherwise  we  know  nothing  of  Reinmar's 
life  except  what  may  be  gathered  from  his  verses. 
He  certs^y  was  in  Vienna  in  1195  at  the  Austrian 
court;  he  also  participated  in  a  crusade,  presumably 
that  undertaken  by  Duke  Leopold  in  1190.  It  seems 
that  he  lived  for  a  long  time  at  the  Austrian  court, 
where  he  enjoyed  a  high  reputation  and  was  much 
admired,  even  by  the  greatest  of  all  minnesingers, 
Walther  von  der  Vogelweide,  who  acknowledges 
himself  as  Reinmar's  pupil,  though  this  must  not  oe 
taken  in  a  literal  sense.  Reinms^s  lyrics  show  the 
Romance  influence  that  had  been  predominant  since 
Veldeke  and  Hansen.  They  are  perfect  in  form  and 
thoroughly  "courtly"  in  sentiment.  Passion  and 
natural  feeling  are  repressed,  mdze,  correctness  and 
propriety,  reign  supreme.  General  reflections  are 
common,  concrete  images  and  situations  few.  When, 
however,  Reinmar  breaks  through  the  boimds  of 
convention  and  allows  his  heart  to  speakj  as  in  the 
lament  for  the  death  of  the  duke,  which  is  put  into 
the  mouth  of  the  duchess  herself,  he  shows  lyric 
gifts  of  a  high  order.  But  this  does  not  often  happen, 
and  most  of  Reinmar's  poems  show  more  elegance 
of  form  than  beauty  of  sentiment.  In  a  society, 
however,  where  form  was  valued  more  than  contents, 
such  poetry  was  bound  to  meet  with  favour.  Rein- 
mar's  poems  are  edited  in  Lachmann  and  Haupt, 
"Minnesangs  Fruhling",  XX  (4th  edition,  Leipug, 
1888). 

Schmidt,  R.  v.  H.  und  Heinrieh  von  Rugge  in  QueUen  %tnd 
Porschungen  sur  Sprach'  und  Culturgesch.  der  germanisehen  VUker 
(Strasburg,  1874),  4;  Paul  in  Paul  and  Braunss,  Beitrdge 
ntr  Oeschichte  der  deutschen  SvrachO'  und  Literaiur,  2487  09.; 
BuROACH,  R.  der  AUe  und  Walther  von  der  Vogeltoeide  (Leipsic 


1880). 


Arthur  F.  J.  Remt. 


Reisach,  Carl  von,  b.  at  Roth,  Bavaria,  7  July, 
1800;  d.  in  the  Redemptorist  monastery  of  Con- 
tamine,  France,  22  December,  1869.    On  the  com- 

?letion  of  his  secular  studies  in  Neuburg  on  the 
)anube,  he  studied  philosophy  ^t  Munich  (1816). 
and  jurisprudence  at  Heidelberg,  Gdttingen,  and 
Landshut,  securing  at  the  last  (1821)  the  Decree  of 
Doctor  Juris  Uiriusque.  Devoting  himself  a  Uttle 
later  to  the  study  of  theology,  he  received  minor 
orders  at  Innsbruck  in  1824,  was  ordained  in  1828 
after  philosophical  and  theological  studies  in  the 
German  College  at  Rome,  and  in  the  following  year 
graduated  Doctor  of  Theology.  Pius  VII  soon  ap- 
pointed him  rector  of  studies  at  the  College  of  the 
Propaganda,  an  office  which  brought  him  into  dose 
relations  with  the  succeeding  pope,  Gregory  XVI. 
Urged  by  this  pontiff  to  devote  special  attention  to 


CATHEDRAL  OF  NOTRE-DAME,  REIMS 

'    BISHOP    ALBERIC   DE    HVUBGRT    IN    1211,    COMPLETED    I 


REISCB 


731 


ftfeLATIVISM 


the  affairs  ot  the  Catholic  Church  in  Germany,  he 
attacked  the  current  anti-ecclesiastical  views  and 
tendencies,  especially  with  regard  to  mixed  marriages, 
in  his  work  Was  haben  wir  von  den  Reformatoren 
und  Stimmftihrem  des  katholischen  Deutschland 
unserer  Tage  zu  halten?'',  which  appeared  at  Msdnz 
in  1835  imder  the  pseudonym  Athanasius  Sincerus 
Philalethes.  In  1836  he  became  Bishop  of  Eichstatt 
(Bavaria),  and,  by  the  foundation  of  the  boys'  semi- 
nary (1838)  and  the  erection  of  the  lyceum  (1843), 
rendered  the  greatest  services  to  the  ecclesiastical 
life  of  the  diocese.  As  delegate  of  the  pope  and  the 
Kings  of  Prussia  and  Bavaria,  he  mediated  in  the 
Prussian  ecclesiastical  dispute,  and  the  rapid  settle-, 
men t  of  the  "Cologne  muddle^'  (Kdlner  Wirren)  was 
due  primarily  to  lum.  In  recognition  of  his  services, 
he  was  named  in  1841  Coadjutor,  and  in  1847  Arch- 
bishop of  Munich-Freising.  His  zeal  on  behalf  of  the 
Church  having  rendered  him  unpleasing  to  the  Govern- 
ment, he  was,  at  the  request  of  King  Maximilian  II 
of  Bavaria,  summoned  to  Rome  by  Pius  IX  as  car- 
dinal-priest, with  the  title  of  St.  Anastasia.  He  con- 
ducted the  concordat  negotiations  with  Wtirtemberg 
and  Baden,  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  preparations 
for  the  council,  became  in  1867  President  of  the  Con- 
gregation of  Ecclesiastico-political  Affairs,  in  1869 
nrst  legate  of  the  council,  was  consultor  of  the  Con- 
gregation for  the  Index,  for  the  publication  of  the 
ecclesiastical  canons  of  the  Eastern  Churches,  for 
Extraordinary  Ecclesiastical  Affairs,  for  the  Examina- 
tion of  Bishops,  member  of  the  Congregation  of  the 
Propaganda  and  of  Sacred  Rites,  Minister  of  Educa- 
tion for  the  Papal  States,  and  in  1868  Cardinal- 
Bishop  of  Ostia. 

Kalholik,  I  (Maini,  1870),  120  aqg.;  Moutob,  Cardinal  Reitaeh 
(WQriburg.  1874);  AUgem.  deutache  Btogr,,  XXVIII  (Leipsig, 
1889).  114. 

Patricius  Schlager. 

Reiflch,  Greoor,  b.  at  Balingen  in  WOrtemberg, 
about  1467;  d.  at  Freiburg,  Baden,  9  May,  1525. 
In  1487  he  became  a  student  at  the  University  of 
Freiburg,  Baden,  and  received  the  degree  of  magisier 
in  1489.  He  then  entered  the  Carthusian  Order. 
During  the  years  1500-1502  he  was  prior  at  Klein- 
Basel;  from  1503  to  shortly  before  his  death  he  was 
prior  at  Freiburs.  He  was  also  visitor  for  the  Rhen- 
ish province  of  his  order.  As  visitor  he  made  every 
exertion  to  combat  Lutheranism.  He  was  a  friend 
of  the  most  celebrated  Humanists  of  the  era,  e.  g., 
Erasmus,  Wimpfeiing,  Beatus  Rhenanus,  Udalricus 
Zasius,  and  the  celebrated  preacher.  Geiler  of  Kaisem- 
berg.  John  Eck  was  his  pupil.  Reisch  had  a  great 
reputation  for  adaptability  and  was  regarded  as  an 
'' oracle''.  He  was  one  of  the  most  conspicuous,  if 
not  the  most  conspicuous,  of  the  intellectual  men  at 
the  commencement  of  the  new  era  who  sought  to 
prepare  encyclopedic  works  of  knowledge.  His  chief 
work  is  the  ''Margarita  philosophica  ,  which  first 
appeared  at  Freiburg  in  1503  (not  as  early  as  1496). 
It  is  an  encyclopedia  of  knowledge  intended  as  a 
text-book  for  youthful  students,  and  contains  in 
twelve  books  Latin  grammar,  dialectics,  rhetoric,  arith- 
metic, music,  geometry,  astronomy,  physics,  natural 
history,  physiology,  psychology,  and  ethics.  The 
usefulness  of  the  work  was  increased  by  numerous 
woodcuts  and  a  full  index.  The  form  is  catechetical: 
the  scholar  questions  and  the  teacher  answers.  The 
book  was  very  popular  on  account  of  its  comparative 
brevity  and  popular  form,  and  was  for  a  long  time 
a  customa^  textbook  of  the  higher  schools.  Alex- 
ander von  Humboldt  said  of  it  that  it  had  "for  a  half- 
century,  aided  in  a  remarkable  manner  the  spread 
of  knowledge''.  In  1510  Reisch  also  published  the 
statutes  and  privileges  of  the  Carthusian  Order,  and 
assisted  Erasmus  of  Rotterdam  in  his  edition  of 

Jerome. 
FcTBiEnTB,  BUbiiUheea  Carihutiana  (Cologne,  1609),  109-112; 


Httrtkr,  Nomentlalor,  II  (3rd  ed.  Innsbruck.  1906),  1278-79; 
Habtteldkb.  Oregor  ReiMch,  in  ZeiUchrift  fUr  die  QewKidtU 
dea  Oberrheina,  New  Series.  V  (Freiburg.  1890),  170-200. 

Klemens  LOffler. 

RelatioDflhip  (Carnal  and  SpiRrruAL). — ^The 
theolo^ns  understand  by  relationship  in  general 
a  certain  connexion  of  persons  established  eiUier  by 
nature  or  by  the  civil  or  canon  law!  Hence  they  dis- 
tinguish three  kinds,  natural,  legal,  and  spiritual. 
With  legal  relationship  we  are  not  here  concerned. 
Natural  or  carnal  relationship  originates  in  carnal 
intercourse  of  man  and  woman,  whether  marital  or 
not.  It  is  twofold:  consanguinity  and  affinity. 
Spiritual  relationship  has  been  introduced  by  ec- 
clesiastical law.  It  is  associated  with  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  Sacraments  of  Baptism  and  Confirma- 
tion. It  runs  in  each  case  between  the  minister  and 
the  recipient  of  the  sacrament  and  also  between  the 
sponsors  on  the  one  hand  and  the  recipient  and  his 
parents  on  the  other.  According  to  the  existing 
discipline  it  operates  as  a  diriment  impediment  m 
marriage  between  the  persons  named.  (See  Affin- 
rrr;  CoNaANauiNiTT;  Marriagb.) 

Slatbb,  Manual  of  Moral  Theology  (New  York.  1908) ;  d'An- 
NiBALE.  SummuLa  Theologica  Moralia  (Rome,  1908);  Bal- 
LXB2NI.  Opua  Theologicum  Morale  (Prato,  1900). 

Joseph  F.  Delant. 

RelativeSf  Duties  of. — ^The  general  precept  of 
charity  obliging  us  to  love  our  nei^bour  as  ourselves 
is  of  course  applicable  to  our  relatives.  T^e  tie  of 
kinship,  particularly  in  the  nearer  degrees,  confers 
upon  the  command  a  special  emphasis.  Thus,  there 
is  established  an  order  of  preference  in  favour  of 
relatives  in  the  observance  of  the  law.  St.  Thomas 
teaches  that  the  strength  of  the  affection  we  have  for 
another  is  contingent  upon  the  intimacy  of  the  bonds 
that  unite  us.  JNo  set  of  relations  antedates  that 
of  the  family,  nor  is  there  any  more  lasting.  Or- 
dinarily, therefore,  we  are  to  love  those  of  our  own 
kindred  more  than  mere  friends,  and  that  notwith- 
standing whatever  excellences  these  latter  may 
hi^pen  to  possess.  This  is  true  not  only  of  natural 
affection,  but  also  of  the  supernatural  act  of  charity. 
Theologians  have  endeavoured  to  determine  what 
is  the  respective  rank  enjoyed  by  relatives  as  claim- 
ants for  our  attachment.  They  seem  to  be  pretty 
well  agreed  that  husband  or  wife  hold  the  first  place: 
then  follow  children,  next  parents,  brothers,  ana 
sisters.  It  is  obvious  however  that  the  succession 
here  indicated,  valid  as  it  may  be  in  the  abstract,  is 
often  for  good  reasons  subject  to_  change.  In  any 
case  its  inversion  would  not  be  a  grievous  sin.  There 
is  no  doubt  but  that  we  are  bound  to  succour  rela- 
tives in  distress.  All  that  is  usually  laid  down  in 
general  about  the  duty  of  almsgiving,  both  corporal 
and  spiritual,  holds  good  with  added  force  when  our 
kinsfolk  are  to  be  the  recipients.  Other  things  being 
equal,  they  are  to  be  aided  if  need  be  to  the  exclusion 
of  any  one  else.  A  disposition  to  set  no  store  by  this 
obligation  would  seem  to  deserve  the  condemnation 
of  St.  Paul  in  the  First  Epistle  of  Timothy  (v,  8): 
''If  any  man  have  not  care  of  his  own,  and  especially 
those  of  his  own  house,  he  hath  denied  the  faith  and 
is  worse  than  an  infidel/' 

Slatbb,  Manual  of  Moral  Theology  (New  York,  1908) ;  Rick- 
ABT.  Moral  Teaching  of  St.  Thomaa  (London,  1896);  D'Annibalc. 
SummtUa  Theologice  Moralia  (Rome,  1908). 

Joseph  F.  Delant. 

BalAtiyism. — Any  doctrine  which  denies,  uni- 
versally or  in  regard  to  some  restricted  sphere  of 
being,  the  existence  of  absolute  values,  may  be  termed 
Relativism.  Thus  one  form  of  Relativism  asserts 
that  we  are  conscious  only  of  difference  or  change 
(Hobbes,  Bain,  Hdffding,  Wundt.  Cf.  Maher, 
"Psycholo^",  6th  ed.,  p.  91).  Another  asserts 
that  truth  is  relative,  either  (a)  because  judgments  are 
held  (i)  to  have  no  meaning  in  isolation  and  (ii)  to  be 


RELATIVISM 


732 


RELATIVISM 


subject  to  indefinite  modification  before  they  can 
become  embodied  in  the  one  coherent  system  of 
ideal  trath  (Joachim  and  Hegelians  generally),  or 
else  (b)  because  truth  is  conceived  as  a  peculiar  prop- 
ert>[  of  ideas  whereby  they  enable  us  to  deal  with  our 
en^dronment  more  or  less  successfully  (Pragmatists). 
A  third  affirms  moral  worth  to  be  essentially  relative 
and  to  emerge  only  when  motives  are  in  conflict 
(Martineau).  (See  Ethics,  PaAOMATis&ft,  Truth.) 
The  term  Relativism^  however,  is  more  commonlv 
applied  to  theories  which  treat  ot  the  nature  of  knowl- 
edge and  reality,  and  it  is  in  this  sense  that  we  shall 
discuss  it  here. 

The  Relativity  op  Knowledge. — Whatever  mav 
be  the  real  and  primary  significance  of  Protagoras  s 
famous  dictum,  "Man  is  the  measure  of  all  things" 
{dpBpwrot  puhpop  irdrrwr  koi  tQv  6irnap  xai  tCjv  /iif  bprtav^ 

Plato,  "The»t.",  152  A;  in  "Mind",  XIX,  473,  Mr. 
Gillespie  maintains  that  the  dictum  has  an  ethical 
sijpificance),  it  has  ordinarily  been  understood  in  an 
epistemological  sense,  as  a  statement  of  the  relativity 
of  all  human  knowleage,  of  the  impossibitity  of  pene- 
trating beyond  the  appearances  of  things.  And  this 
interpretation  is  in  conformity  with  the  general 
tendency  of  the  age  in  which  Protagoras  lived. 
HeracHtus's  doctrine  of  a  perpetual  and  universal 
flux,  Parmenides's  view  that  plurality  and  change  are 
but  the  semblance  of  reality,  futile  attempts  to  ex- 
plain the  nature  of  sense-perception  and  to  account 
for  illusion  and  false  judgment,  together  with  a 
dawning  consciousness  (evident  in  Democritus)  of  a 
subjective  factor  in  the  perceptual  process — all  this 
tcoided  to  make  philosophers  distrust  the  deliverances 
of  their  senses  and  rely  solely  upon  reason  or  in- 
telligence. Reflection,  however,  soon  made  it  clear 
that  rational  theories  were  no  more  consistent  than 
the  data  of  perceptional  experience,  and  the  inevi- 
table result  of  this  was  that  the  Relativism  of  Pro- 
tagoras and  his  followers  eventually  passed  into  the 
Scepticism  of  the  Middle  Academy  (see  Scepticism). 

Modem  Relativism,  on  the  other  hand,  though  it 
too  tends  to  pass  into  Scepticism,  was  in  its  origin 
a  reaction  against  Scepticism.  To  dispel  the  doubt 
which  Hume  had  cast  on  the  validity  of  universal 
judgments  of  a  synthetic  character,  Kant  proposed 
that  we  should  regard  them  as  arising  not  from  any 
apprehension  of  the  nature  of  real  things,  but  from 
the  constitution,  of  our  own  minds.  He  maintained 
that  the  mental  factor  in  experience,  hitherto 
neglected,  is  really  of  paramoimt  importance:  to  it 
are  due  space,  time,  the  categories,  and  every  form  of 
synthesis.  It  is  the  formal  element  arising  from  the 
structure  of  the  mind  itself  that  constitutes  knowl- 
edge and  makes  it  what  it  is.  Hume  erred  in  sup- 
posing that  knowledge  is  an  attempt  to  copy  reality. 
It  is  nothing  of  the  kind.  The  world  as  we  know  it, 
the  world  of  experience^  is  essentially  relative  to  the 
human  mind,  whence  it  derives  all  that  it  has  of 
unity,  order,  and  form.  The  obvious  objection  to  a 
Relativism  of  this  kind  is  the  outstanding  thing-in- 
itself,  which  is  not,  and  can  never  become,  an  object 
of  knowledge.  We  are  thus  shut  up  ^th  a  world 
of  appearances,  the  nature  of  which  is  constituted  by 
our  minds.  What  reality  is  in  itself  we  can  never 
know.  Yet  this  is,  as  Kant  admitted,  precisely  what 
we  wish  to  know.  The  fascination  of  Kant's  philos- 
ophy lay  in  the  fact  that  it  gave  full  value  to  the 
activity,  as  opposed  to  the  passivity  or  receptivity 
of  mina;  but  the  unknowable  Ding-aru-sich  was  an 
abomination,  fatal  alike  to  its  consistency  and  to  its 
power  to  solve  the  problem  of  human  cognition.  It 
must  be  got  rid  of  at  all  costs;  and  the  simplest  plan 
was  to  abolish  it  altogether,  thus  leaving  us  with  a 
reality  knowable  because  knowledge  and  reality  are 
one,  and  in  the  making  of  it  mind,  human  or  absolute, 
plays  an  overwhelmingly  important  part. 

The  Relativity  op  Realitt,  which  thus  took  the 


place  of  the  relativity  of  knowledge,  has  been  vari> 
ously  conceived.  Sometimes,  as  with  Fichte  and  Hegel. 
Nature  is  opposed  to  Mind  or  Spirit  as  a  twofold 
aspect  of  one  and  the  same  ground — of  Intelligence, 
of  Will,  or  even  of  unconscious  Mind.  Sometimes,  as 
with  Green  and  Bradley,  Recdity  is  conceived  as  one 
organic  whole  that  somehow  manifests  itself  in  finite 
centres  of  experience,  which  strive  to  reproduce  in 
themselves  Rieality  as  it  is,  but  fail  so  utterly  that 
what  they  assert,  even  when  contradictory,  must  be 
held  somehow  to  be  true — true  like  other  truths  in  that 
they  attempt  to  express  Reality,  but  are  subject  to 
indefinite  reinterpretation  before  they  can  become 
identical  with  the  real  to  which  they  refer.  Still 
more  modern  Absolutists  (e.  g.,  Mackenzie  and  Tay- 
lor), appreciating  to  some  extent  the  inadequacy 
of  this  view,  have  restored  some  sort  of  independence 
to  the  physical  order,  which,  says  Taylor  (Elem.  of 
Metaph.,  198),  ^'  does  not  depend  for  its  existence  upon 
the  fact  of  my  actually  perceiving  it,"  but  ''does  de- 
pend upon  my  perception  for  all  the  Qualities  and  re- 
lations which  I  find  in  it".  In  otner  words,  the 
"what"  of  the  real  world  is  relative  to  our  perceiving 
organs  (ibid.);  or,  as  a  recent  writer  (Murray  in 
"Mind",  new  series,  XIX,  232)  puts  it.  Reality,  an- 
terior to  being  known,  is  mere  CXiy  (raw  material), 
while  what  we  call  the  "thing"  or  the  object  of  knowl- 
edge is  this  6X17  as  transformed  by  an  appropriate 
mental  process,  and  thus  endowed  with  the  attri- 
butes of  spatiality  and  the  Uke.  Knowing  ia,^here- 
fore,  "superinducing  form  upon  the  matter  of  knowl- 
edge" (J.  Grote.  ^Explor.  Phil.",  I,  13).  Riehl, 
though  usually  classed  as  a  Realist,  holds  a  similar 
view.  He  distinguishes  the  being  of  an  object  {doi 
Sein  der  Objekte)  from  its  being  as  an  object  (06- 
jekisein).  The  former  is  the  real  being  of  the  ob- 
ject and  is  independent  of  consciousness;  the  latter 
IS  its  being  or  nature  as  conceived  by  us,  and  Is  some- 
thing wholly  relative  to  our  faculties  (cf.  Rickert, 
"Z)cr  Gegenstand  der  ErkenrUnis^\  2nd  ed.,  pp.  17  sq., 
where  the  inconsistency  of  this  view  is  clearly  in- 
dicated). 

The  relativity  of  Reality  as  thus  conceived  really 
involves  a  return  to  the  position  of  Kant,  except  that 
for  the  thing-in-itself  with  its  unknowable  charac- 
ter and  properties  is  substituted  a  kind  of  mcUeria 
primaj  without  quaUties,  attributes,  or  determina- 
tions, and  therefore  as  unknowable  as  the  thing-in- 
itself,  but  unknowable  now  because  there  is  nothing 
to  be  known.  On  this  point  modem  Idealism  is  at 
one  with  Pragmatism  or  Humanism,  which  sdso  in- 
sist that  reality  must  be  regarded  epistemolog^cally 
as  0\ii^  wholly  propertiless  and  wholly  indeterminate. 
The  difference  between  the  two  views  Hes  in  this, 
that  for  the  Idealist,  form  is  imposed  upon  matter  by 
the  very  act  by  which  we  know  it,  while  for  the 
Pragmatist,  it  is  imposed  only  after  a  long  process 
of  postulation  and  experiment. 

Criticism. — M.  Fonsegrive  in  his  "E^ssais  sur  la 
connaissance"  has  discussed  the  question  of  Relativ- 
ism at  considerable  length,  and  is  of  opinion  that  we 
must  in  some  sense  grant  that  knowledge  is  relative 
to  our  faculties.  But,  while  in  principle  he  grants 
this  universally f  as  a  matter  of  fact  in  his  own  tiieor^ 
it  is  only  our  knowledge  of  corporeal  objects  that  is 
regarded  as  strictly  relative.  We  can  know  other 
minds  as  they  really  are,  because  we  ourselves  are 
thinking  beings,  and  the  external  manifestation  of 
our  mentality  and  theirs  is  similar  in  character.  But 
"  we  do  not  know  the  essence  of  things,  but  the  essence 
of  our  relations  with  things;  of  the  laws  of  nature 
in  themselves  we  know  much  less  than  we  do  of 
our  dealings  with  nature"  (pp.  85,  86).  "Whatever 
we  know,  is  known  in  terms  of  the  self"  (p.  125; 
cf.  pp.  184  sq.).  The  principal  argument  upon 
which  this  Relativism  rests,  is  fundamentally  the 
same  as  that  used  by  Berkeley  in  his  famous  "Dia- 


BELATIVISM 


733 


BELATIVISM 


logue  between  Hylas  and  Philonus^'.  As  stated  by 
Fonsegrive,  it  is  as  follows:  ''the  concept  of  an  object 
which  should  be  at  the  same  time  in-itself  and  an 
object  of  knowledge  is  clearly  contradictory.  .  .  . 
For  'object  of  knowledge'  means  'known'.  .  .  . 
but  it  is  quite  evident  that  the  known,  qua  known,  is 
not  in-itself,  since  it  is  qua  known"  (p.  186).  Hence 
what  we  know  is  never  the  object  as  it  is  in  itself,  but 
only  as  it  is  in  our  knowledge  of  it.  Of  course,  if  the 
notions  "being  in  itself"  and  "being  as  known"  are 
mutually  exclusive,  the  above  argument  is  valid;  but 
as  conceived  by  the  Realist  or  the  anti-Relativist,  this 
is  not  so.  Being  in-itself  merely  means  being  as  it 
existSf  whether  it  be  known  or  not.  It  implies  there- 
fore that  the  nature  and  existence  of  being  is  prior  to 
our  knowledge  of  it  (a  fact  which,  by  the  way,  Fon- 
se^ive  stoutly  maintains) ;  but  it  does  not  imply  that 
bemg  as  it  exists  cannot  be  known.  Fonsegrive's 
argument  proves  nothing  against  the  view  that  the 
real  nature  of  objects  is  knowable;  for,  though  in  the 
abstract  the  thing  qua  existent  is  not  the  thing  qua 
known,  in  the  concrete  there  is  no  reason  why  its 
really  existing  nature  cannot  become  known,  or,  in 
other  words,  why  it  cannot  be  known  as  it  is. 

Hie  argument  by  which  absolutists  seek  to  prove 
the  relativity  of  Reality  is  precisely  similar  to  the 
above.  We  cannot  think  of  real  thmgs,  says  Taylor 
("Elem.  of  Metaph.",  23,  69,  70;  cf.  Bradley,  "Ap- 
pearance and  Reality",  144r-45),  except  as  objects 
of  experience;  hence  it  is  in  connexion  with  mind  that 
their  reality  lies.  Surely  this  argument  is  fallacious. 
All  that  it  proves  is  that  things  must  either  be  or  dse 
become  objects  of  experience  in  order  to  be  thought  of 
bv  mind,  not  that  tney  must  be  of  their  very  essence 
objects  of  experience.  Unless  reality  is  intelligible 
and  can  enter  into  experience,  it  cannot  become  the 
object  of  thought;  but  in  no  other  sense  does  the 
possibility  of  knowing  it  suppose  its  "connexion  with 
mind".  True,  to  conceive  anjrthing  is  "eo  ipso  to 
bring  it  into  consciousness",  but  from  this  it  follows 
merely  that  to  be  conceivable  things  must  be  capable 
of  becominp  objects  of  consciousness.  Psychological 
considerations  force  us  to  admit  that  Reality,  when 
it  enters  experience,  becomes,  or  better  is  reproduced 
as  psychical  fact;  but  we  cannot  conclude  from  this 
that  Reality  itself,  the  reality  which  is  the  object 
of  experience  and  to  which  our  experience  refers 
as  to  something  other  than  itself,  is  of  necessity 
psychical  fact.  Experience  or  perception  is  doubtless 
a  condition  without  which  we  could  not  think  of 
things  at  all,s  still  less  think  of  them  as  existing,  biit 
it  is  not  a  condition  without  which  things  could  not 
ttdst.  Nor  again,  when  we  think,  do  we  ordinarily 
think  of  things  as  objects  of  experience;  we  think  of 
the^  simply  as  "things",  real  or  imaginary,  and  the 
properties  which  we  predicate  of  them  we  think  of 
as  belonging  to  them,  not  as  "superinduced  by  our 
minds". 

Our  natural  way  of  thinking  may,  however,  con- 
ceivably be  wrong.  Granted  that  what  "appears" 
is  r^sktity,  appearances  may  none  the  less  be  fallacious. 
It  is  possible  that  they  are  due  wholly  or  in  part  to 
our  minds,  and  so  do  not  reveal  to  us  the  nature  of 
reality,  but  rather  its  relation  to  our  perceiving  selves, 
our  faculties  and  our  oipms.  Most  of  the  arguments 
advanced  in  support  of  this  view  are  based  on  psy- 
chology, and  though  the  psychology  is  good  enousp, 
the  arguments  are  hardly  conclusive.  It  is  urged.  Tor 
instance,  that  abstraction  and  generalisation  are  sub- 
jective processes  which  enter  into  every  act  of  knowl- 
edge, and  essentially  modify  its  content.  Yet  ab- 
straction is  not  falsification,  unless  we  assume  that 
what  we  are  considering  in  tne  abstract  exists  as  such 
in  the  concrete — ^that  is,  exists  not  in  connexion  with 
and  in  mutual  dependence  upon  other  things,  but  in 
isolation  and  independence  just  as  we  conceive  it. 
Nor  is  generalisation  fallacious,  unless  we  assume, 


without  proof,  that  the  particulars  to  which  our  con* 
cept  potentially  applies  actually  exist.  In  a  word, 
neither  these  nor  any  other  of  the  subjective  processes 
and  forms  of  thought  destroy  the  validity  of  knowl- 
edge^  provided  what  is  purely  formal  and  subjective 
be  distinguished,  as  it  should  be,  from  what  pertains 
to  objective  content  and  refers  to  the  real  order  of 
causes  and  purposes. 

A  further  argument  is  derived  from  the  alleged 
relativity  of  sensation,  whence  in  the  Scholastic  theory 
all  knowledge  is  derived.  The  Quality  of  sensation, 
it  is  said,  is  determined  largely  by  the  character  ot 
our  nervous  system,  and  in  particular  by  the  end- 
organs  of  the  aifferent  senses.  It  is  at  least  ecjually 
probable,  however,  that  the  quality  of  sensation  is 
determined  by  the  stimulus;  and  in  any  case  the  ob- 
jection is  beside  the  point,  for  we  do  not  in  judgment 
refer  our  sensation  cls  such  to  the  object,  but  rather 
as  qualities,  the  nature  of  which  we  do  not  know, 
though  we  do  know  that  they  differ  from  one  another 
in  varying  degrees.  Even  granted  then  that  sensa- 
tion is  relative  to  our  specialized  organs  of  sense,  it 
by  no  means  follows  that  the  knowledge  which  comes 
through  sensation  in  any  way  involves  subjective 
determination.  ,  Secondly,  sense-data  do  not  give  us 
merely  qualitative  differences,  but  also  spatial  forms 
and  magnitudes,  distance,  motion,  velocity,  direction; 
and  upon  these  data  are  based  not  only  mathematics 
but  also  physicEkl  science,  in  so  far  as  the  lattcj^  is  con- 
cerned with  quantitative,  in  distinction  from  qualita- 
tive, variations.  Thirdly,  sei^e-data^  even  if  they 
be  in  part  subjective,  suppose  as  their  condition  an 
objective  cause.  Hence,  a  theory  which  explains 
sense-data  satisfactorily  assigns  to  them  conditions 
which  are  no  less  real  than  the  effects  to  which  in  part 
at  least  they  give  rise.  Lastly,  if  knowledge  really  is 
relative  in  the  sense  above  explained,  though  it  may 
satisfy  our  practical,  it  can  never  satisfy  our  specula- 
tive strivings.  The  aim  of  speculative  research  is  to 
know  Reality  as  it  is.  But  knowledge,  if  it  be  of  ap- 
pearances only,  is  without  real  meaning  and  signifi- 
cance, and  as  conceived  in  an  Idealism  of  the  a  priori 
tjrpe,  also  it  would  seem  without  purpose. 

Experience  aa  a  System  op  Relations. — It  is 
commonly  taught  by  neo-Kantians  that  relation  is 
the  Category  of  categories  (cf .  Renouvier,  "  Le  per- 
sonnalisme",  pref.  vi).  Qualities  are  but  relations  in 
disguise  (Caird,  "The  Phil,  of  Kant",  329;  Green,  Pro- 
legom.",  20).  Matter  and  motion  "consist  of"  re- 
lations (Prolegom.,  9).  In  fact  Reality,  as  we  know 
it,  is  nothing  but  a  system  of  relations,  for  "the  nature 
of  mind  is  such  that  no  knowledge  can  be  acquired  or 
expressed,  and  consequently  no  real  existence  con- 
ceived, except  by  means  of  relation  and  as  a  system 
of  relations"  (Renouviet,  "Les  dilemmes  de  la 
metaph.",  11).  This  form  of  Relativism  may  be 
called  elective  to  distinguish  it  from  the  Relativism 
which  we  have  been  discussing  above,  and  with  which, 
as  a  matter  of  fact,  it  is  generally  combined.  Primar- 
Uy  it  is  a  theory  of  the  nature  of  knowledge,  but  with 
Green  and  others  (e.  g.,  Abel  Rey,  "La  th^rie  de  la 
physique",  VI,  2),  who  identify  knowledge  and 
reality,  it  is  also  a  metaphysic.  Such  a  view  supp>oses 
a  theory  of  the  nature  of  relation  very  different  from 
that  of  the  Scholastics.  For  the  latter  relation  is 
essentially  a  irp6t  n  ffx^<^^h  ah  ordo  ad,  which  implies 
(1)  a  subject  to  which  it  belongs,  (2)  a  special  some- 
thing in  that  subject  on  account  of  which  it  is  pred- 
icate, and  (3)  a  term,  other  than  itself,  to  which  it 
refers.  A  relation,  in  other  words,  as  the  modems 
would  put  it,  presupposes  its  "terms".  It  is  not  a 
mysterious  and  invisible  link  which  somehow  joins 
up  two  aspects  of  a  thing  and  makes  them  one.  A 
relation  may  be  mutual;  but  if  so,  there  sure  really 
<UH>  relations  (e.  g.,  paternity  and  sonship)  belonging 
to  different  subjects,  or,  if  to  the  same  subject,  arising 
from  different  fundamerUa,    True,  in  science  as  in 


RELICS 


734 


RELICS 


other  matters,  we  may  know  a  relation  without  bein^ 
able  to  discover  the  nature  of  the  entities  it  relates. 
We  may  know,  for  instance,  that  pressure  and  temper- 
ature vary  proportionately  in  a  given  mass  of  gas  of 
which  the  volume  is  kept  constant,  without  knowing 
precisely  and  for  certain  the  ultimate  nature  of  either 
pressure  or  temperature.  Nevertheless  we  do  know 
something  about  them.  We  know  that  they  exist, 
that  they  each  have  a  certain  nature,  and  that  it  is 
on  account  of  this  nature  that  the  relation  between 
them  arises.  We  cannot  know  a  relation,  therefore, 
without  knowing  something  of  the  things  which  it 
relates,  for  a  relation  presupposes  its  ''terms". 
Hence  the  universe  cannot  consist  of  relations  only, 
but  must  be  composed  of  things  in  relation. 

Epistbmoix>oical  and  Metaphtsical. — Cairo,  The  CrUictU 
Philotophy  of  Kant  (Glaagow,  1889) ;  Fonbeorivc,  Batait  tur  la 
eonnaisaanee  (Parifl,  1009);  Green,  Prtd^gomena  to  Ethics  (3rd 
ed.,  Oxford,  1890) ;  Grote,  BxpUmUio  pfiilosophica  (Cambridge, 
19()0);  HAMiiyroN,  Diaciuaions  (London,  1854);  Idem,  Metaphv 
met  (London,  1871) ;  Hegel,  Logic,  tr.  Wallace  (2nd  ed.,  Oxford, 
1892);  Hbrbart,  MetaphyHca  (Leipiig,  1850);  Hobhouse.  The 
Theory  of  Knowledge  (London.  1896);  Mill,  Examination  of 
Hamilton  (4th  ed.,  London,  1872) ;  Pbichard,  Kanl'e  Theory  of 
Knowledge  (Oxford,  1910);  Rbnouvier,  Lee  dilemmee  de  la 
mdaph,  pure  (Paris,  1891);  Idem,  Le  pereonnaliame  (1903); 
Rat,  La  Thiorie  de  la  phyeique  (Paris,  1907);  Rickebt,  Der 
Gegenetand  der  ErkenrUnie  (2nd  ed.,  Tabingen,  and  Leipiig  1904) ; 
Riehl,  Der  phiheoph.  Kritieiemua  (Leipsig.  1887) ;  Schillbb, 
Humaniem  (London,  1903);  Idem,  Studtee  in  Humanism  (1907); 
Seth,  Scottish  Philosophy  (London,  1885);  Simiiel,  Philosophie 
dee  Gddee  (Leipxig.  1890);  Spbncbb,  First  Principles  (6th  ed.. 
London.  1900) ;  Vextch.  Knowing  and  Being  (Edinburgh,  1889) ; 
Walkbb,  Theories  of  Knowledge  (London,  1910). 

PsTCBOLoaiCAL. — Bain,  Mental  and  Moral  Science  (3rd  ed., 
London,  1884);  HOfpdinq,  Outlines  of  Psychology  (London, 
1891);  Mahbb,  Psycholoffy  (6th  ed.,  London,  1905);  Wundt. 
Human  and  Animal  Psychology,  tr.  (London,  1894);  Idem. 
QrundtUge  d.  phyeiologischen  Psycht^ogie  (5th  ed.,  Leipxig,  1903). 

Leslie  J.  Walker. 

Relics. — ^The  word  reliat  comes  from  the  Latin 
relifpiUB  (the  counterpart  of  the  Greek  X«(^ara), 
which  already  before  the  propagation  of  Christianity 
was  used  in  its  modem  sense,  viz.,  of  some  object, 
notably  part  of  the  bodv  or  clothes,  remaining  as  a 
memorial  of  a  departea  saint.  The  veneration  of 
reUcs,  in  fact,  is  to  some  extent  a  primitive  instinct, 
and  it  is  associated  with  many  other  religious  systems 
besides  that  of  Christianity.  At  Athens  the  supposed 
remains  of  (Edipus  and  Theseus  enjoyed  an  nonour 
which  it  is  very  difficult  to  distinguish  from  a  re- 
lidous  cult  (see  for  all  this  Pf ister,  '"Reliquienkult  in 
Altertum",  I,  1909),  while  Plutarch  gives  an  account 
of  the  translation  of  the  bodies  of  Demetrius  (Demetr., 
lii)  and  Phocion  (Phoc,  xxxvii)  which  in  many  de- 
tails anticipates  the  Christian  practice  of  the  Nliddle 
Ages.  The  bones  or  ashes  of  .£sculapius  hi  Epi- 
daurus,  of  Perdiccas  I  at  Macedon,  and  even — if  we 
may  trust  the  statement  of  the  Chronicon  Paschale 
(Dindorf,  p.  67)^-of  the  Persian  Zoroaster  (Zara- 
thustra),  were  treated  with  the  deepest  veneration. 
As  for  the  Far  East,  the  famous  story  of  the  dis- 
tribution of  the  relics  of  Buddha,  an  incident  which 
is  believed  to  have  taken  place  immediately  after 
his  death,  seems  to  have  found  remarkable  confirma- 
tion in  certain  modem  archsolofldcal  discoveries. 
(See  "Joum.  of  R.  Asiatic  Society  ,  1909,  pp.  1056 
Boq.).  In  any  case  the  extreme  development  of 
relic-worship  amongst  the  Buddhists  of  every  sect 
is  a  fact  beyond  dispute. 

I.  Doctrine  Regarding  Relics. — ^Thc  teaching 
of  the  Catholic  Church  with  regard  to  the  veneration 
of  relics  is  summed  up  in  a  decree  of  the  Council  of 
Trent  (Sess.  XXV),  which  enjoins  on  bishops  and 
other  pastors  to  instruct  their  flocks  that  ''the holy 
bodies  of  holy  martyrs  and  of  others  now  living  wiu 
Christ — ^which  bodies  were  the  living  members  of 
Christ  and  'the  temple  of  the  Holy  Ghost'  (I  Cor., 
vi,  19)  and  which  are  by  Him  to  be  raised  to  eternal 
life  and  to  be  glorified  are  to  be  venerated  by  the  faith- 
ful, for  througii  these  [bodies]  many  benefits  are  be- 
stowed by  God  on  men,  so  that  they  who  aflSrm  that 


veneration  and  honour  are  not  due  to  the  relics  of  thti 
saints,  or  that  these  and  other  sacred  monuments  are 
uselessly  honoured  by  the  faithful,  and  that  the  places 
dedicated  to  the  memories  of  the  saints  >are  in  vain 
visited  with  the  view  of  obtaining  liieir  aid,  are 
wholly  to  be  condemned,  as  the  ChurcJi  has  already 
long  since  condemned,  and  also  now  condemns  them." 
Further,  the  council  insists  that  "in  Uie  invocation  of 
saints  the  veneration  of  relics  and  the  sacred  use  of 
images,  every  superstition  shall  be  removed  and  ail 
filthy  lucre  abolished.''  Again,  "the  visitation  of 
reUcs  must  not  be  by  any  perverted  into  revellings 
and  drunkenness.''  To  secure  a  proper  check  upon 
abuses  of  this  kind,  "no  new  miracles  are  to  be 
acknowledged  ^or  new  relics  recognised  unless  the 
bishop  of  the  'diocese  has  taken  cognisance  and  ap- 
proved thereof."  Moreover^  the  bishop,  in  all  these 
matters,  is  directed  to  obtam  accurate  information, 
to  take  council  with  theolo^ans  and  pious  men,  and 
in  cases  of  doubt  or  exceptional  difficulty  to  submit 
the  matter  to  the  sentence  of  the  metropolitan  and 
other  bishops  of  the  province,  "yet  so  that  nothing 
new,  or  that  previously  has  not  been  usual  in  the 
Church,  shall  be  resolved  on,  without  having  first 
consulted  the  Holy  See." 

The  justification  of  Catholic  practice,  which  is 
indirectly  suggested  here  by  the  reference  to  the 
bodies  of  the  saints  as  formerly  temples  of  the  Holy 
Ghost  and  as  destined  hereafter  to  be  etemidly 
glorified,  is  further  developed  in  the  authoritative 
"Roman  Catechism"  drawn  up  at  the  instance  of 
the  same  council.  Recalling  the  marvels  witnessed 
at  the  tombs  of  the  martyrs,  where  "the  blind  and 
cripples  are  restored  to  health,  the  dead  recalled  to 
life,  and  demons  expelled  from  the  bodies  of  men", 
the  Catechism  points  out  that  these  are  facts  which 
"St.  Ambrose  and  St.  Augustine,  most  unexception- 
able witnesses,  declare  in  their  writings  that  they 
have  not  merely  heard  and  read  about,  as  many  did, 
but  have  seen  with  their  own  eyes",  (Ambrose, 
Epist.  xxii,  nn.  2  and  17;  Augustine,  Serm.  cclxxxvi, 
c.  v.;  "De  Civ.  Dei",  xxii,  8,  "Confess.",  ix,  7).' 
And  from  thence,  turning  to  Scriptural  analogies,  the 
compilers  further  argue:  "If  the  clothes,  Sie  ker- 
chiefs (Acts,  xix,  12),  if  the  shadow  of  the  saints 
(Acts.  V,  15),  before  they  departed  from  this  life, 
banished  diseases  and  restored  strength,  who  will 
have  the  hardihood  to  deny  that  God  wonderfully 
works  the  same  %y  the  sacred  ashes,  the  bones,  and 
other  relics  of  the  saints?  This  is  the  lesson  we 
h&ve  to  learn  from  that  dead  body  which,  having  been 
accidentally  let  down  into  the  sepulchre  of  Eliseus, 
"when  it  had  touched  the  bones  of  the  Prophet,  in- 
stantly came  to  life"  (4  Kings,  xiii,  21,  and  cf. 
Ecclus.,  xlviii,  14).  We  may  aad  that  this  miracle 
as  well  as  the  veneration  shown  to  the  bones  of  Moses 
(See  Ex;,  xiii,  19  and  Jos.,  xxiv,  32)  only  gain  ad- 
ditional force  from  their  apparent  contradiction  to 
the  ceremonial  laws  against  defilement,  of  which  we 
read  in  Num.,  xix,  11-22.  The  influence  of  this 
Jewish  shrinking  from  contact  with  the  dead  so  far 
lingered  on  that  it -was  found  necessary  in  the  "  Apos- 
tohcal  Constitutions"  (vi,  30)  to  issue  a  strong  warn- 
ing against  it  and  to  argue  in  favour  of  the  Christian 
cmt  of  relics. 

According  to  the  more  common  opinion  of  theolo- 
gians, relics  are  to  be  honoured—St.  Thomas,  in 
Summa,  III,  Q.  xxxviii,  a.  6,  does  not  seem  to  con- 
sider even  the  word  adorare  inappropriate — cuUu 
dtdicB  rdativcB.  that  is  to  say  with  a  veneration  which 
is  not  that  of  latria  (divine  worship)  and  which  though 
direct^  primarily  to  the  material  objects  of  the 
cult — ^i.  e.,  the  bones,  ashes,  garments,  etc. — does  not 
rest  in  them,  but  looks  beyond  to  the  saints  they  com- 
memorate as  to  its  formal  term.  Hauck,  Katten- 
busch,  and  other  non-Catholic  writers  have  striven 
to  diow  that  the  utterances  of  the  Council  of  Trent 


RELICS  735  RELICS 

arc  in  contradiction  to  what  they  admit  to  be  the  the  death  of  St.  Polycaip.  After  he  had  been  burnt 
"very  cautious"  language  of  the  medieval  Scholas-  at  the  stake,  we  are  told  that  his  faithful  disciples 
tics,  and  notably  St.  Thomas.  The  latter  urges  wished  to  carry  off  his  remains,  but  the  Jews  urged 
that  those  who  have  an  affection  to  any  person  the  Roman  officer  to  refuse  his  consent  for  fear  that 
hold  in  honour  all  that  was  intimately  connected  the  Christians  "would  only  abandon  the  Crucified 
with  him.  Hence,  while  we  love  and  venerate  the  One  and  begin  to  worship  this  man".  Eventually, 
saints  who  were  so  dear  to  God,  we  also  venerate  all  however,  as  the  SmymaBans  say.  "we  took  up  his 
that  belongwi  to  them,  and  particularly  their  bodies,  bones,  which  are  more  valuable  than  precious  stones 
which  were  once  the  temples  of  the  Holy  Spu-it,  and  and  finer  than  refined  gold,  and  laid  them  m  a  smtable 
which  are  some  day  to  be  conformed  to  the  glorious  place,  where  the  Lord  will  oermit  us  to  gather  our- 
body  of  Jesus  Christ.  "Whence  also",  adds  St.  selves  together,  as  we  are  able,  in  dadness  and  jojTj 
Thomas,  "God  fittingly  does  honour  to  such  relics  by  and  to  celebrate  the  birthday  of  his  martyrdom, 
performmg  miracles  m  their  presence  [in  earum  This  is  the  keynote  which  is  echoed  in  a  multitude 
prceserUia]/*  It  will  be  seen  that  this  closely  accords  of  similar  passages  found  a  little  later  in  the  patristic 
with  the  terms  used  by  the  Council  of  Trent  and  that  writers  of  both  East  and  West.  Hamack's  tone  in 
the  difference  consists  only  in  this,  that  the  Council  referring  to  this  development  is  that  of  an  unwilling 
says  per  quos — "through  which  many  benefits  are  witness  overwhelmed  by  evidence  which  it  is  useless 
bestowed  on  mankind"— while  St.  Thomas  speaks  of  to  resist.  "Most  offensive",  he  writes,  "was  the 
miracles  worked  "in  their  presence".  But  it  is  worship  of  relics.  It  flourished  to  its  greatest  ex- 
quite  unnecessary  to  attach  to  the  words  per  tent  as  early  as  the  fourth  centunr  and  no  Church 
qxuB  the  idea  of  physical  causality.  We  have  no  doctor  of  repute  restricted  it.  All  of  them  rather, 
reason  to  suppose  that  the  council  meant  more  than  even  the  Cappadocians,  countenanced  it.  The  nu- 
that  the  relics  of  the  saints  were  the  occasion  of  God's  merous  miracles  which  were  wrought  bybones  and 
working  miracles.  When  we  read  in  the  Acts  of  the  relics  seemed  to  confirm  their  worship.  The  Church, 
Apostles,  xix,  11,  12,  "And  God  wrought  by  the  hand  therefore,  would  not  give  up  the  practice,  although 
of  Paul  more  than  common  miracles.  So  that  even  a  violent  attack  was  made  upon  it  oy  a  few  cultured 
there  were  brought  from  his  body  to  the  sick,  hand-  heathens  and  besides  by  the  Manichseans"  (Har- 
kerehiefs  and  aprons,  and  the  diseases  departed  from  nack,  "Hist,  of  Dog;''f  tr.,  IV,  313). 
them,  and  the  wicked  spirits  went  out  from  them".  From  the  Catholic  standpoint  there  was  no  ex- 
there  can  be  no  inexactitude  in  saying  that  these  trava^ance  or  abuse  in  this  cult  as  it  was  recommended, 
also  were  the  things  by  which  (per  qucB)  God  wrought  and  indeed  taken  for  granted,  by  writers  like  St. 
the  cure.  Augustine,  St.  Ambrose,  St.  Jerome,  St.  GJregory 

There  is  nothing,  therefore,  in  Catholic  teaching  to  of  Nyssa,  St.  Chrysostom,  St.  Gregory  Nazmnzen, 
justify  the  statement  that  the  Church  encourages  and  by  all  the  other  great  doctors  without  exception. 
beUef  in  a  magical  virtue,  or  physical  curative  efficacy  To  give  detailed  references  besides  those  already 
residins  in  the  relic  itself .  It  may  be  admitted  that  St. '  cited  from  the  Roman  •Catechism  would  be  super- 
Cyril  of  Jerusalem  (a.  d.  347),  and  a  few  other  patristic  fluous.  Suffice  it  to  point  out  that  the  inferior  and 
and  medieval  writers,  apparently  speak  of  some  relative  nature  of  the  honour  due  to  relics  was  always 
power  inherent  in  the  relic.  For  example,  St.  Cyril,  kept  in  view.  Thus  St.  Jerome  says  ("Ad  Riparium  , 
after  referring  to  the  miracle  wrought  by  the  tJody  i,  P.  L.,  XXII,  907):  "We  do  not  worship,  we  do 
of  Eliseus,  declares  that  the  restoration  to  life  of  the  not  adore  [non  colimus,  non  adoramus],  for  tear  that 
corpse  with  which  it  was  in  contact  took  place  "to  we  should  bow  down  to  the  creature  rather  than  to 
show  that  even  though  the  soul  is  not  present  a  vir-  the  Creator,  but  we  venerate  [hoTioramus]  the  relics 
tue  resides  in  the  body  of  the  saints,  because  of  the  of  the  martyrs  in  order  the  better  to  adore  Him  whose 
righteous  soul  which  has  for  so  many  years  tenanted  majtyrs  they  are."  And  St.  Cyril  of  Alexandria 
it  and  used  it  as  its  minister".  And  he  adds,  "Let  writes  ("Adv.  Julian.",  vi,  P.  G..  LXXVI,  812): 
us  not  be  foolishlv  incredulous  as  though  the  thing  "We  by  no  means  consider  the  holy  martyrs  to  be 
had  not  happened,  for  if  handkerchiefs  and  aprons  gods^  nor  are  we  wont  to  bow  down  before  them 
which  are  from  without,  touching  the  body  of  the  adoringly,  but  only  relatively  and  reverentially 
diseased,  have  raised  up  the  sick,  how  much  more  [ot  XarptvriKQt  dXXd  ffx^rucQt  koI  rifirrrucut],"  Per- 
should  the  body  itself  of  the  Prophet  raise  the  dead?"  haps  no  single  writing  supplies  a  more  striking  illus- 
(Cat.,  xviii,  16.)  But  this  seems  rather  to  belong  tration  of  flie  importance  attached  to  the  venera- 
td  the  personal  view  or  manner  of  speech  of  St.  tion  of  relics  in  the  Christian  practice  of  the  fourth 
Cyril.  He  regards  the  chrism  after  its  consecration  century  than  the  panejprric  of  the  martyr  St.  Theo- 
"as  no  longer  simple  ointment  but  the  gift  of  Christ,  dore  by  St.  Gregory  of  Nyssa  (P.G.,  XL VI,  735-48). 
and  by  the  presence  of  His  Godhead  it  causes  in  us  Contraisting  the  horror  produced  by  an  ordinary 
the  Holy  Ghost"  (Cat.,  xxi,  3);  and,  what  is  more  corpse  with  the  veneration  paid  to  the  body  of  a 
striking,  he  also  declares  that  the  meats  consecrated  saint,  the  preacher  expatiat^  upon  the  adornment 
to  idols,  "  though  in  their  own  nature  plain  and  simple,  lavished  upon  the  building  which  had  been  erected 
become  profane  by  the  invocation  of  the  evil  spirit"  over  the  martyr's  resting  place,  and  he  describes  how 
(Cat.,  xix,  7) — all  of  which  must  leave  us  very  doubt-  the  worshipper  is  led  to  approach  the  tomb  "believing 
ful  as  to  his  real  belief  in  any  physical  virtue  in-  that  to  touch  it  is  itself  a  sanctification  and  a  blessing, 
herent  in  relics.  Be  this  as  it  may,  it  is  certain  that  and  if  it  be  permitted  to  carry  off  any  of  the  dust 
the  Church,  with  regard  to  the  veneration  of  relics,  which  has  settled  upon  the  martyr's  resting  place, 
has  defined  nothing  more  than  what  was  stated  above,  the  dust  is  accounted  as  a  great  gift  and  the  mould 
Neither  has  the  Church  ever  pronounced  that  any  as  a  precious  treasure.  And  as  for  touching  the  relics 
particular  relic,  not  even  that  commonly  venerated  themselves,  if  that  should  ever  be  our  happmess,  only 
as  the  wood  of  the  Cross^  is  authentic^  but  she  ap-  those  who  have  experienced  it  and  who  have  had  their 
proves  of  honour  being  paid  to  those  relics  which  with  wish  gratified  can  know  how  much  this  is  desirable 
reasonable  probability  are  believed  to  be  genuine,  andhowworthy  a  recompense  it  is  of  aspiring  prayer" 
aiid  which  are  invested  with  due  ecclesiasticuLl  sane-  (coi  740). 
tions.  Xhis  passage,  like  many  others  that  might  be 

II.  Earlt  History. — Few  points  of  faith  can  be  quoted,  awells  rather  upon  the  sanctity  of  the  martyr's 

more  satisfactorily  traced  back  to  the  earliest  ages  resting  place  and  upon  that  of  his  mortal  remains 

of  Christianity  than  the  veneration  of  relics.    'Die  collected    as   a   whole   and   honourably   entombed, 

classical  instance  is  to  be  found  in  the  letter  written  Neither  is  it  quite  easy  to  determine  the  period  at 

by  the  inhabitants  of  Smyrna,  about  156,  describing  which  the  practice  of  venerating  minute  fragments  of 


RBUC8 


736 


RBUC8 


bone  or  cloth,  small  parcek  of  dust;  etc.,  first  became 
common.  We  can  only  say  that  it  was  widespread 
early  in  the  fourth  century,  and  that  dated  inscrip- 
tions upon  blocks  of  stone,  which  were  .probably  altar 
slabs,  afford  evidence  upon  the  point  which  is  quite 
conclusive.  One  such,  found  of  Tate  years  in  North- 
em  Africa  and  now  preserved  in  the  Christian 
Museum  of  the  Louvre,  bears  a  list  of  the  relics 
probably  once  cemented  into  a  shallow  circular 
cavity  excavated  in  its  surface.  Omitting  one  or  two 
words  not  adequatelv  explained,  the  inscription  runs: 
''A  holy  memorial  [memoria  sancta]  of  the  wood  of 
the  Cross,  of  the  land  of  Promise  where  Christ  was 
bom,  the  Ai)ostles  Peter  and  Paul,  the  names  of  the 
martyiiB  Datian,  Donatian,  Cyprian,  Nemesianus, 
Citinus,  and  Victoria.  In  the  year  of  the  Province 
320  [i.  e.  A.  D.  359]  Benenatus  and  Pequaria  set  this 
up  "  ("  Corp.  Inscr.  Lat.",  VIII,  n.  20600.  a.  Audol- 
lent  in  "  Melanges  d'archdol.  et  d'hist.",  X,  397-588). 

We  leam  from  St.  Cyril  of  Jerusalem  (before  350) 
that  the  wood  of  the  Cross,  discovered  c.  318,  was  al- 
ready distributed  throughout  the  world;  and  St. 
Grcgorv  of  Nyssa,  in  his  sermons  on  the  forty  martjrrs, 
after  cfescribmg  how  their  bodies  were  burned  by 
command  of  the  persecutors,  explains  that  "theur 
ashes  and  all  that  the  fire  had  spared  have  been  so 
distributed  throughout  the  world  that  almost  every 
province  has  had  its  share  of  the  blessing.  I  also 
myself  have  a  portion  of  this  holv  gift  and  I  have  laid 
the  bodies  of  my  parents  beside  the  relics  of  these 
warriors,  that  in  the  hour  of  the  resurrection  the^ 
may  be  awakened  together  with  these  highly  privi- 
leged comrades"  (P.  G.,  XLVI,  7ft4).  We  have  here 
also  a  hint  of  the  explanation  of  the  wideroread  prac- 
tice of  seeking  burial  near  the  tombs  of  the  martjrrs. 
It  seems  to  have  been  felt  that  when  the  souls  of  the 
blessed  martyrs  on  the  day  of  general  resurrection 
were  once  more  united  to  their  bodies,  thev  would 
be  accompanied  in  their  passage  to  heaven  uy  those 
who  lay  around  them  and  that  these  last  nught  on 
their  account  find  more  ready  acceptance  with  God. 

We  may  note  also  that,  while  this  and  other  pass- 
ages suggest  that  no  great  repugnance  was  felt  in 
the  East  to  the  division  and  dismemberment  of  the 
bodies  of  the  saints,  in  the  West,  on  the  other  hand, 
particularly  at  Home,  the  greatest  respect  was  shown 
to  the  holy  dead.  Tne  mere  unwrapping  or  touching 
of  the  body  of  a  martyr  was  considered  to  be  a  terribly 
perilous  enterprise,  which  could  only  be  set  about  by 
the  holiest  of  ecclesiastics,  and  that  after  prayer  and 
fasting.  This  belief  lasted  until  the  late  Middle 
Ages  and  is  illustrated,  for  example,  in  the  life  of  St. 
Hugh  of  Lincoln,  who  excited  the  surprise  of  his 
episcopal  contemporaries  by  his  audacity  in  examin- 
ing and  translating  relics  which  his  colleagues  dared 
not  disturb.  In  the  Theodosian  Code  the  transla- 
tion, division,  or  dismemberment  of  the  remains  of 
martyrs  was  expressly  forbidden  ("Nemo  martyfem 
distrahat",  Coa.  Theod.,  IX,  xvii,  7);  and  some- 
what later  Gregorv  the  Great  seems  in  very  emphatic 
terms  to  attest  the  continuance  of  the  same  tradi- 
tion. He  professed  himself  sceptical  regarding  the 
alleged  "customs  of  the  Greeks''  of  readily  trans- 
femn^  the  bodies  of  martyrs  from  place  to  place, 
declaring  that  throughout  the  West  any  interference 
with  these  honoured  remains  was  looked  upon  as  a 
sacrilegious  act  and  that  numerous  prodigies  had 
stmck  terror  into  the  hearts  of  even  well-meaning 
men  who  had  attempted  anything  of  the  sort.  Hence, 
though  it  was  the  Empress  Constantina  herself  who 
had  asked  him  for  the  head  or  some  portion  of  the 
body  of  St.  Paul,  he  treated  the  request  as  an  im- 
possible one,  explaining  that,  to  obtain  the  supply 
of  relics  neeoful  in  the  consecration  of  churches,  it 
was  customarv  to  lower  into  the  Confession  of  the 
Apostles  [as  far  as  the  second  "cataract'' — so  we 
leam  from  a  letter  to  Pope  Hermisdas  in  519  (Thiel, 


"Epist.  gen.",  I,  873)  ]  a  box  containing  portions  of 
silk  or  crath^  known  as  brandea,  and  these  brandea, 
after  lying  for  a  time  in  contact  with  the  remains  of 
the  holy  Apostles,  were  henceforth  treated  as  rehcs. 
Gregory  further  offers  to  send  Constantina  some  fil- 
ings from  St.  Peter's  chains,  a  form  of  present  of  whidi 
we  find  frequent  mention  in  his  correspondeiice  (St. 
Gregory,  "Epist.",  Mon.  Germ.  Hist.,  1^  26^-66). 

It  is  certain  that  long  before  this  ihne  an  extended 
conception  of  the  nature  of  a  relic,  such  as  this  im- 
portant letter  reveals,  had  gradually  grown  up.  Al- 
ready when  Eusebius  wrote  (c.  325)  such  objects  as 
the  chair  of  St.  James  or  the  oil  multiplied  by  Btsbop 
Narcissus  (Hist.  Eccl.,  VII,  landx,  and  VI,  ix) 
were  clearly  venerated  as  rehcs,  and  St.  Augustine, 
in  his  "De  Civit.  Dei"  (xxii,  8),  gives  numerous 
instances  of  miracles  wrou^t  by  soil  from  the  Holy 
Land,  flowers  which  had  touched  a  reliquary  or  had 
been  laid  upon  a  particular  altar,  oil  from  the  lamps 
of  the  church  of  a  martyr,  or  by  other  things  not  leas 
remotely  connected  with  the  saints  themselves. 
Further,  it  is  noteworthy  that  the  Roman  prejudice 
against  translating  and  dividing  seems  only  to  have 
applied  to  the  actual  bodies  of  the  martyrs  reposing 
in  their  tombs.  It  is  St.  Gregory  himself  who  en- 
riches a  little  cross,  destined  to  hang  round  Uie  neck  as 
an  encolpimif  with  filings  both  from  St.  Peter's  drains 
and  from  the  gridiron  of  St.  Laurence  ("Epist.", 
Mon.  Germ.  Hist.,  I,  192).  Before  the  year  350,  St. 
Cyril  of  Jerusalem  three  times  over  informs  us  that 
the  fragments  of  the  wood  of  the  Cross  found  by  St. 
Helen  had  been  distributed  piecemeal  and  had  filled 
the  whole  worid  (Cat.,  iv,  10;  x,  19;  xiii,  4).  This 
implies  that  Western  pilgrims  felt  no  more  im- 
propriety in  receiving  tnan  the  East^n  bishops  in 
giving. 

During  the  Merovingian  and  Carlovingiaii  period 
the  cultus  of  relics  increased  rather  than  aiminished. 
Gregory  of  Tours  abounds  in  stories  of  the  marvels 
wrought  by  them,  as  well  as  of  the  practices  used  in 
their  honour,  some  of  which  have  been  thought  to  be 
analogous  to  those  of  the  pagan  ''incimations" 
(De  Glor.  dbnf.,  xx);  neither  does  ne  omit  to  mention 
the  frauds  occasionally  perpetrated  by  scoundrels 
through  motives  of  need.  Very  significant,  as 
Hauck  (Kirchengesch.  Deutschl.,  I.  185)  has  noticed, 
is  the  prologue  to  the  text  of  the  Salic  Laws,  probably 
written  by  a  contemporary  of  Gregory  of  Tcrurs  in 
the  sixth  century.  "That  nation",  it  says,  "which 
has  undoubtedly  in  battle  shaken  off  the  hard  yoke 
of  the  Romans,  now  that  it  has  been  illuminated 
through  Baptism,  has  adorned  the  bodies  of  the  holy 
martyrs  with  gold  and  precious  stones,  those  same 
bodies  which  the  Romans  burnt  with  fire,  and  pierced 
with  the  sword,  or  threw  to  wild  beasts  to  be  torn 
to  pieces."  In  England  we  find  from  the  first  a 
strong  tradition  in  the  same  sense  derived  from  St. 
Gregory  himself.  Bede  records  (Hist.  Eccl.,  I, 
xxix)  how  the  pope  "forwarded  to  Augustine  all  the 
things  needful  for  the  worship  and  service  of  the 
church,  namely,  sacred  vessels,  altar  linen,  chureh 
ornaments,  pnestly  and  clerical  vestments,  relics 
of  the  ho(y  Apostles  and  mart3rrs  and  also  many 
books".  The  Penitential  ascribed  to  St.  Theodore, 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  which  certainly  was  known 
in  England  at  an  early  date,  declares  that  "the  relics 
of  the  saints  are  to  be  venerated",  and  it  adds, 
seemingly  in  connexion  with  the  same  idea,  that  "if 
possible  a  candle  is  to  bum  there  every  night" 
(Haddan  and  Stubbs,  "0)uncils",  III,  191).  When 
we  remember  the  candles  which  King  Alfred  con- 
stantly kept  burning  before  his  relics,  the  authenticity 
of  this  clause  in  'Hieodore's  Penitential  seems  the 
more  probable.  Again  the  relics  of  English  saints, 
for  example  those  of  St.  Cuthbert  and  St.  Oswald, 
soon  became  famous,  while  in  the  case  of  the  latter 
we  hear  of  them  all  over  the  continent.  ^^  Mr.  Plummer 


BEUCS 


737 


REUCS 


(Bede,  II,  159-61)  has  made  a  short  list  of  them  and 
shows  that  they  must  have  been  transported  into  the 
remotest  part  of  Germany.  After  the  Second  Coun- 
cil of  Nicsa,  in  787,  had  insisted  with  special  urgency 
that  relics  were  to  be  used  in  .the  consecration  of 
churches,  and  that  the  omission  was  to  be  supplied 
if  any  cnurch  had  been  consecrated  without  them, 
the  English  Council  of  Celchyth  (probablv  Chelsea) 
commanded  that  relics  were  to  be  used,  and  in  default 
of  them  the  Blessed  Eucharist.  But  the  develop- 
ments of  the  veneration  of  relics  in  the  Middle  Ages 
were  fhr  too  vast  to  be  pursued  further.  Not  a  few 
of  the  most  famous  of  the  early  medieval  inscriptions 
are  connected  with  the  same  matter.  It  must  suffice 
to  mention  the  famous  Clematius  inscription  at 
Cologne,  recording  the  translation  of  the  remains  of 
the  so-<^ed  Eleven  Thousand  Virgins  (see  Kraus, 
"Inscrip.  d.  Rheinlande'\  no.  294.  and,  for  a  dis- 
cussion of  the  legend,  the  admirable  essay  on  the 
subject  by  Cardinal  Wiseman). 

III.  Abusbs. — Naturally  it  was  impossible  for 
|)opular  enthusiasm  to  be  roused  to  so  high  a  pitch 
m  a  matter  which  easily  lent  itself  to  error,  fraud, 
and  greed  of  gain,  without  at  least  the  occasional 
occurrence  of  many  grave  abuses.  As  early  as  the 
end  of  the  fourth  century,  St.  Augustine,  denouncing 
certain  impostors  wandering  about  in  the  habit  of 
monks,  describes  them  as  making  profit  by  the  sale 
of  spurious  relics  ('^De  op.  monach.",  xxviii,  and  cf. 
Isidore,  "I>e.  div.  off.",  li,  16).  In  the  Theodosian 
Code  the  sale  of  relics  is  forbidden  C  Nemo  martyrem 
mercetur",  VII,  ix,  17),  but  numerous  stories,  of 
which  it  would  be  easy  to  collect  a  long  series,  be- 
ginning with  the  ¥nritmg8  of  St.  Gregory  the  Great 
and  St.  Gregory  of  Tours,  prove  to  us  that  many 
unprincipled  persons  found  a  means  of  enriching 
themselves  by  a  sort  of  trade  in  these  objects  of 
devotion,  the  majority  of  which  no  doubt  were 
fraudulent.  At  the  beginning  of  the  ninth  century, 
as  M.  Jean  Guiraud  had  shown  (Melanges  G.  B.  de 
Rossi,  73-95),  the  exportation  of  the  bodies  of  mart3rr8 
from  Rome  had  assumed  the  dimensions  of  a  regular 
commerce^  and  a  certain  deacon,  Deusdona,  acquired 
an  unenviable  notoriety  in  these  transactions  (see 
Mon.  Grerm.  Hist.:  Script.,  XV,  passim).  What  was 
perhaps  in  the  long  run  hardly  less  disastrous  than 
fraud  or  avarice  was  the  keen  rivalry  between  re- 
ligious centres,  and  the  eager  credulity  fostered  by 
the  desire  to  be  known  as  the  possessors  of  some  un- 
usually startling  relic.  We  learn  from  Cassian^  in 
the  fifth  century,  that  there  were  monks  who  seused 
upon  certain  martyrs'  bodies  by  force  of  arms,  defy- 
ing the  authority  of  the  bishops,  and  this  was  a  story 
which  we  find  many  times  repeated  in  the  Western 
chronicles  of  a  later  date. 

In  such  an  atmosphere  of  lawlessness  doubtful 
relics  came  to  abound.  There  was  always  a  disposi- 
tion to  regard  any  human  remains  accidentaUy  dis- 
covered near  a  church  or  in  the  catacombs  as  the 
body  of  a  martyr.  Hence,  though  men  like  St. 
Athanasius  and  St.  Martin  of  Tours  set  a  good 
example  of  caution  in  such  cases,  it  is  to  be  feared 
that  m  the  majority  of  instances  only  a  very  narrow 
interval  of  time  intervened  between  the  suggestion 
that  a  particular  object  might  be,  or  ought  to  be, 
an  important  relic,  and  the  conviction  that  tradition 
attested  it  actually  to  be  such.  There  is  no  reason 
in  most  cases  for  supposing  the  existence  of  deliberate 
fraud.  The  persuasion  that  a  benevolent  Providence 
was  likely  to  send  the  most  precious  pignora  sano 
Urrum  to  deserving  clients,  the  practice  already  no- 
ticed of  attributing  the  same  sanctity  to  objects  which 
had  touched  the  shrine  as  attached  to  the  contents 
of  the  shrine  itself,  the  custom  of  making  facsimiles 
and  imitations,  a  custom  which  persists  to  our  own 
day  in  the  replicas  of  the  Vatican  statute  of  St. 
Peter  or  of  the  Grotto  of  Lourdes — all  these  are 
XII.— 47 


causes  adequate  to  account  for  the  multitude  of  un- 
questionably spurious  relics  with  which  the  treasuries 
of  great  medieval  churches  were  crowded.  In  the 
case  of  the  Nails  with  which  Jesus  Christ  was  cruci- 
fied, we  can  point  to  definite  instances  in  which  that 
which  was  at  first  venerated  as  having  touched  the 
original  came  later  to  be  honoured  as  the  original 
itself.  Join  to  this  the  large  license  given  to  the  oc- 
casional unscrupulous  rogue  in  an  age  not  only  ut- 
terly uncritical  but  often  curiouslv  morbid  in  its 
reahsm,  and  it  becomes  easy  to  understand  the  mul- 
tiplicity and  extravagance  of  the  entries  in  the  relic 
inventories  of  Rome  and  other  countries. 

On  the  other  hand  it  must  not  be  supposed  that 
nothing  was  done  by  ecclesiastical  authority  to  secure 
the  faithful  against  deception.  Such  tests  were 
applied  as  the  historical  and  antiquarian  science  of 
that  day  was  capable  of  devising.  Very  often, 
however,  this  test  took  the  form  of  an  appeal  to 
some  miraculous  sanction,  as  in  the  well-known  story 
repeated  by  St.  Ambrose,  according  to  which,  when 
doubt  arose  which  of  the  three  crosses  discovered  by 
St.  Helena  was  that  of  Christ,  the  healing  of  a  sick 
man  by  one  of  them  dispelled  all  further  hesitation. 
Similarly  Egbert,  Bishop  of  Trier,  in  979,  doubting 
as  to  the  authenticity  of  what  purported  to  be  the 
bodv  of  St.  Celsus,  'Mest  any  suspicion  of  the  sanctity 
of  the  holy  relics  should  arise,  during  Mass,  after  the 
offertory  had  been  sung,  threw  a  joint  of  the  finger  of 
St.  Celsus  wrapped  in  a  cloth  into  a  thurible  full  of 
burning  coals,  which  remained  unhurt  and  untouched 
by  the  fire  the  whole  time  of  the  Canon"  (Mabillon, 
**Acta  SS.  Ord.  Ben.",  Ill,  658).  The  decrees  of 
synods  upon  this  subject  are  generally  practical  and 
sensible,  as  when,  for  example.  Bishop  Quivil  of 
Ebceter,  in  1287,  after  recalling  the  prohibition  of  the 
General  Council  of  Lyons  against  venerating  re- 
cently-found relics  unless  they  were  first  of  all  ap- 
proved by  the  Roman  Pontiff,  adds:  ''We  command 
the  above  prohibition  to  be  carefully  observed  by  all, 
and  decree  that  no  person  shall  expose  relics  for  sale, 
and  that  neither  stones,  nor  fountains,  trees,  wood, 
or  garments  shall  in  any  way  be  venerated  on  account 
of  dreams  or  on  fictitious  grounds."  So,  again,  the 
whole  procedure  before  Clement  VII  (the  Antipope) 
in  1359,  recently  brought  to  light  by  Canon  Chevalier, 
in  connexion  with  the  alleged  Holy  Shroud  of  Lirey, 
proves  that  some  check  at  least  was  exercised  upon 
the  excesses  of  the  unscrupulous  or  the  mercenary. 

Nevertheless  it  remains  true  that  many  of  the  more 
ancient  relics  duly  exhibited  for  veneration  in  the 
p;reat  sanctuaries  of  Christendom  or  even  at  Rome 
itself  must  now  be  pronounced  to  be  either  certainly 
spurious  or  open  to  grave  suspicion.  To  take  one 
example  of  the  latter  class,  the  boards  of  the  Crib 
(PrcMcspe) — a  name  which  for  much  more  than  a 
thousand  years  has  been  associated,  as  now,  with  the 
basilica  of  Santa  Maria  Maggiore — can  only  be  con- 
sidered to  be  of  doubtful  authenticity.  In  his  mono- 
raph  "Le  memorie  Liberiane  dell'  Infanzia  di  N. 
Geed  Cristo"  (Rome,  1894),  Mgr.  Cozza  Luzi 
frankly  avows  that  aU  positive  evidence  for  the  au- 
thenticity of  the  relics  of.  the  Crib  etc.,  is  wanting 
before  the  eleventh  century.  Strangely  enough,  an 
inscription  in  Greek  uncials  of  the  eighth  century 
is  found  on  one  of  the  boards,  the  inscription  having 
nothing  to  do  with  the  Crib  but  being  apparently 
concerned  with  some  commercial  transaction.  It  is 
hiurd  to  explain  its  presence  on  the  supposition  that 
the  relic  is  authentic.  Similar  difficulties  might  be 
urged  against  the  supposed  ''column  of  the  flf^ella- 
tion"  venerated  at  Rome  in  the  Church  of  Santa 
Prassede  (see  "Dublin  Review",  Jan.,  1905, 115)  and 
against  many  other  famous  relics. 

Still,  it  would  be  presumptuous  in  such  cases  to 
blame  the  action  of  ecclesiastical  authority  in  per- 
mitting the  continuance  of  a  cult  which  extends  back 


REUGION 


738 


REUGION 


into  remote  antiquity.  On  the  one  hand  no  one  is 
constrained  to  pay  homage  to  the  relic,  and  sup- 
posing it  to  be  in  fact  spurious,  no  dishonour  is  done 
to  Ck^  by  the  continuance  of  an  error  which  has  been 
handed  down  in  perfect  good  faith  for  many  cen- 
turies. On  the  other  hand  the  practical  difficulty 
of  pronouncing  a  final  verdict  upon  the  authenticity 
of  these  and  similar  relics  must  be  patent  to  all. 
Each  investigation  would  be  an  affair  of  much  time 
and  expense,  while  new  discoveries  might  at  any 
moment  reverse  the  conclusions  arrived  at.  Further, 
devotions  of  ancient  date  deeply  rooted  in  the  heart 
of  the  peasantry  cannot  be  swept  away  without  some 
measure  of  scandal  and  popular  disturbance.  To 
create  this  sensation  seems  unwise  unless  the  proof 
of  spuriousness  is  so  overwhelming  as  to  amoimt  to 
certainty.  Hence  there  is  justification  for  the 
practice  of  the  Holy  See  in  allowing  the  cult  of  cer- 
tain doubtful  ancient  relics  to  continue.  Mean- 
while, much  has  b^n  done  by  quietly  allowing  many 
items  in  some  of  the  most  famous  collections  of 
relics  to  drop  out  of  sight  or  by  gradually  omitting 
much  of  the  solemnity  which  formerly  surrounded  the 
exposition  of  these  doubtful  treasures.  Many  of  the 
inventories  of  the  great  collections  of  Rome,  or  of 
Aachen,  Cologne,  Naples,  Salzburg,  Antwerp,  Con- 
stantinople, of  the  Sainte  Chapelle  at  Paris  etc., 
have  been  published.  For  illustration's  sake  ref- 
erence may  oe  made  to  the  Count  de  Riant's  work 
^'Exuviffi  ConstantinopoUtansB"  or  to  the  many 
documents  printed  by  Mgr  Barbier  de  Montault 
rc^gkrding  Rome,  particularly  in  vol.  VII  of  his 
"&uvres  completes".  In  most  of  these  ancient  in- 
ventories, the  extravagance  and  utter  improbability 
of  many  of  the  entries  can  not  escape  the  most  un- 
critical. Moreover,  though  some  sort  of  verification 
seems  often  to  be  traceable  even  in  Merovingian 
times,  still  the  so-called  authentications  which  have 
been  printed  of  this  early  date  (seventh  century)  are 
of  a  most  primitive  kind.  They  consist  in  fact  of 
mere  labels,  strips  of  parchment  with  just  the  name 
of  the  relic  to  which  each  strip  was  attached,  bar- 
barously written  in  Latin.  For  example  "Hie  sunt 
reliquas  sancti  Victuriepiscopi,  Festivitate  Kalendis 
Septembris",  "Hie  sunt  patrocina  sancti  Petri  et 
PauUo  Roma  civio",  etc.  (See  Delisle,  "Melanges  de 
r^cole  fran^aise  de  Rome,*'  IV,  1-8.) 

It  would  probably  be  true  to  say  that  in  no  part  of 
the  world  was  the  veneration  of  relics  carried  to 
greater  lengths,  with  no  doubt  proportionate  danger 
of  abuse,  than  among  Celtic  peoples.     The  honour 

gaid  to  the  handbells  of  such  saints  as  St.  Patrick, 
t.  Senan,  and  St.  Mura,  the  strange  adventures  of 
sacred  remains  carried  about  with  them  in  their 
wanderinp  by  the  Armorican  people  under  stress  of 
invasion  by  Teutons  and  Northmen,  the  prominence 
mven  to  the  taking  of  oaths  upon  relics  in  the  various 
Welsh  codes  founded  upon  tne  laws  of  Howell  the 
Good,  the  expedients  used  for  gaining  possession  of 
these  treasures,  and  the  numerous  accounts  of 
translations  and  miracles,  all  help  to  illustrate  the  im- 
portance of  this  aspect  of  the  ecclesiastical  life  of  the 
Celtic  races. 

IV.  Translations. — ^At  the  same  time  the  solem- 
nity attached  to  translations  was  by  no  means  a 
peculiarity  of  the  Celts.  The  story  of  the  transla- 
tion of  St.  Cuthbert's  remains  is  almost  as  marvel- 
lous as  any  in  Celtic  hagiography .  The  forms  observed 
of  all-night  vigils,  and  the  canying  of  the  precious 
remains  in  "feretories"  of  gold  or  silver,  over- 
shadowed with  silken  canopies  and  surrounded  with 
lights  and  incense,  extendea  to  every  part  of  Chris- 
tendom during  the  Middle  Ages.  Indeed  this  kind 
of  solemn  translation  (elevatio  corporis)  was  treated 
as  the  outward  recognition  of  heroic  sanctity,  the 
^uivalent  of  canonization,  in  the  period  before  the 
Holy  See  reserved  to  itself  the  passing  of  a  final 


judgment  upon  the  merits  of  deceased  servants  of 
God,  and  on  the  other  hand  in  the  earlier  forms  of 
canonization  Bulls  it  was  customary  to  add  a  clause 
directing  that  the  remains  of  those  whose  sanctity  was 
thus  proclaimed  by  ^he  head  of  the  Church  should  be 
"elevated",  or  translated,  to  some  shrine  above 
ground  where  fitting  honour  could  be  paid  them. 

This  was  not  always  carried  at  once.  Thus  SC. 
Hugh  of  Lincoln,  who  died  in  1200,  was  canonized  in 
1220,  but  it  was  not  until  1280  that  his  renudns  were 
translated  to  the  beautiful  "Angel  Choir"  which  had 
been  constructed  expressly  to  receive  them.  This 
translation  is  noteworthy  not  only  because  King 
Edward  I  himself  helped  to  carry  the  bier,  but  be- 
cause it  provides  a  typical  example  of  the  separation 
of  the  head  and  body  of  the  saint  which  was  a  pecu- 
liar feature  of  so  many  English  translations.  The 
earliest  example  of  this  separation  was  probably  that 
of  St.  Edwin,  king  and  martyr;  but  we  have  also  the 
cases  of  St.  Oswald,  St.  Chad,  St.  Richard  of  Chiches- 
ter (translated  in  1276),  and  St.  William  of  York 
(translated  1284).  It  is  probable  that  the  ceremonial 
observed  in  these  solemn  translations  closely  imi- 
tated that  used  in  the  enshrining  of  the  relics  in  the 
sepidcrum  of  the  alt^r  at  the  consecration  of  a  churdi, 
while  this  in  turn,  as  Mgr  Duchesne  has  shown,  is 
nothing  but  the  development  of  the  primitive  burial 
service,  the  martyr  or  saint  being  laid  to  rest  in  the 
church  dedicated  to  his  honour.  But  the  carrying 
of  relics  is  not  peculiar  to  the  procession  which  takes 
place  at  the  dedication  of  a  church.  Their  presence 
IS  recognized  as  a  fitting  adjunct  to  the  solemnities 
of  almost  every  kind  of  procession^  except  perhaps 
those  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament,  and  m  medieval  times 
no  exception  was  made  even  for  these  latter. 

IV.  Feast  of  Relics. — It  has  long  been  customary, 
especially  in  churches  which  posseted  large  collec- 
tions of  relics,  to  keep  one  general  feast  in 
commemoration  of  all  the  saints  whose  memorials 
are  there  preserved.  An  Office  and  Mass  for  this 
purpose  wul  be  found  in  the  Roman  Missal  and 
Breviary,  and  though  they  occur  only  in  the  supple- 
ment Pro  aliquibuslocia  and  are  not  obligatory  upon 
the  Church  at  large,  still  this  celebration  is  now 
kept  almost  universally.  The  office  is  generaUy 
assigned  to  the  fourth  Sunday  in  October.  In  Eng- 
land before  the  Reformation,  as  we  may  learn  from 
a  rubric  in  the  Sarum  Breviary,  the  Festum  Relir 
quiarum  was  celebrated  on  the  Sunday  after  the 
feast  of  the  Translation  of  St.  Thomas  of  Canter- 
bury (7  July),  and  it  was  to  be  kept  as  a  greater 
double  "wherever  relics  are  preserved  or  where  the 
bodies  of  dead  persons  are  buried,  for  although  Holy 
Church  and  her  ministers  observe  no  solemnities  in 
their  honour,  the  glory  they  enjoy  with  God  is  known 
to  Him  alone". 

Stralek  in  Real-Encydopddie  d.  chriti  AUeriHtntr  (Freiburg. 
1886);  Barbier  de  Montault,  (Eutres,  VIII  (Paris,  1893). 
126-300;  Beisbel,  Verehrung  der  Heiligen  und  ihrer  Reiiquien  in 
DeuUehland  (2  vols..  Freiburg.  1890-1892);  Siebert.  Beitrage  nr 
vcrreformalorischen  Heiligen-  und  Reiiquienverekrung  (Freiburg. 
1907);  MiONi,  II  cuUo  deUe  reliquie  (Turin,  1908);  Riant  and 
MiLT,  Exuviae  Constaniinoplitana  (Geneva,  1876);  Guiraud. 
Commerce  dee  reliquee  in  Mllangee  de  Roeei  (Rome,  1892): 
Benedict  XIV,  De  eertorum  Dei  beatifieatione  ei  eancnimiume, 
IV,  Pt.  2;  PnsTER,  Der  ReliquienkuU  im  AUertum  (Leipsig. 
1909);  ScuDAMORB  in  Did.  Christ,  Antiq.  To  give  indications 
of  the  many  monographs  which  have  been  devoted  to  parUcular 
relics,  such  as  the  JRoly  Shroud  of  Turin,  the  Holy  Coat  of  Trier, 
the  relics  of  the  Passion,  the  Chemieee  de  la  Vierge  etc..  would  be 
impossible  here. 

Herbert  Thurston. 

Religion.— I.  Derivation.  Analysis,  and  Dep- 
INITION.— The  derivation  of  the  word  "religion"  has 
been  a  matter  of  dispute  from  ancient  times.  Not 
even  to-day  is  it  a  closed  question.  Cicero,  in  his 
"De  natura  deorum",  II,  xxviii,  derives  religion  from 
relegere  (to  treat  carefully):  "Those  who  carefully 
took  in  hand  all  things  pertaining  to  the  gods  were 
called  religiosi,  from  relegere  "    Max  Muller  favoured 


REUGION 


739 


lUUGION 


this  view.  But  aa  religion  is  an  elemental^  notion, 
long  antedatinji;  tJie  time  of  complicated  ritual  pre- 
supposed in  this  explanation,  we  must  seek  elsewhere 
for  its  etymology.  A  far  more  likety  derivation,  one 
that  suits  the  idea  of  religion  in  its  simple  beginnings, 
is  that  given  by  Lactantius,  in  his  ''Divine  Insti- 
tutes", IV,  xxviii.  He  derives  religion  from  religare 
(to  bind):  "We  are  tied  to  God  and  bound  to  Him 
[religcUi]  by  the  bond  of  piety,  and  it  is  from  this,  and 
not,  as  CScero  holds,  from  careful  consideration 
[rdegendolf  that  reli^on  has  received  its  name."  The 
objection  that  rdiffio  could  not  be  derived  from 
rdigaref  a  verb  of  the  first  conjugation,  is  not  of  great 
w^^t,  when  we  call  to  mind  that  opinio  comes  from 
apinarif  and  rdMio  from  rebeUare.  St.  Augustine,  in 
his  "City  of  God",  X,  iii,  derives  rdigio  from  rdigere 
in  the  sense  of  recovering:  ''having  lost  God  through 
neglect  [negligentes],  we  recover  Him  [rdigentea]  and 
are  drawn  to  Him."  This  explanation,  implying  the 
notion  of  the  Redemption,  is  not  suited  to  the  primary 
idea  of  religion.  St.  Augustine  himself  was  not  satis- 
fied with  it,  for  in  his  ''Retractions",  I,  xiii,  he  aban- 
doned it  in  favour  of  the  derivation  given  b^  Lactan- 
tius. He  emplo3rs  the  latter  meaning  in  his  treatise 
"On  the  True  Religion",  where  he  says:  "Religion 
binds  us  [rdigcU]  to  the  one  Almighty  God."  St. 
Thomas,  in  his  "Summa",  II-II,  Q.  Ixxxi,  a.  1,  gives 
all  three  derivations  without  pronouncing  in  favour  of 
any.  The  correct  one  seems  to  be  that  ottered  by  Lac- 
tantius. Religion  in  its  simplest  form  implies  the  no- 
tion of  being  bound  to  God;  the  same  notion  is  upper- 
most in  the  word  rdigion  in  its  most  specific  sense,  as 
applied  to  the  life  of  poverty,  chastity,  and  obedience, 
to  which  individuals  voluntarily  bind  themselves  by 
vows  more  or  less  solemn.  Hence  those  who  are  thus 
bound  are  known  as  religious. 

Reli^on,  broadly  speaking,  means  the  voluntary 
subjection  of  oneself  to  God.  It  exists  in  its  highest 
perfection  in  heaven,  where  the  angels  and  saints 
love,  praise,  and  adore  God,  and  live  in  absolute  con- 
formity to  His  holy  will.  It  does  not  exist  at  all  in 
hell,  where  the  sut>ordi nation  of  rational  creatures  to 
their  Creator  is  one  not  of  free  will,  but  of  physical 
necessity.  On  earth  it  is  practically  coextensive  with 
the  human  race,  though,  where  it  has  not  been  ele- 
vated to  the  supernatural  plane  through  Divine  revela- 
tion, it  labours  under  serious  defects.  It  is  with  reli- 
^on  as  affecting  the  life  of  man  on  earth  that  this 
article  deals.  The  analysis  of  the  idea  of  religion 
shows  that  it  is  ver^r  complex,  and  rests  on  several 
fundamental  conceptions.  It  implies  first  of  all  the 
recognition  of  a  Divine  personality  in  and  behind  the 
forces  of  nature,  the  Lord  and  Ruler  of  the  world^  God. 
In  the  his^est  religions,  this  supernatural  Being  is 
conceived  as  a  spirit,  one  and  indivisible,  everjrwhere 
present  in  nature^  but  distinct  from  it.  In  the  lower 
reUgionSj  the  various  phenomena  of  nature  are  asso- 
ciated with  a  number  of  distinct  personalities,  though 
it  is  rare  that  among  these  numerous  naturendeities 
one  is  not  honoured  as  supreme.  Ethical  qualities, 
corresponding  to  the  prevailing  ethical  standards,  are 
attributed  by  the  different  peoples  to  their  respective 
deities. 

In  every  form  of  religion  is  implied  the  conviction 
that  the  mysterious,  supernatural  Being  (or  beings) 
has  control  over  the  lives  and  destinies  of  men.  Es- 
pecially in  lower  grades  of  culture,  where  the  nature 
and  utilization  of  physical  laws  is  but  feebly  under- 
stood, man  feels  in  many  ways  his  helplessness  in  the 
presence  of  the  forces  of  nature:  it  is  the  Divine 
Being  that  controls  them;  He  it  is  that  can  direct 
them  for  man's  weal  or  woe.  There  thus  arises  in  the 
natural  ordfer  a  sense  of  dependence  on  the  Deity,  a 
deeply  felt  need  of  Divine  help.  This  lies  at  the  basis 
of  religion.  Still  it  is  not  the  recognition  of  dependence 
on  God  that  constitutes  the  very  essence  of  religion, 
indispensable  as  it  is.    The  damned  recognize  their 


dependence  on  God,  but,  being  without  hope  of 
IHvine  help,  are  turned  from,  rather  than  towards, 
Him. ,  Coupled  with  the  sense  of  need  is  the  persuasion 
on  the  part  of  man  that  he  can  bring  himself  into 
friendly,  beneficent  communion  with  the  Deity  or 
deities  on  whom  he  feels  he  depends.  He  is  a  creature 
of  hope.  Feeling  his  helplessness  and  need  of  Divine 
assistance,  pressed  down,  perhaps,  by  sickness,  loss, 
and  defeat,  recognizing  that  in  friendly  communion 
with  the  Deity  he  can  find  aid,  peace,  and  happiness, 
he  is  led  voluntarily  to  perform  certain  acts  of  homage 
meant  to  bring  about  this  desired  result.  What  man 
aims  at  in  religion  is  communion  with  the  Deity,  in 
wliich  he  hopes  to  attain  his  happiness  and  perfection. 
This  perfection  is  but  crudely  conceived  in  lower  reli- 
gions. Conformity  to  the  recognized  moral  standard, 
which  is  generally  low,  is  not  wholly  neglected,  but  it  is 
less  an  object  of  solicitude  than  material  welfare.  The 
sum  of  happiness  looked  for  is  prosperity  in  the 
present  life  and  a  continuation  of  the  same  bodily 
comforts  in  the  life  to  come.  In  the  higher  religions, 
the  perfection  sought  in  religion  becomes  more  in- 
timately associated  with  moral  goodness.  In  Chris- 
tianity, the  highest  of  religions,  communion  with  God 
implies  spiritual  perfection  of  the  highest  possible 
kind,  the  participation  in  the  supernatural  life  of  grace 
as  the  children  of  God.  This  spiritual  perfection, 
bringing  with  it  perfect  happiness,  is  realizetl  in  part 
at  least  in  the  present  life  of  pain  and  disappointment, 
but  is  to  be  found  fully  attained  in  the  life  to  come. 
The  desire  of  happiness  and  perfection  is  not  the  only 
motive  that  prompts  man  to  do  homage  to  God.  In 
the  higher  religions  there  is  also  the  sense  of  duty 
arising  from  the  recognition  of  God's  sovereignty,  and 
consec^uently  of  His  strict  right  to  the  subjection  and 
worship  of  man.  To  this  must  also  be  added  the  love 
of  Goci  for  His  own  sake,  iniismuch  as  He  is  the  in- 
finitely perfect  Being,  in  whom  truth,  beauty,  and 
goodness  are  realized  in  their  highest  possible  degree. 
While  the  prevailing  motive  in  all  lower  religions  is 
one  of  self-interest,  the  d(«ire  of  happiness,  it  gener- 
ally implies  to  some  extent  an  affectionate  as  well  as 
reverent  attitude  towards  the  deities  that  are  the 
object  of  worship. 

From  what  has  been  said  it  is  plain  that  the  concept 
of  deity  required  for  religion  is  that  of  a  free  personal- 
ity. The  error  of  mistaking  many  nature-deities  for 
the  one  true  God  vitiates,  but  does  not  destroy,  reli- 
gion. But  religion  ceases  to  exist  where,  as  in  Pan- 
theism, the  deity  is  pronounced  to  be  devoid  of  all 
consciousness.  A  deity  without  personaUty  is  no  more 
capable  of  awakening  the  sense  of  religion  in  the  heart 
of  man  than  is  the  all-pervading  ether  or  the  universal 
force  of  gravitation.  Koligion  is  essentially  a  personal 
relation,  the  relation  of  the  subject  and  creature,  man, 
to  his  Lord  and  Creator,  God.  Religion  may  thus  be 
defined  as  the  voluntary  subjection  of  oneself  to  God, 
that  is  to  the  free,  supernatural  Being  (or  beings)  on 
whom  man  is  conscious  of  being  dependent,  of  whose 
powerful  help  he  feels  the  need,  and  in  whom  he 
recognizes  the  source  of  his  perfection  and  happiness. 
It  is  a  voluntary' turning  to  God.  In  the  last  analysis 
it  is  an  act  of  the  will.  In  other  words  it  is  a  virtue, 
since  it  is  an  act  of  the  will  inclining  man  to  observe 
the  right  order,  springing  from  his  dependence  on 
God.  Hence  St.  Thomas  (II-II,  Q.  Ixxxi,  a.  1)  defines 
religion  as  "virtus  per  quam  homines  Deo  debituni 
cultum  et  reverentiam  exhibent"  (the  virtue  which 
prompts  man  to  render  to  God  the  worship  and  rever- 
ence that  is  His  by  right).  The  end  of  rehgion  is  filial 
communion  with  God,  in  which  we  honour  and  revere 
Him  as  our  supreme  Lord,  love  Him  as  our  Father, 
and  find  in  that  reverent  8er\'ice  of  filial  love  our  true 
perfection  and  happiness.  Bliss-giving  communion 
with  the  sovereign  Deity  is,  as  has  been  pointed  out, 
the  end  of  all  religions.  Primitive  Buddhism  (q.  v.), 
with  its  aim  to  secure  unconscious  repose  (Nirvana) 


BEUOION                               74U  RELIGION 

through  personal  effort  independently  of  Divine  aid,  jcctive  side  is  essentially,  but  not  exclusively,  an 

seems  to  be  an  exception.     But  even  in  primitive  affair  of  the  wiU,  the  will  to  acknowledge  by  acts 

Buddhism  communion  with  the  ^ods  of  India  was  of  homage  man's  dependence  on  God.     We  have  al- 

retained  as  an  element  of  lay  behef  and  aspiration,  ready  seen  that  the  imagination  and  the  emotiona 

and  it  was  only  by  substituting  the  ideal  of  Divine  are  importfmt  factors  in  subjective  religion.    The 
communion  for  that  of  Nirvana  that  Buddhism  became    emotions,  elicited  by  the  recognition  of  dependence 

a  popular  religion.  on  God  and  by  the  deeply  felt  need  of  Divine  help. 

Thus,  in  its  strictest  sense,  religion  on  its  sub-    give  greater  efficacy  to  the  deliberate  exercise  of  the 

jective  side  is  the  disposition  to  acknowledge  our  virtue  of  religion.    It  is  worthy  of  note  that  the 

dependence  on  God,  and  on  the  objective  side  it  is  emotions  awsJcened  by  the  religious  consciousness 

the  voluntary  acknowledgement  of  that  dependence  are  such  as  make  for  a  healthy  optimism.    The  pre> 

through   acts  of  homage.    It   calls  into  play  not  dominant  tones  of  religion  are  Uiose  of  hope,  joy, 

simply  the  will,  but  the  intellect,  the  imagination,  confidence,  love,  patience,  humility,  the  purpose  of 

and  the  emotions.    Without  the  conception  of  per-  amendment,    and    aspiration    towards   high    ideals, 

sonal  deity,  religion  would  not  exist.    The  recogni-  All    these  are  the  natural  accompaniments  of   the 

tion  of  the  unseen  world  stirs  the  imagination.    The  persuasion  that  throu^  relision  man  is  living  in 

emotions,  too,  are  called  into  exercise.    The  need  of  friendly  communion  with  God.    The  view  that  fear 

Divine  help  gives  rise  to  the  lon^ng  for  communion  is  in  most  instances  the  spring  of  religious  action  is 

with  God.    The  recognized  possibility  of  attaining  imienable. 

this  end  engenders  liope.  The  consciousness  of  In  subjective  religion  several  virtues  must  be  in- 
acquired  friendship  with  a  protector  so  good  and  eluded,  most  of  them  being  of  an  emotional  character, 
powerful  excites  joy.  The  ootaining  of  benefits  in  The  proper  exercise  of  the  virtue  of  religion  involves 
answer  to  prayer  prompts  to  thankfulness.  The  three  co-operant  virtues  having  God  as  their  direct 
immensity  of  God's  power  and  wisdom  calls  up  feel-  object,  and  hence  known  as  the  ''theological  virtues", 
ings  of  awe.  The  consciousness  of  having  offended  First  there  is  faith.  Strictly  speaking^  faith  as  a 
and  estranged  Him,  and  of  thus  deserving  punish-  virtue  is  the  reverent  disposition  to  submit  the  human 
ment,  leads  to  fear  and  sorrow  and  the  desire  of  mind  to  the  Divine,  to  accept  on  Divine  authority 
reconciliation.  Crowning  all  is  the  emotion  of  love  what  has  been  revealed  by  God.  In  the  wide  sense, 
springing  from  the  contemplation  of  God's  wonderful  as  applying  to  all  religions,  it  is  the  pious  acceptance 
goodness  and  excellence.  Hence  we  see  how  wide  of  the  fundamental  notions  of  Deity  and  of  man's 
of  the  mark  are  the  attempts  to  limit  religion  to  the  relation  to  Deity  contained  in  the  rehgious  traditions 
exercise  of  a  particular  faculty,  or  to  identify  it  with  of  the  commumty.  In  practically  all  religions  there 
ritual  or  with  ethical  conduct.  Religion  is  not  is  an  exercise  of  authontative  teaching  in  regard  to 
adequately  described  as  'Hhe  knowledge  acquired  the  intellectual  basis  of  religion,  the  things  to  bs 
by  the  finite  spirit  of  its  essence  as  absolute  spirit"  believed.  These  things  individuals  do  not  acquire 
(Hegel),  nor  as  "the  perception  of  the  infinite"  independenthr,  through  direct  intuition  or  discursive 
(Max  Muller),  nor  as  "a  determination  of  man's  reasoning.  They  come  to  know  l^em  from  the 
feeling  of  absolute  dependence"  (Schleiermacher),  teaching  of  parents  and  elders,  and  from  the  ob- 
nor  as  "the  recognition  of  all  our  duties  as  divine  servance  of  sacred  rites  and  customs.  They  take 
commands"  (Kant),  nor  as  "morality  touched  by  these  teachings  on  authority,  made  venerable  by 
emotion"  (Mathew  Arnold),  nor  as  "the  earnest  direc-  immemorial  usage,  so  that  to  reject  them  would  be 
tion  of  the  emotions  and  desires  towards  an  ideal  object  reprobated  as  an  act  of  impiety.  Thus,  while  man 
recognized  as  of  the  highest  excellence  and  as  rightly  has  the  capacity  to  arrive  at  a  knowledge  of  the  fun- 
paramount  over  selfish  objects  of  desire"  (J.  S.  Mill),  damentais  of  religpon  by  the  independent  exercise 
These  definitions,  in  so  far  as  they  are  true,  are  only  of  his  rep.son,  he  regularly  comes  to  know  them 
partial  characterizations  of  religion.  through   the   authoritative   teaching  of  his   elders. 

Religion  answers  to  a  deeply  felt  need  in  the  heart  Faith  of  this  kind  is  practically  an  indispensable 
of  man.  Above  the  needs  of  the  individual  are  the  basis  of  religion.  In  the  supernatural  order,  faith 
needs  of  the  family,  and  higher  still  are  the  needs  of  is  absolutely  indispensable.  If  man  has  been  raised 
the  clan  and  people.  C>n  the  welfare  of  the  people  to  a  special  supernatural  end,  it  is  only  by  revdation 
depends  that  of  the  individual.  Hence  we  find  that  that  he  can  come  to  know  that  end  and  uie  Divinely 
rehgion  in  its  outward  worship  is  to  a  large  extent  appointed  means  for  its  attainment.  Such  a  revela- 
a  social  function.  The  chief  rites  are  public  rites,  tion  necessarily  implies  faith.  For  the  exercise  of 
performed  in  the  name,  and  for  the  benefit,  of  the  the  virtue  of  religion  hope  is  absolutely  indispensable, 
whole  community.  It  is  by  social  action  that  re-  Hope  is  the  expectation  of  securing  and  mamtaining 
ligious  worship  is  maintained  and  preserved.  Only  bliss-bringing  communion  with  the  Deity.  In  the 
in  the  society  of  one's  fellow-men  does  one  develop  natural  order  it  rests  on  the  conception  of  Deity  as 
one's  mental  and  moi;al  faculties,  and  acquire  re-  a  moraUy  good  personality,  invitmg  confidence.  It 
ligion.  Religion  is  distinguished  into  natural  and  ,  is  also  sustained  by  the  recognized  instances  of  Divine 
supernatural.  By  natural  religion  is  meant  the  sub-  '  providence.  In  the  Christian  religion  hope  is  raised 
jection  of  oneself  to  God,  based  on  such  knowledge  to  the  supernatural  plane,  being  based  on  the  promises 
of  God  and  of  man's  moral  and  religious  duties  as  the  of  God  made  known  through  the  revelation  of  Christ, 
human  mind  can  acquire  by  its  own  imaided  powers.  The  essence  of  hope  paralyzes  the  virtue  of  religion. 
It  does  not,  however,  exclude  theophanies  and  Divine  For  this  reason  the  damned  are  no  longer  capatue  of 
revelations  made  with  the  view  to  confirm  religion  religion.  Thirdly,  the  love  of  God  for  His  own  take 
in  the  natural  order.  Supernatural  religion  implies  is  a  concomitant  of  the  virtue  oi  religion,  being 
a  supernatural  end,  gratuitously  bestowed  on  man,  needed  for  its  perfection.  In  some  lower  forms  cm 
namely  a  lively  union  with  Gocl  through  sanctifying  reli^pon,  it  is  largely,  if  not  wholly,  absent.  The 
grace,  begun  and  .imperfectly  attained  here,  but  Deity  is  honoured  diiefly  for  the  saike  of  personal 
completed  in  heaven,  where  the  beatific  vision  of  advantage.  Still,  in  perhaps  the  noaiority  of  re- 
God  will  be  its  eternal  reward.  It  also  implies  a  ligions,  at  least  the  beginninKS  of  a  filial  affection  for 
special  Divine  revelation,  through  which  man  comes  the  Deity  are  felt.  Such  affection  seems  to  be  im- 
to  know  this  end  as  well  as  the  Divinely  appointed  pUed  in  generous  offering  and  in  expressions  of 
means  for  its  attainment.  Subjection  of  oneself  thankfulness  so  common  in  religious  rites.  Closely 
to  God,  based  on  this  knowledge  of  faith  and  kept  associated  with  the  virtues  of  nope  and  love,  and 
fruitful  by  grace,  is  supernatural  religion.  hence  intimately  connected  with  religion  as  exercised 

II.  Subjective  Reugion. — Religion  on  its  sub-  by  man  in  his  frailty,  is  the  virtue  of  repentance. 


REUGION 


741 


BUJOION 


With  all  his  zeal  for  religion,  man  is  constantly 
lapsing  into  oflfences  against  the  Deity.  Those 
offences,  whether  ritual  or  moral,  deliberate  or  in- 
voluntary, present  themselveff  as  obstacles  more  or 
less  fatal  to  the  bliss-brin^png  communion  with  the 
Deity  which  is  the  end  of  religion.  The  fear  of 
forfeiting  the  good  will  and  help  of  the  Deity,  and  of 
incurring  His  punishment,  gives  rise  to  regret,  which 
in  higher  rdigions  is  made  more  meritorious  by  the 
sorrow  felt  ^r  having  offended  so  good  a  God. 
Hence  the  offender  is  prompted  to  acknowledge  his 
fault  and  to  seek  reconciliation,  so  as  to  restore  to  its 
integrity  the  ruptured  union  of  friendship  with  God. 

111.  Objective  Reugion. — Objective  religion  com- 
prises the  acts  of  homage  that  are  the  effects  of  sub- 
jective religion,  and  also  the  various  phenomena 
which  are  viewed  as  the  manifestations  of  good  will 
by  the  Deity.  We  may  distinguish  in  objective  re- 
ligion a  speculative  and  a  practical  part. 

A.  Speadalive. — ^The  speculative  part  embraces 
the  intellectual  basis  of  religion,  those  concepts  of 
God  and  man,  and  of  man's  relation  to  God,  which 
are  Uie  object  of  faith,  whether  natural  or  super- 
natural. Of  vital  importance  to  right  religion  are 
correct  views  concerning  the  existence  of  a  personal 
God,  Divine  providence  and  retribution,  the  im- 
mortality of  the  soul,  free  will,  and  moral  respon- 
sibility. Hence  the  need  is  recognized  of  firmly 
establishing  the  grounds  of  theistic  belief,  and  of 
refuting  the  errors  that  weaken  or  destroy  the  virtue 
of  religion.  Polytheism  vitiates  religion,  in  so  far 
as  it  confounds  the  one  true  God  with  a  number  of 
fictitious  beings,  and  distributes  among  these  the 
reverent  service  that  belongs  to  God  alone.  Re- 
ligion is  absolutely  quenched  in  Atheism,  which  tries 
to  substitute  for  the  personal  Deity  blind  physical 
forces.  Equally  destructive  is  Pantheism,  which 
views  all  tnings  as  emanations  of  an  impersonal,  un- 
conscious wond-ground.  Agnosticism,  in  declaring 
that  we  have  not  sufficient  grounds  for  asserting  the 
existence  of  God,  also  msdces  religion  impossible. 
Scarcely  less  fatal  is  Deism,  which,  puttiiig  God  far 
from  the  visible  world,  denies  Divine  providence  and 
the  efficacy  of  prayer.  Wherever  religion  has 
flourished,  we  find  a  deeply  rooted  belief  in  Divine 
providence.  Free  will — ^with  its  necessary  implica- 
tion, moral  responsibility — is  taken  for  granted  in  the 
creeds  of  most  reli^ons.  It  is  only  in  grades  of  higher 
culture,  where  philosophic  speculation  has  given  oc- 
casion to  the  denial  of  free  will,  that  this  important 
truth  is  emphasized.  BeUef  in  the  inunortality  of 
the  soul  is  to  be  found  in  practically  all  religions, 
thoui^  the  nature  of  the  soul  and  the  character  ot 
the  future  life  are  in  most  religions  crudely  conceived. 
Divine  retribution  is  also  an  element  of  reUgious 
beUef  throughout  the  world.  One  of  the  common 
errors  fostered  in  recent  works  on  anthropology  and 
the  history  of  reUgions  is  that  only  in  the  hi^er 
reUgions  is  moral  conduct  found  to  rest  on  religious 
sanction.  While  the  standard  of  right  and  wrong 
in  lower  religions  is  often  grossly  defective,  allowing 
the  existence  of  impure  and  cruel  rites,  it  is  neverthe- 
less true  that  what  is  reprobated  as  morally  evil  is 
very  generally  viewed  as  an  offence  against  the  Deity, 
entailing  punishment  in  some  form  unless  expiated. 
Many  religions,  even  those  of  savage  and  barbarous 
tribes,  distinguish  between  the  fate  of  the  good  and 
that  of  the  bad  after  death.  The  bad  go  to  a  place 
of  suffering,  or  they  perish  utterly,  or  they  are  re- 
bom  in  vile  animal  forms.  Practically  all  give  evi- 
dence of  belief  in  retribution  in  the  present  life,  as 
may  be  seen  from  the  universal  use  of  ordeals,  oaths, 
and  the  widespread  recourse  to  penitential  rites  in 
times  of  great  distress. 

These  nmdamental  elements  of  belief  have  their 
legitimate  place  in  the  Christian  religion,  in  which 
they  are  found  corrected,  supplemented,  and  completed 


by  a  larger  knowledge  of  God  and  of  His  purposes  in 
regard  to  man.  God,  having  destined  man  for  filial 
(;unmiunion  with  Himself  in  the  life  of  grace,  has 
through  the  Incarnation  and  Redemption  of  Christ 
brought  within  the  reach  of  man  the  truths  and  prac- 
tices needed  for  the  attainment  of  this  end.  Thus,  in 
Christianity  the  things  to  be  believed  and  the  things 
to  be  done  in  order  to  obtain  salvation  have  the  guar- 
antee of  Divine  authority.  Ripht  belief  is  thus  essen- 
tial to  religion,  if  man  is  to  do  justice  to  his  nioral  and 
religious  duties  and  thereby  secure  his  perfection.  The 
popular  cry  of  to-day  for  religion  without  do^a 
comes  from  the  failure  to  recognize  the  supreme  im- 
portance of  right  belief.  The  dogmatic  teachings  of 
Christianity,  supplementing  and  perfectins  the  in- 
tellectual basis  of  natural  refigioAi  are  not  to  be  looked 
on  as  a  mere  series  of  intellectual  puzzles.  They  have 
a  practical  purpose.  They  serve  to  enli^ten  man 
on  the  whole  range  of  his  religious  and  ethical  duties, 
on  the  proper  fulfilment  of  wliich  depends  his  super- 
natural perfection.  Closely  allied  with  the  data  of 
revelation  are  the  attempts  to  determine  their  mutual 
relations,  to  explmn  them  as  far  as  possible  in  terms 
of  sound  science  and  philosophy,  and  to  draw  from 
them  their  legitimate  deductions.  Out  of  this  field  of 
religious  study  has  arisen  the  science  of  theology. 
Corresponding  with  this  in  function,  but  the  very  op- 
posite of  it  in  worth,  is  the  mythology  of  pagan  reli- 
gions. Mythology  is  the  product  partly  of  the  ten- 
dency of  the  human  mind  to  reahze  and  partly  of 
man  s  attempts  to  account  for  the  origins  of  such 
factors  4n  life  as  fire,  disease,  death,  and  to  explain 
the  succession  of  natural  phenomena  in  an  age  of 
ignorance  when  a  fanciful  personification  of  nature's 
forces  occupied  the  place  of  scientific  knowledge. 
Hence  arose  the  mythical  stories  of  the  gods  both 
great  and  small,  many  of  which  in  later  generations 
pave  scandal  because  of  their  absurdity  and  immoral- 
ity. Mythology,  being  bom  of  ignorance  and  un- 
bridled fancy,  has  no  legitimate  pmoe  in  sound  reli- 
gious belief. 

B.  Practical, — ^The  practical  part  comprises  (1) 
the  acts  of  homage  whereby  man  acknowledges  God's 
dominion  and  seeks  His  help  and  friendship,  and  (2) 
the  extraordinary  religious  experiences  viewed  by  the 
worshippers  as  manifestations  of  Divine  good  will. 

(1)  The  acts  of  homage  may  be  distinguished  into 
three  classes:  (a)  the  direct  acts  of  worsfup;  0>)  the 
regulation  of  conduct  outside  the  sphere  of  moral 
obligation;  (c)  the  regulation  of  conduct  within  the 
recosnized  sphere  of  moral  obligation. 

(a^  Acts  of  Worship. — ^The  acts  of  worship  proper 
consist  of  those  which  directly  express  adoration, 
thanksgiving,  petition,  and  propitiation.  In  these 
are  included  acte  of  faith,  hope,  love,  humility,  and 
repentance.  They  take  the  external  form  of  prayer 
and  sacrifice.  Prayer,  as  an  outward  act,  is  the  veroal 
communication  of  man's  thoughts  and  needs  to  God. 
In  the  lower  religions  petitions  for  earthly  favours  are 
the  chief  objects  of  prayer.  Expressions  of  thanks, 
too.  are  not  unknown.  Besides  these  there  are  in  the 
higner  religions  prayers  of  adoration,  of  petition  for 
moral  improvement,  also  penitential  prayers.  Sacri- 
fice is  equally  common  with  prayer.  Scholars  are 
not  all  agreed  as  to  the  primary  idea  underl3dng 
the  use  of  sacrifice.  The  most  Ukely  view  is  that  sacri- 
fice is  primarily  a  token  of  respect  in  the  form  of  a 
gift.  It  is  often  called  a  gift  or  offering,  even  in  Holy 
Scripture  (cf.  Gen.,  iv,  3-5;  Matt.,  v,  23).  Among 
the  nations  of  antiquity,  as  well  as  most  peoples  of 
to-day,  no  inferior  would  think  of  approaching  his 
supenor  without  bringing  a  gift.  It  is  a  token  of 
reegpect  and  good  will.  It  is  not  a  bribe,  as  some  have 
objected,  though  it  may  degenerate  into.  such.  In 
like  manner,  man  from  the  earliest  times,  in  doing 
homage  to  the  Deity,  came  into  His  presence  with  a 
gift.    Besides  being  a  visible  proof  of  man's  respecti 


BxuoioH  742  Mffjmair 

the  gift  abo  sgnified  that  all  thin^B  were  God's.    The  are  accompanied  with  feasting  and  rest 

giving  over  of  the  object  to  the  I>eity  implied  that  it  buanefla.    In  like  manner  certain  phwca* 

no  longer  belonged  to  the  worshipper,  but  was  made  able  by  immemorial  worship  or  bj  aaai 

the  sacred  propoly  of  the  Deity  {Mcrifidum).    Being  reputed  visions,  oracles^  and  miracoloos 

thus  removed  from  ordinary  use,  it  was  passed  over  to  to  be  singed  out  as  the  spots  most  suitable  fior 

the  Deity  by  a  total  or  partial  destruction.    Liquid  worship.    I^irines  and  temples  are  haSsL,  to 

offerings  were  poured  out  on  the  ground.    Food  offer-  peculiar  sanctity  attaches,  and  annual 

ings  were  generally  burned.    Others  were  cast  into  made  to  them  nom  distant  jdacea. 

rivers  or  the  sea.    Very  f requentljr^  in  the  food  offer-        The  emotional  element  m  extcnuJ 

ingSy  only  part  was  df:stroyed  by  nre,  the  rest  being  feature  that  cannot   be   overlooked. 

eaten  by  the  worshippers.    In  this  way  was  symbolised  prayers  and  sacrifices  to  the  Deity  in 

the  friendly  union  of  the  Deit^  and  the  worshippers,  oommtmity  are  embdlished  with  ritaal 

In  some  cases  the  underljring  idea  was  that  man  was  of  the  ^notions  brou^t  into  j^y  in  rd  _ 

the  nri  vilcged  guest  at  the  Divine  banquet,  partaking  The  desire  and  hope  of  Divine  hdlp,  jarf  at  ita» 

c^  tne  sacred  food  consecrated  to  the  Deity.    It  thus  sion,  gratitude  for  favours  received,  disl 

had  a  quasi-sacramental  significance.    In  the  ancient  temporary  estrangement  of  the  offended 

Hebrew  religion  there  were  food  offerings,  including  these  emotions  quicken  the  acts  of  wondiip 

bloody  sacrifices  of  animal  victims.    These  were  tjrpes  expression  in  chants,  instrumental  muae,. 

of  the  great  atoning  sacrifice  of  Christ.    In  the  Cath-  cessions,  and  stately  ceremoniaL    Tbeae 

olic  re^pon,  the  sacrifice  of  Christ  on  the  Cross  is  of  feeling  are  also  powerful  means  of  ar 

perpetuated  by  the  unbloody  sacrifice  of  the  Mass,  in  and  thus  ^ve  an  intense  earnestness  to 

which  the  eternal  Lamb  of  God  is  offered  under  the  emotional  element  enters  into  the  c 

f4>pearance  of  bread  and  wine  and  is  devouthr  con-  every  rehgion,  but  its  extent  and  ci 

sumed  by  priest  and  faithful.    The  use  of  sacrifice  has  siderab^,  being  det^mined  by  the  ] 

led  to  the  office  of  priest.    In  the  faynning,  sacrifice,  of  propriety  prevailing  in  a  given  grade  td  adUve. 

like  prater,  was  of  the  simplest  kind  and  was  offered  Uncultured  peoples,  as  a  rule,  are  morecmot] 

bv  the  individual  for  his.  personal  needs,  by  the  head  more  impulsive  in  expressing  their  emotioDB  < 

of  the  familv  or  clan  for  its  members  collectively,  and  peoples  of  a  high  ^nae  of  culture.    Hence  the 

1^  the  chief  or  king  for  the  whole  people.  m  lower  religions  is  generally  characterised  bjr 

With  the  growth  of  ceremonial  prayers  and  rites,  extravagant  action  and  spectacular  diqilay.    This 

the  office  of  sacrifice  gave  rise  to  the  class  of  priests  espedal^  shown  in  their  sacred  dances,  w&ch  a 

whose  duty  it  was  to  make  the  offerings  in  strict  con-  the  most  part  violent,  and  from  our  point  of 

formity  with  the  complicated  ritual.    The  institution  fantastic,  out  which  are  executed  in  a  spirit  of 

of  the  office  of  priest  is  thus  later  than  that  of  sacrifice,  earnestness.    The  early  Hebrew  reiigioii.  Eke  ■■ 

Sacrifices  were  first  made  under  the  open  sky  on  raised  the  religions  of  antiquitv,  had  its  sacred  dances.  Tbey 

hearths  of  earth  or  stone,  which  became  altars.    For  are  a  popular  feature  of  talMnunn  to-da^.    Tkey  have 

the  protection  of  permanent  altars  temples  came  to  be  been  wisely  set  aside  in  Christian  worship,  thougii  in  a 

built.    The  most  solemn  sacrifices  were  those  offered  very  few  places,  as  at  Echtemach  in  LazemborK,  and 


in  behalf  of  the  people  for  the  obtaining  of  public  in  the  Seville  cathedral,  religious  dancii^  giivcs  a  kxal 
benefits.     To  accommodate  the  laige  concourse  of  colour  to  the  celebration  of  certain  festrvals.    Inslni- 
worshippcrs,  the  iemplcs  were  often  built  on  a  grand  mental  and  vocal  music  is  a  most  fitting  framewotk 
scale,  surpassing  in  magnificence  the  palaces  of  the  for  tituigical  prayers  and  solemn  sacrifices.    The  be> 
kings.    From  the  earliest  times  religion  was  thus  the  ginnings  of  music  were  necessarily  rude.     Under  the 
great  inspiring  influence  in  the  development  of  archi-  influence  of  religion,  the  rhythmic  chants  grew  into 
tecture  and  the  decorative  arts.   The  arts  of  sculpture  inspiring;  hymns  and  psalms,  living  rise  to  me  sacred 
and  painting  owe  much  to  the  religious  use  of  images  poetic  literature  of  many  nations.     In  the  ChrisliaD 
and  pictures,  which  from  time  immemorial  have  b^n  religion  sacred  poetry,  melody,  and  polypiionic  mnair 
associated  with  worship.    In  acquiring  notions  of  in-  have  been  carried  to  the  height  of  perfection,    doeelx 
visible,  intangible  beings,  man  has  generally  made  allied  with  the  reUgious  dance,  yet,  when  du^  circum- 
large  use  of  the  imagination,  which,  while  it  often  scribed,  not  objectionable  to  refined  taste,   is  the 
misrepresents,  serves  to  concretize  and  make  real  the  pageantry  of  reli^ous  ceremonial — ^the  emplo3rment 
thinffs  he  recognizes  but  only  vaguely  grasps.    This  of  numerous  officiating  ministers  dressed  in  strikiiig 
has  led  to  the  fashioning  of  forms  in  wood  and  stone  to  costumes  to  perform  a  solemn,  complicated  function, 
represent  the  mysterious  beings  to  whom  man  looks  or  the  religious  procession,  in  which  the  minislerB, 
for  aid.   These  forms  are  apt  to  be  repulsive  where  the  bearing  sacred  objects,  are  accompanied  bv  a  kng 
art  of  sculpture  is  rudimentary.    In  the  higher  nations  line  of  worshippers,  marching  to  tne  sound  of  soul- 
of  antiquity,  the  making  of  sacred  images  in  wood,  stirring  hymns  and  instrumental  music.     All  this 
stone,  and  metal  was  carried  to  a  high  degree  of  per-  makes  a  profound  impression  on  the  spectators.    The 
fection.    Their  use  degenerated  into  idolatry  where  Catholic  Church  has  shown  her  wisdom  by  taking 
Polytheism  prevailed.     The  Christian  reUgion  has  into  her  liturgy  such  of  these  dements  as  are  the 
allowed  the  use  of  statues  and  paintings  to  represent  legitimate  and  dignified  expression  of  religious  feeling, 
the  Incarnate  Son  of  God,  the  saints,  and  angels,  and        (b)  Regulation  of  Conduct  outside  the  Sphere  of 
these  images  are  a  legitimate  aid  to  devotion,  since  the  Moral  Obligation. — ^This  element  is  common  to  all 
honour  that  is  given  them  is  but  relative,  being  di-  religions.    It  is  exemplified  in  the  purifications,  fasts, 
reeled  through  them  to  the  beings  they  represent.    It  privation  of  certain  kinds  of  food,  abstin«ice  at  times 
is  like  the  relative  honour  given  to  the  flag  of  the  from  conjugal  intercourse,  cessation  on  certain  dap 
nation.     The  timea  and  places  of  external  worship  from  ordinary  occupations,   mutilations,   and  sen- 
deserve  passing  notice.     In  most  religions  we  find  inflicted  pains.    Most  of  these  serve  as  prepareUons, 
certain  days  of  the  year  set  apart  for  the  more  solemn  immediate  or  remote,  for  the  solemn  acts  of  wor^m 
actsof  sacrificial  worship:  some  of  these  are  suggested  for  which  ceremonial  purity  is  pnerally  required, 
by  recurring  phenomena  of  nature  (the  new  and  full  Hence  many  of  them  are  embodied  in  rites  closely 
moon,  spring-time  with  its  awakening  vegetation,  associated  with  Divine  worship.    Most  of  these  prae- 
autumn  with  its  ripened  harvests,  the  two  solstices) ;  tices  rest  on  a  sense  of  fitness  strengthened  by  im- 
others  commemorate  historic  events  of  great  impor-  memorial  custom.    To  neglect  or  disregard  them  is 
tance  for  the  religious  life  of  the  people.    Hence  the  thought  to  entail  calamities.   Thus  they  nave  a  qusai- 
widespread  observance  of  religious  festivals,  when  religious  sanction.    In  the  Hebrew  rehgion  practices 
public  sacrifices  are  offered  with  elaborate  ritual  and  of  ttds  kind  rested  for  the  most  part  on  express  Divine 


BiuaioN 


743 


REUGION 


commands.  This  was  even  true  of  circumcision, 
which,  while  bein^  a  mutilation  of  a  minor  sort  (the 
only  form  of  mutilation  tolerated  in  the  Old  Law), 
was  given  a  hiehly  moral  signification,  and  made  to 
serve  as  the  token  of  God's  covenant  with  Abraham 
and  his  descendants.  The  Sabbath  rest,  transferred 
in  Christianity  to  Sunday,  is  likewise  based  on  an 
express  Divine  command.  To  this  class  of  external 
acts  of  homage  belong  also  the  various  forms  of 
asceticism  that  prevail  in  many  religions.  Such  are 
the  restrictive  works  of  piety  involving  inconvenience, 
pain,  and  abstinence  from  legitimate  enjoyments, 
voluntarily  undertaken  with  the  view  to  merit  a 
larger  share  of  Divine  favour  and  to  secure  more  than 
ormnary  sanctity  and  perfection.  In  the  lower  reli- 
gions the  ascetic  tendency  has  often  degenerated  into 
repulsive  forms  of  mortification  based  on  purely  selfish 
ends.  In  Christianity  the  various  forms  of  self-denial, 
particularly  the  counsels  of  perfection  (poverty, 
chastity,  and  obedience)  cultivated  in  the  spirit  ot 
Divine  love,  have  led  to  the  flourishing  of  the  ascetic 
life  within  the  limits  of  true  religious  propriety. 

(c)  Regulation  of  Conduct  within  the  Recognized 
Sphere  of  Moral  Obligation. — ^The  class  of  acts  which 
fall  within  its  sphere  impUes  that  the  sovereign  Deity 
is  the  guardian  of  the  moral  law.  Moral  duties,  to 
the  extent  that  they  are  recognized,  are  viewea  as 
Divine  conunands.  Their  fulfilment  merits  Divine 
approval  and  reward;  their  violation  entails  Divine 
punishment.  Unfortunately  the  moral  standard  of 
peoples  in  lower  grades  of  culture  has  been  a^  a  rule 
grossly  defective.  Many  things  shocking  to  our 
moral  sense  have  been  done  by  them  without  the  con- 
sciousness of  wrong-doing.  Being  generally  given 
to  incontinence,  polygamy,  deeds  of  violence,  and 
even  to  cannibalism,  they  nave  naturally  attributed 
the  same  sentiments  and  practices  to  their  gods. 
The  religious  sanction  thus  conceived  lends  strength 
to  both  the  good  and  the  evil  side  of  their  imperfect 
standard  of  conduct.  While  it  helps  them  to  avoid 
certain  gross  forms  of  wron^-doing,  patent  even  to 
minds  of  low  intelligence,  it  encourages  the  con- 
tinued practice  of  vicious  indulgences  that  otherwise 
might  be  more  easily  outgrown.  This  is  particularly 
tiie  case  where  these  excesses  have  been  woven  into 
the  myths  of  the  gods  and  the  legends  of  deified 
heroes,  or  have  been  incorporated  into  the  relisious 
rites  and  become,  as  it  were,  inviolable.  This  explains 
how,  for  example,  among  peoples  so  highly  civilized 
as  the  Babylonians,  Greeks,  and  Romans,  certain 
lascivious  rites  could  hold  their  own  in  the  sacred 
liturgy,  and  also  how,  in  the  worship  of  the  Aztec 
god  of  war,  human  sacrifices  with  cannibal  feasts 
could  prevail  to  so  shocking  a  degree.  In  this  re- 
spect the  religious  systems  of  lower  grades  of  culture 
have  tended  to  retard  reform  and  progress  towards 
higher  standards  of  conduct.  It  has  been  the  glory 
of  the  reli^on  of  Christ  that,  starting  with  the  highest 
ethical  principles,  it  has  pointed  out  to  men  the 
true  patn  to  moral  and  spiritual  perfection,  and  given 
the  most  powerful  aids  to  the  successful  pursuit  of 
this  lofty  ideal. 

(2)  Manifestations  of  Divine  Good  Will. — ^Re- 
ligion is  something  more  than  the  attempt  of  man  to 
secure  communion  with  Gpd.  It  is  also  an  experience 
sometimes  real  and  sometimes  fancied,  of  the  super- 
natural. Corresponding  to  the  deeply  felt  need  of 
Divine  help  is  tne  conviction  that  m  numerous  in- 
stances this  help  has  been  given  in  answer  to  prayer. 
Sensible  tokens  of  Divine  good  will  are  piously  tnou^t 
to  reward  the  earnest  efforts  of  man  to  secure  bliss- 
bringing  communion  with  the  Deity.  Prominent 
among  these  are  alleged  instances  of  Divine  .com- 
munications to  man,  revelation. 

(a)  Revelation. — Revelation  (or  God  speaking  to 
man)  is  the  complement  of  prayer  (man  speaking  to 
God).     It  is  instinctively  felt  to  be  needed  for  the 


perfection  of  religion,  which  is  a  personal  relation 
of  love  and  friendship.  There  is  scarcely  a  reli^on 
which  has  not  its  accepted  instances  of  Divine  visions 
and  communications.  To  the  Theist  this  offers  a 
strong  presumptive  argument  in  favour  of  Divine 
revelation,  for  God  would  hardly  leave  this  legitimate 
craving  of  the  human  heart  unsatisfied.  It  has,  in-  / 
deed»  been  fully  met  in  the  reli^on  of  Christ,  in 
which  man  has  been  Divinely  enlightened  in  regard 
to  his  religious  duties,  and  has  been  given  the  super- 
natural power  to  fulfil  them  and  thereby  secure 
his  perfection.  In  lower  religions,  where  temporal 
welfare  is  chiefly  kept  in  view,  on  the  eve  of  every 
important  undertaking  Divine  assurance  of  success 
is  eagerly  sought  through  ritual  forms  of  divination 
and  through  the  use  of  prophecy.  The  office  of 
prophet,  the  recognized  spokesman  of  the  Deity. 
IS  generally  but  not  always  distinct  from  that  of 
priest.  It  had  its  legitimate  place  in  the  Old  Law. 
m  which  the  Divinely  chosen  Prophets  not  only  told 
of  things  to  come,  out  also  brought  to  their  con- 
temporaries God's  messages  of  warning  and  of 
moral  and  spiritual  awakening.  In  Christ  the  office 
of  prophet  was  perfected  and  completed  for  all  time. 
In  lower  religions  the  office  of  prophet  is  almost  in- 
variably characterized  by  extraordinary  mental 
excitement,  taken  by  the  worshippers  as  the  sign 
of  the  inspiring  presence  of  the  Deity.  In  this  state 
of  religious  frenzy,  brought  on  as  a  riile  by  narcotics, 
dances,  and  noisy  music,  the  prophet  utters  oracles. 
Sometimes  the  prophecy  is  made  after  emerging  from 
a  trance,  in  whicn  the  prophet  is  thou^t  to  be 
favoured  with  Divine  visions  and  communications. 
In  their  ignorance,  the  worshippers  mistake  these 
pathological  states  for  the  signs  of  indwelling  Deity. 
Their  counterparts  may  be  seen  to-day  in  the  wild 
scenes  of  excitement  so  common  in  the  religious 
revivals  of  certain  sects,  where  the  believers,  under 
the  influence  of  noisy^  soul-stirring  exhortations, 
become  seized  with  rehgious  frenzy,  dance,  shout, 
fall  into  cataleptic  fits,  and  think  they  see  visions 
and  hear  Divine  assurances  of  being  saved.  Quite 
different  from  these  violent  mental  disturbances  are 
the  peaceful,  but  no  less  extraordinary  ecstasies  of 
many  saints,  in  which  wonderful  visions  and  Divine 
colloquies  are  experienced,  while  the  body  lies  mo- 
tionless and  insensible.  The  supernatural  character 
of  these  experiences  is  not  a  matter  of  faith,  but  is 
vouched  for  by  the  careful  investigation  and  judg- 
ment of  the  ecclesiastical  authorities  and  pronouncM 
worthy  of  pious  acceptance. 

(b)  Extraordinary  Healing. — ^There  are  few  re- 
ligions in  which  recourse  is  not  had  to  supernatural 
aid  for  miraculous  cures.  The  testimony  of  re- 
liable witnesses  and  the  numerous  ex-votos  that  have 
come  down  to  us  from  antiquity  leave  no  doubt  as  to 
the  reality  of  many  of  these  cures.  It  was  natural 
that  they  should  be  viewed  as  miraculous  in  an  age 
^hen  the  remarkable  power  of  suggestion  to  effect 
cures  was  not  understood.  Modem  science  recognizes 
that  strong  mental  impressions  can  powerfully  in- 
fluence the  nervous  system  and  through  this  the  Ixxiily 
organs,  leading  in  some  instances  to  sudden  illness  or 
death,  in  others  to  remarkable  cures.  Such  is  the 
so-called  mind-cure,  or  cure  by  suggestion.  It  ex- 
plains naturally  many  extraonunary  cures  recorded 
in  the  annals  of  different  religions.  Still  it  has  its 
recognized  limits.  It  cannot  restore  of  a  sudden  a 
half-decayed  organ,  or  heal  instantly  a  gaping  wound 
caused  by  a  cancer.  Yet  cures  like  these  and  others 
equally   defying   natural   explanation    have    taken 

Elace  at  Lourdes  and  elsewhere,  and  are  authenticated 
y  the  highest  medical  testimony. 

(c)  Sudden  Conversions. — In  the  Christian  re- 
ligion there  are  numerous  instances  of  sudden  con- 
versions from  a  fife  of  vice  to  one  of  virtue,  from  a 
state  of  spiritual  depression  to  one  of  enthusiastio 


REUOION 


744 


BEUGION 


seal.  The  latter  kind  are  not  infrequent  in  Cal- 
vinistic  forms  of  Protestantism,  where  the  fear  of 
being  outside  the  elect,  heightened  by  lapses  into  sin, 
leads  to  spiritual  depression  and  misery  with  a  cor- 
responding yearning  for  a  Divine  assurance  of  salva- 
tion. Such  conversions,  coming  unexpectedly  and 
transforming  the  indiviaual  into  a  new  man,  hapi)y 
in  the  consciousness  of  Divine  love  and  active  in 
works  of  piety,  have  been  popularly  viewed  as  miracu- 
lous in  every  instance.  That  many  of  these  con- 
versions may  be  of  a  purely  natural  order  seems  to 
be  shown  by  modern  psychology,  which  offers  the 
plausible  theory  of  the  sudden  uprush  into  con- 
sciousness of  subliminal  activities  set  unconsciously 
in  operation  by  intense,  pnersistent  lon^gs  for  a 
change  to  a  better,  more  spiritual  life.  But  it  must 
be  recognized  that  this  theory  has  its  limitations. 
The  grace  of  God  may  be  working  in  many  conver- 
sions that  allow  of  a  natural  explanation.  Moreover, 
there  are  conversions  that  defy  any  such  natural 
explanation  as  the  working  of  subliminal  conscious- 
ness. It  cannot,  for  instance,  explain  the  con- 
version of  St.  Paul,  who,  from  a  rabid  hater  of  Chris- 
tianity, was  suddenly  turned  into  one  of  its  most 
ajndent  champions,  a  result  that  was  the  veiy  antithesis 
of  his  previous  conscientious  belief  and  aspirations. 
That  ms  vision  of  Christ  was  real  and  objective  is 
proved  by  the  wonderful  accession  of  knowledge  that 
it  brought  to  his  mind,  fitting  him  to  stand  forth  un- 
challenged as  on^  of  Christ's  Apostles.  There  is  no 
natural  explanation  for  a  conversion  such  as  this. 

C.  Sacred  Books, — ^There  remains  a  word  to  be 
said,  by  wa^  of  supplement,  of  the  sacred  literature 
characteristic  of  most  higher  religions.  Both  the 
speculative  and  the  practical  side  of  religion  contrib- 
ute to  its  formation.  Many  elements,  accumulated 
through  a  long  series  of  generations,  go  to  compose 
the  sacred  books  of  the  great  religions  of  antiquity — 
the  traditional  myths  and  legends;  the  stories  of  the 
providential  dealmg  of  the  Deity  with  His  people; 
the  sacred  chants,  h3rmns  and  prayers;  the  great 
epic  poems:  the  laws  governing  social  and  domestic 
activity;  tne  texts  of  the  sacred  rites  and  the  pre- 
scriptions regulating  their  exact  performance;  specu- 
lations on  the  nature  of  the  Deity,  the  soul,  retri- 
bution, and  the  future  life.  In  some  of  the  ancient 
religions  this  enormous  mass  of  sacred  lore  was 
transmitted  or^dly  from  generation  to  generation  till 
finally  it  was  put  in  writin^^.  Jii  every  religion 
possessing  sacred  books,  there  is  a  tendency  to  give 
them  a  much  greater  antiquity  than  they  actually 
enjoy,  and  to  view  them  as  the  infaUible  expression 
of  Divine  wisdom.  This  latter  claim  vanishes 
quickly  when  they  are  compared  with  the  inspire 
books  of  the  Bible,  which  m  spiritual  and  literary 
worth  stand  immeasurably  above  them. 

IV.  The  Origin  or  Religion. — ^The  beginnings  of 
religion  go  back  to  remote  prehistoric  time.  In  the 
absence  of  positive,  historic  data,  the  question  of 
the  origin  of  religion  admits  only  of  a  speculative 
answer.  It  is  Catholic  teaching  that  primitive  re- 
ligion was  a  Divinely  revealed  Monotheism.  This 
was  an  anticipation  and  a  perfection  of  the  notion  of 
religion,  which  man  from  the  beginning  was  naturally 
capable  of  acquiring.  Religion,  like  morality,  has 
apart  from  revelation  a  natural  basis  or  origin.  It 
is  the  outcome  of  the  use  of  reason,  thou^,  without 
the  corrective  influence  of  revelation,  it  is  very  apt 
to  be  misconceived  and  distorted. 

A.  Modem  Apvlication  of  the  Principle  of  Cau- 
sality.— Religion,4n  its  last  analysis,  rests  on  a  theistic 
interpretation  of  nature.  The  Christian  philosopher 
arrives  at  this  by  a  process  of  discursive  reasoning, 
making  use  of  arguments  drawn  from  external 
nature  and  from  his  inner  consciousness  (see  article 
God).  This,  however,  is  a  highly  philosophic  pro- 
cess of  reasoning,  the  result  of  the  accumulated  con- 


tributions of  many  generations  of  thinkers.  It  pre- 
supposes a  mind  trained  to  abstract  reasoning,  and 
hence  is  by  no  means  easy  for  the  average  individual. 
It  can  hardly  have  been  the  method  followed  by 
savage  man,  whose  mind  was  not  trained  to  philoso- 
phy and  science.  The  process  by  which  he  arrived 
naturally  at  a  theistic  interpretation  of  the  world 
seems  to  have  been  a  simple,  spontaneous  applica- 
tion of  the  principle  of  caustdity. 

B.  Primilive  Application  of  the  Principle  of  Cau- 
sality.— There  is  every  reason  to  think  that  primitive 
man's  view  of  nature  was,  to  a  large  extent,  siinilar 
to  that  held  by  peoples  generally  who  have  not  risen 
to  a  scientific  knowledge  of  the  laws  of  nature.  They 
recognize  in  all  the  striking  phenomena  of  earth,  air, 
and  sky  the  immediate  agency  of  intelligent  volition. 
Untutored  man  does  not  understand  the  secondary, 
mechanical  causes  of  natural  events.  The  causes 
best  known  to  him  are  living,  personal  causes,  him- 
self and  his  fellow-men.  Familiarity  with  lifeless 
objects,  as  stocks  and  stones,  weapons  and  utensils, 
shows  that  even  these  things  exhibit  only  such  move- 
ment and  force  as  he  and  his  fellows  choose  to  im- 
part to  them.  Living  agency  is  behind  their  move- 
ments. The  natural  result  is  that,  whenever  he 
sees  a  phenomenon  showing  movement  and  energy 
outside  his  Umited  experience  of  mechanical  causa- 
tion, he  is  led  spontaneously  to  attribute  it  to  some 
mysterious  form  of  living  agency.  The  thunder  sug- 
gests the  thunderer.  The  sun  and  moon  are  taken 
to  be  either  Uving  things  or  the  instruments  of  an 
invisible  living  agency.  Personality  is  also  associated 
with  them,  particularly  where  the  phenomena  are 
suggestive  of  intelligent  purpose.  To  recognise  in 
and  behind  the  phenomena  of  nature  the  agency  of 
mind  and  will  was  thus  easy  for  primitive  man.  But 
it  was  not  an  equally  »mple  matter  to  discern  in  the 
great  diversity  of  these  phenomena  the  action  of  but 
one  supreme  personality..  The  possibility  of  such 
an  inference  cannot  be  denied.  But  its  likelihood 
is  not  great  when  we  consider  how  hard  it  would 
have  been  for  primitive  man  in  his  inexperience  to 
co-ordinate  the  varied  effects  of  nature  and  derive 
them  from  one  and  the  same  source  of  power.  The 
more  likely  tendency  would  have  been  to  recognize 
in  the  diverse  phenomena  the  agency  of  distinct 
personahties,  as  was  indeed  done  by  the  peoples  of 
antiquity,  and  as  is  done  to-day  by  uncultured  peoples 
everywhere.  Peoples,  whose  ipiorance  of  the  phy- 
sical laws  of  nature  has  not  been  compensated  by 
revealed  teaching,  have  invariably  personalised  the 
lorces  of  nature,  and,  feeUng  that  their  welfare  de- 

Cded  on  the  oeneficent  exercise  of  these  powers, 
e  come  to  divinize  them.  From  this  danger  of 
falling  into  a  polytheistic  interpretation  of  nature, 
primitive  man  was  saved  by  Divine  Revelation. 
Such,  it  would  seem,  was  the  simple  philosophy 
forming  the  natural  basis  of  religion  in  primitive 
times.  It  was  theoretically  capable  of  leading  to  a 
Monothebm  like  that  of  the  ancient  Hebrews,  who 
viewed  clouds,  rain,  lightning,  and  tempest  as  the 
signs  of  God's  immediate  activity.  But,  apart  from 
revelation,  it  was  very  liable  to  degenerate  into 
polytheistic  nature-worship.  Its  defect  was  pri- 
marily scientific,  ignorance  of  the  secondary  cause? 
of  natural  events;  but  it  rested  on  a  sound  principle, 
namely,  that  the  phenomena  of  nature  are  in  some 
way  the  outcome  of  intelhgent  volition.  This 
principle  commends  itself  to  the  Christian  philoso- 
pher and  scientist. 

C.  Intuition  Theory. — Other  theories  have  been 
su^ested  to  account  for  the  origin  of  religion.  We 
shall  briefly  review  the  more  common  ones.  Accord- 
ing to  the  intuition  theory,  man  has  instinctively  an 
intuition  of  God  and  of  his  dependence  on  Him.  To 
this  theory  there  are  several  serioiis  objections.  We 
ought  to  be  conscious  of  this  intuition  if  we  possesBed 


RBUQION 


745 


REUGION 


it.  Again,  as  a  result  of  such  intuition,  man  should 
be  found  everywhere  with  a  monotheistic  religion. 
The  widespread  existence  of  Polvtheism  and  the 
religious  apathy  of  many  individuals  are  inconsistent 
with  such  an  intuition  of  God. 

D.  Max  Muller'8  Perception  Theory. — ^This  is  but 
a  slight  modification  of  the  intuition  theory.  Mtkller 
thought  the  perception  of  the  infinite  was  the  source 
of  rehgion,  being  acquired  by  "  a  mental  faculty  which, 
independent  of,  nay  in  spite  of^  sense  and  reason, 
enables  man  to  apprehend  the  innnite  under  different 
names  and  under  varying  disguises"  ("Origin  and 
Growth  of  ReUgion",  London,  1880,  p.  23).  But 
apprehension  of  the  infinite  or  even  of  the  indefinite 
is  suited  rather  to  philosophic  than  to  simple  minds, 
and  is  not  to  be  found  in  the  generality  of  religions. 
It  is  the  apprehension  of  sovereign  personality  that 
gives  rise  to  religion,  not  the  mere  apprehension  of  the 
infinite.  How  man  arrives  at  the  notion  of  such  per- 
sonaUty,  this  theory  does  not  expltdn. 

E.  rear  Theory, — ^A  common  theory  with  the  Greek 
and  Roman  philosophers,  favoured  by  a  few  writers 
of  modem  times,  is  that  religion  had  its  origin  in  fear, 
particularly  fear  of  lightning,  tempests,  and  other 
dangerous  features  of  nature.  But  fear  is  a  feeling, 
and  no  mere  feeling  can  account  for  the  idea  of  per- 
^«onality,  which  may  or  may  not  be  assbciated  with  a 
dangerous  or  terrifying  object.  Fear,  like  hope,  may 
be  one  of  the  motives  prompting  man  to  the  worship 
of  the  Deity,  but  such  worship  presupposes  the  recog- 
nition of  Deity,  and  fear  cannot  account  for  this 
recognition.  We  have  already  seen  that  fear  is  not 
the  predominating  tone  even  m  lower  religions,  as  is 
shown  by  the  universal  use  of  rites  expressing  joy, 
hope,  and  gratitude. 

F.  Animiei  Theory. — A  favourite  theory  of  modem 
times  is  the  animbt  theory.  It  has  been  set  forth  with 
great  erudition  by  E.  B.  Tylor.  According  to  this 
theory,  in  consequence  of  a  strong  tendency  to  per- 
sonify, primitive  peoples  come  to  view  everything  as 
alive,  even  stocks  and  stones.  They  also  have  a  cmde 
notion  of  the  soul,  derived  from  dreams  and  v^isiqns 
experienced  in  sleep  and  swoons.  Applying  this  soul- 
idea  to  inanimate  things,  which  they  take  to  be  ative, 
they  have  come  to  associate  mighty  spirits  with  the 
great  phenomena  of  nature  and  have  given  them 
worship.  The  defects  of  this  theory  are  such  as  to 
discremt  it  in  the  eyes  of  most  scholars.  In  the  first 
place,  it  is  not  tme  that  uncultured  peoples  confound 
the  living  with  the  non-livinjs  to  the  extent  that  they 
take  the  very  stones  to  be  ahve.  It  would,  indeed,  bie 
strange  if  uncultured  man  were  not  at  least  the  eoual 
of  the  beast  in  ability  to  distinguish  betweem  familiar 
objects  that  are  lifeless  and  those  that  show  life  and 
movement.  Again,  while  men  of  lower  grades  of 
culture  have  a  crude  notion  of  souls,  they  do  not  need 
that  concept  to  arrive  at  the  idea  of  personal  agency 
in  nature.  All  they  need  is  the  notion  of  personai 
cause,  which  they  get  from  the  consciousness  of  them- 
selves as  sources  of  power  and  purposive  action. 
There  is  every  reason  to  think  that  this  idea  is  prior 
to  the  soul  concept.    (See  Animism.) 

G.  Ghost  Theory. — ^This  theory,  whose  prominent 
English  champion  was  Herbert  Spencer,  identifies  the 
primitive  notion  of  religion  with  the  service  and 
propitiation  of  departed  relatives,  and  attributes  the 
worship  of  the  great  deities  of  nature  to  the  mistaken 
applications  of  ancestor-worship.  The  first  religious 
offerings  are  said  to  have  been  offerings  of  food, 
weapons,  and  utensils  made  to  the  souls  of  the  dead, 
whose  occupations,  needs,  and  tastes  in  the  next  life 
were  thought  to  be  similar  to  those  of  earthly  exist- 
ence. In  return  for  this  much-needed  service,  the 
dead  gave  the  living  aid  and  protection.  A  series  of 
blunders  led  to  the  recognition  and  worship  of  the 
great  nature-deities.  Migrating  peoples  from  beyond 
the  sea  or  the  mountain  became  known  as  children 


of  the  sea  or  of  the  mountain.  Later  generations, 
mistaking  the  meaning  of  the  term,  were  led  to  view 
the  sea  or  the  mountain  as  their  living  ancestor  and  to 
mve  it  wor^p.  Again,  departed  heroes  named  Sun, 
Thunder,  Rain-Cloud,  came  after  a  lapse  of  time  to 
be  confounded  with  the  r^l  sun  and  other  natural 
phenomena^  thus  giving  rise  to  the  conception  of 
nature-deities  and  to  nature-worship.  The  defects 
of  this  theory  are  manifest.  Mistakes  like  these  might 
be  made  by  some  stupid  individual  of  the  tribe,  but 
not  by  all  the  members  of  the  tribe,  still  less  by  tribes 
over  all  the  earth.  A  series  of  trivial  and  fortuitous 
blunders  cannot  account  for  so  world-wide  a  fact  as 
the  recognition  of  nature-deities.  If  the  ghost-theory 
were  true,  we  should  find  the  religions  of  savages  con- 
sisting exclusively  of  ancestor-worship.  This  is  not 
the  case.  In  -all  lower  religions,  where  we  find  food- 
offerings  to  the  dead,  we  also  find  recognized,  and 
carefully  distinguished  from  dead  heroes,  nature- 
deities.  Among  the  pygmies  of  the  Northem  Congo, 
accounted  one  of  the  lowest  of  races,  there  is  a  rever- 
ent recognition  of  a  supreme  Deity,  but  no  trace  of 
ancestor-worship.  There  is  thus  no  good  ground  for 
asserting  ancestor-worship  to  have  been  the  earliest 
form  of  religion,  nor  do  we  need  it  to  account  for 
religion,  strictly  speaking,  in  any  of  its  forms.  It  is  a 
parallel  ^wth  that  has  sprung  up  and  become  en- 
twined with  religion  proper.  The  latter  is  of  inde^ 
pendent  origin. 

H.  Fetish  Theory. — This  derives  religion  from  the 
use  and  veneration  of  fetishes.  A  fetish  is  an  object 
(generally  small  enough  to  be  easily  carried)  in  which 
a  spirit  is  thought  to  reside,  acting  as  a  protective 
gemus  for  the  owner  who  wears  it,  and  who  venerates 
it  because  of  its  indwelling  spirit.  Generally,  it  is  the 
me(ticine-man  or  wizard  who  makes  the  fetish,  and 
charges  it  with  the  spirit.  It  is  used  till  its  inefficiency 
becomes  apparent,  when  it  is  cast  aside  as  worthless, 
in  the  belief  that  the- indwelling  spirit  has  departed 
from  it.  Now  the  use  of  such  objects  cannot  be  the 
primary  form  of  religion.  In  the  first  place,  there  is 
no  existing  form  of  religion  known  in  which  Fetish- 
ism is  the  sole  constituent  element.  Among  the 
negroes  of  West  Africa,  where  it  first  attracted  atten- 
tion, the  fetish  spirits  are  at  best  but  inferior  beings, 
?;cnerally  distinct  from  the  supreme  heaven-god  and 
rom  the  powerful  nature-deities  associated  with  the 
sea  and  thunder.  Again,  the  notion  of  persuading 
spirit^  to  lodge  themselves  in  stocks  and  stones  and 
become  the  property  of  .the  wearers,  is  the  very 
antithesis  of  religion,  which  implies  the  sense  of  de- 
pendence on  the  Deity.  Far  from  the  latter  notion 
bring  derived  from  the  former,  there  is  every  reason  to 
see  in  Fetishism  a  perverted  notion  of  religion.  (See 
Fetishism.) 

I.  Totem  Theory. — ^This  puts  the  origin  of  religion 
in  Totemism,  a  semi-religious,  semi-«ocial  institution 
prevailing  chiefly  among  savage  tribes.  In  certain 
tribes,  every  one  of  the  component  clans  has  a  tutelary 
deity  intimately  associated  with  a  particular  species  of 
animal  or  plant,  which  species  is  venerated  by  the 
clan  as  sacred  and  inviolable.  It  is  called  the  ancestor 
of  the  clan.  The  individuals  of  the  species  are  often 
viewed  as  particularly  sacred  because  of  the  indwelling 
deity.  Hence  the  totem  animal  or  plant  is  ordinarily 
not  used  for  food  by  the  clan  that  bears  its  name. 
The  union  of  clans  into  tribes  under  the  leadership  of 
one  superior  clan  is  said  to  have  led  to  the  absorption 
of  the  weaker  totem  deities  into  that  of  the  ruling 
clan,  with  the  result  that  powerful  tribal  deities  arose. 
It  was  but  a  step  further  to  the  recognition  of  a 
supreme  deity.  Totemism  labours  under  many  of  the 
difficulties  of  Fetishism.  Nowhere  do  we  find  religion 
of  pure  Totemism.  Among  the  North  American  In- 
dians, when?  Totemism  has  flourished  with  the  great- 
est vigour,  the  totems  are  absolutely  overshadowed 
by  the  great  deities  of  the  sky,  air,  and  water.    The 


RBUGION 


746 


REUOION 


distinction  between  them  and  the  totem  spirits  is 
absolute.  Nowhere  do  the  great  deities  bear  the  names 
of  *iniTnftl«  or  plants  as  a  mark  of  totem  origin.  In  the 
majority  of  the  reli^ons  of  the  world,  there  is  no  trace 
of  Totemism,  vestiges  of  which  ought  to  be  wide- 
spread if  it  had  been  the  source  of  all  other  forms  of 
religion.  The  totem,  like  the  fetish,  presupposes  the 
very  thing  that  needs  to  be  accounted  for,  belief  in 
the  existence  of  unseen  personal  agents. 

V.  The  Universality  or  Religion. — A.  Historical 
Survey, — From  what  has  already  been  said,  it  is  plain 
that  reliffion,  though  often  imperfectly  conceived,  is 
in  normsJ  conditions  of  human  existence  the  inevitable 
outcome  of  the  use  of  reason.  It  is  but  natural,  then, 
that  religion,  at  least  in  some  crude  form,  should  be  a 
characteristic  feature  in  the  life  of  all  peoples.  This 
truth  was  widely  questioned  during  the  last  few  cen- 
turies, when  the  extension  of  travel  to  unexplored 
lands  gave  rise  to  reports  asserting  the  absence  of 
religion  among  many  native  tribes  of  Asia,  Africa, 
America,  and  the  islands  of  the  Pacific  Ocean.  One 
by  one  these  reports  have  been  nullified  by  the  con- 
trary statements  of  travellers  and  missionaries  better 
qualified  as  witnesses,  so  that  to-day  there  remain  but 
very  few  peoples  of  whom  it  cannot  be  said  with  cer- 
tainty that  they  possess  some  form,  however  degraded, 
of  religion.  These  rare  exceptions  do  but  prove  the 
rule,  for  they  are  insignificant  tribes  which,  in  the 
strug|(le  for  existence,  have  been  driven  by  their 
enemies  to  inhospitable  regions  where  the  conditions 
of  life  are  so  wretched  as  to  cause  them  to  degenerate 
almost  to  a  state  of  brutalization.  A  degf^aation  of 
this  sort  can  prove  fatal  to  the  sentiment  of  religion. 
A  notable  instance  is  the  Indian  tribe  in  Southern 
California  amone  whom  Father  Baegert,  a  Jesuit  mis- 
sionary, labourea  for  many  years.  In  the  acooimt  which 
he  gave  of  his  experiences,  a  translation  of  which  was 
published  in  the  "Smithsonian  Report"  of  1864,  he 
testified  to  their  stupidity  and  utter  lack  of  religion. 
Yet  their  descent  from  Indian  stocks  that  had  well- 
defined  religious  notions  is  practically  certain.  Father 
Baegert  observed  a  few  vestiges  of  an  ancestral  belief 
in  a  future  life — ^for  example  the  custom  of  putting 
sandals  on  the  feet  of  the  dead,  the  significance  oi 
which  the  Indians  could  not  explain.  Mental  degjada- 
tion  hke  this  may  thus  involve  the  loss  of  religion. 
But  such  degradation  is  extremely  rare.  On  the  other 
hand,  wherever  tribes  exist  in  normal  conditions,  they 
are  found  to  possess  some  sort  of  religion.  The 
erroneous  reports  of  earlier  travellers  asserting  a  lack 
of  religion  where  religion  actually  exists,  have  been  due 
either  to  superficial  observation  or  to  a  misunder- 
standing as  to  what  should  be  called  religion.  Some 
have  accepted  as  religion  only  an  exalted  notion  of  the 
Deity  coupled  with  well-organized  rites  of  public 
worship.  The  absence  of  these  has  often  been  set 
down  as  an  absence  of  religion.  Again,  unfavourable 
verdicts  have  not  infrequently  been  based  on  a  stay 
of  but  one  or  two  days  with  tribes  speaking  an  im- 
known  tongue,  as  for  example  was  the  case  with 
Verrazano  and  Amerigo  Vespucci.  But,  even  where 
observers  have  stayed  lor  months  among  rude  peoples, 
they  have  sometimes  found  it  extremely  difficult  to 
obtain  information  in  regard  to  religious  beliefs  and 
practices;  a  suspicion  that  the  white  man  was  seeking 
to  obtain  some  advantage  over  them  has  more  than 
once  led  savages  to  resort  to  deceit  to  conceal  their 
religion.  It  is  the  calm,  impartial  judgment  of  anthro- 
pologists to-day  that  there  is  no  people  of  note  that  is 
absolutely  devoid  of  religion. 

B.  Outlook. — But  the  further  question  may  be 
asked:  If  religion  has  been  universal  in  the  past, 
have  we  any  assurance  that  it  will  persist  in  time  to 
come?  Has  not  the  advance  of  modem  science  been 
marked  by  a  progressive  substitution  of  mechanical 
for  personal  agency  in  nature,  with  the  inevitable 
result,  as  a  writer  has  expressea  it,  that  God  will  one 


day  be  bowed  out  of  His  universe  as  no  longer  needed? 
To  this  we  may  reply:  The  advance  of  modem 
scientific  culture  is  fatal  to  all  polytheistic  forms  of 
reUgion,  in  which  the  recognized  secondary  causes 
are,  through  ignorance,  mistaken  for  personal  causes. 
The  well-established  scientific  truth  of  the  unity 
of  nature's  forces  is  in  harmony  only  with  the  mono- 
theistic inten>retation  of  nature.  Christian  Mono- 
theism, far  from  being  inconsistent  with  true  science, 
is  necessary  to  supplement  and  complete  the  limited 
interpretation  of  nature  afforded  by  science.  The 
latter,  being  based  on  observation  and  experiment, 
has  for  its  legitimate  sphere  of  study  only  secondary 
causes  of  nature.  It  can  tell  nothing  of  origins, 
nothing  of  the  great  First  Cause,  from  which  the  onier- 
ly  universe  has  proceeded.  In  substituting  physical 
laws  for  what  was  formerly  thought  to  be  the  direct 
action  of  Divine  agency,  it  has  not  accounted  for  the 
intelligent,  purposive  oirection  of  nature.  It  has 
simply  pushed  the  question  somewhat  further  back, 
but  left  it  with  its  religious  answer  as  importunate 
as  ever.  It  is  true  that  in  modem  civilized  nations 
there  has  asserted  itself  a  notable  tendency  to  re- 
ligious scepticism  and  indifference.  It  is  a  s3rmpton 
of  unrest,  of  an  unhealthy,  excessive  reaction  Jtrom 
the  simple  view  of  nature  that  prevailed  in  both 
science  and  religion  in  former  times.  In  the  material 
order,  ignorance  of  the  natural  causes  of  lightning, 
tempests,  comets,  earthquakes,  droughts,  and  pests, 
has  led  less  cultured  peoples  to  see  direct  super- 
natural agency  in  their  production.  For  them  nature 
in  its  seemingly  capricious  moods  has  had  the  aspect 
rather  of  master  than  of  servant.  Their  sense  of 
dependence  has  thus  been  keen  and  constant;  their 
need  of  Divine  help  urgent  to  a  high  degree.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  widespread  recognition  among 
cultured  peoples  of  the  reign  of  law  leads  man  to 
seek  natural  remedies  in  times  of  distress,  and  only 
where  these  fail  to  turn  to  God  for  aid.  Modem 
civilization,  in  removing  many  scourges  of  ancient 
times  that  were  viewed  as  supernatural,  in  greatly 
l(^enin^  the  range  of  the  miraculous,  in  binding 
nature  m  a  thousand  ways  to  beneficent  service, 
has  tended  to  create  in  the  heart  of  man  a  feeling 
of  selfnsufficiency  that  tends  to  enfeeble  the  virtue 
of  religion.  That  this  tendency,  however,  is  an 
abnormal,  passing  distemper  rather  than  a  permanent, 
characteristic  feature  of  modem  civilizations,  may  be 
seen  from  the  unshaken  Christian  faith  of  many  of 
the  greatest  exponents  of  scientific  culture  (e.  g. 
Clerk-Maxwell,  Sir  John  Herschell,  Lord  Kelvin 
in  England;  Faye,  Lapparent,  Pasteur  in  France). 
It  is  still  more  strikingly  shown  by  the  conversion 
from  scepticism  to  Clmstian  faith  of  distinguished 
scholars  such  as  Littr^,  Romanes,  Brunetidre,  Bourget, 
Copp6e,  and  von  Ruville.  It  was  recognized  by 
these  and  other  profound  thinkers  that  the  deeply 
seated  craving  in  the  human  heart  for  bliss-givmg 
communion  with  God  can  never  be  stiUed  by  science 
or  by  any  other  proposed  substitute  for  rehgion. 

VI.  The  Civilizing  Influence  of  Reugign. — 
Religion  in  its  highest  forms  has  exercised  a  pro- 
found influence  on  the  development  of  human 
culture.  In  the  recognized  sphere  of  morality,  it 
has  offered  powerful  motives  to  right  conduct; 
it  has  been  the  chief  inspiration  of  music,  poetry, 
architecture,  sculpture,  and  painting;  it  has  been 
the  dominant  influence  in  the  fonnation  of  a  perma- 
nent literature.  In  all  the  early  civilizations,  the  chief 
representatives  and  transmitters  of  the  hi^est 
known  culture  have  been  the  officials  in  charge  of 
religious  rites.  Religion  has  been  a  mighty  force 
in  the  life  of  nations,  cultivating  in  the  hearts  of 
men  a  striving  for  better  thin^,  a. healthy  tone  of 
cheerfulness,  hope,  joy,  resignation  under  calamities, 
perseverance  in  the  face  of  difficulties,  a  readiness 
for  generous  service,  in  short  a  spirit  of  highminded 


BEUQION 


747 


REUOION 


t>ptiini0m,  without  which  no  nation  can  rise  to  great- 
ness. Most  noteworthy  has  been  the  influence  of 
Christianity  in  transfonning  and  elevating  society. 
Its  lofty  ethical  teachings,  the  peerless  example  of 
its  Divine  Founder,  the  fundamental  principle  that 
we  are  all  children  of  the  same  heavenly  Father  and 
hence  boimd  to  treat  our  feUow-men  not  only  with 
justice  but  with  mercy  and  charity,  the  spirit  of  gen- 
erous, self-sacrificinp  service,  springing  from  personal 
devotion  to  the  Divine  Saviour  and  prompting  to 
the  practice  of  heroic  virtues — all  this,  having  for  its 
end  the  spiritual  perfection  of  the  individual  and  the 
union  of  aXL  men  through  a  common  bond  of  faith 
and  worship  in  a  EKvinely  constituted  Church,  has 
exercised  a  mighty  influence  in  softening  and  re- 
fining the  rude  peoples  of  early  Europe,  in  breaking 
down  the  barriers  of  race  prejudice^  and  in  forming  a 
common  society  of  many  nations,  m  which  the  ideal 
recognized,  though  not  yet  fully  attained,  is  a  uni- 
versal reign  of  peace,  justice,  chastity,  charity, 
reverence  for  authority,  sympathy  for  the  afilicted, 
a  general  diffusion  of  useful  knowledge,  and  in  short 
a  common  participation  in  everything  that  makes 
for  true  culture.  Nowhere  have  the  works  of  charity 
flourished  in  such  variety  and  vigour  as  in  Christian 
lands.  The  Christian  refigion  has  ever  been  the  great 
conservative  force,  favouring  established  order  and 
law,  and  opposea  to  hasty  innovations  calculated 
to  cause  a  profound  disturbance  in  existing  religious 
or  political  institutions.  The  value  of  such  a  force 
in  human  affairs  is  incalculable,  even  though  it  may 
occasionally  retard  for  a  while  the  general  recognition 
of  some  principle  of  permanent  value  in  science,^ 
economics,  or  politics. 

While,  in  modem  civilization,  state  institutions 
are  sharing  with  Christian  hospitals,  asylums^  and 
schools  the  work  of  charitable  ministration  which  in 
former  times  depended  exclusively  on  the  Church; 
while  the  sciences  and  arts  no  longer  need  the  fos- 
tering influence  of  religion,  it  is  nevertheless  true 
that,  in  the  social  and  moral  order,  the  need  of  right 
religion  is  as  urgent  as  ever.  It  has  not  ceased  to  be 
the  mighty  social  power  working  for  the  highest  good 
of  the  nation.  Religion  alone  can  keep  alive  in  a 
people  devotion  tx>  high  ideals,  respect  for  established 
authority,  preference  for  peaceful  measures  to  secure 
political  and  industrial  reforms,  and  a  cheerful  spirit 
of  perseverance  despite  powerful  opposition.  Re- 
ligion means  generous  optimism;  irreligion  means 
sordid  pessimism.  It  is  religion,  too,  that  presents 
the  hiuiest  and  most  efficacious  motives  for  the 
upbuilmng  of  character  in  the  individual,  for  the 
conscientious  fulfilment  of  his  moral  duties.  Chris- 
tianity does  not  disdain  the  purely  secular  grounds 
of  morality,  such  as  the  love  of  virtue  and  hatred 
of  vice,  self-respect,  regard  for  public  opinion,  fear 
of  legal  sanctions;  but  it  reinforces  ana  completes 
these  by  the  powerful  motives  that  are  the  fruit  of 
the  teaching  of  Christ,  the  greatest  ethical  teacher 
the  world  nas  ever  seen — ^love  of  God,  personal 
devotion  to  Jesus,  the  sense  of  God'spresence,  and 
the  thought  of  Divine  retribution.  These  motives, 
supematuralized  by  grace,  exercise  a  powerful  in- 
fluence in  developing  an  interior  conformity  to  the 
rule  of  right  conduct,  which  distinguishes  genuine 
moral  worth  from  the  mere  outward  show  of  re- 
spectability. Right  religion  both  indicates  and  makes 
possible  of  fulfilment  man's  duties  to  himself,  his 
family,  his  neighbour,  and  the  State.  In  the  measure 
that  he  conforms  to  the  teaching  of  religion  will  he 
be  found  to  be  a  zealous  promoter  and  observer  of 
civic  virtue.  In  short,  wherever  we  find  the  prac- 
tical observance  of  right  religion,  there  we  find  social 
order  to  a  hi^  degree.  The  nation  that  designedly 
and  systematically  repudiates  religion  is  depriving 
itself  of  the  most  powerful  factor  operative  in  the 
upbuilding  and  maintaining  of  true  public  welfare. 


It  is  on  the  steep  incline  to  social  and  political 
ruin. 

VII.  The  Modern  Scientific  Study  op  Re- 
ligion.— Modem  scholarship  has  given  much  at- 
tention to  the  study  of  religion.  Out  of  this  many- 
sided  study  have  grown  the  modem  branches  known 
as  the  history  of  religion,  comparative  religion,  and 
the  psychology  of  religion,  all  of  which  are  sup- 
plemented and  completed  by  the  older  discipline, 
the  philosophy  of  religion. 

A.  History  of  Rdigion. — This  has  for  its  scope 
the  accurate  and  systematic  exposition  of  the  posi- 
tive data  that  go  to  make  up  the  different  external 
religions  of  the  world — ^the  rites,  customs,  restrictions, 
concepts  of  deity,  sacred  books,  etc.  Its  point  of 
view  IS  purely  historic.  It  studies  each  religion  apart 
from  the  question  of  its  spiritual  worth  and  possible 
supernatural  origin,  simply  as  an  external  expression 
of  religious  belief.  A  sympathetic  interest  attaches 
to  this  study,  for  there  are  few  religions,  however 
crude,  that  ao  not  represent  the  sincere  effort  of 
man  to  bring  himself  into  communion  with  God. 
The  work  accomplished  in  this  field  has  been  immense. 
Religious  data  have  been  accumulated  from  hundreds 
of  different  sources,  and  the  sacred  books  of  the  great 
Oriental  religions  have  been  carefully  translated, 
so  that  to-day  there  is  witliin  easy  reach  of  the 
scholar  a  very  reliable  survey  of  the  chief  religions, 
of  the  world. 

B.  Comparative  Religion. — Closely  allied  to  the 
history  of  religions,  out  of  which  it  has  grown,  is 
comparative  reli^on.  The  scope  of  this  discipline 
is  the  comparative  study  of  the  many  elements  com- 
mon to  different  religions  with  the  view  to  ascertain 
their  underlying  thought  and  purpose,  and  thus  to  , 
discover  if  possible  the  causes  of  their  genesis  and 
persistence.  In  some  instances,  where  resemblances 
of  a  striking  kind  are  found  in  two  or  more  religions, 

it  seeks  to  determine  whether  these  resemblances  ^ 
imply  dependence.  It  also  admits  a  more  extensive 
comparison  of  religion  with  religion  in  order  to  es- 
timate their  relative  value.  But  like  the  history  of 
religions,  the  data  of  which  it  uses,  it  does  not  con- 
cern itself  as  a  science  with  the  question  whether  any 
given  religion  be  true.  Comparative  religion  has 
helped  to  a  better  understanding  of  many  phases 
of  external  religion.  It  has  shown  how  certain  wide- 
spread rites  and  customs  have  been  the  natural 
product  of  human  thought  in  lower  grades  of  culture. 
It  has  enabled  us  to  recognize  in  higher  religions 
elements  that  are  survivals  of  earlier  stages  of  thought. 
But  its  principles  of  comparison  have  to  be  used 
with  great  care,  for  they  can  easily  be  made  to  do 
service  for  contradictory  and  visionary  theories. 
The  writings  of  authors  such  as  Frazer  and  Reinach 
offer  many  examples  of  unwarranted  conclusions 
supported  by  far-fetched  comparisons. 

C.  Psychology  of  Religion. — ^This  discipline  studies 
the  different  psychical  states  implied  in,  and  asso- 
ciated with,  the  religious  consciousness.  It  concerns 
itself  with  the  extraordinary  and  abnormal,  as  well  as 
with  the  norm^  exercise  of  the  intellectual,  volitional, 
emotional,  and  imaginative  activities  set  in  motion 
by  religion.  It  does  not  attempt  to  vindicate  the 
supernatural  character  of  these  psychical  experiences 
or  to  show  their  conformity  to  objective  tmth.  View- 
ing them  simply  as  mental  states,  it  seeks  to  find  out 
how  far  they  may  be  explained  by  natural  causes. 
In  the  short  period  of  its  existence  it  has  given  much 
consideration  to  the  phenomena  of  sudden  conver- 
sions, religious  frenzy,  the  sense  of  God's  presence  ex- 
perienced by  pious  Christians,  and  the  extraordinary 
experiences  of  mystics,  Catholic  and  non-Catholic. 
In  seeking  the  natural  explanation  of  some  of  these 
experiences  it  has  been  successful;  but,  as  has  al- 
ready been  pointed  out,  it  has  its  limitations. 

D.  PhUosophy  of  Religion. — The  philosophy  of  reli- 


REUGION  748  REUGI0U8 

gion  IB  the  crown  and  completion  of  the  several  dis-  our  behavioiir  towards  whom  must  be  invested  with 
ciplinea  already  mentioned.  It  carries  the  inquiring  awe  and  admiration;  He  is  besides  our  Creator  and 
mmd  beyond  the  sphere  of  natural  causation  to  the  Master  and,  in  virtue  of  our  supernatural  filiation  in 
recognition  of  the  great  personal  First  Cause  and  the  present  order  of  things,  our  Father.  Hence  we  are 
Source  of  all  things,  and  shows  that  only  in  the  recog-  bound  to  cherish  habitually  towards  Him  sentiments 
nition  of  God  is  a  satisfactory  interpretation  of  the  of  adoration,  praise,  thanlcsgiving,  lovalty,  and  love, 
universe  attainable.  It  is  the  science  which  examines  Such  a  demeanour  of  soul  is  inexorably  required  by 
the  value  of  religion,  and  investi^tes  with  careful  the  very  law  of  our  being.  We  must  not,  however, 
scrutiny  the  grounds  of  theistic  behef .  In  its  method  rest  satisfied  because  perchance  our  interior  bearing  is 
of  procedure  and  choice  of  arguments,  it  shows  con-  fairly  in  conformity  with  this  standaid.  We  are  not 
siderable  variation,  due  in  large  measure  to  the  differ-  simply  spirits.  Our  comfXMite  nature  needs  to  express 
ent  theories  of  knowledge  that  obtain  in  the  world  of  itself  by  outward  acts  in  which  the  body  as  well  as  the 
philosophers.  Since  Kant's  criticism  of  the  Scholastic  soul  shall  have  a  part — this  not  only  to  spur  on  our 
arguments  for  the  existence  of  God,  there  has  been  a  inner  feeling,  but  also  because  God  owns  us  body  and 
strong  tendency  in  many  schools  to  neglect  the  cosmo-  soul,  and  it  is  right  that  both  should  show  their 
loipcal  and  teleological  arguments,  and  to  see  the  fealty  to  Him.  This  is  the  justification  of  external 
evidence  of  Divine  wisdom  and  gooctness  rather  in  the  religion.  Of  course  God  does  not  need  our  worship, 
human  mind  than  in  external  nature.  A  reaction  is  whether  interior  or  exterior,  and  it  is  puerile  to  impugn 
now  setting  in.  Some  of  the  leading  exponents  of  it  on  that  score.  We  cannot  by  our  homsige  add  any- 
biological  science  now  recognize  that  evolution,  as  an  thing  to  His  glory,  unless  it  be  the  extrinsic  increm^it 
adequate  explanation  of  the  variety  of  organic  hfe,  of  the  theologians  of  which  account  need  not  be  taken 
is  necessarily  teleological,  and  do  not  hesitate  to  de-  here.  It  is  not  because  it  is  strictly  speaking  of  use 
dare  that  the  universe  is  the  manifestation  of  a  crea-  to  Him  that  we  render  it,  but  be^^use  He  is  infinitely 
tive,  controlling  mind.  worthy  of  it,  and  because  it  is  of  tremendous  vBlvte 
Betides  the  Latin  works  of  St.  Thomab.  Suabbb,  Luoo,  to  ourselves.    The  chief  acts  of  this  virtue  arc  adora-' 

BIauella.,  etc.,  the  following  authors  may  be  consulted:  VAN  DEN  ^z^^      r\«>ovA«>      aa/*^A/M>      />K1afirkn      v#%am<      *U^    «.v 

Ghbyn,  li  ReUgion,  nonlriaine  et  aa  MfinHion  (Paris.   1891);  **^°.'     Player,     Sacnface.     OblatlOn,     VOWS,      the     SUM 

Hbttinoer.  Natural  Reiigitm,  (New  York.  1893);  Jabtrow,  The  agamst  it  are  neglect  of  prayer,  blasphemy,  tempting 

?f^^.  ^^ ^^^^f*^  S^^^  y°^^'  ^2!?^^  BowNB,  The  Easen^  of  God,  sacrilege,  perjury,  simony,  idolatry,  and  super- 

Religion  (Boston,  1910);   Lilly.  The  Great  Enigma  (New  York,  afiijA^ 

1892);   Lano,  r*«  AfaWo/Re/HTMm  (New  York,  1898);   Idem.  SLUlon. 

Myth,  Ritual  and  Religion  (London,  1899);   Mill.  Three  Eeeaye  ^  Rickabt,  Ethxce  and  Nafwal  Law  (I^ndon.  1908);  Mauell*« 

on  Rdigum  (London.  1874);   Kellooo.  The  Geneeis  and  Growth  ^fT^'Hrtonc  el  eede»%a   (Rome,   1885);    Schans.   A    Cl^yiuin 

o/Religum  (New  York,  1892);  Martinbau,  A  Study  of  Religion  ^f^'^W  (New  York,  1907);    Summa  theol.  (Tunn.  1885),  loc 

(2  vols..  London,  1888);  Brinton,  r^Ae<t^uni«Senii*m«n/ (New  ^"-  -  t^     t^ 

York.  1876);    db  Bboglik.  Problhnea  et  ctmcluaione  de  Vhistwre  JOSEPH  f .   DelaNT. 

dee  rdigiona  (Paris,  1886) ;  Vbrnbb,  HiU.  dee  religione,  eon  eeprit^ 

M  mUhode,  el  eet  divitione  (Paris,  1887) :    Jordan,  Comparative  ReUgiOIlB,  STATISTICS  OP.     See  STATISTICS,   RbU- 

Rdigion;  iie  Geneeie  and  Growth  (New  York,  1905);    Foucart,  noTTci 

La  mSthode  comparative  dana  Fhistoire  dee  religume  (Paris,  1909) ;  ^^^^''- 

^  ?*:  pt&y\Pit^^y^iiSr^  19^1;       B«"«o««  Congreg»tloii8.    See  Religious  Li«. 

Ames,   The  Peyehology  of  Rdigioue  Experience  (Boston,  1910);  -*   ,.    .  * .«         ^     ^  •r  •»-. 

WuNDT,  Vdlkerpeychologie  (Leipsig,  1904-07);   Caird,  Introdue-  RellglOUB  Life.— I.   GENERAL     VIEW   AND    EvAN- 

'iJJ?*  ^J!i^  ™'»^K.*''^  Rdigion  (Glasgow,  1901);   Caldbcott,  qeuCAL  IdBA  OP  THE  RELIGIOUS  LiFB. — A.  GENERAL 

WOD^tS?!!''  iL^ISZ^^k^'TmiSli^^^^ori:  1^90^);  y/^^rrWe  "i]  have  within.us  that  vague  and  genenl 

Ptlbidbrbr.  The  Philosophy  and  Develc^ment  of  Religion  (2  vols.,  idea  of  the  rellglOUS  life  whlch  enables  US  tO  reOOgniie 

Edinburgh,  1894) ;  Euckbn,  ChrUtianUy  and  the  New  Idealism  it  when  it  IS  described  as  a  life  directed  to  personal 

Sa«iw«  •        ^*  bibliographies  to  Prie^ood  and  perfection  or  a  life  fleekmg  union  with  God.^ndcr 

Charles  F.  Aiken.  this  twofold  aspect  it  is  met  with  in  aU  ages  and  places: 

every  soul  possesses  an  inclination  to  good,  and  an 
Relifion,  Virtue  op. — Of  the  three  proposed  inclination  towards  God.  There  are  everywhere  souls 
derivations  of  the  word '' religion '\  that  suggested  by  that  willingly  follow  these  inclinations,  and  con- 
Lactantius  and  endorsed  by  St.  Augustine  seems  per-  sequently  religious  souls.  Sometimes  tney  attach 
haps  to  accord  better  with  the  idea  than  the  others,  more  importance  to  the  tendency  to  self-perfection, 
He  sa3r8  it  comes  from  rc/i^are,  to  bind.  Thus  it  would  sometimes  to  the  tendency  towards  God;  in  otho* 
mean  the  bond  uniting  man  to  God.  The  notion  of  it  words,  to  the  ascetic  tendency  or  the  mystical  ten- 
commonly  accepted  among  theologians  is  that  which  dency;  but  since  God  is  the  end  of  man,  the  two  ten- 
is  found  in  St.  Thomases  "Summa  Theologica'^  dencies  are  so  similar  as  to  be  practically  one.  If  the 
II-II,  Q.  Ixxxi.  According  to  him  it  is  a  virtue  whose  Creator  has  put  into  our  souls  tne  principle  of  religious 
purpose  is  to  render  God  the  worship  due  to  Him  as  life,  we  must  expect  not  only  to  find  it,  more  ana  less 
the  source  of  all  being  and  the  principle  of  all  govern-  intense,  in  every  religion,  but  also  to  see  it  reveal 
ment  of  things.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  it  is  a  itself  in  similar  ways.  We  should  not  be  surprised  if 
distinct  virtue,  not  merely  a  phase  of  another.  It  is  outside  the  true  Chinch  there  should  be  posons  de- 
differentiated from  others  by  its  object,  which  is  to  voted  to  contemplation,  solitude,  and  sacrifice;  but 
offer  to  Almighty  God  the  homage  demanded  by  His  we  are  not  obliged  to  conclude  that  our  Christian 
entirely  singular  excellence.  In  a  loose  construction  practices  are  necessarily  derived  from  theirs,  since 
it  may  be  considered  a  general  virtue  in  so  far  as  it  the  instincts  of  human  nature  sufficiently  account  for 
prescribes  the  acts  of  otKer  virtues  or  requires  them  the  resemblance.  Such  an  explanation  would  not 
for  the  performance  of  its  own  functions.  It  is  not  a  explain  the  origin  of  these  practices:  if  we  are  in- 
theological  virtue,  because  its  immediate  object  is  not  deoted  for  the  monasticism  of  Pachomius  to  <he 
God,  but  rather  the  reverence  to  be  paid  to  Him.  Its  worshippers  of  Serapis,  where  did  they  find  their 
practice  is  indeed  often  associated  with  the  virtues  inspiration?  Nor  would  the  explanation  account  for 
of  faith  and  charity.  Still  the  concordant  judgment  the  results:  whence  comes  it  that  monachism  has 
of  theologians  puts  it  among  the  mor^  virtues,  as  a  covered  not  only  the  East,  and  Asia,  but  also  Africa, 
part  of  the  caroinal  virtue  justice,  since  by  it  we  give  Europe,  and  the  whole  of  the  West? 
God  what  is  due  to  Him.  St.  Thomas  teaches  that  it  In  our  days  the  historical  derivation  of  certain 
ranks  first  among  moral  virtues.  A  religious  attitude  usages  is  a  thin^  of  small  importance;  we  may  admit 
towards  God  is  essentially  the  product  of  our  recog-  without  hesitation  any  connexion  which  is  proved, 
nition,  not  only  of  His  sovereign  majesty,  but  also  out  not  one  which  is  merely  assumed.  The  Imelites 
of  our  absolute  dependence  on  Him.  Thus,  as  Father  may  have  borrowed  from  Egypt  the  practice  of  cir- 
Rickaby  says,  He  is  not  merely  "the  Great  Stranger",  cumcision,  which  was  the  sign  of  their  covenant  with 


AEUQIOUS 


749 


RELIGIOUS 


Jehovah:  and  00  certain  ascetic  practices,  even  if 
they  had  a  pagan  origin,  were  nevertheless,  as  cm- 
ployed  by  our  monks  and  religious,  Catholio  and 
Christian  in  meaning  and  inspiration.  Moreover,  not 
every  doctrine  or  practice  of  a  false  religion  is  neces- 
sarily  erroneous  or  reprehensible :  there  may  be  great 
nobiuty  of  character  among  Buddhist  monks  or 
MuaBUunan  dervishes,  as  there  may  be  faults  sullying 
the  monastic  or  religious  habits  worn  in  the  true 
Church. 

We  need  not  here  present  a  comparative  analysis 
of  the  Christian  religious  life  and  the  religious  life 
of  non-Christians,  nor  even  compare  our  religious 
with  the  servants  of  God  in  the  Old  Testament  (see 
ANCHORrrBs;  Asceticism;  Buddhism;  Essenes; 
Monabticism).  But  how  are  we  to  recognize  the  reli- 
poua  life  of  the  true  and  Divine  religion?  Not  by  bod- 
ily mortifications,  which  may  be  surpassed  in  severity 
by  those  of  the  fakirs;  not  by  mystical  ecstasies  and 
raptures,  which  were  experienced  by  those  initiated 
into  the  Greek  and  Oriental  mysteries,  and  are  still 
met  with  among  Buddhist  monks  and  dervishes: 
not  even  by  the  faultless  lines  of  all  the  plans  ot 
Catholic  religious  life,  for  God,  who  desires  progress 
even  in  His  Church,  has  permitted  rough  beginnmes, 
experiments,  and  individual  mistakes;  but  even  the 
persons  making  these  mistakes  possess  in  the  true 
reUgion  the  pnnciples  which  ensure  correction  and 
gradual  improvement.  Besides,  in  its  entirety,  the 
religious  life  of  the  true  religion  must  appear  to  us 
to  be  in  conformity  with  the  moral  and  social  laws 
of  our  present  existence,  as  well  as  with  our  destiny; 
its  intentions  must  appear  sincerely  directed  towards 
personal  sanctification,  towards  God,  and  the  Divine 
order.  The  tree  must  everywhere  be  known  by  its 
fruits.  Now.  Catholic  religious  life  infinitely  sur- 
passes all  other  ascetic  ^stems  by  the  truth  and 
oeauty  of  the  doctrine  laid  down  m  so  many  rules 
and  treatises,  and  by  the  eminent  sanctity  of  its 
followers  such  as  Saints  Anthony,  Pachomius,  Basil. 
Augustine,  Colombanus,  Gregory,  and  others,  ana 
fintuhr,  eepecially  in  the  West,  by  the  marvellous 
fruitnilness  of  its  work  for  the  benefit  of  mankind. 
After  these  preliminary  observations,  we  may  con- 
fidently look  for  the  true  religious  life  in  the  Uospel. 

B.  EvANGEUCAL  Idea. — We  cannot  regard  as 
essential  everything  that  we  find  in  the  full  develop- 
ment of  reli^ous  life,  without  i^oring  historical 
facts  or  refusing  them  the  attention  they  deserve; 
and  we  must  correct  the  definitions  of  Scholastic 
writers,  and  lessen  some  of  their  requirements,  if  we 
wish  to  put  ourselves  in  harmony  with  history,  and 
not  be  compelled  to  assign  to  religious  a  later  origin, 
which  would  separate  them  by  too  long  a  period  from 
the  first  preaching  of  the  Gospel  which  tney  profess 
to  practise  in  the  most  perfect  manner;  The  Scrip- 
tures tell  us  that  perfection  consists  in  the  love  of 
God  and  our  neighbour,  or  to  speak  more  accurately, 
in  a  charity  which  extends  from  God  to  our  neighbour, 
finding  its  motive  in  God,  and  the  opportunity  for 
its  exercise  in  our  neighbour.  We  say  '4t  has  its 
motive  in  God'',  and  for  that  reason  Christ  tells  us 
that  the  second  commandment  is  like  to  the  firat 
(Matt.,  xxii,  39);  '*and  the  opportunity  for  its  ex- 
ercise in  our  neighbour",  as  St.  John  says:  "If  any 
man  say,  I  love  God,  and  hateth  his  brother,  he  is 
a  liar.  For  he  that  loveth  not  his  brother,  whom  he 
seeth,  how  can  he  love  God,  whom  he  seeth  not?'' 
(I  John,  iv,  20).  The  New  Testament  warns  us  of 
the  obstacles  to  this  charity  arising  from  an  attach- 
ment to  and  desire  of  created  things,  and  from  the 
cares  caused  i)y  their  possession,  ana,  therefore,  be- 
sides this  precept  of  charity,  our  observance  of  which 
is  the  measure  of  our  perfection^  the  New  Testament 
gives  us  a  general  counsel  to  be  disengaged  from  every- 
thing contrary  to  charity.  This  counsel  contains 
certain  definite  directions,  among  the  most  important 


of  which  are  the  renunciation  of  riches,  of  carnal 
pleasure,  and  of  all  ambition  and  self-seeking,  in 
order  to  acquire  a  spirit  of  voluntary  submission  and 
generous  devotion  to  the  service  of  God  and  our 
nekhbour. 

All  Christians  are  bound  to  obey  these  precepts, 
and  to  follow  the  spirit  of  these  counsels;  and  a  fer- 
vour like  that  of  the  first  Christians  will  enable  them 
to  free  themselves  from  attachment  to  earthly  things 
in  order  to  set  their  affections  on  God  and  the  things 
of  heaven;  while  the  remembrance  of  the  shortness 
of  this  life  facilitates  the  sacrifice  of  wealth  and  nat- 
ural pleasures.  The  first  converts  of  Jerusalem 
acted  on  this  principle,  and  sold  their  possessions  and 
goods,  laying  the  proceeds  at  the  feet  of  the  apostles. 
But  experience,  by  which  Christ  wished  His  faithful 
to  be  taught,  soon  corrected  their  errors  on  the  sub- 
.  ject  of  the  future  of  the  world,  and  showed  the  prac- 
tical impossibility  of  a  complete  renunciation  by  all 
members  of  the  Church.  Christian  society  can  no 
more  continue  without  resources  and  without  chil- 
dren than  the  soul  can  exist  without  the  body; 
it  has  need  of  men  engaged  in  lucrative  professions, 
as  well  as  of  Christian  marriages  ana  Christian 
families.  In  short,  according  to  the  designs  of  God 
who  bestows  a  diversity  of  guts,  there  must  also  be  a 
diversity  of  operations  (I  Cor.,  xii,  4,  6).  Every  kind 
of  career  should  be  represented  in  the  Church,  and 
one  of  these  should  include  those  who  make  pro- 
fession of  the  practice  of  the  Evangelical  counseb. 
Such  persons  are  not  necessarily  more  perfect  than 
others,  but  they  adopt  the  best  means  of  attaining 
perfection;  their  final  object  and  supreme  destiny 
are  the  same  as  those  of  others,  but  they  are  charged 
with  the  duty  of  reminding  others  of  that  destiny 
and  of  the  means  of  fulfilling  it  j  and  they  pay  for  this 
favoured  position  by  the  sacrifices  which  it  entails, 
and  the  benefit  which  others  derive  from  their  teach- 
ing and  example.  This  life,  which,  in  view  of  the 
great  precept,  follows  the  Evangelical  counsels,  is 
called  the  religious  life;  and  those  who  embrace  it  are 
called  religious. 

At  first  sight,  it  would  seem  that  this  life  ought  to 
unite  in  itself  all  the  counsels  scattered  through  the 
Gospels:  that  would  indeed  be  the  religion  of  counsels: 
and  certainly,  the  more  fully  it  inspires  the  desire  and 
furnishes  the  means  of  following  the  Evangelical  coun- 
sels, the  more  fully  is  it  a  religious  life;  but  a  perfect 
reau2ation  of  those  counsels  is  impossible  to  man; 
the  opportunity  of  practising  them  all  does  not  pre- 
sent itself  in  every  man's  life,  and  one  would  ouickly 
be  worn  out  if  he  attemptea  to  keep  them  ful  con- 
tinually in  view.  We  soon  learn  to  oistinguish  those 
that  are  more  essential  and  characteristic,  and  more 
calculated  to  ensure  that  freedom  from  whatever 
hinders  the  love  of  God  and  of  our  neighbour,  which 
should  be  the  distinguishing  mark  of  the  perfect  life. 
From  this  point  of  view,  two  counsels  are  put  prom- 
inently forward  in  the  New  Testament  as  necessary 
for  perfection,  namely  the  counsel  of  poverty:  ''if 
thou  wilt  be  perfect,  go  sell  what  thou  hast,  and  give 
to  the  poor'  (Matt.^  xix,  21),  and  the  counsel  of 
perfect  chastity  practised  for  the  sake  of  the  kingdom 
of  heaven  (cf .  Matt.,  xix,  12,  and  I  Cor.,  vii,  37-40, 
and  the  commentaiV  of  Comely  on  the  latter). 

These  two  counsels  teach  us  what  we  have  to  avoid; 
but  it  remains  for  a  man  to  fill  his  life  with  acts  of  per- 
fection, to  follow  Christ  in  His  life  of  charity  towards 
God  and  men,  or,  since  this  would  be  perfection  itself, 
to  devote  his  life  to  an  occupation  which  will  make  it 
tend  towards  union  with  God  or  the  service  of  his 
neighbour.  Religious  life  then  is  made  perfect  by  a 
defmite  profession  either  of  retirement  and  contem- 
plation or  of  pious  activity.  The  profession,  negative 
as  well  as  positive,  is  placed  unaer  the  control  and 
direction  of  ecclesiastical  authority,  which  is  entrusted 
with  the  duty  of  leading  men  in  the  ways  of  salvation 


RELiaiOUS  750  RBUGIOUS 

and  holiness.    Submission  to  this  authority,  which  special  mention  is  due  to  the  great  lawgiver  of  the 

may  interfere  more  or  less  as  times  and  circumstances  Greek  monks,  St.  Basil.    Comparing  the  solitaiy  and 

require,  is  therefore  a  necessary  part  of  religious  life,  the  cenobitic  life,  he  points  out  one  great  advantage 

In  this  is  manifested  obedience  as  a  counsel  which  in  the  latter,  namely  the  opportunitv  which  it  offers 

governs  and  even  supplements  the  two  others,  or  for  practising  charity  to  one's  neighbour;  and  while 

rather  as  a  conditional  precept,  to  be  observed  b}^  all  deprecating  excessive  mortifications,  into  which  van- 

who  desire  to  profess  the  perfect  life.    The  religious  ity  and  even  pride  may  enter,  he  exnorts  the  superior 

life  which  is  pointed  out  to  us  by  the  Evangelical  to  moderate  the  exterior  life  reasonably.    St.  Basil 

counsels  is  a  life  of  charity  and  of  union  with  God,  and  also  permitted  his  monks  to  undertake  the  education 

the  great  means  it  employs  to  this  end  is  freedom  and  of  children;  although  he  was  glad  to  find  some  of  these 

detachment  from  everything  that  could  in  any  man-  children  embracing  the  monastic  life,  he  wished  them 

ner  prevent  or  impair  that  union.     From  another  to  do  so  of  their  own  accord,  and  witn  full  knowledge, 

point  of  view  it  is  a  devotion,  a  special  consecration  and  he  did  not  permit  the  lioerty  of  a  son  or  daughter 

to  Christ  and  God,  to  whom  every  Christian  acknowl-  to  be  restrained  by  an  offering  made  by  the  parents, 

edges  that  he  belongs.    St.  Paul  tells  us:  ''You  are  St.  Augustine  in  the  common  life  which  he  led  with 

not  your  own"  (ICor.,  vi.  19):  and  again  "All  [things)  the  clergy  of  Hippo,  gives  us,  like  St.  Eusebius  at 

are  yours,  and  you  are  Cnrist  s,  and  Christ  is  God's''  Vercelli,  a  first  outhne.  of  canonical  life.     He  insti- 

(I  C5or^  iii,  22,  23).  tuted  monasteries  of  nuns,  and  wrote  for  them  in  427 

II.  Historical  Survey. — (I)  Earliest  Examples  of  a  letter  which,  enriched  with  extracts  from  the  writ- 

Rdigious  Life. — (a)  Persons. — ^The  Christian  virgins  ings  of  St.  Fulgentius,  became  the  rule  known  by  the 

were  the  first  to  profess  a  life  distinguished  from  the  name  of  St.  Augustine.    St.  Columbanus,  an  Ir^ 

ordinary  life  by  its  tendency]  to  perfection;  continence,  monk  (d.  615),  under  whose  name  a  very  rigid  rule 

and  sometimes  the  renunciation  of  riches,  attached  was  propagated  in  Ireland,  was  the  apostle  and  civ- 

them  specially  to  Christ.     (See  Nuns.)     Tne  Fathers  ilizer  of  severa}  countries  ol  Europe,  notably  of  Ger- 

of  the  first  century  mention  them,  and  those  of  the  many. 

second  century  praise  their  mode  of  living.    Shortly        (b)  Characteristics. — After  this  rapid  glance  at  the 

after  the  virgms.  appeared  those  whom  Clement  of  origin  of  the  reUgious  life  we  may  now  consider  its 

Alexandria  (Paeaagog.,  I,  7,  in  P.  G.,  VIII,  320)  principal  characteristics,     (i)  End. — The  life  of  the 

called  dcrKtrral  and  whom  the  Latin  •  Church  called  monks,  more  systematized  than  that  of  the  virgins 

"confessores".    They     also     made     profession     of  and  ascetics,  was,  as  such,  entirely  directed  to  their 

chastity,  and  sometimes  of  poverty,  oa  in  the  case  of  personal  sanctification :    contemplation  and  victory 

Origen  and  St.  Cyprian.     In  the  Liturgy,  they  took  over  the  flesh  were  bound  above  all  to  lead  to  this 

rank  before  the  vu^ins,  and  after  the  ostiarii  or  door-  result.    The  monks  did  not  aspire  to  Holy  orders,  or 

keepers.    Eusebius  (Hist,  eccl..  Ill,  xxxvii,  in  P.  G.,  rather  they  desired  not  to  receive  them.    St.  John 

XX,  291-4)  mentions  among  the  "ascetics"  the  great-  Chrysostom  exhorted  them  to  be  animated  by  Chris- 

est  pontiffs  of  the  first  ages,  St.  Clement  of  Rome,  St.  tian  charity  which  willingly  consents  to  bear  heavy 

Ignatius  of  Antioch,  St.  Polycarp,  and  others.  burdens,  and  without  which  fastins  and  mortifica- 

We  find  in  the  third  century  the  first  distinct  traces  tion  are  of  no  profit  at  all.  (ii)  Obedience. — ^As  good 
of  the  kind  of  life  in  which  the  religious  profession  be-  Christians,  they  owed  obedience  to  their  bishop  in 
comes  by  degrees  perfected  and  brought  under  rule,  religious  matters,  and  their  profession,  if  they  ri|^tly 
that  of  the  monks.  The  note  which  characterizes  understood  its  spirit,  made  prompt  and  complete  sub- 
them  at  first  is  their  seclusion  from  the  world,  and  mission  easy.  But  religious  obedience,  as  we  under- 
their  love  of  retirement.  Till  then  virgins  and  ascetics  stand  it  now,  began  only  with  the  cenobitical  life,  and 
had  edified  the  world  by  keeping  themselves  pure  in  at  the  time  of  which  we  speak  there  was  nothing  to 
the  midst  of  corruption,  and  recollected  in  the  midst  oblige  the  cenobite  to  remain  in  the  monastery.  The 
of  dissipation;  the  monks  endeavoured  to  edify  it  by  cenobitic  life  was  also  combined  with  the  solitary  hfe 
avoiding  and  contemning  all  that  the  world  esteems  in  such  a  way  that,  after  a  sufficient  formation  by  the 
most  highly  and  declares  indispensable.  Thus  the  common  discipline,  the  monk  gave  proof  of  his  fer- 
life  of  the  solitary  and  the  monk  is  a  life  of  austerity  vour  by  retiring  into  solitude  in  order  to  fight  hand- 
as  well  of  retirement.  The  world  which  sent  travel-  to-hand  against  the  enemy  of  his  salvation,  and  to 
lers  (cf.  the  "Lausiac  History"  of  Palladius)  to  con-  find  in  independence  a  compensation  for  the  greater 
template  them  was  astonished  at  the  heroism  of  thyeir  severity  of  his  life,  (iii)  Poverty.— Poverty  then 
penance.  The  religious  life  took  the  form  of  a  war  consisted  for  the  hermits  in  the  renunciation  of  worldly 
against  nature.  The  persecution  of  Decius  (about  goods,  and  in  the  most  sparins  use  of  food,  clothing, 
250)  gave  the  desert  its  first  great  hermit,  Paul  of  and  all  necessaries.  The  cenobites  were  forbidden  to 
Theb^;  other  Christians  too  sought  refuge  there  en  joy  any  separate  property,  and  had  to  receive  from 
from  their  tormentors.  Anthony,  on  the  contrary,  their  superior  or  the  procurator  -eveiything  they 
at  the  age  of  20  years,  was  won  by  that  appeal  which  needed  for  their  use;  they  were  not,  however,  in- 
saddened  and  discouraged  the  rich  young  man  of  the  capable  of  possessing  property. 
Gospel,  "If  thou  wilt  DC  perfect,  go  sell  what  thou  (iv)  Chastity;  Vows. — Having  once  entered  the 
hast,  and  give  to  the  poor"  (Matt.,  xix,  21).  He  had  religious  life,  uie  vir^,  the  ascetic,  and  the  monk 
disciples,  and  instituted  the  monastic  villages,  in  felt  a  certain  obligation  to  persevere.  Marriage  or 
which  seekers  after  perfection,  living  retired  from  the  return  to  the  worla  woidd  be  such  inconstancy  as  to 
world,  found  comfort  and  encouragement  in  the  exam-  merit  the  reproach  of  Christ,  "No  man  putting  his 

?le  of  brethren  following  the  same  profession.    St.  hand  to  the  plough,  and  looking  back,  is  fit  for  the 

'achomius,  a  contemporary  of  St.  Anthony,  brought  kingdom  of  God'    (Luke,  ix,  62).    Still  we  have  no 

all  his  monks  together  under  one  roof,  thus  foundmg  evidence  to  prove  that  there  was  a  strict  obligation, 

the  cenobitic  life.  and  there  were  no  vows  properly  so  called:  even  for 

Paul,  Anthony,  and  Pachomius  gave  lustre  to  the  virgins,  the  passages  from  Tertullian  and  St.  Cyprian, 

deserts  of  Egypt.    We  need  not  dwell  here  upon  the  on  which  some  persons  rely,  are  capable  of  another 

parallel  development  of  Syrian  monasticism,  in  which  interpretation.    Certainly  a  woman  who  was  bound 

the  names  of  Hilarion,  Simeon  Stylites,  and  Alexander  to  Jesus  Christ  by  a  profession  of  virginitv,  and  fell 

the  founder  of  the  accemeti,  were  famous,  or  on  that  of  into  sin,  was  liable  to  very  severe  canonical  penalties; 

Asia  Minor,  or  give  an  account  of  the  dawn  of  mo-  but  St.  Cyprian  who  regarded  such  a  person  as  an 

nastic  life  in  Europe  and  Africa.    Our  task  is  only  adulterous  bride  of  Christ,  permitted  the  marriage  of 

to  depict  the  main  features  of  religious  life  and  its  such  as  were  not  able  to  observe  oontinency  (see 

successive  transformations.    From  this  point  of  view,  Koch,   "Virginee  Christi"  in   "Texte  und   Unter- 


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sQchungen'^  1907).  The  oldest  decretal  we  possess, 
that  of  St.  Siricius  to  the  Bishop  Himerius  (385), 
brands  with  infamy  the  carnal  intercourse  of  monks 
and  virgins^  but  tne  question  of  a  regular  marriage 
is  not  considered  (C.  aXVII,  q.  1,  c.  11,  or  P.  L., 
XIII,  137).  Schenute,  it  is  true,  introduced  a  form 
of  vow,  or  rather  of  oath,  of  which  the  Coptic  text 
has  been  discovered;  but  the  very  reflections  which  he 
made  before  introducing  it  appear  to  show  that  it  had 
no  other  effect  than  to  secure  the  execution  even  in 
secret  of  the  obligations  already  contracted  by  en- 
trance into  the  monastery:  these  vows  therefore  may 
be  compared  to  the  vows  made  at  baptism.  No  term 
is  specified  for  their  duration,  but  Leclercq  (in  Cabrol, 
"Diet,  d'arch.  chr^t.",  s.  v.  C^nobitisme)  presumes 
that  the  obligation  continued  during  the  term  of 
residence  in  the  monastery.  The  text  is  as  follows, 
taken  from  the  German  translation  of  Leipolt: — 
"Covenant.  I  promise  (or  I  swear)  before  God  in 
His  holy  temple,  in  which  the  word  that  I  have  spoken 
is  my  witness,  that  I  will  not  defile  my  bodjr  in  any 
way,  I  will  not  steal,  I  will  not  bear  false  witness,  I 
will  not  He,  I  will  not  do  wrong  in  secret.  If  I  break 
my  oath,  I  am  willing  not  to  enter  into  the  kingdom 
of  heaven,  although  I  were  in  sight  of  it.  [On  this 
passage,  cfr.  Peeters,  in  "Analecta  BoUandiana", 
1905,  146.]  God,  before  whom  I  have  made  this 
covenant,  will  then  destroy  my  body  and  soul  in  hell, 
for  1  should  have  broken  the  oath  of  allegiance  that  I 
have  taken."  And  later  on  occurs  this  passage:  "As 
for  contradiction,  disobedience,  murmuring,  conten- 
tion, obstinacy,  or  any  such  things,  these  faults  are 
quite  manifest  to  the  whole  community"  (Leipolt, 
"Schenuti  von  Atripe"  in  "Texte  una  Untersuch- 
ungen",  1903,  p.  109). 

(v)  Canon  Law. — The  canons  of  the  Council  of 
Gangra  (330)  first  introduced  the  law  relating  to 
regulars  by  the  recommendations  which  they  adoress 
to  virgins,  continent  persons,  and  those  who  retire 
from  worldly  affairs,  to  practise  more  faithfully  the 

general  duties  of  piety  towards  parents,  children, 
usband  or  wife,  and  to  avoid  vanity  or  pride.  Other 
particular  councils,  that  of  Alexandria  (362),  of  Sara- 
gossa  (380).  the  Fifth  Synod  of  Africa  (401),  and  a 
council  hela  under  St.  Patrick  in  Ireland  (about  480), 
decided  other  matters  connected  with  the  religious 
life.  The  General  Council  of  Chalcedon  (451)  makes 
the  erection  of  monasteries  dependent  on  the  consent 
of  the  bishop.  The  Councils  of  Aries  (about  452) 
and  Angers  (455)  sanction  the  obligation  of  persever- 
ance. The  same  Council  of  Aries  and  the  Synods 
of  Carthage  held  in  525  and  534  forbade  any  inter- 
ference with  the  abbot  in  the  exercise  of  his  authority 
over  his  monks,  reserving  to  bishops  the  ordination 
of  clerics  in  the  monastery,  and  the  consecration  of 
the  oratory. 

(2)  Regular  Organization  of  Religious  Life. — (a) 
Monks  and  Monasteries. — We  have  now  arrived  at  the 
sixth  century.  It  will  be  necessary  to  go  back  a  little 
in  order  to  notice  the  immense  influence  of  St.  Basil 
(331-79)  over  the  religious  life  of  the  East  and  the 
West.  The  principles  which  he  lays  down  and  justi- 
fies in  his  answers  to  the  doubts  of  the  religious  of 
Asia  Minor,  that  is  in  what  are  called  the  shorter  and 
longer  rules,  inform  and  guide  the  religious  of  the 
present  day.  St.  Benedict  was  inspired  by  these  as 
well  as  by  the  writings  of  St.  Augustine  and  Cassian 
in  writing  his  rule,  which  from  the  eighth  to  the 
twelfth  centuiy  regulated,  it  may  be  said,  the  whole 
religious  life  of  the  West.  In  order  to  put  an  eind  to 
the  capricious  changes  from  one  house  to  another,  the 
patriarch  of  Western  monks  introduced  the  vow  of 
stability,  which  bound  the  monk  to  remain  in  the 
house  in  which  he  made  his  profession.  The  reforms 
of  the  monasteries  in  the  tenth  and  eleventh  centuries 
gave  rise  to  aggregations  of  monasteries,  which  pre- 
pared the  way  for  the  religious  orders  of  the  thirteenth 


century.  We  may  mentioh  the  Congregation  of  Cluny 
founded  by  St.  Odo  (abbot  from  927  to  942)  which,  in 
the  twelfth  century  grouped  more  than  200  monas- 
teries under  the  authority  of  the  abbot  of  the  principal 
monastery,  and  of  the  Congregation  of  Ctteaux,  of  the 
eleventh  century,  to  which  the  Trappists  belong,  and 
of  which  St.  Bernard  was  the  principal  light.  Less  for 
the  sake  of  reform  than  of  perfection,  and  of  adapting 
to  a  special  end  the  combination  of  the  cenobitic  and 
eremitic  life.  St.  Romuald  (d.  1027)  founded  the  Cam- 
aldolese  Order,  and  St.  John  Gualbert  (d.  1073)  the 
Congregation  of  Vallombrosa.  From  the  eleventh 
century  also  (1084)  date  the  Carthusians,  who  have 
needed  no  reform  to  maintain  them  in  their  pristine 
fervour.  St.  Basil  and  St.  Benedict  were  expressly 
concerned  only  with  personal  perfection,  to  which 
their  disciple  were  to  be  led  by  leaving  the  world  and 
renouncing  all  earthly  wealth  and  natural  affections. 
Their  life  was  a  life  of  obedience  and  prayer,  inter- 
rupted only  by  work.  Their  ^ayer  prmcipaliy  con- 
sisted in  singing  the  Divine  Office.  But  when  it  was 
necessary,  the  monks  did  not  refuse  to  undertake  the 
cure  of  souls;  and  their  monasteries  have  g^ven  to  the 
Church  popes,  bishops,  and  missionary  priests.  We 
need  only  recall  the  expedition  organized  by  St.  Gr^- 
ory  the  Ureat  for  the  conversion  of  England.  Study 
was  neither  ordered  not  forbidden:  St.  Benedict,  when 
he  accepted  in  his  monasteries  children  offered  by 
their  parents,  undertook  the  task  of  education,  which 
naturally  led  to  the  foundation  of  schools  and  studies. 
Cassiodorus  (477-570)  employed  his  monks  in  the 
arts  and  sciences  and  in  the  transcription  of  manu- 
scripts. 

(b)  The  Canons  Regular. — Many  bishops  endeav- 
oured to  imitate  St.  Aupistine  and  St.  Eusebius,  and 
to  live  a  common  life  with  the  clergy  of  their  Church. 
Rules  taken  from  the  sacred  canons  were  even  drawn 
up  for  their  use,  of  which  the  most  celebrated  is  that 
of  St.  Chrode^an^,  Bishop  of  Metz  (766).  In  the  tenth 
century,  this  mstitution  declined:  the  canons,  as  the 
clergy  attached  to  a  church  and  living  a  common  life 
were  called,  began  to  live  separately;  some  of  them, 
however,  resisted  this  relaxation  of  discipline,  ana 
even  added  poverty  to  their  common  life.  This  is  the 
origin  of  the  canons  regular.  Benedict  XII  by  hb 
Constitution  "Ad  decorem"  (15  May,  1339)  pre- 
scribed a  general  reform  of  the  canons  regular.  Aniong 
the  canons  regular  of  the  present  day,  we  may  men- 
tion the  Canons  Regular  of  the  Lateran  or  St.  Saviour, 
who  seem  to  date  back  to  Alexander  II  (1063),  the 
Premonstratensian  Canons  founded  by  St.  Norbert 
(1120),  and  the  Canons  R^;ular  of  the  Holy  Cross 
founded  at  Clair-lieu,  near  Huy,  in  Belgium,  m  1211. 
The  canons  re^lar  ex  profesao  united  Holy  orders 
with  religious  hfe,  and  oeing  attached  to  a  church, 
devoted  themselves  to  promoting  the  dignity  of 
Divine  worship.  With  monks.  Holy  orders  are  acci- 
dental and  secondary,  and  are  superadded  to  the  reli- 
gious life;  with  canons  as  with  the  clerks  regular.  Holy 
orders  are  the  principal  thing,  and  the  religious  life  la 
superadded  to  the  Holy  orders. 

(c)  The  Mendicant  Orders. — The  heretics  of  the 
end  of  the  twelfth  and  begiiming  of  the  thirteenth 
century  reproached  churchmen  with  their  love  of 
riches,  and  the  laxity  of  their  lives;  St.  Dominic  and 
St.  Francis  offered  oh  the  contrary  the  edifying  spec- 
tacle of  fervent  religious,  who  forbade  their  foUowers 
the  possession  of  wealth  or  revenues,  even  in  common. 
The  mendicant  orders  are  marked  by  two  character- 
istics: poverty,  practised  in  common;  and  the  mixed 
life,  that  is  the  union  of  contemplation  with  the  work 
of  the  sacred  ministry.  Moreover,  the  mendicant 
orders  present  the  appearance  of  a  religious  army,  the 
soldiers  of  which  are  moved  about  by  their  superiors, 
without  being  attached  to  any  particular  convent,  and 
recognize  a  hierarchy  of  local,  provincial,  and  general 
superiors.    The  order,  or  at  least  the  province,  takes 


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752 


REUGIOUS 


the  place  of  the  monastery.  Other  important  points 
may  be  noticed:  the  mendicant  orders  are  founded 
only  by  favour  of  an  express  approbation  of  the  sover- 
eign pontiff,  who  approves  their  rules  or  constitutions. 
They  adopt  the  form  of  vows  which  relates  explicitly 
to  poverty,  chastity,  and  obedience,  which  was  oc- 
casioned by  the  famous  dispute  in  the  Franciscan. 
Order.  The  Franciscans  were  founded  by  St. 
Francis  in  1209;  they  are  now  divided  into  three 
orders  recognized  as  really  belonging  to  the  common 
stock:  (1)  the  Friars  Minor,  formerly  called  Ob- 
servantines,  and  more  recently  Franciscans  of  the 
Leonine  Union,  who  may  (when  there  is  no  possibility 
of  mistake)  be  called  simply  Friars  Minor;  (2)  the 
Friars  Minor  Conventuals;  and  (3)  the  Friars  Minor 
Capuchins.  The  Dominicans,  or  Friars  Preachers,  go 
back  to  1215.  Since  1245,  the  Carmelites,  trans- 
planted from  Asia  into  Europe,  have  formed  a  third 
mendicant  order.  Alexander  IV  added  a  fourth  by 
his  Constitution  "Licet"  (2  May,  1256)  which  united 
under  the  name  of  St.  Augustine  several  congregations 
of  hermits:  these  are  the  Hermits  of  St.  Augustine. 
The  Servites  were  added  in  1256  as  a  fifth  mendicant 
order;  and  there  are  others.     (See  Friar.) 

(d)  Before  we  pass  to  a  later  period,  it  is  necessary 
to  mention  certain  institutes  of  a  quite  special  char- 
acter. The  military  orders  date  from  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury, and  while  observing  all  the  essential  obligations 
of  religious  life,  they  had  for  their  object  the  defence 
of  the  cause  of  Christ  by  force  of  arms;  among  these 
were  the  Knighte  of  Malta,  formerly  called  the  Eques- 
trian Order  o?  St.  John  of  Jerusalem  (1118),  the  Order 
of  Teutonic  Knights  (1190).  the  Order  of  Knights 
Templars  (1118),  suppressed  by  Clement  V  at  the 
Council  of  Vienne  (1312),  at  the  urgent  request  of  the 
King  of  France.  Philippe-le-Bel. 

(e)  The  misfortunes  of  Christendom  were  the 
cause  of  the  foundation  of  orders  vowed  to  the  most 
excellent  works  of  mercy,  namely,  the  Redemption  of 
Captives;  the  Trinitarians  (Order  of  the  Most  Holy 
Tnnity),  and  Mercedarians  (Order  of  Our  Lady  of  the 
R^iemption  of  Captives).  Both  these  date  from  the 
thirteenth  century,  the  first  being  founded  by  St. 
John  of  Malta  and  St.  Felix  of  Valois.  the  second  by 
St.  Peter  Nolasco  and  St.  Raymond  of  Pennafort. 
They  follow  the  Rule  of  St.  Augustine  and  are  mendi- 
cant orders. 

(f)  The  hospitaller  orders  are  specially  devoted  to 
the  relief  of  bodily  infirmities;  most  of  them  are  of 
comparatively  recent  origin.  The  most  celebrated  of 
all,  the  Order  of  Brothers  of  St.  John  of  God,  dates 
from  1572;  the  Cellite  Brothers  were  approved  by 
Pius  II  in  1459;  the  Brothers  Hospitallers  of  St. 
Anthony  were  approved  by  Honorius  III  in  1218. 

(g)  The  Clerks  Regular. — The  mendicant  orders 
were  one  of  the  glones  of  the  later  Middle  Ages. 
Fresh  needs  led  in  the  sixteenth  century  to  a  new  form 
of  religious  life,  that  of  the  clerks  regular.  These  are 
priests  first  of  all,  even  in  respect  of  their  mode  of  life, 
and  their  dress:  they  have  no  peculiarity  of  costume; 
they  undertake  all  duties  suitable  to  priests,  and  at- 
tend to  all  the  spiritual  necessities  of  their  neighbour, 
especially  the  education  of  the  young,  which  the  men- 
dicant orders  had  never  attemptei.  Being  clerks 
and  not  canons,  they  escaped  at  the  same  time  the 
inconvenience  of  having  a  title  of  honour  and  of  being 
bound  to  any  particular  church;  many  of  them  take 
a  vow  not  only  not  to  seek  for  ecclesiastical  dignities, 
but  even  not  to  accept  them.  The  first  were  the 
Theatines,  founded  in  1524  by  St.  Cajetan  and  Car- 
dinal Peter  Caraffa,  later  Paul  IV;  then  came  the 
Barnabites,  or  Regular  Clerics  of  St.  Paul,  founded  in 
1533  by  St.  Anton  Maria  Zaccaria;  the  Clerks  Reg- 
ular of  Somascha,  founded  by  St.  Jeroine  Emlliani, 
and  approved  in  1540,  the  same  year  which  saw  the 
beginning  of  the  Society  of  Jesus.  We  may  mention 
also  the   Clerks  Regular   Ministering   to   the  Sick, 


called  Camilians  after  their  founder,  St.  Camillus  de 
Lellis  (1591).  Several  institutions  of  clerks  regular, 
notably  the  Society  of  Jesus,  make  profession  also 
of  poverty  in  common  and  are  thus  at  the  same  time 
clerks  regular  and  mendicant  orders. 

(h)  The  Institutes  with  Simple  Vows.— Till  the 
sixteenth  century,  the  orders  of^  the  West  were  dis- 
tinguished by  their  object,  their  hierarchical  organiza- 
tion, their  patrimonial  system,  and  the  number  of 
their  vows;  but  the  nature  of  tne  vows  remained  the 
same.    The  vows,  at  least  the  essential  vows  of  reli- 

f'on,  were  perpetual,  and  made  solenm  by  profession, 
ven  when  the  tertiaries  of  St.  Dominic  and  of  St. 
Francis  began  to  form  communities,  they  distin- 
guished themselves  from  the  first  and  second  orders  by 
the  rule  they  adopted  but  not  by  the  nature  of  th^r 
vows,  which  remained  solenm.  The  tertiary  nun 
communities  of  St.  Dominic  received  (1281-91)  a  nik 
from  the  Dominican  general,  Munio  of  Zamora;  and 
communities,  both  of  men  and  of  women,  were 
founded  in  the  thirteenth  century  with  the  tertiary 
Rule  of  St.  Francb.  In  this  way,  many  works  (m 
chari^  were  prevented.  But  in  the  sixteenth  century 
Leo  A  by  his  Constitution  "Inter  cetera",  20  Jan., 
1521,  appointed  a  rule  for  communities  of  tertiaries 
with  simple  vows,  according  to  which  those  only  who 
promised  clauaura  were  obliged  to  observe  it.  St. 
Pius  V  rejected  this  class  of  congregation  by  his  two 
Constitutions,  "Circa  pastoralis"  (29  May,  1566), 
and  "Lubricum  vitae  genus"  (17  November,  1568). 
They  continued,  however,  to  exist,  and  even  increased 
in  number,  first  tolerated,  and  afterwards  approved 
by  the  bishops:  and  subsequently  reco^nisea  Dy  the 
Holy  See,  whicn,  in  view  of  the  (ufficulties  of  the  dr- 
cumstances,  has  for  more  than  a  hundred  years  ceaaed 
to  permit  solemn  vows  in  new  congregations.  These 
are  the  religious  congregations  of  men  and  women  to 
whom  Leo  XIII  gave  their  canonical  charter  by  his 
Constitution  "Conditae  a  Christo"  (8  December, 
1900).  We  may  mention  here  an  innovation  intro- 
duced by  St.  Ignatius,  who  in  the  Society  of  Jesus 
imposed  simple  vows  for  a  period  preceding  the  solemn 
vows,  and  associated  with  the  fathers  professed  by 
solenm  vows,  priests  and  lay  brothers  bound  by  simple 
vows  only. 

(i)  The  Eastern  Orders. — The  Eastern  Church, 
even  that  part  of  it  which  has  remained  in  communion 
with  Rome,  has  never  known  the  life  and  many-eided 
vitality  of  the  orders  of  the  West:  we  find  in  it  Monks 
of  St.  Anthony,  and  others  of  St.  Pachomius;  almost 
all  the  monasteries  are  Basilian.  As  the  priests  of  the 
Greek  Rite  are  not  compelled  to  leave  the  wives  whom 
they  have  legally  married,  and  as  celibacy  is  never- 
theless obligatory  for  the  bishops,  the  latter  are 
regularly  chosen  from  among  the  monks.  From  an- 
other point  of  view,  the  unchanging  East  shows  us  in 
the  monks  of  the  present  day,  tne  institutions  of  the 
first  ages  of  cenobitic  Ufe. 

III.  Exposition  of  the  Reliqious  Lite.  (1) 
Classical  Description  of  Religious  Life;  Essential 
and  Non-essential  Points. — In  our  rapid  survey  of 
the  different  relimous  orders,  we  have  seen  some- 
thing of  the  evolution  of  tne  religious  life.  The 
Gospel  clearly  shows  us  virginity  and  continence  as 
means,  and  charity  as  the  end;  persecutions  necessi- 
tated retirement  and  a  first  form  of  life  entirely 
directed  towards  personal  sanctificationj  community 
life  produced  obcKiience;  the  inconvemences  caused 
by  frequent  change  of  residence  suggested  the  vow  of 
stability;  the  excessive  multiplication  and  diversity 
of  reli^ous  institutes  called  for  the  intervention  of  the 
sovereign  pontiff  and  his  express  approbation  of 
rules;  the  needs  of  soul  and  body  graftea  the  practice 
of  corporal  and  spiritual  works  of  mercy  upon  per- 
sonal sanctification,  and  joined  the  reception  of  Holy 
orders  to  reUgious  profession;  while  the  exigencies 
and  difficulties  of  modem  times  caused  the  maJang  of 


REUGIOUS  7$3  BEUGIOUS 

s 

simple  vows  antecedent  to,  or  in  substitution  for,  marriage,  or  for  the  possession  of  property,  any  con 

solemn  vows.  trary  acts,  would  be  null  and  void  from  the  beginning; 

In  all  these  stages,  the  profession  of  the  Evangelical  now  this  nullity  has  not  always  existed,  and  does  not 

counsels  has  been  most  carefully  regulated  by  the  exist  for  all  religious  at  the  present  day.    In  reality 

Church.    In  the  existing  structure,  some  parts  are  then  the  religious  state  consists  strictlv  in  the  per- 

fixed  and  regyded  as  essential,  others  are  accidental  petual  exigagement,  the  source  of  which  is  found  at 

and  subject  to  change:    we  may  then  ask  what  is  present  in  the  three  vows. 

essential  to  fully  developed  religious  life.  The  re-  The  formal  intervention  of  the  Church  has  the 
ligious  state,  to  be  perfect,  requires  (1)  the  three  effect  of  introducing  the  religious  life  into  the  public 
evangelical  counsels:  voluntary  poverty,  perfect  worship  of  Catholicism.  As  long  as  the  promise  or 
chastity  regarded  as  means  to  peitection;  and  in  the  vow  remains  a  purely  personal  matter,  the  re- 
purauit  of  that  perfection,  obedience  to  lawful  au-  ligious  can  offer  himself  to  God  only  in  his  own 
thority;  (2)  the  external  profession  of  these  counsels,  name:  his  homage  and  his  holocaust  are  private, 
for  the  religious  state  means  a  condition  or  career  The  Church,  in  ratifying  and  sanctioning  his  engage- 
publicly  embraced;  (3)  the  perpetual  profession  of  ment,  deputes  the  religious  to  profess  in  the  name  of 
these  counsels,  for  the  religious  state  means  somethinjg  the  Christian  communitv  his  complete  devotion  to 
fixed  and  permanent,  and  in  order  to  .ensure  this  God.  He  is  consecrated  especially  by  solemn  pro- 
stability  in  practices  which  are  not  made  obligatory  fession,  like  a  temple  or  a  hturgical  prayer,  to 'give 
by  any  law,  the  religious  promises  himself  to  God  by  a  honour  to  God. 

perpetual  vow.    The  rehgious  state  then  is  defined,        In  practice,  when  offering  himself  to  God,  the  reli- 

as  the  mode  of  life,  irrevocable  in  its  nature,  of  men  gious  also  contracts  obligations  to  the  order  whose 

who  profess  to  aim  at  the  perfection  of  Christian  child  he  becomes.    Does  the  religious  state  in  itself 

charitv  in  the  bosom  of  the  Cnurch  by  the  three  per-  contemplate  any  such  obligation  of  submission  to  an 

petual  vows  of  poverty,  chastity,  and  obedience.  organized  society,  or  to   a  director  or  confessor? 

The  religious  state  may  exist  in  the  proper  sense  There  is  nothing  more  natural,  it  is  true,  than  that 

without  sokmn  vows,  as  Gregor3r  XIII  snowed  in  his  a  person,  who  does  not  profess  himself  perfect  but  a 

Constitutions  ''Quanto  fructuosius''  (2  July,  1583)  simple  aspirant  after  perfection,  should  choose  for 

and  ^'AscendenteDomino''  (25  May,  1584),  declaring  himself  a  master  and  snudde;  but  even  this  does  not 

that  the  scholastics  of  the  ScKnety  of  Jesus  were  really  seem  to  be  essential.    The  ancient  hermits  were  free 

rehgious;    without  community  life,  for. the  hermits  from  all  such  subordination;  even  the  pope  maybe 

were  religious  in  the  strictest  sense  of  the  word;  a  member  of  a  religious  order:    the  only  essential 

without  oral  or  written  profession,  since  until  the  obedience  seems  to  be  that  which  every  man  owes  to 

time  of  Pius  IX,  even  tacit  or  implied  profession  was  the  hiersut^hical  Church,  and  to  those  whom  she 

considered  sufficient;    without  express  and  formal  clothes  with  her  authority. 

approbation  by  ecclesiastical  authority,  as  this  has        (2)  Variotis  Forma  of  Religwus  Life, — ^The  essential 

only  been  insisted  upon  since  the  Fourth  Lateran  unity  of  the  rehgious  life  is  consistent  with  a  great 

Council  (1215),  confinned  by  the  Second  Council  of  variety  which  is  one  of  the  glories  of  the  Church,  and 

Lyons  (1274).    Before  this  time,  it  was  enough  not  permits  a  larger  number  of  men  to  find  a  reli^ous 

to  have  been  repudiated  by  ecclesiastical  authority,  profession  adapted  to  their  needs  and  dispositions. 

However,  in  actual  practice,  the  express  interven-  and  multipUes  the  services  which  religious  render 

tion'of  ecclesiastical  authority  is  required;  this  au^  to  Christian  society  and  mankind  in  general.    Be- 

thority  may  be  that  of  the  Apostolic  See  or  of  the  sides  the  common  end  of  rel^ous  life,  wnich  makes  it 

bishop.     Many  institutes  exist  and  flourish  with  the  a  school  of  perfection,  the  different  orders  have  special 

approbation  of  the  bishop  alone;  but,  since  the  Motu  objects  of  tneir  own,  which  divide  them  into  contem- 

Proprio  ''Dei  providentis''  (16  July,  IQOG)^  the  bishop  plative,  active,  and  mixed  orders.   The  contemplative 

before  establisning  an  institute  must  obtam  the  writ-  orders  devote  themselves  to  union  with  God  in  a  life 
ten  approbation  of  the  Holy  See. 


Again,   the  Church,   while  not  condemning  the 


of  soUtude  and  retirement:  the  active  orders  expend 
their  energy  in  doinf;  gooa  to  men.    If  their  activity 


solitary  life,  no  longer  accepts  it  as  religious.  For-  is  spiritusu  in  its  objects  and  recjuires  contemplation 
merly,  a  rehgious  did  not  necessarily  form  a  part  of  an  for  its  attainment,  they  are  mixed  orders;  such  as 
approved  institute;  there  were  persons  simply  called  those  which  are  devoted  to  preaching  and  higher 
professed,  as  well  as  professed  in  such  an  institute  education.  The  orders  keep  the  name  of  active 
or  such  a  monastery.  At  the  present  day,  a  religious  order  if  they  devote  themselves  to  corporal  works  of 
always  begins  by  entering  some  approved  rehgious  mercy,  such  as  the  care  of  sick  persons  and  orphans, 
family;  only  in  exceptional  cases  of  expulsion  or  final  The  dominant  note  of  their  mode  of  life  gives  us,  as 
secularization,  does  it  happen  that  a  rehgious  ceases  we  have  seen,  clerical,  monastic,  mendicant,  mihtary, 
to  have  any  connexion  with  some  particular  institute,  and  hospitaller  orders.  The  vows  divide  them  into 
and  in  such  cases  the  bishop  becomes  his  only  supe-  orders  with  simple  vows  and  solemn  vows:  even  the 
rior.  The  Church  insists  on  the  use  of  a  habit,  oy  number  of  vows  differs  in  different  mstitutes.  There 
which  the  rehgious  are  distinguished  from  secular  remain  still  two  other  points  of  difference  which  re- 
persons.  A  distinctive  habit  is  always  required  for  quire  to  be  considered,  namely  the  juridical  condi- 
nuns;  the  clerical  habit  is  sufficient  for  men.  Those  tion,  which  distinguishes  religious  oniers  from  con- 
approved  institutes  whose  members  may  be  taken  for  gregations,  and  the  rule. 

seculars  out  of  doors,  lack  that  public  profession  which  (3)  Religious  Life  and  the  Sacred  Ministry. — If 
characterizes  the  religious  state,  in  the  sight  of  the  the  monastic  life  has  sometimes  appeared  incom- 
Church,  according  to  the  Decree  of  the  Sacred  Con-  patible  with  those  sacred  functions  wnich  drew  the 
gr^|ation  of  Bishops  and  Regulars,  11  August,  1889.  monk  out  of  his  silence  and  retreat  (see  Decree  of 
The  question  has  long  been  discussed  wnether  the  Gratian,  c.  XVI,  q.  1,  c.  1,  2,  4,  6,  8,  10,  11),  the 
rehgious  state  involves  a  donation  of  oneself,  or  simple  division  into  contemplative  and  mixed  orders 
whether  the  vows,  as  such,  are  sufficient.  By  such  shows  the  mistake  of  those  persons  who  have  rep- 
donation  the  rehgious  not  only  binds  himself  to  be  resented  the  rehgious  life  as  inconsistent  with  the 
poor,  chaste  etc.,  but  he  no  longer  belongs  to  himself;  sacred  ministry,  as  if  piety  were  opposed  to  charity, 
he  is  the  property  of  God,  as  much  as  and  even  more  or  apostouc  zeal  did  not  presuppose  and  foster  the 
than  a  slave  was  formerly  the  property  of  his  master,  love  of  God.  This  error,  which  had  already  been 
To  show  that  this  atienation  of  oneself  is  not  neces-  refuted  by  St.  Thomas  in  his  "(Ik)ntra  impugnantes 
sary,  it  is  sufficient  to  observe  that  if  every  rehgious  rehgionem",  ch.  iv,  directed  against  ^Iham  of  St. 
ceased  to  belong  to  himself  either  for  the  purpose  of  Amour,  was  renewed  in  the  Jansenist  pseudo-Coun- 
XII.— 48 


BELiaiOUS  754  RBUGIOUS 

cil  of    Pistoia  arid  condemned  by  the  Constitution  order''   has  been  naturally  applied  exclusively  to 

"Auctorem  Fidei"  of  1794,  prop.  80.    In  the  course  institutes  with  solemn  vows.    The  religious  order 

of  the  last  century,  Verhoeven,  a  professor  of  Louvain,  then  is,  properly  speaking^  an  institute  fully  approved 

in  a  pamphlet  entitled  "  De  regufarium  et  ssecularium  by  the  Holy  See,  and  havmg  solemn  vows  of  religious 

juribus  et  officiis'',  maintainedf  that,  according  to  the  me.    This  full  approbation  for  the  whole  Church 

spirit  of  the  Church,  religious  ought  not  to  take  any  calls  into  action  the  magisterial  office*  of  the  pope, 

but  a  secondary  and  supplementarv  part  in  the  sacred  for  in  giving  it  the  pope  not  only  declares  that  there 

ministry,  and  only  when  the  secular  cleiw  were  not  is  nothing  in  the  mode  of  life  which  is  hurtful  to 

sufficiently  numerous  for  the   work.     lus  opinion  morals  or  propriety,  but  assures  the  faithful  that  it  is 

was  refuted  by  an  anonymous  work,  entitled  "Ex-  calculated  to  lead  souls  to  Evangelical  perfection 

amen  historicum  et  canonicum  libri  K.  D.  Mariani  (cf.  Suarez,  "De  religione",  VII,  IL  xvii,  n.   17). 
Verhoeven",  written  by  Fathers  De  Buck  and  Tinne-         (b)  Two  great  classes  of  orders. — From  the  point 

broeck,  S.J.,  as  opposed  to  experience,  sinoe  religious  of  view  of  their  organization,  the  religious  orders  owe 

perfection  aids  apostolic  work;    to  tradition,  as  so  their  division  into  two  great  classes  to  their  very  origin, 

many  great  missionary  enterprises  have  been  con-  The  oldest,  derived  from  monasteries  formerly  quite 

ducted  by  religious;   to  canon  law,  which  approves  independent,  leave  to  each  religious  house  a  certain 

of  orders  established  for  the  purpose  of  the  sacred  authority  under   a  perpetual   abbot.    The   monks 

ministry,  and  consider  religious  as  fitted  for  the  most  or  canons  also  belong  to  a  particular  monastery, 

important  functions.  and  special  rules  are  made  for  changes,  temporary 

Religious  as  well  as  seculars  may  be  called  to  the  or  permanent^  among  the  subjects.  Such  are  the 
episcopal  office,  to  the  cardinalitial  dignity,  and  even  Black  Benedictines  and  Cistercians,  and  canons 
to  the  papal  throne.  With  the  exception  of  the  regular.  Many  for  a  long  time  have  only  arch- 
mendicant  orders,  they  may  be  appointed  as  vicars  abbots,  visitors  of  the  monasteries  forming  a  con- 
general:  of  the  minor  benefices,  some  are  secular  gregation  (see  below),  and  presiding  over  the  chapter 
which  should  be  given  to  secular  priests,  some  are  of  that  congregation,  Leo  XIII  gave  the  Benedictines 
regular,  to  which  regulars  shoula  be  appointed:  their  abbot-primate,  who  holds  office  for  twelve  years. 
Premonstratensian  Canons,  however,  may  be  placed  These  same  orders  have  no  provincial  superiors; 
in  charge  of  secular  parishes.  In  cases  of  doubt,  the  visitors  more  or  less  take  their  place;  out  the 
benefices  are  presumea  to  be  secular,  but  the  rule  of  powers  of  the  abbot-general  and  the  visitor,  whUe 
exclusion  from  secular  parishes  affects  only  regulars  they  differ  in  different  orders,  are  limited  to  certain 
under  solemn  vows.  Missionary  enterprise  for  the  cases,  so  that  the  local  abbot  remains  the  real  or- 
propagation  of  the  Faith  is  usually  entrusted  to  re-  dinaiy  superior,  almost  in  the  same  way  as  the 
ligious,  and  they  may  occupy  university  chairs,  and  bishop  suffragan  of  an  archbishop  has  all  the  authority 
be  employed  in  the  sacred  ministry  as  well  as  seculars  necessary  for  the  administration  of  his  diocese.  In 
(cf .  Vermeersch,  "  De  religiosis  institutis  et  personis",  the  newer  orders  on  the  contrary,  the  superiors  (except 
I,  n.  495).  in  the  Society  of  Jesus)  are  not  appointed  for  life. 

It  is  now  estabUshed  that  bishops  and  cardinals  but  for  a  term  of  six  or  twelve  years;  the  reli^ous 

chosen  from  a  religious  order  do  not  cease  to  be  are  not  attached  to  a  monastery,  but  to  a  provmce; 

religious,  and  are  just  as  much  boimd  by  all  the  and  the  houses  are  so  little  independent  of  each  other 

rules  and  observances  compatible  with  their  dignity  that  some  refuse  to  recoj^iz^  m  the  local  superior 

and  functions  as  a  religious  who  is  a  parish  priest,  the  quality  of  a  prelate  mvested  with  ordinary  *jur- 

A  religious  who  is  a  parish  priest  may  be  deprived  isdiction,  though  most  religious  writers  give  him  this 

of  his  office  either  by  the  bishop  or  by  the  superior  position, 
of  his  order.  (c)  The  Seat  of  Authority  in  the  Order. — General 

IV.  Particular    Aspects. — A.    Reugious    Or-  Chapter  and  Superior. — In  all  religious  orders  we  find 

DERS  AND  Congregations. — According  to  its  more  the  chapter,  whether  it  be  the  chapter  of  the  mon- 

or  less  complete  realization,  the  more  or  less  full  astery  to  limit  the  monarchical  authority  of  the  abbot 

approbation  which  is  given  to  it,  and  the  juridical  and  nil  a  vacancy,  or  the  general  chapter,  to  appoint 

condition  which  results  for  those  who  practise  it,  for  the  fixed  term  a  new  superior-general,  to  receive 

the  religious  life  gives  rise  to  religious  orders  or  the  accounts  of  the  precedmg  administration,  and, 

congregations.  within  permitted  limits,  to  modify  the  constitutions 

(1)   Religums  Orders. — (a)   Sense  of  the  expres-  which  have  not  the  force  of  pontifical  laws,  and  to 

sions. — The  expression  "ordo  monasticus"  at  first  pass  new  decrees  for  the  whole  order.    The  election 

denoted  a  class  of  monks,  as  '*ordo  virginum"  de-  of  the  superior-general  is  by  secret  ballot  (Council  of 

noted  a  class  or  virgins,  and  "ordo  sacerootalis",  the  Trent,  sess.  XXV.  c.  vi)  and  generally  requires  the 

class  of  priests.    The  first  founders,  St.  Basil  and  St.  confirmation  of  tne  pope.    The  same  chapter  idso 

Benedict,  thought  not  so  much  of  establishing  an  elects  the  general  councils,  consisting  of  definitors- 

ordcr  as  of  drawing  up  a  plan  of  individual  life,  com-  general,  or  assistants,  and  generally  also  the  procura- 

mon  to  the  use  of  monks  who  desired  to  be  directed  tor-general.     In  most  orders,  the  procurator-general, 

in  their  aspirations  after  perfection.     Each  monas-  who  is  the  representative  of  the  order  in  all  dealings 

tery  was  independent,  and  was  not  even  bound  to  a  with  the  Holy  See,  is  a  real  superior,  and  sometimes 

definite  rule;  the  community  was  left  free  to  change  even  a  sort  of  vice-general,  who  takes  the  place  of  a 

the  observance,  and  a  certain  option  could  be  allowed  general  deceased,  absent,  or  incapacitated:  among  the 

to  the  monks  to  choose  which  of  several  rules  they  Discalced  Carmelites  and  the  Hermits  of  St.  Augustine 

would  follow.    The  reforms  of  Cluny  and  Clteaux  and  in  the  Society  of  Jesus,  he  possesses  no  juris- 

prepared  the  way  for  the  religious  oraer  in  the  pres-  diction. 

ent  sense,  by  making  all  the  monks  subject  to  the  Provincial  and  local  Superiors. — ^Under  the  superior- 
authority  of  one  supreme  abbot.  A  century  later,  general,  the  orders  not  anterior  to  the  thirteenth  cen- 
St.  Francis  and  St.  Dominic  united  their  disciples  in  tury  have  provincial  superiors,  who  administer  the 
one  vast  association  with  an  interior  hierarchical  or-  affairs  of  the  province  with  the  assistance  of  a  council, 
ganization  of  its  own,  and  recognizable  even  out-  Sometimes  tney  are  appointed  by  the  provincial 
wardly  by  the  identity  of  rule,  dress,  and  life.  From  chapter,  and  the  local  superior  by  the  local  chapter: 
that  time  forward,  each  religious  order  has  been  a  sometimes  the  superior-general  in  council  makes  all 
corporation  of  religious  approved  by  the  Church,  important  appointments.  The  provincial  chapter  or 
And  since  we  distinguish  institutes  bound  by  solemn  provincial  congregation  has  then  no  jurisdiction,  and 
vows  and  approved  by  the  sovereign  pontiff  from  can  only  send  deputies  to  the  general  or  the  chapter 
institutes  with  simple  vows,  the  expression  "religious  general,  in  order  to  make  known  their  wishes.     In  all 


EELiaiOUS            755  RELIGIOUS 

places  where  the  canonical  Office  is  recited  in  choir,  non  alienandis,  III,  4,  and  the  Instruction  "Inter  ea" 

there  is  a  conventual  or  local  chapter,  which  does  not  of  30  July,  1909).    llie  prelate  must  administer  like 

exist  in  the  orders  and  congregations  of  more  recent  a  prudent  head  of  a  family,  and  take  care  that  the 

foundation.    Among  the  Capuchins,  the  provincial  funds  are  safely  and  productively  invested.    As  was 

is  appointed  by  the  provincial  chapter,  and  in  his  stated  in  the  article  Nuns,  the  prelate's  power  of 

council  appoints  the  local  superiors.    The  local  supe-  jurisdiction  often  extends  to  monasteries  of  the  second 

rior,  like  tne  abbot,  is  assist^  by  a  second,  who  takes  order. 

his  place  in  case  of  absence  or  incapacity:  ne  is  called  (d)  Authorities  outside  the  Order,  (i)  Sovereign 
prior  in  the  abbeys,  or  sub-prior  where  the  superior  Pontiff. — Outside  its  own  body,  the  order  has  the 
IS  called  prior;  otherwise  he  is  termed  minister.  The  sovereign  pontiff  as  superior  possessing  the  plenitude 
local  superior  is  called  guardian  among  the  Francis-  of  authority;  he  has  the  jpower  to  suppress  a  religious 
cans;  elsewhere  he  is  rector,  superior,  prior,  or  pro-  order,  as  he  can  csJl  it  mto  existence  Thus  at  the 
vost.  The  provincial  and  general  of  the  Franciscans  Second  Council  of  Lyons  (1274),  Gregory  X  sup- 
are  called  minister-provincial  and  minister-general,  pressed  the  orders  which  came  into  existence  after  tne 
To  replace  the  ordinary  superiors  temporarily  the  Fourth  Council  of  the  Lateran  (1215),  and  Clement 
constitutions  of  orders  provide  vicars,  vice-provin-  XIV  in  1773  decreed  the  suppression  ot  the  Society 
cials,  and  vice-rectors.  of  Jesus.    Sometimes  an  order  which  has  been  ex- 

The  superiors  have  always  a  power  of  private  or  tinguished  rises  again  from  its  ashes.  The  order  of 
domestic  order,  called  dominative,  which  pennits  Piarists,  or  Scuolopi,  founded  by  St.  Joseph  Cala^ 
them  to  command  their  subjects,  and  to  administer-  sanctius,  which  was  abolished  by  Innocent  A  in  1664, 
property  according  to  the  rules  of  the  institute;  and  was  re-established  by  Clement  IX;  and  Pius  VII  in 
the  first  superior  of  the  convent,  by  appealing  to  the  1814  restored  imivereally  the  Society  of  Jesus,  which 
vow  or  distinctly  making  known  his  mtention,  can  had  remained  in  existence  in  White  Kussia  (see  Heim- 
command  under  pain  of  mortal  sin.  Moreover,  if  bucher,  "Die  Orden  und  Kongregationen",  §§101, 
they  be  priests,  tne  principal  superiors  of  religious  102,  and  the  authors  cited  in  Vermeersch,  "De  re- 
orders possess  the  double  jurisdiction  of  the  forum  ligiosis  institutis  et  personis'',  I,  n.  99).  The  pope, 
internum  and  the  forum  externum,  which  makes  them  a  fortiori,  ma^  modify  the  constitutions,  appomt 
the  ordinary  prelates  of  their  subordinates.  Such  are  superiors,  and,  in  short,  exercise  all  powers  that  exist 
certainly  the  generals  and  provincials,  and,  according  in  a  reli^ous  order. 

to  an  at  least  probable  opinion,  the  first  local  superiors  (ii)  Roman   Congregations. — The   pope   exercises 

also.    They  have  jurisdiction  to  appoint  confessors,  his  ordinary  control  through  the  Sacred  Congregation 

approved  by  the  ordinary,  to  reserve  cases  to  them-  of  Religious,  which,  since  the  CV)nstitution  "Sapienti". 

selves  (though  Clement  VlII  limited  this  power),  to  of  19  June,  1908,  is  the  only  congregation  occupied 

inflict  spiritual  censures  or  punishments,  and  to  ab-  with  the  affairs  of  reUgious  orders.     Formerly,  the 

solve  or  dispense  from  them:  their  power  of  dispensa-  religious  of  the  missions  were  under  the  direction  of 

tion  with  regard  to  their  subordinates  is  the  same  as  the  Propaganda,  which  has  now  no  authority  over 

bishops  generally  have  over  their  diocesans.    Various  them,  except  as  misaonaries;  the  others  were  imder 

privileges  are  conferred  upon  them  in  addition,  and  the  Congregation  of  Bishops  and  Regulars,  which  was 

their  powers  are  of  ten  extended  by  temporary  indults,  abolished  by  the  Constitution  "Sapienti''.     There 

which  pass,  as  a  matter  of  right,  from  the  generals  ot  was  also  the  Congregation  of  Discipline  and  Reform 

orders  to  those  who  replace  or  succeed  them.    The  of  Regulars,  which  was  principally  occupied  wil^  the 

legislative  power  ordinarily  exists  only  in  the  chapter  maintenance  and  restoration  of  interior  discipline  in 

gener^:  the  judiciary  power  of  the  prelates  does  not  orders  of  men,  and  the  Congregation  of  the  State  of 

extend  to  causes  and  offences  which  are  cognizable  by  Regulars,  established  by  Innocent  X  in  1662,  which 

the  Holv  Office.    The  prelates  are  at  the  same  time  was  replaced  imder  Imiooent  XII  by  the  Congrega- 

f athers  bound  to  watch  over  the  spiritual  welfare  of  tion  of  Discipline,  and  re-established  by  Pius  IX  in 

their  children,  heads  of  the  community,  who  are  em-  1847,  to  advise  on  the  measures  to  be  taJcen  in  the  cir- 

powered  to  make  general  provision  for  the  good  order  cunistances  of  the  time  for  monasteries  of  men.    After 

of  the  common  li^,  and  magistrates  invested  with  a  having  issued  some  very  important  decrees  on  the 

part  of  that  public  authority  which  Christ  gave  to  His  subject  of  letters  testimonial  and  simple  profession. 

Apostles,  when  He  said  ''As  the  Father  hath  sent  me,  it  ceased  to  work;  and  Pius  X  suppre^ed  doUi  these 

I  also  send  you.''    This  authorit^^  is  derived  from  the  congregations  by  his  Motu  propno  of  26  May,  1906. 

Holy  See;  and,  as  it  is  ordinary ^  it  may  be  delegated.  The  authoritative  interpretation^  of  the  disciplinary 

In  theory  it  extends  to  the  spuritual  direction  of  in-  decrees  of  the  (Council  of  Trent  gave  the  Congregation 

feriors;  but  for  a  long  time  the  Holy  See  has  shown  a  of  the  Council  a  power  over  r^iulars,  which  it  used 

desire  to  separate  the  direction  of  the  conscience  from  largely  before  the  nineteenth  century;  but  at  present 

the  direction  of  outward  conduct,  or  at  least  to  take  its  authority  is  limited  to  the  secular  clergy.    The 

away  all  appearance  of  coercion  from  the  former;  thus  Conizations  of  the  Holy  Offioe  and  the  Index 

the  prelate  may  hear  the  confessions  onlv  of  those  who  exercise  over  religious,  as  well  as  over  the  rest  of  the 

formally  express  a  desire  to  be  absolvea  by  him,  and  faithful,  their  power  of  jud^ng  persons  charged  with 

for  the  regulation  of  Communions,  the  religious  is  offences  coming  under  the  Holy  Office,  and  ofcensur- 

bound  to  take  the  advice  only  of  his  confessor.    In  jng  books  and  other  publications, 

every  house  several  confessors  should  be  appointed,  (iii)  Cardinal  Protector. — Most  orders  have  a  car- 

who  can  easily  in  an3r  particular  case  obtam  juris-  dinal  protector.     The  institution  fpea  bade  to  the 

diction  over  reserved  sins,  if  they  have  not  ordinarily  time  of  St.  Francis,  who  recognizes  m  him  a  governor, 

the  necessary  faculties;   the  prelate,  however,  may,  a  protector,  and  a  corrector;  he  is  appoint^  by  the 

according  to  the  rule,  be  occupied  with  the  direction  soverei^  pontiff.    Since  the  time  of  Innocent  XII 

of  consciences  outside  the  confessional;  this  is  forbid-  (Constitution,  "Christi  fidelium",  17  February,  1694) 

den  only  in  the  case  of  lay  superiors,  safeguarding  he  has  ceased  to  have  ordinary  jurisdiction;    he  is 

always  the  liberty  of  inferiors  to  open  their  minds  to  therefore  nothing  more  than  a  benevolent  protector, 

their  superiors  (even  when  laymen).  who  from  time  to  time  receives  delegated  powera. 

The  temporal  administration  is  subject  to  the  gen-  (iv)  Bishop  and  Privilege  of  Exemption.— Religious 

eral  laws,  which  forbid  the  alienation  of  immovable  orders  are  exempt  from  episcopal  jurisdiction,  and  in 

property,  and  of  movable  property  of  great  value,  and  spite  of  exceptions  to  this  pnvilcge,  created  by  the 

which  also  discountenance  wastefulness  and  rash  con-  Council  of  Trent  and  later,  tne  exemption  remains  the 

tracts  or  borrowings   (see  the  Constitution  "Am-  rule  and  the  exception  must  be  proved.    The  exemp- 

bitioss'';  Extrav.  comm.  un.,  De  rebus  ecclesiasticis  tion  is  above  all  personal,  and  also  local:  religious  are 


i 


REUGIOUS 


756 


REUGIOUS 


not  under  the  orders  of  the  bishop,  and  their  monas- 
teries and  churches,  unless  these  be  parochial,  cannot 
be  visited  by  him.    The  Holy  See,  however,  in  prac- 
tice does  not  permit  the  rule  of  local  exemption  to  be 
extended  to  secular  persons  during  their  stay  in  a 
convent:  only /ami^iares,  that  is,  those  who  as  oblates 
or  even  as  servantSi  live  in  the  convent  as  if  they  were 
part  of  the  religious  family,  benefit  by  it.    The  ques- 
tion whether  pupils  who  are  boarders  in  the  convent 
may  be  callea /ami/iare«  is  open  to  dispute.  Accord- 
ing to  the  Council  of  Trent,  the  bishop  haa  over  reli- 
gious a  jurisdiction  sometimes  ordinary,  sometimes 
delegated  in  the  name  of  the  Holy  See,  sometimes 
bishops  may  act  also,  as  special  delegates  of  the  Holy 
See;  tne  expression  is  somewhat  obscure,  but  the  object 
apbears  to  have  been  to  give  the  bishop  an  incont^t- 
able  right  to  interfere  in  certain  cases  (see  Vermeersch, 
''De  relig.  inst.  et  pers.'',  I,  n.  968).    As  the  exemp- 
tion of  regulars  is  not  active,  that  is,  as  it  does  not 
give  independent  power  ov^er  a  fixed  territory,  regu- 
lars are  subject  to  the  bishop  in  all  that  concerns  the 
administration  of  the  sacraments  to  seculars,  and  the 
direction  of  such  persons,  due  respect  being  paid  to 
certain  privileges  attached  to  churches  and  colleges. 
Especially  for  the  absolution  of  seculars,  they  must 
be  approved  by  the  bishop  of  the  place  in  which  con- 
fessions are  heard.    Besides  this,  the  bishop  may  inter- 
fere to  permit  the  erection  of  a  convent,  to  approve  the 
renunciation  of  property  made  before  solenm  pro- 
fession, to  test  the  vocation  of  nuns,  to  approve  or  con- 
demn the  publications  of  regulars,  to  control,  if  not 
to  refuse,  collecting  from  house  to  house,  to  summon 
regulars  to  processions,  and  settle  questions  of  pre- 
cedence, to  consecrate  the  churches  of  regulars,  to 
pontificate  in  them,  to  fix  the  stipends  of  Masses,  and 
prescribe  the  Collects.    His  name  must  be  mentioned 
in  the  Canon  of  the  Mass;  he  decides  all  causes  which 
concern  the  Faith;  he  may  also  in  certain  cases  exer- 
cise over  regulars  his  coercive  power. 

But  (at  least  in  regard  to  certain  orders  roecially 
exempted)  it  woidd  be  incorrect  to  say  that  whenever 
the  bishop  may  interfere,  he  may  also  inflict  censures. 
It  is  admitted  also  that,  at  least  with  the  permission 
of  his  superior,  the  religious  may  ask  the  bishop  to 
exercise  some  of  his  dispensing  power,  in  his  favour, 
and  it  is  understood  that  the  Lenten  indults  and  gen- 
eral dispensations  from  abstinence  apply  to  such 
regulars  as  are  not  bound  by  a  special  vow  .to  fast  or 
abstain.  According  to  the  principle  laid  down, 
regulars  may  gain  the  indulgences  granted  by  the 
bishop.  Except  mitred  abbots,  who  confer  the  ton- 
sure and  minor  orders  on  their  inferiors,  regular 
superiors  must  apply  to  the  bishop  for  the  ordination 
of  their  subjects:  for  this  purpose  they  give  dimissor- 
ial  letters,  by  which  they  present  their  subjects  to  the 
i)ishop  with  the  necessary  certificates,  to  receive  Holy 
orders  from  him.  Except  in  the  case  of  some  particu- 
lar privilege,  the  dimissorial  letters  should  be  sent  to 
the  bishop  of  the  place  in  which  the  convent  is  situ- 
ated, ana  regulars  can  only  apply  to  another  bishop 
in  case  the  former  does  not  holdlus  usual  ordinations, 
or  if  he  consents  to  waive  his  right. 

(e)  Communication  of  Privileges. — Exemption  is 
the  ptincipal  privilege  of  religious  orders;  the  others 
are  chiefly  powers  of  absolution,  and  spiritual  favours. 
Among  all  the  mendicant  orders,  and  practically 
among  all  religious  orders  properly  so  called,  there 
('xists  a  communication  of  privileges.  This  communi- 
cation makes  all  favours,  granted  to  one  order  only, 
common  to  all,  if  they  are  not  extraordinary  in  their 
nature,  or  granted  for  some  very  special  reason,  or 
only  for  a  certain  term  of  years,  or  finally  if  no  ex- 
press provision  forbids  the  communication.  Thus 
the  privilege,  granted  to  the  Society  of  Jesus,  of  hav- 
ing domestic  oratories  or  chapels  on  the  authorization 
of  the  religious  provincial  alone  applies  to  all  re- 
ligious orders.    Beligious  orders  profit  even  by  privi- 


leges granted  to  congregations.  But  at  the  present 
time  the  application  of  the  principle  of  oonimunica- 
tion  mu8t  be  made  with  prudence,  especially  in  the 
case  of  indulgences. 

(f )  Admission,  Vows  and  Dispensation,  Secularisa- 
tion and  Migration.-— For  the  reception  of  subjects 
and  the  taking  of*  vows,  see  Novice;  Postuulnt. 
All  the  vows  of  religious  orders  are  ordinarily  per- 
petual, thou^  there  are  exceptions;  moreover,  a 
simple  profession  must  precede  the  solemn  profession, 
otherwise  the  latter  is  null  and  void.  The  dispensar 
tion  from  vows,  even  from  simple  vows,  is  reserved  to 
the  Holy  See.  But  the  supenor-general,  by  the  dis- 
missal of  religious  with  simple  vows,  who  have  not 
received  major  orders,  may  ordinanly  remove  the 
obligation  of  those  vows.  Those  who  are  professed 
with  solenm  vows,  even  lay  brothers,  are  very  rarely 
dispensed  from  them;  it  is  easier  for  them  to  obtain 
an  mdult  authorizing  them  to  live  in  the  world,  bound 
by  their  vows.  The  indult  of  secularization  may  be 
temporary  or  perpetual;  the  latter  alone  finally 
separates  the  regular  from  his  order:  he  then  owes 
obedience  to  the  bishop.  The  regular  who  has 
made  solenm  vows,  or  who  b^  privilege  has  reodved 
some  niajor  order  oefore  making  these  vows,  can  he 
expelled  only  if,  after  a  thrice-repeated  warning,  he 
still  proves  incorrigible  in  some  grave  and  public 
fault.  When  expelled,  he  incurs  a  suspension  from 
which  the  Holy  See  alone  can  free  him.  Even  one 
who  has  been  set  free,  if  he  is  in  Holy  orders,  is  not 
at  liberty  to  leave  the  house  until  he  has  found  a 
bishop  willing  to  accept  him  in  his  diocese,  and  some 
means  of  honest  livelihood:  strictly  spacing,  the 
acceptance  should  be  final,  but  in  practice  uds  is 
not  insisted  upon.  If  he  leaves  the  house  without 
doing  what  is  required,  he  is  suspended  until  he  has 
fulfilled  both  conditions. 

The  regular  may  also,  in  theory,  migrate  from  one 
order  to  another  more  severe;  from  this  point  of 
view,  the  Carthusian  Order  is  the  most  perfect.  In 
practice,  failing  the  consent  of  the  superior-genial 
of  both  the  orders  in  question,  these  migrations  take 
place  only  with  the  authorization  of  the  Holy  See. 
The  professed  regular  who  migrates  into  another  or- 
der makes  his  novitiate  afresh  therein,  but  retains 
his  first  profession  until  he  has  made  solenm  pro- 
fession in  his  new  order.  Until  that  time,  if  he  aoes 
not  persevere  in  the  second  order,  he  must  take  his 
former  place  in  the  order  he  has  aiiitted;  and  even 
then  if,  in  addition  to  the  essential  vows  of  reli|^n, 
his  first  profession  has  laid  any  special  obligations 
upon  him,  for  instance  that  of  not  accepting  any 
ecclesiastical  dignities,  these  obligations  are  not 
removed  bv  his  new  profession.  (For  the  obligations 
of  religious  vows,  see  Vow;  Obedience,  Relioious; 
Poverty*  and  for  the  enclosure,  see  Cloister.) 

(^)  Habit  and  Choir. — If  an  order  has  a  special 
habit,  the  members  aro  strictly  bound  to  wear  it, 
and  if  any  of  them  puts  it  off  without  good  cause,  be 
incurs  an  excommunication  not  reserved  (Const. 
I'Ut  periculosa",  2  Ne  clerici  vel  monachi,  in  6® 
iii,  24).  This  excommunication  appears  to  exist  in 
spite  of  the  Constitution  '' Apostolic®",  because  it 
concerns  the  interior  discipline  of  orders,  but  it  ap-  ^ 
plies  only  to  those  who  are  professed  under  solemn 
vows.  The  obligation  to  retain  the  habit  extends  also 
to  bishops  of  the  order,  if  they  are  not  canons  or 
clerks  regular. 

Most  orders  are  bound  to  recite  the  Office  in  choir, 
and  say  the  conventual  Mass.  The  obligation  ol 
choir,  at  least  the  grave  obligation,  binds  the  com- 
munity and  the  superior,  whose  duty  it  is  to  see  that 
the  Office  is  recited  in  common.  But  the  religioua 
professed  under  solemn  vows,  who  do  not  assist  in 
choir,  are  bound  from  the  day  of  their  profession  to 
recite  the  Office  in  private,  even  if  they  are  not 
in  Holy  orders.    This  obligation  does  not  apply  to 


RELIGIOUS 


757 


REUGIOUS 


lay  orotherBi  or  to  persons  professed  under  simple 


vows. 


(h)  Orders  of  women:  Second  Orders. — In  con- 
nexion with  certain  orders  of  men^  there  are  also 
orders  of  women,  instituted  for  similar  objects,  and 
in  this  respect  snarine  in  the  same  evolution.  We 
say  "in  this  respect",  wt  the  rigours  of  the  enclosure 
imposed  upon  nuns  under  solemn  vows  (see  Cloister) 
necessarilv  prevented  any  organization  formed  after 
the  model  of  the  mendicant  orders  or  clerks  regular. 
Orders  of  women  have  sometimes  an  existence,  and 
even  an  origin,  independent  of  any  order  of  men. 
This  is  the  case  especially  with  the  more  recent  orders, 
such  as  the  Sisters  of  the  Visitation  and  the  Ursulines. 
Very  often  they  are  connected  by  their  origin  and 
their  rule  with  an  order  of  men.  The  first  monastic 
rules,  which  did  not  contemplate  the  reception  of 
Holy  orders,  were  as  suitable  for  women  as  tor  men: 
thus  there  were  Basilian  and  Benedictine  nuns, 
simply  following  the  Rules  of  St.  Basil  and  St.  Bene- 
dict. Neither  the  rule  of  the  mendicant  orders  nor 
that  of  the  clerks  regular  was  suitable  to  women. 
St.  Francis  first,  and  then  other  founders,  wrote  a 
second  rule  for  the  u6e  of  nuns,  who  thus  constituted 
a  second  order,  placed  normally  imder  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  the  sup^or-gen«*al  of  the  first  order  (see 
Nuns). 

(i)  Third  Orders. — ^The  grant  of  a  third  rule  to 
secular  persons  gives  rise  to  the  third  orders.  At 
times  it  nappens  that  these  tertiaries  are  established 
in  community  under  this  rule;  they  are  then  re- 
ligious, ordinarily  members  of  a  congregation  with 
simple  vows.  But,  as  we  said  above,  there  were  com- 
munities of  this  character  with  solemn  vows,  and  there 
is  a  regular  Third  Order  of  St.  Francis,  which  goes 
back  to  the  fifteenth  century  and  which  received  modi- 
fied constitutions  from  Leo  XIII  (20  July,  1888). 

The  associations  of  secular  tertiaries  are  also  called 
orders;  they  owe  this  to  the  fact  that  they  profess  the 
Christian  life  under  an  approved  rule:  but  these  are 
secular  orders;  and  religious,  even  those  imder  simple 
vows,  cannot  validly  belong  to  them.  By  his  en- 
trance into  a  religious  order,  a  novice  ceases  to  be  a 
secular,  and  seeks  after  Evangelical  perfection,  which 
18  not  the  contradictory  of  Christian  justice,  but  is  a 
realization  of  it  in  an  eminent  degree.  It  has  also 
been  held  that  a  person  who  has  been  a  member  of 
a  third  order  before  becoming  a  religious  at  once 
resumes  his  place  in  it,  if  he  legitimately  returns  to 
the  world.  No  one  can  belong  to  several  third  or^ 
dcrs  at  the  same  time.  Not  all  religious  orders  have 
third  orders  attached  to  them;  but  those  which  rec- 
ognise an  order  of  nuns  as  their  second  order  gen- 
erally have  tertiaries  also.  Thus  there  are  no  Bene- 
dictine or  Jesuit  tertiaries:  the  Benedictines  have  no 
second  order,  and  the  Jesuit  rule  expressly  forbids 
the  Society  to  have  an  institute  of  nuns  under  its 
authority.  In  later  times  the  Oblates  of  St.  Benedict 
have  been  assimilated  to  tertiaries.  Third  orders 
are  distinguished  from  confraternities,  in  as  much  as 
the  former  follow  a  general  rule  of  life,  while  the 
members  of  confraternities  are  associated  for  some 
special  piuT)ose  of  piety  or  charity:  thus  they  often 
include  Dotn  religious  and  lav  persons,  and  the  same 
person  may  be  a  member  of  several  confraternities. 
(As  to  the  Third  Order  of  St.  Francis,  and  the  name  of 
Order,  see  the  Constitution  "Auspicato"  of  17  Sept., 
1882,  and  ''Misericors  Dei  filius'' of  28  June,  1883.) 

The  word  religio  is  more  strictly  reserved  for  in- 
stitutes with  solenm  vowsv  As  the  religion  of  pre- 
cepts and  the  religion  of  counsels  were  considered 
distinct  grades  of  Uie  Christian  religion,  the  rules  of 
life  laid  down  according  to  the  counsels  were  called 
rdiffiones.  The  Second  Council  of  Aries,  452,  can. 
25,  spoke  of  the  profession  of  the  monastic  life  iiti 
professio  religionis. 

(2)  Rdiffious  Congreffotions. — (a)  Meaning  of  the 


Word  "Congregation". — ^There  has  been  much  change 
in  the  meaning  of  this  word.  It  formerly  denoted 
the  whole  body  of  religious  living  in  a  monastery: 
in  this  sense  we- find  it  in  Cassian  (Collations,  2nd  pre- 
face) and  in  the  Rule  of  St.  Benedict  (chap.  xvii). 
The  edifying  spectacle  presented  by  the  monastery 
of  Cluny  unoer  St.  Odo  (d.  942)  induced  many  monas- 
teries in  France  to  beg  the  holy  abbot  to  accept  their 
supreme  direction,  and  he  undertook  to  visit  them 
from  time  to  time.  Under  his  first  two  successors, 
numerous  monasteries  of  France  and  Italy  observed 
the  usages  of  Clunv,  while  others  were  reformed  by 
monks  of  Cluny.  At  the  death  of  St.  Odo,  sixty-five 
monasteries  were  under  the  rules  of  Cluny  and  thus 
formed  a  congelation,  the  members  of  which  were 
no  longer  the  moividual  monks,  but  the  monasteries. 
In  a  similar  manner,  the  union  of  monasteries  with 
Citeaux  produced  the  Congregation  of  Ctteaux: 
but  here  the  celebrated  carta  caritatUj  drawn  up  in  a 
f^eneral  chapter  of  abbots  and  monks  held  at  Citeaux 
m  1119,  placed  the  supreme  direction  of  Cistercian 
monasteries  under  the  Abbot  of  Ctteaux,  and  realized 
a  much  greater  imity  which  prepared  the  way  for 
the  religious  orders  of  a  later  period  (see  "Carta 
caritatis"  in  P.  L.,  CLXVI,  1377).  The  monasteries 
of  Premonstmtensian  Canons  were  early  grouped  in 
cu-cles  {circaria8)f  at  the  head  of  which  was  a  "cir- 
cator'^  whose  office  resembled  that  of  the  provincial 
of  more  recent  orders.  The  Abbot  of  FWmontr^, 
Dominus  Prscmonstratensis,  was  a  real  abbot-general. 

Innocent  III,  by  his  Constitution  "In  singulis '^ 
which  was  promulgated  at  the  Fourth  Council  of  the 
Lateran,  and  forms  ch.vii,  t.  35,  bk.  3  of  the  Decretals, 
ordered  that  a  chapter  of  abbots  and  independent 
priors  of  every  kingdom  or  province  should  oe  held 
every  third  year,  to  ensure  the  fervour  of  the  ob- 
servance, ana  to  organize  the  visitation  of  the  abbe3rs 
in  order  to  prevent  or  correct  abuses.  The  Council 
of  Trent  (S©3s.  XXV,  c.  viii)  made  congregations  of 
monasteries  general,  ordering  monasteries  to  unite 
themselves  into  congregations,  '  and  to  appoint 
visitors  having  the  same  powers  as  visitors  of  other 
orders,  under  pain  of  losing  their  exemption,  and  being 
placed  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  local  bishop. 
There  have,  however,  been  also  important  reforms 
inauguiated  by  one  monastery,  and  adopted  by  many 
others,  without  leading  to  the  formation  of  a  congre- 
gation. Such  was  that  of  William,  Abbot  of  Hirscnau 
(d.  1091),  wlw  wrote  the  Constitutions  of  Hirschau, 
the  wise  provisions  of  which,  in  some  measure  bor- 
rowed from.  Cluny,  were  adopted  by  about  150 
monasteries  having  no  other  bond  of  union  than  a 
spiritual  community  of  prayers  and  merits. 

In  1566,  St.  Phiup  Neri  founded  in  Rome  an  as- 
sociation of  priests  who  were  not  boimd  by  any  vow; 
being  unable  for  that  reason  to  call  it  an  order,  he 
called  it  the  Congregation  of  the  Oratory.  Cardinal 
de  B^rulle  in  1611  founded  a  similar  institute,  the 
French  Congregation  of  the  Oratory.  St.  Vincent  de 
Paul,  the  founder  of  the  Lazarists,  or  Priests  of  the 
Mission,  while  introducing  into  his  institute  simple 
vows  of  poverty,  chastity,  obedience,  and  stability, 
insisted  that  it  should  be  called  secular.  These  vows 
are  not  followed  by  any  act  of  acceptance  by  the  Holy 
See  or  the  institute.  His  association  was  called  a 
congregation,  as  we  see  from  the  Bull  of  Alexander 
VII,  "Ex  commissa"  (22  Sept.,  1655).  Thus  it 
became  usual  to  designate  as  congregations  those 
institutes  which  resembled  religious  orders,  but 
had  not  all  their  essential  characteristics.  This 
is  the  ordinary  meaning  -generally  accepted,  though 
somewhat  vague,  of  the  word  "congregation  '. 
Before  long^  t^e  genus  congregation  was  divided  into 
several  distinct  species. 

(b)  Religious  Congregations  properly  and  im- 
properly so  called. — First  in  order  of  dignitv  come  the 
religious   congregations   properly   so   called.    They 


RELIGIOUS 


758 


REUaiOUS 


have  all  the  essentialB  of  religious  life,  the  three  per- 
petual vows,  and  the  approbation  of  ecclesiastical 
authority.  They  are  even  approved  by  the  Holy  See. 
They  lack  only  one  accidental  characteristic  of  an 
order,  namely  the  solemnity  of  the  vows.  Such  are 
the  Uon^egations  of  the  Most  Holy  Redeemer^  of 
the  Passion  of  the  Sacred  Hearts  of  Jesus  and  Mary 
(or  Picpus  Fathers),  which  have  even  the  privilege  of 
exemption.  Institutes  with  perpetual  vows  ap- 
proved by  episcopal  authority  closely  resemble  tne 
congregations  properly  so  called.  Religious  congre- 
gations in  the  wiaer  sense  of  the  word  are  institutes 
which  have  no  perpetual  vows,  or  lack  one  of  the 
essential  vows,  or  which  even  have  no  vows  properly 
so  cidled.  Tlius  the  Daughters  of  St.  Vincent  de 
Paul  make  only  annual  vows,  and  as  each  year  is 
comi)leted  they  are  free  to  return  to  the  world.  The 
Missionary  Sisters  of  Our  Lady  of  Africa,  or  White 
Sisters,  form  a  religious  congregation  properly  so 
ciuled,  but  the  White  Fathers,  on  the  contrary,  are 
not  bound  by  any  vows,  but  take  only  an  oath  of 
obedience.  We  have  spoken  above  of  the  Lazarists 
and  Oratorians.  The  religious  congregations  im- 
properly so  called  are  sometimes  designated  pious 
congregations  or  pious  societies. 

(c)  Division  of  the  Institutes. — Institutes  are  di- 
vided, according  to  the  quality  of  their  members,  into 
ecclesiastical  congregations,  consisting  principally 
of  priests  and  clerics,  and  lay  congregations,  most 
of  whose  members  are  not  in  Holy  orders.  Thus 
the  Order  of  St.  John  of  God,  though  mainly  com- 
posed of  laymen,  includes  a  certain  number  of  priests 
devoted  to  the  spiritual  service  of  its  hospitals  and 
asylums;  while  the  Congr^ation  of  Parochial  Clerics 
of  St.  Viator  is  composed  of  priests  and  teaching 
brothers  placed  on  the  same  footing  as  reli^ous. 
Several  religious  congregations  are  called  tertianes  of 
St.  lYancis,  St.  Dominic,  or  some  other  religious  order; 
some  of  these  date  from  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth 
centuries;  others  are  more  recent,  such  as  the  Third 
Order  of  St.  Dominic  founded  by  Lacordaire,  which  is 
devoted  to  teaching.  But  they  must  be  regularly 
affiliated  bv  the  superior  of  the  first  order.  This 
affiliation  does  not  imply  any  dependence  or  sub- 
ordination to  the  first  order,  but  it  requires  as  general 
conditiofis  the  observance  of  the  essential  points  of 
the  rule  of  the  third  order,  and  a  certain  similarity  of 
habit:  in  the  matter  of  the  habit,  however,  many 
dispensations  have  been  panted — see  the  Decrees 
of  the  Sacred  Congregation  of  Indulgences  of  28 
Aug.,  1903,  and  22  March,  1905,  the  decree  of  the 
Congregation  of  Bishops  and  Regulars  of  18  March. 
1904,  the  Rescript  of  30  Jan.,  1905,  and  the  Indult  of 
18  Nov.,  1905,  of  the  same  Congregation  (cf .  Periodica 
de  religiosis  et  missionariis,  I,  15,  p.  40;  54,  p.  147; 
59,  p.  152;  II,  102,  p.  57). 

As  to  the  law  by  which  they  are  governed,  religious 
congregations  are  divided  into  congregations  depend- 
ent on  the  Holy  See,  and  those  under  episcopal  au- 
thority. The  latter  are  strictly  diocesan  or  inter- 
diocesan,  according  as  they  are  confined  to  a  sinffle 
diocese,  or  are  scattered  over  several.  Leo  XIII, 
by  his  Constitution  "Conditse"  of  8  Dec.,  1900,  gave 
to  the  congregations  their  official  character;  and  a  set 
of  regulations  of  the  Congregation  of  Bishops  and 
Regulars,  of  20  June,  1901,  known  by  the  name  of 
Normse,  traces  the  general  lines  on  which  the  Holy 
See  wishes  the  new  mstitutes  to  be  constructed  and 
the  old  ones  reorganized. 

(d)  Religious  Congregations  dependent  on  the  Holy 
See. — (i)  Approbation. — Before  a  congregation  can  be 
placed  under  pontifical  government,  it  must  have 
received  a  Decree,  in  which  commendation  is  bestowed 
on  the  congregation  itself,  and  not  merely  on  the 
intention  of  the  founder  and  the  object  of  the  in- 
stitution; then  follows  a  Decree  confinning  the  exist- 
ence of  the  congregation,  and  approving  its  con- 


stitutions, first  by  a  trial  of  some  years,  and  then 
finally.  Before  the  Constitution  "Sapienti"  (29 
June,  1908),  by  which  Pius  X  reorganized  the  Roman 
Curia,  two  congregations  were  occupied  with  the 
approbation  of  new  institutes,  the  Congregation  of 
Bishops  and  Regulars,  and  the  Congre^tion  of 
Propaganda:  the  latter  approved  those  institutes 
which  were  founded  in  missions  and  in  countries  sub- 
ject to  its  jurisdiction,  and  those  intended  exclusively 
for  foreign  mis^ons.  Since  the  Constitution 
''Sapienti  ,  the  new  Congregation  of  Religious' alone 
has  the  power  of  approbation,  and  the  religious  of  the 
whole  world  are  under  its  jurisdiction:  If  they  are 
missionaries,  they  owe  obedience  also  to  the  Frop- 
Sjganda  in  all  matters  connected  with  their  mis- 
sionary character. 

Except  the  approbation  of  tertiary  communities 
(of  both  the  sexes)  with  simple  vows  by  the  Con- 
stitution '^ Inter  cetera"  of  Leo  X  (20  Jan.,  1521) 
to  which  we  have  already  alluded,  the  formal  appro- 
bation of  a  religious  institute  with  simple  vows  by 
the  Holy  See  does  not  date  back  very  far:  the  Bria 
of  Clement  XI  "InscrutabiU"  (13  July,  1703),  ap- 
proving  the  Constitution  of  the*  English  Virgins  (In- 
stitute of  Mary),  is  perhaps  the  first  instance  in  the 
case  of  women,  while  Ben^ct  XIV  in  1741  approved 
the  (Ik)ngregation  of  Passionists.  But  on  26  March, 
1687,  Innocent  XI.  by  his  (Ik)nstitution  ''Ecclesise 
Catholicse'',  erectea  the  hospitaller  confraternity  of 
the  Bethlehemites  into  a  congregation,  and  Clement 
VIII,  on  13  Oct..  1593,  approved  witn  simple  vows 
the  Clerks  Re^lar  of  the  Mother  of  God.  These 
two  congregations  were  transformed  into  relimous 
orders,  the  one  bv  a  (Constitution  of  Clement  Al  (3 
April,  1710),  and  the  other  by  a  Constitution  of 
Gregory  XV  in  1621 :  but  later,  in  consequence  of  a 
decree  of  the  Spanish  Cortes,  the  Bethlehemites  were 
gradually  extinguished.  Institutes  improperly  called 
religious  have  been  approved  since  the  seventeenth 
century:  we  have  already  mentioned  the  Oratorians, 
approved  in  1612,  and  the  Priests  of  the  Mission, 
approved  in  1632:  to  these  may  be  added  the  Sul- 
picians,  approved  in  1642,  the  Eudists  in  1643,  and 
the  Secular  Priests  of  the  Venerable  Holzhauser  in 
1680.  For  a  long  time  the  Holy  See,  while  approving 
the  constitutions  of  nuns,  refused  to  recognize  the 
institutes  themselves.  The  approbation  formerly 
contained  certain  qualifying  words,  ''citra  approba- 
tionem  conservatoni"  ("without  approbation  of  the 
institute ' ' ) ,  which  have  now  disappeared.  Ordinarily 
the  Holy  See  proceeds  by  steps;  it  requires  first  that 
the  institute  shall  have  existed  for  some  time  under 
the  approbation  of  the  ordinaiy,  then  it  approves  the 
constitutions  for  some  years,  and  last  of  all  grants  a 
final  approbation.  Religious  congregations  also  re- 
ceive a  cardinal  protector,  whose  omce  is  more  im- 
portant in  the  case  of  an  institute  of  nuns. 

(ii)  Authority  of  the  Ordinary. — ^Although  es- 
tablished under  pontifical  government,  religious  con- 
gregations are  not  free 'from  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
diocesan  ordinary.  Congregations  of  men  owe  him 
the  common  obedience  of.  all  the  faithful,  and  of 
clerics,  if  their  members  are  tonsured  or  in  Holy 
orders.  Use,  rather  than  positive  law,  permits  the 
superiors,  bein^  priests,  to  consider  themselves  as 
quasi-parish  pnests  of  their  religious  subordinates. 
For  confessions  even  of  their  own  subjects,  they  must 
be  delegated  by  the  bishop;  and  all  i^)proved  con- 
fessors of  the  diocese  may  absolve  these  religious,  who 
are  subject  also  for  reserved  cases  to  diocesan  law. 
The  temporal  administration  is  withdrawn  from  the 
authority  of  the  ordinary:  this  is  the  case  idso  with 
institutes  of  nuns.  Certain  institutes  are  entirely 
exempt  from  episcopal  jurisdiction;  such  are  the 
Passionists,  the  Missionary  Fathers  of  the  Sacred 
Hearts,  or  Picpus  Fathers,  and  the  Redemptorists. 
Without  being  strictly  prelates,  the  superiora  of  an 


RBUGIOUS 


759 


REUGIOUS 


exempt  institute,  bein^  priests,  receive  from  the  Holy 
See  the  power  of  jurisdiction  in  addition  to  the  govern- 
ing power  belonging  to  all  superiors,  male  or  female. 
(For  a  comparison  of  these  religious  with  regulars 
properly  so  called  see  the  dissertation  of  Fr.  Sals- 
mans,  S.J.  in  Vermeersch,  "Periodica  de  relig. 
et  miss.,''  V,  p.  33).  It  is  to  be  remarked  that  the 
exemption  of  the  convent  does  not  alwavs  imply  the 
exemption  of  the  church.  Sometimes  the  authority 
of  a  superior-general  of  a  congregation  of  men  ex- 
tends to  a  congregation  of  sisters  of  a  similar  institute; 
but  in  practice  the  Holy  See  no  longer  approves  of  any 
but  independent  congregations.  Whether  exempt 
or  not,  congregations  may  never  be  established  in  a 
diocese,  and  may  not  open  a  new  house,  without  the 
permission  of  the  bishop. 

(iii)  Organization  of  the  Institute. — Concp'egations 
approved  by  the  Holy  See  have  the  organization  of 
rehi^ious  orders:  and  the  less  rigorous  enclosure  of 
institutes  with  simple  vows  even  permits  the  sisters 
to  be  organized  in  the  same  manner  as  orders  of  men. 
We  find  then  at  the  head  of  the  institute  a  superior- 
general  assisted  by  a  council,  which,  in  the  more 
important  matters,  must  approve  the  measures  pro- 
posed; then  ordinarily  provincial  superiors  with  their 
councils,  and  local  superiors.  The  superior-general, 
his  councillors,  and  the  procurator-general  are  always 
appointed  by  the  general  chapter.  In  flict,  in  con- 
^egatiqns  as  in  religious  orders,  the  general  chapter 
18  the  supreme  power.  It  can,  however,  neither  chanee 
the  constitutions  nor  make  laws  properly  so  called; 
its  orders  remain  in  force  until  the  chapter  following. 
The  general  chapter  meets  for  the  election  of  the 
superior-general;  if  this  takes  place  only  every  twelve 
years,  there  may  be  a  meeting  of  the  chapter  after 
six  years  for  the  transaction  of  business.  With  this 
exception,  the  chapter  is  not  summoned  without  the 
consent  ot  the  Holy  See.  Besides  the  general  and  his 
councillors,  the  secretary-general,  procurator-gen- 
eral, provincials,  and  two  delegates  appointed  by  the 
provincial  chapter  take  part  in  this  chapter.  If  the 
congregation  is  not  divided  into  provinces,  the 
superiors  of  important  houses  and  one  delegate  from 
each  house  t^e  the  place  of  the  provinciab  and  dele- 
gates of  the  provincial  chapter.  The  latter  consists 
of  the  provincial,  his  councillors,  and  the  superiors 
of  important  houses,  aacompanied  by  a  delegate  from 
each  house.  The  provincial  chapter  has  ordinarily 
no  other  appointment  to  make  than  that  of  delegates 
to  the  chapter  general.  This  chapter  receives  the 
accounts  of  the  general  administration,  elects  by 
secret  ballot  the  general  and  his  assistants  or  coun- 
cillors, and  deliberates  over  all  important  flairs  of 
the  congregation.  Sometimes  the  sovereign  pontifif, 
who  may  appoint  directly  to  all  offices,  reserves  to 
himself  the  right  to  confirm  the  nommation  of  the 
superior-general.  The  latter  is  generally  elected  for 
six  or  twelve  years:  in  the  Society  of  the  Sacred 
Heart,  the  election  is  for  life.  Ordmaril^r  he  makes 
provision  in  his  council  for  eJI  charges  which  are  not 
within  the  discretion  of  the  chapter  general.  Every 
three  years  he  is  bound  to  submit  to  the  Holy  See 
an  account  in  the  form  prescribed  by  the  Decree  of 
16  June,  1906. 

Whether  a  priest  or  not,  the  superior,  as  head  of  the 
house,  has  authority  over  all  who  live  in  it,  and  de- 
rives irom  the  vow  of  obedience  his  power  to  command 
according  to  the  approved  constitutions.  He  is 
recommended,  especially  if  he  is  not  a  superior-gen- 
eral or  provincial,  to  make  moderate  use  of  nis  faculty 
to  command  in  virtue  of  holy  obedience.  Sometimes 
even  he  can  do  this  only  in  writing.  Although  he 
controls  the  temporal  administration,  the  Holy 
See  requires  that  a  separate  person  shall  have  charge 
of  the  accounts,  even  in  the  nouses,  and  that  a  third 
shall  deal  with  en)enditures.  The  Holy  See  insists 
also  that  all  valuables  shall  be  kept  in  a  chest  with  a 


triple  lock,  so  that  it  can  be  opened  only  by  means  of 
three  separate  keys,  which  are  to  be  kept  by  the 
superior,  the  procurator,  and  one  of  the  councillors. 
In  respect  of  their  temporal  administration,  the  con- 
gregations are  independent  of  the  bishop,  but  they 
are  Dound  to  observe  the  rules  prescribed  by  the  Holy 
See,  especially  the  precautions  taken  for  the  preserva- 
tion of  dowries  and  other  funds  (see  the  Decree 
" Inter  ea"  of  30  July,  1909,  Vermeersch,  "Periodica", 
33 1 ,  V,  p.  1 1 ) .  Even  without  belonging  to  an  exempt 
congregation,  the  superior,  if  a  priest,  obtains  without 
difficulty  the  faculty  of  giving  his  subjects  dimissorial 
letters  for  ordinations;  and  if  such  faculty  is  granted 
him,  then,  in  respect  of  the  certificates  to  be  delivered, 
the  competent  bishop  etc.,  the  rules  are  the  same  for 
congregations  as  for  religious  orders. 

We  have  treated  of  the  admission  of  subjects^  the 
novitiate,  and  simple  profession  imder  the  titles: 
Novice  j  Postulant;  and  Profession,  Religious. 
Ordinarily,  and  alwajrs  in  the  more  recent  orders, 
temporary  vows  for  some  yeaxs  preceded  perpetual 
vows:  these  vows,  even  temporary,  are  reserved  to 
the  Holy  See.  While  the  superior  has  the  power  to 
dismiss  religious  who  have  not  made  perpetual  vows, 
he  has  not  sdways  the  power  to  release  them  from  their 
obligations,  ana  in  that  case  it  is  necessary  to  have 
recourse  to  the  Holy  See.  Religious  who  have  re- 
ceived any  of  the  maior  orders  in  the  institute,  and 
those  who  have  maae  perpetual  vows,  cannot  be 
dismissed  without  the  formalities  prescribed  for  the 
dismissal  of  persons  professed  with  solenm  vows. 
Dismissal  involves  a  suspeni^on  which  is  reserved  to 
the  Holy  See;  and  the  voluntary  departure  of  a  re- 
ligious who,  as  a  religious,  has  been  admitted  to  Holy 
orders,  even  of  one  whose  temporary  vows  have  ex- 
pired, is  not  regular  unless  he  has  found  a  bishop  and 
means  of  subsistence.  The  sanction  is  the  same  as  for 
one  professed  with  simple  vows  in  a  religious  order. 
Secularization  is  seldom  granted  to  members  of  a 
religious  congregation,  but  recourse  is  had  to  dis- 
pensation from  vows.  Migration  from  one  congrega- 
tion to  another  cannot  take  place  without  the  con- 
sent of  the  Holy  See,  and  it  is  usual  to  ask  for  that 
consent  before  entering  a  religious  order,  though 
there  is  no  law  forbidding  such  entrance. 

(d)  Religious  Congregations  under  Episcopal  Au- 
thority.—(i)  Approbation. — After  the  Constitutions 
of  St.  Pius  V,  which  were  opposed  to  simple  vows, 
the  Holy  See  could  only  tolerate  congregations  with- 
out solemn  vows.  Such  congregations  naturally 
desired  to  be  under  the  control  of  some  ecclesiastical 
authority,  which  could  only  be  that  of  the  bishop: 
by  degrees  a  custom  grew  up  which  gave  bishops 
an  incontestable  ri^ht  to  approve  religious  congre- 
gations, and  this  right  received  express  recognition 
from  the  Constitution  "Conditae"  of  Leo  XIII  (8 
Dec.,  1900),  the  first  part  of  which  is  wholly  devoted 
to  the  diocesan  congregations:  its  first  articles  contain 
a  solemn  warning  against  the  rash  creation  of  new 
ones,  and  any  excessive  increase  in  their  number. 
More  recently  the  Motu  proprio  "Dei  providentis" 
(16  July,  1906)  declared  the  necessity  of  pontifical  au- 
thorization before  any  episcopal  approbation.  When 
it  is  desired  to  form  a  new  congregation,  the  ordinary 
forwards  to  the  Sacred  Congregation  of  Religious 
the  name  of  the  founder,  the  object  of  the  foundation, 
the  name  and  title  chosen  for  the  new  institute,  a 
description  of  the  habit  to  be  worn  by  the  novices 
and  professed  members,  the  work  to  be  undertaken, 
the  resources,  and  the  names  of  similar  institutes 
existing  in  the  diocese.  When  once  the  consent  of 
Rome  has  been  obtained,  the  bishop  may  authorize 
the  institute,  respecting  all  things  decreed  by  the 
Holy  See;  and  in  revismg  the  constitutions,  he  will 
take  care  that  they  are  always  in  conformity  with  the 
Norms  of  1901.  It  is  to  be  remarked  that  in  the 
Decree  of  1906,  the  expression  "religious  institute" 


RELIGIOUS 


760 


RBUGIOUS 


\ 


has  a  very  wide  meaning,  and  by  the  terms  of  that 
Decree,  this  procedure  is  to  be  followed  for  all  as- 
sociations, whose  members  have  a  distinctive  name 
and  habit,  and  devote  themselves  to  their  own  per- 
sonal perfection,  or  to  works  of  piety  or  chanty: 
vows  are  not  required.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
institute  thus  formed  remains  episcopal;  the  or- 
dinaries exercise  over  it  all  the  rights  mentioned  in 
the  Constitution  ''Conditce"  (ch.  i),  except  the  right 
to  modify  anything  that  the  Holy  See  has  specially 
laid  down. 

(ii)  Authority  of  the  bishop. — This  (Constitution 
formulates  the  principle  of  full  and  exclusive  sub- 
mission to  the  bishop;  from  which  we  conclude  that 
the  rights  of  the  bishop  are  limited  only  by  the  prin- 
ciple of  natural  justice  and  equity,  which  demands 
respect  for  acquired  rights;  by  the  nature  of  the  in- 
stitute, which  must  give  its  religious  the  means  of 
making  progress  towards  perfection  according  to  the 
precepts  of  the  Gospel;  and  by  the  plain  exceptions 
of  pontifical  law.  We  say  'Hhe  plain  exceptions", 
because  Decrees  of  the  Holy  See,  which  do  not  clearly 
refer  to  diocesan  institutes,  only  gjve  directions  to 
bishops  without  restraining  their  power;  moreover, 
in  the  immense  variety  of  cases,  prescriptions  which 
are  useful  to  institutes  under  pontifical  government 
would  be  very  troublesome  to  those  whose  life  is 
diocesan;  and  the  latter  in  the  immediate  control 
of  the  bishop  often  find  the  same  security  that  the 
Holy  See  se^.  to  g^ve  by  a  new  regulation  to  congre- 
gations dependent  upon  itself. 

We  have  now  to  distinguish  between  diocesan  and 
intwdiocesan  institutes. — (a)  Diocesan  Institutes. — 
Congregations  which  exist  in  but  one  diocese  are  de- 
pendent only  on  a  single  bishop:  he  approves  the 
institute,  authorises  the  erection  of  new  nouses;  may 
forbid  the  extension  of  the  institute  into  another  dio- 
cese, and  may  for  sufficient  reasons  close  a  house,  or 
suppress  the  institute  itself:  but  he  must  take  care, 
during  the  lic^uidation.  not  to  violate  the  canonical 
laws  concerning  the  oisposal  and  alienation  of  ec- 
cleiSastical  property.  He  may  receive  subjects  him- 
self, visit  the  houses  to  inquire  into  the  rehgious  dis- 
cipline and  temporal  administration,  and  reserve  to 
himself  the  approval  of  the  most  important  acts. 
The  Constitution  "  Condi t®"  requires  the  superior 
in  a  convent  of  women  (and  we  may  say  the  same  of 
male  superiors)  to  be  appointed  by  election;  the 
bishop  may  not  only  preside  at  the  election,  but  also 
confirm  or  annul  it:  and  when  any  grave  cause  pre- 
vents the  holding  oi  a  regular  election,  he  may,  wniie 
awaiting  a  favourable  opportunity  for  assemblins 
the  electors,  even  make  provision  for  the  internal 
government  of  the  institute.  He  is  bound,  however, 
except  in  case  of  express  provision  in  the  constitu- 
tions, to  leave  the  hands  of  the  superior  free  to  ad- 
minister the  institute  and  even  to  transfer  the  mem- 
bers (Reply  of  the  Congregation  of  Bishops  and  Reg- 
ulars, 9  April,  1895).  (jS)  Interdiocesan  Institutes. 
— If  the  institute  has  houses  in  several  dioceses,  each 
bishop  has  authority  over  the  houses  in  his  own  dio- 
cese; the  consent  of  all  is  necessary  to  touch  the  in- 
stitute itself.  Ordinarily  the  difficulties  which  may 
be  created  by  this  situation  may  be  removed  by  ask- 
ing for  pontifical  approbation  for  the  institute.  Often 
alw  the  bishop  of  the  diocese  of  origin,  in  order  to 
prevent  difficulties  and  disputes,  refuses  to  allow  the 
extension  into  other  dioceses,  unless  it  is  agreed  that 
he  shall  have  full  authority  over  the  reugious  life 
of  the  institute.' 

(e)  Superior.  Vows,  Ordination. — In  institutes 
under  episcopal  authority  the  ordinary  jurisdiction 
is  vestea  in  the  bishop,  never  in  the  superior:  the 
latter  has  the  ruling  power  which  is  given  him  by  the 
vows,  and  the  internal  authority  which  he  possesses 
as  head  of  the  house.  The  vows,  except  the  vow  of 
perpetual  chastity,  if  it  has  been  absolutely  taken,  are 


not  reserved  to  the  Holy  See.  The  dismissal  of  sub- 
jects does  not  require  the  formalities  prescribed  by 
the  Decree  ''Auctis  admodum''  (4  Nov.,  1892)  which 
has  been  mentioned  in  connexion  with  onlers  and  con- 
gregations properly  so  called;  and  the  religious  in 
Jtloiy  orders  do  not  incur  the  suspension  inflicted  by 
that  Decree  on  those  who  are  expelled,  or  on  those  who 
depart  voluntarily  without  having  found  a  bishop  or 
means  of  subsistence.  In  fact,  the  members  of  these 
institutes  have  always  their  bishop,  who  has  taken 
the  responsibility  of  ordaining  them.  Exception, 
however,  must  be  made  if  the  institute  has  obtained 
an  indult  permitting  the  superior  to  deliver  to  his 
subjects  letters  of  ordination  which  bind  only  the 
institute:  in  such  a  case  a  subject  who  left  tne  in- 
stitute having  received  major  orders  in  this  manner, 
would  be  suspended  until  he  had  foimd  a  bishop  ana 
means  of  subsistence. 

(f )  Religious  State  of  the  Members. — The  question 
has  been  raised  whether  members  of  an  episcopal  in- 
stitute are  really  in  the  religious  state,  provided,  be  it 
imderstood*,  that  they  are  boimd  by  the  three  per- 
petual vows  of  poverty,  chastity,  and  obedience. 
Our  answer  is  in  the  affirmative,  because  the  bishop, 
being  the  ordinary  authority  instituted  by  Christ  him- 
self, truly  gives  canonical  institution  to  the  association. 

B.  Reugious  Rums. — To  complete  our  descrip- 
tion of  the  religious  life,  we  have  now  to  deal  with  the 
rule  or  constitutions  by  which  religious  are  governed. 
(1)  Historiccd  Survey. — In  the  earliest  times,  the 
younger  monks  were  accustomed  to  seek  and  follow 
the  ^vice  of  some  older  monk  in  order  to  realiie 
the  ideal  of  monastic  life;  and  very  soon  those  who 
were  renowned  for  their  wisdom  and  holiness  saw 
their  instructions  observed  by  a  large  body  of  dis- 
ciples. Others  drew  up  a  rule  of  life  for  the  use  of 
candidates  for  the  life  of  perfection.  The  necessity 
for  such  a  rule  chiefly  affected  the  cenobites,  for  w^hom 
it  was  necessaiy  also  to  organise  common  life  and  a 
hierarchic^  constitution. 

The  first  rules  were  plans  of  perfect  life,  with  de- 
tails differing  according  to  persons,  times,  and  places, 
but  framed  upon  the  Gospel  as  their  common  fun- 
damental rule.  The  first  monks  found  their  first 
rule  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  iv,  32-5,  where  we  are 
told  how  the  owners  of  property  voluntarily  gave  it 
up  for  the  benefit  of  the  whole  community:  this  pas- 
sage was  called  the  rule  established  under  the  Apos- 
tles (St.  Possidius,  "Life  of  St.  Augustine'',  c.  v., 
in  P.  L.,  XXXII,  37).  When  intended  for  anchorites, 
the  rules  contained  only  individual  counsels;  those 
intended  for  cenobites  dealt  also  with  the  entrance 
into  the  monastery,  the  probations,  the  hierarchy, 
obedience,  and  common  life.  Sometimes  they  wcae 
codifications  of  received  usa^,  observed  and  sub- 
sequently collected  by  the  disciples  of  some  famous 
monks,  sometimes  they  were  the  authentic  work  of 
the  saint  whose  name  they  bore;  not  to  mention  the 
mixed  character  of  certain  rules  composed  with  the 
help  of  authentic  writings,  but  first  published  with- 
out any  intention  of  makins  them  a  rule  properly  so 
called.  St.  Pachomius  graoually  compiled,  according 
to  the  varying  needs  of  the  times,  a  body  of  rules,  the 
authentic  text  of  which  is  not  now  in  existence;  cer- 
tain MSS.  give  us  more  information  on  the  subject 
of  the  rules  of  his  disciple,  Schenut.  We  possess  the 
Rule  of  St.  Benedict;  the  Rules  of  St.  Basil  and  St. 
Augustine  are  of  the  mixed  class.  The  answers  of 
St.  Basil  to  the  questions  of  the  monks  form  the  first; 
the  second  consists  in  great  measure  of  extracts  from 
a  letter  addressed  by  St.  Augustine  in  423  to  the  nuns 
of  Hippo  (Ep.  211  in  P.  L.,  XXXIII.  960-^).  Of 
the  first  class  are  the  rules  which  are  circulated  un- 
der the  names  of  Saints  Anthony,  Isaias,  Serapion, 
Macarius,  Paphnutius,  and  others.  We  need  not 
wonder  that  legend  has  attributed  to  some  of  the 
rules  a  superhuman  origin :  the  Rule  of  St.  Pachomius, 


RBUGIOU& 


761 


REUQIOUS 


for  instance^  soon  after  its  appearance,  was  said  to 
have  been  dictated  or  even  wntten  on  tablets  by  an 
angel;  hence  it  acquired  the  name  of  the  "Angel's 
Rule''.  These  rules  had  no  binding  force,  except 
sometimes  for  the  inhabitants  of  a  monastery  during 
the  term  of  their  residence.  In  many  monasteries 
various  rules  were  observed:  the  monastic  life  did 
not  derive  its  unity  from  the  rules. 

As  orders  began  to  approach  more  nearly  to  the 
modem  form,  and  new  ones  were  established  having 
their  own  sp^ial  objects  in  addition  to  religious  pro- 
fession, eacn  institute  had  its  own  rule,  which  was  in 
fact  a  plan  of  life  after  the  spirit  of  the  Gospel,  im- 
posed on  the  religious  to  help  them  work  in  common 
for  the  special  objects  of  their  institute.  Such  a  rule 
is  identified  with  the  institute  itself,  and  the  obli|^a- 
tion  to  persevere  in  the  latter  includes  the  obligation 
to  observe  the  former.  The  rule  takes  this  form 
amon^  the  canons  regular,  and  more  definitely  in  the 
mendicant  orders.  The  Roman  Council  of  1139 
recognized  three  rules,  those  of  St.  Benedict,  St. 
Basil,  and  St.  Augustine;  and  the  Fourth  Council 
of  the  Lateran  (1215)  refused  to  recognize  any  re- 
ligious institutes  which  did  not  observe  a  rule  ap- 
f  roved  by  the  Holy  See.  Innocent  III  and  Honorius 
II  afterwards  approved  the  Rule  of  St.  Francis. 
Thus  a  new  note  was  added  to  the  rule,  the  appro- 
bation of  the  Holy  See;  and  the  rule  became  a  canon- 
ical law,  governing  the  religious,  although  in  the  be- 
ginning it  was  omy  a  private  compilation.  A  new 
step  has  recently  been  taken:  until  1901,  the  Holy 
See  was  content  to  examine  the  laws  of  new  institute 
without  troubling  much  over  details;  but  as  in  the 
progress  of  le^lation  certain  clauses  were  repeated, 
and  new  ones  introduced  in  their  place,  it  was  decided 
hi  1901  to  enact  a  more  uniform  type  of  rule  for  new 
institutes:  thus  the  Normse  of  28  June,  1901,  were 
drawn  up,  to  be  a  common  mould  for  the  formation 
of  all  new  institutes  with  but  few  exceptions.  Hence- 
forth the  rules  will  be  mainl>r  the  work  of  the  Hol^ 
See,  and  all  congregations  will  be,  as  regards  their 
chief  lines,  orgamzed  in  the  same  manner.  The  sub- 
stance of  the  rule  has  also  been  greatly  changed.  In 
the  beginning  it  was  simply  a  short  code  of  asceticism 
with  such  directions  as  were  necessary  for  the  or- 
ganization of  common  life:  and  in  the  orders  properly 
so  called,  there  were  added  to  this  code  the  regulations 
required  by  the  special  object  of  each  institute: 
at  present  asceticbm  and  the  rule  of  life  are  kept 
distinct,  and  the  onlv  things  to  be  treated  of  in  tne 
rule  are  the  points  of  common  observance. 

(2)  Rides  and  ConstUtUions. — In  canonical  language 
we  distin^ish  between  rules  and  constitutions: 
history  easily  explains  this  terminology.  As  already 
statedj  the  Fourth  Council  of  the  Lateran  (1215),  c. 
Ne  mmia.  De  reUgiosis  domibus,  etc.  (iii,  36) 
confirmed  by  the  Second  Council  of  Lyons  (1479)  c. 
Religionum  un.,  ibid,  in  6  (iii,  12)  had  forbidden  new 
foundations  of  orders.  The  prohibition  was  under- 
stood in  this  sense  that  no  order  should  be  con- 
stituted under  a  new  rule;  and  the  sovereign  pontiffs 
themselves  insisted  on  the  adoption  of  an  old  rule  for 
the  institutes  they  approved  Therefore,  following 
the  example  already  set  in  ihe  eleventh  century  by 
St.  Romuald^  who  adapted  the  Rule  of  St.  Benedict 
to  the  eremitical  life,  the  founders  chose  a  rule  already 
received  in  the  Church,  adding  such  prescriptions  as 
were  required  by  the  special  object  of  their  institutes. 
These  prescriptions  were  called  "constitutions''. 
The  term  "rule"  is,  therefore,  at  present  used  only 
to  denote  one  of  the  ancient  rules,  and  more  particu- 
larly the  four  great  rules,  each  of  which  serves  os  a 
fimdamental  law  to  many  institutes,  namely  (1)  the 
Rule  of  St.  Basil,  or  rather  the  collection  of  his  rules 
divided  into  two  classes,  those  expounded  in  detail, 
and  those  more  concise;  (2)  the  Rule  of  St.  Benedict; 
(3)  the  Rule  of  St.  Augustine  formed  with  the  help 


of  his  letter  211  to  nuns,  his  sermons  355  and  356^ 
concerning  the  morals  of  clerics  (P.  L.,  XXXIII, 
35S  sqq.,  and  XXXIX,  1568)  and  some  additions 
of  Ful^entius;  and  lastly  (4)  the  Rule  of  St.  Francis 
of  Assisi,  confirmed  on  29  Nov.,  1223,  by  the  Con- 
stitution "Solet"  of  Honorius  III. 

The  more  recent  laws,  not  only  those  which  con- 
tain decisions  on  special  points,  but  also  those  which 
apply  only  to  particular  orders  or  congregations,  are 
properly  called  constitutions;  the  rule  is  cdways  rec- 
ommended by  its  antiquity:  where  there  exist  both 
a  rule  and  constitutions,  the  rule,  without  having  any 
greater  force,  nevertheless  contains  the  more  general 
and  consequently  more  stable  elements,  which  are 
also  common  to  many  religious  orders  or  congre- 
gations. From  this  point  of  view,  institutes  are 
classified  as  follows:  the  more  ancient  orders,  if  not 
reformed,  have  only  the  rule  of  their  founder;  most 
orders  have  both  rules  and  constitutions,  and  vener- 
ate the  author  of  the  rule  as  a  sort  of  patriarch; 
while  some  orders  and  many  congregations  with 
simple  vows  have  constitutions  which  with  them 
take  the  place  of  a  rule.  The  Rule  of  St.  Basil 
governs  most  monks  of  the  Greek  Rite;  the  Rule  of 
St.  Benedict  is  the  principal  rule  of  the  Western 
Monks;  and  was  called  simply  "the  Rule".  It 
governed  also  some  military  orders,  such  as  those 
of  Alcdntara,  and  the  Templars.  The  Rule  of  St. 
Augustine  is  common  to  tne  canons  regular,  the 
Hermits  of  St.  Augustine,  and  many  institutes  whose 
special  object  required  a  somewhat  less  strict  form 
of  government:  thus  the  Friars  Preachers,  the 
Servites.  and  the  Reli^ous  of  St.  John  of  (jrod  have 
this  rule  besides  their  own  special  constitutions. 
Many  congregations  of  hospitallers  of  both  sexes  are 

fovemed  m  the  same  manner.  The  Rule  of  St. 
'rancis  is  observed  by  the  three  branches  of  his 
first  order;  the  second  order  and  many  congregations 
of  tertiaries  alao  follow  a  rule  of  the  same  saint. 
The  Carmelites,  the  Minims,  the  Society  of  Jesus,  the 
Passionists,  and  the  Redemptorists  all  have  their 
own  constitutions  only. 

(3)  Binding  Farce  of  the  Rule. — At  the  present  day 
the  rules  and  constitutions  are  ecclesiastical  laws, 
and  therefore  oblisatory,  at  least  in  their  preceptive 
parts:  but  the  obligation  varies.  In  the  Rule  of 
St.  Francis,  for  instance,  some  articles  bind  under 
mortal  sin,  others  under  venial  sin;  that  of  the 
Carmelites  binds  under  venial  sin  only:  and  Suares 
considers  (De  reUgione^  VIII,  I,  iii,  n.  8)  that  with- 
out some  special  indication  expressed  or  implied 
in  cases  of  doubt  we  must  presume  a  venial  obliga- 
tion. Apparently  the  Rule  of  St.  Benedict  and 
certainly  the  Constitutions  of  the  Friars  Preachers 
and  the  Society  of  Jesus  do  not  bind  directly,  except 
to  the  ^ceptance  of  the  penance  imposed  for  their 
infringement;  nor  b  this  spontaneous  fulfilment  of 
the  penance  always  binding  in  conscience.  Even 
then,  the  rule  is  a  law,  not  a  pure  counsel :  if  a  religious 
should  profess  himself  independent  of  it,  he  would 
commit  a  grave  offence  against  obedience;  if  he  dis- 
obeys, he  deserves  reproof  and  punishment,  and  it 
rests  with  the  superior  to  impose  under  sin  the  ob- 
servance of  each  point  of  the  rule.  Moreover,  in  the 
motive  which  leads  to  a  violation  of  the  rule,  or  in 
the  effect  of  such  violation,  there  is  ^eneraUy  an  ir- 
regularity which  makes  the  act  a  vernal  sin. 

(4)  Collections  of  Rides. — In  very  early  times,  there 
were  collections  of  rules;  we  may  mention  that  which 
in  the  language  of  the  period,  St.  Benedict  of  Aniane 
(d.  821)  called  the  "Concordia  regularum"^  which 
was  republished  with  additions  by  the  hbrarian 
Holstemus  (d.  1661)  at  Rome  in  1661  and  in  Paris 
in  1663.  Brockie  brought  out  a  more  perfect  edition 
(Augsburg,  1759),  which  is  reproduced  m  P.  L.,  CIII. 
393-700.  Thomas  of  Jesus,  a  Carmelite,  published 
(Antwerp,  1817)  commentaries  on  most  of  the  rules. 


KEuaiotrs  7( 

SOPPLBUBNT. — Perfection    of  the   Different    Reli- 

gioua  Institutes. — If  we  wish  to  compare  the  differ- 
ent religioua  institutes  from  the  point  of  view  of 
their  relative  perfection,  the  excellence  of  the  object 
givea  the  fiist  rank  to  the  mixed  inatitutions,  and  to 
the  contemplative  inatitutes  priority  over  the  active. 
Perfection  depends  upon  the  harraonious  combination 
of  the  means  employed  towards  the  end,  the  qualitFy 
of  the  works  to  winch  the  institute  is  devoted,  and 
even  the  number  of  its  means  of  action.  The  strict^ 
nesB  of  the  observance,  by  putting  further  away  the 
occasions  of  un,  is  another  reason  of  superiority,  and 
above  all,  the  strictness  ot  obedience,  which  ts  now 
considered  as  the  principal  obligation  of  religioua  life. 
However,  by  canon  law,  respect  is  paid  rather  to  the 
outward  austerity  of  the  life,  and  the  Carthusians  are 
considered  the  moat  perfect  from  that  point  of  view. 
Institutes  consisting  of  clerics  and  those  with  eolenm 
vows  have  for  this  reason  a  certain  superiority  over 
lay  institutes  and  those  with  simple  vows. 

Vi.HHIIBHCB,  Dt  rcligiatia  inilifiJu  «  pcrionM,  I  (ed.  2.  1907); 
II  (ed.  4.  19oe):  Ideu,  Ptnodica  {Itom  1905>;  Heimbucbir.  D\t 
OrdtB  and    KaiV'a'^ioTuni   der  kalhalitrJitn   KircA*    (Plderborn, 


RvllgiouB  Ordsn.     See  Rbuoious  Lirs. 
Religioua  Peu»  of  AuffaburK.     See  Rbfobha- 

RellauuiH.— It  would  follow  of  necessity  from 

the  data  given  in  the  article  Rkucs  that  reliquaries — 
by  which  we  understand  in  the  widersense  any  Ixix,  cas- 
ket,  orshrinedestined  for  the  reception  otrefics — must 
e  shape  or  form  almost  from  the  be- 
ginning of  Christiaiiity.  With 
r^ard,  however,  to  tlieir  construc- 
tion, material  etc.  in  the  early 
centuries,  nothing  can  be  stud 
positively.  Even  the  names  by 
which  they  were  known  (,cap»a, 
eapeeUa,  theea,  pyxie,  area  etc.) 
are  quite  general  in  character, 
and  it  seems  certain  that  the  same 
names  also  designated  receptacles 
for  the   Blessed   Eucharist,    the 


cide  in  the  case  of  certain  circular 
ivory  pyxes,  of  which  one  in  the 
Berlin  Museum  is  the  best  known 
and  the  earliest  in  date,  whether 
they  were  or  were   not  used  as 
reliquaries.     Moat  of  tbem  show 
nothing  but  scenes  or  figures  from 
the  GoBpel  in  the  carviaga  with 
which  they  are  abundantly  dec- 
orated, but  as  there  ia  one  which 
depicta  the  martyrdom  and  ex- 
altation of  the  popular  Eg^tian 
martyr  St.  Menaa,  it  aeems  likely 
that  thia  at  least  was  a  reliquary, 
intended  possibly  to  contain  t6e 
oil  from  his  shrine.     This  oil  was 
re  cornmonly  preserved  in  clay 
I    flasks,  of  which  many  still  aur- 
I   vive   in   varioua    European    col- 
I   lections.    Passing  over  the  phials 
REuanART  attached  to  the  tocuit  in  the  cata- 

Freaah.  XIII  Century  COmbs  and  supposed  to  contain 
blood,  ui>on  which  disputed  prob- 
lem sufficient  has  been  said  in  the  article  Ampuii^, 
the  earliest  known  reliquaries  are  probably  certain 
silver  boxes,  two  of  which  {one  circular,  Uie  other 
oval  in  shape)  were  discovered  at  Grado  in  1871  {see 
De  Rossi  in  "Bull,  di  arch,  crist.",  1872,  p.  155). 
Both  of  these,  along  with  various  Christian  emblems, 
bear  inBcripthoB  giving  the  names  ot  swots,  while 


;2  akUQITARIBS 

other  details  confirm  the  view  that  they  must  have 
been  intended  for  relics.  A  very  similar  box,  but  with- 
out inscription,  was  afterwards  found  in  Nuraidia,  and 
is  now  in  the  Vatican  Museum.  It  was  assigned  with 
confidence  by  De 
Rossi  to  the  fifth 
century  (Bullet- 
tino,  1887,  p.  119). 
Still  another  speci- 
men, beyond  alt 
question  intended 
for  relics,  has  come 
to  light  in  the  treas- 
ury of  the  Sancta 
Sanctorum  at  the 
Lateran  (Grisar, 
"  Die  rOnuBche  Ka- 
peile",  108-10). 
These  were  no  doubt 
the  kind  of  capulUe 
argerdta  which  Jus- 
tinian in  619  wi^ed 
to  send  to  Rome  in 
hopes  of  obtaining 
from     Pope     Hor- 

misdas  refios  of  St.  „      ""^."I'V 

Lawrence  and  other  °'™"-  ^^  '^""'^ 

Roman  sainU  (P.  L.,  LXIII,  474).  Of  somewhat 
later  dat«  are  the  pewter  flasks  and  a  Utile  golden 
cross,  or  encolpion,  still  preserved  in  the  treasury 
of  Monza,  and  identified  with  much  probability 
as  presents  sent  by  Gregory  the  Great  to  Queen 
ThM>doIinda.  The  pewter  flasks  cont^ned  oil,  very 
probably  only  that  of  the  lamps  which  burned  Wore 
certain  rehcs  or  in  certain  churches  of  the  Holy  Land. 
The  encolpion,  which  is  a  remarkable  little  piece  of 
jewellery,  3  inches  in  height  by  23^  in  breadth,  has 
figures  and  inscriptions  in  nieUo  and  ia  believed  to 
contain  a  fragment  of  the  True  Cross.  St.  Greeoiy 
in  his  letter  describes  it  as  a  "phylacterium  or 
"crucem  cum  Ugno  sanctse  crucis  Domini".  Other 
small  encolpia  in  the  form  of  crosses,  belonging  ap- 
proximately to  the  aame  period,  are  also  preservwl. 

Of  larger  reliquaries,  or  shrines,  our  oldest  survivmg 
specimens  probably  date  back  to  the  seventh  or  ^ghth 
century.  Among  the  remarkable  objects  preserved 
in  the  treasury  of  St.  Maurice  in  the  Valais  is  a  gabled 
shrine  about  7}i  inches  long,  2)4  broad,  and  634  high. 
It  is  studded  with  atones,  and  hasalai^e  cameo  in  the 
centre,  while  on  a  plate  of  gold  at  the  back  particulars 
are  given  regarding  its  construction  in  honour  of  St. 
Maurice.  This  form  of  gabled  shrine,  which  is  oftoi 
auggeative  of  a  child's  "Noah's  Ark  ,  remained  the 
favourite  type  for  reliquaries  of  importance  during  all 
the  early  Middle  Ages.     Perhaps  the  most  magnificent 

¥iecimen  preserved  is  that  known  aa  the  Shrine  of  the 
hree  Kings  in  the  treasury  of  Colt^ne  Cathedral. 
After  the  storming  of  Milan  (1162)  the  supposed  rehcs 
of  the  Magi  were  carried  off  and  brought  to  Cologne, 
where  a  magnificent  silver  casket,,  nearly  S  feet  lon^ 
and  4)^  feet  high,  was  constructed  for  them.  This 
superb  piece  ot  silversmith's  work  resembles  in  out- 
ward form  a  church  with  a  nave  and  two  aisles.  (X 
much  earlier  date  but  hardly  less  magnificent,  owing 
to  the  profuse  employment  of  enamS  and  gems,  is 
the  Marienschrein  at  Aachen  connected  by  tradition 
with  the  name  of  Charlemagne.  The  Ursula  Shrine 
at  St.  John's  Hospital  in  Bruges  also  retains  the  same 
general  form,  but  here  the  ornament  is  supplied  by 
the  beautiful  paintings  of  Hans  Memling.  Quite 
different  in  type  are  the  reliquary  crosee  mentioned 
by  Gregory  the  Great,  the  uae  of  which  may  be  traced 
back  to  the  fifth  century,  though  they  belong  to  all 
periods  and  have  never  completely  gone  out  of 
fashion.  The  most  venerable  existmg  specimen  is 
undoubtt^ly  the  enamelled  cross  preserved  in  the 
Sancta  Sajictorum  of  the  Lateran  and  recently  de- 


BEICBSIAHA  7( 

scribed  by  Father  Grisar  &nd  by  Lauer.  A  lar^  relic 
of  the  True  Croes  u  probably  still  embedded  in  the 
hollow  of  the  case,  covered  with  a  thick  coating  of  bal- 
Bsm— a  perfumed  unguent  which,  as  the  "liber  Pon- 
tificalis  infomis  us^  was  applied  to  such  reliquaries 
as  a  mark  of  veneration.    Tms  identical  croee  is  prob- 


ISSTl.  Fot  toy  profauDiIcr  sludy  tbc  lepanle  moBOir>plu  uid 
nrtiolea.  of  vhioh  ilmoat  every  KmirkHUe  njiquuyoluiciquitjr 
bu  Bt  mome  lime  formed  Ihe  subject,  should  be  ciiDBuIt«d 

Herbert  THuasTON. 
RemttBiaiM,   titular  see  in   Dacia  Mediteiranea, 

suffragan  of  Sardica.  Remesiana  is  mentioned  by 
the  "Itinerarium  Antonini"  (135),  the  "Itinerarium 
HieroBolymitanum "  (566),  the  "Tabula  Peutinger- 
iana",  the  "Geographus  Ravennatenaia ",  IV,  vii. 
Justinian  rebuilt  and  fortified  it  at  the  same  time 
as  he  established  numerous  fortresses  in  that  vicio' 
ity  (Procopius,  "De  redif,",  IV,  i,  iv).  In  the  sixth 
century  this  city  of  ancieut  Mcesia  was  counted 
among  those  of  Dacia  Mediterranea  (Hieroclefl, 
"Svnecdemus",  deliv,  7).  To-day  it  is  known  as 
Beta  Palanka,  has  1100  inhabitants,  and  is  a  rail- 
way station  between  Nich  and  Pirot  in  Servia. 
RWedana  was  a  suffragan  of  Sardica  (to-day 
Sofia,  capital  of  Bulgaria),  the  civil  and  religious 
capital  01  Dacia  Mediterranea  which  was  under  the 
Patriarchate  of  Rome.  Two  bishops-  are  known: 
Bt.  Nicetas  (q.  v.)  and  Diogenianus,  present  at  the 
Robber  Synod  of  Ephesus  (449).     The  see  must  have 


disappefu^d  ii 


the  sixth  centi 
chn$l,.  II.  3 


iiFAHL 


RsuQDABT  or  St.  Uudu 
DeooTBMd  by  MflmLiDj,  Uospilal  of  St-  Jobp.  Bmgfia 

abty  that  found  by  Pope  Sergius  (687-701)  in  a  corner 
(A  uie  sacristy  of  Si.  Peter's,  and  it  may  posubly  date 
from  the  fifth  century. 

Other  medieval  reuquaries,  of  which  specimens  still 
survive,  took  the  form  of  legs,  arms,  and  particularly 
heads  or  busts.  Perhaps  the  earliest  known  is  a  bust 
from  the  treasury  of  St .  Maurice  in  the  Val^  i  amongst 
the  later  examples  are  such  famous  reliquaries  as  those 
cd^  the  heads  of  the  Apostles,  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul,  at 
the  Lateran,  and  that  of  St,  Januarius  in  Naples  (cf. 
plate  in  The  Catholic  Encyclopedia,  Vlft,  296). 
Under  this  class  we  may  also  mention  the  relic  statues 
which  seem  to  have  been  rather  exceptionally  common 
in  England.  It  is  conceivable  that  some  of  the  prejudice 
of  the  English  Reformers  agmnat  "wonder-working" 
statues  was  due  to  the  practice  of  making  doors  into 
the  hollow  of  such  figures  and  preserving  relics  within 
them.  Sir  Thomas  More  ("WorkH",  London,  1557, 
p.  192)  describes  a  case  in  which  such  a  hiding-place 
for  relics  was  unexpectedly  discovered  in  the  Abbey  of 
Barking.  Lastly  it  will  be  sufficient  to  point  out  Uiat 
relics  have  at  ail  times  been  kept  in  simple  caskets  oc 
boxes,  varying  indefinitely  in  size,  material,  and  or- 
namentation. In  more  modem  times  these  are  in- 
variably secured  by  a  seal,  and  the  contents  indicated 
in  a  formal  episcopal  act  of  authentication,  without 
which  it  is  not  lawful  to  expose  the  relics  for  public 
veneration.  The  silver  box  containing  the  head  of 
St.  Agnes,  recently  brought  to  light  in  the  treasury  of 
the  Sancta  Sanctorum,  atill  preserved  the  seal  of  some 
cardinal  deacon  affixed  to  it  apparently  at  the  end  of 
the  thirteenth  century.  From  a  graphical  point  of 
view  the  illustrations  of  reliquaries  in  the  early  Ger- 
man "Heiligthums-Bficher",  published  in  connexion 
wilh  various  famous  shrines,  e.  g.  Einsiedein,  Wittem- 
berg,  Halle  ete,  are  particularly  interesting. 

^  Probably  Ihe  mMl  luelul  irork  il  GriB:IB,  Die  rimitcU  KaptUn 


Patin.  Nicrta,  BUehof  nm  Remaiana  (Munkh,  1909).  4. 

S.  P^THmfce. 

Bainigiua,  St.,  Apostle  of  the  Franks,  Archbishop 
of  Reims,  b.  at  C^y  or  Laon,  437;  d.  at  Reims, 
13  January,  553.  His  feast  is  celebrated  1  October. 
His  father  was  Emile,  Count  of  Laon,  He  studied 
literature  at  Reiuis  and  soon  became  so  noted  for 
learning  and  sanctity  that  he  was  elected  Arch- 
bishop of  Reims  in  his  twenty-second  year.  Thence- 
forwu^  his  chief  aim  was  the  propt^ation  of  Chris- 
tianity in  the  realm  of  the  Franks.  The  story  of  the 
return  of  the  sacred  vessels,  which  had  been  stolen 
from  the  Church  of  Soissons  testifies  to  the  friendly 
relations  existing  between  him  and  Clovis,  King  of 


there 

(Paris,  1006). 


Se*a(i  (Froiburs.  19081, 
U  Irtiar  rfu  Sa> 


Sancta  Buo- 
ria  Santtorum 


(Leipsii.  ISSe).  183-211:  Bibqhbb,  Han^meh  dtr  kirM. 
KuiutaUtrtemiT  (Leipiis,  1905).  See  bIm  Dili.  Chri4t.  Antia.. 
A-  T,  Hdi^uary;  Dn  Roabi,  La  cajurUa  rtliquiana  afcicana  m 
Omaoaio  a  Ltont  Xtll  (Rome,  IS8S);  Mounier,  Hia.  t/Mralt 
da  btU  aypli^  i  riTut-utlTit.  ajKi^nWy  IV,  pi.  i  (Puis.  1901): 
FbObner,  CDfucfiani  Ju  cMttau  it  GotiuJuno:  LVj^irii  (Puis, 


the  Franks,  whom  he  converted  to  Christianity  with 
the  assistance  of  St.  Waaat  (Vedastua,  Vaast)  and  St. 
Clotilda,  wife  of  Clovis.  Even  before  he  embraced 
Christianity  Clovis  had  showered  benefits  upon  both 
the  Bishop  and  Cathedral  of  Reims^  and  after  the 
battle  of  Tolbiac,  he  requested  Remigius  to  baptise 
him  at  Reims  (24  December,  4.Wi\  i 


REMIQIUS 


764 


KBMUZAT 


several  bishops  of  the  Franks  and  Alemanni  and  great 
numbers  of  the  Frankish  army.  Clovis  granted 
Remigius  stretches  of  territory,  in  which  the  latter 
estabushed  and  endowed  many  churches.  He  erected, 
with  the  papal  consent,  bishoprics  at  Toumai; 
Cambrai;  Terooanne,  where  he  ordained  the  first 
bishop  in  499;  Arras,  where  he  placed  St.  Waast; 
Laon,  which  he  gave  to  his  nephew  Gunband.  The 
authors  of  "Gallia  Christiana  record  numerous  and 
munificent  donations  made  to  St.  Remigius  by  mem- 
bers of  the  Frankish  nobility,  which  he  presented  to 
the  cathedral  at  Reims.  In  517  he  held  a  synod,  at 
which  aiter  a  heated  discussion  he  converted  a  bishop 
of  Ahan  views.  In  523  he  wrote  congratulating 
Pope  Hormisdas  upon  his  election.  St.  Medardus, 
Bishop  of  Noyon,  was  consecrated  by  him  in  530. 
Although  St.  Remigius^s  influence  over  people  and 
prelates  was  extraordinary,  yet  upon  one  occasion,  the 
nistory  of  which  has  come  down  to  us,  his  course  of 
action  was  attacked.  His  condonement  of  the  offences 
of  one  Claudius,  a  priest,  brought  upon  him  the  re- 
bukes of  his  episcopal  brethren,  who  deemed  Claudius 
deserving  of  degradation.  The  reply  of  St.  Remigius, 
which  is  still  extant,  is  able  and  convincing  (cf .  Laobe, 
"Concilia",  IV).  His  relics  were  kept  in  the  ca- 
thedral of  Reims,  whence  Hincmar  had  them  trans- 
lated to  Epemay  during  the  period  of  the  invasion  by- 
the  Northmen,  thence,  in  1099,  at  the  instance  of 
Leo  IX.  to  the  Abbey  of  Saint-Remy.  His  sermons, 
so  much  admired  by  Sidonius  Apollinaris  (lib,  DC, 
cap.  Ixx),  are  not  extant.  Of  his  other  works  we 
have  four  letters,  the  one  containing  his  defence  in 
the  matter  of  Claudius,  two  written  to  Clovis,  and  a 
fourth  to  the  Bishop  of  Tongres.  According  to  sev- 
eral biographers,  the  Testament  of  St.  Remigius  is 
apocryphfd;  Mabillon  and  Ducange,  however,  argue 
for  its  authenticity.  The  attribution  of  other  works 
to  St.  Remigius,  particularly  a  commentary  upon  St. 
Paul's  Epistles,  is  entirely  without  foundation. 

Ada.  Sand.  I  October,  59-187;  Hist.  liU.  France,  III  (Paris, 
1735),  155-163;  db  Cerizibrs,  Lta  heureux  commencements  de  la 
France  chritienne  soiu  St  Remi  (Reima,  1633) ;  Mabiot,  Tombeau 
de  St  Remi  (Reima,  1647);  Doriqnt,  Vie  de  St  Remi  (Paris, 
1714);  AuBERT.  Vie  de  St  Remi  (Paris,  1849);  Mbter,  Notice 
de  deux  MSS.  de  la  vie  de  St  Rem%  in  Notes  d  extraits  de  MSS., 
XXXV  (Paris.  1895).  117-30;  d'Avbnat,  St.  Remi  de  Reims 
(Lille.  1896);  Caruer,  Vie  de  St  Remi  (Tours.  1896). 

Joseph  Dedieu. 

Remigius  of  Auxerre,  a  Benedictine  monk,  b. 
about  the  middle  of  the  ninth  century ;  d.  908.  Remi- 
gius, or  Remi,  was  a  disciple  of  the  Irish  teacher 
Dunchad  of  Reims,  author  of  a  treatise  on  astronomy, 
and  of  Eric,  or  Heirich,  who  was  himself  a  disciple  of 
Eriugena.  He  taudit  at  the  monastery  of  St-Ger- 
main,  Auxerre,  in  Paris,  and  at  Reims.  He  is  the 
author  of  a  number  of  glossaries  and  marginal  com- 
mentaries on  the  Bible,  on  the  grammar  of  Priscian, 
the  "Opuscula  Sacra'*  of  Boethius,  and  the  "De 
Nuptiis  etc.  **,  of  Martianus  Capella.  He  also  wrote 
a  theological  treatise,  "Ennarationes  in  Psalmos". 
As  a  teacher,  Remigius  interested  himself  in  the  prob- 
lem of  universals,  and  seems  to  have  attempted  a 
compromise  between  the  extreme  Realism  of  Eriugena 
and  the  Anti-Realism  of  his  teacher,  Eric.  He  also 
investigated  the  problem  of  the  origin  of  the  universe 
and  gave  a  Christian  interpretation  to  the  passages 
in  which  Martianus  speaks  of  the  invisible  world  of 
ideas.  His  glosses  are  of  very  great  interest  to  the 
student  of  medieval  Latin  philology. 

De  Wulf,  Hist,  of  Medieval  Phil.,  tr.  Coffey  (New  York. 
1909),  155;  HadrAau,  Hist,  de  la  phil.  scol.,  I  (Paris.  1879),  199 
aqa.;  TuRNBB,  Hist,  of  Phil.  (Boston.  1903).  262  sqq.;  Rand. 
Johannes  ScoUus  (Munich,  190i6),  15  sqq. 

William  Turner. 

Bexniremont,    Vosges,   France,   monasterv   and 

nunnery  of  the  Rule  of  St.  Benedict,  founded  by 

Sts.  Romaricus  and  Amatus  in  620,  on  hills  above  the 

site  where  the  town  now  stands,  whence  the  name 

Binnarici  Mans,  Remiremont.    The  monastery  be- 


came a  priory  of  the  Canons  Regular  of  St.  Augustine 
who,  in  1623,  gave  it  to  the  Benedictines  of  the  Con- 
grogation  of  St.  Vannes.  It  had,  in  1768,  10  monks 
and  a  revenue  of  5500  livres.  During  three  cen- 
turies, the  niumery  was  a  neighbour  of  the  monastery, 
but,  in  910,  as  the  Huns  were  wasting  the  country, 
the  nuns,  with  the  help  of  the  Emperor  Louis  III, 
constructed  a  fortified  convent  in  the  valley.  About 
this  convent  the  town  of  Remiremont  rose,  and  the 
reUcs  of  Sts.  Romaricus  and  Amatus  were  transported 
from  the  monastery  to  the  convent.  Leo  IX  en- 
riched it  with  other  numerous  relics.  In  1057  the 
convent  was  destroyed  by  lire  and  the  nuns  were  dis- 
persed; though  rebuilt  later  it  no  longer  strictly 
observed  the  Rule  of  St.  Benedict.  In  1284,  Uie 
Emperor  Rudolph  married  there  the  Princess  Elisa- 
beth and,  in  1290,  gave  to  the  abbess  the  title  of  a 
princess  of  the  empire.  In  the  beginning  of  the 
sixteenth  century  discipline  was  lax  and  the  nuns, 
without  the  pope's  consent,  declared  themselves 
c&nonesses.  They  did  not  take  the  vows  and  ad- 
mitted only  novices  who  could  ^ve  proof  of  noble 
descent.  (Jatharine  III  of  Lorrame  tried  to  reform 
the  convent,  but  failed.  Anna  of  Lorraine  rebuilt  the 
convent  in  1752.  It  was  suppressed,  as  was  the 
monastery,  during  the  French  Revolution. 

OaUia  Christiana,  XIII  (Paris,  1785).  1416;  MABiUiOif.  LtfUrs 
touchant  le  premier  inditut  de  rcMtaye  de  R.  (Paris.  1687) ;  Guiwot. 
Btude  hidorique  star  Vabbaye  de  R.  (Paris,  1859) ;  Duhamel,  J2da- 
tion  des  empereurs  d  des  dttcs  de  Lorraine  au  r<Utbaye  de  R.  (Eptnal, 
1866) ;  OB  LA.  Rallate.  Le  chapitre  noble  de  R.  in  Revue  du  wumde 
catholique  (1889);   Molimibr.  06^.  Franc.  (Paris.  1890),  219. 

Joseph  Dedieu. 

BemoDStraats.    See  AiuaNiAfnsM 

Remiuat,  Anne-Madeleine,  Venerable,  b.  at 
Marseilles,  29  Nov.,  1696;  d.  15  Feb.,  1730.  At  nine 
years  of  age  she  asked  her  parents  to  be  allowed  to  enter 
the  convent  of  the  Visitation;  the  request  was  granted. 
From  1708  she  began  to  exjperience  severe  sufferings 
which,  during  her  whole  life,  she  bore  patiently  for 
the  salvation  of  souls.  In  1709  her  parents  withdrew 
her,  but  in  1711  she  re-entered  the  convent  and  on 
23  Jan.,  1713.  made  her  profession.  At  this  time  she 
applied  herself  to  prayer,  and  the  ''Spiritual  Retreat" 
written  then  is  a  proof  of  her  progress  in  the  con- 
templative life.  She  experienced  on  17  Oct.,  1713,  a 
"particular  and  extraordinary"  revelation  of  Jesus 
"concerning  the  glory  of  his  Sacred  Heart".  As  the 
repute  of  her  sanctity  became  known,  Anne-Madeleine 
was  consulted  by  many,  and  was  thus  the  means  of 
spreading  devotion  to  the  Sacred  Heart.  Her  in- 
fluence actuated  M^  de  Belsunoe  to  establish  at 
Marseilles  the  Association  of  Perpetual  Adoration  of 
the  Sacred  Heart,  of  which  she  wrote  the  statutes. 
As  Jansenism  ana  a  spirit  of  moral  laxity  had  thai 
invaded  the  town  Anne-Madeleine  suffered  keenly, 
and  in  reparation  inflicted  on  her  body  continual 
mortifications;  when  her  superiors  interdicted  these 
austerities,  she  begged  Our  Lord  to  mortify  her  him- 
self; and  trom  that  day  she  went  inUS  a  painful  de- 
cline, while  her  soul  was  abandoned  to  texnptations. 
In  1720.  during  the  plague  at  Marseilles,  Our  Lord 
enjoined  her  to  institute  a  feast  in  honour  of  the 
Sacred  Heart,  which  Mgr  de  Belsunce  established  on 
22  Oct.,  1720.  From  1722  the  veneration  of  the 
Sacred  Heart  spread  throughout  Provence,  Lyons, 
Rouen,  Constantinople,  Cairo,  Spain,  Louisiana, 
Persia,  Syria,  and  the  Indies  by  her  endeavours.  In 
1888  her  cause  was  submitted  to  the  Sacred  Con- 
gregation, whose  favourable  vote  was  given  on  18 
Dec.,  1890.  Leo  XIII  signed  on  24  Dec.,  1891,  the 
introduction  of  the  cause  of  the  Venerable  servant  of 
God. 

Vie  de  la  Iris  honorie  Setur  Anne- Hiaddeine  Rewnuai  (M*r- 
Beillea.  1700);  Vie  de  Sceur  Anne- Madeleine  RemuMot  (Mar- 
seilles, 1868);  La  VhttrobU  A.  M.  Remuaat  (Lyons,  ISM); 
Lepin;     L'Idie  du  sacrifice  dans   la   rdiffion  ^ri^enne  (Pmw, 

1897).  406-12.  Joseph  Dedibu. 


REMT 


765 


RENAISSANCE 


Bmdj,  Abbbt  of  Saint,  founded  at  Reims  before 
590.  Its  early  history  is  very  obscure;  at  first  a  little 
chapel  dedicated  to  St.  Christopher,  it  obtained  great 
renown  when  it  ac<|uired  the  reucs  of  St.  Remy  in  553, 
and  gifts  poured  in  upon  it  from  pious  donors.  By 
the  ninth  century  the  abbey  poss^sed  about  700  do- 
maii^  and  was  perhaps  the  richest  in  France.  It  seems 
probable  that  secular  priests  were  the  first  guards  of 
the  refics,  but  were  succeeded  by  the  Benedictines. 
From  780  to  945  the  archbishops  of  Reims  were  its 
abbots.  It  was  there  that  Charlemagne  received 
Leo  III.  In  1005  the  Abbot  Aviard  undertook  to 
rebuild  the  Church  of  StrRemy,  and  for  twenty  years 
the  work  went  on  uninterruptedly  but  then  coUaiised. 
The  Abbot  Theodoric  erected  a  magnificent  basilica 
which  in  1049  Leo  IX  dedicated  and  granted  many 
special  pri^e^es.  The  schools  and  the  library  were, 
ouring  the  Middle  Ages,  of  such  great  repute  that 
Alexander  III  wrote  a  commendatory  letter  to  the 
Abbot  Peter.  The  archbishops  of  Reims  and  several 
princes,  Carloman,  Charlemagne's  brother,  Henri 
d'Orl^ass  (d.  about  1653)^  and  several  kings,  Louis 
IV  and  Lothaire.  were  buned  in  the  monastery. 

Among  the  illustrious  men  of  the  abbey  may  be 
mentioned:  Henri  de  Lorraine  (1622-1641),  who 
afliliated,  in  1642.  the  abbey  to  the  Congregation  of 
St.  Maur;  J.  Nicolas  Colbert  (1665),  later  Arch- 
bishop of  Rouen:  Charles  Maurice  le  Tellier  (1680- 
1710);  and  Joseph  de  Rothechouart,  appointed  abbot 
by  the  king  in  1745. 

OaOia  ChHttiana,  IX  (1751)  21»-230:  Vaut.  StaliUa  de 
Vabbaye  de  St-Remy  in  Arch,  legiel.  Reitne,  I  (1844),  165-99; 
QxTiBARD,  Polyplique  de  rabbaye  de  St-Remy  (Paria.  1853); 
PouBSXN,  Monographie  de  Vabbaye  de  Si 'Remy  (Reims.  1854); 
MoumxB,  Ofrit.  Franc.  (Parii,  1890).  194;  Chkyalikb.  Sacn^ 
mentairee  et  martyrolotfee  de  Vabbaye  de  St-Remy  in  Bild.  Liturg., 
VII  (Paris.  19(X)).  305-57;  Lbcbstbb.  Abbayee,  prieurSe  el 
couverUe  d'fufmmea  en  Prance  (Paris,  1902),  12. 

Joseph  Dbdobu. 

lUmalmiance,  The,  may  be  considered  in  a  general 
or  a  particular  sense,  as  (1)  the  achievements  of  what 
is  termed  the  modem  spirit  in  opposition  to  the  spirit 
which  prevailed  during  the  Miaoie  Ages;  or  (2)  the 
revival  of  classic,  especially  of  Greek,  learning  and  the 
recovery  of  ancient  art  in  the  departments  of  sculp- 
ture, painting,  and  architecture,  lost  for  a  thousand 
vears  m  Western  Christendom.  Impossible  though  it 
be  to  separate  these  elements  from  the  whole  move- 
ment into  which  they  enter,  we  may  distinguish  them 
from  it  for  our  present  purpose,  viz.,  to  sum  up  the 
influences,  whetner  good  or  evil,  which  are  traceable- 
to  the  antiaue,  pre-Christian,  or  pagan  world  of 
letters  and  plastic  remains,  as  it  came  to  be  known 
and  studied  from  the  end  of  the  fourteenth  century 
onwards,  in  relation  to  the  Catholic  Church.  For 
ecclesiastical  history  goes  through  periods  analogous 
to  the  changes  brought  about  by  secular  revolutions. 
Roughly  speaking,  the  age  of  the  Fathers  corresponds 
to  the  Imperial  Roman  period,  closing  in  a.  d.  476; 
the  Middle  Ages  occupy  tnose  tumultuous  years  when 
barbarians  turned  Cluistians  were  learning  slowly  to 
be  civilized,  from  476  to  1400;  while  the  modem 
relations  of  Church  and  Stato  benn  with  the  definite 
emergence  of  nationalities  in  the  West,  at  an  era  most 
critical,  signalized  by  the  destruction  of  the  Greek 
Empire,  the  invention  of  printing  from  movable  type, 
the  disooveiy  of  America,  and  all  this  leading  on  to  the 
Protestant  Reformation.  History,  like  life,  is  a  con- 
tinuous web;  its  various  stages  pass  into  one  another 
by  the  finest  degrees.  But  after  the  Great  Schism 
was  healed  by  the  Council  of  Constance  in  1417,  the 
Church,  turning  her  back  once  for  all  on  a  worn-out 
feudalism,  and  no  longer  engaged  in  strife  with 
Teuton  emperors,  found  herself  m  the  presence  of  new 
difficulties,  and  the  character  of  the  times  was  mani- 
festly altered. 

We  are  dwelling  now  in  ti^b  modern  epoch.  The 
BAiddle   Ages  have  become   an   interlude,   clearly 


bounded  on  both  extremities  by  a  more  civilized  or 
humane  idea  of  life,  which  men  are  endeavouring  to 
realize  in  politics,  education,  manners,  literature,  and 
religion.  This  blending  of  widely  dissevered  ages  and 
peoples  by  virtue  of  a  complex  type  into  a  consistent, 
though  greatly  enlarged  historicsJ  system,  has  been 
due  to  the  Renaissance,  taken  as  a  whole.  A  glance 
at  the  map  will  remind  us  of  the  striking  fact  that  Chris- 
tianity is  bound  up  in  space  no  less  than  in  time  with 
the  Greek  and  Roman  World.  It  has  never  yet  flour- 
ished extensively  outside  these  borders,  except  in  so 
far  as  it  subdued  to  ancient  culture  the  tribes  to  which 
it  offered  the  Gospel.     There  is  a  mysterious  and 

Erovidential  link,  recognized  in  the  New  Testament 
y  St.  Paul,  St.  John,  and  St.  Peter,  between  Rome 
as.  the  head  of  secular  dominion  and  the  visible  King- 
dom of  Christ.  Roman  law  protected  as  well  as  per- 
secuted the  disciples;  Greek  philosophy  lent  its  terms 
to  Catholic  dogma.  The  School  of  Alexandria,  taught 
by  Clement  and  Origen,  did  not  scruple  to  quote 
Athenian  literature  in  illustration  of  revealed  truths. 
St.  Gregory  of  Nazianzus  wrote  Greek  poems  in  a 
style  which  was  moulded  on  the  classic  trag^ians. 
There  was  always  in  the  West  a  Puritan  spirit,  of 
which  froni  Tertullian  and  Novatian  down  to  the 
Spanish  Priscillian  we  may  note  examples;  but  the 
saints  who  established  our  tradition— Cyprian,  Au- 
gustine, Jerome — ^held  more  tolerant  views;  and 
though  St.  Jerome  felt  compunctious  visitings  for  the 
days  and  nights  he  had  given  to  Plautus  or  Cicero, 
his  own  diction  is  severely  classic.  His  Latin  Vulgate, 
also,  while  it  obeys  the  constmction  of  the  Hebrew^ 
is  written  in  cultivated,  not  in  rustic,  language.  St. 
Gregory  the  Great  despised  grammar  as  a  subordinate 
accomplishment,  but  was  himself  a  good  scholar. 

The  loss  of  Greek  authors  and  the  decline  of  Church 
Latin  into  barbarism  were  misfortunes  in  a  universal 
ruin;  neither  of  these  events  was  the  consequence  of  a 
deliberate  break  with '^antiquity.  Latin  and  Greek 
had  become  sacred  languages;  the  Western  and  East- 
em  liturgies  carried  them  with  Holy  Scripture  wher- 
ever they  went.  Catholic  Rome  was  Latm  by  ti^- 
tion  and  by  choice.  No  German  diiJect  ever  attained 
to  the  pnvileges  of  the  sanctuary  which  St.  CyriU 
won  for  the  Old  Slavic  from  Pope  Nicholas  I.  Under 
these  circumstances,  a  revival  of  learning,  so  soon  as 
the  West  was  capable  of  it,  might  have  been  foreseen. 
And  it  was  equally  to  be  anticipated  that  the  Vatican 
would  not  reject  a  movement  of  reconciliation,  akin 
to  that  whereby  so  many  of  the  ancient  usages  had 
been  long  ago  adapted  to  Christian  ends.  Speaking 
of  the  second  century,  Walter  Pater  observes:  "What 
has  been  on  the  whole  the  method  of  the  Church,  as  a 
'power  of  sweetness  and  patience',  in  dealing  with 
matters  Hke  pagan  art,  pagan  literature,  was  even 
then  manifest.''  There  nad  been,  at  that  day,  an 
"earlier  and  unimpeachable  Renaissance".  The 
Catholic  principle,  m  accordance  with  its  name, 
assimilates,  purifies^  consecrates,  all  that  is  not  sin, 
provided  tnat  it  will  submit  to  the  law  of  holiness. 
And  the  central  classic  authors,  on  whose  study  liberal 
education  has  been  set  up  from  the  a^e  of  Aristotle 
among  Greeks,  from  the  Augustan  era  m  Rome,  were 
happily  amenable  to  this  cleansing  baptism.  As  a 
literature,  the  chief  schoolbooks  were  singularly  free 
from  moral  deformities;  their  teaching  fell  short  of 
the  New  Testament;  but  it  was  often  heroic,  and  its 

Serils  admitted  of  correction.  Newman  happily 
escribes  Grseco-Roman  civilization  as  "the  soil  in 
which  Christianity  grew  up".  And,  Pater  concludes 
that  "it  was  by  the  bishops  of  Rome  .  .  .  that  the 

Sath  of  what  we  must  call  humanism  was  thus  de- 
ned",  as  the  ideal,  namely,  of  a  perfect  training  in 
wisdom  and  beauty.  Quite  in  unison  with  such  a 
temper  of  mind.  Pope  Leo  X  in  1515  wrote  to  Bero- 
aldo,  the  editor  of  Tacitus:  "Nothing  more  excellent 
or  useful  has  been  given  to  men  by  the  Creator,  if  we 


RENAISSANCE 


766 


RENAISSANCE 


except  the  true  knowledge  and  worehip  of  BjnmeU, 
than  these  studies." 

When,  therefore,  Nicholas  V  (1447-55)  founded  the 
Vatican  Library,  ms  act  was  inspired  by  the  tradition 
of  the  Holy  See,  deservedly  known  as  the  nursing- 
mother  of  schools  and  universities,  in  which  the  seven 
''liberal  arts"  had  always  been  taught.  Paris,  the 
greatest  of  them,  had  received  formal  recognition  in 
1211  from  Innocent  III.  Between  the  years  1400  and 
1506  we  may  reckon  some  twenty-eight  charters 
granted  by  the  popes  to  as  many  universities,  from 
St.  Andrews  to  AlcaJ^,  and  from  Caen  and  Poitiers  to 
Wittenberg  and  Frankfort-on-the-Oder.  But  Human- 
ism was  propas^ted  chiefly  from  Italian  centres  and 
by  Itidian  or  Greek  professors.  We  must  bear  in 
mind  a  fact  which  is  often  lost  sight  of,  that  the 
Scholastic  philosophy  had  never  taken  deep  root  in  the 
Peninsula,  and  that  its  masters  chiefly  flourished 
north  of  the  Alps.  Alexander  of  Hales,  Scotus,  Middle- 
ton,  Occam,  were  Britonsj  Albert  the  Great  was  a 
German:  St.  Thomas  Aquinas,  his  disciple,  taught  at 
Pans.  On  the  other  hand,  that  renaissance  of  Roman 
Law  which  enabled  Frederick  Barbarossa  and  his 
successors  to  withstand  the  papacy,  began  with 
Irnerius  at  Bologna.  Again,  it  was  Petrarch  (1303- 
1374)  who  inaugurated  the  far-reaching  movement 
which  claimed  for  literature,  i.  e.,  for  poetry,  rhetoric, 
history^  and  all  their  branches,  the  rank  hitherto 
maintained  by  logic  and  philosophy;  Dante,  who 
cr>'stidlizes  the  '^Summa']  of  St.  Thomas  in  mirac- 
ulous verse,  remains  medieval;  Petrarch  is  modem 
precisely  by  this  difference,  although  we  must  not 
fancy  him  opposed  to  Church  or  Bible.  Now  when 
Greek  manuscripts  were  eagerly  sought  after,  and 
when  Cicero  dictated  the  canons  of  Latin  style,  the 
syUogiam  with  its  arena  of  disputation  could  not  but 

§ive  place  to  the  orator's  chair  and  the  secretary's 
esk.  Not  science  but  life  was  the  end  of  study.  We 
remark  no  considerable  achievement  in  metaphysics 
until  the  culminating  period,  both  of  Humanism  and 
the  Reformation,  had  passed  awav. 

In  1455  the  library  of  Pope  Nicholas  contained  824 
Latin  and  352  Greek  manuscripts.  In  1484,  at  the 
death  of  Sixtus  IV,  the  Greek  MSS.  had  increased  to 
one  thousand.  From  the  catalo^es  we  infer  that 
much  interest  was  taken  in  collecting  the  great  Fath- 
ers, the  canon  law,  and  medieval  theology.  Nicholas 
owned  the  famous  Vatican  Codex  (B)  of  Holy  Scrip- 
ture; Sixtus  had  in  his  possession  fifty-eight  bibles 
or  parts  of  bibles.  Cardinal  Bessarion  gave  his  mag- 
nificent stock  of  books  to  St.  Mark's,  Venice;  and  the 
Medicean  Library,  collected  at  Florence,  where  it 
still  reposes  (the  Laurentian),  was  for  a  while  trans- 
ferred to  Rome  by  Clement  VII.  At  Basle  the 
Dominican  cardinal,  John  of  Ragusa,  left  important 
Greek  MSS.  of  parts  of  the  New  Testament,  which 
were  used  by  Reuchlin  and  Erasmus  with  advantage. 
These  illustrations  may  sufi&ce  to  indicate  the  move- 
ment, becoming  umversal  throughout  Catholic 
Europe,  towards  recovery  from  aU  sides  of  the  treas- 
ures of  the  past.  Another  and  most  important  step 
was  to  print  that  which  had  been  so  recovered.  Print- 
ing was  a  German  invention.  The  local  ordinaries 
and  religious  houses  favoured  it  greatly.  Cloisters 
became  the  home  of  the  Press;  among  them  we  may 
quote  Marienthal  (1468),  St.  Ulrich,  at  Augsburg 
(1472),  the  Benedictines  at  Bamberg  (1474).  Typog- 
raphy was  introduced  at  Brussels  in  1474  by  the 
Brothers  of  the  Common  Life.  They  called  themselves 
''preachers  not  in  word  but  in  type".  And  the  early 
printed  books  in  Germany  were  of  a  popular  devo- 
tional, educational,  and  Biblical  character. 

To  the  Renaissance  in  its  opening  stage  the  honour 
Ix'longs  of  scattering  broadcast  the  printed  Latin 
"A'ulgate  as  well  as  translations  of  it  in  most  European 
languages,  of  course  with  approval  from  the  Church. 
Ninety-eight  complete  editions  of  the  Vulgate  were 


sent  out  before  1500;  a  dozen  editions  preceded  Uie 
appearance  in  type  of  any  Latin  classic.  The  first 
book  produced  by  Gutenberg  was  that  exceedingly 
beautiful  "42-line"  Bible  according  to  St.  Jerome^ 
version  afterwards  known  as  the  Mazarine  Bible  and 
still  extant  in  several  copies.  The  first  dated  Bible 
came  out  at  Mainz  in  1462;  the  first  VeneUan,  in 
1475,  was  followed  by  twenty-one  editions.  The 
Hebrew  text  was  printed  at  Sondno  and  Naples 
between  1477  and  1486;  the  Rabbinic  Bible  was  dedi- 
cated at  Venice  to  lioo  X  in  1517.  Cardinal  Ximenes 
renewed  the  labours  of  Origen  by  his  Polyglot  of 
AlcaU,  1514-22,  which  includfed  the  Greek  New  Tes- 
tament. But  Eraonus  anticipated  its  publication  by 
an  indifferent  text  in  1516.  Aldus  prmted  the  Sep- 
tuagint  in  1518.  As  regards  translations  on  the  Cath- 
olic side,  they  went  on  before  and  after  Luther,  from 
the  Spanish  of  Boniface  f'errer  in  1405  to  the  English 
of  Douai  in  1609.  All  these  were  printed;  but  gpace 
will  not  allow  more  than  a  reference  to  the  details 
here,  or  to  the  changes  in  policy  brought  about,  in 
consequence  of  heretical  translations  and  the  abuse 
of  Scnpture-reading,  under  Paul  IV  and  the  Council 
of  Trent.  During  the  period  commonly  assigned  to 
the  Renaissance  at  its  height  (1453-1527),  fieedom 
was  the  rule.  Nicholas  V  had  it  in  mind  to  make 
Rome  the  intellectual  centre  of  the  worid.  His  suc- 
cessors entered  largely  into  the  same  idea.  Pius  II 
(Piccolomini)  was  a  man  of  letters,  not  unlike  the 
great  Erasmus.  Paul  II,  thou^  severe  upon  neo- 
pagans,  such  as  Pomponazzo,  did  not  condemn  the 
Classical  movement.  Alexanaer  VI  was  a  statesman, 
not  a  scholar  and  not  an  Italian.  The  fierce  and 
splendid  Julius  II,  himself  without  culture,  gave 
commissions  to  Raphael  and  Michelangelo,  but 
openly  despised  the  pedants  about  his  court.  From 
Leo  X  his  age  receives  its  title — ^he  was  "the  incarna- 
tion of  the  Renaissance  in  its  most  brilliant  form". 

An  extraordinary  enthusiasm  for  antiquity  had  set 
in,  combined  with  boundless  freedom  of  opinion,  with 
a  laxity  of  morals  which  has  ever  since  given  scandal 
to  believers  and  unbeUevers  alike,  and  with  a  festal 
magnificence  recalling  the  days  and  nights  of  Nero's 
"golden  house".  The  half-eentuiy  which  ends  in  the 
sack  of  Rome  by  Lutheran  soldiers,  however  dazzlmg 
from  a  scenic  point  of  view,  cannot  be  dwelt  on  with 
satisfaction  by  any  Catholic,  even  when  we  have  dis- 
counted the  enormous  falsehoods  long  current  in 
historians  who  accepted  satires  and  party  statements 
at  their  own  value.  Churchmen  in  nigh  places  wer^ 
constantly  unmindful  of  truth,  justice,  purity,  self- 
denial;  many  had  lost  all  sense  of  Christian  ideals; 
not  a  few  were  deeply  stained  by  pagan  vices.  The 
temper  of  ecclesiastics  like  Bembo  and  Bibbiena, 
shown  forth  in  the  comedies  of  thb  latter  cardinal  as 
they  were  acted  before  the  Roman  Court  and  imitated 
far  and  wide,  is  to  us  not  less  incomprehensible  than 
disedifying.  The  earlier  years  of  iEneas  Sylvius,  th« 
whole  career  of  Rodrigo  Borgia,  the  life  of  Fameae, 
afterwards  Paul  III,  until  he  was  compelled  to  refonn 
himself  as  well  as  the  Curia,  these  all  exhibit  the  union 
of  subtlety,  vigour,  and  other  worldly  qualities,  with 
a  disregard  for  the  most  elementary  virtues,  which 
leaves  us  in  dumb  and  sorrowful  amazement.  Julius 
II  fought  and  intrigued  like  a  mere  secular  prince; 
Leo  A,  although  certainly  not  an  unbeliever,  was 
frivolous  in  the  extreme;  Clement  VII  drew  on  himself 
the  contempt  as  well  as  the  hatred  of  all  who  had  deal- 
ings with  him,  by  his  crooked  ways  and  cowardly 
subterfuges  which  led  to  the  taking  and  pillage  <x 
Rome. 

Now,  it  is  not  unfiur  to  trace  in  these  popes,  as  in 
their  aflvisers,  a  certain  common  t3rpe,  the  pattern  of 
which  was  Cesare  Borgia,  sometime  cardinal,  but  always 
in  mind  and  action  a  candoUierey  while  its  philosopher 
was  Machiavelli.  We  AiBy  express  it  in  the  words  of 
Villari  as  a  "prodigious  intellectual  activity  acoom* 


RENAISSANCE                           767  RSNAISSAlfCE 

panied  by  moral  decay".    The  passion  for  ancient  to  the  world  in  a  lively  Latin,  was  universal  and  often 

literature,  quickened  and  illustrated  when  the  buried  profound.    It  was  also  honestly  Christian;  to  make 

classic  marbles  were  brought  to  light,  simply  intox-'  Holy  Scripture  known  and  understood  was  the  su- 

icated  that  generation.    Isiot  only  did  they  fall  away  preme  purpose  he  kept  in  view.   And  thus  the  "prince 

from  monastic  severities,  they  lost  all  decent  and  manly  of  humanists''  ooula  remain  Catholic,  while  looking 

self-control.    The  survivors  of  a  less  corrupt  age,  as  for  a  moral  restoration,  during  the  whirlwind  of  Lu- 

Michelangelo  in  his  sonnets,  remind  us  that  native  ther's  revolt.    In  hun  the  Renaissance  had  cast  away 

Italian  genius  had  done  ^preat  things  before  this  new  its  pagamsm. 

spirit  t(x>k  possession  of  it.    But  there  is  no  denying  His  friend.  Sir  Thomas  More,  a  liberal  scholar, 

that  in  its  triumphant  davs  the  Renaissance  looked  a  saint,  and  a  martyr,  proved  by  the  enchanting 

up  to  beauty,  and  looked  away  from  duty,  as  the  courtesy  of  his  daily  converse  and  by  the  simple, 

s^ndard  and  the  law  of  life.    It  had  neither  eyes  nor  almost  ironical  heroism  which  he  displayed  on  the 

sense  for  the  beauty  of  holiness.    When  it  is  called  scaffold,  how  antique  learning  and  Catholic  virtue 

"pagan'-  we  mean  this  corrupting  anarchic  influence,  might   combine   in   the   loftiest   of  ideals.     More's 

represented  more  gracefully  by  genuine  poets  ana  "Utopia"  won  a  place  by  itself ^  which  it  still  keeps, 

men  of  letters  like  Politian,  more  grossly  by  such  far  above  the  imitative  and  passmg  literature  of  those 

licentious  singers  as  Lorenzo  de'  Medici,  by  Poggio,  Latin  versifiers,  those  vain  rhetoricians,  who  at  best 

Bandello,  Aretino,  and  a  thousand  others  who  de-  were   scholiasts,    but   too   commonly   wasted   their 

clared  that  the  morals  of  Petronius  Arbiter  were  good  small  talents  in  feebly  reproducing  the  classic  themes 

enough  for  them.    When  Savonarola  in  1475  fled  to  and  metres.    The  English  chancellor  took  a  firm 

the  Dominican  cloister  at  Ferrara,  and  there  coAiposed  grip  of  social  and  religious  problems,  not  so  much  re- 

his  lament  on  "the ruin  of  the  Church",  he  cried  out:  gaming  theory  as  intent  on  reform  according  to 

"The  temple  is  fallen,  and  the  house  of  chastity."  But  Catholic  principles.     He  wrote  Latin  with  greater 

the  earthquake  had  not  yet  come.    Worse  things  were  force  than  elegance;    his  works  in  the  vernacular 

to  happen  than  he  had  seen.    And  a  catastrophe  was  have  salt  and  savour,  wit  and  idiom,  to  commend  their 

inevitable,  of  which  he  would  be  the  prophet  in  St.  orthodoxy.    In    the    same    category    of    Christian 

Mark's,  Florence,  sent  to  a  partly  credulous  and  a  still  humanists  we  may  associate  with  More  a  goodly 

more  exasperated  world.  number    of    En^ishmen,    from    the    Benedictines, 

Savonarola  (1453-98),  Erasmus  (1466-1536),  and  Hadley  and  Sellmg,  who  were  students  at  Padua  in 

Sir  Thomas  More  (1478-1535)  may  be  taken  as  figures  1464,    to   Grocyn,    Linacre,    Colet,    Fox,    and   the 

in  what  has  been  sometimes  called  the  Christian  martyred  Cardinal  Fisher. 

Renaissance.  They  represent  beyond  ciuestion  the  In  Germany  the  first  stages  of  revived  learning  had 
mind  of  the  Church  concerning  those  ancient  authors,  been  free  from  Italian  dissoluteness  and  heathen  doo- 
not  sacrificing  faith  to  scholarship,  or  Holy  Writ  to  trines.  Cardinal  Nicholas  of  Cusa  reformed  the  Church, 
Homer  and  Horace,  while  they  allow  to  culture  its  while  promoting  philosophy  by  his  own  speculations 
province  and  its  privileges.  Such  was  to  be  the  lasting  and  collecting  manuscripts.  Rudolf  A^icola  (1443-85) 
concordat  between  divinity  and  the  humanities,  but  united  the  study  of  the  ancients  with  devotion  to 
not  until  paganism  had  robbed  Italy  of  its  independ-  Holy  Scripture;  von  Langen,  consummate  Latinist, 
ence,  after  the  popes  had  set  their  house  in  order,  remodelled  the  schools  of  Westphalia;  he  was 
and  the  Society  of  Jesus  had  been  entrusted  with  the  cathedral  provost  at  Deventer.  The  illustrious 
education  of  youth.  On  the  strength  of  his  protest  Wimpheling,  bom  in  1450,  taught  education  in 
against  the  unseemly  and  degrading  literature  which  principle  and  practice  on  orthodox  lines.  He  was 
dbounded  in  his  time,  Savonarola  was  condemned  as  a  Keucmin's  master,  a  genuine  scholar,  zealous  against 
Puritan;  his  "burning  of  the  vanities"  in  1497  has  the  newly-imported  unchristian  ways  of  the  so- 
been  cited  in  proof;  and  he  employed  scathing  Ian-  called  "poets  ':  and  when  Luther  rose  up,  Wim- 
gua^e  (see  the  Letter  to  Vcrino,  1497)  that  may  be  pheling  opposea  him  as  he  had  opposed  the  encroach- 
stramed  to  this  conclusion.  But  among  his  penitents  ments  of  Roman  Law.  With  Reuchlin  we  are  plunged 
were  artists,  poets,  and  learned  men:  Pico  della  into  debate  and  controversy;  but  he,  too,  was  sin- 
Mirandola,  Fra  Bartolommeo.  Botticelli,  Michel-  cerely  religious,  and  in  1516  he  triumphea  at  Rome 
angelo.  The  friar  himself  bougnt  for  St.  Mark's  at  a  over  his  adversaries,  gaining  thereby  a  victory  for 
heavy  charge  the  famous  Medicean  Library;  and  Hebrew  erudition,  which  in  other  ways  the  popes 
every  candid  reader  will  perceive  in  his  denunciation  had  taken  into  favour.  Many  Humanists,  by  and 
of  current  books  and  paintings  an  honest  Christian's  by,  made  common  cause  with  the  Reformation; 
outcry  against  cancerous  vices  which  were  sapping  the  Melanchthon,  Zwingli,  Calvin,  were  eminently 
life  of  Italy.  When  we  come  to  Erasmus,  no  fanatic  learned.  But  the  Renaissance  never  was  absorbed 
assuredly,  we  discover  that  he  too  made  a  difference  into  any  theological  movement;  reforming  zeal 
between  clean  and  unclean.  Erasmus  laughed  to  scattered  libraries,  emptied  universities,  and  too 
scorn  the  Ciceronian  pedantries  of  Bembo  and  Sado-  often  threw  back  education,  until  its  first  fury  was 
leto;  he  quotes  with  disgust  the  paganizing  terms  in  spent.  The  spirit  of  which  Puritanism  is  a  complete 
which  some  Roman  preachers  travestied  the  persons  expression  had  no  affinity  with  Classic  literature; 
and  scenes  of  the  Gospels.  He  had  a  zeal  for  the  in-  at  its  touch  the  world  of  art,  of  dramatic  poetry,  of 
spired  Word,  and  his  Greek  and  Latin  New  Testament  painting,  sacred  or  secular,  of  Humanism  in  life  and 
was  the  chief  literary  event  of  the  year  that  saw  its  outside  of  schoolbooks,  fell  into  dust.  Heine  (Ueber 
publication.  He  edited  St.  Jerome  with  minute  care  I>eutschland)  saw  that  the  Reformation  was,  in 
(1516);  he  did  something  for  the  chief  Latin  Fathers,  effect,  a  Teutonic  answer  to  the  Renaissance;  and 
and  not  a  little  for  the  Greek.  In  his  preface  to  St.  we  now  perceive  that,  while  the  dogmas  of  Luther  and 
Hilary  this  true  scholar  commends  all  learning,  old  Calvin  have  lost  their  hold  upon  men's  hearts,  the 
or  new,  but  he  would  have  its  proper  value  given  to  revival  of  letters  is  broadening  out  into  a  trans- 
each  department  from  the  Scriptures  even  to  the  formation  of  democracy  by  means  of  culture:  hie 
Schoolmen.  His  "Praise  of  Folly ^' and  other  satirical  labors  hoc  opus;  the  question  how  to  reconcile 
writings  were  an  attack,  not  upon  medieval  genius,  a  perfectly-eauipped  human  life  with  an  ascetic 
but  upon  the  self-confident  ignorance  which  decTaimea  religion  and  the  aemands  of  freedom  for  alL  is  one 
against  good  literature  without  knowing  what  it  which  none  of  the  Reformers  contemplated,  much 
meant.  So  rare  and  indefatigable  an  appraiser  of  less  did  they  succeed  in  resolving  it. 
literary  works  in  every  form  could  not  be  insensible  Among  Frenchmen,  to  whom  we  owe  the  word 
to  the  merits  of  St.  Augustine,  however  much  he  de-  renaissancef  that  problem  was  not  mooted  at  first, 
lighted  in  Virgil.    The  scholarship  of  Erasmus,  given  The  Italian,  Aleandro,  coming  to  Paris  in   1508, 


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768 


RENAISSANCE 


gave  lectures  in  Greek,  Latin,  and  Hebrew.  He  was 
made  rector  of  the  university.  Aleandro  became  a 
strenuous  opponent  of  Luther;  and  the  Sorbonne  is 
charged  by  Mark  Pattison  with  persecuting  the  great 
printer,  Robert  Estienne  (150^59),  though  he  always 
obtained  licence  to  sell  his  bibles  and  testaments. 
The  Sorbonne  objected,  however,  to  any  publication 
of  Scripture  without  approved  Catholio  notes;  and 
this  in  a  day  which  might  be  justly  termed  one  of 
rebuke  and  blasphemy.  France  had  its  own  type 
of  Humanist  in  -that  extraordinary  man,  Rabelais 
U490?-1553),  a  physician,  priest,  and  obscene  jester 
whose  book  is  the  glory  and  the  shame  of  his  native 
tongue.  Rabelais,  treating  the  Christian  religion 
as  a  creed  outworn,  falls  back  upon  a  kind  of  liberal 
Platonism;  he  would  leave  men  to  their  instincts 
and  the  joy  of  life.  Much  the  same  philosophy, 
thou^  in  graver  tones,  is  insinuated  by  Montaigne 
(1533-92)  in  essays  tinged  with  scepticism  and 
disenchantment.  These  two  writers,  who  lie  be- 
yond the  spring-tide  of  the  revival,  open  in  France 
the  anti-Christian  war  which  has  lasted,  with  growing 
violence,  down  to  our  time.  But  the  seventeenth 
century  witnessed  an  adaptation  of  the  classical 
forms  to  literative  and  preaching  by  Catholics  of 
genius,  bv  Pascal,  Bossuet,  Racme,  and  F^nelon, 
which  3rielded  a  highly  original  blending  of  religion 
with  eloquent  prose  and  refined  verse.  In  general, 
nevertheless,  we  shall  probably  allow  Taine's  con- 
tention that  the  influence  of  the  Classics  (Latin 
rather  than  Greek  always)  on  French  education  has 
not  been  favourable  to  Christianity. 

At  Rome  an  "incredible  liberty '^  of  discussion  pre- 
vfuled  under  the  spell  of  the  Renaissance.  Lord 
Acton  quotes  well-known  instances.  Poggio,  the 
mocking  adversary  of  the  clergy,  was  for  half  a  cen- 
tury in  the  service  of  the  popes — Filelfo,  a  paean  un- 
abashed and  foul,  was  handsomely  rewarded  by 
Nicholas  V  for  his  abominable  satires.  Pius  II  had 
the  faults  of  a  smart  society  journalist,  and  took 
neither  himself  nor  his  age  seriously.  Platina,  with 
whom  Paul  II  quarrelled  on  political  grounds,  wrote 
a  vindictive  slanderous  book,  "The  Lives  of  the 
Roman  Pontiffs '',  which,  however,  was  in  some  de- 
gree justified  by  the  project  of  reformation  in  "head 
and  members''  constantly  put  forth  and  never  ful- 
filled until  Christendom  had  been  rent  in  twain. 
Yet  Sixtufl  IV  made  Platina  librarian  of  the  Vati- 
can. It  is  eaually  significant  that  "The  Prince'', 
by  Machiavelu,  was  published  with  P&pal  hcence, 
though  afterwards  severely  prohibited.  This  tolera- 
tion of  evil  bore  one  good  consequence:  it  allowed  his- 
torical criticism  to  begin  fair.  There  was  need  of  a 
revision  which  is  not  yet  complete,  ranging  over  all 
that  had  been  handed  down  from  tbe  Middle  A^es 
under  the  style  and  title  of  the  Fathers,  the  Councils, 
the  Roman  and  other  official  archives.  In  all  these 
departments  forgery  and  interpolation  as  well  as 
ignorance  had  wrought  mischief  on  a  great  scale. 

In  1440  Lorenzo  Valla  counselled  Eu|;enius  IV 
not  to  relv  upon  the  Donation  of  Constantme,  which 
he  proved  to  be  spurious.  Valla's  tract  was  printed 
by  Ulrich  von  Hutten;  it  became  popular  among 
Germans,  and  influenced  Luther.  But  it  opened  to 
this  enemv  of  the  temporal  power  a  place  in  the  house- 
hold of  Nicholas  V.  For  another  commencement  of 
criticism  we  are  indebted  to  the  same  unpleasant 
but  sharp«ighted  man  of  letters.  It  was  Valla  who 
first  demed  the  authenticity  of  those  writings  which 
for  centuries  had  been  going  about  as  the  treatises 
composed  by  Dionysius  the  Areopaeite.  Three 
centuries  later  the  Benedictines  of  St.  Maiu-  and  the 
Bollandists  were  still  engaged  in  sifting  out  the  true 
from  the  false  in  patristic  literature,  in  hagiology, 
in  the  sto^  of  the  foimdation  of  local  churches. 
Mabillon,  Ruinart,  Papebroch,  and  their  successors 
have  cleared  the  ground  for  research  into  the  Chris- 


tian origins;  they  have  enabled  divines  to  consider 
a  theory  of  development,  tbe  materials  of  which  were 
hopelessly  confused  when  Valla  tilted  against  the 
Donation  itself,  accepted  and  deplored  as  a  fact  by 
Dante.  How  great  that  confusion  was,  the  Bene- 
dictine editions  of  the  Fathers,  which  largely  put 
an  end  to  it,  abundantly  show:  the  "authentic  and 
necessary  evidences  of  historical  religion"  could  not 
be  given  their  full  value  until  this  work  was  done. 
It  called  for  a  disposition  at  once  literarv  and  criti- 
cal, which  the  old  method  of  training  did  not  create 
and  scarcely  would  tolerate.  But  this  chapter  falls 
outside  the  limits  of  our  subject. 

It  is  remarkable  that  the  healthy  Christian  use 
of  ancient  literature  was  destined  to  be  taught  by  a 
Spanish  reforming  saint,  himself  not  learned  and 
certainly  no  dileUarUe,  This  wsa  Ignatius  Loyola, 
whose  antecedents  did  not  promise  him  the  inheri- 
tance which  Bembo  and  the  other  Ciceronian  pedants 
had  turned  to  such  ill  account.  St.  Ignatius,  who 
began  his  order  in  Paris,  who  walked  the  same  streets 
with  Erasmus,  Calvin,  and  Rabelais,  did  the  most 
astonishing  feat  recorded  in  modem  history.  He 
reformed  the  Church  by  means  of  the  papacy  when 
sunk  to  its  lowest  ebb;  and  he  took  the  heathen 
Classics  from  neo-pagans  to  make  them  instruments 
of  Catholic  education.  Spain  had  been  but  little 
affected  by  the  Renaissance.  In  temper  crusading 
and  still  medieval,  its  poetry,  drama,  theology,  were 
distinguished  by  qualities  peculiarly  its  own.  The 
Italian  manner  had  not  yet  foimd  imitators  at  its 
court  when  Ignatius  wrote  chivalrous  sonnets  to  an 
unknown  lady.  His  intensely  practical  turn  of  mind 
led  him  to  employ  every  talent  in  the  Divine  service; 
and  he  saw  that  learning,  if  it  could  be  cleansed  from 
its  present  stains,  would  not  onl^  adorn  but  defend 
the  Holy  Place.  He  had  looked  mto  the  lighter  pro- 
ductions of  Erasmus;  they  gave  him  a  shock;  but 
he  recognized  the  power,  if  not  the  charm,  which 
Humanism  wielded  over  youn^  imaginations.  His 
militant  company  took  up  agjun,  wiwout  distinctly 
perceiving  it.  the  task  that  Erasmus  intended  and 
Petrarch  haa  set  before  Italians  two  hundred  years 
previously. 

In  May,  1527,  Rome  was  laid  waste,  its  churches 
profaned,  its  libraries  pillaged,  by  a  rabble  of  mis- 
creants. "But",  said  Cardinal  Cajetan,  "it  was  a 
just  judgment  on  the  Romans. "  The  pagan  Renais- 
sance fell,  stricken  to  death;  it  was  hign  time  for  the 
Counts-Reformation  (q.  v.)  to  begin.  The  Coimcil 
of  Trent  and  the  Society  of  Jesus  took  in  hand  to  di»- 
timi^uish  between  what  was  permissible  and  what  was 
forbidden  in  dealing  with  literature.  The  Roman 
Index  was  establish^  by  Paul  IV.  A  rigorous  oen- 
sorsLip  watched  over  the  Italian  printing  press.  By 
16(X)  Uerman  importation  of  books  across  the  Alps 
had  ci^ased.  K  we  would  reckon  the  greatness  of  the 
changt)  now  wrought,  we  may  compare  the  "Oriando 
Furioso"  of  Ariosto,  dedicated  in  1516  to  Cardinal 
Ippolito  d'Este,  with  Tasso's  "Geru«demme",  es- 
pecially as  revised  by  the  poet  himself,  and  at  the 
dictation  of  the  Roman  censor,  Antoniano.  It  was 
a  change  so  marked  that  Scaliger  termed  the  Italians 
generally  hypocrites;  but  we  know  from  the  calendar 
of  saints  .%t  this  time  and  other  sources  how  much 
had  been  done  to  check  the  wild  hcence  of  thought 
and  speecii  in  the  Peninsula.  Giordano  Bruno, 
renegade  and  pantheist,  was  burnt  in  1600:  Cam- 
panella  spent  long  years  in  prison.  The  oifferent 
measures  meted  out  to  Copernicus  by  Clement  VII 
and  to  Galileo  by  Paul  V  need  no  comment.  The 
papacy  aimed  henceforth  at  becoming  an  "ideal 
government  under  spiritual  and  converted  men". 
Urban  VIII  was  the  last  who  could  be  deemed  a 
Renaissance  pontiff  (1623-44). 

St.  Ignatius,  alive  to  the  causes  which  had  provoked 
many  nations  into  revolt  from  the  clergy,  made  learn- 


GUIEH)  RBNI 


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BENAUDOT 


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BENAUDOT 


ing,  piety,  and  obedience  governing  principlee  in  his 
plan  of  reform.  The  old  system  of  arts  and  teaching 
was  already  growing  obsolete,  previous  to  1450. 
Himianism  nad  begun  to  take  the  place  of  Scholasti- 
cism. Vittorino  da  Feltre  (1378-1446),  a  devout  lay- 
man,  set  up  his  classes  at  Mantua  in  1435  on  the  basis 
of  good  Latin,  induding  poetry,  oratory,  Roman  his- 
tory, and  Stoic  discipune.  He  gave  an  all-round 
traming,  social,  physical,  religious.  At  Venice  and 
Ferrara  his  friend  Guarino  (1370-1460)  was  another 
eminent  schoolmaster,  mighty  in  Greek.  We  have 
seen  how  Erasmus  by  example  and  by  criticism  ad- 
vanced the  cause  of  literature,  which  was  henceforth 
acknowledged  as  the  proper  subject  of  a  Uberal  educa- 
tion. A  gentleman — the  cortegiano  whom  Castiglione 
described — ought  to  be  proficient  in  the  language  of 
antiquity;  such  was  the  idea  of  the  public  school 
everywhere:  and  such  it  remains  in  England  to  this 
day.  Hie  Jesuit  Order,  springing  up  after  1530,  not 
founded  on  the  tradition  of  Benedict  or  Dominic, 
adopted  this  view,  and  their  "Ratio  Studiorum" 
(1599)  was,  in  consequence,  a  literary  classical  scheme. 
The  first  of  their  colleges  arose  at  Coimbra  (1542); 
in  Paris  they  had  the  H6tel  de  Clermont;  in  Germany 
they  began  at  Ingoldstadt.  The  German  College  at 
Rome,  due  to  St.  Francis  Borgia,  like  the  Roman 
College  of  the  Society  itself,  the  En^ish  and  other 
houses  governed  by  them,  attested  their  zeal  for  learn- 
ing and  their  success  in  controversy.  The  Fathers 
were  always  cultivated  men;  they  taught  "a  good 
silver  Latm'';  and  they  wrote  with  ease,  though 
scarcely  with  such  idiomatic  vivacity  as  we  admire  in 
Erasmus  and  Joseph  Scaliger.  Soon  they  possessed 
a  hundred  houses  and  collies;  "For  nearly  three 
centuries",  says  a  recent  critic,  "they  were  accounted 
the  b^  schoolmasters  in  Europe.''^  Bacon's  judg- 
ment can  never  be  passed  over:  "As  for  the  peda- 
gogical part,  the  shortest'  rule  would  be,  consult  the 
schools  of  the  Jesuits;  for  nothing  better  nas  been  put 
in  practice"  (De  Anient.,  VI,  4).  They  established 
free  day-schools,  devised  new  schoolbooks,  expurgated 
objectionable  authors,  preached  sound  doctnncs  in  a 
clear  Latin  style,  ana  bestowed  even  upon  the  tech- 
nicalities of  meaieval  logic  a  certain  grace.  Some, 
like  Mariana,  wrote  with  native  power  in  the  classic 
forms.  But  their  most  telling  man  in  the  field  of  theol- 
ogy is  Petavius,  who  belongs  to  France  and  the  seven- 
teenth century.  His  large  volumes  on  the  Fathers 
may  be  compared  in  point  of  language  with  Calvin's 
" Institutes  and  the  "Augustinus"  of  Jansen.  They 
discard  the  method  familiar  to  Scotus  and  St.  Thomas; 
they  furnish  to  some  extent  criticism  as  well  as  his- 
tory. And  they  suggest  the  development  of  dogma 
with  an  approach  to'  its  philosophy,  which  neither 
Bossuet  nor  Bull  could  quite  comprehend. 

All  these  things  form  part  of  "that  matured  and 
completed  Renaissance"  whereby  the  evil  was  purged 
out  which  had  made  it  perilous  m  the  same  degree  to 
faith  and  to  morals.  Nicholas  V  and  other  popes  did 
well  in  not  refusing  to  add  culture,  even  the  finest  of 
the  Greek,  to  religion.  Their  fault  lay  in  the  weak- 
ness which  could  not  resist  pagan  luxury  and  a  friv- 
olous dilettantism.  Now  senous  work  was  undertaken 
>for  the  good  of  the  Church.  Gregory  XIII  reformed 
the  caJendar;  the  text  of  the  canon  law  was  cor- 
rected; under  Sixtus  V  and  Clement  VIII  the  Latin 
Vulgate  after  years  of  revision  attained  its  actual 
shape;  and  the  Vatican  Septuamnt  came  forth  in 
1587.  Baronius,  ureed  by  St.  PhiUp  Neri,  brought 
out  eleven  foUo  volumes  of  "the  greatest  church 
history  ever  written".  The  Roman  Breviary,  en- 
larged and  edited  anew,  was  republished  by  authority 
of  St.  Pius  V  and  Urban  VIII. 

But  the  Renaissance  had  indulged  its  "pride  of 

state,  of  knowledge,  and  of  system"  with  disastrous 

conseauences    to    our    Christian    inheritance.      It 

trampled  on  the  Middle  Ages  and  failed  to  understand 

XII.— 49 


that  in  them  which  was  truly  original.  The  Latin  of 
Cicero  which  Urban  VIII  cultivated,  the  metres  of 
Horace,  did  grievous  wrong  to  the  prose  and  verse  of 
our  church  offices,  so  far  as  they  were  altered.  The 
showy  architecture  now  designed,  though  sometimes 
magnificent,  was  not  inspired  by  reli^on;  b^ore  long 
it  sank  to  ttie  rococo  and  the  grotesque;  and  it  filled 
the  churches  with  pagan  monuments  to  disedifying 
celebrities.  In  panting  we  descend  from  the  heaven 
of  Fra  Angelico  to  the  "corregiosity"  of  Corregio, 
nay,  lower  still,  for  Venus  too  often  masquerades  as 
the  Madonna.    Christian  art  became  a  thing  of  the 

East  when  the  Gothic  cathedral  was  look^  upon  as 
arbarous  even  by  such  champions  of  the  Faith  as 
Bossuet  and  F^nelon.  Never  did  a  poet  inspired  by 
Renaissance  models — ^not  even  Vida  nor  Sannazzaro — 
rise  to  the  sublimity  of  the  "Dies  Irae"^  never  did  that 
style  produce  a  work  equal  to  the  "  Imitation".  Dante 
tnumphs  as  the  supreme  Catholic  sinper;  St.  Thomas 
Aquinas  cannot  be  dethroned  from  his  sovereignty  as 
the  AngeUc  Doctor,  still,  as  regards  faith  and  phi- 
losophy, he  is  the  true  "master  of  those  that  know". 
But  Dante  and  St.  Thomas  lived  before  the  Renais- 
sance. It  was  not  large  or  Uberal  enough  to  absorb 
the  Middle  Ages.  Hence  its  fulure  at  t£e  beginning 
as  a  philosophic  movement,  its  lack  of  the  aeepest 
human  motives,  its  superficiality  and  its  pedantries: 
hence,  afterwards,  its  fall  into  the  commonplace,  and 
the  extinction  of  art  in  vulgarity,  of  Uterature  in  empty 
rhetoric.  Hence,  finally,  the  need  of  a  French  Revolu- 
tion to  teach  it  that  life  was  something  more  serious 
than  a  "Cameval  de  Venise",  and  of  Romanticism  to 
discover,  among  the  ruined  choirs  and  in  the  neglected 
shrines  which  men  had  scornfully  passed  by,  tokens  of 
that  mighty  medieval  genius.  Catholic,  Latin,  Teuton, 
and  French,  misunderstanding  of  which  was  the  folly, 
and  the  spoiling  of  its  achieveinents  the  crime,  that 
we  must  charge  upon  the  Renaissance  in  the  day  of 
hs  power.  "It  remained  for  a  later  age",  says  one 
who  glorified  it,  "to  conceive  the  true  method  of 
effecting  a  scientific  reconciliation  of  Christian  senti- 
ment with  the  imagery,  the  legends,  the  theories  about 
tJie  world,  of  pagan  poetry  and  pnilosophy "  (Pater, 
"Renaissance",  49).  Not  less  did  it  become  the  task 
of  Goethe,  Scott,  Chateaubriand,  Ruskin,  of  Fried- 
rich  S^hl^el  and  the  best  German  critics,  to  show 
that  European  culture,  divorced  from  the  Middle  A^es, 
would  have  been  a  pale  reflection  of  dead  imtiqmty. 

Besides  the  monogri4>hs  under  special  names,  consult  Camr 
bridge  Mod,  Hittory,  I  (Cambridge,  En«.,  1902) ;  Cbkxgrton, 
History  of  Uie  Papacy  (2nd  ed.,  London,  1897);  Janssbns, 
Oesch.  dec  deutachen  VoUte*,  tr.  Christib  (London,  1902 — ); 
Pastor,  Oesch.  der  PdpaU,  tr.  Antbobcs  (London,  189&--); 
BuBCKHARDT,  Die  CuUur  der  Renaietanee  (Basle,  1860);  Gsi- 
OBR,  Humanismue  in  Ital.  u.  DeuUcJUand  (Berlin,  1882) ;  MiCH- 
ELBT,  Hiet,  de  France,  I  (Paris.  1865);  Stone,  Reforma- 
turn  and  Renaieaance  (London,  1904);  Stiionds,  Renaieeance 
in  Italy  (London,  1875-86);  also,  for  details,.  Burcard,  Diarium 
(Paris,  1883) ;  Gasqitbt,  Bve  of  the  Reformation  (London.  19(X)) ; 
UoTHBiN,  lonatitu  r.  Loyola  u.  die  Gegenreform  (Halle,  1895) ; 
HrmNGER,  KuMt  in  Chriatenlhum  (WQrtsburg.  1867) ;  H6rLBR, 
Rodrioo  di  Borgia  (Vienna,  1888-89);  Huqbbs,  Loyola  and  the 
Educational  System  of  the  Jeeuile  (London,  1892);  iNrBSSURA, 
Diario  d.  Cittd  di  Roma  (Florence,  1890) ;  Lilly,  Renaissance  Types 
(London,  1901);  Kraub,  Geseh.  der  dtristlich.  Kunst  (Freiburg. 
1896-1908);  Kunz.  Jacob  Wimphding  (Lucerne,  1883);  MCntz, 
Renaissance  A  Vepoque  de  Charles  VIII  (Paris.  1885);  loElf. 
La  BiblioOUque  au  Vatican  (Paris,  1887);  Monnibr,  Les  arts 
A  la  cour  des  Panes  (Paris,  1878);  Nichols.  Seleet  Epistles 
of  Erasmiu  (tr.  London,  1901);  Rashoall.  The  Universities 
in  the  Middle  Ages  (Oxford,  1895);  Rbvscb,  Index  der  wr6o- 
tenen  BUeher  (Bonn.  1883);  Saoolbto,  BpistoUe  (Rome, 
1760);  ViLLARi.  Savonarola  (Florence,  1887),  tr.  London. 
1890;  Idem.  MachiaveUi  (Florence,  1878-83;  tr.  London. 
1900);  Voiot,  Bnea  Silvio  Piecolomini  (Beriin,  1856);  Wood- 
ward, Vittorino  da  Peltre  etc.  (Cambridge,  1897).  For  judnnents 
on  the  Renaissance  from  contrasted  points  of  view,  see  Pater. 
Essays  (London.  1873);  Idem.  The  Renaissance  (1873);  Barry, 
Heralds  of  Revolt  (London,  1906);  Rubkin,  Modem  Painters,  II; 
Idem,  Stones  of  Venice,  III  (London,  1903). 

William  Babrt. 

Renaudot,  Eusebius,  an  apologetical  writer  and 
Orientalist,  b.  at  Paris,  22  July,  1648;  d.  there,  1  Sept.. 
1720.    He  was  educated  by  th«  Jesuits,  and  joined 


BEMAUDOT 


770 


EENAUDOT 


the  Oratorifins  in  1666,  but  owing  partly  to  ill-health,  alleviation  of  poverty.  He  was  named  phyaiciaa  in 
forthwith  left  them  and  never  received  more  than  ordinary  to  the  king  (1612)  and  in  1617  obtained  the 
minor  onieia.  His  extraordinary  native  talent  and  privilege  of  founding  an  intelligence  office  where  poor 
love  of  study  enabled  him  to  become  an  able  liturgi-  people  might  make  known  their  needs,  free  of  charge, 
cal  writer,  one  of  the  greatest  Orientalists  of  his  time,  and  inquire  as  to  places  where  work  could  be  had,  ana 
and  a  triutworthy  political  adviser.  One  of  the  where  charitable  people  could  learn  the  names  of  the 
prominent  men  of  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV,  he  enjoyed  deserving  poor.  In  1618,  he  received  the  title  of  com- 
the  friendship  of  numerous  literary  and  political  misdoner-general  to  the  poor  of  the  kiogdom.  In 
celebrities,  among  others  Bob-  r^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^  1628,  after  the  surrender  of  La 
suet,  whom  he  supported  in  ^^^^^^H^^^^^^H^^^^^^^I  Rocbetle,  he  became  a  Catholic 
the  controversies  with  Richard  ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^H  andfromthistimc,  thankstothe 
Simon,  F^elon  and  the  Jesuits.  ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^H  help  of  Richelieu,  his  charitable 
Towaiiis  the  last  he  assumed  ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^H  activity  was  most  fruitful.  Rgd- 
the  unfriendly  attitude  of  the  ^^^^^^^^^HI^^^^^^^^H  ^^'^^^  added  to  his  intelligencv 
Galilean  and  Janaenist.  Nu-  ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^H  ofhce  a  pawn-tdiop  and  an  auc- 
merous  high  distinctions  were     ^^^^^^Hf  ^^^^^^^H    tion-house.  On30  May,  163i,he 

conferred     upon    him,     among     ^^^^^^BT'  „     ^a^^^^^^l     ^t^blishcd  a  weekly,  the  "Gs- 

them  membership  in  the  French  ^^^^^B^*'  "^m  mS^^^^^^I  letto  de  Franc^",  in  which  be 
Academy  (1689),  the  Academy  ^^^^H  i"  "^  W^^^^^H  defended  the  politics  of  Rich- 
of  Inscriptions  (1691),  and  the      ^^^^^^  '  V^^^^^l     ^^'''     ^'^^^  '^^<  he  created 

Aeeademia  ddla  Crimea  of  Flor-      ^^^^^^^H  ^fl^^^^^^l     '"  ''''*  intelligence  ofhce  weekly 

ence.    Mostofhiswritingswere     ^^^^^^^H  ^J^^^^^^^^|    conferences  which  constituted 

prepared    not    merelv   for   the      ^^^^^^PV '  ^^^^^^^^^^1     '^  liiod  of  free  school  of  medical 

extension  of  scientinc  knowU  ^^^^^^  V  -.^  ^l^^^^^^^l  sci^ices.  Finally,  dating  from 
edge,  but  also  in  defence  of  the      ^^^  \.      ^■flff^^^^l     i-^^i  ^^  inaugurated  free  con- 

Catholic  Church.   Among  them     I  ^    ^  ^^^^    sultations  for  the  sick,  in  which 

ore  contributions  to  "Perpd-  ^k  ^.^^^^^bSI^^^^^^^^I  ^^  ""^  sesBt«d  by  fifteen  phy- 
tuit£  de  la  foi",  a  work  pub-  ^^^^^^^^^^^^Hl^^^^^^^^H  t°cians,  and  free  viaitiog  physi- 
lished  by  Nicole  and  Antoine  ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^H  cians.  lie  published  "Lap:^ 
Amauld  against  the  Calvin isti^  ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^H  sence  des  abscnta"  (1642),  the 
the  fourth  and  fifth  volumes  of  ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^H  first  treatise  in  France  on  disf- 
which  are  entirely  due  to  Ken-  ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^H  nosis,  and  which  aimed  at  per- 
audot'e  pen  (Pans,  ITIl,  1713).  ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^H  mitting  sick  peraons  at  a  dis- 
He  published,  moreover  "D6-  ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^  tance  from  all  medical  ud  to 
f^  ^'^  !jP?n>6tmt«  de   a  foi "  Mfi»rt™il,  UffiS  Q^.  Plo™«  *'?*"?'?«  'h«f  fyjl"*?""  *^}*'' 

(Pans,  1708);  "GennaduPatn-  physician.    In  1640,  the  medical 

archK  Constantinopolitani  Homilis  de  Euchariatia"  facultyofPariswishedtoIorbidhimtopractise;  itrelied 
(Paris,  1709);  "Historia  Patriarchamm  Alexandri*  upon  Parliament,  which  was  hostile  to  Richelieu,  and  a 
norum"  (Paris,  1713);  "Liturgiarum  orientalium  pamphlet  of  Guy  Patin  violently  attacked  Reoaudot 
ooUectio"  (Paris,  1715-16);  "Anciennes  relations  des  '    """        '  <■...-  .-..    .    ■•   •■    • 

btdes  «t  de  la  Chine"  (Paris,  1718).    His  opinion  of 


jouis  XIII  by  a  decree  of  14  Jviiy,  1641,  decided  in  fa- 
vour of  Renaudot,  but  after  the  de&tha  of  Richelieu  and 


Bayle's  "  Dictionnaire' 
(Rotterdam,  1697). 

VlLUIH,  SuMt  Rmauiid  (Ptrim,  1904). 


aoidoRiE 

was    published  by  Jurieu 


N.  A.  Weber. 


;,  TBftopHRABTH,  b.  at  Loudun,  1586;  d. 
at  Paris,  25  October,  1653.  Doctor  of  the  medical 
faculty  at  Montpellier  in  1608,  he  travelled  in  Italy 
in  order  to  study  the  workings  of  the  pawn-shop 
{mona  jrietalu)  in  that  country.  On  his  return  to 
France,  Leclerc  du  Tremblay,  known  as  PSre  Joseph, 
J  l:^  (^  court  to  explwn  his  theories  on  tie 


Louis  XIII,  his  enemies  renewed  their  attacks,  pr^ 
tending  that  he  had  accused  Louis  Xltl  of  favouiinc 
Lutheranism  and  that  he  had  calumniated  Anne  M 
Austria.  The  provost  of  Paris  at  the  end  of  1643,  and 
Parliament  in  1644,  prohibited  him  from  the  practice 
of  medicine,  and  the  medical  faculty,  4  June,  1644, 
officially  inaugurated  another  system  of  free  consulta- 
tions. Renaudot  was,  nevertheless,  a  pioneer  in  relief 
work  for  the  poor,  journalism,  and  medicine.  The 
medical  theories  which  he  had  held  against  the 
medical  faculties  of  his  times  in  favour  of  the  use  of 
antimony,  laudanum,  and  auimne,  have  prevailed 


BENI 


771 


BENNES 


rince  his  death.    During  the  last  years  of  his  life  ho 
devoted  his  time  wholly  to  the  "Gaaette". 

Hatin,  ThSophraaU  Renaudoi  (Paria,  1883);  db  la  TouRKm* 
ThiopknuU  Benaudci  (Paria.  1884). 

Georges  Goyau. 

Renly  GuiDO,  Italian  painter,  b.  at  Calvenzano 
near  Bologna,  4  Nov.,  1575;  d.  at  Bologna,  18  Aug. 
1642.  At  one  time  a  memoir  of  Guido  would  have 
exalted  him  to  the  very  highest  position,  especially  if 
it  had  been  written  in  England,  for  his  works  were 
very  much  in  demand  among  art  connoisseurs.  His 
pictures  fetched  vast  sums,  and  were  held  in  the  high- 
est esteem  by  the  collectors  who  knew  nothing  of  and 
cared  less  for  the  works  of  the  earlier  Italian  painters 
such  as  Gentile  da  Fabriano  and  Fra  Angelico.  Now 
for  the  time  the  works  of  this  ^;reat  craftsman  arc 
under  a  cloud,  and  his  extraordinarv  powers  of  com- 
position and  conception,  and  his  skill  of  .draughtsman- 
ship, are  in  danger  of  being  overlooked  by  reason  of 
an  entire  change  of  fashion.  In  his  early  days  he  was 
a  colourist  of  great  purity,  a  composer  with  dramatic 
force,  regarded  as  one  of  the  greatest  masters  of  his 
time,  and  surrounded  by  pupils;  but  later  on,  his  veiy 
success  proved  his  undoing,  and  the  pictures  of  his 
maturity  and  old -age,  though  marked  oy  facility  and 
skill,  evidence  a  certain  monotonous  melodrama  and  a 
thinness  of  impasto  which  has  not  tended  to  their 
permanency. 

He  was  educated  first  by  Calvaert,  later  on  with  the 
Carracci,  and  for  a  while  with  Ferrantini.  He  worked 
with  Annibale  Carracci  in  Rome,  assisted  in  the  dec- 
oration of  the  Famese  Palace,  the  Quirinal  Palace, 
several  of  the  churches  of  Rome,  and  a  chapel  for  the 
Borghese  family,  but  his  greatest  painting  in  that 
city  is  undoubtedly  the  ceiling  decoration  of  the 
Palazzo  Rospigliosi — Phcebus  and  the  Hours  pre- 
ceded by  Aurora.  He  painted  also  in  Bologna,  and 
commenced  what  probably  would  have  been  his 
masterpiece  in  Naples.  His  works  can  be  studied 
in  Dresden,  St.  Petersburg,  Genoa,  Vienna,  and 
especially  in  England,  as  many  of  the  famous 
houses  of  that  country,  such  as  Stafford  House, 
Bridgwater  House,  Lowther  Castle,  Blair  Castle, 
Kingston  Lacy,  Burghley  House,  Alton  Towers. 
Charlton  Park,  Cobham  Park,  Narford  Hall,  ana 
Windsor  Castle,  contain  important  works  by  him, 
while  in  Italy  we  find  his  pamtings  in  Lucca,  Milan, 
Modena,  Padua,  Pisa,  Perugia,  Ravenna,  Siena, 
Turin,  Venice,  and  elsewhere.  He  was  a  man  of  great 
energy,  but  unfortunately  of  considerable  self-conceit, 
and  of  prodigious  activity.  lie  was  a  skilful  engraver 
and  etcher;  lie  worked  in  silver  point  and  in  pastel, 
painted  ceilings  and  walls  in  fresco,  and  numberless 
panel  pictures.  In  his  own  time  he  was  perhaps  the 
most  popular  artist  in  Italy,  and  in  the  ei(i;liteenth 
century  occupied  a  similar  position  in  England.  Pres- 
ently his  work  will  be  more  appreciated  for  its  own 
sake  than  it  has  been,  his  faults  will  be  more  clearly 
noticed,  and  his  excellencies  have  a  greater  value. 
Our  principal  source  of  information  res|>ecting  him 
is  a  MS.  by  Oretti  in  the  library  in  Bologna,  from 
which  all  authors  have  taken  material,  but  it  has  never 
itself  been  printed.  There  are'  at  present  two  books 
in  hand  on  this  painter,  but  neither  of  them  are 
sufficiently  complete  to  be  worth  quoting. 

George  Charles  Williamson. 

Rennes,  Archdiocese  of  (Rhedonensis),  in- 
cludes the  Department  of  lUe  et  Vilaine.  The  Con- 
cordat of  1802  re-established  the  Diocese  of  Rennes 
which  since  then  has  included  (1)  the  ancient  Dio- 
cese of  Rennes  with  the  exception  of  three  parishes 
S'ven  to  Nantes;  (2)  the  greater  part  of  the  anrient 
iocese  of  Dol;  (3)  the  greater  part  of  t  ho  ancient 
Diocese  of  St.  Malo;  (4)  t«n  parishes  that  had  formed 
part  of  the  ancient  Diocese  of  Vannes  and  Nantes. 
On  3  January,  1S59,  the  See  of  Rennes,  which  the 


French  Revolution  had  desired  to  make  a  metropoli- 
tan, became  an  archiepiscopal  see,  with  the  Dioceses 
of  Ouimper,  Vannes,  and  St.  Brieuc  as  suffragans. 
Cardinal  Place  obtained  from  Leo  XIII  permission 
for  the  Archbishop  of  Rennes  to  add  the  titles  of 
Dol  and  St.  Malo  to  that  of  Rennes.  Rennes  was 
the  capital  of  Brittany.  Under  the  Roman  Empire 
Brittany  had  formed  part  of  the  province  of  Tertia 
Lugdunensis  (Third  Lyonnesse),  but  from  383  to  509 
it  was  an  independent  kingdom;  aften^ards,  under 
the  Merovingians,  it  ranked  as  a  countship.  The 
Kingdom  of  Brittany,  founded  by  Nomenoe  about 
845,  was  shortlived,  and  after  874  Pritlany  was 
parcelled  out  among  a  number  of  counts,  the  most 
important  of  whom  was  the  Count  of  Rennes.  In 
992  Geoffrey  I,  Count  of  Rennes,  took  the  title  of 
Duke  of  Brittany.  The  solemn  and  final  union  of 
Brittany  with  France  was  the  result  of  the  mar- 
riage of  Francis  I  to  Claudia  of  France,  dau^- 
ter  of  Anne  of  Brittany  and  Louis  XII.  Tradition 
names  as  first  apostles  of  tlio  future  Diocese  of  Rennes, 
missionaries  of  the  Latin  race,  but  of  an  uncertain 
date:  SS.  Maximinus,  Clanis,  Justus.  On  the  other 
hand,  when  in  the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries  bands  of 
Christian  Britons  emigrated  from  Great  Britain  to 
Armorica  and  formed  on  its  northern  coast  the  small 
Kingdom  of  Domnon^e,  the  Gospel  was  preached 
for  the  first  time  in  the  future  Dioceses  of  Dol  and 
Aleth.  Among  these  missionaries  were  St.  Armel, 
who,  according  to  the  legend,  founded  in  the  sixth  cen- 
tury the  town  of  Ploermel  in  the  Diocese  of  Vannes 
and  then  retired  into  the  forests  of  Chateaiigiron  and 
Janz6  and  attacked  Dniidism  on  the  very  site  of  the 
Dolmen  of  the  Fairy  Rocks  (La  Roche  aux  F6es); 
St.  M^n  (Mevennus)  who  retired  to  the  solitudes 
around  Pontrecoet  and  founded  the  monastery  of 
Gael  (550),  known  after^'ards  as  St.  Melon's;  St. 
Lunarius  and  St.  Suliarus  who  dwelt  in  the  woods 
along  the  banks  of  the  Ranee,  and  Sts.  Samson  and 
Malo. 

I.  Diocese  of  Rennes. — The  earliest  historical 
mention  of  the  Sec  of  Rennes  dates  from  453.  One  of 
the  four  prelates,  Sarmatio,  Chariato,  Rumorid\iR, 
and  Viventius  who  in  that  year  took  part  in  the  Coun- 
cil of  Angers,  was  Bishop  of  Rennes.  One  Athenius, 
Bishop  of  Rennes,  took  part  in  the  Council  of  Tours 
in  461.  Mgr  Duchesne  is  of  opinion  that  the  St. 
Amandus  reckoned  among  the  bishops  of  Rennes  at 
the  end  of  the  fifth  century  is  the  same  as  St.  Amand 
of  Rodez.  Among  other  bishops  are  the  famous 
St.  Melanius  (Mclaine)  who  in  511  assisted  at  the 
Council  of  Orl<5an8  and  had  a  widespread  reputation 
for  sanctity.  He  gave  his  name  to  a  well-known 
abbey,'  which  in  the  twelfth  century  possessed  no  less 
than  seventy  parish  churches.  Famous  among  the 
annals  of  Rennes  are:  St.  Desiderius  (Didier)  whose 
episcopate  is  questioned  by  Mgr  Duchesne  (c.  682); 
St.  Moderamnus  (Moran)  who  died  about  73(Xin  the 
monastery  of  Berceto  near  Lucca;  Marbodus,  the 
hymnographer  (1096-1123);  the  Dominican  Yves 
Mayeuc  (1507-41);  Amaiid  d'Ossat  (1596-1600), 
cardinal  in  1599,  and  prominent  in  the  conversion  of 
Henry  IV;  Godefrov  Brossais  Saint  Marc  (1848-78), 
cardinal  in  1875;  Charles  Place  (1878-93),  cardinal 
in  1886;  Guillaume  Labour^  (1893-1906),  cardinal 
in  1897.  Jje  Coz  (1760-1815)  during  the  Revolu- 
tion was  constitutional  Archbishop  of  Rennes. 
Under  the  Concordat  he  became  Archbishop  of 
Besanpon.  In  the  Middle  Ages  the  Bishop  of  Rennes 
had  the  privilege  of  crowning  the  dukes  of  Brittany 
in  his  cathedral.  On  the  occasion  of  his  first  entry 
into  Rennes  it  was  customary  for  him  to  be  borne  on 
the  shouMors  of  four  Breton  barons. 

II.  DiorKSK  OF  St.  Malo. — The  monk  Malo 
(d.  about  t>()0)  at  the  end  of  the  sixth  century  came 
from  Wales  at  the  head  of  a  band  of  emigrants 
and  founded  two  monasteries  on  the  coast  near  the 


EENNES  7 

Roman  poat  of  Alcth.  Two  legendary  biograpbiea 
of  him  which  dat«  from  the  ninth  century  oiuko  hitn 
the  first  Bi^op  of  Aleth.  The  biography  of  King 
Sunt  Judicael,  written  in  the  eleventh  century, 
mentions  as  a  contemporary  of  the  king,  a  Saint 
Maelmon,  Bishop  of  Aletn.  Local  breviaries  of 
the  fifteenth  century,  mention  three  biahopa  prior 
to  Maelmon:  Enogat,  Gurval,  and  CoaJiinit.  In 
Mgr  Duchesne't)  opinion  one  thing  only  ia  curtain 
that  the  Diocese  of  Aleth  existed  in  Charlemagne's 
time.  The  town  of  Alcth  was  destroyed  by  the 
Normans,  and  soon  after  1I4I,  the  seat  of  the  diocese 
was  removed  to  the  Isle  of  St.  Aaron  (axalled  aft«r 
a  hermit  who  lived  there  early  in  th.-^  sixth  cenlury), 
on  which  stood  the  town  afterwards  known  as  St. 
Malu,  This  change  was  endorsed  by  Eugene  III 
in  spite  of  the  protests  of  the  monks  of  Mannoutiera 
who  had  a  foundation  on  the  island.  Amonz  the 
bishops  of  St.  MaIo  are:  Blessed  J6hn  de  la  Grille 
(114^-63)  undernhorothesec  was  transferred:  William 
de Montfort  (1423-32), cardinal  in  1125;  William  Bri- 
Sonnet  ( 1493-1. 'llSJiHarlay  de  Sancy  (1632-16). 

III.  Diocese  ok  Dol. — The  Lite  of  Kt.  Samson, 
which  cannot  be  of  earlier  date  than  the  seventh  ci'n- 
tury,  mentions  the  foundation  of  the  monastery  of  D  )l 
bySt.  Samson.  He  was  doubtleis  alrea'ly  a  bis!iO[) 
when  became  froRiGrcat  Britain  to  Armorica,  and  it  is 
he  perhaps  who  assisted  at  the  Council  of  Paris  be- 
tween 561  and  567.  But  in  the  biography  there  is 
nothing  to  prove  that  he  founded  the  See  of'  Dol  or 
that  he  was  its  firat  bishop.  In  the  twelfth  century, 
to  support  its  claim  against  the  Metropolitan  of 
Tours,  the  Church  of  Dol  produced  the  names  of  a 
long  list  of  archbishops:  St.  Samson,  St.  Magloire, 
St.  Budoc,  St.  GSnevee,  St.  Restoald,  St.  Armel,  St. 
Jumael,  St.  Turian.  Mgr  Duchesne  discounts  and 
doubts  this  list.  He  is  of  the  opinion  that  the  abbey 
of  Dol  may  have  had  at  its  head  from  time  to  lime 
abbots  with  episcopal  jurisdiction,  but  that  Dol 
was  not  the  seat  of  a  diocese.  Under  Charlemagne 
and  Louis  the  Pious,  the  Vicariate  of  Dol  and  the 
monastery  of  St.  M^n  were  still  included  in  the 
Diocese  of  Aleth;  so  that  the  first  Bishop  of  Dol  was 
Festianua  (Festgen)  mentioned  for  the  first  time  be- 
tween Sot  and  857,  and  installed  by  King  Nomenoo. 
Among  the  bishops  of  Dol  are:  Baudri  (1107-30), 
author  of  a  poem  on  the  conquest  of  England  by 
William  the  Conqueror;  Alain,  Cardinal  de  Coetivy 
(1456-74),  as  legate  of  Callistus  III,  brought  Charles 
VII  to  assist  the  Greeks  against  the  Turks  who  were 
b^ieging  Constantinople;  Urban  Reni5  do  HerivS 
(1767-9.5),  emigrated  to  England  during  the  Revolu- 
,  tion,  but  accompanieil  to  Brittany  the  royalist  troops 
who  attempted  to  land  at  Quiberon.  He  was  arrested 
with  his  brother,  and  shot  at  Vannes,  3  July,  1795. 
There  was  a  struggle  from  the  ninth  to  the  eleventh 
century  to  free  the  Clmrch  of  Brittany  from  the 
Metropolitan  of  Toura.  It  is  important  to  consider 
the  point  closely. 

From  a  comparison  made  by 'Mgr  Duchesne  be- 
tween the  Life  of  St.  Conwoion,  the  "Indiculus  de 
cpiscoporum  Britonum  depositibne",  and  an  almost 
completely  restored  letter  of  Leo  IV,  it.  would  ap- 
pear that  shortly  before  8.W,  NomenoS  wishing  to  lie 
anointed  king,  and  finding  opposition  among  the  prel- 
ates of  Brittany,  sought  to  ^et  rid  of  them  by  charg- 
ing them  with  simony.  Their  only  fault  was  perhaps 
that  they  demanded  eu!o^  from  their  priests  when 
the  latter  came  to  synods.  After  listening  to  a  deputa- 
tion of  Breton  bishops  and  to  St.  Conwoion,  founder  of 
the  Abbey  of  St-Sauveur  at  Redon,  who  had  been  sent 
to  Rome  by  NomenoS,  Leo  IV  declared  that  the  charge 
of  simony  miLst  be  adjudicated  by  a  competent  tribu- 
nal of  twelve  biahotts,  and  must  l>e  attested  by  seventy- 
two  witnesses,  thereby  disputing  Nomenoe's  claim 
to  a  right  to  depose  bishops.  But  Nomenoe  did  de- 
pose, and  in  a  brutal  manner,  the  four  bisho|)8  of 


'2  RENHX8 

Vannes:  Aleth,  Quimper,  and  St.  Pol  de  hioa,  and 
imuie  seven  dioceses  out  of  their  four;  one  of  the  new 
dioceses  had  its  seat  in  the  abbey  of  Dol  and  became 
straightway  an  archdiocese.  The  remaining  two 
were  in  the  monasteries  of  St.  Brieuc  and  Pabu- 
Tutual  (Tr^^uier).  At  the  end  of  850  or  be^nning 
of  8.51  the  bishops  of  the  four  provincee  of  Tours, 
Sens,  Reims,  aiid  Rouen,  wrote  a  letter  of  reprimand 
to  Nomenoe  and  threatened  him  with  excommunica- 
tion. He  paid  no  heed  to  them  and  died  7  March, 
851.  Salomon,  NomenoS'a  second  successor,  re- 
quested Benedict  IV  in  viun  to  regularize  the  situa- 
tion of  the  Breton  hierarchy.    In  the -name  of  the 


Bishop  of  Rennes  and  to  the  bishops  occupying  the 
new  Sees  of  Dol,  St.  Brieuc,  and  Triguier,  reproach- 
ing  them  with  lack  of  obedience  to  the  Metropolitan 
of  Tours,  This  letter  was  not  sent  to  the  Biahopa 
of  Vannes,  Quimper,  Aleth,  and  St.  Pol  de  lAoa  who 
wronely  occupie<l  the  sees  of  the  legitimate  bishops 
illegally  dept^ed  by  NomenoS.  It  achieved  nothing. 
In  862  Salomon  dealt  directly  with  Nicholas  I,  and  at 
first  tried  to  mislead  the  pope  by  means  of  faJse 
allegations  and  forgeries;  then  he  restored  Felix 
of  Quimper  and  Liberalis  of  Uon  to  their  sees,  but 
still  kept  Su.sannus  of  Vannes  and  Salocon  of  Aleth 
in  e.xile.  Nicholas  I  died  in  S67.  Adrian  II  (867- 
72)  and  John  VIII  (872-82)  continued  to  uphold 
the  rights  of  the  Metropolitan  of  Touth.  Then  came 
the  deatiis  of  Salomon  and  of  Susannus,  and  a  con- 
ciliatory mood  developed.  There  was  no  formal 
act  on  the  part  of  the  Holy  See  recogniiing  Dol  ■■  a 
new  metropolitan  church;  it  never  had  control  over 
Rennes  or  Nantes,  and  it  was  mMnly  over  the  new 
Sees  of  St.  Brieuc  and  Tr^uicr  that  it  exercised 
ascendancy.  Finivlly  in  May,  1199,  Iimoccnt;  III 
nsitiired  the  old  order  of  things,  and  subordinated 
anew  all  Brittany  1o  Tours  but  <]id  not  interfere  with 
the  diocesan  boundaries  set  up  by  the  daring  No- 
mono6,  and  they  remiuned  in  force  until  the  Revolu- 
tion.   The  Bishop  of  Dol  retained  until  1789  the 


BXNT7 


773 


BINT7 


inaigiiia  of  an  archbishop,  but  without  an  arch- 
bishop's privileges. 

The  pilgrimage  of  the  Seven  Saints  of  Brittany  was 
a  widespread  devotion  during  the  Middle  Ages,  and 
probably  antedates  the  year  ICiOO.  Four  times  a 
year,  at  Easter,  Pentecost,  Michaelmas,  and  Christ- 
mas, crowds  of  pilgrims  on  fpot  paid  within  thirty 
days  a  round  of  visits  to  the  seven  sanctuaries,  Dol, 
St.  Brieuc,  Tr6guier,  IA)n,  Quimper,  Vannes,  St. 
Malo.  A  pavod  road,  that  keot  up  an  earlier  line 
of  lloman  roads,  was  followed  by  these  endless  pil- 
grimages, whence  arose  the  present  custom  of  dedicat- 
mg  chapels  to  the  Seven  Saints.  The  ancient  Abbeys 
of  St.  Melanius,  St.  M^n,  Redon,  and  Paimpont, 
the  abbeys  of  Canons  Regular  of  Rill6  (founded  about 
1143),  of  Montfort  (founded  about  1152)  were  very 
useful  in  restoring  the  parochial  services  after  the 
disorders  of  the  early  Middle  Ages.  Two  thirds  of 
the  churches  in  the  territory  date  from  the  eleventh 
or  twelfth  century,  and  were  built  by  the  monks 
and  Canons  Regular.  The  war  of  succession  of 
Brittany  (1341-€&)  between  Jean  de  Montfort  and 
Charles  de  Blois  has  an  interest  for  the  ecclesiastical 
historian  owing  to  the  fact  that  Charles  de  Blois  has 
the  title  of  Blessed.  Dom  Plaine  has  shown  that  the 
origin  of  the  pilgrimage  of  Bonne  Nouvelle  at  Rennes 
had  nothing  to  do,  as  was  often  supposed,  with  a 
victory  of  Jean  de  Montfort  over  Blessed  Charles  de 
Blois.  Some  of  the  saints  connected  with  the  Arch- 
diocese of  Rennes  are:  St.  Mevennus  or  M6en, 
St.  Armel,  St.  Sulinus  (Suliac),  son  of  Broguenard, 
Prince  of  Wales,  Abbot  of  the  monastery  of  St. 
Suliac  (died  in  606);  St.  Judicael  (584-658),  twice 
King  of  the  Bretons,  twice  monk  in  the  monastery 
founded  by  St.  M6en,  and  founder  of  the  a^bey  of 
Paimpont;  St.  Geldouin,  canon  of  Dol  (d.  1076or  1077), 
who  refused  to  become  a  bishop  in  spite  of  the  appeals 
of  Gregory  VII;  Venerable  Robert  d'Arbnssel, 
founder  of  the  order  of  Fontevrault  (d.  1117),  a  na- 
tive of  Arbrissel  near  Rennes;  Blessed  Ralph  de  la 
Futaye,  founder  about  1096  of  the  Abbey  of  St. 
Sulpice  at  Rennes,  known  originallv  as  Ckvc  Lady 
of  the  Blackbirds;  St.  Yves  (1253-1303),  who  held 
an  official  position  in  the  Diocese  o(  Rennes;  Vener- 
able John  Qc  St.  SanLson,  blind  from  birth,  a  Carmelite 
of  Rennes  and  the  great  Breton  contemplative,  died 
in  1636,  leaving  many  writings  of  a  mystical  character* 
Ven.  Pierre  Quintin  (d.  1629),  a  Dominican  of  Vitre,  and 
one  of  the  collaborators  of  Ven.  Michel  de  Nobletz  in  his 
afKDstolate.  Caradeuc  de  la  Chalotais  (1701-85),  bom 
at  Rennes,  procurator  of  Brittany,  was  one  of  the 
first  magistrates  to  lead  the  way  for  the  abolition 
of  the  Jesuits  in  France  by  his  comptes^endus  of  the 
constitutions  of  the  Jesuits,  read  to  the  Parliament 
in  Dec,  1761,  and  in  May,  1762.  Grimm  said  that 
the  Jesuits  might  consider  IjC  Chalotais-  as  their 
destroyer  in  France. 

Other  natives  of  Rennes  are  the  Benedictine  Lobi- 
neau  (1606-1727),  famous  for  his  "IILstoire  de  la  Br^ 
tagne"  (1707),  and  the  Jesuit  philologian  Toumemine 
(1661-1739).  Jacques  Cartier  (1494-1552),  the  db*- 
coverer  of  Canada;  the  naval  commander  Duguay- 
Trouin  (1673-1736),  who  took  Rio  de  Janeiro  in 
1711;  JjA  Bourdonnais  (1699-1753),  another  sailor 
who  fought  against  the  English  in  India;  the  writers 
Chateaubriand  (1768-1848)  and  Lamennais  (1782- 
1854)  were  natives  of  St.  Malo.  Duguesclin  (d. 
1380),  famous  during  the  Hundred  Years'  War.  was 
bom  at  ChAteau  de  la  Motte  de  Bron;  the  Chateau 
des  Rochers  where  Madame  de  S6vign6  lived  (1620- 
96)  is  near  Vitre. 

The  chief  shrines  of  the  archdiocese  are:  Notre- 
Dame  des  Miracles  et  Vertus,  in  St-Sauveur's 
at  Rennes,  a  place  of  pilgrimage  since  the  siege  of 
Rennes  by  the  English  under  the  Duke  of  Lancaster 
in  1357;  Notre-Dame  de  Bonne  Nouvelle,  at  Rennes, 
a  Dominican's  shrine,  a  place  of  pilgrimage  as  early  as 


1466;  Notre-Dame  des  Marais,  at  Foug^res,  dating 
from  the  tenth  century,  but  particularly  famous 
during  the  seventeenth  ceoturj';  Notre-Dame  de 
Paimpont;  Notre-Dame  de  la  Peini^re  at  Saint 
Didier,  a  pilgrimage  from  very  early  times.  Be- 
fore the  application  of  the  Associations  Law  in 
1901  there  were  in  the  archdiocese:  Eudists,  Recol- 
lets,  Lazarists,  Carmelites,  and  several  orders  of 
teaching  Brothers.  Among  congregations  of  women 
originating  in  the  diocese  are  the  Daughters  of  the 
Immaculate  Heart  of  Mary,  founded  in  1640  by  Mile 
Morel  du  Verger  for  the  care  of  incurables,  with 
mother-house  at  Rennes;  The  Adoratrices  of  the 
Divine  Justice,  a  teaching  and  nursing  order  with 
mother-house  at  Fougdres;  the  Sisters  of  the  Im- 
maculate Conception,  a  teaching  and  nursing  order 
founded  in  1831  at  St.  M4i|p  by  P6re  Corvoisier;  the 
Sisters  of  the  Sacred  HMj^  of  Jesus  and  Manr, 
known  as  Sisters  of  the  Oa!^or  of  the  Junior  Schools, 
founded  in  1850  by  Am^lie  Fristel,  a  nursing  and  teach- 
ing order  with  mother-house  at  Param6  and  branches 
at  Halifax  and  Ste  Marie  in  Canada;  Little  Sisters 
of  the  Poor,  founded  in  1842  at  Rennes  by  Jeanne 
Jugan,  Fanchon  Aubert,  Marie  Jamet,  Virginie 
Tredaniel  under  the  guidance  of  Abb^  LepaiUeur, 
and  installed  through  the  efforts  of  Abb^  Ernest 
Ijcli^vre  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  Their  mother- 
house  at  St.  Pern  in  the  Diocese  of  Rennes  controlled 
in  1905  106  houses  in  France,  51  in  Spain,  29  in 
England,  30  in  America,  16  in  Italy,  13  in  Belgium, 
4  in  Africa,  3  in  Oceania,  1  in  Portugal,  1  in  Turkey; 
33,123  aged  and  infirm  persons  were  cared  for  by 
4475  sisters.  At  the  close  of  the  nineteenth  century 
the  religious  congregations  in  the  diocese  had  charge 
of  1  crdche,  31  nurseries,  1  home  for  infirm  children, 
1  deaf  and  dumb  school^  5  orphanages  for  boys,  14 
for  girls,  34  hospitals  or  infirmaries,  18  district  nurs- 
ing homes,  2  retreat  houses,  3  homes  for  incurables,  1 
lunatic  asylum.  In  1909  the  Archdiocese  of  Rennes 
numbered  621,384  souls  in  60  parishes  with  324 
auxiliary  parishes  and  379  curacies. 

GaUia  ehri$tiana,  XIV  (nova  1856).  739-67,  9Q3>1017.  1038- 
68;  irutrumerUa,  163-70,  233-44,  245-60;  Duchbsnb,  FatteM 
iptteopaux,  II,  249-74,  340-3;  Trbsvaux,  L'Egliae  de  Bretagnt 
(Paria,  1839);  as  CoxtsoN,  PouilU  hUtoriaue  de  Varcheticht  d» 
Rennes  (6  vols.,  Rennes,  1880-6);  Idem.  L'Bgliee  de  Rennea  d 
travertUe  doe*  (Nantes,  1885);  Dk  la  Borderib  and  Pocquet, 
Hiat.  de  Bretagne  (4  vols.,  Rennes.  1895-1906);  de  Villbneuvb 
AND  Maillet.  HxH.  de  Rennet  (Paris.  1845);  Plaine,  HiaL  du 
euite  de  la  Sainte  Vierge  dan*  la  viUe  de  Rennee  (Rennes.  1872); 
Delarue,  Le  clergi  et  U  eulie  eatholiqtie  en  Bretagne  pendant  la 
Revolution:  diatriet  de  Dol  (5  vols..  Rennes.  1903-8);  Cdnat, 
Hiai.  de  la  CiU  d'Aleth  (St.  Malo.  1851);  Campion.  L'enceinte 
romaine  d^Aleth  (Vannes.  1908) ;  Marion,  La  BrStagne  et  le  due 
d'AiguUlon  (Pans.  1898);  Poulain,  Hiat.  de  St.  Malo,  la  citi 
eoraaire  (Lille,  1887);  Creveoy,  Lea  Sept  Sainta  de  BrHagne  «t 
leur  pUerinage  (St.  Brieuc,  1898);  Le  Grand  (db  Morlaix),  Lm 
Viea  dea  Sainta  de  la  Britagne  armorique,  annotated  by  Tbomas 
AND  Aborall  (5th  ed.,  Quimper,  1901). 

Georges  Goyau. 

Renty,  Gaston  Jean  Baptiste  de,  b.  1611  at  the 
castle  of  Beni,  Diocese  of  Bayeux  in  Normandy; 
d.  24  April.  1649.  The  only  son  of  Charles,  Baron  de 
Renty,  and  Elisabeth  de  Pastoureau,  Gaston  studied 
at  the  Collie  de  Navarre  in  Paris,  with  the  Jesuits  at 
Caen,  and  finished  at  the^age  of  seventeen  at  the 
College  of  the  Nobles  in  Paris.  He  wrote  several 
treatises  on  mathematics  in  which  he  excelled.  The 
reading  of  the  Imitation  of  Christ  aroused  the  desire 
to  become  a  Carthusian,  but  obeying  the  wish  of  his 
parent^  he  married.  In  163S  he  abandoned  public 
ufe  and  devoted  himself  to  the  service  of  the  needy 
and  suffering.  Struck  by  the  ignorance^  in  religious 
matters,  of  the  travellers  who  found  a  night's  rest  at 
the  Hospital  of  St.  Gervaise  in  Paris,  he  gave  them 
catechetical  instructions  and  induced  others  to  do  like- 
wise. In  the  course  of  his  charitable  works  he  made 
the  acquaintance  of  Henry  Michael  Buch  (b.  1590  in 
the  Duchy  of  Luxembourg;  d.  9  June,  1666  at  Paris; 
sumamed  der  gute  Heinrich)  and  induced  him  to 
found  a  congregation  of  shoemakers  and  tailors, 


RENUNCIATION  7' 

Frtret  Cordonnier».  "Ttxy  worked  honeatly  at  their 
trade,  divided  their  earnings  with  the  poor  and  per- 
formed special  acta  of  devotion  prescribed  by  the 
pastor  of  St,  Paul's.  The  statutes  were  approved  by 
the  Archbishop 
of  Paris,  John 
Francis  de  Gondi. 
After  his  death, 
Renty'a  body  was 
brought  to  Citri 
in  the  Diocese  of 
SoissoDS.  When 
the  coffin  was 
opened  nine  years 
later  his  body  was 
found  intact.  The 
bishop  ordered  it 

E laced  in  a  mar- 
ie tomb  behind 
the  high  altar. 
Throughout  his 
career  at  court,  in 
the  army,  and  in 
politics  he  merited 
the  esteem  of  all, 
and  took  an  active 
part  in  public 
good  works. 

VIII  (Leipiii,  1766). 

lan  CArittm  (lUtiaboD, 

..-   aiLTOT-BiDicaii  Did.  da 

Francis  Mebbhman. 

BeDunoifttloa  {Lat.  Tenwdiare),  a  canonical  term 
mgnifying  the  resignation  of  an  ecclesiastical  office 
or  benefice.  It  may  be  defined  as  the  abdication  of 
a  clericfd  dignity  made  freely  and  spontaneously, 
for  just  reasons,  into  the  hands  of  the  legitimate 
superior  who  accepts  it.  Generally  speaking,  any 
ecclesiastic  may  renounce  his  dignity,  whether  his 
office  be  perpetual  or  temporal.  To  be  valid,  the 
resignation  must  be  free,  that  is,  not  eitorted  by  fear, 
or  threats,  or  fraud.  It  must  be  made  into  the  hands 
of  the  superior  who  had  conferred  it,  that  is  of  the 
pope  for  bishops  and  holders  of  major  benefices; 
of  the  ordinaiy  for  parish  priests  and  elII  incumbents 
of  minor  benefices.  As  to  the  pope  himself,  he  may 
abdicate  his  dignity,  but,  as  he  has  no  earthly  su- 
perior, his  resignation  must  simply  bo  declared  canon- 
ically  (see  Abdication).  Before  a  renunciation  is 
ciuionically  valid,  it  must  bo  accepted  by  the  legiti- 
mate superior,  for  otherwise  it  would  work  great 
detriment  to  the  Church.  Moreover,  no  one  is  at 
liberty  to  resign  his  office  unless  be  is  certain  of 
revenues  for  l^s  competent  support.  A  resignation 
may  be  absolute  or  conditional.  The  latter  term  is 
used  for  renunciations  that  are  made  in  favour  of  a 
third  person,  or  with  reservation  of  a  pension,  or  when 
incumbents  exchange  beneficee.  The  causes  for 
which  resignations  are  lawful  are  given  in  vetse  in  the 
"Corpus  juris  oanonici"  (cap.  x,  "do  renunt",  1,  9); 
Debilis,  ignarus,  male  conscius,  irregularis, 
Quem  mala  plebs  odit,  dans  scandala,  cedere  possit. 
ThCTefore,  one  may  justly  resign  on  account  of  ill- 
health,  want  of  proper  knowledge,  consciousness  of 
guilt,  clerical  irregularity,  ill-will  of  the  people,  or 
scandalous  behavior. 

Swrrs,  Blrmtr^,  «f  Ealtinattiral  Law.  I  (>J«w  York,  1SS5); 
T*DNTON,  The  Law  o/lkt  ChurcA  (Ixmdon,  1908),  s.  v.  Aettvia- 
Hm;  SiKOUlNlTTI,  Jurii  iidrnauin  inMutiaua  (Rom*.  iSBO). 

William  H.  W,  Faksino, 

Boordlnatloiu.— I.  State  of  the  Question.— The 
Oratorian  Jean  Morin,  in  the  seventeenth  century, 
and  Cardinal  Hergenrother,  in  the  nineteenth,  desig- 
nated as  "reordinations"  the  history  of  all  ordinations 
wtuch  were  considered  null  for  any  other  reason  than 
defect  of  the  preecribe^j  form  or  intention  and  which 


H  BIORDIHATIOMS 

were  repeated.  This  means  tiiat  if  there  were  b 
fact  reordinations  correepondii^  to  this  definition 
they  were  unjustifiable  beH»use  theok^y  determines 
as  the  sole  causes  of  nullity  of  the  Sacrament  of  Holy 
orders  defect  of  the  prescribed  form  or  intention. 
But  in  the  course  of  the  histoiy  of  t^  Church  other 
causes  of  nullity  have  been  admitted  in  c^iain  cir- 
cumstances. It  has  been  admitted  that  all  or  any 
sacraments  administered  or  received  extra  tedfimn 
(outside  the  Church)  were  null  and  had .  to  be  re- 
peated. By  the  wonls  extra  eedesiam  is  understood 
the  utuation  of  the  minister  or  the  Christian  separated 
from  the  Church  by  heresy,  or  schism,  or  excom- 
munication. At  certain  periods  these  separatisla 
were  considered  so  dai^erotis  and  were  kept  at  such 
a  distance  that  there  was  a  tendency  to  deny  them 
wholly  or  in  part  the  power  of  conferring  the  sacra- 
ments. The  maxim,  "Out  of  the  Church,  no  sacra- 
menU",  was  applied  with  more  or  less  severity. 

11.  The  Facte.— That  this  history  is  complex  and 
difficult  is  shown  by  the  action  of  the  Council  of 
Trent.  The  council  declared  as  a  trutji  of  f^th  the 
doctrine  atfirming  the  validity  of  baptism  adminig- 
\eKd  outside  the  Church  according  to  the  prescribed 
form  and  intention;  but  the  validity  of  confirmation 
and  Holy  orders  conferred  under  the  same  conditions 
was  not  defined  as  a  matter  of  f^th,  owing  to  the 
wavering  and  partial  disagreements  on  these  points 
of  tradition  revealed  by  the  history  of  theolc^.  The 
council  was  unwilling  to  ^ve  a  definition  that  would 
place  the  doctrine  of  numerous  writers  in  oppodtkn 
to  a  teaching  of  faith.  A  good  judge  in  these  mat- 
ters. Father  Perrone,  has  written;  "  Ordinationes  ab 
illegitimo  ministro  peractas  illidtas  esse,  nemo 
unquam  theologorum  dubitavit:  utrum  vero  pne- 
terea  irritie,  inanes  ac  nulls  habende  sint,  implira- 
tissima  olim  qusatio  fuit,  adeo  ut  Magister  Sok- 
tentiaruin  scribat:  'Hanc  qufestionem  perplexsin 
ac  ptene  insolubilem  faciunt  doctorum  v»ba,  quae 
plurimum  diasentire  videntur'  (I,  iv,  dist.  25); 
deinde  profert  quatuor  sententias,  quin  ulli  adhsreaL 
Monumenta  ecclesiastica  prope  innumera  pro 
utraque  sententia,  sive  afiirmante  irritas  esse  eius- 
modi  ordinationes  sive  negante,  stare  videntur,  cum 
res  nondum  eUquata  eeset.  Nunc  iam  a  pluribus 
snculis  sola  viget  S.  Thorns  doctrina,  cui  sunragiuni 
acceesit  universe  ecclesiie,  ordinationes  ab  hsreUris, 
scbismaticis  ac  simoniacis  factas  validss  omnino  erne 
habwidas" — That  ordinations  performed  by  an  un- 
lawful minister  are  illicit,  no  theologian  ever  doubted: 
but  whether  they  are,  moreover,  to  oe  r^arded  as  null 
and  void  was  of  old  a  most  intricate  question — so  much 
BO  that  the  Master  of  the  Sentences  writes:    "This 

Eroblem  is  rendered  complex  and  almost  insoluble 
y  the  statements  of  the  doctors  which  show  con- 
sidertU>le  discrepancy"   (I,  iv,   dist.   25).      He  then 

fresente  four  opinions,  none  of  which  he  adopts, 
or  each  view — that  which  affirms  and  that  which 
denies  the  nullity  of  such  ordinations— there  seemed 
to  be  innumerable  evidences  from  church  histiHy, 
as  lone  as  the  question  was  not  cleared  ut>.  But  lat 
several  centuries  past,  the  teaching  of  St.  Thomu 
alone  has  prevailed  and  is  accepted  by  the  whole 
Church,  to  the  effect  that  ordinations  performed  by 
heretical,  schismatical,  or  simoniacal  tniuiBters  are 
to  be  considered  as  valid  ["Tractatus  de  onUne", 
cap.  It,  n.  13fi,  in  Migne,  "llieolo^a  ciusus  comple> 
tus",  XXV  (Paris,  1841),  55]. 

In  the  second  half  of  the  fifth  century  the  Church 
of  Constantinople  repeated  the  confirmation  and  or- 
dination conferred  by  the  Arians,  Macedonians, 
Novatians,  Quartodecimarv.  and  Apollinarists  (Beve- 
ridge,  "Synodicon",  11,  Oxford,  1672,  Annotationea, 
100).  The  Roman  Synod  of  766  permitted  and  even 
prescribed  the  repetition  of  orders  conferred  by  the 
anti-pope  Constantino  ("  Liber  Pont.",  ed.  Duehsone, 
I,   408  sqq.).    In  the  ninth  century,   duiinf  ths 


REPARATION 


775 


ABPABATION 


struggle  with  the  chorepiscopi,  the  ordinationB  con- 
ferrS^  by  these  prelates  were  often  declared  null. 
In  881-8S  Pope  John  VlII  prescribed  the  reordination 
of  Bishop  Joseph  of  Vercelli,  who  had  been  ordained 
by  the  Archbishop  of  Milan,  then  under  the  ban  of 
excommunication.  On  several  occasions  the  ordina- 
tions conferred  by  Pope  Formosus  were  declared  null 
and  were  repeated.  After  the  eleventh  century  the 
discussions  concerning  simony  gave  new  sharpness 
to  the  controversy  about  reordinations.  Cardinal 
Humbert  affirmed  the  nullity  of  simoniacal  ordina- 
tions as  did  also  the  Synod  of  Girona  (Spain)  in  1078. 
In  the  strife  between  the  emperors  of  uermany  and 
the  popes  of  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries  the 
power  of  ordination  of  schismatic  bishops  was  dis- 
cussed and  denied  in  various  ways  (cf.  oaltet,  "Les 
reordinations''^  205-412).  In  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury the  conditions  for  the  vahdity  of  Holy  orders 
were  determined  in  such  a  way  that  since  then  all 
uncertainty  has  been  excluded. 

III.  Interpretations  and  Conclusions. — ^The 
chief  instances  just  cited  and  the  attempts  that  have 
been  made  to  justify  them,  constitute,  from  thp  theo- 
logical standpoint,  doctrinal  deformations.  It  is  not 
then  surprising  that  these  difficulties  have  sometimes, 
and  even  quite  recently,  been  used  as  objections 
against  the  Church  and  the  pope,  especially  by 
Anglicans,  who  are  always  sensitive  on  the  question 
of  ordinations.  It  is  true  that  during  these  con- 
troversies the  doctrinal  authority  of  the  popes  was 
more  than  once  involved.  But  to  what  extent? 
It  is  obvious  that  the  decisions  of  the  popnes  on  these 
points  did  not  possess  the  character  required  by  the 
Council  of  the  Vatican  for  definitions  involving  the 
sovereign  authority  of  the  pope  in  doctrinal  matters. 
In  the  history  of  reordinations  the  authority  of  the 
popes  is  much  less  concerned  than  in  the  doctrine 
regarding  the  relations  of  the  civil  and  ecclesiastical 
powers,  m  which,  nevertheless,  as  theologians  main- 
tain, papal  infallibility  is  not  involved  (cf.  J.  Fessler, 
''La  vraie  et  la  fausse  infaillibilit^  des  papes'\  Paris, 
1873).  The  question  as  to  the  conditions  tor  the 
validity  of  certain  sacraments  was  one  of  those 
that  caused  serious  divisions  in  the  early  Church. 
The  popes  cannot  be  held  responsible  for  these 
lengthy  controversies.  In  ancient  times  it  was  the 
whole  Church  that  sou^t  the  solution  of  these 
great  difficulties.  At  a  time  when  ecclesiastical  or- 
ganization was  only  just  beginning,  the  initiative, 
and  the  responsibilities  as  well^  were  heavy  burdens 
for  the  great  Churches  and  their  heads.  It  was  not 
only  the  tradition  of  Rome  which  at  first  was  some- 
what hesitant  on  certain  aspects  of  this  (question, 
but  that  of  the  Church  in  general,  and  in  this  matter 
the  tradition  of  Rome  was  incomparably  more  firm 
than  that  of  all  the  other  Churches.  To  accuse  the 
Church  in  Rome  in  this  matter  is  to  accuse  the  Uni- 
versal Church;  and  on  this  as  on  so  many  other 
questions  the  Anglican  Church  has  an  interest  in 
common  with  the  Roman  Church.  Old  Catholics 
and  Anglicans  often  bring  charges  against  the  Roman 
See,  which,  if  they  had  the  value  that  is  claimed  for 
them,  would  tell  not  only  against  the  popes  but  also 
against  the  early  Church  and  the  Fatners.  Against' 
this  manner  of  representing  the  state  of  theological 
tradition  concerning  the  conditions  for  the  validity 
of  Holy  orders,  only  they  can  raise  objection  who 
interpret  in  a  strict  sense  the  saying  of  Vincent  of 
L^rins;  ''Quod  ubique,  ouod  semper,  quod  ab 
omnibus''.  But  to  defend  tnis  thesis  is  to  undertake 
to  show  in  tradition  the  absolute  identity  and  the 
unchangeableness  of  the  most  essential  Christian 
doctrines,  a  task  which  will  readily  appear  impossible. 
History  shows  us  in  the  life  of  the  Church  and  in 
doctrine  a  movement  between  determined  limits 
and  the  popes  as  regulators  of  this  movement.  To 
implicate  the  popes  in  the  long  history  of  these  con- 


troversies it  must  be  proved  that  they  failed  in  this 
task,  which  cannot  be  done. 

MoRiN,  Commentantu  d«  sacrU  ecelesia  ordinationilms  (Paria, 
1655);  HbroenrOther,  Die  Reordinationen  der  cUten  Kirche  in 
Oevterreich.  Viertdiahresschr.  fUr  kathol.  Thed.  (1862),  207-52, 
387-456;  Idem,  Photiua  Patriarch  ton  ConatanHnopelt  tein  Ldbtn 
aeine  Schri/len  u.  das  ffriech.  Schisma  (Ratisbon,  1867-60); 
Saltbt,  Lea  riord\n€Ui<m8,  Hude  star  le  aacremerU  de  Vordre  (Paris, 
1007) :  Kern.  Bibl.  in  Zeitachr.  fUr  kathol.  Theol.  (1007),  507-15; 
Lerbe,  Bibl.  in  Revue  b&rUdictine  (1007),  560-65;  Wordsworth 
in  The  Guardian  (London,  1008,  25  Nov.  and  2  Dec.).  1063  sqq., 
2005  sqq.;  and  the  reply  of  Saltbt  in  The  Guardian  (1008,  30 
Deo.,  2176  sqq.);  Wordsworth.  Ordination  Prcblema  (London, 
''lOOO),  cf.  Saltet  in  BuUeiin  de  literature  eccUaiaatique  (Toulouse, 
1000),  276. 

Louis  Saltet. 

Reparation  is  a  theological  concept  closely  con- 
nected with  those  of  atonement  and  satisfaction,  and 
thus  belonging  to  some  of  the  deepest  mysteries  of  the 
Christian  Faith.  It  is  the  teaching  of  that  Faith  that 
man  is  a  creature  who  has  fallen  from  an  original 
state  of  justice  in  which  he  was  created,  and  that 
through  the  Incarnation,  Passion,  and  Death  of  the 
Son  of  God  he  has  been  redeemed  and  restored  again 
in  a  certain  degree  to  the  original  condition.  Al- 
though God  might  have  condoned  men's  offences 
gratuitously  if  He  had  chosen  to  do  so,  yet  in  His 
Providence  He  did  not  do  this;  He  judged  it  better  to 
demand  satisfaction  for  the  injuries  which  man  had 
done  Him.  It  is  better  for  man's  education  that 
wrong  doing  on  his  part  ediould  entail  the  necessity 
of  making  satisfaction.  This  satisfaction  was  made 
adequatelv  to  God  by  the  Sufferings,  Passion,  and 
Death  of  Jesus  Christ,  made  Man  for  us.  By  voluntary 
submission  to  His  Passion  and  Death  on  the  Cross, 
Jesus  Christ  atoned  for  our  disobedience  and  sin. 
He  thus  made  reparation  to  the  offended  majesty 
of  God  for  the  outrages  which  the  Creator  so  con- 
stantly suffers  at  the  hands  of  His  creatures.  We  are 
restored  to  grace  through  the  merits  of  Christ's 
Death,  and  that  grace  enables  us  to  add  our  prayers, 
labours,  and  trials  to  those  of  Our  Lord  'and  fill 
up  those  things  that  are  wanting  of  the  sufferings  of 
Cnrist"  (Col.,  i,  24).  ^  We  can  thus  make  some  sort 
of  reparation  to  the  justice  of  God  for  our  own  of- 
fences against  Him,  and  by  virtue  of  the  Communion 
of  Saints,  the  oneness  and  solidarity  of  the  mystical 
Body  of  Christ,  we  can  also  make  satisfaction  and 
reparation  for  the  sins  of  others. 

This  theological  doctrine,  firmly  rooted  in  the 
Christian  Faith,  is  the  foundation  of  the  numerous 
confraternities  and  pious  associations  which  have 
been  founded,  especially  in  modem  times,  to  make 
reparation  to  God  for  the  sins  of  men.  Tlius  the 
Archconfratemity  of  Reparation  for  blasphemy  and 
the  neglect  of  Simday  was  founded  28  June,  1847, 
in  the  Church  of  St.  Martin  de  La  Noue  at  St. 
Dizier  in  France  by  Mgr  Parisis,  Bishop  of  Langres. 
With  a  similar  object,  the  Archconfratemity  of  the 
Holy  Face  was  established  at  Tours,  about  1851. 
through  the  piety  of  M.  Dupont,  the  "holy  man  of 
Tours".  In  1883  an  association  was  formed  in  Rome 
to  offer  reparation  to  God  on  behalf  of  all  nations. 
The  idea  of  reparation  is  an  essential  element  in  the 
devotion  of  the  Sacred  Heart  (see  Heabt  of  Jesus, 
Devotion  to  the). 

The 'Mass,  the  representation  of  the  sacrifice  of 
Calvary,  is  specially  suited  to  m^e  reparation  for 
sin.  One  of  the  ends  for  which  it  is  offered  is  the 
propitiation  of  God's  wrath.  A  pious  widow  of 
Pans  conceived  the  idea  of  promoting  this  object  in 
1862.  By  the  authority  of  Pope  Leo  XIII  the  erec- 
tion of  the  Archconfratemity  of  the  Mass  of  Repara- 
tion was  sanctioned  in  1886. 

BsRiNGBR.  Lea  indulgencea  (Paris,  1800) ;  Nillbs,  De  rationibua 
Featorum  aacratiaaimi  Cordis  jeau  et  puriaaimi  Cordia  Maria  (5th 
ed.,2  vols.,  Innsbruck,  1885);  Galuffbt.  The  Adorable  Heart  of 
Jeaua  (New  York,  1887);  Tickbll,  The  Life  of  Bleaaed  Margaret 
Mary  (London,  1869). 

T.  Slatbb. 


REPQfGTON 


776 


REQUIEM 


Repixigton,  (Repyngdon)  Phuip^  Cardmal-priest 
of  the  title  of  SS.  Nereus  and  Achilleus,  Bishop  of 
Lincohi  (1404-1419);  died  early  in  1424.  The  place 
and  date  of  his  birth  are  imcertain,  but  he  was  edu- 
cated at  Broadgates  Hall,  Oxford,  and  became  an 
Augustinian  canon  of  St.  Mary  de  Fr6,  Leicester.  In 
his  early  life  he  was  infected  with  Wyclifism,  and  was 
suspended  at  the  Council  of  Blackfriars,  12  June,  1382, 
bein^  excommunicated  at  Canterbury  on  1  July.  Re- 
cantmg  his  heretical  views,  he  was  restored  to  the 
communion  of  the  Church  during  the  autumn  of  the 
same  year.  In  1394  he  became  abbot  of  his  monas- 
tery, and  was  Chancellor  of  the  University  of  Oxford  for 
the  years  1397, 1400, 1401  and  1402.  On  the  accession 
of  Henry  IV  he  became  confessor  and  chaplain  to  the 
king,  with  whom  he  lived  in  great  intimacy,  and  on 
19  Nov.,  1404,  he  was  appoint^  Bishop  of  Lincoln  by 
T>apal  provision,  being  consecrated  on  29  March  fol- 
lowing. Pope  Gregory  XII  cheated  him  a  cardinal 
in  Sept.,  1408,  but  as  the  Council  of  Pisa  on  5  June, 
1409,  deposed  Gregory  and  annulled  all  his  acts  since 
May,  1408,  Repington's  cardinalate  was  invalidated 
until  the  Council  of  Constance,  when  he  was  rein- 
stated. In  1419  Cardinal  Repington  resigned  his 
bishopric,  probably  for  court  reasons,  and  this  resig- 
nation was  accepted  by  the  pope  on  21  November. 
The  date  of  his  aeath  is  unknown,  but  it  occurred  be- 
fore 1  August,  1424,  when  his  will  was  proved.  His 
"Sermons  on  the  Gospels **  are  extant  in  several  MSS. 
in  Oxford,  Cambridge,  and  British  Museum. 

PateictUi  Ziumiorunit  R.  S.  (London,  1858);  Wtue,  History 
of  Henry  IV  (London,  1884-88);  k  Wood,  Hutory  and  An- 
tiquities of  the  Univeraity  of  Oxford  (Oxford,  1792-96);  Wil- 
UAifSj  Live*  of  the  BnoUth  Cardinal*  (London,  1868) — which  must 
be  uaed  with  caution,  aa  inexact  and  incomplete;  Cardinal 
RemmiHon  and  the  Follower*  of  Widif  in  Church  Quarterly  Review, 
XlX  (London,  1883),  69-82;  Gairdneb,  LoUardy  and  the  Refor- 


mation in  England  (London,  1908). 


Edwin  Burton. 


Repose,  Altar  of  (sometimes  called  less  properly 
sepulchre  or  tomb,  more  frequently  repository),  the 
altar  where  the  Sacred  Host,  consecrated  in  tiie  Mass 
on  Holy  Thursday,  is  reserved  until  the  Mass  of  the 
Presanc tilled  (see  Good  Friday)  on  the  following  day. 
It  is  prescribed  that  the  altar  of  repose  be  in  the  church 
and  other  than  the  one  where  Mass  is  celebrated. 
In  the  Mass  on  Holy  Thursday  two  hosts  are  con- 
secrated; after  the  consumption  of  the  first,  the 
second  Host  is  placed  in  a  chalice,  which  is  covered 
with  a  pall  and  inverted  paten;  over  the  whole  is 
placed  a  white  veil,  tied  with  a  ribbon.  This  re- 
mains on  the  corporal  in  the  centre  of  the  altar  till 
the  end  of  Mass,  when  it  is  carried  in  solemn  pro- 
cession to  the  altar  of  repose,  there  to  remain  in  the 
tabernacle  or  in  an  urn  placea  in  a  prominent  position 
above  the  altar.  Individual  churches  vie  with  one 
another  in  rendering  these  altars  of  repose  with  their 
respective  chapels  ornate  in  the  extreme,  with  rich 
hangings,  beautiful  flowers,  and  numerous  lights. 
Catholic  piety  has  made  Holv  Thursday  a  day  of 
exceptional  devotion  to  the  Blessed  Sacrament,  and 
the  repository  is  the  centre  of  the  love  and  aspirations 
of  the  faithful.  Mention  of  the  altar  of  repose  and 
the  procession  thereto  is  not  found  before  the  close 
of  the  fifteenth  century.  The  reservation  of  the 
Consecrated  Species  in  the  Mass  of  Holy  Thursday, 
spoken  of  in  earlier  liturgical  works,  was  for  the  dis- 
tribution of  Holy  Communion,  not  for  the  service 
on  the  following  day. 

Magani,  VAntica  liturgia  romana.  III,  220-1. 

Andrew  B.  Mbehan. 

Reprobation.    See  Predestination. 

Reputation  (Property  in).  It  is  certain  that  a 
man  is  indefeasibly  the  owner  of  what  he  has  been 
able  to  produce  by  his  own  labour  out  of  his  own  mate- 
rial, employing  his  own  resources.  In  much  the  same 
way  his  reputation,  which  is  the  outcome  of  his  merito- 


rious activity,  is  his  property.  To  desi>oil  him  of  this 
without  adequate  cause  is  to  be  guilty  of  formal  in- 
justice more  or  less  grievous  according  to  the  harm 
done.  It  is  a  person^  injury,  a  violation  of  commuta- 
tive justice  burdening  the  perpetrator  with  the  obliga- 
tion of  restitution.  Indeed  St.  Thomas,  in  attemptmg 
to  measure  the  comparative  malice  of  the  sin  of  de- 
traction, decides  that  whilst  it  is  less  than  homicide  or 
adultery  it  is  greater  than  theft.  This,  because 
amongst  all  our  external  possessions  a  good  name  holds 
the  primacv.  Nor  does  it  do  to  sa^  that  by  wrong- 
doing, of  whatever  sort,  a  man  forfeits  such  esteem  as 
he  may  have  hitherto. won  from  his  fellows.  This 
statement  is  not  true,  not,  at  any  rate,  without  quali- 
fication. If  a  man's  sin  is  such  as  to  affront  the  social 
orp^anization  itself,  or  is  committed  publicly,  then  his 
fair  fame  is  destroyed  and  can  no  longer  be  reckoned 
among  his  assets.  In  this  instance  discussion  of  the 
evil  deed  implies  no  defamation.  No  damage  can  be 
wrought  to  what  does  not  exist.  We  assume,  of  course, 
that  reputation  is  the  opinion  held  by  many  about  a 
person's  life  and  behaviour.  If,  however,  a  man  has 
been  guilty  of  some  secret  offence  having  nothing 
specially  to  do  with  society  the  case  is  far  different. 
Then,  barring  the  supposition  in  which  it  is  necessary 
for  the  public  welfare,  our  own,  or  another's  defence, 
or  even  the  culprit's  good,  we  are  not  allowed  to  make 
known  what  is  to  ms  discredit.  This  teaching,  as 
d'Annibale  says,  is  quite  certain;  the  reason  for  it  is 
not  so  easy  to  assign.  Perhaps  it  may  be  this: 
Character  is  a  public  thing.  Such  a  one  therefore  is 
in  peaceful  possession  of  the  esteem  of  the  community. 
Granted  that  this  is  founded  upon  error  or  ignorance 
as  to  the  actual  conditions,  still  the  isolated  knowledge 
of  one  or  other  as  to  the  real  state  of  affairs  confers  no 
right  to  take  from  him  the  general  favourable  i4}pre- 
ciation  which  he,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  enjoys.  One 
who  has  injured  another's  reputation  is  bound  to  re- 
habilitate his  victim  as  far  as  possible.  If  the  state- 
ment was  calumnious  it  must  be  retracted.  If  it  was 
true,  then  some  expedient  or  other  must  ordinarily  be 
found  to  undo  the  harm.  If  as  a  result  of  the  back- 
biting or  slander  there  has  followed,  for  example,  the 
loss  of  money  or  position,  this  must  be  made  good.  It 
is  probable  that  for  the  besmirching  of  reputation,  as 
such,  one  is  not  obliged  to  make  pecuniary  compen- 
sation. This  is  so  unless  a  judge  of  competent  juris- 
diction has  so  mulcted  the  traducer.  In  that  case 
the  tale-bearer  or  slanderer  is  bound  in  conscience  to 
obey  the  judicial  direction. 

Slater.  Manual  of  Moral  TheoL  (New  York,  1908);  Rxccabt, 
Ethic*  and  Natural  Law  (London,  1908) ;  d'Anxibale.  Sumtmula 
Theol.  Morali*  (Rome,  1908);  Ballerini,  Op.  TheoL  Moral* 
(Prato,  1899). 

Joseph  F.  Delant. 

Requiem,  Masses  of,  will  be  treated  here  under  the 
following  heads:  I.  Origin;  II.  Formulary;  III.  Col- 
our of  the  Ornaments;  IV.  Conditions  for  celebrating; 
V.  Rite;  VI.  Solemn  Funeral  Mass;  VII.  Mass  in 
Commemoration  of  All  the  Dead;  VIII.  Mass  Posl 
Acceptum  Mortis  Nuncium;  IX.  Solemn  Mass  on  the 
Third,  Seventh,  and  Thirtieth  Dam  and  on  Anniver- 
saries: X.  High  Mass;  XI.  Low  Msss. 

I.  Origin. — Requiem  Masses  are  Masses  that  are 
offered  for  the  dead.  They  derive  their  name  from 
the  first  word  of  the  Introit,  which  may  be  traced  to 
the  Fourth  Book  of  Esdras,  one  of  the  Apocrypha,  at 
the  passage  "Expectate  pastorem  vestrum,  requiem 
sternitatis  dabit  vobis  .  .  .  Parati  estote  ad  pnemia 
regni,  quia  lux  perpetua  lucebit  vobis  per  setemitatem 
tempons"  (IV  Esd.,  ii,  34,  35).  It  is  also  connected 
with  a  passage  in  Isaias,  *'Et  requiem  tibi  dabit 
Dominus  semper,  et  implebit  splendoribus  animam 
tuam"  (Is..  Iviii,  11).  The  Antiphon  is f rom  Psalm 
bdv.  The  date  of  the  adoption  of  this  Introit  is 
not  well  known,  but  it  is  found  in  the  so-called  An- 
tiphonary  of  St.  Gregory  Comes  of  Albino  (see  the 


RBQUim 


777 


REQUIEM 


edition  Rome,  1691,  p.  226).  In  that  work,  however, 
there  are  two  other  Introits  for  the  Mass  of  the  Dead, 
one  of  which  is  ''Ego  sum  resurrectio  et  vita;  .  .  . 
non  morietur  in  aetemum  " ;  and  the  other,  **  Rogamus 
te,  Domine  Deus  noster,  ut  suscipias  animam  hujus 
defuncti,  pro  quo  sanguinem  tuum  fudisti:  recordare 
Domine  quia  pulvis  sumus  et  homo  sicut  foenum 
flos  agri."  The  religious  idea  that  the  soul  is  immortal 
made  even  the  Jews  hold  that  the  just,  after  death, 
went  to  sleep  with  their  fathers  (cf.  Gen.,  xlvii,  30; 
III  Kings,  ii,  10;  II  Mach.,  xii,  45),  and  Christians 
believed,  with  St.  Paul,  that  they  slept  in  Christ 
(I  Cor.,  XV,  18).  From  the  first  centuries,  therefore, 
prayers  were  offered  that  the  dead  might  have  eternal 
rest.  Gregory  of  Tours  (Glor.  Mart.,  I,  Ixv),  speaking 
of  a  Christian  woman  who  each  day  caused  the  Divine 
Sacrifice  to  be  offered  for  her  deceased  husband,  says: 
''Non  diffisa  de  Domini  misericordia,  quod  haberet 
defunctus  requiem.''  And  St.  Ambrose  (Ob.  Valen- 
tiniani  imp.,  n.  56)  writes:  " Date  ma&ibus  sancta 
mysteria,  pio  requiem  ejus  poscamus  officio.''  So 
onginated  the  Introit  of  the  Mass  for  the  Dead. 

n.  Formulary. — ^The  formulary  of  a  mass  con- 
sists of  the  liturgical  texts  that  constitute  the  variable 
parts  of  the  mass,  namely  the  Introit,  Prayer, 
Epistle,  Gradual,  and  Tract,  and  sometimes  also  the 
Sequence,  Gospel,  Offertory,  Secret,  Communion,  and 
Post-Commumon.  Now  the  Missal  has  four  of  these 
formularies:  (1)  In  commemaraiiane  Omnium  De- 
funclorum;  (2)  In  die  obitus;  (3)  In  anniversario; 
(4)  In  missis  quotidianis;  but  the  only  variations 
among  them  are  in  the  Prayer,  the  Epistle,  and  the 
Gospel.  In  the  Paris  Missal  of  Ventimille,  reviewed 
by  Quelen  (ed.  Le  Clere,  1841),  there  are  five  for- 
mularies and  many  other  Epistles  and  Gospels,  all  of 
which  deserve  to  be  considered,  because  they  are  all 
taken  from  the  Scriptures  and  are  very  appropriate. 
Guyet,  also  (Heortoi.,  IV,  xxiii,  31),  takes  from  other 
local  uses  several  formulse  for  the  Introit,  etc.  for  the 
dead,  lliere  is  nothing  to  be  said  in  regard  to  the 
Gradual  or  to  the  Communion  of  the  Roman  for- 
mulary. (In  r^ard  to  the  sequence  "Dies  irse",  see 
Dibs  Irm.)  A  few  remarks  may  be  made,  however, 
in  regard  to  the  Offertory,  concerning  which  many 
writers  have  published  contrary  views  (cf .  Merati  in 
"Not.,Gavanti",  I,  xii,  2).  The  words  "Libera 
animas  .  .  .  de  poenis  ixifemi  et  de  prof  undo  lacu" 
may  easily  be  understood  to  refer  to  purgatory,  or, 
like  those  that  follow  .  .  .  "libera  eas  de  ore  leonis,  ne 
absorbeat  eas  tartarus,  ne  cadant  in  obscurum",  as 
also  the  last  ones  .  .  .  "fac  eas  Domine,  transire  de 
morte  ad  vitam",  they  may  bear  the  interpretation 
that  is  most  in  accord  with  history  and  with  theology, 
i.  e.  the  one  ^ven  by  Merati  and  by  Benedict  XIV 
(De  sacrif.  mis.,  II,  ix,  4),  cited  by  Granoolas  (Antiq. 
sacrament,  eccl.,  p.  536).  This  Offertory  is  among  the 
prayers  that  were  formerly  recited  for  the  sick  who 
were  about  to  die,  and  was  later  adopted  in  the  Mass, 
in  the  same  manner  as  the  Church  is  wont  to  pray,  in 
Advent:  "Rorate  cceli  desuper.  Emitte  agnum^ 
^  Donune,  dominatorem  terrs.  .  .  .  O  Adonai,  veni 
'  ad  liberandum  nos",  etc.  ...  As,  therefore,  the 
Church  refers  these  prayers  to  the  time  when  the 
Prophets  were  longing  for  the  promised  Messias,  so, 
also,  she  refers  the  Offertory  of  the  Mass  for  the  Dead 
to  the  time  when  the  soul  has  not  yet  left  the  bodv. 
The  same  pope  cites  also  an  explanation  by  Samelli 
(Epist.,  Ill,  62),  which  is  accepted  by  Thiers  (De 
superstit.,  X,  15),  and  according  to  which  these  words 
would  refer  to  the  lake  and  to  the  dark  place  of  pur- 
gatory; but  the  words  "Fac  transire  de  morte  ad 
vitam"  are  opposed  to  this  interpretation.  The 
rubric  after  the  fourth  formulary  of  the  Missal  (In 
missiB  quotidianis)  leaves  the  celebrant  free  to  select 
the  Epistle  and  llie  Gospel  that  he  may  prefer,  and 
consequently  there  remam  to  be  recited  according  to 
prescription  only  the  PrayezB,  which  must  be  selected 


accordiiu;  to  the  indications  of  the  Misssd,  in  appro- 
priate reuktion  to  the  person  for  whom  the  Divine  Sac- 
rifice is  offered. 

The  ceremonies  of  the  Mass  of  Requiem  are  the 
same  as  those  of  the  so-called  "Mass  of  the  Living", 
with  the  exception  of  a  few  omissions  and  valiations 
indicated  in  title  XIII  of  the  Rubrics.  The  psalm 
"  Judica  me"  is  omitted  at  the  beginning;  this  omis- 
sion certainly  bears  a  relation  to  the  masses  of  Passion 
Time,  in  which  that  psalm  is  likewise  omitted.  It 
should  be  noted,  however,  that  the  omission  on  Passion 
Sunday  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  psalm  is  said  in  the 
Introit,  and  could  not  be  recited  twice.  As  this  psalm 
xlii  was  omitted  in  all  the  ferial  masses  of  Passion 
Time,  that  omission  was  regarded  as  a  sign  of  mourn- 
ing, and  accordingly  became  a  characteristic  of  the 
Mass  of  Requiem,  although  the  psalm  itself  is  not  at 
variance  with  the  nature  of  this  Mass.  The  two 
doxologies  and  the  Alleluia,  which  are  regarded  as 
expressions  of  joy  and  festivity,  are  naturally  omitted, 
to  express  mourning,  althou^  the  Alleluia  was  for- 
merly used  in  Masses  of  Reqmem,  as  may  be  seen  in  the 
Antiphonary  of  St.  Gregory  mentioned  above.  (Cf. 
Cabrol,  "Diction.",  s.  v.,  col.  1235.)  With  regard  to  the 
omission  of  the  blessing  of  the  water  which  is  poured 
into  the  chalice,  rubricists,  taking  it  one  from  the 
other,  say  with  Gavantus  (Rubr.  Mis.,  II,  vii,  4,  g.) 
"  Non  benedicitur  aqua  .  .  .  qu»  popiilum  significat^ 
.  .  .  vel  aqua  hoc  loco  significat  populum  Puj^atorii, 
qui  jam  est  in  gratia."  But,  admitting  that  the  water 
which  is  mixed  with  wine  represents  the  people,  as 
Benedict  XIV  shows  upon  the  authority  of  St. 
Cyprian  (Sacr.  Mis.,  II,  x,  13),  this  mystic  explanation 
does  not  show  why  the  water  should  not  be  blessed. 
It  seems  more  probable  that  the  explanation  for 
this  practice  should  be  sought  in  the  principle,  ad- 
mitted in  the  Latin  Rites,  that,  as  an  evidence  of 
mourning,  all  signs  of  reverence  and  salutations  are 
omitted,  among  them  the  blessing  of  objects  and  of 
persons,  just  as  on  Good  Friday  the  blessine  of  the 
water,  all  obeisances  and  salutations,  and  the  olessing 
of  the  people  are  omitted. 

III.  Colour  op  the  Vestments. — Requiem  Mass 
should  always  be  celebrated  with  black  vestments 
and  ornaments,  black,  in  the  Latin  Rite,  representing 
the  deepest  mourning;  for,  as  the  Church  robes  its 
ministers  in  black  on  Good  Friday,  to  show  its  great- 
est grief,  caused  by  the  death  of  the  Divine  Redeemer, 
while  it  uses  the  mixed  colour  of  violet  during  Pas- 
sion Tide,  so  also,  in  celebrating  the  obsequies  of  the 
dead,  it  uses  the  colour  of  greatest  grief.  The  one 
exception  to  the  above  rule  was  made  by  the  Con- 
gregation of  Rites  (deer.  3177  and  3844),  which  pre- 
scribed that  when  the  Blessed  Sacrament  is  exposed 
on  All  Souls  day,  in  the  devotion  of  the  Fortv  Hours, 
the  colour  of  the  vestments  must  be  violet.  In  many 
places  it  was  held  that  bishops  and  cardinals  might 
use  violet  vestments  for  the  Mass  of  Requiem;  and 
this  opinion  was  put  into  practice.  It  may  have 
originated  in  the  fact  that  a  Mass  celebrated  by  the 
bie£op  is  considered  more  solemn  than  others;  on 
the  other  hand,  it  may  be  that,  as  the  violet  vest- 
ments were  not  used  prior  to  the  thirteenth  century, 
because  Innocent  III  makes  no  mention  of  them 
(Mist.  Miss.,  I,  Ixv;  P.  L.,  217),  while  black  was  used 
on  penitential  days,  some  bishops  may  have  under- 
taken to  substitute  violet  for  black  in  the  Requiem 
Mass  also.  This  practice  has  received  no  authorita- 
tive sanction;  ana  as  the  bishop,  when  officiating  on 
a  gpven  day,  must  use  vestments  of  the  colour  pre- 
scribed by  the  Rubrics  for  that  day,  there  is  no 
reason  why  he  should  make  an  exception  for  the 
Reouiem  Mass.  And  in  fact,  the  cardinal  who 
celebrates  a  solemn  Mass  for  the  dead  in  the  pontifi- 
cal chapel  in  the  presence  of  the  supreme  pontiff, 
on  occasions  of  the  greatest  solemnity,  always  uses 
black  vestments. 


REQUIEM 


778 


REQUIEM 


rV.  Conditions  for  the  Celebration  op  Re- 
quiem Masses. — ^The  Mass  of  Requiem  is  by  its 
verv  nature  extra  ordinem  ofiwiiy  according  to  the 
Rubric  (Rubr.  Miss.);  that  is,  it  has  no  relation  to 
the  Office  of  the  day.  From  this  point  of  view,  the 
Mass  of  Requiem  ma^  be  rightly  considered  a  votive 
Mass.  Now,  according  to  the  laws  of  the  Church 
(Rubr.  Miss,  ante  Mis.  Vot.),  votive  Masses  may 
not  be  celebrated  "except  for  some  reasonable  cause" 
(nisi  rationabili  de  causa),  since  'Hhe  Mass  should, 
as  far  as  possible,  accord  with  the  Office"  (quoad 
fieri  potest  Missa  cum  Officio  conveniat) ;  and  there- 
fore neither  may  Requiem  Masses  be  celebrated 
without  reasonable  motive;  and  this  reasonable 
motive  does,  not  exist  when  the  Mass  is  not  to  be 
oflFered  for  one,  or  several,  dead,  in  particular,  or 
for  ail  the  dead  in  general.  For  that  reason,  the 
custom  that  has  grown  up  in  our  days,  even  in  some 
of  the  Roman  churches,  of  providing  only  black 
vestments  in  the  sacristies  on  days  of  Semi-double, 
Non-festive,  or  Non-privileged,  Rite,  is  not  to  be 
approved.  It  may  be  said,  however,  in  justification 
of  this  practice,  that  at  present  alms  for  Masses  are 
given,  for  the  greater  part,  in  behalf  of  the  dead; 
yet  it  is  true  thiat  many  stipends  are  paid  with  the 
intention  of  obtaining  special  graces  in  behalf  of  the 
living,  particularly  at  tne  sanctuaries  to  which  the 
faithful  resort  to  venerate  the  saints  or  the  Blessed 
Virgin.  TTie  priest,  however,  who  knows  that  he 
should  offer  tne  Mass  in  behalf  of  living  persons, 
and  not  for  the  departed,  has  no  reasonable  cause 
to  celebrate  the  Mass  of  Requiem,  and  therefore 
may  not  licit ly  celebrate  it.  This  seems  to  be  a  rule 
without  exception.  That  Masses  which  are  said 
according  to  the  Office  of  the  day  may  be  applied 
to  the  dead,  is  easily  understood,  smce  the  formulary 
of  the  Mass  is  separable  from  the  application  of  the 
Sacrifice  itself.  So,  also,  there  is  no  doubt  about 
the  application  of  the  merits  of  the  Sacrifice  to  the 
living,  even  though  the  formulary  be  that  of  Requiem 
(cf.  Bucceroni.  "Enchir.  Mor.",  3rd  ed..  p.  282); 
but  it  is  not  licit,  since  the  liturgical  rules  clearly 
and  justly  allow  the  reading  of  the  Mass  of  Requiem 
only  for  the  reason  of  its  application  to  one  or  more 
of  the  dead. 

There  are  other  conditions  for  the  celebration  of 
the  Requiem  Mass;  one  is  that  the  rite  of  the  day 
should  allow  of  the  celebration;  another  that  the 
celebrant  be  not  obliged,  by  reason  of  his  official 
position,  to  celebrate  a  Mass  of  the  living.  More 
will  be  said  in  regard  to  this  impediment  of  the  rite 
or  of  the  solemnity  of  the  day,  when  we  come  to 
speak  of  the  various  masses  of  Requiem.  As  to 
the  impediment  that  arises  from  tne  celebrant's 
official  charge,  we  may  say  at  once  that  it  can  be 
either  the  obligation  of  saying  the  conventual  Mass 
or  that  of  saying  the  parochial  Mass  on  a  feast  day. 
It  is  known  that  the  conventual  Mass,  which  should 
be  celebrated  by  chapters,  in  cathedrals  and  in 
collegiate  churches,  is  never  to  be  omitted,  since  it 
is  the  chief  and  noblest  part  of  the  whole  office 
(Benedict  XIV,  Constit.,  19  Aug.,  1744,  n.  11); 
for  which  reason,  if  there  should  be  but  one  priest 
at  a  collegiate  church,  it  would  be  his  duty  to  say  the 
conventual  Mass,  even  if  the  solemn  obsequies  of  one 
deceased  were  to  be  celebrated,  as  the  Ritual  ex- 
pressly provides  (VII,  i,  5).  The  same  is  to  be  said 
of  the  parochial  Mass,  which  the  parish  priest  is  to 
celebrate  fro  popuio  on  each  feast  day;  for  which 
reason,  if  there  should  be  but  one  parish  priest  at 
a  parish  church  on  a  feast  day,  and  he  should  not  be 
pnvileged  to  say  more  than  one  Mass,  he  may  not 
celebrate  the  Mass  of  Requiem,  even  if  it  be  a  ques- 
tion of  the  obsequies  of  one  deceased,  prasente 
cadavere.  The  reason  for  this  prohibition  is  the 
rigorous  obligation  that  binds  each  parish  priest  to 
offer  the  Mass  on  feast  days  for  his  people,  an  obliga- 


tion which,  according  to  the  Council  of  Trent  (Seaa 
XXIII,  I,  de  ref.),  arises  from  the  Divine  precept, 
for  him  who  has  the  care  of  souls  "to  offer  sacrifices 
for  the  people"  (ojferre  mcrificia  pro  popuio). 
Benedict  XIV  (op.  cit.,  n.  2)  declares:  "Eos,  quibus 
animarum  cura  demandata  est,  non  modum  sacri- 
ficium  Missse  celebrare,  sed  illius  etiam  fructum 
medium  pro  popuio  sibi  conunisso  applicare  debere", 
so  that  this  is  a  common  doctrine  among  canonists 
that  has  been  confirmed  at  different  times  by  the 
Congregation  of  the  Council.  Now  if,  in  order  to 
celebrate  the  Mass  of  Requiem,  the  Mass  must  be 
offered  for  the  dead,  and  if  there  is  only  one  Mass 
in  a  parochial  churcn  on  a  feast  day  which  must  be 
offered  pro  popidoAt  is  manifest  that  this  Mass  may 
never  he  one  of  Requiem,  but,  on  the  contrary,  as 
the  Congregation  of  Rites  has  frequently  declared, 
it  must  always  be  according  to  the  ()ffice  of  the  feast. 
Also  the  Congregation  of  the  Council  (16  June,  1770, 
in  ^esulaha),  being  asked  "An  parochi  in  Dominicis 
aliisque  festis  diebus  praesente  cadavere,  possint 
celebrare  missam  pro  aefuncto,  et  in  aliam  diem 
transferre  missam  pro  popuio  appiicandam",  an- 
swered:   Negative. 

The  Monday  Privilege. — In  the  United  States  there 
is  a  faculty  ("Fac.  Ord.",  Form  I,  20)  ordinarily 
communicated  to  priests  through  the  bishops,  which 
grants  permission  to  celebrate  a  Requiem  Mass  on 
Mondays  non  impeditis  officio  novem  lecHonwn. 
The  phrase  officio  novem  lectionum  gave  rise  to  a 
doubt  as.  to  whether  semi-doubles  only  were  refeired 
to,  or  if  doubles  also  were  understood.  Tlie  Congre- 
gation of  Rites  answered  (4  Sept.,  1875,  n.  3370,  ad. 
1)  that  this  Mass  was  allowed  on  all  Mondays  during 
the  year,  except  (a)  on  the  vigils  of  Christmas  and  the 
Epiphany;  (b)  in  Holy  Week;  (c)  during  the  oc- 
taves of  Christmas,  the  Epiphany,  Easter,  Pentecost, 
and  Corpus  Christ i;  (d)  holy  days  of  obligation: 
(e)  greater  doubles  and  doubles  of  the  first  and  second 
class.  If  the  enumerated  cases  hinder  this  Mass 
on  Monday,  the  privilejge  is  transferred  to  Tuesday, 
under  the  same  conditions,  but  it  lapses  after  that 
day. 

V.  Rffe. — ^The  Office  and  the  Mass  for  the  Dead, 
in  their  construction,  as  in  their  varied  rite,  are 
modelled  on  the  offices  and  the  masses  of  tl^  litur- 
gical feasts;  and,  as  these  are  divided  by  Double 
Rite,  and  Semi-Double  Rite,  with  their  various 
classes,  so,  also,  are  the  Masses  of  Requiem  divided. 
As  is  well  known,  it  is  characteristic  of  the  Double 
Rite  to  double  the  antiphon  in  the  Office  (Rubr. 
Brev.,  I,  4)  and  to  have  only  one  prayer  in  the  Mass 
(Rubr.  Mis.,  I,  1);  while  in  the  Semi-Double  Office, 
the  antiphons  are  not  doubled,  and  the  Mass  has 
several  prayers.  Now  the  same  law  eovems  the 
Office  and  the  Mass  for  the  Dead;  the  Mass  of 
Requiem  will  be  of  the  Double  Rite  (a  single  prayer), 
whenever  the  office  to  which  it  may  be  related  is 
recited  with  Double  Rite  (doubling  the  antiphons): 
it  will  be  of  the  Semi-Double  Rite  (with  several 
prayers),  when  it  corresponds  to  an  office  that  is 
recited  with  the  Semi-Double  Rite.  The  Decree  of 
the  Congregation  of  Rites  of  30  June,  1896,  and 
the  reform^  Rubric  of  the  Missal  (V,  3)  are  inter- 
preted in  that  sense.  Upon  the  basis  of  these  prin- 
ciples, it  is  easy  to  establish  the  division  of  the  masses 
of  Requiem  according  to  the  various  rites.  As  the 
Rubrics  of  the  Breviary  (ante  Matut  in.  Def.)  and 
of  the  Ritual  (VI,  iv)  prescribe  the  duplication  of  the 
antiphons,  in  the  offices  for  the  dead  (a)  on  All  Souls 
Day,  (b)  on  the  day  of  the  obsequies,  and  (c)  on  the 
3rd,  7th,  30th,  and  anniversary  days,  the  masses 
corresponding  to  those  offices  will  be.  of  the  Double 
Rite.  It  should  be  observed,  however,  that  thedays 
just  named  all  have  the  Double  Rite,  but  not  all 
with  the  same  privileges;  wherefore,  the  masses  also 
on  those  days  will  be  of  the  Double  Rite,  more  or  less 


REQUIEM 


779 


REQUIEM 


solemn,  that  is  of  a  more  or  less  exalted  claas.  The 
other  offioes,  and  the  other  masses  of  Requiem,  ao- 
oording  to  what  has  been  said  above,  will  be  of  the 
Semi-Double  Rite.  As,  on  the  other  hand,  masses 
of  Requiem  are  more  or  less  privil^ed,  according  as 
they  are  misscB  cantaUs  or  mgh  Masses  or  are  low 
Masses,  and  as  some  of  them  among  the  high  and  some 
among  the  low  (see  Mass,  Liturgy  of  the:  V.  The 
Present  Raman  Mass)  are  more  priyileg;ed  than 
others  of  their  respective  kinds,  we  will  divide  them 
into  solemn  and  low^  and  then  subdivide  them  ac- 
cording to  their  privileges. 

VI.  ExEQUiAii  High  Masses. — An  exequial  Mass 
is  one  that  is  celebrated  on  the  occasion  of  the  ob- 
sequies (exeqyicB)  of  a  person,  before  the  burial. 
It  is  clearly  expressed  m  the  Ritual  (VII,  i,  4); 
''Quod  antiquissimi  est  instituti  illud,  quantum 
fieri  potest,  retineatur.  ut  Missa  presente  corpore 
defuncti,  pro  eo  celeoretur,  antequam  sepulturse 
tradatur''  (As  much  as  possible,  let  the  ancient  or- 
dinance be  retained,  of  celebrating  the  Mass  with 
the  body  of  the  deceased  present,  before  it  is  given 
burial).  In  fact,  it  was  the  invariable  custom,  from 
the  earliest  ages  of  the  Churdh,  to  celebrate  the 
Synaxis  for  the  dead  before  the  burial  (cf .  Tertullian, 
"De  Monog.",  X,  and  St.  Augustine,  "Confess.", 
IX,  12).  AjQd  it  is  worthy  of  notice  that,  from  those 
ancient  times,  it  was  licit  to  celebrate  the  exequial 
Mass  on  Sundavs,  as  Paulinus  testifies  (Vita  S. 
Ambrosii,  XLVII):  ''Lucescente  die  Dominico,  cum 
corpus  ipsius  [S.  Ambrosii}  peractis  Sacramentis 
divmis,  de  Ek;clesia  levaretur  portandum  ad  basilicam 
ambrosianam  .  .  ."(At  dawn  of  the  Lord's  Day,  when, 
after  the  Divine  Mysteries  had  been  celebrated,  his 
[St.  Ambrose's]  body  was  taken  from  the  church  to 
be  carried  to  the  Ambrosian  Basilica).  In  this 
connexion,  Mart^e  cites  from  the  ''Consuetudines 
Chmiacenses"  ("Ant.  Monarch,  rit. ",  Venice,  1783, 
V,  X,  16;  p.  257):  "Omni  tempore  sepeliendus  est 
frater  post  majorem  Missam.  Si  in  ipsa  Resurrec- 
tionis  DominicsB  vel  ipsius  diei  crepusculo  obierit, 

Suo  scilicet  oporteat  eum  ipso  die  sepelire,  matutinalis 
lissa  pro  eo  cantabitur"  (At  any  time  a  brother 
must  be  buried  after  the  hi^  Mass.  If  he  has  died 
on  the  Dav  of  the  Resurrection  itself  or  in  the  early 
hours  of  that  day,  and  it  is  necessary  to  buxy  lum 
Uiat  same  day,  the  morning  Mass  shall  be  sung  for 
him).  And  those  edifying  Benedictine  "consue- 
tudines"  give  the  reason:  "Nam  tantaest  auctoritas 
prsesentiie  ipsius  defuncti,  ut  etiam  in  tanta  solem- 
nitate  hujusmodi  Missa  non  potest  negligentia  in- 
termitti"  (For  the  presence  of  the  corpse  constitutes 
such  a  serious  reason  that,  even  on  a  festival  as 
great  as  this  is,  a  Mass  of  this  kind  must  not  be 
neglected). 

While  holding  to  the  principle  that  ceremonies  of 
mourning  should  not  interfere  with  the  joyousness 
of  liturgical  feasts  (for  which  reason  the  solemn 
commemoration  of  all  the  faithful  departed  is  trans- 
ferred to  the  following  day  whenever  the  2nd  of 
November  Calls  on  a  Sunday),  the  Church,  as  a  good 
mother,  desirous  of  hastening  the  relief  of  a  deceased 
child^  wishes  the  exequial  Mass  to  be  celebrated,  even 
on  a  feast  day,  although  she  places  some  conditions, 
as  the  Ritual  shows  (VII,  i,  5) :  **  Si  quis  die  festo  sit 
sepeliendus.  Missa  propria  pro  defuncto  prsesente 
corpore,  celebrare  poterit,  dum  tamen  Conventualis 
Missa  et  officia  divina  non  impediantur,  magnaque 
diei  celebritas  non  obstet"  (If  anyone  is  to  be  buned 
on  a  feast  day,  the  Mass  proper  for  the  deceased 
may  be  celebrated  in  the  presence  of  the  corpse,  so 
Ions  as  the  conventual  Mass  and  Office  are  not  in- 
terfered with,  and  the  great  solemnity  of  the  day  does 
not  oppose  it).  Four  conditions,  then,  are  here  es- 
tablished: (a)  that  the  corpse  of  the  deceased  be 
present;  (b)  that  the  conventual  Mass  be  not 
prevented;   (c)  that  the  Divine  Offices  be  not  pre- 


vented, and  (d)  that  th&  great  solemnity  of  the  day 
do  not  oppose  it. 

(a)  The  presence  of  the  corpse  in  the  church  is 
required,  according  to  ancient  custom,  as  the  Ritual 
show^    Formerly,  the  actual  physical  presence  was 

Srescribed.  but,  little  by  little,  the  Church  has  modi- 
ed  this  law,  and  according  to  the  new  liturgical 
legislation,  that  is  since  the  decree  of  the  Congregation 
of  Rites  of  13  February,  1892  (n.  3767  ad  26),  the 
Rubric  of  the  Missal  (V,  2)  has  been  altered.  Since, 
m  modem  thnes,  whether  through  the  prohibition 
of  civil  laws,  or  because  of  death  by  contagious  dis- 
eases, corpses  may  not  always  be  taken  to  the  church, 
the  ecclesiastical  law  has  been  so  broadened  thbt  the 
body  of  the  deceased  is  considered  present  fictume 
rarie,  as  long  as  it  is  not  buried,  and  even  if  it  has 
been  buried  for  not  more  than  two  days.  These 
are  the  words  of  the  Decree  in  question:  "Cadaver 
absens  ob  civile  vetitum,  vel  morbum  contagiosum, 
non  solum  insepultum,  sed  et  humatum,  dummodo 
non  ultra  biduum  ab  obitu,  censcri  potest  ac  si  foret 
physice  praesens,  ita  ut  Missa  excquialis  cantari 
licite  valeat,  quoties  prsesente  cadavere  permittitur. " 
(b)  The  second  condition  is  that  the  exequial  Mass 
do  not  prevent  the  celebration  of  the  conventual, 
or  of  the  parochial,  Mass:  but  to  this  we  have  al- 
ready referred  above,  under  IV.  (c)  The  .exequial 
Mass  should  not  interfere  with  the  Divine  Office 
on  feasts^  i.  e.  with  the  sacred  functions  which  a 
parish  pnest  should  perform  in  behalf  of  his  people. 
These  days  are  (i)  Ash  Wednesday;  (ii)  the  vigil 
of  Pentecost,  if  the  pariah  priest  is  to  bless  the  font, 
and  (iii)i  the  days  of  the  Major  and  of  the  Minor 
Litanies;  so  that,  if  there  be  on  these  da3rs  only  one 
Mass  in  the  parish  church,  it  may  not  be  of  Requiem, 
but  must  be  the  one  which  the  Rubrics  prescribe 
for  the  day  (S.  C.  R.,  deer.  3776  and  4005). 

(d)  The  fourth  condition  of  the  Ritual  for  the 
celebration  of  the  exequial  Mass  on  a  feast  day  is 
that  the  great  solemnity  of  the  day  does  not  oppose 
it.  Now  the  great  solemnity  of  the  day,  in  this 
connexion,  is  declared  by  the  Church  through  the 
more  solemn  rite  w^ith  which  some  feasts  throughout 
the  year  are  celebrated,  namely,  primary  days  of  the 
Rite  of  the  First  Class  (S.  C.  R.,  deer.  3755),  which 
are  (i)  Christmas  and  the  Epiphany;  (ii)  Holy 
Thursday,  Good  Friday,  and  Holy  Saturday;  (iii) 
Easter  Sunday,  the  feasts  of  the  Ascension,  Pentecost, 
and  Coxpus  Christi;  (iv)  the  Immaculate  Conception, 
Annunciation,  and  Assumption  of  the  Blessed  Virgin 
Mary;  (v)  the  feasts  of  St.  John  the  Baptist,  of  St. 
Joseph,  of  the  Holy  Apostles  Peter  and  Paul,  and 
of  All  Saints;  (vi)  the  local  feasts  of  the  principal 
patron  of  the  place,  of  the  dedication,  and  of  the 
titular  of  the  church.  It  should  be  observed  that, 
although  the  two  days  following  Easter  and  Pente- 
cost are  of  the  First  Class,  the  Church,  to  hasten 
the  relief  of  the  deceased,  does  not  except  them,  and 
the  solemn  exeouial  Mass  may  be  celebrated  on  these 
feasts,  as  on  all  other  feasts  of  the  First  Class  that 
are  not  named  in  the  decree  cited  above.  It  may  be 
said,  therefore,  that  this  Mass  in  die  Deposiiionia 
is  or  the  Double  Rite  of  the  First  Class,  since  it  is 
allowed  on  feasts  of  that  rite. 

VII.  Mass  of  All  Souls'  Day. — ^The  Commemora- 
tion of  All  Souls  has  been  a  very  solemn  day  in  the 
Church  ever  since  the  time  of  its  establishment;  and 
as  its  observance  was  propagated  throughout  the 
Christian  world,  it  came  to  be  celebrated  with  more 
and  more  devotion  by  the  people,  on  2  November. 
Nevertheless,  when  it  occurs  on  a  Sunday,  or  on  a 
feast  of  the  Double  Rite  of  the  Fu^  Class,  as  has  been 
said,  it  is  celebrated  on  the  following  day.  In  this  case, 
there  being  no  Question  of  hastening  the  relief  of  one 
who  has  passed  away,  the  Church  does  not  wish 
that  the  festivitjy  of  the  Lord's  Day  or  the  solemnity 
of  any  other  feast  of  the  First  Class  should  be 


REQUIEM 


780 


REQUIEM 


diminished  by  the  mourning  inherent  in  the  Com- 
memoration of  the  Dead.  There  is  the  further  in- 
ytention  to  facilitate  the  offering  of  all  Masses,  even 
low  Masses,  on  All  Souls'  Day  for  the  repose  of  the 
dei)arted.  For  the  same  reason  the  Church  pre- 
scribes (S.  C.  R.,  deer.  3864)  that,  if.  in  any  locality 
a  feast  of  the  Second  Class  should  occur  on  All  Souls' 
Day,  it  shall  be  transferred  to  the  following  day,  in 
order  that  the  Commenaoration  of  All  the  Dead  may 
be  celebrated.  The  rite  of  this  commemoration, 
therefore,  is  inferior  to  that  of  the  Funeral  Mass, 
since  the  commemoration  may  not  be  celebrated 
either  on  a  feast  day  or  on  a  double  of  the  First 
Class;  wherefore,  it  may  be  called  a  Double  of  the 
Second  Class. 

VIII.  Mass  Post  Accsptum  Mortis  Nuncjum. — 
The  solemn  Mass  of  Requieni  which  may  be  offered, 
as  soon  as  news  of  the  death  is  received,  for  a  person 
who  has  died  in  a  distant  place,  comes  in  third  place. 
It  is  the  same  Mass  that  is  said  in  die  depositionis, 
but  has  not  the  same  privileges,  since  it  may  not  be 
celebrated  (a)  on  any  holy  day,  (b)  on  feasts  of  the 
First  and  Second  Class,  or  (c)  on  those  ferials  and 
octaves  upon  which  Doubles  of  the  First  and  of  the 
Second  Class  are  forbidden.  These  are  (a)  Ash 
Wednesd^  and  the  ferials  of  Holy  Week;  (b)  the 
vigils  o(  Christmas  and  of  Pentecost;  (c)  the  days 
during  the  octaves  of  the  Epiphany,  Easter,  and 
Pentecost;  (d)  ,the  octave  day  of  Corpus  Christi. 
All  of  this  has  recently  been  established  by  the  Church 
(8.  C.  R.,  deer.  28  Apr.,  1902)  to  facilitate  the  suf- 
frages for  the  dead:  but  as  the  exequial  Mass  has 
already  been  offered  for  the  deceased  at  the  place  of 
his  death,  the  Mass  post  acceptum  has  not  received 
all  the  privileges  of  the  former.  It  should  be  re- 
membered, however,  that  this  Mass  may  be  offered 
on  a  feast  of  the  Greater  or  Lesser  Double  Rite,  when 
offered  immediately  post  acceptum  nuncium;  other- 
wise, the  Mass  loses  all  privileges,  and  a  day  of  the 
Semi-Double  Rite  must  be  awaited  (S.  C.  R.,  deer. 
2461,  ad  6).  For  this  reason  it  may  be  said  that 
the  exequial  Mass  post  acceptum  nuncium  is  of  the 
Greater  Double  Rite,  since  Doubles  of  the  Second 
Class  take  precedence  over  it. 

IX.  Masses  oe  the  Third,  Seventh,  Thir- 
teenth, AND  Anniversary  Days. — The  Requiem 
Mass  of  each  of  these  days  is  privileged,  because,  ac- 
cording to  ancient  tradition  accepted  in  canon  law 
(Cap.  Quia  alii,  13,  q.  2;  NuUus  Presbyter,  dist.  44). 
the  dead  were  always  commemorated  in  a  special 
manner  on  those  da>[s.  With  regard  to  the  third 
day,  as  commemorative  of  the  three  days  which 
Christ  passed  in  the  sepulchre,  and  as  presaging  the 
Resurrection,  there  is  special  prescription  in  the 
Apostolic  Constitutions  (VIII,  xlii):  "With  respect 
to  the  dead,  let  the  third  day  be  celebrated  in  psalms, 
lessons,  and  prayers^  because  of  Him  who  on  the 
third  day  rose  agam.''  It  appears  also,  in  this 
connexion,  that  in  ancient  times  there  was  a  triduum 
in  behalf  of  the  deceased,  according  to  what  Evodius 
writes  in  a  letter  (Ep.  S.  Augustini,  clviii) :  "Exe<}uias 
prsebuimus  satis  honorabiles  et  dignas  tantse  animse; 
nam  per  triduum  hymnis  Deum  coUaudavimus  super 
sepulchrum  ejus,  et  redemptionis  Sacramenta  tettia 
die  obtulimus"  (We  performed  the  due  obsequies, 
worthy  of  so  great  a  soul,  joining  in  hymns  to  the 
praise  of  God  for  three  days  at  his  sepulchre,  and  on 
the  third  day  we  offered  the  Mysteries  of  Redemp- 
tion). With  regard  to  the  seventh  day,  we  have  the 
testimony  of  St.  Ambrose  (De  fide  resurr.),  which 
bears  witness  to  the  ancient  practice,  and  gives  the 
reason  for  it:  "Nunc  <}uoniam  die  scptimo  ad  se- 
pulchrum redimus,  qui  dies  symbolum  fratemae 
(luietis  est"  (Now,  since  on  the  seventh  day,  which 
is  S3rmbolical  of  fraternal  repose,  we  return  to  the 
sepulchre  .  .  .)•  St.  Ambrose,  again,  speaks  of 
the  thirtieth  day,  and  also  of  the  fortieth  day  (De 


ob.  Theodosii,  i):  "Quia  alii  tertium  diem  et  iri< 
gesimum;  alii  septimum  et  quadragesiinuin  ob- 
servare  consueverunt,  quid  doceat  lectio  oonaido^ 
mus"  (As  some  have  been  wont  to  keep  the  third 
and  the  thirtieth  days;  others  the  seventh  and  the 
fortieth;  let  us  consider  what  the  lesson  teaches). 
The  annual  commemoration  of  a  departed  brother 
was  more  universal  and  more  solemn;  it  resembled 
the  feasts  of  the  martyrs  and,  according  to  TertuUian, 
dates  froih  Apostolic  times  (cf.  Magani,  "L'anUca 
Liturgia  Romana",  Milan,  1809,  III,  389). 

The  third,  seventh,  and  thirtieth  days  may  be 
counted  from  the  day  of  the  death  or  from  the  day  of 
the  burial  (S.  C.  R.,  deer.  2482  and  3112):  the  day 
itself  of  the  death  or  of  the  burial  should  not  be 
counted,  because  the  language  of  the  decree  {ab  obilu, 
a  depositiane)  excludes  those  days,  either  one  of  them 
being  not  the  first  day,  but  the  day  from  which  the 
computation  should  begin.  If,  therefore,  the  burial 
take  place  on  the  eleventh  day  of  the  month,  the  first 
day  after  it,  of  course,  will  be  th6  twelfth  day  of 
the  month;  the  second,  the  thirteenth;  the  third, 
the  fourteenth.  So  also  for  the  seventh  and  the 
thirtieth  days.  There  is  no  rule  that  requires  the 
selection  of  the  same  date,  either  of  death  or  burial, 
in  computing  the  dav  for  these  conmiemoratioiis; 
wherefore,  one  may  celebrate  the  third  day,  oountinc 
from  the  day  of  the  burial,  and  celebrate  the  thirtieth 
day,  counting  from  the  day  of  the  death.  On  the 
other  hand,  anniversaries  are  usually  celebrated  on  the 
day  of  the  month  upon  which  the  death  occurred: 
nevertheless,  the  Congregation  of  Rites,  which  had 
prescribed  this  day  (Decree  of  21  July,  1855),  nam 
allows  the  aimiversary  to  be  counted  from  the  day  of 
the  burial  (Decree  of  5  March,  1870),  which  conoesBioa 
is  useful  in  case  the  anniversary  of  the  death  should 
fall  on  a  day  on  which  this  Mass  could  not  be  cele- 
brated; in  this  case  the  anniversary  of  the  burial 
may  be  celebrated,  without  excluding,  in  subsequent 
years,  a  return  to  the  celebration  of  the  anniversary 
of  the  death,  according  to  the  ancient  tradition.  Ac- 
cording to  tne  present  liturgical  laws,  the  high  Masa 
of  Rqquiem  may  be  celebrated  on  the  third,  seventh, 
thirtieth,  and  anniversary  days,  even  if  those  days 
occur  on  a  greater  or  on  a  lesser  double.  Its  celebra- 
tion is  prohibited^  however,  on  (a)  any  holy  day  of 
obligation,  includmg  Sundays;  (b)  all  doubles  of  the 
first  or  second  class;  (c)  A^  Wednesday  and  during 
Holy  Week;  (d>  the  vigils  of  Christmas  and  of  Pen- 
tecost; (e)  during  the  privileged  octaves  of  Christ- 
mas^ Epiphany,  Easter,  Pentecost,  and  Corpus 
Chnsti;  (t)  the  days  on  which  the  Blessed  Sacrament 
is  exposea;  (^)  Rogation  Days,  when  but  one  Mass 
is  celebrated  m  the  church  (cf .  Decrees  3049,  3302, 
and  3753).  When,  on  the  other  hand,  the  third, 
seventh,  thirtieth,  and  anniversary  days  are  impeded, 
thev  mav  be  anticipated  by  one  day  or  postponed  to 
a  (lay  that  is  not  among  those  enumerated  above, 
even  if  it  be  a  greater  or  a  lesser  double.  In  case  the 
day  before,  or  the  day  after,  is  a  day  on  which  these 
Masses  cannot  be  celebrated,  it  will  be  necessary  to 
await  a  day  of  the  Semi-Double  Rite  upon  which  a 
Requiem  Mass  may  be  celebrated,  ana  to  use  the 
formulary  of  the  daily  Masses  (cf.  Deer.  3753,  ad  2). 

There  is  another  kmd  of  anniversary  that  is  estab- 
lished by  the  new  liturgical  law,  called  laie  sumpiym. 
It  is  the  anniversary  that  is  celebrated  each  year  by 
chapters,  religious  conmiunittes,  or  confratermties,  on 
a  day  that  is  not  the  anniversary  of  the  death  or  of 
the  burial  of  the  deceased.  The  solenm  Mass  of  the 
late  sumptum  anniversary  may  be  celebrated  on  a  day 
of  the  Lesser  Double  Rite,  out  not  of  the  Greater 
Double.  The  solemn  Mass  that  is  celebrated  on  the 
da^s  of  the  octave  of  All  Souls'  Day  enjoys  the  same 
privilege  (cf.  Deer.  3753,  ad  5).  As  has  beoi  said 
above  (V.),  the  Requiem  Mass  is  of  the  Double  Rite 
(that  is,  it  has  a  single  P^yer)  whenever  it  corresponds 


REQUIEM                                781  REQUIEM 

to  the  Office  for  the  Dead  in  which  the  antiphons  are  concession  (cf.  Decree  of  22  May,  1843,  in  Mechlinen., 

doubled;  and  therefore,  whenever,  at  the  request  of  ad  6);  now,  however,  by  the  general  Decree  of  9  May, 

the  faithful,  a  solemn  Office  is  celebrated  for  one  or  1899  (No.  4024),  this  excquial  low  Mass,  which  takes 

more  deceased  persons,  es|x?cially  if  there  in  a  Con-  the  place  of  a  high  Mass,  is  celebrated  with  all  the 

course  of  the  people^he  corresponding  Mass  must  be  privileges  of  the  latter.     In  our  opinion,  the  low 

celebrated  with  tne  Double  Rite,  as  the  Rubric  of  the  exequial  Mass  said  in  the  place  of  the  high  Mass 

Missal  expressly  prescribcsB  (V,  3):    "Unica  tantum  enjo^is  the  privileges  of  the  latter,  when,  throudi 

oratio   dicenda  ^   in   missis  omnibus  .  .  .  quan-  special  circumstances,  the  high  Mass  may  not  be 

documqueprodefunctismiasasolemniter  celebratur"  celebrated^  even  in  the  case  of  the  wealthy;  as,  for 

(In  any  Mass  solemnly  celebrated  for  the  dead,  only  example,  if  the  persons  invited  to  the  funeral  could 

one  prayer  is  to  be  said).    This  Mass,  however,  may  not  remain  long  at  the  church,  and  the  relatives  of  the 

be  celebrated  only  on  days  of  the  Semi-Double  or  the  deceased  should  on  that  account  ask  that  the  Mass 

Simple  Rite,  exclusive  of  those  days  named  above  on  be  a  low  one.    This  is  actually  the  practice  in  some 

which  it  is  forbidden  to  celebrate  the  anniversary  places,  and  we  believe  that  it  may  not  be  condemned. 

Requiem  Mass.    This  Mass,  like  that  of  the  anniver-  seeing  that  it  is  in  accordance  with  the  spirit  of  the 

sary2a(encmp/um,  is  of  the  Lesser  Double  Rite;  while  Church,  which,   in  recent  times,   has  considerably 

the  Mass  of  the  third,  seventh,  and  thirtieth  days,  as  modified  its  regulations  in  this  connexion, 

also  that  of  the  anniversary  8iricU  sumptuMf  is  of  the  B.  Law  Mass  on  the  Day  of  Obsequies  and  in  the 

Greater  Double  Rite,  since  it  may  be  celebrated  on  Same  Church. — ^According  to  the  ancient  liturgical  law, 

the  doubles  that  are  not  of  the  first  or  of  the  second  formulated  in  the  Rubrics  of  the  Missal  of  St.  Pius  V, 

class.  low  Requiem  Mass,  althoudi  the  body  were  present, 

X.  MissjB  Cantata. — ^These  (sung,  but  not  high,  could  not  be  celebrated  on  days  of  the  Double — even 
Masses)  are  the  Masses  that  are  called  ouotidiaruB  in  Lesser  Double — Rite.  This  law  was  justified  by  the 
the  Missal.  They  are  of  the  Semi-Double  Rite,  be-  great  reverence  in  which  the  Double  Rite  was  held  and 
cause  they  have  three  prayers,  and  correspond  to  the  by  the  fact  that,  at  the  time  of  St.  Pius  V,  there  were 
office  that  is  recited  without  duplication  of  the  anti-  very  few  feasts  of  this  rite  in  the  universal  calendar, 
phons.  It  is  forbidden  to  celebrate  these  Masses  on  But  as  the  number  of  these  feasts  had  been  greatly 
any  of  the  days  mentioned  above,  upon  which  the  ^augniented,  especially  in  the  calendars  of  some  of  the 
anniversary  Masses  may  not  be  celebrated,  or  on'  the  'religious,  orders  and  in  those  of  some  dioceses,  there 
days  upon  which  there  is  a  feast  of  the  Double  Rite,  was  no  longer  any  reason  for  the  rule:  first,  because 
even  the  Lesser,  and  therefore  they  are  allowed  only  the  Double  Rite,  having  come  to  be  so  abundantly 
on  semi-double,  non-privileged  days.  To  this  class  of  granted,  was  no  longer  held  in  the  high  esteem  that  it 
Requiem  missce  cantatcB  belongs  the  one  which  the  had  formerly  enjoved;  secondly,  because  the  great 
Rubrics  of  the  Missal  (V,  1)  provide  shall  be  cele-  number  of  new  doubles  made  it  impossible  to  celebrate 
brated  in  the  cathedrals  and  collegiate  churches  de  the  low  Requiem  Mass  on  the  day  of  the  burial.  These 
prwcepto  (S.  C.  R.,  deer.  2928):  ''Prima die  cuj usque  considerations  were  submitted  to  the  Congregation 
mensis  (extra  Adventum,  Quadragesimam  et  Tempus  of  Rites  in  February,  1896.  On  19  May  following, 
Paschale)  non  impedita  officio  duplici  vel  semi-  there  was  published  the  general  Decree  No.  3903, 
duplici'\  This  Mass  is  truly  conventual,  should  be  which  begins:  "Aucto  postremis  hisce  temporibus, 
celebrated  after  Prime,  as  the  Rubrics  of  the  Missal  maxime  in  calendariis  partcularibus,  Officiorum  du- 
prescribe  (XV,  3),  and  should  be  a  sung  Mass  (decrees  piiciuih  numero,  quum  pauci  supersint  per  annum  dies. 
1609  and  2424).  The  first  of  the  month  is  understood  qui  Missas  privatas  de  Requie  fieri  permittant.  .  .  .' 
to  mean  the  first  day  of  the  month  that  is  free  of  any  Thanks  to  this  opportune  decree,  the  low  Mass,  as 
double  or  semi-double,  even  transferred.  Office  (decree  well  as  the  solemn  one,  may  be  celebrated  at  the 
2380) ;  and  if  there  be  no  such  free  day  in  the  whole  obsequies  of  one  deceased,  even  on  a  double.  There 
month,  the  obligation  ceases;  which  frequently  hap-  are,  however,  certain  conditions  for  the  celebration  of 
pens,  especially  now,  when  the  votive  Offices  have  these  low  Masses.  (1)  They  are  allowed  only  on  the 
oeen  admitted.  In  this  Mass  of  Requiem,  as  in  all  day  of  the  obsequies  and  m  the  church  where  the 
other  sung  Masses  hitherto  mentioned,  the  Sequence  obsequies  are  celebrated,  with  or  without  presence  of 
should  never  be  admitted,  as  the  reformed  Rubric  of  the  corpse,  as  has  been  said  under  V  (S.  C.  R.,  deer, 
the  Missal  and  the  general  decree  of  30  June.  1896  3944,  ad  3) ;  (2)  they  must  be  offered  for  the  deceased 
(No.  3920),  provide.  The  three  Prayers  of  the  fourth  whose  obsec^uies  are  being  celebrated,  and  for  no 
formulary  should  be  used  (decree  2928),  for  they  are  other  intention  (ibid.,  ad  4) ;  (3)  they  may  not  be 
adapted  to  the  end  which  the  Church  has  in  view  in  celebrated  on  a  Sunday,  or  other  holy  day  of  obliga- 
prescribing  the  monthly  celebration  of  this  Mass,  tion,  even  though  the  latter  may  have  been  sup- 
which  is  "generaliter  pro  defunctis  sacerdotibus,  prewed;  (4)  they  may  not  be  celebrated  on  a  Double 
benefactoribus  et  aliis'',  as  the  above-cited  rubric  of  the  First  Class,  even  secondary,  or  on  a  day  of  which 
shows.  the  rite  prevents  these  Doubles  of  the  First  Clasa— 

XI.  Low  Masses.— According  to  the  ancient  canon  that  is,  on  Ash  Wednesday  and  during  Holy  Week, 
law.  a  low  Requiem  Mass  could  be  celebrated  only  the  vigils  of  Christmas  and  of  Pentecost,  during  the 
on  days  of  semindouble,  non-festive  and  non-privileged  octaves  of  Easter  and  Pentecost,  and  on  the  octave 
rite;  so  that,  even  pra^ente  cadavere,  if  the  rite  of  the  day  of  the  Epiphany  (ibid.,  ad  5).  Such  were 
day  were  double,  although  it  were  lesser,  the  Mass  of  hitherto  the  rules  for  low  Masses  on  the  day  of 
the  day  had  to  be  celebrated.  The  liturgical  law,  obsequies  and  in  the  same  church,  but  by  a  recent 
however,  has  been  very  much  changed  in  relation  to  Decree  of  the  Sacred  Congregation  of  Rites  these 
low  Masses;  and,  as  there  are  among  them  some  that  low  Masses  are  now  forbidden  also  on  all  Doubles 
are  more  privileged  than  others,  we  will  divide  them  of  the  Second  Class.  These  Masses,  of  course,  are  of 
according  to  the  privileges  that  they  enjoy.  the  Double  Rite;  they  have  but  one  prayer,  and  the 

A.  Low  Exequial  Mass  said  in  place  of  the  High  Sequence  is  as  in  the  solemn  high  Mass. 

Mass. — As  has  been  seen  above,  the  Church  desires  C.  Low  Mass  in  the  Private    Chapel^   before   ths 

that  no  one  of  its  children  be  laid  in  the  grave  without  Burial. — ^This  Mass  of  Requiem,  also,  is  a  recent  con- 

a  mass  prcesenU  corpore.    And  as^  on  the  other  hand,  cession  of  the  Holy  See  m  behalf  of  the  deceased, 

poverty  often  prevents  the  relatives  of  the  deceasea  By  this  concession,  all  the  Masses  allowed  by  the 

from  having  the  obsequies  celebrated  with  solemnity.  Brief  by  which  the  privilege  of  a  private  oratory  was 

the  Church,  always  a  loving  and  indulgent  mother,  grantea,  may  be  celebrated  as  Requiems,  on  all  the 

permits  the  high  Mass  to  be  replaced  by  a  low  one.  days  on  which  the  body  remains  in  the  house,  on 

At  first,  some  limitations  were  placed  to  this  opportune  condition  that  they  are  offered  only  for  the  deceased 


REREDOS 


782 


RKBUM 


(cf.  Ephem.  Liturg.,  1899,  p.  607):  these  Masses 
have  all  the  privileges  of  the  exequial  low  MafiR.  The 
same  is  true  of  all  the  Masses  that  are  said  in  what  are 
called  mortuary  chapels,  in  the  palaces  of  cardinals, 
bishops,  and  princes,  at  the  death  of  such  personages, 
as  long  as  the  body  remains  exposed  there,  providea 
these  Masses  are  for  the  repose  of  the  deceased  pnnce 
or  prelate.  By  a  recent  decree  of  the  Sacred  Con- 
gregation of  Rites  these  Masses  are  forbidden  also 
on  all  Doubles  of  the  Second  Class. 

D.  Low  Masses  in  Cemetery  Chapels. — In  the  public 
or  semi-public  oratories  of  cemeteries,  and  also  m  the 

Srivate  chapels  erected  in  burial  places,  Requiem 
lasses  may  be  said  every  day,  providing  they  be 
offered  for  the  dead,  except  (1)  on  all  feasts  of  precept, 
including  Sundays;  (2)  on  the  Doubles  of  the  First  or 
of  the  Second  Class;  (3)  on  Ash  Wednesday  and  during 
Holy  Week;  (4)  on  the  vigils  of  Christmas  and  of 
Pentecost;  and  (5)  during  the  privileged  octaves  of 
Christmas,  Epiphany,  Easter,  Pentecost,  and  Corpus 
Christi  (S.  R.  C,  deer.  3944).  This  privilege,  how- 
ever, does  not  extend  to  the  parochial  church,  al- 
though that  church  may  be  surrounded  by  a  cemetery, 
and  therefore  considered  a  cemetery  chapel;  neither 
does  it  extend  to  those  oratories  which  have  been 
erected  in  disused  cemeteries  (S.  R.  C,  Deer.  28  April, 
1902,  in  "Ephem.  lit.",  1902,  p.  3.55). 

E.  Daily  Low  Masses. — These  Masses  of  Requiem,^ 
called  daily  in  the  Missal,  may  be  celebrated  under  the* 
same  restrictions  as  the  Rubrics  establish  for  votive 
Masses  (General  Decree  3922.  Ill,  2;  and  Rubr. 
Miss.,  V,  5);  that  is  they  arc  allowed  on  days  of  the 
Simple  or  the  Semi-Double  Rite,  and  are  forbidden 
on  all  days  of  the  Double,  even  the  Lesser  Double, 
Rite,  as  well  as  on  the  days  named  above  under  IX. 
By  a  recent  decree  of  the  Sacred  Congregation  of 
Rites  the  daily  low  Masses  are  forbidden  on  the  fol- 
lowing days  of  a  Semi-Double  or  Simple  Rite:  (a)- 
all  ferials  of  Lent;  (b)  quartertenses;  (c)  Rogation 
Monday;  (d)  vigils;  (e)  ferial  on  which  the  office 
of  a  Sunday  is  anticipated.  In  the  Masses  of  these 
ferials  or  vigils,  if  they  are  celebrated  for  one  or  more 
deceased  persons,  it  is  permitted  to  insert,  in  the 
penultimate  place,  the  oration  for  the  deceased  per- 
son or  persons,  and  although  those  Masses  are  cel&- 
brated  in  violet  or  green  vestments,  nevertheless, 
by  concession  of  the  reigning  pontiff,  the  indulgence 
of  a  privileged  altar  may  be  gained.  The  Sacred 
Congregation  of  Rites  had  already  declared  this  by 
the  Decrees  nn.  1793,  2041,  and  2962.  They  are 
of  the  Semi-Double  Rite,  and  have  three  prayers 
at  least,  and  sometimes  five  or  seven,  the  num- 
ber always  being  an  odd  one,  as  the  Missal  shows 
(V,  4).  According  to  the  new  liturgical  laws,  however 
(S.  R.  C,  deer.  3920),  if  the  Mass  is  offerwi  for  one 
or  more  dead  who  are  named,  the  first  prayer  is  said 
accordingly,  the  second  is  taken  ad  libitum^  and  the 
third  is  always  the  *'  Fidelium  ".  If,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  Mass  be  offered  for  the  dead  in  general,  the  three 
prayers  are  said  as  the  Missal  provides.  If  the  cele- 
brant wishes  to  say  five  or  seven  prayers,  he  may  say 
two  or  four,  between  the  second,  "Deus  veni»",  and 
the  last,  "Fidelium",  from  among  those  given  in  the 
Missal,  following  the  order  in  which  they  are  there 
given.  As  is  known,  the  Sequence  may  be  omitted 
or  recited  in  the  daily  low  Mass,  according  to  the 
choice  of  the  celebran|. 

Gavanti,  Thenaurua  Sacr.  Riiuum,  cum  notit  Merati  (Yenice, 
1799);  GuYBT,  Heortologia  (Urbino,  1728);  Cavalieri.  Com- 
meni.  in  S.  R.  C.  decret.  (Baasano,  1778);  Carpo,  Bibliot.  IMurg. 
(Bologna.  1885).— For  th«  new  liturgical  law.  Ephemeridet 
Liturg.  (Rome,  1896-1908) ;  de  Hkrdt.  Liturg.  Fraxis  (Louvain, 
1902);  van  der  Stappen.  Liturg.:  Trad.  Miss.  (Mechlin,  b.  d.); 
COPPIN  AND  Stimart,  Lit.  Comp.  (Tournai,  1905);  Erker, 
Misses  de  R.  (Laibach,  1903);  Aertnts,  Comp.  Liturg.  (Geloof, 
1909);  8.  L.  P..  Requiem  Masses  in  Am.  Eeel.  Rev.,  XXVII 
(Philadelphia,  1902),  476-501.  PlETRO  PlACENZA. 

Eoredos.    See  Altar,  sub-title  Autar-Scbsbn. 


Brnnin  Creator  Optiine»  the  hsrmn  for  Matini 
of  Wednesday  in  the  Divine  Office.  It  comjHisei 
four  strophes  of  four  iambic  dimeters  rfa3rmed  in 
couplets,  e.  g. 

Rerum  Creator  optime, 

Rectorque  noeter  aspioe: 

Nos  a  quiete  noxia 

Mersos  sopore  libera. 
Its  ascription  to  St.  Ambrose  is  not  sanctioned 
by  the  most  recent  authorities.  Mone  cites  it  as  in 
an  eighth-century  manuscript  at  Trier,  denying  it  to 
St.  Ambrose  because  of  its  rhyme  and  tJiinlring  it 
may  possibly  be  by  St.  Gregory  the  Great  (d.  604); 
Pimont  also  refers  it  to  Gregory  with  the  remark 
that,  if  a  choice  must  be  made  between  the  two, 
he  would  certainly  choose  him:  Birashi  does  not  in- 
clude it  in  his  inni  siru:eri  of  St.  Aim>rose,  nor  does 
Dreves place  it  among  those  "possibly  his".  Blume 
thinks  that  neither  St.  Ambrose  nor  St.  Gregory  may 
seriously  be  considered  for  ascription  of  autiiorship. 
Daniel,  citing  it  as  in  a  manuscript  of  the  tenth  cen- 
tury at  Rheinau,  puts  it  in  his  category  of  hvmDs 
of  the  seventh  ana  eighth  century.  Fimont  ("Lea 
hymnes  du  br6viaire  romain'\  I  Paris,  1874,  pp. 
192-9)  gives  the  Latin  text  and  an  extended  commen- 
tary. The  ''Hymnarium  Sarisburienae"  (London, 
1851,  p.  49)  gives  the  uncorrected  Latin  text  with 
various  manuscript  readings.  The  variants  from  the 
text  of  the  Roman  Breviary  are  nine  in  number  and 
of  small  importance,  but  Rmont  thinks  that  in  the 
couplet  of  what  he  styles  the  texte  primiiif 

Te,  sancte  Christe,  poscimus, 

Ignosce  Tu  criminibus, 
the  contrast  between  the  holiness  of  Christ  and  the 
sinfulness  of  His  petitioners  is  better  emphamsed 
by  criminibuB  than  by  the  culpis  of  the  Roman 
Breviary  text  (Ignosce  culpis  omnibus),  while  the 
Te  of  the  first  line  and  the  Tu  of  the  second  line 
heic^ten  the  energy  of  the  prayer.  He  also  dd'ends 
ffessimits  in  the  line,  "Vides  malum  quod  gessimus", 
changed  in  our  Breviary  to  fecimus  (possioly  because 
in  the  older  poem  the  three  forms,  gerenduniy  gesHSf 
gessimus,  of  the  verb  gerOf  occur  in  close  proximity, 
and  al^o  possibly  because  of  the  words  of  the  "Mis- 
erere") ("Et  malum  coram  Te  feci").  There  are 
thirteen  translations'  into  English  verse,  ei|^t  by 
Catholics.  Newman's  version  is  given  in  the  Mar- 
cfaeea  of  Bute's  "The  Roman  Breviaiy".  To  the 
list  given  in  Julian's  "Dictionary  of  Hymnoloef " 
(2nd  ed.,  1907,  p.  956)  should  be  added  the  version 
of  Archbishop  Bagshawe,  "Most  Holy  Ma^er  of  the 
world"  ("Breviary  Hymns  and  Miasal  Seouenoes", 
London,  1900,  p.  11)  and  that  of  Judge  D.  J.  Donahoe, 
"Creator  of  the  earth  and  skies"  ("Early  Christian 
Hymns",  New  York,  1908,  p.  99). 

Blums.  Die  Hymnen  des  Thee.  Hymnol,  H.  A,  Danieis,  etc.  in 
Analecta  hymniea,  LI  (Leipsig.  1909),  with  M8S.  refereneet  and 
nadingfi'  H.  T.  HeNRT. 

Rerum  Deus  Tenax  l^gor,  the  daily  hymn  for 
None  in  the  Roman  Breviary,  comprises  (like  the 
hymns  for  Terce  and  Sext)  onlv  two  stanzas  of  iambic 
dimeters  together  with  a  doxology  varying  according 
to  the  feast  or  season.    As  in  the  hymns  for  Prime, 
Sext,  and  Compline,  the  theme  is  found  in  the  steady 
march  of  the  sun  that  defines  the  periods  of  the  day: 
Rerum,  Deus,  tenax  vigor 
Immotus  in  te  pennanens, 
Lucis  diumse  tempera 
Successibus  determinans. 
O  (jod,  whose  power  unmoved  the  whole 
Of  Nature's  vastness  doth  control. 
Who  mark'st  the  day-hours  as  they  nm 
By  steady  marches  of  the  sun. 
The  moral  application  is,  as  usual,  made  in  the 
following  stanza: 

Largire  lumen  vespere 

Quo  vita  nusquam  deddat,  etc. 


BKBtTM 


783 


RBSCBIPTS 


0  grant  that  in  life's  eventide 
Thy  lig^t  may  e'er  with  us  abide,  etc. 
The  authorship  of  the  hvmns  for  Terce,  Sext,  and 
None  is  now  ascribed  only  very  doubtfully  to  St. 
Ambrose.  They  are  not  given  to  the  saint  by  the 
Benedictine  editors  (see  Ambrosian  Htmnography), 
but  are  pl^ed  by  Biraghi  amongst  his  inni  sinceri, 
since  they  are  found  in  all  the  MSS.  of  the  churches 
of  Milan.  Daniel  (1, 23:  IV,  13, 17)  thmks  that  much 
longer  hymns  for  the  hours  were  replaced  bv  the 
present  ones.  Pimont  disagrees  with  Daniel  and 
argues  that  the  saint  may  well  have  composed  two 
sets  of  hymns  for  the  hours.  However,  the  researches 
of  Blume  (1908)  show  that  the  primitive  Benedictine 
cycle  of  hymns,  as  attested  by  the  Rules  of  Csesarius 
and  ^urehan  of  Aries,  did  not  include  these  hymns, 
but  assigned  for  Terce,  Sext,  and  None  (for  Easter- 
tide) the  hymns:  ''Jam  surgit  hora  tertia",  ''Jam 
sexta  sensim  volvitur",  "Ter  hora  trina  volvitur"; 
the  earliest  MSS.  of  the  cycle  give  for  these  hours, 
for  the  remainder  of  the  year,  the  hymns:  "Certum 
tenentes  ordinem",  "Dicamus  laudes  Domino", 
"Perfectum  trinum  numerum";  while  other  MSS. 
give  as  variants  for  Lent:  "Dei  fide  qua  vivimus", 
" Meridie  orandum  est",  "Sic  ter quatemis  trahitur". 
This  Benedictine  cycle  was  replaced  throughout 
Western  Christendom  by  a  later  one,  as  shown  by 
Irish  and  English  MSS.,  which  give  the  present  hymns 
for  the  little  hours. 

Julian,  Did.  of  Hymnology,  s.  v.,  for  translations,  etc.  See 
article  Rector  Potenb  Verax  Deus  for  additional  Catholic  tra. 
by  Baoshawe.  Donahoe,  Russell,  Henry;  also  for  reference 
to  Pimont  and  //.  A.  A  M.,  Hist.  Ed.  (the  introduction  of  this 
last  gives  an  excellent  discussion  of  the  authorship,  p.  xiii) .  Con- 
sult also  Blume,  Der  Curaua  8.  Benedidi  Nursinx  etc.  (Leipzig, 
1908);  Dreves  in  Analecta  Ilymnica,  L  (Leipzig,  1907);  Daniel, 
Thuaurtu  HymnolofficiUt  index  to  V,  s.  w. 

H.  T.  Henry. 

Berum  Novaitun,  the  opening  words  and  the 
title  of  the  Encyclical  issued  bv  Leo  XIII,  15  May, 
1891,  on  the  "Condition  of  Labour".  Although  the 
Encyclical  follows  the  lines  of  the  traditional  teaching 
concermng  the  rights  and  duties  of  property  and  the 
relations  of  employed  and  employee,  it  applies  the 
old  doctrines  specincally  to  modern  conditions.  Open- 
ing with  a  description  of  the  grievances  of  the  working 
classes,  it  proceeds  to  refute  the  false  theories  of  the 
Socialists,  and  to  defend  the  right  of  private  owner- 
ship. The  true  remedy,  continues  the  pope,  is  to  be 
found  in  the  combined  action  of  the  Church,  the  State, 
the  employer,  and  the  employed.  The  Church  is 
properly  interested  in  the  social  question  because  of 
its  religious  and  moral  aspects;  the  State  has  the 
right  and  the  duty  to  intervene  on  behalf  of  justice 
and  individual  and  soqjal  well-being;  and  employers 
and  workers  should  organize  into  both  mixed  and 
separate  associations  for  mutual  protection  and  for 
self  protection.  All  this  is  set  forth  with  sufficient 
detail  to  reach  the  principal  problems  and  relations  of 
industrial  and  social  life. 

Probably  no  other  pronouncement  on  the  social 
question  has  had  so  many  readers  or  exercised  such  a 
wide  influence.  It  has  inspired  a  vast  Catholic  social 
literature,  while  many  npn-CathoUcs  have  acclaimed 
it  as  one  of  the  most  definite  and  reasonable  produc- 
tions ever  written  on  the  subject.  Sometimes  criti- 
cized as  vague,  it  is  as  specific  as  any  document  could 
be  written  for  several  countries  in  diifferent  stages  of 
industrial  development.  On  one  point  it  is  strikingly 
definite:  "Let  it  be  taken  for  granted  that  workman 
and  employer  should,  as  a  rule,  make  free  agreements, 
and  in  paji^icular  should  agree  freely  as  to  wages; 
nevertheless,  there  is  a  dictate  of  natural  justice  more 
imperious  and  ancient  than  any  bargain  between 
man  and  man,  that  remuneration  should  be  sufficient 
to  maintain  the  wage-earner  in  reasonable  and  frugal 
comfort.  If  throu^  necessity  or  fear  of  a  worse  evil 
the  workman  accept  harder  conditions  because  an 


emplover  or  contractor  will  afford  him  no  better,  he 
is  made  the  victim  of  force  and  injustice".  Although 
this  doctrine  had  been  a  part  of  the  traditional  teach- 
ing for  many  centuries,  it  had  never  been  stated  with 
such  precision  and  authority.  As  the  years  go  by  and 
thoughtful  men  realize  more  and  more  how  difficult 
it  is  to  define  the  full  requirements  of  justice  in  the 
matter  of  wages,  a  constantly  increasing  number  of 
persons  look  upon  this  statement  of  Leo  XIII  as  the 
most  fruitful  and  effective  principle  of  industrial 
justice  that  has  ever  been  enunciated. 

Parkinson,  The  CondUion  of  the  Working  CloMet,  by  Popt  hto  . 
XIII  (London,  1910) ;   Manning,  Leo  XIII  on  the  Condition  of 
Labour  in  the  Dublin   Review    (July,    1891);     Nrm,   Catholic 
Socialism    (London,    1895);     Turman,    Le    Catholicieme   eocial 
depuia  Veneyclique  Rerum  Notarum  (Paris,  1900).  ^ 

John  A.  Ryan. 

Rescripts,  Papal  (Lat.  rescnberef  "to  write 
back"),  responses  of  the  pope  or  a  Sacred  Congre- 
gation, in  writing,  to  queries  or  petitions  of  individuals. 
Some  rescripts  concern  the  granting  of  favours; 
others  the  aoministration  of  justice,  e.  g.  the  inter- 
pretation of  a  law,  the  appointment  ot  a  judge.  Some- 
times the  favour  is  actually  granted  in  £e  rescript 
(gratis  facta — ^a  rescript  in  forma  gratiosa);  sometimes 
another  is  empowered  to  concede  the  request  (j^atia 
facienda — a  rescript  in  forma  commissoria);  some- 
times the  grant  is  made  under  certain  conditions  to 
be  examined  into  by  the  executor  (a  rescript  in 
forma  mixta).  The  petition  forwarded  to  Rome 
comprises  three  parts:  the  narrative  or  exposition 
of  the  facts;  the  petition;  the  reasons  for  the  request. 
The  response  likewise  contains  three  parts:  a  brief 
exposition  of  the  case;  •  the  decision  or  cp'ant;  the 
reason  of  the  same. 

Every  rescript  presupposes  the  truth  of  the  alle- 
gations found  in  the  suppUcation.  Intentional  false- 
hood or  concealment  of  truth  renders  a  rescript  in- 
valid, since  no  one  should  benefit  through  his  own 
deceit.  According  to  some,  however,  a  rescript 
is  valid  if  voluntary  misrepresentation  affect  only 
the  secondary  reason  of  the  grant.  This  is  certainly 
true  where  there  is  no  fraud,  but  merely  inadvertence 
or  i^orance  of  requirements;  for,  where  there  is  no 
malice,  punishment  should  not  be  infficted;  and  the  , 
petition  should  be  ^panted,  if  a  sufficient  cause  there- 
for exist.  A  rescript  in  forma  commissoria  is  valid, 
if  the  reason  allegea  for  the  grant  be  true  at  the  time 
of  execution,  though  false  when  the  rescript  was  is- 
sued. When  a  rescript  is  null  and  void,  a  new  peti- 
tion is  drawn  up  containing  the  tenor  of  the  previous 
concession  and  cause  of  nuUity,  and  asj^ing  that  the 
defect  be  remedied.  A  n«w  rescript  will  then  be 
given,  or  the  former  one  validated  bv  letters  perinde 
volere.  If  the  formalities  sanctioned  by  law  or  usage 
for  the  drawing  up  of  rescripts  are  wanting,  the 
document  will  be  considered  spurious.  Erasures, 
misspelUnoB,  or  grave  grammatical  errors  in  a  re- 
script wiU  render  its  authenticity  suspected.  Ex- 
communicated persons  ma^  seek  rescripts  only  in 
relation  to  the  cause  of  their  excommunication  or  in 
cases  of  appeal.  Consequently  in  rescripts  absolu- 
tion from  penalties  and  censures  is  first  given,  as  far 
as  necessary  for  the  validity  of  the  grant. 

Rescripts  have  the  force  of  a  particular  law,  i.  e. 
for  the  persons  concerned;  only  occasionallv,  e.  g. 
when  they  interpret  or  promulgate  a  general  law,  are 
they  of  universal  application.  Rescripts  in  forma 
gratiosa  are  effective  from  the  date  they  bear;  others 
only  from  the  moment  of  execution.  Rescripts 
contrary  to  common  law  contain  a  derogatory  clause: 
all  things  to  the  contrary  notwithstanding.  Re- 
scripts of  favour  ordinarily  admit  a  broad  in- 
terpretation; the  exceptions  are  when  they  are 
injurious  to  others,  refer  to  the  obtaining  of  ecclesi- 
astical benefices,  or  are  contrary  to  common  law. 
Rescripts  of  justice  are  to  be  interpreted  strictly. 


RBSSRVATION 


784 


RBSSRVATION 


Rescripts  expire  for  the  most  part  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  faculties. 

DeerelaU  Greg.  IX,  I,  3;  Taunton,  The  Late  of  the  Church 
(London,  1906).  A.   B.   MeEHAN. 

ReMTTation,  the  restriction  in  certain  cases  by  a 
superior  of  the  jurisdiction  ordinarily  exercised  by  an 
inferior.  Reservation  obtains  in  appointing  to  a 
benefice  (q.  v.,  section  CoWUion),  in  dispensing  from 
vows  (q.  v.),  and  in  absolving  from  sins  and  censures. 
The  power  of  reservation  is  vested  in  its  fullness  in  the 
pope,  who  may  exercise  this  right  throughout  the 
world.  Bishops^  regular  superiors,  or  others  with 
quasi-episcopaJ  jurisdiction  in  the  penitential  forum 
may  reserve  to  themselves  the  absolution  of  sins  of 
their  own  subjects.  Parish  priests  and  local  superiors 
do  not  possess  this  right.  The  chief  reason  for  thus 
restricting  the  poweT  of  confessors  is  to  deter  evil-Kloers 
by  the  difficulty  of  obtaining  absolution .  Only  graver 
mortal  sins,  that  are  external  and  completed,  not 
merely  attempted  acts,  should  be  reserved.  Ck>n- 
fession  would  prove  too  odious,  were  the  confessor's 
jurisdiction  unduly  limited.  Sins  are  reserved  wUh 
censure  (see  Censures,  Ecclesiastical)  or  inthotU 
censure:  nearly  all  papal  reservations  belong  to  the 
former  class,  and  the  reservation  is  principally  on 
account  of  the  censure;  episcopal  reservations  pertain 
for  the  most  part  to  the  latter  category. 

See  Apostouca  Srdis  Modbbationi;  CBNansm,  Ecclb- 
■lABTiCALi,  section  Abtolution  from  Centures;  Council  of  TVenl, 


..«»..  <>i. .,  cap.  vii.  can.  zi;  Taunton,  Law  of  the  Chureht  a.  v. 
Beeerved  Caeee;  and  the  works  of  moral  theolo^ans. 

A.  B.  Meehan. 

Raserratlon  of  the  Blauad   Sacrament,  the 

Eractice  of  preserving  after  the  celebration  of  the 
liturgy  a  portion  of  the  consecrated  elements  for  the 
Communion  of  the  sick  or  for  other  pious  purposes. 
The  extreme  antiquitv  of  such  reservation  cannot  be 
disputed.  Already  Justin  Martjrr,  in  the  first  de- 
tailed account  of  Eucharistic  practice  we  possess, 
tells  us  that  at  the  close  of  the  Liturgy  'Hhere  is  a 
distribution  to  each  and  a  participation  of  that  over 
which  thanks  have  been  given,  and  to  those  who  are 
absent  a  portion  is  sent  by  the  deacons"  (I  Apol., 
Ixxxvii).  Again  St.  Irenseus  as  quoted  by  Eusebius 
(Hist,  eccl.,  V,  xxiv,  15)  wrote  to  Pope  Victor  that  "the 
presbvters  before  thee  who  did  not  observe  it  [i.  e., 
the  Quartodeciman  practice]  sent  the  Eucharist  to 
those  of  other  districts  who  did  observe  it".  Ter- 
tullian  uses  the  actual  word,  reservarej  and  seems  to 
suggest  that  a  man  who  scrupled  to  break  his  fast 
on  a  fast  day  might  approach  the  Holy  Table  and 
carry  the  Blessed  Sacrament  away  with  him  to 
consume  it  later  on — '^accepto  corpore  Domini  et 
reservato,  utrumque  salvum  est,  et  participatio  sacra- 
menti  et  executio  officii"  ("De  orat.",  XIX:  C.  S.  E. 
L.,  XX,  192.     a.  *'Ad  ux.",  II,  5). 

In  St.  Cvprian,  about  the  middle  of  the  third  cen- 
tuxy,  we  already  find  the  record  of  Eucharistic  mir- 
acles, as,  for  example,  when  he  tells  us  of  a  woman 
who  sought  to  open  with  polluted  hands  the  casket 
(area)  in  which  she  kept  the  Blessed  Sacrament  and 
was  deterred  by  flames  bursting  from  it  (De  lapsis, 
26;  C.  S.  E.  L.,  I,  256).  And  again,  at  about  the 
same  period,  an  account  written  by  St.  Dionysius  of 
Alexandria  has  been  copied  by  Eusebius  (Hist,  eccl.,  VI. 
xliv)  from  which  we  learn  that  a  priest,  being  ill  and 
unable  himself  to  visit  a  dyingperson  who  had  sent 
a  boy  to  him  to  ask  for  the  Holy  Viaticum  in  the 
middle  of  the  night,  gave  the  boy  a  portion  of  the 
Eucharist  to  take  to  the  sufferer  who  was  to  consume 
it  moistened  with  water.  This  story  illustrates  the 
first  and  primary  puri>oee  of  reservation,  which  is 
thus  formally  stated  in  the  thirteenth  canon  of 
Nicea:  "With  respect  to  the  dying,  the  old  rule  of 
the  Church  should  continue  tc  be  OMerved  which  for- 
bids that  anyone  who  is  on  the  point  of  death  should 
be  deprived  of  the  last  and  most  necessary  Viaticum  " 


{rw  rcXcvrafov  Kal  dvaYKOiordroi;  i^oiUv),  But  it 
was  clearly  also  permitted  to  Christians,  espedally 
in  the  time  of  persecution,  to  keep  the  BlesBed  Sacra- 
ment in  their  own  possession  that  they  might  receive 
it  privately  (see,  e.  g.,  St.  Basil,  £p.  odxxxix,  "Ad 
Ceraar",  and  St.  Jerome,  Ep.  i,  "Ad  Pammach.",  n. 
15).  Tnis  usage  lasted  on  for  many  centuries,  es- 
pecially under  certain  exceptional  circumstances, 
for  example,  in  the  case  of  hermits.  An  answer 
given  by  the  Bishop  of  Corinth  to  Luke  the  Younger, 
an  anchoret  in  Acnaia  in  the  tenth  century,  explains 
in  detail  how  O>mmunion  should  be  received  under 
such  circumstances  (Combefis,  "Patr.  Bib.  Auctuar.", 
II,  45). 

At  an  earlier  date,  when  certain  heretically-minded 
monks  of  Mount  Calamon  in  Palestine  e]q>reBBed 
doubts  whether  the  Holy  Eucharist  which  hid  been 
kept  to  the  morrow  did  not  lose  its  consecration,  St. 
C^  of  Alexandria  wrote  (P.  G.,  LXXVI,  1076)  that 
those  who  so  spoke  must  be  mad  (ludvorrai).  What 
is  more  surprismg,  it  remained  the  custom  in  many  re- 
ligious houses  of  women  in  the  West  down  to  the 
efeventh  and  twelfth  centuries  or  later  to  receive  on 
the  day  of  their  solemn  profession  a  little  provision 
of  the  Blessed  Sacrament,  and  with  this  they  spent 
a  period  of  eight  days  in  a  sort  of  retreat,  bemg  free 
"  to  partake  daily  of  this  heavenly  food  "  (see  Mart^ne, 
"De  Antiquis  Ecclesis  Ritibus^',  II,  187).  We  abo 
learn  that  Christians  sought  to  carry  the  Bkased 
Sacrament  about  wit<h  them  in  times  of  grievous  peril 
as  a  means  of  protection  (St.  Ambrose,  "De  Exoessu 
Fratris  ",  1, 43)  or  as  a  source  of  consolation.  Further, 
as  noticed  above,  the  Eucharist  was  sent  from  one 
bishop  to  another  in  token  of  charitable  conununion, 
and  it  appears  from  the  first  "Ordo  Romanus"  (im. 
8  and  22)  that  a  portion  of  the  Eucharist  remaining 
over  from  a  previous  sacrifice  was. mingled  with  the 
elements  consecrated  in  the  next  celebration,  probably 
as  a  token  of  continuity,  while  the  practice  of  the 
Mass  of  the  Preeanctified,  in  which  tne  species  pre- 
viously consecrated  alone  were  used,  was  from  an 
early  period  prescribed  in  the  Eastern  Church  through- 
out the  whole  of  Lent,  the  Sundays  only  excepted. 

On  the  other  hand,  there  appears  to  be  no  reliable 
evidence  that  before  the  year  1000.  or  even  later, 
the  Blessed  Sacrament  was  kept  in  cnurches  in  order 
that  the  faithful  might  visit  it  or  pray  before  it. 
Such  evidence  as  has  been  quoted  in  proof  of  such 
a  practice  will  be  found  on  closer  inspection  to  teO 
the  other  way.  For  example^  though  the  altar  is 
called  by  St.  Optatus  of  Milcvis  ("De  schism.  Don.". 
VI,  I:  in  P.  L.,  XI,  1066)  the  throne  of  the  Body  and 
Blood  of  Christ  {sedes  et  corporis  el  sanguinu  CktM), 
the  altar  is  also  described  in  the  same  context  as  the 
place  "where  Christ's  Body  and  Blood  dwell  for  a 
certain  brief  space"  {per  certa  momenia).  Further, 
the  true  explanation  (h  a  passage  in  which  St.  Gr^- 
ory  Nazianzen  describes  his  sister  Gorgonia  as  visit- 
ing the  altar  in  the  middle  of  the  night  (P.  G.,  XXXV, 
810)  seems  to  be  that  she  went  there  to  seek  such 
crumbs  or  traces  of  the  Eucharistic  species  as  mi^t 
accidentally  have  fallen  and  been  overlooked  (see 
Journal  of  Theol.  Stud..  Jan.,  1910,  pp.  275-78). 
It  would  probably,  then,  oe  correct  to  say  that  down 
to  the  later  Middle  Ages,  those  who  came  to  the 
church  to  pray  outside  the  nours.of  service  came  there 
not  so  much  to  honour  the  Eucharistic  presence  as 
to  pray  before  the  altar  upon  which  Jesus  Christ 
was  wont  to  descend  when  tne  words  of  consecration 
were  spoken  in  the  Mass. 

As  to  the  manner  and  place  of  reservation  during 
the  early  centuries  there  was  no  great  uniformity 
of  practice.  Undoubtedly  the  Eucharist  was  at 
first  often  kept  in  private  houses,  but  a  Council  of 
Toledo  in  480,  which  denounced  those  who  did  not 
immediately  consume  the  sacred  species  when  they 
received  them  from  the  priest  at  the  altar,  very 


BESSBVED 


785 


RBSIDENCE 


possibly  marks  a  change  in  this  regard.  On  the  other 
nand  numerous  decrees  of  synods  and  penalties  en- 
tered in  penitential  books  impose  upon  parish  priests 
the  duty  of  reserving  the  Blessed  Sacrament  for  the 
use  of  the  sick  and  dying,  and  at  the  same  time  of 
keeping  it  reverently  and  securely  while  providing 
by  frequent  renewal  against  as^  dan^  of  the 
corruption  of  the  sacred  species.  Caskets  m  the  form 
of  a  dove  or  of  a  tower,  made  for  the  most  part  of 
one  of  the  precious  metals,  were  commonly  used 
for  the  purpose,  but  whether  in  the  early  Middle 
Ages  these  Eucnaristic  vessels  were  kept  over  the 
altar,  or  elsewhere  in  the  church,  or  in  the  sacristy, 
does  not  clearly  appear.  After  the  tenth  century 
tJie  commonest  iisage  in  England  and  France  seems 
to  have  been  to  suspend  the  Blessed  Sacrament  in  a 
dove-shaped  vessel  by  a  cord  over  the  high  altar: 
but  fixed  and  locked  tabernacles  were  also  known  and 
indeed  prescribed  by  the  regulations  of  Bishop  Quivil 
of  Exeter  at  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  centiuy,  though 
in  En^^and  they  never  came  into  jseneral  use  before 
the  Reformation.  In  Germany,  m  the  fourteenth 
and  fifteenth  centuries,  a  custom  widely  prevailed 
of  enshrining  the  Eucharist  in  a  ''sacrament  house'', 
often  beautifully  decorated,  separate  from  the  high 
altar,  but  only  a  short  distance  away  from  it,  and  on 
the  north,  or  Gospel,  side  of  the  Church.  This 
custom  seems  to  have  originated  in  the  desire  to 
allow  the  Blessed  Sacrament  to  be  seen  by  the  faith- 
ful without  exactly  contravening  the  synodal  decrees 
which  forbade  any  continuous  exposition.  In  the 
sacrament  house  the  door  was  invariably  made  of 
metal  lattice  work,  through  which  the  vessel  contain- 
ing the  sacred  species  could  be  discerned  at  least 
obscurely. 

In  modem  times  many  provisions  have  been  made 
to  ensure  reverence  and  security  in  the  reservation 
of  the  Blessed  Sacrament.  With  regard  to  the  re- 
newal of  the  species,  it  is  laid  down  that  the  Eucharist 
should  not  be  left  for  longer  than  a  month,  while  a 
much  less  interval  is  recommended  and  generally 
followed  in  practice.  The  practice  of  burning  a 
light  before  the  tabernacle  or  other  receptacle  dates 
from  the  thirteenth  century  or  earlier,  but  it  was  not 
at  first  regarded  as  of  strict  obligation.  In  the  Greek 
Church  the  consecrated  loaf  is  moistened  with  the 
species  of  wine  and  kbpt  as  a  sort  of  crumbling  paste. 

Raiblx,  Der  Taberruikel  einH  und  jetxt  (Freiburg:,  1908); 
Cobb  LET,  Histoire  du  SacremerU  de  VEuehariiAie  (Pans,  1888); 
Bridobtt,  History  of  the  Bletsed  Eucharist  in  Great  Britain 
(London.  1908);  Thurston  in  The  Month  (1907),  377  and  617. 

Herbert  Thxtrston. 

Beserred  Cases,  a  term  used  for  sins  whose  ab- 
solution is  not  witMn  the  power  of  every  confessor, 
but  is  reserved  to  himself  by  the  superior  of  the  con- 
fessor, or  only  specially  granted  to  some  other  con- 
fessor b^  that  superior.  To  reserve  a  case  is  then  to 
refuse  lurisdiction  for  the  absolution  of  a  certain 
sin.  Christ  gave  power  to  the  rulers  of  His  Church 
to  make  such  reservations:  ''Whose  sins  you  shall 
retain  they  are  retained''  (John,  xx^  23).  The  reser- 
vation of  sins  presupposes  jurisdiction,  and  therefore 
the  pope  alone  can  make  reservations  for  the  whole 
Church;  bishojis  can  do  the  same  for  their  dioceses 
only,  and  certain  regular  prelates  for  their  religious 
subjects.  That  a  sin  be  reserved  it  must  be  mortal, 
external,  and  consummated.  If  a  sin  be  reserved  in 
one  diocese,  and  a  penitent,  without  the  intention  of 
evading  the  law,  confess  to  a  priest  in  another  dio- 
cese where  the  sin  is  not  resmred,  the  latter  may 
absolve  the  reserved  sin.  Cases  are  reserved  either 
(a)  merely  on  account  of  the  sin  itself,  that  is  with- 
out censure,  or  (b)  on  account  of  the  censures  at- 
tached to  it.  If  a  penitent  be  in  danger  of  death, 
any  priest  can  absolve  him,  both  from  reserved  cen- 
sures and  reserved  sins.  In  case  of  reserved  censures, 
if  he  recover,  he  must  later  present  himself  to  the  one 
XII.— 50 


having  special  power  for  reserved  censures,  unless 
the  case  was  simply  reserved  to  the  pope.  As  to 
reserved  sins,  he  need  not,  as  a  general  rule,  present 
himself  again  after  convalescence.  In  a  case  of  urgent 
necessity,  when  it  is  not  ^XMsible  to  have  recourse  to 
the  proper  superior,  an  ordinary  priest  may  absolve 
a  penitent,  curectly  from  unreserved  sins  and  in- 
directly from  episcopal  reserved  cases,  but  the 
penitent  must  afterwards  apply  to  the  person  having 
power  to  absolve  from  the  reservation.  If  there 
were  also  paptd  reservations,  either  simple  or  special, 
the  absolution  is  direct,  but  in  case  of  special  reserva- 
tions to  the  pope  a  relation  must  be  made  to  the 
Holy  See  that  its  mandates  on  the  subject  may  be 
obtained.  Ignorance  of  a  censure  prevents  its  being 
incurred,  but  moralists  dispute  whether  ignorance  of 
a  reservation,  with  or  without  censure,  excuses  from 
its  incurrence.  If  it  be  a  case  with  censure  reserved 
to  the  pope,  all  agree  that  ignorance  does  excuse  from 
it;  if  reserved  to  a  bishop,  it  is  controverted.  Some 
moralists  hold  that  ignorance  excuses  from  all  reser- 
vations, whether  with  or  without  censure.  It  is 
certain,  however,  that  a  bishop  has  authority  to 
declare  that  ignorance  of  a  reservation  does  not 
prevent  its  incurrence  in  his  diocese. 

Smith.  ElemenU  of  Eedetiatttical  Law,  I  (New  York.  1895) ; 
Taunton,  The  Law  of  the  Church  (London,  1906) ;  Lbhmkurl. 
Theoloffia  Moralia  (Freiburg,  1910);  Slatbr,  Manual  of  Moral 
Theoloffy  (New  York,  1909). 

William  H.  W.  Fanning. 

Besidence,  Ecclesiastical,  a  remaining  or  abid- 
ing where  one's  duties  lie  or  where  one's  occupation  is 
properly  carried  on,  as  the  presence  of  a  bishop  in  his 
diocese,  a  rector  or  incumbent  in  his  benefice,  a  canon 
in  his  cathedral  or  collegiate  church:  opposed  to  non- 
residence  or  absence.  Residence  is  intended- to  guar^ 
antee  service  or  fulfilment  of  duty.  In  the  canonical 
import  of  the  term  a  merely  material  abiding  in  a 
place  is  not  sufiicient;  vigilance  and  solicitude  must 
accompany  it;  a  laborious  residence  eJone  satisfies 
the  reouirements.  Residence  for  this  reason  differs 
from  aomicile,  and  secondly  because  the  inten- 
tion of  remaining  is  involved  in  the  definition  of 
domicile.  It  mav  be  noted  that  by  a  fiction  of  law 
one  who  is  lawfully  absent  fulfils  the  law  of  residence; 
while,  on  the  contrary,  one  unlawfully  absent  is  con- 
sidered to  be  present:  thus  one  who  leaves  his  own 
diocese  under  censure  or  precept,  or  puiposely  and 
solely  (in  fraudem  Ugis)  to  obtain  absolution  in  a 
reserved  case,  is  considered  present.  Residence  is 
binding  on  clerics  holding  benefices.  Originally  this 
obligation  was  attached  to  all  benefices,  but  through 
universal  custom  simple  benefices  or  those  without  the 
cure  of  souls  do  not  require  personal  residence.  A 
canon's  presence  does  not  necessarily  extend  to  all 
hours  of  the  day,  while  that  of  a  pastor,  on  the  con- 
trary, is  continuous,  owing  to  the  numerous,  and  oft- 
times  sudden,  demands  for  his  ministrations.  A  canon 
is  not  obliged  ordinarily  to  dwell  in  close  proximity 
to  his  benefice.  It  suffices  that  he  be  able  conve- 
niently to  be  present  at  the  prescribed  hours. 

Residence,  m  connexion  with  the  pastoral  ofiice,  is 
inculcated  in  various  canons.  Tlie  Council  of  Trent 
(Sess.  XXIII,  c.  1,  de  ref.)  says:  "Since  by  Divine 
precept  it  is  enjoined  on  all  to  whom  the  cure  of  souls 
IS  entrusted  to  know  their  own  sheep,  to  oflFer  sacri- 
fice for  them,  to  feed  them  by  preaching  the  Divine 
word,  by  the  administration  of  the  sacraments,  and 
by  the  example  of  ail  good  works;  likewise  to  have  a 
fatherly  care  of  the  poor  and  other  distressed  persons, 
and  to  apply  themselves  to  all  other  pastoral  duties; 
all  which  offices  can  not  be  rendered  and  fulfilled  by 
those  wJm  neither  watch  over  nor  are  toith  their  own 
flockf  but  abandon  it  after  the  manner  of  hirelings, 
the  sacred  svnod  admonishes  and  exhorts  such  that, 
mindful  of  the  Divine  precept  and  made  a  pattern  of 
the  flock,  they  feed  and  niW  ia  iudtfp*.ent  and  trutJv  " 


RBSIGNATION 


786 


RESPiam 


A  pastor  then  is  obliged  to  dwell  in  his  parish;  and, 
generally  speaking,  by  reason  of  local  statutes,  in  the 
parochial  residence  or  rectorv.  Because  of  gfe&teir 
responsibilities  resting  upon  them,  the  Church  insists 
that  patriarchs,  primates,  metropolitans,  bishops,  or 
others  in  charge  of  dioceses  or  auasi-dioceses,  even 
though  they  be  cardinals,  live  within  their  own  terri- 
tory, though  not  of  necessity  in  the  episcop^  city. 
Bishops,  moreover,  are  admonished  by  the  Council  of 
Trent  not  to  be  aosent  from  their  cathedrals,  imless 
their  episcopal  duties  call  them  elsewhere  in  the  dio- 
cese, during  Advent  and  Lentj  on  Christmas,  Easter, 
Pentecost,  and  Corpus  Christi,  on  which  days  espe- 
cially the  sheep  ought  to  be  refreshed  and  rejoice  in 
the  Lord  at  the  presence  of  the  shepherd.  The  chan- 
cery office,  the  official  centre  of  diocesan  business,  wiU 
be  found  more  properlv  at  the  cathedral,  even  though 
the  bishop  reside  elsewhere.  The  six  cardinal  bishops 
(see  Cardinal)  whose  sees  are  in  proximity  to  Rome 
are  permitted  to  dwell  in  the  Eternal  City,  while 
suffragan  bishops  administer  their  dioceses  (const. 
Clem.  XVI,  '^  Pastorale  officium";  const.  Pius  X, 
"Apostolicae  Romanorum  Pontificum",  15  Apr. 
1910). 

Some  maintain  that  the  duty  of  residence  is  incum- 
bent on  parish  priests  and  bishops  by  virtue  of  Divine 
as  well  as  ecclesiastical  law.  The  Council  of  Trent 
did  not  see  fit  to  settle  this  controversy  (cf.  Bened. 
XIV,  "  De  sjm.",  L.  7,  c.  1).  It  would  seem  that  while 
the  canons  demand  a  personal  fulfilment  of  their 
duties  on  the  part  of  pastors,  the  Divine  precept  is 
satisfied  if  the  work  be  done  even  by  others,  Uiough 
this  is  less  fitting.  The  law  of  residence  is  not  to  be 
applied  so  strictly  as  not  to  admit  of  absence  at  times. 
In  some  cases  a  reasonable  or  just  cause  of  absence, 
e.  g.  necessary  rest,  legitimate  recreation,  a  pilgrimage, 
a  visit  to  relatives  or  friends,  business  matters, 
suffices;  in  others,  a  grave  reason  is  required.  Grave 
reasons  for  absence  may  be  reduced  to  two.  The  first 
is  lU'gent  necessity,  e.  g.  when  one  is  persecuted, 
oblig^  by  ill  health  to  seek  change  of  climate,  cidled 
away  in  obedience  to  a  lawful  superior,  attendance  at 
an  oecumenical  council,  making  the  prescribed  ad 
limina  visit.  The  second  reason  is  charity  in  a 
marked  degree,  e.  g.  the  prosecution  of  the  rishts  of 
the  diocese  or  of  the  Chiuxsh,  the  promotion  of  peace 
among  nations.  For  no  cause  should  a  pastor  desert 
his  people  in  time  of  war,  pestilence,  or  on  other  occa- 
sions when  their  welfare  is  seriously  menaced,  llie 
period  of  absence  allowed  may  be  continuous  or  inter- 
rupted. While  the  chapter  may  never  be  absent, 
individual  members  may  annually  have  three  months 
vacation,  if  the  constitutions  of  the  chapter  permit. 
A  sufficient  number  for  the  offices  required  must  be 
present.  Bishops  are  counselled  not  to  allow  parish 
priests  or  rectors  of  missions  more  than  two  months' 
leave  of  absence  yearly,  unless  the  reason  be  urgent. 
Permission  should  be  given  in  writing,  except  for 
short  absences,  and  a  substitute  approved  by  the 
ordinary,  with  competent  recompense,  left  in  charge 
of  the  parish.  Usually  diocesan  statutes  permit  an 
absence  of  a  few  days  without  consulting  the  ordmary. 
The  law  allows  a  bishop  for  just  cause,  when  it  is 

Eossible  without  detriment  to  his  charge,  to  absent 
imself  three  months  annually,  though  not  during 
Advent  or  Lent  or  on  the  feasts  enumerated  above. 
For  a  longer  absence,  though  advantage  may  not 
have  been  taken  for  years  of  the  period  annuidly 
allowed^  a  grave  reason  is  reauired  as  well  as  express 
permission  of  the  Consistorial  Con0:egation.  Cferics 
other  than  those  mentioned  are  subject  to  local  regu- 
lations, both  as  regards  residence  and  absence. 

Non-residence  or  unlawful  absence  is  punishable  in 
law.  Canons  lose  all  share  in  the  daily  distributions 
unless  actually  present  in  choir.  Where  it  is  per- 
mitted they  may  use  with  moderation  the  privilege 
of  appointing  substitutes.    Besides  being  guilty  of 


mortal  sin,  bishops  and  rectors  who  violate  the  law  of 
residence  forfeit  the  fruits,  i.  e.  salary  or  income,  of 
their  benefices  in  proportion  to  the  time  of  their 
absence.  A  certain  amount  may  be  retained  in  rec- 
ompense for  other  duties  discharged,  such  as  the 
application  of  Mass  etc.  The  money  forfeited  is  used 
in  repairing  churches  or  in  works  of  piety.  Bishops 
also  lose  whatever  rights  and  privileges  they  possess 
as  assistants  to  the  papal  throne.  Continued  ii^ringe- 
ment  of  the  law  may  oe  more  severely  punished,  even 
by  deposition.  If  a  bishop  is  absent  more  than  a  year, 
he  must  be  denounced  to  the  pope  by  his  metropoutan. 
If  the  metropolitan  be  thus  absent,  the  duty  of  re- 
porting the  matter  devolves  on  the  senior  suffragan 
bishop.  A  -parochial  residence  of  one  month  suffices 
for  the  licit  contracting  of  marriage  in  the  parish  (Ne 
temere,  art.  5):  the  mere  fact  of  thirty  days  stay, 
even  though  by  chance,  if  morally  continuous,  is 
sufficient.  By  such  resiaence  one  becomes  a  parish- 
ioner as  far  as  marriage  is  concerned,  and  although 
retaining  a  domicile  or  quasi-domicile  elsewhere,  may 
obtain^  matrimonial  dispensations  from  the  orainaiy 
of  the  place  «of  residence.  Canonists  are  not  agreed 
whether  this  is  true  in  the  case  of  one  who,  though 
living  in  a  diocese  for  some  time,  e.  g.  a  week,  only 
in  various  parishes,  has  not  acquired  a  parochial 
residence  of  a  monlii.  It  is  certain  that  the  previous 
legislation  contemplated  a  parochial,  not  a  diocesan, 
domicile  or  quasi-domicile. 

CouncU  of  Trent,  Seas.  VI,  c.  1;  Seas.  XXIII,  c.  h  dt  ref.; 
Urban  VIII,  Ctrntt,  Saneta  aynodua  (12  Dec.,  1634);  Bcxed. 
XIV,  Contt.  Ad  univerta  (3  Sept.,  1746);  Dear.  Greg.  JX,  L.  Ill, 
tit.  4,  De  deride  non  residentibue. 

Andrew  B.  Meghan 
Resignation.    See  Abdication. 

Beipiglli,  Lorenzo,  b.  at  Cortemaggiore,  Province 
of  Piacenza,  7  October,  1824;  d.  at  Rome,  10  Decem- 
ber. 1889.  He  studied  mathematics  and  natural 
philosophy,  first  at  Parma  and  then  at  the  University 
of  Bologna^  where  he  obtained  his  degree  ad  hcnorem 
in  1845.  In  1849  he  was  appointed  as  substitute  to 
liie  chair  of  rational  mechanics  and  hydraulics  in  the 
same  university,  two  years  later  professor  of  optics 
and  astronomy,  and  finally  in  1855  he  became  dir»;tor 
of  the  Bologna  observatory,  after  having  been  for 
some  time  at  the  observatory  of  Milan.  From 
1855  to  1864  he  discovered,  at  Bologna,  three 
comets  (1862  IV,  1863  III,  and  1863  V)  and  made 
himsdf  known  by  other  important  works  of  meteorol- 
ogy and  astronomy.  In  1865  the  Italian  Govern- 
ment, already  established  in  Bologna  for  five  years, 
imposed  upon  the  university  professors  the  oath  of 
subjection  to  the  dynasty  of  Victor  Emmanuel 
II.  Three  professors  refused  to  take  it:  Chelini, 
Filopanti,  and  Respighi.  In  consequence  of  this 
refusal,  the  last-named  had  to  leave  the  chair  and  the 
direction  of  the  observatory.  He  then  went  to  Rome, 
which  still  continued  under  the  government  of  the 
pope,  and  obtained  the  position  of  astronomer  at 
the  observatory  of  the  Capitol,  directed  by  Calan- 
drelli.  In  1866,  a  year  after  tne  death  of  the  lat- 
ter, Respighi  succeeded  him  both  in  the  director- 
ship of  the  observatory  at  the  Capitol  and  in  the 
chur  of  astronomy  at  the  Sapiensa.  In  1866  he  made 
important  observations  on  the  lunar  crater  Linnsus. 
In  1867  and  1868  he  began  his  celebrated  stud- 
ies of  the  scintillation  of  stais.  In  October,  1869, 
he  made  the  first  spectroscopic  observations  on 
the  border  of  the  sun. 

Rome  having  been  occupied  by  the  Italian  Gov- 
ernment (1870),  Respighi  (October,  1871)  found 
himself  again  confronted  with  the  question  of 
the  oath.  He  had  been  invited  by*  the  British 
Government  to  take  part  in  an  expedition  to  the 
Indies  for  the  solar  echpse  in  December,  1871.  This 
invitation  gave  so  much  distinction  to  the  astronomer 
that  the  Italian  Minister  of  Public  Instruction  offered 


RKSPONSORIUM 


787 


RBSPONSORIUM 


him  a  sum  to  defray  the  expenses  of  the  journey. 
K(>spiKhi  accepted  on  condition  that  he  should  not  be 
suhj(M^t  to  take  the  oath.  It  does  honour  to  the 
minister  that  he  did  not  insist  upon  a  condition  with 
which  a  loyal  subject  of  the  pope  would  not  have 
complied  even  if  his  refusal  cost  him  his  position. 
Six  years  later,  in  1877,  Respighi  was  appointed 
Knight  of  the  Civil  Order  of  Savoy;  to  receive  this 
honour  it  became  again  necessary  to  take  the  oath. 
In  a  letter  to  the  Minister  of  Instruction,  Respighi 
refused  and  returned  the  cross  which  had  been  already 
sent  to  him.  Besides  the  aforenamed  studies, 
we  owe  to  him  other  very  important  researehes,  on 
spectra  of  stars  and  on  the  solar  corona,  as  also 
the  first  systematic  observations  on  solar  protuber- 
ances. Moreover,  he  discovered  and  practised  new 
methods  to  determine  the  diameter  of  the  sun  and 
the  zenith  distances  of  stars.  Finally,  astronomy 
owes  Respighi  a  masterly  catalogue  of  the  absolute 
declinations  of  2534  boreal  stars.  After  Schiaparelli, 
Respighi  was  the  most  prominent  Italian  astronomer 
of  the  nineteenth  century. 

V.  Cbrulli. 

BefponBoriuxn,  Responsory,  or  Respond,  a  series  of 
verses  and  responses,  usually  taken  from  Holy  Scrip- 
ture and  varying  according  to  the  feast  or  season. 
Resnonsories  are  of  two  kinds:  those  which  occur  in 
the  Proper  of  the  Mass.  and  those  used  in  the  Divine 
Office;  each  differing  slightly  both  as  to  history  and 
form. 

I.  The  Responsoriea  of  the  Mass. — ^The  psalmodic 
solo  is  the  oldest  form  of  Christian  chant,  and  was 
apparently  derived  from  the  Synagogue.  The  psalm 
was  recited  by  one  chanter,  to  whom  the  people  an- 
swered with  a  refrain  or  response,  the  latter  being 
either  the  alternate  verses  of  the  psalm  itself,  or  one 
verse  repeated  again  and  again,  or  sometimes  a  sen- 
tence tafeen  from  elsewhere.  The  psalm  *  *  Confitemini 
Domino",  every  verse  of  which  has  the  refrain 
"Quoniam  in  setemum  misericordia  ejus",  is  a  typical 
example,  though  sometimes  the  refrain  was  a  mere 
exclamation,  such  as  "Alleluia".  This  method  of 
chant  was  known  as  the  canius  responsorius,  and  is 
mentioned  in  the  writings  of  Tertullian,  St.  Augustine, 
and  St.  Isidore.  It  was  an  integral  part  of  the  Lit- 
urgy, that  is  to  say  it  was  not  introduced  to  fill  up 
time  whilst  other  things  were  going  on,  but  was 
listened  to  by  clergy  and  people  aiike^  and  in  this  it 
differs  from  the  antiphonal  chant,  which  was  merely 
an  accompaniment  to  various  actions  and  ceremonies, 
e.  g.  the  Introit,  Offertory,  and  Communion.  The 
responsorial  parts  of  the  Mass  were  the  Gradual  (so 
named  from  the  position  of  the  soloist,  at  the  steps  of 
the  pulpit  or  ambo),  the  Alleluia,  and  at  one  time  the 
Offertory.  Up  to  the  twelfth  century  the  way  of 
singing  the  Gradual  was  as  follows:  The  cantor  sang 
it  from  the  beginning  as  far  as  the  verse,  and  the  choir 
repeated  the  cantor's  part.  Then  came  the  verse, 
sung  by  the  cantor,  after  which  the  refrain,  i.  e.  the 
part  first  sung,  was  repeated  by  all.  After  the  twelfth 
century  the  custom  began  of  omitting  the  repetition 
after  the  verse  whenever  another  chant,  such  as  the 
Alleluia  or  Tract,  followed.  The  present  practice  is 
to  omit  the  repetition  on  all  occasions,  but  m  order  to 
avoid  a  conclusion  by  the  soloist  alone,  it  has  become 
general  for  the  choir  to  join  in  at  the  end  of  the  verse. 
In  the  early  Middle  Ages  the  responsorium  gradiude 
was  still  sung  at  every  Mass,  and  not  replaced,  as  at 
present,  by  an  Alleluia  in  Eastertide.  It  may  be 
noted  that  it  is  still  retained  in  Easter  Week,  the 
Graduals  of  which  are  all  connected  (the  refrain  being 
the  same  and  the  verses  being  all  from  one  psalm), 
and  doubtless  originally  formed  one  chant  with  sev- 
eral verses,  which  was  performed  in  full  on  Easter 
Day. 

The  seoond  piece  of  responsorial  chant  in  the  Mass 


is  the  Alleluia.  It  was  introduced  by  Pope  Damasua 
at  the  advice  of  St.  Jerome,  in  imitation  of  the  Liturey 
of  Jerusalem.  The  chant  became  very  elaborate,  the 
greater  part  of  it  being  devoted  to  the  last  vowel  of 
the  word  alleluia,  which  was  prolonged  through  so 
many  successive  notes  as  to  suggest  a  mystical  mean- 
ing, viz.,  that  it  represented  the  chant  of  eternity,  or, 
as  Durandus  says,  the  joy  that  is  too  great  to  be  ex- 
pressed in  words.  The  reduction  of  this  chant  to 
responsorial  form  is  due  to  St.  Gre^ry,  who  added 
verses  to  it.  The  method  of  singing  it  was  as  follows : 
The  soloist  began  with  the  Allelma,  which  was  re- 
peated by  the  choir;  the  soloist  then  continued  with 
the  verse  or  verses,  after  each  of  which  the  choir  re- 
peated the  Alleluia.  On  Holy  Saturday  and  the  Vigil 
of  Pentecost  there  was  no  repetition,  but  the  verse 
"Confitemini"  was  followed  immediatelv  (as  now)  by 
the  tract  "Laudate  Dominum".  The  Offertory  was 
originally  an  antiphonal  chant,  i.  e.  sung  by  two 
choirs,  introduced  to  fill  up  the  time  whilst  the  obla- 
tions of  the  people  were  being  made.  Later  on  it  be- 
came more  convenient  to  leave  the  Verses  to  a  soloist, 
and  so  it  became  a  responsorial  chant.  One  reason 
for  this  may  have  been  that  the  singers,  as  well  as  the 
people,  had  oblations  to  offer.  The  change  was 
naturally  accompanied  by  an  elaboration  of  the 
melody,  both  of  the  antiphon  (which  became  the  re- 
frain) and  of  the  verses.  But  when  the  popular 
offering  fell  out  of  use,  the  Offertory  had  to  oe  cur- 
tailed, and  the  verses  were  dropped,  in  which  form  it 
is  found  as  early  as  the  eleventh  century.  At  the 
present  day  the  Mass  for  the  Dead  alone  retains  a 
vestige  of  the  ancient  usage,  in  the  verse  "  Hostias  et 
preces"  and  the  repetition  after  it  of  the  ooncludine 
part  of  the  Offertory.  Originally  the  people  joined 
m  the  singing  of  aU  the  Mass,  responsonal  chants 
taking  up  the  responses  after  they  had  been  com- 
menced by  the  soloist.  The  gradual  elaboration  of 
the  melomes,  however,  made  this  increasingly  diffi- 
cult for  them,  and  so  by  degrees  they  were  K>rced  to 
relinquish  their  share  to  the  trained  singers  of  the 
choir.  Thev  had  become  thus  silenced  probably  by 
St.  Gre^ry's  time,  and  thenceforward  it  was  only  in 
the  Ordmary  of  the  Mass  that  they  were  able  to  take 
their  share. 

II.  The  Responsories  of  the  Divine  Office. — ^These  con- 
sist, like  those  of  the  Mass,  of  verses  and  responses, 
witn  or  without  the  "Gloria  Patri"  (but  omitting 
sicut  erat),  and  their  usual  place  is  after  the  Lessons 
of  Matins.  There  is  also  a  shorter  form,  called  the 
responsorium  breve  or  responsoriola.  which  in  the 
monastic  Office  alwajrs  comes  after  tne  Capitulum  at 
Lauds  and  Vespers,  and  also  after  the  Lesson  in  sum- 
mer ferial  Matins  (Reg.  S.  Ben.,  c.  x).  In  the  Roman 
Office  it  is  found  only  in  the  Little  Hours.  St.  Bene- 
dict in  his  Rule  (written  about  530)  prescribes  the  use 
of  responsories  after  the  Lessons  of  Matins,  but  he 
gives  no  intimation  as  to  their  form,  implying  rather 
that  they  were'ln  general  use  and  therefore  well- 
known.  The  earliest  definite  information  we  have 
as  to  their  form  is  found  in  the  description  of  the 
Roman  Office  at  the  be^ning  of  the  ninth  ccntui^. 
given  by  Amalarius  in  his  "De  Ordine  Antiphonarii" 
(Migne,  P.  L.,  CV).  The  method  of  chanting  then 
in  vogue  is  thus  given  by  him:  the  precentor  began 
with  the  first  part,  which  the  choir  repeated;  then  the 
soloist  sang  the  verse  and  the  choir  repeated  the  first 
part  again  as  far  as  the  verse;  the  soloist  sang  "Gloria 
Patri  and  the  choir  repeated  the  second  portion  of 
its  part  again  j*  finally  the  precentor  began  the  Respond 
again  from  the  beginning,  and  sang  it  as  far  as  the 
versCj  and  the  choir  replied  with  a  last  repetition. 
The  nrst  Responsory  of  the  year,  "  Aspiciens  a  longe", 
and  a  few  others,  had  several  verses,  and  in  these 
cases  the  second  part  of  the  refrain  was  divided  into 
as  many  sections  as  there  were  verses,  one  section 
being  repeated  after  each  verse,  and  then  aftec  thft. 


RKSTITUnON 


788 


RKSTITUTION 


"Gloria  Patri"  the  full  refrain  again.     One  verse 
only,  however,  was  the  general  rule. 

A  modification  of  the  above  method  was  intro- 
duced by  the  Franks,  who  repeated  only  the  first  part 
of  the  refrain  after  the  verse  instead  of  the  whole  of 
it.  This  dimidiation  in  the  Galilean  method  of  sing- 
ing the  Responsory  led  to  some  confusion  of  the  sense 
of  what  was  being  simg,  and  Blessed  Cardinal  Tom- 
masi,  quoting  from  Amalarius,  savs  that  in  conse- 
quence it  became  necessary  to  introauce  some  different 
verses  in  Gaul,  so  that  there  might  be  but  one  sense 
running  through  the  words  of  both  Respond  and 
verse.  Dom  Baumer  gives  the  following  as  an 
example: 

R.  Tu  es  Petrus  *ait  Dominus  ad  Simonem. 

y.  Ecce  Sacerdos  magnus  qui  in  diebus  suis  placuit 
Deo. 

^.  (Roman  method)  Tu  es  Petrus,  etc. 
But  according  to  the  Gallican  method  the  repetitidti 
would  be  merely  "Ait  Dominus'',  etc.,  thus  makins 
Our  Lord  to  say  to  Peter  "Ecce  Sacerdos  magnus'' 
etc. 

Helisachar,  Abbot  of  St.  Maximin  at  Trier,  was 
responsible  for  many  of  the  new  Verses,  but  his  work 
did  not  meet  with  the  approval  of  Amalarius,  who  set 
himself  to  improve  upon  it  in  the  new  Antiphonary 
which  he  compiled  for  use  in  Gaul.  This  in  turn  was 
violently  attacked  bjr  Agobard  and  Florus,  the  lit- 
urgists  of  Lyons,  but  in  the  end  the  Gallican  method 
of  singing  the  Responsory  prevailed  over  the  Roman 
way,  and  became  the  general  custom  of  the  Church. 
This  came  about,  however,  only  by  degrees,  for  though 
Amalarius  made  his  compilation  early  in  the  ninth 
century,  we  still  find  considerable  variation  of  form  in 
the  Responsories  contained  in  the  twelfth-century 
Antiphonary  of  St.  Peter's,  which  represents  the  use 
of  the  Vatican  Basilica.  The  inclusion  of  the  "  Gloria 
Patri"  in  the  Responsory  was  considered  by  Amalar- 
ius to  be  a  recent  innovation,  though  Walafrid  Strabo 
ascribed  its  introduction  to  St.  Benedict.  At  any 
rate  its  use  without  "sicut  erat"  points  to  its  being 
at  least  older  than  the  sixth  century.  It  should  be 
noted  that  usudly  it  occurs  only  in  the  last  of  each 
set  of  noctum  Responds. 

The  number  of  Responsories  used  varied  in  the 
different  Antiphonaries  according  to  the  number  of 
lessons.  Before  the  Te  Deum  was  said  at  the  end  of 
Matins,  extra  Responsories  were  sometimes  added 
on  feast  days,  one  after  another,  as  a  token  of  joy  and 
solemnity.  Numerous  examples  occur,  for  instance, 
in  the  Compidgne  Antiphonary  (Migne,  P.  L., 
LXXVIII),  which  was  compiled  in  the  ninth  century, 
apparently  for  the  use  of  non-monastic  churches  m 
the  north  of  JYance.  The  preservation  of  the  repeti- 
tion in  the  Office  Responsory,  unlike  that  of  the  Mass, 
may  perhaps  be  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  the 
office  chant  was  always  in  the  hands  of  clerics  or 
monks,  rather  than  of  professional  smgers:  the  latter 
would  naturally  apply  themselves*  chiefly  to  the 
melodic  development  oi  the  pieces  entrustea  te  them, 
whereas  the  former  would  oe  more  litur^cally  con- 
servative and  more  careful  of  the  orgamc  structure 
of  their  pieces. 

The  words  of  the  Responsories  agreed  either  with 
the  histery  in  the  Lessons  they  followed,  or  were 
proper  te  the  feast  of  the  day.  Thus  in  the  "  Microl- 
ogus"  of  Bemold  of  Constance,  the  Responsories 
themselves  are  often  called  "Histeria".  Amalarius 
speaks  of  Responsories  de  historia  beiyg  used  after 
Dysons  from  tne  Old  Testament,  and  de  psalmia  after 
those  from  the  New.  The  practice  of  using  a  Re- 
sponsory from  the  Common  of  Saints  with  a  J^^saon 
of  the  current  Scripture  has  sometimes  an  awkward 
effect.  Thus  the  French  ritualist  Grancolas,  who 
flourished  in  the  early  eighteenth  century,  remarks 
that  the  intention  of  the  Responsory  was  to  furnish 
a  meditation  or  commentary  on  what  had  just  been 


read,  but  that  such  intention  was  frustrated  when, 
for  instance,  after  a  Lesson  describing  the  doings  of 
"Absalom,  Ahab,  or  some  other  wicked  prince  the 
answer  was  "Ecce  Sacerdos  niamus",  or  "Spona&bo 
te  mihi  in  justitia".  The  Paris  Breviary  of  1735,  in- 
troduced by  Archbishop  de  Vintimille  on  his  own 
authority,  m  which  everything  except  hymns  and 
lives  of  saints  was  rigidly  Scriptural,  has  a  series  of 
Responsories  which,  considered  as  "moral  concord- 
ances",  are  really  works  of  art.  The  Old  and  New 
Testaments  are  made  mutually  illustrative  in  a 
masterly  manner;  thus,  for  example,  on  the  feast  of 
Our  ready's  Conception  we  have: 

Q.  Descendit  sicut  pluvia  in  vellus;  ^Benedictum 

nomen  majestatis  ejus  in  Ktemum,  et  *Rep- 

lebitur  majestate  ejus  onmis  terra. 
jr.  Ecce  tabemaculum  Dei  cum  hominibus  et  habi- 

tabit  cum  eis;  et  ipse  Deus  cum  eis  erit  eorum 

Deus. 

?.  Benedictum.  y.  Gloria  Patri.  I^.  Replebitur. 
he  Graduals  and  Responsories  are  certainly  among 
the  most  ancient  and  interesting  parts  of  the  liturgy 
of  the  Church.  Musically  they  are  the  highest 
achievement  of  the  old  Christian  oompoeers,  and 
diould  always  be  referred  te  when  it  is  desired  te  give 
specimens  of  the  true  Gr^orian  Chant;  whilst  as 
hterature,  Batiffol,  speaking  of  the  respcHids  of  the 
"Proprium  de  Tempore",  which  are  older  than  the 
others,  compares  them  to  the  chorus  dialogues  of 
classical  Greek  tra^ed^. 

MABTiNE,  De  Anti^it  Bedenm  Ritibua  (Rouen,  1700); 
Grancolab,  Commtniatre  h%^oriqu$  tur  U  Briviaire  romtaim 
(Paris.  1727);  Tbomabain.  Vettu  ti  Nota  Bedena  DiteipHM 
(Venice,  1706);  Piu>B0T,  Brewier  vnd  BrevUrgAel  (Tfkbinfen, 
1808);  Batittol.  Histoiredu  Brinaire  rowtain  (Paris,  1893):  U. 
Batlat  (London,  1898) ;  BIuii bb,  (7e«dk.  iUa  Brevien;  tr.  Bibor 
(Paris,  1905) ;  further  information  may  also  be  found  in  AmalaBt 
ics.  De  Ordxne  Antipkonarii,  in  Migne,  P.  L.,  CV  (Paris,  ISM); 
ToitMASi,  preface  to  ReeponairrieUia  ti  AnHpkcnaria  Bomanm 
BedeeicB  (Rome.  1636);  and  in  the  Dieiiomutire  d'ArdtidogU 
ehrStienne  et  de  la  Liturgie,  ed.  Cabbol  (Paris),  s.  t.  ilMolatrc, 
Agehard^  Antiphonairet  AnUenne^  etc. 

G.  Cyprian  Alston. 

llABtitution  has  a  special  sense  in  moral  theolop. 
It  signifies  an  act  of  commutative  justice  by  which 
exact  reparation  as  far  as  possible  is  made  for  an  in- 

t'ury  that  has  been  done  to  another.  An  injury  may 
>e  done  to  another  by  detaining  what  is  known  to 
belong  to  him  in  strict  justice  and  by  wilfully  doing 
him  damage  in  his  property  or  reputation.  As  justice 
between  man  and  man  requires  that  what  belongs  to 
another  should  be  rendered  him,  justice  is  violated 
by  keeping  from  another  against  his  reasonable  will 
what  belongs  to  him,  and  by  wilfully  doinp  him 
damage  in  goods  or  reputation.  Commutative  justice 
therefore  requires  that  restitution  should  be  made 
whenever  that  virtue  has  been  violated.  This  obligar 
tion  is  identical  with  that  imposed  by  the  Seventh 
Commandment,  "Thou  shalt  not  steal."  For  the 
obligation  not  to  deprive  another  of  what  belongs  to 
him  is  identical  with  that  of  not  keeping  from  another 
what  belongs  to  him.  As  theft  is  a  grave  sin  of  its 
own  nature,  so  is  the  refusal  to  make  restitution  for 
injustice  that  has  been  committed. 

Kestitution  signifies  not  any  sort  of  reparation  made 
for  injury  inflicted,  but  exact  reparation  as  far  as 
possible.  Commutative  justice  requires  that  each 
one  should  have  what  belongs  to  him,,  not  something 
else;  and  so  that  which  was  taken  away  must  be  re- 
stored as  far  as  possible.  If  the  property  of  another 
has  been  destroyed  or  damaged,  the  value  of  the  dam- 
age done  must  be  restored.  Restitution  therefore 
signifies  reparation  for  an  injury,  and  that  reparation 
is  made  by  restoring  to  the  person  injured  what  he 
had  lost  and  thus  putting  him  in  his  former  position. 
Sometimes  when  an  injury  has  been  done  it  cannot 
be  repaired  in  tlus  way.  A  man  who  commits  adul- 
tery with  another's  wife  cannot  make  restitution  to 
him  in  the  strict  sense.    He  has  done  his  ndghbour 


RESTITUTION 


789 


BESUEBECTION 


an  injury  which  in  a  certain  sense  is  irreparable.  He 
should  make  what  reparation  he  can.  In  this  and 
similar  cases  it  is  a  disputed  point  among  theologians 
whether  the  adulterer  is  obliged  to  offer  a  money  com- 
pensation for  the  injury.  If  he  is  convicted  and 
sentenced  to  pay  damages  by  lawful  authority,  he 
will  certainly  be  bound  to  do  so  in  conscience.  But 
apart  from  such  a  sentence,  he  cannot  be  obliged  to 
compensate  the  injured  husband  in  money,  because 
there  is  no  oonmion  measure  between  such  injuries 
and  compensation  in  goods  of  another  order. 

Commutative  justice  looks  at  objective  equality, 
and  prescribes  that  it  be  preserved.  For  this  reason 
Aristotle  called  this  species  of  justice  corrective,  inas- 
much as  it  corrects  and  remedies  the  inequality  which 
an  act  of  injustice  produces  between  the  injurer  and 
the  party  injured.  The  one  has  less  than  he  ought 
to  have,  because  the  other  has  taken  it  away,  and 
they  wiU  not  be  <]uit8  until  restitution  is  maae.  In 
cases  where  an  injiuy  is  irreparable,  the  injurer  will 
be  bound  to  do  what  he  can  so  that  the  injured  party 
may  be  content.  This  is  called  making  satisfaction, 
to  distinguish  it  from  making  restitution  in  the  strict 
sense.  We  are  thus  bound  to  make  satisfaction  to 
God  for  the  injury  which  our  sins  do  Him;  we  cannot 
make  Him  restitution,  nor  did  He  suffer  damage  on 
account  of  our  sins.  A  violation  of  commutative 
justice  alone  imposes  the  obligation  of  making  restitu- 
tion, for  when  cnarity  or  obedience  or  any  of  the  other 
virtues  is  violated,  there  is  indeed  a  consequent  oblip;a- 
tion  of  repenting  lor  the  sin,  but  there  is  no  obligation 
of  p^orming  the  omitted  act  of  charity  or  obedience 
now.  The  obligation  was  urgent  at  the  particular 
time  and  in  the  particular  circumstances  in  which  the 
sin  was  committed.  Now  the  need  of  relief  which 
called  for  the  act  of  charity,  and  the  reason  for  the 
command  which  was  disobeved  no  longer  exist,  and 
so  there  is  no  reason  for  8uppl3dng  now  for  the  omitted 
acts. 

The  grounds  on  which  restitution  becomes  obligar 
tory  are  either  the  possession  of  something  belonging 
to  another,  or  the  causing  of  unjust  damage  to  the 
property  or  reputation  of  another.  These  are  called 
Dv  divines  the  roots  of  restitution,  for  it  is  due  on  one 
of  those  two  grounds  if  it  is  due  at  all.  The  moral 
obligations  of  one  who  finds  himself  in  possession  of 
another  person's  property,  and  who  on  that  account  is 
bound  to  make  restitution,  will  depend  on  whether 
he  had  possession  of  the  property  hitherto  in  good 
faith,  or  in  bad  faith,  or  im.  doubtful  faith.  If  hitherto 
he  thousht  in  good  faiVh  that  the  property  was  his 
own,  ana  he  now  discovers  that  it  belongs  to  someone 
else,  it  will  be  sufficient  to  restore  the  property  itself 
to  Uie  owner^  together  with  any  fruits  that  still  re- 
main. If  while  he  was  in  good  faith  he  consumed  the 
fruits,  or  even  the  property  itself  perished,  the  pos- 
sessor will  not  be  bound  to  make  restitution  for  what 
no  longer  exists.  If  the  possessor  consumed  what  he 
thought  was  his  own  property,  possession  in  good  faith 
justified  him  in  doing  so;  and  if  the  property  has  per- 
iled or  been  lost,  the  owner  must  bear  the  loss.  But 
if  possession  was  begun  in  bad  faith,  the  possessor 
must  not  only  restore  all  that  remains  of  the  property 
or  of  its  fruits,  but  he  must  also  compensate  the  owner 
for  any  loss  or  damage  that  the  latter  suffered  on  ac- 
count of  being  deprived  of  his  property.  For  the 
unjust  possessor  must  make  compensation  for  all  the 
damage  that  he  has  caused  the  owner  by  unwarrant- 
ably retaining  his  property.  If  possession  was  begun 
in  doubtful  faith,  inquiry  as  to  title  should  first  of  all 
be  made.  In  this  wav,  or  by  the  use  of  presumptions, 
the  doubt  may  often  be  settled.  If  it  cannot  thus  be 
settled  the  common  opinion  of  divines  is  that  restitu- 
tion must  be  made  to  the  doubtful  owner  of  a  portion 
of  the  property  corresponding  to  the  probability  of 
his  right,  while  the  possessor  may  keep  a  portion 
corresponding  to  the  probability  of  his  title.    A  few 


recent  theologians  think  that  the  possessor  in  such  a 
case  m^  keep  possession  of  the  property,  provided 
that  he  is  ready  to  hand  it  over  to  the  true  owner  if 
and  when  the  iatter's  title  is  proved.  If  the  doubt 
about  the  title  arises  subsequently  to  the  beginning  of 
possession,  inquiry  should  be  made,  and  if  the  doubt 
cannot  be  solved,  the  possessor  may  keep  the  property, 
for  in  doubt  tne  possessor  has  the  better  claim. 
Fruits,  as  a  general  rule,  follow  the  property,  on  the 
principle:  Accessorium  sequilur  principate. 

The  deliberate  causing  of  unjust  damage  to  the 
property,  reputation,  or  other  strict  rights  of  another 
imposes  on  nim  who  does  the  damage  the  obligation 
of  making  restitution  for  it,  as  we  have  seen.  For, 
although  m  this  case  there  is  no  possession  of  what 
belong  to  another,  still  the  wronged  person  has  not 
what  m  justice  he  should  have,  and  that  through  the 
imjust  action  of  him  who  did  the  damage.  The  latter 
therefore  has  unjustly  taken  away  what  belonged  to 
the  former,  and  he  must  restore  to  him  something 
which  is  equivalent  to  the  loss  which  he  has  suffered 
and  which  wiU  balance  it,  so  that  equality  between 
them  may  be  restored.  However,  as  a  man  is  not  in 
conscience  responsible  for  damage  which  he  caused 
inadvertentlv  and  by  accident,  the  action  which 
caused  the  damage  must  be  voluntary,  with  at  least 
^some  confused  foreknowledge  of  its  probable  effects, 
in  order  that  an  obligation  in  conscience  may  arise 
to  make  compensation  for  the  damage  caused.  Even 
though  in  a  particular  case  there  was  no  theological 
fault  of  tlus  kind,  as  it  is  called  by  divines,  yet  some- 
times if  the  amount  of  diligence  was  not  used  which 
the  law  requires  in  the  case,  the  law  imposes  the  obli- 

fation  of  making  compensation  to  the  mjured  party, 
'here  is  then  said  to  be  juridical  fault,  and  after  the 
sentence  of  a  competent  authority  has  imposed  the 
obligation  of  making  compensation,  it  will  oe  matter 
of  conscience  to  obey  the  sentence.  Besides  being 
voluntary,  the  injurious  action  must  be  against  com- 
mutative justice  in  order  that  an  obligation  to  make 
restitution  may  arise  from  it.  If  while  exercising  my 
own  right,  as  by  putting  on  the  market  a  new  patent 
machine,  I  cause  loss  to  others,  I  do  not  offend  against 
justice,  nor  am  I  bound  to  make  compensation  for  the 
loss  caused  to  others.  Neither  is  one  responsible 
for  damage  to  others  of  which  he  was  the  mere  occa- 
sion, not  the  cause.  Thus  if  the  arrival  in  a  city  of 
some  ^eat  personage  causes  a  crowd  to  gather,  and 
there  is  a  crush,  and  an  accident,  by  which  damage 
is  done  to  persons  and  to  property,  the  great  personage 
is  the  occasion  of  the  damaj^e,  not  the  cause;  and  he  is 
not  bound  to  make  restitution  for  it. 

The  foregoing  principles  are  applicable  whenever 
a  strict  right  of  another  has  been  violated.  Not  only 
when  property  rights,  or  reputation,  have  been  in* 
juredj  out  when  spiritual  rights  to  innocence,  or  true 
doctrme,  or  reli^ous  vocation,  or  any  others  of  mind 
or  body,  intrinsic  to  man's  nature  or  extrinsic,  have 
been  unjustly  violated,  restitution  as  far  as  possible 
must  be  made.  The  efficacy  of  the  confessional  in 
bringing  about  restitution  of  ill-gotten  property  and 
the  reparation  of  injuries  of  whatever  sort  is  too 
well-known  to  need  more  than  mention  here. 

Aquinas,  Summa  theoloQiea,  II-II.  Q.  Ixii  (Parma,  1852); 
Lnao,  De  Juatitia  H  Jure  (Paria,  1868);  Ballerixi-Palmieri, 
Ojnu  morale  (Prato,  1892) ;  Slatbr,  A  Manttal  of 'Moral  Theolomi 
(New  York,  1908). 

T.  Slater. 

Restitution,  Edict  of.  See  Augsburg;  Ferdi- 
nand II;  Germany. 

Resurrection  is  the  rising  agidn  from  the  dead, 
the  resumption  of  life.  The  Fourth  Lateran  Council 
teaches  that  all  men,  whether  elect  or  reprobate, 
''will  rise  again  with  their  own  bodies  which  they 
now  bear  about  with  them"  (cap.  "Firmiter"). 
In  the  language  of  the  creeds  and  professions  of  faith 
this  return  to  life  is  called  resurrection  of  the  body 


RB8UEBECTI0N  790  RBSURRECTION 

(xeaurredio  camUf  resurrectio  moriuarum,   dpdtrrcurit  ground,  showing  that  the  sacred  body  had  vanished 

ri^r  v€KpQp)  for  a  double  reason:  first,  since  .the  soul  out  of  them  without  touching  them.    When  John  no- 

camiotdie,itcannot  be  said  to  return  to  life;  secondly,  tices  this  he  beUeves  (John,  xv,  ^10).     (7)  Mary 
the  heretic^  contention  of  Hymeneus  and  Philetus'    Magdalen  returns  to  the  sepulchre,  sees  first  two 

that  the  Scriptures  denote  bv  resurrection  not  the  angels  within,  and  then  Jesus  Himself   (John,  xx, 

return  to  life  of  the  body,  but  the  rising  of  the  11-16;  Mark,  xvi,  9).     (8)  The  two  groups  of  pious 

soul  from  the  death  of  sin  to  the  life  of  grace,  must  women,  who  probably  met  on  their  return  to  the 

be  excluded.    We  shall  first  treat  of  the  Resurrection  city,  are  favoured  with  the  si^t  of  Christ  arisen, 

of  Jesus  Christ  and  then  of  the  General  Resurrection  who  commissions  them  to  tell  His  brethren  that  they 

of  the  Body.  will  see  Him  in  Galilee  (Matt.,  xxviii,  8-10;    Mark, 

I.  Resurrection   of   Jesus   Christ. — ^The   fact  xvi,  8).     (9)  The  holy  women  relate  their  experiences 

of  Christ's  resurrection,  the  theories  opposed  to  this  to  the  Apostles,  but  find  no  belief  (Mark,  xvi,  10-11; 

fact,  its  characteristics,  and  the  reasons  for  its  im-  Luke,  xxiv,  9-11).     (10)  Jesus  appears  to  the  dis- 

portance  must  be  considered  in  distinct  paragraphs,  ciples  at  Emmaus,  and  they  return  to  Jerusalem; 

A.  The  Fact  of  ChrisVs  Resurrection, — ^The  main  the  Apostles  appear  to  waver  between  doubt  and  be- 

sources  which  directly  attest  the  fact  of  Christ's  lief  (Mark,  xvi,  12-13;    Luke,  xxiv,   13-35).     (11) 

Resurrection  are  the  Four  Gospels  and  the  Epistles  of  Christ  ^appears  to  Peter,  and  therefore  Peter  and 

St.  Paul.    Easter  morning  is  so  rich  in  incident,  and  John    finnly    believe    in    the    Resurrection    (Luke, 

so  crowded  with  interested  persons,  that  its  complete  xxiv,  34;  John,  xx,  8).     (12)  After  the  return  of  ihe 

history    presents    a    rather    complicated    tableau,  disciples  from  Emmaus,  Jesus  appears  to  all  the 

It  is  not  surprising,  therefore,  that  the  partial  ac-  Apostles  excepting  Thomas  (Mark,  xvi,  14 ;«    Luke, 

counts  contained  in  each  of  the  Four  Gospels  appear  xxiv,  36-43;    John,  xx,   19-25).     The  harmony  of 

at  first  si^t  hard  to  harmonize.    But  whatever  the  other  apparitions  of  Christ  after  His  Resur- 

exegetic  view  as  to  the  visit  to  the  sepulchre  by  the  rection  presents  no  special  difficulties, 
pious  women  and  the  appearance    of    the    angels        Briefly,  therefore,  the  fact  of  Christ's  Resurrection 

we  may  d^end,  we  cannot  deny  the  Evangelists'  is  attested  by  more  than  500  evewitnesses^  whose 

agreement  as  to  the  fact  that  the  risen  Christ  appeared  experience,  simplicity,  and  uprightness  of  life  ren- 

to  one  or  more  persons.    According  to  St.  Matthew,  dered  them  incapable  of  inventing  such  a  fable,  who 

He  appeared  to  the  holy  women,  and  asain  on  a  lived  at  a  time  when  any  attempt  to  decdve  could 

mountain  in  GaUlee;  according  to  St.  Mark,  He  was  have  been  easily  discovered,  who  had  nothing  in 

seen  by  Maiv  Magdalen,  by  the  two  disciples  at  this  life  to  gain,  but  everything  to  lose  by  their 

f  mmaus,  ana  by  the  Eleven  before  His  Ascension  testimony,  ^ose  moral  courage  exhibited  in  their 

into  heaven;    according  to   St.    Luke,   He   walked  apostolic  Ufe  can  be  explained  only  by  their  intimate 

with  the  disciples  to  Emmaus,  appeared  to  Peter  conviction  of  the  objective  truth  of  their  message, 

and  to  the  assembled  disciples  in  Jerusalem;    ac-  Again  the  fact  of  Christ's  Resurrection  is  attested  by 

cording  to  St.  John,  Jesus  appeared  to  Mary  Magda-  the  eloc^uent  silence  of  the  Synagogue  which  had  done 

len,  to  the  ten  Apostles  on  Easter  Sunday,  to  the  everything  to  prevent  deception,  which  could  have 

Eleven  a  week  later,  and  to  the  seven  disciples  at  eaRily  discovered  deception,  if  there  had  been  any, 

the  Sea  of  Tiberias.    St.   Paul   (I  Cor.,   xv,   3-8)  which  opposed  only  sleeping  witnesses  to  the  testi- 

enumerates  another  series  of  apparitions  of  Jesus  mony  of  the  Apostles,  which  did  not  punish  the 

c^ter  His  Resurrection;  he  was  seen  by  Cephas,  by  alleged  carelessness  of  the  official  guard,  and  which 

the  Eleven,  by  more  than  500  brethren,  many  of  could  not  answer  the  testimony  of  the  Apostles  exc^t 

whom  were  still  ahve  at  the  time  of  the  Apostle's  by  threatening  them  'Hhat  they  speak  no  more  m 

writing,  by  James,  by  all  the  Apostles,  and  lastly  this  name  to  any  man"   (Acts,  iv,   17).    Finally, 

by  Paul  himself.  the  thousands  and  millions,  both  Jews  and  Gentiles, 

Here  is  an  outline  of  a  possible  harmony  of  the  who  believed  the  testimony  of  the  Apostles  in  spite 

Evangelists'  account  concerning  the  principal  events  of  all  the  disadvantages  following  from  such  a  belief, 

of  Easter  Sunday:    (1)  The  holy  women  carrying  in  short  the  origin  of  the  Church,  requires  for  its  ex- 

the  spices  previously  prepared  start  out  for  the  scpul-  planation  the  reality  of  Christ's  Resurrection,  for  the 
chre  before  dawn,  and  reach  it  after  sunrise;  they  are  ,  rise  of  the  Church  without  the  Resurrection  would 

anxious  about  the  heavy  stone,  but  know  nothing  be  a  greater  miracle  than  the  Resurrection  itself, 
of  the  officisd  guard  of  the  sepulchre  (Matt.,  xxviii,        B.  Opposing  Theories. — By  what  means  can  the 

1-3;   Mark,  xvi,  1-3;   Luke,  xxiv,  1;   John,  xx,  1).  evidence  for  Christ's  Resurrection  be  overthrown? 

(2)  The  angel  frightened  the  guards  by  his  brightness.  Three  theories  of  explanation  have  been  advanced, 

put  them  to  flight,  rolled  away  the  stone,  and  seated  though  the  first  two  have  hardly  any  adherents  in 

nimself    (not   upon,    ^*  odroO,  but)  above    (Irdvta  our  day.     (1)  There  is  the  theory  of  those  who  assert 

a^oO)    the   stone    (Matt.,    xxviii,  2-4).     (3)  Mary  that  Christ  did  not  really  die  upon  the  cross,  that  His 

Magdalen,  Mary  the  Mother  of  James,  and  Salome  supposed  death  was  omy  a  temporary  swoon,  and 

approach  the  sepulchre,  and  see  the  stone  rolled  that  His  Resurrection  was  simply  a  return  to  con- 

l-__l_         1 XM -        H/t^ 1^1 : i:-.A_l.-  ; rni-I-      ^J -i. f     U—    •D-...1..-    /■"C- 


women  enter  the  sepulchre,  find  an  angel  seated  in  not  agree  with  the  data  furnished  by  tlie  Gospels, 
the  vestibule,  who  snows  them  the  empty  sepulchre,  The  scourging  and  the  crown  of  thorns,  the  canying 
announces  the  Resurrection,  and  commissions  them  of  the  cross  and  the  crucifixion,  the  three  hours  on 
to  tell  the  disciples  and  Peter  that  they  shall  see  Jesus  the  cross  and  the  piercing  of  the  Sufferer's  side  can- 
in  Galilee  (Matt.,  xxviii,  5-7;  Mark,  xvi,  5-7).  not  have  brought  on  a  mere  swoon.  His  real  death 
(5)  A  second  group  of  holy  women,  consisting  of  is  attested  by  the  centurion  and  the  soldiers,  by  the 
Joanna  and  her  companions,  arrive  at  the  sepulchre,  friends  of  Jesus  and  by  his  bitterest  enemies.  His 
where  they  have  probably  agreed  to  meet  the  first  stay  in  a  sealed  sepulchre  for  thirty-eix  hours,  in  an 
group,  enter  the  empty  interior^  and  are  admonished  atmosphere  poisoned  by  the  exhalations  of  a  hundred 
by  two  angels  that  Jesus  has  nsen  according  to  His  pounds  of  spices,  would  have  of  itself  sufficed  to  cause 
prediction  (Luke,  xxiv,  10).  (6)  Not  lone  after,  death.  Moreover,  if  Jesus  had  merely  returned 
Peter  and  John,  who  were  notified  bv  Mary  Magdar  from  a  swoon,  the  feelings  of  Easter  morning  would 
len,  arrive  at  the  sepulchre  and  find  the  linen  cloth  have  been  those  of  sympathy  rather  than  those  of 
in,such  a  position  as  to  exclude  the  supposition  that  joy  and  triumph,  the  Apostles  would  have  been  roused 
the  body  was  stolen;  for  they  lay  simply  flat  on  the  to  the  duties  of  a  sick  chamber  rather  than  to  apo»- 


RESURRECTION                         791  RESURRECTION 

tolic  work,  the  life  of  the  powerful  wonderworker  where  most  of  the  manifestations  were  made;  vision- 
would  have  ended  in  ignoble  solitude  and  inglorious  aiy  appearances  would  have  been  expected  in  Galilee, 
obscurity^  .and  His  vaunted  sinlessness  would  have  while  most  apparitions  of  Jesus  occurred  in  Judea. 
changed  into  His  silent  approval  of  a  tie  as  the  foun-  (g)  It  is  inconsistent  with  the  fact  that  the  visions 
dation  stone  of  His  Church.  No  wonder  that  later  came  to  a  sudden  end  on  the  day  of  the  Ascension, 
critics  of  the  Resurrection,  like  Strauss,  have  heaped  Keim  admits  that,  enthusiasm,  nervousness,  and 
contempt  on  the  old  theory  of  a  swoon.  mental  excitement  on  the  part  of  the  disciples  do  not 

(2)  Imposition  Theory. — ^The  disciples,  it  is  said,  supply  a  rational  explanation  of  the  facts  as  related 
stole  the  body  of  Jesus  from  the  flprave^  and  then  in  tne  Gospels.  According  to  him,  the  visions  were 
proclaimed  to  men  that  their  Lord  had  risen.  This  directly  granted  by  God  and  the  glorified  Christ; 
theory  was  anticipated  by  the  Jews  who  "gave  a  they  may  even  include  a  "corporeal  appearance''  for 
sreat  sum  of  money  to  the  soldiers,  saying:  Say  you,  those  who  fear  that  without  this  thev  would  lose  all. 
HLb  disciples  came  by  night,  and  stole  him  away  But  Keim's  theory  satisfies  neither  the  Church,  since 
when  we  were  asleep"  (Matt.,  xxviii,  12  sq.).  The  it  abandons  all  the  proofs  of  a  bodily  resurrection  of 
same  was  urged  by  Celsus  (Orig.,  "Contra  Gels.",  II,  Jesus,  nor  the  enemies  of  the  Church,  since  it  admits 
56)  with  some  difference  of  detail.  But  to  assume  many  of  the  Church's  dogmas;  nor  again  is  it  con- 
that  the  Apostles  with  a  burden  of  this  kind  upon  sistent  with  itself,  since  it  grants  God's  special  inter- 
their  consciences  could  have  preached  a  kingdom  of  vention  in  proof  of  the  Church's  faith,  though  it 
truth  and  righteousness  as  the  one  great  effort  of  starts  with  the  denial  of  the  bodily  Resurrection  of 
their  fives,  and  that  for  the  sake  of  that  kingdom  J^us,  which  is  one  of  the  principal  objects  of  that 
they  could  have  suffered  even  unto  death,  is  to  aa-  faith. 

sume  one  of  those  moral  impossibiUties  which  may  (4)  Modernist  View. — ^The  Holy  Office  describes 

pass  for  a  moment  in  the  heat  of  controversy,  but'  and  condemns,  in  the  thirty-sixth  and  thirty-seventh 

must  be  dismissed  without  delay  in  the  hour  of  cool  propositions  ot  the  Decree  "Lamentabifi",  the  views 

reflection.  advocated  by  a  fourth  class  of  opponents  of  the 

(3)  Vision  Theory. — ^This  theory  as  generally  un-  Resurrection.  The  former  of  these  propositions  reads: 
derstood  by  its  advocates  does  not  allow  visions  caused  "The  Resurrection  of  our  Saviour  is  not  properly  a 
by  a  Divine  intervention,  but  only  such  as  are  the  fact  of  the  historical  order,  but  a  fact  of  the  purely 
product  of  human  agencies.  For  if  a  Divine  inter-  supernatural  order  neither  proved  nor  provable,  which 
vention  be  admitted,  we  may  as  well  befieve,  as  far  Christian  consciousness  has  Uttle  by  little  inferred 
as  principles  are  concerned,  that  God  raised  Jesus  from  other  facts."  This  statement  agrees  with,  and  is 
from  the  dead.  But  where  in  the  present  instance  are  further  explained  by  the  words  of  Loisy  ("Autour  d'un 
the  human  agencies  which  might  cause  these  visions?  petit  livre",  p.  viii,  120-121,  169;  L'Evan^e  et 
The  idea  of  a  resurrection  from  the  grave  was  familiar  I'Eglise",  pp.  74-78;  120-121;  171).  According  to 
to  the  disciples  from  their  Jewish  faith;  thev  had  also  Loisy,  firstly,  the  entrance  into  life  immortal  of  one 
vague  intimations  in  the  prophecies  of  the  Old  Testa-  risen  from  tne  dead  is  not  subject  to  observation; 
ment;  finally,  Jesus  Himself  had  always  associated  it  is  a  supernatural,  hyper-historical  fact,  not  capable 
His  Resurrection  with  the  predictions  of  His  death,  of  histoncal  proof.  Tne  proofs  alleged  for  the  Resur- 
On  the  other  hand,  the  disciples'  state  of  mind  was  one  rection  of  Jesus  Christ  are  inadequate;  the  empty 
of  great  excitement;  they  treasured  the  memory  of  sepulchre  is  only  an  indirect  argument,  while  the 
Chnst  with  a  fondness  which  made  it  almost  impossible  apparitions  of  the  risen  Christ  are  open  to  suspicion 
for  them  to  believe  that  He  was  gone.  In  short,  their  on  a  priori  grounds,  being  sensible  impressions  of  a 
whole  mental  condition  was  such  as  needed  only  the  supernatural  reality;  and  they  are  doubtful  evidence 
application  of  a  spark  to  kindle  the  flame.  The  spark  from  a  critical  point  of  view,  on  account  of  the  dis- 
-was  applied  bv  Mary  Magdalen,  and  the  flame  at  once  crepancies  in  the  various  Scriptural  narratives,  and 
spread  with  the  rapidity  and  force  of  a  conflagration,  the  mixed  character  of  the  detail  connected  with  the 
What  she  believed  that  she  had  seen,  others  imm&-  apparitions.  Secondly,  if  one  prescinds  from  the  faith 
diately  believed  that  they  must  see.  Their  expectiv-  of  the  Apostles,  the  testimony  of  the  New  Testament 
tions  were  fulfilled,  and  the  conviction  seized  the  mem-  does  not  fumisn  a  certain  argument  for  the  fact  of  the 
bers  of  the  early  Church  that  the  Lord  had  really  Resurrection.  This  faith  of  the  Apostles  is  concerned 
risen  from  the  dead.  not  so  much  with  the  Resurrection  of  Jesus  Christ 

Such  IB  the  vision  theory  commonly  defended  by  as  with  His  immortal  life;  being  based  on  the  appari- 
recent  critics  of  the  Resurrection.  But  however  in-  tions,  which  are  unsatisfactory  evidence  from  an  his- 
geniously  it  may  be  devised,  it  is  quite  impossible  from  torical  point  of  view^  its  force  is  appreciated  only  by 
an  historical  point  of  view,  (a)  It  is  mcompatible  faith  itself;  being  a  development  of  the  idea  of  an 
with  the  state  of  mind  of  the  Apostles;  the  theory  immortal  Messias,  it  is  an  evolution  of  Christian  con- 
presupposes  faith  and  expectancy  on  the  part  of  the  sciousness,  though  it  is  at  the  same  time  a  corrective 
Apostles,  while  in  point  of  fact  the  disciples'  faith  of  the  scandal  of  the  Cross.  The  Holy  Office  rejects 
and  expectancy  foUowed  their  vision  of  the  risen  this  view  of  the  Resurrection  when  it  condemns  the 
Christ,  (b)  It  is  inconsistent  with  the  nature  of  thirty-seventh  proposition  in  the  Decree  "Lamen- 
Christ's  manifestations;  they  ought  to  have  been  con-  tabih":  "The  faith  in  the  Resurrection  of  Christ 
nected  with  heavenly  glory,  or  they  should  have  con-  pointed  at  the  beginning  not  so  much  to  the  fact  of  the 
tinned  the  former  intimate  relations  of  Jesus  with  His  Resurrection,  as  to  the  immortal  life  of  Christ  with 
disciples,  while  actually  and  consistently  they  pre-  God." 

sented  auite  a  new  phase  that  could  not  have  been  Besides  the  authoritative  rejection  of  the  foregoing 
expected,  (c)  It  does  not  agree  with  the  conditions  view,  we- may  submit  the  following  three  considera- 
of  the  early  Christian  community:  after  the  first  tions  which  render  it  untenable:  First,  the  contention 
excitement  of  Easter  Sunday,  the  disciples  as  a  body  that  the  Resurrection  of  Christ  cannot  be  proved 
are  noted  for  their  cool  deliberation  rather  than  the  historically  is  not  in  accord  with  science.  Science  does 
exalted  enthusiasm  of  a  community  of  visionaries,  not  know  enough  about  the  limitations  and  the  prop- 
(d)  It  is  incompatible  with  the  length  of  time  during  erties  of  a  body  raised  from  the  dead  to  immortal 
which  the  apparitions  lasted;  visions  such  as  the  life  to  warrant  the  assertion  that  such  a  body  cannot 
critics  suppose  have  never  been  known  to  last  long,  be  perceived  by  the  senses;  again,  in  the  case  of 
while  some  of  Christ's  manifestations  lasted  a  con-  Christ,  the  empty  sepulchre  with  all  its  concrete 
siderable  period,  (e)  It  is  not  consistent  with  the  fact  circumstances  cannot  be  explained  except  by  a  mirac- 
that  the  manifestations  were  made  to  numbers  at  the  ulous  Divine  intervention  as  supernatural  in  its  char- 
same  instant,    (f)  It  does  not  agree  with  the  place  acter  as  the  Resurrection  of  Jesus.    Secondly,  history 


BKSURRECTION  792  BKSURRECTION 

does  not  allow  us  to  regard  the  belief  in  the  Resurrec-  the  bondage  of  matter;    thirdly,  the  sects  of  the 
tion  as  the  result  of  a  gradual  evolution  in  Christian  Gnostics  and  Manichseans  who  looked  upon  all  matter 
consciousness.    The  apparitions  were  not  a  mere  pro-  as  evil;   fourthly,  the  followers  of  these  latter  sects, 
jection  of  the  disciples^^  Messianic  hope  and  expecta-.  the  Pnscillianists,  the  Cathari,  and  the  Albigenses; 
tion;  their  Messianic  hope  and  expectations  had  to  be  fifthly,  the  Rationalists,  Materialists,  and  Pantheists 
revived  by  the  apparitions.    Agam,  the  Apostles  did  of  later  times.    Against  all  these  we  shall  first  estab- 
not  b^in  with  preaching  the  immortal  life  of  Christ  lish  the  dogma  of  the  resurrection,  and  secondly  con- 
with  uod,  but  they  preached  Christ's  Resurrection  sider  the  characteristics  of  the  risen  body, 
from  the  very  beginning,  they  insisted  on  it  as  a        A.  Dogma  of  the  Resurreclion. — The  creeds  and  pro- 
fundamental  fact,  and  the^  described  even  some  of  the  f essions  of  faith  and  conciliar  definitions  do  not  leave  it 
details  connected  with  this  fact:  Acts^  ii,  24,  31;  iii,  doubtful  that  the  resurrection  of  the  body  is  a  dogma 
15,  26;   iv,  10;   v,  30;   x,  39-40;   xiii,  30,  37;   xvii,  or  an  article  of  faith.    We  may  appeal,  for  instance, 
31-32;  Rom.,  i,  4;  iv,  25;  vi,  4,  9;  viii,  11,  34;  x,  7:  to  the  Apostles'  Creed,  the  so-called   Nioene  and 
xiv,  9;  I  Cor.,  xv,  4, 13  sqq.:  etc.   Thirdly,  the  denial  Athanasian  Creeds,  the  Creed  of  the  Eleventh  Council 
of  the  historical  certaintv  of  Christ's  Resurrection  in-  of  Toledo,  the  Creed  of  Leo  DC,  subscribed  by  Bishop 
volves  several  historical  blunders:    it  questions  the  Peter  ana  still  in  use  at  the  consecration  of  bishops, 
objective  reality  of  the  apparitions  without  any  his-  the  profession  of  faith  subscribed  by  Michael  Palae- 
torical  grounds  for  such  a  doubt;  it  denies  the  fact  of  ologus  in  the  Second  Council  of  Lyons,  the  Creed  of 
the  empty  sepulchre  in  spite  of  solid  historical  evi-  Pius  IV,  and  the  Decree  of  the  Fourth  Lateran  Coun- 
dence  to  the  contrary;  it  questions  even  the  fact  of  cil    (c.    "Firmiter")    against   the   Albigenses.   This 
Christ's  burial  in  Joseph's  sepulchre,  though  this  fact  article  of  faith  is  based  on  the  belief  of  the  Old  Test»- 
is  based  on  the  clear  and  simply  unimpeachable  testi-  ment,  on  the  teaching  of  the  New  Testament,  and  on 
mony  of  histoiy   (cf.  Lepin,   ''Christoloce.     Com-  Christian  tradition. 

mentaire   des    Propositions    XXVII-XXXVIII    du        (I)  Old  Testament.— The  words  of  Martha  and  the 

D^ret  du  Saint  Office  'Lamentabili ' ",  Paris,  1908).  history  of  the  Machabees  show  the  Jewish  belief 

D.  Character  of  Chrises  Resurrection. — ^The  Resur-  towards  the  end  of  the  Jewish  economy.  "I  know  ", 
rection  of  Christ  has  much  in  common  with  the  general  says  Martha,  ''  that  He  ^all  rise  again,  in  the  resor- 
resurrection;  even  the  transformation  of  EUs  body  and  rection  at  the  last  day"  (John,  xi,  2S).  And  the  third 
of  His  bodilv  life  is  of  the  same  kind  as  that  which  of  the  Machabee  martyrs  put  forth  his  tongue  and 
awaits  the  blessed  in  their  resurrection.  But  the  fol-  stretched  out  his  hands,  saying:  "These  I  have  from 
lowing  peculiarities  must  be  noted:  (1)  Christ's  Resur-  heaven,  but  for  the  laws  of  Gmi  I  now  despise  them: 
rection  is  necessarily  a  glorious  one;  it  implies  not  because  I  hope  to  receive  them  again  from  him" 
merely  the  reunion  of  body  and  soul,  but  also  the  CLl  Mach..  xu,  11;  cf.  ix,  14).  The  Book  of  Danid 
glorification  of  the  body.  (2)  Christ's  body  was  to  (xii,  2;  cf.  12)  inculcates  the  same  belief:  ''Many 
know  no  corruption,  but  rose  again  soon  after  death,  of  those  that  sleep  in  the  dust  of  the  earth,  shall 
when  sufficient  time  had  elapsed  to  leave  no  doubt  as  awake:  some  unto  life  everlasting,  and  others  unto 
to  the  reality  of  His  death.  (3)  Christ  was  the  first  to  reproach,  to  see  it  ulways. "  The  word  many 
rise  unto  life  immortal;  those  raised  before  Him  died  must  be  understood  in  the  light  of  it«  meaning  in 
again  (Col.,  i,  18;  I  Cor.,  xv,  20).  (4)  As  the  Divine  other  passages,  e.  g.  lek.  liii,  11-12;  Matt.,  xxvi, 
power  which  raised  Christ  from  the  grave  was  His  28;  Rom.,  v,  18-19.  Though  Ezechiel's  vision  of 
own  power,  He  rose  from  the  dead  by  His  own  power  the  resurrection  of  the  dry  bones  refers  directly  to 
(John,  ii,  19;  x,  17-18).  (5)  Since  the  Resurrection  the  restoration  of  Israel,  such  a  figure  would  be  hudly 
had  been  promised  as  the  main  proof  of  Christ's  intelligible  except  by  readers  familiar  with  the  belief 
Divine  mission,  it  has  a  greater  do^^natic  importance  in  a  literal  resurrection  (Ez.,  xxxvii).  The  Prophet 
than  any  other  fact.  ''If  Christ  be  not  risen  again,  Isaias  foretells  that  the  Lord  of  hosts  "shall  cast 
then  is  our  preaching  vain,  and  your  faith  is  also  down  death  headlong  for  ever"  (xxv,  8),  and  a  little 
vain"  (I  Cor.,  xv,  14).  later  he  adds:   "Thy  dead  men  shall  live,  my  slain 

E.  Importance  of  the  Resurrection. — Besides  being  shall  rise  again  .  .  .  the  earth  shall  disclose  her 
the  fundamental  ar^ment  for  our  Christian  belief,  blood,  and  shall  cover  her  slain  no  more"  (xxvi, 
the  Resurrection  is  important  for  the  following  rear  19-21).  Finally,  Job,  bereft  of  all  human  comfort 
sons:  (1)  It  shows  the  justice  of  Cod  who  exalted  and  reduced  to  the  greatest  desolation,  is  strengthened 
Christ  to  a  life  of  glory^  as  Christ  had  humbled  Him-  by  the  thought  of  the  resurrection  of  his  body: 
self  unto  death  (Phil.,  ii,  8-9).  (2)  The  Resurrection  ''I  know  that  my  Redeemer  liveth,  and  in  the  last 
completed  the  mysteiy  of  our  salvation  and  redemp-  day  I  shall  rise  out  of  the  earth.  And  I  shall  be 
tion;  by  His  death  Christ  freed  us  from  sin,  and  clothed  again  with  my  skin,  and  in  my  flesh  I  shall 
by  His  Resurrection  He  restored  to  us  the  most  im-  see  God.  Whom  I  myself  shall  see.  and  my  eyes 
portant  privileges  lost  by  sin  (Rom^iv^  25).  (3)  By  shall  behold,  and  not  another;  this  nope  is  laid  up 
His  Resurrection  we  acknowledge  (Jhnst  as  the  im-  in  my  bosom"  (Job,  xix,  25-27).  The  literal  trans- 
mortal  God,  the  efficient  and  exemplaryr  cause  of  our  lation  of  the  Hebrew  text  differs  somewhat  from  the 
own  resurrection  (I  Cor.,  XV,  21;  Phil.,  iii,  20-21),  and  foregoing  quotation,  but  the  hope  of  resurrection 
as  the  model  and  the  support  of  our  new  life  of  grace  remains. 

(Rom.,  vi,  4-6;  9-11).  (2)  New    Testament. — ^The    resurrection    of    the 

II.  General   Resurrecjtion. — "No   doctrine   of  dead  was  expressly  taught  by  Christ  (John,  v,  28- 

the  Clu'istian  Faith",  says  St.  Augustine,  "isso  ve-  29;  vi,  39-40;  xi,  25;   Luke,  xiv,  14)  and  defended 

hemently  and  so  obstinately  opposed  as  tne  doctrine  against  the  unbelief  of  the  Sadducees,  whom  He 

of  the  resurrection  of  the  flesh''  (In  Ps.  Ixxxviii,  sermo  charged  with  ignorance  of  the  power  of  God  and  of 

ii,  n.  5).    This  opposition  had  begun  long  before  the  the  Scriptures  (Matt.,  xxii,  29;   Luke,  xx,  37).    St. 

days  of  St.  Augustine:  "And  certain  phuosophers  of  Paul  places  the  general  resurrection  on  the  same  level 

theEpicureansandoftlie  Stoics",  the  inspired  writer  of   certaintv   with   that   of   Christ's   Resurrection: 

tells  us  (Acts,  xvii,  18.  32),  "disputed  with  him  [Paul]  "If  Christ  be  preached,  that  he  rose  again  from  the 

.  .  .  and  when  they  had  heard  of  the  resurrection  of  dead,  how  do  some  among  you  say  that  there  is  no 

the  dead,  some  indeed  mocked,  but  others  said:  We  resurrection  of  the  dead?    fiut  if  there  be  no  resur- 

will  hear  thee  again  concerning  this  matter."    Among  rection  of  the  dead,  then  Christ  is  not  risen  again, 

the  opponents  of  the  Resurrection  we  naturally  find  And  if  Christ  be  not  risen  again,  then  is  our  preaching 

first  all  those  who  denied  the  immortality  of  the  soul;  vain,  and  your  faith  is  also  vain''  (I  Cor.,  xv,  12  soq.). 

secondly,  all  those  who,  hke  Plato,  regarded  the  body  The  Apostle  preached  the  resurrection  of  the  dead 

as  the  prison  of  the  soul  and  death  as  an  escape  from  as  one  of  the  fundamental  doctrines  of  Christianity, 


RESURRECTION 


793 


RESURRECTION 


t  Athens,  for  instance  (Acts,  xvii,  18,  31,  32),  at 
/emsalem  (xxiii,  6),  before  Felix  (xxiv,  15),  before 
Agrippa  (xxvi,  8).  He  insists  on  the  same  doctrine 
in  his  Epistles  (Rom.,  viii,  11;  I  Cor.,  vi,  14;  xv, 
12  sqq.;  II  Cor.,  iv,  14;  v,  1  sqq.;  Phil.,  iii.  21; 
I  Thess.,  iv,  12-16;  II  Tim.,  u,  11;  Hebr.,  vi,  2), 
and  in  this  he  agrees  with  the  Apocalypse  (xx,  12 
sqq.). 

(3)  Tradition. — It  is-  not  surprising  that  the 
Tradition  of  the  early  Church  agrees  with  the  clear 
teaching  of  both  the  Old  and  New  Testaments.  We 
have  alreadv  referred  to  a  number  of  creeds  and  pro- 
fessions of  faith  which  may  be  considered  as  part  of 
the  Church's  official  expression  of  her  faith.  Here 
we  have  only  to  point  out  a  number  of  patristic 
passages,  in  which  the  Fathers  teach  the  doctrine 
of  the  general  resurrection  in  more  or  less  explicit 
terms.  St.  Clement  of  Rome^  I  Cor.,  xxv;  St.  Justin 
Martyr.  "De  resurrect.",  vu  sqq^  Idem,  "Dial.  c. 
Try^.' ,  Ixxx;  Athenagoras,  "De  resur.  cam.", 
iii;  Tatian,  "Adv.  Gr»c.  ,  vi;  St.  Irenseus,  "Contra 
h«r.",I,x;  V,  vi,  2;  Tertullian,  "Contra  Marcion.", 
V,  ix;  Idem,  "De  praBScript."^  xiii;  Idem,  "De 
resurrect,  cam.",  I,  xii,  xv,  briii;  Minucius  Felix, 
"Octav.",  xxxiv;  Origen,  tom.  XVII,  in  Matt., 
xxix;  Idem,  "I>e  princip.",  pTtef..  v;  Idem,  "In 
Lev.",  V,  10;  Hippolytus,  "Adv.  GrsBC."  in  P.  G., 
X,  799;  St.  Cyril  of  Jerusalem,  "Cat.",  XVIIL  xv; 
St.  Ephraem.  "De  resurrect,  mort.";  St.  Basil, 
"Ep.  cclxxi",  3;  St.  Epiphanius,  "In  ancor.", 
Ixxxiii  sq.j  xcix:  St.  Ambrose,  "De  excessu  frat.  sui 


Aufinus,  "In  symbol.",  xliv  eq.;  St.  Chrysostom 
(Ps.  Chrysostom),  "Pragm.  in  libr.  Job"  in  P.  G., 
LXIV,  619;  St.  Peter  Chrysologus,  serm.  103^  118; 
"Apost.  Constit.",  VII,  jdi;  St.  Augustia«  "En- 
chirid.",  84;  Idem,  "De  civit.  Dei"  J&,  xx;  Theo- 
doret,  "De  provident.",  or.  ix;   "Hist,  eccl.",  I.  iii. 

The  general  resurrection  can  hardly  be  proved  from 
reason,  though  we  may  show  its  congmity.  (a)  As 
the  soul  has  a  natural  propensitv  to  the  body,  its 
perpetual  separation  from  the  body  would  seem 
unnatural,  (b)  As  the  body  is  the  partner  of  the 
soul's  crimes,  and  the  companion  of  her  virtues,  the 
justice  of  God  seems  to  demand  that  the  body  be 
the  sharer  in  the  soul's  punishment  and  reward, 
(c)  As  the  soul  separated  from  the  body  is  naturally 
imperfect,  the  consummation  of  its  happiness,  re- 
plete with  evexy  good^seems  to  demand  the  resur- 
rection of  the  body.  The  first  of  these  reasons  ap- 
pears to  be  urged  oy  Christ  Himself  in  Matt.,  xxii, 
23;  the  second  reminds  one  of  the  words  of  St.  Paul, 
I  Cor.,  XV,  19,  and  II  Thess.,  i  4.  Besides  urging 
the  foregoing  arguments,  the  Fathers  appeal  also  to 
certain  analogies  found  in  revelation  and  in  nature 
itself,  e.  g.  Jonas  in  the  whale's  belly,  the  three  chil- 
dren in  the  fiery  furnace,  Daniel  in  the  lions'  den, 
the  carrying  away  of  Henoch  and  Elias,  the  raising 
of  the  dead,  the  blossoming  of  Aaron's  rod,  the  pres- 
ervation of  the  garments  of  the  Israelites  in  the 
desert,  the  grain  of  seed  dying  and  springing  up  again, 
the  eg^,  the  season  of  the  year,  the  succession  of  day 
and  night.  Many  pictures  of  early  Christian  art 
express  these  analogies  (Kraus,  "Encycl.  Archiol.", 
s.  V.  Auferstehung;  Northcote  and  Brownlow, 
"Roma  Sotterranea").  But  in  spite  of  the  fore- 
going congmities,  theologians  more  generally  in- 
cline to  the  opinion  that  in  the  state  of  pure  nature 
there  would  have  been  no  resurrection  of  the  body. 

B.  Characteristica  of  the  Risen  Body, — All  shall  rise 
from  the  dead  in  their  own,  in  their  entire,  and  in 
immortal  bodies;  but  the  good  shall  rise  to  the  res- 
urrection of  life,  the  wicked  to  the  resurrection  of 
jud^ent.  It  would  destroy  the  very  idea  of  resur- 
Teijtion,  if  the  dead  were  to  rise  in  bodies  not  their 


own.  Again,  the  resurrection,  like  the  creation,  is 
to  be  numbered  amongst  the  principal  works  of  God; 
hence,  as  at  the  creation  all  things  came  perfect 
from  the  hand  of  God,  so  at  the  resurrection  all 
thin^  must  be  perfectly  restored  by  the  same 
ommpotent  hand.  But  there  is  a  difference  between 
the  earthly  and  the  risen  body;  for  the  risen  bodies 
of  both  saints  and  sinners  shall  be  invested  with 
immortalitv.  This  admirable  restoration  of  nature 
is  the  result  of  the  |;lorious  triumph  of  Christ  over 
death  as  described  m  several  texts  of  Sacred  Scrip- 
ture: Is.,  xxv,  8;  Osee,  xiii,  14;  I  Cor.,  xv,  26; 
Apoo.,  iij  4.  But  while  the  just  shall  enjoy  an  endless 
felicity  m  the  entirety  of  their  restored  members, 
the  wicked  "shall  seek  death,  and  shall  not  find  it, 
shall  desire  to  die,  and  death  shall  fly  from  them" 
(Apoc,  ix,  6). 

These  three  characteristics,  identity,  entirety^  and 
immortality,  will  be  common  to  the  risen  bodies  of 
the  iust  and  the  wicked.  But  the  bodies  of  the  saints 
shall  be  distinguished  by  four  transcendent  endow- 
ments, often  called  qualities.  The  first  is  "impassi- 
bility", which  shall  place  them  beyond  the  reach  of 
pain  and  inconvenience.  "It  is  sown",  says  the 
.^xwtle,  "in  cormption,  it  shall  rise  in  incomiption" 
(I  Cor..  XV,  42).  The  Schoolmen  call  this  quality 
impassioility,  not  incomiption,  so  as  to  mark  it  as 
a  peculiarity  of  the  glorified  body;  the  bodies  of  the 
damned  will  be  incormptible  indeed,  but  not  impas- 
sible; they  shall  be  subject  to  heat  and  cold,  and  all 
manner  of  pain.  The  next  quality  is  "bri^tness". 
or  "glory",  by  which  the  bodies  of  the  saints  shall 
shine  like  tne  sun.  "It  is  sown  in  dishonour,"  says 
the  Apostle,  "it  shall  rise  in  glory"  (I  Cor.,  xv,  ^; 
cf.  Matt.,  xiii,  43;  xvii.  2;  Phil.,  iu,  21).  All  the 
bodies  of  the  saints  shall  be  equally  impassible,  but 
they  shall  be  endowed  with  dif^rent  degrees  of 
glory.  According  to  St.  Paul:  "One  is  the  glory  of 
the  sun,  another  the  glory  of  the  moon,  another  the 
glory  of  the  stars.  For  star  differeth  from  star  in 
glory"  (I  Cor.,  xv,  41-42).  The  third  quaUty  is  that 
of  "agility",  by  which  the  body  shall  be  freed  from 
its  slowness  of  motion,  and  endowed  with  the  capa- 
bility of  moving  with  the  utmost  facility  and  quick- 
ness wherever  the  soul  pleases.  The  Apostle  says: 
"It  is  sown  in  weakness,  it  shall  rise  in  power"  (I 
Cor.,  XV,  43).  The  fourth  quality  is  "subtility", 
by  which  the  body  becomes  subject  to  the  absonite 
dominion  of  the  soul.  This  is  inferred  from  the  words 
of  the  Apostle:  "It  is  sown  a  natural  body,  it  shall 
rise  a  spiritual  body"  (I  Cor.,  xv,  44).    iTie  body 

Participates  in  the  soul's  more  perfect  and  spiritual 
fe  to  such  an  extent  that  it  be«omes  itsel/  like  a 
spirit.  We  see  this  quality  exemplified  in  the  fact 
that  Christ  passed  through  material  objects. 

Not  to  mention  the  pertinent  chapters  in  our  current  apologetic 
and  theoloncal  treatises,  or  the  commentarira  on  the  principal 
paasases  of  Sacred  Scripture  cited  in  the  course  of  the  article, 
we  shall  onlv  indicate  a  number  of  monographs  on  the  questions 
implied  in  the  d<^ma8  of  the  Resurrection  of  Christ  and  of  the 
general  resurrection:  Csluni,  Gli  vUimi  capi  dd  Tetramorfo  e 
2a  eritica  razionaliaiica,  eioi  ramwnia  dei  qtuUiro  Bvangeli  (Rome, 
1906);  Dbntler,  Die  AufersUhuno  Jesu  Chri^  naeh  den  Be- 
richten  des  NT.  in  Nikbl  and  Rohb.  Biblitche  ZeiifroQen,  I  (MQn- 
ster.  1908),  6;  Kullmann,  Die  Waeht  am  OraJbe  Chritti  und  die 
Leuffner  teiner  AuferaUhung  (WQnburg,  1887);  Schuitb,  Da* 
Osterwunder  in  der  neuertn  Theoloffie  in  Theologie  und  Glavbe 
(1909);  Ladbuzb,  La  rintrreelion  du  Christ  devant  ia  critique 
conlemporaine;  Manobnot,  a  series  of  articles  in  Rente  pratique 
d'apolooitique  (1908-9);  Prat.  La  thiologie  de  S,  Paul  (Paris, 
1908),  185-94;  Baute.  Die  Lehre  vom  Auferstehung^eibe  (1877); 
Atibbbobb,  Die  ehrietliehe  Baehatolooie  (1890);  Wilhbui  and 
ScAKNBLL,  Manual  of  Catholie  TheiAooy,  II  (London.  1898).  179. 
535  sqq.;  Milugan,  Th4  Resurrection  of  Our  Lord  (London,  1884) ; 
Cox,  The  Resurrection  (London.  1890);  WiUJAiiB,  Our  Lord's 
Resurrection  (London,  1882);  Wbbtcott,  TKe  Gospel  of  the 
Resurrection  (London,  1884);  Plummeb,  I  Corinthians,  in  the 
International  Critical  Commentary  (New  York,  1911),  328-87; 
SnfPBON,  The  ReswreeHon  and  Modem  Thought  (London.  1911). 

A.  J.  Maas. 

Besurreetlon,  Congregation  of  the,  founded 
in  Paris,  1836,  by  Bogdan  JaAski,  Peter  Semenenko. 


BSTABLB                            794  BSTHSL 

and  Jerome  Kajsiewicz,  and  approved  by  the  Holy  JaAski,  who  had  continued  his  apostolic  woric  in  Paris, 
See,  1902.  Bogdan  Jaiiski,  d.  at  Ciechanowiec,  came  to  Rome  in  1840  and  being  in  delicate  health, 
Poland,  1807,  was  sent  by  the  Polish  Administration  worn  out  with  labours,  privations  and  hardships, 
to  complete  his  studies  at  Paris,  where  he  lost  the  died  after  six  months.  He  had  remained  a  layman, 
faith  and  joined  the  Saint-Simonists.  He  assisted  When  ready  for  Holy  orders,  S^nenenko  and  Kaj- 
the  Polish  exiles  who  fled  to  Paris  after  their  insur-  siewics  were  accused  of  being  political  agents  and 
rection  of  1830,  and,  gradually  perceiving  the  fallacy  were  denied  ordination.  Unwilling  to  join  the  Dio- 
of  Saint-Simonism,  he  again  embraced  the  Faith,  ceseof  Rome  to  prociue  their  'Hitulus  ordinationis", 
Realizing  that  the  great  need  of  his  countrymen  was  as  this  would  preclude  the  formation  of  their  new 
the  Catholic  Church,  he  with  the  poet  Mickiewicz  Consr^ation,  they  were  assisted  by  Count  Mont- 
laboured  zealously  among  the  exiles,  strengthening  the  aleniDert,  who  prevailed  on  Uie  Archbishop  of  Paris 
weak  and  winnine  back  the  apostate.  Among  the  to  confer  Holy  orders  on  them  but  exempt  them  from 
latter  were  Peter  Semenenko  and  Jerome  Kajsiewicz^  service  in  his  diocese. 

who  wished  to  enter  the  priesthood.    When  Jaiiski  On  Holy  Saturday,  1842,  Semenenko  was  unan- 

confided  to  them  his  plan  for  a  religious  community,  imously   chosen   Superior   and  on   Easter   Sunday 

they  joined  him,  and  Semenenko  became  the  chief  celebrated  Mass  in  the  Catacombs  of  Saint  S^as- 

founder  and  organizer.  tian,  where,  at  the  suggestion  of  Cardinal  Micara, 

Peter    Semenenko,   son    of    a  schismatic   father  he  and  his  six  companions  made  their  vows  for  five 

who  abandoned  the  faith  while  at  the  Russian  Coiui;,  ^ears.    The  name  ''Congregation  of  the  Resurrec- 

and  of  a  Protestant  mother,  was  bom  in  Russian  tion  of  Our  Lord  Jesus  Christ"  was  suggested  by  the 

Poland,  1814,  baptized  by  a  Catholic  priest  (probably  feast  of  the  dav.    Their  intention  was  to  live  acoord- 

for  want  of  a  schismatic)  and  so  strongly  desired  to  ing  to  the  rule  of  some  reUgious  order  already  ap- 

receive  Holy  Communion  in  the  Catholic  Church  proved  by  the  Church;  but  during  an  audience  on 

that  he  was  secretly  instructed  by  the  Fathers  of  the  28  December,  1847,  Pius  IX  advised  them  to  for- 

Mission  and  when  eleven  •  received  the  Sacrament,  mulate    entirely   new   constitutions,    as   he   knew 

For  this  he  was  harshly  treated  by  his  relatives.    He  of  no  religious  rule  suitable  to  their  special  aim. 

graduated  from  the  gymnasium  at  Koze,  1829.  and  These  were  compiled  by  Father  Semenenko  and  ap- 

entered     the     University    of     Vilna.    Imperfectly  proved  by  the  Holy  See  in  1902. 

grounded   in   religion,    and   left   without   spiritual  The  habit  adopted  is  that  of  the  secular  clergy  with 

guidance,  he  finaUy  lost  his  faith  and  became  an  the  addition  of  a  black  woollen  girdle.    No  special 

avowed  mfidel.    He  joined  the  Polish  Insurrection  mortifications  are  prescribed,  save  a  fast  on  Uie 

and  after  the  defeat  of  the  insurgents  sought  refuge  vigils  of  the  feasts  of  the  Immaculate  Conception, 

in  Paris,  where  in  both  Polish  and  French  he  agitata  Seven   Dolours,    and   Assumption   of    the   Blessed 

against  every  legitimate  authority  by  speech  and  Virgin  Mary.    A  postulate  of  six  months  is  followed 

writing.    An  order  for  his  arrest  was  issued,  but  by  a  novitiate  of  one  year;  at  the  end  of  the  third* 

before  its  execution  Semenenko,  through  the  salu-  year  of  an  alumnate  of  six  years'  duration,  clerical 

tary  influence  of  Jaifiski,  had  renounced  his  revolu-  students  are  admitted  to  perpetual  vows,  while  lay 

tionary  principles,  and  the  warrant  was  withdrawn,  brothers  take  their  final  vows  six  years  after  the 

Jerome  Kajsiewicz^  bom  at  Slowiki,  Poland,  1812,  novitiate.    The  members  of  this  congregation  may 

entered  the  g3rmnasium,  1827,  and  the  University  belong  to  the  Latin  or  the  Greek  Rite.    The  mother- 

of  Cracow,  1829.  and  soon  joined  the  Polish  Insur-  house  is  at  Rome,  where  reside  the  superior-general 

rection.    He  haa  ceased  to  practice  his  faith  through  and  his  council.    The  superior-general,  his  council, 

godless  education  and  perverse  companionship.    Un  and  the  procurator-general  are  elected  bv  the  General 

an  engagement  with  the  Russians  he  was  surrounded  Chapter  for  a  term  of  six  years.    These  officials, 

by  the  enemy's  forces  and  seriously  wounded.    Before  the  ex-superiors  general,  and  two  del^ates,  chosen 

losing  consciousness  he  promised,  if  freed  from  this  by  the  Fathers  of  certain  districts  detmed  for  this 

imminent  danger,  to  consecrate  himself  to  the  service  purpose,    constitute    the    Chapter.     Superiors,  ap- 

of  God  for  life.    In  a  semi-conscious  condition  he  pointed  by  the  general  and  his  council  for  a  term  of 

was  brought  into  the  Russian  camp  and  thrown  on  three  years,  and  the  general  may  hold  office  for  two 

the  snow  with  other  prisoners.    Rescued  by  a  Polish  consecutive  terms;   a  third  term  requires  a  dispen- 

detachment,  he  was  placed  in  a  hospital  and,  when  sation  from  the  Holv  See.    Canonic»lly  established 

he  had  sufficiently  recovered  his  strength,  journeyed  houses  consist  of  at  least  six  priests:  missions  where 

to  France,  where  he  joined  the  Carbonari  at  Be-  less  than  six  reside  are  held  by  tne  papal  indult 

sangon.    He  soon  saw  the  impiety  of  the  secret  and  are  subject  to  some  house.    The  Congregation 

societies  with  which  he  was  associated,  and  with-  devotes  itseu  to  work  in  parishes  and  missions,  held 

drew   from  them.    At   Paris  he   met   Mickiewicz,  by  them  under  the  same  conditions  as  by  the  secular 

Jat^ski,  and  Semenenko,  through  whose  influence  he  cler^,  and  to  the  education  of  youth  in  oolleses  and 

returned  to  the  Church.  seminaries.    Both    Fathers    Semenenko    and    Kaj- 

Under  the  direction  of  Jatiski  a  religious  conmiu-  siewicz  died  as  superiors  general;    the   former  m 

nity  was  formed  by  Semenenko,  Kajsiewicz,  and  two  Paris,  1886;  the  latter  in  Rome,  1873. 

other  associates  at  Paris  in  1836.    Semenenko  and  .^^"""'^chjbb.  Die  Ordm  u.  Kongr§g,  der  h<uhol.  Kireke,  III 


Kajsiewicz  continued  their  studies  and  were  prefects 


(Paderborn.  1968),  361.  '  J.  SCHWErrZER. 


tlSS^/^^^l£ip^^^  oS^  «•*->»••  See  A,;r^.  sub-title  A^^^cs^.. 
institution.  They  went  to  Rome  (1837)  intending  Bethel,  Alfred,  b.  at  Aachen,  1816;  d.  at 
to  complete  their  theological  studies  at  the  Prop-  Dtisseldorf,  1859.  He  combined  in  a  brilliant  and 
aganda,  where  Count  Zamojaiski  had  obtained  from  forcible  manner  the  idealism  of  the  Romantics  and 
Gregory  XVI  several  free  scholarships  for  Polish  Italians,  the  realism  of  Dtirer ,  a  sense  of  the  monu- 
students,  but,  being  Russian  exiles  without  pass-  mental  and  strict  adherence  to  nature.  He  might 
ports  and  other  necessary  papers,  they  were  not  have  been  the  greatest  of  German  painters,  but 
admitted.  Father  Suszynski,  S.J.,  collected  a  small  ill  health  crippled .  his  energy.  Recommended  to 
sum  of  money  for  them  and  they  lived  for  a  month  Schadow  by  nis  teacher  Bastine,  his  first  oil-paint- 
on  twenty  cents  a  day.  Admitted  as  prefects  in  an  ing  was  exhibited  at  Dtlsseldorf  in  1832;  it  repre- 
orphan  asylum,  they  were  enabled  to  continue  their  sents  St.  Boniface,  as  do  two  other  larse  canvasses 
studies  for  the  priesthood  and  upon  the  arrival  of  and  several  sketches,  which  recall  the  realistic,  power- 
two  other  companions  (1838)  led  a  community  life  ful  style  of  Lessing.  The  sketches  of  the  "Battle 
of  extreme  poverty,   having  no  personal  income,  of  Sempadi"  and  the  "Death  of  Arnold  von  Winkel- 


BETREAT 


795 


ESTREATS 


ried"   betray  the   influence  of  Comeliua.     The  de-  in  various  piscee  in  England,  France,                 „  ..   .. 

volopment  of  hit<  nnnse  of  colour  and  cxprcsNJve  dra-  In  1820  two  sislera  from  Quimpcr  opened  a  house  at 

matic  spirit  belong  to  liis  (jeriod  of  atlachment  to  Vcit  Redon  (Ille-el-Vilaine),  which  eventuallv  became  the 

(1836).    The  "reconciliation  of   Emperor   Otto   I  cradle  of  the  Retreat  of  Angers.    Meantime  the 

with  bis  brother  Henry"  and  "The  Monk  at  the  mother-house  at  Quimpcr  in  I80S  opened  a  house  at 

Coffin  of  Henry  IV"  are  important  works.     In  the  Quimperl^;    in   1820   one   at    Leaneven   (Finist^re); 

"Nemesis  pursuinga  Murderer"     ^                         _  _     _,    in    1847    one    at    Pontchiteau 


yslalliicd  the  darker 
mood,  which  clouded  the  later 
life  of  the  painter.  For  the 
Kaisersaal  in  Frankfort  he 
painted  four  characterwtic  pic- 
tures of  monarciia.  With  great 
admiration  he  studied  the  glow- 
ing colouring  of  Titian  in  strong 
contrast  to  the  paXe  art  of  the 
Nazarene.  After  this  many-sided 
training  follow  his  ripc«t  works; 
"Hannibal's  March"  powerfully 
depicts  ui  six  pictures  the  cross- 
ingof  the  Alps;  in  the  "Frescoes 
from  the  Life  of  Charlemagne 
in  \he  Rathaus  at  Aachen  (see 
dlustratiort  in  Chaklem^one) 
the  composition  and  colouring 
are  both  restrained  and  effec 
tive  his  assistant  Kehren  com 
pleted  the  series  with  four  greatlv 
inferior  pictures  the  ^  Death 
Dance  depicts  the  horror  of 
the    Revolution    of    184S       "- 


(Loire-Inf^rieure),  and  in  1858 
oneatBreat(Finistire).  Thefol- 
lowing  convents  were  founded  by 
the  Retreat  of  Angers:  in  1820, 
Redon;  in  1844,  Saumur  (Mmne- 
et- Loire);  in  1857,  a  second 
house  at  Angers  called  I'Oratoire, 
and  in  1893  one  at  Fontenay- 
sous-Bois  (Seine).  In  1880  the 
sisters  went  to  England  and  the 
flourishing  convent  at  Clapham 
Park  was  founded  from  Angers. 
In  1882  a  convent  was  opened  at 
Bumhara,  in  Somersetshire,  from 


another  convent  was  opened  at 
Weston-super-Mare,  Somerset, 
and  m  1904,  one  at  Clevedon. 
In  1898  a  house  at  Mentone  was 
opened  and  in  1899  a  large 
educational  establishment  at 
Brussels      The  institute  and  its 

—    _-    —  constitutions     were      approved 

stnvings  afttr  the  ideal  were  little  appre-     defmitively  by  the  Holy  See  m  1910. 

p^j^f^^f,f^  jj    Steele. 


ciated  bv  his  townsmen  and  eontemporarics     \  soft 
emng  of  the  bram  a£Bicted  him  during  his  last  yean 

Veit  Alfred  Rtlhel  t  ne  cha  aWmil  t  (Weimir  189.)   Schmii 
KMei  (B  elefeld    189S) 

G     GlETMANN 


Batraat,    CoNaRBOATioN 
Cbristian  Retreat 

CoNaHEGATlON    OF 

Retreat  Houses 
OF  Correctional 
See  Prisons  Ecclb- 


Chbistian     See    as 


Betreftts  — If  we  call  a  retreat  a  serial  of   days 
passed  m  sohtude  and  consecrated  to  practices  of 
Mticiam,  m  particular  to  prayer  and  penance,  it  is 
old  as  (jhnati&mty     Without  referring  to  the  cus-  ■ 
toms  of  the  Prophets 
of  tbeOld  Testament, 


(Dambs  db  la  Re 
TRAiTB)  — Originally 
founded  in  167S  un 
der  the  name  of  the 
Institute  of  Retreat 
at  Quimper  m  Bnt- 
tanj  by  Maderaoi 
aelle  Claude-1  h^r^se 
de  KermfuD  under 
the  direction  of  the 
Jeeuit  Father  Huby 
The  holy  foundress 
having  made  a  retreat 


in  the  desert  after  His 
baptism  is  an  ex- 
ample which  has 
found  many  imita- 
tors in  all  ages  of 
the  Church.  From 
this  imitation  ^rang 
the  eremiti  cal  lite  and 
the  institution  of  the 
cenobites.  The  reli- 
gious who  sought  the 
eohtude  of  the  des- 
erts or  the  monas- 
teries, or  in  general 
those  wishing  to  lead 
a  cont«mplBtive  life 
withdrew  from  the 
world,  in  order   the 

„ 1  which  accommo-    more  readily  to  draw  nearer  to  God  and  apply  them- 

dated  ladies  who  desired  to  retire  from  the  world  and  selves  to  exercises  of  Christian  perfection.  The 
follow  the  exercises  of  St.  Ignatius,  conceived  the  idea  "Forma  cleri"  of  Tronson,  t.  IV,  gives  numerous 
of  founding  a  similar  convent  at  Quimper.  Later  the  texts  of  the  Fathers  and  ecclesiastical  writers,  rec- 
siaters  took  the  name  of  the  Dames  de  la  retraite.  ommending  a  retreat  for  at  least  a  few  days.  Ac- 
During  the  French  Revolution  they  were  dispersed  cording  to  St.  Francis  de  Sales  (Treatise  on  the 
refining  to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance.  On  17  Love  of  God,  XII,  chap,  vii),  the  practice  of  the 
■e  of  their  number,  Mademoiselle  Vic-  retreat  was  specially  restored  by  St.  Ignatius  Loyola. 
",  suffered  martyrdom  for  her  devo-  We  may  say  indeed  that  in  his  "Spiritual  Exercises" 
_.:ii_.:  II—     c,    T -..    1  .        .mbined  the  methods  of  reforming 


Her    St.  Ignatius  has  o 


July,  1794, 

toire  de  Sl^Li    .    _,._ 

tion_  to   the  Sacred    Heart  by   the   guilloti 

glorious  death  caused  the  in 

members  consecrated  themsel'.__  „ ,  ^  „.  ,„„^  .._  „.„  . ^ 

and  in  1805  began  a^jain  the  worit  of  providing  re-  which  the  practice  of  the  retreat  became  obligatory 

treats   for   seculars,   int«rrupted   in   1791.     The   re-  by  rule.     St.   Francis  of  Assisi   and  his  first   com- 

ligious  and  administrative  authorities  in  France  then  panions  occaaonally  retired  to  hermitages  where  they 

required  the  sisters  to  add  the  education  of  youth  fo  gave  themselves  up  to  prayer  and  mortification.    St. 

their  other  work,  and  they  now  have  large  schools  Ignatius  prescribed  for  his  rehgious  the  exercises  o^ 


._   flourish,  the     one's  life  and  seeking  the  will  of  God  in  solitude.     The 

to  the  Sacred  Heart,     Society  of  Jesus  was  the  first  active  rehgious  order  ii 


RETREATS 


796 


RETREATS 


thirty  days  as  an  indispensable  experience  before 
admission  to  the  vows.  The  custom  was  introduced 
lat«r  of  repeating  this  thirty  days'  retreat  during  a 
month  of  the  tmrd  probation,  and  the  usage  was 
established  little  by  little  of  renewing  it  in  an  abridged 
form  each  year  during  eight  days.  This  custom  ob- 
tained the  force  of  law  by  decree  of  the  Sixth  Greneral 
Congregation,  held  in  1608,  besides  being  imitated  in 
other  religious  orders,  and  encouraged  by  a  Bull  of 
Pope  Paul  V,  1606. 

The  Society  of  Jesus  did  not  reserve  these  exercises 
for  its  own  exclusive  use,  but  gave  them  to  commun- 
ities and  individuals.  Blessed  Peter  Faber  in  his 
"Memoriale"  testifies  to  having  given  thefn  to  the 
grandees  of  Spain,  Italy,  and  Germany,  and  used 
them  in  restoring  hundreds  of  convents  to  their  first 
fervour.  A  letter  of  St.  Ignatius  (3  Feb.,  1554)  rec- 
ommends giving  the  exercises  publicly  in  the  churches. 
In  addition,  the  houses  of  the  Society  often  contained 
rooms  for  priests  or  laymen  desirous  of  performing 
the  exercises  privately.  I^atius,  having  sanctioned 
this  custom  during  his  lifetime,  one  of  his  successors, 
Aquaviva,  exhorted  the  provincials  to  its  mfdntenance 
in  1599.  In  studying  the  spread  of  this  practice  we 
must  not  neglect  the  influence  of  St.  Charles  Borro- 
meo.  The  cardinal  and  the  Jesuits  co-operated  in 
order  to  promote  this  sort  of  apostolate.  A  fervent 
admirer  and  disciple  of  the  "Spiritual  Exercises",  St. 
Charles  introduced  them  as  a  regular  practice  among 
the  secular  clergy  by  retreats  for  seminarians  and  can- 
didates for  ordination.  He  built  at  Milan  an  (uceter" 
ti/m,  or  house  solely  destined  to  receive  those  making 
retreats,  whose  direction  he  confided  to  the  Oblates. 
The  zeal  of  St.  Charles  was  effectual  in  encouraging 
the  sons  of  St.  Ignatius  to  adopt  definitively  the 
annual  retreat,  ana  to  organize  outside  collective  re- 
treats of  priests  and  laymen. 

Two  other  saints  furthered  the  practice.  St.  Francis 
de  Sales,  whose  veneration  for  the  Archbishop  of 
Milan  and  his  works  is  well  known,  made  the  retreat, 
praised  it,  and  made  it  familiar  to  the  Order  of  the 
Visitation,  of  which  he  was  the  founder  (Const.XLVI). 
Then  came  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  chosen  by  St.  Francis 
de  Sales  to  be  the  spiritual  father  of  the  Visitation  in 
Paris.  He  was  the  organizer  of  ecclesiastical  retreats 
in  France,  the  plan  of  which  had  been  already  pro- 
posed in  1625,  at  the  assembly  of  the  clergy,  by  a  curS 
of  Normandy,  Charles  Dodefroy,  in  a  smaJl  work, 
entitled  "Le  collie  des  saints  exercises".  St. 
Vincent  de  Paul  established  retreats  for  candidates  for 
ordination  first  at  Beauvais  (1628),  afterwards  at 
Paris  (1631).  They  took  place  six  times  a  year  under 
his  direction  at  the  Collie  des  Bons-Enfants.  Soon 
other  clerics  than  those  of  the  Diocese  of  Paris  were 
admitted;  and  when  Saint-Lazare  had  been  acquired 
(1634)  this  house  was  opened  indiscriminately  as  a 
retreat  for  clergy,  nobility,  and  people.  In  St.  Vin- 
cent's time  about  20.000  persons  made  retreats  there. 
M.  de  B^ruUe^  founder  ot  the  Oratory,  and  M.  Olier. 
founder  of  Saint-Sulpice,  seconded  thb  movement  of 
reform  and  sanctification.  From  the  middle  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  the  synodal  statutes  prescribed 
that  the  clergy  should  make  a  retreat  from  time  to 
time.  Sometimes  it  was  made  obligatory  for  those 
who  obtained  benefices  with  the  cure  of  souls.  In  a 
word,  the  retreat  was  thenceforth  an  established  cus- 
tom of  pious  ecclesiastics.  In  1663  M.  de  Kerlivio, 
who  knew  the  excellent  results  obtained  at  Saint- 
Lazare,  founded  a  house  of  retreat  for  men  at  Vannes 
in  Brittany,  with  the  co-operation  of  P.  Huby,  S.J. 
This  institution  has  a  special  importance  in  the  history 
of  retreats,  because  the  regulations  of  Vannes  generally 
guided  the  directors  of  other  houses  which  the  Jesuits 
established.  These  were  at  Quimper,  Rennes,  Nantes, 
Rouen,  Paris,  Dijon,  Nancy,  and  soon  in  most  of  the 
large  cities  of  France.  Often,  besides  the  house  of 
retreat  for  men,  one  would  be  erected  for  women:  as  at 


Vannes,  thanks  to  the  Venerable  Catherine  de 
Francheville,  at  Rennes,  at  Quimper,  at  Paris,  Nantes, 
etc.  With  a  view  to  organizing  and  facUitating  re^ 
treats  for  women,  there  were  formed,  particulai^  in 
Brittany,  con^gations  of  Ladies  of  the  Retreat 
which  are  still  in  existence. 

France  was  not  alone  in  having  houses  of  exercises. 
They  were  established  in  Germany  at  Munich  and 
Prague;  in  Spain,  at  Barcelona  and  Gerona;  in  Italy, 
at  Rome,  Perugia,  Ancona,  and  Milan:  in  Sicily,  at 
Palermo,  Alcamo,  Mazzara,  Termini,  Messina,  etc.; 
in  Poland,  at  Vilna;  in  Mexico,  at  Mexico  City  and 
Pueblo.  The  enumeration  is  necessarily  incomplete; 
it  should  include  missionary  countries,  Canada,  Qiile, 
China,  eto.  Nor  were  Jesuits  the  only  ones  to  busy 
themselves  with  retreats:  Franciscans,  Benedictines, 
Lazarists,  Eudists,  Oratorians,  Passionists,  Redenm- 
torists,  and  others  vied  with  them  in  seal.  But  toe 
suppression  of  the  Society  struck  a  fatal  blow  at  the 
work  in  many  a  country.  In  Brittany,  the  classic 
land  of  retreats,  various  religious,  and  principally 
priests,  continued  this  ministry  of  the  Jesuits.  In 
Franche-Comt^  a  saintly  cur6f  the  Venerable  Antoine 
Receveur,  organized  the  Congregation  of  Christian 
Retreat  to  secure  for  men  and  women  the  benefits  of 
spiritual  exercises.  In  Italy,  the  Venerable  Bruno 
Lanteri  instituted  a  society  of  priestei,  the  Oblates  of 
the  Blessed  Virein  Mary,  who  were  occupied  only 
with  retreats.  St.  Alphonsus  Liguori,  who  from  his 
youth  had  followed  the  exercises  among  the  Jesuits 
or  among  the  Lazarists,  could  not  neglect  this  means 
of  apostleship.  He  adopted  it  as  one  of  his  own  prao- 
tices  and  prescribed  it  for  the  Congregation  of  the 
Most  Holy  Redeemer.  Thus  the  Redemptorists  kept 
up  the  custom  of  retreats  in  the  Kingdoms  of  Naples 
and  Sicily  during  the  second  half  of  the  eighteenth 
century.  In  Argentina  and  Paraguay  the  retreats 
continued,  thanks  to  the  extraordinary  initiative  given 
by  Maria-Antonia  de  San  Jos^  de  La  Paz  (1730-1799). 
^ded  by  several  priests  and  various  religious  orders, 
she  succeeded  in  naving  the  exercises  performed  by 
nearly  100,000  persons. 

Annual  ecclesiastical  retreats  be^^an  as  a  general 
thing  in  France  and  other  countries  in  1815.  Numer- 
ous promoters  of  these  retreats  came  from  the  ranks 
of  the  secular  cler^  as  well  as  from  the  regular  orders. 
A  large  number  of  directors  are  annually  engaged  in 
giving  retreats  to  the  religious  communities.  Several 
institutions  perform  the  complete  exercises  of  twenty 
to  thirty  days.  But  there  were  not  only  priestly  or 
conventual  retreats;  they  were  made  by  the  fcdthful, 
grouped  in  parishes  or  in  congregations,  brotheriKKxli, 
third  orders,  eto.  Thus  retreats  are  conducted  for 
employees,  working-men.  teachers,  conacripts,  deaf- 
mutes,  eto.  We  may  also  mention  retreats  at  the 
close  of  a  course  of  study,  established  in  the  College 
of  St.  Acheul  at  Amiens  in  1825,  and  which,  spreading 
by  degrees,  led  to  the  organization  of  retreats  among 
the  alumni,  a  custom  that  has  become  quite  general. 
There  has  been  no  lack  of  co-operation  in  this  great 
work  of  regeneration:  bishop|s  threw  open  their  senu- 
naries  to  the  lait^,  the  Christian  nobility  lent  their 
ch&teaux;  the  religious  orders — Benedictines,  CistCT- 
cians,  Carthusians,  Dominicans,  Franciscans,  Lasar- 
istes,  Eudists,  Redemptorists,  Passionista,  the  Society 
of  Marjr,  Brothers  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  and  Brothws 
of  the  Christian  Schools,  all  encouraged  the  retreat, 
either  by  providing  suitable  places  for  the  purpose,  or 
by  furnishing  directors.  The  Jesuits  alone  possessed 
twelve  houses  of  exercises  on  French  territory  before 
1901 ;  they  now  have  seven  in  Belgium  and  others  in 
Spain,  Austria,  Italy,  Holland,  Knslandj  Canada, 
United  States,  Colombia,  Chile,  and  vanoua  other 
countries  of  America,  North  and  South.  Thw  have 
established  houses  in  Australia,  China,  India,  Ce3rk>n, 
and  Madagascar.  Besides  the  Breton  oonsregations 
already  spoken  of,  new  societies  especially  devoted  to 


BITZ  71 

retieata  for  women  have  been  formed,  such  as  Notre 
Dune  du  Cenocle,  and  Marie  Reparatrice. 

Retreats  for  laymea  have  entrcad  greatly  throughout 
the  Catholic  world  durinf;  the  last  twenty-five  years. 
A  French  Jesuit,  P*re  Henry,  was  the  pioneer  in  this 
Kreat  revival.  In  1882  he  gave  himself  to  the  task  of 
instituting  retreats  for  workiog-men,  and  it  was  not 
long  before  houses  devoted  to  this  purpose  were 
founded  all  over  Europe.  During  1008,  in  Belgium 
alone  243  retreats  were  given,  attended  by  10,253 
ezercitants,  and  since  1890  in  that  country  at  least 
100,000  of  the  labourite  classes  and  about  25,000  pro- 
(es^onal  and  buuneas  men  have  made  retreats. 
France,  Germany,  and  Holland  and  other  European 
States  have  also  extended  the  work  with  ^titying 
results.  In  one  house  in  France,  Notre  Dame  du 
Haut-Mont,  more  than  30,500  men  have  made  the 
retreat  within  the  last  twenty-five  years.  England 
and  Ireland  have  taken  up  the  movement,  and  are  at 


has  been  given  to  the  movement,  and  a  house  of  re- 
treat has  been  founded  (1911)  on  Staten  Island,  New 
York  atjr. 

The  pnncipal  reason  of  the  success  of  these  retreats, 
called  cloistered  to  distinguish  them  from  the  parochial 
retreats  open  to  all,  is  their  very  necessity.  In  the 
fever  and  agitation  of  modem  life,  the  need  of  medita- 
tion and  spiritual  repose  impresses  itself  on  Christian 
souls  who  desire  to  reflect  on  thar  eternal  destiny, 
and  direct  their  life  in  this  world  towards  God. 

Paul  Dbbucht. 

BaU,  Jean-Fran^is-PaciXiondi,  Cardinal  de, 
Archbishop  or  Parih,  b.  at  the  Chfttcau  of  Mont- 
mirail,  Oct.,  1614;  d.  in  Paris,  24  Aug.,  1679.  His 
father,  becoming  a  widower,  entered  the  Oratory, 
and  was  for  a  tmie  (1643)  the  director  of  Anne  of 
Austria.  Reti  was  destined  for  the  Church,  al- 
though, as  he  himself  declares,  he  "had  neither  the 
taste  nor  the  disposition  for  it";  his  preceptor  was  St. 
Vincent  de  Paul.  His  youth  was  stormy,  not  exempt 
from  gallantries.  However,  he  acquired  aaolid  educ»- 
tioo,  teamed  seven  languages,  studied  sacred  and  pro- 
fane literature  and  from  reading  Plutarch  and  Sallust 
developed  a  wild  taste  for  republican  maxims,  and 
for  the  r61e  of  conspirator.  This  taste  reveals  itself 
when  at  the  age  of  ei|^teen  years  he  wrote  a  book  on 
the  conspiracy  of  Fiescbi.  He  imitated  an  Italian 
author  named  Mascardi,  but  while  Maacardi  blamed 
the  conspiracy,  the  voung  Retz  approved  of  it.  From 
1638  to  1641  he  took  a  certain  part  in  the  plots  of  the 
Count  de  SoLSSons  against  Richelieu;  later,  after  the 
Count  had  been  killed  at  the  battle  of  La  Marfie 
(6  July,  1541),  Rets  devoted  himself  definitively  to 
an  ecclesiastical-  career.  Louis  XIII  on  his  death- 
bed named  him  coadjutor  to  his  uncle,  Gondi, 
Archbishop  of  Paris;  on  31  Jan.j  1644,  Retz  was  con- 
tecrated  at  Notre  Dame,  receiving  the  title  of  Arch- 
bishop of  C<mnth.  He  soon  became  popular  in  Paris 
by_  hb  sennona,  and  by  his  manner  of  reforming  the 
priests  of  the  diocese.  This  popularity  brought  upon 
nim  the  hostility  of  Masarin,  especially  as  in  1649 
he  threw  himself  into  the  movement  of  the  so-called 
■Fronde  against  this  minister.  He  knew  how  to  stir 
up  the  peasantry  against  the  cardinal,  the  Porlement, 
udtheDukeofOrllans.  But  he  hated  Cond^,  the  head 
of  the  Fronde  princes,  as  much  as  he  hated  Mazarin, 
and  when  the  Prince  de  Cond£  openly  revolted  against 
the  king,  Rets  attached  himself^  to  the  Court  party. 

On  21  Sept.,  1651,  Louis  XIV  informed  him  that 
Innocent  X  had  made  him  cardinal.  From  that  time 
Retz  promised  fidelity  to  the  royal  famUy,  and  kept 
his  promise,  still  contmuin^  however  in  his  opposition 
to  Mazarin.  Mazarin,  wishing  to  exile  him  from 
Court,  nominated  him  as  "  Director  of  French  Affairs 
at  Rome".    This  Rets  refused,  and,  according  to  an 


17  BITZ 

expression  of  Bossuet,  "continued  to  threaten  with 
severe  and  intrepid  mien  the  victorious  favourite". 
At  the  instigation  of  Mazarin,  Louis  XIV  (16  Dec,, 
1652)  signed  an  order  of  arrest  sgtunet  Retz.  The 
latter  surrendered  himself,  and  was  imprisoned  at 
Vincennes.  His  uncle  having  died  on  21  March, 
1654,  Reti,  though  a  prisoner,  took  possession  of  the 
Arcmepiscopal  See  of  Paris  by  power  of  attorney. 
He  soon  resigned  it  in  exchange  for  some  abbeys,  and 
wastransferred  to  theCh&teauof  Nantes,  pending  the 
acceptance  by  Innocent  X  of  his  abdication.  He 
escaped,  sailed  for  Spain,  then  went  to  Rome,  where 
Innocent  X  wished  nim  to  retain  the  Archbishopric 
of  Paris.  A  fugitive  in  a  strange  land,  he  then  re- 
mained as  archbishop  at  Rome,  whence  he  directed 
the  clergy  of  Paris,  in  spite  of  Mazarin,  by  a  number 
of  letters  which 
Mazarin  caused  to 
be  burned  succes- 
sively by  the  pub- 
lic executioner.  He 
played   a  decisive 


rdle    : 


the  I 


clave  whic  h  ciect^sl 
Alexander  VII  in 
1655.  His  inSu- 
ence  at  Rome  op- 
pOBcd  that  of 
Lionne,the  ambas- 
sador of  France. 
Seized  by  the  spirit 

trigues,  we  find 
him  from  1658  to 
1661  travelling  in 

Germany,  and  Hol- 
land, and  interest- 
ing himself  in  the 
restoration  of  the 
Stuarts.  The  con- 
teat  between  Retz 

and  Mazarin  end-  Fbancou-Pac 

ed  only  with  the  death  of  the  cardinal;  and  as  Louis 
XIV,  even  after  Mazarin's  death,  did  not  wish  Reti 
to  return  to  Paris  as  archbishop,  Retz  finally  i«- 
signcd  his  sec  in  1662,  receiving  as  compensation  the 
Abbey  of  St.  Denis,  whose  revenue  of  120,000  livres 
was  double  that  of  the  archbishopric.  He  established 
himself  at  the  ChAteau  of  Commercy. 

More  than  once  he  played  an  active  part  in  the 
quarrels  between  Louis  XIV  and  Rome,  It  was  he 
who,  during  the  conflict  between  Louis  XIV  and 
Alexander  VII  r<»(arding  the  reservation  of  the  Host, 
advised  Louis  XIV  1»  seiw  Avignon.  In  1665  and 
1666  he  was  connected  with  the  difficulties  resulting 
from  the  Bulls  of  Alexander  VII  against  two  decisions 
of  the  Sorbonne  which  were  directed  against  two 
infallibilist  publications.  He  tried  in  vain  to  induce 
the  pope  to  declare  that  anti-infallibilist  teachings 
were  not  heretical,  but  he  succeeded  in  preventing 
Alexander  VII  from  launching  an  excommunication 

Sainst  the  Farlement  which  had  joined  forces  with 
D  Sorbonne;  then  he  obtained  a  condemnation  by 
the  Index  of  one  of  the  two  publications  condemned 
by  the  Sorbonne,  and  he  interpreted  this  Act  as  r 
sort  of  indirect  disavowal  of  the  Bulls  which  had  been 
directed  against  the  Sorbonne,  In  his  memoir  on 
the  Sacred  College  written  in  Sq>t.,  1666, he  contended 
that  the  Universal  Church,  in  its  conclaves,  should 
be  represented  by  cardinals  chosen  from  all  the 
countries  of  Christendom.  This  memoir  and  the 
dispatches  written  to  Louis  XIV  and  the  minister 
Lionne  are  masterpieces  of  diplomatic  language.  He 
took  a  prominent  part  in  the  conclaves  which  elected 
Clement  JX  and  Clement  X,  and  even  obtained  eight 
votes  in  the  conclave  of  1676  which  elected  Innocent 
XL     He  died  three  years  later  during  a  sojourn  in 


BKVCHLIH 


Para.  Uia  memoira,  which  he  began  to  write  in  1671, 
were  published  for  the  first  time  id  1717;  several 
English  translations  were  made  in  1723,  1764,  and 
1774.  His  language  is  admirable  for  its  charm  and 
suppleness;  for  the  profoundness  of  his  political  views, 
and  the  conciseness  of  his  mora!  ideas  he  has  been 
compared  to  Tacitus.  The  craving  for  intrigue  and 
adventure  formed  the  basis  of  his  character.  A  man 
of  remarkable  parts,  he  was  above  all  a  church  politi- 
cian rather  than  a  churchntan. 

<Eurra  de  Cardinal  dt  Rai.  ed.  Fetllet,  Goubdidlt  ihd 
Chaktbhuie  (10  vqIs..  Pbtm.  1870-96);  Ch*ktelauie.  Le 
Cardinal  dt  RcU  it  r Affaire  du  Chapta^  (2  vols..  PsKs,  187T); 
iDsy.  Lt  Cardinal  dx  Hat  tl  ta  Miaioiu  dipltmalimm  d  Rsma 
(Pirio.  1S79):  Ideu,  Saint- finunt  di  Paul  n  Irt  Goadi  (Paris, 
ISSZ);  Oaiieb,  La  dn-iUra  ann^  du  Cardinal  da  Rea  (Pirii, 
1870). 

Georges  Gotau. 

BauobUn  (Greciied,  Capnion),  Jobannxs,  cele- 
brated German  humanist,  b.  at  Pforzheim,  Baden,  22 
Frf>ruary,  1455;  d.  at  Liebenzcll,  30  June,  1522.  He 
Htudiedat  Freiburg,  PariSj  and  Basic,  where  he  won  his 
baccalaureate  in  147S,  his  degree  of  master  in  1477, 
and  later  taught  Greek 
and  Latin-  in  1479  he 
became     bachelor    of 

Cisprudcnce    at  Or- 
ns,  and  licentiate  of 
lawatPDitierainl481. 
During  two  trips  to 
Italy  (1482  and  1490) 
he  became  acquainted 
the    Platonic 
Academy  at  Florence 
and  the  chief  Italian 
philologiaiis,  he  him- 
self exciting    wonder 
through  bin  great  phil- 
g  i  c  a  I  knowledge, 
the   interval   be- 
tween these  joumeyn 
he  became  counsel  of 
Count   Eberhaid    of 
Wurtembei^,  assessor 
1  the  high  court  and  doctor  of  jurisprude 


to  Heidelberg  through  fear  of  his  successor,  the  ina,]- 
evolent  Count  Eberhard  VI.  where  he  became  coun- 
sel to  the  elector.  In  1408  he  paid  his  third  vLslt 
to  Rome,  and  perfected  his  Hebrew  by  intercourw 
with  some  learned  Jews.  In  Heidelberg  he  wrote  ha 
two  witty  and  successful  Latin  comedies,  ".Sergius" 
and"Henno".  Oa  Eberhard 's  deposition  he  relumed 
to  Stuttgart,  and  became  imperial  judge  of  the 
Swabian  Confederation  (1502-12),  private  littfraUiir, 
professor  of  Greek  and  Hebrew  at  Ingoldstadt 
(1520-1),  and  professor  at  TQbingen  (1521-2).  The 
chief  service  of  Reuchlin  was  his  introduction  into 
Germany  of  the  study  of  Hebrew.  His  "De  rudi- 
mentis  hebraicis"  (1506),  containing  both  lexicon  and 
grammar,  was  epoch-making.  In  1512  he  published 
as  a  manual  for  beginners  an  edition  of  the  Hebrew 
tert  of  the  Penitential  Psalms  with  a  literal  Latin 
translation.  In  his  "De  aocentibus  et  orlhographia 
lingux  hebraicie"  (1518),  he  treats  in  detail  the  word- 
accent,  and  more  briefly^  the  rhetorical  accent  and 
musical  emphasis.  Less  important  are  his  cabalistic 
writingB  {  De  verbo  mirifico",  1494;  "De  arte 
cabbalistica",  1517),  in  which  he  becomes  lost  in  the 
abstruse  problems  of  mysterious  names  and  figures. 
Meanwhile  his  unfortunate  quarrel  with  Johann 
Pfefferkom  and  the  Co1<%ne  Dominicans  concerning 
the  destruction  of  the  Talmudic  books  had  begun. 
(For  a  discussion  of  this,  see  Humanism.)  Througliout 
the  Reformation,  Reuchlin  remained  fwthful  to  the 
Church  and  sought  to  alienate  his  grandnephew  Me- 
lanchtboQ  from  Luther. 


OliaiB.  JoSann  RtaeSlin  (Leipiig,  1S71);  Ideh.  Rmautana 
u.  Hnmaniimtu  (Beriin,  ISS2),  504-25;  RmtMiiu  Brir/icrdiMl, 
sd.  OciQEB  (TObincin.  1876) ;  Tlii  Cambridtt  MadtrH  HitUn,  t 
(CsmbridgB,  1902),  672-3. 

Klbhens  LJirrixB. 

Saumont,  Alfred  von,  statesman  and  historian, 
b.  at  Aachen,  15  August,  1808;  d.  there,  27  April, 
1SS7,  After  finishing  liis  course  at  the  gymnatium, 
he  took  up  in  obedience  to  the  wishes  of  his  father 
rather  than  to  his  own  inclination,  the  study  of 
medicine  at  Bonn  and  Heidelberg.  The  death  of  his 
father  in  1828  interrupted  his  studies,  whereupon 
ho  became  first  private  tutor  at  Florence,  and  withia 
the  course  of  a  year,  private  secretarj'  of  the  Prussian 
ambassador  in  that  city.  Meanwhile  he  atl«nded 
lectures,  and  in  1833  gra<iuatcd  Doctor  of  Philoeophy 
at  Erlangen.  Ho  was  subsequently  engaged  in  the 
Foreign  Office  at  Berlin  (1835-6),  as  secretary  of  the 
legation  at  Florence  and  Rome  (1836-43),  again  in 
tho  Foreign  Office  (1843-7),  where  he  simiiltaneously 
acted  as  private  secretary  to  King  Frederick  William 
IV.  This  monarch  always  reposed  great  confidence 
in  Reumont,  and  in  1846  ennobled  him.  In  1847  be 
became  counsel  oi  the  Prussian  legation  at  Rome, 
where  he  remained  alone  after  the  flight  of  the  pope. 
In  laSlhcwasappointedambassadorto Tuscany, but. 
'of  this  country,  was  placed  on  half 
;e  of  an  unwilHii 


that  of  ambassador  to  the  pope.  Henceforth  be  de- 
voted himself  to  his  literary  studies — at  firat  in  Rome, 
then  in  his  native  Aachen,  from  1868  in  Bonn,  whence 
he  returned  to  Aachen  in  1878.  In  spite  of  sevwe 
bodily  sufferings  he  always  maintained  his  relations 
and  a  lively  personal  and  epistolary  intercourse  with 

erominent  personages  of  Germany  and  Italy,  e,  g. 
lermann  von  Thile,  his  intitnato  friend  and  rormer 
colleague,  Marchcsc  Gino  Capponi,  the  illustrious 
literary  historian  of  Italy,  Leopold  von  Ranke,  the 
great  historical  investigator  whom  he  had  attacked 
in  1830,  and  several  members  of  the  Prussian  royal 
house,  especially  Queen  Elizabeth  and  Eknperor 
William  I.  He  was  a  prolific  author,  and  in  aunost 
all  his  works  takes  as  his  special  theme  the  portrayal 
of  the  literary  life  of  Italy,  the  communication  to 
German  readers  of  a  deeper  understanding  of  Italian 
art  and  history,  seeking  thus  to  prepare  the  way  for 
an  intellectual  union  between  Germany  and  Italy. 

Among  his  many  works  dealing  with  Italy  we  must 
mention:  "Andrea  del  Sarto  ,  (Leiprig,  1835); 
"Rciscachilderungen  u.  Umrisse  aus  sudlichen 
Gegeuden"  (Stuttgart,  1835);  "Italia"  (2  vols., 
Berlin,  1838-40);  "Romische  Briefe  von  einem 
Florentiner"  (4  vols.,  Leipzig,  1840-44);  "Tai-ole 
cronologiche  e  sincrone  detla  storia  fiorentjna" 
(Florence,  1841),  supplementaiy  volume  (1875); 
"Ganganelli,  Papst  Clemens  XlV.  Seine  Briefe  u. 
seine  Zeit"  (2  vols.,  Berlin,  1851;  tr.  London,  1854). 
In  his  "Beitriige  rur  italienischen  Geschicht«"  (6 
vols.,  Berlin,  1853-7)  he  treats  of  "Galilei  u.  Rom", 
"Francesco  Burlemacchi ",  "Gaeta",  "Recollections 
of  the  year  1849",  "The  last  days  of  the  Order  of 
Malta  ,andfinally"TheQueeno[Etruria'sattcmpted 
flight  from  Nizza  in  1811  .  His  "  Jugend  Katennaa 
de  Medici"  is  brilhantly  written  (Berlin,  1854; 
ItaUan  tr.  Florence,  1858;  French,  Paris.  1864). 
Among  his  greatest  works  must  be  reckoned:  "Ge- 
BchichtederStadt  Itom"  (3  vols.,  Berlin,  1867-70); 
"Lorenzo  de  Medici  il  Magnifico  (2  vols.,  Leipiig, 
1874;  2nd  ed.,  1883)|  "Geschichte  Toscanas  seit 
dem  Ende  des  florentinischen  Freistaates  (2  vols., 
Gotha,  1867-77);  "Gino  Capponi.  FJn  Zat  u. 
Leben-sbild"  {Gotha,  1S.S0);  "Vittoria  Colonna. 
Ijcbcn.  Dicht^'n,  Gliiiiben  im  16.  Jahrhundert" 
(Freiburg.  1881;  Kalian  tr,.  Turin,  1883).  As  the 
fruit  of  his  connexions  with  the  royal  house  appeared: 
"Zeitgenossen.    Biographien  und  Charactenatiken"